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     Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation

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Python
******

     Python 3.13.3, avril 27, 2025

     Author name not set

     Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation

* Menu:

* Nouveautés de Python::
* Le tutoriel Python::
* Installation et utilisation de Python::
* La référence du langage Python::
* La bibliothèque standard::
* Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python::
* Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C::
* Installation de modules Python::
* Les HOWTOs de Python::
* Questions fréquemment posées sur Python::
* Deprecations::
* Glossaire::
* About this documentation::
* S'attaquer aux bogues::
* Copyright::
* Histoire et licence::
* Index des modules Python::
* Index::

 -- The Detailed Node Listing --

Nouveautés de Python

* What's New In Python 3.13: What's New In Python 3 13.
* What's New In Python 3.12: What's New In Python 3 12.
* Les nouveautés de Python 3.11: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11.
* Les nouveautés de Python 3.10: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10.
* Les nouveautés de Python 3.9: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.8: Nouveautés de Python 3 8.
* What's New In Python 3.7: What's New In Python 3 7.
* What's New In Python 3.6: What's New In Python 3 6.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.5: Nouveautés de Python 3 5.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.4: Nouveautés de Python 3 4.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.3: Nouveautés de Python 3 3.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.2: Nouveautés de Python 3 2.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.1: Nouveautés de Python 3 1.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.0: Nouveautés de Python 3 0.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.7: Nouveautés de Python 2 7.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.6: Nouveautés de Python 2 6.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.5: Nouveautés de Python 2 5.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.4: Nouveautés de Python 2 4.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.3: Nouveautés de Python 2 3.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.2: Nouveautés de Python 2 2.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.1: Nouveautés de Python 2 1.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.0: Nouveautés de Python 2 0.
* Changelog::

What's New In Python 3.13

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights. Release Highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités::
* Autres changements au langage::
* Nouveaux modules::
* Modules améliorés::
* Optimisations::
* Removed Modules And APIs::
* New Deprecations::
* CPython Bytecode Changes::
* Changements à l'API C::
* Changements à la compilation::
* Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13.
* Regression Test Changes::
* Notable changes in 3.13.1: Notable changes in 3 13 1.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* A better interactive interpreter::
* Improved error messages::
* Free-threaded CPython::
* An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
* Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals.
* Support for mobile platforms::

Modules améliorés

* argparse::
* array::
* ast::
* asyncio::
* base64::
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* configparser::
* copy::
* ctypes::
* dbm::
* dis::
* doctest::
* email::
* enum::
* fractions::
* glob::
* importlib::
* io::
* ipaddress::
* itertools::
* marshal::
* math::
* mimetypes::
* mmap::
* multiprocessing::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* pdb::
* queue::
* random::
* re::
* shutils::
* site::
* sqlite3::
* ssl::
* statistics::
* subprocess::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* time::
* tkinter::
* traceback::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* venv::
* warnings::
* xml::
* zipimport::

Removed Modules And APIs

* PEP 594; Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library.
* 2to3::
* builtins::
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* locale::
* opcode::
* optparse::
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re: re<2>.
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix.
* turtle::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unittest::
* urllib::
* webbrowser::

New Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions::

Changements à l'API C

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<2>.
* Changed C APIs::
* Limited C API Changes::
* Removed C APIs::
* Deprecated C APIs::

Deprecated C APIs

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>.

Porting to Python 3.13

* Changements dans l'API Python::
* Changements dans l'API C::

Notable changes in 3.13.1

* sys: sys<2>.

What's New In Python 3.12

* Résumé – Points marquants de cette version::
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types::
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<2>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<2>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<2>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<2>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython::
* Demos and Tools::
* Obsolescence::
* Retraits::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<2>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<2>.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

Modules améliorés

* array: array<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis: dis<2>.
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* math: math<2>.
* os: os<2>.
* os.path: os path<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform::
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* random: random<2>.
* shutils: shutils<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* tokenize::
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* uuid::

Obsolescence

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>.

Retraits

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum: enum<2>.
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* imp::
* io: io<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.
* Autres::

Porting to Python 3.12

* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<2>.

Changements à l'API C

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<2>.
* Retraits: Retraits<2>.

Obsolescence

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>.

Les nouveautés de Python 3.11

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication::
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<3>.
* Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython::
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<3>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<3>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<3>.
* Faster CPython::
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Retraits: Retraits<3>.
* Portage vers Python 3.11: Portage vers Python 3 11.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<3>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<3>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* PEP 657 ; amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels: PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels.
* PEP 654 ; Groupes d'exception et except*: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Améliorations du lanceur Windows py.exe: Améliorations du lanceur Windows py exe.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

Modules améliorés

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<3>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE et idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging::
* math: math<3>.
* operator::
* os: os<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* re: re<3>.
* shutils: shutils<3>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* string::
* sys: sys<4>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time: time<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* zipfile::

Faster CPython

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* À propos::

Faster Startup

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::

Faster Runtime

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.

FAQ

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don't see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don't see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::

Obsolescence

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Bibliothèque Standard::

Changements à l'API C

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<6>.
* Portage vers Python 3.11: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Retraits: Retraits<4>.

Notable changes in 3.11.4

* tarfile::

Notable changes in 3.11.5

* OpenSSL::

Les nouveautés de Python 3.10

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<4>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<4>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<4>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<4>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<5>.
* Retrait::
* Portage vers Python 3.10: Portage vers Python 3 10.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<3>.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<4>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<4>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses::
* Meilleurs messages d'erreurs::
* PEP 626 ; numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils: PEP 626 numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils.
* PEP 634 ; filtrage par motifs structurels: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels.
* EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels::

Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

* SyntaxError::
* IndentationError::
* AttributeError::
* NameError::

PEP 634 : filtrage par motifs structurels

* Syntaxe et opérations::
* Approche déclarative::
* Filtre simple ; apparier à un littéral: Filtre simple apparier à un littéral.
* Filtres avec un littéral et une variable::
* Filtres et classes::
* Filtres imbriqués::
* Filtres complexes et attrape-tout::
* Garde::
* Autres fonctionnalités importantes::

Filtre simple : apparier à un littéral

* Comportement sans l'attrape-tout::

Filtres et classes

* Filtres avec arguments positionnels::

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

* PEP 604 ; nouvel opérateur d'union de types: PEP 604 nouvel opérateur d'union de types.
* PEP 612 ; variables de spécification de paramètres: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres.
* PEP 613 ; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647 ; gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur: PEP 647 gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur.

Modules améliorés

* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* argparse: argparse<2>.
* array: array<3>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64: base64<2>.
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* encodings::
* enum: enum<4>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob: glob<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE et idlelib: IDLE et idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* linecache::
* os: os<4>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* site: site<2>.
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* types: types<3>.
* typing: typing<5>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml: xml<2>.
* zipimport: zipimport<3>.

dataclasses

* __slots__::
* Champs obligatoirement nommés::

Portage vers Python 3.10

* Changements à la syntaxe de Python::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<3>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<2>.

Changements à l'API C

* PEP 652 ; maintenance d'une ABI stable: PEP 652 maintenance d'une ABI stable.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<8>.
* Portage vers Python 3.10: Portage vers Python 3 10<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<6>.
* Retrait: Retrait<2>.

Notable changes in 3.10.12

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.

Les nouveautés de Python 3.9

* Résumé – Points marquants de cette version: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
* Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code::
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<5>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<5>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<5>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<5>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<7>.
* Retraits: Retraits<5>.
* Portage vers Python 3.9: Portage vers Python 3 9.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<5>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<5>.
* Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1.
* Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires::
* Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes::
* Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives::
* Nouvel analyseur syntaxique::

Nouveaux modules

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::

Modules améliorés

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE et idlelib: IDLE et idlelib<3>.
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* nntplib::
* os: os<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<3>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* xml: xml<3>.

Portage vers Python 3.9

* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<4>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<3>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<4>.

Changements à l'API C

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<10>.
* Portage vers Python 3.9: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>.
* Retraits: Retraits<6>.

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1

* typing: typing<7>.
* Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple.

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.

Notable changes in Python 3.9.5

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.

Notable changes in 3.9.17

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.

Nouveautés de Python 3.8

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights. Release highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<6>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<6>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<6>.
* Optimizations::
* Build and C API Changes::
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<8>.
* API and Feature Removals::
* Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.1: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.8: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.12: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* Expression d'affectation::
* Positional-only parameters::
* Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files::
* Debug build uses the same ABI as release build::
* f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging::
* PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
* PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
* Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::

Modules améliorés

* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* builtins: builtins<2>.
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE et idlelib: IDLE et idlelib<4>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<5>.
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutils: shutils<4>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* sys: sys<7>.
* tarfile: tarfile<4>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* time: time<4>.
* typing: typing<8>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* venv: venv<4>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<4>.
* xmlrpc::

Porting to Python 3.8

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<4>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<5>.
* Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

* Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple<2>.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.12

* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<6>.

Notable changes in 3.8.17

* tarfile: tarfile<5>.

What's New In Python 3.7

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>. Release Highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<7>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<7>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<7>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<6>.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.

Nouveaux modules

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.

Modules améliorés

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* decimal::
* dis: dis<3>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<6>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<2>.
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue: queue<2>.
* re: re<4>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* time: time<5>.
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<9>.
* wave::

Porting to Python 3.7

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<7>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<5>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<6>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::

What's New In Python 3.6

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<8>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<8>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<8>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Autres Améliorations::
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<9>.
* Retraits: Retraits<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::

Nouveaux modules

* secrets::

Modules améliorés

* array: array<4>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<2>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* os: os<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<4>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<6>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<9>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<5>.
* warnings: warnings<4>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::

Obsolescence

* Nouveaux mot-clefs::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<6>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* os: os<9>.
* re: re<6>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* venv: venv<6>.

Retraits

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.

Porting to Python 3.6

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<8>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<6>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<7>.

Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::

Nouveautés de Python 3.5

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<4>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<9>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<9>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<9>.
* Other module-level changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<10>.
* Retraits: Retraits<8>.
* Portage vers Python 3.5: Portage vers Python 3 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator. a better and faster directory iterator
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488 ; Élimination des fichiers PYO: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.

Nouveaux modules

* typing: typing<10>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.

Modules améliorés

* argparse: argparse<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>.
* configparser: configparser<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<3>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<5>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<6>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<8>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<10>.
* pathlib: pathlib<10>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<7>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutils: shutils<5>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<6>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<7>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<8>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<8>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.

ssl

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::

Obsolescence

* Nouveaux mot-clefs: Nouveaux mot-clefs<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.

Retraits

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.

Portage vers Python 3.5

* Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>.
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<9>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<7>.

Notable changes in Python 3.5.4

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.

Nouveautés de Python 3.4

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>. Release Highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<10>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<10>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<11>.
* Retraits: Retraits<9>.
* Portage vers Python 3.4: Portage vers Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<10>.

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::

Nouveaux modules

* asyncio: asyncio<11>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<11>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<6>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.

Modules améliorés

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<5>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<3>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* doctest: doctest<4>.
* email: email<4>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<4>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>.
* importlib: importlib<9>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal: marshal<2>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<8>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutils: shutils<6>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<6>.
* types: types<6>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* venv: venv<7>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.

CPython Implementation Changes

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Autres Améliorations: Autres Améliorations<2>.
* Significant Optimizations::

Obsolescence

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Fonctionnalités obsolètes::

Retraits

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<5>.
* Code Cleanups::

Portage vers Python 3.4

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<10>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<8>.

Changed in 3.4.3

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.

Nouveautés de Python 3.3

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<5>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<11>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<11>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<11>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<12>.
* Portage vers Python 3.3: Portage vers Python 3 3.

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

* Caractéristiques::
* API changes::

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

* SimpleNamespace::

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

Nouveaux modules

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.

Modules améliorés

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<5>.
* base64: base64<4>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<6>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<9>.
* mmap: mmap<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<12>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<9>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutils: shutils<7>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<6>.
* sys: sys<13>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<8>.
* types: types<7>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* urllib: urllib<4>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<3>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.

decimal

* Caractéristiques: Caractéristiques<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

email

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::

Obsolescence

* Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>.
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
* Fonctionnalités obsolètes: Fonctionnalités obsolètes<2>.

Portage vers Python 3.3

* Portage de code Python::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::

Nouveautés de Python 3.2

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Fils d'exécution::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Portage vers Python 3.2: Portage vers Python 3 2.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* email: email<6>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<7>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<10>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<7>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<5>.
* os: os<13>.
* shutils: shutils<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<11>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<12>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<11>.
* random: random<5>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<5>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<5>.
* dbm: dbm<7>.
* ctypes: ctypes<3>.
* site: site<4>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<8>.
* configparser: configparser<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::

Nouveautés de Python 3.1

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<13>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Portage vers Python 3.1: Portage vers Python 3 1.

Nouveautés de Python 3.0

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Performances::
* Portage vers Python 3.0: Portage vers Python 3 0.

Common Stumbling Blocks

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.

Overview Of Syntax Changes

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::

Miscellaneous Other Changes

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::

Nouveautés de Python 2.7

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<14>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Autres changements et corrections::
* Portage vers Python 2.7: Portage vers Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Remerciements::

Autres changements au langage

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.

New and Improved Modules

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Module mis-à-jour ; ElementTree 1.3: Module mis-à-jour ElementTree 1 3.

Build and C API Changes

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

Nouveautés de Python 2.6

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The 'with' statement: PEP 343 The 'with' statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<15>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Portage vers Python 2.6: Portage vers Python 2 6.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<2>.

Changes to the Development Process

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

* Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte::
* Le module contextlib::

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

* The fractions Module::

Autres changements au langage

* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

New and Improved Modules

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

Nouveautés de Python 2.5

* PEP 308 ; Expressions conditionnelles: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles.
* PEP 309 ; Application partielle de fonction: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The 'with' statement: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The '__index__' method: PEP 357 The '__index__' method.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<16>.
* Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Portage vers Python 2.5: Portage vers Python 2 5.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<3>.

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

* Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte<2>.
* Le module contextlib: Le module contextlib<2>.

Autres changements au langage

* Changements de l’interpréteur interactif::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.

Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes::

Nouveautés de Python 2.4

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<17>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Portage vers Python 2.4: Portage vers Python 2 4.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<4>.

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::

Autres changements au langage

* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<5>.

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.

Nouveautés de Python 2.3

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255 ; Générateurs simples: PEP 255 Générateurs simples.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285 ; Un type booléen: PEP 285 Un type booléen.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<18>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<12>.
* Autres changements et corrections: Autres changements et corrections<2>.
* Portage vers Python 2.3: Portage vers Python 2 3.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<5>.

Autres changements au langage

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.

Nouveautés de Python 2.2

* Introduction::
* PEP 252 et 253 ; Changements concernant les types et classes: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes.
* PEP 234 ; Itérateurs: PEP 234 Itérateurs.
* PEP 255 ; Générateurs simples: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Autres changements et corrections: Autres changements et corrections<3>.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<6>.

PEP 252 et 253 : Changements concernant les types et classes

* Anciennes et nouvelles classes::
* Descripteurs::
* Héritage multiple ; la règle du diamant: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::

Nouveautés de Python 2.1

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236 ; Directives __future__: PEP 236 Directives __future__.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232 ; Attributs de fonctions: PEP 232 Attributs de fonctions.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Autres changements et corrections: Autres changements et corrections<4>.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<7>.

Nouveautés de Python 2.0

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* À propos de Python 1.6.: À propos de Python 1 6.
* Nouveau processus de développement::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* Compréhensions de listes::
* Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées::
* Méthodes de chaînes de caractères::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* Modules XML::
* Module changes::
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<12>.
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Remerciements: Remerciements<8>.

Other Core Changes

* Changements mineurs du langage::
* Changements concernant les fonctions primitives::

Modules XML

* Support de SAX2::
* Support du DOM::
* Relationship to PyXML::

Changelog

* Python next::
* Python 3.13.3 final: Python 3 13 3 final.
* Python 3.13.2 final: Python 3 13 2 final.
* Python 3.13.1 final: Python 3 13 1 final.
* Python 3.13.0 final: Python 3 13 0 final.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 4: Python 3 13 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 3: Python 3 13 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 2: Python 3 13 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.

Python next

* Tests::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::
* C API::
* Build::

Python 3.13.3 final

* macOS::
* Windows::
* Tools/Demos::
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Security::
* Library: Library<2>.
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* C API: C API<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.

Python 3.13.2 final

* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.

Python 3.13.1 final

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.

Python 3.13.0 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.

Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3

* macOS: macOS<4>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* C API: C API<5>.
* Build: Build<5>.

Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2

* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* C API: C API<6>.
* Build: Build<6>.

Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1

* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* C API: C API<7>.
* Build: Build<7>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 4

* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* C API: C API<8>.
* Build: Build<8>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Build: Build<9>.
* C API: C API<9>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Build: Build<10>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* C API: C API<10>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* macOS: macOS<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* C API: C API<11>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* C API: C API<12>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* C API: C API<13>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* C API: C API<14>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* C API: C API<15>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* C API: C API<16>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<17>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<18>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<19>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* C API: C API<20>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<21>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<22>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* C API: C API<23>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<24>.

Python 3.11.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<25>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<26>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* C API: C API<27>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<28>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* C API: C API<29>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* C API: C API<30>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<31>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<32>.

Python 3.10.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<33>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 7

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<34>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<35>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<36>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<37>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<38>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* C API: C API<39>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<40>.

Python 3.9.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<41>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<42>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<43>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* C API: C API<44>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* C API: C API<45>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* C API: C API<46>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<47>.

Python 3.8.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<48>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<49>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<50>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<51>.

Python 3.7.0 final

* Library: Library<54>.
* C API: C API<52>.

Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 3

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<53>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* C API: C API<54>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<55>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.
* C API: C API<56>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* C API: C API<57>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<58>.

Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<59>.

Python 3.6.5 final

* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<63>.

Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<60>.

Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<65>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<61>.

Python 3.6.3 final

* Library: Library<68>.
* Build: Build<66>.

Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<67>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<42>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* C API: C API<62>.
* Build: Build<68>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.

Python 3.6.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Build: Build<69>.

Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* C API: C API<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<70>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* Build: Build<71>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* C API: C API<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Build: Build<72>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* Build: Build<73>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* C API: C API<65>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* Build: Build<76>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* C API: C API<67>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* Build: Build<78>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Build: Build<79>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* C API: C API<69>.

Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<81>.

Python 3.5.4 final

* Library: Library<82>.

Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Build: Build<80>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* C API: C API<70>.

Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* C API: C API<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<81>.

Python 3.5.2 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.

Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<85>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Build: Build<82>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.

Python 3.5.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.

Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<86>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Build: Build<83>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.

Python 3.5.0 final

* Build: Build<84>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4

* Library: Library<87>.
* Build: Build<85>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<88>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<89>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<91>.
* Build: Build<86>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Build: Build<87>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<93>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* IDLE: IDLE<63>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Build: Build<88>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.
* C API: C API<72>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* Build: Build<89>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<97>.
* Build: Build<90>.
* C API: C API<73>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* IDLE: IDLE<64>.
* Build: Build<91>.
* C API: C API<74>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.

Le tutoriel Python

* Mise en bouche::
* Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python::
* Introduction informelle à Python::
* D'autres outils de contrôle de flux::
* Structures de données::
* Modules: Modules<2>.
* Les entrées/sorties::
* Erreurs et exceptions::
* Classes::
* Survol de la bibliothèque standard::
* Survol de la bibliothèque standard: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie. Deuxième partie
* Environnements virtuels et paquets::
* Pour aller plus loin::
* Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique::
* Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations.
* Annexe::

Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python

* Lancement de l'interpréteur::
* L'interpréteur et son environnement::

Lancement de l'interpréteur

* Passage d'arguments::
* Mode interactif::

L'interpréteur et son environnement

* Encodage du code source::

Introduction informelle à Python

* Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice::
* Premiers pas vers la programmation::

Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

* Les nombres::
* Text::
* Listes::

D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

* L'instruction if::
* L'instruction for::
* La fonction range(): La fonction range.
* Les instructions break et continue::
* La clause else au sein des boucles::
* L'instruction pass::
* L'instruction match::
* Définir des fonctions::
* Davantage sur la définition des fonctions::
* Aparté ; le style de codage: Aparté le style de codage.

Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

* Valeur par défaut des arguments::
* Les arguments nommés::
* Paramètres spéciaux::
* Listes d'arguments arbitraires::
* Séparation des listes d'arguments::
* Fonctions anonymes::
* Chaînes de documentation::
* Annotations de fonctions::

Paramètres spéciaux

* Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés::
* Paramètres positionnels uniquement::
* Arguments nommés uniquement::
* Exemples de fonctions::
* Récapitulatif::

Structures de données

* Compléments sur les listes::
* L'instruction del::
* n-uplets et séquences::
* Ensembles::
* Dictionnaires::
* Techniques de boucles::
* Plus d'informations sur les conditions::
* Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types::

Compléments sur les listes

* Utilisation des listes comme des piles::
* Utilisation des listes comme des files::
* Listes en compréhension::
* Listes en compréhensions imbriquées::

Modules

* Les modules en détail::
* Modules standards::
* La fonction dir(): La fonction dir.
* Les paquets::

Les modules en détail

* Exécuter des modules comme des scripts::
* Les dossiers de recherche de modules::
* Fichiers Python « compilés »::

Les paquets

* Importer * depuis un paquet::
* Références internes dans un paquet::
* Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers::

Les entrées/sorties

* Formatage de données::
* Lecture et écriture de fichiers::

Formatage de données

* Les chaines de caractères formatées (f-strings): Les chaines de caractères formatées f-strings.
* La méthode de chaine de caractères format(): La méthode de chaine de caractères format.
* Formatage de chaînes à la main::
* Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes::

Lecture et écriture de fichiers

* Méthodes des objets fichiers::
* Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json::

Erreurs et exceptions

* Les erreurs de syntaxe::
* Exceptions::
* Gestion des exceptions::
* Déclencher des exceptions::
* Chaînage d'exceptions::
* Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur::
* Définition d'actions de nettoyage::
* Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies::
* Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées::
* Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes::

Classes

* Objets et noms ; préambule: Objets et noms préambule.
* Portées et espaces de nommage en Python::
* Une première approche des classes::
* Remarques diverses::
* Héritage::
* Variables privées::
* Trucs et astuces::
* Itérateurs::
* Générateurs::
* Expressions et générateurs::

Portées et espaces de nommage en Python

* Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage::

Une première approche des classes

* Syntaxe de définition des classes::
* Objets classes::
* Objets instances::
* Objets méthode::
* Variables de classe et d’instance::

Héritage

* Héritage multiple::

Survol de la bibliothèque standard

* Interface avec le système d'exploitation::
* Jokers sur les noms de fichiers::
* Paramètres passés en ligne de commande::
* Redirection de la sortie d'erreur et fin d'exécution::
* Recherche de motifs dans les chaînes::
* Mathématiques::
* Accès à internet::
* Dates et heures::
* Compression de données::
* Mesure des performances::
* Contrôle qualité::
* Piles fournies::

Survol de la bibliothèque standard - Deuxième partie

* Formatage de l'affichage::
* Gabarits (templates en anglais): Gabarits templates en anglais.
* Traitement des données binaires::
* Fils d'exécution: Fils d'exécution<2>.
* Journalisation::
* Références faibles::
* Outils pour les listes::
* Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic::

Environnements virtuels et paquets

* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* Création d'environnements virtuels::
* Gestion des paquets avec pip::

Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique

* Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique::
* Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif::

Floating-Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations

* Erreurs de représentation::

Annexe

* Mode interactif: Mode interactif<2>.

Mode interactif

* Gestion des erreurs::
* Scripts Python exécutables::
* Configuration du mode interactif::
* Modules de personnalisation::

Installation et utilisation de Python

* Ligne de commande et environnement::
* Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix::
* Configurer Python::
* Utilisation de Python sur Windows::
* Using Python on macOS::
* Using Python on Android::
* Using Python on iOS::
* Éditeurs et IDEs::

Ligne de commande et environnement

* Ligne de commande::
* Variables d'environnement::

Ligne de commande

* Options de l'interface::
* Options génériques::
* Options diverses::
* Controlling color::
* Options à ne pas utiliser::

Variables d'environnement

* Variables en mode débogage::

Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

* Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python::
* Compiler Python::
* Fichiers et chemins liés à Python::
* Divers::
* Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL::

Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python

* Sur Linux::
* Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD::

Sur Linux

* Installing IDLE::

Configurer Python

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Options de configuration::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::

Generated files

* configure script::

Options de configuration

* Options générales::
* C compiler options::
* Linker options::
* Options for third-party dependencies::
* Options de WebAssembly::
* Options d'installation::
* Options de performance::
* Compilation de Python en mode débogage::
* Debug options::
* Linker options: Linker options<2>.
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* iOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::

Python Build System

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::

Main Makefile targets

* make::
* make platform::
* make profile-opt::
* make clean::
* make distclean::
* make install::
* make test::
* make buildbottest::
* make regen-all::

Compiler and linker flags

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::

Utilisation de Python sur Windows

* L'installateur complet::
* Le paquet Microsoft Store::
* Les paquets nuget.org: Les paquets nuget org.
* Le paquet intégrable::
* Paquets alternatifs::
* Configurer Python: Configurer Python<2>.
* Mode UTF-8::
* Lanceur Python pour Windows::
* Recherche de modules::
* Modules supplémentaires::
* Compiler Python sous Windows::
* Autres plateformes::

L'installateur complet

* Étapes d'installation::
* Suppression de la limitation MAX_PATH::
* Installation sans l'interface utilisateur::
* Installation sans téléchargement::
* Modification d'une installation::
* Installing Free-threaded Binaries::

Le paquet Microsoft Store

* Problèmes connus::

Problèmes connus

* Redirection des données locales, du registre et des chemins temporaires: Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires.

Les paquets nuget.org

* Free-threaded packages::

Le paquet intégrable

* Application Python::
* Embarquer Python::

Configurer Python

* Digression ; définition des variables d'environnement: Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
* Trouver l'exécutable Python::

Lanceur Python pour Windows

* Pour commencer::
* Lignes Shebang::
* Arguments dans les lignes shebang::
* Personnalisation::
* Diagnostics::
* Exécution à vide::
* Installation à la demande::
* Codes de retour::

Pour commencer

* Depuis la ligne de commande::
* Environnements virtuels::
* À partir d'un script::
* À partir d'associations de fichiers::

Personnalisation

* Personnalisation via des fichiers INI::
* Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut::

Modules supplémentaires

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::

Using Python on macOS

* Using Python for macOS from python.org: Using Python for macOS from python org.
* Alternative Distributions::
* Installation de paquets Python additionnels::
* GUI Programming::
* Sujets avancés::
* Autres ressources::

Using Python for macOS from python.org

* Étapes d'installation: Étapes d'installation<2>.
* Comment exécuter un script Python::

Sujets avancés

* Installing Free-threaded Binaries: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>.
* Installing using the command line::
* Distributing Python Applications::
* App Store Compliance::

Using Python on Android

* Adding Python to an Android app::

Using Python on iOS

* Python at runtime on iOS::
* Installing Python on iOS::
* App Store Compliance: App Store Compliance<2>.

Python at runtime on iOS

* iOS version compatibility::
* Platform identification::
* Standard library availability::
* Binary extension modules::
* Compiler stub binaries::

Installing Python on iOS

* Tools for building iOS apps::
* Adding Python to an iOS project::
* Testing a Python package::

Éditeurs et IDEs

* IDLE: IDLE --- Python editor and shell. Python editor and shell
* Other Editors and IDEs::

La référence du langage Python

* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* Analyse lexicale::
* Modèle de données::
* Modèle d'exécution::
* Le système d'importation::
* Expressions::
* Les instructions simples::
* Instructions composées::
* Composants de plus haut niveau::
* Spécification complète de la grammaire::

Introduction

* Autres implémentations::
* Notations::

Analyse lexicale

* Structure des lignes::
* Autres lexèmes::
* Identifiants et mots-clés::
* Littéraux::
* Opérateurs::
* Délimiteurs::

Structure des lignes

* Lignes logiques::
* Lignes physiques::
* Commentaires::
* Déclaration d'encodage::
* Continuation de ligne explicite::
* Continuation de ligne implicite::
* Lignes vierges::
* Indentation::
* Espaces entre lexèmes::

Identifiants et mots-clés

* Mots-clés::
* Mots-clés ad hoc::
* Classes réservées pour les identifiants::

Littéraux

* Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets::
* Concaténation de chaînes de caractères::
* f-strings::
* Littéraux numériques::
* Entiers littéraux::
* Floating-point literals::
* Imaginaires littéraux::

Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets

* Escape sequences::

Modèle de données

* Objets, valeurs et types: Objets valeurs et types.
* Hiérarchie des types standards::
* Méthodes spéciales::
* Coroutines::

Hiérarchie des types standards

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipse::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Séquences::
* Ensembles: Ensembles<2>.
* Tableaux de correspondances::
* Types appelables::
* Modules: Modules<3>.
* Classes déclarées par le développeur::
* Instances de classe: Instances de classe<2>.
* Objets entrées-sorties (ou objets fichiers): Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
* Types internes::

numbers.Number

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.

Séquences

* Séquences immuables::
* Séquences mutables::

Tableaux de correspondances

* Dictionnaires: Dictionnaires<2>.

Types appelables

* Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur::
* Méthodes d'instances::
* Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs): Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs.
* Fonctions coroutines::
* Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs) asynchrones: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones.
* Fonctions natives::
* Méthodes natives::
* Classes: Classes<2>.
* Instances de classe::

Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur

* Special read-only attributes::
* Special writable attributes::

Modules

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::

Classes déclarées par le développeur

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::

Instances de classe

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.

Types internes

* Objets Code::
* Objets cadres::
* Objets traces d'appels::
* Objets tranches::
* Objets méthodes statiques::
* Objets méthodes de classes::

Objets Code

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>.
* Methods on code objects::

Objets cadres

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>.
* Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>.
* Frame object methods::

Méthodes spéciales

* Personnalisation de base::
* Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs::
* Personnalisation de la création de classes::
* Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes::
* Émulation de types génériques::
* Émulation d'objets appelables::
* Émulation de types conteneurs::
* Émulation de types numériques::
* Gestionnaire de contexte With::
* Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes::
* Emulating buffer types::
* Recherche des méthodes spéciales::

Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

* Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module::
* Implémentation de descripteurs::
* Invocation des descripteurs::
* créneaux prédéfinis (__slots__): créneaux prédéfinis __slots__.

Personnalisation de la création de classes

* Métaclasses::
* Résolution des entrées MRO::
* Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée::
* Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe::
* Exécution du corps de la classe::
* Création de l'objet classe::
* Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses::

Émulation de types génériques

* Intention de __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__::

Coroutines

* Objets attendables (awaitable): Objets attendables awaitable.
* Objets coroutines::
* Itérateurs asynchrones::
* Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones::

Modèle d'exécution

* Structure d'un programme::
* Noms et liaisons::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.

Noms et liaisons

* Liaisons des noms::
* Résolution des noms::
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution::
* Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques::

Le système d'importation

* importlib: importlib<10>.
* Les paquets: Les paquets<2>.
* Recherche::
* Chargement::
* Le chercheur dans path::
* Remplacement du système d'importation standard::
* Importations relatives au paquet::
* Cas particulier de __main__::
* Références::

Les paquets

* Paquets classiques::
* Paquets espaces de nommage::

Recherche

* Cache des modules::
* Chercheurs et chargeurs::
* Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation::
* Méta-chemins::

Chargement

* Chargeurs::
* Sous-modules::
* Spécificateurs de modules::
* l'attribut __path__ des modules::
* Représentation textuelle d'un module::
* Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache::

Le chercheur dans path

* Chercheurs d'entrée dans path::
* Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans path::

Cas particulier de __main__

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.

Expressions

* Conversions arithmétiques::
* Atomes::
* Primaires::
* Expression await::
* L'opérateur puissance::
* Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits::
* Opérations arithmétiques binaires::
* Opérations de décalage::
* Opérations binaires bit à bit::
* Comparaisons::
* Opérations booléennes::
* Expressions d'affectation::
* Expressions conditionnelles::
* Expressions lambda::
* Listes d'expressions::
* Ordre d'évaluation::
* Priorités des opérateurs::

Atomes

* Identifiants (noms): Identifiants noms.
* Littéraux: Littéraux<2>.
* Formes parenthésées::
* Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires: Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
* Agencements de listes::
* Agencements d'ensembles::
* Agencements de dictionnaires::
* Expressions génératrices::
* Expressions yield::

Identifiants (noms)

* Private name mangling::

Expressions yield

* Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs::
* Exemples::
* Fonctions génératrices asynchrones::
* Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones::

Primaires

* Références à des attributs::
* sélection (ou indiçage): sélection ou indiçage.
* Tranches::
* Appels::

Comparaisons

* Comparaisons de valeurs::
* Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble::
* Comparaisons d'identifiants::

Les instructions simples

* Les expressions::
* Les assignations::
* L'instruction assert::
* L'instruction pass: L'instruction pass<2>.
* L'instruction del: L'instruction del<2>.
* L'instruction return::
* L'instruction yield::
* L'instruction raise::
* L'instruction break::
* L'instruction continue::
* L'instruction import::
* L'instruction global::
* L'instruction nonlocal::
* The type statement::

Les assignations

* Les assignations augmentées::
* Les assignations annotées::

L'instruction import

* L'instruction future::

Instructions composées

* L'instruction if: L'instruction if<2>.
* L'instruction while::
* L'instruction for: L'instruction for<2>.
* L'instruction try::
* L'instruction with::
* L'instruction match: L'instruction match<2>.
* Définition de fonctions::
* Définition de classes::
* Coroutines: Coroutines<2>.
* Type parameter lists::

L'instruction try

* clause except::
* clause except*::
* clause else::
* clause finally::

L'instruction match

* Aperçu::
* Gardes::
* Bloc case attrape-tout::
* Filtres::

Filtres

* Filtres OU::
* Filtres AS::
* Filtres littéraux::
* Filtres de capture::
* Filtres attrape-tout::
* Filtres par valeurs::
* Filtres de groupes::
* Filtres de séquences::
* Filtres associatifs::
* Filtres de classes::

Coroutines

* Définition de fonctions coroutines::
* L'instruction async for::
* L'instruction async with::

Type parameter lists

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

Composants de plus haut niveau

* Programmes Python complets::
* Fichier d'entrée::
* Entrée interactive::
* Entrée d'expression::

La bibliothèque standard

* Introduction: Introduction<6>.
* Fonctions natives: Fonctions natives<2>.
* Constantes natives::
* Types natifs::
* Exceptions natives::
* Services de Manipulation de Texte::
* Services autour des Données Binaires::
* Types de données::
* Modules numériques et mathématiques::
* Modules de programmation fonctionnelle::
* Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers::
* Persistance des données::
* Compression de donnée et archivage::
* Formats de fichiers::
* Service de cryptographie::
* Services génériques du système d'exploitation::
* Command Line Interface Libraries::
* Exécution concourante::
* Réseau et communication entre processus::
* Traitement des données provenant d'Internet::
* Outils de traitement de balises structurées::
* Gestion des protocoles internet::
* Services multimédia::
* Internationalisation::
* Cadriciels d'applications::
* Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk::
* Outils de développement::
* Débogueur et instrumentation::
* Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels::
* Environnement d'exécution Python::
* Interpréteurs Python personnalisés::
* Importer des modules::
* Services du Langage Python::
* Services spécifiques à MS Windows::
* Services spécifiques à Unix::
* Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI.
* Modules remplacés::
* Removed Modules::
* Considérations de sécurité: Considérations de sécurité<3>.

Introduction

* Notes sur la disponibilité::

Notes sur la disponibilité

* Plateformes WebAssembly::
* Mobile platforms::

Constantes natives

* Constantes ajoutées par le module site::

Types natifs

* Valeurs booléennes::
* Opérations booléennes — and, or, not: Opérations booléennes — and or not.
* Comparaisons: Comparaisons<2>.
* Types numériques — int, float, complex: Types numériques — int float complex.
* Boolean Type - bool::
* Les types itérateurs::
* Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range: Types séquentiels — list tuple range.
* Type Séquence de Texte — str::
* Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire.
* Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset: Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
* Les types de correspondances — dict::
* Le type gestionnaire de contexte::
* Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union.
* Autres types natifs::
* Attributs spéciaux::
* Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier::

Types numériques — int, float, complex

* Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers::
* Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers::
* Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante::
* Hachage des types numériques::

Les types itérateurs

* Types générateurs::

Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range

* Opérations communes sur les séquences::
* Types de séquences immuables::
* Types de séquences mutables::
* Listes: Listes<2>.
* N-uplets::
* Ranges::

Type Séquence de Texte — str

* Méthodes de chaînes de caractères: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
* Formatted String Literals (f-strings): Formatted String Literals f-strings.
* Formatage de chaines à la printf::

Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire

* Objets bytes::
* Objets bytearray::
* Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray::
* Formatage de bytes a la printf::
* Vues mémoire::

Les types de correspondances — dict

* Les vues de dictionnaires::

Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union

* Type Alias générique::
* Type Union::

Type Alias générique

* Classes génériques standards::
* Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques::

Autres types natifs

* Modules: Modules<4>.
* Les classes et instances de classes::
* Fonctions::
* Méthodes::
* Objets code::
* Objets type::
* L'objet Null::
* L'objet points de suspension (ou ellipse): L'objet points de suspension ou ellipse.
* L'objet NotImplemented::
* Objets internes::

Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

* API concernées::
* Configuration de la limite::
* Configuration recommandée::

Exceptions natives

* Contexte des exceptions::
* Hériter des exceptions natives::
* Classes mères::
* Exceptions concrètes::
* Avertissements::
* Exception groups::
* Hiérarchie des exceptions::

Exceptions concrètes

* Exceptions système::

Services de Manipulation de Texte

* string: string --- Common string operations. Common string operations
* re: re --- Regular expression operations. Regular expression operations
* difflib: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas. Helpers for computing deltas
* textwrap: textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling. Text wrapping and filling
* unicodedata: unicodedata --- Unicode Database. Unicode Database
* stringprep: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation. Internet String Preparation
* readline: readline --- GNU readline interface. GNU readline interface
* rlcompleter: rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline. Completion function for GNU readline

string -- Common string operations

* Chaînes constantes::
* Formatage personnalisé de chaîne::
* Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne::
* Chaînes modèles::
* Fonctions d'assistance::

Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne

* Mini-langage de spécification de format::
* Exemples de formats::

re -- Regular expression operations

* Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles::
* Contenu du module::
* Objets d'expressions rationnelles::
* Objets de correspondance::
* Exemples d'expressions rationnelles::

Contenu du module

* Flags::
* Fonctions: Fonctions<2>.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.

Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

* Rechercher une paire::
* Simuler scanf(): Simuler scanf.
* Comparaison de search() et match(): Comparaison de search et match.
* Construire un répertoire téléphonique::
* Mélanger les lettres des mots::
* Trouver tous les adverbes::
* Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions::
* Notation brute de chaînes::
* Écrire un analyseur lexical::

difflib -- Helpers for computing deltas

* SequenceMatcher Objects::
* SequenceMatcher Examples::
* Differ Objects::
* Differ Example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff example::

readline -- GNU readline interface

* Fichier d'initialisation::
* Tampon de ligne::
* Fichier d'historique::
* Liste d'historique::
* Fonctions de rappel au démarrage::
* Complétion::
* Exemple::

Services autour des Données Binaires

* struct: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data. Interpret bytes as packed binary data
* codecs: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes. Codec registry and base classes

struct -- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

* Fonctions et exceptions::
* Chaînes de spécification du format::
* Applications::
* Classes: Classes<3>.

Chaînes de spécification du format

* Boutisme, taille et alignement: Boutisme taille et alignement.
* Caractères de format::
* Exemples: Exemples<2>.

Applications

* Native Formats::
* Standard Formats::

codecs -- Codec registry and base classes

* Classes de base de codecs::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings.idna: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
* encodings.mbcs: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

Classes de base de codecs

* Gestionnaires d'erreurs::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

* IncrementalEncoder Objects::
* IncrementalDecoder Objects::

Stream Encoding and Decoding

* StreamWriter Objects::
* StreamReader Objects::
* StreamReaderWriter Objects::
* StreamRecoder Objects::

Python Specific Encodings

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Text Transforms::

Types de données

* datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure::
* zoneinfo: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support. IANA time zone support
* calendar: calendar --- General calendar-related functions. General calendar-related functions
* collections: collections --- Container datatypes. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers. Abstract Base Classes for Containers
* heapq: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm. Heap queue algorithm
* bisect: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm. Array bisection algorithm
* array: array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values. Efficient arrays of numeric values
* weakref: weakref --- Weak references. Weak references
* types: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types. Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
* copy: copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations. Shallow and deep copy operations
* pprint — L’affichage élégant de données::
* reprlib: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation. Alternate repr() implementation
* enum: enum --- Support for enumerations. Support for enumerations
* graphlib: graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

* Objets avisés et naïfs::
* Constantes::
* Types disponibles::
* Objets timedelta::
* Objets date::
* Objets datetime::
* Objets time::
* Objets tzinfo::
* Objets timezone::
* strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior.

Types disponibles

* Propriétés communes::
* Catégorisation d'un objet en « avisé » ou « naïf »::

Objets timedelta

* Exemples d'utilisation de la classe timedelta ;: Exemples d'utilisation de la classe timedelta.

Objets date

* Exemple d'utilisation de la classe date ;: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe date.

Objets datetime

* Exemple d'utilisation de la classe datetime ;: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe datetime.

Objets time

* Exemples d'utilisation de time::

strftime() and strptime() Behavior

* strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes.
* Détail technique::

zoneinfo -- IANA time zone support

* Utilisation de ZoneInfo::
* Sources de données::
* La classe ZoneInfo::
* Fonctions: Fonctions<3>.
* Variables globales::
* Exceptions et avertissements::

Sources de données

* Configurer les sources de données::

Configurer les sources de données

* Configuration à la compilation::
* Configuration par l'environnement::
* Configuration à l'exécution::

La classe ZoneInfo

* Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères::
* Sérialisation Pickle::

calendar -- General calendar-related functions

* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande.

collections -- Container datatypes

* Objets ChainMap::
* Objets Counter::
* Objets deque::
* Objets defaultdict::
* namedtuple() ; fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés: namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
* Objets OrderedDict::
* Objets UserDict::
* Objets UserList::
* Objets UserString::

Objets ChainMap

* Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap::

Objets deque

* Cas pratiques utilisant deque::

Objets defaultdict

* Exemples utilisant defaultdict::

Objets OrderedDict

* Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict::

collections.abc -- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

* Classes de base abstraites de collections::
* Collections Abstract Base Classes: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions. Detailed Descriptions
* Exemples et recettes::

heapq -- Heap queue algorithm

* Exemples simples::
* Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité::
* Théorie::

bisect -- Array bisection algorithm

* Notes sur la performance::
* Chercher dans des listes triées::
* Exemples: Exemples<3>.

weakref -- Weak references

* Objets à références faibles::
* Exemple: Exemple<2>.
* Finalizer Objects::
* Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods.

types -- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

* Dynamic Type Creation::
* Standard Interpreter Types::
* Additional Utility Classes and Functions::
* Coroutine Utility Functions::

pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

* Fonctions: Fonctions<4>.
* Les Objets PrettyPrinter::
* Exemple: Exemple<3>.

reprlib -- Alternate repr() implementation

* Repr Objects::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

enum -- Support for enumerations

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<2>.
* Types de données: Types de données<2>.
* Utilitaires et décorateurs::
* Notes::

Types de données

* Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles::
* Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles::

graphlib -- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

* Exceptions: Exceptions<4>.

Modules numériques et mathématiques

* numbers: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes. Numeric abstract base classes
* math: math --- Mathematical functions. Mathematical functions
* cmath: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers. Mathematical functions for complex numbers
* decimal: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic. Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
* fractions: fractions --- Rational numbers. Rational numbers
* random: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers. Generate pseudo-random numbers
* statistics: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions. Mathematical statistics functions

numbers -- Numeric abstract base classes

* La tour numérique::
* Notes for type implementers::

Notes for type implementers

* Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques::
* Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques::

math -- Mathematical functions

* Number-theoretic functions::
* Floating point arithmetic::
* Floating point manipulation functions::
* Power, exponential and logarithmic functions: Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
* Summation and product functions::
* Conversion angulaire::
* Fonctions trigonométriques::
* Fonctions hyperboliques::
* Fonctions spéciales::
* Constantes: Constantes<2>.

cmath -- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

* Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires::
* Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle::
* Fonctions trigonométriques: Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
* Fonctions hyperboliques: Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
* Fonctions de classifications::
* Constantes: Constantes<3>.

decimal -- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

* Introduction pratique::
* Les objets Decimal::
* Objets de contexte::
* Constantes: Constantes<4>.
* Modes d'arrondi::
* Signaux::
* Floating-Point Notes::
* Working with threads::
* Cas pratiques::
* FAQ decimal::

Les objets Decimal

* Opérandes logiques::

Floating-Point Notes

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* Special values::

random -- Generate pseudo-random numbers

* Fonctions de gestion d'état::
* Fonctions pour les octets::
* Fonctions pour les entiers::
* Fonctions pour les séquences::
* Discrete distributions::
* Distributions pour les nombres réels::
* Générateur alternatif::
* Remarques sur la reproductibilité::
* Exemples: Exemples<4>.
* Cas pratiques: Cas pratiques<2>.
* Command-line usage::
* Command-line example::

statistics -- Mathematical statistics functions

* Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale::
* Mesures de la dispersion::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* Détails des fonctions::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<5>.
* Objets NormalDist::
* Examples and Recipes::

Examples and Recipes

* Classic probability problems::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::

Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

* itertools: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
* functools: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects
* operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions::

itertools -- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

* Itertool Functions::
* Recettes itertools::

functools -- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

* Objets partial::

operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

* Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions::
* Opérateurs en-place::

Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

* pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet::
* os.path: os path --- Common pathname manipulations. Common pathname manipulations
* stat: stat --- Interpreting stat results. Interpreting stat() results
* filecmp: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons. File and Directory Comparisons
* tempfile: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories. Generate temporary files and directories
* glob: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion. Unix style pathname pattern expansion
* fnmatch: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching. Unix filename pattern matching
* linecache: linecache --- Random access to text lines. Random access to text lines
* shutil: shutil --- High-level file operations. High-level file operations

pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

* Utilisation basique::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<6>.
* Chemins purs::
* Chemins concrets::
* Pattern language::
* Comparaison avec les outils du module glob::
* Comparaison aux modules os et os.path: Comparaison aux modules os et os path.

Chemins purs

* Propriétés générales::
* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<2>.
* Accéder aux parties individuelles::
* Méthodes et propriétés::

Chemins concrets

* Analyse et génération des URI::
* Expansion et résolution de chemins::
* Requête sur type et statut du fichier::
* Lecture et écriture de fichiers: Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
* Lecture des dossiers::
* Création de fichiers et de dossiers::
* Renommage et suppression::
* Permissions et propriété::

Comparaison  aux modules os et os.path

* Outils correspondants::

filecmp -- File and Directory Comparisons

* La classe dircmp::

tempfile -- Generate temporary files and directories

* Exemples: Exemples<5>.
* Fonctions et variables obsolètes::

glob -- Unix style pathname pattern expansion

* Exemples: Exemples<6>.

shutil -- High-level file operations

* Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree example::

Archiving operations

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

Persistance des données

* pickle: pickle --- Python object serialization. Python object serialization
* copyreg: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions. Register pickle support functions
* shelve: shelve --- Python object persistence. Python object persistence
* marshal: marshal --- Internal Python object serialization. Internal Python object serialization
* dbm: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases". Interfaces to Unix "databases"
* sqlite3: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases. DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

pickle -- Python object serialization

* Relations aux autres modules Python::
* Format du flux de données::
* Interface du module::
* Quels objets sont sérialisables ?::
* Sérialisation des instances d'une classe::
* Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets: Réduction personnalisée pour les types fonctions et autres objets.
* Tampons hors-bande::
* Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global::
* Performances: Performances<2>.
* Exemples: Exemples<7>.

Relations aux autres modules Python

* Comparaison avec marshal::
* Comparaison avec json::

Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

* Persistance d'objets externes::
* Tables de distribution::
* Traitement des objets à état::

Tampons hors-bande

* API des producteurs::
* API des consommateurs::
* Exemple: Exemple<4>.

copyreg -- Register pickle support functions

* Exemple: Exemple<5>.

shelve -- Python object persistence

* Limites::
* Exemple: Exemple<6>.

dbm -- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

* dbm.sqlite3: dbm sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm. SQLite backend for dbm
* dbm.gnu: dbm gnu --- GNU database manager. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager. New Database Manager
* dbm.dumb: dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation. Portable DBM implementation

sqlite3 -- DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

* Tutoriel::
* Références: Références<2>.
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

Références

* Fonctions du module::
* Fonctions et constantes du module::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<7>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface::

How-to guides

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::

Explanation

* Transaction control::

Transaction control

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::

Compression de donnée et archivage

* zlib: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip. Compression compatible with gzip
* gzip: gzip --- Support for gzip files. Support for gzip files
* bz2: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression. Support for bzip2 compression
* lzma: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm. Compression using the LZMA algorithm
* zipfile: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives. Work with ZIP archives
* tarfile: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files. Read and write tar archive files

gzip -- Support for gzip files

* Exemples d'utilisation::
* Interface en ligne de commande::

Interface en ligne de commande

* Options de la ligne de commande::

bz2 -- Support for bzip2 compression

* (Dé)compression de fichiers: Dé compression de fichiers.
* (Dé)compression incrémentielle: Dé compression incrémentielle.
* (Dé)compression en une fois: Dé compression en une fois.
* Exemples d'utilisation: Exemples d'utilisation<2>.

lzma -- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

* Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés::
* Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire::
* Divers: Divers<2>.
* Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées::
* Exemples: Exemples<8>.

zipfile -- Work with ZIP archives

* Objets ZipFile::
* Objets Path::
* Objets PyZipFile::
* Objets ZipInfo::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<2>.
* Problèmes de décompression::

Interface en ligne de commande

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.

Problèmes de décompression

* À cause du fichier lui-même::
* Limitations du système de fichiers::
* Ressources limitées::
* Interruption::
* Comportements par défaut de l'extraction::

tarfile -- Read and write tar archive files

* Les objets TarFile::
* Les objets TarInfo::
* Extraction filters::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<3>.
* Exemples: Exemples<9>.
* Formats tar pris en charge::
* Problèmes unicode::

Extraction filters

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

Interface en ligne de commande

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.

Formats de fichiers

* csv: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing. CSV File Reading and Writing
* configparser: configparser --- Configuration file parser. Configuration file parser
* tomllib: tomllib --- Parse TOML files. Parse TOML files
* netrc: netrc --- netrc file processing. netrc file processing
* plistlib: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files. Generate and parse Apple .plist files

csv -- CSV File Reading and Writing

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<3>.
* Dialectes et paramètres de formatage::
* Objets lecteurs::
* Objets transcripteurs::
* Exemples: Exemples<10>.

configparser -- Configuration file parser

* Premiers pas::
* Types de données prises en charge::
* Valeurs de substitution::
* Structure des fichiers INI prise en change::
* Unnamed Sections::
* Interpolation des valeurs::
* Protocole d'accès associatif::
* Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser Objects::
* RawConfigParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<8>.

tomllib -- Parse TOML files

* Exemples: Exemples<11>.
* Conversion Table::

netrc -- netrc file processing

* Objets netrc::

plistlib -- Generate and parse Apple .plist files

* Exemples: Exemples<12>.

Service de cryptographie

* hashlib: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages. Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de
                        messages
* hmac: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
* secrets: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

hashlib -- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

* Algorithmes de hachage::
* Utilisation::
* Constructeurs::
* Attributes::
* Objets de calcul d'empreinte::
* Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE::
* Calcul d'empreinte (ou hachage) de fichiers: Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers.
* Dérivation de clé::
* BLAKE2::

BLAKE2

* Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte::
* Constantes: Constantes<5>.
* Exemples: Exemples<13>.
* Crédits::

Exemples

* Hachage simple::
* Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes::
* Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message::
* Hachage randomisé::
* Personnalisation: Personnalisation<2>.
* Mode Arbre::

secrets -- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

* Nombres aléatoires::
* Génération de jetons::
* Autres fonctions::
* Recettes et bonnes pratiques::

Génération de jetons

* Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?::

Services génériques du système d'exploitation

* os: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
* io: io --- Core tools for working with streams. Core tools for working with streams
* time: time --- Time access and conversions. Time access and conversions
* logging: logging --- Logging facility for Python. Logging facility for Python
* logging.config: logging config --- Logging configuration. Logging configuration
* logging.handlers: logging handlers --- Logging handlers. Logging handlers
* platform: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data. Access to underlying platform's identifying data
* errno: errno --- Standard errno system symbols. Standard errno system symbols
* ctypes: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python. A foreign function library for Python

os -- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

* Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement: Noms de fichiers arguments en ligne de commande et variables d'environnement.
* Le mode UTF-8 de Python::
* Paramètres de processus::
* Création de fichiers objets::
* Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers::
* Fichiers et répertoires::
* Gestion des processus::
* Interface pour l'ordonnanceur::
* Diverses informations sur le système::
* Nombres aléatoires: Nombres aléatoires<2>.

Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers

* Demander la taille d'un terminal::
* Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers::

Fichiers et répertoires

* Timer File Descriptors::
* Attributs étendus pour Linux::

io -- Core tools for working with streams

* Aperçu: Aperçu<2>.
* Encodage de texte::
* Interface de haut niveau du module::
* Class hierarchy::
* Performances: Performances<3>.

Aperçu

* Entrée/sortie de texte::
* Binary I/O::
* Raw I/O::

Encodage de texte

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

Class hierarchy

* I/O Base Classes::
* Raw File I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* Entrée/sortie de texte: Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.

Performances

* Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>.
* Entrée/sortie de texte: Entrée/sortie de texte<3>.
* Fils d'exécution: Fils d'exécution<3>.
* Réentrance::

time -- Time access and conversions

* Fonctions: Fonctions<5>.
* Constantes d’identification d’horloge::
* Constantes de fuseau horaire::

logging -- Logging facility for Python

* Enregistreurs::
* Niveaux de journalisation::
* Gestionnaires::
* Formateurs::
* Filtres: Filtres<2>.
* Objets LogRecord::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter Objects::
* Thread Safety::
* Fonctions de niveau module::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

logging.config -- Logging configuration

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

Configuration dictionary schema

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::

logging.handlers -- Logging handlers

* Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler::
* Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler::
* Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler::
* Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler::
* Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler::
* Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler::
* Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

platform --  Access to underlying platform's identifying data

* Multiplateformes::
* Plateforme Java::
* Plateforme Windows::
* macOS Platform::
* iOS Platform::
* Plateformes Unix::
* Linux Platforms::
* Android Platform::

ctypes -- A foreign function library for Python

* Didacticiel de ctypes::
* Référence du module::

Didacticiel de ctypes

* Chargement des DLL::
* Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées::
* Appel de fonctions::
* Types de données de base::
* Appel de fonctions, suite: Appel de fonctions suite.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés::
* Définition du type des arguments nécessaires (prototypes de fonction): Définition du type des arguments nécessaires prototypes de fonction.
* Types de sortie::
* Passage de pointeurs (passage de paramètres par référence): Passage de pointeurs passage de paramètres par référence.
* Structures et unions::
* Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions::
* Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions::
* Tableaux::
* Pointeurs::
* Conversions de type::
* Types incomplets::
* Fonctions de rappel::
* Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL::
* Pièges::
* Types de données à taille flottante::

Référence du module

* Recherche de bibliothèques partagées::
* Chargement des bibliothèques partagées::
* Fonctions externes::
* Prototypes de fonction::
* Fonctions utilitaires::
* Types de données: Types de données<3>.
* Types de données de base: Types de données de base<2>.
* Types de données dérivés de Structure::
* Tableaux et pointeurs::

Command Line Interface Libraries

* argparse: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands. Parser for command-line options, arguments and
                        subcommands
* optparse: optparse --- Parser for command line options. Parser for command line options
* getpass: getpass --- Portable password input. Portable password input
* fileinput: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
* curses: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays. Terminal handling for character-cell displays
* curses.textpad: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs. Text input widget for curses programs
* curses.ascii: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters. Utilities for ASCII characters
* curses.panel: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses. A panel stack extension for curses

argparse -- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

* Objets ArgumentParser::
* La méthode add_argument(): La méthode add_argument.
* La méthode parse_args(): La méthode parse_args.
* Autres outils::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<9>.

Objets ArgumentParser

* Le paramètre prog::
* Le paramètre usage::
* Le paramètre description::
* Le paramètre epilog::
* Le paramètre parents::
* Le paramètre formatter_class::
* Le paramètre prefix_chars::
* Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars::
* Le paramètre argument_default::
* Le paramètre allow_abbrev::
* Le paramètre conflict_handler::
* Le paramètre add_help::
* Le paramètre exit_on_error::

La méthode add_argument()

* Le paramètre name_or_flags::
* Le paramètre action::
* Le paramètre nargs::
* Le paramètre const::
* Le paramètre default::
* Le paramètre type::
* Le paramètre choices::
* Le paramètre required::
* Le paramètre help::
* Le paramètre metavar::
* Le paramètre dest::
* deprecated::
* Classes Action::

La méthode parse_args()

* Syntaxe de la valeur des options::
* Arguments invalides::
* Arguments contenant -::
* Arguments abrégés (par comparaison de leurs préfixes): Arguments abrégés par comparaison de leurs préfixes.
* Au-delà de sys.argv: Au-delà de sys argv.
* L'objet Namespace::

Autres outils

* Sous commandes::
* Objets FileType::
* Groupes d'arguments::
* Exclusion mutuelle::
* Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur::
* Afficher l'aide::
* Analyse partielle::
* Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers::
* Méthodes d'interruptions::
* Analyse entremêlée::
* Registering custom types or actions::

Exceptions

* Tutoriel argparse::
* Migrating optparse code to argparse::

Tutoriel argparse

* Concepts::
* Les bases::
* Introduction aux arguments positionnels::
* Introduction aux arguments optionnels::
* Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels::
* Aller un peu plus loin::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* Conclusion::

Introduction aux arguments optionnels

* Les paramètres raccourcis::

Aller un peu plus loin

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* Paramètres en conflit::

optparse -- Parser for command line options

* Choosing an argument parsing library::
* Introduction: Introduction<7>.
* Background::
* Tutoriel: Tutoriel<2>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<10>.

Background

* Terminology::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::

Tutoriel

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Valeurs par défaut::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::

Generating help

* Grouping Options::

Reference Guide

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* Analyse des arguments::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Nettoyage::
* Other methods::

Option Callbacks

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.

Extending optparse

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::

curses -- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

* Fonctions: Fonctions<6>.
* Window Objects::
* Constantes: Constantes<6>.

curses.textpad -- Text input widget for curses programs

* Textbox objects::

curses.panel -- A panel stack extension for curses

* Fonctions: Fonctions<7>.
* Panel Objects::

Exécution concourante

* threading: threading --- Thread-based parallelism. Thread-based parallelism
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism. Process-based parallelism
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes. Shared memory for direct access across
                                 processes
* The concurrent package::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks. Launching parallel tasks
* subprocess: subprocess --- Subprocess management. Subprocess management
* sched: sched --- Event scheduler. Event scheduler
* queue: queue --- A synchronized queue class. A synchronized queue class
* contextvars: contextvars --- Context Variables. Context Variables
* _thread: _thread --- Low-level threading API. Low-level threading API

threading -- Thread-based parallelism

* Données locales au fil d'exécution::
* Objets Threads::
* Verrous::
* RLock Objects::
* Condition Objects::
* Semaphore Objects::
* Event Objects::
* Timer Objects::
* Barrier Objects::
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.

Semaphore Objects

* Semaphore Example::

multiprocessing -- Process-based parallelism

* Introduction: Introduction<8>.
* Référence::
* Lignes directrices de programmation::
* Exemples: Exemples<14>.

Introduction

* La classe Process::
* Contextes et méthodes de démarrage::
* Échange d'objets entre les processus::
* Synchronisation entre processus::
* Partager un état entre les processus::
* Utiliser un pool de workers::

Référence

* Process et exceptions::
* Tubes (pipes) et files (queues): Tubes pipes et files queues.
* Divers: Divers<3>.
* Objets de connexions::
* Primitives de synchronisation::
* Objets ctypes partagés::
* Gestionnaires: Gestionnaires<2>.
* Objets mandataires::
* Pools de processus::
* Auditeurs et Clients::
* Clés d'authentification::
* Journalisation: Journalisation<2>.
* Le module multiprocessing.dummy: Le module multiprocessing dummy.

Objets ctypes partagés

* Le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes: Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.

Gestionnaires

* Gestionnaires personnalisés::
* Utiliser un gestionnaire distant::

Objets mandataires

* Nettoyage: Nettoyage<2>.

Auditeurs et Clients

* Formats d'adresses::

Lignes directrices de programmation

* Toutes les méthodes de démarrage::
* Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver::

concurrent.futures -- Launching parallel tasks

* Executor Objects::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future Objects::
* Module Functions::
* Exception classes::

ThreadPoolExecutor

* ThreadPoolExecutor Example::

ProcessPoolExecutor

* ProcessPoolExecutor Example::

subprocess -- Subprocess management

* Utiliser le module subprocess::
* Considérations de sécurité::
* Objets Popen::
* Utilitaires Popen pour Windows::
* Ancienne interface (API) haut-niveau: Ancienne interface API haut-niveau.
* Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess::
* Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell::
* Notes: Notes<2>.

Utiliser le module subprocess

* Arguments fréquemment utilisés::
* Constructeur de Popen::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<11>.

Utilitaires Popen pour Windows

* Constantes Windows::

Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

* Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh::
* Remplacer les pipes du shell::
* Remplacer os.system(): Remplacer os system.
* Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os.spawn: Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os spawn.
* Remplacer os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Remplacer os popen os popen2 os popen3.
* Replacing functions from the popen2 module::

Notes

* Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows::
* Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn.

sched -- Event scheduler

* Scheduler Objects::

queue -- A synchronized queue class

* Objets Queue::
* Objets SimpleQueue::

Objets Queue

* Terminating queues::

contextvars -- Context Variables

* Variables de contexte::
* Gestion de contexte manuelle::
* Gestion avec asyncio::

Réseau et communication entre processus

* asyncio: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O. Asynchronous I/O
* socket: socket --- Low-level networking interface. Low-level networking interface
* ssl: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* select: select --- Waiting for I/O completion. Waiting for I/O completion
* selectors: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing. High-level I/O multiplexing
* signal: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events. Set handlers for asynchronous events
* mmap: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support. Memory-mapped file support

asyncio -- Asynchronous I/O

* Exécuteurs (runners): Exécuteurs runners.
* Coroutines et tâches::
* Flux (streams): Flux streams.
* Primitives de synchronisation: Primitives de synchronisation<2>.
* Sous-processus::
* Files d'attente (queues): Files d'attente queues.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<13>.
* Boucle d'évènements::
* Futures::
* Transports et Protocoles::
* Politiques::
* Prise en charge de la plate-forme::
* Extension::
* Index de l'API de haut niveau::
* Index de l'API de bas niveau::
* Programmer avec asyncio::

Exécuteurs (runners)

* Exécution d'un programme asynchrone::
* Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur::
* Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier::

Coroutines et tâches

* Coroutines: Coroutines<3>.
* Attendables::
* Création de tâches::
* Annulation de tâche::
* Groupes de tâches::
* Attente::
* Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente::
* Eager Task Factory::
* Protection contre l'annulation::
* Délais d'attente::
* Primitives d'attente::
* Exécution dans des fils d'exécution (threads): Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads.
* Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution::
* Introspection::
* Objets Task::

Groupes de tâches

* Terminating a Task Group::

Flux (streams)

* Flux lecteurs (StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
* Flux écrivains (StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
* Exemples: Exemples<15>.

Exemples

* Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux::
* Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux::
* Récupération des en-têtes HTTP::
* Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux::

Primitives de synchronisation

* Verrou (lock): Verrou lock.
* Événement (Event): Événement Event.
* Condition::
* Sémaphore::
* Sémaphore capé (BoundedSemaphore): Sémaphore capé BoundedSemaphore.
* Barrière (Barrier): Barrière Barrier.

Sous-processus

* Créer des sous-processus::
* Constantes: Constantes<7>.
* Interagir avec les sous-processus::

Interagir avec les sous-processus

* Sous-processus et fils d'exécution::
* Exemples: Exemples<16>.

Files d'attente (queues)

* File d'attente (queue): File d'attente queue.
* File avec priorité::
* Pile (LIFO): Pile LIFO.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<12>.
* Exemples: Exemples<17>.

Boucle d'évènements

* Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements::
* Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs::
* Objets Serveur::
* Implémentations de boucle d'évènements::
* Exemples: Exemples<18>.

Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

* Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements::
* Planification des fonctions de rappel::
* Planification des rappels différés::
* Création de Futures et des tâches::
* Création de connexions::
* Création de serveurs::
* Transfert de fichiers::
* Passage du flux en TLS::
* Surveillance de descripteur de fichier::
* Travail direct avec des objets socket::
* DNS::
* Travail avec des tubes (pipes): Travail avec des tubes pipes.
* Signaux Unix::
* Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus::
* API de gestion d'erreur::
* Activation du mode débogage::
* Exécution de sous-processus::

Exemples

* "Hello World" avec call_soon(): "Hello World" avec call_soon.
* Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later(): Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later.
* Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier::
* Gestion des signaux SIGINT et SIGTERM::

Futures

* Fonctions pour Future::
* Objet Future::

Transports et Protocoles

* Transports::
* Protocoles::
* Exemples: Exemples<19>.

Transports

* Hiérarchie des transports::
* Classe de base des Transports::
* Transports en lecture seule::
* Transports en lecture-écriture::
* Transports par datagrammes::
* Transports entre sous-processus::

Protocoles

* Protocoles de base::
* Protocoles de base: Protocoles de base<2>.
* Protocoles connectés::
* Protocoles connectés avec tampon::
* Protocoles par datagrammes (non connectés): Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés.
* Protocoles liés aux sous-processus::

Exemples

* Serveur écho en TCP::
* Client écho en TCP::
* Serveur écho en UDP::
* Client écho en UDP::
* Connexion de connecteurs existants::
* loop.subprocess_exec() et SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec et SubprocessProtocol.

Politiques

* Obtenir et définir la politique::
* Objets politiques::
* Observateurs de processus::
* Politiques personnalisées::

Prise en charge de la plate-forme

* Toutes plateformes::
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* macOS: macOS<49>.

Windows

* Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows::

Extension

* Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée::
* Constructeurs privés Future et Task::
* Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches::

Index de l'API de haut niveau

* Tâches::
* Files d'attente::
* Sous-processus: Sous-processus<2>.
* Flux (streams): Flux streams<2>.
* Synchronisation::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<14>.

Index de l'API de bas niveau

* Obtenir une boucle d'évènements::
* Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements<2>.
* Transports: Transports<2>.
* Protocoles: Protocoles<2>.
* Politiques de boucle d'événements::

Programmer avec asyncio

* Mode débogage::
* Programmation concurrente et multi-fils::
* Exécution de code bloquant::
* Journalisation: Journalisation<3>.
* Détection des coroutines jamais attendues::
* Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées::

socket -- Low-level networking interface

* Socket families::
* Module contents::
* Socket Objects::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* Exemple: Exemple<7>.

Module contents

* Exceptions: Exceptions<15>.
* Constantes: Constantes<8>.
* Fonctions: Fonctions<8>.

Fonctions

* Creating sockets::
* Autres fonctions: Autres fonctions<2>.

Notes on socket timeouts

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::

ssl -- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

* Fonctions, constantes et exceptions: Fonctions constantes et exceptions.
* SSL Sockets::
* SSL Contexts::
* Certificates::
* Exemples: Exemples<20>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>.
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

Fonctions, constantes et exceptions

* Création de connecteurs::
* Création de contexte::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<16>.
* Random generation::
* Certificate handling::
* Constantes: Constantes<9>.

Certificates

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

Exemples

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::

Security considerations

* Best defaults::
* Manual settings::
* Multi-processing::

Manual settings

* Verifying certificates::
* Protocol versions::
* Cipher selection::

select -- Waiting for I/O completion

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

selectors -- High-level I/O multiplexing

* Introduction: Introduction<9>.
* Classes: Classes<4>.
* Exemples: Exemples<21>.

signal -- Set handlers for asynchronous events

* General rules::
* Module contents: Module contents<2>.
* Examples::
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

General rules

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::

mmap -- Memory-mapped file support

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* Constants::

Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

* email: email --- An email and MIME handling package. An email and MIME handling package
* json: json --- JSON encoder and decoder. JSON encoder and decoder
* mailbox: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mimetypes: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types. Map filenames to MIME types
* base64: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
* binascii: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII. Convert between binary and ASCII
* quopri: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

email -- An email and MIME handling package

* email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message.
* email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages.
* email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors; Exception and Defect classes: email errors Exception and Defect classes.
* email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
* email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
* email; Exemples: email Exemples.
* email.message.Message ; représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
* email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
* email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers.
* email.charset; Representing character sets: email charset Representing character sets.
* email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders.
* email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
* email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators.

email.parser: Parsing email messages

* API FeedParser::
* API de Parser::
* Notes complémentaires::

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

* Instances de gestionnaires de contenus::

json -- JSON encoder and decoder

* Utilisation de base::
* Encodeurs et décodeurs::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<17>.
* Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<4>.

Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

* Encodage des caractères::
* Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN::
* Noms répétés au sein d'un objet::
* Valeurs de plus haut niveau (hors objets ou tableaux): Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux.
* Limitations de l'implémentation::

Interface en ligne de commande

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.

mailbox -- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

* Mailbox objects::
* Message objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<18>.
* Exemples: Exemples<22>.

Mailbox objects

* Maildir objects::
* mbox objects::
* MH objects::
* Babyl objects::
* MMDF objects::

Message objects

* MaildirMessage objects::
* mboxMessage objects::
* MHMessage objects::
* BabylMessage objects::
* MMDFMessage objects::

mimetypes -- Map filenames to MIME types

* MimeTypes Objects::

base64 -- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

* Considérations de sécurité: Considérations de sécurité<2>.

Outils de traitement de balises structurées

* html: html --- HyperText Markup Language support. HyperText Markup Language support
* html.parser: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser. Simple HTML and XHTML parser
* html.entities: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities. Definitions of HTML general entities
* Modules de traitement XML::
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API. The ElementTree XML API
* xml.dom: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API. The Document Object Model API
* xml.dom.minidom: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation. Minimal DOM implementation
* xml.dom.pulldom: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees. Support for building partial DOM trees
* xml.sax: xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers. Support for SAX2 parsers
* xml.sax.handler: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers. Base classes for SAX handlers
* xml.sax.saxutils: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities. SAX Utilities
* xml.sax.xmlreader: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers. Interface for XML parsers
* xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat. Fast XML parsing using Expat

html.parser -- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

* Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML::
* Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser::
* Exemples: Exemples<23>.

Modules de traitement XML

* Vulnérabilités XML::
* The defusedxml Package::

xml.etree.ElementTree -- The ElementTree XML API

* Tutoriel: Tutoriel<3>.
* Prise en charge de XPath::
* Référence: Référence<2>.
* Prise en charge de XInclude::
* Référence: Référence<3>.

Tutoriel

* Arborescence et éléments XML::
* Analyse XML::
* API à flux tiré::
* Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt::
* Modification d'un fichier XML::
* Création de documents XML::
* Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms::

Prise en charge de XPath

* Exemple: Exemple<8>.
* Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath::

Référence

* Fonctions: Fonctions<9>.

Prise en charge de XInclude

* Exemple: Exemple<9>.

Référence

* Fonctions: Fonctions<10>.
* Objets Element::
* Objets ElementTree::
* Objets QName::
* Objets TreeBuilder::
* Objets XMLParser::
* Objets XMLPullParser::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.

xml.dom -- The Document Object Model API

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<4>.
* Objets dans le DOM::
* Conformité::

Objets dans le DOM

* Objets DOMImplementation::
* Objets nœuds::
* Objet NodeList::
* Objets DocumnentType::
* Objets Document::
* Objets Elements::
* Objets Attr::
* Objets NameNodeMap::
* Objets Comment::
* Objets Text et CDATASection::
* Objets ProcessingInstruction::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.

Conformité

* Correspondance des types::
* Méthodes d'accès::

xml.dom.minidom -- Minimal DOM implementation

* Objets DOM::
* Exemple DOM::
* minidom et le standard DOM::

xml.dom.pulldom -- Support for building partial DOM trees

* Objets DOMEventStream::

xml.sax -- Support for SAX2 parsers

* Les objets SAXException::

xml.sax.handler -- Base classes for SAX handlers

* Objets ContentHandler::
* Objets DTDHandler::
* Objets EntityResolver::
* Objets ErrorHandler::
* Objets LexicalHandler::

xml.sax.xmlreader -- Interface for XML parsers

* XMLReader Objects::
* IncrementalParser Objects::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource Objects::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

xml.parsers.expat -- Fast XML parsing using Expat

* Objets XMLParser: Objets XMLParser<2>.
* ExpatError Exceptions::
* Exemple: Exemple<10>.
* Content Model Descriptions::
* Expat error constants::

Gestion des protocoles internet

* webbrowser: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller. Convenient web-browser controller
* wsgiref: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
* urllib: urllib --- URL handling modules. URL handling modules
* urllib.request: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs. Extensible library for opening URLs
* urllib.response: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib. Response classes used by urllib
* urllib.parse: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components. Parse URLs into components
* urllib.error: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request. Exception classes raised by urllib.request
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt. Parser for robots.txt
* http: http --- HTTP modules. HTTP modules
* http.client: http client --- HTTP protocol client. HTTP protocol client
* ftplib: ftplib --- FTP protocol client. FTP protocol client
* poplib: poplib --- POP3 protocol client. POP3 protocol client
* imaplib: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client. IMAP4 protocol client
* smtplib: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client. SMTP protocol client
* uuid: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122. UUID objects according to RFC 4122
* socketserver: socketserver --- A framework for network servers. A framework for network servers
* http.server: http server --- HTTP servers. HTTP servers
* http.cookies: http cookies --- HTTP state management. HTTP state management
* http.cookiejar: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients. Cookie handling for HTTP clients
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules. XMLRPC server and client modules
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access. XML-RPC client access
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers. Basic XML-RPC servers
* ipaddress: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

webbrowser -- Convenient web-browser controller

* Browser Controller Objects::

wsgiref -- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

* wsgiref.util — outils pour les environnements WSGI: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
* wsgiref.headers: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools. WSGI response header tools
* wsgiref.simple_server: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server. a simple WSGI HTTP server
* wsgiref.validate: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker. WSGI conformance checker
* wsgiref.handlers: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes. server/gateway base classes
* wsgiref.types: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking. WSGI types for static type checking
* Exemples: Exemples<24>.

urllib.request -- Extensible library for opening URLs

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector Objects::
* BaseHandler Objects::
* HTTPRedirectHandler Objects::
* HTTPCookieProcessor Objects::
* ProxyHandler Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgr Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPHandler Objects::
* HTTPSHandler Objects::
* FileHandler Objects::
* DataHandler Objects::
* FTPHandler Objects::
* CacheFTPHandler Objects::
* UnknownHandler Objects::
* HTTPErrorProcessor Objects::
* Exemples: Exemples<25>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

urllib.parse -- Parse URLs into components

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

http -- HTTP modules

* Codes d'état HTTP::
* HTTP status category::
* HTTP methods::

http.client -- HTTP protocol client

* Les objets HTTPConnection::
* Les objets HTTPResponse::
* Exemples: Exemples<26>.
* Les objets HTTPMessage::

ftplib -- FTP protocol client

* Référence: Référence<4>.

Référence

* FTP objects::
* FTP_TLS objects::
* Module variables::

poplib -- POP3 protocol client

* POP3 Objects::
* POP3 Example::

imaplib -- IMAP4 protocol client

* IMAP4 Objects::
* IMAP4 Example::

smtplib -- SMTP protocol client

* SMTP Objects::
* SMTP Example::

uuid -- UUID objects according to RFC 4122

* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
* Exemple: Exemple<11>.
* Command-Line Example::

socketserver -- A framework for network servers

* Notes sur la création de serveurs::
* Objets serveur::
* Objets gestionnaire de requêtes::
* Exemples: Exemples<27>.

Exemples

* Exemple pour socketserver.TCPServer: Exemple pour socketserver TCPServer.
* Exemple pour socketserver.UDPServer: Exemple pour socketserver UDPServer.
* Classes de mélange asynchrone::

http.server -- HTTP servers

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.
* Security considerations: Security considerations<3>.

http.cookies -- HTTP state management

* Objets Cookie::
* Objets Morsel::
* Exemple: Exemple<12>.

http.cookiejar -- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

* CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy Objects::
* DefaultCookiePolicy Objects::
* Objets Cookie: Objets Cookie<2>.
* Exemples: Exemples<28>.

xmlrpc.client -- XML-RPC client access

* ServerProxy Objects::
* Objets DateTime::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError Objects::
* MultiCall Objects::
* Convenience Functions::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

xmlrpc.server -- Basic XML-RPC servers

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer Objects::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Example::

ipaddress -- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

* Fonctions fabriques pratiques::
* Adresses IP::
* Définitions de réseaux IP::
* Objets interface::
* Autres fonctions au niveau de module::
* Exceptions personnalisées::

Adresses IP

* Objets adresse::
* Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers::
* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<3>.

Opérateurs

* Opérateurs de comparaison::
* Opérateurs arithmétiques::

Définitions de réseaux IP

* Préfixe, masque réseau et masque de l'hôte: Préfixe masque réseau et masque de l'hôte.
* Objets réseau::
* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<4>.

Opérateurs

* Opérateurs logiques::
* Itération::
* Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses::

Objets interface

* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<5>.

Opérateurs

* Opérateurs logiques: Opérateurs logiques<2>.

Services multimédia

* wave: wave --- Read and write WAV files. Read and write WAV files
* colorsys: colorsys --- Conversions between color systems. Conversions between color systems

wave -- Read and write WAV files

* Objets Wave_read::
* Objets Wave_write::

Internationalisation

* gettext: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services. Multilingual internationalization services
* locale: locale --- Internationalization services. Internationalization services

gettext -- Multilingual internationalization services

* API GNU gettext::
* API basée sur les classes::
* Internationaliser vos programmes et modules::
* Remerciements: Remerciements<9>.

API basée sur les classes

* La classe NullTranslations::
* La classe GNUTranslations::
* Support du catalogue de message de Solaris::
* Le constructeur Catalog::

Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

* Localiser votre module::
* Localiser votre application::
* Changer de langue à la volée::
* Traductions différées::

locale -- Internationalization services

* Contexte, détails, conseils, astuces et mises en garde: Contexte détails conseils astuces et mises en garde.
* Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python::
* Accéder aux catalogues de messages::

Cadriciels d'applications

* turtle — Tortue graphique::
* cmd: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters. Support for line-oriented command interpreters
* shlex: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis. Simple lexical analysis

turtle — Tortue graphique

* Introduction: Introduction<10>.
* Get started::
* Tutoriel: Tutoriel<4>.
* How to...: How to.
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes::
* Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes::
* Classes publiques::
* Explication::
* Aide et configuration::
* turtledemo — Scripts de démonstration::
* Modifications depuis Python 2.6: Modifications depuis Python 2 6.
* Modifications depuis Python 3.0: Modifications depuis Python 3 0.

Tutoriel

* Starting a turtle environment::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::

Basic drawing

* Réglage des stylos::
* The turtle's position::

How to...

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::

Turtle graphics reference

* Les méthodes du module Turtle::
* Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen::

Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

* Les mouvements dans le module Turtle::
* Connaître l'état de la tortue::
* Paramètres de mesure::
* Réglage des stylos: Réglage des stylos<2>.
* État de la tortue::
* Utilisation des événements::
* Méthodes spéciales de la tortue::
* Formes composées::

Réglage des stylos

* État des stylos::
* Réglage des couleurs::
* Remplissage::
* Plus des réglages pour le dessin::

État de la tortue

* Visibilité::
* Apparence::

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

* Réglage de la fenêtre::
* Réglage de l'animation::
* Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran::
* Méthodes de saisie::
* Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales::
* Méthodes spécifiques à Screen, non héritées de TurtleScreen: Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen.

Aide et configuration

* Utilisation de l'aide::
* Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues::
* Comment configurer Screen et Turtle::

cmd -- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

* Objets Cmd::
* Exemple: Exemple<13>.

shlex -- Simple lexical analysis

* shlex Objects::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

* tkinter: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk. Python interface to Tcl/Tk
* tkinter.colorchooser: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.font: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper. Tkinter font wrapper
* Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter::
* tkinter.messagebox: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts. Tkinter message prompts
* tkinter.scrolledtext: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget. Scrolled Text Widget
* tkinter.dnd: tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support. Drag and drop support
* tkinter.ttk: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets. Tk themed widgets
* IDLE: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>. Python editor and shell

tkinter -- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

* Architecture::
* Modules Tkinter::
* Guide de survie Tkinter::
* Fils d'exécution multiples::
* Guide pratique::
* Gestionnaires de fichiers::

Guide de survie Tkinter

* Un simple programme Hello World::
* Concepts importants de Tk::
* Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk::
* Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?::
* Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk::

Guide pratique

* Définition des options::
* L'empaqueteur::
* Options de l'empaqueteur::
* Association des variables de l'objet graphique::
* Le gestionnaire de fenêtres::
* Types de données des options Tk::
* Liaisons et événements::
* Le paramètre index::
* Images::

Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

* tkinter.simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter: tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
* tkinter.filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers.
* tkinter.commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue: tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue.

tkinter.filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers

* Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives::

tkinter.ttk -- Tk themed widgets

* Utilisation de Ttk::
* Widgets Ttk::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Carnet de notes (notebook): Carnet de notes notebook.
* Barre de progression::
* Séparateur::
* Poignée de redimensionnement::
* Arborescence::
* Style Ttk::

Widget

* Options standards::
* Options de widget avec barre de défilement::
* Options d'étiquette (label): Options d'étiquette label.
* Options de compatibilité::
* États des widgets::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.

Combobox

* Options::
* Événements virtuels::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.

Spinbox

* Options: Options<2>.
* Événements virtuels: Événements virtuels<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.

Carnet de notes (notebook)

* Options: Options<3>.
* Options d'onglet::
* Identifiants d'onglet::
* Événements virtuels: Événements virtuels<3>.
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.

Barre de progression

* Options: Options<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.

Séparateur

* Options: Options<5>.

Poignée de redimensionnement

* Notes spécifiques à une plateforme::
* Bogues::

Arborescence

* Options: Options<6>.
* Options d'éléments::
* Options de balise::
* Identifiants de colonnes::
* Événements virtuels: Événements virtuels<4>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.

Style Ttk

* Dispositions de mise en page::

IDLE -- Python editor and shell

* Menus::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib: idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application. implementation of IDLE application

Menus

* Menu File (Console et Éditeur): Menu File Console et Éditeur.
* Menu Edit (console et éditeur): Menu Edit console et éditeur.
* Menu Format (fenêtre d'édition uniquement): Menu Format fenêtre d'édition uniquement.
* Menu Run (fenêtre d'édition uniquement): Menu Run fenêtre d'édition uniquement.
* Menu Shell (fenêtre de console uniquement): Menu Shell fenêtre de console uniquement.
* Menu Debug (fenêtre de console uniquement): Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement.
* Menu Options (console et éditeur): Menu Options console et éditeur.
* Menu Windows (console et éditeur): Menu Windows console et éditeur.
* Menu Help (console et éditeur): Menu Help console et éditeur.
* Context menus::

Editing and Navigation

* Fenêtre d'édition::
* Raccourcis clavier::
* Indentation automatique::
* Recherche et substitution::
* Complétions::
* Info-bulles::
* Contexte du code::
* Shell window::
* Coloration du texte::

Startup and Code Execution

* Utilisation de la ligne de commande::
* Échec au démarrage::
* Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur::
* Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console::
* Développer des applications tkinter::
* Exécution sans sous-processus::

Help and Preferences

* Sources d'aide::
* Modifier les préférences::
* IDLE sous macOS::
* Extensions::

Outils de développement

* typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type::
* pydoc: pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system. Documentation generator and online help system
* Python Development Mode::
* doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python::
* unittest: unittest --- Unit testing framework. Unit testing framework
* unittest.mock: unittest mock --- mock object library. mock object library
* unittest.mock: unittest mock --- getting started. getting started
* test: test --- Regression tests package for Python. Regression tests package for Python
* test.support: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite. Utilities for the Python test suite
* test.support.socket_helper: test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests. Utilities for socket tests
* test.support.script_helper: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests. Utilities for the Python execution tests
* test.support.bytecode_helper: test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation
* test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests. Utilities for threading tests
* test.support.os_helper: test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests. Utilities for os tests
* test.support.import_helper: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests. Utilities for import tests
* test.support.warnings_helper: test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests. Utilities for warnings tests

typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* Alias de type::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* Génériques::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur::
* Le type Any::
* Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel::
* Classe de données::
* Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures::

Classe de données

* Special typing primitives::
* Protocoles: Protocoles<3>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* Functions and decorators::
* Utilitaires d'introspection::
* Constante::
* Deprecated aliases::

Special typing primitives

* Special types::
* Special forms::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::

Deprecated aliases

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

Python Development Mode

* Effects of the Python Development Mode::
* ResourceWarning Example::
* Bad file descriptor error example::

doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

* Utilisation simple ; vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings.
* Utilisation simple ; vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte.
* Command-line Usage::
* Comment ça marche::
* API de base::
* API de tests unitaires::
* API avancé::
* Débogage::
* Éditorial::

Comment ça marche

* Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?::
* Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?::
* Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?::
* Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?::
* Options de ligne de commande::
* Instructions::
* Avertissements: Avertissements<2>.

API avancé

* Objets doctest::
* Exemples d'objets::
* Objets DocTestFinder::
* Objets DocTestParser::
* Objets TestResults::
* Objets DocTestRunner::
* Objets OutputChecker::

unittest -- Unit testing framework

* Exemple basique::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<5>.
* Découverte des tests::
* Organiser le code de test::
* Réutilisation d'ancien code de test::
* Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles::
* Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests::
* Classes et fonctions::
* Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests::
* Traitement des signaux::

Interface en ligne de commande

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.

Classes et fonctions

* Scénarios de tests::
* Regroupement des tests::
* Chargement et exécution des tests::

Chargement et exécution des tests

* Protocole de chargement des tests (load_tests Protocol): Protocole de chargement des tests load_tests Protocol.

Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests

* Classes de mise en place (setUpClass) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownClass): Classes de mise en place setUpClass et de démantèlement des tests tearDownClass.
* Module de mise en place (setUpModule) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownModule): Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule.

unittest.mock -- mock object library

* Guide rapide::
* La classe Mock::
* The patchers::
* MagicMock and magic method support::
* Helpers::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

La classe Mock

* Calling::
* Deleting Attributes::
* Mock names and the name attribute::
* Attaching Mocks as Attributes::

The patchers

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop.
* patch builtins::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* Nesting Patch Decorators::
* Where to patch::
* Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::

MagicMock and magic method support

* Mocking Magic Methods::
* Magic Mock::

Helpers

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* appel::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing::
* Sealing mocks::

unittest.mock -- getting started

* Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer::
* Patch Decorators::
* Further Examples::

Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

* Simulation des méthodes::
* S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet::
* Simulation des classes::
* Naming your mocks::
* Tracking all Calls::
* Setting Return Values and Attributes::
* Raising exceptions with mocks::
* Side effect functions and iterables::
* Mocking asynchronous iterators::
* Mocking asynchronous context manager::
* Creating a Mock from an Existing Object::
* Using side_effect to return per file content::

Further Examples

* Mocking chained calls::
* Partial mocking::
* Mocking a Generator Method::
* Applying the same patch to every test method::
* Mocking Unbound Methods::
* Checking multiple calls with mock::
* Coping with mutable arguments::
* Nesting Patches::
* Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock::
* Mock subclasses and their attributes::
* Mocking imports with patch.dict: Mocking imports with patch dict.
* Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions::
* More complex argument matching::

test -- Regression tests package for Python

* Writing Unit Tests for the test package::
* Running tests using the command-line interface::

Débogueur et instrumentation

* Table des évènements d'audit::
* bdb: bdb --- Debugger framework. Debugger framework
* faulthandler: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback. Dump the Python traceback
* pdb — Le débogueur Python::
* The Python Profilers::
* timeit: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets. Measure execution time of small code snippets
* trace: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution. Trace or track Python statement execution
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations. Trace memory allocations

faulthandler -- Dump the Python traceback

* Dumping the traceback::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* Exemple: Exemple<14>.

pdb — Le débogueur Python

* Commande du débogueur::

The Python Profilers

* Introduction to the profilers::
* Instant User's Manual::
* profile and cProfile Module Reference::
* The Stats Class::
* What Is Deterministic Profiling?::
* Limitations::
* Calibration::
* Using a custom timer::

timeit -- Measure execution time of small code snippets

* Exemples simples: Exemples simples<2>.
* Interface Python::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
* Exemples: Exemples<29>.

trace -- Trace or track Python statement execution

* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>.
* Programmatic Interface::

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

* Main options::
* Modifiers::
* Filters::

tracemalloc -- Trace memory allocations

* Exemples: Exemples<30>.
* API::

Exemples

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::

Pretty top

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::

API

* Fonctions: Fonctions<11>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::

Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

* ensurepip: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer. Bootstrapping the pip installer
* venv: venv --- Creation of virtual environments. Creation of virtual environments
* zipapp: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives. Manage executable Python zip archives

ensurepip -- Bootstrapping the pip installer

* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<7>.
* API du module::

venv -- Creation of virtual environments

* Création d'environnements virtuels: Création d'environnements virtuels<2>.
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder::

zipapp -- Manage executable Python zip archives

* Exemple de base::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
* API Python::
* Exemples: Exemples<31>.
* Spécification de l'interprète::
* Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp::
* Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python::

Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp

* Mises en garde::

Environnement d'exécution Python

* sys: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions. System-specific parameters and functions
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring. Execution event monitoring
* sysconfig: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information. Provide access to Python's configuration information
* builtins: builtins --- Built-in objects. Built-in objects
* __main__: __main__ --- Top-level code environment. Top-level code environment
* warnings: warnings --- Warning control. Warning control
* dataclasses: dataclasses --- Data Classes. Data Classes
* contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with::
* abc: abc --- Abstract Base Classes. Abstract Base Classes
* atexit: atexit --- Exit handlers. Exit handlers
* traceback: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback. Print or retrieve a stack traceback
* __future__: __future__ --- Future statement definitions. Future statement definitions
* gc: gc --- Garbage Collector interface. Garbage Collector interface
* inspect: inspect --- Inspect live objects. Inspect live objects
* site: site --- Site-specific configuration hook. Site-specific configuration hook

sys.monitoring -- Execution event monitoring

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::

Tool identifiers

* Registering and using tools::

Events

* Local events::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::

Turning events on and off

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::

Registering callback functions

* Callback function arguments::

sysconfig -- Provide access to Python's configuration information

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* Installation path functions::
* Autres fonctions: Autres fonctions<3>.
* Using sysconfig as a script::

User scheme

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::

Home scheme

* posix_home::

Prefix scheme

* posix_prefix::
* nt::

__main__ -- Top-level code environment

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* Le fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python.
* import __main__::

__name__ == '__main__'

* Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?::
* Utilisation idiomatique::
* Considérations liées à l'empaquetage::

Le fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python

* Utilisation idiomatique: Utilisation idiomatique<2>.

warnings -- Warning control

* Catégories d'avertissement::
* Le filtre des avertissements::
* Suppression temporaire des avertissements::
* Tester les avertissements::
* Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances::
* Fonctions disponibles::
* Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles::

Le filtre des avertissements

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement::
* Filtre d'avertissement par défaut::
* Outrepasser le filtre par défaut::

dataclasses -- Data Classes

* Classe de données: Classe de données<2>.
* Post-initialisation::
* Variables de classe::
* Variables d'initialisation::
* Instances figées::
* Héritage: Héritage<2>.
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* Fabriques de valeurs par défaut::
* Valeurs par défaut mutables::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

* Utilitaires::
* Exemples et Recettes::
* Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants.

Exemples et Recettes

* Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte::
* Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__::
* Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__::
* Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable::
* Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction::

Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants

* Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants::
* Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables::

atexit -- Exit handlers

* Exemple avec atexit::

traceback -- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

* Fonctions de niveau module: Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
* TracebackException Objects::
* StackSummary Objects::
* FrameSummary Objects::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

__future__ -- Future statement definitions

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<5>.

inspect -- Inspect live objects

* Types et membres::
* Récupération du code source::
* Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature::
* Classes et fonctions: Classes et fonctions<2>.
* La pile d'interpréteur::
* Recherche dynamique d'attributs::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Bit d'option des objets code::
* Buffer flags::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<9>.

site -- Site-specific configuration hook

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* Module contents: Module contents<3>.
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<10>.

Interpréteurs Python personnalisés

* code: code --- Interpreter base classes. Interpreter base classes
* codeop: codeop --- Compile Python code. Compile Python code

code -- Interpreter base classes

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

Importer des modules

* zipimport: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives. Import modules from Zip archives
* pkgutil: pkgutil --- Package extension utility. Package extension utility
* modulefinder: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script. Find modules used by a script
* runpy: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules. Locating and executing Python modules
* importlib: importlib --- The implementation of import. The implementation of import
* importlib.resources: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access. Package resource reading, opening and access
* importlib.resources.abc: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata. Accessing package metadata
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.

zipimport -- Import modules from Zip archives

* Objets zimporter::
* Exemples: Exemples<32>.

modulefinder -- Find modules used by a script

* Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder::

importlib -- The implementation of import

* Introduction: Introduction<11>.
* Fonctions: Fonctions<12>.
* importlib.abc: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.util: importlib util -- Utility code for importers. Utility code for importers
* Exemples: Exemples<33>.

Exemples

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.

importlib.resources - Package resource reading, opening and access

* API par fonction::

importlib.metadata - Accessing package metadata

* Aperçu: Aperçu<3>.
* API par fonction: API par fonction<2>.
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Extending the search algorithm::

API par fonction

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::

Extending the search algorithm

* Exemple: Exemple<15>.

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

* Environnements virtuels: Environnements virtuels<2>.
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::

Services du Langage Python

* ast: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees. Abstract Syntax Trees
* symtable: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables. Access to the compiler's symbol tables
* token: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees. Constants used with Python parse trees
* keyword: keyword --- Testing for Python keywords. Testing for Python keywords
* tokenize: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source. Tokenizer for Python source
* tabnanny: tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation. Detection of ambiguous indentation
* pyclbr: pyclbr --- Python module browser support. Python module browser support
* py_compile: py_compile --- Compile Python source files. Compile Python source files
* compileall: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries. Byte-compile Python libraries
* dis: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode. Disassembler for Python bytecode
* pickletools: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers. Tools for pickle developers

ast -- Abstract Syntax Trees

* Grammaire abstraite::
* Classes de nœuds::
* Outils du module ast::
* Options du compilateur::
* Utilisation en ligne de commande: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.

Classes de nœuds

* Root nodes::
* Littéraux: Littéraux<3>.
* Variables::
* Expressions: Expressions<2>.
* Instructions: Instructions<2>.
* Contrôle de l'exécution::
* Pattern matching::
* Type parameters::
* Définition de fonctions et de classes::
* async et await::

Expressions

* Indiçage::
* Compréhensions::

Instructions

* Importations::

symtable -- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

* Generating Symbol Tables::
* Examining Symbol Tables::
* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<5>.

tokenize -- Tokenizer for Python source

* Analyse Lexicale::
* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>.
* Exemples: Exemples<34>.

pyclbr -- Python module browser support

* Objets fonctions::
* Objets classes: Objets classes<2>.

py_compile -- Compile Python source files

* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<11>.

compileall -- Byte-compile Python libraries

* Utilisation en ligne de commande: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
* Fonctions publiques::

dis -- Disassembler for Python bytecode

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* Analyse du code intermédiaire::
* Analyse de fonctions::
* Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python::
* Opcode collections::

pickletools -- Tools for pickle developers

* Utilisation de la ligne de commande: Utilisation de la ligne de commande<2>.
* Programmatic Interface: Programmatic Interface<2>.

Utilisation de la ligne de commande

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.

Services spécifiques à MS Windows

* msvcrt: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
* winreg: winreg --- Windows registry access. Windows registry access
* winsound: winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows. Sound-playing interface for Windows

msvcrt -- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

* Opérations sur les fichiers::
* Entrées-sorties sur un terminal::
* Autres fonctions: Autres fonctions<4>.

winreg -- Windows registry access

* Fonctions: Fonctions<13>.
* Constantes: Constantes<10>.
* Registry Handle Objects::

Constantes

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::

Access Rights

* 64-bit Specific::

Services spécifiques à Unix

* posix: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls. The most common POSIX system calls
* pwd: pwd --- The password database. The password database
* grp: grp --- The group database. The group database
* termios: termios --- POSIX style tty control. POSIX style tty control
* tty: tty --- Terminal control functions. Terminal control functions
* pty: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities. Pseudo-terminal utilities
* fcntl: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls. The fcntl and ioctl system calls
* resource: resource --- Resource usage information. Resource usage information
* syslog: syslog --- Unix syslog library routines. Unix syslog library routines

posix -- The most common POSIX system calls

* Prise en charge de gros fichiers::
* Contenu du Module::

termios -- POSIX style tty control

* Exemple: Exemple<16>.

pty -- Pseudo-terminal utilities

* Exemple: Exemple<17>.

resource -- Resource usage information

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

syslog -- Unix syslog library routines

* Exemples: Exemples<35>.

Exemples

* Exemple simple::

Modules remplacés

* getopt: getopt --- C-style parser for command line options. C-style parser for command line options

Removed Modules

* aifc: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files. Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
* asynchat: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler. Asynchronous socket command/response handler
* asyncore: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler. Asynchronous socket handler
* audioop: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data. Manipulate raw audio data
* cgi: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support. Common Gateway Interface support
* cgitb: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts. Traceback manager for CGI scripts
* chunk: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data. Read IFF chunked data
* crypt: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords. Function to check Unix passwords
* distutils: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules. Building and installing Python modules
* imghdr: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image. Determine the type of an image
* imp: imp --- Access the import internals. Access the import internals
* mailcap: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling. Mailcap file handling
* msilib: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files. Read and write Microsoft Installer files
* nis: nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages. Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
* nntplib: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client. NNTP protocol client
* ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
* pipes: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines. Interface to shell pipelines
* smtpd: smtpd --- SMTP Server. SMTP Server
* sndhdr: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file. Determine type of sound file
* spwd: spwd --- The shadow password database. The shadow password database
* sunau: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files. Read and write Sun AU files
* telnetlib: telnetlib --- Telnet client. Telnet client
* uu: uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files. Encode and decode uuencode files
* xdrlib: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data. Encode and decode XDR data

Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python

* Les outils tiers recommandés::
* Création d'extensions sans outils tiers::
* Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application::

Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

* Étendre Python en C ou C++::
* Tutoriel ; définir des types dans des extensions: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions.
* Définir les types d'extension ; divers sujets: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets.
* Construire des extensions C et C++::
* Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows::

Étendre Python en C ou C++

* Un exemple simple::
* Intermezzo ; les erreurs et les exceptions: Intermezzo les erreurs et les exceptions.
* Retour vers l'exemple::
* La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module::
* Compilation et liaison::
* Appeler des fonctions Python en C::
* Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension::
* Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension::
* Créer des valeurs arbitraires::
* Compteurs de références::
* Écrire des extensions en C++::
* Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension::

Compteurs de références

* Comptage de références en Python::
* Règles concernant la possession de références::
* Terrain dangereux::
* Pointeurs NULL::

Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions

* Les bases: Les bases<2>.
* ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique::
* Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données::
* Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique::
* Sous-classement d'autres types::

Définir les types d'extension : divers sujets

* Finalisation et libération de mémoire::
* Présentation de l'objet::
* Gestion des attributs::
* Comparaison des objets::
* Gestion de protocoles abstraits::
* Prise en charge de la référence faible::
* Plus de suggestions::

Gestion des attributs

* Gestion des attributs génériques::
* Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques::

Construire des extensions C et C++

* Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools::

Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

* Une approche "recette de cuisine"::
* Différences entre Unix et Windows::
* Utiliser les DLL en pratique::

Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application

* Intégrer Python dans une autre application::

Intégrer Python dans une autre application

* Intégration de très haut niveau::
* Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau ; survol: Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau survol.
* Intégration pure::
* Étendre un Python intégré::
* Intégrer Python dans du C++::
* Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire::

Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

* Introduction: Introduction<12>.
* Stabilité de l’API C::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* Reference Counting::
* Gestion des exceptions: Gestion des exceptions<2>.
* Utilitaires: Utilitaires<2>.
* Couche d'abstraction des objets::
* Couche des objets concrets::
* Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads.
* Python Initialization Configuration::
* Memory Management::
* Implémentation d'objets::
* Version des API et ABI::
* Monitoring C API::
* Generating Execution Events::

Introduction

* Coding standards::
* Include Files::
* Useful macros::
* Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<21>.
* Embarquer Python: Embarquer Python<2>.
* Debugging Builds::

Objects, Types and Reference Counts

* Compteurs de références: Compteurs de références<2>.
* Types::

Compteurs de références

* Reference Count Details::

Stabilité de l’API C

* Unstable C API::
* ABI stable::
* Considérations relatives aux plateformes::
* Contenu de l’API restreinte::

ABI stable

* Limited C API::
* Stable ABI::
* Porté de l’API restreinte et performance::
* Inconvénients de l’API restreinte::

Gestion des exceptions

* Printing and clearing::
* Lever des exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Traitement des signaux: Traitement des signaux<2>.
* Exception Classes::
* Objets exception::
* Objets exception Unicode::
* Contrôle de la récursion::
* Exceptions standards::
* Standard Warning Categories::

Utilitaires

* Operating System Utilities::
* System Functions::
* Process Control::
* Importer des modules: Importer des modules<2>.
* Data marshalling support::
* Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs::
* Conversion et formatage de chaînes::
* PyHash API::
* Réflexion::
* Codec registry and support functions::
* PyTime C API::
* Support for Perf Maps::

Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

* Analyse des arguments: Analyse des arguments<2>.
* Construction des valeurs::

Analyse des arguments

* Chaînes et tampons::
* Les nombres: Les nombres<2>.
* Autres objets::
* Fonction de l'API::

Codec registry and support functions

* Codec lookup API::
* Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::

PyTime C API

* Types: Types<2>.
* Clock Functions::
* Raw Clock Functions::
* Conversion functions::

Couche d'abstraction des objets

* Protocole Objet::
* Call Protocol::
* Number Protocol::
* Sequence Protocol::
* Protocole de correspondance::
* Protocole d'itération::
* Protocole tampon::

Call Protocol

* The tp_call Protocol::
* The Vectorcall Protocol::
* Object Calling API::
* Call Support API::

The Vectorcall Protocol

* Contrôle de la récursion: Contrôle de la récursion<2>.
* Vectorcall Support API::

Protocole tampon

* La structure buffer::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Fonctions relatives aux tampons::

Buffer request types

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::

Complex arrays

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.

Couche des objets concrets

* Objets fondamentaux::
* Objets numériques::
* Objets séquences::
* Objets conteneurs::
* Objets fonctions: Objets fonctions<2>.
* Autres objets: Autres objets<2>.

Objets fondamentaux

* Objets type: Objets type<2>.
* L'objet None::

Objets type

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::

Objets numériques

* Objets Integer::
* Les objets booléens::
* Floating-Point Objects::
* Objets représentant des nombres complexes::

Floating-Point Objects

* Pack and Unpack functions::

Pack and Unpack functions

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::

Objets représentant des nombres complexes

* Nombres complexes en tant que structures C::
* Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python::

Objets séquences

* Objets bytes: Objets bytes<2>.
* Objets tableau d'octets::
* Objets Unicode et Codecs::
* Tuple Objects::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List Objects::

Objets tableau d'octets

* Macros de vérification de type::
* Fonctions directes sur l'API::
* Macros::

Objets Unicode et Codecs

* Objets Unicode::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::

Objets Unicode

* Type Unicode::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t Support::

Built-in Codecs

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 Codecs::
* UTF-32 Codecs::
* UTF-16 Codecs::
* UTF-7 Codecs::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 Codecs::
* ASCII Codecs::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::
* Methods & Slots::

Objets conteneurs

* Objets dictionnaires::
* Set Objects::

Objets fonctions

* Objets fonction::
* Instance Method Objects::
* Objets méthode: Objets méthode<2>.
* Objets Cellules::
* Objets code: Objets code<2>.
* Extra information::

Autres objets

* Objets fichiers::
* Module Objects::
* Itérateurs: Itérateurs<2>.
* Les descripteurs::
* Slice Objects::
* Objets de type MemoryView::
* Objets à références faibles: Objets à références faibles<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Objets décrivant les frames::
* Objets générateur::
* Objets coroutines: Objets coroutines<2>.
* Context Variables Objects::
* Objets DateTime: Objets DateTime<2>.
* Objects for Type Hinting::

Module Objects

* Initializing C modules::
* Module lookup::

Initializing C modules

* Single-phase initialization::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Low-level module creation functions::
* Support functions::

Slice Objects

* Ellipsis Object::

Objets décrivant les frames

* Frame Locals Proxies::
* Internal Frames::

Initialization, Finalization, and Threads

* Before Python Initialization::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Process-wide parameters::
* Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock::
* Sub-interpreter support::
* Asynchronous Notifications::
* Profiling and Tracing::
* Reference tracing::
* Support avancé du débogueur::
* Thread Local Storage Support::
* Primitives de synchronisation: Primitives de synchronisation<3>.

Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

* Releasing the GIL from extension code::
* Non-Python created threads::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* High-level API::
* Low-level API::

Sub-interpreter support

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::

Thread Local Storage Support

* Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
* Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: Thread Local Storage TLS API.

Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API

* Dynamic Allocation::
* Méthodes: Méthodes<2>.

Primitives de synchronisation

* Python Critical Section API::

Python Initialization Configuration

* Example::
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

Memory Management

* Aperçu: Aperçu<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* Memory Interface::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* The mimalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* Exemples: Exemples<36>.

The pymalloc allocator

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::

Implémentation d'objets

* Allouer des objets dans le tas::
* Common Object Structures::
* Type Object Structures::
* Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::

Common Object Structures

* Base object types and macros::
* Implementing functions and methods::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::

Accessing attributes of extension types

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::

Type Object Structures

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* Exemples: Exemples<37>.

Quick Reference

* "tp slots"::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::

Generating Execution Events

* Managing the Monitoring State::

Installation de modules Python

* Vocabulaire::
* Utilisation de base: Utilisation de base<2>.
* Comment puis-je … ?::
* Les problèmes d'installation typiques::

Comment puis-je … ?

* ... Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3.4 ?: Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3 4 ?.
* ... Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?: Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?.
* ... Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?.
* ... Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?: Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?.

Les problèmes d'installation typiques

* Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux::
* Pip n'est pas installé::
* Installation d'extensions binaires::

Les HOWTOs de Python

* Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3::
* Programmation Curses avec Python::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum::
* Guide pratique ; programmation fonctionnelle: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle.
* Tutoriel sur la journalisation::
* Recettes pour la journalisation::
* Guide des expressions régulières::
* Guide pratique ; programmation avec les sockets: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets.
* Sorting Techniques::
* Guide Unicode::
* Guide pratique ; récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib.
* Introduction au module ipaddress::
* Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap::
* Python support for the Linux perf profiler::
* Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* timer file descriptor HOWTO::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.
* Python experimental support for free threading::
* C API Extension Support for Free Threading::

Programmation Curses avec Python

* Qu'est-ce que curses ?::
* Lancement et arrêt une application curses::
* Fenêtres et tampons (pads en anglais): Fenêtres et tampons pads en anglais.
* Affichage de texte::
* Entrées de l'utilisateur::
* Pour aller plus loin: Pour aller plus loin<2>.

Qu'est-ce que curses ?

* Le module curses de Python::

Affichage de texte

* Attributs et couleurs::

Descriptor Guide

* Introduction: Introduction<13>.
* Exemple complet pratique::
* Tutoriel technique::
* Équivalents en Python pur::

Introduction

* Un exemple simple ; un descripteur qui renvoie une constante: Un exemple simple un descripteur qui renvoie une constante.
* Recherches dynamiques::
* Attributs gérés::
* Noms personnalisés::
* Réflexions finales::

Exemple complet pratique

* Classe « validateur »::
* Validateurs personnalisés::
* Application pratique::

Tutoriel technique

* Résumé::
* Définition et introduction::
* Protocole descripteur::
* Présentation de l'appel de descripteur::
* Appel depuis une instance::
* Appel depuis une classe::
* Appel depuis super::
* Résumé de la logique d'appel::
* Notification automatique des noms::
* Exemple d'ORM::

Équivalents en Python pur

* Propriétés::
* Fonctions et méthodes::
* Types de méthodes::
* Méthodes statiques::
* Méthodes de classe::
* Objets membres et __slots__::

Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

Prerequisites

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::

Using the python-gdb extension

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::

Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

* Accès par programme aux membres de l'énumération et à leurs attributs::
* Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération::
* Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques::
* Utilisation de valeurs automatiques::
* Itération: Itération<2>.
* Comparaisons: Comparaisons<3>.
* Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations::
* Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations::
* Dataclass support::
* Sérialisation::
* API fonctionnelle::
* Déclinaisons d'énumérations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Dérivations d'EnumType::

Déclinaisons d'énumérations

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Autres énumérations::

When to use __new__() vs. __init__()

* Approfondissements::

Approfondissements

* Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles: Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles<2>.
* Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles<2>.
* _Private__names::
* Types des membres d'une Enum::
* Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données::
* Valeur booléenne des classes et membres Enum::
* Méthodes dans les classes Enum::
* Combinaisons de membres de Flag::
* Précisions sur Flag et IntFlag::

How are Enums and Flags different?

* Classes Enum::
* Flag Classes::
* Membres d'une Enum (les instances): Membres d'une Enum les instances.
* Flag Members::

Enum Cookbook

* Omission de valeurs::
* Énumération ordonnée::
* Énumération sans doublon::
* MultiValueEnum::
* Planète::
* Intervalle de temps::

Omission de valeurs

* Utilisation d'auto::
* Utilisation d'object::
* Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.

Guide pratique : programmation fonctionnelle

* Introduction: Introduction<14>.
* Itérateurs: Itérateurs<3>.
* Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes::
* Générateurs: Générateurs<2>.
* Fonctions natives: Fonctions natives<3>.
* Le module itertools::
* Le module functools::
* Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes::
* Historique des modifications et remerciements::
* Références: Références<3>.

Introduction

* Preuves formelles::
* Modularité::
* Facilité de débogage et de test::
* Composabilité::

Itérateurs

* Types de données itérables::

Générateurs

* Transmettre des valeurs au générateur::

Le module itertools

* Créer de nouveaux itérateurs::
* Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs::
* Sélectionner des éléments::
* Fonctions combinatoires::
* Grouper les éléments::

Le module functools

* Le module operator::

Références

* Général::
* Spécifique à Python::
* Documentation Python::

Tutoriel sur la journalisation

* Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging::
* Usage avancé de Logging::
* Niveaux de journalisation: Niveaux de journalisation<2>.
* Gestionnaires utiles::
* Exceptions levées par la journalisation::
* Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages::
* Optimisation::
* Autres ressources: Autres ressources<2>.

Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

* Quand utiliser logging::
* Un exemple simple: Un exemple simple<2>.
* Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier::
* Journalisation de données variables::
* Modifier le format du message affiché::
* Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages::
* Étapes suivantes::

Usage avancé de Logging

* Flux du processus de journalisation::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuration de logging::
* Comportement par défaut (si aucune configuration n'est fournie): Comportement par défaut si aucune configuration n'est fournie.
* Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque::

Niveaux de journalisation

* Niveaux personnalisés::

Recettes pour la journalisation

* Journalisation dans plusieurs modules::
* Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples::
* Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs::
* Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations::
* Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation::
* Exemple d’un serveur de configuration::
* Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants::
* Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau::
* Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation::
* Use of contextvars::
* Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation::
* Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus::
* Utilisation du roulement de fichiers::
* Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage::
* Personnalisation de LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire::
* Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux::
* Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle::
* Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler::
* Journalisation structurée::
* Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig(): Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Autres ressources: Autres ressources<3>.

Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau

* Journalisation en production à l’aide d’un connecteur en écoute sur le réseau::

Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation

* Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles::
* Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles::

Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles

* Utilisation d’objets autres que les dictionnaires pour passer des informations contextuelles::

Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus

* Utilisation de concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Utilisation de concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::

Patterns to avoid

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::

Guide des expressions régulières

* Introduction: Introduction<15>.
* Motifs simples::
* Utilisation des expressions régulières::
* Des motifs plus puissants::
* Modification de chaînes::
* Problèmes classiques::
* Vos commentaires::

Motifs simples

* Correspondance de caractères::
* Répétitions::

Utilisation des expressions régulières

* Compilation des expressions régulières::
* La maudite barre oblique inverse::
* Recherche de correspondances::
* Fonctions de niveau module: Fonctions de niveau module<3>.
* Options de compilation::

Des motifs plus puissants

* Plus de métacaractères::
* Regroupement::
* Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés::
* Assertions prédictives::

Modification de chaînes

* Découpage de chaînes::
* Recherche et substitution: Recherche et substitution<2>.

Problèmes classiques

* Utilisez les méthodes du type string::
* match() contre search(): match contre search.
* Glouton contre non-glouton::
* Utilisez re.VERBOSE: Utilisez re VERBOSE.

Guide pratique : programmation avec les sockets

* Connecteurs (sockets): Connecteurs sockets.
* Création d'un connecteur::
* Utilisation d'un connecteur::
* Déconnexion::
* Connecteurs non bloquants::

Connecteurs (sockets)

* Historique::

Création d'un connecteur

* IPC (Communication Entre Processus): IPC Communication Entre Processus.

Utilisation d'un connecteur

* Données binaires::

Déconnexion

* Quand les connecteurs meurent::

Sorting Techniques

* Les bases du tri::
* Fonctions clef::
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* Ascendant et descendant::
* Stabilité des tris et tris complexes::
* Decorate-Sort-Undecorate::
* Comparison Functions::
* Et n'oublions pas::
* Partial Sorts::

Guide Unicode

* Introduction à Unicode::
* Prise en charge Unicode de Python::
* Lecture et écriture de données Unicode::
* Remerciements: Remerciements<10>.

Introduction à Unicode

* Définitions::
* Encodages::
* Références: Références<4>.

Prise en charge Unicode de Python

* Le type String::
* Conversion en octets::
* Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python::
* Propriétés Unicode::
* Comparaison de chaînes de caractères::
* Expressions régulières Unicode::
* Références: Références<5>.

Lecture et écriture de données Unicode

* Noms de fichiers Unicode::
* Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode::
* Références: Références<6>.

Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode

* Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers::
* Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu::

Guide pratique : récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

* Introduction: Introduction<16>.
* Fetching URLs::
* Gestion des exceptions: Gestion des exceptions<3>.
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* Notes: Notes<3>.

Fetching URLs

* Data::
* Headers::

Gestion des exceptions

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::

HTTPError

* Error Codes::

Wrapping it Up

* Number 1::
* Number 2::

Introduction au module ipaddress

* Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface::
* Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface::
* Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses::
* Comparaisons: Comparaisons<4>.
* Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules::
* Obtenir plus de détails lors de l'échec de la création de l'instance::

Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface

* Note sur les versions d'IP::
* Adresses IP des hôtes::
* Définir des réseaux::
* Interfaces des hôtes::

Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

* Activer les marqueurs statiques::
* Sondes DTrace statiques::
* Marqueurs statiques SystemTap::
* Marqueurs statiques disponibles::
* Tapsets de SystemTap::
* Exemples: Exemples<38>.

Python support for the Linux perf profiler

* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::
* How to work without frame pointers::

Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

* Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3.10 et plus récent: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3 10 et plus récent.
* Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3.9 et antérieur: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3 9 et antérieur.
* Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères::
* Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python::
* Les curiosités concernant __annotations__::

Isolating Extension Modules

* Who should read this::
* Background: Background<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::

Background

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::

Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::

Heap Types

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::

Garbage-Collection Protocol

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::

Open Issues

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

timer file descriptor HOWTO

* Exemples: Exemples<39>.

The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Exemples: Exemples<40>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

Python experimental support for free threading

* Installation::
* Identifying free-threaded Python::
* The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python::
* Thread safety::
* Known limitations::

Known limitations

* Immortalization::
* Objets cadres: Objets cadres<2>.
* Itérateurs: Itérateurs<4>.
* Single-threaded performance::

C API Extension Support for Free Threading

* Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C::
* Module Initialization::
* General API Guidelines::
* Borrowed References::
* Memory Allocation APIs::
* Thread State and GIL APIs::
* Protecting Internal Extension State::
* Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::

Module Initialization

* Multi-Phase Initialization::
* Single-Phase Initialization::

General API Guidelines

* Container Thread Safety::

Container Thread Safety

* PyDict_Next::

Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

* Limited C API and Stable ABI::
* Windows: Windows<77>.

Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

* FAQ générale sur Python::
* FAQ de programmation::
* FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception::
* FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions::
* FAQ extension/intégration::
* FAQ ; Python et Windows: FAQ Python et Windows.
* FAQ interface graphique::
* FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"::

FAQ générale sur Python

* Informations générales::
* Python c'est le monde réel::

Informations générales

* Qu'est-ce que Python ?::
* Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?::
* Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?::
* Pourquoi Python a été créé ?::
* Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?::
* Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?::
* Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?::
* Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?::
* Je n'ai jamais programmé avant. Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?.
* Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?::
* Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?::
* Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?::
* Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?::
* Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?::
* Où www.python.org est-il localisé dans le monde ?: Où www python org est-il localisé dans le monde ?.
* Pourquoi le nom Python ?::
* Dois-je aimer "Monty Python's Flying Circus" ?::

Python c'est le monde réel

* Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?::
* Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?::
* Y a-t-il un nombre de projets significatif réalisés en Python ?::
* Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?::
* Est-il raisonnable de proposer des changements incompatibles dans Python ?::
* Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?::

FAQ de programmation

* Questions générales::
* Fondamentaux::
* Nombres et chaînes de caractères::
* Performances: Performances<4>.
* Séquences (n-uplets / listes): Séquences n-uplets / listes.
* Objets::
* Modules: Modules<5>.

Questions générales

* Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts, exécution pas-à-pas, etc. ?: Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts exécution pas-à-pas etc ?.
* Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?::
* Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?::
* Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?::

Fondamentaux

* Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?::
* Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?::
* Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?::
* Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?::
* Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?::
* Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?::
* Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?::
* Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?::
* Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?::
* Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? (passage par référence): Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? passage par référence.
* Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?::
* Comment copier un objet en Python ?::
* Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?::
* Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?::
* Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?::
* Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ?; » du C ?: Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ? » du C ?.
* Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis (obfuscated) d'une ligne en Python ?: Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis obfuscated d'une ligne en Python ?.
* Que signifie la barre oblique (/) dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?: Que signifie la barre oblique / dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?.

Nombres et chaînes de caractères

* Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?::
* Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?::
* Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?::
* Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?::
* Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?::
* Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?::
* Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::

Performances

* Mon programme est trop lent. Comment l'accélérer ?: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?.
* Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?::

Séquences (n-uplets / listes)

* Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?::
* Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?::
* Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?::
* Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?::
* Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste::
* Comment construire un tableau en Python ?::
* Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?::
* Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?::
* Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?::
* Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué ; peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?: Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?.
* Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?::

Objets

* Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?::
* Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?::
* Qu'est-ce que self ?::
* Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?::
* Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?::
* Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?::
* Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?::
* Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?::
* Comment surcharger les constructeurs (ou méthodes) en Python ?: Comment surcharger les constructeurs ou méthodes en Python ?.
* J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam.: J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam.
* Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.: Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.
* Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?::
* Pourquoi le résultat de id() peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?: Pourquoi le résultat de id peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?.
* Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?::
* Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?::
* Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?::

Modules

* Comment créer des fichiers .pyc ?: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?.
* Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?::
* Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?::
* __import__('x.y.z') renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?: __import__ 'x y z' renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?.
* Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte, je ne vois pas les changements. Pourquoi ?: Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte je ne vois pas les changements Pourquoi ?.

FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

* Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?::
* Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?::
* Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?::
* Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?::
* Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?::
* Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?::
* Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités (ex ; list.index()) mais des fonctions pour d'autres (ex ; len(list)) ?: Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités ex list index mais des fonctions pour d'autres ex len list ?.
* Pourquoi join() est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?: Pourquoi join est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?.
* À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?::
* Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?::
* Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?::
* Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?::
* Python peut-il être compilé en code machine, en C ou dans un autre langage ?: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?.
* Comment Python gère la mémoire ?::
* Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?::
* Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?::
* Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?::
* Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?::
* Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?::
* Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?::
* Pourquoi list.sort() ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?: Pourquoi list sort ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?.
* Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?::
* Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?::
* Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes (r-strings) ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes r-strings ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?.
* Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?::
* Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?::
* Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?::
* Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?::

FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

* Questions générales sur la bibliothèque::
* Tâches fréquentes::
* Fils d'exécution: Fils d'exécution<4>.
* Les entrées/sorties: Les entrées/sorties<2>.
* Programmation réseau et Internet::
* Bases de données::
* Mathématiques et calcul numérique::

Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

* Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?::
* Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math.py, socket.py, regex.py, etc ?: Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math py socket py regex py etc ?.
* Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?::
* Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?::
* Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit() en Python ?: Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit en Python ?.
* Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?::

Tâches fréquentes

* Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?::
* Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?::
* Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?::

Fils d'exécution

* Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?::
* Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter ; pourquoi ?: Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter pourquoi ?.
* Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?::
* Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?::
* Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?::

Les entrées/sorties

* Comment supprimer un fichier ? (et autres questions sur les fichiers…): Comment supprimer un fichier ? et autres questions sur les fichiers….
* Comment copier un fichier ?::
* Comment lire (ou écrire) des données binaires ?: Comment lire ou écrire des données binaires ?.
* Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os.read() sur un tube créé avec os.popen() ; pourquoi ?: Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os read sur un tube créé avec os popen ; pourquoi ?.
* Comment accéder au port de transmission en série (RS-232) ?: Comment accéder au port de transmission en série RS-232 ?.
* Pourquoi fermer sys.stdout, sys.stdin, sys.stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?: Pourquoi fermer sys stdout sys stdin sys stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?.

Programmation réseau et Internet

* Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?::
* Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?::
* Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?::
* Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect() d'un connecteur réseau ?: Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect d'un connecteur réseau ?.

Bases de données

* Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?::
* Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?::

Mathématiques et calcul numérique

* Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?::

FAQ extension/intégration

* Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?::
* Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?::
* Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?::
* Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?::
* Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?::
* Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?::
* Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue() pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?: Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?.
* Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?::
* Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print() (ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr) ?: Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr ?.
* Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?::
* Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?::
* J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?::
* Comment déboguer une extension ?::
* Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux, mais il manque certains fichiers. Pourquoi ?: Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux mais il manque certains fichiers Pourquoi ?.
* Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » (incomplete input) d'une « entrée invalide » (invalid input) ?: Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » incomplete input d'une « entrée invalide » invalid input ?.
* Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?::
* Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python (p. ex. en utilisant l'héritage) ?: Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python p ex en utilisant l'héritage ?.

FAQ : Python et Windows

* Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?::
* Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?::
* Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?::
* Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?::
* Est-ce qu'un fichier *.pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?: Est-ce qu'un fichier * pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?.
* Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?::
* Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?::
* Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?::
* Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll manquante » ?: Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll manquante » ?.

FAQ interface graphique

* Questions générales sur l'interface graphique::
* Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?::
* Questions à propos de Tkinter::

Questions à propos de Tkinter

* Comment puis-je geler (freezer) les applications Tkinter ?: Comment puis-je geler freezer les applications Tkinter ?.
* Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?::
* Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter ; pourquoi ?: Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter pourquoi ?.

FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

* Qu'est-ce que Python ?: Qu'est-ce que Python ?<2>.
* Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?::
* Puis-je supprimer Python ?::

Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>.
* C API Deprecations::

C API Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>.

About this documentation

* Contributors to the Python documentation::

S'attaquer aux bogues

* Bogues de documentation::
* Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python::
* Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même::

Histoire et licence

* Histoire du logiciel::
* Conditions générales pour accéder à, ou utiliser, Python: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python.
* Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers::

Conditions générales pour accéder à, ou utiliser, Python

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN.COM POUR PYTHON 2.0: LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN COM POUR PYTHON 2 0.
* LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1.6.1: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1 6 1.
* LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0.9.0 à 1.2: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0 9 0 à 1 2.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::

Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

* Mersenne twister::
* Interfaces de connexion (sockets): Interfaces de connexion sockets.
* Interfaces de connexion asynchrones::
* Gestion de témoin (cookie): Gestion de témoin cookie.
* Traçage d'exécution::
* Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode::
* Appel de procédures distantes en XML (RPC, pour Remote Procedure Call): Appel de procédures distantes en XML RPC pour Remote Procedure Call.
* test_epoll::
* Select kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod et dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C::
* mimalloc::
* asyncio: asyncio<12>.
* Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS): Global Unbounded Sequences GUS.



File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python,  Next: Le tutoriel Python,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 Nouveautés de Python
**********************

La série d'essais "Quoi de neuf dans Python" reprend les plus importants
changements entres les versions majeures de Python.  Elles sont à lire
pour quiconque souhaitant être à jour suite à une nouvelle sortie.

* Menu:

* What's New In Python 3.13: What's New In Python 3 13.
* What's New In Python 3.12: What's New In Python 3 12.
* Les nouveautés de Python 3.11: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11.
* Les nouveautés de Python 3.10: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10.
* Les nouveautés de Python 3.9: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.8: Nouveautés de Python 3 8.
* What's New In Python 3.7: What's New In Python 3 7.
* What's New In Python 3.6: What's New In Python 3 6.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.5: Nouveautés de Python 3 5.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.4: Nouveautés de Python 3 4.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.3: Nouveautés de Python 3 3.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.2: Nouveautés de Python 3 2.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.1: Nouveautés de Python 3 1.
* Nouveautés de Python 3.0: Nouveautés de Python 3 0.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.7: Nouveautés de Python 2 7.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.6: Nouveautés de Python 2 6.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.5: Nouveautés de Python 2 5.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.4: Nouveautés de Python 2 4.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.3: Nouveautés de Python 2 3.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.2: Nouveautés de Python 2 2.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.1: Nouveautés de Python 2 1.
* Nouveautés de Python 2.0: Nouveautés de Python 2 0.
* Changelog::


File: python.info,  Node: What's New In Python 3 13,  Next: What's New In Python 3 12,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.1 What's New In Python 3.13
=============================


Editors: Adam Turner and Thomas Wouters

This article explains the new features in Python 3.13, compared to 3.12.
Python 3.13 was released on October 7, 2024.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 719(1) - Python 3.13 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights. Release Highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités::
* Autres changements au langage::
* Nouveaux modules::
* Modules améliorés::
* Optimisations::
* Removed Modules And APIs::
* New Deprecations::
* CPython Bytecode Changes::
* Changements à l'API C::
* Changements à la compilation::
* Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13.
* Regression Test Changes::
* Notable changes in 3.13.1: Notable changes in 3 13 1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0719/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release Highlights,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.1 Summary - Release Highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.13 is the latest stable release of the Python programming
language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation and
the standard library.  The biggest changes include a new *note
interactive interpreter: 13d., experimental support for running in a
*note free-threaded mode: 13e.( PEP 703(1)), and a *note Just-In-Time
compiler: 13f.( PEP 744(2)).

Error messages continue to improve, with tracebacks now highlighted in
color by default.  The *note locals(): 140. builtin now has *note
defined semantics: 141. for changing the returned mapping, and type
parameters now support default values.

The library changes contain removal of deprecated APIs and modules, as
well as the usual improvements in user-friendliness and correctness.
Several legacy standard library modules have now *note been removed:
142.following their deprecation in Python 3.11 ( PEP 594(3)).

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full details
refer to the documentation, such as the *note Library Reference: 143.
and *note Language Reference: 144.  To understand the complete
implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept
up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented.  See *note Porting
to Python 3.13: 145. for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of
Python.

__________________________________________________________________

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

   * A greatly improved *note interactive interpreter: 13d. and *note
     improved error messages: 146.

   * PEP 667(4): The *note locals(): 140. builtin now has *note defined
     semantics: 141. when mutating the returned mapping.  Python
     debuggers and similar tools may now more reliably update local
     variables in optimized scopes even during concurrent code
     execution.

   * PEP 703(5): CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with
     the *note global interpreter lock: 147. disabled.  See *note
     Free-threaded CPython: 13e. for more details.

   * PEP 744(6): A basic *note JIT compiler: 13f. was added.  It is
     currently disabled by default (though we may turn it on later).
     Performance improvements are modest - we expect to improve this
     over the next few releases.

   * Color support in the new *note interactive interpreter: 13d, as
     well as in *note tracebacks: 146. and *note doctest: 148. output.
     This can be disabled through the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 149. and
     NO_COLOR(7) environment variables.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note __static_attributes__: 14a. stores the names of attributes
     accessed through ‘self.X’ in any function in a class body.

   * *note __firstlineno__: 14b. records the first line number of a
     class definition.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * Add a new *note PythonFinalizationError: 14c. exception, raised
     when an operation is blocked during *note finalization: 14d.

   * The *note argparse: 6. module now supports deprecating command-line
     options, positional arguments, and subcommands.

   * The new functions *note base64.z85encode(): 14e. and *note
     base64.z85decode(): 14f. support encoding and decoding Z85 data(8).

   * The *note copy: 25. module now has a *note copy.replace(): 150.
     function, with support for many builtin types and any class
     defining the *note __replace__(): 151. method.

   * The new *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. module is now the default *note dbm:
     31. backend.

   * The *note os: a0. module has a *note suite of new functions: 152.
     for working with Linux's timer notification file descriptors.

   * The *note random: b7. module now has a *note command-line
     interface: 153.

Security improvements:

   * *note ssl.create_default_context(): 154. sets *note
     ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 155. and *note
     ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156. as default flags.

C API improvements:

   * The *note Py_mod_gil: 157. slot is now used to indicate that an
     extension module supports running with the *note GIL: 158.
     disabled.

   * The *note PyTime C API: 159. has been added, providing access to
     system clocks.

   * *note PyMutex: 15a. is a new lightweight mutex that occupies a
     single byte.

   * There is a new *note suite of functions: 15b. for generating PEP
     669(9) monitoring events in the C API.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

   * PEP 696(10): Type parameters (*note typing.TypeVar: 15c, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 15d, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e.) now
     support defaults.

   * PEP 702(11): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 15f. decorator
     adds support for marking deprecations in the type system and at
     runtime.

   * PEP 705(12): *note typing.ReadOnly: 160. can be used to mark an
     item of a *note typing.TypedDict: 161. as read-only for type
     checkers.

   * PEP 742(13): *note typing.TypeIs: 162. provides more intuitive type
     narrowing behavior, as an alternative to *note typing.TypeGuard:
     163.

Platform support:

   * PEP 730(14): Apple's iOS is now an *note officially supported
     platform: 164, at tier 3(15).

   * PEP 738(16): Android is now an *note officially supported platform:
     164, at tier 3(17).

   * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now supported as a tier 2(18) platform.

   * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer an officially supported platform.

Important removals:

   * *note PEP 594: 142.: The remaining 19 "dead batteries" (legacy
     stdlib modules) have been removed from the standard library:
     ‘aifc’, ‘audioop’, ‘cgi’, ‘cgitb’, ‘chunk’, ‘crypt’, ‘imghdr’,
     ‘mailcap’, ‘msilib’, ‘nis’, ‘nntplib’, ‘ossaudiodev’, ‘pipes’,
     ‘sndhdr’, ‘spwd’, ‘sunau’, ‘telnetlib’, ‘uu’ and ‘xdrlib’.

   * Remove the ‘2to3’ tool and ‘lib2to3’ module (deprecated in Python
     3.11).

   * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module (deprecated in Python 3.6).

   * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function.

   * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces.

   * Remove chained *note classmethod: 165. descriptors.

Release schedule changes:

PEP 602(19) ("Annual Release Cycle for Python") has been updated to
extend the full support ('bugfix') period for new releases to two years.
This updated policy means that:

   * Python 3.9-3.12 have one and a half years of full support, followed
     by three and a half years of security fixes.

   * Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support, followed by
     three years of security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/

   (7) https://no-color.org/

   (8) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-2

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités,  Next: Autres changements au langage,  Prev: Summary -- Release Highlights,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* A better interactive interpreter::
* Improved error messages::
* Free-threaded CPython::
* An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
* Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals.
* Support for mobile platforms::


File: python.info,  Node: A better interactive interpreter,  Next: Improved error messages,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités

1.1.2.1 A better interactive interpreter
........................................

Python now uses a new *note interactive: 168. shell by default, based on
code from the PyPy project(1).  When the user starts the *note REPL:
169. from an interactive terminal, the following new features are now
supported:

   * Multiline editing with history preservation.

   * Direct support for REPL-specific commands like ‘help’, ‘exit’, and
     ‘quit’, without the need to call them as functions.

   * Prompts and tracebacks with *note color enabled by default: 16a.

   * Interactive help browsing using ‘F1’ with a separate command
     history.

   * History browsing using ‘F2’ that skips output as well as the *note
     >>>: 16b. and *note ...: 16c. prompts.

   * "Paste mode" with ‘F3’ that makes pasting larger blocks of code
     easier (press ‘F3’ again to return to the regular prompt).

To disable the new interactive shell, set the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:
16d. environment variable.  For more on interactive mode, see *note Mode
interactif: 16e.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, and Lysandros
Nikolaou in gh-111201(2) based on code from the PyPy project.  Windows
support contributed by Dino Viehland and Anthony Shaw.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypy.org/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201


File: python.info,  Node: Improved error messages,  Next: Free-threaded CPython,  Prev: A better interactive interpreter,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités

1.1.2.2 Improved error messages
...............................

   * The interpreter now uses color by default when displaying
     tracebacks in the terminal.  This feature *note can be controlled:
     16a. via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 149. environment variable as
     well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2) environment
     variables.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-112730(3).)

   * A common mistake is to write a script with the same name as a
     standard library module.  When this results in errors, we now
     display a more helpful error message:

          $ python random.py
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/me/random.py", line 1, in <module>
              import random
            File "/home/me/random.py", line 3, in <module>
              print(random.randint(5))
                    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/me/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and prevents importing that standard library module)

     Similarly, if a script has the same name as a third-party module
     that it attempts to import and this results in errors, we also
     display a more helpful error message:

          $ python numpy.py
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 1, in <module>
              import numpy as np
            File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 3, in <module>
              np.array([1, 2, 3])
              ^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/me/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a library you intended to import)

     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-95754(4).)

   * The error message now tries to suggest the correct keyword argument
     when an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function.

          >>> "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
              "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Shantanu Jain in
     gh-107944(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://no-color.org/

   (2) https://force-color.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944


File: python.info,  Node: Free-threaded CPython,  Next: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Prev: Improved error messages,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités

1.1.2.3 Free-threaded CPython
.............................

CPython now has experimental support for running in a free-threaded
mode, with the *note global interpreter lock: 147. (GIL) disabled.  This
is an experimental feature and therefore is not enabled by default.  The
free-threaded mode requires a different executable, usually called
‘python3.13t’ or ‘python3.13t.exe’.  Pre-built binaries marked as
'free-threaded' can be installed as part of the official *note Windows:
171. and *note macOS: 172. installers, or CPython can be built from
source with the *note -disable-gil: 173. option.

Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available
processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.
While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs
designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.
'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve
it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.
Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 174.
or the command-line option *note -X gil=1: 175.

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note
python -VV: 176. and *note sys.version: 177. contain "experimental
free-threading build".  The new ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function can be
used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running
process.

C-API extension modules need to be built specifically for the
free-threaded build.  Extensions that support running with the *note
GIL: 158. disabled should use the *note Py_mod_gil: 157. slot.
Extensions using single-phase init should use *note
PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(): 178. to indicate whether they support
running with the GIL disabled.  Importing C extensions that don't use
these mechanisms will cause the GIL to be enabled, unless the GIL was
explicitly disabled with the *note PYTHON_GIL: 174. environment variable
or the *note -X gil=0: 175. option.  pip 24.1 or newer is required to
install packages with C extensions in the free-threaded build.

This work was made possible thanks to many individuals and
organizations, including the large community of contributors to Python
and third-party projects to test and enable free-threading support.
Notable contributors include: Sam Gross, Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Itamar
Oren, Matt Page, Brett Simmers, Dino Viehland, Carl Meyer, Nathan
Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, and many others.  Many of
these contributors are employed by Meta, which has provided significant
engineering resources to support this project.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 703(1) "Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython"
contains rationale and information surrounding this work.

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(2): A
community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/


File: python.info,  Node: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Next: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Prev: Free-threaded CPython,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités

1.1.2.4 An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler
...................................................

When CPython is configured and built using the
‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option, a just-in-time (JIT) compiler is
added which may speed up some Python programs.  On Windows, use
‘PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit’ to enable the JIT or
‘--experimental-jit-interpreter’ to enable the Tier 2 interpreter.
Build requirements and further supporting information are contained
at(1) ‘Tools/jit/README.md’.

The ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option takes these (optional) values,
defaulting to ‘yes’ if ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is present without
the optional value.

   * ‘no’: Disable the entire Tier 2 and JIT pipeline.

   * ‘yes’: Enable the JIT. To disable the JIT at runtime, pass the
     environment variable ‘PYTHON_JIT=0’.

   * ‘yes-off’: Build the JIT but disable it by default.  To enable the
     JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable ‘PYTHON_JIT=1’.

   * ‘interpreter’: Enable the Tier 2 interpreter but disable the JIT.
     The interpreter can be disabled by running with ‘PYTHON_JIT=0’.

The internal architecture is roughly as follows:

   * We start with specialized 'Tier 1 bytecode'.  See *note What's new
     in 3.11: 17a. for details.

   * When the Tier 1 bytecode gets hot enough, it gets translated to a
     new purely internal intermediate representation (IR), called the
     'Tier 2 IR', and sometimes referred to as micro-ops ("uops").

   * The Tier 2 IR uses the same stack-based virtual machine as Tier 1,
     but the instruction format is better suited to translation to
     machine code.

   * We have several optimization passes for Tier 2 IR, which are
     applied before it is interpreted or translated to machine code.

   * There is a Tier 2 interpreter, but it is mostly intended for
     debugging the earlier stages of the optimization pipeline.  The
     Tier 2 interpreter can be enabled by configuring Python with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’.

   * When the JIT is enabled, the optimized Tier 2 IR is translated to
     machine code, which is then executed.

   * The machine code translation process uses a technique called
     'copy-and-patch'.  It has no runtime dependencies, but there is a
     new build-time dependency on LLVM.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 744(2)

(JIT by Brandt Bucher, inspired by a paper by Haoran Xu and Fredrik
Kjolstad.  Tier 2 IR by Mark Shannon and Guido van Rossum.  Tier 2
optimizer by Ken Jin.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/jit/README.md

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/


File: python.info,  Node: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Next: Support for mobile platforms,  Prev: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités

1.1.2.5 Defined mutation semantics for ‘locals()’
.................................................

Historically, the expected result of mutating the return value of *note
locals(): 140. has been left to individual Python implementations to
define.  Starting from Python 3.13, PEP 667(1) standardises the
historical behavior of CPython for most code execution scopes, but
changes *note optimized scopes: 17c. (functions, generators, coroutines,
comprehensions, and generator expressions) to explicitly return
independent snapshots of the currently assigned local variables,
including locally referenced nonlocal variables captured in closures.

This change to the semantics of *note locals(): 140. in optimized scopes
also affects the default behavior of code execution functions that
implicitly target ‘locals()’ if no explicit namespace is provided (such
as *note exec(): 17d. and *note eval(): 17e.).  In previous versions,
whether or not changes could be accessed by calling ‘locals()’ after
calling the code execution function was implementation-dependent.  In
CPython specifically, such code would typically appear to work as
desired, but could sometimes fail in optimized scopes based on other
code (including debuggers and code execution tracing tools) potentially
resetting the shared snapshot in that scope.  Now, the code will always
run against an independent snapshot of the local variables in optimized
scopes, and hence the changes will never be visible in subsequent calls
to ‘locals()’.  To access the changes made in these cases, an explicit
namespace reference must now be passed to the relevant function.
Alternatively, it may make sense to update affected code to use a higher
level code execution API that returns the resulting code execution
namespace (e.g.  *note runpy.run_path(): 17f. when executing Python
files from disk).

To ensure debuggers and similar tools can reliably update local
variables in scopes affected by this change, *note FrameType.f_locals:
180. now returns a write-through proxy to the frame's local and locally
referenced nonlocal variables in these scopes, rather than returning an
inconsistently updated shared ‘dict’ instance with undefined runtime
semantics.

See PEP 667(2) for more details, including related C API changes and
deprecations.  Porting notes are also provided below for the affected
*note Python APIs: 181. and *note C APIs: 182.

(PEP and implementation contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in
gh-74929(3).  Documentation updates provided by Guido van Rossum and
Alyssa Coghlan.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929


File: python.info,  Node: Support for mobile platforms,  Prev: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités

1.1.2.6 Support for mobile platforms
....................................

PEP 730(1): iOS is now a PEP 11(2) supported platform, with the
‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ targets at tier 3
(iPhone and iPad devices released after 2013 and the Xcode iOS simulator
running on Apple silicon hardware, respectively).
‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’ (the Xcode iOS simulator running on older
‘x86_64’ hardware) is not a tier 3 supported platform, but will have
best-effort support.  (PEP written and implementation contributed by
Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(3).)

PEP 738(4): Android is now a PEP 11(5) supported platform, with the
‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ targets at tier 3.
The 32-bit targets ‘arm-linux-androideabi’ and ‘i686-linux-android’ are
not tier 3 supported platforms, but will have best-effort support.  (PEP
written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in
gh-116622(6).)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 730(7), PEP 738(8)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage,  Next: Nouveaux modules,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.3 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * The compiler now strips common leading whitespace from every line
     in a docstring.  This reduces the size of the *note bytecode cache:
     185. (such as ‘.pyc’ files), with reductions in file size of around
     5%, for example in ‘sqlalchemy.orm.session’ from SQLAlchemy 2.0.
     This change affects tools that use docstrings, such as *note
     doctest: 3a.

          >>> def spam():
          ...     """
          ...         This is a docstring with
          ...           leading whitespace.
          ...
          ...         It even has multiple paragraphs!
          ...     """
          ...
          >>> spam.__doc__
          '\nThis is a docstring with\n  leading whitespace.\n\nIt even has multiple paragraphs!\n'

     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-81283(1).)

   * *note Annotation scopes: 186. within class scopes can now contain
     lambdas and comprehensions.  Comprehensions that are located within
     class scopes are not inlined into their parent scope.

          class C[T]:
              type Alias = lambda: T

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-109118(2) and gh-118160(3).)

   * *note Future statements: 187. are no longer triggered by relative
     imports of the *note __future__: 0. module, meaning that statements
     of the form ‘from .__future__ import ...’ are now simply standard
     relative imports, with no special features activated.  (Contributed
     by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual in gh-118216(4).)

   * *note global: 188. declarations are now permitted in *note except:
     189. blocks when that global is used in the *note else: 18a. block.
     Previously this raised an erroneous *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111123(5).)

   * Add *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18c, a new environment variable
     that determines whether frozen modules are ignored by the import
     machinery, equivalent to the *note -X frozen_modules: 175.
     command-line option.  (Contributed by Yilei Yang in gh-111374(6).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 18d. working without frame
     pointers(7) through the new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 18e. and command-line option *note -X
     perf_jit: 175.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-118518(8).)

   * The location of a ‘.python_history’ file can be changed via the new
     *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 18f. environment variable.  (Contributed by
     Levi Sabah, Zackery Spytz and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-73965(9).)

   * Classes have a new *note __static_attributes__: 14a. attribute.
     This is populated by the compiler with a tuple of the class's
     attribute names which are assigned through ‘self.<name>’ from any
     function in its body.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-115775(10).)

   * The compiler now creates a ‘__firstlineno__’ attribute on classes
     with the line number of the first line of the class definition.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118465(11).)

   * The *note exec(): 17d. and *note eval(): 17e. builtins now accept
     the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments as keywords.  (Contributed by
     Raphael Gaschignard in gh-105879(12))

   * The *note compile(): 190. builtin now accepts a new flag,
     ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     except that the returned AST is optimized according to the value of
     the 'optimize' argument.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-108113(13)).

   * Add a *note __name__: 191. attribute on *note property: 192.
     objects.  (Contributed by Eugene Toder in gh-101860(14).)

   * Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 14c, a new exception derived
     from *note RuntimeError: 193. and used to signal when operations
     are blocked during *note finalization: 14d.  The following
     callables now raise ‘PythonFinalizationError’, instead of *note
     RuntimeError: 193.:

        * *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 194.

        * *note os.fork(): 195.

        * *note os.forkpty(): 196.

        * *note subprocess.Popen: 197.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-114570(15).)

   * Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace(): 198. to be a
     keyword.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-106487(16).)

   * Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a
     file descriptor argument.  This can help catch some errors earlier.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(17).)

   * Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed and archived
     file-like objects in the *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 89, *note
     tarfile: dd, and *note zipfile: 130. modules.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73965

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules,  Next: Modules améliorés,  Prev: Autres changements au langage,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.4 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

   * *note dbm.sqlite3: 35.: An SQLite backend for *note dbm: 31.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-100414(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés,  Next: Optimisations,  Prev: Nouveaux modules,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.5 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse::
* array::
* ast::
* asyncio::
* base64::
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* configparser::
* copy::
* ctypes::
* dbm::
* dis::
* doctest::
* email::
* enum::
* fractions::
* glob::
* importlib::
* io::
* ipaddress::
* itertools::
* marshal::
* math::
* mimetypes::
* mmap::
* multiprocessing::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* pdb::
* queue::
* random::
* re::
* shutils::
* site::
* sqlite3::
* ssl::
* statistics::
* subprocess::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* time::
* tkinter::
* traceback::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* venv::
* warnings::
* xml::
* zipimport::


File: python.info,  Node: argparse,  Next: array,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.1 argparse
................

   * Add the 'deprecated' parameter to the *note add_argument(): 19c.
     and ‘add_parser()’ methods, to enable deprecating command-line
     options, positional arguments, and subcommands.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-83648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648


File: python.info,  Node: array,  Next: ast,  Prev: argparse,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.2 'array'
...............

   * Add the ‘'w'’ type code (‘Py_UCS4’) for Unicode characters.  It
     should be used instead of the deprecated ‘'u'’ type code.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-80480(1).)

   * Register *note array.array: 19e. as a *note MutableSequence: 19f.
     by implementing the *note clear(): 1a0. method.  (Contributed by
     Mike Zimin in gh-114894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894


File: python.info,  Node: ast,  Next: asyncio,  Prev: array,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.3 'ast'
.............

   * The constructors of node types in the *note ast: 8. module are now
     stricter in the arguments they accept, with more intuitive behavior
     when arguments are omitted.

     If an optional field on an AST node is not included as an argument
     when constructing an instance, the field will now be set to ‘None’.
     Similarly, if a list field is omitted, that field will now be set
     to an empty list, and if an ‘expr_context’ field is omitted, it
     defaults to *note Load(): 1a2.  (Previously, in all cases, the
     attribute would be missing on the newly constructed AST node
     instance.)

     In all other cases, where a required argument is omitted, the node
     constructor will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  This will
     raise an exception in Python 3.15.  Similarly, passing a keyword
     argument to the constructor that does not map to a field on the AST
     node is now deprecated, and will raise an exception in Python 3.15.

     These changes do not apply to user-defined subclasses of *note
     ast.AST: 1a4. unless the class opts in to the new behavior by
     defining the *note AST._field_types: 1a5. mapping.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105858(1), gh-117486(2), and
     gh-118851(3).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 1a6. now accepts an optional argument 'optimize'
     which is passed on to *note compile(): 190.  This makes it possible
     to obtain an optimized AST. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-108113(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio,  Next: base64,  Prev: ast,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.4 'asyncio'
.................

   * *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1a8. now returns an object that is
     both an *note asynchronous iterator: 1a9. and a plain *note
     iterator: 1aa. of *note awaitables: 1ab.  The awaitables yielded by
     asynchronous iteration include original task or future objects that
     were passed in, making it easier to associate results with the
     tasks being completed.  (Contributed by Justin Arthur in
     gh-77714(1).)

   * *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac. will now
     automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.
     (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-111246(2).)

   * *note DatagramTransport.sendto(): 1ad. will now send zero-length
     datagrams if called with an empty bytes object.  The transport flow
     control also now accounts for the datagram header when calculating
     the buffer size.  (Contributed by Jamie Phan in gh-115199(3).)

   * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 1ae. and *note QueueShutDown: 1af. to
     manage queue termination.  (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves
     Duprat in gh-104228(4).)

   * Add the *note Server.close_clients(): 1b0. and *note
     Server.abort_clients(): 1b1. methods, which more forcefully close
     an asyncio server.  (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-113538(5).)

   * Accept a tuple of separators in *note StreamReader.readuntil():
     1b2, stopping when any one of them is encountered.  (Contributed by
     Bruce Merry in gh-81322(6).)

   * Improve the behavior of *note TaskGroup: 1b3. when an external
     cancellation collides with an internal cancellation.  For example,
     when two task groups are nested and both experience an exception in
     a child task simultaneously, it was possible that the outer task
     group would hang, because its internal cancellation was swallowed
     by the inner task group.

     In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also
     must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4, it will now call the
     parent task's *note cancel(): 1b5. method.  This ensures that a
     *note CancelledError: 1b6. will be raised at the next *note await:
     1b7, so the cancellation is not lost.

     An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve
     the cancellation count (*note cancelling(): 1b8.).

     In order to handle some corner cases, *note uncancel(): 1b9. may
     now reset the undocumented ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the
     cancellation count reaches zero.

     (Inspired by an issue reported by Arthur Tacca in gh-116720(7).)

   * When *note TaskGroup.create_task(): 1ba. is called on an inactive
     *note TaskGroup: 1b3, the given coroutine will be closed (which
     prevents a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. about the given coroutine
     being never awaited).  (Contributed by Arthur Tacca and Jason Zhang
     in gh-115957(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77714

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115199

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104228

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81322

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957


File: python.info,  Node: base64,  Next: compileall,  Prev: asyncio,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.5 base64
..............

   * Add *note z85encode(): 14e. and *note z85decode(): 14f. functions
     for encoding *note bytes: 1bd. as Z85 data(1) and decoding
     Z85-encoded data to ‘bytes’.  (Contributed by Matan Perelman in
     gh-75299(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75299


File: python.info,  Node: compileall,  Next: concurrent futures,  Prev: base64,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.6 'compileall'
....................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c0.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures,  Next: configparser,  Prev: compileall,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.7 'concurrent.futures'
............................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c0.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: configparser,  Next: copy,  Prev: concurrent futures,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.8 configparser
....................

   * *note ConfigParser: 1c3. now has support for unnamed sections,
     which allows for top-level key-value pairs.  This can be enabled
     with the new 'allow_unnamed_section' parameter.  (Contributed by
     Pedro Sousa Lacerda in gh-66449(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449


File: python.info,  Node: copy,  Next: ctypes,  Prev: configparser,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.9 copy
............

   * The new *note replace(): 150. function and the *note replace
     protocol: 151. make creating modified copies of objects much
     simpler.  This is especially useful when working with immutable
     objects.  The following types support the *note replace(): 150.
     function and implement the replace protocol:

        * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5.

        * *note dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6.

        * *note datetime.datetime: 1c7, *note datetime.date: 1c8, *note
          datetime.time: 1c9.

        * *note inspect.Signature: 1ca, *note inspect.Parameter: 1cb.

        * *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc.

        * *note code objects: 1cd.

     Any user-defined class can also support *note copy.replace(): 150.
     by defining the *note __replace__(): 151. method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108751(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes,  Next: dbm,  Prev: copy,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.10 ctypes
...............

   * As a consequence of necessary internal refactoring, initialization
     of internal metaclasses now happens in ‘__init__’ rather than in
     ‘__new__’.  This affects projects that subclass these internal
     metaclasses to provide custom initialization.  Generally:

        - Custom logic that was done in ‘__new__’ after calling
          ‘super().__new__’ should be moved to ‘__init__’.

        - To create a class, call the metaclass, not only the
          metaclass's ‘__new__’ method.

     See gh-124520(1) for discussion and links to changes in some
     affected projects.

   * *note ctypes.Structure: 1cf. objects have a new *note _align_: 1d0.
     attribute which allows the alignment of the structure being packed
     to/from memory to be specified explicitly.  (Contributed by Matt
     Sanderson in gh-112433(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124520

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433


File: python.info,  Node: dbm,  Next: dis,  Prev: ctypes,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.11 dbm
............

   * Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 35, a new module which implements an SQLite
     backend, and make it the default ‘dbm’ backend.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414(1).)

   * Allow removing all items from the database through the new *note
     gdbm.clear(): 1d2. and *note ndbm.clear(): 1d3. methods.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-107122(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122


File: python.info,  Node: dis,  Next: doctest,  Prev: dbm,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.12 dis
............

   * Change the output of *note dis: 38. module functions to show
     logical labels for jump targets and exception handlers, rather than
     offsets.  The offsets can be added with the new *note -O: 1d5.
     command-line option or the 'show_offsets' argument.  (Contributed
     by Irit Katriel in gh-112137(1).)

   * *note get_instructions(): 1d6. no longer represents cache entries
     as separate instructions.  Instead, it returns them as part of the
     *note Instruction: 1d7, in the new 'cache_info' field.  The
     'show_caches' argument to *note get_instructions(): 1d6. is
     deprecated and no longer has any effect.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-112962(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962


File: python.info,  Node: doctest,  Next: email,  Prev: dis,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.13 doctest
................

   * *note doctest: 3a. output is now colored by default.  This can be
     controlled via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 149. environment
     variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2)
     environment variables.  See also *note Controlling color: 16a.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-117225(3).)

   * The *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1d9. method now counts the number of
     skipped tests.  Add the *note DocTestRunner.skips: 1da. and *note
     TestResults.skipped: 1db. attributes.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-108794(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://no-color.org/

   (2) https://force-color.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794


File: python.info,  Node: email,  Next: enum,  Prev: doctest,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.14 email
..............

   * Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output.  The *note
     generator: 40. will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that
     are improperly folded or delimited, such that they would be parsed
     as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  If you need to
     turn this safety feature off, set *note verify_generated_headers:
     1dd.  (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in
     gh-121650(1).)

   * *note getaddresses(): 1de. and *note parseaddr(): 1df. now return
     ‘('', '')’ pairs in more situations where invalid email addresses
     are encountered instead of potentially inaccurate values.  The two
     functions have a new optional 'strict' parameter (default ‘True’).
     To get the old behavior (accepting malformed input), use
     ‘strict=False’.  ‘getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing',
     False)’ can be used to check if the 'strict' parameter is
     available.  (Contributed by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for
     gh-102988(2) to improve the CVE 2023-27043(3) fix.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043


File: python.info,  Node: enum,  Next: fractions,  Prev: email,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.15 enum
.............

   * *note EnumDict: 1e1. has been made public to better support
     subclassing *note EnumType: 1e2.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions,  Next: glob,  Prev: enum,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.16 ‘fractions’
....................

   * *note Fraction: 1e4. objects now support the standard *note format
     specification mini-language: 1e5. rules for fill, alignment, sign
     handling, minimum width, and grouping.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in gh-111320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111320


File: python.info,  Node: glob,  Next: importlib,  Prev: fractions,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.17 glob
.............

   * Add *note translate(): 1e7, a function to convert a path
     specification with shell-style wildcards to a regular expression.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-72904(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904


File: python.info,  Node: importlib,  Next: io,  Prev: glob,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.18 'importlib'
....................

   * The following functions in *note importlib.resources: 7a. now allow
     accessing a directory (or tree) of resources, using multiple
     positional arguments (the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments in the
     text-reading functions are now keyword-only):

        * *note is_resource(): 1e9.

        * *note open_binary(): 1ea.

        * *note open_text(): 1eb.

        * *note path(): 1ec.

        * *note read_binary(): 1ed.

        * *note read_text(): 1ee.

     These functions are no longer deprecated and are not scheduled for
     removal.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608(1).)

   * *note contents(): 1ef. remains deprecated in favor of the
     fully-featured *note Traversable: 1f0. API. However, there is now
     no plan to remove it.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
     gh-116608(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608


File: python.info,  Node: io,  Next: ipaddress,  Prev: importlib,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.19 io
...........

   * The *note IOBase: 1f2. finalizer now logs any errors raised by the
     *note close(): 1f3. method with *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f4.
     Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only
     logged in *note Python Development Mode: 1f5. or when using a *note
     Python debug build: 1f6.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-62948(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress,  Next: itertools,  Prev: io,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.20 'ipaddress'
....................

   * Add the *note IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped: 1f8. property, which returns
     the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-109466(1).)

   * Fix ‘is_global’ and ‘is_private’ behavior in *note IPv4Address:
     1f9, *note IPv6Address: 1fa, *note IPv4Network: 1fb, and *note
     IPv6Network: 1fc.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in gh-113171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171


File: python.info,  Node: itertools,  Next: marshal,  Prev: ipaddress,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.21 itertools
..................

   * *note batched(): 1fe. has a new 'strict' parameter, which raises a
     *note ValueError: 1ff. if the final batch is shorter than the
     specified batch size.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-113202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202


File: python.info,  Node: marshal,  Next: math,  Prev: itertools,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.22 marshal
................

   * Add the 'allow_code' parameter in module functions.  Passing
     ‘allow_code=False’ prevents serialization and de-serialization of
     code objects which are incompatible between Python versions.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113626(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626


File: python.info,  Node: math,  Next: mimetypes,  Prev: marshal,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.23 'math'
...............

   * The new function *note fma(): 202. performs fused multiply-add
     operations.  This computes ‘x * y + z’ with only a single round,
     and so avoids any intermediate loss of precision.  It wraps the
     ‘fma()’ function provided by C99, and follows the specification of
     the IEEE 754 "fusedMultiplyAdd" operation for special cases.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner in gh-73468(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes,  Next: mmap,  Prev: math,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.24 mimetypes
..................

   * Add the *note guess_file_type(): 204. function to guess a MIME type
     from a filesystem path.  Using paths with *note guess_type(): 205.
     is now *note soft deprecated: 206.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-66543(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543


File: python.info,  Node: mmap,  Next: multiprocessing,  Prev: mimetypes,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.25 mmap
.............

   * *note mmap: 208. is now protected from crashing on Windows when the
     mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access
     violations.  (Contributed by Jannis Weigend in gh-118209(1).)

   * *note mmap: 208. has a new *note seekable(): 209. method that can
     be used when a seekable file-like object is required.  The *note
     seek(): 20a. method now returns the new absolute position.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Sylvie Liberman in gh-111835(2).)

   * The new UNIX-only 'trackfd' parameter for *note mmap: 208. controls
     file descriptor duplication; if false, the file descriptor
     specified by 'fileno' will not be duplicated.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz and Petr Viktorin in gh-78502(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing,  Next: os,  Prev: mmap,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.26 'multiprocessing'
..........................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c0.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: os,  Next: os path,  Prev: multiprocessing,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.27 'os'
.............

   * Add *note process_cpu_count(): 1bf. function to get the number of
     logical CPU cores usable by the calling thread of the current
     process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).)

   * *note cpu_count(): 1c0. and *note process_cpu_count(): 1bf. can be
     overridden through the new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 20d. or the new command-line option *note -X
     cpu_count: 175.  This option is useful for users who need to limit
     CPU resources of a container system without having to modify
     application code or the container itself.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na in gh-109595(2).)

   * Add a *note low level interface: 152. to Linux's ‘timer file
     descriptors(3)’ via *note timerfd_create(): 20e, *note
     timerfd_settime(): 20f, *note timerfd_settime_ns(): 210, *note
     timerfd_gettime(): 211, *note timerfd_gettime_ns(): 212, *note
     TFD_NONBLOCK: 213, *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 214, *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME:
     215, and *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 216. (Contributed by Masaru
     Tsuchiyama in gh-108277(4).)

   * *note lchmod(): 217. and the 'follow_symlinks' argument of *note
     chmod(): 218. are both now available on Windows.  Note that the
     default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘lchmod()’ is ‘False’ on
     Windows.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-59616(5).)

   * *note fchmod(): 219. and support for file descriptors in *note
     chmod(): 218. are both now available on Windows.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113191(6).)

   * On Windows, *note mkdir(): 21a. and *note makedirs(): 21b. now
     support passing a 'mode' value of ‘0o700’ to apply access control
     to the new directory.  This implicitly affects *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c. and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(7).
     Other values for 'mode' continue to be ignored.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in gh-118486(8).)

   * *note posix_spawn(): 21d. now accepts ‘None’ for the 'env'
     argument, which makes the newly spawned process use the current
     process environment.  (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113119(9).)

   * *note posix_spawn(): 21d. can now use the *note
     POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM: 21e. attribute in the 'file_actions'
     parameter on platforms that support
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’.  (Contributed by
     Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: os path,  Next: pathlib,  Prev: os,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.28 ‘os.path’
..................

   * Add *note isreserved(): 220. to check if a path is reserved on the
     current system.  This function is only available on Windows.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569(1).)

   * On Windows, *note isabs(): 221. no longer considers paths starting
     with exactly one slash (‘\’ or ‘/’) to be absolute.  (Contributed
     by Barney Gale and Jon Foster in gh-44626(2).)

   * *note realpath(): 222. now resolves MS-DOS style file names even if
     the file is not accessible.  (Contributed by Moonsik Park in
     gh-82367(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib,  Next: pdb,  Prev: os path,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.29 'pathlib'
..................

   * Add *note UnsupportedOperation: 224, which is raised instead of
     *note NotImplementedError: 225. when a path operation isn't
     supported.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-89812(1).)

   * Add a new constructor for creating *note Path: 226. objects from
     'file' URIs (‘file:///’), *note Path.from_uri(): 227.  (Contributed
     by Barney Gale in gh-107465(2).)

   * Add *note PurePath.full_match(): 228. for matching paths with
     shell-style wildcards, including the recursive wildcard "‘**’".
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73435(3).)

   * Add the *note PurePath.parser: 229. class attribute to store the
     implementation of *note os.path: a1. used for low-level path
     parsing and joining.  This will be either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

   * Add 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note Path.glob():
     22a. and *note rglob(): 22b.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-77609(4).)

   * *note Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b. now return files
     and directories when given a pattern that ends with "‘**’".
     Previously, only directories were returned.  (Contributed by Barney
     Gale in gh-70303(5).)

   * Add the 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note
     Path.is_file: 22c, *note Path.is_dir: 22d, *note Path.owner(): 22e,
     and *note Path.group(): 22f.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-105793(6) and Kamil Turek in gh-107962(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107962


File: python.info,  Node: pdb,  Next: queue,  Prev: pathlib,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.30 'pdb'
..............

   * *note breakpoint(): 231. and *note set_trace(): 232. now enter the
     debugger immediately rather than on the next line of code to be
     executed.  This change prevents the debugger from breaking outside
     of the context when ‘breakpoint()’ is positioned at the end of the
     context.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118579(1).)

   * ‘sys.path[0]’ is no longer replaced by the directory of the script
     being debugged when *note sys.flags.safe_path: 233. is set.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao and Christian Walther in gh-111762(2).)

   * *note zipapp: 12f. is now supported as a debugging target.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118501(3).)

   * Add ability to move between chained exceptions during post-mortem
     debugging in *note pm(): 234. using the new *note exceptions
     [exc_number]: 235. command for Pdb.  (Contributed by Matthias
     Bussonnier in gh-106676(4).)

   * Expressions and statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now
     correctly identified and executed.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in
     gh-108464(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118579

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111762

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118501

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106676

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108464


File: python.info,  Node: queue,  Next: random,  Prev: pdb,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.31 queue
..............

   * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 237. and *note ShutDown: 238. to manage
     queue termination.  (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat
     in gh-104750(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104750


File: python.info,  Node: random,  Next: re,  Prev: queue,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.32 'random'
.................

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 153.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-118131(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131


File: python.info,  Node: re,  Next: shutils,  Prev: random,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.33 ‘re’
.............

   * Rename ‘re.error’ to *note PatternError: 23b. for improved clarity.
     ‘re.error’ is kept for backward compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: shutils,  Next: site,  Prev: re,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.34 ‘shutils’
..................

   * Support the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments in
     *note chown(): 23d.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag and Tahia K in
     gh-62308(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62308


File: python.info,  Node: site,  Next: sqlite3,  Prev: shutils,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.35 ‘site’
...............

   * ‘.pth’ files are now decoded using UTF-8 first, and then with the
     *note locale encoding: 23f. if UTF-8 decoding fails.  (Contributed
     by Inada Naoki in gh-117802(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117802


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3,  Next: ssl,  Prev: site,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.36 ‘sqlite3’
..................

   * A *note ResourceWarning: 241. is now emitted if a *note Connection:
     242. object is not *note closed: 243. explicitly.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in gh-105539(1).)

   * Add the 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note
     Connection.iterdump(): 244. for filtering database objects to dump.
     (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-91602(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602


File: python.info,  Node: ssl,  Next: statistics,  Prev: sqlite3,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.37 ‘ssl’
..............

   * The *note create_default_context(): 154. API now includes *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 155. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156.
     in its default flags.

          Note: *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156. may reject pre- RFC
          5280(1) or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL
          implementation might otherwise accept.  Whilst disabling this
          is not recommended, you can do so using:

               import ssl

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
               ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     (Contributed by William Woodruff in gh-112389(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112389


File: python.info,  Node: statistics,  Next: subprocess,  Prev: ssl,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.38 ‘statistics’
.....................

   * Add *note kde(): 247. for kernel density estimation.  This makes it
     possible to estimate a continuous probability density function from
     a fixed number of discrete samples.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-115863(1).)

   * Add *note kde_random(): 248. for sampling from an estimated
     probability density function created by *note kde(): 247.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess,  Next: sys,  Prev: statistics,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.39 subprocess
...................

   * The *note subprocess: d5. module now uses the *note posix_spawn():
     21d. function in more situations.

     Notably, when 'close_fds' is ‘True’ (the default), *note
     posix_spawn(): 21d. will be used when the C library provides
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’, which includes recent
     versions of Linux, FreeBSD, and Solaris.  On Linux, this should
     perform similarly to the existing Linux ‘vfork()’ based code.

     A private control knob ‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ can be set to
     ‘False’ if you need to force *note subprocess: d5. to never use
     *note posix_spawn(): 21d.  Please report your reason and platform
     details in the *note issue tracker: 24b. if you set this so that we
     can improve our API selection logic for everyone.  (Contributed by
     Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: sys,  Next: tempfile,  Prev: subprocess,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.40 'sys'
..............

   * Add the *note _is_interned(): 24d. function to test if a string was
     interned.  This function is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-78573(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78573


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile,  Next: time,  Prev: sys,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.41 tempfile
.................

   * On Windows, the default mode ‘0o700’ used by *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c. now limits access to the new directory due
     to changes to *note os.mkdir(): 21a.  This is a mitigation for CVE
     2024-4030(1).  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: time,  Next: tkinter,  Prev: tempfile,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.42 'time'
...............

   * On Windows, *note monotonic(): 250. now uses the
     ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock for a resolution of 1
     microsecond, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a
     resolution of 15.6 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-88494(1).)

   * On Windows, *note time(): 251. now uses the
     ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock for a resolution of 1
     microsecond, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock which
     has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-63207(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter,  Next: traceback,  Prev: time,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.43 tkinter
................

   * Add *note tkinter: ef. widget methods: ‘tk_busy_hold()’,
     ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’, ‘tk_busy_forget()’,
     ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’.  (Contributed by
     Miguel, klappnase and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-72684(1).)

   * The *note tkinter: ef. widget method ‘wm_attributes()’ now accepts
     the attribute name without the minus prefix to get window
     attributes, for example ‘w.wm_attributes('alpha')’ and allows
     specifying attributes and values to set as keyword arguments, for
     example ‘w.wm_attributes(alpha=0.5)’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-43457(2).)

   * ‘wm_attributes()’ can now return attributes as a *note dict: 253,
     by using the new optional keyword-only parameter
     'return_python_dict'.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-43457(3).)

   * ‘Text.count()’ can now return a simple *note int: 254. when the new
     optional keyword-only parameter 'return_ints' is used.  Otherwise,
     the single count is returned as a 1-tuple or ‘None’.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-97928(4).)

   * Support the "vsapi" element type in the *note element_create():
     255. method of *note tkinter.ttk.Style: 256.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-68166(5).)

   * Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets.  (Contributed by
     Cheryl Sabella in gh-77020(6).)

   * Add a new ‘copy_replace()’ method to ‘PhotoImage’ to copy a region
     from one image to another, possibly with pixel zooming,
     subsampling, or both.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-118225(7).)

   * Add 'from_coords' parameter to the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘copy()’,
     ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and 'subsample' parameters
     to the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-118225(8).)

   * Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an image from a file
     and ‘data()’ to get the image data.  Add 'background' and
     'grayscale' parameters to the ‘write()’ method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118271(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77020

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271


File: python.info,  Node: traceback,  Next: types,  Prev: tkinter,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.44 traceback
..................

   * Add the *note exc_type_str: 258. attribute to *note
     TracebackException: 259, which holds a string display of the
     'exc_type'.  Deprecate the *note exc_type: 25a. attribute, which
     holds the type object itself.  Add parameter 'save_exc_type'
     (default ‘True’) to indicate whether ‘exc_type’ should be saved.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(1).)

   * Add a new 'show_group' keyword-only parameter to *note
     TracebackException.format_exception_only(): 25b. to (recursively)
     format the nested exceptions of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.
     instance.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105292(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292


File: python.info,  Node: types,  Next: typing,  Prev: traceback,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.45 ‘types’
................

   * *note SimpleNamespace: 1cc. can now take a single positional
     argument to initialise the namespace's arguments.  This argument
     must either be a mapping or an iterable of key-value pairs.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191


File: python.info,  Node: typing,  Next: unicodedata,  Prev: types,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.46 'typing'
.................

   * PEP 705(1): Add *note ReadOnly: 160, a special typing construct to
     mark a *note TypedDict: 161. item as read-only for type checkers.

   * PEP 742(2): Add *note TypeIs: 162, a typing construct that can be
     used to instruct a type checker how to narrow a type.

   * Add *note NoDefault: 25f, a sentinel object used to represent the
     defaults of some parameters in the *note typing: 103. module.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-116126(3).)

   * Add *note get_protocol_members(): 260. to return the set of members
     defining a *note typing.Protocol: 261.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-104873(4).)

   * Add *note is_protocol(): 262. to check whether a class is a *note
     Protocol: 261.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873(5).)

   * *note ClassVar: 263. can now be nested in *note Final: 264, and
     vice versa.  (Contributed by Mehdi Drissi in gh-89547(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116126

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata,  Next: venv,  Prev: typing,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.47 'unicodedata'
......................

   * Update the Unicode database to version 15.1.0(1).  (Contributed by
     James Gerity in gh-109559(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559


File: python.info,  Node: venv,  Next: warnings,  Prev: unicodedata,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.48 'venv'
...............

   * Add support for creating source control management (SCM) ignore
     files in a virtual environment's directory.  By default, Git is
     supported.  This is implemented as opt-in via the API, which can be
     extended to support other SCMs (*note EnvBuilder: 267. and *note
     create(): 268.), and opt-out via the CLI, using
     ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     gh-108125(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108125


File: python.info,  Node: warnings,  Next: xml,  Prev: venv,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.49 warnings
.................

   * PEP 702(1): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 15f. decorator
     provides a way to communicate deprecations to a *note static type
     checker: 26a. and to warn on usage of deprecated classes and
     functions.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. may also be emitted
     when a decorated function or class is used at runtime.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104003(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003


File: python.info,  Node: xml,  Next: zipimport,  Prev: warnings,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.50 'xml'
..............

   * Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral ( CVE
     2023-52425(1)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 26c.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 26d.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          26e.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          26f.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

     (Contributed by Sebastian Pipping in gh-115623(2).)

   * Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by *note
     iterparse(): 270. for explicit cleanup.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-69893(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport,  Prev: xml,  Up: Modules améliorés

1.1.5.51 ‘zipimport’
....................

   * Add support for ZIP64(1) format files.  Everybody loves huge data,
     right?  (Contributed by Tim Hatch in gh-94146(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_(file_format)#ZIP64

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94146


File: python.info,  Node: Optimisations,  Next: Removed Modules And APIs,  Prev: Modules améliorés,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.6 Optimisations
-------------------

   * Several standard library modules have had their import times
     significantly improved.  For example, the import time of the *note
     typing: 103. module has been reduced by around a third by removing
     dependencies on *note re: b8. and *note contextlib: 23.  Other
     modules to enjoy import-time speedups include *note email.utils:
     50, *note enum: 55, *note functools: 5e, *note importlib.metadata:
     79, and *note threading: ec.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood,
     Shantanu Jain, Adam Turner, Daniel Hollas, and others in
     gh-109653(1).)

   * *note textwrap.indent(): 273. is now around 30% faster than before
     for large input.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-107369(2).)

   * The *note subprocess: d5. module now uses the *note posix_spawn():
     21d. function in more situations, including when 'close_fds' is
     ‘True’ (the default) on many modern platforms.  This should provide
     a notable performance increase when launching processes on FreeBSD
     and Solaris.  See the *note subprocess: 24a. section above for
     details.  (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules And APIs,  Next: New Deprecations,  Prev: Optimisations,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.7 Removed Modules And APIs
------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 594; Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library.
* 2to3::
* builtins::
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* locale::
* opcode::
* optparse::
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re: re<2>.
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix.
* turtle::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unittest::
* urllib::
* webbrowser::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 594 Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library,  Next: 2to3,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.1 PEP 594: Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library
..................................................................

PEP 594(1) proposed removing 19 modules from the standard library,
colloquially referred to as 'dead batteries' due to their historic,
obsolete, or insecure status.  All of the following modules were
deprecated in Python 3.11, and are now removed:

   * ‘aifc’

        * standard-aifc(2): Use the redistribution of ‘aifc’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘audioop’

        * audioop-lts(3): Use ‘audioop-lts’ library from PyPI.

   * ‘chunk’

        * standard-chunk(4): Use the redistribution of ‘chunk’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’

        * ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ can typically be replaced with *note
          urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276. for ‘GET’ and ‘HEAD’ requests,
          and the *note email.message: 44. module or the multipart(5)
          library for ‘POST’ and ‘PUT’ requests.

        * ‘cgi.parse()’ can be replaced by calling *note
          urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 277. directly on the desired query
          string, unless the input is ‘multipart/form-data’, which
          should be replaced as described below for
          ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’.

        * ‘cgi.parse_header()’ can be replaced with the functionality in
          the *note email: 3b. package, which implements the same MIME
          RFCs.  For example, with *note email.message.EmailMessage:
          278.:

               from email.message import EmailMessage

               msg = EmailMessage()
               msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"'
               main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params

        * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ can be replaced with the functionality
          in the *note email: 3b. package, which implements the same
          MIME RFCs, or with the multipart(6) library.  For example, the
          *note email.message.EmailMessage: 278. and *note
          email.message.Message: 279. classes.

        * standard-cgi(7): and standard-cgitb(8): Use the redistribution
          of ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ library from PyPI.

   * ‘crypt’ and the private ‘_crypt’ extension.  The *note hashlib: 67.
     module may be an appropriate replacement when simply hashing a
     value is required.  Otherwise, various third-party libraries on
     PyPI are available:

        * bcrypt(9): Modern password hashing for your software and your
          servers.

        * passlib(10): Comprehensive password hashing framework
          supporting over 30 schemes.

        * argon2-cffi(11): The secure Argon2 password hashing algorithm.

        * legacycrypt(12): *note ctypes: 2a. wrapper to the POSIX crypt
          library call and associated functionality.

        * crypt_r(13): Fork of the ‘crypt’ module, wrapper to the
          ‘crypt_r(3)(14)’ library call and associated functionality.

        * standard-crypt(15) and deprecated-crypt-alternative(16): Use
          the redistribution of ‘crypt’ and reimplementation of ‘_crypt’
          libraries from PyPI.

   * ‘imghdr’: The filetype(17), puremagic(18), or python-magic(19)
     libraries should be used as replacements.  For example, the
     ‘puremagic.what()’ function can be used to replace the
     ‘imghdr.what()’ function for all file formats that were supported
     by ‘imghdr’.

        * standard-imghdr(20): Use the redistribution of ‘imghdr’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘mailcap’: Use the *note mimetypes: 8e. module instead.

        * standard-mailcap(21): Use the redistribution of ‘mailcap’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘msilib’

   * ‘nis’

   * ‘nntplib’: Use the pynntp(22) library from PyPI instead.

        * standard-nntplib(23): Use the redistribution of ‘nntplib’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘ossaudiodev’: For audio playback, use the pygame(24) library from
     PyPI instead.

   * ‘pipes’: Use the *note subprocess: d5. module instead.  Use *note
     shlex.quote(): 27a. to replace the undocumented ‘pipes.quote’
     function.

        * standard-pipes(25): Use the redistribution of ‘pipes’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘sndhdr’: The filetype(26), puremagic(27), or python-magic(28)
     libraries should be used as replacements.

        * standard-sndhdr(29): Use the redistribution of ‘sndhdr’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘spwd’: Use the python-pam(30) library from PyPI instead.

   * ‘sunau’

        * standard-sunau(31): Use the redistribution of ‘sunau’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘telnetlib’, Use the telnetlib3(32) or Exscript(33) libraries from
     PyPI instead.

        * standard-telnetlib(34): Use the redistribution of ‘telnetlib’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘uu’: Use the *note base64: e. module instead, as a modern
     alternative.

        * standard-uu(35): Use the redistribution of ‘uu’ library from
          PyPI.

   * ‘xdrlib’

        * standard-xdrlib(36): Use the redistribution of ‘xdrlib’
          library from PyPI.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner and Zachary Ware in gh-104773(37) and
gh-104780(38).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/standard-aifc/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/audioop-lts/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/standard-chunk/

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/

   (7) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgi/

   (8) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgitb/

   (9) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/

   (10) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/

   (11) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/

   (12) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/

   (13) https://pypi.org/project/crypt_r/

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt_r(3)

   (15) https://pypi.org/project/standard-crypt/

   (16) https://pypi.org/project/deprecated-crypt-alternative/

   (17) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (18) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (19) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (20) https://pypi.org/project/standard-imghdr/

   (21) https://pypi.org/project/standard-mailcap/

   (22) https://pypi.org/project/pynntp/

   (23) https://pypi.org/project/standard-nntplib/

   (24) https://pypi.org/project/pygame/

   (25) https://pypi.org/project/standard-pipes/

   (26) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (27) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (28) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (29) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sndhdr/

   (30) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (31) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sunau/

   (32) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/

   (33) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/

   (34) https://pypi.org/project/standard-telnetlib/

   (35) https://pypi.org/project/standard-uu/

   (36) https://pypi.org/project/standard-xdrlib/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780


File: python.info,  Node: 2to3,  Next: builtins,  Prev: PEP 594 Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.2 2to3
............

   * Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module, previously
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-104780(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780


File: python.info,  Node: builtins,  Next: configparser<2>,  Prev: 2to3,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.3 builtins
................

   * Remove support for chained *note classmethod: 165. descriptors
     (introduced in gh-63272(1)).  These can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors, such as *note property: 192.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and led to several problems.  To
     "pass-through" a *note classmethod: 165, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Raise a *note RuntimeError: 193. when calling *note frame.clear():
     27d. on a suspended frame (as has always been the case for an
     executing frame).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-79932(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63272

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<2>,  Next: importlib metadata,  Prev: builtins,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.4 configparser
....................

   * Remove the undocumented ‘LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in
     the docstring since Python 3.2, and at runtime since Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104886(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata,  Next: locale,  Prev: configparser<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.5 ‘importlib.metadata’
............................

   * Remove deprecated subscript (*note __getitem__(): 280.) access for
     *note EntryPoint: 281. objects.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in
     gh-113175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175


File: python.info,  Node: locale,  Next: opcode,  Prev: importlib metadata,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.6 locale
..............

   * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function, deprecated in Python
     3.11.  Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104783(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783


File: python.info,  Node: opcode,  Next: optparse,  Prev: locale,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.7 opcode
..............

   * Move ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ to
     ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’.  This field was added in 3.12, it
     was never documented, and is not intended for external use.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481(1).)

   * Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo()’, ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, and
     ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which were added in Python 3.12, but
     were neither documented nor exposed through *note dis: 38, and were
     not intended to be used externally.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel
     in gh-105481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481


File: python.info,  Node: optparse,  Next: pathlib<2>,  Prev: opcode,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.8 optparse
................

   * This module is no longer considered *note soft deprecated: 206.
     While *note argparse: 6. remains preferred for new projects that
     aren't using a third party command line argument processing
     library, there are aspects of the way ‘argparse’ works that mean
     the lower level ‘optparse’ module may provide a better foundation
     for 'writing' argument processing libraries, and for implementing
     command line applications which adhere more strictly than
     ‘argparse’ does to various Unix command line processing conventions
     that originate in the behaviour of the C ‘getopt()’ function .
     (Contributed by Alyssa Coghlan and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-126180(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126180


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<2>,  Next: re<2>,  Prev: optparse,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.9 'pathlib'
.................

   * Remove the ability to use *note Path: 226. objects as context
     managers.  This functionality was deprecated and has had no effect
     since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-83863(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863


File: python.info,  Node: re<2>,  Next: tkinter tix,  Prev: pathlib<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.10 ‘re’
.............

   * Remove the undocumented, deprecated, and broken ‘re.template()’
     function and ‘re.TEMPLATE’ / ‘re.T’ flag.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka and Nikita Sobolev in gh-105687(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter tix,  Next: turtle,  Prev: re<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.11 tkinter.tix
....................

   * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated in Python 3.6.  The
     third-party Tix library which the module wrapped is unmaintained.
     (Contributed by Zachary Ware in gh-75552(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552


File: python.info,  Node: turtle,  Next: typing<2>,  Prev: tkinter tix,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.12 turtle
...............

   * Remove the ‘RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ method, deprecated in the
     documentation since Python 3.1 and at runtime since Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104876(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876


File: python.info,  Node: typing<2>,  Next: unittest,  Prev: turtle,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.13 'typing'
.................

   * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces, deprecated since
     Python 3.8.  The items in those namespaces can be imported directly
     from the *note typing: 103. module.  (Contributed by Sebastian
     Rittau in gh-92871(1).)

   * Remove the keyword-argument method of creating *note TypedDict:
     161. types, deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Tomas Roun
     in gh-104786(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786


File: python.info,  Node: unittest,  Next: urllib,  Prev: typing<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.14 unittest
.................

   * Remove the following *note unittest: 105. functions, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28b. methods instead:

        * *note loadTestsFromModule(): 28c.

        * *note loadTestsFromTestCase(): 28d.

        * *note getTestCaseNames(): 28e.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104835(1).)

   * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘TestProgram.usageExit()’
     method, deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-104992(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992


File: python.info,  Node: urllib,  Next: webbrowser,  Prev: unittest,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.15 urllib
...............

   * Remove the 'cafile', 'capath', and 'cadefault' parameters of the
     *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 290. function, deprecated in Python
     3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter instead with an *note SSLContext:
     291. instance.  The *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 292.
     function can be used to load specific certificates, or let *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): 154. select the operating system's
     trusted certificate authority (CA) certificates.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser,  Prev: urllib,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.16 webbrowser
...................

   * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in
     Python 3.11.  Use the ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class (introduced in Python
     3.2) instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104804(1).)

   * Remove the deprecated ‘MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute.  Use the
     *note MacOSXOSAScript.name: 294. attribute instead.  (Contributed
     by Nikita Sobolev in gh-105546(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105546


File: python.info,  Node: New Deprecations,  Next: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Prev: Removed Modules And APIs,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.8 New Deprecations
----------------------

   * *note User-defined functions: 296.:

        * Deprecate assignment to a function's *note __code__: 297.
          attribute, where the new code object's type does not match the
          function's type.  The different types are: plain function,
          generator, async generator, and coroutine.  (Contributed by
          Irit Katriel in gh-81137(1).)

   * *note array: 7.:

        * Deprecate the ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) at runtime.  This
          format code has been deprecated in documentation since Python
          3.3, and will be removed in Python 3.16.  Use the ‘'w'’ format
          code (*note Py_UCS4: 298.) for Unicode characters instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-80480(2).)

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘SetPointerType()’ function, to be
          removed in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
          gh-105733(3).)

        * *note Soft-deprecate: 206. the *note ARRAY(): 299. function in
          favour of ‘type * length’ multiplication.  (Contributed by
          Victor Stinner in gh-105733(4).)

   * *note decimal: 36.:

        * Deprecate the non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal:
          29a. format specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the
          ‘decimal’ module's C implementation.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-89902(5).)

   * *note dis: 38.:

        * Deprecate the ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ separator.  Check membership in
          *note hasarg: 29b. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
          gh-109319(6).)

   * *note gettext: 62.:

        * Deprecate non-integer numbers as arguments to functions and
          methods that consider plural forms in the ‘gettext’ module,
          even if no translation was found.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-88434(7).)

   * *note glob: 63.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘glob0()’ and ‘glob1()’ functions.
          Use *note glob(): 29c. and pass a *note path-like object: 29d.
          specifying the root directory to the 'root_dir' parameter
          instead.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-117337(8).)

   * *note http.server: 71.:

        * Deprecate *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e, to be removed in
          Python 3.15.  Process-based CGI HTTP servers have been out of
          favor for a very long time.  This code was outdated,
          unmaintained, and rarely used.  It has a high potential for
          both security and functionality bugs.  (Contributed by Gregory
          P. Smith in gh-109096(9).)

        * Deprecate the ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’
          command-line interface, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096(10).)

   * *note mimetypes: 8e.:

        * *note Soft-deprecate: 206. file path arguments to *note
          guess_type(): 205, use *note guess_file_type(): 204. instead.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543(11).)

   * *note re: b8.:

        * Deprecate passing the optional 'maxsplit', 'count', or 'flags'
          arguments as positional arguments to the module-level *note
          split(): 29f, *note sub(): 2a0, and *note subn(): 2a1.
          functions.  These parameters will become *note keyword-only:
          2a2. in a future version of Python.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-56166(12).)

   * *note pathlib: a3.:

        * Deprecate *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a3, to be removed in
          Python 3.15.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 220. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
          gh-88569(13).)

   * *note platform: a9.:

        * Deprecate *note java_ver(): 2a4, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.  (Contributed by
          Nikita Sobolev in gh-116349(14).)

   * *note pydoc: b4.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘ispackage()’ function.
          (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-64020(15).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * Deprecate passing more than one positional argument to the
          *note connect(): 2a5. function and the *note Connection: 242.
          constructor.  The remaining parameters will become
          keyword-only in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-107948(16).)

        * Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the callable
          as keyword arguments for *note Connection.create_function():
          2a6. and *note Connection.create_aggregate(): 2a7. These
          parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278(17).)

        * Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword for the
          *note set_authorizer(): 2a8, *note set_progress_handler():
          2a9, and *note set_trace_callback(): 2aa. *note Connection:
          242. methods.  The callback callables will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-108278(18).)

   * *note sys: d8.:

        * Deprecate the *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab.
          function, to be removed in Python 3.16.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. environment variable
          instead.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-73427(19).)

   * *note tarfile: dd.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’
          attribute, to be removed in Python 3.16.  (Contributed in
          gh-115256(20).)

   * *note traceback: fd.:

        * Deprecate the *note TracebackException.exc_type: 25a.
          attribute.  Use *note TracebackException.exc_type_str: 258.
          instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(21).)

   * *note typing: 103.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented keyword argument syntax for
          creating *note NamedTuple: 2ad. classes (e.g.  ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’), to be removed in Python
          3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax
          instead.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566(22).)

        * Deprecate omitting the 'fields' parameter when creating a
          *note NamedTuple: 2ad. or *note typing.TypedDict: 161. class,
          and deprecate passing ‘None’ to the 'fields' parameter of both
          types.  Python 3.15 will require a valid sequence for the
          'fields' parameter.  To create a NamedTuple class with zero
          fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT =
          NamedTuple("NT", ())’.  To create a TypedDict class with zero
          fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD", {})’.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in
          gh-105566(23) and gh-105570(24).)

        * Deprecate the *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2ae.
          decorator function, to be removed in in Python 3.15.  After
          eight years in the *note typing: 103. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.  (Contributed by Alex
          Waygood in gh-106309(25).)

        * Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 2af.  In Python 3.16, it will
          be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and a *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a3. will be emitted at runtime when it is
          imported or accessed.  It will be removed entirely in Python
          3.18.  Use the new *note type parameter syntax: 2b0. instead.
          (Contributed by Michael The in gh-107116(26).)

   * *note wave: 112.:

        * Deprecate the *note getmark(): 2b1, ‘setmark()’, and *note
          getmarkers(): 2b2. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b3. and
          *note Wave_write: 2b4. classes, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105096(27).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64020

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107948

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107116

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
......................................

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b6. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2b7,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 2b8, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2ba. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2bb, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bc, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2bd. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2be. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2bf. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c0.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c1.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     2c1.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c2.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 77. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7b. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(8).)

   * *note itertools: 80. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 2c4. or *note set_start_method(): 2c5. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note is_relative_to(): 2c7. and *note
     relative_to(): 2c8.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note find_loader(): 2c9. and *note
     get_loader(): 2ca. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).)

   * *note pty: b0.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cc.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cc.

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note version: 2cd. and *note version_info: 2ce.

        * *note execute(): 2cf. and *note executemany(): 2d0. if *note
          named placeholders: 2d1. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 253.

   * *note typing: 103.: *note ByteString: 2d2, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 107.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __cached__: 2d4. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.cached: 2d5. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 2d6. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 2d7. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 71.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e.
          has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement
          exists.  'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web
          server with a request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 76.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 85.:

        * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2d8. function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.11.  Its removal was originally
          planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed
          to Python 3.15.  Use *note getlocale(): 2d9, *note
          setlocale(): 2da, and *note getencoding(): 2db. instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).)

   * *note pathlib: a3.:

        * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a3. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 220. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: a9.:

        * *note java_ver(): 2a4. has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: da.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dc. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ec.:

        * *note RLock(): 2dd. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 102.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2de.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2df.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 103.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2ad. classes (e.g.  ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
          x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use
          the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

        * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2ae. decorator
          function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 103. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.

   * *note wave: 112.:

        * The *note getmark(): 2b1, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers():
          2b2. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b3. and *note
          Wave_write: 2b4. classes have been deprecated since Python
          3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2e1. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 2e2. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 298.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16, use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note shutil: c4.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 193.

   * *note symtable: d7.:

        * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e4. method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: d8.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note tarfile: dd.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.4 Pending Removal in Future Versions
..........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note array: 7.'s ‘'u'’ format code (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          2e6, *note else: 18a, *note for: 2e7, *note if: 2e8, *note in:
          2e9, *note is: 2ea. and *note or: 2eb.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(2))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 254.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 2ec.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 2ec.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 2ed.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 2ed.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 2ed. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2ee. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2ef.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(4).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2df.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 2f0. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 2f1.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 62.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 76.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 2f3. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 79.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 86.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f4. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8a.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a0.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f5. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b8.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c4.: *note rmtree(): 2f6.'s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: cf. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2f7.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ec. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          2f8.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2f9.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2fa.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 2fb. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 2fc.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 2fd. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 2fe.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          2ff.

   * *note typing.Text: 300. (gh-92332(6)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 109. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     302. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10a.: *note URLopener: 303. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 304. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 290. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 117.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 305. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 306. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 307. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Next: Changements à l'API C,  Prev: New Deprecations,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.9 CPython Bytecode Changes
------------------------------

   * The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 309. is now ‘1’ if the yield is
     part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise.  The oparg of
     *note RESUME: 30a. was changed to add a bit indicating if the
     except-depth is 1, which is needed to optimize closing of
     generators.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111354(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à l'API C,  Next: Changements à la compilation,  Prev: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.10 Changements à l'API C
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<2>.
* Changed C APIs::
* Limited C API Changes::
* Removed C APIs::
* Deprecated C APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<2>,  Next: Changed C APIs,  Up: Changements à l'API C

1.1.10.1 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
..................................

   * Add the *note PyMonitoring C API: 15b. for generating PEP 669(1)
     monitoring events:

        * *note PyMonitoringState: 30d.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent(): 30e.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent(): 30f.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent(): 310.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent(): 311.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent(): 312.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent(): 313.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent(): 314.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent(): 315.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent(): 316.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent(): 317.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent(): 318.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent(): 319.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent(): 31a.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent(): 31b.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent(): 31c.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(): 31d.

        * *note PyMonitoring_EnterScope(): 31e.

        * *note PyMonitoring_ExitScope(): 31f.

     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111997(2)).

   * Add *note PyMutex: 15a, a lightweight mutex that occupies a single
     byte, and the new *note PyMutex_Lock(): 320. and *note
     PyMutex_Unlock(): 321. functions.  ‘PyMutex_Lock()’ will release
     the *note GIL: 158. (if currently held) if the operation needs to
     block.  (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-108724(3).)

   * Add the *note PyTime C API: 322. to provide access to system
     clocks:

        * *note PyTime_t: 323.

        * *note PyTime_MIN: 324. and *note PyTime_MAX: 325.

        * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 326.

        * *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 327.

        * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 328.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 329.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32a.

        * *note PyTime_Time(): 32b.

        * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 32c.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Petr Viktorin in gh-110850(4).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 32d. function with the same
     behavior as *note PyDict_Contains(): 32e, but 'key' is specified as
     a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 32f.*.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108314(5).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330. and *note
     PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 331. functions, which behave similarly
     to *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 332, but return a *note strong
     reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334.
     Moreover, these functions return ‘-1’ on error, removing the need
     to check ‘PyErr_Occurred()’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-106004(6).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 335. function, which behaves
     similarly to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 336, but returns a *note
     strong reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334.
     This function returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ on insertion, and ‘1’ if
     the key was already present in the dictionary.  (Contributed by Sam
     Gross in gh-112066(7).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_Pop(): 337. and *note PyDict_PopString(): 338.
     functions to remove a key from a dictionary and optionally return
     the removed value.  This is similar to *note dict.pop(): 339,
     though there is no default value, and *note KeyError: 33a. is not
     raised for missing keys.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Victor
     Stinner in gh-111262(8).)

   * Add the *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33b. and *note
     PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 33c. functions as alternatives
     to *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d. and *note
     PyMapping_GetItemString(): 33e. respectively.  The new functions do
     not raise *note KeyError: 33a. if the requested key is missing from
     the mapping.  These variants are more convenient and faster if a
     missing key should not be treated as a failure.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106307(9).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 33f. and *note
     PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 340. functions as alternatives to
     *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341. and *note PyObject_GetAttrString():
     342. respectively.  The new functions do not raise *note
     AttributeError: 343. if the requested attribute is not found on the
     object.  These variants are more convenient and faster if the
     missing attribute should not be treated as a failure.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106521(10).)

   * Add the *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 344. function as an
     extension to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345. that allows
     customizing the warning message.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in gh-108082(11).)

   * Add new functions that return a *note strong reference: 333.
     instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334. for frame locals,
     globals, and builtins, as part of *note PEP 667: 141.:

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 346. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 347.

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 348. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetGlobals(): 349.

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34a. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929(12).)

   * Add the *note Py_GetConstant(): 34c. and *note
     Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 34d. functions to get *note strong: 333.
     or *note borrowed: 334. references to constants.  For example,
     ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a strong reference to
     the constant zero.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-115754(13).)

   * Add the *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 34e. function as a
     replacement for *note PyImport_AddModule(): 34f. that returns a
     *note strong reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference:
     334.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105922(14).)

   * Add the *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 350. function to check whether the
     main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14d.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-108014(15).)

   * Add the *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 351. function as a replacement
     for *note PyList_GetItem(): 352. that returns a *note strong
     reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334.
     (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-114329(16).)

   * Add the *note PyList_Extend(): 353. and *note PyList_Clear(): 354.
     functions, mirroring the Python ‘list.extend()’ and ‘list.clear()’
     methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111138(17).)

   * Add the *note PyLong_AsInt(): 355. function.  It behaves similarly
     to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 356, but stores the result in a C int
     instead of a C long.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108014(18).)

   * Add the *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 357, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 358, and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 359. functions to simplify
     converting between native integer types and Python *note int: 254.
     objects.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-111140(19).)

   * Add *note PyModule_Add(): 35a. function, which is similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b. and *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c,
     but always steals a reference to the value.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-86493(20).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 35d. function that implements
     the default hashing function of a Python object.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113024(21).)

   * Add the *note Py_HashPointer(): 35e. function to hash a raw
     pointer.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111545(22).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 35f. and *note
     PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 360. functions.  which must be called
     by the traverse and clear functions of a type using the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. flag.  The pythoncapi-compat
     project(23) can be used to use these functions with Python 3.11 and
     3.12.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107073(24).)

   * Add the *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 362. and *note
     PyRefTracer_GetTracer(): 363. functions, which enable tracking
     object creation and destruction in the same way that the *note
     tracemalloc: fe. module does.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-93502(25).)

   * Add the *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 364. function as an alternative
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 365. that takes event arguments as a Python
     *note tuple: 366. object.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-85283(26).)

   * Add the *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 367. function as an
     alternative to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 368. that doesn't kill
     the process with a fatal error if it is ‘NULL’.  The caller is
     responsible for checking if the result is ‘NULL’.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-108867(27).)

   * Add the *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 369. function to get
     the type's fully qualified name.  The module name is prepended if
     *note type.__module__: 36a. is a string and is not equal to either
     ‘'builtins'’ or ‘'__main__'’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-111696(28).)

   * Add the *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 36b. function to get the
     type's module name.  This is equivalent to getting the *note
     type.__module__: 36a. attribute.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and
     Victor Stinner in gh-111696(29).)

   * Add the *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36c. and *note
     PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 36d. functions to compare a Unicode object
     with a const char* UTF-8 encoded string and ‘1’ if they are equal
     or ‘0’ otherwise.  These functions do not raise exceptions.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110289(30).)

   * Add the *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. function as an alternative
     to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. that returns a *note strong
     reference: 333. or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(31).)

   * Add fixed variants of functions which silently ignore errors:

        * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 370. replaces *note
          PyObject_HasAttr(): 371.

        * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 372. replaces *note
          PyObject_HasAttrString(): 373.

        * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 374. replaces *note
          PyMapping_HasKey(): 375.

        * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 376. replaces *note
          PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 377.

     The new functions return ‘-1’ for errors and the standard ‘1’ for
     true and ‘0’ for false.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108511(32).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511


File: python.info,  Node: Changed C APIs,  Next: Limited C API Changes,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C

1.1.10.2 Changed C APIs
.......................

   * The 'keywords' parameter of *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords():
     379. and *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37a. now has type
     char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**.
     In C++, this makes these functions compatible with arguments of
     type const char *const*, const char**, or char *const* without an
     explicit type cast.  In C, the functions only support arguments of
     type char *const*.  This can be overridden with the *note
     PY_CXX_CONST: 37b. macro.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-65210(1).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. now supports non-ASCII
     keyword parameter names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-110815(2).)

   * The ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ function is now unstable API and is now
     named *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 37c.  (Contributed by
     Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(3).)

   * The *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d, *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 37e,
     *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 375, *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 377,
     *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 371, *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 373,
     and *note PySys_GetObject(): 37f. functions, each of which clears
     all errors which occurred when calling them now reports these
     errors using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.  You may replace them
     with other functions as recommended in the documentation.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106672(4).)

   * Add support for the ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and ‘%#N’ formats to *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380.:

        * ‘%T’: Get the fully qualified name of an object type

        * ‘%#T’: As above, but use a colon as the separator

        * ‘%N’: Get the fully qualified name of a type

        * ‘%#N’: As above, but use a colon as the separator

     See PEP 737(5) for more information.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-111696(6).)

   * You no longer have to define the ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro before
     including ‘Python.h’ when using ‘#’ formats in *note format codes:
     381.  APIs accepting the format codes always use ‘Py_ssize_t’ for
     ‘#’ formats.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-104922(7).)

   * If Python is built in *note debug mode: 1f6. or *note with
     assertions: 382, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 383. and *note
     PyList_SET_ITEM(): 384. now check the index argument with an
     assertion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106168(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API Changes,  Next: Removed C APIs,  Prev: Changed C APIs,  Up: Changements à l'API C

1.1.10.3 Limited C API Changes
..............................

   * The following functions are now included in the Limited C API:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 389.

        * *note PySys_Audit(): 365.

        * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 364.

        * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(1), gh-85283(2), and
     gh-116936(3).)

   * Python built with *note -with-trace-refs: 38b. (tracing references)
     now supports the *note Limited API: 38c.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-108634(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634


File: python.info,  Node: Removed C APIs,  Next: Deprecated C APIs,  Prev: Limited C API Changes,  Up: Changements à l'API C

1.1.10.4 Removed C APIs
.......................

   * Remove several functions, macros, variables, etc with names
     prefixed by ‘_Py’ or ‘_PY’ (which are considered private).  If your
     project is affected by one of these removals and you believe that
     the removed API should remain available, please *note open a new
     issue: 24b. to request a public C API and add ‘cc: @vstinner’ to
     the issue to notify Victor Stinner.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in gh-106320(1).)

   * Remove old buffer protocols deprecated in Python 3.0.  Use *note
     Protocole tampon: 38e. instead.

        * ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’: Use *note
          PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 38f. to test whether the object
          supports the buffer protocol.  Note that *note
          PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 38f. doesn't guarantee that *note
          PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. will succeed.  To test if the
          object is actually readable, see the next example of *note
          PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390.

        * ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’: Use
          *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. and *note PyBuffer_Release():
          391. instead:

               Py_buffer view;
               if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_SIMPLE) < 0) {
                   return NULL;
               }
               // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to read from the buffer.
               // You may need to cast buf as `(const char*)view.buf`.
               PyBuffer_Release(&view);

        * ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’: Use *note PyObject_GetBuffer():
          390. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. instead:

               Py_buffer view;
               if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_WRITABLE) < 0) {
                   return NULL;
               }
               // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to write to the buffer.
               PyBuffer_Release(&view);

     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-85275(2).)

   * Remove various functions deprecated in Python 3.9:

        * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: Use
          *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 392. or *note PyObject_Call():
          393. instead.

               Avertissement: In *note PyObject_Call(): 393, positional
               arguments must be a *note tuple: 366. and must not be
               ‘NULL’, and keyword arguments must be a *note dict: 253.
               or ‘NULL’, whereas the removed functions checked argument
               types and accepted ‘NULL’ positional and keyword
               arguments.  To replace
               ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(func, NULL, kwargs)’ with
               *note PyObject_Call(): 393, pass an empty tuple as
               positional arguments using *note PyTuple_New(0): 394.

        * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: Use *note PyObject_CallFunction():
          395. instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: Use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396.
          instead.

        * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: Use *note PyObject_Call(): 393. instead.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105107(3).)

   * Remove the following old functions to configure the Python
     initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’: Use *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 397. instead.

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 397.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 398.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 398.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths:
          399. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’: Set *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 39a. instead, and set also maybe
          *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b. (on Windows).

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.executable:
          39c. instead.

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 39d. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e. instead ( PEP 587(4)), added to
     Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(5).)

   * Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.2.  They didn't update the current thread
     state.  They can be replaced with:

        * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f. and *note
          PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0.;

        * low-level *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a1. and *note
          PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0.;

        * or *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. and *note
          PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(6).)

   * Remove the ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.9.  Since Python 3.7, ‘Py_Initialize()’ always creates the
     GIL: calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ does nothing and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ always returns non-zero.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(7).)

   * Remove the ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a4. which was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.8.  The pythoncapi-compat project(8)
     can be used to get *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a4. on Python
     3.8 and older.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320(9).)

   * Remove the private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use
     ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP
     590(10)).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106023(11).)

   * Remove the ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file, which only contained
     private functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-106316(12).)

   * Remove the undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from the limited
     C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-110014(13).)

   * Remove the old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.  Replace both with the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-105111(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (8) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated C APIs,  Prev: Removed C APIs,  Up: Changements à l'API C

1.1.10.5 Deprecated C APIs
..........................

   * Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3a7. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix:
          3a9. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.: Get *note sys.path: 3ab. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac.: Get *note sys.prefix: 3ad.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b2.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable instead.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(1).)

   * *note Soft deprecate: 206. the *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 347,
     *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 349, and *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b.
     functions, which return a *note borrowed reference: 334.  (Soft
     deprecated as part of PEP 667(2).)

   * Deprecate the *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4. function,
     which is just an alias to *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. since
     Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105396(3).)

   * *note Soft deprecate: 206. the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c.
     function.  It should be replaced with *note PyModule_Add(): 35a. or
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-86493(4).)

   * Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ types and the
     ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ define.  Use the ‘wchar_t’ type directly instead.
     Since Python 3.3, ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just
     aliases to ‘wchar_t’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-105156(5).)

   * Deprecate the *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. and *note
     PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b6. functions, which return a *note
     borrowed reference: 334.  Replace them with the new *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. function, which returns a *note strong
     reference: 333.  The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to
     get *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. on Python 3.12 and older.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(7).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.6 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3b8. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3b9. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b2. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3bd.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3be. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3bf.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c0.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c1.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c2.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c3.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c4. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c5.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3c7.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3c8. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3c9.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3ca. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3cb.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cc. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3cd.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3ce. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d1.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d2. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d3.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d4. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d5.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3d7.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3d8. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3d9. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3da.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3db.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3dc.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3de.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e0. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.7 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’.

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     3b6.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3a7. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8.: Get *note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e5. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a9.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.: Get *note sys.path: 3ab. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3e6.
          and *note sys.prefix: 3ad. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b2.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.8 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3e8.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     3ea. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3eb.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3ec.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     3ed. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3ee.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3ef. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f0.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f1. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f2.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     3f3. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3f7.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fa.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3fb. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 3fc.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 3fd. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 3fe.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 3ff. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 400.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 401. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 402.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 403. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 404.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la compilation,  Next: Porting to Python 3 13,  Prev: Changements à l'API C,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.11 Changements à la compilation
-----------------------------------

   * ‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ are both now PEP
     11(1) tier 3 platforms.  (*note PEP 730: 164. written and
     implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(2).)

   * ‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ are both now PEP
     11(3) tier 3 platforms.  (*note PEP 738: 164. written and
     implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622(4).)

   * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now a PEP 11(5) tier 2 platform.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-115192(6).)

   * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer a PEP 11(7) supported platform.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192(8).)

   * Building CPython now requires a compiler with support for the C11
     atomic library, GCC built-in atomic functions, or MSVC interlocked
     intrinsics.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are now required to regenerate the
     ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-89886(9) and by Victor Stinner in gh-112090(10).)

   * SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the *note sqlite3: ce.
     extension module.  (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in
     gh-105875(11).)

   * CPython now bundles the mimalloc library(12) by default.  It is
     licensed under the MIT license; see *note mimalloc license: 407.
     The bundled mimalloc has custom changes, see gh-113141(13) for
     details.  (Contributed by Dino Viehland in gh-109914(14).)

   * The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec: 408. now
     defaults to ‘yes’.  The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’ will be
     removed in Python 3.15.

   * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs: 38b. (tracing
     references) is now ABI compatible with the Python release build and
     *note debug build: 1f6.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108634(15).)

   * On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames now include the
     ABI flags.  For example, the free-threaded build generates
     ‘python-3.13t.pc’ and the debug build generates ‘python-3.13d.pc’.

   * The ‘errno’, ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘md5’, ‘pwd’, ‘resource’, ‘termios’,
     ‘winsound’, ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’,
     ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’, ‘_statistics’, ‘_testconsole’,
     ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with
     the *note limited C API: 38c.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-85283(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112090

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875

   (12) https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113141

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109914

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 13,  Next: Regression Test Changes,  Prev: Changements à la compilation,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.12 Porting to Python 3.13
-----------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changements dans l'API Python::
* Changements dans l'API C::


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python,  Next: Changements dans l'API C,  Up: Porting to Python 3 13

1.1.12.1 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * *note PEP 667: 141. introduces several changes to the semantics of
     *note locals(): 140. and *note f_locals: 180.:

        * Calling *note locals(): 140. in an *note optimized scope: 17c.
          now produces an independent snapshot on each call, and hence
          no longer implicitly updates previously returned references.
          Obtaining the legacy CPython behavior now requires explicit
          calls to update the initially returned dictionary with the
          results of subsequent calls to ‘locals()’.  Code execution
          functions that implicitly target ‘locals()’ (such as ‘exec’
          and ‘eval’) must be passed an explicit namespace to access
          their results in an optimized scope.  (Changed as part of PEP
          667(1).)

        * Calling *note locals(): 140. from a comprehension at module or
          class scope (including via ‘exec’ or ‘eval’) once more behaves
          as if the comprehension were running as an independent nested
          function (i.e.  the local variables from the containing scope
          are not included).  In Python 3.12, this had changed to
          include the local variables from the containing scope when
          implementing PEP 709(2).  (Changed as part of PEP 667(3).)

        * Accessing *note FrameType.f_locals: 180. in an *note optimized
          scope: 17c. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a
          snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times.  If a
          snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly with ‘dict’
          or the proxy's ‘.copy()’ method.  (Changed as part of PEP
          667(4).)

   * *note functools.partial: 40a. now emits a *note FutureWarning: 40b.
     when used as a method.  The behavior will change in future Python
     versions.  Wrap it in *note staticmethod(): 40c. if you want to
     preserve the old behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-121027(5).)

   * An *note OSError: 40d. is now raised by *note getpass.getuser():
     40e. for any failure to retrieve a username, instead of *note
     ImportError: 40f. on non-Unix platforms or *note KeyError: 33a. on
     Unix platforms where the password database is empty.

   * The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 410. is
     now a string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’) instead of an integer (‘1’ or ‘2’).
     The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object
     returned by *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 411. is now ‘'rb'’
     instead of ‘'r'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-115961(6).)

   * *note mailbox.Maildir: 412. now ignores files with a leading dot
     (‘.’).  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-65559(7).)

   * *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b. now return
     both files and directories if a pattern that ends with "‘**’" is
     given, rather than directories only.  Add a trailing slash to keep
     the previous behavior and only match directories.

   * The *note threading: ec. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter()’ function.  This function takes no
     arguments and returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the main
     interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     must provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’, just like the module's other
     "private" attributes.  (gh-112826(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65559

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python,  Up: Porting to Python 3 13

1.1.12.2 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ieeefp.h>’ standard header.  It
     was included for the ‘finite()’ function which is now provided by
     the ‘<math.h>’ header.  It should now be included explicitly if
     needed.  Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-108765(1).)

   * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header files:
     ‘<time.h>’, ‘<sys/select.h>’ and ‘<sys/time.h>’.  If needed, they
     should now be included explicitly.  For example, ‘<time.h>’
     provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘<sys/select.h>’
     provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘<sys/time.h>’ provides the
     ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765(2).)

   * On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<stddef.h>’ standard
     header file.  If needed, it should now be included explicitly.  For
     example, it provides ‘offsetof()’ function, and ‘size_t’ and
     ‘ptrdiff_t’ types.  Including ‘<stddef.h>’ explicitly was already
     needed by all other platforms, the ‘HAVE_STDDEF_H’ macro is only
     defined on Windows.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108765(3).)

   * If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 414. macro is defined,
     ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     macros are now undefined by ‘<Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-85283(4).)

   * The old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’ were removed.  They should be replaced by
     the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A ‘tp_dealloc’ function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.  The new macros were added in
     Python 3.8 and the old macros were deprecated in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111(5).)

   * *note PEP 667: 141. introduces several changes to frame-related
     functions:

        * The effects of mutating the dictionary returned from *note
          PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b. in an *note optimized scope: 17c.
          have changed.  New dict entries added this way will now 'only'
          be visible to subsequent *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b. calls
          in that frame, as *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415, *note
          locals(): 140, and *note FrameType.f_locals: 180. no longer
          access the same underlying cached dictionary.  Changes made to
          entries for actual variable names and names added via the
          write-through proxy interfaces will be overwritten on
          subsequent calls to *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b. in that
          frame.  The recommended code update depends on how the
          function was being used, so refer to the deprecation notice on
          the function for details.

        * Calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415. in an *note optimized
          scope: 17c. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a
          snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times.  If a
          snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly (e.g.  with
          *note PyDict_Copy(): 416.), or by calling the new *note
          PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34a. API.

        * ‘PyFrame_FastToLocals()’ and ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’
          no longer have any effect.  Calling these functions has been
          redundant since Python 3.11, when *note PyFrame_GetLocals():
          415. was first introduced.

        * ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ no longer has any effect.  Calling
          this function is redundant now that *note PyFrame_GetLocals():
          415. returns a write-through proxy for *note optimized scopes:
          17c.

   * Python 3.13 removed many private functions.  Some of them can be
     replaced using these alternatives:

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: *note PyDict_Pop(): 337. or *note
          PyDict_PopString(): 338.;

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemWithError()’: *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330.;

        * ‘_PyErr_WriteUnraisableMsg()’: *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable():
          344.;

        * ‘_PyEval_SetTrace()’: *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417. or *note
          PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 418.;

        * ‘_PyList_Extend()’: *note PyList_Extend(): 353.;

        * ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’: *note PyLong_AsInt(): 355.;

        * ‘_PyMem_RawStrdup()’: ‘strdup()’;

        * ‘_PyMem_Strdup()’: ‘strdup()’;

        * ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’: *note
          PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 360.;

        * ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’: *note
          PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 35f.;

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 367.;

        * ‘_PyTime_AsSecondsDouble()’: *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble():
          326.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetMonotonicClock()’: *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 327.
          or *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 328.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetPerfCounter()’: *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 329.
          or *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32a.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetSystemClock()’: *note PyTime_Time(): 32b. or *note
          PyTime_TimeRaw(): 32c.;

        * ‘_PyTime_MAX’: *note PyTime_MAX: 325.;

        * ‘_PyTime_MIN’: *note PyTime_MIN: 324.;

        * ‘_PyTime_t’: *note PyTime_t: 323.;

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: *note Py_HashPointer(): 35e.;

        * ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’: *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 350.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to get most of these
     new functions on Python 3.12 and older.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Regression Test Changes,  Next: Notable changes in 3 13 1,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 13,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.13 Regression Test Changes
------------------------------

   * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-pydebug: 41a. now
     supports a *note -X presite=package.module: 175. command-line
     option.  If used, it specifies a module that should be imported
     early in the lifecycle of the interpreter, before ‘site.py’ is
     executed.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-110769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110769


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 13 1,  Prev: Regression Test Changes,  Up: What's New In Python 3 13

1.1.14 Notable changes in 3.13.1
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* sys: sys<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: sys<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 13 1

1.1.14.1 'sys'
..............

   * The previously undocumented special function *note
     sys.getobjects(): 41d, which only exists in specialized builds of
     Python, may now return objects from other interpreters than the one
     it's called in.


File: python.info,  Node: What's New In Python 3 12,  Next: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11,  Prev: What's New In Python 3 13,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.2 What's New In Python 3.12
=============================


Éditeur: Adam Turner

This article explains the new features in Python 3.12, compared to 3.11.
Python 3.12 was released on October 2, 2023.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 693(1) - Python 3.12 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points marquants de cette version::
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types::
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<2>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<2>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<2>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<2>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython::
* Demos and Tools::
* Obsolescence::
* Retraits::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<2>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.1 Résumé – Points marquants de cette version
------------------------------------------------

Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with
a mix of changes to the language and the standard library.  The library
changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and
correctness.  Of note, the ‘distutils’ package has been removed from the
standard library.  Filesystem support in *note os: a0. and *note
pathlib: a3. has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have
better performance.

The language changes focus on usability, as *note f-strings: 421. have
had many limitations removed and 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions
continue to improve.  The new *note type parameter syntax: 422. and
*note type: 423. statement improve ergonomics for using *note generic
types: 424. and *note type aliases: 425. with static type checkers.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the *note
Library Reference: 143. and *note Language Reference: 144.  If you want
to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that
PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

__________________________________________________________________

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * *note PEP 695: 422, type parameter syntax and the *note type: 423.
     statement

New grammar features:

   * *note PEP 701: 426, *note f-strings: 421. in the grammar

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

   * *note PEP 684: 427, a unique per-interpreter *note GIL: 147.

   * *note PEP 669: 428, low impact monitoring

   * *note Improved 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions: 429.for *note
     NameError: 42a, *note ImportError: 40f, and *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     exceptions

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 688: 42b, using the *note buffer protocol: 38e. from
     Python

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note pathlib.Path: 226. class now supports subclassing

   * The *note os: a0. module received several improvements for Windows
     support

   * A *note command-line interface: 42c. has been added to the *note
     sqlite3: ce. module

   * *note isinstance(): 42d. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 42e. enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times

   * The *note asyncio: a. package has had a number of performance
     improvements, with some benchmarks showing a 75% speed up.

   * A *note command-line interface: 42f. has been added to the *note
     uuid: 10f. module

   * Due to the changes in *note PEP 701: 426, producing tokens via the
     *note tokenize: fa. module is up to 64% faster.

Security improvements:

   * Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 67. implementations of SHA1,
     SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from
     the HACL*(1) project.  These builtin implementations remain as
     fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 697: 430, unstable C API tier

   * *note PEP 683: 431, immortal objects

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note PEP 709: 432, comprehension inlining

   * *note CPython support: 18d. for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler

   * Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

   * *note PEP 692: 433, using *note TypedDict: 161. to annotate *note
     **kwargs: 434.

   * *note PEP 698: 435, *note typing.override(): 436. decorator

Obsolescences, retraits ou restrictions :

   * PEP 623(2): Remove ‘wstr’ from Unicode objects in Python's C API,
     reducing the size of every *note str: 437. object by at least 8
     bytes.

   * PEP 632(3): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  See the migration
     guide(4) for advice replacing the APIs it provided.  The
     third-party Setuptools(5) package continues to provide ‘distutils’,
     if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond.

   * gh-95299(6): Do not pre-install ‘setuptools’ in virtual
     environments created with *note venv: 110.  This means that
     ‘distutils’, ‘setuptools’, ‘pkg_resources’, and ‘easy_install’ will
     no longer available by default; to access these run ‘pip install
     setuptools’ in the *note activated: 438. virtual environment.

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’, and ‘imp’ modules have been removed,
     along with several *note unittest.TestCase: 439. *note method
     aliases: 43a..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (5) 
https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types,  Prev: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Next: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.1 PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax
......................................

Generic classes and functions under PEP 484(1) were declared using a
verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and
required explicit declarations of variance.

PEP 695(2) introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create
*note generic classes: 43d. and *note functions: 43e.:

     def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class list[T]:
         def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
             ...

         def append(self, element: T) -> None:
             ...

In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare *note type aliases:
43f. using the *note type: 423. statement, which creates an instance of
*note TypeAliasType: 440.:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

Type aliases can also be *note generic: 441.:

     type Point[T] = tuple[T, T]

The new syntax allows declaring *note TypeVarTuple: 15e. and *note
ParamSpec: 15d. parameters, as well as *note TypeVar: 15c. parameters
with bounds or constraints:

     type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]  # ParamSpec
     type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts]  # TypeVarTuple
     type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with bound
     type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with constraints

The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type
variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see
*note lazy evaluation: 442.).  This means type aliases are able to refer
to other types defined later in the file.

Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible
within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in
the outer scope.  For example, they can be used in the type annotations
for the methods of a generic class or in the class body.  However, they
cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined.  See
*note Type parameter lists: 2b0. for a detailed description of the
runtime semantics of type parameters.

In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is
introduced, the *note annotation scope: 186.  Annotation scopes behave
for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with
enclosing class scopes.  In Python 3.13, *note annotations: 443. will
also be evaluated in annotation scopes.

See PEP 695(3) for more details.

(PEP written by Eric Traut.  Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric
Traut, and others in gh-103764(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Next: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Prev: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.2 PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings
.....................................................

PEP 701(1) lifts some restrictions on the usage of *note f-strings: 421.
Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python
expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing
f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode
escape sequences.  Let's cover these in detail:

   * Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the
     enclosing f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 18b, forcing the
     user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes
     or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes).  In Python
     3.12, you can now do things like this:

          >>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism']
          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

     Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how
     f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be
     reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it
     impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily.  In fact, this is the
     most nested f-string that could be written:

          >>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}"""
          '2'

     As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside
     expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings
     arbitrarily:

          >>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}"
          '2'

   * Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string
     expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the
     expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines
     (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them
     harder to read.  In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings
     spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments:

          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([
          ...     'Take me back to Eden',  # My, my, those eyes like fire
          ...     'Alkaline',              # Not acid nor alkaline
          ...     'Ascensionism'           # Take to the broken skies at last
          ... ])}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

   * Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string
     expressions couldn't contain any ‘\’ character.  This also affected
     unicode *note escape sequences: 445. (such as ‘\N{snowman}’) as
     these contain the ‘\N’ part that previously could not be part of
     expression components of f-strings.  Now, you can define
     expressions like this:

          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden
          Alkaline
          Ascensionism
          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism

See PEP 701(2) for more details.

As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by
parsing f-strings with the PEG parser(3)), now error messages for
f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error.
For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a *note
SyntaxError: 18b.:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         (x z y)
          ^^^
     SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

but the error message doesn't include the exact location of the error
within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by
parentheses.  In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG
parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
                        ^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou,
Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856(4).  PEP written
by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Prev: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.3 PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL
......................................

PEP 684(1) introduces a per-interpreter *note GIL: 147, so that
sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter.
This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU
cores.  This is currently only available through the C-API, though a
Python API is anticipated for 3.13(2).

Use the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 447. function to create
an interpreter with its own GIL:

     PyInterpreterConfig config = {
         .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
         .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
     };
     PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
     PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         return -1;
     }
     /* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */

For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a
per-interpreter GIL, see ‘Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c’.

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104210(3), etc.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Next: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Prev: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.4 PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython
..................................................

PEP 669(1) defines a new *note API: d9. for profilers, debuggers, and
other tools to monitor events in CPython.  It covers a wide range of
events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more.
This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for
near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools.  See *note
sys.monitoring: d9. for details.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Next: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Prev: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.5 PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python
................................................................

PEP 688(1) introduces a way to use the *note buffer protocol: 38e. from
Python code.  Classes that implement the *note __buffer__(): 44a. method
are now usable as buffer types.

The new *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1. ABC provides a standard way
to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations.  The new
*note inspect.BufferFlags: 44b. enum represents the flags that can be
used to customize buffer creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
gh-102500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Next: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.6 PEP 709: Comprehension inlining
.......................................

Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than
creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the
comprehension.  This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two
times.  See PEP 709(1) for further details.

Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don't overwrite a
variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after
the comprehension.  Inlining does result in a few visible behavior
changes:

   * There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in
     tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension
     as a function call.

   * The *note symtable: d7. module will no longer produce child symbol
     tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension's locals
     will be included in the parent function's symbol table.

   * Calling *note locals(): 140. inside a comprehension now includes
     variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes
     the synthetic ‘.0’ variable for the comprehension "argument".

   * A comprehension iterating directly over ‘locals()’ (e.g.  ‘[k for k
     in locals()]’) may see "RuntimeError: dictionary changed size
     during iteration" when run under tracing (e.g.  code coverage
     measurement).  This is the same behavior already seen in e.g.  ‘for
     k in locals():’.  To avoid the error, first create a list of keys
     to iterate over: ‘keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys]’.

(Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in PEP 709(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>

1.2.2.7 Improved Error Messages
...............................

   * Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as
     part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a
     *note NameError: 42a. is raised to the top level.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo in gh-98254(1).)

          >>> sys.version_info
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'?

   * Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError: 42a. exceptions
     for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 42a. is raised in a
     method and the instance has an attribute that's exactly equal to
     the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-99139(2).)

          >>> class A:
          ...    def __init__(self):
          ...        self.blech = 1
          ...
          ...    def foo(self):
          ...        somethin = blech
          ...
          >>> A().foo()
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              somethin = blech
                         ^^^^^
          NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'?

   * Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18b. error message when the user
     types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.  (Contributed
     by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931(3).)

          >>> import a.y.z from b.y.z
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              import a.y.z from b.y.z
              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?

   * *note ImportError: 40f. exceptions raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ statements now include suggestions for the
     value of ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058(4).)

          >>> from collections import chainmap
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types,  Next: Autres changements au langage<2>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<3>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.3 Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types
----------------------------------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting type hints(1) and the *note
typing: 103. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Next: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

1.2.3.1 PEP 692: Using ‘TypedDict’ for more precise ‘**kwargs’ typing
.....................................................................

Typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484(1)
allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the ‘**kwargs’
were of the same type.

PEP 692(2) specifies a more precise way of typing ‘**kwargs’ by relying
on typed dictionaries:

     from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

     class Movie(TypedDict):
       name: str
       year: int

     def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

See PEP 692(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Franek Magiera in gh-103629(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Prev: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

1.2.3.2 PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
.....................................................

A new decorator *note typing.override(): 436. has been added to the
*note typing: 103. module.  It indicates to type checkers that the
method is intended to override a method in a superclass.  This allows
type checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to
override something in a base class does not in fact do so.

Exemple :

     from typing import override

     class Base:
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "blue"

     class GoodChild(Base):
       @override  # ok: overrides Base.get_color
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "yellow"

     class BadChild(Base):
       @override  # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color
       def get_colour(self) -> str:
         return "red"

See PEP 698(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Steven Troxler in gh-101561(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<2>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<2>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.4 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 18b. when parsing source
     code containing null bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-96670(1).)

   * A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
     generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 451, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 451. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence, use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’).  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-98401(2).)

   * Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex: ‘"\477"’),
     deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 451,
     instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(3).)

   * Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not
     stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (‘:=’).  For
     example, in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’, the assignment
     to ‘b’ is now allowed.  Note that assigning to variables stored to
     in the target part of comprehensions (like ‘a’) is still
     disallowed, as per PEP 572(4).  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-100581(5).)

   * Exceptions raised in a class or type's ‘__set_name__’ method are no
     longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 193.  Context information
     is added to the exception as a PEP 678(6) note.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-77757(7).)

   * When a ‘try-except*’ construct handles the entire *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b4. and raises one other exception, that exception
     is no longer wrapped in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.  Also changed
     in version 3.11.4.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590(8).)

   * The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism
     of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object
     allocations.  The GC can also run when *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     452. is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time
     without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the
     GC periodically.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922(9).)

   * All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters
     now accept arguments of any type instead of just *note bool: 453.
     and *note int: 254.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-60203(10).)

   * *note memoryview: 454. now supports the half-float type (the "e"
     format code).  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in
     gh-90751(11).)

   * *note slice: 455. objects are now hashable, allowing them to be
     used as dict keys and set items.  (Contributed by Will Bradshaw,
     Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264(12).)

   * *note sum(): 456. now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy
     and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425(13).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 1a6. now raises *note SyntaxError: 18b. instead
     of *note ValueError: 1ff. when parsing source code containing null
     bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(14).)

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note tarfile extraction filters: 458. for details.  In Python
     3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in PEP 706(15).)

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. instances are now hashable if
     the underlying mapping is hashable.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-87995(16).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 18d. through the new
     environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 45a. and command-line
     option *note -X perf: 175, as well as the new *note
     sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 45b, *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 45c, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 45d. functions.  (Design by Pablo
     Galindo.  Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with
     contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in
     gh-96123(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<2>,  Next: Modules améliorés<2>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.5 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<2>,  Next: Optimisations<2>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.6 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* array: array<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis: dis<2>.
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* math: math<2>.
* os: os<2>.
* os.path: os path<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform::
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* random: random<2>.
* shutils: shutils<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* tokenize::
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* uuid::


File: python.info,  Node: array<2>,  Next: asyncio<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.1 'array'
...............

   * The *note array.array: 19e. class now supports subscripting, making
     it a *note generic type: 424.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-98658(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<2>,  Next: calendar,  Prev: array<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.2 'asyncio'
.................

   * The performance of writing to sockets in *note asyncio: a. has been
     significantly improved.  ‘asyncio’ now avoids unnecessary copying
     when writing to sockets and uses *note sendmsg(): 462. if the
     platform supports it.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-91166(1).)

   * Add *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 463. and *note
     asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(): 464. functions to allow opting
     an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x
     to 5x faster.  (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in
     gh-102853(2), gh-104140(3), and gh-104138(4))

   * On Linux, *note asyncio: a. uses *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher:
     465. by default if *note os.pidfd_open(): 466. is available and
     functional instead of *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 467.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-98024(5).)

   * The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each
     platform (*note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 465. if supported and
     *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 467. otherwise), so manually
     configuring a child watcher is not recommended.  (Contributed by
     Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(6).)

   * Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run(): 468. to allow
     specifying a custom event loop factory.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-99388(7).)

   * Add C implementation of *note asyncio.current_task(): 469. for
     4x-6x speedup.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram
     Bhat in gh-100344(8).)

   * *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 46a. now returns ‘False’ for
     generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-102748(9).)

   * *note asyncio.wait(): 46b. and *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1a8.
     now accepts generators yielding tasks.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-78530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530


File: python.info,  Node: calendar,  Next: csv,  Prev: asyncio<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.3 calendar
................

   * Add enums *note calendar.Month: 46d. and *note calendar.Day: 46e.
     defining months of the year and days of the week.  (Contributed by
     Prince Roshan in gh-103636(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636


File: python.info,  Node: csv,  Next: dis<2>,  Prev: calendar,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.4 csv
...........

   * Add *note csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL: 470. and *note csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 471.
     flags to provide finer grained control of ‘None’ and empty strings
     by *note reader: 472. and *note writer: 473. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: dis<2>,  Next: fractions<2>,  Prev: csv,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.5 dis
...........

   * Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do
     not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the *note
     dis: 38. module.  *note HAVE_ARGUMENT: 475. is still relevant to
     real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions.  Use
     the new *note dis.hasarg: 29b. collection instead.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-94216(1).)

   * Add the *note dis.hasexc: 476. collection to signify instructions
     that set an exception handler.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-94216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<2>,  Next: importlib resources,  Prev: dis<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.6 ‘fractions’
...................

   * Objects of type *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. now support
     float-style formatting.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     gh-100161(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources,  Next: inspect,  Prev: fractions<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.7 importlib.resources
...........................

   * *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 479. now supports resource
     directories.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930(1).)

   * Rename first parameter of *note importlib.resources.files(): 47a.
     to 'anchor'.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598


File: python.info,  Node: inspect,  Next: itertools<2>,  Prev: importlib resources,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.8 'inspect'
.................

   * Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 47c. to mark sync
     functions that return a *note coroutine: 47d. for use with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3.  (Contributed by Carlton Gibson
     in gh-99247(1).)

   * Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 47e. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 47f. for determining the current state
     of asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in
     gh-79940(2).)

   * The performance of *note inspect.getattr_static(): 480. has been
     considerably improved.  Most calls to the function should be at
     least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by
     Alex Waygood in gh-103193(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<2>,  Next: math<2>,  Prev: inspect,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.9 itertools
.................

   * Add *note itertools.batched(): 1fe. for collecting into even-sized
     tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363


File: python.info,  Node: math<2>,  Next: os<2>,  Prev: itertools<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.10 'math'
...............

   * Add *note math.sumprod(): 483. for computing a sum of products.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100485(1).)

   * Extend *note math.nextafter(): 484. to include a 'steps' argument
     for moving up or down multiple steps at a time.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-94906(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906


File: python.info,  Node: os<2>,  Next: os path<2>,  Prev: math<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.11 'os'
.............

   * Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 486. to open a file descriptor for a
     process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 466. in non-blocking mode.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312(1).)

   * *note os.DirEntry: 487. now includes an *note
     os.DirEntry.is_junction(): 488. method to check if the entry is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(2).)

   * Add *note os.listdrives(): 489, *note os.listvolumes(): 48a. and
     *note os.listmounts(): 48b. functions on Windows for enumerating
     drives, volumes and mount points.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-102519(3).)

   * *note os.stat(): 48c. and *note os.lstat(): 48d. are now more
     accurate on Windows.  The ‘st_birthtime’ field will now be filled
     with the creation time of the file, and ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated
     but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return
     the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms).
     ‘st_dev’ may be up to 64 bits and ‘st_ino’ up to 128 bits depending
     on your file system, and ‘st_rdev’ is always set to zero rather
     than incorrect values.  Both functions may be significantly faster
     on newer releases of Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-99726(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: os path<2>,  Next: pathlib<3>,  Prev: os<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.12 ‘os.path’
..................

   * Add *note os.path.isjunction(): 48f. to check if a given path is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(1).)

   * Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 490. to split a path into a triad
     ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-101000(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<3>,  Next: platform,  Prev: os path<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.13 'pathlib'
..................

   * Add support for subclassing *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. and *note
     pathlib.Path: 226, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants.
     Subclasses may override the *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments():
     493. method to pass information between path instances.

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 494. for walking the directory trees
     and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to
     *note os.walk(): 495.  (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in
     gh-90385(1).)

   * Add 'walk_up' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8. to allow the insertion of ‘..’
     entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with *note
     os.path.relpath(): 496.  (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in
     gh-84538(2).)

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.is_junction(): 497. as a proxy to *note
     os.path.isjunction(): 48f.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-99547(3).)

   * Add 'case_sensitive' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a, *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 22b. and
     *note pathlib.PurePath.match(): 498. for matching the path's case
     sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching
     process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547


File: python.info,  Node: platform,  Next: pdb<2>,  Prev: pathlib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.14 platform
.................

   * Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases
     past 2012.  Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer
     than Windows Server 2012 and on Windows 11 would return
     ‘Windows-10’.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-89545(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<2>,  Next: random<2>,  Prev: platform,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.15 'pdb'
..............

   * Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug
     session and provide quick access to values like the current frame
     or the return value.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693


File: python.info,  Node: random<2>,  Next: shutils<2>,  Prev: pdb<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.16 'random'
.................

   * Add *note random.binomialvariate(): 49c.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-81620(1).)

   * Add a default of ‘lambd=1.0’ to *note random.expovariate(): 49d.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100234(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<2>,  Next: sqlite3<2>,  Prev: random<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.17 ‘shutils’
..................

   * *note shutil.make_archive(): 49f. now passes the 'root_dir'
     argument to custom archivers which support it.  In this case it no
     longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the
     process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-74696(1).)

   * *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. now accepts a new argument 'onexc'
     which is an error handler like 'onerror' but which expects an
     exception instance rather than a '(typ, val, tb)' triplet.
     'onerror' is deprecated.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102828(2).)

   * *note shutil.which(): 4a0. now consults the 'PATHEXT' environment
     variable to find matches within 'PATH' on Windows even when the
     given 'cmd' includes a directory component.  (Contributed by
     Charles Machalow in gh-103179(3).)

     *note shutil.which(): 4a0. will call
     ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ when querying for executables on
     Windows to determine if the current working directory should be
     prepended to the search path.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(4).)

     *note shutil.which(): 4a0. will return a path matching the 'cmd'
     with a component from ‘PATHEXT’ prior to a direct match elsewhere
     in the search path on Windows.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<2>,  Next: statistics<2>,  Prev: shutils<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.18 ‘sqlite3’
..................

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 42c.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
     Aasland in gh-77617(1).)

   * Add the *note sqlite3.Connection.autocommit: 4a2. attribute to
     *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. and the 'autocommit' parameter to
     *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. to control PEP 249(2)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 4a3.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-83638(3).)

   * Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4a4, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-103015(4).)

   * Add *note sqlite3.Connection.getconfig(): 4a5. and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.setconfig(): 4a6. to *note sqlite3.Connection:
     242. to make configuration changes to a database connection.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<2>,  Next: sys<3>,  Prev: sqlite3<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.19 ‘statistics’
.....................

   * Extend *note statistics.correlation(): 4a8. to include as a
     ‘ranked’ method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked
     data.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861


File: python.info,  Node: sys<3>,  Next: tempfile<2>,  Prev: statistics<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.20 'sys'
..............

   * Add the *note sys.monitoring: d9. namespace to expose the new *note
     PEP 669: 428. monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(1).)

   * Add *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 45b. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 45c. for activating and
     deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 45d. for querying if stack
     profiler trampolines are active.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
     Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google]
     and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(2).)

   * Add *note sys.last_exc: 4aa. which holds the last unhandled
     exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases).
     Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its
     legacy form: *note sys.last_type: 4ab, *note sys.last_value: 4ac.
     and *note sys.last_traceback: 4ad.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(3).)

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4ae. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(4).)

   * *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4af. and *note
     sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4b0.  The recursion limit now applies only
     to Python code.  Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit,
     but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion
     from causing a virtual machine crash.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<2>,  Next: threading,  Prev: sys<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.21 tempfile
.................

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4b2. function has a new
     optional parameter 'delete_on_close' (Contributed by Evgeny Zorin
     in gh-58451(1).)

   * *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c. now always returns an absolute path,
     even if the argument provided to the 'dir' parameter is a relative
     path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451


File: python.info,  Node: threading,  Next: tkinter<2>,  Prev: tempfile<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.22 threading
..................

   * Add *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4b4. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4b5. that allow to set tracing
     and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<2>,  Next: tokenize,  Prev: threading,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.23 tkinter
................

   * ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’ now flattens its arguments.  It now
     accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (‘x1, y1, x2,
     y2, ...’) and a sequence of coordinates (‘[x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]’),
     but also coordinates grouped in pairs (‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’
     and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]’), like ‘create_*()’ methods.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize,  Next: types<2>,  Prev: tkinter<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.24 tokenize
.................

   * The *note tokenize: fa. module includes the changes introduced in
     PEP 701(1).  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo
     in gh-102856(2).)  See *note Porting to Python 3.12: 4b8. for more
     information on the changes to the *note tokenize: fa. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: types<2>,  Next: typing<3>,  Prev: tokenize,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.25 ‘types’
................

   * Add *note types.get_original_bases(): 4ba. to allow for further
     introspection of *note Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur:
     4bb. when subclassed.  (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex
     Waygood in gh-101827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827


File: python.info,  Node: typing<3>,  Next: unicodedata<2>,  Prev: types<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.26 'typing'
.................

   * *note isinstance(): 42d. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 42e. now use *note inspect.getattr_static(): 480. rather
     than *note hasattr(): 4be. to lookup whether attributes exist.
     This means that descriptors and *note __getattr__(): 4bf. methods
     are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.  However, it may also mean
     that some objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood in gh-102433(1).)

   * The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered
     "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been created.
     Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will
     still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 42d.
     checks comparing objects to the protocol.  For example:

          >>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
          >>> @runtime_checkable
          ... class HasX(Protocol):
          ...     x = 1
          ...
          >>> class Foo: ...
          ...
          >>> f = Foo()
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          False
          >>> f.x = 1
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          True
          >>> HasX.y = 2
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)  # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute
          True

     This change was made in order to speed up ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.

   * The performance profile of *note isinstance(): 42d. checks against
     *note runtime-checkable protocols: 42e. has changed significantly.
     Most ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with only a few
     members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be
     20x faster or more.  However, ‘isinstance()’ checks against
     protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690(2) and gh-103193(3).)

   * All *note typing.TypedDict: 161. and *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad.
     classes now have the ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute.  (Contributed by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699(4).)

   * Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 4c0.  (Contributed by Erik De Bonte
     in gh-99957(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<2>,  Next: unittest<2>,  Prev: typing<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.27 'unicodedata'
......................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<2>,  Next: uuid,  Prev: unicodedata<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.28 unittest
.................

Add a ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the N slowest test
cases:

     python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading
     .....
     Slowest test durations
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     1.210s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     1.003s     test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     0.518s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests)

     (0.000 durations hidden.  Use -v to show these durations.)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 158 tests in 9.869s

     OK (skipped=3)

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-48330(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330


File: python.info,  Node: uuid,  Prev: unittest<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<2>

1.2.6.29 uuid
.............

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 42f.  (Contributed by Adam
     Chhina in gh-88597(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597


File: python.info,  Node: Optimisations<2>,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython,  Prev: Modules améliorés<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.7 Optimisations
-------------------

   * Remove ‘wstr’ and ‘wstr_length’ members from Unicode objects.  It
     reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform.  ( PEP
     623(1)) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536(2).)

   * Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the
     build process, which improves performance by 1-5%.  (Contributed by
     Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536(3) and tuned by Donghee Na in
     gh-101525(4))

   * Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions *note
     re.sub(): 2a0. and *note re.subn(): 2a1. and corresponding
     ‘re.Pattern’ methods) for replacement strings containing group
     references by 2-3 times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-91524(5).)

   * Speed up *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. creation by deferring expensive
     string formatting.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793(6).)

   * The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4c6. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4c7. functions are up to 64% faster as
     a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701(7) in the
     *note tokenize: fa. module.  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and
     Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(8).)

   * Speed up *note super(): 4c8. method calls and attribute loads via
     the new *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4c9. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython,  Next: Demos and Tools,  Prev: Optimisations<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.8 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
-----------------------------------------------

   * Remove the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction.  It has been merged into
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 4cb.  *note LOAD_ATTR: 4cb. will now behave like
     the old ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction if the low bit of its oparg is
     set.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429(1).)

   * Remove the ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’
     instructions.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859(2).)

   * Remove the ‘PRECALL’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-92925(3).)

   * Add the *note BINARY_SLICE: 4cc. and *note STORE_SLICE: 4cd.
     instructions.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163(4).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4ce. instructions.  (Contributed by
     Mark Shannon in gh-99005(5).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 4cf. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-101799(6).)

   * Add the *note CLEANUP_THROW: 4d0. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in gh-90997(7).)

   * Add the ‘END_SEND’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(8).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR: 4d1. instruction as part of the
     implementation of PEP 709(9).  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in
     gh-101441(10).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK: 4d2. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143(11).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4d3, *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 4d4, and *note LOAD_LOCALS: 4d5. opcodes
     as part of the implementation of PEP 695(12).  Remove the
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’ opcode, which can be replaced with *note
     LOAD_LOCALS: 4d5. plus *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4d3.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-103764(13).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4c9. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(14).)

   * Add the *note RETURN_CONST: 4d6. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Wenyang Wang in gh-101632(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools,  Next: Obsolescence,  Prev: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.9 Demos and Tools
---------------------

   * Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old demo
     scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(1).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681(2).)

   * Remove outdated example scripts of the ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.
     A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-97669(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence,  Next: Retraits,  Prev: Demos and Tools,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.10 Obsolescence
-------------------

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following *note ast: 8. features have been
     deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b6. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher:
          2b7, *note asyncio.FastChildWatcher: 2b8, *note
          asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9. and *note
          asyncio.SafeChildWatcher: 2ba. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2bb, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bc, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2bd. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2be. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2bf. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2ee. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2ef.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(6).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note
     collections.abc.ByteString: 2c0.  Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1.  For use in typing, prefer a union,
     like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1.
     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   * *note datetime: 30.: *note datetime.datetime: 1c7.'s *note
     utcnow(): 2f1. and *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2. are deprecated
     and will be removed in a future version.  Instead, use
     timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively,
     call *note now(): 4d9. and *note fromtimestamp(): 4da. with the
     'tz' parameter set to *note datetime.UTC: 4db.  (Contributed by
     Paul Ganssle in gh-103857(8).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecate the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c2.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(9).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 77.: Deprecated the following classes,
     scheduled for removal in Python 3.14:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7b. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(10).)

   * *note itertools: 80.: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and
     pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a
     significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(11).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: In Python 3.14, the default *note
     multiprocessing: 93. start method will change to a safer one on
     Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is
     currently the default (gh-84559(12)).  Adding a runtime warning
     about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not
     expected to care.  Use the *note get_context(): 2c4. or *note
     set_start_method(): 2c5. APIs to explicitly specify when your code
     'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note contexts and start methods: 2c6.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 2c9. and *note
     pkgutil.get_loader(): 2ca. are deprecated and will be removed in
     Python 3.14; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. instead.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(13).)

   * *note pty: b0.: The module has two undocumented ‘master_open()’ and
     ‘slave_open()’ functions that have been deprecated since Python 2
     but only gained a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in 3.12.
     Remove them in 3.14.  (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory
     P. Smith in gh-85984(14).)

   * *note os: a0.:

        * The ‘st_ctime’ fields return by *note os.stat(): 48c. and
          *note os.lstat(): 48d. on Windows are deprecated.  In a future
          release, they will contain the last metadata change time,
          consistent with other platforms.  For now, they still contain
          the creation time, which is also available in the new
          ‘st_birthtime’ field.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
          gh-99726(15).)

        * On POSIX platforms, *note os.fork(): 195. can now raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when it can detect being called
          from a multithreaded process.  There has always been a
          fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing
          so.  Even if such code 'appeared' to work.  We added the
          warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing
          this are becoming more frequent.  See the *note os.fork():
          195. documentation for more details along with this discussion
          on fork being incompatible with threads(16) for 'why' we're
          now surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem
          to developers.

     When this warning appears due to usage of *note multiprocessing:
     93. or *note concurrent.futures: 21. the fix is to use a different
     *note multiprocessing: 93. start method such as ‘"spawn"’ or
     ‘"forkserver"’.

   * *note shutil: c4.: The 'onerror' argument of *note shutil.rmtree():
     2f6. is deprecated; use 'onexc' instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102828(17).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note default adapters and converters: 4dc. are now
          deprecated.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter
          recipes: 4dd. and tailor them to your needs.  (Contributed by
          Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016(18).)

        * In *note execute(): 2cf, *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is now
          emitted when *note named placeholders: 2d1. are used together
          with parameters supplied as a *note sequence: 4de. instead of
          as a *note dict: 253.  Starting from Python 3.14, using named
          placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise
          a *note ProgrammingError: 4df.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-101698(19).)

   * *note sys: d8.: The *note sys.last_type: 4ab, *note sys.last_value:
     4ac. and *note sys.last_traceback: 4ad. fields are deprecated.  Use
     *note sys.last_exc: 4aa. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(20).)

   * *note tarfile: dd.: Extracting tar archives without specifying
     'filter' is deprecated until Python 3.14, when ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default.  See *note Extraction filters: 458. for
     details.

   * *note typing: 103.:

        * *note typing.Hashable: 4e0. and *note typing.Sized: 4e1,
          aliases for *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4e2. and *note
          collections.abc.Sized: 4e3. respectively, are deprecated.
          (gh-94309(21).)

        * *note typing.ByteString: 2d2, deprecated since Python 3.9, now
          causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted when it
          is used.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896(22).)

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.: The module now emits *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when testing the truth value of an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 305.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 40b, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.  (Contributed by Jacob Walls in
     gh-83122(23).)

   * The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of *note coroutine
     throw(): 4e4, *note generator throw(): 4e5. and *note async
     generator throw(): 4e6. are deprecated and may be removed in a
     future version of Python.  Use the single-arg versions of these
     functions instead.  (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874(24).)

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is now raised when *note
     __package__: 2d6. on a module differs from *note __spec__.parent:
     2d7. (previously it was *note ImportWarning: 4e7.).  (Contributed
     by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(25).)

   * Setting *note __package__: 2d6. or *note __cached__: 2d4. on a
     module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into
     consideration by the import system in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-65961(26).)

   * The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is deprecated.  It
     will throw an error in Python 3.16.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation
     of bools instead.  In the rare case that you really need the
     bitwise inversion of the underlying ‘int’, convert to int
     explicitly: ‘~int(x)’.  (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in
     gh-103487(27).)

   * Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2df. on code objects was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 via PEP 626(28), but it only got a proper *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(29).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (16) 
https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 13,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Obsolescence

1.2.10.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.13
.......................................

Modules (see PEP 594(1)):

   * ‘aifc’

   * ‘audioop’

   * ‘cgi’

   * ‘cgitb’

   * ‘chunk’

   * ‘crypt’

   * ‘imghdr’

   * ‘mailcap’

   * ‘msilib’

   * ‘nis’

   * ‘nntplib’

   * ‘ossaudiodev’

   * ‘pipes’

   * ‘sndhdr’

   * ‘spwd’

   * ‘sunau’

   * ‘telnetlib’

   * ‘uu’

   * ‘xdrlib’

Other modules:

   * ‘lib2to3’, and the ‘2to3’ program (gh-84540(2))

APIs:

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 165. descriptor chaining (gh-89519(11))

   * *note importlib.resources: 7a. deprecated methods:

        * ‘contents()’

        * ‘is_resource()’

        * ‘open_binary()’

        * ‘open_text()’

        * ‘path()’

        * ‘read_binary()’

        * ‘read_text()’

     Use *note importlib.resources.files(): 47a. instead.  Refer to
     importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (12) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 13,  Up: Obsolescence

1.2.10.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b6. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2b7,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 2b8, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2ba. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2bb, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bc, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2bd. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2be. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2bf. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c0.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c1.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     2c1.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c2.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 77. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7b. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(8).)

   * *note itertools: 80. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 2c4. or *note set_start_method(): 2c5. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note is_relative_to(): 2c7. and *note
     relative_to(): 2c8.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note find_loader(): 2c9. and *note
     get_loader(): 2ca. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).)

   * *note pty: b0.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cc.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cc.

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note version: 2cd. and *note version_info: 2ce.

        * *note execute(): 2cf. and *note executemany(): 2d0. if *note
          named placeholders: 2d1. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 253.

   * *note typing: 103.: *note ByteString: 2d2, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 107.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Obsolescence

1.2.10.3 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __cached__: 2d4. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.cached: 2d5. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 2d6. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 2d7. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 71.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e.
          has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement
          exists.  'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web
          server with a request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 76.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 85.:

        * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2d8. function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.11.  Its removal was originally
          planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed
          to Python 3.15.  Use *note getlocale(): 2d9, *note
          setlocale(): 2da, and *note getencoding(): 2db. instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).)

   * *note pathlib: a3.:

        * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a3. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 220. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: a9.:

        * *note java_ver(): 2a4. has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: da.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dc. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ec.:

        * *note RLock(): 2dd. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 102.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2de.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2df.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 103.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2ad. classes (e.g.  ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
          x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use
          the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

        * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2ae. decorator
          function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 103. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.

   * *note wave: 112.:

        * The *note getmark(): 2b1, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers():
          2b2. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b3. and *note
          Wave_write: 2b4. classes have been deprecated since Python
          3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


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1.2.10.4 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2e1. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 2e2. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 298.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16, use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note shutil: c4.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 193.

   * *note symtable: d7.:

        * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e4. method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: d8.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note tarfile: dd.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Up: Obsolescence

1.2.10.5 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note array: 7.'s ‘'u'’ format code (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          2e6, *note else: 18a, *note for: 2e7, *note if: 2e8, *note in:
          2e9, *note is: 2ea. and *note or: 2eb.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(2))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 254.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 2ec.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 2ec.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 2ed.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 2ed.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 2ed. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2ee. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2ef.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(4).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2df.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 2f0. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 2f1.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 62.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 76.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 2f3. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 79.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 86.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f4. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8a.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a0.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f5. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b8.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c4.: *note rmtree(): 2f6.'s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: cf. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2f7.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ec. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          2f8.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2f9.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2fa.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 2fb. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 2fc.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 2fd. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 2fe.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          2ff.

   * *note typing.Text: 300. (gh-92332(6)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 109. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     302. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10a.: *note URLopener: 303. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 304. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 290. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 117.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 305. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 306. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 307. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12,  Prev: Obsolescence,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.11 Retraits
---------------

* Menu:

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum: enum<2>.
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* imp::
* io: io<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.
* Autres::


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat and asyncore,  Next: configparser<3>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.1 asynchat and asyncore
..............................

   * These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.6.  Use *note
     asyncio: a. instead.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-96580(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<3>,  Next: distutils,  Prev: asynchat and asyncore,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.2 configparser
.....................

   * Several names deprecated in the *note configparser: 22. way back in
     3.2 have been removed per gh-89336(1):

        * *note configparser.ParsingError: 4f1. no longer has a
          ‘filename’ attribute or argument.  Use the ‘source’ attribute
          and argument instead.

        * *note configparser: 22. no longer has a ‘SafeConfigParser’
          class.  Use the shorter *note ConfigParser: 1c3. name instead.

        * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3. no longer has a ‘readfp’
          method.  Use *note read_file(): 4f2. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336


File: python.info,  Node: distutils,  Next: ensurepip,  Prev: configparser<3>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.3 'distutils'
....................

   * Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in Python 3.10
     by PEP 632(1) "Deprecate distutils module".  For projects still
     using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something else, the
     ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip,  Next: enum<2>,  Prev: distutils,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.4 ensurepip
..................

   * Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from *note ensurepip: 54, and
     stop installing setuptools in environments created by *note venv:
     110.

     ‘pip (>= 22.1)’ does not require setuptools to be installed in the
     environment.  ‘setuptools’-based (and ‘distutils’-based) packages
     can still be used with ‘pip install’, since pip will provide
     ‘setuptools’ in the build environment it uses for building a
     package.

     ‘easy_install’, ‘pkg_resources’, ‘setuptools’ and ‘distutils’ are
     no longer provided by default in environments created with ‘venv’
     or bootstrapped with ‘ensurepip’, since they are part of the
     ‘setuptools’ package.  For projects relying on these at runtime,
     the ‘setuptools’ project should be declared as a dependency and
     installed separately (typically, using pip).

     (Contributed by Pradyun Gedam in gh-95299(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: enum<2>,  Next: ftplib,  Prev: ensurepip,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.5 enum
.............

   * Remove *note enum: 55.'s ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’, which is no longer
     needed for enum attribute access.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
     gh-95083(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib,  Next: gzip,  Prev: enum<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.6 'ftplib'
.................

   * Remove *note ftplib: 5d.'s ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’ class attribute:
     use the 'context' parameter instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94172(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172


File: python.info,  Node: gzip,  Next: hashlib,  Prev: ftplib,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.7 gzip
.............

   * Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of *note gzip: 66.'s *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 410, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the *note
     name: 4f9. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib,  Next: importlib<2>,  Prev: gzip,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.8 'hashlib'
..................

   * Remove the pure Python implementation of *note hashlib: 67.'s *note
     hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb, deprecated in Python 3.10.  Python 3.10
     and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP 644(1)): this OpenSSL
     version provides a C implementation of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb.
     which is faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<2>,  Next: imp,  Prev: hashlib,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.9 'importlib'
....................

   * Many previously deprecated cleanups in *note importlib: 76. have
     now been completed:

        * References to, and support for ‘module_repr()’ has been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-97850(1).)

        * ‘importlib.util.set_package’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader’ and
          ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader’ have all been removed.
          (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961(2)
          and gh-97850(3).)

        * Support for ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ APIs have been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(4).)

        * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
          ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have been removed.  (Contributed by Barry
          Warsaw in gh-98040(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: imp,  Next: io<2>,  Prev: importlib<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.10 imp
.............

   * The ‘imp’ module has been removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
     gh-98040(1).)

     To migrate, consult the following correspondence table:

          imp                                   'importlib'
                                                
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
          ‘imp.NullImporter’                    Insert ‘None’ into ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.cache_from_source()’             *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f3.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.find_module()’                   *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_magic()’                     *note importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER: 4ff.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_suffixes()’                  *note importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES: 500, *note importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 501, and
                                                *note importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 502.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_tag()’                       *note sys.implementation.cache_tag: 503.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_module()’                   *note importlib.import_module(): 504.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.new_module(name)’                ‘types.ModuleType(name)’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.reload()’                        *note importlib.reload(): 505.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.source_from_cache()’             *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 506.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_source()’                   'See below'
                                                

     Replace ‘imp.load_source()’ with:

          import importlib.util
          import importlib.machinery

          def load_source(modname, filename):
              loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename)
              spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader)
              module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
              # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules.
              # Uncomment the following line to cache the module.
              # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module
              loader.exec_module(module)
              return module

   * Remove ‘imp’ functions and attributes with no replacements:

        * Undocumented functions:

             * ‘imp.init_builtin()’

             * ‘imp.load_compiled()’

             * ‘imp.load_dynamic()’

             * ‘imp.load_package()’

        * ‘imp.lock_held()’, ‘imp.acquire_lock()’, ‘imp.release_lock()’:
          the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module
          locks.

        * ‘imp.find_module()’ constants: ‘SEARCH_ERROR’, ‘PY_SOURCE’,
          ‘PY_COMPILED’, ‘C_EXTENSION’, ‘PY_RESOURCE’, ‘PKG_DIRECTORY’,
          ‘C_BUILTIN’, ‘PY_FROZEN’, ‘PY_CODERESOURCE’, ‘IMP_HOOK’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: io<2>,  Next: locale<2>,  Prev: imp,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.11 io
............

   * Remove *note io: 7e.'s ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 508. instead.
     The *note open(): 508. (*note io.open(): 509.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169


File: python.info,  Node: locale<2>,  Next: smtpd,  Prev: io<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.12 locale
................

   * Remove *note locale: 85.'s ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 50b. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd,  Next: sqlite3<3>,  Prev: locale<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.13 smtpd
...............

   * The ‘smtpd’ module has been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  Use
     the aiosmtpd(2) PyPI module or any other *note asyncio: a.-based
     server instead.  (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<3>,  Next: ssl<2>,  Prev: smtpd,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.14 ‘sqlite3’
...................

   * The following undocumented *note sqlite3: ce. features, deprecated
     in Python 3.10, are now removed:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using
     the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.

     The ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ text factory has been an alias for
     *note str: 437. since Python 3.3.  Code that previously set the
     text factory to ‘OptimizedUnicode’ can either use ‘str’ explicitly,
     or rely on the default value which is also ‘str’.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-92548(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<2>,  Next: unittest<3>,  Prev: sqlite3<3>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.15 ‘ssl’
...............

   * Remove *note ssl: cf.'s ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 50f. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 510. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94199(1).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.7.  OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7,
     Python no longer uses the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7:
     instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object and call its
     *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 511. method.  Any package that
     still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.  The
     function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(3) (Improper Certificate
     Validation).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (3) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<3>,  Next: webbrowser<2>,  Prev: ssl<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.16 unittest
..................

   * Remove many long-deprecated *note unittest: 105. features:

        * A number of *note TestCase: 439. method aliases:

          Alias obsolètes                  Nom de méthode                      Obsolète en
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 513.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 514.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 515.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 516.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 518.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 519.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 513.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 515.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 516.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 518.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 51a.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 51b.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 51c.        3.5
                                                                               

          You can use ‘https://github.com/isidentical/teyit’ to
          automatically modernise your unit tests.

        * Undocumented and broken *note TestCase: 439. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

        * Undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 28c.
          parameter 'use_load_tests' (deprecated and ignored since
          Python 3.5).

        * An alias of the *note TextTestResult: 51d. class:
          ‘_TextTestResult’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89325(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<2>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree,  Prev: unittest<3>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.17 webbrowser
....................

   * Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note webbrowser: 114.
     The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
     Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below
     (gh-102871(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree,  Next: zipimport<2>,  Prev: webbrowser<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.18 xml.etree.ElementTree
...............................

   * Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’ method of the pure Python
     implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the *note
     copy.copy(): 520. function instead.  The C implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94383(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<2>,  Next: Autres,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.19 ‘zipimport’
.....................

   * Remove *note zipimport: 131.'s ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the ‘find_spec()’ method
     instead.  See PEP 451(1) for the rationale.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94379(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379


File: python.info,  Node: Autres,  Prev: zipimport<2>,  Up: Retraits

1.2.11.20 Autres
................

   * Remove the ‘suspicious’ rule from the documentation ‘Makefile’ and
     ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’, both in favor of sphinx-lint(1).
     (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179(2).)

   * Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from the *note
     ftplib: 5d, *note imaplib: 73, *note poplib: ab. and *note smtplib:
     c9. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and 'check_hostname'
     parameters from the *note http.client: 6e. module, all deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter ('ssl_context' in
     *note imaplib: 73.) instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94172(3).)

   * Remove ‘Jython’ compatibility hacks from several stdlib modules and
     tests.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99482(4).)

   * Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’ flag from
     *note ctypes: 2a. module.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-99285(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12,  Next: Changements à la compilation<2>,  Prev: Retraits,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.12 Porting to Python 3.12
-----------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 12

1.2.12.1 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references
     and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence of ASCII
     digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The group name in
     bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII
     letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-91760(1).)

   * Remove ‘randrange()’ functionality deprecated since Python 3.10.
     Formerly, ‘randrange(10.0)’ losslessly converted to
     ‘randrange(10)’.  Now, it raises a *note TypeError: 525.  Also, the
     exception raised for non-integer values such as ‘randrange(10.5)’
     or ‘randrange('10')’ has been changed from *note ValueError: 1ff.
     to *note TypeError: 525.  This also prevents bugs where
     ‘randrange(1e25)’ would silently select from a larger range than
     ‘randrange(10**25)’.  (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka
     gh-86388(2).)

   * *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 526. changed encoding and error
     handler for reading arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option) from default text encoding (e.g.
     *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 527.) to *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 528.  Argument files should be encoded
     in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

   * Remove the ‘asyncore’-based ‘smtpd’ module deprecated in Python
     3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  A recommended replacement is the *note asyncio:
     a.-based aiosmtpd(3) PyPI module.

   * *note shlex.split(): 529.: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now
     raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 52a.  The
     feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94352(4).)

   * The *note os: a0. module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like
     *note bytearray: 52b. and *note memoryview: 454. types: only the
     exact *note bytes: 1bd. type is accepted for bytes strings.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * *note syslog.openlog(): 52c. and *note syslog.closelog(): 52d. now
     fail if used in subinterpreters.  *note syslog.syslog(): 52e. may
     still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if *note
     syslog.openlog(): 52c. has already been called in the main
     interpreter.  These new restrictions do not apply to the main
     interpreter, so only a very small set of users might be affected.
     This change helps with interpreter isolation.  Furthermore, *note
     syslog: db. is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are
     best managed from the main interpreter.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in gh-99127(6).)

   * The undocumented locking behavior of *note cached_property(): 52f.
     is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class,
     leading to high lock contention.  This means that a cached property
     getter function could now run more than once for a single instance,
     if two threads race.  For most simple cached properties (e.g.
     those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on
     other attributes of the instance) this will be fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached
     property getter function or around multi-threaded access points.

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4ae. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(7).)

   * When extracting tar files using *note tarfile: dd. or *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, pass the 'filter' argument to limit
     features that may be surprising or dangerous.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 458. for details.

   * The output of the *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4c6. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4c7. functions is now changed due to
     the changes introduced in PEP 701(8).  This means that ‘STRING’
     tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens
     described in PEP 701(9) are now produced instead: ‘FSTRING_START’,
     ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ and ‘FSTRING_END’ are now emitted for f-string
     "string" parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the
     tokenization in the expression components.  For example for the
     f-string ‘f"start {1+1} end"’ the old version of the tokenizer
     emitted:

          1,0-1,18:           STRING         'f"start {1+1} end"'

     while the new version emits:

          1,0-1,2:            FSTRING_START  'f"'
          1,2-1,8:            FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start '
          1,8-1,9:            OP             '{'
          1,9-1,10:           NUMBER         '1'
          1,10-1,11:          OP             '+'
          1,11-1,12:          NUMBER         '1'
          1,12-1,13:          OP             '}'
          1,13-1,17:          FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end'
          1,17-1,18:          FSTRING_END    '"'

     Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a
     consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701(10).  Some
     of these changes include:

        * The ‘type’ attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing
          some invalid Python characters such as ‘!’ has changed from
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ to ‘OP’.

        * Incomplete single-line strings now also raise *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 530. as incomplete multiline strings do.

        * Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 530. instead of returning arbitrary
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ tokens when tokenizing it.

        * Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not
          supported anymore and will raise a *note TabError: 531.

   * The *note threading: ec. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter’ attribute.  It is a function with no
     arguments that returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the
     main interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     should provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’.  (See gh-112826(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la compilation<2>,  Next: Changements à l'API C<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.13 Changements à la compilation
-----------------------------------

   * Python no longer uses ‘setup.py’ to build shared C extension
     modules.  Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected
     in ‘configure’ script.  Extensions are built by ‘Makefile’.  Most
     extensions use ‘pkg-config’ and fall back to manual detection.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939(1).)

   * ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like ‘va_start(args, format),’ is
     now required to build Python.  ‘va_start()’ is no longer called
     with a single parameter.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-93207(2).)

   * CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time
     optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536(3).)

   * Add ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in ‘Makefile’ to override *note
     compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make install’.  Also
     merged the 3 ‘compileall’ commands into a single command to build
     .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289(4).)

   * Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     (Contributed by Zhang Na in gh-90656(5).)

   * ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate
     ‘!configure’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(6).)

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à l'API C<2>,  Prev: Changements à la compilation<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 12

1.2.14 Changements à l'API C
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<2>.
* Retraits: Retraits<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<2>

1.2.14.1 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
..................................

   * PEP 697(1): Introduce the *note Unstable C API tier: 535, intended
     for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers.  This API may
     change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation
     warnings.  Its contents are marked by the ‘PyUnstable_’ prefix in
     names.

     Code object constructors:

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_New()’ (renamed from ‘PyCode_New’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ (renamed from
          ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’)

     Extra storage for code objects ( PEP 523(2)):

        - ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex()’ (renamed from
          ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’)

     The original names will continue to be available until the
     respective API changes.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-101101(3).)

   * PEP 697(4): Add an API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque:

        - *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536. can be zero or negative to
          specify inheriting or extending the base class size.

        - *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 537. and *note
          PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 538. added to allow access to
          subclass-specific instance data.

        - *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 539. and *note
          PyObject_GetItemData(): 53a. added to allow safely extending
          certain variable-sized types, including *note PyType_Type:
          53b.

        - *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 53c. added to allow defining *note
          members: 53d. in terms of a subclass-specific struct.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-103509(5).)

   * Add the new *note limited C API: 38c. function *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012(6).)

   * API for creating objects that can be called using *note the
     vectorcall protocol: 540. was added to the *note Limited API: 541.:

        * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542.

        * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 543.

        * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 544.

        * *note vectorcallfunc: 545.

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag is now removed from
     a class when the class's *note __call__(): 546. method is
     reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types
     (i.e.  heap types without the immutable flag, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9.).  Mutable types that do not
     override *note tp_call: 547. now inherit the
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin
     in gh-93274(7).)

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. and *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 548. flags have been added.  This
     allows extensions classes to support object *note __dict__: 549.
     and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with
     faster access.

   * API for performing calls using *note the vectorcall protocol: 540.
     was added to the *note Limited API: 541.:

        * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 54a.

        * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 54b.

        * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 54c.

     This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector
     call protocol are now available in the *note Limited API: 541.
     (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586(8).)

   * Add two new public functions, *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads():
     54d. and *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 418, that allow to set
     tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition
     to the calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(9).)

   * Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall(): 54e. to the C
     API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 54f.  (Contributed by Andrew Frost in
     gh-92257(10).)

   * The C API now permits registering callbacks via *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 550, *note PyDict_Watch(): 551. and related
     APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified.  This is
     intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or
     debuggers.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052(11).)

   * Add *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 552. and *note PyType_Watch(): 553.
     API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a
     type.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051(12).)

   * Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 554. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 555. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.
     (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054(13).)

   * Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 556. and *note PyFrame_GetVarString():
     557. functions to get a frame variable by its name.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-91248(14).)

   * Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3ed. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     3ec.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(15).)

   * Add ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’, which takes an exception instance,
     to replace the legacy-API ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’, which is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(16).)

   * Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 558. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 559. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 55a. passed to the exception's
     constructor.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(17).)

   * Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8, which takes an exception
     instance, to replace the legacy-api ‘PyErr_Display()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(18)).

   * PEP 683(19): Introduce 'Immortal Objects', which allows objects to
     bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API:

        - 
          ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’: The reference count that defines an object

               as immortal.

        - ‘_Py_IsImmortal’ Checks if an object has the immortal
          reference count.

        - 
          ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ This will now initialize reference count to

               ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’ when used with ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ An identifier for interned unicode objects

               that are immortal.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC’ An identifier for interned unicode

               objects that are immortal and static

        - 
          ‘sys.getunicodeinternedsize’ This returns the total number of unicode

               objects that have been interned.  This is now needed for
               ‘refleak.py’ to correctly track reference counts and
               allocated blocks

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-84436(20).)

   * PEP 684(21): Add the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 447.
     function and *note PyInterpreterConfig: 55b, which may be used to
     create sub-interpreters with their own GILs.  (See *note PEP 684; A
     Per-Interpreter GIL: 427. for more info.)  (Contributed by Eric
     Snow in gh-104110(22).)

   * In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. and
     *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. functions are now implemented as opaque
     function calls to hide implementation details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105387(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Obsolescence<2>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<2>

1.2.14.2 Porting to Python 3.12
...............................

   * Legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation has been
     removed.  Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or ‘wchar_t*’.

   * Argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.
     doesn't support ‘Py_UNICODE*’ based format (e.g.  ‘u’, ‘Z’)
     anymore.  Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like ‘s’,
     ‘z’, ‘es’, and ‘U’.

   * ‘tp_weaklist’ for all static builtin types is always ‘NULL’.  This
     is an internal-only field on ‘PyTypeObject’ but we're pointing out
     the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field
     directly anyway.  To avoid breakage, consider using the existing
     public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only)
     ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro.

   * This internal-only *note PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses: 560. may now
     not be a valid object pointer.  Its type was changed to void* to
     reflect this.  We mention this in case someone happens to be
     accessing the internal-only field directly.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 561. (using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396, for
     example).

   * Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals,
     uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’, ‘wchar_t’ C
     strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     562.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836(1).)

   * An unrecognized format character in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     380. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 562. now sets a *note
     SystemError: 563.  In previous versions it caused all the rest of
     the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any
     extra arguments discarded.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-95781(2).)

   * Fix wrong sign placement in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. and
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 562.  (Contributed by Philip Georgi
     in gh-95504(3).)

   * Extension classes wanting to add a *note __dict__: 549. or weak
     reference slot should use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 548. instead of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’, respectively.  The use of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ is still supported, but does not fully
     support multiple inheritance (gh-95589(4)), and performance may be
     worse.  Classes declaring *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. must
     call ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’ to traverse and clear their
     instance's dictionaries.  To clear weakrefs, call *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 564, as before.

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 565. function no longer accepts
     bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 52b. and *note memoryview:
     454. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1bd. type is accepted for
     bytes strings.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * The *note Py_CLEAR: 566, *note Py_SETREF: 567. and *note
     Py_XSETREF: 568. macros now only evaluate their arguments once.  If
     an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer
     duplicated.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724(6).)

   * The interpreter's error indicator is now always normalized.  This
     means that *note PyErr_SetObject(): 569, *note PyErr_SetString():
     56a. and the other functions that set the error indicator now
     normalize the exception before storing it.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(7).)

   * ‘_Py_RefTotal’ is no longer authoritative and only kept around for
     ABI compatibility.  Note that it is an internal global and only
     available on debug builds.  If you happen to be using it then
     you'll need to start using ‘_Py_GetGlobalRefTotal()’.

   * The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the
     newly created type:

        * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.

        * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c.

        * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f.

     Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 56d. is
     deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed.  Note that
     these functions ignore ‘tp_new’ of the metaclass, possibly allowing
     incomplete initialization.

     Note that *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e. (added in Python 3.12)
     already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     ‘tp_new’ (*note __new__(): 56e. in Python).

     Since ‘tp_new’ overrides almost everything ‘PyType_From*’ functions
     do, the two are incompatible with each other.  The existing
     behavior - ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type
     creation - is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that
     ‘tp_new’ was called.  There is no simple general workaround.  One
     of the following may work for you:

        - If you control the metaclass, avoid using ‘tp_new’ in it:

             - If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in *note
               tp_init: 56f. instead.

             - If the metaclass doesn't need to be instantiated from
               Python, set its ‘tp_new’ to ‘NULL’ using the *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 570. flag.  This makes
               it acceptable for ‘PyType_From*’ functions.

        - Avoid ‘PyType_From*’ functions: if you don't need C-specific
          features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by
          *note calling: 571. the metaclass.

        - If you 'know' the ‘tp_new’ can be skipped safely, filter the
          deprecation warning out using *note warnings.catch_warnings():
          572. from Python.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 573. and *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer:
     574. are no longer called in *note subinterpreters: 575.  This is
     because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since
     these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state).

     This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves
     running in a subinterpreter that they don't support (or haven't yet
     been loaded in).  See gh-104668(8) for more info.

   * *note PyLongObject: 576. has had its internals changed for better
     performance.  Although the internals of *note PyLongObject: 576.
     are private, they are used by some extension modules.  The internal
     fields should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API
     functions beginning ‘PyLong_...’ should be used instead.  Two new
     'unstable' API functions are provided for efficient access to the
     value of *note PyLongObject: 576.s which fit into a single machine
     word:

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 577.

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 578.

   * Custom allocators, set via *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 579, are now
     required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain.
     Allocators that don't have their own state, including "hooks", are
     not affected.  If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe
     and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC
     ‘@ericsnowcurrently’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<2>,  Next: Retraits<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<2>

1.2.14.3 Obsolescence
.....................

   * In accordance with PEP 699(1), the ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note
     PyDictObject: 3b8. is deprecated for extension modules.  Accessing
     this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time.  This
     field will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Ramvikrams
     and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193(2).  PEP by Ken Jin.)

   * Deprecate global configuration variable:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3bd.: use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3be.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3bf.: use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c0.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c1.: use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c2.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c3.: use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c4.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c5.: use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3c7.: use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3c8.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3c9.: use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3ca.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3cb.: use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cc.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3cd.: use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3ce.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d1.: use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d2.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d3.: use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d4.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d5.: use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d6.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3d7.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3d8. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3d9.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3da.: use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3db.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3dc.: use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3de.: use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e0.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. (see
          *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-77782(3).)

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3b9. with mutable bases is
     deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14.  (gh-95388(4))

   * The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated, though it continues to
     be available and there are no plans to remove it.

     Its contents are now available just by including ‘Python.h’, with a
     ‘Py’ prefix added if it was missing:

        - *note PyMemberDef: 53d, *note PyMember_GetOne(): 57b. and
          *note PyMember_SetOne(): 57c.

        - Type macros like *note Py_T_INT: 57d, *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 57e,
          etc.  (previously ‘T_INT’, ‘T_DOUBLE’, etc.)

        - The flags *note Py_READONLY: 57f. (previously ‘READONLY’) and
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 580. (previously all uppercase)

     Several items are not exposed from ‘Python.h’:

        - *note T_OBJECT: 581. (use *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 582.)

        - *note T_NONE: 583. (previously undocumented, and pretty
          quirky)

        - The macro ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ which does nothing.

        - The macros ‘RESTRICTED’ and ‘READ_RESTRICTED’, equivalents of
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 580.

        - In some configurations, ‘<stddef.h>’ is not included from
          ‘Python.h’.  It should be included manually when using
          ‘offsetof()’.

     The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents
     under the original names.  Your old code can stay unchanged, unless
     the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly.

     (Contributed in gh-47146(5) by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work
     by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.)

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 3ec. are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3ed. instead.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(6).)

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
     PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8. instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102755(7)).

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ is deprecated.  Use
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’ instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102192(8).)

   * Using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. or *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. to create a class whose metaclass
     overrides *note tp_new: 56d. is deprecated.  Call the metaclass
     instead.

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: Obsolescence<2>

1.2.14.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3b8. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3b9. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b2. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3bd.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3be. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3bf.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c0.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c1.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c2.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c3.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c4. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c5.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3c7.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3c8. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3c9.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3ca. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3cb.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cc. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3cd.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3ce. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d1.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d2. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d3.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d4. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d5.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3d7.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3d8. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3d9. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3da.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3db.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3dc.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3de.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e0. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Up: Obsolescence<2>

1.2.14.5 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’.

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     3b6.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3a7. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8.: Get *note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e5. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a9.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.: Get *note sys.path: 3ab. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3e6.
          and *note sys.prefix: 3ad. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b2.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: Obsolescence<2>

1.2.14.6 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3e8.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     3ea. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3eb.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3ec.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     3ed. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3ee.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3ef. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f0.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f1. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f2.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     3f3. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3f7.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fa.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3fb. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 3fc.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 3fd. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 3fe.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 3ff. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 400.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 401. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 402.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 403. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 404.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<2>,  Prev: Obsolescence<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<2>

1.2.14.7 Retraits
.................

   * Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never any public
     tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only designed to be
     used by Python internals.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-92651(1).)

   * Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed.  See PEP 623(2) for detail.

        * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function macro.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85858(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858


File: python.info,  Node: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11,  Next: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10,  Prev: What's New In Python 3 12,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.3 Les nouveautés de Python 3.11
=================================


Éditeur: 'Pablo Galindo Salgado'

This article explains the new features in Python 3.11, compared to 3.10.
Python 3.11 was released on October 24, 2022.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication::
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<3>.
* Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython::
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<3>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<3>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<3>.
* Faster CPython::
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Retraits: Retraits<3>.
* Portage vers Python 3.11: Portage vers Python 3 11.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<3>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<3>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points forts de la publication,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.1 Résumé – Points forts de la publication
---------------------------------------------

   * Python 3.11 est entre 10 et 60 % plus rapide que Python 3.10.  En
     moyenne, nous avons mesuré une multiplication de la vitesse par
     1,25 sur la suite de benchmarks standards.  Voir les détails sur
     *note Faster CPython: 58c.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * *note PEP 654 ; Groupes d'exception et except*: 58d.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

   * *note PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: 58e.

Nouveaux modules de bibliothèque standard :

   * PEP 680(1): *note tomllib: fb. — Support for parsing TOML(2) in the
     Standard Library

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

   * *note PEP 657 ; amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les
     traces d'appels: 58f.

   * New *note -P: 590. command line option and *note PYTHONSAFEPATH:
     591. environment variable to *note disable automatically prepending
     potentially unsafe paths: 592. to *note sys.path: 3ab.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

   * *note PEP 646; Variadic generics: 593.

   * *note PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or
     not-required: 594.

   * *note PEP 673; Self type: 595.

   * *note PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: 596.

   * *note PEP 681; Data class transforms: 597.

Important deprecations, removals and restrictions:

   * PEP 594(3) : *note De nombreux anciens modules de la bibliothèque
     standard sontdevenus obsolètes: 598. et seront supprimés dans la
     version 3.13

   * PEP 624(4) : *note les API d'encodage Py_UNICODE ont été
     supprimées: 599.

   * PEP 670(5): *note Macros converted to static inline functions: 59a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (2) https://toml.io/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>,  Prev: Résumé – Points forts de la publication,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 657 ; amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels: PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels.
* PEP 654 ; Groupes d'exception et except*: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Améliorations du lanceur Windows py.exe: Améliorations du lanceur Windows py exe.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels,  Next: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>

1.3.2.1 PEP 657 : amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels
....................................................................................

When printing tracebacks, the interpreter will now point to the exact
expression that caused the error, instead of just the line.  For
example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "distance.py", line 11, in <module>
         print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2))
               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance
         return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y)
                                ^^^^^^^^^
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

Previous versions of the interpreter would point to just the line,
making it ambiguous which object was ‘None’.  These enhanced errors can
also be helpful when dealing with deeply nested *note dict: 253. objects
and multiple function calls:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "query.py", line 37, in <module>
         magic_arithmetic('foo')
       File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic
         return add_counts(x) / 25
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts
         return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2)
                     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 32, in query_user
         return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True)
                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^
     TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

As well as complex arithmetic expressions:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "calculation.py", line 54, in <module>
         result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c)
                   ~~~~~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Additionally, the information used by the enhanced traceback feature is
made available via a general API, that can be used to correlate *note
bytecode: 185. *note instructions: 59e. with source code location.  This
information can be retrieved using:

   - la méthode *note codeobject.co_positions(): 59f. en Python ;

   - The *note PyCode_Addr2Location(): 5a0. function in the C API.

Voir la PEP 657(1) pour plus de détails (contribution de 'Pablo
Galindo', 'Batuhan Taskaya' et 'Ammar Askar' dans bpo-43950(2)).

     Note: This feature requires storing column positions in *note
     Objets code: 5a1, which may result in a small increase in
     interpreter memory usage and disk usage for compiled Python files.
     To avoid storing the extra information and deactivate printing the
     extra traceback information, use the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 175.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5a2.
     environment variable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*,  Next: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Prev: PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>

1.3.2.2 PEP 654 : Groupes d'exception et ‘except*’
..................................................

PEP 654(1) introduces language features that enable a program to raise
and handle multiple unrelated exceptions simultaneously.  The builtin
types *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c. make
it possible to group exceptions and raise them together, and the new
*note except*: 5a4. syntax generalizes *note except: 189. to match
subgroups of exception groups.

Voir PEP 654(2) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45292(3).  PEP written by Irit
Katriel, Yury Selivanov and Guido van Rossum.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Next: Améliorations du lanceur Windows py exe,  Prev: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>

1.3.2.3 PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes
......................................................

The *note add_note(): 5a6. method is added to *note BaseException: 5a7.
It can be used to enrich exceptions with context information that is not
available at the time when the exception is raised.  The added notes
appear in the default traceback.

Voir PEP 678(1) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45607(2).  PEP written by Zac
Hatfield-Dodds.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607


File: python.info,  Node: Améliorations du lanceur Windows py exe,  Prev: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>

1.3.2.4 Améliorations du lanceur Windows ‘py.exe’
.................................................

The copy of the *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. included with
Python 3.11 has been significantly updated.  It now supports company/tag
syntax as defined in PEP 514(1) using the ‘-V:<COMPANY>/<TAG>’ argument
instead of the limited ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’.  This allows launching
distributions other than ‘PythonCore’, the one hosted on python.org(2).

When using ‘-V:’ selectors, either company or tag can be omitted, but
all installs will be searched.  For example, ‘-V:OtherPython/’ will
select the "best" tag registered for ‘OtherPython’, while ‘-V:3.11’ or
‘-V:/3.11’ will select the "best" distribution with tag ‘3.11’.

When using the legacy ‘-<MAJOR>’, ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’,
‘-<MAJOR>-<BITNESS>’ or ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>-<BITNESS>’ arguments, all
existing behaviour should be preserved from past versions, and only
releases from ‘PythonCore’ will be selected.  However, the ‘-64’ suffix
now implies "not 32-bit" (not necessarily x86-64), as there are multiple
supported 64-bit platforms.  32-bit runtimes are detected by checking
the runtime's tag for a ‘-32’ suffix.  All releases of Python since 3.5
have included this in their 32-bit builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (2) https://www.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<3>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.3 Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types
----------------------------------------------------------------

Cette section couvre les changements majeurs touchant le module *note
typing: 103. et les indications de types de style PEP 484(1).

* Menu:

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Next: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>

1.3.3.1 PEP 646: Variadic generics
..................................

PEP 484(1) previously introduced *note TypeVar: 15c, enabling creation
of generics parameterised with a single type.  PEP 646(2) adds *note
TypeVarTuple: 15e, enabling parameterisation with an 'arbitrary' number
of types.  In other words, a *note TypeVarTuple: 15e. is a 'variadic'
type variable, enabling 'variadic' generics.

This enables a wide variety of use cases.  In particular, it allows the
type of array-like structures in numerical computing libraries such as
NumPy and TensorFlow to be parameterised with the array 'shape'.  Static
type checkers will now be able to catch shape-related bugs in code that
uses these libraries.

Voir PEP 646(3) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Matthew Rahtz in bpo-43224(4), with contributions by
Serhiy Storchaka and Jelle Zijlstra.  PEP written by Mark Mendoza,
Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, and Vincent Siles.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Next: PEP 673 Self type,  Prev: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>

1.3.3.2 PEP 655: Marking individual ‘TypedDict’ items as required or not-required
.................................................................................

*note Required: 5b0. and *note NotRequired: 5b1. provide a
straightforward way to mark whether individual items in a *note
TypedDict: 161. must be present.  Previously, this was only possible
using inheritance.

All fields are still required by default, unless the 'total' parameter
is set to ‘False’, in which case all fields are still not-required by
default.  For example, the following specifies a ‘TypedDict’ with one
required and one not-required key:

     class Movie(TypedDict):
        title: str
        year: NotRequired[int]

     m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018}  # OK
     m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"}  # OK (year is not required)
     m3: Movie = {"year": 2022}  # ERROR (missing required field title)

La définition suivante est équivalente :

     class Movie(TypedDict, total=False):
        title: Required[str]
        year: int

Voir PEP 655(1) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47087(2).  PEP
written by David Foster.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 673 Self type,  Next: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Prev: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>

1.3.3.3 PEP 673: ‘Self’ type
............................

The new *note Self: 5b3. annotation provides a simple and intuitive way
to annotate methods that return an instance of their class.  This
behaves the same as the *note TypeVar: 15c.-based approach specified in
PEP 484(1), but is more concise and easier to follow.

Common use cases include alternative constructors provided as *note
classmethod: 165.s, and *note __enter__(): 5b4. methods that return
‘self’:

     class MyLock:
         def __enter__(self) -> Self:
             self.lock()
             return self

         ...

     class MyInt:
         @classmethod
         def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self:
             return cls(int(s, 16))

         ...

*note Self: 5b3. can also be used to annotate method parameters or
attributes of the same type as their enclosing class.

Voir PEP 673(2) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in bpo-46534(3).  PEP written by
Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and James Hilton-Balfe.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Next: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Prev: PEP 673 Self type,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>

1.3.3.4 PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type
..............................................

The new *note LiteralString: 5b6. annotation may be used to indicate
that a function parameter can be of any literal string type.  This
allows a function to accept arbitrary literal string types, as well as
strings created from other literal strings.  Type checkers can then
enforce that sensitive functions, such as those that execute SQL
statements or shell commands, are called only with static arguments,
providing protection against injection attacks.

Par exemple, une fonction de requête SQL pourrait être annotée de cette
façon :

     def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ...
         ...

     def caller(
         arbitrary_string: str,
         query_string: LiteralString,
         table_name: LiteralString,
     ) -> None:
         run_query("SELECT * FROM students")       # ok
         run_query(query_string)                   # ok
         run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name)  # ok
         run_query(arbitrary_string)               # type checker error
         run_query(                                # type checker error
             f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
         )

Voir PEP 675(1) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47088(2).  PEP written by Pradeep
Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Next: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>

1.3.3.5 PEP 681: Data class transforms
......................................

*note dataclass_transform: 4c0. may be used to decorate a class,
metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the decorated
object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class, giving it *note
dataclass: 1c6.-like behaviors.

Par exemple :

     # The create_model decorator is defined by a library.
     @typing.dataclass_transform()
     def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]:
         cls.__init__ = ...
         cls.__eq__ = ...
         cls.__ne__ = ...
         return cls

     # The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes:
     @create_model
     class CustomerModel:
         id: int
         name: str

     c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle")

Voir PEP 681(1) pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-91860(2).  PEP written by Erik De
Bonte and Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>

1.3.3.6 PEP 563 may not be the future
.....................................

PEP 563(1) Postponed Evaluation of Annotations (the ‘from __future__
import annotations’ *note future statement: 187.) that was originally
planned for release in Python 3.10 has been put on hold indefinitely.
See this message from the Steering Council(2) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<3>,  Next: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.4 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * Starred unpacking expressions can now be used in *note for: 2e7.
     statements.  (See bpo-46725(1) for more details.)

   * Asynchronous *note comprehensions: 5bc. are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in *note asynchronous functions: 5bd.  Outer
     comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous in this case.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33346(2).)

   * A *note TypeError: 525. is now raised instead of an *note
     AttributeError: 343. in *note with: 5be. statements and *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 5bf. for objects that do not
     support the *note context manager: 5c0. protocol, and in *note
     async with: 5c1. statements and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 5c2. for objects
     not supporting the *note asynchronous context manager: 5c3.
     protocol.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12022(3) and
     bpo-44471(4).)

   * Added *note object.__getstate__(): 5c4, which provides the default
     implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.  *note copy: 25.ing
     and *note pickle: a5.ing instances of subclasses of builtin types
     *note bytearray: 52b, *note set: 5c5, *note frozenset: 5c6, *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 5c7, *note collections.deque: 5c8, *note
     weakref.WeakSet: 5c9, and *note datetime.tzinfo: 5ca. now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as *note slots: 5cb.
     This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small
     minority of existing Python projects not expecting *note
     object.__getstate__(): 5c4. to exist.  See the later comments on
     gh-70766(5) for discussions of what workarounds such code may need.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579(6).)

   * Added a *note -P: 590. command line option and a *note
     PYTHONSAFEPATH: 591. environment variable, which disable the
     automatic prepending to *note sys.path: 3ab. of the script's
     directory when running a script, or the current directory when
     using *note -c: 5cc. and *note -m: 5cd.  This ensures only stdlib
     and installed modules are picked up by *note import: 5ce, and
     avoids unintentionally or maliciously shadowing modules with those
     in a local (and typically user-writable) directory.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(7).)

   * A ‘"z"’ option was added to the *note Mini-langage de spécification
     de format: 1e5. that coerces negative to positive zero after
     rounding to the format precision.  See PEP 682(8) for more details.
     (Contributed by John Belmonte in gh-90153(9).)

   * Bytes are no longer accepted on *note sys.path: 3ab.  Support broke
     sometime between Python 3.2 and 3.6, with no one noticing until
     after Python 3.10.0 was released.  In addition, bringing back
     support would be problematic due to interactions between *note -b:
     5cf. and *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. when there is a
     mixture of *note str: 437. and *note bytes: 1bd. keys.
     (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-91181(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython,  Next: Nouveaux modules<3>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.5 Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython
------------------------------------------------------

   * The special methods *note __complex__(): 5d3. for *note complex:
     2ed. and *note __bytes__(): 5d4. for *note bytes: 1bd. are
     implemented to support the *note typing.SupportsComplex: 5d5. and
     *note typing.SupportsBytes: 5d6. protocols.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson and Donghee Na in bpo-24234(1).)

   * ‘siphash13’ is added as a new internal hashing algorithm.  It has
     similar security properties as ‘siphash24’, but it is slightly
     faster for long inputs.  *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd, and some
     other types now use it as the default algorithm for *note hash():
     5d7.  PEP 552(2) *note hash-based .pyc files: 5d8. now use
     ‘siphash13’ too.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-29410(3).)

   * When an active exception is re-raised by a *note raise: 5d9.
     statement with no parameters, the traceback attached to this
     exception is now always ‘sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__’.  This
     means that changes made to the traceback in the current *note
     except: 189. clause are reflected in the re-raised exception.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * The interpreter state's representation of handled exceptions (aka
     ‘exc_info’ or ‘_PyErr_StackItem’) now only has the ‘exc_value’
     field; ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed, as they
     can be derived from ‘exc_value’.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     bpo-45711(5).)

   * A new *note command line option: 5da, ‘AppendPath’, has been added
     for the Windows installer.  It behaves similarly to ‘PrependPath’,
     but appends the install and scripts directories instead of
     prepending them.  (Contributed by Bastian Neuburger in
     bpo-44934(6).)

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5db. field must now be
     set to ‘1’ for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399. to initialize *note sys.path:
     3ab.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * The output of the *note -help: 5dc. option now fits in 50 lines/80
     columns.  Information about *note Python environment variables:
     5dd. and *note -X: 175. options is now available using the
     respective *note -help-env: 5de. and *note -help-xoptions: 5df.
     flags, and with the new *note -help-all: 5e0.  (Contributed by Éric
     Araujo in bpo-46142(7).)

   * Converting between *note int: 254. and *note str: 437. in bases
     other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such
     as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the
     number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential
     denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This
     is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(8).  This limit can be
     configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag,
     or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 5e1. documentation.  The default limit is 4300
     digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<3>,  Next: Modules améliorés<3>,  Prev: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.6 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

   * *note tomllib: fb.: For parsing TOML(1). See PEP 680(2) for more
     details.  (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in bpo-40059(3).)

   * *note wsgiref.types: 11b.: WSGI(4)-specific types for static type
     checking.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-42012(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://toml.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<3>,  Next: Optimisations<3>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.7 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<3>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE et idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging::
* math: math<3>.
* operator::
* os: os<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* re: re<3>.
* shutils: shutils<3>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* string::
* sys: sys<4>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time: time<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* zipfile::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<3>,  Next: contextlib,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.1 ‘asyncio’
.................

   * Added the *note TaskGroup: 1b3. class, an *note asynchronous
     context manager: 5e8. holding a group of tasks that will wait for
     all of them upon exit.  For new code this is recommended over using
     *note create_task(): 5e9. and *note gather(): 5ea. directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and others in gh-90908(1).)

   * Added *note timeout(): 5eb, an asynchronous context manager for
     setting a timeout on asynchronous operations.  For new code this is
     recommended over using *note wait_for(): 5ec. directly.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-90927(2).)

   * Added the *note Runner: 5ed. class, which exposes the machinery
     used by *note run(): 468.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     gh-91218(3).)

   * Added the *note Barrier: 5ee. class to the synchronization
     primitives in the asyncio library, and the related *note
     BrokenBarrierError: 5ef. exception.  (Contributed by Yves Duprat
     and Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518(4).)

   * Added keyword argument 'all_errors' to *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5f0. so that multiple connection
     errors can be raised as an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.

   * Added the *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 5f1. method for
     upgrading existing stream-based connections to TLS. (Contributed by
     Ian Good in bpo-34975(5).)

   * Added raw datagram socket functions to the event loop: *note
     sock_sendto(): 5f2, *note sock_recvfrom(): 5f3. and *note
     sock_recvfrom_into(): 5f4.  These have implementations in *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6.
     (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-46805(6).)

   * Added *note cancelling(): 1b8. and *note uncancel(): 1b9. methods
     to *note Task: 4c5.  These are primarily intended for internal use,
     notably by *note TaskGroup: 1b3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib,  Next: dataclasses,  Prev: asyncio<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.2 contextlib
..................

   * Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 5f9. context manager to
     change the current working directory and then restore it on exit.
     Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 5fa.  (Contributed by Filipe
     Laíns in bpo-25625(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses,  Next: datetime,  Prev: contextlib,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.3 ‘dataclasses’
.....................

   * Change field default mutability check, allowing only defaults which
     are *note hashable: 5fd. instead of any object which is not an
     instance of *note dict: 253, *note list: 5fe. or *note set: 5c5.
     (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-44674(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674


File: python.info,  Node: datetime,  Next: enum<3>,  Prev: dataclasses,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.4 'datetime'
..................

   * Add *note datetime.UTC: 4db, a convenience alias for *note
     datetime.timezone.utc: 601.  (Contributed by Kabir Kwatra in
     gh-91973(1).)

   * *note datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 602, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 603. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 604. can now be used to parse
     most ISO 8601 formats (barring only those that support fractional
     hours and minutes).  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-80010(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010


File: python.info,  Node: enum<3>,  Next: fcntl,  Prev: datetime,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.5 enum
............

   * Renamed ‘EnumMeta’ to *note EnumType: 1e2. (‘EnumMeta’ kept as an
     alias).

   * Added *note StrEnum: 607, with members that can be used as (and
     must be) strings.

   * Added *note ReprEnum: 608, which only modifies the *note
     __repr__(): 609. of members while returning their literal values
     (rather than names) for *note __str__(): 60a. and *note
     __format__(): 60b. (used by *note str(): 437, *note format(): 60c.
     and *note f-string: 421.s).

   * Changed *note Enum.__format__(): 60d. (the default for *note
     format(): 60c, *note str.format(): 60e. and *note f-string: 421.s)
     to always produce the same result as *note Enum.__str__(): 60f.:
     for enums inheriting from *note ReprEnum: 608. it will be the
     member's value; for all other enums it will be the enum and member
     name (e.g.  ‘Color.RED’).

   * Added a new 'boundary' class parameter to *note Flag: 610. enums
     and the *note FlagBoundary: 611. enum with its options, to control
     how to handle out-of-range flag values.

   * Added the *note verify(): 612. enum decorator and the *note
     EnumCheck: 613. enum with its options, to check enum classes
     against several specific constraints.

   * Added the *note member(): 614. and *note nonmember(): 615.
     decorators, to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to
     an enum member.

   * Added the *note property(): 616. decorator, which works like *note
     property(): 192. except for enums.  Use this instead of *note
     types.DynamicClassAttribute(): 617.

   * Added the *note global_enum(): 618. enum decorator, which adjusts
     *note __repr__(): 609. and *note __str__(): 60a. to show values as
     members of their module rather than the enum class.  For example,
     ‘'re.ASCII'’ for the *note ASCII: 619. member of *note
     re.RegexFlag: 61a. rather than ‘'RegexFlag.ASCII'’.

   * Enhanced *note Flag: 610. to support *note len(): 61b, iteration
     and *note in: 2e9./*note not in: 61c. on its members.  For example,
     the following now works: ‘len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) ==
     (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)’

   * Changed *note Enum: 61d. and *note Flag: 610. so that members are
     now defined before *note __init_subclass__(): 61e. is called; *note
     dir(): 61f. now includes methods, etc., from mixed-in data types.

   * Changed *note Flag: 610. to only consider primary values (power of
     two) canonical while composite values (‘3’, ‘6’, ‘10’, etc.)  are
     considered aliases; inverted flags are coerced to their positive
     equivalent.


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl,  Next: fractions<3>,  Prev: enum<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.6 ‘fcntl’
...............

   * On FreeBSD, the ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ flags
     respectively are supported, the former equals to ‘dup2’ usage while
     the latter set the ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<3>,  Next: functools,  Prev: fcntl,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.7 ‘fractions’
...................

   * Prise en charge de l'initialisation de *note Fraction: 1e4. à
     partir d'une chaîne suivant le style de la PEP 515(1) (contribution
     de 'Sergey B Kirpichev' dans bpo-44258(2)).

   * *note Fraction: 1e4. implémente maintenant la méthode ‘__int__’, ce
     qui permet au test ‘isinstance(ma_fraction, typing.SupportsInt)’ de
     passer avec succès (contribution de 'Mark Dickinson' dans
     bpo-44547(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547


File: python.info,  Node: functools,  Next: gzip<2>,  Prev: fractions<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.8 functools
.................

   * *note functools.singledispatch(): 626. now supports *note
     types.UnionType: 627. and *note typing.Union: 628. as annotations
     to the dispatch argument.:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-46014(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<2>,  Next: hashlib<2>,  Prev: functools,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.9 gzip
............

   * The *note gzip.compress(): 62b. function is now faster when used
     with the 'mtime=0' argument as it delegates the compression
     entirely to a single *note zlib.compress(): 62c. operation.  There
     is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an
     "OS" byte in its header.  That was traditionally always set to a
     value of 255 representing "unknown" by the *note gzip: 66. module.
     Now, when using *note compress(): 62b. with 'mtime=0', it may be
     set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python
     was linked against.  (See gh-112346(1) for details on the side
     effect.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<2>,  Next: IDLE et idlelib,  Prev: gzip<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.10 'hashlib'
..................

   * *note hashlib.blake2b(): 62f. and *note hashlib.blake2s(): 630. now
     prefer libb2(1) over Python's vendored copy.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-47095(2).)

   * The internal ‘_sha3’ module with SHA3 and SHAKE algorithms now uses
     'tiny_sha3' instead of the 'Keccak Code Package' to reduce code and
     binary size.  The *note hashlib: 67. module prefers optimized SHA3
     and SHAKE implementations from OpenSSL. The change affects only
     installations without OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-47098(3).)

   * Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 631, a helper function for
     efficient hashing of files or file-like objects.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in gh-89313(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE et idlelib,  Next: inspect<2>,  Prev: hashlib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.11 ‘IDLE’ et ‘idlelib’
............................

   * Applique la coloration syntaxique aux fichiers ‘.pyi’ (contribution
     d''Alex Waygood' et de 'Terry Jan Reedy' dans bpo-45447(1)).

   * Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.
     (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<2>,  Next: locale<3>,  Prev: IDLE et idlelib,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.12 ‘inspect’
..................

   * Add *note getmembers_static(): 636. to return all members without
     triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol.
     (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-30533(1).)

   * Add *note ismethodwrapper(): 637. for checking if the type of an
     object is a *note MethodWrapperType: 638.  (Contributed by Hakan
     Çelik in bpo-29418(2).)

   * Change the frame-related functions in the *note inspect: 7d. module
     to return new *note FrameInfo: 639. and *note Traceback: 63a. class
     instances (backwards compatible with the previous *note named
     tuple: 63b.-like interfaces) that includes the extended PEP 657(3)
     position information (end line number, column and end column).  The
     affected functions are:

        * *note inspect.getframeinfo(): 63c.

        * *note inspect.getouterframes(): 63d.

        * *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 63e,

        * *note inspect.stack(): 63f.

        * *note inspect.trace(): 640.

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88116(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116


File: python.info,  Node: locale<3>,  Next: logging,  Prev: inspect<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.13 locale
...............

   * Add *note locale.getencoding(): 2db. to get the current locale
     encoding.  It is similar to ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’
     but ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.


File: python.info,  Node: logging,  Next: math<3>,  Prev: locale<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.14 logging
................

   * Added *note getLevelNamesMapping(): 646. to return a mapping from
     logging level names (e.g.  ‘'CRITICAL'’) to the values of their
     corresponding *note Niveaux de journalisation: 647. (e.g.  ‘50’, by
     default).  (Contributed by Andrei Kulakovin in gh-88024(1).)

   * Added a *note createSocket(): 648. method to *note SysLogHandler:
     649, to match *note SocketHandler.createSocket(): 64a.  It is
     called automatically during handler initialization and when
     emitting an event, if there is no active socket.  (Contributed by
     Kirill Pinchuk in gh-88457(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457


File: python.info,  Node: math<3>,  Next: operator,  Prev: logging,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.15 ‘math’
...............

   * Ajout de *note math.exp2(): 64d. : renvoie 2 élevé à la puissance
     ‘x’ (contribution de 'Gideon Mitchell' dans bpo-45917(1)).

   * Ajout de *note math.cbrt(): 64e. : renvoie la racine cubique de ‘x’
     (contribution d''Ajith Ramachandran' dans bpo-44357(2)).

   * Le comportement de *note math.pow(): 64f. dans deux cas
     particuliers a été changé pour être cohérent avec la spécification
     'IEEE 754'.  Les opérations ‘math.pow(0.0, -math.inf)’ et
     ‘math.pow(-0.0, -math.inf)’ renvoient maintenant ‘inf’.  Elles
     levaient précédemment *note ValueError: 1ff. (contribution de 'Mark
     Dickinson' dans bpo-44339(3)).

   * La valeur *note math.nan: 650. est maintenant toujours disponible
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-46917(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917


File: python.info,  Node: operator,  Next: os<3>,  Prev: math<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.16 ‘operator’
...................

   * A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such that
     ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.
     (Contributed by Antony Lee in bpo-44019(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019


File: python.info,  Node: os<3>,  Next: pathlib<4>,  Prev: operator,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.17 ‘os’
.............

   * On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 50f. now uses ‘BCryptGenRandom()’,
     instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-44611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<4>,  Next: re<3>,  Prev: os<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.18 'pathlib'
..................

   * *note glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b. return only directories
     if 'pattern' ends with a pathname components separator: *note sep:
     657. or *note altsep: 658.  (Contributed by Eisuke Kawasima in
     bpo-22276(1) and bpo-33392(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392


File: python.info,  Node: re<3>,  Next: shutils<3>,  Prev: pathlib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.19 ‘re’
.............

   * Le groupement atomique (‘(?>...)’) et les quantificateurs
     possessifs (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) sont maintenant pris en
     charge dans les expressions régulières (contribution de 'Jeffrey C.
     Jacobs' et de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-433030(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<3>,  Next: socket,  Prev: re<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.20 ‘shutils’
..................

   * Ajout du paramètre optionnel 'dir_fd' dans *note shutil.rmtree():
     2f6. (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-46245(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245


File: python.info,  Node: socket,  Next: sqlite3<4>,  Prev: shutils<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.21 ‘socket’
.................

   * Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD. (Contributed by Thomas Klausner
     in bpo-30512(1).)

   * *note create_connection(): 65f. has an option to raise, in case of
     failure to connect, an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. containing all
     errors instead of only raising the last error.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-29980(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<4>,  Next: string,  Prev: socket,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.22 ‘sqlite3’
..................

   * You can now disable the authorizer by passing *note None: 662. to
     *note set_authorizer(): 2a8.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-44491(1).)

   * Collation name *note create_collation(): 663. can now contain any
     Unicode character.  Collation names with invalid characters now
     raise *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664. instead of *note
     sqlite3.ProgrammingError: 4df.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland
     in bpo-44688(2).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. exceptions now include the SQLite extended error
     code as *note sqlite_errorcode: 665. and the SQLite error name as
     *note sqlite_errorname: 666.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel
     Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-16379(3) and bpo-24139(4).)

   * Ajout des méthodes *note setlimit(): 667. et *note getlimit(): 668.
     à la classe *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. pour affecter et
     demander les limites de 'SQLite' pour une connexion (contribution
     d''Erlend E. Aasland' dans bpo-45243(5)).

   * *note sqlite3: ce. affecte maintenant *note sqlite3.threadsafety:
     669. selon le mode d'exécution à fils multiples ('threading' en
     anglais) par défaut qui a été compilé dans la bibliothèque 'SQLite'
     sous-jacente (contribution d''Erlend E. Aasland' dans
     bpo-45613(6)).

   * *note sqlite3: ce. C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if
     callback tracebacks are enabled.  Users can now register an *note
     unraisable hook handler: 1f4. to improve their debug experience.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45828(7).)

   * Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note InterfaceError: 66a.
     Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44092(8).)

   * Add *note serialize(): 66b. and *note deserialize(): 66c. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242. for serializing and deserializing
     databases.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-41930(9).)

   * Add *note create_window_function(): 66d. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242. for creating aggregate window functions.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-34916(10).)

   * Add *note blobopen(): 66e. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 242.  *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 66f. allows incremental I/O operations on blobs.
     (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-24905(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: string,  Next: sys<4>,  Prev: sqlite3<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.23 'string'
.................

   * Add *note get_identifiers(): 672. and *note is_valid(): 673. to
     *note string.Template: 674, which respectively return all valid
     placeholders, and whether any invalid placeholders are present.
     (Contributed by Ben Kehoe in gh-90465(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465


File: python.info,  Node: sys<4>,  Next: sysconfig,  Prev: string,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.24 ‘sys’
..............

   * *note sys.exc_info(): 677. now derives the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’
     fields from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to ‘exc_info()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(1).)

   * Ajout de *note sys.exception(): 678. qui renvoie l'instance de
     l'exception active (équivalent à ‘sys.exc_info()[1]’) (contribution
     d''Irit Katriel' dans bpo-46328(2)).

   * Add the *note sys.flags.safe_path: 679. flag.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig,  Next: tempfile<3>,  Prev: sys<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.25 ‘sysconfig’
....................

   * Three new *note installation schemes: 67c. ('posix_venv', 'nt_venv'
     and 'venv') were added and are used when Python creates new virtual
     environments or when it is running from a virtual environment.  The
     first two schemes ('posix_venv' and 'nt_venv') are OS-specific for
     non-Windows and Windows, the 'venv' is essentially an alias to one
     of them according to the OS Python runs on.  This is useful for
     downstream distributors who modify *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 67d.  Third party code that
     creates new virtual environments should use the new 'venv'
     installation scheme to determine the paths, as does *note venv:
     110.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<3>,  Next: threading<2>,  Prev: sysconfig,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.26 tempfile
.................

   * *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 680. objects now fully implement the
     methods of *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681. or *note io.TextIOBase:
     682. (depending on file mode).  This lets them work correctly with
     APIs that expect file-like objects, such as compression modules.
     (Contributed by Carey Metcalfe in gh-70363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363


File: python.info,  Node: threading<2>,  Next: time<2>,  Prev: tempfile<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.27 ‘threading’
....................

   * On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is available in the C
     library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     685. method now uses the monotonic clock (*note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686.) for the timeout, rather than using the
     system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 687.), to not be affected
     by system clock changes.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-41710(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710


File: python.info,  Node: time<2>,  Next: tkinter<3>,  Prev: threading<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.28 ‘time’
...............

   * Sur Unix, *note time.sleep(): 68a. utilise maintenant une des
     fonctions ‘clock_nanosleep()’ ou ‘nanosleep()’, quand elles sont
     disponibles, qui ont une résolution de 1 nanoseconde (10^-9
     secondes), plutôt que d'utiliser ‘select()’ qui a une résolution de
     1 microseconde (10^-6 secondes) (contribution de 'Benjamin Szőke'
     et de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-21302(1)).

   * On Windows 8.1 and newer, *note time.sleep(): 68a. now uses a
     waitable timer based on high-resolution timers(2) which has a
     resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7 seconds).  Previously, it had
     a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke, Donghee Na, Eryk Sun and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21302(3) and bpo-45429(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<3>,  Next: traceback<2>,  Prev: time<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.29 tkinter
................

   * Added method ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of
     the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info:
     68d.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<2>,  Next: typing<4>,  Prev: tkinter<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.30 traceback
..................

   * Add *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 690. to
     allow users to override which frames appear in the traceback, and
     how they are formatted.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in
     bpo-44569(1).)

   * Add *note traceback.TracebackException.print(): 691, which prints
     the formatted *note TracebackException: 259. instance to a file.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-33809(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809


File: python.info,  Node: typing<4>,  Next: unicodedata<3>,  Prev: traceback<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.31 'typing'
.................

Pour les modifications majeures, voir *note Nouvelles fonctionnalités
reliées aux indications de types: 5ab.

   * Add *note typing.assert_never(): 694. and *note typing.Never: 695.
     *note typing.assert_never(): 694. is useful for asking a type
     checker to confirm that a line of code is not reachable.  At
     runtime, it raises an *note AssertionError: 696.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90633(1).)

   * Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 697.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker what type it has inferred for a given expression.  At
     runtime it prints the type of the received value.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90572(2).)

   * Add *note typing.assert_type(): 698.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker to confirm that the type it has inferred for a given
     expression matches the given type.  At runtime it simply returns
     the received value.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-90638(3).)

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 161. types can now be generic.
     (Contributed by Samodya Abeysiriwardane in gh-89026(4).)

   * *note NamedTuple: 2ad. types can now be generic.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43923(5).)

   * Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 699.  This is useful for
     avoiding type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such
     as mocks.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91154(6).)

   * The *note typing.final(): 69a. decorator now sets the ‘__final__’
     attributed on the decorated object.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra
     in gh-90500(7).)

   * The *note typing.get_overloads(): 69b. function can be used for
     introspecting the overloads of a function.  *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 69c. can be used to clear all registered
     overloads of a function.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-89263(8).)

   * The *note __init__(): 69d. method of *note Protocol: 261.
     subclasses is now preserved.  (Contributed by Adrian Garcia
     Badarasco in gh-88970(9).)

   * The representation of empty tuple types (‘Tuple[()]’) is
     simplified.  This affects introspection, e.g.
     ‘get_args(Tuple[()])’ now evaluates to ‘()’ instead of ‘((),)’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91137(10).)

   * Loosen runtime requirements for type annotations by removing the
     callable check in the private ‘typing._type_check’ function.
     (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90802(11).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. now supports evaluating strings
     as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic aliases: 69f.
     (Contributed by Niklas Rosenstein in gh-85542(12).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. no longer adds *note Optional:
     6a0. to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-90353(13).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. now supports evaluating bare
     stringified *note ClassVar: 263. annotations.  (Contributed by
     Gregory Beauregard in gh-90711(14).)

   * *note typing.no_type_check(): 6a1. no longer modifies external
     classes and functions.  It also now correctly marks classmethods as
     not to be type checked.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-90729(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<3>,  Next: unittest<4>,  Prev: typing<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.32 ‘unicodedata’
......................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 14.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-45190(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<4>,  Next: venv<2>,  Prev: unicodedata<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.33 unittest
.................

   * Added methods *note enterContext(): 6a6. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 6a7. of class *note TestCase: 439, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 6a8. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 6a9.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-45046(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046


File: python.info,  Node: venv<2>,  Next: warnings<2>,  Prev: unittest<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.34 ‘venv’
...............

   * When new Python virtual environments are created, the 'venv' *note
     sysconfig installation scheme: 67c. is used to determine the paths
     inside the environment.  When Python runs in a virtual environment,
     the same installation scheme is the default.  That means that
     downstream distributors can change the default sysconfig install
     scheme without changing behavior of virtual environments.  Third
     party code that also creates new virtual environments should do the
     same.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<2>,  Next: zipfile,  Prev: venv<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.35 warnings
.................

   * *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 572. now accepts arguments for
     *note warnings.simplefilter(): 6ae, providing a more concise way to
     locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.  (Contributed by
     Zac Hatfield-Dodds in bpo-47074(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile,  Prev: warnings<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<3>

1.3.7.36 ‘zipfile’
..................

   * Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading
     metadata in a *note ZipFile: 6b1.'s directory and file headers.
     (Contributed by Stephen J. Turnbull and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28080(1).)

   * Added *note ZipFile.mkdir(): 6b2. for creating new directories
     inside ZIP archives.  (Contributed by Sam Ezeh in gh-49083(2).)

   * Added *note stem: 6b3, *note suffix: 6b4. and *note suffixes: 6b5.
     to *note zipfile.Path: 6b6.  (Contributed by Miguel Brito in
     gh-88261(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261


File: python.info,  Node: Optimisations<3>,  Next: Faster CPython,  Prev: Modules améliorés<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.8 Optimisations
-------------------

This section covers specific optimizations independent of the *note
Faster CPython: 58c. project, which is covered in its own section.

   * The compiler now optimizes simple *note printf-style % formatting:
     6b9. on string literals containing only the format codes ‘%s’, ‘%r’
     and ‘%a’ and makes it as fast as a corresponding *note f-string:
     421. expression.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28307(1).)

   * Integer division (‘//’) is better tuned for optimization by
     compilers.  It is now around 20% faster on x86-64 when dividing an
     *note int: 254. by a value smaller than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith and Tim Peters in gh-90564(2).)

   * *note sum(): 456. is now nearly 30% faster for integers smaller
     than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in gh-68264(3).)

   * Resizing lists is streamlined for the common case, speeding up
     ‘list.append()’ by ≈15% and simple *note list comprehension: 6ba.s
     by up to 20-30% (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-91165(4).)

   * Dictionaries don't store hash values when all keys are Unicode
     objects, decreasing *note dict: 253. size.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ is reduced from 352 bytes
     to 272 bytes (23% smaller) on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-46845(5).)

   * Using *note asyncio.DatagramProtocol: 6bb. is now orders of
     magnitude faster when transferring large files over UDP, with
     speeds over 100 times higher for a ≈60 MiB file.  (Contributed by
     msoxzw in gh-91487(6).)

   * *note math: 8d. functions *note comb(): 6bc. and *note perm(): 6bd.
     are now ≈10 times faster for large arguments (with a larger speedup
     for larger 'k').  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-37295(7).)

   * The *note statistics: d1. functions *note mean(): 6be, *note
     variance(): 6bf. and *note stdev(): 6c0. now consume iterators in
     one pass rather than converting them to a *note list: 5fe. first.
     This is twice as fast and can save substantial memory.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-90415(8).)

   * *note unicodedata.normalize(): 6c1. now normalizes pure-ASCII
     strings in constant time.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-44987(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987


File: python.info,  Node: Faster CPython,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>,  Prev: Optimisations<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.9 Faster CPython
--------------------

CPython 3.11 is an average of 25% faster(1) than CPython 3.10 as
measured with the pyperformance(2) benchmark suite, when compiled with
GCC on Ubuntu Linux.  Depending on your workload, the overall speedup
could be 10-60%.

This project focuses on two major areas in Python: *note Faster Startup:
6c3. and *note Faster Runtime: 6c4.  Optimizations not covered by this
project are listed separately under *note Optimisations: 6b8.

* Menu:

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* À propos::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results

   (2) https://github.com/python/pyperformance


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Startup,  Next: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.1 Faster Startup
......................

* Menu:

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen imports / Static code objects,  Up: Faster Startup

1.3.9.2 Frozen imports / Static code objects
............................................

Python caches *note bytecode: 185. in the *note __pycache__: 6c8.
directory to speed up module loading.

Previously in 3.10, Python module execution looked like this:

     Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate

In Python 3.11, the core modules essential for Python startup are
"frozen".  This means that their *note Objets code: 5a1. (and bytecode)
are statically allocated by the interpreter.  This reduces the steps in
module execution process to:

     Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate

Le lancement de l'interpréteur est 10 à 15 % plus rapide dans la version
3.11.  Cela a un grand impact pour les programmes courts utilisant
Python.

(Contributed by Eric Snow, Guido van Rossum and Kumar Aditya in many
issues.)


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Runtime,  Next: Misc,  Prev: Faster Startup,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.3 Faster Runtime
......................

* Menu:

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Next: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.3.9.4 Cheaper, lazy Python frames
...................................

Python frames, holding execution information, are created whenever
Python calls a Python function.  The following are new frame
optimizations:

   - Streamlined the frame creation process.

   - Avoided memory allocation by generously re-using frame space on the
     C stack.

   - Streamlined the internal frame struct to contain only essential
     information.  Frames previously held extra debugging and memory
     management information.

Old-style *note frame objects: 6cc. are now created only when requested
by debuggers or by Python introspection functions such as *note
sys._getframe(): 6cd. and *note inspect.currentframe(): 6ce.  For most
user code, no frame objects are created at all.  As a result, nearly all
Python functions calls have sped up significantly.  We measured a 3-7%
speedup in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-44590(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590


File: python.info,  Node: Inlined Python function calls,  Next: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.3.9.5 Inlined Python function calls
.....................................

During a Python function call, Python will call an evaluating C function
to interpret that function's code.  This effectively limits pure Python
recursion to what's safe for the C stack.

In 3.11, when CPython detects Python code calling another Python
function, it sets up a new frame, and "jumps" to the new code inside the
new frame.  This avoids calling the C interpreting function altogether.

Most Python function calls now consume no C stack space, speeding them
up.  In simple recursive functions like fibonacci or factorial, we
observed a 1.7x speedup.  This also means recursive functions can
recurse significantly deeper (if the user increases the recursion limit
with *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4af.).  We measured a 1-3%
improvement in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Mark Shannon in bpo-45256(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.3.9.6 PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter
..................................................

PEP 659(1) is one of the key parts of the Faster CPython project.  The
general idea is that while Python is a dynamic language, most code has
regions where objects and types rarely change.  This concept is known as
'type stability'.

At runtime, Python will try to look for common patterns and type
stability in the executing code.  Python will then replace the current
operation with a more specialized one.  This specialized operation uses
fast paths available only to those use cases/types, which generally
outperform their generic counterparts.  This also brings in another
concept called 'inline caching', where Python caches the results of
expensive operations directly in the *note bytecode: 185.

The specializer will also combine certain common instruction pairs into
one superinstruction, reducing the overhead during execution.

Python will only specialize when it sees code that is "hot" (executed
multiple times).  This prevents Python from wasting time on run-once
code.  Python can also de-specialize when code is too dynamic or when
the use changes.  Specialization is attempted periodically, and
specialization attempts are not too expensive, allowing specialization
to adapt to new circumstances.

(PEP written by Mark Shannon, with ideas inspired by Stefan Brunthaler.
See PEP 659(2) for more information.  Implementation by Mark Shannon and
Brandt Bucher, with additional help from Irit Katriel and Dennis
Sweeney.)

Opération           Forme                    Specialization                                              Operation speedup (up   Contributor(s)
                                                                                                         to)                     
                                                                                                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                 
Binary operations   ‘x + x’                  Binary add, multiply and subtract for common types such     10%                     Mark Shannon, Donghee
                                             as *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec. and *note str: 437.                            Na, Brandt Bucher,
                    ‘x - x’                  take custom fast paths for their underlying types.                                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                    ‘x * x’
                    
                                                                                                                                 
Subscript           ‘a[i]’                   Subscripting container types such as *note list: 5fe,       10-25%                  Irit Katriel, Mark
                                             *note tuple: 366. and *note dict: 253. directly index the                           Shannon
                                             underlying data structures.                                                         
                                             
                                             Subscripting custom *note __getitem__(): 280. is also
                                             inlined similar to
                                             *note Inlined Python function calls: 6cf.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store subscript     ‘a[i] = z’               Similar to subscripting specialization above.               10-25%                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Appels              ‘f(arg)’                 Calls to common builtin (C) functions and types such as     20%                     Mark Shannon, Ken Jin
                                             *note len(): 61b. and *note str: 437. directly call their                           
                    ‘C(arg)’                 underlying C version.  This avoids going through the
                                             internal calling convention.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load global         ‘print’                  The object's index in the globals/builtins namespace is     (3)                     Mark Shannon
variable                                     cached.  Loading globals and builtins require zero                                  
                    ‘len’                    namespace lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load attribute      ‘o.attr’                 Similar to loading global variables.  The attribute's       (4)                     Mark Shannon
                                             index inside the class/object's namespace is cached.  In                            
                                             most cases, attribute loading will require zero namespace
                                             lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load methods for    ‘o.meth()’               The actual address of the method is cached.  Method         10-20%                  Ken Jin, Mark Shannon
call                                         loading now has no namespace lookups - even for classes                             
                                             with long inheritance chains.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store attribute     ‘o.attr = z’             Similar to load attribute optimization.                     2% in pyperformance     Mark Shannon
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Unpack Sequence     ‘*seq’                   Specialized for common containers such as                   8%                      Brandt Bucher
                                             *note list: 5fe. and *note tuple: 366.  Avoids internal                             
                                             calling convention.
                                             

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (3) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.8.  3.11
specializes for more forms and reduces some overhead.

   (4) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.10.  3.11
specializes for more forms.  Furthermore, all attribute loads should be
sped up by bpo-45947
(https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947).


File: python.info,  Node: Misc,  Next: FAQ,  Prev: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.7 Misc
............

   * Objects now require less memory due to lazily created object
     namespaces.  Their namespace dictionaries now also share keys more
     freely.  (Contributed Mark Shannon in bpo-45340(1) and
     bpo-40116(2).)

   * "Zero-cost" exceptions are implemented, eliminating the cost of
     *note try: 6d5. statements when no exception is raised.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(3).)

   * A more concise representation of exceptions in the interpreter
     reduced the time required for catching an exception by about 10%.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note re: b8.'s regular expression matching engine has been
     partially refactored, and now uses computed gotos (or "threaded
     code") on supported platforms.  As a result, Python 3.11 executes
     the pyperformance regular expression benchmarks(5) up to 10% faster
     than Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-91404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ,  Next: À propos,  Prev: Misc,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.8 FAQ
...........

* Menu:

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don't see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don't see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::


File: python.info,  Node: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Next: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.9 How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?
.............................................................

Write Pythonic code that follows common best practices; you don't have
to change your code.  The Faster CPython project optimizes for common
code patterns we observe.


File: python.info,  Node: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Next: I don't see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Prev: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.10 Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?
...........................................

Maybe not; we don't expect memory use to exceed 20% higher than 3.10.
This is offset by memory optimizations for frame objects and object
dictionaries as mentioned above.


File: python.info,  Node: I don't see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Next: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.11 I don't see any speedups in my workload. Why?
......................................................

Certain code won't have noticeable benefits.  If your code spends most
of its time on I/O operations, or already does most of its computation
in a C extension library like NumPy, there won't be significant
speedups.  This project currently benefits pure-Python workloads the
most.

Furthermore, the pyperformance figures are a geometric mean.  Even
within the pyperformance benchmarks, certain benchmarks have slowed down
slightly, while others have sped up by nearly 2x!


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: I don't see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.12 Is there a JIT compiler?
.................................

No.  We're still exploring other optimizations.


File: python.info,  Node: À propos,  Prev: FAQ,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.13 À propos
.................

Faster CPython explores optimizations for *note CPython: 6e2.  The main
team is funded by Microsoft to work on this full-time.  Pablo Galindo
Salgado is also funded by Bloomberg LP to work on the project part-time.
Finally, many contributors are volunteers from the community.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>,  Next: Obsolescence<3>,  Prev: Faster CPython,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.10 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
------------------------------------------------

The bytecode now contains inline cache entries, which take the form of
the newly-added *note CACHE: 6e5. instructions.  Many opcodes expect to
be followed by an exact number of caches, and instruct the interpreter
to skip over them at runtime.  Populated caches can look like arbitrary
instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying
raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

* Menu:

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::


File: python.info,  Node: New opcodes,  Next: Replaced opcodes,  Up: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>

1.3.10.1 New opcodes
....................

   * ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’, *note RETURN_GENERATOR: 6e8. and *note SEND: 6e9,
     used in generators and co-routines.

   * *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 6ea, which avoids needing special caller-side
     code for closures.

   * *note JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 6eb, for use in certain loops
     where handling interrupts is undesirable.

   * *note MAKE_CELL: 6ec, to create *note Objets Cellules: 6ed.

   * *note CHECK_EG_MATCH: 6ee. and ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’, to handle the
     *note new exception groups and except*: 58d. added in PEP 654(1).

   * *note PUSH_EXC_INFO: 6ef, for use in exception handlers.

   * *note RESUME: 30a, a no-op, for internal tracing, debugging and
     optimization checks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/


File: python.info,  Node: Replaced opcodes,  Next: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: New opcodes,  Up: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>

1.3.10.2 Replaced opcodes
.........................

Replaced Opcode(s)                       New Opcode(s)                            Notes
                                                                                  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     ‘BINARY_*’                          *note BINARY_OP: 6f2.                    Replaced all numeric binary/in-place
     ‘INPLACE_*’                                                                  opcodes with a single opcode
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’                          *note CALL: 6f3.                    Decouples argument shifting for methods
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’                       ‘KW_NAMES’                          from handling of keyword arguments; allows
     ‘CALL_METHOD’                            ‘PRECALL’                           better specialization of calls
                                              *note PUSH_NULL: 6f4.               
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘DUP_TOP’                                *note COPY: 6f5.                    Stack manipulation instructions
     ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’                            *note SWAP: 6f6.                    
     ‘ROT_TWO’                           
     ‘ROT_THREE’
     ‘ROT_FOUR’
     ‘ROT_N’

     ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’                  *note CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 6f7.         Now performs check but doesn't jump
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’                          *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 6f8.           See (1); ‘TRUE’, ‘FALSE’, ‘NONE’ and
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE’                      ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*’            ‘NOT_NONE’ variants for each direction
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE’                       ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*’             
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘SETUP_WITH’                        *note BEFORE_WITH: 6f9.                  *note with: 5be. block setup
     ‘SETUP_ASYNC_WITH’                                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) All jump opcodes are now relative, including the existing
‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’.  The argument is now
an offset from the current instruction rather than an absolute location.


File: python.info,  Node: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: Replaced opcodes,  Up: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>

1.3.10.3 Changed/removed opcodes
................................

   * Changed *note MATCH_CLASS: 6fe. and *note MATCH_KEYS: 6ff. to no
     longer push an additional boolean value to indicate
     success/failure.  Instead, ‘None’ is pushed on failure in place of
     the tuple of extracted values.

   * Changed opcodes that work with exceptions to reflect them now being
     represented as one item on the stack instead of three (see
     gh-89874(1)).

   * Removed ‘COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS’, ‘GEN_START’, ‘POP_BLOCK’,
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’ and ‘YIELD_FROM’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Prev: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<2>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.11 Obsolescence
-------------------

Cette section liste les API Python qui sont devenues obsolètes dans la
version 3.11.

Deprecated C APIs are *note listed separately: 703.
* Menu:

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Bibliothèque Standard::


File: python.info,  Node: Language/Builtins,  Next: Modules,  Up: Obsolescence<3>

1.3.11.1 Language/Builtins
..........................

   * Chaining *note classmethod: 165. descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(1)) is now deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 192.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To "pass-through" a *note classmethod: 165, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Octal escapes in string and bytes literals with values larger than
     ‘0o377’ (255 in decimal) now produce a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3.  In a future Python version, they will raise a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451. and eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-81548(3).)

   * The delegation of *note int(): 254. to *note __trunc__(): 707. is
     now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not *note __int__(): 708. or *note __index__():
     709. now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz in bpo-44977(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977


File: python.info,  Node: Modules,  Next: Bibliothèque Standard,  Prev: Language/Builtins,  Up: Obsolescence<3>

1.3.11.2 Modules
................

   * PEP 594(1) led to the deprecations of the following modules slated
     for removal in Python 3.13:

     ‘aifc’                    ‘chunk’                   ‘msilib’                  ‘pipes’                   ‘telnetlib’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘audioop’                 ‘crypt’                   ‘nis’                     ‘sndhdr’                  ‘uu’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘cgi’                     ‘imghdr’                  ‘nntplib’                 ‘spwd’                    ‘xdrlib’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘cgitb’                   ‘mailcap’                 ‘ossaudiodev’             ‘sunau’
                                                                                   

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-47061(2) and Victor Stinner in
     gh-68966(3).)

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have been deprecated
     since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and deprecation
     warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-47022(4).)

   * The ‘lib2to3’ package and ‘2to3’ tool are now deprecated and may
     not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See PEP 617(5),
     introducing the new PEG parser, for details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40360(6).)

   * Undocumented modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’
     are now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152


File: python.info,  Node: Bibliothèque Standard,  Prev: Modules,  Up: Obsolescence<3>

1.3.11.3 Bibliothèque Standard
..............................

   * The following have been deprecated in *note configparser: 22. since
     Python 3.2.  Their deprecation warnings have now been updated to
     note they will be removed in Python 3.12:

        * the ‘configparser.SafeConfigParser’ class

        * the ‘configparser.ParsingError.filename’ property

        * the ‘configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp()’ method

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45173(1).)

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ has been deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and is not listed in the *note
     configparser: 22. documentation.  It now emits a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     *note configparser.BasicInterpolation: 70e. or *note
     configparser.ExtendedInterpolation: 70f. instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-46607(2).)

   * The older set of *note importlib.resources: 7a. functions were
     deprecated in favor of the replacements added in Python 3.9 and
     will be removed in a future Python version, due to not supporting
     resources located within package subdirectories:

        * ‘importlib.resources.contents()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.is_resource()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.open_binary()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.open_text()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.read_text()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.path()’

   * The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2d8. function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.15.  Use *note locale.setlocale():
     2da, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 527. and *note
     locale.getlocale(): 2d9. functions instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-90817(3).)

   * The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817(4).)

   * Stricter rules will now be applied for numerical group references
     and group names in *note regular expressions: 710.  Only sequences
     of ASCII digits will now be accepted as a numerical reference, and
     the group name in *note bytes: 1bd. patterns and replacement
     strings can only contain ASCII letters, digits and underscores.
     For now, a deprecation warning is raised for syntax violating these
     rules.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * In the *note re: b8. module, the ‘re.template()’ function and the
     corresponding ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are deprecated, as
     they were undocumented and lacked an obvious purpose.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Miro
     Hrončok in gh-92728(6).)

   * ‘turtle.settiltangle()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.1; it
     now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in Python 3.13.
     Use *note turtle.tiltangle(): 711. instead (it was earlier
     incorrectly marked as deprecated, and its docstring is now
     corrected).  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45837(7).)

   * *note typing.Text: 300, which exists solely to provide
     compatibility support between Python 2 and Python 3 code, is now
     deprecated.  Its removal is currently unplanned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 437. instead wherever possible.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-92332(8).)

   * The keyword argument syntax for constructing *note
     typing.TypedDict: 161. types is now deprecated.  Support will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Jingchen Ye in
     gh-90224(9).)

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.13.  It is untested, undocumented, and not used by *note
     webbrowser: 114. itself.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-42255(10).)

   * The behavior of returning a value from a *note TestCase: 439. and
     *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. test methods (other than the
     default ‘None’ value) is now deprecated.

   * Deprecated the following not-formally-documented *note unittest:
     105. functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28b. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28c.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 28d.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 28e.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-5846(11).)

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be
     removed in 3.13.  (Contributed by Carlos Damázio in gh-67048(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Next: Retraits<3>,  Prev: Obsolescence<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.12 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
-------------------------------------

Les API Python suivantes sont devenues obsolètes dans des versions
précédentes, et seront supprimées dans la version 3.12.

C APIs pending removal are *note listed separately: 715.

   * The ‘asynchat’ module

   * The ‘asyncore’ module

   * The *note entire distutils package: 716.

   * The ‘imp’ module

   * The *note typing.io: 717. namespace

   * The *note typing.re: 718. namespace

   * ‘cgi.log()’

   * ‘importlib.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’

   * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()’

   * ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable

   * The following deprecated aliases in *note unittest: 105.:

          Deprecated alias                 Nom de méthode                      Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 513.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 514.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 515.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 516.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 518.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 519.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 513.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 515.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 516.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 518.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 51a.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 51b.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 51c.        3.5
                                                                               


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<3>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 11,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.13 Retraits
---------------

Cette section liste les API Python qui ont été supprimées dans la
version 3.11.

Removed C APIs are *note listed separately: 71c.

   * Removed the ‘@asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 71d. enabling
     legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with *note
     async: 71e. / *note await: 1b7. code.  The function has been
     deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled
     for Python 3.10.  Use *note async def: 5bd. instead.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(1).)

   * Removed ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used for wrapping legacy
     generator-based coroutine objects in the debug mode.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(2).)

   * Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter
     of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f, disabled in
     Python 3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the
     behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. (Contributed
     by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45129(3).)

   * Removed the ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9.  Also
     removed the related, similarly-deprecated *note binascii: 10.
     functions:

        * ‘binascii.a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.b2a_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rlecode_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rldecode_hqx()’

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 720. function remains available.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45085(4).)

   * Removed the ‘distutils’ ‘bdist_msi’ command deprecated in Python
     3.9.  Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45124(5).)

   * Removed the *note __getitem__(): 280. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 721, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 722. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     bpo-45132(6).)

   * Removed the deprecated *note gettext: 62. functions ‘lgettext()’,
     ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and ‘ldngettext()’.  Also removed the
     ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ function, the
     ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ and
     ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’ methods, and the 'codeset'
     parameter of ‘translation()’ and ‘install()’, since they are only
     used for the ‘l*gettext()’ functions.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44235(7).)

   * Removed from the *note inspect: 7d. module:

        * The ‘getargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0; use
          *note inspect.signature(): 724. or *note
          inspect.getfullargspec(): 725. instead.

        * The ‘formatargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5;
          use the *note inspect.signature(): 724. function or the *note
          inspect.Signature: 1ca. object directly.

        * The undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin()’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function()’ methods, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 726. method
          instead.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45320(8).)

   * Removed the *note __class_getitem__(): 727. method from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 492, because it was not used and added by mistake
     in previous versions.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     bpo-46483(9).)

   * Removed the ‘MailmanProxy’ class in the ‘smtpd’ module, as it is
     unusable without the external ‘mailman’ package.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-35800(10).)

   * Removed the deprecated ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-38371(11).)

   * Removed namespace package support from *note unittest: 105.
     discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken
     since Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-23882(12).)

   * Removed the undocumented private ‘float.__set_format__()’ method,
     previously known as ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its
     docstring said: "You probably don't want to use this function.  It
     exists mainly to be used in Python's test suite."  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46852(13).)

   * The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’ configure flag (and
     corresponding ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro) have
     been removed.

   * Pynche(14) -- The Pythonically Natural Color and Hue Editor -- has
     been moved out of ‘Tools/scripts’ and is being developed
     independently(15) from the Python source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/

   (15) https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 11,  Next: Changements à la compilation<3>,  Prev: Retraits<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.14 Portage vers Python 3.11
-------------------------------

Cette section liste les modifications précédemment décrites et d'autres
corrections de bogues dans l'API Python qui pourraient nécessiter des
modifications dans votre code.

Porting notes for the C API are *note listed separately: 72b.

   * *note open(): 508, *note io.open(): 509, *note codecs.open(): 72c.
     and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723. no longer accept ‘'U'’
     ("universal newline") in the file mode.  In Python 3, "universal
     newline" mode is used by default whenever a file is opened in text
     mode, and the ‘'U'’ flag has been deprecated since Python 3.3.  The
     *note newline parameter: 72d. to these functions controls how
     universal newlines work.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37330(1).)

   * *note ast.AST: 1a4. node positions are now validated when provided
     to *note compile(): 190. and other related functions.  If invalid
     positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93351(2))

   * Prohibited passing non-*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     72e. executors to *note asyncio.loop.set_default_executor(): 72f.
     following a deprecation in Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Illia
     Volochii in bpo-43234(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 730.
     and *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 731. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 2d9, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2d8, if no locale is specified.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46659(4).)

   * The *note pdb: a4. module now reads the ‘.pdbrc’ configuration file
     with the ‘'UTF-8'’ encoding.  (Contributed by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) in bpo-41137(5).)

   * The 'population' parameter of *note random.sample(): 732. must be a
     sequence, and automatic conversion of *note set: 5c5.s to *note
     list: 5fe.s is no longer supported.  Also, if the sample size is
     larger than the population size, a *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     raised.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(6).)

   * The 'random' optional parameter of *note random.shuffle(): 733. was
     removed.  It was previously an arbitrary random function to use for
     the shuffle; now, *note random.random(): 734. (its previous
     default) will always be used.

   * In *note re: b8. *note Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles: 710,
     global inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be used at the
     start of regular expressions.  Using them elsewhere has been
     deprecated since Python 3.6.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47066(7).)

   * In the *note re: b8. module, several long-standing bugs where fixed
     that, in rare cases, could cause capture groups to get the wrong
     result.  Therefore, this could change the captured output in these
     cases.  (Contributed by Ma Lin in bpo-35859(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la compilation<3>,  Next: Changements à l'API C<3>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 11,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.15 Changements à la compilation
-----------------------------------

   * CPython now has PEP 11(1) Tier 3 support(2) for cross compiling to
     the WebAssembly(3) platforms Emscripten(4)
     (‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, i.e.  Python in the browser) and
     WebAssembly System Interface (WASI)(5) (‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’).
     The effort is inspired by previous work like Pyodide(6).  These
     platforms provide a limited subset of POSIX APIs; Python standard
     libraries features and modules related to networking, processes,
     threading, signals, mmap, and users/groups are not available or
     don't work.  (Emscripten contributed by Christian Heimes and Ethan
     Smith in gh-84461(7) and WASI contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-90473(8); platforms promoted in gh-95085(9))

   * Building CPython now requires:

        * A C11(10) compiler and standard library.  Optional C11
          features(11) are not required.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
          in bpo-46656(12), bpo-45440(13) and bpo-46640(14).)

        * Support for IEEE 754(15) floating-point numbers.  (Contributed
          by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(16).)

   * The ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro has been removed.  Since CPython now requires
     IEEE 754 floats, NaN values are always available.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46656(17).)

   * The *note tkinter: ef. package now requires Tcl/Tk(18) version
     8.5.12 or newer.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-46996(19).)

   * Build dependencies, compiler flags, and linker flags for most
     stdlib extension modules are now detected by ‘configure’.  libffi,
     libnsl, libsqlite3, zlib, bzip2, liblzma, libcrypt, Tcl/Tk, and
     uuid flags are detected by pkg-config(20) (when available).  *note
     tkinter: ef. now requires a pkg-config command to detect
     development settings for Tcl/Tk(21) headers and libraries.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Erlend Egeberg Aasland in
     bpo-45847(22), bpo-45747(23), and bpo-45763(24).)

   * libpython is no longer linked against libcrypt.  (Contributed by
     Mike Gilbert in bpo-45433(25).)

   * CPython can now be built with the ThinLTO(26) option via passing
     ‘thin’ to *note -with-lto: 737, i.e.  ‘--with-lto=thin’.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Brett Holman in bpo-44340(27).)

   * Freelists for object structs can now be disabled.  A new
     ‘configure’ option *note -without-freelists: 738. can be used to
     disable all freelists except empty tuple singleton.  (Contributed
     by Christian Heimes in bpo-45522(28).)

   * ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been improved and tied
     up.  Extension modules can now be built through ‘makesetup’.  All
     except some test modules can be linked statically into a main
     binary or library.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Christian
     Heimes in bpo-45548(29), bpo-45570(30), bpo-45571(31), and
     bpo-43974(32).)

          Note: Use the environment variables ‘TCLTK_CFLAGS’ and
          ‘TCLTK_LIBS’ to manually specify the location of Tcl/Tk
          headers and libraries.  The ‘configure’ options
          ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ have been
          removed.

          On RHEL 7 and CentOS 7 the development packages do not provide
          ‘tcl.pc’ and ‘tk.pc’; use ‘TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5
          -ltcl8.5"’.  The directory ‘Misc/rhel7’ contains ‘.pc’ files
          and instructions on how to build Python with RHEL 7's and
          CentOS 7's Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL.

   * CPython will now use 30-bit digits by default for the Python *note
     int: 254. implementation.  Previously, the default was to use
     30-bit digits on platforms with ‘SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8’, and 15-bit
     digits otherwise.  It's still possible to explicitly request use of
     15-bit digits via either the *note -enable-big-digits: 739. option
     to the configure script or (for Windows) the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’
     variable in ‘PC/pyconfig.h’, but this option may be removed at some
     point in the future.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     bpo-45569(33).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (3) https://webassembly.org/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://pyodide.org/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (10) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (11) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (18) https://www.tcl.tk

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (20) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/

   (21) https://www.tcl.tk

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433

   (26) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à l'API C<3>,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Prev: Changements à la compilation<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.16 Changements à l'API C
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<6>.
* Portage vers Python 3.11: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Retraits: Retraits<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<6>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<3>

1.3.16.1 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
..................................

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 73e. function to get type's short
     name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(1).)

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 73f. function to get type's
     qualified name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(2).)

   * Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 740. and *note
     PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 741. functions to the limited C API
     to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43760(3).)

   * Added the *note Py_Version: 742. constant which bears the same
     value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 743.  (Contributed by Gabriele N.
     Tornetta in bpo-43931(4).)

   * *note Py_buffer: 744. and APIs are now part of the limited API and
     the stable ABI:

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 38f.

        * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390.

        * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 745.

        * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 746.

        * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 747.

        * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 748.

        * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 749.

        * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 74a.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 74b.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 74c.

        * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391.

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 74d.

        * *note bf_getbuffer: 74e. and *note bf_releasebuffer: 74f. type
          slots

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45459(5).)

   * Added the *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a. function, used to get
     the module in which a method was defined, in cases where this
     information is not available directly (via *note PyCMethod: 750.).
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-46613(6).)

   * Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and
     deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 751, *note PyFloat_Pack4():
     752, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 753, *note PyFloat_Unpack2(): 754,
     *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 755. and *note PyFloat_Unpack8(): 756.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46906(7).)

   * Add new functions to get frame object attributes: *note
     PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 757, *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 758,
     *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 759, *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 75a.

   * Added two new functions to get and set the active exception
     instance: *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 75b. and *note
     PyErr_SetHandledException(): 75c.  These are alternatives to *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 75d. and *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 75e. which
     work with the legacy 3-tuple representation of exceptions.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46343(8).)

   * Added the *note PyConfig.safe_path: 75f. member.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>,  Next: Obsolescence<4>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<6>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<3>

1.3.16.2 Portage vers Python 3.11
.................................

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions to avoid
     macro pitfalls(1).  The change should be mostly transparent to
     users, as the replacement functions will cast their arguments to
     the expected types to avoid compiler warnings due to static type
     checks.  However, when the limited C API is set to >=3.11, these
     casts are not done, and callers will need to cast arguments to
     their expected types.  See PEP 670(2) for more details.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-89653(3).)

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 75d. no longer uses the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments, the interpreter now derives those values
     from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function
     still steals references of all three arguments.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 75e. now derives the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields of the result from the exception instance (the
     ‘value’ field).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(5).)

   * *note _frozen: 761. has a new ‘is_package’ field to indicate
     whether or not the frozen module is a package.  Previously, a
     negative value in the ‘size’ field was the indicator.  Now only
     non-negative values be used for ‘size’.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in bpo-46608(6).)

   * *note _PyFrameEvalFunction(): 762. now takes ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’
     as its second parameter, instead of ‘PyFrameObject*’.  See PEP
     523(7) for more details of how to use this function pointer type.

   * ‘PyCode_New()’ and ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ now take an
     additional ‘exception_table’ argument.  Using these functions
     should be avoided, if at all possible.  To get a custom code
     object: create a code object using the compiler, then get a
     modified version with the ‘replace’ method.

   * *note PyCodeObject: 763. no longer has the ‘co_code’,
     ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’ fields.  Instead,
     use *note PyCode_GetCode(): 764, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 765,
     *note PyCode_GetCellvars(): 766. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars():
     767. respectively to access them via the C API. (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in bpo-46841(8) and Ken Jin in gh-92154(9) and
     gh-94936(10).)

   * The old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’) are now
     deprecated.  They should be replaced by the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.

     To support older Python versions in the same codebase, you can
     define the following macros and use them throughout the code
     (credit: these were copied from the ‘mypy’ codebase):

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END
          #else
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op)
          #endif

   * The *note PyType_Ready(): 768. function now raises an error if a
     type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag set
     but has no traverse function (*note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse:
     76a.).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44263(11).)

   * Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. flag can
     now inherit the PEP 590(12) vectorcall protocol.  Previously, this
     was only possible for *note static types: 76b.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(13))

   * Since *note Py_TYPE(): 76c. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_TYPE(obj,
     new_type)’: see the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 76d. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type)
          { ob->ob_type = type; }
          #define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type)
          #endif

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39573(14)).

   * Since *note Py_SIZE(): 76e. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = new_size’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_SIZE(obj,
     new_size)’: see the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size)
          { ob->ob_size = size; }
          #define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size)
          #endif

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39573(15)).

   * ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files ‘<stdlib.h>’,
     ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or higher.  C extensions
     should explicitly include the header files after ‘#include
     <Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(16).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’, ‘classobject.h’,
     ‘code.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 770.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(17).)

   * The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been excluded from the
     limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal
     structures which are not available in the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46007(18).)

   * The following frame functions and type are now directly available
     with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it's no longer needed to add ‘#include
     <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 771.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 772.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 757.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 758.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 759.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 75a.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 773.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-93937(19).)

   * The *note PyFrameObject: 775. structure members have been removed
     from the public C API.

     While the documentation notes that the *note PyFrameObject: 775.
     fields are subject to change at any time, they have been stable for
     a long time and were used in several popular extensions.

     In Python 3.11, the frame struct was reorganized to allow
     performance optimizations.  Some fields were removed entirely, as
     they were details of the old implementation.

     *note PyFrameObject: 775. fields:

        * ‘f_back’: use *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 772.

        * ‘f_blockstack’: removed.

        * ‘f_builtins’: use *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 757.

        * ‘f_code’: use *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 776.

        * ‘f_gen’: use *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 758.

        * ‘f_globals’: use *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 759.

        * ‘f_iblock’: removed.

        * ‘f_lasti’: use *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 75a.  Code using
          ‘f_lasti’ with ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ should use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777. instead; it may be faster.

        * ‘f_lineno’: use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777.

        * ‘f_locals’: use *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415.

        * ‘f_stackdepth’: removed.

        * ‘f_state’: no public API (renamed to ‘f_frame.f_state’).

        * ‘f_trace’: no public API.

        * ‘f_trace_lines’: use ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame,
          "f_trace_lines")’.

        * ‘f_trace_opcodes’: use
          ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes")’.

        * ‘f_localsplus’: no public API (renamed to
          ‘f_frame.localsplus’).

        * ‘f_valuestack’: removed.

     The Python frame object is now created lazily.  A side effect is
     that the *note f_back: 778. member must not be accessed directly,
     since its value is now also computed lazily.  The *note
     PyFrame_GetBack(): 772. function must be called instead.

     Debuggers that accessed the *note f_locals: 180. directly 'must'
     call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415. instead.  They no longer need
     to call ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ or
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’, in fact they should not call those
     functions.  The necessary updating of the frame is now managed by
     the virtual machine.

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetCode()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_INCREF(frame->f_code);
              return frame->f_code;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetBack()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back);
              return frame->f_back;
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi_compat project(20) to get these two functions
     on older Python versions.

   * Changes of the *note PyThreadState: 779. structure members:

        * ‘frame’: removed, use *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a.
          (function added to Python 3.9 by bpo-40429(21)).  Warning: the
          function returns a *note strong reference: 333, need to call
          *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b.

        * ‘tracing’: changed, use *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing():
          740. and *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 741. (functions
          added to Python 3.11 by bpo-43760(22)).

        * ‘recursion_depth’: removed, use ‘(tstate->recursion_limit -
          tstate->recursion_remaining)’ instead.

        * ‘stackcheck_counter’: removed.

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_GetFrame()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
              return tstate->frame;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_EnterTracing()’ and
     ‘PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()’ on Python 3.10 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2
          static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              tstate->tracing++;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = 0;
          #endif
          }

          static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL);
              tstate->tracing--;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #endif
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi-compat project(23) to get these functions on
     old Python functions.

   * Distributors are encouraged to build Python with the optimized
     Blake2 library libb2(24).

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5db. field must now be
     set to 1 for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399. to initialize *note sys.path:
     3ab.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. no longer calculates the initial search
     path, and will not fill any values into *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399.  To calculate default paths and
     then modify them, finish initialization and use *note
     PySys_GetObject(): 37f. to retrieve *note sys.path: 3ab. as a
     Python list object and modify it directly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (20) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (24) https://www.blake2.net/


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<3>

1.3.16.3 Obsolescence
.....................

   * Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python
     initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 39d. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e. instead ( PEP 587(1)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88279(2).)

   * Deprecate the ‘ob_shash’ member of the *note PyBytesObject: 77e.
     Use *note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9. instead.  (Contributed by Inada
     Naoki in bpo-46864(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Retraits<4>,  Prev: Obsolescence<4>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<3>

1.3.16.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
.......................................

The following C APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases,
and will be removed in Python 3.12.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_READY()’

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3f7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()’

   * ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

   * *note PyUnicodeObject: 780.

   * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<3>

1.3.16.5 Retraits
.................

   * ‘PyFrame_BlockSetup()’ and ‘PyFrame_BlockPop()’ have been removed.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(1).)

   * Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’ variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(2).)

   * Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’ macros,
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or
     ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41123(3).)

   * Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only contains private
     functions.  C extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’
     header file.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(4).)

   * Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by the
     ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-45440(5).)

   * The following items are no longer available when *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 414. is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 782.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 783.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 784.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 785.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 786.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45474(6).)

   * Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b6. from the limited C API.
     It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’ structure is opaque in
     the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(7).)

   * Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was exposed in the
     public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally.
     Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40170(8).)

   * Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved to the
     internal C API). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(9).)

   * Remove the *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. encoder APIs, as they have been
     deprecated since Python 3.3, are little used and are inefficient
     relative to the recommended alternatives.

     The removed functions are:

        * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

     See PEP 624(10) for details and migration guidance(11).
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-44029(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: Changements à l'API C<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.17 Notable changes in 3.11.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile::


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 4

1.3.17.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 458. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11

1.3.18 Notable changes in 3.11.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 5

1.3.18.1 OpenSSL
................

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.


File: python.info,  Node: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10,  Next: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9,  Prev: Les nouveautés de Python 3 11,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.4 Les nouveautés de Python 3.10
=================================


Rédacteur: 'Pablo Galindo Salgado'

This article explains the new features in Python 3.10, compared to 3.9.
Python 3.10 was released on October 4, 2021.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<4>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<4>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<4>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<4>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<5>.
* Retrait::
* Portage vers Python 3.10: Portage vers Python 3 10.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<3>.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<4>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<4>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.1 Résumé – Points forts de la publication
---------------------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * PEP 634(1), Filtrage par motifs structurels : spécification ;

   * PEP 635(2), Filtrage par motifs structurels : motivation et
     justification ;

   * PEP 636(3), Filtrage par motifs structurels : tutoriel ;

   * bpo-12782(4), Les gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses sont
     maintenant autorisés.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités dans la bibliothèque standard :

   * PEP 618(5), ajout de la vérification optionnelle de taille dans
     ‘zip’.

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

   * PEP 626(6), numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres
     outils.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

   * PEP 604(7), autorise l'écriture d'union de types sous la forme X |
     Y ;

   * PEP 612(8), variables de spécification de paramètres.

   * PEP 613(9), alias de types explicites ;

   * PEP 647(10), User-Defined Type Guards

Obsolescences, retraits ou restrictions :

   * PEP 644(11), mise à jour de la version minimale d''OpenSSL' à
     1.1.1 ;

   * PEP 632(12), obsolescence du module ‘distutils’ ;

   * PEP 623(13), obsolescence et préparation du retrait du membre
     ‘wstr’ de ‘PyUnicodeObject’ ;

   * PEP 624(14), retrait des API d'encodage ‘Py_UNICODE’ ;

   * PEP 597(15), ajout de l'‘EncodingWarning’ optionnel

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>,  Prev: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses::
* Meilleurs messages d'erreurs::
* PEP 626 ; numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils: PEP 626 numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils.
* PEP 634 ; filtrage par motifs structurels: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels.
* EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels::


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses,  Next: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>

1.4.2.1 Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses
....................................................

Il est maintenant possible de mettre les gestionnaires de contexte entre
parenthèses pour les répartir sur plusieurs lignes.  Ceci permet le
formatage d'une longue série de gestionnaires de contexte sur plusieurs
lignes comme ce qui était préalablement possible avec les instructions
d'importation.  Par exemple, tous ces blocs sont maintenant valides :

     with (CtxManager() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1(),
         CtxManager2()
     ):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1() as example,
           CtxManager2()):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1(),
           CtxManager2() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2
     ):
         ...

il est aussi possible d'utiliser une virgule en fin de ligne à la fin du
groupe entre parenthèses :

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2,
         CtxManager3() as example3,
     ):
         ...

Cette nouvelle syntaxe utilise la capacité 'non-LL(1)' du nouvel
analyseur syntaxique.  Voir PEP 617(1) pour plus de détails.

(contribution de 'Guido van Rossum', 'Pablo Galindo' et 'Lysandros
Nikolaou' dans bpo-12782(2) et bpo-40334(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs,  Next: PEP 626 numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils,  Prev: Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>

1.4.2.2 Meilleurs messages d'erreurs
....................................

* Menu:

* SyntaxError::
* IndentationError::
* AttributeError::
* NameError::


File: python.info,  Node: SyntaxError,  Next: IndentationError,  Up: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

1.4.2.3 ‘SyntaxError’
.....................

Pendant l'analyse syntaxique de code qui contient des parenthèses ou
autres balises ouvrantes et fermantes, l'interpréteur inclut maintenant
l'emplacement de la balise ou parenthèse non fermée plutôt que
d'afficher 'SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing' ou d'indiquer un
emplacement incorrect.  Par exemple, considérez le code suivant
(remarquez l'accolade ‘'{'’ non-fermée) :

     expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                 38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6,
     some_other_code = foo()

Les versions précédentes de l’interpréteur indiquaient des emplacements
qui portaient à confusion pour l'erreur de syntaxe :

     File "example.py", line 3
         some_other_code = foo()
                         ^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

mais dans Python 3.10, une erreur plus informative est levée :

     File "example.py", line 1
         expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                    ^
     SyntaxError: '{' was never closed

De façon similaire, les erreurs impliquant des chaînes littérales
non-fermées (avec simples ou triples apostrophes) pointent maintenant
vers le début de la chaîne plutôt de mentionner la fin de ligne ou la
fin du fichier.

Ces améliorations sont inspirées par un travail préalable sur
l'interpréteur 'PyPy'

(contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' dans bpo-42864(1) et 'Batuhan Taskaya'
dans bpo-40176(2)).

Les exceptions *note SyntaxError: 18b. levées par l'interpréteur
soulignent maintenant toute la portée de l'expression qui constitue
l'erreur de syntaxe plutôt que seulement la position où le problème a
été détecté.  De cette façon, plutôt que d'afficher (avant Python
3.10) :

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

Python 3.10 affiche maintenant l'exception comme ceci :

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

Cette amélioration est une contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' dans
bpo-43914(3).

Un nombre considérable de nouveaux messages spécialisés pour les
exceptions *note SyntaxError: 18b. a été incorporé.  Certains des plus
notables sont :

   * ‘:’ manquant avant les blocs :

          >>> if rocket.position > event_horizon
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position > event_horizon
                                                ^
          SyntaxError: expected ':'

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42997(4).)

   * Les 'n'-uplets sans parenthèses dans les cibles de compréhensions :

          >>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
               ^
          SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43017(5).)

   * virgules manquantes dans les littéraux de collections et entre les
     expressions ; :

          >>> items = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2
          ... z: 3,
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              y: 2
                 ^
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43822(6).)

   * types multiples d'‘Exception’ sans parenthèses :

          >>> try:
          ...     build_dyson_sphere()
          ... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
                     ^
          SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43149(7).)

   * ‘:’ et valeurs manquantes dans les littéraux de dictionnaires :

          >>> values = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2,
          ... z:
          ... }
            File "<stdin>", line 4
              z:
               ^
          SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':'

          >>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
                                  ^
          SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43823(8).)

   * blocs ‘try’ sans blocs ‘except’ ou ‘finally’ :

          >>> try:
          ...     x = 2
          ... something = 3
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              something  = 3
              ^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-44305(9).)

   * utilisation de ‘=’ au lieu de ‘==’ dans les comparaisons :

          >>> if rocket.position = event_horizon:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position = event_horizon:
                                 ^
          SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43797(10).)

   * utilisation de ‘*’ dans les chaînes formatées ('f-strings') :

          >>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations"
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              (*all_black_holes)
               ^
          SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41064(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064


File: python.info,  Node: IndentationError,  Next: AttributeError,  Prev: SyntaxError,  Up: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

1.4.2.4 ‘IndentationError’
..........................

Plusieurs exceptions *note IndentationError: 794. ont maintenant plus de
contexte concernant le genre de bloc qui attendait une indentation.
Ceci inclut l'emplacement de l'instruction :

     >>> def foo():
     ...    if lel:
     ...    x = 2
       File "<stdin>", line 3
         x = 2
         ^
     IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2


File: python.info,  Node: AttributeError,  Next: NameError,  Prev: IndentationError,  Up: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

1.4.2.5 ‘AttributeError’
........................

When printing *note AttributeError: 343, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer
suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception
was raised from:

     >>> collections.namedtoplo
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple?

(contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' dans bpo-38530(1)).

     Avertissement: Notice this won't work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not
     called to display the error which can happen if some other custom
     error display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some
     REPLs like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: NameError,  Prev: AttributeError,  Up: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

1.4.2.6 ‘NameError’
...................

When printing *note NameError: 42a. raised by the interpreter,
‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar variable names in
the function that the exception was raised from:

     >>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None
     >>> schwarschild_black_hole
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole?

(contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' dans bpo-38530(1)).

     Avertissement: Notice this won't work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not
     called to display the error, which can happen if some other custom
     error display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some
     REPLs like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 626 numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils,  Next: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels,  Prev: Meilleurs messages d'erreurs,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>

1.4.2.7 PEP 626 : numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils
................................................................................

La PEP 626 apporte des numéros de lignes plus précis pour le débogage,
le profilage et les outils de mesure de couverture.  Les événements de
traçage, avec les numéros de ligne corrects, sont générés pour toutes
les lignes de code exécutées et seulement pour celles-ci.

The *note f_lineno: 798. attribute of frame objects will always contain
the expected line number.

The *note co_lnotab: 2df. attribute of *note code objects: 1cd. is
deprecated and will be removed in 3.12.  Code that needs to convert from
offset to line number should use the new *note co_lines(): 2f0. method
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels,  Next: EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels,  Prev: PEP 626 numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>

1.4.2.8 PEP 634 : filtrage par motifs structurels
.................................................

Le filtrage par motifs a été ajouté sous la forme d'une instruction
'match' et d'instructions 'case' pour les motifs avec des actions
associées.  Les motifs filtrent des séquences, des dictionnaires, des
types de données et des instances de classes.  Le filtrage par motifs
permet aux programmes d'extraire de l'information de types de données
complexes, faire du branchement selon la structure des données et
réaliser des actions spécifiques en fonction des différentes formes des
données.

* Menu:

* Syntaxe et opérations::
* Approche déclarative::
* Filtre simple ; apparier à un littéral: Filtre simple apparier à un littéral.
* Filtres avec un littéral et une variable::
* Filtres et classes::
* Filtres imbriqués::
* Filtres complexes et attrape-tout::
* Garde::
* Autres fonctionnalités importantes::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntaxe et opérations,  Next: Approche déclarative,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.9 Syntaxe et opérations
.............................

La syntaxe générique du filtrage par motifs est :

     match subject:
         case <pattern_1>:
             <action_1>
         case <pattern_2>:
             <action_2>
         case <pattern_3>:
             <action_3>
         case _:
             <action_wildcard>

Une instruction 'match' prend une expression et compare successivement
sa valeur à différents filtres qui sont donnés comme un ou plusieurs
blocs 'case'.  Plus précisément, le filtrage par motifs s'effectue par :

  1. l'utilisation de données qui ont un type et une forme (ici
     ‘subject’) ;

  2. l'évaluation de ‘subject’ dans une instruction ‘match’ ;

  3. l'application de chaque filtre sur ‘subject’ dans des instructions
     ‘case’ de haut en bas jusqu'à ce qu'un appariement soit confirmé ;

  4. l’exécution de l'action associée au filtre s'il y a appariement ;

  5. s'il n'y a aucun appariement et que le dernier ‘case’ est un filtre
     'attrape-tout' ‘_’, l'action correspondante est exécutée.  S'il n'y
     a aucun appariement ni filtre attrape-tout, le bloc ‘match’
     n'effectue aucune opération.


File: python.info,  Node: Approche déclarative,  Next: Filtre simple apparier à un littéral,  Prev: Syntaxe et opérations,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.10 Approche déclarative
.............................

Le filtrage par motifs est peut-être connu des lecteurs par
l'intermédiaire des langages 'C', 'Java' ou 'JavaScript' (et plusieurs
autres langages), avec l'appariement simple d'un sujet (objet de
données) à un littéral (filtre) avec l'instruction ‘switch’.  Souvent,
l'instruction ‘switch’ est utilisée pour comparer des objets ou
expressions à des instructions ‘case’ qui contiennent des littéraux.

Des exemples plus puissants de filtrage par motifs sont présents dans
des langages tels que 'Scala' et 'Elixir'.  Avec le filtrage par motifs
structurels, l'approche est « déclarative » et énonce les conditions
(les motifs) pour apparier les données.

Bien qu'une série d'instructions « impératives » utilisant des
instructions « if » imbriquées puisse être utilisée pour accomplir
quelque chose de similaire au filtrage par motifs structurels, ceci est
moins clair que l'approche « déclarative ».  Cette dernière énonce les
conditions à remplir pour réaliser un appariement grâce à ses filtres
sur des motifs explicites.  Bien que le filtrage par motifs structurels
puisse être utilisé dans sa forme la plus simple pour comparer une
variable à un littéral dans une instruction ‘case’, son intérêt réel en
Python réside dans son traitement du sujet selon son type et sa forme.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtre simple apparier à un littéral,  Next: Filtres avec un littéral et une variable,  Prev: Approche déclarative,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.11 Filtre simple : apparier à un littéral
...............................................

Regardons cet exemple en tant que filtrage par motif dans sa forme la
plus simple : une valeur, le sujet, est comparée à (ou « filtrée par »)
plusieurs littéraux, les motifs.  Dans l'exemple ci-dessous, ‘status’
est le sujet de l'instruction ‘match’.  Les filtres sont chacune des
instructions ‘case’, où les littéraux représentent les codes de status
des requêtes.  Les actions associées au ‘case’ sont exécutés suite à un
appariement :

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Si on passe 418 à ‘status’ dans la fonction ci-haut, elle renvoie ‘"I'm
a teapot"’.  Avec 500, l'instruction ‘case’ qui contient ‘_’ apparie
comme attrape-tout et la fonction renvoie ‘"Something's wrong with the
internet"’.  Prenez note que dans le dernier bloc, le nom de variable,
‘_’ agit comme un 'attrape-tout' et garantit que le sujet sera toujours
apparié.  L'utilisation de ‘_’ est optionnelle.

Vous pouvez combiner plusieurs littéraux dans un seul filtre en
utilisant ‘|’ (qui se lit « ou ») :

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

* Menu:

* Comportement sans l'attrape-tout::


File: python.info,  Node: Comportement sans l'attrape-tout,  Up: Filtre simple apparier à un littéral

1.4.2.12 Comportement sans l'attrape-tout
.........................................

Modifions l'exemple ci-haut en enlevant le dernier bloc ‘case’.  Il
devient :

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"

Sans l'utilisation de ‘_’ dans une instruction ‘case’, il est possible
de ne pas avoir d'appariement.  Dans ce cas, il ne se passe rien.  Par
exemple, si 500 est passé à ‘status’, aucune opération n'est effectuée.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres avec un littéral et une variable,  Next: Filtres et classes,  Prev: Filtre simple apparier à un littéral,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.13 Filtres avec un littéral et une variable
.................................................

Les motifs des filtres peuvent prendre une forme similaire aux
affectations multiples et un filtre peut être utilisé pour lier plus
d'une variable.  Dans cet exemple, un point peut être dissocié entre son
abscisse et son ordonnée :

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

Le motif du premier filtre comporte deux littéraux, ‘(0, 0)’, et peut
être vu comme une extension du filtre sur un littéral montré plus haut.
Les motifs des deux filtres suivants regroupent un littéral et une
variable.  De plus, la variable est liée à la valeur provenant du sujet
(‘point’).  Le motif du quatrième filtre capture deux valeurs, ce qui le
rend conceptuellement similaire à l'affectation multiple : ‘(x, y) =
point’.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres et classes,  Next: Filtres imbriqués,  Prev: Filtres avec un littéral et une variable,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.14 Filtres et classes
...........................

Si vous utilisez des classes pour structurer vos données, vous pouvez
utiliser le nom de la classe suivie d'une liste d'arguments comme motif
de filtre.  Ceci ressemble à un appel du constructeur.  Ce filtre peut
capturer les attributs de la classe dans des variables :

     class Point:
         x: int
         y: int

     def location(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin is the point's location.")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.")
             case Point():
                 print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

* Menu:

* Filtres avec arguments positionnels::


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres avec arguments positionnels,  Up: Filtres et classes

1.4.2.15 Filtres avec arguments positionnels
............................................

Vous pouvez utiliser les arguments positionnels avec un certain nombre
de classes natives qui définissent l'ordre de leurs attributs, notamment
les classes de données ('dataclasses').  Vous pouvez aussi spécifier la
position des attributs quand ils sont utilisés dans les filtres en
définissant l'attribut spécial ‘__match_args__’ dans vos classes.  Par
exemple, le mettre à ‘("x", "y")’ rend tous les filtres ci-dessous
équivalents (en particulier, tous provoquent la liaison de l'attribut
‘y’ à la variable ‘var’) :

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres imbriqués,  Next: Filtres complexes et attrape-tout,  Prev: Filtres et classes,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.16 Filtres imbriqués
..........................

Les filtres peuvent être imbriqués de façon arbitraire.  Par exemple, si
nous avons une courte liste de points, elle peut être appariée comme
ceci :

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points in the list.")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin is the only point in the list.")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.")
         case _:
             print("Something else is found in the list.")


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres complexes et attrape-tout,  Next: Garde,  Prev: Filtres imbriqués,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.17 Filtres complexes et attrape-tout
..........................................

Jusqu'à maintenant, les exemples ont utilisé ‘_’ seul dans la dernière
instruction ‘case’.  Un attrape-tout peut être utilisé dans un filtre
plus complexe tel que ‘('error', code, _)’.  Par exemple :

     match test_variable:
         case ('warning', code, 40):
             print("A warning has been received.")
         case ('error', code, _):
             print(f"An error {code} occurred.")

Dans l'exemple précédent, ‘test_variable’ s'apparie à ‘('error', code,
100)’ et à ‘('error', code, 800)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Garde,  Next: Autres fonctionnalités importantes,  Prev: Filtres complexes et attrape-tout,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.18 Garde
..............

On peut ajouter une clause ‘if’ à un filtre, ce qu'on appelle une
« garde ».  Si la garde s'évalue à faux, ‘match’ poursuit avec la
tentative d'appariement du prochain bloc ‘case’.  Notez que la capture
de valeur se produit avant l'évaluation de la garde :

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")


File: python.info,  Node: Autres fonctionnalités importantes,  Prev: Garde,  Up: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels

1.4.2.19 Autres fonctionnalités importantes
...........................................

Plusieurs autres fonctionnalités importantes :

   - Comme dans les affectations multiples, les motifs de filtres qui
     sont des 'n'-uplets ou des listes sont totalement équivalents et
     autorisent tous les types de séquences.  Techniquement, le sujet
     doit être une séquence.  Ainsi, exception importante, les filtres
     n'autorisent pas les itérateurs.  Aussi, pour prémunir d'une erreur
     commune, les filtres de séquences n'autorisent pas les chaînes ;

   - les filtres de séquence peuvent faire intervenir l'affectation
     étoilée : ‘[x, y, *reste]’ ou ‘(x, y, *reste)’ ont le même sens que
     dans une affectation avec ‘=’.  Le nom de variable après l'étoile
     peut aussi être l'attrape-tout ‘_’.  Ainsi, ‘(x, y, *_)’ est un
     motif de filtre qui reconnaît les séquences à deux éléments ou
     plus, en capturant les deux premiers et en ignorant le reste ;

   - il existe les filtres d'association, qui ressemblent syntaxiquement
     aux dictionnaires.  Par exemple, le filtre ‘{"bande_passante": b,
     "latence": l}’ extrait les valeurs des clés ‘"bande_passante"’ et
     ‘"latence"’ dans un dictionnaire.  Contrairement aux filtres de
     séquence, les clés absentes du filtre sont ignorées et le filtre
     réussit tout de même.  L'affectation double-étoilée (‘**reste’)
     fonctionne aussi (cependant, ‘**_’ serait redondant et n'est donc
     pas permis) ;

   - on peut capturer la valeur d'une partie du motif d'un filtre avec
     le mot-clé ‘as’, par exemple :

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     Ceci lie ‘x1’, ‘y1’, ‘x2’, ‘y2’ comme attendu sans la clause ‘as’,
     et lie ‘p2’ à l’entièreté du second élément du sujet ;

   - la plupart des littéraux sont comparés par égalité.  Néanmoins, les
     singletons ‘True’, ‘False’ et ‘None’ sont comparés par identité ;

   - les filtres peuvent contenir des noms qui se réfèrent à des
     constantes.  Ces noms doivent impérativement être qualifiés
     (contenir au moins un point) pour ne pas être interprétés comme des
     variables de capture :

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 0
              GREEN = 1
              BLUE = 2

          color = Color.GREEN
          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

Pour la spécification complète, voir la PEP 634(1).  La motivation et la
justification des choix sont dans la PEP 635(2), et un tutoriel plus
élaboré se trouve dans la PEP 636(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels,  Prev: PEP 634 filtrage par motifs structurels,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>

1.4.2.20 ‘EncodingWarning’ et option ‘encoding="locale"’ optionnels
...................................................................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. and *note open(): 508.
is platform and locale dependent.  Since UTF-8 is used on most Unix
platforms, omitting ‘encoding’ option when opening UTF-8 files (e.g.
JSON, YAML, TOML, Markdown) is a very common bug.  For example:

     # BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used.
     with open("data.json") as f:
         data = json.load(f)

Pour trouver ce type de bogue, un ‘EncodingWarning’ optionnel a été
ajouté.  Il est levé quand *note sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 679.
est ‘True’ et quand l'encodage utilisé est celui défini par les
paramètres régionaux.

L'option ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ et la variable d’environnement *note
PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7a8. ont été ajoutées pour activer cet
avertissement.

Voir *note Encodage de texte: 7a9. pour plus d'informations.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<4>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<7>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.3 Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types
----------------------------------------------------------------

Cette section couvre les changements majeurs touchant le module *note
typing: 103. et les indications de types de style PEP 484(1).

* Menu:

* PEP 604 ; nouvel opérateur d'union de types: PEP 604 nouvel opérateur d'union de types.
* PEP 612 ; variables de spécification de paramètres: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres.
* PEP 613 ; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647 ; gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur: PEP 647 gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 604 nouvel opérateur d'union de types,  Next: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>

1.4.3.1 PEP 604 : nouvel opérateur d'union de types
...................................................

Un nouvel opérateur d'union de types a été ajouté.  Il permet la syntaxe
‘X | Y’.  Ceci offre une façon plus propre d'exprimer « soit le type X,
soit le type Y » plutôt que d'utiliser *note typing.Union: 628, en
particulier pour les indications de types.

Dans les versions précédentes de Python, pour appliquer une indication
de type à des fonctions qui acceptent des arguments de plusieurs types,
*note typing.Union: 628. était utilisée :

     def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]:
         return number ** 2

Les indications de type peuvent maintenant être écrites de façon plus
courte :

     def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
         return number ** 2

Cette nouvelle syntaxe est aussi acceptée comme le second argument de
*note isinstance(): 42d. et de *note issubclass(): 7ad. :

     >>> isinstance(1, int | str)
     True

Voir *note Type Union: 7ae. et la PEP 604(1) pour plus de détails

(contribution de 'Maggie Moss' et 'Philippe Prados' dans bpo-41428(2),
avec ajouts par 'Yurii Karabas' et 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
bpo-44490(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres,  Next: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Prev: PEP 604 nouvel opérateur d'union de types,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>

1.4.3.2 PEP 612 : variables de spécification de paramètres
..........................................................

Deux nouvelles options ont été ajoutées au module *note typing: 103.
pour améliorer l'information donnée aux vérificateurs de types statiques
pour les ‘Callable’ définis dans la PEP 484(1).

La première est la variable de spécification de paramètre.  Elles sont
utilisées pour transférer le type d'un appelable à un autre – un patron
de conception souvent utilisé dans les fonctions d'ordre supérieur et
dans les décorateurs.  Des exemples d'utilisation se trouvent dans *note
typing.ParamSpec: 15d.  Préalablement, il n'y avait pas de façon facile
pour annoter les dépendances de types des paramètres de manière aussi
précise.

La seconde option est le nouvel opérateur ‘Concatenate’.  Il est utilisé
en conjonction avec les variables de spécification de paramètres pour
annoter les types d'un appelable d'ordre supérieur qui ajoute ou retire
des paramètres à un autre appelable.  Des exemples d'utilisation se
trouvent dans *note typing.Concatenate: 7b0.

Voir *note typing.Callable: 7b1, *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d, *note
typing.Concatenate: 7b0, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7b2, *note
typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7b3. et la PEP 612(2) pour plus de détails

(contribution de 'Ken Jin' dans bpo-41559(3), avec améliorations
mineures par 'Jelle Zijlstra' dans bpo-43783(4) ; PEP écrite par 'Mark
Mendoza').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Next: PEP 647 gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur,  Prev: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>

1.4.3.3 PEP 613 : ‘TypeAlias’
.............................

La PEP 484(1) a ajouté le concept d'alias de types, en exigeant
seulement qu'ils soient des assignations non-annotées au niveau du
module.  Cette simplicité rendait parfois difficile pour les
vérificateurs de types de distinguer entre un alias de type et une
affectation ordinaire, en particulier quand des références postérieures
ou des types invalides étaient impliqués.  Comparez :

     StrCache = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Now the *note typing: 103. module has a special value *note TypeAlias:
7b5. which lets you declare type aliases more explicitly:

     StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Voir la PEP 613(2) pour plus de détails.

(contribution de 'Mikhail Golubev' dans bpo-41923(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 647 gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur,  Prev: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>

1.4.3.4 PEP 647 : gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur
...........................................................

*note TypeGuard: 163. has been added to the *note typing: 103. module to
annotate type guard functions and improve information provided to static
type checkers during type narrowing.  For more information, please see
*note TypeGuard: 163.'s documentation, and PEP 647(1).

(contribution de 'Ken Jin' et 'Guido van Rossum' dans bpo-43766(2).  PEP
écrit par 'Eric Traut').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<4>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<4>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.4 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * Le type *note int: 254. a une nouvelle méthode *note
     int.bit_count(): 7b8, qui renvoie le nombre de chiffres uns dans
     l’expansion binaire d'un entier donné, aussi connue sous le nom de
     chiffre de population ('population count') (contribution de 'Niklas
     Fiekas' dans bpo-29882(1)).

   * Les vues renvoyées par *note dict.keys(): 7b9, *note dict.values():
     7ba. et *note dict.items(): 7bb. ont maintenant toutes un attribut
     ‘mapping’ qui donne un objet *note types.MappingProxyType: 459.
     encapsulant le dictionnaire original (contribution de 'Dennis
     Sweeney' dans bpo-40890(2)).

   * PEP 618(3) : la fonction *note zip(): 7bc. a maintenant un argument
     optionnel ‘strict’, utilisé pour demander que tous les itérables
     soient de même longueur.

   * Les fonctions d'extensions et les fonctions natives qui prennent
     des arguments entiers n'acceptent plus les *note Decimal: 29a,
     *note Fraction: 1e4. et autres objets qui ne peuvent pas être
     convertis en entiers sans perte de précision (par exemple ceux qui
     ont une méthode *note __int__(): 708. mais pas une méthode *note
     __index__(): 709.) (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
     bpo-37999(4)).

   * If *note object.__ipow__(): 7bd. returns *note NotImplemented: 7be,
     the operator will correctly fall back to *note object.__pow__():
     7bf. and *note object.__rpow__(): 7c0. as expected.  (Contributed
     by Alex Shkop in bpo-38302(5).)

   * Les expressions d'affectations peuvent maintenant être utilisées
     dans les littéraux d'ensembles, dans les compréhensions d'ensembles
     et dans les indices de séquences (mais pas dans les tranches).

   * Les fonctions ont un nouvel attribut ‘__builtins__’ qui est utilisé
     pour repérer les symboles natifs quand la fonction est exécutée,
     plutôt que de regarder dans ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.
     L'attribut est initialisé à partir de ‘__globals__["__builtins__"]’
     s'il existe, ou des symboles natifs en cours autrement
     (contribution de 'Mark Shannon' dans bpo-42990(6)).

   * Deux nouvelles fonctions natives – *note aiter(): 7c1. et *note
     anext(): 7c2. – ont été ajoutées pour fournir les équivalents
     asynchrones de *note iter(): 7c3. et de *note next(): 7c4,
     respectivement (contribution de 'Joshua Bronson', 'Daniel Pope' et
     'Justin Wang' dans bpo-31861(7)).

   * Les méthodes statiques (*note @staticmethod: 40c.) et les méthodes
     de classes (*note @classmethod: 165.) héritent maintenant des
     attributs de méthodes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’,
     ‘__doc__’, ‘__annotations__’) et ont un nouvel attribut
     ‘__wrapped__’.  De plus, les méthodes statiques sont maintenant
     appelables en tant que fonctions classiques (contribution de
     'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-43682(8)).

   * Les annotations des cibles complexes (toutes cibles autre que
     ‘simple name’ telles que définies dans la PEP 526(9)) n'ont plus
     d'effet à l'exécution avec ‘from __future__ import annotations’
     (contribution de 'Batuhan Taskaya' dans bpo-42737(10)).

   * Les objets ‘class’ et ‘module’ créent maintenant paresseusement un
     dictionnaire d'annotations vide sur demande.  Les dictionnaires
     d'annotations sont stockés dans le ‘__dict__’ de l'objet pour
     garder la retro-compatibilité.  Cela renforce les bonnes pratiques
     relatives à ‘__annotations__’ ; pour plus d'information, voir *note
     Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations: 7c5. (contribution de
     'Larry Hastings' dans bpo-43901(11)).

   * Les annotations qui contiennent ‘yield’, ‘yield from’, ‘await’ ou
     une expression nommée ne sont plus permises sous ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ à cause de leurs effets secondaires
     (contribution de 'Batuhan Taskaya' dans bpo-42725(12)).

   * L'utilisation de variables non liées, de ‘super()’ et d'autres
     expressions qui peuvent changer le traitement de la table des
     symboles en tant qu'annotation n'ont plus d'effet sous ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ (contribution de 'Batuhan Taskaya'
     dans bpo-42725(13)).

   * Le hachage des valeurs 'NaN' des types *note float: 2ec. et *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29a. dépend maintenant de l'identité de l'objet.
     Préalablement, cette valeur de hachage était toujours ‘0’ alors que
     les valeurs 'NaN' ne sont pas égales entre elles.  Cela pouvait
     potentiellement entrainer un temps d'exécution quadratique en
     raison des collisions excessives des valeurs de hachage lors de la
     création de dictionnaires et d'ensembles qui contiennent plusieurs
     'NaN' (contribution de 'Raymond Hettinger' dans bpo-43475(14)).

   * A *note SyntaxError: 18b. (instead of a *note NameError: 42a.) will
     be raised when deleting the *note __debug__: 7c6. constant.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-45000(15).)

   * Les exceptions *note SyntaxError: 18b. ont maintenant des attributs
     ‘end_lineno’ et ‘end_offset’.  La valeur est ‘None’ quand ils ne
     peuvent pas être déterminés (contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' dans
     bpo-43914(16)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<4>,  Next: Modules améliorés<4>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<4>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.5 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<4>,  Next: Optimisations<4>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<4>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.6 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* argparse: argparse<2>.
* array: array<3>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64: base64<2>.
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* encodings::
* enum: enum<4>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob: glob<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE et idlelib: IDLE et idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* linecache::
* os: os<4>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* site: site<2>.
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* types: types<3>.
* typing: typing<5>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml: xml<2>.
* zipimport: zipimport<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<4>,  Next: argparse<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.1 ‘asyncio’
.................

Ajout de la méthode ‘connect_accepted_socket()’ manquante (contribution
d''Alex Grönholm' dans bpo-41332(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<2>,  Next: array<3>,  Prev: asyncio<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.2 ‘argparse’
..................

L'expression ‘"optional arguments"’ qui portait à confusion a été
remplacée par ‘"options"’ dans le message d'aide d'‘argparse’.  Certains
tests devront être adaptés s'ils dépendent d'une comparaison exacte dans
la sortie d'aide (contribution de 'Raymond Hettinger' dans bpo-9694(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694


File: python.info,  Node: array<3>,  Next: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Prev: argparse<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.3 ‘array’
...............

La méthode *note index(): 7cc. de la classe *note array.array: 19e. a
maintenant les paramètres optionnels 'start' et 'stop' (contribution
d''Anders Lorentsen' et de 'Zackery Spytz' dans bpo-31956(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Next: base64<2>,  Prev: array<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.4 ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’, ‘smtpd’
.......................................

Ces modules ont étés déclarés obsolètes dans leur documentation de
modules depuis Python 3.6.  Un *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. au moment
de l'importation est maintenant ajouté pour ces trois modules.


File: python.info,  Node: base64<2>,  Next: bdb,  Prev: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.5 ‘base64’
................

Ajout de *note base64.b32hexencode(): 7cf. et de *note
base64.b32hexdecode(): 7d0. pour prendre en charge l'encodage Base32
avec l'alphabet hexadécimal étendu.


File: python.info,  Node: bdb,  Next: bisect,  Prev: base64<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.6 ‘bdb’
.............

Ajout de ‘clearBreakpoints()’ pour supprimer tous les points d'arrêt
(contribution d''Irit Katriel' dans bpo-24160(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160


File: python.info,  Node: bisect,  Next: codecs,  Prev: bdb,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.7 ‘bisect’
................

Ajout de la possibilité de fournir une fonction ‘key’ aux API dans le
module *note bisect: 11. (contribution de 'Raymond Hettinger' dans
bpo-4356(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356


File: python.info,  Node: codecs,  Next: collections abc,  Prev: bisect,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.8 ‘codecs’
................

Ajout d'une fonction *note codecs.unregister(): 7d4. pour désinscrire
une fonction de recherche de codecs (contribution de 'Hai Shi' dans
bpo-41842(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc,  Next: contextlib<2>,  Prev: codecs,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.9 ‘collections.abc’
.........................

L'attribut ‘__args__’ des *note génériques paramétrables: 69f. de *note
collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. est maintenant cohérent avec *note
typing.Callable: 7b1.  Les génériques de *note collections.abc.Callable:
7d6. aplatissent maintenant les types des paramètres à l'instar de *note
typing.Callable: 7b1.  Ceci veut dire que
‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ aura un attribut ‘__args__’
de valeur ‘(int, str, str)’ ; auparavant, il aurait été ‘([int, str],
str)’.  Pour permettre ce changement, *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.
peut être dérivée, et une sous-classe sera renvoyée lors de la surcharge
du type *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6.  Prenez note que *note
TypeError: 525. sera levée pour des formes invalides de paramétrisation
de *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6, ce qui aurait pu passer
silencieusement dans Python 3.9 (contribution de 'Ken Jin' dans
bpo-42195(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<2>,  Next: curses,  Prev: collections abc,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.10 ‘contextlib’
.....................

Ajout d'un gestionnaire de contexte *note contextlib.aclosing(): 7d9.
pour fermer de façon sécurisée les générateurs asynchrones et les objets
représentants des ressources libérées de façon asynchrone (contribution
de 'Joongi Kim' et 'John Belmonte' dans bpo-41229(1)).

Ajout d'un gestionnaire de contexte pour prendre en charge *note
contextlib.nullcontext(): 7da. (contribution de 'Tom Gringauz' dans
bpo-41543(2)).

Add *note AsyncContextDecorator: 7db, for supporting usage of async
context managers as decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543


File: python.info,  Node: curses,  Next: dataclasses<2>,  Prev: contextlib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.11 ‘curses’
.................

Les fonctions de couleurs étendues ajoutées dans 'ncurses' 6.1 sont
utilisées de façon transparente par *note curses.color_content(): 7dd,
*note curses.init_color(): 7de, *note curses.init_pair(): 7df. et *note
curses.pair_content(): 7e0.  Une nouvelle fonction, *note
curses.has_extended_color_support(): 7e1, indique si la prise en charge
des couleurs étendues est fournie par la bibliothèque 'ncurses'
sous-jacente (contribution de 'Jeffrey Kintscher' et de 'Hans Petter
Jansson' dans bpo-36982(1)).

Les constantes ‘BUTTON5_*’ sont maintenant exposées dans le module *note
curses: 2b. si elles sont fournies par la bibliothèque 'curses'
sous-jacente (contribution de 'Zackery Spytz' dans bpo-39273(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<2>,  Next: distutils<2>,  Prev: curses,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.12 ‘dataclasses’
......................

* Menu:

* __slots__::
* Champs obligatoirement nommés::


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__,  Next: Champs obligatoirement nommés,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.4.6.13 ‘__slots__’
....................

Ajout du paramètre ‘slots’ dans le décorateur *note
dataclasses.dataclass(): 1c6. (contribution de 'Yurii Karabas' dans
bpo-42269(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269


File: python.info,  Node: Champs obligatoirement nommés,  Prev: __slots__,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.4.6.14 Champs obligatoirement nommés
......................................

Les classes de données (‘dataclass’) prennent maintenant en charge les
champs obligatoirement nommés dans la méthode ‘__init__’ générée.  Il y
a plusieurs façons de spécifier les champs obligatoirement nommés.

Vous pouvez indiquer que tous les champs sont obligatoirement nommés :

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass(kw_only=True)
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date

Les paramètres ‘name’ et ‘birthday’ sont tous deux obligatoirement
nommés dans la méthode ‘__init__’ générée.

Pour chaque champ, vous pouvez indiquer s'il est obligatoirement nommé :

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field

     @dataclass
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True)

Ici, seulement ‘birthday’ est obligatoirement nommé.  Si vous assignez
‘kw_only’ sur un champ particulier, notez qu'il y a des règles
concernant l'ordre des champs puisque les champs obligatoirement nommés
doivent suivre les champs optionnellement nommés.  Voir la documentation
de ‘dataclass’ pour plus de détails.

Vous pouvez aussi indiquer que tous les champs qui suivent un marqueur
‘KW_ONLY’ sont obligatoirement nommés.  Ceci sera probablement
l'utilisation la plus commune :

     from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         _: KW_ONLY
         z: float = 0.0
         t: float = 0.0

Here, ‘z’ and ‘t’ are keyword-only parameters, while ‘x’ and ‘y’ are
not.  (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-43532(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<2>,  Next: doctest<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.15 ‘distutils’
....................

Le paquet ‘distutil’ est entièrement obsolète et sera retiré dans Python
3.12.  Ses fonctionnalités pour spécifier la construction de paquets
sont déjà complètement remplacées par les paquets tierce-parties
‘setuptools’ et ‘packaging’.  Les autres API régulièrement utilisées
sont disponibles ailleurs dans la bibliothèque standard (tel que dans
*note platform: a9, *note shutil: c4, *note subprocess: d5. ou *note
sysconfig: da.).  Il n'est pas prévu de migrer d'autres fonctionnalités
de ‘distutils’, aussi les applications qui utilisent d'autres fonctions
du module doivent faire des copies privées du code.  Voir la discussion
dans la PEP 632(1).

La commande ‘bdist_wininst’ qui est obsolète depuis Python 3.8 a été
retirée.  La commande ‘bdist_wheel’ est maintenant recommandée pour
distribuer des paquets binaires sous Windows (contribution de 'Victor
Stinner' dans bpo-42802(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<2>,  Next: encodings,  Prev: distutils<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.16 ‘doctest’
..................

Quand un module ne définit pas ‘__loader__’, ‘__spec__.loader’ est
utilisé (contribution de 'Brett Cannon' dans bpo-42133(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: encodings,  Next: enum<4>,  Prev: doctest<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.17 ‘encodings’
....................

La fonction ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ ignore maintenant les
caractères non ASCII (contribution de 'Hai Shi' dans bpo-39337(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337


File: python.info,  Node: enum<4>,  Next: fileinput,  Prev: encodings,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.18 enum
.............

*note Enum: 61d. *note __repr__(): 609. now returns
‘enum_name.member_name’ and *note __str__(): 60a. now returns
‘member_name’.  Stdlib enums available as module constants have a *note
repr(): 7e9. of ‘module_name.member_name’.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman
in bpo-40066(1).)

Add *note enum.StrEnum: 607. for enums where all members are strings.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-41816(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput,  Next: faulthandler,  Prev: enum<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.19 ‘fileinput’
....................

Ajout des paramètres ‘encoding’ et ‘errors’ dans *note
fileinput.input(): 7eb. et dans *note fileinput.FileInput: 723.
(contribution d''Inada Naoki' dans bpo-43712(1)).

*note fileinput.hook_compressed(): 7ec. now returns *note TextIOWrapper:
7a7. object when 'mode' is "r" and file is compressed, like uncompressed
files.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-5758(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler,  Next: gc,  Prev: fileinput,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.20 ‘faulthandler’
.......................

Le module *note faulthandler: 57. détecte maintenant si une erreur
fatale s'est produite pendant un passage du ramasse-miettes
(contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-44466(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466


File: python.info,  Node: gc,  Next: glob<2>,  Prev: faulthandler,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.21 ‘gc’
.............

Ajout de fonctions de rappels d'audit pour *note gc.get_objects(): 7ef,
*note gc.get_referrers(): 7f0. et *note gc.get_referents(): 7f1.
(contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' dans bpo-43439(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: glob<2>,  Next: hashlib<3>,  Prev: gc,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.22 ‘glob’
...............

Ajout des paramètres ‘root_dir’ et ‘dir_fd’ dans *note glob(): 29c. et
dans *note iglob(): 7f3. pour permettre la spécification du répertoire
racine utilisé pour la recherche (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka'
dans bpo-38144(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<3>,  Next: hmac,  Prev: glob<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.23 ‘hashlib’
..................

La version minimale d''OpenSSL' pour le module ‘hashlib’ est maintenant
1.1.1 (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans PEP 644(1) et dans
bpo-43669(2)).

Le module 'hashlib' offre une prise en charge préliminaire pour
'OpenSSL' 3.0.0 (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-38820(3) et
autres tickets).

Le repli vers la version en pur Python de *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb. est
obsolète.  Dorénavant, ‘PBKDF2-HMAC’ n'est disponible que si Python a
été compilé avec la prise en charge d''OpenSSL' (contribution de
'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-43880(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880


File: python.info,  Node: hmac,  Next: IDLE et idlelib<2>,  Prev: hashlib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.24 ‘hmac’
...............

L'implémentation interne du module ‘hmac’ utilise maintenant 'HMAC'
d''OpenSSL' (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-40645(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE et idlelib<2>,  Next: importlib metadata<2>,  Prev: hmac,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.25 IDLE et ‘idlelib’
..........................

IDLE invoque maintenant *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7. (lorsque lancé sans
‘'-n'’).  Auparavant, les fonctions de rappel définies par l'utilisateur
étaient ignorées (contribution par 'Ken Hilton' dans bpo-43008(1)).

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(2).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(3).)

Les changements ci-dessus ont été rétro-portés dans le cadre de la
maintenance de 3.9.

Ajout d'une barre de côté à la console.  Déplacement de l'invite de
commande principale (‘>>>’) vers cette barre.  Ajout des invites
secondaires (‘...’) à la barre de côté.  Le clic de gauche et le glisser
optionnel sélectionnent une ou plusieurs lignes de texte, tout comme
dans la barre de numéros de ligne de la fenêtre d'édition.  Le clic
droit après la sélection de lignes de texte affiche un menu contextuel
pour copier avec invites (''copy with prompts").  Ceci combine les
invites de la barre de côté avec le texte sélectionné.  Cette option
apparait aussi dans le menu contextuel pour le texte (contribution de
'Tal Einat' dans bpo-37903(4)).

Utilisation d'espaces plutôt que des tabulations pour indenter le code
interactif.  Ceci donne au code interactif la « bonne apparence ».
Cette fonctionnalité est fortement corrélée à l'ajout de la barre de
côté de la console (contribution de 'Terry Jan Reedy' dans
bpo-37892(5)).

Coloration des nouveaux *note mots clés ad-hoc: 7f8. *note match: 7f9,
*note case: 7f9. et *note _: 7fa. dans les instructions de filtrage par
motifs ('pattern matching').  Par contre, cette coloration n'est pas
parfaite et elle sera incorrecte dans quelques rares cas, y-compris
certains ‘_’ dans des instructions ‘case’ (contribution de Tal Einat
dans bpo-44010(6)).

Nouveau dans les versions de maintenance 3.10.

Applique la coloration syntaxique aux fichiers ‘.pyi’ (contribution
d''Alex Waygood' et de 'Terry Jan Reedy' dans bpo-45447(7)).

Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.  (Contributed
by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata<2>,  Next: inspect<3>,  Prev: IDLE et idlelib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.26 ‘importlib.metadata’
.............................

Équivalence de fonctionnalités avec ‘importlib_metadata’ 4.6
(historique(1)).

*note importlib.metadata entry points: 281. now provide a nicer
experience for selecting entry points by group and name through a new
*note importlib.metadata.EntryPoints: 281. class.  See the Compatibility
Note in the docs for more info on the deprecation and usage.

Added *note importlib.metadata.packages_distributions(): 7fc. for
resolving top-level Python modules and packages to their *note
importlib.metadata.Distribution: 7fd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<3>,  Next: itertools<3>,  Prev: importlib metadata<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.27 ‘inspect’
..................

Quand un module ne définit pas ‘__loader__’, ‘__spec__.loader’ est
utilisé (contribution de 'Brett Cannon' dans bpo-42133(1)).

Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff, which safely computes the
annotations defined on an object.  It works around the quirks of
accessing the annotations on various types of objects, and makes very
few assumptions about the object it examines.  *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. can also correctly un-stringize
stringized annotations.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. is now
considered best practice for accessing the annotations dict defined on
any Python object; for more information on best practices for working
with annotations, please see *note Bonnes pratiques concernant les
annotations: 7c5.  Relatedly, *note inspect.signature(): 724, *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 726, and
‘inspect.Signature.from_function()’ now call *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. to retrieve annotations.  This means
*note inspect.signature(): 724. and *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 726. can also now un-stringize
stringized annotations.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in
bpo-43817(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<3>,  Next: linecache,  Prev: inspect<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.28 itertools
..................

Add *note itertools.pairwise(): 801.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
in bpo-38200(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200


File: python.info,  Node: linecache,  Next: os<4>,  Prev: itertools<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.29 ‘linecache’
....................

Quand un module ne définit pas ‘__loader__’, ‘__spec__.loader’ est
utilisé (contribution de 'Brett Cannon' dans bpo-42133(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: os<4>,  Next: os path<3>,  Prev: linecache,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.30 ‘os’
.............

Add *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. support for VxWorks RTOS. (Contributed by
Peixing Xin in bpo-41440(1).)

Ajout d'une nouvelle fonction *note os.eventfd(): 804. et des fonctions
utilitaires associées pour encapsuler l'appel système ‘eventfd2’ sur
Linux (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-41001(2)).

Add *note os.splice(): 805. that allows to move data between two file
descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user
address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41625(3).)

Add *note O_EVTONLY: 806, *note O_FSYNC: 807, *note O_SYMLINK: 808. and
*note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 809. for macOS. (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-43106(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106


File: python.info,  Node: os path<3>,  Next: pathlib<5>,  Prev: os<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.31 ‘os.path’
..................

*note os.path.realpath(): 222. accepte maintenant l'argument nommé
'strict'.  Lorsqu'il est ‘True’, une *note OSError: 40d. est levée si le
chemin n'existe pas ou si une boucle de liens symboliques est rencontrée
(contribution de 'Barney Gale' dans bpo-43757(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<5>,  Next: platform<2>,  Prev: os path<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.32 ‘pathlib’
..................

Add slice support to *note PurePath.parents: 80c.  (Contributed by
Joshua Cannon in bpo-35498(1).)

Add negative indexing support to *note PurePath.parents: 80c.
(Contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych in bpo-21041(2).)

Add *note Path.hardlink_to: 80d. method that supersedes ‘link_to()’.
The new method has the same argument order as *note symlink_to(): 80e.
(Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(3).)

*note pathlib.Path.stat(): 80f. et *note chmod(): 810. acceptent
maintenant l'argument nommé 'follow_symlinks' pour rester cohérent avec
les fonctions correspondantes dans le module *note os: a0. (contribution
de 'Barney Gale' dans bpo-39906(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906


File: python.info,  Node: platform<2>,  Next: pprint,  Prev: pathlib<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.33 ‘platform’
...................

Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 812. to retrieve operation
system identification from freedesktop.org os-release(1) standard file.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468


File: python.info,  Node: pprint,  Next: py_compile,  Prev: platform<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.34 ‘pprint’
.................

*note pprint.pprint(): 814. accepte maintenant le nouvel argument nommé
‘underscore_numbers’ (contribution de 'sblondon' dans bpo-42914(1)).

*note pprint: ad. peut maintenant afficher élégamment les instances de
*note dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6. (contribution de 'Lewis Gaul' dans
bpo-43080(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile,  Next: pyclbr,  Prev: pprint,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.35 ‘py_compile’
.....................

Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande ‘--quiet’ à l'interface de *note
py_compile: b2. (contribution de 'Gregory Schevchenko' dans
bpo-38731(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr,  Next: shelve,  Prev: py_compile,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.36 ‘pyclbr’
.................

Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the ‘Function’ and ‘Class’ objects in
the tree returned by *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 817. and *note
pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 818.  It matches the existing (start) ‘lineno’.
(Contributed by Aviral Srivastava in bpo-38307(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307


File: python.info,  Node: shelve,  Next: statistics<3>,  Prev: pyclbr,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.37 ‘shelve’
.................

The *note shelve: c2. module now uses *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
81a. by default instead of *note pickle: a5. protocol ‘3’ when creating
shelves.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34204(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<3>,  Next: site<2>,  Prev: shelve,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.38 ‘statistics’
.....................

Ajout des fonctions *note covariance(): 81c, *note correlation(): 4a8.
(corrélation de Pearson) et *note linear_regression(): 81d. (régression
linéaire simple) (contribution de 'Tymoteusz Wołodźko' dans
bpo-38490(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490


File: python.info,  Node: site<2>,  Next: socket<2>,  Prev: statistics<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.39 ‘site’
...............

Quand un module ne définit pas ‘__loader__’, ‘__spec__.loader’ est
utilisé (contribution de 'Brett Cannon' dans bpo-42133(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: socket<2>,  Next: ssl<3>,  Prev: site<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.40 ‘socket’
.................

L'exception *note socket.timeout: 820. est maintenant un alias de *note
TimeoutError: 821. (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans
bpo-42413(1)).

Ajout d'une option pour créer des connecteurs ('socket') 'MPTCP' avec
‘IPPROTO_MPTCP’ (contribution de 'Rui Cunha' dans bpo-43571(2)).

Ajout de l'option ‘IP_RECVTOS’ pour récupérer la valeur des champs 'type
of service (ToS)' ou 'differentiated services code point (DSCP/ECN)'
(contribution de 'Georg Sauthoff' dans bpo-44077(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<3>,  Next: sqlite3<5>,  Prev: socket<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.41 ‘ssl’
..............

La version minimale d''OpenSSL' pour le module ‘ssl’ est maintenant
1.1.1 (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans PEP 644(1) et dans
bpo-43669(2)).

The ssl module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0 and new option
*note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 823.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-38820(3), bpo-43794(4), bpo-43788(5), bpo-43791(6), bpo-43799(7),
bpo-43920(8), bpo-43789(9), and bpo-43811(10).)

Les fonctions obsolètes et l'accès aux constantes obsolètes lèvent
maintenant un *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  *note
ssl.SSLContext.options: 824. a options *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 825. et *note
OP_NO_SSLv3: 826. définies par défaut ; par conséquent, il ne peut pas
avertir si l'option est définie de nouveau.  La section *note
obsolescence: 827. contient la liste des fonctionnalités obsolètes
(contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-43880(11)).

La configuration du module ‘ssl’ est plus sécuritaire par défaut.  Les
algorithmes de chiffrement sans confidentialité persistante ('forward
secrecy') et le code d'authentification de message (MAC) 'SHA-1' sont
désactivés par défaut.  Le niveau 2 de sécurité ne permet pas les clés
faibles de moins de 112 bits pour 'RSA', 'DH' et 'ECC'. La version
minimale du protocole 'TLS' pour *note SSLContext: 291. est 1.2.  La
configuration est basée sur la recherche de 'Hynek Schlawack'
(contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-43998(12)).

Les protocoles obsolètes 'SSL' 3.0, 'TLS' 1.0 et 'TLS' 1.1 ne sont plus
officiellement pris en charge.  Python ne les bloque pas activement,
mais les options de compilation d''OpenSSL', les configurations du
système d'exploitation, les rustines des fabricants et les suites
d'algorithmes de chiffrement peuvent empêcher l’établissement d'une
connexion.

Ajout d'un paramètre 'timeout' à la fonction *note
ssl.get_server_certificate(): 828. (contribution de 'Zackery Spytz' dans
bpo-31870(13)).

Le module ‘ssl’ utilise les types du tas et l'initialisation multi-phase
(contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-42333(14)).

A new verify flag *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 155. has been added.
(Contributed by l0x in bpo-40849(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<5>,  Next: sys<5>,  Prev: ssl<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.42 ‘sqlite3’
..................

Ajout d'événements d'audit pour ‘connect/handle()’, *note
enable_load_extension(): 82a. et *note load_extension(): 4a4.
(contribution d''Erlend E. Aasland' dans bpo-43762(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762


File: python.info,  Node: sys<5>,  Next: _thread,  Prev: sqlite3<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.43 ‘sys’
..............

Ajout de l'attribut *note sys.orig_argv: 82c. : la liste des arguments
de ligne de commande originalement passée à l'exécutable Python
(contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-23427(1)).

Ajout de *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 82d. qui contient la liste des
noms des modules de la bibliothèque standard (contribution de 'Victor
Stinner' dans bpo-42955(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955


File: python.info,  Node: _thread,  Next: threading<3>,  Prev: sys<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.44 ‘_thread’
..................

*note _thread.interrupt_main(): 82f. now takes an optional signal number
to simulate (the default is still *note signal.SIGINT: 830.).
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356


File: python.info,  Node: threading<3>,  Next: traceback<3>,  Prev: _thread,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.45 ‘threading’
....................

Ajout des fonctions *note threading.gettrace(): 832. et *note
threading.getprofile(): 833. pour récupérer les fonctions assignées par
*note threading.settrace(): 834. et *note threading.setprofile(): 835.
respectivement (contribution de 'Mario Corchero' dans bpo-42251(1)).

Ajout de *note threading.__excepthook__: 836. pour permettre la
récupération de *note threading.excepthook(): 837. au cas où elle serait
affectée à une valeur incorrecte ou différente (contribution de 'Mario
Corchero' dans bpo-42308(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<3>,  Next: types<3>,  Prev: threading<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.46 ‘traceback’
....................

Les fonctions *note format_exception(): 839, *note
format_exception_only(): 83a. et *note print_exception(): 83b. peuvent
maintenant prendre un objet exception en argument positionnel
(contribution de 'Zackery Spytz' et 'Matthias Bussonnier' dans
bpo-26389(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389


File: python.info,  Node: types<3>,  Next: typing<5>,  Prev: traceback<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.47 ‘types’
................

Les classes *note types.EllipsisType: 83d, *note types.NoneType: 83e. et
*note types.NotImplementedType: 83f. sont ajoutées de nouveau.  Elles
fournissent un nouvel ensemble de types facilement interprétable par les
vérificateurs de types (contribution de 'Bas van Beek' dans
bpo-41810(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810


File: python.info,  Node: typing<5>,  Next: unittest<5>,  Prev: types<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.48 ‘typing’
.................

Pour les changements majeurs, voir *note Nouvelles fonctionnalités
reliées aux indications de types: 7aa.

Le comportement de *note typing.Literal: 841. a été changé pour être
conforme avec la PEP 586(1) et pour correspondre au comportement des
vérificateurs de types statiques défini dans la PEP.

  1. ‘Literal’ dé-duplique maintenant les paramètres.

  2. La comparaison d'égalité entre objets ‘Literal’ ne tient plus
     compte de l'ordre.

  3. Les comparaisons de ‘Literal’ respectent maintenant les types.  Par
     exemple, ‘Literal[0] == Literal[False]’ était préalablement évaluée
     à ‘True’.  Elle est maintenant ‘False’.  Pour prendre en charge ce
     changement, le cache des types de l'implémentation interne peut
     maintenant différencier entre les types.

  4. Les objets ‘Literal’ lèvent maintenant une exception *note
     TypeError: 525. pendant la comparaison d'égalité si au moins un de
     leurs paramètres n'est pas *note hachable: 5fd.  Notez que déclarer
     un ‘Literal’ avec des paramètres non hachables ne lève pas
     d'erreur :

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(contribution de 'Yurii Karabas' dans bpo-42345(2)).

Add new function *note typing.is_typeddict(): 842. to introspect if an
annotation is a *note typing.TypedDict: 161.  (Contributed by Patrick
Reader in bpo-41792(3).)

Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have data variables declared
will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked with ‘isinstance’ unless they
are decorated with *note runtime_checkable(): 42e.  Previously, these
checks passed silently.  Users should decorate their subclasses with the
‘runtime_checkable()’ decorator if they want runtime protocols.
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-38908(4).)

Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now emit
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  These submodules have been deprecated
since Python 3.8 and will be removed in a future version of Python.
Anything belonging to those submodules should be imported directly from
*note typing: 103. instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in
bpo-38291(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<5>,  Next: urllib parse,  Prev: typing<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.49 ‘unittest’
...................

Ajout d'une nouvelle méthode *note assertNoLogs(): 844. pour
complémenter la méthode existante *note assertLogs(): 845. (contribution
de 'Kit Yan Choi' dans bpo-39385(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse,  Next: xml<2>,  Prev: unittest<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.50 ‘urllib.parse’
.......................

Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’
as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 277. and
*note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276.  Due to security concerns, and to
conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow
only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also
affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the
affected functions internally.  For more details, please see their
respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil
Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(2), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 109.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: xml<2>,  Next: zipimport<3>,  Prev: urllib parse,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.51 ‘xml’
..............

Ajout d'une classe *note LexicalHandler: 848. au module *note
xml.sax.handler: 129. (contribution de 'Jonathan Gossage' de 'Zackery
Spytz' dans bpo-35018(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<3>,  Prev: xml<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<4>

1.4.6.52 ‘zipimport’
....................

Ajout des méthodes relatives à la PEP 451(1) : *note find_spec(): 84a,
*note zipimport.zipimporter.create_module(): 84b. et *note
zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 307. (contribution de 'Brett
Cannon' dans bpo-42131(2)).

Ajout de la méthode *note invalidate_caches(): 84c. (contribution de
'Desmond Cheong' dans bpo-14678(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678


File: python.info,  Node: Optimisations<4>,  Next: Obsolescence<5>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<4>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.7 Optimisations
-------------------

   * Les constructeurs de *note str(): 437, *note bytes(): 1bd. et *note
     bytearray(): 52b. sont maintenant plus rapides (environ 30—40 %
     pour les petits objets) (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
     bpo-41334(1)).

   * Le module *note runpy: bd. importe maintenant moins de modules.  Le
     temps de démarrage de la commande ‘python3 -m module-name’ est en
     moyenne 1,4 fois plus rapide.  Sur Linux ‘python3 -I -m
     module-name’ importe 69 modules dans Python 3.9, alors qu'elle n'en
     importe que 51 (18 de moins) dans Python 3.10 (contribution de
     'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-41006(2) et dans bpo-41718(3)).

   * L'instruction ‘LOAD_ATTR’ utilise maintenant le mécanisme de cache
     par code d'opération.  Elle est environ 36 % plus rapide pour les
     attributs ordinaires et 44 % plus rapide pour les 'slots'
     (contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' et de 'Yury Selivanov' dans
     bpo-42093(4) et 'Guido van Rossum' dans bpo-42927(5), basée sur des
     idées originalement mises en œuvre dans 'PyPy' et dans
     'MicroPython').

   * Lors de la construction de Python avec *note -enable-optimizations:
     84e, ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ est maintenant ajouté aux lignes
     de commande de compilation et d'édition des liens.  Ceci accélère
     les binaires de l'interpréteur Python créés avec *note
     -enable-shared: 84f. et ‘gcc’ jusqu'à 30 %.  Voir cet article(6)
     (en anglais) pour plus de détails (contribution de 'Victor Stinner'
     et 'Pablo Galindo' dans bpo-38980(7)).

   * Ré-usinage du code assurant la gestion du tampon de sortie pour les
     modules *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 89. et *note zlib: 132.  Ajout
     de la fonction ‘.readall()’ à la classe
     ‘_compression.DecompressReader’.  La décompression 'bz2' est 1,09 à
     1,17 fois plus rapide, la décompression 'lzma' est 1,20 à 1,32 fois
     plus rapide, ‘GzipFile.read(-1)’ est 1,11 à 1,18 fois plus rapide
     (contribution de 'Ma Lin', révision par 'Gregory P. Smith' dans
     bpo-41486(8)).

   * When using stringized annotations, annotations dicts for functions
     are no longer created when the function is created.  Instead, they
     are stored as a tuple of strings, and the function object lazily
     converts this into the annotations dict on demand.  This
     optimization cuts the CPU time needed to define an annotated
     function by half.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in
     bpo-42202(9).)

   * Les fonctions de recherche de sous-chaînes telles que ‘str1 in
     str2’ et ‘str2.find(str1)’ peuvent utiliser maintenant l'algorithme
     « bidirectionnel » de recherche de chaînes 'Crochemore et Perrin'
     pour éviter le comportement quadratique sur les longues chaînes
     (contribution de 'Dennis Sweeney' dans bpo-41972(10)).

   * Add micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to improve type
     attribute cache lookup performance in the common case of cache
     hits.  This makes the interpreter 1.04 times faster on average.
     (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-43452(11).)

   * The following built-in functions now support the faster PEP 590(12)
     vectorcall calling convention: *note map(): 850, *note filter():
     851, *note reversed(): 852, *note bool(): 453. and *note float():
     2ec.  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Jeroen Demeyer in
     bpo-43575(13), bpo-43287(14), bpo-41922(15), bpo-41873(16) and
     bpo-41870(17).)

   * *note BZ2File: 853. performance is improved by removing internal
     ‘RLock’.  This makes ‘BZ2File’ thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 66. and *note lzma: 89. have always been.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43785(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (6) 
https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<5>,  Next: Retrait,  Prev: Optimisations<4>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.8 Obsolescence
------------------

   * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by
     keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It allows
     confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which
     can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’).
     Starting in this release, a deprecation warning is raised if the
     numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note
     and: 2e6, *note else: 18a, *note for: 2e7, *note if: 2e8, *note in:
     2e9, *note is: 2ea. and *note or: 2eb.  In future releases it will
     be changed to syntax warning, and finally to syntax error.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   * Starting in this release, there will be a concerted effort to begin
     cleaning up old import semantics that were kept for Python 2.7
     compatibility.  Specifically, ‘find_loader()’/‘find_module()’
     (superseded by *note find_spec(): 855.), *note load_module(): 856.
     (superseded by *note exec_module(): 857.), ‘module_repr()’ (which
     the import system takes care of for you), the ‘__package__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.parent’), the ‘__loader__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.loader’), and the ‘__cached__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.cached’) will slowly be removed
     (as well as other classes and methods in *note importlib: 76.).
     *note ImportWarning: 4e7. and/or *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     will be raised as appropriate to help identify code which needs
     updating during this transition.

   * L'espace de noms ‘distutils’ est complètement obsolète et sera
     retiré dans Python 3.12.  Voir la section sur les *note changements
     aux modules: 716. pour plus d'information.

   * Les arguments non entiers de *note random.randrange(): 858. sont
     obsolètes.  La levée de *note ValueError: 1ff. dans ce cas est
     obsolète et est remplacée par *note TypeError: 525. (contribution
     de 'Serhiy Storchaka' et 'Raymond Hettinger' dans bpo-37319(2)).

   * Les multiples méthodes ‘load_module()’ de *note importlib: 76.
     étaient documentées comme obsolètes depuis Python 3.6, mais elles
     vont maintenant aussi lever un *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     Utilisez plutôt *note exec_module(): 857. (contribution de 'Brett
     Cannon' dans bpo-26131(3)).

   * ‘zimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated in
     preference for *note exec_module(): 307.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-26131(4).)

   * L'utilisation de *note load_module(): 856. par le système
     d'importation lève maintenant un *note ImportWarning: 4e7. car
     *note exec_module(): 857. est recommandée (contribution de ('Brett
     Cannon' dans bpo-26131(5)).

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ by the import system
     now trigger an *note ImportWarning: 4e7. as *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 855. and *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 859. are preferred,
     respectively.  You can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader():
     85a. to help in porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42134(6).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ by the
     import system now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 4e7. as *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 859. is preferred.  You
     can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 85a. to help in
     porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43672(7).)

   * The various implementations of
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ ),
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ ), and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ ) now raise *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and are slated for removal in Python 3.12
     (previously they were documented as deprecated in Python 3.4).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135(8).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is deprecated (including its sole method,
     ‘find_module()’).  Both *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b.
     and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 85c. no longer inherit
     from the class.  Users should inherit from one of these two classes
     as appropriate instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42135(9).)

   * The deprecations of ‘imp’, ‘importlib.find_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
     ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have all been updated to list Python 3.12 as
     the slated version of removal (they began raising *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in previous versions of Python).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43720(10).)

   * The import system now uses the ‘__spec__’ attribute on modules
     before falling back on ‘module_repr()’ for a module's ‘__repr__()’
     method.  Removal of the use of ‘module_repr()’ is scheduled for
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42137(11).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’, and
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ are deprecated
     and slated for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-42136(12).)

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ est non-documenté et désuète depuis
     Python 3.3, quand elle devenue un alias de *note str: 437.  Elle
     est maintenant déclarée obsolète et sera retiré dans Python 3.12
     (contribution de 'Erlend E. Aasland' dans bpo-42264(13)).

   * La fonction native non-documentée ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ est
     maintenant obsolète et sera retirée dans Python 3.12.  Son
     utilisation est fortement déconseillée dans la documentation de
     SQLite3.  Voir la documentation de SQLite3(14) (en anglais) pour
     plus de détails.  Si un cache partagé est nécessaire, ouvrez la
     base de données en mode URI en utilisant le paramètre de requête
     ‘cache=shared’ (contribution de 'Erlend E. Aasland' dans
     bpo-24464(15)).

   * Les méthodes suivantes du module ‘threading’ sont maintenant
     obsolètes :

        * ‘threading.currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread():
          2fe. ;

        * ‘threading.activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count():
          2ff. ;

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 2f8. ;

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set():
          2f9. ;

        * ‘threading.Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          2fd. ;

        * ‘threading.thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          2fd. ;

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          2fb. ;

        * ‘threading.Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          2fb.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-87889(16).)

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in
     Python 3.12.  Use *note pathlib.Path.hardlink_to(): 80d. instead.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(17).)

   * ‘cgi.log()’ est obsolète et sera retirée dans Python 3.12
     (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans bpo-41139(18)).

   * Les fonctionnalités suivantes de *note ssl: cf. sont obsolètes
     depuis Python 3.6, Python 3.7 ou 'OpenSSL' 1.1.0 et seront retirées
     dans 3.11 :

        * ‘OP_NO_SSLv2’, ‘OP_NO_SSLv3’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_1’,
          ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_2’, and ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_3’ are replaced by *note
          minimum_version: 85d. and *note maximum_version: 85e.

        * ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv2’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv3’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv23’,
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’, and
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLS’ are deprecated in favor of *note
          PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860.

        * ‘wrap_socket()’ is replaced by *note
          ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511.

        * ‘match_hostname()’

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’, ‘RAND_egd()’

        * Les fonctionnalités NPN ('Next Protocol Negotiation') telles
          que *note ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): 861. et *note
          ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2f7. sont remplacées par
          ALPN ('Application Layer Protocol Negotiation').

   * The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable) is
     deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12.  This
     feature requires a *note debug build of Python: 1f6.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-44584(19).)

   * Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now
     emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  These submodules will be
     removed in a future version of Python.  Anything belonging to these
     submodules should be imported directly from *note typing: 103.
     instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (14) https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: Retrait,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 10,  Prev: Obsolescence<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.9 Retrait
-------------

   * Les méthodes spéciales ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’, ‘__floordiv__’,
     ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’, ‘__rmod__’ et
     ‘__rdivmod__’ sont retirées de la classe *note complex: 2ed.  Elles
     levaient toujours une *note TypeError: 525. (contribution de
     'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-41974(1)).

   * La méthode ‘ParserBase.error()’ du module privé et non-documenté
     ‘_markupbase’ a été retirée.  *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 864.
     est la seule sous-classe de ‘ParserBase’ et son implémentation de
     la méthode ‘error()’ a été retirée dans Python 3.5 (contribution de
     'Berker Peksag' dans bpo-31844(2)).

   * Retrait de l'attribut ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ qui était un objet
     ‘PyCapsule’ interne.  La structure privée associée
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ a été déplacée vers l'API C interne
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-42157(3)).

   * Retrait du module ‘parser’ qui était obsolète depuis 3.9 étant
     donné la transition vers le nouvel analyseur syntaxique PEG.
     Retrait aussi des fichiers source et en-tête C qui n'étaient
     utilisés que par l'ancien analyseur, ceci comprend ‘node.h’,
     ‘parser.h’, ‘graminit.h’ et ‘grammar.h’.

   * Retrait des fonctions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ et ‘PyNode_Compile’ de l'API C
     publique.  Elles étaient obsolètes depuis 3.9 étant donné la
     transition vers l'analyseur syntaxique 'PEG'.

   * Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested.  It was
     originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals
     were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy
     whatever classes they use into their code.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na and Terry J. Reedy in bpo-42299(4).)

   * Removed the ‘PyModule_GetWarningsModule()’ function that was
     useless now due to the ‘_warnings’ module was converted to a
     builtin module in 2.6.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42599(5).)

   * Retrait des alias obsolètes *note Classes de base abstraites de
     collections: 865. du module *note collections: 1d. (contribution de
     'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-37324(6)).

   * Le paramètre ‘loop’ a été retiré de la majorité de *note l'API
     haut-niveau: 866. d'*note asyncio: a.  Il était obsolète depuis
     Python 3.8.  La motivation pour ce changement avait plusieurs
     facettes :

       1. ceci simplifie l'API haut-niveau ;

       2. les fonctions dans l'API haut niveau reçoivent implicitement
          la boucle d'évènements qui tourne dans le présent fil
          d'exécution depuis Python 3.7.  Il n'y a aucun besoin de
          passer la boucle d'évènements à l'API dans la majorité de son
          utilisation normale ;

       3. le passage de la boucle d'évènements cause facilement des
          erreurs quand plusieurs boucles qui tournent dans plusieurs
          fils d'exécution sont impliquées.

     Prenez note que l'API bas-niveau accepte toujours le paramètre
     ‘loop’.  Voir *note Changements dans l'API Python: 867. pour plus
     d'exemples sur comment remplacer le code existant

     (contribution de 'Yurii Karabas', 'Andrew Svetlov', 'Yury
     Selivanov' et 'Kyle Stanley' dans bpo-42392(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 10,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<3>,  Prev: Retrait,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.10 Portage vers Python 3.10
-------------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changements à la syntaxe de Python::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<3>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la syntaxe de Python,  Next: Changements dans l'API Python<3>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 10

1.4.10.1 Changements à la syntaxe de Python
...........................................

   * Deprecation warning is now emitted when compiling previously valid
     syntax if the numeric literal is immediately followed by a keyword
     (like in ‘0in x’).  In future releases it will be changed to syntax
     warning, and finally to a syntax error.  To get rid of the warning
     and make the code compatible with future releases just add a space
     between the numeric literal and the following keyword.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<3>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<2>,  Prev: Changements à la syntaxe de Python,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 10

1.4.10.2 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * Les paramètres 'etype' des fonctions *note format_exception(): 839,
     *note format_exception_only(): 83a. et *note print_exception():
     83b. du module *note traceback: fd. ont étés renommés 'exc'
     (contribution de 'Zackery Spytz' et 'Matthias Bussonnier' dans
     bpo-26389(1)).

   * *note atexit: c. : à la fin de l'exécution de Python, si une
     fonction de rappel qui a été enregistrée avec *note
     atexit.register(): 86b. échoue, son exception est maintenant
     journalisée.  Préalablement, seulement certaines exceptions étaient
     journalisées et la dernière exception était toujours ignorée de
     façon silencieuse (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-42639(2)).

   * Les génériques de *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. aplatissent
     maintenant les paramètres de types tel qu'il est fait par *note
     typing.Callable: 7b1.  Ceci veut dire que
     ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ aura un attribut
     ‘__args__’ de valeur ‘(int, str, str)’ ; préalablement, il aurait
     été ‘([int, str], str)’.  Les codes qui accèdent aux arguments par
     *note typing.get_args(): 86c. ou ‘__args__’ doivent tenir compte de
     ce changement.  De plus, *note TypeError: 525. sera levée pour des
     formes invalides de paramétrisation de *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 7d6, ce qui aurait pu passer
     silencieusement dans Python 3.9 (contribution de 'Ken Jin' dans
     bpo-42195(3)).

   * *note socket.htons(): 86d. et *note socket.ntohs(): 86e. lèvent
     maintenant *note OverflowError: 86f. plutôt que *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. si le paramètre passé est trop grand pour
     être stocké dans un entier 16-bit non-signé (contribution de
     'Erlend E. Aasland' dans bpo-42393(4)).

   * Le paramètre ‘loop’ a été retiré de la majorité de *note l'API
     haut-niveau: 866. d'*note asyncio: a. suite à la déclaration de son
     obsolescence dans Python 3.8.

     Une coroutine qui ressemble actuellement à ceci :

          async def foo(loop):
              await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop)

     Doit être remplacée par ceci :

          async def foo():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)

     Si ‘foo()’ a été spécifiquement conçue pour 'ne pas' s'exécuter
     dans le fil d'exécution courant, (par exemple pour tourner dans la
     boucle d'exécution d'un autre fil), l'utilisation de *note
     asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 870. est probablement plus
     appropriée.

     (contribution de 'Yurii Karabas', 'Andrew Svetlov', 'Yury
     Selivanov' et 'Kyle Stanley' dans bpo-42392(5)).

   * Le constructeur de *note types.FunctionType: 871. hérite maintenant
     des définitions natives si le dictionnaire 'globals' n'a pas de clé
     ‘"__builtins__"’, plutôt que d'utiliser ‘{"None": None}’ pour les
     définitions natives : même comportement que celui des fonctions
     *note eval(): 17e. et *note exec(): 17d.  Définir une fonction avec
     ‘def function(...): ...’ en Python n'est pas affecté, les globales
     ne peuvent pas être changées avec cette syntaxe : elles héritent
     aussi des définitions natives courantes (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-42990(6)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<2>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<3>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 10

1.4.10.3 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * Les fonctions de l'API C ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ et ‘PyNode_Compile’ ainsi que
     ‘struct _node’, le type utilisé par ces fonctions, ont été retirés
     suite à la transition vers le nouvel analyseur syntaxique 'PEG'.

     Le code source doit maintenant être compilé directement en un objet
     code, en utilisant par exemple *note Py_CompileString(): 873.
     L'objet code ainsi produit peut ensuite être évalué, en utilisant
     par exemple *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 874.

     Spécifiquement :

        * Un appel à ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’ suivi de
          ‘PyNode_Compile’ peut être remplacé par *note
          Py_CompileString(): 873. ;

        * Il n'y a pas de remplacement immédiat pour
          ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’.  Pour compiler du code à
          partir d'un argument ‘FILE *’, vous devez lire le fichier en C
          et passer le tampon résultant à *note Py_CompileString(): 873.

        * Pour compiler un fichier à partir du ‘char *’ de son nom,
          ouvrez le fichier de façon explicite, lisez son contenu et
          compilez le résultat.  Une façon de faire est d'utiliser le
          module *note io: 7e. en conjonction avec *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5, *note PyObject_CallMethod():
          396, *note PyBytes_AsString(): 875. et *note
          Py_CompileString(): 873, comme dans l'esquisse qui suit (les
          déclarations et la gestion d'erreurs ne sont pas incluses)

               io_module = Import_ImportModule("io");
               fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb");
               source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", "");
               result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", "");
               source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object);
               code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input);

        * For ‘FrameObject’ objects, the *note f_lasti: 876. member now
          represents a wordcode offset instead of a simple offset into
          the bytecode string.  This means that this number needs to be
          multiplied by 2 to be used with APIs that expect a byte offset
          instead (like *note PyCode_Addr2Line(): 877. for example).
          Notice as well that the ‘f_lasti’ member of ‘FrameObject’
          objects is not considered stable: please use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<3>,  Next: Changements à la compilation<4>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 10,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.11 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
------------------------------------------------

   * The ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction now accepts either a dict or a
     tuple of strings as the function's annotations.  (Contributed by
     Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la compilation<4>,  Next: Changements à l'API C<4>,  Prev: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<3>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.12 Changements à la compilation
-----------------------------------

   * PEP 644(1) : la version minimale d''OpenSSL' pour Python est
     maintenant 1.1.1.  'OpenSSL' 1.0.2 n'est plus prise en charge
     (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-43669(2)).

   * Les fonctions de 'C99' ‘snprintf()’ et ‘vsnprintf()’ sont
     maintenant nécessaires à la compilation de Python (contribution de
     'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-36020(3)).

   * La version minimale de SQLite pour le module *note sqlite3: ce. est
     maintenant 3.7.15 (contribution de 'Sergey Fedoseev' et 'Erlend E.
     Aasland' dans bpo-40744(4) et bpo-40810(5)).

   * Le module *note atexit: c. doit maintenant toujours être compilé en
     tant que module natif (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-42639(6)).

   * Ajout de l'option *note -disable-test-modules: 87a. au script
     ‘configure’ : ne pas compiler ni installer les modules de tests
     (contribution de 'Xavier de Gaye', 'Thomas Petazzoni' et 'Peixing
     Xin' dans bpo-27640(7)).

   * Ajout de l'option *note -with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH: 87b. au script
     ‘./configure’.  Si elle est passée, le module *note ensurepip: 54.
     recherche les paquets 'wheel' de ‘setuptools’ et de ‘pip’ dans ce
     répertoire : si les deux sont présents, ces paquets 'wheel' sont
     utilisés plutôt que ceux inclus avec 'ensurepip'.

     La politique de paquets de certaines distributions Linux
     déconseille l'inclusion des dépendances.  Par exemple, Fedora
     installe les paquets 'wheel' dans le répertoire
     ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ et n'installe pas le paquet
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-42856(8)).

   * Ajout d'une nouvelle option *note -without-static-libpython: 87c.
     au script ‘configure’ pour ne pas compiler la bibliothèque statique
     ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ et ne pas installer le fichier objet
     ‘python.o’

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-43103(9)).

   * The ‘configure’ script now uses the ‘pkg-config’ utility, if
     available, to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries.
     As before, those locations can be explicitly specified with the
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ configuration
     options.  (Contributed by Manolis Stamatogiannakis in
     bpo-42603(10).)

   * Ajout de l'option *note -with-openssl-rpath: 87d. au script
     ‘configure’.  Cette option simplifie la compilation de Python avec
     une installation personnalisée d'OpenSSL, par exemple :
     ‘./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl
     --with-openssl-rpath=auto’ (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans
     bpo-43466(11)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à l'API C<4>,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Prev: Changements à la compilation<4>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.13 Changements à l'API C
----------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 652 ; maintenance d'une ABI stable: PEP 652 maintenance d'une ABI stable.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<8>.
* Portage vers Python 3.10: Portage vers Python 3 10<2>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<6>.
* Retrait: Retrait<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 652 maintenance d'une ABI stable,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<8>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<4>

1.4.13.1 PEP 652 : maintenance d'une ABI stable
...............................................

L'interface binaire-programme ('Application Binary Interface', 'ABI' en
anglais) stable pour les modules d'extension ou pour l'intégration de
Python est maintenant définie de façon explicite.  Le document *note
Stabilité de l’API C: 541. décrit les garanties de stabilité pour l'API
C et pour l'interface binaire-programme ainsi que les bonnes pratiques
pour travailler avec l'interface binaire-programme stable

(contribution de 'Petr Viktorin' dans PEP 652(1) et dans bpo-43795(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<8>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 10<2>,  Prev: PEP 652 maintenance d'une ABI stable,  Up: Changements à l'API C<4>

1.4.13.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
..................................

   * Le résultat de *note PyNumber_Index(): 881. est maintenant
     exactement de type *note int: 254.  Auparavant, le résultat pouvait
     être une instance d'une classe dérivée de ‘int’ (contribution de
     'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-40792(1)).

   * Ajout d'un nouveau champ *note orig_argv: 882. à la structure *note
     PyConfig: 39d. : la liste des arguments de ligne de commande
     originalement passée à l'exécutable Python (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-23427(2)).

   * Les macros *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 883. et *note
     PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 884. ont été ajoutées pour récupérer
     l'attribut ‘tzinfo’ des objets *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. et
     *note datetime.time: 1c9. (contribution de 'Zackery Spytz' dans
     bpo-30155(3)).

   * Ajout d'une fonction *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 885. pour
     désinscrire une fonction de recherche de codecs (contribution de
     'Hai Shi' dans bpo-41842(4)).

   * Ajout de la fonction *note PyIter_Send(): 886. pour acheminer une
     valeur dans un itérateur sans lever une exception ‘StopIteration’
     (contribution de 'Vladimir Matveev' dans bpo-41756(5)).

   * Ajout de *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 887. à l'API C limitée
     (contribution d''Alex Gaynor' dans bpo-41784(6)).

   * Ajout de la fonction *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b. :
     comparable à *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c. mais ne s’accapare
     pas une référence à la valeur s'il y a réussite (contribution de
     'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-1635741(7)).

   * Ajout des fonctions *note Py_NewRef(): 888. et *note Py_XNewRef():
     889. pour incrémenter le compteur des références d'un objet et
     renvoyer l'objet (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-42262(8)).

   * Les fonctions *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. et *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. n'acceptent maintenant qu'une
     seule classe pour l'argument 'bases' (contribution 'Serhiy
     Storchaka' dans bpo-42423(9)).

   * La fonction *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. accepte
     maintenant ‘NULL’ dans l'emplacement ‘tp_doc’ (contribution de 'Hai
     Shi' dans bpo-41832(10)).

   * La fonction *note PyType_GetSlot(): 88a. peut maintenant accepter
     des *note types statiques: 76b. (contribution de 'Hai Shi' et 'Petr
     Viktorin' dans bpo-41073(11)).

   * Ajout d'une nouvelle fonction *note PySet_CheckExact(): 88b. à
     l'API C pour vérifier si un objet est une instance de *note set:
     5c5. mais pas une instance d'un sous-type (contribution de 'Pablo
     Galindo' dans bpo-43277(12)).

   * Ajout de *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 88c. qui accepte le numéro
     d'un signal à simuler (contribution d''Antoine Pitrou' dans
     bpo-43356(13)).

   * L'API C limitée est maintenant prise en charge si Python est
     compilé en *note mode débogage: 1f6. (si la macro ‘Py_DEBUG’ est
     définie).  Dans l'API C limitée, les fonctions *note Py_INCREF():
     55c. et *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. sont maintenant implémentées en
     appel de fonctions opaques, plutôt que d'accéder directement au
     champ *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 88d.  C'est le cas si Python est
     compilé en mode débogage et que la macro ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ vise
     Python 3.10 ou plus récent.  Il est possible de prendre en charge
     l'API C limitée en mode débogage, car la structure *note PyObject:
     32f. est la même dans les versions standard et dans les versions
     débogage depuis Python 3.8 (voir bpo-36465(14)).

     L'API C limitée n'est toujours pas prise en charge dans les
     compilations spéciales avec l'option *note -with-trace-refs: 38b.
     (macro ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’) (Contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-43688(15)).

   * Ajout de la fonction *note Py_Is(x, y): 88e. pour vérifier si
     l'objet 'x' est l'objet 'y', tout comme ‘x is y’ en Python.  Ajout
     aussi des fonctions *note Py_IsNone(): 88f, *note Py_IsTrue(): 890.
     et *note Py_IsFalse(): 891. pour vérifier si l'objet est le
     singleton ‘None’, le singleton ‘True’ ou le singleton ‘False’,
     respectivement (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-43753(16)).

   * Ajout de fonctions pour contrôler le ramasse-miettes en C : *note
     PyGC_Enable(): 892, *note PyGC_Disable(): 893. et *note
     PyGC_IsEnabled(): 894.  Ces fonctions permettent d'activer, de
     désactiver et d'interroger l'état du ramasse-miettes dans du code C
     sans avoir à importer le module *note gc: 5f.

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 570. type flag
     to disallow creating type instances.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-43916(17).)

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. type flag for
     creating immutable type objects: type attributes cannot be set nor
     deleted.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-43908(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 10<2>,  Next: Obsolescence<6>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<8>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<4>

1.4.13.3 Portage vers Python 3.10
.................................

   * The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to use *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. formats
     which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’ and ‘Z#’.
     See *note Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs: 897.
     and PEP 353(1).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40943(2).)

   * Étant donné la conversion de *note Py_REFCNT(): 898. en fonction
     statique en-ligne, ‘Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt’ doit être remplacé
     par ‘Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt)’ : voir *note Py_SET_REFCNT():
     899. (disponible depuis Python 3.9).  Pour la rétro-compatibilité,
     cette macro peut être utilisée :

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4
          #  define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0)
          #endif

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39573(3)).

   * Appeler *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d. sans avoir obtenu le *note
     GIL: 158. était autorisé pour des raisons historiques.  Ceci n'est
     plus permis (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-40839(4)).

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ et
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ lèvent maintenant un
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.  Vous devez utiliser *note PyUnicode_New():
     89a. pour allouer un objet Unicode sans donnée initiale
     (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans bpo-36346(5)).

   * La structure privée ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ de l'API PyCapsule
     ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ a été déplacée dans l'API C interne.
     (Contribution par Victor Stinner dans bpo-42157(6).)

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e. API to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration: 89c.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-42260(7).)

   * *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 384, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 383. and
     *note PyCell_SET(): 89d. macros can no longer be used as l-value or
     r-value.  For example, ‘x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and
     ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now fail with a compiler error.  It
     prevents bugs like ‘if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.
     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner in bpo-30459(8).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘odictobject.h’, ‘parser_interface.h’,
     ‘picklebufobject.h’, ‘pyarena.h’, ‘pyctype.h’, ‘pydebug.h’,
     ‘pyfpe.h’, and ‘pytime.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’
     directory.  These files must not be included directly, as they are
     already included in ‘Python.h’; see *note Include Files: 770.  If
     they have been included directly, consider including ‘Python.h’
     instead.  (Contributed by Nicholas Sim in bpo-35134(9).)

   * Use the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. type flag to create
     immutable type objects.  Do not rely on *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     89e. to decide if a type object is mutable or not; check if *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. is set instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(10).)

   * The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain’ has been removed from the
     limited API. The function is mainly useful for custom builds of
     Python.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-26241(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<6>,  Next: Retrait<2>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 10<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<4>

1.4.13.4 Obsolescence
.....................

   * La fonction ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ est maintenant obsolète et
     sera retirée dans Python 3.12 : utilisez plutôt *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8a0. (contribution de 'Victor Stinner'
     dans bpo-41692(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692


File: python.info,  Node: Retrait<2>,  Prev: Obsolescence<6>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<4>

1.4.13.5 Retrait
................

   * Retrait des fonctions ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ manipulant des chaînes
     ‘Py_UNICODE*’ (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans bpo-41123(1)) :

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen’ : utilisez *note PyUnicode_GetLength():
          8a2. ou *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8a3. ;

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat’ : utilisez *note
          PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8a4. ou *note
          PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. ;

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy’ : utilisez *note
          PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8a4. ou *note
          PyUnicode_Substring(): 8a5. ;

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp’ : utilisez *note PyUnicode_Compare():
          8a6. ;

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp’ : utilisez *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch():
          8a7. ;

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr’ : utilisez *note
          PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8a8.

   * Retrait de ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.  Vous devez migrer vers les
     nouvelles API de la PEP 393(2) (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans
     bpo-41103(3)).

   * Retrait de ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.  Vous devez migrer vers *note
     PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(): 8a9. (contribution de 'Inada Naoki'
     dans bpo-41103(4)).

   * Retrait de ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’.  Vous devez utiliser *note
     PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8aa. ou *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString():
     8ab. (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans bpo-41103(5)).

   * Retrait de la variable ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ : elle a été
     remplacée par le champ ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ de la structure
     *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. (contribution de 'Victor Stinner'
     dans bpo-41834(6)).

   * Retrait des macros non-documentées ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ et
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ et du champ ‘recursion_critical’ de la
     structure *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. (contribution de 'Serhiy
     Storchaka' dans bpo-41936(7)).

   * Retrait de la fonction non-documentée ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’.
     L'initialisation de Python installe déjà les gestionnaires de
     signaux de façon implicite : voir *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8ad. (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-41713(8)).

   * Retrait de la fonction ‘PyAST_Validate()’.  Il n'est plus possible
     de construire un objet 'AST' (type ‘mod_ty’) avec l'API C publique.
     La fonction était déjà retirée de l'API C limitée ( PEP 384(9))
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-43244(10)).

   * Retrait du fichier d'en-tête ‘symtable.h’ et des fonctions
     non-documentées :

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’ ;

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’ ;

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’ ;

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’ ;

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’ ;

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’.

     Par erreur, la fonction ‘Py_SymtableString()’ faisait partie de
     l''ABI' stable, mais elle ne pouvait pas être utilisée, car le
     fichier d'en-tête ‘symtable.h’ était exclu de l'API C limitée.

     Utilisez plutôt le module Python *note symtable: d7. (contribution
     de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-43244(11)).

   * Retrait de *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 574. des fichiers
     d'en-tête de l'API C limitée et de ‘python3.dll’, la bibliothèque
     qui fournit l''ABI' stable sur Windows.  Étant donné que la
     fonction prend un ‘FILE*’ en argument, la stabilité de son
     interface binaire-programme ne peut pas être garantie (contribution
     de 'Petr Viktorin' dans bpo-43868(12)).

   * Retrait des fichiers d'en-tête ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’ et ‘Python-ast.h’.
     Ces fonctions étaient non-documentées et exclues de l'API C
     limitée.  La majorité des noms définis dans ces fichiers d'en-tête
     n'avaient pas le préfixe ‘Py’ et pouvaient ainsi causer des
     conflits de noms.  Par exemple, ‘Python-ast.h’ définit une macro
     ‘Yield’ qui était en conflit avec le nom ‘Yield’ utilisé dans le
     fichier d'en-tête ‘<winbase.h>’ de Windows.  Utilisez plutôt le
     module Python *note ast: 8. (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-43244(13)).

   * Retrait des fonctions d'analyse syntaxique et de compilation qui
     utilisent le type ‘struct _mod’ car l'API C publique pour manipuler
     les 'AST' a été retirée :

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’ ;

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’ ;

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’ ;

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’ ;

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’ ;

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’ ;

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’ ;

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’ ;

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ ;

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’.

     Ces fonctions étaient non-documentées et exclues de l'API C limitée
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-43244(14)).

   * Retrait du fichier d'en-tête ‘pyarena.h’ et des fonctions :

        * ‘PyArena_New()’ ;

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’ ;

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’ ;

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’.

     Ces fonctions étaient non-documentées et exclues de l'API C
     limitée ; elles n'étaient utilisées que par le compilateur dans
     l'implémentation interne (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-43244(15)).

   * Retrait du champ ‘PyThreadState.use_tracing’ pour optimiser Python
     (contribution de 'Mark Shannon' dans bpo-43760(16)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Prev: Changements à l'API C<4>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.14 Notable security feature in 3.10.7
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 254. and *note str: 437. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Next: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.15 Notable security feature in 3.10.8
-----------------------------------------

The deprecated ‘mailcap’ module now refuses to inject unsafe text
(filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands.  Instead of
using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or
for test commands, as if the test failed).  (Contributed by Petr
Viktorin in gh-98966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10

1.4.16 Notable changes in 3.10.12
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 10 12

1.4.16.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 458. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 8,  Prev: Les nouveautés de Python 3 10,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.5 Les nouveautés de Python 3.9
================================


Éditeur: Łukasz Langa

This article explains the new features in Python 3.9, compared to 3.8.
Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 596(1) – Calendrier de sortie de Python 3.9

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points marquants de cette version: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
* Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code::
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<5>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<5>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<5>.
* Optimisations: Optimisations<5>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<7>.
* Retraits: Retraits<5>.
* Portage vers Python 3.9: Portage vers Python 3 9.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<5>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<5>.
* Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1.
* Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>,  Next: Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.1 Résumé – Points marquants de cette version
------------------------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * PEP 584(1), ajout de l'opérateur d'union à ‘dict’ ;

   * PEP 585(2), indications des types paramétrables dans les
     collections natives ;

   * PEP 614(3), restrictions grammaticales assouplies pour les
     décorateurs.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

   * PEP 616(4), méthodes sur les chaînes pour enlever des préfixes et
     des suffixes.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités dans la bibliothèque standard :

   * PEP 593(5), annotations flexibles pour les fonctions et les
     variables ;

   * ajout de *note os.pidfd_open(): 466. qui permet la gestion de
     processus sans concurrence critique et sans signaux.

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

   * PEP 573(6), accès rapide à l'état des modules à partir des méthodes
     des types dans les extensions C ;

   * PEP 617(7), CPython utilise maintenant un analyseur lexical 'PEG'
     ('Parsing Expression Grammar') ;

   * certains types Python natifs ('range', 'tuple', 'set', 'frozenset',
     'list', 'dict') sont maintenant plus rapides grâce aux appels
     'vectorcall' ( PEP 590(8)) ;

   * le ramasse-miettes ne bloque pas sur les objets ressuscités ;

   * a number of Python modules (‘_abc’, ‘audioop’, ‘_bz2’, ‘_codecs’,
     ‘_contextvars’, ‘_crypt’, ‘_functools’, ‘_json’, ‘_locale’, *note
     math: 8d, *note operator: 9e, *note resource: bb, *note time: ed,
     ‘_weakref’) now use multiphase initialization as defined by PEP
     489;

   * a number of standard library modules (‘audioop’, *note ast: 8,
     *note grp: 65, ‘_hashlib’, *note pwd: b1, ‘_posixsubprocess’, *note
     random: b7, *note select: c0, *note struct: d4, *note termios: e0,
     *note zlib: 132.) are now using the stable ABI defined by PEP 384.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

   * PEP 615(9), la base de données des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA est
     maintenant incluse dans le module *note zoneinfo: 133. de la
     bibliothèque standard ;

   * une implémentation du tri topologique d'un graphe est maintenant
     disponible dans le nouveau module *note graphlib: 64.

Changements aux procédures de publication :

   * PEP 602(10), CPython adopte un cycle annuel de publications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>,  Prev: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.2 Vous devez vérifier la présence de ‘DeprecationWarning’ dans votre code
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Quand Python 2.7 était encore pris en charge, plusieurs fonctionnalités
dans Python 3 étaient gardées pour la rétro-compatibilité avec Python
2.7.  Avec la fin de la prise en charge de Python 2, ces couches de
rétro-compatibilité ont été retirées ou le seront bientôt.  La plupart
d'entre elles émettaient un avertissement *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
depuis plusieurs années.  Par exemple, utiliser ‘collections.Mapping’
plutôt que ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ émettait un *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. depuis Python 3.3, publié en 2012.

Testez votre application avec l'option de ligne de commande *note -W:
8b6. ‘default’ pour voir les *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. et les *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7, ou même avec *note -W: 8b6. ‘error’ pour
les traiter comme des erreurs.  *note Le filtre des avertissements: 8b8.
peut être utilisé pour ignorer les avertissements provenant de code de
tierces parties.

Python 3.9 est la dernière version qui fournit ces couches de rétro
compatibilité avec Python 2, afin de donner plus de temps aux
mainteneurs de projets Python pour organiser l'arrêt de la prise en
charge de Python 2 et pour assurer celle de Python 3.9.

Les alias vers *note Abstract Base Classes: 865. dans le module *note
collections: 1d, comme l'alias ‘collections.Mapping’ vers *note
collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9, sont conservés pour une dernière version
au titre de la rétrocompatibilité.  Ils seront supprimés de Python 3.10.

Plus généralement, essayez d'exécuter vos tests dans le *note Python
Development Mode: 1f5. qui aide à préparer votre code pour le rendre
compatible avec la prochaine version de Python.

Note : certaines déclarations d’obsolescence pré-existantes ont été
retirées de cette version de Python.  Voir la section *note Retraits:
8ba.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<5>,  Prev: Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.3 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires::
* Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes::
* Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives::
* Nouvel analyseur syntaxique::


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires,  Next: Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>

1.5.3.1 Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires
...............................................................

Ajout des opérateurs de fusion (‘|’) et de mise-à-jour (‘|=’) à la
classe native *note dict: 253.  Ils viennent compléter les méthodes
existantes ‘dict.update’ et ‘{**d1, **d2}’ pour fusionner des
dictionnaires.

Exemple :

     >>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"}
     >>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"}
     >>> x | y
     {'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'}
     >>> y | x
     {'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'}

Voir PEP 584(1) pour une description complète (contribution de 'Brandt
Bucher' dans bpo-36144(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes,  Next: Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives,  Prev: Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>

1.5.3.2 Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes
....................................................................................

*note str.removeprefix(préfixe): 8be. et *note
str.removesuffix(suffixe): 8bf. ont été ajoutées pour supprimer
facilement un préfixe ou un suffixe inutile d'une chaîne.  Les méthodes
correspondantes de ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’ et ‘collections.UserString’ ont
également été ajoutées.  Voir PEP 616(1) pour une description complète
(contribution de 'Dennis Sweeney' dans bpo-39939(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939


File: python.info,  Node: Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives,  Next: Nouvel analyseur syntaxique,  Prev: Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>

1.5.3.3 Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives
.......................................................................

Dans les annotations de type, vous pouvez maintenant utiliser les types
de collection natifs tels que ‘list’ et ‘dict’ comme types génériques au
lieu d'importer les types en majuscules correspondants (par exemple
‘List’ ou ‘Dict’) à partir de ‘typing’.  D'autres types de la
bibliothèque standard sont maintenant génériques, par exemple
‘queue.Queue’.

Exemple :

     def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
         for name in names:
             print("Hello", name)

Voir PEP 585(1) pour plus de détails (contribution de 'Guido van
Rossum', 'Ethan Smith' et 'Batuhan Taşkaya' dans bpo-39481(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvel analyseur syntaxique,  Prev: Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>

1.5.3.4 Nouvel analyseur syntaxique
...................................

Python 3.9 utilise un nouvel analyseur syntaxique, basé sur PEG(1) au
lieu de LL(1)(2).  Les performances du nouvel analyseur sont à peu près
comparables à celles de l'ancien, mais le formalisme 'PEG' est plus
souple que 'LL(1)' lorsqu'il s'agit de concevoir des nouvelles
fonctionnalités du langage.  Nous commencerons à utiliser cette
flexibilité dans Python 3.10 et les versions suivantes.

Le module *note ast: 8. utilise le nouvel analyseur syntaxique et
produit le même AST que l'ancien analyseur.

In Python 3.10, the old parser will be deleted and so will all
functionality that depends on it (primarily the ‘parser’ module, which
has long been deprecated).  In Python 3.9 'only', you can switch back to
the LL(1) parser using a command line switch (‘-X oldparser’) or an
environment variable (‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’).

Voir PEP 617(3) pour plus de détails (contribution de 'Guido van
Rossum', 'Pablo Galindo' et 'Lysandros Nikolaou' dans bpo-40334(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyse_LL

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<5>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<5>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<9>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.4 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * *note __import__(): 8c3. lève maintenant *note ImportError: 40f.
     plutôt que *note ValueError: 1ff, ce qui se produisait lorsqu’un
     import relatif remontait plus loin que le répertoire racine du
     paquet (contribution de 'Ngalim Siregar' dans bpo-37444(1)).

   * Python récupère maintenant le chemin absolu du nom de fichier du
     script spécifié sur la ligne de commande (ex. : ‘python3
     script.py’) : l'attribut ‘__file__’ du module *note __main__: 1.
     est devenu un chemin absolu, plutôt qu'un chemin relatif.  Ces
     nouveaux chemins restent valides même après que le répertoire
     courant est changé par *note os.chdir(): 5fa.  En conséquence, les
     traces d'appels affichent le chemin absolu pour les cadres du
     module *note __main__: 1. dans ce cas (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-20443(2)).

   * Dans le *note mode de développement de Python: 1f5. et dans les
     *note compilations en mode débogage: 1f6, les arguments 'encoding'
     et 'errors' sont maintenant vérifiés pour les opérations d'encodage
     et de décodage de chaînes.  Exemples : *note open(): 508, *note
     str.encode(): 8c4. et *note bytes.decode(): 8c5.

     Par défaut, afin d'améliorer les performances, l'argument 'errors'
     n'est consulté qu'au moment de la première erreur
     d'encodage-décodage et l'argument 'encoding' est parfois ignoré
     pour les chaînes vides (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-37388(3)).

   * ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ renvoie maintenant ‘s’ plutôt qu'une chaîne
     vide pour toute valeur non-nulles de ‘n’.  Ce comportement est
     maintenant cohérent avec ‘"".replace("", s)’.  Les instances de
     *note bytes: 1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b. ont le même comportement
     (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-28029(4)).

   * Toute expression valide peut maintenant être utilisée comme
     décorateur (voir *note decorator: 71d.).  Préalablement, la
     grammaire était beaucoup plus contraignante.  Voir PEP 614(5) pour
     les détails (contributions de 'Brandt Bucher' dans bpo-39702(6)).

   * Aide améliorée pour le module *note typing: 103.  La documentation
     est maintenant visible pour toutes les formes spéciales et les
     alias générique spéciaux (comme ‘Union’ et ‘List’).  Utiliser *note
     help(): 8c6. sur un alias générique comme ‘List[int]’ montre l'aide
     correspondant au type réel (‘list’ dans ce cas).  (Contribution de
     Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-40257(7)).

   * L'exécution parallèle de *note aclose(): 8c7. / *note asend(): 8c8.
     / *note athrow(): 4e6. est maintenant interdite, et ‘ag_running’
     reflète maintenant le statut réel du générateur asynchrone.
     (Contribué par Yury Selivanov dans bpo-30773(8).)

   * Les erreurs inattendues lors d'un appel de la méthode ‘__iter__’ ne
     sont plus masquées par ‘TypeError’ dans l'opérateur *note in: 2e9.
     et les fonctions *note contains(): 8c9, *note indexOf(): 8ca. et
     *note countOf(): 8cb. du module *note operator: 9e.  (Contribué par
     Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-40824(9).)

   * Les expressions lambda sans parenthèses ne peuvent plus être la
     partie expression dans une clause ‘if’ dans les compréhensions de
     liste et les expressions de générateur.  Voir bpo-41848(10) et
     bpo-43755(11) pour plus de détails.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<5>,  Next: Modules améliorés<5>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.5 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo,  Next: graphlib,  Up: Nouveaux modules<5>

1.5.5.1 'zoneinfo'
..................

Le module *note zoneinfo: 133. ajoute la prise en charge de la base de
donnée des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA dans la bibliothèque standard.  Il
ajoute *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 8ce, une implémentation concrète de
*note datetime.tzinfo: 5ca. à partir des données de fuseaux horaires du
système.

Exemple :

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> # Daylight saving time
     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

     >>> # Standard time
     >>> dt += timedelta(days=7)
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00
     >>> print(dt.tzname())
     PST

As a fall-back source of data for platforms that don't ship the IANA
database, the tzdata(1) module was released as a first-party package -
distributed via PyPI and maintained by the CPython core team.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 615(2) — Prise en charge de la base de donnée des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA dans la bibliothèque standard

     PEP écrit et implémenté par 'Paul Ganssle'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib,  Prev: zoneinfo,  Up: Nouveaux modules<5>

1.5.5.2 'graphlib'
..................

Un nouveau module, *note graphlib: 64, a été ajouté.  Il contient la
classe *note graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 8d0. qui offre des
fonctionnalités pour faire le tri topologique de graphes (contribution
de 'Pablo Galindo', 'Tim Peters' et 'Larry Hastings' dans bpo-17005(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<5>,  Next: Optimisations<5>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.6 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE et idlelib: IDLE et idlelib<3>.
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* nntplib::
* os: os<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<3>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* xml: xml<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: ast<2>,  Next: asyncio<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.1 'ast'
.............

Ajout de l'option 'indent' à *note dump(): 8d3. qui permet de produire
une sortie multi-ligne indentée (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
bpo-37995(1)).

Ajout de la fonction *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. au module *note ast: 8.
pour renverser l'analyse syntaxique d'un objet *note ast.AST: 1a4. et
produire une chaîne de code qui produirait un *note ast.AST: 1a4.
équivalent lorsqu'il est analysé (contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' et
'Batuhan Taskaya' dans bpo-38870(2)).

Ajout de chaînes de documentation aux nœuds AST qui contiennent les
signatures 'ASDL' utilisées pour construire ce nœud (contribution de
'Batuhan Taskaya' dans bpo-39638(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<5>,  Next: compileall<2>,  Prev: ast<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.2 'asyncio'
.................

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre
'reuse_address' de *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.
n'est plus supporté.  C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine
Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228(1).)

Ajout d'une nouvelle *note coroutine: 47d. *note
shutdown_default_executor(): 8d6. qui programme une extinction de
l'exécuteur par défaut qui attend que *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. se
termine.  Aussi, *note asyncio.run(): 468. à été mis à jour pour
utiliser la nouvelle *note coroutine: 47d.  (Contribué par Kyle Stanley
dans bpo-34037(2).)

Ajout de *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 465, un surveillant de
processus enfants spécifique à Linux qui interroge le descripteur de
ficher du processus.  (bpo-38692(3))

Added a new *note coroutine: 47d. *note asyncio.to_thread(): 8d7.  It is
mainly used for running IO-bound functions in a separate thread to avoid
blocking the event loop, and essentially works as a high-level version
of *note run_in_executor(): 8d8. that can directly take keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley and Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32309(4).)

When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note asyncio.wait_for():
5ec. will now wait until the cancellation is complete also in the case
when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts.
(Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751(5).)

*note asyncio: a. now raises *note TypeError: 525. when calling
incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9. socket.
(Contributed by Ido Michael in bpo-37404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<2>,  Next: concurrent futures<2>,  Prev: asyncio<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.3 'compileall'
....................

Ajout de la possibilité d'utiliser des liens physiques pour les fichiers
‘.pyc’ dupliqués : paramètre 'hardlink_dupes' et option de ligne de
commande ‘--hardlink-dupes’ (contribution de 'Lumír 'Frenzy' Balhar'
dans bpo-40495(1)).

Ajout d'options pour manipuler les chemins des fichiers ‘.pyc’
résultants : paramètres 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' et
options de la ligne de commande ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’.  Ajout de la
possibilité de spécifier l'option pour un niveau d'optimisation plus
d'une fois (contribution de 'Lumír 'Frenzy' Balhar' dans bpo-38112(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<2>,  Next: curses<2>,  Prev: compileall<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.4 'concurrent.futures'
............................

Ajout du nouveau paramètre 'cancel_futures' à *note
concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 8dc. qui annule tous les futurs
en attente qui n'ont pas commencé leur exécution, plutôt que d'attendre
qu'ils aient complété avant d'arrêter l'exécuteur (contribution 'Kyle
Stanley' dans bpo-39349(1)).

Removed daemon threads from *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. and *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.  This improves compatibility with
subinterpreters and predictability in their shutdown processes.
(Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39812(2).)

Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. are now spawned on demand,
only when there are no available idle workers to reuse.  This optimizes
startup overhead and reduces the amount of lost CPU time to idle
workers.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39207(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207


File: python.info,  Node: curses<2>,  Next: datetime<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.5 'curses'
................

Ajout des fonctions *note curses.get_escdelay(): 8df, *note
curses.set_escdelay(): 8e0, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 8e1, et *note
curses.set_tabsize(): 8e2. (contribution d''Anthony Sottile' dans
bpo-38312(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<2>,  Next: distutils<3>,  Prev: curses<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.6 'datetime'
..................

The *note isocalendar(): 8e4. of *note datetime.date: 1c8. and *note
isocalendar(): 8e5. of *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. methods now returns
a *note namedtuple(): 1c5. instead of a *note tuple: 366.  (Contributed
by Donghee Na in bpo-24416(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<3>,  Next: fcntl<2>,  Prev: datetime<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.7 'distutils'
...................

La commande ‘upload’ crée maintenant des condensats SHA2-256 et
Blake2b-256.  Elle ne produit pas MD5 sur les plateformes qui bloquent
les condensats MD5 (contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans
bpo-40698(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl<2>,  Next: ftplib<2>,  Prev: distutils<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.8 'fcntl'
...............

Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<2>,  Next: gc<2>,  Prev: fcntl<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.9 'ftplib'
................

*note FTP: 8e9. and *note FTP_TLS: 8ea. now raise a *note ValueError:
1ff. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: gc<2>,  Next: hashlib<4>,  Prev: ftplib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.10 'gc'
.............

Quand le ramasse-miettes fait un ramassage pour lequel certains objets
sont ressuscités (ils sont atteignables à partir de l'extérieur des
cycles isolés après que les 'finaliseurs' soient exécutés), le ramassage
des objets qui sont toujours inatteignables n'est pas suspendu
(contribution de 'Pablo Galindo' et 'Tim Peters' dans bpo-38379(1)).

Ajout de la fonction *note gc.is_finalized(): 8ec. pour vérifier si un
objet a été finalisé par le ramasse-miettes (contribution de 'Pablo
Galindo' dans bpo-39322(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<4>,  Next: http,  Prev: gc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.11 'hashlib'
..................

Le module *note hashlib: 67. peut maintenant utiliser les algorithmes de
hachage SHA3 et SHAKE XOF de 'OpenSSL' quand ils sont disponibles
(contribution de 'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-37630(1)).

Les modules de hachage natifs peuvent être désactivés avec ‘./configure
--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’ ou activés sélectivement avec par
exemple ‘./configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2’ pour
forcer l'utilisation de l’implémentation 'OpenSSL' (contribution de
'Christian Heimes' dans bpo-40479(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479


File: python.info,  Node: http,  Next: IDLE et idlelib<3>,  Prev: hashlib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.12 'http'
...............

HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and ‘425
TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 8ef.  (Contributed by
Donghee Na in bpo-39509(1) and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE et idlelib<3>,  Next: imaplib,  Prev: http,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.13 'IDLE' et 'idlelib'
............................

Ajout d'une option pour désactiver le clignotement du curseur
(contribution de 'Zackery Spytz' dans bpo-4603(1)).

La fenêtre de complétion de IDLE est maintenant fermée par la touche
d'échappement (contribution de 'Johnny Najera' dans bpo-38944(2)).

Ajout de mots clés à la liste de complétion de noms de modules
(contribution de 'Terry J. Reedy' dans bpo-37765(3)).

New in 3.9 maintenance releases

IDLE invoque maintenant *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7. (lorsque lancé sans
‘'-n'’).  Auparavant, les fonctions de rappel définies par l'utilisateur
étaient ignorées (contribution par 'Ken Hilton' dans bpo-43008(4)).

Les changements ci-haut ont été rétro-portés dans la version de
maintenance de 3.8.

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(5).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(6).)

Applique la coloration syntaxique aux fichiers ‘.pyi’ (contribution
d''Alex Waygood' et de 'Terry Jan Reedy' dans bpo-45447(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib,  Next: importlib<3>,  Prev: IDLE et idlelib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.14 'imaplib'
..................

*note IMAP4: 8f2. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 8f3. now have an optional
'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the *note open():
8f4. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter with this change.
The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 8f3. and *note IMAP4_stream:
8f5. were applied to this change.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-38615(1).)

*note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 8f6. is added.  *note
imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 8f6. frees server's resources associated with
the selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state.
This command performs the same actions as *note imaplib.IMAP4.close():
8f7, except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently
selected mailbox.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40375(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<3>,  Next: inspect<4>,  Prev: imaplib,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.15 'importlib'
....................

Pour plus de cohérence avec les instructions d'import, *note
importlib.util.resolve_name(): 8f9. lève maintenant *note ImportError:
40f. plutôt que *note ValueError: 1ff. pour les tentatives d'import
relatifs invalides (contribution de 'Ngalim Siregar' dans bpo-37444(1)).

Les chargeurs d'importation qui publient des objets modules immuables
peuvent maintenant aussi publier des paquets immuables en plus des
modules individuels (contribution de 'Dino Viehland' dans bpo-39336(2)).

Ajout de la fonction *note importlib.resources.files(): 47a. qui prend
en charge les sous-répertoires dans les données du paquet.  Aussi
rétro-porté pour les version précédentes de Python dans
‘importlib_resources’ version 1.5 (contribution de 'Jason R. Coombs'
dans bpo-39791(3)).

Mise à jour de ‘importlib.metadata’ à partir de ‘importlib_metadata’
version 1.6.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<4>,  Next: ipaddress<2>,  Prev: importlib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.16 'inspect'
..................

*note inspect.BoundArguments.arguments: 8fb, qui était un ‘OrderedDict’,
devient un ‘dict’ natif régulier (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans
bpo-36350(1) et bpo-39775(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<2>,  Next: math<4>,  Prev: inspect<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.17 'ipaddress'
....................

*note ipaddress: 7f. prend désormais en charge les IPv6 avec une portée
spécifiée (adresses IPv6 avec un suffixe ‘%<scope_id>’).

Les adresses IPv6 avec une portée spécifiée peuvent être analysées avec
*note ipaddress.IPv6Address: 1fa.  S'il est présent, l'indice de la zone
de la portée est disponible dans l'attribut *note scope_id: 8fd.
(contribution de 'Oleksandr Pavliuk' dans bpo-34788(1)).

À partir de Python 3.9.5, le module *note ipaddress: 7f. n'accepte plus
aucun zéro en tête des chaînes de caractères IPv4.  (Contribué par
Christian Heimes dans bpo-36384(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: math<4>,  Next: multiprocessing<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.18 'math'
...............

Extension de la fonction *note math.gcd(): 8ff. pour gérer les arguments
multiples.  Préalablement, elle ne gérait que deux arguments
(contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-39648(1)).

Ajout de *note math.lcm(): 900. : renvoie le plus petit commun multiple
des arguments spécifiés (contribution de 'Mark Dickinson',
'Ananthakrishnan' et 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-39479(2) et
bpo-39648(3)).

Ajout de *note math.nextafter(): 484. : renvoie la prochaine valeur à
point flottant après 'x' en direction de 'y' (contribution de 'Victor
Stinner' dans bpo-39288(4)).

Ajout de *note math.ulp(): 901. : renvoie la valeur du bit le moins
significatif d'un 'float' (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
bpo-39310(5)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<2>,  Next: nntplib,  Prev: math<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.19 'multiprocessing'
..........................

La classe *note multiprocessing.SimpleQueue: 903. a une nouvelle méthode
*note close(): 904. pour fermer la queue de façon explicite
(contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-30966(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib,  Next: os<5>,  Prev: multiprocessing<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.20 'nntplib'
..................

‘NNTP’ and ‘NNTP_SSL’ now raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the given
timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a
non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: os<5>,  Next: pathlib<6>,  Prev: nntplib,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.21 'os'
.............

Added *note CLD_KILLED: 907. and *note CLD_STOPPED: 908. for ‘si_code’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493(1).)

Exposed the Linux-specific *note os.pidfd_open(): 466. (bpo-38692(2))
and *note os.P_PIDFD: 909. (bpo-38713(3)) for process management with
file descriptors.

La fonction *note os.unsetenv(): 90a. est maintenant aussi disponible
sur Windows (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39413(4)).

Les fonctions *note os.putenv(): 90b. et *note os.unsetenv(): 90a. sont
maintenant toujours disponibles (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
bpo-39395(5)).

Ajout de la fonction *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. : convertit
la valeur de retour de ‘wait()’ en code de sortie (contribution de
'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-40094(6)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<6>,  Next: pdb<3>,  Prev: os<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.22 'pathlib'
..................

Added *note pathlib.Path.readlink(): 90e. which acts similarly to *note
os.readlink(): 90f.  (Contributed by Girts Folkmanis in bpo-30618(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<3>,  Next: poplib,  Prev: pathlib<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.23 'pdb'
..............

Sur Windows, *note Pdb: 911. gère maintenant ‘~/.pdbrc’ (contribution de
'Tim Hopper' et 'Dan Lidral-Porter' dans bpo-20523(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523


File: python.info,  Node: poplib,  Next: pprint<2>,  Prev: pdb<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.24 'poplib'
.................

*note POP3: 913. and *note POP3_SSL: 914. now raise a *note ValueError:
1ff. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<2>,  Next: pydoc,  Prev: poplib,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.25 'pprint'
.................

*note pprint: ad. peut maintenant faire l'affichage formaté de *note
types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc. (contribution de 'Carl Bordum Hansen' dans
bpo-37376(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc,  Next: random<3>,  Prev: pprint<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.26 'pydoc'
................

The documentation string is now shown not only for class, function,
method etc, but for any object that has its own *note __doc__: 917.
attribute.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257


File: python.info,  Node: random<3>,  Next: signal,  Prev: pydoc,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.27 'random'
.................

Ajout de la méthode ‘random.Random.randbytes’ : génère des octets
aléatoires (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-40286(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286


File: python.info,  Node: signal,  Next: smtplib,  Prev: random<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.28 'signal'
.................

Sur Linux, exposition de *note signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 91a. pour
envoyer des signaux à un processus en utilisant un descripteur de
fichier plutôt qu'un identifiant de processus ('pid').  (bpo-38712(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib,  Next: socket<3>,  Prev: signal,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.29 'smtplib'
..................

*note SMTP: 91c. and *note SMTP_SSL: 91d. now raise a *note ValueError:
1ff. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

*note LMTP: 91e. constructor now has an optional 'timeout' parameter.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329


File: python.info,  Node: socket<3>,  Next: time<3>,  Prev: smtplib,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.30 'socket'
.................

The *note socket: cb. module now exports the *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS:
920. constant on Linux 4.1 and greater.  (Contributed by Stefan
Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780(1).)

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_J1939: 921. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291(2).)

Le module ‘socket’ possède maintenant les fonctions *note
socket.send_fds(): 922. et *note socket.recv_fds(): 923. (contribution
de 'Joannah Nanjekye', 'Shinya Okano' et 'Victor Stinner' dans
bpo-28724(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724


File: python.info,  Node: time<3>,  Next: sys<6>,  Prev: socket<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.31 'time'
...............

On AIX, *note thread_time(): 925. is now implemented with
‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather than
‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a resolution of 10
milliseconds.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40192(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192


File: python.info,  Node: sys<6>,  Next: tracemalloc,  Prev: time<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.32 'sys'
..............

Added a new *note sys.platlibdir: 927. attribute: name of the
platform-specific library directory.  It is used to build the path of
standard library and the paths of installed extension modules.  It is
equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to
‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl,
Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

Previously, *note sys.stderr: 928. was block-buffered when
non-interactive.  Now ‘stderr’ defaults to always being line-buffered.
(Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc,  Next: typing<6>,  Prev: sys<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.33 'tracemalloc'
......................

Ajout de *note tracemalloc.reset_peak(): 92a. qui affecte la taille
d'apogée (la plus grande taille atteinte) du bloc mémoire tracé à la
taille courante, pour mesurer la taille d'apogée de parties de code
spécifiques (contribution de 'Huon Wilson' dans bpo-40630(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630


File: python.info,  Node: typing<6>,  Next: unicodedata<4>,  Prev: tracemalloc,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.34 'typing'
.................

PEP 593(1) ajoute le type *note typing.Annotated: 92c. pour décorer les
types existants avec des métadonnées spécifiques au contexte et le
nouveau paramètre ‘include_extras’ à *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e.
pour récupérer les métadonnées à l'exécution (contribution de 'Till
Varoquaux' et 'Konstantin Kashin').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<4>,  Next: venv<3>,  Prev: typing<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.35 'unicodedata'
......................

La base de donnée Unicode a été mise à jour à la version 13.0.0.
(bpo-39926(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926


File: python.info,  Node: venv<3>,  Next: xml<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.36 'venv'
...............

Tous les scripts d'activations fournis par *note venv: 110. spécifient
maintenant la personnalisation de l'invite de façon cohérente en
utilisant toujours la valeur spécifiée dans ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’.
Précédemment certains scripts utilisaient toujours ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’,
d'autres seulement quand la variable était affectée, et un utilisait
plutôt ‘__VENV_NAME__’ (contribution de 'Brett Cannon' dans
bpo-37663(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663


File: python.info,  Node: xml<3>,  Prev: venv<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<5>

1.5.6.37 'xml'
..............

Les caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur des attributs sont maintenant
préservés lors de la sérialisation d'*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.
en fichier XML. Les fin de lignes ne sont plus normalisées par "n".
Ceci est le résultat d'une discussion sur comment interpréter la section
2.11 de la spécification XML (contribution de 'Mefistotelis' dans
bpo-39011(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011


File: python.info,  Node: Optimisations<5>,  Next: Obsolescence<7>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.7 Optimisations
-------------------

   * L'affectation d'une variable temporaire dans les compréhensions est
     optimisée.  Maintenant ‘for y in [expr]’ dans les compréhensions
     est aussi rapide qu'une affectation simple ‘y = expr’.  Par
     exemple :

          ‘sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]]’

     Contrairement à l'opérateur ‘:=’, cet idiome ne laisse pas déborder
     une variable dans la portée externe.

     (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-32856(1)).

   * Optimisation de la gestion des signaux dans les applications avec
     plus d'un fil d'exécution ('multithreaded applications').  Si un
     fil d'exécution autre que le fil principal reçoit un signal, la
     boucle d'évaluation du code intermédiaire ('bytecode') n'est plus
     interrompue à chaque instruction intermédiaire pour vérifier s'il y
     a des signaux en attente qui ne peuvent être gérés.  Seul le fil
     principal de l'interpréteur principal peut gérer les signaux.

     Précédemment, la boucle d'évaluation du code intermédiaire était
     interrompue à chaque instruction jusqu'à ce que le fil principal
     gère les signaux (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-40010(2)).

   * Optimisation du module *note subprocess: d5. sur FreeBSD en
     utilisant ‘closefrom()’ (contribution de 'Ed Maste', 'Conrad
     Meyer', 'Kyle Evans', 'Kubilay Kocak' et 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-38061(3)).

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 931. is now up to 1.87x faster for
     values that fit into long.  (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev in
     bpo-37986(4).)

   * A number of Python builtins (*note range: 932, *note tuple: 366,
     *note set: 5c5, *note frozenset: 5c6, *note list: 5fe, *note dict:
     253.) are now sped up by using PEP 590(5) vectorcall protocol.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr
     Viktorin in bpo-37207(6).)

   * Optimisation de ‘difference_update()’ pour le cas où l'autre 'set'
     est beaucoup plus grand que celui de base.  (Suggestion par 'Evgeny
     Kapun' et codage contribué par 'Michele Orrù' dans bpo-8425(7).)

   * L'allocateur de petits objets de Python (‘obmalloc.c’) alloue
     maintenant (au plus) un aréna vide qui reste disponible pour
     réutilisation immédiate, sans le renvoyer au système
     d'exploitation.  Ceci prévient l'emballement ('thrashing') dans les
     boucles simples où un aréna pourrait être créé puis détruit à
     nouveau à chaque itération (contribution de 'Tim Peters' dans
     bpo-37257(8)).

   * *note floor division: 933. of float operation now has a better
     performance.  Also the message of *note ZeroDivisionError: 934. for
     this operation is updated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-39434(9).)

   * Le décodage de courtes chaînes ASCII avec les codecs 'UTF-8' et
     'ascii' est maintenant 15 % plus rapide (contribution de 'Inada
     Naoki' dans bpo-37348(10)).

Voici un résumé des améliorations de performance de Python 3.4 à Python
3.9 :

     Python version                       3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8    3.9
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---    ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9    3.9
         read_nonlocal                    7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4    4.5
         read_global                     15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6    7.8
         read_builtin                    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5    7.8
         read_classvar_from_class        25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4   17.9
         read_classvar_from_instance     22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4   16.9
         read_instancevar                32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4   25.3
         read_instancevar_slots          27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2   20.5
         read_namedtuple                 73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4   18.7
         read_boundmethod                37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7   41.1

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3    4.3
         write_nonlocal                  10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7    4.8
         write_global                    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8   16.7
         write_classvar                  92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2   39.8
         write_instancevar               44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5   37.4
         write_instancevar_slots         35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7   25.8

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0   19.5
         read_deque                      24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8   20.2
         read_dict                       24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0   22.4
         read_strdict                    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9   21.5

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0   20.0
         write_deque                     28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5   21.7
         write_dict                      31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7   25.4
         write_strdict                   28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1   24.5

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                 93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8   50.6
         deque_append_pop                43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5   44.2
         deque_append_popleft            43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8   46.4

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3    0.3

These results were generated from the variable access benchmark script
at: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  The benchmark script
displays timings in nanoseconds.  The benchmarks were measured on an
Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(11) running the macOS 64-bit builds
found at python.org(12).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (11) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (12) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<7>,  Next: Retraits<5>,  Prev: Optimisations<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.8 Obsolescence
------------------

   * La commande de 'distutils' ‘bdist_msi’ est maintenant obsolète,
     utilisez plutôt ‘bdist_wheel’ (paquet 'wheel') (contribution de
     'Hugo van Kemenade' dans bpo-39586(1)).

   * Présentement, *note math.factorial(): 936. accepte des instances de
     *note float: 2ec. qui sont des entiers non-négatifs (comme ‘5.0’).
     Elle lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. pour les 'floats' non-entiers
     et négatifs.  Ceci est maintenant obsolète.  Les versions futures
     de Python vont lever une *note TypeError: 525. pour tous les
     'floats' (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-37315(2)).

   * The ‘parser’ and ‘symbol’ modules are deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.  For the majority of use
     cases, users can leverage the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generation
     and compilation stage, using the *note ast: 8. module.

   * The Public C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()’ and ‘PyNode_Compile()’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.10 together with the old
     parser.

   * L'utilisation de *note NotImplemented: 7be. dans un contexte
     booléen est devenu obsolète, puisque c'est presque toujours le
     résultat d'une implémentation incorrecte des opérateurs de
     comparaison avancés.  Ceci va devenir une *note TypeError: 525.
     dans les versions futures de Python (contribution de 'Josh
     Rosenberg' dans bpo-35712(3)).

   * Le module *note random: b7. accepte présentement n'importe quel
     hachable comme valeur d'ensemencement.  Malheureusement, certains
     de ces types ne garantissent pas une valeur de hachage
     déterministe.  Après Python 3.9, le module va restreindre
     l'ensemencement à *note None: 662, *note int: 254, *note float:
     2ec, *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b.

   * Ouvrir un fichier *note GzipFile: 410. en écriture sans spécifier
     l'argument 'mode' est obsolète.  Dans les futures versions de
     Python, il sera toujours ouvert en lecture par défaut.  Spécifiez
     l'argument 'mode' pour l'ouvrir en écriture et supprimer
     l'avertissement (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
     bpo-28286(4)).

   * Deprecated the ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour
     of the ‘splitlist()’ method which has more consistent and
     predictable behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-38371(5).)

   * Le passage explicite d'objets coroutine à *note asyncio.wait():
     46b. est devenu obsolète et sera retiré dans la version 3.11.
     (Contribution de 'Yury Selivanov' et 'Kyle Stanley' dans
     bpo-34790(6).)

   * binhex4 and hexbin4 standards are now deprecated.  The ‘binhex’
     module and the following *note binascii: 10. functions are now
     deprecated:

        * ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39353(7)).

   * Les classes ‘slice’, ‘Index’ et ‘ExtSlice’ du module *note ast: 8.
     sont considérées obsolètes et seront retirées des versions futures
     de Python.  ‘value’ doit être utilisé à la place de ‘Index(value)’.
     ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’ doit être utilisé plutôt que
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
     bpo-34822(8)).

   * Les classes ‘Suite’, ‘Param’, ‘AugLoad’ et ‘AugStore’ du module
     *note ast: 8. sont considérées obsolètes et seront retirées des
     versions futures de Python.  Elles n'étaient pas produites par
     l'analyseur et n'étaient pas acceptées par le générateur de code
     dans Python 3 (contribution de 'Batuhan Taskaya' dans bpo-39639(9)
     et bpo-39969(10) et 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-39988(11)).

   * The ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’
     functions are now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.11.
     Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now does nothing.  The *note GIL:
     158. is initialized by *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. since Python
     3.7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39877(12).)

   * Passer ‘None’ comme premier argument à la fonction *note
     shlex.split(): 529. a été rendu obsolète (contribution de 'Zackery
     Spytz' dans bpo-33262(13)).

   * ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy()’ is now deprecated as it is unusable without
     an external module, ‘mailman’.  (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in
     bpo-35800(14).)

   * The ‘lib2to3’ module now emits a *note PendingDeprecationWarning:
     8b7.  Python 3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see PEP 617(15)), and
     Python 3.10 may include new language syntax that is not parsable by
     lib2to3's LL(1) parser.  The ‘lib2to3’ module may be removed from
     the standard library in a future Python version.  Consider
     third-party alternatives such as LibCST(16) or parso(17).
     (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-40360(18).)

   * Le paramètre 'random' de *note random.shuffle(): 733. est
     maintenant obsolète (contribution de 'Raymond Hettinger' dans
     bpo-40465(19)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (16) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (17) https://parso.readthedocs.io/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<5>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 9,  Prev: Obsolescence<7>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.9 Retraits
--------------

   * The erroneous version at ‘unittest.mock.__version__’ has been
     removed.

   * ‘nntplib.NNTP’: ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’ methods have been
     removed.  These methods are deprecated since Python 3.3.
     Generally, these extensions are not supported or not enabled by
     NNTP server administrators.  For ‘xgtitle()’, please use
     ‘nntplib.NNTP.descriptions()’ or ‘nntplib.NNTP.description()’
     instead.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39366(1).)

   * Les méthodes de *note array.array: 19e. : ‘tostring()’ et
     ‘fromstring()’ ont été retirées.  Elles étaient des alias de
     ‘tobytes()’ et ‘frombytes()’, obsolètes depuis Python 3.2
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-38916(2)).

   * La fonction non-documentée ‘sys.callstats()’ a été retirée.  Depuis
     Python 3.7, elle était obsolète et retournait toujours *note None:
     662.  Elle dépendait de l'option de construction ‘CALL_PROFILE’ qui
     avait déjà été retirée dans Python 3.7 (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-37414(3)).

   * Les fonctions ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ et ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’
     ont été retirées.  Elle étaient obsolètes depuis Python 3.2.
     Utilisez plutôt *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 938. et *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 939. (contribution de 'Victor Stinner'
     dans bpo-37392(4)).

   * La fonction C ‘PyImport_Cleanup()’ a été retirée.  Elle était
     documentée comme "Vide la table des modules.  Pour usage interne
     seulement."  (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-36710(5)).

   * Les modules ‘_dummy_thread’ et ‘dummy_threading’ ont été retirés.
     Ces modules étaient obsolètes depuis Python 3.7 qui a besoin de la
     gestion de fils d'exécution multiples (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-37312(6)).

   * ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’, ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to
     ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias to *note wave.open():
     93a. have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320(7).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 93b. has been
     removed.  It was deprecated since Python 3.8.  Use *note
     is_alive(): 93c. instead.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-37804(8).)

   * Les méthodes ‘getchildren()’ et ‘getiterator()’ des classes *note
     ElementTree: 93d. et *note Element: 305. dans le module *note
     ElementTree: 124. ont été retirées.  Elle avaient été déclarées
     obsolètes dans Python 3.2.  Utilisez ‘iter(x)’ ou ‘list(x)’ plutôt
     que ‘x.getchildren()’ et ‘x.iter()’ ou ‘list(x.iter())’ plutôt que
     ‘x.getiterator()’ (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans
     bpo-36543(9)).

   * L'ancienne API *note plistlib: aa. a été retirée, elle était
     obsolète depuis Python 3.4.  Utilisez les fonctions *note load():
     93e, *note loads(): 93f, *note dump(): 940. et *note dumps(): 941.
     De plus, le paramètre 'use_builtin_types' a été retiré, les objets
     *note bytes: 1bd. natifs sont toujours utilisés.

   * La fonction C ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ a été retirée.  Elle n'était
     pas documentée, testée ou utilisée où que ce soit dans CPython
     après l'implémentation de PEP 442(10) (contribution de 'Joannah
     Nanjekye' dans bpo-15088(11)).

   * ‘base64.encodestring()’ et ‘base64.decodestring()’, des alias
     obsolètes depuis Python 3.1, ont été retirées : utilisez plutôt
     *note base64.encodebytes(): 942. et *note base64.decodebytes():
     943. (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39351(12)).

   * La fonction ‘fractions.gcd()’ a été retirée, elle était obsolète
     depuis Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(13)) : utilisez plutôt *note
     math.gcd(): 8ff. (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-39350(14)).

   * Le paramètre 'buffering' de la classe *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. a été
     retiré.  Depuis Python 3.0, il était ignoré et son utilisation
     levait un *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Passez un objet fichier
     déjà ouvert pour déterminer comment le fichier sera ouvert
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39357(15)).

   * Le paramètre 'encoding' de *note json.loads(): 944. a été retiré.
     À partir de Python 3.1, il était obsolète et ignoré ; son
     utilisation levait un *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. depuis Python
     3.8 (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans bpo-39377(16)).

   * Les instructions ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ et ‘with (yield from
     asyncio.lock):’ ne sont plus prises en charge, utilisez plutôt
     ‘async with lock’.  De même pour ‘asyncio.Condition’ et
     ‘asyncio.Semaphore’ (contribution de 'Andrew Svetlov' dans
     bpo-34793(17)).

   * The ‘sys.getcounts()’ function, the ‘-X showalloccount’ command
     line option and the ‘show_alloc_count’ field of the C structure
     *note PyConfig: 39d. have been removed.  They required a special
     Python build by defining ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(18).)

   * L'attribut ‘_field_types’ de la classe *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2ad. a été retiré.  Il était obsolète depuis Python 3.8.  Utilisez
     plutôt l'attribut ‘__annotations__’ (contribution de 'Serhiy
     Storchaka' dans bpo-40182(19)).

   * The ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’ method has been removed.  It
     was deprecated since 2006, and only returning ‘False’ when it's
     called.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208(20))

   * The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’
     have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7 and you
     can use *note asyncio.current_task(): 469. and *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 945. instead.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-40967(21))

   * La méthode ‘unescape()’ de la classe *note html.parser.HTMLParser:
     864. a été retirée (elle était obsolète depuis Python 3.4).  *note
     html.unescape(): 946. doit être utilisée pour convertir les
     références de caractère en leurs caractères Unicode correspondants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 9,  Next: Changements à la compilation<5>,  Prev: Retraits<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.10 Portage vers Python 3.9
------------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<4>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<3>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<4>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<3>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 9

1.5.10.1 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * *note __import__(): 8c3. et *note importlib.util.resolve_name():
     8f9. lèvent maintenant *note ImportError: 40f. où elles levaient
     précédemment *note ValueError: 1ff.  Les appelants qui attrapent
     les types spécifiques d'exceptions et qui prennent à la fois en
     charge Python 3.9 et des versions précédentes doivent attraper les
     deux types avec ‘except (ImportError, ValueError):’.

   * Il n'y a plus de traitement spécial dans les scriptes d'activation
     de *note venv: 110. quand ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ est mis à ‘""’.

   * The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 949. method no longer ignores
     the *note EBADF: 94a. error.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39239(1).)

   * Le paramètre 'compresslevel' de *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. est devenu
     exclusivement nommé ('keyword-only') puisque le paramètre
     'buffering' a été retiré (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' in
     bpo-39357(2)).

   * Simplification de l''AST' pour l'indiçage.  Les indices simples
     sont représentés par leur valeur, les tranches étendues sont
     représentées par des 'n'-uplets.  ‘Index(value)’ va renvoyer
     ‘value’ elle-même, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ va renvoyer ‘Tuple(slices,
     Load())’ (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-34822(3)).

   * Le module *note importlib: 76. ignore maintenant la variable
     d’environnement *note PYTHONCASEOK: 94b. quand les options de ligne
     de commande *note -E: 94c. ou *note -I: 94d. sont utilisées.

   * Le paramètre 'encoding' a été ajouté aux classes *note ftplib.FTP:
     8e9. et *note ftplib.FTP_TLS: 8ea. en paramètre exclusivement nommé
     et l'encodage par défaut est passé de 'Latin-1' à 'UTF-8' en
     conformité à RFC 2640(4).

   * *note asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8d6. a été ajouté à
     *note AbstractEventLoop: 94e, donc les boucles d'événements
     alternatives qui héritent de celle-ci devraient définir cette
     méthode (contribution de 'Kyle Stanley' dans bpo-34037(5)).

   * Les valeurs constantes des drapeaux futurs du module *note
     __future__: 0. sont mises à jour pour éviter les collisions avec
     les drapeaux du compilateur.  Précédemment,
     ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ était en collision avec
     ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’ (contribution de 'Batuhan Taskaya' dans
     bpo-39562(6)).

   * ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type instead of ‘Py_UNICODE’.
     This change doesn't affect to its behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is
     alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-34538(7).)

   * L'API *note logging.getLogger(): 94f. renvoie maintenant le
     journaliseur racine quand on lui passe le nom ‘'root'’, alors que
     préalablement il renvoyait un journaliseur non-racine appelé
     ‘'root'’.  Ceci peut affecter les cas où le code de l'utilisateur
     veut explicitement un journaliseur non-racine appelé ‘'root'’, ou
     instancie un journaliseur avec ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’ dans
     un module de niveau principal appelé ‘'root.py'’ (contribution de
     'Vinay Sajip' dans bpo-37742(8)).

   * Division handling of *note PurePath: 492. now returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7be. instead of raising a *note TypeError: 525.
     when passed something other than an instance of ‘str’ or *note
     PurePath: 492.  This allows creating compatible classes that don't
     inherit from those mentioned types.  (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in
     bpo-34775(9)).

   * Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 7f. module no
     longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading
     zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some
     libraries.  For example the legacy function *note
     socket.inet_aton(): 950. treats leading zeros as octal notatation.
     glibc implementation of modern *note inet_pton(): 951. does not
     accept any leading zeros.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-36384(10)).

   * *note codecs.lookup(): 952. now normalizes the encoding name the
     same way as ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’, except that *note
     codecs.lookup(): 952. also converts the name to lower case.  For
     example, ‘"latex+latin1"’ encoding name is now normalized to
     ‘"latex_latin1"’.  (Contributed by Jordon Xu in bpo-37751(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<3>,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<4>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<4>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 9

1.5.10.2 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * Les instances de *note types alloués sur le tas: 954. (tels que
     ceux créés avec *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b. et les APIs
     similaires) gardent une référence à leur objet type depuis Python
     3.8.  Tel qu'indiqué dans "Changements à l'API C" de Python 3.8,
     pour la grande majorité des cas, il ne devrait pas y avoir d'effets
     secondaires sauf pour les types qui ont une fonction *note
     tp_traverse: 76a. personnalisée.  Assurez-vous que toutes les
     fonctions ‘tp_traverse’ personnalisées des types alloués sur le tas
     visitent le type de l'objet.

          Exemple :

               int
               foo_traverse(foo_struct *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) {
               // Rest of the traverse function
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (Python issue 35810 and 40217)
                   Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
               #endif
               }

     Si votre fonction de traversée délègue à la ‘tp_traverse’ de sa
     classe mère (ou d'un autre type), assurez-vous que ‘Py_TYPE(self)’
     ne soit visité qu'une seule fois.  Prenez note que seuls les *note
     types du tas: 954. doivent visiter leur type dans ‘tp_traverse’.

          Par exemple, si votre fonction ‘tp_traverse’ inclut :

               base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

          alors ajoutez :

               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (bpo-35810 and bpo-40217)
                   if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
                       // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
                   } else {
                       Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
                   }
               #else

     (Voir bpo-35810(1) et bpo-40217(2) pour plus d'information.)

   * Les fonctions ‘PyEval_CallObject’, ‘PyEval_CallFunction’,
     ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ et ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ sont
     obsolètes.  Utilisez plutôt *note PyObject_Call(): 393. et ses
     variantes.  (Pour plus de détails, voir bpo-29548(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<4>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API C<3>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 9

1.5.10.3 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
..................................................

   * Le code d'opération *note LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR: 956. a été ajouté
     pour gérer l'instruction *note assert: 957.  Précédemment,
     l'instruction ‘assert’ ne fonctionnait pas correctement si
     l'exception *note AssertionError: 696. était masquée (contribution
     de 'Zackery Spytz' dans bpo-34880(1)).

   * Le code d'opération *note COMPARE_OP: 958. a été séparé en quatre
     instructions distinctes :

        * ‘COMPARE_OP’ pour les comparaisons avancées ;

        * ‘IS_OP’ pour les tests 'is' et 'is not' ;

        * ‘CONTAINS_OP’ pour les tests 'in' et 'not in' ;

        * ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ pour vérifier les exceptions dans les
          instructions ‘try-except’.

     (contribution de 'Mark Shannon' dans bpo-39156(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la compilation<5>,  Next: Changements à l'API C<5>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 9,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.11 Changements à la compilation
-----------------------------------

   * Added ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the ‘configure’ script: name of
     the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new *note
     sys.platlibdir: 927. attribute.  See *note sys.platlibdir: 927.
     attribute for more information.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj
     Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

   * La macro spéciale de compilation ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ a été retirée
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39489(2)).

   * On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and ‘unsetenv()’ functions
     are now required to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-39395(3).)

   * Sur les plateformes non-Windows, la création d'installateurs
     ‘bdist_wininst’ n'est maintenant officiellement plus pris en
     charge.  (Voir bpo-10945(4) pour plus de détails.)

   * When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’ now links
     with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are installed in
     ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older releases of
     macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by using *note
     -enable-universalsdk: 95a. or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself is
     searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.  (Contributed by
     Ned Deily in bpo-34956(5).)

   * Python peut maintenant être compilé pour 'Windows 10 ARM64'
     (contribution de 'Steve Dower' dans bpo-33125(6)).

   * Certains tests individuels sont maintenant ignorés lorsque ‘--pgo’
     est utilisé.  Les tests en question augmentaient la durée de la
     tâche 'PGO' de manière significative et n'optimisaient probablement
     pas l'exécutable final.  Cela accélère la tâche par un facteur
     d'environ 15 fois.  Le fait de lancer la suite de tests est lent.
     Ce changement va peut être avoir pour conséquence des exécutables
     compilés un peu moins optimisés car moins de branches de code
     seront exécutées.  Si vous souhaitez attendre avec une compilation
     plus lente, l'ancienne manière de fonctionner peut être obtenue
     avec ‘./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m test --pgo-extended"’.
     Nous ne garantissons pas quel set de tâches PGO produira une
     compilation plus rapide.  Les utilisateurs qui s'y intéressent
     devraient exécuter leurs propres 'benchmarks', car les résultats
     peuvent dépendre de l'environnement, de la charge de travail et de
     la chaîne d'outils du compilateur.  (Voir bpo-36044(7) et
     bpo-37707(8) pour plus de détails.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à l'API C<5>,  Next: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1,  Prev: Changements à la compilation<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.12 Changements à l'API C
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<10>.
* Portage vers Python 3.9: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>.
* Retraits: Retraits<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<10>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<5>

1.5.12.1 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
..................................

   * PEP 573(1): Added *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. to
     associate a module with a class; *note PyType_GetModule(): 95d. and
     *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 95e. to retrieve the module and its
     state; and *note PyCMethod: 750. and *note METH_METHOD: 95f. to
     allow a method to access the class it was defined in.  (Contributed
     by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787(2).)

   * Ajout de la fonction *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 776. : récupérer le
     code d'un cadre.  Ajout de la fonction *note PyFrame_GetBack():
     772. : récupérer le prochain cadre englobant (contribution de
     'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-40421(3)).

   * Ajout de *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777. à l'API C limité
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-40421(4)).

   * Ajout des fonctions *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 960. et
     *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a4. pour récupérer l'interpréteur.
     Ajout de la fonction *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a. pour
     récupérer le cadre de l'état d'un fil d'exécution Python.  Ajout de
     la fonction *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 961. : récupérer
     l'identifiant unique de l'état d'un fil d'exécution Python
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39947(5)).

   * Ajout de la nouvelle fonction publique *note PyObject_CallNoArgs():
     392. à l'API C, qui appelle un objet Python appelable sans aucun
     argument.  C'est la façon la plus efficace d'appeler un objet
     Python appelable sans aucun argument (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-37194(6)).

   * Changements dans l'API C limité (si la macro ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ est
     définie) :

        * Fournit *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 962. et *note
          Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 963. comme fonctions régulières pour
          l'API limité.  Précédemment, elles étaient définies en tant
          que macros, mais ces macros n'étaient pas compilées avec l'API
          C limité qui ne peut pas accéder au champ
          ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ (la structure est opaque à
          l'API C limité) ;

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’ et ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ deviennent des
          fonctions "opaques" régulières pour cacher les détails
          d'implémentation

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-38644(7) et
     bpo-39542(8)).

   * The *note PyModule_AddType(): 964. function is added to help adding
     a type to a module.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024(9).)

   * Ajout des fonctions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 965. et *note
     PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 966. à l'API publique qui déterminent
     respectivement si les objets Python sont présentement suivis ou ont
     été finalisés par le ramasse-miettes (contribution de 'Pablo
     Galindo Salgado' dans bpo-40241(10)).

   * Added ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly string
     representation of a function-like object.  (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer
     in bpo-37645(11).)

   * Ajout de *note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 967. pour appeler un objet
     avec un argument positionnel.  (Rustine par 'Jeroen Demeyer' dans
     bpo-37483(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>,  Next: Retraits<6>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<10>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<5>

1.5.12.2 Portage vers Python 3.9
................................

   * ‘PyInterpreterState.eval_frame’ ( PEP 523(1)) nécessite maintenant
     un nouveau paramètre obligatoire 'tstate' (‘PyThreadState*’)
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-38500(2)).

   * Modules d'extension : les fonctions *note m_traverse: 969, *note
     m_clear: 96a. et *note m_free: 96b. de *note PyModuleDef: 96c. ne
     sont plus appelées si l'état du module est demandé mais qu'il n'a
     pas encore été alloué.  C'est le cas immédiatement après que le
     module a été créé et avant que le module soit exécuté (fonction
     *note Py_mod_exec: 96d.).  Plus précisément, ces fonctions ne sont
     pas appelées si *note m_size: 96e. est plus grand que 0 et que
     l'état du module (tel que renvoyé par *note PyModule_GetState():
     96f.) est ‘NULL’.

     Les modules d'extensions sans état de module (‘m_size <= 0’) ne
     sont pas affectés.

   * Si *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 970. est appelée dans un
     sous-interpréteur, la fonction est planifiée pour appel dans le
     sous-interpréteur, plutôt que dans l'interpréteur principal.
     Chaque sous interpréteur a maintenant sa propre liste d'appels
     planifiés (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39984(3)).

   * Le registre de Windows n'est plus utilisé pour initialiser *note
     sys.path: 3ab. quand l'option ‘-E’ est utilisée (si *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0. est affecté à ‘0’).  Ceci est
     pertinent quand Python est embarqué sur Windows (contribution de
     'Zackery Spytz' dans bpo-8901(4)).

   * La variable globale *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 971. est
     maintenant une constante et fait référence à une chaîne constante
     (contribution de 'Serhiy Storchaka' dans bpo-38650(5)).

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ structure is now opaque.  It is only defined in the
     internal C API (‘pycore_gc.h’).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-40241(6).)

   * The ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’, ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’,
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ are
     marked as deprecated in C. They have been deprecated by PEP 393(7)
     since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(8).)

   * La fonction *note Py_FatalError(): 972. est remplacée par une macro
     qui ajoute automatiquement une entrée au journal avec le nom de la
     fonction courante, sauf si la macro ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ est définie
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39882(9)).

   * Le protocole 'vectorcall' requiert maintenant que l'appelant ne
     passe que des chaînes pour les noms des arguments nommés.  (Voir
     bpo-37540(10) pour plus d'informations.)

   * Les détails d'implémentation de certaines macros et fonctions sont
     maintenant cachés :

        * la macro *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 973. a été convertie en
          fonction ;

        * The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the *note
          PyObject_New: 974. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’ macro
          becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar: 975. macro.
          They no longer access directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 976. member.

        * ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro was converted to a
          function: the macro accessed directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 977. member.

        * La macro *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 38f. a été convertie en
          fonction : la macro accédait directement au membre *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 978. ;

        * *note PyIndex_Check(): 979. est maintenant toujours déclarée
          comme une fonction opaque pour cacher ses détails
          d'implémentation : retrait de la macro ‘PyIndex_Check()’.  La
          macro accédait directement au membre *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 97a.

     (Voir bpo-40170(11) pour plus de détails.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<6>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>,  Up: Changements à l'API C<5>

1.5.12.3 Retraits
.................

   * Exclusion des macros ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ et
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ de l'API C limité (contribution de 'Victor
     Stinner' dans bpo-38835(1)).

   * Le champ ‘tp_print’ de *note PyTypeObject: 97c. a été retiré.  Il
     était utilisé pour écrire des objets dans des fichiers dans Python
     2.7 et dans les versions précédentes.  Depuis Python 3.0, il était
     ignoré et inutilisé (contribution de 'Jeroen Demeyer' dans
     bpo-36974(2)).

   * Changements dans l'API C limité (si la macro ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ est
     définie) :

        * Exclusion des fonctions suivantes de l'API C limité :

             * ‘PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()’ (contribution de 'Joannah
               Nanjekye' dans bpo-37878(3)) ;

             * ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ ;

             * ‘_Py_NewReference()’ ;

             * ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’ ;

             * ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ ;

             * ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’ ;

             * Le mécanisme 'trashcan' qui n'a jamais fonctionné dans
               l'API C limité ;

             * ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ ;

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION’ ;

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ ;

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’ ;

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ ;

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.

        * Migration des fonctions et définitions suivantes vers l'API C
          interne :

             * ‘_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs()’ ;

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferences()’ ;

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses()’ ;

             * ‘_Py_tracemalloc_config’ ;

             * ‘_Py_AddToAllObjects()’ (spécifique aux compilations
               ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’).

     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-38644(4) et
     bpo-39542(5)).

   * Retrait de la fonction de rappel ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ et de la
     macro ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ qui était un alias pour
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  Elles étaient exposées uniquement dans
     l'API C interne.  Retrait aussi du type ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39946(6)).

   * Retrait des fonctions suivantes de l'API C. Appelez *note
     PyGC_Collect(): 97d. explicitement pour vider toutes les 'free
     lists' (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' et 'Victor Stinner' dans
     bpo-37340(7), bpo-38896(8) et bpo-40428(9)) :

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’ ;

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’ ;

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’ ;

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’ ;

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’ ;

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’ ;

        * ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ et ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’ :
          les 'free lists' des objets méthode liées ont été retirées ;

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’ : la 'free list' des objets 'sets' a
          été retirée dans Python 3.4 ;

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’ ;

        * ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’ : la 'free list' des objets
          Unicode a été retirée dans Python 3.3.

   * Retrait de la fonction ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’
     (contribution de 'Victor Stinner' dans bpo-39465(10)).

   * Retrait de ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’.  Elle était devenue obsolète par PEP
     393(11), non-fonctionnelle depuis Python 3.3.  La fonction *note
     PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8a7. peut être utilisée à sa place
     (contribution de 'Inada Naoki' dans bpo-36346(12)).

   * Nettoyage dans les fichiers d'en-têtes d'interfaces déclarées pour
     lesquelles il n'y avait pas d'implémentation.  Les symboles retirés
     de l'API publique sont : ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’ (contribution de 'Pablo
     Galindo Salgado' dans bpo-39372(13)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372


File: python.info,  Node: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1,  Next: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2,  Prev: Changements à l'API C<5>,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.13 Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1
-----------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<7>.
* Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<7>,  Next: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple,  Up: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1

1.5.13.1 'typing'
.................

Le comportement de *note typing.Literal: 841. a été changé pour être
conforme avec PEP 586(1) et pour avoir le comportement des vérificateurs
de types statique spécifiés dans le PEP :

  1. ‘Literal’ de-duplique maintenant les paramètres ;

  2. Les comparaisons d'égalité entre les objets ‘Literal’ sont
     maintenant indépendantes de l'ordre ;

  3. Les comparaisons des ‘Literal’ respectent maintenant les types.
     Par exemple, ‘Literal[0] == Literal[False]’ évaluait précédemment à
     ‘True’.  C'est maintenant ‘False’.  Pour gérer ce changement, le
     cache interne des types utilisés peut maintenant différentier les
     types ;

  4. Les objets ‘Literal’ lèvent maintenant une exception *note
     TypeError: 525. lors des comparaisons d'égalités si n'importe quel
     de leurs paramètres n'est pas *note immuable: 980.  Prenez-note que
     déclarer un ‘Literal’ avec un paramètre mutable ne lève pas une
     erreur :

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contribution de 'Yurii Karabas' dans bpo-42345(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple,  Prev: typing<7>,  Up: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1

1.5.13.2 Prise en charge de 'macOS' 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple
.................................................................................

Depuis la version 3.9.1, Python est maintenant totalement compatible
(compilation et lancement) sur macOS 11.0 ('Big Sur') et sur les Macs
Apple Silicon (basés sur l'architecture ‘ARM64’).  Un nouveau variant de
'build', ‘universal2’, est maintenant disponible et supporte nativement
les plateformes ‘ARM64’ et ‘Intel 64’ en un seul jeu d'exécutables.  Les
binaires peuvent aussi être compilés sur les versions actuelles de macOS
pour ensuite être déployés sur des versions antérieures (testé jusqu'à
10.9), tout en rendant de nouvelles fonctionnalités du système
d'exploitation disponibles en fonction de la version du système utilisée
à l'exécution ("'weaklinking'").

(contribution de 'Ronald Oussoren' et 'Lawrence D'Anna' dans
bpo-41100(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100


File: python.info,  Node: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Prev: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 1,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.14 Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2
-----------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<2>,  Next: urllib parse<2>,  Up: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2

1.5.14.1 'collections.abc'
..........................

*note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. generic now flattens type
parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 7b1. currently does.
This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have
‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str],
str)’.  To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7. can now be
subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the *note
collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. type.  Code which accesses the arguments
via *note typing.get_args(): 86c. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this
change.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. may be emitted for invalid
forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. which may
have passed silently in Python 3.9.1.  This *note DeprecationWarning:
1a3. will become a *note TypeError: 525. in Python 3.10.  (Contributed
by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<2>,  Prev: collections abc<2>,  Up: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2

1.5.14.2 'urllib.parse'
.......................

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 277. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Prev: Changements importants dans Python 3 9 2,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.15 Notable changes in Python 3.9.3
--------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.16 Notable changes in Python 3.9.5
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<3>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5

1.5.16.1 'urllib.parse'
.......................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 109.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.17 Notable security feature in 3.9.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 254. and *note str: 437. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Up: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9

1.5.18 Notable changes in 3.9.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<3>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 9 17

1.5.18.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 458. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 8,  Next: What's New In Python 3 7,  Prev: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.6 Nouveautés de Python 3.8
============================


Rédacteur: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.8, compared to 3.7.
Python 3.8 was released on October 14, 2019.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release highlights. Release highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<6>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<6>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<6>.
* Optimizations::
* Build and C API Changes::
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<8>.
* API and Feature Removals::
* Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.1: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.8: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.12: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release highlights,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.1 Summary - Release highlights
----------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<6>,  Prev: Summary -- Release highlights,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* Expression d'affectation::
* Positional-only parameters::
* Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files::
* Debug build uses the same ABI as release build::
* f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging::
* PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
* PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
* Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::


File: python.info,  Node: Expression d'affectation,  Next: Positional-only parameters,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.1 Expression d'affectation
................................

La nouvelle syntaxe ‘:=’ affecte une valeur à une variable au sein d’une
expression plus large.  Cette syntaxe est surnommée affectueusement
« opérateur morse » ('walrus operator' en anglais) en raison de sa
ressemblance avec les yeux et les défenses d’un morse(1).

Dans cet exemple, l’opérateur d’affectation permet de ne pas appeler
*note len(): 61b. deux fois :

     if (n := len(a)) > 10:
         print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)")

A similar benefit arises during regular expression matching where match
objects are needed twice, once to test whether a match occurred and
another to extract a subgroup:

     discount = 0.0
     if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)):
         discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0

L’opérateur est également utile avec une boucle 'while' qui calcule une
valeur pour tester la condition de fin et que cette valeur est également
nécessaire dans le corps de la boucle :

     # Loop over fixed length blocks
     while (block := f.read(256)) != '':
         process(block)

Un autre usage intéressant est l’utilisation dans les compréhensions de
listes lorsqu’une valeur calculée dans une condition de filtrage est
aussi utilisée dans le corps de l’expression :

     [clean_name.title() for name in names
      if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names]

Essayer de limiter l’usage de l’opérateur morse aux cas clairs permet de
réduire la complexité et augmente la lisibilité.

Voir PEP 572(2) pour une description complète.

(Contributed by Emily Morehouse in bpo-35224(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Positional-only parameters,  Next: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Prev: Expression d'affectation,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.2 Positional-only parameters
..................................

There is a new function parameter syntax ‘/’ to indicate that some
function parameters must be specified positionally and cannot be used as
keyword arguments.  This is the same notation shown by ‘help()’ for C
functions annotated with Larry Hastings' Argument Clinic(1) tool.

Dans l’exemple suivant, les paramètres 'a' et 'b' sont uniquement
positionnels alors que 'c' et 'd' peuvent être positionnels ou nommés
tandis que 'e' et 'f' doivent être obligatoirement nommés :

     def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f):
         print(a, b, c, d, e, f)

L’appel suivant est valide :

     f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60)

En revanche, celui-ci ne l’est pas :

     f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60)   # b cannot be a keyword argument
     f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60)           # e must be a keyword argument

One use case for this notation is that it allows pure Python functions
to fully emulate behaviors of existing C coded functions.  For example,
the built-in *note divmod(): 991. function does not accept keyword
arguments:

     def divmod(a, b, /):
         "Emulate the built in divmod() function"
         return (a // b, a % b)

Another use case is to preclude keyword arguments when the parameter
name is not helpful.  For example, the builtin *note len(): 61b.
function has the signature ‘len(obj, /)’.  This precludes awkward calls
such as:

     len(obj='hello')  # The "obj" keyword argument impairs readability

A further benefit of marking a parameter as positional-only is that it
allows the parameter name to be changed in the future without risk of
breaking client code.  For example, in the *note statistics: d1. module,
the parameter name 'dist' may be changed in the future.  This was made
possible with the following function specification:

     def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
         ...

Since the parameters to the left of ‘/’ are not exposed as possible
keywords, the parameters names remain available for use in ‘**kwargs’:

     >>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs):
     ...     print(a, b, kwargs)
     ...
     >>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3)         # a and b are used in two ways
     10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

This greatly simplifies the implementation of functions and methods that
need to accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  For example, here is an
excerpt from code in the *note collections: 1d. module:

     class Counter(dict):

         def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds):
             # Note "iterable" is a possible keyword argument

Voir PEP 570(2) pour une description complète.

(Contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-36540(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540


File: python.info,  Node: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Next: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Prev: Positional-only parameters,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.3 Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files
.............................................................

The new *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 993. setting (also available as *note
-X: 175. ‘pycache_prefix’) configures the implicit bytecode cache to use
a separate parallel filesystem tree, rather than the default
‘__pycache__’ subdirectories within each source directory.

The location of the cache is reported in *note sys.pycache_prefix: 994.
(*note None: 662. indicates the default location in ‘__pycache__’
subdirectories).

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-33499(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499


File: python.info,  Node: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Next: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Prev: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.4 Debug build uses the same ABI as release build
......................................................

Python now uses the same ABI whether it's built in release or debug
mode.  On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, it is now possible
to load C extensions built in release mode and C extensions built using
the stable ABI.

Release builds and *note debug builds: 1f6. are now ABI compatible:
defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’
macro, which introduces the only ABI incompatibility.  The
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note sys.getobjects(): 41d.
function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 996. environment variable, can be
set using the new *note ./configure -with-trace-refs: 38b. build option.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36465(1).)

On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on
Android and Cygwin.  It is now possible for a statically linked Python
to load a C extension built using a shared library Python.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536(2).)

On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, import now also looks for C
extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled with
the stable ABI. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36722(3).)

To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’ option must be
passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the
application to libpython).  To support both 3.8 and older, try
‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and fallback to ‘python3-config
--libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails.

Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config python-X.Y
--libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails (replace ‘X.Y’
with the Python version).

On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython (except on
Android and Cygwin, whose cases are handled by the script); this change
is backward incompatible on purpose.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-36721(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721


File: python.info,  Node: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Next: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Prev: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.5 f-strings support ‘=’ for self-documenting expressions and debugging
............................................................................

Le spécificateur ‘=’ a été ajouté aux *note f-string: 421.s.  Une
f-string telle que ‘f'{expr=}'’ est transformée en : le texte de
l’expression, le signe égal et le résultat de l’évaluation de
l’expression.  Par exemple :

     >>> user = 'eric_idle'
     >>> member_since = date(1975, 7, 31)
     >>> f'{user=} {member_since=}'
     "user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)"

The usual *note f-string format specifiers: 999. allow more control over
how the result of the expression is displayed:

     >>> delta = date.today() - member_since
     >>> f'{user=!s}  {delta.days=:,d}'
     'user=eric_idle  delta.days=16,075'

The ‘=’ specifier will display the whole expression so that calculations
can be shown:

     >>> print(f'{theta=}  {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}')
     theta=30  cos(radians(theta))=0.866

(Contributed by Eric V. Smith and Larry Hastings in bpo-36817(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Next: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Prev: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.6 PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks
...........................................

The PEP adds an Audit Hook and Verified Open Hook.  Both are available
from Python and native code, allowing applications and frameworks
written in pure Python code to take advantage of extra notifications,
while also allowing embedders or system administrators to deploy builds
of Python where auditing is always enabled.

See PEP 578(1) for full details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Next: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Prev: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.7 PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration
....................................................

The PEP 587(1) adds a new C API to configure the Python Initialization
providing finer control on the whole configuration and better error
reporting.

New structures:

   * *note PyConfig: 39d.

   * *note PyPreConfig: 99c.

   * *note PyStatus: 99d.

   * *note PyWideStringList: 99e.

Nouvelles fonctions :

   * *note PyConfig_Clear(): 99f.

   * *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9a0.

   * *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9a1.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c.

   * *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 9a2.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 9a3.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 9a4.

   * *note PyConfig_SetString(): 9a5.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9a6.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9a7.

   * *note PyStatus_Error(): 9a8.

   * *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9a9.

   * *note PyStatus_Exit(): 9aa.

   * *note PyStatus_IsError(): 9ab.

   * *note PyStatus_IsExit(): 9ac.

   * *note PyStatus_NoMemory(): 9ad.

   * *note PyStatus_Ok(): 9ae.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Append(): 9af.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Insert(): 9b0.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9b1.

   * *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9b2.

   * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc.

   * *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 9b3.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 9b4.

   * *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5.

This PEP also adds ‘_PyRuntimeState.preconfig’ (*note PyPreConfig: 99c.
type) and ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ (*note PyConfig: 39d. type) fields
to these internal structures.  ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ becomes the
new reference configuration, replacing global configuration variables
and other private variables.

See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e. for the
documentation.

See PEP 587(2) for a full description.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36763(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Next: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers,  Prev: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.8 PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython
................................................................

*note The Vectorcall Protocol: 540. is added to the Python/C API. It is
meant to formalize existing optimizations which were already done for
various classes.  Any *note static type: 76b. implementing a callable
can use this protocol.

This is currently provisional.  The aim is to make it fully public in
Python 3.9.

See PEP 590(1) for a full description.

(Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer, Mark Shannon and Petr Viktorin in
bpo-36974(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers,  Prev: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>

1.6.2.9 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers
.......................................................

When *note pickle: a5. is used to transfer large data between Python
processes in order to take advantage of multi-core or multi-machine
processing, it is important to optimize the transfer by reducing memory
copies, and possibly by applying custom techniques such as
data-dependent compression.

The *note pickle: a5. protocol 5 introduces support for out-of-band
buffers where PEP 3118(1)-compatible data can be transmitted separately
from the main pickle stream, at the discretion of the communication
layer.

See PEP 574(2) for a full description.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-36785(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<6>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<6>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.3 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * A *note continue: 9b9. statement was illegal in the *note finally:
     9ba. clause due to a problem with the implementation.  In Python
     3.8 this restriction was lifted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-32489(1).)

   * The *note bool: 453, *note int: 254, and *note fractions.Fraction:
     1e4. types now have an *note as_integer_ratio(): 9bb. method like
     that found in *note float: 2ec. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.
     This minor API extension makes it possible to write ‘numerator,
     denominator = x.as_integer_ratio()’ and have it work across
     multiple numeric types.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-33073(2)
     and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37819(3).)

   * Constructors of *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec. and *note
     complex: 2ed. will now use the *note __index__(): 709. special
     method, if available and the corresponding method *note __int__():
     708, *note __float__(): 9bc. or *note __complex__(): 5d3. is not
     available.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20092(4).)

   * Added support of ‘\N{NAME}’ escapes in *note regular expressions:
     b8.:

          >>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019'
          >>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})')
          >>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1))
          2019

     (Contributed by Jonathan Eunice and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-30688(5).)

   * Dict and dictviews are now iterable in reversed insertion order
     using *note reversed(): 852.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-33462(6).)

   * The syntax allowed for keyword names in function calls was further
     restricted.  In particular, ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is no longer
     allowed.  It was never intended to permit more than a bare name on
     the left-hand side of a keyword argument assignment term.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-34641(7).)

   * Generalized iterable unpacking in *note yield: 9bd. and *note
     return: 9be. statements no longer requires enclosing parentheses.
     This brings the 'yield' and 'return' syntax into better agreement
     with normal assignment syntax:

          >>> def parse(family):
                  lastname, *members = family.split()
                  return lastname.upper(), *members

          >>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie')
          ('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie')

     (Contributed by David Cuthbert and Jordan Chapman in bpo-32117(8).)

   * When a comma is missed in code such as ‘[(10, 20) (30, 40)]’, the
     compiler displays a *note SyntaxWarning: 451. with a helpful
     suggestion.  This improves on just having a *note TypeError: 525.
     indicating that the first tuple was not callable.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15248(9).)

   * Arithmetic operations between subclasses of *note datetime.date:
     1c8. or *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. and *note datetime.timedelta:
     9bf. objects now return an instance of the subclass, rather than
     the base class.  This also affects the return type of operations
     whose implementation (directly or indirectly) uses *note
     datetime.timedelta: 9bf. arithmetic, such as *note astimezone():
     9c0.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32417(10).)

   * When the Python interpreter is interrupted by Ctrl-C (SIGINT) and
     the resulting *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. exception is not
     caught, the Python process now exits via a SIGINT signal or with
     the correct exit code such that the calling process can detect that
     it died due to a Ctrl-C. Shells on POSIX and Windows use this to
     properly terminate scripts in interactive sessions.  (Contributed
     by Google via Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1054041(11).)

   * Some advanced styles of programming require updating the *note
     types.CodeType: 2de. object for an existing function.  Since code
     objects are immutable, a new code object needs to be created, one
     that is modeled on the existing code object.  With 19 parameters,
     this was somewhat tedious.  Now, the new ‘replace()’ method makes
     it possible to create a clone with a few altered parameters.

     Here's an example that alters the *note statistics.mean(): 6be.
     function to prevent the 'data' parameter from being used as a
     keyword argument:

          >>> from statistics import mean
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          40
          >>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1)
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data'

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37032(12).)

   * For integers, the three-argument form of the *note pow(): 9c2.
     function now permits the exponent to be negative in the case where
     the base is relatively prime to the modulus.  It then computes a
     modular inverse to the base when the exponent is ‘-1’, and a
     suitable power of that inverse for other negative exponents.  For
     example, to compute the modular multiplicative inverse(13) of 38
     modulo 137, write:

          >>> pow(38, -1, 137)
          119
          >>> 119 * 38 % 137
          1

     Modular inverses arise in the solution of linear Diophantine
     equations(14).  For example, to find integer solutions for ‘4258𝑥 +
     147𝑦 = 369’, first rewrite as ‘4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147)’ then solve:

          >>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147
          >>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147
          >>> 4258 * x + 147 * y
          369

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36027(15).)

   * Dict comprehensions have been synced-up with dict literals so that
     the key is computed first and the value second:

          >>> # Dict comprehension
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)}
          role? King Arthur
          actor? Chapman
          role? Black Knight
          actor? Cleese

          >>> # Dict literal
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')}
          role? Sir Robin
          actor? Eric Idle

     The guaranteed execution order is helpful with assignment
     expressions because variables assigned in the key expression will
     be available in the value expression:

          >>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald']
          >>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names}
          {'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis',
           'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa',
           'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'}

     (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224(16).)

   * The *note object.__reduce__(): 9c3. method can now return a tuple
     from two to six elements long.  Formerly, five was the limit.  The
     new, optional sixth element is a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’
     signature.  This allows the direct control over the state-updating
     behavior of a specific object.  If not 'None', this callable will
     have priority over the object's ‘__setstate__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (13) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse

   (14) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<6>,  Next: Modules améliorés<6>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<6>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.4 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

   * The new *note importlib.metadata: 79. module provides (provisional)
     support for reading metadata from third-party packages.  For
     example, it can extract an installed package's version number, list
     of entry points, and more:

          >>> # Note following example requires that the popular "requests"
          >>> # package has been installed.
          >>>
          >>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files
          >>> version('requests')
          '2.22.0'
          >>> list(requires('requests'))
          ['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)']
          >>> list(files('requests'))[:5]
          [PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')]

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Jason R. Coombs in bpo-34632(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<6>,  Next: Optimizations,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<6>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.5 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* builtins: builtins<2>.
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE et idlelib: IDLE et idlelib<4>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<5>.
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutils: shutils<4>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* sys: sys<7>.
* tarfile: tarfile<4>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* time: time<4>.
* typing: typing<8>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* venv: venv<4>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<4>.
* xmlrpc::


File: python.info,  Node: ast<3>,  Next: asyncio<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.1 ast
...........

AST nodes now have ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ attributes, which
give the precise location of the end of the node.  (This only applies to
nodes that have ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ attributes.)

New function *note ast.get_source_segment(): 9c7. returns the source
code for a specific AST node.

(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-33416(1).)

The *note ast.parse(): 1a6. function has some new flags:

   * ‘type_comments=True’ causes it to return the text of PEP 484(2) and
     PEP 526(3) type comments associated with certain AST nodes;

   * ‘mode='func_type'’ can be used to parse PEP 484(4) "signature type
     comments" (returned for function definition AST nodes);

   * ‘feature_version=(3, N)’ allows specifying an earlier Python 3
     version.  For example, ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’ will treat *note
     async: 71e. and *note await: 1b7. as non-reserved words.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<6>,  Next: builtins<2>,  Prev: ast<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio.run(): 468. has graduated from the provisional to stable
API. This function can be used to execute a *note coroutine: 47d. and
return the result while automatically managing the event loop.  For
example:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     asyncio.run(main())

This is 'roughly' equivalent to:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(main())
     finally:
         asyncio.set_event_loop(None)
         loop.close()

The actual implementation is significantly more complex.  Thus, *note
asyncio.run(): 468. should be the preferred way of running asyncio
programs.

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

Running ‘python -m asyncio’ launches a natively async REPL. This allows
rapid experimentation with code that has a top-level *note await: 1b7.
There is no longer a need to directly call ‘asyncio.run()’ which would
spawn a new event loop on every invocation:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL 3.8.0
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     hello

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37028(2).)

The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. now inherits from *note
BaseException: 5a7. rather than *note Exception: 9c9. and no longer
inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 9ca.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(3).)

On Windows, the default event loop is now *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-34687(4).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. now also supports UDP. (Contributed by
Adam Meily and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-29883(5).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. can now be interrupted by *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. ("CTRL+C"). (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in
bpo-23057(6).)

Added *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 9cb. for getting the wrapped
coroutine within an *note asyncio.Task: 4c5.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-36999(7).)

Asyncio tasks can now be named, either by passing the ‘name’ keyword
argument to *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. or the *note
create_task(): 9cc. event loop method, or by calling the *note
set_name(): 9cd. method on the task object.  The task name is visible in
the ‘repr()’ output of *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. and can also be
retrieved using the *note get_name(): 9ce. method.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-34270(8).)

Added support for Happy Eyeballs(9) to *note
asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5f0.  To specify the behavior, two new
parameters have been added: 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave'.
The Happy Eyeballs algorithm improves responsiveness in applications
that support IPv4 and IPv6 by attempting to simultaneously connect using
both.  (Contributed by twisteroid ambassador in bpo-33530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530


File: python.info,  Node: builtins<2>,  Next: collections,  Prev: asyncio<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.3 builtins
................

The *note compile(): 190. built-in has been improved to accept the
‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag.  With this new flag passed, *note
compile(): 190. will allow top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’ and ‘async
with’ constructs that are usually considered invalid syntax.
Asynchronous code object marked with the ‘CO_COROUTINE’ flag may then be
returned.  (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-34616(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616


File: python.info,  Node: collections,  Next: cProfile,  Prev: builtins<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.4 collections
...................

The *note _asdict(): 9d1. method for *note collections.namedtuple():
1c5. now returns a *note dict: 253. instead of a *note
collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.  This works because regular dicts have
guaranteed ordering since Python 3.7.  If the extra features of
‘OrderedDict’ are required, the suggested remediation is to cast the
result to the desired type: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile,  Next: csv<2>,  Prev: collections,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.5 cProfile
................

The *note cProfile.Profile: 9d3. class can now be used as a context
manager.  Profile a block of code by running:

     import cProfile

     with cProfile.Profile() as profiler:
           # code to be profiled
           ...

(Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235


File: python.info,  Node: csv<2>,  Next: curses<3>,  Prev: cProfile,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.6 csv
...........

The *note csv.DictReader: 9d5. now returns instances of *note dict: 253.
instead of a *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.  The tool is now faster
and uses less memory while still preserving the field order.
(Contributed by Michael Selik in bpo-34003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003


File: python.info,  Node: curses<3>,  Next: ctypes<2>,  Prev: csv<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.7 curses
..............

Added a new variable holding structured version information for the
underlying ncurses library: *note ncurses_version: 9d7.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31680(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<2>,  Next: datetime<3>,  Prev: curses<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.8 ctypes
..............

On Windows, *note CDLL: 9d9. and subclasses now accept a 'winmode'
parameter to specify flags for the underlying ‘LoadLibraryEx’ call.  The
default flags are set to only load DLL dependencies from trusted
locations, including the path where the DLL is stored (if a full or
partial path is used to load the initial DLL) and paths added by *note
add_dll_directory(): 9da.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<3>,  Next: functools<2>,  Prev: ctypes<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.9 datetime
................

Added new alternate constructors *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar():
9dc. and *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9dd, which construct
*note date: 1c8. and *note datetime: 1c7. objects respectively from ISO
year, week number, and weekday; these are the inverse of each class's
‘isocalendar’ method.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004


File: python.info,  Node: functools<2>,  Next: gc<3>,  Prev: datetime<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.10 functools
..................

*note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. can now be used as a straight
decorator rather than as a function returning a decorator.  So both of
these are now supported:

     @lru_cache
     def f(x):
         ...

     @lru_cache(maxsize=256)
     def f(x):
         ...

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36772(1).)

Added a new *note functools.cached_property(): 52f. decorator, for
computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

     import functools
     import statistics

     class Dataset:
        def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
           self.data = sequence_of_numbers

        @functools.cached_property
        def variance(self):
           return statistics.variance(self.data)

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-21145(2))

Added a new *note functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9e0. decorator that
converts methods into *note generic functions: 9e1. using *note single
dispatch: 9e2.:

     from functools import singledispatchmethod
     from contextlib import suppress

     class TaskManager:

         def __init__(self, tasks):
             self.tasks = list(tasks)

         @singledispatchmethod
         def discard(self, value):
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 self.tasks.remove(value)

         @discard.register(list)
         def _(self, tasks):
             targets = set(tasks)
             self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets]

(Contributed by Ethan Smith in bpo-32380(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380


File: python.info,  Node: gc<3>,  Next: gettext,  Prev: functools<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.11 'gc'
.............

*note get_objects(): 7ef. can now receive an optional 'generation'
parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  (Contributed by
Pablo Galindo in bpo-36016(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016


File: python.info,  Node: gettext,  Next: gzip<3>,  Prev: gc<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.12 gettext
................

Added *note pgettext(): 9e5. and its variants.  (Contributed by Franz
Glasner, Éric Araujo, and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-2504(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<3>,  Next: IDLE et idlelib<4>,  Prev: gettext,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.13 gzip
.............

Added the 'mtime' parameter to *note gzip.compress(): 62b. for
reproducible output.  (Contributed by Guo Ci Teo in bpo-34898(1).)

A *note BadGzipFile: 9e7. exception is now raised instead of *note
OSError: 40d. for certain types of invalid or corrupt gzip files.
(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù, and Zackery Spytz in
bpo-6584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE et idlelib<4>,  Next: inspect<5>,  Prev: gzip<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.14 'IDLE' et 'idlelib'
............................

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(1).)

Add "Run Customized" to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They also re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can
also suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by
Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(2) and
bpo-37627(3).)

Added optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open
without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(4).)

OS native encoding is now used for converting between Python strings and
Tcl objects.  This allows IDLE to work with emoji and other non-BMP
characters.  These characters can be displayed or copied and pasted to
or from the clipboard.  Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back
now never fails.  (Many people worked on this for eight years but the
problem was finally solved by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13153(5).)

New in 3.8.1:

Add option to toggle cursor blink off.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-4603(6).)

La fenêtre de complétion de IDLE est maintenant fermée par la touche
d'échappement (contribution de 'Johnny Najera' dans bpo-38944(7)).

The changes above have been backported to 3.7 maintenance releases.

Add keywords to module name completion list.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<5>,  Next: io<3>,  Prev: IDLE et idlelib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.15 'inspect'
..................

The *note inspect.getdoc(): 9ea. function can now find docstrings for
‘__slots__’ if that attribute is a *note dict: 253. where the values are
docstrings.  This provides documentation options similar to what we
already have for *note property(): 192, *note classmethod(): 165, and
*note staticmethod(): 40c.:

     class AudioClip:
         __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place',
                      'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'}
         def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration):
             self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1)
             self.duration = ceil(duration)

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36326(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326


File: python.info,  Node: io<3>,  Next: itertools<4>,  Prev: inspect<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.16 io
...........

In development mode (*note -X: 175. ‘env’) and in *note debug build:
1f6, the *note io.IOBase: 1f2. finalizer now logs the exception if the
‘close()’ method fails.  The exception is ignored silently by default in
release build.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18748(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<4>,  Next: json tool,  Prev: io<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.17 itertools
..................

The *note itertools.accumulate(): 9ed. function added an option
'initial' keyword argument to specify an initial value:

     >>> from itertools import accumulate
     >>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000))
     [1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060]

(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-34659(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659


File: python.info,  Node: json tool,  Next: logging<2>,  Prev: itertools<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.18 json.tool
..................

Add option ‘--json-lines’ to parse every input line as a separate JSON
object.  (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-31553(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553


File: python.info,  Node: logging<2>,  Next: math<5>,  Prev: json tool,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.19 logging
................

Added a 'force' keyword argument to *note logging.basicConfig(): 9f0.
When set to true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are
removed and closed before carrying out the configuration specified by
the other arguments.

This solves a long-standing problem.  Once a logger or 'basicConfig()'
had been called, subsequent calls to 'basicConfig()' were silently
ignored.  This made it difficult to update, experiment with, or teach
the various logging configuration options using the interactive prompt
or a Jupyter notebook.

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed
by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897


File: python.info,  Node: math<5>,  Next: mmap<2>,  Prev: logging<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.20 'math'
...............

Added new function *note math.dist(): 9f2. for computing Euclidean
distance between two points.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-33089(1).)

Expanded the *note math.hypot(): 9f3. function to handle multiple
dimensions.  Formerly, it only supported the 2-D case.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089(2).)

Added new function, *note math.prod(): 9f4, as analogous function to
*note sum(): 456. that returns the product of a 'start' value (default:
1) times an iterable of numbers:

     >>> prior = 0.8
     >>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30]
     >>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior)
     0.126

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-35606(3).)

Added two new combinatoric functions *note math.perm(): 6bd. and *note
math.comb(): 6bc.:

     >>> math.perm(10, 3)    # Permutations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     720
     >>> math.comb(10, 3)    # Combinations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     120

(Contributed by Yash Aggarwal, Keller Fuchs, Serhiy Storchaka, and
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37128(4), bpo-37178(5), and bpo-35431(6).)

Added a new function *note math.isqrt(): 9f5. for computing accurate
integer square roots without conversion to floating point.  The new
function supports arbitrarily large integers.  It is faster than
‘floor(sqrt(n))’ but slower than *note math.sqrt(): 9f6.:

     >>> r = 650320427
     >>> s = r ** 2
     >>> isqrt(s - 1)         # correct
     650320426
     >>> floor(sqrt(s - 1))   # incorrect
     650320427

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36887(7).)

The function *note math.factorial(): 936. no longer accepts arguments
that are not int-like.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-33083(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<2>,  Next: multiprocessing<3>,  Prev: math<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.21 mmap
.............

The *note mmap.mmap: 208. class now has an *note madvise(): 9f8. method
to access the ‘madvise()’ system call.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-32941(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<3>,  Next: os<6>,  Prev: mmap<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.22 multiprocessing
........................

Added new *note multiprocessing.shared_memory: 98. module.  (Contributed
by Davin Potts in bpo-35813(1).)

On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now used by default.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-33725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: os<6>,  Next: os path<4>,  Prev: multiprocessing<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.23 'os'
.............

Added new function *note add_dll_directory(): 9da. on Windows for
providing additional search paths for native dependencies when importing
extension modules or loading DLLs using *note ctypes: 2a.  (Contributed
by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

A new *note os.memfd_create(): 9fb. function was added to wrap the
‘memfd_create()’ syscall.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Christian
Heimes in bpo-26836(2).)

On Windows, much of the manual logic for handling reparse points
(including symlinks and directory junctions) has been delegated to the
operating system.  Specifically, *note os.stat(): 48c. will now traverse
anything supported by the operating system, while *note os.lstat(): 48d.
will only open reparse points that identify as "name surrogates" while
others are opened as for *note os.stat(): 48c.  In all cases,
‘stat_result.st_mode’ will only have ‘S_IFLNK’ set for symbolic links
and not other kinds of reparse points.  To identify other kinds of
reparse point, check the new ‘stat_result.st_reparse_tag’ attribute.

On Windows, *note os.readlink(): 90f. is now able to read directory
junctions.  Note that *note islink(): 9fc. will return ‘False’ for
directory junctions, and so code that checks ‘islink’ first will
continue to treat junctions as directories, while code that handles
errors from *note os.readlink(): 90f. may now treat junctions as links.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: os path<4>,  Next: pathlib<7>,  Prev: os<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.24 ‘os.path’
..................

*note os.path: a1. functions that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): 9fe, *note lexists(): 9ff, *note isdir(): a00, *note isfile():
a01, *note islink(): 9fc, and *note ismount(): a02. now return ‘False’
instead of raising *note ValueError: 1ff. or its subclasses *note
UnicodeEncodeError: 664. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. for paths
that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

*note expanduser(): a04. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’
environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally set
for regular user accounts.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
bpo-36264(2).)

*note isdir(): a00. on Windows no longer returns ‘True’ for a link to a
non-existent directory.

*note realpath(): 222. on Windows now resolves reparse points, including
symlinks and directory junctions.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<7>,  Next: pickle,  Prev: os path<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.25 pathlib
................

*note pathlib.Path: 226. methods that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): a06, *note is_dir(): 22d, *note is_file(): 22c, *note
is_mount(): a07, *note is_symlink(): a08, *note is_block_device(): a09,
*note is_char_device(): a0a, *note is_fifo(): a0b, *note is_socket():
a0c. now return ‘False’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 1ff. or its
subclass *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664. for paths that contain
characters unrepresentable at the OS level.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

Added ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ which creates a hard link pointing to a
path.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978(2)) Note that
‘link_to’ was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a
‘hardlink_to’ method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the
existing ‘symlink_to’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978


File: python.info,  Node: pickle,  Next: plistlib,  Prev: pathlib<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.26 pickle
...............

*note pickle: a5. extensions subclassing the C-optimized *note Pickler:
a0e. can now override the pickling logic of functions and classes by
defining the special *note reducer_override(): a0f. method.
(Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib,  Next: pprint<3>,  Prev: pickle,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.27 plistlib
.................

Added new *note plistlib.UID: a11. and enabled support for reading and
writing NSKeyedArchiver-encoded binary plists.  (Contributed by Jon
Janzen in bpo-26707(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<3>,  Next: py_compile<2>,  Prev: plistlib,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.28 'pprint'
.................

The *note pprint: ad. module added a 'sort_dicts' parameter to several
functions.  By default, those functions continue to sort dictionaries
before rendering or printing.  However, if 'sort_dicts' is set to false,
the dictionaries retain the order that keys were inserted.  This can be
useful for comparison to JSON inputs during debugging.

In addition, there is a convenience new function, *note pprint.pp():
a13. that is like *note pprint.pprint(): 814. but with 'sort_dicts'
defaulting to ‘False’:

     >>> from pprint import pprint, pp
     >>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt')
     >>> pp(d, width=40)                  # Original order
     {'source': 'input.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'destination': 'output.txt'}
     >>> pprint(d, width=40)              # Keys sorted alphabetically
     {'destination': 'output.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'source': 'input.txt'}

(Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-30670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<2>,  Next: shlex,  Prev: pprint<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.29 ‘py_compile’
.....................

*note py_compile.compile(): a15. now supports silent mode.  (Contributed
by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-22640(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640


File: python.info,  Node: shlex,  Next: shutils<4>,  Prev: py_compile<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.30 shlex
..............

The new *note shlex.join(): a17. function acts as the inverse of *note
shlex.split(): 529.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<4>,  Next: socket<4>,  Prev: shlex,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.31 ‘shutils’
..................

*note shutil.copytree(): a19. now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’ keyword
argument.  (Contributed by Josh Bronson in bpo-20849(1).)

*note shutil.make_archive(): 49f. now defaults to the modern pax
(POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives to improve portability and
standards conformance, inherited from the corresponding change to the
*note tarfile: dd. module.  (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in
bpo-30661(2).)

*note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. on Windows now removes directory junctions
without recursively removing their contents first.  (Contributed by
Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: socket<4>,  Next: ssl<4>,  Prev: shutils<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.32 'socket'
.................

Added *note create_server(): a1b. and *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): a1c.
convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved
when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6
connections on the same socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
bpo-17561(1).)

The *note socket.if_nameindex(): a1d, *note socket.if_nametoindex():
a1e, and *note socket.if_indextoname(): a1f. functions have been
implemented on Windows.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<4>,  Next: statistics<4>,  Prev: socket<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.33 ‘ssl’
..............

Added *note post_handshake_auth: a21. to enable and *note
verify_client_post_handshake(): a22. to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake
authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-34670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<4>,  Next: sys<7>,  Prev: ssl<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.34 ‘statistics’
.....................

Added *note statistics.fmean(): a24. as a faster, floating-point variant
of *note statistics.mean(): 6be.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and
Steven D'Aprano in bpo-35904(1).)

Added *note statistics.geometric_mean(): a25. (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-27181(2).)

Added *note statistics.multimode(): a26. that returns a list of the most
common values.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892(3).)

Added *note statistics.quantiles(): a27. that divides data or a
distribution in to equiprobable intervals (e.g.  quartiles, deciles, or
percentiles).  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36546(4).)

Added *note statistics.NormalDist: a28, a tool for creating and
manipulating normal distributions of a random variable.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36018(5).)

     >>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14])
     >>> temperature_feb.mean
     6.0
     >>> temperature_feb.stdev
     6.356099432828281

     >>> temperature_feb.cdf(3)            # Chance of being under 3 degrees
     0.3184678262814532
     >>> # Relative chance of being 7 degrees versus 10 degrees
     >>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10)
     1.2039930378537762

     >>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5)
     >>> temperature_feb += el_niño        # Add in a climate effect
     >>> temperature_feb
     NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674)

     >>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32      # Convert to Fahrenheit
     NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014)
     >>> temperature_feb.samples(3)        # Generate random samples
     [7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018


File: python.info,  Node: sys<7>,  Next: tarfile<4>,  Prev: statistics<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.35 sys
............

Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. function which can be
overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" are handled.  It is
called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to
handle it.  For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during
garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): a2a.).  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-36829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<4>,  Next: threading<4>,  Prev: sys<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.36 tarfile
................

The *note tarfile: dd. module now defaults to the modern pax
(POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives, instead of the previous
GNU-specific one.  This improves cross-platform portability with a
consistent encoding (UTF-8) in a standardized and extensible format, and
offers several other benefits.  (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in
bpo-36268(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268


File: python.info,  Node: threading<4>,  Next: tokenize<2>,  Prev: tarfile<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.37 threading
..................

Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 837. function which handles
uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): a2d. exception.  It can be
overridden to control how uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): a2d.
exceptions are handled.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-1230540(1).)

Add a new *note threading.get_native_id(): a2e. function and a *note
native_id: a2f. attribute to the *note threading.Thread: 93b. class.
These return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread
assigned by the kernel.  This feature is only available on certain
platforms, see *note get_native_id: a2e. for more information.
(Contributed by Jake Tesler in bpo-36084(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize<2>,  Next: tkinter<4>,  Prev: threading<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.38 tokenize
.................

The *note tokenize: fa. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’ token
when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.  (Contributed
by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<4>,  Next: time<4>,  Prev: tokenize<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.39 tkinter
................

Added methods ‘selection_from()’, ‘selection_present()’,
‘selection_range()’ and ‘selection_to()’ in the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ class.
(Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-34829(1).)

Added method ‘moveto()’ in the ‘tkinter.Canvas’ class.  (Contributed by
Juliette Monsel in bpo-23831(2).)

The ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’ class now has ‘transparency_get()’ and
‘transparency_set()’ methods.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-25451(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451


File: python.info,  Node: time<4>,  Next: typing<8>,  Prev: tkinter<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.40 time
.............

Added new clock *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a33. for macOS 10.12.
(Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702


File: python.info,  Node: typing<8>,  Next: unicodedata<5>,  Prev: time<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.41 'typing'
.................

The *note typing: 103. module incorporates several new features:

   * A dictionary type with per-key types.  See PEP 589(1) and *note
     typing.TypedDict: 161.  TypedDict uses only string keys.  By
     default, every key is required to be present.  Specify
     "total=False" to allow keys to be optional:

          class Location(TypedDict, total=False):
              lat_long: tuple
              grid_square: str
              xy_coordinate: tuple

   * Literal types.  See PEP 586(2) and *note typing.Literal: 841.
     Literal types indicate that a parameter or return value is
     constrained to one or more specific literal values:

          def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']:
              ...

   * "Final" variables, functions, methods and classes.  See PEP 591(3),
     *note typing.Final: 264. and *note typing.final(): 69a.  The final
     qualifier instructs a static type checker to restrict subclassing,
     overriding, or reassignment:

          pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536

   * Protocol definitions.  See PEP 544(4), *note typing.Protocol: 261.
     and *note typing.runtime_checkable(): 42e.  Simple ABCs like *note
     typing.SupportsInt: a35. are now ‘Protocol’ subclasses.

   * New protocol class *note typing.SupportsIndex: a36.

   * New functions *note typing.get_origin(): a37. and *note
     typing.get_args(): 86c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<5>,  Next: unittest<6>,  Prev: typing<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.42 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 104. module has been upgraded to use the Unicode
12.1.0(1) release.

New function *note is_normalized(): a39. can be used to verify a string
is in a specific normal form, often much faster than by actually
normalizing the string.  (Contributed by Max Belanger, David Euresti,
and Greg Price in bpo-32285(2) and bpo-37966(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<6>,  Next: venv<4>,  Prev: unicodedata<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.43 unittest
.................

Added *note AsyncMock: a3b. to support an asynchronous version of *note
Mock: a3c.  Appropriate new assert functions for testing have been added
as well.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-26467(1)).

Added *note addModuleCleanup(): a3d. and *note addClassCleanup(): a3e.
to unittest to support cleanups for ‘setUpModule()’ and *note
setUpClass(): a3f.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412(2).)

Several mock assert functions now also print a list of actual calls upon
failure.  (Contributed by Petter Strandmark in bpo-35047(3).)

*note unittest: 105. module gained support for coroutines to be used as
test cases with *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.
(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32972(4).)

Exemple :

     import unittest


     class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

         async def asyncSetUp(self):
             self.connection = await AsyncConnection()

         async def test_get(self):
             response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com")
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)

         async def asyncTearDown(self):
             await self.connection.close()


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         unittest.main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972


File: python.info,  Node: venv<4>,  Next: weakref,  Prev: unittest<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.44 venv
.............

*note venv: 110. now includes an ‘Activate.ps1’ script on all platforms
for activating virtual environments under PowerShell Core 6.1.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-32718(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718


File: python.info,  Node: weakref,  Next: xml<4>,  Prev: venv<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.45 weakref
................

The proxy objects returned by *note weakref.proxy(): a42. now support
the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and ‘@=’ in addition to the
other numeric operators.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-36669(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669


File: python.info,  Node: xml<4>,  Next: xmlrpc,  Prev: weakref,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.46 'xml'
..............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 128. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17239(1).)

The ‘.find*()’ methods in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. module
support wildcard searches like ‘{*}tag’ which ignores the namespace and
‘{namespace}*’ which returns all tags in the given namespace.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-28238(2).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. module provides a new function
‘–xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize()’ that implements C14N 2.0.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611(3).)

The target object of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: a44. can
receive namespace declaration events through the new callback methods
‘start_ns()’ and ‘end_ns()’.  Additionally, the *note
xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: a45. target can be configured to
process events about comments and processing instructions to include
them in the generated tree.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in
bpo-36676(4) and bpo-36673(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc,  Prev: xml<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<6>

1.6.5.47 xmlrpc
...............

*note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a47. now supports an optional 'headers'
keyword argument for a sequence of HTTP headers to be sent with each
request.  Among other things, this makes it possible to upgrade from
default basic authentication to faster session authentication.
(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-35153(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations,  Next: Build and C API Changes,  Prev: Modules améliorés<6>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * The *note subprocess: d5. module can now use the *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 21d. function in some cases for better
     performance.  Currently, it is only used on macOS and Linux (using
     glibc 2.24 or newer) if all these conditions are met:

        * 'close_fds' is false;

        * 'preexec_fn', 'pass_fds', 'cwd' and 'start_new_session'
          parameters are not set;

        * the 'executable' path contains a directory.

     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-35537(1).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): a49, *note shutil.copy(): a4a, *note
     shutil.copy2(): a4b, *note shutil.copytree(): a19. and *note
     shutil.move(): a4c. use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls on
     Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.
     "fast-copy" means that the copying operation occurs within the
     kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
     "‘outfd.write(infd.read())’".  On Windows *note shutil.copyfile():
     a49. uses a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB)
     and a *note memoryview(): 454.-based variant of *note
     shutil.copyfileobj(): a4d. is used.  The speedup for copying a 512
     MiB file within the same partition is about +26% on Linux, +50% on
     macOS and +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are
     consumed.  See *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations:
     a4e. section.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33671(2).)

   * *note shutil.copytree(): a19. uses *note os.scandir(): a4f.
     function and all copy functions depending from it use cached *note
     os.stat(): 48c. values.  The speedup for copying a directory with
     8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on Windows and +30% on a
     Windows SMB share.  Also the number of *note os.stat(): 48c.
     syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note shutil.copytree(): a19.
     especially faster on network filesystems.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33695(3).)

   * The default protocol in the *note pickle: a5. module is now
     Protocol 4, first introduced in Python 3.4.  It offers better
     performance and smaller size compared to Protocol 3 available since
     Python 3.0.

   * Removed one *note Py_ssize_t: a50. member from ‘PyGC_Head’.  All GC
     tracked objects (e.g.  tuple, list, dict) size is reduced 4 or 8
     bytes.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-33597(4).)

   * *note uuid.UUID: a51. now uses ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  (Contributed by Wouter Bolsterlee and Tal Einat in
     bpo-30977(5))

   * Improved performance of *note operator.itemgetter(): a52. by 33%.
     Optimized argument handling and added a fast path for the common
     case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple (which is
     the typical use case in the standard library).  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35664(6).)

   * Sped-up field lookups in *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5.  They
     are now more than two times faster, making them the fastest form of
     instance variable lookup in Python.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger, Pablo Galindo, and Joe Jevnik, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-32492(7).)

   * The *note list: 5fe. constructor does not overallocate the internal
     item buffer if the input iterable has a known length (the input
     implements ‘__len__’).  This makes the created list 12% smaller on
     average.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-33234(8).)

   * Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a non-dunder
     attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to update
     slots.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado,
     Raymond Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer, and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-36012(9).)

   * Reduced an overhead of converting arguments passed to many builtin
     functions and methods.  This sped up calling some simple builtin
     functions and methods up to 20-50%.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-23867(10), bpo-35582(11) and bpo-36127(12).)

   * ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction now uses new "per opcode cache"
     mechanism.  It is about 40% faster now.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov and Inada Naoki in bpo-26219(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes,  Next: Obsolescence<8>,  Prev: Optimizations,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.7 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

   * Default *note sys.abiflags: a54. became an empty string: the ‘m’
     flag for pymalloc became useless (builds with and without pymalloc
     are ABI compatible) and so has been removed.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-36707(1).)

     Example of changes:

        * Only ‘python3.8’ program is installed, ‘python3.8m’ program is
          gone.

        * Only ‘python3.8-config’ script is installed,
          ‘python3.8m-config’ script is gone.

        * The ‘m’ flag has been removed from the suffix of dynamic
          library filenames: extension modules in the standard library
          as well as those produced and installed by third-party
          packages, like those downloaded from PyPI. On Linux, for
          example, the Python 3.7 suffix
          ‘.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ became
          ‘.cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ in Python 3.8.

   * The header files have been reorganized to better separate the
     different kinds of APIs:

        * ‘Include/*.h’ should be the portable public stable C API.

        * ‘Include/cpython/*.h’ should be the unstable C API specific to
          CPython; public API, with some private API prefixed by ‘_Py’
          or ‘_PY’.

        * ‘Include/internal/*.h’ is the private internal C API very
          specific to CPython.  This API comes with no backward
          compatibility warranty and should not be used outside CPython.
          It is only exposed for very specific needs like debuggers and
          profiles which has to access to CPython internals without
          calling functions.  This API is now installed by ‘make
          install’.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(2) and bpo-35081(3),
     work initiated by Eric Snow in Python 3.7.)

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions:
     parameter types and return type are well defined, they don't have
     issues specific to macros, variables have a local scopes.
     Examples:

        * *note Py_INCREF(): 55c, *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.

        * *note Py_XINCREF(): a55, *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b.

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’

        * Private functions: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’,
          ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’, ‘_Py_Dealloc()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35059(4).)

   * The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’ functions have
     been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python
     3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were
     not documented.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713(5).)

   * The result of ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ is now of type ‘const char
     *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-33818(6).)

   * The duality of ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ and ‘Modules/Setup’ has been
     removed.  Previously, when updating the CPython source tree, one
     had to manually copy ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ (inside the source tree)
     to ‘Modules/Setup’ (inside the build tree) in order to reflect any
     changes upstream.  This was of a small benefit to packagers at the
     expense of a frequent annoyance to developers following CPython
     development, as forgetting to copy the file could produce build
     failures.

     Now the build system always reads from ‘Modules/Setup’ inside the
     source tree.  People who want to customize that file are encouraged
     to maintain their changes in a git fork of CPython or as patch
     files, as they would do for any other change to the source tree.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32430(7).)

   * Functions that convert Python number to C integer like *note
     PyLong_AsLong(): 356. and argument parsing functions like *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. with integer converting format units like
     ‘'i'’ will now use the *note __index__(): 709. special method
     instead of *note __int__(): 708, if available.  The deprecation
     warning will be emitted for objects with the ‘__int__()’ method but
     without the ‘__index__()’ method (like *note Decimal: 29a. and
     *note Fraction: 1e4.).  *note PyNumber_Check(): a56. will now
     return ‘1’ for objects implementing ‘__index__()’.  *note
     PyNumber_Long(): a57, *note PyNumber_Float(): a58. and *note
     PyFloat_AsDouble(): a59. also now use the ‘__index__()’ method if
     available.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048(8) and
     bpo-20092(9).)

   * Heap-allocated type objects will now increase their reference count
     in *note PyObject_Init(): a5a. (and its parallel macro
     ‘PyObject_INIT’) instead of in *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a5b.
     Types that modify instance allocation or deallocation may need to
     be adjusted.  (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(10).)

   * The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ allows to create
     code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an extra
     'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positional-only arguments.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-37221(11).)

   * ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 3af. to the program
     full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.) rather than to the
     program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38234(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<8>,  Next: API and Feature Removals,  Prev: Build and C API Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.8 Obsolescence
------------------

   * The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is now deprecated, use
     ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-37481(1).)

   * Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 124. module now emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29209(2).)

   * Passing an object that is not an instance of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. to *note
     loop.set_default_executor(): 72f. is deprecated and will be
     prohibited in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
     bpo-34075(3).)

   * The *note __getitem__(): 280. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 721, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 722. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723.
     have been deprecated.

     Implementations of these methods have been ignoring their 'index'
     parameter, and returning the next item instead.  (Contributed by
     Berker Peksag in bpo-9372(4).)

   * The *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad. class has deprecated the
     ‘_field_types’ attribute in favor of the ‘__annotations__’
     attribute which has the same information.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-36320(5).)

   * *note ast: 8. classes ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’ are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.  *note Constant: 2b6. should be used instead.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(6).)

   * *note ast.NodeVisitor: a5d. methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’,
     ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are
     deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions.
     Add the *note visit_Constant(): a5e. method to handle all constant
     nodes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36917(7).)

   * The ‘asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 71d. is deprecated and
     will be removed in version 3.10.  Instead of ‘@asyncio.coroutine’,
     use *note async def: 5bd. instead.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov
     in bpo-36921(8).)

   * In *note asyncio: a, the explicit passing of a 'loop' argument has
     been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10 for the
     following: *note asyncio.sleep(): a5f, *note asyncio.gather(): 5ea,
     *note asyncio.shield(): a60, *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec, *note
     asyncio.wait(): 46b, *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1a8, *note
     asyncio.Task: 4c5, *note asyncio.Lock: a61, *note asyncio.Event:
     a62, *note asyncio.Condition: a63, *note asyncio.Semaphore: a64,
     *note asyncio.BoundedSemaphore: a65, *note asyncio.Queue: a66,
     *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a67, and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a68.

   * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait():
     46b. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-34790(9).)

   * The following functions and methods are deprecated in the *note
     gettext: 62. module: ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and
     ‘ldngettext()’.  They return encoded bytes, and it's possible that
     you will get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions if there are
     encoding problems with the translated strings.  It's much better to
     use alternatives which return Unicode strings in Python 3.  These
     functions have been broken for a long time.

     Function ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’, methods ‘output_charset()’
     and ‘set_output_charset()’, and the 'codeset' parameter of
     functions *note translation(): a69. and *note install(): a6a. are
     also deprecated, since they are only used for the ‘l*gettext()’
     functions.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33710(10).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 93b. has been
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283(11).)

   * Many builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments
     will now emit a deprecation warning for *note Decimal: 29a.s, *note
     Fraction: 1e4.s and any other objects that can be converted to
     integers only with a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__():
     708. method but do not have the *note __index__(): 709. method).
     In future version they will be errors.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-36048(12).)

   * Deprecated passing the following arguments as keyword arguments:

        - 'func' in *note functools.partialmethod(): a6b, *note
          weakref.finalize(): a6c, *note profile.Profile.runcall(): a6d,
          ‘cProfile.Profile.runcall()’, *note bdb.Bdb.runcall(): a6e,
          *note trace.Trace.runfunc(): a6f. and *note curses.wrapper():
          a70.

        - 'function' in *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a71.

        - 'fn' in the *note submit(): a72. method of *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. and *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.

        - 'callback' in *note contextlib.ExitStack.callback(): a73,
          ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback()’ and *note
          contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback(): a74.

        - 'c' and 'typeid' in the ‘create()’ method of
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.Server’ and
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer’.

        - 'obj' in *note weakref.finalize(): a6c.

     In future releases of Python, they will be *note positional-only:
     a75.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36492(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals,  Next: Porting to Python 3 8,  Prev: Obsolescence<8>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.9 API and Feature Removals
------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.8:

   * Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note collections:
     1d. was deprecated, and importing should be done from *note
     collections.abc: 1e.  Being able to import from collections was
     marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9.  (See
     gh-81134(1).)

   * The ‘macpath’ module, deprecated in Python 3.7, has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35471(2).)

   * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): a77. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(3).)

   * The function ‘time.clock()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note time.perf_counter(): a78. or
     *note time.process_time(): a79. instead, depending on your
     requirements, to have well-defined behavior.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-36895(4).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ script has been removed in favor of ‘python3.8 -m
     venv’ to help eliminate confusion as to what Python interpreter the
     ‘pyvenv’ script is tied to.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-25427(5).)

   * ‘parse_qs’, ‘parse_qsl’, and ‘escape’ are removed from the ‘cgi’
     module.  They are deprecated in Python 3.2 or older.  They should
     be imported from the ‘urllib.parse’ and ‘html’ modules instead.

   * ‘filemode’ function is removed from the *note tarfile: dd. module.
     It is not documented and deprecated since Python 3.3.

   * The *note XMLParser: a44. constructor no longer accepts the 'html'
     argument.  It never had an effect and was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     All other parameters are now *note keyword-only: 2a2.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(6).)

   * Removed the ‘doctype()’ method of *note XMLParser: a44.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(7).)

   * "unicode_internal" codec is removed.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-36297(8).)

   * The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note sqlite3: ce.
     module are not exposed to the user.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda
     in bpo-30262(9).)

   * The ‘bufsize’ keyword argument of *note fileinput.input(): 7eb. and
     *note fileinput.FileInput(): 723. which was ignored and deprecated
     since Python 3.6 has been removed.  bpo-36952(10) (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier.)

   * The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’ deprecated in Python 3.7 have been
     removed; bpo-36933(11) (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 8,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1,  Prev: API and Feature Removals,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.10 Porting to Python 3.8
----------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<4>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<5>.
* Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior,  Next: Changements dans l'API Python<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.6.10.1 Changes in Python behavior
...................................

   * Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
     disallowed in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from
     the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

   * The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning: 451. when identity
     checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain types of literals
     (e.g.  strings, numbers).  These can often work by accident in
     CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.  The warning
     advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’) instead.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34850(2).)

   * The CPython interpreter can swallow exceptions in some
     circumstances.  In Python 3.8 this happens in fewer cases.  In
     particular, exceptions raised when getting the attribute from the
     type dictionary are no longer ignored.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-35459(3).)

   * Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types *note bool:
     453, *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note complex: 2ed. and few
     classes from the standard library.  They now inherit ‘__str__()’
     from *note object: a7c.  As result, defining the ‘__repr__()’
     method in the subclass of these classes will affect their string
     representation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36793(4).)

   * On AIX, *note sys.platform: a7d. doesn't contain the major version
     anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’ ..  ‘'aix7'’.
     Since older Python versions include the version number, so it is
     recommended to always use ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.
     (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588(5).)

   * ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’ now terminate
     the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing,
     making them consistent with *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0,
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a7e, and *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     3a2.  If this behavior is not desired, guard the call by checking
     ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a7f.
     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-36475(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<5>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<4>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.6.10.2 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * The *note os.getcwdb(): a81. function now uses the UTF-8 encoding
     on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(1) for the
     rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37412(2).)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 197. can now use *note os.posix_spawn():
     21d. in some cases for better performance.  On Windows Subsystem
     for Linux and QEMU User Emulation, the ‘Popen’ constructor using
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d. no longer raises an exception on
     errors like "missing program".  Instead the child process fails
     with a non-zero ‘returncode’.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35537(3).)

   * The 'preexec_fn' argument of * *note subprocess.Popen: 197. is no
     longer compatible with subinterpreters.  The use of the parameter
     in a subinterpreter now raises *note RuntimeError: 193.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-34651(4), modified by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-37951(5).)

   * The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer silently ignores
     arbitrary exceptions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-36348(6).)

   * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): a77. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(7).)

   * The *note statistics.mode(): a82. function no longer raises an
     exception when given multimodal data.  Instead, it returns the
     first mode encountered in the input data.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-35892(8).)

   * The *note selection(): a83. method of the *note
     tkinter.ttk.Treeview: a84. class no longer takes arguments.  Using
     it with arguments for changing the selection was deprecated in
     Python 3.6.  Use specialized methods like *note selection_set():
     a85. for changing the selection.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-31508(9).)

   * The ‘writexml()’, ‘toxml()’ and ‘toprettyxml()’ methods of *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 121, and the ‘write()’ method of ‘xml.etree’, now
     preserve the attribute order specified by the user.  (Contributed
     by Diego Rojas and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-34160(10).)

   * A *note dbm.dumb: 32. database opened with flags ‘'r'’ is now
     read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): a86. with flags ‘'r'’ and ‘'w'’
     no longer creates a database if it does not exist.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32749(11).)

   * The ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass of *note XMLParser:
     a44. will no longer be called and will emit a *note RuntimeWarning:
     1bb. instead of a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Define the *note
     doctype(): a87. method on a target for handling an XML doctype
     declaration.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(12).)

   * A *note RuntimeError: 193. is now raised when the custom metaclass
     doesn't provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the namespace passed
     to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. was emitted in
     Python 3.6-3.7.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23722(13).)

   * The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a context manager.
     (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(14).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): a49, *note shutil.copy(): a4a, *note
     shutil.copy2(): a4b, *note shutil.copytree(): a19. and *note
     shutil.move(): a4c. use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls (see
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a4e. section).

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): a49. default buffer size on Windows was
     changed from 16 KiB to 1 MiB.

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ struct has changed completely.  All code that
     touched the struct member should be rewritten.  (See
     bpo-33597(15).)

   * The *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. struct has been moved into the
     "internal" header files (specifically
     Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h).  An opaque ‘PyInterpreterState’
     is still available as part of the public API (and stable ABI). The
     docs indicate that none of the struct's fields are public, so we
     hope no one has been using them.  However, if you do rely on one or
     more of those private fields and have no alternative then please
     open a BPO issue.  We'll work on helping you adjust (possibly
     including adding accessor functions to the public API). (See
     bpo-35886(16).)

   * The *note mmap.flush(): a88. method now returns ‘None’ on success
     and raises an exception on error under all platforms.  Previously,
     its behavior was platform-dependent: a nonzero value was returned
     on success; zero was returned on error under Windows.  A zero value
     was returned on success; an exception was raised on error under
     Unix.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2122(17).)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 128. modules no
     longer process external entities by default.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-17239(18).)

   * Deleting a key from a read-only *note dbm: 31. database (*note
     dbm.dumb: 32, *note dbm.gnu: 33. or *note dbm.ndbm: 34.) raises
     ‘error’ (*note dbm.dumb.error: a89, *note dbm.gnu.error: a8a. or
     *note dbm.ndbm.error: a8b.) instead of *note KeyError: 33a.
     (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-33106(19).)

   * Simplified AST for literals.  All constants will be represented as
     *note ast.Constant: 2b6. instances.  Instantiating old classes
     ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’ will return an
     instance of ‘Constant’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-32892(20).)

   * *note expanduser(): a04. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’
     environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally
     set for regular user accounts.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
     bpo-36264(21).)

   * The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. now inherits from
     *note BaseException: 5a7. rather than *note Exception: 9c9. and no
     longer inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 9ca.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(22).)

   * The function *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. now correctly waits for
     cancellation when using an instance of *note asyncio.Task: 4c5.
     Previously, upon reaching 'timeout', it was cancelled and
     immediately returned.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
     bpo-32751(23).)

   * The function *note asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): a8c. now
     returns a safe to use socket object when 'socket' is passed to the
     'name' parameter.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-37027(24).)

   * *note asyncio.BufferedProtocol: a8d. has graduated to the stable
     API.

   * DLL dependencies for extension modules and DLLs loaded with *note
     ctypes: 2a. on Windows are now resolved more securely.  Only the
     system paths, the directory containing the DLL or PYD file, and
     directories added with *note add_dll_directory(): 9da. are searched
     for load-time dependencies.  Specifically, ‘PATH’ and the current
     working directory are no longer used, and modifications to these
     will no longer have any effect on normal DLL resolution.  If your
     application relies on these mechanisms, you should check for *note
     add_dll_directory(): 9da. and if it exists, use it to add your DLLs
     directory while loading your library.  Note that Windows 7 users
     will need to ensure that Windows Update KB2533623 has been
     installed (this is also verified by the installer).  (Contributed
     by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(25).)

   * The header files and functions related to pgen have been removed
     after its replacement by a pure Python implementation.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36623(26).)

   * *note types.CodeType: 2de. has a new parameter in the second
     position of the constructor ('posonlyargcount') to support
     positional-only arguments defined in PEP 570(27).  The first
     argument ('argcount') now represents the total number of positional
     arguments (including positional-only arguments).  The new
     ‘replace()’ method of *note types.CodeType: 2de. can be used to
     make the code future-proof.

   * The parameter ‘digestmod’ for *note hmac.new(): a8f. no longer uses
     the MD5 digest by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<4>,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<5>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.6.10.3 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * The *note PyCompilerFlags: a91. structure got a new
     'cf_feature_version' field.  It should be initialized to
     ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.  The field is ignored by default, and is used
     if and only if ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in 'cf_flags'.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(1).)

   * The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been removed from the C
     API. It should not be called explicitly: use *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-36728(2).)

   * On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on
     Android and Cygwin.  When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not
     be loaded with ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.
     Previously, using ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load
     C extensions which were not linked to ‘libpython’, like C
     extensions of the standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section
     of ‘Modules/Setup’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21536(3).)

   * Use of ‘#’ variants of formats in parsing or building value (e.g.
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f, *note Py_BuildValue(): 896, *note
     PyObject_CallFunction(): 395, etc.)  without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’
     defined raises ‘DeprecationWarning’ now.  It will be removed in
     3.10 or 4.0.  Read *note Analyse des arguments et construction des
     valeurs: 897. for detail.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-36381(4).)

   * Instances of heap-allocated types (such as those created with *note
     PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.) hold a reference to their type object.
     Increasing the reference count of these type objects has been moved
     from *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a5b. to the more low-level
     functions, *note PyObject_Init(): a5a. and ‘PyObject_INIT()’.  This
     makes types created through *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b. behave
     like other classes in managed code.

     *note Statically allocated types: 76b. are not affected.

     For the vast majority of cases, there should be no side effect.
     However, types that manually increase the reference count after
     allocating an instance (perhaps to work around the bug) may now
     become immortal.  To avoid this, these classes need to call
     Py_DECREF on the type object during instance deallocation.

     To correctly port these types into 3.8, please apply the following
     changes:

        * Remove *note Py_INCREF: 55c. on the type object after
          allocating an instance - if any.  This may happen after
          calling *note PyObject_New: 974, *note PyObject_NewVar: 975,
          *note PyObject_GC_New(): a92, *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): a93,
          or any other custom allocator that uses *note PyObject_Init():
          a5a. or ‘PyObject_INIT()’.

          Exemple :

               static foo_struct *
               foo_new(PyObject *type) {
                   foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type);
                   if (foo == NULL)
                       return NULL;
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
                   // Workaround for Python issue 35810; no longer necessary in Python 3.8
                   PY_INCREF(type)
               #endif
                   return foo;
               }

        * Ensure that all custom ‘tp_dealloc’ functions of
          heap-allocated types decrease the type's reference count.

          Exemple :

               static void
               foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) {
                   PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance);
                   PyObject_GC_Del(instance);
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.8 (Python issue 35810)
                   Py_DECREF(type);
               #endif
               }

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(5).)

   * The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): a94. macro has been implemented for
     MSVC.  The macro now must be placed before the symbol name.

     Exemple :

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-33407(6).)

   * The interpreter does not pretend to support binary compatibility of
     extension types across feature releases, anymore.  A *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. exported by a third-party extension module is
     supposed to have all the slots expected in the current Python
     version, including *note tp_finalize: a96. (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3e8. is not checked anymore before
     reading *note tp_finalize: a96.).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32388(7).)

   * The functions ‘PyNode_AddChild()’ and ‘PyParser_AddToken()’ now
     accept two additional ‘int’ arguments 'end_lineno' and
     'end_col_offset'.

   * The ‘libpython38.a’ file to allow MinGW tools to link directly
     against ‘python38.dll’ is no longer included in the regular Windows
     distribution.  If you require this file, it may be generated with
     the ‘gendef’ and ‘dlltool’ tools, which are part of the MinGW
     binutils package:

          gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def
          dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a

     The location of an installed ‘pythonXY.dll’ will depend on the
     installation options and the version and language of Windows.  See
     *note Utilisation de Python sur Windows: a97. for more information.
     The resulting library should be placed in the same directory as
     ‘pythonXY.lib’, which is generally the ‘libs’ directory under your
     Python installation.

     (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37351(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<5>,  Next: Demos and Tools<2>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API C<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.6.10.4 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
..................................................

   * The interpreter loop has been simplified by moving the logic of
     unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning-up code for *note break: a99, *note
     continue: 9b9. and *note return: 9be.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’,
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon, Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-17611(1).)

   * Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: a9a. for handling exceptions
     raised when awaiting a next item in an *note async for: a9b. loop.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33041(2).)

   * The *note MAP_ADD: a9c. now expects the value as the first element
     in the stack and the key as the second element.  This change was
     made so the key is always evaluated before the value in dictionary
     comprehensions, as proposed by PEP 572(3).  (Contributed by Jörn
     Heissler in bpo-35224(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools<2>,  Prev: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.6.10.5 Demos and Tools
........................

Added a benchmark script for timing various ways to access variables:
‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-35884(1).)

Here's a summary of performance improvements since Python 3.3:

     Python version                       3.3     3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---     ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       4.0     7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9
         read_nonlocal                    5.3     7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4
         read_global                     13.3    15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6
         read_builtin                    20.0    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5
         read_classvar_from_class        20.5    25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4
         read_classvar_from_instance     18.5    22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4
         read_instancevar                26.8    32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4
         read_instancevar_slots          23.7    27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2
         read_namedtuple                 68.5    73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4
         read_boundmethod                29.8    37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      4.6     8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3
         write_nonlocal                   7.3    10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7
         write_global                    15.9    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8
         write_classvar                  81.9    92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2
         write_instancevar               36.4    44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5
         write_instancevar_slots         28.7    35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       19.2    24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0
         read_deque                      19.9    24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8
         read_dict                       19.7    24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0
         read_strdict                    17.9    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      21.2    27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0
         write_deque                     23.8    28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5
         write_dict                      25.9    31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7
         write_strdict                   22.9    28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                144.2    93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8
         deque_append_pop                30.4    43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5
         deque_append_popleft            30.8    43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.3     0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3

The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(2)
running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org(3).  The benchmark
script displays timings in nanoseconds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (3) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 8,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.11 Notable changes in Python 3.8.1
--------------------------------------

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre
'reuse_address' de *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.
n'est plus supporté.  C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine
Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.12 Notable changes in Python 3.8.2
--------------------------------------

Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of *note
shutil.copytree(): a19.  The argument types are now str and List[str]
again.  (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in
gh-83571(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.13 Notable changes in Python 3.8.3
--------------------------------------

The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module
are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags.
Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.14 Notable changes in Python 3.8.8
--------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 277. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.15 Notable changes in Python 3.8.9
--------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.16 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de macOS 11 0 Big Sur et de Mac sur processeur Apple<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10

1.6.16.1 Prise en charge de 'macOS' 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple
.................................................................................

As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big
Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture).  A
new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively
support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables.  Note
that support for "weaklinking", building binaries targeted for newer
versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by
testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this
backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue
to target for and build on the oldest version in the range.

(Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D'Anna in
gh-85272(1), with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to
3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.17 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<4>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>

1.6.17.1 'urllib.parse'
.......................

La présence de caractères de saut de ligne ou de tabulation dans une URL
permet certaines formes d'attaques.  En conformité avec la spécification
du 'WHATWG' qui met à jour la RFC 3986(1), les caractères 'ASCII' de
saut de ligne ‘\n’, ‘\r’ et de tabulation ‘\t’ sont retirés des URL par
l'analyseur dans *note urllib.parse: 109. pour contrer ces attaques.  Le
jeu de caractères à retirer est contrôlé par une nouvelle variable de
module ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’ (voir bpo-43882(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.18 Notable changes in Python 3.8.12
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<6>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12

1.6.18.1 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

Starting with Python 3.8.12 the *note ipaddress: 7f. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are
ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For
example the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 950. treats
leading zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
inet_pton(): 951. does not accept any leading zeros.

(Originally contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(1), and
backported to 3.8 by Achraf Merzouki.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.19 Notable security feature in 3.8.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 254. and *note str: 437. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 8

1.6.20 Notable changes in 3.8.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<5>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 8 17

1.6.20.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 458. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: What's New In Python 3 7,  Next: What's New In Python 3 6,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 8,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.7 What's New In Python 3.7
============================


Rédacteur: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6.
Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13b.

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>. Release Highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<7>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<7>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<7>.
* Changements à l'API C: Changements à l'API C<6>.
* Changements à la compilation: Changements à la compilation<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.1 Summary - Release Highlights
----------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * *note PEP 563: aaf, postponed evaluation of type annotations.

Backwards incompatible syntax changes:

   * *note async: 71e. and *note await: 1b7. are now reserved keywords.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

   * *note contextvars: 24.: *note PEP 567 - Context Variables: ab0.

   * *note dataclasses: 2f.: *note PEP 557 - Data Classes: ab1.

   * *note importlib.resources: ab2.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

   * *note PEP 553: ab3, the new *note breakpoint(): 231. function.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 562: ab4, customization of access to module attributes.

   * *note PEP 560: ab5, core support for typing module and generic
     types.

   * the insertion-order preservation nature of *note dict: ab6. objects
     has been declared(1) to be an official part of the Python language
     spec.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: a. module has received new features, significant
     *note usability and performance improvements: ab7.

   * The *note time: ed. module gained support for *note functions with
     nanosecond resolution: ab8.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:

        * *note PEP 538: ab9, legacy C locale coercion

        * *note PEP 540: aba, forced UTF-8 runtime mode

   * *note PEP 552: abb, deterministic .pycs

   * *note New Python Development Mode: abc.

   * *note PEP 565: abd, improved *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     handling

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 539: abe, new C API for thread-local storage

Documentation improvements:

   * *note PEP 545: abf, Python documentation translations

   * New documentation translations: Japanese(2), French(3), and
     Korean(4).

This release features notable performance improvements in many areas.
The *note Optimizations: ac0. section lists them in detail.

For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python
releases please refer to the *note Porting to Python 3.7: ac1. section.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ja/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/fr/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<7>,  Prev: Summary -- Release Highlights<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Next: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.1 PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
....................................................

The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability
issues with the functionality of annotations added in PEP 3107(1) and
refined further in PEP 526(2):

   * annotations could only use names which were already available in
     the current scope, in other words they didn't support forward
     references of any kind; and

   * annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of
     Python programs.

Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of
annotations.  Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in
annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation
in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question.
If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using *note
typing.get_type_hints(): 69e.  In the common case where this is not
required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings are
interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.

Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the
following syntax valid:

     class C:
         @classmethod
         def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
             ...

         def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
             ...

     class B:
         ...

Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be
enabled on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a *note __future__: 0.
import:

     from __future__ import annotations

It will become the default in Python 3.10.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 563(3) - Postponed evaluation of annotations

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Next: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Prev: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.2 PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion
.........................................

An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a
sensible default strategy for handling the "7-bit ASCII" text encoding
assumption currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale
on non-Windows platforms.

PEP 538(1) updates the default interpreter command line interface to
automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as
described in the documentation of the new *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:
ac5. environment variable.  Automatically setting ‘LC_CTYPE’ this way
means that both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such
as *note readline: b9.) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text
encoding, rather than ASCII.

The platform support definition in PEP 11(2) has also been updated to
limit full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based
locales.

As part of this change, the default error handler for *note stdin: 52a.
and *note stdout: ac6. is now ‘surrogateescape’ (rather than ‘strict’)
when using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently
‘C.UTF-8’, ‘C.utf8’, and ‘UTF-8’).  The default error handler for *note
stderr: 928. continues to be ‘backslashreplace’, regardless of locale.

Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging
potentially locale related integration problems, explicit warnings
(emitted directly on *note stderr: 928.) can be requested by setting
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’.  This setting will also cause the Python
runtime to emit a warning if the legacy C locale remains active when the
core interpreter is initialized.

While PEP 538(3)'s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting
extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), as well as child processes
(including those running non-Python applications and older versions of
Python), it has the downside of requiring that a suitable target locale
be present on the running system.  To better handle the case where no
suitable target locale is available (as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for
example), Python 3.7 also implements *note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime
Mode: aba.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 538(4) - Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Next: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Prev: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.3 PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode
..........................................

The new *note -X: 175. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8:
ac8. environment variable can be used to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 643.

When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the
UTF-8 encoding by default.  The error handlers for *note sys.stdin: 52a.
and *note sys.stdout: ac6. streams are set to ‘surrogateescape’.

The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior
in an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings
of an embedding application.

While PEP 540(1)'s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of
which locales are available on the running system, it has the downside
of having no effect on extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), child
processes running non-Python applications, and child processes running
older versions of Python.  To reduce the risk of corrupting text data
when communicating with such components, Python 3.7 also implements
*note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: aba.).

The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’,
and the PEP 538(2) locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8
based alternative (whether that failure is due to
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0’ being set, ‘LC_ALL’ being set, or the lack of a
suitable target locale).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 540(3) - Add a new UTF-8 mode

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Next: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Prev: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.4 PEP 553: Built-in ‘breakpoint()’
........................................

Python 3.7 includes the new built-in *note breakpoint(): 231. function
as an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.

Built-in ‘breakpoint()’ calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): aca.  By
default, the latter imports *note pdb: a4. and then calls
‘pdb.set_trace()’, but by binding ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to the function
of your choosing, ‘breakpoint()’ can enter any debugger.  Additionally,
the environment variable *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: acb. can be set to the
callable of your debugger of choice.  Set ‘PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0’ to
completely disable built-in ‘breakpoint()’.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 553(1) - Built-in breakpoint()

     PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Next: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Prev: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.5 PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage
...................................................

While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the
existing *note Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: acd. has used int to
represent TLS keys across all platforms.  This has not generally been a
problem for officially support platforms, but that is neither
POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.

PEP 539(1) changes this by providing a new *note Thread Specific Storage
(TSS) API: ace. to CPython which supersedes use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. The
TSS API uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: acf. instead of int to represent
TSS keys-an opaque type the definition of which may depend on the
underlying TLS implementation.  Therefore, this will allow to build
CPython on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int.

Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int, all functions of the existing TLS API will
be no-op and immediately return failure.  This indicates clearly that
the old API is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used
reliably, and that no effort will be made to add such support.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 539(2) - A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython

     PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Next: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Prev: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.6 PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes
.............................................................

Python 3.7 allows defining ‘__getattr__()’ on modules and will call it
whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found.  Defining
‘__dir__()’ on modules is now also allowed.

A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute
deprecation and lazy loading.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 562(1) - Module ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’

     PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Next: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Prev: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.7 PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution
..............................................................

The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited
precision of a floating-point number returned by the *note time.time():
251. function and its variants.  To avoid loss of precision, PEP 564(1)
adds six new "nanosecond" variants of the existing timer functions to
the *note time: ed. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ad2.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): ad3.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): ad4.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): ad5.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): ad6.

   * *note time.time_ns(): ad7.

The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.

Measurements(2) show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of *note
time.time_ns(): ad7. is approximately 3 times better than that of *note
time.time(): 251.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 564(3) - Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Next: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Prev: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.8 PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’
......................................................

The default handling of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. has been changed
such that these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when
the code triggering them is running directly in the *note __main__: 1.
module.  As a result, developers of single file scripts and those using
Python interactively should once again start seeing deprecation warnings
for the APIs they use, but deprecation warnings triggered by imported
application, library and framework modules will continue to be hidden by
default.

As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers
to choose between three different deprecation warning behaviours:

   * *note FutureWarning: 40b.: always displayed by default, recommended
     for warnings intended to be seen by application end users (e.g.
     for deprecated application configuration settings).

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.: displayed by default only in *note
     __main__: 1. and when running tests, recommended for warnings
     intended to be seen by other Python developers where a version
     upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an error.

   * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.: displayed by default only
     when running tests, intended for cases where a future version
     upgrade will change the warning category to *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. or *note FutureWarning: 40b.

Previously both *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7. were only visible when running tests,
which meant that developers primarily writing single file scripts or
using Python interactively could be surprised by breaking changes in the
APIs they used.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 565(1) - Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Next: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Prev: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.9 PEP 560: Core Support for ‘typing’ module and Generic Types
...................................................................

Initially PEP 484(1) was designed in such way that it would not
introduce 'any' changes to the core CPython interpreter.  Now type hints
and the *note typing: 103. module are extensively used by the community,
so this restriction is removed.  The PEP introduces two special methods
‘__class_getitem__()’ and ‘__mro_entries__’, these methods are now used
by most classes and special constructs in *note typing: 103.  As a
result, the speed of various operations with types increased up to 7
times, the generic types can be used without metaclass conflicts, and
several long standing bugs in *note typing: 103. module are fixed.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 560(2) - Core support for typing module and generic types

     PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Next: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Prev: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.10 PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files
.......................................

Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache
files (i.e., ‘.pyc’ files) by comparing the source metadata
(last-modified timestamp and size) with source metadata saved in the
cache file header when it was generated.  While effective, this
invalidation method has its drawbacks.  When filesystem timestamps are
too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to user confusion.
Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is problematic for
build reproducibility(1) and content-based build systems.

PEP 552(2) extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file
to be used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp.  Such
‘.pyc’ files are called "hash-based".  By default, Python still uses
timestamp-based invalidation and does not generate hash-based ‘.pyc’
files at runtime.  Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files may be generated with *note
py_compile: b2. or *note compileall: 20.

Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files come in two variants: checked and unchecked.
Python validates checked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files against the
corresponding source files at runtime but doesn't do so for unchecked
hash-based pycs.  Unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are a useful
performance optimization for environments where a system external to
Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for keeping ‘.pyc’ files
up-to-date.

See *note Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache: 5d8. for more
information.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 552(3) - Deterministic pycs

     PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Next: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.11 PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations
...................................................

PEP 545(1) describes the process of creating and maintaining Python
documentation translations.

Three new translations have been added:

   - Japanese: ‘https://docs.python.org/ja/’

   - French: ‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’

   - Korean: ‘https://docs.python.org/ko/’

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 545(2) - Python Documentation Translations

     PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and
     Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>

1.7.2.12 Python Development Mode (-X dev)
.........................................

The new *note -X: 175. ‘dev’ command line option or the new *note
PYTHONDEVMODE: add. environment variable can be used to enable *note
Python Development Mode: 1f5.  When in development mode, Python performs
additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by
default.  See *note Python Development Mode: 1f5. documentation for the
full description.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<7>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<7>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<12>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.3 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

   * An *note await: 1b7. expression and comprehensions containing an
     *note async for: a9b. clause were illegal in the expressions in
     *note formatted string literals: 999. due to a problem with the
     implementation.  In Python 3.7 this restriction was lifted.

   * More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a
     function can now have more than 255 parameters.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12844(1) and bpo-18896(2).)

   * *note bytes.fromhex(): adf. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): ae0. now
     ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  (Contributed by
     Robert Xiao in bpo-28927(3).)

   * *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd, and *note bytearray: 52b. gained
     support for the new *note isascii(): ae1. method, which can be used
     to test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters.
     (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677(4).)

   * *note ImportError: 40f. now displays module name and module
     ‘__file__’ path when ‘from ... import ...’ fails.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546(5).)

   * Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a
     submodule to a name are now supported.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-30024(6).)

   * ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to ‘str(x)’ rather
     than ‘format(str(self), '')’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28974(7).)

   * In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, *note
     types.TracebackType: ae2. can now be instantiated from Python code,
     and the *note tb_next: ae3. attribute on *note tracebacks: ae4. is
     now writable.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579(8).)

   * When using the *note -m: 5cd. switch, ‘sys.path[0]’ is now eagerly
     expanded to the full starting directory path, rather than being
     left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the
     'current' working directory at the time when an import occurs)
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053(9).)

   * The new *note -X: 175. ‘importtime’ option or the *note
     PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ae5. environment variable can be used to
     show the timing of each module import.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-31415(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<7>,  Next: Modules améliorés<7>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<7>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.4 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars,  Next: dataclasses<3>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<7>

1.7.4.1 contextvars
...................

The new *note contextvars: 24. module and a set of *note new C APIs:
ae8. introduce support for 'context variables'.  Context variables are
conceptually similar to thread-local variables.  Unlike TLS, context
variables support asynchronous code correctly.

The *note asyncio: a. and *note decimal: 36. modules have been updated
to use and support context variables out of the box.  Particularly the
active decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows
decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous
code.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 567(1) - Context Variables

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<3>,  Next: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: contextvars,  Up: Nouveaux modules<7>

1.7.4.2 ‘dataclasses’
.....................

The new *note dataclass(): 1c6. decorator provides a way to declare
'data classes'.  A data class describes its attributes using class
variable annotations.  Its constructor and other magic methods, such as
*note __repr__(): 609, *note __eq__(): aea, and *note __hash__(): aeb.
are generated automatically.

Exemple :

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         z: float = 0.0

     p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
     print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 557(1) - Data Classes

     PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<3>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<7>

1.7.4.3 importlib.resources
...........................

The new *note importlib.resources: 7a. module provides several new APIs
and one new ABC for access to, opening, and reading 'resources' inside
packages.  Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but
they needn't be actual files on the physical file system.  Module
loaders can provide a ‘get_resource_reader()’ function which returns a
*note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: aed. instance to support this new
API. Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.

Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).

Voir aussi
..........

importlib_resources(2) - a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<7>,  Next: Changements à l'API C<6>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<7>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.5 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* decimal::
* dis: dis<3>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<6>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<2>.
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue: queue<2>.
* re: re<4>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* time: time<5>.
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<3>,  Next: asyncio<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.1 argparse
................

The new *note ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): af0. method allows
intermixing options and positional arguments.  (Contributed by paul.j3
in bpo-14191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<7>,  Next: binascii,  Prev: argparse<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.2 asyncio
...............

The *note asyncio: a. module has received many new features, usability
and *note performance improvements: af2.  Notable changes include:

   * The new *note provisional: af3. *note asyncio.run(): 468. function
     can be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by
     automatically creating and destroying the event loop.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

   * asyncio gained support for *note contextvars: 24.  *note
     loop.call_soon(): af4, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): af5,
     *note loop.call_later(): af6, *note loop.call_at(): af7, and *note
     Future.add_done_callback(): af8. have a new optional keyword-only
     'context' parameter.  *note Tasks: 4c5. now track their context
     automatically.  See PEP 567(2) for more details.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436(3).)

   * The new *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. function has been added
     as a shortcut to ‘asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()’.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311(4).)

   * The new *note loop.start_tls(): af9. method can be used to upgrade
     an existing connection to TLS. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-23749(5).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_recv_into(): afa. method allows reading
     data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making it
     possible to reduce data copies.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-31819(6).)

   * The new *note asyncio.current_task(): 469. function returns the
     currently running *note Task: 4c5. instance, and the new *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 945. function returns a set of all existing
     ‘Task’ instances in a given loop.  The ‘Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘Task.all_tasks()’ methods have been deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(7).)

   * The new 'provisional' *note BufferedProtocol: a8d. class allows
     implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the
     receive buffer.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251(8).)

   * The new *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): afb. function returns the
     currently running loop, and raises a *note RuntimeError: 193. if no
     loop is running.  This is in contrast with *note
     asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2bf, which will 'create' a new event loop
     if none is running.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32269(9).)

   * The new *note StreamWriter.wait_closed(): afc. coroutine method
     allows waiting until the stream writer is closed.  The new *note
     StreamWriter.is_closing(): afd. method can be used to determine if
     the writer is closing.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32391(10).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_sendfile(): afe. coroutine method allows
     sending files using *note os.sendfile: aff. when possible.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410(11).)

   * The new *note Future.get_loop(): b00. and ‘Task.get_loop()’ methods
     return the instance of the loop on which a task or a future were
     created.  *note Server.get_loop(): b01. allows doing the same for
     *note asyncio.Server: b02. objects.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     in bpo-32415(12) and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418(13).)

   * It is now possible to control how instances of *note
     asyncio.Server: b02. begin serving.  Previously, the server would
     start serving immediately when created.  The new 'start_serving'
     keyword argument to *note loop.create_server(): b03. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac, as well as *note
     Server.start_serving(): b04, and *note Server.serve_forever(): b05.
     can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving.  The new
     *note Server.is_serving(): b06. method returns ‘True’ if the server
     is serving.  *note Server: b02. objects are now asynchronous
     context managers:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(14).)

   * Callback objects returned by *note loop.call_later(): af6. gained
     the new *note when(): b07. method which returns an absolute
     scheduled callback timestamp.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32741(15).)

   * The *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f. method gained
     support for Unix sockets.  (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in
     bpo-31245(16).)

   * The *note asyncio.open_connection(): b08, *note
     asyncio.start_server(): b09. functions, *note
     loop.create_connection(): 5f0, *note loop.create_server(): b03,
     *note loop.create_accepted_socket(): b0a. methods and their
     corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Neil
     Aspinall in bpo-29970(17).)

   * The new *note Handle.cancelled(): b0b. method returns ‘True’ if the
     callback was cancelled.  (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in
     bpo-31943(18).)

   * The asyncio source has been converted to use the *note async:
     71e./*note await: 1b7. syntax.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32193(19).)

   * The new *note ReadTransport.is_reading(): b0c. method can be used
     to determine the reading state of the transport.  Additionally,
     calls to *note ReadTransport.resume_reading(): b0d. and *note
     ReadTransport.pause_reading(): b0e. are now idempotent.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356(20).)

   * Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing *note
     path-like objects: 29d.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32066(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: a. TCP sockets on Linux are now created with
     ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag set by default.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456(22).)

   * Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508(23).)

   * New ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’ and
     ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’ classes.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-33792(24).)

Several ‘asyncio’ APIs have been *note deprecated: b0f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792


File: python.info,  Node: binascii,  Next: calendar<2>,  Prev: asyncio<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.3 binascii
................

The *note b2a_uu(): b11. function now accepts an optional 'backtick'
keyword argument.  When it's true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’
instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<2>,  Next: collections<2>,  Prev: binascii,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.4 calendar
................

The *note HTMLCalendar: b13. class has new class attributes which ease
the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar.
(Contributed by Oz Tiram in bpo-30095(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095


File: python.info,  Node: collections<2>,  Next: compileall<3>,  Prev: calendar<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.5 collections
...................

‘collections.namedtuple()’ now supports default values.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<3>,  Next: concurrent futures<3>,  Prev: collections<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.6 compileall
..................

*note compileall.compile_dir(): b16. learned the new 'invalidation_mode'
parameter, which can be used to enable *note hash-based .pyc
invalidation: abb.  The invalidation mode can also be specified on the
command line using the new ‘--invalidation-mode’ argument.  (Contributed
by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<3>,  Next: contextlib<3>,  Prev: compileall<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. and *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. now
support the new 'initializer' and 'initargs' constructor arguments.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423(1).)

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. can now take the multiprocessing
context via the new 'mp_context' argument.  (Contributed by Thomas
Moreau in bpo-31540(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<3>,  Next: cProfile<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.8 contextlib
..................

The new *note nullcontext(): 7da. is a simpler and faster no-op context
manager than *note ExitStack: b19.  (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in
bpo-10049(1).)

The new *note asynccontextmanager(): b1a, *note
AbstractAsyncContextManager: b1b, and *note AsyncExitStack: b1c. have
been added to complement their synchronous counterparts.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-29679(2) and bpo-30241(3), and by Alexander
Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in bpo-29302(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile<2>,  Next: crypt,  Prev: contextlib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.9 cProfile
................

The *note cProfile: 27. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script path.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in
bpo-21862(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862


File: python.info,  Node: crypt,  Next: datetime<4>,  Prev: cProfile<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.10 crypt
..............

The ‘crypt’ module now supports the Blowfish hashing method.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664(1).)

The ‘mksalt()’ function now allows specifying the number of rounds for
hashing.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<4>,  Next: dbm<2>,  Prev: crypt,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.11 datetime
.................

The new *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 604. method constructs a *note
datetime: 1c7. object from a string in one of the formats output by
*note datetime.isoformat(): b20.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in
bpo-15873(1).)

The *note tzinfo: 5ca. class now supports sub-minute offsets.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<2>,  Next: decimal,  Prev: datetime<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.12 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 32. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal,  Next: dis<3>,  Prev: dbm<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.13 decimal
................

The *note decimal: 36. module now uses *note context variables: ab0. to
store the decimal context.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630


File: python.info,  Node: dis<3>,  Next: distutils<4>,  Prev: decimal,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.14 dis
............

The *note dis(): b24. function is now able to disassemble nested code
objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested
functions, and the code used for building nested classes).  The maximum
depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by the new 'depth'
parameter.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-11822(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<4>,  Next: enum<5>,  Prev: dis<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.15 distutils
..................

‘README.rst’ is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs
and therefore included in source distributions.  (Contributed by Ryan
Gonzalez in bpo-11913(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913


File: python.info,  Node: enum<5>,  Next: functools<3>,  Prev: distutils<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.16 enum
.............

The *note Enum: 61d. learned the new ‘_ignore_’ class property, which
allows listing the names of properties which should not become enum
members.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801(1).)

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’
classes will raise a *note TypeError: 525. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member
will raise *note TypeError: 525. (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both
operations return *note False: b27. instead and are deprecated.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: functools<3>,  Next: gc<4>,  Prev: enum<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.17 functools
..................

*note functools.singledispatch(): 626. now supports registering
implementations using type annotations.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in
bpo-32227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<4>,  Next: hmac<2>,  Prev: functools<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.18 'gc'
.............

The new *note gc.freeze(): b2a. function allows freezing all objects
tracked by the garbage collector and excluding them from future
collections.  This can be used before a POSIX ‘fork()’ call to make the
GC copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection.  The new *note
gc.unfreeze(): b2b. functions reverses this operation.  Additionally,
*note gc.get_freeze_count(): b2c. can be used to obtain the number of
frozen objects.  (Contributed by Li Zekun in bpo-31558(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<2>,  Next: http client,  Prev: gc<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.19 ‘hmac’
...............

The *note hmac: 69. module now has an optimized one-shot *note digest():
b2e. function, which is up to three times faster than ‘HMAC()’.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32433(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433


File: python.info,  Node: http client,  Next: http server,  Prev: hmac<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.20 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection: b30. and *note HTTPSConnection: b31. now support
the new 'blocksize' argument for improved upload throughput.
(Contributed by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945


File: python.info,  Node: http server,  Next: idlelib and IDLE,  Prev: http client,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.21 http.server
....................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. now supports the HTTP
‘If-Modified-Since’ header.  The server returns the 304 response status
if the target file was not modified after the time specified in the
header.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29654(1).)

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. accepts the new 'directory'
argument, in addition to the new ‘--directory’ command line argument.
With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by
default it uses the current working directory.  (Contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel and Julien Palard in bpo-28707(2).)

The new *note ThreadingHTTPServer: b34. class uses threads to handle
requests using ‘ThreadingMixin’.  It is used when ‘http.server’ is run
with ‘-m’.  (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE,  Next: importlib<4>,  Prev: http server,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.22 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(1).)

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(2).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(3).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(4).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(5).)

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(6), bpo-33768(7), and bpo-33679(8).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(9).)

New in 3.7.1:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(10).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.

NEW in 3.7.4:

Add "Run Customized" to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can also
suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by Cheryl
Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(11) and bpo-37627(12).)

New in 3.7.5:

Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open without
line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<4>,  Next: io<4>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.23 importlib
..................

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: aed. ABC was introduced to
support the loading of resources from packages.  See also *note
importlib.resources: ab2.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in
bpo-32248(1).)

*note importlib.reload(): 505. now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError:
b37. if the module lacks a spec.  (Contributed by Garvit Khatri in
bpo-29851(2).)

‘importlib.find_spec()’ now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37.
instead of *note AttributeError: 343. if the specified parent module is
not a package (i.e.  lacks a ‘__path__’ attribute).  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-30436(3).)

The new ‘importlib.source_hash()’ can be used to compute the hash of the
passed source.  A *note hash-based .pyc file: abb. embeds the value
returned by this function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436


File: python.info,  Node: io<4>,  Next: ipaddress<3>,  Prev: importlib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.24 io
...........

The new *note TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): b39. method can be used to
reconfigure the text stream with the new settings.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30526(1) and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<3>,  Next: itertools<5>,  Prev: io<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.25 'ipaddress'
....................

The new ‘subnet_of()’ and ‘supernet_of()’ methods of *note
ipaddress.IPv6Network: 1fc. and *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 1fb. can be
used for network containment tests.  (Contributed by Michel Albert and
Cheryl Sabella in bpo-20825(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<5>,  Next: locale<4>,  Prev: ipaddress<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.26 itertools
..................

*note itertools.islice(): b3c. now accepts *note integer-like objects:
709. as start, stop, and slice arguments.  (Contributed by Will Roberts
in bpo-30537(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537


File: python.info,  Node: locale<4>,  Next: logging<3>,  Prev: itertools<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.27 locale
...............

The new 'monetary' argument to *note locale.format_string(): 50b. can be
used to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and
grouping strings.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

The *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 527. function now always
returns ‘'UTF-8'’ on Android or when in the *note forced UTF-8 mode:
aba.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: logging<3>,  Next: math<6>,  Prev: locale<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.28 logging
................

*note Logger: b3f. instances can now be pickled.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30520(1).)

The new *note StreamHandler.setStream(): b40. method can be used to
replace the logger stream after handler creation.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30522(2).)

It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors
in configuration passed to *note logging.config.fileConfig(): b41.
(Contributed by Preston Landers in bpo-31080(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080


File: python.info,  Node: math<6>,  Next: mimetypes<2>,  Prev: logging<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.29 'math'
...............

The new *note math.remainder(): b43. function implements the IEEE
754-style remainder operation.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-29962(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes<2>,  Next: msilib,  Prev: math<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.30 mimetypes
..................

The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from ‘'image/x-ms-bmp'’ to
‘'image/bmp'’.  (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589


File: python.info,  Node: msilib,  Next: multiprocessing<4>,  Prev: mimetypes<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.31 msilib
...............

The new ‘Database.Close()’ method can be used to close the MSI database.
(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<4>,  Next: os<7>,  Prev: msilib,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.32 multiprocessing
........................

The new *note Process.close(): b47. method explicitly closes the process
object and releases all resources associated with it.  *note ValueError:
1ff. is raised if the underlying process is still running.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30596(1).)

The new *note Process.kill(): b48. method can be used to terminate the
process using the ‘SIGKILL’ signal on Unix.  (Contributed by Vitor
Pereira in bpo-30794(2).)

Non-daemonic threads created by *note Process: b49. are now joined on
process exit.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18966(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966


File: python.info,  Node: os<7>,  Next: pathlib<8>,  Prev: multiprocessing<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.33 'os'
.............

*note os.fwalk(): b4b. now accepts the 'path' argument as *note bytes:
1bd.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682(1).)

*note os.scandir(): a4f. gained support for *note file descriptors: b4c.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(2).)

The new *note register_at_fork(): 2f5. function allows registering
Python callbacks to be executed at process fork.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(3).)

Added *note os.preadv(): b4d. (combine the functionality of *note
os.readv(): b4e. and *note os.pread(): b4f.) and *note os.pwritev():
b50. functions (combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): b51. and
*note os.pwrite(): b52.).  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
bpo-31368(4).)

The mode argument of *note os.makedirs(): 21b. no longer affects the
file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(5).)

*note os.dup2(): b53. now returns the new file descriptor.  Previously,
‘None’ was always returned.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-32441(6).)

The structure returned by *note os.stat(): 48c. now contains the *note
st_fstype: b54. attribute on Solaris and its derivatives.  (Contributed
by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<8>,  Next: pdb<4>,  Prev: os<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.34 pathlib
................

The new *note Path.is_mount(): a07. method is now available on POSIX
systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point.
(Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<4>,  Next: py_compile<3>,  Prev: pathlib<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.35 'pdb'
..............

*note pdb.set_trace(): 232. now takes an optional 'header' keyword-only
argument.  If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging
begins.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389(1).)

*note pdb: a4. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script file.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-32206(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<3>,  Next: pydoc<2>,  Prev: pdb<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.36 ‘py_compile’
.....................

*note py_compile.compile(): a15. - and by extension, *note compileall:
20. - now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable by
unconditionally creating ‘.pyc’ files for hash-based validation.  This
allows for guaranteeing reproducible builds(1) of ‘.pyc’ files when they
are created eagerly.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-29708(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<2>,  Next: queue<2>,  Prev: py_compile<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.37 'pydoc'
................

The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the
new ‘-n’ command-line argument.  (Contributed by Feanil Patel in
bpo-31128(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128


File: python.info,  Node: queue<2>,  Next: re<4>,  Prev: pydoc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.38 queue
..............

The new *note SimpleQueue: b5a. class is an unbounded FIFO queue.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: re<4>,  Next: signal<2>,  Prev: queue<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.39 ‘re’
.............

The flags *note re.ASCII: 619, *note re.LOCALE: b5c. and *note
re.UNICODE: b5d. can be set within the scope of a group.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31690(1).)

*note re.split(): 29f. now supports splitting on a pattern like ‘r'\b'’,
‘'^$'’ or ‘(?=-)’ that matches an empty string.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-25054(2).)

Regular expressions compiled with the *note re.LOCALE: b5c. flag no
longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Locale settings are
applied only when the compiled regular expression is used.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215(3).)

*note FutureWarning: 40b. is now emitted if a regular expression
contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the
future, such as nested sets and set operations.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-30349(4).)

Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied using
*note copy.copy(): 520. and *note copy.deepcopy(): b5e.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10076(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076


File: python.info,  Node: signal<2>,  Next: socket<5>,  Prev: re<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.40 'signal'
.................

The new 'warn_on_full_buffer' argument to the *note
signal.set_wakeup_fd(): b60. function makes it possible to specify
whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup buffer
overflows.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30050(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050


File: python.info,  Node: socket<5>,  Next: socketserver,  Prev: signal<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.41 'socket'
.................

The new *note socket.getblocking(): b62. method returns ‘True’ if the
socket is in blocking mode and ‘False’ otherwise.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-32373(1).)

The new *note socket.close(): b63. function closes the passed socket
file descriptor.  This function should be used instead of *note
os.close(): b64. for better compatibility across platforms.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32454(2).)

The *note socket: cb. module now exposes the ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’
(Linux 2.6.13), ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37), and
‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12) constants.  (Contributed by Omar
Sandoval in bpo-26273(3) and Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29728(4).)

Support for *note socket.AF_VSOCK: b65. sockets has been added to allow
communication between virtual machines and their hosts.  (Contributed by
Cathy Avery in bpo-27584(5).)

Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver,  Next: sqlite3<6>,  Prev: socket<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.42 socketserver
.....................

‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
non-daemon threads complete.  ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’
now waits until all child processes complete.

Add a new ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to
*note socketserver.ForkingMixIn: b67. and *note
socketserver.ThreadingMixIn: b68. classes.  Set the class attribute to
‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<6>,  Next: ssl<5>,  Prev: socketserver,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.43 ‘sqlite3’
..................

*note sqlite3.Connection: 242. now exposes the *note backup(): b6a.
method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or
higher.  (Contributed by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645(1).)

The 'database' argument of *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. now accepts any
*note path-like object: 29d, instead of just a string.  (Contributed by
Anders Lorentsen in bpo-31843(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<5>,  Next: string<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.44 ‘ssl’
..............

The *note ssl: cf. module now uses OpenSSL's builtin API instead of
‘match_hostname()’ to check a host name or an IP address.  Values are
validated during TLS handshake.  Any certificate validation error
including failing the host name check now raises *note
SSLCertVerificationError: b6c. and aborts the handshake with a proper
TLS Alert message.  The new exception contains additional information.
Host name validation can be customized with *note
SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: b6d.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-31399(1).)

     Note: The improved host name check requires a 'libssl'
     implementation compatible with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.  Consequently,
     OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported (see *note Platform
     Support Removals: b6e. for more details).  The ssl module is mostly
     compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.

The ‘ssl’ module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185(2).)

‘match_hostname()’ no longer supports partial wildcards like
‘www*.example.org’.  (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033(3) and
Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(4).)

The default cipher suite selection of the ‘ssl’ module now uses a
blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.  Python no longer
re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates.
Default cipher suite selection can be configured at compile time.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31429(5).)

Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain
names (IDNs) is now supported.  As part of this change, the *note
SSLSocket.server_hostname: b6f. attribute now stores the expected
hostname in A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’), rather than the
U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and
Christian Heimes in bpo-28414(6).)

The ‘ssl’ module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3
and OpenSSL 1.1.1.  At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1
is still under development and TLS 1.3 hasn't been finalized yet.  The
TLS 1.3 handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2
and earlier, see *note TLS 1.3: b70.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-32947(7), bpo-20995(8), bpo-29136(9), bpo-30622(10) and
bpo-33618(11))

*note SSLSocket: 8d9. and *note SSLObject: b71. no longer have a public
constructor.  Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported
feature.  Instances must be created with *note SSLContext: 291. methods
*note wrap_socket(): 511. and *note wrap_bio(): b72.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(12))

OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol
version are available as *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 85d. and
*note SSLContext.maximum_version: 85e.  Supported protocols are
indicated by several new flags, such as *note HAS_TLSv1_1: b73.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32609(13).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a21. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a22. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: string<2>,  Next: subprocess<2>,  Prev: ssl<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.45 'string'
.................

*note string.Template: 674. now lets you to optionally modify the
regular expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced
placeholders separately.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-1198569(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<2>,  Next: sys<8>,  Prev: string<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.46 subprocess
...................

The *note subprocess.run(): b76. function accepts the new
'capture_output' keyword argument.  When true, stdout and stderr will be
captured.  This is equivalent to passing *note subprocess.PIPE: b77. as
'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-32102(1).)

The ‘subprocess.run’ function and the *note subprocess.Popen: 197.
constructor now accept the 'text' keyword argument as an alias to
'universal_newlines'.  (Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756(2).)

On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was changed from ‘False’ to
‘True’ when redirecting the standard handles.  It's now possible to set
'close_fds' to true when redirecting the standard handles.  See *note
subprocess.Popen: 197.  This means that 'close_fds' now defaults to
‘True’ on all supported platforms.  (Contributed by Segev Finer in
bpo-19764(3).)

The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. during *note subprocess.call(): b78, *note
subprocess.run(): b76, or in a *note Popen: 197. context manager.  It
now waits a short amount of time for the child to exit, before
continuing the handling of the ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ exception.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-25942(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942


File: python.info,  Node: sys<8>,  Next: time<5>,  Prev: subprocess<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.47 sys
............

The new *note sys.breakpointhook(): aca. hook function is called by the
built-in *note breakpoint(): 231.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-31353(1).)

On Android, the new *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): b7a. returns the
build-time Android API version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-28740(2).)

The new *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b7b. function
returns the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by the new
*note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b7c.  *note asyncio: a.
has been converted to use this new API instead of the deprecated
‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-32591(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591


File: python.info,  Node: time<5>,  Next: tkinter<5>,  Prev: sys<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.48 time
.............

PEP 564(1) adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the
*note time: ed. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ad2.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): ad3.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): ad4.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): ad5.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): ad6.

   * *note time.time_ns(): ad7.

New clock identifiers have been added:

   * *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b7e. (Linux): Identical to *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686, except it also includes any time that
     the system is suspended.

   * *note time.CLOCK_PROF: b7f. (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD):
     High-resolution per-process CPU timer.

   * *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME: b80. (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose
     absolute value is the time the system has been running and not
     suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement.

The new *note time.thread_time(): 925. and *note time.thread_time_ns():
b81. functions can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025(2).)

The new *note time.pthread_getcpuclockid(): b82. function returns the
clock ID of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<5>,  Next: tracemalloc<2>,  Prev: time<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.49 tkinter
................

The new *note tkinter.ttk.Spinbox: b84. class is now available.
(Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<2>,  Next: types<4>,  Prev: tkinter<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.50 tracemalloc
....................

*note tracemalloc.Traceback: b86. behaves more like regular tracebacks,
sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.  *note
Traceback.format(): b87. now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old behaviour, use
the new 'most_recent_first' argument to ‘Traceback.format()’.
(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121


File: python.info,  Node: types<4>,  Next: unicodedata<6>,  Prev: tracemalloc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.51 ‘types’
................

The new *note WrapperDescriptorType: b89, *note MethodWrapperType: 638,
*note MethodDescriptorType: b8a, and *note ClassMethodDescriptorType:
b8b. classes are now available.  (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and
Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377(1), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265(2).)

The new *note types.resolve_bases(): b8c. function resolves MRO entries
dynamically as specified by PEP 560(3).  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-32717(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<6>,  Next: unittest<7>,  Prev: types<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.52 unicodedata
....................

The internal *note unicodedata: 104. database has been upgraded to use
Unicode 11(1).  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<7>,  Next: unittest mock,  Prev: unicodedata<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.53 unittest
.................

The new ‘-k’ command-line option allows filtering tests by a name
substring or a Unix shell-like pattern.  For example, ‘python -m
unittest -k foo’ runs ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.  (Contributed by Jonas Haag in
bpo-32071(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock,  Next: urllib parse<5>,  Prev: unittest<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

The *note sentinel: b90. attributes now preserve their identity when
they are *note copied: 25. or *note pickled: a5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-20804(1).)

The new *note seal(): b91. function allows sealing *note Mock: a3c.
instances, which will disallow further creation of attribute mocks.  The
seal is applied recursively to all attributes that are themselves mocks.
(Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<5>,  Next: uu,  Prev: unittest mock,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.55 urllib.parse
.....................

*note urllib.parse.quote(): b93. has been updated from RFC 2396(1) to
RFC 3986(2), adding ‘~’ to the set of characters that are never quoted
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in
bpo-16285(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285


File: python.info,  Node: uu,  Next: uuid<2>,  Prev: urllib parse<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.56 uu
...........

The ‘uu.encode()’ function now accepts an optional 'backtick' keyword
argument.  When it's true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’ instead of
spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<2>,  Next: warnings<3>,  Prev: uu,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.57 uuid
.............

The new *note UUID.is_safe: b96. attribute relays information from the
platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
multiprocessing-safe method.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-22807(1).)

*note uuid.getnode(): b97. now prefers universally administered MAC
addresses over locally administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better
guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from *note
uuid.uuid1(): b98.  If only locally administered MAC addresses are
available, the first such one found is returned.  (Contributed by Barry
Warsaw in bpo-32107(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<3>,  Next: xml<5>,  Prev: uuid<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.58 warnings
.................

The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as
follows:

   * warnings enabled via command line options (including those for
     *note -b: 5cf. and the new CPython-specific *note -X: 175. ‘dev’
     option) are always passed to the warnings machinery via the *note
     sys.warnoptions: 3a7. attribute.

   * warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment
     now have the following order of precedence:

        * the ‘BytesWarning’ filter for *note -b: 5cf. (or ‘-bb’)

        * any filters specified with the *note -W: 8b6. option

        * any filters specified with the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a.
          environment variable

        * any other CPython specific filters (e.g.  the ‘default’ filter
          added for the new ‘-X dev’ mode)

        * any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings
          machinery

   * in *note CPython debug builds: 1f6, all warnings are now displayed
     by default (the implicit filter list is empty)

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in bpo-20361(1),
bpo-32043(2), and bpo-32230(3).)

Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file
scripts and at the interactive prompt.  See *note PEP 565; Show
DeprecationWarning in __main__: abd. for details.  (Contributed by Nick
Coghlan in bpo-31975(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975


File: python.info,  Node: xml<5>,  Next: xml etree,  Prev: warnings<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.59 'xml'
..............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 128. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree,  Next: xmlrpc server,  Prev: xml<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.60 xml.etree
..................

*note ElementPath: b9d. predicates in the ‘find()’ methods can now
compare text of the current node with ‘[. = "text"]’, not only text in
children.  Predicates also allow adding spaces for better readability.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server,  Next: zipapp,  Prev: xml etree,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.61 xmlrpc.server
......................

‘SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function’ can now be used as a
decorator.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp,  Next: zipfile<2>,  Prev: xmlrpc server,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.62 zipapp
...............

Function *note create_archive(): ba0. now accepts an optional 'filter'
argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in
the archive.  (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072(1).)

Function *note create_archive(): ba0. now accepts an optional
'compressed' argument to generate a compressed archive.  A command line
option ‘--compress’ has also been added to support compression.
(Contributed by Zhiming Wang in bpo-31638(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<2>,  Prev: zipapp,  Up: Modules améliorés<7>

1.7.5.63 zipfile
................

*note ZipFile: 6b1. now accepts the new 'compresslevel' parameter to
control the compression level.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-21417(1).)

Subdirectories in archives created by ‘ZipFile’ are now stored in
alphabetical order.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-30693(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à l'API C<6>,  Next: Changements à la compilation<6>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<7>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.6 Changements à l'API C
---------------------------

A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented.  See *note PEP
539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: abe. for an overview and *note
Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: ace. for a complete reference.
(Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658(1).)

The new *note context variables: ab0. functionality exposes a number of
*note new C APIs: ae8.

The new *note PyImport_GetModule(): ba3. function returns the previously
imported module with the given name.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in
bpo-28411(2).)

The new *note Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE: ba4. macro eases writing rich
comparison functions.  (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699(3).)

The new *note Py_UNREACHABLE: ba5. macro can be used to mark unreachable
code paths.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31338(4).)

The *note tracemalloc: fe. now exposes a C API through the new *note
PyTraceMalloc_Track(): ba6. and *note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): ba7.
functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054(5).)

The new ‘import__find__load__start()’ and ‘import__find__load__done()’
static markers can be used to trace module imports.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-31574(6).)

The fields ‘name’ and ‘doc’ of structures *note PyMemberDef: 53d, *note
PyGetSetDef: ba8, *note PyStructSequence_Field: ba9, *note
PyStructSequence_Desc: baa, and ‘wrapperbase’ are now of type ‘const
char *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-28761(7).)

The result of *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 887. and *note
PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bab. is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
*’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769(8).)

The result of *note PyMapping_Keys(): bac, *note PyMapping_Values():
bad. and *note PyMapping_Items(): bae. is now always a list, rather than
a list or a tuple.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280(9).)

Added functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f3. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(10).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f0. is deprecated in favour of the new
functions *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): baf, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent():
bb0. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-16500(11).)

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(12) and bpo-30697(13).

Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors *note
PyTimeZone_FromOffset(): bb1. and *note PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName():
bb2, and access to the UTC singleton with *note PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC:
bb3.  Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381(14).

The type of results of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ and
‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’, and the 'id' parameter of *note
PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): bb4. changed from long to unsigned long.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-6532(15).)

*note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8ab. now raises a *note ValueError:
1ff. if the second argument is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains
null characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708(16).)

Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory
allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call *note
Py_Initialize(): 89b. before calling most C API functions is now relied
on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in
embedding applications.  See the *note Porting to Python 3.7: ac1.
section in this document and the *note Before Python Initialization:
bb5. section in the C API documentation for more details.

The new *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): bb6. returns the unique ID for
a given interpreter.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102(17).)

*note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8. now use the
UTF-8 encoding when the *note UTF-8 mode: aba. is enabled.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(18).)

*note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bb9. and *note
PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bba. now use the current locale encoding for
‘surrogateescape’ error handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29240(19).)

The 'start' and 'end' parameters of *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8a8. are
now adjusted to behave like string slices.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang
in bpo-28822(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822


File: python.info,  Node: Changements à la compilation<6>,  Next: Optimizations<2>,  Prev: Changements à l'API C<6>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.7 Changements à la compilation
----------------------------------

Support for building ‘--without-threads’ has been removed.  The *note
threading: ec. module is now always available.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-31370(1).).

A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the
*note _ctypes: 2a. module on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
of libffi is now required when building ‘_ctypes’ on such platforms.
(Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979(2).)

The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in
external sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from
GitHub instead.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py
-3.6’), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python for this
purpose.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450(3).)

The *note ssl: cf. module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible
libssl.  OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is
no longer supported.  LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well.
LibreSSL releases up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2
APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<2>,  Next: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython<2>,  Prev: Changements à la compilation<6>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.8 Optimizations
-------------------

The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes
implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code to
use the ‘METH_FASTCALL’ convention.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29300(1), bpo-29507(2), bpo-29452(3), and bpo-29286(4).)

Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux
and up to 30% on macOS. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in
bpo-29585(5), and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333(6).)

Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which
avoid creating bound method instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(7).)  The *note asyncio: a. module received
a number of notable optimizations for commonly used functions:

   * The *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2bf. function has been
     reimplemented in C to make it up to 15 times faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32296(8).)

   * *note asyncio.Future: bbd. callback management has been optimized.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348(9).)

   * *note asyncio.gather(): 5ea. is now up to 15% faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355(10).)

   * *note asyncio.sleep(): a5f. is now up to 2 times faster when the
     'delay' argument is zero or negative.  (Contributed by Andrew
     Svetlov in bpo-32351(11).)

   * The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced.
     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970(12).)

As a result of *note PEP 560 work: ab5, the import time of *note typing:
103. has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations are
now faster.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226(13).)

*note sorted(): bbe. and *note list.sort(): bbf. have been optimized for
common cases to be up to 40-75% faster.  (Contributed by Elliot
Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685(14).)

*note dict.copy(): bc0. is now up to 5.5 times faster.  (Contributed by
Yury Selivanov in bpo-31179(15).)

*note hasattr(): 4be. and *note getattr(): bc1. are now about 4 times
faster when 'name' is not found and 'obj' does not override *note
object.__getattr__(): 4bf. or *note object.__getattribute__(): bc2.
(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544(16).)

Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital "Є") in
a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters.
It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-24821(17).)

The *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. factory has been reimplemented
to make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(18).)

‘date.fromordinal()’ and ‘date.fromtimestamp()’ are now up to 30% faster
in the common case.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(19).)

The *note os.fwalk(): b4b. function is now up to 2 times faster thanks
to the use of *note os.scandir(): a4f.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-25996(20).)

The speed of the *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. function has been improved
by 20-40% thanks to the use of the *note os.scandir(): a4f. function.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28564(21).)

Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of *note regular
expressions: b8.  Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times
faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285(22).)

*note re.compile(): bc3. now converts ‘flags’ parameter to int object if
it is ‘RegexFlag’.  It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than
Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern.  (Contributed by INADA
Naoki in bpo-31671(23).)

The *note modify(): bc4. methods of classes *note
selectors.EpollSelector: bc5, *note selectors.PollSelector: bc6. and
*note selectors.DevpollSelector: bc7. may be around 10% faster under
heavy loads.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-30014(24))

Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new
AST optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently.
(Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in bpo-29469(25) and
bpo-11549(26).)

Most functions and methods in *note abc: 4. have been rewritten in C.
This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling *note
isinstance(): 42d. and *note issubclass(): 7ad. on them 1.5x faster.
This also reduces Python start-up time by up to 10%.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki in bpo-31333(27))

Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for *note
datetime.date: 1c8. and *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. by using fast-path
constructors when not constructing subclasses.  (Contributed by Paul
Ganssle in bpo-32403(28))

The speed of comparison of *note array.array: 19e. instances has been
improved considerably in certain cases.  It is now from 10x to 70x
faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.
(Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700(29).)

The *note math.erf(): bc8. and *note math.erfc(): bc9. functions now use
the (faster) C library implementation on most platforms.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121(30).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Prev: Optimizations<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.9 Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython
------------------------------------------------------

   * Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the ‘line’ and opt into
     receiving the ‘opcode’ events from the interpreter by setting the
     corresponding new *note f_trace_lines: bcb. and *note
     f_trace_opcodes: bcc. attributes on the frame being traced.
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344(1).)

   * Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module
     attributes.  Namespace module objects now have an ‘__file__’ that
     is set to ‘None’ (previously unset), and their ‘__spec__.origin’ is
     also set to ‘None’ (previously the string ‘"namespace"’).  See
     bpo-32305(2).  Also, the namespace module object's
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is set to the same value as ‘__loader__’
     (previously, the former was set to ‘None’).  See bpo-32303(3).

   * The *note locals(): 140. dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     undefined.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690(4).)

   * The ‘distutils’ ‘upload’ command no longer tries to change CR
     end-of-line characters to CRLF. This fixes a corruption issue with
     sdists that ended with a byte equivalent to CR. (Contributed by Bo
     Bayles in bpo-32304(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Prev: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.10 Deprecated Python Behavior
---------------------------------

Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the
iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).  This ensures that
comprehensions always immediately return a container of the appropriate
type (rather than potentially returning a *note generator iterator: bce.
object), while generator expressions won't attempt to interleave their
implicit output with the output from any explicit yield expressions.  In
Python 3.7, such expressions emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when
compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a *note SyntaxError: 18b.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

Returning a subclass of *note complex: 2ed. from *note
object.__complex__(): 5d3. is deprecated and will be an error in future
Python versions.  This makes ‘__complex__()’ consistent with *note
object.__int__(): 708. and *note object.__float__(): 9bc.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.11 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
-------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<9>.
* wave::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc,  Next: asyncio<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.1 aifc
.............

‘aifc.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use ‘aifc.open()’ instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<8>,  Next: collections<3>,  Prev: aifc,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.2 asyncio
................

Support for directly ‘await’-ing instances of *note asyncio.Lock: a61.
and other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated.  An
asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and
release the synchronization resource.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
bpo-32253(1).)

The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ methods
have been deprecated.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250


File: python.info,  Node: collections<3>,  Next: dbm<3>,  Prev: asyncio<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.3 collections
....................

In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in *note collections.abc: 1e.
will no longer be exposed in the regular *note collections: 1d. module.
This will help create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes
and the abstract base classes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25988(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<3>,  Next: enum<6>,  Prev: collections<3>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.4 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 32. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is
now emitted if the index file is missing and recreated in the ‘'r'’ and
‘'w'’ modes (this will be an error in future Python releases).
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28847(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847


File: python.info,  Node: enum<6>,  Next: gettext<2>,  Prev: dbm<3>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.5 enum
.............

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’
classes will raise a *note TypeError: 525. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member
will raise *note TypeError: 525. (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both
operations return *note False: b27. instead.  (Contributed by Ethan
Furman in bpo-33217(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: gettext<2>,  Next: importlib<5>,  Prev: enum<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.6 gettext
................

Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in *note gettext:
62. is now deprecated.  It never correctly worked.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<5>,  Next: locale<5>,  Prev: gettext<2>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.7 importlib
..................

Methods ‘MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (replaced by *note
MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 855.) and ‘PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’
(replaced by *note PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 859.) both deprecated in
Python 3.4 now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  (Contributed by
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576(1).)

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: bd7. ABC has been deprecated in
favour of *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: aed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576


File: python.info,  Node: locale<5>,  Next: macpath,  Prev: importlib<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.8 locale
...............

‘locale.format()’ has been deprecated, use *note locale.format_string():
50b. instead.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: macpath,  Next: threading<5>,  Prev: locale<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.9 macpath
................

The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.
(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850


File: python.info,  Node: threading<5>,  Next: socket<6>,  Prev: macpath,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.10 threading
...................

‘dummy_threading’ and ‘_dummy_thread’ have been deprecated.  It is no
longer possible to build Python with threading disabled.  Use *note
threading: ec. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-31370(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370


File: python.info,  Node: socket<6>,  Next: ssl<6>,  Prev: threading<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.11 'socket'
..................

The silent argument value truncation in *note socket.htons(): 86d. and
*note socket.ntohs(): 86e. has been deprecated.  In future versions of
Python, if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will
be raised.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<6>,  Next: sunau,  Prev: socket<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.12 ‘ssl’
...............

‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511. instead.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-28124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124


File: python.info,  Node: sunau,  Next: sys<9>,  Prev: ssl<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.13 sunau
...............

‘sunau.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use ‘sunau.open()’ instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: sys<9>,  Next: wave,  Prev: sunau,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.14 sys
.............

Deprecated ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’.

The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been deprecated and will
be removed in a future Python version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-28799(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799


File: python.info,  Node: wave,  Prev: sys<9>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.7.11.15 wave
..............

‘wave.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note wave.open(): 93a. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Next: Platform Support Removals,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.12 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
--------------------------------------------------

Function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f2. is deprecated and replaced
with a macro if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to a value in the
range between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not inclusive), or is
‘0x03060100’ or higher.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f0. has been deprecated.  Use *note
PyOS_BeforeFork(): baf, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bb0. or *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-16500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Support Removals,  Next: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.13 Platform Support Removals
--------------------------------

   * FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.

   * For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix
     platforms are now expected to provide at least one of ‘C.UTF-8’
     (full locale), ‘C.utf8’ (full locale) or ‘UTF-8’ (‘LC_CTYPE’-only
     locale) as an alternative to the legacy ‘ASCII’-based ‘C’ locale.

   * OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means
     building CPython 3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still
     using these versions requires custom build options that link to a
     more recent version of OpenSSL.

     Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka "jessie") and Ubuntu
     14.04 (aka "Trusty") LTS Linux distributions, as they still use
     OpenSSL 1.0.1 by default.

     Debian 9 ("stretch") and Ubuntu 16.04 ("xenial"), as well as recent
     releases of other LTS Linux releases (e.g.  RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES
     12-SP3), use OpenSSL 1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the
     default build configuration.

     CPython's own CI configuration file(1) provides an example of using
     the SSL compatibility testing infrastructure(2) in CPython's test
     suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an
     outdated system provided OpenSSL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Next: Module Removals,  Prev: Platform Support Removals,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.14 API and Feature Removals
-------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function has been removed.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in
     replacement templates for *note re.sub(): 2a0. were deprecated in
     Python 3.5, and will now cause an error.

   * Removed support of the 'exclude' argument in *note
     tarfile.TarFile.add(): be3.  It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and
     3.2.  Use the 'filter' argument instead.

   * The ‘ntpath.splitunc()’ function was deprecated in Python 3.1, and
     has now been removed.  Use *note splitdrive(): be4. instead.

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. no longer supports the
     'verbose' parameter or ‘_source’ attribute which showed the
     generated source code for the named tuple class.  This was part of
     an optimization designed to speed-up class creation.  (Contributed
     by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(1).)

   * Functions *note bool(): 453, *note float(): 2ec, *note list(): 5fe.
     and *note tuple(): 366. no longer take keyword arguments.  The
     first argument of *note int(): 254. can now be passed only as
     positional argument.

   * Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes ‘Plist’, ‘Dict’
     and ‘_InternalDict’ in the *note plistlib: aa. module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions ‘readPlist()’ and ‘readPlistFromBytes()’
     are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to
     access items of these dictionaries.

   * The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has been removed.
     Use the *note socket.socketpair(): be5. function instead, it is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5.
     ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair’ was just an alias to
     ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   * *note asyncio: a. no longer exports the *note selectors: c1. and
     ‘_overlapped’ modules as ‘asyncio.selectors’ and
     ‘asyncio._overlapped’.  Replace ‘from asyncio import selectors’
     with ‘import selectors’.

   * Direct instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9. and *note
     ssl.SSLObject: b71. objects is now prohibited.  The constructors
     were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors.
     Users were supposed to use ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ or *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 291.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-32951(2).)

   * The unused ‘distutils’ ‘install_misc’ command has been removed.
     (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218


File: python.info,  Node: Module Removals,  Next: Windows-only Changes,  Prev: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.15 Module Removals
----------------------

The ‘fpectl’ module has been removed.  It was never enabled by default,
never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways
that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.  (Contributed by
Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes,  Next: Porting to Python 3 7,  Prev: Module Removals,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.16 Windows-only Changes
---------------------------

The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers
'without' having to specify a minor version as well.  So ‘py -3-32’ and
‘py -3-64’ become valid as well as ‘py -3.7-32’, also the -'m'-64 and
-'m.n'-64 forms are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit
would have otherwise been used.  If the specified version is not
available py.exe will error exit.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in
bpo-30291(1).)

The launcher can be run as ‘py -0’ to produce a list of the installed
pythons, 'with default marked with an asterisk'.  Running ‘py -0p’ will
include the paths.  If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be
matched it will also print the 'short form' list of available
specifiers.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 7,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Prev: Windows-only Changes,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.17 Porting to Python 3.7
----------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<7>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<5>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<6>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python Behavior,  Next: Changements dans l'API Python<7>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.7.17.1 Changes in Python Behavior
...................................

   * *note async: 71e. and *note await: 1b7. names are now reserved
     keywords.  Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a
     *note SyntaxError: 18b.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     bpo-30406(1).)

   * PEP 479(2) is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that
     *note StopIteration: bea. exceptions raised directly or indirectly
     in coroutines and generators are transformed into *note
     RuntimeError: 193. exceptions.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32670(3).)

   * *note object.__aiter__(): beb. methods can no longer be declared as
     asynchronous.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709(4).)

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1],)

          class C(1 for x in [1]):
              pass

     Python 3.7 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 18b, as a
     generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of
     parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side, and the
     duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012(5) and bpo-32023(6).)

   * When using the *note -m: 5cd. switch, the initial working directory
     is now added to *note sys.path: 3ab, rather than an empty string
     (which dynamically denoted the current working directory at the
     time of each import).  Any programs that are checking for the empty
     string, or otherwise relying on the previous behaviour, will need
     to be updated accordingly (e.g.  by also checking for ‘os.getcwd()’
     or ‘os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)’, depending on why the code
     was checking for the empty string in the first place).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<7>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<5>,  Prev: Changes in Python Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.7.17.2 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
     non-daemon threads complete.  Set the new *note
     socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close: bed. class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31233(1) and bpo-33540(2).)

   * ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
     child processes complete.  Set the new
     ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31151(3) and bpo-33540(4).)

   * The *note locale.localeconv(): bee. function now temporarily sets
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the value of ‘LC_NUMERIC’ in some cases.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(5).)

   * *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): bef. now raises a *note ValueError:
     1ff. if 'path' is a string.  Previously an empty list was returned.
     (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744(6).)

   * A format string argument for *note string.Formatter.format(): bf0.
     is now *note positional-only: a75.  Passing it as a keyword
     argument was deprecated in Python 3.5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29193(7).)

   * Attributes *note key: bf1, *note value: bf2. and *note coded_value:
     bf3. of class *note http.cookies.Morsel: bf4. are now read-only.
     Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5.  Use the *note
     set(): bf5. method for setting them.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29192(8).)

   * The 'mode' argument of *note os.makedirs(): 21b. no longer affects
     the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.  To set their file permission bits you can set the
     umask before invoking ‘makedirs()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19930(9).)

   * The *note struct.Struct.format: bf6. type is now *note str: 437.
     instead of *note bytes: 1bd.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(10).)

   * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ now accepts the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     arguments and returns the same results as ‘FieldStorage’: for
     non-file fields, the value associated to a key is a list of
     strings, not bytes.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in
     bpo-29979(11).)

   * Due to internal changes in *note socket: cb, calling *note
     socket.fromshare(): bf7. on a socket created by *note socket.share:
     bf8. in older Python versions is not supported.

   * ‘repr’ for *note BaseException: 5a7. has changed to not include the
     trailing comma.  Most exceptions are affected by this change.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399(12).)

   * ‘repr’ for *note datetime.timedelta: 9bf. has changed to include
     the keyword arguments in the output.  (Contributed by Utkarsh
     Upadhyay in bpo-30302(13).)

   * Because *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. is now implemented using the
     *note os.scandir(): a4f. function, the user specified handler
     'onerror' is now called with the first argument ‘os.scandir’
     instead of ‘os.listdir’ when listing the directory is failed.

   * Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions
     as in Unicode Technical Standard #18(14) might be added in the
     future.  This would change the syntax.  To facilitate this future
     change a *note FutureWarning: 40b. will be raised in ambiguous
     cases for the time being.  That include sets starting with a
     literal ‘'['’ or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’,
     ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning, escape them with a
     backslash.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(15).)

   * The result of splitting a string on a *note regular expression: b8.
     that could match an empty string has been changed.  For example
     splitting on ‘r'\s*'’ will now split not only on whitespaces as it
     did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace
     characters and just before the end of the string.  The previous
     behavior can be restored by changing the pattern to ‘r'\s+'’.  A
     *note FutureWarning: 40b. was emitted for such patterns since
     Python 3.5.

     For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the
     result of searching for all matches may also be changed in other
     cases.  For example in the string ‘'a\n\n'’, the pattern
     ‘r'(?m)^\s*?$'’ will not only match empty strings at positions 2
     and 3, but also the string ‘'\n'’ at positions 2-3.  To match only
     blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten as
     ‘r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'’.

     *note re.sub(): 2a0. now replaces empty matches adjacent to a
     previous non-empty match.  For example ‘re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’
     returns now ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’ (the first minus
     between 'b' and 'd' replaces 'x', and the second minus replaces an
     empty string between 'x' and 'd').

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054(16) and
     bpo-32308(17).)

   * Change *note re.escape(): bf9. to only escape regex special
     characters instead of escaping all characters other than ASCII
     letters, numbers, and ‘'_'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29995(18).)

   * *note tracemalloc.Traceback: b86. frames are now sorted from oldest
     to most recent to be more consistent with *note traceback: fd.
     (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(19).)

   * On OSes that support *note socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK: bfa. or *note
     socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC: bfb. bit flags, the *note socket.type: bfc. no
     longer has them applied.  Therefore, checks like ‘if sock.type ==
     socket.SOCK_STREAM’ work as expected on all platforms.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331(20).)

   * On Windows the default for the 'close_fds' argument of *note
     subprocess.Popen: 197. was changed from *note False: b27. to *note
     True: bfd. when redirecting the standard handles.  If you
     previously depended on handles being inherited when using *note
     subprocess.Popen: 197. with standard io redirection, you will have
     to pass ‘close_fds=False’ to preserve the previous behaviour, or
     use *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: bfe.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): bff. -
     which implicitly affects *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00.
     - now deletes entries in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. which
     are set to ‘None’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-33169(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: a, *note loop.sock_recv(): c01, *note
     loop.sock_sendall(): c02, *note loop.sock_accept(): c03, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): c04, *note loop.getnameinfo(): c05. have been
     changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their
     documentation.  Previously, these methods returned *note
     asyncio.Future: bbd. instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32327(22).)

   * *note asyncio.Server.sockets: c06. now returns a copy of the
     internal list of server sockets, instead of returning it directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(23).)

   * *note Struct.format: bf6. is now a *note str: 437. instance instead
     of a *note bytes: 1bd. instance.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(24).)

   * *note argparse: 6. subparsers can now be made mandatory by passing
     ‘required=True’ to *note ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): c07.
     (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510(25).)

   * *note ast.literal_eval(): c08. is now stricter.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778(26).)

   * *note Calendar.itermonthdates: c09. will now consistently raise an
     exception when a date falls outside of the ‘0001-01-01’ through
     ‘9999-12-31’ range.  To support applications that cannot tolerate
     such exceptions, the new *note Calendar.itermonthdays3: c0a. and
     *note Calendar.itermonthdays4: c0b. can be used.  The new methods
     return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
     *note datetime.date: 1c8.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
     bpo-28292(27).)

   * *note collections.ChainMap: c0c. now preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-32792(28).)

   * The ‘submit()’ method of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 193. if called during interpreter shutdown.
     (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097(29).)

   * The *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3. constructor now uses
     ‘read_dict()’ to process the default values, making its behavior
     consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values
     in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to
     strings.  (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835(30).)

   * Several undocumented internal imports were removed.  One example is
     that ‘os.errno’ is no longer available; use ‘import errno’ directly
     instead.  Note that such undocumented internal imports may be
     removed any time without notice, even in micro version releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302

   (14) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<5>,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<6>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<7>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.7.17.3 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

The function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f2. is considered unsafe for
resizable sequences.  If the slice indices are not instances of *note
int: 254, but objects that implement the ‘__index__()’ method, the
sequence can be resized after passing its length to
‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’.  This can lead to returning indices out of the
length of the sequence.  For avoiding possible problems use new
functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f3. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<6>,  Next: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API C<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.7.17.4 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
..................................................

There are two new opcodes: *note LOAD_METHOD: c0f. and ‘CALL_METHOD’.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(1).)

The ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ opcode has been removed.  (Contributed by Mark
Shannon in bpo-32550(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Next: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.7.17.5 Windows-only Changes
.............................

The file used to override *note sys.path: 3ab. is now called
‘<python-executable>._pth’ instead of ‘'sys.path'’.  See *note Recherche
de modules: c11. for more information.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-28137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.7.17.6 Other CPython implementation changes
.............................................

In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython
runtime initialization API (see PEP 432(1) for an initial, but somewhat
outdated, draft), CPython's internal startup and configuration
management logic has been significantly refactored.  While these updates
are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding applications
and users of the regular CPython CLI, they're being mentioned here as
the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations during
interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects,
either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself.  (Initially
contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of bpo-22257(2), and
further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a number of other
issues).  Some known details affected:

   * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’ is not currently usable by embedding
     applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode object
     prior to calling ‘Py_Initialize’.  Use ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’
     instead.

   * warnings filters added by an embedding application with
     ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’ should now more consistently take
     precedence over the default filters set by the interpreter

Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured,
setting *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3cb. to a value greater than one is
no longer sufficient to both emit *note BytesWarning: c13. messages and
have them converted to exceptions.  Instead, the flag must be set (to
cause the warnings to be emitted in the first place), and an explicit
‘error::BytesWarning’ warnings filter added to convert them to
exceptions.

Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the
implicit ‘return None’ in a function body consisting solely of a
docstring is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring,
not on the function's header line.

The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the
co-routine.  This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of
obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or
exiting a generator.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-25612(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 7,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.18 Notable changes in Python 3.7.1
--------------------------------------

Starting in 3.7.1, *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. now consistently reads
and respects all of the same environment settings as *note Py_Main():
c15. (in earlier Python versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of
those environment variables, while in Python 3.7.0 it didn't read any of
them due to bpo-34247(1)).  If this behavior is unwanted, set *note
Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf. to 1 before calling *note
Py_Initialize(): 89b.

In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables *note was updated: c16. to use
*note PyObject: 32f. pointers.  See also bpo-34762(2).

In 3.7.1 the *note tokenize: fa. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’
token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.
This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
(Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.19 Notable changes in Python 3.7.2
--------------------------------------

In 3.7.2, *note venv: 110. on Windows no longer copies the original
binaries, but creates redirector scripts named ‘python.exe’ and
‘pythonw.exe’ instead.  This resolves a long standing issue where all
virtual environments would have to be upgraded or recreated with each
Python update.  However, note that this release will still require
recreation of virtual environments in order to get the new scripts.


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.20 Notable changes in Python 3.7.6
--------------------------------------

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre
'reuse_address' de *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.
n'est plus supporté.  C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine
Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.21 Notable changes in Python 3.7.10
---------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 277. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.22 Notable changes in Python 3.7.11
---------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 109. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Up: What's New In Python 3 7

1.7.23 Notable security feature in 3.7.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 254. and *note str: 437. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: What's New In Python 3 6,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 5,  Prev: What's New In Python 3 7,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.8 What's New In Python 3.6
============================


Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5.
Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.   See the changelog(1) for
a full list of changes.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 494(2) - Python 3.6 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<8>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<8>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<8>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Autres Améliorations::
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<9>.
* Retraits: Retraits<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.1 Résumé – Points forts de la publication
---------------------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * *note PEP 498: c1f, formatted string literals.

   * *note PEP 515: c20, underscores in numeric literals.

   * *note PEP 526: c21, syntax for variable annotations.

   * *note PEP 525: c22, asynchronous generators.

   * *note PEP 530: c23.: asynchronous comprehensions.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

   * *note secrets: bf.: *note PEP 506 - Adding A Secrets Module To The
     Standard Library: c24.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * The *note dict: ab6. type has been reimplemented to use a *note
     more compact representation: c25. based on a proposal by Raymond
     Hettinger(1) and similar to the PyPy dict implementation(2).  This
     resulted in dictionaries using 20% to 25% less memory when compared
     to Python 3.5.

   * Customization of class creation has been simplified with the *note
     new protocol: c26.

   * The class attribute definition order is *note now preserved: c27.

   * The order of elements in ‘**kwargs’ now *note corresponds to the
     order: c28. in which keyword arguments were passed to the function.

   * DTrace and SystemTap *note probing support: c29. has been added.

   * The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: c2a. environment variable can now be
     used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access errors.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: a. module has received new features, significant
     usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug
     fixes.  Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer
     provisional and its API is considered stable.

   * A new *note file system path protocol: c2b. has been implemented to
     support *note path-like objects: 29d.  All standard library
     functions operating on paths have been updated to work with the new
     protocol.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module has gained support for *note Local
     Time Disambiguation: c2c.

   * The *note typing: 103. module received a number of *note
     improvements: c2d.

   * The *note tracemalloc: fe. module has been significantly reworked
     and is now used to provide better output for *note ResourceWarning:
     241. as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation
     errors.  See the *note PYTHONMALLOC section: c2a. for more
     information.

Security improvements:

   * The new *note secrets: bf. module has been added to simplify the
     generation of cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers
     suitable for managing secrets such as account authentication,
     tokens, and similar.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 50f. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See
     the PEP 524(3) for the rationale.

   * The *note hashlib: 67. and *note ssl: cf. modules now support
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   * The default settings and feature set of the *note ssl: cf. module
     have been improved.

   * The *note hashlib: 67. module received support for the BLAKE2,
     SHA-3 and SHAKE hash algorithms and the *note scrypt(): c2e. key
     derivation function.

Windows improvements:

   * *note PEP 528: c2f. and *note PEP 529: c30, Windows filesystem and
     console encoding changed to UTF-8.

   * The ‘py.exe’ launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers
     Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn't specify a version (via
     command line arguments or a config file).  Handling of shebang
     lines remains unchanged - "python" refers to Python 2 in that case.

   * ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ have been marked as long-path aware,
     which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply.
     See *note removing the MAX_PATH limitation: c31. for details.

   * A ‘._pth’ file can be added to force isolated mode and fully
     specify all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup.
     See *note the documentation: c11. for more information.

   * A ‘python36.zip’ file now works as a landmark to infer *note
     PYTHONHOME: 3b3.  See *note the documentation: c11. for more
     information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<8>,  Prev: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Next: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.1 PEP 498: Formatted string literals
..........................................

PEP 498(1) introduces a new kind of string literals: 'f-strings', or
*note formatted string literals: 999.

Formatted string literals are prefixed with ‘'f'’ and are similar to the
format strings accepted by *note str.format(): 60e.  They contain
replacement fields surrounded by curly braces.  The replacement fields
are expressions, which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted
using the *note format(): 60c. protocol:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name}."
     'He said his name is Fred.'
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 498(2) - Literal String Interpolation.

     PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith.

*note Feature documentation: 999.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Next: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Prev: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.2 PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
................................................

PEP 484(1) introduced the standard for type annotations of function
parameters, a.k.a.  type hints.  This PEP adds syntax to Python for
annotating the types of variables including class variables and instance
variables:

     primes: List[int] = []

     captain: str  # Note: no initial value!

     class Starship:
         stats: Dict[str, int] = {}

Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach
any particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class or module.

In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages, the
goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify
structured type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the
abstract syntax tree and the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 526(2) - Syntax for variable annotations.

     PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa
     Roach, and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

Tools that use or will use the new syntax: mypy(3), pytype(4), PyCharm,
etc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://www.mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Next: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.3 PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
................................................

PEP 515(1) adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for
improved readability.  For example:

     >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
     1000000000000000
     >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
     4294967295

Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base
specifier.  Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not
allowed.

The *note string formatting: 1e5. language also now has support for the
‘'_'’ option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands
separator for floating-point presentation types and for integer
presentation type ‘'d'’.  For integer presentation types ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’,
‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores will be inserted every 4 digits:

     >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
     '1_000_000'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
     'ffff_ffff'

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 515(2) - Underscores in Numeric Literals

     PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Next: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Prev: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.4 PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
........................................

PEP 492(1) introduced support for native coroutines and ‘async’ /
‘await’ syntax to Python 3.5.  A notable limitation of the Python 3.5
implementation is that it was not possible to use ‘await’ and ‘yield’ in
the same function body.  In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted,
making it possible to define 'asynchronous generators':

     async def ticker(delay, to):
         """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds."""
         for i in range(to):
             yield i
             await asyncio.sleep(delay)

The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 525(2) - Asynchronous Generators

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Next: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Prev: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.5 PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
............................................

PEP 530(1) adds support for using ‘async for’ in list, set, dict
comprehensions and generator expressions:

     result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]

Additionally, ‘await’ expressions are supported in all kinds of
comprehensions:

     result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 530(2) - Asynchronous Comprehensions

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Next: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.6 PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
........................................................

It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a
metaclass.  The new ‘__init_subclass__’ classmethod will be called on
the base class whenever a new subclass is created:

     class PluginBase:
         subclasses = []

         def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
             super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
             cls.subclasses.append(cls)

     class Plugin1(PluginBase):
         pass

     class Plugin2(PluginBase):
         pass

In order to allow zero-argument *note super(): 4c8. calls to work
correctly from *note __init_subclass__(): 61e. implementations, custom
metaclasses must ensure that the new ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry is
propagated to ‘type.__new__’ (as described in *note Création de l'objet
classe: c3a.).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 487(1) - Simpler customization of class creation

     PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

*note Feature documentation: c3b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Next: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Prev: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.7 PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
.................................................

PEP 487(1) extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional
*note __set_name__(): c3e. method.  Whenever a new class is defined, the
new method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition,
providing them with a reference to the class being defined and the name
given to the descriptor within the class namespace.  In other words,
instances of descriptors can now know the attribute name of the
descriptor in the owner class:

     class IntField:
         def __get__(self, instance, owner):
             return instance.__dict__[self.name]

         def __set__(self, instance, value):
             if not isinstance(value, int):
                 raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
             instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

         # this is the new initializer:
         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.name = name

     class Model:
         int_field = IntField()

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 487(2) - Simpler customization of class creation

     PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

*note Feature documentation: c3f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Next: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Prev: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.8 PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
...................................................

File system paths have historically been represented as *note str: 437.
or *note bytes: 1bd. objects.  This has led to people who write code
which operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only
one of those two types (an *note int: 254. representing a file
descriptor does not count as that is not a file path).  Unfortunately
that assumption prevents alternative object representations of file
system paths like *note pathlib: a3. from working with pre-existing
code, including Python's standard library.

To fix this situation, a new interface represented by *note os.PathLike:
c41. has been defined.  By implementing the *note __fspath__(): c42.
method, an object signals that it represents a path.  An object can then
provide a low-level representation of a file system path as a *note str:
437. or *note bytes: 1bd. object.  This means an object is considered
*note path-like: 29d. if it implements *note os.PathLike: c41. or is a
*note str: 437. or *note bytes: 1bd. object which represents a file
system path.  Code can use *note os.fspath(): c43, *note os.fsdecode():
c44, or *note os.fsencode(): c45. to explicitly get a *note str: 437.
and/or *note bytes: 1bd. representation of a path-like object.

The built-in *note open(): 508. function has been updated to accept
*note os.PathLike: c41. objects, as have all relevant functions in the
*note os: a0. and *note os.path: a1. modules, and most other functions
and classes in the standard library.  The *note os.DirEntry: 487. class
and relevant classes in *note pathlib: a3. have also been updated to
implement *note os.PathLike: c41.

The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating on
file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly support
all *note path-like objects: 29d. without any code changes, or at least
very minimal ones (e.g.  calling *note os.fspath(): c43. at the
beginning of code before operating on a path-like object).

Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for *note
pathlib.Path: 226. to be used more easily and transparently with
pre-existing code:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
     ...     contents = f.read()
     ...
     >>> import os.path
     >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     ('some_file', '.txt')
     >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
     '/a/b/c'
     >>> import os
     >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     'some_file.txt'

(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle
Zijlstra.)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 519(1) - Adding a file system path protocol

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Next: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.9 PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
..........................................

In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local
clocks are moved back.  In those times, intervals are introduced in
which local clocks show the same time twice in the same day.  In these
situations, the information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a
Python datetime instance) is insufficient to identify a particular
moment in time.

PEP 495(1) adds the new 'fold' attribute to instances of *note
datetime.datetime: 1c7. and *note datetime.time: 1c9. classes to
differentiate between two moments in time for which local times are the
same:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

The values of the *note fold: c47. attribute have the value ‘0’ for all
instances except those that represent the second (chronologically)
moment in time in an ambiguous case.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 495(2) - Local Time Disambiguation

     PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation
     by Alexander Belopolsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.10 PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
.............................................................

Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode)
rather than bytes.  However, there are some situations where using bytes
is sufficient and correct.

Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on
Windows.  With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now
supported on Windows, provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding
returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49, which now defaults
to ‘'utf-8'’.

Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use *note
os.fsencode(): c45. and *note os.fsdecode(): c44. to ensure their bytes
are correctly encoded.  To revert to the previous behaviour, set *note
PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. or call *note
sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab.

See PEP 529(1) for more information and discussion of code modifications
that may be required.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Prev: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.11 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
..........................................................

The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters
and provide correctly read str objects to Python code.  ‘sys.stdin’,
‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ now default to utf-8 encoding.

This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when
redirecting files or pipes.  To revert to the previous behaviour for
interactive console use, set *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c4b.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 528(1) - Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

     PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Next: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Prev: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.12 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
.............................................................

Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same
order in which the names appear in the source.  This order is now
preserved in the new class's *note __dict__: c4d. attribute.

Also, the effective default class 'execution' namespace (returned from
*note type.__prepare__(): c4e.) is now an insertion-order-preserving
mapping.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 520(1) - Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Next: New dict implementation,  Prev: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.13 PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
...................................................

‘**kwargs’ in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an
insertion-order-preserving mapping.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 468(1) - Preserving Keyword Argument Order

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/


File: python.info,  Node: New dict implementation,  Next: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Prev: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.14 New dict implementation
................................

The *note dict: ab6. type now uses a "compact" representation based on a
proposal by Raymond Hettinger(1) which was first implemented by PyPy(2).
The memory usage of the new *note dict(): 253. is between 20% and 25%
smaller compared to Python 3.5.

The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an
implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in
the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in
the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to
mandate order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python
implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility with
older versions of the language where random iteration order is still in
effect, e.g.  Python 3.5).

(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350(3).  Idea originally suggested
by Raymond Hettinger(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (4) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Next: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Prev: New dict implementation,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.15 PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
..........................................................

While Python provides extensive support to customize how code executes,
one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame objects.  If
you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in Python there really
wasn't any way without directly manipulating function pointers for
defined functions.

PEP 523(1) changes this by providing an API to make frame evaluation
pluggable at the C level.  This will allow for tools such as debuggers
and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the execution of Python
code begins.  This enables the use of alternative evaluation
implementations for Python code, tracking frame evaluation, etc.

This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to
signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only
applicable to very select, low-level use-cases.  Semantics of the API
will change with Python as necessary.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 523(2) - Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Next: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.16 PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
..........................................

The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable allows setting the
Python memory allocators and installing debug hooks.

It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on
Python compiled in release mode using ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’.  Effects of
debug hooks:

   * Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ‘0xCB’

   * Freed memory is filled with the byte ‘0xDB’

   * Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example,
     *note PyObject_Free(): c55. called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.

   * Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)

   * Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)

   * Check that the *note GIL: 147. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.)
     domains are called.

Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.

Reportez-vous à la fonction *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. pour ce
qui concerne les fonctions de débogage de l'allocateur mémoire de
Python.

It is now also possible to force the usage of the ‘malloc()’ allocator
of the C library for all Python memory allocations using
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’.  This is helpful when using external memory
debuggers like Valgrind on a Python compiled in release mode.

On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the *note
tracemalloc: fe. module to get the traceback where a memory block was
allocated.

Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using ‘python3.6 -X
tracemalloc=5’ (store 5 frames in traces):

     Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
         4 bytes originally requested
         The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
         The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
             at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
             at tail+1: 0xfb
             at tail+2: 0xfb
             at tail+3: 0xfb
             at tail+4: 0xfb
             at tail+5: 0xfb
             at tail+6: 0xfb
             at tail+7: 0xfb
         The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
         Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00

     Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84

     Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte

     Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       ...

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26516(1) and bpo-26564(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564


File: python.info,  Node: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>

1.8.2.17 DTrace and SystemTap probing support
.............................................

Python can now be built ‘--with-dtrace’ which enables static markers for
the following events in the interpreter:

   * function call/return

   * garbage collection started/finished

   * line of code executed.

This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production,
without the need to recompile specific *note debug builds: 1f6. or
providing application-specific profiling/debugging code.

More details in *note Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap:
c5c.

The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS. Additional
markers may be added in the future.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590(1), based on patches by Jesús
Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<8>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<8>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<13>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.3 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * A ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ statement must now textually appear before
     the first use of the affected name in the same scope.  Previously
     this was a *note SyntaxWarning: 451.

   * It is now possible to set a *note special method: c5e. to ‘None’ to
     indicate that the corresponding operation is not available.  For
     example, if a class sets ‘__iter__()’ to ‘None’, the class is not
     iterable.  (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-25958(1).)

   * Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as
     ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’ (see *note
     traceback: c5f. for an example).  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in
     bpo-26823(2).)

   * Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37.
     (subclass of *note ImportError: 40f.) when it cannot find a module.
     Code that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will
     still work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(3).)

   * Class methods relying on zero-argument ‘super()’ will now work
     correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation.
     (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<8>,  Next: Modules améliorés<8>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<8>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.4 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: secrets,  Up: Nouveaux modules<8>

1.8.4.1 secrets
...............

The main purpose of the new *note secrets: bf. module is to provide an
obvious way to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random
values suitable for managing secrets, such as account authentication,
tokens, and similar.

     Avertissement: Note that the pseudo-random generators in the *note
     random: b7. module should 'NOT' be used for security purposes.  Use
     *note secrets: bf. on Python 3.6+ and *note os.urandom(): 50f. on
     Python 3.5 and earlier.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 506(1) - Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D'Aprano.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<8>,  Next: Optimizations<3>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<8>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.5 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* array: array<4>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<2>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* os: os<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<4>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<6>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<9>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<5>.
* warnings: warnings<4>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::


File: python.info,  Node: array<4>,  Next: ast<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.1 'array'
...............

Exhausted iterators of *note array.array: 19e. will now stay exhausted
even if the iterated array is extended.  This is consistent with the
behavior of other mutable sequences.

Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492


File: python.info,  Node: ast<4>,  Next: asyncio<9>,  Prev: array<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.2 ast
...........

The new *note ast.Constant: 2b6. AST node has been added.  It can be
used by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.

Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<9>,  Next: binascii<2>,  Prev: ast<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.3 asyncio
...............

Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer provisional
and its API is considered stable.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: a. module since Python 3.5.0 (all
backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):

   * The *note get_event_loop(): 2bf. function has been changed to
     always return the currently running loop when called from
     coroutines and callbacks.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-28613(1).)

   * The *note ensure_future(): c66. function and all functions that use
     it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): c67, now accept all
     kinds of *note awaitable objects: 1ab.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 870. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): c68. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): b03. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

   * New *note loop.create_future(): c69. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(2), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: bbd.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041(3).)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): c6a. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-27040(4).)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b2. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The performance of *note StreamReader.readexactly(): c6b. has been
     improved.  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370(5).)

   * The *note loop.getaddrinfo(): c04. method is optimized to avoid
     calling the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.stop(): c6c. method has been changed to stop the
     loop immediately after the current iteration.  Any new callbacks
     scheduled as a result of the last iteration will be discarded.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-25593(6).)

   * ‘Future.set_exception’ will now raise *note TypeError: 525. when
     passed an instance of the *note StopIteration: bea. exception.
     (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221(7).)

   * New *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): b0a. method to be used by
     servers that accept connections outside of asyncio, but that use
     asyncio to handle them.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton in
     bpo-27392(8).)

   * ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag is now set for all TCP transports by default.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456(9).)

   * New *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): c6d. to properly close pending
     asynchronous generators before closing the loop.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-28003(10).)

   * *note Future: bbd. and *note Task: 4c5. classes now have an
     optimized C implementation which makes asyncio code up to 30%
     faster.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(11) and bpo-28544(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (2) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<2>,  Next: cmath,  Prev: asyncio<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.4 binascii
................

The *note b2a_base64(): c6f. function now accepts an optional 'newline'
keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to
the return value.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357


File: python.info,  Node: cmath,  Next: collections<4>,  Prev: binascii<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.5 cmath
.............

The new *note cmath.tau: c71. ('τ') constant has been added.
(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.)

New constants: *note cmath.inf: c72. and *note cmath.nan: c73. to match
*note math.inf: c74. and *note math.nan: 650, and also *note cmath.infj:
c75. and *note cmath.nanj: c76. to match the format used by complex
repr.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229


File: python.info,  Node: collections<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<4>,  Prev: cmath,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.6 collections
...................

The new *note Collection: c78. abstract base class has been added to
represent sized iterable container classes.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598(1).)

The new *note Reversible: c79. abstract base class represents iterable
classes that also provide the ‘__reversed__()’ method.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25987(2).)

The new *note AsyncGenerator: c7a. abstract base class represents
asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-28720(3).)

The *note namedtuple(): 1c5. function now accepts an optional keyword
argument 'module', which, when specified, is used for the *note
__module__: 36a. attribute of the returned named tuple class.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-17941(4).)

The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 1c5. are
now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(5).)

Recursive *note collections.deque: 5c8. instances can now be pickled.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<4>,  Next: contextlib<4>,  Prev: collections<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

The *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. class constructor now accepts an
optional 'thread_name_prefix' argument to make it possible to customize
the names of the threads created by the pool.  (Contributed by Gregory
P.  Smith in bpo-27664(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<4>,  Next: datetime<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.8 contextlib
..................

The *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c7d. class has been added
to provide an abstract base class for context managers.  It provides a
sensible default implementation for ‘__enter__()’ which returns ‘self’
and leaves ‘__exit__()’ an abstract method.  A matching class has been
added to the *note typing: 103. module as *note typing.ContextManager:
c7e.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<5>,  Next: decimal<2>,  Prev: contextlib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.9 datetime
................

The *note datetime: 1c7. and *note time: 1c9. classes have the new
‘fold’ attribute used to disambiguate local time when necessary.  Many
functions in the *note datetime: 30. have been updated to support local
time disambiguation.  See *note Local Time Disambiguation: c2c. section
for more information.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
bpo-24773(1).)

The *note datetime.strftime(): c80. and *note date.strftime(): c81.
methods now support ISO 8601 date directives ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’.
(Contributed by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006(2).)

The *note datetime.isoformat(): b20. function now accepts an optional
'timespec' argument that specifies the number of additional components
of the time value to include.  (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and
Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475(3).)

The *note datetime.combine(): c82. now accepts an optional 'tzinfo'
argument.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<2>,  Next: distutils<5>,  Prev: datetime<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.10 decimal
................

New *note Decimal.as_integer_ratio(): c84. method that returns a pair
‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given *note Decimal: 29a.
instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a positive denominator:

     >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
     (-157, 50)

(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in bpo-25928(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<5>,  Next: email<2>,  Prev: decimal<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.11 distutils
..................

The ‘default_format’ attribute has been removed from
‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’ and the ‘formats’ attribute defaults to
‘['gztar']’.  Although not anticipated, any code relying on the presence
of ‘default_format’ may need to be adapted.  See bpo-27819(1) for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819


File: python.info,  Node: email<2>,  Next: encodings<2>,  Prev: distutils<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.12 email
..............

The new email API, enabled via the 'policy' keyword to various
constructors, is no longer provisional.  The *note email: 3b.
documentation has been reorganized and rewritten to focus on the new
API, while retaining the old documentation for the legacy API.
(Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277(1).)

The *note email.mime: 45. classes now all accept an optional 'policy'
keyword.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331(2).)

The *note DecodedGenerator: c87. now supports the 'policy' keyword.

There is a new *note policy: 4f. attribute, *note message_factory: c88,
that controls what class is used by default when the parser creates new
message objects.  For the *note email.policy.compat32: c89. policy this
is *note Message: 279, for the new policies it is *note EmailMessage:
278.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-20476(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476


File: python.info,  Node: encodings<2>,  Next: enum<7>,  Prev: email<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.13 ‘encodings’
....................

On Windows, added the ‘'oem'’ encoding to use ‘CP_OEMCP’, and the
‘'ansi'’ alias for the existing ‘'mbcs'’ encoding, which uses the
‘CP_ACP’ code page.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959


File: python.info,  Node: enum<7>,  Next: faulthandler<2>,  Prev: encodings<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.14 enum
.............

Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the *note enum: 55.
module: *note Flag: 610. and ‘IntFlags’.  Both are used to define
constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-23591(1).)

Many standard library modules have been updated to use the ‘IntFlags’
class for their constants.

The new *note enum.auto: c8c. value can be used to assign values to enum
members automatically:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     red = auto()
     ...     blue = auto()
     ...     green = auto()
     ...
     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<2>,  Next: fileinput<2>,  Prev: enum<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.15 ‘faulthandler’
.......................

On Windows, the *note faulthandler: 57. module now installs a handler
for Windows exceptions: see *note faulthandler.enable(): c8e.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput<2>,  Next: hashlib<5>,  Prev: faulthandler<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.16 ‘fileinput’
....................

*note hook_encoded(): c90. now supports the 'errors' argument.
(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<5>,  Next: http client<2>,  Prev: fileinput<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.17 'hashlib'
..................

*note hashlib: 67. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend
version is 1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module.  *note blake2b(): 62f.
and *note blake2s(): 630. are always available and support the full
feature set of BLAKE2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798(2)
based on code by Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves.  Documentation
written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)

The SHA-3 hash functions *note sha3_224(): c92, *note sha3_256(): c93,
*note sha3_384(): c94, *note sha3_512(): c95, and SHAKE hash functions
*note shake_128(): c96. and *note shake_256(): c97. were added.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113(3).  Keccak Code Package
by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
Ronny Van Keer.)

The password-based key derivation function *note scrypt(): c2e. is now
available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27928(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928


File: python.info,  Node: http client<2>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Prev: hashlib<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.18 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.request(): c99. and *note endheaders(): c9a. both
now support chunked encoding request bodies.  (Contributed by Demian
Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Next: importlib<6>,  Prev: http client<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.19 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look
and work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and
improve.  Part of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac,
is using ttk widgets, mostly in the dialogs.  As a result, IDLE no
longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4.  It now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6.  We
recommend running the latest release of either.

'Modernizing' includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules.
The renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the
renaming of, for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and
tkinter.font in 3.0.  As a result, imports of idlelib files that worked
in 3.5 will usually not work in 3.6.  At least a module name change will
be needed (see idlelib/README.txt), sometimes more.  (Name changes
contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in bpo-24225(1).  Most
idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the process.)

In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes
will be easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them.
Additional useful information will be added to idlelib when available.

New in 3.6.2:

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(2).)

New in 3.6.3:

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(3).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(4).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

New in 3.6.4:

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(5).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(6).)

New in 3.6.6:

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(7), bpo-33768(8), and bpo-33679(9).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(10).)

New in 3.6.7:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<6>,  Next: inspect<6>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.20 importlib
..................

Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37.
(subclass of *note ImportError: 40f.) when it cannot find a module.
Code that current checks for ‘ImportError’ (in try-except) will still
work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(1).)

*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: c9d. now calls *note create_module():
c9e. on the wrapped loader, removing the restriction that *note
importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: c9f. and *note
importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: ca0. couldn't be used with
*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: c9d.

*note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f3, *note
importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 506, and *note
importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(): ca1. now accept a *note
path-like object: 29d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<6>,  Next: json,  Prev: importlib<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.21 'inspect'
..................

The *note inspect.signature(): 724. function now reports the implicit
‘.0’ parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters
called ‘implicit0’.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-19611(1).)

To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy
‘inspect.getargspec()’ API, the previously documented deprecation of
*note inspect.getfullargspec(): 725. has been reversed.  While this
function is convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the
richer *note inspect.signature(): 724. interface remains the recommended
approach for new code.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-27172(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172


File: python.info,  Node: json,  Next: logging<4>,  Prev: inspect<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.22 json
.............

*note json.load(): ca4. and *note json.loads(): 944. now support binary
input.  Encoded JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16,
or UTF-32.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909


File: python.info,  Node: logging<4>,  Next: math<7>,  Prev: json,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.23 logging
................

The new *note WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded(): ca6. method has been
added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to be reopened.
(Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884


File: python.info,  Node: math<7>,  Next: multiprocessing<5>,  Prev: logging<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.24 'math'
...............

The tau ('τ') constant has been added to the *note math: 8d. and *note
cmath: 18. modules.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP
628(2) for details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<5>,  Next: os<8>,  Prev: math<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.25 multiprocessing
........................

*note Proxy Objects: ca9. returned by *note multiprocessing.Manager():
caa. can now be nested.  (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-6766(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766


File: python.info,  Node: os<8>,  Next: pathlib<9>,  Prev: multiprocessing<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.26 'os'
.............

See the summary of *note PEP 519: c2b. for details on how the *note os:
a0. and *note os.path: a1. modules now support *note path-like objects:
29d.

*note scandir(): a4f. now supports *note bytes: 1bd. paths on Windows.

A new *note close(): cac. method allows explicitly closing a *note
scandir(): a4f. iterator.  The *note scandir(): a4f. iterator now
supports the *note context manager: 5c0. protocol.  If a ‘scandir()’
iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a *note
ResourceWarning: 241. will be emitted in its destructor.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25994(1).)

On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 50f. now blocks until the system urandom
entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See the PEP
524(2) for the rationale.

The Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the
new *note os.getrandom(): cad. function.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner, part of the PEP 524(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<9>,  Next: pdb<5>,  Prev: os<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.27 pathlib
................

*note pathlib: a3. now supports *note path-like objects: 29d.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(1).)

See the summary of *note PEP 519: c2b. for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<5>,  Next: pickle<2>,  Prev: pathlib<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.28 'pdb'
..............

The *note Pdb: 911. class constructor has a new optional 'readrc'
argument to control whether ‘.pdbrc’ files should be read.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<2>,  Next: pickletools,  Prev: pdb<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.29 pickle
...............

Objects that need ‘__new__’ called with keyword arguments can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: cb1. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports this case.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24164(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools,  Next: pydoc<3>,  Prev: pickle<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.30 pickletools
....................

*note pickletools.dis(): cb3. now outputs the implicit memo index for
the ‘MEMOIZE’ opcode.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<3>,  Next: random<4>,  Prev: pickletools,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.31 'pydoc'
................

The *note pydoc: b4. module has learned to respect the ‘MANPAGER’
environment variable.  (Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637(1).)

*note help(): 8c6. and *note pydoc: b4. can now list named tuple fields
in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-24879(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879


File: python.info,  Node: random<4>,  Next: re<5>,  Prev: pydoc<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.32 'random'
.................

The new *note choices(): cb6. function returns a list of elements of
specified size from the given population with optional weights.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844


File: python.info,  Node: re<5>,  Next: readline,  Prev: random<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.33 ‘re’
.............

Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.  Examples:
‘'(?i:p)ython'’ matches ‘'python'’ and ‘'Python'’, but not ‘'PYTHON'’;
‘'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'’ matches ‘'GvR'’ and ‘'gvr'’, but not ‘'GVR'’.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028(1).)

Match object groups can be accessed by ‘__getitem__’, which is
equivalent to ‘group()’.  So ‘mo['name']’ is now equivalent to
‘mo.group('name')’.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454(2).)

*note Match: cb8. objects now support *note index-like objects: 709. as
group indices.  (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in
bpo-27177(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177


File: python.info,  Node: readline,  Next: rlcompleter,  Prev: re<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.34 readline
.................

Added *note set_auto_history(): cba. to enable or disable automatic
addition of input to the history list.  (Contributed by Tyler Crompton
in bpo-26870(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter,  Next: shlex<2>,  Prev: readline,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.35 rlcompleter
....................

Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix
starts with underscores.  A space or a colon is added after some
completed keywords.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011(1)
and bpo-25209(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<2>,  Next: site<3>,  Prev: rlcompleter,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.36 shlex
..............

The *note shlex: cbd. has much *note improved shell compatibility: cbe.
through the new 'punctuation_chars' argument to control which characters
are treated as punctuation.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-1521950(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950


File: python.info,  Node: site<3>,  Next: sqlite3<7>,  Prev: shlex<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.37 ‘site’
...............

When specifying paths to add to *note sys.path: 3ab. in a ‘.pth’ file,
you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g.  zip files).
(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<7>,  Next: socket<7>,  Prev: site<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.38 ‘sqlite3’
..................

*note sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid: cc1. now supports the ‘REPLACE’
statement.  (Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864


File: python.info,  Node: socket<7>,  Next: socketserver<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.39 'socket'
.................

The *note ioctl(): cc3. function now supports the *note
SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH: cc4. control code.  (Contributed by Daniel
Stokes in bpo-26536(1).)

The *note getsockopt(): cc5. constants ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’,
‘SO_PEERSEC’, and ‘SO_PASSSEC’ are now supported.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-26907(2).)

The *note setsockopt(): cc6. now supports the ‘setsockopt(level,
optname, None, optlen: int)’ form.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(3).)

The socket module now supports the address family *note AF_ALG: cc7. to
interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ‘ALG_*’, ‘SOL_ALG’ and *note
sendmsg_afalg(): cc8. were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(4) with support from Victor Stinner.)

New Linux constants ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ and ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.
(Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273(5)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<2>,  Next: ssl<7>,  Prev: socket<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.40 socketserver
.....................

Servers based on the *note socketserver: cc. module, including those
defined in *note http.server: 71, *note xmlrpc.server: 12e. and *note
wsgiref.simple_server: 11a, now support the *note context manager: 5c0.
protocol.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26404(1).)

The ‘wfile’ attribute of *note StreamRequestHandler: cca. classes now
implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681. writable interface.  In
particular, calling *note write(): ccb. is now guaranteed to send the
data in full.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<7>,  Next: statistics<5>,  Prev: socketserver<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.41 ‘ssl’
..............

*note ssl: cf. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is
1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20
Poly1305 cipher suites have been added.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27850(2) and bpo-27766(3).)

*note SSLContext: 291. has better default configuration for options and
ciphers.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043(4).)

SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another
with the new *note SSLSession: ccd. class.  TLS session resumption can
speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500(5) based on a draft by
Alex Warhawk.)

The new *note get_ciphers(): cce. method can be used to get a list of
enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.

All constants and flags have been converted to *note IntEnum: ccf. and
‘IntFlags’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025(6).)

Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for *note SSLContext: 291.
were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085(7).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a21. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a22. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<5>,  Next: struct,  Prev: ssl<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.42 ‘statistics’
.....................

A new *note harmonic_mean(): cd1. function has been added.  (Contributed
by Steven D'Aprano in bpo-27181(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181


File: python.info,  Node: struct,  Next: subprocess<3>,  Prev: statistics<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.43 struct
...............

*note struct: d4. now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the
‘'e'’ format specifier.  (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in
bpo-11734(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<3>,  Next: sys<10>,  Prev: struct,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.44 subprocess
...................

*note subprocess.Popen: 197. destructor now emits a *note
ResourceWarning: 241. warning if the child process is still running.
Use the context manager protocol (‘with proc: ...’) or explicitly call
the *note wait(): cd4. method to read the exit status of the child
process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741(1).)

The *note subprocess.Popen: 197. constructor and all functions that pass
arguments through to it now accept 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments.
Specifying either of these will enable text mode for the 'stdin',
'stdout' and 'stderr' streams.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-6135(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135


File: python.info,  Node: sys<10>,  Next: telnetlib,  Prev: subprocess<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.45 sys
............

The new *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): cd6. function returns the
name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and
bytes filenames.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781(1).)

On Windows the return value of the *note getwindowsversion(): cd7.
function now includes the 'platform_version' field which contains the
accurate major version, minor version and build number of the current
operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the
process (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib,  Next: time<6>,  Prev: sys<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.46 telnetlib
..................

‘telnetlib.Telnet’ is now a context manager (contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel in bpo-25485(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485


File: python.info,  Node: time<6>,  Next: timeit,  Prev: telnetlib,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.47 time
.............

The *note struct_time: cda. attributes ‘tm_gmtoff’ and ‘tm_zone’ are now
available on all platforms.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit,  Next: tkinter<6>,  Prev: time<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.48 timeit
...............

The new *note Timer.autorange(): cdc. convenience method has been added
to call *note Timer.timeit(): cdd. repeatedly so that the total run time
is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Steven
D'Aprano in bpo-6422(1).)

*note timeit: ee. now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
between best and worst times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23552(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<6>,  Next: traceback<4>,  Prev: timeit,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.49 tkinter
................

Added methods ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ and ‘trace_info()’ in the
‘tkinter.Variable’ class.  They replace old methods ‘trace_variable()’,
‘trace()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and ‘trace_vinfo()’ that use obsolete Tcl
commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22115(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<4>,  Next: tracemalloc<3>,  Prev: tkinter<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.50 traceback
..................

Both the traceback module and the interpreter's builtin exception
display now abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as
shown in the following example:

     >>> def f(): f()
     ...
     >>> f()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
     RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<3>,  Next: typing<9>,  Prev: traceback<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.51 tracemalloc
....................

The *note tracemalloc: fe. module now supports tracing memory
allocations in multiple different address spaces.

The new *note DomainFilter: ce1. filter class has been added to filter
block traces by their address space (domain).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26588(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588


File: python.info,  Node: typing<9>,  Next: unicodedata<7>,  Prev: tracemalloc<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.52 'typing'
.................

Since the *note typing: 103. module is *note provisional: af3, all
changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been backported to Python
3.5.x.

The *note typing: 103. module has a much improved support for generic
type aliases.  For example ‘Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]’ is now a valid type
annotation.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195(1).)

The *note typing.ContextManager: c7e. class has been added for
representing *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c7d.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(2).)

The *note typing.Collection: ce3. class has been added for representing
*note collections.abc.Collection: c78.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-27598(3).)

The *note typing.ClassVar: 263. type construct has been added to mark
class variables.  As introduced in PEP 526(4), a variable annotation
wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be
used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that
class.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #280(5).)

A new *note TYPE_CHECKING: ce4. constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by
the static type checkers, but is ‘False’ at runtime.  (Contributed by
Guido van Rossum in Github #230(6).)

A new *note NewType(): ce5. helper function has been added to create
lightweight distinct types for annotations:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
of the original type.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github
#189(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (5) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280

   (6) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230

   (7) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<7>,  Next: unittest mock<2>,  Prev: typing<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.53 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 104. module now uses data from Unicode 9.0.0(1).
(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<2>,  Next: urllib request,  Prev: unicodedata<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

The *note Mock: a3c. class has the following improvements:

   * Two new methods, *note Mock.assert_called(): ce8. and *note
     Mock.assert_called_once(): ce9. to check if the mock object was
     called.  (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323(1).)

   * The *note Mock.reset_mock(): cea. method now has two optional
     keyword only arguments: 'return_value' and 'side_effect'.
     (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21271(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser,  Prev: unittest mock<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.55 urllib.request
.......................

If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a bytes
object) but no ‘Content-Length’ header, rather than throwing an error,
‘AbstractHTTPHandler’ now falls back to use chunked transfer encoding.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser,  Next: venv<5>,  Prev: urllib request,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.56 urllib.robotparser
...........................

*note RobotFileParser: ced. now supports the ‘Crawl-delay’ and
‘Request-rate’ extensions.  (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in
bpo-16099(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099


File: python.info,  Node: venv<5>,  Next: warnings<4>,  Prev: urllib robotparser,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.57 venv
.............

*note venv: 110. accepts a new parameter ‘--prompt’.  This parameter
provides an alternative prefix for the virtual environment.  (Proposed
by Łukasz Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in
bpo-22829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<4>,  Next: winreg,  Prev: venv<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.58 warnings
.................

A new optional 'source' parameter has been added to the *note
warnings.warn_explicit(): cf0. function: the destroyed object which
emitted a *note ResourceWarning: 241.  A 'source' attribute has also
been added to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’ (contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-26568(1) and bpo-26567(2)).

When a *note ResourceWarning: 241. warning is logged, the *note
tracemalloc: fe. module is now used to try to retrieve the traceback
where the destroyed object was allocated.

Example with the script ‘example.py’:

     import warnings

     def func():
         return open(__file__)

     f = func()
     f = None

Output of the command ‘python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py’:

     example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       f = None
     Object allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "example.py", lineno 4
         return open(__file__)
       File "example.py", lineno 6
         f = func()

The "Object allocated at" traceback is new and is only displayed if
*note tracemalloc: fe. is tracing Python memory allocations and if the
*note warnings: 111. module was already imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567


File: python.info,  Node: winreg,  Next: winsound,  Prev: warnings<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.59 winreg
...............

Added the 64-bit integer type *note REG_QWORD: cf2.  (Contributed by
Clement Rouault in bpo-23026(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026


File: python.info,  Node: winsound,  Next: xmlrpc client,  Prev: winreg,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.60 winsound
.................

Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to *note Beep: cf4, *note
MessageBeep: cf5, and *note PlaySound: cf6. (bpo-27982(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client,  Next: zipfile<3>,  Prev: winsound,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.61 xmlrpc.client
......................

The *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. module now supports unmarshalling
additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation for
numerics and ‘None’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<3>,  Next: zlib,  Prev: xmlrpc client,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.62 zipfile
................

A new *note ZipInfo.from_file(): cf9. class method allows making a *note
ZipInfo: cfa. instance from a filesystem file.  A new *note
ZipInfo.is_dir(): cfb. method can be used to check if the *note ZipInfo:
cfa. instance represents a directory.  (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-26039(1).)

The *note ZipFile.open(): 411. method can now be used to write data into
a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  (Contributed by Thomas
Kluyver in bpo-26039(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039


File: python.info,  Node: zlib,  Prev: zipfile<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<8>

1.8.5.63 zlib
.............

The *note compress(): 62c. and *note decompress(): cfd. functions now
accept keyword arguments.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243(1)
and Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764(2) respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<3>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<8>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode which made a number of opcode optimizations possible.
     (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy
     Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).)

   * The *note asyncio.Future: bbd. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(3).)

   * The *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544(4).)

   * Various implementation improvements in the *note typing: 103.
     module (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times
     performance improvements and reduced memory footprint.

   * The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘surrogateescape’, ‘ignore’ and ‘replace’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-24870(5)).

   * The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for
     the error handler ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-25227(6)).

   * The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’, ‘surrogatepass’
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267(7)).

   * The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25301(8)).

   * ‘bytes % args’ is now up to 2 times faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25349(9)).

   * ‘bytearray % args’ is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25399(10)).

   * Optimize *note bytes.fromhex(): adf. and *note bytearray.fromhex():
     ae0.: they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25401(11)).

   * Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and ‘bytearray.replace(b'',
     b'.')’: up to 80% faster.  (Contributed by Josh Snider in
     bpo-26574(12)).

   * Allocator functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. domain (*note
     PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59.) now use the *note pymalloc memory
     allocator: cff. instead of ‘malloc()’ function of the C library.
     The pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to
     512 bytes with a short lifetime, and use ‘malloc()’ for larger
     memory blocks.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26249(13)).

   * *note pickle.load(): d00. and *note pickle.loads(): d01. are now up
     to 10% faster when deserializing many small objects (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-27056(14)).

   * Passing *note keyword arguments: d02. to a function has an overhead
     in comparison with passing *note positional arguments: d03.  Now in
     extension functions implemented with using Argument Clinic this
     overhead is significantly decreased.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-27574(15)).

   * Optimized *note glob(): 29c. and *note iglob(): 7f3. functions in
     the *note glob: 63. module; they are now about 3-6 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596(16)).

   * Optimized globbing in *note pathlib: a3. by using *note
     os.scandir(): a4f.; it is now about 1.5-4 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032(17)).

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. parsing, iteration and deepcopy
     performance has been significantly improved.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25638(18), bpo-25873(19), and
     bpo-25869(20).)

   * Creation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. instances from floats
     and decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-25971(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Next: Autres Améliorations,  Prev: Optimizations<3>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.7 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

   * Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build.
     Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in
     place of custom macros like ‘PY_LONG_LONG’.  For more information,
     see PEP 7(1) and bpo-17884(2).

   * Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API
     level set to 21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs
     successfully.  While Android is not yet a supported platform, the
     Python test suite runs on the Android emulator with only about 16
     tests failures.  See the Android meta-issue bpo-26865(3).

   * The ‘--enable-optimizations’ configure flag has been added.
     Turning it on will activate expensive optimizations like PGO.
     (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359(4).)

   * The *note GIL: 147. must now be held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.)
     domains are called.

   * New *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. API which indicates if flushing
     buffered data failed.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-5319(5).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. now supports *note
     positional-only parameters: a75.  Positional-only parameters are
     defined by empty names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-26282(6)).

   * ‘PyTraceback_Print’ method now abbreviates long sequences of
     repeated lines as ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’.
     (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(7).)

   * The new *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): d06. function allows
     for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 40f. to raise.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(8).)

   * The new *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): d07. function can be used to
     generate a *note ResourceWarning: 241. providing the source of the
     resource allocation.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-26567(9).)

   * The new *note PyOS_FSPath(): d08. function returns the file system
     representation of a *note path-like object: 29d.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(10).)

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d09. and *note
     PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 565. functions will now accept *note
     path-like objects: 29d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: Autres Améliorations,  Next: Obsolescence<9>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.8 Autres Améliorations
--------------------------

   * When *note -version: d0b. (short form: *note -V: 176.) is supplied
     twice, Python prints *note sys.version: 177. for detailed
     information.

          $ ./python -VV
          Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
          [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<9>,  Next: Retraits<7>,  Prev: Autres Améliorations,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.9 Obsolescence
------------------

* Menu:

* Nouveaux mot-clefs::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<6>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux mot-clefs,  Next: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: Obsolescence<9>

1.8.9.1 Nouveaux mot-clefs
..........................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.  Starting in Python 3.6, the
use of ‘async’ or ‘await’ as names will generate a *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Prev: Nouveaux mot-clefs,  Up: Obsolescence<9>

1.8.9.2 Deprecated Python behavior
..................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: bea. exception inside a generator will
now generate a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3, and will trigger a *note
RuntimeError: 193. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: d0f. for details.

The ‘__aiter__()’ method is now expected to return an asynchronous
iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously.
Doing the former will trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Backward
compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-27243(1).)

A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
generates a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Although this will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 18b, that will not be for several
Python releases.  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364(2).)

When performing a relative import, falling back on ‘__name__’ and
‘__path__’ from the calling module when ‘__spec__’ or ‘__package__’ are
not defined now raises an *note ImportWarning: 4e7.  (Contributed by
Rose Ames in bpo-25791(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Next: xml<6>,  Prev: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: Obsolescence<9>

1.8.9.3 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
........................................................

* Menu:

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* os: os<9>.
* re: re<6>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* venv: venv<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat,  Next: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.4 asynchat
................

The ‘asynchat’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: a.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore,  Next: dbm<4>,  Prev: asynchat,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.5 asyncore
................

The ‘asyncore’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: a.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<4>,  Next: distutils<6>,  Prev: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.6 dbm
...........

Unlike other *note dbm: 31. implementations, the *note dbm.dumb: 32.
module creates databases with the ‘'rw'’ mode and allows modifying the
database opened with the ‘'r'’ mode.  This behavior is now deprecated
and will be removed in 3.8.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21708(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<6>,  Next: grp,  Prev: dbm<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.7 distutils
.................

The undocumented ‘extra_path’ argument to the ‘distutils.Distribution’
constructor is now considered deprecated and will raise a warning if
set.  Support for this parameter will be removed in a future Python
release.  See bpo-27919(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919


File: python.info,  Node: grp,  Next: importlib<7>,  Prev: distutils<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.8 grp
...........

The support of non-integer arguments in *note getgrgid(): d16. has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<7>,  Next: os<9>,  Prev: grp,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.9 importlib
.................

The *note importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module(): d18. and
*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module(): d19.
methods are now deprecated.  They were the only remaining
implementations of *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 856. in
*note importlib: 76. that had not been deprecated in previous versions
of Python in favour of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 857.

The *note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: d1a. class is now
deprecated.  As of 3.6.0, it is still added to *note sys.meta_path: d1b.
by default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.


File: python.info,  Node: os<9>,  Next: re<6>,  Prev: importlib<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.10 'os'
.............

Undocumented support of general *note bytes-like objects: d1d. as paths
in *note os: a0. functions, *note compile(): 190. and similar functions
is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791(1) and
bpo-26754(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: re<6>,  Next: ssl<8>,  Prev: os<9>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.11 ‘re’
.............

Support for inline flags ‘(?letters)’ in the middle of the regular
expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python
version.  Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<8>,  Next: tkinter<7>,  Prev: re<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.12 ‘ssl’
..............

OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
In the future the *note ssl: cf. module will require at least OpenSSL
1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

SSL-related arguments like ‘certfile’, ‘keyfile’ and ‘check_hostname’ in
*note ftplib: 5d, *note http.client: 6e, *note imaplib: 73, *note
poplib: ab, and *note smtplib: c9. have been deprecated in favor of
‘context’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(1).)

A couple of protocols and functions of the *note ssl: cf. module are now
deprecated.  Some features will no longer be available in future
versions of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a
different API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(2) and
bpo-26470(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<7>,  Next: venv<6>,  Prev: ssl<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.13 tkinter
................

The ‘tkinter.tix’ module is now deprecated.  *note tkinter: ef. users
should use *note tkinter.ttk: f8. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: venv<6>,  Prev: tkinter<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.8.9.14 venv
.............

The ‘pyvenv’ script has been deprecated in favour of ‘python3 -m venv’.
This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter ‘pyvenv’ is
connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the
virtual environment.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: xml<6>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Up: Obsolescence<9>

1.8.9.15 'xml'
..............

   * As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 128. modules no longer
     process external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Next: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: xml<6>,  Up: Obsolescence<9>

1.8.9.16 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
....................................................

Undocumented functions ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’,
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ and
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ are deprecated now.  Use the *note
generic codec based API: d25. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Up: Obsolescence<9>

1.8.9.17 Deprecated Build Options
.................................

The ‘--with-system-ffi’ configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS
UNIX platforms.  It may be disabled by using ‘--without-system-ffi’, but
using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7.
macOS is unaffected by this change.  Note that many OS distributors
already use the ‘--with-system-ffi’ flag when building their system
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<7>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 6,  Prev: Obsolescence<9>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.10 Retraits
---------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<3>,  Up: Retraits<7>

1.8.10.1 API and Feature Removals
.................................

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in regular
     expressions will now cause an error.  In replacement templates for
     *note re.sub(): 2a0. they are still allowed, but deprecated.  The
     *note re.LOCALE: b5c. flag can now only be used with binary
     patterns.

   * ‘inspect.getmoduleinfo()’ was removed (was deprecated since CPython
     3.3).  *note inspect.getmodulename(): d29. should be used for
     obtaining the module name for a given path.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-13248(1).)

   * ‘traceback.Ignore’ class and ‘traceback.usage’,
     ‘traceback.modname’, ‘traceback.fullmodname’,
     ‘traceback.find_lines_from_code’, ‘traceback.find_lines’,
     ‘traceback.find_strings’, ‘traceback.find_executable_lines’ methods
     were removed from the *note traceback: fd. module.  They were
     undocumented methods deprecated since Python 3.2 and equivalent
     functionality is available from private methods.

   * The ‘tk_menuBar()’ and ‘tk_bindForTraversal()’ dummy methods in
     *note tkinter: ef. widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk
     commands were obsolete since Tk 4.0).

   * The *note open(): 411. method of the *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6b1.
     class no longer supports the ‘'U'’ mode (was deprecated since
     Python 3.4).  Use *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. for reading
     compressed text files in *note universal newlines: d2a. mode.

   * The undocumented ‘IN’, ‘CDROM’, ‘DLFCN’, ‘TYPES’, ‘CDIO’, and
     ‘STROPTS’ modules have been removed.  They had been available in
     the platform specific ‘Lib/plat-*/’ directories, but were
     chronically out of date, inconsistently available across platforms,
     and unmaintained.  The script that created these modules is still
     available in the source distribution at Tools/scripts/h2py.py(2).

   * The deprecated ‘asynchat.fifo’ class has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 6,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Prev: Retraits<7>,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.11 Porting to Python 3.6
----------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior::
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<8>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<6>.
* Changements au code intermédiaire CPython: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior,  Next: Changements dans l'API Python<8>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.8.11.1 Changes in 'python' Command Behavior
.............................................

   * The output of a special Python build with defined ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’,
     ‘SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT’ or ‘SHOW_TRACK_COUNT’ macros is now off by
     default.  It can be re-enabled using the ‘-X showalloccount’
     option.  It now outputs to ‘stderr’ instead of ‘stdout’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23034(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<8>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<6>,  Prev: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.8.11.2 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * *note open(): 508. will no longer allow combining the ‘'U'’ mode
     flag with ‘'+'’.  (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O'Connor in
     bpo-2091(1).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. no longer implicitly commits an open transaction
     before DDL statements.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 50f. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.

   * When *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 857. is defined,
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): c9e. must also be
     defined.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d2e. now sets *note TypeError: 525.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned.

   * The format of the *note co_lnotab: 2df. attribute of code objects
     changed to support a negative line number delta.  By default,
     Python does not emit bytecode with a negative line number delta.
     Functions using *note frame.f_lineno: 798,
     ‘PyFrame_GetLineNumber()’ or ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ are not affected.
     Functions directly decoding ‘co_lnotab’ should be updated to use a
     signed 8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is
     only required to support applications using a negative line number
     delta.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for the ‘co_lnotab’ format
     and how to decode it, and see the PEP 511(2) for the rationale.

   * The functions in the *note compileall: 20. module now return
     booleans instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’ to represent success or failure,
     respectively.  Thanks to booleans being a subclass of integers,
     this should only be an issue if you were doing identity checks for
     ‘1’ or ‘0’.  See bpo-25768(3).

   * Reading the ‘port’ attribute of *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d2f.
     and *note urlparse(): 302. results now raises *note ValueError:
     1ff. for out-of-range values, rather than returning *note None:
     662.  See bpo-20059(4).

   * The ‘imp’ module now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.

   * The following modules have had missing APIs added to their
     ‘__all__’ attributes to match the documented APIs: *note calendar:
     14, ‘cgi’, *note csv: 29, *note ElementTree: 124, *note enum: 55,
     *note fileinput: 5a, *note ftplib: 5d, *note logging: 86, *note
     mailbox: 8a, *note mimetypes: 8e, *note optparse: 9f, *note
     plistlib: aa, ‘smtpd’, *note subprocess: d5, *note tarfile: dd,
     *note threading: ec. and *note wave: 112.  This means they will
     export new symbols when ‘import *’ is used.  (Contributed by Joel
     Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in bpo-23883(5).)

   * When performing a relative import, if ‘__package__’ does not
     compare equal to ‘__spec__.parent’ then *note ImportWarning: 4e7.
     is raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791(6).)

   * When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known,
     then *note ImportError: 40f. will be raised.  Previously, *note
     SystemError: 563. could be raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18018(7).)

   * Servers based on the *note socketserver: cc. module, including
     those defined in *note http.server: 71, *note xmlrpc.server: 12e.
     and *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11a, now only catch exceptions
     derived from *note Exception: 9c9.  Therefore if a request handler
     raises an exception like *note SystemExit: d30. or *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1, *note handle_error(): d31. is no longer
     called, and the exception will stop a single-threaded server.
     (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-23430(8).)

   * ‘spwd.getspnam()’ now raises a *note PermissionError: d32. instead
     of *note KeyError: 33a. if the user doesn't have privileges.

   * The *note socket.socket.close(): d33. method now raises an
     exception if an error (e.g.  ‘EBADF’) was reported by the
     underlying system call.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-26685(9).)

   * The 'decode_data' argument for the ‘smtpd.SMTPChannel’ and
     ‘smtpd.SMTPServer’ constructors is now ‘False’ by default.  This
     means that the argument passed to ‘process_message()’ is now a
     bytes object by default, and ‘process_message()’ will be passed
     keyword arguments.  Code that has already been updated in
     accordance with the deprecation warning generated by 3.5 will not
     be affected.

   * All optional arguments of the *note dump(): d34, *note dumps():
     d35, *note load(): ca4. and *note loads(): 944. functions and *note
     JSONEncoder: d36. and *note JSONDecoder: d37. class constructors in
     the *note json: 81. module are now *note keyword-only: 2a2.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18726(10).)

   * Les sous-classes de *note type: d38. qui ne redéfinissent pas
     ‘type.__new__’ ne devraient plus utiliser la forme à un argument
     pour récupérer le type d'un objet.

   * As part of PEP 487(11), the handling of keyword arguments passed to
     *note type: d38. (other than the metaclass hint, ‘metaclass’) is
     now consistently delegated to *note object.__init_subclass__():
     61e.  This means that ‘type.__new__()’ and ‘type.__init__()’ both
     now accept arbitrary keyword arguments, but *note
     object.__init_subclass__(): 61e. (which is called from
     ‘type.__new__()’) will reject them by default.  Custom metaclasses
     accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their
     calls to ‘type.__new__()’ (whether direct or via *note super: 4c8.)
     accordingly.

   * In ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’, the ‘default_format’ attribute
     has been removed and is no longer honored.  Instead, the gzipped
     tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no
     platform-specific selection is made.  In environments where
     distributions are built on Windows and zip distributions are
     required, configure the project with a ‘setup.cfg’ file containing
     the following:

          [sdist]
          formats=zip

     This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions
     by Setuptools 26.0.0.

   * In the *note urllib.request: 10a. module and the *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.request(): c99. method, if no
     Content-Length header field has been specified and the request body
     is a file object, it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding.
     If a file object has to be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the
     Content-Length value now has to be specified by the caller.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from
     Martin Panter in bpo-12319(12).)

   * The *note DictReader: 9d5. now returns rows of type *note
     OrderedDict: 5c7.  (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842(13).)

   * The ‘crypt.METHOD_CRYPT’ will no longer be added to ‘crypt.methods’
     if unsupported by the platform.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-25287(14).)

   * The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 1c5.
     are now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-25628(15).)

   * On Linux, *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d39. now looks in
     ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ for shared libraries.  (Contributed by Vinay
     Sajip in bpo-9998(16).)

   * The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 8f2. class now handles flags containing
     the ‘']'’ character in messages sent from the server to improve
     real-world compatibility.  (Contributed by Lita Cho in
     bpo-21815(17).)

   * The ‘mmap.write()’ function now returns the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in
     bpo-26335(18).)

   * The *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): d3a. and *note
     pkgutil.walk_packages(): bef. functions now return *note
     ModuleInfo: d3b. named tuples.  (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in
     bpo-17211(19).)

   * *note re.sub(): 2a0. now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group references in replacement templates even if the pattern is
     not found in the string.  The error message for invalid group
     references now includes the group index and the position of the
     reference.  (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-25953(20).)

   * *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6b1. will now raise *note
     NotImplementedError: 225. for unrecognized compression values.
     Previously a plain *note RuntimeError: 193. was raised.
     Additionally, calling *note ZipFile: 6b1. methods on a closed
     ZipFile or calling the *note write(): d3c. method on a ZipFile
     created with mode ‘'r'’ will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 193. was raised in those
     scenarios.

   * when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument *note
     super(): 4c8. or direct references from methods to the implicit
     ‘__class__’ closure variable, the implicit ‘__classcell__’
     namespace entry must now be passed up to ‘type.__new__’ for
     initialisation.  Failing to do so will result in a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in Python 3.6 and a *note RuntimeError:
     193. in Python 3.8.

   * With the introduction of *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37, import
     system consumers may start expecting import system replacements to
     raise that more specific exception when appropriate, rather than
     the less-specific *note ImportError: 40f.  To provide future
     compatibility with such consumers, implementers of alternative
     import systems that completely replace *note __import__(): 8c3.
     will need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass
     when a module can't be found at all.  Implementers of compliant
     plugins to the default import system shouldn't need to make any
     changes, as the default import system will raise the new subclass
     when appropriate.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<6>,  Next: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<7>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<8>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.8.11.3 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * The *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. allocator family now uses the *note
     pymalloc allocator: cff. rather than the system ‘malloc()’.
     Applications calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. without holding the
     GIL can now crash.  Set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment
     variable to ‘debug’ to validate the usage of memory allocators in
     your application.  See bpo-26249(1).

   * *note Py_Exit(): d3e. (and the main interpreter) now override the
     exit status with 120 if flushing buffered data failed.  See
     bpo-5319(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319


File: python.info,  Node: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<7>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API C<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.8.11.4 Changements au code intermédiaire CPython
..................................................

There have been several major changes to the *note bytecode: 185. in
Python 3.6.

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode.  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
     Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and
     bpo-28050(2).)

   * The new ‘FORMAT_VALUE’ and *note BUILD_STRING: d40. opcodes as part
     of the *note formatted string literal: c1f. implementation.
     (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-25483(3) and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-27078(4).)

   * The new *note BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP: d41. opcode to optimize the
     creation of dictionaries with constant keys.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27140(5).)

   * The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better
     performance and simpler implementation.  The *note MAKE_FUNCTION:
     d42, ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ and
     ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ opcodes have been modified, the new
     *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: d43. and ‘BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’
     have been added, and ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW’
     and ‘MAKE_CLOSURE’ opcodes have been removed.  (Contributed by
     Demur Rumed in bpo-27095(6), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27213(7),
     bpo-28257(8).)

   * The new *note SETUP_ANNOTATIONS: d44. and ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’
     opcodes have been added to support the new *note variable
     annotation: d45. syntax.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-27985(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 6,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.12 Notable changes in Python 3.6.2
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target,  Next: Removal of make touch build target,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2

1.8.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
..........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target,  Prev: New make regen-all build target,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2

1.8.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
.............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.13 Notable changes in Python 3.6.4
--------------------------------------

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(1) and bpo-30697(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.14 Notable changes in Python 3.6.5
--------------------------------------

The *note locale.localeconv(): bee. function now sets temporarily the
‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.15 Notable changes in Python 3.6.7
--------------------------------------

*note xml.dom.minidom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 128. modules no longer
process external entities by default.  See also gh-61441(1).

In 3.6.7 the *note tokenize: fa. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’
token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.
This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
(Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.16 Notable changes in Python 3.6.10
---------------------------------------

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre
'reuse_address' de *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.
n'est plus supporté.  C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine
Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.17 Notable changes in Python 3.6.13
---------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 277. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Up: What's New In Python 3 6

1.8.18 Notable changes in Python 3.6.14
---------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 109. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 5,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 4,  Prev: What's New In Python 3 6,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.9 Nouveautés de Python 3.5
============================


Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4.
Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.   See the changelog(1)
for a full list of changes.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 478(2) - Python 3.5 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<4>.
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<9>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<9>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<9>.
* Other module-level changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<10>.
* Retraits: Retraits<8>.
* Portage vers Python 3.5: Portage vers Python 3 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<4>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.1 Résumé – Points forts de la publication
---------------------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * *note PEP 492: d52, coroutines with async and await syntax.

   * *note PEP 465: d53, a new matrix multiplication operator: ‘a @ b’.

   * *note PEP 448: d54, additional unpacking generalizations.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

   * *note typing: 103.: *note PEP 484 - Type Hints: d55.

   * *note zipapp: 12f.: *note PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application
     Support: d56.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

   * ‘bytes % args’, ‘bytearray % args’: *note PEP 461: d57. - Adding
     ‘%’ formatting to bytes and bytearray.

   * New *note bytes.hex(): d58, *note bytearray.hex(): d59. and *note
     memoryview.hex(): d5a. methods.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in
     bpo-9951(1).)

   * *note memoryview: 454. now supports tuple indexing (including
     multi-dimensional).  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-23632(2).)

   * Generators have a new ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attribute, which returns the
     object being iterated by ‘yield from’ expressions.  (Contributed by
     Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450(3).)

   * A new *note RecursionError: d5b. exception is now raised when
     maximum recursion depth is reached.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl
     in bpo-19235(4).)

CPython implementation improvements:

   * When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’ locale), *note
     sys.stdin: 52a. and *note sys.stdout: ac6. now use the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’ error
     handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-19977(5).)

   * ‘.pyo’ files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more
     flexible scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in
     ‘.pyc’ name.  (See *note PEP 488 overview: d5c.)

   * Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase
     process, which is similar to how Python modules are loaded.  (See
     *note PEP 489 overview: d5d.)

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7. is now *note implemented in C:
     d5e, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster.

   * The *note ssl: cf. module gained *note support for Memory BIO: d5f,
     which decouples SSL protocol handling from network IO.

   * The new *note os.scandir(): a4f. function provides a *note better
     and significantly faster way: d60. of directory traversal.

   * *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. has been mostly *note
     reimplemented in C: d61, yielding much better performance.

   * The new *note subprocess.run(): b76. function provides a *note
     streamlined way to run subprocesses: d62.

   * The *note traceback: fd. module has been significantly *note
     enhanced: d63. for improved performance and developer convenience.

Security improvements:

   * SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library.  It can
     still be enabled by instantiating a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.
     manually.  (See bpo-22638(6) for more details; this change was
     backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)

   * HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against
     potential injection attacks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-22796(7).)

Windows improvements:

   * A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI. See *note
     Utilisation de Python sur Windows: a97. for more information.

   * Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension
     modules should use the same.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>,  Next: Autres changements au langage<9>,  Prev: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<4>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator. a better and faster directory iterator
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488 ; Élimination des fichiers PYO: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Next: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.1 PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
........................................................

PEP 492(1) greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in
Python by adding *note awaitable objects: 1ab, *note coroutine
functions: d66, *note asynchronous iteration: d67, and *note
asynchronous context managers: 5c3.

Coroutine functions are declared using the new *note async def: 5bd.
syntax:

     >>> async def coro():
     ...     return 'spam'

Inside a coroutine function, the new *note await: 1b7. expression can be
used to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available.  Any
object can be 'awaited', as long as it implements the *note awaitable:
1ab. protocol by defining the ‘__await__()’ method.

PEP 492 also adds *note async for: a9b. statement for convenient
iteration over asynchronous iterables.

An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax:

     import asyncio

     async def http_get(domain):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)

         writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
             b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
             b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
             b'Connection: close',
             b'', b''
         ]))

         async for line in reader:
             print('>>>', line)

         writer.close()

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
     finally:
         loop.close()

Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for
asynchronous context managers.  The following script:

     import asyncio

     async def coro(name, lock):
         print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
         async with lock:
             print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
             await asyncio.sleep(1)
             print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     lock = asyncio.Lock()
     coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(coros)
     finally:
         loop.close()

affichera :

     coro 2: waiting for lock
     coro 2: holding the lock
     coro 1: waiting for lock
     coro 2: releasing the lock
     coro 1: holding the lock
     coro 1: releasing the lock

Note that both *note async for: a9b. and *note async with: 5c1. can only
be used inside a coroutine function declared with *note async def: 5bd.

Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event
loop, such as the *note asyncio loop: d68.

     Note: 
     Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: À partir de CPython 3.5.2,
     ‘__aiter__’ peut directement renvoyer des *note itérateurs
     asynchrones: 1a9.  Renvoyer un objet *note awaitable: 1ab. entraine
     un avertissement *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.

     See more details in the *note Itérateurs asynchrones: d69.
     documentation section.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 492(2) - Coroutines with async and await syntax

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Next: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Prev: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.2 PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
......................................................................

PEP 465(1) adds the ‘@’ infix operator for matrix multiplication.
Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however,
it can be implemented by defining ‘__matmul__()’, ‘__rmatmul__()’, and
‘__imatmul__()’ for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix
multiplication.  The semantics of these methods is similar to that of
methods defining other infix arithmetic operators.

Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of
mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of ‘@’ allows
writing cleaner code:

     S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)

instead of:

     S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
             dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))

NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator:

     >>> import numpy

     >>> x = numpy.ones(3)
     >>> x
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

     >>> m = numpy.eye(3)
     >>> m
     array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
            [ 0., 1., 0.],
            [ 0., 0., 1.]])

     >>> x @ m
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 465(2) - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

     PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Next: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Prev: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.3 PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
......................................................

PEP 448(1) extends the allowed uses of the ‘*’ iterable unpacking
operator and ‘**’ dictionary unpacking operator.  It is now possible to
use an arbitrary number of unpackings in *note function calls: d6c.:

     >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
     1 2 3 4 5

     >>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
     ...     print(a, b, c, d)
     ...

     >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
     1 2 3 4

Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple
unpackings (see *note Listes d'expressions: d6d. and *note Agencements
de dictionnaires: d6e.):

     >>> *range(4), 4
     (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

     >>> [*range(4), 4]
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

     >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
     {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

     >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
     {'x': 1, 'y': 2}

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 448(2) - Additional Unpacking Generalizations

     PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar, Thomas
     Wouters, and Joshua Landau.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Next: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Prev: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.4 PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
....................................................................

PEP 461(1) adds support for the ‘%’ *note interpolation operator: d70.
to *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b.

While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there
are cases where interpolation on ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearrays’ makes sense,
and the work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts
from the overall readability of the code.  This issue is particularly
important when dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a
mixture of binary and ASCII compatible text.

Exemples :

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
     b'Hello World!'

     >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
     b'x=1 y=2.500000'

Unicode is not allowed for ‘%b’, but it is accepted by ‘%a’ (equivalent
of ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’):

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'

     >>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
     b"price: '10\\u20ac'"

Note that ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ conversion types, although supported, should
only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 461(2) - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and
     Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Next: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator,  Prev: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.5 PEP 484 - Type Hints
............................

Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0 (
PEP 3107(1)), however the semantics of annotations has been left
undefined.

Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation uses were
to provide type hints to function parameters and return values.  It
became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the
standard library included the base definitions and tools for type
annotations.

PEP 484(2) introduces a *note provisional module: af3. to provide these
standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions for
situations where annotations are not available.

For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type
are declared in the annotations:

     def greeting(name: str) -> str:
         return 'Hello ' + name

While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual
‘__annotations__’ attribute, 'no automatic type checking happens at
runtime'.  Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker
(e.g.  mypy(3)) will be used for on-demand source code analysis.

The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type named
*note Any: 699. which is consistent with (i.e.  assignable to and from)
all types.

Voir aussi
..........

   * Documentation du module *note typing: 103.

   * 
     PEP 484(4) - Type Hints

          PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz
          Langa; implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   * 
     PEP 483(5) - The Theory of Type Hints

          PEP écrite par Guido van Rossum

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator,  Next: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Prev: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.6 PEP 471 - os.scandir() function - a better and faster directory iterator
................................................................................

PEP 471(1) adds a new directory iteration function, *note os.scandir():
a4f, to the standard library.  Additionally, *note os.walk(): 495. is
now implemented using ‘scandir’, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster on
POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems.  This is
largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to *note
os.stat(): 48c. required to walk a directory tree.

Additionally, ‘scandir’ returns an iterator, as opposed to returning a
list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating over
very large directories.

The following example shows a simple use of *note os.scandir(): a4f. to
display all the files (excluding directories) in the given 'path' that
don't start with ‘'.'’.  The *note entry.is_file(): d73. call will
generally not make an additional system call:

     for entry in os.scandir(path):
         if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
             print(entry.name)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 471(2) - os.scandir() function - a better and faster directory iterator

     PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Next: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Prev: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.7 PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
......................................................

An *note errno.EINTR: d76. error code is returned whenever a system
call, that is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal.  Previously,
Python would raise *note InterruptedError: d77. in such cases.  This
meant that, when writing a Python application, the developer had two
choices:

  1. Ignore the ‘InterruptedError’.

  2. Handle the ‘InterruptedError’ and attempt to restart the
     interrupted system call at every call site.

The first option makes an application fail intermittently.  The second
option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the code nearly
unreadable.  Compare:

     print("Hello World")

et :

     while True:
         try:
             print("Hello World")
             break
         except InterruptedError:
             continue

PEP 475(1) implements automatic retry of system calls on ‘EINTR’.  This
removes the burden of dealing with ‘EINTR’ or *note InterruptedError:
d77. in user code in most situations and makes Python programs,
including the standard library, more robust.  Note that the system call
is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an exception.

Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted by a
signal:

   * *note open(): 508. et *note io.open(): 509.;

   * functions of the *note faulthandler: 57. module;

   * *note os: a0. functions: *note fchdir(): d78, *note fchmod(): 219,
     *note fchown(): d79, *note fdatasync(): d7a, *note fstat(): d7b,
     *note fstatvfs(): d7c, *note fsync(): d7d, *note ftruncate(): d7e,
     *note mkfifo(): d7f, *note mknod(): d80, *note open(): d81, *note
     posix_fadvise(): d82, *note posix_fallocate(): d83, *note pread():
     b4f, *note pwrite(): b52, *note read(): d84, *note readv(): b4e,
     *note sendfile(): aff, *note wait3(): d85, *note wait4(): d86,
     *note wait(): d87, *note waitid(): d88, *note waitpid(): d89, *note
     write(): d8a, *note writev(): b51.;

   * special cases: *note os.close(): b64. and *note os.dup2(): b53. now
     ignore *note EINTR: d76. errors; the syscall is not retried (see
     the PEP for the rationale);

   * *note select: c0. functions: *note devpoll.poll(): d8b, *note
     epoll.poll(): d8c, *note kqueue.control(): d8d, *note poll.poll():
     d8e, *note select(): d8f.;

   * methods of the *note socket: d90. class: *note accept(): d91, *note
     connect(): d92. (except for non-blocking sockets), *note recv():
     d93, *note recvfrom(): d94, *note recvmsg(): d95, *note send():
     d96, *note sendall(): d97, *note sendmsg(): 462, *note sendto():
     d98.;

   * *note signal.sigtimedwait(): d99. and *note signal.sigwaitinfo():
     d9a.;

   * *note time.sleep(): 68a.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 475(2) - Retry system calls failing with EINTR

     PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and
     Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French
     connection).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Next: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Prev: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.8 PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
................................................................

The interaction of generators and *note StopIteration: bea. in Python
3.4 and earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure
bugs.  Previously, ‘StopIteration’ raised accidentally inside a
generator function was interpreted as the end of the iteration by the
loop construct driving the generator.

PEP 479(1) changes the behavior of generators: when a ‘StopIteration’
exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a *note
RuntimeError: 193. before it exits the generator frame.  The main goal
of this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded
*note next(): 7c4. call raises ‘StopIteration’ and causes the iteration
controlled by the generator to terminate silently.  This is particularly
pernicious in combination with the ‘yield from’ construct.

This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior,
a *note __future__: d9c. import is necessary:

     >>> from __future__ import generator_stop

     >>> def gen():
     ...     next(iter([]))
     ...     yield
     ...
     >>> next(gen())
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
     StopIteration

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration

Without a ‘__future__’ import, a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.
will be raised whenever a *note StopIteration: bea. exception is raised
inside a generator.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 479(2) - Change StopIteration handling inside generators

     PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by
     Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Next: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Prev: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.9 PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
............................................................

PEP 485(1) adds the *note math.isclose(): d9f. and *note
cmath.isclose(): da0. functions which tell whether two values are
approximately equal or "close" to each other.  Whether or not two values
are considered close is determined according to given absolute and
relative tolerances.  Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed
difference between ‘isclose’ arguments, relative to the larger absolute
value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
     False

It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance,
which must be a non-negative value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
     False

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 485(2) - Une fonction pour tester des égalités approximées

     PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and
     Tal Einat.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Next: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO,  Prev: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.10 PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
........................................................................

PEP 486(1) makes the Windows launcher (see PEP 397(2)) aware of an
active virtual environment.  When the default interpreter would be used
and the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ environment variable is set, the interpreter in
the virtual environment will be used.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 486(3) - Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

     PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO,  Next: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.11 PEP 488 : Élimination des fichiers PYO
...............................................

PEP 488(1) does away with the concept of ‘.pyo’ files.  This means that
‘.pyc’ files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode.  To
prevent the need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, ‘.pyc’ files
now have an optional ‘opt-’ tag in their name when the bytecode is
optimized.  This has the side-effect of no more bytecode file name
clashes when running under either *note -O: da4. or *note -OO: da5.
Consequently, bytecode files generated from *note -O: da4, and *note
-OO: da5. may now exist simultaneously.  *note
importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f3. has an updated API to help with
this change.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 488(2) : Élimination des fichiers PYO

     PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>

1.9.2.12 PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
.............................................................

PEP 489(1) updates extension module initialization to take advantage of
the two step module loading mechanism introduced by PEP 451(2) in Python
3.4.

This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in
to using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and
bytecode modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a
module name, rather than being restricted to ASCII.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 489(3) - Multi-phase extension module initialization

     PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan;
     implemented by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<9>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<9>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<14>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.3 Autres changements au langage
-----------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added the ‘"namereplace"’ error handlers.  The ‘"backslashreplace"’
     error handlers now work with decoding and translating.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(1) and bpo-22286(2).)

   * The *note -b: 5cf. option now affects comparisons of *note bytes:
     1bd. with *note int: 254.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23681(3).)

   * New Kazakh ‘kz1048’ and Tajik ‘koi8_t’ *note codecs: da8.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682(4) and bpo-22681(5).)

   * Property docstrings are now writable.  This is especially useful
     for *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. docstrings.  (Contributed
     by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(6).)

   * Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<9>,  Next: Modules améliorés<9>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<9>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.4 Nouveaux modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<10>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<10>,  Next: zipapp<2>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<9>

1.9.4.1 'typing'
................

The new *note typing: 103. *note provisional: af3. module provides
standard definitions and tools for function type annotations.  See *note
Type Hints: d55. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp<2>,  Prev: typing<10>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<9>

1.9.4.2 zipapp
..............

The new *note zipapp: 12f. module (specified in PEP 441(1)) provides an
API and command line tool for creating executable Python Zip
Applications, which were introduced in Python 2.6 in bpo-1739468(2), but
which were not well publicized, either at the time or since.

With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting
all the files, including a ‘__main__.py’ file, into a directory ‘myapp’
and running:

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz

The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23491(3).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 441(4) - Improving Python ZIP Application Support

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<9>,  Next: Other module-level changes,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<9>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.5 Modules améliorés
-----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>.
* configparser: configparser<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<3>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<5>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<6>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<8>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<10>.
* pathlib: pathlib<10>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<7>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutils: shutils<5>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<6>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<7>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<8>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<8>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<4>,  Next: asyncio<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.1 argparse
................

The *note ArgumentParser: 526. class now allows disabling *note
abbreviated usage: dae. of long options by setting *note Le paramètre
allow_abbrev: daf. to ‘False’.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven
Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<10>,  Next: bz2,  Prev: argparse<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.2 asyncio
...............

Since the *note asyncio: a. module is *note provisional: af3, all
changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python
3.4.x.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: a. module since Python 3.4.0:

   * New debugging APIs: *note loop.set_debug(): db1. and *note
     loop.get_debug(): db2. methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The proactor event loop now supports SSL. (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560(1).)

   * A new *note loop.is_closed(): db3. method to check if the event
     loop is closed.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326(2).)

   * A new *note loop.create_task(): 9cc. to conveniently create and
     schedule a new *note Task: 4c5. for a coroutine.  The ‘create_task’
     method is also used by all asyncio functions that wrap coroutines
     into tasks, such as *note asyncio.wait(): 46b, *note
     asyncio.gather(): 5ea, etc.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * A new *note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): db4. method to
     inquire for 'high-' and 'low-' water limits of the flow control.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
     ensure_future(): c66.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.set_task_factory(): db5. and *note
     loop.get_task_factory(): db6. methods to customize the task factory
     that *note loop.create_task(): 9cc. method uses.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note Queue.join(): db7. and *note Queue.task_done(): db8.
     queue methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘JoinableQueue’ class was removed, in favor of the *note
     asyncio.Queue: a66. class.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

Nouveautés dans la 3.5.1 :

   * The *note ensure_future(): c66. function and all functions that use
     it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): c67, now accept all
     kinds of *note awaitable objects: 1ab.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 870. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): c68. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): b03. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

Updates in 3.5.2:

   * New *note loop.create_future(): c69. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(3), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: bbd.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): c6a. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b2. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0. and *note
     loop.create_server(): b03. methods are optimized to avoid calling
     the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.sock_connect(sock, address): db9. no longer requires
     the 'address' to be resolved prior to the call.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop


File: python.info,  Node: bz2,  Next: cgi,  Prev: asyncio<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.3 bz2
...........

The *note BZ2Decompressor.decompress: dbb. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: cgi,  Next: cmath<2>,  Prev: bz2,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.4 cgi
...........

The ‘FieldStorage’ class now supports the *note context manager: 5c0.
protocol.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289


File: python.info,  Node: cmath<2>,  Next: code,  Prev: cgi,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.5 cmath
.............

A new function *note isclose(): da0. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270


File: python.info,  Node: code,  Next: collections<5>,  Prev: cmath<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.6 code
............

The *note InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback(): dbf. method now prints
the full chained traceback, just like the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442


File: python.info,  Node: collections<5>,  Next: collections abc<3>,  Prev: code,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.7 collections
...................

The *note OrderedDict: 5c7. class is now implemented in C, which makes
it 4 to 100 times faster.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991(1).)

‘OrderedDict.items()’, ‘OrderedDict.keys()’, ‘OrderedDict.values()’
views now support *note reversed(): 852. iteration.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505(2).)

The *note deque: 5c8. class now defines *note index(): dc1, *note
insert(): dc2, and *note copy(): dc3, and supports the ‘+’ and ‘*’
operators.  This allows deques to be recognized as a *note
MutableSequence: 19f. and improves their substitutability for lists.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704(3).)

Docstrings produced by *note namedtuple(): 1c5. can now be updated:

     Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate'
     Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
     Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(4).)

The *note UserString: dc4. class now implements the ‘__getnewargs__()’,
‘__rmod__()’, *note casefold(): dc5, *note format_map(): dc6, *note
isprintable(): dc7, and *note maketrans(): dc8. methods to match the
corresponding methods of *note str: 437.  (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in
bpo-22189(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<3>,  Next: compileall<4>,  Prev: collections<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.8 collections.abc
.......................

The ‘Sequence.index()’ method now accepts 'start' and 'stop' arguments
to match the corresponding methods of *note tuple: 366, *note list: 5fe,
etc.  (Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086(1).)

A new *note Generator: dca. abstract base class.  (Contributed by Stefan
Behnel in bpo-24018(2).)

New *note Awaitable: dcb, *note Coroutine: dcc, *note AsyncIterator:
dcd, and *note AsyncIterable: dce. abstract base classes.  (Contributed
by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184(3).)

For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in
an external PyPI package(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<5>,  Prev: collections abc<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.9 compileall
..................

A new *note compileall: 20. option, ‘-j N’, allows running 'N' workers
simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation.  The *note
compile_dir(): b16. function has a corresponding ‘workers’ parameter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104(1).)

Another new option, ‘-r’, allows controlling the maximum recursion level
for subdirectories.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628(2).)

The ‘-q’ command line option can now be specified more than once, in
which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed.  The
corresponding ‘quiet’ parameter in *note compile_dir(): b16, *note
compile_file(): dd0, and *note compile_path(): dd1. can now accept an
integer value indicating the level of output suppression.  (Contributed
by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<5>,  Next: configparser<4>,  Prev: compileall<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.10 concurrent.futures
...........................

The *note Executor.map(): dd3. method now accepts a 'chunksize' argument
to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when *note
ProcessPoolExecutor(): 8dd. is used.  (Contributed by Dan O'Reilly in
bpo-11271(1).)

The number of workers in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. constructor
is optional now.  The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-21527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<4>,  Next: contextlib<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.11 configparser
.....................

*note configparser: 22. now provides a way to customize the conversion
of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the *note
ConfigParser: 1c3. constructor, or by defining them as methods in
‘ConfigParser’ subclasses.  Converters defined in a parser instance are
inherited by its section proxies.

Exemple :

     >>> import configparser
     >>> conv = {}
     >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
     >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
     >>> cfg.read_string("""
     ... [s]
     ... list = a b c d e f g
     ... """)
     >>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
     'a b c d e f g'
     >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> section = cfg['s']
     >>> section.getlist('list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-18159(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<5>,  Next: csv<3>,  Prev: configparser<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.12 contextlib
...................

The new *note redirect_stderr(): dd6. *note context manager: 5c0.
(similar to *note redirect_stdout(): dd7.) makes it easier for utility
scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to *note
sys.stderr: 928. and don't provide any options to redirect it:

     >>> import contextlib, io, logging
     >>> f = io.StringIO()
     >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
     ...     logging.warning('warning')
     ...
     >>> f.getvalue()
     'WARNING:root:warning\n'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-22389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389


File: python.info,  Node: csv<3>,  Next: curses<4>,  Prev: contextlib<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.13 csv
............

The *note writerow(): dd9. method now supports arbitrary iterables, not
just sequences.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171


File: python.info,  Node: curses<4>,  Next: dbm<5>,  Prev: csv<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.14 curses
...............

The new *note update_lines_cols(): ddb. function updates the ‘LINES’ and
‘COLS’ module variables.  This is useful for detecting manual screen
resizing.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-4254(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<5>,  Next: difflib,  Prev: curses<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.15 dbm
............

*note dumb.open: a86. always creates a new database when the flag has
the value ‘"n"’.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039


File: python.info,  Node: difflib,  Next: distutils<7>,  Prev: dbm<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.16 difflib
................

The charset of HTML documents generated by *note HtmlDiff.make_file():
dde. can now be customized by using a new 'charset' keyword-only
argument.  The default charset of HTML document changed from
‘"ISO-8859-1"’ to ‘"utf-8"’.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-2052(1).)

The *note diff_bytes(): ddf. function can now compare lists of byte
strings.  This fixes a regression from Python 2.  (Contributed by Terry
J. Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<7>,  Next: doctest<3>,  Prev: difflib,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.17 distutils
..................

Both the ‘build’ and ‘build_ext’ commands now accept a ‘-j’ option to
enable parallel building of extension modules.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-5309(1).)

The ‘distutils’ module now supports ‘xz’ compression, and can be enabled
by passing ‘xztar’ as an argument to ‘bdist --format’.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16314(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<3>,  Next: email<3>,  Prev: distutils<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.18 doctest
................

The *note DocTestSuite(): de2. function returns an empty *note
unittest.TestSuite: de3. if 'module' contains no docstrings, instead of
raising *note ValueError: 1ff.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in
bpo-15916(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916


File: python.info,  Node: email<3>,  Next: enum<8>,  Prev: doctest<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.19 email
..............

A new policy option *note Policy.mangle_from_: de5. controls whether or
not lines that start with ‘"From "’ in email bodies are prefixed with a
‘">"’ character by generators.  The default is ‘True’ for *note
compat32: c89. and ‘False’ for all other policies.  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098(1).)

A new *note Message.get_content_disposition(): de6. method provides easy
access to a canonical value for the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.
(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083(2).)

A new policy option *note EmailPolicy.utf8: de7. can be set to ‘True’ to
encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead of using encoded
words.  This allows ‘Messages’ to be formatted according to RFC 6532(3)
and used with an SMTP server that supports the RFC 6531(4) ‘SMTPUTF8’
extension.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211(5).)

The *note mime.text.MIMEText: de8. constructor now accepts a *note
charset.Charset: de9. instance.  (Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker
Peksag in bpo-16324(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324


File: python.info,  Node: enum<8>,  Next: faulthandler<3>,  Prev: email<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.20 enum
.............

The *note Enum: 61d. callable has a new parameter 'start' to specify the
initial number of enum values if only 'names' are provided:

     >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
     >>> Animal.cat
     <Animal.cat: 10>
     >>> Animal.dog
     <Animal.dog: 11>

(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-21706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<3>,  Next: functools<4>,  Prev: enum<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.21 ‘faulthandler’
.......................

The *note enable(): c8e, *note register(): dec, *note dump_traceback():
ded. and *note dump_traceback_later(): dee. functions now accept file
descriptors in addition to file-like objects.  (Contributed by Wei Wu in
bpo-23566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566


File: python.info,  Node: functools<4>,  Next: glob<3>,  Prev: faulthandler<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.22 functools
..................

Most of the *note lru_cache(): 9df. machinery is now implemented in C,
making it significantly faster.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey
Kachayev, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14373(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373


File: python.info,  Node: glob<3>,  Next: gzip<4>,  Prev: functools<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.23 glob
.............

The *note iglob(): 7f3. and *note glob(): 29c. functions now support
recursive search in subdirectories, using the ‘"**"’ pattern.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13968(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<4>,  Next: heapq,  Prev: glob<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.24 gzip
.............

The 'mode' argument of the *note GzipFile: 410. constructor now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney in
bpo-19222(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222


File: python.info,  Node: heapq,  Next: http<2>,  Prev: gzip<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.25 heapq
..............

Element comparison in *note merge(): df3. can now be customized by
passing a *note key function: df4. in a new optional 'key' keyword
argument, and a new optional 'reverse' keyword argument can be used to
reverse element comparison:

     >>> import heapq
     >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
     >>> b = ['88', '6666']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
     ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
     ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13742(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742


File: python.info,  Node: http<2>,  Next: http client<3>,  Prev: heapq,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.26 'http'
...............

A new *note HTTPStatus: 8ef. enum that defines a set of HTTP status
codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793


File: python.info,  Node: http client<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Prev: http<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.27 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): df7. now raises a *note
RemoteDisconnected: df8. exception when a remote server connection is
closed unexpectedly.  Additionally, if a *note ConnectionError: df9. (of
which ‘RemoteDisconnected’ is a subclass) is raised, the client socket
is now closed automatically, and will reconnect on the next request:

     import http.client
     conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
     for retries in range(3):
         try:
             conn.request('GET', '/')
             resp = conn.getresponse()
         except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
             pass

(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-3566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Next: imaplib<2>,  Prev: http client<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.28 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<2>,  Next: imghdr,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.29 'imaplib'
..................

The *note IMAP4: 8f2. class now supports the *note context manager: 5c0.
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 5be. statement, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’
command will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-4972(1).)

The *note imaplib: 73. module now supports RFC 5161(2) (ENABLE
Extension) and RFC 6855(3) (UTF-8 Support) via the *note IMAP4.enable():
dfc. method.  A new *note IMAP4.utf8_enabled: dfd. attribute tracks
whether or not RFC 6855(4) support is enabled.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800(5).)

The *note imaplib: 73. module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string
usernames and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr,  Next: importlib<8>,  Prev: imaplib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.30 imghdr
...............

The ‘what()’ function now recognizes the OpenEXR(1) format (contributed
by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295(2)), and the WebP(3)
format (contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20197(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openexr.com

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<8>,  Next: inspect<7>,  Prev: imghdr,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.31 importlib
..................

The *note util.LazyLoader: c9d. class allows for lazy loading of modules
in applications where startup time is important.  (Contributed by Brett
Cannon in bpo-17621(1).)

The *note abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): e00. method is now a
static method.  This makes it easier to initialize a module object with
code compiled from a string by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156(2).)

The new *note util.module_from_spec(): e01. function is now the
preferred way to create a new module.  As opposed to creating a *note
types.ModuleType: e02. instance directly, this new function will set the
various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in spec object.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-20383(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<7>,  Next: io<5>,  Prev: importlib<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.32 'inspect'
..................

Both the *note Signature: 1ca. and *note Parameter: 1cb. classes are now
picklable and hashable.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726(1)
and bpo-20334(2).)

A new *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): e04. method provides a way
to set default values for missing arguments:

     >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
     >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
     >>> ba.apply_defaults()
     >>> ba.arguments
     OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24190(3).)

A new class method *note Signature.from_callable(): 726. makes
subclassing of *note Signature: 1ca. easier.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373(4).)

The *note signature(): 724. function now accepts a 'follow_wrapped'
optional keyword argument, which, when set to ‘False’, disables
automatic following of ‘__wrapped__’ links.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-20691(5).)

A set of new functions to inspect *note coroutine functions: d66. and
*note coroutine objects: 47d. has been added: *note iscoroutine(): e05,
*note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3, *note isawaitable(): e06, *note
getcoroutinelocals(): e07, and *note getcoroutinestate(): e08.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(6) and bpo-24400(7).)

The *note stack(): 63f, *note trace(): 640, *note getouterframes(): 63d,
and *note getinnerframes(): 63e. functions now return a list of named
tuples.  (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808


File: python.info,  Node: io<5>,  Next: ipaddress<4>,  Prev: inspect<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.33 io
...........

A new *note BufferedIOBase.readinto1(): e0a. method, that uses at most
one call to the underlying raw stream's *note RawIOBase.read(): e0b. or
*note RawIOBase.readinto(): e0c. methods.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath
in bpo-20578(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<4>,  Next: json<2>,  Prev: io<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.34 'ipaddress'
....................

Both the *note IPv4Network: 1fb. and *note IPv6Network: 1fc. classes now
accept an ‘(address, netmask)’ tuple argument, so as to easily construct
network objects from existing addresses:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')

(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16531(1).)

A new ‘reverse_pointer’ attribute for the *note IPv4Network: 1fb. and
*note IPv6Network: 1fc. classes returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR
record:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     >>> addr.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
     >>> addr6.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'

(Contributed by Leon Weber in bpo-20480(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480


File: python.info,  Node: json<2>,  Next: linecache<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.35 json
.............

The *note json.tool: 82. command line interface now preserves the order
of keys in JSON objects passed in input.  The new ‘--sort-keys’ option
can be used to sort the keys alphabetically.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-21650(1).)

JSON decoder now raises *note JSONDecodeError: e0f. instead of *note
ValueError: 1ff. to provide better context information about the error.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361


File: python.info,  Node: linecache<2>,  Next: locale<6>,  Prev: json<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.36 ‘linecache’
....................

A new *note lazycache(): e11. function can be used to capture
information about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines
later via *note getline(): e12.  This avoids doing I/O until a line is
actually needed, without having to carry the module globals around
indefinitely.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911


File: python.info,  Node: locale<6>,  Next: logging<5>,  Prev: linecache<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.37 locale
...............

A new *note delocalize(): e14. function can be used to convert a string
into a normalized number string, taking the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ settings into
account:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
     'de_DE.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
     '1234.56'
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
     'en_US.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
     '1234.56'

(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-13918(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918


File: python.info,  Node: logging<5>,  Next: lzma,  Prev: locale<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.38 logging
................

All logging methods (*note Logger: b3f. *note log(): e16, *note
exception(): e17, *note critical(): e18, *note debug(): e19, etc.), now
accept exception instances as an 'exc_info' argument, in addition to
boolean values and exception tuples:

     >>> import logging
     >>> try:
     ...     1/0
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
     ...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
     ERROR:root:exception

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20537(1).)

The *note handlers.HTTPHandler: e1a. class now accepts an optional *note
ssl.SSLContext: 291. instance to configure SSL settings used in an HTTP
connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788(2).)

The *note handlers.QueueListener: e1b. class now takes a
'respect_handler_level' keyword argument which, if set to ‘True’, will
pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788


File: python.info,  Node: lzma,  Next: math<8>,  Prev: logging<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.39 lzma
.............

The *note LZMADecompressor.decompress(): e1d. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: math<8>,  Next: multiprocessing<6>,  Prev: lzma,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.40 'math'
...............

Two new constants have been added to the *note math: 8d. module: *note
inf: c74. and *note nan: 650.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-23185(1).)

A new function *note isclose(): d9f. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(2).)

A new *note gcd(): 8ff. function has been added.  The ‘fractions.gcd()’
function is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-22486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<6>,  Next: operator<2>,  Prev: math<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.41 multiprocessing
........................

*note sharedctypes.synchronized(): e20. objects now support the *note
context manager: 5c0. protocol.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali
in bpo-21565(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565


File: python.info,  Node: operator<2>,  Next: os<10>,  Prev: multiprocessing<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.42 ‘operator’
...................

*note attrgetter(): e22, *note itemgetter(): a52, and *note
methodcaller(): e23. objects now support pickling.  (Contributed by Josh
Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955(1).)

New *note matmul(): e24. and *note imatmul(): e25. functions to perform
matrix multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-21176(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176


File: python.info,  Node: os<10>,  Next: pathlib<10>,  Prev: operator<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.43 'os'
.............

The new *note scandir(): a4f. function returning an iterator of *note
DirEntry: 487. objects has been added.  If possible, *note scandir():
a4f. extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the
need to perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or
attributes, which may significantly improve performance.  (Contributed
by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner in bpo-22524(1).)

On Windows, a new *note stat_result.st_file_attributes: e27. attribute
is now available.  It corresponds to the ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of
the ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in
bpo-21719(2).)

The *note urandom(): 50f. function now uses the ‘getrandom()’ syscall on
Linux 3.17 or newer, and ‘getentropy()’ on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer,
removing the need to use ‘/dev/urandom’ and avoiding failures due to
potential file descriptor exhaustion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-22181(3).)

New *note get_blocking(): e28. and *note set_blocking(): e29. functions
allow getting and setting a file descriptor's blocking mode (*note
O_NONBLOCK: e2a.)  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22054(4).)

The *note truncate(): e2b. and *note ftruncate(): d7e. functions are now
supported on Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668(5).)

There is a new *note os.path.commonpath(): e2c. function returning the
longest common sub-path of each passed pathname.  Unlike the *note
os.path.commonprefix(): e2d. function, it always returns a valid path:

     >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr/l'

     >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr'

(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10395(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<10>,  Next: pickle<3>,  Prev: os<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.44 pathlib
................

The new *note Path.samefile(): e2f. method can be used to check whether
the path points to the same file as another path, which can be either
another *note Path: 226. object, or a string:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
     >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
     >>> p1.samefile(p2)
     True

(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19775(1).)

The *note Path.mkdir(): e30. method now accepts a new optional
'exist_ok' argument to match ‘mkdir -p’ and *note os.makedirs(): 21b.
functionality.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539(2).)

There is a new *note Path.expanduser(): e31. method to expand ‘~’ and
‘~user’ prefixes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19776(3).)

A new *note Path.home(): e32. class method can be used to get a *note
Path: 226. instance representing the user’s home directory.
(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777(4).)

New *note Path.write_text(): e33, *note Path.read_text(): e34, *note
Path.write_bytes(): e35, *note Path.read_bytes(): e36. methods to
simplify read/write operations on files.

The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file
‘~/spam42’:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
     >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
     3

(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in bpo-20218(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<3>,  Next: poplib<2>,  Prev: pathlib<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.45 pickle
...............

Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: cb1. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports these cases.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<2>,  Next: re<7>,  Prev: pickle<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.46 'poplib'
.................

A new *note POP3.utf8(): e39. command enables RFC 6856(1)
(Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it.
(Contributed by Milan OberKirch in bpo-21804(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804


File: python.info,  Node: re<7>,  Next: readline<2>,  Prev: poplib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.47 ‘re’
.............

References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are
now allowed in lookbehind assertions:

     >>> import re
     >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
     >>> pat.match('aac')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
     >>> pat.match('bbc')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>

(Contribution par Serhiy Storchaka; bpo-9179(1).)

The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer
limited to 100.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437(2).)

The *note sub(): 2a0. and *note subn(): 2a1. functions now replace
unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1519638(3).)

The ‘re.error’ exceptions have new attributes, ‘msg’, ‘pattern’, ‘pos’,
‘lineno’, and ‘colno’, that provide better context information about the
error:

     >>> re.compile("""
     ...     (?x)
     ...     .++
     ... """)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)

(Contribution par Serhiy Storchaka; bpo-22578(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578


File: python.info,  Node: readline<2>,  Next: selectors,  Prev: re<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.48 readline
.................

A new *note append_history_file(): e3c. function can be used to append
the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file.
(Contributed by Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940


File: python.info,  Node: selectors,  Next: shutils<5>,  Prev: readline<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.49 selectors
..................

The new *note DevpollSelector: bc7. supports efficient ‘/dev/poll’
polling on Solaris.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-18931(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<5>,  Next: signal<3>,  Prev: selectors,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.50 ‘shutils’
..................

The *note move(): a4c. function now accepts a 'copy_function' argument,
allowing, for example, the *note copy(): a4a. function to be used
instead of the default *note copy2(): a4b. if there is a need to ignore
file metadata when moving.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19840(1).)

The *note make_archive(): 49f. function now supports the 'xztar' format.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411


File: python.info,  Node: signal<3>,  Next: smtpd<2>,  Prev: shutils<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.51 'signal'
.................

On Windows, the *note set_wakeup_fd(): b60. function now also supports
socket handles.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018(1).)

Various ‘SIG*’ constants in the *note signal: c5. module have been
converted into *note Enums: 55.  This allows meaningful names to be
printed during debugging, instead of integer "magic numbers".
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-21076(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<2>,  Next: smtplib<2>,  Prev: signal<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.52 smtpd
..............

Both the ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a
'decode_data' keyword argument to determine if the ‘DATA’ portion of the
SMTP transaction is decoded using the ‘"utf-8"’ codec or is instead
provided to the ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ method as a byte string.
The default is ‘True’ for backward compatibility reasons, but will
change to ‘False’ in Python 3.6.  If 'decode_data' is set to ‘False’,
the ‘process_message’ method must be prepared to accept keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662(1).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now advertises the ‘8BITMIME’ extension ( RFC
6152(2)) if 'decode_data' has been set ‘True’.  If the client specifies
‘BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, it is passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795(3).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now also supports the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC
6531(4): Internationalized Email).  If the client specified ‘SMTPUTF8
BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, they are passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.  It is
the responsibility of the ‘process_message’ method to correctly handle
the ‘SMTPUTF8’ data.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725(5).)

It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6
addresses in the ‘SMTPServer’ constructor, and have it successfully
connect.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<2>,  Next: sndhdr,  Prev: smtpd<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.53 'smtplib'
..................

A new *note SMTP.auth(): e42. method provides a convenient way to
implement custom authentication mechanisms.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch in bpo-15014(1).)

The *note SMTP.set_debuglevel(): e43. method now accepts an additional
debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug messages.
(Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914(2).)

Both the *note SMTP.sendmail(): e44. and *note SMTP.send_message(): e45.
methods now support RFC 6531(3) (SMTPUTF8).  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr,  Next: socket<8>,  Prev: smtplib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.54 sndhdr
...............

The ‘what()’ and ‘whathdr()’ functions now return a *note namedtuple():
1c5.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615


File: python.info,  Node: socket<8>,  Next: ssl<9>,  Prev: sndhdr,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.55 'socket'
.................

Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system
clock.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

A new *note socket.sendfile(): e48. method allows sending a file over a
socket by using the high-performance *note os.sendfile(): aff. function
on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when
using plain *note socket.send(): d96.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola'
in bpo-17552(2).)

The *note socket.sendall(): d97. method no longer resets the socket
timeout every time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is
now the maximum total duration to send all data.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-23853(3).)

The 'backlog' argument of the *note socket.listen(): e49. method is now
optional.  By default it is set to *note SOMAXCONN: e4a. or to ‘128’,
whichever is less.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in
bpo-21455(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<9>,  Next: sqlite3<8>,  Prev: socket<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.56 ‘ssl’
..............

* Menu:

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support,  Next: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<9>

1.9.5.57 Memory BIO Support
...........................

(Contributed by Geert Jansen in bpo-21965(1).)

The new *note SSLObject: b71. class has been added to provide SSL
protocol support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of *note
SSLSocket: 8d9. are not necessary or are suboptimal.  ‘SSLObject’
represents an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network
I/O methods, and instead provides a memory buffer interface.  The new
*note MemoryBIO: e4d. class can be used to pass data between Python and
an SSL protocol instance.

The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in
frameworks implementing asynchronous I/O for which *note SSLSocket:
8d9.'s readiness model ("select/poll") is inefficient.

A new *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b72. method can be used to create a
new ‘SSLObject’ instance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965


File: python.info,  Node: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Next: Other Changes,  Prev: Memory BIO Support,  Up: ssl<9>

1.9.5.58 Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support
.......................................................

(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-20188(1).)

Where OpenSSL support is present, the *note ssl: cf. module now
implements the 'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as
described in RFC 7301(2).

The new *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): e4f. can be used to
specify which protocols a socket should advertise during the TLS
handshake.

The new *note SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e50. returns the
protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  The *note
HAS_ALPN: e51. flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes,  Prev: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<9>

1.9.5.59 Other Changes
......................

There is a new *note SSLSocket.version(): e53. method to query the
actual protocol version in use.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-20421(1).)

The *note SSLSocket: 8d9. class now implements a ‘SSLSocket.sendfile()’
method.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-17552(2).)

The ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either the *note
ssl.SSLWantReadError: e54. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: e55.
exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.
Previously, it would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in
bpo-20951(3).)

The *note cert_time_to_seconds(): e56. function now interprets the input
time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(4).  Additionally, the
return value is always an *note int: 254.  (Contributed by Akira Li in
bpo-19940(5).)

New ‘SSLObject.shared_ciphers()’ and *note SSLSocket.shared_ciphers():
e57. methods return the list of ciphers sent by the client during the
handshake.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186(6).)

The *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e58, *note SSLSocket.read(): e59,
‘SSLSocket.shutdown()’, and *note SSLSocket.write(): e5a. methods of the
*note SSLSocket: 8d9. class no longer reset the socket timeout every
time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
total duration of the method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-23853(7).)

The ‘match_hostname()’ function now supports matching of IP addresses.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<8>,  Next: subprocess<4>,  Prev: ssl<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.60 ‘sqlite3’
..................

The *note Row: e5c. class now fully supports the sequence protocol, in
particular *note reversed(): 852. iteration and slice indexing.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203(1); by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica
McKellar, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<4>,  Next: sys<11>,  Prev: sqlite3<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.61 subprocess
...................

The new *note run(): b76. function has been added.  It runs the
specified command and returns a *note CompletedProcess: e5e. object,
which describes a finished process.  The new API is more consistent and
is the recommended approach to invoking subprocesses in Python code that
does not need to maintain compatibility with earlier Python versions.
(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342(1).)

Exemples :

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

     >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
     stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342


File: python.info,  Node: sys<11>,  Next: sysconfig<2>,  Prev: subprocess<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.62 sys
............

A new ‘set_coroutine_wrapper()’ function allows setting a global hook
that will be called whenever a *note coroutine object: 47d. is created
by an *note async def: 5bd. function.  A corresponding
‘get_coroutine_wrapper()’ can be used to obtain a currently set wrapper.
Both functions are *note provisional: af3, and are intended for
debugging purposes only.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-24017(1).)

A new *note is_finalizing(): a7f. function can be used to check if the
Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14d.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-22696(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<2>,  Next: tarfile<6>,  Prev: sys<11>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.63 ‘sysconfig’
....................

The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first
two components of the Python version.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23437(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<6>,  Next: threading<6>,  Prev: sysconfig<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.64 tarfile
................

The 'mode' argument of the *note open(): e62. function now accepts ‘"x"’
to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-21717(1).)

The *note TarFile.extractall(): e63. and *note TarFile.extract(): e64.
methods now take a keyword argument 'numeric_owner'.  If set to ‘True’,
the extracted files and directories will be owned by the numeric ‘uid’
and ‘gid’ from the tarfile.  If set to ‘False’ (the default, and the
behavior in versions prior to 3.5), they will be owned by the named user
and group in the tarfile.  (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith
in bpo-23193(2).)

The *note TarFile.list(): e65. now accepts an optional 'members' keyword
argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned by *note
TarFile.getmembers(): e66.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21549(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549


File: python.info,  Node: threading<6>,  Next: time<7>,  Prev: tarfile<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.65 threading
..................

Both the *note Lock.acquire(): 685. and *note RLock.acquire(): e68.
methods now use a monotonic clock for timeout management.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: time<7>,  Next: timeit<2>,  Prev: threading<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.66 time
.............

The *note monotonic(): 250. function is now always available.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: timeit<2>,  Next: tkinter<8>,  Prev: time<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.67 timeit
...............

A new command line option ‘-u’ or ‘--unit=U’ can be used to specify the
time unit for the timer output.  Supported options are ‘usec’, ‘msec’,
or ‘sec’.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983(1).)

The *note timeit(): e6b. function has a new 'globals' parameter for
specifying the namespace in which the code will be running.
(Contributed by Ben Roberts in bpo-2527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<8>,  Next: traceback<5>,  Prev: timeit<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.68 tkinter
................

The ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on
Windows has been replaced by a private function in the ‘_tkinter’ module
which makes no permanent changes to environment variables.  (Contributed
by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<5>,  Next: types<5>,  Prev: tkinter<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.69 traceback
..................

New *note walk_stack(): e6e. and *note walk_tb(): e6f. functions to
conveniently traverse frame and *note traceback objects: ae4.
(Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

New lightweight classes: *note TracebackException: 259, *note
StackSummary: e70, and *note FrameSummary: e71.  (Contributed by Robert
Collins in bpo-17911(2).)

Both the *note print_tb(): e72. and *note print_stack(): e73. functions
now support negative values for the 'limit' argument.  (Contributed by
Dmitry Kazakov in bpo-22619(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619


File: python.info,  Node: types<5>,  Next: unicodedata<8>,  Prev: traceback<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.70 ‘types’
................

A new *note coroutine(): e75. function to transform *note generator:
bce. and *note generator-like: dca. objects into *note awaitables: 1ab.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).)

A new type called *note CoroutineType: e76, which is used for *note
coroutine: 47d. objects created by *note async def: 5bd. functions.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24400(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<8>,  Next: unittest<8>,  Prev: types<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.71 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 104. module now uses data from Unicode 8.0.0(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<8>,  Next: unittest mock<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.72 unittest
.................

The *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28c. method now accepts a
keyword-only argument 'pattern' which is passed to ‘load_tests’ as the
third argument.  Found packages are now checked for ‘load_tests’
regardless of whether their path matches 'pattern', because it is
impossible for a package name to match the default pattern.
(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(1).)

Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the *note
TestLoader.errors: e79. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 28b.
instance.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-19746(2).)

A new command line option ‘--locals’ to show local variables in
tracebacks.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<3>,  Next: urllib<2>,  Prev: unittest<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.73 unittest.mock
......................

The *note Mock: a3c. class has the following improvements:

   * The class constructor has a new 'unsafe' parameter, which causes
     mock objects to raise *note AttributeError: 343. on attribute names
     starting with ‘"assert"’.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21238(1).)

   * A new *note Mock.assert_not_called(): e7b. method to check if the
     mock object was called.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21262(2).)

The *note MagicMock: e7c. class now supports ‘__truediv__()’,
‘__divmod__()’ and ‘__matmul__()’ operators.  (Contributed by Johannes
Baiter in bpo-20968(3), and Håkan Lövdahl in bpo-23581(4) and
bpo-23568(5).)

It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass ‘create=True’ to the *note
patch(): e7d. function when patching builtin names.  (Contributed by
Kushal Das in bpo-17660(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<2>,  Next: wsgiref,  Prev: unittest mock<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.74 urllib
...............

A new *note request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth: e7f. class allows HTTP
Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to eliminate
unnecessary ‘401’ response handling, or to unconditionally send
credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers
that return a ‘404’ response instead of a ‘401’ if the ‘Authorization’
header is not sent.  (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494(1) and
Akshit Khurana in bpo-7159(2).)

A new 'quote_via' argument for the *note parse.urlencode(): e80.
function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if
needed.  (Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866(3).)

The *note request.urlopen(): 290. function accepts an *note
ssl.SSLContext: 291. object as a 'context' argument, which will be used
for the HTTPS connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22366(4).)

The *note parse.urljoin(): e81. was updated to use the RFC 3986(5)
semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFC 1808(6)
and RFC 2396(7).  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in
bpo-22118(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref,  Next: xmlrpc<2>,  Prev: urllib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.75 wsgiref
................

The 'headers' argument of the *note headers.Headers: e83. class
constructor is now optional.  (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and
SilentGhost in bpo-5800(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc<2>,  Next: xml sax,  Prev: wsgiref,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.76 xmlrpc
...............

The *note client.ServerProxy: a47. class now supports the *note context
manager: 5c0. protocol.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627(1).)

The *note client.ServerProxy: a47. constructor now accepts an optional
*note ssl.SSLContext: 291. instance.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
bpo-22960(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax,  Next: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xmlrpc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.77 xml.sax
................

SAX parsers now support a character stream of the *note
xmlreader.InputSource: e86. object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-2175(1).)

*note parseString(): e87. now accepts a *note str: 437. instance.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xml sax,  Up: Modules améliorés<9>

1.9.5.78 zipfile
................

ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252(1).)

The 'mode' argument of *note ZipFile.open(): 411. method now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-21717(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717


File: python.info,  Node: Other module-level changes,  Next: Optimizations<4>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<9>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.6 Other module-level changes
--------------------------------

Many functions in the *note mmap: 8f, ‘ossaudiodev’, *note socket: cb,
*note ssl: cf, and *note codecs: 1b. modules now accept writable *note
bytes-like objects: d1d.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<4>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Other module-level changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.7 Optimizations
-------------------

The *note os.walk(): 495. function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on
POSIX systems, and by 7 to 20 times on Windows.  This was done using the
new *note os.scandir(): a4f. function, which exposes file information
from the underlying ‘readdir’ or ‘FindFirstFile’/‘FindNextFile’ system
calls.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in
bpo-23605(1).)

Construction of ‘bytes(int)’ (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses
less memory for large objects.  ‘calloc()’ is used instead of ‘malloc()’
to allocate memory for these objects.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-21233(2).)

Some operations on *note ipaddress: 7f. *note IPv4Network: 1fb. and
*note IPv6Network: 1fc. have been massively sped up, such as *note
subnets(): e8b, *note supernet(): e8c, *note summarize_address_range():
e8d, *note collapse_addresses(): e8e.  The speed up can range from 3 to
15 times.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in
bpo-21486(3), bpo-21487(4), bpo-20826(5), bpo-23266(6).)

Pickling of *note ipaddress: 7f. objects was optimized to produce
significantly smaller output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23133(7).)

Many operations on *note io.BytesIO: e8f. are now 50% to 100% faster.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381(8) and David Wilson in
bpo-22003(9).)

The *note marshal.dumps(): e90. function is now faster: 65-85% with
versions 3 and 4, 20-25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to
5 times in best cases.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-20416(10) and bpo-23344(11).)

The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-15027(12).)

Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380(13).)

The *note json.dumps(): d35. function was optimized to run with
‘ensure_ascii=False’ as fast as with ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  (Contributed
by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206(14).)

The *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e91. and *note PyObject_IsSubclass():
e92. functions have been sped up in the common case that the second
argument has *note type: d38. as its metaclass.  (Contributed Georg
Brandl by in bpo-22540(15).)

Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance
improvement in some benchmarks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-22847(16).)

Objects from the *note random: b7. module now use 50% less memory on
64-bit builds.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488(17).)

The *note property(): 192. getter calls are up to 25% faster.
(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910(18).)

Instantiation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. is now up to 30% faster.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464(19).)

String methods *note find(): e93, *note rfind(): e94, *note split():
e95, *note partition(): e96. and the *note in: 2e9. string operator are
now significantly faster for searching 1-character substrings.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23573(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Next: Obsolescence<10>,  Prev: Optimizations<4>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.8 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

New ‘calloc’ functions were added:

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387,

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): e98,

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): e99.

(Contribution par Victor Stinner; bpo-21233(1).)

New encoding/decoding helper functions:

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. (replaced ‘_Py_char2wchar()’),

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8. (replaced ‘_Py_wchar2char()’).

(Contribution par Victor Stinner; bpo-18395(2).)

A new *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): e9a. function to replace the
unicode encode error with ‘\N{...}’ escapes.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19676(3).)

A new *note PyErr_FormatV(): e9b. function similar to *note
PyErr_Format(): e9c, but accepts a ‘va_list’ argument.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18711(4).)

A new ‘PyExc_RecursionError’ exception.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl in
bpo-19235(5).)

New *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): e9d, *note
PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): e9e, and *note PyModule_ExecDef(): e9f.
functions introduced by PEP 489(6) - multi-phase extension module
initialization.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-24268(7).)

New *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): ea0. and *note
PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): ea1. functions to perform matrix
multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(8).  See
also PEP 465(9) for details.)

The *note PyTypeObject.tp_finalize: a96. slot is now part of the stable
ABI.

Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which is available
as part of Visual Studio 2015(10).

Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their
filename on some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import
extensions without it, although if the tag is present and mismatched,
the extension won't be loaded):

   * On Linux, extension module filenames end with
     ‘.cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<architecture>’ is the hardware architecture the extension
          module was built to run on.  It's most commonly either ‘i386’
          for 32-bit Intel platforms or ‘x86_64’ for 64-bit Intel (and
          AMD) platforms.

        * ‘<os>’ is always ‘linux-gnu’, except for extensions built to
          talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it
          is ‘linux-gnu32’ (and ‘<architecture>’ will be ‘x86_64’).

   * On Windows, extension module filenames end with
     ‘<debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<platform>’ is the platform the extension module was built
          for, either ‘win32’ for Win32, ‘win_amd64’ for Win64,
          ‘win_ia64’ for Windows Itanium 64, and ‘win_arm’ for Windows
          on ARM.

        * If built in debug mode, ‘<debug>’ will be ‘_d’, otherwise it
          will be blank.

   * On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with
     ‘-darwin.so’.

   * On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as
     they were with Python 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (10) 
https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<10>,  Next: Retraits<8>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.9 Obsolescence
------------------

* Menu:

* Nouveaux mot-clefs: Nouveaux mot-clefs<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux mot-clefs<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: Obsolescence<10>

1.9.9.1 Nouveaux mot-clefs
..........................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Next: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Prev: Nouveaux mot-clefs<2>,  Up: Obsolescence<10>

1.9.9.2 Deprecated Python Behavior
..................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: bea. exception inside a generator will
now generate a silent *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7, which will
become a non-silent deprecation warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a
*note RuntimeError: 193. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: d0f. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: Obsolescence<10>

1.9.9.3 Unsupported Operating Systems
.....................................

Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per PEP 11(1),
CPython 3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Up: Obsolescence<10>

1.9.9.4 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
........................................................

The ‘formatter’ module has now graduated to full deprecation and is
still slated for removal in Python 3.6.

The ‘asyncio.async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
ensure_future(): c66.

The ‘smtpd’ module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of
email messages using the ‘utf-8’ codec.  This can now be controlled by
the new 'decode_data' keyword to ‘SMTPServer’.  The default value is
‘True’, but this default is deprecated.  Specify the 'decode_data'
keyword with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.

Directly assigning values to the *note key: bf1, *note value: bf2. and
*note coded_value: bf3. of *note http.cookies.Morsel: bf4. objects is
deprecated.  Use the *note set(): bf5. method instead.  In addition, the
undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): bf5. is deprecated,
and is now ignored.

Passing a format string as keyword argument 'format_string' to the *note
format(): bf0. method of the *note string.Formatter: ea7. class has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671(1).)

The ‘platform.dist()’ and ‘platform.linux_distribution()’ functions are
now deprecated.  Linux distributions use too many different ways of
describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package.
(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in bpo-1322(2).)

The previously undocumented ‘from_function’ and ‘from_builtin’ methods
of *note inspect.Signature: 1ca. are deprecated.  Use the new *note
Signature.from_callable(): 726. method instead.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-24248(3).)

The ‘inspect.getargspec()’ function is deprecated and scheduled to be
removed in Python 3.6.  (See bpo-20438(4) for details.)

The *note inspect: 7d. *note getfullargspec(): 725, *note getcallargs():
ea8, and ‘formatargspec()’ functions are deprecated in favor of the
*note inspect.signature(): 724. API. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-20438(5).)

*note getargvalues(): ea9. and *note formatargvalues(): eaa. functions
were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python
3.5.0.

Use of *note re.LOCALE: b5c. flag with str patterns or *note re.ASCII:
619. is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-22407(6).)

Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
letter in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now
raises a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622(7).)

The undocumented and unofficial 'use_load_tests' default argument of the
*note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28c. method now is
deprecated and ignored.  (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A.
Warsaw in bpo-16662(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<8>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 5,  Prev: Obsolescence<10>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.10 Retraits
---------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<4>,  Up: Retraits<8>

1.9.10.1 API and Feature Removals
.................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The ‘__version__’ attribute has been dropped from the email
     package.  The email code hasn't been shipped separately from the
     stdlib for a long time, and the ‘__version__’ string was not
     updated in the last few releases.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5d. module was
     deprecated in 3.4, and has now been removed.  (Contributed by Matt
     Chaput in bpo-6623(1).)

   * The concept of ‘.pyo’ files has been removed.

   * The JoinableQueue class in the provisional *note asyncio: a. module
     was deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis in bpo-23464(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 5,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4,  Prev: Retraits<8>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.11 Portage vers Python 3.5
------------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>.
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<9>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior<2>,  Next: Changements dans l'API Python<9>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 5

1.9.11.1 Changes in Python behavior
...................................

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1], *args)
          f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)

     Python 3.5 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 18b, as
     generator expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole
     argument to a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<9>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<7>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior<2>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 5

1.9.11.2 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * PEP 475(1): System calls are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d77. if the
     Python signal handler does not raise an exception.

   * Before Python 3.5, a *note datetime.time: 1c9. object was
     considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This
     behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been
     removed in Python 3.5.  See bpo-13936(2) for full details.

   * The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either *note
     ssl.SSLWantReadError: e54. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: e55. on
     a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.  Previously, it
     would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).)

   * The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
     name, instead of being set from the code name.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to retrieve the code name.  Generators also
     have a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute, the qualified name, which is
     now used for the representation of a generator (‘repr(gen)’).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21205(4).)

   * The deprecated "strict" mode and argument of *note HTMLParser: 864,
     ‘HTMLParser.error()’, and the ‘HTMLParserError’ exception have been
     removed.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(5).)  The
     'convert_charrefs' argument of *note HTMLParser: 864. is now ‘True’
     by default.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047(6).)

   * Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for
     porting purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were
     previously of the form "'sometype' does not support the buffer
     protocol" are now of the form "a *note bytes-like object: d1d. is
     required, not 'sometype'".  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-16518(7).)

   * If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer
     exists then *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. will no longer be raised
     and instead *note find_spec(): eb1. will return ‘None’ 'without'
     caching ‘None’ in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0, which is
     different than the typical case (bpo-22834(8)).

   * HTTP status code and messages from *note http.client: 6e. and *note
     http.server: 71. were refactored into a common *note HTTPStatus:
     8ef. enum.  The values in *note http.client: 6e. and *note
     http.server: 71. remain available for backwards compatibility.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(9).)

   * When an import loader defines
     ‘importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module()’ it is now expected to
     also define ‘create_module()’ (raises a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3. now, will be an error in Python 3.6).  If the loader inherits
     from *note importlib.abc.Loader: eb2. then there is nothing to do,
     else simply define ‘create_module()’ to return ‘None’.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-23014(10).)

   * The *note re.split(): 29f. function always ignored empty pattern
     matches, so the ‘"x*"’ pattern worked the same as ‘"x+"’, and the
     ‘"\b"’ pattern never worked.  Now *note re.split(): 29f. raises a
     warning if the pattern could match an empty string.  For
     compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty string (e.g.
     ‘"x+"’ instead of ‘"x*"’).  Patterns that could only match an empty
     string (such as ‘"\b"’) now raise an error.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-22818(11).)

   * The *note http.cookies.Morsel: bf4. dict-like interface has been
     made self consistent: morsel comparison now takes the *note key:
     bf1. and *note value: bf2. into account, *note copy(): eb3. now
     results in a *note Morsel: bf4. instance rather than a *note dict:
     253, and *note update(): eb4. will now raise an exception if any of
     the keys in the update dictionary are invalid.  In addition, the
     undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): bf5. is
     deprecated and is now ignored.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in
     bpo-2211(12).)

   * PEP 488(13) has removed ‘.pyo’ files from Python and introduced the
     optional ‘opt-’ tag in ‘.pyc’ file names.  The *note
     importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f3. has gained an
     'optimization' parameter to help control the ‘opt-’ tag.  Because
     of this, the 'debug_override' parameter of the function is now
     deprecated.  ‘.pyo’ files are also no longer supported as a file
     argument to the Python interpreter and thus serve no purpose when
     distributed on their own (i.e.  sourceless code distribution).  Due
     to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed in
     Python 3.5, all old ‘.pyo’ files from previous versions of Python
     are invalid regardless of this PEP.

   * The *note socket: cb. module now exports the *note
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES: eb5. constant on linux 3.6 and greater.

   * The *note ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(): e56. function now interprets
     the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(14).
     Additionally, the return value is always an *note int: 254.
     (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(15).)

   * The ‘pygettext.py’ Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for
     timezones in the POT-Creation-Date header.

   * The *note smtplib: c9. module now uses *note sys.stderr: 928.
     instead of the previous module-level ‘stderr’ variable for debug
     output.  If your (test) program depends on patching the
     module-level variable to capture the debug output, you will need to
     update it to capture sys.stderr instead.

   * The *note str.startswith(): eb6. and *note str.endswith(): eb7.
     methods no longer return ‘True’ when finding the empty string and
     the indexes are completely out of range.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-24284(16).)

   * The *note inspect.getdoc(): 9ea. function now returns documentation
     strings inherited from base classes.  Documentation strings no
     longer need to be duplicated if the inherited documentation is
     appropriate.  To suppress an inherited string, an empty string must
     be specified (or the documentation may be filled in).  This change
     affects the output of the *note pydoc: b4. module and the *note
     help(): 8c6. function.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-15582(17).)

   * Nested *note functools.partial(): 40a. calls are now flattened.  If
     you were relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add
     an attribute to a *note functools.partial(): 40a. object or you can
     create a subclass of *note functools.partial(): 40a.  (Contributed
     by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-7830(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<7>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<9>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 5

1.9.11.3 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * The undocumented ‘format’ member of the (non-public)
     ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ structure has been removed.  All extensions
     relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to *note
     PyMemAllocatorEx: eb9. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added.

   * Removed non-documented macro ‘PyObject_REPR()’ which leaked
     references.  Use format character ‘%R’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380.-like functions to format the *note
     repr(): 7e9. of the object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-22453(1).)

   * Because the lack of the *note __module__: 36a. attribute breaks
     pickling and introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for
     builtin types without the *note __module__: 36a. attribute.  This
     will be an *note AttributeError: 343. in the future.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20204(2).)

   * As part of the PEP 492(3) implementation, the ‘tp_reserved’ slot of
     *note PyTypeObject: a95. was replaced with a *note tp_as_async:
     eba. slot.  Refer to *note Objets coroutines: ebb. for new types,
     structures and functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 5,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 5

1.9.12 Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4

1.9.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
..........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4

1.9.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
.............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

Modifié dans la version 3.5.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 4,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 3,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 5,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.10 Nouveautés de Python 3.4
=============================


Auteur: R. David Murray <<rdmurray@bitdance.com>> (Editor)

This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
changelog(1).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 429(2) - Python 3.4 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>. Release Highlights
* Nouvelles fonctionnalités: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>.
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<10>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<10>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<11>.
* Retraits: Retraits<9>.
* Portage vers Python 3.4: Portage vers Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>,  Next: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.1 Summary - Release Highlights
-----------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.

Other new features:

   * *note pip should always be available: ec2. ( PEP 453(1)).

   * *note Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable: ec3. (
     PEP 446(2)).

   * command line option for *note isolated mode: ec4. (bpo-16499(3)).

   * *note improvements in the handling of codecs: ec5. that are not
     text encodings (multiple issues).

   * *note A ModuleSpec Type: ec6. for the Import System ( PEP 451(4)).
     (Affects importer authors.)

   * The *note marshal: 8c. format has been made *note more compact and
     efficient: ec7. (bpo-16475(5)).

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

   * *note asyncio: a.: *note New provisional API for asynchronous IO:
     ec8. ( PEP 3156(6)).

   * *note ensurepip: 54.: *note Bootstrapping the pip installer: ec9. (
     PEP 453(7)).

   * *note enum: 55.: *note Support for enumeration types: eca. ( PEP
     435(8)).

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note Object-oriented filesystem paths: ecb. (
     PEP 428(9)).

   * *note selectors: c1.: *note High-level and efficient I/O
     multiplexing: ecc, built upon the *note select: c0. module
     primitives (part of PEP 3156(10)).

   * *note statistics: d1.: A basic *note numerically stable statistics
     library: ecd. ( PEP 450(11)).

   * *note tracemalloc: fe.: *note Trace Python memory allocations: ece.
     ( PEP 454(12)).

Significantly improved library modules:

   * *note Single-dispatch generic functions: ecf. in *note functools:
     5e. ( PEP 443(13)).

   * New *note pickle: a5. *note protocol 4: ed0. ( PEP 3154(14)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 93. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: ed1. (bpo-8713(15)).

   * *note email: 3b. has a new submodule, *note contentmanager: 3d, and
     a new *note Message: 279. subclass (‘EmailMessage’) that *note
     simplify MIME handling: ed2. (bpo-18891(16)).

   * The *note inspect: 7d. and *note pydoc: b4. modules are now capable
     of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable
     objects, which improves the output of the Python *note help(): 8c6.
     system.

   * The *note ipaddress: 7f. module API has been declared stable

Security improvements:

   * *note Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm: ed3. ( PEP
     456(17)).

   * *note Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable: ec3. (
     PEP 446(18)) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.

   * New command line option for *note isolated mode: ec4,
     (bpo-16499(19)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 93. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: ed1.  'spawn' and 'forkserver' are more secure
     because they avoid sharing data with child processes.

   * *note multiprocessing: 93. child processes on Windows no longer
     inherit all of the parent's inheritable handles, only the necessary
     ones.

   * A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb. function provides the
     PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(20).

   * *note TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support: ed4. for *note ssl: cf.

   * *note Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store
     support: ed5. for *note ssl: cf.

   * *note Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support: ed6. for
     *note ssl: cf.

   * The *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. class has a *note lot of
     improvements: ed7.

   * All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support
     server certificate verification, including hostname matching
     (‘ssl.match_hostname()’) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists,
     see *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ed8.).

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note Safe object finalization: ed9. ( PEP 442(21)).

   * Leveraging PEP 442(22), in most cases *note module globals are no
     longer set to None during finalization: ed9. (bpo-18214(23)).

   * *note Configurable memory allocators: eda. ( PEP 445(24)).

   * *note Argument Clinic: edb. ( PEP 436(25)).

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>,  Next: Nouveaux modules<10>,  Prev: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.2 Nouvelles fonctionnalités
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Next: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>

1.10.2.1 PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
.......................................................................

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Next: Documentation Changes,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.10.2.2 Bootstrapping pip By Default
.....................................

The new *note ensurepip: 54. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations and virtual environments.  The version of ‘pip’
included with Python 3.4.0 is ‘pip’ 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance
releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’
that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all
platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.  On Windows
and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ‘pip’
command will also be installed.  On other platforms, the system wide
unversioned ‘pip’ command typically refers to the separately installed
Python 2 version.

The ‘pyvenv’ command line utility and the *note venv: 110. module make
use of the *note ensurepip: 54. module to make ‘pip’ readily available
in virtual environments.  When using the command line utility, ‘pip’ is
installed by default, while when using the *note venv: 110. module *note
API: edf. installation of ‘pip’ must be requested explicitly.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: ee0, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands bootstrap ‘pip’ by default.
This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2) platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

     Note: To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3
     installations, only the versioned ‘pip3’ and ‘pip3.4’ commands are
     bootstrapped by default when ‘ensurepip’ is invoked directly - the
     ‘--default-pip’ option is needed to also request the unversioned
     ‘pip’ command.  ‘pyvenv’ and the Windows installer ensure that the
     unqualified ‘pip’ command is made available in those environments,
     and ‘pip’ can always be invoked via the ‘-m’ switch rather than
     directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python
     installations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.10.2.3 Documentation Changes
..............................

As part of this change, the *note Installation de modules Python: ee2.
and distributing-index sections of the documentation have been
completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most
packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging
Authority maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the
documentation of the individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: ee3. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions
with setuptools: ee4.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 453(2) - Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Next: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Prev: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>

1.10.2.4 PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
....................................................................

PEP 446(1) makes newly created file descriptors *note non-inheritable:
ee6.  In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when
launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the
new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially
to security issues.

However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:

   * *note os.get_inheritable(): ee7, *note os.set_inheritable(): ee8.

   * *note os.get_handle_inheritable(): ee9, *note
     os.set_handle_inheritable(): eea.

   * *note socket.socket.get_inheritable(): eeb, *note
     socket.socket.set_inheritable(): eec.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 446(2) - Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/


File: python.info,  Node: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Next: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Prev: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>

1.10.2.5 Improvements to Codec Handling
.......................................

Since it was first introduced, the *note codecs: 1b. module has always
been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
system.  However, its close coupling with the Python text model,
especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin *note
str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. types, has
historically obscured that fact.

As a key step in clarifying the situation, the *note codecs.encode():
eee. and *note codecs.decode(): eef. convenience functions are now
properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4.  These functions have
existed in the *note codecs: 1b. module (and have been covered by the
regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only
discoverable through runtime introspection.

Unlike the convenience methods on *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. and
*note bytearray: 52b, the *note codecs: 1b. convenience functions
support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than
being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or ‘basestring’
<-> ‘basestring’ conversions (in Python 2).

In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards
these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:

     >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> "hello".encode("rot13")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs

In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
name of the codec responsible for producing the error:

     >>> import codecs

     >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
         return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)

     >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
         return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
         return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
     TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)

Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs
that were themselves restored in Python 3.2.  This means that encoding
binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can
now be written as:

     >>> from codecs import encode, decode
     >>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
     b'68656c6c6f'
     >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
     b'hello'

The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are
detailed in *note Binary Transforms: ef0. and *note Text Transforms:
ef1.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-7475(1), bpo-17827(2), bpo-17828(3)
and bpo-19619(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Next: Autres changements au langage<10>,  Prev: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>

1.10.2.6 PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
.........................................................

PEP 451(1) provides an encapsulation of the information about a module
that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module
specification).  This helps simplify both the import implementation and
several import-related APIs.  The change is also a stepping stone for
several future import-related improvements(2).

The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer
authors.  Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they
will continue working.  New importers should use the new methods
described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement
the new methods.  See the *note Obsolescence: ef3. section for a list of
methods that should be replaced and their replacements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<10>,  Prev: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Up: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>

1.10.2.7 Autres changements au langage
......................................

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.

   * *note min(): ef5. and *note max(): ef6. now accept a 'default'
     keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they
     return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements.
     (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111(1).)

   * Module objects are now *note weakly referenceable: ef7.

   * Module ‘__file__’ attributes (and related values) should now always
     contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
     ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using
     a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(2).)

   * All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during
     both encoding and decoding unless the ‘surrogatepass’ error handler
     is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts
     valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them
     while encoding non-BMP characters).  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892(3).)

   * New German EBCDIC *note codec: da8. ‘cp273’.  (Contributed by
     Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797(4).)

   * New Ukrainian *note codec: da8. ‘cp1125’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19668(5).)

   * *note bytes: 1bd.join() and *note bytearray: 52b.join() now accept
     arbitrary buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-15958(6).)

   * The *note int: 254. constructor now accepts any object that has an
     ‘__index__’ method for its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in bpo-16772(7).)

   * Frame objects now have a *note clear(): 27d. method that clears all
     references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934(8).)

   * *note memoryview: 454. is now registered as a *note Sequence: 1e,
     and supports the *note reversed(): 852. builtin.  (Contributed by
     Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690(9) and bpo-19078(10).)

   * Signatures reported by *note help(): 8c6. have been modified and
     improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of
     Argument Clinic and other changes to the *note inspect: 7d. and
     *note pydoc: b4. modules.

   * *note __length_hint__(): ef8. is now part of the formal language
     specification (see PEP 424(11)).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
     bpo-16148(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<10>,  Next: Modules améliorés<10>,  Prev: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<15>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.3 Nouveaux modules
-----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<11>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<11>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<6>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<11>,  Next: ensurepip<2>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.1 asyncio
................

The new *note asyncio: a. module (defined in PEP 3156(1)) provides a
standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid
asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier
for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard
library and each other.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: af3.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3156(2) - Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the "asyncio" Module

     PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip<2>,  Next: enum<9>,  Prev: asyncio<11>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.2 ensurepip
..................

The new *note ensurepip: 54. module is the primary infrastructure for
the PEP 453(1) implementation.  In the normal course of events end users
will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to
manually bootstrap ‘pip’ if the automated bootstrapping into an
installation or virtual environment was declined.

*note ensurepip: 54. includes a bundled copy of ‘pip’, up-to-date as of
the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it
ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases).
‘ensurepip’ does not access the internet.  If the installation has
internet access, after ‘ensurepip’ is run the bundled ‘pip’ can be used
to upgrade ‘pip’ to a more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note
that such an upgraded version of ‘pip’ is considered to be a separately
installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.)

The module is named 'ensure'pip because if called when ‘pip’ is already
installed, it does nothing.  It also has an ‘--upgrade’ option that will
cause it to install the bundled copy of ‘pip’ if the existing installed
version of ‘pip’ is older than the bundled copy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: enum<9>,  Next: pathlib<11>,  Prev: ensurepip<2>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.3 enum
.............

The new *note enum: 55. module (defined in PEP 435(1)) provides a
standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules
(such as *note socket: cb.) to provide more informative error messages
and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with
backwards compatible enumeration values.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 435(2) - Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
     implemented by Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<11>,  Next: selectors<2>,  Prev: enum<9>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.4 pathlib
................

The new *note pathlib: a3. module offers classes representing filesystem
paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path
classes are divided between 'pure paths', which provide purely
computational operations without I/O, and 'concrete paths', which
inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: af3.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 428(1) - The pathlib module - object-oriented filesystem paths

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: selectors<2>,  Next: statistics<6>,  Prev: pathlib<11>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.5 selectors
..................

The new *note selectors: c1. module (created as part of implementing PEP
3156(1)) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c0. module primitives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<6>,  Next: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: selectors<2>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.6 ‘statistics’
.....................

The new *note statistics: d1. module (defined in PEP 450(1)) offers some
core statistics functionality directly in the standard library.  This
module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and
standard deviation of a data series.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 450(2) - Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D'Aprano

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: statistics<6>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<10>

1.10.3.7 tracemalloc
....................

The new *note tracemalloc: fe. module (defined in PEP 454(1)) is a debug
tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python.  It provides the
following information:

   * Trace where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 454(2) - Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<10>,  Next: CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<10>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.4 Modules améliorés
------------------------

* Menu:

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<5>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<3>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* doctest: doctest<4>.
* email: email<4>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<4>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>.
* importlib: importlib<9>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal: marshal<2>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<8>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutils: shutils<6>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<6>.
* types: types<6>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* venv: venv<7>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc,  Next: aifc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.1 abc
............

New function *note abc.get_cache_token(): f03. can be used to know when
to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.
(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832(1).)

New class *note ABC: f04. has *note ABCMeta: f05. as its meta class.
Using ‘ABC’ as a base class has essentially the same effect as
specifying ‘metaclass=abc.ABCMeta’, but is simpler to type and easier to
read.  (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049


File: python.info,  Node: aifc<2>,  Next: argparse<5>,  Prev: abc,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.2 aifc
.............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818(1).)

‘aifc.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used in
a *note with: 5be. block, the ‘close()’ method of the returned object
will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486(2).)

The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note
bytes-like object: d1d.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-8311(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<5>,  Next: audioop,  Prev: aifc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.3 argparse
.................

The *note FileType: f08. class now accepts 'encoding' and 'errors'
arguments, which are passed through to *note open(): 508.  (Contributed
by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175


File: python.info,  Node: audioop,  Next: base64<3>,  Prev: argparse<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.4 audioop
................

‘audioop’ now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-12866(1).)

New ‘byteswap()’ function converts big-endian samples to little-endian
and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19641(2).)

All ‘audioop’ functions now accept any *note bytes-like object: d1d.
Strings are not accepted: they didn't work before, now they raise an
error right away.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685


File: python.info,  Node: base64<3>,  Next: collections<6>,  Prev: audioop,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.5 base64
...............

The encoding and decoding functions in *note base64: e. now accept any
*note bytes-like object: d1d. in cases where it previously required a
*note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b. instance.  (Contributed by
Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839(1).)

New functions *note a85encode(): f0b, *note a85decode(): f0c, *note
b85encode(): f0d, and *note b85decode(): f0e. provide the ability to
encode and decode binary data from and to ‘Ascii85’ and the
git/mercurial ‘Base85’ formats, respectively.  The ‘a85’ functions have
options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of
the ‘Ascii85’ encoding, including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by
Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-17618(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618


File: python.info,  Node: collections<6>,  Next: colorsys,  Prev: base64<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.6 collections
....................

The *note ChainMap.new_child(): f10. method now accepts an 'm' argument
specifying the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing
mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys,  Next: contextlib<6>,  Prev: collections<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.7 colorsys
.................

The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB -- YIQ conversions
have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change
in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found
elsewhere.  (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-14323(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<6>,  Next: dbm<6>,  Prev: colorsys,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.8 contextlib
...................

The new *note contextlib.suppress: f13. context manager helps to clarify
the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single
statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806(1) and Zero
Piraeus in bpo-19266(2).)

The new *note contextlib.redirect_stdout(): dd7. context manager makes
it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their
output to *note sys.stdout: ac6. and don't provide any options to
redirect it.  Using the context manager, the *note sys.stdout: ac6.
output can be redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with
*note io.StringIO: f14, to a string.  The latter can be especially
useful, for example, to capture output from a function that was written
to implement a command line interface.  It is recommended only for
utility scripts because it affects the global state of *note sys.stdout:
ac6.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805(3).)

The *note contextlib: 23. documentation has also been updated to include
a *note discussion: f15. of the differences between single use, reusable
and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<6>,  Next: dis<4>,  Prev: contextlib<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.9 dbm
............

*note dbm.open(): f17. objects now support the context management
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 5be. statement, the ‘close’ method
of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282


File: python.info,  Node: dis<4>,  Next: doctest<4>,  Prev: dbm<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.10 dis
.............

Functions *note show_code(): f19, *note dis(): b24, ‘distb()’, and *note
disassemble(): f1a. now accept a keyword-only 'file' argument that
controls where they write their output.

The *note dis: 38. module is now built around an *note Instruction: 1d7.
class that provides object oriented access to the details of each
individual bytecode operation.

A new method, *note get_instructions(): 1d6, provides an iterator that
emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it
is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a
bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the *note dis:
38. module itself.  For example:

     >>> import dis
     >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     LOAD_FAST
     LOAD_CONST
     BINARY_ADD
     RETURN_VALUE

The various display tools in the *note dis: 38. module have been
rewritten to use these new components.

In addition, a new application-friendly class *note Bytecode: f1b.
provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in
human-readable form and for iterating over instructions.  The *note
Bytecode: f1b. constructor takes the same arguments that
‘get_instruction()’ does (plus an optional 'current_offset'), and the
resulting object can be iterated to produce *note Instruction: 1d7.
objects.  But it also has a *note dis: f1c. method, equivalent to
calling *note dis: b24. on the constructor argument, but returned as a
multi-line string:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
     LOAD_FAST (124)
     LOAD_CONST (100)
     BINARY_ADD (23)
     RETURN_VALUE (83)
     >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()
     ['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
      '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
      '              6 BINARY_ADD',
      '              7 RETURN_VALUE']

*note Bytecode: f1b. also has a class method, *note from_traceback():
f1d, that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is,
‘print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())’ is equivalent to
‘distb(tb)’).

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-11816(1) and Claudiu Popa in bpo-17916(2).)

New function *note stack_effect(): f1e. computes the effect on the
Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not
otherwise available.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<4>,  Next: email<4>,  Prev: dis<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.11 doctest
.................

A new *note option flag: f20, *note FAIL_FAST: f21, halts test running
as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522(1).)

The *note doctest: 3a. command line interface now uses *note argparse:
6, and has two new options, ‘-o’ and ‘-f’.  ‘-o’ allows *note doctest
options: f20. to be specified on the command line, and ‘-f’ is a
shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’ (to parallel the similar option supported
by the *note unittest: 105. CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in
bpo-11390(2).)

*note doctest: 3a. will now find doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’
strings.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158


File: python.info,  Node: email<4>,  Next: filecmp,  Prev: doctest<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.12 email
...............

*note as_string(): f23. now accepts a 'policy' argument to override the
default policy of the message when generating a string representation of
it.  This means that ‘as_string’ can now be used in more circumstances,
instead of having to create and use a *note generator: 40. in order to
pass formatting parameters to its ‘flatten’ method.  (Contributed by R.
David Murray in bpo-18600(1).)

New method *note as_bytes(): f24. added to produce a bytes
representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ‘as_string’
produces a string representation.  It does not accept the 'maxheaderlen'
argument, but does accept the 'unixfrom' and 'policy' arguments.  The
*note Message: 279. *note __bytes__(): f25. method calls it, meaning
that ‘bytes(mymsg)’ will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes
object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray in bpo-18600(2).)

The *note Message.set_param(): f26. message now accepts a 'replace'
keyword argument.  When specified, the associated header will be updated
without changing its location in the list of headers.  For backward
compatibility, the default is ‘False’.  (Contributed by R. David Murray
in bpo-18891(3).)  A pair of new subclasses of *note Message: 279. have
been added (*note EmailMessage: 278. and *note MIMEPart: f27.), along
with a new sub-module, *note contentmanager: 3d. and a new *note policy:
4f. attribute *note content_manager: f28.  All documentation is
currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email's new
*note provisional API: af3.  These classes provide a number of new
methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into
email messages much easier.  For details, see the *note contentmanager:
3d. documentation and the *note email; Exemples: f29.  These API
additions complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the
email6 project.  The currently provisional API is scheduled to become
final in Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of
error handling).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp,  Next: functools<5>,  Prev: email<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.13 filecmp
.................

A new *note clear_cache(): f2b. function provides the ability to clear
the *note filecmp: 59. comparison cache, which uses *note os.stat():
48c. information to determine if the file has changed since the last
compare.  This can be used, for example, if the file might have been
changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular
filesystem's file modification time field.  (Contributed by Mark Levitt
in bpo-18149(1).)

New module attribute *note DEFAULT_IGNORES: f2c. provides the list of
directories that are used as the default value for the 'ignore'
parameter of the *note dircmp(): f2d. function.  (Contributed by Eli
Bendersky in bpo-15442(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442


File: python.info,  Node: functools<5>,  Next: gc<5>,  Prev: filecmp,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.14 functools
...................

The new *note partialmethod(): a6b. descriptor brings partial argument
application to descriptors, just as *note partial(): 40a. provides for
normal callables.  The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
arbitrary callables (including *note partial(): 40a. instances) to
behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331(1).)  The new
*note singledispatch(): 626. decorator brings support for
single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library.  Where
object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
'different' kinds of data.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 443(2) - Single-dispatch generic functions

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

*note total_ordering(): f2f. now supports a return value of *note
NotImplemented: 7be. from the underlying comparison function.
(Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042(3).)

A pure-python version of the *note partial(): 40a. function is now in
the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version,
but it is available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by
Brian Thorne in bpo-12428(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428


File: python.info,  Node: gc<5>,  Next: glob<4>,  Prev: functools<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.15 'gc'
..............

New function *note get_stats(): f31. returns a list of three
per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since
interpreter startup.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351


File: python.info,  Node: glob<4>,  Next: hashlib<6>,  Prev: gc<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.16 glob
..............

A new function *note escape(): f33. provides a way to escape special
characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing
expansion but are instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8402(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<6>,  Next: hmac<3>,  Prev: glob<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.17 'hashlib'
...................

A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb. function provides the PKCS#5
password-based key derivation function 2(1).  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-18582(2).)

The *note name: f35. attribute of *note hashlib: 67. hash objects is now
a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython's
*note hashlib: 67. (although it did not return lower case names for all
supported hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other
Python implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed
by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-18532(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<3>,  Next: html,  Prev: hashlib<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.18 ‘hmac’
................

*note hmac: 69. now accepts ‘bytearray’ as well as ‘bytes’ for the 'key'
argument to the *note new(): a8f. function, and the 'msg' parameter to
both the *note new(): a8f. function and the *note update(): f37. method
now accepts any type supported by the *note hashlib: 67. module.
(Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240(1).)

The 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): a8f. function may now
be any hash digest name recognized by *note hashlib: 67.  In addition,
the current behavior in which the value of 'digestmod' defaults to ‘MD5’
is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default
value.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276(2).)

With the addition of *note block_size: f38. and *note name: f39.
attributes (and the formal documentation of the *note digest_size: f3a.
attribute), the *note hmac: 69. module now conforms fully to the PEP
247(3) API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775


File: python.info,  Node: html,  Next: http<3>,  Prev: hmac<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.19 html
..............

New function *note unescape(): 946. function converts HTML5 character
references to the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927(1).)

*note HTMLParser: 864. accepts a new keyword argument 'convert_charrefs'
that, when ‘True’, automatically converts all character references.  For
backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ‘False’, but it will
change to ‘True’ in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633(2).)

The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 864. is now deprecated.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114


File: python.info,  Node: http<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Prev: html,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.20 'http'
................

*note send_error(): f3d. now accepts an optional additional 'explain'
parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description,
overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.  This extended error
description will be formatted using the ‘error_message_format’ attribute
and sent as the body of the error response.  (Contributed by Karl Cow in
bpo-12921(1).)

The *note http.server: 71. *note command line interface: f3e. now has a
‘-b/--bind’ option that causes the server to listen on a specific
address.  (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Next: importlib<9>,  Prev: http<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.21 idlelib and IDLE
..........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<9>,  Next: inspect<8>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.22 importlib
...................

The *note InspectLoader: f41. ABC defines a new method, *note
source_to_code(): e00. that accepts source data and a path and returns a
code object.  The default implementation is equivalent to ‘compile(data,
path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)’.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett
Cannon in bpo-15627(1).)

*note InspectLoader: f41. also now has a default implementation for the
*note get_code(): f42. method.  However, it will normally be desirable
to override the default implementation for performance reasons.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072(2).)

The *note reload(): 505. function has been moved from ‘imp’ to *note
importlib: 76. as part of the ‘imp’ module deprecation.  (Contributed by
Berker Peksag in bpo-18193(3).)

*note importlib.util: 7c. now has a *note MAGIC_NUMBER: 4ff. attribute
providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
‘get_magic()’ function in the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-18192(4).)

New *note importlib.util: 7c. functions *note cache_from_source(): 2f3.
and *note source_from_cache(): 506. replace the same-named functions in
the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-18194(5).)

The *note importlib: 76. bootstrap *note NamespaceLoader: f43. now
conforms to the *note InspectLoader: f41. ABC, which means that ‘runpy’
and ‘python -m’ can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058(6).)

*note importlib.util: 7c. has a new function *note decode_source(): f44.
that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.  This
is useful for implementing *note InspectLoader.get_source(): f45.
methods.

*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: ca0. now has a *note
get_filename(): f46. method.  This was inadvertently omitted in the
original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<8>,  Next: ipaddress<5>,  Prev: importlib<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.23 'inspect'
...................

The *note inspect: 7d. module now offers a basic *note command line
interface: f48. to quickly display source code and other information for
modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick
Coghlan in bpo-18626(1).)

*note unwrap(): f49. makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
created by *note functools.wraps(): f4a. (and any other API that sets
the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266(2).)

As part of the implementation of the new *note enum: 55. module, the
*note inspect: 7d. module now has substantially better support for
custom ‘__dir__’ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929(3) and
bpo-19030(4).)

*note getfullargspec(): 725. and ‘getargspec()’ now use the *note
signature(): 724. API. This allows them to support a much broader range
of callables, including those with ‘__signature__’ attributes, those
with metadata provided by argument clinic, *note functools.partial():
40a. objects and more.  Note that, unlike *note signature(): 724, these
functions still ignore ‘__wrapped__’ attributes, and report the already
bound first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to
update your code to use *note signature(): 724. directly if those
features are desired.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481(5).)

*note signature(): 724. now supports duck types of CPython functions,
which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<5>,  Next: logging<6>,  Prev: inspect<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.24 'ipaddress'
.....................

*note ipaddress: 7f. was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as
a *note provisional API: af3.  With the release of Python 3.4, this
qualification has been removed: *note ipaddress: 7f. is now considered a
stable API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to
maintain backwards compatibility.

A new *note is_global: f4c. property is ‘True’ if an address is globally
routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400


File: python.info,  Node: logging<6>,  Next: marshal<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.25 logging
.................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e. has a new 'atTime' parameter
that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen.
(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556(1).)

*note SocketHandler: f4f. and *note DatagramHandler: f50. now support
Unix domain sockets (by setting 'port' to ‘None’).  (Contributed by
Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.)

*note fileConfig(): b41. now accepts a *note
configparser.RawConfigParser: f51. subclass instance for the 'fname'
parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration,
or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
*note fileConfig(): b41.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110(2).)

Logging configuration data received from a socket via the *note
logging.config.listen(): f52. function can now be validated before being
processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the
new 'verify' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-15452(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452


File: python.info,  Node: marshal<2>,  Next: mmap<3>,  Prev: logging<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.26 marshal
.................

The default *note marshal: 8c. version has been bumped to 3.  The code
implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording
only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on
deserialization, and extends this "one copy" ability to any object type
(including handling recursive references).  This reduces both the size
of ‘.pyc’ files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory
when it is loaded from a ‘.pyc’ (or ‘.pyo’) file.  (Contributed by
Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475(1), with additional speedups by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<3>,  Next: multiprocessing<7>,  Prev: marshal<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.27 mmap
..............

mmap objects are now *note weakly referenceable: ef7.  (Contributed by
Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<7>,  Next: operator<3>,  Prev: mmap<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.28 multiprocessing
.........................

On Unix two new *note start methods: 2c6, ‘spawn’ and ‘forkserver’, have
been added for starting processes using *note multiprocessing: 93.
These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the
‘spawn’ method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always
used on Windows.  New function *note get_all_start_methods(): f56.
reports all start methods available on the platform, *note
get_start_method(): f57. reports the current start method, and *note
set_start_method(): 2c5. sets the start method.  (Contributed by Richard
Oudkerk in bpo-8713(1).)

*note multiprocessing: 93. also now has the concept of a ‘context’,
which determines how child processes are created.  New function *note
get_context(): 2c4. returns a context that uses a specified start
method.  It has the same API as the *note multiprocessing: 93. module
itself, so you can use it to create *note Pool: f58.s and other objects
that will operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an
application or different parts of the same application to use
multiprocessing without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by
Richard Oudkerk in bpo-18999(2).)

Except when using the old 'fork' start method, child processes no longer
inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
bpo-8713(3)).

*note multiprocessing: 93. now relies on *note runpy: bd. (which
implements the ‘-m’ switch) to initialise ‘__main__’ appropriately in
child processes when using the ‘spawn’ or ‘forkserver’ start methods.
This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ‘-m’
command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure
failures in child processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19946(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946


File: python.info,  Node: operator<3>,  Next: os<11>,  Prev: multiprocessing<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.29 ‘operator’
....................

New function *note length_hint(): f5a. provides an implementation of the
specification for how the *note __length_hint__(): ef8. special method
should be used, as part of the PEP 424(1) formal specification of this
language feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(2).)

There is now a pure-python version of the *note operator: 9e. module
available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of
Python.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694


File: python.info,  Node: os<11>,  Next: pdb<6>,  Prev: operator<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.30 'os'
..............

There are new functions to get and set the *note inheritable flag: ee6.
of a file descriptor (*note os.get_inheritable(): ee7, *note
os.set_inheritable(): ee8.) or a Windows handle (*note
os.get_handle_inheritable(): ee9, *note os.set_handle_inheritable():
eea.).

New function *note cpu_count(): 1c0. reports the number of CPUs
available on the platform on which Python is running (or ‘None’ if the
count can't be determined).  The *note multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f5c.
function is now implemented in terms of this function).  (Contributed by
Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and Charles-François
Natali in bpo-17914(1).)

*note os.path.samestat(): f5d. is now available on the Windows platform
(and the *note os.path.samefile(): f5e. implementation is now shared
between Unix and Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-11939(2).)

*note os.path.ismount(): a02. now recognizes volumes mounted below a
drive root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035(3).)

*note os.open(): d81. supports two new flags on platforms that provide
them, *note O_PATH: f5f. (un-opened file descriptor), and *note
O_TMPFILE: f60. (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available
only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have
uapi headers).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673(4) and
Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<6>,  Next: pickle<4>,  Prev: os<11>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.31 'pdb'
...............

*note pdb: a4. has been enhanced to handle generators, *note yield: 9bd,
and ‘yield from’ in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful
when debugging *note asyncio: a. based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew
Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596(1).)

The ‘print’ command has been removed from *note pdb: a4, restoring
access to the Python *note print(): f62. function from the pdb command
line.  Python2's ‘pdb’ did not have a ‘print’ command; instead, entering
‘print’ executed the ‘print’ statement.  In Python3 ‘print’ was
mistakenly made an alias for the pdb *note p: f63. command.  ‘p’,
however, prints the ‘repr’ of its argument, not the ‘str’ like the
Python2 ‘print’ command did.  Worse, the Python3 ‘pdb print’ command
shadowed the Python3 ‘print’ function, making it inaccessible at the
‘pdb’ prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<4>,  Next: plistlib<2>,  Prev: pdb<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.32 pickle
................

*note pickle: a5. now supports (but does not use by default) a new
pickle protocol, protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of
issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the
serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and
classes whose ‘__new__()’ method takes keyword-only arguments.  It also
provides some efficiency improvements.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3154(1) - Pickle protocol 4

     PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre
     Vassalotti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib<2>,  Next: poplib<3>,  Prev: pickle<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.33 plistlib
..................

*note plistlib: aa. now has an API that is similar to the standard
pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new *note load(): 93e,
*note dump(): 940, *note loads(): 93f, and *note dumps(): 941.
functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the
already supported XML plist format (*note FMT_XML: f66.), it also now
supports the binary plist format (*note FMT_BINARY: f67.).  (Contributed
by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<3>,  Next: pprint<4>,  Prev: plistlib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.34 'poplib'
..................

Two new methods have been added to *note poplib: ab.: *note capa(): f69,
which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and
*note stls(): f6a, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an
encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.  (Contributed by
Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<4>,  Next: pty,  Prev: poplib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.35 'pprint'
..................

The *note pprint: ad. module's *note PrettyPrinter: f6c. class and its
*note pformat(): f6d, and *note pprint(): 814. functions have a new
option, 'compact', that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
setting 'compact' to ‘True’ means that sequences will be printed with as
many sequence elements as will fit within 'width' on each (indented)
line.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132(1).)

Long strings are now wrapped using Python's normal line continuation
syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150


File: python.info,  Node: pty,  Next: pydoc<4>,  Prev: pprint<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.36 pty
.............

*note pty.spawn(): f6f. now returns the status value from *note
os.waitpid(): d89. on the child process, instead of ‘None’.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<4>,  Next: re<8>,  Prev: pty,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.37 'pydoc'
.................

The *note pydoc: b4. module is now based directly on the *note
inspect.signature(): 724. introspection API, allowing it to provide
signature information for a wider variety of callable objects.  This
change also means that ‘__wrapped__’ attributes are now taken into
account when displaying help information.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-19674(1).)

The *note pydoc: b4. module no longer displays the ‘self’ parameter for
already bound methods.  Instead, it aims to always display the exact
current signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-20710(2).)

In addition to the changes that have been made to *note pydoc: b4.
directly, its handling of custom ‘__dir__’ methods and various
descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the
underlying changes in the *note inspect: 7d. module.

As the *note help(): 8c6. builtin is based on *note pydoc: b4, the above
changes also affect the behaviour of *note help(): 8c6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710


File: python.info,  Node: re<8>,  Next: resource,  Prev: pydoc<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.38 ‘re’
..............

New *note fullmatch(): f72. function and ‘regex.fullmatch()’ method
anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match.  This provides a
way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of
subtle bugs where ‘$’ characters get lost during code changes or the
addition of alternatives to an existing regular expression.
(Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203(1).)

The repr of *note regex objects: f73. now includes the pattern and the
flags; the repr of *note match objects: f74. now includes the start,
end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed by Hugo
Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592(2) and bpo-17087(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087


File: python.info,  Node: resource,  Next: select,  Prev: re<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.39 resource
..................

New *note prlimit(): f76. function, available on Linux platforms with a
kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides
the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than
the one making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-16595(1).)

On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux
specific constants: *note RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE: f77, *note RLIMIT_NICE: f78,
*note RLIMIT_RTPRIO: f79, *note RLIMIT_RTTIME: f7a, and *note
RLIMIT_SIGPENDING: f7b.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-19324(2).)

On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific
constants: *note RLIMIT_SBSIZE: f7c, *note RLIMIT_SWAP: f7d, and *note
RLIMIT_NPTS: f7e.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343


File: python.info,  Node: select,  Next: shelve<2>,  Prev: resource,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.40 select
................

*note epoll: f80. objects now support the context management protocol.
When used in a *note with: 5be. statement, the *note close(): f81.
method will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488(1).)

*note devpoll: f82. objects now have *note fileno(): f83. and *note
close(): f84. methods, as well as a new attribute *note closed: f85.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794


File: python.info,  Node: shelve<2>,  Next: shutils<6>,  Prev: select,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.41 ‘shelve’
..................

*note Shelf: f87. instances may now be used in *note with: 5be.
statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the ‘with’
block.  (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<6>,  Next: smtpd<3>,  Prev: shelve<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.42 ‘shutils’
...................

*note copyfile(): a49. now raises a specific *note Error: f89. subclass,
*note SameFileError: f8a, when the source and destination are the same
file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this
specific error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in
bpo-1492704(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<3>,  Next: smtplib<3>,  Prev: shutils<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.43 smtpd
...............

The ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'map' keyword
argument which, if specified, is passed in to ‘asynchat.async_chat’ as
its 'map' argument.  This allows an application to avoid affecting the
global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<3>,  Next: socket<9>,  Prev: smtpd<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.44 'smtplib'
...................

*note SMTPException: f8d. is now a subclass of *note OSError: 40d, which
allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be
caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or
not an error occurred.  (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in
bpo-2118(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118


File: python.info,  Node: socket<9>,  Next: sqlite3<9>,  Prev: smtplib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.45 'socket'
..................

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_BCM: f8f. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
bpo-15359(1).)

Socket objects have new methods to get or set their *note inheritable
flag: ee6, *note get_inheritable(): eeb. and *note set_inheritable():
eec.

The ‘socket.AF_*’ and ‘socket.SOCK_*’ constants are now enumeration
values using the new *note enum: 55. module.  This allows meaningful
names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer "magic
numbers".

The *note AF_LINK: f90. constant is now available on BSD and OSX.

*note inet_pton(): 951. and *note inet_ntop(): f91. are now supported on
Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<9>,  Next: ssl<10>,  Prev: socket<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.46 ‘sqlite3’
...................

A new boolean parameter to the *note connect(): 2a5. function, 'uri',
can be used to indicate that the 'database' parameter is a ‘uri’ (see
the SQLite URI documentation(1)).  (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<10>,  Next: stat,  Prev: sqlite3<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.47 ‘ssl’
...............

*note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1: f94. and *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2: f95. (TLSv1.1
and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is
only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.
(Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692(1).)  New
function *note create_default_context(): 154. provides a standard way to
obtain an *note SSLContext: 291. whose settings are intended to be a
reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings
are more stringent than the defaults provided by the *note SSLContext:
291. constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior
deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change.  The new
recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is
to use *note create_default_context(): 154. to obtain an *note
SSLContext: 291. object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the
'context' argument of the appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-19689(2).)

*note SSLContext: 291. method *note load_verify_locations(): ed8.
accepts a new optional argument 'cadata', which can be used to provide
PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes,
respectively.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138(3).)

New function *note get_default_verify_paths(): f96. returns a named
tuple of the paths and environment variables that the *note
set_default_verify_paths(): f97. method uses to set OpenSSL's default
‘cafile’ and ‘capath’.  This can be an aid in debugging default
verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143(4).)

*note SSLContext: 291. has a new method, *note cert_store_stats(): f98,
that reports the number of loaded ‘X.509’ certs, ‘X.509 CA’ certs, and
certificate revocation lists (‘crl’s), as well as a *note
get_ca_certs(): f99. method that returns a list of the loaded ‘CA’
certificates.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147(5).)

If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, *note SSLContext: 291. has a new
attribute *note verify_flags: f9a. that can be used to control the
certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of
the new constants *note VERIFY_DEFAULT: f9b, *note
VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: f9c, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN: f9d, or *note
VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156.  OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by
default.  (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813(6).)

New *note SSLContext: 291. method *note load_default_certs(): f9e. loads
a set of default "certificate authority" (CA) certificates from default
locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used to load
both TLS web server authentication certificates (‘purpose=’*note
SERVER_AUTH: f9f.) for a client to use to verify a server, and
certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
(‘purpose=’*note CLIENT_AUTH: fa0.).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-19292(7).)  Two new windows-only functions, *note
enum_certificates(): fa1. and *note enum_crls(): fa2. provide the
ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from
the Windows cert store.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17134(8).)  Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication)
using the new *note ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fa3.
method.  (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109(9).)

The dictionary returned by *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4. contains
additional ‘X509v3’ extension items: ‘crlDistributionPoints’,
‘calIssuers’, and ‘OCSP’ URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-18379(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379


File: python.info,  Node: stat,  Next: struct<2>,  Prev: ssl<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.48 stat
..............

The *note stat: d0. module is now backed by a C implementation in
‘_stat’.  A C implementation is required as most of the values aren't
standardized and are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-11016(1).)

The module supports new *note ST_MODE: fa6. flags, *note S_IFDOOR: fa7,
*note S_IFPORT: fa8, and *note S_IFWHT: fa9.  (Contributed by Christian
Hiemes in bpo-11016(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016


File: python.info,  Node: struct<2>,  Next: subprocess<5>,  Prev: stat,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.49 struct
................

New function *note iter_unpack: fab. and a new *note
struct.Struct.iter_unpack(): fac. method on compiled formats provide
streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given
format of data.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<5>,  Next: sunau<2>,  Prev: struct<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.50 subprocess
....................

*note check_output(): fae. now accepts an 'input' argument that can be
used to provide the contents of ‘stdin’ for the command that is run.
(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624(1).)

‘getstatus()’ and *note getstatusoutput(): faf. now work on Windows.
This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.  (Contributed by
Tim Golden in bpo-10197(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197


File: python.info,  Node: sunau<2>,  Next: sys<12>,  Prev: subprocess<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.51 sunau
...............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901(1).)

‘sunau.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used
in a *note with: 5be. block, the ‘close’ method of the returned object
will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878(2).)

‘AU_write.setsampwidth()’ now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding
support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19261(3).)

The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note
bytes-like object: d1d.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: sys<12>,  Next: tarfile<7>,  Prev: sunau<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.52 sys
.............

New function *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): fb2. returns the current
number of blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the
default ‘--with-pymalloc’ setting, this is allocations made through the
*note PyObject_Malloc(): c58. API.) This can be useful for tracking
memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(1).)

When the Python interpreter starts in *note interactive mode: fb3, it
checks for an *note __interactivehook__: fb4. attribute on the *note
sys: d8. module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made
after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. file is read, so it can be set
there.  The *note site: c6. module *note sets it: fb6. to a function
that enables tab completion and history saving (in ‘~/.python-history’)
if the platform supports *note readline: b9.  If you do not want this
(new) behavior, you can override it in *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5, *note
sitecustomize: c7, or *note usercustomize: 10d. by deleting this
attribute from *note sys: d8. (or setting it to some other callable).
(Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<7>,  Next: textwrap,  Prev: sys<12>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.53 tarfile
.................

The *note tarfile: dd. module now supports a simple *note Interface en
ligne de commande: fb8. when called as a script directly or via ‘-m’.
This can be used to create and extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed
by Berker Peksag in bpo-13477(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap,  Next: threading<7>,  Prev: tarfile<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.54 textwrap
..................

The *note TextWrapper: fba. class has two new attributes/constructor
arguments: *note max_lines: fbb, which limits the number of lines in the
output, and *note placeholder: fbc, which is a string that will appear
at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of
'max_lines'.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function
*note shorten(): fbd. collapses all of the whitespace in the input to
single spaces and produces a single line of a given 'width' that ends
with the 'placeholder' (by default, ‘[...]’).  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585(1) and bpo-18725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725


File: python.info,  Node: threading<7>,  Next: traceback<6>,  Prev: textwrap,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.55 threading
...................

The *note Thread: 93b. object representing the main thread can be
obtained from the new *note main_thread(): fbf. function.  In normal
conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<6>,  Next: types<6>,  Prev: threading<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.56 traceback
...................

A new *note traceback.clear_frames(): fc1. function takes a traceback
object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it
references, reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by
Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525


File: python.info,  Node: types<6>,  Next: urllib<3>,  Prev: traceback<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.57 ‘types’
.................

A new *note DynamicClassAttribute(): 617. descriptor provides a way to
define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an
instance object, but which is routed to the 'class' ‘__getattr__’ when
looked up through the class.  This allows one to have properties active
on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name
(see ‘Enum’ for an example).  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
bpo-19030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<3>,  Next: unittest<9>,  Prev: types<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.58 urllib
................

*note urllib.request: 10a. now supports ‘data:’ URLs via the *note
DataHandler: fc4. class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in
bpo-16423(1).)

The http method that will be used by a *note Request: fc5. class can now
be specified by setting a *note method: fc6. class attribute on the
subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978(2).)

*note Request: fc5. objects are now reusable: if the *note full_url:
fc7. or *note data: fc8. attributes are modified, all relevant internal
properties are updated.  This means, for example, that it is now
possible to use the same *note Request: fc5. object in more than one
*note OpenerDirector.open(): fc9. call with different 'data' arguments,
or to modify a *note Request: fc5.'s ‘url’ rather than recomputing it
from scratch.  There is also a new *note remove_header(): fca. method
that can be used to remove headers from a *note Request: fc5.
(Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in bpo-16464(3), Daniel Wozniak in
bpo-17485(4), and Damien Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272(5).)

*note HTTPError: fcb. objects now have a *note headers: fcc. attribute
that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the
error.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<9>,  Next: venv<7>,  Prev: urllib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.59 unittest
..................

The *note TestCase: 439. class has a new method, *note subTest(): fce,
that produces a context manager whose *note with: 5be. block becomes a
"sub-test".  This context manager allows a test method to dynamically
generate subtests by, say, calling the ‘subTest’ context manager inside
a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number
of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will
run even if one or more of them fail.  For example:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_even(self):
             for i in range(6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose
output with a label consisting of the variable name ‘i’ and a particular
value for that variable (‘i=0’, ‘i=1’, etc).  See *note Distinguer les
itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests: fcf. for the full version of
this example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16997(1).)

*note unittest.main(): fd0. now accepts an iterable of test names for
'defaultTest', where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132(2).)

If *note SkipTest: fd1. is raised during test discovery (that is, at the
module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of
an error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935(3).)

*note discover(): fd2. now sorts the discovered files to provide
consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani
in bpo-16709(4).)

*note TestSuite: de3. now drops references to tests as soon as the test
has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if
nothing else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to
override this behavior by creating a *note TestSuite: de3. subclass that
defines a custom ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method.  (Contributed by Tom
Wardill, Matt McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798(5).)

A new test assertion context-manager, *note assertLogs(): 845, will
ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the *note
logging: 86. module.  By default the message can come from any logger
and have a priority of ‘INFO’ or higher, but both the logger name and an
alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned
by the context manager can be queried for the *note LogRecord: fd3.s
and/or formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-18937(6).)

Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu
Popa in bpo-17457(7).)

*note unittest.mock: 106. objects now inspect their specification
signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be
matched by either position or name, instead of only by position.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015(8).)

‘mock_open()’ objects now have ‘readline’ and ‘readlines’ methods.
(Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467


File: python.info,  Node: venv<7>,  Next: wave<2>,  Prev: unittest<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.60 venv
..............

*note venv: 110. now includes activation scripts for the ‘csh’ and
‘fish’ shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417(1).)

*note EnvBuilder: 267. and the *note create(): 268. convenience function
take a new keyword argument 'with_pip', which defaults to ‘False’, that
controls whether or not *note EnvBuilder: 267. ensures that ‘pip’ is
installed in the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19552(2) as part of the PEP 453(3) implementation.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: wave<2>,  Next: weakref<2>,  Prev: venv<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.61 wave
..............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487(1).)

*note wave.open(): 93a. now supports the context management protocol.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616(2).)

*note wave: 112. can now *note write output to unseekable files: fd6.
(Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-5202(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): fd7. and *note writeframes(): fd8. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: d1d.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: weakref<2>,  Next: xml etree<2>,  Prev: wave<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.62 weakref
.................

New *note WeakMethod: fda. class simulates weak references to bound
methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631(1).)

New *note finalize: a6c. class makes it possible to register a callback
to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528(2).)

The callback, if any, associated with a *note ref: fdb. is now exposed
via the *note __callback__: fdc. attribute.  (Contributed by Mark
Dickinson in bpo-17643(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree<2>,  Next: zipfile<5>,  Prev: weakref<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.63 xml.etree
...................

A new parser, *note XMLPullParser: fde, allows a non-blocking
applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be seen at *note
API à flux tiré: fdf.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17741(1).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. *note tostring(): fe0. and *note
tostringlist(): fe1. functions, and the *note ElementTree: 93d. *note
write(): fe2. method, now have a 'short_empty_elements' *note
keyword-only parameter: 2a2. providing control over whether elements
with no content are written in abbreviated (‘<tag />’) or expanded
(‘<tag></tag>’) form.  (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-14377(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<5>,  Prev: xml etree<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<10>

1.10.4.64 zipfile
.................

The *note writepy(): fe4. method of the *note PyZipFile: fe5. class has
a new 'filterfunc' option that can be used to control which directories
and files are added to the archive.  For example, this could be used to
exclude test files from the archive.  (Contributed by Christian Tismer
in bpo-19274(1).)

The 'allowZip64' parameter to *note ZipFile: 6b1. and ‘PyZipfile’ is now
‘True’ by default.  (Contributed by William Mallard in bpo-17201(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: Obsolescence<11>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<10>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.5 CPython Implementation Changes
-------------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Autres Améliorations: Autres Améliorations<2>.
* Significant Optimizations::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Next: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.1 PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
............................................................

PEP 445(1) adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
the CPython interpreter.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 445(2) - Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Next: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Prev: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.2 PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
..........................................

PEP 442(1) removes the current limitations and quirks of object
finalization in CPython.  With it, objects with ‘__del__()’ methods, as
well as generators with *note finally: 9ba. clauses, can be finalized
when they are part of a reference cycle.

As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
*note None: 662. during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead
relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This
avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually
involving ‘__del__’ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic
GC was first introduced.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 442(2) - Safe object finalization

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Next: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Prev: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.3 PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
...........................................................

PEP 456(1) follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python's hash
algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs
backed by dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See bpo-14621(2) for the
start of the current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython's
hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different
hash algorithm, and switches Python's default implementation to a
SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type.  Any
performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are
trivial.

The PEP adds additional fields to the *note sys.hash_info: fea. named
tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing
binary.  Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Next: Other Build and C API Changes,  Prev: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.4 PEP 436: Argument Clinic
.................................

"Argument Clinic" ( PEP 436(1)) is now part of the CPython build process
and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
implemented in C.

Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use
Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and *note pydoc: b4. and *note inspect:
7d. have been updated accordingly.

It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection
will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python
3.4 maintenance releases.

     Note: The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the
     state of the implementation.  This has been deemed acceptable by
     the release manager and core development team in this case, as
     Argument Clinic will not be made available as a public API for
     third party use in Python 3.4.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 436(2) - The Argument Clinic DSL

     PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Build and C API Changes,  Next: Autres Améliorations<2>,  Prev: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.5 Other Build and C API Changes
......................................

   * The new *note PyType_GetSlot(): 88a. function has been added to the
     stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type
     slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis
     in bpo-17162(1).)

   * The new ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’ pre-initialization API
     allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably
     force a particular encoding and error handler for the standard
     streams.  (Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in
     bpo-16129(2).)

   * Most Python C APIs that don't mutate string arguments are now
     correctly marked as accepting ‘const char *’ rather than ‘char *’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673(3).)

   * A new shell version of ‘python-config’ can be used even when a
     python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross
     compilation scenarios).

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. now supports width and precision
     specifications for ‘%s’, ‘%A’, ‘%U’, ‘%V’, ‘%S’, and ‘%R’.
     (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330(4).)

   * New function *note PyStructSequence_InitType2(): fed. supplements
     the existing *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): fee. function.  The
     difference is that it returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.

   * The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity
     checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false
     alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced.
     (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596(5).)

   * The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization(6)
     and Data Execution Prevention(7).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16632(8).)

   * New function *note PyObject_LengthHint(): fef. is the C API
     equivalent of *note operator.length_hint(): f5a.  (Contributed by
     Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: Autres Améliorations<2>,  Next: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Build and C API Changes,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.6 Autres Améliorations
.............................

   * The *note python: ff2. command has a new *note option: ff3, ‘-I’,
     which causes it to run in "isolated mode", which means that *note
     sys.path: 3ab. contains neither the script's directory nor the
     user's ‘site-packages’ directory, and all ‘PYTHON*’ environment
     variables are ignored (it implies both ‘-s’ and ‘-E’).  Other
     restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being
     to isolate the execution of a script from the user's environment.
     This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a
     system script.  On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in
     the ‘#!’ line of system scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16499(1).)

   * Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive
     interpreter on systems that support *note readline: b9.  History is
     also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file
     ‘~/.python-history’.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric
     Araujo in bpo-5845(2).)

   * Invoking the Python interpreter with ‘--version’ now outputs the
     version to standard output instead of standard error
     (bpo-18338(3)).  Similar changes were made to *note argparse: 6.
     (bpo-18920(4)) and other modules that have script-like invocation
     capabilities (bpo-18922(5)).

   * The CPython Windows installer now adds ‘.py’ to the ‘PATHEXT’
     variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a
     python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name
     without the ‘.py’ extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
     bpo-18569(6).)

   * A new ‘make’ target coverage-report(7) will build python, run the
     test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase
     using ‘gcov’ and lcov(8).

   * The ‘-R’ option to the *note python regression test suite: ff4. now
     also checks for memory allocation leaks, using *note
     sys.getallocatedblocks(): fb2.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13390(9).)

   * ‘python -m’ now works with namespace packages.

   * The *note stat: d0. module is now implemented in C, which means it
     gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead
     of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was
     previously the case.

   * Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (‘.so’,
     ‘.dll’) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the
     first python module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer
     in bpo-16421(10).)

   * A new opcode, ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’, has been added to fix a bug in the
     loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered
     by certain uses of *note __prepare__: c4e.  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853(11).)

   * A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed
     by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445(12)-based ‘pyfailmalloc’ tool
     (bpo-18408(13), bpo-18520(14)).

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command now accepts a ‘--copies’ option to use copies
     rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
     default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807(15).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command also accepts a ‘--without-pip’ option to
     suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the
     virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(16)
     as part of the PEP 453(17) implementation.)

   * The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: ff5. environment variable.  This makes it
     possible to set just the error handler, without changing the
     default encoding.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-18818(18).)

   * The *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 89, and *note gzip: 66. module
     ‘open’ functions now support ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode.
     (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201(19),
     bpo-19222(20), and bpo-19223(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569

   (7) 
https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov

   (8) https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223


File: python.info,  Node: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Autres Améliorations<2>,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.7 Significant Optimizations
..................................

   * The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-14625(1).)

   * The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash
     table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash
     pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash
     table.  This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution
     less expensive.  The collision resolution scheme can be described
     as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing.  The number of
     additional linear probes defaults to nine.  This can be changed at
     compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set
     LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771(2).)

   * The interpreter starts about 30% faster.  A couple of measures lead
     to the speedup.  The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup,
     e.g.  the *note re: b8, *note collections: 1d. and *note locale:
     85. modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by
     default.  The marshal module has been improved to load compiled
     Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
     Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219(3), bpo-19218(4),
     bpo-19209(5), bpo-19205(6) and bpo-9548(7).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. is now as fast or faster than the Python2
     version for most cases.  *note lzma.LZMAFile: ff7. has also been
     optimized.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in
     bpo-16034(8).)

   * *note random.getrandbits(): ff8. is 20%-40% faster for small
     integers (the most common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-16674(9).)

   * By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling
     of strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596(10).)

   * A performance issue in ‘io.FileIO.readall()’ has been solved.  This
     particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case
     of piping significant amounts of data through *note subprocess: d5.
     (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758(11).)

   * *note html.escape(): ff9. is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt
     Bryant in bpo-18020(12).)

   * On Windows, the native ‘VirtualAlloc’ is now used instead of the
     CRT ‘malloc’ in ‘obmalloc’.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3%
     memory savings.

   * *note os.urandom(): 50f. now uses a lazily opened persistent file
     descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in
     parallel from multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-18756(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<11>,  Next: Retraits<9>,  Prev: CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.6 Obsolescence
-------------------

This section covers various APIs and other features that have been
deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.
In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when the interpreter is run with
deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using ‘-Wd’).

* Menu:

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Fonctionnalités obsolètes::


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations in the Python API,  Next: Fonctionnalités obsolètes,  Up: Obsolescence<11>

1.10.6.1 Deprecations in the Python API
.......................................

   * As mentioned in *note PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import
     System: ec6, a number of *note importlib: 76. methods and functions
     are deprecated: ‘importlib.find_loader()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb.;
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): ffc.;
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 855.;
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     are replaced by *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec():
     859.; all of the ‘XXXLoader’ ABC ‘load_module’ methods
     (‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()’) should no longer be
     implemented, instead loaders should implement an ‘exec_module’
     method (*note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 857, *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module(): ffd. *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module(): ffe.) and let the import
     system take care of the rest; and
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’, and ‘importlib.util.set_package()’
     are no longer needed because their functions are now handled
     automatically by the import system.

   * The ‘imp’ module is pending deprecation.  To keep compatibility
     with Python 2/3 code bases, the module's removal is currently not
     scheduled.

   * The ‘formatter’ module is pending deprecation and is slated for
     removal in Python 3.6.

   * ‘MD5’ as the default 'digestmod' for the *note hmac.new(): a8f.
     function is deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest
     name or constructor as 'digestmod' argument.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5d. module has been
     documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It
     now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and will be removed
     completely in Python 3.5.

   * The undocumented 'endtime' argument to *note
     subprocess.Popen.wait(): cd4. should not have been exposed and is
     hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be
     removed in Python 3.5.

   * The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 864. is deprecated.

   * The *note plistlib: aa. ‘readPlist()’, ‘writePlist()’,
     ‘readPlistFromBytes()’, and ‘writePlistToBytes()’ functions are
     deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions *note
     load(): 93e, *note dump(): 940, *note loads(): 93f, and *note
     dumps(): 941.  ‘Data()’ is deprecated in favor of just using the
     *note bytes: 1bd. constructor.

   * The *note sysconfig: da. key ‘SO’ is deprecated, it has been
     replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’.

   * The ‘U’ mode accepted by various ‘open’ functions is deprecated.
     In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced
     by appropriate uses of *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. (if needed) and
     its 'newline' argument.

   * The 'parser' argument of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse():
     270. has been deprecated, as has the 'html' argument of *note
     XMLParser(): a44.  To prepare for the removal of the latter, all
     arguments to ‘XMLParser’ should be passed by keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctionnalités obsolètes,  Prev: Deprecations in the Python API,  Up: Obsolescence<11>

1.10.6.2 Fonctionnalités obsolètes
..................................

   * Running *note IDLE -- Python editor and shell: 1000. with the ‘-n’
     flag (no subprocess) is deprecated.  However, the feature will not
     be removed until bpo-18823(1) is resolved.

   * The site module adding a "site-python" directory to sys.path, if it
     exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375


File: python.info,  Node: Retraits<9>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 4,  Prev: Obsolescence<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.7 Retraits
---------------

* Menu:

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<5>.
* Code Cleanups::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Next: API and Feature Removals<5>,  Up: Retraits<9>

1.10.7.1 Operating Systems No Longer Supported
..............................................

Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the
source and build tools:

   * OS/2 (bpo-16135(1)).

   * Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).

   * Windows systems where ‘COMSPEC’ points to ‘command.com’
     (bpo-14470(2)).

   * VMS (bpo-16136(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<5>,  Next: Code Cleanups,  Prev: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Up: Retraits<9>

1.10.7.2 API and Feature Removals
.................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The unmaintained ‘Misc/TextMate’ and ‘Misc/vim’ directories have
     been removed (see the devguide(1) for suggestions on what to use
     instead).

   * The ‘SO’ makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
     ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’ and ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ macros) (bpo-16754(2)).

   * The ‘PyThreadState.tick_counter’ field has been removed; its value
     has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the "new GIL" was
     introduced (bpo-19199(3)).

   * ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’ have been removed from *note
     importlib: 76.  (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641(4).)

   * The 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: b30. and *note
     HTTPSConnection: b31. has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style "Simple
     Responses" are no longer supported.

   * The deprecated *note urllib.request.Request: fc5. getter and setter
     methods ‘add_data’, ‘has_data’, ‘get_data’, ‘get_type’, ‘get_host’,
     ‘get_selector’, ‘set_proxy’, ‘get_origin_req_host’, and
     ‘is_unverifiable’ have been removed (use direct attribute access
     instead).

   * Support for loading the deprecated ‘TYPE_INT64’ has been removed
     from *note marshal: 8c.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480(5).)

   * *note inspect.Signature: 1ca.: positional-only parameters are now
     required to have a valid name.

   * *note object.__format__(): 60b. no longer accepts non-empty format
     strings, it now raises a *note TypeError: 525. instead.  Using a
     non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change
     has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but
     incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a
     __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a *note
     TypeError: 525. if you are using an ‘'s'’ format code with objects
     that do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See
     bpo-7994(6) for background.

   * ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()’ and
     ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()’ were deprecated in 3.2, and
     have now been removed: use ‘x in sm.bjunk’ and ‘x in sm.bpopular’,
     where 'sm' is a *note SequenceMatcher: 1004. object (bpo-13248(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248


File: python.info,  Node: Code Cleanups,  Prev: API and Feature Removals<5>,  Up: Retraits<9>

1.10.7.3 Code Cleanups
......................

   * The unused and undocumented internal ‘Scanner’ class has been
     removed from the *note pydoc: b4. module.

   * The private and effectively unused ‘_gestalt’ module has been
     removed, along with the private *note platform: a9. functions
     ‘_mac_ver_lookup’, ‘_mac_ver_gstalt’, and ‘_bcd2str’, which would
     only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see
     bpo-18393(1)).

   * The hardcoded copies of certain *note stat: d0. constants that were
     included in the *note tarfile: dd. module namespace have been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 4,  Next: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Retraits<9>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.8 Portage vers Python 3.4
------------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Changes in 'python' Command Behavior: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
* Changements dans l'API Python: Changements dans l'API Python<10>.
* Changements dans l'API C: Changements dans l'API C<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>,  Next: Changements dans l'API Python<10>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 4

1.10.8.1 Changes in 'python' Command Behavior
.............................................

   * In a posix shell, setting the ‘PATH’ environment variable to an
     empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However,
     setting *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. to an empty value was 'not'
     equivalent to not setting it at all: setting *note PYTHONPATH:
     1008. to an empty value was equivalent to setting it to ‘.’, which
     leads to confusion when reasoning by analogy to how ‘PATH’ works.
     The behavior now conforms to the posix convention for ‘PATH’.

   * The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (‘--with-pydebug’) build
     of the CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be
     re-enabled using the ‘-X showrefcount’ option.  (Contributed by
     Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323(1).)

   * The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as *note
     argparse: 6.) now output ‘--version’ information to ‘stdout’
     instead of ‘stderr’ (for issue list see *note Autres Améliorations:
     ff1. above).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API Python<10>,  Next: Changements dans l'API C<8>,  Prev: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 4

1.10.8.2 Changements dans l'API Python
......................................

   * The ABCs defined in *note importlib.abc: 77. now either raise the
     appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising
     *note NotImplementedError: 225. blindly.  This will only affect
     code calling *note super(): 4c8. and falling through all the way to
     the ABCs.  For compatibility, catch both *note NotImplementedError:
     225. or the appropriate exception as needed.

   * The module type now initializes the *note __package__: 2d6. and
     *note __loader__: 2e1. attributes to ‘None’ by default.  To
     determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible
     fashion, use e.g.  ‘getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not
     None’.  (bpo-17115(1).)

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ now sets ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ unconditionally to properly support reloading.  If
     this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes
     manually.  You can use ‘importlib.util.module_to_load()’ for module
     management.

   * Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g.  ‘__name__’,
     ‘__loader__’, ‘__package__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’)
     unconditionally when reloading.  Note that this restores a pre-3.3
     behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded
     (bpo-19413(2)).

   * Frozen packages no longer set ‘__path__’ to a list containing the
     package name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous
     behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on
     submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name
     as the frozen package.  The correct way to determine if a module is
     a package or not is to use ‘hasattr(module, '__path__')’
     (bpo-18065(3)).

   * Frozen modules no longer define a ‘__file__’ attribute.  It's
     semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as
     they are not loaded from any explicit location.  If you must know
     that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the
     module's ‘__spec__.location’ is set to ‘'frozen'’, check if the
     loader is a subclass of *note importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter:
     100a, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use
     ‘imp.is_frozen()’.

   * *note py_compile.compile(): a15. now raises *note FileExistsError:
     100b. if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a
     non-regular file.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type
     of file path they were originally.

   * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source(): 100c. no longer
     raises *note ImportError: 40f. when the source code being loaded
     triggers a *note SyntaxError: 18b. or *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     a03.  As *note ImportError: 40f. is meant to be raised only when
     source code cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be
     over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
     found but improperly structured.  If you were catching ImportError
     before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues,
     catch all three exceptions now.

   * *note functools.update_wrapper(): 100d. and *note
     functools.wraps(): f4a. now correctly set the ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute to the function being wrapped, even if that function also
     had its ‘__wrapped__’ attribute set.  This means ‘__wrapped__’
     attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated functions rather
     than every ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in the chain referring to the
     innermost function.  Introspection libraries that assumed the
     previous behaviour was intentional can use *note inspect.unwrap():
     f49. to access the first function in the chain that has no
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

   * *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 725. has been reimplemented on top
     of *note inspect.signature(): 724. and hence handles a much wider
     variety of callable objects than it did in the past.  It is
     expected that additional builtin and extension module callables
     will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4
     series.  Code that assumes that *note inspect.getfullargspec():
     725. will fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted
     accordingly.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: 100e. now passes on the
     current working directory to objects in *note sys.path_hooks: 100f.
     for the empty string.  This results in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. never containing ‘''’, thus iterating
     through *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. based on *note
     sys.path: 3ab. will not find all keys.  A module's ‘__file__’ when
     imported in the current working directory will also now have an
     absolute path, including when using ‘-m’ with the interpreter
     (except for ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed
     directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18416(4)).  is specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416(5)).

   * The removal of the 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: b30.
     and *note HTTPSConnection: b31. changes the meaning of the
     remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather
     than by keyword.  If you've been paying attention to deprecation
     warnings your code should already be specifying any additional
     arguments via keywords.

   * Strings between ‘from __future__ import ...’ statements now
     'always' raise a *note SyntaxError: 18b.  Previously if there was
     no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be
     ignored.  This brings CPython into compliance with the language
     spec; Jython and PyPy already were.  (bpo-17434(6)).

   * *note ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4. and *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e58. now raise an *note OSError: 40d.
     with ‘ENOTCONN’ when the ‘SSLSocket’ is not connected, instead of
     the previous behavior of raising an *note AttributeError: 343.  In
     addition, *note getpeercert(): fa4. will raise a *note ValueError:
     1ff. if the handshake has not yet been done.

   * *note base64.b32decode(): 1010. now raises a *note binascii.Error:
     1011. when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters,
     instead of a *note TypeError: 525.  This particular *note
     TypeError: 525. was missed when the other *note TypeError: 525.s
     were converted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011(7).)
     Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3.

   * The ‘file’ attribute is now automatically closed when the creating
     ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected.  If you were
     pulling the file object out separately from the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’
     instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either
     store the entire ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance or read the contents
     of the file before the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage
     collected.

   * Calling ‘read’ or ‘write’ on a closed SSL socket now raises an
     informative *note ValueError: 1ff. rather than the previous more
     mysterious *note AttributeError: 343. (bpo-9177(8)).

   * *note slice.indices(): 1012. no longer produces an *note
     OverflowError: 86f. for huge values.  As a consequence of this fix,
     *note slice.indices(): 1012. now raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense values
     (bpo-14794(9)).

   * The *note complex: 2ed. constructor, unlike the *note cmath: 18.
     functions, was incorrectly accepting *note float: 2ec. values if an
     object's ‘__complex__’ special method returned one.  This now
     raises a *note TypeError: 525.  (bpo-16290(10).)

   * The *note int: 254. constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts
     *note float: 2ec. values for the 'base' parameter.  It is unlikely
     anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a *note
     TypeError: 525. (bpo-16772(11)).

   * Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated 'after'
     defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before.
     Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy
     behavior (bpo-16967(12)).

   * Stale thread states are now cleared after *note fork(): 195.  This
     may cause some system resources to be released that previously were
     incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database
     connections kept in thread-local storage).  (bpo-17094(13).)

   * Parameter names in ‘__annotations__’ dicts are now mangled
     properly, similarly to *note __kwdefaults__: 1013.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625(14).)

   * *note hashlib.hash.name: f35. now always returns the identifier in
     lower case.  Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names,
     but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been
     made consistent (bpo-18532(15)).

   * Because *note unittest.TestSuite: de3. now drops references to
     tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a *note
     TestSuite: de3. to re-run a set of tests may fail.  Test suites
     should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is
     retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that *note
     unittest: 105. is designed to provide.  However, if the lack of
     isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be
     restored by creating a *note TestSuite: de3. subclass that defines
     a ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method that does nothing (see *note
     TestSuite.__iter__(): 1014.) (bpo-11798(16)).

   * *note unittest: 105. now uses *note argparse: 6. for command line
     parsing.  There are certain invalid command forms that used to work
     that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause
     backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms
     didn't make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.

   * The *note re.split(): 29f, *note re.findall(): 1015, and *note
     re.sub(): 2a0. functions, and the ‘group()’ and ‘groups()’ methods
     of ‘match’ objects now always return a 'bytes' object when the
     string to be matched is a *note bytes-like object: d1d.  Previously
     the return type matched the input type, so if your code was
     depending on the return value being, say, a ‘bytearray’, you will
     need to change your code.

   * ‘audioop’ functions now raise an error immediately if passed string
     input, instead of failing randomly later on (bpo-16685(17)).

   * The new 'convert_charrefs' argument to *note HTMLParser: 864.
     currently defaults to ‘False’ for backward compatibility, but will
     eventually be changed to default to ‘True’.  It is recommended that
     you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any *note
     HTMLParser: 864. calls in your code (bpo-13633(18)).

   * Since the 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): a8f.
     function will in the future have no default, all calls to *note
     hmac.new(): a8f. should be changed to explicitly specify a
     'digestmod' (bpo-17276(19)).

   * Calling *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1016. with the ‘SO’ key,
     or looking ‘SO’ up in the results of a call to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1017. is deprecated.  This key should
     be replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ or ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’, depending on the
     context (bpo-19555(20)).

   * Any calls to ‘open’ functions that specify ‘U’ should be modified.
     ‘U’ is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if
     used.  Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2
     behavior can be achieved using either a 'newline' argument, or if
     necessary by wrapping the stream in *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. to
     use its 'newline' argument (bpo-15204(21)).

   * If you use ‘pyvenv’ in a script and desire that pip 'not' be
     installed, you must add ‘--without-pip’ to your command invocation.

   * The default behavior of *note json.dump(): d34. and *note
     json.dumps(): d35. when an indent is specified has changed: it no
     longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at
     the ends of lines.  This will matter only if you have tests that
     are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output
     (bpo-16333(22)).

   * *note doctest: 3a. now looks for doctests in extension module
     ‘__doc__’ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes
     extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them
     you may see test failures you've never seen before when running
     your tests (bpo-3158(23)).

   * The *note collections.abc: 1e. module has been slightly refactored
     as part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of
     this, it is no longer the case that importing *note collections:
     1d. automatically imports *note collections.abc: 1e.  If your
     program depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will
     need to add an explicit ‘import collections.abc’ (bpo-20784(24)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784


File: python.info,  Node: Changements dans l'API C<8>,  Prev: Changements dans l'API Python<10>,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 4

1.10.8.3 Changements dans l'API C
.................................

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1019, *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a, and
     *note PyObject_Str(): 101b, along with some other internal C APIs,
     now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in
     situations where they may silently discard a currently active
     exception.  In cases where discarding the active exception is
     expected and desired (for example, because it has already been
     saved locally with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. or is being
     deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
     *note PyErr_Clear(): 101c. call will be needed to avoid triggering
     the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or
     indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is
     compiled with assertions enabled.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d2e. now sets *note TypeError: 525.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned with no exception set.

   * The result of the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 574. callback
     must now be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386. or
     *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred,
     instead of a string allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. or
     *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d. (bpo-16742(1))

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 3fe. now always set the value.  In
     Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if
     the current value is a non-‘NULL’ pointer).

   * The ‘f_tstate’ (thread state) field of the *note PyFrameObject:
     775. structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432(2) for
     the rationale.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432


File: python.info,  Node: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Portage vers Python 3 4,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 4

1.10.9 Changed in 3.4.3
-----------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients,  Up: Changed in 3 4 3

1.10.9.1 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
......................................................................................

*note http.client: 6e. and modules which use it, such as *note
urllib.request: 10a. and *note xmlrpc.client: 12d, will now verify that
the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the
platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being
requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib.request
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 3,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 2,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 4,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.11 Nouveautés de Python 3.3
=============================

This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details, see
the changelog(1).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 398(2) - Python 3.3 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Résumé – Points forts de la publication: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<5>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<11>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<11>.
* Modules améliorés: Modules améliorés<11>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Obsolescence: Obsolescence<12>.
* Portage vers Python 3.3: Portage vers Python 3 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<5>,  Next: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.1 Résumé – Points forts de la publication
----------------------------------------------

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

   * New ‘yield from’ expression for *note generator delegation: 1024.

   * The ‘u'unicode'’ syntax is accepted again for *note str: 437.
     objects.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

   * *note faulthandler: 57. (helps debugging low-level crashes)

   * *note ipaddress: 7f. (high-level objects representing IP addresses
     and masks)

   * *note lzma: 89. (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)

   * *note unittest.mock: 106. (replace parts of your system under test
     with mock objects)

   * *note venv: 110. (Python *note virtual environments: 1025, as in
     the popular ‘virtualenv’ package)

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

   * Reworked *note I/O exception hierarchy: 1026.

Implementation improvements:

   * Rewritten *note import machinery: 1027. based on *note importlib:
     76.

   * More compact *note unicode strings: 1028.

   * More compact *note attribute dictionaries: 1029.

Significantly Improved Library Modules:

   * C Accelerator for the *note decimal: 102a. module.

   * Better unicode handling in the *note email: 102b. module (*note
     provisional: 102c.).

Security improvements:

   * Hash randomization is switched on by default.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Next: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Prev: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<5>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.2 PEP 405: Virtual Environments
------------------------------------

Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
have their own set of private site packages (i.e.  locally installed
libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
‘virtualenv’ third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
with the interpreter core.

This PEP adds the *note venv: 110. module for programmatic access, and
the ‘pyvenv’ script for command-line access and administration.  The
Python interpreter checks for a ‘pyvenv.cfg’, file whose existence
signals the base of a virtual environment's directory tree.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 405(1) - Python Virtual Environments

     PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay
     Sajip

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Next: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Prev: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.3 PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
-------------------------------------------

Native support for package directories that don't require ‘__init__.py’
marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired
by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
PEP 420(1))

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 420(2) - Implicit Namespace Packages

     PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith and
     Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Next: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Prev: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.4 PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The implementation of PEP 3118(1) has been significantly improved.

The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership
and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer
struct that led to multiple crash reports.  Additionally, several
functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous
or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.

The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that
checks the consumer's request type.  Many new features have been added,
most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and
arrays with suboffsets.

The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out
responsibilities for both exporters and consumers.  Buffer request flags
are grouped into basic and compound flags.  The memory layout of
non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.

* Menu:

* Caractéristiques::
* API changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Caractéristiques,  Next: API changes,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.11.4.1 Caractéristiques
.........................

   * All native single character format specifiers in struct module
     syntax (optionally prefixed with '@') are now supported.

   * With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format
     and shape of C-contiguous arrays.

   * Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array
     type.

   * Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.

   * One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with
     formats B, b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
     in bpo-13411(1).)

   * Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported.  For
     example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in 'O'(1) by
     using a negative step.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411


File: python.info,  Node: API changes,  Prev: Caractéristiques,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.11.4.2 API changes
....................

   * The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.

   * The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an
     empty tuple instead of ‘None’.

   * Accessing a memoryview element with format 'B' (unsigned bytes) now
     returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
     For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to 'c' first.

   * memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the
     operands and compare all array elements by value.  All format
     strings in struct module syntax are supported.  Views with
     unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always
     compare as unequal, regardless of view contents.

   * For further changes see *note Build and C API Changes: 1033. and
     *note Porting C code: 1034.

(Contribution par Stefan Krah; bpo-10181(1).)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3118(2) - Revising the Buffer Protocol

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Next: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Prev: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.5 PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
----------------------------------------------

The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode
ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a
space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full
UCS-4 on all systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several
representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility
should be phased out.

On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.

On the C API side, PEP 393(1) is fully backward compatible.  The legacy
API should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the
legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse -
may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two
versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient
storage).

* Menu:

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Functionality,  Next: Performance and resource usage,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.11.5.1 Functionality
......................

Changes introduced by PEP 393(1) are the following:

   * Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points,
     including non-BMP ones (i.e.  from ‘U+0000’ to ‘U+10FFFF’).  The
     distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and
     Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows.

   * With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow
     builds have also been fixed, for example:

        * *note len(): 61b. now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
          so ‘len('\U0010FFFF') == 1’;

        * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so
          ‘'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'’;

        * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected
          value, so ‘'\U0010FFFF'[0]’ now returns ‘'\U0010FFFF'’ and not
          ‘'\uDBFF'’;

        * all other functions in the standard library now correctly
          handle non-BMP code points.

   * The value of *note sys.maxunicode: 1037. is now always ‘1114111’
     (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).  The ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ function
     still returns either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’ for backward
     compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API
     (see bpo-13054(2)).

   * The ‘./configure’ flag ‘--with-wide-unicode’ has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054


File: python.info,  Node: Performance and resource usage,  Prev: Functionality,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.11.5.2 Performance and resource usage
.......................................

The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in
the string:

   * pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (‘U+0000-U+00FF’) use 1 byte per code
     point;

   * BMP strings (‘U+0000-U+FFFF’) use 2 bytes per code point;

   * non-BMP strings (‘U+10000-U+10FFFF’) use 4 bytes per code point.

The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even
in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language
data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.).  We
also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache
efficiency on non-trivial applications.  The memory usage of Python 3.3
is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better
than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 393(1) - Flexible String Representation

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker
     and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Next: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Prev: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.6 PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
-------------------------------------------

The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ‘py’ launcher
application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version
independent fashion.

This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ‘*.py’ files.
If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
will be used to run the file.  If multiple versions are installed, the
most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by
including a Unix-style "shebang line" in the Python script.

The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the
‘py’ application.  Running ‘py’ follows the same version selection rules
as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be
selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as ‘-3’ to request
Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or ‘-2.6’ to specifically
request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is
installed).

In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.
(Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561(1).)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 397(2) - Python Launcher for Windows

     PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v.  Löwis; implementation by
     Vinay Sajip.

Launcher documentation: *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa.

Installer PATH modification: *note Trouver l'exécutable Python: 103b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Next: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Prev: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.7 PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
------------------------------------------------------------

The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now
both simplified and finer-grained.

You don't have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
type between *note OSError: 40d, *note IOError: 103d, *note
EnvironmentError: 103e, *note WindowsError: 103f, ‘mmap.error’, *note
socket.error: 1040. or *note select.error: 1041.  All these exception
types are now only one: *note OSError: 40d.  The other names are kept as
aliases for compatibility reasons.

Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
inspecting the ‘errno’ attribute (or ‘args[0]’) for a particular
constant from the *note errno: 56. module, you can catch the adequate
*note OSError: 40d. subclass.  The available subclasses are the
following:

   * *note BlockingIOError: 1042.

   * *note ChildProcessError: 1043.

   * *note ConnectionError: df9.

   * *note FileExistsError: 100b.

   * *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.

   * *note InterruptedError: d77.

   * *note IsADirectoryError: 1044.

   * *note NotADirectoryError: 1045.

   * *note PermissionError: d32.

   * *note ProcessLookupError: 1046.

   * *note TimeoutError: 821.

And the *note ConnectionError: df9. itself has finer-grained subclasses:

   * *note BrokenPipeError: 1047.

   * *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1048.

   * *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1049.

   * *note ConnectionResetError: 104a.

Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the *note errno: 56. can
now be avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:

     from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except IOError as err:
         if err.errno == ENOENT:
             print("document.txt file is missing")
         elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
             print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
         else:
             raise

can now be written without the *note errno: 56. import and without
manual inspection of exception attributes:

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         print("document.txt file is missing")
     except PermissionError:
         print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3151(1) - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Next: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Prev: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.8 PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
-------------------------------------------------------

PEP 380 adds the ‘yield from’ expression, allowing a *note generator:
104c. to delegate part of its operations to another generator.  This
allows a section of code containing *note yield: 9bd. to be factored out
and placed in another generator.  Additionally, the subgenerator is
allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the
delegating generator.

While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the
‘yield from’ expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary
subiterators.

For simple iterators, ‘yield from iterable’ is essentially just a
shortened form of ‘for item in iterable: yield item’:

     >>> def g(x):
     ...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
     ...     yield from range(x)
     ...
     >>> list(g(5))
     [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

However, unlike an ordinary loop, ‘yield from’ allows subgenerators to
receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
return a final value to the outer generator:

     >>> def accumulate():
     ...     tally = 0
     ...     while 1:
     ...         next = yield
     ...         if next is None:
     ...             return tally
     ...         tally += next
     ...
     >>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
     ...     while 1:
     ...         tally = yield from accumulate()
     ...         tallies.append(tally)
     ...
     >>> tallies = []
     >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
     >>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
     >>> tallies
     [6, 10]

The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that
are designed to be used with the ‘send’ and ‘throw’ methods to be split
into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be
split into multiple subfunctions.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 380(1) - Syntaxe pour déléguer à un sous-générateur

     PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated
     into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan;
     documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Next: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Prev: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.9 PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
---------------------------------------------

PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
exception context to be disabled.  This allows cleaner error messages in
applications that convert between exception types:

     >>> class D:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
     ...
     >>> D({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

Without the ‘from None’ suffix to suppress the cause, the original
exception would be displayed by default:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr)
     ...
     >>> C({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
     KeyError: 'x'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context
remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has
incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):

     >>> try:
     ...     D({}).x
     ... except AttributeError as exc:
     ...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
     ...
     KeyError('x',)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 409(1) - Suppressing exception context

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
     Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Next: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Prev: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.10 PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
------------------------------------------

To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python
applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once
again supports the "‘u’" prefix for string literals.  This prefix has no
semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the
number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it
easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes
(such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 414(1) - Explicit Unicode literals

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Next: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Prev: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.11 PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
----------------------------------------------------------

Functions and class objects have a new *note __qualname__: 1050.
attribute representing the "path" from the module top-level to their
definition.  For global functions and classes, this is the same as *note
__name__: 1051.  For other functions and classes, it provides better
information about where they were actually defined, and how they might
be accessible from the global scope.

Example with (non-bound) methods:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def meth(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> C.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.meth.__qualname__
     'C.meth'

Example with nested classes:

     >>> class C:
     ...     class D:
     ...         def meth(self):
     ...             pass
     ...
     >>> C.D.__name__
     'D'
     >>> C.D.__qualname__
     'C.D'
     >>> C.D.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
     'C.D.meth'

Example with nested functions:

     >>> def outer():
     ...     def inner():
     ...         pass
     ...     return inner
     ...
     >>> outer().__name__
     'inner'
     >>> outer().__qualname__
     'outer.<locals>.inner'

The string representation of those objects is also changed to include
the new, more precise information:

     >>> str(C.D)
     "<class '__main__.C.D'>"
     >>> str(C.D.meth)
     '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3155(1) - Qualified name for classes and functions

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Next: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Prev: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.12 PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
---------------------------------------

Dictionaries used for the storage of objects' attributes are now able to
share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the
part which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces
the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of
non-builtin types.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 412(1) - Key-Sharing Dictionary

     PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Next: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Prev: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.13 PEP 362: Function Signature Object
------------------------------------------

A new function *note inspect.signature(): 724. makes introspection of
python callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables
is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and *note
functools.partial(): 40a. objects.  New classes *note inspect.Signature:
1ca, *note inspect.Parameter: 1cb. and *note inspect.BoundArguments:
1054. hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations,
default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which
considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
or amends calling signatures or arguments.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 362(1): - Function Signature Object

     PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon
     Seo; implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Next: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Prev: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.14 PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
------------------------------------------

A new attribute on the *note sys: d8. module exposes details specific to
the implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial
set of attributes on *note sys.implementation: 503. are ‘name’,
‘version’, ‘hexversion’, and ‘cache_tag’.

The intention of ‘sys.implementation’ is to consolidate into one
namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.
This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard
library code base much more easily.  In its initial state,
‘sys.implementation’ holds only a small portion of the
implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will shift in order
to make the standard library more portable.

One example of improved standard library portability is ‘cache_tag’.  As
of Python 3.3, ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is used by *note
importlib: 76. to support PEP 3147(1) compliance.  Any Python
implementation that uses ‘importlib’ for its built-in import system may
use ‘cache_tag’ to control the caching behavior for modules.

* Menu:

* SimpleNamespace::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleNamespace,  Up: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation

1.11.14.1 SimpleNamespace
.........................

The implementation of ‘sys.implementation’ also introduces a new type to
Python: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc.  In contrast to a
mapping-based namespace, like *note dict: 253, ‘SimpleNamespace’ is
attribute-based, like *note object: a7c.  However, unlike ‘object’,
‘SimpleNamespace’ instances are writable.  This means that you can add,
remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 421(1) - Adding sys.implementation

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/


File: python.info,  Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Next: Autres changements au langage<11>,  Prev: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.15 Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
-------------------------------------------------------

bpo-2377(1) - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959(2) -
Re-implement parts of ‘imp’ in pure Python bpo-14605(3) - Make import
machinery explicit bpo-14646(4) - Require loaders set __loader__ and
__package__

The *note __import__(): 8c3. function is now powered by *note
importlib.__import__(): 1058.  This work leads to the completion of
"phase 2" of PEP 302(5).  There are multiple benefits to this change.
First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be
exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code.  It also
provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python
3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import
semantics.  And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
future growth to occur.

For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.
For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are
covered in the *note Porting Python code: 1059. section of this
document.

* Menu:

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: New APIs,  Next: Visible Changes,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.11.15.1 New APIs
..................

One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
making the import statement work.  That means the various importers that
were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the *note importlib:
76. package.

The abstract base classes defined in *note importlib.abc: 77. have been
expanded to properly delineate between *note meta path finders: 105b.
and *note path entry finders: 105c. by introducing *note
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b. and *note
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 85c, respectively.  The old ABC of
‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
and does not enforce any method requirements.

In terms of finders, *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 105d. exposes
the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module.
Previously this class was an implicit member of *note sys.path_hooks:
100f.

For loaders, the new abstract base class *note importlib.abc.FileLoader:
105e. helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage
mechanism for a module's code.  The loader for source files (*note
importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader: 105f.), sourceless bytecode files
(*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader: 1060.), and extension
modules (*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: ca0.) are now
available for direct use.

*note ImportError: 40f. now has ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes which are
set when there is relevant data to provide.  The message for failed
imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of
just the tail end of the module's name.

The *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00. function will now call the
method with the same name on all finders cached in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. to help clean up any stored state as
necessary.


File: python.info,  Node: Visible Changes,  Prev: New APIs,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.11.15.2 Visible Changes
.........................

For potential required changes to code, see the *note Porting Python
code: 1059. section.

Beyond the expanse of what *note importlib: 76. now exposes, there are
other visible changes to import.  The biggest is that *note
sys.meta_path: d1b. and *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. now store all of the
meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import.  Previously the
finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead of
being directly exposed.  This means that one can now easily remove or
change the order of the various finders to fit one's needs.

Another change is that all modules have a ‘__loader__’ attribute,
storing the loader used to create the module.  PEP 302(1) has been
updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in
the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able
to rely on the existence of the attribute.  Until such time, though,
import is setting the module post-load.

Loaders are also now expected to set the ‘__package__’ attribute from
PEP 366(2).  Once again, import itself is already setting this on all
loaders from *note importlib: 76. and import itself is setting the
attribute post-load.

‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. when no
finder can be found on *note sys.path_hooks: 100f.  Since
‘imp.NullImporter’ is not directly exposed on *note sys.path_hooks:
100f. it could no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as
a value representing no finder found.

All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read
about in the *note Porting Python code: 1059. section of this document.

(Implementation by Brett Cannon)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<11>,  Next: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Prev: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.16 Autres changements au langage
-------------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.  Both
     *note unicodedata.lookup(): 1063. and ‘'\N{...}'’ now resolve name
     aliases, and *note unicodedata.lookup(): 1063. resolves named
     sequences too.

     (Contribution par Ezio Melotti; bpo-12753(1).)

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0

   * Equality comparisons on *note range(): 932. objects now return a
     result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences
     generated by those range objects.  (bpo-13201(2))

   * The ‘count()’, ‘find()’, ‘rfind()’, ‘index()’ and ‘rindex()’
     methods of *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. objects now
     accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.

     (Contribution par Petri Lehtinen; bpo-12170(3).)

   * The ‘rjust()’, ‘ljust()’, and ‘center()’ methods of *note bytes:
     1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. now accept a *note bytearray: 52b.
     for the ‘fill’ argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in
     bpo-12380(4).)

   * New methods have been added to *note list: 5fe. and *note
     bytearray: 52b.: ‘copy()’ and ‘clear()’ (bpo-10516(5)).
     Consequently, *note MutableSequence: 19f. now also defines a
     ‘clear()’ method (bpo-11388(6)).

   * Raw bytes literals can now be written ‘rb"..."’ as well as
     ‘br"..."’.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-13748(7).)

   * *note dict.setdefault(): 1064. now does only one lookup for the
     given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types.

     (Contribution par Filip Gruszczyński; bpo-13521(8).)

   * The error messages produced when a function call does not match the
     function signature have been significantly improved.

     (Contribution par Benjamin Peterson)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521


File: python.info,  Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Next: Builtin functions and types,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.17 A Finer-Grained Import Lock
-----------------------------------

Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a
module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a
side-effect.  Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
*note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4. C API function.

In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This
correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads
(preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while
eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9260(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260


File: python.info,  Node: Builtin functions and types,  Next: Nouveaux modules<11>,  Prev: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.18 Builtin functions and types
-----------------------------------

   * *note open(): 508. gets a new 'opener' parameter: the underlying
     file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling
     'opener' with ('file', 'flags').  It can be used to use custom
     flags like *note os.O_CLOEXEC: 1067. for example.  The ‘'x'’ mode
     was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already
     exists.

   * *note print(): f62.: added the 'flush' keyword argument.  If the
     'flush' keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

   * *note hash(): 5d7.: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
     *note object.__hash__(): aeb. and *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068.

   * The *note str: 437. type gets a new *note casefold(): dc5. method:
     return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be
     used for caseless matching.  For example, ‘'ß'.casefold()’ returns
     ‘'ss'’.

   * The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to
     better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide
     specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence
     types (bpo-4966(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<11>,  Next: Modules améliorés<11>,  Prev: Builtin functions and types,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.19 Nouveaux modules
------------------------

* Menu:

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<4>,  Next: ipaddress<6>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<11>

1.11.19.1 ‘faulthandler’
........................

This new debug module *note faulthandler: 57. contains functions to dump
Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation
fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): c8e. to install fault handlers for the ‘SIGSEGV’,
‘SIGFPE’, ‘SIGABRT’, ‘SIGBUS’, and ‘SIGILL’ signals.  You can also
enable them at startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 106b.
environment variable or by using *note -X: 175. ‘faulthandler’ command
line option.

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<6>,  Next: lzma<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<4>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<11>

1.11.19.2 'ipaddress'
.....................

The new *note ipaddress: 7f. module provides tools for creating and
manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and
interfaces (i.e.  an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).

(Contribution par Google et Peter Moody; PEP 3144(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/


File: python.info,  Node: lzma<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<6>,  Up: Nouveaux modules<11>

1.11.19.3 lzma
..............

The newly added *note lzma: 89. module provides data compression and
decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ‘.xz’
and ‘.lzma’ file formats.

(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in bpo-6715(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715


File: python.info,  Node: Modules améliorés<11>,  Next: Optimizations<5>,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.20 Modules améliorés
-------------------------

* Menu:

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<5>.
* base64: base64<4>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<6>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<9>.
* mmap: mmap<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<12>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<9>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutils: shutils<7>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<6>.
* sys: sys<13>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<8>.
* types: types<7>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* urllib: urllib<4>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<3>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc<2>,  Next: array<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.1 abc
.............

Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors
composed with abstract methods.  The recommended approach to declaring
abstract descriptors is now to provide ‘__isabstractmethod__’ as a
dynamically updated property.  The built-in descriptors have been
updated accordingly.

   * *note abc.abstractproperty: 1070. has been deprecated, use *note
     property: 192. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1071. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 1072. has been deprecated, use *note
     classmethod: 165. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1071. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 1073. has been deprecated, use
     *note staticmethod: 40c. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1071.
     instead.

(Contribution par Darren Dale; bpo-11610(1).)

*note abc.ABCMeta.register(): 1074. now returns the registered subclass,
which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868


File: python.info,  Node: array<5>,  Next: base64<4>,  Prev: abc<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.2 'array'
.................

The *note array: 7. module supports the long long type using ‘q’ and ‘Q’
type codes.

(Contribution par Oren Tirosh et Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-1172711(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711


File: python.info,  Node: base64<4>,  Next: binascii<3>,  Prev: array<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.3 base64
................

ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
the *note base64: e. modern interface.  For example,
‘base64.b64decode('YWJj')’ returns ‘b'abc'’.  (Contributed by Catalin
Iacob in bpo-13641(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<3>,  Next: bz2<2>,  Prev: base64<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.4 binascii
..................

In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ‘a2b_’
functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637


File: python.info,  Node: bz2<2>,  Next: codecs<2>,  Prev: binascii<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.5 bz2
.............

The *note bz2: 13. module has been rewritten from scratch.  In the
process, several new features have been added:

   * New *note bz2.open(): 1079. function: open a bzip2-compressed file
     in binary or text mode.

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. can now read from and write to arbitrary
     file-like objects, by means of its constructor's 'fileobj'
     argument.

     (Contribution par Nadeem Vawda; bpo-5863(1).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. and *note bz2.decompress(): 107a. can now
     decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the
     ‘pbzip2’ tool).  *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. can now also be used to
     create this type of file, using the ‘'a'’ (append) mode.

     (Contribution par Nir Aides; bpo-1625(2).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. now implements all of the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 681. API, except for the ‘detach()’ and
     ‘truncate()’ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625


File: python.info,  Node: codecs<2>,  Next: collections<7>,  Prev: bz2<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.6 ‘codecs’
..................

The *note mbcs: 52. codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
‘replace’ and ‘ignore’ error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
*note mbcs: 52. codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
‘replace’ to encode and ‘ignore’ to decode.

A new Windows-only codec has been added: ‘cp65001’ (bpo-13216(1)).  It
is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ‘CP_UTF8’).  For example,
it is used by ‘sys.stdout’ if the console output code page is set to
cp65001 (e.g., using ‘chcp 65001’ command).

Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the
first byte of an invalid byte sequence.  For example,
‘b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace')’ now returns a ‘\n’ after the
replacement character.

(bpo-12016(2))

Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
encode() methods.  For example:

     >>> import codecs
     >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
     >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
     b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'

This example gives ‘b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'’ with older
Python versions.

(bpo-12100(3))

The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100


File: python.info,  Node: collections<7>,  Next: contextlib<7>,  Prev: codecs<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.7 collections
.....................

Addition of a new *note ChainMap: c0c. class to allow treating a number
of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
bpo-11089(1), made public in bpo-11297(2).)

The abstract base classes have been moved in a new *note
collections.abc: 1e. module, to better differentiate between the
abstract and the concrete collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are
still present in the *note collections: 1d. module to preserve existing
imports.  (bpo-11085(3))

The *note Counter: 107d. class now supports the unary ‘+’ and ‘-’
operators, as well as the in-place operators ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘|=’, and ‘&=’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<7>,  Next: crypt<2>,  Prev: collections<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.8 contextlib
....................

*note ExitStack: b19. now provides a solid foundation for programmatic
manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality.
Unlike the previous ‘contextlib.nested’ API (which was deprecated and
removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of
whether context managers acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’
method (for example, file objects) or in their ‘__enter__’ method (for
example, synchronisation objects from the *note threading: ec. module).

(bpo-13585(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585


File: python.info,  Node: crypt<2>,  Next: curses<5>,  Prev: contextlib<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.9 crypt
...............

Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the
‘mksalt()’ function to the ‘crypt’ module.

(bpo-10924(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924


File: python.info,  Node: curses<5>,  Next: datetime<6>,  Prev: crypt<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.10 curses
.................

   * If the *note curses: 2b. module is linked to the ncursesw library,
     use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed
     (e.g.  ‘waddwstr()’), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g.
     ‘waddstr()’).

   * Use the locale encoding instead of ‘utf-8’ to encode Unicode
     strings.

   * ‘curses.window’ has a new *note curses.window.encoding: 1081.
     attribute.

   * The ‘curses.window’ class has a new *note get_wch(): 1082. method
     to get a wide character

   * The *note curses: 2b. module has a new *note unget_wch(): 1083.
     function to push a wide character so the next *note get_wch():
     1082. will return it

(Contribution par Iñigo Serna; bpo-6755(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<6>,  Next: decimal<3>,  Prev: curses<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.11 datetime
...................

   * Equality comparisons between naive and aware *note datetime: 1c7.
     instances now return *note False: b27. instead of raising *note
     TypeError: 525. (bpo-15006(1)).

   * New *note datetime.datetime.timestamp(): 1085. method: Return POSIX
     timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 1c7. instance.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): c80. method supports
     formatting years older than 1000.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 9c0. method can now be
     called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
     timezone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<3>,  Next: email<5>,  Prev: datetime<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.12 decimal
..................

bpo-7652(1) - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.

     C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.

The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed
libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal
floating-point arithmetic.  libmpdec conforms to IBM's General Decimal
Arithmetic Specification.

Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
numerically intensive applications.  These numbers are expected gains
for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic.
Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary.
For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be
significantly higher.

The following table is meant as an illustration.  Benchmarks are
available at ‘https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html’.

                   decimal.py        _decimal           speedup
                                                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
     pi            42.02s            0.345s             120x
                                                        
                                                        
     telco         172.19s           5.68s              30x
                                                        
                                                        
     psycopg       3.57s             0.29s              12x
                                                        

* Menu:

* Caractéristiques: Caractéristiques<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652


File: python.info,  Node: Caractéristiques<2>,  Next: API changes<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.11.20.13 Caractéristiques
...........................

   * The *note FloatOperation: 1088. signal optionally enables stricter
     semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

   * If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
     disables the expensive thread local context machinery.  In this
     case, the variable *note HAVE_THREADS: 1089. is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: API changes<2>,  Prev: Caractéristiques<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.11.20.14 API changes
......................

   * The C module has the following context limits, depending on the
     machine architecture:

                                  32-bit               64-bit
                                                       
          ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
          ‘MAX_PREC’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MAX_EMAX’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MIN_EMIN’              ‘-425000000’         ‘-999999999999999999’
                                                       

   * In the context templates (*note DefaultContext: 108b, *note
     BasicContext: 108c. and *note ExtendedContext: 108d.) the magnitude
     of ‘Emax’ and ‘Emin’ has changed to ‘999999’.

   * The *note Decimal: 29a. constructor in decimal.py does not observe
     the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or
     precision exactly.  Since the C version has internal limits, the
     following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted
     exactly, otherwise *note InvalidOperation: 108e. is raised and the
     result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use
     *note create_decimal(): 108f. in order to obtain a rounded or
     inexact value.

   * The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded.  In
     the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded
     *note exp(): 1090. and *note ln(): 1091. functions, but the final
     result is only "almost always correctly rounded".

   * In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is
     a *note MutableMapping: 1092.  For speed reasons, ‘flags’ and
     ‘traps’ always refer to the same *note MutableMapping: 1092. that
     the context was initialized with.  If a new signal dictionary is
     assigned, ‘flags’ and ‘traps’ are updated with the new values, but
     they do not reference the RHS dictionary.

   * Pickling a *note Context: 1093. produces a different output in
     order to have a common interchange format for the Python and C
     versions.

   * The order of arguments in the *note Context: 1093. constructor has
     been changed to match the order displayed by *note repr(): 7e9.

   * The ‘watchexp’ parameter in the *note quantize(): 1094. method is
     deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: email<5>,  Next: ftplib<3>,  Prev: decimal<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.15 email
................

* Menu:

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Framework,  Next: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<5>

1.11.20.16 Policy Framework
...........................

The email package now has a *note policy: 4f. framework.  A *note
Policy: 1097. is an object with several methods and properties that
control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python
3.3 is the *note Compat32: 1098. policy, which provides backward
compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A ‘policy’ can be
specified when an email message is parsed by a *note parser: 4e, or when
a *note Message: 279. object is created, or when an email is serialized
using a *note generator: 40.  Unless overridden, a policy passed to a
‘parser’ is inherited by all the ‘Message’ object and sub-objects
created by the ‘parser’.  By default a ‘generator’ will use the policy
of the ‘Message’ object it is serializing.  The default policy is *note
compat32: c89.

The minimum set of controls implemented by all ‘policy’ objects are:

max_line_length     The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
                    individual lines may have when a ‘Message’ is serialized.
                    Defaults to 78.
                    
                    
linesep             The character used to separate individual lines when a
                    ‘Message’ is serialized.  Defaults to ‘\n’.
                    
                    
cte_type            ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’.  ‘8bit’ applies only to a ‘Bytes’
                    ‘generator’, and means that non-ASCII may be used where
                    allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the
                    original input).
                    
                    
raise_on_defect     Causes a ‘parser’ to raise error when defects are
                    encountered instead of adding them to the ‘Message’
                    object's ‘defects’ list.
                    

A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the *note
clone(): 1099. method of policy objects.  ‘clone’ takes any of the above
controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in the call
retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
‘\r\n’ linesep characters like this:

     mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')

Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format
needed by your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to
specify ‘linesep='\r\n'’ in all the places you call a ‘generator’, you
can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the ‘parser’ or the
‘Message’, whichever your program uses to create ‘Message’ objects.  On
the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you
can still specify the parameters in the appropriate ‘generator’ call.
Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and
pass those in when you create the ‘generator’.


File: python.info,  Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Next: Other API Changes,  Prev: Policy Framework,  Up: email<5>

1.11.20.17 Provisional Policy with New Header API
.................................................

While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main
motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies
that implement new features for the email package in a way that
maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new
policies.  Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are
releasing them in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional policy: 102c.
Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code)
may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.

The new policies are instances of *note EmailPolicy: 109b, and add the
following additional controls:

refold_source       Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
                    *note parser: 4e. are refolded by the
                    *note generator: 40.  It can be ‘none’, ‘long’, or ‘all’.
                    The default is ‘long’, which means that source headers
                    with a line longer than ‘max_line_length’ get refolded.
                    ‘none’ means no line get refolded, and ‘all’ means that
                    all lines get refolded.
                    
                    
header_factory      A callable that take a ‘name’ and ‘value’ and produces a
                    custom header object.
                    

The ‘header_factory’ is the key to the new features provided by the new
policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved
from a ‘Message’ object is an object produced by the ‘header_factory’,
and any time you set a header on a ‘Message’ it becomes an object
produced by ‘header_factory’.  All such header objects have a ‘name’
attribute equal to the header name.  Address and Date headers have
additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the
header.  This means you can now do things like this:

     >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
     >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
     'foo'
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
     'Éric'
     >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
     >>> m['Date'].datetime
     datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
     >>> m['Date']
     'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400

You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
‘utf-8’ when the message is serialized, but that when the header is
accessed directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any
need to deal with the *note email.header: 41. *note decode_header():
109c. or *note make_header(): 109d. functions.

You can also create addresses from parts:

     >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
     ...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
     ...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
     cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>

Decoding to unicode is done automatically:

     >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
     >>> m2['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'

When you parse a message, you can use the ‘addresses’ and ‘groups’
attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
addresses:

     >>> m2['cc'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
     >>> m2['cc'].groups
     (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))

In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation
works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings,
and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to
and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.


File: python.info,  Node: Other API Changes,  Prev: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<5>

1.11.20.18 Other API Changes
............................

New *note BytesHeaderParser: 109f, added to the *note parser: 4e. module
to complement *note HeaderParser: 10a0. and complete the Bytes API.

New utility functions:

   * *note format_datetime(): 10a1.: given a *note datetime: 1c7,
     produce a string formatted for use in an email header.

   * *note parsedate_to_datetime(): 10a2.: given a date string from an
     email header, convert it into an aware *note datetime: 1c7, or a
     naive *note datetime: 1c7. if the offset is ‘-0000’.

   * *note localtime(): 2c2.: With no argument, returns the current
     local time as an aware *note datetime: 1c7. using the local *note
     timezone: 10a3.  Given an aware *note datetime: 1c7, converts it
     into an aware *note datetime: 1c7. using the local *note timezone:
     10a3.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<3>,  Next: functools<6>,  Prev: email<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.19 'ftplib'
...................

   * *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. now accepts a ‘source_address’ keyword
     argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address
     in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594(1).)

   * The *note FTP_TLS: 8ea. class now provides a new *note ccc(): 10a5.
     function to revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be
     useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
     with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139(2).)

   * Added *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 10a6. method which provides a
     parsable directory listing format and deprecates *note
     ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 10a7. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 10a8.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072


File: python.info,  Node: functools<6>,  Next: gc<6>,  Prev: ftplib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.20 functools
....................

The *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. decorator now accepts a ‘typed’
keyword argument (that defaults to ‘False’ to ensure that it caches
values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<6>,  Next: hmac<4>,  Prev: functools<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.21 'gc'
...............

It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage
collector before and after collection using the new *note callbacks:
10ab. list.


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<4>,  Next: http<4>,  Prev: gc<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.22 ‘hmac’
.................

A new *note compare_digest(): 10ad. function has been added to prevent
side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed
by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061


File: python.info,  Node: http<4>,  Next: html<2>,  Prev: hmac<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.23 'http'
.................

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. now buffers the headers
and writes them all at once when *note end_headers(): 10b0. is called.
A new method *note flush_headers(): 10b1. can be used to directly manage
when the accumulated headers are sent.  (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in
bpo-3709(1).)

*note http.server: 71. now produces valid ‘HTML 4.01 strict’ output.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295(2).)

*note http.client.HTTPResponse: 10b2. now has a *note readinto(): 10b3.
method, which means it can be used as an *note io.RawIOBase: 10b4.
class.  (Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464


File: python.info,  Node: html<2>,  Next: imaplib<3>,  Prev: http<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.24 html
...............

*note html.parser.HTMLParser: 864. is now able to parse broken markup
without raising errors, therefore the 'strict' argument of the
constructor and the ‘HTMLParseError’ exception are now deprecated.  The
ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes
that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python
2.7/3.2.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(1), and
bpo-14538(2), bpo-13993(3), bpo-13960(4), bpo-13358(5), bpo-1745761(6),
bpo-755670(7), bpo-13357(8), bpo-12629(9), bpo-1200313(10),
bpo-670664(11), bpo-13273(12), bpo-12888(13), bpo-7311(14).)

A new *note html5: 10b6. dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g.  ‘html5['gt;']
== '>'’) has been added to the *note html.entities: 6b. module.  The
dictionary is now also used by *note HTMLParser: 864.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113(15) and bpo-15156(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<3>,  Next: inspect<9>,  Prev: html<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.25 'imaplib'
....................

The *note IMAP4_SSL: 8f3. constructor now accepts an SSLContext
parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.

(Contribution par Sijin Joseph; bpo-8808(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<9>,  Next: io<6>,  Prev: imaplib<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.26 'inspect'
....................

A new *note getclosurevars(): 10b9. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the
function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to
verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful
closures.

(Contribution par Meador Inge et Nick Coghlan; bpo-13062(1).)

A new *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10ba. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of local variables in the
generator's stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal
state when testing generators.

(Contribution par Meador Inge; bpo-15153(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153


File: python.info,  Node: io<6>,  Next: itertools<6>,  Prev: inspect<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.27 io
.............

The *note open(): 509. function has a new ‘'x'’ mode that can be used to
exclusively create a new file, and raise a *note FileExistsError: 100b.
if the file already exists.  It is based on the C11 'x' mode to fopen().

(Contribution par David Townshend; bpo-12760(1).)

The constructor of the *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. class has a new
'write_through' optional argument.  If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls
to ‘write()’ are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the
*note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. object is immediately handled to its
underlying binary buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<6>,  Next: logging<7>,  Prev: io<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.28 itertools
....................

*note accumulate(): 9ed. now takes an optional ‘func’ argument for
providing a user-supplied binary function.


File: python.info,  Node: logging<7>,  Next: math<9>,  Prev: itertools<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.29 logging
..................

The *note basicConfig(): 9f0. function now supports an optional
‘handlers’ argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the
root logger.

A class level attribute ‘append_nul’ has been added to *note
SysLogHandler: 649. to allow control of the appending of the ‘NUL’
(‘\000’) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required
while for others it is passed through to the log.


File: python.info,  Node: math<9>,  Next: mmap<4>,  Prev: logging<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.30 'math'
.................

The *note math: 8d. module has a new function, *note log2(): 10bf, which
returns the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.

(Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<4>,  Next: multiprocessing<8>,  Prev: math<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.31 mmap
...............

The *note read(): 10c1. method is now more compatible with other
file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ‘None’, it
returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the
mapping.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<8>,  Next: nntplib<2>,  Prev: mmap<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.32 multiprocessing
..........................

The new *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10c3. function allows
polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a
timeout.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328(1).)

‘multiprocessing.Connection’ objects can now be transferred over
multiprocessing connections.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
bpo-4892(2).)

*note multiprocessing.Process: b49. now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword
argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’
flag from the parent process (bpo-6064(3)).

New attribute *note multiprocessing.Process.sentinel: 10c4. allows a
program to wait on multiple *note Process: b49. objects at one time
using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, *note select: c0. on
posix systems).

New methods *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap(): 10c5. and *note
starmap_async(): 10c6. provide *note itertools.starmap(): 10c7.
equivalents to the existing *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map(): 10c8.
and *note map_async(): 10c9. functions.  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-12708(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib<2>,  Next: os<12>,  Prev: multiprocessing<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.33 'nntplib'
....................

The ‘nntplib.NNTP’ class now supports the context management protocol to
unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 1040. exceptions and to
close the NNTP connection when done:

     >>> from nntplib import NNTP
     >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
     ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     ...
     ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>>

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9795(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795


File: python.info,  Node: os<12>,  Next: pdb<7>,  Prev: nntplib<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.34 'os'
...............

   * The *note os: a0. module has a new *note pipe2(): 10cc. function
     that makes it possible to create a pipe with *note O_CLOEXEC: 1067.
     or *note O_NONBLOCK: e2a. flags set atomically.  This is especially
     useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.

   * The *note os: a0. module has a new *note sendfile(): aff. function
     which provides an efficient "zero-copy" way for copying data from
     one file (or socket) descriptor to another.  The phrase "zero-copy"
     refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two
     descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data
     into userspace buffers.  *note sendfile(): aff. can be used to
     efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g.
     for downloading a file.

     (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-10882(1).)

   * To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with
     temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also
     faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names.
     Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions
     to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761(2), bpo-10755(3) and
     bpo-14626(4)).

        - The *note os: a0. module has a new *note fwalk(): b4b.
          function similar to *note walk(): 495. except that it also
          yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited.
          This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.

        - The following functions get new optional 'dir_fd' (*note paths
          relative to directory descriptors: 10cd.) and/or
          'follow_symlinks' (*note not following symlinks: 10ce.): *note
          access(): 10cf, *note chflags(): 10d0, *note chmod(): 218,
          *note chown(): 10d1, *note link(): 10d2, *note lstat(): 48d,
          *note mkdir(): 21a, *note mkfifo(): d7f, *note mknod(): d80,
          *note open(): d81, *note readlink(): 90f, *note remove():
          10d3, *note rename(): 10d4, *note replace(): 10d5, *note
          rmdir(): 10d6, *note stat(): 48c, *note symlink(): 10d7, *note
          unlink(): 10d8, *note utime(): 10d9.  Platform support for
          using these parameters can be checked via the sets *note
          os.supports_dir_fd: 10da. and ‘os.supports_follows_symlinks’.

        - The following functions now support a file descriptor for
          their path argument: *note chdir(): 5fa, *note chmod(): 218,
          *note chown(): 10d1, *note execve(): 10db, *note listdir():
          10dc, *note pathconf(): 10dd, *note exists(): 9fe, *note
          stat(): 48c, *note statvfs(): 10de, *note utime(): 10d9.
          Platform support for this can be checked via the *note
          os.supports_fd: 10df. set.

   * *note access(): 10cf. accepts an ‘effective_ids’ keyword argument
     to turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid
     in the access check.  Platform support for this can be checked via
     the *note supports_effective_ids: 10e0. set.

   * The *note os: a0. module has two new functions: *note
     getpriority(): 10e1. and *note setpriority(): 10e2.  They can be
     used to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar
     to *note os.nice(): 10e3. but extended to all processes instead of
     just the current one.

     (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784(5).)

   * The new *note os.replace(): 10d5. function allows cross-platform
     renaming of a file with overwriting the destination.  With *note
     os.rename(): 10d4, an existing destination file is overwritten
     under POSIX, but raises an error under Windows.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8828(6).)

   * The stat family of functions (*note stat(): 48c, *note fstat():
     d7b, and *note lstat(): 48d.) now support reading a file's
     timestamps with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, *note
     utime(): 10d9. can now write file timestamps with nanosecond
     precision.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(7).)

   * The new *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10e4. function queries the
     size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor.  See also *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(8).)

   * New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720(9)):
     *note getxattr(): 10e6, *note listxattr(): 10e7, *note
     removexattr(): 10e8, *note setxattr(): 10e9.

   * New interface to the scheduler.  These functions control how a
     process is allocated CPU time by the operating system.  New
     functions: *note sched_get_priority_max(): 10ea, *note
     sched_get_priority_min(): 10eb, *note sched_getaffinity(): 10ec,
     *note sched_getparam(): 10ed, *note sched_getscheduler(): 10ee,
     *note sched_rr_get_interval(): 10ef, *note sched_setaffinity():
     10f0, *note sched_setparam(): 10f1, *note sched_setscheduler():
     10f2, *note sched_yield(): 10f3,

   * New functions to control the file system:

        * *note posix_fadvise(): d82.: Announces an intention to access
          data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make
          optimizations.

        * *note posix_fallocate(): d83.: Ensures that enough disk space
          is allocated for a file.

        * *note sync(): 10f4.: Force write of everything to disk.

   * Additional new posix functions:

        * *note lockf(): 10f5.: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an
          open file descriptor.

        * *note pread(): b4f.: Read from a file descriptor at an offset,
          the file offset remains unchanged.

        * *note pwrite(): b52.: Write to a file descriptor from an
          offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.

        * *note readv(): b4e.: Read from a file descriptor into a number
          of writable buffers.

        * *note truncate(): e2b.: Truncate the file corresponding to
          'path', so that it is at most 'length' bytes in size.

        * *note waitid(): d88.: Wait for the completion of one or more
          child processes.

        * *note writev(): b51.: Write the contents of 'buffers' to a
          file descriptor, where 'buffers' is an arbitrary sequence of
          buffers.

        * *note getgrouplist(): 10f6. (bpo-9344(10)): Return list of
          group ids that specified user belongs to.

   * *note times(): 10f7. and *note uname(): 10f8.: Return type changed
     from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.

   * Some platforms now support additional constants for the *note
     lseek(): 10f9. function, such as ‘os.SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘os.SEEK_DATA’.

   * New constants *note RTLD_LAZY: 10fa, *note RTLD_NOW: 10fb, *note
     RTLD_GLOBAL: 10fc, *note RTLD_LOCAL: 10fd, *note RTLD_NODELETE:
     10fe, *note RTLD_NOLOAD: 10ff, and *note RTLD_DEEPBIND: 1100. are
     available on platforms that support them.  These are for use with
     the *note sys.setdlopenflags(): 1101. function, and supersede the
     similar constants defined in *note ctypes: 2a. and ‘DLFCN’.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226(11).)

   * *note os.symlink(): 10d7. now accepts (and ignores) the
     ‘target_is_directory’ keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to
     ease cross-platform support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<7>,  Next: pickle<5>,  Prev: os<12>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.35 'pdb'
................

Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also
their arguments.  For example, for the ‘break’ command, function and
file names are completed.

(Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-14210(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<5>,  Next: pydoc<5>,  Prev: pdb<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.36 pickle
.................

*note pickle.Pickler: a0e. objects now have an optional *note
dispatch_table: 1104. attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions
to be set.

(Contribution par Richard Oudkerk; bpo-14166(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<5>,  Next: re<9>,  Prev: pickle<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.37 'pydoc'
..................

The Tk GUI and the ‘serve()’ function have been removed from the *note
pydoc: b4. module: ‘pydoc -g’ and ‘serve()’ have been deprecated in
Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: re<9>,  Next: sched,  Prev: pydoc<5>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.38 ‘re’
...............

*note str: 437. regular expressions now support ‘\u’ and ‘\U’ escapes.

(Contribution par Serhiy Storchaka; bpo-3665(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665


File: python.info,  Node: sched,  Next: select<2>,  Prev: re<9>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.39 sched
................

   * *note run(): 1108. now accepts a 'blocking' parameter which when
     set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to
     expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately.  This is
     useful in case you want to use the *note scheduler: 1109. in
     non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-13449(1).)

   * *note scheduler: 1109. class can now be safely used in
     multi-threaded environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684(2).)

   * 'timefunc' and 'delayfunct' parameters of *note scheduler: 1109.
     class constructor are now optional and defaults to *note
     time.time(): 251. and *note time.sleep(): 68a. respectively.
     (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(3).)

   * *note enter(): 110a. and *note enterabs(): 110b. 'argument'
     parameter is now optional.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
     bpo-13245(4).)

   * *note enter(): 110a. and *note enterabs(): 110b. now accept a
     'kwargs' parameter.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245


File: python.info,  Node: select<2>,  Next: shlex<3>,  Prev: sched,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.40 select
.................

Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class *note select.devpoll:
f82. for high performance asynchronous sockets via ‘/dev/poll’.
(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<3>,  Next: shutils<7>,  Prev: select<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.41 shlex
................

The previously undocumented helper function ‘quote’ from the ‘pipes’
modules has been moved to the *note shlex: c3. module and documented.
*note quote(): 27a. properly escapes all characters in a string that
might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<7>,  Next: signal<4>,  Prev: shlex<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.42 ‘shutils’
....................

   * Nouvelles fonctions :

        * *note disk_usage(): 110f.: provides total, used and free disk
          space statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
          bpo-12442(1).)

        * *note chown(): 23d.: allows one to change user and/or group of
          the given path also specifying the user/group names and not
          only their numeric ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in
          bpo-12191(2).)

        * *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5.: returns the size of
          the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached.
          (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(3).)

   * *note copy2(): a4b. and *note copystat(): 1110. now preserve file
     timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
     They also preserve file "extended attributes" on Linux.
     (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(4) and bpo-15238(5).)

   * Several functions now take an optional ‘symlinks’ argument: when
     that parameter is true, symlinks aren't dereferenced and the
     operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if
     relevant).  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715(6).)

   * When copying files to a different file system, *note move(): a4c.
     now handles symlinks the way the posix ‘mv’ command does,
     recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file
     contents.  (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993(7).)  *note
     move(): a4c. now also returns the ‘dst’ argument as its result.

   * *note rmtree(): 2f6. is now resistant to symlink attacks on
     platforms which support the new ‘dir_fd’ parameter in *note
     os.open(): d81. and *note os.unlink(): 10d8.  (Contributed by
     Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489


File: python.info,  Node: signal<4>,  Next: smtpd<4>,  Prev: shutils<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.43 'signal'
...................

   * Le module *note signal: c5. a de nouvelles fonctions :

        * *note pthread_sigmask(): 1112.: fetch and/or change the signal
          mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone
          in bpo-8407(1));

        * *note pthread_kill(): 1113.: send a signal to a thread;

        * *note sigpending(): 1114.: examine pending functions;

        * *note sigwait(): 1115.: wait a signal;

        * *note sigwaitinfo(): d9a.: wait for a signal, returning
          detailed information about it;

        * *note sigtimedwait(): d99.: like *note sigwaitinfo(): d9a. but
          with a timeout.

   * The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte
     instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor.  So it is
     possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were
     raised.

   * *note signal.signal(): 1116. and *note signal.siginterrupt(): 1117.
     raise an OSError, instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno
     attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<4>,  Next: smtplib<4>,  Prev: signal<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.44 smtpd
................

The ‘smtpd’ module now supports RFC 5321(1) (extended SMTP) and RFC
1870(2) (size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are
enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an ‘EHLO’
command.

(Initial ‘ELHO’ support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by
Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell.  bpo-8739(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<4>,  Next: socket<10>,  Prev: smtpd<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.45 'smtplib'
....................

The *note SMTP: 91c, *note SMTP_SSL: 91d, and *note LMTP: 91e. classes
now accept a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host,
port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the
outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281(1).)

*note SMTP: 91c. now supports the context management protocol, allowing
an ‘SMTP’ instance to be used in a ‘with’ statement.  (Contributed by
Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289(2).)

The *note SMTP_SSL: 91d. constructor and the *note starttls(): 111a.
method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the
secure channel.  (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809


File: python.info,  Node: socket<10>,  Next: socketserver<3>,  Prev: smtplib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.46 'socket'
...................

   * The *note socket: d90. class now exposes additional methods to
     process ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:

        * *note sendmsg(): 462.

        * *note recvmsg(): d95.

        * *note recvmsg_into(): 111c.

     (Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560(1), based on an earlier
     patch by Heiko Wundram)

   * The *note socket: d90. class now supports the PF_CAN protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan’), on Linux
     (‘https://lwn.net/Articles/253425’).

     (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in
     bpo-10141(2).)

   * The *note socket: d90. class now supports the PF_RDS protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets’
     and https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds(3)).

   * The *note socket: d90. class now supports the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ protocol
     family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in
     bpo-13777(4).)

   * New function *note sethostname(): 111d. allows the hostname to be
     set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient
     privileges.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<3>,  Next: sqlite3<10>,  Prev: socket<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.47 socketserver
.......................

*note BaseServer: 111f. now has an overridable method *note
service_actions(): 1120. that is called by the *note serve_forever():
1121. method in the service loop.  *note ForkingMixIn: b67. now uses
this to clean up zombie child processes.  (Contributed by Justin
Warkentin in bpo-11109(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<10>,  Next: ssl<11>,  Prev: socketserver<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.48 ‘sqlite3’
....................

New *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. method *note set_trace_callback():
2aa. can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by
sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<11>,  Next: stat<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.49 ‘ssl’
................

   * The *note ssl: cf. module has two new random generation functions:

        * *note RAND_bytes(): 510.: generate cryptographically strong
          pseudo-random bytes.

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’: generate pseudo-random bytes.

     (Contribution par Victor Stinner; bpo-12049(1).)

   * The *note ssl: cf. module now exposes a finer-grained exception
     hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds
     of errors.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183(2).)

   * *note load_cert_chain(): 292. now accepts a 'password' argument to
     be used if the private key is encrypted.  (Contributed by Adam
     Simpkins in bpo-12803(3).)

   * Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based,
     is now supported through the *note load_dh_params(): 1124. and
     *note set_ecdh_curve(): 1125. methods.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-13626(4) and bpo-13627(5).)

   * SSL sockets have a new *note get_channel_binding(): 1126. method
     allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms
     such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in
     bpo-12551(6).)

   * You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket,
     thanks to its new *note compression(): 1127. method.  The new
     attribute *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 1128. can be used to disable
     compression.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634(7).)

   * Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension
     using the *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2f7. method.
     (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204(8).)

   * SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to *note
     library: 1129. and *note reason: 112a. attributes.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837(9).)

   * The *note get_server_certificate(): 828. function now supports
     IPv6.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811(10).)

   * New attribute *note OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 112b. allows
     setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server's cipher ordering
     preference rather than the client's (bpo-13635(11)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635


File: python.info,  Node: stat<2>,  Next: struct<3>,  Prev: ssl<11>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.50 stat
...............

The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to *note
stat.filemode(): 112d.  It can be used to convert a file's mode to a
string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-14807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807


File: python.info,  Node: struct<3>,  Next: subprocess<6>,  Prev: stat<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.51 struct
.................

The *note struct: d4. module now supports ‘ssize_t’ and ‘size_t’ via the
new codes ‘n’ and ‘N’, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-3163(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<6>,  Next: sys<13>,  Prev: struct<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.52 subprocess
.....................

Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513(1).)

A new constant *note DEVNULL: 1130. allows suppressing output in a
platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
bpo-5870(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870


File: python.info,  Node: sys<13>,  Next: tarfile<8>,  Prev: subprocess<6>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.53 sys
..............

The *note sys: d8. module has a new *note thread_info: 1132. *note named
tuple: 63b. holding information about the thread implementation
(bpo-11223(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<8>,  Next: tempfile<4>,  Prev: sys<13>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.54 tarfile
..................

*note tarfile: dd. now supports ‘lzma’ encoding via the *note lzma: 89.
module.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<4>,  Next: textwrap<2>,  Prev: tarfile<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.55 tempfile
...................

*note tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 680.'s ‘truncate()’ method now
accepts a ‘size’ parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap<2>,  Next: threading<8>,  Prev: tempfile<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.56 textwrap
...................

The *note textwrap: eb. module has a new *note indent(): 273. that makes
it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
of text (bpo-13857(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857


File: python.info,  Node: threading<8>,  Next: time<8>,  Prev: textwrap<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.57 threading
....................

*note threading.Condition: 1137, *note threading.Semaphore: 1138, *note
threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1139, *note threading.Event: 113a, and *note
threading.Timer: 113b, all of which used to be factory functions
returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.
(Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968(1).)

The *note threading.Thread: 93b. constructor now accepts a ‘daemon’
keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the
‘daemon’ flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064(2)).

The formerly private function ‘_thread.get_ident’ is now available as
the public function *note threading.get_ident(): 113c.  This eliminates
several cases of direct access to the ‘_thread’ module in the stdlib.
Third party code that used ‘_thread.get_ident’ should likewise be
changed to use the new public interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064


File: python.info,  Node: time<8>,  Next: types<7>,  Prev: threading<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.58 time
...............

The PEP 418(1) added new functions to the *note time: ed. module:

   * *note get_clock_info(): 113e.: Get information on a clock.

   * *note monotonic(): 250.: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not
     affected by system clock updates.

   * *note perf_counter(): a78.: Performance counter with the highest
     available resolution to measure a short duration.

   * *note process_time(): a79.: Sum of the system and user CPU time of
     the current process.

Other new functions:

   * *note clock_getres(): 113f, *note clock_gettime(): 1140. and *note
     clock_settime(): 1141. functions with ‘CLOCK_XXX’ constants.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278(2).)

To improve cross platform consistency, *note sleep(): 68a. now raises a
*note ValueError: 1ff. when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously
this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278


File: python.info,  Node: types<7>,  Next: unittest<10>,  Prev: time<8>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.59 ‘types’
..................

Add a new *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. class: Read-only proxy of a
mapping.  (bpo-14386(1))

The new functions *note types.new_class(): 1143. and *note
types.prepare_class(): 1144. provide support for PEP 3115(2) compliant
dynamic type creation.  (bpo-14588(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<10>,  Next: urllib<4>,  Prev: types<7>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.60 unittest
...................

*note assertRaises(): 519, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 51b, *note
assertWarns(): 1146, and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1147. now accept a
keyword argument 'msg' when used as context managers.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775(1).)

*note unittest.TestCase.run(): 1148. now returns the *note TestResult:
1149. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<4>,  Next: webbrowser<3>,  Prev: unittest<10>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.61 urllib
.................

The *note Request: fc5. class, now accepts a 'method' argument used by
*note get_method(): 114b. to determine what HTTP method should be used.
For example, this will send a ‘'HEAD'’ request:

     >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))

(bpo-1673007(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<3>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Prev: urllib<4>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.62 webbrowser
.....................

The *note webbrowser: 114. module supports more "browsers": Google
Chrome (named ‘chrome’, ‘chromium’, ‘chrome-browser’ or
‘chromium-browser’ depending on the version and operating system), and
the generic launchers ‘xdg-open’, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and
‘gvfs-open’, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3.  (The former
contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620(1), the latter by Matthias
Klose in bpo-14493(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Next: zlib<2>,  Prev: webbrowser<3>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.63 xml.etree.ElementTree
................................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. module now imports its C
accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
but is now deprecated).  In addition, the ‘iter’ family of methods of
*note Element: 305. has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module's
documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a
more detailed reference.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<2>,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Up: Modules améliorés<11>

1.11.20.64 zlib
...............

New attribute *note zlib.Decompress.eof: 114f. makes it possible to
distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an
incomplete or truncated one.  (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in
bpo-12646(1).)

New attribute *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1150. reports the version
string of the underlying ‘zlib’ library that is loaded at runtime.
(Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<5>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Prev: Modules améliorés<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.21 Optimizations
---------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * Thanks to PEP 393(1), some operations on Unicode strings have been
     optimized:

        * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the
          text

        * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn't need to encode
          characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with
          the ASCII representation

        * l’encodeur UTF-8 a été optimisé

        * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an
          ASCII string is 4 times faster

   * UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x
     faster.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624(2), bpo-14738(3) and
     bpo-15026(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Next: Obsolescence<12>,  Prev: Optimizations<5>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.22 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * New PEP 3118(1) related function:

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1152.

   * PEP 393(2) added new Unicode types, macros and functions:

        * High-level API:

             * *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8a4.

             * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8a8.

             * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8a2, *note
               PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8a3.

             * *note PyUnicode_New(): 89a.

             * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8a5.

             * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1153, *note
               PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1154.

        * Low-level API:

             * *note Py_UCS1: 1155, *note Py_UCS2: 1156, *note Py_UCS4:
               298. types

             * *note PyASCIIObject: 1157. and *note
               PyCompactUnicodeObject: 1158. structures

             * *note PyUnicode_READY: 3f7.

             * *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 1159.

             * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 115a, *note
               PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8aa.

             * *note PyUnicode_DATA: 115b, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA:
               115c, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA: 115d, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA: 115e.

             * *note PyUnicode_KIND: 115f. with ‘PyUnicode_Kind’ enum:
               ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1160,
               *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: 1161, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1162.

             * *note PyUnicode_READ: 1163, *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR:
               1164, *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1165.

             * *note PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE: 1166.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple: 55f. now accepts a *note bytearray: 52b.
     for the ‘c’ format (bpo-12380(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380


File: python.info,  Node: Obsolescence<12>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.23 Obsolescence
--------------------

* Menu:

* Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>.
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
* Fonctionnalités obsolètes: Fonctionnalités obsolètes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Up: Obsolescence<12>

1.11.23.1 Unsupported Operating Systems
.......................................

OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.

Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ‘COMSPEC’ to ‘command.com’
are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.

OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>,  Up: Obsolescence<12>

1.11.23.2 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
..........................................................

   * Passing a non-empty string to ‘object.__format__()’ is deprecated,
     and will produce a *note TypeError: 525. in Python 3.4
     (bpo-9856(1)).

   * The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated because of the PEP
     393(2), use UTF-8, UTF-16 (‘utf-16-le’ or ‘utf-16-be’), or UTF-32
     (‘utf-32-le’ or ‘utf-32-be’)

   * *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 10a7. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 10a8.:
     use *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 10a6.

   * ‘platform.popen()’: use the *note subprocess: d5. module.  Check
     especially the *note Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le
     module subprocess: 116a. section (bpo-11377(3)).

   * bpo-13374(4): The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the
     *note os: a0. module.  Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes
     filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to
     support any filename.

   * bpo-13988(5): The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated.
     The accelerator is used automatically whenever available.

   * The behaviour of ‘time.clock()’ depends on the platform: use the
     new *note time.perf_counter(): a78. or *note time.process_time():
     a79. function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a
     well defined behaviour.

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function is deprecated.

   * *note abc: 4. module:

        * *note abc.abstractproperty: 1070. has been deprecated, use
          *note property: 192. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1071.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 1072. has been deprecated, use
          *note classmethod: 165. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1071.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 1073. has been deprecated, use
          *note staticmethod: 40c. with *note abc.abstractmethod():
          1071. instead.

   * *note importlib: 76. package:

        * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 116b. is now
          deprecated in favour of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 116c. as bytecode
          files now store both the modification time and size of the
          source file the bytecode file was compiled from.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Next: Fonctionnalités obsolètes<2>,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Up: Obsolescence<12>

1.11.23.3 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
.....................................................

The *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. has been deprecated by PEP 393(1) and will be
removed in Python 4.  All functions using this type are deprecated:

Unicode functions and methods using *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. and *note
Py_UNICODE: 3e4.* types:

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’: use *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 116e.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 1159.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8ab.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA’: use *note PyUnicode_DATA: 115b. with *note
     PyUnicode_READ: 1163. and *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1165.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE’, ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8a3. or *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8a2.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE’: use ‘PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) *
     PyUnicode_KIND(str)’ (only work on ready strings)

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8aa.
     or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8ab.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’

Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen()’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8a2. or
     *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8a3.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat()’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8a4.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’:
     use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8a4. or *note
     PyUnicode_Substring(): 8a5.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8a6.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8a7.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8a8.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’: use *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 116f.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’

Encodeurs :

   * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’: use ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bab. or
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1170.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1171.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1172.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String():
     1173.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString():
     1174.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1175.
     or *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1176. (with ‘CP_ACP’
     code_page)

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’, ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctionnalités obsolètes<2>,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Up: Obsolescence<12>

1.11.23.4 Fonctionnalités obsolètes
...................................

The *note array: 7. module's ‘'u'’ format code is now deprecated and
will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (*note
Py_UNICODE: 3e4.) API.


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 3,  Prev: Obsolescence<12>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 3

1.11.24 Portage vers Python 3.3
-------------------------------

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres
améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

* Menu:

* Portage de code Python::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Portage de code Python,  Next: Porting C code,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 3

1.11.24.1 Portage de code Python
................................

   * Hash randomization is enabled by default.  Set the *note
     PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068. environment variable to ‘0’ to disable hash
     randomization.  See also the *note object.__hash__(): aeb. method.

   * bpo-12326(1): On Linux, sys.platform doesn't contain the major
     version anymore.  It is now always 'linux', instead of 'linux2' or
     'linux3' depending on the Linux version used to build Python.
     Replace sys.platform == 'linux2' with
     sys.platform.startswith('linux'), or directly sys.platform ==
     'linux' if you don't need to support older Python versions.

   * bpo-13847(2), bpo-14180(3): *note time: ed. and *note datetime:
     30.: *note OverflowError: 86f. is now raised instead of *note
     ValueError: 1ff. if a timestamp is out of range.  *note OSError:
     40d. is now raised if C functions ‘gmtime()’ or ‘localtime()’
     failed.

   * The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is
     contained within a specific directory.  If you create a Python
     source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call *note
     importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00. to clear out the cache for the
     finders to notice the new file.

   * *note ImportError: 40f. now uses the full name of the module that
     was attempted to be imported.  Doctests that check ImportErrors'
     message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module
     instead of just the tail of the name.

   * The 'index' argument to *note __import__(): 8c3. now defaults to 0
     instead of -1 and no longer support negative values.  It was an
     oversight when PEP 328(4) was implemented that the default value
     remained -1.  If you need to continue to perform a relative import
     followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import
     using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of
     0.  It is preferred, though, that you use *note
     importlib.import_module(): 504. rather than call *note
     __import__(): 8c3. directly.

   * *note __import__(): 8c3. no longer allows one to use an index value
     other than 0 for top-level modules.  E.g.  ‘__import__('sys',
     level=1)’ is now an error.

   * Because *note sys.meta_path: d1b. and *note sys.path_hooks: 100f.
     now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to
     use ‘list.insert()’ instead of ‘list.append()’ to add to those
     lists.

   * Because ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     5d0, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths
     that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with
     values of ‘None’ 'and' ‘imp.NullImporter’ to be
     backwards-compatible.  This will lead to extra overhead on older
     versions of Python that re-insert ‘None’ into *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. where it represents the use of
     implicit finders, but semantically it should not change anything.

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ no longer specifies a ‘find_module()’
     abstract method that must be implemented.  If you were relying on
     subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the
     method's existence first.  You will probably want to check for
     ‘find_loader()’ first, though, in the case of working with *note
     path entry finders: 105c.

   * *note pkgutil: a8. has been converted to use *note importlib: 76.
     internally.  This eliminates many edge cases where the old
     behaviour of the PEP 302(5) import emulation failed to match the
     behaviour of the real import system.  The import emulation itself
     is still present, but is now deprecated.  The *note
     pkgutil.iter_importers(): 117a. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages():
     bef. functions special case the standard import hooks so they are
     still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard
     ‘iter_modules()’ method.

   * A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079(6)) in the parsing done
     by *note email.header.decode_header(): 109c. has been fixed.  Code
     that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into
     unicode (‘str(make_header(decode_header(h))’) will see no change,
     but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by
     decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows
     ‘ASCII’ sections is now included in the ‘ASCII’ section.  Code that
     builds headers using ‘make_header’ should also continue to work
     without change, since ‘make_header’ continues to add whitespace
     between ‘ASCII’ and non-‘ASCII’ sections if it is not already
     present in the input strings.

   * *note email.utils.formataddr(): 117b. now does the correct content
     transfer encoding when passed non-‘ASCII’ display names.  Any code
     that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the
     non-‘ASCII’ unicode in the formatted output string will need to be
     changed (bpo-1690608(7)).

   * *note poplib.POP3.quit(): 117c. may now raise protocol errors like
     all other ‘poplib’ methods.  Code that assumes ‘quit’ does not
     raise *note poplib.error_proto: 117d. errors may need to be changed
     if errors on ‘quit’ are encountered by a particular application
     (bpo-11291(8)).

   * The ‘strict’ argument to *note email.parser.Parser: 117e,
     deprecated since Python 2.4, has finally been removed.

   * The deprecated method ‘unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements’ has
     been removed.

   * The deprecated variable ‘time.accept2dyear’ has been removed.

   * The deprecated ‘Context._clamp’ attribute has been removed from the
     *note decimal: 36. module.  It was previously replaced by the
     public attribute ‘clamp’.  (See bpo-8540(9).)

   * The undocumented internal helper class ‘SSLFakeFile’ has been
     removed from *note smtplib: c9, since its functionality has long
     been provided directly by *note socket.socket.makefile(): 117f.

   * Passing a negative value to *note time.sleep(): 68a. on Windows now
     raises an error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised
     an error on posix.

   * The ‘ast.__version__’ constant has been removed.  If you need to
     make decisions affected by the AST version, use *note
     sys.version_info: 68d. to make the decision.

   * Code that used to work around the fact that the *note threading:
     ec. module used factory functions by subclassing the private
     classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes.

   * The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has
     been removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on
     production code, but is mentioned here in case any application
     debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550(10)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550


File: python.info,  Node: Porting C code,  Next: Building C extensions,  Prev: Portage de code Python,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 3

1.11.24.2 Porting C code
........................

   * In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
     ‘smalltable’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 744. structure has been
     removed and the layout of the ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ has changed.

     All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ or
     ‘object.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * Due to *note PEP 393: 1028, the *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. type and all
     functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available
     for at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs
     to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of
     the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393(1), you have to
     convert your code to the new *note Unicode API: 1180.

     However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
     *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1181, *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1182. or
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380, your code will automatically
     take advantage of the new unicode representations.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1183. now returns ‘-1’ upon
     failure.

   * As a negative value for the 'level' argument to *note __import__():
     8c3. is no longer valid, the same now holds for *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1184.  This also means that the value
     of 'level' used by *note PyImport_ImportModuleEx(): 1185. is now
     ‘0’ instead of ‘-1’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C extensions,  Next: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Porting C code,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 3

1.11.24.3 Building C extensions
...............................

   * The range of possible file names for C extensions has been
     narrowed.  Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under
     POSIX, files named ‘xxxmodule.so’, ‘xxxmodule.abi3.so’ and
     ‘xxxmodule.cpython-*.so’ are no longer recognized as implementing
     the ‘xxx’ module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
     to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ‘module’ string
     from the file names).

     (implemented in bpo-14040(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Building C extensions,  Up: Portage vers Python 3 3

1.11.24.4 Command Line Switch Changes
.....................................

   * The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.
     Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.

     (bpo-10998(1), contributed by Éric Araujo.)

   * When ‘python’ is started with *note -S: 1188, ‘import site’ will no
     longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
     previous versions, it did.

     (bpo-11591(2), contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric
     Araujo.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 2,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 1,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 3,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.12 Nouveautés de Python 3.2
=============================


Auteur: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.
Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011.  It focuses on a few
highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
Misc/NEWS(1) file.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 392(2) - Python 3.2 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Fils d'exécution::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Portage vers Python 3.2: Portage vers Python 3 2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Next: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.1 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
-------------------------------------

In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
not usable with other Python versions.  Particularly on Windows, every
feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
one wanted to use.  This requirement was the result of the free access
to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.

With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to
a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
releases.  As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on.  Extension modules that
make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
need to be recompiled for every feature release.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 384(1) - Defining a Stable ABI

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Prev: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.2 PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
----------------------------------------------------

A new module for command line parsing, *note argparse: 6, was introduced
to overcome the limitations of *note optparse: 9f. which did not provide
support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands,
required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating
options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
*note argparse: 6. module is now the preferred module for command-line
processing.  The older module is still being kept available because of
the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here's an annotated example parser showing features like limiting
results to a set of choices, specifying a 'metavar' in the help screen,
validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making
a required option:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                 description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
                 epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
     parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
                 choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
                 help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
     parser.add_argument('targets',
                 metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
                 nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
                 help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
                 required = True,                        # make it a required argument
                 help = 'login as user')

Example of calling the parser on a command string:

     >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
     >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
     >>> result.action
     'deploy'
     >>> result.targets
     ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
     >>> result.user
     'skycaptain'

Example of the parser's automatically generated help:

     >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

     usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                            {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

     Manage servers

     positional arguments:
       {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
       HOSTNAME              url for target machines

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -u USER, --user USER  login as user

     Tested on Solaris and Linux

An especially nice *note argparse: 6. feature is the ability to define
subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
     subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

     parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
     parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
     parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

     parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                      aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
     parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
     parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

     $ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
     $ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
     $ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
     $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 389(1) - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written by Steven Bethard.

*note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 118d. for details on the
differences from *note optparse: 9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Next: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Prev: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.3 PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 86. module provided two kinds of configuration, one
style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an
external file saved in a *note configparser: 22. format.  Those options
did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or
YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is
needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers *note
logging.config.dictConfig(): 118f. for specifying logging configuration
with plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include
formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here's a working example of
a configuration dictionary:

     {"version": 1,
      "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                     "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                     },
      "handlers": {"console": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "brief",
                        "level": "INFO",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
                   "console_priority": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "full",
                        "level": "ERROR",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
                   },
      "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called ‘conf.json’, it can be
loaded and called with code like this:

     >>> import json, logging.config
     >>> with open('conf.json') as f:
     ...     conf = json.load(f)
     ...
     >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
     >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
     INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
     >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
     2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

     PEP written by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Next: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.4 PEP 3148: The ‘concurrent.futures’ module
------------------------------------------------

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new
top-level namespace, 'concurrent'.  Its first member is a 'futures'
package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing
threads and processes.

The design for *note concurrent.futures: 21. was inspired by the
'java.util.concurrent' package.  In that model, a running call and its
result are represented by a *note Future: 1191. object that abstracts
features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That
object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts,
cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it
easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls.  They save the
effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a
results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of
threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.
This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its
own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: *note
submit(): a72. for scheduling a callable and returning a *note Future:
1191. object; *note map(): dd3. for scheduling many asynchronous calls
at a time, and *note shutdown(): 8dc. for freeing resources.  The class
is a *note context manager: 5c0. and can be used in a *note with: 5be.
statement to assure that resources are automatically released when
currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. is a launch of
four parallel threads for copying files:

     import concurrent.futures, shutil
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3148(1) - Futures - Execute Computations Asynchronously

     PEP written by Brian Quinlan.

*note Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads: 1192, an example using
threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

*note Code for computing prime numbers in parallel: 1193, an example
demonstrating *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Next: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Prev: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.5 PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
-------------------------------------------

Python's scheme for caching bytecode in '.pyc' files did not work well
in environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter
encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would
recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the
benefits of caching.

The issue of "pyc fights" has become more pronounced as it has become
commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of
Python.  These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as
Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, Python's import machinery has been extended to
use distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and
Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called
"mymodule.pyc", they will now look for "mymodule.cpython-32.pyc",
"mymodule.cpython-33.pyc", and "mymodule.unladen10.pyc".  And to prevent
all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the 'pyc'
files are now collected in a "__pycache__" directory stored under the
package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a
few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

   * Imported modules now have a *note __cached__: 2d4. attribute which
     stores the name of the actual file that was imported:

          >>> import collections
          >>> collections.__cached__
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the
     ‘imp’ module:

          >>> import imp
          >>> imp.get_tag()
          'cpython-32'

   * Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file
     now need to be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip
     the "c" from a ".pyc" filename.  Instead, use the new functions in
     the ‘imp’ module:

          >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
          'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
          >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py')
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The *note py_compile: b2. and *note compileall: 20. modules have
     been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target
     directory.  The command-line invocation of 'compileall' has new
     options: ‘-i’ for specifying a list of files and directories to
     compile and ‘-b’ which causes bytecode files to be written to their
     legacy location rather than '__pycache__'.

   * The *note importlib.abc: 77. module has been updated with new *note
     abstract base classes: 1195. for loading bytecode files.  The
     obsolete ABCs, ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’, have been deprecated
     (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included
     with the documentation).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3147(1) - PYC Repository Directories

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Next: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Prev: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.6 PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
---------------------------------------------

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object
files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each
version.

The common directory is "pyshared" and the file names are made distinct
by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython,
etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags
(such as "d" for debug, "m" for pymalloc, "u" for wide-unicode).  For an
arbitrary package "foo", you may see these files when the distribution
package is installed:

     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so

In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the *note
sysconfig: da. module:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
     'cpython-32mu'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
     '.cpython-32mu.so'

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3149(1) - ABI Version Tagged .so Files

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Next: Autres changements au langage<12>,  Prev: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.7 PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
-----------------------------------------------------------

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled
by the WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3
is most conveniently handled with the *note str: 437. type even though
the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called 'native strings' that are used for
request/response headers and metadata versus 'byte strings' which are
used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The 'native strings' are always of type *note str: 437. but are
restricted to code points between 'U+0000' through 'U+00FF' which are
translatable to bytes using 'Latin-1' encoding.  These strings are used
for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response
headers and statuses in the ‘start_response()’ function.  They must
follow RFC 2616(1) with respect to encoding.  That is, they must either
be 'ISO-8859-1' characters or use RFC 2047(2) MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the
salient points:

   * If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change
     is needed.

   * If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input
     headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.
     For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using
     ‘h.encode('utf-8')’ now needs to convert from bytes to native
     strings using ‘h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')’.

   * Values yielded by an application or sent using the ‘write()’ method
     must be byte strings.  The ‘start_response()’ function and environ
     must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native
strings even though the underlying platform may have a different
convention.  To bridge this gap, the *note wsgiref: 117. module has a
new function, *note wsgiref.handlers.read_environ(): 1198. for
transcoding CGI variables from *note os.environ: 1199. into native
strings and returning a new dictionary.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3333(3) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

     PEP written by Phillip Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<12>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.8 Autres changements au langage
------------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * String formatting for *note format(): 60c. and *note str.format():
     60e. gained new capabilities for the format character '#'.
     Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it
     caused the output to be prefixed with '0b', '0o', or '0x'
     respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal,
     causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no
     digits follow it.

          >>> format(20, '#o')
          '0o24'
          >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
          '  12.'

     (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-7094(1).)

   * There is also a new *note str.format_map(): dc6. method that
     extends the capabilities of the existing *note str.format(): 60e.
     method by accepting arbitrary *note mapping: 119b. objects.  This
     new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of
     Python's many dictionary-like objects such as *note defaultdict:
     119c, *note Shelf: f87, *note ConfigParser: 1c3, or *note dbm: 31.
     It is also useful with custom *note dict: 253. subclasses that
     normalize keys before look-up or that supply a ‘__missing__()’
     method for unknown keys:

          >>> import shelve
          >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
          >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
          'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

          >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
          ...
          >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
          >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
          'There are 10 widgets in stock'

          >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
          ...
          >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
          'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-6081(2).)

   * The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ‘-q’, to
     prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed
     in the interactive mode.  The option can be introspected using the
     *note sys.flags: 679. attribute:

          $ python -q
          >>> sys.flags
          sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
          optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
          ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)

     (Contribution par Marcin Wojdyr; bpo-1772833(3)).

   * The *note hasattr(): 4be. function works by calling *note
     getattr(): bc1. and detecting whether an exception is raised.  This
     technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by *note
     __getattr__(): 4bf. or *note __getattribute__(): bc2. which would
     otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, 'hasattr'
     would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now,
     'hasattr' has been tightened to only catch *note AttributeError:
     343. and let other exceptions pass through:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         return 1 // 0
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> hasattr(a, 'f')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

     (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-9666(4).)

   * The *note str(): 437. of a float or complex number is now the same
     as its *note repr(): 7e9.  Previously, the *note str(): 437. form
     was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed
     now that the shortest possible *note repr(): 7e9. is displayed by
     default:

          >>> import math
          >>> repr(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'
          >>> str(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'

     (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337(5).)

   * *note memoryview: 454. objects now have a *note release(): 119d.
     method and they also now support the context management protocol.
     This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when
     requesting a buffer from the original object.

          >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
          ...     print(v.tolist())
          [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757(6).)

   * Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace
     if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:

          def outer(x):
              def inner():
                  return x
              inner()
              del x

     This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an *note except:
     189. clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python
     2.6, raised a *note SyntaxError: 18b. with Python 3.1 and now works
     again:

          def f():
              def print_error():
                  print(e)
              try:
                  something
              except Exception as e:
                  print_error()
                  # implicit "del e" here

     (See bpo-4617(7).)

   * *note Struct sequence types: 119e. are now subclasses of tuple.
     This means that C structures like those returned by *note
     os.stat(): 48c, *note time.gmtime(): 119f, and *note
     sys.version_info: 68d. now work like a *note named tuple: 63b. and
     now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an
     argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C structures as
     flexible as their pure Python counterparts:

          >>> import sys
          >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
          True
          >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info
          'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'

     (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
     by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413(8).)

   * Warnings are now easier to control using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     b9a. environment variable as an alternative to using ‘-W’ at the
     command line:

          $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'

     (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in
     bpo-7301(9).)

   * A new warning category, *note ResourceWarning: 241, has been added.
     It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or
     cleanup are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release
     builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the *note
     warnings: 111. module, or on the command line.

     A *note ResourceWarning: 241. is issued at interpreter shutdown if
     the *note gc.garbage: 11a0. list isn't empty, and if *note
     gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 11a1. is set, all uncollectable objects are
     printed.  This is meant to make the programmer aware that their
     code contains object finalization issues.

     A *note ResourceWarning: 241. is also issued when a *note file
     object: 11a2. is destroyed without having been explicitly closed.
     While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the
     underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor),
     the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues,
     especially under Windows.  Here is an example of enabling the
     warning from the command line:

          $ python -q -Wdefault
          >>> f = open("foo", "wb")
          >>> del f
          __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093(10) and
     bpo-477863(11).)

   * *note range: 932. objects now support 'index' and 'count' methods.
     This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
     *note collections.Sequence: 11a3. *note abstract base class: 1195.
     As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In
     addition, *note range: 932. objects now support slicing and
     negative indices, even with values larger than *note sys.maxsize:
     11a4.  This makes 'range' more interoperable with lists:

          >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
          1
          >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
          5
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
          10
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
          range(0, 10, 2)

     (Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9213(12), by Alexander
     Belopolsky in bpo-2690(13), and by Nick Coghlan in bpo-10889(14).)

   * The *note callable(): 11a5. builtin function from Py2.x was
     resurrected.  It provides a concise, readable alternative to using
     an *note abstract base class: 1195. in an expression like
     ‘isinstance(x, collections.Callable)’:

          >>> callable(max)
          True
          >>> callable(20)
          False

     (See bpo-10518(15).)

   * Python's import mechanism can now load modules installed in
     directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This
     solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with
     non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

     (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Fils d'exécution,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<12>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.9 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

Python's standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts
and quality improvements.

The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the *note email: 3b. package,
*note mailbox: 8a. module, and ‘nntplib’ modules now work correctly with
the bytes/text model in Python 3.  For the first time, there is correct
handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention
to encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions
with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data
using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support
for 'SSL' connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a *note context manager: 5c0. to
support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a *note with:
5be. statement.

* Menu:

* email: email<6>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<7>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<10>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<7>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<5>.
* os: os<13>.
* shutils: shutils<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<11>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<12>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<11>.
* random: random<5>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<5>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<5>.
* dbm: dbm<7>.
* ctypes: ctypes<3>.
* site: site<4>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<8>.
* configparser: configparser<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::


File: python.info,  Node: email<6>,  Next: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.1 email
..............

The usability of the *note email: 3b. package in Python 3 has been
mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem
was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of *note
bytes: 1bd. rather than *note str: 437. text, and they may contain
multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the email package had to
be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

   * New functions *note message_from_bytes(): 11a8. and *note
     message_from_binary_file(): 11a9, and new classes *note
     BytesFeedParser: 11aa. and *note BytesParser: 11ab. allow binary
     message data to be parsed into model objects.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note get_payload(): 11ac. will by
     default decode a message body that has a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' using the charset specified
     in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note Generator: 11ad. will convert
     message bodies that have a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' to
     instead have a '7bit' ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

     Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC
     2047(1)-encoded using the 'unknown-8bit' character set.

   * A new class *note BytesGenerator: 11ae. produces bytes as output,
     preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the
     input used to build the model, including message bodies with a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit'.

   * The *note smtplib: c9. *note SMTP: 91c. class now accepts a byte
     string for the 'msg' argument to the *note sendmail(): e44. method,
     and a new method, *note send_message(): e45. accepts a *note
     Message: 279. object and can optionally obtain the 'from_addr' and
     'to_addrs' addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661(2) and
bpo-10321(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321


File: python.info,  Node: elementtree,  Next: functools<7>,  Prev: email<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.2 elementtree
....................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. package and its
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(): 11b0. which builds an
     XML document from a sequence of fragments

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(): 11b1. for
     registering a global namespace prefix

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(): fe1. for string
     representation including all sublists

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 11b2. for appending a
     sequence of zero or more elements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind(): 11b3. searches an
     element and subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext(): 11b4. creates a
     text iterator over an element and its subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end(): 11b5. closes the
     current element

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype(): a87. handles a
     doctype declaration

Deux méthodes ont été dépréciées :

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()’ use ‘list(elem)’ instead.

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()’ use ‘Element.iter’ instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree(1) on Fredrik
Lundh's website.

(Contribution par Florent Xicluna et Fredrik Lundh; bpo-6472(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: functools<7>,  Next: itertools<7>,  Prev: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.3 functools
..................

   * The *note functools: 5e. module includes a new decorator for
     caching function calls.  *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. can save
     repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are
     expected to be the same.

     For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query
     function can save database accesses for popular searches:

          >>> import functools
          >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
          ... def get_phone_number(name):
          ...     c = conn.cursor()
          ...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
          ...     return c.fetchone()[0]

          >>> for name in user_requests:
          ...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup

     To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function
     is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)

     If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the
     cache can be cleared with:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas
     from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe
     498245(1), recipe 577479(2), bpo-10586(3), and bpo-10593(4).)

   * The *note functools.wraps(): f4a. decorator now adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute pointing to the original callable function.
     This allows wrapped functions to be introspected.  It also copies
     *note __annotations__: 11b7. if defined.  And now it also
     gracefully skips over missing attributes such as *note __doc__:
     11b8. which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

     In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the
     original function:

          >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function

     (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567(5), bpo-3445(6), and
     bpo-8814(7).)

   * To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
     *note functools.total_ordering(): f2f. will use existing equality
     and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.

     For example, supplying '__eq__' and '__lt__' will enable *note
     total_ordering(): f2f. to fill-in '__le__', '__gt__' and '__ge__':

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

              def __lt__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

     With the 'total_ordering' decorator, the remaining comparison
     methods are filled in automatically.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the *note
     functools.cmp_to_key(): 11b9. function converts an old-style
     comparison function to modern *note key function: df4.:

          >>> # locale-aware sort order
          >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting
     HowTo(8) tutorial.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814

   (8) https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<7>,  Next: collections<8>,  Prev: functools<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.4 itertools
..................

   * The *note itertools: 80. module has a new *note accumulate(): 9ed.
     function modeled on APL's 'scan' operator and Numpy's 'accumulate'
     function:

          >>> from itertools import accumulate
          >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
          [8, 10, 60]

          >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
          >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
          [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]

     For an example using *note accumulate(): 9ed, see the *note
     examples for the random module: 11bb.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design
     suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)


File: python.info,  Node: collections<8>,  Next: threading<9>,  Prev: itertools<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.5 collections
....................

   * The *note collections.Counter: 107d. class now has two forms of
     in-place subtraction, the existing '-=' operator for saturating
     subtraction(1) and the new *note subtract(): 11bd. method for
     regular subtraction.  The former is suitable for multisets(2) which
     only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use
     cases that allow negative counts:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3})

          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7. class has a new method
     *note move_to_end(): 11be. which takes an existing key and moves it
     to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

     The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is
     equivalent of renewing an entry with ‘od[k] = od.pop(k)’.

     A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.
     For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of
     access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently
     accessed.

          >>> from collections import OrderedDict
          >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
          >>> d.move_to_end('X')
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.deque: 5c8. class grew two new methods *note
     count(): 11bf. and *note reverse(): 11c0. that make them more
     substitutable for *note list: 5fe. objects:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('simsalabim')
          >>> d.count('s')
          2
          >>> d.reverse()
          >>> d
          deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset


File: python.info,  Node: threading<9>,  Next: datetime and time,  Prev: collections<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.6 threading
..................

The *note threading: ec. module has a new *note Barrier: 11c2.
synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them
have reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making
sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of
the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a
generalization of a Rendezvous(1) which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, *note Barrier: 11c2. objects
are suitable for use in loops.  The separate 'filling' and 'draining'
phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of
them can loop back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets
after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

     from threading import Barrier, Thread

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
         totals = summarize(ballots)
         publish(site, totals)

     all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
     for site in sites:
         Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be
counted at any polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a
solution with a barrier is similar to one with *note
threading.Thread.join(): 11c3, but the threads stay alive and continue
to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be
created with an optional 'timeout' parameter.  Then if the timeout
period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point,
all waiting threads are released and a *note BrokenBarrierError: 11c4.
exception is raised:

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         try:
             all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
         except BrokenBarrierError:
             lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
             queue.put(lockbox)
         else:
             totals = summarize(ballots)
             publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some
election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and
the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns(2) for more examples of how
barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is a simple but
thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores(3),
'section 3.6'.

(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey
Yasskin in bpo-8777(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous

   (2) 
https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf

   (3) https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777


File: python.info,  Node: datetime and time,  Next: math<10>,  Prev: threading<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.7 datetime and time
..........................

   * The *note datetime: 30. module has a new type *note timezone: 10a3.
     that implements the *note tzinfo: 5ca. interface by returning a
     fixed UTC offset and timezone name.  This makes it easier to create
     timezone-aware datetime objects:

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone

          >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
          datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

          >>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
          datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

   * Also, *note timedelta: 9bf. objects can now be multiplied by *note
     float: 2ec. and divided by *note float: 2ec. and *note int: 254.
     objects.  And *note timedelta: 9bf. objects can now divide one
     another.

   * The *note datetime.date.strftime(): c81. method is no longer
     restricted to years after 1900.  The new supported year range is
     from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.

   * Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the
     interpretation has been governed by ‘time.accept2dyear’.  The
     default is ‘True’ which means that for a two-digit year, the
     century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the ‘%y’
     strptime format.

     Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will
     emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Instead, it is recommended
     that ‘time.accept2dyear’ be set to ‘False’ so that large date
     ranges can be used without guesswork:

          >>> import time, warnings
          >>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

          >>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          Warning (from warnings module):
            ...
          DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

          >>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'

     Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.
     When ‘time.accept2dyear’ is false, the *note time.asctime(): 11c6.
     function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the *note
     time.mktime(): 11c7. and *note time.strftime(): 11c8. functions
     will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating
     system functions.

(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in
bpo-1289118(1), bpo-5094(2), bpo-6641(3), bpo-2706(4), bpo-1777412(5),
bpo-8013(6), and bpo-10827(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827


File: python.info,  Node: math<10>,  Next: abc<3>,  Prev: datetime and time,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.8 'math'
...............

The *note math: 8d. module has been updated with six new functions
inspired by the C99 standard.

The *note isfinite(): 11ca. function provides a reliable and fast way to
detect special values.  It returns ‘True’ for regular numbers and
‘False’ for 'Nan' or 'Infinity':

     >>> from math import isfinite
     >>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
     [True, True, False, False]

The *note expm1(): 11cb. function computes ‘e**x-1’ for small values of
'x' without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the
subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

     >>> from math import expm1
     >>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
     0.013765762467652909

The *note erf(): bc8. function computes a probability integral or
Gaussian error function(1).  The complementary error function, *note
erfc(): bc9, is ‘1 - erf(x)’:

     >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
     0.682689492137086
     >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
     0.31731050786291404
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
     1.0

The *note gamma(): 11cc. function is a continuous extension of the
factorial function.  See ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function’
for details.  Because the function is related to factorials, it grows
large even for small values of 'x', so there is also a *note lgamma():
11cd. function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma
function:

     >>> from math import gamma, lgamma
     >>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
     720.0
     >>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
     4551.950730698041

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function


File: python.info,  Node: abc<3>,  Next: io<7>,  Prev: math<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.9 abc
............

The *note abc: 4. module now supports *note abstractclassmethod(): 1072.
and *note abstractstaticmethod(): 1073.

These tools make it possible to define an *note abstract base class:
1195. that requires a particular *note classmethod(): 165. or *note
staticmethod(): 40c. to be implemented:

     class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
             ...
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_celsius(cls, t):
             ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867


File: python.info,  Node: io<7>,  Next: reprlib,  Prev: abc<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.10 io
............

The *note io.BytesIO: e8f. has a new method, *note getbuffer(): 11d0,
which provides functionality similar to *note memoryview(): 454.  It
creates an editable view of the data without making a copy.  The
buffer's random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to
in-place editing:

     >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

     >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
     ...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
     ...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

     >>> import io

     >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
     ...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
     ...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
     ...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
     ... )
     >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
     >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
     >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
     >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
     b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
     b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5506(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib,  Next: logging<8>,  Prev: io<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.11 reprlib
.................

When writing a *note __repr__(): 609. method for a custom container, it
is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the
container itself.  Python's builtin objects such as *note list: 5fe. and
*note set: 5c5. handle self-reference by displaying "..."  in the
recursive part of the representation string.

To help write such *note __repr__(): 609. methods, the *note reprlib:
ba. module has a new decorator, *note recursive_repr(): 11d2, for
detecting recursive calls to ‘__repr__()’ and substituting a placeholder
string instead:

     >>> class MyList(list):
     ...     @recursive_repr()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
     ...
     >>> m = MyList('abc')
     >>> m.append(m)
     >>> m.append('x')
     >>> print(m)
     <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9826(1) et bpo-9840(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840


File: python.info,  Node: logging<8>,  Next: csv<4>,  Prev: reprlib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.12 logging
.................

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the *note
logging: 86. package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a *note basic tutorial:
11d4, an *note advanced tutorial: 11d5, and a *note cookbook: 11d6. of
logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about
logging.

The *note logging.basicConfig(): 9f0. set-up function gained a 'style'
argument to support three different types of string formatting.  It
defaults to "%" for traditional %-formatting, can be set to "{" for the
new *note str.format(): 60e. style, or can be set to "$" for the
shell-style formatting provided by *note string.Template: 674.  The
following three configurations are equivalent:

     >>> from logging import basicConfig
     >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
     >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
     >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is
now a default configuration using a *note StreamHandler: 11d7. directed
to *note sys.stderr: 928. for events of ‘WARNING’ level or higher.
Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would
either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the
value of *note logging.raiseExceptions: 11d8.  The new default handler
is stored in *note logging.lastResort: 11d9.

The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a *note
Filter: 11da. object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
returns ‘True’ or ‘False’.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and
simplify configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing
of changes in Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: csv<4>,  Next: contextlib<8>,  Prev: logging<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.13 csv
.............

The *note csv: 29. module now supports a new dialect, *note
unix_dialect: 11dc, which applies quoting for all fields and a
traditional Unix style with ‘'\n'’ as the line terminator.  The
registered dialect name is ‘unix’.

The *note csv.DictWriter: 11dd. has a new method, *note writeheader():
11de. for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

     >>> import csv, sys
     >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
     >>> w.writeheader()
     "name","dept"
     >>> w.writerows([
     ...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
     ...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
     "tom","accounting"
     "susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975(1), and the new method
suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<8>,  Next: decimal and fractions,  Prev: csv<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.14 contextlib
....................

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool *note ContextDecorator:
11e0. that is helpful for creating a *note context manager: 5c0. that
does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by *note
contextmanager(): 11e1. so that no extra effort is needed to support
both roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can
be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap
a group of statements using a *note with: 5be. statement, and function
decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function.  So,
occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action
wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, the *note contextmanager(): 11e1. provides both
capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import contextmanager
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     @contextmanager
     def track_entry_and_exit(name):
         logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
         yield
         logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the
technique.  Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an
argument usable by a *note with: 5be. statement, but there is no
parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the
'track_entry_and_exit' context manager to return a logging instance for
use in the body of enclosed statements.

(Contribution par Michael Foord; bpo-9110(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110


File: python.info,  Node: decimal and fractions,  Next: ftp,  Prev: contextlib<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.15 decimal and fractions
...............................

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their
actual values are equal (bpo-8188(1)):

     assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
            hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, *note
sys.hash_info: fea, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the
prime modulus, the hash values for 'infinity' and 'nan', and the
multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

     >>> sys.hash_info
     sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types
has been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have
implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ‘Decimal('1.1') +
float('1.1')’ because the latter loses information in the process of
constructing the binary float.  However, since existing floating-point
value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational
representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to
support mixed-type comparisons.

   * The *note decimal.Decimal: 29a. constructor now accepts *note
     float: 2ec. objects directly so there in no longer a need to use
     the *note from_float(): 11e3. method (bpo-8257(2)).

   * Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that *note
     Decimal: 29a. objects can be directly compared with *note float:
     2ec. and *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. (bpo-2531(3) and
     bpo-8188(4)).

Similar changes were made to *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. so that the
*note from_float(): 11e4. and *note from_decimal(): 11e5. methods are no
longer needed (bpo-8294(5)):

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> Decimal(1.1)
     Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
     >>> Fraction(1.1)
     Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the *note decimal: 36. module is that the
‘Context.clamp’ attribute is now public.  This is useful in creating
contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in
IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540(6)).

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540


File: python.info,  Node: ftp,  Next: popen,  Prev: decimal and fractions,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.16 ftp
.............

The *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 1040. exceptions
and to close the FTP connection when done:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
             ftp.login()
             ftp.dir()

     '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
     dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
     dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

Other file-like objects such as *note mmap.mmap: 208. and *note
fileinput.input(): 7eb. also grew auto-closing context managers:

     with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
         for line in f:
             process(line)

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-4972(1), and by
Georg Brandl in bpo-8046(2) and bpo-1286(3).)

The *note FTP_TLS: 8ea. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which
is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object allowing bundling SSL
configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
(potentially long-lived) structure.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8806(4))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806


File: python.info,  Node: popen,  Next: select<3>,  Prev: ftp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.17 popen
...............

The *note os.popen(): a77. and *note subprocess.Popen(): 197. functions
now support *note with: 5be. statements for auto-closing of the file
descriptors.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou et Brian Curtin; bpo-7461(1) et
bpo-10554(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554


File: python.info,  Node: select<3>,  Next: gzip and zipfile,  Prev: popen,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.18 select
................

The *note select: c0. module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
*note PIPE_BUF: 11e9, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
guaranteed not to block when *note select.select(): d8f. says a pipe is
ready for writing.

     >>> import select
     >>> select.PIPE_BUF
     512

(Available on Unix systems.  Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862


File: python.info,  Node: gzip and zipfile,  Next: tarfile<9>,  Prev: select<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.19 gzip and zipfile
..........................

*note gzip.GzipFile: 410. now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
681. *note abstract base class: 1195. (except for ‘truncate()’).  It
also has a *note peek(): 11eb. method and supports unseekable as well as
zero-padded file objects.

The *note gzip: 66. module also gains the *note compress(): 62b. and
*note decompress(): 11ec. functions for easier in-memory compression and
decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as *note
bytes: 1bd. before compressing and decompressing:

     >>> import gzip
     >>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
     >>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
     >>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
     >>> len(b)
     89
     >>> c = gzip.compress(b)
     >>> len(c)
     77
     >>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
     'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in bpo-3488(1); and by Antoine Pitrou,
Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in bpo-9962(2), bpo-1675951(3), bpo-7471(4)
and bpo-2846(5).)

Also, the *note zipfile.ZipExtFile: 411. class was reworked internally
to represent files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is
significantly faster and can be wrapped in an *note io.BufferedReader:
11ed. object for more speedups.  It also solves an issue where
interleaved calls to 'read' and 'readline' gave the wrong results.

(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<9>,  Next: hashlib<7>,  Prev: gzip and zipfile,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.20 tarfile
.................

The *note TarFile: 11ef. class can now be used as a context manager.  In
addition, its *note add(): be3. method has a new option, 'filter', that
controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file
metadata to be edited.

The new 'filter' option replaces the older, less flexible 'exclude'
parameter which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional 'filter'
parameter needs to be a *note keyword argument: d02.  The user-supplied
filter function accepts a *note TarInfo: 11f0. object and returns an
updated *note TarInfo: 11f0. object, or if it wants the file to be
excluded, the function can return ‘None’:

     >>> import tarfile, glob

     >>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
     ...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
     ...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
     ...         return tarinfo

     >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
     ...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
     ...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
     ...     tf.list()
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in
bpo-6856(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<7>,  Next: ast<5>,  Prev: tarfile<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.21 'hashlib'
...................

The *note hashlib: 67. module has two new constant attributes listing
the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations
and those available on the current implementation:

     >>> import hashlib

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
     {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_available
     {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
     'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
     'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
     'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

(Suggested by Carl Chenet in bpo-7418(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418


File: python.info,  Node: ast<5>,  Next: os<13>,  Prev: hashlib<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.22 ast
.............

The *note ast: 8. module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for
safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax.
The *note ast.literal_eval(): c08. function serves as a secure
alternative to the builtin *note eval(): 17e. function which is easily
abused.  Python 3.2 adds *note bytes: 1bd. and *note set: 5c5. literals
to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
dicts, sets, booleans, and ‘None’.

     >>> from ast import literal_eval

     >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

     >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: os<13>,  Next: shutils<8>,  Prev: ast<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.23 'os'
..............

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and
environment variables.  The *note os: a0. module provides two new
functions, *note fsencode(): c45. and *note fsdecode(): c44, for
encoding and decoding filenames:

     >>> import os
     >>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
     >>> os.fsencode(filename)
     b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
environment.  If so, the *note os.supports_bytes_environ: 11f4. constant
will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use
the new *note os.getenvb(): 11f5. function or use *note os.environb:
11f6. which is a bytes version of *note os.environ: 1199.

(Contribution par Victor Stinner)


File: python.info,  Node: shutils<8>,  Next: sqlite3<11>,  Prev: os<13>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.24 ‘shutils’
...................

The *note shutil.copytree(): a19. function has two new options:

   * 'ignore_dangling_symlinks': when ‘symlinks=False’ so that the
     function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink
     itself.  This option will silence the error raised if the file
     doesn't exist.

   * 'copy_function': is a callable that will be used to copy files.
     *note shutil.copy2(): a4b. is used by default.

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)

In addition, the *note shutil: c4. module now supports *note archiving
operations: 11f8. for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering
additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or
custom formats).

The principal functions are *note make_archive(): 49f. and *note
unpack_archive(): 457.  By default, both operate on the current
directory (which can be set by *note os.chdir(): 5fa.) and on any
sub-directories.  The archive filename needs to be specified with a full
pathname.  The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are
left unchanged).

     >>> import shutil, pprint

     >>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
     >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
     ...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
     >>> f                                   # show the name of archive
     '/var/backup/mydata.zip'
     >>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
     >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

     >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
     [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
      ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
      ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
      ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

     >>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
     ...     name='xz',
     ...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
     ...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
     ...     description='xz compression'
     ... )

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<11>,  Next: html<3>,  Prev: shutils<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.25 ‘sqlite3’
...................

The *note sqlite3: ce. module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It
has two new capabilities.

   * The ‘sqlite3.Connection.in_transit’ attribute is true if there is
     an active transaction for uncommitted changes.

   * The *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 82a. and
     *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4a4. methods allows you
     to load SQLite extensions from ".so" files.  One well-known
     extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; bpo-8845(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845


File: python.info,  Node: html<3>,  Next: socket<11>,  Prev: sqlite3<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.26 html
..............

A new *note html: 6a. module was introduced with only a single function,
*note escape(): ff9, which is used for escaping reserved characters from
HTML markup:

     >>> import html
     >>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
     'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'


File: python.info,  Node: socket<11>,  Next: ssl<12>,  Prev: html<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.27 'socket'
..................

The *note socket: cb. module has two new improvements.

   * Socket objects now have a *note detach(): 11fc. method which puts
     the socket into closed state without actually closing the
     underlying file descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for
     other purposes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524(1).)

   * *note socket.create_connection(): 65f. now supports the context
     management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error:
     1040. exceptions and to close the socket when done.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<12>,  Next: nntp,  Prev: socket<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.28 ‘ssl’
...............

The *note ssl: cf. module added a number of features to satisfy common
requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

   * A new class, *note SSLContext: 291, serves as a container for
     persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates,
     private keys, and various other options.  It includes a *note
     wrap_socket(): 511. for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.

   * A new function, ‘ssl.match_hostname()’, supports server identity
     verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules
     of HTTPS (from RFC 2818(1)) which are also suitable for other
     protocols.

   * The *note ssl.wrap_socket(): 511. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument.  The 'ciphers' string lists the allowed
     encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL
     documentation(2).

   * When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the *note ssl: cf.
     module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS
     protocol, allowing multiple "virtual hosts" using different
     certificates on a single IP port.  This extension is only supported
     in client mode, and is activated by passing the 'server_hostname'
     argument to *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511.

   * Various options have been added to the *note ssl: cf. module, such
     as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 825. which disables the insecure and obsolete
     SSLv2 protocol.

   * The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest
     algorithms.  If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are
     reported as an "unknown algorithm" error.

   * The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the
     module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 11fe. (a string),
     *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 11ff. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 1200. (an integer).

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8850(3), bpo-1589(4), bpo-8322(5),
bpo-5639(6), bpo-4870(7), bpo-8484(8), and bpo-8321(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html

   (2) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321


File: python.info,  Node: nntp,  Next: certificates,  Prev: ssl<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.29 nntp
..............

The ‘nntplib’ module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and
text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These improvements break
compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly
dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using
‘nntplib.NNTP_SSL’) and explicit (using ‘nntplib.NNTP.starttls()’) TLS
has also been added.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9360(1), et Andrew Vant,
bpo-1926(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926


File: python.info,  Node: certificates,  Next: imaplib<4>,  Prev: nntp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.30 certificates
......................

*note http.client.HTTPSConnection: b31, *note
urllib.request.HTTPSHandler: 1203. and *note urllib.request.urlopen():
290. now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate
checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in
public uses of HTTPS.

(Ajouté par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<4>,  Next: http client<4>,  Prev: certificates,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.31 'imaplib'
...................

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added
through the new *note imaplib.IMAP4.starttls: 1205. method.

(Contribution par Lorenzo M. Catucci et Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4471(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471


File: python.info,  Node: http client<4>,  Next: unittest<11>,  Prev: imaplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.32 http.client
.....................

There were a number of small API improvements in the *note http.client:
6e. module.  The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer
supported and the 'strict' parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The *note HTTPConnection: b30. and *note HTTPSConnection: b31. classes
now have a 'source_address' parameter for a (host, port) tuple
indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
*note HTTPSConnection: b31.

The *note request(): c99. method on connection objects allowed an
optional 'body' argument so that a *note file object: 11a2. could be
used to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the 'body'
argument now also accepts an *note iterable: 1207. object so long as it
includes an explicit ‘Content-Length’ header.  This extended interface
is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
*note set_tunnel(): 1208. method that sets the host and port for HTTP
Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of *note http.server: 71, the HTTP client library
now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was
already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is
consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic.  (See work by Armin
Ronacher in bpo-10980(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<11>,  Next: random<5>,  Prev: http client<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.33 unittest
..................

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test
discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive
prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test
failures, and better method names.

   * The command-line call ‘python -m unittest’ can now accept file
     paths instead of module names for running specific tests
     (bpo-10620(1)).  The new test discovery can find tests within
     packages, locating any test importable from the top-level
     directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with the ‘-t’
     option, a pattern for matching files with ‘-p’, and a directory to
     start discovery with ‘-s’:

          $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
     *note unittest.TestCase: 439. class can now be instantiated without
     arguments:

          >>> from unittest import TestCase
          >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note unittest: 105. module has two new methods, *note
     assertWarns(): 1146. and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1147. to verify
     that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:

          with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
              legacy_function('XYZ')

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9754(2).)

     Another new method, *note assertCountEqual(): 120a. is used to
     compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are
     equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number
     of occurrences regardless of order):

          def test_anagram(self):
              self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce
     meaningful diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the
     failure is recorded along with a diff of the output.  This is
     especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs.
     However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new
     *note maxDiff: 120b. attribute that sets maximum length of diffs
     displayed.

   * In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number
     of clean-ups.

     For example, *note assertRegex(): 51a. is the new name for
     ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ which was misnamed because the test uses
     *note re.search(): 120c, not *note re.match(): 120d.  Other methods
     using regular expressions are now named using short form "Regex" in
     preference to "Regexp" - this matches the names used in other
     unittest implementations, matches Python's old name for the *note
     re: b8. module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)

   * To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
     deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

          Old Name                            Preferred Name
                                              
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
          ‘assert_()’                         *note assertTrue(): 513.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertEquals()’                    *note assertEqual(): 515.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotEquals()’                 *note assertNotEqual(): 516.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertAlmostEquals()’              *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals()’           *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 518.
                                              

     Likewise, the ‘TestCase.fail*’ methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are
     expected to be removed in Python 3.3.

     (Contribution par Ezio Melotti; bpo-9424(3))

   * The ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ method was deprecated because it
     was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
     created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
     ‘TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})’
     would fail.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424


File: python.info,  Node: random<5>,  Next: poplib<4>,  Prev: unittest<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.34 'random'
..................

The integer methods in the *note random: b7. module now do a better job
of producing uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed
selections with ‘int(n*random())’ which had a slight bias whenever 'n'
was not a power of two.  Now, multiple selections are made from a range
up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls
within the range ‘0 <= x < n’.  The functions and methods affected are
*note randrange(): 858, *note randint(): 120f, *note choice(): 1210,
*note shuffle(): 733. and *note sample(): 732.

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9025(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<4>,  Next: asyncore<2>,  Prev: random<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.35 'poplib'
..................

*note POP3_SSL: 914. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a
*note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object allowing bundling SSL configuration
options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
long-lived) structure.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8807(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore<2>,  Next: tempfile<5>,  Prev: poplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.36 asyncore
..................

‘asyncore.dispatcher’ now provides a ‘handle_accepted()’ method
returning a ‘(sock, addr)’ pair which is called when a connection has
actually been established with a new remote endpoint.  This is supposed
to be used as a replacement for old ‘handle_accept()’ and avoids the
user to call ‘accept()’ directly.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-6706(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<5>,  Next: inspect<10>,  Prev: asyncore<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.37 tempfile
..................

The *note tempfile: df. module has a new context manager, *note
TemporaryDirectory: 1214. which provides easy deterministic cleanup of
temporary directories:

     with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
         print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

(Contribution par Neil Schemenauer et Nick Coghlan; bpo-5178(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<10>,  Next: pydoc<6>,  Prev: tempfile<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.38 'inspect'
...................

   * The *note inspect: 7d. module has a new function *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 1216. to easily identify the current state of
     a generator-iterator:

          >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
          >>> def gen():
          ...     yield 'demo'
          ...
          >>> g = gen()
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CREATED'
          >>> next(g)
          'demo'
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_SUSPENDED'
          >>> next(g, None)
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CLOSED'

     (Contribution par Rodolpho Eckhardt et Nick Coghlan; bpo-10220(1).)

   * To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic
     attribute, the *note inspect: 7d. module has a new function, *note
     getattr_static(): 480.  Unlike *note hasattr(): 4be, this is a true
     read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is
     searching:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         print('Running')
          ...         return 10
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> getattr(a, 'f')
          Running
          10
          >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
          <property object at 0x1022bd788>

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<6>,  Next: dis<5>,  Prev: inspect<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.39 'pydoc'
.................

The *note pydoc: b4. module now provides a much-improved web server
interface, as well as a new command-line option ‘-b’ to automatically
open a browser window to display that server:

     $ pydoc3.2 -b

(Contribution par Ron Adam; bpo-2001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001


File: python.info,  Node: dis<5>,  Next: dbm<7>,  Prev: pydoc<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.40 dis
.............

The *note dis: 38. module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
*note code_info(): 1219. and *note show_code(): f19.  Both provide
detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object.  The former returns a string and the
latter prints it:

     >>> import dis, random
     >>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
     Name:              choice
     Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
     Argument count:    2
     Kw-only arguments: 0
     Number of locals:  3
     Stack size:        11
     Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
     Constants:
        0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
        1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
     Names:
        0: _randbelow
        1: len
        2: ValueError
        3: IndexError
     Variable names:
        0: self
        1: seq
        2: i

In addition, the *note dis(): b24. function now accepts string arguments
so that the common idiom ‘dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))’ can be shortened
to ‘dis(s)’:

     >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
       1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                   3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                   6 BINARY_MODULO
                   7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
                  13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
                  16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
                  19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
                  23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  26 BINARY_ADD
                  27 RETURN_VALUE
             >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                  34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
                  35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython
is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
under-the-hood.

(Contribution par Nick Coghlan; bpo-9147(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<7>,  Next: ctypes<3>,  Prev: dis<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.41 dbm
.............

All database modules now support the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

(Suggested by Ray Allen in bpo-9523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<3>,  Next: site<4>,  Prev: dbm<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.42 ctypes
................

A new type, *note ctypes.c_ssize_t: 121c. represents the C ‘ssize_t’
datatype.


File: python.info,  Node: site<4>,  Next: sysconfig<3>,  Prev: ctypes<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.43 ‘site’
................

The *note site: c6. module has three new functions useful for reporting
on the details of a given Python installation.

   * *note getsitepackages(): 121e. lists all global site-packages
     directories.

   * *note getuserbase(): 121f. reports on the user's base directory
     where data can be stored.

   * *note getusersitepackages(): 1220. reveals the user-specific
     site-packages directory path.

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getsitepackages()
     ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
      '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
      '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
     >>> site.getuserbase()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site's functionality is accessible directly from
the command-line:

     $ python -m site --user-base
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local
     $ python -m site --user-site
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages

(Contribution par Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<3>,  Next: pdb<8>,  Prev: site<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.44 ‘sysconfig’
.....................

The new *note sysconfig: da. module makes it straightforward to discover
installation paths and configuration variables that vary across
platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and
version information:

   * *note get_platform(): 1222. returning values like 'linux-i586' or
     'macosx-10.6-ppc'.

   * *note get_python_version(): 1223. returns a Python version string
     such as "3.2".

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one
of seven named schemes used by ‘distutils’.  Those include
'posix_prefix', 'posix_home', 'posix_user', 'nt', 'nt_user', 'os2',
'os2_home':

   * *note get_paths(): 1224. makes a dictionary containing installation
     paths for the current installation scheme.

   * *note get_config_vars(): 1017. returns a dictionary of platform
     specific variables.

There is also a convenient command-line interface:

     C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "win32"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "nt"

     Paths:
             data = "C:\Python32"
             include = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
             stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"

     Variables:
             BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
             BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             EXE = ".exe"
             INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
             LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             SO = ".pyd"
             VERSION = "32"
             abiflags = ""
             base = "C:\Python32"
             exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
             platbase = "C:\Python32"
             prefix = "C:\Python32"
             projectbase = "C:\Python32"
             py_version = "3.2"
             py_version_nodot = "32"
             py_version_short = "3.2"
             srcdir = "C:\Python32"
             userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"

(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<8>,  Next: configparser<5>,  Prev: sysconfig<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.45 'pdb'
...............

The *note pdb: a4. debugger module gained a number of usability
improvements:

   * ‘pdb.py’ now has a ‘-c’ option that executes commands as given in a
     ‘.pdbrc’ script file.

   * A ‘.pdbrc’ script file can contain ‘continue’ and ‘next’ commands
     that continue debugging.

   * The *note Pdb: 911. class constructor now accepts a 'nosigint'
     argument.

   * New commands: ‘l(list)’, ‘ll(long list)’ and ‘source’ for listing
     source code.

   * New commands: ‘display’ and ‘undisplay’ for showing or hiding the
     value of an expression if it has changed.

   * New command: ‘interact’ for starting an interactive interpreter
     containing the global and local names found in the current scope.

   * Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<5>,  Next: urllib parse<6>,  Prev: pdb<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.46 configparser
......................

The *note configparser: 22. module was modified to improve usability and
predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The
old ‘ConfigParser’ class was removed in favor of ‘SafeConfigParser’
which has in turn been renamed to *note ConfigParser: 1c3.  Support for
inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser()
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [DEFAULT]
     ... location = upper left
     ... visible = yes
     ... editable = no
     ... color = blue
     ...
     ... [main]
     ... title = Main Menu
     ... color = green
     ...
     ... [options]
     ... title = Options
     ... """)
     >>> parser['main']['color']
     'green'
     >>> parser['main']['editable']
     'no'
     >>> section = parser['options']
     >>> section['title']
     'Options'
     >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
     >>> section['title']
     'Options (editable: no)'

The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.

The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized.
Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment
prefixes, change the name of the 'DEFAULT' section or switch the
interpolation syntax.

There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional
interpolation handler *note ExtendedInterpolation: 70f.:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
     >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
     ...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [buildout]
     ... parts =
     ...   zope9
     ...   instance
     ... find-links =
     ...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
     ...
     ... [zope9]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
     ... location = /opt/zope
     ...
     ... [instance]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
     ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
     ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
     ... """)
     >>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
     '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
     >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance = parser['instance']
     >>> instance['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance['zope9-location']
     '/opt/zope'

A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for
specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for
get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.

(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<6>,  Next: mailbox,  Prev: configparser<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.47 urllib.parse
......................

A number of usability improvements were made for the *note urllib.parse:
109. module.

The *note urlparse(): 302. function now supports IPv6(1) addresses as
described in RFC 2732(2):

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
     ParseResult(scheme='http',
                 netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
                 path='/foo/',
                 params='',
                 query='',
                 fragment='')

The *note urldefrag(): 1228. function now returns a *note named tuple:
63b.:

     >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
     >>> r
     DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
     >>> r[0]
     'http://python.org/about/'
     >>> r.fragment
     'target'

And, the *note urlencode(): e80. function is now much more flexible,
accepting either a string or bytes type for the 'query' argument.  If it
is a string, then the 'safe', 'encoding', and 'error' parameters are
sent to *note quote_plus(): 1229. for encoding:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
     ...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
     ...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
     ...      encoding='latin-1')
     'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'

As detailed in *note Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes: 122a, all the *note
urllib.parse: 109. functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as
input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings.  If
ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types
will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/')
     ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
                      path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')

(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987(3),
bpo-5468(4), and bpo-9873(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox,  Next: turtledemo,  Prev: urllib parse<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.48 mailbox
.................

Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the *note mailbox: 8a.
module has been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox
had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages
are best represented with *note bytes: 1bd. because various parts of a
message may have different encodings.

The solution harnessed the *note email: 3b. package's binary support for
parsing arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a
number of API changes.

As expected, the *note add(): 122c. method for *note mailbox.Mailbox:
122d. objects now accepts binary input.

*note StringIO: f14. and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string
input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it
would fail when the email was processed in a later step.

There is also support for binary output.  The *note get_file(): 122e.
method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to
incorrectly set the file to text-mode).  There is also a new *note
get_bytes(): 122f. method that returns a *note bytes: 1bd.
representation of a message corresponding to a given 'key'.

It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API's *note
get_string(): 1230. method, but that approach is not very useful.
Instead, it is best to extract messages from a *note Message: 1231.
object or to load them from binary input.

(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode
Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo,  Prev: mailbox,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.49 turtledemo
....................

The demonstration code for the *note turtle: 100. module was moved from
the 'Demo' directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample
scripts with lively displays.  Being on *note sys.path: 3ab, it can now
be run directly from the command-line:

     $ python -m turtledemo

(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199


File: python.info,  Node: Fils d'exécution,  Next: Optimizations<6>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.10 Fils d'exécution
------------------------

   * The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running
     Python threads (generally known as the *note GIL: 158. or Global
     Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten.  Among the objectives were
     more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to
     lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls.  The notion
     of a "check interval" to allow thread switches has been abandoned
     and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds.  This
     parameter is tunable through *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 939.
     It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.

     Additional details about the implementation can be read from a
     python-dev mailing-list message(1) (however, "priority requests" as
     exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou)

   * Les verrous standards et récursifs acceptent désormais un argument
     optionnel 'timeout' à leur méthode *note acquire(): 685.
     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316(2)).

   * Pareillement, *note threading.Semaphore.acquire(): 1234. acquière
     un argument 'timeout' (Contribution par Torsten Landschoff;
     bpo-850728(3)).

   * Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by
     signals on platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python
     programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully
     killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing
     ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ in most shells).  (Contributed by Reid Kleckner;
     bpo-8844(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<6>,  Next: Unicode,  Prev: Fils d'exécution,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.11 Optimizations
---------------------

A number of small performance enhancements have been added:

   * Python's peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ‘x in {1,
     2, 3}’ as being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The
     optimizer recasts the *note set: 5c5. as a *note frozenset: 5c6.
     and stores the pre-built constant.

     Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start
     writing membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both
     semantically clear and operationally fast:

          extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
          if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
              handle(name)

     (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm;
     bpo-6690(1)).

   * Serializing and unserializing data using the *note pickle: a5.
     module is now several times faster.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the
     Unladen Swallow team in bpo-9410(2) and bpo-3873(3).)

   * The Timsort algorithm(4) used in *note list.sort(): bbf. and *note
     sorted(): bbe. now runs faster and uses less memory when called
     with a *note key function: df4.  Previously, every element of a
     list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key
     value associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and
     values are sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by
     the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating
     comparisons.

     (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915(5).)

   * JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is
     reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.
     Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the ‘sort_keys’
     argument is true.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-7451(6) and by Raymond
     Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-10314(7).)

   * Recursive locks (created with the *note threading.RLock(): 2dd.
     API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast
     as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their
     previous pure Python implementation.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3001(8).)

   * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the *note
     split(): e95, *note rsplit(): 1236, *note splitlines(): 1237. and
     *note replace(): 198. methods on *note bytes: 1bd, *note bytearray:
     52b. and *note str: 437. objects.  Likewise, the algorithm is also
     used by *note rfind(): e94, *note rindex(): 1238, *note rsplit():
     1236. and *note rpartition(): 1239.

     (Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622(9) and bpo-7462(10).)

   * Integer to string conversions now work two "digits" at a time,
     reducing the number of division and modulo operations.

     (bpo-6713(11) by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor
     Stinner.)

There were several other minor optimizations.  Set differencing now runs
faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress
Bennetts in bpo-8685(12)).  The ‘array.repeat()’ method has a faster
implementation (bpo-1569291(13) by Alexander Belopolsky).  The *note
BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709(14)
by Andrew Schaaf).  The *note operator.attrgetter(): e22. function has
been sped-up (bpo-10160(15) by Christos Georgiou).  And *note
ConfigParser: 1c3. loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113(16)
by Łukasz Langa).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode,  Next: Codecs,  Prev: Optimizations<6>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.12 Unicode
---------------

Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0(1).  The update to the standard
adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji(2) symbols which are
important for mobile phones.

In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties
for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric
character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers
while disqualifying the latter.  For more information, see Unicode
Character Database Changes(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes


File: python.info,  Node: Codecs,  Next: Documentation,  Prev: Unicode,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.13 Codecs
--------------

Support was added for 'cp720' Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979(1)).

MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument.  In the
default strict mode, it raises an *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. when it
encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an *note UnicodeEncodeError:
664. for an unencodable character.

The MBCS codec supports ‘'strict'’ and ‘'ignore'’ error handlers for
decoding, and ‘'strict'’ and ‘'replace'’ for encoding.

To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ‘'ignore'’ handler for
decoding and the ‘'replace'’ handler for encoding.

On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ‘'utf-8'’ rather
than the locale encoding.

By default, *note tarfile: dd. uses ‘'utf-8'’ encoding on Windows
(instead of ‘'mbcs'’) and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler on all
operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation,  Next: IDLE,  Prev: Codecs,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.14 Documentation
---------------------

The documentation continues to be improved.

   * A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy
     sections such as *note Fonctions natives: 123d.  In the case of
     *note itertools: 80, the links are accompanied by tables of
     cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog
     without having to read all of the docs.

   * In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct
     to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links
     to the latest version of the source code.  For example, the *note
     functools: 5e. module documentation has a quick link at the top
     labeled:

          'Source code' Lib/functools.py(1).

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale(2).)

   * The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular,
     *note re: b8. module has an extensive section, *note Exemples
     d'expressions rationnelles: 123e.  Likewise, the *note itertools:
     80. module continues to be updated with new *note Recettes
     itertools: 123f.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module now has an auxiliary implementation
     in pure Python.  No functionality was changed.  This just provides
     an easier-to-read alternate implementation.

     (Contribution par Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-9528(3).)

   * The unmaintained ‘Demo’ directory has been removed.  Some demos
     were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the
     ‘Tools/demo’ directory, and others were removed altogether.

     (Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-7962(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/functools.py

   (2) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE,  Next: Code Repository,  Prev: Documentation,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.15 IDLE
------------

   * The format menu now has an option to clean source files by
     stripping trailing whitespace.

     (Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5150(1).)

   * IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa
     AquaTk.

     (Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren;
     bpo-6075(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075


File: python.info,  Node: Code Repository,  Next: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Prev: IDLE,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.16 Code Repository
-----------------------

In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at
‘https://svn.python.org’ there is now a Mercurial(1) repository at
‘https://hg.python.org/’.

After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the
primary repository.  This distributed version control system should make
it easier for members of the community to create and share external
changesets.  See PEP 385(2) for details.

To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start(3)
or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/

   (3) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart

   (4) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 2,  Prev: Code Repository,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.17 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The 'idle', 'pydoc' and '2to3' scripts are now installed with a
     version-specific suffix on ‘make altinstall’ (bpo-10679(1)).

   * The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and
     return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow
     unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and
     others).  A visible difference in Python is that *note
     unicodedata.numeric(): 1243. now returns the correct value for
     large code points, and *note repr(): 7e9. may consider more
     characters as printable.

     (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D'Arc;
     bpo-5127(2).)

   * Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers
     (which are detected by the configure script).  They can still be
     disabled selectively by specifying ‘--without-computed-gotos’.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9203(3).)

   * The option ‘--with-wctype-functions’ was removed.  The built-in
     unicode database is now used for all functions.

     (Contribution par Amaury Forgeot D'Arc; bpo-9210(4).)

   * Hash values are now values of a new type, *note Py_hash_t: 1244,
     which is defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they
     were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still
     only 32 bits long.  As a result of this fix, *note set: 5c5. and
     *note dict: 253. can now hold more than ‘2**32’ entries on builds
     with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but
     their performance degraded catastrophically).

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-9778(5).)

   * A new macro ‘Py_VA_COPY’ copies the state of the variable argument
     list.  It is equivalent to C99 'va_copy' but available on all
     Python platforms (bpo-2443(6)).

   * A new C API function ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ allows an embedded
     interpreter to set *note sys.argv: 1245. without also modifying
     *note sys.path: 3ab. (bpo-5753(7)).

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available in macro form.  The
     function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility
     reasons, is now removed - the macro was introduced in 1997
     (bpo-8276(8)).

   * There is a new function *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1246.
     which is analogous to *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1247.  They
     both serve to convert Python *note int: 254. into a native
     fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the
     conversion won't fit (bpo-7767(9)).

   * The *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 1248. function now
     returns 'not equal' if the Python string is 'NUL' terminated.

   * There is a new function *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1249.
     that is like *note PyErr_NewException(): 124a. but allows a
     docstring to be specified.  This lets C exceptions have the same
     self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts
     (bpo-7033(10)).

   * When compiled with the ‘--with-valgrind’ option, the pymalloc
     allocator will be automatically disabled when running under
     Valgrind.  This gives improved memory leak detection when running
     under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times
     (bpo-2422(11)).

   * Removed the ‘O?’ format from the 'PyArg_Parse' functions.  The
     format is no longer used and it had never been documented
     (bpo-8837(12)).

There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the
Misc/NEWS(13) file for a complete list.

Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
Mac/BuildScript/README.txt(14) for details.  For users running a
32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac
OS X 10.6.  Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative
such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9(15).  See
‘https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/’ for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS

   (14) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt

   (15) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 2,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 2

1.12.18 Portage vers Python 3.2
-------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note configparser: 22. module has a number of clean-ups.  The
     major change is to replace the old ‘ConfigParser’ class with
     long-standing preferred alternative ‘SafeConfigParser’.  In
     addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:

        * The interpolation syntax is now validated on *note get():
          124c. and *note set(): 124d. operations.  In the default
          interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are
          valid: ‘%(name)s’ and ‘%%’, the latter being an escaped
          percent sign.

        * The *note set(): 124d. and *note add_section(): 124e. methods
          now verify that values are actual strings.  Formerly,
          unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.

        * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise
          either *note DuplicateSectionError: 124f. or *note
          DuplicateOptionError: 1250.  Formerly, duplicates would
          silently overwrite a previous entry.

        * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ';'
          character can be safely used in values.

        * Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for ';' or '#' to
          appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to
          be interpolated.  This keeps comment prefix characters in
          values from being mistaken as comments.

        * ‘""’ is now a valid value and is no longer automatically
          converted to an empty string.  For empty strings, use ‘"option
          ="’ in a line.

   * The ‘nntplib’ module was reworked extensively, meaning that its
     APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.

   * Les objets *note bytearray: 52b. ne peuvent plus être utilisés en
     tant que nom de fichiers : ils doivent être convertis en *note
     bytes: 1bd. à la place.

   * The ‘array.tostring()’ and ‘array.fromstring()’ have been renamed
     to *note array.tobytes(): 1251. and *note array.frombytes(): 1252.
     for clarity.  The old names have been deprecated.  (See
     bpo-8990(1).)

   * Les fonctions ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ :

        * Le format "t#" a été supprimé : utiliser "s#" ou "s*" à la
          place

        * Les formats "w" et "w#" ont été supprimés : utiliser "w*" à la
          place

   * The ‘PyCObject’ type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
     opaque C pointers in Python objects, the *note PyCapsule: 1253. API
     should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface
     for passing typing safety information and a less complicated
     signature for calling a destructor.

   * The ‘sys.setfilesystemencoding()’ function was removed because it
     had a flawed design.

   * The *note random.seed(): 1254. function and method now salt string
     seeds with an sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version
     of 'seed' in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the
     'version' argument to '1', ‘random.seed(s, version=1)’.

   * The previously deprecated ‘string.maketrans()’ function has been
     removed in favor of the static methods *note bytes.maketrans():
     1255. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 1256.  This change solves
     the confusion around which types were supported by the *note
     string: d2. module.  Now, *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd, and
     *note bytearray: 52b. each have their own 'maketrans' and
     'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the
     appropriate type.

     (Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(2).)

   * The previously deprecated ‘contextlib.nested()’ function has been
     removed in favor of a plain *note with: 5be. statement which can
     accept multiple context managers.  The latter technique is faster
     (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing
     multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:

          with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
              for line in infile:
                  if '<critical>' in line:
                      outfile.write(line)

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(3).)

   * *note struct.pack(): 1257. now only allows bytes for the ‘s’ string
     pack code.  Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly
     encode them to bytes using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it
     made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a
     variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length
     segment of a structure.

     Code such as ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)’ should be
     rewritten with to use bytes instead of text,
     ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)’.

     (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner;
     bpo-10783(4).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. class now raises an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError: 1258. when a parse fails.
     Previously it raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 1259.

   * The new, longer *note str(): 437. value on floats may break
     doctests which rely on the old output format.

   * In *note subprocess.Popen: 197, the default value for 'close_fds'
     is now ‘True’ under Unix; under Windows, it is ‘True’ if the three
     standard streams are set to ‘None’, ‘False’ otherwise.  Previously,
     'close_fds' was always ‘False’ by default, which produced difficult
     to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would
     leak into the child process.

   * Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from *note
     urllib.request: 10a. and *note http.client: 6e.  Such support is
     still present on the server side (in *note http.server: 71.).

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-10711(5).)

   * SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise *note socket.timeout: 820.
     when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic *note SSLError: 125a.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-10272(6).)

   * The misleading functions ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ have been officially deprecated.  The
     thread-state aware APIs (such as *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f.
     and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0.) should be used instead.

   * Due to security risks, ‘asyncore.handle_accept()’ has been
     deprecated, and a new function, ‘asyncore.handle_accepted()’, was
     added to replace it.

     (Contribution par Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-6706(7).)

   * Due to the new *note GIL: 158. implementation,
     ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 89b. anymore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (3) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 1,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 3 0,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 2,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.13 Nouveautés de Python 3.1
=============================


Auteur: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009.

* Menu:

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<13>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Portage vers Python 3.1: Portage vers Python 3 1.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new
*note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7. class has been introduced.

The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing
entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an
entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.  The *note configparser: 22. module uses them by default.  This
lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in
their original order.  The '_asdict()' method for *note
collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. now returns an ordered dictionary with
the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
The *note json: 81. module is being built-out with an
'object_pairs_hook' to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 372(2) - Ordered Dictionaries

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.
     Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger.

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be
used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

     >>> # regular unsorted dictionary
     >>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

     >>> # dictionary sorted by key
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
     OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by value
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are
deleted.  But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end
and the sort is not maintained.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Next: Autres changements au langage<13>,  Prev: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.2 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

The built-in *note format(): 60c. function and the *note str.format():
60e. method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale
aware way to format a number with a thousands separator.  That provides
a way to humanize a program's output, improving its professional
appearance and readability:

     >>> format(1234567, ',d')
     '1,234,567'
     >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
     '1,234,567.89'
     >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
     '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
     >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
     '1,234,567.89'

The supported types are *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note complex:
2ed. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.

Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware
applications should use the existing 'n' format specifier which already
has some support for thousands separators.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
     Mark Dickinson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<13>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.3 Autres changements au langage
------------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry
     in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised
     patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note int(): 254. type gained a ‘bit_length’ method that
     returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in
     binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(37)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond
     Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-3439(2).)

   * The fields in *note format(): 60c. strings can now be automatically
     numbered:

          >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
          'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'

     Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
     ‘'Sir {0} of {1}'’.

     (Contribution par Eric Smith; bpo-5237(3).)

   * The ‘string.maketrans()’ function is deprecated and is replaced by
     new static methods, *note bytes.maketrans(): 1255. and *note
     bytearray.maketrans(): 1256.  This change solves the confusion
     around which types were supported by the *note string: d2. module.
     Now, *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd, and *note bytearray: 52b.
     each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with
     intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

     (Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(4).)

   * The syntax of the *note with: 5be. statement now allows multiple
     context managers in a single statement:

          >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
          ...     for line in infile:
          ...         if '<critical>' in line:
          ...             outfile.write(line)

     With the new syntax, the ‘contextlib.nested()’ function is no
     longer needed and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(5).)

   * ‘round(x, n)’ now returns an integer if 'x' is an integer.
     Previously it returned a float:

          >>> round(1123, -2)
          1100

     (Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4707(6).)

   * Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest
     floating-point representation that doesn't change its value.  This
     should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary
     floating-point numbers.

     The significance is easily seen with a number like ‘1.1’ which does
     not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there
     is no exact equivalent, an expression like ‘float('1.1')’ evaluates
     to the nearest representable value which is ‘0x1.199999999999ap+0’
     in hex or ‘1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625’
     in decimal.  That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent
     floating-point calculations.

     What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python
     used a simple approach.  The value of ‘repr(1.1)’ was computed as
     ‘format(1.1, '.17g')’ which evaluated to ‘'1.1000000000000001'’.
     The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754
     guarantees to assure that ‘eval(repr(1.1))’ would round-trip
     exactly to its original value.  The disadvantage is that many
     people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic
     limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a
     problem with Python itself).

     The new algorithm for ‘repr(1.1)’ is smarter and returns ‘'1.1'’.
     Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations
     (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and
     returns the shortest representation.

     The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when
     possible, but it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is
     still the case that ‘1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3’ even though the
     representations may suggest otherwise.

     The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying
     floating-point implementation.  If the required features are not
     found, the old algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text
     pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old
     algorithm.

     (Contribution par Eric Smith et Mark Dickinson; bpo-1580(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (5) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<7>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<13>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.4 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

   * Added a *note collections.Counter: 107d. class to support
     convenient counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:

          >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
          Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     (Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(1).)

   * Added a new module, *note tkinter.ttk: f8. for access to the Tk
     themed widget set.  The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the
     extent possible, the code implementing a widget's behavior from the
     code implementing its appearance.

     (Contribution par Guilherme Polo; bpo-2983(2).)

   * The *note gzip.GzipFile: 410. and *note bz2.BZ2File: 853. classes
     now support the context management protocol:

          >>> # Automatically close file after writing
          >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
          ...     f.write(b"xxx")

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou)

   * The *note decimal: 36. module now supports methods for creating a
     decimal object from a binary *note float: 2ec.  The conversion is
     exact but can sometimes be surprising:

          >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
          Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

     The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
     stored for '1.1'.  The fraction has many digits because '1.1'
     cannot be exactly represented in binary.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)

   * The *note itertools: 80. module grew two new functions.  The *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1261. function is one of
     four for generating combinatorics including permutations and
     Cartesian products.  The *note itertools.compress(): 1262. function
     mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing *note
     itertools.count(): 1263. function now has an optional 'step'
     argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including
     *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.:

          >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
          ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']

          >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
          [2, 3, 5, 7]

          >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
          >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
          [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. now supports a keyword
     argument 'rename' which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically
     converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is
     useful when the field names are being created by an external source
     such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:

          >>> query = input()
          SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept

          >>> cursor.execute(query)
          >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
          >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
          >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
          [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
           UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
           UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]

     (Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(3).)

   * The *note re.sub(): 2a0, *note re.subn(): 2a1. and *note
     re.split(): 29f. functions now accept a flags parameter.

     (Contributed by Gregory Smith.)

   * The *note logging: 86. module now implements a simple *note
     logging.NullHandler: 1264. class for applications that are not
     using logging but are calling library code that does.  Setting-up a
     null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as "No handlers
     could be found for logger foo":

          >>> h = logging.NullHandler()
          >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)

     (Contribution par Vinay Sajip ; bpo-4384(4)).

   * The *note runpy: bd. module which supports the ‘-m’ command line
     switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and
     executing a ‘__main__’ submodule when a package name is supplied.

     (Contribution par Andi Vajda; bpo-4195(5).)

   * The *note pdb: a4. module can now access and display source code
     loaded via *note zipimport: 131. (or any other conformant PEP
     302(6) loader).

     (Contribution par Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-4201(7).)

   * *note functools.partial: 40a. objects can now be pickled.

     (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by Jack
     Diederich; bpo-5228(8).)

   * Add *note pydoc: b4. help topics for symbols so that ‘help('@')’
     works as expected in the interactive environment.

     (Contribution par David Laban; bpo-4739(9).)

   * The *note unittest: 105. module now supports skipping individual
     tests or classes of tests.  And it supports marking a test as an
     expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn't
     be counted as a failure on a TestResult:

          class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):

              @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
              def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
                  ...

              @unittest.expectedFailure
              def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
                  ...

     Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context
     managers using the *note with: 5be. statement:

          def test_division_by_zero(self):
              with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                  x / 0

     In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
     *note assertSetEqual(): 1265, *note assertDictEqual(): 1266,
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’, *note assertListEqual(): 1267, *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 1268, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 1269, *note
     assertRaisesRegexp(): 51b, *note assertIsNone(): 126a, and *note
     assertIsNotNone(): 126b.

     (Contribution par Benjamin Peterson et Antoine Pitrou)

   * The *note io: 7e. module has three new constants for the *note
     seek(): 126c. method: *note SEEK_SET: 126d, *note SEEK_CUR: 126e,
     and *note SEEK_END: 126f.

   * The *note sys.version_info: 68d. tuple is now a named tuple:

          >>> sys.version_info
          sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)

     (Contribution par Ross Ligh; bpo-4285(10).)

   * The ‘nntplib’ and *note imaplib: 73. modules now support IPv6.

     (Contribution par Derek Morr; bpo-1655(11) et bpo-1664(12))

   * The *note pickle: a5. module has been adapted for better
     interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or
     lower.  The reorganization of the standard library changed the
     formal reference for many objects.  For example, ‘__builtin__.set’
     in Python 2 is called ‘builtins.set’ in Python 3.  This change
     confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
     Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler
     will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and
     dumping.  This remapping is turned-on by default but can be
     disabled with the 'fix_imports' option:

          >>> s = {1, 2, 3}
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
          b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
          b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'

     An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that
     protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won't be readable with
     Python 3.0.  The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used
     when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it
     doesn't attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x.

     (Contribution par Alexandre Vassalotti et Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-6137(13).)

   * A new module, *note importlib: 76. was added.  It provides a
     complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the
     *note import: 5ce. statement and its counterpart, the *note
     __import__(): 8c3. function.  It represents a substantial step
     forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place
     during imports.

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<7>,  Next: IDLE<2>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.5 Optimizations
--------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116(1)) was mostly written
     in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in
     Python 3.0.  In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely
     rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at
     hand.  The pure Python version is still available for
     experimentation purposes through the ‘_pyio’ module.

     (Contribution par Amaury Forgeot d'Arc et Antoine Pitrou)

   * Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only
     untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector.  This
     can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage
     collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their
     particular use of datatypes.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).)

   * Enabling a configure option named ‘--with-computed-gotos’ on
     compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
     evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which
     gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler,
     and the benchmark.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou ainsi qu’un certain nombre
     d’autres participants ; bpo-4753(3)).

   * The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
     faster.

     (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou et Amaury Forgeot d'Arc;
     bpo-4868(4).)

   * The *note json: 81. module now has a C extension to substantially
     improve its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that
     json works only with *note str: 437, not with *note bytes: 1bd.
     That change makes the module closely match the JSON
     specification(5) which is defined in terms of Unicode.

     (Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine
     Pitrou and Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4136(6).)

   * Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.
     This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller.

     (Contribution par Jake McGuire et Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5084(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868

   (5) https://json.org/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<2>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Prev: Optimizations<7>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.6 IDLE
-----------

   * IDLE's format menu now provides an option to strip trailing
     whitespace from a source file.

     (Contribution par Roger D. Serwy; bpo-5150(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 1,  Prev: IDLE<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.7 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * Integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in
     base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.  Previously,
     they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base ‘2**30’ gives
     significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
     benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
     the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base
     ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option
     ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there's a new *note sys.int_info: 1273. that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.int_info
          sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(1).)

   * The *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1274. function now handles a
     negative 'pylong' by raising *note OverflowError: 86f. instead of
     *note TypeError: 525.

     (Contribution par Mark Dickinson et Lisandro Dalcrin; bpo-5175(2))

   * Deprecated ‘PyNumber_Int()’.  Use *note PyNumber_Long(): a57.
     instead.

     (Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4910(3))

   * Added a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1275. function to
     replace the deprecated functions ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and
     ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’.

     (Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-5914(4))

   * Added *note PyCapsule: 1253. as a replacement for the ‘PyCObject’
     API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well
     defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less
     complicated signature for calling a destructor.  The old type had a
     problematic API and is now deprecated.

     (Contribution par Larry Hastings; bpo-5630(5))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 1,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 1

1.13.8 Portage vers Python 3.1
------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The new floating-point string representations can break existing
     doctests.  For example:

          def e():
              '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.

              >>> e()
              2.7182818284590451

              '''
              return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))

          doctest.testmod()

          **********************************************************************
          Failed example:
              e()
          Expected:
              2.7182818284590451
          Got:
              2.718281828459045
          **********************************************************************

   * The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or
     lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One
     solution is to use protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the
     'fix_imports' option to ‘False’.  See the discussion above for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 3 0,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 7,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 1,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.14 Nouveautés de Python 3.0
=============================


Auteur: Guido van Rossum

This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
Python 3.0, also known as "Python 3000" or "Py3K", is the first ever
'intentionally backwards incompatible' Python release.  Python 3.0 was
released on December 3, 2008.  There are more changes than in a typical
release, and more that are important for all Python users.
Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you'll find that Python
really hasn't changed all that much - by and large, we're mostly fixing
well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or
the many PEPs referenced in the text.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature,
PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note
that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
have been.  As always for a new release, the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
every small thing that was changed.

* Menu:

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Performances::
* Portage vers Python 3.0: Portage vers Python 3 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Next: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.1 Common Stumbling Blocks
------------------------------

This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up
if you're used to Python 2.5.

* Menu:

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.


File: python.info,  Node: Print Is A Function,  Next: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.1 Print Is A Function
............................

The ‘print’ statement has been replaced with a *note print(): f62.
function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
of the old ‘print’ statement ( PEP 3105(1)).  Examples:

     Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
     New: print("The answer is", 2*2)

     Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
     New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline

     Old: print              # Prints a newline
     New: print()            # You must call the function!

     Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
     New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)

     Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
     New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!

You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:

     print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")

which produces:

     There are <4294967296> possibilities!

Note:

   * The *note print(): f62. function doesn't support the "softspace"
     feature of the old ‘print’ statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
     ‘print "A\n", "B"’ would write ‘"A\nB\n"’; but in Python 3.0,
     ‘print("A\n", "B")’ writes ‘"A\n B\n"’.

   * Initially, you'll be finding yourself typing the old ‘print x’ a
     lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
     ‘print(x)’ instead!

   * When using the ‘2to3’ source-to-source conversion tool, all ‘print’
     statements are automatically converted to *note print(): f62.
     function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Next: Ordering Comparisons,  Prev: Print Is A Function,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.2 Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
.............................................

Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:

   * *note dict: 253. methods *note dict.keys(): 7b9, *note
     dict.items(): 7bb. and *note dict.values(): 7ba. return "views"
     instead of lists.  For example, this no longer works: ‘k =
     d.keys(); k.sort()’.  Use ‘k = sorted(d)’ instead (this works in
     Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient).

   * Also, the ‘dict.iterkeys()’, ‘dict.iteritems()’ and
     ‘dict.itervalues()’ methods are no longer supported.

   * *note map(): 850. and *note filter(): 851. return iterators.  If
     you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal
     length, a quick fix is to wrap *note map(): 850. in *note list():
     5fe, e.g.  ‘list(map(...))’, but a better fix is often to use a
     list comprehension (especially when the original code uses *note
     lambda: 127c.), or rewriting the code so it doesn't need a list at
     all.  Particularly tricky is *note map(): 850. invoked for the side
     effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a
     regular *note for: 2e7. loop (since creating a list would just be
     wasteful).

     If the input sequences are not of equal length, *note map(): 850.
     will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences.  For
     full compatibility with *note map(): 850. from Python 2.x, also
     wrap the sequences in *note itertools.zip_longest(): 127d, e.g.
     ‘map(func, *sequences)’ becomes ‘list(map(func,
     itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))’.

   * *note range(): 932. now behaves like ‘xrange()’ used to behave,
     except it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no
     longer exists.

   * *note zip(): 7bc. renvoie maintenant un itérateur.


File: python.info,  Node: Ordering Comparisons,  Next: Integers,  Prev: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.3 Ordering Comparisons
.............................

Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:

   * The ordering comparison operators (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise a
     TypeError exception when the operands don't have a meaningful
     natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like ‘1 < ''’, ‘0 > None’ or
     ‘len <= len’ are no longer valid, and e.g.  ‘None < None’ raises
     *note TypeError: 525. instead of returning ‘False’.  A corollary is
     that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense - all the
     elements must be comparable to each other.  Note that this does not
     apply to the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators: objects of different
     incomparable types always compare unequal to each other.

   * *note sorted(): bbe. and *note list.sort(): bbf. no longer accept
     the 'cmp' argument providing a comparison function.  Use the 'key'
     argument instead.  N.B. the 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are now
     "keyword-only".

   * The ‘cmp()’ function should be treated as gone, and the ‘__cmp__()’
     special method is no longer supported.  Use *note __lt__(): 127f.
     for sorting, *note __eq__(): aea. with *note __hash__(): aeb, and
     other rich comparisons as needed.  (If you really need the ‘cmp()’
     functionality, you could use the expression ‘(a > b) - (a < b)’ as
     the equivalent for ‘cmp(a, b)’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Integers,  Next: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Ordering Comparisons,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.4 Integers
.................

   * PEP 237(1): Essentially, ‘long’ renamed to *note int: 254.  That
     is, there is only one built-in integral type, named *note int:
     254.; but it behaves mostly like the old ‘long’ type.

   * PEP 238(2): An expression like ‘1/2’ returns a float.  Use ‘1//2’
     to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has existed for
     years, at least since Python 2.2.)

   * The ‘sys.maxint’ constant was removed, since there is no longer a
     limit to the value of integers.  However, *note sys.maxsize: 11a4.
     can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
     index.  It conforms to the implementation's "natural" integer size
     and is typically the same as ‘sys.maxint’ in previous releases on
     the same platform (assuming the same build options).

   * The *note repr(): 7e9. of a long integer doesn't include the
     trailing ‘L’ anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that
     character will chop off the last digit instead.  (Use *note str():
     437. instead.)

   * Octal literals are no longer of the form ‘0720’; use ‘0o720’
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Integers,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.5 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
...................................................

Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
changed.

   * Python 3.0 uses the concepts of 'text' and (binary) 'data' instead
     of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
     'encoded' Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
     hold text is *note str: 437, the type used to hold data is *note
     bytes: 1bd.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that
     any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises *note
     TypeError: 525, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
     strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened
     to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a03. if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
     value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
     years.

   * As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
     that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
     change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
     were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
     text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using ‘unicode’ for all
     unencoded text, and *note str: 437. for binary or encoded data
     only.  Then the ‘2to3’ tool will do most of the work for you.

   * You can no longer use ‘u"..."’ literals for Unicode text.  However,
     you must use ‘b"..."’ literals for binary data.

   * As the *note str: 437. and *note bytes: 1bd. types cannot be mixed,
     you must always explicitly convert between them.  Use *note
     str.encode(): 8c4. to go from *note str: 437. to *note bytes: 1bd,
     and *note bytes.decode(): 8c5. to go from *note bytes: 1bd. to
     *note str: 437.  You can also use ‘bytes(s, encoding=...)’ and
     ‘str(b, encoding=...)’, respectively.

   * Like *note str: 437, the *note bytes: 1bd. type is immutable.
     There is a separate 'mutable' type to hold buffered binary data,
     *note bytearray: 52b.  Nearly all APIs that accept *note bytes:
     1bd. also accept *note bytearray: 52b.  The mutable API is based on
     *note collections.MutableSequence: 19f.

   * All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
     This means that ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’ escapes in raw strings are not
     treated specially.  For example, ‘r'\u20ac'’ is a string of 6
     characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ‘ur'\u20ac'’ was the
     single "euro" character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
     string literals; the euro character is ‘'\u20ac'’ in Python 3.0.)

   * The built-in ‘basestring’ abstract type was removed.  Use *note
     str: 437. instead.  The *note str: 437. and *note bytes: 1bd. types
     don't have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
     class.  The ‘2to3’ tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
     ‘basestring’ with *note str: 437.

   * Files opened as text files (still the default mode for *note
     open(): 508.) always use an encoding to map between strings (in
     memory) and bytes (on disk).  Binary files (opened with a ‘b’ in
     the mode argument) always use bytes in memory.  This means that if
     a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will
     likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data.
     It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct
     mode (text or binary) when opening a file.  There is a
     platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can
     be set with the ‘LANG’ environment variable (and sometimes also
     with some other platform-specific locale-related environment
     variables).  In many cases, but not all, the system default is
     UTF-8; you should never count on this default.  Any application
     reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a
     way to override the encoding.  There is no longer any need for
     using the encoding-aware streams in the *note codecs: 1b. module.

   * The initial values of *note sys.stdin: 52a, *note sys.stdout: ac6.
     and *note sys.stderr: 928. are now unicode-only text files (i.e.,
     they are instances of *note io.TextIOBase: 682.).  To read and
     write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their *note
     io.TextIOBase.buffer: 1282. attribute.

   * Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode)
     strings.  This can present platform-specific problems because on
     some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other
     hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
     work-around, most APIs (e.g.  *note open(): 508. and many functions
     in the *note os: a0. module) that take filenames accept *note
     bytes: 1bd. objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way
     to ask for a *note bytes: 1bd. return value.  Thus, *note
     os.listdir(): 10dc. returns a list of *note bytes: 1bd. instances
     if the argument is a *note bytes: 1bd. instance, and *note
     os.getcwdb(): a81. returns the current working directory as a *note
     bytes: 1bd. instance.  Note that when *note os.listdir(): 10dc.
     returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded
     properly are omitted rather than raising *note UnicodeError: 1283.

   * Some system APIs like *note os.environ: 1199. and *note sys.argv:
     1245. can also present problems when the bytes made available by
     the system is not interpretable using the default encoding.
     Setting the ‘LANG’ variable and rerunning the program is probably
     the best approach.

   * PEP 3138(1): The *note repr(): 7e9. of a string no longer escapes
     non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
     points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.

   * PEP 3120(2): The default source encoding is now UTF-8.

   * PEP 3131(3): Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
     (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the
     exception of contributor names in comments.)

   * The ‘StringIO’ and ‘cStringIO’ modules are gone.  Instead, import
     the *note io: 7e. module and use *note io.StringIO: f14. or *note
     io.BytesIO: e8f. for text and data respectively.

   * See also the *note Guide Unicode: 1284, which was updated for
     Python 3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Next: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Prev: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.2 Overview Of Syntax Changes
---------------------------------

This section gives a brief overview of every 'syntactic' change in
Python 3.0.

* Menu:

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::


File: python.info,  Node: New Syntax,  Next: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.14.2.1 New Syntax
...................

   * PEP 3107(1): Function argument and return value annotations.  This
     provides a standardized way of annotating a function's parameters
     and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
     annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
     the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.  The intent is to encourage
     experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.

   * PEP 3102(2): Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
     after ‘*args’ in the parameter list 'must' be specified using
     keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare ‘*’ in the
     parameter list to indicate that you don't accept a variable-length
     argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.

   * Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
     class definition.  This is used by the new convention for
     specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for
     other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.

   * PEP 3104(3): *note nonlocal: 1287. statement.  Using ‘nonlocal x’
     you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
     non-global) scope.  ‘nonlocal’ is a new reserved word.

   * PEP 3132(4): Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
     like ‘a, b, *rest = some_sequence’.  And even ‘*rest, a = stuff’.
     The ‘rest’ object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand
     side may be any iterable.  Example:

          (a, *rest, b) = range(5)

     This sets 'a' to ‘0’, 'b' to ‘4’, and 'rest' to ‘[1, 2, 3]’.

   * Dictionary comprehensions: ‘{k: v for k, v in stuff}’ means the
     same thing as ‘dict(stuff)’ but is more flexible.  (This is PEP
     274(5) vindicated.  :-)

   * Set literals, e.g.  ‘{1, 2}’.  Note that ‘{}’ is an empty
     dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
     also supported; e.g., ‘{x for x in stuff}’ means the same thing as
     ‘set(stuff)’ but is more flexible.

   * New octal literals, e.g.  ‘0o720’ (already in 2.6).  The old octal
     literals (‘0720’) are gone.

   * New binary literals, e.g.  ‘0b1010’ (already in 2.6), and there is
     a new corresponding built-in function, *note bin(): 1288.

   * Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ‘b’ or ‘B’, and there
     is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bytes(): 1bd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/


File: python.info,  Node: Changed Syntax,  Next: Removed Syntax,  Prev: New Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.14.2.2 Changed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3109(1) and PEP 3134(2): new *note raise: 5d9. statement
     syntax: ‘raise [EXPR [from EXPR]]’.  See below.

   * ‘as’ and *note with: 5be. are now reserved words.  (Since 2.6,
     actually.)

   * ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ are reserved words.  (2.6 partially
     enforced the restrictions on ‘None’ already.)

   * Change from *note except: 189. 'exc', 'var' to ‘except’ 'exc' ‘as’
     'var'.  See PEP 3110(3).

   * PEP 3115(4): New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of:

          class C:
              __metaclass__ = M
              ...

     you must now use:

          class C(metaclass=M):
              ...

     The module-global ‘__metaclass__’ variable is no longer supported.
     (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes
     without deriving every class from *note object: a7c.)

   * List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form ‘[... for
     VAR in ITEM1, ITEM2, ...]’.  Use ‘[... for VAR in (ITEM1, ITEM2,
     ...)]’ instead.  Also note that list comprehensions have different
     semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator
     expression inside a *note list(): 5fe. constructor, and in
     particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the
     surrounding scope.

   * The 'ellipsis' (‘...’) can be used as an atomic expression
     anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
     'must' now be spelled as ‘...’.  (Previously it could also be
     spelled as ‘. . .’, by a mere accident of the grammar.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Syntax,  Prev: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.14.2.3 Removed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3113(1): Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
     write ‘def foo(a, (b, c)): ...’.  Use ‘def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c’
     instead.

   * Removed backticks (use *note repr(): 7e9. instead).

   * Removed ‘<>’ (use ‘!=’ instead).

   * Removed keyword: *note exec(): 17d. is no longer a keyword; it
     remains as a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also
     accepted in 2.x.)  Also note that *note exec(): 17d. no longer
     takes a stream argument; instead of ‘exec(f)’ you can use
     ‘exec(f.read())’.

   * Integer literals no longer support a trailing ‘l’ or ‘L’.

   * String literals no longer support a leading ‘u’ or ‘U’.

   * The *note from: 128b. 'module' *note import: 5ce. ‘*’ syntax is
     only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.

   * The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is ‘from .[MODULE]
     import NAME’.  All *note import: 5ce. forms not starting with ‘.’
     are interpreted as absolute imports.  ( PEP 328(2))

   * Classic classes are gone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Next: Library Changes,  Prev: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.3 Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
--------------------------------------------

Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
2.6.  The corresponding sections in *note Nouveautés de Python 2.6:
128d. should be consulted for longer descriptions.

   * *note PEP 343; The 'with' statement: 128e.  The *note with: 5be.
     statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be
     imported from the *note __future__: 0.  Also check out *note Écrire
     des gestionnaires de contexte: 128f. and *note Le module
     contextlib: 1290.

   * *note PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: 1291.
     This enhances the usefulness of the *note -m: 5cd. option when the
     referenced module lives in a package.

   * *note PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: 1292.

   * *note PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: 1293.

   * *note PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: 1294.  Note: the 2.6
     description mentions the *note format(): 60c. method for both 8-bit
     and Unicode strings.  In 3.0, only the *note str: 437. type (text
     strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the *note
     bytes: 1bd. type does not.  The plan is to eventually make this the
     only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the ‘%’
     operator in Python 3.1.

   * *note PEP 3105; print As a Function: 1295.  This is now a standard
     feature and no longer needs to be imported from *note __future__:
     0.  More details were given above.

   * *note PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: 1296.  The *note
     except: 189. 'exc' ‘as’ 'var' syntax is now standard and ‘except’
     'exc', 'var' is no longer supported.  (Of course, the ‘as’ 'var'
     part is still optional.)

   * *note PEP 3112; Byte Literals: 1297.  The ‘b"..."’ string literal
     notation (and its variants like ‘b'...'’, ‘b"""..."""’, and
     ‘br"..."’) now produces a literal of type *note bytes: 1bd.

   * *note PEP 3116; New I/O Library: 1298.  The *note io: 7e. module is
     now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in *note open():
     508. function is now an alias for *note io.open(): 509. and has
     additional keyword arguments 'encoding', 'errors', 'newline' and
     'closefd'.  Also note that an invalid 'mode' argument now raises
     *note ValueError: 1ff, not *note IOError: 103d.  The binary file
     object underlying a text file object can be accessed as ‘f.buffer’
     (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in
     order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations).

   * *note PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: 1299.  The old builtin
     ‘buffer()’ is now really gone; the new builtin *note memoryview():
     454. provides (mostly) similar functionality.

   * *note PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: 129a.  The *note abc: 4.
     module and the ABCs defined in the *note collections: 1d. module
     plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and
     built-in collection types like *note dict: 253. and *note list:
     5fe. conform to the *note collections.MutableMapping: 1092. and
     *note collections.MutableSequence: 19f. ABCs, respectively.

   * *note PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: 129b.  As
     mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one
     supported, and binary literals have been added.

   * *note PEP 3129; Class Decorators: 129c.

   * *note PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: 129d.  The *note
     numbers: 9d. module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python's
     "numeric tower".  Also note the new *note fractions: 5c. module
     which implements *note numbers.Rational: 129e.


File: python.info,  Node: Library Changes,  Next: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Prev: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.4 Library Changes
----------------------

Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
very extensive changes to the standard library.  PEP 3108(1) is the
reference for the major changes to the library.  Here's a capsule
review:

   * Many old modules were removed.  Some, like ‘gopherlib’ (no longer
     used) and ‘md5’ (replaced by *note hashlib: 67.), were already
     deprecated by PEP 4(2).  Others were removed as a result of the
     removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac
     OS 9 (see PEP 11(3)).  Some modules were also selected for removal
     in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement
     exists.  See PEP 3108(4) for an exhaustive list.

   * The ‘bsddb3’ package was removed because its presence in the core
     standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for
     the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB's
     release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
     externally maintained at
     ‘https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm’.

   * Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed PEP
     8(5), or for various other reasons.  Here's the list:

     Old Name                    New Name
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     _winreg                     winreg
                                 
                                 
     ConfigParser                configparser
                                 
                                 
     copy_reg                    copyreg
                                 
                                 
     File d'attente ('queue')    queue
                                 
                                 
     SocketServer                socketserver
                                 
                                 
     markupbase                  _markupbase
                                 
                                 
     repr                        reprlib
                                 
                                 
     test.test_support           test.support
                                 

   * A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
     implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
     implemented as a C extension; for example, *note pickle: a5. and
     ‘cPickle’.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
     version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
     these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
     considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
     Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
     import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
     version.  The *note pickle: a5. / ‘cPickle’ pair received this
     treatment.  The *note profile: ae. module is on the list for 3.1.
     The ‘StringIO’ module has been turned into a class in the *note io:
     7e. module.

   * Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
     the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
     packages are:

        * *note dbm: 31. (‘anydbm’, ‘dbhash’, ‘dbm’, ‘dumbdbm’, ‘gdbm’,
          ‘whichdb’).

        * *note html: 6a. (‘HTMLParser’, ‘htmlentitydefs’).

        * *note http: 6d. (‘httplib’, ‘BaseHTTPServer’, ‘CGIHTTPServer’,
          ‘SimpleHTTPServer’, ‘Cookie’, ‘cookielib’).

        * *note tkinter: ef. (all ‘Tkinter’-related modules except *note
          turtle: 100.).  The target audience of *note turtle: 100.
          doesn't really care about *note tkinter: ef.  Also note that
          as of Python 2.6, the functionality of *note turtle: 100. has
          been greatly enhanced.

        * *note urllib: 107. (‘urllib’, ‘urllib2’, ‘urlparse’,
          ‘robotparse’).

        * *note xmlrpc: 12c. (‘xmlrpclib’, ‘DocXMLRPCServer’,
          ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’).

Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP
3108(6):

   * Killed ‘sets’.  Use the built-in *note set(): 5c5. class.

   * Cleanup of the *note sys: d8. module: removed ‘sys.exitfunc()’,
     ‘sys.exc_clear()’, ‘sys.exc_type’, ‘sys.exc_value’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’.  (Note that *note sys.last_type: 4ab. etc.
     remain.)

   * Cleanup of the *note array.array: 19e. type: the ‘read()’ and
     ‘write()’ methods are gone; use *note fromfile(): 12a0. and *note
     tofile(): 12a1. instead.  Also, the ‘'c'’ typecode for array is
     gone - use either ‘'b'’ for bytes or ‘'u'’ for Unicode characters.

   * Cleanup of the *note operator: 9e. module: removed
     ‘sequenceIncludes()’ and ‘isCallable()’.

   * Cleanup of the ‘thread’ module: ‘acquire_lock()’ and
     ‘release_lock()’ are gone; use *note acquire(): 685. and *note
     release(): 12a2. instead.

   * Cleanup of the *note random: b7. module: removed the ‘jumpahead()’
     API.

   * The ‘new’ module is gone.

   * The functions ‘os.tmpnam()’, ‘os.tempnam()’ and ‘os.tmpfile()’ have
     been removed in favor of the *note tempfile: df. module.

   * The *note tokenize: fa. module has been changed to work with bytes.
     The main entry point is now *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4c6, instead
     of generate_tokens.

   * ‘string.letters’ and its friends (‘string.lowercase’ and
     ‘string.uppercase’) are gone.  Use *note string.ascii_letters:
     12a3. etc.  instead.  (The reason for the removal is that
     ‘string.letters’ and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is
     a bad idea for such attractively named global "constants".)

   * Renamed module ‘__builtin__’ to *note builtins: 12. (removing the
     underscores, adding an 's').  The ‘__builtins__’ variable found in
     most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin, you
     should use *note builtins: 12, not ‘__builtins__’!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Next: Changes To Exceptions,  Prev: Library Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

'PEP 3101': A New Approach To String Formatting

   * A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the
     ‘%’ string formatting operator.  (However, the ‘%’ operator is
     still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed
     from the language at some later time.)  Read PEP 3101(1) for the
     full scoop.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes To Exceptions,  Next: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.6 Changes To Exceptions
----------------------------

The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new
powerful features added:

   * PEP 352(1): All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
     from *note BaseException: 5a7.  This is the root of the exception
     hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
     'requirement' to inherit from *note BaseException: 5a7. is new.
     (Python 2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed
     no restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
     exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.

   * Almost all exceptions should actually derive from *note Exception:
     9c9.; *note BaseException: 5a7. should only be used as a base class
     for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such
     as *note SystemExit: d30. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.  The
     recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this
     latter category is to use *note except: 189. *note Exception: 9c9.

   * ‘StandardError’ was removed.

   * Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the *note args: 55a.
     attribute instead.

   * PEP 3109(2): Raising exceptions.  You must now use ‘raise
     EXCEPTION(ARGS)’ instead of ‘raise EXCEPTION, ARGS’.  Additionally,
     you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you
     'have' to do this, you can assign directly to the *note
     __traceback__: 12a6. attribute (see below).

   * PEP 3110(3): Catching exceptions.  You must now use ‘except
     SOMEEXCEPTION as VARIABLE’ instead of ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION,
     VARIABLE’.  Moreover, the 'variable' is explicitly deleted when the
     *note except: 189. block is left.

   * PEP 3134(4): Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
     chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
     exception is raised in an *note except: 189. or *note finally: 9ba.
     handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
     block; we call this a 'secondary' exception.  In this case, the
     original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the *note
     __context__: 12a7. attribute of the secondary exception.  Explicit
     chaining is invoked with this syntax:

          raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception

     (where 'primary_exception' is any expression that produces an
     exception object, probably an exception that was previously
     caught).  In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
     *note __cause__: 12a8. attribute of the secondary exception.  The
     traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the
     chain of ‘__cause__’ and *note __context__: 12a7. attributes and
     prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with
     the primary exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this
     behavior.)

   * PEP 3134(5): Exception objects now store their traceback as the
     *note __traceback__: 12a6. attribute.  This means that an exception
     object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
     and there are fewer reasons to use *note sys.exc_info(): 677.
     (though the latter is not removed).

   * A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
     extension module.  For example, ‘error code 193’ is now ‘%1 is not
     a valid Win32 application’.  Strings now deal with non-English
     locales.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Next: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Prev: Changes To Exceptions,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.7 Miscellaneous Other Changes
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Operators And Special Methods,  Next: Builtins,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.14.7.1 Operators And Special Methods
......................................

   * ‘!=’ now returns the opposite of ‘==’, unless ‘==’ returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7be.

   * The concept of "unbound methods" has been removed from the
     language.  When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now
     get a plain function object.

   * ‘__getslice__()’, ‘__setslice__()’ and ‘__delslice__()’ were
     killed.  The syntax ‘a[i:j]’ now translates to
     ‘a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))’ (or *note __setitem__(): 12ab. or
     *note __delitem__(): 12ac, when used as an assignment or deletion
     target, respectively).

   * PEP 3114(1): the standard *note next(): 7c4. method has been
     renamed to *note __next__(): 12ad.

   * The ‘__oct__()’ and ‘__hex__()’ special methods are removed - *note
     oct(): 12ae. and *note hex(): 12af. use *note __index__(): 709. now
     to convert the argument to an integer.

   * Removed support for ‘__members__’ and ‘__methods__’.

   * The function attributes named ‘func_X’ have been renamed to use the
     ‘__X__’ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute
     namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit, ‘func_closure’,
     ‘func_code’, ‘func_defaults’, ‘func_dict’, ‘func_doc’,
     ‘func_globals’, ‘func_name’ were renamed to *note __closure__:
     12b0, *note __code__: 297, *note __defaults__: 12b1, *note
     __dict__: 12b2, *note __doc__: 11b8, *note __globals__: 12b3, *note
     __name__: 12b4, respectively.

   * ‘__nonzero__()’ is now *note __bool__(): 12b5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins,  Prev: Operators And Special Methods,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.14.7.2 Builtins
.................

   * PEP 3135(1): New *note super(): 4c8.  You can now invoke *note
     super(): 4c8. without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular
     instance method defined inside a *note class: 12b7. statement) the
     right class and instance will automatically be chosen.  With
     arguments, the behavior of *note super(): 4c8. is unchanged.

   * PEP 3111(2): ‘raw_input()’ was renamed to *note input(): 12b8.
     That is, the new *note input(): 12b8. function reads a line from
     *note sys.stdin: 52a. and returns it with the trailing newline
     stripped.  It raises *note EOFError: 12b9. if the input is
     terminated prematurely.  To get the old behavior of *note input():
     12b8, use ‘eval(input())’.

   * A new built-in function *note next(): 7c4. was added to call the
     *note __next__(): 12ad. method on an object.

   * The *note round(): 12ba. function rounding strategy and return type
     have changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest
     even result instead of away from zero.  (For example, ‘round(2.5)’
     now returns ‘2’ rather than ‘3’.)  ‘round(x[, n])’ now delegates to
     ‘x.__round__([n])’ instead of always returning a float.  It
     generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and
     a value of the same type as ‘x’ when called with two arguments.

   * Moved ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 12bb.

   * Removed: ‘apply()’.  Instead of ‘apply(f, args)’ use ‘f(*args)’.

   * Removed *note callable(): 11a5.  Instead of ‘callable(f)’ you can
     use ‘isinstance(f, collections.Callable)’.  The
     ‘operator.isCallable()’ function is also gone.

   * Removed ‘coerce()’.  This function no longer serves a purpose now
     that classic classes are gone.

   * Removed ‘execfile()’.  Instead of ‘execfile(fn)’ use
     ‘exec(open(fn).read())’.

   * Removed the ‘file’ type.  Use *note open(): 508.  There are now
     several different kinds of streams that open can return in the
     *note io: 7e. module.

   * Removed ‘reduce()’.  Use *note functools.reduce(): 12bc. if you
     really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit *note
     for: 2e7. loop is more readable.

   * Removed ‘reload()’.  Use ‘imp.reload()’.

   * Removed.  ‘dict.has_key()’ - use the *note in: 2e9. operator
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Next: Performances,  Prev: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.8 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Due to time constraints, here is a 'very' incomplete list of changes to
the C API.

   * Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not
     limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.

   * PEP 3118(1): New Buffer API.

   * PEP 3121(2): Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.

   * PEP 3123(3): Making *note PyObject_HEAD: 12be. conform to standard
     C.

   * No more C API support for restricted execution.

   * ‘PyNumber_Coerce()’, ‘PyNumber_CoerceEx()’, ‘PyMember_Get()’, and
     ‘PyMember_Set()’ C APIs are removed.

   * New C API *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4, works like
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. but won't block on the import
     lock (returning an error instead).

   * Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
     ‘nb_nonzero’ is now ‘nb_bool’.

   * Removed ‘METH_OLDARGS’ and ‘WITH_CYCLE_GC’ from the C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/


File: python.info,  Node: Performances,  Next: Portage vers Python 3 0,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.9 Performances
-------------------

The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
There's room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 3 0,  Prev: Performances,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 3 0

1.14.10 Portage vers Python 3.0
-------------------------------

For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
best strategy is the following:

  0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.

  1. Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
     port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
     pass.

  2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the ‘-3’ command line switch.  This
     enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in
     3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings
     about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still
     pass.

  3. Run the ‘2to3’ source-to-source translator over your source code
     tree.  Run the result of the translation under Python 3.0.
     Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing problems until all
     tests pass again.

It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you'd have to use a very contorted coding
style, e.g.  avoiding ‘print’ statements, metaclasses, and much more.
If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6
and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing
the 2.6 version of the source code and running the ‘2to3’ translator
again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code.

For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see *note Portage des
modules d'extension vers Python 3: 12c1.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 7,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 6,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 3 0,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.15 Nouveautés de Python 2.7
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was
released on July 3, 2010.

Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point
numbers and for the *note Decimal: 29a. class.  There are some useful
additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced *note
unittest: 105. module, the *note argparse: 6. module for parsing
command-line options, convenient *note OrderedDict: 5c7. and *note
Counter: 107d. classes in the *note collections: 1d. module, and many
other improvements.

Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting to
Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
included in 2.7.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the rationale for
the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
feature or the issue on ‘https://bugs.python.org’ in which a change was
discussed.  Whenever possible, "What's New in Python" links to the
bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<14>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Autres changements et corrections::
* Portage vers Python 2.7: Portage vers Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Remerciements::


File: python.info,  Node: The Future for Python 2 x,  Next: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.1 The Future for Python 2.x
--------------------------------

Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development
efforts to the Python 3.x series.  This means that while Python 2
continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on
new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be
no new full feature releases for the language or standard library.

However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and
Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common
subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other
changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require
careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test
suites, to migrate effectively.

This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time,
providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems
that have not yet been ported to Python 3.  The full expected lifecycle
of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373(1).

Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:

   * As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of
     maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions.  Python 2.7 is
     currently expected to remain supported by the core development team
     (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least
     2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more
     typical support period of 18-24 months).

   * As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of
     the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor)
     becomes more important for Python 2 users.  In addition to a wide
     variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available
     packages include backports of new modules and features from the
     Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as
     well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to
     migrate to Python 3.  The Python Packaging User Guide(2) provides
     guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python
     Package Index.

   * While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the
     publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this
     approach doesn't necessarily work in all cases, especially those
     related to network security.  In exceptional cases that cannot be
     handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI,
     the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the
     case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard
     library.  Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where
     they were added, will be noted in the *note New Features Added to
     Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: 12c6. section below.

For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for
library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python
2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to
help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical
details involved.  The recommended starting point is the pyporting-howto
HOWTO guide.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Next: Python 3 1 Features,  Prev: The Future for Python 2 x,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.2 Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
------------------------------------------------------

For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
interest to developers by default.  *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and
its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change was
also made in the branch that became Python 3.2.  (Discussed on
stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319(1).)

In previous releases, *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. messages were
enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication
of where their code may break in a future major version of Python.

However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications
who are not directly involved in the development of those applications.
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. messages are irrelevant to such users,
making them worry about an application that's actually working correctly
and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns.

You can re-enable display of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. messages by
running Python with the *note -Wdefault: 8b6. (short form: *note -Wd:
8b6.) switch, or by setting the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a. environment
variable to ‘"default"’ (or ‘"d"’) before running Python.  Python code
can also re-enable them by calling ‘warnings.simplefilter('default')’.

The ‘unittest’ module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
when running tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 1 Features,  Next: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Prev: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.3 Python 3.1 Features
--------------------------

Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7
incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series
continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series.

A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:

   * The syntax for set literals (‘{1,2,3}’ is a mutable set).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions (‘{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}’).

   * Multiple context managers in a single *note with: 5be. statement.

   * A new version of the *note io: 7e. library, rewritten in C for
     performance.

   * The ordered-dictionary type described in *note PEP 372; Adding an
     Ordered Dictionary to collections: 12c9.

   * The new ‘","’ format specifier described in *note PEP 378; Format
     Specifier for Thousands Separator: 12ca.

   * The *note memoryview: 454. object.

   * A small subset of the *note importlib: 76. module, *note described
     below: 12cb.

   * The *note repr(): 7e9. of a float ‘x’ is shorter in many cases:
     it's now based on the shortest decimal string that's guaranteed to
     round back to ‘x’.  As in previous versions of Python, it's
     guaranteed that ‘float(repr(x))’ recovers ‘x’.

   * Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly
     rounded.  The *note round(): 12ba. function is also now correctly
     rounded.

   * The *note PyCapsule: 1253. type, used to provide a C API for
     extension modules.

   * The *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1247. C API function.

Other new Python3-mode warnings include:

   * ‘operator.isCallable()’ and ‘operator.sequenceIncludes()’, which
     are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.

   * The ‘-3’ switch now automatically enables the ‘-Qwarn’ switch that
     causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long
     integers.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Prev: Python 3 1 Features,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.4 PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
-----------------------------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7
introduces a new *note OrderedDict: 5c7. class in the *note collections:
1d. module.

The *note OrderedDict: 5c7. API provides the same interface as regular
dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
depending on when a key was first inserted:

     >>> from collections import OrderedDict
     >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                  ('second', 2),
     ...                  ('third', 3)])
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]

If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
position is left unchanged:

     >>> d['second'] = 4
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]

Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:

     >>> del d['second']
     >>> d['second'] = 5
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]

The *note popitem(): 12cd. method has an optional 'last' argument that
defaults to ‘True’.  If 'last' is true, the most recently added key is
returned and removed; if it's false, the oldest key is selected:

     >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
     >>> od.popitem()
     (19, 0)
     >>> od.popitem()
     (18, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (0, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (1, 0)

Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and
requires that the insertion order was the same:

     >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2),
     ...                    ('third', 3)])
     >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
     ...                    ('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2)])
     >>> od1 == od2
     False
     >>> # Move 'third' key to the end
     >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
     >>> od1 == od2
     True

Comparing an *note OrderedDict: 5c7. with a regular dictionary ignores
the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.

How does the *note OrderedDict: 5c7. work?  It maintains a doubly linked
list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they're inserted.  A
secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
deletion doesn't have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
remains 'O'(1).

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.

   * The *note ConfigParser: 22. module uses them by default, meaning
     that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then
     written back in their original order.

   * The *note _asdict(): 9d1. method for *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. now returns an ordered dictionary
     with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple
     indices.

   * The *note json: 81. module's *note JSONDecoder: d37. class
     constructor was extended with an 'object_pairs_hook' parameter to
     allow ‘OrderedDict’ instances to be built by the decoder.  Support
     was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 372(2) - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Next: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Prev: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.5 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators
to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead
of 18446744073709551616.

The fully general solution for doing this is the *note locale: 85.
module, which can use different separators ("," in North America, "."
in Europe) and different grouping sizes, but *note locale: 85. is
complicated to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where
different threads are producing output for different locales.

Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
mini-language used by the *note str.format(): 60e. method.  When
formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
width and the precision:

     >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'

When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:

     >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616'

This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
comma-formatting mechanism isn't as general as the *note locale: 85.
module, but it's easier to use.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.6 PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
-------------------------------------------------------------

The *note argparse: 6. module for parsing command-line arguments was
added as a more powerful replacement for the *note optparse: 9f. module.

This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
command-line arguments: *note getopt: 60, *note optparse: 9f, and *note
argparse: 6.  The *note getopt: 60. module closely resembles the C
library's ‘getopt()’ function, so it remains useful if you're writing a
Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. *note optparse:
9f. becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there
are many scripts still using it, and there's no automated way to update
these scripts.  (Making the *note argparse: 6. API consistent with *note
optparse: 9f.'s interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and
difficult.)

In short, if you're writing a new script and don't need to worry about
compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use *note argparse: 6.
instead of *note optparse: 9f.

Voici un exemple :

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')

     # Add optional switches
     parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
                         help='produce verbose output')
     parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
                         metavar='FILE',
                         help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
     parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
                         metavar='NUM', default=0,
                         help='display NUM lines of added context')

     # Allow any number of additional arguments.
     parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
                         help='input filenames (default is stdin)')

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print args.__dict__

Unless you override it, ‘-h’ and ‘--help’ switches are automatically
added, and produce neatly formatted output:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
     usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]

     Command-line example.

     positional arguments:
       inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       -v          produce verbose output
       -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
       -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context

As with *note optparse: 9f, the command-line switches and arguments are
returned as an object with attributes named by the 'dest' parameters:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
     {'output': None,
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 0,
      'inputs': []}

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
     {'output': '/tmp/output',
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 4,
      'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}

*note argparse: 6. has much fancier validation than *note optparse: 9f.;
you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
arguments by passing ‘'*'’, 1 or more by passing ‘'+'’, or an optional
argument with ‘'?'’.  A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to
define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in ‘svn
commit’, ‘svn checkout’, etc.  You can specify an argument's type as
*note FileType: f08, which will automatically open files for you and
understands that ‘'-'’ means standard input or output.

Voir aussi
..........

Documentation du module *note argparse: 6.

     The documentation page of the argparse module.

*note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 118d.

     Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code
     that uses *note optparse: 9f.

PEP 389(1) - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Next: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Prev: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.7 PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 86. module is very flexible; applications can define
a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a
varying number of handlers.

All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can write
Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a
complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.  *note logging: 86.
also supports a *note fileConfig(): b41. function that parses a file,
but the file format doesn't support configuring filters, and it's
messier to generate programmatically.

Python 2.7 adds a *note dictConfig(): 118f. function that uses a
dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to produce a
dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file
containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed.  For
more information see *note Configuration functions: 12d1.

The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
logger named "network".  Messages sent to the root logger will be sent
to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the
"network" logger will be written to a ‘network.log’ file that will be
rotated once the log reaches 1MB.

     import logging
     import logging.config

     configdict = {
      'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
      'formatters': {
          'standard': {
              'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
                         '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},

      'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
                          'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
                          'filename': '/logs/network.log',
                          'formatter': 'standard',
                          'level': 'INFO',
                          'maxBytes': 1000000},
                   'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
                              'formatter': 'standard',
                              'level': 'ERROR'}},

      # Specify all the subordinate loggers
      'loggers': {
                  'network': {
                              'handlers': ['netlog']
                  }
      },
      # Specify properties of the root logger
      'root': {
               'handlers': ['syslog']
      },
     }

     # Set up configuration
     logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)

     # As an example, log two error messages
     logger = logging.getLogger('/')
     logger.error('Database not found')

     netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
     netlogger.error('Connection failed')

Three smaller enhancements to the *note logging: 86. module, all
implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:

   * The *note SysLogHandler: 649. class now supports syslogging over
     TCP. The constructor has a 'socktype' parameter giving the type of
     socket to use, either *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12d2. for UDP or
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. for TCP. The default protocol
     remains UDP.

   * *note Logger: b3f. instances gained a *note getChild(): 12d4.
     method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
     For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ‘log =
     getLogger('app')’, calling ‘log.getChild('network.listen')’ is
     equivalent to ‘getLogger('app.network.listen')’.

   * The *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. class gained an *note
     isEnabledFor(): 12d6. method that takes a 'level' and returns
     whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level
     of importance.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

     PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Next: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.8 PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
---------------------------------

The dictionary methods *note keys(): 7b9, *note values(): 7ba, and *note
items(): 7bb. are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object called
a 'view' instead of a fully materialized list.

It's not possible to change the return values of *note keys(): 7b9,
*note values(): 7ba, and *note items(): 7bb. in Python 2.7 because too
much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added under the
new names ‘viewkeys()’, ‘viewvalues()’, and ‘viewitems()’.

     >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d
     {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
     >>> d.viewkeys()
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])

Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like
sets.  The ‘&’ operator performs intersection, and ‘|’ performs a union:

     >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
     >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
     set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
     >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
     set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])

The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
dictionary is modified:

     >>> vk = d.viewkeys()
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
     >>> d[260] = '&'
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])

However, note that you can't add or remove keys while you're iterating
over the view:

     >>> for k in vk:
     ...     d[k*2] = k
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter
will change them to the standard *note keys(): 7b9, *note values(): 7ba,
and *note items(): 7bb. methods.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3106(1) - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre
     Vassalotti; bpo-1967(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Next: Autres changements au langage<14>,  Prev: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.9 PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
--------------------------------------

The *note memoryview: 454. object provides a view of another object's
memory content that matches the *note bytes: 1bd. type's interface.

     >>> import string
     >>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
     >>> m
     <memory at 0x37f850>
     >>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
     52
     >>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
     ('a', 'z', 'A')
     >>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
     >>> m2
     <memory at 0x37f080>

The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list
of integers:

     >>> m2.tobytes()
     'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
     >>> m2.tolist()
     [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
     >>>

*note memoryview: 454. objects allow modifying the underlying object if
it's a mutable object.

     >>> m2[0] = 75
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
     >>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
     >>> mb = memoryview(b)
     >>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
     >>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
     bytearray(b'*bcde')
     >>>

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3137(1) - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Travis Oliphant,
     Antoine Pitrou and others.  Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-2396(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<14>,  Next: New and Improved Modules,  Prev: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.10 Autres changements au langage
-------------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
     Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
     mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by
     not containing colons and values.  ‘{}’ continues to represent an
     empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.

          >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
          set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
          >>> set() # empty set
          set([])
          >>> {}    # empty dict
          {}

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335(1).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported
     from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the
     literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.

          >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
          {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
          >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
          set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333(2).

   * The *note with: 5be. statement can now use multiple context
     managers in one statement.  Context managers are processed from
     left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new ‘with’
     statement.  This means that:

          with A() as a, B() as b:
              ... suite of statements ...

     est équivalente à :

          with A() as a:
              with B() as b:
                  ... suite of statements ...

     The ‘contextlib.nested()’ function provides a very similar
     function, so it's no longer necessary and has been deprecated.

     (Proposed in ‘https://codereview.appspot.com/53094’; implemented by
     Georg Brandl.)

   * Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now
     correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur in
     many different places: *note str(): 437. on floats and complex
     numbers; the *note float: 2ec. and *note complex: 2ed.
     constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing
     floats and complex numbers using the *note marshal: 8c, *note
     pickle: a5. and *note json: 81. modules; parsing of float and
     imaginary literals in Python code; and *note Decimal: 29a.-to-float
     conversion.

     Related to this, the *note repr(): 7e9. of a floating-point number
     'x' now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string
     that's guaranteed to round back to 'x' under correct rounding (with
     round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
     based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.

     The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
     Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
     compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
     operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
     used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used by
     checking *note sys.float_repr_style: 12da, which will be ‘short’ if
     the new code is in use and ‘legacy’ if it isn't.

     Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay's
     ‘dtoa.c’ library; bpo-7117(3).

   * Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
     point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
     closest to the number.  This doesn't matter for small integers that
     can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
     unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
     closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935283e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          65535L

     Python 2.7's floating-point result is larger, but much closer to
     the true value:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935289e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          -1L

     (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-3166(4).)

     Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.
     (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811(5).)

   * Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the
     interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a ‘__coerce__()’
     method on complex objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-5211(6).)

   * The *note str.format(): 60e. method now supports automatic
     numbering of the replacement fields.  This makes using *note
     str.format(): 60e. more closely resemble using ‘%s’ formatting:

          >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'
          >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'

     The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the
     first ‘{...}’ specifier will use the first argument to *note
     str.format(): 60e, the next specifier will use the next argument,
     and so on.  You can't mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering -
     either number all of your specifier fields or none of them - but
     you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
     example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(7).)

     Complex numbers now correctly support usage with *note format():
     60c, and default to being right-aligned.  Specifying a precision or
     comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of
     the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to
     the whole of the resulting ‘1.5+3j’ output.  (Contributed by Eric
     Smith; bpo-1588(8) and bpo-7988(9).)

     The 'F' format code now always formats its output using uppercase
     characters, so it will now produce 'INF' and 'NAN'. (Contributed by
     Eric Smith; bpo-3382(10).)

     A low-level change: the *note object.__format__(): 60b. method now
     triggers a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7. if it's passed a
     format string, because the ‘__format__()’ method for *note object:
     a7c. converts the object to a string representation and formats
     that.  Previously the method silently applied the format string to
     the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python
     code.  If you're supplying formatting information such as an
     alignment or precision, presumably you're expecting the formatting
     to be applied in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith;
     bpo-7994(11).)

   * The *note int(): 254. and ‘long()’ types gained a ‘bit_length’
     method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its
     argument in binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner;
     bpo-3439(12).)

   * The *note import: 5ce. statement will no longer try an absolute
     import if a relative import (e.g.  ‘from .os import sep’) fails.
     This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain ‘import’
     statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador
     Inge; bpo-7902(13).)

   * It's now possible for a subclass of the built-in ‘unicode’ type to
     override the ‘__unicode__()’ method.  (Implemented by Victor
     Stinner; bpo-1583863(14).)

   * The *note bytearray: 52b. type's *note translate(): 12db. method
     now accepts ‘None’ as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
     bpo-4759(15).)

   * When using *note @classmethod: 165. and *note @staticmethod: 40c.
     to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
     exposes the wrapped function as their *note __func__: 12dc.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, after a
     suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982(16).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     343. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(17).)

   * Two new encodings are now supported: "cp720", used primarily for
     Arabic text; and "cp858", a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
     symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
     Forgeot d'Arc in bpo-1616979(18); CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
     bpo-8016(19).)

   * The ‘file’ object will now set the ‘filename’ attribute on the
     *note IOError: 103d. exception when trying to open a directory on
     POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764(20)), and now
     explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
     instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
     (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677(21)).

   * The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
     *note compile(): 190. built-in function now accepts code using any
     line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that
     the code end in a newline.

   * Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python
     3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from ‘def f((x)): pass’.
     In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd
     usage.  (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362(22).)

   * It's now possible to create weak references to old-style class
     objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
     by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268(23).)

   * When a module object is garbage-collected, the module's dictionary
     is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
     dictionary (bpo-7140(24)).

* Menu:

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<8>,  Up: Autres changements au langage<14>

1.15.10.1 Interpreter Changes
.............................

A new environment variable, *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a, allows
controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string containing warning
settings, equivalent to those used with the *note -W: 8b6. switch,
separated by commas.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301(1).)

For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they
occur, but turn warnings from the *note Cookie: 70. module into an
error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
across operating systems and shells.)

     export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<8>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes,  Up: Autres changements au langage<14>

1.15.10.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several performance enhancements have been added:

   * A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for *note with:
     5be. statements, looking up the *note __enter__(): 5b4. and *note
     __exit__(): 12e0. methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   * The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
     pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
     any of them.  This would previously take quadratic time for garbage
     collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is
     reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.  The new logic
     only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle
     generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of
     survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the
     number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
     von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074(1).)

   * The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
     which can't be part of a cycle.  In Python 2.7, this is now true
     for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints,
     strings, etc.).  Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic
     types won't be tracked either.  This helps reduce the cost of each
     garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
     considered and traversed by the collector.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).)

   * Long integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or
     in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.
     Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base
     ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit
     machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.
     Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines
     and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new
     configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override
     this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there's a new structseq ‘sys.long_info’ that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.long_info
          sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(3).)

     Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2
     bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260(4).)

   * The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by
     tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
     and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.  Various benchmarks show
     speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and
     modulo operations.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512(5).)
     Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
     Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418(6)).

   * The implementation of ‘%’ checks for the left-side operand being a
     Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1-3%
     performance increase for applications that frequently use ‘%’ with
     strings, such as templating libraries.  (Implemented by Collin
     Winter; bpo-5176(7).)

   * List comprehensions with an ‘if’ condition are compiled into faster
     bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-4715(8).)

   * Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
     faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
     conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.  (Patch by
     Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713(9).)

   * The ‘split()’, ‘replace()’, ‘rindex()’, ‘rpartition()’, and
     ‘rsplit()’ methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings,
     and *note bytearray: 52b. objects) now use a fast reverse-search
     algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan.  This is
     sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7462(10) and bpo-7622(11).)

   * The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules now automatically
     intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
     of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
     McGuire; bpo-5084(12).)

   * The ‘cPickle’ module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving
     the time required to pickle them.  (Contributed by Collin Winter;
     bpo-5670(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<14>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.11 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The *note bdb: f. module's base debugging class *note Bdb: 12e2.
     gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor now takes
     an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as ‘django.*’; the
     debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches
     one of these patterns.  (Contributed by Maru Newby after a
     suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142(1).)

   * The *note binascii: 10. module now supports the buffer API, so it
     can be used with *note memoryview: 454. instances and other similar
     buffer objects.  (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7703(2).)

   * Updated module: the ‘bsddb’ module has been updated from
     4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package(3).  The new
     version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug
     fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.  (Updated
     by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156(4).  The pybsddb changelog can be read
     at ‘https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog’.)

   * The *note bz2: 13. module's *note BZ2File: 853. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(5).)

   * New class: the *note Counter: 107d. class in the *note collections:
     1d. module is useful for tallying data.  *note Counter: 107d.
     instances behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for
     missing keys instead of raising a *note KeyError: 33a.:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> c = Counter()
          >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
          ...   c[letter] += 1
          ...
          >>> c
          Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
          'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
          'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c['z']
          0

     There are three additional *note Counter: 107d. methods.  *note
     most_common(): 12e3. returns the N most common elements and their
     counts.  *note elements(): 12e4. returns an iterator over the
     contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its
     count.  *note subtract(): 11bd. takes an iterable and subtracts one
     for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary
     or another ‘Counter’, the counts are subtracted.

          >>> c.most_common(5)
          [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
          >>> c.elements() ->
             'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
             'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
             'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
             's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
          >>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
          -1

     Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(6).

     New class: *note OrderedDict: 5c7. is described in the earlier
     section *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections:
     12c9.

     New method: The *note deque: 5c8. data type now has a *note
     count(): 11bf. method that returns the number of contained elements
     equal to the supplied argument 'x', and a *note reverse(): 11c0.
     method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place.  *note
     deque: 5c8. also exposes its maximum length as the read-only *note
     maxlen: 12e5. attribute.  (Both features added by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     The *note namedtuple: 1c5. class now has an optional 'rename'
     parameter.  If 'rename' is true, field names that are invalid
     because they've been repeated or aren't legal Python identifiers
     will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field's
     position within the list of fields:

          >>> from collections import namedtuple
          >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
          >>> T._fields
          ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')

     (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(7).)

     Finally, the *note Mapping: 8b9. abstract base class now returns
     *note NotImplemented: 7be. if a mapping is compared to another type
     that isn't a ‘Mapping’.  (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729(8).)

   * Constructors for the parsing classes in the *note ConfigParser: 22.
     module now take an 'allow_no_value' parameter, defaulting to false;
     if true, options without values will be allowed.  For example:

          >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ... user = mysql
          ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ... skip-bdb
          ... """
          >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
          >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
          'mysql'
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
          None
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'

     (Contributed by Mats Kindahl; bpo-7005(9).)

   * Deprecated function: ‘contextlib.nested()’, which allows handling
     more than one context manager with a single *note with: 5be.
     statement, has been deprecated, because the ‘with’ statement now
     supports multiple context managers.

   * The *note cookielib: 6f. module now ignores cookies that have an
     invalid version field, one that doesn't contain an integer value.
     (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924(10).)

   * The *note copy: 25. module's *note deepcopy(): b5e. function will
     now correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by Robert
     Collins; bpo-1515(11).)

   * The *note ctypes: 2a. module now always converts ‘None’ to a C
     ‘NULL’ pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by
     Thomas Heller; bpo-4606(12).)  The underlying libffi library(13)
     has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for
     different platforms.  (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142(14).)

   * New method: the *note datetime: 30. module's *note timedelta: 9bf.
     class gained a *note total_seconds(): 12e6. method that returns the
     number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan;
     bpo-5788(15).)

   * New method: the *note Decimal: 29a. class gained a *note
     from_float(): 11e3. class method that performs an exact conversion
     of a floating-point number to a ‘Decimal’.  This exact conversion
     strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point
     representation's value; the resulting decimal value will therefore
     still include the inaccuracy, if any.  For example,
     ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ returns
     ‘Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')’.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796(16).)

     Comparing instances of *note Decimal: 29a. with floating-point
     numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
     of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
     Python's default rules for comparing objects, which produced
     arbitrary results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot
     combine ‘Decimal’ and floating point in other operations such as
     addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert
     between float and ‘Decimal’.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-2531(17).)

     The constructor for *note Decimal: 29a. now accepts floating-point
     numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257(18)) and non-European
     Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6595(19)).

     Most of the methods of the *note Context: 1093. class now accept
     integers as well as *note Decimal: 29a. instances; the only
     exceptions are the *note canonical(): 12e7. and *note
     is_canonical(): 12e8. methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti;
     bpo-7633(20).)

     When using *note Decimal: 29a. instances with a string's *note
     format(): 60e. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
     more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-6857(21).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: 108e. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(22).)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module now produces output that is more
     compatible with modern ‘diff’/‘patch’ tools through one small
     change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in
     the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik;
     bpo-7585(23).)

   * The Distutils ‘sdist’ command now always regenerates the ‘MANIFEST’
     file, since even if the ‘MANIFEST.in’ or ‘setup.py’ files haven't
     been modified, the user might have created some new files that
     should be included.  (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688(24).)

   * The *note doctest: 3a. module's *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL:
     12e9. flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the
     exception being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490(25).)

   * The *note email: 3b. module's *note Message: 279. class will now
     accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
     payload to the encoding specified by ‘output_charset’.  (Added by
     R.  David Murray; bpo-1368247(26).)

   * The *note Fraction: 1e4. class now accepts a single float or *note
     Decimal: 29a. instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to
     its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added
     in bpo-5812(27), and float/decimal in bpo-8294(28).)

     Ordering comparisons (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’) between fractions and
     complex numbers now raise a *note TypeError: 525.  This fixes an
     oversight, making the *note Fraction: 1e4. match the other numeric
     types.

   * New class: *note FTP_TLS: 8ea. in the *note ftplib: 5d. module
     provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of
     authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054(29).)

     The *note storbinary(): 12ea. method for binary uploads can now
     restart uploads thanks to an added 'rest' parameter (patch by Pablo
     Mouzo; bpo-6845(30).)

   * New class decorator: *note total_ordering(): f2f. in the *note
     functools: 5e. module takes a class that defines an *note __eq__():
     aea. method and one of *note __lt__(): 127f, *note __le__(): 12eb,
     *note __gt__(): 12ec, or *note __ge__(): 12ed, and generates the
     missing comparison methods.  Since the ‘__cmp__()’ method is being
     deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define
     ordered classes.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479(31).)

     New function: *note cmp_to_key(): 11b9. will take an old-style
     comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new
     callable that can be used as the 'key' parameter to functions such
     as *note sorted(): bbe, *note min(): ef5. and *note max(): ef6,
     etc.  The primary intended use is to help with making code
     compatible with Python 3.x.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * New function: the *note gc: 5f. module's *note is_tracked(): 12ee.
     returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage
     collector, false otherwise.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-4688(32).)

   * The *note gzip: 66. module's *note GzipFile: 410. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:’ (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(33)), and it now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     681. ABC, so you can wrap it with *note io.BufferedReader: 11ed.
     for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471(34)).
     It's also now possible to override the modification time recorded
     in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272(35).)

     Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
     *note gzip: 66. module will now consume these trailing bytes.
     (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846(36).)

   * New attribute: the *note hashlib: 67. module now has an
     ‘algorithms’ attribute containing a tuple naming the supported
     algorithms.  In Python 2.7, ‘hashlib.algorithms’ contains ‘('md5',
     'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')’.  (Contributed by
     Carl Chenet; bpo-7418(37).)

   * The default *note HTTPResponse: 10b2. class used by the *note
     httplib: 6d. module now supports buffering, resulting in much
     faster reading of HTTP responses.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur
     Jónsson; bpo-4879(38).)

     The *note HTTPConnection: b30. and *note HTTPSConnection: b31.
     classes now support a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’
     2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the
     connection.  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(39).)

   * The ‘ihooks’ module now supports relative imports.  Note that
     ‘ihooks’ is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by
     the ‘imputil’ module added in Python 2.0.  (Relative import support
     added by Neil Schemenauer.)

   * The *note imaplib: 73. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(40).)

   * New function: the *note inspect: 7d. module's *note getcallargs():
     ea8. takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments, and
     figures out which of the callable's parameters will receive each
     argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their
     values.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
          {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
          {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)

     Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135(41).

   * Updated module: The *note io: 7e. library has been upgraded to the
     version shipped with Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was
     entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on
     the task being performed.  The original Python version was renamed
     to the ‘_pyio’ module.

     One minor resulting change: the *note io.TextIOBase: 682. class now
     has an *note errors: 12ef. attribute giving the error setting used
     for encoding and decoding errors (one of ‘'strict'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'ignore'’).

     The *note io.FileIO: 12f0. class now raises an *note OSError: 40d.
     when passed an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-4991(42).)  The *note truncate(): 12f1. method now
     preserves the file position; previously it would change the file
     position to the end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon;
     bpo-6939(43).)

   * New function: ‘itertools.compress(data, selectors)’ takes two
     iterators.  Elements of 'data' are returned if the corresponding
     value in 'selectors' is true:

          itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
            A, C, E, F

     New function: ‘itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)’
     returns all the possible 'r'-length combinations of elements from
     the iterable 'iter'.  Unlike *note combinations(): 12f2, individual
     elements can be repeated in the generated combinations:

          itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
            ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
            ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')

     Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their
     position in the input, not their actual values.

     The *note itertools.count(): 1263. function now has a 'step'
     argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1.  *note
     count(): 1263. also now allows keyword arguments, and using
     non-integer values such as floats or *note Decimal: 29a. instances.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032(44).)

     *note itertools.combinations(): 12f2. and *note
     itertools.product(): 12f3. previously raised *note ValueError: 1ff.
     for values of 'r' larger than the input iterable.  This was deemed
     a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator.
     (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816(45).)

   * Updated module: The *note json: 81. module was upgraded to version
     2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that
     makes encoding and decoding faster.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito;
     bpo-4136(46).)

     To support the new *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7. type, *note
     json.load(): ca4. now has an optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter
     that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list
     of pairs.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381(47).)

   * The *note mailbox: 8a. module's *note Maildir: 412. class now
     records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only
     re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed.
     This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.
     (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951(48),
     bpo-6896(49).)

   * New functions: the *note math: 8d. module gained *note erf(): bc8.
     and *note erfc(): bc9. for the error function and the complementary
     error function, *note expm1(): 11cb. which computes ‘e**x - 1’ with
     more precision than using *note exp(): 12f4. and subtracting 1,
     *note gamma(): 11cc. for the Gamma function, and *note lgamma():
     11cd. for the natural log of the Gamma function.  (Contributed by
     Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366(50).)

   * The *note multiprocessing: 93. module's ‘Manager*’ classes can now
     be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is
     started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the
     callable.  (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585(51).)

     The *note Pool: f58. class, which controls a pool of worker
     processes, now has an optional 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.
     Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and
     then exit, causing the ‘Pool’ to start a new worker.  This is
     useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some
     tasks will cause the worker to become very large.  (Contributed by
     Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963(52).)

   * The ‘nntplib’ module now supports IPv6 addresses.  (Contributed by
     Derek Morr; bpo-1664(53).)

   * New functions: the *note os: a0. module wraps the following POSIX
     system calls: *note getresgid(): 12f5. and *note getresuid(): 12f6,
     which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; *note
     setresgid(): 12f7. and *note setresuid(): 12f8, which set real,
     effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; *note
     initgroups(): 12f9, which initialize the group access list for the
     current process.  (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.;
     bpo-6508(54).  Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone;
     bpo-7333(55).)

     The *note os.fork(): 195. function now re-initializes the import
     lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when
     *note fork(): 195. is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt
     Cserna; bpo-7242(56).)

   * In the *note os.path: a1. module, the *note normpath(): 12fa. and
     *note abspath(): 12fb. functions now preserve Unicode; if their
     input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode
     string.  (*note normpath(): 12fa. fixed by Matt Giuca in
     bpo-5827(57); *note abspath(): 12fb. fixed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-3426(58).)

   * The *note pydoc: b4. module now has help for the various symbols
     that Python uses.  You can now do ‘help('<<')’ or ‘help('@')’, for
     example.  (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(59).)

   * The *note re: b8. module's *note split(): 29f, *note sub(): 2a0,
     and *note subn(): 2a1. now accept an optional 'flags' argument, for
     consistency with the other functions in the module.  (Added by
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * New function: *note run_path(): 17f. in the *note runpy: bd. module
     will execute the code at a provided 'path' argument.  'path' can be
     the path of a Python source file (‘example.py’), a compiled
     bytecode file (‘example.pyc’), a directory (‘./package/’), or a zip
     archive (‘example.zip’).  If a directory or zip path is provided,
     it will be added to the front of ‘sys.path’ and the module *note
     __main__: 1. will be imported.  It's expected that the directory or
     zip contains a ‘__main__.py’; if it doesn't, some other
     ‘__main__.py’ might be imported from a location later in
     ‘sys.path’.  This makes more of the machinery of *note runpy: bd.
     available to scripts that want to mimic the way Python's command
     line processes an explicit path name.  (Added by Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-6816(60).)

   * New function: in the *note shutil: c4. module, *note
     make_archive(): 49f. takes a filename, archive type (zip or
     tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive
     containing the directory's contents.  (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)

     *note shutil: c4.'s *note copyfile(): a49. and *note copytree():
     a19. functions now raise a ‘SpecialFileError’ exception when asked
     to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat named pipes
     like a regular file by opening them for reading, and this would
     block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3002(61).)

   * The *note signal: c5. module no longer re-installs the signal
     handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that
     could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.
     (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354(62).)

   * New functions: in the *note site: c6. module, three new functions
     return various site- and user-specific paths.  *note
     getsitepackages(): 121e. returns a list containing all global
     site-packages directories, *note getusersitepackages(): 1220.
     returns the path of the user's site-packages directory, and *note
     getuserbase(): 121f. returns the value of the *note USER_BASE:
     12fc. environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can
     be used to store data.  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(63).)

     The *note site: c6. module now reports exceptions occurring when
     the *note sitecustomize: c7. module is imported, and will no longer
     catch and swallow the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. exception.
     (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137(64).)

   * The *note create_connection(): 65f. function gained a
     'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the
     source address that will be used for the connection.  (Contributed
     by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(65).)

     The *note recv_into(): 12fd. and *note recvfrom_into(): 12fe.
     methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API,
     most usefully the *note bytearray: 52b. and *note memoryview: 454.
     objects.  (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104(66).)

   * The *note SocketServer: cc. module's *note TCPServer: 12ff. class
     now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
     The ‘disable_nagle_algorithm’ class attribute defaults to ‘False’;
     if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the
     TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a
     single TCP packet.  The *note timeout: 1300. class attribute can
     hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request
     socket; if no request is received within that time, *note
     handle_timeout(): 1301. will be called and *note handle_request():
     1302. will return.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson;
     bpo-6192(67) and bpo-6267(68).)

   * Updated module: the *note sqlite3: ce. module has been updated to
     version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package(69).  Version 2.6.0 includes
     a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite
     extensions from shared libraries.  Call the
     ‘enable_load_extension(True)’ method to enable extensions, and then
     call *note load_extension(): 4a4. to load a particular shared
     library.  (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note ssl: cf. module's *note SSLSocket: 8d9. objects now
     support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133(70)) and automatically set OpenSSL's
     ‘SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY’, which will prevent an error code being
     returned from ‘recv()’ operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation
     (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222(71)).

     The *note wrap_socket(): 511. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument that's a string listing the encryption
     algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in
     the OpenSSL documentation(72).  (Added by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8322(73).)

     Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL's ciphers
     and digest algorithms so that they're all available.  Some SSL
     certificates couldn't be verified, reporting an "unknown algorithm"
     error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8484(74).)

     The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
     attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 11fe. (a string), *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 11ff. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 1200. (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-8321(75).)

   * The *note struct: d4. module will no longer silently ignore
     overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer
     format code (one of ‘bBhHiIlLqQ’); it now always raises a *note
     struct.error: 1303. exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1523(76).)  The *note pack(): 1257. function will also attempt
     to use *note __index__(): 709. to convert and pack non-integers
     before trying the *note __int__(): 708. method or reporting an
     error.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300(77).)

   * New function: the *note subprocess: d5. module's *note
     check_output(): fae. runs a command with a specified set of
     arguments and returns the command's output as a string when the
     command runs without error, or raises a *note CalledProcessError:
     1304. exception otherwise.

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
          'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
          /dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

     The *note subprocess: d5. module will now retry its internal system
     calls on receiving an *note EINTR: d76. signal.  (Reported by
     several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in
     bpo-1068268(78).)

   * New function: *note is_declared_global(): 1305. in the *note
     symtable: d7. module returns true for variables that are explicitly
     declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The *note syslog: db. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(79).)

   * The *note sys.version_info: 68d. value is now a named tuple, with
     attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘micro’, ‘releaselevel’, and
     ‘serial’.  (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(80).)

     *note sys.getwindowsversion(): cd7. also returns a named tuple,
     with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘build’, ‘platform’,
     ‘service_pack’, ‘service_pack_major’, ‘service_pack_minor’,
     ‘suite_mask’, and ‘product_type’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-7766(81).)

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module's default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there's
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(82).)

     *note tarfile: dd. now supports filtering the *note TarInfo: 11f0.
     objects being added to a tar file.  When you call *note add(): be3,
     you may supply an optional 'filter' argument that's a callable.
     The 'filter' callable will be passed the *note TarInfo: 11f0. for
     every file being added, and can modify and return it.  If the
     callable returns ‘None’, the file will be excluded from the
     resulting archive.  This is more powerful than the existing
     'exclude' argument, which has therefore been deprecated.  (Added by
     Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856(83).)  The *note TarFile: 11ef. class also
     now supports the context management protocol.  (Added by Lars
     Gustäbel; bpo-7232(84).)

   * The *note wait(): 1306. method of the *note threading.Event: 113a.
     class now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method
     will usually return true because *note wait(): 1306. is supposed to
     block until the internal flag becomes true.  The return value will
     only be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed
     out.  (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032(85).)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 104. module
     is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
     whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also includes
     information from the ‘Unihan.txt’ data file (patch by Anders
     Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-1571184(86)) and has been
     updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-8024(87)).

   * The *note urlparse: 109. module's *note urlsplit(): d2f. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(88): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn't know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

     The *note urlparse: 109. module also supports IPv6 literal
     addresses as defined by RFC 2732(89) (contributed by Senthil
     Kumaran; bpo-2987(90)).

          >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
                      path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')

   * New class: the *note WeakSet: 5c9. class in the *note weakref: 113.
     module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements;
     elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to
     them.  (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger,
     and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. library, no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(91).)

   * The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the *note xmlrpclib:
     12d. and *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12e. modules, have improved
     performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally
     using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip
     compression is controlled by the ‘encode_threshold’ attribute of
     *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 1307, which contains a size in
     bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267(92).)

   * The *note zipfile: 130. module's *note ZipFile: 6b1. now supports
     the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-5511(93).)

     *note zipfile: 130. now also supports archiving empty directories
     and extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek;
     bpo-4710(94).)  Reading files out of an archive is faster, and
     interleaving *note read(): 1308. and *note readline(): 1309. now
     works correctly.  (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610(95).)

     The *note is_zipfile(): 130a. function now accepts a file object,
     in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions.
     (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756(96).)

     The *note writestr(): 130b. method now has an optional
     'compress_type' parameter that lets you override the default
     compression method specified in the *note ZipFile: 6b1.
     constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003(97).)

* Menu:

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Module mis-à-jour ; ElementTree 1.3: Module mis-à-jour ElementTree 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703

   (3) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606

   (13) https://sourceware.org/libffi/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6595

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7633

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7585

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8688

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7490

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1368247

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5812

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2054

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6845

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5479

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4272

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4879

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3135

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4991

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6939

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5032

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4816

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5381

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1607951

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6896

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3366

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5585

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6963

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6508

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7333

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7242

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5827

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3426

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6816

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3002

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8354

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3137

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8104

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6192

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267

   (69) https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7133

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8222

   (72) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1523

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8300

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1068268

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7766

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7232

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1674032

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1571184

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8024

   (88) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (89) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5511

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4710

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4756

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6003


File: python.info,  Node: New module importlib,  Next: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.1 New module: importlib
...............................

Python 3.1 includes the *note importlib: 76. package, a
re-implementation of the logic underlying Python's *note import: 5ce.
statement.  *note importlib: 76. is useful for implementers of Python
interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can
participate in the import process.  Python 2.7 doesn't contain the
complete *note importlib: 76. package, but instead has a tiny subset
that contains a single function, *note import_module(): 504.

‘import_module(name, package=None)’ imports a module.  'name' is a
string containing the module or package's name.  It's possible to do
relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ‘.’ character,
such as ‘..utils.errors’.  For relative imports, the 'package' argument
must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the
anchor for the relative import.  *note import_module(): 504. both
inserts the imported module into ‘sys.modules’ and returns the module
object.

Voici quelques exemples :

     >>> from importlib import import_module
     >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
     >>> anydbm
     <module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
     >>> # Relative import
     >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
     >>> file_util
     <module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>

*note importlib: 76. was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
Python 3.1.


File: python.info,  Node: New module sysconfig,  Next: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Prev: New module importlib,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.2 New module: sysconfig
...............................

The *note sysconfig: da. module has been pulled out of the Distutils
package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.  *note
sysconfig: da. provides functions for getting information about Python's
build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name,
and whether Python is running from its source directory.

Some of the functions in the module are:

   * *note get_config_var(): 1016. returns variables from Python's
     Makefile and the ‘pyconfig.h’ file.

   * *note get_config_vars(): 1017. returns a dictionary containing all
     of the configuration variables.

   * *note get_path(): 130e. returns the configured path for a
     particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific
     modules, platform-specific modules, etc.

   * *note is_python_build(): 2dc. returns true if you're running a
     binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.

Consult the *note sysconfig: da. documentation for more details and for
a complete list of functions.

The Distutils package and *note sysconfig: da. are now maintained by
Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source
repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/distutils2/’) for developing a
next-generation version of Distutils.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Next: Updated module unittest,  Prev: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.3 ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
....................................

Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
closely resemble the native platform's widgets.  This widget set was
originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for "themed Tk") on
being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.

To learn more, read the *note ttk: f8. module documentation.  You may
also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme
engine, available at
‘https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html’.  Some screenshots
of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
‘https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki’.

The *note tkinter.ttk: f8. module was written by Guilherme Polo and
added in bpo-2983(1).  An alternate version called ‘Tile.py’, written by
Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
inclusion in bpo-2618(2), but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo's
work was more comprehensive.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module unittest,  Next: Module mis-à-jour ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.4 Updated module: unittest
..................................

The *note unittest: 105. module was greatly enhanced; many new features
were added.  Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord,
unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of the module is
downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
packaged as the ‘unittest2’ package, from unittest2(1).

When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
tests.  It's not as fancy as py.test(2) or nose(3), but provides a
simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For
example, the following command will search the ‘test/’ subdirectory for
any importable test files named ‘test*.py’:

     python -m unittest discover -s test

Consult the *note unittest: 105. module documentation for more details.
(Developed in bpo-6001(4).)

The *note main(): fd0. function supports some other new options:

   * *note -b: 1312. or ‘--buffer’ will buffer the standard output and
     standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes, any
     resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output
     will be displayed.

   * *note -c: 1313. or ‘--catch’ will cause the control-C interrupt to
     be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
     process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
     and then the partial results up to the interruption will be
     reported.  If you're impatient, a second press of control-C will
     cause an immediate interruption.

     This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the
     code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal
     handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already
     set and calling it.  If this doesn't work for you, there's a *note
     removeHandler(): 1314. decorator that can be used to mark tests
     that should have the control-C handling disabled.

   * *note -f: 1315. or ‘--failfast’ makes test execution stop
     immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute
     further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael
     Foord; bpo-8074(5).)

The progress messages now show 'x' for expected failures and 'u' for
unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.  (Contributed by Benjamin
Peterson.)

Test cases can raise the *note SkipTest: fd1. exception to skip a test
(bpo-1034053(6)).

The error messages for *note assertEqual(): 515, *note assertTrue():
513, and *note assertFalse(): 514. failures now provide more
information.  If you set the *note longMessage: 1316. attribute of your
*note TestCase: 439. classes to true, both the standard error message
and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures.
(Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663(7).)

The *note assertRaises(): 519. method now returns a context handler when
called without providing a callable object to run.  For example, you can
write this:

     with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
         {}['foo']

(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4444(8).)

Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
Modules can contain ‘setUpModule()’ and ‘tearDownModule()’ functions.
Classes can have *note setUpClass(): a3f. and *note tearDownClass():
1317. methods that must be defined as class methods (using
‘@classmethod’ or equivalent).  These functions and methods are invoked
when the test runner switches to a test case in a different module or
class.

The methods *note addCleanup(): a71. and *note doCleanups(): 1318. were
added.  *note addCleanup(): a71. lets you add cleanup functions that
will be called unconditionally (after *note setUp(): 1319. if *note
setUp(): 1319. fails, otherwise after *note tearDown(): 131a.).  This
allows for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during
tests (bpo-5679(9)).

A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests.
Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their
test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging
them into Python's version of *note unittest: 105.

   * *note assertIsNone(): 126a. and *note assertIsNotNone(): 126b. take
     one expression and verify that the result is or is not ‘None’.

   * *note assertIs(): 131b. and *note assertIsNot(): 131c. take two
     values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object
     or not.  (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578(10).)

   * *note assertIsInstance(): 131d. and *note assertNotIsInstance():
     131e. check whether the resulting object is an instance of a
     particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-7031(11).)

   * *note assertGreater(): 131f, *note assertGreaterEqual(): 1320,
     *note assertLess(): 1321, and *note assertLessEqual(): 1322.
     compare two quantities.

   * *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 1323. compares two strings, and if
     they're not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights
     the differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
     default when Unicode strings are compared with *note assertEqual():
     515.

   * *note assertRegexpMatches(): 51a. and *note
     assertNotRegexpMatches(): 51c. checks whether the first argument is
     a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided
     as the second argument (bpo-8038(12)).

   * *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 51b. checks whether a particular
     exception is raised, and then also checks that the string
     representation of the exception matches the provided regular
     expression.

   * *note assertIn(): 1324. and *note assertNotIn(): 1325. tests
     whether 'first' is or is not in 'second'.

   * *note assertItemsEqual(): 120a. tests whether two provided
     sequences contain the same elements.

   * *note assertSetEqual(): 1265. compares whether two sets are equal,
     and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.

   * Similarly, *note assertListEqual(): 1267. and *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 1268. compare the specified types and explain
     any differences without necessarily printing their full values;
     these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and
     tuples using *note assertEqual(): 515.  More generally, *note
     assertSequenceEqual(): 1269. compares two sequences and can
     optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type.

   * *note assertDictEqual(): 1266. compares two dictionaries and
     reports the differences; it's now used by default when you compare
     two dictionaries using *note assertEqual(): 515.
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ checks whether all of the key/value
     pairs in 'first' are found in 'second'.

   * *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517. and *note assertNotAlmostEqual():
     518. test whether 'first' and 'second' are approximately equal.
     This method can either round their difference to an optionally
     specified number of 'places' (the default is 7) and compare it to
     zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied
     'delta' value.

   * *note loadTestsFromName(): 1326. properly honors the *note
     suiteClass: 1327. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 28b.  (Fixed
     by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866(13).)

   * A new hook lets you extend the *note assertEqual(): 515. method to
     handle new data types.  The *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 1328.
     method takes a type object and a function.  The function will be
     used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified
     type.  This function should compare the two objects and raise an
     exception if they don't match; it's a good idea for the function to
     provide additional information about why the two objects aren't
     matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do.

*note unittest.main(): fd0. now takes an optional ‘exit’ argument.  If
false, *note main(): fd0. doesn't call *note sys.exit(): 1329, allowing
*note main(): fd0. to be used from the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; bpo-3379(14).)

*note TestResult: 1149. has new *note startTestRun(): 132a. and *note
stopTestRun(): 132b. methods that are called immediately before and
after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728(15).)

With all these changes, the ‘unittest.py’ was becoming awkwardly large,
so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several
files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn't affect how the module is
imported or used.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml’

     Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for
     various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/

   (2) https://pytest.org

   (3) https://nose.readthedocs.io/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728


File: python.info,  Node: Module mis-à-jour ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: Updated module unittest,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.5 Module mis-à-jour : ElementTree 1.3
.............................................

The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated
to version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:

   * The various parsing functions now take a 'parser' keyword argument
     giving an *note XMLParser: a44. instance that will be used.  This
     makes it possible to override the file's internal encoding:

          p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
          t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)

     Errors in parsing XML now raise a *note ParseError: 1258.
     exception, whose instances have a ‘position’ attribute containing a
     ('line', 'column') tuple giving the location of the problem.

   * ElementTree's code for converting trees to a string has been
     significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
     cases.  The *note ElementTree.write(): fe2. and ‘Element.write()’
     methods now have a 'method' parameter that can be "xml" (the
     default), "html", or "text".  HTML mode will output empty elements
     as ‘<empty></empty>’ instead of ‘<empty/>’, and text mode will skip
     over elements and only output the text chunks.  If you set the
     *note tag: 132e. attribute of an element to ‘None’ but leave its
     children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is
     written out, so you don't need to do more extensive rearrangement
     to remove a single element.

     Namespace handling has also been improved.  All ‘xmlns:<whatever>’
     declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered
     throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for
     a tree by setting the ‘default_namespace’ attribute and can
     register new prefixes with *note register_namespace(): 11b1.  In
     XML mode, you can use the true/false 'xml_declaration' parameter to
     suppress the XML declaration.

   * New *note Element: 305. method: *note extend(): 11b2. appends the
     items from a sequence to the element's children.  Elements
     themselves behave like sequences, so it's easy to move children
     from one element to another:

          from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")
          new = ET.XML('<root/>')
          new.extend(t)

          # Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
          print ET.tostring(new)

   * New *note Element: 305. method: *note iter(): 132f. yields the
     children of the element as a generator.  It's also possible to
     write ‘for child in elem:’ to loop over an element's children.  The
     existing method ‘getiterator()’ is now deprecated, as is
     ‘getchildren()’ which constructs and returns a list of children.

   * New *note Element: 305. method: *note itertext(): 11b4. yields all
     chunks of text that are descendants of the element.  For example:

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")

          # Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
          print list(t.itertext())

   * Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ‘if elem:’) would
     return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
     no children.  This behaviour is confusing - ‘None’ is false, but so
     is a childless element?  - so it will now trigger a *note
     FutureWarning: 40b.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
     ‘len(elem) != 0’ if you're interested in the number of children, or
     ‘elem is not None’.

Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can
read his article describing 1.3 at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm’.
Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after
discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Next: Autres changements et corrections,  Prev: New and Improved Modules,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.12 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted
     using Python(1).  When you begin debugging an executable program P,
     GDB will look for a file named ‘P-gdb.py’ and automatically read
     it.  Dave Malcolm contributed a ‘python-gdb.py’ that adds a number
     of commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
     ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ go up or down one Python stack frame, which
     usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  ‘py-print’ prints
     the value of a Python variable, and ‘py-bt’ prints the Python stack
     trace.  (Added as a result of bpo-8032(2).)

   * If you use the ‘.gdbinit’ file provided with Python, the "pyo"
     macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
     debugged doesn't hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before
     printing.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632(3).)

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 970. is now thread-safe, letting any
     worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
     is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
     (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293(4).)

   * New function: *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 1331. creates an empty code
     object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are
     required.  This is useful for extension modules that are attempting
     to construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
     extensions needed to call ‘PyCode_New()’, which had many more
     arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New function: *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1249. creates a
     new exception class, just as the existing *note
     PyErr_NewException(): 124a. does, but takes an extra ‘char *’
     argument containing the docstring for the new exception class.
     (Added by 'lekma' on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033(5).)

   * New function: *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777. takes a frame
     object and returns the line number that the frame is currently
     executing.  Previously code would need to get the index of the
     bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line
     number corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New functions: *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1247. and *note
     PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1246. approximates a Python long
     integer as a C long or long long.  If the number is too large to
     fit into the output type, an 'overflow' flag is set and returned to
     the caller.  (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528(6) and
     bpo-7767(7).)

   * New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float
     conversion, a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1275. function was
     added.  The old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’
     functions are now deprecated.

   * New function: ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ sets the value of ‘sys.argv’ and
     can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the directory
     containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on the value
     of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you're calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(8); discussed in
     bpo-5753(9), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * New macros: the Python header files now define the following
     macros: ‘Py_ISALNUM’, ‘Py_ISALPHA’, ‘Py_ISDIGIT’, ‘Py_ISLOWER’,
     ‘Py_ISSPACE’, ‘Py_ISUPPER’, ‘Py_ISXDIGIT’, ‘Py_TOLOWER’, and
     ‘Py_TOUPPER’.  All of these functions are analogous to the C
     standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current
     locale setting, because in several places Python needs to analyze
     characters in a locale-independent way.  (Added by Eric Smith;
     bpo-5793(10).)

   * Removed function: ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available as a
     macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI
     linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
     deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276(11).)

   * New format codes: the ‘PyString_FromFormat()’,
     ‘PyString_FromFormatV()’, and *note PyErr_Format(): e9c. functions
     now accept ‘%lld’ and ‘%llu’ format codes for displaying C's long
     long types.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228(12).)

   * The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
     been changed.  Previously, the child process created by *note
     os.fork(): 195. might fail because the child is created with only a
     single thread running, the thread performing the *note os.fork():
     195.  If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python's import
     lock, when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked
     as "held" in the new process.  But in the child process nothing
     would ever release the lock, since the other threads weren't
     replicated, and the child process would no longer be able to
     perform imports.

     Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an *note
     os.fork(): 195, and will also clean up any locks created using the
     *note threading: ec. module.  C extension modules that have
     internal locks, or that call ‘fork()’ themselves, will not benefit
     from this clean-up.

     (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864(13).)

   * The *note Py_Finalize(): 1332. function now calls the internal
     ‘threading._shutdown()’ function; this prevents some exceptions
     from being raised when an interpreter shuts down.  (Patch by Adam
     Olsen; bpo-1722344(14).)

   * When using the *note PyMemberDef: 53d. structure to define
     attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete
     or set a ‘T_STRING_INPLACE’ attribute.

   * Global symbols defined by the *note ctypes: 2a. module are now
     prefixed with ‘Py’, or with ‘_ctypes’.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Heller; bpo-3102(15).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-system-expat’ switch allows
     building the *note pyexpat: 125. module to use the system Expat
     library.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-7609(16).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-valgrind’ option will now disable
     the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind
     memory-error detector to analyze correctly.  Valgrind will
     therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns.
     (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422(17).)

   * New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
     ‘--with-dbmliborder=’ in order to disable all of the various DBM
     modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-6491(18).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
     on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a ‘X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING’
     preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
     but it's available if anyone wishes to use it.  (Added by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-2937(19).)

     ‘configure’ also now sets a ‘LDCXXSHARED’ Makefile variable for
     supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis; bpo-1222585(20).)

   * The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
     support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585(21).)

   * The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
     Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094(22).)

* Menu:

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.12.1 Capsules
..................

Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, *note PyCapsule: 1253, for providing a
C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of a
C ‘void *’ pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
example, the *note socket: cb. module's API is exposed as ‘socket.CAPI’,
and *note unicodedata: 104. exposes ‘ucnhash_CAPI’.  Other extensions
can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object,
and then get the ‘void *’ pointer, which will usually point to an array
of pointers to the module's various API functions.

There is an existing data type already used for this, ‘PyCObject’, but
it doesn't provide type safety.  Evil code written in pure Python could
cause a segmentation fault by taking a ‘PyCObject’ from module A and
somehow substituting it for the ‘PyCObject’ in module B. Capsules know
their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name:

     void *vtable;

     if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
             return NULL;
     }

     vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");

You are assured that ‘vtable’ points to whatever you're expecting.  If a
different capsule was passed in, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1335. would
detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to *note Fournir une
API en langage C pour un module d'extension: 1336. for more information
on using these objects.

Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
extension-module APIs, but the ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ was modified to
handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the
‘PyCObject’ interface.  Use of ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ will signal a
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7, which is silent by default.

Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
discussed in bpo-5630(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Prev: Capsules,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.12.2 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The *note msvcrt: 92. module now contains some constants from the
     ‘crtassem.h’ header file: *note CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION: 1338, *note
     VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN: 1339, and *note
     LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX: 133a.  (Contributed by David
     Cournapeau; bpo-4365(1).)

   * The *note _winreg: 115. module for accessing the registry now
     implements the *note CreateKeyEx(): 133b. and *note DeleteKeyEx():
     133c. functions, extended versions of previously supported
     functions that take several extra arguments.  The *note
     DisableReflectionKey(): 133d, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 133e,
     and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 133f. were also tested and
     documented.  (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347(2).)

   * The new ‘_beginthreadex()’ API is used to start threads, and the
     native thread-local storage functions are now used.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582(3).)

   * The *note os.kill(): 1340. function now works on Windows.  The
     signal value can be the constants *note CTRL_C_EVENT: 1341, *note
     CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1342, or any integer.  The first two constants
     will send ‘Control’-‘C’ and ‘Control’-‘Break’ keystroke events to
     subprocesses; any other value will use the ‘TerminateProcess()’
     API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212(4).)

   * The *note os.listdir(): 10dc. function now correctly fails for an
     empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913(5).)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8e. module will now read the MIME database
     from the Windows registry when initializing.  (Patch by Gabriel
     Genellina; bpo-4969(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Next: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.12.3 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * The path ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’ is now appended to
     ‘sys.path’, in order to share added packages between the system
     installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
     (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865(1).)

     Modifié dans la version 2.7.13: As of 2.7.13, this change was
     removed.  ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’, the site-packages
     directory used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer
     appended to ‘sys.path’ for user-installed Pythons such as from the
     python.org installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the
     system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause
     installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages
     installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with
     user-installed Pythons.  (bpo-28440(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.12.4 Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
........................................

   * FreeBSD 7.1's ‘SO_SETFIB’ constant, used with the *note socket():
     d90. methods *note getsockopt(): cc5./*note setsockopt(): cc6. to
     select an alternate routing table, is now available in the *note
     socket: cb. module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements et corrections,  Next: Portage vers Python 2 7,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.13 Autres changements et corrections
-----------------------------------------

   * Two benchmark scripts, ‘iobench’ and ‘ccbench’, were added to the
     ‘Tools’ directory.  ‘iobench’ measures the speed of the built-in
     file I/O objects returned by *note open(): 508. while performing
     various operations, and ‘ccbench’ is a concurrency benchmark that
     tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency,
     and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a
     varying number of threads.

   * The ‘Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py’ script now understands plural forms in
     ‘.po’ files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464(1).)

   * When importing a module from a ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ file with an
     existing ‘.py’ counterpart, the *note co_filename: 1346. attributes
     of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original
     filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
     renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
     Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193(2).)

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now takes a ‘--randseed=’ switch that
     takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the ‘-r’
     option that executes tests in random order.  The ‘-r’ option also
     reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.)

   * Another ‘regrtest.py’ switch is ‘-j’, which takes an integer
     specifying how many tests run in parallel.  This allows reducing
     the total runtime on multi-core machines.  This option is
     compatible with several other options, including the ‘-R’ switch
     which is known to produce long runtimes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6152(3).)  This can also be used with a new ‘-F’ switch that
     runs selected tests in a loop until they fail.  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-7312(4).)

   * When executed as a script, the ‘py_compile.py’ module now accepts
     ‘'-'’ as an argument, which will read standard input for the list
     of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski;
     bpo-8233(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 2 7,  Next: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Prev: Autres changements et corrections,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.14 Portage vers Python 2.7
-------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note range(): 932. function processes its arguments more
     consistently; it will now call *note __int__(): 708. on non-float,
     non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
     Belopolsky; bpo-1533(1).)

   * The string *note format(): 60c. method changed the default
     precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6
     decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by *note
     str(): 437.  (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920(2).)

   * Because of an optimization for the *note with: 5be. statement, the
     special methods *note __enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0.
     must belong to the object's type, and cannot be directly attached
     to the object's instance.  This affects new-style classes (derived
     from *note object: a7c.) and C extension types.  (bpo-6101(3).)

   * Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the 'exc_value' parameter to *note
     __exit__(): 12e0. methods was often the string representation of
     the exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so
     'exc_value' will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent
     Xicluna; bpo-7853(4).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     343. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(5).)

In the standard library:

   * Operations with *note datetime: 1c7. instances that resulted in a
     year falling outside the supported range didn't always raise *note
     OverflowError: 86f.  Such errors are now checked more carefully and
     will now raise the exception.  (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by
     Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150(6).)

   * When using *note Decimal: 29a. instances with a string's *note
     format(): 60c. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which
     might change the output of your programs.  (Changed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6857(7).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: 108e. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(8).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. library no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(9).)

   * The ‘readline()’ method of *note StringIO: f14. objects now does
     nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
     objects do.  (bpo-7348(10)).

   * The *note syslog: db. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(11).)

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module's default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there's
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(12).)

   * The *note urlparse: 109. module's *note urlsplit(): d2f. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(13): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn't know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

For C extensions:

   * C extensions that use integer format codes with the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     family of functions will now raise a *note TypeError: 525.
     exception instead of triggering a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     (bpo-5080(14)).

   * Use the new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1275. function instead
     of the old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions,
     which are now deprecated.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added, letting applications
     close a security hole when the existing ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function
     was used.  Check whether you're calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and
     carefully consider whether the application should be using
     ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Next: Remerciements,  Prev: Portage vers Python 2 7,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.15 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
-------------------------------------------------------------

New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
situation genuinely calls for it.  Any such additions must go through
the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for
why they can't be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature
solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package
Index.

In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
exemption allowing new ‘-3’ warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
maintenance release.

* Menu:

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Next: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.1 Two new environment variables for debug mode
......................................................

In debug mode, the ‘[xxx refs]’ statistic is not written by default, the
‘PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT’ environment variable now must also be set.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733(1).)

When Python is compiled with ‘COUNT_ALLOC’ defined, allocation counts
are no longer dumped by default anymore: the ‘PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT’
environment variable must now also be set.  Moreover, allocation counts
are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner; bpo-31692(2).)

Ajouté dans la version 2.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Next: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Prev: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.2 PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
..............................................................

PEP 434(1) describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
development environment shipped along with Python.  This exemption makes
it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.

For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
release.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.3 PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
...............................................................

PEP 466(1) describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance
releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7
release.

PEP 466(2) related features added in Python 2.7.7:

   * *note hmac.compare_digest(): 10ad. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to
     Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306(3).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware;
     bpo-21462(4).)

PEP 466(5) related features added in Python 2.7.8:

   * *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage
     broadly available to Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor; bpo-21304(6).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in
     bpo-21671(7) for CVE 2014-0224(8).)

PEP 466(9) related features added in Python 2.7.9:

   * Most of Python 3.4's *note ssl: cf. module was backported.  This
     means *note ssl: cf. now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x
     settings, access to the platform certificate store, the *note
     SSLContext: 291. class, and other features.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor and David Reid; bpo-21308(10).)

     Refer to the "Version added: 2.7.9" notes in the module
     documentation for specific details.

   * *note os.urandom(): 50f. was changed to cache a file descriptor to
     ‘/dev/urandom’ instead of reopening ‘/dev/urandom’ on every call.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305(11).)

   * *note hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed: 134c. and *note
     hashlib.algorithms_available: 134d. were backported from Python 3
     to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest
     available hash algorithm.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
     bpo-21307(12))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Prev: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.4 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
.............................................................

PEP 477(1) approves the inclusion of the PEP 453(2) ensurepip module and
the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7
maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Next: Documentation Changes<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.15.15.5 Bootstrapping pip By Default
......................................

The new *note ensurepip: 54. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations.  The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 2.7.9
is ‘pip’ 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the
bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the
time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pip’, ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on
all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python
installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: ee0, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands do not bootstrap ‘pip’ by
default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options,
and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2), platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes<2>,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.15.15.6 Documentation Changes
...............................

As part of this change, the *note Installation de modules Python: ee2.
and distributing-index sections of the documentation have been
completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most
packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging
Authority maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the
documentation of the individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: ee3. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions
with setuptools: ee4.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 453(2) - Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Next: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.7 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.......................................................................................

PEP 476(1) updated *note httplib: 6d. and modules which use it, such as
*note urllib2: 10a. and *note xmlrpclib: 12d, to now verify that the
server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority
in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname
being requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.  This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib2
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Next: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.8 PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
....................................................................

PEP 493(1) provides additional migration tools to support a more
incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing
applications and services relying on the historically permissive
processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS
connections.  These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release.

These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications
and services can't be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL
context when establishing the connection.

For applications and services which can't be modified at all, the new
‘PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY’ environment variable may be set to ‘0’ to revert an
entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python
2.7.8 and earlier.

For cases where the connection establishment code can't be modified, but
the overall application can be, the new
‘ssl._https_verify_certificates()’ function can be used to adjust the
default behaviour at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.9 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Ajouté dans la version 2.7.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.10 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
...............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

Modifié dans la version 2.7.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements,  Prev: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 7

1.15.16 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh
Secker-Walker.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 6,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 5,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 7,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.16 Nouveautés de Python 2.6
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on
October 1, 2008.  The release schedule is described in PEP 361(1).

The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python
3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible, Python 2.6
incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible
with existing code by not removing older features or syntax.  When it's
not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding
compatibility functions in a ‘future_builtins’ module and a ‘-3’ switch
to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.

Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
such as the *note multiprocessing: 93. and *note json: 81. modules, but
there aren't many new features that aren't related to Python 3.0 in some
way.

Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6.  If you
want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.  Whenever possible,
"What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The 'with' statement: PEP 343 The 'with' statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<15>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Portage vers Python 2.6: Portage vers Python 2 6.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 0,  Next: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.1 Python 3.0
-----------------

The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized,
with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the
same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6.

Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility
with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python code will need
some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0.  However, not all the
changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility.  In cases where new
features won't cause existing code to break, they've been backported to
2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place.  Some
of the 3.0-derived features are:

   * A ‘__complex__()’ method for converting objects to a complex
     number.

   * Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ‘except TypeError as
     exc’.

   * The addition of *note functools.reduce(): 12bc. as a synonym for
     the built-in ‘reduce()’ function.

Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics
of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0 such as *note
bin(): 1288. have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins
haven't been changed; instead, the ‘future_builtins’ module has versions
with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can
do ‘from future_builtins import hex, map’ as necessary.

A new command-line switch, ‘-3’, enables warnings about features that
will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code with this switch to see
how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0.  The value of this
switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable
‘sys.py3kwarning’, and to C extension code as ‘Py_Py3kWarningFlag’.

Voir aussi
..........

The 3'xxx' series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.  PEP
3000(1) describes the development process for Python 3.0.  Start with
PEP 3100(2) that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then
explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Development Process,  Next: PEP 343 The 'with' statement,  Prev: Python 3 0,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.2 Changes to the Development Process
-----------------------------------------

While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent
two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge's issue tracker to
a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted
from LaTeX to reStructuredText.

* Menu:

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.


File: python.info,  Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Next: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.16.2.1 New Issue Tracker: Roundup
...................................

For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
annoyed by SourceForge's bug tracker.  SourceForge's hosted solution
doesn't permit much customization; for example, it wasn't possible to
customize the life cycle of issues.

The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore
posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different
products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge.  Four
different trackers were examined: Jira(1), Launchpad(2), Roundup(3), and
Trac(4).  The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the
two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted
instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project
that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it.

After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set
up at ‘https://bugs.python.org’.  One installation of Roundup can host
multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for
Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find other uses in
the future.  Where possible, this edition of "What's New in Python"
links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront
Systems(5) of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a lot of
effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his
scripts for this import operation are at
‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ and may be useful to
other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://bugs.python.org’

     The Python bug tracker.

‘https://bugs.jython.org’:

     The Jython bug tracker.

‘https://roundup.sourceforge.io/’

     Roundup downloads and documentation.

‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’

     Martin von Löwis's conversion scripts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/

   (2) https://launchpad.net/

   (3) https://roundup.sourceforge.io/

   (4) https://trac.edgewall.org/

   (5) https://upfrontsoftware.co.za


File: python.info,  Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Prev: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.16.2.2 New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
................................................................

The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
was printed out for later study, not viewed online.  LaTeX was widely
used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
learned.

Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
L.  Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of
time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
the time required to finish the job.

During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into
building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
‘https://www.sphinx-doc.org/’.

Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting
custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python
community.

Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost
two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site(1)) have adopted
Sphinx as their documentation tool.

Voir aussi
..........

Documenting Python(2)

     Describes how to write for Python's documentation.

Sphinx(3)

     Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.

Docutils(4)

     The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/documenting/

   (3) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (4) https://docutils.sourceforge.io


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The 'with' statement,  Next: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Prev: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.3 PEP 343: The 'with' statement
------------------------------------

The previous version, Python 2.5, added the '*note with: 5be.' statement
as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import
with_statement’ directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be
specially enabled; this means that ‘with’ is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the
"What's New in Python 2.5" document; if you're familiar with the
'‘with’' statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.

The '*note with: 5be.' statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I'll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The '*note with: 5be.' statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods).

The object's *note __enter__(): 5b4. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object's *note
__exit__(): 12e0. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the '*note with: 5be.' statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 2e7. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     Note: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     508, because *note __enter__(): 5b4. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: ec. module's locks and condition variables also
support the '*note with: 5be.' statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 36. module makes it
easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates
the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte::
* Le module contextlib::


File: python.info,  Node: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte,  Next: Le module contextlib,  Up: PEP 343 The 'with' statement

1.16.3.1 Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte
.............................................

Under the hood, the '*note with: 5be.' statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use '‘with’' in company with existing objects and
don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     "context manager".  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods.

   * The context manager's *note __enter__(): 5b4. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘as VAR’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * Le code dans 'BLOCK' est exécuté.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the context manager's *note
     __exit__(): 12e0. method is called with three arguments, the
     exception details (‘type, value, traceback’, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 677, which can also be ‘None’ if
     no exception occurred).  The method's return value controls whether
     an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception,
     and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.  You'll only rarely want
     to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code
     containing the '*note with: 5be.' statement will never realize
     anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn't raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 12e0.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let's think through an example.  I won't present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there's an exception.  Here's the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I'll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor(self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit(self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback(self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 5b4. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their '*note with: 5be.' statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__(self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 12e0. method is the most complicated because it's
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 9be. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: Le module contextlib,  Prev: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte,  Up: PEP 343 The 'with' statement

1.16.3.2 Le module 'contextlib'
...............................

The *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a decorator
that are useful when writing objects for use with the '*note with: 5be.'
statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 9bd.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 5b4. method, and the value
yielded will be the method's return value that will get bound to the
variable in the '*note with: 5be.' statement's ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 12e0.
method.  Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’
statement.

Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
could be written as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction(connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to
write nested '*note with: 5be.' statements.  In this example, the single
'‘with’' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing()’ function returns its argument so that it can be
bound to a variable, and calls the argument's ‘.close()’ method at the
end of the block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 343(1) - The "with" statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a '*note with: 5be.' statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Next: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Prev: PEP 343 The 'with' statement,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.4 PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
------------------------------------------------------------

Python's *note -m: 5cd. switch allows running a module as a script.
When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
imports didn't work correctly.

The fix for Python 2.6 adds a *note module.__package__: 2d6. attribute.
When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the
value of this attribute instead of the *note __name__: 1361. attribute.

PEP 302-style importers can then set *note __package__: 2d6. as
necessary.  The *note runpy: bd. module that implements the *note -m:
5cd. switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly
in scripts running from inside a package.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Next: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Prev: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.5 PEP 370: Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory
--------------------------------------------------

When you run Python, the module search path ‘sys.path’ usually includes
a directory whose path ends in ‘"site-packages"’.  This directory is
intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using
a machine or a particular site installation.

Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
The directory varies depending on the platform:

   * UNIX et Mac OS X : ‘~/.local/’

   * Windows : ‘%APPDATA%/Python’

Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
such as ‘lib/python2.6/site-packages’ on Unix/Mac OS and
‘Python26/site-packages’ on Windows.

If you don't like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
environment variable.  *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1363. sets the root
directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
setting the ‘APPDATA’ environment variable.  You can also modify the
‘site.py’ file for your Python installation.

The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the *note
-s: 1364. option or setting the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1365.
environment variable.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 370(1) - Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory

     PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Next: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Prev: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.6 PEP 371: The ‘multiprocessing’ Package
---------------------------------------------

The new *note multiprocessing: 93. package lets Python programs create
new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and
pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can
share simple arrays of data.

The *note multiprocessing: 93. module started out as an exact emulation
of the *note threading: ec. module using processes instead of threads.
That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class is the
‘Process’, which is passed a callable object and a collection of
arguments.  The ‘start()’ method sets the callable running in a
subprocess, after which you can call the ‘is_alive()’ method to check
whether the subprocess is still running and the ‘join()’ method to wait
for the process to exit.

Here's a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial.
The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes
significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4.

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue


     def factorial(queue, N):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
         if (N % 4) == 0:
             time.sleep(.05 * N/4)

         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Put the result on the queue
         queue.put(fact)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         queue = Queue()

         N = 5

         p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         result = queue.get()
         print 'Factorial', N, '=', result

A *note Queue: 1367. is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
The *note Queue: 1367. object is stored in a global variable.  The child
process will use the value of the variable when the child was created;
because it's a *note Queue: 1367, parent and child can use the object to
communicate.  (If the parent were to change the value of the global
variable, the child's value would be unaffected, and vice versa.)

Two other classes, ‘Pool’ and ‘Manager’, provide higher-level
interfaces.  ‘Pool’ will create a fixed number of worker processes, and
requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling ‘apply()’ or
‘apply_async()’ to add a single request, and *note map(): 850. or
‘map_async()’ to add a number of requests.  The following code uses a
‘Pool’ to spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list
of results:

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         ...
     p = Pool(5)
     result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
     for v in result:
         print v

Ceci produit l’affichage suivant :

     1
     39916800
     51090942171709440000
     8222838654177922817725562880000000
     33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     ...

The other high-level interface, the ‘Manager’ class, creates a separate
server process that can hold master copies of Python data structures.
Other processes can then access and modify these data structures using
proxy objects.  The following example creates a shared dictionary by
calling the *note dict(): 253. method; the worker processes then insert
values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not done for you automatically,
which doesn't matter in this example.  ‘Manager’'s methods also include
‘Lock()’, ‘RLock()’, and ‘Semaphore()’ to create shared locks.)

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Store result in dictionary
         dictionary[N] = fact

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Pool(5)
         mgr = Manager()
         d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary

         # Run tasks using the pool
         for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
             p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))

         # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
         p.close()

         # Wait for tasks to exit
         p.join()

         # Output results
         for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
             print k, v

This will produce the output:

     1 1
     11 39916800
     21 51090942171709440000
     31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
     41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...

Voir aussi
..........

The documentation for the *note multiprocessing: 93. module.

PEP 371(1) - Addition of the multiprocessing package

     PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by
     Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Next: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Prev: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.7 PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
-------------------------------------------

In Python 3.0, the ‘%’ operator is supplemented by a more powerful
string formatting method, *note format(): 60c.  Support for the *note
str.format(): 60e. method has been backported to Python 2.6.

In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a ‘.format()’ method that
treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
The formatting template uses curly brackets (‘{’, ‘}’) as special
characters:

     >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
     >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
     'User ID: root'
     >>> # Use the named keyword arguments
     >>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
     ...    uid="root",
     ...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
     'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'

Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:

     >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
     "Empty dict: {}"

Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
‘{0}’, ‘{1}’, etc.  or names of keyword arguments.  You can also supply
compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:

     >>> import sys
     >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
     Platform: darwin
     Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
     [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
     'Content-type: video/mp4'

Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ‘[.mp4]’, you
don't need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up
the value using ‘.mp4’ as the key.  Strings beginning with a number will
be converted to an integer.  You can't write more complicated
expressions inside a format string.

So far we've shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example:

     >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
     >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
     >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
     >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
     'Registration    $    35'
     >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
     'Tutorial        $    50'
     >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
     'Banquet         $   125'

Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:

     >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
     >>> width = 15
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234  '
     >>> width = 35
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234                      '

The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:

Caractère            Effect
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
< (par défaut)       Left-align
                     
                     
>                    Right-align
                     
                     
^                    Center
                     
                     
=                    (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.
                     

Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls
how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers can be
formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:

     >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
     '3.75'
     >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
     '3.750000e+00'

A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
documentation for a *note complete list: 1369.; here's a sample:

‘b’       Format binaire.  Affiche le nombre en base 2.
          
          
‘c’       Caractère.  Convertit l'entier en le caractère Unicode associé avant de
          l'afficher.
          
          
‘d’       Entier décimal.  Affiche le nombre en base 10.
          
          
‘o’       Format octal.  Affiche le nombre en base 8.
          
          
‘x’       Format hexadécimal.  Affiche le nombre en base 16 en utilisant les lettres
          minuscules pour les chiffres au-dessus de 9.
          
          
‘e’       Exponent notation.  Prints the number in scientific notation using the
          letter 'e' to indicate the exponent.
          
          
‘g’       General format.  This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
          the number is too large, in which case it switches to 'e' exponent
          notation.
          
          
‘n’       Number.  This is the same as 'g' (for floats) or 'd' (for integers),
          except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
          number separator characters.
          
          
‘%’       Pourcentage.  Multiplie le nombre par 100 et l'affiche en virgule fixe
          ('f'), suivi d'un symbole pourcent ‘'%'’.
          

Classes and types can define a ‘__format__()’ method to control how
they're formatted.  It receives a single argument, the format specifier:

     def __format__(self, format_spec):
         if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
             return unicode(str(self))
         else:
             return str(self)

There's also a *note format(): 60c. builtin that will format a single
value.  It calls the type's ‘__format__()’ method with the provided
specifier:

     >>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
     '75.66'

Voir aussi
..........

*note Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369.

     The reference documentation for format fields.

PEP 3101(1) - Advanced String Formatting

     PEP written by Talin.  Implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Next: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.8 PEP 3105: ‘print’ As a Function
--------------------------------------

The ‘print’ statement becomes the *note print(): f62. function in Python
3.0.  Making *note print(): f62. a function makes it possible to replace
the function by doing ‘def print(...)’ or importing a new function from
somewhere else.

Python 2.6 has a ‘__future__’ import that removes ‘print’ as language
syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example:

     >>> from __future__ import print_function
     >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)

The signature of the new function is:

     def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)

The parameters are:

   * 'args': positional arguments whose values will be printed out.

   * 'sep': the separator, which will be printed between arguments.

   * 'end': the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
     arguments have been output.

   * 'file': the file object to which the output will be sent.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3105(1) - Make print a function

     PEP written by Georg Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Next: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Prev: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.9 PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
-------------------------------------------

One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the
following code:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
         ...

The author is probably trying to catch both *note TypeError: 525. and
*note ValueError: 1ff. exceptions, but this code actually does something
different: it will catch *note TypeError: 525. and bind the resulting
exception object to the local name ‘"ValueError"’.  The *note
ValueError: 1ff. exception will not be caught at all.  The correct code
specifies a tuple of exceptions:

     try:
         ...
     except (TypeError, ValueError):
         ...

This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does
it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node
that's a tuple?

Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
"as".  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
variable ‘exc’, you must write:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError as exc:
         ...

Python 3.0 will only support the use of "as", and therefore interprets
the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
supports both the comma and "as", so existing code will continue to
work.  We therefore suggest using "as" when writing new Python code that
will only be executed with 2.6.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3110(1) - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000

     PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Next: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Prev: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.10 PEP 3112: Byte Literals
-------------------------------

Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language's fundamental string type and
denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ‘b'string'’ or using a
*note bytes: 1bd. constructor.  For future compatibility, Python 2.6
adds *note bytes: 1bd. as a synonym for the *note str: 437. type, and it
also supports the ‘b''’ notation.

The 2.6 *note str: 437. differs from 3.0's *note bytes: 1bd. type in
various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In
3.0, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
representing ‘ABC’; in 2.6, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ returns the 12-byte
string representing the *note str(): 437. of the list.

The primary use of *note bytes: 1bd. in 2.6 will be to write tests of
object type such as ‘isinstance(x, bytes)’.  This will help the 2to3
converter, which can't tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain
either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either *note bytes:
1bd. or *note str: 437. to represent your intention exactly, and the
resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.

There's also a ‘__future__’ import that causes all string literals to
become Unicode strings.  This means that ‘\u’ escape sequences can be
used to include Unicode characters:

     from __future__ import unicode_literals

     s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
          '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')

     print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters

At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type,
called ‘PyStringObject’ in Python 2.x, to *note PyBytesObject: 77e.
Python 2.6 uses ‘#define’ to support using the names *note
PyBytesObject(): 77e, *note PyBytes_Check(): 136d, *note
PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 136e, and all the other functions and
macros used with strings.

Instances of the *note bytes: 1bd. type are immutable just as strings
are.  A new *note bytearray: 52b. type stores a mutable sequence of
bytes:

     >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
     bytearray(b'ABC')
     >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> b[0] = '\xe3'
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
     u'\u31ef \u3244'

Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
‘startswith()’/‘endswith()’, ‘find()’/‘rfind()’, and some of the methods
of lists, such as ‘append()’, ‘pop()’, and ‘reverse()’.

     >>> b = bytearray('ABC')
     >>> b.append('d')
     >>> b.append(ord('e'))
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'ABCde')

There's also a corresponding C API, with *note PyByteArray_FromObject():
136f, *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1370, and various other
functions.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3112(1) - Bytes literals in Python 3000

     PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian
     Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Next: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Prev: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.11 PEP 3116: New I/O Library
---------------------------------

Python's built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
file-like objects don't necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
imitate files usually support ‘read()’ and ‘write()’, but they may not
support *note readline(): b9, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces a
layered I/O library in the *note io: 7e. module that separates buffering
and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
operations.

There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the *note
io: 7e. module:

   * ‘RawIOBase’ defines raw I/O operations: ‘read()’, ‘readinto()’,
     ‘write()’, ‘seek()’, ‘tell()’, ‘truncate()’, and ‘close()’.  Most
     of the methods of this class will often map to a single system
     call.  There are also ‘readable()’, ‘writable()’, and ‘seekable()’
     methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.

     Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
     sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn't restructured its file and socket
     objects in this way.

   * ‘BufferedIOBase’ is an abstract base class that buffers data in
     memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making I/O
     processing more efficient.  It supports all of the methods of
     ‘RawIOBase’, and adds a ‘raw’ attribute holding the underlying raw
     object.

     There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
     ‘BufferedWriter’ and ‘BufferedReader’ are for objects that support
     write-only or read-only usage that have a ‘seek()’ method for
     random access.  ‘BufferedRandom’ objects support read and write
     access upon the same underlying stream, and ‘BufferedRWPair’ is for
     objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations
     acting upon unconnected streams of data.  The ‘BytesIO’ class
     supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory buffer.

   * ‘TextIOBase’: Provides functions for reading and writing strings
     (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and supporting
     *note universal newlines: d2a.  ‘TextIOBase’ defines the *note
     readline(): b9. method and supports iteration upon objects.

     There are two concrete implementations.  ‘TextIOWrapper’ wraps a
     buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text I/O and
     adding a ‘buffer’ attribute for access to the underlying object.
     ‘StringIO’ simply buffers everything in memory without ever writing
     anything to disk.

     (In Python 2.6, *note io.StringIO: f14. is implemented in pure
     Python, so it's pretty slow.  You should therefore stick with the
     existing ‘StringIO’ module or ‘cStringIO’ for now.  At some point
     Python 3.0's *note io: 7e. module will be rewritten into C for
     speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the
     2.x releases.)

In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven't been restructured
to build on top of the *note io: 7e. module's classes.  The module is
being provided to make it easier to write code that's forward-compatible
with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own
implementations of buffering and text I/O.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3116(1) - New I/O

     PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van
     Rossum.  Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
     Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Next: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.12 PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
-----------------------------------------

The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange
pointers into their internal representations.  A memory-mapped file can
be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another
module such as *note re: b8. treat memory-mapped files as a string of
characters to be searched.

The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages
such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so
that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going
through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of
experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such
as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.

The most important new C API function is ‘PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject
*obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)’, which takes an object and a set of
flags, and fills in the ‘Py_buffer’ structure with information about the
object's memory representation.  Objects can use this operation to lock
memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the
contents, so there's a corresponding ‘PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)’
to indicate that the external caller is done.

The 'flags' argument to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. specifies
constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:

   * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. indicates that the memory must be
     writable.

   * ‘PyBUF_LOCK’ requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.

   * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 1374. and *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 1375.
     requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
     Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array
     layout.

Two new argument codes for *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f, ‘s*’ and ‘z*’,
return locked buffer objects for a parameter.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3118(1) - Revising the buffer protocol

     PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
     Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Next: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Prev: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.13 PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
---------------------------------------

Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
feature for Python.  The ABC support consists of an *note abc: 4. module
containing a metaclass called ‘ABCMeta’, special handling of this
metaclass by the *note isinstance(): 42d. and *note issubclass(): 7ad.
builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
add more ABCs.

Let's say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it
supports dictionary-style access.  The phrase "dictionary-style" is
vague, however.  It probably means that accessing items with ‘obj[1]’
works.  Does it imply that setting items with ‘obj[2] = value’ works?
Or that the object will have ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’
methods?  What about the iterative variants such as ‘iterkeys()’?  *note
copy(): 25. and ‘update()’?  Iterating over the object with *note
iter(): 7c3.?

The Python 2.6 *note collections: 1d. module includes a number of
different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  ‘Iterable’ indicates
that a class defines ‘__iter__()’, and ‘Container’ means the class
defines a ‘__contains__()’ method and therefore supports ‘x in y’
expressions.  The basic dictionary interface of getting items, setting
items, and ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’, is defined by the
‘MutableMapping’ ABC.

You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they
support that ABC's interface:

     import collections

     class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
         ...

Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the
desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC's
‘register()’ method:

     import collections

     class Storage:
         ...

     collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)

For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
The ‘register()’ method is useful when you've written a new ABC that can
describe an existing type or class, or if you want to declare that some
third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if you defined a
‘PrintableType’ ABC, it's legal to do:

     # Register Python's types
     PrintableType.register(int)
     PrintableType.register(float)
     PrintableType.register(str)

Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can't
check this; it's up to the class author to understand the ABC's
requirements and to implement the code accordingly.

To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now
write:

     def func(d):
         if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
             raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)

Don't feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an
object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
exception if they aren't.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do
it where it's absolutely necessary.

You can write your own ABCs by using ‘abc.ABCMeta’ as the metaclass in a
class definition:

     from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

     class Drawable():
         __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

         @abstractmethod
         def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
             pass

         def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
             self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)


     class Square(Drawable):
         def draw(self, x, y, scale):
             ...

In the ‘Drawable’ ABC above, the ‘draw_doubled()’ method renders the
object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other
methods described in ‘Drawable’.  Classes implementing this ABC
therefore don't need to provide their own implementation of
‘draw_doubled()’, though they can do so.  An implementation of ‘draw()’
is necessary, though; the ABC can't provide a useful generic
implementation.

You can apply the ‘@abstractmethod’ decorator to methods such as
‘draw()’ that must be implemented; Python will then raise an exception
for classes that don't define the method.  Note that the exception is
only raised when you actually try to create an instance of a subclass
lacking the method:

     >>> class Circle(Drawable):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = Circle()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
     >>>

Abstract data attributes can be declared using the ‘@abstractproperty’
decorator:

     from abc import abstractproperty
     ...

     @abstractproperty
     def readonly(self):
        return self._x

Subclasses must then define a ‘readonly()’ property.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3119(1) - Introduction aux classes de bases abstraites

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum.  Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex
     Martelli.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Next: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Prev: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.14 PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
----------------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
prefixing them with "0o" or "0O" instead of a leading zero, and adds
support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a "0b" or
"0B" prefix.

Python 2.6 doesn't drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal
number, but it does add support for "0o" and "0b":

     >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
     (17, 17)
     >>> 0b101111
     47

The *note oct(): 12ae. builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a
leading zero, and a new *note bin(): 1288. builtin returns the binary
representation for a number:

     >>> oct(42)
     '052'
     >>> future_builtins.oct(42)
     '0o52'
     >>> bin(173)
     '0b10101101'

The *note int(): 254. and ‘long()’ builtins will now accept the "0o" and
"0b" prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the 'base'
argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined
from the string):

     >>> int ('0o52', 0)
     42
     >>> int('1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 0)
     13

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3127(1) - Integer Literal Support and Syntax

     PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Next: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Prev: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.15 PEP 3129: Class Decorators
----------------------------------

Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It's now legal
to write:

     @foo
     @bar
     class A:
       pass

C’est équivalent à :

     class A:
       pass

     A = foo(bar(A))

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3129(1) - Décorateurs de classes

     PEP written by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Next: Autres changements au langage<15>,  Prev: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.16 PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
----------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired
by Scheme's numeric tower.  These classes were backported to 2.6 as the
*note numbers: 9d. module.

The most general ABC is ‘Number’.  It defines no operations at all, and
only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing
‘isinstance(obj, Number)’.

‘Complex’ is a subclass of ‘Number’.  Complex numbers can undergo the
basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and
obtain a number's conjugate.  Python's built-in complex type is an
implementation of ‘Complex’.

‘Real’ further derives from ‘Complex’, and adds operations that only
work on real numbers: ‘floor()’, ‘trunc()’, rounding, taking the
remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons.

‘Rational’ numbers derive from ‘Real’, have ‘numerator’ and
‘denominator’ properties, and can be converted to floats.  Python 2.6
adds a simple rational-number class, ‘Fraction’, in the *note fractions:
5c. module.  (It's called ‘Fraction’ instead of ‘Rational’ to avoid a
name clash with *note numbers.Rational: 129e.)

‘Integral’ numbers derive from ‘Rational’, and can be shifted left and
right with ‘<<’ and ‘>>’, combined using bitwise operations such as ‘&’
and ‘|’, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.

In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins *note
round(): 12ba, *note math.floor(): 137a, *note math.ceil(): 137b, and
adds a new one, *note math.trunc(): 137c, that's been backported to
Python 2.6.  *note math.trunc(): 137c. rounds toward zero, returning the
closest ‘Integral’ that's between the function's argument and zero.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3141(1) - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

     PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.

Scheme's numerical tower(2), from the Guile manual.

Scheme's number datatypes(3) from the R5RS Scheme specification.

* Menu:

* The fractions Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower

   (3) 
https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2


File: python.info,  Node: The fractions Module,  Up: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

1.16.16.1 The ‘fractions’ Module
................................

To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the *note fractions: 5c.
module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
exactly represent numbers such as ‘2/3’ that floating-point numbers can
only approximate.

The ‘Fraction’ constructor takes two ‘Integral’ values that will be the
numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
     >>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
     >>> float(a), float(b)
     (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
     >>> a+b
     Fraction(16, 15)
     >>> a/b
     Fraction(5, 3)

For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now
has an ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method that returns the numerator and
denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point
value:

     >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
     (5, 2)
     >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
     (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
     >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
     (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)

Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
'exactly'.

The *note fractions: 5c. module is based upon an implementation by
Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python's ‘Demo/classes/’ directory for a
long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
Yasskin.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<15>,  Next: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.17 Autres changements au langage
-------------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first
     entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu,
     subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note hasattr(): 4be. function was catching and ignoring all
     errors, under the assumption that they meant a ‘__getattr__()’
     method was failing somehow and the return value of *note hasattr():
     4be. would therefore be ‘False’.  This logic shouldn't be applied
     to *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. and *note SystemExit: d30,
     however; Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when
     *note hasattr(): 4be. encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-2196(2).)

   * When calling a function using the ‘**’ syntax to provide keyword
     arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
     any mapping will now work:

          >>> def f(**kw):
          ...    print sorted(kw)
          ...
          >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
          >>> ud['a'] = 1
          >>> ud['b'] = 'string'
          >>> f(**ud)
          ['a', 'b']

     (Contribution par Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1686487(3).)

     It's also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ‘*args’
     argument to a function call.

          >>> def f(*args, **kw):
          ...     print args, kw
          ...
          >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
          (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}

     Previously this would have been a syntax error.  (Contributed by
     Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-3473(4).)

   * A new builtin, ‘next(iterator, [default])’ returns the next item
     from the specified iterator.  If the 'default' argument is
     supplied, it will be returned if 'iterator' has been exhausted;
     otherwise, the *note StopIteration: bea. exception will be raised.
     (Backported in bpo-2719(5).)

   * Tuples now have ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods matching the list
     type's ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods:

          >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
          >>> t.index(3)
          3
          >>> t.count(0)
          2

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)

   * The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing
     syntax, accepting various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’.
     Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases
     wouldn't work.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

   * Properties now have three attributes, ‘getter’, ‘setter’ and
     ‘deleter’, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for
     adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
     property.  You would use them like this:

          class C(object):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  return self._x

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              @x.deleter
              def x(self):
                  del self._x

          class D(C):
              @C.x.getter
              def x(self):
                  return self._x * 2

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value / 2

   * Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple
     iterables: ‘intersection()’, ‘intersection_update()’, ‘union()’,
     ‘update()’, ‘difference()’ and ‘difference_update()’.

          >>> s=set('1234567890')
          >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
          set(['2'])
          >>> s.difference('246', '789')
          set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Many floating-point features were added.  The *note float(): 2ec.
     function will now turn the string ‘nan’ into an IEEE 754 Not A
     Number value, and ‘+inf’ and ‘-inf’ into positive or negative
     infinity.  This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(6).)

     Other functions in the *note math: 8d. module, ‘isinf()’ and
     ‘isnan()’, return true if their floating-point argument is infinite
     or Not A Number.  (bpo-1640(7))

     Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
     into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008(8)).  These functions convert
     floats to and from a string representation without introducing
     rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary.
     Floats have a *note hex(): 12af. method that returns a string
     representation, and the ‘float.fromhex()’ method converts a string
     back into a number:

          >>> a = 3.75
          >>> a.hex()
          '0x1.e000000000000p+1'
          >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
          3.75
          >>> b=1./3
          >>> b.hex()
          '0x1.5555555555555p-2'

   * A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
     on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the *note
     complex(): 2ed. constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero.
     (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507(9).)

   * Classes that inherit a ‘__hash__()’ method from a parent class can
     set ‘__hash__ = None’ to indicate that the class isn't hashable.
     This will make ‘hash(obj)’ raise a *note TypeError: 525. and the
     class will not be indicated as implementing the ‘Hashable’ ABC.

     You should do this when you've defined a ‘__cmp__()’ or ‘__eq__()’
     method that compares objects by their value rather than by
     identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
     ‘id(obj)’ as the hash value.  There's no tidy way to remove the
     ‘__hash__()’ method inherited from a parent class, so assigning
     ‘None’ was implemented as an override.  At the C level, extensions
     can set ‘tp_hash’ to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 137f.
     (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-2235(10).)

   * The *note GeneratorExit: 1380. exception now subclasses *note
     BaseException: 5a7. instead of *note Exception: 9c9.  This means
     that an exception handler that does ‘except Exception:’ will not
     inadvertently catch *note GeneratorExit: 1380.  (Contributed by
     Chad Austin; bpo-1537(11).)

   * Generator objects now have a ‘gi_code’ attribute that refers to the
     original code object backing the generator.  (Contributed by Collin
     Winter; bpo-1473257(12).)

   * The *note compile(): 190. built-in function now accepts keyword
     arguments as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Wouters; bpo-1444529(13).)

   * The *note complex(): 2ed. constructor now accepts strings
     containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that
     ‘complex(repr(cplx))’ will now round-trip values.  For example,
     ‘complex('(3+4j)')’ now returns the value (3+4j).
     (bpo-1491866(14))

   * The string ‘translate()’ method now accepts ‘None’ as the
     translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
     transformation.  This makes it easier to carry out operations that
     only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
     implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128(15).)

   * The built-in *note dir(): 61f. function now checks for a
     ‘__dir__()’ method on the objects it receives.  This method must
     return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes
     for the object, and lets the object control the value that *note
     dir(): 61f. produces.  Objects that have ‘__getattr__()’ or
     ‘__getattribute__()’ methods can use this to advertise
     pseudo-attributes they will honor.  (bpo-1591665(16))

   * Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and
     function comprising the method; the new synonym for ‘im_self’ is
     *note __self__: 1381, and ‘im_func’ is also available as *note
     __func__: 12dc.  The old names are still supported in Python 2.6,
     but are gone in 3.0.

   * An obscure change: when you use the *note locals(): 140. function
     inside a *note class: 12b7. statement, the resulting dictionary no
     longer returns free variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are
     variables referenced in the ‘class’ statement that aren't
     attributes of the class.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<9>,  Next: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Up: Autres changements au langage<15>

1.16.17.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The *note warnings: 111. module has been rewritten in C. This makes
     it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make
     the interpreter's startup faster.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and
     Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171(1).)

   * Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work
     required to find the correct method implementation for a particular
     class; once cached, the interpreter doesn't need to traverse base
     classes to figure out the right method to call.  The cache is
     cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the
     cache should remain correct even in the face of Python's dynamic
     nature.  (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated
     for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288(2).)

     By default, this change is only applied to types that are included
     with the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be
     compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ to the module's ‘tp_flags’ field to
     enable the method cache.  (To be compatible with the method cache,
     the extension module's code must not directly access and modify the
     ‘tp_dict’ member of any of the types it implements.  Most modules
     don't do this, but it's impossible for the Python interpreter to
     determine that.  See bpo-1878(3) for some discussion.)

   * Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
     by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
     full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after
     an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819(4).)

   * All of the functions in the *note struct: d4. module have been
     rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
     objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass
     of one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

   * Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and
     line breaks; this speeds up the ‘split()’ method by about 25% and
     ‘splitlines()’ by 35%.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory
     usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string's data.

   * The ‘with’ statement now stores the *note __exit__(): 12e0. method
     on the stack, producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey
     Yasskin.)

   * To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear
     internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation
     of objects.  This may return memory to the operating system sooner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<9>,  Up: Autres changements au langage<15>

1.16.17.2 Interpreter Changes
.............................

Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
implementations.  The *note -J: 1385. switch has been reserved for use
by Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed
to the underlying JVM. *note -X: 175. has been reserved for options
specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython,
Jython, or IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the
interpreter will report that the option isn't currently used.

Python can now be prevented from writing ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files by
supplying the *note -B: 1386. switch to the Python interpreter, or by
setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1387. environment variable
before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to Python
programs as the ‘sys.dont_write_bytecode’ variable, and Python code can
change the value to modify the interpreter's behaviour.  (Contributed by
Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be
specified by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: ff5. environment
variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
in the form ‘<encoding>’ or ‘<encoding>:<errorhandler>’.  The 'encoding'
part specifies the encoding's name, e.g.  ‘utf-8’ or ‘latin-1’; the
optional 'errorhandler' part specifies what to do with characters that
can't be handled by the encoding, and should be one of "error",
"ignore", or "replace".  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Deprecations and Removals,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<15>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.18 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’ modules are being actively maintained
     again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied.
     (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190(1) for one patch.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and
     the package is now available as a standalone package.  The web page
     for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm(2).  The
     plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python
     3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
     Python's.

     The ‘bsddb.dbshelve’ module now uses the highest pickling protocol
     available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
     (Contributed by W. Barnes.)

   * The ‘cgi’ module will now read variables from the query string of
     an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form actions
     with URLs that include query strings such as
     "/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1".  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
     Nubis; bpo-1817(3).)

     The ‘parse_qs()’ and ‘parse_qsl()’ functions have been relocated
     from the ‘cgi’ module to the *note urlparse: 109. module.  The
     versions still available in the ‘cgi’ module will trigger *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7. messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362(4)).

   * The *note cmath: 18. module underwent extensive revision,
     contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.  Five new
     functions were added:

        * ‘polar()’ converts a complex number to polar form, returning
          the modulus and argument of the complex number.

        * ‘rect()’ does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
          back into the corresponding complex number.

        * ‘phase()’ returns the argument (also called the angle) of a
          complex number.

        * ‘isnan()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is a NaN.

        * ‘isinf()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is infinite.

     The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the *note
     cmath: 18. module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary parts
     of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
     precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See bpo-1381(5) for the
     details.  The branch cuts for ‘asinh()’, ‘atanh()’: and ‘atan()’
     have also been corrected.

     The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000
     new test cases exercise the algebraic functions.

     On IEEE 754 platforms, the *note cmath: 18. module now handles IEEE
     754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner
     consistent with Annex 'G' of the C99 standard.

   * A new data type in the *note collections: 1d. module:
     ‘namedtuple(typename, fieldnames)’ is a factory function that
     creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are
     accessible by name as well as index.  For example:

          >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
          ...             'id name type size')
          >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
          >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
          >>> var_type._fields
          ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')

          >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
          >>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
          1 1
          >>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
          int int
          >>> var._asdict()
          {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
          >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
          >>> v2
          variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)

     Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
     been modified to return ‘namedtuple()’ instances.  For example, the
     ‘Decimal.as_tuple()’ method now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’,
     ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Another change to the *note collections: 1d. module is that the
     ‘deque’ type now supports an optional 'maxlen' parameter; if
     supplied, the deque's size will be restricted to no more than
     'maxlen' items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes old items
     to be discarded.

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
          >>> dq
          deque([], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
          >>> dq
          deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(4)
          >>> dq
          deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note Cookie: 70. module's *note Morsel: bf4. objects now
     support an *note httponly: 1389. attribute.  In some browsers.
     cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated
     by JavaScript code.  (Contributed by Arvin Schnell;
     bpo-1638033(6).)

   * A new window method in the *note curses: 2b. module, ‘chgat()’,
     changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters
     on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)

          # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
          # and affecting the rest of the line.
          stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)

     The ‘Textbox’ class in the *note curses.textpad: 2e. module now
     supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.  Insert
     mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the 'insert_mode'
     parameter when creating the ‘Textbox’ instance.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module's ‘strftime()’ methods now support a
     ‘%f’ format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
     object, zero-padded on the left to six places.  (Contributed by
     Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158(7).)

   * The *note decimal: 36. module was updated to version 1.66 of the
     General Decimal Specification(8).  New features include some
     methods for some basic mathematical functions such as ‘exp()’ and
     ‘log10()’:

          >>> Decimal(1).exp()
          Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
          >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
          Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
          >>> Decimal(1000).log10()
          Decimal("3")

     The ‘as_tuple()’ method of ‘Decimal’ objects now returns a named
     tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
     support added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module's ‘SequenceMatcher’ class now returns
     named tuples representing matches, with ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘size’
     attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. class constructor
     as well as the ‘connect()’ method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
     Also, the ‘FTP’ class's ‘storbinary()’ and ‘storlines()’ now take
     an optional 'callback' parameter that will be called with each
     block of data after the data has been sent.  (Contributed by Phil
     Schwartz; bpo-1221598(9).)

   * The ‘reduce()’ built-in function is also available in the *note
     functools: 5e. module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped
     and ‘reduce()’ is only available from *note functools: 5e.;
     currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
     (Patched by Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906(10).)

   * When possible, the *note getpass: 61. module will now use
     ‘/dev/tty’ to print a prompt message and read the password, falling
     back to standard error and standard input.  If the password may be
     echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is
     displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

   * The *note glob.glob(): 29c. function can now return Unicode
     filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are
     matched within the directory.  (bpo-1001604(11))

   * A new function in the *note heapq: 68. module, ‘merge(iter1, iter2,
     ...)’, takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
     order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
     the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example:

          >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
          [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]

     Another new function, ‘heappushpop(heap, item)’, pushes 'item' onto
     'heap', then pops off and returns the smallest item.  This is more
     efficient than making a call to ‘heappush()’ and then ‘heappop()’.

     *note heapq: 68. is now implemented to only use less-than
     comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it
     previously used.  This makes *note heapq: 68.'s usage of a type
     match the *note list.sort(): bbf. method.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note httplib.HTTPConnection: b30. and
     *note HTTPSConnection: b31. class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
     Batista.)

   * Most of the *note inspect: 7d. module's functions, such as
     ‘getmoduleinfo()’ and ‘getargs()’, now return named tuples.  In
     addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value
     can also be accessed as attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     Some new functions in the module include ‘isgenerator()’,
     ‘isgeneratorfunction()’, and ‘isabstract()’.

   * The *note itertools: 80. module gained several new functions.

     ‘izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])’ makes tuples from
     each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
     others, the missing values are set to 'fillvalue'.  For example:

          >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
          ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))

     ‘product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])’ returns the Cartesian
     product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every
     possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
          [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
           (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
           (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]

     The optional 'repeat' keyword argument is used for taking the
     product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
     repeated 'N' times.  With a single iterable argument, 'N'-tuples
     are returned:

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
          [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
           (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]

     With two iterables, '2N'-tuples are returned.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
          [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
           (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
           (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
           (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]

     ‘combinations(iterable, r)’ returns sub-sequences of length 'r'
     from the elements of 'iterable'.

          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
          [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
           ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]

     ‘permutations(iter[, r])’ returns all the permutations of length
     'r' of the iterable's elements.  If 'r' is not specified, it will
     default to the number of elements produced by the iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
          [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
           (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
           (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
           (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]

     ‘itertools.chain(*iterables)’ is an existing function in *note
     itertools: 80. that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
     ‘itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)’ takes a single iterable
     that should return other iterables.  ‘chain()’ will then return all
     the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the
     second, and so on.

          >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

     (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note logging: 86. module's ‘FileHandler’ class and its
     subclasses ‘WatchedFileHandler’, ‘RotatingFileHandler’, and
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ now have an optional 'delay' parameter
     to their constructors.  If 'delay' is true, opening of the log file
     is deferred until the first ‘emit()’ call is made.  (Contributed by
     Vinay Sajip.)

     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ also has a 'utc' constructor parameter.
     If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when
     midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time
     will be used.

   * Several new functions were added to the *note math: 8d. module:

        * *note isinf(): 138a. and *note isnan(): 138b. determine
          whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or
          a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.

        * *note copysign(): 138c. copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754
          number, returning the absolute value of 'x' combined with the
          sign bit of 'y'.  For example, ‘math.copysign(1, -0.0)’
          returns -1.0.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

        * *note factorial(): 936. computes the factorial of a number.
          (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138(12).)

        * *note fsum(): 138d. adds up the stream of numbers from an
          iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through
          using partial sums.  (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond
          Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819(13).)

        * *note acosh(): 138e, *note asinh(): 138f. and *note atanh():
          1390. compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.

        * *note log1p(): 1391. returns the natural logarithm of '1+x'
          (base 'e').

        * ‘trunc()’ rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
          ‘Integral’ that's between the function's argument and zero.
          Added as part of the backport of *note PEP 3141's type
          hierarchy for numbers: 129d.

   * The *note math: 8d. module has been improved to give more
     consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to
     handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.

     Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the
     C99 standard about 754's special values.  For example, ‘sqrt(-1.)’
     should now give a *note ValueError: 1ff. across almost all
     platforms, while ‘sqrt(float('NaN'))’ should return a NaN on all
     IEEE 754 platforms.  Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling 'divide-by-zero' or 'invalid', Python will raise *note
     ValueError: 1ff.  Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling 'overflow', Python will raise *note OverflowError: 86f.
     (See bpo-711019(14) and bpo-1640(15).)

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)

   * *note mmap: 208. objects now have a ‘rfind()’ method that searches
     for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
     backwards.  The ‘find()’ method also gained an 'end' parameter
     giving an index at which to stop searching.  (Contributed by John
     Lenton.)

   * The *note operator: 9e. module gained a ‘methodcaller()’ function
     that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a
     callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed
     to it.  For example:

          >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
          >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
          >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
          'new wine in new bottles'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory
     Petrosyan.)

     The ‘attrgetter()’ function now accepts dotted names and performs
     the corresponding attribute lookups:

          >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
          ...        '__class__.__name__')
          >>> inst_name('')
          'str'
          >>> inst_name(help)
          '_Helper'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note os: a0. module now wraps several new system calls.
     ‘fchmod(fd, mode)’ and ‘fchown(fd, uid, gid)’ change the mode and
     ownership of an opened file, and ‘lchmod(path, mode)’ changes the
     mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
     Heimes.)

     ‘chflags()’ and ‘lchflags()’ are wrappers for the corresponding
     system calls (where they're available), changing the flags set on a
     file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in the *note stat:
     d0. module; some possible values include ‘UF_IMMUTABLE’ to signal
     the file may not be changed and ‘UF_APPEND’ to indicate that data
     can only be appended to the file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)

     ‘os.closerange(low, high)’ efficiently closes all file descriptors
     from 'low' to 'high', ignoring any errors and not including 'high'
     itself.  This function is now used by the *note subprocess: d5.
     module to make starting processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-1663329(16).)

   * The ‘os.environ’ object's ‘clear()’ method will now unset the
     environment variables using *note os.unsetenv(): 90a. in addition
     to clearing the object's keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka;
     bpo-1181(17).)

   * The *note os.walk(): 495. function now has a ‘followlinks’
     parameter.  If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to
     directories and visit the directory's contents.  For backward
     compatibility, the parameter's default value is false.  Note that
     the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there's a
     symlink that points to a parent directory.  (bpo-1273829(18))

   * In the *note os.path: a1. module, the ‘splitext()’ function has
     been changed to not split on leading period characters.  This
     produces better results when operating on Unix's dot-files.  For
     example, ‘os.path.splitext('.ipython')’ now returns ‘('.ipython',
     '')’ instead of ‘('', '.ipython')’.  (bpo-1115886(19))

     A new function, ‘os.path.relpath(path, start='.')’, returns a
     relative path from the ‘start’ path, if it's supplied, or from the
     current working directory to the destination ‘path’.  (Contributed
     by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796(20).)

     On Windows, *note os.path.expandvars(): 1392. will now expand
     environment variables given in the form "%var%", and "~user" will
     be expanded into the user's home directory path.  (Contributed by
     Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(21).)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a4. module gained a
     new command: "run" restarts the Python program being debugged and
     can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
     (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667(22).)

   * The *note pdb.post_mortem(): 1393. function, used to begin
     debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): 677. if no traceback is supplied.  (Contributed by
     Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316(23).)

   * The *note pickletools: a6. module now has an ‘optimize()’ function
     that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
     opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data
     structure.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A ‘get_data()’ function was added to the *note pkgutil: a8. module
     that returns the contents of resource files included with an
     installed Python package.  For example:

          >>> import pkgutil
          >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
          BaseException
           +-- SystemExit
           +-- KeyboardInterrupt
           +-- GeneratorExit
           +-- Exception
                +-- StopIteration
                +-- StandardError
           ...

     (Contributed by Paul Moore; bpo-2439(24).)

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module's ‘Parser’ objects now allow setting their
     ‘buffer_size’ attribute to change the size of the buffer used to
     hold character data.  (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137(25).)

   * The ‘Queue’ module now provides queue variants that retrieve
     entries in different orders.  The ‘PriorityQueue’ class stores
     queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and
     ‘LifoQueue’ retrieves the most recently added entries first,
     meaning that it behaves like a stack.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note random: b7. module's ‘Random’ objects can now be pickled
     on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice
     versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6's
     ‘Random’ objects can't be unpickled correctly on earlier versions
     of Python.  (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780(26).)

     The new ‘triangular(low, high, mode)’ function returns random
     numbers following a triangular distribution.  The returned values
     are between 'low' and 'high', not including 'high' itself, and with
     'mode' as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution.
     (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger;
     bpo-1681432(27).)

   * Long regular expression searches carried out by the *note re: b8.
     module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming
     searches can now be interrupted.  (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and
     Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388(28).)

     The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
     for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code could
     create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so
     Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
     bpo-3487(29).)

   * The *note rlcompleter: bc. module's ‘Completer.complete()’ method
     will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
     (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250(30).)

   * The *note sched: be. module's ‘scheduler’ instances now have a
     read-only *note queue: b5. attribute that returns the contents of
     the scheduler's queue, represented as a list of named tuples with
     the fields ‘(time, priority, action, argument)’.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861(31).)

   * The *note select: c0. module now has wrapper functions for the
     Linux ‘epoll()’ and BSD ‘kqueue()’ system calls.  ‘modify()’ method
     was added to the existing ‘poll’ objects; ‘pollobj.modify(fd,
     eventmask)’ takes a file descriptor or file object and an event
     mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657(32).)

   * The *note shutil.copytree(): a19. function now has an optional
     'ignore' argument that takes a callable object.  This callable will
     receive each directory path and a list of the directory's contents,
     and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied.

     The *note shutil: c4. module also provides an ‘ignore_patterns()’
     function for use with this new parameter.  ‘ignore_patterns()’
     takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
     callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
     of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
     but skips both ‘.svn’ directories and Emacs backup files, which
     have names ending with '~':

          shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
                          ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))

     (Contribution par Tarek Ziadé; bpo-2663(33).)

   * Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like
     those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
     software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to
     check if any GUI events have occurred.  The *note signal: c5.
     module can now make this more efficient.  Calling
     ‘signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)’ sets a file descriptor to be used; when
     a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor.
     There's also a C-level function, *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd():
     1394, for setting the descriptor.

     Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two
     descriptors, one for reading and one for writing.  The writable
     descriptor will be passed to ‘set_wakeup_fd()’, and the readable
     descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by
     the event loop via ‘select()’ or ‘poll()’.  On receiving a signal,
     a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up,
     avoiding the need to poll.

     (Contributed by Adam Olsen; bpo-1583(34).)

     The ‘siginterrupt()’ function is now available from Python code,
     and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or
     not.  (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)

     The ‘setitimer()’ and ‘getitimer()’ functions have also been added
     (where they're available).  ‘setitimer()’ allows setting interval
     timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process
     after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed
     process time, or combined process+system time.  (Contributed by
     Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240(35).)

   * The *note smtplib: c9. module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to
     the addition of the ‘SMTP_SSL’ class.  This class supports an
     interface identical to the existing ‘SMTP’ class.  (Contributed by
     Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an optional
     ‘timeout’ parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial
     connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by Facundo
     Batista.)

     An implementation of the LMTP protocol ( RFC 2033(36)) was also
     added to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when
     transferring e-mail between agents that don't manage a mail queue.
     (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003(37).)

     ‘SMTP.starttls()’ now complies with RFC 3207(38) and forgets any
     knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
     negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
     bpo-829951(39).)

   * The *note socket: cb. module now supports TIPC
     (‘https://tipc.sourceforge.net/’), a high-performance non-IP-based
     protocol designed for use in clustered environments.  TIPC
     addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.  (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli;
     bpo-1646(40).)

     A new function, ‘create_connection()’, takes an address and
     connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
     connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address's
     type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.
     Changing your code to use ‘create_connection()’ instead of
     ‘socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)’ may be all that's required to make
     your code work with IPv6.

   * The base classes in the *note SocketServer: cc. module now support
     calling a *note handle_timeout(): 1301. method after a span of
     inactivity specified by the server's *note timeout: 1300.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.)  The *note
     serve_forever(): 1121. method now takes an optional poll interval
     measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check
     for a shutdown request.  (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-742598(41), bpo-1193577(42).)

   * The *note sqlite3: ce. module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has
     been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1.

   * The *note struct: d4. module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using
     the format character ‘'?'’.  (Contributed by David Remahl.)

   * The *note Popen: 197. objects provided by the *note subprocess: d5.
     module now have *note terminate(): 1395, *note kill(): 1396, and
     *note send_signal(): 1397. methods.  On Windows, ‘send_signal()’
     only supports the *note SIGTERM: 1398. signal, and all these
     methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * A new variable in the *note sys: d8. module, ‘float_info’, is an
     object containing information derived from the ‘float.h’ file about
     the platform's floating-point support.  Attributes of this object
     include ‘mant_dig’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘epsilon’
     (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
     representable), and several others.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes; bpo-1534(43).)

     Another new variable, ‘dont_write_bytecode’, controls whether
     Python writes any ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files on importing a module.  If
     this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
     variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the *note -B:
     1386. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1387. environment variable before running
     the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently change the value of
     this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not.
     (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

     Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
     interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple
     available as ‘sys.flags’.  For example, the ‘verbose’ attribute is
     true if Python was executed in verbose mode, ‘debug’ is true in
     debugging mode, etc.  These attributes are all read-only.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

     A new function, ‘getsizeof()’, takes a Python object and returns
     the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.
     Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may
     not, but can define a ‘__sizeof__()’ method to return the object's
     size.  (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898(44).)

     It's now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer
     functions by calling *note sys.getprofile(): 1399. and *note
     sys.gettrace(): 139a.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648(45).)

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax)
     tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar
     formats that were already supported.  The default format is GNU
     tar; specify the ‘format’ parameter to open a file using a
     different format:

          tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
                             format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)

     The new ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters specify an encoding and
     an error handling scheme for character conversions.  ‘'strict'’,
     ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ are the three standard ways Python can
     handle errors,; ‘'utf-8'’ is a special value that replaces bad
     characters with their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions
     occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting
     to UTF-8 encoding.)

     The ‘TarFile.add()’ method now accepts an ‘exclude’ argument that's
     a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an
     archive.  The function must take a filename and return true if the
     file should be excluded or false if it should be archived.  The
     function is applied to both the name initially passed to ‘add()’
     and to the names of files in recursively added directories.

     (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the ‘telnetlib.Telnet’
     class constructor, specifying a timeout measured in seconds.
     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4b2. class usually deletes
     the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
     behaviour can now be changed by passing ‘delete=False’ to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850(46).)

     A new class, ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’, behaves like a temporary file
     but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded.  On
     reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk
     temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)

     The ‘NamedTemporaryFile’ and ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’ classes both
     work as context managers, so you can write ‘with
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...’.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021(47).)

   * The *note test.test_support: e3. module gained a number of context
     managers useful for writing tests.  *note EnvironmentVarGuard():
     139b. is a context manager that temporarily changes environment
     variables and automatically restores them to their old values.

     Another context manager, ‘TransientResource’, can surround calls to
     resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
     ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example, a network test
     may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web
     site:

          with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
                                          errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
              f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
              ...

     Finally, ‘check_warnings()’ resets the ‘warning’ module's warning
     filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages
     triggered (bpo-3781(48)):

          with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
              warnings.simplefilter("always")
              # ... code that triggers a warning ...
              assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
              assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * The *note textwrap: eb. module can now preserve existing whitespace
     at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying
     ‘drop_whitespace=False’ as an argument:

          >>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
          ...   extra   whitespace."""
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
          This  sentence
          has a bunch
          of    extra
          whitespace.
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
          This  sentence
            has a bunch
             of    extra
             whitespace.
          >>>

     (Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; bpo-1581073(49).)

   * The *note threading: ec. module API is being changed to use
     properties such as ‘daemon’ instead of ‘setDaemon()’ and
     ‘isDaemon()’ methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
     underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the ‘activeCount()’
     method is renamed to ‘active_count()’.  Both the 2.6 and 3.0
     versions of the module support the same properties and renamed
     methods, but don't remove the old methods.  No date has been set
     for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs
     won't be removed in any 2.x version.  (Carried out by several
     people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)

     The *note threading: ec. module's ‘Thread’ objects gained an
     ‘ident’ property that returns the thread's identifier, a nonzero
     integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871(50).)

   * The *note timeit: ee. module now accepts callables as well as
     strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code.  Two
     convenience functions were added for creating ‘Timer’ instances:
     ‘repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)’ and ‘timeit(stmt,
     setup, time, number)’ create an instance and call the corresponding
     method.  (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909(51).)

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
     separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting
     value to Tcl/Tk.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906(52).)

   * The *note turtle: 100. module for turtle graphics was greatly
     enhanced by Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:

        * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.

        * Control over turtle movement using the new ‘delay()’,
          ‘tracer()’, and ‘speed()’ methods.

        * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a
          new coordinate system.

        * Turtles now have an ‘undo()’ method that can roll back
          actions.

        * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and
          keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games.

        * A ‘turtle.cfg’ file can be used to customize the starting
          appearance of the turtle's screen.

        * The module's docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that
          have been translated into another language.

     (bpo-1513695(53))

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     urllib.urlopen: 290. function and the ‘urllib.ftpwrapper’ class
     constructor, as well as the *note urllib2.urlopen: 290. function.
     The parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds.  For
     example:

          >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
                                  timeout=3)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
          >>>

     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 104. module
     has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by Martin von Löwis;
     bpo-3811(54).)

   * The *note warnings: 111. module's ‘formatwarning()’ and
     ‘showwarning()’ gained an optional 'line' argument that can be used
     to supply the line of source code.  (Added as part of
     bpo-1631171(55), which re-implemented part of the *note warnings:
     111. module in C code.)

     A new function, ‘catch_warnings()’, is a context manager intended
     for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning
     filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781(56)).

   * The XML-RPC *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12e. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 12e. classes can now be prevented from immediately
     opening and binding to their socket by passing ‘False’ as the
     'bind_and_activate' constructor parameter.  This can be used to
     modify the instance's ‘allow_reuse_address’ attribute before
     calling the ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ methods to open
     the socket and begin listening for connections.  (Contributed by
     Peter Parente; bpo-1599845(57).)

     ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’ also has a ‘_send_traceback_header’ attribute;
     if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP
     headers "X-Exception" and "X-Traceback".  This feature is for
     debugging purposes only and should not be used on production
     servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other
     sensitive information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of
     his project for Google's Summer of Code 2007.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12d. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 1c8. and *note datetime.time: 1c9. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 139c. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 1c9. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(58)) The code can also handle dates before 1900
     (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014(59)) and 64-bit integers
     represented by using ‘<i8>’ in XML-RPC responses (contributed by
     Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985(60)).

   * The *note zipfile: 130. module's ‘ZipFile’ class now has
     ‘extract()’ and ‘extractall()’ methods that will unpack a single
     file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
     to a specified directory:

          z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')

          # Unpack a single file, writing it relative
          # to the /tmp directory.
          z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')

          # Unpack all the files in the archive.
          z.extractall()

     (Contributed by Alan McIntyre; bpo-467924(61).)

     The *note open(): 508, ‘read()’ and ‘extract()’ methods can now
     take either a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object.  This is useful when
     an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
     (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025(62).)

     Finally, *note zipfile: 130. now supports using Unicode filenames
     for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov;
     bpo-1734346(63).)

* Menu:

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158

   (8) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346


File: python.info,  Node: The ast module,  Next: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.1 The ‘ast’ module
..........................

The *note ast: 8. module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation
of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions
that perform a variety of common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML
templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
Python code.

The ‘parse()’ function takes an expression and returns an AST. The
‘dump()’ function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for
debugging:

     import ast

     t = ast.parse("""
     d = {}
     for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
         d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
     print d
     """)
     print ast.dump(t)

This outputs a deeply nested tree:

     Module(body=[
       Assign(targets=[
         Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
        ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
       For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
           iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
         Assign(targets=[
           Subscript(value=
             Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
               slice=
               Index(value=
                 BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
          ], value=
          BinOp(left=
           BinOp(left=
            Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
            op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Str(s='a')
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
            op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
         ], orelse=[])
        Print(dest=None, values=[
          Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
        ], nl=True)
      ])

The ‘literal_eval()’ method takes a string or an AST representing a
literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting
value.  A literal expression is a Python expression containing only
strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc.  but no statements or function
calls.  If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the
security risk of using an *note eval(): 17e. call, ‘literal_eval()’ will
handle it safely:

     >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
     >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
     ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
     >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed string

The module also includes ‘NodeVisitor’ and ‘NodeTransformer’ classes for
traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common
transformations such as changing line numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: The future_builtins module,  Next: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Prev: The ast module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.2 The ‘future_builtins’ module
......................................

Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions,
and most of the changes can't be introduced in the Python 2.x series
because they would break compatibility.  The ‘future_builtins’ module
provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when
writing 3.0-compatible code.

The functions in this module currently include:

   * ‘ascii(obj)’: equivalent to *note repr(): 7e9.  In Python 3.0,
     *note repr(): 7e9. will return a Unicode string, while *note
     ascii(): 139f. will return a pure ASCII bytestring.

   * ‘filter(predicate, iterable)’, ‘map(func, iterable1, ...)’: the 3.0
     versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return
     lists.

   * ‘hex(value)’, ‘oct(value)’: instead of calling the ‘__hex__()’ or
     ‘__oct__()’ methods, these versions will call the ‘__index__()’
     method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal.  *note
     oct(): 12ae. will use the new ‘0o’ notation for its result.


File: python.info,  Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Next: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Prev: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.3 The ‘json’ module: JavaScript Object Notation
.......................................................

The new *note json: 81. module supports the encoding and decoding of
Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation).  JSON is a
lightweight interchange format often used in web applications.  For more
information about JSON, see ‘http://www.json.org’.

*note json: 81. comes with support for decoding and encoding most
built-in Python types.  The following example encodes and decodes a
dictionary:

     >>> import json
     >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
     >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
     >>> in_json
     '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
     >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
     {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}

It's also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
more types.  Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.

*note json: 81. (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
Ippolito.


File: python.info,  Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Next: ctypes Enhancements,  Prev: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.4 The ‘plistlib’ module: A Property-List Parser
.......................................................

The ‘.plist’ format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data
types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them
into an XML-based format.  It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of
data types.

Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing
Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any
platform that Python supports, so the *note plistlib: aa. module has
been promoted to the standard library.

Using the module is simple:

     import sys
     import plistlib
     import datetime

     # Create data structure
     data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(),
                        version=1,
                        categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))

     # Create string containing XML.
     plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
     print data_struct
     print new_struct

     # Write data structure to a file and read it back.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')

     # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes Enhancements,  Next: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.5 ctypes Enhancements
.............................

Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the *note ctypes: 2a.
module.

*note ctypes: 2a. now supports a ‘c_bool’ datatype that represents the
C99 ‘bool’ type.  (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190(1).)

The *note ctypes: 2a. string, buffer and array types have improved
support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of
‘(start, stop, step)’ are supplied.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

All *note ctypes: 2a. data types now support ‘from_buffer()’ and
‘from_buffer_copy()’ methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
provided buffer object.  ‘from_buffer_copy()’ copies the contents of the
object, while ‘from_buffer()’ will share the same memory area.

A new calling convention tells *note ctypes: 2a. to clear the ‘errno’ or
Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
(Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798(2).)

You can now retrieve the Unix ‘errno’ variable after a function call.
When creating a wrapped function, you can supply ‘use_errno=True’ as a
keyword parameter to the ‘DLL()’ function and then call the module-level
methods ‘set_errno()’ and ‘get_errno()’ to set and retrieve the error
value.

The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the ‘DLL()’,
‘OleDLL()’, and ‘WinDLL()’ functions.  You supply ‘use_last_error=True’
as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods
‘set_last_error()’ and ‘get_last_error()’.

The ‘byref()’ function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance,
now has an optional 'offset' parameter that is a byte count that will be
added to the returned pointer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798


File: python.info,  Node: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: ctypes Enhancements,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.6 Improved SSL Support
..............................

Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6's support for the
Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, *note ssl: cf, that's built
atop the OpenSSL(1) library.  This new module provides more control over
the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better
support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The
existing SSL support in the *note socket: cb. module hasn't been removed
and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0.

To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
usual way and then pass it to the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function.  It's
possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain
certificate info by calling the ‘getpeercert()’ method.

Voir aussi
..........

The documentation for the *note ssl: cf. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openssl.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations and Removals,  Next: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.19 Deprecations and Removals
---------------------------------

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 525.

   * Changes to the *note Exception: 9c9. interface as dictated by PEP
     352(1) continue to be made.  For 2.6, the ‘message’ attribute is
     being deprecated in favor of the *note args: 55a. attribute.

   * (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
     library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
     Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these
     modules when they are imported.

     The list of deprecated modules is: ‘audiodev’, ‘bgenlocations’,
     ‘buildtools’, ‘bundlebuilder’, ‘Canvas’, ‘compiler’, ‘dircache’,
     ‘dl’, ‘fpformat’, ‘gensuitemodule’, ‘ihooks’, ‘imageop’, ‘imgfile’,
     ‘linuxaudiodev’, ‘mhlib’, ‘mimetools’, ‘multifile’, ‘new’, ‘pure’,
     ‘statvfs’, ‘sunaudiodev’, ‘test.testall’, and ‘toaiff’.

   * The ‘gopherlib’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘MimeWriter’ module and ‘mimify’ module have been deprecated;
     use the *note email: 3b. package instead.

   * The ‘md5’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 67.
     module instead.

   * The ‘posixfile’ module has been deprecated; *note fcntl.lockf():
     13a5. provides better locking.

   * The ‘popen2’ module has been deprecated; use the *note subprocess:
     d5. module.

   * The ‘rgbimg’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘sets’ module has been deprecated; it's better to use the
     built-in *note set: 5c5. and *note frozenset: 5c6. types.

   * The ‘sha’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 67.
     module instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Next: Portage vers Python 2 6,  Prev: Deprecations and Removals,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.20 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!).
     This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own
     implementations of ‘memmove()’ and ‘strerror()’, which are in the
     C89 standard library.

   * Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the ‘PCbuild’
     directory for the build files.  (Implemented by Christian Heimes.)

   * On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
     The ‘configure’ script can take a
     ‘--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]’ switch, controlling
     whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86,
     PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.  (Contributed by
     Ronald Oussoren.)

   * A new function added in Python 2.6.6, ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, sets the
     value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include
     the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’
     depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you're calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.  Note that using this function will
     break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you
     have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the
     call to ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ alone and call
     ‘PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n")’ afterwards to discard the
     first ‘sys.path’ component.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(1); discussed in
     gh-50003(2), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
     ‘bsddb.db.api’.  This object can be used by other C extensions that
     wish to use the ‘bsddb’ module for their own purposes.
     (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)

   * The new buffer interface, previously described in *note the PEP
     3118 section: 1372, adds *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 391, as well as a few other functions.

   * Python's use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
     as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing
     potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while
     another thread was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6
     file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ functions.  File
     objects can't be closed unless the reference count is zero.
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ should be called while the GIL is still
     held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the ‘FILE *’
     pointer, and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ should be called immediately
     after the GIL is re-acquired.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
     deadlocks; it will now raise an *note ImportError: 40f.  A new API
     function, *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4, will look for
     a module in ‘sys.modules’ first, then try to import it after
     acquiring an import lock.  If the import lock is held by another
     thread, an *note ImportError: 40f. is raised.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

   * Several functions return information about the platform's
     floating-point support.  *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 13a7. returns the
     maximum representable floating-point value, and *note
     PyFloat_GetMin(): 13a8. returns the minimum positive value.  *note
     PyFloat_GetInfo(): 13a9. returns an object containing more
     information from the ‘float.h’ file, such as ‘"mant_dig"’ (number
     of digits in the mantissa), ‘"epsilon"’ (smallest difference
     between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several
     others.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(3).)

   * C functions and methods that use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex():
     13aa. will now accept arguments that have a ‘__complex__()’ method.
     In particular, the functions in the *note cmath: 18. module will
     now accept objects with this method.  This is a backport of a
     Python 3.0 change.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1675423(4).)

   * Python's C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive
     string comparisons, ‘PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)’ and
     ‘PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)’.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(5).)

   * Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers
     and strings to the module's dictionary in the ‘init*’ function.
     Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a
     module, *note PyModule_AddStringMacro: 13ab. and *note
     PyModule_AddIntMacro(): 13ac.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer
     that they are macros, not functions.  ‘Py_Size()’ became *note
     Py_SIZE(): 76e, ‘Py_Type()’ became *note Py_TYPE(): 76c, and
     ‘Py_Refcnt()’ became *note Py_REFCNT(): 898.  The mixed-case macros
     are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
     (bpo-1629(6))

   * Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different
     directory when running on a debug version of Python.  (Contributed
     by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959(7).)

   * Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
     internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
     structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
     variable is always named ‘free_list’, the counter is always named
     ‘numfree’, and a macro ‘Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST’ is always
     defined.

   * A new Makefile target, "make patchcheck", prepares the Python
     source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all
     modified ‘.py’ files, checks whether the documentation has been
     changed, and reports whether the ‘Misc/ACKS’ and ‘Misc/NEWS’ files
     have been updated.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

     Another new target, "make profile-opt", compiles a Python binary
     using GCC's profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
     profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
     results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.16.20.1 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
     Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.

   * The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0).  The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1)
     and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory.  The new
     ‘PCbuild’ directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
     builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are
     roughly 10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d'Arc and Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note msvcrt: 92. module now supports both the normal and wide
     char variants of the console I/O API. The *note getwch(): 13ae.
     function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the
     *note getwche(): 13af. function.  The *note putwch(): 13b0.
     function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * *note os.path.expandvars(): 1392. will now expand environment
     variables in the form "%var%", and "~user" will be expanded into
     the user's home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
     bpo-957650(1).)

   * The *note socket: cb. module's socket objects now have an *note
     ioctl(): cc3. method that provides a limited interface to the
     ‘WSAIoctl()’ system interface.

   * The *note _winreg: 115. module now has a function, *note
     ExpandEnvironmentStrings(): 13b1, that expands environment variable
     references such as ‘%NAME%’ in an input string.  The handle objects
     provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they
     can be used in *note with: 5be. statements.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

     *note _winreg: 115. also has better support for x64 systems,
     exposing the *note DisableReflectionKey(): 133d, *note
     EnableReflectionKey(): 133e, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 133f.
     functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit
     processes running on 64-bit systems.  (bpo-1753245(2))

   * The ‘msilib’ module's ‘Record’ object gained ‘GetInteger()’ and
     ‘GetString()’ methods that return field values as an integer or a
     string.  (Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.16.20.2 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
     framework name to be used by providing the ‘--with-framework-name=’
     option to the ‘configure’ script.

   * The ‘macfs’ module has been removed.  This in turn required the
     ‘macostools.touched()’ function to be removed because it depended
     on the ‘macfs’ module.  (bpo-1490190(1))

   * Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.0: ‘_builtinSuites’, ‘aepack’, ‘aetools’, ‘aetypes’,
     ‘applesingle’, ‘appletrawmain’, ‘appletrunner’, ‘argvemulator’,
     ‘Audio_mac’, ‘autoGIL’, ‘Carbon’, ‘cfmfile’, ‘CodeWarrior’,
     ‘ColorPicker’, ‘EasyDialogs’, ‘Explorer’, ‘Finder’, ‘FrameWork’,
     ‘findertools’, ‘ic’, ‘icglue’, ‘icopen’, ‘macerrors’, ‘MacOS’,
     ‘macfs’, ‘macostools’, ‘macresource’, ‘MiniAEFrame’, ‘Nav’,
     ‘Netscape’, ‘OSATerminology’, ‘pimp’, ‘PixMapWrapper’, ‘StdSuites’,
     ‘SystemEvents’, ‘Terminal’, and ‘terminalcommand’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.16.20.3 Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
.....................................

A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be
removed in Python 3.0: ‘al’ and ‘AL’, ‘cd’, ‘cddb’, ‘cdplayer’, ‘CL’ and
‘cl’, ‘DEVICE’, ‘ERRNO’, ‘FILE’, ‘FL’ and ‘fl’, ‘flp’, ‘fm’, ‘GET’,
‘GLWS’, ‘GL’ and ‘gl’, ‘IN’, ‘IOCTL’, ‘jpeg’, ‘panelparser’, ‘readcd’,
‘SV’ and ‘sv’, ‘torgb’, ‘videoreader’, and ‘WAIT’.


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 2 6,  Next: Remerciements<2>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.21 Portage vers Python 2.6
-------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * Classes that aren't supposed to be hashable should set ‘__hash__ =
     None’ in their definitions to indicate the fact.

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 525.

   * The ‘__init__()’ method of *note collections.deque: 5c8. now clears
     any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the
     iterable.  This change makes the behavior match ‘list.__init__()’.

   * *note object.__init__(): 69d. previously accepted arbitrary
     arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6,
     this is no longer allowed and will result in a *note TypeError:
     525.  This will affect ‘__init__()’ methods that end up calling the
     corresponding method on *note object: a7c. (perhaps through using
     *note super(): 4c8.).  See bpo-1683368(1) for discussion.

   * The ‘Decimal’ constructor now accepts leading and trailing
     whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
     ‘InvalidOperation’ exception.  On the other hand, the
     ‘create_decimal()’ method of ‘Context’ objects now explicitly
     disallows extra whitespace, raising a ‘ConversionSyntax’ exception.

   * Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the
     built-in *note __import__(): 8c3. function, it would actually
     import the specified file.  This was never intended to work,
     however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case
     and raises an *note ImportError: 40f.

   * C API: the *note PyImport_Import(): 13b5. and *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. functions now default to absolute
     imports, not relative imports.  This will affect C extensions that
     import other modules.

   * C API: extension data types that shouldn't be hashable should
     define their ‘tp_hash’ slot to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented():
     137f.

   * The *note socket: cb. module exception *note socket.error: 1040.
     now inherits from *note IOError: 103d.  Previously it wasn't a
     subclass of ‘StandardError’ but now it is, through *note IOError:
     103d.  (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815(2).)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12d. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 1c8. and *note datetime.time: 1c9. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 139c. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 1c9. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(3))

   * (3.0-warning mode) The *note Exception: 9c9. class now warns when
     accessed using slicing or index access; having *note Exception:
     9c9. behave like a tuple is being phased out.

   * (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
     or two objects that don't implement comparison methods are reported
     as warnings.  ‘dict1 == dict2’ still works, but ‘dict1 < dict2’ is
     being phased out.

     Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of
     Python's scoping rules, also cause warnings because such
     comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used.  Check whether you're calling
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application
     should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<2>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 2 6,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 6

1.16.22 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim
Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou,
Brian Warner.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 5,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 4,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 6,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.17 Nouveautés de Python 2.5
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release
of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356(1) describes the
planned release schedule.  Python 2.5 was released on September 19,
2006.

The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
improvements.  The library enhancements will be more important to
Python's user community, I think, because several widely useful packages
were added.  New modules include ElementTree for XML processing
(‘xml.etree’), the SQLite database module (‘sqlite’), and the *note
ctypes: 2a. module for calling C functions.

The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new
features were added, but most of them aren't features that you'll use
every day.  Conditional expressions were finally added to the language
using a novel syntax; see section *note PEP 308 ; Expressions
conditionnelles: 13ba.  The new '*note with: 5be.' statement will make
writing cleanup code easier (section *note PEP 343; The 'with'
statement: 13bb.).  Values can now be passed into generators (section
*note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 13bc.).  Imports are now visible
as either absolute or relative (section *note PEP 328; Absolute and
Relative Imports: 13bd.).  Some corner cases of exception handling are
handled better (section *note PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally:
13be.).  All these improvements are worthwhile, but they're improvements
to one specific language feature or another; none of them are broad
modifications to Python's semantics.

As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and
bugfixes were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN
change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed
between Python 2.4 and 2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.)

This article doesn't try to be a complete specification of the new
features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.
For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for
Python 2.5 at ‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature.

Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome;
please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug
tracker.

* Menu:

* PEP 308 ; Expressions conditionnelles: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles.
* PEP 309 ; Application partielle de fonction: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The 'with' statement: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The '__index__' method: PEP 357 The '__index__' method.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<16>.
* Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Portage vers Python 2.5: Portage vers Python 2 5.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles,  Next: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.1 PEP 308 : Expressions conditionnelles
--------------------------------------------

For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B
depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional
expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the
same effect as the following:

     if condition:
         x = true_value
     else:
         x = false_value

There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev
and comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of
voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no
syntax that was preferred by a clear majority.  Candidates included C's
‘cond ? true_v : false_v’, ‘if cond then true_v else false_v’, and 16
other variations.

Guido van Rossum a finalement choisi une syntaxe surprenante :

     x = true_value if condition else false_value

Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the
order of evaluation jumps around a bit.  The 'condition' expression in
the middle is evaluated first, and the 'true_value' expression is
evaluated only if the condition was true.  Similarly, the 'false_value'
expression is only evaluated when the condition is false.

This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in
the 'middle' of the expression, and not in the front as in C's ‘c ? x :
y’?  The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules
in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many
cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the
'common case' and one value is an 'exceptional case', used only on rarer
occasions when the condition isn't met.  The conditional syntax makes
this pattern a bit more obvious:

     contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')

I read the above statement as meaning "here 'contents' is usually
assigned a value of ‘doc+'\n'’; sometimes 'doc' is empty, in which
special case an empty string is returned."  I doubt I will use
conditional expressions very often where there isn't a clear common and
uncommon case.

There was some discussion of whether the language should require
surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was
made to 'not' require parentheses in the Python language's grammar, but
as a matter of style I think you should always use them.  Consider these
two statements:

     # First version -- no parens
     level = 1 if logging else 0

     # Second version -- with parens
     level = (1 if logging else 0)

In the first version, I think a reader's eye might group the statement
into 'level = 1', 'if logging', 'else 0', and think that the condition
decides whether the assignment to 'level' is performed.  The second
version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the
assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two
values.

Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of
list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional
expressions.  See PEP 308(1) for some examples.  If you put parentheses
around your conditional expressions, you won't run into this case.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 308(2) - Expressions conditionnelles

     PEP écrite par Guido van Rossum et Raymond D. Hettinger;
     implémentée par Thomas Wouters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction,  Next: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Prev: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.2 PEP 309 : Application partielle de fonction
--------------------------------------------------

The *note functools: 5e. module is intended to contain tools for
functional-style programming.

One useful tool in this module is the ‘partial()’ function.  For
programs written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you
could create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that was equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’.  This is called "partial function application".

‘partial()’ takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ...
kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The resulting object is callable, so
you can just call it to invoke 'function' with the filled-in arguments.

Voici un exemple court mais réaliste :

     import functools

     def log (message, subsystem):
         "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
         print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

Here's another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a
context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The
callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of
the ‘open_item()’ method, where the first argument has been provided.

     ...
     class Application:
         def open_item(self, path):
            ...
         def init (self):
             open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
             popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )

Another function in the *note functools: 5e. module is the
‘update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)’ function that helps you write
well-behaved decorators.  ‘update_wrapper()’ copies the name, module,
and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside
the wrapped function are easier to understand.  For example, you might
write:

     def my_decorator(f):
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
         return wrapper

‘wraps()’ is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to
copy the wrapped function's information.  An alternate version of the
previous example would be:

     def my_decorator(f):
         @functools.wraps(f)
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         return wrapper

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 309(1) - Application partielle de fonction

     PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik
     Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Next: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Prev: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.3 PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
----------------------------------------------------------

Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The ‘setup()’
function now has ‘requires’, ‘provides’, and ‘obsoletes’ keyword
parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the ‘sdist’
command, the dependency information will be recorded in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.

Another new keyword parameter is ‘download_url’, which should be set to
a URL for the package's source code.  This means it's now possible to
look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a
package, and download the required packages.

     VERSION = '1.0'
     setup(name='PyPackage',
           version=VERSION,
           requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
           obsoletes=['OldPackage']
           download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
                         % VERSION),
          )

Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
‘https://pypi.org’ is storing source and binary archives for a package.
The new ‘upload’ Distutils command will upload a package to the
repository.

Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a
distribution using the ‘sdist’ Distutils command.  Once that works, you
can run ‘python setup.py upload’ to add your package to the PyPI
archive.  Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the
‘--sign’ and ‘--identity’ options.

Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 314(1) - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

     PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred
     Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Next: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Prev: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.4 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
---------------------------------------------

The simpler part of PEP 328(1) was implemented in Python 2.4:
parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a
module using the ‘from ... import ...’ statement, making it easier to
import many different names.

The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing
a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.
The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future
versions of Python.

Let's say you have a package directory like this:

     pkg/
     pkg/__init__.py
     pkg/main.py
     pkg/string.py

This defines a package named ‘pkg’ containing the ‘pkg.main’ and
‘pkg.string’ submodules.

Consider the code in the ‘main.py’ module.  What happens if it executes
the statement ‘import string’?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first
look in the package's directory to perform a relative import, finds
‘pkg/string.py’, imports the contents of that file as the ‘pkg.string’
module, and that module is bound to the name ‘string’ in the ‘pkg.main’
module's namespace.

That's fine if ‘pkg.string’ was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
Python's standard *note string: d2. module?  There's no clean way to
ignore ‘pkg.string’ and look for the standard module; generally you had
to look at the contents of ‘sys.modules’, which is slightly unclean.
Holger Krekel's ‘py.std’ package provides a tidier way to perform
imports from the standard library, ‘import py; py.std.string.join()’,
but that package isn't available on all Python installations.

Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear,
because a reader may be confused about which module, *note string: d2.
or ‘pkg.string’, is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not
to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their
packages' submodules, but you can't protect against having your
submodule's name being used for a new module added in a future version
of Python.

In Python 2.5, you can switch *note import: 5ce.'s behaviour to absolute
imports using a ‘from __future__ import absolute_import’ directive.
This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future
version (probably Python 2.7).  Once absolute imports are the default,
‘import string’ will always find the standard library's version.  It's
suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as
possible, so it's preferable to begin writing ‘from pkg import string’
in your code.

Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the
module name when using the ‘from ... import’ form:

     # Import names from pkg.string
     from .string import name1, name2
     # Import pkg.string
     from . import string

This imports the *note string: d2. module relative to the current
package, so in ‘pkg.main’ this will import 'name1' and 'name2' from
‘pkg.string’.  Additional leading periods perform the relative import
starting from the parent of the current package.  For example, code in
the ‘A.B.C’ module can do:

     from . import D                 # Imports A.B.D
     from .. import E                # Imports A.E
     from ..F import G               # Imports A.F.G

Leading periods cannot be used with the ‘import modname’ form of the
import statement, only the ‘from ... import’ form.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 328(2) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     PEP écrite par Aahz; implémentée par Thomas Wouters.

‘https://pylib.readthedocs.io/’

     The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the ‘py.std’
     package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Next: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Prev: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.5 PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
--------------------------------------------

The *note -m: 5cd. switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a
script gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C
code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an
implementation in a new module, *note runpy: bd.

The *note runpy: bd. module implements a more sophisticated import
mechanism so that it's now possible to run modules in a package such as
‘pychecker.checker’.  The module also supports alternative import
mechanisms such as the *note zipimport: 131. module.  This means you can
add a .zip archive's path to ‘sys.path’ and then use the *note -m: 5cd.
switch to execute code from the archive.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Next: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Prev: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.6 PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
------------------------------------------

Until Python 2.5, the *note try: 6d5. statement came in two flavours.
You could use a *note finally: 9ba. block to ensure that code is always
executed, or one or more *note except: 189. blocks to catch specific
exceptions.  You couldn't combine both ‘except’ blocks and a ‘finally’
block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version
was complicated and it wasn't clear what the semantics of the combined
statement should be.

Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support
the equivalent of combining *note except: 189. blocks and a *note
finally: 9ba. block, and this clarified what the statement should mean.
In Python 2.5, you can now write:

     try:
         block-1 ...
     except Exception1:
         handler-1 ...
     except Exception2:
         handler-2 ...
     else:
         else-block
     finally:
         final-block

The code in 'block-1' is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the
various *note except: 189. blocks are tested: if the exception is of
class ‘Exception1’, 'handler-1' is executed; otherwise if it's of class
‘Exception2’, 'handler-2' is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
raised, the 'else-block' is executed.

No matter what happened previously, the 'final-block' is executed once
the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled.  Even if
there's an error in an exception handler or the 'else-block' and a new
exception is raised, the code in the 'final-block' is still run.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 341(1) - Unifying try-except and try-finally

     PEP written by Georg Brandl; implementation by Thomas Lee.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Next: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>,  Prev: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.7 PEP 342: New Generator Features
--------------------------------------

Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values 'into' a generator.  As
introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a
generator's code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be
useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the generator's code
look at a global variable and then changing the global variable's value,
or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.

To refresh your memory of basic generators, here's a simple example:

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             yield i
             i += 1

When you call ‘counter(10)’, the result is an iterator that returns the
values from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the *note yield: 9bd. statement,
the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function's
execution, preserving the local variables.  Execution resumes on the
following call to the iterator's *note next(): 7c4. method, picking up
after the ‘yield’ statement.

In Python 2.3, *note yield: 9bd. was a statement; it didn't return any
value.  In 2.5, ‘yield’ is now an expression, returning a value that can
be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you always put parentheses around a *note yield: 9bd.
expression when you're doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren't always necessary, but it's
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they're
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a *note yield:
9bd.-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there's an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its ‘send(value)’ method.
The generator's code is then resumed and the *note yield: 9bd.
expression returns the specified 'value'.  If the regular *note next():
7c4. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns *note None: 662.

Here's the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
internal counter.

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here's an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> print it.next()
     0
     >>> print it.next()
     1
     >>> print it.send(8)
     8
     >>> print it.next()
     9
     >>> print it.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in ?
         print it.next()
     StopIteration

*note yield: 9bd. will usually return *note None: 662, so you should
always check for this case.  Don't just use its value in expressions
unless you're sure that the ‘send()’ method will be the only method used
to resume your generator function.

In addition to ‘send()’, there are two other new methods on generators:

   * ‘throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)’ is used to raise an
     exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
     *note yield: 9bd. expression where the generator's execution is
     paused.

   * ‘close()’ raises a new *note GeneratorExit: 1380. exception inside
     the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator's code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 1380. or *note StopIteration: bea.  Catching the
     *note GeneratorExit: 1380. exception and returning a value is
     illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 193.; if the
     function raises some other exception, that exception is propagated
     to the caller.  ‘close()’ will also be called by Python's garbage
     collector when the generator is garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 1380.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching *note GeneratorExit: 1380.

Ces changements cumulés transforment les générateurs de producteurs
unidirectionnels d'information vers un statut hybride à la fois
producteur et consommateur.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a *note return: 9be. statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the *note yield: 9bd. statements).  We'll have to figure out patterns
for using coroutines effectively in Python.

The addition of the ‘close()’ method has one side effect that isn't
obvious.  ‘close()’ is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so
this means the generator's code gets one last chance to run before the
generator is destroyed.  This last chance means that ‘try...finally’
statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the *note
finally: 9ba. clause will now always get a chance to run.  The syntactic
restriction that you couldn't mix *note yield: 9bd. statements with a
‘try...finally’ suite has therefore been removed.  This seems like a
minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and ‘try...finally’
is actually necessary in order to implement the *note with: 5be.
statement described by PEP 343(2).  I'll look at this new statement in
the following section.

Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object.  It's now
possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’ once the generator has been
exhausted.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 342(3) - Coroutines 'via' des générateurs améliorés

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by
     Phillip J. Eby.  Includes examples of some fancier uses of
     generators as coroutines.

     Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288(4) by
     Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325(5) by Samuele Pedroni.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’

     L’article de Wikipédia sur les coroutines.

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html’

     An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by
     Dan Sugalski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>,  Next: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Prev: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.8 PEP 343: The 'with' statement
------------------------------------

The '*note with: 5be.' statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I'll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The '*note with: 5be.' statement is a new control-flow structure whose
basic structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods.

The object's *note __enter__(): 5b4. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object's *note
__exit__(): 12e0. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following
directive to your module:

     from __future__ import with_statement

The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the '*note with: 5be.' statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 2e7. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     Note: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     508, because *note __enter__(): 5b4. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: ec. module's locks and condition variables also
support the '*note with: 5be.' statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The new ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 36. module makes
it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which
encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for
computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte<2>.
* Le module contextlib: Le module contextlib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte<2>,  Next: Le module contextlib<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>

1.17.8.1 Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte
.............................................

Under the hood, the '*note with: 5be.' statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use '‘with’' in company with existing objects and
don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     "context manager".  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods.

   * The context manager's *note __enter__(): 5b4. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘'as VAR'’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * Le code dans 'BLOCK' est exécuté.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the ‘__exit__(type, value,
     traceback)’ is called with the exception details, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 677.  The method's return value
     controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value
     re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.
     You'll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you
     do the author of the code containing the '*note with: 5be.'
     statement will never realize anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn't raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 12e0.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let's think through an example.  I won't present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there's an exception.  Here's the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I'll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor (self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit (self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback (self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 5b4. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their '*note with: 5be.' statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__ (self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 12e0. method is the most complicated because it's
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 9be. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: Le module contextlib<2>,  Prev: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>

1.17.8.2 Le module 'contextlib'
...............................

The new *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a
decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the '*note
with: 5be.' statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 9bd.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 5b4. method, and the value
yielded will be the method's return value that will get bound to the
variable in the '*note with: 5be.' statement's ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the *note yield: 9bd. will be executed in the *note
__exit__(): 12e0. method.  Any exception raised in the block will be
raised by the ‘yield’ statement.

Our database example from the previous section could be written using
this decorator as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction (connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to
write nested '*note with: 5be.' statements.  In this example, the single
'‘with’' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing(object)’ function returns 'object' so that it can
be bound to a variable, and calls ‘object.close’ at the end of the
block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 343(1) - The "with" statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a '*note with: 5be.' statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Next: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Prev: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.9 PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
-----------------------------------------------

Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic
classes, and the built-in *note Exception: 9c9. class and all the
standard built-in exceptions (*note NameError: 42a, *note ValueError:
1ff, etc.)  are now new-style classes.

The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit.  In
2.5, the inheritance relationships are:

     BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
     |- KeyboardInterrupt
     |- SystemExit
     |- Exception
        |- (all other current built-in exceptions)

This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all
exceptions that indicate program errors.  *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.
and *note SystemExit: d30. aren't errors, though, and usually represent
an explicit action such as the user hitting ‘Control’-‘C’ or code
calling *note sys.exit(): 1329.  A bare ‘except:’ will catch all
exceptions, so you commonly need to list *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.
and *note SystemExit: d30. in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern
is:

     try:
         ...
     except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
         raise
     except:
         # Log error...
         # Continue running program...

In Python 2.5, you can now write ‘except Exception’ to achieve the same
result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but
leaving *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. and *note SystemExit: d30. alone.
As in previous versions, a bare ‘except:’ still catches all exceptions.

The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception
to derive from *note BaseException: 5a7. or some descendant of *note
BaseException: 5a7, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may
begin to enforce this constraint.  Therefore, I suggest you begin making
all your exception classes derive from *note Exception: 9c9. now.  It's
been suggested that the bare ‘except:’ form should be removed in Python
3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn't decided whether to do this or not.

Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ‘raise "Error
occurred"’, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The
aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few
releases.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 352(1) - Required Superclass for Exceptions

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by
     Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Next: PEP 357 The '__index__' method,  Prev: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.10 PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
------------------------------------------------

A wide-ranging change to Python's C API, using a new *note Py_ssize_t:
a50. type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to
handle more data on 64-bit platforms.  This change doesn't affect
Python's capacity on 32-bit platforms.

Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C's int type to store
sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple
were stored in an int.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still
define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up
to ‘2**31 - 1’ = 2147483647 items.  (There are actually a few different
programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use - see
‘https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html’ for a discussion - but
the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.)

A limit of 2147483647 items doesn't really matter on a 32-bit platform
because you'll run out of memory before hitting the length limit.  Each
list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for
a *note PyObject: 32f. representing the item.  2147483647*4 is already
more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain.

It's possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.
The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so
it's not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that
large.  Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some
type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.
The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was
deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users
is still relatively small.  (In 5 or 10 years, we may 'all' be on 64-bit
machines, and the transition would be more painful then.)

This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.
Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use
*note Py_ssize_t: a50. to store their size.  Functions such as *note
PyList_Size(): 13d2. now return *note Py_ssize_t: a50.  Code in
extension modules may therefore need to have some variables changed to
*note Py_ssize_t: a50.

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 896.
functions have a new conversion code, ‘n’, for *note Py_ssize_t: a50.
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.'s ‘s#’ and ‘t#’ still output int by
default, but you can define the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
including ‘Python.h’ to make them return *note Py_ssize_t: a50.

PEP 353(1) has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors
should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 353(2) - Using ssize_t as the index type

     PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 357 The '__index__' method,  Next: Autres changements au langage<16>,  Prev: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.11 PEP 357: The '__index__' method
---------------------------------------

The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a
new special method, ‘__index__()’.  When using slice notation, as in
‘[start:stop:step]’, the values of the 'start', 'stop', and 'step'
indexes must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a
variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and
signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to
signal that these types could be used as slice indexes.

Slicing can't just use the existing ‘__int__()’ method because that
method is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
‘__int__()’, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice
indexes and that's clearly an undesirable behaviour.

Instead, a new special method called ‘__index__()’ was added.  It takes
no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For
example:

     class C:
         def __index__ (self):
             return self.value

The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer.  The
interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
*note TypeError: 525. if this requirement isn't met.

A corresponding *note nb_index: 13d5. slot was added to the C-level
*note PyNumberMethods: 13d6. structure to let C extensions implement
this protocol.  ‘PyNumber_Index(obj)’ can be used in extension code to
call the ‘__index__()’ function and retrieve its result.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 357(1) - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing

     PEP written and implemented by Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<16>,  Next: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés,  Prev: PEP 357 The '__index__' method,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.12 Autres changements au langage
-------------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note dict: 253. type has a new hook for letting subclasses
     provide a default value when a key isn't contained in the
     dictionary.  When a key isn't found, the dictionary's
     ‘__missing__(key)’ method will be called.  This hook is used to
     implement the new ‘defaultdict’ class in the *note collections: 1d.
     module.  The following example defines a dictionary that returns
     zero for any missing key:

          class zerodict (dict):
              def __missing__ (self, key):
                  return 0

          d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
          print d[1], d[2]   # Prints 1, 2
          print d[3], d[4]   # Prints 0, 0

   * Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ‘partition(sep)’ and
     ‘rpartition(sep)’ methods that simplify a common use case.

     The ‘find(S)’ method is often used to get an index which is then
     used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and
     after the separator.  ‘partition(sep)’ condenses this pattern into
     a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the
     substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the
     substring after the separator.  If the separator isn't found, the
     first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two
     elements are empty.  ‘rpartition(sep)’ also returns a 3-tuple but
     starts searching from the end of the string; the ‘r’ stands for
     'reverse'.

     Quelques exemples :

          >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
          ('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
          >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
          ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
          >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
          (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
          ('www.python', '.', 'org')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
          ('', '', 'www.python.org')

     (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’ methods of string types now
     accept tuples of strings to check for.

          def is_image_file (filename):
              return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))

     (Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)

   * The *note min(): ef5. and *note max(): ef6. built-in functions
     gained a ‘key’ keyword parameter analogous to the ‘key’ argument
     for ‘sort()’.  This parameter supplies a function that takes a
     single argument and is called for every value in the list; *note
     min(): ef5./*note max(): ef6. will return the element with the
     smallest/largest return value from this function.  For example, to
     find the longest string in a list, you can do:

          L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
          # Prints 'longest'
          print max(L, key=len)
          # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
          print max(L)

     (Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new built-in functions, *note any(): 13d9. and *note all():
     13da, evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false
     values.  *note any(): 13d9. returns *note True: bfd. if any value
     returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return *note
     False: b27.  *note all(): 13da. returns *note True: bfd. only if
     all of the values returned by the iterator evaluate as true.
     (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The result of a class's ‘__hash__()’ method can now be either a
     long integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned,
     the hash of that value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash
     value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the *note
     id(): 13db. built-in was changed to always return non-negative
     numbers, and users often seem to use ‘id(self)’ in ‘__hash__()’
     methods (though this is discouraged).

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It's now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn't have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.  See PEP 263(1) for how to
     declare a module's encoding; for example, you might add a line like
     this near the top of the source file:

          # -*- coding: latin1 -*-

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 13dc, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.  The
     result of the comparison is false:

          >>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
          __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
            to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
            as being unequal
          False
          >>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
          True

     Previously this would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03.
     exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when
     accessing a dictionary.  If you looked up ‘unichr(128)’ and
     ‘chr(128)’ was being used as a key, you'd get a *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a03. exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted
     in this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in
     ‘dictobject.c’ that implements dictionaries.

     Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but
     the change might have broken code, so instead *note UnicodeWarning:
     13dc. was introduced.

     (Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to
     include an ‘__init__.py’ module in a package directory.  Debugging
     this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python
     with the *note -v: 13dd. switch to log all the paths searched.  In
     Python 2.5, a new *note ImportWarning: 4e7. warning is triggered
     when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
     ‘__init__.py’ was found.  This warning is silently ignored by
     default; provide the *note -Wd: 8b6. option when running the Python
     executable to display the warning message.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Wouters.)

   * The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.
     As an example, this is now legal:

          class C():
              pass

     (Implemented by Brett Cannon.)

* Menu:

* Changements de l’interpréteur interactif::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Changements de l’interpréteur interactif,  Next: Optimizations<10>,  Up: Autres changements au langage<16>

1.17.12.1 Changements de l’interpréteur interactif
..................................................

In the interactive interpreter, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ have long been strings
so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:

     >>> quit
     'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'

In Python 2.5, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ are now objects that still produce
string representations of themselves, but are also callable.  Newbies
who try ‘quit()’ or ‘exit()’ will now exit the interpreter as they
expect.  (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

The Python executable now accepts the standard long options *note -help:
5dc. and *note -version: d0b.; on Windows, it also accepts the *note /?:
13e0. option for displaying a help message.  (Implemented by Georg
Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<10>,  Prev: Changements de l’interpréteur interactif,  Up: Autres changements au langage<16>

1.17.12.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint,
an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21-28 2006.  The sprint
focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was
funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games.  Those
optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following
list.

   * When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in *note set:
     5c5. and *note frozenset: 5c6. types were built on top of Python's
     dictionary type.  In 2.5 the internal data structure has been
     customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a
     third less memory and are somewhat faster.  (Implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings,
     string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been
     improved.  (Substring search and splitting improvements were added
     by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint.
     Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The ‘long(str, base)’ function is now faster on long digit strings
     because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for
     strings of around 800-1000 digits where the function is 6 times
     faster.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * It's now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ‘for line in
     file’ and calling the file object's ‘read()’/*note readline():
     b9./‘readlines()’ methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and
     the ‘read*()’ methods don't use that buffer.  Instead they would
     return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear
     out of order.  Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger
     a *note ValueError: 1ff. from the ‘read*()’ method.  (Implemented
     by Thomas Wouters.)

   * The *note struct: d4. module now compiles structure format strings
     into an internal representation and caches this representation,
     yielding a 20% speedup.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The *note re: b8. module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to
     Python's allocator functions instead of the system's ‘malloc()’ and
     ‘free()’.  (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed
     sprint.)

   * The code generator's peephole optimizer now performs simple
     constant folding in expressions.  If you write something like ‘a =
     2+3’, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code
     corresponding to ‘a = 5’.  (Proposed and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the
     most recently finished frame (a "zombie frame") in an internal
     field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object
     is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin
     Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
     Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
     locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal
     Norwitz.)

   * Python's built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change
     that speeds up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in
     Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4.  (Contributed
     by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist
     or not so that the interpreter makes fewer ‘open()’ and ‘stat()’
     calls on startup.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg
     Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés,  Next: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<16>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.13 Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés
-----------------------------------------------

The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python
2.5.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted
alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN
logs for all the details.

   * The ‘audioop’ module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code
     for u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by Lars
     Immisch.)

   * The *note codecs: 1b. module gained support for incremental codecs.
     The ‘codec.lookup()’ function now returns a ‘CodecInfo’ instance
     instead of a tuple.  ‘CodecInfo’ instances behave like a 4-tuple to
     preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes
     ‘encode’, ‘decode’, ‘incrementalencoder’, ‘incrementaldecoder’,
     ‘streamwriter’, and ‘streamreader’.  Incremental codecs can receive
     input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same
     as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec.  See
     the *note codecs: 1b. module documentation for details.  (Designed
     and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note collections: 1d. module gained a new type, ‘defaultdict’,
     that subclasses the standard *note dict: 253. type.  The new type
     mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value
     when a key isn't present, automatically adding it to the dictionary
     for the requested key value.

     The first argument to ‘defaultdict’'s constructor is a factory
     function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not
     found.  This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use
     built-in type constructors such as *note list(): 5fe. or *note
     int(): 254.  For example, you can make an index of words based on
     their initial letter like this:

          words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
          mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
          che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()

          index = defaultdict(list)

          for w in words:
              init_letter = w[0]
              index[init_letter].append(w)

     Printing ‘index’ results in the following output:

          defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
                  'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
                  'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
                  'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
                  'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}

     (Contribution par Guido van Rossum.)

   * The ‘deque’ double-ended queue type supplied by the *note
     collections: 1d. module now has a ‘remove(value)’ method that
     removes the first occurrence of 'value' in the queue, raising *note
     ValueError: 1ff. if the value isn't found.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * New module: The *note contextlib: 23. module contains helper
     functions for use with the new '*note with: 5be.' statement.  See
     section *note Le module contextlib: 13cc. for more about this
     module.

   * New module: The *note cProfile: 27. module is a C implementation of
     the existing *note profile: ae. module that has much lower
     overhead.  The module's interface is the same as *note profile:
     ae.: you run ‘cProfile.run('main()')’ to profile a function, can
     save profile data to a file, etc.  It's not yet known if the
     Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn't match the
     *note profile: ae. module's interface, will continue to be
     maintained in future versions of Python.  (Contributed by Armin
     Rigo.)

     Also, the *note pstats: af. module for analyzing the data measured
     by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file
     object by supplying a 'stream' argument to the ‘Stats’ constructor.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * The *note csv: 29. module, which parses files in comma-separated
     value format, received several enhancements and a number of
     bugfixes.  You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by
     calling the ‘csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)’ function; omitting
     the 'new_limit' argument will return the currently set limit.  The
     ‘reader’ class now has a ‘line_num’ attribute that counts the
     number of physical lines read from the source; records can span
     multiple physical lines, so ‘line_num’ is not the same as the
     number of records read.

     The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
     Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a
     terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the
     returned field.  This behavior caused problems when reading files
     that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the
     code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines.
     As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important,
     the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the
     newline characters.

     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)

   * The *note datetime: 1c7. class in the *note datetime: 30. module
     now has a ‘strptime(string, format)’ method for parsing date
     strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri.  It uses the same format
     characters as *note time.strptime(): 13e5. and *note
     time.strftime(): 11c8.:

          from datetime import datetime

          ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
                                 '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')

   * The ‘SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()’ method in the *note
     difflib: 37. module now guarantees to return a minimal list of
     blocks describing matching subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm
     would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list
     entries.  (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)

   * The *note doctest: 3a. module gained a ‘SKIP’ option that keeps an
     example from being executed at all.  This is intended for code
     snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren't
     actually test cases.

     An 'encoding' parameter was added to the ‘testfile()’ function and
     the ‘DocFileSuite’ class to specify the file's encoding.  This
     makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained
     within a docstring.  (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)

   * The *note email: 3b. package has been updated to version 4.0.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note fileinput: 5a. module was made more flexible.  Unicode
     filenames are now supported, and a 'mode' parameter that defaults
     to ‘"r"’ was added to the *note input(): 12b8. function to allow
     opening files in binary or *note universal newlines: d2a. mode.
     Another new parameter, 'openhook', lets you use a function other
     than *note open(): 508. to open the input files.  Once you're
     iterating over the set of files, the ‘FileInput’ object's new *note
     fileno(): 13e6. returns the file descriptor for the currently
     opened file.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * In the *note gc: 5f. module, the new ‘get_count()’ function returns
     a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC
     generations.  This is accounting information for the garbage
     collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage
     collection sweep will be made.  The existing *note gc.collect():
     a2a. function now takes an optional 'generation' argument of 0, 1,
     or 2 to specify which generation to collect.  (Contributed by Barry
     Warsaw.)

   * The ‘nsmallest()’ and ‘nlargest()’ functions in the *note heapq:
     68. module now support a ‘key’ keyword parameter similar to the one
     provided by the *note min(): ef5./*note max(): ef6. functions and
     the ‘sort()’ methods.  For example:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
          ['longer still', 'longest']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
          ['short', 'medium']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note itertools.islice(): b3c. function now accepts ‘None’ for
     the start and step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with
     the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the
     following:

          s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
          itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note format(): 60c. function in the *note locale: 85. module
     has been modified and two new functions were added,
     ‘format_string()’ and ‘currency()’.

     The *note format(): 60c. function's 'val' parameter could
     previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier
     appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier
     with no surrounding text.  An optional 'monetary' parameter was
     also added which, if ‘True’, will use the locale's rules for
     formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three
     digits.

     To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
     ‘format_string()’ function that works like *note format(): 60c. but
     also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.

     A new ‘currency()’ function was also added that formats a number
     according to the current locale's settings.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note mailbox: 8a. module underwent a massive rewrite to add
     the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A
     new set of classes that include ‘mbox’, ‘MH’, and ‘Maildir’ are
     used to read mailboxes, and have an ‘add(message)’ method to add
     messages, ‘remove(key)’ to remove messages, and ‘lock()’/‘unlock()’
     to lock/unlock the mailbox.  The following example converts a
     maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:

          import mailbox

          # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
          # individual messages.
          src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
          dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

          for msg in src:
              dest.add(msg)

     (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by
     Google's 2005 Summer of Code.)

   * New module: the ‘msilib’ module allows creating Microsoft Installer
     ‘.msi’ files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the ‘.msi’
     database is also included.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The ‘nis’ module now supports accessing domains other than the
     system default domain by supplying a 'domain' argument to the
     ‘nis.match()’ and ‘nis.maps()’ functions.  (Contributed by Ben
     Bell.)

   * The *note operator: 9e. module's ‘itemgetter()’ and ‘attrgetter()’
     functions now support multiple fields.  A call such as
     ‘operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')’ will return a function that
     retrieves the ‘a’ and ‘b’ attributes.  Combining this new feature
     with the ‘sort()’ method's ‘key’ parameter lets you easily sort
     lists using multiple fields.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: 9f. module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the
     Optik library.  The ‘OptionParser’ class gained an ‘epilog’
     attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message,
     and a ‘destroy()’ method to break reference cycles created by the
     object.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The *note os: a0. module underwent several changes.  The
     ‘stat_float_times’ variable now defaults to true, meaning that
     *note os.stat(): 48c. will now return time values as floats.  (This
     doesn't necessarily mean that *note os.stat(): 48c. will return
     times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems
     support such precision.)

     Constants named *note os.SEEK_SET: 126d, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 126e,
     and *note os.SEEK_END: 126f. have been added; these are the
     parameters to the *note os.lseek(): 10f9. function.  Two new
     constants for locking are *note os.O_SHLOCK: 13e7. and *note
     os.O_EXLOCK: 13e8.

     Two new functions, ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’, were added.  They're
     similar the ‘waitpid()’ function which waits for a child process to
     exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but
     ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’ return additional information.  ‘wait3()’
     doesn't take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child
     process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of 'process-id',
     'exit-status', 'resource-usage' as returned from the *note
     resource.getrusage(): 13e9. function.  ‘wait4(pid)’ does take a
     process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)

     On FreeBSD, the *note os.stat(): 48c. function now returns times
     with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has
     ‘st_gen’ and ‘st_birthtime’.  The ‘st_flags’ attribute is also
     available, if the platform supports it.  (Contributed by Antti
     Louko and Diego Pettenò.)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a4. module can now
     store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and
     execution stops.  Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter
     ‘commands 1’ and enter a series of commands to be executed,
     finishing the list with ‘end’.  The command list can include
     commands that resume execution, such as ‘continue’ or ‘next’.
     (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

   * The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a
     return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 9c3. method;
     the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The ability
     to return ‘None’ was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes
     the removal of the feature.

   * The *note pkgutil: a8. module, containing various utility functions
     for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302(1)'s import
     hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format
     archives.  (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

   * The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included
     in the ‘Tools/pybench’ directory.  The pybench suite is an
     improvement on the commonly used ‘pystone.py’ program because
     pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter's
     speed.  It times particular operations such as function calls,
     tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of
     performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
     single number as ‘pystone.py’ does.

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
     (Contributed by Trent Mick.)

   * The *note Queue: 1367. class provided by the ‘Queue’ module gained
     two new methods.  ‘join()’ blocks until all items in the queue have
     been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been
     completed.  Worker threads call the other new method,
     ‘task_done()’, to signal that processing for an item has been
     completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The old ‘regex’ and ‘regsub’ modules, which have been deprecated
     ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.  Other deleted
     modules: ‘statcache’, ‘tzparse’, ‘whrandom’.

   * Also deleted: the ‘lib-old’ directory, which includes ancient
     modules such as ‘dircmp’ and ‘ni’, was removed.  ‘lib-old’ wasn't
     on the default ‘sys.path’, so unless your programs explicitly added
     the directory to ‘sys.path’, this removal shouldn't affect your
     code.

   * The *note rlcompleter: bc. module is no longer dependent on
     importing the *note readline: b9. module and therefore now works on
     non-Unix platforms.  (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

   * The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12e. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 12e.
     classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC
     operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow
     only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an
     empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * The *note socket: cb. module now supports ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets on
     Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.  Netlink sockets are
     a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space
     process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at
     ‘https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356’.  In Python code,
     netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ‘(pid,
     group_mask)’.

     Two new methods on socket objects, ‘recv_into(buffer)’ and
     ‘recvfrom_into(buffer)’, store the received data in an object that
     supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a
     string.  This means you can put the data directly into an array or
     a memory-mapped file.

     Socket objects also gained ‘getfamily()’, ‘gettype()’, and
     ‘getproto()’ accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and
     protocol values for the socket.

   * New module: the ‘spwd’ module provides functions for accessing the
     shadow password database on systems that support shadow passwords.

   * The *note struct: d4. is now faster because it compiles format
     strings into ‘Struct’ objects with ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ methods.
     This is similar to how the *note re: b8. module lets you create
     compiled regular expression objects.  You can still use the
     module-level ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ functions; they'll create
     ‘Struct’ objects and cache them.  Or you can use ‘Struct’ instances
     directly:

          s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

          data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
          year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

     You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects
     directly using the ‘pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)’ and
     ‘unpack_from(buffer, offset)’ methods.  This lets you store data
     directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

     (‘Struct’ objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by
     Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the
     2.5 development process.  Information about the exact build version
     is available as the ‘sys.subversion’ variable, a 3-tuple of
     ‘(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range)’.  For example, at
     the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ‘('CPython',
     'trunk', '45313:45315')’.

     This information is also available to C extensions via the *note
     Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13ea. function that returns a string of build
     information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006,
     07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * Another new function, *note sys._current_frames(): 13eb, returns
     the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary
     mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently
     active in that thread at the time the function is called.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘TarFile’ class in the *note tarfile: dd. module now has an
     ‘extractall()’ method that extracts all members from the archive
     into the current working directory.  It's also possible to set a
     different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a
     subset of the archive's members.

     The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be
     autodetected using the mode ‘'r|*'’.  (Contributed by Lars
     Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: ec. module now lets you set the stack size
     used when new threads are created.  The ‘stack_size([*size*])’
     function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying
     the optional 'size' parameter sets a new value.  Not all platforms
     support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and
     OS/2 all do.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

   * The *note unicodedata: 104. module has been updated to use version
     4.1.0 of the Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required
     by some specifications, so it's still available as *note
     unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 13ec.

   * New module: the *note uuid: 10f. module generates universally
     unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122(2).  The RFC
     defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a
     starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly.  This
     module contains a ‘UUID’ class and functions named ‘uuid1()’,
     ‘uuid3()’, ‘uuid4()’, and ‘uuid5()’ to generate different versions
     of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122(3) and are
     not supported by this module.)

          >>> import uuid
          >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
          >>> uuid.uuid1()
          UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

          >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

          >>> # make a random UUID
          >>> uuid.uuid4()
          UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

          >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     (Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)

   * The *note weakref: 113. module's ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ and
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’ types gained new methods for iterating over
     the weak references contained in the dictionary.  ‘iterkeyrefs()’
     and ‘keyrefs()’ methods were added to ‘WeakKeyDictionary’, and
     ‘itervaluerefs()’ and ‘valuerefs()’ were added to
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note webbrowser: 114. module received a number of
     enhancements.  It's now usable as a script with ‘python -m
     webbrowser’, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of
     switches to control the behaviour (‘-n’ for a new browser window,
     ‘-t’ for a new tab).  New module-level functions, ‘open_new()’ and
     ‘open_new_tab()’, were added to support this.  The module's *note
     open(): 508. function supports an additional feature, an
     'autoraise' parameter that signals whether to raise the open window
     when possible.  A number of additional browsers were added to the
     supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks.
     (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12d. module now supports returning *note
     datetime: 1c7. objects for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply
     ‘use_datetime=True’ to the *note loads(): 13ed. function or the
     ‘Unmarshaller’ class to enable this feature.  (Contributed by Skip
     Montanaro.)

   * The *note zipfile: 130. module now supports the ZIP64 version of
     the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4
     GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

   * The *note zlib: 132. module's ‘Compress’ and ‘Decompress’ objects
     now support a *note copy(): 25. method that makes a copy of the
     object's internal state and returns a new ‘Compress’ or
     ‘Decompress’ object.  (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

* Menu:

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: The ctypes package,  Next: The ElementTree package,  Up: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés

1.17.13.1 The ctypes package
............................

The *note ctypes: 2a. package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added
to the standard library.  *note ctypes: 2a. lets you call arbitrary
functions in shared libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the
‘dl’ module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and
calling functions in them.  The *note ctypes: 2a. package is much
fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
‘CDLL’ class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
Once that's done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
attributes of the ‘CDLL’ object.

     import ctypes

     libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
     result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided: ‘c_int()’,
‘c_float()’, ‘c_double()’, ‘c_char_p()’ (equivalent to char*), and so
forth.  Unlike Python's types, the C versions are all mutable; you can
assign to their ‘value’ attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
integers and strings will be automatically converted to the
corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct
type constructor.  (And I mean 'must'; getting it wrong will often
result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn't use ‘c_char_p()’ with a Python string when the C function
will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed
to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you
need a modifiable memory area, use ‘create_string_buffer()’:

     s = "this is a string"
     buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
     libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the
‘restype’ attribute of the function object to change this:

     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     -1783957616
     >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     2.71828

*note ctypes: 2a. also provides a wrapper for Python's C API as the
‘ctypes.pythonapi’ object.  This object does 'not' release the global
interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be
held when calling into the interpreter's code.  There's a *note
py_object: 13f0. type constructor that will create a *note PyObject:
32f.* pointer.  A simple usage:

     import ctypes

     d = {}
     ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
               ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
     # d is now {'abc', 1}.

Don't forget to use *note py_object(): 13f0.; if it's omitted you end up
with a segmentation fault.

*note ctypes: 2a. has been around for a while, but people still write
and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can't rely on
*note ctypes: 2a. being present.  Perhaps developers will begin to write
Python wrappers atop a library accessed through *note ctypes: 2a.
instead of extension modules, now that *note ctypes: 2a. is included
with core Python.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/’

     The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and
     FAQ.

The documentation for the *note ctypes: 2a. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The ElementTree package,  Next: The hashlib package,  Prev: The ctypes package,  Up: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés

1.17.13.2 The ElementTree package
.................................

A subset of Fredrik Lundh's ElementTree library for processing XML has
been added to the standard library as ‘xml.etree’.  The available
modules are ‘ElementTree’, ‘ElementPath’, and ‘ElementInclude’ from
ElementTree 1.2.6.  The ‘cElementTree’ accelerator module is also
included.

The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using
ElementTree.  Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’.

ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes.  The
text content of the document is stored as the ‘text’ and ‘tail’
attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree
and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types
of node, including ‘TextNode’.)

The most commonly used parsing function is ‘parse()’, that takes either
a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and
returns an ‘ElementTree’ instance:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

     tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')

     feed = urllib.urlopen(
               'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
     tree = ET.parse(feed)

Once you have an ‘ElementTree’ instance, you can call its ‘getroot()’
method to get the root ‘Element’ node.

There's also an ‘XML()’ function that takes a string literal and returns
an ‘Element’ node (not an ‘ElementTree’).  This function provides a tidy
way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
literal:

     svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
                  </svg>""")
     svg.set('height', '320px')
     svg.append(elem1)

Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute
values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes.

Opération                           Résultat
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘elem[n]’                           Returns n'th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem[m:n]’                         Returns list of m'th through n'th child
                                    elements.
                                    
                                    
‘len(elem)’                         Returns number of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘list(elem)’                        Returns list of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.append(elem2)’                Adds 'elem2' as a child.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.insert(index, elem2)’         Inserts 'elem2' at the specified location.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem[n]’                       Deletes n'th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.keys()’                       Returns list of attribute names.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.get(name)’                    Returns value of attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.set(name, value)’             Sets new value for attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.attrib’                       Retrieves the dictionary containing
                                    attributes.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem.attrib[name]’             Supprime l’attribut 'name'.
                                    

Comments and processing instructions are also represented as ‘Element’
nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:

     if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
         ...
     elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
         ...

To generate XML output, you should call the ‘ElementTree.write()’
method.  Like ‘parse()’, it can take either a string or a file-like
object:

     # Encoding is US-ASCII
     tree.write('output.xml')

     # Encoding is UTF-8
     f = open('output.xml', 'w')
     tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')

(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML
work, where an element's name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters,
ASCII isn't a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if
an element's name contains any characters with values greater than 127.
Therefore, it's best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that
can handle any Unicode character.)

This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree
interfaces.  Please read the package's official documentation for more
details.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’

     Official documentation for ElementTree.


File: python.info,  Node: The hashlib package,  Next: The sqlite3 package,  Prev: The ElementTree package,  Up: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés

1.17.13.3 The hashlib package
.............................

A new *note hashlib: 67. module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been
added to replace the ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules.  *note hashlib: 67. adds
support for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and
SHA-512).  When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform
optimized implementations of algorithms.

The old ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module's interface is very
close to that of the old modules, but not identical.  The most
significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating
new hashing objects are named differently.

     # Old versions
     h = md5.md5()
     h = md5.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.md5()

     # Old versions
     h = sha.sha()
     h = sha.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.sha1()

     # Hash that weren't previously available
     h = hashlib.sha224()
     h = hashlib.sha256()
     h = hashlib.sha384()
     h = hashlib.sha512()

     # Alternative form
     h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string

Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
‘update(string)’ hashes the specified string into the current digest
state, ‘digest()’ and ‘hexdigest()’ return the digest value as a binary
string or a string of hex digits, and *note copy(): 25. returns a new
hashing object with the same digest state.

Voir aussi
..........

The documentation for the *note hashlib: 67. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The sqlite3 package,  Next: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The hashlib package,  Up: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés

1.17.13.4 The sqlite3 package
.............................

The pysqlite module (‘https://www.pysqlite.org’), a wrapper for the
SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under
the package name *note sqlite3: ce.

SQLite est une bibliothèque C qui fournit une base de données légère sur
disque ne nécessitant pas de processus serveur et qui utilise une
variante (non standard) du langage de requête SQL pour accéder aux
données.  Certaines applications peuvent utiliser SQLite pour le
stockage de données internes.  Il est également possible de créer une
application prototype utilisant SQLite, puis de modifier le code pour
utiliser une base de données plus robuste telle que PostgreSQL ou
Oracle.

pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface
compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249(1).

If you're compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source
tree doesn't include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module.  You'll
need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling
Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary
headers are available.

To use the module, you must first create a ‘Connection’ object that
represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
‘/tmp/example’ file:

     conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')

Vous pouvez également fournir le nom spécial ‘:memory:’ pour créer une
base de données dans la mémoire vive.

Once you have a ‘Connection’, you can create a ‘Cursor’ object and call
its ‘execute()’ method to perform SQL commands:

     c = conn.cursor()

     # Create table
     c.execute('''create table stocks
     (date text, trans text, symbol text,
      qty real, price real)''')

     # Insert a row of data
     c.execute("""insert into stocks
               values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")

Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python
variables.  You shouldn't assemble your query using Python's string
operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program
vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution.  Put ‘?’ as a
placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple
of values as the second argument to the cursor's ‘execute()’ method.
(Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as ‘%s’ or
‘:1’.)  For example:

     # Never do this -- insecure!
     symbol = 'IBM'
     c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)

     # Do this instead
     t = (symbol,)
     c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)

     # Larger example
     for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
               ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
               ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
              ):
         c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)

To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either
treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor's ‘fetchone()’ method
to retrieve a single matching row, or call ‘fetchall()’ to get a list of
the matching rows.

Cet exemple utilise la forme itérateur :

     >>> c = conn.cursor()
     >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
     >>> for row in c:
     ...    print row
     ...
     (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
     (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
     (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
     (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
     >>>

For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
‘https://www.sqlite.org’.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://www.pysqlite.org’

     The pysqlite web page.

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     Dans la page Web de SQLite, la documentation décrit la syntaxe et
     les types de données disponibles qui sont pris en charge par cette
     variante SQL.

The documentation for the *note sqlite3: ce. module.

PEP 249(2) — Spécifications de l'API 2.0 pour la base de données

     PEP écrite par Marc-André Lemburg.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The sqlite3 package,  Up: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés

1.17.13.5 The wsgiref package
.............................

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard
interface between web servers and Python web applications and is
described in PEP 333(1).  The *note wsgiref: 117. package is a reference
implementation of the WSGI specification.

The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI
application; this server is useful for debugging but isn't intended for
production use.  Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code:

     from wsgiref import simple_server

     wsgi_app = ...

     host = ''
     port = 8000
     httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
     httpd.serve_forever()

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/’

     A central web site for WSGI-related resources.

PEP 333(2) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0

     PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Next: Portage vers Python 2 5,  Prev: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.14 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a
     complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly
     carried out by Martin von Löwis.  The procedure was developed as
     PEP 347(1).

   * Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called
     Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python
     source code.  The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly
     fixed.  Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring
     in error-handling code.  See ‘https://scan.coverity.com’ for the
     statistics.

   * The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353(2), which
     modifies the interpreter to use a *note Py_ssize_t: a50. type
     definition instead of int.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353;
     Using ssize_t as the index type: 13d0. for a discussion of this
     change.

   * The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no
     longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead
     the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST),
     and it is the abstract syntax tree that's traversed to produce the
     bytecode.

     It's possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
     *note compile(): 190. built-in and specifying ‘_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     as the value of the 'flags' parameter:

          from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
          ast = compile("""a=0
          for i in range(10):
              a += i
          """, "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)

          assignment = ast.body[0]
          for_loop = ast.body[1]

     No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet,
     but PEP 339(3) discusses the design.  To start learning about the
     code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in
     ‘Parser/Python.asdl’.  A Python script reads this file and
     generates a set of C structure definitions in
     ‘Include/Python-ast.h’.  The ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ and
     ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’, defined in ‘Include/pythonrun.h’, take
     Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing
     the contents.  This AST can then be turned into a code object by
     ‘PyAST_Compile()’.  For more information, read the source code, and
     then ask questions on python-dev.

     The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton's management, and
     implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan,
     Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim
     Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in
     a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon.

   * Evan Jones's patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon
     DC 2005, was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in
     256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas.  With this patch, Python
     will free arenas when they're empty.  The net effect is that on
     some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python's memory
     usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
     returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and
     reworked by Tim Peters.)

     Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful
     when allocating memory.  Python's API has many different functions
     for allocating memory that are grouped into families.  For example,
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d, and *note
     PyMem_Free(): 13fb. are one family that allocates raw memory, while
     *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc, and
     *note PyObject_Free(): c55. are another family that's supposed to
     be used for creating Python objects.

     Previously these different families all reduced to the platform's
     ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ functions.  This meant it didn't matter if
     you got things wrong and allocated memory with the ‘PyMem’ function
     but freed it with the ‘PyObject’ function.  With 2.5's changes to
     obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches
     will probably result in a segfault.  You should carefully test your
     C extension modules with Python 2.5.

   * The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call *note
     PySet_New(): 13fd. and *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 13fe. to create a
     new set, *note PySet_Add(): 13ff. and *note PySet_Discard(): 1400.
     to add and remove elements, and *note PySet_Contains(): 1401. and
     *note PySet_Size(): 1402. to examine the set's state.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the
     Python interpreter by calling the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13ea.
     function that returns a string of build information like this:
     ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by
     Barry Warsaw.)

   * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local
     to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be
     used.  ‘Py_LOCAL(type)’ declares the function as returning a value
     of the specified 'type' and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
     ‘Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)’ does the same thing and also requests the
     function be inlined.  If macro ‘PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE’ is defined
     before ‘python.h’ is included, a set of more aggressive
     optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the
     results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code
     faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * ‘PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)’ can now accept a tuple of
     base classes as its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl.)

   * The ‘PyErr_Warn()’ function for issuing warnings is now deprecated
     in favour of ‘PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)’ which
     lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this
     function and the caller.  A 'stacklevel' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1403, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)

   * The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now
     be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.  (Implemented by
     Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)

   * The ‘PyRange_New()’ function was removed.  It was never documented,
     never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error
     checking.  In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it,
     you can replace it by something like the following:

          range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
                                        start, stop, step);

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes,  Up: Build and C API Changes<10>

1.17.14.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
     ‘dlopen()’ function instead of MacOS-specific functions.

   * MacOS X: an ‘--enable-universalsdk’ switch was added to the
     ‘configure’ script that compiles the interpreter as a universal
     binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573(1).)

   * Windows: ‘.dll’ is no longer supported as a filename extension for
     extension modules.  ‘.pyd’ is now the only filename extension that
     will be searched for.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 2 5,  Next: Remerciements<3>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.15 Portage vers Python 2.5
-------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It's now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn't have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.

   * Previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a
     frame object.  Because of the PEP 342(1) changes described in
     section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 13bc, it's now
     possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’.

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 13dc, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.
     Previously such comparisons would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     a03. exception.

   * Library: the *note csv: 29. module is now stricter about multi-line
     quoted fields.  If your files contain newlines embedded within
     fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which
     preserves the newline characters.

   * Library: the *note locale: 85. module's *note format(): 60c.
     function's would previously accept any string as long as no more
     than one %char specifier appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument
     must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.

   * Library: The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer
     accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 9c3.
     method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The
     modules also no longer accept the deprecated 'bin' keyword
     parameter.

   * Library: The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12e. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 12e. classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that
     constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the
     default is to allow only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’
     to ‘None’ or an empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * C API: Many functions now use *note Py_ssize_t: a50. instead of int
     to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code
     may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support
     64-bit machines.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using
     ssize_t as the index type: 13d0. for a discussion of this change.

   * C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not
     mix usage of the ‘PyMem_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ families of functions.
     Memory allocated with one family's ‘*_Malloc’ must be freed with
     the corresponding family's ‘*_Free’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<3>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 2 5,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 5

1.17.16 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel,
Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe,
Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart,
Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 4,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 3,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 5,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.18 Nouveautés de Python 2.4
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on
March 30, 2005.

Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn't introduce as many
changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the
conservative 2.3 release.  The most significant new language features
are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes
are to the standard library.

According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502
bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of
every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to
each feature.  For full details, you should refer to the documentation
for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python
Reference Manual.  Often you will be referred to the PEP for a
particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design
rationale.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<17>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Portage vers Python 2.4: Portage vers Python 2 4.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.1 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
------------------------------------

Python 2.3 introduced the ‘sets’ module.  C implementations of set data
types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
‘set(iterable)’ and ‘frozenset(iterable)’.  They provide high speed
operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from
sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections,
differences, and symmetric differences.

     >>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
     >>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
     False
     >>> a                                   # unique letters in a
     set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
     >>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
     'arbcd'

     >>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
     >>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
     set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
     >>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
     set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
     >>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
     set(['a', 'c'])
     >>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
     set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

     >>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
     >>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
     >>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])

The *note frozenset(): 5c6. type is an immutable version of *note set():
5c5.  Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary
key or as a member of another set.

The ‘sets’ module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if
you wish to subclass the ‘Set’ or ‘ImmutableSet’ classes.  There are
currently no plans to deprecate the module.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Next: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Prev: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.2 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes
another step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations
that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered *note
FutureWarning: 40b. warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64
bits (depending on your platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer
produce a warning and instead produce a different result that's usually
a long integer.

The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy
hexadecimal and octal constants.  For example, ‘2 << 32’ results in a
warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4,
this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4
     were implemented by Kalle Svensson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Next: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.3 PEP 289: Generator Expressions
-------------------------------------

The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the *note itertools:
80. module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data
sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List
comprehensions don't fit into this picture very well because they
produce a Python list object containing all of the items.  This
unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem
if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a functionally
styled program, it would be natural to write something like:

     links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
     for link in links:
         ...

instead of

     for link in get_all_links():
         if link.followed:
             continue
         ...

The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you're
dealing with a large number of link objects you'd have to write the
second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time.

Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don't
materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will
return elements one by one.  The above example could be written as:

     links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
     for link in links:
         ...

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as
in the above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also
count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately
passed to a function you could write:

     print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small
ways.  Most notably, the loop variable ('obj' in the above example) is
not accessible outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions
leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python
will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions
in this respect.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 289(1) - Generator Expressions

     Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with
     early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Next: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Prev: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.4 PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
--------------------------------------------

Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative
mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of
substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need
to edit templates.

The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ‘%’ operator:

     >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
     '2: The Best of Times'

When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ‘i’ or
‘s’ after the closing parenthesis.  This isn't a big problem if the
template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an
"Unsupported format character" *note ValueError: 1ff, and fix the
problem.  However, consider an application such as Mailman where
template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren't
aware of the Python language.  The format string's syntax is complicated
to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it's difficult to
provide helpful feedback to them.

PEP 292 adds a ‘Template’ class to the *note string: d2. module that
uses ‘$’ to indicate a substitution:

     >>> import string
     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
     '2: The Best of Times'

If a key is missing from the dictionary, the ‘substitute()’ method will
raise a *note KeyError: 33a.  There's also a ‘safe_substitute()’ method
that ignores missing keys:

     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
     '3: $title'

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 292(1) - Simpler String Substitutions

     Écrit et implémenté par Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Next: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Prev: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.5 PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
----------------------------------------------------

Python 2.2 extended Python's object model by adding static methods and
class methods, but it didn't extend Python's syntax to provide any new
way of defining static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a
*note def: 1410. statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting
method to a *note staticmethod(): 40c. or *note classmethod(): 165.
function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type.
Your code would look like this:

     class C:
        def meth (cls):
            ...

        meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method

If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
*note classmethod(): 165. invocation after the function body.

The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions
more readable, but at the time of 2.2's release a good syntax was not
obvious.  Today a good syntax 'still' isn't obvious but users are asking
for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added
to meet this need.

The new feature is called "function decorators".  The name comes from
the idea that *note classmethod(): 165, *note staticmethod(): 40c, and
friends are storing additional information on a function object; they're
'decorating' functions with more details.

The notation borrows from Java and uses the ‘'@'’ character as an
indicator.  Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:

     class C:

        @classmethod
        def meth (cls):
            ...

The ‘@classmethod’ is shorthand for the ‘meth=classmethod(meth)’
assignment.  More generally, if you have the following:

     @A
     @B
     @C
     def f ():
         ...

It's equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:

     def f(): ...
     f = A(B(C(f)))

Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one
decorator per line, and can't be on the same line as the def statement,
meaning that ‘@A def f(): ...’ is illegal.  You can only decorate
function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you
can't decorate class definitions.

A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated
as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object.
The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it
typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result.
It's easy to write your own decorators.  The following simple example
just sets an attribute on the function object:

     >>> def deco(func):
     ...    func.attr = 'decorated'
     ...    return func
     ...
     >>> @deco
     ... def f(): pass
     ...
     >>> f
     <function f at 0x402ef0d4>
     >>> f.attr
     'decorated'
     >>>

As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks
that the supplied argument is an integer:

     def require_int (func):
         def wrapper (arg):
             assert isinstance(arg, int)
             return func(arg)

         return wrapper

     @require_int
     def p1 (arg):
         print arg

     @require_int
     def p2(arg):
         print arg*2

An example in PEP 318(1) contains a fancier version of this idea that
lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type.

Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a
new decorator function; this function must take a single function and
return a function, as previously described.  In other words, ‘@A @B
@C(args)’ becomes:

     def f(): ...
     _deco = C(args)
     f = A(B(_deco(f)))

Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it's not too
difficult.

A small related change makes the *note func_name: 12b4. attribute of
functions writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in
tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function
that's constructed and returned.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 318(2) - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes

     Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several
     people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one
     that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark
     Russell.

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary’

     This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Next: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Prev: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.6 PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
---------------------------------

A new built-in function, ‘reversed(seq)’, takes a sequence and returns
an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse
order.

     >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
     ...    print i
     ...
     3
     2
     1

Compared to extended slicing, such as ‘range(1,4)[::-1]’, *note
reversed(): 852. is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially
less memory.

Note that *note reversed(): 852. only accepts sequences, not arbitrary
iterators.  If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a
list with *note list(): 5fe.

     >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
     >>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
     ...   print line
     ...
     root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
       ...

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 322(1) - Reverse Iteration

     Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Next: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Prev: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.7 PEP 324: New subprocess Module
-------------------------------------

The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess,
offering different features and different levels of complexity.
‘os.system(command)’ is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about
escaping the shell's metacharacters).  The ‘popen2’ module offers
classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the
subprocess, but the naming is confusing.  The *note subprocess: d5.
module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the
features you might need.

Instead of ‘popen2’'s collection of classes, *note subprocess: d5.
contains a single class called *note subprocess.Popen: 197. whose
constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments.

     class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
                 stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
                 preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
                 cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
                 startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):

'args' is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to
the program executed as the subprocess.  (If the 'shell' argument is
true, 'args' can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell
for interpretation, just as *note os.system(): 1413. does.)

'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' specify what the subprocess's input,
output, and error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a
file descriptor, or you can use the constant ‘subprocess.PIPE’ to create
a pipe between the subprocess and the parent.

The constructor has a number of handy options:

   * 'close_fds' requests that all file descriptors be closed before
     running the subprocess.

   * 'cwd' specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will
     be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent's working directory
     is).

   * 'env' is a dictionary specifying environment variables.

   * 'preexec_fn' is a function that gets called before the child is
     started.

   * 'universal_newlines' opens the child's input and output using
     Python's *note universal newlines: d2a. feature.

Once you've created the ‘Popen’ instance, you can call its ‘wait()’
method to pause until the subprocess has exited, ‘poll()’ to check if
it's exited without pausing, or ‘communicate(data)’ to send the string
'data' to the subprocess's standard input.  ‘communicate(data)’ then
reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or
standard error, returning a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

‘call()’ is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the ‘Popen’
constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status
code of the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to *note
os.system(): 1413.:

     sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
     if sts == 0:
         # Success
         ...
     else:
         # dpkg returned an error
         ...

The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want
to use the shell, you can add ‘shell=True’ as a keyword argument and
provide a string instead of a sequence:

     sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)

The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how
they'd be translated into Python code that uses *note subprocess: d5.
Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 324(1) - subprocess - New process module

     Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from
     Fredrik Lundh and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Next: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Prev: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.8 PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
---------------------------------

Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the
underlying C double type, as a data type.  However, while most
programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even
programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don't represent
certain decimal fractions accurately.  The new ‘Decimal’ type can
represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision
limit.

* Menu:

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::


File: python.info,  Node: Why is Decimal needed?,  Next: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.18.8.1 Why is Decimal needed?
...............................

The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point
numbers.  FP numbers are made up of three components:

   * The sign, which is positive or negative.

   * The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a
     fractional part.  For example, ‘1.01’ in base-2 notation is ‘1 +
     0/2 + 1/4’, or 1.25 in decimal notation.

   * The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the
     number represented.

For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01
(in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn't need to be
shifted).  The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent
is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the
exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5.

Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
standard called IEEE 754.  C's double type is usually implemented as a
64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.
This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.
If you're trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly,
the expansion is cut off after 52 bits.  Unfortunately, most software
needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are
often repeating decimals in binary.  For example, 1.1 decimal is binary
‘1.0001100110011 ...’; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number
of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated
decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate.

Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:

     >>> 1.1
     1.1000000000000001

The inaccuracy isn't always visible when you print the number because
the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and
most C libraries try to produce sensible output.  Even if it's not
displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent
operations can magnify the error.

For many applications this doesn't matter.  If I'm plotting points and
displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and
1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit
output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the
number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never
apparent.  However, for applications where it does matter, it's a lot of
work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines.

Hence, the ‘Decimal’ type was created.


File: python.info,  Node: The Decimal type,  Next: The Context type,  Prev: Why is Decimal needed?,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.18.8.2 The ‘Decimal’ type
...........................

A new module, *note decimal: 36, was added to Python's standard library.
It contains two classes, ‘Decimal’ and ‘Context’.  ‘Decimal’ instances
represent numbers, and ‘Context’ instances are used to wrap up various
settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.

‘Decimal’ instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
numbers; once it's been created, you can't change the value an instance
represents.  ‘Decimal’ instances can be created from integers or
strings:

     >>> import decimal
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
     Decimal("1972")
     >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
     Decimal("1.1")

You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa
represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:

     >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
     Decimal("-14.75")

Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1
is negative.

Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should
the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly
1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced?  The decision
was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API.
Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string
using the desired precision and pass the string to the ‘Decimal’
constructor:

     >>> f = 1.1
     >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
     Decimal("1.1")
     >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
     Decimal("1.100000000000")

Once you have ‘Decimal’ instances, you can perform the usual
mathematical operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation
requires an integer exponent:

     >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
     >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
     >>> a+b
     Decimal("37.45")
     >>> a-b
     Decimal("33.99")
     >>> a*b
     Decimal("61.7956")
     >>> a/b
     Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
     >>> a ** 2
     Decimal("1275.9184")
     >>> a**b
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)

You can combine ‘Decimal’ instances with integers, but not with
floating-point numbers:

     >>> a + 4
     Decimal("39.72")
     >>> a + 4.5
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
     >>>

‘Decimal’ numbers can be used with the *note math: 8d. and *note cmath:
18. modules, but note that they'll be immediately converted to
floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a
possible loss of precision and accuracy.  You'll also get back a regular
floating-point number and not a ‘Decimal’.

     >>> import math, cmath
     >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
     >>> math.sqrt(d)
     351364.18288201344
     >>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
     351364.18288201344j

‘Decimal’ instances have a ‘sqrt()’ method that returns a ‘Decimal’, but
if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you'll have to
implement them.

     >>> d.sqrt()
     Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")


File: python.info,  Node: The Context type,  Prev: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.18.8.3 The ‘Context’ type
...........................

Instances of the ‘Context’ class encapsulate several settings for
decimal operations:

   * ‘prec’ is the precision, the number of decimal places.

   * ‘rounding’ specifies the rounding mode.  The *note decimal: 36.
     module has constants for the various possibilities: ‘ROUND_DOWN’,
     ‘ROUND_CEILING’, ‘ROUND_HALF_EVEN’, and various others.

   * ‘traps’ is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering
     certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value
     is returned.  Some examples of error conditions are division by
     zero, loss of precision, and overflow.

There's a thread-local default context available by calling
‘getcontext()’; you can change the properties of this context to alter
the default precision, rounding, or trap handling.  The following
example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default
context:

     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec
     28
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.142857143")

The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can
either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or
exceptions can be raised:

     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
     >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Decimal("Infinity")
     >>>

The ‘Context’ instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
such as ‘to_eng_string()’ and ‘to_sci_string()’.

For more information, see the documentation for the *note decimal: 36.
module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 327(1) - Decimal Data Type

     Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric
     Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.

http://www.lahey.com/float.htm(2)

     The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems
     that floating-point inaccuracy can cause.

‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/’

     A description of a decimal-based representation.  This
     representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the
     new Python decimal type.  Much of this material was written by Mike
     Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Next: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Prev: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.9 PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
----------------------------------

One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier
to import many names from a module.  In a ‘from module import names’
statement, 'names' is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the
sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the
same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like
this:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
                 SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 resolve_dotted_attribute

The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names
within parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized
expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
                                     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     resolve_dotted_attribute)

The PEP also proposes that all *note import: 5ce. statements be absolute
imports, with a leading ‘.’ character to indicate a relative import.
This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was
completed for Python 2.5.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 328(1) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima
     Dorfman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Next: Autres changements au langage<17>,  Prev: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.10 PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note locale: 85. modules lets Python software select various
conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular
country or language.  However, the module was careful to not change the
numeric locale because various functions in Python's implementation
required that the numeric locale remain set to the ‘'C'’ locale.  Often
this was because the code was using the C library's ‘atof()’ function.

Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used
third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn't have the correct
locale set.  The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface
widgets weren't displaying numbers in the current locale.

The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the
Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale
setting:

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)’ both
     convert a string to a C double.

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)’ converts a double
     to an ASCII string.

The code for these functions came from the GLib library
(https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/(1)), whose developers kindly
relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python
Software Foundation.  The *note locale: 85. module can now change the
numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct
results.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 331(2) - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

     Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<17>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Prev: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.11 Autres changements au langage
-------------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python
language.

   * Decorators for functions and methods were added ( PEP 318(1)).

   * Built-in *note set(): 5c5. and *note frozenset(): 5c6. types were
     added ( PEP 218(2)).  Other new built-ins include the
     ‘reversed(seq)’ function ( PEP 322(3)).

   * Generator expressions were added ( PEP 289(4)).

   * Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to
     32 or 64 bits ( PEP 237(5)).

   * You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ‘from
     module import names’ statement ( PEP 328(6)).

   * The *note dict.update(): 141b. method now accepts the same argument
     forms as the *note dict: 253. constructor.  This includes any
     mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The string methods ‘ljust()’, ‘rjust()’, and ‘center()’ now take an
     optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a
     space.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Strings also gained an ‘rsplit()’ method that works like the
     ‘split()’ method but splits from the end of the string.
     (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

          >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
          ['www', 'python.org']
          'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
          ['www.python', 'org']

   * Three keyword parameters, 'cmp', 'key', and 'reverse', were added
     to the ‘sort()’ method of lists.  These parameters make some common
     usages of ‘sort()’ simpler.  All of these parameters are optional.

     For the 'cmp' parameter, the value should be a comparison function
     that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how
     the parameters compare.  This function will then be used to sort
     the list.  Previously this was the only parameter that could be
     provided to ‘sort()’.

     'key' should be a single-parameter function that takes a list
     element and returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is
     then sorted using the comparison keys.  The following example sorts
     a list case-insensitively:

          >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
          >>> L
          ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
          >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
          >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> # Old-fashioned way
          >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     The last example, which uses the 'cmp' parameter, is the old way to
     perform a case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using
     a 'key' parameter.  Using 'key' calls ‘lower()’ method once for
     each element in the list while using 'cmp' will call it twice for
     each comparison, so using 'key' saves on invocations of the
     ‘lower()’ method.

     For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often
     possible to avoid a *note lambda: 127c. expression by using an
     unbound method instead.  For example, the above case-insensitive
     sort is best written as:

          >>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     Finally, the 'reverse' parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the
     value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order.  Instead
     of ‘L.sort(); L.reverse()’, you can now write
     ‘L.sort(reverse=True)’.

     The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means
     that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order
     as they were input.  For example, you can sort a list of people by
     name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by
     age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order.

     (All changes to ‘sort()’ contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * There is a new built-in function ‘sorted(iterable)’ that works like
     the in-place *note list.sort(): bbf. method but can be used in
     expressions.  The differences are:

   * the input may be any iterable;

   * a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and

   * the expression returns the new sorted copy

          >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
          [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
          >>> L                               # original is left unchanged
          [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
          [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']

          >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
          >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
          >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
          ...     print k, v
          ...
          black 4
          blue 2
          green 3
          red 1
          yellow 5

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The interpreter gained a new switch, *note -m: 5cd, that takes a
     name, searches for the corresponding module on ‘sys.path’, and runs
     the module as a script.  For example, you can now run the Python
     profiler with ‘python -m profile’.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * The ‘eval(expr, globals, locals)’ and ‘execfile(filename, globals,
     locals)’ functions and the ‘exec’ statement now accept any mapping
     type for the 'locals' parameter.  Previously this had to be a
     regular Python dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note zip(): 7bc. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list if called with no arguments.  Previously they
     raised a *note TypeError: 525. exception.  This makes them more
     suitable for use with variable length argument lists:

          >>> def transpose(array):
          ...    return zip(*array)
          ...
          >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
          [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
          >>> transpose([])
          []

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.  The
     incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of
     the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors.
     (Fixed by Tim Peters.)

   * *note None: 662. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<11>,  Up: Autres changements au langage<17>

1.18.11.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now
     run about one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were
     also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for ‘keys()’,
     ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, and
     ‘iteritems()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for
     speed and for space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists
     now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent
     use of the underlying system ‘realloc()’.  List comprehensions also
     benefit.  ‘list.extend()’ was also optimized and no longer converts
     its argument into a temporary list before extending the base list.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note list(): 5fe, *note tuple(): 366, *note map(): 850, *note
     filter(): 851, and *note zip(): 7bc. now run several times faster
     with non-sequence arguments that supply a ‘__len__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The methods ‘list.__getitem__()’, ‘dict.__getitem__()’, and
     ‘dict.__contains__()’ are now implemented as ‘method_descriptor’
     objects rather than ‘wrapper_descriptor’ objects.  This form of
     access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for
     use as arguments to functionals: ‘map(mydict.__getitem__,
     keylist)’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Added a new opcode, ‘LIST_APPEND’, that simplifies the generated
     bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a
     third.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce
     shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is
     more readable.  (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * String concatenations in statements of the form ‘s = s + "abc"’ and
     ‘s += "abc"’ are now performed more efficiently in certain
     circumstances.  This optimization won't be present in other Python
     implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn't rely on it; using
     the ‘join()’ method of strings is still recommended when you want
     to efficiently glue a large number of strings together.
     (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the
pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than
Python 2.2.  (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it's the
most commonly used measurement of Python's performance.  Your own
applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<17>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.12 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ module's ‘loop()’ function now has a 'count'
     parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through
     the polling loop.  The default is still to loop forever.

   * The *note base64: e. module now has more complete RFC 3548(1)
     support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding,
     including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note bisect: 11. module now has an underlying C implementation
     for improved performance.  (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)

   * The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by
     Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4.  The new encodings are:

   * Chinois (PRC) : 'gb2312', 'gbk', 'gb18030', 'big5hkscs', 'hz'

   * Chinois (ROC) : 'big5', 'cp950'

   * 
     Japonais : 'cp932', 'euc-jis-2004', 'euc-jp', 'euc-jisx0213', 'iso-2022-jp',

          'iso-2022-jp-1', 'iso-2022-jp-2', 'iso-2022-jp-3',
          'iso-2022-jp-ext', 'iso-2022-jp-2004', 'shift-jis',
          'shift-jisx0213', 'shift-jis-2004'

   * Coréen : 'cp949', 'euc-kr', 'johab', 'iso-2022-kr'

   * D’autres encodages ont été ajoutés : HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11,
     ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, et TIS-620.

   * The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial
     input.  Previously the ‘StreamReader’ class would try to read more
     data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The
     ‘read()’ method will now return as much data as it can and future
     calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off.
     (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * There is a new *note collections: 1d. module for various
     specialized collection datatypes.  Currently it contains just one
     type, ‘deque’, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently
     adding and removing elements from either end:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
          >>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
          >>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
          >>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
          deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
          >>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
          'j'
          >>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
          'f'
          >>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
          ['g', 'h', 'i']
          >>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
          True

     Several modules, such as the ‘Queue’ and *note threading: ec.
     modules, now take advantage of *note collections.deque: 5c8. for
     improved performance.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note ConfigParser: 22. classes have been enhanced slightly.
     The *note read(): 141e. method now returns a list of the files that
     were successfully parsed, and the *note set(): 124d. method raises
     *note TypeError: 525. if passed a 'value' argument that isn't a
     string.  (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)

   * The *note curses: 2b. module now supports the ncurses extension
     ‘use_default_colors()’.  On platforms where the terminal supports
     transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent
     background.  (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module now includes an ‘HtmlDiff’ class that
     creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two
     versions of a text.  (Contributed by Dan Gass.)

   * The *note email: 3b. package was updated to version 3.0, which
     dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python
     versions earlier than 2.3.  The 3.0 version of the package uses a
     new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the
     ‘email.FeedParser’ module.  The new parser doesn't require reading
     the entire message into memory, and doesn't raise exceptions if a
     message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the
     ‘defect’ attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter,
     Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.)

   * The *note heapq: 68. module has been converted to C. The resulting
     tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling
     high volumes of data.  In addition, the module has two new
     functions ‘nlargest()’ and ‘nsmallest()’ that use heaps to find the
     N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a
     full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note httplib: 6d. module now contains constants for HTTP
     status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents.
     Constants have names such as ‘OK’, ‘CREATED’, ‘CONTINUE’, and
     ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Eland.)

   * The *note imaplib: 73. module now supports IMAP's THREAD command
     (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new ‘deleteacl()’ and ‘myrights()’
     methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).

   * The *note itertools: 80. module gained a ‘groupby(iterable[,
     *func*])’ function.  'iterable' is something that can be iterated
     over to return a stream of elements, and the optional 'func'
     parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key
     value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself.
     ‘groupby()’ then groups the elements into subsequences which have
     matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples
     containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence.

     Here's an example to make this clearer.  The 'key' function simply
     returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of
     ‘groupby()’ is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.

          >>> import itertools
          >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
          >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
          ...    print key_val, list(it)
          ...
          0 [2, 4, 6]
          1 [7]
          0 [8]
          1 [9, 11]
          0 [12, 14]
          >>>

     ‘groupby()’ is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
     ‘groupby()’ is similar to the Unix ‘uniq’ filter which makes it
     handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:

          >>> word = 'abracadabra'
          >>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
          >>> letters
          ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
          >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
          ...    print k, list(g)
          ...
          a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
          b ['b', 'b']
          c ['c']
          d ['d']
          r ['r', 'r']
          >>> # List unique letters
          >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
          >>> # Count letter occurrences
          >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]

     (Contribution par Hye-Shik Chang.)

   * *note itertools: 80. also gained a function named ‘tee(iterator,
     N)’ that returns 'N' independent iterators that replicate
     'iterator'.  If 'N' is omitted, the default is 2.

          >>> L = [1,2,3]
          >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
          >>> i1,i2
          (<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
          >>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]
          >>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]

     Note that ‘tee()’ has to keep copies of the values returned by the
     iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.  This
     should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run
     far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs.  If
     the separation is large, then you might as well use *note list():
     5fe. instead.  When the iterators track closely with one another,
     ‘tee()’ is ideal.  Possible applications include bookmarking,
     windowing, or lookahead iterators.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * A number of functions were added to the *note locale: 85. module,
     such as ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ to specify a particular
     encoding and a family of ‘l*gettext()’ functions that return
     messages in the chosen encoding.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * Some keyword arguments were added to the *note logging: 86.
     package's ‘basicConfig()’ function to simplify log configuration.
     The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but
     various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular
     file, change the logging format, or set the logging level.  For
     example:

          import logging
          logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
              level=0,  # Log all messages
              format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')

     Other additions to the *note logging: 86. package include a
     ‘log(level, msg)’ convenience method, as well as a
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class that rotates its log files at a
     timed interval.  The module already had ‘RotatingFileHandler’,
     which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size.  Both
     classes derive from a new ‘BaseRotatingHandler’ class that can be
     used to implement other rotating handlers.

     (Changements implémentés par Vinay Sajip.)

   * The *note marshal: 8c. module now shares interned strings on
     unpacking a data structure.  This may shrink the size of certain
     pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make ‘.pyc’ files
     significantly smaller.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The ‘nntplib’ module's ‘NNTP’ class gained ‘description()’ and
     ‘descriptions()’ methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a
     single group or for a range of groups.  (Contributed by Jürgen A.
     Erhard.)

   * Two new functions were added to the *note operator: 9e. module,
     ‘attrgetter(attr)’ and ‘itemgetter(index)’.  Both functions return
     callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding
     attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors
     when used with *note map(): 850. or *note sorted(): bbe.  For
     example:

          >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
          ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
          [2, 1, 4, 3]
          >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
          [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: 9f. module was updated in various ways.  The
     module now passes its messages through *note gettext.gettext():
     141f, making it possible to internationalize Optik's help and error
     messages.  Help messages for options can now include the string
     ‘'%default'’, which will be replaced by the option's default value.
     (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The long-term plan is to deprecate the ‘rfc822’ module in some
     future Python release in favor of the *note email: 3b. package.  To
     this end, the *note email.Utils.formatdate: 1420. function has been
     changed to make it usable as a replacement for
     ‘rfc822.formatdate()’.  You may want to write new e-mail processing
     code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)

   * A new ‘urandom(n)’ function was added to the *note os: a0. module,
     returning a string containing 'n' bytes of random data.  This
     function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness
     such as ‘/dev/urandom’ on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI.
     (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)

   * Another new function: ‘os.path.lexists(path)’ returns true if the
     file specified by 'path' exists, whether or not it's a symbolic
     link.  This differs from the existing ‘os.path.exists(path)’
     function, which returns false if 'path' is a symlink that points to
     a destination that doesn't exist.  (Contributed by Beni
     Cherniavsky.)

   * A new ‘getsid()’ function was added to the *note posix: ac. module
     that underlies the *note os: a0. module.  (Contributed by J.
     Raynor.)

   * Le module *note poplib: ab. supporte maintenant POP sur SSL.
     (Contribution par Hector Urtubia.)

   * The *note profile: ae. module can now profile C extension
     functions.  (Contributed by Nick Bastin.)

   * The *note random: b7. module has a new method called
     ‘getrandbits(N)’ that returns a long integer 'N' bits in length.
     The existing ‘randrange()’ method now uses ‘getrandbits()’ where
     appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers
     more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The regular expression language accepted by the *note re: b8.
     module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as
     ‘(?(group)A|B)’.  'group' is either a numeric group ID or a group
     name defined with ‘(?P<group>...)’ earlier in the expression.  If
     the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern 'A'
     will be tested against the string; if the group didn't match, the
     pattern 'B' will be used instead.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * The *note re: b8. module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a
     massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular
     expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C
     stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the
     stack.  For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of ‘a’
     characters against the expression ‘(a|b)+’, one stack frame was
     consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack
     overflow and raise a *note RuntimeError: 193. exception, but
     certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were
     unlucky Python could segfault.  Python 2.4's regular expression
     engine can match this pattern without problems.

   * The *note signal: c5. module now performs tighter error-checking on
     the parameters to the *note signal.signal(): 1116. function.  For
     example, you can't set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal; previous
     versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a
     *note RuntimeError: 193. exception.

   * Two new functions were added to the *note socket: cb. module.
     ‘socketpair()’ returns a pair of connected sockets and
     ‘getservbyport(port)’ looks up the service name for a given port
     number.  (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.)

   * The ‘sys.exitfunc()’ function has been deprecated.  Code should be
     using the existing *note atexit: c. module, which correctly handles
     calling multiple exit functions.  Eventually ‘sys.exitfunc()’ will
     become a purely internal interface, accessed only by *note atexit:
     c.

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: ec. module now has an elegantly simple way to
     support thread-local data.  The module contains a ‘local’ class
     whose attribute values are local to different threads.

          import threading

          data = threading.local()
          data.number = 42
          data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)

     Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the
     ‘number’ and ‘url’ attributes.  You can subclass ‘local’ to
     initialize attributes or to add methods.  (Contributed by Jim
     Fulton.)

   * The *note timeit: ee. module now automatically disables periodic
     garbage collection during the timing loop.  This change makes
     consecutive timings more comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note weakref: 113. module now supports a wider variety of
     objects including Python functions, class instances, sets,
     frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression
     pattern objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12d. module now supports a multi-call
     extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP
     operation.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * The ‘mpz’, ‘rotor’, and ‘xreadlines’ modules have been removed.

* Menu:

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html


File: python.info,  Node: cookielib,  Next: doctest<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.18.12.1 cookielib
...................

The *note cookielib: 6f. library supports client-side handling for HTTP
cookies, mirroring the *note Cookie: 70. module's server-side cookie
support.  Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently
stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches
the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server.  As in web
browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not.

In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie
jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so
applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that
stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library.

*note urllib2: 10a. has been changed to interact with *note cookielib:
6f.: ‘HTTPCookieProcessor’ manages a cookie jar that is used when
accessing URLs.

This module was contributed by John J. Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<5>,  Prev: cookielib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.18.12.2 doctest
.................

The *note doctest: 3a. module underwent considerable refactoring thanks
to Edward Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as
running *note doctest.testmod(): 1423, but the refactorings allow
customizing the module's operation in various ways

The new ‘DocTestFinder’ class extracts the tests from a given object's
docstrings:

     def f (x, y):
         """>>> f(2,2)
     4
     >>> f(3,2)
     6
         """
         return x*y

     finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()

     # Get list of DocTest instances
     tests = finder.find(f)

The new ‘DocTestRunner’ class then runs individual tests and can produce
a summary of the results:

     runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
     for t in tests:
         tried, failed = runner.run(t)

     runner.summarize(verbose=1)

The above example produces the following output:

     1 items passed all tests:
        2 tests in f
     2 tests in 1 items.
     2 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.

‘DocTestRunner’ uses an instance of the ‘OutputChecker’ class to compare
the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can
also write a completely new subclass of ‘OutputChecker’.

The default output checker provides a number of handy features.  For
example, with the *note doctest.ELLIPSIS: 1424. option flag, an ellipsis
(‘...’) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier
to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways:

     def o (n):
         """>>> o(1)
     <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
     >>>
     """

Another special string, ‘<BLANKLINE>’, matches a blank line:

     def p (n):
         """>>> p(1)
     <BLANKLINE>
     >>>
     """

Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output
by specifying the *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 1425. (unified diffs),
*note doctest.REPORT_CDIFF: 1426. (context diffs), or *note
doctest.REPORT_NDIFF: 1427. (delta-style) option flags.  For example:

     def g (n):
         """>>> g(4)
     here
     is
     a
     lengthy
     >>>"""
         L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
         for word in L[:n]:
             print word

Running the above function's tests with *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF:
1425. specified, you get the following output:

     **********************************************************************
     File "t.py", line 15, in g
     Failed example:
         g(4)
     Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
         @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
          is
          a
         -lengthy
         +rather
     **********************************************************************


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Next: Portage vers Python 2 4,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.13 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:

   * Three new convenience macros were added for common return values
     from extension functions: *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 1429, *note
     Py_RETURN_TRUE: 142a, and *note Py_RETURN_FALSE: 142b.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * Another new macro, *note Py_CLEAR: 566, decreases the reference
     count of 'obj' and sets 'obj' to the null pointer.  (Contributed by
     Jim Fulton.)

   * A new function, ‘PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)’,
     constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python
     objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A new function, ‘PyDict_Contains(d, k)’, implements fast dictionary
     lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up
     process.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The Py_IS_NAN(X) macro returns 1 if its float or double argument
     'X' is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function to tell if any thread
     operations have been performed.  If this function returns false, no
     lock operations are needed.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * A new function, *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37a, is the
     same as *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. but takes a
     ‘va_list’ instead of a number of arguments.  (Contributed by Greg
     Chapman.)

   * A new method flag, *note METH_COEXIST: 142c, allows a function
     defined in slots to co-exist with a *note PyCFunction: 142d. having
     the same name.  This can halve the access time for a method such as
     ‘set.__contains__()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Python can now be built with additional profiling for the
     interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the
     Python core.  Providing ‘--enable-profiling’ to the ‘configure’
     script will let you profile the interpreter with ‘gprof’, and
     providing the ‘--with-tsc’ switch enables profiling using the
     Pentium's Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the ‘--with-tsc’
     switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also
     works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture
     doesn't call that register "the TSC register".  (Contributed by
     Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The ‘tracebackobject’ type has been renamed to ‘PyTracebackObject’.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<11>

1.18.13.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
     (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 2 4,  Next: Remerciements<4>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.14 Portage vers Python 2.4
-------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no
     longer trigger a *note FutureWarning: 40b. and return a value
     limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer.

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The *note zip(): 7bc. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list instead of raising a *note TypeError: 525.
     exception if called with no arguments.

   * You can no longer compare the ‘date’ and *note datetime: 1c7.
     instances provided by the *note datetime: 30. module.  Two
     instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and
     relative comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’) will raise a *note TypeError: 525.

   * ‘dircache.listdir()’ now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
     returning empty lists.

   * ‘LexicalHandler.startDTD()’ used to receive the public and system
     IDs in the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications
     relying on the wrong order need to be fixed.

   * *note fcntl.ioctl(): 1430. now warns if the 'mutate' argument is
     omitted and relevant.

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.

   * *note None: 662. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.

   * The ‘signals.signal()’ function now raises a *note RuntimeError:
     193. exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors
     would pass silently.  For example, you can no longer set a handler
     on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal.


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<4>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 2 4,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 4

1.18.15 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger,
Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin
Rejeb.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 3,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 2,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 4,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.19 Nouveautés de Python 2.3
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was
released on July 29, 2003.

The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added
in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core
language, and expanding the standard library.  The new object model
introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of
bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the
performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions have
been added such as *note sum(): 456. and *note enumerate(): 1435.  The
*note in: 2e9. operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g.
‘"ab" in "abc"’ returns *note True: bfd.).

Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and
date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format
archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an
updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping
text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using
BerkeleyDB databases...  the list of new and enhanced modules is
lengthy.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as
the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you
want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255 ; Générateurs simples: PEP 255 Générateurs simples.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285 ; Un type booléen: PEP 285 Un type booléen.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Autres changements au langage: Autres changements au langage<18>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<12>.
* Autres changements et corrections: Autres changements et corrections<2>.
* Portage vers Python 2.3: Portage vers Python 2 3.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Next: PEP 255 Générateurs simples,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.1 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
---------------------------------------

The new ‘sets’ module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
‘Set’ class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
removed.  The ‘ImmutableSet’ class is for sets that can't be modified,
and instances of ‘ImmutableSet’ can therefore be used as dictionary
keys.  Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a
set must be hashable.

Here's a simple example:

     >>> import sets
     >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 3])
     >>> 1 in S
     True
     >>> 0 in S
     False
     >>> S.add(5)
     >>> S.remove(3)
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 5])
     >>>

The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the *note
union(): 1437. and *note intersection(): 1438. methods; an alternative
notation uses the bitwise operators ‘&’ and ‘|’.  Mutable sets also have
in-place versions of these methods, ‘union_update()’ and *note
intersection_update(): 1439.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
     >>> S1.union(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1.intersection(S2)
     Set([])
     >>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([])
     >>> S1.union_update(S2)
     >>> S1
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>>

It's also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This
is the set of all elements in the union that aren't in the intersection.
Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all
elements that are in exactly one set.  Again, there's an alternative
notation (‘^’), and an in-place version with the ungainly name *note
symmetric_difference_update(): 143a.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
     >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 ^ S2
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>>

There are also ‘issubset()’ and ‘issuperset()’ methods for checking
whether one set is a subset or superset of another:

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
     >>> S2.issubset(S1)
     True
     >>> S1.issubset(S2)
     False
     >>> S1.issuperset(S2)
     True
     >>>

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     PEP written by Greg V. Wilson.  Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex
     Martelli, and GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Générateurs simples,  Next: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Prev: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.2 PEP 255 : Générateurs simples
------------------------------------

In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be
enabled by a ‘from __future__ import generators’ directive.  In 2.3
generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always
present; this means that *note yield: 9bd. is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the
"What's New in Python 2.2" document; if you read it back when Python 2.2
came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 9be.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren't thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 9bd, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 9bd. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 9be. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator's state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator's
‘.next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn't allowed inside the *note try: 6d5. block of a ‘try’...‘finally’
statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction
between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here's a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 9be. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator's results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: bea. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 7c4. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from "An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language" at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
"or" is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 2e8. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python
language, but learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they don't
solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One novel
feature of Python's interface as compared to Icon's is that a
generator's state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 255(2): Générateurs simples

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Next: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Prev: PEP 255 Générateurs simples,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.3 PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
-------------------------------------

Python source files can now be declared as being in different character
set encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially
formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file.  For
example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit
ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with
8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will
be a syntax error.

The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which
will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that
Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you
can't have variable names that use characters outside of the usual
alphanumerics.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 263(1) - Defining Python Source Code Encodings

     Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by
     Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Next: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Prev: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.4 PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
---------------------------------------------------

The new *note zipimport: 131. module adds support for importing modules
from a ZIP-format archive.  You don't need to import the module
explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive's
filename is added to ‘sys.path’.  For example:

     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
     Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
     >>>

An entry in ‘sys.path’ can now be the filename of a ZIP archive.  The
ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named ‘*.py’,
‘*.pyc’, or ‘*.pyo’ can be imported.  If an archive only contains ‘*.py’
files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘*.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn't
contain ‘*.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
subdirectory; for example, the path ‘/tmp/example.zip/lib/’ would only
import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 273(1) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(2), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(3).  See section *note PEP 302; New
     Import Hooks: 1440. for a description of the new import hooks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Next: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Prev: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.5 PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
--------------------------------------------------------

On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode
strings.  Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte
strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names
inaccessible.

Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the
limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file
names, most notably the *note open(): 508. built-in function.  If a
Unicode string is passed to *note os.listdir(): 10dc, Python now returns
a list of Unicode strings.  A new function, ‘os.getcwdu()’, returns the
current directory as a Unicode string.

Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will
transparently convert them to Unicode using the ‘mbcs’ encoding.

Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them
to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a
*note UnicodeError: 1283. to be raised.  Applications can test whether
arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking *note
os.path.supports_unicode_filenames: 1442, a Boolean value.

Under MacOS, *note os.listdir(): 10dc. may now return Unicode filenames.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 277(1) - Unicode file name support for Windows NT

     Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von
     Löwis, and Mark Hammond.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Next: PEP 279 enumerate,  Prev: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.6 PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
-----------------------------------------

The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows,
Apple's Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor
irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use
different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses
the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII
character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage
return plus a newline.

Python's file objects can now support end of line conventions other than
the one followed by the platform on which Python is running.  Opening a
file with the mode ‘'U'’ or ‘'rU'’ will open a file for reading in *note
universal newlines: d2a. mode.  All three line ending conventions will
be translated to a ‘'\n'’ in the strings returned by the various file
methods such as ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’.

Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when
executing a file with the ‘execfile()’ function.  This means that Python
modules can be shared between all three operating systems without
needing to convert the line-endings.

This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
‘--without-universal-newlines’ switch when running Python's ‘configure’
script.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 278(1) - Universal Newline Support

     Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 279 enumerate,  Next: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Prev: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.7 PEP 279: enumerate()
---------------------------

A new built-in function, *note enumerate(): 1435, will make certain
loops a bit clearer.  ‘enumerate(thing)’, where 'thing' is either an
iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return ‘(0,
thing[0])’, ‘(1, thing[1])’, ‘(2, thing[2])’, and so forth.

A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:

     for i in range(len(L)):
         item = L[i]
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

This can be rewritten using *note enumerate(): 1435. as:

     for i, item in enumerate(L):
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 279(1) - The enumerate() built-in function

     Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Next: PEP 285 Un type booléen,  Prev: PEP 279 enumerate,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.8 PEP 282: The logging Package
-----------------------------------

A standard package for writing logs, *note logging: 86, has been added
to Python 2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for
generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in
various ways.  A configuration file written in a standard format can be
used to control the logging behavior of a program.  Python includes
handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or
socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular
address; of course, it's also possible to write your own handler
classes.

The *note Logger: b3f. class is the primary class.  Most application
code will deal with one or more *note Logger: b3f. objects, each one
used by a particular subsystem of the application.  Each *note Logger:
b3f. is identified by a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy
using ‘.’ as the component separator.  For example, you might have *note
Logger: b3f. instances named ‘server’, ‘server.auth’ and
‘server.network’.  The latter two instances are below ‘server’ in the
hierarchy.  This means that if you turn up the verbosity for ‘server’ or
direct ‘server’ messages to a different handler, the changes will also
apply to records logged to ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’.  There's
also a root *note Logger: b3f. that's the parent of all other loggers.

For simple uses, the *note logging: 86. package contains some
convenience functions that always use the root log:

     import logging

     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

Ceci produit l’affichage suivant :

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the
display of informational and debugging messages by calling the *note
setLevel(): 1447. method on the root logger.

Notice the *note warning(): 2f4. call's use of string formatting
operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments
‘(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)’ and log the string resulting from ‘msg % (arg1,
arg2, ...)’.

There's also an *note exception(): 1448. function that records the most
recent traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the
traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument
'exc_info'.

     def f():
         try:    1/0
         except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')

     f()

Ceci produit l’affichage suivant :

     ERROR:root:Problem recorded
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 6, in f
         1/0
     ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root
logger.  The ‘getLogger(name)’ function is used to get a particular log,
creating it if it doesn't exist yet.  ‘getLogger(None)’ returns the root
logger.

     log = logging.getLogger('server')
      ...
     log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
      ...
     log.critical('Disk full')
      ...

Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged
to ‘server.auth’ is also seen by ‘server’ and ‘root’, but a *note
Logger: b3f. can prevent this by setting its *note propagate: 1449.
attribute to *note False: b27.

There are more classes provided by the *note logging: 86. package that
can be customized.  When a *note Logger: b3f. instance is told to log a
message, it creates a *note LogRecord: fd3. instance that is sent to any
number of different *note Handler: 144a. instances.  Loggers and
handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can
cause the *note LogRecord: fd3. to be ignored or can modify the record
before passing it along.  When they're finally output, *note LogRecord:
fd3. instances are converted to text by a *note Formatter: 144b. class.
All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially written
classes.

With all of these features the *note logging: 86. package should provide
enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is
only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package's
reference documentation for all of the details.  Reading PEP 282(1) will
also be helpful.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 282(2) - A Logging System

     Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 285 Un type booléen,  Next: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Prev: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.9 PEP 285 : Un type booléen
--------------------------------

A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to
the ‘__builtin__’ module, *note True: bfd. and *note False: b27.  (*note
True: bfd. and *note False: b27. constants were added to the built-ins
in Python 2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values
of 1 and 0 and aren't a different type.)

The type object for this new type is named *note bool: 453.; the
constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to *note True:
bfd. or *note False: b27.

     >>> bool(1)
     True
     >>> bool(0)
     False
     >>> bool([])
     False
     >>> bool( (1,) )
     True

Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been
changed to return Booleans.

     >>> obj = []
     >>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, list)
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
     False

Python's Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code
clearer.  For example, if you're reading a function and encounter the
statement ‘return 1’, you might wonder whether the ‘1’ represents a
Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some
other quantity.  If the statement is ‘return True’, however, the meaning
of the return value is quite clear.

Python's Booleans were 'not' added for the sake of strict type-checking.
A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing
arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an
*note if: 2e8. statement always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is
not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285(1) explicitly says.  This
means you can still use any expression in an ‘if’ statement, even ones
that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object.  The Boolean
type is a subclass of the *note int: 254. class so that arithmetic using
a Boolean still works.

     >>> True + 1
     2
     >>> False + 1
     1
     >>> False * 75
     0
     >>> True * 75
     75

To sum up *note True: bfd. and *note False: b27. in a sentence: they're
alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single
difference that *note str(): 437. and *note repr(): 7e9. return the
strings ‘'True'’ and ‘'False'’ instead of ‘'1'’ and ‘'0'’.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 285(2) - Ajout d'un type 'bool'

     Written and implemented by GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Next: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Prev: PEP 285 Un type booléen,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.10 PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
-----------------------------------------------

When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable
characters may be encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying
the error processing as either "strict" (raising *note UnicodeError:
1283.), "ignore" (skipping the character), or "replace" (using a
question mark in the output string), with "strict" being the default
behavior.  It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such
errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity
reference into the converted string.

Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing
strategies.  New error handlers can be added with *note
codecs.register_error(): 144f, and codecs then can access the error
handler with *note codecs.lookup_error(): 1450.  An equivalent C API has
been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
state information such as the string being converted, the position in
the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The
handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement
string.

Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this
framework: "backslashreplace" uses Python backslash quoting to represent
unencodable characters and "xmlcharrefreplace" emits XML character
references.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 293(1) - Codec Error Handling Callbacks

     Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Next: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Prev: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.11 PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
---------------------------------------------------------

Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance
in 2.3.

The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils ‘register’ command.
Running ‘python setup.py register’ will collect the metadata describing
a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and
send it to a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available
from ‘https://pypi.org’.

To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional 'classifiers'
keyword argument has been added to the Distutils ‘setup()’ function.  A
list of Trove(1)-style strings can be supplied to help classify the
software.

Here's an example ‘setup.py’ with classifiers, written to be compatible
with older versions of the Distutils:

     from distutils import core
     kw = {'name': "Quixote",
           'version': "0.5.1",
           'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
           # ...
           }

     if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
         'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
         kw['classifiers'] = \
             ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
              'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
              'Intended Audience :: Developers'],

     core.setup(**kw)

The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running ‘python setup.py
register --list-classifiers’.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 301(2) - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

     Written and implemented by Richard Jones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://catb.org/~esr/trove/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Next: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Prev: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.12 PEP 302: New Import Hooks
---------------------------------

While it's been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
‘ihooks’ module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been
really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and
messy.  There have been various proposed alternatives such as the
‘imputil’ and ‘iu’ modules, but none of them has ever gained much
acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code.

PEP 302(1) borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
McMillan's ‘iu’ module.  Three new items are added to the *note sys: d8.
module:

   * ‘sys.path_hooks’ is a list of callable objects; most often they'll
     be classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and
     either returns an importer object that will handle imports from
     this path or raises an *note ImportError: 40f. exception if it
     can't handle this path.

   * ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ caches importer objects for each path, so
     ‘sys.path_hooks’ will only need to be traversed once for each path.

   * ‘sys.meta_path’ is a list of importer objects that will be
     traversed before ‘sys.path’ is checked.  This list is initially
     empty, but user code can add objects to it.  Additional built-in
     and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list.

Importer objects must have a single method, ‘find_module(fullname,
path=None)’.  'fullname' will be a module or package name, e.g.
‘string’ or ‘distutils.core’.  ‘find_module()’ must return a loader
object that has a single method, ‘load_module(fullname)’, that creates
and returns the corresponding module object.

Pseudo-code for Python's new import logic, therefore, looks something
like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302(2) for the full details):

     for mp in sys.meta_path:
         loader = mp(fullname)
         if loader is not None:
             <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     for path in sys.path:
         for hook in sys.path_hooks:
             try:
                 importer = hook(path)
             except ImportError:
                 # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
                 pass
             else:
                 loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
                 <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     # Not found!
     raise ImportError

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 302(3) — Nouveaux crochets d'importation

     Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore.  Implemented by Just van
     Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Next: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.13 PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
--------------------------------------

Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data
from databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for
comma-separated files.

Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:

     Costs,150,200,3.95

Read a line and call ‘line.split(',')’: what could be simpler?  But toss
in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:

     "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"

A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new *note
csv: 29. package is much simpler:

     import csv

     input = open('datafile', 'rb')
     reader = csv.reader(input)
     for line in reader:
         print line

The *note reader(): 472. function takes a number of different options.
The field separator isn't limited to the comma and can be changed to any
character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters.

Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and
registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft
Excel.  A separate *note csv.writer: 473. class will generate
comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting
strings that contain the delimiter.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 305(1) - Interface des fichiers CSV

     Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara,
     Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Next: Extended Slices,  Prev: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.14 PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
------------------------------------

The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules received some attention
during the 2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be
pickled without difficulty, but they weren't pickled very compactly; PEP
307(1) quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a
pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class.

The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The *note
pickle.dumps(): 1458. function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a
long time.  In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer:
0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and
now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A new constant, *note
pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1459, can be used to select the fanciest
protocol available.

Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2's *note
pickle: a5. provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from
being unpickled (specifically, a ‘__safe_for_unpickling__’ attribute),
but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it's all been
ripped out in 2.3.  You should not unpickle untrusted data in any
version of Python.

To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface
for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: *note
__getstate__(): 5c4, *note __setstate__(): 145a, and *note
__getnewargs__(): 145b.  Consult PEP 307(2) for the full semantics of
these methods.

As a way to compress pickles yet further, it's now possible to use
integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes.  The
Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes;
there's also a range of codes for private use.  Currently no codes have
been specified.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 307(3) - Extensions to the pickle protocol

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/


File: python.info,  Node: Extended Slices,  Next: Autres changements au langage<18>,  Prev: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.15 Extended Slices
-----------------------

Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional
third "step" or "stride" argument.  For example, these are all legal
Python syntax: ‘L[1:10:2]’, ‘L[:-1:1]’, ‘L[::-1]’.  This was added to
Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses
the third argument extensively.  However, Python's built-in list, tuple,
and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a
*note TypeError: 525. if you tried it.  Michael Hudson contributed a
patch to fix this shortcoming.

For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have
even indexes:

     >>> L = range(10)
     >>> L[::2]
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse
order:

     >>> L[::-1]
     [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:

     >>> s='abcd'
     >>> s[::2]
     'ac'
     >>> s[::-1]
     'dcba'

If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign
to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between
assignment to extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular
slice can be used to change the length of the sequence:

     >>> a = range(3)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2]
     >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
     >>> a
     [0, 4, 5, 6]

Extended slices aren't this flexible.  When assigning to an extended
slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the
same number of items as the slice it is replacing:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
     >>> a
     [0, 1, -1, 3]
     >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2

Deletion is more straightforward:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> del a[::2]
     >>> a
     [1, 3]

One can also now pass slice objects to the *note __getitem__(): 280.
methods of the built-in sequences:

     >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
     [0, 2, 4]

Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:

     >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
     [0, 2, 4]

To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice
objects now have a method ‘indices(length)’ which, given the length of a
sequence, returns a ‘(start, stop, step)’ tuple that can be passed
directly to *note range(): 932.  ‘indices()’ handles omitted and
out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and
this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!).  The method
is intended to be used like this:

     class FakeSeq:
         ...
         def calc_item(self, i):
             ...
         def __getitem__(self, item):
             if isinstance(item, slice):
                 indices = item.indices(len(self))
                 return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
             else:
                 return self.calc_item(i)

From this example you can also see that the built-in *note slice: 455.
object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a
function.  This is consistent with Python 2.2, where *note int: 254,
*note str: 437, etc., underwent the same change.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements au langage<18>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Prev: Extended Slices,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.16 Autres changements au langage
-------------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note yield: 9bd. statement is now always a keyword, as
     described in section *note PEP 255 ; Générateurs simples: 143c. of
     this document.

   * A new built-in function *note enumerate(): 1435. was added, as
     described in section *note PEP 279; enumerate(): 1445. of this
     document.

   * Two new constants, *note True: bfd. and *note False: b27. were
     added along with the built-in *note bool: 453. type, as described
     in section *note PEP 285 ; Un type booléen: 144d. of this document.

   * The *note int(): 254. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 86f. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
     ‘isinstance(int(expression), int)’ is false, but that seems
     unlikely to cause problems in practice.

   * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as
     described in section *note Extended Slices: 145d. of this document.

   * A new built-in function, ‘sum(iterable, start=0)’, adds up the
     numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  *note
     sum(): 456. only accepts numbers, meaning that you can't use it to
     concatenate a bunch of strings.  (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)

   * ‘list.insert(pos, value)’ used to insert 'value' at the front of
     the list when 'pos' was negative.  The behaviour has now been
     changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when 'pos' is -1
     the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth.

   * ‘list.index(value)’, which searches for 'value' within the list and
     returns its index, now takes optional 'start' and 'stop' arguments
     to limit the search to only part of the list.

   * Dictionaries have a new method, ‘pop(key[, *default*])’, that
     returns the value corresponding to 'key' and removes that key/value
     pair from the dictionary.  If the requested key isn't present in
     the dictionary, 'default' is returned if it's specified and *note
     KeyError: 33a. raised if it isn't.

          >>> d = {1:2}
          >>> d
          {1: 2}
          >>> d.pop(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 4
          >>> d.pop(1)
          2
          >>> d.pop(1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
          >>> d
          {}
          >>>

     There's also a new class method, ‘dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)’,
     that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied
     iterator 'iterable' and all values set to 'value', defaulting to
     ‘None’.

     (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

     Also, the *note dict(): 253. constructor now accepts keyword
     arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries:

          >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
          {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}

     (Contributed by Just van Rossum.)

   * The *note assert: 957. statement no longer checks the ‘__debug__’
     flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to
     ‘__debug__’.  Running Python with the *note -O: da4. switch will
     still generate code that doesn't execute any assertions.

   * Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create
     new objects such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means
     that the ‘new’ module can be deprecated in a future Python version,
     because you can now use the type objects available in the *note
     types: 102. module.)  For example, you can create a new module
     object with the following code:

          >>> import types
          >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
          >>> m
          <module 'abc' (built-in)>
          >>> m.__doc__
          'docstring'

   * A new warning, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7. was added to
     indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated.
     The warning will 'not' be printed by default.  To check for use of
     features that will be deprecated in the future, supply *note
     -Walways;;PendingDeprecationWarning;;: 8b6. on the command line or
     use *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 145f.

   * The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ‘raise
     "Error occurred"’, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
     *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451. warning.  In a future version of Python, ‘None’
     may finally become a keyword.

   * The ‘xreadlines()’ method of file objects, introduced in Python
     2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own
     iterator.  ‘xreadlines()’ was originally introduced as a faster way
     to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write
     ‘for line in file_obj’.  File objects also have a new read-only
     ‘encoding’ attribute that gives the encoding used by the file;
     Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted
     to bytes using the given encoding.

   * The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed,
     though you'll only notice the difference if you have a really
     complicated inheritance hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected
     by this change.  Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a
     class's ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described
     in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan"(1).
     To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele
     Simionato's article *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order:
     1460, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’.
     Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented
     the fix by coding the C3 algorithm.

   * Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads
     after executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been
     increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded
     applications by reducing the switching overhead.  Some
     multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but
     that's easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number
     using ‘sys.setcheckinterval(N)’.  The limit can be retrieved with
     the new ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ function.

   * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension
     types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the
     module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name.  For example, in
     Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its ‘__class__’,
     you'd get this output:

          >>> s = socket.socket()
          >>> s.__class__
          <type 'socket'>

     In 2.3, you get this:

          >>> s.__class__
          <type '_socket.socket'>

   * One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style
     classes has been removed: you can now assign to the *note __name__:
     1461. and *note __bases__: 1462. attributes of new-style classes.
     There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to ‘__bases__’
     along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance's
     *note __class__: 1463. attribute.

* Menu:

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910


File: python.info,  Node: String Changes,  Next: Optimizations<12>,  Up: Autres changements au langage<18>

1.19.16.1 String Changes
........................

   * The *note in: 2e9. operator now works differently for strings.
     Previously, when evaluating ‘X in Y’ where 'X' and 'Y' are strings,
     'X' could only be a single character.  That's now changed; 'X' can
     be a string of any length, and ‘X in Y’ will return *note True:
     bfd. if 'X' is a substring of 'Y'. If 'X' is the empty string, the
     result is always *note True: bfd.

          >>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
          True
          >>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
          False
          >>> '' in 'abcd'
          True

     Note that this doesn't tell you where the substring starts; if you
     need that information, use the *note find(): e93. string method.

   * The *note strip(): 1465, *note lstrip(): 1466, and *note rstrip():
     1467. string methods now have an optional argument for specifying
     the characters to strip.  The default is still to remove all
     whitespace characters:

          >>> '   abc '.strip()
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
          'abc<><><>\n'
          >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
          u'\u4001abc'
          >>>

     (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note startswith(): eb6. and *note endswith(): eb7. string
     methods now accept negative numbers for the 'start' and 'end'
     parameters.

   * Another new string method is *note zfill(): 1468, originally a
     function in the *note string: d2. module.  *note zfill(): 1468.
     pads a numeric string with zeros on the left until it's the
     specified width.  Note that the ‘%’ operator is still more flexible
     and powerful than *note zfill(): 1468.

          >>> '45'.zfill(4)
          '0045'
          >>> '12345'.zfill(4)
          '12345'
          >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
          '0goofy'

     (Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)

   * A new type object, ‘basestring’, has been added.  Both 8-bit
     strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so
     ‘isinstance(obj, basestring)’ will return *note True: bfd. for
     either kind of string.  It's a completely abstract type, so you
     can't create ‘basestring’ instances.

   * Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be
     garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them
     is from the internal dictionary of interned strings.  (Implemented
     by Oren Tirosh.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<12>,  Prev: String Changes,  Up: Autres changements au langage<18>

1.19.16.2 Optimizations
.......................

   * The creation of new-style class instances has been made much
     faster; they're now faster than classic classes!

   * The *note sort(): bbf. method of list objects has been extensively
     rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly
     faster.

   * Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to
     an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that
     scales better than the 'O'('n'^2) required for the grade-school
     multiplication algorithm.  (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig,
     and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small
     speed increase, depending on your compiler's idiosyncrasies.  See
     section *note Autres changements et corrections: 146a. for a longer
     explanation.  (Removed by Michael Hudson.)

   * ‘xrange()’ objects now have their own iterator, making ‘for i in
     xrange(n)’ slightly faster than ‘for i in range(n)’.  (Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots
     to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing
     some code.  (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have
     contributed single changes.)

The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the
pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Next: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Prev: Autres changements au langage<18>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.17 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here's a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The *note array: 7. module now supports arrays of Unicode
     characters using the ‘'u'’ format character.  Arrays also now
     support using the ‘+=’ assignment operator to add another array's
     contents, and the ‘*=’ assignment operator to repeat an array.
     (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the
     PyBSDDB(1) package, providing a more complete interface to the
     transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.

     The old version of the module has been renamed to ‘bsddb185’ and is
     no longer built automatically; you'll have to edit ‘Modules/Setup’
     to enable it.  Note that the new ‘bsddb’ package is intended to be
     compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you
     discover any incompatibilities.  When upgrading to Python 2.3, if
     the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the
     underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
     convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this
     fairly easily with the new scripts ‘db2pickle.py’ and
     ‘pickle2db.py’ which you will find in the distribution's
     ‘Tools/scripts’ directory.  If you've already been using the
     PyBSDDB package and importing it as ‘bsddb3’, you will have to
     change your ‘import’ statements to import it as ‘bsddb’.

   * The new *note bz2: 13. module is an interface to the bz2 data
     compression library.  bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than
     corresponding *note zlib: 132.-compressed data.  (Contributed by
     Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new *note
     datetime: 30. module.  See the following section for more details.

   * The Distutils ‘Extension’ class now supports an extra constructor
     argument named 'depends' for listing additional source files that
     an extension depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module
     if any of the dependency files are modified.  For example, if
     ‘sampmodule.c’ includes the header file ‘sample.h’, you would
     create the ‘Extension’ object like this:

          ext = Extension("samp",
                          sources=["sampmodule.c"],
                          depends=["sample.h"])

     Modifying ‘sample.h’ would then cause the module to be recompiled.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the *note CC:
     146c, *note CFLAGS: 146d, ‘CPP’, *note LDFLAGS: 146e, and *note
     CPPFLAGS: 146f. environment variables, using them to override the
     settings in Python's configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).

   * Previously the *note doctest: 3a. module would only search the
     docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it
     now also examines private ones as well.  The *note DocTestSuite():
     de2. function creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: de3. object from
     a set of *note doctest: 3a. tests.

   * The new ‘gc.get_referents(object)’ function returns a list of all
     the objects referenced by 'object'.

   * The *note getopt: 60. module gained a new function, *note
     gnu_getopt(): 1470, that supports the same arguments as the
     existing *note getopt(): 1471. function but uses GNU-style scanning
     mode.  The existing *note getopt(): 1471. stops processing options
     as soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style
     mode processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can
     be mixed.  For example:

          >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
          >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])

     (Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)

   * The *note grp: 65, *note pwd: b1, and *note resource: bb. modules
     now return enhanced tuples:

          >>> import grp
          >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
          >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
          ('amk', 500)

   * The *note gzip: 66. module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.

   * The new *note heapq: 68. module contains an implementation of a
     heap queue algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that
     keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index
     'k', ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’.  This
     makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new
     item while maintaining the heap property is 'O'(log 'n').  (See
     ‘https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html’ for more
     information about the priority queue data structure.)

     The *note heapq: 68. module provides *note heappush(): 1472. and
     *note heappop(): 1473. functions for adding and removing items
     while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable
     Python sequence type.  Here's an example that uses a Python list:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> heap = []
          >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
          ...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
          ...
          >>> heap
          [1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          1
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          3
          >>> heap
          [5, 7, 11]

     (Contributed by Kevin O'Connor.)

   * The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using
     the code from the IDLEfork project
     (‘https://idlefork.sourceforge.net’).  The most notable feature is
     that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess,
     meaning that there's no longer any need for manual ‘reload()’
     operations.  IDLE's core code has been incorporated into the
     standard library as the *note idlelib: 72. package.

   * The *note imaplib: 73. module now supports IMAP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.)

   * The *note itertools: 80. contains a number of useful functions for
     use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the
     ML and Haskell languages.  For example,
     ‘itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)’ returns all elements in
     the iterator for which the function ‘predicate()’ returns *note
     True: bfd, and ‘itertools.repeat(obj, N)’ returns ‘obj’ 'N' times.
     There are a number of other functions in the module; see the
     package's reference documentation for details.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new functions in the *note math: 8d. module, ‘degrees(rads)’
     and ‘radians(degs)’, convert between radians and degrees.  Other
     functions in the *note math: 8d. module such as *note math.sin():
     1474. and *note math.cos(): 1475. have always required input values
     measured in radians.  Also, an optional 'base' argument was added
     to *note math.log(): 1476. to make it easier to compute logarithms
     for bases other than ‘e’ and ‘10’.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Several new POSIX functions (‘getpgid()’, ‘killpg()’, ‘lchown()’,
     ‘loadavg()’, ‘major()’, ‘makedev()’, ‘minor()’, and ‘mknod()’) were
     added to the *note posix: ac. module that underlies the *note os:
     a0. module.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and
     Denis S. Otkidach.)

   * In the *note os: a0. module, the ‘*stat()’ family of functions can
     now report fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps
     are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by *note
     time.time(): 251.

     During testing, it was found that some applications will break if
     time stamps are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple
     interface of the *note stat_result: 1477. time stamps will be
     represented as integers.  When using named fields (a feature first
     introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as
     integers, unless ‘os.stat_float_times()’ is invoked to enable float
     return values:

          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200
          >>> os.stat_float_times(True)
          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200.6335014

     In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.

     Application developers should enable this feature only if all their
     libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time
     stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should
     be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it
     on a per-use basis.

   * The *note optparse: 9f. module contains a new parser for
     command-line arguments that can convert option values to a
     particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage
     message.  See the following section for more details.

   * The old and never-documented ‘linuxaudiodev’ module has been
     deprecated, and a new version named ‘ossaudiodev’ has been added.
     The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on
     platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been tidied
     and brought up to date in various ways.  (Contributed by Greg Ward
     and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)

   * The new *note platform: a9. module contains a number of functions
     that try to determine various properties of the platform you're
     running on.  There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU
     type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution
     version.  (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * The parser objects provided by the *note pyexpat: 125. module can
     now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to
     your character data handler and therefore faster performance.
     Setting the parser object's *note buffer_text: 1478. attribute to
     *note True: bfd. will enable buffering.

   * The ‘sample(population, k)’ function was added to the *note random:
     b7. module.  'population' is a sequence or ‘xrange’ object
     containing the elements of a population, and *note sample(): 732.
     chooses 'k' elements from the population without replacing chosen
     elements.  'k' can be any value up to ‘len(population)’.  For
     example:

          >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
          ['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
          ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
          ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
            File "random.py", line 414, in sample
                raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
          ValueError: sample larger than population
          >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
          [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]

     The *note random: b7. module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne
     Twister, implemented in C. It's faster and more extensively studied
     than the previous algorithm.

     (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note readline: b9. module also gained a number of new
     functions: *note get_history_item(): 1479, *note
     get_current_history_length(): 147a, and *note redisplay(): 147b.

   * The ‘rexec’ and ‘Bastion’ modules have been declared dead, and
     attempts to import them will fail with a *note RuntimeError: 193.
     New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted
     execution environment provided by ‘rexec’, and no one has interest
     in fixing them or time to do so.  If you have applications using
     ‘rexec’, rewrite them to use something else.

     (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications
     any safer because there are known bugs in the ‘rexec’ module in
     those versions.  To repeat: if you're using ‘rexec’, stop using it
     immediately.)

   * The ‘rotor’ module has been deprecated because the algorithm it
     uses for encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need
     encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are
     available separately.

   * The *note shutil: c4. module gained a ‘move(src, dest)’ function
     that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.

   * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the
     *note signal: c5. but then removed again as it proved impossible to
     make it work reliably across platforms.

   * The *note socket: cb. module now supports timeouts.  You can call
     the ‘settimeout(t)’ method on a socket object to set a timeout of
     't' seconds.  Subsequent socket operations that take longer than
     't' seconds to complete will abort and raise a *note
     socket.timeout: 820. exception.

     The original timeout implementation was by Tim O'Malley.  Michael
     Gilfix integrated it into the Python *note socket: cb. module and
     shepherded it through a lengthy review.  After the code was checked
     in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it.  (This is a good example
     of a collaborative development process in action.)

   * On Windows, the *note socket: cb. module now ships with Secure
     Sockets Layer (SSL) support.

   * The value of the C ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’ macro is now exposed at the
     Python level as ‘sys.api_version’.  The current exception can be
     cleared by calling the new ‘sys.exc_clear()’ function.

   * The new *note tarfile: dd. module allows reading from and writing
     to ‘tar’-format archive files.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The new *note textwrap: eb. module contains functions for wrapping
     strings containing paragraphs of text.  The ‘wrap(text, width)’
     function takes a string and returns a list containing the text
     split into lines of no more than the chosen width.  The ‘fill(text,
     width)’ function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into
     lines no longer than the chosen width.  (As you can guess, *note
     fill(): 147c. is built on top of *note wrap(): 147d.  For example:

          >>> import textwrap
          >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
          >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
          ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
           "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
           ...]
          >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
          Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
          a special providence in the fall of
          a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
          to come; if it be not to come, it
          will be now; if it be not now, yet
          it will come: the readiness is all.
          >>>

     The module also contains a *note TextWrapper: fba. class that
     actually implements the text wrapping strategy.  Both the *note
     TextWrapper: fba. class and the *note wrap(): 147d. and *note
     fill(): 147c. functions support a number of additional keyword
     arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module's
     documentation for details.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The ‘thread’ and *note threading: ec. modules now have companion
     modules, ‘dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’, that provide a
     do-nothing implementation of the ‘thread’ module's interface for
     platforms where threads are not supported.  The intention is to
     simplify thread-aware modules (ones that 'don't' rely on threads to
     run) by putting the following code at the top:

          try:
              import threading as _threading
          except ImportError:
              import dummy_threading as _threading

     In this example, ‘_threading’ is used as the module name to make it
     clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual
     *note threading: ec. module.  Code can call functions and use
     classes in ‘_threading’ whether or not threads are supported,
     avoiding an *note if: 2e8. statement and making the code slightly
     clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
     run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return
     or to do something will simply hang forever.

   * The *note time: ed. module's *note strptime(): 13e5. function has
     long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library's
     *note strptime(): 13e5. implementation, and different platforms
     sometimes have odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a portable
     implementation that's written in pure Python and should behave
     identically on all platforms.

   * The new *note timeit: ee. module helps measure how long snippets of
     Python code take to execute.  The ‘timeit.py’ file can be run
     directly from the command line, or the module's *note Timer: 147e.
     class can be imported and used directly.  Here's a short example
     that figures out whether it's faster to convert an 8-bit string to
     Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the
     ‘unicode()’ function:

          import timeit

          timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
          timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')

          # Run three trials
          print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
          print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)

          # On my laptop this outputs:
          # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
          # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]

   * The ‘Tix’ module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
     current version of the Tix package.

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now works with a thread-enabled version of
     Tcl.  Tcl's threading model requires that widgets only be accessed
     from the thread in which they're created; accesses from another
     thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For certain Tcl interfaces,
     ‘Tkinter’ will now automatically avoid this when a widget is
     accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing
     it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other
     interfaces can't be handled automatically but ‘Tkinter’ will now
     raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find
     out about the problem.  See
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html’
     for a more detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by
     Martin von Löwis.)

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.
     This behavior can be controlled through the ‘wantobjects()’ method
     of ‘tkapp’ objects.

     When using ‘_tkinter’ through the ‘Tkinter’ module (as most Tkinter
     applications will), this feature is always activated.  It should
     not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always
     convert string results to Python types where possible.

     If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be
     restored by setting the ‘wantobjects’ variable in the ‘Tkinter’
     module to false before creating the first ‘tkapp’ object.

          import Tkinter
          Tkinter.wantobjects = 0

     Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.

   * The ‘UserDict’ module has a new ‘DictMixin’ class which defines all
     dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
     interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
     substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the *note
     shelve: c2. module.

     Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary
     interface whenever the class defines *note __getitem__(): 280,
     *note __setitem__(): 12ab, *note __delitem__(): 12ac, and ‘keys()’.
     For example:

          >>> import UserDict
          >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
          ...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self.keylist = []
          ...         self.valuelist = []
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         return self.valuelist[i]
          ...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...             self.valuelist[i] = value
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             self.keylist.append(key)
          ...             self.valuelist.append(value)
          ...     def __delitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         self.keylist.pop(i)
          ...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
          ...     def keys(self):
          ...         return list(self.keylist)
          ...
          >>> s = SeqDict()
          >>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
          ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
           '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
           '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
           'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
           'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The DOM implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. can now
     generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an
     optional encoding argument to the *note toxml(): 147f. and *note
     toprettyxml(): 1480. methods of DOM nodes.

   * The ‘xmlrpclib’ module now supports an XML-RPC extension for
     handling nil data values such as Python's ‘None’.  Nil values are
     always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate
     requests containing ‘None’, you must supply a true value for the
     'allow_none' parameter when creating a ‘Marshaller’ instance.

   * The new ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ module allows writing self-documenting
     XML-RPC servers.  Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in
     action.  Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces
     pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows
     invoking the actual methods.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491,
     and 3492) has been added.  The "idna" encoding can be used to
     convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible
     encoding (ACE) of that name.

          >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
          'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'

     The *note socket: cb. module has also been extended to
     transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before
     passing them to the C library.  Modules that deal with hostnames
     such as ‘httplib’ and *note ftplib: 5d.) also support Unicode host
     names; ‘httplib’ also sends HTTP ‘Host’ headers using the ACE
     version of the domain name.  *note urllib: 107. supports Unicode
     URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ‘path’ part of the
     URL is ASCII only.

     To implement this change, the *note stringprep: d3. module, the
     ‘mkstringprep’ tool and the ‘punycode’ encoding have been added.

* Menu:

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net


File: python.info,  Node: Date/Time Type,  Next: The optparse Module,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.19.17.1 Date/Time Type
........................

Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
*note datetime: 30. module.  The types don't support different calendars
or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing
time.

The three primary types are: *note date: 1c8, representing a day, month,
and year; *note time: 1c9, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and
*note datetime: 1c7, which contains all the attributes of both *note
date: 1c8. and *note time: 1c9.  There's also a *note timedelta: 9bf.
class representing differences between two points in time, and time zone
logic is implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract *note
tzinfo: 5ca. class.

You can create instances of *note date: 1c8. and *note time: 1c9. by
either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
‘datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)’, or by using one of a
number of class methods.  For example, the *note today(): 1482. class
method returns the current local date.

Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable.
There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from
objects:

     >>> import datetime
     >>> now = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> now.isoformat()
     '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
     >>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
     'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
     >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
     '2002 30 Dec'

The *note replace(): 1483. method allows modifying one or more fields of
a *note date: 1c8. or *note datetime: 1c7. instance, returning a new
instance:

     >>> d = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> d
     datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12)
     datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>>

Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result
is the same as that of *note isoformat(): b20.).  *note date: 1c8. and
*note datetime: 1c7. instances can be subtracted from each other, and
added to *note timedelta: 9bf. instances.  The largest missing feature
is that there's no standard library support for parsing strings and
getting back a *note date: 1c8. or *note datetime: 1c7.

For more information, refer to the module's reference documentation.
(Contributed by Tim Peters.)


File: python.info,  Node: The optparse Module,  Prev: Date/Time Type,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.19.17.2 The optparse Module
.............................

The *note getopt: 60. module provides simple parsing of command-line
arguments.  The new *note optparse: 9f. module (originally named Optik)
provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix
conventions, automatically creates the output for ‘--help’, and can
perform different actions for different options.

You start by creating an instance of *note OptionParser: 1485. and
telling it what your program's options are.

     import sys
     from optparse import OptionParser

     op = OptionParser()
     op.add_option('-i', '--input',
                   action='store', type='string', dest='input',
                   help='set input filename')
     op.add_option('-l', '--length',
                   action='store', type='int', dest='length',
                   help='set maximum length of output')

Parsing a command line is then done by calling the *note parse_args():
1486. method.

     options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
     print options
     print args

This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list
of strings containing the remaining arguments.

Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you'd expect
it to.  Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an
integer.

     $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
     <Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
     ['arg1']
     $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
     <Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
     []
     $

The help message is automatically generated for you:

     $ ./python opt.py --help
     usage: opt.py [options]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
                             set input filename
       -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
                             set maximum length of output
     $

See the module's documentation for more details.

Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the
Getopt SIG.


File: python.info,  Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Next: Build and C API Changes<12>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.18 Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
------------------------------------------------

Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov,
was a feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster
than the system ‘malloc()’ and to have less memory overhead for
allocation patterns typical of Python programs.  The allocator uses C's
‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills
smaller memory requests from these pools.

In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn't enabled
by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by
providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script.  In
2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by
default; you'll have to supply ‘--without-pymalloc’ to disable it.

This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc
may expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should
test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may
cause core dumps at runtime.

There's one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a
number of memory allocation functions in Python's C API that have
previously just been aliases for the C library's ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions
the error wouldn't be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
these functions aren't aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and
calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump.  For
example, if memory was allocated using *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58, it
has to be freed using *note PyObject_Free(): c55, not ‘free()’.  A few
modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed;
doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
problem.

As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating
memory have been consolidated down into two API families.  Memory
allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from
the other family.  There is one family for allocating chunks of memory
and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python
objects.

   * To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the
     "raw memory" family: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56, *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 101d, and *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb.

   * The "object memory" family is the interface to the pymalloc
     facility described above and is biased towards a large number of
     "small" allocations: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc, and *note PyObject_Free(): c55.

   * To allocate and free Python objects, use the "object" family *note
     PyObject_New: 974, *note PyObject_NewVar: 975, and *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1489.

Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides
debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both
extension modules and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this
support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by
running ‘configure’ with ‘--with-pydebug’.

To aid extension writers, a header file ‘Misc/pymemcompat.h’ is
distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions
to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against
any version of Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from
Python's source distribution and bundle it with the source of your
extension.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c’

     For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the
     comments at the top of the file ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ in the Python
     source code.  The above link points to the file within the
     python.org SVN browser.


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<12>,  Next: Autres changements et corrections<2>,  Prev: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.19 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

   * The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection
     has proven to be stable, so it's now been made mandatory.  You can
     no longer compile Python without it, and the ‘--with-cycle-gc’
     switch to ‘configure’ has been removed.

   * Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
     (‘libpython2.3.so’) by supplying ‘--enable-shared’ when running
     Python's ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)

   * The ‘DL_EXPORT’ and ‘DL_IMPORT’ macros are now deprecated.
     Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be
     declared using the new macro *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 148b, while the
     Python core will generally use the ‘PyAPI_FUNC’ and ‘PyAPI_DATA’
     macros.

   * The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the
     built-in functions and modules by supplying ‘--without-doc-strings’
     to the ‘configure’ script.  This makes the Python executable about
     10% smaller, but will also mean that you can't get help for
     Python's built-ins.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * The ‘PyArg_NoArgs()’ macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
     should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition
     table can specify the *note METH_NOARGS: 148c. flag, signalling
     that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be
     removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is
     important, the code could use ‘PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "")’ instead,
     but this will be slower than using *note METH_NOARGS: 148c.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. accepts new format characters for
     various sizes of unsigned integers: ‘B’ for unsigned char, ‘H’ for
     unsigned short int, ‘I’ for unsigned int, and ‘K’ for unsigned long
     long.

   * A new function, ‘PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)’ was
     added as shorthand for ‘PyObject_DelItem(mapping,
     PyString_New(key))’.

   * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently,
     increasing it exponentially when needed.  This results in the
     benchmark tests in ‘Lib/test/test_bufio.py’ speeding up
     considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one
     measurement).

   * It's now possible to define class and static methods for a C
     extension type by setting either the *note METH_CLASS: 148d. or
     *note METH_STATIC: 148e. flags in a method's *note PyMethodDef:
     148f. structure.

   * Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser's source code,
     removing any dependence on a system version or local installation
     of Expat.

   * If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you
     should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the *note
     __module__: 36a. and *note __name__: 1461. attributes.  In summary,
     you will want to ensure the type's dictionary contains a
     ‘'__module__'’ key; making the module name the part of the type
     name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
     effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or
     the source.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<12>

1.19.19.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

Support for a port to IBM's OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was
merged into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer
over the OS/2 system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all
the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly
succeeds; ‘fork()’ and *note fcntl(): 58. are restricted by the
limitations of the underlying emulation layer.  The standard OS/2 port,
which uses IBM's Visual Age compiler, also gained support for
case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX
port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a
single routine is missing on the current OS version.  Instead calling
the missing routine will raise an exception.  (Contributed by Jack
Jansen.)

The RPM spec files, found in the ‘Misc/RPM/’ directory in the Python
source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean
Reifschneider.)

Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
(‘http://www.atheos.cx/’), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements et corrections<2>,  Next: Portage vers Python 2 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<12>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.20 Autres changements et corrections
-----------------------------------------

As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes
scattered throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change
logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between
Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * If the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1492. environment variable is set, the
     Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running
     a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the *note -i:
     1493. option.  The environment variable can be set before running
     the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as
     part of its execution.

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now provides a way to allow "all resources
     except 'foo'."  A resource name passed to the ‘-u’ option can now
     be prefixed with a hyphen (‘'-'’) to mean "remove this resource."
     For example, the option '‘-uall,-bsddb’' could be used to enable
     the use of all resources except ‘bsddb’.

   * The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as
     well as Unix.

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of
     time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks
     and support trace functions (for, e.g., *note pdb: a4.).  Since
     Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using
     a different mechanism that works with "python -O". For Python 2.3
     Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to
     call the trace function, removing the need for ‘SET_LINENO’
     entirely.

     It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from
     Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run
     without *note -O: da4.

     C extensions that access the *note f_lineno: 798. field of frame
     objects should instead call ‘PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code,
     f->f_lasti)’.  This will have the added effect of making the code
     work as desired under "python -O" in earlier versions of Python.

     A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
     *note f_lineno: 798. attribute of frame objects, changing the line
     that will be executed next.  A ‘jump’ command has been added to the
     *note pdb: a4. debugger taking advantage of this new feature.
     (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)


File: python.info,  Node: Portage vers Python 2 3,  Next: Remerciements<5>,  Prev: Autres changements et corrections<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.21 Portage vers Python 2.3
-------------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * *note yield: 9bd. is now always a keyword; if it's used as a
     variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen.

   * For strings 'X' and 'Y', ‘X in Y’ now works if 'X' is more than one
     character long.

   * The *note int(): 254. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 86f. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.

   * If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must
     declare the file's encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding
     a comment to the top of the file.  See section *note PEP 263;
     Source Code Encodings: 143e. for more information.

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.

   * Large octal and hex literals such as ‘0xffffffff’ now trigger a
     *note FutureWarning: 40b.  Currently they're stored as 32-bit
     numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they'll
     become positive long integers.

     There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a
     positive number, just add an ‘L’ to the end of the literal.  If
     you're trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have
     previously used an expression such as ‘~(1 << 31)’, it's probably
     clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper
     bits.  For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
     write ‘0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)’.

   * You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’.

   * The Distutils ‘setup()’ function has gained various new keyword
     arguments such as 'depends'.  Old versions of the Distutils will
     abort if passed unknown keywords.  A solution is to check for the
     presence of the new ‘get_distutil_options()’ function in your
     ‘setup.py’ and only uses the new keywords with a version of the
     Distutils that supports them:

          from distutils import core

          kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
          if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
              kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
          ext = Extension(**kw)

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451. warning.

   * Names of extension types defined by the modules included with
     Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type
     name.


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<5>,  Prev: Portage vers Python 2 3,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 3

1.19.22 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside,
Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,
Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef
Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco
Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler,
Just van Rossum.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 2,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 1,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 3,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.20 Nouveautés de Python 2.2
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction::
* PEP 252 et 253 ; Changements concernant les types et classes: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes.
* PEP 234 ; Itérateurs: PEP 234 Itérateurs.
* PEP 255 ; Générateurs simples: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Autres changements et corrections: Autres changements et corrections<3>.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction,  Next: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on
October 14, 2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2,
originally released on December 21, 2001.

Python 2.2 can be thought of as the "cleanup release".  There are some
features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but
most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be,
are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language
design.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as
the Python Library Reference(1) and the Python Reference Manual(2).  If
you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale
for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes,  Next: PEP 234 Itérateurs,  Prev: Introduction,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.2 PEP 252 et 253 : Changements concernant les types et classes
-------------------------------------------------------------------

The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python's
model of objects and classes.  The changes should be backward
compatible, so it's likely that your code will continue to run
unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities.
Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this
article, I'll provide an overview of the changes and offer some
comments.

A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python's design.
One of the most significant flaws was that it's impossible to subclass
Python types implemented in C. In particular, it's not possible to
subclass built-in types, so you can't just subclass, say, lists in order
to add a single useful method to them.  The ‘UserList’ module provides a
class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be
subclassed further, but there's lots of C code that expects a regular
Python list and won't accept a *note UserList: 149b. instance.

Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new
capabilities.  A brief summary:

   * You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers,
     and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the
     original type.

   * It's now possible to define static and class methods, in addition
     to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python.

   * It's also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or
     setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called
     'properties'.  Many uses of *note __getattr__(): 4bf. can be
     rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code
     simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
     have docstrings, too.

   * The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a
     particular set using 'slots', making it possible to safeguard
     against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in
     future versions of Python.

Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say,
the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks
that weren't possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make
the language more complicated.  Some people have said that they've
always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its
simplicity is being lost.

Personally, I think there's no need to worry.  Many of the new features
are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever
needed to be aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult
than it ever was, so you don't need to bother learning or teaching them
unless they're actually needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were
previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and
to my mind that's all for the better.

I'm not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small
change that were required to make the new features work.  Instead this
section will paint only the broad strokes.  See section *note Related
Links: 149c, "Related Links", for further sources of information about
Python 2.2's new object model.

* Menu:

* Anciennes et nouvelles classes::
* Descripteurs::
* Héritage multiple ; la règle du diamant: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::


File: python.info,  Node: Anciennes et nouvelles classes,  Next: Descripteurs,  Up: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes

1.20.2.1 Anciennes et nouvelles classes
.......................................

First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes:
classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style
class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions
of Python.  All the new features described in this section apply only to
new-style classes.  This divergence isn't intended to last forever;
eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.

So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an
existing new-style class.  Most of Python's built-in types, such as
integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes
now.  A new-style class named *note object: a7c, the base class for all
built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable,
you can just subclass *note object: a7c.:

     class C(object):
         def __init__ (self):
             ...
         ...

This means that *note class: 12b7. statements that don't have any base
classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can
also change this by setting a module-level variable named
‘__metaclass__’ -- see PEP 253(1) for the details -- but it's easier to
just subclass *note object: a7c.)

The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins,
named using a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions
named *note int(): 254, *note float(): 2ec, and *note str(): 437.  In
2.2, they aren't functions any more, but type objects that behave as
factories when called.

     >>> int
     <type 'int'>
     >>> int('123')
     123

To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as *note
dict(): 253. and ‘file()’ have been added.  Here's a more interesting
example, adding a ‘lock()’ method to file objects:

     class LockableFile(file):
         def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
             import fcntl
             return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
                                length, start, whence)

The now-obsolete ‘posixfile’ module contained a class that emulated all
of a file object's methods and also added a ‘lock()’ method, but this
class couldn't be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in
file, something which is possible with our new ‘LockableFile’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Descripteurs,  Next: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant,  Prev: Anciennes et nouvelles classes,  Up: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes

1.20.2.2 Descripteurs
.....................

In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover
what attributes and methods were supported by an object.  There were
some informal conventions, such as defining ‘__members__’ and
‘__methods__’ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author
of an extension type or a class wouldn't bother to define them.  You
could fall back on inspecting the *note __dict__: 549. of an object, but
when class inheritance or an arbitrary ‘__getattr__()’ hook were in use
this could still be inaccurate.

The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for
describing the attributes of an object using 'descriptors' has been
formalized.  Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating
whether it's a method or a field.  With the descriptor API, static
methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic
constructs.

Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and
have a few attributes of their own:

   * *note __name__: 1051. is the attribute's name.

   * *note __doc__: 917. is the attribute's docstring.

   * ‘__get__(object)’ is a method that retrieves the attribute value
     from 'object'.

   * ‘__set__(object, value)’ sets the attribute on 'object' to 'value'.

   * ‘__delete__(object, value)’ deletes the 'value' attribute of
     'object'.

For example, when you write ‘obj.x’, the steps that Python actually
performs are:

     descriptor = obj.__class__.x
     descriptor.__get__(obj)

For methods, *note descriptor.__get__: 149f. returns a temporary object
that's callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called
on it.  This is also why static methods and class methods are now
possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the
method and the class.  As a brief explanation of these new kinds of
methods, static methods aren't passed the instance, and therefore
resemble regular functions.  Class methods are passed the class of the
object, but not the object itself.  Static and class methods are defined
like this:

     class C(object):
         def f(arg1, arg2):
             ...
         f = staticmethod(f)

         def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
             ...
         g = classmethod(g)

The *note staticmethod(): 40c. function takes the function ‘f()’, and
returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class
object.  You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such
methods (‘def static f’, ‘defstatic f()’, or something like that) but no
such syntax has been defined yet; that's been left for future versions
of Python.

More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as
new kinds of descriptors, and it's not difficult to write a descriptor
class that does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to
write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style
preconditions and postconditions for a method.  A class that used this
feature might be defined like this:

     from eiffel import eiffelmethod

     class C(object):
         def f(self, arg1, arg2):
             # The actual function
             ...
         def pre_f(self):
             # Check preconditions
             ...
         def post_f(self):
             # Check postconditions
             ...

         f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)

Note that a person using the new ‘eiffelmethod()’ doesn't have to
understand anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new
features don't increase the basic complexity of the language.  There
will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write
‘eiffelmethod()’ or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write
code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant,  Next: Attribute Access,  Prev: Descripteurs,  Up: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes

1.20.2.3 Héritage multiple : la règle du diamant
................................................

Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the
rules under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes
(diagram taken from PEP 253(1) by Guido van Rossum):

           class A:
             ^ ^  def save(self): ...
            /   \
           /     \
          /       \
         /         \
     class B     class C:
         ^         ^  def save(self): ...
          \       /
           \     /
            \   /
             \ /
           class D

The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the
base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A
reference to ‘D.save()’ will search the classes ‘D’, ‘B’, and then ‘A’,
where ‘save()’ would be found and returned.  ‘C.save()’ would never be
found at all.  This is bad, because if ‘C’'s ‘save()’ method is saving
some internal state specific to ‘C’, not calling it will result in that
state never getting saved.

New-style classes follow a different algorithm that's a bit more
complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation.
(Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the
same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really
complicated inheritance graphs.)

  1. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and
     include a class multiple times if it's visited repeatedly.  In the
     above example, the list of visited classes is [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘A’, ‘C’,
     ‘A’].

  2. Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all
     but one occurrence, leaving the 'last' one in the list.  In the
     above example, the list becomes [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘A’] after dropping
     duplicates.

Following this rule, referring to ‘D.save()’ will return ‘C.save()’,
which is the behaviour we're after.  This lookup rule is the same as the
one followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, *note super():
4c8, provides a way to get at a class's superclasses without having to
reimplement Python's algorithm.  The most commonly used form will be
‘super(class, obj)’, which returns a bound superclass object (not the
actual class object).  This form will be used in methods to call a
method in the superclass; for example, ‘D’'s ‘save()’ method would look
like this:

     class D (B,C):
         def save (self):
             # Call superclass .save()
             super(D, self).save()
             # Save D's private information here
             ...

*note super(): 4c8. can also return unbound superclass objects when
called as ‘super(class)’ or ‘super(class1, class2)’, but this probably
won't often be useful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Access,  Next: Related Links,  Prev: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant,  Up: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes

1.20.2.4 Attribute Access
.........................

A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute
access using *note __getattr__(): 4bf.; most commonly this is done for
convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an
attribute access such as ‘obj.parent’ into a method call such as
‘obj.get_parent’.  Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling
attribute access.

First, ‘__getattr__(attr_name)’ is still supported by new-style classes,
and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an
attempt is made to access ‘obj.foo’ and no attribute named ‘foo’ is
found in the instance's dictionary.

New-style classes also support a new method,
‘__getattribute__(attr_name)’.  The difference between the two methods
is that *note __getattribute__(): bc2. is 'always' called whenever any
attribute is accessed, while the old *note __getattr__(): 4bf. is only
called if ‘foo’ isn't found in the instance's dictionary.

However, Python 2.2's support for 'properties' will often be a simpler
way to trap attribute references.  Writing a ‘__getattr__()’ method is
complicated because to avoid recursion you can't use regular attribute
accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents
of *note __dict__: 549.  *note __getattr__(): 4bf. methods also end up
being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as *note
__repr__(): 609. or ‘__coerce__()’, and so have to be written with this
in mind.  Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results
in a sizable performance loss.

*note property: 192. is a new built-in type that packages up three
functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For
example, if you want to define a ‘size’ attribute that's computed, but
also settable, you could write:

     class C(object):
         def get_size (self):
             result = ... computation ...
             return result
         def set_size (self, size):
             ... compute something based on the size
             and set internal state appropriately ...

         # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
         # method is defined as None, so the attribute
         # can't be deleted.
         size = property(get_size, set_size,
                         None,
                         "Storage size of this instance")

That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
‘__getattr__()’/‘__setattr__()’ methods that check for the ‘size’
attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes
from the instance's *note __dict__: 549.  Accesses to ‘size’ are also
the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so
references to other attributes run at their usual speed.

Finally, it's possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
referenced on an object using the new *note __slots__: 14a2. class
attribute.  Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it's
possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing
‘obj.new_attr=1’.  A new-style class can define a class attribute named
*note __slots__: 14a2. to limit the legal attributes to a particular set
of names.  An example will make this clear:

     >>> class C(object):
     ...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
     ...
     >>> obj = C()
     >>> print obj.template
     None
     >>> obj.template = 'Test'
     >>> print obj.template
     Test
     >>> obj.newattr = None
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'

Note how you get an *note AttributeError: 343. on the attempt to assign
to an attribute not listed in *note __slots__: 14a2.


File: python.info,  Node: Related Links,  Prev: Attribute Access,  Up: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes

1.20.2.5 Related Links
......................

This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving
enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have
been simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete
picture?

The *note Descriptor Guide: 14a4. is a lengthy tutorial introduction to
the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum.  If my description
has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes
into much more detail about the new features while still remaining quite
easy to read.

Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252(1) and PEP 253(2).  PEP
252(3) is titled "Making Types Look More Like Classes", and covers the
descriptor API. PEP 253(4) is titled "Subtyping Built-in Types", and
describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype
built-in objects.  PEP 253(5) is the more complicated PEP of the two,
and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types
may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs were written and implemented
by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the
Zope Corp.  team.

Finally, there's the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the
machinery for the type handling is in ‘Objects/typeobject.c’, but you
should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted,
including posting a question to python-list or python-dev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 234 Itérateurs,  Next: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>,  Prev: PEP 252 et 253 Changements concernant les types et classes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.3 PEP 234 : Itérateurs
---------------------------

Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both
the C and Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over
by callers.

In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ‘for item in obj’
work is to define a *note __getitem__(): 280. method that looks
something like this:

     def __getitem__(self, index):
         return <next item>

*note __getitem__(): 280. is more properly used to define an indexing
operation on an object so that you can write ‘obj[5]’ to retrieve the
sixth element.  It's a bit misleading when you're using this only to
support *note for: 2e7. loops.  Consider some file-like object that
wants to be looped over; the 'index' parameter is essentially
meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of *note
__getitem__(): 280. calls will be made with 'index' incrementing by one
each time.  In other words, the presence of the *note __getitem__():
280. method doesn't mean that using ‘file[5]’ to randomly access the
sixth element will work, though it really should.

In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and *note
__getitem__(): 280. methods can be limited to classes that really do
support random access.  The basic idea of iterators is simple.  A new
built-in function, ‘iter(obj)’ or ‘iter(C, sentinel)’, is used to get an
iterator.  ‘iter(obj)’ returns an iterator for the object 'obj', while
‘iter(C, sentinel)’ returns an iterator that will invoke the callable
object 'C' until it returns 'sentinel' to signal that the iterator is
done.

Python classes can define an ‘__iter__()’ method, which should create
and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own
iterator, this method can just return ‘self’.  In particular, iterators
will usually be their own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C
can implement a *note tp_iter: 14a6. function in order to return an
iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can
define a *note tp_iternext: 14a7. function.

So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one
required method, *note next(): 7c4, which takes no arguments and returns
the next value.  When there are no more values to be returned, calling
*note next(): 7c4. should raise the *note StopIteration: bea. exception.

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> print i
     <iterator object at 0x8116870>
     >>> i.next()
     1
     >>> i.next()
     2
     >>> i.next()
     3
     >>> i.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     StopIteration
     >>>

In 2.2, Python's *note for: 2e7. statement no longer expects a sequence;
it expects something for which *note iter(): 7c3. will return an
iterator.  For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is
automatically constructed for sequences that don't implement
‘__iter__()’ or a *note tp_iter: 14a6. slot, so ‘for i in [1,2,3]’ will
still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it's
been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you can do things
like this:

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> a,b,c = i
     >>> a,b,c
     (1, 2, 3)

Iterator support has been added to some of Python's basic types.
Calling *note iter(): 7c3. on a dictionary will return an iterator which
loops over its keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
     ...
     Mar 3
     Feb 2
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Jan 1
     Apr 4
     Nov 11
     Dec 12
     Oct 10

That's just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys,
values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the ‘iterkeys()’,
‘itervalues()’, or ‘iteritems()’ methods to get an appropriate iterator.
In a minor related change, the *note in: 2e9. operator now works on
dictionaries, so ‘key in dict’ is now equivalent to ‘dict.has_key(key)’.

Files also provide an iterator, which calls the *note readline(): b9.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
now read each line of a file using code like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there's no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  An
iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the
iterator protocol only requires a *note next(): 7c4. method.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 234(1) - Itérateurs

     Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented by the Python Labs
     crew, mostly by GvR and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Prev: PEP 234 Itérateurs,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.4 PEP 255 : Générateurs simples
------------------------------------

Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the
introduction of iterators.

You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 9be.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren't thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 9bd, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators
must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a ‘from __future__
import generators’ statement near the top of the module's source code.
In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 9bd. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 9be. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator's state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator's
‘next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn't allowed inside the ‘try’ block of a *note try: 6d5...*note
finally: 9ba. statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the
interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here's a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 9be. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator's results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: bea. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 7c4. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from "An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language" at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
"or" is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 2e8. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core
Python language, but learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they
don't solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One
novel feature of Python's interface as compared to Icon's is that a
generator's state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 255(2): Générateurs simples

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Next: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Prev: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.5 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are
32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of
arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms
that support files larger than ‘2**32’ bytes, the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects has to return a long integer.  However, there were various
bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if
a long integer was provided instead.  For example, in Python 1.5, only
regular integers could be used as a slice index, and ‘'abc'[1L:]’ would
raise a *note TypeError: 525. exception with the message 'slice index
must be int'.

Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required.
The 'L' suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal,
as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the 'L'
suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering
a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many
operations that used to raise an *note OverflowError: 86f. will now
return a long integer as their result.  For example:

     >>> 1234567890123
     1234567890123L
     >>> 2 ** 64
     18446744073709551616L

In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated
identically.  You can still distinguish them with the *note type(): d38.
built-in function, but that's rarely needed.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by
     Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Next: Unicode Changes,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.6 PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
----------------------------------------------

The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an
effort to fix an old design flaw that's been in Python from the
beginning.  Currently Python's division operator, ‘/’, behaves like C's
division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns
an integer result that's truncated down when there would be a fractional
part.  For example, ‘3/2’ is 1, not 1.5, and ‘(-1)/2’ is -1, not -0.5.
This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending
on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed,
it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands.

(The controversy is over whether this is 'really' a design flaw, and
whether it's worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It's caused
endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm
of acidly sarcastic postings on ‘comp.lang.python’.  I won't argue for
either side here and will stick to describing what's implemented in 2.2.
Read PEP 238(1) for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)

Because this change might break code, it's being introduced very
gradually.  Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won't be
complete until Python 3.0.

First, I'll borrow some terminology from PEP 238(2).  "True division" is
the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5,
1/4 is 0.25, and so forth.  "Floor division" is what Python's ‘/’
operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the
floor of the value returned by true division.  "Classic division" is the
current mixed behaviour of ‘/’; it returns the result of floor division
when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division
when one of the operands is a floating-point number.

Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:

   * A new operator, ‘//’, is the floor division operator.  (Yes, we
     know it looks like C++'s comment symbol.)  ‘//’ 'always' performs
     floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so ‘1
     // 2’ is 0 and ‘1.0 // 2.0’ is also 0.0.

     ‘//’ is always available in Python 2.2; you don't need to enable it
     using a ‘__future__’ statement.

   * By including a ‘from __future__ import division’ in a module, the
     ‘/’ operator will be changed to return the result of true division,
     so ‘1/2’ is 0.5.  Without the ‘__future__’ statement, ‘/’ still
     means classic division.  The default meaning of ‘/’ will not change
     until Python 3.0.

   * Classes can define methods called *note __truediv__(): 14ab. and
     *note __floordiv__(): 14ac. to overload the two division operators.
     At the C level, there are also slots in the *note PyNumberMethods:
     13d6. structure so extension types can define the two operators.

   * Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether
     code will work with the changed division semantics.  Running python
     with ‘-Q warn’ will cause a warning to be issued whenever division
     is applied to two integers.  You can use this to find code that's
     affected by the change and fix it.  By default, Python 2.2 will
     simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will
     be turned on by default in Python 2.3.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 238(3) - Changing the Division Operator

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Changes,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Prev: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.7 Unicode Changes
----------------------

Python's Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode
strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers.
Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers,
as its internal encoding by supplying ‘--enable-unicode=ucs4’ to the
configure script.  (It's also possible to specify ‘--disable-unicode’ to
completely disable Unicode support.)

When built to use UCS-4 (a "wide Python"), the interpreter can natively
handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of
legal values for the ‘unichr()’ function is expanded accordingly.  Using
an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a "narrow Python"), values greater
than 65535 will still cause ‘unichr()’ to raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.
exception.  This is all described in PEP 261(1), "Support for 'wide'
Unicode characters"; consult it for further details.

Another change is simpler to explain.  Since their introduction, Unicode
strings have supported an ‘encode()’ method to convert the string to a
selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric
‘decode([*encoding*])’ method has been added to 8-bit strings (though
not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.  ‘decode()’ assumes that the string is
in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned
by the codec.

Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly
related to Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for
uu-encoding, MIME's base64 encoding, and compression with the *note
zlib: 132. module:

     >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
     ... and repetitive text.
     ... """
     >>> data = s.encode('zlib')
     >>> data
     'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
     >>> data.decode('zlib')
     'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
     >>> print s.encode('uu')
     begin 666 <data>
     M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
     >=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*

     end
     >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
     'furrfu'

To convert a class instance to Unicode, a ‘__unicode__()’ method can be
defined by a class, analogous to ‘__str__()’.

‘encode()’, ‘decode()’, and ‘__unicode__()’ were implemented by
Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 261(2) - Support for 'wide' Unicode characters

     Written by Paul Prescod.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Next: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Unicode Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.8 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional
feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import nested_scopes’
directive.  In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled,
and are now always present.  The rest of this section is a copy of the
description of nested scopes from my "What's New in Python 2.1"
document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of
this section.

The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2,
is to Python's scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there
are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local,
module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised people
because it didn't match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
nested recursive function definition doesn't work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 42a. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn't in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn't much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 127c. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses
‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them
as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 1410, *note class: 12b7,
or *note import: 5ce. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 127c. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 18b. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 227(1) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Écrit et implémenté par Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.9 New and Improved Modules
-------------------------------

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12d. module was contributed to the standard
     library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC
     clients.  XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built
     on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet
     retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O'Reilly Network, and
     then lists the recent headlines for one channel:

          import xmlrpclib
          s = xmlrpclib.Server(
                'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
          channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
          # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
          #  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
          #  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]

          # Get the items for one channel
          items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )

          # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
          #   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
          #   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]

     The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12e. module makes it easy to create
     straightforward XML-RPC servers.  See
     ‘http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/’ for more information about XML-RPC.

   * The new *note hmac: 69. module implements the HMAC algorithm
     described by RFC 2104(1).  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now
     return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have
     mnemonic attributes such as ‘memberst_mtime’ or *note tm_year:
     14b0.  The enhanced functions include *note stat(): 48c, *note
     fstat(): d7b, *note statvfs(): 10de, and *note fstatvfs(): d7c. in
     the *note os: a0. module, and *note localtime(): 14b1, *note
     gmtime(): 119f, and *note strptime(): 13e5. in the *note time: ed.
     module.

     For example, to obtain a file's size using the old tuples, you'd
     end up writing something like ‘file_size =
     os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]’, but now this can be written more
     clearly as ‘file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size’.

     The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick
     Mathewson.

   * The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various
     errors in its output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L.
     Drake, Jr.  and Tim Peters.)

   * The *note socket: cb. module can be compiled to support IPv6;
     specify the ‘--enable-ipv6’ option to Python's configure script.
     (Contributed by Jun-ichiro "itojun" Hagino.)

   * Two new format characters were added to the *note struct: d4.
     module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long
     long type.  ‘q’ is for a signed 64-bit integer, and ‘Q’ is for an
     unsigned one.  The value is returned in Python's long integer type.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * In the interpreter's interactive mode, there's a new built-in
     function *note help(): 8c6. that uses the *note pydoc: b4. module
     introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help.
     ‘help(object)’ displays any available help text about 'object'.
     *note help(): 8c6. with no argument puts you in an online help
     utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or
     modules to read their help text.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
     using Ka-Ping Yee's *note pydoc: b4. module.)

   * Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the
     SRE engine underlying the *note re: b8. module.  For example, the
     *note re.sub(): 2a0. and *note re.split(): 29f. functions have been
     rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode
     character ranges by a factor of two, and a new *note finditer():
     14b2. method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
     matches in a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.
     The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note smtplib: c9. module now supports RFC 2487(2), "Secure
     SMTP over TLS", so it's now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic
     between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed
     a message.  *note smtplib: c9. also supports SMTP authentication.
     (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note imaplib: 73. module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has
     support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined
     in RFC 2342(3), SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony
     Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)

   * The ‘rfc822’ module's parsing of email addresses is now compliant
     with RFC 2822(4), an update to RFC 822(5).  (The module's name is
     'not' going to be changed to ‘rfc2822’.)  A new package, *note
     email: 3b, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail
     messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his
     work on Mailman.)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module now contains a new ‘Differ’ class for
     producing human-readable lists of changes (a "delta") between two
     sequences of lines of text.  There are also two generator
     functions, ‘ndiff()’ and ‘restore()’, which respectively return a
     delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a
     delta.  (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py
     code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)

   * New constants ‘ascii_letters’, ‘ascii_lowercase’, and
     ‘ascii_uppercase’ were added to the *note string: d2. module.
     There were several modules in the standard library that used
     ‘string.letters’ to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is
     incorrect when locales are in use, because ‘string.letters’ varies
     depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current
     locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed to use
     ‘ascii_letters’ instead.  (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
     Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8e. module now makes it easier to use
     alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a *note
     MimeTypes: 14b3. class, which takes a list of filenames to be
     parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * A *note Timer: 113b. class was added to the *note threading: ec.
     module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future
     time.  (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Next: Autres changements et corrections<3>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.10 Interpreter Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------------

Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python
interpreter at the C level because they're writing Python extension
modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter
itself.  If you only write Python code, none of the changes described
here will affect you very much.

   * Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which
     can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and
     should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing.  This will be
     of interest to authors of development environments for Python.  Two
     new C functions were added to Python's API, *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417.  The
     existing *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6. and *note sys.settrace():
     14b7. functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use
     the new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of
     Python debuggers and development tools, was added.  *note
     PyInterpreterState_Head(): 14b8. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Next(): 14b9. let a caller walk through all the
     existing interpreter objects; *note
     PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(): 14ba. and *note
     PyThreadState_Next(): 14bb. allow looping over all the thread
     states for a given interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)

   * The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to
     make it easier to write extension types that support garbage
     collection and to debug misuses of the functions.  Various
     functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of
     functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
     still compile but will 'not' participate in garbage collection, so
     updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.

     To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the
     following steps:

   * Rename ‘Py_TPFLAGS_GC’ to *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769.

   * 
     Use *note PyObject_GC_New(): a92. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): a93. to allocate

          objects, and *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc. to deallocate
          them.

   * Rename ‘PyObject_GC_Init()’ to *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14bd. and
     ‘PyObject_GC_Fini()’ to *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be.

   * Remove ‘PyGC_HEAD_SIZE’ from object size calculations.

   * Remove calls to ‘PyObject_AS_GC()’ and ‘PyObject_FROM_GC()’.

   * A new ‘et’ format sequence was added to *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     55f.; ‘et’ takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and
     converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns
     out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it's an 8-bit
     string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding.  This
     differs from the ‘es’ format character, which assumes that 8-bit
     strings are in Python's default ASCII encoding and converts them to
     the specified new encoding.  (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and
     used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following
     section.)

   * A different argument parsing function, *note PyArg_UnpackTuple():
     14bf, has been added that's simpler and presumably faster.  Instead
     of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum
     and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to
     *note PyObject: 32f.* variables that will be filled in with
     argument values.

   * Two new flags *note METH_NOARGS: 148c. and *note METH_O: 14c0. are
     available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of
     methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument.  Calling
     such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method
     that uses *note METH_VARARGS: 14c1.  Also, the old ‘METH_OLDARGS’
     style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated.

   * Two new wrapper functions, *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14c2. and *note
     PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14c3. were added to provide cross-platform
     implementations for the relatively new ‘snprintf()’ and
     ‘vsnprintf()’ C lib APIs.  In contrast to the standard ‘sprintf()’
     and ‘vsprintf()’ functions, the Python versions check the bounds of
     the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns.  (Contributed
     by M.-A. Lemburg.)

   * The *note _PyTuple_Resize(): 14c4. function has lost an unused
     parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third
     argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting
     code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements et corrections<3>,  Next: Remerciements<6>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.11 Autres changements et corrections
-----------------------------------------

As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds
there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and
2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106
patches and fixed 82 bugs.  These figures are likely to be
underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen,
     is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been
     made to support MacOS X.

     The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a
     framework, enabled by supplying the ‘--enable-framework’ option to
     the configure script when compiling Python.  According to Jack
     Jansen, "This installs a self-contained Python installation plus
     the OS X framework "glue" into
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ (or another location of
     choice).  For now there is little immediate added benefit to this
     (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your
     PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a
     full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly
     using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more."

     Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS
     APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc.  have been
     ported to OS X, but they've been left commented out in ‘setup.py’.
     People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them
     manually.

   * Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don't take them
     now cause a *note TypeError: 525. exception to be raised, with the
     message "'function' takes no keyword arguments".

   * Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are
     now part of the core because they're used in the implementation of
     new-style classes.  The *note ReferenceError: 14c6. exception has
     therefore moved from the *note weakref: 113. module to become a
     built-in exception.

   * A new script, ‘Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py’ by Tim Peters,
     automatically removes obsolete ‘__future__’ statements from Python
     source code.

   * An additional 'flags' argument has been added to the built-in
     function *note compile(): 190, so the behaviour of ‘__future__’
     statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such
     as those presented by IDLE and other development environments.
     This is described in PEP 264(1).  (Contributed by Michael Hudson.)

   * The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn't GPL-compatible.
     This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so
     it's now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note
     that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license
     that's essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always
     was.  The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and
     2.1.1 releases.

   * When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now
     convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file
     APIs.  As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python's choice
     of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On
     Unix, the locale's character set is used if
     ‘locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ is available.  (Windows support was
     contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André
     Lemburg.  Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.)

   * Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim
     Peters.)

   * The ‘Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py’ script now parses a ‘.netrc’ file,
     if you have one.  (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)

   * Some features of the object returned by the ‘xrange()’ function are
     now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they're accessed; they'll
     disappear in Python 2.3.  ‘xrange’ objects tried to pretend they
     were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence
     multiplication, and the *note in: 2e9. operator, but these features
     were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The ‘tolist()’ method and
     the ‘start’, ‘stop’, and ‘step’ attributes are also being
     deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to the
     ‘PyRange_New()’ function, ‘repeat’, has also been deprecated.

   * There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation,
     mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects
     that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary
     they were contained in.  For a while python-dev fell into a gentle
     rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim
     Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and
     round it went.

   * On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a
     number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result
     isn't fully functional yet.  (But this 'is' progress...)

   * Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered
     PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier
     PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning
     to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)

   * Files ending in ‘.pyw’ can now be imported on Windows.  ‘.pyw’ is a
     Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run
     using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS
     console from popping up to display the output.  This patch makes it
     possible to import such scripts, in case they're also usable as
     modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)

   * On platforms where Python uses the C ‘dlopen()’ function to load
     extension modules, it's now possible to set the flags used by
     ‘dlopen()’ using the *note sys.getdlopenflags(): 14c7. and *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): 1101. functions.  (Contributed by Bram
     Stolk.)

   * The *note pow(): 9c2. built-in function no longer supports 3
     arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied.  ‘pow(x, y, z)’
     returns ‘(x**y) % z’, but this is never useful for floating-point
     numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the
     platform.  A call such as ‘pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)’ will now raise a
     *note TypeError: 525. exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<6>,  Prev: Autres changements et corrections<3>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 2

1.20.12 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr.,
Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael
Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik
Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don
O'Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil
Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 1,  Next: Nouveautés de Python 2 0,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 2,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.21 Nouveautés de Python 2.1
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236 ; Directives __future__: PEP 236 Directives __future__.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232 ; Attributs de fonctions: PEP 232 Attributs de fonctions.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Autres changements et corrections: Autres changements et corrections<4>.
* Remerciements: Remerciements<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<2>,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there
aren't as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are
still some pleasant surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be
steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so
most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more
complete documentation and a design rationale for the change.  This
article doesn't attempt to document the new features completely, but
simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers.
Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more
details about any new feature that particularly interests you.

One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate
the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months.
2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first
alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was
released.

The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Next: PEP 236 Directives __future__,  Prev: Introduction<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.2 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python's scoping rules.  In
Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to
look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.
This often surprised people because it didn't match their intuitive
expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
doesn't work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 42a. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn't in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn't much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 127c. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses *note
lambda: 127c. you can often find local variables being copied by passing
them as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 1410, *note class: 12b7,
or *note import: 5ce. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 127c. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 18b. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced
gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren't enabled by default, but can be
turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in
PEP 236(1).  (See the following section for further discussion of PEP
236(2).)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there
will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1's
lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 227(3) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Écrit et implémenté par Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 236 Directives __future__,  Next: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.3 PEP 236 : Directives ‘__future__’
----------------------------------------

The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers
of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make
the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach
consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality
in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1.

The syntax uses a ‘from...import’ statement using the reserved module
name *note __future__: 0.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following
statement:

     from __future__ import nested_scopes

While it looks like a normal *note import: 5ce. statement, it's not;
there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put.
They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python
code or regular ‘import’ statements.  This is because such statements
can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates
bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in
bytecodes being produced.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 236(1) - Retour vers le *note __future__: 0.

     Écrit par Tim Peters, et implémenté principalement par Jeremy
     Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Next: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Prev: PEP 236 Directives __future__,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.4 PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
--------------------------------

In earlier versions, Python's support for implementing comparisons on
user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple.  Classes
could implement a ‘__cmp__()’ method that was given two instances of a
class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they
weren't; the method couldn't raise an exception or return anything other
than a Boolean value.  Users of Numeric Python often found this model
too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that
numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to
perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix
containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to
raise an exception to signal the error.

In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this
need.  Python classes can now individually overload each of the ‘<’,
‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘==’, and ‘!=’ operations.  The new magic method names
are:

Opération       Nom de méthode
                
---------------------------------------------
                
‘<’             *note __lt__(): 127f.
                
                
‘<=’            *note __le__(): 12eb.
                
                
‘>’             *note __gt__(): 12ec.
                
                
‘>=’            *note __ge__(): 12ed.
                
                
‘==’            *note __eq__(): aea.
                
                
‘!=’            *note __ne__(): 14cf.
                

(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators
‘.LT.’.  ‘.LE.’, &c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite
familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.)

Each of these magic methods is of the form ‘method(self, other)’, where
‘self’ will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
‘other’ will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
expression ‘A < B’ will cause ‘A.__lt__(B)’ to be called.

Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a
matrix, a list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can
raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or
otherwise meaningless.

The built-in ‘cmp(A,B)’ function can use the rich comparison machinery,
and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison
operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ‘"<"’, ‘"<="’,
‘">"’, ‘">="’, ‘"=="’, or ‘"!="’.  If called without the optional third
argument, ‘cmp()’ will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions
of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return
any Python object.

There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers;
there's a new slot ‘tp_richcmp’ in type objects and an API for
performing a given rich comparison.  I won't cover the C API here, but
will refer you to PEP 207(1), or to 2.1's C API documentation, for the
full list of related functions.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 207(2) - Rich Comparisons

     Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David
     Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Next: PEP 229 New Build System,  Prev: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.5 PEP 230: Warning Framework
---------------------------------

Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number
of obsolete modules and features along the way.  It's difficult to know
when a feature is safe to remove, since there's no way of knowing how
much code uses it -- perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or
perhaps many do.  To enable removing old features in a more structured
way, a warning framework was added.  When the Python developers want to
get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next
version of Python.  The following Python version can then drop the
feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
the old feature.

Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It
adds a *note warnings: 111. module that provide functions to issue
warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don't want to be
displayed.  Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate
old features that they no longer wish to support.

For example, in Python 2.1 the ‘regex’ module is deprecated, so
importing it causes a warning to be printed:

     >>> import regex
     __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
              is deprecated; please use the re module
     >>>

Warnings can be issued by calling the *note warnings.warn(): 14d1.
function:

     warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")

The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional
parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category.

Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression
pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to
suppress a warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the
‘regex’ module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the
*note re: b8. module right now.  The warning can be suppressed by
calling

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
                             message='.*regex module is deprecated',
                             category=DeprecationWarning,
                             module = '__main__')

This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. triggered in the *note __main__: 1. module, and
applies a regular expression to only match the message about the ‘regex’
module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.
Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending
code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program
to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).

Functions were also added to Python's C API for issuing warnings; refer
to PEP 230 or to Python's API documentation for the details.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 5(1) - Guidelines for Language Evolution

     Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when
     removing old features from Python.  The policy described in this
     PEP hasn't been officially adopted, but the eventual policy
     probably won't be too different from Prescod's proposal.

PEP 230(2) - Warning Framework

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 229 New Build System,  Next: PEP 205 Weak References,  Prev: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.6 PEP 229: New Build System
--------------------------------

When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the
‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable various additional modules; the
default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on
most Unix platforms.  This means that on Unix platforms with many more
features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don't contain
all useful modules they could.

Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and
installing extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile
much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which
ones are supported on the current machine.  It's hoped that this will
make Python installations easier and more featureful.

Instead of having to edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable
modules, a ‘setup.py’ script in the top directory of the Python source
distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which
modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the
system.  If a module is configured in ‘Modules/Setup’, the ‘setup.py’
script won't attempt to compile that module and will defer to the
‘Modules/Setup’ file's contents.  This provides a way to specific any
strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific
platform.

In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn't
recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the
‘Python/’, ‘Parser/’, ‘Objects/’, and ‘Modules/’ subdirectories.  This
makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles
clearer and simpler.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 229(1) - Using Distutils to Build Python

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 205 Weak References,  Next: PEP 232 Attributs de fonctions,  Prev: PEP 229 New Build System,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.7 PEP 205: Weak References
-------------------------------

Weak references, available through the *note weakref: 113. module, are a
minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer's toolbox.

Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has
the side effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few
specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being
the most common one, and another being circular references in data
structures such as trees.

For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of
another function ‘f(x)’ by storing the function's argument and its
result in a dictionary:

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             return _cache[x]

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache the returned object
         _cache[x] = retval

         return retval

This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side
effect; the ‘_cache’ dictionary holds a reference to the return values,
so they'll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and
cleans up.  This isn't very noticeable for integers, but if ‘f()’
returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory,
this can be a problem.

Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won't keep
objects alive beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible
through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak
references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer
exists.  A weak reference to an object 'obj' is created by calling ‘wr =
weakref.ref(obj)’.  The object being referred to is returned by calling
the weak reference as if it were a function: ‘wr()’.  It will return the
referenced object, or ‘None’ if the object no longer exists.

This makes it possible to write a ‘memoize()’ function whose cache
doesn't keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             obj = _cache[x]()
             # If weak reference object still exists,
             # return it
             if obj is not None: return obj

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache a weak reference
         _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)

         return retval

The *note weakref: 113. module also allows creating proxy objects which
behave like weak references -- an object referenced only by proxy
objects is deallocated - but instead of requiring an explicit call to
retrieve the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to
the object as long as the object still exists.  If the object is
deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
‘weakref.ReferenceError’ exception to be raised.

     proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
     proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
     proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
     del obj
     proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 205(1) - Weak References

     Écrit et implémenté par Fred L. Drake, Jr.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 232 Attributs de fonctions,  Next: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Prev: PEP 205 Weak References,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.8 PEP 232 : Attributs de fonctions
---------------------------------------

In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to
them.  People were often using docstrings to hold information about
functions and methods, because the *note __doc__: 11b8. attribute was
the only way of attaching any information to a function.  For example,
in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for
public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock's SPARK parsing
framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed.  This
overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold
a function's documentation; for example, it means you can't properly
document functions intended for private use in Zope.

Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the
regular Python syntax:

     def f(): pass

     f.publish = 1
     f.secure = 1
     f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"

The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function's
*note __dict__: 12b2.  Unlike the *note __dict__: c4d. attribute of
class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary
to *note __dict__: 12b2, though the new value is restricted to a regular
Python dictionary; you 'can't' be tricky and set it to a ‘UserDict’
instance, or any other random object that behaves like a mapping.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 232(1) - Attributs de fonctions

     Écrit et implémenté par Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Next: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Prev: PEP 232 Attributs de fonctions,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.9 PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
---------------------------------------------------------------

Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS
and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it's
impossible to distinguish the filenames ‘FILE.PY’ and ‘file.py’, even
though they do store the file's name in its original case (they're
case-preserving, too).

In Python 2.1, the *note import: 5ce. statement will work to simulate
case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search
for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an *note
ImportError: 40f. if no such file is found, so ‘import file’ will not
import a module named ‘FILE.PY’.  Case-insensitive matching can be
requested by setting the *note PYTHONCASEOK: 94b. environment variable
before starting the Python interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Next: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Prev: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.10 PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
-----------------------------------------

When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands
is displayed using the built-in *note repr(): 7e9. function.  In Python
2.1, the variable *note sys.displayhook(): 14d7. can be set to a
callable object which will be called instead of *note repr(): 7e9.  For
example, you can set it to a special pretty-printing function:

     >>> # Create a recursive data structure
     ... L = [1,2,3]
     >>> L.append(L)
     >>> L # Show Python's default output
     [1, 2, 3, [...]]
     >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
     ... import sys, pprint
     >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
     >>> L
     [1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
     >>>

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 217(1) - Display Hook for Interactive Use

     Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Next: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Prev: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.11 PEP 208: New Coercion Model
-----------------------------------

How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.
This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing
them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric
operations.

Extension types can now set the type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES’ in
their ‘PyTypeObject’ structure to indicate that they support the new
coercion model.  In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can
no longer assume that they'll be passed two arguments of the same type;
instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can
then perform their own internal coercion.  If the slot function is
passed a type it can't handle, it can indicate the failure by returning
a reference to the ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singleton value.  The numeric
functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
handle the operation; if the other type also returns
‘Py_NotImplemented’, then a *note TypeError: 525. will be raised.
Numeric methods written in Python can also return ‘Py_NotImplemented’,
causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps
raising a *note TypeError: 525, perhaps trying another object's numeric
methods).

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 208(1) - Reworking the Coercion Model

     Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon
     earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the
     fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the
     C level.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Next: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.12 PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
--------------------------------------------

A common complaint from Python users is that there's no single catalog
of all the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton's Vaults of
Parnassus at ‘www.vex.net/parnassus/’ (retired in February 2009,
available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine(1)) was the largest
catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is
optional, and many people did not bother.

As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software
packaged using the Distutils ‘sdist’ command will include a file named
‘PKG-INFO’ containing information about the package such as its name,
version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241(2)
contains the full list of fields that can be present in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.  As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more
and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build
automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them.  With the result
experience, perhaps it'll be possible to design a really good catalog
and then build support for it into Python 2.2.  For example, the
Distutils ‘sdist’ and ‘bdist_*’ commands could support an ‘upload’
option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server.

You can start creating packages containing ‘PKG-INFO’ even if you're not
using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for
users of earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils
includes the changes described in PEP 241(3), as well as various
bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be available from the Distutils SIG
at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/’.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 241(4) - Metadata for Python Software Packages

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 243(5) - Module Repository Upload Mechanism

     Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed
     mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Autres changements et corrections<4>,  Prev: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.13 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

   * Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: ‘inspect.py’, a module for
     getting information about live Python code, and ‘pydoc.py’, a
     module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As
     a bonus, ‘Tools/scripts/pydoc’, which is now automatically
     installed, uses ‘pydoc.py’ to display documentation given a Python
     module, package, or class name.  For example, ‘pydoc xml.dom’
     displays the following:

          Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml

          NAME
              xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.

          FILE
              /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc

          DESCRIPTION
              The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
              Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.

              This package contains the following modules:
                ...

     ‘pydoc’ also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.  ‘pydoc’
     quickly becomes addictive; try it out!

   * Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard
     library.  The *note doctest: 3a. module, contributed by Tim Peters,
     provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in
     docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output.
     PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework
     inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck's
     Smalltalk testing framework.  See ‘https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/’
     for more information about PyUnit.

   * The *note difflib: 37. module contains a class, *note
     SequenceMatcher: 1004, which compares two sequences and computes
     the changes required to transform one sequence into the other.  For
     example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the
     Unix ‘diff’ program, and in fact the sample program
     ‘Tools/scripts/ndiff.py’ demonstrates how to write such a script.

   * *note curses.panel: 2d, a wrapper for the panel library, part of
     ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.
     The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of
     depth.  Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering,
     and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which
     sections are visible.

   * The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0,
     and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the *note xml: 11f.
     package.  Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat
     1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle
     files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for
     SAX, DOM, and the ‘minidom’ module.

   * Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught
     exceptions.  *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7. can be set to a callable
     object.  When an exception isn't caught by any *note try:
     6d5...*note except: 189. blocks, the exception will be passed to
     *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7, which can then do whatever it likes.
     At the Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application
     for this hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists
     the stack frames, but also lists the function arguments and the
     local variables for each frame.

   * Various functions in the *note time: ed. module, such as *note
     asctime(): 11c6. and *note localtime(): 14b1, require a
     floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the
     epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with the
     current time, so the floating-point argument has been made
     optional; when a value isn't provided, the current time will be
     used.  For example, log file entries usually need a string
     containing the current time; in Python 2.1, ‘time.asctime()’ can be
     used, instead of the lengthier
     ‘time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))’ that was previously
     required.

     This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   * The *note ftplib: 5d. module now defaults to retrieving files in
     passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from
     behind a firewall.  This request came from the Debian bug tracking
     system, since other Debian packages use *note ftplib: 5d. to
     retrieve files and then don't work from behind a firewall.  It's
     deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because
     Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if
     passive mode is unsuitable for your application or network setup,
     call ‘set_pasv(0)’ on FTP objects to disable passive mode.

   * Support for raw socket access has been added to the *note socket:
     cb. module, contributed by Grant Edwards.

   * The *note pstats: af. module now contains a simple interactive
     statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python
     programs, invoked when the module is run as a script.  Contributed
     by Eric S. Raymond.

   * A new implementation-dependent function, ‘sys._getframe([depth])’,
     has been added to return a given frame object from the current call
     stack.  *note sys._getframe(): 6cd. returns the frame at the top of
     the call stack; if the optional integer argument 'depth' is
     supplied, the function returns the frame that is 'depth' calls
     below the top of the stack.  For example, ‘sys._getframe(1)’
     returns the caller's frame object.

     This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
     implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to
     put it into production code.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres changements et corrections<4>,  Next: Remerciements<7>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.14 Autres changements et corrections
-----------------------------------------

There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the
shorter release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up
117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be
underestimates.  Some of the more notable changes are:

   * A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that
     should be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and have less memory
     overhead.  The allocator uses C's ‘malloc()’ function to get large
     pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from
     these pools.  It can be enabled by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’
     option to the ‘configure’ script; see ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ for the
     implementation details.

     Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the
     object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break,
     causing core dumps at runtime.  There are a bunch of memory
     allocation functions in Python's C API that have previously been
     just aliases for the C library's ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning
     that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error
     wouldn't be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
     these functions aren't aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more,
     and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core
     dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyMem_New:
     14dc, it has to be freed using *note PyMem_Del(): 14dd, not
     ‘free()’.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this
     and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules
     that will have the same problem.

     The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.

   * The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because
     people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it's
     often been used as a naïve benchmark.  The *note readline(): b9.
     method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much
     faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to
     platform depending on how slow the C library's ‘getc()’ was, but is
     around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular
     operating systems.  Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and
     coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in
     comp.lang.python.

     A new module and method for file objects was also added,
     contributed by Jeff Epler.  The new method, ‘xreadlines()’, is
     similar to the existing ‘xrange()’ built-in.  ‘xreadlines()’
     returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated
     over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire
     file into memory as the existing ‘readlines()’ method does.  You'd
     use it like this:

          for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
              # ... do something for each line ...
              ...

     For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev
     summary for January 1-15, 2001 at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/’.

   * A new method, *note popitem(): 14de, was added to dictionaries to
     enable destructively iterating through the contents of a
     dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because
     there's no need to construct a list containing all the keys or
     values.  ‘D.popitem()’ removes a random ‘(key, value)’ pair from
     the dictionary ‘D’ and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was
     implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a
     suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka.

   * Modules can now control which names are imported when ‘from module
     import *’ is used, by defining an ‘__all__’ attribute containing a
     list of names that will be imported.  One common complaint is that
     if the module imports other modules such as *note sys: d8. or *note
     string: d2, ‘from module import *’ will add them to the importing
     module's namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public names in
     ‘__all__’:

          # List public names
          __all__ = ['Database', 'open']

     A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and
     implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a
     weaker final version was checked in.

   * Applying *note repr(): 7e9. to strings previously used octal
     escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was
     ‘'\012'’.  This was a vestigial trace of Python's C ancestry, but
     today octal is of very little practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested
     using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the ‘\n’, ‘\t’,
     ‘\r’ escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this
     new formatting.

   * Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions
     containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant
     side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.

   * C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5, which means that they will use
     any import hooks that have been installed.  This is also encouraged
     for third-party extensions that need to import some other module
     from C code.

   * The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another
     340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh.

   * Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski),
     Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger);
     Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie).

And there's the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks,
docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing;
see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<7>,  Prev: Autres changements et corrections<4>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 1

1.21.15 Remerciements
---------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David
Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh,
Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 0,  Next: Changelog,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 1,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.22 Nouveautés de Python 2.0
=============================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling et Moshe Zadka

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* À propos de Python 1.6.: À propos de Python 1 6.
* Nouveau processus de développement::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* Compréhensions de listes::
* Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées::
* Méthodes de chaînes de caractères::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* Modules XML::
* Module changes::
* Nouveaux modules: Nouveaux modules<12>.
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Remerciements: Remerciements<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<3>,  Next: À propos de Python 1 6,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.1 Introduction
-------------------

Une nouvelle version de Python, la version 2.0, est sortie le 16 octobre
2000.  Cet article traite des nouvelles fonctionnalités intéressantes de
cette version, met en évidence d'autres changements utiles, et souligne
quelques incompatibilités qui peuvent nécessiter la réécriture du code.

Python's development never completely stops between releases, and a
steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted.  A
host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and
better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be
impossible, but they're certainly significant.  Consult the publicly
available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This progress is
due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid
to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved
communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.


File: python.info,  Node: À propos de Python 1 6,  Next: Nouveau processus de développement,  Prev: Introduction<3>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.2 À propos de Python 1.6.
------------------------------

Python 1.6 peut être vu comme la version des obligations contractuelles.
Après que l’équipe de développement eût quitté le CNRI en mai 2000,
celui-ci a demandé la création d’une version 1.6, contenant tout le
travail sur Python réalisé au CNRI. Python 1.6 représente de ce fait
l’état de l’arbre 'CVS' tel qu’il était en mai 2000, la nouvelle
fonctionnalité la plus remarquable étant le support d’Unicode.  Le
développement a continué après mai bien sûr, donc la branche 1.6 a reçu
quelques corrections pour être sûr qu’elle soit compatible avec Python
2.0.  La version 1.6 fait donc partie de l’évolution de Python, ce n’est
pas une branche séparée.

Alors, devriez-vous vous intéresser à Python 1.6 ?  Probablement pas.
Les versions '1.6final' et '2.0beta1' sont sorties le même jour (5
septembre 2000), le plan étant de finaliser Python 2.0 environ un mois
plus tard.  Si vous avez des applications à maintenir, il n’y a pas
vraiment d’intérêt à casser des choses en migrant sur la version 1.6,
les réparer, puis avoir de nouveau des choses cassées à peine un mois
plus tard en passant à la 2.0; il vaut mieux partir directement de la
2.0.  La plupart des fonctionnalités vraiment intéressantes décrites
dans ce document sont seulement dans la 2.0, parce que beaucoup de
travail a été réalisé entre mai et septembre.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveau processus de développement,  Next: Unicode<2>,  Prev: À propos de Python 1 6,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.3 Nouveau processus de développement
-----------------------------------------

Le changement le plus important dans Python 2.0 ne concerne peut-être
pas le code, mais le développement de Python : en mai 2000, les
développeurs Python ont commencé à utiliser les outils mis à disposition
par SourceForge pour stocker le code source, suivre les rapports de
bogues et gérer la file d’attente des soumissions de correctifs.  Pour
signaler des bogues ou soumettre des correctifs pour Python 2.0,
utilisez les outils de suivi des bogues et de gestion des correctifs
disponibles sur la page du projet Python, à l’adresse
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/’.

Le plus important des services maintenant hébergé chez SourceForge est
l’arborescence CVS Python, le référentiel sous contrôle de version
contenant le code source de Python.  Auparavant, environ 7 personnes
avaient un accès en écriture à l’arborescence CVS et tous les correctifs
devaient être inspectés et archivés par l’une des personnes figurant sur
cette liste restreinte.  Évidemment, ce n’était pas très évolutif.  En
déplaçant l’arborescence CVS vers SourceForge, il est devenu possible
d’accorder un accès en écriture à davantage de personnes ; en septembre
2000, 27 personnes pouvaient enregistrer les modifications, soit quatre
fois plus.  Cela rend possible des modifications à grande échelle qui ne
seraient pas tentées si elles devaient être filtrées par le petit groupe
de développeurs principaux.  Par exemple, un jour, Peter Schneider-Kamp
a eu l’idée de supprimer la compatibilité K&R C et de convertir le code
source C de Python en ANSI C. Après avoir obtenu l’approbation de la
liste de diffusion 'python-dev', il s’est lancé dans une série
d’archives qui ont duré environ une semaine, d’autres développeurs l'ont
rejoint et le travail a été fait.  S’il n’y avait eut que 5 personnes
ayant un accès en écriture, cette tâche aurait probablement été
considérée comme « agréable, mais ne valant pas le temps ni les efforts
nécessaires » et cela ne se serait jamais fait.

Le passage à l’utilisation des services de SourceForge a entraîné une
augmentation remarquable du rythme de développement.  Les correctifs
sont maintenant soumis, commentés, révisés par des personnes autres que
l’auteur d’origine et échangés entre les personnes jusqu’à ce que le
correctif soit jugé utile.  Les bogues sont suivis dans un emplacement
central et peuvent être attribués à une personne spécifique pour être
corrigés.  , et nous pouvons compter le nombre de bogues ouverts pour
mesurer les progrès.  Cela n’a pas coûté cher: les développeurs ont
désormais plus de courrier électronique à traiter, davantage de listes
de diffusion à suivre et des outils spéciaux ont dû être créés pour le
nouvel environnement.  Par exemple, SourceForge envoie des messages
électroniques de correctif et de notification de bogues par défaut qui
ne sont d’aucune utilité, Ka-Ping Yee a donc créé un 'scraper' HTML qui
envoie des messages plus utiles.

La facilité d’ajout de code a provoqué quelques problèmes de croissance
initiaux, tels que le code a été archivé avant qu’il ne soit prêt ou
sans l’accord clair du groupe de développeurs.  Le processus
d’approbation qui a émergé est quelque peu similaire à celui utilisé par
le groupe Apache.  Les développeurs peuvent voter '+1', '+0', '-0' ou
'-1' sur un patch; '+1' et '-1' indiquent une acceptation ou un rejet,
tandis que '+0' et '-0' signifient que le développeur est généralement
indifférent au changement, bien qu’il présente une légère inclinaison
positive ou négative.  Le changement le plus important par rapport au
modèle Apache est que le vote est essentiellement consultatif,
permettant à Guido van Rossum, détenteur du statut de « dictateur
bienveillant à vie », de connaître l’opinion générale.  Il peut toujours
ignorer le résultat d’un vote et approuver ou rejeter un changement même
si la communauté n’est pas d’accord avec lui.

Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and
is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good
design.  Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy
mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one
can read every posting to python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal
process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs),
modelled on the internet RFC process.  PEPs are draft documents that
describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the
community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the
proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1(1), "PEP Purpose and
Guidelines":

     PEP signifie 'Python Enhancement Proposition'.  Une PEP est un
     document de conception fournissant des informations à la communauté
     Python ou décrivant une nouvelle fonctionnalité de Python.  La PEP
     devrait fournir une spécification technique concise de la
     fonctionnalité et une justification de celle-ci.

     Nous souhaitons que les PEP soient les principaux mécanismes
     permettant de proposer de nouvelles fonctionnalités, de recueillir
     les commentaires de la communauté sur un problème et de documenter
     les décisions de conception prises dans Python.  L’auteur du PPE
     est chargé de créer un consensus au sein de la communauté et de
     documenter les opinions divergentes.

Read the rest of PEP 1(2) for the details of the PEP editorial process,
style, and format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge,
though they're not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also
available in HTML form from ‘https://peps.python.org/’.  As of September
2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201(3), "Lockstep Iteration",
to PEP 225, "Elementwise/Objectwise Operators".

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode<2>,  Next: Compréhensions de listes,  Prev: Nouveau processus de développement,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.4 Unicode
--------------

La plus grande nouveauté de Python 2.0 est un nouveau type de données
fondamental: les chaînes Unicode.  Unicode utilise des nombres à 16 bits
pour représenter des caractères au lieu du nombre à 8 bits utilisé par
ASCII, ce qui signifie que 65 536 caractères distincts peuvent être pris
en charge.

La dernière interface de prise en charge Unicode a été mise au point
après de nombreuses discussions souvent houleuses sur la liste de
diffusion 'python-dev', et principalement implémentée par Marc-André
Lemburg, basée sur une implémentation de type chaîne Unicode de Fredrik
Lundh.  Une explication détaillée de l’interface a été écrite ainsi PEP
100(1), "Intégration Python Unicode".  Cet article couvrira simplement
les points les plus significatifs sur les interfaces Unicode.

In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ‘u"string"’.
Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence,
‘\uHHHH’, where 'HHHH' is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to
FFFF.  The existing ‘\xHH’ escape sequence can also be used, and octal
escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by
‘\777’.

Les chaînes Unicode, tout comme les chaînes ordinaires, sont un type de
séquence immuable.  Ils peuvent être indexés et tranchés, mais pas
modifiés en place.  Les chaînes Unicode ont une méthode
‘encoder([encoding])’ qui renvoie une chaîne de 8 bits dans l’encodage
souhaité.  Les codages sont nommés par des chaînes, telles que
‘’ascii’’, ‘’utf-8’’, ‘’iso-8859-1’’, ou autre chose.  Une API de codec
est définie pour l’implémentation et l’enregistrement de nouveaux
codages disponibles dans tout un programme Python.  Si aucun codage
n’est spécifié, le codage par défaut est généralement du code ASCII
7-bits, bien qu’il puisse être modifié pour votre installation Python en
appelant la fonction ‘sys.setdefaultencoding (encoding)’ dans une
version personnalisée de ‘site.py’.

La combinaison de chaînes 8 bits et Unicode est toujours forcée en
Unicode, à l’aide du codage ASCII par défaut; le résultat de ‘’a’ +
u’bc’’ est ‘u’abc’’.

De nouvelles fonctions primitives ont été ajoutées, et des fonctions
existantes ont été modifiées pour supporter Unicode :

   * ‘unichr(ch)’ renvoie une chaîne Unicode de longueur 1, contenant le
     caractère 'ch'.

   * ‘ord(u)’, quand 'u' est une chaîne normale ou Unicode de longueur
     1, renvoie un entier représentant le nombre de caractères.

   * ‘unicode(string [, encoding] [, errors] )’ crée une chaîne Unicode
     à partir d’une chaîne de 8 bits.  ‘encoding’ est une chaîne nommant
     le codage à utiliser.  Le paramètre ‘errors’ spécifie le traitement
     des caractères non valides pour l’ encodage en cours; en passant
     ‘’strict’’ comme valeur, une exception est générée pour toute
     erreur de codage, alors que ‘’ignore’’ fait en sorte que les
     erreurs soient ignorées en silence et que ‘’replace’’ utilise
     U+FFFD, caractère de remplacement officiel, en cas de problème.

   * L’instruction ‘exec’ et divers éléments intégrés tels que ‘eval()’,
     ‘getattr()’ et ‘setattr()’ accepteront également les chaînes
     Unicode ainsi que les chaînes ordinaires.  (Il est possible que le
     processus de résolution de ce problème ait échappé à certaines
     fonctions intégrées ; si vous trouvez une fonction intégrée qui
     accepte les chaînes mais n’accepte pas les chaînes Unicode,
     signalez-la comme un bogue.)

Un nouveau module, *note unicodedata: 104, fournit une interface aux
propriétés de caractère Unicode.  Par exemple,
‘unicodedata.category(u'A')’ renvoie la chaîne de 2 caractères « Lu »,
le « L » désignant une lettre et « u » signifiant qu’il s’agit d’une
majuscule.  ‘unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')’ renvoie « AN », ce
qui signifie que U+0660 est un nombre arabe.

Le module *note codecs: 1b. contient des fonctions pour rechercher les
codages existants et en enregistrer de nouveaux.  À moins que vous ne
souhaitiez implémenter un nouvel encodage, vous utiliserez le plus
souvent la fonction ‘codecs.lookup(encoding)’, qui renvoie un quadruplet
: ‘(encode_func, decode_func, stream_reader, stream_writer)’.

   * 'encode_func' est une fonction qui prend une chaîne Unicode, et
     renvoie un n-uplet de longueur 2 ‘(string, length)’.  'string' est
     une chaîne de caractères à 8 bits contenant une partie (ou la
     totalité) de la chaîne Unicode convertie en codage donné, et
     'length' vous indique le nombre de caractères de la chaîne qui ont
     été convertis.

   * 'decode_func' est l’opposé de 'encode_func', en prenant une chaîne
     de caractères à 8 bits et le retour d’une paire ‘(ustring,
     longueur)’, composé de la chaîne Unicode résultante 'ustring' et
     l’entier 'length' indiquant combien de caractères de la chaîne de
     caractères à 8 bits ont été consommés.

   * 'stream_reader' is a class that supports decoding input from a
     stream.  'stream_reader(file_obj)' returns an object that supports
     the ‘read()’, ‘readline()’, and ‘readlines()’ methods.  These
     methods will all translate from the given encoding and return
     Unicode strings.

   * 'stream_writer', similarly, is a class that supports encoding
     output to a stream.  'stream_writer(file_obj)' returns an object
     that supports the ‘write()’ and ‘writelines()’ methods.  These
     methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given
     encoding on output.

Par exemple, le code suivant écrit une chaîne Unicode dans un fichier,
en l’encodant en UTF-8 :

     import codecs

     unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'

     (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
      UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')

     output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
     output.write( unistr )
     output.close()

Le code suivant lirait ensuite le texte UTF-8 du fichier :

     input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
     print repr(input.read())
     input.close()

Des expressions rationnelles supportant l’Unicode sont disponibles dans
le module *note re: b8, qui a une implémentation sous-jacente appelée
SRE écrite par Fredrik Lundh de Secret Labs AB.

Une option de ligne de commande ‘-U’ a été ajoutée, ce qui fait que le
compilateur Python interprète toutes les chaînes de caractères comme des
chaînes de caractères Unicode.  Ceci est destiné à être utilisé dans les
tests et rendre votre code Python compatible avec les versions futures,
car une version future de Python peut abandonner la prise en charge des
chaînes de caractères 8-bits et fournir uniquement des chaînes de
caractères Unicode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/


File: python.info,  Node: Compréhensions de listes,  Next: Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées,  Prev: Unicode<2>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.5 Compréhensions de listes
-------------------------------

Les listes sont un type de données crucial dans Python, et de nombreux
programmes manipulent une liste à un moment donné.  Deux opérations
communes sur les listes sont de boucler sur elles, soit de choisir les
éléments qui répondent à un certain critère, ou d’appliquer une certaine
fonction à chaque élément.  Par exemple, à partir d’une liste de chaînes
de caractères, vous pouvez retirer toutes les chaînes contenant une
sous-chaîne donnée, ou enlever les espaces de chaque ligne.

Les fonctions existantes *note map(): 850. et *note filter(): 851.
peuvent être utilisées à cette fin, mais elles nécessitent une fonction
en leurs arguments.  C’est très bien s’il y a une fonction intégrée
existante qui peut être passé directement, mais s’il n’y a pas, vous
devez créer une petite fonction pour faire le travail requis, et les
règles de portée de Python rendent le résultat laid si la petite
fonction a besoin d’informations supplémentaires.  Prenons le premier
exemple du paragraphe précédent, en trouvant toutes les chaînes de la
liste contenant une sous-chaîne donnée.  Vous pouvez écrire ce qui suit
pour le faire :

     # Given the list L, make a list of all strings
     # containing the substring S.
     sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
                          string.find(s, substring) != -1,
                       L)

En raison des règles de portée de Python, un argument par défaut est
utilisé de sorte que la fonction anonyme créée par l’expression *note
lambda: 127c. sait quelle sous-chaîne est recherchée.  Les listes en
compréhension rendent ceci plus propre :

     sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]

Les compréhensions de liste sont de la forme suivante :

     [ expression for expr in sequence1
                  for expr2 in sequence2 ...
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if condition ]

Le ‘for’…‘in’ clauses contiennent les séquences à itérer.  Les séquences
n’ont pas à être de la même longueur, parce qu’elles ne sont 'pas'
itérées en parallèle, mais de gauche à droite; cela est expliqué plus
clairement dans les paragraphes suivants.  Les éléments de la liste
générée seront les valeurs successives de l’expression.  La clause
finale ‘if’ clause est facultative ; si présent, l’'expression' n’est
évaluée et ajoutée au résultat que si la 'condition' est vraie.

Pour que la sémantique soit très claire, une compréhension de liste est
équivalente au code Python suivant :

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         for expr2 in sequence2:
         ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                  if (condition):
                       # Append the value of
                       # the expression to the
                       # resulting list.

Cela signifie que lorsqu’il y a plusieurs ‘for’…‘in’ clauses, la liste
résultante sera égale au produit des longueurs de toutes les séquences.
Si vous avez deux listes de longueur 3, la liste de sortie est de
longueur 9 :

     seq1 = 'abc'
     seq2 = (1,2,3)
     >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
     ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

Afin de ne pas introduire une ambiguïté dans la grammaire de Python,
'expression' doit être encadrée par des parenthèses si elle produit un
n-uplet.  La première compréhension de liste ci-dessous n'est pas valide
syntaxiquement, tandis que la seconde l'est :

     # Syntax error
     [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

Le concept des liste en compréhension provient à l’origine du langage de
programmation fonctionnelle Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org’).  Greg
Ewing a plaidé le plus efficacement pour les ajouter à Python et a écrit
le patch de compréhension de liste initiale, qui a ensuite été discuté
pendant un temps apparemment sans fin sur la liste de diffusion
'python-dev' et maintenu à jour par Skip Montanaro.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées,  Next: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères,  Prev: Compréhensions de listes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.6 Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées
------------------------------------------

Les opérateurs d’affectation soudées, une autre fonctionnalité demandée
depuis longtemps, ont été ajoutés à Python 2.0.  Les opérateurs
d’affectations augmentées comprennent ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’ et ainsi de
suite.  Par exemple, l’instruction ‘a += 2’ incrémente la valeur de la
variable ‘a’ par 2, équivalente à l’opération ‘a = a + 2’ .

The full list of supported assignment operators is ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’,
‘/=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’, ‘&=’, ‘|=’, ‘^=’, ‘>>=’, and ‘<<=’.  Python classes
can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
named ‘__iadd__()’, ‘__isub__()’, etc.  For example, the following
‘Number’ class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
instance with an incremented value.

     class Number:
         def __init__(self, value):
             self.value = value
         def __iadd__(self, increment):
             return Number( self.value + increment)

     n = Number(5)
     n += 3
     print n.value

The ‘__iadd__()’ special method is called with the value of the
increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately
modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the
variable on the left-hand side.

Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C
programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as ‘awk’, C++,
Java, Perl, and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch
was implemented by Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères,  Next: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Prev: Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.7 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères
----------------------------------------

Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the *note string: d2.
module, which was usually a front-end for the ‘strop’ module written in
C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the ‘strop’ module,
because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept
either 8-bit or Unicode strings.  For functions such as
‘string.replace()’, which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight
possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code.

Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making
string manipulation functionality available through methods on both
8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

     >>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
     'Andrew'
     >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
     'hlinuxtname'
     >>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
     2

One thing that hasn't changed, a noteworthy April Fools' joke
notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable.  Thus, the string
methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they
operate.

The old *note string: d2. module is still around for backwards
compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string
methods.

Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they
did exist in JPython for quite some time, are ‘startswith()’ and
‘endswith()’.  ‘s.startswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[:len(t)] == t’,
while ‘s.endswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[-len(t):] == t’.

One other method which deserves special mention is ‘join()’.  The
‘join()’ method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of
strings, and is equivalent to the ‘string.join()’ function from the old
*note string: d2. module, with the arguments reversed.  In other words,
‘s.join(seq)’ is equivalent to the old ‘string.join(seq, s)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Next: Other Core Changes,  Prev: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.8 Garbage Collection of Cycles
-----------------------------------

The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement
garbage collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number
of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references
are created or destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the
object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an
object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any
longer.

Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it's easy to understand
and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly
fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own
memory handling schemes.  The major problem with reference counting is
that it sometimes doesn't realise that objects are no longer accessible,
resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when there are cycles of
references.

Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a
reference to itself:

     instance = SomeClass()
     instance.myself = instance

After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference
count of ‘instance’ is 2; one reference is from the variable named
‘'instance'’, and the other is from the ‘myself’ attribute of the
instance.

If the next line of code is ‘del instance’, what happens?  The reference
count of ‘instance’ is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1;
the reference in the ‘myself’ attribute still exists.  Yet the instance
is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.
Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to
each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked.

Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle
detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the
objects involved.  A new *note gc: 5f. module provides functions to
perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning
the collector's parameters.

Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore
will result in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we've
gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1
will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning.  It's not yet
obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is
tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and
destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python
is compiled, if you can't afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect
that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
‘--without-cycle-gc’ switch when running the ‘configure’ script.

Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An
early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby
Kelsey.  The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a
visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two
different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of
other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives
of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion,
especially in the threads titled "Reference cycle collection for Python"
and "Finalization again".


File: python.info,  Node: Other Core Changes,  Next: Porting to 2 0,  Prev: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.9 Other Core Changes
-------------------------

Various minor changes have been made to Python's syntax and built-in
functions.  None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they're handy
conveniences.

* Menu:

* Changements mineurs du langage::
* Changements concernant les fonctions primitives::


File: python.info,  Node: Changements mineurs du langage,  Next: Changements concernant les fonctions primitives,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.22.9.1 Changements mineurs du langage
.......................................

A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a
tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments.  In Python
1.5 and earlier, you'd use the ‘apply()’ built-in function: ‘apply(f,
args, kw)’ calls the function ‘f()’ with the argument tuple 'args' and
the keyword arguments in the dictionary 'kw'.  ‘apply()’ is the same in
2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, ‘f(*args, **kw)’ is a
shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect.  This syntax is
symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions:

     def f(*args, **kw):
         # args is a tuple of positional args,
         # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
         ...

The ‘print’ statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
object by following the ‘print’ with ‘>> file’, similar to the
redirection operator in Unix shells.  Previously you'd either have to
use the ‘write()’ method of the file-like object, which lacks the
convenience and simplicity of ‘print’, or you could assign a new value
to ‘sys.stdout’ and then restore the old value.  For sending output to
standard error, it's much easier to write this:

     print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"

Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ‘import
module as name’ or ‘from module import name as othername’.  The patch
was submitted by Thomas Wouters.

A new format style is available when using the ‘%’ operator; '%r' will
insert the *note repr(): 7e9. of its argument.  This was also added from
symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing '%s'
format style, which inserts the *note str(): 437. of its argument.  For
example, ‘'%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc')’ returns a string containing ‘'abc'
abc’.

Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python's
built-in *note in: 2e9. operator and implemented a custom version.  ‘obj
in seq’ returns true if 'obj' is present in the sequence 'seq'; Python
computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either
'obj' is found or an *note IndexError: 14ec. is encountered.  Moshe
Zadka contributed a patch which adds a ‘__contains__()’ magic method for
providing a custom implementation for ‘in’.  Additionally, new built-in
objects written in C can define what ‘in’ means for them via a new slot
in the sequence protocol.

Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting
objects.  Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to
fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion
logic to fix this problem.  On a related note, comparing recursive
objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code
to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead.  For example,
after this code:

     a = []
     b = []
     a.append(a)
     b.append(b)

The comparison ‘a==b’ returns true, because the two recursive data
structures are isomorphic.  See the thread "trashcan and PR#7" in the
April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion
leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links.  Note
that comparisons can now also raise exceptions.  In earlier versions of
Python, a comparison operation such as ‘cmp(a,b)’ would always produce
an answer, even if a user-defined ‘__cmp__()’ method encountered an
error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed.

Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium
processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly,
‘sys.platform’ is still ‘'win32'’ on Win64 because it seems that for
ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.)
PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at
‘https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/’ for more information.

Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in
Python 2.0.  Dynamic loading works, if you specify "configure -with-dyld
-with-suffix=.x".  Consult the README in the Python source distribution
for more instructions.

An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python's warts, the
often-confusing *note NameError: 42a. exception when code refers to a
local variable before the variable has been assigned a value.  For
example, the following code raises an exception on the ‘print’ statement
in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a *note NameError: 42a. exception is
raised, while 2.0 raises a new *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed. exception.
*note UnboundLocalError: 14ed. is a subclass of *note NameError: 42a, so
any existing code that expects *note NameError: 42a. to be raised should
still work.

     def f():
         print "i=",i
         i = i + 1
     f()

Two new exceptions, *note TabError: 531. and *note IndentationError:
794, have been introduced.  They're both subclasses of *note
SyntaxError: 18b, and are raised when Python code is found to be
improperly indented.


File: python.info,  Node: Changements concernant les fonctions primitives,  Prev: Changements mineurs du langage,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.22.9.2 Changements concernant les fonctions primitives
........................................................

A new built-in, ‘zip(seq1, seq2, ...)’, has been added.  *note zip():
7bc. returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element
from each of the argument sequences.  The difference between *note
zip(): 7bc. and ‘map(None, seq1, seq2)’ is that *note map(): 850. pads
the sequences with ‘None’ if the sequences aren't all of the same
length, while *note zip(): 7bc. truncates the returned list to the
length of the shortest argument sequence.

The *note int(): 254. and ‘long()’ functions now accept an optional
"base" parameter when the first argument is a string.  ‘int('123', 10)’
returns 123, while ‘int('123', 16)’ returns 291.  ‘int(123, 16)’ raises
a *note TypeError: 525. exception with the message "can't convert
non-string with explicit base".

A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added
to the *note sys: d8. module.  ‘sys.version_info’ is a tuple ‘(major,
minor, micro, level, serial)’ For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1,
‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)’.  'level' is a string
such as ‘"alpha"’, ‘"beta"’, or ‘"final"’ for a final release.

Dictionaries have an odd new method, ‘setdefault(key, default)’, which
behaves similarly to the existing ‘get()’ method.  However, if the key
is missing, ‘setdefault()’ both returns the value of 'default' as
‘get()’ would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value
for 'key'.  Thus, the following lines of code:

     if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
     else:
         dict[key] = []
         return dict[key]

can be reduced to a single ‘return dict.setdefault(key, [])’ statement.

The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the
maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4b0. and *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4af.
The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given
platform can be found by running a new script,
‘Misc/find_recursionlimit.py’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to 2 0,  Next: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Prev: Other Core Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.10 Porting to 2.0
----------------------

New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases,
and the record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are
considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design
decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking
backward compatibility can't always be avoided.  This section lists the
changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break.

The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple
arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods
such as ‘append()’ and ‘insert()’.  In earlier versions of Python, if
‘L’ is a list, ‘L.append( 1,2 )’ appends the tuple ‘(1,2)’ to the list.
In Python 2.0 this causes a *note TypeError: 525. exception to be
raised, with the message: 'append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given'.
The fix is to simply add an extra set of parentheses to pass both values
as a tuple: ‘L.append( (1,2) )’.

The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they
used an old function in Python's C interface to parse their arguments;
2.0 modernizes them to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f, the current
argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages
and treats multi-argument calls as errors.  If you absolutely must use
2.0 but can't fix your code, you can edit ‘Objects/listobject.c’ and
define the preprocessor symbol ‘NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND’ to preserve the
old behaviour; this isn't recommended.

Some of the functions in the *note socket: cb. module are still
forgiving in this way.  For example, ‘socket.connect( ('hostname', 25)
)’ is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but
‘socket.connect('hostname', 25)’ also works.  *note socket.connect_ex:
14f0. and *note socket.bind: 14f1. are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1
tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually
used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which
would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out the changes in
the face of public reaction, so for the *note socket: cb. module, the
documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked
as deprecated; it 'will' be tightened up again in a future Python
version.

The ‘\x’ escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.
Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the 'x' and
take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so ‘\x123456’ was equivalent to
‘\x56’.

The *note AttributeError: 343. and *note NameError: 42a. exceptions have
a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like ‘'Spam'
instance has no attribute 'eggs'’ or ‘name 'eggs' is not defined’.
Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name ‘eggs’,
and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.

Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to
allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some
code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to
multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a *note
TypeError: 525.  In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice
a sequence, and it'll behave as you'd intuitively expect it to; ‘3L *
'abc'’ produces 'abcabcabc', and ‘(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]’ produces (2,3).
Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only
integers were accepted, such as in the ‘seek()’ method of file objects,
and in the formats supported by the ‘%’ operator (‘%d’, ‘%i’, ‘%x’,
etc.).  For example, ‘"%d" % 2L**64’ will produce the string
‘18446744073709551616’.

The subtlest long integer change of all is that the *note str(): 437. of
a long integer no longer has a trailing 'L' character, though *note
repr(): 7e9. still includes it.  The 'L' annoyed many people who wanted
to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since
they had to go out of their way to chop off the character.  This is no
longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does ‘str(longval)[:-1]’ and
assumes the 'L' is there, will now lose the final digit.

Taking the *note repr(): 7e9. of a float now uses a different formatting
precision than *note str(): 437.  *note repr(): 7e9. uses ‘%.17g’ format
string for C's ‘sprintf()’, while *note str(): 437. uses ‘%.12g’ as
before.  The effect is that *note repr(): 7e9. may occasionally show
more decimal places than *note str(): 437, for certain numbers.  For
example, the number 8.1 can't be represented exactly in binary, so
‘repr(8.1)’ is ‘'8.0999999999999996'’, while str(8.1) is ‘'8.1'’.

The ‘-X’ command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions
will now always be classes.  The ‘exceptions’ module containing the
standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module,
written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Next: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Prev: Porting to 2 0,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.11 Extending/Embedding Changes
-----------------------------------

Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to
people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in
a larger application.  If you aren't dealing with Python's C API, you
can safely skip this section.

The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions
compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On
Windows, it's not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party
extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python
will raise an exception and the import will fail.

Users of Jim Fulton's ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out
that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
*note isinstance(): 42d. and *note issubclass(): 7ad.  This means you no
longer have to remember to write code such as ‘if type(obj) ==
myExtensionClass’, but can use the more natural ‘if isinstance(obj,
myExtensionClass)’.

The ‘Python/importdl.c’ file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and
reorganised by Greg Stein.  ‘importdl.c’ is now quite small, and
platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of
‘Python/dynload_*.c’ files.  Another cleanup: there were also a number
of ‘my*.h’ files in the Include/ directory that held various portability
hacks; they've been merged into a single file, ‘Include/pyport.h’.

Vladimir Marangozov's long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed,
to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator
instead of C's standard ‘malloc()’.  For documentation, read the
comments in ‘Include/pymem.h’ and ‘Include/objimpl.h’.  For the lengthy
discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web
archives of the 'patches' and 'python-dev' lists at python.org.

Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support
POSIX threads.  Therefore, Python's POSIX threading support now works on
the Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU ‘pth’ library
was also contributed.

Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread
locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common
case when there's no contention, they use simpler functions which are an
order of magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is
twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the
difference is only 10%.  These improvements were contributed by Yakov
Markovitch.

Python 2.0's source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python
now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a
compiler that only supports K&R C.

Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its
bytecode, limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this
affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python
source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run
into this limit.  A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from
‘2**16’ to ‘2**32’.

Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a
module's dictionary at module initialization time were added: *note
PyModule_AddObject(): 35c, *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 14f3, and
*note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 14f4.  Each of these functions takes
a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be
added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name.
This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
string.

A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers.  *note
PyOS_getsig(): 14f5. gets a signal handler and *note PyOS_setsig():
14f6. will set a new handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Next: Modules XML,  Prev: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.12 Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
-------------------------------------------------

Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair - there was
no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what
compiler options to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to
go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration
files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS
unsupported.  Python users faced wildly differing installation
instructions which varied between different extension packages, which
made administering a Python installation something of a chore.

The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created
the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They
form the ‘distutils’ package, a new part of Python's standard library.
In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require
the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive,
and the run "‘python setup.py install’".  The platform will be
automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension
modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper
directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide more control over
the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to
override defaults - separating the build from the install, building or
installing in non-default directories, and more.

In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a ‘setup.py’ script.
For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a
minimal ‘setup.py’ can be just a few lines long:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])

The ‘setup.py’ file isn't much more complicated if the software consists
of a few packages:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])

A C extension can be the most complicated case; here's an example taken
from the PyXML package:

     from distutils.core import setup, Extension

     expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
          define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
          include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
                           'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
          sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
            )
     setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
            ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )

The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary
distributions.  The "sdist" command, run by "‘python setup.py sdist’',
builds a source distribution such as ‘foo-1.0.tar.gz’.  Adding new
commands isn't difficult, "bdist_rpm" and "bdist_wininst" commands have
already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows
installer for the software, respectively.  Commands to create other
distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris ‘.pkg’ files
are in various stages of development.

All this is documented in a new manual, 'Distributing Python Modules',
that joins the basic set of Python documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules XML,  Next: Module changes,  Prev: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.13 Modules XML
-------------------

Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the ‘xmllib’
module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2's release, two
different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2
(version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface
with some similarities to ‘xmllib’, and the DOM (Document Object Model)
provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a
tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a
SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the *note
xml: 11f. package.  Here we will give a brief overview of these new
interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for
complete details.  The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
documentation.

* Menu:

* Support de SAX2::
* Support du DOM::
* Relationship to PyXML::


File: python.info,  Node: Support de SAX2,  Next: Support du DOM,  Up: Modules XML

1.22.13.1 Support de SAX2
.........................

SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you
must write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various
classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be
called by the XML parser.  For example, the *note startElement(): 14fa.
and *note endElement(): 14fb. methods are called for every starting and
end tag encountered by the parser, the *note characters(): 14fc. method
is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth.

The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document
doesn't have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if
you are processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX
handler class can get very complicated if you're trying to modify the
document structure in some elaborate way.

For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a
message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file
‘hamlet.xml’ using it:

     from xml import sax

     class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
         def startElement(self, name, attrs):
             print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()

         def endElement(self, name):
             print 'End of element:', name

     # Create a parser object
     parser = sax.make_parser()

     # Tell it what handler to use
     handler = SimpleHandler()
     parser.setContentHandler( handler )

     # Parse a file!
     parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )

For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO
at ‘https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html’.


File: python.info,  Node: Support du DOM,  Next: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: Support de SAX2,  Up: Modules XML

1.22.13.2 Support du DOM
........................

The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML
document.  A top-level ‘Document’ instance is the root of the tree, and
has a single child which is the top-level ‘Element’ instance.  This
‘Element’ has children nodes representing character data and any
sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so
forth.  Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you
like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and
convert the tree back into XML.

The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a
DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and
then produce a new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM
tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of
producing XML output than simply writing ‘<tag1>’...‘</tag1>’ to a file.

The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 121. module.  It's a lightweight implementation of the
Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces.  The ‘parse()’ and
‘parseString()’ convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM
tree:

     from xml.dom import minidom
     doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')

‘doc’ is a ‘Document’ instance.  ‘Document’, like all the other DOM
classes such as ‘Element’ and ‘Text’, is a subclass of the ‘Node’ base
class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common
methods, such as ‘toxml()’ which returns a string containing the XML
representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has
special methods of its own; for example, ‘Element’ and ‘Document’
instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag
name.  Continuing from the previous 2-line example:

     perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
     print perslist[0].toxml()
     print perslist[1].toxml()

For the 'Hamlet' XML file, the above few lines output:

     <PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
     <PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>

The root element of the document is available as ‘doc.documentElement’,
and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing
nodes:

     root = doc.documentElement

     # Remove the first child
     root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Move the new first child to the end
     root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Insert the new first child (originally,
     # the third child) before the 20th child.
     root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )

Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete
listing of the different ‘Node’ classes and their various methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: Support du DOM,  Up: Modules XML

1.22.13.3 Relationship to PyXML
...............................

The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python
code for a while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available
from the SIG's web pages at
‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig’.  The PyXML
distribution also used the package name ‘xml’.  If you've written
programs that used PyXML, you're probably wondering about its
compatibility with the 2.0 *note xml: 11f. package.

The answer is that Python 2.0's *note xml: 11f. package isn't compatible
with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version
PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is
included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require
that the full PyXML package will be installed.  When installed, PyXML
versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the *note xml: 11f. package
shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard
package, adding a bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional
features in PyXML include:

   * 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.

   * The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.

   * The ‘sgmlop’ parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Module changes,  Next: Nouveaux modules<12>,  Prev: Modules XML,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.14 Module changes
----------------------

Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python's extensive
standard library; some of the affected modules include *note readline:
b9, *note ConfigParser: 22, ‘cgi’, *note calendar: 14, *note posix: ac,
*note readline: b9, ‘xmllib’, ‘aifc’, ‘chunk’, *note wave: 112, *note
random: b7, *note shelve: c2, and ‘nntplib’.  Consult the CVS logs for
the exact patch-by-patch details.

Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the *note socket: cb.
module.  OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which
encrypts the data being sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you
can edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to include SSL support, which adds an
additional function to the *note socket: cb. module: ‘socket.ssl(socket,
keyfile, certfile)’, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL
socket.  The *note httplib: 6d. and *note urllib: 107. modules were also
changed to support ‘https://’ URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or
SMTP over SSL.

The *note httplib: 6d. module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to
support HTTP/1.1.

Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of ‘httplib’ is provided,
though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting
code to use a different set of interfaces.

The ‘Tkinter’ module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module
now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets.  Also, Fredrik
Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like
‘create_line’ and ‘create_polygon’ much faster, especially when using
lots of coordinates.

The *note curses: 2b. module has been greatly extended, starting from
Oliver Andrich's enhanced version, to provide many additional functions
from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set
support, pads, and mouse support.  This means the module is no longer
compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there
don't seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this
category.

As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0's Unicode support, the
underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the
*note re: b8. module has been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression
engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard,
supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.


File: python.info,  Node: Nouveaux modules<12>,  Next: IDLE Improvements,  Prev: Module changes,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.15 Nouveaux modules
------------------------

A number of new modules were added.  We'll simply list them with brief
descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a
particular module.

   * *note atexit: c.: For registering functions to be called before the
     Python interpreter exits.  Code that currently sets ‘sys.exitfunc’
     directly should be changed to use the *note atexit: c. module
     instead, importing *note atexit: c. and calling *note
     atexit.register(): 86b. with the function to be called on exit.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note codecs: 1b, ‘encodings’, *note unicodedata: 104.: Added as
     part of the new Unicode support.

   * *note filecmp: 59.: Supersedes the old ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’ and
     ‘dircmp’ modules, which have now become deprecated.  (Contributed
     by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)

   * *note gettext: 62.: This module provides internationalization
     (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by
     providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library.
     (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin
     von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)

   * ‘linuxaudiodev’: Support for the ‘/dev/audio’ device on Linux, a
     twin to the existing ‘sunaudiodev’ module.  (Contributed by Peter
     Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * *note mmap: 8f.: An interface to memory-mapped files on both
     Windows and Unix.  A file's contents can be mapped directly into
     memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its
     contents can be read and modified.  They can even be passed to
     functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the *note re: b8.
     module.  (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M.
     Kuchling.)

   * ‘pyexpat’: An interface to the Expat XML parser.  (Contributed by
     Paul Prescod.)

   * *note robotparser: 10c.: Parse a ‘robots.txt’ file, which is used
     for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web
     site.  The parser accepts the contents of a ‘robots.txt’ file,
     builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about
     the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note tabnanny: dc.: A module/script to check Python source code
     for ambiguous indentation.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * ‘UserString’: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave
     like strings.

   * *note webbrowser: 114.: A module that provides a platform
     independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each
     platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order.  The user
     can alter which browser is launched by setting the 'BROWSER'
     environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond's
     patch to *note urllib: 107. which added similar functionality, but
     the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred
     Drake as ‘Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py’, and adapted for the
     standard library by Fred.)

   * *note _winreg: 115.: An interface to the Windows registry.
     ‘_winreg’ is an adaptation of functions that have been part of
     PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core
     distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.  ‘_winreg’ was
     written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.

   * *note zipfile: 130.: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format
     archives.  These are archives produced by ‘PKZIP’ on DOS/Windows or
     ‘zip’ on Unix, not to be confused with ‘gzip’-format files (which
     are supported by the *note gzip: 66. module) (Contributed by James
     C. Ahlstrom.)

   * ‘imputil’: A module that provides a simpler way for writing
     customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ‘ihooks’
     module.  (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on
     python-dev along the way.)


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE Improvements,  Next: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: Nouveaux modules<12>,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.16 IDLE Improvements
-------------------------

IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter.
Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and
improvements.  A partial list:

   * UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
     highlighting and auto-indentation.

   * The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level
     functions in a module.

   * Tab width is now a user settable option.  When opening an existing
     Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation
     conventions, and adapts.

   * There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms,
     used to open the Python documentation in a browser.

   * IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the
     vanilla Python interpreter.

   * Call tips were added in many places.

   * IDLE can now be installed as a package.

   * In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.

   * Three new keystroke commands: Check module (‘Alt’-‘F5’), Import
     module (‘F5’) and Run script (‘Ctrl’-‘F5’).


File: python.info,  Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Remerciements<8>,  Prev: IDLE Improvements,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.17 Deleted and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------

A few modules have been dropped because they're obsolete, or because
there are now better ways to do the same thing.  The ‘stdwin’ module is
gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that's no
longer developed.

A number of modules have been moved to the ‘lib-old’ subdirectory:
‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’, ‘dircmp’, ‘dump’, ‘find’, ‘grep’, ‘packmail’, ‘poly’,
‘util’, ‘whatsound’, ‘zmod’.  If you have code which relies on a module
that's been moved to ‘lib-old’, you can simply add that directory to
‘sys.path’ to get them back, but you're encouraged to update any code
that uses these modules.


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<8>,  Prev: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Up: Nouveautés de Python 2 0

1.22.18 Remerciements
---------------------

The authors would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark
Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert,
Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido
van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.

The "Changelog" is an HTML version of the file built(1) from the
contents of the Misc/NEWS.d(2) directory tree, which contains 'all'
nontrivial changes to Python for the current version.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/blurb/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Misc/NEWS.d


File: python.info,  Node: Changelog,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python 2 0,  Up: Nouveautés de Python

1.23 Changelog
==============

* Menu:

* Python next::
* Python 3.13.3 final: Python 3 13 3 final.
* Python 3.13.2 final: Python 3 13 2 final.
* Python 3.13.1 final: Python 3 13 1 final.
* Python 3.13.0 final: Python 3 13 0 final.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 4: Python 3 13 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 3: Python 3 13 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 2: Python 3 13 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python next,  Next: Python 3 13 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.1 Python next
------------------

'Release date: XXXX-XX-XX'

* Menu:

* Tests::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::
* C API::
* Build::


File: python.info,  Node: Tests,  Next: Library,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.1 Tests
..............

   - gh-109981(1): The test helper that counts the list of open file
     descriptors now uses the optimised ‘/dev/fd’ approach on all Apple
     platforms, not just macOS. This avoids crashes caused by guarded
     file descriptors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981


File: python.info,  Node: Library,  Next: Core and Builtins,  Prev: Tests,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.2 Library
................

   - gh-132673(1): Fix a crash when using ‘_align_ = 0’ and ‘_fields_ =
     []’ in a *note ctypes.Structure: 1cf.

   - gh-132527(2): Include the valid typecode 'w' in the error message
     when an invalid typecode is passed to *note array.array: 19e.

   - gh-132429(3): Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and
     DragonFly BSD.

   - gh-132106(4): *note QueueListener.start: 1509. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 193. if the listener is already started.

   - gh-132417(5): Fix a ‘NULL’ pointer dereference when a C function
     called using *note ctypes: 2a. with ‘restype’ *note py_object:
     13f0. returns ‘NULL’.

   - gh-132250(6): Fixed the *note SystemError: 563. in *note cProfile:
     27. when locating the actual C function of a method raises an
     exception.

   - gh-132063(7): Prevent exceptions that evaluate as falsey (namely,
     when their ‘__bool__’ method returns ‘False’ or their ‘__len__’
     method returns 0) from being ignored by *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.

   - gh-131434(8): Improve error reporting for incorrect format in *note
     time.strptime(): 13e5.

   - gh-131127(9): Systems using LibreSSL now successfully build.

   - gh-114713(10): Handle case of an empty string passed to *note
     zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 8ce.

   - gh-130941(11): Fix *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3. parsing
     empty interpolation with ‘allow_no_value’ set to ‘True’.

   - gh-129098(12): Fix REPL traceback reporting when using *note
     compile(): 190. with an inexisting file.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130631(13): ‘http.cookiejar.join_header_words()’ is now more
     similar to the original Perl version.  It now quotes the same set
     of characters and always quote values that end with ‘"\n"’.

   - gh-129719(14): Fix missing ‘socket.CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ constant in
     the socket module on Linux systems.  It was missing since Python
     3.11.

   - gh-122179(15): *note hashlib.file_digest(): 631. now raises *note
     BlockingIOError: 1042. when no data is available during
     non-blocking I/O. Before, it added spurious null bytes to the
     digest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132673

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132527

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132417

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132250

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132063

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131434

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131127

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114713

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130941

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129098

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130631

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129719

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122179


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins,  Next: C API,  Prev: Library,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.3 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-132713(1): Fix ‘repr(list)’ race condition: hold a strong
     reference to the item while calling ‘repr(item)’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-132747(2): Fix a crash when calling *note __get__(): 149f. of a
     *note method: 150b. with a *note None: 662. second argument.

   - gh-124476(3): Fix decoding from the locale encoding in the C.UTF-8
     locale.

   - gh-131927(4): Compiler warnings originating from the same module
     and line number are now only emitted once, matching the behaviour
     of warnings emitted from user code.  This can also be configured
     with *note warnings: 111. filters.

   - gh-130070(5): Fixed an assertion error for *note exec(): 17d.
     passed a string ‘source’ and a non-‘None’ ‘closure’.  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-129958(6): Fix a bug that was allowing newlines inconsitently in
     format specifiers for single-quoted f-strings.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132713

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132747

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124476

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131927

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130070

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129958


File: python.info,  Node: C API,  Next: Build,  Prev: Core and Builtins,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.4 C API
..............

   - gh-132909(1): Fix an overflow when handling the *note K: 150d.
     format in *note Py_BuildValue(): 896.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132909


File: python.info,  Node: Build,  Prev: C API,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.5 Build
..............

   - gh-132649(1): The ‘PClayout’ script now allows passing
     ‘--include-tcltk’ on Windows ARM64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132649


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 3 final,  Next: Python 3 13 2 final,  Prev: Python next,  Up: Changelog

1.23.2 Python 3.13.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-04-08'

* Menu:

* macOS::
* Windows::
* Tools/Demos::
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Security::
* Library: Library<2>.
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* C API: C API<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS,  Next: Windows,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-124111(1): Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.16.

   - gh-131423(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.16.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131025(3): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   - gh-91132(4): Update macOS installer to use ncurses 6.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91132


File: python.info,  Node: Windows,  Next: Tools/Demos,  Prev: macOS,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.2 Windows
................

   - gh-131423(1): Update bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.16.  The new
     build also disables uplink support, which may be relevant to
     embedders but has no impact on normal use.

   - gh-131025(2): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   - gh-131020(3): pylauncher(4) correctly detects a BOM when searching
     for the shebang.  Fix by Chris Eibl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131020

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/PC/launcher2.c


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos,  Next: Tests<2>,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-131852(1): ‘msgfmt’ no longer adds the ‘POT-Creation-Date’ to
     generated ‘.mo’ files for consistency with GNU ‘msgfmt’.

   - gh-85012(2): Correctly reset ‘msgctxt’ when compiling messages in
     ‘msgfmt’.

   - gh-130025(3): The iOS testbed now correctly handles symlinks used
     as Python framework references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131852

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85012

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130025


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<2>,  Next: Security,  Prev: Tools/Demos,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-131050(1): ‘test_ssl.test_dh_params’ is skipped if the
     underlying TLS library does not support finite-field ephemeral
     Diffie-Hellman.

   - gh-129200(2): Multiple iOS testbed runners can now be started at
     the same time without introducing an ambiguity over simulator
     ownership.

   - gh-130292(3): The iOS testbed will now run successfully on a
     machine that has not previously run Xcode tests (such as CI
     configurations).

   - gh-130293(4): The tests of terminal colorization are no longer
     sensitive to the value of the ‘TERM’ variable in the testing
     environment.

   - gh-126332(5): Add unit tests for pyrepl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131050

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129200

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130292

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130293

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332


File: python.info,  Node: Security,  Next: Library<2>,  Prev: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.5 Security
.................

   - gh-131809(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.1

   - gh-131261(2): Upgrade to libexpat 2.7.0

   - gh-127371(3): Avoid unbounded buffering for
     ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.writelines()’.  Previously, disk
     spillover was only checked after the lines iterator had been
     exhausted.  This is now done after each line is written.

   - gh-121284(4): Fix bug in the folding of rfc2047 encoded-words when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when an encoded-word was too long for a line, it would
     be decoded, split across lines, and re-encoded.  But commas and
     other special characters in the original text could be left
     unencoded and unquoted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof
     header lines using a carefully constructed encoded-word if the
     resulting rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131809

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131261

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127371

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121284


File: python.info,  Node: Library<2>,  Next: IDLE<3>,  Prev: Security,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.6 Library
................

   - gh-132174(1): Fix function name in error message of
     ‘_interpreters.run_string’.

   - gh-132171(2): Fix crash of ‘_interpreters.run_string’ on string
     subclasses.

   - gh-129204(3): Introduce new ‘_PYTHON_SUBPROCESS_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’
     environment variable knob in *note subprocess: d5. to control the
     use of *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d.

   - gh-132159(4): Do not shadow user arguments in generated ‘__new__()’
     by decorator *note warnings.deprecated: 15f.  Patch by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-132075(5): Fix possible use of *note socket: cb. address
     structures with uninitialized members.  Now all structure members
     are initialized with zeroes by default.

   - gh-132002(6): Fix crash when deallocating *note
     contextvars.ContextVar: 1516. with weird unahashable string names.

   - gh-131668(7): *note socket: cb.: Fix code parsing AF_BLUETOOTH
     socket addresses.

   - gh-131492(8): Fix a resource leak when constructing a *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 410. with a filename fails, for example when passing
     an invalid ‘compresslevel’.

   - gh-131325(9): Fix sendfile fallback implementation to drain data
     after writing to transport in *note asyncio: a.

   - gh-129843(10): Fix incorrect argument passing in *note
     warnings.warn_explicit(): cf0.

   - gh-131204(11): Use monospace font from System Font Stack for
     cross-platform support in *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 1517.

   - gh-130940(12): The ‘PyConfig.use_system_logger’ attribute,
     introduced in Python 3.13.2, has been removed.  The introduction of
     this attribute inadvertently introduced an ABI breakage on macOS
     and iOS. The use of the system logger is now enabled by default on
     iOS, and disabled by default on macOS.

   - gh-131045(13): Fix issue with ‘__contains__’, values, and
     pseudo-members for *note enum.Flag: 610.

   - gh-130959(14): Fix pure-Python implementation of *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 603. to reject times with spaces in
     fractional part (for example, ‘12:34:56.400 +02:00’), matching the
     C implementation.  Patch by Michał Gorny.

   - gh-130637(15): Add validation for numeric response data in
     poplib.POP3.stat() method

   - gh-130461(16): Remove ‘.. index::’ directives from the *note uuid:
     10f. module documentation.  These directives previously created
     entries in the general index for *note getnode(): b97. as well as
     the *note uuid1(): b98, *note uuid3(): 1518, *note uuid4(): 1519,
     and *note uuid5(): 151a. constructor functions.

   - gh-130379(17): The zipapp module now calculates the list of files
     to be added to the archive before creating the archive.  This
     avoids accidentally including the target when it is being created
     in the source directory.

   - gh-130285(18): Fix corner case for *note random.sample(): 732.
     allowing the 'counts' parameter to specify an empty population.  So
     now, ‘sample([], 0, counts=[])’ and ‘sample('abc', k=0, counts=[0,
     0, 0])’ both give the same result as ‘sample([], 0)’.

   - gh-130250(19): Fix regression in ‘traceback.print_last()’.

   - gh-130230(20): Fix crash in *note pow(): 9c2. with only *note
     Decimal: 29a. third argument.

   - gh-118761(21): Reverts a change in the previous release attempting
     to make some stdlib imports used within the *note subprocess: d5.
     module lazy as this was causing errors during ‘__del__’ finalizers
     calling methods such as ‘terminate’, or ‘kill’, or ‘send_signal’.

   - gh-130164(22): Fixed failure to raise *note TypeError: 525. in
     *note inspect.Signature.bind(): 151b. for positional-only arguments
     provided by keyword when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.
     ‘**kwargs’) is present.

   - gh-130151(23): Fix reference leaks in ‘_hashlib.hmac_new()’ and
     ‘_hashlib.hmac_digest()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130145(24): Fix ‘asyncio.AbstractEventloop.run_forever()’ when
     another loop is already running.

   - gh-129726(25): Fix *note gzip.GzipFile: 410. raising an unraisable
     exception during garbage collection when referring to a temporary
     object by breaking the reference loop with *note weakref: 113.

   - gh-127750(26): Remove broken *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9e0. caching introduced in
     gh-85160(27).

   - gh-129583(28): Update bundled pip to 25.0.1

   - gh-97850(29): Update the deprecation warning of *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 856.

   - gh-129646(30): Update the locale alias mapping in the *note locale:
     85. module to match the latest X Org locale alias mapping and
     support new locales in Glibc 2.41.

   - gh-129603(31): Fix bugs where *note sqlite3.Row: e5c. objects could
     segfault if their inherited *note description: 151c. was set to
     ‘None’.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-128231(32): Execution of multiple statements in the new REPL now
     stops immediately upon the first exception encountered.  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-117779(33): Fix reading duplicated entries in *note zipfile:
     130. by name.  Reading duplicated entries (except the last one) by
     ‘ZipInfo’ now emits a warning instead of raising an exception.

   - gh-128772(34): Fix *note pydoc: b4. for methods with the
     ‘__module__’ attribute equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-92897(35): Scheduled the deprecation of the ‘check_home’
     argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dc. to Python 3.15.

   - gh-128657(36): Fix possible extra reference when using objects
     returned by *note hashlib.sha256(): 151d. under *note free
     threading: 151e.

   - gh-128703(37): Fix *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 205. to use
     default mapping for empty ‘Content-Type’ in registry.

   - gh-128308(38): Support the 'name' keyword argument for eager tasks
     in *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 9cc, *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1ba, by passing on all 'kwargs' to
     the task factory set by *note asyncio.loop.set_task_factory(): db5.

   - gh-128388(39): Fix ‘PyREPL’ on Windows to support more keybindings,
     like the ‘Control’-‘←’ and ‘Control’-‘→’ word-skipping keybindings
     and those with meta (i.e.  ‘Alt’), e.g.  ‘Alt’-‘d’ to ‘kill-word’
     or ‘Alt’-‘Backspace’ ‘backward-kill-word’.

   - gh-126037(40): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.find: 151f, *note Element.findtext: 1520. and *note
     Element.findall: 1521. when the tag to find implements an *note
     __eq__(): aea. method mutating the element being queried.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127712(41): Fix handling of the ‘secure’ argument of *note
     logging.handlers.SMTPHandler: 1522.

   - gh-126033(42): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.remove: 1523. when the element is concurrently
     mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-118201(43): Fixed intermittent failures of *note os.confstr:
     1524, *note os.pathconf: 10dd. and *note os.sysconf: 1525. on iOS
     and Android.

   - gh-124927(44): Non-printing characters are now properly handled in
     the new REPL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132174

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132171

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129204

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132159

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132075

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132002

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131668

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131492

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131325

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129843

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131204

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130940

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131045

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130959

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130637

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130461

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130379

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130285

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130250

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130230

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130164

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130151

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130145

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129726

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127750

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85160

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129583

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129646

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129603

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128231

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117779

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128772

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128657

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128703

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128308

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128388

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126037

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127712

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126033

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118201

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124927


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<3>,  Next: Documentation<2>,  Prev: Library<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-129873(1): Simplify displaying the IDLE doc by only copying the
     text section of idle.html to idlelib/help.html.  Patch by Stan
     Ulbrych.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129873


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<2>,  Next: Core and Builtins<2>,  Prev: IDLE<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.8 Documentation
......................

   - gh-131417(1): Mention *note asyncio.Future: bbd. and *note
     asyncio.Task: 4c5. in generic classes list.

   - gh-125722(2): Require Sphinx 8.2.0 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-129712(3): The wheel tags supported by each macOS universal SDK
     option are now documented.

   - gh-46236(4): C API: Document *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 1528, *note
     PyUnicode_Partition(): 1529. and *note PyUnicode_RPartition():
     152a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129712

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46236


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<2>,  Next: C API<2>,  Prev: Documentation<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.9 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-132011(1): Fix crash when calling ‘list.append()’ as an unbound
     method.

   - gh-131998(2): Fix a crash when using an unbound method *note
     descriptor: 152c. object in a function where a bound method
     descriptor was used.

   - gh-131988(3): Fix a performance regression that caused scaling
     bottlenecks in the free threaded build in 3.13.1 and 3.13.2.

   - gh-131719(4): Fix missing NULL check in ‘_PyMem_FreeDelayed’ in
     *note free-threaded: 151e. build.

   - gh-131670(5): Fix *note anext(): 7c2. failing on sync *note
     __anext__(): 152d. raising an exception.

   - gh-131141(6): Fix data race in *note sys.monitoring: d9.
     instrumentation while registering callback.

   - gh-130932(7): Fix incorrect exception handling in
     ‘_PyModule_IsPossiblyShadowing’

   - gh-130851(8): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 151e. build
     when constructing a *note code: 1a. object with *note co_consts:
     152e. that contains instances of types that are not otherwise
     generated by the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-130794(9): Fix memory leak in the *note free threaded: 151e.
     build when resizing a shared list or dictionary from multiple
     short-lived threads.

   - gh-130775(10): Do not crash on negative ‘column’ and ‘end_column’
     in *note ast: 8. locations.

   - gh-130382(11): Fix ‘PyRefTracer_DESTROY’ not being sent from
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ ‘Py_DECREF()’.

   - gh-130618(12): Fix a bug that was causing ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or
     ‘SystemError’ to be raised when using f-strings with ‘lambda’
     expressions with non-ASCII characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-130163(13): Fix possible crashes related to concurrent change
     and use of the *note sys: d8. module attributes.

   - gh-88887(14): Fixing multiprocessing Resource Tracker process
     leaking, usually observed when running Python as PID 1.

   - gh-130115(15): Fix an issue with thread identifiers being
     sign-extended on some platforms.

   - gh-128396(16): Fix a crash that occurs when calling *note locals():
     140. inside an inline comprehension that uses the same local
     variable as the outer frame scope where the variable is a free or
     cell var.

   - gh-116042(17): Fix location for SyntaxErrors of invalid escapes in
     the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-129983(18): Fix data race in compile_template in ‘sre.c’.

   - gh-129967(19): Fix a race condition in the *note free threading:
     151e. build when ‘repr(set)’ is called concurrently with
     ‘set.clear()’.

   - gh-129900(20): Fix return codes inside *note SystemExit: d30. not
     getting returned by the REPL.

   - gh-129732(21): Fixed a race in ‘_Py_qsbr_reserve’ in the free
     threading build.

   - gh-129643(22): Fix thread safety of *note PyList_Insert(): 152f. in
     free-threading builds.

   - gh-129668(23): Fix race condition when raising *note MemoryError:
     1530. in the free threaded build.

   - gh-129643(24): Fix thread safety of *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531.
     in free-threading builds.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-128714(25): Fix the potential races in get/set dunder methods
     ‘__annotations__’, ‘__annotate__’ and ‘__type_params__’ for
     function object, and add related tests.

   - gh-128632(26): Disallow ‘__classdict__’ as the name of a type
     parameter.  Using this name would previously crash the interpreter
     in some circumstances.

   - gh-127953(27): The time to handle a ‘LINE’ event in sys.monitoring
     (and sys.settrace) is now independent of the number of lines in the
     code object.

   - gh-125331(28): ‘from __future__ import barry_as_FLUFL’ now works in
     more contexts, including when it is used in files, with the ‘-c’
     flag, and in the REPL when there are multiple statements on the
     same line.  Previously, it worked only on subsequent lines in the
     REPL, and when the appropriate flags were passed directly to *note
     compile(): 190.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132011

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131998

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131988

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131719

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131670

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131141

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130932

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130851

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130794

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130775

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130382

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130618

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130163

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88887

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130115

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128396

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116042

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129983

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129967

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129900

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129732

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129668

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128714

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128632

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127953

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125331


File: python.info,  Node: C API<2>,  Next: Build<2>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.10 C API
...............

   - gh-131740(1): Update PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects to traverse perm
     gen.

   - gh-129533(2): Update *note PyGC_Enable(): 892, *note
     PyGC_Disable(): 893, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 894. to use atomic
     operation for thread-safety at free-threading build.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131740

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129533


File: python.info,  Node: Build<2>,  Prev: C API<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.2.11 Build
...............

   - gh-131865(1): The DTrace build now properly passes the ‘CC’ and
     ‘CFLAGS’ variables to the ‘dtrace’ command when utilizing SystemTap
     on Linux.

   - gh-131675(2): Fix mimalloc library builds for 32-bit ARM targets.

   - gh-130673(3): Fix potential ‘KeyError’ when handling object
     sections during JIT building process.

   - gh-130740(4): Ensure that ‘Python.h’ is included before ‘stdbool.h’
     unless ‘pyconfig.h’ is included before or in some platform-specific
     contexts.

   - gh-129838(5): Don't redefine ‘_Py_NO_SANITIZE_UNDEFINED’ when
     compiling with a recent GCC version and undefined sanitizer
     enabled.

   - gh-129660(6): Drop ‘test_embed’ from PGO training, whose
     contribution in recent versions is considered to be ignorable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131865

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131675

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130673

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130740

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129838

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129660


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 2 final,  Next: Python 3 13 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.3 Python 3.13.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-02-04'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<2>,  Next: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-127592(1): Usage of the unified Apple System Log APIs was
     disabled when the minimum macOS version is earlier than 10.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<2>,  Next: Tools/Demos<2>,  Prev: macOS<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.2 Windows
................

   - gh-127353(1): Allow to force color output on Windows using
     environment variables.  Patch by Andrey Efremov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127353


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<2>,  Next: Tests<3>,  Prev: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-129248(1): The iOS test runner now strips the log prefix from
     each line output by the test suite.

   - gh-128152(2): Fix a bug where Argument Clinic's C pre-processor
     parser tried to parse pre-processor directives inside C comments.
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128152


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<3>,  Next: Security<2>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-127906(1): Test the limited C API in test_cppext.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127637(2): Add tests for the *note dis: 38. command-line
     interface.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126925(3): iOS test results are now streamed during test
     execution, and the deprecated xcresulttool is no longer used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127906

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127637

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126925


File: python.info,  Node: Security<2>,  Next: Library<3>,  Prev: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.5 Security
.................

   - gh-105704(1): When using *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d2f. and
     *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 302. host parsing would not reject
     domain names containing square brackets (‘[’ and ‘]’).  Square
     brackets are only valid for IPv6 and IPvFuture hosts according to
     RFC 3986 Section 3.2.2(2).

   - gh-127655(3): Fixed the
     ‘asyncio.selector_events._SelectorSocketTransport’ transport not
     pausing writes for the protocol when the buffer reaches the high
     water mark when using *note asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines():
     153a.

   - gh-126108(4): Fix a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’.

   - gh-80222(5): Fix bug in the folding of quoted strings when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when a quoted string was folded so that it spanned more
     than one line, the surrounding quotes and internal escapes would be
     omitted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof header lines
     using a carefully constructed quoted string if the resulting
     rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   - gh-119511(6): Fix a potential denial of service in the *note
     imaplib: 73. module.  When connecting to a malicious server, it
     could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated.  On many
     systems this is harmless as unused virtual memory is only a
     mapping, but if this hit a virtual address size limit it could lead
     to a *note MemoryError: 1530. or other process crash.  On unusual
     systems or builds where all allocated memory is touched and backed
     by actual ram or storage it could've consumed resources doing so
     until similarly crashing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105704

   (2) https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3986#section-3.2.2

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127655

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126108

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80222

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119511


File: python.info,  Node: Library<3>,  Next: Documentation<3>,  Prev: Security<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.6 Library
................

   - gh-129502(1): Unlikely errors in preparing arguments for *note
     ctypes: 2a. callback are now handled in the same way as errors
     raised in the callback of in converting the result of the callback
     - using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. instead of *note
     sys.excepthook(): 7f7. and not setting *note sys.last_exc: 4aa. and
     other variables.

   - gh-129403(2): Corrected *note ValueError: 1ff. message for *note
     asyncio.Barrier: 5ee. and *note threading.Barrier: 11c2.

   - gh-129409(3): Fix an integer overflow in the *note csv: 29. module
     when writing a data field larger than 2GB.

   - gh-118761(4): Improve import time of *note subprocess: d5. by lazy
     importing ‘locale’ and ‘signal’.  Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

   - gh-129346(5): In *note sqlite3: ce, handle out-of-memory when
     creating user-defined SQL functions.

   - gh-129061(6): Fix FORCE_COLOR and NO_COLOR when empty strings.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-128550(7): Removed an incorrect optimization relating to eager
     tasks in *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. that resulted in
     cancellations being missed.

   - gh-128991(8): Release the enter frame reference within *note bdb:
     f. callback

   - gh-128978(9): Fix a *note NameError: 42a. in
     ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128961(10): Fix a crash when setting state on an exhausted *note
     array.array: 19e. iterator.

   - gh-128894(11): Fix
     ‘traceback.TracebackException._format_syntax_error’ not to fail on
     exceptions with custom metadata.

   - gh-128916(12): Do not attempt to set ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ on sockets of
     address families other than ‘AF_INET’ and ‘AF_INET6’, as it is
     meaningless with these address families, and the call with fail
     with Linux kernel 6.12.9 and newer.

   - gh-128679(13): Fix *note tracemalloc.stop(): 153c. race condition.
     Fix *note tracemalloc: fe. to support calling *note
     tracemalloc.stop(): 153c. in one thread, while another thread is
     tracing memory allocations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128636(14): Fix PyREPL failure when *note os.environ: 1199. is
     overwritten with an invalid value.

   - gh-128562(15): Fix possible conflicts in generated *note tkinter:
     ef. widget names if the widget class name ends with a digit.

   - gh-128498(16): Default to stdout isatty for color detection instead
     of stderr.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-128552(17): Fix cyclic garbage introduced by *note
     asyncio.loop.create_task(): 9cc. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1ba. holding a reference to the
     created task if it is eager.

   - gh-128479(18): Fix ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ leaking
     tasks and issuing an unhandled exception.

   - gh-128400(19): Fix crash when using *note
     faulthandler.dump_traceback(): ded. while other threads are active
     on the *note free threaded: 151e. build.

   - gh-88834(20): Unify the instance check for *note typing.Union: 628.
     and *note types.UnionType: 627.: ‘Union’ now uses the instance
     checks against its parameters instead of the subclass checks.

   - gh-128302(21): Fix
     ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMEntityResolver.resolveEntity()’, which was
     broken by the Python 3.0 transition.

   - gh-128302(22): Allow ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMParser.parse()’ to
     correctly handle ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMInputSource’ instances that
     only have a ‘systemId’ attribute set.

   - gh-112064(23): Fix incorrect handling of negative read sizes in
     *note HTTPResponse.read: 153d.  Patch by Yury Manushkin.

   - gh-58956(24): Fixed a frame reference leak in *note bdb: f.

   - gh-128131(25): Completely support random access of uncompressed
     unencrypted read-only zip files obtained by *note ZipFile.open:
     411.

   - gh-112328(26): *note enum.EnumDict: 1e1. can now be used without
     resorting to private API.

   - gh-127975(27): Avoid reusing quote types in *note ast.unparse():
     8d4. if not needed.

   - gh-128062(28): Revert the font of *note turtledemo: 101.'s menu bar
     to its default value and display the shortcut keys in the correct
     position.

   - gh-128014(29): Fix resetting the default window icon by passing
     ‘default=''’ to the *note tkinter: ef. method ‘wm_iconbitmap()’.

   - gh-115514(30): Fix exceptions and incomplete writes after
     ‘asyncio._SelectorTransport’ is closed before writes are completed.

   - gh-41872(31): Fix quick extraction of module docstrings from a file
     in *note pydoc: b4.  It now supports docstrings with single quotes,
     escape sequences, raw string literals, and other Python syntax.

   - gh-127060(32): Set TERM environment variable to "dumb" to disable
     traceback colors in IDLE, since IDLE doesn't understand ANSI escape
     sequences.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126742(33): Fix support of localized error messages reported by
     ‘dlerror(3)(34)’ and ‘gdbm_strerror(35)’ in *note ctypes: 2a. and
     *note dbm.gnu: 33. functions respectively.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127873(36): When ‘-E’ is set, only ignore ‘PYTHON_COLORS’ and
     not ‘FORCE_COLOR’/‘NO_COLOR’/‘TERM’ when colourising output.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-127870(37): Detect recursive calls in ctypes ‘_as_parameter_’
     handling.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127847(38): Fix the position when doing interleaved seeks and
     reads in uncompressed, unencrypted zip files returned by *note
     zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 411.

   - gh-127732(39): The *note platform: a9. module now correctly detects
     Windows Server 2025.

   - gh-126821(40): macOS and iOS apps can now choose to redirect stdout
     and stderr to the system log during interpreter configuration.

   - gh-93312(41): Include ‘<sys/pidfd.h>’ to get ‘os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK’
     constant.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83662(42): Add missing ‘__class_getitem__’ method to the Python
     implementation of *note functools.partial(): 40a, to make it
     compatible with the C version.  This is mainly relevant for
     alternative Python implementations like PyPy and GraalPy, because
     CPython will usually use the C-implementation of that function.

   - gh-127586(43): *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool: f58. now properly
     restores blocked signal handlers of the parent thread when creating
     processes via either 'spawn' or 'forkserver'.

   - gh-98188(44): Fix an issue in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 11ac. where data cannot be
     decoded if the Content Transfer Encoding mechanism contains
     trailing whitespaces or additional junk text.  Patch by Hui Liu.

   - gh-127257(45): In *note ssl: cf, system call failures that OpenSSL
     reports using ‘ERR_LIB_SYS’ are now raised as *note OSError: 40d.

   - gh-127096(46): Do not recreate unnamed section on every read in
     *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3.  Patch by Andrey Efremov.

   - gh-127196(47): Fix crash when dict with keys in invalid encoding
     were passed to several functions in ‘_interpreters’ module.

   - gh-126775(48): Make *note linecache.checkcache(): 153e. thread safe
     and GC re-entrancy safe.

   - gh-126332(49): Fix _pyrepl crash when entering a double CTRL-Z on
     an overflowing line.

   - gh-126225(50): *note getopt: 60. and *note optparse: 9f. are no
     longer marked as deprecated.  There are legitimate reasons to use
     one of these modules in preference to *note argparse: 6, and none
     of these modules are at risk of being removed from the standard
     library.  Of the three, ‘argparse’ remains the recommended default
     choice, 'unless' one of the concerns noted at the top of the
     ‘optparse’ module documentation applies.

   - gh-125553(51): Fix round-trip invariance for backslash
     continuations in *note tokenize.untokenize(): 153f.

   - gh-123987(52): Fixed issue in NamespaceReader where a non-path item
     in a namespace path, such as a sentinel added by an editable
     installer, would break resource loading.

   - gh-123401(53): The *note http.cookies: 70. module now supports
     parsing obsolete RFC 850(54) date formats, in accordance with RFC
     9110(55) requirements.  Patch by Nano Zheng.

   - gh-122431(56): *note readline.append_history_file(): e3c. now
     raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. when given a negative value.

   - gh-119257(57): Show tab completions menu below the current line,
     which results in less janky behaviour, and fixes a cursor movement
     bug.  Patch by Daniel Hollas

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129502

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129403

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129409

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129346

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129061

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128550

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128991

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128978

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128961

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128894

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128916

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128679

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128636

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128562

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128498

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128552

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128479

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88834

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112064

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128131

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112328

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127975

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128062

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128014

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115514

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41872

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127060

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126742

   (34) https://manpages.debian.org/dlerror(3)

   (35) https://manpages.debian.org/gdbm(3)

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127873

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127870

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127847

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127732

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126821

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83662

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127586

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98188

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127257

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127096

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127196

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126775

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126225

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125553

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123987

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123401

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc850.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119257


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<3>,  Next: Core and Builtins<3>,  Prev: Library<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.7 Documentation
......................

   - gh-125722(1): Require Sphinx 8.1.3 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-67206(2): Document that *note string.printable: 1541. is not
     printable in the POSIX sense.  In particular, *note
     string.printable.isprintable(): dc7. returns *note False: b27.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67206


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<3>,  Next: C API<3>,  Prev: Documentation<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-129345(1): Fix null pointer dereference in *note
     syslog.openlog(): 52c. when an audit hook raises an exception.

   - gh-129093(2): Fix f-strings such as ‘f'{expr=}'’ sometimes not
     displaying the full expression when the expression contains ‘!=’.

   - gh-124363(3): Treat debug expressions in f-string as raw strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-128799(4): Add frame of ‘except*’ to traceback when it wraps a
     naked exception.

   - gh-128078(5): Fix a *note SystemError: 563. when using *note
     anext(): 7c2. with a default tuple value.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128717(6): Fix a crash when setting the recursion limit while
     other threads are active on the *note free threaded: 151e. build.

   - gh-128330(7): Restore terminal control characters on REPL exit.

   - gh-128079(8): Fix a bug where *note except*: 5a4. does not properly
     check the return value of an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.'s *note
     split(): 1543. function, leading to a crash in some cases.  Now
     when *note split(): 1543. returns an invalid object, *note except*:
     5a4. raises a *note TypeError: 525. with the original raised *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b4. object chained to it.

   - gh-128030(9): Avoid error from calling ‘PyModule_GetFilenameObject’
     on a non-module object when importing a non-existent symbol from a
     non-module object.

   - gh-127903(10): ‘Objects/unicodeobject.c’: fix a crash on DEBUG
     builds in ‘_copy_characters’ when there is nothing to copy.

   - gh-127599(11): Fix statistics for increments of object reference
     counts (in particular, when a reference count was increased by more
     than 1 in a single operation).

   - gh-127651(12): When raising *note ImportError: 40f. for missing
     symbols in ‘from’ imports, use ‘__file__’ in the error message if
     ‘__spec__.origin’ is not a location

   - gh-127582(13): Fix non-thread-safe object resurrection when calling
     finalizers and watcher callbacks in the free threading build.

   - gh-127434(14): The iOS compiler shims can now accept arguments with
     spaces.

   - gh-127536(15): Add missing locks around some list assignment
     operations in the free threading build.

   - gh-126862(16): Fix a possible overflow when a class inherits from
     an absurd number of super-classes.  Reported by Valery Fedorenko.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127349(17): Fixed the error when resizing terminal in Python
     REPL. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-126076(18): Relocated objects such as ‘tuple’, ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
     objects are properly tracked by *note tracemalloc: fe. and its
     associated hooks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129093

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124363

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128799

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128078

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128717

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128330

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128079

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128030

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127903

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127599

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127651

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127582

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127434

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127536

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126862

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127349

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126076


File: python.info,  Node: C API<3>,  Next: Build<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.9 C API
..............

   - gh-127791(1): Fix loss of callbacks after more than one call to
     *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 1545.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<3>,  Prev: C API<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.3.10 Build
...............

   - gh-129539(1): Don't redefine ‘EX_OK’ when the system has the
     ‘sysexits.h’ header.

   - gh-128472(2): Skip BOLT optimization of functions using computed
     gotos, fixing errors on build with LLVM 19.

   - gh-123925(3): Fix building the *note curses: 2b. module on
     platforms with libncurses but without libncursesw.

   - gh-128321(4): Set ‘LIBS’ instead of ‘LDFLAGS’ when checking if
     *note sqlite3: ce. library functions are available.  This fixes the
     ordering of linked libraries during checks, which was incorrect
     when using a statically linked ‘libsqlite3’.

   - gh-127865(5): Fix build failure on systems without thread-locals
     support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129539

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128472

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128321

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127865


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 1 final,  Next: Python 3 13 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.4 Python 3.13.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-12-03'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<3>,  Next: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-124448(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk in macOS installer to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<3>,  Next: Tools/Demos<3>,  Prev: macOS<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.2 Windows
................

   - gh-126911(1): Update credits command output.

   - gh-118973(2): Ensures the experimental free-threaded install
     includes the ‘_tkinter’ module.  The optional Tcl/Tk component must
     also be installed in order for the module to work.

   - gh-126497(3): Fixes venv failure due to missing redirector
     executables in experimental free-threaded installs.

   - gh-126074(4): Removed unnecessary DLLs from Windows embeddable
     package

   - gh-125315(5): Avoid crashing in *note platform: a9. due to slow WMI
     calls on some Windows machines.

   - gh-126084(6): Fix venvwlauncher to launch pythonw instead of python
     so no extra console window is created.

   - gh-125842(7): Fix a *note SystemError: 563. when *note sys.exit():
     1329. is called with ‘0xffffffff’ on Windows.

   - gh-125550(8): Enable the *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. to
     detect Python 3.14 installs from the Windows Store.

   - gh-124448(9): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126911

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118973

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126497

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126074

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125315

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126084

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125842

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125550

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<3>,  Next: Tests<4>,  Prev: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-126807(1): Fix extraction warnings in ‘pygettext.py’ caused by
     mistaking function definitions for function calls.

   - gh-126167(2): The iOS testbed was modified so that it can be used
     by third-party projects for testing purposes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126807

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126167


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<4>,  Next: Security<3>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-126909(1): Fix test_os extended attribute tests to work on
     filesystems with 1 KiB xattr size limit.

   - gh-125041(2): Re-enable skipped tests for *note zlib: 132. on the
     s390x architecture: only skip checks of the compressed bytes, which
     can be different between zlib's software implementation and the
     hardware-accelerated implementation.

   - gh-124295(3): Add translation tests to the *note argparse: 6.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126909

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125041

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124295


File: python.info,  Node: Security<3>,  Next: Library<4>,  Prev: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.5 Security
.................

   - gh-126623(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.4

   - gh-125140(2): Remove the current directory from ‘sys.path’ when
     using PyREPL.

   - gh-122792(3): Changed IPv4-mapped ‘ipaddress.IPv6Address’ to
     consistently use the mapped IPv4 address value for deciding
     properties.  Properties which have their behavior fixed are
     ‘is_multicast’, ‘is_reserved’, ‘is_link_local’, ‘is_global’, and
     ‘is_unspecified’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125140

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122792


File: python.info,  Node: Library<4>,  Next: IDLE<4>,  Prev: Security<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.6 Library
................

   - gh-127321(1): *note pdb.set_trace(): 232. will not stop at an
     opcode that does not have an associated line number anymore.

   - gh-127303(2): Publicly expose *note EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES: 154e. in
     ‘token.__all__’.

   - gh-123967(3): Fix faulthandler for trampoline frames.  If the
     top-most frame is a trampoline frame, skip it.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-127182(4): Fix ‘io.StringIO.__setstate__()’ crash, when *note
     None: 662. was passed as the first value.

   - gh-127217(5): Fix *note urllib.request.pathname2url(): 154f. for
     paths starting with multiple slashes on Posix.

   - gh-127035(6): Fix *note shutil.which: 4a0. on Windows.  Now it
     looks at direct match if and only if the command ends with a
     PATHEXT extension or X_OK is not in mode.  Support extensionless
     files if "."  is in PATHEXT. Support PATHEXT extensions that end
     with a dot.

   - gh-122273(7): Support PyREPL history on Windows.  Patch by
     devdanzin and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127078(8): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     1550. failed to discard an extra slash before a UNC drive in the
     URL path on Windows.

   - gh-126766(9): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     1550. failed to discard any 'localhost' authority present in the
     URL.

   - gh-127065(10): Fix crash when calling a *note
     operator.methodcaller(): e23. instance from multiple threads in the
     free threading build.

   - gh-126997(11): Fix support of STRING and GLOBAL opcodes with
     non-ASCII arguments in *note pickletools: a6.  *note
     pickletools.dis(): cb3. now outputs non-ASCII bytes in STRING,
     BINSTRING and SHORT_BINSTRING arguments as escaped (‘\xXX’).

   - gh-126316(12): *note grp: 65.: Make *note grp.getgrall(): 1551.
     thread-safe by adding a mutex.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126618(13): Fix the representation of *note itertools.count:
     1263. objects when the count value is *note sys.maxsize: 11a4.

   - gh-85168(14): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     1550. and *note pathname2url(): 154f. always used UTF-8 when
     quoting and unquoting file URIs.  They now use the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 528.

   - gh-67877(15): Fix memory leaks when *note regular expression: b8.
     matching terminates abruptly, either because of a signal or because
     memory allocation fails.

   - gh-126789(16): Fixed the values of *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1017, *note sysconfig.get_paths():
     1224, and their siblings when the *note site: c6. initialization
     happens after *note sysconfig: da. has built a cache for *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1017.

   - gh-126188(17): Update bundled pip to 24.3.1

   - gh-126780(18): Fix *note os.path.normpath(): 12fa. for
     drive-relative paths on Windows.

   - gh-126766(19): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     1550. failed to discard two leading slashes introducing an empty
     authority section.

   - gh-126727(20): ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ERA)’ now returns
     multiple era description segments separated by semicolons.
     Previously it only returned the first segment on platforms with
     Glibc.

   - gh-126699(21): Allow *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dcd. to
     be a base for Protocols.

   - gh-126654(22): Fix crash when non-dict was passed to several
     functions in ‘_interpreters’ module.

   - gh-104745(23): Limit starting a patcher (from *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): e7d. or *note unittest.mock.patch.object():
     1552.) more than once without stopping it

   - gh-126595(24): Fix a crash when instantiating *note
     itertools.count: 1263. with an initial count of *note sys.maxsize:
     11a4. on debug builds.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120423(25): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     154f. mishandled Windows paths with embedded forward slashes.

   - gh-126565(26): Improve performances of *note zipfile.Path.open():
     1553. for non-reading modes.

   - gh-126505(27): Fix bugs in compiling case-insensitive *note regular
     expressions: b8. with character classes containing non-BMP
     characters: upper-case non-BMP character did was ignored and the
     ASCII flag was ignored when matching a character range whose upper
     bound is beyond the BMP region.

   - gh-117378(28): Fixed the *note multiprocessing: 93. ‘"forkserver"’
     start method forkserver process to correctly inherit the parent's
     *note sys.path: 3ab. during the importing of *note
     multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload(): 1554. modules in the same
     manner as *note sys.path: 3ab. is configured in workers before
     executing work items.

     This bug caused some forkserver module preloading to silently fail
     to preload.  This manifested as a performance degration in child
     processes when the ‘sys.path’ was required due to additional
     repeated work in every worker.

     It could also have a side effect of ‘""’ remaining in *note
     sys.path: 3ab. during forkserver preload imports instead of the
     absolute path from *note os.getcwd(): 1555. at multiprocessing
     import time used in the worker ‘sys.path’.

     The ‘sys.path’ differences between phases in the child process
     could potentially have caused preload to import incorrect things
     from the wrong location.  We are unaware of that actually having
     happened in practice.

   - gh-125679(29): The *note multiprocessing.Lock: 1556. and *note
     multiprocessing.RLock: 1557. ‘repr’ values no longer say "unknown"
     on macOS.

   - gh-126476(30): Raise *note calendar.IllegalMonthError: 1558. (now a
     subclass of *note IndexError: 14ec.) for *note calendar.month():
     1559. when the input month is not correct.

   - gh-126489(31): The Python implementation of *note pickle: a5. no
     longer calls *note pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 155a. for the
     result of ‘persistent_id()’.

   - gh-126313(32): Fix an issue in *note curses.napms(): 155b. when
     *note curses.initscr(): 155c. has not yet been called.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126303(33): Fix pickling and copying of *note os.sched_param:
     155d. objects.

   - gh-126138(34): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     4c5. objects whose underlying coroutine yields an object that
     implements an evil *note __getattribute__(): bc2.  Patch by Nico
     Posada.

   - gh-126220(35): Fix crash in ‘cProfile.Profile’ and
     ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ when their callbacks were directly called with 0
     arguments.

   - gh-126212(36): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     154f. and *note url2pathname(): 1550. removed slashes from Windows
     DOS drive paths and URLs.

   - gh-126223(37): Raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664. instead of a
     *note SystemError: 563. upon calling ‘_interpreters.create()’ with
     an invalid Unicode character.

   - gh-126205(38): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     154f. generated URLs beginning with four slashes (rather than two)
     when given a Windows UNC path.

   - gh-126105(39): Fix a crash in *note ast: 8. when the *note
     ast.AST._fields: 155e. attribute is deleted.

   - gh-126106(40): Fixes a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in *note
     ssl: cf.

   - gh-126080(41): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     4c5. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): bc2.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126083(42): Fixed a reference leak in *note asyncio.Task: 4c5.
     objects when reinitializing the same object with a non-‘None’
     context.  Patch by Nico Posada.

   - gh-125984(43): Fix use-after-free crashes on *note asyncio.Future:
     bbd. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): bc2.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125969(44): Fix an out-of-bounds crash when an evil *note
     asyncio.loop.call_soon(): af4. mutates the length of the internal
     callbacks list.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125966(45): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 155f.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-125789(46): Fix possible crash when mutating list of callbacks
     returned by ‘asyncio.Future._callbacks’.  It now always returns a
     new copy in C implementation ‘_asyncio’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-124452(47): Fix an issue in *note
     email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse(): 1560. and *note
     email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse(): 1561. that introduced
     spurious leading whitespaces into header values when the header
     includes a newline character after the header name delimiter (‘:’)
     and before the value.

   - gh-125884(48): Fixed the bug for *note pdb: a4. where it can't set
     breakpoints on functions with certain annotations.

   - gh-125355(49): Fix several bugs in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): af0.

        * The parser no longer changes temporarily during parsing.

        * Default values are not processed twice.

        * Required mutually exclusive groups containing positional
          arguments are now supported.

        * The missing arguments report now includes the names of all
          required optional and positional arguments.

        * Unknown options can be intermixed with positional arguments in
          parse_known_intermixed_args().

   - gh-125666(50): Avoid the exiting the interpreter if a null byte is
     given as input in the new REPL.

   - gh-125710(51): [Enum] fix hashable<->nonhashable comparisons for
     member values

   - gh-125631(52): Restore ability to set *note persistent_id: 155a.
     and *note persistent_load: 1562. attributes of instances of the
     ‘Pickler’ and ‘Unpickler’ classes in the *note pickle: a5. module.

   - gh-125378(53): Fixed the bug in *note pdb: a4. where after a
     multi-line command, an empty line repeats the first line of the
     multi-line command, instead of the full command.

   - gh-125682(54): Reject non-ASCII digits in the Python implementation
     of *note json.loads(): 944. conforming to the JSON specification.

   - gh-125660(55): Reject invalid unicode escapes for Python
     implementation of *note json.loads(): 944.

   - gh-125259(56): Fix the notes removal logic for errors thrown in
     enum initialization.

   - gh-125590(57): Allow ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ to delete and pop if the
     key is not a fast variable.

   - gh-125519(58): Improve traceback if *note importlib.reload(): 505.
     is called with an object that is not a module.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-125451(59): Fix deadlock when *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. shuts down
     concurrently with an error when feeding a job to a worker process.

   - gh-125422(60): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a4. and *note bdb: f.
     can step into the bottom caller frame.

   - gh-100141(61): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a4. will be stuck in
     an infinite loop when debugging an empty file.

   - gh-125115(62): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: a4. where arguments
     starting with ‘-’ can't be passed to the debugged script.

   - gh-53203(63): Fix *note time.strptime(): 13e5. for ‘%c’, ‘%x’ and
     ‘%X’ formats in many locales that use non-ASCII digits, like
     Persian, Burmese, Odia and Shan.

   - gh-125398(64): Fix the conversion of the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ path in the
     activate script in *note venv: 110. when running in Git Bash for
     Windows.

   - gh-125316(65): Fix using *note functools.partial(): 40a. as *note
     enum.Enum: 61d. member.  A FutureWarning with suggestion to use
     *note enum.member(): 614. is now emitted when the ‘partial’
     instance is used as an enum member.

   - gh-125245(66): Fix race condition when importing *note
     collections.abc: 1e, which could incorrectly return an empty
     module.

   - gh-125243(67): Fix data race when creating *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo:
     8ce. objects in the free threading build.

   - gh-125254(68): Fix a bug where ArgumentError includes the incorrect
     ambiguous option in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-125235(69): Keep *note tkinter: ef. TCL paths in venv pointing
     to base installation on Windows.

   - gh-61011(70): Fix inheritance of nested mutually exclusive groups
     from parent parser in *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 526.
     Previously, all nested mutually exclusive groups lost their
     connection to the group containing them and were displayed as
     belonging directly to the parser.

   - gh-52551(71): Fix encoding issues in *note time.strftime(): 11c8,
     the *note strftime(): c80. method of the *note datetime: 30.
     classes *note datetime: 1c7, *note date: 1c8. and *note time: 1c9.
     and formatting of these classes.  Characters not encodable in the
     current locale are now acceptable in the format string.  Surrogate
     pairs and sequence of surrogatescape-encoded bytes are no longer
     recombinated.  Embedded null character no longer terminates the
     format string.

   - gh-125118(72): Don't copy arbitrary values to _Bool in the *note
     struct: d4. module.

   - gh-125069(73): Fix an issue where providing a *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 492. object as an initializer argument to a
     second *note PurePath: 492. object with a different *note parser:
     229. resulted in arguments to the former object's initializer being
     joined by the latter object's parser.

   - gh-125096(74): If the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16d. environment
     variable is set, the *note site: c6. module no longer imports the
     ‘_pyrepl’ module.  Moreover, the *note site: c6. module now
     respects *note -E: 94c. and *note -I: 94d. command line options:
     ignore *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16d. in this case.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-124969(75): Fix ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS)’ on
     platforms with glibc.  Now it returns a string consisting of up to
     100 semicolon-separated symbols (an empty string in most locales)
     on all Posix platforms.  Previously it only returned the first
     symbol or an empty string.

   - gh-124960(76): Fix support for the ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ future flag in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-124984(77): Fixed thread safety in *note ssl: cf. in the
     free-threaded build.  OpenSSL operations are now protected by a
     per-object lock.

   - gh-124958(78): Fix refcycles in exceptions raised from *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. and the python implementation of *note
     asyncio.Future: bbd.

   - gh-53203(79): Fix *note time.strptime(): 13e5. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats in many locales: Arabic, Bislama, Breton, Bodo, Kashubian,
     Chuvash, Estonian, French, Irish, Ge'ez, Gurajati, Manx Gaelic,
     Hebrew, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, Haitian Kreyol, Japanese, Kannada,
     Korean, Marathi, Malay, Norwegian, Nynorsk, Punjabi, Rajasthani,
     Tok Pisin, Yoruba, Yue Chinese, Yau/Nungon and Chinese.

   - gh-124917(80): Allow calling *note os.path.exists(): 9fe. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): 9ff. with keyword arguments on Windows.  Fixes a
     regression in 3.13.0.

   - gh-124653(81): Fix detection of the minimal Queue API needed by the
     *note logging: 86. module.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124858(82): Fix reference cycles left in tracebacks in *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b08. when used with
     ‘happy_eyeballs_delay’

   - gh-124390(83): Fixed *note AssertionError: 696. when using
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ with *note
     asyncio.eager_task_factory: 463.

   - gh-124651(84): Properly quote template strings in *note venv: 110.
     activation scripts.

   - gh-116850(85): Fix *note argparse: 6. for namespaces with not
     directly writable dict (e.g.  classes).

   - gh-58573(86): Fix conflicts between abbreviated long options in the
     parent parser and subparsers in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-124594(87): All *note asyncio: a. REPL prompts run in the same
     *note context: 1563.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-61181(88): Fix support of *note Le paramètre choices: 1564. with
     string value in *note argparse: 6.  Substrings of the specified
     string no longer considered valid values.

   - gh-80259(89): Fix *note argparse: 6. support of positional
     arguments with ‘nargs='?'’, ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ and
     specified ‘type’.

   - gh-120378(90): Fix a crash related to an integer overflow in *note
     curses.resizeterm(): 1565. and *note curses.resize_term(): 1566.

   - gh-123884(91): Fixed bug in itertools.tee() handling of other tee
     inputs (a tee in a tee).  The output now has the promised 'n'
     independent new iterators.  Formerly, the first iterator was
     identical (not independent) to the input iterator.  This would
     sometimes give surprising results.

   - gh-58956(92): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: a4. where sometimes the
     breakpoint won't trigger if it was set on a function which is
     already in the call stack.

   - gh-124345(93): *note argparse: 6. vim supports abbreviated
     single-dash long options separated by ‘=’ from its value.

   - gh-104860(94): Fix disallowing abbreviation of single-dash long
     options in *note argparse: 6. with ‘allow_abbrev=False’.

   - gh-63143(95): Fix parsing mutually exclusive arguments in *note
     argparse: 6.  Arguments with the value identical to the default
     value (e.g.  booleans, small integers, empty or 1-character
     strings) are no longer considered "not present".

   - gh-72795(96): Positional arguments with *note Le paramètre nargs:
     1567. equal to ‘'*'’ or ‘argparse.REMAINDER’ are no longer
     required.  This allows to use positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’
     and without ‘default’ in mutually exclusive group and improves
     error message about required arguments.

   - gh-59317(97): Fix parsing positional argument with *note Le
     paramètre nargs: 1567. equal to ‘'?'’ or ‘'*'’ if it is preceded by
     an option and another positional argument.

   - gh-53780(98): *note argparse: 6. now ignores the first ‘"--"’
     (double dash) between an option and command.

   - gh-124217(99): Add RFC 9637 reserved IPv6 block ‘3fff::/20’ in
     *note ipaddress: 7f. module.

   - gh-81691(100): Fix handling of multiple ‘"--"’ (double dashes) in
     *note argparse: 6.  Only the first one has now been removed, all
     subsequent ones are now taken literally.

   - gh-123978(101): Remove broken *note time.thread_time(): 925. and
     *note time.thread_time_ns(): b81. on NetBSD.

   - gh-124008(102): Fix possible crash (in debug build), incorrect
     output or returning incorrect value from raw binary ‘write()’ when
     writing to console on Windows.

   - gh-123935(103): Fix parent slots detection for dataclasses that
     inherit from classes with ‘__dictoffset__’.

   - gh-122765(104): Fix unbalanced quote errors occurring when
     activate.csh in *note venv: 110. was sourced with a custom prompt
     containing unpaired quotes or newlines.

   - gh-123370(105): Fix the canvas not clearing after running
     turtledemo clock.

   - gh-116810(106): Resolve a memory leak introduced in CPython 3.10's
     *note ssl: cf. when the *note ssl.SSLSocket.session: 1568. property
     was accessed.  Speeds up read and write access to said property by
     no longer unnecessarily cloning session objects via serialization.

   - gh-120754(107): Update unbounded ‘read’ calls in *note zipfile:
     130. to specify an explicit ‘size’ putting a limit on how much data
     they may read.  This also updates handling around ZIP max comment
     size to match the standard instead of reading comments that are one
     byte too long.

   - gh-70764(108): Fixed an issue where *note inspect.getclosurevars():
     10b9. would incorrectly classify an attribute name as a global
     variable when the name exists both as an attribute name and a
     global variable.

   - gh-118289(109): ‘posixpath.realpath()’ now raises *note
     NotADirectoryError: 1045. when 'strict' mode is enabled and a
     non-directory path with a trailing slash is supplied.

   - gh-119826(110): Always return an absolute path for *note
     os.path.abspath(): 12fb. on Windows.

   - gh-117766(111): Always use *note str(): 437. to print ‘choices’ in
     *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-101955(112): Fix SystemError when match regular expression
     pattern containing some combination of possessive quantifier,
     alternative and capture group.

   - gh-88110(113): Fixed *note multiprocessing.Process: b49. reporting
     a ‘.exitcode’ of 1 even on success when using the ‘"fork"’ start
     method while using a *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     72e.

   - gh-71936(114): Fix a race condition in *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: f58.

   - bpo-46128(115): Strip *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.
     stack frames from reported stacktraces.

   - bpo-14074(116): Fix *note argparse: 6. metavar processing to allow
     positional arguments to have a tuple metavar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127321

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127303

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123967

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127182

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127217

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127035

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122273

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127078

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127065

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126997

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126316

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126618

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85168

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67877

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126188

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126780

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126727

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126699

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126654

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104745

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126595

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120423

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126565

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126505

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117378

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125679

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126476

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126489

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126313

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126303

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126138

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126220

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126212

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126223

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126205

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126105

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126106

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126080

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126083

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125984

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125969

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125966

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125789

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124452

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125884

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125355

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125666

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125710

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125631

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125378

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125682

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125660

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125259

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125590

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125519

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125451

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125422

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100141

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125115

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125398

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125316

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125245

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125243

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125254

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125235

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61011

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125118

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125069

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125096

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124960

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124984

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124958

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124917

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124653

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124858

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124390

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124651

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116850

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58573

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124594

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61181

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80259

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120378

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123884

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124345

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104860

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63143

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72795

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59317

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53780

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124217

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81691

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123978

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124008

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123935

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122765

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123370

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116810

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70764

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118289

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119826

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117766

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101955

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88110

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71936

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46128

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14074


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<4>,  Next: Documentation<4>,  Prev: Library<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122392(1): Increase currently inadequate vertical spacing for
     the IDLE browsers (path, module, and stack) on high-resolution
     monitors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122392


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<4>,  Prev: IDLE<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.8 Documentation
......................

   - gh-126622(1): Added stub pages for removed modules explaining their
     removal, where to find replacements, and linking to the last Python
     version that supported them.  Contributed by Ned Batchelder.

   - gh-125277(2): Require Sphinx 7.2.6 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-124872(3): Added definitions for *note context: 156b, *note
     current context: 156c, and *note context management protocol: 156d,
     updated related definitions to be consistent, and expanded the
     documentation for *note contextvars.Context: 1563.

   - gh-125018(4): The *note importlib.metadata: 79. documentation now
     includes semantic cross-reference targets for the significant
     documented APIs.  This means intersphinx references like *note
     importlib.metadata.version(): 156e. will now work as expected.

   - gh-70870(5): Clarified the dual usage of the term "free variable"
     (both the formal meaning of any reference to names defined outside
     the local scope, and the narrower pragmatic meaning of nonlocal
     variables named in ‘co_freevars’).

   - gh-121277(6): Writers of CPython's documentation can now use ‘next’
     as the version for the ‘versionchanged’, ‘versionadded’,
     ‘deprecated’ directives.

   - gh-60712(7): Include the *note object: a7c. type in the lists of
     documented types.  Change by Furkan Onder and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-34008(8): The *note Py_Main(): c15. documentation moved from
     the "Very High Level API" section to the "Initialization and
     Finalization" section.

     Also make it explicit that we expect ‘Py_Main’ to typically be
     called instead of ‘Py_Initialize’ rather than after it (since
     ‘Py_Main’ makes its own call to ‘Py_Initialize’).  Document that
     calling both is supported but is version dependent on which
     settings will be applied correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126622

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125277

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124872

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125018

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70870

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60712

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<4>,  Next: C API<4>,  Prev: Documentation<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.9 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-113841(1): Fix possible undefined behavior division by zero in
     *note complex: 2ed.'s *note _Py_c_pow(): 1570.

   - gh-127020(2): Fix a crash in the free threading build when *note
     PyCode_GetCode(): 764, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 765, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 766, or *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 767. were
     called from multiple threads at the same time.

   - gh-126980(3): Fix *note __buffer__(): 44a. of *note bytearray: 52b.
     crashing when *note READ: 1571. or *note WRITE: 1572. are passed as
     flags.

   - gh-126881(4): Fix crash in finalization of dtoa state.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-126341(5): Now *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised instead of *note
     SystemError: 563. when trying to iterate over a released *note
     memoryview: 454. object.

   - gh-126688(6): Fix a crash when calling *note os.fork(): 195. on
     some operating systems, including SerenityOS.

   - gh-126066(7): Fix *note importlib: 76. to not write an incomplete
     .pyc files when a ulimit or some other operating system mechanism
     is preventing the write to go through fully.

   - gh-126312(8): Fix crash during garbage collection on an object
     frozen by *note gc.freeze(): b2a. on the free-threaded build.

   - gh-126139(9): Provide better error location when attempting to use
     a *note future statement: d9c. with an unknown future feature.

   - gh-126018(10): Fix a crash in *note sys.audit(): 1573. when passing
     a non-string as first argument and Python was compiled in debug
     mode.

   - gh-125942(11): On Android, the ‘errors’ setting of *note
     sys.stdout: ac6. was changed from ‘surrogateescape’ to
     ‘backslashreplace’.

   - gh-125859(12): Fix a crash in the free threading build when *note
     gc.get_objects(): 7ef. or *note gc.get_referrers(): 7f0. is called
     during an in-progress garbage collection.

   - gh-125703(13): Correctly honour *note tracemalloc: fe. hooks in
     specialized ‘Py_DECREF’ paths.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-125593(14): Use color to highlight error locations in traceback
     from exception group

   - gh-125444(15): Fix illegal instruction for older Arm architectures.
     Patch by Diego Russo, testing by Ross Burton.

   - gh-124375(16): Fix a crash in the free threading build when the GC
     runs concurrently with a new thread starting.

   - gh-125221(17): Fix possible race condition when calling *note
     __reduce_ex__(): 1574. for the first time in the free threading
     build.

   - gh-125038(18): Fix crash when iterating over a generator expression
     after direct changes on ‘gi_frame.f_locals’.  Patch by Mikhail
     Efimov.

   - gh-123378(19): Fix a crash in the *note __str__(): 60a. method of
     *note UnicodeError: 1283. objects when the *note
     UnicodeError.start: 1575. and *note UnicodeError.end: 1576. values
     are invalid or out-of-range.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-116510(20): Fix a crash caused by immortal interned strings
     being shared between sub-interpreters that use basic single-phase
     init.  In that case, the string can be used by an interpreter that
     outlives the interpreter that created and interned it.  For
     interpreters that share obmalloc state, also share the interned
     dict with the main interpreter.

   - gh-122878(21): Use the ‘pager’ binary, if available (e.g.  on
     Debian and derivatives), to display REPL ‘help()’.

   - gh-124188(22): Fix reading and decoding a line from the source file
     witn non-UTF-8 encoding for syntax errors raised in the compiler.

   - gh-123930(23): Improve the error message when a script shadowing a
     module from the standard library causes *note ImportError: 40f. to
     be raised during a "from" import.  Similarly, improve the error
     message when a script shadowing a third party module attempts to
     "from" import an attribute from that third party module while still
     initialising.

   - gh-122907(24): Building with ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ now works as
     well as it did in 3.12.  Existing deficiences will be addressed
     separately.  (See
     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122950’.)

   - gh-118950(25): Fix bug where SSLProtocol.connection_lost wasn't
     getting called when OSError was thrown on writing to socket.

   - gh-113570(26): Fixed a bug in ‘reprlib.repr’ where it incorrectly
     called the repr method on shadowed Python built-in types.

   - gh-109746(27): If ‘_thread.start_new_thread()’ fails to start a new
     thread, it deletes its state from interpreter and thus avoids its
     repeated cleanup on finalization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113841

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127020

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126980

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126881

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126341

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126688

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126066

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126312

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126139

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126018

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125859

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125703

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125593

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125444

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124375

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125221

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125038

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122878

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124188

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123930

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122907

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118950

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113570

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109746


File: python.info,  Node: C API<4>,  Next: Build<4>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.10 C API
...............

   - gh-126554(1): Fix error handling in *note ctypes.CDLL: 9d9. objects
     which could result in a crash in rare situations.

   - gh-125608(2): Fix a bug where dictionary watchers (e.g., *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 551.) on an object's attribute dictionary (*note
     __dict__: 549.) were not triggered when the object's attributes
     were modified.

   - bpo-34008(3): Added ‘Py_IsInitialized’ to the list of APIs that are
     safe to call before the interpreter is initialized, and updated the
     embedding tests to cover it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126554

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125608

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008


File: python.info,  Node: Build<4>,  Prev: C API<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.4.11 Build
...............

   - gh-123877(1): Set ‘wasm32-wasip1’ as the WASI target.  The old
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ target is deprecated so it can be used for an
     eventual WASI 1.0.

   - gh-89640(2): Hard-code float word ordering as little endian on
     WASM.

   - gh-125940(3): The Android build now supports 16 KB page sizes(4).

   - gh-89640(5): Improve detection of float word ordering on Linux when
     link-time optimizations are enabled.

   - gh-125269(6): Fix detection of whether ‘-latomic’ is needed when
     cross-compiling CPython using the configure script.

   - gh-121634(7): Allow for specifying the target compile triple for
     WASI.

   - gh-122578(8): Use WASI SDK 24 for testing.

   - gh-115382(9): Fix cross compile failures when the host and target
     SOABIs match.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123877

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125940

   (4) https://developer.android.com/guide/practices/page-sizes

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125269

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121634

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122578

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115382


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 final,  Next: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.5 Python 3.13.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 final

1.23.5.1 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-125008(1): Fix *note tokenize.untokenize(): 153f. producing
     invalid syntax for double braces preceded by certain escape
     characters.

   - gh-124871(2): Fix compiler bug (in some versions of 3.13) where an
     assertion fails during reachability analysis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125008

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124871


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.6 Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-01'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<4>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* C API: C API<5>.
* Build: Build<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<4>,  Next: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-123797(1): Check for runtime availability of ‘ptsname_r’
     function on macos.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123797


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<4>,  Next: Tests<5>,  Prev: macOS<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.2 Windows
................

   - gh-124609(1): Fix ‘_Py_ThreadId’ for Windows builds using MinGW.
     Patch by Tony Roberts.

   - gh-124254(2): Ensures experimental free-threaded binaries remain
     installed when updating.

   - gh-123915(3): Ensure that ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ uses
     different directories for AMD64 and ARM64 builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124609

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124254

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123915


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<5>,  Next: Library<5>,  Prev: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.3 Tests
..............

   - gh-124378(1): Updated ‘test_ttk’ to pass with Tcl/Tk 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124378


File: python.info,  Node: Library<5>,  Next: IDLE<5>,  Prev: Tests<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.4 Library
................

   - gh-124538(1): Fixed crash when using *note gc.get_referents(): 7f1.
     on a capsule object.

   - gh-124498(2): Fix *note typing.TypeAliasType: 440. not to be
     generic, when ‘type_params’ is an empty tuple.

   - gh-123017(3): Due to unreliable results on some devices, *note
     time.strftime(): 11c8. no longer accepts negative years on Android.

   - gh-123014(4): *note os.pidfd_open(): 466. and *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 91a. are now unavailable when building
     against Android API levels older than 31, since the underlying
     system calls may cause a crash.

   - gh-124248(5): Fixed potential crash when using *note struct: d4. to
     process zero-width 'Pascal string' fields (‘0p’).

   - gh-87041(6): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where lengthy
     subparser argument help is incorrectly indented.

   - gh-124212(7): Fix invalid variable in *note venv: 110. handling of
     failed symlink on Windows

   - gh-124171(8): Add workaround for broken ‘fmod()’ implementations on
     Windows, that loose zero sign (e.g.  ‘fmod(-10, 1)’ returns ‘0.0’).
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123934(9): Fix *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: e7c. reseting
     magic methods return values after ‘.reset_mock(return_value=True)’
     was called.

   - gh-123968(10): Fix the command-line interface for the *note random:
     b7. module to select floats between 0 and N, not 1 and N.

   - gh-123892(11): Add ‘"_wmi"’ to *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 82d.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-123339(12): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1580. for classes in
     *note collections.abc: 1e. and *note decimal: 36. (for pure Python
     implementation) modules.  *note inspect.getcomments(): 1581. now
     raises OSError instead of IndexError if the ‘__firstlineno__’ value
     for a class is out of bound.

   - gh-121735(13): When working with zip archives, importlib.resources
     now properly honors module-adjacent references (e.g.
     ‘files(pkg.mod)’ and not just ‘files(pkg)’).

   - gh-122145(14): Fix an issue when reporting tracebacks corresponding
     to Python code emitting an empty AST body.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev
     and Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-119004(15): Fix a crash in *note OrderedDict.__eq__: 1582. when
     operands are mutated during the check.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - bpo-44864(16): Do not translate user-provided strings in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 526.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124538

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124498

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123017

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123014

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124248

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87041

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124171

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123934

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123968

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123892

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121735

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122145

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119004

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44864


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<5>,  Next: Documentation<5>,  Prev: Library<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.5 IDLE
.............

   - gh-112938(1): Fix uninteruptable hang when Shell gets rapid
     continuous output.

   - gh-120104(2): Fix padding in config and search dialog windows in
     IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112938

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120104


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<6>,  Prev: IDLE<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.6 Documentation
......................

   - gh-124720(1): Update "Using Python on a Mac" section of the "Python
     Setup and Usage" document and include information on installing
     free-threading support.

   - gh-116622(2): Add an Android platform guide, and flag modules not
     available on Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124720

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<6>,  Next: C API<5>,  Prev: Documentation<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.7 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-124567(1): Revert the incremental GC (in 3.13), since it's not
     clear the benefits outweigh the costs at this point.

   - gh-124642(2): Fixed scalability issue in free-threaded builds for
     lock-free reads from dictionaries in multi-threaded scenarios

   - gh-116510(3): Fix a bug that can cause a crash when
     sub-interpreters use "basic" single-phase extension modules.
     Shared objects could refer to PyGC_Head nodes that had been freed
     as part of interpreter cleanup.

   - gh-124547(4): When deallocating an object with inline values whose
     ‘__dict__’ is still live: if memory allocation for the inline
     values fails, clear the dictionary.  Prevents an interpreter crash.

   - gh-124513(5): Fix a crash in FrameLocalsProxy constructor: check
     the number of arguments.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-124442(6): Fix nondeterminism in compilation by sorting the
     value of *note __static_attributes__: 14a.  Patch by kp2pml30.

   - gh-123856(7): Fix PyREPL failure when a keyboard interrupt is
     triggered after using a history search

   - gh-65961(8): Document the deprecation of setting and using
     ‘__package__’ and ‘__cached__’.

   - gh-124027(9): Support ‘<page up>’, ‘<page down>’, and ‘<delete>’
     keys in the Python REPL when ‘$TERM’ is set to ‘vt100’.

   - gh-77894(10): Fix possible crash in the garbage collector when it
     tries to break a reference loop containing a *note memoryview: 454.
     object.  Now a ‘memoryview’ object can only be cleared if there are
     no buffers that refer it.

   - gh-123339(11): Setting the ‘__module__’ attribute for a class now
     removes the ‘__firstlineno__’ item from the type's dict, so they
     will no longer be inconsistent.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124567

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124642

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124547

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124513

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124442

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123856

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124027

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77894

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339


File: python.info,  Node: C API<5>,  Next: Build<5>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.8 C API
..............

   - gh-124160(1): Fix crash when importing modules containing state and
     single-phase initialization in a subinterpreter.

   - gh-123880(2): Fixed a bug that prevented circular imports of
     extension modules that use single-phase initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124160

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123880


File: python.info,  Node: Build<5>,  Prev: C API<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.6.9 Build
..............

   - gh-124487(1): Windows builds now use Windows 8.1 as their API
     baseline (installation already required Windows 8.1).

   - gh-124043(2): Building using *note -with-trace-refs: 38b. is
     (temporarily) disallowed when the GIL is disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124487

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124043


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.7 Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2024-09-06'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* C API: C API<6>.
* Build: Build<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<5>,  Next: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-123418(1): Updated macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<5>,  Next: Tools/Demos<4>,  Prev: macOS<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.2 Windows
................

   - gh-123418(1): Updated Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-122573(2): The Windows build of CPython now requires 3.10 or
     newer.

   - gh-100256(3): *note mimetypes: 8e. no longer fails when it
     encounters an inaccessible registry key.

   - gh-79846(4): Makes ‘ssl.create_default_context()’ ignore invalid
     certificates in the Windows certificate store

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122573

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100256

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79846


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<4>,  Next: Tests<6>,  Prev: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-123418(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.15 and
     multissltests to use 3.0.15, 3.1.7, and 3.2.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<6>,  Next: Security<4>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-119727(1): Add ‘--single-process’ command line option to Python
     test runner (regrtest).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-101525(2): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if the binary is relocated by BOLT.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119727

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525


File: python.info,  Node: Security<4>,  Next: Library<6>,  Prev: Tests<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.5 Security
.................

   - gh-123678(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.3

   - gh-121285(2): Remove backtracking from tarfile header parsing for
     ‘hdrcharset’, PAX, and GNU sparse headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123678

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<6>,  Next: IDLE<6>,  Prev: Security<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.6 Library
................

   - gh-123657(1): Fix crash and memory leak in *note
     decimal.getcontext(): 158f.  It crashed when using a thread-local
     context by ‘--with-decimal-contextvar=no’.

   - gh-123448(2): Fixed memory leak of *note typing.NoDefault: 25f. by
     moving it to the static types array.

   - gh-123409(3): Fix *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer:
     1590. output according to RFC 3596, §2.5(4).  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-123270(5): Applied a more surgical fix for malformed payloads in
     *note zipfile.Path: 6b6. causing infinite loops (gh-122905(6))
     without breaking contents using legitimate characters.

   - gh-123228(7): Fix return type for
     ‘_pyrepl.readline._ReadlineWrapper.get_line_buffer()’ to be *note
     str(): 437.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123240(8): Raise audit events for the *note input(): 12b8. in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-123243(9): Fix memory leak in ‘_decimal’.

   - gh-122546(10): Consistently use same file name for different
     exceptions in the new repl.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123213(11): *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 11b2.
     and *note Element: 305. assignment no longer hide the internal
     exception if an erronous generator is passed.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-85110(12): Preserve relative path in URL without netloc in *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 1591. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 1592.

   - gh-123067(13): Fix quadratic complexity in parsing ‘"’-quoted
     cookie values with backslashes by *note http.cookies: 70.

   - gh-122981(14): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1580. for generated
     classes with Python base classes (e.g.  enums).

   - gh-122903(15): ‘zipfile.Path.glob’ now correctly matches
     directories instead of silently omitting them.

   - gh-122905(16): *note zipfile.Path: 6b6. objects now sanitize names
     from the zipfile.

   - gh-122695(17): Fixed double-free when using *note
     gc.get_referents(): 7f1. with a freed *note asyncio.Future: bbd.
     iterator.

   - gh-116263(18): *note logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1593. no
     longer rolls over empty log files.

   - gh-105376(19): Restore the deprecated *note logging: 86. ‘warn()’
     method.  It was removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.  Keep the
     deprecated ‘warn()’ method in Python 3.13.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-122744(20): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 24.2.

   - gh-118814(21): Fix the *note typing.TypeVar: 15c. constructor when
     name is passed by keyword.

   - gh-122478(22): Remove internal frames from tracebacks shown in
     *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 1594. with non-default *note
     sys.excepthook(): 7f7.  Save correct tracebacks in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 4ad. and update ‘__traceback__’ attribute of
     *note sys.last_value: 4ac. and *note sys.last_exc: 4aa.

   - gh-116622(23): On Android, the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’
     constants are no longer exposed by *note fcntl: 58, as these ioctls
     are blocked by SELinux.

   - gh-82378(24): Make sure that the new *note REPL: 169. interprets
     *note sys.tracebacklimit: 1595. in the same way that the classic
     REPL did.

   - gh-122334(25): Fix crash when importing *note ssl: cf. after the
     main interpreter restarts.

   - gh-87320(26): In *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 1594, handle
     exceptions caused by calling a non-default *note sys.excepthook():
     7f7.  Before, the exception bubbled up to the caller, ending the
     *note REPL: 169.

   - gh-121650(27): *note email: 3b. headers with embedded newlines are
     now quoted on output.  The *note generator: 40. will now refuse to
     serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited;
     see *note verify_generated_headers: 1dd.  (Contributed by Bas
     Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(28).)

   - gh-121723(29): Make *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 118f. accept
     any object implementing the Queue public API. See the *note queue
     configuration: 1596. section for details.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122081(30): Fix a crash in the ‘decimal.IEEEContext()’ optional
     function available via the ‘EXTRA_FUNCTIONALITY’ configuration
     flag.

   - gh-121804(31): Correctly show error locations, when *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. raised in new repl.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-121151(32): Fix wrapping of long usage text of arguments inside
     a mutually exclusive group in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-108172(33): ‘webbrowser’ honors OS preferred browser on Linux
     when its desktop entry name contains the text of a known browser
     name.

   - gh-109109(34): You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from
     TLS connections via *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 1597.
     and *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 1598. methods.

     Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123657

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123448

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123409

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3596.html#section-2.5

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123270

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123228

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123240

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123243

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122546

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123213

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85110

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123067

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122981

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122903

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122695

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116263

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122744

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118814

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122478

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82378

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122334

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87320

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121723

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122081

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121151

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108172

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<7>,  Prev: Library<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-120083(1): Add explicit black IDLE Hovertip foreground color
     needed for recent macOS. Fixes Sonoma showing unreadable white on
     pale yellow.  Patch by John Riggles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120083


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<7>,  Next: C API<6>,  Prev: IDLE<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-120221(1): asyncio REPL is now again properly recognizing
     KeyboardInterrupts.  Display of exceptions raised in secondary
     threads is fixed.

   - gh-119310(2): Allow the new interactive shell to read history files
     written with the editline library that use unicode-escaped entries.
     Patch by aorcajo and Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-123572(3): Fix key mappings for various F-keys in Windows for
     the new REPL. Patch by devdanzin

   - gh-119034(4): Change ‘<page up>’ and ‘<page down>’ keys of the
     Python REPL to history search forward/backward.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-123545(5): Fix a double decref in rare cases on experimental JIT
     builds.

   - gh-123484(6): Fix ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ for long objects to be
     relative to the start of the object rather than the start of a
     subobject.

   - gh-123344(7): Add AST optimizations for type parameter defaults.

   - gh-123321(8): Prevent Parser/myreadline race condition from
     segfaulting on multi-threaded use.  Patch by Bar Harel and Amit
     Wienner.

   - gh-123177(9): Fix a bug causing stray prompts to appear in the
     middle of wrapped lines in the new REPL.

   - gh-122982(10): Extend the deprecation period for bool inversion
     (‘~’) by two years.

   - gh-123275(11): Support *note -X gil=1: 175. and *note PYTHON_GIL=1:
     174. on non-free-threaded builds.

   - gh-123177(12): Deactivate line wrap in the Apple Terminal via a
     ANSI escape code.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123229(13): Fix valgrind warning by initializing the f-string
     buffers to 0 in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-122298(14): Restore printout of GC stats when
     ‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_STATS)’ is called.  This featue was
     accidentally removed when implementing incremental GC.

   - gh-121804(15): Correctly show error locations when a *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. is raised in the basic REPL. Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-123142(16): Fix too-wide source location in exception tracebacks
     coming from broken iterables in comprehensions.

   - gh-123048(17): Fix a bug where pattern matching code could emit a
     *note JUMP_FORWARD: 159b. with no source location.

   - gh-123123(18): Fix displaying *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions
     covering multiple lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123083(19): Fix a potential use-after-free in
     ‘STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT’.

   - gh-123022(20): Fix crash in free-threaded build when calling *note
     Py_Initialize(): 89b. from a non-main thread.

   - gh-122888(21): Fix crash on certain calls to ‘str()’ with
     positional arguments of the wrong type.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-116622(22): Fix Android stdout and stderr messages being
     truncated or lost.

   - gh-122527(23): Fix a crash that occurred when a ‘PyStructSequence’
     was deallocated after its type's dictionary was cleared by the GC.
     The type's *note tp_basicsize: 976. now accounts for non-sequence
     fields that aren't included in the *note Py_SIZE: 76e. of the
     sequence.

   - gh-122445(24): Add only fields which are modified via self.* to
     *note __static_attributes__: 14a.

   - gh-98442(25): Fix too wide source locations of the cleanup
     instructions of a with statement.

   - gh-93691(26): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     with statements.

   - gh-120097(27): ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ now subclasses
     ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ and can be matched as a mapping in
     ‘match’ statements

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119310

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123572

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119034

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123545

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123484

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123344

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123321

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123275

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123229

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122298

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123142

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123048

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123123

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123083

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123022

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122888

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122527

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122445

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98442

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120097


File: python.info,  Node: C API<6>,  Next: Build<6>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.9 C API
..............

   - gh-122728(1): Fix *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b. to avoid *note
     SystemError: 563. ("bad argument to internal function").  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122728


File: python.info,  Node: Build<6>,  Prev: C API<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.7.10 Build
...............

   - gh-123418(1): Updated Android build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-123297(2): Propagate the value of ‘LDFLAGS’ to ‘LDCXXSHARED’ in
     *note sysconfig: da.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-116622(3): Rename build variable ‘MODULE_LDFLAGS’ back to
     ‘LIBPYTHON’, as it's used by package build systems (e.g.  Meson).

   - gh-118943(4): Fix an issue where the experimental JIT could be
     built several times by the ‘make regen-all’ target, leading to
     possible race conditions on heavily parallelized builds.

   - gh-118943(5): Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel
     builds configured with ‘--enable-experimental-jit’, in which *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. could be caused by another process already
     moving ‘jit_stencils.h.new’ to ‘jit_stencils.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123297

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.8 Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2024-07-31'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* C API: C API<7>.
* Build: Build<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<7>,  Next: Security<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.1 Tests
..............

   - gh-59022(1): Add tests for *note pkgutil.extend_path(): 15a0.
     Patch by Andreas Stocker.

   - gh-99242(2): *note os.getloadavg(): 15a1. may throw *note OSError:
     40d. when running regression tests under certain conditions (e.g.
     chroot).  This error is now caught and ignored, since reporting
     load average is optional.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59022

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99242


File: python.info,  Node: Security<5>,  Next: Library<7>,  Prev: Tests<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.2 Security
.................

   - gh-122133(1): Authenticate the socket connection for the
     ‘socket.socketpair()’ fallback on platforms where ‘AF_UNIX’ is not
     available like Windows.

     Patch by Gregory P. Smith <<greg@krypto.org>> and Seth Larson
     <<seth@python.org>>.  Reported by Ellie <<el@horse64.org>>

   - gh-121957(2): Fixed missing audit events around interactive use of
     Python, now also properly firing for ‘python -i’, as well as for
     ‘python -m asyncio’.  The events in question are
     ‘cpython.run_stdin’ and ‘cpython.run_startup’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122133

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121957


File: python.info,  Node: Library<7>,  Next: IDLE<7>,  Prev: Security<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.3 Library
................

   - gh-122400(1): Handle *note ValueError: 1ff.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 48c. in *note filecmp.dircmp: f2d. and *note
     filecmp.cmpfiles(): 15a4.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122311(2): Fix some error messages in *note pickle: a5.

   - gh-122332(3): Fixed segfault with *note asyncio.Task.get_coro():
     9cb. when using an eager task factory.

   - gh-105733(4): *note ctypes.ARRAY(): 299. is now *note soft
     deprecated: 206.: it no longer emits deprecation warnings and is
     not scheduled for removal.

   - gh-122087(5): Restore *note inspect.ismethoddescriptor(): 15a5. and
     *note inspect.isroutine(): 15a6. returning ‘False’ for *note
     functools.partial: 40a. objects.

   - gh-122170(6): Handle *note ValueError: 1ff.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 48c. in *note linecache: 84.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-82951(7): Serializing objects with complex ‘__qualname__’ (such
     as unbound methods and nested classes) by name no longer involves
     serializing parent objects by value in pickle protocols < 4.

   - gh-113785(8): *note csv: 29. now correctly parses numeric fields
     (when used with *note csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15a7. or *note
     csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 471.) which start with an escape character.

   - gh-122088(9): *note @warnings.deprecated: 15f. now copies the
     coroutine status of functions and methods so that *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3. returns the correct result.

   - gh-120930(10): Fixed a bug introduced by gh-92081(11) that added an
     incorrect extra blank to encoded words occurring in wrapped
     headers.

   - gh-121474(12): Fix missing sanity check for ‘parties’ arg in *note
     threading.Barrier: 11c2. constructor.  Patch by Clinton Christian
     (pygeek).

   - gh-120289(13): Fixed the use-after-free issue in *note cProfile:
     27. by disallowing ‘disable()’ and ‘clear()’ in external timers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122400

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122311

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122087

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122170

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82951

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113785

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122088

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120930

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121474

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120289


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<8>,  Prev: Library<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.4 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122482(1): Change About IDLE to direct users to
     discuss.python.org instead of the now unused idle-dev email and
     mailing list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122482


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<8>,  Next: C API<7>,  Prev: IDLE<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.5 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-116090(1): Fix an issue in JIT builds that prevented some *note
     for: 2e7. loops from correctly firing *note RAISE: 15aa. monitoring
     events.

   - gh-122208(2): Dictionary watchers now only deliver the
     PyDict_EVENT_ADDED event when the insertion is in a known good
     state to succeed.

   - gh-122300(3): Preserve AST nodes for f-string with single-element
     format specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120906(4): *note frame.f_locals: 180. now supports arbitrary
     hashable objects as keys.

   - gh-122029(5): Emit ‘c_call’ events in *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6.
     when a ‘PyMethodObject’ pointing to a ‘PyCFunction’ is called.

   - gh-122026(6): Fix a bug that caused the tokenizer to not correctly
     identify mismatched parentheses inside f-strings in some
     situations.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-118934(7): Make ‘PyEval_GetLocals’ return borrowed reference

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116090

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122208

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122300

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120906

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122026

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118934


File: python.info,  Node: C API<7>,  Next: Build<7>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.6 C API
..............

   - gh-116622(1): Make *note PyObject_Print: 15ac. work around a bug in
     Android and OpenBSD which prevented it from throwing an exception
     when trying to write to a read-only stream.

   - gh-121489(2): Export private ‘_PyBytes_Join()’ again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121489


File: python.info,  Node: Build<7>,  Prev: C API<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.8.7 Build
..............

   - gh-120522(1): Added a *note -with-app-store-compliance: 15ae.
     option to patch out known issues with macOS/iOS App Store review
     processes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120522


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.9 Python 3.13.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2024-07-18'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* C API: C API<8>.
* Build: Build<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<8>,  Next: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.1 Tests
..............

   - gh-121084(1): Fix test_typing random leaks.  Clear typing ABC
     caches when running tests for refleaks (‘-R’ option): call
     ‘_abc_caches_clear()’ on typing abstract classes and their
     subclasses.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121160(2): Add a test for *note readline.set_history_length():
     15b1.  Note that this test may fail on readline libraries.

   - gh-121200(3): Fix ‘test_expanduser_pwd2()’ of ‘test_posixpath’.
     Call ‘getpwnam()’ to get ‘pw_dir’, since it can be different than
     ‘getpwall()’ ‘pw_dir’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121188(4): When creating the JUnit XML file, regrtest now
     escapes characters which are invalid in XML, such as the chr(27)
     control character used in ANSI escape sequences.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121084

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121160

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121200

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121188


File: python.info,  Node: Library<8>,  Next: IDLE<8>,  Prev: Tests<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.2 Library
................

   - gh-57141(1): The 'shallow' argument to *note filecmp.dircmp: f2d.
     (new in Python 3.13) is now keyword-only.

   - gh-121245(2): Simplify handling of the history file in
     ‘site.register_readline()’ helper.  The ‘CAN_USE_PYREPL’ variable
     now will be initialized, when imported.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-121332(3): Fix constructor of *note ast: 8. nodes with custom
     ‘_attributes’.  Previously, passing custom attributes would raise a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Passing arguments to the
     constructor that are not in ‘_fields’ or ‘_attributes’ remains
     deprecated.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-121279(4): Avoid *note NameError: 42a. for the *note warnings:
     111. module when accessing the depracated atributes of the *note
     importlib.abc: 77. module.

   - gh-121245(5): Fix a bug in the handling of the command history of
     the new *note REPL: 169. that caused the history file to be wiped
     at REPL exit.

   - gh-87744(6): Fix waitpid race while calling *note send_signal():
     15b3. in asyncio.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-121018(7): Fixed other issues where *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 526. did not honor ‘exit_on_error=False’.

   - gh-120678(8): Fix regression in the new REPL that meant that
     globals from files passed using the ‘-i’ argument would not be
     included in the REPL's global namespace.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120782(9): Fix wrong references of the *note datetime: 30. types
     after reloading the module.

   - gh-120713(10): *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): c80. now 0-pads
     years with less than four digits for the format specifiers ‘%Y’ and
     ‘%G’ on Linux.  Patch by Ben Hsing

   - gh-117983(11): Defer the ‘threading’ import in ‘importlib.util’
     until lazy loading is used.

   - gh-119189(12): When using the ‘**’ operator or *note pow(): 9c2.
     with *note Fraction: 1e4. as the base and an exponent that is not
     rational, a float, or a complex, the fraction is no longer
     converted to a float.

   - gh-118714(13): Allow ‘restart’ in post-mortem debugging of *note
     pdb: a4.  Removed restart message when the user quits pdb from
     post-mortem mode.

   - gh-105623(14): Fix performance degradation in *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1593.  Patch by Craig Robson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121245

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121279

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87744

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120782

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120713

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117983

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119189

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118714

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105623


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<8>,  Next: Documentation<6>,  Prev: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.3 IDLE
.............

   - gh-78889(1): Stop Shell freezes by blocking user access to
     non-method sys.stdout.shell attributes, which are all private.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78889


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<9>,  Prev: IDLE<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-121749(1): Fix documentation for *note PyModule_AddObjectRef():
     35b.

   - gh-120012(2): Clarify the behaviours of *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.empty(): 15b6. and *note
     multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty(): 15b7. on closed queues.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121749

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120012


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<9>,  Next: C API<8>,  Prev: Documentation<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.5 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-121860(1): Fix crash when rematerializing a managed dictionary
     after it was deleted.

   - gh-121814(2): Fixed the SegFault when *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417.
     is used with no Python frame on stack.

   - gh-121295(3): Fix PyREPL console getting into a blocked state after
     interrupting a long paste

   - gh-121794(4): Fix bug in free-threaded Python where a resurrected
     object could lead to a negative ref count assertion failure.

   - gh-121657(5): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18b. message if the
     user tries to use *note yield from: 9bd. outside a function.

   - gh-121609(6): Fix pasting of characters containing unicode
     character joiners in the new REPL. Patch by Marta Gomez Macias

   - gh-117482(7): Unexpected slot wrappers are no longer created for
     builtin static types in subinterpreters.

   - gh-121499(8): Fix a bug affecting how multi-line history was being
     rendered in the new REPL after interacting with the new screen
     cache.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121497(9): Fix a bug that was preventing the REPL to correctly
     respect the history when an input hook was set.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-121012(10): Tier 2 execution now ensures that list iterators
     remain exhausted, once they become exhausted.

   - gh-121439(11): Allow tuples of length 20 in the freelist to be
     reused.

   - gh-121368(12): Fix race condition in ‘_PyType_Lookup’ in the
     free-threaded build due to a missing memory fence.  This could lead
     to ‘_PyType_Lookup’ returning incorrect results on arm64.

   - gh-121130(13): Fix f-strings with debug expressions in format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121115(14): *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 357. no longer uses
     *note __index__(): 709. methods by default.  The
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ flag has been added to allow it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121860

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121295

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121794

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121657

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121609

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117482

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121499

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121497

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121012

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121439

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121368

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121130

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121115


File: python.info,  Node: C API<8>,  Next: Build<8>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.6 C API
..............

   - gh-89364(1): Export the *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd(): 1394.
     function.  Previously, the function was documented but it couldn't
     be used in 3rd party code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-113993(2): *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8a0. no longer
     prevents its argument from being garbage collected.

     Several functions that take ‘char *’ are now documented as possibly
     preventing string objects from being garbage collected; refer to
     their documentation for details: *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 15ba, *note PyDict_SetItemString():
     15bb, *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 15bc, *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 15bd, *note PyUnicode_InternFromString():
     15ba, and ‘PyModule_Add*’ convenience functions.

   - gh-113601(3): Removed debug build assertions related to interning
     strings, which were falsely triggered by stable ABI extensions.

   - gh-112136(4): Restore the private ‘_PyArg_Parser’ structure and the
     private ‘_PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywordsFast()’ function, previously
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89364

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112136


File: python.info,  Node: Build<8>,  Prev: C API<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.9.7 Build
..............

   - gh-120371(1): Support WASI SDK 22 by explicitly skipping functions
     that are just stubs in wasi-libc.

   - gh-121731(2): Fix mimalloc compile error on GNU/Hurd

   - gh-121487(3): Fix deprecation warning for ATOMIC_VAR_INIT in
     mimalloc.

   - gh-121467(4): Fix a Makefile bug that prevented mimalloc header
     files from being installed.

   - gh-121103(5): On POSIX systems, excluding macOS framework installs,
     the lib directory for the free-threaded build now includes a "t"
     suffix to avoid conflicts with a co-located default build
     installation.

   - gh-120831(6): The default minimum iOS version was increased to
     13.0.

   - gh-113565(7): Improve *note curses: 2b. and *note curses.panel: 2d.
     dependency checks in ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120371

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121731

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121487

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121467

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121103

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120831

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113565


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.10 Python 3.13.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-06-27'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Build: Build<9>.
* C API: C API<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<10>,  Next: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.10.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-120838(1): *note Py_Finalize(): 1332. and *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     d05. now always run with the main interpreter active.

   - gh-113433(2): Subinterpreters now get cleaned up automatically
     during runtime finalization.

   - gh-119462(3): Make sure that invariants of type versioning are
     maintained: * Superclasses always have their version number
     assigned before subclasses * The version tag is always zero if the
     tag is not valid.  * The version tag is always non-zero if the tag
     is valid.

   - gh-120437(4): Fix ‘_CHECK_STACK_SPACE’ optimization problems
     introduced in gh-118322(5).

   - gh-120722(6): Correctly set the bytecode position on return
     instructions within lambdas.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-120367(7): Fix bug where compiler creates a redundant jump
     during pseudo-op replacement.  Can only happen with a synthetic AST
     that has a try on the same line as the instruction following the
     exception handler.

   - gh-113993(8): Strings interned with *note sys.intern(): 12bb. are
     again garbage-collected when no longer used, as per the
     documentation.  Strings interned with the C function *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8a0. are still immortal.  Internals of
     the string interning mechanism have been changed.  This may affect
     performance and identities of *note str: 437. objects.

   - gh-120384(9): Fix an array out of bounds crash in
     ‘list_ass_subscript’, which could be invoked via some specificly
     tailored input: including concurrent modification of a list object,
     where one thread assigns a slice and another clears it.

   - gh-120367(10): Fix crash in compiler on code with redundant NOPs
     and JUMPs which show up after exception handlers are moved to the
     end of the code.

   - gh-120380(11): Fix Python implementation of *note pickle.Pickler:
     a0e. for *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. objects when
     using protocol version 5.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120400(12): Support Linux perf profiler to see Python calls on
     RISC-V architecture.

   - gh-120221(13): Deliver real signals on Ctrl-C and Ctrl-Z in the new
     REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120346(14): Respect *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16d. when running
     in interative inspect mode (‘python -i’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93691(15): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     the iterator of a for statement.

   - gh-120198(16): Fix a crash when multiple threads read and write to
     the same ‘__class__’ of an object concurrently.

   - gh-120298(17): Fix use-after free in ‘list_richcompare_impl’ which
     can be invoked via some specificly tailored evil input.

   - gh-119666(18): Fix a compiler crash in the case where two
     comprehensions in class scope both reference ‘__class__’.

   - gh-120225(19): Fix crash in compiler on empty block at end of
     exception handler.

   - gh-119933(20): Improve *note SyntaxError: 18b. messages for invalid
     expressions in a type parameters bound, a type parameter constraint
     tuple or a default type parameter.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - bpo-24766(21): Fix handling of ‘doc’ argument to subclasses of
     ‘property’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120838

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113433

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119462

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120437

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118322

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120722

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120384

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120380

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120400

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120346

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120198

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119666

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120225

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24766


File: python.info,  Node: Library<9>,  Next: Build<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.10.2 Library
.................

   - gh-121027(1): Add a future warning in
     ‘functools.partial.__get__()’.  In future Python versions *note
     functools.partial: 40a. will be a method descriptor.

   - gh-121025(2): Improve the *note __repr__(): 609. of *note
     functools.partialmethod: a6b.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121018(3): Fixed an issue where
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parses_args()’ did not honor
     ‘exit_on_error=False’ when given unrecognized arguments.  Patch by
     Ben Hsing.

   - gh-119614(4): Fix truncation of strings with embedded null
     characters in some internal operations in *note tkinter: ef.

   - gh-120910(5): When reading installed files from an egg, use
     ‘relative_to(walk_up=True)’ to honor files installed outside of the
     installation root.

   - gh-120888(6): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 24.1.1)

   - gh-101830(7): Accessing the *note tkinter: ef. object's string
     representation no longer converts the underlying Tcl object to a
     string on Windows.

   - gh-120811(8): Fix possible memory leak in *note
     contextvars.Context.run(): 15c2.

   - gh-120769(9): Make empty line in *note pdb: a4. repeats the last
     command even when the command is from ‘cmdqueue’.

   - gh-120732(10): Fix ‘name’ passing to *note unittest.mock.Mock: a3c.
     object when using *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 15c3.

   - gh-120683(11): Fix an error in *note logging.LogRecord: fd3, when
     the integer part of the timestamp is rounded up, while the
     millisecond calculation truncates, causing the log timestamp to be
     wrong by up to 999 ms (affected roughly 1 in 8 million timestamps).

   - gh-120633(12): Move scrollbar and remove tear-off menus in
     turtledemo.

   - gh-120541(13): Improve the prompt in the "less" pager when *note
     help(): 8c6. is called with non-string argument.

   - gh-120495(14): Fix incorrect exception handling in Tab Nanny.
     Patch by Wulian233.

   - gh-120381(15): Correct *note inspect.ismethoddescriptor(): 15a5. to
     check also for the lack of *note __delete__(): 15c4.  Patch by Jan
     Kaliszewski.

   - gh-90425(16): The OS byte in gzip headers is now always set to 255
     when using *note gzip.compress(): 62b.

   - gh-120343(17): Fix column offset reporting for tokens that come
     after multiline f-strings in the *note tokenize: fa. module.

   - gh-119600(18): Fix *note unittest.mock.patch(): e7d. to not read
     attributes of the target when ‘new_callable’ is set.  Patch by
     Robert Collins.

   - gh-114053(19): Fix edge-case bug where *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. would produce incorrect results if
     type parameters in a class scope were overridden by assignments in
     a class scope and ‘from __future__ import annotations’ semantics
     were enabled.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-114053(20): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 42a. when calling
     *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. with ‘eval_str=True`’ on a
     class that made use of PEP 695(21) type parameters in a module that
     had ‘from __future__ import annotations’ at the top of the file.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120268(22): Prohibit passing ‘None’ to pure-Python *note
     datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 15c5. to achieve consistency with
     C-extension implementation.

   - gh-120244(23): Fix memory leak in *note re.sub(): 2a0. when the
     replacement string contains backreferences.

   - gh-120211(24): Fix *note tkinter.ttk: f8. with Tcl/Tk 9.0.

   - gh-71587(25): Fix crash in C version of *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6. when called again on the
     restarted interpreter.

   - gh-120161(26): *note datetime: 30. no longer crashes in certain
     complex reference cycle situations.

   - gh-119698(27): Fix *note symtable.Class.get_methods(): 2e4. and
     document its behaviour.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120121(28): Add *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError:
     15c7. to module's ‘__all__’.

   - gh-119933(29): Add the *note symtable.SymbolTableType: 15c8.
     enumeration to represent the possible outputs of the *note
     symtable.SymbolTable.get_type: 15c9. method.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-120108(30): Fix calling *note copy.deepcopy(): b5e. on *note
     ast: 8. trees that have been modified to have references to parent
     nodes.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-112672(31): Support building *note tkinter: ef. with Tcl 9.0.

   - gh-65454(32): *note unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock(): 15ca. no
     longer triggers a call to a ‘PropertyMock’ being attached.

   - gh-81936(33): ‘help()’ and ‘showtopic()’ methods now respect a
     configured 'output' argument to ‘pydoc.Helper’ and not use the
     pager in such cases.  Patch by Enrico Tröger.

   - gh-119577(34): The *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. emitted when
     testing the truth value of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     305. now describes unconditionally returning ‘True’ in a future
     version rather than raising an exception in Python 3.14.

   - gh-118908(35): Limit exposed globals from internal imports and
     definitions on new REPL startup.  Patch by Eugene Triguba and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-119506(36): Fix ‘io.TextIOWrapper.write()’ method breaks
     internal buffer when the method is called again during flushing
     internal buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121025

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119614

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120910

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120888

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101830

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120811

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120769

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120732

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120683

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120633

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120541

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120495

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120381

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90425

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120343

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119600

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120268

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120244

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120211

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71587

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120161

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120121

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120108

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112672

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65454

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81936

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119577

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118908

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119506


File: python.info,  Node: Build<9>,  Next: C API<9>,  Prev: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.10.3 Build
...............

   - gh-120671(1): Fix failing configure tests due to a missing space
     when appending to CFLAGS.

   - gh-120602(2): Correctly handle LLVM installs with
     ‘LLVM_VERSION_SUFFIX’ when building with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit’.

   - gh-120326(3): On Windows, fix build error when ‘--disable-gil’ and
     ‘--experimental-jit’ options are combined.

   - gh-120291(4): Make the ‘python-config’ shell script compatible with
     non-bash shells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120671

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120602

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120326

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<9>,  Prev: Build<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.10.4 C API
...............

   - gh-120642(1): Remove the private ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ type from the
     public C API. The internal ‘pycore_code.h’ header should now be
     used to get this internal type.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120858(2): *note PyDict_Next(): 15cd. no longer locks the
     dictionary in the free-threaded build.  The locking needs to be
     done by the caller around the entire iteration loop.

   - gh-120642(3): Remove the following unstable functions:

        * ‘PyUnstable_Replace_Executor()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_SetOptimizer()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_GetOptimizer()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_GetExecutor()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewCounter()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewUOpOptimizer()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119344(4): The critical section API is now public as part of the
     non-limited C API.

   - gh-118789(5): Add *note
     PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks(): 15ce, which clears
     weakrefs without calling their callbacks.

   - gh-117511(6): Make the *note PyMutex: 15a. public in the
     non-limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120858

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119344

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117511


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.11 Python 3.13.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-06-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Build: Build<10>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* C API: C API<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.1 Security
..................

   - gh-118773(1): Fixes creation of ACLs in *note os.mkdir(): 21a. on
     Windows to work correctly on non-English machines.

   - gh-118486(2): *note os.mkdir(): 21a. on Windows now accepts 'mode'
     of ‘0o700’ to restrict the new directory to the current user.  This
     fixes CVE 2024-4030(3) affecting *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c. in
     scenarios where the base temporary directory is more permissive
     than the default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118773

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<11>,  Next: Library<10>,  Prev: Security<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-119724(1): Reverted improvements to error messages for
     ‘elif’/‘else’ statements not matching any valid statements, which
     made in hard to locate the syntax errors inside those ‘elif’/‘else’
     blocks.

   - gh-119842(2): Honor *note PyOS_InputHook(): 573. in the new REPL.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-119821(3): Fix execution of *note annotation scopes: 186. within
     classes when ‘globals’ is set to a non-dict.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-119548(4): Add a ‘clear’ command to the REPL. Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-111999(5): Fix the signature of *note str.format_map(): dc6.

   - gh-119560(6): An invalid assert in beta 1 has been removed.  The
     assert would fail if ‘PyState_FindModule()’ was used in an
     extension module's init function before the module def had been
     initialized.

   - gh-119369(7): Fix deadlock during thread deletion in free-threaded
     build, which could occur when the GIL was enabled at runtime.

   - gh-119525(8): Fix deadlock involving ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ cache in
     the free-threaded build when the GIL is dynamically enabled at
     runtime.

   - gh-119311(9): Fix bug where names are unexpectedly mangled in the
     bases of generic classes.

   - gh-119395(10): Fix bug where names appearing after a generic class
     are mangled as if they are in the generic class.

   - gh-119213(11): Non-builtin modules built with argument clinic were
     crashing if used in a subinterpreter before the main interpreter.
     The objects that were causing the problem by leaking between
     interpreters carelessly have been fixed.

   - gh-119011(12): Fixes ‘type.__type_params__’ to return an empty
     tuple instead of a descriptor.

   - gh-118692(13): Avoid creating unnecessary *note StopIteration: bea.
     instances for monitoring.

   - gh-119049(14): Fix displaying the source line for warnings created
     by the C API if the *note warnings: 111. module had not yet been
     imported.

   - gh-118844(15): Fix build failures when configuring with both
     ‘--disable-gil’ and ‘--enable-experimental-jit’.

   - gh-118921(16): Add ‘copy()’ method for ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ which
     returns a snapshot ‘dict’ for local variables.

   - gh-117657(17): Fix data races on the field that stores a pointer to
     the interpreter's main thread that occur in free-threaded builds.

   - gh-118561(18): Fix race condition in free-threaded build where
     ‘list.extend()’ could expose uninitialised memory to concurrent
     readers.

   - gh-117195(19): Avoid assertion failure for debug builds when
     calling ‘object.__sizeof__(1)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119842

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119821

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119548

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111999

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119560

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119369

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119525

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119311

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119395

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119213

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119011

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118692

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119049

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118844

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118921

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117657

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118561

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117195


File: python.info,  Node: Library<10>,  Next: Tests<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.3 Library
.................

   - gh-119819(1): Fix regression to allow logging configuration with
     multiprocessing queue types.

   - gh-117142(2): The *note ctypes: 2a. module may now be imported in
     all subinterpreters, including those that have their own GIL.

   - gh-118835(3): Fix _pyrepl crash when using custom prompt with ANSI
     escape codes.

   - gh-117398(4): The ‘_datetime’ module (C implementation for *note
     datetime: 30.) now supports being imported in multiple
     interpreters.

   - gh-89727(5): Fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. where a
     *note RecursionError: d5b. is raised on deep directory trees.

   - gh-89727(6): Partially fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6.
     where a *note RecursionError: d5b. is raised on deep directory
     trees.  A recursion error is no longer raised when
     ‘rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks’ is false.

   - gh-119118(7): Fix performance regression in the *note tokenize: fa.
     module by caching the ‘line’ token attribute and calculating the
     column offset more efficiently.

   - gh-89727(8): Fix issue with *note os.fwalk(): b4b. where a *note
     RecursionError: d5b. was raised on deep directory trees by
     adjusting the implementation to be iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-119588(9): ‘zipfile.Path.is_symlink’ now assesses if the given
     path is a symlink.

   - gh-119555(10): Catch *note SyntaxError: 18b. from *note compile():
     190. in the runsource() method of the InteractiveColoredConsole.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-113892(11): Now, the method ‘sock_connect’ of *note
     asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     given socket is not in non-blocking mode, as well as in other loop
     implementations.

   - gh-119443(12): The interactive REPL no longer runs with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ enabled.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-117398(13): Objects in the datetime C-API are now all statically
     allocated, which means better memory safety, especially when the
     module is reloaded.  This should be transparent to users.

   - gh-118894(14): *note asyncio: a. REPL now has the same capabilities
     as PyREPL.

   - gh-118911(15): In PyREPL, updated ‘maybe-accept’'s logic so that if
     the user hits ‘Enter’ twice, they are able to terminate the block
     even if there's trailing whitespace.  Also, now when the user hits
     arrow up, the cursor is on the last functional line.  This matches
     IPython's behavior.  Patch by Aya Elsayed.

   - gh-111201(16): Remove dependency to *note readline: b9. from the
     new Python REPL.

   - gh-119174(17): Fix high DPI causes turtledemo(turtle-graphics
     examples) windows blurry Patch by Wulian233 and Terry Jan Reedy

   - gh-119121(18): Fix a NameError happening in
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race’.  This function is now tested.

   - gh-119113(19): Fix issue where *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 15d3. didn't raise *note TypeError:
     525. when given ‘None’ as a suffix.

   - gh-118643(20): Fix an AttributeError in the *note email: 3b. module
     when re-fold a long address list.  Also fix more cases of incorrect
     encoding of the address separator in the address list.

   - gh-58933(21): Make *note pdb: a4. return to caller frame correctly
     when ‘f_trace’ of the caller frame is not set

   - gh-118895(22): Setting attributes on *note typing.NoDefault: 25f.
     now raises *note AttributeError: 343. instead of *note TypeError:
     525.

   - gh-118868(23): Fixed issue where kwargs were no longer passed to
     the logging handler QueueHandler

   - gh-118851(24): ‘ctx’ arguments to the constructors of *note ast: 8.
     node classes now default to *note ast.Load(): 1a2.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118760(25): Restore the default value of ‘tkiter.wantobjects’ to
     ‘1’.

   - gh-118760(26): Fix errors in calling Tkinter bindings on Windows.

   - gh-118507(27): Fix *note os.path.isfile(): a01. on Windows for
     pipes.  Speedup *note os.path.isjunction(): 48f. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): 9ff. on Windows with a native implementation.

   - gh-118772(28): Allow *note typing.TypeVar: 15c. instances without a
     default to follow instances without a default in some cases.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110863(29): *note os.path.realpath(): 222. now suppresses any
     *note OSError: 40d. from *note os.readlink(): 90f. when 'strict'
     mode is disabled (the default).

   - gh-118263(30): Speed up *note os.path.splitroot(): 490. & *note
     os.path.normpath(): 12fa. with a direct C call.

   - gh-118033(31): Fix *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 1c6. not creating
     a ‘__weakref__’ slot when subclassing *note typing.Generic: 15d4.

   - gh-106531(32): In *note importlib.resources: 7a, sync with
     importlib_resources 6.3.2(33), including: ‘MultiplexedPath’ now
     expects ‘Traversable’ paths, deprecating string arguments to
     ‘MultiplexedPath’; Enabled support for resources in namespace
     packages in zip files; Fixed ‘NotADirectoryError’ when calling
     files on a subdirectory of a namespace package.

   - gh-113978(34): Ignore warnings on text completion inside REPL.

   - gh-103956(35): Fix lack of newline characters in *note trace: fc.
     module output when line tracing is enabled but source code line for
     current frame is not available.

   - gh-92081(36): Fix missing spaces in email headers when the spaces
     are mixed with encoded 8-bit characters.

   - gh-103194(37): Prepare Tkinter for C API changes in Tcl 8.7/9.0 to
     avoid ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ being unexpectedly returned instead of
     *note bool: 453, *note str: 437, *note bytearray: 52b, or *note
     int: 254.

   - gh-87106(38): Fixed handling in *note inspect.Signature.bind():
     151b. of keyword arguments having the same name as positional-only
     arguments when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.  ‘**kwargs’) is
     present.

   - bpo-45767(39): Fix integer conversion in *note os.major(): 15d5,
     *note os.minor(): 15d6, and *note os.makedev(): 15d7.  Support
     device numbers larger than ‘2**63-1’.  Support non-existent device
     number (‘NODEV’).

   - gh-67693(40): Fix *note urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 1592. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 1591. for URIs with path starting with
     multiple slashes and no authority.  Based on patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119819

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118835

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119118

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119555

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113892

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119443

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117398

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118894

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118911

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119174

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119121

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119113

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118643

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58933

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118895

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118868

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118760

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118760

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118507

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118772

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118263

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118033

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (33) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v6-3-2

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113978

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103956

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103194

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87106

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45767

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67693


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<9>,  Next: Build<10>,  Prev: Library<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-119050(1): regrtest test runner: Add XML support to the refleak
     checker (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119050


File: python.info,  Node: Build<10>,  Next: Windows<6>,  Prev: Tests<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.5 Build
...............

   - gh-119729(1): On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames
     now include the ABI flags, which may include debug ("d") and
     free-threaded ("t").  For example: * ‘python-3.14.pc’ (default,
     non-debug build) * ‘python-3.14d.pc’ (default, debug build) *
     ‘python-3.14t.pc’ (free-threaded build)

   - gh-115119(2): Fall back to the bundled libmpdec if a system version
     cannot be found.

   - gh-119132(3): Update *note sys.version: 177. to identify whether
     the build is default build or free-threading build.  Patch By
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-118836(4): Fix an ‘AssertionError’ when building with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ and the compiler emits a ‘SHT_NOTE’
     section.

   - gh-118943(5): Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel
     builds configured with ‘--enable-experimental-jit’, in which
     compilation errors could be caused by an incompletely-generated
     header file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119729

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119132

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118836

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<6>,  Next: C API<10>,  Prev: Build<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-119679(1): Ensures correct import libraries are included in
     Windows installs.

   - gh-119690(2): Adds Unicode support and fixes audit events for
     ‘_winapi.CreateNamedPipe’.

   - gh-111201(3): Add support for new pyrepl on Windows

   - gh-119070(4): Fixes ‘py.exe’ handling of shebangs like
     ‘/usr/bin/env python3.12’, which were previously interpreted as
     ‘python3.exe’ instead of ‘python3.12.exe’.

   - gh-117505(5): Fixes an issue with the Windows installer not running
     ensurepip in a fully isolated environment.  This could cause
     unexpected interactions with the user site-packages.

   - gh-118209(6): Avoid crashing in *note mmap: 8f. on Windows when the
     mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access
     violations.

   - gh-116145(7): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119679

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119070

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117505

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: C API<10>,  Prev: Windows<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.11.7 C API
...............

   - gh-119585(1): Fix crash when a thread state that was created by
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. calls a destructor that during
     *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 15dc. that calls back into *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.
     This might occur when in the free-threaded build or when using
     thread-local variables whose destructors call *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2.

   - gh-119336(2): Restore the removed ‘_PyLong_NumBits()’ function.  It
     is used by the pywin32 project.  Patch by Ethan Smith

   - gh-119247(3): Added ‘Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST’ and
     ‘Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST’ macros to make it possible
     to use PySequence_Fast APIs safely when free-threaded, and update
     str.join to work without the GIL using them.

   - gh-111389(4): Add *note PyHASH_MULTIPLIER: 15dd. constant: prime
     multiplier used in string and various other hashes.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116984(5): Make mimalloc includes relative to the current file
     to avoid embedders or extensions needing to include
     ‘Internal/mimalloc’ if they are already including internal CPython
     headers.

   - gh-118789(6): Restore ‘_PyWeakref_ClearRef’ that was previously
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119585

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119336

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119247

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111389

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116984

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.12 Python 3.13.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-05-08'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* macOS: macOS<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* C API: C API<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.1 Security
..................

   - gh-116741(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.2

   - gh-117233(2): Detect BLAKE2, SHA3, Shake, & truncated SHA512
     support in the OpenSSL-ish libcrypto library at build time.  This
     allows *note hashlib: 67. to be used with libraries that do not to
     support every algorithm that upstream OpenSSL does.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116741

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117233


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<12>,  Next: Library<11>,  Prev: Security<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-118414(1): Add instrumented opcodes to YIELD_VALUE assertion for
     tracing cases.

   - gh-117953(2): When a builtin or extension module is imported for
     the first time, while a subinterpreter is active, the module's init
     function is now run by the main interpreter first before import
     continues in the subinterpreter.  Consequently, single-phase init
     modules now fail in an isolated subinterpreter without the init
     function running under that interpreter, whereas before it would
     run under the subinterpreter 'before' failing, potentially leaving
     behind global state and callbacks and otherwise leaving the module
     in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-117549(3): Don't use designated initializer syntax in inline
     functions in internal headers.  They cause problems for C++ or MSVC
     users who aren't yet using the latest C++ standard (C++20).  While
     internal, pycore_backoff.h, is included (indirectly, via
     pycore_code.h) by some key 3rd party software that does so for
     speed.

   - gh-95382(4): Improve performance of *note json.dumps(): d35. and
     *note json.dump(): d34. when using the argument 'indent'.
     Depending on the data the encoding using *note json.dumps(): d35.
     with 'indent' can be up to 2 to 3 times faster.

   - gh-116322(5): In ‘--disable-gil’ builds, the GIL will be enabled
     while loading C extension modules.  If the module indicates that it
     supports running without the GIL, the GIL will be disabled once
     loading is complete.  Otherwise, the GIL will remain enabled for
     the remainder of the interpreter's lifetime.  This behavior does
     not apply if the GIL has been explicitly enabled or disabled with
     ‘PYTHON_GIL’ or ‘-Xgil’.

   - gh-118513(6): Fix incorrect *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed. when two
     comprehensions in the same function both reference the same name,
     and in one comprehension the name is bound while in the other it's
     an implicit global.

   - gh-118518(7): Allow the Linux perf support to work without frame
     pointers using perf's advanced JIT support.  The feature is
     activated when using the ‘PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT’ environment
     variable or when running Python with ‘-Xperf_jit’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-117514(8): Add ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function that returns
     whether the GIL is currently enabled.  In the default build it
     always returns ‘True’ because the GIL is always enabled.  In the
     free-threaded build, it may return ‘True’ or ‘False’.

   - gh-118164(9): Break a loop between the Python implementation of the
     *note decimal: 36. module and the Python code for integer to string
     conversion.  Also optimize integer to string conversion for values
     in the range from 9_000 to 135_000 decimal digits.

   - gh-118473(10): Fix *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 15e1. not to be
     partially set when raising *note TypeError: 525.

   - gh-118465(11): Compiler populates the new ‘__firstlineno__’ field
     on a class with the line number of the first line of the class
     definition.

   - gh-118492(12): Fix an issue where the type cache can expose a
     previously accessed attribute when a finalizer is run.

   - gh-117714(13): update ‘async_generator.athrow().close()’ and
     ‘async_generator.asend().close()’ to close their section of the
     underlying async generator

   - gh-111201(14): The *note interactive: 168. interpreter is now
     implemented in Python, which allows for a number of new features
     like colors, multiline input, history viewing, and paste mode.
     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa and Lysandros Nikolaou
     based on code from the PyPy project.

   - gh-74929(15): Implement PEP 667: converted *note
     FrameType.f_locals: 180. and *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415. to
     return a write-through proxy object when the frame refers to a
     function or comprehension.

   - gh-116767(16): Fix crash in compiler on 'async with' that has many
     context managers.

   - gh-118335(17): Change how to use the tier 2 interpreter.  Instead
     of running Python with ‘-X uops’ or setting the environment
     variable ‘PYTHON_UOPS=1’, this choice is now made at build time by
     configuring with ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’.

     'Beware!'  This changes the environment variable to enable or
     disable micro-ops to ‘PYTHON_JIT’.  The old ‘PYTHON_UOPS’ is no
     longer used.

   - gh-118306(18): Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 18

   - gh-118160(19): *note Annotation scopes: 186. within classes can now
     contain comprehensions.  However, such comprehensions are not
     inlined into their parent scope at runtime.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118272(20): Fix bug where ‘generator.close’ does not free the
     generator frame's locals.

   - gh-118216(21): Don't consider *note __future__: 0. imports with
     dots before the module name.

   - gh-118074(22): Make sure that the Executor objects in the
     COLD_EXITS array aren't assumed to be GC-able (which would access
     bytes outside the object).

   - gh-107674(23): Lazy load frame line number to improve performance
     of tracing

   - gh-118082(24): Improve *note SyntaxError: 18b. message for imports
     without names, like in ‘from x import’ and ‘import’ cases.  It now
     points out to users that *note import: 5ce. expects at least one
     name after it.

   - gh-118090(25): Improve *note SyntaxError: 18b. message for empty
     type param brackets.

   - gh-117958(26): Added a ‘get_jit_code()’ method to access JIT
     compiled machine code from the UOp Executor when the experimental
     JIT is enabled.  Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-117901(27): Add option for compiler's codegen to save nested
     instruction sequences for introspection.

   - gh-116622(28): Redirect stdout and stderr to system log when
     embedded in an Android app.

   - gh-109118(29): *note annotation scope: 186. within class scopes can
     now contain lambdas.

   - gh-117894(30): Prevent ‘agen.aclose()’ objects being re-used after
     ‘.throw()’.

   - gh-117881(31): prevent concurrent access to an async generator via
     athrow().throw() or asend().throw()

   - gh-117536(32): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. when calling
     ‘agen.aclose().throw(Exception)’.

   - gh-117755(33): Fix mimalloc allocator for huge memory allocation
     (around 8,589,934,592 GiB) on s390x.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117750(34): Fix issue where an object's dict would get out of
     sync with the object's internal values when being cleared.
     ‘obj.__dict__.clear()’ now clears the internal values, but leaves
     the dict attached to the object.

   - gh-117431(35): Improve the performance of the following *note
     bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. methods by adapting them to
     the *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. calling convention:

        * ‘count()’

        * ‘find()’

        * ‘index()’

        * ‘rfind()’

        * ‘rindex()’

   - gh-117709(36): Speed up calls to *note str(): 437. with
     positional-only argument, by using the PEP 590(37) ‘vectorcall’
     calling convention.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-117680(38): Give ‘_PyInstructionSequence’ a Python interface and
     use it in tests.

   - gh-115776(39): Statically allocated objects are, by definition,
     immortal so must be marked as such regardless of whether they are
     in extension modules or not.

   - gh-117385(40): Remove unhandled ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH’ and
     ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ events from *note
     sys.settrace(): 14b7.

   - gh-116322(41): Extension modules may indicate to the runtime that
     they can run without the GIL. Multi-phase init modules do so by
     calling providing ‘Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED’ for the ‘Py_mod_gil’ slot,
     while single-phase init modules call ‘PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(mod,
     Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED)’ from their init function.

   - gh-116129(42): Implement PEP 696(43), adding support for defaults
     on type parameters.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-93502(44): Add two new functions to the C-API, *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 362. and *note PyRefTracer_GetTracer():
     363, that allows to track object creation and destruction the same
     way the *note tracemalloc: fe. module does.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107674(45): Improved the performance of *note sys.settrace():
     14b7. significantly

   - gh-95754(46): Improve the error message when a script shadowing a
     module from the standard library causes *note AttributeError: 343.
     to be raised.  Similarly, improve the error message when a script
     shadowing a third party module attempts to access an attribute from
     that third party module while still initialising.

   - gh-99180(47): Elide uninformative traceback indicators in ‘return’
     and simple ‘assignment’ statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105879(48): Allow the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments to *note
     exec(): 17d. and *note eval(): 17e. to be passed as keywords.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118414

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117549

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95382

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118513

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117514

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118473

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118492

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117714

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116767

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118335

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118306

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118272

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118074

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118082

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118090

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117958

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117901

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117894

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117881

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117536

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117755

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117750

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117709

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117680

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117385

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116129

   (43) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99180

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879


File: python.info,  Node: Library<11>,  Next: Documentation<7>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.3 Library
.................

   - gh-118418(1): A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is now emitted if
     you fail to pass a value to the new 'type_params' parameter of
     ‘typing._eval_type()’ or ‘typing.ForwardRef._evaluate()’.  (Using
     either of these private and undocumented functions is discouraged
     to begin with, but failing to pass a value to the ‘type_params’
     parameter may lead to incorrect behaviour on Python 3.12 or newer.)

   - gh-118660(2): Add an optional second type parameter to *note
     typing.ContextManager: c7e. and *note typing.AsyncContextManager:
     15e4, representing the return types of *note __exit__(): 12e0. and
     *note __aexit__(): 15e5. respectively.  This parameter defaults to
     ‘bool | None’.

   - gh-118650(3): The ‘enum’ module allows method named ‘_repr_*’ to be
     defined on ‘Enum’ types.

   - gh-118648(4): Add type parameter defaults to *note
     typing.Generator: 15e6. and *note typing.AsyncGenerator: 15e7.

   - gh-101137(5): Mime type ‘text/x-rst’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - gh-118164(6): The Python implementation of the ‘decimal’ module
     could appear to hang in relatively small power cases (like
     ‘2**117’) if context precision was set to a very high value.  A
     different method to check for exactly representable results is used
     now that doesn't rely on computing ‘10**precision’ (which could be
     effectively too large to compute).

   - gh-111744(7): ‘breakpoint()’ and ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now enter the
     debugger immediately after the call rather than before the next
     line is executed.

   - gh-118500(8): Add *note pdb: a4. support for zipapps

   - gh-118406(9): Add signature for *note sqlite3.Connection: 242.
     objects.

   - gh-101732(10): Use a Y2038 compatible openssl time function when
     available.

   - gh-118404(11): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 724. for
     non-comparable callables.

   - gh-118402(12): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 724. for the result
     of the *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 11b9. call.

   - gh-116622(13): On Android, *note sysconfig.get_platform: 1222. now
     returns the format specified by PEP 738(14).

   - gh-118285(15): Allow to specify the signature of custom callable
     instances of extension type by the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.
     Specify signatures of *note operator.attrgetter: e22, *note
     operator.itemgetter: a52, and *note operator.methodcaller: e23.
     instances.

   - gh-118314(16): Fix an edge case in *note binascii.a2b_base64():
     15e8. strict mode, where excessive padding is not detected when no
     padding is necessary.

   - gh-118271(17): Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an
     image from a file and ‘data()’ to get the image data.  Add
     'background' and 'grayscale' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method
     ‘write()’.

   - gh-118225(18): Add the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy_replace()’ to copy
     a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming
     and/or subsampling.  Add 'from_coords' parameter to ‘PhotoImage’
     methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and
     'subsample' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.

   - gh-118221(19): Fix a bug where *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump():
     244. could fail if a custom *note row factory: 15e9. was used.
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-118013(20): Fix regression introduced in gh-103193(21) that
     meant that calling *note inspect.getattr_static(): 480. on an
     instance would cause a strong reference to that instance's class to
     persist in an internal cache in the *note inspect: 7d. module.
     This caused unexpected memory consumption if the class was
     dynamically created, the class held strong references to other
     objects which took up a significant amount of memory, and the cache
     contained the sole strong reference to the class.  The fix for the
     regression leads to a slowdown in ‘getattr_static()’, but the
     function should still be significantly faster than it was in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-118218(22): Speed up *note itertools.pairwise(): 801. in the
     common case by up to 1.8x.

   - gh-117486(23): Improve the behavior of user-defined subclasses of
     *note ast.AST: 1a4.  Such classes will now require no changes in
     the usual case to conform with the behavior changes of the *note
     ast: 8. module in Python 3.13.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-90848(24): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 15c3. to
     configure parent mock with keyword arguments.

   - gh-118168(25): Fix incorrect argument substitution when *note
     typing.Unpack: 15ea. is used with the builtin *note tuple: 366.
     ‘typing.Unpack’ now raises *note TypeError: 525. when used with
     certain invalid types.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118131(26): Add command-line interface for the *note random: b7.
     module.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-118107(27): Fix *note zipimport: 131. reading of ZIP64 files
     with file entries that are too big or offset too far.

   - gh-102511(28): Fix *note os.path.normpath(): 12fa. for UNC paths on
     Windows.  Speed up *note os.path.splitroot(): 490. with a native
     implementation.

   - gh-117535(29): Change the unknown filename of *note warnings: 111.
     from ‘sys’ to ‘<sys>’ to clarify that it's not a real filename.

   - gh-114053(30): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 42a. when calling
     *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. on a class that made use of PEP
     695(31) type parameters in a module that had ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ at the top of the file.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-116931(32): Add parameter 'fileobj' check for *note
     tarfile.TarFile.addfile(): 15eb.

   - gh-117995(33): Don't raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when a
     *note sequence: 4de. of parameters is used to bind indexed,
     nameless placeholders.  See also gh-100668(34).

   - gh-80361(35): Fix TypeError in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 11ac. when the charset is RFC
     2231(36) encoded.

   - gh-86650(37): Fix IndexError when parse some emails with invalid
     Message-ID (including one-off addresses generated by Microsoft
     Outlook).

   - gh-117691(38): Improve the error messages emitted by *note tarfile:
     dd. deprecation warnings relating to PEP 706.  If a ‘filter’
     argument is not provided to ‘extract()’ or ‘extractall’, the
     deprecation warning now points to the line in the user's code where
     the relevant function was called.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-115874(39): Fixed a possible segfault during garbage collection
     of ‘_asyncio.FutureIter’ objects.  Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

   - gh-115060(40): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. by omitting
     an initial *note is_dir(): 22d. call.  As a result of this change,
     *note glob(): 22a. can no longer raise *note OSError: 40d.

   - gh-77102(41): *note site: c6. module now parses ‘.pth’ file with
     UTF-8 first, and *note locale encoding: 23f. if
     ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ happened.  It supported only locale encoding
     before.

   - gh-76785(42): We've exposed the low-level ‘_interpreters’ module
     for the sake of the PyPI implementation of PEP 734(43).  It was
     sometimes available as the ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module and was
     formerly used only for testing.  For the most part, it should be
     considered an internal module, like ‘_thread’ and ‘_imp’.  See
     ‘https://discuss.python.org/t/pep-734-multiple-interpreters-in-the-stdlib/41147/26’.

   - gh-115060(44): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. by not
     scanning directories for non-wildcard pattern segments.

   - gh-117727(45): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 15ec. by
     using *note os.scandir(): a4f. internally.

   - gh-117586(46): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 494. by working
     with strings internally.

   - gh-117722(47): Change the new multi-separator support in *note
     asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b2. to only accept tuples of
     separators rather than arbitrary iterables.

   - gh-117692(48): Fixes a bug when *note doctest.DocTestFinder: 15ed.
     was failing on wrapped ‘builtin_function_or_method’.

   - gh-117348(49): Largely restored import time performance of
     configparser by avoiding dataclasses.

   - gh-117641(50): Speedup *note os.path.commonpath(): e2c. on Unix.

   - gh-117663(51): Fix ‘_simple_enum’ to detect aliases when multiple
     arguments are present but only one is the member value.

   - gh-117636(52): Speedup *note os.path.join(): 15ee.

   - gh-117618(53): Support ‘package.module’ as ‘filename’ for ‘break’
     command of *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-102247(54): the status codes enum with constants in
     http.HTTPStatus are updated to include the names from RFC9110.
     This RFC includes some HTTP statuses previously only used for
     WEBDAV and assigns more generic names to them.

     The old constants are preserved for backwards compatibility.

   - gh-117607(55): Speedup *note os.path.relpath(): 496.

   - gh-117586(56): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. by working
     with strings internally.

   - gh-117225(57): Add colour to doctest output.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-117566(58): *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback(): 15ef.
     will now return ‘True’ for IPv4-mapped loopback addresses, i.e.
     addresses in the ‘::ffff:127.0.0.0/104’ address space.

   - gh-117546(59): Fix issue where *note os.path.realpath(): 222.
     stopped resolving symlinks after encountering a symlink loop on
     POSIX.

   - gh-116720(60): Improved behavior of *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3.
     when an external cancellation collides with an internal
     cancellation.  For example, when two task groups are nested and
     both experience an exception in a child task simultaneously, it was
     possible that the outer task group would misbehave, because its
     internal cancellation was swallowed by the inner task group.

     In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also
     must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4, it will now call the
     parent task's *note cancel(): 1b5. method.  This ensures that a
     *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. will be raised at the next *note
     await: 1b7, so the cancellation is not lost.

     An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve
     the cancellation count (*note asyncio.Task.cancelling(): 1b8.).

     In order to handle some corner cases, *note
     asyncio.Task.uncancel(): 1b9. may now reset the undocumented
     ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the cancellation count reaches zero.

   - gh-117516(61): Add *note typing.TypeIs: 162, implementing PEP
     742(62).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-117503(63): Fix support of non-ASCII user names in bytes paths
     in *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. on Posix.

   - gh-117394(64): *note os.path.ismount(): a02. is now 2-3 times
     faster if the user has permissions.

   - gh-117313(65): Only treat ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\r\n'’ as line
     separators in re-folding the *note email: 3b. messages.  Preserve
     control characters ‘'\v'’, ‘'\f'’, ‘'\x1c'’, ‘'\x1d'’ and ‘'\x1e'’
     and Unicode line separators ‘'\x85'’, ‘'\u2028'’ and ‘'\u2029'’ as
     is.

   - gh-117142(66): Convert ‘_ctypes’ to multi-phase initialisation (
     PEP 489(67)).

   - gh-66543(68): Add the *note mimetypes.guess_file_type(): 204.
     function which works with file path.  Passing file path instead of
     URL in *note guess_type(): 205. is *note soft deprecated: 206.

   - gh-68583(69): webbrowser CLI: replace getopt with argparse, add
     long options.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-116871(70): Name suggestions for *note AttributeError: 343. and
     *note ImportError: 40f. now only include underscored names if the
     original name was underscored.

   - gh-116023(71): Don't show empty fields (value ‘None’ or ‘[]’) in
     *note ast.dump(): 8d3. by default.  Add ‘show_empty=False’
     parameter to optionally show them.

   - gh-115961(72): Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed
     and archived file-like objects in modules *note bz2: 13, *note
     lzma: 89, *note tarfile: dd. and *note zipfile: 130.  The value of
     the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 410. was changed from
     integer (‘1’ or ‘2’) to string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’).  The value of
     the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object returned by
     *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 411. was changed from ‘'r'’ to
     ‘'rb'’.

   - gh-82062(73): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 724. to correctly
     handle parameter defaults on methods in extension modules that use
     names defined in the module namespace.

   - gh-83856(74): Honor *note atexit: c. for all *note multiprocessing:
     93. start methods

   - gh-113081(75): Print colorized exception just like built-in
     traceback in *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-112855(76): Speed up pickling of *note pathlib.PurePath: 492.
     objects.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - gh-111744(77): Support opcode events in *note bdb: f.

   - gh-109617(78): ‘ncurses’: fixed a crash that could occur on macOS
     13 or earlier when Python was built with Apple Xcode 15's SDK.

   - gh-83151(79): Enabled arbitrary statements and evaluations in *note
     pdb: a4. shell to access the local variables of the current frame,
     which made it possible for multi-scope code like generators or
     nested function to work.

   - gh-110209(80): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 727. to *note
     types.GeneratorType: 15f0. and *note types.CoroutineType: e76. for
     type hinting purposes.  Patch by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-108191(81): The *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc. now accepts an
     optional positional argument which specifies initial values of
     attributes as a dict or an iterable of key-value pairs.

   - gh-62090(82): Fix assertion errors caused by whitespace in metavars
     or ‘SUPPRESS’-ed groups in *note argparse: 6. by simplifying usage
     formatting.  Patch by Ali Hamdan.

   - gh-102402(83): Adjust ‘logging.LogRecord’ to use ‘time.time_ns()’
     and fix minor bug related to floating-point math.

   - gh-100242(84): Bring pure Python implementation
     ‘functools.partial.__new__’ more in line with the C-implementation
     by not just always checking for the presence of the attribute
     ‘'func'’ on the first argument of ‘partial’.  Instead, both the
     Python version and the C version perform an ‘isinstance(func,
     partial)’ check on the first argument of ‘partial’.

   - gh-99730(85): HEAD requests are no longer upgraded to GET request
     during redirects in urllib.

   - gh-66410(86): Setting the ‘tkinter’ module global ‘wantobjects’ to
     ‘2’ before creating the *note Tk: 15f1. object or call the
     ‘wantobjects()’ method of the ‘Tk’ object with argument ‘2’ makes
     now arguments to callbacks registered in the *note tkinter: ef.
     module to be passed as various Python objects (‘int’, ‘float’,
     ‘bytes’, ‘tuple’), depending on their internal representation in
     Tcl, instead of always ‘str’.  ‘tkinter.wantobjects’ is now set to
     ‘2’ by default.

   - bpo-40943(87): Fix several IndexError when parse emails with
     truncated Message-ID, address, routes, etc, e.g.  ‘example@’.

   - bpo-39324(88): Add mime type mapping for .md <-> text/markdown

   - bpo-18108(89): *note shutil.chown(): 23d. now supports 'dir_fd' and
     'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments.

   - bpo-30988(90): Fix parsing of emails with invalid address headers
     having a leading or trailing dot.  Patch by tsufeki.

   - bpo-32839(91): Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118660

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118650

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118648

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101137

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118500

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118406

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101732

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118404

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118402

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118285

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118314

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118221

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118013

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118218

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90848

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118168

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118107

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102511

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117535

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116931

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117995

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100668

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80361

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86650

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117691

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115874

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77102

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76785

   (43) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117727

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117722

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117692

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117641

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117663

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117636

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117618

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102247

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117607

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117566

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117546

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117516

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117503

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117394

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117313

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142

   (67) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68583

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116871

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116023

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82062

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83856

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113081

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112855

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109617

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83151

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110209

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62090

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102402

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100242

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99730

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66410

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39324

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18108

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30988

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32839


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<7>,  Next: Build<11>,  Prev: Library<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-117928(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 6.2.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117928


File: python.info,  Node: Build<11>,  Next: Windows<7>,  Prev: Documentation<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.5 Build
...............

   - gh-118734(1): Fixes Windows build when invoked directly (not
     through the ‘build.bat’ script) without specifying a value for
     ‘UseTIER2’.

   - gh-115119(2): The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec:
     408. now defaults to ‘yes’.  The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’
     will be removed in Python 3.15.

   - gh-117845(3): Fix building against recent libedit versions by
     detecting readline hook signatures in ‘configure’.

   - gh-116622(4): A testbed project was added to run the test suite on
     Android.

   - gh-117645(5): Increase WASI stack size from 512 KiB to 8 MiB and
     the initial memory from 10 MiB to 20 MiB. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115119(6): ‘configure’ now uses ‘pkg-config’ to detect *note
     decimal: 36. dependencies if the *note -with-system-libmpdec: 408.
     option is given.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118734

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117845

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<7>,  Next: macOS<6>,  Prev: Build<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-115119(1): Update Windows installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

   - gh-118486(2): *note os.mkdir(): 21a. now accepts 'mode' of ‘0o700’
     to restrict the new directory to the current user.

   - gh-118347(3): Fixes launcher updates not being installed.

   - gh-118293(4): The ‘multiprocessing’ module now passes the
     ‘STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK’ flag when spawning processes to tell
     Windows not to change the mouse cursor.

   - gh-115009(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-90329(6): Suppress the warning displayed on virtual environment
     creation when the requested and created paths differ only by a
     short (8.3 style) name.  Warnings will continue to be shown if a
     junction or symlink in the path caused the venv to be created in a
     different location than originally requested.

   - gh-117786(7): Fixes virtual environments not correctly launching
     when created from a Store install.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118347

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118293

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90329

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117786


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<6>,  Next: IDLE<9>,  Prev: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-115119(1): Update macOS installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

   - gh-114099(2): iOS preprocessor symbol usage was made compatible
     with older macOS SDKs.

   - gh-115009(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-91629(4): Use ‘~/.config/fish/conf.d’ configs and
     ‘fish_add_path’ to set ‘PATH’ when installing for the Fish shell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91629


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<9>,  Next: C API<11>,  Prev: macOS<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-34774(1): Use user-selected color theme for Help => IDLE Doc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34774


File: python.info,  Node: C API<11>,  Prev: IDLE<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.12.9 C API
...............

   - gh-118124(1): Fix ‘Py_BUILD_ASSERT’ and ‘Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR’ for
     non-constant expressions: use ‘static_assert()’ on C11 and newer.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110850(2): Add "Raw" variant of PyTime functions

        * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 328.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32a.

        * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 32c.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117987(3): Restore functions removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1:

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 15f8.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 15f9.

        * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 15fa.

        * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 15fb.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117929(4): Restore removed *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 15fc.
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117534(5): Improve validation logic in the C implementation of
     *note datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 604. to better handle
     invalid years.  Patch by Vlad Efanov.

   - gh-68114(6): Fixed skipitem()'s handling of the old 'w' and 'w#'
     formatters.  These are no longer supported and now raise an
     exception if used.

   - gh-111997(7): Add a C-API for firing monitoring events.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118124

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117987

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117929

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117534

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68114

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.13 Python 3.13.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-04-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* C API: C API<12>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<13>,  Next: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-117494(1): Refactored the instruction sequence data structure
     out of compile.c into instruction_sequence.c.

   - gh-116968(2): Introduce a unified 16-bit backoff counter type
     (‘_Py_BackoffCounter’), shared between the Tier 1 adaptive
     specializer and the Tier 2 optimizer.  The API used for adaptive
     specialization counters is changed but the behavior is (supposed to
     be) identical.

     The behavior of the Tier 2 counters is changed:

        * There are no longer dynamic thresholds (we never varied
          these).

        * All counters now use the same exponential backoff.

        * The counter for ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ starts counting down from 16.

        * The ‘temperature’ in side exits starts counting down from 64.

   - gh-117431(3): Improve the performance of the following *note bytes:
     1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. methods by adapting them to the
     *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. calling convention:

        * ‘endswith()’

        * ‘startswith()’

   - gh-117431(4): Improve the performance of the following *note str:
     437. methods by adapting them to the *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2.
     calling convention:

        * *note count(): 15ff.

        * *note endswith(): eb7.

        * *note find(): e93.

        * *note index(): 1600.

        * *note rfind(): e94.

        * *note rindex(): 1238.

        * *note startswith(): eb6.

   - gh-117411(5): Move ‘PyFutureFeatures’ to an internal header and
     make it private.

   - gh-109120(6): Added handle of incorrect star expressions, e.g ‘f(3,
     *)’.  Patch by Grigoryev Semyon

   - gh-117266(7): Fix crashes for certain user-created subclasses of
     *note ast.AST: 1a4.  Such classes are now expected to set the
     ‘_field_types’ attribute.

   - gh-99108(8): Updated the *note hashlib: 67. built-in HACL*
     project(9) C code from upstream that we use for many
     implementations when they are not present via OpenSSL in a given
     build.  This also avoids the rare potential for a C symbol name one
     definition rule linking issue.

   - gh-117108(10): Change the old space bit of objects in the young
     generation from 0 to gcstate->visited, so that any objects created
     during GC will have the old bit set correctly if they get moved
     into the old generation.

   - gh-117108(11): The cycle GC now chooses the size of increments
     based on the total heap size, instead of the rate of object
     creation.  This ensures that it can keep up with growing heaps.

   - gh-116735(12): For ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’, set ‘arg0’ to
     ‘sys.monitoring.MISSING’ instead of ‘None’ for *note CALL: 1601.
     event.

   - gh-113964(13): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 195. are now only prevented once all non-daemon
     threads exit.

   - gh-116626(14): Ensure ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ always emits
     *note CALL: 1601.

   - gh-116554(15): ‘list.sort()’ now exploits more cases of partial
     ordering, particularly those with long descending runs with
     sub-runs of equal values.  Those are recognized as single runs now
     (previously, each block of repeated values caused a new run to be
     created).

   - gh-114099(16): Added a Loader that can discover extension modules
     in an iOS-style Frameworks folder.

   - gh-115775(17): Compiler populates the new ‘__static_attributes__’
     field on a class with the names of attributes of this class which
     are accessed through self.X from any function in its body.

   - gh-115776(18): The array of values, the ‘PyDictValues’ struct is
     now embedded in the object during allocation.  This provides better
     performance in the common case, and does not degrade as much when
     the object's ‘__dict__’ is materialized.

   - gh-108362(19): Implement an incremental cyclic garbage collector.
     By collecting the old generation in increments, there is no need
     for a full heap scan.  This can hugely reduce maximum pause time
     for programs with large heaps.

     Reduce the number of generations from three to two.  The old
     generation is split into two spaces, "visited" and "pending".

     Collection happens in two steps:: * An increment is formed from the
     young generation and a small part of the pending space.  * This
     increment is scanned and the survivors moved to the end of the
     visited space.

     When the collecting space becomes empty, the two spaces are
     swapped.

   - gh-109870(20): Dataclasses now calls *note exec(): 17d. once per
     dataclass, instead of once per method being added.  This can speed
     up dataclass creation by up to 20%.

   - gh-97901(21): Mime type ‘text/rtf’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - bpo-24612(22): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18b. that happens
     when 'not' appears after an operator.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116968

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117411

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109120

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117266

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (9) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116735

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113964

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116626

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116554

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109870

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97901

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24612


File: python.info,  Node: Library<12>,  Next: Documentation<8>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.2 Library
.................

   - gh-117648(1): Improve performance of *note os.path.join(): 15ee.
     and *note os.path.expanduser(): a04.

   - gh-117584(2): Raise *note TypeError: 525. for non-paths in
     ‘posixpath.relpath()’.

   - gh-117467(3): Preserve mailbox ownership when rewriting in
     ‘mailbox.mbox.flush()’.  Patch by Tony Mountifield.

   - gh-114848(4): Raise *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. when ‘getcwd()’
     returns '(unreachable)', which can happen on Linux >= 2.6.36 with
     glibc < 2.27.

   - gh-117459(5): ‘asyncio.asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe()’ now
     keeps the traceback of ‘CancelledError’, *note TimeoutError: 821.
     and ‘InvalidStateError’ which are raised in the coroutine.

   - gh-117381(6): Fix error message for ‘ntpath.commonpath()’.

   - gh-117337(7): Deprecate undocumented ‘glob.glob0()’ and
     ‘glob.glob1()’ functions.  Use *note glob.glob(): 29c. and pass a
     directory to its 'root_dir' argument instead.

   - gh-117349(8): Optimise several functions in *note os.path: a1.

   - gh-117348(9): Refactored ‘configparser.RawConfigParser._read()’ to
     reduce cyclometric complexity and improve comprehensibility.

   - gh-117335(10): Raise TypeError for non-sequences for
     ‘ntpath.commonpath()’.

   - gh-66449(11): *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3. now accepts
     unnamed sections before named ones, if configured to do so.

   - gh-88014(12): In documentation of *note gzip.GzipFile: 410. in
     module gzip, explain data type of optional constructor argument
     'mtime', and recommend ‘mtime = 0’ for generating deterministic
     streams.

   - gh-117310(13): Fixed an unlikely early & extra ‘Py_DECREF’
     triggered crash in *note ssl: cf. when creating a new
     ‘_ssl._SSLContext’ if CPython was built implausibly such that the
     default cipher list is empty 'or' the SSL library it was linked
     against reports a failure from its C ‘SSL_CTX_set_cipher_list()’
     API.

   - gh-117294(14): A ‘DocTestCase’ now reports as skipped if all
     examples in the doctest are skipped.

   - gh-98966(15): In *note subprocess: d5, raise a more informative
     message when ‘stdout=STDOUT’.

   - gh-117225(16): doctest: only print "and X failed" when non-zero,
     don't pluralise "1 items".  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-117205(17): Speed up *note compileall.compile_dir(): b16. by 20%
     when using multiprocessing by increasing ‘chunksize’.

   - gh-117178(18): Fix regression in lazy loading of self-referential
     modules, introduced in gh-114781(19).

   - gh-112383(20): Fix *note dis: 38. module's handling of
     ‘ENTER_EXECUTOR’ instructions.

   - gh-117182(21): Lazy-loading of modules that modify their own
     ‘__class__’ no longer reverts the ‘__class__’ to *note
     types.ModuleType: e02.

   - gh-117084(22): Fix *note zipfile: 130. extraction for directory
     entries with the name containing backslashes on Windows.

   - gh-117114(23): Make *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 1603. available on
     all platforms.  For those that do not offer Dev Drives, it will
     always return ‘False’.

   - gh-117110(24): Fix a bug that prevents subclasses of *note
     typing.Any: 699. to be instantiated with arguments.  Patch by Chris
     Fu.

   - gh-109653(25): Deferred select imports in importlib.metadata and
     importlib.resources for a 14% speedup.

   - gh-70647(26): Start the deprecation period for the current behavior
     of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6. and *note
     time.strptime(): 13e5. which always fails to parse a date string
     with a *note ValueError: 1ff. involving a day of month such as
     ‘strptime("02-29", "%m-%d")’ when a year is 'not' specified and the
     date happen to be February 29th.  This should help avoid users
     finding new bugs every four years due to a natural mistaken
     assumption about the API when parsing partial date values.

   - gh-116987(27): Fixed ‘inspect.findsource()’ for class code objects.

   - gh-114099(28): Modify standard library to allow for iOS platform
     differences.

   - gh-90872(29): On Windows, *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): cd4. no
     longer calls ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ with a negative timeout: pass
     ‘0’ ms if the timeout is negative.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116957(30): configparser: Don't leave ConfigParser values in an
     invalid state (stored as a list instead of a str) after an earlier
     read raised DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError.

   - gh-115538(31): ‘_io.WindowsConsoleIO’ now emit a warning if a
     boolean value is passed as a filedescriptor argument.

   - gh-90095(32): Ignore empty lines and comments in ‘.pdbrc’

   - gh-106531(33): Refreshed zipfile._path from zipp 3.18(34),
     providing better compatibility for PyPy, better glob performance
     for deeply nested zipfiles, and providing internal access to
     ‘CompleteDirs.inject’ for use in other tests (like
     importlib.resources).

   - gh-63207(35): On Windows, *note time.time(): 251. now uses the
     ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock to have a resolution
     better than 1 us, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock
     which has a resolution of 15.6 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116764(36): Restore support of ‘None’ and other false values in
     *note urllib.parse: 109. functions *note parse_qs(): 277. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 276.  Also, they now raise a TypeError for non-zero
     integers and non-empty sequences.

   - gh-116811(37): In ‘PathFinder.invalidate_caches’, delegate to
     ‘MetadataPathFinder.invalidate_caches’.

   - gh-116647(38): Fix recursive child in dataclasses

   - gh-113171(39): Fixed various false positives and false negatives in

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private: 1604. (see these docs
          for details)

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global: f4c.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 1605.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global: 1606.

     Also in the corresponding *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 1fb. and
     *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 1fc. attributes.

   - gh-63283(40): In *note encodings.idna: 51, any capitalization of
     the ACE prefix (‘xn--’) is now acceptable.  Patch by Pepijn de Vos
     and Zackery Spytz.

   - gh-71042(41): Add *note platform.android_ver(): 1607, which
     provides device and OS information on Android.

   - gh-73468(42): Added new *note math.fma(): 202. function, wrapping
     C99's ‘fma()’ operation: fused multiply-add function.  Patch by
     Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116608(43): The *note importlib.resources: 7a. functions *note
     is_resource(): 1e9, *note open_binary(): 1ea, *note open_text():
     1eb, *note path(): 1ec, *note read_binary(): 1ed, and *note
     read_text(): 1ee. are un-deprecated, and support subdirectories via
     multiple positional arguments.  The *note contents(): 1ef. function
     also allows subdirectories, but remains deprecated.

   - gh-116484(44): Change automatically generated ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’
     widget names to avoid collisions with automatically generated
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Checkbutton’ widget names within the same parent
     widget.

   - gh-114314(45): In *note ctypes: 2a, ctype data is now stored in
     type objects directly rather than in a dict subclass.  This is an
     internal change that should not affect usage.

   - gh-116401(46): Fix blocking *note os.fwalk(): b4b. and *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. on opening named pipe.

   - gh-71052(47): Implement *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d39. on
     Android.

   - gh-90535(48): Fix support of 'interval' values > 1 in
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ for ‘when='MIDNIGHT'’ and
     ‘when='Wx'’.

   - gh-113308(49): Remove some internal protected parts from *note
     uuid: 10f.: ‘_has_uuid_generate_time_safe’, ‘_netbios_getnode’,
     ‘_ipconfig_getnode’, and ‘_load_system_functions’.  They were
     unused.

   - gh-115627(50): Fix the *note ssl: cf. module error handling of
     connection terminate by peer.  It now throws an OSError with the
     appropriate error code instead of an EOFError.

   - gh-114847(51): Speed up *note os.path.realpath(): 222. on
     non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-114271(52): Fix a race in ‘threading.Thread.join()’.

     ‘threading._MainThread’ now always represents the main thread of
     the main interpreter.

     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ and ‘PyThreadState.on_delete_data’ have
     been removed.

   - gh-113538(53): Add *note asyncio.Server.close_clients(): 1b0. and
     *note asyncio.Server.abort_clients(): 1b1. methods which allow to
     more forcefully close an asyncio server.

   - gh-85287(54): Changes Unicode codecs to return UnicodeEncodeError
     or UnicodeDecodeError, rather than just UnicodeError.

   - gh-113548(55): *note pdb: a4. now allows CLI arguments to ‘pdb -m’.

   - gh-112948(56): Make completion of *note pdb: a4. similar to Python
     REPL

   - gh-105866(57): Fixed ‘_get_slots’ bug which caused error when
     defining dataclasses with slots and a weakref_slot.

   - gh-96471(58): Add *note asyncio.Queue: a66. termination with *note
     shutdown(): 1ae. method.

   - gh-89739(59): The *note zipimport: 131. module can now read ZIP64
     files.

   - bpo-33533(60): *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1a8. now returns an
     object that is both an asynchronous iterator and plain iterator.
     The new asynchronous iteration pattern allows for easier
     correlation between prior tasks and their completed results.  This
     is a closer match to *note concurrent.futures.as_completed():
     1608.'s iteration pattern.  Patch by Justin Arthur.

   - bpo-27578(61): *note inspect.getsource(): 1580. (and related
     functions) work with empty module files, returning ‘'\n'’ (or
     reasonable equivalent) instead of raising ‘OSError’.  Patch by
     Kernc.

   - bpo-37141(62): Accept an iterable of separators in *note
     asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b2, stopping when one of them is
     encountered.

   - gh-66543(63): Make *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 205. properly
     parsing of URLs with only a host name, URLs containing fragment or
     query, and filenames with only a UNC sharepoint on Windows.  Based
     on patch by Dong-hee Na.

   - bpo-15010(64): *note unittest.TestLoader.discover(): fd2. now saves
     the original value of ‘unittest.TestLoader._top_level_dir’ and
     restores it at the end of the call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117648

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117584

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117467

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114848

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117459

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117381

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117349

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117335

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88014

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117310

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117294

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117205

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117178

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114781

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112383

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117182

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117084

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117114

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117110

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116987

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90872

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116957

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115538

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (34) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-18-0

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116764

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116811

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116647

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63283

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71042

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116484

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114314

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116401

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90535

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113308

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115627

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114847

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114271

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85287

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113548

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112948

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105866

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89739

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33533

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27578

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37141

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15010


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<8>,  Next: Tests<10>,  Prev: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115977(1): Remove compatibility references to Emscripten.

   - gh-114099(2): Add an iOS platform guide, and flag modules not
     available on iOS.

   - gh-91565(3): Changes to documentation files and config outputs to
     reflect the new location for reporting bugs - i.e.  GitHub rather
     than bugs.python.org.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115977

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91565


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<10>,  Next: Build<12>,  Prev: Documentation<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-83434(1): Disable JUnit XML output (‘--junit-xml=FILE’ command
     line option) in regrtest when hunting for reference leaks (‘-R’
     option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117187(2): Fix XML tests for vanilla Expat <2.6.0.

   - gh-116333(3): Tests of TLS related things (error codes, etc) were
     updated to be more lenient about specific error message strings and
     behaviors as seen in the BoringSSL and AWS-LC forks of OpenSSL.

   - gh-117089(4): Consolidated tests for importlib.metadata in their
     own ‘metadata’ package.

   - gh-115979(5): Update test_importlib so that it passes under WASI
     SDK 21.

   - gh-112536(6): Add -tsan to test.regrtest for running TSAN tests in
     reasonable execution times.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-116307(7): Added import helper ‘isolated_modules’ as
     ‘CleanImport’ does not remove modules imported during the context.
     Use it in importlib.resources tests to avoid leaving ‘mod’ around
     to impede importlib.metadata tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83434

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116333

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117089

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115979

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116307


File: python.info,  Node: Build<12>,  Next: Windows<8>,  Prev: Tests<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.5 Build
...............

   - gh-114736(1): Have WASI builds use WASI SDK 21.

   - gh-115983(2): Skip building test modules that must be built as
     shared under WASI.

   - gh-71052(3): Add Android build script and instructions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114736

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115983

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<8>,  Next: C API<12>,  Prev: Build<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-117267(1): Ensure ‘DirEntry.stat().st_ctime’ behaves
     consistently with *note os.stat(): 48c. during the deprecation
     period of ‘st_ctime’ by containing the same value as
     ‘st_birthtime’.  After the deprecation period, ‘st_ctime’ will be
     the metadata change time (or unavailable through ‘DirEntry’), and
     only ‘st_birthtime’ will contain the creation time.

   - gh-116195(2): Improves performance of *note os.getppid(): 160d. by
     using an alternate system API when available.  Contributed by
     vxiiduu.

   - gh-88494(3): On Windows, *note time.monotonic(): 250. now uses the
     ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock to have a resolution better than
     1 us, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a
     resolution of 15.6 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116773(4): Fix instances of ‘<_overlapped.Overlapped object at
     0xXXX> still has pending operation at deallocation, the process may
     crash’.

   - gh-91227(5): Fix the asyncio ProactorEventLoop implementation so
     that sending a datagram to an address that is not listening does
     not prevent receiving any more datagrams.

   - gh-115119(6): Switched from vendored ‘libmpdecimal’ code to a
     separately-hosted external package in the ‘cpython-source-deps’
     repository when building the ‘_decimal’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117267

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116195

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116773

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91227

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119


File: python.info,  Node: C API<12>,  Prev: Windows<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.13.7 C API
...............

   - gh-117642(1): Fix PEP 737(2) implementation for ‘%#T’ and ‘%#N’.

   - gh-87193(3): *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 160f. can now be called for
     bytes objects with reference count > 1, including 1-byte bytes
     objects.  It creates a new bytes object and destroys the old one if
     it has reference count > 1.

   - gh-117021(4): Fix integer overflow in ‘PyLong_AsPid()’ on
     non-Windows 64-bit platforms.

   - gh-115756(5): ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ is an ustable API now and has
     been renamed to *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 37c.
     (Contributed by Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(6))

   - gh-116869(7): Add ‘test_cext’ test: build a C extension to check if
     the Python C API emits C compiler warnings.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-116869(8): Make the C API compatible with
     ‘-Werror=declaration-after-statement’ compiler flag again.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116936(9): Add *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a. to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116809(10): Restore removed private ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115754(11): In the limited C API version 3.13, getting
     ‘Py_None’, ‘Py_False’, ‘Py_True’, ‘Py_Ellipsis’ and
     ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singletons is now implemented as function calls
     at the stable ABI level to hide implementation details.  Getting
     these constants still return borrowed references.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-115754(12): Add *note Py_GetConstant(): 34c. and *note
     Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 34d. functions to get constants.  For
     example, ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a *note strong
     reference: 333. to the constant zero.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111696(13): Add support for ‘%T’, ‘%T#’, ‘%N’ and ‘%N#’ formats
     to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380.: format the fully qualified
     name of an object type and of a type: call *note
     PyType_GetModuleName(): 36b.  See PEP 737(14) for more information.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111696(15): Add *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 36b. function to
     get the type's module name.  Equivalent to getting the
     ‘type.__module__’ attribute.  Patch by Eric Snow and Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111696(16): Add *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 369.
     function to get the type's fully qualified name.  Equivalent to
     ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or ‘type.__qualname__’
     if ‘type.__module__’ is not a string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(17): The ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘pwd’, ‘termios’, ‘_statistics’
     and ‘_testconsole’ C extensions are now built with the *note
     limited C API: 38c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111140(18): Add additional flags to *note
     PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 357. and *note PyLong_FromNativeBytes():
     358. to allow the caller to determine how to handle edge cases
     around values that fill the entire buffer.

   - gh-113024(19): Add *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 35d. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117642

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117021

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115756

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116809

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.14 Python 3.13.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-03-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* C API: C API<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<8>,  Next: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115398(1): Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (
     CVE 2023-52425(2)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 26c.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 26d.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          26e.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          26f.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

   - gh-114572(3): *note ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats(): f98. and
     *note ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs(): f99. now correctly lock access
     to the certificate store, when the *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. is
     shared across multiple threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115398

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114572


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<14>,  Next: Library<13>,  Prev: Security<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-116604(1): Respect the status of the garbage collector when
     indirect calls are made via *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 452. and
     the evaluation breaker.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112087(2): *note list: 5fe. is now compatible with the
     implementation of PEP 703(3).

   - gh-116381(4): Add specialization for ‘CONTAINS_OP’.

   - gh-116296(5): Fix possible refleak in ‘object.__reduce__()’
     internal error handling.

   - gh-115823(6): Properly calculate error ranges in the parser when
     raising *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions caused by invalid byte
     sequences.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-115778(7): Add ‘tierN’ annotation for instruction definition in
     interpreter DSL.

   - gh-115733(8): Fix crash when calling ‘next()’ on exhausted list
     iterators.

   - gh-115700(9): The regen-cases build stage now works on Windows.

   - gh-115347(10): Fix bug where docstring was replaced by a redundant
     NOP when Python is run with ‘-OO’.

   - gh-115323(11): Make error message more meaningful for when
     ‘bytearray.extend()’ is called with a *note str: 437. object.

   - gh-112175(12): Every ‘PyThreadState’ now has its own
     ‘eval_breaker’, allowing specific threads to be interrupted.

   - gh-115154(13): Fix a bug that was causing the *note
     tokenize.untokenize(): 153f. function to handle unicode named
     literals incorrectly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112433(14): Add ability to force alignment of *note
     ctypes.Structure: 1cf. by way of the new ‘_align_’ attribute on the
     class.

   - gh-104090(15): The multiprocessing resource tracker now exits with
     non-zero status code if a resource leak was detected.  It still
     exits with status code 0 otherwise.

   - gh-105858(16): Improve the constructors for *note ast: 8. nodes.
     Arguments of list types now default to an empty list if omitted,
     and optional fields default to ‘None’.  AST nodes now have an
     ‘__annotations__’ attribute with the expected types of their
     attributes.  Passing unrecognized extra arguments to AST nodes is
     deprecated and will become an error in Python 3.15.  Omitting a
     required argument to an AST node is deprecated and will become an
     error in Python 3.15.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101860(17): Expose ‘__name__’ attribute on property.

   - gh-96497(18): Fix incorrect resolution of mangled class variables
     used in assignment expressions in comprehensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116604

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116381

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116296

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115823

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115778

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115733

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115700

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115347

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115323

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112175

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115154

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96497


File: python.info,  Node: Library<13>,  Next: Documentation<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.3 Library
.................

   - gh-116600(1): Fix *note repr(): 7e9. for global *note Flag: 610.
     members.

   - gh-116349(2): *note platform.java_ver(): 2a4. is deprecated and
     will be removed in 3.15.  It was largely untested, had a confusing
     API, and was only useful for Jython support.

   - gh-116143(3): Fix a race in pydoc ‘_start_server’, eliminating a
     window in which ‘_start_server’ can return a thread that is
     "serving" but without a ‘docserver’ set.

   - gh-116127(4): *note typing: 103.: implement PEP 705(5) which adds
     *note typing.ReadOnly: 160. support to *note typing.TypedDict: 161.

   - gh-116325(6): *note typing: 103.: raise *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 343. on forward references as
     empty strings.

   - gh-115957(7): When ‘asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task’ is called on an
     inactive ‘asyncio.TaskGroup’, the given coroutine will be closed
     (which prevents a ‘RuntimeWarning’).

   - gh-115978(8): Disable preadv(), readv(), pwritev(), and writev() on
     WASI.

     Under wasmtime for WASI 0.2, these functions don't pass test_posix
     (‘https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/issues/7830’).

   - gh-88352(9): Fix the computation of the next rollover time in the
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ handler.  ‘computeRollover()’
     now always returns a timestamp larger than the specified time and
     works correctly during the DST change.  ‘doRollover()’ no longer
     overwrite the already rolled over file, saving from data loss when
     run at midnight or during repeated time at the DST change.

   - gh-87115(10): Set ‘__main__.__spec__’ to ‘None’ when running a
     script with *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-76511(11): Fix UnicodeEncodeError in ‘email.Message.as_string()’
     that results when a message that claims to be in the ascii
     character set actually has non-ascii characters.  Non-ascii
     characters are now replaced with the U+FFFD replacement character,
     like in the ‘replace’ error handler.

   - gh-89547(12): Add support for nested typing special forms like
     Final[ClassVar[int]].

   - gh-65824(13): Improve the ‘less’ prompt in *note pydoc: b4.

   - gh-116040(14): [Enum] fix by-value calls when second value is
     falsey; e.g.  Cardinal(1, 0)

   - gh-115821(15): [Enum] Improve error message when calling
     super().__new__() in custom __new__.

   - gh-85644(16): Use the ‘XDG_CURRENT_DESKTOP’ environment variable in
     *note webbrowser: 114. to check desktop.  Prefer it to the
     deprecated ‘GNOME_DESKTOP_SESSION_ID’ for GNOME detection.

   - gh-75988(17): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 15c3. to
     pass the call through to the wrapped object to return the real
     result.

   - gh-115881(18): Fix issue where *note ast.parse(): 1a6. would
     incorrectly flag conditional context managers (such as ‘with (x()
     if y else z()): ...’) as invalid syntax if ‘feature_version=(3, 8)’
     was passed.  This reverts changes to the grammar made as part of
     gh-94949(19).

   - gh-115886(20): Fix silent truncation of the name with an embedded
     null character in *note multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory:
     1614.

   - gh-115532(21): Add kernel density estimation to the statistics
     module.

   - gh-115714(22): On WASI, the *note time: ed. module no longer get
     process time using ‘times()’ or ‘CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID’, system
     API is that is unreliable and is likely to be removed from WASI.
     The affected clock functions fall back to calling ‘clock()’.

   - gh-115809(23): Improve algorithm for computing which rolled-over
     log files to delete in ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’.  It is
     now reliable for handlers without ‘namer’ and with arbitrary
     deterministic ‘namer’ that leaves the datetime part in the file
     name unmodified.

   - gh-74668(24): *note urllib.parse: 109. functions *note parse_qs():
     277. and *note parse_qsl(): 276. now support bytes arguments
     containing raw and percent-encoded non-ASCII data.

   - gh-67044(25): *note csv.writer(): 473. now always quotes or escapes
     ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\n'’, regardless of 'lineterminator' value.

   - gh-115712(26): Restore support of space delimiter with
     ‘skipinitialspace=True’ in *note csv: 29.  *note csv.writer(): 473.
     now quotes empty fields if delimiter is a space and
     skipinitialspace is true and raises exception if quoting is not
     possible.

   - gh-112364(27): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. to handle
     format_spec with ‘"’, ‘'’ or ‘\\’.  Patched by Frank Hoffmann.

   - gh-112997(28): Stop logging potentially sensitive callback
     arguments in *note asyncio: a. unless debug mode is active.

   - gh-114914(29): Fix an issue where an abandoned ‘StreamWriter’ would
     not be garbage collected.

   - gh-111358(30): Fix a bug in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.shutdown_default_executor()’ to ensure the
     timeout passed to the coroutine behaves as expected.

   - gh-115618(31): Fix improper decreasing the reference count for
     ‘None’ argument in *note property: 192. methods *note getter():
     1615, *note setter(): 1616. and *note deleter(): 1617.

   - gh-112720(32): Refactor ‘dis.ArgResolver’ to make it possible to
     subclass and change the way jump args are interpreted.

   - gh-112006(33): Fix *note inspect.unwrap(): f49. for types with the
     ‘__wrapper__’ data descriptor.  Fix *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 726. for builtins *note
     classmethod(): 165. and *note staticmethod(): 40c.

   - gh-101293(34): Support callables with the ‘__call__()’ method and
     types with ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods set to class
     methods, static methods, bound methods, partial functions, and
     other types of methods and descriptors in *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 726.

   - gh-103092(35): Isolate ‘_lsprof’ (apply PEP 687(36)).

   - gh-113942(37): *note pydoc: b4. no longer skips global functions
     implemented as builtin methods, such as ‘MethodDescriptorType’ and
     ‘WrapperDescriptorType’.

   - gh-115256(38): Added DeprecationWarning when accessing the tarfile
     attribute of TarInfo objects.  The attribute is never used
     internally and is only attached to TarInfos when the tarfile is
     opened in write-mode, not read-mode.  The attribute creates an
     unnecessary reference cycle which may cause corruption when not
     closing the handle after writing a tarfile.

   - gh-115197(39): ‘urllib.request’ no longer resolves the hostname
     before checking it against the system's proxy bypass list on macOS
     and Windows.

   - gh-113812(40): ‘DatagramTransport.sendto()’ will now send
     zero-length datagrams if called with an empty bytes object.  The
     transport flow control also now accounts for the datagram header
     when calculating the buffer size.

   - gh-114763(41): Protect modules loaded with *note
     importlib.util.LazyLoader: c9d. from race conditions when multiple
     threads try to access attributes before the loading is complete.

   - gh-114709(42): ‘posixpath.commonpath()’ now raises a *note
     ValueError: 1ff. exception when passed an empty iterable.
     Previously, *note IndexError: 14ec. was raised.

     ‘posixpath.commonpath()’ now raises a *note TypeError: 525.
     exception when passed ‘None’.  Previously, *note ValueError: 1ff.
     was raised.

   - gh-114610(43): Fix bug where *note pathlib.PurePath.with_stem():
     1618. converted a non-empty path suffix to a stem when given an
     empty 'stem' argument.  It now raises *note ValueError: 1ff, just
     like *note pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 15d3. does when called
     on a path with an empty stem, given a non-empty 'suffix' argument.

   - gh-107361(44): Add *note ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 155. and
     ‘VERIFY_X509_STRICT’ to the default SSL context created with *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): 154.

   - gh-112281(45): Allow creating *note union of types: 7ae. for *note
     typing.Annotated: 92c. with unhashable metadata.

   - gh-111775(46): Fix
     ‘importlib.resources.simple.ResourceHandle.open()’ for text mode,
     added missed ‘stream’ argument.

   - gh-90095(47): Make .pdbrc and -c work with any valid pdb commands.

   - gh-107625(48): Raise *note configparser.ParsingError: 4f1. from
     *note read(): 141e. and *note read_file(): 4f2. methods of *note
     configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3. if a key without a corresponding
     value is continued (that is, followed by an indented line).

   - gh-107155(49): Fix incorrect output of ‘help(x)’ where ‘x’ is a
     *note lambda: 127c. function, which has an ‘__annotations__’
     dictionary attribute with a ‘"return"’ key.

   - gh-57141(50): Add option for 'non-shallow' comparisons to *note
     filecmp.dircmp: f2d. like *note filecmp.cmp(): 1619.  Original
     patch by Steven Ward.  Enhanced by Tobias Rautenkranz

   - gh-69990(51): ‘Profile.print_stats()’ has been improved to accept
     multiple sort arguments.  Patched by Chiu-Hsiang Hsu and Furkan
     Onder.

   - gh-104061(52): Add ‘socket.SO_BINDTOIFINDEX’ constant.

   - gh-60346(53): Fix ArgumentParser inconsistent with
     parse_known_args.

   - gh-102389(54): Add ‘windows_31j’ to aliases for ‘cp932’ codec

   - gh-72249(55): ‘functools.partial`s of :func:`repr()’ has been
     improved to include the *note module: 161a. name.  Patched by
     Furkan Onder and Anilyka Barry.

   - gh-100985(56): Update HTTPSConnection to consistently wrap IPv6
     Addresses when using a proxy.

   - gh-100884(57): email: fix misfolding of comma in address-lists over
     multiple lines in combination with unicode encoding.

   - gh-95782(58): Fix ‘io.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedReader.seek()’, ‘_pyio.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedRandom.tell()’, ‘io.BufferedRandom.seek()’ and
     ‘_pyio.BufferedRandom.tell()’ being able to return negative
     offsets.

   - gh-96310(59): Fix a traceback in *note argparse: 6. when all
     options in a mutually exclusive group are suppressed.

   - gh-93205(60): Fixed a bug in *note
     logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e. where multiple
     rotating handler instances pointing to files with the same name but
     different extensions would conflict and not delete the correct
     files.

   - bpo-31116(61): Add Z85 encoding to ‘base64’.

   - bpo-44865(62): Add missing call to localization function in *note
     argparse: 6.

   - bpo-43952(63): Fix *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept(): 161b. to accept empty
     bytes as authkey.  Not accepting empty bytes as key causes it to
     hang indefinitely.

   - bpo-42125(64): linecache: get module name from ‘__spec__’ if
     available.  This allows getting source code for the ‘__main__’
     module when a custom loader is used.

   - bpo-41122(65): Failing to pass arguments properly to *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9e0. now throws a TypeError
     instead of hitting an index out of bounds internally.

   - bpo-40818(66): The asyncio REPL now runs *note
     sys.__interactivehook__: fb4. on startup.  The default
     implementation of *note sys.__interactivehook__: fb4. provides
     auto-completion to the asyncio REPL. Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33775(67): Add 'default' and 'version' help text for
     localization in argparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116600

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116143

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116127

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116325

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115978

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88352

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87115

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76511

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65824

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116040

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115821

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85644

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75988

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115881

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115886

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115532

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115714

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115809

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74668

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67044

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115712

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112364

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112997

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114914

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111358

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115618

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112720

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112006

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101293

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113942

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115197

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113812

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114763

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114709

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114610

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107361

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112281

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111775

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107625

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107155

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69990

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104061

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60346

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102389

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72249

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100985

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100884

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95782

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96310

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93205

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31116

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44865

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43952

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42125

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41122

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40818

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33775


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<9>,  Next: Tests<11>,  Prev: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115399(1): Document CVE 2023-52425(2) of Expat <2.6.0 under "XML
     vulnerabilities".

   - gh-109653(3): Improve import time of *note uuid: 10f. on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<11>,  Next: Build<13>,  Prev: Documentation<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-71052(1): Add test exclusions to support running the test suite
     on Android.

   - gh-71052(2): Enable ‘test_concurrent_futures’ on platforms that
     support threading but not multiprocessing.

   - gh-115796(3): Make '_testinternalcapi.assemble_code_object'
     construct the exception table for the code object.

   - gh-115720(4): Leak tests (‘-R’, ‘--huntrleaks’) now show a summary
     of the number of leaks found in each iteration.

   - gh-115122(5): Add ‘--bisect’ option to regrtest test runner: run
     failed tests with ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to identify failing tests.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115596(6): Fix ‘ProgramPriorityTests’ in ‘test_os’ permanently
     changing the process priority.

   - gh-115556(7): On Windows, commas passed in arguments to
     ‘Tools\buildbot\test.bat’ and ‘PCbuild\\rt.bat’ are now properly
     handled.

   - gh-115420(8): Fix translation of exception handler targets by
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg’.

   - gh-115376(9): Fix segfault in ‘_testinternalcapi.compiler_codegen’
     on bad input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115796

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115720

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115122

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115596

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115556

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115420

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115376


File: python.info,  Node: Build<13>,  Next: Windows<9>,  Prev: Tests<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.6 Build
...............

   - gh-116313(1): Get WASI builds to work under wasmtime 18 w/ WASI
     0.2/preview2 primitives.

   - gh-71052(2): Change Android's *note sys.platform: a7d. from
     ‘"linux"’ to ‘"android"’.

   - gh-116117(3): Backport ‘libb2’'s PR #42 to fix compiling CPython on
     32-bit Windows with ‘clang-cl’.

   - gh-71052(4): Fix several Android build issues

   - gh-114099(5): A testbed project was added to run the test suite on
     iOS.

   - gh-115350(6): Fix building ctypes module with -DWIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN
     defined

   - gh-111225(7): Link extension modules against libpython on Android.

   - gh-115737(8): The install name for libPython is now correctly set
     for non-framework macOS builds.

   - gh-114099(9): Makefile targets were added to support compiling an
     iOS-compatible framework build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116313

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116117

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115350

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111225

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115737

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<9>,  Next: macOS<7>,  Prev: Build<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-116012(1): Ensure the value of ‘GetLastError()’ is preserved
     across GIL operations.

   - gh-115582(2): Building extensions intended for free-threaded builds
     of CPython now require compiling with ‘/DPy_GIL_DISABLED’ manually
     when using a regular install.  This is expected to change in future
     releases.

   - gh-115554(3): The installer now has more strict rules about
     updating the *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa.  In general,
     most users only have a single launcher installed and will see no
     difference.  When multiple launchers have been installed, the
     option to install the launcher is disabled until all but one have
     been removed.  Downgrading the launcher (which was never allowed)
     is now more obviously blocked.

   - gh-115543(4): *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. can now
     detect Python 3.13 when installed from the Microsoft Store, and
     will install Python 3.12 by default when ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’
     is set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116012

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115582

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115554

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115543


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<7>,  Next: IDLE<10>,  Prev: Windows<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-116145(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<10>,  Next: Tools/Demos<5>,  Prev: macOS<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-88516(1): On macOS show a proxy icon in the title bar of editor
     windows to match platform behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88516


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<5>,  Next: C API<13>,  Prev: IDLE<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-100176(1): Remove outdated Tools/{io,cc,string}bench

   - bpo-45101(2): Add consistency in usage message IO between 2
     versions of python-config.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45101


File: python.info,  Node: C API<13>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.14.11 C API
................

   - gh-114626(1): Add again ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ name,
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 4 by mistake.  Keep the old private
     ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ name (Python 3.7) as an alias to the
     new public name ‘PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ (Python 3.13a4).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111418(2): Add *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1624, *note PyHASH_BITS:
     1625, *note PyHASH_INF: 1626. and *note PyHASH_IMAG: 1627. C
     macros.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111418


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.15 Python 3.13.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-02-15'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* C API: C API<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115399(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.0

   - gh-115243(2): Fix possible crashes in *note
     collections.deque.index(): dc1. when the deque is concurrently
     modified.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115243


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<15>,  Next: Library<14>,  Prev: Security<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112087(1): For an empty reverse iterator for list will be
     reduced to *note reversed(): 852.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - gh-114570(2): Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 14c. exception.
     This exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised when
     an operation is blocked during the *note Python finalization: 14d.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-114695(3): Add *note sys._clear_internal_caches(): 162b, which
     clears all internal performance-related caches (and deprecate the
     less-general *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 162c. function).

   - gh-114828(4): Fix compilation crashes in uncommon code examples
     using *note super(): 4c8. inside a comprehension in a class body.

   - gh-112069(5): Adapt *note set: 5c5. and *note frozenset: 5c6.
     methods to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-115011(6): Setters for members with an unsigned integer type now
     support the same range of valid values for objects that has a *note
     __index__(): 709. method as for *note int: 254.

   - gh-114887(7): Changed socket type validation in *note
     create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f. to accept all non-stream sockets.
     This fixes a regression in compatibility with raw sockets.

   - gh-114944(8): Fixes a race between ‘PyParkingLot_Park’ and
     ‘_PyParkingLot_UnparkAll’.

   - gh-113462(9): Limit the number of versions that a single class can
     use.  Prevents a few wayward classes using up all the version
     numbers.

   - gh-76763(10): The *note chr(): 162d. builtin function now always
     raises *note ValueError: 1ff. for values outside the valid range.
     Previously it raised *note OverflowError: 86f. for very large or
     small values.

   - gh-114806(11): No longer specialize calls to classes, if those
     classes have metaclasses.  Fixes bug where the ‘__call__’ method of
     the metaclass was not being called.

   - gh-107944(12): Improve error message for function calls with bad
     keyword arguments via getargs

   - gh-112529(13): The free-threaded build no longer allocates space
     for the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure in objects that support cyclic
     garbage collection.  A number of other fields and data structures
     are used as replacements, including ‘ob_gc_bits’, ‘ob_tid’, and
     mimalloc internal data structures.

   - gh-114456(14): Lower the recursion limit under a debug build of
     WASI.

   - gh-114083(15): Compiler applies folding of LOAD_CONST with
     following instruction in a separate pass before other
     optimisations.  This enables jump threading in certain
     circumstances.

   - gh-114388(16): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. emitted when assign
     an integer-like value that is not an instance of *note int: 254. to
     an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of *note type:
     162e. T_UINT and T_ULONG. Fix a double *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb.
     emitted when assign a negative integer value to an attribute that
     corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT.

   - gh-114265(17): Compiler propagates line numbers before
     optimization, leading to more optimization opportunities and
     removing the need for the ‘guarantee_lineno_for_exits’ hack.

   - gh-112529(18): The free-threaded build now has its own thread-safe
     GC implementation that uses mimalloc to find GC tracked objects.
     It is non-generational, unlike the existing GC implementation.

   - gh-114050(19): Fix segmentation fault caused by an incorrect format
     string in ‘TypeError’ exception when more than two arguments are
     passed to ‘int’.

   - gh-112354(20): The ‘END_FOR’ instruction now pops only one value.
     This is to better support side exits in loops.

   - gh-113884(21): Make *note queue.SimpleQueue: b5a. thread safe when
     the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-114058(22): Implement the foundations of the Tier 2 redundancy
     eliminator.

   - gh-113939(23): frame.clear(): Clear frame.f_locals as well, and not
     only the fast locals.  This is relevant once frame.f_locals was
     accessed, which would contain also references to all the locals.

   - gh-112050(24): Convert *note collections.deque: 5c8. to use
     Argument Clinic.

   - gh-112050(25): Make methods on *note collections.deque: 5c8.
     thread-safe when the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-113464(26): Add an option (‘--enable-experimental-jit’ for
     ‘configure’-based builds or ‘--experimental-jit’ for
     ‘PCbuild’-based ones) to build an 'experimental' just-in-time
     compiler, based on copy-and-patch(27)

   - gh-113055(28): Make interp->obmalloc a pointer.  For interpreters
     that share state with the main interpreter, this points to the same
     static memory structure.  For interpreters with their own obmalloc
     state, it is heap allocated.  Add free_obmalloc_arenas() which will
     free the obmalloc arenas and radix tree structures for interpreters
     with their own obmalloc state.

   - gh-55664(29): Add warning when creating *note type: d38. using a
     namespace dictionary with non-string keys.  Patched by Daniel Urban
     and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-104530(30): Use native Win32 condition variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114695

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114828

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112069

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115011

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114887

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114944

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113462

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76763

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114806

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114456

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114083

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114388

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114265

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114050

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112354

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113884

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114058

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113939

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113464

   (27) https://fredrikbk.com/publications/copy-and-patch.pdf

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113055

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55664

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<14>,  Next: Documentation<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.3 Library
.................

   - gh-115392(1): Fix a bug in *note doctest: 3a. where incorrect line
     numbers would be reported for decorated functions.

   - gh-114563(2): Fix several *note format(): 60c. bugs when using the
     C implementation of *note Decimal: 29a.: * memory leak in some rare
     cases when using the ‘z’ format option (coerce negative 0) *
     incorrect output when applying the ‘z’ format option to type ‘F’
     (fixed-point with capital ‘NAN’ / ‘INF’) * incorrect output when
     applying the ‘#’ format option (alternate form)

   - gh-102840(3): Fix confused traceback when floordiv, mod, or divmod
     operations happens between instances of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1e4. and *note complex: 2ed.

   - gh-115165(4): Most exceptions are now ignored when attempting to
     set the ‘__orig_class__’ attribute on objects returned when calling
     *note typing: 103. generic aliases (including generic aliases
     created using *note typing.Annotated: 92c.).  Previously only *note
     AttributeError: 343. was ignored.  Patch by Dave Shawley.

   - gh-112903(5): Fix "issubclass() arg 1 must be a class" errors in
     certain cases of multiple inheritance with generic aliases
     (regression in early 3.13 alpha releases).

   - gh-115133(6): Fix tests for *note XMLPullParser: fde. with Expat
     2.6.0.

   - gh-115059(7): ‘io.BufferedRandom.read1()’ now flushes the
     underlying write buffer.

   - gh-79382(8): Trailing ‘**’ no longer allows to match files and
     non-existing paths in recursive *note glob(): 29c.

   - gh-67837(9): Avoid race conditions in the creation of directories
     during concurrent extraction in *note tarfile: dd. and *note
     zipfile: 130.

   - gh-115060(10): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. by removing
     redundant regex matching.

   - gh-97928(11): Partially revert the behavior of
     ‘tkinter.Text.count()’.  By default it preserves the behavior of
     older Python versions, except that setting ‘wantobjects’ to 0 no
     longer has effect.  Add a new parameter 'return_ints': specifying
     ‘return_ints=True’ makes ‘Text.count()’ always returning the single
     count as an integer instead of a 1-tuple or ‘None’.

   - gh-114628(12): When csv.Error is raised when handling TypeError, do
     not print the TypeError traceback.

   - gh-85984(13): Added ‘_POSIX_VDISABLE’ from C's ‘<unistd.h>’ to
     *note termios: e0.

   - gh-114965(14): Update bundled pip to 24.0

   - gh-114959(15): *note tarfile: dd. no longer ignores errors when
     trying to extract a directory on top of a file.

   - gh-114894(16): Add *note array.array.clear(): 1a0.

   - gh-114071(17): Support tuple subclasses using auto() for enum
     member value.

   - gh-109475(18): Fix support of explicit option value "-" in *note
     argparse: 6. (e.g.  ‘--option=--’).

   - gh-49766(19): Fix *note date: 1c8.-*note datetime: 1c7. comparison.
     Now the special comparison methods like ‘__eq__’ and ‘__lt__’
     return *note NotImplemented: 7be. if one of comparands is ‘date’
     and other is ‘datetime’ instead of ignoring the time part and the
     time zone or forcefully return "not equal" or raise *note
     TypeError: 525.  It makes comparison of ‘date’ and ‘datetime’
     subclasses more symmetric and allows to change the default behavior
     by overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

   - gh-110190(20): Fix ctypes structs with array on Windows ARM64
     platform by setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by
     Diego Russo

   - gh-114678(21): Ensure that deprecation warning for 'N' specifier in
     *note Decimal: 29a. format is not raised for cases where 'N'
     appears in other places in the format specifier.  Based on patch by
     Stefan Krah.

   - gh-70303(22): Return both files and directories from *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. if a pattern ends with "‘**’".
     Previously only directories were returned.

   - gh-109653(23): Improve import time of *note importlib.metadata: 79.
     and *note email.utils: 50.

   - gh-113280(24): Fix a leak of open socket in rare cases when error
     occurred in *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9. creation.

   - gh-77749(25): *note email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold(): 1630. now
     always encodes non-ASCII characters in headers if *note utf8: de7.
     is false.

   - gh-83383(26): Synchronization of the *note dbm.dumb: 32. database
     is now no-op if there was no modification since opening or last
     synchronization.  The directory file for a newly created empty
     *note dbm.dumb: 32. database is now created immediately after
     opening instead of deferring this until synchronizing or closing.

   - gh-91602(27): Add 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 244. for filtering database objects
     to dump.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-112451(28): Prohibit subclassing pure-Python *note
     datetime.timezone: 10a3.  This is consistent with C-extension
     implementation.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-69893(29): Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 270.

   - gh-109653(30): Reduce the import time of *note threading: ec.
     module by ~50%.  Patch by Daniel Hollas.

   - gh-114492(31): Make the result of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1631.
     reproducible on Alpine Linux.  Previously it could leave a random
     garbage in some fields.

   - gh-114315(32): Make *note threading.Lock: 1632. a real class, not a
     factory function.  Add ‘__new__’ to ‘_thread.lock’ type.

   - gh-100414(33): Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. as a backend to *note
     dbm: 31, and make it the new default ‘dbm’ backend.  Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-113267(34): Revert changes in gh-106584(35) which made calls of
     ‘TestResult’ methods ‘startTest()’ and ‘stopTest()’ unbalanced.

   - gh-75128(36): Ignore an *note OSError: 40d. in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.create_server()’ when IPv6 is available but
     the interface cannot actually support it.

   - gh-114423(37): ‘_DummyThread’ entries in ‘threading._active’ are
     now automatically removed when the related thread dies.

   - gh-114257(38): Dismiss the ‘FileNotFound’ error in *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): d39. and just return ‘None’ on Linux.

   - gh-114321(39): Expose more platform specific constants in the *note
     fcntl: 58. module on Linux, macOS, FreeBSD and NetBSD.

   - gh-114328(40): The *note tty.setcbreak(): 1633. and new *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1634. no longer clears the terminal input ICRLF
     flag.  This fixes a regression introduced in 3.12 that no longer
     matched how OSes define cbreak mode in their ‘stty(1)’ manual
     pages.

   - gh-114281(41): Remove type hints from ‘Lib/asyncio/staggered.py’.
     The annotations in the typeshed(42) project should be used instead.

   - gh-101438(43): Avoid reference cycle in ElementTree.iterparse.  The
     iterator returned by ‘ElementTree.iterparse’ may hold on to a file
     descriptor.  The reference cycle prevented prompt clean-up of the
     file descriptor if the returned iterator was not exhausted.

   - gh-114198(44): The signature for the ‘__replace__’ method on *note
     dataclasses: 2f. now has the first argument named ‘self’, rather
     than ‘obj’.

   - gh-104522(45): *note OSError: 40d. raised when run a subprocess now
     only has 'filename' attribute set to 'cwd' if the error was caused
     by a failed attempt to change the current directory.

   - gh-114149(46): Enum: correctly handle tuple subclasses in custom
     ‘__new__’.

   - gh-83648(47): Support deprecation of options, positional arguments
     and subcommands in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-114087(48): Speed up ‘dataclasses.asdict’ up to 1.35x.

   - gh-109534(49): Fix a reference leak in
     ‘asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop’ when SSL handshakes
     fail.  Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

   - gh-79634(50): Accept *note path-like objects: 29d. as patterns in
     *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b.

   - gh-112202(51): Ensure that a *note asyncio.Condition.notify():
     1635. call does not get lost if the awakened ‘Task’ is
     simultaneously cancelled or encounters any other error.

   - gh-113951(52): Fix the behavior of ‘tag_unbind()’ methods of
     ‘tkinter.Text’ and ‘tkinter.Canvas’ classes with three arguments.
     Previously, ‘widget.tag_unbind(tag, sequence, funcid)’ destroyed
     the current binding for 'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and
     deleted the 'funcid' command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from
     the binding for 'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the
     'funcid' command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid'
     was the last bound command.

   - gh-97959(53): Fix rendering class methods, bound methods, method
     and function aliases in *note pydoc: b4.  Class methods no longer
     have "method of builtins.type instance" note.  Corresponding notes
     are now added for class and unbound methods.  Method and function
     aliases now have references to the module or the class where the
     origin was defined if it differs from the current.  Bound methods
     are now listed in the static methods section.  Methods of builtin
     classes are now supported as well as methods of Python classes.

   - gh-113796(54): Add more validation checks in the *note csv.Dialect:
     1636. constructor.  *note ValueError: 1ff. is now raised if the
     same character is used in different roles.

   - gh-113732(55): Fix support of *note QUOTE_NOTNULL: 470. and *note
     QUOTE_STRINGS: 471. in *note csv.reader(): 472.

   - gh-113225(56): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 494. by using
     *note os.DirEntry.path: 1637. where possible.

   - gh-89039(57): When replace() method is called on a subclass of
     datetime, date or time, properly call derived constructor.
     Previously, only the base class's constructor was called.

     Also, make sure to pass non-zero fold values when creating
     subclasses in various methods.  Previously, fold was silently
     ignored.

   - gh-112919(58): Speed-up *note datetime.datetime.replace(): 1483,
     *note datetime.date.replace(): 1638. and *note
     datetime.time.replace(): 1639.

   - gh-59013(59): Set breakpoint on the first executable line of the
     function, instead of the line of function definition when the user
     do ‘break func’ using *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-112343(60): Improve handling of pdb convenience variables to
     avoid replacing string contents.

   - gh-112240(61): Add option to calendar module CLI to specify the
     weekday to start each week.  Patch by Steven Ward.

   - gh-111741(62): Recognise ‘image/webp’ as a standard format in the
     *note mimetypes: 8e. module.

   - gh-43457(63): Fix the *note tkinter: ef. widget method
     ‘wm_attributes()’.  It now accepts the attribute name without the
     minus prefix to get window attributes and allows to specify
     attributes and values to set as keyword arguments.  Add new
     optional keyword argument 'return_python_dict': calling
     ‘w.wm_attributes(return_python_dict=True)’ returns the attributes
     as a dict instead of a tuple.  Calling ‘w.wm_attributes()’ now
     returns a tuple instead of string if 'wantobjects' was set to 0.

   - gh-82626(64): Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value
     is passed as a file descriptor argument.

   - gh-111051(65): Added check for file modification during debugging
     with *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-110345(66): Show the Tcl/Tk patchlevel (rather than version) in
     ‘tkinter._test()’.

   - gh-38807(67): Fix race condition in *note trace: fc.  Instead of
     checking if a directory exists and creating it, directly call *note
     os.makedirs(): 21b. with the kwarg ‘exist_ok=True’.

   - gh-75705(68): Set unixfrom envelope in *note mailbox.mbox: 163a.
     and *note mailbox.MMDF: 163b.

   - gh-106233(69): Fix stacklevel in ‘InvalidTZPathWarning’ during
     *note zoneinfo: 133. module import.

   - gh-105102(70): Allow *note ctypes.Union: 163c. to be nested in
     *note ctypes.Structure: 1cf. when the system endianness is the
     opposite of the classes.

   - gh-104282(71): Fix null pointer dereference in
     ‘lzma._decode_filter_properties()’ due to improper handling of BCJ
     filters with properties of zero length.  Patch by Radislav
     Chugunov.

   - gh-96471(72): Add *note queue.Queue: 1367. termination with *note
     shutdown(): 237.

   - gh-101599(73): Changed argparse flag options formatting to remove
     redundancy.

   - gh-85984(74): Add POSIX pseudo-terminal functions *note
     os.posix_openpt(): 163d, *note os.grantpt(): 163e, *note
     os.unlockpt(): 163f, and *note os.ptsname(): 1640.

   - gh-102512(75): When *note os.fork(): 195. is called from a foreign
     thread (aka ‘_DummyThread’), the type of the thread in a child
     process is changed to ‘_MainThread’.  Also changed its name and
     daemonic status, it can be now joined.

   - gh-88569(76): Add *note os.path.isreserved(): 220, which identifies
     reserved pathnames such as "NUL", "AUX" and "CON". This function is
     only available on Windows.

     Deprecate *note pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a3.

   - bpo-38364(77): The ‘inspect’ functions ‘isgeneratorfunction’,
     ‘iscoroutinefunction’, ‘isasyncgenfunction’ now support
     ‘functools.partialmethod’ wrapped functions the same way they
     support ‘functools.partial’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115392

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114563

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102840

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115165

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112903

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115133

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115059

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79382

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67837

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114628

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114965

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114959

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114071

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109475

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49766

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114678

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113280

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77749

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83383

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112451

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114492

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114315

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113267

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75128

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114423

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114257

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114321

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114328

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114281

   (42) https://github.com/python/typeshed

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101438

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114198

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104522

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114149

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114087

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109534

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79634

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112202

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113951

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97959

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113796

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113732

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89039

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112919

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112343

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112240

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111741

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111051

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110345

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/38807

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75705

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106233

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105102

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104282

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101599

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102512

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38364


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<10>,  Next: Tests<12>,  Prev: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115233(1): Fix an example for *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. in the
     Logging Cookbook.

   - gh-114123(2): Move the *note csv: 29. module docstring to the ‘csv’
     module instead of reexporting it from the internal ‘_csv’ module,
     and remove ‘__doc__’ from ‘csv.__all__’.

     Move ‘csv.__version__’ to the ‘csv’ module instead of reexporting
     it from the internal ‘_csv’ module, and remove ‘__version__’ from
     ‘csv.__all__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115233

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114123


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<12>,  Next: Build<14>,  Prev: Documentation<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-114099(1): Added test exclusions required to run the test suite
     on iOS.

   - gh-105089(2): Fix
     ‘test.test_zipfile.test_core.TestWithDirectory.test_create_directory_with_write’
     test in AIX by doing a bitwise AND of 0xFFFF on mode , so that it
     will be in sync with ‘zinfo.external_attr’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105089


File: python.info,  Node: Build<14>,  Next: Windows<10>,  Prev: Tests<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.6 Build
...............

   - gh-115167(1): Avoid vendoring ‘vcruntime140_threads.dll’ when
     building with Visual Studio 2022 version 17.8.

   - gh-113632(2): Promote WASI to a tier 2 platform and drop Emscripten
     from tier 3 in configure.ac.

   - gh-114099(3): configure and Makefile were refactored to accommodate
     framework builds on Apple platforms other than macOS.

   - gh-114875(4): Add ‘getgrent()’ as a prerequisite for building the
     *note grp: 65. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115167

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113632

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114875


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<10>,  Next: macOS<8>,  Prev: Build<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-115049(1): Fixes ‘py.exe’ launcher failing when run as users
     without user profiles.

   - gh-115009(2): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(3): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-111239(4): Update Windows builds to use zlib v1.3.1.

   - gh-100107(5): The ‘py.exe’ launcher will no longer attempt to run
     the Microsoft Store redirector when launching a script containing a
     ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang

   - gh-112984(6): Adds free-threaded binaries to Windows installer as
     an optional component.

   - gh-89240(7): Allows *note multiprocessing: 93. to create pools of
     greater than 62 processes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115049

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111239

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100107

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112984

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89240


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<8>,  Next: IDLE<11>,  Prev: Windows<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-114490(3): Add Mach-O linkage support for *note
     platform.architecture(): 1646.

   - gh-87804(4): On macOS the result of ‘os.statvfs’ and ‘os.fstatvfs’
     now correctly report the size of very large disks, in previous
     versions the reported number of blocks was wrong for disks with at
     least 2**32 blocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87804


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<11>,  Next: Tools/Demos<6>,  Prev: macOS<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-96905(1): In idlelib code, stop redefining built-ins 'dict' and
     'object'.

   - gh-103820(2): Revise IDLE bindings so that events from mouse button
     4/5 on non-X11 windowing systems (i.e.  Win32 and Aqua) are not
     mistaken for scrolling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96905

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103820


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<6>,  Next: C API<14>,  Prev: IDLE<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-113516(1): Don't set ‘LDSHARED’ when building for WASI.

   - gh-109991(2): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.13 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, and 3.2.1.

   - gh-115015(3): Fix a bug in Argument Clinic that generated incorrect
     code for methods with no parameters that use the *note METH_METHOD
     | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1649. calling convention.  Only
     the positional parameter count was checked; any keyword argument
     passed would be silently accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113516

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115015


File: python.info,  Node: C API<14>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.15.11 C API
................

   - gh-111140(1): Adds *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 357, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 358. and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 359. functions.

   - gh-114685(2): *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 74c. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 563. if called with *note PyBUF_READ: 164b. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 164c. as flags.  These flags should only be used with
     the ‘PyMemoryView_*’ C API.

   - gh-114685(3): *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 563. if called with *note PyBUF_READ: 164b. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 164c. as flags.  These flags should only be used with
     the ‘PyMemoryView_*’ C API.

   - gh-114626(4): Add ‘PyCFunctionFast’ and
     ‘PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ typedefs (identical to the existing
     ‘_PyCFunctionFast’ and ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ typedefs,
     just without a leading ‘_’ prefix).

   - gh-114329(5): Add *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 351, which is similar
     to *note PyList_GetItem(): 352. but returns a *note strong
     reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334.

   - gh-110850(6): Add PyTime C API:

        * *note PyTime_t: 323. type.

        * *note PyTime_MIN: 324. and *note PyTime_MAX: 325. constants.

        * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 326, *note PyTime_Monotonic():
          327, *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 329, and *note PyTime_Time():
          32b. functions.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112066(7): Add *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 335.: insert a key
     and value into a dictionary if the key is not already present.
     This is similar to *note dict.setdefault(): 1064, but returns an
     integer value indicating if the key was already present.  It is
     also similar to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 336, but returns a
     strong reference instead of a borrowed reference.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.16 Python 3.13.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-01-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* C API: C API<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<10>,  Next: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.1 Security
..................

   - gh-113659(1): Skip ‘.pth’ files with names starting with a dot or
     hidden file attribute.

   - gh-112302(2): Created a Software Bill-of-Materials document and
     tooling for tracking dependencies.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113659

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112302


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<16>,  Next: Library<15>,  Prev: Security<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-107901(1): Compiler duplicates basic blocks that have an eval
     breaker check, no line number, and multiple predecessors.

   - gh-107901(2): A jump leaving an exception handler back to normal
     code no longer checks the eval breaker.

   - gh-113655(3): Set the C recursion limit to 4000 on Windows, and
     10000 on Linux/OSX. This seems to be near the sweet spot to
     maintain safety, but not compromise backwards compatibility.

   - gh-113710(4): Add typed stack effects to the interpreter DSL, along
     with various instruction annotations.

   - gh-77046(5): On Windows, file descriptors wrapping Windows handles
     are now created non inheritable by default ( PEP 446(6)).  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-113853(7): Guarantee that all executors make progress.  This
     then guarantees that tier 2 execution always makes progress.

   - gh-113753(8): Fix an issue where the finalizer of ‘PyAsyncGenASend’
     objects might not be called if they were allocated from a free
     list.

   - gh-107901(9): Compiler changed so that synthetic jumps which are
     not at loop end no longer check the eval breaker.

   - gh-113703(10): Fix a regression in the *note codeop: 1c. module
     that was causing it to incorrectly identify incomplete f-strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89811(11): Check for a valid ‘tp_version_tag’ before performing
     bytecode specializations that rely on this value being usable.

   - gh-111488(12): Changed error message in case of no 'in' keyword
     after 'for' in list comprehensions

   - gh-113657(13): Fix an issue that caused important instruction
     pointer updates to be optimized out of tier two traces.

   - gh-113603(14): Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed,
     causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

   - gh-113602(15): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite existing errors and crashing in the process.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-113486(16): No longer issue spurious ‘PY_UNWIND’ events for
     optimized calls to classes.

   - gh-113297(17): Fix segfault in the compiler on with statement with
     19 context managers.

   - gh-113212(18): Improve *note super: 4c8. error messages.

   - gh-111375(19): Only use ‘NULL’ in the exception stack to indicate
     an exception was handled.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-112215(20): Increase the C recursion limit by a factor of 3 for
     non-debug builds, except for webassembly and s390 platforms which
     are unchanged.  This mitigates some regressions in 3.12 with deep
     recursion mixing builtin (C) and Python code.

   - gh-113054(21): Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed,
     causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

   - gh-106905(22): Use per AST-parser state rather than global state to
     track recursion depth within the AST parser to prevent potential
     race condition due to simultaneous parsing.

     The issue primarily showed up in 3.11 by multithreaded users of
     *note ast.parse(): 1a6.  In 3.12 a change to when garbage
     collection can be triggered prevented the race condition from
     occurring.

   - gh-108866(23): Change the API and contract of ‘_PyExecutorObject’
     to return the next_instr pointer, instead of the frame, and to
     always execute at least one instruction.

   - gh-90350(24): Optimize builtin functions *note min(): ef5. and
     *note max(): ef6.

   - gh-112943(25): Correctly compute end column offsets for multiline
     tokens in the *note tokenize: fa. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112125(26): Fix ‘None.__ne__(None)’ returning ‘NotImplemented’
     instead of ‘False’.

   - gh-74616(27): *note input(): 12b8. now raises a ValueError when
     output on the terminal if the prompt contains embedded null
     characters instead of silently truncating it.

   - gh-112716(28): Fix SystemError in the ‘import’ statement and in
     ‘__reduce__()’ methods of builtin types when ‘__builtins__’ is not
     a dict.

   - gh-112730(29): Use color to highlight error locations in
     tracebacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112625(30): Fixes a bug where a bytearray object could be
     cleared while iterating over an argument in the ‘bytearray.join()’
     method that could result in reading memory after it was freed.

   - gh-112660(31): Do not clear unexpected errors during formatting
     error messages for ImportError and AttributeError for modules.

   - gh-105967(32): Workaround a bug in Apple's macOS platform zlib
     library where *note zlib.crc32(): 1650. and *note binascii.crc32():
     1651. could produce incorrect results on multi-gigabyte inputs.
     Including when using *note zipfile: 130. on zips containing large
     data.

   - gh-95754(33): Provide a better error message when accessing invalid
     attributes on partially initialized modules.  The origin of the
     module being accessed is now included in the message to help with
     the common issue of shadowing other modules.

   - gh-112217(34): Add check for the type of ‘__cause__’ returned from
     calling the type ‘T’ in ‘raise from T’.

   - gh-111058(35): Change coro.cr_frame/gen.gi_frame to return ‘None’
     after the coroutine/generator has been closed.  This fixes a bug
     where *note getcoroutinestate(): e08. and *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 1216. return the wrong state for a closed
     coroutine/generator.

   - gh-112388(36): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite tokenizer errors.  Patch by pablo Galindo

   - gh-112387(37): Fix error positions for decoded strings with
     backwards tokenize errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-99606(38): Make code generated for an empty f-string identical
     to the code of an empty normal string.

   - gh-112367(39): Avoid undefined behaviour when using the perf
     trampolines by not freeing the code arenas until shutdown.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112320(40): The Tier 2 translator now tracks the confidence
     level for staying "on trace" (i.e.  not exiting back to the Tier 1
     interpreter) for branch instructions based on the number of bits
     set in the branch "counter".  Trace translation ends when the
     confidence drops below 1/3rd.

   - gh-109598(41): *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 1652./*note
     PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 1653. now tries to convert an object to a
     *note complex: 2ed. instance using its ‘__complex__()’ method
     before falling back to the ‘__float__()’ method.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-94606(42): Fix UnicodeEncodeError when
     ‘email.message.get_payload()’ reads a message with a Unicode
     surrogate character and the message content is not well-formed for
     surrogateescape encoding.  Patch by Sidney Markowitz.

   - bpo-21861(43): Use the object's actual class name in
     ‘_io.FileIO.__repr__()’, ‘_io._WindowsConsoleIO()’ and
     ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.__repr__()’, to make these methods subclass
     friendly.

   - bpo-45369(44): Remove LibreSSL workarounds as per PEP 644(45).

   - bpo-34392(46): Added *note sys._is_interned(): 24d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113655

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113710

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77046

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113753

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113703

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89811

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111488

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113657

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113603

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113602

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113486

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113297

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113212

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111375

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112215

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113054

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108866

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90350

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112943

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112125

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74616

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112716

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112625

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112660

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105967

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112217

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111058

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112388

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112387

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99606

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112367

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112320

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109598

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94606

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21861

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45369

   (45) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34392


File: python.info,  Node: Library<15>,  Next: Documentation<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.3 Library
.................

   - gh-114077(1): Fix possible *note OverflowError: 86f. in *note
     socket.socket.sendfile(): e48. when pass 'count' larger than 2 GiB
     on 32-bit platform.

   - gh-111803(2): *note plistlib: aa. now supports loading more deeply
     nested lists in binary format.

   - gh-114014(3): Fixed a bug in *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. where
     an invalid string using ‘d’ in the decimals part creates a
     different error compared to other invalid letters/characters.
     Patch by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual.

   - gh-108364(4): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 244. now ensures
     that foreign key support is disabled before dumping the database
     schema, if there is any foreign key violation.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland and Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-113971(5): The *note zipfile.ZipInfo: cfa. previously protected
     ‘._compresslevel’ attribute has been made public as
     ‘.compress_level’ with the old ‘_compresslevel’ name remaining
     available as a property to retain compatibility.

   - gh-113877(6): Fix *note tkinter: ef. method ‘winfo_pathname()’ on
     64-bit Windows.

   - gh-113868(7): Added *note mmap.MAP_NORESERVE: 1655, *note
     mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND: 1656, *note mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE: 1657, *note
     mmap.MAP_NOCACHE: 1658, *note mmap.MAP_JIT: 1659, *note
     mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN: 165a, *note mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA:
     165b, *note mmap.MAP_32BIT: 165c, *note
     mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE: 165d, *note mmap.MAP_UNIX03:
     165e. and *note mmap.MAP_TPRO: 165f.  All of them are ‘mmap(2)’
     flags on macOS.

   - gh-113848(8): *note asyncio.TaskGroup(): 1b3. and *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 5eb. context managers now handle *note
     CancelledError: 1b6. subclasses as well as exact ‘CancelledError’.

   - gh-113661(9): unittest runner: Don't exit 5 if tests were skipped.
     The intention of exiting 5 was to detect issues where the test
     suite wasn't discovered at all.  If we skipped tests, it was
     correctly discovered.

   - gh-96037(10): Insert *note TimeoutError: 821. in the context of the
     exception that was raised during exiting an expired *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 5eb. block.

   - gh-113781(11): Silence unraisable AttributeError when warnings are
     emitted during Python finalization.

   - gh-113238(12): Add ‘Anchor’ to ‘importlib.resources’ (in order for
     the code to comply with the documentation)

   - gh-111693(13): *note asyncio.Condition.wait(): 1660. now re-raises
     the same ‘CancelledError’ instance that may have caused it to be
     interrupted.  Fixed race condition in *note
     asyncio.Semaphore.acquire(): 1661. when interrupted with a
     ‘CancelledError’.

   - gh-113791(14): Add ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX’ and
     ‘CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX’ to *note time: ed. on macOS. These are
     clocks available on macOS 10.12 or later.

   - gh-112932(15): Restore the ability for *note zipfile: 130. to
     ‘extractall’ from zip files with a "/" directory entry in them as
     is commonly added to zips by some wiki or bug tracker data
     exporters.

   - gh-113568(16): Raise deprecation warnings from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 492. and not its private base class
     ‘PurePathBase’.

   - gh-113594(17): Fix *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664. in *note email:
     3b. when re-fold lines that contain unknown-8bit encoded part
     followed by non-unknown-8bit encoded part.

   - gh-113538(18): In ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol.connection_made()’,
     there is callback that logs an error if the task wrapping the
     "connected callback" fails.  This callback would itself fail if the
     task was cancelled.  Prevent this by checking whether the task was
     cancelled first.  If so, close the transport but don't log an
     error.

   - gh-113626(19): Add support for the 'allow_code' argument in the
     *note marshal: 8c. module.  Passing ‘allow_code=False’ prevents
     serialization and de-serialization of code objects which is
     incompatible between Python versions.

   - gh-85567(20): Fix resource warnings for unclosed files in *note
     pickle: a5. and *note pickletools: a6. command line interfaces.

   - gh-113537(21): Support loads ‘str’ in *note plistlib.loads(): 93f.

   - gh-89850(22): Add default implementations of *note
     pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 155a. and *note
     pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load(): 1562. methods in the C
     implementation.  Calling ‘super().persistent_id()’ and
     ‘super().persistent_load()’ in subclasses of the C implementation
     of *note pickle.Pickler: a0e. and *note pickle.Unpickler: 1662.
     classes no longer causes infinite recursion.

   - gh-113569(23): Indicate if there were no actual calls in unittest
     *note assert_has_calls(): 1663. failure.

   - gh-101225(24): Increase the backlog for *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener: 1664. objects created by
     ‘multiprocessing.manager’ and ‘multiprocessing.resource_sharer’ to
     significantly reduce the risk of getting a connection refused error
     when creating a *note multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 1665.
     to them.

   - gh-113568(25): Raise audit events from *note pathlib.Path: 226. and
     not its private base class ‘PathBase’.

   - gh-113543(26): Make sure that ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ sends
     ‘webbrowser.open’ audit event.

   - gh-113028(27): When a second reference to a string appears in the
     input to *note pickle: a5, and the Python implementation is in use,
     we are guaranteed that a single copy gets pickled and a single
     object is shared when reloaded.  Previously, in protocol 0, when a
     string contained certain characters (e.g.  newline) it resulted in
     duplicate objects.

   - gh-113421(28): Fix multiprocessing logger for ‘%(filename)s’.

   - gh-111784(29): Fix segfaults in the ‘_elementtree’ module.  Fix
     first segfault during deallocation of ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’
     instances by keeping strong reference to ‘pyexpat’ module in module
     state for capsule lifetime.  Fix second segfault which happens in
     the same deallocation process by keeping strong reference to
     ‘_elementtree’ module in ‘XMLParser’ structure for ‘_elementtree’
     module lifetime.

   - gh-113407(30): Fix import of *note unittest.mock: 106. when CPython
     is built without docstrings.

   - gh-113320(31): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where *note Protocol:
     261. classes that were not marked as *note runtime-checkable: 42e.
     would be unnecessarily introspected, potentially causing exceptions
     to be raised if the protocol had problematic members.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-53502(32): Add a new option ‘aware_datetime’ in *note plistlib:
     aa. to loads or dumps aware datetime.

   - gh-113358(33): Fix rendering tracebacks with exceptions with a
     broken __getattr__

   - gh-113214(34): Fix an ‘AttributeError’ during asyncio SSL protocol
     aborts in SSL-over-SSL scenarios.

   - gh-113246(35): Update bundled pip to 23.3.2.

   - gh-87264(36): Fixed tarfile list() method to show file type.

   - gh-112182(37): ‘asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception()’ now
     transforms *note StopIteration: bea. into *note RuntimeError: 193.
     instead of hanging or other misbehavior.  Patch contributed by
     Jamie Phan.

   - gh-113225(38): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. by using
     *note os.DirEntry.path: 1637. where possible.

   - gh-113149(39): Improve error message when a JSON array or object
     contains a trailing comma.  Patch by Carson Radtke.

   - gh-113117(40): The *note subprocess: d5. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d. function with ‘close_fds=True’ on
     platforms where ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np’ is
     available.  Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - gh-113199(41): Make ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read1’ and
     ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.readline’ close IO after reading all data
     when content length is known.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-113191(42): Add support of *note os.fchmod(): 219. and a file
     descriptor in *note os.chmod(): 218. on Windows.

   - gh-113188(43): Fix *note shutil.copymode(): 1666. and *note
     shutil.copystat(): 1110. on Windows.  Previously they worked
     differently if 'dst' is a symbolic link: they modified the
     permission bits of 'dst' itself rather than the file it points to
     if 'follow_symlinks' is true or 'src' is not a symbolic link, and
     did not modify the permission bits if 'follow_symlinks' is false
     and 'src' is a symbolic link.

   - gh-113119(44): *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d. now accepts ‘env=None’,
     which makes the newly spawned process use the current process
     environment.  Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - gh-113202(45): Add a ‘strict’ option to ‘batched()’ in the
     ‘itertools’ module.

   - gh-61648(46): Detect line numbers of properties in doctests.

   - gh-113175(47): Sync with importlib_metadata 7.0, including improved
     type annotations, fixed issue with symlinked packages in
     ‘package_distributions’, added ‘EntryPoints.__repr__’, introduced
     the ‘diagnose’ script, added ‘Distribution.origin’ property, and
     removed deprecated ‘EntryPoint’ access by numeric index (tuple
     behavior).

   - gh-59616(48): Add support of *note os.lchmod(): 217. and the
     'follow_symlinks' argument in *note os.chmod(): 218. on Windows.
     Note that the default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘os.lchmod()’
     is ‘False’ on Windows.

   - gh-112559(49): *note signal.signal(): 1116. and *note
     signal.getsignal(): 1667. no longer call ‘repr’ on callable
     handlers.  *note asyncio.run(): 468. and *note
     asyncio.Runner.run(): 1668. no longer call ‘repr’ on the task
     results.  Patch by Yilei Yang.

   - gh-112962(50): *note dis: 38. module functions add cache
     information to the *note Instruction: 1d7. instance rather than
     creating fake *note Instruction: 1d7. instances to represent the
     cache entries.

   - gh-112989(51): Reduce overhead to connect sockets with *note
     asyncio: a. SelectorEventLoop.

   - gh-112970(52): Use ‘closefrom()’ on Linux where available (e.g.
     glibc-2.34), rather than only FreeBSD.

   - gh-110190(53): Fix ctypes structs with array on PPC64LE platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 64 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-112540(54): The statistics.geometric_mean() function now returns
     zero for datasets containing a zero.  Formerly, it would raise an
     exception.

   - gh-87286(55): Added ‘LOG_FTP’, ‘LOG_NETINFO’, ‘LOG_REMOTEAUTH’,
     ‘LOG_INSTALL’, ‘LOG_RAS’, and ‘LOG_LAUNCHD’ tot the *note syslog:
     db. module, all of them constants on used on macOS.

   - gh-112800(56): Fix *note asyncio: a. ‘SubprocessTransport.close()’
     not to throw ‘PermissionError’ when used with setuid executables.

   - gh-51944(57): Add the following constants to the *note termios: e0.
     module.  These values are present in macOS system headers:
     ‘ALTWERASE’, ‘B14400’, ‘B28800’, ‘B7200’, ‘B76800’, ‘CCAR_OFLOW’,
     ‘CCTS_OFLOW’, ‘CDSR_OFLOW’, ‘CDTR_IFLOW’, ‘CIGNORE’, ‘CRTS_IFLOW’,
     ‘EXTPROC’, ‘IUTF8’, ‘MDMBUF’, ‘NL2’, ‘NL3’, ‘NOKERNINFO’, ‘ONOEOT’,
     ‘OXTABS’, ‘VDSUSP’, ‘VSTATUS’.

   - gh-79325(58): Fix an infinite recursion error in *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 1214. cleanup on Windows.

   - gh-94692(59): *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. now only catches OSError
     exceptions.  Previously a symlink attack resistant version of
     ‘shutil.rmtree()’ could ignore or pass to the error handler
     arbitrary exception when invalid arguments were provided.

   - gh-112736(60): The use of del-safe symbols in ‘subprocess’ was
     refactored to allow for use in cross-platform build environments.

   - gh-112727(61): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1669.  Patch
     by Barney Gale.

   - gh-74690(62): Speedup *note issubclass(): 7ad. checks against
     simple *note runtime-checkable protocols: 42e. by around 6%.  Patch
     by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(63): Speedup *note isinstance(): 42d. checks by roughly
     20% for *note runtime-checkable protocols: 42e. that only have one
     callable member.  Speedup *note issubclass(): 7ad. checks for these
     protocols by roughly 10%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112645(64): Remove deprecation error on passing ‘onerror’ to
     *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6.

   - gh-112640(65): Add ‘kwdefaults’ parameter to *note
     types.FunctionType: 871. to set default keyword argument values.

   - gh-112622(66): Ensure ‘name’ parameter is passed to event loop in
     *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9.

   - gh-112618(67): Fix a caching bug relating to *note
     typing.Annotated: 92c.  ‘Annotated[str, True]’ is no longer
     identical to ‘Annotated[str, 1]’.

   - gh-112334(68): Fixed a performance regression in 3.12's *note
     subprocess: d5. on Linux where it would no longer use the fast-path
     ‘vfork()’ system call when it could have due to a logic bug,
     instead falling back to the safe but slower ‘fork()’.

     Also fixed a second 3.12.0 potential security bug.  If a value of
     ‘extra_groups=[]’ was passed to *note subprocess.Popen: 197. or
     related APIs, the underlying ‘setgroups(0, NULL)’ system call to
     clear the groups list would not be made in the child process prior
     to ‘exec()’.

     This was identified via code inspection in the process of fixing
     the first bug.

   - gh-110190(69): Fix ctypes structs with array on Arm platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-81194(70): Fix a crash in *note socket.if_indextoname(): a1f.
     with specific value (UINT_MAX). Fix an integer overflow in *note
     socket.if_indextoname(): a1f. on 64-bit non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-112578(71): Fix a spurious *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. when
     executing the *note zipfile: 130. module.

   - gh-112516(72): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.3.1.

   - gh-112510(73): Add *note readline.backend: 166a. for the backend
     readline uses (‘editline’ or ‘readline’)

   - gh-112328(74): [Enum] Make ‘EnumDict’, ‘EnumDict.member_names’,
     ‘EnumType._add_alias_’ and ‘EnumType._add_value_alias_’ public.

   - gh-112509(75): Fix edge cases that could cause a key to be present
     in both the ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes
     of a *note typing.TypedDict: 161.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101336(76): Add ‘keep_alive’ keyword parameter for
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.create_server()’ and
     ‘BaseEventLoop.create_server()’.

   - gh-63284(77): Added support for TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) mode to
     the *note ssl: cf. module.

   - gh-112414(78): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where calling *note
     repr(): 7e9. on a module that had been imported using a custom
     *note loader: 166b. could fail with *note AttributeError: 343.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112358(79): Revert change to *note struct.Struct: 166c.
     initialization that broke some cases of subclassing.

   - gh-112405(80): Optimize *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-94722(81): Fix bug where comparison between instances of *note
     DocTest: 166d. fails if one of them has ‘None’ as its lineno.

   - gh-112361(82): Speed up a small handful of *note pathlib: a3.
     methods by removing some temporary objects.

   - gh-112345(83): Improve error message when trying to call *note
     issubclass(): 7ad. against a *note typing.Protocol: 261. that has
     non-method members.  Patch by Randolf Scholz.

   - gh-112137(84): Change *note dis: 38. output to display no-lineno as
     "-" instead of "None".

   - gh-112332(85): Deprecate the ‘exc_type’ field of *note
     traceback.TracebackException: 259.  Add ‘exc_type_str’ to replace
     it.

   - gh-81620(86): Add extra tests for *note random.binomialvariate():
     49c.

   - gh-112292(87): Fix a crash in *note readline: b9. when imported
     from a sub interpreter.  Patch by Anthony Shaw

   - gh-77621(88): Slightly improve the import time of the *note
     pathlib: a3. module by deferring some imports.  Patch by Barney
     Gale.

   - gh-112137(89): Change *note dis: 38. output to display logical
     labels for jump targets instead of offsets.

   - gh-112139(90): Add ‘Signature.format()’ to format signatures to
     string with extra options.  And use it in *note pydoc: b4. to
     render more readable signatures that have new lines between
     parameters.

   - gh-112105(91): Make *note readline.set_completer_delims(): 166e.
     work with libedit

   - gh-106922(92): Display multiple lines with ‘traceback’ when errors
     span multiple lines.

   - gh-111874(93): When creating a *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad. class,
     ensure *note __set_name__(): c3e. is called on all objects that
     define ‘__set_name__’ and exist in the values of the ‘NamedTuple’
     class's class dictionary.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-68166(94): Add support of the "vsapi" element type in *note
     tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 255.

   - gh-110275(95): Named tuple's methods ‘_replace()’ and
     ‘__replace__()’ now raise TypeError instead of ValueError for
     invalid keyword arguments.

   - gh-99367(96): Do not mangle ‘sys.path[0]’ in *note pdb: a4. if
     safe_path is set

   - gh-111615(97): Fix a regression caused by a fix to gh-93162(98)
     whereby you couldn't configure a ‘QueueHandler’ without specifying
     handlers.

   - gh-75666(99): Fix the behavior of *note tkinter: ef. widget's
     ‘unbind()’ method with two arguments.  Previously,
     ‘widget.unbind(sequence, funcid)’ destroyed the current binding for
     'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and deleted the 'funcid'
     command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from the binding for
     'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the 'funcid'
     command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid' was the
     last bound command.

   - gh-67790(100): Implement basic formatting support (minimum width,
     alignment, fill) for *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4.

   - gh-111049(101): Fix crash during garbage collection of the *note
     io.BytesIO: e8f. buffer object.

   - gh-102980(102): Redirect the output of ‘interact’ command of *note
     pdb: a4. to the same channel as the debugger.  Add tests and
     improve docs.

   - gh-102988(103): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 1de. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 1df. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  Add optional 'strict'
     parameter to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to get the old
     behavior, accept malformed inputs.  ‘getattr(email.utils,
     'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be use to check if the
     'strict' parameter is available.  Patch by Thomas Dwyer and Victor
     Stinner to improve the CVE 2023-27043(104) fix.

   - gh-52161(105): *note cmd.Cmd.do_help(): 166f. now cleans docstrings
     with *note inspect.cleandoc(): 1670. before writing them.  Patch by
     Filip Łapkiewicz.

   - gh-82300(106): Add ‘track’ parameter to *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1614. that allows using
     shared memory blocks without having to register with the POSIX
     resource tracker that automatically releases them upon process
     exit.

   - gh-110109(107): Add private ‘pathlib._PurePathBase’ class: a base
     class for *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. that omits certain magic
     methods.  It may be made public (along with ‘_PathBase’) in future.

   - gh-109858(108): Protect *note zipfile: 130. from "quoted-overlap"
     zipbomb.  It now raises BadZipFile when try to read an entry that
     overlaps with other entry or central directory.

   - gh-109786(109): Fix possible reference leaks and crash when
     re-enter the ‘__next__()’ method of *note itertools.pairwise: 801.

   - gh-91539(110): Small (10 - 20%) and trivial performance improvement
     of ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment()’, typically useful when
     there are many environment variables to go over.

   - gh-103363(111): Add 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to
     *note pathlib.Path.owner(): 22e. and *note group(): 22f, defaulting
     to ‘True’.

   - gh-102130(112): Support tab completion in *note cmd: 19. for
     ‘editline’.

   - gh-99437(113): *note runpy.run_path(): 17f. now decodes path-like
     objects, making sure __file__ and sys.argv[0] of the module being
     run are always strings.

   - gh-104003(114): Add *note warnings.deprecated(): 15f, a decorator
     to mark deprecated functions to static type checkers and to warn on
     usage of deprecated classes and functions.  See PEP 702(115).
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103708(116): Make hardcoded python name, a configurable
     parameter so that different implementations of python can override
     it instead of making huge diffs in sysconfig.py

   - gh-66515(117): *note mailbox.MH: 1671. now supports folders that do
     not contain a ‘.mh_sequences’ file (e.g.  Claws Mail IMAP-cache
     folders).  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - gh-83162(118): Renamed ‘re.error’ to ‘PatternError’ for clarity,
     and kept ‘re.error’ for backward compatibility.  Patch by Matthias
     Bussonnier and Adam Chhina.

   - gh-91133(119): Fix a bug in *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory:
     1214. cleanup, which now no longer dereferences symlinks when
     working around file system permission errors.

   - bpo-43153(120): On Windows, ‘tempfile.TemporaryDirectory’
     previously masked a ‘PermissionError’ with ‘NotADirectoryError’
     during directory cleanup.  It now correctly raises
     ‘PermissionError’ if errors are not ignored.  Patch by Andrei
     Kulakov and Ken Jin.

   - bpo-32731(121): *note getpass.getuser(): 40e. now raises *note
     OSError: 40d. for all failures rather than *note ImportError: 40f.
     on systems lacking the *note pwd: b1. module or *note KeyError:
     33a. if the password database is empty.

   - bpo-34321(122): *note mmap.mmap: 208. now has a 'trackfd' parameter
     on Unix; if it is ‘False’, the file descriptor specified by
     'fileno' will not be duplicated.

   - bpo-35332(123): The *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. function now
     ignores errors when calling *note os.close(): b64. when
     'ignore_errors' is ‘True’, and *note os.close(): b64. no longer
     retried after error.

   - bpo-35928(124): *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. now correctly handles
     the decoding buffer after ‘read()’ and ‘write()’.

   - bpo-26791(125): *note shutil.move(): a4c. now moves a symlink into
     a directory when that directory is the target of the symlink.  This
     provides the same behavior as the mv shell command.  The previous
     behavior raised an exception.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-41422(126): Fixed memory leaks of *note pickle.Pickler: a0e.
     and *note pickle.Unpickler: 1662. involving cyclic references via
     the internal memo mapping.

   - bpo-19821(127): The ‘pydoc.ispackage()’ function has been
     deprecated.

   - bpo-40262(128): The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.recv_into()’ method no longer
     requires the 'buffer' argument to implement ‘__len__’ and supports
     buffers with arbitrary item size.

   - bpo-39912(129): *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 145f. and *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 6ae. now raise appropriate exceptions
     instead of ‘AssertionError’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37260(130): Fixed a race condition in *note shutil.rmtree():
     2f6. in which directory entries removed by another process or
     thread while ‘shutil.rmtree()’ is running can cause it to raise
     FileNotFoundError.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-36959(131): Fix some error messages for invalid ISO format
     string combinations in ‘strptime()’ that referred to directives not
     contained in the format string.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-18060(132): Fixed a class inheritance issue that can cause
     segfaults when deriving two or more levels of subclasses from a
     base class of Structure or Union.

   - bpo-29779(133): Add a new *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 18f. environment
     variable to set the location of a ‘.python_history’ file.

   - bpo-21360(134): *note mailbox.Maildir: 412. now ignores files with
     a leading dot.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114077

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111803

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114014

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108364

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113971

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113877

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113868

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113848

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113661

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96037

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113781

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113238

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111693

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113791

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112932

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113594

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85567

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113537

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89850

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113569

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101225

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113543

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113028

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113421

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111784

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113407

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113320

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53502

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113358

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113214

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113246

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87264

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112182

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113149

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113199

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113188

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61648

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112559

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112989

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112970

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112540

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87286

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112800

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51944

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79325

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94692

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112736

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112727

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112645

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112640

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112622

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112618

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81194

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112578

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112516

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112510

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112328

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112509

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101336

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63284

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112414

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112358

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112405

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94722

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112361

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112345

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112292

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77621

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112139

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112105

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106922

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111874

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110275

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99367

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111615

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75666

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111049

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (104) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52161

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82300

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110109

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109858

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109786

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91539

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103363

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102130

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99437

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003

   (115) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103708

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66515

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83162

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91133

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43153

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32731

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34321

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35332

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35928

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26791

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41422

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19821

   (128) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40262

   (129) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39912

   (130) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37260

   (131) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36959

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18060

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29779

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21360


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<11>,  Next: Tests<13>,  Prev: Library<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-111699(1): Relocate ‘smtpd’ deprecation notice to its own
     section rather than under ‘locale’ in What's New in Python 3.12
     document

   - gh-110746(2): Improved markup for valid options/values for methods
     ttk.treeview.column and ttk.treeview.heading, and for Layouts.

   - gh-95649(3): Document that the *note asyncio: a. module contains
     code taken from v0.16.0 of the uvloop project(4), as well as the
     required MIT licensing information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111699

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110746

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95649

   (4) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<13>,  Next: Build<15>,  Prev: Documentation<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-111798(1): Disable ‘test_super_deep()’ from ‘test_call’ under
     pydebug builds on WASI; the stack depth is too small to make the
     test useful.

   - gh-111801(2): Lower the recursion limit in ‘test_isinstance’ for
     ‘test_infinitely_many_bases()’.  This prevents a stack overflow on
     a pydebug build of WASI.

   - gh-111802(3): Specify a low recursion depth for
     ‘test_bad_getattr()’ in ‘test.pickletester’ to avoid exhausting the
     stack under a pydebug build for WASI.

   - gh-44626(4): Fix *note os.path.isabs(): 221. incorrectly returning
     ‘True’ when given a path that starts with exactly one (back)slash
     on Windows.

     Fix ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_absolute()’ incorrectly returning
     ‘False’ for some paths beginning with two (back)slashes.

   - gh-113633(5): Use module state for the _testcapi extension module.

   - gh-109980(6): Fix ‘test_tarfile_vs_tar’ in ‘test_shutil’ for macOS,
     where system tar can include more information in the archive than
     *note shutil.make_archive: 49f.

   - gh-112769(7): The tests now correctly compare zlib version when
     *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1150. contains non-integer
     suffixes.  For example zlib-ng defines the version as
     ‘1.3.0.zlib-ng’.

   - gh-112334(8): Adds a regression test to verify that ‘vfork()’ is
     used when expected by *note subprocess: d5. on vfork enabled POSIX
     systems (Linux).

   - gh-108927(9): Fixed order dependence in running tests in the same
     process when a test that has submodules (e.g.  test_importlib)
     follows a test that imports its submodule (e.g.
     test_importlib.util) and precedes a test (e.g.  test_unittest or
     test_compileall) that uses that submodule.

   - bpo-40648(10): Test modes that file can get with chmod() on
     Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111801

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111802

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113633

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109980

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112769

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108927

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40648


File: python.info,  Node: Build<15>,  Next: Windows<11>,  Prev: Tests<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.6 Build
...............

   - gh-114013(1): Fix ‘Tools/wasm/wasi.py’ to not include the path to
     ‘python.wasm’ as part of ‘HOSTRUNNER’.  The environment variable is
     meant to specify how to run the WASI host only, having
     ‘python.wasm’ and relevant flags appended to the ‘HOSTRUNNER’.
     This fixes ‘make test’ work.

   - gh-113258(2): Changed the Windows build to write out generated
     frozen modules into the build tree instead of the source tree.

   - gh-112305(3): Fixed the ‘check-clean-src’ step performed on out of
     tree builds to detect errant ‘$(srcdir)/Python/frozen_modules/*.h’
     files and recommend appropriate source tree cleanup steps to get a
     working build again.

   - gh-112536(4): Add support for thread sanitizer (TSAN)

   - gh-112867(5): Fix the build for the case that
     WITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0 set.

   - gh-103065(6): Introduce ‘Tools/wasm/wasi.py’ to simplify doing a
     WASI build.

   - bpo-11102(7): The *note os.major(): 15d5, *note os.makedev(): 15d7,
     and *note os.minor(): 15d6. functions are now available on HP-UX
     v3.

   - bpo-36351(8): Do not set ipv6type when cross-compiling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114013

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113258

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112867

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103065

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36351


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<11>,  Next: macOS<9>,  Prev: Build<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-114096(1): Process privileges that are activated for creating
     directory junctions are now restored afterwards, avoiding behaviour
     changes in other parts of the program.

   - gh-111877(2): *note os.stat(): 48c. calls were returning incorrect
     time values for files that could not be accessed directly.

   - gh-111973(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

   - gh-113009(4): *note multiprocessing: 93.: On Windows, fix a race
     condition in ‘Process.terminate()’: no longer set the ‘returncode’
     attribute to always call ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ in
     ‘Process.wait()’.  Previously, sometimes the process was still
     running after ‘TerminateProcess()’ even if ‘GetExitCodeProcess()’
     is not ‘STILL_ACTIVE’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-86179(5): Fixes path calculations when launching Python on
     Windows through a symlink.

   - gh-71383(6): Update Tcl/Tk in Windows installer to 8.6.13 with a
     patch to suppress incorrect ThemeChanged warnings.

   - gh-111650(7): Ensures the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ preprocessor variable
     is defined in ‘pyconfig.h’ so that extension modules written in C
     are able to use it.

   - gh-112278(8): Reduce the time cost for some functions in *note
     platform: a9. on Windows if current user has no permission to the
     WMI.

   - gh-73427(9): Deprecate *note sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding():
     2ab.  Use *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. instead.  Patch
     by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87868(10): Correctly sort and remove duplicate environment
     variables in ‘_winapi.CreateProcess()’.

   - bpo-37308(11): Fix mojibake in *note mmap.mmap: 208. when using a
     non-ASCII 'tagname' argument on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114096

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111877

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113009

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111650

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112278

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87868

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37308


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<9>,  Next: IDLE<12>,  Prev: Windows<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-113666(1): Add the following constants to module *note stat:
     d0.: ‘UF_SETTABLE’, ‘UF_TRACKED’, ‘UF_DATAVAULT’, ‘SF_SUPPORTED’,
     ‘SF_SETTABLE’, ‘SF_SYNTHETIC’, ‘SF_RESTRICTED’, ‘SF_FIRMLINK’ and
     ‘SF_DATALESS’.  The values ‘UF_SETTABLE’, ‘SF_SUPPORTED’,
     ‘SF_SETTABLE’ and ‘SF_SYNTHETIC’ are only available on macOS.

   - gh-113536(2): *note os.waitid(): d88. is now available on macOS

   - gh-110459(3): Running ‘configure ... --with-openssl-rpath=X/Y/Z’ no
     longer fails to detect OpenSSL on macOS.

   - gh-74573(4): Document that *note dbm.ndbm: 34. can silently corrupt
     DBM files on updates when exceeding undocumented platform limits,
     and can crash (segmentation fault) when reading such a corrupted
     file.  (FB8919203)

   - gh-65701(5): The ‘freeze’ tool doesn't work with framework builds
     of Python.  Document this and bail out early when running the tool
     with such a build.

   - gh-87277(6): webbrowser: Don't look for X11 browsers on macOS.
     Those are generally not used and probing for them can result in
     starting XQuartz even if it isn't used otherwise.

   - gh-111973(7): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

   - gh-108269(8): Set ‘CFBundleAllowMixedLocalizations’ to true in the
     Info.plist for the framework, embedded Python.app and IDLE.app with
     framework installs on macOS. This allows applications to pick up
     the user's preferred locale when that's different from english.

   - gh-102362(9): Make sure the result of ‘sysconfig.get_plaform()’
     includes at least a major and minor versions, even if
     ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ is set to only a major version during
     build to match the format expected by pip.

   - gh-110017(10): Disable a signal handling stress test on macOS due
     to a bug in macOS (FB13453490).

   - gh-110820(11): Make sure the preprocessor definitions for
     ‘ALIGNOF_MAX_ALIGN_T’, ‘SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE’ and
     ‘HAVE_GCC_ASM_FOR_X64’ are correct for Universal 2 builds on macOS.

   - gh-109981(12): Use ‘/dev/fd’ on macOS to determine the number of
     open files in ‘test.support.os_helper.fd_count’ to avoid a crash
     with "guarded" file descriptors when probing for open files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113666

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110459

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74573

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65701

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108269

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102362

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110017

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110820

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<12>,  Next: C API<15>,  Prev: macOS<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-72284(1): Improve the lists of features, editor key bindings,
     and shell key bingings in the IDLE doc.

   - gh-113903(2): Fix rare failure of test.test_idle, in
     test_configdialog.

   - gh-113729(3): Fix the "Help -> IDLE Doc" menu bug in 3.11.7 and
     3.12.1.

   - gh-113269(4): Fix test_editor hang on macOS Catalina.

   - gh-112898(5): Fix processing unsaved files when quitting IDLE on
     macOS.

   - bpo-13586(6): Enter the selected text when opening the "Replace"
     dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72284

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113903

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113269

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112898

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13586


File: python.info,  Node: C API<15>,  Prev: IDLE<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.16.10 C API
................

   - gh-106560(1): Fix redundant declarations in the public C API.
     Declare PyBool_Type, PyLong_Type and PySys_Audit() only once.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112438(2): Fix support of format units "es", "et", "es#", and
     "et#" in nested tuples in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.-like
     functions.

   - gh-111545(3): Add *note Py_HashPointer(): 35e. function to hash a
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-65210(4): Change the declaration of the 'keywords' parameter of
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. and *note
     PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37a. for better compatibility with
     C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106560

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112438

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.17 Python 3.13.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* C API: C API<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<17>,  Next: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112243(1): Don't include comments in f-string debug expressions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112287(2): Slightly optimize the Tier 2 (uop) interpreter by
     only loading ‘oparg’ and ‘operand’ when needed.  Also double the
     trace size limit again, to 512 this time.

   - gh-112266(3): Change docstrings of *note __dict__: 549. and
     ‘__weakref__’.

   - gh-111807(4): Lower the max parser stack depth to 1000 under WASI
     debug builds.

   - gh-111798(5): When Python is built in debug mode, set the C
     recursion limit to 500 instead of 1500.  A debug build is likely
     built with low optimization level which implies higher stack memory
     usage than a release build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106529(6): Enable translating unspecialized ‘FOR_ITER’ to Tier
     2.

   - gh-111916(7): Make hashlib related modules thread-safe without the
     GIL

   - gh-81137(8): Deprecate assignment to a function's ‘__code__’ field
     when the new code object is of a mismatched type (e.g., from a
     generator to a plain function).

   - gh-79932(9): Raise exception if *note frame.clear(): 27d. is called
     on a suspended frame.

   - gh-81925(10): Implement native thread ids for GNU KFreeBSD.

   - gh-111843(11): Use exponential backoff to reduce the number of
     failed tier 2 optimization attempts by over 99%.

   - gh-110829(12): Joining a thread now ensures the underlying OS
     thread has exited.  This is required for safer fork() in
     multi-threaded processes.

   - gh-109369(13): Make sure that tier 2 traces are de-optimized if the
     code is instrumented

   - gh-111772(14): Specialize slot loads and stores for _Py_T_OBJECT as
     well as Py_T_OBJECT_EX

   - gh-111666(15): Speed up *note BaseExceptionGroup.derive(): 167b,
     *note BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(): 167c, and *note
     BaseExceptionGroup.split(): 1543. by changing how they parse passed
     arguments.

   - gh-111654(16): Fix runtime crash when some error happens in opcode
     ‘LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF’.

   - gh-111623(17): Add support for sharing tuples between interpreters
     using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-111354(18): The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 309. is now ‘1’ if
     the instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’
     otherwise.

     The SUSPENDED frame state is now split into ‘SUSPENDED’ and
     ‘SUSPENDED_YIELD_FROM’.  This simplifies the code in ‘_PyGen_yf’.

   - gh-111520(19): Merge the Tier 1 (bytecode) and Tier 2 (micro-ops)
     interpreters together, moving the Tier 2 interpreter loop and
     switch into ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ in ‘Python/ceval.c’.  The
     ‘Python/executor.c’ file is gone.  Also the ‘TIER_ONE’ and
     ‘TIER_TWO’ macros are now handled by the code generator.

     'Beware!'  This changes the environment variables to enable
     micro-ops and their debugging to ‘PYTHON_UOPS’ and
     ‘PYTHON_LLTRACE’.

   - gh-109181(20): Speed up ‘Traceback’ object creation by lazily
     compute the line number.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111420(21): Allow type comments in parenthesized ‘with’
     statements

   - gh-111438(22): Add support for sharing floats between interpreters
     using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-111435(23): Add support for sharing of ‘True’ and ‘False’
     between interpreters using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by
     Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-102388(24): Fix a bug where ‘iso2022_jp_3’ and ‘iso2022_jp_2004’
     codecs read out of bounds

   - gh-111366(25): Fix an issue in the *note codeop: 1c. that was
     causing *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions raised in the presence
     of invalid syntax to not contain precise error messages.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111380(26): Fix a bug that was causing *note SyntaxWarning: 451.
     to appear twice when parsing if invalid syntax is encountered
     later.  Patch by Pablo galindo

   - gh-111374(27): Added a new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18c.  It determines whether or not frozen
     modules are ignored by the import machinery, equivalent of the
     *note -X frozen_modules: 175. command-line option.

   - gh-111354(28): Remove ‘oparg’ from *note YIELD_VALUE: 309.  Change
     ‘oparg’ of *note RESUME: 30a. to include information about the
     except-depth.  These changes make it possible to simplify the code
     in generator close.

   - gh-94438(29): Fix a regression that prevented jumping across ‘is
     None’ and ‘is not None’ when debugging.  Patch by Savannah
     Ostrowski.

   - gh-67224(30): Show source lines in tracebacks when using the ‘-c’
     option when running Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111123(31): Fix a bug where a *note global: 188. declaration in
     an *note except: 189. block is rejected when the global is used in
     the *note else: 18a. block.

   - gh-110938(32): Fix error messages for indented blocks with
     functions and classes with generic type parameters.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-109214(33): Remove unnecessary instruction pointer updates
     before returning from frames.

   - gh-110912(34): Correctly display the traceback for *note
     MemoryError: 1530. exceptions using the *note traceback: fd.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109894(35): Fixed crash due to improperly initialized static
     *note MemoryError: 1530. in subinterpreter.

   - gh-110892(36): Return ‘NULL’ for ‘PyTrace_RETURN’ events caused by
     an exception

   - gh-110864(37): Fix argument parsing by
     ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg’ for functions defining
     pos-or-keyword, vararg, and kw-only parameters.

   - gh-109094(38): Replace ‘prev_instr’ on the interpreter frame by
     ‘instr_ptr’ which points to the beginning of the instruction that
     is currently executing (or will execute once the frame resumes).

   - gh-110805(39): Allow the repl to show source code and complete
     tracebacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110722(40): Add ‘PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module’ to import a
     module early in the interpreter lifecycle before ‘site.py’ is
     executed.  Python needs to be *note built in debug mode: 1f6. for
     this option to exist.

   - gh-110481(41): Implement biased reference counting in
     ‘--disable-gil’ builds.

   - gh-110543(42): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where
     ‘types.CodeType.replace()’ would produce a broken code object if
     called on a module or class code object that contains a
     comprehension.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89519(43): Removed chained *note classmethod: 165. descriptors
     (introduced in bpo-19072(44)).  This can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 192.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To "pass-through" a *note classmethod: 165, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.

   - gh-103615(45): Use local events for opcode tracing

   - bpo-46657(46): Add mimalloc memory allocator support.

   - gh-106718(47): When PyConfig.stdlib_dir is explicitly set, it's now
     respected and won't be overridden by PyConfig.home.

   - gh-106905(48): Fix incorrect SystemError about AST constructor
     recursion depth mismatch.

   - gh-100445(49): Improve error message for unterminated strings with
     escapes.

   - bpo-45759(50): Improved error messages for ‘elif’/‘else’ statements
     not matching any valid statements.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112243

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112287

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112266

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111807

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106529

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111916

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81925

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111843

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110829

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111772

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111666

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111654

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111623

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111520

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109181

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111420

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111438

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111435

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102388

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111366

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111380

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67224

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110938

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109214

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110912

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109894

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110892

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110864

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109094

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110805

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110481

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110543

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46657

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106718

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100445

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45759


File: python.info,  Node: Library<16>,  Next: Tests<14>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.2 Library
.................

   - gh-111942(1): Fix SystemError in the TextIOWrapper constructor with
     non-encodable "errors" argument in non-debug mode.

   - gh-111995(2): Added the ‘NI_IDN’ constant to the *note socket: cb.
     module when present in C at build time for use with *note
     socket.getnameinfo(): 167e.

   - gh-109538(3): Issue warning message instead of having *note
     RuntimeError: 193. be displayed when event loop has already been
     closed at ‘StreamWriter.__del__()’.

   - gh-111942(4): Fix crashes in *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure():
     b39. when pass invalid arguments, e.g.  non-string encoding.

   - gh-111460(5): *note curses: 2b.: restore wide character support
     (including *note curses.unget_wch(): 1083. and *note get_wch():
     1082.) on macOS, which was unavailable due to a regression in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-103791(6): *note contextlib.suppress: f13. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 25c, in addition to the recent support for
     *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.

   - gh-111835(7): The *note mmap.mmap: 208. class now has an *note
     seekable(): 209. method that can be used when a seekable file-like
     object is required.  The *note seek(): 20a. method now returns the
     new absolute position.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-111804(8): Remove posix.fallocate() under WASI as the underlying
     posix_fallocate() is not available in WASI preview2.

   - gh-111841(9): Fix truncating arguments on an embedded null
     character in *note os.putenv(): 90b. and *note os.unsetenv(): 90a.
     on Windows.

   - gh-111768(10): *note wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop(): 167f. is now
     exposed correctly in ‘__all__’.

   - gh-80731(11): Avoid executing the default function in *note
     cmd.Cmd: 1680. in an except block

   - gh-111541(12): Fix *note doctest: 3a. for *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     not-builtin subclasses.

   - gh-111719(13): Add extra argument validation for ‘alias’ command in
     *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-111482(14): *note time: ed.: Make *note time.clock_gettime():
     1140. and *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ad2. functions up to 2x
     faster by faster calling convention.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110894(15): Call loop exception handler for exceptions in
     ‘client_connected_cb’ of *note asyncio.start_server(): b09. so that
     applications can handle it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-111531(16): Fix reference leaks in ‘bind_class()’ and
     ‘bind_all()’ methods of *note tkinter: ef. widgets.

   - gh-111246(17): *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac. will
     now automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.

   - gh-111356(18): Added *note io.text_encoding(): 1681, *note
     io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1682, and *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1683. to ‘io.__all__’.

   - gh-66425(19): Remove the code to set the REMOTE_HOST header from
     wsgiref module, as it is unreachable.  This header is used for
     performance reasons, which is not necessary in the wsgiref module.

   - gh-111429(20): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8.
     and *note is_relative_to(): 2c7.

   - gh-111342(21): Fixed typo in *note math.sumprod(): 483.

   - gh-68166(22): Remove mention of not supported "vsapi" element type
     in *note tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 255.  Add tests for
     ‘element_create()’ and other ‘ttk.Style’ methods.  Add examples for
     ‘element_create()’ in the documentation.

   - gh-111388(23): Add ‘show_group’ parameter to *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 83a, which allows to format
     *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. instances.

   - gh-79033(24): Another attempt at fixing *note
     asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 1684.  It now blocks until both
     conditions are true: the server is closed, 'and' there are no more
     active connections.  (This means that in some cases where in 3.12.0
     this function would 'incorrectly' have returned immediately, it
     will now block; in particular, when there are no active connections
     but the server hasn't been closed yet.)

   - gh-111259(25): Optimize recursive wildcards in *note pathlib: a3.

   - gh-111295(26): Fix *note time: ed. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111253(27): Add error checking during ‘_socket’ module init.

   - gh-111251(28): Fix ‘_blake2’ not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111233(29): Fix *note select: c0. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111230(30): Fix *note ssl: cf. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111174(31): Fix crash in *note io.BytesIO.getbuffer(): 11d0.
     called repeatedly for empty BytesIO.

   - gh-111187(32): Postpone removal version for
     locale.getdefaultlocale() to Python 3.15.

   - gh-111159(33): Fix *note doctest: 3a. output comparison for
     exceptions with notes.

   - gh-110910(34): Fix invalid state handling in *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. and *note asyncio.Timeout: 1685.  They now
     raise proper RuntimeError if they are improperly used and are left
     in consistent state after this.

   - gh-111092(35): Make turtledemo run without default root enabled.

   - gh-110944(36): Support alias and convenience vars for *note pdb:
     a4. completion

   - gh-110745(37): Added 'newline' parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.read_text(): e34.  Patch by Junya Okabe.

   - gh-84583(38): Make *note pdb: a4. enter post-mortem mode even for
     *note SyntaxError: 18b.

   - gh-80675(39): Set ‘f_trace_lines = True’ on all frames upon *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 232.

   - gh-110771(40): Expose the setup and cleanup portions of
     ‘asyncio.run_forever()’ as the standalone methods
     ‘asyncio.run_forever_setup()’ and ‘asyncio.run_forever_cleanup()’.
     This allows for tighter integration with GUI event loops.

   - gh-110774(41): Support setting the *note asyncio.Runner: 5ed.
     loop_factory kwarg in *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.

   - gh-110392(42): Fix *note tty.setraw(): 1686. and *note
     tty.setcbreak(): 1633.: previously they returned partially modified
     list of the original tty attributes.  *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 1687.
     and *note tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1634. now make a copy of the list of
     special characters before modifying it.

   - gh-59013(43): Make line number of function breakpoint more precise
     in *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-88434(44): Emit deprecation warning for non-integer numbers in
     *note gettext: 62. functions and methods that consider plural forms
     even if the translation was not found.

   - gh-110395(45): Ensure that *note select.kqueue(): 1688. objects
     correctly appear as closed in forked children, to prevent
     operations on an invalid file descriptor.

   - gh-110196(46): Add ‘__reduce__’ method to ‘IPv6Address’ in order to
     keep ‘scope_id’

   - gh-109747(47): Improve errors for unsupported look-behind patterns.
     Now re.error is raised instead of OverflowError or RuntimeError for
     too large width of look-behind pattern.

   - gh-109466(48): Add the *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped:
     1f8. property, which returns the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.

   - gh-85098(49): Implement the CLI of the *note symtable: d7. module
     and improve the repr of *note Symbol: 1689.

   - gh-108791(50): Improved error handling in *note pdb: a4. command
     line interface, making it produce more concise error messages.

   - gh-105931(51): Change *note compileall: 20. to only strip the
     stripdir prefix from the full path recorded in the compiled ‘.pyc’
     file, when the prefix matches the start of the full path in its
     entirety.  When the prefix does not match, no stripping is
     performed and a warning to this effect is displayed.

     Previously all path components of the stripdir prefix that matched
     the full path were removed, while those that did not match were
     left alone (including ones interspersed between matching
     components).

   - gh-107431(52): Make the ‘DictProxy’ and ‘ListProxy’ types in *note
     multiprocessing.managers: 96. *note Generic Alias Types: 69f. for
     ‘[]’ use in typing contexts.

   - gh-72904(53): Add *note glob.translate(): 1e7.  This function
     converts a pathname with shell-style wildcards to a regular
     expression.

   - gh-90026(54): Define ‘USE_XATTRS’ on Cygwin so that XATTR-related
     functions in the *note os: a0. module become available.

   - gh-90890(55): New methods *note mailbox.Maildir.get_info(): 168a,
     *note mailbox.Maildir.set_info(): 168b, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.get_flags(): 168c, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.set_flags(): 168d, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.add_flag(): 168e, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.remove_flag(): 168f.  These methods speed up
     accessing a message's info and/or flags and are useful when it is
     not necessary to access the message's contents, as when iterating
     over a Maildir to find messages with specific flags.

   - gh-102956(56): Fix returning of empty byte strings after seek in
     zipfile module

   - gh-102895(57): Added a parameter ‘local_exit’ for *note
     code.interact(): 1690. to prevent ‘exit()’ and ‘quit’ from closing
     ‘sys.stdin’ and raise ‘SystemExit’.

   - gh-97928(58): Change the behavior of ‘tkinter.Text.count()’.  It
     now always returns an integer if one or less counting options are
     specified.  Previously it could return a single count as a 1-tuple,
     an integer (only if option ‘"update"’ was specified) or ‘None’ if
     no items found.  The result is now the same if ‘wantobjects’ is set
     to ‘0’.

   - gh-96954(59): Switch the storage of the unicode codepoint names to
     use a different data-structure, a directed acyclic word graph(60).
     This makes the unicodedata shared library about 440 KiB smaller.
     Contributed by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick using code from the PyPy
     project.

   - gh-73561(61): Omit the interface scope from an IPv6 address when
     used as Host header by *note http.client: 6e.

   - gh-86826(62): ‘zipinfo’ now supports the full range of values in
     the TZ string determined by RFC 8536 and detects all invalid
     formats.  Both Python and C implementations now raise exceptions of
     the same type on invalid data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111995

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109538

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111460

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111804

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111841

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111768

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80731

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111541

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111719

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111482

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110894

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111531

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111356

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66425

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111429

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111342

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111388

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111259

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111295

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111253

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111251

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111233

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111230

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111174

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111159

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110910

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111092

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110944

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110745

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84583

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80675

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110771

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110774

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110392

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110395

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110196

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109747

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85098

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108791

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105931

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107431

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90026

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90890

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102956

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102895

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954

   (60) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_acyclic_finite_state_automaton

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73561

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86826


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<14>,  Next: Build<16>,  Prev: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-111808(1): Make the default value of
     ‘test.support.infinite_recursion()’ to be conditional based on
     whether optimizations were used when compiling the interpreter.
     This helps with platforms like WASI whose stack size is greatly
     restricted in debug builds.

   - gh-110722(2): Gathering line coverage of standard libraries within
     the regression test suite is now precise, as well as much faster.
     Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-110367(3): Make regrtest ‘--verbose3’ option compatible with
     ‘--huntrleaks -jN’ options.  The ‘./python -m test -j1 -R 3:3
     --verbose3’ command now works as expected.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111165(4): Remove no longer used functions ‘run_unittest()’ and
     ‘run_doctest()’ from the *note test.support: e3. module.

   - gh-110932(5): Fix regrtest if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined: use the variable value as the random seed.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110995(6): test_gdb: Fix detection of gdb built without Python
     scripting support.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110918(7): Test case matching patterns specified by options
     ‘--match’, ‘--ignore’, ‘--matchfile’ and ‘--ignorefile’ are now
     tested in the order of specification, and the last match determines
     whether the test case be run or ignored.

   - gh-108747(8): Add unit test for ‘usercustomize’ and ‘sitecustomize’
     hooks from *note site: c6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111808

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111165

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110932

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110995

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110918

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108747


File: python.info,  Node: Build<16>,  Next: Windows<12>,  Prev: Tests<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.4 Build
...............

   - gh-96954(1): Make ‘make regen-unicodedata’ work for out-of-tree
     builds of CPython.

   - gh-112088(2): Add ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ script to
     regenerate the ‘configure’ with an Ubuntu container image.  The
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:271’ container image
     (tiran/cpython_autoconf(3)) is no longer used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111046(4): For wasi-threads, memory is now exported to fix
     compatibility issues with some wasm runtimes.

   - gh-110828(5): AIX 32bit needs ‘-latomic’ to build the ‘_testcapi’
     extension module.

   - gh-85283(6): The ‘errno’, ‘md5’, ‘resource’, ‘winsound’,
     ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’, ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’,
     ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with
     the *note limited C API: 38c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112088

   (3) https://github.com/tiran/cpython_autoconf

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111046

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110828

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<12>,  Next: macOS<10>,  Prev: Build<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.5 Windows
.................

   - gh-111856(1): Fixes *note fstat(): d7b. on file systems that do not
     support file ID requests.  This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-111293(2): Fix *note os.DirEntry.inode: 1694. dropping higher 64
     bits of a file id on some filesystems on Windows.

   - gh-110913(3): WindowsConsoleIO now correctly chunks large buffers
     without splitting up UTF-8 sequences.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110913


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<10>,  Next: IDLE<13>,  Prev: Windows<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.6 macOS
...............

   - gh-59703(1): For macOS framework builds, in ‘getpath.c’ use the
     system ‘dladdr’ function to find the path to the shared library
     rather than depending on deprecated macOS APIs.

   - gh-110950(2): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘Secure coding is not enabled for restorable state!’
     warning encountered in Tkinter on macOS 14 Sonoma.

   - gh-111015(3): Ensure that IDLE.app and Python Launcher.app are
     installed with appropriate permissions on macOS builds.

   - gh-71383(4): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘ttk::ThemeChanged’ error encountered in Tkinter.

   - gh-92603(5): Update macOS installer to include a fix accepted by
     upstream Tcl/Tk for a crash encountered after the first *note
     tkinter.Tk(): 15f1. instance is destroyed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59703

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110950

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111015

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92603


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<7>,  Prev: macOS<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35668(1): Add docstrings to the IDLE debugger module.  Fix two
     bugs: initialize ‘Idb.botframe’ (should be in Bdb); in
     ‘Idb.in_rpc_code’, check whether ‘prev_frame’ is ‘None’ before
     trying to use it.  Greatly expand test_debugger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35668


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<7>,  Next: C API<16>,  Prev: IDLE<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-111903(1): Argument Clinic now supports the ‘@critical_section’
     directive that instructs Argument Clinic to generate a critical
     section around the function call, which locks the ‘self’ object in
     ‘--disable-gil’ builds.  Patch by Sam Gross.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<16>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.17.9 C API
...............

   - gh-112026(1): Add again the private ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’
     function as an alias to the new public *note
     PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 367. function.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-112026(2): Restore the removed
     ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’ function.  It is used by numpy.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112026(3): Restore removed private C API functions, macros and
     structures which have no simple replacement for now:

        * _PyDict_GetItem_KnownHash()

        * _PyDict_NewPresized()

        * _PyHASH_BITS

        * _PyHASH_IMAG

        * _PyHASH_INF

        * _PyHASH_MODULUS

        * _PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

        * _PyLong_Copy()

        * _PyLong_FromDigits()

        * _PyLong_New()

        * _PyLong_Sign()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodId()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()

        * _PyObject_CallOneArg()

        * _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT

        * _PyObject_FastCallDict()

        * _PyObject_GetAttrId()

        * _PyObject_Vectorcall()

        * _PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

        * _PyStack_AsDict()

        * _PyThread_CurrentFrames()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter structure

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Init()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()

        * _PyUnicode_AsString()

        * _PyUnicode_FromId()

        * _PyVectorcall_Function()

        * _Py_IDENTIFIER()

        * _Py_c_abs()

        * _Py_c_diff()

        * _Py_c_neg()

        * _Py_c_pow()

        * _Py_c_prod()

        * _Py_c_quot()

        * _Py_c_sum()

        * _Py_static_string()

        * _Py_static_string_init()

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112026(4): Add again ‘<ctype.h>’ and ‘<unistd.h>’ includes in
     ‘Python.h’, but don't include them in the limited C API version
     3.13 and newer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111956(5): Add internal-only one-time initialization API:
     ‘_PyOnceFlag’ and ‘_PyOnceFlag_CallOnce’.

   - gh-111262(6): Add *note PyDict_Pop(): 337. and *note
     PyDict_PopString(): 338. functions: remove a key from a dictionary
     and optionally return the removed value.  This is similar to *note
     dict.pop(): 339, but without the default value and not raising
     *note KeyError: 33a. if the key missing.  Patch by Stefan Behnel
     and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111863(7): Rename ‘Py_NOGIL’ to ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’.  Patch by
     Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-111138(8): Add *note PyList_Extend(): 353. and *note
     PyList_Clear(): 354. functions: similar to Python ‘list.extend()’
     and ‘list.clear()’ methods.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(9): On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the
     ‘<stddef.h>’ standard header file.  If needed, it should now be
     included explicitly.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111569(10): Implement "Python Critical Sections" from PEP
     703(11).  These are macros to help replace the GIL with per-object
     locks in the ‘--disable-gil’ build of CPython.  The macros are
     no-ops in the default build.

   - gh-111506(12): In the limited C API version 3.13, *note
     Py_SET_REFCNT(): 899. function is now implemented as an opaque
     function call.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108082(13): Add *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 344. function.

   - gh-110964(14): Move the undocumented private _PyArg functions and
     _PyArg_Parser structure to internal C API (‘pycore_modsupport.h’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110815(15): Support non-ASCII keyword names in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379.

   - gh-109587(16): Introduced
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_CompileCode()’,
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_SetPersistAfterFork()’ and
     ‘PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile()’.  These functions allow extension
     modules to initialize trampolines eagerly, after the application is
     "warmed up".  This makes it possible to have perf-trampolines
     running in an always-enabled fashion.

   - gh-85283(17): Add the *note PySys_Audit(): 365. function to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(18): Add *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386, *note
     PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388. and *note
     PyMem_RawFree(): 389. to the limited C API. Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-106672(19): Functions *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d, *note
     PyDict_GetItemString(): 37e, *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 375, *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 377, *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 371, *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 373, and *note PySys_GetObject(): 37f,
     which clear all errors occurred during calling the function, report
     now them using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.

   - gh-67565(20): Remove redundant C-contiguity check in ‘getargs.c’,
     *note binascii: 10, *note ssl: cf. and Argument Clinic.  Patched by
     Stefan Krah and Furkan Onder

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111956

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111863

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111569

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111506

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110964

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109587

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67565


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.18 Python 3.13.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-10-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<11>,  Next: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.1 Security
..................

   - gh-108310(1): Fixed an issue where instances of *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9. were vulnerable to a bypass of the TLS
     handshake and included protections (like certificate verification)
     and treating sent unencrypted data as if it were post-handshake TLS
     encrypted data.  Security issue reported as CVE 2023-40217(2) by
     Aapo Oksman.  Patch by Gregory P. Smith.

   - gh-107774(3): PEP 669 specifies that
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ will generate an audit event.
     Pre-releases of Python 3.12 did not generate the audit event.  This
     is now fixed.

   - gh-102988(4): Reverted the *note email.utils: 50. security
     improvement change released in 3.12beta4 that unintentionally
     caused *note email.utils.getaddresses: 1de. to fail to parse email
     addresses with a comma in the quoted name field.  See gh-106669(5).

   - gh-99108(6): Refresh our new HACL* built-in *note hashlib: 67. code
     from upstream.  Built-in SHA2 should be faster and an issue with
     SHA3 on 32-bit platforms is fixed.

   - gh-102509(7): Start initializing ‘ob_digit’ during creation of
     *note PyLongObject: 576. objects.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108310

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-40217

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107774

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106669

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102509


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<18>,  Next: Library<17>,  Prev: Security<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-110782(1): Fix crash when *note typing.TypeVar: 15c. is
     constructed with a keyword argument.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110752(2): Reset ‘ceval.eval_breaker’ in ‘interpreter_clear()’

   - gh-110721(3): Use the *note traceback: fd. implementation for the
     default ‘PyErr_Display()’ functionality.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110696(4): Fix incorrect error message for invalid argument
     unpacking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104169(5): Split the tokenizer into two separate directories: -
     One part includes the actual lexeme producing logic and lives in
     ‘Parser/lexer’.  - The second part wraps the lexer according to the
     different tokenization modes we have (string, utf-8, file,
     interactive, readline) and lives in ‘Parser/tokenizer’.

   - gh-110688(6): Remove undocumented ‘test_c_api’ method from *note
     set: 5c5, which was only defined for testing purposes under
     ‘Py_DEBUG’.  Now we have proper CAPI tests.

   - gh-104584(7): Fix a reference leak when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’
     or *note -X uops: 175. enabled.

   - gh-110514(8): Add ‘PY_THROW’ to *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6.
     events

   - gh-110489(9): Optimise *note math.ceil(): 137b. when the input is
     exactly a float, resulting in about a 10% improvement.

   - gh-110455(10): Guard ‘assert(tstate->thread_id > 0)’ with ‘#ifndef
     HAVE_PTHREAD_STUBS’.  This allows for for pydebug builds to work
     under WASI which (currently) lacks thread support.

   - gh-110309(11): Remove unnecessary empty constant nodes in the ast
     of f-string specs.

   - gh-110259(12): Correctly identify the format spec in f-strings
     (with single or triple quotes) that have multiple lines in the
     expression part and include a formatting spec.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-110237(13): Fix missing error checks for calls to
     ‘PyList_Append’ in ‘_PyEval_MatchClass’.

   - gh-110164(14): regrtest: If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined, regrtest now disables tests randomization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109889(15): Fix the compiler's redundant NOP detection algorithm
     to skip over NOPs with no line number when looking for the next
     instruction's lineno.

   - gh-109853(16): ‘sys.path[0]’ is now set correctly for
     subinterpreters.

   - gh-109923(17): Set line number on the ‘POP_TOP’ that follows a
     ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’.

   - gh-105716(18): Subinterpreters now correctly handle the case where
     they have threads running in the background.  Before, such threads
     would interfere with cleaning up and destroying them, as well as
     prevent running another script.

   - gh-109369(19): The internal eval_breaker and supporting flags, plus
     the monitoring version have been merged into a single atomic
     integer to speed up checks.

   - gh-109823(20): Fix bug where compiler does not adjust labels when
     removing an empty basic block which is a jump target.

   - gh-109793(21): The main thread no longer exits prematurely when a
     subinterpreter is cleaned up during runtime finalization.  The bug
     was a problem particularly because, when triggered, the Python
     process would always return with a 0 exitcode, even if it failed.

   - gh-109719(22): Fix missing jump target labels when compiler
     reorders cold/warm blocks.

   - gh-109595(23): Add *note -X cpu_count: 175. command line option to
     override return results of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. and *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf.  This option is useful for users who
     need to limit CPU resources of a container system without having to
     modify the container (application code).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-109627(24): Fix bug where the compiler does not assign a new
     jump target label to a duplicated small exit block.

   - gh-109596(25): Fix some tokens in the grammar that were incorrectly
     marked as soft keywords.  Also fix some repeated rule names and
     ensure that repeated rules are not allowed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109496(26): On a Python built in debug mode, *note Py_DECREF():
     55d. now calls ‘_Py_NegativeRefcount()’ if the object is a dangling
     pointer to deallocated memory: memory filled with ‘0xDD’ "dead
     byte" by the debug hook on memory allocators.  The fix is to check
     the reference count 'before' checking for ‘_Py_IsImmortal()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107265(27): Deopt opcodes hidden by the executor when base
     opcode is needed

   - gh-109371(28): Deopted instructions correctly for tool
     initialization and modified the incorrect assertion in
     instrumentation, when a previous tool already sets INSTRUCTION
     events

   - gh-105658(29): Fix bug where the line trace of an except block
     ending with a conditional includes an excess event with the line of
     the conditional expression.

   - gh-109219(30): Fix compiling type param scopes that use a name
     which is also free in an inner scope.

   - gh-109351(31): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     named (walrus) expression.

   - gh-109341(32): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     *note ast.TypeAlias: 169c.

   - gh-109195(33): Fix source location for the ‘LOAD_*’ instruction
     preceding a ‘LOAD_SUPER_ATTR’ to load the ‘super’ global (or
     shadowing variable) so that it encompasses only the name ‘super’
     and not the following parentheses.

   - gh-109256(34): Opcode IDs for specialized opcodes are allocated in
     their own range to improve stability of the IDs for the 'real'
     opcodes.

   - gh-109216(35): Fix possible memory leak in *note BUILD_MAP: 169d.

   - gh-109207(36): Fix a SystemError in ‘__repr__’ of symtable entry
     object.

   - gh-109179(37): Fix bug where the C traceback display drops notes
     from *note SyntaxError: 18b.

   - gh-109118(38): Disallow nested scopes (lambdas, generator
     expressions, and comprehensions) within PEP 695 annotation scopes
     that are nested within classes.

   - gh-109156(39): Add tests for de-instrumenting instructions while
     keeping the instrumentation for lines

   - gh-109114(40): Relax the detection of the error message for invalid
     lambdas inside f-strings to not search for arbitrary replacement
     fields to avoid false positives.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105848(41): Add a new *note CALL_KW: 169e. opcode, used for
     calls containing keyword arguments.  Also, fix a possible crash
     when jumping over method calls in a debugger.

   - gh-109052(42): Use the base opcode when comparing code objects to
     avoid interference from instrumentation

   - gh-109118(43): Fix interpreter crash when a NameError is raised
     inside the type parameters of a generic class.

   - gh-88943(44): Improve syntax error for non-ASCII character that
     follows a numerical literal.  It now points on the invalid
     non-ASCII character, not on the valid numerical literal.

   - gh-108976(45): Fix crash that occurs after de-instrumenting a code
     object in a monitoring callback.

   - gh-108732(46): Make iteration variables of module- and class-scoped
     comprehensions visible to pdb and other tools that use
     ‘frame.f_locals’ again.

   - gh-108959(47): Fix caret placement for error locations for
     subscript and binary operations that involve non-semantic
     parentheses and spaces.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104584(48): Fix a crash when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note
     -X uops: 175. enabled and an error occurs during optimization.

   - gh-108727(49): Define ‘tp_dealloc’ for ‘CounterOptimizer_Type’.
     This fixes a segfault on deallocation.

   - gh-108520(50): Fix
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.__setstate__()’ to properly
     initialize ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’.
     This fixes a regression when passing a SemLock across nested
     processes.

     Rename ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.is_fork_ctx’ to
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’ to avoid
     exposing it as public API.

   - gh-108654(51): Restore locals shadowed by an inlined comprehension
     if the comprehension raises an exception.

   - gh-108488(52): Change the initialization of inline cache entries so
     that the cache entry for ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ is initialized to zero,
     instead of the ‘adaptive_counter_warmup()’ value used for all other
     instructions.  This counter, unique among instructions, counts up
     from zero.

   - gh-108716(53): Turn off deep-freezing of code objects.  Modules are
     still frozen, so that a file system search is not needed for common
     modules.

   - gh-108614(54): Add RESUME_CHECK instruction, to avoid having to
     handle instrumentation, signals, and contexts switches in the tier
     2 execution engine.

   - gh-108487(55): Move an assert that would cause a spurious crash in
     a devious case that should only trigger deoptimization.

   - gh-106176(56): Use a ‘WeakValueDictionary’ to track the lists
     containing the modules each thread is currently importing.  This
     helps avoid a reference leak from keeping the list around longer
     than necessary.  Weakrefs are used as GC can't interrupt the
     cleanup.

   - gh-105481(57): The regen-opcode build stage was removed and its
     work is now done in regen-cases.

   - gh-107901(58): Fix missing line number on *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 6f8.
     at the end of a for loop.

   - gh-108113(59): The *note compile(): 190. built-in can now accept a
     new flag, ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to
     ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ except that the returned ‘AST’ is optimized
     according to the value of the ‘optimize’ argument.

     *note ast.parse(): 1a6. now accepts an optional argument ‘optimize’
     which is passed on to the *note compile(): 190. built-in.  This
     makes it possible to obtain an optimized ‘AST’.

   - gh-107971(60): Opcode IDs are generated from bytecodes.c instead of
     being hard coded in opcode.py.

   - gh-107944(61): Improve error message for function calls with bad
     keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-108390(62): Raise an exception when setting a non-local event
     (‘RAISE’, ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’, etc.)  in
     ‘sys.monitoring.set_local_events’.

     Fixes crash when tracing in recursive calls to Python classes.

   - gh-108035(63): Remove the ‘_PyCFrame’ struct, moving the pointer to
     the current interpreter frame back to the threadstate, as it was
     for 3.10 and earlier.  The ‘_PyCFrame’ existed as a performance
     optimization for tracing.  Since PEP 669 has been implemented, this
     optimization no longer applies.

   - gh-91051(64): Fix abort / segfault when using all eight type
     watcher slots, on platforms where ‘char’ is signed by default.

   - gh-106581(65): Fix possible assertion failures and missing
     instrumentation events when ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note -X uops: 175. is
     enabled.

   - gh-107526(66): Revert converting ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’,
     and ‘iter’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-84805(67): Autogenerate signature for *note METH_NOARGS: 148c.
     and *note METH_O: 14c0. extension functions.

   - gh-107758(68): Make the ‘dump_stack()’ routine used by the
     ‘lltrace’ feature (low-level interpreter debugging) robust against
     recursion by ensuring that it never calls a ‘__repr__’ method
     implemented in Python.  Also make the similar output for Tier-2
     uops appear on ‘stdout’ (instead of ‘stderr’), to match the
     ‘lltrace’ code in ceval.c.

   - gh-107659(69): Add docstrings for *note ctypes.pointer(): 169f. and
     *note ctypes.POINTER(): 16a0.

   - gh-105848(70): Modify the bytecode so that the actual callable for
     a *note CALL: 6f3. is at a consistent position on the stack
     (regardless of whether or not bound-method-calling optimizations
     are active).

   - gh-107674(71): Fixed performance regression in ‘sys.settrace’.

   - gh-107724(72): In pre-release versions of 3.12, up to rc1, the
     sys.monitoring callback function for the ‘PY_THROW’ event was
     missing the third, exception argument.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-84436(73): Skip reference count modifications for many known
     immortal objects.

   - gh-107596(74): Specialize subscripting *note str: 437. objects by
     *note int: 254. indexes.

   - gh-107080(75): Trace refs builds (‘--with-trace-refs’) were
     crashing when used with isolated subinterpreters.  The problematic
     global state has been isolated to each interpreter.  Other fixing
     the crashes, this change does not affect users.

   - gh-107557(76): Generate the cases needed for the barebones tier 2
     abstract interpreter for optimization passes in CPython.

   - gh-106608(77): Make ‘_PyUOpExecutorObject’ variable length.

   - gh-100964(78): Clear generators' exception state after ‘return’ to
     break reference cycles.

   - gh-107455(79): Improve error messages when converting an
     incompatible type to *note ctypes.c_char_p: 16a1, *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 16a2. and *note ctypes.c_void_p: 16a3.

   - gh-107263(80): Increase C recursion limit for functions other than
     the main interpreter from 800 to 1500.  This should allow functions
     like ‘list.__repr__’ and ‘json.dumps’ to handle all the inputs that
     they could prior to 3.12

   - gh-104584(81): Fix an issue which caused incorrect inline caches to
     be read when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note -X uops: 175.
     enabled.

   - gh-104432(82): Fix potential unaligned memory access on C APIs
     involving returned sequences of ‘char *’ pointers within the *note
     grp: 65. and *note socket: cb. modules.  These were revealed using
     a ‘-fsaniziter=alignment’ build on ARM macOS. Patch by Christopher
     Chavez.

   - gh-106078(83): Isolate ‘_decimal’ (apply PEP 687(84)).  Patch by
     Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-106898(85): Add the exception as the third argument to
     ‘PY_UNIND’ callbacks in ‘sys.monitoring’.  This makes the
     ‘PY_UNWIND’ callback consistent with the other exception handling
     callbacks.

   - gh-106895(86): Raise a ‘ValueError’ when a monitoring callback
     function returns ‘DISABLE’ for events that cannot be disabled
     locally.

   - gh-106897(87): Add a ‘RERAISE’ event to ‘sys.monitoring’, which
     occurs when an exception is reraise, either explicitly by a plain
     ‘raise’ statement, or implicitly in an ‘except’ or ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-77377(88): Ensure that multiprocessing synchronization objects
     created in a fork context are not sent to a different process
     created in a spawn context.  This changes a segfault into an
     actionable RuntimeError in the parent process.

   - gh-106931(89): Statically allocated string objects are now interned
     globally instead of per-interpreter.  This fixes a situation where
     such a string would only be interned in a single interpreter.
     Normal string objects are unaffected.

   - gh-104621(90): Unsupported modules now always fail to be imported.

   - gh-107122(91): Add *note dbm.ndbm.ndbm.clear(): 1d3. to *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-107122(92): Add *note dbm.gnu.gdbm.clear(): 1d2. to *note
     dbm.gnu: 33.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-107015(93): The ASYNC and AWAIT tokens are removed from the
     Grammar, which removes the possibility of making ‘async’ and
     ‘await’ soft keywords when using ‘feature_version<7’ in *note
     ast.parse(): 1a6.

   - gh-106917(94): Fix classmethod-style *note super(): 4c8. method
     calls (i.e., where the second argument to *note super(): 4c8, or
     the implied second argument drawn from ‘self/cls’ in the case of
     zero-arg super, is a type) when the target of the call is not a
     classmethod.

   - gh-105699(95): Python no longer crashes due an infrequent race when
     initializing per-interpreter interned strings.  The crash would
     manifest when the interpreter was finalized.

   - gh-105699(96): Python no longer crashes due to an infrequent race
     in setting ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’ and
     ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ (both deprecated), when
     simultaneously initializing two isolated subinterpreters.  Now they
     are only set during runtime initialization.

   - gh-106908(97): Fix various hangs, reference leaks, test failures,
     and tracing/introspection bugs when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or
     *note -X uops: 175. enabled.

   - gh-106092(98): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a use-after-free
     bug in ‘frame_dealloc’ when the trashcan delays the deallocation of
     a ‘PyFrameObject’.

   - gh-106485(99): Reduce the number of materialized instances
     dictionaries by dematerializing them when possible.

   - gh-106719(100): No longer suppress arbitrary errors in the
     ‘__annotations__’ getter and setter in the type and module types.

   - gh-106723(101): Propagate ‘frozen_modules’ to multiprocessing
     spawned process interpreters.

   - gh-104909(102): Split ‘LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’ into micro-ops.

   - gh-104909(103): Split *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16a4. specializations into
     micro-ops.

   - gh-106597(104): A new debug structure of offsets has been added to
     the ‘_PyRuntimeState’ that will help out-of-process debuggers and
     profilers to obtain the offsets to relevant interpreter structures
     in a way that is agnostic of how Python was compiled and that
     doesn't require copying the headers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-106487(105): Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace():
     198. to be a keyword.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-96844(106): Improve error message of ‘list.remove()’.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-81283(107): Compiler now strips indents from docstrings.  It
     reduces ‘pyc’ file size 5% when the module is heavily documented.
     This change affects to ‘__doc__’ so tools like doctest will be
     affected.

   - gh-106396(108): When the format specification of an f-string
     expression is empty, the parser now generates an empty *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 16a5. node for it instead of an one-element *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 16a5. with an empty string *note ast.Constant: 2b6.

   - gh-100288(109): Specialize *note LOAD_ATTR: 4cb. for
     non-descriptors on the class.  Adds
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_WITH_VALUES’ and
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_NO_DICT’.

   - gh-106008(110): Fix possible reference leaks when failing to
     optimize comparisons with *note None: 662. in the bytecode
     compiler.

   - gh-106145(111): Make ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ required on
     ‘type_param’ ast nodes.

   - gh-106213(112): Changed the way that Emscripten call trampolines
     work for compatibility with Wasm/JS Promise integration.

   - gh-106182(113): *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors: cd6. now return interned Unicode
     object.

   - gh-106210(114): Removed Emscripten import trampoline as it was no
     longer necessary for Pyodide.

   - gh-104584(115): Added a new, experimental, tracing optimizer and
     interpreter (a.k.a.  "tier 2").  This currently pessimizes, so
     don't use yet - this is infrastructure so we can experiment with
     optimizing passes.  To enable it, pass ‘-Xuops’ or set
     ‘PYTHONUOPS=1’.  To get debug output, set ‘PYTHONUOPSDEBUG=N’ where
     ‘N’ is a debug level (0-4, where 0 is no debug output and 4 is
     excessively verbose).

   - gh-105775(116): *note LOAD_CLOSURE: 16a6. is now a pseudo-op.

   - gh-105730(117): Allow any callable other than type objects as the
     condition predicate in *note BaseExceptionGroup.split(): 1543. and
     *note BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(): 167c.

   - gh-105979(118): Fix crash in ‘_imp.get_frozen_object()’ due to
     improper exception handling.

   - gh-106003(119): Add a new *note TO_BOOL: 16a7. instruction, which
     performs boolean conversions for *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 16a8,
     *note POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 16a9, and *note UNARY_NOT: 16aa. (which
     all expect exact *note bool: 453. values now).  Also, modify the
     oparg of *note COMPARE_OP: 958. to include an optional "boolean
     conversion" flag.

   - gh-98931(120): Ensure custom *note SyntaxError: 18b. error messages
     are raised for invalid imports with multiple targets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105724(121): Improve ‘assert’ error messages by providing exact
     error range.

   - gh-105908(122): Fixed bug where gh-99111(123) breaks future import
     ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ in the Python REPL.

   - gh-105840(124): Fix possible crashes when specializing function
     calls with too many ‘__defaults__’.

   - gh-105831(125): Fix an f-string bug, where using a debug expression
     (the ‘=’ sign) that appears in the last line of a file results to
     the debug buffer that holds the expression text being one character
     too small.

   - gh-105800(126): Correctly issue *note SyntaxWarning: 451. in
     f-strings if invalid sequences are used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105340(127): Include the comprehension iteration variable in
     ‘locals()’ inside a module- or class-scope comprehension.

   - gh-105331(128): Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. if the ‘delay’
     argument to *note asyncio.sleep(): a5f. is a NaN (matching *note
     time.sleep(): 68a.).

   - gh-105587(129): The runtime can't guarantee that immortal objects
     will not be mutated by Extensions.  Thus, this modifies
     _PyStaticObject_CheckRefcnt to warn instead of asserting.

   - gh-105564(130): Don't include artificil newlines in the ‘line’
     attribute of tokens in the APIs of the *note tokenize: fa. module.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105549(131): Tokenize separately ‘NUMBER’ and ‘NAME’ tokens that
     are not ambiguous.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105588(132): Fix an issue that could result in crashes when
     compiling malformed *note ast: 8. nodes.

   - gh-100987(133): Allow objects other than code objects as the
     "executable" in internal frames.  In the long term, this can help
     tools like Cython and PySpy interact more efficiently.  In the
     shorter term, it allows us to perform some optimizations more
     simply.

   - gh-105375(134): Fix bugs in the *note builtins: 12. module where
     exceptions could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(135): Fix bug in the compiler where an exception could
     end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(136): Improve error handling in
     ‘PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()’ where an exception could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105486(137): Change the repr of ‘ParamSpec’ list of args in
     ‘types.GenericAlias’.

   - gh-105678(138): Break the ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction into two
     parts, ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ which makes the function and
     ‘SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE’ which sets the attributes on the function.
     This makes the stack effect of ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ regular to ease
     optimization and code generation.

   - gh-105435(139): Fix spurious newline character if file ends on a
     comment without a newline.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105390(140): Correctly raise *note tokenize.TokenError: 530.
     exceptions instead of *note SyntaxError: 18b. for tokenize errors
     such as incomplete input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105259(141): Don't include newline character for trailing
     ‘NEWLINE’ tokens emitted in the *note tokenize: fa. module.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104635(142): Eliminate redundant *note STORE_FAST: 16ab.
     instructions in the compiler.  Patch by Donghee Na and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-105324(143): Fix the main function of the *note tokenize: fa.
     module when reading from ‘sys.stdin’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-33092(144): Simplify and speed up interpreter for f-strings.
     Removes ‘FORMAT_VALUE’ opcode.  Add ‘CONVERT_VALUE’,
     ‘FORMAT_SIMPLE’ and ‘FORMAT_WITH_SPEC’ opcode.  Compiler emits more
     efficient sequence for each format expression.

   - gh-105229(145): Remove remaining two-codeunit superinstructions.
     All remaining superinstructions only take a single codeunit,
     simplifying instrumentation and quickening.

   - gh-105235(146): Prevent out-of-bounds memory access during
     ‘mmap.find()’ calls.

   - gh-98963(147): Restore the ability for a subclass of *note
     property: 192. to define ‘__slots__’ or otherwise be dict-less by
     ignoring failures to set a docstring on such a class.  This
     behavior had regressed in 3.12beta1.  An *note AttributeError: 343.
     where there had not previously been one was disruptive to existing
     code.

   - gh-104812(148): The "pending call" machinery now works for all
     interpreters, not just the main interpreter, and runs in all
     threads, not just the main thread.  Some calls are still only done
     in the main thread, ergo in the main interpreter.  This change does
     not affect signal handling nor the existing public C-API
     (‘Py_AddPendingCall()’), which both still only target the main
     thread.  The new functionality is meant strictly for internal use
     for now, since consequences of its use are not well understood yet
     outside some very restricted cases.  This change brings the
     capability in line with the intention when the state was made
     per-interpreter several years ago.

   - gh-105194(149): Do not escape with backslashes f-string format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105229(150): Replace some dynamic superinstructions with single
     instruction equivalents.

   - gh-105162(151): Fixed bug in generator.close()/throw() where an
     inner iterator would be ignored when the outer iterator was
     instrumented.

   - gh-105164(152): Ensure annotations are set up correctly if the only
     annotation in a block is within a *note match: 7f9. block.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105148(153): Make ‘_PyASTOptimizeState’ internal to ast_opt.c.
     Make ‘_PyAST_Optimize’ take two integers instead of a pointer to
     this struct.  This avoids the need to include pycore_compile.h in
     ast_opt.c.

   - gh-104799(154): Attributes of *note ast: 8. nodes that are lists
     now default to the empty list if omitted.  This means that some
     code that previously raised *note TypeError: 525. when the AST node
     was used will now proceed with the empty list instead.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105111(155): Remove the old trashcan macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.  They should
     be replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - gh-105035(156): Fix *note super(): 4c8. calls on types with custom
     *note tp_getattro: 16ac. implementation (e.g.  meta-types.)

   - gh-105017(157): Show CRLF lines in the tokenize string attribute in
     both NL and NEWLINE tokens.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-105013(158): Fix handling of multiline parenthesized lambdas in
     *note inspect.getsource(): 1580.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105017(159): Do not include an additional final ‘NL’ token when
     parsing files having CRLF lines.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-104976(160): Ensure that trailing ‘DEDENT’ ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’
     objects emitted by the *note tokenize: fa. module are reported as
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104972(161): Ensure that the ‘line’ attribute in
     ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’ objects in the *note tokenize: fa. module are
     always correct.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104955(162): Fix signature for the new *note
     __release_buffer__(): 16ad. slot.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104690(163): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 195. during interpreter shutdown (such as from
     *note atexit: c. handlers) is no longer supported.  It can lead to
     race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
     thread states while internal *note threading: ec. routines are
     trying to allocate and use the state of just created threads.  Or
     forked children trying to use the mid-shutdown runtime and thread
     state in the child process.

   - gh-104879(164): Fix crash when accessing the ‘__module__’ attribute
     of type aliases defined outside a module.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104825(165): Tokens emitted by the *note tokenize: fa. module do
     not include an implicit ‘\n’ character in the ‘line’ attribute
     anymore.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104770(166): If a generator returns a value upon being closed,
     the value is now returned by *note generator.close(): 16ae.

   - gh-89091(167): Raise *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. for unawaited async
     generator methods like *note asend(): 8c8, *note athrow(): 4e6. and
     *note aclose(): 8c7.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96663(168): Add a better, more introspect-able error message
     when setting attributes on classes without a ‘__dict__’ and no slot
     member for the attribute.

   - gh-93627(169): Update the Python pickle module implementation to
     match the C implementation of the pickle module.  For objects
     setting reduction methods like *note __reduce_ex__(): 1574. or
     *note __reduce__(): 9c3. to ‘None’, pickling will result in a *note
     TypeError: 525.

   - gh-101006(170): Improve error handling when read *note marshal: 8c.
     data.

   - gh-91095(171): Specializes calls to most Python classes.
     Specifically, any class that inherits from ‘object’, or another
     Python class, and does not override ‘__new__’.

     The specialized instruction does the following:

       1. Creates the object (by calling ‘object.__new__’)

       2. Pushes a shim frame to the frame stack (to cleanup after
          ‘__init__’)

       3. Pushes the frame for ‘__init__’ to the frame stack

     Speeds up the instantiation of most Python classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110782

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110752

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110721

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110696

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104169

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110688

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110514

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110489

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110455

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110309

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110259

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110237

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110164

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109889

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109853

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109923

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105716

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109823

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109719

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109627

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109596

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109496

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107265

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109371

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105658

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109219

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109351

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109341

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109195

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109256

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109216

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109207

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109179

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109156

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109114

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109052

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88943

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108976

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108732

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108959

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108727

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108520

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108654

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108488

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108716

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108614

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108487

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106176

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107971

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108390

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108035

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106581

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107526

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84805

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107758

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107659

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107724

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107596

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107080

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107557

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106608

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100964

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107455

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107263

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104432

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106078

   (84) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106898

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106895

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106897

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77377

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106931

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104621

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107015

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106917

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106908

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106092

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106485

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106719

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106723

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106597

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96844

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106396

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106008

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106145

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106213

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106182

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106210

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105775

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105730

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105979

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106003

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105724

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105908

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99111

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105840

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105831

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105800

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105340

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105331

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105587

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105564

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105549

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105588

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100987

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105486

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105678

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105435

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105390

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105259

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104635

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105324

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/33092

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105229

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105235

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98963

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104812

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105194

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105229

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105162

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105164

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105148

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105035

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105013

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104976

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104972

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104955

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104690

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104879

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104825

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104770

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89091

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96663

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93627

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101006

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<17>,  Next: Documentation<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.3 Library
.................

   - gh-110786(1): *note sysconfig: da.'s CLI now ignores *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1047, making it exit normally if its output is
     being piped and the pipe closes.

   - gh-103480(2): The *note sysconfig: da. module is now a package,
     instead of a single-file module.

   - gh-110733(3): Micro-optimization: Avoid calling ‘min()’, ‘max()’ in
     ‘BaseEventLoop._run_once()’.

   - gh-94597(4): Added *note asyncio.EventLoop: 16b0. for use with the
     *note asyncio.run(): 468. 'loop_factory' kwarg to avoid calling the
     asyncio policy system.

   - gh-110682(5): *note runtime-checkable protocols: 42e. used to
     consider ‘__match_args__’ a protocol member in ‘__instancecheck__’
     if it was present on the protocol.  Now, this attribute is ignored
     if it is present.

   - gh-110488(6): Fix a couple of issues in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_name(): 16b1.: a single dot was incorrectly
     considered a valid name, and in ‘PureWindowsPath’, a name with an
     NTFS alternate data stream, like ‘a:b’, was incorrectly considered
     invalid.

   - gh-110590(7): Fix a bug in ‘_sre.compile()’ where *note TypeError:
     525. would be overwritten by *note OverflowError: 86f. when the
     'code' argument was a list of non-ints.

   - gh-65052(8): Prevent *note pdb: a4. from crashing when trying to
     display undisplayable objects

   - gh-110519(9): Deprecation warning about non-integer number in *note
     gettext: 62. now always refers to the line in the user code where
     gettext function or method is used.  Previously it could refer to a
     line in ‘gettext’ code.

   - gh-89902(10): Deprecate non-standard format specifier "N" for *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29a.  It was not documented and only supported in
     the C implementation.

   - gh-110378(11): *note contextmanager(): 11e1. and *note
     asynccontextmanager(): b1a. context managers now close an invalid
     underlying generator object that yields more then one value.

   - gh-106670(12): In *note pdb: a4, set convenience variable
     ‘$_exception’ for post mortem debugging.

   - gh-110365(13): Fix *note termios.tcsetattr(): 16b2. bug that was
     overwriting existing errors during parsing integers from ‘term’
     list.

   - gh-109653(14): Slightly improve the import time of several
     standard-library modules by deferring imports of *note warnings:
     111. within those modules.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110273(15): *note dataclasses.replace(): 16b3. now raises
     TypeError instead of ValueError if specify keyword argument for a
     field declared with init=False or miss keyword argument for
     required InitVar field.

   - gh-110249(16): Add ‘--inline-caches’ flag to ‘dis’ command line.

   - gh-109653(17): Fix a Python 3.12 regression in the import time of
     *note random: b7.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110222(18): Add support of struct sequence objects in *note
     copy.replace(): 150.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-109649(19): *note multiprocessing: 93, *note concurrent.futures:
     21, *note compileall: 20.: Replace *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. with
     *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. to select the default number of
     worker threads and processes.  Get the CPU affinity if supported.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110150(20): Fix base case handling in statistics.quantiles.  Now
     allows a single data point.

   - gh-110036(21): On Windows, multiprocessing ‘Popen.terminate()’ now
     catches *note PermissionError: d32. and get the process exit code.
     If the process is still running, raise again the *note
     PermissionError: d32.  Otherwise, the process terminated as
     expected: store its exit code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110038(22): Fixed an issue that caused ‘KqueueSelector.select()’
     to not return all the ready events in some cases when a file
     descriptor is registered for both read and write.

   - gh-110045(23): Update the *note symtable: d7. module to support the
     new scopes introduced by PEP 695(24).

   - gh-88402(25): Add new variables to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1017. on Windows: ‘LIBRARY’,
     ‘LDLIBRARY’, ‘LIBDIR’, ‘SOABI’, and ‘Py_NOGIL’.

   - gh-109631(26): *note re: b8. functions such as *note re.findall():
     1015, *note re.split(): 29f, *note re.search(): 120c. and *note
     re.sub(): 2a0. which perform short repeated matches can now be
     interrupted by user.

   - gh-109653(27): Reduce the import time of *note email.utils: 50. by
     around 43%.  This results in the import time of *note
     email.message: 44. falling by around 18%, which in turn reduces the
     import time of *note importlib.metadata: 79. by around 6%.  Patch
     by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109818(28): Fix *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11d2. not
     copying ‘__type_params__’ from decorated function.

   - gh-109047(29): *note concurrent.futures: 21.: The 'executor manager
     thread' now catches exceptions when adding an item to the 'call
     queue'.  During Python finalization, creating a new thread can now
     raise *note RuntimeError: 193.  Catch the exception and call
     ‘terminate_broken()’ in this case.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109782(30): Ensure the signature of *note os.path.isdir(): a00.
     is identical on all platforms.  Patch by Amin Alaee.

   - gh-109653(31): Improve import time of *note functools: 5e. by
     around 13%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109590(32): *note shutil.which(): 4a0. will prefer files with an
     extension in ‘PATHEXT’ if the given mode includes ‘os.X_OK’ on
     win32.  If no ‘PATHEXT’ match is found, a file without an extension
     in ‘PATHEXT’ can be returned.  This change will have *note
     shutil.which(): 4a0. act more similarly to previous behavior in
     Python 3.11.

   - gh-109653(33): Reduce the import time of *note enum: 55. by over
     50%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109593(34): Avoid deadlocking on a reentrant call to the
     multiprocessing resource tracker.  Such a reentrant call, though
     unlikely, can happen if a GC pass invokes the finalizer for a
     multiprocessing object such as SemLock.

   - gh-109653(35): Reduce the import time of *note typing: 103. by
     around a third.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109649(36): Add *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. function to
     get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the
     current process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-74481(37): Add ‘set_error_mode’ related constants in ‘msvcrt’
     module in Python debug build.

   - gh-109613(38): Fix *note os.stat(): 48c. and *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 16b4.: check for exceptions.  Previously, on
     Python built in debug mode, these functions could trigger a fatal
     Python error (and abort the process) when a function succeeded with
     an exception set.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109599(39): Expose the type of PyCapsule objects as
     ‘types.CapsuleType’.

   - gh-109109(40): You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from
     TLS connections via *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 1597.
     and *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 1598. methods.

     Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

   - gh-109559(41): Update *note unicodedata: 104. database to Unicode
     15.1.0.

   - gh-109543(42): Remove unnecessary *note hasattr(): 4be. check
     during *note typing.TypedDict: 161. creation.

   - gh-109495(43): Remove unnecessary extra ‘__slots__’ in *note
     datetime: 1c7.'s pure python implementation to reduce memory size,
     as they are defined in the superclass.  Patch by James Hilton-Balfe

   - gh-109461(44): *note logging: 86.: Use a context manager for lock
     acquisition.

   - gh-109096(45): *note http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. has
     been deprecated for removal in 3.15.  Its design is old and the web
     world has long since moved beyond CGI.

   - gh-109409(46): Fix error when it was possible to inherit a frozen
     dataclass from multiple parents some of which were possibly not
     frozen.

   - gh-109375(47): The *note pdb: a4. ‘alias’ command now prevents
     registering aliases without arguments.

   - gh-109319(48): Deprecate the ‘dis.HAVE_ARGUMENT’ field in favour of
     ‘dis.hasarg’.

   - gh-107219(49): Fix a race condition in ‘concurrent.futures’.  When
     a process in the process pool was terminated abruptly (while the
     future was running or pending), close the connection write end.  If
     the call queue is blocked on sending bytes to a worker process,
     closing the connection write end interrupts the send, so the queue
     can be closed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-66143(50): The *note codecs.CodecInfo: 16b5. object has been
     made copyable and pickleable.  Patched by Robert Lehmann and Furkan
     Onder.

   - gh-109187(51): *note pathlib.Path.resolve(): 16b6. now treats
     symlink loops like other errors: in strict mode, *note OSError:
     40d. is raised, and in non-strict mode, no exception is raised.

   - gh-50644(52): Attempts to pickle or create a shallow or deep copy
     of *note codecs: 1b. streams now raise a TypeError.  Previously,
     copying failed with a RecursionError, while pickling produced wrong
     results that eventually caused unpickling to fail with a
     RecursionError.

   - gh-109174(53): Add support of *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc. in
     *note copy.replace(): 150.

   - gh-109164(54): *note pdb: a4.: Replace *note getopt: 60. with *note
     argparse: 6. for parsing command line arguments.

   - gh-109151(55): Enable ‘readline’ editing features in the *note
     sqlite3 command-line interface: 42c. (‘python -m sqlite3’).

   - gh-108987(56): Fix *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 194. race
     condition.  If a thread is created during Python finalization, the
     newly spawned thread now exits immediately instead of trying to
     access freed memory and lead to a crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108682(57): Enum: require ‘names=()’ or ‘type=...’ to create an
     empty enum using the functional syntax.

   - gh-109033(58): Exceptions raised by os.utime builtin function now
     include the related filename

   - gh-108843(59): Fix an issue in *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. when
     unparsing f-strings containing many quote types.

   - gh-108469(60): *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. now supports new *note
     f-string: 421. syntax introduced in Python 3.12.  Note that the
     *note f-string: 421. quotes are reselected for simplicity under the
     new syntax.  (Patch by Steven Sun)

   - gh-108751(61): Add *note copy.replace(): 150. function which allows
     to create a modified copy of an object.  It supports named tuples,
     dataclasses, and many other objects.

   - gh-108682(62): Enum: raise *note TypeError: 525. if
     ‘super().__new__()’ is called from a custom ‘__new__’.

   - gh-108278(63): Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword
     for the following *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. APIs:

        * *note set_authorizer(): 2a8.

        * *note set_progress_handler(): 2a9.

        * *note set_trace_callback(): 2aa.

     The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-105829(64): Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor deadlock

   - gh-108295(65): Fix crashes related to use of weakrefs on *note
     typing.TypeVar: 15c.

   - gh-108463(66): Make expressions/statements work as expected in pdb

   - gh-108277(67): Add *note os.timerfd_create(): 20e, *note
     os.timerfd_settime(): 20f, *note os.timerfd_gettime(): 211, *note
     os.timerfd_settime_ns(): 210, and *note os.timerfd_gettime_ns():
     212. to provide a low level interface for Linux's timer
     notification file descriptor.

   - gh-107811(68): *note tarfile: dd.: extraction of members with
     overly large UID or GID (e.g.  on an OS with 32-bit ‘id_t’) now
     fails in the same way as failing to set the ID.

   - gh-64662(69): Fix support for virtual tables in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 244.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - gh-108111(70): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(71) for
     3.12, resulting in an incorrect offset calculation in
     ‘gzip.GzipFile.seek()’.

   - gh-108294(72): *note time.sleep(): 68a. now raises an auditing
     event.

   - gh-108278(73): Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the
     callable as keyword arguments, for the following *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242. APIs:

        * *note create_function(): 2a6.

        * *note create_aggregate(): 2a7.

     The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-108322(74): Speed-up NormalDist.samples() by using the inverse
     CDF method instead of calling random.gauss().

   - gh-83417(75): Add the ability for venv to create a ‘.gitignore’
     file which causes the created environment to be ignored by Git.  It
     is on by default when venv is called via its CLI.

   - gh-105736(76): Harmonized the pure Python version of *note
     OrderedDict: 5c7. with the C version.  Now, both versions set up
     their internal state in ‘__new__’.  Formerly, the pure Python
     version did the set up in ‘__init__’.

   - gh-108083(77): Fix bugs in the constructor of *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242. and *note sqlite3.Connection.close(): 243.
     where exceptions could be leaked.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107932(78): Fix ‘dis’ module to properly report and display
     bytecode that do not have source lines.

   - gh-105539(79): *note sqlite3: ce. now emits an *note
     ResourceWarning: 241. if a *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. object is
     not ‘closed’ explicitly.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107995(80): The ‘__module__’ attribute on instances of *note
     functools.cached_property: 52f. is now set to the name of the
     module in which the cached_property is defined, rather than
     "functools".  This means that doctests in ‘cached_property’
     docstrings are now properly collected by the *note doctest: 3a.
     module.  Patch by Tyler Smart.

   - gh-107963(81): Fix *note multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload():
     1554. to check the given list of modules names.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-106242(82): Fixes *note os.path.normpath(): 12fa. to handle
     embedded null characters without truncating the path.

   - gh-81555(83): *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. now only quotes ‘"’ in
     attributes.

   - gh-50002(84): *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. now preserves whitespaces
     in attributes.

   - gh-93057(85): Passing more than one positional argument to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. and the *note sqlite3.Connection: 242.
     constructor is deprecated.  The remaining parameters will become
     keyword-only in Python 3.15.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-76913(86): Add 'merge_extra' parameter/feature to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 12d5.

   - gh-107913(87): Fix possible losses of ‘errno’ and ‘winerror’ values
     in *note OSError: 40d. exceptions if they were cleared or modified
     by the cleanup code before creating the exception object.

   - gh-107845(88): *note tarfile.data_filter(): 16b7. now takes the
     location of symlinks into account when determining their target, so
     it will no longer reject some valid tarballs with
     ‘LinkOutsideDestinationError’.

   - gh-107812(89): Extend socket's netlink support to the FreeBSD
     platform.

   - gh-107805(90): Fix signatures of module-level generated functions
     in *note turtle: 100.

   - gh-107782(91): *note pydoc: b4. is now able to show signatures
     which are not representable in Python, e.g.  for ‘getattr’ and
     ‘dict.pop’.

   - gh-56166(92): Deprecate passing optional arguments 'maxsplit',
     'count' and 'flags' in module-level functions *note re.split():
     29f, *note re.sub(): 2a0. and *note re.subn(): 2a1. as positional.
     They should only be passed by keyword.

   - gh-107710(93): Speed up *note logging.getHandlerNames(): 16b8.

   - gh-107715(94): Fix *note doctest.DocTestFinder.find(): 16b9. in
     presence of class names with special characters.  Patch by Gertjan
     van Zwieten.

   - gh-100814(95): Passing a callable object as an option value to a
     Tkinter image now raises the expected TclError instead of an
     AttributeError.

   - gh-72684(96): Add *note tkinter: ef. widget methods:
     ‘tk_busy_hold()’, ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’,
     ‘tk_busy_forget()’, ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’.

   - gh-106684(97): Raise *note ResourceWarning: 241. when *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter: 16ba. is not closed leading to memory leaks.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-107465(98): Add *note pathlib.Path.from_uri(): 227. classmethod.

   - gh-107077(99): Seems that in some conditions, OpenSSL will return
     ‘SSL_ERROR_SYSCALL’ instead of ‘SSL_ERROR_SSL’ when a certification
     verification has failed, but the error parameters will still
     contain ‘ERR_LIB_SSL’ and ‘SSL_R_CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  We
     are now detecting this situation and raising the appropriate
     ‘ssl.SSLCertVerificationError’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107576(100): Fix *note types.get_original_bases(): 4ba. to only
     return ‘__orig_bases__’ if it is present on ‘cls’ directly.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-105481(101): Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo’,
     ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which
     were added in 3.12, were never documented and were not intended to
     be used externally.

   - gh-105481(102): ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ (which was added in
     3.12 but never documented or intended for external usage) is moved
     to ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ where tests can access it.

   - gh-107396(103): tarfiles; Fixed use before assignment of
     self.exception for gzip decompression

   - gh-107409(104): Set ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in *note
     reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11d2.

   - gh-107406(105): Implement new ‘__repr__()’ method for *note
     struct.Struct: 166c.  Now it returns ‘Struct(<format repr>)’.

   - gh-107369(106): Optimize *note textwrap.indent(): 273.  It is ~30%
     faster for large input.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-78722(107): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 15ec.
     did not raise *note OSError: 40d. until iterated.

   - gh-105578(108): Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 2af. in favor of the
     new Type Parameter syntax.  See PEP 695.

   - gh-62519(109): Make *note gettext.pgettext(): 9e5. search plural
     definitions when translation is not found.

   - gh-107089(110): Shelves opened with *note shelve.open(): 16bb. have
     a much faster ‘clear()’ method.  Patch by James Cave.

   - gh-82500(111): Fix overflow on 32-bit systems with *note asyncio:
     a. *note os.sendfile(): aff. implementation.

   - gh-83006(112): Document behavior of *note shutil.disk_usage():
     110f. for non-mounted filesystems on Unix.

   - gh-65495(113): Use lowercase ‘mail from’ and ‘rcpt to’ in
     ‘smptlib.SMTP’.

   - gh-106186(114): Do not report ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’
     defect when the *note email.parser.Parser: 117e. class is used to
     parse emails with ‘headersonly=True’.

   - gh-105002(115): Fix invalid result from ‘PurePath.relative_to()’
     method when attempting to walk a "‘..’" segment in 'other' with
     'walk_up' enabled.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. exception is now
     raised in this case.

   - gh-106739(116): Add the ‘rtype_cache’ to the warning message (as an
     addition to the type of leaked objects and the number of leaked
     objects already included in the message) to make debugging leaked
     objects easier when the multiprocessing resource tracker process
     finds leaked objects at shutdown.  This helps more quickly identify
     what was leaked and/or why the leaked object was not properly
     cleaned up.

   - gh-106751(117): Optimize ‘SelectSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-106751(118): Optimize ‘_PollLikeSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.

   - gh-106751(119): Optimize ‘KqueueSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-106831(120): Fix potential missing ‘NULL’ check of
     ‘d2i_SSL_SESSION’ result in ‘_ssl.c’.

   - gh-105481(121): The various opcode lists in the *note dis: 38.
     module are now generated from bytecodes.c instead of explicitly
     constructed in opcode.py.

   - gh-106727(122): Make *note inspect.getsource(): 1580. smarter for
     class for same name definitions

   - gh-106789(123): Remove import of *note pprint: ad. from *note
     sysconfig: da.

   - gh-105726(124): Added ‘__slots__’ to *note
     contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c7d. and *note
     contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b1b. so that child classes
     can use ‘__slots__’.

   - gh-106774(125): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.2.1.

   - gh-106751(126): *note selectors: c1.: Optimize
     ‘EpollSelector.select()’ code by moving some code outside of the
     loop.

   - gh-106752(127): Fixed several bugs in zipfile.Path, including: in
     ‘zipfile.Path.match()’, Windows separators are no longer honored
     (and never were meant to be); Fixed
     ‘name’/‘suffix’/‘suffixes’/‘stem’ operations when no filename is
     present and the Path is not at the root of the zipfile; Reworked
     glob for performance and more correct matching behavior.

   - gh-105293(128): Remove call to ‘SSL_CTX_set_session_id_context’
     during client side context creation in the *note ssl: cf. module.

   - gh-106734(129): Disable tab completion in multiline mode of *note
     pdb: a4.

   - gh-105481(130): Expose opcode metadata through ‘_opcode’.

   - gh-106670(131): Add the new ‘exceptions’ command to the Pdb
     debugger.  It makes it possible to move between chained exceptions
     when using post mortem debugging.

   - gh-106602(132): Add __copy__ and __deepcopy__ in *note enum: 55.

   - gh-106664(133): *note selectors: c1.: Add ‘_SelectorMapping.get()’
     method and optimize ‘_SelectorMapping.__getitem__()’.

   - gh-106628(134): Speed up parsing of emails by about 20% by not
     compiling a new regular expression for every single email.

   - gh-89427(135): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 110. activation, even when ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_DISABLE_PROMPT’
     is set.

   - gh-106530(136): Revert a change to *note colorsys.rgb_to_hls():
     16bc. that caused division by zero for certain almost-white inputs.
     Patch by Terry Jan Reedy.

   - gh-106584(137): Fix exit code for ‘unittest’ if all tests are
     skipped.  Patch by Egor Eliseev.

   - gh-106566(138): Optimize ‘(?!)’ (pattern which always fails) in
     regular expressions.

   - gh-106554(139): *note selectors: c1.: Reduce Selector overhead by
     using a ‘dict.get()’ to lookup file descriptors.

   - gh-106558(140): Remove ref cycle in callers of ‘convert_to_error()’
     by deleting ‘result’ from scope in a ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-100502(141): Add ‘pathlib.PurePath.pathmod’ class attribute that
     stores the implementation of *note os.path: a1. used for low-level
     path operations: either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

   - gh-106527(142): Reduce overhead to add and remove *note asyncio: a.
     readers and writers.

   - gh-106524(143): Fix crash in ‘_sre.template()’ with templates
     containing invalid group indices.

   - gh-106531(144): Removed ‘_legacy’ and the names it provided from
     ‘importlib.resources’: ‘Resource’, ‘contents’, ‘is_resource’,
     ‘open_binary’, ‘open_text’, ‘path’, ‘read_binary’, and ‘read_text’.

   - gh-106052(145): *note re: b8. module: fix the matching of
     possessive quantifiers in the case of a subpattern containing
     backtracking.

   - gh-106510(146): Improve debug output for atomic groups in regular
     expressions.

   - gh-106503(147): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_write_ready’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-105497(148): Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

   - gh-90876(149): Prevent ‘multiprocessing.spawn’ from failing to
     'import' in environments where ‘sys.executable’ is ‘None’.  This
     regressed in 3.11 with the addition of support for path-like
     objects in multiprocessing.

   - gh-106403(150): Instances of *note typing.TypeVar: 15c, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 15d, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7b2, *note
     typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7b3, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e.
     once again support weak references, fixing a regression introduced
     in Python 3.12.0 beta 1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89812(151): Add private ‘pathlib._PathBase’ class, which
     provides experimental support for virtual filesystems, and may be
     made public in a future version of Python.

   - gh-106292(152): Check for an instance-dict cached value in the
     ‘__get__()’ method of *note functools.cached_property(): 52f.  This
     better matches the pre-3.12 behavior and improves compatibility for
     users subclassing *note functools.cached_property(): 52f. and
     adding a ‘__set__()’ method.

   - gh-106350(153): Detect possible memory allocation failure in the
     libtommath function ‘mp_init()’ used by the ‘_tkinter’ module.

   - gh-106330(154): Fix incorrect matching of empty paths in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 498.  This bug was introduced in Python
     3.12.0 beta 1.

   - gh-106309(155): Deprecate *note typing.no_type_check_decorator():
     2ae.  No major type checker ever added support for this decorator.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-102541(156): Make ‘pydoc.doc()’ catch bad module *note
     ImportError: 40f. when output stream is not ‘None’.

   - gh-106263(157): Fix crash when calling ‘repr’ with a manually
     constructed SignalDict object.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-106236(158): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     RuntimeError’ in *note threading: ec, so that ‘_DummyThread’ cannot
     be joined even with ‘-OO’.

   - gh-106238(159): Fix rare concurrency bug in lock acquisition by the
     logging package.

   - gh-106152(160): Added PY_THROW event hook for *note cProfile: 27.
     for generators

   - gh-106075(161): Added ‘asyncio.taskgroups.__all__’ to
     ‘asyncio.__all__’ for export in star imports.

   - gh-104527(162): Zipapp will now skip over appending an archive to
     itself.

   - gh-106046(163): Improve the error message from *note os.fspath():
     c43. if called on an object where ‘__fspath__’ is set to ‘None’.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105987(164): Fix crash due to improper reference counting in
     *note asyncio: a. eager task factory internal routines.

   - gh-105974(165): Fix bug where a *note typing.Protocol: 261. class
     that had one or more non-callable members would raise *note
     TypeError: 525. when *note issubclass(): 7ad. was called against
     it, even if it defined a custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method.  The
     behaviour in Python 3.11 and lower - which has now been restored -
     was not to raise *note TypeError: 525. in these situations if a
     custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method was defined.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-96145(166): Reverted addition of ‘json.AttrDict’.

   - gh-89812(167): Add *note pathlib.UnsupportedOperation: 224, which
     is raised instead of *note NotImplementedError: 225. when a path
     operation isn't supported.

   - gh-105808(168): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(169) for
     3.12, causing ‘gzip.GzipFile.flush()’ to not flush the compressor
     (nor pass along the ‘zip_mode’ argument).

   - gh-105481(170): *note stack_effect(): f1e. no longer raises an
     exception if an ‘oparg’ is provided for an ‘opcode’ that doesn't
     use its arg, or when it is not provided for an ‘opcode’ that does
     use it.  In the latter case, the stack effect is returned for
     ‘oparg=0’.

   - gh-104799(171): Enable *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. to unparse
     function and class definitions created without the new
     ‘type_params’ field from PEP 695(172).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105793(173): Add 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to
     *note pathlib.Path.is_dir(): 22d. and *note is_file(): 22c,
     defaulting to ‘True’.

   - gh-105570(174): Deprecate two methods of creating *note
     typing.TypedDict: 161. classes with 0 fields using the functional
     syntax: ‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’ and ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’.
     Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a ‘TypedDict’
     class with 0 fields, either use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD
     = TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   - gh-105745(175): Fix ‘webbrowser.Konqueror.open’ method.

   - gh-105733(176): *note ctypes: 2a.: Deprecate undocumented
     ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ and ‘ctypes.ARRAY()’ functions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105687(177): Remove deprecated ‘re.template’, ‘re.T’,
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’, ‘sre_constans.SRE_FLAG_TEMPLATE’.

   - gh-105684(178): Supporting *note asyncio.Task.set_name(): 9cd. is
     now mandatory for third party task implementations.  The
     undocumented ‘_set_task_name()’ function (deprecated since 3.8) has
     been removed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-105375(179): Fix a bug in ‘_Unpickler_SetInputStream()’ where an
     exception could end up being overwritten in case of failure.

   - gh-105626(180): Change the default return value of *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 16bd. to
     be ‘None’ and not ‘{}’.

   - gh-105375(181): Fix bugs in *note sys: d8. where exceptions could
     end up being overwritten because of deferred error handling.

   - gh-105605(182): Harden ‘pyexpat’ error handling during module
     initialisation to prevent exceptions from possibly being
     overwritten, and objects from being dereferenced twice.

   - gh-105375(183): Fix bug in *note decimal: 36. where an exception
     could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(184): Fix bugs in ‘_datetime’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten in case of module initialisation failure.

   - gh-105375(185): Fix bugs in ‘_ssl’ initialisation which could lead
     to leaked references and overwritten exceptions.

   - gh-105375(186): Fix a bug in *note array.array: 19e. where an
     exception could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(187): Fix bugs in ‘_ctypes’ where exceptions could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(188): Fix a bug in the *note posix: ac. module where an
     exception could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(189): Fix bugs in ‘_elementtree’ where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(190): Fix bugs in *note zoneinfo: 133. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(191): Fix bugs in *note errno: 56. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105566(192): Deprecate creating a *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad.
     class using keyword arguments to denote the fields (‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT", x=int, y=str)’).  This will be disallowed in
     Python 3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax
     instead.

     Two methods of creating ‘NamedTuple’ classes with 0 fields using
     the functional syntax are also deprecated, and will be disallowed
     in Python 3.15: ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT")’ and ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT",
     None)’.  To create a ‘NamedTuple’ class with 0 fields, either use
     ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

   - gh-105545(193): Remove deprecated in 3.11
     ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute.

   - gh-105497(194): Fix flag inversion when alias/mask members exist.

   - gh-105509(195): *note typing.Annotated: 92c. is now implemented as
     an instance of ‘typing._SpecialForm’ rather than a class.  This
     should have no user-facing impact for users of the *note typing:
     103. module public API.

   - gh-105375(196): Fix bugs in *note pickle: a5. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-70303(197): Emit *note FutureWarning: 40b. from *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b. if the given
     pattern ends with "‘**’".  In a future Python release, patterns
     with this ending will match both files and directories.  Add a
     trailing slash to only match directories.

   - gh-105375(198): Fix a bug in *note sqlite3: ce. where an exception
     could be overwritten in the *note collation: 663. callback.

   - gh-105382(199): Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and 'cadefault'
     parameters of the *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 290. function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105376(200): *note logging: 86.: Remove undocumented and
     untested ‘Logger.warn()’ and ‘LoggerAdapter.warn()’ methods and
     ‘logging.warn()’ function.  Deprecated since Python 3.3, they were
     aliases to the *note logging.Logger.warning(): 16be. method,
     ‘logging.LoggerAdapter.warning()’ method and *note
     logging.warning(): 2f4. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105332(201): Revert pickling method from by-name back to
     by-value.

   - gh-104554(202): Add RTSPS scheme support in urllib.parse

   - gh-105292(203): Add option to *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 83a. to recurse into the nested
     exception of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.

   - gh-105280(204): Fix bug where ‘isinstance([],
     collections.abc.Mapping)’ could evaluate to ‘True’ if garbage
     collection happened at the wrong time.  The bug was caused by
     changes to the implementation of *note typing.Protocol: 261. in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-80480(205): *note array: 7.: Add ‘'w'’ typecode that represents
     ‘Py_UCS4’.

   - gh-105239(206): Fix longstanding bug where ‘issubclass(object,
     typing.Protocol)’ would evaluate to ‘True’ in some edge cases.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104310(207): In the beta 1 release we added a utility function
     for extension module authors, to use when testing their module for
     support in multiple interpreters or under a per-interpreter GIL.
     The name of that function has changed from
     ‘allowing_all_extensions’ to
     ‘_incompatible_extension_module_restrictions’.  The default for the
     "disable_check" argument has change from ‘True’ to ‘False’, to
     better match the new function name.

   - gh-105080(208): Fixed inconsistent signature on derived classes for
     *note inspect.signature(): 724.

   - gh-105144(209): Fix a recent regression in the *note typing: 103.
     module.  The regression meant that doing ‘class Foo(X,
     typing.Protocol)’, where ‘X’ was a class that had *note
     abc.ABCMeta: f05. as its metaclass, would then cause subsequent
     ‘isinstance(1, X)’ calls to erroneously raise *note TypeError: 525.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-62948(210): The *note io.IOBase: 1f2. finalizer now logs the
     ‘close()’ method errors with *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f4.
     Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only
     logged in *note Python Development Mode: 1f5. or on *note Python
     built on debug mode: 1f6.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105096(211): *note wave: 112.: Deprecate the ‘getmark()’,
     ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the *note wave.Wave_read:
     2b3. and *note wave.Wave_write: 2b4. classes.  They will be removed
     in Python 3.15.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104992(212): Remove the untested and undocumented
     ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ method, deprecated in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104996(213): Improve performance of *note pathlib.PurePath: 492.
     initialisation by deferring joining of paths when multiple
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101588(214): Deprecate undocumented copy/deepcopy/pickle support
     for itertools.

   - gh-103631(215): Fix
     ‘pathlib.PurePosixPath(pathlib.PureWindowsPath(...))’ not
     converting path separators to restore 3.11 compatible behavior.

   - gh-104947(216): Make comparisons between *note
     pathlib.PureWindowsPath: 16bf. objects consistent across Windows
     and Posix to match 3.11 behavior.

   - gh-104773(217): PEP 594(218): Remove the ‘audioop’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(219): PEP 594(220): Remove the ‘aifc’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(221): PEP 594(222): Remove the ‘uu’ module, deprecated in
     Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104935(223): Fix bugs with the interaction between *note
     typing.runtime_checkable(): 42e. and *note typing.Generic: 15d4.
     that were introduced by the PEP 695(224) implementation.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104773(225): PEP 594(226): Remove the ‘crypt’ module and its
     private ‘_crypt’ extension, deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(227): PEP 594(228): Remove the ‘nis’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104898(229): Add missing *note __slots__: 14a2. to *note
     os.PathLike: c41.

   - gh-104773(230): PEP 594(231): Remove the ‘xdrlib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(232): PEP 594(233): Remove the ‘nntplib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104886(234): Remove the undocumented
     ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and with a deprecation warning since
     Python 3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104786(235): Remove kwargs-based *note typing.TypedDict: 161.
     creation

   - gh-104876(236): Remove the ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’
     method, deprecated in docs since Python 3.1 and with a deprecation
     warning since Python 3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104773(237): PEP 594(238): Removed the ‘msilib’ package,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.

   - gh-104773(239): PEP 594(240): Remove the ‘spwd’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11: the python-pam(241) project can be used instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-75552(242): Removed the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated since
     Python 3.6.

   - gh-104773(243): PEP 594(244): Remove the ‘chunk’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(245): PEP 594(246): Remove the ‘mailcap’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(247): PEP 594(248): Remove the ‘sunau’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104780(249): PEP 594(250): Remove the ‘ossaudiodev’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(251): PEP 594(252): Remove the ‘pipes’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104873(253): Add *note typing.get_protocol_members(): 260. to
     return the set of members defining a *note typing.Protocol: 261.
     Add *note typing.is_protocol(): 262. to check whether a class is a
     *note typing.Protocol: 261.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104874(254): Document the ‘__name__’ and ‘__supertype__’
     attributes of *note typing.NewType: ce5.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104835(255): Removed the following *note unittest: 105.
     functions, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28b. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28c.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 28d.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 28e.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104804(256): Remove the untested and undocumented *note
     webbrowser: 114. ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-83863(257): Support for using *note pathlib.Path: 226. objects
     as context managers has been removed.  Before Python 3.9, exiting
     the context manager marked a path as "closed", which caused some
     (but not all!)  methods to raise when called.  Since Python 3.9,
     using a path as a context manager does nothing.

   - gh-104799(258): Adjust the location of the (see PEP 695(259))
     ‘type_params’ field on *note ast.ClassDef: 16c0, *note
     ast.AsyncFunctionDef: 16c1, and *note ast.FunctionDef: 16c2. to
     better preserve backward compatibility.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra

   - gh-104797(260): Allow *note typing.Protocol: 261. classes to
     inherit from *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-104783(261): Remove ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104780(262): Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(263): PEP 594(264): Remove the ‘telnetlib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(265): PEP 594(266): Remove the ‘imghdr’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(267): PEP 594(268): Remove the ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ modules,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(269): PEP 594(270): Remove the ‘sndhdr’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104372(271): On Linux where *note subprocess: d5. can use the
     ‘vfork()’ syscall for faster spawning, prevent the parent process
     from blocking other threads by dropping the GIL while it waits for
     the vfork'ed child process ‘exec()’ outcome.  This prevents
     spawning a binary from a slow filesystem from blocking the rest of
     the application.

   - gh-99108(272): We now release the GIL around built-in *note
     hashlib: 67. computations of reasonable size for the SHA families
     and MD5 hash functions, matching what our OpenSSL backed hash
     computations already does.

   - gh-102613(273): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22a. when expanding a pattern with a non-terminal "‘**’" component
     by filtering walked paths through a regular expression, rather than
     calling *note os.scandir(): a4f. more than once on each directory.

   - gh-104399(274): Prepare the ‘_tkinter’ module for building with Tcl
     9.0 and future libtommath by replacing usage of deprecated
     functions ‘mp_to_unsigned_bin_n()’ and ‘mp_unsigned_bin_size()’
     when necessary.

   - gh-102676(275): Add fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’,
     ‘end_offset’, ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’ and ‘oparg’
     to *note dis.Instruction: 1d7.

   - gh-103558(276): Fixed ‘parent’ argument validation mechanism of
     *note argparse: 6.  Improved test coverage.

   - gh-103464(277): Provide helpful usage messages when parsing
     incorrect *note pdb: a4. commands.

   - gh-103384(278): Generalize the regex pattern
     ‘BaseConfigurator.INDEX_PATTERN’ to allow spaces and
     non-alphanumeric characters in keys.

   - gh-103124(279): Added multiline statement support for *note pdb:
     a4.

   - gh-101162(280): Forbid using ‘builtins.issubclass()’ with *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7d7. as the first argument.

   - gh-103200(281): Fix cache repopulation semantics of
     zipimport.invalidate_caches().  The cache is now repopulated upon
     retrieving files with an invalid cache, not when the cache is
     invalidated.

   - gh-100061(282): Fix a bug that causes wrong matches for regular
     expressions with possessive qualifier.

   - gh-77609(283): Add 'follow_symlinks' argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b, defaulting to
     false.

   - gh-102541(284): Hide traceback in *note help(): 8c6. prompt, when
     import failed.

   - gh-102120(285): Added a stream mode to ‘tarfile’ that allows for
     reading archives without caching info about the inner files.

   - gh-102029(286): Deprecate passing any arguments to *note
     threading.RLock(): 2dd.

   - gh-88233(287): Refactored ‘zipfile._strip_extra’ to use higher
     level abstractions for extras instead of a heavy-state loop.

   - gh-102024(288): Reduce calls of ‘_idle_semaphore.release()’ in
     ‘concurrent.futures.thread._worker()’.

   - gh-73435(289): Add support for recursive wildcards in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 498.

   - gh-84867(290): *note unittest.TestLoader: 28b. no longer loads test
     cases from exact *note unittest.TestCase: 439. and *note
     unittest.FunctionTestCase: 16c3. classes.

   - gh-99203(291): Restore following CPython <= 3.10.5 behavior of
     *note shutil.make_archive(): 49f.: do not create an empty archive
     if ‘root_dir’ is not a directory, and, in that case, raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. or *note NotADirectoryError: 1045.
     regardless of ‘format’ choice.  Beyond the brought-back behavior,
     the function may now also raise these exceptions in ‘dry_run’ mode.

   - gh-80480(292): Emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. for *note array:
     7.'s ‘'u'’ type code, deprecated in docs since Python 3.3.

   - gh-94924(293): *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 15c3. now
     properly returns coroutine functions compatible with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3.

   - gh-94777(294): Fix hanging *note multiprocessing: 93.
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ when a child process crashes while data is
     being written in the call queue.

   - gh-92871(295): Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces,
     deprecated since Python 3.8.  All items are still available from
     the main *note typing: 103. module.

   - bpo-43633(296): Improve the textual representation of IPv4-mapped
     IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(297) Sections 2.2, 2.5.5.2) in *note
     ipaddress: 7f.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-44850(298): Improve performance of *note
     operator.methodcaller(): e23. using the PEP 590(299) ‘vectorcall’
     convention.  Patch by Anthony Lee and Pieter Eendebak.

   - bpo-44185(300): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 16c4. will call
     the ‘close()’ method of the file handle mock when it is exiting
     from the context manager.  Patch by Samet Yaslan.

   - bpo-40988(301): Improve performance of *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 9e0. by caching the generated
     dispatch wrapper.  Optimization suggested by frederico.  Patch by
     @mental32, Alex Waygood and Pieter Eendebak.

   - bpo-41768(302): *note unittest.mock: 106. speccing no longer calls
     class properties.  Patch by Melanie Witt.

   - bpo-18319(303): Ensure ‘gettext(msg)’ retrieve translations even if
     a plural form exists.  In other words: ‘gettext(msg) ==
     ngettext(msg, '', 1)’.

   - bpo-17013(304): Add ‘ThreadingMock’ to *note unittest.mock: 106.
     that can be used to create Mock objects that can wait until they
     are called.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan and Mario Corchero.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110786

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103480

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110733

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110682

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110488

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110590

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65052

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110519

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110378

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110365

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110273

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110249

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110150

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110036

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110038

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110045

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88402

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109631

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109818

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109047

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109782

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109590

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109593

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74481

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109613

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109599

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109543

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109495

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109461

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109409

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109375

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107219

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66143

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109187

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50644

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109174

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109164

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109151

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108987

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109033

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108843

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108469

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105829

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108295

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108463

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107811

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64662

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108111

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108294

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108322

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83417

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105736

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108083

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107932

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107995

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107963

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81555

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50002

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93057

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76913

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107913

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107845

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107812

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107805

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107782

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107710

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107715

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100814

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106684

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107077

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107576

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107396

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107409

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107406

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78722

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62519

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107089

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82500

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83006

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65495

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106186

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105002

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106739

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106831

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106727

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106789

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105726

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106774

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105293

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106734

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106602

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106664

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106628

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89427

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106530

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106566

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106554

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106558

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100502

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106527

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106524

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106052

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106510

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106503

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90876

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106403

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106292

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106350

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106330

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106263

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106236

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106238

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106152

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106075

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104527

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106046

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105987

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105974

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105808

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (172) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105745

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687

   (178) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105684

   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105626

   (181) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105605

   (183) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (185) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (186) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (187) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (188) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (189) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (190) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (191) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105545

   (194) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (195) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105509

   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (197) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (198) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (199) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382

   (200) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376

   (201) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105332

   (202) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104554

   (203) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292

   (204) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105280

   (205) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (206) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105239

   (207) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (208) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105080

   (209) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105144

   (210) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948

   (211) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096

   (212) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992

   (213) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104996

   (214) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (215) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103631

   (216) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104947

   (217) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (218) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (219) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (220) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (221) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (222) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (223) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104935

   (224) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (225) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (226) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (227) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (228) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (229) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104898

   (230) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (231) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (232) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (233) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (234) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886

   (235) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786

   (236) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876

   (237) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (238) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (239) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (240) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (241) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (242) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552

   (243) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (244) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (245) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (246) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (247) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (248) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (249) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780

   (250) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (251) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (252) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (253) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (254) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104874

   (255) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835

   (256) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804

   (257) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863

   (258) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (259) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (260) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104797

   (261) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783

   (262) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780

   (263) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (264) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (265) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (266) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (267) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (268) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (269) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (270) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (271) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (272) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (273) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (274) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104399

   (275) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102676

   (276) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103558

   (277) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103464

   (278) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103384

   (279) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103124

   (280) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101162

   (281) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103200

   (282) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100061

   (283) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609

   (284) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (285) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102120

   (286) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029

   (287) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (288) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102024

   (289) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435

   (290) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84867

   (291) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99203

   (292) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (293) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94924

   (294) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94777

   (295) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871

   (296) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43633

   (297) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (298) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44850

   (299) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (300) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44185

   (301) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40988

   (302) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41768

   (303) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18319

   (304) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17013


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<12>,  Next: Tests<15>,  Prev: Library<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-109209(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 4.2.

   - gh-108826(2): *note dis: 38. module command-line interface is now
     mentioned in documentation.

   - gh-107305(3): Add documentation for *note PyInterpreterConfig: 55b.
     and *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 447.  Also clarify some of
     the nearby docs relative to per-interpreter GIL.

   - gh-107008(4): Document the *note curses: 2b. module variables *note
     LINES: 16c6. and *note COLS: 16c7.

   - gh-106948(5): Add a number of standard external names to
     ‘nitpick_ignore’.

   - gh-106232(6): Make timeit doc command lines compatible with Windows
     by using double quotes for arguments.  This works on linux and
     macOS also.

   - gh-105172(7): Fixed *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. docstring
     accounting for ‘typed’ argument's different handling of str and
     int.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-105052(8): Update ‘timeit’ doc to specify that time in seconds
     is just the default.

   - gh-89455(9): Add missing documentation for the ‘max_group_depth’
     and ‘max_group_width’ parameters and the ‘exceptions’ attribute of
     the *note traceback.TracebackException: 259. class.

   - gh-89412(10): Add missing documentation for the ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes of the *note traceback.TracebackException:
     259. class.

   - gh-104943(11): Remove mentions of old Python versions in *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2ad.

   - gh-54738(12): Add documentation on how to localize the *note
     argparse: 6. module.

   - gh-102823(13): Document the return type of ‘x // y’ when ‘x’ and
     ‘y’ have type *note float: 2ec.

   - gh-102759(14): Align function signature for ‘functools.reduce’ in
     documentation and docstring with the C implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109209

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108826

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107008

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106948

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106232

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105172

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105052

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89412

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104943

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54738

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102823

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102759


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<15>,  Next: Build<17>,  Prev: Documentation<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-110647(1): Fix test_stress_modifying_handlers() of test_signal.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(2): Fix test_tools.test_freeze on FreeBSD: run "make
     distclean" instead of "make clean" in the copied source directory
     to remove also the "python" program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110167(3): Fix a deadlock in test_socket when server fails with
     a timeout but the client is still running in its thread.  Don't
     hold a lock to call cleanup functions in doCleanups().  One of the
     cleanup function waits until the client completes, whereas the
     client could deadlock if it called addCleanup() in such situation.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110388(4): Add tests for *note tty: ff.

   - gh-81002(5): Add tests for *note termios: e0.

   - gh-110367(6): regrtest: When using worker processes (-jN) with
     -verbose3 option, regrtest can now display the worker output even
     if a worker process does crash.  Previously, sys.stdout and
     sys.stderr were replaced and so the worker output was lost on a
     crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110267(7): Add tests for pickling and copying PyStructSequence
     objects.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110171(8): ‘libregrtest’ now always sets and shows
     ‘random.seed’, so tests are more reproducible.  Use ‘--randseed’
     flag to pass the explicit random seed for tests.

   - gh-110152(9): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/run_tests.py’ and ‘make
     hostrunnertest’.  Just run ‘./python -m test --slow-ci’, ‘make
     buildbottest’ or ‘make test’ instead.  Python test runner
     (regrtest) now handles cross-compilation and HOSTRUNNER. It also
     adds options to Python such fast ‘-u -E -W default -bb’ when
     ‘--fast-ci’ or ‘--slow-ci’ option is used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110031(10): Skip test_threading tests using thread+fork if
     Python is built with Address Sanitizer (ASAN). Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110088(11): Fix test_asyncio timeouts: don't measure the maximum
     duration, a test should not measure a CI performance.  Only measure
     the minimum duration when a task has a timeout or delay.  Add
     ‘CLOCK_RES’ to ‘test_asyncio.utils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109974(12): Fix race conditions in test_threading lock tests.
     Wait until a condition is met rather than using *note time.sleep():
     68a. with a hardcoded number of seconds.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110033(13): Fix ‘test_interprocess_signal()’ of ‘test_signal’.
     Make sure that the ‘subprocess.Popen’ object is deleted before the
     test raising an exception in a signal handler.  Otherwise,
     ‘Popen.__del__()’ can get the exception which is logged as
     ‘Exception ignored in: ...’ and the test fails.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109594(14): Fix test_timeout() of
     test_concurrent_futures.test_wait.  Remove the future which may or
     may not complete depending if it takes longer than the timeout or
     not.  Keep the second future which does not complete before wait()
     timeout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109972(15): Split test_gdb.py file into a test_gdb package made
     of multiple tests, so tests can now be run in parallel.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(16): regrtest: When ‘--fast-ci’ or ‘--slow-ci’ option is
     used, regrtest now replaces the current process with a new process
     to add ‘-u -W default -bb -E’ options to Python.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109748(17): Fix ‘test_zippath_from_non_installed_posix()’ of
     test_venv: don't copy ‘__pycache__/’ sub-directories, because they
     can be modified by other Python tests running in parallel.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109739(18): regrtest: Fix reference leak check on Windows.
     Disable the load tracker on Windows in the reference leak check
     mode (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109276(19): regrtest: When a test fails with "env changed" and
     the -rerun option is used, the test is now re-run in verbose mode
     in a fresh process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(20): Skip test_freeze_simple_script() of
     test_tools.test_freeze if Python is built with ‘./configure
     --enable-optimizations’, which means with Profile Guided
     Optimization (PGO): it just makes the test too slow.  The freeze
     tool is tested by many other CIs with other (faster) compiler
     flags.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109580(21): Skip ‘test_perf_profiler’ if Python is built with
     ASAN, MSAN or UBSAN sanitizer.  Python does crash randomly in this
     test on such build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(22): regrtest: Add ‘--fast-ci’ and ‘--slow-ci’ options.
     ‘--fast-ci’ uses a default timeout of 10 minutes and ‘-u all,-cpu’
     (skip slowest tests).  ‘--slow-ci’ uses a default timeout of 20
     minutes and ‘-u all’ (run all tests).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109425(23): libregrtest now decodes stdout of test worker
     processes with the "backslashreplace" error handler to log
     corrupted stdout, instead of failing with an error and not logging
     the stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109396(24): Fix ‘test_socket.test_hmac_sha1()’ in FIPS mode.
     Use a longer key: FIPS mode requires at least of at least 112 bits.
     The previous key was only 32 bits.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(25): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb "bt" command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109276(26): libregrtest now calls *note random.seed(): 1254.
     before running each test file when ‘-r/--randomize’ command line
     option is used.  Moreover, it's also called in worker processes.
     It should help to make tests more deterministic.  Previously, it
     was only called once in the main process before running all test
     files and it was not called in worker processes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109276(27): libregrtest now uses a separated file descriptor to
     write test result as JSON. Previously, if a test wrote debug
     messages late around the JSON, the main test process failed to
     parse JSON. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108996(28): Fix and enable ‘test_msvcrt’.

   - gh-109237(29): Fix ‘test_site.test_underpth_basic()’ when the
     working directory contains at least one non-ASCII character: encode
     the ‘._pth’ file to UTF-8 and enable the UTF-8 Mode to use UTF-8
     for the child process stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109230(30): Fix ‘test_pyexpat.test_exception()’: it can now be
     run from a directory different than Python source code directory.
     Before, the test failed in this case.  Skip the test if
     Modules/pyexpat.c source is not available.  Skip also the test on
     Python implementations other than CPython.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108996(31): Add tests for ‘msvcrt’.

   - gh-109015(32): Fix test_asyncio, test_imaplib and test_socket tests
     on FreeBSD if the TCP blackhole is enabled (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole’).  Skip the few tests which failed with
     ‘ETIMEDOUT’ which such non standard configuration.  Currently, the
     FreeBSD GCP image enables TCP and UDP blackhole(33) (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole=2’ and ‘sysctl net.inet.udp.blackhole=1’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(34): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if gdb is unable to retrieve Python
     frame objects: if a frame is ‘<optimized out>’.  When Python is
     built with "clang -Og", gdb can fail to retrieve the 'frame'
     parameter of ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’.  In this case, tests
     like ‘py_bt()’ are likely to fail.  Without getting access to
     Python frames, ‘python-gdb.py’ is mostly clueless on retrieving the
     Python traceback.  Moreover, ‘test_gdb’ is no longer skipped on
     macOS if Python is built with Clang.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108962(35): Skip ‘test_tempfile.test_flags()’ if ‘chflags()’
     fails with "OSError: [Errno 45] Operation not supported" (ex: on
     FreeBSD 13).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(36): FreeBSD 13.2 CI coverage for pull requests is now
     provided by Cirrus-CI (a hosted CI service that supports Linux,
     macOS, Windows, and FreeBSD).

   - gh-89392(37): Removed support of ‘test_main()’ function in tests.
     They now always use normal unittest test runner.

   - gh-108851(38): Fix ‘test_tomllib’ recursion tests for WASI
     buildbots: reduce the recursion limit and compute the maximum
     nested array/dict depending on the current available recursion
     limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(39): Add ‘get_recursion_available()’ and
     ‘get_recursion_depth()’ functions to the *note test.support: e3.
     module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(40): Add ‘--fail-rerun option’ option to regrtest: if a
     test failed when then passed when rerun in verbose mode, exit the
     process with exit code 2 (error), instead of exit code 0 (success).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(41): Rename regrtest ‘--verbose2’ option (‘-w’) to
     ‘--rerun’.  Keep ‘--verbose2’ as a deprecated alias.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(42): When regrtest reruns failed tests in verbose mode
     (‘./python -m test --rerun’), tests are now rerun in fresh worker
     processes rather than being executed in the main process.  If a
     test does crash or is killed by a timeout, the main process can
     detect and handle the killed worker process.  Tests are rerun in
     parallel if the ‘-jN’ option is used to run tests in parallel.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108822(43): ‘regrtest’ now computes statistics on all tests:
     successes, failures and skipped.  ‘test_netrc’,
     ‘test_pep646_syntax’ and ‘test_xml_etree’ now return results in
     their ‘test_main()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner and Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-108794(44): The *note doctest.DocTestRunner.run(): 1d9. method
     now counts the number of skipped tests.  Add *note
     doctest.DocTestRunner.skips: 1da. and *note
     doctest.TestResults.skipped: 1db. attributes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108388(45): Convert test_concurrent_futures to a package of 7
     sub-tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108388(46): Split test_multiprocessing_fork,
     test_multiprocessing_forkserver and test_multiprocessing_spawn into
     test packages.  Each package is made of 4 sub-tests: processes,
     threads, manager and misc.  It allows running more tests in
     parallel and so reduce the total test duration.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105776(47): Fix test_cppext when the C compiler command
     ‘-std=c11’ option: remove ‘-std=’ options from the compiler
     command.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107652(48): Set up CIFuzz to run fuzz targets in GitHub Actions.
     Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-107237(49): ‘test_logging’: Fix ‘test_udp_reconnection()’ by
     increasing the timeout from 100 ms to 5 minutes (LONG_TIMEOUT).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107178(50): Add the C API test for functions in the Mapping
     Protocol, the Sequence Protocol and some functions in the Object
     Protocol.

   - gh-106714(51): test_capi: Fix test_no_FatalError_infinite_loop() to
     no longer write a coredump, by using
     test.support.SuppressCrashReport.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104090(52): Avoid creating a reference to the test object in
     *note collectedDurations(): 16c9.

   - gh-106752(53): Moved tests for ‘zipfile.Path’ into
     ‘Lib/test/test_zipfile/_path’.  Made ‘zipfile._path’ a package.

   - gh-106690(54): Add .coveragerc to cpython repository for use with
     coverage package.

   - gh-101634(55): When running the Python test suite with ‘-jN’
     option, if a worker stdout cannot be decoded from the locale
     encoding report a failed testn so the exitcode is non-zero.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105084(56): When the Python build is configured
     ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir’, tests requiring the ‘setuptools’ and
     ‘wheel’ wheels will search for the wheels in ‘WHEEL_PKG_DIR’.

   - gh-81005(57): String tests are modified to reflect that ‘str’ and
     ‘unicode’ are merged in Python 3.  Patch by Daniel Fortunov.

   - gh-103186(58): Suppress and assert expected RuntimeWarnings in
     test_sys_settrace.py

   - gh-69714(59): Add additional tests to *note calendar: 14. to
     achieve full test coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110647

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81002

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110267

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110171

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110152

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110031

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110088

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109974

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110033

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109594

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109972

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109748

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109739

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109580

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109425

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109396

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109237

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109230

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109015

   (33) https://reviews.freebsd.org/D41751

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108962

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108822

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105776

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107652

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107237

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107178

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106714

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106690

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101634

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105084

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81005

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69714


File: python.info,  Node: Build<17>,  Next: Windows<13>,  Prev: Tests<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.6 Build
...............

   - gh-103053(1): "make check-clean-src" now also checks if the
     "python" program is found in the source directory: fail with an
     error if it does exist.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109191(2): Fix compile error when building with recent versions
     of libedit.

   - gh-110276(3): No longer ignore *note PROFILE_TASK: 16cb. failure
     silently: command used by Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(4): Remove ‘make testall’ target: use ‘make buildbottest’
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109740(5): The experimental ‘--disable-gil’ configure flag now
     includes "t" (for "threaded") in extension ABI tags.

   - gh-109054(6): Fix building the ‘_testcapi’ extension on Linux
     AArch64 which requires linking to libatomic when
     ‘<cpython/pyatomic.h>’ is used: the ‘_Py_atomic_or_uint64()’
     function requires libatomic ‘__atomic_fetch_or_8()’ on this
     platform.  The configure script now checks if linking to libatomic
     is needed and generates a new LIBATOMIC variable used to build the
     _testcapi extension.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-63760(7): Fix Solaris build: no longer redefine the
     ‘gethostname()’ function.  Solaris defines the function since 2005.
     Patch by Victor Stinner, original patch by Jakub Kulík.

   - gh-108740(8): Fix a race condition in ‘make regen-all’.  The
     ‘deepfreeze.c’ source and files generated by Argument Clinic are
     now generated or updated before generating "global objects".
     Previously, some identifiers may miss depending on the order in
     which these files were generated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108634(9): Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs:
     38b. (tracing references) is now ABI compatible with Python release
     build and *note debug build: 1f6.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(10): The ‘_stat’ C extension is now built with the *note
     limited C API: 38c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108447(11): Fix x86_64 GNU/Hurd build

   - gh-107814(12): When calling ‘find_python.bat’ with ‘-q’ it did not
     properly silence the output of nuget.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-105481(13): Remove the make target ‘regen-opcode-targets’, merge
     its work into ‘regen-opcode’ which repeats most of the calculation.
     This simplifies the code for the build and reduces code
     duplication.

   - gh-106881(14): Check for ‘linux/limits.h’ before including it in
     ‘Modules/posixmodule.c’.

   - gh-95855(15): Refactor platform triplet detection code and add
     detection for MIPS soft float and musl libc.

   - gh-106962(16): Detect MPI compilers in ‘configure’.

   - gh-106118(17): Fix compilation for platforms without ‘O_CLOEXEC’.
     The issue was introduced with Python 3.12b1 in gh-103295(18).
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-105875(19): SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the
     *note sqlite3: ce. extension module.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-90005(20): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ where we could end up
     unintentionally linking with ‘libbsd’.

   - gh-102404(21): Document how to perform a WASI build on Linux.  Also
     add Tools/wasm/build_wasi.sh as a reference implementation of the
     docs.

   - gh-89886(22): Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to
     regenerate ‘!configure’.

   - gh-104692(23): Include ‘commoninstall’ as a prerequisite for
     ‘bininstall’

     This ensures that ‘commoninstall’ is completed before ‘bininstall’
     is started when parallel builds are used (‘make -j install’), and
     so the ‘python3’ symlink is only installed after all standard
     library modules are installed.

   - gh-101538(24): Add experimental wasi-threads support.  Patch by
     Takashi Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110276

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109740

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109054

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63760

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108447

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107814

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106881

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95855

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106962

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106118

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102404

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104692

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101538


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<13>,  Next: macOS<11>,  Prev: Build<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-110437(1): Allows overriding the source of VC redistributables
     so that releases can be guaranteed to never downgrade between
     updates.

   - gh-109286(2): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-82367(3): *note os.path.realpath(): 222. now resolves MS-DOS
     style file names even if the file is not accessible.  Patch by
     Moonsik Park.

   - gh-109991(4): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   - gh-106242(5): Fixes *note realpath(): 222. to behave consistently
     when passed a path containing an embedded null character on
     Windows.  In strict mode, it now raises *note OSError: 40d. instead
     of the unexpected *note ValueError: 1ff, and in non-strict mode
     will make the path absolute.

   - gh-83180(6): Changes the *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. to
     prefer an active virtual environment when the launched script has a
     shebang line using a Unix-like virtual command, even if the command
     requests a specific version of Python.

   - gh-106844(7): Fix integer overflow and truncating by the null
     character in ‘_winapi.LCMapStringEx()’ which affects
     ‘ntpath.normcase()’.

   - gh-105436(8): Ensure that an empty environment block is terminated
     by two null characters, as is required by Windows.

   - gh-105146(9): Updated the links at the end of the installer to
     point to Discourse rather than the mailing lists.

   - gh-103646(10): When installed from the Microsoft Store, ‘pip’ no
     longer defaults to per-user installs.  However, as the install
     directory is unwritable, it should automatically decide to do a
     per-user install anyway.  This should resolve issues when ‘pip’ is
     passed an option that conflicts with ‘--user’.

   - gh-88745(11): Improve performance of *note shutil.copy2(): a4b. by
     using the operating system's ‘CopyFile2’ function.  This may result
     in subtle changes to metadata copied along with some files,
     bringing them in line with normal OS behavior.

   - gh-104820(12): Fixes *note stat(): 48c. and related functions on
     file systems that do not support file ID requests.  This includes
     FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-104803(13): Add *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 1603. to detect
     whether a path is on a Windows Dev Drive.  Returns ‘False’ on
     platforms that do not support Dev Drive, and is absent on
     non-Windows platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110437

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83180

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106844

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105436

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105146

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103646

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88745

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104820

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<11>,  Next: IDLE<14>,  Prev: Windows<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-109286(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   - gh-99079(3): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<14>,  Next: Tools/Demos<8>,  Prev: macOS<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104719(1): Remove IDLE's modification of tokenize.tabsize and
     test other uses of tokenize data and methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104719


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<8>,  Next: C API<17>,  Prev: IDLE<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.11 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.11, and 3.1.3.

   - gh-108494(2): Argument Clinic(3) now has a partial support of the
     *note Limited API: 38c.: see documentation in the Python
     Developer's Guide(4) Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107704(5): It is now possible to deprecate passing keyword
     arguments for keyword-or-positional parameters with Argument
     Clinic, using the new ‘/ [from X.Y]’ syntax.  (To be read as
     '"positional-only from Python version X.Y"'.) See documentation in
     the Python Developer's Guide(6) for more information.

   - gh-107880(7): Argument Clinic can now clone ‘__init__()’ and
     ‘__new__()’ methods.

   - gh-104683(8): Add ‘--exclude’ option to Argument Clinic CLI.

   - gh-95065(9): Argument Clinic now supports overriding automatically
     generated signature by using directive ‘@text_signature’.  See
     documentation in the Python Developer's Guide(10)

   - gh-107609(11): Fix duplicate module check in Argument Clinic.
     Previously, a duplicate definition would incorrectly be silently
     accepted.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107467(12): The Argument Clinic command-line tool now prints to
     stderr instead of stdout on failure.

   - gh-106970(13): Fix bugs in the Argument Clinic ‘destination <name>
     clear’ command; the destination buffers would never be cleared, and
     the ‘destination’ directive parser would simply continue to the
     fault handler after processing the command.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-106706(14): Change bytecode syntax for families to remove
     redundant name matching pseudo syntax.

   - gh-106359(15): Argument Clinic now explicitly forbids "kwarg
     splats" in function calls used as annotations.

   - gh-103186(16): ‘freeze’ now fetches ‘CONFIG_ARGS’ from the original
     CPython instance the Makefile uses to call utility scripts.  Patch
     by Ijtaba Hussain.

   - gh-95065(17): It is now possible to deprecate passing parameters
     positionally with Argument Clinic, using the new ‘* [from X.Y]’
     syntax.  (To be read as '"keyword-only from Python version X.Y"'.)
     See documentation in the Python Developer's Guide(18) for more
     information.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland with help from Alex
     Waygood, Nikita Sobolev, and Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108494

   (3) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (4) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-limited-capi

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107704

   (6) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-keyword

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107880

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104683

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065

   (10) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-override-signature

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107609

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107467

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106970

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106706

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106359

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065

   (18) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-positional


File: python.info,  Node: C API<17>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.18.11 C API
................

   - gh-85283(1): If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 414. macro is defined,
     ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     macros are now undefined by ‘<Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110289(2): Add *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36c. and
     *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 36d. functions.

   - gh-110235(3): Raise *note TypeError: 525. for duplicate/unknown
     fields in ‘PyStructSequence’ constructor.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110014(4): Remove undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from
     the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109521(5): *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 16d1. now sets
     RuntimeError if it fails to get *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. or
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. or they are not list and dict
     correspondingly.  Previously it could return NULL without setting
     error in obscure cases, crash or raise SystemError if these
     attributes have wrong type.

   - gh-108724(6): Add *note PyMutex: 15a. internal-only lightweight
     locking API.

   - gh-85283(7): Add *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 364. function: similar
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 365, but pass event arguments as a Python
     *note tuple: 366. object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108867(8): Add *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 367.
     function: similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 368, but don't kill
     the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is
     responsible to check if the result is NULL. Previously, the
     function was private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(9): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ctype.h>’
     standard header file.  If needed, it should now be included
     explicitly.  For example, it provides ‘isalpha()’ and ‘tolower()’
     functions which are locale dependent.  Python provides locale
     independent functions, like ‘Py_ISALPHA()’ and ‘Py_TOLOWER()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(10): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<unistd.h>’
     standard header file.  If needed, it should now be included
     explicitly.  For example, it provides the functions: ‘close()’,
     ‘getpagesize()’, ‘getpid()’ and ‘sysconf()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108765(11): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ieeefp.h>’
     standard header.  It was included for the ‘finite()’ function which
     is now provided by the ‘<math.h>’ header.  It should now be
     included explicitly if needed.  Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’
     macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(12): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header
     files: ‘<time.h>’, ‘<sys/select.h>’ and ‘<sys/time.h>’.  If needed,
     they should now be included explicitly.  For example, ‘<time.h>’
     provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘<sys/select.h>’
     provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘<sys/time.h>’ provides the
     ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108511(13): Add functions *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError():
     370, *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 372, *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 374. and *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 376.

   - gh-107073(14): Add *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 35f. and
     *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 360. functions which must be
     called by the traverse and clear functions of a type using *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108634(15): Python built with ‘configure’ *note
     -with-trace-refs: 38b. (tracing references) now supports the *note
     Limited API: 38c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108014(16): Add *note PyLong_AsInt(): 355. function: similar to
     *note PyLong_AsLong(): 356, but store the result in a C int instead
     of a C long.  Previously, it was known as the private function
     ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’ (with an underscore prefix).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108314(17): Add *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 32d. function:
     same as *note PyDict_Contains(): 32e, but 'key' is specified as a
     const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 32f.*.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108337(18): Add atomic operations on additional data types in
     pyatomic.h.

   - gh-108014(19): Add *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 350. function: check if
     the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14d.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107916(20): C API functions *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 16d2, *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 16d3. and *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 16d4. save now the error
     code before calling *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 16d5.

   - gh-107915(21): Such C API functions as ‘PyErr_SetString()’,
     ‘PyErr_Format()’, ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename()’ and many
     others no longer crash or ignore errors if it failed to format the
     error message or decode the filename.  Instead, they keep a
     corresponding error.

   - gh-107810(22): Improve *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. for uses of
     *note PyType_Spec: 16d6. with metaclasses that have custom
     ‘tp_new’.

   - gh-107249(23): Implement the *note Py_UNUSED: 16d7. macro for
     Windows MSVC compiler.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107226(24): *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b. is now only
     available in the limited API version 3.10 or later.

   - gh-106320(25): Remove private ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’ alias to
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bab.  It was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.0 - 3.2.  The *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8():
     bab. is available since Python 3.3.  The *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1170. function can be used to keep
     compatibility with Python 3.2 and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106572(26): Convert *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 16d8. and *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 15bd. macros to functions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106307(27): Add *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33b.
     function.

   - gh-106521(28): Add *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 33f. and *note
     PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 340. functions.

   - gh-106320(29): Remove ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a4. which was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106316(30): Remove ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file: it only
     contained private functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106023(31): Remove private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use
     ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP
     590(32)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106168(33): If Python is built in *note debug mode: 1f6. or
     *note with assertions: 382, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 383. and
     *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 384. now check the index argument with an
     assertion.  If the assertion fails, make sure that the size is set
     before.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106084(34): Remove the old aliases to functions calling
     functions which were kept for backward compatibility with Python
     3.8 provisional API:

        * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’: use
          ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’

        * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’: use
          ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’

        * ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg()’: use ‘PyObject_CallOneArg()’

        * ‘_PyObject_FastCallDict()’: use ‘PyObject_VectorcallDict()’

        * ‘_PyObject_Vectorcall()’: use ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’

        * ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’: use
          ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’

        * ‘_PyVectorcall_Function()’: use ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’

     Just remove the underscore prefix to update your code.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106004(35): Adds *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330. and *note
     PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 331. functions: similar to *note
     PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 332. but returning a *note strong
     reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105927(36): Deprecate the *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. and
     *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b6. functions: use the new *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105927(37): Add *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. function: similar
     to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. but returns a *note strong
     reference: 333, or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105922(38): Add *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 34e.: similar to
     *note PyImport_AddModule(): 34f, but return a *note strong
     reference: 333. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 334.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105227(39): The new *note PyType_GetDict(): 16d9. provides the
     dictionary for the given type object that is normally exposed by
     ‘cls.__dict__’.  Normally it's sufficient to use *note tp_dict:
     16da, but for the static builtin types ‘tp_dict’ is now always
     ‘NULL’.  ‘PyType_GetDict()’ provides the correct dict object
     instead.

   - gh-105375(40): Fix a bug in *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 16db. where
     an exception could end up being overwritten if the API failed
     internally.

   - gh-105603(41): We've renamed the new (in 3.12)
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig.own_gil’ to ‘PyInterpreterConfig.gil’ and
     changed the meaning of the value from "bool" to an integer with
     supported values of ‘PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL’,
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL’, and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL’.  The default is "shared".

   - gh-105387(42): In the limited C API version 3.12, *note
     Py_INCREF(): 55c. and *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. functions are now
     implemented as opaque function calls to hide implementation
     details.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105396(43): Deprecate the *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock():
     3b4. function which is just an alias to *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-103968(44): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e. now allows
     metaclasses with ‘tp_new’ set to ‘NULL’.

   - gh-105268(45): Remove the old private, undocumented and untested
     ‘_PyGC_FINALIZED()’ macro which was kept for backward compatibility
     with Python 3.8 and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105182(46): Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.2.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105182(47): Remove ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.9.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105145(48): Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85275(49): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are
     removed.  Please migrate to new buffer protocol; *note
     PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391.

   - gh-105156(50): Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’
     types: use directly the ‘wchar_t’ type instead.  Since Python 3.3,
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just aliases to ‘wchar_t’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105145(51): Remove the following old functions to configure the
     Python initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105107(52): Remove functions deprecated in Python 3.9.

        * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: use
          *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 392. and *note PyObject_Call():
          393. (positional arguments must not be 'NULL') instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: use *note PyObject_CallFunction():
          395. instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396.
          instead.

        * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: use *note PyObject_Call(): 393. instead.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105115(53): ‘PyTypeObject.tp_bases’ (and ‘tp_mro’) for builtin
     static types are now shared by all interpreters, whereas in
     3.12-beta1 they were stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Also note
     that now the tuples are immortal objects.

   - gh-105071(54): Add ‘PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar’ to the unstable
     C api to expose the implementation of *note except*: 5a4.

   - gh-104922(55): ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is no longer required to use
     ‘'#'’ formats in APIs like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. and *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 896.  They uses ‘Py_ssize_t’ for ‘'#'’ regardless
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - gh-104584(56): Add an unstable C API for hooking in an optimizer.
     This is mainly internal, but marked "unstable" to allow third-party
     experimentation.

   - gh-104668(57): Don't call *note PyOS_InputHook: 573. or *note
     PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 574. in subinterpreters, since it's
     generally difficult to avoid using global state in their registered
     callbacks.  This also avoids situations where extensions may find
     themselves running in a subinterpreter they don't support (or
     haven't yet been loaded in).

   - bpo-42327(58): Add *note PyModule_Add(): 35a. function: similar to
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b. and *note PyModule_AddObject():
     35c, but always steals a reference to the value.

   - bpo-40309(59): Properly handle trailing spaces before closing
     parenthesis in *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. format strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110235

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109521

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108337

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107916

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107915

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107810

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107249

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107226

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106572

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106084

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105227

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105603

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105268

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105115

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105071

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42327

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40309


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.19 Python 3.12.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-05-22'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<12>,  Next: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99889(1): Fixed a security in flaw in ‘uu.decode()’ that could
     allow for directory traversal based on the input if no ‘out_file’
     was specified.

   - gh-104049(2): Do not expose the local on-disk location in directory
     indexes produced by ‘http.client.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’.

   - gh-99108(3): Upgrade built-in *note hashlib: 67. SHA3
     implementation to a verified implementation from the ‘HACL*’
     project.  Used when OpenSSL is not present or lacks SHA3.

   - gh-102153(4): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d2f. now strips
     leading C0 control and space characters following the specification
     for URLs defined by WHATWG in response to CVE 2023-24329(5).  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99889

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104049

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102153

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-24329


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<19>,  Next: Library<18>,  Prev: Security<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102856(1): Implement PEP 701 changes in the *note tokenize: fa.
     module.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo Salgado

   - gh-104615(2): Fix wrong ordering of assignments in code like ‘a, a
     = x, y’.  Contributed by Carl Meyer.

   - gh-104572(3): Improve syntax error message for invalid constructs
     in PEP 695(4) contexts and in annotations when ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is active.

   - gh-104482(5): Fix three error handling bugs in ast.c's validation
     of pattern matching statements.

   - gh-102818(6): Do not add a frame to the traceback in the
     ‘sys.setprofile’ and ‘sys.settrace’ trampoline functions.  This
     ensures that frames are not duplicated if an exception is raised in
     the callback function, and ensures that frames are not omitted if a
     C callback is used and that does not add the frame.

   - gh-104405(7): Fix an issue where some *note bytecode: 185.
     instructions could ignore PEP 523(8) when "inlining" calls.

   - gh-103082(9): Change behavior of ‘sys.monitoring.events.LINE’
     events in ‘sys.monitoring’: Line events now occur when a new line
     is reached dynamically, instead of using a static approximation, as
     before.  This makes the behavior very similar to that of "line"
     events in ‘sys.settrace’.  This should ease porting of tools from
     3.11 to 3.12.

   - gh-104263(10): Fix ‘float("nan")’ to produce a quiet NaN on
     platforms (like MIPS) where the meaning of the signalling / quiet
     bit is inverted from its usual meaning.  Also introduce a new macro
     ‘Py_INFINITY’ matching C99's ‘INFINITY’, and refactor internals to
     rely on C99's ‘NAN’ and ‘INFINITY’ macros instead of hard-coding
     bit patterns for infinities and NaNs.  Thanks Sebastian Berg.

   - gh-99113(11): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     that they support running in subinterpreters that have their own
     GIL. This is done by using ‘Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED’
     as the value for the ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def
     slot.  Otherwise the module, by default, cannot be imported in such
     subinterpreters.  (This does not affect the main interpreter or
     subinterpreters that do not have their own GIL.) In addition to the
     isolation that multi-phase init already normally requires, support
     for per-interpreter GIL involves one additional constraint:
     thread-safety.  If the module has external (linked) dependencies
     and those libraries have any state that isn't thread-safe then the
     module must do the additional work to add thread-safety.  This
     should be an uncommon case.

   - gh-99113(12): The GIL is now (optionally) per-interpreter.  This is
     the fundamental change for PEP 684.  This is all made possible by
     virtue of the isolated state of each interpreter in the process.
     The behavior of the main interpreter remains unchanged.  Likewise,
     interpreters created using ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’ are not affected.
     To get an interpreter with its own GIL, call
     ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.

   - gh-104108(13): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     whether or not they actually support multiple interpreters.  By
     default such modules are expected to support use in multiple
     interpreters.  In the uncommon case that one does not, it may use
     the new ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def slot.  A value of
     ‘0’ means the module does not support them.  ‘1’ means it does.
     The default is ‘1’.

   - gh-104142(14): Fix an issue where *note list: 5fe. or *note tuple:
     366. repetition could fail to respect PEP 683(15).

   - gh-104078(16): Improve the performance of *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 373.

   - gh-104066(17): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 4be. for
     module objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-104028(18): Reduce object creation while calling callback
     function from gc.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-104018(19): Disallow the "z" format specifier in %-format of
     bytes objects.

   - gh-102213(20): Fix performance loss when accessing an object's
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-103895(21): Improve handling of edge cases in showing
     ‘Exception.__notes__’.  Ensures that the messages always end with a
     newline and that string/bytes are not exploded over multiple lines.
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-103907(22): Don't modify the refcounts of known immortal objects
     (*note True: bfd, *note False: b27, and *note None: 662.) in the
     main interpreter loop.

   - gh-103899(23): Provide a helpful hint in the *note TypeError: 525.
     message when accidentally calling a *note module: 161a. object that
     has a callable attribute of the same name (such as *note dis.dis():
     b24. or *note datetime.datetime: 1c7.).

   - gh-103845(24): Remove both line and instruction instrumentation
     before adding new ones for monitoring, to avoid newly added
     instrumentation being removed immediately.

   - gh-103763(25): Implement PEP 695(26), adding syntactic support for
     generic classes, generic functions, and type aliases.

     A new ‘type X = ...’ syntax is added for type aliases, which
     resolves at runtime to an instance of the new class
     ‘typing.TypeAliasType’.  The value is lazily evaluated and is
     accessible through the ‘.__value__’ attribute.  This is implemented
     as a new AST node ‘ast.TypeAlias’.

     New syntax (‘class X[T]: ...’, ‘def func[T](): ...’) is added for
     defining generic functions and classes.  This is implemented as a
     new ‘type_params’ attribute on the AST nodes for classes and
     functions.  This node holds instances of the new AST classes
     ‘ast.TypeVar’, ‘ast.ParamSpec’, and ‘ast.TypeVarTuple’.

     ‘typing.TypeVar’, ‘typing.ParamSpec’, ‘typing.ParamSpecArgs’,
     ‘typing.ParamSpecKwargs’, ‘typing.TypeVarTuple’, and
     ‘typing.Generic’ are now implemented in C rather than Python.

     There are new bytecode instructions ‘LOAD_LOCALS’,
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_GLOBAL’, and ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_DEREF’ to
     support correct resolution of names in class namespaces.

     Patch by Eric Traut, Larry Hastings, and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103801(27): Adds three minor linting fixes to the wasm module
     caught that were caught by ruff.

   - gh-103793(28): Optimized asyncio Task creation by deferring
     expensive string formatting (task name generation) from Task
     creation to the first time ‘get_name’ is called.  This makes
     asyncio benchmarks up to 5% faster.

   - gh-102310(29): Change the error range for invalid bytes literals.

   - gh-103590(30): Do not wrap a single exception raised from a
     ‘try-except*’ construct in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.

   - gh-103650(31): Change the perf map format to remove the '0x' prefix
     from the addresses

   - gh-102856(32): Implement the required C tokenizer changes for PEP
     701.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou, Batuhan
     Taskaya, Marta Gómez Macías and sunmy2019.

   - gh-100530(33): Clarify the error message raised when the called
     part of a class pattern isn't actually a class.

   - gh-101517(34): Fix bug in line numbers of instructions emitted for
     *note except*: 5a4.

   - gh-103492(35): Clarify *note SyntaxWarning: 451. with literal ‘is’
     comparison by specifying which literal is problematic, since
     comparisons using ‘is’ with e.g.  ‘None’ and bool literals are
     idiomatic.

   - gh-87729(36): Add *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4c9. (and a specialization
     for ‘super().method()’) to speed up ‘super().method()’ and
     ‘super().attr’.  This makes ‘super().method()’ roughly 2.3x faster
     and brings it within 20% of the performance of a simple method
     call.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-103488(37): Change the internal offset distinguishing yield and
     return target addresses, so that the instruction pointer is correct
     for exception handling and other stack unwinding.

   - gh-82012(38): The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is
     deprecated.  It returns the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’ representation such that ‘bool(~True) == True’, which can be
     confusing.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation of bools.  In the rare
     case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’, convert to int explicitly ‘~int(x)’.

   - gh-77757(39): Exceptions raised in a typeobject's ‘__set_name__’
     method are no longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 193.  Context
     information is added to the exception as a PEP 678(40) note.

   - gh-103333(41): *note AttributeError: 343. now retains the ‘name’
     attribute when pickled and unpickled.

   - gh-103242(42): Migrate *note set_ecdh_curve(): 1125. method not to
     use deprecated OpenSSL APIs.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103323(43): We've replaced our use of
     ‘_PyRuntime.tstate_current’ with a thread-local variable.  This is
     a fairly low-level implementation detail, and there should be no
     change in behavior.

   - gh-84436(44): The implementation of PEP-683 which adds Immortal
     Objects by using a fixed reference count that skips reference
     counting to make objects truly immutable.

   - gh-102700(45): Allow built-in modules to be submodules.  This
     allows submodules to be statically linked into a CPython binary.

   - gh-103082(46): Implement PEP 669(47) Low Impact Monitoring for
     CPython.

   - gh-88691(48): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 6e5. entries
     for *note CALL: 6f3.

   - gh-102500(49): Make the buffer protocol accessible in Python code
     using the new ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’ magic methods.
     See PEP 688(50) for details.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-97933(51): PEP 709(52): inline list, dict and set comprehensions
     to improve performance and reduce bytecode size.

   - gh-99184(53): Bypass instance attribute access of ‘__name__’ in
     ‘repr’ of *note weakref.ref: fdb.

   - gh-98003(54): Complex function calls are now faster and consume no
     C stack space.

   - bpo-39610(55): ‘len()’ for 0-dimensional *note memoryview: 454.
     objects (such as ‘memoryview(ctypes.c_uint8(42))’) now raises a
     *note TypeError: 525.  Previously this returned ‘1’, which was not
     consistent with ‘mem_0d[0]’ raising an *note IndexError: 14ec.

   - bpo-31821(56): Fix ‘pause_reading()’ to work when called from
     ‘connection_made()’ in *note asyncio: a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104615

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104572

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104482

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102818

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104405

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104263

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104142

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104078

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104066

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104028

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104018

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103895

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103907

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103899

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103845

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103763

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103801

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102310

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103650

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100530

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103492

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87729

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103488

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82012

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103333

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103242

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103323

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102700

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (47) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88691

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97933

   (52) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99184

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98003

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39610

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31821


File: python.info,  Node: Library<18>,  Next: Documentation<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.3 Library
.................

   - gh-104600(1): *note functools.update_wrapper(): 100d. now sets the
     ‘__type_params__’ attribute (added by PEP 695(2)).

   - gh-104340(3): When an ‘asyncio’ pipe protocol loses its connection
     due to an error, and the caller doesn't await ‘wait_closed()’ on
     the corresponding ‘StreamWriter’, don't log a warning about an
     exception that was never retrieved.  After all, according to the
     ‘StreamWriter.close()’ docs, the ‘wait_closed()’ call is optional
     ("not mandatory").

   - gh-104555(4): Fix issue where an *note issubclass(): 7ad. check
     comparing a class ‘X’ against a *note runtime-checkable protocol:
     42e. ‘Y’ with non-callable members would not cause *note TypeError:
     525. to be raised if an *note isinstance(): 42d. call had
     previously been made comparing an instance of ‘X’ to ‘Y’.  This
     issue was present in edge cases on Python 3.11, but became more
     prominent in 3.12 due to some unrelated changes that were made to
     runtime-checkable protocols.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104372(5): Refactored the ‘_posixsubprocess’ internals to avoid
     Python C API usage between fork and exec when marking ‘pass_fds=’
     file descriptors inheritable.

   - gh-104484(6): Added 'case_sensitive' argument to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 498.

   - gh-75367(7): Fix data descriptor detection in *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 480.

   - gh-104536(8): Fix a race condition in the internal
     ‘multiprocessing.process’ cleanup logic that could manifest as an
     unintended ‘AttributeError’ when calling ‘process.close()’.

   - gh-103857(9): Update datetime deprecations' stracktrace to point to
     the calling line

   - gh-101520(10): Move the core functionality of the ‘tracemalloc’
     module in the ‘Python/’ folder, leaving just the module wrapper in
     ‘Modules/’.

   - gh-104392(11): Remove undocumented and unused ‘_paramspec_tvars’
     attribute from some classes in *note typing: 103.

   - gh-102613(12): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a.
     raised *note RecursionError: d5b. when walking deep directory
     trees.

   - gh-103000(13): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.asdict():
     16e0. for the common case where 'dict_factory' is ‘dict’.  Patch by
     David C Ellis.

   - gh-104301(14): Allow leading whitespace in disambiguated statements
     in *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-104139(15): Teach ‘urllib.parse.unsplit()’ to retain the ‘"//"’
     when assembling ‘itms-services://?action=generate-bugs’ style Apple
     Platform Deployment(16) URLs.

   - gh-104307(17): *note socket.getnameinfo(): 167e. now releases the
     GIL while contacting the DNS server

   - gh-104310(18): Users may now use
     ‘importlib.util.allowing_all_extensions()’ (a context manager) to
     temporarily disable the strict compatibility checks for importing
     extension modules in subinterpreters.

   - gh-87695(19): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a.
     raised *note OSError: 40d. when it encountered a symlink to an
     overly long path.

   - gh-104265(20): Prevent possible crash by disallowing instantiation
     of the ‘_csv.Reader’ and ‘_csv.Writer’ types.  The regression was
     introduced in 3.10.0a4 with PR 23224 (bpo-14935(21)).  Patch by
     Radislav Chugunov.

   - gh-102613(22): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22a. when expanding recursive wildcards ("‘**’") by merging
     adjacent wildcards and de-duplicating results only when necessary.

   - gh-65772(23): Remove unneeded comments and code in turtle.py.

   - gh-90208(24): Fixed issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a.
     returned incomplete results when it encountered a *note
     PermissionError: d32.  This method now suppresses all *note
     OSError: 40d. exceptions, except those raised from calling *note
     is_dir(): 22d. on the top-level path.

   - gh-104144(25): Optimize *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 463.  Skip scheduling a done
     callback if a TaskGroup task completes eagerly.

   - gh-104144(26): Optimize *note asyncio.gather(): 5ea. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 463. to complete eagerly if all
     fututres completed eagerly.  Avoid scheduling done callbacks for
     futures that complete eagerly.

   - gh-104114(27): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a.
     returns paths using the case of non-wildcard segments for
     corresponding path segments, rather than the real filesystem case.

   - gh-104104(28): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22a. by using *note re.IGNORECASE: 16e1. to implement
     case-insensitive matching.

   - gh-104102(29): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22a. when evaluating patterns that contain ‘'../'’ segments.

   - gh-103822(30): Update the return type of ‘weekday’ to the newly
     added Day attribute

   - gh-103629(31): Update the ‘repr’ of *note typing.Unpack: 15ea.
     according to PEP 692(32).

   - gh-103963(33): Make *note dis: 38. display the names of the args
     for ‘CALL_INTRINSIC_*’.

   - gh-104035(34): Do not ignore user-defined ‘__getstate__’ and
     ‘__setstate__’ methods for slotted frozen dataclasses.

   - gh-103987(35): In *note mmap: 8f, fix several bugs that could lead
     to access to memory-mapped files after they have been invalidated.

   - gh-103977(36): Improve import time of *note platform: a9. module.

   - gh-88773(37): Added *note turtle.teleport(): 16e2. to the *note
     turtle: 100. module to move a turtle to a new point without tracing
     a line, visible or invisible.  Patch by Liam Gersten.

   - gh-103935(38): Use *note io.open_code(): 16e3. for files to be
     executed instead of raw *note open(): 508.

   - gh-68968(39): Fixed garbled output of *note assertEqual(): 515.
     when an input lacks final newline.

   - gh-100370(40): Fix potential *note OverflowError: 86f. in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.blobopen(): 66e. for 32-bit builds.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-102628(41): Substitute CTRL-D with CTRL-Z in *note sqlite3: ce.
     CLI banner when running on Windows.

   - gh-103636(42): Module-level attributes ‘January’ and ‘February’ are
     deprecated from *note calendar: 14.

   - gh-103583(43): Isolate ‘_multibytecodec’ and codecs extension
     modules.  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103848(44): Add checks to ensure that ‘[’ bracketed ‘]’ hosts
     found by *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d2f. are of IPv6 or
     IPvFuture format.

   - gh-103872(45): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.2.

   - gh-99944(46): Make *note dis: 38. display the value of oparg of
     ‘KW_NAMES’.

   - gh-74940(47): The C.UTF-8 locale is no longer converted to
     en_US.UTF-8, enabling the use of UTF-8 encoding on systems which
     have no locales installed.

   - gh-103861(48): Fix ‘zipfile.Zipfile’ creating invalid zip files
     when ‘force_zip64’ was used to add files to them.  Patch by Carey
     Metcalfe.

   - gh-103857(49): Deprecated *note datetime.datetime.utcnow(): 2f1.
     and *note datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103839(50): Avoid compilation error due to tommath.h not being
     found when building Tkinter against Tcl 8.7 built with bundled
     libtommath.

   - gh-103791(51): *note contextlib.suppress: f13. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of an *note ExceptionGroup:
     1b4.  If other exceptions exist on the group, they are re-raised in
     a group that does not contain the suppressed exceptions.

   - gh-90750(52): Use *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9dd.
     in the implementation of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6,
     which should now accept only valid ISO dates.  (Patch by Paul
     Ganssle)

   - gh-103685(53): Prepare ‘tkinter.Menu.index()’ for Tk 8.7 so that it
     does not raise ‘TclError: expected integer but got ""’ when it
     should return ‘None’.

   - gh-81403(54): *note urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler: 16e4. no longer
     raises ‘URLError’ if a cached FTP instance is reused.  ftplib's
     endtransfer method calls voidresp to drain the connection to handle
     FTP instance reuse properly.

   - gh-103699(55): Add ‘__orig_bases__’ to non-generic TypedDicts,
     call-based TypedDicts, and call-based NamedTuples.  Other
     TypedDicts and NamedTuples already had the attribute.

   - gh-103693(56): Add convenience variable feature to *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-92248(57): Deprecate ‘type’, ‘choices’, and ‘metavar’ parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’.

   - gh-89415(58): Add *note socket: cb. constants for source-specific
     multicast.  Patch by Reese Hyde.

   - gh-103673(59): *note socketserver: cc. gains
     ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and ‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes.
     Patch by Jay Berry.

   - gh-103636(60): Added Enum for months and days in the calendar
     module.

   - gh-84976(61): Create a new ‘Lib/_pydatetime.py’ file that defines
     the Python version of the ‘datetime’ module, and make ‘datetime’
     import the contents of the new library only if the C implementation
     is missing.  Currently, the full Python implementation is defined
     and then deleted if the C implementation is not available, slowing
     down ‘import datetime’ unnecessarily.

   - gh-103596(62): Attributes/methods are no longer shadowed by
     same-named enum members, although they may be shadowed by
     enum.property's.

   - gh-103584(63): Updated ‘importlib.metadata’ with changes from
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.2 through 6.5.0, including: Support
     ‘installed-files.txt’ for ‘Distribution.files’ when present.
     ‘PackageMetadata’ now stipulates an additional ‘get’ method
     allowing for easy querying of metadata keys that may not be
     present.  ‘packages_distributions’ now honors packages and modules
     with Python modules that not ‘.py’ sources (e.g.  ‘.pyc’, ‘.so’).
     Expand protocol for ‘PackageMetadata.get_all’ to match the upstream
     implementation of ‘email.message.Message.get_all’ in
     python/typeshed#9620.  Deprecated use of ‘Distribution’ without
     defining abstract methods.  Deprecated expectation that
     ‘PackageMetadata.__getitem__’ will return ‘None’ for missing keys.
     In the future, it will raise a ‘KeyError’.

   - gh-103578(64): Fixed a bug where *note pdb: a4. crashes when
     reading source file with different encoding by replacing *note
     io.open(): 509. with *note io.open_code(): 16e3.  The new method
     would also call into the hook set by *note
     PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 16e5.

   - gh-103556(65): Now creating *note inspect.Signature: 1ca. objects
     with positional-only parameter with a default followed by a
     positional-or-keyword parameter without one is impossible.

   - gh-103559(66): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.1.

   - gh-103548(67): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1669. and *note cwd(): 16e6. by joining
     paths only when necessary.  Also improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute(): 16e7. on Posix by skipping path
     parsing and normalization.

   - gh-103538(68): Remove ‘_tkinter’ module code guarded by definition
     of the ‘TK_AQUA’ macro which was only needed for Tk 8.4.7 or
     earlier and was never actually defined by any build system or
     documented for manual use.

   - gh-103533(69): Update *note cProfile: 27. to use PEP 669 API

   - gh-103525(70): Fix misleading exception message when mixed ‘str’
     and ‘bytes’ arguments are supplied to *note pathlib.PurePath: 492.
     and *note Path: 226.

   - gh-103489(71): Add *note getconfig(): 4a5. and *note setconfig():
     4a6. to *note Connection: 242. to make configuration changes to a
     database connection.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103365(72): Set default Flag boundary to ‘STRICT’ and fix
     bitwise operations.

   - gh-103472(73): Avoid a potential *note ResourceWarning: 241. in
     *note http.client.HTTPConnection: b30. by closing the proxy /
     tunnel's CONNECT response explicitly.

   - gh-103462(74): Fixed an issue with using *note writelines(): 153a.
     in *note asyncio: a. to send very large payloads that exceed the
     amount of data that can be written in one call to *note
     socket.socket.send(): d96. or *note socket.socket.sendmsg(): 462,
     resulting in the remaining buffer being left unwritten.

   - gh-103449(75): Fix a bug in doc string generation in *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 1c6.

   - gh-103092(76): Isolate ‘_collections’ (apply PEP 687(77)).  Patch
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103357(78): Added support for *note logging.Formatter: 144b.
     ‘defaults’ parameter to *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 118f.
     and *note logging.config.fileConfig(): b41.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-103092(79): Adapt the *note winreg: 115. extension module to PEP
     687(80).

   - gh-74690(81): The performance of *note isinstance(): 42d. checks
     against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 42e. has been
     considerably improved for protocols that only have a few members.
     To achieve this improvement, several internal implementation
     details of the *note typing: 103. module have been refactored,
     including ‘typing._ProtocolMeta.__instancecheck__’,
     ‘typing._is_callable_members_only’, and
     ‘typing._get_protocol_attrs’.  Patches by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(82): The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now
     considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  See *note "What's new in Python 3.12": 4bd. for more
     details.

   - gh-103256(83): Fixed a bug that caused *note hmac: 69. to raise an
     exception when the requested hash algorithm was not available in
     OpenSSL despite being available separately as part of ‘hashlib’
     itself.  It now falls back properly to the built-in.  This could
     happen when, for example, your OpenSSL does not include SHA3
     support and you want to compute ‘hmac.digest(b'K', b'M',
     'sha3_256')’.

   - gh-102778(84): Support ‘sys.last_exc’ in *note idlelib: 72.

   - gh-103285(85): Improve performance of *note
     ast.get_source_segment(): 9c7.

   - gh-103225(86): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a4. when displaying line
     numbers of module-level source code.

   - gh-103092(87): Adapt the *note msvcrt: 92. extension module to PEP
     687(88).

   - gh-103092(89): Adapt the *note winsound: 116. extension module to
     PEP 687(90).

   - gh-93910(91): Remove deprecation of enum ‘member.member’ access.

   - gh-102978(92): Fixes *note unittest.mock.patch(): e7d. not
     enforcing function signatures for methods decorated with
     ‘@classmethod’ or ‘@staticmethod’ when patch is called with
     ‘autospec=True’.

   - gh-103092(93): Isolate ‘_socket’ (apply PEP 687(94)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100479(95): Add *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(): 493,
     which creates a path object from arguments.  This method is called
     whenever a derivative path is created, such as from *note
     pathlib.PurePath.parent: 16e8.  Subclasses may override this method
     to share information between path objects.

   - gh-103220(96): Fix issue where *note os.path.join(): 15ee. added a
     slash when joining onto an incomplete UNC drive with a trailing
     slash on Windows.

   - gh-103204(97): Fixes *note http.server: 71. accepting HTTP requests
     with HTTP version numbers preceded by '+', or '-', or with
     digit-separating '_' characters.  The length of the version numbers
     is also constrained.

   - gh-75586(98): Fix various Windows-specific issues with
     ‘shutil.which’.

   - gh-103193(99): Improve performance of *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 480.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103176(100): *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4ae. now returns a
     mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a
     ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple.

   - gh-103143(101): Polish the help messages and docstrings of *note
     pdb: a4.

   - gh-103015(102): Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4a4, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103000(103): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.astuple():
     16e9. and *note dataclasses.asdict(): 16e0. in cases where the
     contents are common Python types.

   - gh-102953(104): The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and
     *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 457, have a new a 'filter' argument
     that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or
     dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination
     directory.  See *note Extraction filters: 458. for details.

   - gh-97696(105): Implemented an eager task factory in asyncio.  When
     used as a task factory on an event loop, it performs eager
     execution of coroutines.  Coroutines that are able to complete
     synchronously (e.g.  return or raise without blocking) are returned
     immediately as a finished task, and the task is never scheduled to
     the event loop.  If the coroutine blocks, the (pending) task is
     scheduled and returned.

   - gh-81079(106): Add 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b.

   - gh-101819(107): Isolate the *note io: 7e. extension module by
     applying PEP 687(108).  Patch by Kumar Aditya, Victor Stinner, and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91896(109): Deprecate *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2c0.

   - gh-101362(110): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 226. construction by
     omitting the path anchor from the internal list of path parts.

   - gh-102114(111): Functions in the *note dis: 38. module that accept
     a source code string as argument now print a more concise traceback
     when the string contains a syntax or indentation error.

   - gh-62432(112): The *note unittest: 105. runner will now exit with
     status code 5 if no tests were run.  It is common for test runner
     misconfiguration to fail to find any tests, this should be an
     error.

   - gh-78079(113): Fix incorrect normalization of UNC device path
     roots, and partial UNC share path roots, in *note pathlib.PurePath:
     492.  Pathlib no longer appends a trailing slash to such paths.

   - gh-85984(114): Add *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 1687. and *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1634. to *note tty: ff. and modernize, the
     behavior of *note tty.setraw(): 1686. and *note tty.setcbreak():
     1633. to use POSIX.1-2017 Chapter 11 "General Terminal Interface"
     flag masks by default.

   - gh-101688(115): Implement *note types.get_original_bases(): 4ba. to
     provide further introspection for types.

   - gh-101640(116): *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 526. now catches
     errors when writing messages, such as when *note sys.stderr: 928.
     is ‘None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-83861(117): Fix datetime.astimezone method return value when
     invoked on a naive datetime instance that represents local time
     falling in a timezone transition gap.  PEP 495 requires that
     instances with fold=1 produce earlier times than those with fold=0
     in this case.

   - gh-89550(118): Decrease execution time of some *note gzip: 66. file
     writes by 15% by adding more appropriate buffering.

   - gh-95299(119): Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from
     ‘ensurepip’, and stop installing setuptools in environments created
     by ‘venv’.

   - gh-99353(120): Respect the *note http.client.HTTPConnection: b30.
     ‘.debuglevel’ flag in ‘urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler’ when its
     constructor parameter ‘debuglevel’ is not set.  And do the same for
     ‘*HTTPS*’.

   - gh-98040(121): Remove the long-deprecated ‘imp’ module.

   - gh-97850(122): Deprecate *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 2c9. and
     *note pkgutil.get_loader(): 2ca. in favor of *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb.

   - gh-94473(123): Flatten arguments in ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’.  It
     now accepts not only ‘x1, y1, x2, y2, ...’ and ‘[x1, y1, x2, y2,
     ...]’, but also ‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’ and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2),
     ...]’.

   - gh-98040(124): Remove more deprecated importlib APIs:
     ‘find_loader()’, ‘find_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.Finder’,
     ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’.

   - gh-96522(125): Fix potential deadlock in pty.spawn()

   - gh-96534(126): Support divert(4) added in FreeBSD 14.

   - gh-87474(127): Fix potential file descriptor leaks in *note
     subprocess.Popen: 197.

   - gh-94906(128): Support multiple steps in *note math.nextafter():
     484.  Patch by Shantanu Jain and Matthias Gorgens.

   - gh-51574(129): Make *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c. return absolute
     paths when its 'dir' parameter is relative.

   - gh-94518(130): Convert private ‘_posixsubprocess.fork_exec()’ to
     use Argument Clinic.

   - gh-92184(131): When creating zip files using *note zipfile: 130,
     ‘os.altsep’, if not ‘None’, will always be treated as a path
     separator even when it is not ‘/’.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-46797(132): Deprecation warnings are now emitted for ‘ast.Num’,
     ‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’.
     These have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.8, and will
     be removed in Python 3.14.

   - bpo-44844(133): Enables *note webbrowser: 114. to detect and launch
     Microsoft Edge browser.

   - bpo-45606(134): Fixed the bug in *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. -
     previously a dangling symlink would not be found by this method
     when the pattern is an exact match, but would be found when the
     pattern contains a wildcard or the recursive wildcard (‘**’).  With
     this change, a dangling symlink will be found in both cases.

   - bpo-23041(135): Add *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 471. and *note
     QUOTE_NOTNULL: 470. to the suite of *note csv: 29. module quoting
     styles.

   - bpo-24964(136): Added *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 16bd. that
     provides access to the HTTP headers on a proxy server response to
     the ‘CONNECT’ request.

   - bpo-17258(137): *note multiprocessing: 93. now supports stronger
     HMAC algorithms for inter-process connection authentication rather
     than only HMAC-MD5.

   - bpo-39744(138): Make *note
     asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate(): 16ea. close the
     subprocess's stdin even when called with ‘input=None’.

   - bpo-22708(139): http.client CONNECT method tunnel improvements: Use
     HTTP 1.1 protocol; send a matching Host: header with CONNECT, if
     one is not provided; convert IDN domain names to Punycode.  Patch
     by Michael Handler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104600

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104340

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104555

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104484

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75367

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101520

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104392

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104301

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104139

   (16) 
https://support.apple.com/en-gb/guide/deployment/depce7cefc4d/web

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104307

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87695

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104265

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14935

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65772

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90208

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104114

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104104

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104102

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103822

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103963

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104035

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103987

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103977

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88773

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103935

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68968

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100370

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102628

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103583

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103848

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103872

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99944

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74940

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103861

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103839

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90750

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103685

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81403

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89415

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103673

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84976

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103596

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103584

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103578

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103556

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103559

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103548

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103538

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103533

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103525

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103365

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103472

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103462

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103449

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (77) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103357

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103256

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103285

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103225

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (88) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102978

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (94) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100479

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103220

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103204

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75586

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103143

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102953

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97696

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81079

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101819

   (108) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102114

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62432

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78079

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101688

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101640

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83861

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89550

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99353

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96522

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96534

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87474

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51574

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92184

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46797

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44844

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45606

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23041

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24964

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39744

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22708


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<13>,  Next: Tests<16>,  Prev: Library<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-67056(1): Document that the effect of registering or
     unregistering an *note atexit: c. cleanup function from within a
     registered cleanup function is undefined.

   - gh-103629(2): Mention the new way of typing ‘**kwargs’ with
     ‘Unpack’ and ‘TypedDict’ introduced in PEP 692(3).

   - gh-48241(4): Clarifying documentation about the url parameter to
     urllib.request.urlopen and urllib.request.Request needing to be
     encoded properly.

   - gh-86094(5): Add support for Unicode Path Extra Field in ZipFile.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim and Andrea Giudiceandrea

   - gh-99202(6): Fix extension type from documentation for compiling in
     C++20 mode

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67056

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48241

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86094

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99202


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<16>,  Next: Build<18>,  Prev: Documentation<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-104494(1): Update ‘test_pack_configure_in’ and
     ‘test_place_configure_in’ for changes to error message formatting
     in Tk 8.7.

   - gh-104461(2): Run test_configure_screen on X11 only, since the
     ‘DISPLAY’ environment variable and ‘-screen’ option for toplevels
     are not useful on Tk for Win32 or Aqua.

   - gh-86275(3): Added property-based tests to the *note zoneinfo: 133.
     tests, along with stubs for the ‘hypothesis’ interface.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103329(4): Regression tests for the behaviour of
     ‘unittest.mock.PropertyMock’ were added.

   - gh-102795(5): fix use of poll in test_epoll's test_control_and_wait

   - gh-75729(6): Fix the *note os.spawn*: 16ed. tests failing on
     Windows when the working directory or interpreter path contains
     spaces.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86275

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103329

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102795

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75729


File: python.info,  Node: Build<18>,  Next: Windows<14>,  Prev: Tests<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): BOLT optimization is now applied to the libpython
     shared library if building a shared library.  BOLT instrumentation
     and application settings can now be influenced via the
     ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ configure variables.

   - gh-99017(2): ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   - gh-104490(3): Define ‘.PHONY’ / virtual make targets consistently
     and properly.

   - gh-104106(4): Add gcc fallback of mkfifoat/mknodat for macOS. Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103532(5): The ‘TKINTER_PROTECT_LOADTK’ macro is no longer
     defined or used in the ‘_tkinter’ module.  It was previously only
     defined when building against Tk 8.4.13 and older, but Tk older
     than 8.5.12 has been unsupported since gh-91152(6).

   - gh-99069(7): Extended workaround defining ‘static_assert’ when
     missing from the libc headers to all clang and gcc builds.  In
     particular, this fixes building on macOS <= 10.10.

   - gh-100220(8): Changed the default value of the ‘SHELL’ Makefile
     variable from ‘/bin/sh’ to ‘/bin/sh -e’ to ensure that complex
     recipes correctly fail after an error.  Previously, ‘make install’
     could fail to install some files and yet return a successful
     result.

   - gh-90656(9): Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     Patch by Zhang Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99017

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104106

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103532

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91152

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99069

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100220

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<14>,  Next: macOS<12>,  Prev: Build<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-104623(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-82814(2): Fix a potential ‘[Errno 13] Permission denied’ when
     using *note shutil.copystat(): 1110. within Windows Subsystem for
     Linux (WSL) on a mounted filesystem by adding ‘errno.EACCES’ to the
     list of ignored errors within the internal implementation.

   - gh-103088(3): Fix virtual environment ‘activate’ script having
     incorrect line endings for Cygwin.

   - gh-103088(4): Fixes venvs not working in bash on Windows across
     different disks

   - gh-102997(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.41.2.

   - gh-88013(6): Fixed a bug where *note TypeError: 525. was raised
     when calling ‘ntpath.realpath()’ with a bytes parameter in some
     cases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88013


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<12>,  Next: IDLE<15>,  Prev: Windows<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-99834(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.13.

   - gh-104623(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-103545(3): Add ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD’,
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS’, ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG’ and
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI’.  These can be used with ‘os.setpriority’ to
     run the process at a lower priority and make use of the efficiency
     cores on Apple Silicon systems.

   - gh-104180(4): Support reading SOCKS proxy configuration from macOS
     System Configuration.  Patch by Sam Schott.

   - gh-60436(5): update curses textbox to additionally handle backspace
     using the ‘curses.ascii.DEL’ key press.

   - gh-102997(6): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.41.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104180

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60436

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<9>,  Prev: macOS<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104499(1): Fix completions for Tk Aqua 8.7 (currently blank).

   - gh-104496(2): About prints both tcl and tk versions if different
     (expected someday).

   - gh-88496(3): Fix IDLE test hang on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104499

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104496

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88496


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<9>,  Next: C API<18>,  Prev: IDLE<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-104389(1): Argument Clinic C converters now accept the ‘unused’
     keyword, for wrapping a parameter with *note Py_UNUSED: 16d7.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104389


File: python.info,  Node: C API<18>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.19.11 C API
................

   - gh-101291(1): Added unstable C API for extracting the value of
     "compact" integers: *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 577. and
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 578.

   - gh-104109(2): We've added ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’ and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig’ to the public C-API (but not the stable ABI;
     not yet at least).  The new function may be used to create a new
     interpreter with various features configured.  The function was
     added to support PEP 684 (per-interpreter GIL).

   - gh-103968(3): *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b. and its variants now
     allow creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 56d.
     The ‘tp_new’ is ignored.  This behavior is deprecated and will be
     disallowed in 3.14+.  The new *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e.
     already disallows it.

   - gh-103743(4): Add *note PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData():
     16f4. function that can be used to allocate additional memory after
     an object for data not managed by Python.

   - gh-103295(5): Introduced *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     16f5, *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 16f6. and *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(): 16f7.  These allow extension
     modules (JIT compilers in particular) to write to perf-map files in
     a thread safe manner.  The *note Python support for the Linux perf
     profiler: 16f8. also uses these APIs to write entries in the
     perf-map file.

   - gh-103509(6): Added C API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque: *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536. can now be zero
     or negative, *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 537. can be used to get
     subclass-specific data, and *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 539. can
     be used to safely extend variable-size objects.  See PEP 697(7) for
     details.

   - gh-103091(8): Add a new C-API function to eagerly assign a version
     tag to a PyTypeObject: ‘PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag()’.

   - gh-101408(9): *note PyObject_GC_Resize: 16f9. should calculate
     preheader size if needed.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98836(10): Add support of more formatting options (left
     aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’,
     ‘wchar_t’ C strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     562.

   - gh-96803(11): Add unstable C-API functions to get the code object,
     lasti and line number from the internal ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ in
     the limited API. The functions are:

        * ‘PyCodeObject * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104109

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103743

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103091

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101408

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96803


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.20 Python 3.12.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-04-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<20>,  Next: Library<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102192(1): Deprecated ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ in favour of
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’.

   - gh-89987(2): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 6e5. entries
     for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 16fc.

   - gh-102859(3): Removed ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ instructions.

   - gh-101975(4): Fixed ‘stacktop’ value on tracing entries to avoid
     corruption on garbage collection.

   - gh-102778(5): Add *note sys.last_exc: 4aa. and deprecate *note
     sys.last_type: 4ab, *note sys.last_value: 4ac. and *note
     sys.last_traceback: 4ad, which hold the same information in its
     legacy form.

   - gh-100982(6): Replace all occurrences of ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ with
     *note COMPARE_OP: 958.

   - gh-102701(7): Fix overflow when creating very large dict.

   - gh-102755(8): Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8. which takes
     just an exception instance, to replace the legacy ‘PyErr_Display()’
     which takes the ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ triplet.

   - gh-102594(9): Add note to exception raised in ‘PyErr_SetObject’
     when normalization fails.

   - gh-90997(10): Shrink the number of inline *note CACHE: 6e5. entries
     used by *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16a4.

   - gh-102491(11): Improve import time of ‘platform’ by removing
     IronPython version parsing.  The IronPython version parsing was not
     functional (see
     ‘https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3/issues/1667’).

   - gh-101291(12): Rearrage bits in first field (after header) of
     PyLongObject.  * Bits 0 and 1: 1 - sign.  I.e.  0 for positive
     numbers, 1 for zero and 2 for negative numbers.  * Bit 2 reserved
     (probably for the immortal bit) * Bits 3+ the unsigned size.

     This makes a few operations slightly more efficient, and will
     enable a more compact and faster 2s-complement representation of
     most ints in future.

   - gh-102397(13): Fix segfault from race condition in signal handling
     during garbage collection.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102406(14): *note codecs: 1b. encoding/decoding errors now get
     the context information (which operation and which codecs) attached
     as PEP 678(15) notes instead of through chaining a new instance of
     the exception.

   - gh-102281(16): Fix potential nullptr dereference and use of
     uninitialized memory in fileutils.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102300(17): Reuse operands with refcount of 1 in float
     specializations of BINARY_OP.

   - gh-102213(18): Fix performance loss when accessing an object's
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-102255(19): Improve build support for the Xbox.  Patch by Max
     Bachmann.

   - gh-102027(20): Fix SSE2 and SSE3 detection in ‘_blake2’ internal
     module.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101865(21): Deprecate ‘co_lnotab’ in code objects, schedule it
     for removal in Python 3.14

   - bpo-1635741(22): Adapt ‘_pickle’ to PEP 687(23).  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89987

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101975

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102701

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102594

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102491

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102397

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102406

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102281

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102300

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102255

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101865

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<19>,  Next: Documentation<14>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.2 Library
.................

   - gh-103085(1): Pure python *note locale.getencoding(): 2db. will not
     warn deprecation.

   - gh-103068(2): It's no longer possible to register conditional
     breakpoints in *note Pdb: 911. that raise *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102549(3): Don't ignore exceptions in member type creation.

   - gh-103056(4): Ensure final ‘_generate_next_value_’ is a
     ‘staticmethod’.

   - gh-103046(5): Display current line label correctly in *note dis:
     38. when ‘show_caches’ is False and ‘lasti’ points to a CACHE
     entry.

   - gh-102433(6): *note isinstance(): 42d. checks against *note
     runtime-checkable protocols: 42e. now use *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 480. rather than *note hasattr(): 4be. to
     lookup whether attributes exist.  This means that descriptors and
     *note __getattr__(): 4bf. methods are no longer unexpectedly
     evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable
     protocols.  However, it may also mean that some objects which used
     to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no
     longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+,
     and vice versa.  Most users are unlikely to be affected by this
     change.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103023(7): It's no longer possible to register expressions to
     display in *note Pdb: 911. that raise *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102947(8): Improve traceback when *note dataclasses.fields():
     16fe. is called on a non-dataclass.  Patch by Alex Waygood

   - gh-102780(9): The *note asyncio.Timeout: 1685. context manager now
     works reliably even when performing cleanup due to task
     cancellation.  Previously it could raise a *note CancelledError:
     1b6. instead of an *note TimeoutError: 16ff. in such cases.

   - gh-102871(10): Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note
     webbrowser: 114.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape,
     Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and
     below.

   - gh-102839(11): Improve performance of *note math.log(): 1476.
     arguments handling by removing the argument clinic.

   - gh-102828(12): Add the ‘onexc’ arg to *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6,
     which is like ‘onerror’ but expects an exception instance rather
     than an exc_info tuple.  Deprecate ‘onerror’.

   - gh-88965(13): typing: Fix a bug relating to substitution in custom
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15d.  Previously, if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ was substituted with a parameters list that itself
     contained a *note TypeVar: 15c, the ‘TypeVar’ in the parameters
     list could not be subsequently substituted.  This is now fixed.

     Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - gh-76846(14): Fix issue where ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods
     of *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. and *note Path: 226. subclasses
     were not called in some circumstances.

   - gh-78530(15): *note asyncio.wait(): 46b. now accepts generators
     yielding tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102748(16): *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 46a. now returns
     ‘False’ for generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102670(17): Optimized fmean(), correlation(), covariance(), and
     linear_regression() using the new math.sumprod() function.

   - gh-102615(18): Typing: Improve the ‘repr’ of generic aliases for
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15d.  (Use square brackets
     to represent a parameter list.)

   - gh-100112(19): *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 9cb. now always
     returns a coroutine when wrapping an awaitable object.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102578(20): Speed up setting or deleting mutable attributes on
     non-dataclass subclasses of frozen dataclasses.  Due to the
     implementation of ‘__setattr__’ and ‘__delattr__’ for frozen
     dataclasses, this previously had a time complexity of 'O'('n').  It
     now has a time complexity of 'O'(1).

   - gh-102519(21): Add *note os.listdrives(): 489, *note
     os.listvolumes(): 48a. and *note os.listmounts(): 48b. functions on
     Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points

   - gh-74468(22): Attribute name of the extracted *note tarfile: dd.
     file object now holds filename of itself rather than of the archive
     it is contained in.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-102378(23): Private helper method
     ‘inspect._signature_strip_non_python_syntax’ will no longer strip
     ‘/’ from the input string.

   - gh-79940(24): Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 47e. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 47f.  Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

   - gh-102103(25): Add ‘module’ argument to *note
     dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 1700. and make classes produced by it
     pickleable.

   - gh-102069(26): Fix ‘__weakref__’ descriptor generation for custom
     dataclasses.

   - gh-102038(27): Skip a ‘stat’ in *note site: c6. if we have already
     found a ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   - gh-98886(28): Fix issues when defining dataclasses that have fields
     with specific underscore names that aren't clearly reserved by
     *note dataclasses: 2f.

   - gh-101673(29): Fix a *note pdb: a4. bug where ‘ll’ clears the
     changes to local variables.

   - gh-101313(30): Added -h and -help arguments to the webbrowser CLI

   - gh-100372(31): *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ed8.
     no longer incorrectly accepts some cases of trailing data when
     parsing DER.

   - gh-89727(32): Fix pathlib.Path.walk RecursionError on deep
     directory trees by rewriting it using iteration instead of
     recursion.

   - gh-100131(33): Added an optional ‘delete’ keyword argument to *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 1214.

   - gh-48330(34): Added ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the
     N slowest test cases.  *note unittest.TextTestRunner: 1701. and
     *note unittest.TextTestResult: 51d. constructors accept a new
     'durations' keyword argument.  Subclasses should take this into
     account or accept ‘**kwargs’.  Added *note
     unittest.TestResult.addDuration(): 1702. method and *note
     unittest.TestResult.collectedDurations: 16c9. attribute.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - gh-98169(35): Fix *note dataclasses.astuple(): 16e9. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 119c. is present in the attributes.

   - gh-96931(36): Fix incorrect results from *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers(): e57.

   - gh-95495(37): When built against OpenSSL 3.0, the *note ssl: cf.
     module had a bug where it reported unauthenticated EOFs (i.e.
     without close_notify) as a clean TLS-level EOF. It now raises *note
     SSLEOFError: 1703, matching the behavior in previous versions of
     OpenSSL. The *note options: 824. attribute on *note SSLContext:
     291. also no longer includes *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 823.
     by default.  This option may be set to specify the previous OpenSSL
     3.0 behavior.

   - gh-94684(38): Now *note uuid.uuid3(): 1518. and *note uuid.uuid5():
     151a. functions support *note bytes: 1bd. objects as their 'name'
     argument.

   - gh-94440(39): Fix a ‘concurrent.futures.process’ bug where
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ shutdown could hang after a future has been
     quickly submitted and canceled.

   - gh-72346(40): Added deprecation warning to 'isdst' parameter of
     *note email.utils.localtime(): 2c2.

   - bpo-36305(41): Fix handling of Windows filenames that resemble
     drives, such as ‘./a:b’, in *note pathlib: a3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103085

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103068

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102549

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103056

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103046

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103023

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102947

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102780

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102839

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88965

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76846

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102670

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102615

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100112

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102578

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74468

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102378

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102069

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102038

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98886

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101673

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101313

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100372

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100131

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98169

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96931

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95495

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94684

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94440

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36305


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<14>,  Next: Tests<17>,  Prev: Library<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-103112(1): Add docstring to *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse.read(): 153d. to fix ‘pydoc’ output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103112


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<17>,  Next: Build<19>,  Prev: Documentation<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-102980(1): Improve test coverage on *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-102537(2): Adjust the error handling strategy in
     ‘test_zoneinfo.TzPathTest.python_tzpath_context’.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - gh-101377(3): Improved test_locale_calendar_formatweekday of
     calendar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102537

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101377


File: python.info,  Node: Build<19>,  Next: Windows<15>,  Prev: Tests<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.5 Build
...............

   - gh-102973(1): Add a dev container (along with accompanying
     Dockerfile) for development purposes.

   - gh-102711(2): Fix ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ compiler warnings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102711


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<10>,  Prev: Build<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-102690(1): Update *note webbrowser: 114. to fall back to
     Microsoft Edge instead of Internet Explorer.

   - gh-99726(2): Improves correctness of stat results for Windows, and
     uses faster API when available

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<10>,  Next: C API<19>,  Prev: Windows<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-102809(1): ‘Misc/gdbinit’ was removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102809


File: python.info,  Node: C API<19>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.20.8 C API
...............

   - gh-102013(1): Add a new (unstable) C-API function for iterating
     over GC'able objects using a callback: ‘PyUnstable_VisitObjects’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102013


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.23.21 Python 3.12.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-03-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* C API: C API<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<13>,  Next: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace builtin hashlib implementations of MD5 and
     SHA1 with verified ones from the HACL* project.

   - gh-101727(2): Updated the OpenSSL version used in Windows and macOS
     binary release builds to 1.1.1t to address CVE 2023-0286(3), CVE
     2022-4303(4), and CVE 2022-4303(5) per the OpenSSL 2023-02-07
     security advisory(6).

   - gh-99108(7): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 67. implementations
     of SHA2-384 and SHA2-512 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(8) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   - gh-101283(9): *note subprocess.Popen: 197. now uses a safer
     approach to find ‘cmd.exe’ when launching with ‘shell=True’.  Patch
     by Eryk Sun, based on a patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101727

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-0286

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (6) https://openssl-library.org/news/secadv/20230207.txt

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (8) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101283


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<21>,  Next: Library<20>,  Prev: Security<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102493(1): Fix regression in semantics of normalisation in
     ‘PyErr_SetObject’.

   - gh-102416(2): Do not memoize incorrectly automatically generated
     loop rules in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-102356(3): Fix a bug that caused a crash when deallocating
     deeply nested filter objects.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías.

   - gh-102336(4): Cleanup Windows 7 specific special handling.  Patch
     by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102250(5): Fixed a segfault occurring when the interpreter calls
     a ‘__bool__’ method that raises.

   - gh-102126(6): Fix deadlock at shutdown when clearing thread states
     if any finalizer tries to acquire the runtime head lock.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102027(7): Use ‘GetCurrentProcessId’ on Windows when ‘getpid’ is
     unavailable.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102056(8): Fix error handling bugs in interpreter's exception
     printing code, which could cause a crash on infinite recursion.

   - gh-100982(9): Restrict the scope of the ‘FOR_ITER_RANGE’
     instruction to the scope of the original *note FOR_ITER: 170d.
     instruction, to allow instrumentation.

   - gh-101967(10): Fix possible segfault in
     ‘positional_only_passed_as_keyword’ function, when new list
     created.

   - gh-101952(11): Fix possible segfault in ‘BUILD_SET’ opcode, when
     new set created.

   - gh-74895(12): *note socket.getaddrinfo: 170e. no longer raises
     *note OverflowError: 86f. for *note int: 254. 'port' values outside
     of the C long range.  Out of range values are left up to the
     underlying string based C library API to report.  A *note
     socket.gaierror: 170f. ‘SAI_SERVICE’ may occur instead, or no error
     at all as not all platform C libraries generate an error.

   - gh-101799(13): Add *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 4cf. and use it instead
     of ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’.

   - gh-101857(14): Fix xattr support detection on Linux systems by
     widening the check to linux, not just glibc.  This fixes support
     for musl.

   - gh-84783(15): Make the slice object hashable.  Patch by Will
     Bradshaw and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-87849(16): Change the ‘SEND’ instruction to leave the receiver
     on the stack.  This allows the specialized form of ‘SEND’ to skip
     the chain of C calls and jump directly to the ‘RESUME’ in the
     generator or coroutine.

   - gh-101765(17): Fix SystemError / segmentation fault in iter
     ‘__reduce__’ when internal access of ‘builtins.__dict__’ keys
     mutates the iter object.

   - gh-101430(18): Update *note tracemalloc: fe. to handle presize of
     object properly.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101696(19): Invalidate type version tag in
     ‘_PyStaticType_Dealloc’ for static types, avoiding bug where a
     false cache hit could crash the interpreter.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-101632(20): Adds a new *note RETURN_CONST: 4d6. instruction.

   - gh-100719(21): Remove gi_code field from generator (and coroutine
     and async generator) objects as it is redundant.  The frame already
     includes a reference to the code object.

   - gh-98627(22): When an interpreter is configured to check (and only
     then), importing an extension module will now fail when the
     extension does not support multiple interpreters (i.e.  doesn't
     implement PEP 489 multi-phase init).  This does not apply to the
     main interpreter, nor to subinterpreters created with
     ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102493

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102416

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102356

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102336

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102250

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102126

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102056

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101967

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101952

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74895

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101857

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84783

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87849

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101765

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101430

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101696

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<20>,  Next: Documentation<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.3 Library
.................

   - gh-102302(1): Micro-optimise hashing of *note inspect.Parameter:
     1cb, reducing the time it takes to hash an instance by around 40%.

   - gh-101979(2): Fix a bug where parentheses in the ‘metavar’ argument
     to *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19c. were dropped.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-91038(3): *note platform.platform(): 1711. now has boolean
     default arguments.

   - gh-81652(4): Add *note mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1712. FreeBSD and
     *note mmap.MAP_CONCEAL: 1713. OpenBSD constants to *note mmap: 8f.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-102179(5): Fix *note os.dup2(): b53. error message for negative
     fds.

   - gh-101961(6): For the binary mode, ‘fileinput.hookcompressed()’
     doesn't set the ‘encoding’ value even if the value is ‘None’.
     Patch by Gihwan Kim.

   - gh-101936(7): The default value of ‘fp’ becomes *note io.BytesIO:
     e8f. if *note HTTPError: fcb. is initialized without a designated
     ‘fp’ parameter.  Patch by Long Vo.

   - gh-101566(8): In zipfile, sync Path with zipp 3.14(9), including
     fix for extractall on the underlying zipfile after being wrapped in
     ‘Path’.

   - gh-97930(10): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.12(11),
     including fix for ‘MultiplexedPath’ to support directories in
     multiple namespaces (python/importlib_resources#265).

   - gh-101997(12): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     23.0.1)

   - gh-99108(13): The built-in extension modules for *note hashlib: 67.
     SHA2 algorithms, used when OpenSSL does not provide them, now live
     in a single internal ‘_sha2’ module instead of separate ‘_sha256’
     and ‘_sha512’ modules.

   - gh-101892(14): Callable iterators no longer raise *note
     SystemError: 563. when the callable object exhausts the iterator
     but forgets to either return a sentinel value or raise *note
     StopIteration: bea.

   - gh-87634(15): Remove locking behavior from *note
     functools.cached_property(): 52f.

   - gh-97786(16): Fix potential undefined behaviour in corner cases of
     floating-point-to-time conversions.

   - gh-101517(17): Fixed bug where *note bdb: f. looks up the source
     line with *note linecache: 84. with a ‘lineno=None’, which causes
     it to fail with an unhandled exception.

   - gh-101773(18): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. for small
     components.  The private argument ‘_normalize’ of the *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e4. constructor has been removed.

   - gh-101693(19): In *note sqlite3.Cursor.execute(): 2cf, *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is now emitted when *note named
     placeholders: 2d1. are used together with parameters supplied as a
     *note sequence: 4de. instead of as a *note dict: 253.  Starting
     from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied
     as a sequence will raise a *note ProgrammingError: 4df.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-101446(20): Change repr of *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.
     to use regular dictionary formatting instead of pairs of keys and
     values.

   - gh-101362(21): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. construction
     by handling arguments more uniformly.  When a *note pathlib.Path:
     226. argument is supplied, we use its string representation rather
     than joining its parts with *note os.path.join(): 15ee.

   - gh-101362(22): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. construction
     by calling *note os.path.join(): 15ee. only when two or more
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101362(23): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 226. construction by
     running the path flavour compatibility check only when pathlib is
     imported.

   - gh-85984(24): Refactored the implementation of *note pty.fork():
     1714. to use *note os.login_tty(): 1715.

     A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is now raised by
     ‘pty.master_open()’ and ‘pty.slave_open()’.  They were undocumented
     and deprecated long long ago in the docstring in favor of *note
     pty.openpty(): 2cc.

   - gh-101561(25): Add a new decorator *note typing.override(): 436.
     See PEP 698(26) for details.  Patch by Steven Troxler.

   - gh-63301(27): Set exit code when *note tabnanny: dc. CLI exits on
     error.

   - gh-101360(28): Fix anchor matching in
     ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.match()’.  Path and pattern anchors are
     now matched with *note fnmatch: 5b, just like other path parts.
     This allows patterns such as ‘"*:/Users/*"’ to be matched.

   - gh-101277(29): Remove global state from *note itertools: 80. module
     ( PEP 687(30)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100809(31): Fix handling of drive-relative paths (like 'C:' and
     'C:foo') in *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1669.  This method now
     uses the OS API to retrieve the correct current working directory
     for the drive.

   - gh-99138(32): Apply PEP 687(33) to *note zoneinfo: 133.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-96764(34): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. now uses *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 5eb. as its underlying implementation.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88233(35): Correctly preserve "extra" fields in ‘zipfile’
     regardless of their ordering relative to a zip64 "extra."

   - bpo-23224(36): Fix segfaults when creating *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1716. and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1717.
     objects without calling ‘__init__()’, and fix leakage of locks and
     internal buffers when calling the ‘__init__()’ methods of *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1716, *note lzma.LZMACompressor: 1718, *note
     bz2.BZ2Compressor: 1719, and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1717.
     objects multiple times.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102302

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101979

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91038

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81652

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101936

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101566

   (9) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-14-0

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (11) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v5-12-0

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101997

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101892

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97786

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101773

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101446

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63301

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101360

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101277

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100809

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99138

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96764

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23224


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<15>,  Next: Tests<18>,  Prev: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85417(1): Update *note cmath: 18. documentation to clarify
     behaviour on branch cuts.

   - gh-97725(2): Fix *note asyncio.Task.print_stack(): 171b.
     description for ‘file=None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97725


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<18>,  Next: Build<20>,  Prev: Documentation<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-102019(1): Fix deadlock on shutdown if
     ‘test_current_{exception,frames}’ fails.  Patch by Jacob Bower.

   - gh-85984(2): Utilize new "winsize" functions from termios in pty
     tests.

   - gh-89792(3): ‘test_tools’ now copies up to 10x less source data to
     a temporary directory during the ‘freeze’ test by ignoring git
     metadata and other artifacts.  It also limits its python build
     parallelism based on os.cpu_count instead of hard coding it as 8
     cores.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102019

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89792


File: python.info,  Node: Build<20>,  Next: Windows<16>,  Prev: Tests<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99942(1): On Android, in a static build, python-config in embed
     mode no longer incorrectly reports a library to link to.

   - gh-99942(2): On Android, python.pc now correctly reports the
     library to link to, the same as python-config.sh.

   - gh-100221(3): Fix creating install directories in ‘make
     sharedinstall’ if they exist outside ‘DESTDIR’ already.

   - gh-96821(4): Explicitly mark C extension modules that need defined
     signed integer overflow, and add a configure option *note
     -with-strict-overflow: 171e.  Patch by Matthias Görgens and
     Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100221

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<16>,  Next: macOS<13>,  Prev: Build<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-102344(1): Implement ‘winreg.QueryValue’ using ‘QueryValueEx’
     and ‘winreg.SetValue’ using ‘SetValueEx’.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101881(2): Handle read and write operations on non-blocking
     pipes properly on Windows.

   - gh-101881(3): Add support for the os.get_blocking() and
     os.set_blocking() functions on Windows.

   - gh-101849(4): Ensures installer will correctly upgrade existing
     ‘py.exe’ launcher installs.

   - gh-101763(5): Updates copy of libffi bundled with Windows installs
     to 3.4.4.

   - gh-101759(6): Update Windows installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   - gh-101614(7): Correctly handle extensions built against debug
     binaries that reference ‘python3_d.dll’.

   - gh-101196(8): The functions ‘os.path.isdir’, ‘os.path.isfile’,
     ‘os.path.islink’ and ‘os.path.exists’ are now 13% to 28% faster on
     Windows, by making fewer Win32 API calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102344

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101849

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101763

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101614

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101196


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<13>,  Next: C API<20>,  Prev: Windows<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-101759(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759


File: python.info,  Node: C API<20>,  Prev: macOS<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.21.9 C API
...............

   - gh-101907(1): Removes use of non-standard C++ extension in public
     header files.

   - gh-99293(2): Document that the Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG is an
     internal feature, should not be used, and will be removed.

   - gh-101578(3): Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3ed. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     3ec.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.

     Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 558. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 559. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 55a. passed to the exception's
     constructor.

   - gh-91744(4): Introduced the 'Unstable C API tier', marking APi that
     is allowed to change in minor releases without a deprecation
     period.  See PEP 689(5) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91744

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0689/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.22 Python 3.12.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-02-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<14>,  Next: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 67. implementations
     of SHA2-224 and SHA2-256 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(2) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<22>,  Next: Library<21>,  Prev: Security<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-92173(1): Fix the ‘defs’ and ‘kwdefs’ arguments to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1725. and a reference leak in that function.

   - gh-59956(2): The GILState API is now partially compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Previously, ‘PyThreadState_GET()’ and
     ‘PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()’ would get out of sync, causing
     inconsistent behavior and crashes.

   - gh-101400(3): Fix wrong lineno in exception message on *note
     continue: 9b9. or *note break: a99. which are not in a loop.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101372(4): Fix *note is_normalized(): a39. to properly handle
     the UCD 3.2.0 cases.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101266(5): Fix *note sys.getsizeof(): 1726. reporting for *note
     int: 254. subclasses.

   - gh-101291(6): Refactor the ‘PyLongObject’ struct into a normal
     Python object header and a ‘PyLongValue’ struct.

   - gh-101046(7): Fix a possible memory leak in the parser when raising
     *note MemoryError: 1530.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-101037(8): Fix potential memory underallocation issue for
     instances of *note int: 254. subclasses with value zero.

   - gh-100762(9): Record the (virtual) exception block depth in the
     oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 309.  Use this to avoid the expensive
     ‘throw()’ when closing generators (and coroutines) that can be
     closed trivially.

   - gh-100982(10): Adds a new ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ instruction.  This
     is a bit more efficient when performing a comparison immediately
     followed by a branch, and restores the design intent of PEP 659
     that specializations are local to a single instruction.

   - gh-100942(11): Fixed segfault in property.getter/setter/deleter
     that occurred when a property subclass overrode the ‘__new__’
     method to return a non-property instance.

   - gh-100923(12): Remove the ‘mask’ cache entry for the *note
     COMPARE_OP: 958. instruction and embed the mask into the oparg.

   - gh-100892(13): Fix race while iterating over thread states in
     clearing *note threading.local: 1727.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91351(14): Fix a case where re-entrant imports could corrupt the
     import deadlock detection code and cause a *note KeyError: 33a. to
     be raised out of ‘importlib/_bootstrap’.  In addition to the
     straightforward cases, this could also happen when garbage
     collection leads to a warning being emitted - as happens when it
     collects an open socket or file)

   - gh-100726(15): Optimize construction of ‘range’ object for medium
     size integers.

   - gh-100712(16): Added option to build cpython with specialization
     disabled, by setting ‘ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION=False’ in ‘opcode’,
     followed by ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-32780(17): Inter-field padding is now inserted into the PEP3118
     format strings obtained from *note ctypes.Structure: 1cf. objects,
     reflecting their true representation in memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59956

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101400

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101372

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101266

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101046

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101037

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100762

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100923

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100892

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91351

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100726

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100712

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32780


File: python.info,  Node: Library<21>,  Next: Documentation<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.3 Library
.................

   - gh-101541(1): [Enum] - fix psuedo-flag creation

   - gh-101570(2): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0)

   - gh-101323(3): Fix a bug where errors where not thrown by
     zlib._ZlibDecompressor if encountered during decompressing.

   - gh-101317(4): Add 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter for *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 5f1.

   - gh-101326(5): Fix regression when passing ‘None’ as second or third
     argument to ‘FutureIter.throw’.

   - gh-92123(6): Adapt the ‘_elementtree’ extension module to
     multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100795(8): Avoid potential unexpected ‘freeaddrinfo’ call
     (double free) in *note socket: cb. when when a libc ‘getaddrinfo()’
     implementation leaves garbage in an output pointer when returning
     an error.  Original patch by Sergey G. Brester.

   - gh-101143(9): Remove unused references to *note TimerHandle: 1729.
     in ‘asyncio.base_events.BaseEventLoop._add_callback’.

   - gh-101144(10): Make *note zipfile.Path.open(): 1553. and *note
     zipfile.Path.read_text(): 172a. also accept ‘encoding’ as a
     positional argument.  This was the behavior in Python 3.9 and
     earlier.  3.10 introduced a regression where supplying it as a
     positional argument would lead to a *note TypeError: 525.

   - gh-94518(11): Group-related variables of ‘_posixsubprocess’ module
     are renamed to stress that supplementary group affinity is added to
     a fork, not replace the inherited ones.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-101015(12): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. on
     ‘'*tuple[...]'’ and ‘*tuple[...]’.  It must not drop the ‘Unpack’
     part.

   - gh-101000(13): Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 490, which splits a
     path into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  This new function
     is used by *note pathlib: a3. to improve the performance of path
     construction by up to a third.

   - gh-100573(14): Fix a Windows *note asyncio: a. bug with named pipes
     where a client doing ‘os.stat()’ on the pipe would cause an error
     in the server that disabled serving future requests.

   - gh-39615(15): *note warnings.warn(): 14d1. now has the ability to
     skip stack frames based on code filename prefix rather than only a
     numeric ‘stacklevel’ via the new ‘skip_file_prefixes’ keyword
     argument.

   - gh-100750(16): pass encoding kwarg to subprocess in platform

   - gh-100160(17): Emit a deprecation warning in
     ‘asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop()’ if there is no
     current event loop set and it decides to create one.

   - gh-96290(18): Fix handling of partial and invalid UNC drives in
     ‘ntpath.splitdrive()’, and in ‘ntpath.normpath()’ on non-Windows
     systems.  Paths such as '\server' and '\' are now considered by
     ‘splitdrive()’ to contain only a drive, and consequently are not
     modified by ‘normpath()’ on non-Windows systems.  The behaviour of
     ‘normpath()’ on Windows systems is unaffected, as native OS APIs
     are used.  Patch by Eryk Sun, with contributions by Barney Gale.

   - gh-99952(19): Fix a reference undercounting issue in *note
     ctypes.Structure: 1cf. with ‘from_param()’ results larger than a C
     pointer.

   - gh-67790(20): Add float-style formatting support for *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e4. instances.

   - gh-99266(21): Preserve more detailed error messages in *note
     ctypes: 2a.

   - gh-86682(22): Ensure runtime-created collections have the correct
     module name using the newly added (internal) *note
     sys._getframemodulename(): 172b.

   - gh-88597(23): *note uuid: 10f. now has a command line interface.
     Try ‘python -m uuid -h’.

   - gh-60580(24): ‘ctypes.wintypes.BYTE’ definition changed from *note
     c_byte: 172c. to *note c_ubyte: 172d. to match Windows SDK. Patch
     by Anatoly Techtonik and Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94518(25): ‘_posixsubprocess’ now initializes all UID and GID
     variables using a reserved ‘-1’ value instead of a separate flag.
     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-38941(26): The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. module now
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when testing the truth value
     of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 305.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 40b, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.

   - bpo-40077(27): Convert ‘elementtree’ types to heap types.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-29847(28): Fix a bug where *note pathlib.Path: 226. accepted
     and ignored keyword arguments.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-77772(29): *note ctypes.CDLL: 9d9, *note ctypes.OleDLL: 172e,
     *note ctypes.WinDLL: 172f, and *note ctypes.PyDLL: 1730. now accept
     *note path-like objects: 29d. as their ‘name’ argument.  Patch by
     Robert Hoelzl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101541

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101323

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101317

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101326

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92123

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100795

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101143

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101144

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101015

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100573

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/39615

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100750

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96290

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99952

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99266

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86682

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60580

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38941

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29847

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77772


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<16>,  Next: Tests<19>,  Prev: Library<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-88324(1): Reword *note subprocess: d5. to emphasize default
     behavior of 'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' arguments.  Remove
     inaccurate statement about child file handle inheritance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88324


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<19>,  Next: Build<21>,  Prev: Documentation<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101334(1): ‘test_tarfile’ has been updated to pass when run as a
     high UID.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101334


File: python.info,  Node: Build<21>,  Next: Windows<17>,  Prev: Tests<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): Update BOLT configuration not to use deprecated usage
     of ‘--split functions’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101522(2): Allow overriding Windows dependencies versions and
     paths using MSBuild properties.

   - gh-77532(3): Minor fixes to allow building with
     ‘PlatformToolset=ClangCL’ on Windows.

   - gh-101152(4): In accordance with PEP 699(5), the ‘ma_version_tag’
     field in *note PyDictObject: 3b8. is deprecated for extension
     modules.  Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at
     compile time.  This field will be removed in Python 3.14.

   - gh-100340(6): Allows -Wno-int-conversion for wasm-sdk 17 and
     onwards, thus enables building WASI builds once against the latest
     sdk.

   - gh-101060(7): Conditionally add ‘-fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition’
     in configure.  Effectively fixes ‘--enable-bolt’ when using Clang,
     as this appears to be a GCC-only flag.

   - gh-98705(8): ‘__bool__’ is defined in AIX system header files which
     breaks the build in AIX, so undefine it.

   - gh-98636(9): Fix a regression in detecting ‘gdbm_compat’ library
     for the ‘_gdbm’ module build.

   - gh-96305(10): ‘_aix_support’ now uses a simple code to get platform
     details rather than the now non-existent ‘_bootsubprocess’ during
     bootstrap.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101522

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77532

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101152

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100340

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101060

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98705

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98636

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96305


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<17>,  Prev: Build<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.22.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-101543(1): Ensure the install path in the registry is only used
     when the standard library hasn't been located in any other way.

   - gh-101467(2): The ‘py.exe’ launcher now correctly filters when only
     a single runtime is installed.  It also correctly handles prefix
     matches on tags so that ‘-3.1’ does not match ‘3.11’, but would
     still match ‘3.1-32’.

   - gh-99834(3): Updates bundled copy of Tcl/Tk to 8.6.13.0

   - gh-101135(4): Restore ability to launch older 32-bit versions from
     the ‘py.exe’ launcher when both 32-bit and 64-bit installs of the
     same version are available.

   - gh-82052(5): Fixed an issue where writing more than 32K of Unicode
     output to the console screen in one go can result in mojibake.

   - gh-100320(6): Ensures the ‘PythonPath’ registry key from an install
     is used when launching from a different copy of Python that relies
     on an existing install to provide a copy of its modules and
     standard library.

   - gh-100247(7): Restores support for the ‘py.exe’ launcher finding
     shebang commands in its configuration file using the full command
     name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101543

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101467

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101135

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82052

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100320

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100247


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.23 Python 3.12.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-01-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<21>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<23>,  Next: Library<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100776(1): Fix misleading default value in *note input():
     12b8.'s ‘__text_signature__’.

   - gh-99005(2): Remove ‘UNARY_POSITIVE’, ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’ and
     ‘LIST_TO_TUPLE’, replacing them with intrinsics.

   - gh-99005(3): Add new *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4ce. instruction.
     Remove ‘IMPORT_STAR’, ‘PRINT_EXPR’ and ‘STOPITERATION_ERROR’,
     replacing them with the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4ce. instruction.

   - gh-100288(4): Remove the LOAD_ATTR_METHOD_WITH_DICT specialized
     instruction.  Stats show it is not useful.

   - gh-100720(5): Added ‘_PyFrame_NumSlotsForCodeObject’, which returns
     the number of slots needed in a frame for a given code object.

   - gh-100719(6): Removed the co_nplaincellvars field from the code
     object, as it is redundant.

   - gh-100637(7): Fix ‘int.__sizeof__()’ calculation to include the
     1-element ‘ob_digit’ array for ‘0’ and ‘False’.

   - gh-100649(8): Update the native_thread_id field of PyThreadState
     after fork.

   - gh-100126(9): Fix an issue where "incomplete" frames could be
     briefly visible to C code while other frames are being torn down,
     possibly resulting in corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter
     while running finalizers.

   - gh-87447(10): Fix *note SyntaxError: 18b. on comprehension rebind
     checking with names that are not actually redefined.

     Now reassigning ‘b’ in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’ is
     allowed.  Reassigning ‘a’ is still disallowed as per PEP 572(11).

   - gh-100268(12): Add *note int.is_integer(): 1737. to improve duck
     type compatibility between *note int: 254. and *note float: 2ec.

   - gh-100425(13): Improve the accuracy of ‘sum()’ with compensated
     summation.

   - gh-100374(14): Fix incorrect result and delay in *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 1738.  Patch by Dominic Socular.

   - gh-100357(15): Convert ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’, and ‘iter’
     to argument clinic.

   - gh-100117(16): Improve the output of *note codeobject.co_lines():
     2f0. by emitting only one entry for each line range.

   - gh-90043(17): Handle NaNs when specializing *note COMPARE_OP: 958.
     for *note float: 2ec. values.

   - gh-100222(18): Redefine the ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ typedef as a union to
     describe its layout to the C compiler, avoiding type punning and
     improving clarity.

   - gh-99955(19): Internal compiler functions (in compile.c) now
     consistently return -1 on error and 0 on success.

   - gh-100188(20): The ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT’ and
     ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT’ instructions are no longer used for
     negative integers because those instructions always miss when
     encountering negative integers.

   - gh-99110(21): Initialize frame->previous in frameobject.c to fix a
     segmentation fault when accessing frames created by
     ‘PyFrame_New()’.

   - gh-94155(22): Improved the hashing algorithm for code objects,
     mitigating some hash collisions.

   - gh-99540(23): ‘None’ now hashes to a constant value.  This is not a
     requirements change.

   - gh-100143(24): When built with ‘--enable-pystats’, stats collection
     is now off by default.  To enable it early at startup, pass the
     ‘-Xpystats’ flag.  Stats are now always dumped, even if switched
     off.

   - gh-100146(25): Improve ‘BUILD_LIST’ opcode so that it works
     similarly to the ‘BUILD_TUPLE’ opcode, by stealing references from
     the stack rather than repeatedly using stack operations to set list
     elements.  Implementation details are in a new private API
     ‘_PyList_FromArraySteal()’.

   - gh-100110(26): Specialize ‘FOR_ITER’ for tuples.

   - gh-100050(27): Honor existing errors obtained when searching for
     mismatching parentheses in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-92216(28): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 4be. for
     type objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-99582(29): Freeze *note zipimport: 131. module into
     ‘_bootstrap_python’.

   - gh-99554(30): Pack debugging location tables more efficiently
     during bytecode compilation.

   - gh-98522(31): Add an internal version number to code objects, to
     give better versioning of inner functions and comprehensions, and
     thus better specialization of those functions.  This change is
     invisible to both Python and C extensions.

   - gh-94603(32): Improve performance of ‘list.pop’ for small lists.

   - gh-89051(33): Add *note ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT: 1739.

   - bpo-32782(34): ‘ctypes’ arrays of length 0 now report a correct
     itemsize when a ‘memoryview’ is constructed from them, rather than
     always giving a value of 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100776

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100720

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100637

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100649

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100126

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87447

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100268

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100374

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100357

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100117

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90043

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99955

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100188

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99110

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94155

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99540

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100143

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100146

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100110

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100050

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92216

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99582

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99554

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98522

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94603

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32782


File: python.info,  Node: Library<22>,  Next: Documentation<17>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.2 Library
.................

   - gh-100833(1): Speed up *note math.fsum(): 138d. by removing
     defensive ‘volatile’ qualifiers.

   - gh-100805(2): Modify *note random.choice(): 1210. implementation to
     once again work with NumPy arrays.

   - gh-100813(3): Add ‘socket.IP_PKTINFO’ constant.

   - gh-100792(4): Make *note email.message.Message.__contains__():
     173b. twice as fast.

   - gh-91851(5): Microoptimizations for *note
     fractions.Fraction.__round__(): 173c, *note
     fractions.Fraction.__ceil__(): 173d. and *note
     fractions.Fraction.__floor__(): 173e.

   - gh-90104(6): Avoid RecursionError on ‘repr’ if a dataclass field
     definition has a cyclic reference.

   - gh-100689(7): Fix crash in ‘pyexpat’ by statically allocating
     ‘PyExpat_CAPI’ capsule.

   - gh-100740(8): Fix ‘unittest.mock.Mock’ not respecting the spec for
     attribute names prefixed with ‘assert’.

   - gh-91219(9): Change ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’ to support
     subclassing to provide a different set of index file names instead
     of using ‘__init__’ parameters.

   - gh-100690(10): ‘Mock’ objects which are not unsafe will now raise
     an ‘AttributeError’ when accessing an attribute that matches the
     name of an assertion but without the prefix ‘assert_’, e.g.
     accessing ‘called_once’ instead of ‘assert_called_once’.  This is
     in addition to this already happening for accessing attributes with
     prefixes ‘assert’, ‘assret’, ‘asert’, ‘aseert’, and ‘assrt’.

   - gh-89727(11): Simplify and optimize *note os.walk(): 495. by using
     *note isinstance(): 42d. checks to check the top of the stack.

   - gh-100485(12): Add math.sumprod() to compute the sum of products.

   - gh-86508(13): Fix *note asyncio.open_connection(): b08. to skip
     binding to local addresses of different family.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-97930(14): ‘importlib.resources.files’ now accepts a module as
     an anchor instead of only accepting packages.  If a module is
     passed, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same
     package or at the package root).  The parameter was renamed from
     ‘package’ to ‘anchor’ with a compatibility shim for those passing
     by keyword.  Additionally, the new ‘anchor’ parameter is now
     optional and will default to the caller's module.

   - gh-100585(15): Fixed a bug where importlib.resources.as_file was
     leaving file pointers open

   - gh-100562(16): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1669. by nearly 2x.  This comes at the
     cost of a performance regression in *note pathlib.Path.cwd(): 16e6,
     which is generally used less frequently in user code.

   - gh-100519(17): Small simplification of
     ‘http.cookiejar.eff_request_host()’ that improves readability and
     better matches the RFC wording.

   - gh-100287(18): Fix the interaction of *note unittest.mock.seal():
     b91. with *note unittest.mock.AsyncMock: a3b.

   - gh-100488(19): Add ‘Fraction.is_integer()’ to check whether a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e4. is an integer.  This improves duck type
     compatibility with *note float: 2ec. and *note int: 254.

   - gh-100474(20): *note http.server: 71. now checks that an index page
     is actually a regular file before trying to serve it.  This avoids
     issues with directories named ‘index.html’.

   - gh-100363(21): Speed up *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): afb. by
     removing redundant ‘getpid’ checks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78878(22): Fix crash when creating an instance of
     ‘_ctypes.CField’.

   - gh-100348(23): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_read_ready_cb’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-100344(24): Provide C implementation for *note
     asyncio.current_task(): 469. for a 4x-6x speedup.

   - gh-100272(25): Fix JSON serialization of OrderedDict.  It now
     preserves the order of keys.

   - gh-83076(26): Instantiation of ‘Mock()’ and ‘AsyncMock()’ is now
     3.8x faster.

   - gh-100234(27): Set a default value of 1.0 for the ‘lambd’ parameter
     in random.expovariate().

   - gh-100228(28): A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. may be raised when
     *note os.fork(): 195. or *note os.forkpty(): 196. is called from
     multi-threaded processes.  Forking with threads is unsafe and can
     cause deadlocks, crashes and subtle problems.  Lack of a warning
     does not indicate that the fork call was actually safe, as Python
     may not be aware of all threads.

   - gh-100039(29): Improve signatures for enums and flags.

   - gh-100133(30): Fix regression in *note asyncio: a. where a
     subprocess would sometimes lose data received from pipe.

   - bpo-44592(31): Fixes inconsistent handling of case sensitivity of
     'extrasaction' arg in *note csv.DictWriter: 11dd.

   - gh-100098(32): Fix ‘tuple’ subclasses being cast to ‘tuple’ when
     used as enum values.

   - gh-85432(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure-Python
     implementation of *note datetime.time.strftime(): 173f. to
     'format'.  Rename the 't' parameter of *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4da. to 'timestamp'.  These
     changes mean the parameter names in the pure-Python implementation
     now match the parameter names in the C implementation.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-98778(34): Update *note HTTPError: fcb. to be initialized
     properly, even if the ‘fp’ is ‘None’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-99925(35): Unify error messages in JSON serialization between
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False)’ and
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False, indent=<SOMETHING>)’.
     Now both include the representation of the value that could not be
     serialized.

   - gh-89727(36): Fix issue with *note os.walk(): 495. where a *note
     RecursionError: d5b. would occur on deep directory structures by
     adjusting the implementation of *note os.walk(): 495. to be
     iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-94943(37): Add *note Dataclass support: 1740. to the *note Enum:
     61d. *note __repr__(): 1741.  When inheriting from a *note
     dataclass: 1c6, only show the field names in the value section of
     the member *note repr(): 7e9, and not the dataclass' class name.

   - gh-83035(38): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1580. handling of
     decorator calls with nested parentheses.

   - gh-99576(39): Fix ‘.save()’ method for ‘LWPCookieJar’ and
     ‘MozillaCookieJar’: saved file was not truncated on repeated save.

   - gh-94912(40): Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 47c.
     decorator which manually marks a function as a coroutine for the
     benefit of ‘iscoroutinefunction()’.

   - gh-99509(41): Add PEP 585(42) support for
     ‘multiprocessing.queues.Queue’.

   - gh-99482(43): Remove ‘Jython’ partial compatibility code from
     several stdlib modules.

   - gh-99433(44): Fix *note doctest: 3a. failure on *note
     types.MethodWrapperType: 638. in modules.

   - gh-85267(45): Several improvements to *note inspect.signature():
     724.'s handling of ‘__text_signature’.  - Fixes a case where *note
     inspect.signature(): 724. dropped parameters - Fixes a case where
     *note inspect.signature(): 724. raised *note tokenize.TokenError:
     530. - Allows *note inspect.signature(): 724. to understand
     defaults involving binary operations of constants - *note
     inspect.signature(): 724. is documented as only raising *note
     TypeError: 525. or *note ValueError: 1ff, but sometimes raised
     *note RuntimeError: 193.  These cases now raise *note ValueError:
     1ff. - Removed a dead code path

   - gh-91166(46): *note asyncio: a. is optimized to avoid excessive
     copying when writing to socket and use *note sendmsg(): 462. if the
     platform supports it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98030(47): Add missing TCP socket options from Linux:
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG’, ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’, ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’,
     ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’, ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.

   - gh-88500(48): Reduced the memory usage of *note
     urllib.parse.unquote(): 1742. and *note
     urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(): 1743. on large values.

   - gh-96127(49): ‘inspect.signature’ was raising ‘TypeError’ on call
     with mock objects.  Now it correctly returns ‘(*args, **kwargs)’ as
     inferred signature.

   - gh-95882(50): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note asynccontextmanager():
     b1a, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks and fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     11e1, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks for *note StopIteration: bea.

   - gh-78707(51): Deprecate passing more than one positional argument
     to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8. and *note
     is_relative_to(): 2c7.

   - gh-92122(52): Fix reStructuredText syntax errors in docstrings in
     the *note enum: 55. module.

   - gh-91851(53): Optimize the *note Fraction: 1e4. arithmetics for
     small components.

   - bpo-24132(54): Make *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. and *note Path:
     226. subclassable (private to start).  Previously, attempting to
     instantiate a subclass resulted in an *note AttributeError: 343.
     being raised.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - bpo-40447(55): Accept *note os.PathLike: c41. (such as *note
     pathlib.Path: 226.) in the ‘stripdir’ arguments of *note
     compileall.compile_file(): dd0. and *note compileall.compile_dir():
     b16.

   - bpo-36880(56): Fix a reference counting issue when a *note ctypes:
     2a. callback with return type *note py_object: 13f0. returns
     ‘None’, which could cause crashes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100833

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100805

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100813

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100792

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90104

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100689

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91219

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100690

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86508

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100585

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100562

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100519

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100287

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100488

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100474

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100363

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78878

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100348

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100272

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83076

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100228

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100039

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100133

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44592

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100098

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85432

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98778

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99925

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94943

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83035

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99576

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94912

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99509

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99433

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85267

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98030

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88500

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96127

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95882

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92122

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24132

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40447

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36880


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<17>,  Next: Tests<20>,  Prev: Library<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-100616(1): Document existing ‘attr’ parameter to *note
     curses.window.vline(): 1745. function in *note curses: 2b.

   - gh-100472(2): Remove claim in documentation that the ‘stripdir’,
     ‘prependdir’ and ‘limit_sl_dest’ parameters of *note
     compileall.compile_dir(): b16. and *note compileall.compile_file():
     dd0. could be *note bytes: 1bd.

   - bpo-25377(3): Clarify use of octal format of mode argument in
     help(os.chmod) as well as help(os.fchmod)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<20>,  Next: Build<22>,  Prev: Documentation<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-100454(1): Start running SSL tests with OpenSSL 3.1.0-beta1.

   - gh-100086(2): The Python test runner (libregrtest) now logs Python
     build information like "debug" vs "release" build, or LTO and PGO
     optimizations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93018(3): Make two tests forgiving towards host system libexpat
     with backported security fixes applied.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100454

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100086

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93018


File: python.info,  Node: Build<22>,  Next: Windows<18>,  Prev: Tests<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.5 Build
...............

   - gh-100540(1): Removed the ‘--with-system-ffi’ ‘configure’ option;
     ‘libffi’ must now always be supplied by the system on all
     non-Windows platforms.  The option has had no effect on non-Darwin
     platforms for several releases, and in 3.11 only had the
     non-obvious effect of invoking ‘pkg-config’ to find ‘libffi’ and
     never setting ‘-DUSING_APPLE_OS_LIBFFI’.  Now on Darwin platforms
     ‘configure’ will first check for the OS ‘libffi’ and then fall back
     to the same processing as other platforms if it is not found.

   - gh-88267(2): Avoid exporting Python symbols in linked Windows
     applications when the core is built as static.

   - bpo-41916(3): Allow override of ac_cv_cxx_thread so that cross
     compiled python can set -pthread for CXX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88267

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41916


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<18>,  Next: macOS<14>,  Prev: Build<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-100180(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-99191(2): Use ‘_MSVC_LANG >= 202002L’ instead of less-precise
     ‘_MSC_VER >=1929’ to more accurately test for C++20 support in
     ‘PC/_wmimodule.cpp’.

   - gh-79218(3): Define ‘MS_WIN64’ for Mingw-w64 64bit, fix cython
     compilation failure.

   - gh-99941(4): Ensure that *note asyncio.Protocol.data_received():
     1749. receives an immutable *note bytes: 1bd. object (as
     documented), instead of *note bytearray: 52b.

   - bpo-43984(5): *note winreg.SetValueEx(): 174a. now leaves the
     target value untouched in the case of conversion errors.
     Previously, ‘-1’ would be written in case of such errors.

   - bpo-34816(6): ‘hasattr(ctypes.windll, 'nonexistant')’ now returns
     ‘False’ instead of raising *note OSError: 40d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43984

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34816


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<14>,  Next: Tools/Demos<11>,  Prev: Windows<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-100180(1): Update macOS installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-100540(2): Removed obsolete ‘dlfcn.h’ shim from the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module, which has not been necessary since Mac OS X 10.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<11>,  Next: C API<21>,  Prev: macOS<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-45256(1): Fix a bug that caused an *note AttributeError: 343.
     to be raised in ‘python-gdb.py’ when ‘py-locals’ is used without a
     frame.

   - gh-100342(2): Add missing ‘NULL’ check for possible allocation
     failure in ‘*args’ parsing in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100342


File: python.info,  Node: C API<21>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.23.9 C API
...............

   - gh-99947(1): Raising SystemError on import will now have its cause
     be set to the original unexpected exception.

   - gh-99240(2): In argument parsing, after deallocating newly
     allocated memory, reset its pointer to NULL.

   - gh-98724(3): The *note Py_CLEAR: 566, *note Py_SETREF: 567. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 568. macros now only evaluate their arguments
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99947

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.24 Python 3.12.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-12-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<22>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<15>,  Next: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.1 Security
..................

   - gh-100001(1): ‘python -m http.server’ no longer allows terminal
     control characters sent within a garbage request to be printed to
     the stderr server log.

     This is done by changing the *note http.server: 71.
     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ ‘.log_message’ method to replace control
     characters with a ‘\xHH’ hex escape before printing.

   - gh-87604(2): Avoid publishing list of active per-interpreter audit
     hooks via the *note gc: 5f. module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87604


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<24>,  Next: Library<23>,  Prev: Security<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-99891(1): Fix a bug in the tokenizer that could cause infinite
     recursion when showing syntax warnings that happen in the first
     line of the source.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-91054(2): Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 554. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 555. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.

   - gh-99729(3): Fix an issue that could cause frames to be visible to
     Python code as they are being torn down, possibly leading to memory
     corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-99708(4): Fix bug where compiler crashes on an if expression
     with an empty body block.

   - gh-99578(5): Fix a reference bug in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ after
     the creation of the first sub-interpreter for modules ‘builtins’
     and ‘sys’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99581(6): Fixed a bug that was causing a buffer overflow if the
     tokenizer copies a line missing the newline character from a file
     that is as long as the available tokenizer buffer.  Patch by Pablo
     galindo

   - gh-99553(7): Fix bug where an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. subclass
     can wrap a *note BaseException: 5a7.

   - gh-99547(8): Add a function to os.path to check if a path is a
     junction: isjunction.  Add similar functionality to pathlib.Path as
     is_junction.

   - gh-99370(9): Fix zip path for venv created from a non-installed
     python on POSIX platforms.

   - gh-99377(10): Add audit events for thread creation and clear
     operations.

   - gh-98686(11): Remove the ‘BINARY_OP_GENERIC’ and
     ‘COMPARE_OP_GENERIC’ "specializations".

   - gh-99298(12): Remove the remaining error paths for attribute
     specializations, and refuse to specialize attribute accesses on
     types that haven't had *note PyType_Ready(): 768. called on them
     yet.

   - gh-99127(13): Allow some features of *note syslog: db. to the main
     interpreter only.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-91053(14): Optimizing interpreters and JIT compilers may need to
     invalidate internal metadata when functions are modified.  This
     change adds the ability to provide a callback that will be invoked
     each time a function is created, modified, or destroyed.

   - gh-90994(15): Improve error messages when there's a syntax error
     with call arguments.  The following three cases are covered: - No
     value is assigned to a named argument, eg ‘foo(a=)’.  - A value is
     assigned to a star argument, eg ‘foo(*args=[0])’.  - A value is
     assigned to a double-star keyword argument, eg ‘foo(**kwarg={'a':
     0})’.

   - bpo-45026(16): Optimize the *note range: 932. object iterator.  It
     is now smaller, faster iteration of ranges containing large
     numbers.  Smaller pickles, faster unpickling.

   - bpo-31718(17): Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. instead of *note
     SystemError: 563. when methods of uninitialized *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1683. objects are called.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-38031(18): Fix a possible assertion failure in *note io.FileIO:
     12f0. when the opener returns an invalid file descriptor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99891

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99708

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99578

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99581

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99553

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99370

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99377

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91053

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90994

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45026

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31718

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38031


File: python.info,  Node: Library<23>,  Next: Documentation<18>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.3 Library
.................

   - gh-100001(1): Also escape s in the http.server
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message so that it is technically
     possible to parse the line and reconstruct what the original data
     was.  Without this a xHH is ambiguous as to if it is a hex
     replacement we put in or the characters r"x" came through in the
     original request line.

   - gh-99957(2): Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 4c0.

   - gh-79033(3): Fix *note asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 1684. to
     actually do what the docs promise - wait for all existing
     connections to complete, after closing the server.

   - gh-51524(4): Fix bug when calling trace.CoverageResults with valid
     infile.

   - gh-99645(5): Fix a bug in handling class cleanups in *note
     unittest.TestCase: 439.  Now ‘addClassCleanup()’ uses separate
     lists for different ‘TestCase’ subclasses, and ‘doClassCleanups()’
     only cleans up the particular class.

   - gh-99508(6): Fix ‘TypeError’ in
     ‘Lib/importlib/_bootstrap_external.py’ while calling
     ‘_imp.source_hash()’.

   - gh-66285(7): Fix *note asyncio: a. to not share event loop and
     signal wakeupfd in forked processes.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97001(8): Release the GIL when calling termios APIs to avoid
     blocking threads.

   - gh-92647(9): Use final status of an enum to determine lookup or
     creation branch of functional API.

   - gh-99388(10): Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run():
     468. to allow specifying a custom event loop factory.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99341(11): Fix *note ast.increment_lineno(): 1752. to also cover
     ‘ast.TypeIgnore’ when changing line numbers.

   - gh-99382(12): Check the number of arguments in substitution in user
     generics containing a *note TypeVarTuple: 15e. and one or more
     *note TypeVar: 15c.

   - gh-99379(13): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 15d. followed by
     *note TypeVarTuple: 15e. in generic aliases.

   - gh-99344(14): Fix substitution of *note TypeVarTuple: 15e. and
     *note ParamSpec: 15d. together in user generics.

   - gh-99284(15): Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’
     old untested and undocumented hack from *note ctypes: 2a.

   - gh-99201(16): Fix *note IndexError: 14ec. when initializing the
     config variables on Windows if ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ is not set.

   - gh-99240(17): Fix double-free bug in Argument Clinic
     ‘str_converter’ by extracting memory clean up to a new
     ‘post_parsing’ section.

   - gh-64490(18): Fix refcount error when arguments are packed to tuple
     in Argument Clinic.

   - gh-99029(19): *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8. now treats
     naked Windows drive paths as relative.  This brings its behaviour
     in line with other parts of pathlib.

   - gh-98253(20): The implementation of the typing module is now more
     resilient to reference leaks in binary extension modules.

     Previously, a reference leak in a typed C API-based extension
     module could leak internals of the typing module, which could in
     turn introduce leaks in essentially any other package with typed
     function signatures.  Although the typing package is not the
     original source of the problem, such non-local dependences
     exacerbate debugging of large-scale projects, and the
     implementation was therefore changed to reduce harm by providing
     better isolation.

   - gh-98458(21): Fix infinite loop in unittest when a self-referencing
     chained exception is raised

   - gh-93453(22): *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2bf. and many other
     *note asyncio: a. functions like *note asyncio.ensure_future():
     c66, *note asyncio.shield(): a60. or *note asyncio.gather(): 5ea,
     and also the ‘get_event_loop()’ method of
     ‘asyncio.BaseDefaultEventLoopPolicy’ now raise a *note
     RuntimeError: 193. if called when there is no running event loop
     and the current event loop was not set.  Previously they implicitly
     created and set a new current event loop.  *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is no longer emitted if there is no
     running event loop but the current event loop was set.

   - gh-97966(23): On ‘uname_result’, restored expectation that
     ‘_fields’ and ‘_asdict’ would include all six properties including
     ‘processor’.

   - gh-98248(24): Provide informative error messages in *note
     struct.pack(): 1257. when its integral arguments are not in range.

   - gh-98108(25): ‘zipfile.Path’ is now pickleable if its
     initialization parameters were pickleable (e.g.  for file system
     paths).

   - gh-98098(26): Created packages from zipfile and test_zipfile
     modules, separating ‘zipfile.Path’ functionality.

   - gh-82836(27): Fix *note is_private: 1604. properties in the *note
     ipaddress: 7f. module.  Previously non-private networks (0.0.0.0/0)
     would return ‘True’ from this method; now they correctly return
     ‘False’.

   - gh-96828(28): Add an *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS: 1753. option for
     enabling the use of the kernel TLS (kTLS). Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-88863(29): To avoid apparent memory leaks when *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b08. raises, break reference cycles
     generated by local exception and future instances (which has
     exception instance as its member var).  Patch by Dong Uk, Kang.

   - gh-91078(30): ‘TarFile.next()’ now returns ‘None’ when called on an
     empty tarfile.

   - bpo-47220(31): Document the optional 'callback' parameter of
     ‘WeakMethod’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44817(32): Ignore WinError 53 (ERROR_BAD_NETPATH), 65
     (ERROR_NETWORK_ACCESS_DENIED) and 161 (ERROR_BAD_PATHNAME) when
     using ntpath.realpath().

   - bpo-41260(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure Python
     implementation of *note datetime.date.strftime(): c81. to 'format'.

   - bpo-15999(34): All built-in functions now accept arguments of any
     type instead of just ‘bool’ and ‘int’ for boolean parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51524

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99508

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66285

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97001

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92647

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99341

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99382

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99379

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99344

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99284

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99029

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98253

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98458

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93453

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98248

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98108

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98098

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82836

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96828

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91078

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47220

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41260

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15999


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<18>,  Next: Tests<21>,  Prev: Library<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-99931(1): Use sphinxext-opengraph(2) to generate OpenGraph
     metadata(3).

   - gh-89682(4): Reworded docstring of the default ‘__contains__’ to
     clarify that it returns a *note bool: 453.

   - gh-88330(5): Improved the description of what a resource is in
     importlib.resources docs.

   - gh-92892(6): Document that calling variadic functions with ctypes
     requires special care on macOS/arm64 (and possibly other
     platforms).

   - bpo-41825(7): Restructured the documentation for the *note
     os.wait*: d87. family of functions, and improved the docs for *note
     os.waitid(): d88. with more explanation of the possible argument
     constants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99931

   (2) https://sphinxext-opengraph.readthedocs.io/

   (3) https://ogp.me/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89682

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88330

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41825


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<21>,  Next: Build<23>,  Prev: Documentation<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-99892(1): Skip test_normalization() of test_unicodedata if it
     fails to download NormalizationTest.txt file from pythontest.net.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99934(2): Correct test_marsh on (32 bit) x86: test_deterministic
     sets was failing.

   - gh-99741(3): We've implemented multi-phase init (PEP 489/630/687)
     for the internal (for testing) _xxsubinterpreters module.

   - gh-99659(4): Optional big memory tests in ‘test_sqlite3’ now catch
     the correct ‘sqlite.DataError’ exception type in case of too large
     strings and/or blobs passed.

   - gh-99593(5): Cover the Unicode C API with tests.

   - gh-96002(6): Add functional test for Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99892

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99934

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99659

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99593

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96002


File: python.info,  Node: Build<23>,  Next: Windows<19>,  Prev: Tests<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’, ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’, and
     ‘-Wimplicit-function-declaration’ compiler warnings in ‘configure’
     checks.

   - gh-99337(2): Fix a compilation issue with GCC 12 on macOS.

   - gh-99289(3): Add a ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in Makefile to
     override *note compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make
     install’.  Also merged the ‘compileall’ commands into a single
     command building .pyc files for the all optimization levels (0, 1,
     2) at once.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98872(4): Fix a possible fd leak in ‘Programs/_freeze_module.c’
     introduced in Python 3.11.

   - gh-88226(5): Always define ‘TARGET_*’ labels in ‘Python/ceval.c’,
     even if ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’ is disabled.  This allows breakpoints
     to be set at those labels in (for instance) ‘gdb’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99337

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98872

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88226


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<19>,  Next: macOS<15>,  Prev: Build<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-99345(1): Use faster initialization functions to detect install
     location for Windows Store package

   - gh-98629(2): Fix initialization of *note sys.version: 177. and
     ‘sys._git’ on Windows

   - gh-99442(3): Fix handling in *note Lanceur Python pour Windows:
     5aa. when ‘argv[0]’ does not include a file extension.

   - bpo-40882(4): Fix a memory leak in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1614. on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99442

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40882


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<12>,  Prev: Windows<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-87235(1): On macOS ‘python3 /dev/fd/9 9</path/to/script.py’
     failed for any script longer than a couple of bytes.

   - gh-98940(2): Fix ‘Mac/Extras.install.py’ file filter bug.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87235

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<12>,  Next: C API<22>,  Prev: macOS<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-64490(1): Argument Clinic varargs bugfixes

        * Fix out-of-bounds error in
          ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg()’.

        * Fix incorrect check which allowed more than one varargs in
          clinic.py.

        * Fix miscalculation of ‘noptargs’ in generated code.

        * Do not generate ‘noptargs’ when there is a vararg argument and
          no optional argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490


File: python.info,  Node: C API<22>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.24.10 C API
................

   - gh-98680(1): ‘PyBUF_*’ constants were marked as part of Limited API
     of Python 3.11+.  These were available in 3.11.0 with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 414. defined for 3.11, and are necessary to use the
     buffer API.

   - gh-99612(2): Fix *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 175b. for
     ASCII-only data: ‘*consumed’ was not set.

   - gh-47146(3): The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated.  Its
     non-deprecated contents are now available just by including
     ‘Python.h’, with a ‘Py_’ prefix added if it was missing.
     (Deprecated contents are *note T_OBJECT: 581, *note T_NONE: 583,
     and no-op flags.)  Patch by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by
     Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98680

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99612

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.25 Python 3.12.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-11-14'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* C API: C API<23>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<16>,  Next: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.1 Security
..................

   - gh-98433(1): The IDNA codec decoder used on DNS hostnames by *note
     socket: cb. or *note asyncio: a. related name resolution functions
     no longer involves a quadratic algorithm.  This prevents a
     potential CPU denial of service if an out-of-spec excessive length
     hostname involving bidirectional characters were decoded.  Some
     protocols such as *note urllib: 107. http ‘3XX’ redirects
     potentially allow for an attacker to supply such a name.

     Individual labels within an IDNA encoded DNS name will now raise an
     error early during IDNA decoding if they are longer than 1024
     unicode characters given that each decoded DNS label must be 63 or
     fewer characters and the entire decoded DNS name is limited to 255.
     Only an application presenting a hostname or label consisting
     primarily of RFC 3454(2) section 3.1 "Nothing" characters to be
     removed would run into of this new limit.  See also RFC 5894(3)
     section 6 and RFC 3491(4).

   - gh-98739(5): Update bundled libexpat to 2.5.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98433

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5894.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3491.html

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98739


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<25>,  Next: Library<24>,  Prev: Security<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-81057(1): The docs clearly say that ‘PyImport_Inittab’, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f, and *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     1760. should not be used after *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. has been
     called.  We now enforce this for the two functions.  Additionally,
     the runtime now uses an internal copy of ‘PyImport_Inittab’, to
     guard against modification.

   - gh-99298(2): Fix an issue that could potentially cause incorrect
     error handling for some bytecode instructions.

   - gh-99254(3): The compiler now removes all unused constants from
     code objects (except the first one, which may be a docstring).

   - gh-99205(4): Fix an issue that prevented *note PyThreadState: 779.
     and *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. memory from being freed
     properly.

   - gh-81057(5): The 18 global C variables holding the state of the
     allocators have been moved to ‘_PyRuntimeState’.  This is a
     strictly internal change with no change in behavior.

   - gh-99181(6): Fix failure in *note except*: 5a4. with unhashable
     exceptions.

   - gh-99204(7): Fix calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when inside
     a POSIX virtual environment using copies of the python binary when
     the base installation does not provide the executable name used by
     the venv.  Calculation will fall back to alternative names
     ("python<MAJOR>", "python<MAJOR>.<MINOR>").

   - gh-96055(8): Update *note faulthandler: 57. to emit an error
     message with the proper unexpected signal number.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-99153(9): Fix location of *note SyntaxError: 18b. for a *note
     try: 6d5. block with both *note except: 189. and *note except*:
     5a4.

   - gh-98686(10): Merge the adaptive opcode logic into each
     instruction's unquickened variant, and merge the logic in
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ into *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1761.  With these
     changes, the quickening that happens at code object creation is now
     only responsible for initializing warmup counters and inserting
     superinstructions.

   - gh-99103(11): Fix the error reporting positions of specialized
     traceback anchors when the source line contains Unicode characters.

   - gh-99139(12): Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError:
     42a. exceptions for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 42a. is
     raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that's exactly
     equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98401(13): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex:
     ‘"\477"’), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  In a
     future Python version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError:
     18b.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98401(14): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape
     sequence now generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 451, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 451. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence), use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’.  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96793(15): Handle StopIteration and StopAsyncIteration raised in
     generator or coroutines in the bytecode, rather than in wrapping C
     code.

   - gh-98931(16): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18b. error message
     when the user types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98852(17): Fix subscription of type aliases containing bare
     generic types or types like *note TypeVar: 15c.: for example
     ‘tuple[A, T][int]’ and ‘tuple[TypeVar, T][int]’, where ‘A’ is a
     generic type, and ‘T’ is a type variable.

   - gh-98925(18): Lower the recursion depth for marshal on WASI to
     support (in-development) wasmtime 2.0.

   - gh-98783(19): Fix multiple crashes in debug mode when ‘str’
     subclasses are used instead of ‘str’ itself.

   - gh-98811(20): Use complete source locations to simplify detection
     of ‘__future__’ imports which are not at the beginning of the file.
     Also corrects the offset in the exception raised in one case, which
     was off by one and impeded highlighting.

   - gh-96793(21): Add specialization of *note FOR_ITER: 170d. for
     generators.  Saves multiple layers of dispatch and checking to get
     from the *note FOR_ITER: 170d. instruction in the caller to the
     *note RESUME: 30a. in the generator.

   - gh-98762(22): Fix source locations of *note match: 7f9.
     sub-patterns.

   - gh-98586(23): Added the methods *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 54a.
     and *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 54b. to the *note Limited
     API: 541. along with the auxiliary macro constant *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 54c.

     The availability of these functions enables more efficient PEP
     590(24) vector calls from binary extension modules that avoid
     argument boxing/unboxing overheads.

   - gh-99257(25): Fix an issue where member descriptors (such as those
     for *note __slots__: 14a2.) could behave incorrectly or crash
     instead of raising a *note TypeError: 525. when accessed via an
     instance of an invalid type.

   - gh-93143(26): Rather than changing ‘co_code’, the interpreter will
     now display a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. and assign *note None:
     662. to any fast locals that are left unbound after jumps or *note
     del: 1762. statements executed while tracing.

   - gh-96421(27): When calling into Python code from C code, through
     *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1019. or a related C-API function, a
     shim frame in inserted into the call stack.  This occurs in the
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function.  The extra frame should be
     invisible to all Python and most C extensions, but out-of-process
     profilers and debuggers need to be aware of it.  These shim frames
     can be detected by checking ‘frame->owner ==
     FRAME_OWNED_BY_CSTACK’.

     Extensions implementing their own interpreters using PEP 523 need
     to be aware of this shim frame and the changes to the semantics of
     *note RETURN_VALUE: 1763, *note YIELD_VALUE: 309, and *note
     RETURN_GENERATOR: 6e8, which now clear the frame.

   - gh-98415(28): Fix detection of MAC addresses for *note uuid: 10f.
     on certain OSs.  Patch by Chaim Sanders

   - gh-98686(29): Quicken all code objects, and specialize adaptive
     bytecode instructions more aggressively.

   - gh-92119(30): Print exception class name instead of its string
     representation when raising errors from *note ctypes: 2a. calls.

   - gh-91058(31): *note ImportError: 40f. raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ now include suggestions for the value of
     ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96793(32): The *note FOR_ITER: 170d. now leaves the iterator on
     the stack on termination of the loop.  This is to assist
     specialization of loops for generators.

   - gh-90716(33): Add _pylong.py module.  It includes asymptotically
     faster algorithms that can be used for operations on integers with
     many digits.  It is used by longobject.c to speed up some
     operations.

   - gh-95389(34): Expose *note ETH_P_ALL: 1764. and some of the *note
     ETHERTYPE_* constants: 1765. in *note socket: cb.  Patch by Noam
     Cohen.

   - gh-93696(35): Allow *note pdb: a4. to locate source for frozen
     modules in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99254

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99205

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99181

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99204

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96055

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99103

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98852

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98925

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98783

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98762

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99257

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96421

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98415

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92119

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90716

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95389

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696


File: python.info,  Node: Library<24>,  Next: Documentation<19>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.3 Library
.................

   - gh-99418(1): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 302. that
     causes URL schemes that begin with a digit, a plus sign, or a minus
     sign to be parsed incorrectly.

   - gh-94597(2): Deprecate *note asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9. to
     be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99305(3): Improve performance of *note secrets.token_hex():
     1767.

   - gh-74044(4): Fixed bug where *note inspect.signature(): 724.
     reported incorrect arguments for decorated methods.

   - gh-99275(5): Fix ‘SystemError’ in *note ctypes: 2a. when exception
     was not set during ‘__initsubclass__’.

   - gh-99277(6): Remove older version of
     ‘_SSLProtocolTransport.get_write_buffer_limits’ in
     ‘asyncio.sslproto’

   - gh-99248(7): fix negative numbers failing in verify()

   - gh-99155(8): Fix *note statistics.NormalDist: a28. pickle with ‘0’
     and ‘1’ protocols.

   - gh-93464(9): ‘enum.auto()’ is now correctly activated when combined
     with other assignment values.  E.g.  ‘ONE = auto(), 'some text'’
     will now evaluate as ‘(1, 'some text')’.

   - gh-99134(10): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 22.3.1.

   - gh-92584(11): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 by PEP 632(12) "Deprecate distutils module".  For
     projects still using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something
     else, the ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98999(13): Now ‘_pyio’ is consistent with ‘_io’ in raising
     ‘ValueError’ when executing methods over closed buffers.

   - gh-83004(14): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_zoneinfo’

   - gh-83004(15): Clean up refleaks on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_pickle’

   - gh-83004(16): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_io’.

   - gh-98897(17): Fix memory leak in *note math.dist(): 9f2. when both
     points don't have the same dimension.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98878(18): Use the frame bound builtins when offering a name
     suggestion in *note traceback: fd. to prevent crashing when
     ‘__builtins__’ is not a dict.

   - gh-98139(19): In ‘importlib._bootstrap’, enhance namespace package
     repr to ‘<module 'x' (namespace) from ['path']>’.

   - gh-90352(20): Fix ‘_SelectorDatagramTransport’ to inherit from
     *note DatagramTransport: 1768. in *note asyncio: a.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-98793(21): Fix argument typechecks in ‘_overlapped.WSAConnect()’
     and ‘_overlapped.Overlapped.WSASendTo()’ functions.

   - gh-98744(22): Prevent crashing in *note traceback: fd. when
     retrieving the byte-offset for some source files that contain
     certain unicode characters.

   - gh-98740(23): Fix internal error in the *note re: b8. module which
     in very rare circumstances prevented compilation of a regular
     expression containing a *note conditional expression: 1769. without
     the "else" branch.

   - gh-98703(24): Fix *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 176a. to call
     ‘protocol.connection_lost’ callback only once on Windows.

   - gh-98624(25): Add a mutex to unittest.mock.NonCallableMock to
     protect concurrent access to mock attributes.

   - gh-98658(26): The *note array.array: 19e. class now supports
     subscripting, making it a *note generic type: 424.

   - gh-98284(27): Improved *note TypeError: 525. message for undefined
     abstract methods of a *note abc.ABC: f04. instance.  The names of
     the missing methods are surrounded by single-quotes to highlight
     them.

   - gh-96151(28): Allow ‘BUILTINS’ to be a valid field name for frozen
     dataclasses.

   - gh-98086(29): Make sure ‘patch.dict()’ can be applied on async
     functions.

   - gh-72719(30): Remove modules ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’, which were
     deprecated by PEP 594(31).

   - gh-96192(32): Fix handling of ‘bytes’ *note path-like objects: 29d.
     in ‘os.ismount()’.

   - gh-94172(33): *note ftplib: 5d.: Remove the ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’
     class attribute: use the 'context' parameter instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner

   - gh-94172(34): Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from
     the *note ftplib: 5d, *note imaplib: 73, *note poplib: ab. and
     *note smtplib: c9. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters from the *note http.client: 6e. module,
     all deprecated since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter
     ('ssl_context' in *note imaplib: 73.) instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-83638(35): Add the *note autocommit: 4a2. attribute to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242. and the 'autocommit' parameter to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. to control PEP 249(36)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 4a3.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92452(37): Fixed a race condition that could cause *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1016. to incorrectly return *note None:
     662. in multi-threaded programs.

   - gh-91803(38): Fix an error when using a method of objects mocked
     with *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 15c3. after it was
     sealed with *note unittest.mock.seal(): b91. function.

   - bpo-38523(39): *note shutil.copytree(): a19. now applies the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument recursively.

   - bpo-40358(40): Add walk_up argument in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8.

   - bpo-36267(41): Fix IndexError in *note argparse.ArgumentParser:
     526. when a ‘store_true’ action is given an explicit argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74044

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99275

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99248

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99155

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93464

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99134

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98999

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98897

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98878

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98139

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90352

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98744

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98740

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98703

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98624

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98284

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96151

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98086

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72719

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96192

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92452

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91803

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38523

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40358

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36267


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<19>,  Next: Tests<22>,  Prev: Library<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-98832(1): Changes wording of docstring for *note
     pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 15ec.

   - gh-97966(2): Update uname docs to clarify the special nature of the
     platform attribute and to indicate when it became late-bound.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98832

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<22>,  Next: Build<24>,  Prev: Documentation<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-98903(1): The Python test suite now fails with exit code 4 if no
     tests ran.  It should help detecting typos in test names and test
     methods.

   - gh-98713(2): Fix a bug in the *note typing: 103. tests where a test
     relying on CPython-specific implementation details was not
     decorated with ‘@cpython_only’ and was not skipped on other
     implementations.

   - gh-87390(3): Add tests for star-unpacking with PEP 646, and some
     other miscellaneous PEP 646 tests.

   - gh-96853(4): Added explicit coverage of ‘Py_Initialize’ (and hence
     ‘Py_InitializeEx’) back to the embedding tests (all other embedding
     tests migrated to ‘Py_InitializeFromConfig’ in Python 3.11)

   - bpo-34272(5): Some C API tests were moved into the new
     Lib/test/test_capi/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98903

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98713

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34272


File: python.info,  Node: Build<24>,  Next: Windows<20>,  Prev: Tests<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’ compiler warning in ‘configure’
     check for ‘PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM’.

   - gh-99016(2): Fix build with ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN=python3.8’.

   - gh-97731(3): Specify the full path to the source location for ‘make
     docclean’ (needed for cross-builds).

   - gh-98949(4): Drop unused build dependency on ‘readelf’.

   - gh-98989(5): Use ‘python3.11’, if available, for regeneration and
     freezing.

   - gh-98831(6): Add new tooling, in ‘Tools/cases_generator’, to
     generate the interpreter switch statement from a list of opcode
     definitions.  This only affects adding, modifying or removing
     instruction definitions.  The instruction definitions now live in
     ‘Python/bytecodes.c’, in the form of a custom DSL (under
     development)(7).  The tooling reads this file and writes
     ‘Python/generated_cases.c.h’, which is then included by
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ to provide most of the cases of the main
     interpreter switch.

   - gh-98817(8): Remove PCbuild/lib.pyproj: it's not used for anything,
     is only a minor convenience for Visual Studio users (who probably
     mostly don't even know about it), and it takes a lot of maintenance
     effort to keep updated.

   - gh-98776(9): Fix ‘make regen-test-levenshtein’ for out-of-tree
     builds.

   - gh-98707(10): Don't use vendored ‘libmpdec’ headers if *note
     -with-system-libmpdec: 408. is passed to ‘configure’.  Don't use
     vendored ‘libexpat’ headers if *note -with-system-expat: 176e. is
     passed to ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99016

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97731

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98949

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98989

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98831

   (7) 
https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/3.12/interpreter_definition.md

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98817

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98776

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98707


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<20>,  Next: macOS<16>,  Prev: Build<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98689(1): Update Windows builds to zlib v1.2.13.  v1.2.12 has
     CVE 2022-37434(2), but the vulnerable ‘inflateGetHeader’ API is not
     used by Python.

   - gh-98790(3): Assumes that a missing ‘DLLs’ directory means that
     standard extension modules are in the executable's directory.

   - gh-98745(4): Update ‘py.exe’ launcher to install 3.11 by default
     and 3.12 on request.

   - gh-98692(5): Fix the *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa.
     ignoring unrecognized shebang lines instead of treating them as
     local paths

   - gh-94328(6): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98689

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-37434

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98790

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98745

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98692

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<16>,  Next: C API<23>,  Prev: Windows<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-94328(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: C API<23>,  Prev: macOS<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.25.9 C API
...............

   - gh-98724(1): The *note Py_CLEAR: 566, *note Py_SETREF: 567. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 568. macros now only evaluate their argument
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98978(2): Fix use-after-free in ‘Py_SetPythonHome(NULL)’,
     ‘Py_SetProgramName(NULL)’ and ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath(NULL)’
     function calls.  Issue reported by Benedikt Reinartz.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98410(3): Add ‘getbufferproc’ and ‘releasebufferproc’ to the
     stable API.

   - gh-98610(4): Some configurable capabilities of sub-interpreters
     have changed.  They always allow subprocesses (*note subprocess:
     d5.) now, whereas before subprocesses could be optionally
     disallowed for a sub-interpreter.  Instead ‘os.exec()’ can now be
     disallowed.  Disallowing daemon threads is now supported.
     Disallowing all threads is still allowed, but is never done by
     default.  Note that the optional restrictions are only available
     through ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’, which isn't a public API.
     They do not affect the main interpreter, nor *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 1772.

   - gh-98608(5): A ‘_PyInterpreterConfig’ has been added and
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreter()’ has been renamed to
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.  The "isolated_subinterpreters"
     argument is now a granular config that captures the previous
     behavior.  Note that this is all "private" API.

   - gh-96853(6): ‘Py_InitializeEx’ now correctly calls ‘PyConfig_Clear’
     after initializing the interpreter (the omission didn't cause a
     memory leak only because none of the dynamically allocated config
     fields are populated by the wrapper function)

   - gh-91248(7): Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 556. and *note
     PyFrame_GetVarString(): 557. functions to get a frame variable by
     its name.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98978

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98410

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98610

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98608

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.26 Python 3.12.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-10-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<24>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<17>,  Next: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.1 Security
..................

   - gh-97616(1): Fix multiplying a list by an integer (‘list *= int’):
     detect the integer overflow when the new allocated length is close
     to the maximum size.  Issue reported by Jordan Limor.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97514(2): On Linux the *note multiprocessing: 93. module returns
     to using filesystem backed unix domain sockets for communication
     with the 'forkserver' process instead of the Linux abstract socket
     namespace.  Only code that chooses to use the *note "forkserver"
     start method: 2c6. is affected.

     Abstract sockets have no permissions and could allow any user on
     the system in the same network namespace(3) (often the whole
     system) to inject code into the multiprocessing 'forkserver'
     process.  This was a potential privilege escalation.  Filesystem
     based socket permissions restrict this to the 'forkserver' process
     user as was the default in Python 3.8 and earlier.

     This prevents Linux CVE 2022-42919(4).

   - gh-87389(5): *note http.server: 71.: Fix an open redirection
     vulnerability in the HTTP server when an URI path starts with ‘//’.
     Vulnerability discovered, and initial fix proposed, by Hamza Avvan.

   - gh-79096(6): LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar create files with
     file mode 600 instead of 644 (Microsoft Windows is not affected)

   - gh-92888(7): Fix ‘memoryview’ use after free when accessing the
     backing buffer in certain cases.

   - gh-68966(8): The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject
     unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell
     commands.  Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a
     match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (3) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-42919

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87389

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92888

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<26>,  Next: Library<25>,  Prev: Security<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-98374(1): Suppress ImportError for invalid query for help()
     command.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98461(2): Fix source location in bytecode for list, set and dict
     comprehensions as well as generator expressions.

   - gh-98354(3): Added unicode check for ‘name’ attribute of ‘spec’
     argument passed in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ function.

   - gh-98398(4): Fix source location of 'assert' bytecodes.

   - gh-98390(5): Fix location of sub-expressions of boolean
     expressions, by reducing their scope to that of the sub-expression.

   - gh-98254(6): Modules from the standard library are now potentially
     suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the
     interpreter when an *note NameError: 42a. is raised to the top
     level.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-97997(7): Add running column offset to the tokenizer state to
     avoid calculating AST column information with pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-97973(8): Modify the tokenizer to return all necessary
     information the parser needs to set location information in the AST
     nodes, so that the parser does not have to calculate those doing
     pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-96078(9): *note os.sched_yield(): 10f3. now release the GIL
     while calling sched_yield(2).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-97955(10): Migrate *note zoneinfo: 133. to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-97912(11): The compiler now avoids quadratic behavior when
     finding which instructions should use the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK:
     4d2. opcode.

   - gh-97002(12): Fix an issue where several frame objects could be
     backed by the same interpreter frame, possibly leading to corrupted
     memory and hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-97943(13): Bugfix: *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 1776.
     should return a borrowed reference.  It was returning a new
     reference.

   - gh-97922(14): The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval
     breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead on
     object allocations.  The GC can also run when *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 452. is called so C extensions that need to
     run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a
     chance to execute the GC periodically.

   - gh-65961(15): When ‘__package__’ is different than
     ‘__spec__.parent’, raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’ instead of
     ‘ImportWarning’.

     Also remove ‘importlib.util.set_package()’ which was scheduled for
     removal.

   - gh-97850(16): Long deprecated, ‘module_repr()’ should now be
     completely eradicated.

   - gh-86298(17): In cases where ‘warnings.warn_explicit()’ consults
     the module's loader, an ‘DeprecationWarning’ is issued when
     ‘m.__loader__’ differs from ‘m.__spec__.loader’.

   - gh-97779(18): Ensure that all Python frame objects are backed by
     "complete" frames.

   - gh-91052(19): Add API for subscribing to modification events on
     selected dictionaries.

   - gh-97752(20): Fix possible data corruption or crashes when
     accessing the ‘f_back’ member of newly-created generator or
     coroutine frames.

   - gh-97591(21): Fixed a missing incref/decref pair in
     ‘Exception.__setstate__()’.  Patch by Ofey Chan.

   - gh-97670(22): Remove the ‘sys.getdxp()’ function and the
     ‘Tools/scripts/analyze_dxp.py’ script.  DXP stands for "dynamic
     execution pairs".  They were related to ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’
     and ‘DXPAIRS’ macros which have been removed in Python 3.11.
     Python can now be built with *note ./configure -enable-pystats:
     1777. to gather statistics on Python opcodes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94526(23): Fix the Python path configuration used to initialized
     *note sys.path: 3ab. at Python startup.  Paths are no longer
     encoded to UTF-8/strict to avoid encoding errors if it contains
     surrogate characters (bytes paths are decoded with the
     surrogateescape error handler).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96670(24): The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 18b. when
     parsing source code containing null bytes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96975(25): Fix a crash occurring when *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1778. is called while the topmost Python frame is in a
     partially-initialized state.

   - gh-96848(26): Fix command line parsing: reject *note -X
     int_max_str_digits: 175. option with no value (invalid) when the
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1779. environment variable is set to a
     valid limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95921(27): Fix overly-broad source position information for
     chained comparisons used as branching conditions.

   - gh-96821(28): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘audioop.c’.

   - gh-96821(29): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘_testcapimodule.c’.

   - gh-95778(30): When *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if an integer
     is larger than the limit, mention the *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 177a. function in the error message.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96387(31): At Python exit, sometimes a thread holding the GIL
     can wait forever for a thread (usually a daemon thread) which
     requested to drop the GIL, whereas the thread already exited.  To
     fix the race condition, the thread which requested the GIL drop now
     resets its request before exiting.  Issue discovered and analyzed
     by Mingliang ZHAO. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96864(32): Fix a possible assertion failure, fatal error, or
     *note SystemError: 563. if a line tracing event raises an exception
     while opcode tracing is enabled.

   - gh-95778(33): The ‘PyLong_FromString’ function was refactored to
     make it more maintainable and extensible.

   - gh-96678(34): Fix undefined behaviour in C code of null pointer
     arithmetic.

   - gh-96754(35): Make sure that all frame objects created are created
     from valid interpreter frames.  Prevents the possibility of invalid
     frames in backtraces and signal handlers.

   - gh-90997(36): Improve the performance of reading and writing inline
     bytecode caches on some platforms.

   - gh-96751(37): Remove dead code from ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode.

   - gh-90751(38): *note memoryview: 454. now supports half-floats.
     Patch by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou.

   - gh-96678(39): Fix case of undefined behavior in ceval.c

   - gh-64373(40): Convert ‘_functools’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-96641(41): Do not expose ‘KeyWrapper’ in ‘_functools’.

   - gh-96636(42): Ensure that tracing, ‘sys.setrace()’, is turned on
     immediately.  In pre-release versions of 3.11, some tracing events
     might have been lost when turning on tracing in a ‘__del__’ method
     or interrupt.

   - gh-96572(43): Fix use after free in trace refs build mode.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96611(44): When loading a file with invalid UTF-8 inside a
     multi-line string, a correct SyntaxError is emitted.

   - gh-96612(45): Make sure that incomplete frames do not show up in
     tracemalloc traces.

   - gh-90230(46): Fix compiler warnings and test failures when building
     with ‘--enable-pystats’.

   - gh-96587(47): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ on exception groups (
     PEP 654(48)) on python versions prior to 3.11

   - gh-96569(49): Remove two cases of undefined behavior, by adding
     NULL checks.

   - gh-96582(50): Fix possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘_PyThread_CurrentFrames’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91079(51): Separate Python recursion checking from C recursion
     checking which reduces the chance of C stack overflow and allows
     the recursion limit to be increased safely.

   - gh-93911(52): Fix an issue that could prevent *note LOAD_ATTR: 4cb.
     from specializing properly when accessing properties.

   - gh-96348(53): Emit a DeprecationWarning when *note throw(): 4e5,
     *note throw(): 4e4. or *note athrow(): 4e6. are called with more
     than one argument.

   - gh-95196(54): Disable incorrect pickling of the C implemented
     classmethod descriptors.

   - gh-96364(55): Fix text signatures of ‘list.__getitem__’ and
     ‘dict.__getitem__’.

   - gh-96352(56): Fix *note AttributeError: 343. missing ‘name’ and
     ‘obj’ attributes in *note object.__getattribute__(): bc2.  Patch by
     Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93554(57): Change the jump opcodes so that all conditional jumps
     are forward jumps.  Backward jumps are converted by the assembler
     into a conditional forward jump whose target is the fallthrough
     block (and with a reversed condition), followed by an unconditional
     backward jump.  For example:

     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE BACKWARD_TARGET’ becomes ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE
     NEXT_BLOCK; JUMP BACKWARD_TARGET’.

     All the directed conditional jump opcodes were removed:
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_TRUE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_TRUE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_FALSE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_FALSE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NONE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’.

     The corresponding opcodes without direction are no longer
     pseudo-instructions, and they implement the forward conditional
     jumps.

   - gh-96268(58): Loading a file with invalid UTF-8 will now report the
     broken character at the correct location.

   - gh-96237(59): The internal field ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_func’ is
     renamed to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_funcobj’ and may be any object.
     The ‘f_globals’ and ‘f_builtin’ fields may hold junk values.

     It is safest to treat the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ struct as opaque.

   - gh-96187(60): Fixed a bug that caused ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ to return
     garbage for negative indexes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96143(61): Add a new ‘-X perf’ Python command line option as
     well as *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 45b. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 45c. function in the *note sys:
     d8. module that allows to set/unset the interpreter in a way that
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler can detect Python calls.  The new *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 45d. function allows to query the
     state of the perf trampoline.  Design by Pablo Galindo.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory
     P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon.

   - gh-96071(62): Fix a deadlock in *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2.
     when allocating new thread state.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96046(63): *note PyType_Ready(): 768. now initializes
     ‘ht_cached_keys’ and performs additional checks to ensure that type
     objects are properly configured.  This avoids crashes in 3rd party
     packages that don't use regular API to create new types.

   - gh-96005(64): On WASI *note ENOTCAPABLE: 177b. is now mapped to
     *note PermissionError: d32.  The *note errno: 56. modules exposes
     the new error number.  ‘getpath.py’ now ignores *note
     PermissionError: d32. when it cannot open landmark files
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ and ‘pyenv.cfg’.

   - gh-93678(65): Added test a harness for direct unit tests of the
     compiler's optimization stage.  The
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg()’ function runs the optimiser on a
     sequence of instructions.  The ‘CfgOptimizationTestCase’ class in
     ‘test.support’ has utilities for invoking the optimizer and
     checking the output.

   - gh-95245(66): Reduces the size of a "simple" Python object from 8
     to 6 words by moving the weakreflist pointer into the pre-header
     directly before the object's dict/values pointer.

   - gh-90997(67): Compile virtual *note try: 6d5./*note except: 189.
     blocks to handle exceptions raised during *note close(): 16ae. or
     *note throw(): 4e5. calls through a suspended frame.

   - gh-95977(68): Optimized calling *note __get__(): 149f. with
     vectorcall.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91210(69): Improve error message when a parameter without a
     default value follows one with a default value, and show the same
     message, even when the non-default/default sequence is preceded by
     positional-only parameters.

   - gh-95922(70): Fixed bug where the compiler's
     ‘eliminate_empty_basic_blocks’ function ignores the last block of
     the code unit.

   - gh-95818(71): Skip over incomplete frames in *note
     PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a.

   - gh-95876(72): Fix format string in
     ‘_PyPegen_raise_error_known_location’ that can lead to memory
     corruption on some 64bit systems.  The function was building a
     tuple with ‘i’ (int) instead of ‘n’ (Py_ssize_t) for Py_ssize_t
     arguments.

   - gh-95605(73): Fix misleading contents of error message when
     converting an all-whitespace string to *note float: 2ec.

   - gh-95150(74): Update code object hashing and equality to consider
     all debugging and exception handling tables.  This fixes an issue
     where certain non-identical code objects could be "deduplicated"
     during compilation.

   - gh-91146(75): Reduce allocation size of *note list: 5fe. from *note
     str.split(): e95. and *note str.rsplit(): 1236.  Patch by Donghee
     Na and Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87092(76): Create a 'jump target label' abstraction in the
     compiler so that the compiler's codegen stage does not work
     directly with basic blocks.  This prepares the code for changes to
     the underlying CFG generation mechanism.

   - gh-95355(77): ‘_PyPegen_Parser_New’ now properly detects token
     memory allocation errors.  Patch by Honglin Zhu.

   - gh-90081(78): Run Python code in tracer/profiler function at full
     speed.  Fixes slowdown in earlier versions of 3.11.

   - gh-95324(79): Emit a warning in debug mode if an object does not
     call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. before deallocation.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-95245(80): Merge managed dict and values pointer into a single
     tagged pointer to save one word in the pre-header.

   - gh-93678(81): Add cfg_builder struct and refactor the relevant code
     so that a cfg can be constructed without an instance of the
     compiler struct.

   - gh-95185(82): Prevented crashes in the AST constructor when
     compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: d5b. is now raised instead.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-93351(83): *note ast.AST: 1a4. node positions are now validated
     when provided to *note compile(): 190. and other related functions.
     If invalid positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 1ff. will be
     raised.

   - gh-94438(84): Fix an issue that caused extended opcode arguments
     and some conditional pops to be ignored when calculating valid jump
     targets for assignments to the ‘f_lineno’ attribute of frame
     objects.  In some cases, this could cause inconsistent internal
     state, resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-95060(85): Undocumented ‘PyCode_Addr2Location’ function now
     properly returns when ‘addrq’ argument is less than zero.

   - gh-95113(86): Replace all ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ instructions with
     basic *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1761. instructions in unquickened code.
     Consumers of non-adaptive bytecode should be able to handle
     extended arguments the same way they were handled in CPython 3.10
     and older.

   - gh-91409(87): Fix incorrect source location info caused by certain
     optimizations in the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-95023(88): Implement *note os.setns(): 177c. and *note
     os.unshare(): 177d. for Linux.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-94036(89): Fix incorrect source location info for some
     multi-line attribute accesses and method calls.

   - gh-94938(90): Fix error detection in some builtin functions when
     keyword argument name is an instance of a str subclass with
     overloaded ‘__eq__’ and ‘__hash__’.  Previously it could cause
     SystemError or other undesired behavior.

   - gh-94996(91): *note ast.parse(): 1a6. will no longer parse function
     definitions with positional-only params when passed
     ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3, 8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94739(92): Allow jumping within, out of, and across exception
     handlers in the debugger.

   - gh-94949(93): *note ast.parse(): 1a6. will no longer parse
     parenthesized context managers when passed ‘feature_version’ less
     than ‘(3, 9)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94947(94): *note ast.parse(): 1a6. will no longer parse
     assignment expressions when passed ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3,
     8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-91256(95): Ensures the program name is known for help text
     during interpreter startup.

   - gh-94869(96): Fix the column offsets for some expressions in
     multi-line f-strings *note ast: 8. nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-94893(97): Fix an issue where frame object manipulations could
     corrupt inline bytecode caches.

   - gh-94822(98): Fix an issue where lookups of metaclass descriptors
     may be ignored when an identically-named attribute also exists on
     the class itself.

   - gh-91153(99): Fix an issue where a *note bytearray: 52b. item
     assignment could crash if it's resized by the new value's
     ‘__index__()’ method.

   - gh-90699(100): Fix reference counting bug in ‘bool.__repr__()’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94694(101): Fix an issue that could cause code with multi-line
     method lookups to have misleading or incorrect column offset
     information.  In some cases (when compiling a hand-built AST) this
     could have resulted in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-93252(102): Fix an issue that caused internal frames to outlive
     failed Python function calls, possibly resulting in memory leaks or
     hard interpreter crashes.

   - gh-94215(103): Fix an issue where exceptions raised by line-tracing
     events would cause frames to be left in an invalid state, possibly
     resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-92228(104): Disable the compiler's inline-small-exit-blocks
     optimization for exit blocks that are associated with source code
     lines.  This fixes a bug where the debugger cannot tell where an
     exception handler ends and the following code block begins.

   - gh-94485(105): Line number of a module's ‘RESUME’ instruction is
     set to 0 as specified in PEP 626(106).

   - gh-94438(107): Account for instructions that can push NULL to the
     stack when setting line number in a frame.  Prevents some
     (unlikely) crashes.

   - gh-91719(108): Reload ‘opcode’ when raising ‘unknown opcode error’
     in the interpreter main loop, for C compilers to generate
     dispatching code independently.

   - gh-94329(109): Compile and run code with unpacking of extremely
     large sequences (1000s of elements).  Such code failed to compile.
     It now compiles and runs correctly.

   - gh-94360(110): Fixed a tokenizer crash when reading encoded files
     with syntax errors from ‘stdin’ with non utf-8 encoded text.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-88116(111): Fix an issue when reading line numbers from code
     objects if the encoded line numbers are close to ‘INT_MIN’.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-94262(112): Don't create frame objects for incomplete frames.
     Prevents the creation of generators and closures from being
     observable to Python and C extensions, restoring the behavior of
     3.10 and earlier.

   - gh-94192(113): Fix error for dictionary literals with invalid
     expression as value.

   - gh-87995(114): *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. instances are now
     hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable.

   - gh-93883(115): Revise the display strategy of traceback enhanced
     error locations.  The indicators are only shown when the location
     doesn't span the whole line.

   - gh-94163(116): Add *note BINARY_SLICE: 4cc. and *note STORE_SLICE:
     4cd. instructions for more efficient handling and better
     specialization of slicing operations, where the slice is explicit
     in the source code.

   - gh-94021(117): Fix unreachable code warning in
     ‘Python/specialize.c’.

   - gh-93911(118): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for objects with custom
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - gh-93955(119): Improve performance of attribute lookups on objects
     with custom ‘__getattribute__’ and ‘__getattr__’.  Patch by Ken
     Jin.

   - gh-93911(120): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for ‘property()’ attributes.

   - gh-93678(121): Refactor compiler optimisation code so that it no
     longer needs the ‘struct assembler’ and ‘struct compiler’ passed
     around.  Instead, each function takes the CFG and other data that
     it actually needs.  This will make it possible to test this code
     directly.

   - gh-93841(122): When built with ‘-enable-pystats’,
     ‘sys._stats_on()’, ‘sys._stats_off()’, ‘sys._stats_clear()’ and
     ‘sys._stats_dump()’ functions have been added to enable gathering
     stats for parts of programs.

   - gh-93516(123): Store offset of first traceable instruction in code
     object to avoid having to recompute it for each instruction when
     tracing.

   - gh-93516(124): Lazily create a table mapping bytecode offsets to
     line numbers to speed up calculation of line numbers when tracing.

   - gh-89828(125): *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7. no longer relays the
     ‘__class__’ attribute.  For example, ‘isinstance(list[int], type)’
     no longer returns ‘True’.

   - gh-93678(126): Refactor the compiler to reduce boilerplate and
     repetition.

   - gh-93671(127): Fix some exponential backtrace case happening with
     deeply nested sequence patterns in match statements.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93662(128): Make sure that the end column offsets are correct in
     multi-line method calls.  Previously, the end column could precede
     the column offset.

   - gh-93461(129): *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00. now drops
     entries from *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. with a relative
     path as name.  This solves a caching issue when a process changes
     its current working directory.

     ‘FileFinder’ no longer inserts a dot in the path, e.g.
     ‘/egg/./spam’ is now ‘/egg/spam’.

   - gh-93621(130): Change order of bytecode instructions emitted for
     *note with: 5be. and *note async with: 5c1. to reduce the number of
     entries in the exception table.

   - gh-93533(131): Reduce the size of the inline cache for
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’ by 2 bytes.

   - gh-93444(132): Removed redundant fields from the compiler's
     basicblock struct: ‘b_nofallthrough’, ‘b_exit’, ‘b_return’.  They
     can be easily calculated from the opcode of the last instruction of
     the block.

   - gh-93429(133): ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction has been removed.  It was
     merged back into ‘LOAD_ATTR’.

   - gh-93418(134): Fixed an assert where an f-string has an equal sign
     '=' following an expression, but there's no trailing brace.  For
     example, f"{i=".

   - gh-93382(135): Cache the result of *note PyCode_GetCode(): 764.
     function to restore the 'O'(1) lookup of the ‘co_code’ attribute.

   - gh-93359(136): Ensure that custom *note ast: 8. nodes without
     explicit end positions can be compiled.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-93356(137): Code for exception handlers is emitted at the end of
     the code unit's bytecode.  This avoids one jump when no exception
     is raised.

   - gh-93354(138): Use exponential backoff for specialization counters
     in the interpreter.  Can reduce the number of failed
     specializations significantly and avoid slowdown for those parts of
     a program that are not suitable for specialization.

   - gh-93283(139): Improve error message for invalid syntax of
     conversion character in f-string expressions.

   - gh-93345(140): Fix a crash in substitution of a ‘TypeVar’ in nested
     generic alias after ‘TypeVarTuple’.

   - gh-93223(141): When a bytecode instruction jumps to an
     unconditional jump instruction, the first instruction can often be
     optimized to target the unconditional jump's target directly.  For
     tracing reasons, this would previously only occur if both
     instructions have the same line number.  This also now occurs if
     the unconditional jump is artificial, i.e., if it has no associated
     line number.

   - gh-84694(142): The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     configure option and ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro
     have been removed.

   - gh-91924(143): Fix ‘__lltrace__’ debug feature if the stdout
     encoding is not UTF-8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93040(144): Wraps unused parameters in ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ with
     ‘Py_UNUSED’.

   - gh-93143(145): Avoid ‘NULL’ checks for uninitialized local
     variables by determining at compile time which variables must be
     initialized.

   - gh-93061(146): Backward jumps after ‘async for’ loops are no longer
     given dubious line numbers.

   - gh-93065(147): Fix contextvars HAMT implementation to handle
     iteration over deep trees.

     The bug was discovered and fixed by Eli Libman.  See
     MagicStack/immutables#84(148) for more details.

   - gh-93012(149): Added the new function *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
     53e, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  This is useful for language binding tools, where it can
     be used to intercept type-related operations like subclassing or
     static attribute access by specifying a metaclass with custom
     slots.

     Importantly, *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e. is available in the
     Limited API, which provides a path towards migrating more binding
     tools onto the Stable ABI.

   - gh-93021(150): Fix the ‘__text_signature__’ for ‘__get__()’ methods
     implemented in C. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89914(151): The operand of the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction is set
     to the stack depth.  This is done to help frame handling on ‘yield’
     and may assist debuggers.

   - gh-92955(152): Fix memory leak in code object's lines and positions
     iterators as they were not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-92930(153): Fixed a crash in ‘_pickle.c’ from mutating
     collections during ‘__reduce__’ or ‘persistent_id’.

   - gh-90690(154): The PRECALL instruction has been removed.  It
     offered only a small advantage for specialization and is not needed
     in the vast majority of cases.

   - gh-92914(155): Always round the allocated size for lists up to the
     nearest even number.

   - gh-92858(156): Improve error message for some suites with syntax
     error before ':'

   - gh-90473(157): Decrease default recursion limit on WASI to address
     limited call stack size.

   - gh-92804(158): Fix memory leak in ‘memoryview’ iterator as it was
     not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92777(159): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for objects with lazy
     dictionaries.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-92658(160): Add support for connecting and binding to Hyper-V
     sockets on Windows Hyper-V hosts and guests.

   - gh-92236(161): Remove spurious "LINE" event when starting a
     generator or coroutine, visible tracing functions implemented in C.

   - gh-91102(162): ‘_warnings.warn_explicit()’ is ported to Argument
     Clinic.

   - gh-92619(163): Make the compiler duplicate an exit block only if
     none of its instructions have a lineno (previously only the first
     instruction in the block was checked, leading to unnecessarily
     duplicated blocks).

   - gh-88750(164): The deprecated debug build only ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’
     environment variable no longer does anything.

   - gh-92261(165): Fix hang when trying to iterate over a
     ‘typing.Union’.

   - gh-91432(166): Specialized the *note FOR_ITER: 170d. opcode using
     the PEP 659 machinery

   - gh-91399(167): Removed duplicate '{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}' entry in
     'Objects/unicodetype_db.h'.

   - gh-91578(168): Updates the error message for abstract class.

   - bpo-47091(169): Improve performance of repetition of *note list:
     5fe. and *note tuple: 366. by using ‘memcpy’ to copy data and
     performing the reference increments in one step.

   - bpo-46142(170): Make ‘--help’ output shorter by moving some info to
     the new ‘--help-env’ and ‘--help-xoptions’ command-line options.
     Also add ‘--help-all’ option to print complete usage.

   - bpo-42316(171): Document some places where an assignment expression
     needs parentheses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98374

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98354

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98390

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97973

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96078

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97955

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97912

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97002

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97943

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97779

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97752

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97591

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97670

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94526

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96975

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96848

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95921

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96387

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96864

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96754

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96751

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64373

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96641

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96572

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96611

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96612

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90230

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96587

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96569

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96582

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96348

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95196

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96364

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96352

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93554

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96268

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96237

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96187

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96143

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96071

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96046

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96005

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95977

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91210

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95922

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95818

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95876

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95605

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95150

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91146

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87092

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95355

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90081

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95324

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95185

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95060

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95113

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91409

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95023

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94036

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94938

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94996

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94739

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94947

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91256

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94869

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94893

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94822

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90699

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94694

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93252

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94215

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92228

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94485

   (106) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91719

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94329

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94360

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94262

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94192

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93883

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94021

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93955

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93841

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89828

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93671

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93662

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93461

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93621

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93533

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93444

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93418

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93382

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93359

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93356

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93354

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93283

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93345

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93223

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84694

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91924

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93040

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93061

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93065

   (148) https://github.com/MagicStack/immutables/issues/84

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93021

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89914

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92955

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92930

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90690

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92914

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92858

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92804

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92777

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92658

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92236

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92619

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88750

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92261

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91432

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91399

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91578

   (169) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47091

   (170) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (171) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316


File: python.info,  Node: Library<25>,  Next: Documentation<20>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.3 Library
.................

   - gh-89237(1): Fix hang on Windows in ‘subprocess.wait_closed()’ in
     *note asyncio: a. with *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97928(2): ‘tkinter.Text.count()’ raises now an exception for
     options starting with "-" instead of silently ignoring them.

   - gh-98393(3): The *note os: a0. module no longer accepts bytes-like
     paths, like *note bytearray: 52b. and *note memoryview: 454. types:
     only the exact *note bytes: 1bd. type is accepted for bytes
     strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98363(4): Added itertools.batched() to batch data into lists of
     a given length with the last list possibly being shorter than the
     others.

   - gh-98331(5): Update the bundled copies of pip and setuptools to
     versions 22.3 and 65.5.0 respectively.

   - gh-98307(6): A *note createSocket(): 648. method was added to *note
     SysLogHandler: 649.

   - gh-96035(7): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 302. that
     causes certain port numbers containing whitespace, underscores,
     plus and minus signs, or non-ASCII digits to be incorrectly
     accepted.

   - gh-98257(8): Make *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6. and *note
     sys.settrace(): 14b7. functions reentrant.  They can no long fail
     with: ‘RuntimeError("Cannot install a trace function while another
     trace function is being installed")’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98251(9): Allow *note venv: 110. to pass along ‘PYTHON*’
     variables to ‘ensurepip’ and ‘pip’ when they do not impact path
     resolution

   - gh-94597(10): Deprecated *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 2be. and *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2bd. methods
     to be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98178(11): On macOS, fix a crash in *note syslog.syslog(): 52e.
     in multi-threaded applications.  On macOS, the libc ‘syslog()’
     function is not thread-safe, so *note syslog.syslog(): 52e. no
     longer releases the GIL to call it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-44098(12): Release the GIL when creating *note mmap.mmap: 208.
     objects on Unix.

   - gh-87730(13): Wrap network errors consistently in urllib FTP
     support, so the test suite doesn't fail when a network is available
     but the public internet is not reachable.

   - gh-94597(14): The child watcher classes *note
     MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2b7, *note FastChildWatcher: 2b8. and *note
     SafeChildWatcher: 2ba. are deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98023(15): Change default child watcher to *note
     PidfdChildWatcher: 465. on Linux systems which supports it.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90985(16): Earlier in 3.11 we deprecated
     ‘asyncio.Task.cancel("message")’.  We realized we were too harsh,
     and have undeprecated it.

   - gh-65961(17): Do not rely solely on ‘__cached__’ on modules; code
     will also support ‘__spec__.cached’.

   - gh-97646(18): Replace deprecated ‘application/javascript’ with
     ‘text/javascript’ in *note mimetypes: 8e.  See RFC 9239(19).  Patch
     by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-97930(20): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.8 and 5.9:
     ‘Traversable.joinpath’ provides a concrete implementation.
     ‘as_file’ now supports directories of resources.

   - gh-97850(21): Remove deprecated ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’ and
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ from *note importlib.util: 7c.

   - gh-97837(22): Change deprecate warning message in *note unittest:
     105. from

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value!=None’

     to

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test
     case’

   - gh-97825(23): Fixes *note AttributeError: 343. when *note
     subprocess.check_output(): fae. is used with argument ‘input=None’
     and either of the arguments 'encoding' or 'errors' are used.

   - gh-97008(24): *note NameError: 42a. and *note AttributeError: 343.
     spelling suggestions provided since gh-82711(25) are now also
     emitted by the pure Python *note traceback: fd. module.  Tests for
     those suggestions now exercise both implementations to ensure they
     are equivalent.  Patch by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick and Łukasz
     Langa.

   - gh-97799(26): ‘dataclass’ now uses *note inspect.get_annotations():
     7ff. to examine the annotations on class objects.

   - gh-97781(27): Removed deprecated interfaces in ‘importlib.metadata’
     (entry points accessed as dictionary, implicit dictionary
     construction of sequence of ‘EntryPoint’ objects, mutablility of
     ‘EntryPoints’ result, access of entry point by index).
     ‘entry_points’ now has a simpler, more straightforward API
     (returning ‘EntryPoints’).

   - gh-96827(28): Avoid spurious tracebacks from *note asyncio: a. when
     default executor cleanup is delayed until after the event loop is
     closed (e.g.  as the result of a keyboard interrupt).

   - gh-95534(29): ‘gzip.GzipFile.read()’ reads 10% faster.

   - gh-97592(30): Avoid a crash in the C version of *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 155f. when an evil argument
     is passed.

   - gh-97639(31): Remove ‘tokenize.NL’ check from *note tabnanny: dc.

   - gh-97545(32): Make Semaphore run faster.

   - gh-73588(33): Fix generation of the default name of
     ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’.  Previously, checkbuttons in different
     parent widgets could have the same short name and share the same
     state if arguments "name" and "variable" are not specified.  Now
     they are globally unique.

   - gh-96865(34): fix Flag to use boundary CONFORM

     This restores previous Flag behavior of allowing flags with
     non-sequential values to be combined; e.g.

     class Skip(Flag): TWO = 2 EIGHT = 8

     Skip.TWO | Skip.EIGHT -> <Skip.TWO|EIGHT: 10>

   - gh-97005(35): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.9

   - gh-85760(36): Fix race condition in *note asyncio: a. where *note
     process_exited(): 177f. called before the *note
     pipe_data_received(): 1780. leading to inconsistent output.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96704(37): Pass the correct ‘contextvars.Context’ when a
     ‘asyncio’ exception handler is called on behalf of a task or
     callback handle.  This adds a new ‘Task’ method, ‘get_context’, and
     also a new ‘Handle’ method with the same name.  If this method is
     not found on a task object (perhaps because it is a third-party
     library that does not yet provide this method), the context
     prevailing at the time the exception handler is called is used.

   - gh-96819(38): Fixed check in ‘multiprocessing.resource_tracker’
     that guarantees that the length of a write to a pipe is not greater
     than ‘PIPE_BUF’.

   - gh-95865(39): Reduce *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 1781.
     memory use on large values.

     Contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - gh-96741(40): Corrected type annotation for dataclass attribute
     ‘pstats.FunctionProfile.ncalls’ to be ‘str’.

   - gh-96734(41): Update *note unicodedata: 104. database to Unicode
     15.0.0.

   - gh-96735(42): Fix undefined behaviour in *note struct.unpack():
     1782.

   - gh-46412(43): Improve performance of ‘bool(db)’ for large ndb/gdb
     databases.  Previously this would call ‘len(db)’ which would
     iterate over all keys - the answer (empty or not) is known after
     the first key.

   - gh-96652(44): Fix the faulthandler implementation of
     ‘faulthandler.register(signal, chain=True)’ if the ‘sigaction()’
     function is not available: don't call the previous signal handler
     if it's NULL. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-68163(45): Correct conversion of *note numbers.Rational: 129e.'s
     to *note float: 2ec.

   - gh-96538(46): Speed up ‘bisect.bisect()’ functions by taking
     advantage of type-stability.

   - gh-96465(47): Fraction hashes are now cached.

   - gh-96079(48): In *note typing: 103, fix missing field ‘name’ and
     incorrect ‘__module__’ in _AnnotatedAlias.

   - gh-96415(49): Remove ‘types._cell_factory’ from module namespace.

   - gh-95987(50): Fix ‘repr’ of ‘Any’ subclasses.

   - gh-96388(51): Work around missing socket functions in *note socket:
     d90.'s ‘__repr__’.

   - gh-96385(52): Fix ‘TypeVarTuple.__typing_prepare_subst__’.
     ‘TypeError’ was not raised when using more than one ‘TypeVarTuple’,
     like ‘[*T, *V]’ in type alias substitutions.

   - gh-96142(53): Add ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, ‘slots’, and
     ‘weakref_slot’ to ‘_DataclassParams’.

   - gh-96073(54): In *note inspect: 7d, fix overeager replacement of
     "‘typing.’" in formatting annotations.

   - gh-89258(55): Added a *note getChildren(): 1783. method to *note
     logging.Logger: b3f, to get the immediate child loggers of a
     logger.

   - gh-96346(56): Use double caching for compiled RE patterns.

   - gh-96349(57): Fixed a minor performance regression in
     ‘threading.Event.__init__()’

   - gh-90467(58): Fix ‘asyncio.streams.StreamReaderProtocol’ to keep a
     strong reference to the created task, so that it's not garbage
     collected

   - gh-96172(59): Fix a bug in ‘unicodedata’: ‘east_asian_width’ used
     to return the wrong value for unassigned characters; and for yet
     unassigned, but reserved characters.

   - gh-96159(60): Fix a performance regression in logging
     TimedRotatingFileHandler.  Only check for special files when the
     rollover time has passed.

   - gh-96175(61): Fix unused ‘localName’ parameter in the ‘Attr’ class
     in *note xml.dom.minidom: 121.

   - gh-96145(62): Add AttrDict to JSON module for use with object_hook.

   - gh-96052(63): Fix handling compiler warnings (SyntaxWarning and
     DeprecationWarning) in *note codeop.compile_command(): 1784. when
     checking for incomplete input.  Previously it emitted warnings and
     raised a SyntaxError.  Now it always returns ‘None’ for incomplete
     input without emitting any warnings.

   - gh-96125(64): Fix incorrect condition that causes
     ‘sys.thread_info.name’ to be wrong on pthread platforms.

   - gh-96019(65): Fix a bug in the ‘makeunicodedata.py’ script leading
     to about 13 KiB of space saving in the ‘unicodedata’ module,
     specifically the character decomposition data.

   - gh-95463(66): Remove an incompatible change from bpo-28080(67) that
     caused a regression that ignored the utf8 in ‘ZipInfo.flag_bits’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69142(68): Add ‘%:z’ strftime format code (generates tzoffset
     with colons as separator), see *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 1785.

   - gh-95899(69): Fix *note asyncio.Runner: 5ed. to call *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1786. only once to avoid calling *note
     attach_loop(): 1787. multiple times on child watchers.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95736(70): Fix *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. to
     set event loop before calling setup functions.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-95865(71): Speed up *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 1781.
     by replacing a list comprehension with ‘map()’.

   - gh-95861(72): Add support for computing Spearman's correlation
     coefficient to the existing statistics.correlation() function.

   - gh-95804(73): Fix ‘logging’ shutdown handler so it respects
     ‘MemoryHandler.flushOnClose’.

   - gh-95704(74): When a task catches *note asyncio.CancelledError:
     1b6. and raises some other error, the other error should generally
     not silently be suppressed.

   - gh-95149(75): The *note HTTPStatus: 8ef. enum offers a couple of
     properties to indicate the HTTP status category e.g.
     ‘HTTPStatus.OK.is_success’.

   - gh-95609(76): Update bundled pip to 22.2.2.

   - gh-95289(77): Fix *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. to propagate
     exception when *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. was replaced with
     another exception by a context manager.  Patch by Kumar Aditya and
     Guido van Rossum.

   - gh-94909(78): Fix incorrect joining of relative Windows paths with
     drives in *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. initializer.

   - gh-95385(79): Faster ‘json.dumps()’ when sorting of keys is not
     requested (default).

   - gh-83901(80): Improve *note Signature.bind: 151b. error message for
     missing keyword-only arguments.

   - gh-95339(81): Update bundled pip to 22.2.1.

   - gh-95045(82): Fix GC crash when deallocating ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ by
     untracking it before calling any callbacks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95231(83): Fail gracefully if *note EPERM: 1788. or *note
     ENOSYS: 1789. is raised when loading ‘crypt’ methods.  This may
     happen when trying to load ‘MD5’ on a Linux kernel with FIPS
     (Federal Information Processing Standard) enabled.

   - gh-95097(84): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 468. for *note asyncio.Task:
     4c5. implementations without *note uncancel(): 1b9. method.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95087(85): Fix IndexError in parsing invalid date in the *note
     email: 3b. module.

   - gh-95199(86): Upgrade bundled setuptools to 63.2.0.

   - gh-95194(87): Upgrade bundled pip to 22.2.

   - gh-93899(88): Fix check for existence of *note os.EFD_CLOEXEC:
     178a, *note os.EFD_NONBLOCK: 178b. and *note os.EFD_SEMAPHORE:
     178c. flags on older kernel versions where these flags are not
     present.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95166(89): Fix *note concurrent.futures.Executor.map(): dd3. to
     cancel the currently waiting on future on an error - e.g.
     TimeoutError or KeyboardInterrupt.

   - gh-95132(90): Fix a *note sqlite3: ce. regression where ‘*args’ and
     ‘**kwds’ were incorrectly relayed from *note connect(): 2a5. to the
     *note Connection: 242. factory.  The regression was introduced in
     3.11a1 with PR 24421 (gh-85128(91)).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93157(92): Fix *note fileinput: 5a. module didn't support
     ‘errors’ option when ‘inplace’ is true.

   - gh-91212(93): Fixed flickering of the turtle window when the tracer
     is turned off.  Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

   - gh-95077(94): Add deprecation warning for enum ‘member.member’
     access (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’).  Remove ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’.

   - gh-95109(95): Ensure that timeouts scheduled with *note
     asyncio.Timeout: 1685. that have already expired are delivered
     promptly.

   - gh-95105(96): ‘wsgiref.types.InputStream.__iter__()’ should return
     ‘Iterator[bytes]’, not ‘Iterable[bytes]’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-95066(97): Replaced assert with exception in *note ast.parse():
     1a6, when ‘feature_version’ has an invalid major version.  Patch by
     Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-77617(98): Add *note sqlite3: ce. *note command-line interface:
     42c.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-95005(99): Replace _PyAccu with _PyUnicodeWriter in JSON encoder
     and StringIO and remove the _PyAccu implementation.

   - gh-90085(100): Remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ CLI options of
     *note timeit: ee.  The options had been deprecated since Python 3.3
     and the functionality was removed in Python 3.7.  Patch by Shantanu
     Jain.

   - gh-94857(101): Fix refleak in ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94821(102): Fix binding of unix socket to empty address on Linux
     to use an available address from the abstract namespace, instead of
     "0".

   - gh-94736(103): Fix crash when deallocating an instance of a
     subclass of ‘_multiprocessing.SemLock’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-81620(104): Add random.binomialvariate().

   - gh-74116(105): Allow *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 176a. to
     be awaited concurrently by multiple tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-87822(106): When called with ‘capture_locals=True’, the *note
     traceback: fd. module functions swallow exceptions raised from
     calls to ‘repr()’ on local variables of frames.  This is in order
     to prioritize the original exception over rendering errors.  An
     indication of the failure is printed in place of the missing value.
     (Patch by Simon-Martin Schroeder).

   - gh-88050(107): Fix *note asyncio: a. subprocess transport to kill
     process cleanly when process is blocked and avoid ‘RuntimeError’
     when loop is closed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94637(108): ‘SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()’ now releases
     the GIL around ‘SSL_CTX_set_default_verify_paths’ call.  The
     function call performs I/O and CPU intensive work.

   - gh-94309(109): Deprecate aliases *note typing.Hashable: 4e0. and
     *note typing.Sized: 4e1.

   - gh-92546(110): An undocumented ‘python -m pprint’ benchmark is
     moved into ‘pprint’ suite of pyperformance.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94607(111): Fix subclassing complex generics with type variables
     in *note typing: 103.  Previously an error message saying ‘Some
     type variables ... are not listed in Generic[...]’ was shown.
     *note typing: 103. no longer populates ‘__parameters__’ with the
     ‘__parameters__’ of a Python class.

   - gh-94619(112): Remove the long-deprecated ‘module_repr()’ from
     *note importlib: 76.

   - gh-93910(113): The ability to access the other values of an enum on
     an enum (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’) has been restored in order to fix
     a performance regression.

   - gh-93896(114): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 468. and *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. to always the set event loop
     as it was done in Python 3.10 and earlier.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94343(115): Allow setting the attributes of ‘reprlib.Repr’
     during object initialization

   - gh-94382(116): Port static types of ‘_multiprocessing’ module to
     heap types.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78724(117): Fix crash in *note struct.Struct: 166c. when it was
     not completely initialized by initializing it in *note __new__():
     56e.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94510(118): Re-entrant calls to *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6.
     and *note sys.settrace(): 14b7. now raise *note RuntimeError: 193.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-92336(119): Fix bug where *note linecache.getline(): e12. fails
     on bad files with *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. or *note
     SyntaxError: 18b.  It now returns an empty string as per the
     documentation.

   - gh-94398(120): Once a *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. has started
     shutting down (i.e., at least one task has failed and the task
     group has started cancelling the remaining tasks), it should not be
     possible to add new tasks to the task group.

   - gh-94383(121): ‘xml.etree’: Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’
     method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python
     3.10, use the *note copy.copy(): 520. function instead.  The C
     implementation of ‘xml.etree’ has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94379(122): *note zipimport: 131.: Remove ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’ methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the
     ‘find_spec()’ method instead.  See PEP 451(123) for the rationale.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94352(124): *note shlex.split(): 529.: Passing ‘None’ for 's'
     argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note
     sys.stdin: 52a.  The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94318(125): Strip trailing spaces in *note pydoc: b4. text
     output.

   - gh-89988(126): Fix memory leak in *note pickle.Pickler: a0e. when
     looking up ‘dispatch_table’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90016(127): Deprecate *note sqlite3: ce. *note default adapters
     and converters: 4dc.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94254(128): Fixed types of *note struct: d4. module to be
     immutable.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93259(129): Now raise ‘ValueError’ when ‘None’ or an empty
     string are passed to ‘Distribution.from_name’ (and other callers).

   - gh-74696(130): *note shutil.make_archive(): 49f. now passes the
     'root_dir' argument to custom archivers which support it.

   - gh-94216(131): The *note dis: 38. module now has the opcodes for
     pseudo instructions (those which are used by the compiler during
     code generation but then removed or replaced by real opcodes before
     the final bytecode is emitted).

   - gh-93096(132): Removed undocumented ‘python -m codecs’.  Use
     ‘python -m unittest test.test_codecs.EncodedFileTest’ instead.

   - gh-94207(133): Made ‘_struct.Struct’ GC-tracked in order to fix a
     reference leak in the ‘_struct’ module.

   - gh-93096(134): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ argument of ‘python -m
     base64’.  Use ‘python -m unittest
     test.test_base64.LegacyBase64TestCase.test_encodebytes’ instead.

   - gh-94226(135): Remove the ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 50b. instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(136): Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  The
     ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ was deprecated in Python 3.7.  OpenSSL
     performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses
     the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94214(137): Document the ‘context’ object used in the
     ‘venv.EnvBuilder’ class, and add the new environment's library path
     to it.

   - gh-94199(138): Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object
     and call its *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 511. method.  Any
     package that still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.
     The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(139) Improper Certificate
     Validation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(140): Remove the ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 50f. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 510. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(141): *note hashlib: 67.: Remove the pure Python
     implementation of *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb, deprecated in
     Python 3.10.  Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP
     644(142)): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of
     *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 4fb. which is faster.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94196(143): *note gzip: 66.: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 410, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the
     *note name: 4f9. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94182(144): run the *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 465. on the
     running loop, this allows event loops to run subprocesses when
     there is no default event loop running on the main thread

   - gh-94169(145): Remove ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 508. instead.
     The *note open(): 508. (*note io.open(): 509.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91742(146): Fix *note pdb: a4. crash after jump caused by a null
     pointer dereference.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94101(147): Manual instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSession: ccd.
     objects is no longer allowed as it lead to misconfigured instances
     that crashed the interpreter when attributes where accessed on
     them.

   - gh-84753(148): *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 178d, and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 178e. now properly return ‘True’ for
     duck-typed function-like objects like instances of *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: a3b.

     This makes *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3. consistent
     with the behavior of ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’.  Patch by
     Mehdi ABAAKOUK.

   - gh-94028(149): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: ce. where
     statement objects were not properly cleared and reset after use in
     cursor iters.  The regression was introduced by PR 27884 in Python
     3.11a1.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93973(150): Add keyword argument ‘all_errors’ to
     ‘asyncio.create_connection’ so that multiple connection errors can
     be raised as an ‘ExceptionGroup’.

   - gh-93963(151): Officially deprecate from ‘importlib.abc’ classes
     moved to ‘importlib.resources.abc’.

   - gh-93858(152): Prevent error when activating venv in nested fish
     instances.

   - gh-93820(153): Pickle *note enum.Flag: 610. by name.

   - gh-93847(154): Fix repr of enum of generic aliases.

   - gh-91404(155): Revert the *note re: b8. memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure as the
     implemented fix caused a major performance regression.

   - gh-83499(156): Fix double closing of file description in *note
     tempfile: df.

   - gh-93820(157): Fixed a regression when *note copy.copy(): 520.-ing
     *note enum.Flag: 610. with multiple flag members.

   - gh-79512(158): Fixed names and ‘__module__’ value of *note weakref:
     113. classes *note ReferenceType: 178f, *note ProxyType: 1790,
     *note CallableProxyType: 1791.  It makes them pickleable.

   - gh-91389(159): Fix an issue where *note dis: 38. utilities could
     report missing or incorrect position information in the presence of
     ‘CACHE’ entries.

   - gh-93626(160): Set ‘__future__.annotations’ to have a ‘None’
     mandatoryRelease to indicate that it is currently 'TBD'.

   - gh-90473(161): Emscripten and WASI have no home directory and
     cannot provide PEP 370(162) user site directory.

   - gh-90494(163): *note copy.copy(): 520. and *note copy.deepcopy():
     b5e. now always raise a TypeError if ‘__reduce__()’ returns a tuple
     with length 6 instead of silently ignore the 6th item or produce
     incorrect result.

   - gh-90549(164): Fix a multiprocessing bug where a global named
     resource (such as a semaphore) could leak when a child process is
     spawned (as opposed to forked).

   - gh-93521(165): Fixed a case where dataclasses would try to add
     ‘__weakref__’ into the ‘__slots__’ for a dataclass that specified
     ‘weakref_slot=True’ when it was already defined in one of its
     bases.  This resulted in a ‘TypeError’ upon the new class being
     created.

   - gh-79579(166): *note sqlite3: ce. now correctly detects DML queries
     with leading comments.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93421(167): Update *note sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount: 1792. when a
     DML statement has run to completion.  This fixes the row count for
     SQL queries like ‘UPDATE ... RETURNING’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-93475(168): Expose ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants in
     *note fcntl: 58.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-93370(169): Deprecate *note sqlite3.version: 2cd. and *note
     sqlite3.version_info: 2ce.

   - gh-91810(170): Suppress writing an XML declaration in open files in
     ‘ElementTree.write()’ with ‘encoding='unicode'’ and
     ‘xml_declaration=None’.

   - gh-91162(171): Support splitting of unpacked arbitrary-length tuple
     over ‘TypeVar’ and ‘TypeVarTuple’ parameters.  For example:

        * ‘A[T, *Ts][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[int, *tuple[int, ...]]’

        * ‘A[*Ts, T][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[*tuple[int, ...], int]’

   - gh-93353(172): Fix the *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 479.
     context manager to remove the temporary file if destroyed late
     during Python finalization: keep a local reference to the *note
     os.remove(): 10d3. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83658(173): Make ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ raise an exception if
     ‘maxtasksperchild’ is not ‘None’ or a positive int.

   - gh-93312(174): Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 486. flag to open a
     file descriptor for a process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 466. in
     non-blocking mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88123(175): Implement ‘Enum.__contains__’ that returns ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to replace the deprecated behaviour that would sometimes
     raise a *note TypeError: 525.

   - gh-93297(176): Make asyncio task groups prevent child tasks from
     being GCed

   - gh-85308(177): Changed *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 526. to use
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528. instead of
     default text encoding to read arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option).  This change affects Windows;
     argument file should be encoded with UTF-8 instead of ANSI
     Codepage.

   - gh-93156(178): Accessing the *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 80c.
     sequence of an absolute path using negative index values produced
     incorrect results.

   - gh-93162(179): Add the ability for *note
     logging.config.dictConfig(): 118f. to usefully configure *note
     QueueHandler: 1793. and *note QueueListener: e1b. as a pair, and
     add *note logging.getHandlerByName(): 1794. and *note
     logging.getHandlerNames(): 16b8. APIs to allow access to handlers
     by name.

   - gh-93243(180): The ‘smtpd’ module was removed per the schedule in
     PEP 594(181).

   - gh-92886(182): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     AssertionError()’ in ‘BaseHandler’ so that the tested behaviour is
     maintained running with optimizations ‘(-O)’.

   - gh-90155(183): Fix broken *note asyncio.Semaphore: a64. when
     acquire is cancelled.

   - gh-90817(184): The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91513(185): Added ‘taskName’ attribute to *note logging: 86.
     module for use with *note asyncio: a. tasks.

   - gh-74696(186): *note shutil.make_archive(): 49f. no longer
     temporarily changes the current working directory during creation
     of standard ‘.zip’ or tar archives.

   - gh-92728(187): The ‘re.template()’ function and the corresponding
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are restored after they were removed
     in 3.11.0b1, but they are now deprecated, so they might be removed
     from Python 3.13.

   - gh-93033(188): Search in some strings (platform dependent i.e
     [U+0xFFFF, U+0x0100] on Windows or [U+0xFFFFFFFF, U+0x00010000] on
     Linux 64-bit) are now up to 10 times faster.

   - gh-89973(189): Fix ‘re.error’ raised in *note fnmatch: 5b. if the
     pattern contains a character range with upper bound lower than
     lower bound (e.g.  ‘[c-a]’).  Now such ranges are interpreted as
     empty ranges.

   - gh-93044(190): No longer convert the database argument of *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. to bytes before passing it to the factory.

   - gh-93010(191): In a very special case, the email package tried to
     append the nonexistent ‘InvalidHeaderError’ to the defect list.  It
     should have been ‘InvalidHeaderDefect’.

   - gh-92986(192): Fix *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. when
     ‘ImportFrom.level’ is ‘None’

   - gh-92932(193): Now *note dis(): b24. and *note get_instructions():
     1d6. handle operand values for instructions prefixed by
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’.  Patch by Sam Gross and Donghee Na.

   - gh-92675(194): Fix ‘venv.ensure_directories()’ to accept *note
     pathlib.Path: 226. arguments in addition to *note str: 437. paths.
     Patch by David Foster.

   - gh-87901(195): Removed the ‘encoding’ argument from *note
     os.popen(): a77. that was added in 3.11b1.

   - gh-91922(196): Fix function ‘sqlite.connect()’ and the
     ‘sqlite.Connection’ constructor on non-UTF-8 locales.  Also, they
     now support bytes paths non-decodable with the current FS encoding.

   - gh-92869(197): Added *note c_time_t: 1795. to *note ctypes: 2a,
     which has the same size as the ‘time_t’ type in C.

   - gh-92839(198): Fixed crash resulting from calling bisect.insort()
     or bisect.insort_left() with the key argument not equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-90473(199): *note subprocess: d5. now fails early on Emscripten
     and WASI platforms to work around missing *note os.pipe(): 1796. on
     WASI.

   - gh-89325(200): Removed many old deprecated *note unittest: 105.
     features: *note TestCase: 439. method aliases, undocumented and
     broken *note TestCase: 439. method ‘assertDictContainsSubset’,
     undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 28c. parameter
     'use_load_tests', and an underscored alias of the *note
     TextTestResult: 51d. class.

   - gh-92734(201): Allow multi-element reprs emitted by *note reprlib:
     ba. to be pretty-printed using configurable indentation.

   - gh-92671(202): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. for empty tuples in
     the assignment target context.

   - gh-91581(203): *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2. no longer attempts to
     resolve ‘fold’ in the pure Python implementation, since the fold is
     never 1 in UTC. In addition to being slightly faster in the common
     case, this also prevents some errors when the timestamp is close to
     *note datetime.min: 1797.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-86388(204): Removed randrange() functionality deprecated since
     Python 3.10.  Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to
     randrange(10).  Now, it raises a TypeError.  Also, the exception
     raised for non-integral values such as randrange(10.5) or
     randrange('10') has been changed from ValueError to TypeError.

   - gh-90385(205): Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 494. as an
     alternative to *note os.walk(): 495.

   - gh-92550(206): Fix *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 22b. for empty
     pattern.

   - gh-92591(207): Allow *note logging: 86. filters to return a *note
     logging.LogRecord: fd3. instance so that filters attached to *note
     logging.Handler: 144a.s can enrich records without side effects on
     other handlers.

   - gh-92445(208): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where ‘nargs="*"’
     would raise an error instead of returning an empty list when 0
     arguments were supplied if choice was also defined in
     ‘parser.add_argument’.

   - gh-92547(209): Remove undocumented *note sqlite3: ce. features
     deprecated in Python 3.10:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92530(210): Fix an issue that occurred after interrupting *note
     threading.Condition.notify(): 1798.

   - gh-92531(211): The statistics.median_grouped() function now always
     return a float.  Formerly, it did not convert the input type when
     for sequences of length one.

   - gh-84131(212): The *note pathlib.Path: 226. deprecated method
     ‘link_to’ has been removed.  Use 3.10's *note hardlink_to(): 80d.
     method instead as its semantics are consistent with that of *note
     symlink_to(): 80e.

   - gh-89336(213): Removed *note configparser: 22. module APIs: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class alias, the ‘ParsingError.filename’
     property and parameter, and the ‘ConfigParser.readfp’ method, all
     of which were deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - gh-92391(214): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 727. to *note
     csv.DictReader: 9d5. and *note csv.DictWriter: 11dd, allowing them
     to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Marc Mueller.

   - gh-91968(215): Add ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’ constants to
     *note socket: cb.

   - gh-91810(216): *note ElementTree: 93d. method *note write(): fe2.
     and function *note tostring(): fe0. now use the text file's
     encoding ("UTF-8" if not available) instead of locale encoding in
     XML declaration when ‘encoding="unicode"’ is specified.

   - gh-81790(217): *note os.path.splitdrive(): be4. now understands DOS
     device paths with UNC links (beginning ‘\\?\UNC\’).  Contributed by
     Barney Gale.

   - gh-91760(218): Apply more strict rules for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence
     of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The
     group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only
     contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.

   - gh-90622(219): Worker processes for *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. are no longer spawned
     on demand (a feature added in 3.9) when the multiprocessing context
     start method is ‘"fork"’ as that can lead to deadlocks in the child
     processes due to a fork happening while threads are running.

   - gh-91577(220): Move imports in ‘SharedMemory’ methods to module
     level so that they can be executed late in python finalization.

   - gh-91581(221): Remove an unhandled error case in the C
     implementation of calls to *note datetime.fromtimestamp: 4da. with
     no time zone (i.e.  getting a local time from an epoch timestamp).
     This should have no user-facing effect other than giving a possibly
     more accurate error message when called with timestamps that fall
     on 10000-01-01 in the local time.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-91539(222): Improve performance of
     ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment’ when there are many
     environment variables

   - gh-91524(223): Speed up the regular expression substitution
     (functions *note re.sub(): 2a0. and *note re.subn(): 2a1. and
     corresponding *note re.Pattern: 1799. methods) for replacement
     strings containing group references by 2-3 times.

   - gh-91447(224): Fix findtext in the xml module to only give an empty
     string when the text attribute is set to ‘None’.

   - gh-91456(225): Deprecate current default auto() behavior: In 3.13
     the default will be for for auto() to always return the largest
     member value incremented by 1, and to raise if incompatible value
     types are used.

   - bpo-47231(226): Fixed an issue with inconsistent trailing slashes
     in tarfile longname directories.

   - bpo-39064(227): *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6b1. now raises *note
     zipfile.BadZipFile: 179a. instead of ‘ValueError’ when reading a
     corrupt zip file in which the central directory offset is negative.

   - bpo-41287(228): Fix handling of the ‘doc’ argument in subclasses of
     *note property(): 192.

   - gh-90005(229): *note ctypes: 2a. dependency ‘libffi’ is now
     detected with ‘pkg-config’.

   - bpo-32547(230): The constructors for *note DictWriter: 11dd. and
     *note DictReader: 9d5. now coerce the ‘fieldnames’ argument to a
     *note list: 5fe. if it is an iterator.

   - bpo-35540(231): Fix *note dataclasses.asdict(): 16e0. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 119c. is present in the attributes.

   - bpo-47063(232): Add an index_pages parameter to support using
     non-default index page names.

   - bpo-47025(233): Drop support for *note bytes: 1bd. on *note
     sys.path: 3ab.

   - bpo-46951(234): Order the contents of zipapp archives, to make
     builds more reproducible.

   - bpo-42777(235): Implement *note pathlib.Path.is_mount(): a07. for
     Windows paths.

   - bpo-46755(236): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘stack_info’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent stack trace from being written twice.

   - bpo-45393(237): Fix the formatting for ‘await x’ and ‘not x’ in the
     operator precedence table when using the *note help(): 8c6. system.

   - bpo-46642(238): Improve error message when trying to subclass an
     instance of *note typing.TypeVar: 15c, *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d,
     *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e, etc.  Based on patch by Gregory
     Beauregard.

   - bpo-46364(239): Restrict use of sockets instead of pipes for stdin
     of subprocesses created by *note asyncio: a. to AIX platform only.

   - bpo-28249(240): Set *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 179b. to ‘None’
     when an object does not have *note __doc__: 917.

   - bpo-46197(241): Fix *note ensurepip: 54. environment isolation for
     subprocess running ‘pip’.

   - bpo-45924(242): Fix *note asyncio: a. incorrect traceback when
     future's exception is raised multiple times.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-45046(243): Add support of context managers in *note unittest:
     105.: methods *note enterContext(): 6a6. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 6a7. of class *note TestCase: 439, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 6a8. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 6a9.

   - bpo-44173(244): Enable fast seeking of uncompressed unencrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’

   - bpo-42627(245): Fix incorrect parsing of Windows registry proxy
     settings

   - bpo-42047(246): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): a2e. support
     for DragonFly BSD. Patch by David Carlier.

   - bpo-14243(247): The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4b2.
     function has a new optional parameter 'delete_on_close'

   - bpo-41246(248): Give the same callback function for when the
     overlapped operation is done to the functions ‘recv’, ‘recv_into’,
     ‘recvfrom’, ‘sendto’, ‘send’ and ‘sendfile’ inside ‘IocpProactor’.

   - bpo-39264(249): Fixed ‘collections.UserDict.get()’ to not call
     ‘__missing__()’ when a value is not found.  This matches the
     behavior of *note dict: 253.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38693(250): *note importlib: 76. now uses f-strings internally
     instead of ‘str.format’.

   - bpo-38267(251): Add 'timeout' parameter to *note
     asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8d6.  The default value
     is ‘None’, which means the executor will be given an unlimited
     amount of time.  When called from *note asyncio.Runner: 5ed. or
     *note asyncio.run(): 468, the default timeout is 5 minutes.

   - bpo-34828(252): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 244. now
     handles databases that use ‘AUTOINCREMENT’ in one or more tables.

   - bpo-32990(253): Support reading wave files with the
     ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ format in the *note wave: 112. module.

   - bpo-26253(254): Allow adjustable compression level for tarfile
     streams in *note tarfile.open(): e62.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98331

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96035

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98257

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98251

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98178

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44098

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87730

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98023

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90985

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97646

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9239.html

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97837

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97825

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97008

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82711

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97799

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97781

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96827

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95534

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97592

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97639

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97545

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73588

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96865

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97005

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85760

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96704

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96819

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96741

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96735

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46412

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96652

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68163

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96538

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96465

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96079

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96415

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95987

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96388

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96385

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96142

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96073

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89258

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96346

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96349

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90467

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96172

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96159

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96175

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96052

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96125

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96019

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95463

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69142

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95899

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95736

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   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95804

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95704

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95149

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95609

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95289

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94909

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95385

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83901

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95339

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95045

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95231

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95097

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95087

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95199

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95194

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93899

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95166

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95132

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85128

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93157

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91212

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95077

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95109

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95105

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95066

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95005

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90085

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94857

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94821

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94736

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74116

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87822

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88050

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94637

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92546

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94607

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94619

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93896

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94343

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94382

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94510

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92336

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94398

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379

   (123) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94318

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89988

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94254

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93259

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94207

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94214

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (139) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (142) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94182

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91742

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94101

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84753

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94028

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93973

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93858

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93847

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83499

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79512

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91389

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93626

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (162) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90494

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90549

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93521

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79579

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93421

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93475

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93370

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91162

   (172) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83658

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88123

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93297

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85308

   (178) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93156

   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243

   (181) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (183) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90155

   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (185) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91513

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   (189) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89973

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   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92986

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92932

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   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91922

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<20>,  Next: Tests<23>,  Prev: Library<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85525(1): Remove extra row

   - gh-86404(2): Deprecated tools ‘make suspicious’ and ‘rstlint.py’
     are now removed.  They have been replaced by sphinx-lint(3).

   - gh-97741(4): Fix ‘!’ in c domain ref target syntax via a ‘conf.py’
     patch, so it works as intended to disable ref target resolution.

   - gh-96432(5): Fraction literals now support whitespace around the
     forward slash, ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

   - gh-96098(6): Improve discoverability of the higher level
     concurrent.futures module by providing clearer links from the lower
     level threading and multiprocessing modules.

   - gh-95957(7): What's New 3.11 now has instructions for how to
     provide compiler and linker flags for Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL on RHEL 7
     and CentOS 7.

   - gh-95588(8): Clarified the conflicting advice given in the *note
     ast: 8. documentation about *note ast.literal_eval(): c08. being
     "safe" for use on untrusted input while at the same time warning
     that it can crash the process.  The latter statement is true and is
     deemed unfixable without a large amount of work unsuitable for a
     bugfix.  So we keep the warning and no longer claim that
     ‘literal_eval’ is safe.

   - gh-91207(9): Fix stylesheet not working in Windows CHM htmlhelp
     docs and add warning that they are deprecated.  Contributed by
     C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - gh-95454(10): Replaced incorrectly written true/false values in
     documentation.  Patch by Robert O'Shea

   - gh-95451(11): Update library documentation with *note availability
     information: 179d. on WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - gh-95415(12): Use consistent syntax for platform availability.  The
     directive now supports a content body and emits a warning when it
     encounters an unknown platform.

   - gh-94321(13): Document the PEP 246(14) style protocol type *note
     sqlite3.PrepareProtocol: 179e.

   - gh-86128(15): Document a limitation in ThreadPoolExecutor where its
     exit handler is executed before any handlers in atexit.

   - gh-61162(16): Clarify *note sqlite3: ce. behavior when *note How to
     use the connection context manager: 179f.

   - gh-87260(17): Align *note sqlite3: ce. argument specs with the
     actual implementation.

   - gh-86986(18): The minimum Sphinx version required to build the
     documentation is now 3.2.

   - gh-88831(19): Augmented documentation of asyncio.create_task().
     Clarified the need to keep strong references to tasks and added a
     code snippet detailing how to do this.

   - gh-86438(20): Clarify that *note -W: 8b6. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     b9a. are matched literally and case-insensitively, rather than as
     regular expressions, in *note warnings: 111.

   - gh-93031(21): Update tutorial introduction output to use 3.10+
     SyntaxError invalid range.

   - gh-92240(22): Added release dates for "What's New in Python 3.X"
     for 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.8 and 3.10

   - bpo-47161(23): Document that *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. does not
     collapse initial double slashes because they denote UNC paths.

   - bpo-40838(24): Document that *note inspect.getdoc(): 9ea, *note
     inspect.getmodule(): 17a0, and *note inspect.getsourcefile(): 17a1.
     might return ‘None’.

   - bpo-43689(25): The ‘Differ’ documentation now also mentions other
     whitespace characters, which make it harder to understand the diff
     output.

   - bpo-38056(26): Overhaul the *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2.
     documentation in *note codecs: 1b.

   - bpo-13553(27): Document tkinter.Tk args.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85525

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86404

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/sphinx-lint/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97741

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96432

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96098

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95454

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95451

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95415

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94321

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61162

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87260

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86986

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88831

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86438

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93031

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92240

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47161

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40838

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43689

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38056

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13553


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<23>,  Next: Build<25>,  Prev: Documentation<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-95027(1): On Windows, when the Python test suite is run with the
     ‘-jN’ option, the ANSI code page is now used as the encoding for
     the stdout temporary file, rather than using UTF-8 which can lead
     to decoding errors.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96624(2): Fixed the failure of repeated runs of
     ‘test.test_unittest’ caused by side effects in
     ‘test_dotted_but_module_not_loaded’.

   - gh-95243(3): Mitigate the inherent race condition from using
     find_unused_port() in testSockName() by trying to find an unused
     port a few times before failing.  Patch by Ross Burton.

   - gh-95573(4): Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py(5) exposed a bug in
     the macOS kernel where intense concurrent load on non-blocking
     sockets occasionally causes *note errno.ENOBUFS: 17a4. ("No buffer
     space available") to be emitted.  FB11063974 filed with Apple, in
     the mean time as a workaround buffer size used in tests on macOS is
     decreased to avoid intermittent failures.  Patch by Fantix King.

   - gh-95280(6): Fix problem with ‘test_ssl’ ‘test_get_ciphers’ on
     systems that require perfect forward secrecy (PFS) ciphers.

   - gh-95212(7): Make multiprocessing test case
     ‘test_shared_memory_recreate’ parallel-safe.

   - gh-95218(8): Move tests for importlib.resources into
     test_importlib.resources.

   - gh-93963(9): Updated tests to use preferred location for
     ‘importlib.resources’ ABCs.

   - gh-94675(10): Add a regression test for *note re: b8. exponentional
     slowdown when using rjsmin.

   - gh-91330(11): Added more tests for *note dataclasses: 2f. to cover
     behavior with data descriptor-based fields.

   - gh-94208(12): ‘test_ssl’ is now checking for supported TLS version
     and protocols in more tests.

   - gh-94315(13): Tests now check for DAC override capability instead
     of relying on *note os.geteuid(): 17a5.

   - gh-54781(14): Rename test_tk to test_tkinter, and rename
     test_ttk_guionly to test_ttk.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93839(15): Move ‘Lib/ctypes/test/’ to ‘Lib/test/test_ctypes/’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93951(16): In test_bdb.StateTestCase.test_skip, avoid including
     auxiliary importers.

   - gh-93957(17): Provide nicer error reporting from subprocesses in
     test_venv.EnsurePipTest.test_with_pip.

   - gh-93884(18): Add test cases for *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17a6.
     that take a large number or a non-int object as parameter.

   - gh-93852(19): test_asyncio, test_logging, test_socket and
     test_socketserver now create AF_UNIX domains in the current
     directory to no longer fail with ‘OSError("AF_UNIX path too long")’
     if the temporary directory (the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable) is
     too long.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93353(20): regrtest now checks if a test leaks temporary files
     or directories if run with -jN option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-84461(21): ‘run_tests.py’ now handles cross compiling env vars
     correctly and pass ‘HOSTRUNNER’ to regression tests.

   - gh-93616(22): ‘test_modulefinder’ now creates a temporary directory
     in ‘ModuleFinderTest.setUp()’ instead of module scope.

   - gh-93575(23): Fix issue with test_unicode test_raiseMemError.  The
     test case now use ‘test.support.calcobjsize’ to calculate size of
     PyUnicode structs.  *note sys.getsizeof(): 1726. may return
     different size when string has UTF-8 memory.

   - gh-90473(24): WASI does not have a ‘chmod(2)’ syscall.  *note
     os.chmod(): 218. is now a dummy function on WASI. Skip all tests
     that depend on working *note os.chmod(): 218.

   - gh-90473(25): Skip tests on WASI that require symlinks with
     absolute paths.

   - gh-57539(26): Increase calendar test coverage for
     ‘calendar.LocaleTextCalendar.formatweekday()’.

   - gh-90473(27): Skip symlink tests on WASI. wasmtime uses
     ‘openat2(2)’ with ‘RESOLVE_BENEATH’ flag, which prevents symlinks
     with absolute paths.

   - gh-89858(28): Fix ‘test_embed’ for out-of-tree builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92886(29): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_imaplib.py’.

   - gh-92886(30): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_zipimport.py’

   - gh-92886(31): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_py_compile.py’

   - gh-92886(32): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_sys_settrace.py’.

   - gh-92886(33): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘_test_multiprocessing.py’

   - gh-92670(34): Skip
     ‘test_shutil.TestCopy.test_copyfile_nonexistent_dir’ test on AIX as
     the test uses a trailing slash to force the OS consider the path as
     a directory, but on AIX the trailing slash has no effect and is
     considered as a file.

   - gh-92514(35): Remove unused ‘test.support.BasicTestRunner’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47016(36): Create a GitHub Actions workflow for verifying
     bundled pip and setuptools.  Patch by Illia Volochii and Adam
     Turner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96624

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95243

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95573

   (5) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95280

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95218

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94675

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91330

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94208

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94315

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54781

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93839

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93951

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93957

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93884

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93852

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93616

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93575

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57539

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89858

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92670

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92514

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47016


File: python.info,  Node: Build<25>,  Next: Windows<21>,  Prev: Tests<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.6 Build
...............

   - gh-96761(1): Fix the build process of clang compiler for
     ‘_bootstrap_python’ if LTO optimization is applied.  Patch by
     Matthias Görgens and Donghee Na.

   - gh-96883(2): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ builds for browsers now include
     *note concurrent.futures: 21. for *note asyncio: a. and *note
     unittest.mock: 106.

   - gh-85936(3): CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default
     policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-96729(4): Ensure that Windows releases built with
     ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ are upgradable to and from official
     Python releases.

   - gh-96269(5): Shared module targets now depend on new ‘MODULE_DEPS’
     variable, which includes ‘EXPORTSYMS’.  This fixes a build order
     issue on unsupported AIX platform.

   - gh-84461(6): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ platform no longer builds *note
     resource: bb. module, *note getresuid(): 12f6, *note getresgid():
     12f5, and their setters.  The APIs are stubs and not functional.

   - gh-95973(7): Add a new ‘--with-dsymutil’ configure option to link
     debug information in macOS. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-90536(8): Use the BOLT post-link optimizer to improve
     performance, particularly on medium-to-large applications.

   - gh-93744(9): Remove the ‘configure --with-cxx-main’ build option:
     it didn't work for many years.  Remove the ‘MAINCC’ variable from
     ‘configure’ and ‘Makefile’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94801(10): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ script that caused
     some header checks to ignore custom ‘CPPFLAGS’.  The regression was
     introduced in gh-94802(11).

   - gh-95145(12): wasm32-wasi builds no longer depend on WASIX's
     pthread stubs.  Python now has its own stubbed pthread API.

   - gh-95174(13): Python now detects missing ‘dup’ function in WASI and
     works around some missing *note errno: 56, *note select: c0, and
     *note socket: cb. constants.

   - gh-95174(14): Python now skips missing *note socket: cb. functions
     and methods on WASI. WASI can only create sockets from existing fd
     / accept and has no netdb.

   - gh-95085(15): Platforms ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’ have been promoted to PEP 11(16) tier 3
     platform support.

   - gh-94847(17): Fixed ‘_decimal’ module build issue on GCC when
     compiling with LTO and pydebug.  Debug builds no longer force
     inlining of functions.

   - gh-94841(18): Fix the possible performance regression of *note
     PyObject_Free(): c55. compiled with MSVC version 1932.

   - gh-94801(19): ‘configure’ now uses custom flags like ‘ZLIB_CFLAGS’
     and ‘ZLIB_LIBS’ when searching for headers and libraries.

   - gh-94773(20): ‘deepfreeze.py’ now supports code object with
     frozensets that contain incompatible, unsortable types.

   - gh-94682(21): Build and test with OpenSSL 1.1.1q

   - gh-90005(22): Dependencies of *note readline: b9. and *note curses:
     2b. module are now detected in ‘configure’ script with
     ‘pkg-config’.  Only ‘ncurses’ / ‘ncursesw’ are detected
     automatically.  The old ‘curses’ library is not configured
     automatically.  Workaround for missing ‘termcap’ or ‘tinfo’ library
     has been removed.

   - gh-90005(23): Fix building ‘_ctypes’ extension without
     ‘pkg-config’.

   - gh-90005(24): ‘_dbm’ module dependencies are now detected by
     configure.

   - gh-94404(25): ‘makesetup’ now works around an issue with sed on
     macOS and uses correct CFLAGS for object files that end up in a
     shared extension.  Module CFLAGS are used before
     PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS to avoid clashes with system headers.

   - gh-93939(26): C extension modules are now built by ‘configure’ and
     ‘make’ instead of ‘distutils’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-93939(27): The ‘2to3’, ‘idle’, and ‘pydoc’ scripts are now
     generated and installed by ‘Makefile’ instead of ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94280(28): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.9 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.9 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - gh-93584(29): Address race condition in ‘Makefile’ when installing
     a PGO build.  All ‘test’ and ‘install’ targets now depend on ‘all’
     target.

   - gh-93491(30): ‘configure’ now detects and reports PEP 11(31)
     support tiers.

   - gh-69093(32): Fix ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib.in’ rule for ‘_sqlite3’
     extension.

   - gh-93207(33): ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like
     ‘va_start(args, format),’ is now required to build Python.
     ‘va_start()’ is no longer called with a single parameter.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93202(34): Python now always use the ‘%zu’ and ‘%zd’ printf
     formats to format a ‘size_t’ or ‘Py_ssize_t’ number.  Building
     Python 3.12 requires a C11 compiler, so these printf formats are
     now always supported.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-90473(35): Disable pymalloc and increase stack size on
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - bpo-34449(36): Drop invalid compiler switch ‘-fPIC’ for HP aCC on
     HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96761

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96883

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93744

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95145

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94847

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94841

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94773

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94682

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94404

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94280

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93584

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93491

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93202

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34449


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<21>,  Next: macOS<17>,  Prev: Build<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98360(1): Fixes *note multiprocessing: 93. spawning child
     processes on Windows from a virtual environment to ensure that
     child processes that also use *note multiprocessing: 93. to spawn
     more children will recognize that they are in a virtual
     environment.

   - gh-98414(2): Fix ‘py.exe’ launcher handling of ‘-V:<COMPANY>/’
     option when default preferences have been set in environment
     variables or configuration files.

   - gh-97728(3): Fix possible crashes caused by the use of
     uninitialized variables when pass invalid arguments in *note
     os.system(): 1413. on Windows and in Windows-specific modules (like
     ‘winreg’).

   - gh-90989(4): Made *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. install
     per-user by default (unless an all users install already exists),
     and clarify some text in the installer.

   - gh-97649(5): The ‘Tools’ directory is no longer installed on
     Windows

   - gh-96965(6): Update libffi to 3.4.3

   - gh-96577(7): Fixes a potential buffer overrun in ‘msilib’.

   - gh-96559(8): Fixes the Windows launcher not using the compatible
     interpretation of default tags found in configuration files when no
     tag was passed to the command.

   - gh-94781(9): Fix ‘pcbuild.proj’ to clean previous instances of
     output files in ‘Python\deepfreeze’ and ‘Python\frozen_modules’
     directories on Windows.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-89545(10): Updates *note platform: a9. code getting the Windows
     version to use native Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI)
     queries to determine OS version, type, and architecture.

   - gh-95733(11): Make certain requirements of the Windows Store
     package optional to allow installing on earlier updates of Windows.

   - gh-95656(12): Enable the *note enable_load_extension(): 82a. *note
     sqlite3: ce. API.

   - gh-95587(13): Fixes some issues where the Windows installer would
     incorrectly detect certain features of an existing install when
     upgrading.

   - gh-94399(14): Restores the behaviour of *note Lanceur Python pour
     Windows: 5aa. for ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang lines, which will now
     search ‘PATH’ for an executable matching the given command.  If
     none is found, the usual search process is used.

   - gh-95445(15): Fixes the unsuccessful removal of the HTML document
     directory when uninstalling with Windows msi.

   - gh-95359(16): Fix *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. handling
     of ‘py.ini’ commands (it was incorrectly expecting a ‘py_’ prefix
     on keys) and crashes when reading per-user configuration file.

   - gh-95285(17): Fix *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. handling
     of command lines where it is only passed a short executable name.

   - gh-90844(18): Allow virtual environments to correctly launch when
     they have spaces in the path.

   - gh-94772(19): Fix incorrect handling of shebang lines in py.exe
     launcher

   - gh-94018(20): *note zipfile: 130. will now remove trailing spaces
     from path components when extracting files on Windows.

   - gh-93824(21): Drag and drop of files onto Python files in Windows
     Explorer has been enabled for Windows ARM64.

   - gh-43414(22): *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10e4. now attempts to
     read the size from any provided handle, rather than only supporting
     file descriptors 0, 1 and 2.

   - gh-92817(23): Ensures that ‘py.exe’ will prefer an active virtual
     environment over default tags specified with environment variables
     or through a ‘py.ini’ file.

   - gh-92984(24): Explicitly disable incremental linking for non-Debug
     builds

   - gh-92841(25): *note asyncio: a. no longer throws ‘RuntimeError:
     Event loop is closed’ on interpreter exit after asynchronous socket
     activity.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46907(26): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.4.

   - gh-91061(27): Accept os.PathLike for the argument to
     winsound.PlaySound

   - bpo-42658(28): Support native Windows case-insensitive path
     comparisons by using ‘LCMapStringEx’ instead of *note str.lower():
     17a9. in ‘ntpath.normcase()’.  Add ‘LCMapStringEx’ to the ‘_winapi’
     module.

   - bpo-38704(29): Prevent installation on unsupported Windows
     versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98360

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98414

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97728

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90989

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97649

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96965

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96577

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96559

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94781

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95733

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95656

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95587

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94399

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95445

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95359

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95285

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90844

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94772

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94018

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93824

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43414

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92817

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92841

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91061

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42658

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38704


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<17>,  Next: IDLE<16>,  Prev: Windows<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-97897(1): The macOS 13 SDK includes support for the ‘mkfifoat’
     and ‘mknodat’ system calls.  Using the ‘dir_fd’ option with either
     *note os.mkfifo(): d7f. or *note os.mknod(): d80. could result in a
     segfault if cpython is built with the macOS 13 SDK but run on an
     earlier version of macOS. Prevent this by adding runtime support
     for detection of these system calls ("weaklinking") as is done for
     other newer syscalls on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97897


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<16>,  Next: Tools/Demos<13>,  Prev: macOS<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-97527(1): Fix a bug in the previous bugfix that caused IDLE to
     not start when run with 3.10.8, 3.12.0a1, and at least Microsoft
     Python 3.10.2288.0 installed without the Lib/test package.  3.11.0
     was never affected.

   - gh-65802(2): Document handling of extensions in Save As dialogs.

   - gh-95191(3): Include prompts when saving Shell (interactive input
     and output).

   - gh-95511(4): Fix the Shell context menu copy-with-prompts bug of
     copying an extra line when one selects whole lines.

   - gh-95471(5): In the Edit menu, move ‘Select All’ and add a new
     separator.

   - gh-95411(6): Enable using IDLE's module browser with .pyw files.

   - gh-89610(7): Add .pyi as a recognized extension for IDLE on macOS.
     This allows opening stub files by double clicking on them in the
     Finder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97527

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65802

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95511

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95471

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95411

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89610


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<13>,  Next: C API<24>,  Prev: IDLE<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-68686(1): Remove ptags and eptags scripts.

   - gh-97681(2): Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old
     demo scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97669(4): Remove outdated example scripts of the
     ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.  A copy can be found in the old-demos
     project(5).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95853(6): The ‘wasm_build.py’ script now pre-builds Emscripten
     ports, checks for broken EMSDK versions, and warns about pkg-config
     env vars.

   - gh-95853(7): The new tool ‘Tools/wasm/wasm_builder.py’ automates
     configure, compile, and test steps for building CPython on
     WebAssembly platforms.

   - gh-95731(8): Fix handling of module docstrings in
     ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’.

   - gh-93939(9): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/check_modules.py’ to check
     and validate builtin and shared extension modules.  The script also
     handles ‘Modules/Setup’ and will eventually replace ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94538(10): Fix Argument Clinic output to custom file
     destinations.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94430(11): Allow parameters named ‘module’ and ‘self’ with
     custom C names in Argument Clinic.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

   - gh-86087(12): The ‘Tools/scripts/parseentities.py’ script used to
     parse HTML4 entities has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68686

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669

   (5) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95731

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94538

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94430

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86087


File: python.info,  Node: C API<24>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.26.11 C API
................

   - gh-98393(1): The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 565. function no
     longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 52b. and
     *note memoryview: 454. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1bd. type
     is accepted for bytes strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91051(2): Add *note PyType_Watch(): 553. and related APIs to
     allow callbacks on *note PyType_Modified(): 17ae.

   - gh-95756(3): Lazily create and cache ‘co_’ attributes for better
     performance for code getters.

   - gh-96512(4): Configuration for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 5e1. now lives in the PyConfig C API struct.

   - gh-95589(5): Extensions classes that set ‘tp_dictoffset’ and
     ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ lose the support for multiple inheritance, but
     are now safe.  Extension classes should use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     548. instead.

   - gh-95781(6): An unrecognized format character in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     562. now sets a *note SystemError: 563.  In previous versions it
     caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the
     result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

   - gh-92678(7): Restore the 3.10 behavior for multiple inheritance of
     C extension classes that store their dictionary at the end of the
     struct.

   - gh-92678(8): Support C extensions using managed dictionaries by
     setting the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT’ flag.

   - gh-93274(9): API for implementing vectorcall (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542, *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 543.
     and *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 544.) was added to the limited API
     and stable ABI.

   - gh-95504(10): Fix sign placement when specifying width or precision
     in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. and *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 562.  Patch by Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93012(11): The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag is
     now removed from a class when the class's *note __call__(): 546.
     method is reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with
     mutable types (i.e.  heap types without the ‘immutable’ flag).
     Mutable types that do not override *note tp_call: 547. now inherit
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag.

   - gh-95388(12): Creating *note immutable types: 3b9. with mutable
     bases is deprecated and is planned to be disabled in Python 3.14.

   - gh-92678(13): Adds unstable C-API functions
     ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict’ to
     allow C extensions to allow the VM to manage their object's
     dictionaries.

   - gh-94936(14): Added *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 765, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 766. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 767. for
     accessing ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’
     respectively via the C API.

   - gh-94930(15): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. is used with ‘#’ in ‘(...)’ but
     without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - gh-94731(16): Python again uses C-style casts for most casting
     operations when compiled with C++.  This may trigger compiler
     warnings, if they are enabled with e.g.  ‘-Wold-style-cast’ or
     ‘-Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant’ options for ‘g++’.

   - gh-93937(17): The following frame functions and type are now
     directly available with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it's no longer
     needed to add ‘#include <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 771.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 772.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 757.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 758.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 759.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 75a.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 773.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91321(18): Fix the compatibility of the Python C API with C++
     older than C++11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91731(19): Avoid defining the ‘static_assert’ when compiling
     with C++ 11, where this is a keyword and redefining it can lead to
     undefined behavior.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89546(20): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e. (and other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions) now check that offsets and the base
     class's *note tp_basicsize: 976. fit in the new class's
     ‘tp_basicsize’.

   - gh-93503(21): Add two new public functions to the public C-API,
     *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 54d. and *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 418, that allow to set tracing and
     profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  Also, two analogous functions to the *note threading:
     ec. module (*note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4b5. and
     *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4b4.) that allow to do the
     same from Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93442(22): Add C++ overloads for _Py_CAST_impl() to handle
     0/NULL. This will allow C++ extensions that pass 0 or NULL to
     macros using _Py_CAST() to continue to compile.

   - gh-93466(23): Slot IDs in PyType_Spec may not be repeated.  The
     documentation was updated to mention this.  For some cases of
     repeated slots, PyType_FromSpec and related functions will now
     raise an exception.

   - gh-92898(24): Fix C++ compiler warnings when casting function
     arguments to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Serge Guelton.

   - gh-93103(25): Deprecate global configuration variables, like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf, in the documentation: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-77782(26): Deprecate global configuration variable like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf.: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92913(27): Ensures changes to *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399. are ignored unless *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5db. is set

   - gh-92781(28): Avoid mixing declarations and code in the C API to
     fix the compiler warning: "ISO C90 forbids mixed declarations and
     code" [-Werror=declaration-after-statement].  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-92651(29): Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never
     any public tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only
     designed to be used by Python internals.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92536(30): Remove legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’.

   - gh-85858(31): Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function and
     the ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92193(32): Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall():
     54e. to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 54f.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered function!

   - gh-59121(33): Fixed an assert that prevented ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’
     from providing tracebacks when parsing from the provided FD.

   - bpo-45383(34): The *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b. API will now find
     and use a metaclass based on the provided bases.  An error will be
     raised if there is a metaclass conflict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95756

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96512

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94930

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94731

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91321

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89546

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93442

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93466

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92898

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92913

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92781

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92193

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59121

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45383


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.27 Python 3.11.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<25>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<18>,  Next: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.1 Security
..................

   - gh-57684(1): Add the *note -P: 590. command line option and the
     *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 591. environment variable to not prepend a
     potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ab.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<27>,  Next: Library<26>,  Prev: Security<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-89519(1): Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(2)) is deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as property().  The core design of this
     feature was flawed, and it caused a number of downstream problems.

   - gh-92345(3): ‘pymain_run_python()’ now imports ‘readline’ and
     ‘rlcompleter’ before sys.path is extended to include the current
     working directory of an interactive interpreter.  Non-interactive
     interpreters are not affected.

   - bpo-43857(4): Improve the *note AttributeError: 343. message when
     deleting a missing attribute.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-92245(5): Make sure that PEP 523 is respected in all cases.  In
     3.11a7, specialization may have prevented Python-to-Python calls
     respecting PEP 523.

   - gh-92203(6): Add a closure keyword-only parameter to *note exec():
     17d.  It can only be specified when exec-ing a code object that
     uses free variables.  When specified, it must be a tuple, with
     exactly the number of cell variables referenced by the code object.
     closure has a default value of ‘None’, and it must be ‘None’ if the
     code object doesn't refer to any free variables.

   - gh-91173(7): Disable frozen modules in debug builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92114(8): Improve error message when subscript a type with
     ‘__class_getitem__’ set to ‘None’.

   - gh-92112(9): Fix crash triggered by an evil custom ‘mro()’ on a
     metaclass.

   - gh-92063(10): The ‘PRECALL_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR_FAST_WITH_KEYWORDS’
     instruction now ensures methods are called only on objects of the
     correct type.

   - gh-92031(11): Deoptimize statically allocated code objects during
     ‘Py_FINALIZE()’ so that future ‘_PyCode_Quicken’ calls always start
     with unquickened code.

   - gh-92036(12): Fix a crash in subinterpreters related to the garbage
     collector.  When a subinterpreter is deleted, untrack all objects
     tracked by its GC. To prevent a crash in deallocator functions
     expecting objects to be tracked by the GC, leak a strong reference
     to these objects on purpose, so they are never deleted and their
     deallocator functions are not called.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92032(13): The interpreter can now autocomplete soft keywords,
     as of now ‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ (wildcard pattern) from PEP
     634(14).

   - gh-87999(15): The warning emitted by the Python parser for a
     numeric literal immediately followed by keyword has been changed
     from deprecation warning to syntax warning.

   - gh-91869(16): Fix an issue where specialized opcodes with extended
     arguments could produce incorrect tracing output or lead to
     assertion failures.

   - gh-91603(17): Speed up *note types.UnionType: 627. instantiation.
     Based on patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-89373(18): If Python is built in debug mode, Python now ensures
     that deallocator functions leave the current exception unchanged.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91632(19): Fix a minor memory leak at exit: release the memory
     of the ‘generic_alias_iterator’ type.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-81548(20): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ now
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  In a future Python
     version they will be a *note SyntaxWarning: 451. and eventually a
     *note SyntaxError: 18b.

   - bpo-43950(21): Use a single compact table for line starts, ends and
     column offsets.  Reduces memory consumption for location info by
     half

   - gh-91102(22): Use Argument Clinic for ‘EncodingMap’.  Patch by Oleg
     Iarygin.

   - gh-91636(23): Fixed a crash in a garbage-collection edge-case, in
     which a ‘PyFunction_Type.tp_clear’ function could leave a python
     function object in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-91603(24): Speed up *note isinstance(): 42d. and *note
     issubclass(): 7ad. checks for *note types.UnionType: 627.  Patch by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-91625(25): Fixed a bug in which adaptive opcodes ignored any
     preceding ‘EXTENDED_ARG’s on specialization failure.

   - gh-78607(26): The LLTRACE special build now looks for the name
     ‘__lltrace__’ defined in module globals, rather than the name
     ‘__ltrace__’, which had been introduced as a typo.

   - gh-91576(27): Speed up iteration of ascii strings by 50%.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-89279(28): Improve interpreter performance on Windows by
     inlining a few specific macros.

   - gh-91502(29): Add a new ‘_PyFrame_IsEntryFrame()’ API function, to
     check if a *note PyFrameObject: 775. is an entry frame.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-91266(30): Refactor the ‘bytearray’ strip methods ‘strip’,
     ‘lstrip’ and ‘rstrip’ to use a common implementation.

   - gh-91479(31): Replaced the ‘__note__’ field of *note BaseException:
     5a7. (added in an earlier version of 3.11) with the final design of
     PEP 678(32).  Namely, *note BaseException: 5a7. gets an
     ‘add_note()’ method, and its ‘__notes__’ field is created when
     necessary.

   - gh-46055(33): Speed up right shift of negative integers, by
     removing unnecessary creation of temporaries.  Original patch by
     Xinhang Xu, reworked by Mark Dickinson.

   - gh-91462(34): Make the interpreter's low-level tracing (lltrace)
     feature output more readable by displaying opcode names (rather
     than just numbers), and by displaying stack contents before each
     opcode.

   - gh-89455(35): Fixed an uninitialized bool value in the traceback
     printing code path that was introduced by the initial bpo-45292(36)
     exception groups work.

   - gh-91421(37): Fix a potential integer overflow in _Py_DecodeUTF8Ex.

   - gh-91428(38): Add ‘static const char *const _PyOpcode_OpName[256] =
     {...};’ to ‘opcode.h’ for debug builds to assist in debugging the
     Python interpreter.  It is now more convenient to make various
     forms of debugging output more human-readable by including opcode
     names rather than just the corresponding decimal digits.

   - bpo-47120(39): Make *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 16a8, *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 16a9, *note POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 17b2. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 17b3. virtual, mapping to new relative jump
     opcodes.

   - bpo-45317(40): Add internal documentation explaining design of new
     (for 3.11) frame stack.

   - bpo-47197(41): ctypes used to mishandle ‘void’ return types, so
     that for instance a function declared like ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(None,
     ctypes.c_int)’ would be called with signature ‘int f(int)’ instead
     of ‘void f(int)’.  Wasm targets require function pointers to be
     called with the correct signatures so this led to crashes.  The
     problem is now fixed.

   - bpo-47120(42): Make opcodes ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ relative rather than absolute.

   - bpo-47177(43): Replace the ‘f_lasti’ member of the internal
     ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ structure with a ‘prev_instr’ pointer, which
     reduces overhead in the main interpreter loop.  The ‘f_lasti’
     attribute of Python-layer frame objects is preserved for
     backward-compatibility.

   - bpo-46961(44): Integer mod/remainder operations, including the
     three-argument form of *note pow(): 9c2, now consistently return
     ints from the global small integer cache when applicable.

   - bpo-46962(45): Classes and functions that unconditionally declared
     their docstrings ignoring the ‘--without-doc-strings’ compilation
     flag no longer do so.

     The classes affected are ‘ctypes.UnionType’, *note
     pickle.PickleBuffer: 17b4, ‘testcapi.RecursingInfinitelyError’, and
     *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.

     The functions affected are 24 methods in *note ctypes: 2a.

     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46942(46): Use Argument Clinic for the *note types.MethodType:
     17b5. constructor.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46764(47): Fix wrapping bound methods with @classmethod

   - bpo-43464(48): Optimize ‘set.intersection()’ for non-set arguments.

   - bpo-46721(49): Optimize ‘set.issuperset()’ for non-set argument.

   - bpo-46509(50): Add type-specialized versions of the ‘Py_DECREF()’,
     and use them for ‘float’, ‘int’, ‘str’, ‘bool’, and ‘None’ to avoid
     pointer-chasing at runtime where types are known at C compile time.

   - bpo-46045(51): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-36819(52): Fix crashes in built-in encoders with error handlers
     that return position less or equal than the starting position of
     non-encodable characters.

   - bpo-34093(53): ‘marshal.dumps()’ uses ‘FLAG_REF’ for all interned
     strings.  This makes output more deterministic and helps
     reproducible build.

   - bpo-26579(54): Added ‘object.__getstate__’ which provides the
     default implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.

     Copying and pickling instances of subclasses of builtin types
     bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict,
     collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43857

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92203

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91173

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92112

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92063

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92031

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92036

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92032

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91869

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89373

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91632

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91625

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78607

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91576

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89279

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91502

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91266

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91479

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46055

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91462

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91421

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91428

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45317

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47197

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47177

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46961

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46764

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43464

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46721

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46509

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36819

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34093

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579


File: python.info,  Node: Library<26>,  Next: Documentation<21>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.3 Library
.................

   - gh-87901(1): Add the 'encoding' parameter to *note os.popen(): a77.

   - gh-90997(2): Fix an issue where *note dis: 38. utilities may
     interpret populated inline cache entries as valid instructions.

   - gh-92332(3): Deprecate *note typing.Text: 300. (removal of the
     class is currently not planned).  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-78157(4): Deprecate nested classes in enum definitions becoming
     members - in 3.13 they will be normal classes; add ‘member’ and
     ‘nonmember’ functions to allow control over results now.

   - gh-92356(5): Fixed a performance regression in ctypes function
     calls.

   - gh-90997(6): Show the actual named values stored in inline caches
     when ‘show_caches=True’ is passed to *note dis: 38. utilities.

   - gh-92301(7): Prefer ‘close_range()’ to iterating over procfs for
     file descriptor closing in *note subprocess: d5. for better
     performance.

   - gh-67248(8): Sort the miscellaneous topics in Cmd.do_help()

   - gh-92210(9): Port ‘socket.__init__’ to Argument Clinic.  Patch by
     Cinder.

   - gh-80010(10): Add support for generalized ISO 8601 parsing to *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 604, *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 602. and *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 603.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-92118(11): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     11e1, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks.

   - gh-90887(12): Adding ‘COPYFILE_STAT’, ‘COPYFILE_ACL’ and
     ‘COPYFILE_XATTR’ constants for ‘os.fcopyfile()’ available in macOs.

   - gh-91215(13): For *note @dataclass: 1c6, add 'weakref_slot'.  The
     new parameter defaults to ‘False’.  If true, and if ‘slots=True’,
     add a slot named ‘"__weakref__"’, which will allow instances to be
     weakref'd.  Contributed by Eric V. Smith

   - gh-85984(14): New function os.login_tty() for Unix.

   - gh-92128(15): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 727. to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 12d5. and *note logging.StreamHandler: 11d7,
     allowing them to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-92049(16): Forbid pickling constants ‘re._constants.SUCCESS’
     etc.  Previously, pickling did not fail, but the result could not
     be unpickled.

   - gh-92062(17): *note inspect.Parameter: 1cb. now raises *note
     ValueError: 1ff. if ‘name’ is a keyword, in addition to the
     existing check that it is an identifier.

   - gh-87390(18): Add an ‘__unpacked__’ attribute to *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7d7.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-88089(19): Add support for generic *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad.

   - gh-91996(20): New http.HTTPMethod enum to represent all the
     available HTTP request methods in a convenient way

   - gh-91984(21): Modified test strings in test_argparse.py to not
     contain trailing spaces before end of line.

   - gh-91952(22): Add ‘encoding="locale"’ support to
     ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’.

   - gh-91954(23): Add 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments to *note
     subprocess.getoutput(): 17b7. and *note
     subprocess.getstatusoutput(): faf.

   - bpo-47029(24): Always close the read end of the pipe used by *note
     multiprocessing.Queue: 17b8. 'after' the last write of buffered
     data to the write end of the pipe to avoid *note BrokenPipeError:
     1047. at garbage collection and at *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.close(): 17b9. calls.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-91928(25): Add ‘datetime.UTC’ alias for ‘datetime.timezone.utc’.

     Patch by Kabir Kwatra.

   - gh-68966(26): The ‘mailcap’ module is now deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  See PEP 594(27) for the rationale and the
     *note mimetypes: 8e. module for an alternative.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91401(28): Provide a way to disable *note subprocess: d5. use of
     ‘vfork()’ just in case it is ever needed and document the existing
     mechanism for ‘posix_spawn()’.

   - gh-64783(29): Fix *note signal.NSIG: 17ba. value on FreeBSD to
     accept signal numbers greater than 32, like ‘signal.SIGRTMIN’ and
     ‘signal.SIGRTMAX’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91910(30): Add missing f prefix to f-strings in error messages
     from the *note multiprocessing: 93. and *note asyncio: a. modules.

   - gh-91860(31): Add *note typing.dataclass_transform(): 4c0,
     implementing PEP 681(32).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91832(33): Add ‘required’ attribute to *note argparse.Action:
     17bb. repr output.

   - gh-91827(34): In the *note tkinter: ef. module add method
     ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of the Tcl
     library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info: 68d.

   - gh-84461(35): Add *note -enable-wasm-pthreads: 17bc. to enable
     pthreads support for WASM builds.  ‘Emscripten/node’ no longer has
     threading enabled by default.  Include additional file systems.

   - gh-91821(36): Fix unstable ‘test_from_tuple’ test in
     ‘test_decimal.py’.

   - gh-91217(37): Deprecate the xdrlib module.

   - gh-91217(38): Deprecate the uu module.

   - gh-91760(39): More strict rules will be applied for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  For now, a
     deprecation warning is emitted for group references and group names
     which will be errors in future Python versions.

   - gh-84461(40): Add provisional *note sys._emscripten_info: 17bd.
     named tuple with build-time and run-time information about
     Emscripten platform.

   - gh-90623(41): *note signal.raise_signal(): 17be. and *note
     os.kill(): 1340. now check immediately for pending signals.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91734(42): Fix OSS audio support on Solaris.

   - gh-90633(43): Include the passed value in the exception thrown by
     *note typing.assert_never(): 694.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91700(44): Compilation of regular expression containing a
     conditional expression ‘(?(group)...)’ now raises an appropriate
     ‘re.error’ if the group number refers to not defined group.
     Previously an internal RuntimeError was raised.

   - gh-91231(45): Add an optional keyword 'shutdown_timeout' parameter
     to the ‘multiprocessing.BaseManager’ constructor.  Kill the process
     if terminate() takes longer than the timeout.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91621(46): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 7d6.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-90568(47): Parsing ‘\N’ escapes of Unicode Named Character
     Sequences in a *note regular expression: b8. raises now ‘re.error’
     instead of ‘TypeError’.

   - gh-91670(48): Remove deprecated ‘SO’ config variable in *note
     sysconfig: da.

   - gh-91217(49): Deprecate the telnetlib module.

   - gh-91217(50): Deprecate the sunau module.

   - gh-91217(51): Deprecate the spwd module.

   - gh-91217(52): Deprecate the sndhdr module, as well as inline needed
     functionality for ‘email.mime.MIMEAudio’.

   - gh-91616(53): *note re: b8. module, fix *note fullmatch(): 17bf.
     mismatch when using Atomic Grouping or Possessive Quantifiers.

   - gh-91217(54): Deprecate the 'pipes' module.

   - gh-91217(55): Deprecate the ossaudiodev module.

   - bpo-47256(56): *note re: b8. module, limit the maximum capturing
     group to 1,073,741,823 in 64-bit build, this increases the depth of
     backtracking.

   - gh-91217(57): Deprecate the nis module.

   - gh-91595(58): Fix the comparison of character and integer inside
     ‘Tools.gdb.libpython.write_repr()’.  Patch by Yu Liu.

   - gh-74166(59): Add option to raise all errors from *note
     create_connection(): 65f. in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. when it
     fails to create a connection.  The default remains to raise only
     the last error that had occurred when multiple addresses were
     tried.

   - gh-91487(60): Optimize asyncio UDP speed, over 100 times faster
     when transferring a large file.

   - gh-91575(61): Update case-insensitive matching in the *note re: b8.
     module to the latest Unicode version.

   - gh-90622(62): In ‘concurrent.futures.process.ProcessPoolExecutor’
     disallow the "fork" multiprocessing start method when the new
     ‘max_tasks_per_child’ feature is used as the mix of threads+fork
     can hang the child processes.  Default to using the safe "spawn"
     start method in that circumstance if no ‘mp_context’ was supplied.

   - gh-89022(63): In *note sqlite3: ce, ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ result codes
     are now mapped to *note InterfaceError: 66a. instead of *note
     ProgrammingError: 4df.  Also, more accurate exceptions are raised
     when binding parameters fail.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91526(64): Stop calling ‘os.device_encoding(file.fileno())’ in
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  It was complex, never documented, and didn't work
     for most cases.  (Patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - gh-88116(65): Change the frame-related functions in the *note
     inspect: 7d. module to return a regular object (that is backwards
     compatible with the old tuple-like interface) that include the
     extended PEP 657(66) position information (end line number, column
     and end column).  The affected functions are: *note
     inspect.getframeinfo(): 63c, *note inspect.getouterframes(): 63d,
     *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 63e, *note inspect.stack(): 63f.
     and *note inspect.trace(): 640.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69093(67): Add indexing and slicing support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 66f.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-69093(68): Add *note context manager: 5c0. support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 66f.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91217(69): Deprecate nntplib.

   - gh-91217(70): Deprecate msilib.

   - gh-91404(71): Improve the performance of *note re: b8. matching by
     using computed gotos (or "threaded code") on supported platforms
     and removing expensive pointer indirections.

   - gh-91217(72): Deprecate the imghdr module.

   - gh-91217(73): Deprecate the crypt module.

   - gh-91276(74): Make space for longer opcodes in *note dis: 38.
     output.

   - bpo-47000(75): Make ‘TextIOWrapper’ uses locale encoding when
     ‘encoding="locale"’ is specified even in UTF-8 mode.

   - gh-91230(76): *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 572. now accepts
     arguments for *note warnings.simplefilter(): 6ae, providing a more
     concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.

   - gh-91217(77): Deprecate the chunk module.

   - gh-91498(78): Add the ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’ option (available on
     macOS) to *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-47260(79): Fix ‘os.closerange()’ potentially being a no-op in a
     Linux seccomp sandbox.

   - bpo-47087(80): Implement ‘typing.Required’ and ‘typing.NotRequired’
     ( PEP 655(81)).  Patch by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47061(82): Deprecate cgi and cgitb.

   - bpo-47061(83): Deprecate audioop.

   - bpo-47000(84): Add *note locale.getencoding(): 2db. to get the
     current locale encoding.  It is similar to
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ but ignores the *note Python
     UTF-8 Mode: 643.

   - bpo-42012(85): Add *note wsgiref.types: 11b, containing
     WSGI-specific types for static type checking.

   - bpo-47227(86): Suppress expression chaining for more *note re: b8.
     parsing errors.

   - bpo-47211(87): Remove undocumented and never working function
     ‘re.template()’ and flag ‘re.TEMPLATE’.  This was later reverted in
     3.11.0b2 and deprecated instead.

   - bpo-47135(88): *note decimal.localcontext(): 17c0. now accepts
     context attributes via keyword arguments

   - bpo-43323(89): Fix errors in the *note email: 3b. module if the
     charset itself contains undecodable/unencodable characters.

   - bpo-46841(90): Disassembly of quickened code.

   - bpo-46681(91): Forward gzip.compress() compresslevel to zlib.

   - bpo-45100(92): Add *note typing.get_overloads(): 69b. and *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 69c.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44807(93): *note typing.Protocol: 261. no longer silently
     replaces ‘__init__()’ methods defined on subclasses.  Patch by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco.

   - bpo-46787(94): Fix *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8dd. exception memory leak

   - bpo-46720(95): Add support for path-like objects to *note
     multiprocessing.set_executable(): 17c1. for Windows to be on a par
     with Unix-like systems.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-46696(96): Add ‘SO_INCOMING_CPU’ constant to *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-46053(97): Fix OSS audio support on NetBSD.

   - bpo-45639(98): ‘image/avif’ and ‘image/webp’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - bpo-46285(99): Add command-line option ‘-p’/‘--protocol’ to module
     *note http.server: 71. which specifies the HTTP version to which
     the server is conformant (HTTP/1.1 conformant servers can now be
     run from the command-line interface of module *note http.server:
     71.).  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44791(100): Accept ellipsis as the last argument of *note
     typing.Concatenate: 7b0.

   - bpo-46547(101): Remove variables leaking into ‘pydoc.Helper’ class
     namespace.

   - bpo-46415(102): Fix ipaddress.ip_{address,interface,network}
     raising TypeError instead of ValueError if given invalid tuple as
     address parameter.

   - bpo-46075(103): ‘CookieJar’ with ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ now can
     process cookies from localhost with domain=localhost explicitly
     specified in Set-Cookie header.

   - bpo-45995(104): Add a "z" option to the string formatting
     specification that coerces negative zero floating-point values to
     positive zero after rounding to the format precision.  Contributed
     by John Belmonte.

   - bpo-26175(105): Fully implement the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681.
     or *note io.TextIOBase: 682. interface for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 680. objects.  This lets them work
     correctly with higher-level layers (like compression modules).
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-45138(106): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: ce. trace
     callback where bound parameters were not expanded in the passed
     statement string.  The regression was introduced in Python 3.10 by
     bpo-40318(107).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44863(108): Allow *note TypedDict: 161. subclasses to also
     include *note Generic: 15d4. as a base class in class based syntax.
     Thereby allowing the user to define a generic ‘TypedDict’, just
     like a user-defined generic but with ‘TypedDict’ semantics.

   - bpo-44587(109): Fix BooleanOptionalAction to not automatically add
     a default string.  If a default string is desired, use a formatter
     to add it.

   - bpo-43827(110): All positional-or-keyword parameters to
     ‘ABCMeta.__new__’ are now positional-only to avoid conflicts with
     keyword arguments to be passed to ‘__init_subclass__()’.

   - bpo-43218(111): Prevent creation of a venv whose path contains the
     PATH separator.  This could affect the usage of the activate
     script.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-38435(112): Add a ‘process_group’ parameter to *note
     subprocess.Popen: 197. to help move more things off of the unsafe
     ‘preexec_fn’ parameter.

   - bpo-42066(113): Fix cookies getting sorted in
     ‘CookieJar.__iter__()’ which is an extra behavior and not mentioned
     in RFC 2965 or Netscape cookie protocol.  Now the cookies in
     ‘CookieJar’ follows the order of the ‘Set-Cookie’ header.  Patch by
     Iman Kermani.

   - bpo-40617(114): Add *note create_window_function(): 66d. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242. for creating aggregate window functions.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40676(115): Convert *note csv: 29. to use Argument Clinic for
     *note csv.field_size_limit(): 17c2, *note csv.get_dialect(): 17c3,
     *note csv.unregister_dialect(): 17c4. and *note
     csv.list_dialects(): 17c5.

   - bpo-39716(116): Raise an ‘ArgumentError’ when the same subparser
     name is added twice to an ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’.  This is
     consistent with the (default) behavior when the same option string
     is added twice to an ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-36073(117): Raise *note ProgrammingError: 4df. instead of
     segfaulting on recursive usage of cursors in *note sqlite3: ce.
     converters.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34975(118): Adds a ‘start_tls()’ method to ‘StreamWriter’,
     which upgrades the connection with TLS using the given *note
     SSLContext: 291.

   - bpo-22276(119): *note Path: 226. methods *note glob(): 22a. and
     *note rglob(): 22b. return only directories if 'pattern' ends with
     a pathname components separator (‘/’ or *note sep: 657.).  Patch by
     Eisuke Kawashima.

   - bpo-24905(120): Add *note blobopen(): 66e. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 242.  *note sqlite3.Blob: 66f. allows
     incremental I/O operations on blobs.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78157

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92356

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92301

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67248

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92210

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92118

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90887

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91215

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92049

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92062

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88089

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91996

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91984

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91952

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91954

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47029

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91928

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91401

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64783

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91910

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91832

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91821

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90623

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91734

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91700

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91231

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91621

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90568

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91670

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91616

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47256

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91595

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74166

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89022

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91526

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (66) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91276

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91230

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91498

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47260

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087

   (81) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47227

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47211

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47135

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43323

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46681

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45100

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44807

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46787

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46720

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46696

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46053

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45639

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46285

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46547

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46415

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46075

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45995

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26175

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45138

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44863

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44587

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43827

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43218

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38435

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42066

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40617

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40676

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39716

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36073

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<21>,  Next: Tests<24>,  Prev: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-91888(1): Add a new ‘gh’ role to the documentation to link to
     GitHub issues.

   - gh-91783(2): Document security issues concerning the use of the
     function *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 457.

   - gh-91547(3): Remove "Undocumented modules" page.

   - gh-91298(4): In ‘importlib.resources.abc’, refined the
     documentation of the Traversable Protocol, applying changes from
     importlib_resources 5.7.1.

   - bpo-44347(5): Clarify the meaning of 'dirs_exist_ok', a kwarg of
     *note shutil.copytree(): a19.

   - bpo-36329(6): Remove 'make -C Doc serve' in favour of 'make -C Doc
     htmlview'

   - bpo-47189(7): Add a What's New in Python 3.11 entry for the Faster
     CPython project.  Documentation by Ken Jin and Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-38668(8): Update the introduction to documentation for *note
     os.path: a1. to remove warnings that became irrelevant after the
     implementations of PEP 383(9) and PEP 529(10).

   - bpo-47115(11): The documentation now lists which members of C
     structs are part of the *note Limited API/Stable ABI: 541.

   - bpo-46962(12): All docstrings in code snippets are now wrapped into
     *note PyDoc_STR: 17c7. to follow the guideline of PEP 7's
     Documentation Strings paragraph(13).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-26792(14): Improve the docstrings of *note runpy.run_module():
     17c8. and *note runpy.run_path(): 17f.  Original patch by Andrew
     Brezovsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91888

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91783

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91547

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91298

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44347

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47189

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38668

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47115

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/#documentation-strings

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26792


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<24>,  Next: Build<26>,  Prev: Documentation<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-92169(1): Use ‘warnings_helper.import_deprecated()’ to import
     deprecated modules uniformly in tests.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-84461(2): When multiprocessing is enabled, libregrtest can now
     use a Python executable other than ‘sys.executable’ via the
     ‘--python’ flag.

   - gh-91904(3): Fix initialization of ‘PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD’
     which prevented running regression tests on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - gh-91752(4): Added @requires_zlib to
     test.test_tools.test_freeze.TestFreeze.

   - gh-91607(5): Fix ‘test_concurrent_futures’ to test the correct
     multiprocessing start method context in several cases where the
     test logic mixed this up.

   - bpo-40280(6): Threading tests are now skipped on WASM targets
     without pthread support.

   - bpo-47109(7): Test for ‘ctypes.macholib.dyld’,
     ‘ctypes.macholib.dylib’, and ‘ctypes.macholib.framework’ are
     brought from manual pre-*note unittest: 105. times to ‘ctypes.test’
     location and structure.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-29890(8): Add tests for *note ipaddress.IPv4Interface: 17ca.
     and *note ipaddress.IPv6Interface: 17cb. construction with tuple
     arguments.  Original patch and tests by louisom.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92169

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91904

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91752

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47109

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29890


File: python.info,  Node: Build<26>,  Next: Windows<22>,  Prev: Tests<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.6 Build
...............

   - gh-89452(1): gdbm-compat is now preferred over ndbm if both are
     available on the system.  This allows avoiding the problematic
     ndbm.h on macOS.

   - gh-91731(2): Python is now built with ‘-std=c11’ compiler option,
     rather than ‘-std=c99’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47152(3): Add script and make target for generating
     ‘sre_constants.h’.

   - bpo-47103(4): Windows ‘PGInstrument’ builds now copy a required DLL
     into the output directory, making it easier to run the profile
     stage of a PGO build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89452

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47103


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<22>,  Next: macOS<18>,  Prev: Build<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46907(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.3.

   - bpo-47239(2): Fixed -list and -list-paths output for *note Lanceur
     Python pour Windows: 5aa. when used in an active virtual
     environment.

   - bpo-46907(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.2.

   - bpo-46785(4): Fix race condition between *note os.stat(): 48c. and
     unlinking a file on Windows, by using errors codes returned by
     ‘FindFirstFileW()’ when appropriate in ‘win32_xstat_impl’.

   - bpo-40859(5): Update Windows build to use xz-5.2.5

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47239

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46785

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40859


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<18>,  Next: Tools/Demos<14>,  Prev: Windows<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46907(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<14>,  Next: C API<25>,  Prev: macOS<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-91583(1): Fix regression in the code generated by Argument
     Clinic for functions with the ‘defining_class’ parameter.

   - gh-91575(2): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/generate_re_casefix.py’ and
     the make target ‘regen-re’ for generating additional data for
     case-insensitive matching according to the current Unicode version.

   - gh-91551(3): Remove the ancient Pynche color editor.  It has moved
     to ‘https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91583

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91551


File: python.info,  Node: C API<25>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<14>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.27.10 C API
................

   - gh-88279(1): Deprecate the C functions: ‘PySys_SetArgv()’,
     ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, ‘PySys_SetPath()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92154(2): Added the *note PyCode_GetCode(): 764. function.  This
     function does the equivalent of the Python code
     ‘getattr(code_object, 'co_code')’.

   - gh-92173(3): Fix the ‘closure’ argument to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1725.

   - gh-91320(4): Fix C++ compiler warnings about "old-style cast" (‘g++
     -Wold-style-cast’) in the Python C API. Use C++
     ‘reinterpret_cast<>’ and ‘static_cast<>’ casts when the Python C
     API is used in C++.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-80527(5): Mark functions as deprecated by PEP 623(6):
     ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’, ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’, ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91768(7): *note Py_REFCNT(): 898, *note Py_TYPE(): 76c, *note
     Py_SIZE(): 76e. and *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 17d1. functions argument
     type is now ‘PyObject*’, rather than ‘const PyObject*’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91020(8): Add ‘PyBytes_Type.tp_alloc’ to initialize
     ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ for bytes subclasses.

   - bpo-40421(9): Add ‘PyFrame_GetLasti’ C-API function to access frame
     object's ‘f_lasti’ attribute safely from C code.

   - bpo-35134(10): Remove the ‘Include/code.h’ header file.  C
     extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47169(11): *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 17d2. is now exported in
     the Stable ABI on Windows.

   - bpo-47169(12): ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’ is excluded from
     the stable ABI on platforms where it doesn't exist (like Solaris).

   - bpo-46343(13): Added *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 75b. and
     *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 75c. as simpler alternatives to
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 75e. and *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 75d.

     They are included in the stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91320

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80527

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91768

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91020

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.28 Python 3.11.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-04-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<28>,  Next: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-47212(1): Raise *note IndentationError: 794. instead of *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. for a bare ‘except’ with no following indent.
     Improve *note SyntaxError: 18b. locations for an un-parenthesized
     generator used as arguments.  Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-47186(2): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EG_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EG_MATCH: 6ee. + jump.

   - bpo-47176(3): Emscripten builds cannot handle signals in the usual
     way due to platform limitations.  Python can now handle signals.
     To use, set Module.Py_EmscriptenSignalBuffer to be a single byte
     SharedArrayBuffer and set Py_EMSCRIPTEN_SIGNAL_HANDLING to 1.
     Writing a number into the SharedArrayBuffer will cause the
     corresponding signal to be raised into the Python thread.

   - bpo-47186(4): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 6f7. + jump.

   - bpo-47120(5): Replace the absolute jump opcode *note
     JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT: 17d5. by the relative *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 6eb.

   - bpo-46841(6): Avoid unnecessary allocations when comparing code
     objects.

   - bpo-47182(7): Fix a crash when using a named unicode character like
     ‘"\N{digit nine}"’ after the main interpreter has been initialized
     a second time.

   - bpo-47162(8): WebAssembly cannot deal with bad function pointer
     casts (different count or types of arguments).  Python can now use
     call trampolines to mitigate the problem.  Define
     ‘PY_CALL_TRAMPOLINE’ to enable call trampolines.

   - bpo-46775(9): Some Windows system error codes(>= 10000) are now
     mapped into the correct errno and may now raise a subclass of *note
     OSError: 40d.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-47129(10): Improve error messages in f-string syntax errors
     concerning empty expressions.

   - bpo-47117(11): Fix a crash if we fail to decode characters in
     interactive mode if the tokenizer buffers are uninitialized.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-47127(12): Speed up calls to c functions with keyword arguments
     by 25% with specialization.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47120(13): Replaced ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ by the relative jump *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD: 6f8.

   - bpo-42197(14): ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ and
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ are no longer called during profiling nor
     tracing.  C code can access the ‘f_locals’ attribute of *note
     PyFrameObject: 775. by calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415.

   - bpo-47070(15): Improve performance of ‘array_inplace_repeat’ by
     reducing the number of invocations of ‘memcpy’.  Refactor the
     ‘repeat’ and inplace ‘repeat’ methods of ‘array’, ‘bytes’,
     ‘bytearray’ and ‘unicodeobject’ to use the common
     ‘_PyBytes_Repeat’.

   - bpo-47053(16): Reduce de-optimization in the specialized
     ‘BINARY_OP_INPLACE_ADD_UNICODE’ opcode.

   - bpo-47045(17): Remove the ‘f_state’ field from the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct.  Add the ‘owner’ field to the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct to make ownership explicit to simplify
     clearing and deallocing frames and generators.

   - bpo-46968(18): Check for the existence of the "sys/auxv.h" header
     in *note faulthandler: 57. to avoid compilation problems in systems
     where this header doesn't exist.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46329(19): Use low bit of ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ to indicate whether to
     push a ‘NULL’ before the global.  Helps streamline the call
     sequence a bit.

   - bpo-46841(20): Quicken bytecode in-place by storing it as part of
     the corresponding ‘PyCodeObject’.

   - bpo-47012(21): Speed up iteration of *note bytes: 1bd. and *note
     bytearray: 52b. by 30%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47009(22): Improved the performance of ‘list.append()’ and list
     comprehensions by optimizing for the common case, where no resize
     is needed.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-47005(23): Improve performance of ‘bytearray_repeat’ and
     ‘bytearray_irepeat’ by reducing the number of invocations of
     ‘memcpy’.

   - bpo-46829(24): Deprecate passing a message into *note
     asyncio.Future.cancel(): 17d6. and *note asyncio.Task.cancel():
     1b5.

   - bpo-46993(25): Speed up *note bytearray: 52b. creation from *note
     list: 5fe. and *note tuple: 366. by 40%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-39829(26): Removed the ‘__len__()’ call when initializing a
     list and moved initializing to ‘list_extend’.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Pascual.

   - bpo-46944(27): Speed up throwing exception in generator with *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. calling convention.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46841(28): Modify *note STORE_SUBSCR: 17d7. to use an inline
     cache entry (rather than its oparg) as an adaptive counter.

   - bpo-46841(29): Use inline caching for ‘PRECALL’ and *note CALL:
     6f3, and remove the internal machinery for managing the (now
     unused) non-inline caches.

   - bpo-46881(30): Statically allocate and initialize the latin1
     characters.

   - bpo-46838(31): Improve syntax errors for incorrect function
     definitions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43721(32): Fix docstrings of *note getter: 1615, *note setter:
     1616, and *note deleter: 1617. to clarify that they create a new
     copy of the property.

   - bpo-43224(33): Make grammar changes required for PEP 646.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47182

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47129

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42197

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47070

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47053

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47045

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47012

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47009

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47005

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46829

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46993

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39829

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46944

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46881

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46838

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43721

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: Library<27>,  Next: Documentation<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-47208(1): Allow vendors to override ‘CTYPES_MAX_ARGCOUNT’.

   - bpo-23689(2): *note re: b8. module: fix memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure.  Patch by Ma
     Lin.

   - bpo-47167(3): Allow overriding a future compliance check in *note
     asyncio.Task: 4c5.

   - bpo-47151(4): When subprocess tries to use vfork, it now falls back
     to fork if vfork returns an error.  This allows use in situations
     where vfork isn't allowed by the OS kernel.

   - bpo-47152(5): Convert the *note re: b8. module into a package.
     Deprecate modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’.

   - bpo-4833(6): Add ‘ZipFile.mkdir()’

   - bpo-27929(7): Fix *note asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): db9. to only
     resolve names for *note socket.AF_INET: 17d9. or *note
     socket.AF_INET6: 17da. families.  Resolution may not make sense for
     other families, like ‘socket.AF_BLUETOOTH’ and *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 17db.

   - bpo-14265(8): Adds the fully qualified test name to unittest output

   - bpo-47061(9): Deprecate the aifc module.

   - bpo-39622(10): Handle Ctrl+C in asyncio programs to interrupt the
     main task.

   - bpo-47101(11): *note hashlib.algorithms_available: 134d. now lists
     only algorithms that are provided by activated crypto providers on
     OpenSSL 3.0.  Legacy algorithms are not listed unless the legacy
     provider has been loaded into the default OSSL context.

   - bpo-47099(12): All ‘URLError’ exception messages raised in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener: 303. now contain a colon between ‘ftp
     error’ and the rest of the message.  Previously, ‘open_ftp()’
     missed the colon.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47099(13): Exception chaining is changed from
     ‘Exception.with_traceback()’/*note sys.exc_info(): 677. to PEP
     3134(14).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47095(15): *note hashlib: 67.'s internal ‘_blake2’ module now
     prefers ‘libb2’ from ‘https://www.blake2.net/’ over Python's
     vendored copy of blake2.

   - bpo-47098(16): The Keccak Code Package for *note hashlib: 67.'s
     internal ‘_sha3’ module has been replaced with tiny_sha3.  The
     module is used as fallback when Python is built without OpenSSL.

   - bpo-47088(17): Implement *note typing.LiteralString: 5b6, part of
     PEP 675(18).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-42885(19): Optimize *note re.search(): 120c, *note re.split():
     29f, *note re.findall(): 1015, *note re.finditer(): 14b2. and *note
     re.sub(): 2a0. for regular expressions starting with ‘\A’ or ‘^’.

   - bpo-23691(20): Protect the *note re.finditer(): 14b2. iterator from
     re-entering.

   - bpo-47067(21): Optimize calling ‘GenericAlias’ objects by using PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ and by replacing ‘PyObject_SetAttrString’ with
     ‘PyObject_SetAttr’.

   - bpo-28080(23): Add the 'metadata_encoding' parameter in the *note
     zipfile.ZipFile: 6b1. constructor and the ‘--metadata-encoding’
     option in the *note zipfile: 130. CLI to allow reading zipfiles
     using non-standard codecs to encode the filenames within the
     archive.

   - bpo-47000(24): Make *note io.text_encoding(): 1681. returns "utf-8"
     when UTF-8 mode is enabled.

   - bpo-42369(25): Fix thread safety of ‘zipfile._SharedFile.tell()’ to
     avoid a "zipfile.BadZipFile: Bad CRC-32 for file" exception when
     reading a ‘ZipFile’ from multiple threads.

   - bpo-38256(26): Fix *note binascii.crc32(): 1651. when it is
     compiled to use zlib'c crc32 to work properly on inputs 4+GiB in
     length instead of returning the wrong result.  The workaround prior
     to this was to always feed the function data in increments smaller
     than 4GiB or to just call the zlib module function.

     We also have *note binascii.crc32(): 1651. release the GIL when
     computing on larger inputs as *note zlib.crc32(): 1650. and *note
     hashlib: 67. do.

     This also boosts performance on Windows as it now uses the zlib
     crc32 implementation for *note binascii.crc32(): 1651. for a 2-3x
     speedup.

     That the stdlib has a crc32 API in two modules is a known
     historical oddity.  This moves us closer to a single implementation
     behind them.

   - bpo-47066(27): Global inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be
     used at the start of the regular expressions.  Using them not at
     the start of expression was deprecated since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-39394(28): A warning about inline flags not at the start of the
     regular expression now contains the position of the flag.

   - bpo-433030(29): Add support of atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and
     possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) in *note
     regular expressions: b8.

   - bpo-47062(30): Implement *note asyncio.Runner: 5ed. context
     manager.

   - bpo-46382(31): *note dataclass(): 1c6. ‘slots=True’ now correctly
     omits slots already defined in base classes.  Patch by Arie
     Bovenberg.

   - bpo-47057(32): Use FASTCALL convention for ‘FutureIter.throw()’

   - bpo-47061(33): Deprecate the various modules listed by PEP 594(34):

     aifc, asynchat, asyncore, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt,
     imghdr, msilib, nntplib, nis, ossaudiodev, pipes, smtpd, sndhdr,
     spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu, xdrlib

   - bpo-34790(35): Remove passing coroutine objects to *note
     asyncio.wait(): 46b.

   - bpo-47039(36): Normalize ‘repr()’ of asyncio future and task
     objects.

   - bpo-2604(37): Fix bug where doctests using globals would fail when
     run multiple times.

   - bpo-45150(38): Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 631. helper for
     efficient hashing of file object.

   - bpo-34861(39): Made cumtime the default sorting key for cProfile

   - bpo-45997(40): Fix *note asyncio.Semaphore: a64. re-aquiring FIFO
     order.

   - bpo-47022(41): The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have
     been deprecated since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and
     deprecation warnings and have now been updated to note they will
     removed in Python 3.12 ( PEP 594(42)).

   - bpo-43253(43): Fix a crash when closing transports where the
     underlying socket handle is already invalid on the Proactor event
     loop.

   - bpo-40280(44): *note select.select(): d8f. now passes ‘NULL’ to
     ‘select’ for each empty fdset.

   - bpo-47004(45): Apply bugfixes from importlib_metadata 4.11.3,
     including bugfix for EntryPoint.extras, which was returning match
     objects and not the extras strings.

   - bpo-46998(46): Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 699.  Patch
     by Shantanu Jain.

   - bpo-46995(47): Deprecate missing *note asyncio.Task.set_name():
     9cd. for third-party task implementations, schedule making it
     mandatory in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46994(48): Accept explicit contextvars.Context in *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. and *note asyncio.loop.create_task():
     9cc.

   - bpo-46981(49): ‘typing.get_args(typing.Tuple[()])’ now returns ‘()’
     instead of ‘((),)’.

   - bpo-46968(50): Add ‘os.sysconf_names['SC_MINSIGSTKSZ']’.

   - bpo-46985(51): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     22.0.4)

   - bpo-46968(52): *note faulthandler: 57.: On Linux 5.14 and newer,
     dynamically determine size of signal handler stack size CPython
     allocates using ‘getauxval(AT_MINSIGSTKSZ)’.  This changes allows
     for Python extension's request to Linux kernel to use AMX_TILE
     instruction set on Sapphire Rapids Xeon processor to succeed,
     unblocking use of the ISA in frameworks.

   - bpo-46917(53): The *note math.nan: 650. value is now always
     available.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46955(54): Expose ‘asyncio.base_events.Server’ as *note
     asyncio.Server: b02.  Patch by Stefan Zabka.

   - bpo-23325(55): The *note signal: c5. module no longer assumes that
     *note SIG_IGN: 17dc. and *note SIG_DFL: 17dd. are small int
     singletons.

   - bpo-46932(56): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.7

   - bpo-46933(57): The *note pwd: b1. module is now optional.  *note
     os.path.expanduser(): a04. returns the path when the *note pwd: b1.
     module is not available.

   - bpo-40059(58): PEP 680(59), the *note tomllib: fb. module.  Adds
     support for parsing TOML.

   - bpo-464471(60): *note asyncio.timeout(): 5eb. and *note
     asyncio.timeout_at(): 17de. context managers added.  Patch by Tin
     Tvrtković and Andrew Svetlov.

   - bpo-46805(61): Added raw datagram socket functions for asyncio:
     ‘sock_sendto()’, ‘sock_recvfrom()’ and ‘sock_recvfrom_into()’.

   - bpo-46644(62): No longer require valid typeforms to be callable.
     This allows *note typing.Annotated: 92c. to wrap *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7b2. and *note dataclasses.InitVar: 17df.
     Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46581(63): Brings ‘ParamSpec’ propagation for ‘GenericAlias’ in
     line with ‘Concatenate’ (and others).

   - bpo-45413(64): Define 'posix_venv' and 'nt_venv' *note sysconfig
     installation schemes: 67c. to be used for bootstrapping new virtual
     environments.  Add 'venv' sysconfig installation scheme to get the
     appropriate one of the above.  The schemes are identical to the
     pre-existing 'posix_prefix' and 'nt' install schemes.  The *note
     venv: 110. module now uses the 'venv' scheme to create new virtual
     environments instead of hardcoding the paths depending only on the
     platform.  Downstream Python distributors customizing the
     'posix_prefix' or 'nt' install scheme in a way that is not
     compatible with the install scheme used in virtual environments are
     encouraged not to customize the 'venv' schemes.  When Python itself
     runs in a virtual environment, *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 17e0. and *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 67d. with ‘key="prefix"’ returns
     'venv'.

   - bpo-43224(65): Implement support for PEP 646 in typing.py.

   - bpo-43224(66): Allow unpacking types.GenericAlias objects, e.g.
     ‘*tuple[int, str]’.

   - bpo-46557(67): Warnings captured by the logging module are now
     logged without a format string to prevent systems that group logs
     by the msg argument from grouping captured warnings together.

   - bpo-41370(68): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. now supports
     evaluating strings as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic
     aliases: 69f.

   - bpo-46607(69): Add *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to
     ‘LegacyInterpolation’, deprecated in the docstring since Python
     3.2.  Will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘BasicInterpolation’ or
     ‘ExtendedInterpolation’ instead.

   - bpo-26120(70): *note pydoc: b4. now excludes __future__ imports
     from the module's data items.

   - bpo-46480(71): Add *note typing.assert_type(): 698.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46421(72): Fix a unittest issue where if the command was
     invoked as ‘python -m unittest’ and the filename(s) began with a
     dot (.), a ‘ValueError’ is returned.

   - bpo-46245(73): Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f6.

   - bpo-22859(74): ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked as
     deprecated, to be removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46170(75): Improve the error message when you try to subclass
     an instance of *note typing.NewType: ce5.

   - bpo-40296(76): Fix supporting generic aliases in *note pydoc: b4.

   - bpo-20392(77): Fix inconsistency with uppercase file extensions in
     ‘MimeTypes.guess_type()’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46030(78): Add ‘LOCAL_CREDS’, ‘LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT’ and
     ‘SCM_CREDS2’ FreeBSD constants to the socket module.

   - bpo-44439(79): Fix ‘.write()’ method of a member file in ‘ZipFile’,
     when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol,
     the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-45171(80): Fix handling of the ‘stacklevel’ argument to logging
     functions in the *note logging: 86. module so that it is consistent
     across all logging functions and, as advertised, similar to the
     ‘stacklevel’ argument used in *note warn(): 14d1.

   - bpo-24959(81): Fix bug where *note unittest: 105. sometimes drops
     frames from tracebacks of exceptions raised in tests.

   - bpo-44859(82): Raise more accurate and PEP 249(83) compatible
     exceptions in *note sqlite3: ce.

        * Raise *note InterfaceError: 66a. instead of *note
          ProgrammingError: 4df. for ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ errors.

        * Don't overwrite *note BufferError: 17e1. with *note
          ValueError: 1ff. when conversion to BLOB fails.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 4df. instead of *note Warning:
          17e2. if user tries to *note execute(): 2cf. more than one SQL
          statement.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 4df. instead of *note
          ValueError: 1ff. if an SQL query contains null characters.

   - bpo-44493(84): Add missing terminated NUL in sockaddr_un's length

     This was potentially observable when using non-abstract AF_UNIX
     datagram sockets to processes written in another programming
     language.

   - bpo-41930(85): Add *note serialize(): 66b. and *note deserialize():
     66c. support to *note sqlite3: ce.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-33178(86): Added *note ctypes.BigEndianUnion: 17e3. and *note
     ctypes.LittleEndianUnion: 17e4. classes, as originally documented
     in the library docs but not yet implemented.

   - bpo-43352(87): Add an Barrier object in synchronization primitives
     of 'asyncio' Lib in order to be consistent with Barrier from
     'threading' and 'multiprocessing' libs*

   - bpo-35859(88): *note re: b8. module, fix a few bugs about capturing
     group.  In rare cases, capturing group gets an incorrect string.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47208

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47167

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47151

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4833

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27929

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14265

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47101

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42885

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23691

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47067

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42369

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38256

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39394

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47062

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46382

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47057

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47039

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45150

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34861

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45997

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43253

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47004

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46998

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46994

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46981

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46985

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46955

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23325

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46932

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46933

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (59) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=464471

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46644

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46581

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46557

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41370

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26120

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46480

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46421

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22859

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46170

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40296

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20392

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46030

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45171

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24959

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859

   (83) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44493

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33178

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43352

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<22>,  Next: Tests<25>,  Prev: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45099(1): Document internal *note asyncio: a. API.

   - bpo-47126(2): Update PEP URLs to PEP 676(3)'s new canonical form.

   - bpo-47040(4): Clarified the old Python versions compatibility note
     of *note binascii.crc32(): 1651. / *note zlib.adler32(): 17e6. /
     *note zlib.crc32(): 1650. functions.

   - bpo-46033(5): Clarify ‘for’ statement execution in its doc.

   - bpo-45790(6): Adjust inaccurate phrasing in *note Tutoriel ;
     définir des types dans des extensions: 17e7. about the ‘ob_base’
     field and the macros used to access its contents.

   - bpo-42340(7): Document that in some circumstances *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. may cause the code to enter an inconsistent
     state.  Provided a sample workaround to avoid it if needed.

   - bpo-41233(8): Link the errnos referenced in
     ‘Doc/library/exceptions.rst’ to their respective section in
     ‘Doc/library/errno.rst’, and vice versa.  Previously this was only
     done for EINTR and InterruptedError.  Patch by Yan "yyyyyyyan"
     Orestes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45099

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47126

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0676/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<25>,  Next: Build<27>,  Prev: Documentation<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-47205(1): Skip test for *note sched_getaffinity(): 10ec. and
     *note sched_setaffinity(): 10f0. error case on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-46126(2): Restore 'descriptions' when running tests internally.

   - bpo-47104(3): Rewrite *note asyncio.to_thread(): 8d7. tests to use
     *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.

   - bpo-40280(4): The test suite is now passing on the Emscripten
     platform.  All fork, socket, and subprocess-based tests are
     skipped.

   - bpo-47037(5): Skip ‘strftime("%4Y")’ feature test on Windows.  It
     can cause an assertion error in debug builds.

   - bpo-46587(6): Skip tests if platform's ‘strftime’ does not support
     non-portable glibc extensions.

   - bpo-47015(7): A test case for *note os.sendfile(): aff. is
     converted from deprecated ‘asyncore’ (see PEP 594(8)) to *note
     asyncio: a.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47205

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46587

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47015

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: Build<27>,  Next: Windows<23>,  Prev: Tests<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-40280(1): Add configure option *note
     -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: 17ea. to enable ‘dlopen’ and
     MAIN_MODULE / SIDE_MODULE on ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

   - bpo-46023(2): ‘makesetup’ now detects and skips all duplicated
     module definitions.  The first entry wins.

   - bpo-40280(3): Add SOABI ‘wasm32-emscripten’ for Emscripten and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ for WASI on 32bit WASM as well as ‘wasm64’ counter
     parts.

   - bpo-47032(4): Ensure Windows install builds fail correctly with a
     non-zero exit code when part of the build fails.

   - bpo-47024(5): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1n for macOS installers and all
     Windows builds.

   - bpo-46996(6): The *note tkinter: ef. package now requires Tcl/Tk
     version 8.5.12 or newer.

   - bpo-46973(7): Add ‘regen-configure’ make target to regenerate
     configure script with Christian's container image
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:269’.

   - bpo-46917(8): Building Python now requires support of IEEE 754
     floating-point numbers.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45774(9): ‘configure’ now verifies that all SQLite C APIs
     needed for the *note sqlite3: ce. extension module are found.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47032

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47024

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46973

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<23>,  Next: macOS<19>,  Prev: Build<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-47194(1): Update ‘zlib’ to v1.2.12 to resolve CVE
     2018-25032(2).

   - bpo-47171(3): Enables installing the ‘py.exe’ launcher on Windows
     ARM64.

   - bpo-46566(4): Upgraded *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. to
     support a new ‘-V:company/tag’ argument for full PEP 514(5) support
     and to detect ARM64 installs.  The ‘-64’ suffix on arguments is
     deprecated, but still selects any non-32-bit install.  Setting
     ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ and specifying a version that is not
     installed will attempt to install the requested version from the
     Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-47086(6): The installer for Windows now includes documentation
     as loose HTML files rather than a single compiled ‘.chm’ file.

   - bpo-46907(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.1.

   - bpo-44549(8): Update bzip2 to 1.0.8 in Windows builds to mitigate
     CVE 2016-3189(9) and CVE 2019-12900(10).

   - bpo-46948(11): Prevent CVE 2022-26488(12) by ensuring the Add to
     PATH option in the Windows installer uses the correct path when
     being repaired.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47194

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-25032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47171

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46566

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44549

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-3189

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-12900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46948

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-26488


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<19>,  Next: Tools/Demos<15>,  Prev: Windows<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46890(1): Fix a regression in the setting of
     ‘sys._base_executable’ in framework builds, and thereby fix a
     regression in *note venv: 110. virtual environments with such
     builds.

   - bpo-46907(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<15>,  Next: C API<26>,  Prev: macOS<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40280(1): Replace Emscripten's limited shell with Katie Bell's
     browser-ui REPL from python-wasm project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280


File: python.info,  Node: C API<26>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<15>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.28.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40421(1): Add ‘PyFrame_GetBuiltins’, ‘PyFrame_GetGenerator’ and
     ‘PyFrame_GetGlobals’ C-API functions to access frame object
     attributes safely from C code.

   - bpo-46850(2): Move the private ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ type, and
     private ‘_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc()’ and
     ‘_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc()’ functions to the internal
     C API. The ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ callback function type now uses
     the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(3): Move the private undocumented
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function to the internal C API. The
     function now uses the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of
     the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(4): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_CallTracing()’ from the C API. Call the public *note
     sys.call_tracing(): 17ef. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(5): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_GetCoroutineOriginTrackingDepth()’ from the C API. Call
     the public *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b7b.
     function instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(6): Remove the following private undocumented functions
     from the C API:

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

     Call the public *note sys.get_asyncgen_hooks(): 17f0. and *note
     sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 15e1. functions instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46987(7): Remove private functions ‘_PySys_GetObjectId()’ and
     ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46906(8): Add new functions to pack and unpack C double
     (serialize and deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 751, *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): 752, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 753, *note
     PyFloat_Unpack2(): 754, *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 755. and *note
     PyFloat_Unpack8(): 756.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46987

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.23.29 Python 3.11.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-03-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* C API: C API<27>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<29>,  Next: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46940(1): Avoid overriding *note AttributeError: 343. metadata
     information for nested attribute access calls.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-46927(2): Include the type's name in the error message for
     subscripting non-generic types.

   - bpo-46921(3): Support vectorcall for ‘super()’.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-46841(4): Fix incorrect handling of inline cache entries when
     specializing *note BINARY_OP: 6f2.

   - bpo-46841(5): Use an oparg to simplify the construction of helpful
     error messages in *note GET_AWAITABLE: 17f3.

   - bpo-46903(6): Make sure that str subclasses can be used as
     attribute names for instances with virtual dictionaries.  Fixes
     regression in 3.11alpha

   - bpo-46841(7): Add more detailed specialization failure stats for
     *note COMPARE_OP: 958. followed by *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1761.

   - bpo-46891(8): Fix bug introduced during 3.11alpha where subclasses
     of ‘types.ModuleType’ with ‘__slots__’ were not initialized
     correctly, resulting in an interpreter crash.

   - bpo-46841(9): Use inline caching for *note LOAD_ATTR: 4cb, *note
     LOAD_METHOD: c0f, and *note STORE_ATTR: 17f4.

   - bpo-46841(10): Use inline cache for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 16fc.

   - bpo-46841(11): Use inline caching for *note COMPARE_OP: 958.

   - bpo-46864(12): Deprecate ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’.  It will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46841(13): Use inline caching for *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 17f5.

   - bpo-46845(14): Reduces dict size by removing hash value from hash
     table when all inserted keys are Unicode.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ becomes 272 bytes from
     352 bytes on 64bit platform.

   - bpo-46841(15): Use inline cache for *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16a4.

   - bpo-46852(16): Rename the private undocumented
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method to ‘float.__setformat__()’ to fix a
     typo introduced in Python 3.7.  The method is only used by
     test_float.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46852(17): Remove the undocumented private
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method, previously known as
     ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its docstring said: "You
     probably don't want to use this function.  It exists mainly to be
     used in Python's test suite."  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40116(18): Fix regression that dict.update(other) may don't
     respect iterate order of other when other is key sharing dict.

   - bpo-46712(19): Share global string identifiers in deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46430(20): Fix memory leak in interned strings of deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46841(21): Store *note BINARY_OP: 6f2. caches inline using a
     new *note CACHE: 6e5. instruction.

   - bpo-45107(22): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for instances with a dict.

   - bpo-44337(23): Reduce the memory usage of specialized *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 4cb. and *note STORE_ATTR: 17f4. instructions.

   - bpo-46729(24): Add number of sub-exceptions to
     ‘BaseException.__str__()’.

   - bpo-45885(25): Don't un-adapt *note COMPARE_OP: 958. when
     collecting specialization stats.

   - bpo-46329(26): Fix specialization stats gathering for ‘PRECALL’
     instructions.

   - bpo-46794(27): Bump up the libexpat version into 2.4.6

   - bpo-46823(28): Implement a specialized combined opcode
     ‘LOAD_FAST__LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46820(29): Fix parsing a numeric literal immediately (without
     spaces) followed by "not in" keywords, like in ‘1not in x’.  Now
     the parser only emits a warning, not a syntax error.

   - bpo-46329(30): Move ‘KW_NAMES’ before ‘PRECALL’ instruction in call
     sequence.  Change ‘operand’ of ‘CALL’ to match ‘PRECALL’ for easier
     specialization.

   - bpo-46808(31): Remove the ‘NEXT_BLOCK’ macro from compile.c, and
     make the compiler automatically generate implicit blocks when they
     are needed.

   - bpo-46329(32): Add ‘PUSH_NULL’ instruction.  This is used as a
     prefix when evaluating a callable, so that the stack has the same
     shape for methods and other calls.  ‘PRECALL_FUNCTION’ and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ are merged into a single ‘PRECALL’ instruction.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46762(33): Fix an assert failure in debug builds when a '<',
     '>', or '=' is the last character in an f-string that's missing a
     closing right brace.

   - bpo-46730(34): Message of AttributeError caused by getting, setting
     or deleting a property without the corresponding function now
     mentions that the attribute is in fact a property and also
     specifies type of the class that it belongs to.

   - bpo-46724(35): Make sure that all backwards jumps use the
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ instruction, rather than ‘JUMP_FORWARD’ with an
     argument of ‘(2**32)+offset’.

   - bpo-46732(36): Correct the docstring for the *note __bool__():
     12b5. method.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46072(37): Add more detailed specialization failure statistics
     for *note BINARY_OP: 6f2.

   - bpo-46707(38): Avoid potential exponential backtracking when
     producing some syntax errors involving lots of brackets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46323(39): *note ctypes: 2a. now allocates memory on the stack
     instead of on the heap to pass arguments while calling a Python
     callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45923(40): Add a quickened form of *note RESUME: 30a. that
     skips quickening checks.

   - bpo-46702(41): Specialize *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 17f5. for *note
     tuple: 366. and *note list: 5fe. unpackings.

   - bpo-46072(42): Opcode pair stats are now gathered with
     ‘--enable-pystats’.  Defining ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’ or
     ‘DXPAIRS’ no longer has any effect.

   - bpo-46675(43): Allow more than 16 items in a split dict before it
     is combined.  The limit is now 254.

   - bpo-40479(44): Add a missing call to ‘va_end()’ in
     ‘Modules/_hashopenssl.c’.

   - bpo-46323(45): Use *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 54a. while calling
     ctypes callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46615(46): When iterating over sets internally in
     ‘setobject.c’, acquire strong references to the resulting items
     from the set.  This prevents crashes in corner-cases of various set
     operations where the set gets mutated.

   - bpo-45828(47): The bytecode compiler now attempts to apply runtime
     stack manipulations at compile-time (whenever it is feasible to do
     so).

   - bpo-30496(48): Fixed a minor portability issue in the
     implementation of *note PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6, and added a fast
     path for single-digit integers to *note PyLong_FromLongLong():
     17f7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46940

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46927

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46921

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46891

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46712

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45107

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46729

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46794

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46823

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46808

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46762

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46730

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46732

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46707

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46702

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46675

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46615

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30496


File: python.info,  Node: Library<28>,  Next: Documentation<23>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25707(1): Fixed a file leak in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 270. when the iterator is not
     exhausted.  Patch by Jacob Walls.

   - bpo-46877(2): Export *note unittest.doModuleCleanups(): 17f9. in
     *note unittest: 105.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46848(3): For performance, use the optimized string-searching
     implementations from *note find(): 17fa. and *note rfind(): 17fb.
     for ‘find()’ and ‘rfind()’.

   - bpo-46736(4): *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. now uses HTML5
     grammar.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44886(5): Inherit asyncio proactor datagram transport from
     *note asyncio.DatagramTransport: 1768.

   - bpo-46827(6): Support UDP sockets in *note
     asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): db9. for selector-based event loops.
     Patch by Thomas Grainger.

   - bpo-46811(7): Make test suite support Expat >=2.4.5

   - bpo-46252(8): Raise *note TypeError: 525. if *note ssl.SSLSocket:
     8d9. is passed to transport-based APIs.

   - bpo-46784(9): Fix libexpat symbols collisions with user dynamically
     loaded or statically linked libexpat in embedded Python.

   - bpo-46786(10): The HTML serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree now
     writes ‘embed’, ‘source’, ‘track’ and ‘wbr’ as empty tags, as
     defined in HTML 5.

   - bpo-39327(11): *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. can now work with
     VirtualBox shared folders when running from the guest
     operating-system.

   - bpo-45390(12): Propagate *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. message
     from inner task to outer awaiter.

   - bpo-46756(13): Fix a bug in *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(): 17fc. and
     *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated():
     17fd. which allowed to bypass authorization.  For example, access
     to URI ‘example.org/foobar’ was allowed if the user was authorized
     for URI ‘example.org/foo’.

   - bpo-46737(14): *note random.gauss(): 17fe. and *note
     random.normalvariate(): 17ff. now have default arguments.

   - bpo-46752(15): Add task groups to asyncio (structured concurrency,
     inspired by Trio's nurseries).  This also introduces a change to
     task cancellation, where a cancelled task can't be cancelled again
     until it calls .uncancel().

   - bpo-46724(16): Fix *note dis: 38. behavior on negative jump
     offsets.

   - bpo-46333(17): The ‘__repr__()’ method of *note typing.ForwardRef:
     1800. now includes the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1800. when it is set.

   - bpo-46643(18): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ParamSpecArgs’ and ‘ParamSpecKwargs’
     annotations.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45863(19): When the *note tarfile: dd. module creates a pax
     format archive, it will put an integer representation of timestamps
     in the ustar header (if possible) for the benefit of older
     unarchivers, in addition to the existing full-precision timestamps
     in the pax extended header.

   - bpo-46066(20): Deprecate kwargs-based syntax for *note
     typing.TypedDict: 161. definitions.  It had confusing semantics
     when specifying totality, and was largely unused.  Patch by
     Jingchen Ye.

   - bpo-46676(21): Make *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d. args and kwargs
     equal to themselves.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46323(22): ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE()’ and ‘ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE()’ now
     fail to create the type if its ‘_argtypes_’ member contains too
     many arguments.  Previously, the error was only raised when calling
     a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46672(23): Fix ‘NameError’ in *note asyncio.gather(): 5ea. when
     initial type check fails.

   - bpo-46659(24): The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 730. and
     *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 731. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 2d9, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2d8, if no locale is specified.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46659(25): The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2d8. function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use *note
     locale.setlocale(): 2da, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     527. and *note locale.getlocale(): 2d9. functions instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46655(26): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘TypeAlias’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45948(27): Fixed a discrepancy in the C implementation of the
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. module.  Now, instantiating an
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: a44. with a ‘target=None’
     keyword provides a default *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder:
     a45. target as the Python implementation does.

   - bpo-46626(28): Expose Linux's ‘IP_BIND_ADDRESS_NO_PORT’ option in
     *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-46521(29): Fix a bug in the *note codeop: 1c. module that was
     incorrectly identifying invalid code involving string quotes as
     valid code.

   - bpo-46571(30): Improve *note typing.no_type_check(): 6a1.

     Now it does not modify external classes and functions.  We also now
     correctly mark classmethods as not to be type checked.

   - bpo-46400(31): expat: Update libexpat from 2.4.1 to 2.4.4

   - bpo-46556(32): Deprecate undocumented support for using a *note
     pathlib.Path: 226. object as a context manager.

   - bpo-46534(33): Implement PEP 673(34) *note typing.Self: 5b3.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - bpo-46522(35): Make various module ‘__getattr__’ AttributeErrors
     more closely match a typical AttributeError

   - bpo-46475(36): Add *note typing.Never: 695. and *note
     typing.assert_never(): 694.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46333(37): The ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__hash__()’ methods of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1800. now honor the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1800.  Forward references from different modules
     are now differentiated.

   - bpo-46246(38): Add missing ‘__slots__’ to
     ‘importlib.metadata.DeprecatedList’.  Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46232(39): The *note ssl: cf. module now handles certificates
     with bit strings in DN correctly.

   - bpo-46195(40): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. no longer adds
     ‘Optional’ to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  This aligns to
     changes to PEP 484 in ‘https://github.com/python/peps/pull/689’

   - bpo-31369(41): Add *note RegexFlag: 61a. to ‘re.__all__’ and
     documented it.  Add ‘NOFLAG’ to indicate no flags being set.

   - bpo-45898(42): *note ctypes: 2a. no longer defines ‘ffi_type_*’
     symbols in ‘cfield.c’.  The symbols have been provided by libffi
     for over a decade.

   - bpo-44953(43): Calling ‘operator.itemgetter’ objects and
     ‘operator.attrgetter’ objects is now faster due to use of the
     vectorcall calling convention.

   - bpo-44289(44): Fix an issue with *note is_tarfile(): 1801. method
     when using 'fileobj' argument: position in the 'fileobj' was
     advanced forward which made it unreadable with *note
     tarfile.TarFile.open(): 1802.

   - bpo-44011(45): Reimplement SSL/TLS support in asyncio, borrow the
     implementation from uvloop library.

   - bpo-41086(46): Make the *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c3.
     constructor raise *note TypeError: 525. if the ‘interpolation’
     parameter is not of type ‘configparser.Interpolation’

   - bpo-29418(47): Implement *note inspect.ismethodwrapper(): 637. and
     fix *note inspect.isroutine(): 15a6. for cases where methodwrapper
     is given.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-14156(48): argparse.FileType now supports an argument of '-' in
     binary mode, returning the .buffer attribute of
     sys.stdin/sys.stdout as appropriate.  Modes including 'x' and 'a'
     are treated equivalently to 'w' when argument is '-'.  Patch
     contributed by Josh Rosenberg

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46877

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44886

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46827

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46252

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46784

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46786

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45390

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46756

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46737

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46752

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46643

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45863

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46066

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46676

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46672

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46655

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45948

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46626

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46571

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46400

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46556

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46522

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46475

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46246

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46232

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46195

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31369

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45898

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44953

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44289

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44011

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41086

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14156


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<23>,  Next: Tests<26>,  Prev: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’ has moved to its own
     repository and is now packaged on PyPI as ‘sphinx-lint’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<26>,  Next: Build<28>,  Prev: Documentation<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46913(1): Fix test_faulthandler.test_sigfpe() if Python is
     built with undefined behavior sanitizer (UBSAN): disable UBSAN on
     the faulthandler_sigfpe() function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46760(2): Remove bytecode offsets from expected values in
     test.test_dis module.  Reduces the obstacles to modifying the VM or
     compiler.

   - bpo-46708(3): Prevent default asyncio event loop policy
     modification warning after ‘test_asyncio’ execution.

   - bpo-46678(4): The function ‘make_legacy_pyc’ in
     ‘Lib/test/support/import_helper.py’ no longer fails when
     ‘PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX’ is set to a directory on a different device
     from where tempfiles are stored.

   - bpo-46623(5): Skip test_pair() and test_speech128() of test_zlib on
     s390x since they fail if zlib uses the s390x hardware accelerator.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46913

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46760

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46678

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46623


File: python.info,  Node: Build<28>,  Next: Windows<24>,  Prev: Tests<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46860(1): Respect ‘--with-suffix’ when building on
     case-insensitive file systems.

   - bpo-46656(2): Building Python now requires a C11 compiler.
     Optional C11 features are not required.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46656(3): Building Python now requires support for
     floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN): remove the ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46640(4): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing a ‘NAN’ constant, or the ‘__builtin_nan()’ built-in
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46608(5): Exclude marshalled-frozen data if deep-freezing to
     save 300 KB disk space.  This includes adding a new ‘is_package’
     field to *note _frozen: 761.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-40280(6): Fix wasm32-emscripten test failures and platform
     issues.  - Disable syscalls that are not supported or don't work,
     e.g.  wait, getrusage, prlimit, mkfifo, mknod, setres[gu]id,
     setgroups.  - Use fd_count to count open fds.  - Add more checks
     for subprocess and fork.  - Add workarounds for missing
     _multiprocessing and failing socket.accept().  - Enable bzip2.  -
     Disable large file support.  - Disable signal.alarm.

   - bpo-46430(7): Intern strings in deep-frozen modules.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46860

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<24>,  Next: IDLE<17>,  Prev: Build<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46744(1): The default all users install directory for ARM64 is
     now under the native ‘Program Files’ folder, rather than ‘Program
     Files (Arm)’ which is intended for ARM (32-bit) files.

   - bpo-46567(2): Adds Tcl and Tk support for Windows ARM64.  This also
     adds IDLE to the installation.

   - bpo-46638(3): Ensures registry virtualization is consistently
     disabled.  For 3.10 and earlier, it remains enabled (some registry
     writes are protected), while for 3.11 and later it is disabled
     (registry modifications affect all applications).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46567

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46638


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<17>,  Next: C API<27>,  Prev: Windows<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-46630(1): Make query dialogs on Windows start with a cursor in
     the entry box.

   - bpo-45447(2): Apply IDLE syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.
     Patch by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: C API<27>,  Prev: IDLE<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.29.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46748(1): Python's public headers no longer import
     ‘<stdbool.h>’, leaving code that embeds/extends Python free to
     define ‘bool’, ‘true’ and ‘false’.

   - bpo-46836(2): Move the *note PyFrameObject: 775. type definition
     (‘struct _frame’) to the internal C API ‘pycore_frame.h’ header
     file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45459(3): Rename ‘Include/buffer.h’ header file to
     ‘Include/pybuffer.h’ to avoid conflicts with projects having an
     existing ‘buffer.h’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(4): Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved
     to the internal C API). Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46613(5): Added function *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a,
     which allows access to module state when a method's defining class
     is not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46748

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.30 Python 3.11.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-02-03'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<28>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<30>,  Next: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45773(1): Remove two invalid "peephole" optimizations from the
     bytecode compiler.

   - bpo-46564(2): Do not create frame objects when creating *note
     super: 4c8. object.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45885(3): Added more fined-grained specialization failure stats
     regarding the ‘COMPARE_OP’ bytecode.

   - bpo-44977(4): The delegation of *note int(): 254. to ‘__trunc__()’
     is now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not ‘__int__()’ or ‘__index__()’ now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

   - bpo-46458(5): Reorder code emitted by the compiler for a *note try:
     6d5.-*note except: 189. block so that the *note else: 18a. block's
     code immediately follows the *note try: 6d5. body (without a jump).
     This is more optimal for the happy path.

   - bpo-46527(6): Allow passing ‘iterable’ as a keyword argument to
     *note enumerate(): 1435. again.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46528(7): Replace several stack manipulation instructions
     (‘DUP_TOP’, ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’, ‘ROT_TWO’, ‘ROT_THREE’, ‘ROT_FOUR’, and
     ‘ROT_N’) with new *note COPY: 6f5. and *note SWAP: 6f6.
     instructions.

   - bpo-46329(8): Use two or three bytecodes to implement most calls.

     Calls without named arguments are implemented as a sequence of two
     instructions: ‘PRECALL; CALL’.  Calls with named arguments are
     implemented as a sequence of three instructions: ‘PRECALL;
     KW_NAMES; CALL’.  There are two different ‘PRECALL’ instructions:
     ‘PRECALL_FUNTION’ and ‘PRECALL_METHOD’.  The latter pairs with
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

     This partition into pre-call and call allows better specialization,
     and thus better performance ultimately.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46503(9): Fix an assert when parsing some invalid N escape
     sequences in f-strings.

   - bpo-46431(10): Improve error message on invalid calls to
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup.__new__()’.

   - bpo-46476(11): Fix memory leak in code objects generated by
     deepfreeze.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46481(12): Speed up calls to ‘weakref.ref.__call__()’ by using
     the PEP 590(13) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-46417(14): Fix a race condition on setting a type ‘__bases__’
     attribute: the internal function ‘add_subclass()’ now gets the
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’ member after calling *note
     PyWeakref_NewRef(): 180b. which can trigger a garbage collection
     which can indirectly modify ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46417(15): ‘python -X showrefcount’ now shows the total
     reference count after clearing and destroyed the main Python
     interpreter.  Previously, it was shown before.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43683(16): Add ASYNC_GEN_WRAP opcode to wrap the value to be
     yielded in async generators.  Removes the need to special case
     async generators in the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction.

   - bpo-46407(17): Optimize some modulo operations in
     ‘Objects/longobject.c’.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-46409(18): Add new ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’ bytecode to make
     generators.  Simplifies calling Python functions in the VM, as they
     no longer any need to special case generator functions.

     Also add ‘JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT’ bytecode that acts like
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’, but does not check for interrupts.

   - bpo-46406(19): The integer division ‘//’ implementation has been
     optimized to better let the compiler understand its constraints.
     It can be 20% faster on the amd64 platform when dividing an int by
     a value smaller than ‘2**30’.

   - bpo-46383(20): Fix invalid signature of ‘_zoneinfo’'s ‘module_free’
     function to resolve a crash on wasm32-emscripten platform.

   - bpo-46361(21): Ensure that "small" integers created by *note
     int.from_bytes(): 180c. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29a. are
     properly cached.

   - bpo-46161(22): Fix the class building error when the arguments are
     constants and CALL_FUNCTION_EX is used.

   - bpo-46028(23): Fixes calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when
     inside a virtual environment that uses symlinks with different
     binary names than the base environment provides.

   - bpo-46091(24): Correctly calculate indentation levels for lines
     with whitespace character that are ended by line continuation
     characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-30512(25): Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD.

   - bpo-46045(26): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-44024(27): Improve the *note TypeError: 525. message for
     non-string second arguments passed to the built-in functions *note
     getattr(): bc1. and *note hasattr(): 4be.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46458

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46527

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46528

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46503

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46431

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46476

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46481

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46407

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46409

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46406

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46383

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46361

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46161

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46091

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44024


File: python.info,  Node: Library<29>,  Next: Documentation<24>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46624(1): Restore support for non-integer arguments of *note
     random.randrange(): 858. and *note random.randint(): 120f.

   - bpo-46591(2): Make the IDLE doc URL on the About IDLE dialog
     clickable.

   - bpo-46565(3): Remove loop variables that are leaking into modules'
     namespaces.

   - bpo-46553(4): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘ClassVar’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46544(5): Don't leak ‘x’ & ‘uspace’ intermediate vars in *note
     textwrap.TextWrapper: fba.

   - bpo-46487(6): Add the ‘get_write_buffer_limits’ method to
     ‘asyncio.transports.WriteTransport’ and to the SSL transport.

   - bpo-45173(7): Note the configparser deprecations will be removed in
     Python 3.12.

   - bpo-45162(8): The deprecated *note unittest: 105. APIs removed in
     3.11a1 have been temporarily restored to be removed in 3.12 while
     cleanups in external projects go in.

   - bpo-46539(9): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ClassVar’ and ‘Final’ annotations inside
     ‘Annotated’.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46510(10): Add missing test for *note types.TracebackType: ae2.
     and *note types.FrameType: 180e.  Calculate them directly from the
     caught exception without calling *note sys.exc_info(): 677.

   - bpo-46491(11): Allow *note typing.Annotated: 92c. to wrap *note
     typing.Final: 264. and *note typing.ClassVar: 263.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46483(12): Remove *note __class_getitem__(): 727. from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 492. as this class was not supposed to be
     generic.

   - bpo-46436(13): Fix command-line option ‘-d’/‘--directory’ in module
     *note http.server: 71. which is ignored when combined with
     command-line option ‘--cgi’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-41403(14): Make ‘mock.patch()’ raise a *note TypeError: 525.
     with a relevant error message on invalid arg.  Previously it
     allowed a cryptic *note AttributeError: 343. to escape.

   - bpo-46474(15): In ‘importlib.metadata.EntryPoint.pattern’, avoid
     potential REDoS by limiting ambiguity in consecutive whitespace.

   - bpo-46474(16): Removed private method from
     ‘importlib.metadata.Path’.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.10.0.

   - bpo-46470(17): Remove unused branch from
     ‘typing._remove_dups_flatten’

   - bpo-46469(18): *note asyncio: a. generic classes now return *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7d7. in ‘__class_getitem__’ instead of the same
     class.

   - bpo-41906(19): Support passing filter instances in the ‘filters’
     values of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ in the dictionary passed to
     *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 118f.

   - bpo-46422(20): Use ‘dis.Positions’ in ‘dis.Instruction’ instead of
     a regular ‘tuple’.

   - bpo-46434(21): *note pdb: a4. now gracefully handles ‘help’ when
     *note __doc__: 180f. is missing, for example when run with
     pregenerated optimized ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-43869(22): Python uses the same time Epoch on all platforms.
     Add an explicit unit test to ensure that it's the case.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46414(23): Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 697.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-40280(24): *note subprocess: d5. now imports Windows-specific
     imports when ‘msvcrt’ module is available, and POSIX-specific
     imports on all other platforms.  This gives a clean exception when
     ‘_posixsubprocess’ is not available (e.g.  Emscripten browser
     target).

   - bpo-40066(25): ‘IntEnum’, ‘IntFlag’, and ‘StrEnum’ use the mixed-in
     type for their ‘str()’ and ‘format()’ output.

   - bpo-46316(26): Optimize *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 15ec. by
     removing an unnecessary check for special entries.

   - bpo-29688(27): Document *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1669. (which
     has always existed).

   - bpo-43012(28): The pathlib module's obsolete and internal
     ‘_Accessor’ class has been removed to prepare the terrain for
     upcoming enhancements to the module.

   - bpo-46258(29): Speed up *note math.isqrt(): 9f5. for small positive
     integers by replacing two division steps with a lookup table.

   - bpo-46242(30): Improve error message when creating a new *note
     enum.Enum: 61d. type subclassing an existing ‘Enum’ with
     ‘_member_names_’ using ‘enum.Enum.__call__()’.

   - bpo-43118(31): Fix a bug in *note inspect.signature(): 724. that
     was causing it to fail on some subclasses of classes with a
     ‘__text_signature__’ referencing module globals.  Patch by Weipeng
     Hong.

   - bpo-26552(32): Fixed case where failing *note
     asyncio.ensure_future(): c66. did not close the coroutine.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-21987(33): Fix an issue with *note tarfile.TarFile.getmember():
     1810. getting a directory name with a trailing slash.

   - bpo-46124(34): Update *note zoneinfo: 133. to rely on
     importlib.resources traversable API.

   - bpo-46103(35): Now *note inspect.getmembers(): 1811. only gets
     ‘__bases__’ attribute from class type.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-46080(36): Fix exception in argparse help text generation if a
     *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1812. argument's default is
     ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’ and it has ‘help’ specified.  Patch by Felix
     Fontein.

   - bpo-44791(37): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 15d. in *note
     Concatenate: 7b0. with different parameter expressions.
     Substitution with a list of types returns now a tuple of types.
     Substitution with ‘Concatenate’ returns now a ‘Concatenate’ with
     concatenated lists of arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46591

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46565

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46553

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46539

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46510

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46491

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41403

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46470

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46469

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41906

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46422

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46434

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43869

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46414

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46316

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29688

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43012

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46258

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46242

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43118

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26552

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21987

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46124

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46103

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46080

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<24>,  Next: Tests<27>,  Prev: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46463(1): Fixes ‘escape4chm.py’ script used when building the
     CHM documentation file

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46463


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<27>,  Next: Build<29>,  Prev: Documentation<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43478(1): Mocks can no longer be provided as the specs for
     other Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot be
     passed to ‘mock.Mock()’.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     isinstance) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-46616(2): Ensures ‘test_importlib.test_windows’ cleans up
     registry keys after completion.

   - bpo-44359(3): test_ftplib now silently ignores socket errors to
     prevent logging unhandled threading exceptions.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46600(4): Fix test_gdb.test_pycfunction() for Python built with
     ‘clang -Og’.  Tolerate inlined functions in the gdb traceback.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46542(5): Fix a Python crash in test_lib2to3 when using Python
     built in debug mode: limit the recursion limit.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46576(6): test_peg_generator now disables compiler optimization
     when testing compilation of its own C extensions to significantly
     speed up the testing on non-debug builds of CPython.

   - bpo-46542(7): Fix ‘test_json’ tests checking for *note
     RecursionError: d5b.: modify these tests to use
     ‘support.infinite_recursion()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13886(8): Skip test_builtin PTY tests on non-ASCII characters
     if the readline module is loaded.  The readline module changes
     input() behavior, but test_builtin is not intended to test the
     readline module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(9): Add ‘test.support.requires_fork()’ decorators to mark
     tests that require a working *note os.fork(): 195.

   - bpo-40280(10): Add ‘test.support.requires_subprocess()’ decorator
     to mark tests which require working *note subprocess: d5. module or
     ‘os.spawn*’.  The wasm32-emscripten platform has no support for
     processes.

   - bpo-46126(11): Disable 'descriptions' when running tests
     internally.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44359

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13886

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126


File: python.info,  Node: Build<29>,  Next: Windows<25>,  Prev: Tests<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46602(1): Tidied up configure.ac so that conftest.c is
     truncated rather than appended.  This assists in the case where the
     'rm' of conftest.c fails to happen between tests.  Downstream
     issues such as a clobbered SOABI can result.

   - bpo-46600(2): Fix the test checking if the C compiler supports
     ‘-Og’ option in the ‘./configure’ script to also use ‘-Og’ on clang
     which supports it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38472(3): Fix GCC detection in setup.py when cross-compiling.
     The C compiler is now run with LC_ALL=C. Previously, the detection
     failed with a German locale.

   - bpo-46513(4): ‘configure’ no longer uses ‘AC_C_CHAR_UNSIGNED’ macro
     and ‘pyconfig.h’ no longer defines reserved symbol
     ‘__CHAR_UNSIGNED__’.

   - bpo-46471(5): Use global singletons for single byte bytes objects
     in deepfreeze.

   - bpo-46443(6): Deepfreeze now uses cached small integers as it saves
     some space for common small integers.

   - bpo-46429(7): Merge all deep-frozen files into one for space
     savings.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45569(8): The build now defaults to using 30-bit digits for
     Python integers.  Previously either 15-bit or 30-bit digits would
     be selected, depending on the platform.  15-bit digits may still be
     selected using the ‘--enable-big-digits=15’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script, or by defining ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ in
     ‘pyconfig.h’.

   - bpo-45925(9): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.37.2.

   - bpo-43112(10): Detect musl libc as a separate SOABI (tagged as
     ‘linux-musl’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38472

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46513

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46471

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46429

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43112


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<25>,  Next: macOS<20>,  Prev: Build<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33125(1): The traditional EXE/MSI based installer for Windows
     is now available for ARM64

   - bpo-46362(2): os.path.abspath("C:CON") is now fixed to return
     "\.CON", not the same path.  The regression was true of all legacy
     DOS devices such as COM1, LPT1, or NUL.

   - bpo-44934(3): The installer now offers a command-line only option
     to add the installation directory to the end of ‘PATH’ instead of
     at the start.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46362

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<20>,  Next: IDLE<18>,  Prev: Windows<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45925(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.37.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<18>,  Next: C API<28>,  Prev: macOS<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): Clarify close, quit, and exit in IDLE. In the File
     menu, 'Close' and 'Exit' are now 'Close Window' (the current one)
     and 'Exit' is now 'Exit IDLE' (by closing all windows).  In Shell,
     'quit()' and 'exit()' mean 'close Shell'.  If there are no other
     windows, this also exits IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296


File: python.info,  Node: C API<28>,  Prev: IDLE<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.30.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40170(1): Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was
     exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by
     Python internally.  Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(2): Move _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() and
     _PyObject_DebugMallocStats() private functions to the internal C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46433(3): The internal function _PyType_GetModuleByDef now
     correctly handles inheritance patterns involving static types.

   - bpo-45459(4): *note Py_buffer: 744. and various ‘Py_buffer’ related
     functions are now part of the limited API and stable ABI.

   - bpo-14916(5): Fixed bug in the tokenizer that prevented
     ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’ from parsing from the provided FD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46433

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14916


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.31 Python 3.11.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-01-13'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* C API: C API<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<31>,  Next: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46070(1): *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 181c. now explicitly
     untracks all objects currently tracked by the GC. Previously, if an
     object was used later by another interpreter, calling *note
     PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. on the object crashed if the previous
     or the next object of the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure became a dangling
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46347(2): Fix memory leak in PyEval_EvalCodeEx.

   - bpo-46339(3): Fix a crash in the parser when retrieving the error
     text for multi-line f-strings expressions that do not start in the
     first line of the string.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46331(4): Do not set line number of instruction storing
     doc-string.  Fixes regression introduced in 3.11 alpha.

   - bpo-46314(5): Remove spurious "call" event when creating a lambda
     function that was accidentally introduced in 3.11a4.

   - bpo-46289(6): ASDL declaration of ‘FormattedValue’ has changed to
     reflect ‘conversion’ field is not optional.

   - bpo-46297(7): Fixed an interpreter crash on bootup with multiple
     PythonPaths set in the Windows registry.  Patch by Derzsi Dániel.

   - bpo-46237(8): Fix the line number of tokenizer errors inside
     f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46263(9): We always expect the "use_frozen_modules" config to
     be set, now that getpath.c was rewritten in pure Python and the
     logic improved.

   - bpo-46006(10): Fix a regression when a type method like
     ‘__init__()’ is modified in a subinterpreter.  Fix a regression in
     ‘_PyUnicode_EqualToASCIIId()’ and type ‘update_slot()’.  Revert the
     change which made the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters: the internal interned dictionary
     is shared again by all interpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45923(11): Add RESUME opcode.  This is a logical no-op.  It is
     emitted by the compiler anywhere a Python function can be entered.
     It is used by the interpreter to perform tracing and optimizer
     checks.

   - bpo-46208(12): Fix the regression of os.path.normpath("A/../../B")
     not returning expected "../B" but "B".

   - bpo-46240(13): Correct the error message for unclosed parentheses
     when the tokenizer doesn't reach the end of the source when the
     error is reported.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46009(14): Remove the ‘GEN_START’ opcode.

   - bpo-46235(15): Certain sequence multiplication operations like ‘[0]
     * 1_000’ are now faster due to reference-counting optimizations.
     Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46221(16): ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’ no longer pushes ‘lasti’ to the
     stack.

   - bpo-46202(17): Remove ‘POP_EXCEPT_AND_RERAISE’ and replace it by an
     equivalent sequence of other opcodes.

   - bpo-46085(18): Fix iterator cache mechanism of ‘OrderedDict’.

   - bpo-46055(19): Speed up shifting operation involving integers less
     than ‘PyLong_BASE’.  Patch by Xinhang Xu.

   - bpo-46110(20): Add a maximum recursion check to the PEG parser to
     avoid stack overflow.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46107(21): Fix bug where ‘ExceptionGroup.split()’ and
     ‘ExceptionGroup.subgroup()’ did not copy the exception group's
     ‘__note__’ field to the parts.

   - bpo-45711(22): The interpreter state's representation of handled
     exceptions (a.k.a exc_info, or _PyErr_StackItem) now has only the
     ‘exc_value’ field, ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed
     as their values can be derived from ‘exc_value’.

   - bpo-44525(23): Replace the four call bytecode instructions which
     one pre-call instruction and two call instructions.

     Removes ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’, ‘CALL_METHOD’ and
     ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’.

     Adds ‘CALL_NO_KW’ and ‘CALL_KW’ call instructions, and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ prefix for pairing with ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

   - bpo-46039(24): Remove the ‘YIELD_FROM’ instruction and replace it
     with the ‘SEND’ instruction which performs the same operation, but
     without the loop.

   - bpo-45635(25): The code called from ‘_PyErr_Display()’ was
     refactored to improve error handling.  It now exits immediately
     upon an unrecoverable error.

   - bpo-46054(26): Fix parser error when parsing non-utf8 characters in
     source files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46042(27): Improve the location of the caret in *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions emitted by the symbol table.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46049(28): Ensure ‘._pth’ files work as intended on platforms
     other than Windows.

   - bpo-46048(29): Fixes parsing of ‘._pth’ files on startup so that
     single-character paths are correctly read.

   - bpo-37971(30): Fix a bug where the line numbers given in a
     traceback when a decorator application raised an exception were
     wrong.

   - bpo-46031(31): Add *note POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 17b3. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 17b2. opcodes to speed up conditional jumps.

   - bpo-45654(32): Deepfreeze *note runpy: bd, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46025(33): Fix a crash in the *note atexit: c. module involving
     functions that unregister themselves before raising exceptions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46000(34): Improve compatibility of the *note curses: 2b.
     module with NetBSD curses.

   - bpo-44525(35): Specialize the CALL_FUNCTION instruction for calls
     to builtin types with a single argument.  Speeds up ‘range(x)’,
     ‘list(x)’, and specifically ‘type(obj)’.

   - bpo-42918(36): Fix bug where the built-in *note compile(): 190.
     function did not always raise a *note SyntaxError: 18b. when passed
     multiple statements in 'single' mode.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-45953(37): The main interpreter in _PyRuntimeState.interpreters
     is now statically allocated (as part of _PyRuntime).  Likewise for
     the initial thread state of each interpreter.  This means less
     allocation during runtime init, as well as better memory locality
     for these key state objects.

   - bpo-45292(38): Complete the PEP 654(39) implementation: add
     ‘except*’.

   - bpo-43413(40): Revert changes in ‘set.__init__’.  Subclass of *note
     set: 5c5. needs to define a ‘__init__()’ method if it defines a
     ‘__new__()’ method with additional keyword parameters.

   - bpo-43931(41): Added the *note Py_Version: 742. constant which
     bears the same value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 743.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46331

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46314

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46289

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46297

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46237

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46006

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46208

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46240

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46221

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46202

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46085

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46055

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46110

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46107

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46039

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45635

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46042

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46049

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46048

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37971

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46031

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45654

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46000

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42918

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45953

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<30>,  Next: Documentation<25>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46342(1): The ‘@typing.final’ decorator now sets the
     ‘__final__’ attribute on the decorated object to allow runtime
     introspection.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46328(2): Added the *note sys.exception(): 678. method which
     returns the active exception instance.

   - bpo-46307(3): Add *note string.Template.is_valid(): 673. and *note
     string.Template.get_identifiers(): 672. methods.

   - bpo-46306(4): Assume that *note types.CodeType: 2de. always has
     ‘types.CodeType.co_firstlineno’ in *note doctest: 3a.

   - bpo-40479(5): Fix *note hashlib: 67. 'usedforsecurity' option to
     work correctly with OpenSSL 3.0.0 in FIPS mode.

   - bpo-46070(6): Fix possible segfault when importing the *note
     asyncio: a. module from different sub-interpreters in parallel.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-46244(7): Removed ‘__slots__’ from *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d.
     and *note typing.TypeVar: 15c.  They served no purpose.  Patch by
     Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46278(8): Reflect ‘context’ argument in
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.call_*()’ methods.  Loop implementations already
     support it.

   - bpo-46269(9): Remove special-casing of ‘__new__’ in *note
     enum.Enum.__dir__(): 181e.

   - bpo-46266(10): Improve day constants in *note calendar: 14.

     Now all constants (‘MONDAY’ ...  ‘SUNDAY’) are documented, tested,
     and added to ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-46257(11): Optimized the mean, variance, and stdev functions in
     the statistics module.  If the input is an iterator, it is consumed
     in a single pass rather than eating memory by conversion to a list.
     The single pass algorithm is about twice as fast as the previous
     two pass code.

   - bpo-41011(12): Added two new variables to 'pyvenv.cfg' which is
     generated by *note venv: 110. module: 'executable' for the
     executable and 'command' for the command line used to create the
     environment.

   - bpo-46239(13): Improve error message when importing
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’ on non-Windows.

   - bpo-46238(14): Reuse ‘_winapi’ constants in
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’.

   - bpo-46222(15): Adding ‘SF_NOCACHE’ sendfile constant for FreeBSD
     for the posixmodule.

   - bpo-37295(16): Add fast path for ‘0 <= k <= n <= 67’ for *note
     math.comb(): 6bc.

   - bpo-46176(17): Adding the ‘MAP_STACK’ constant for the mmap module.

   - bpo-43424(18): Deprecate ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ and use
     ‘name’ instead.

   - bpo-45321(19): Added missing error codes to module
     ‘xml.parsers.expat.errors’.

   - bpo-46125(20): Refactor tests to test traversable API directly.
     Includes changes from importlib 5.4.0.

   - bpo-46118(21): Moved importlib.resources and its related
     functionality to a package.

   - bpo-37578(22): Add 'include_hidden' parameter to *note glob(): 29c.
     and *note iglob(): 7f3. to match hidden files and directories when
     using special characters like ‘*’, ‘**’, ‘?’ and ‘[]’.

   - bpo-20369(23): *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 181f. no longer
     blocks forever when given duplicate Futures.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46105(24): Honor spec when generating requirement specs with
     urls and extras (importlib_metadata 4.8.3).

   - bpo-44893(25): EntryPoint objects are no longer tuples.
     Recommended means to access is by attribute ('.name', '.group') or
     accessor ('.load()').  Access by index is deprecated and will raise
     deprecation warning.

   - bpo-22815(26): Print unexpected successes together with failures
     and errors in summary in *note unittest.TextTestResult: 51d.

   - bpo-22047(27): Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ on an argument group
     is deprecated.  Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ or
     ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ on a mutually exclusive group is
     deprecated.

     These features were never supported and do not always work
     correctly.  The functions exist on the API by accident through
     inheritance and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-26952(28): *note argparse: 6. raises *note ValueError: 1ff.
     with clear message when trying to render usage for an empty
     mutually exclusive group.  Previously it raised a cryptic *note
     IndexError: 14ec.

   - bpo-45615(29): Functions in the *note traceback: fd. module raise
     *note TypeError: 525. rather than *note AttributeError: 343. when
     an exception argument is not of type *note BaseException: 5a7.

   - bpo-16594(30): Add allow allow_reuse_port flag in socketserver.

   - bpo-27718(31): Fix help for the *note signal: c5. module.  Some
     functions (e.g.  ‘signal()’ and ‘getsignal()’) were omitted.

   - bpo-46032(32): The ‘registry()’ method of *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 626. functions checks now the first
     argument or the first parameter annotation and raises a TypeError
     if it is not supported.  Previously unsupported "types" were
     ignored (e.g.  ‘typing.List[int]’) or caused an error at calling
     time (e.g.  ‘list[int]’).

   - bpo-46014(33): Add ability to use ‘typing.Union’ and
     ‘types.UnionType’ as dispatch argument to
     ‘functools.singledispatch’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-27062(34): Add ‘__all__’ to *note inspect: 7d, patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46018(35): Ensure that *note math.expm1(): 11cb. does not raise
     on underflow.

   - bpo-46016(36): Adding ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants
     from FreeBSD into the *note fcntl: 58. module.

   - bpo-45755(37): *note typing: 103. generic aliases now reveal the
     class attributes of the original generic class when passed to
     ‘dir()’.  This was the behavior up to Python 3.6, but was changed
     in 3.7-3.9.

   - bpo-45874(38): The empty query string, consisting of no query
     arguments, is now handled correctly in ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’.
     This caused problems before when strict parsing was enabled.

   - bpo-44674(39): Change how dataclasses disallows mutable default
     values.  It used to use a list of known types (list, dict, set).
     Now it disallows unhashable objects to be defaults.  It's using
     unhashability as a proxy for mutability.  Patch by Eric V. Smith,
     idea by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-23882(40): Remove namespace package (PEP 420) support from
     unittest discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been
     broken since Python 3.7.

   - bpo-25066(41): Added a ‘__repr__()’ method to *note
     multiprocessing.Event: 1820. objects, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45643(42): Added *note signal.SIGSTKFLT: 1821. on platforms
     where this signal is defined.

   - bpo-44092(43): Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note
     InterfaceError: 66a.  Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to
     handle these cases.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42413(44): Replace ‘concurrent.futures.TimeoutError’ and
     ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ with builtin *note TimeoutError: 821, keep
     these names as deprecated aliases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46342

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46307

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46306

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46278

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46266

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41011

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46238

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46176

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43424

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45321

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46125

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46118

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37578

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20369

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44893

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22815

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22047

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26952

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45615

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16594

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27718

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46032

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27062

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46018

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46016

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45755

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45874

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25066

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45643

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<25>,  Next: Tests<28>,  Prev: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46196(1): Document method *note cmd.Cmd.columnize(): 1823.

   - bpo-46120(2): State that ‘|’ is preferred for readability over
     ‘Union’ in the *note typing: 103. docs.

   - bpo-46109(3): Extracted ‘importlib.resources’ and
     ‘importlib.resources.abc’ documentation into separate files.

   - bpo-19737(4): Update the documentation for the *note globals():
     1824. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46196

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46109

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19737


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<28>,  Next: Build<30>,  Prev: Documentation<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46296(1): Add a test case for *note enum: 55. with ‘_use_args_
     == True’ and ‘_member_type_ == object’.

   - bpo-46205(2): Fix hang in runtest_mp due to race condition

   - bpo-46263(3): Fix test_capi on FreeBSD 14-dev: instruct jemalloc to
     not fill freed memory with junk byte.

   - bpo-46262(4): Cover ‘ValueError’ path in tests for
     ‘enum.Flag._missing_()’.

   - bpo-46150(5): Now ‘fakename’ in
     ‘test_pathlib.PosixPathTest.test_expanduser’ is checked to be
     non-existent.

   - bpo-46129(6): Rewrite ‘asyncio.locks’ tests with *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. usage.

   - bpo-23819(7): Fixed *note asyncio: a. tests in python optimized
     mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46114(8): Fix test case for OpenSSL 3.0.1 version.  OpenSSL 3.0
     uses ‘0xMNN00PP0L’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46205

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46150

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46129

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46114


File: python.info,  Node: Build<30>,  Next: Windows<26>,  Prev: Tests<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44133(1): When Python is configured with *note
     -without-static-libpython: 87c, the Python static library
     (libpython.a) is no longer built.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44133(2): When Python is built without *note -enable-shared:
     84f, the ‘python’ program is now linked to object files, rather
     than being linked to the Python static library (libpython.a), to
     make sure that all symbols are exported.  Previously, the linker
     omitted some symbols like the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(3): The ‘configure’ script has a new option
     ‘--with-emscripten-target’ to select browser or node as Emscripten
     build target.

   - bpo-46315(4): Added and fixed ‘#ifdef HAVE_FEATURE’ checks for
     functionality that is not available on WASI platform.

   - bpo-45723(5): Fixed a regression in ‘configure’ check for *note
     select.epoll(): f80.

   - bpo-46263(6): ‘configure’ no longer sets ‘MULTIARCH’ on FreeBSD
     platforms.

   - bpo-46106(7): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1m in Windows builds, macOS
     installer builds, and CI. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46088(8): Automatically detect or install bootstrap Python
     runtime when building from Visual Studio.

   - bpo-46072(9): Add a -with-pystats configure option to turn on
     internal statistics gathering.

   - bpo-40280(10): A new directory ‘Tools/wasm’ contains
     WebAssembly-related helpers like ‘config.site’ override for
     wasm32-emscripten, wasm assets generator to bundle the stdlib, and
     a README.

   - bpo-46023(11): ‘makesetup’ no longer builds extensions that have
     been marked as 'disabled'.  This allows users to disable modules in
     ‘Modules/Setup.local’.

   - bpo-45949(12): Use pure Python ‘freeze_module’ for all but
     importlib bootstrap files.  ‘--with-freeze-module’ ‘configure’
     option is no longer needed for cross builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46315

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46106

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46088

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45949


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<26>,  Next: macOS<21>,  Prev: Build<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46217(1): Removed parameter that is unsupported on Windows 8.1
     and early Windows 10 and may have caused build or runtime failures.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46217


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<21>,  Next: C API<29>,  Prev: Windows<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-40477(1): The Python Launcher app for macOS now properly
     launches scripts and, if necessary, the Terminal app when running
     on recent macOS releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40477


File: python.info,  Node: C API<29>,  Prev: macOS<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.31.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46236(1): Fix a bug in *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 1776.
     that caused it to return a ‘tuple’ instead of a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-46140(2): *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 745, *note
     PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 748, *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 747.
     and *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 74d. now take buffer info by
     ‘const Py_buffer *’ instead of ‘Py_buffer *’, as they do not need
     mutability.  *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 748. also now takes
     the source buffer as ‘const void *’, and similarly *note
     PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 745. takes the strides as ‘const Py_ssize_t
     *’.

   - bpo-45855(3): Document that the 'no_block' argument to *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 182a. is a no-op now.

   - bpo-45855(4): Replaced deprecated usage of *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4. with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. in stdlib modules.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46007(5): The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been
     excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because
     it used internal structures which are not available in the limited
     C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46140

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.32 Python 3.11.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-12-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* C API: C API<30>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<32>,  Next: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46009(1): Restore behavior from 3.9 and earlier when sending
     non-None to newly started generator.  In 3.9 this did not affect
     the state of the generator.  In 3.10.0 and 3.10.1
     ‘gen_func().send(0)’ is equivalent to
     ‘gen_func().throw(TypeError(...)’ which exhausts the generator.  In
     3.10.2 onward, the behavior has been reverted to that of 3.9.

   - bpo-46004(2): Fix the *note SyntaxError: 18b. location for errors
     involving for loops with invalid targets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(3): ‘_PyErr_ChainStackItem()’ no longer normalizes
     ‘exc_info’ (including setting the traceback on the exception
     instance) because ‘exc_info’ is always normalized.

   - bpo-45607(4): The ‘__note__’ field was added to *note
     BaseException: 5a7.  It is ‘None’ by default but can be set to a
     string which is added to the exception's traceback.

   - bpo-45947(5): Place pointers to dict and values immediately before
     GC header.  This reduces number of dependent memory loads to access
     either dict or values from 3 to 1.

   - bpo-45915(6): ‘is_valid_fd’ now uses faster ‘fcntl(fd, F_GETFD)’ on
     Linux, macOS, and Windows.

   - bpo-44530(7): Reverts a change to the ‘code.__new__’ *note audit
     event: 182d. from an earlier prerelease.

   - bpo-42268(8): Fail the configure step if the selected compiler
     doesn't support memory sanitizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(9): The three values of ‘exc_info’ are now always
     consistent with each other.  In particular, the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields are now derived from the exception instance.
     This impacts the return values of *note sys.exc_info(): 677. and
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 75e. if the exception instance is
     modified while the exception is handled, as well as *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 75d, which now ignores the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments provided to it.

   - bpo-45727(10): Refine the custom syntax error that suggests that a
     comma may be missing to trigger only when the expressions are
     detected between parentheses or brackets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45885(11): Specialized the ‘COMPARE_OP’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45786(12): Allocate space for the interpreter frame in the
     frame object, to avoid an additional allocation when the frame
     object outlives the frame activation.

   - bpo-45614(13): Fix *note traceback: fd. display for exceptions with
     invalid module name.

   - bpo-45813(14): Fix crash when calling coro.cr_frame.clear() after
     coroutine has been freed.

   - bpo-45811(15): Improve the tokenizer errors when encountering
     invisible control characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45848(16): Allow the parser to obtain error lines directly from
     encoded files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45709(17): Restore behavior from 3.10 when tracing an exception
     raised within a with statement.

   - bpo-44525(18): Adds new *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 6ea. opcode, to make
     copying of free variables from function to frame explicit.  Helps
     optimization of calls to Python function.

   - bpo-45829(19): Specialize *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 16fc. for classes
     with a ‘__getitem__’ method implemented in Python

   - bpo-45826(20): Fixed a crash when calling ‘.with_traceback(None)’
     on ‘NameError’.  This occurs internally in
     ‘unittest.TestCase.assertRaises()’.

   - bpo-45822(21): Fixed a bug in the parser that was causing it to not
     respect PEP 263(22) coding cookies when no flags are provided.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45820(23): Fix a segfault when the parser fails without reading
     any input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45636(24): Simplify the implementation of *note BINARY_OP: 6f2.
     by indexing into an array of function pointers (rather than
     switching on the oparg).

   - bpo-42540(25): Fix crash when *note os.fork(): 195. is called with
     an active non-default memory allocator.

   - bpo-45738(26): Fix computation of error location for invalid
     continuation characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45636(27): Remove an existing "fast path" for old-style string
     formatting, since it no longer appears to have any measurable
     impact.

   - bpo-45753(28): Make recursion checks a bit more efficient by
     tracking amount of calls left before overflow.

   - bpo-45773(29): Fix a compiler hang when attempting to optimize
     certain jump patterns.

   - bpo-45764(30): The parser now gives a better error message when
     leaving out the opening parenthesis ‘(’ after a ‘def’-statement:

          >>> def f:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              def f:
                   ^
          SyntaxError: expected '('

   - bpo-45609(31): Specialized the ‘STORE_SUBSCR’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45636(32): Replace all numeric ‘BINARY_*’ and ‘INPLACE_*’
     instructions with a single *note BINARY_OP: 6f2. implementation.

   - bpo-45582(33): Path calculation (known as ‘getpath’) has been
     reimplemented as a frozen Python module.  This should have no
     visible impact, but may affect calculation of all paths referenced
     in *note sys: d8. and *note sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-45450(34): Improve the syntax error message for parenthesized
     arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46004

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45915

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45786

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45614

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45813

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45811

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45848

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45709

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45829

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45826

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45822

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45820

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42540

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45738

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45753

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45764

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45609

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45582

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45450


File: python.info,  Node: Library<31>,  Next: Documentation<26>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27946(1): Fix possible crash when getting an attribute of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 305. simultaneously with replacing
     the ‘attrib’ dict.

   - bpo-45711(2): Make *note asyncio: a. normalize exceptions as soon
     as they are captured with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9, and before they
     are stored as an exc_info triplet.  This brings *note asyncio: a.
     in line with the rest of the codebase, where an exc_info triplet is
     always normalized.

   - bpo-23819(3): Replaced asserts with exceptions in asyncio, patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-13236(4): *note unittest.TextTestResult: 51d. and *note
     unittest.TextTestRunner: 1701. flush now the output stream more
     often.

   - bpo-45917(5): Added *note math.exp2(): 64d.:, which returns 2
     raised to the power of x.

   - bpo-37658(6): Fix issue when on certain conditions
     ‘asyncio.wait_for()’ may allow a coroutine to complete
     successfully, but fail to return the result, potentially causing
     memory leaks or other issues.

   - bpo-45876(7): Improve the accuracy of stdev() and pstdev() in the
     statistics module.  When the inputs are floats or fractions, the
     output is a correctly rounded float

   - bpo-44649(8): Handle dataclass(slots=True) with a field that has
     default a default value, but for which init=False.

   - bpo-45803(9): Added missing kw_only parameter to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-45837(10): The ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ is deprecated
     since Python 3.1, it now emits a deprecation warning and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

     Use ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ instead.

     ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ was earlier incorrectly marked as
     deprecated, its docstring has been corrected.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45831(11): *note faulthandler: 57. can now write ASCII-only
     strings (like filenames and function names) with a single write()
     syscall when dumping a traceback.  It reduces the risk of getting
     an unreadable dump when two threads or two processes dump a
     traceback to the same file (like stderr) at the same time.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45828(12): ‘sqlite’ C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions
     if callback tracebacks are enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41735(13): Fix thread lock in ‘zlib.Decompress.flush()’ method
     before ‘PyObject_GetBuffer’.

   - bpo-45235(14): Reverted an argparse bugfix that caused regression
     in the handling of default arguments for subparsers.  This
     prevented leaf level arguments from taking precedence over root
     level arguments.

   - bpo-45754(15): Fix a regression in Python 3.11a1 and 3.11a2 where
     *note sqlite3: ce. incorrectly would use ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_LENGTH’ when
     checking SQL statement lengths.  Now, ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH’ is
     used.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45766(16): Added 'proportional' option to *note
     statistics.linear_regression(): 81d.

   - bpo-45765(17): In importlib.metadata, fix distribution discovery
     for an empty path.

   - bpo-45757(18): Fix bug where *note dis: 38. produced an incorrect
     oparg when *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1761. is followed by an opcode that
     does not use its argument.

   - bpo-45644(19): In-place JSON file formatting using ‘python3 -m
     json.tool infile infile’ now works correctly, previously it left
     the file empty.  Patch by Chris Wesseling.

   - bpo-45703(20): When a namespace package is imported before another
     module from the same namespace is created/installed in a different
     *note sys.path: 3ab. location while the program is running, calling
     the *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00. function will now
     also guarantee the new module is noticed.

   - bpo-45535(21): Improve output of ‘dir()’ with Enums.

   - bpo-45664(22): Fix *note types.resolve_bases(): b8c. and *note
     types.new_class(): 1143. for *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.
     instance as a base.

   - bpo-45663(23): Fix *note dataclasses.is_dataclass(): 182f. for
     dataclasses which are subclasses of *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.

   - bpo-45662(24): Fix the repr of *note dataclasses.InitVar: 17df.
     with a type alias to the built-in class, e.g.
     ‘InitVar[list[int]]’.

   - bpo-43137(25): Launch GNOME web browsers via gio tool instead of
     obsolete gvfs-open

   - bpo-45429(26): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 68a. now uses a
     waitable timer which supports high-resolution timers.  Patch by
     Donghee Na and Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-37295(27): Optimize *note math.comb(): 6bc. and *note
     math.perm(): 6bd.

   - bpo-45514(28): Deprecated legacy functions in *note
     importlib.resources: 7a.

   - bpo-45507(29): Add tests for truncated/missing trailers in
     gzip.decompress implementation.

   - bpo-45359(30): Implement PEP 585(31) for *note
     graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 8d0.

   - bpo-44733(32): Add ‘max_tasks_per_child’ to *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.  This allows users to
     specify the maximum number of tasks a single process should execute
     before the process needs to be restarted.

   - bpo-28806(33): Improve netrc library.  netrc file no longer needs
     to contain all tokens.  And if the login name is anonymous,
     security check is no longer need.

   - bpo-43498(34): Avoid a possible '"RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration"' when adjusting the process count of
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’.

   - bpo-42158(35): Add MIME types for N-quads, N-triples, Notation3 and
     TriG to ‘mimetypes’.

   - bpo-30533(36): Add *note inspect.getmembers_static(): 636. , it
     return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27946

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13236

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45876

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44649

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45803

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45831

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45766

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45765

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45757

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45644

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45703

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45535

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45664

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45663

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45662

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45514

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45507

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45359

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44733

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28806

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43498

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<26>,  Next: Tests<29>,  Prev: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘make -C Doc suspicious’ will be removed soon in
     favor of ‘make -C Doc check’, mark it as deprecated.

   - bpo-45840(2): Improve cross-references in the documentation for the
     data model.

   - bpo-45640(3): Properly marked-up grammar tokens in the
     documentation are now clickable and take you to the definition of a
     given piece of grammar.  Patch by Arthur Milchior.

   - bpo-45788(4): Link doc for sys.prefix to sysconfig doc on
     installation paths.

   - bpo-45772(5): ‘socket.socket’ documentation is corrected to a class
     from a function.

   - bpo-45392(6): Update the docstring of the *note type: d38. built-in
     to remove a redundant line and to mention keyword arguments for the
     constructor.

   - bpo-45250(7): Update the documentation to note that CPython does
     not consistently require iterators to define ‘__iter__’.

   - bpo-25381(8): In the extending chapter of the extending doc, update
     a paragraph about the global variables containing exception
     information.

   - bpo-43905(9): Expanded *note astuple(): 16e9. and *note asdict():
     16e0. docs, warning about deepcopy being applied and providing a
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45772

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43905


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<29>,  Next: Build<31>,  Prev: Documentation<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45695(1): Out-of-tree builds with a read-only source directory
     are now tested by CI.

   - bpo-19460(2): Add new Test for
     ‘Lib/email/mime/nonmultipart.py::MIMENonMultipart’.

   - bpo-45835(3): Fix race condition in test_queue tests with multiple
     "feeder" threads.

   - bpo-45783(4): The test for the freeze tool now handles file moves
     and deletions.

   - bpo-45745(5): Remove the ‘--findleaks’ command line option of
     regrtest: use the ‘--fail-env-changed’ option instead.  Since
     Python 3.7, it was a deprecated alias to the ‘--fail-env-changed’
     option.

   - bpo-45701(6): Add tests with ‘tuple’ type with *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 9df. to ‘test_functools’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45695

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19460

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45835

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45701


File: python.info,  Node: Build<31>,  Next: Windows<27>,  Prev: Tests<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44035(1): CI now verifies that autoconf files have been
     regenerated with a current and unpatched autoconf package.

   - bpo-45950(2): The build system now uses a ‘_bootstrap_python’
     interpreter for freezing and deepfreezing again.  To speed up build
     process the build tools ‘_bootstrap_python’ and ‘_freeze_module’
     are no longer build with LTO.

   - bpo-45881(3): The ‘configure’ script now accepts
     ‘--with-build-python’ and ‘--with-freeze-module’ options to make
     cross compiling easier.

   - bpo-40280(4): Emscripten platform now uses ‘.wasm’ suffix by
     default.

   - bpo-40280(5): Disable unusable core extension modules on
     WASM/Emscripten targets.

   - bpo-40280(6): ‘configure’ now checks for socket ‘shutdown’
     function.  The check makes it possible to disable ‘SYS_shutdown’
     with ‘ac_cv_func_shutdown=no’ in CONFIG_SITE.

   - bpo-40280(7): ‘configure’ now checks for functions ‘fork1, getegid,
     geteuid, getgid, getppid, getuid, opendir, pipe, system, wait,
     ttyname’.

   - bpo-33393(8): Update ‘config.guess’ to 2021-06-03 and ‘config.sub’
     to 2021-08-14.  ‘Makefile’ now has an ‘update-config’ target to
     make updating more convenient.

   - bpo-45866(9): ‘make regen-all’ now produces the same output when
     run from a directory other than the source tree: when building
     Python out of the source tree.  pegen now strips directory of the
     "generated by pygen from <FILENAME>" header Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(10): ‘configure’ now accepts machine ‘wasm32’ or ‘wasm64’
     and OS ‘wasi’ or ‘emscripten’ for cross building, e.g.
     ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, ‘wasm32-wasi’, or
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’.

   - bpo-41498(11): Python now compiles on platforms without ‘sigset_t’.
     Several functions in *note signal: c5. are not available when
     ‘sigset_t’ is missing.

     Based on patch by Roman Yurchak for pyodide.

   - bpo-45881(12): ‘setup.py’ now uses ‘CC’ from environment first to
     discover multiarch and cross compile paths.

   - bpo-45886(13): The ‘_freeze_module’ program path can now be
     overridden on the command line, e.g.  ‘make
     FREEZE_MODULE=../x86_64/Program/_freeze_module’.

   - bpo-45873(14): Get rid of the ‘_bootstrap_python’ build step.  The
     deepfreeze.py script is now run using ‘$(PYTHON_FOR_REGEN)’ which
     can be Python 3.7 or newer (on Windows, 3.8 or newer).

   - bpo-45847(15): Port builtin hashlib extensions to ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’
     macro and ‘addext()’.

   - bpo-45723(16): Add ‘autoconf’ helpers for saving and restoring
     environment variables:

        * ‘SAVE_ENV’: Save ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘RESTORE_ENV’: Restore ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘WITH_SAVE_ENV([SCRIPT])’: Run ‘SCRIPT’ wrapped with
          ‘SAVE_ENV’ and ‘RESTORE_ENV’.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45573(17): Mandatory core modules, that are required to
     bootstrap Python, are now in ‘Modules/Setup.bootstrap’.

   - bpo-45573(18): ‘configure’ now creates ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib’ with
     conditionally enabled/disabled extension module lines.  The file is
     not used, yet.

   - bpo-45573(19): ‘configure’ now uses a unified format to set state,
     compiler flags, and linker flags in Makefile.  The new macro
     ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’ sets three variables that are consumed by
     ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - bpo-45816(20): Python now supports building with Visual Studio 2022
     (MSVC v143, VS Version 17.0).  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-45800(21): Settings for ‘pyexpat’ C extension are now detected
     by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘expat’ library is built in
     ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45798(22): Settings for *note decimal: 36. internal C extension
     are now detected by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘libmpdec’ library is
     built in ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45723(23): ‘configure’ has a new option ‘--with-pkg-config’ to
     disable or require pkg-config.

   - bpo-45774(24): The build dependencies for *note sqlite3: ce. are
     now detected by ‘configure’ and ‘pkg-config’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-45763(25): The build dependencies for *note zlib: 132, *note
     bz2: 13, and *note lzma: 89. are now detected by ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45747(26): gdbm and dbm build dependencies are now detected by
     ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45743(27): On macOS, the build system no longer passes
     ‘search_paths_first’ to the linker.  The flag has been the default
     since Xcode 4 / macOS 10.6.

   - bpo-45723(28): ‘configure.ac’ is now compatible with autoconf 2.71.
     Deprecated checks ‘STDC_HEADERS’ and ‘AC_HEADER_TIME’ have been
     removed.

   - bpo-45723(29): ‘configure’ now prints a warning when pkg-config is
     missing.

   - bpo-45731(30): ‘configure --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions’ is
     now handled by new ‘PY_SQLITE_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION’ macro instead
     of logic in setup.py.

   - bpo-45723(31): configure.ac now uses custom helper macros and
     ‘AC_CACHE_CHECK’ to simplify and speed up configure runs.

   - bpo-45696(32): Skip the marshal step for frozen modules by
     generating C code that produces a set of ready-to-use code objects.
     This speeds up startup time by another 10% or more.

   - bpo-45561(33): Run smelly.py tool from $(srcdir).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45950

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45866

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41498

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45873

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45816

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45800

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45798

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45743

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45731

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45696

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45561


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<27>,  Next: macOS<22>,  Prev: Build<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46105(1): Fixed calculation of *note sys.path: 3ab. in a venv
     on Windows.

   - bpo-45901(2): When installed through the Microsoft Store and set as
     the default app for ‘*.py’ files, command line arguments will now
     be passed to Python when invoking a script without explicitly
     launching Python (that is, ‘script.py args’ rather than ‘python
     script.py args’).

   - bpo-45616(3): Fix Python Launcher's ability to distinguish between
     versions 3.1 and 3.10 when either one is explicitly requested.
     Previously, 3.1 would be used if 3.10 was requested but not
     installed, and 3.10 would be used if 3.1 was requested but 3.10 was
     installed.

   - bpo-45850(4): Implement changes to build with deep-frozen modules
     on Windows.  Note that we now require Python 3.10 as the
     "bootstrap" or "host" Python.

   - bpo-45732(5): Updates bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.12.

   - bpo-45720(6): Internal reference to ‘shlwapi.dll’ was dropped to
     help improve startup time.  This DLL will no longer be loaded at
     the start of every Python process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45901

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45616

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45720


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<22>,  Next: C API<30>,  Prev: Windows<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45732(1): Update python.org macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk
     8.6.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732


File: python.info,  Node: C API<30>,  Prev: macOS<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.32.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-39026(1): Fix Python.h to build C extensions with Xcode: remove
     a relative include from ‘Include/cpython/pystate.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.33 Python 3.11.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-11-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<33>,  Next: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45716(1): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18b. message when
     using ‘True’, ‘None’ or ‘False’ as keywords in a function call.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45688(2): *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 82d. now contains the
     macOS-specific module ‘_scproxy’.

   - bpo-45379(3): Clarify *note ImportError: 40f. message when we try
     to explicitly import a frozen module but frozen modules are
     disabled.

   - bpo-44525(4): Specialize simple calls to Python functions (no
     starargs, keyword dict, or closure)

   - bpo-45530(5): Cases of sorting using tuples as keys may now be
     significantly faster in some cases.  Patch by Tim Peters.

     The order of the result may differ from earlier releases if the
     tuple elements don't define a total ordering (see *note
     Comparaisons de valeurs: 1838. for information on total ordering).
     It's generally true that the result of sorting simply isn't
     well-defined in the absence of a total ordering on list elements.

   - bpo-45526(6): In obmalloc, set ADDRESS_BITS to not ignore any bits
     (ignored 16 before).  That is safer in the case that the kernel
     gives user-space virtual addresses that span a range greater than
     48 bits.

   - bpo-30570(7): Fixed a crash in ‘issubclass()’ from infinite
     recursion when searching pathological ‘__bases__’ tuples.

   - bpo-45521(8): Fix a bug in the obmalloc radix tree code.  On 64-bit
     machines, the bug causes the tree to hold 46-bits of virtual
     addresses, rather than the intended 48-bits.

   - bpo-45494(9): Fix parser crash when reporting errors involving
     invalid continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45445(10): Python now fails to initialize if it finds an
     invalid *note -X: 175. option in the command line.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-45340(11): Object attributes are held in an array instead of a
     dictionary.  An object's dictionary are created lazily, only when
     needed.  Reduces the memory consumption of a typical Python object
     by about 30%.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45408(12): Fix a crash in the parser when reporting tokenizer
     errors that occur at the same time unclosed parentheses are
     detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-29410(13): Add SipHash13 for string hash algorithm and use it
     by default.

   - bpo-45385(14): Fix reference leak from descr_check.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45367(15): Specialized the ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY’ opcode to
     ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_INT’ and ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_FLOAT’ using the PEP 659
     machinery.

   - bpo-21736(16): Frozen stdlib modules now have ‘__file__’ to the .py
     file they would otherwise be loaded from, if possible.  For
     packages, ‘__path__’ now has the correct entry instead of being an
     empty list, which allows unfrozen submodules to be imported.  These
     are set only if the stdlib directory is known when the runtime is
     initialized.  Note that the file at ‘__file__’ is not guaranteed to
     exist.  None of this affects non-stdlib frozen modules nor, for
     now, frozen modules imported using ‘PyImport_ImportFrozenModule()’.
     Also, at the moment ‘co_filename’ is not updated for the module.

   - bpo-45020(17): For frozen stdlib modules, record the original
     module name as ‘module.__spec__.loader_state.origname’.  If the
     value is different than ‘module.__spec__.name’ then the module was
     defined as an alias in Tools/scripts/freeze_modules.py.  If it is
     ‘None’ then the module comes from a source file outside the stdlib.

   - bpo-45324(18): In FrozenImporter.find_spec(), we now preserve the
     information needed in exec_module() to load the module.  This
     change mostly impacts internal details, rather than changing the
     importer's behavior.

   - bpo-45292(19): Implement PEP 654(20).  Add *note ExceptionGroup:
     1b4. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.  Update traceback display
     code.

   - bpo-40116(21): Change to the implementation of split dictionaries.
     Classes where the instances differ either in the exact set of
     attributes, or in the order in which those attributes are set, can
     still share keys.  This should have no observable effect on users
     of Python or the C-API. Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44050(22): Extensions that indicate they use global state (by
     setting ‘m_size’ to -1) can again be used in multiple interpreters.
     This reverts to behavior of Python 3.8.

   - bpo-44525(23): Setup initial specialization infrastructure for the
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’ opcode.  Implemented initial specializations for C
     function calls:

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_O’ for ‘METH_O’ flag.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_FAST’ for ‘METH_FASTCALL’ flag without
          keywords.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_LEN’ for ‘len(o)’.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_ISINSTANCE’ for ‘isinstance(o, t)’.

   - bpo-44511(24): Improve the generated bytecode for class and mapping
     patterns.

   - bpo-43706(25): Speed up calls to ‘enumerate()’ by using the PEP
     590(26) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45716

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45526

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45521

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45494

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45445

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45408

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45385

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45367

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21736

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45324

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44050

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44511

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43706

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<32>,  Next: Documentation<27>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-45679(1): Fix caching of multi-value *note typing.Literal: 841.
     ‘Literal[True, 2]’ is no longer equal to ‘Literal[1, 2]’.

   - bpo-42064(2): Convert *note sqlite3: ce. to multi-phase
     initialisation (PEP 489).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45438(3): Fix typing.Signature string representation for
     generic builtin types.

   - bpo-45613(4): *note sqlite3: ce. now sets *note
     sqlite3.threadsafety: 669. based on the default threading mode the
     underlying SQLite library has been compiled with.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45574(5): Fix warning about ‘print_escape’ being unused.

   - bpo-45581(6): *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. now correctly raises
     *note MemoryError: 1530. if the underlying SQLite API signals
     memory error.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45557(7): *note pprint.pprint(): 814. now handles
     'underscore_numbers' correctly.  Previously it was always setting
     it to ‘False’.

   - bpo-44019(8): Add *note operator.call(): 183a. to
     ‘operator.__all__’.  Patch by Kreusada.

   - bpo-42174(9): *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5. now falls
     back to sane values if the column or line count are 0.

   - bpo-35673(10): Improve the introspectability of the ‘__loader__’
     attribute for namespace packages.  *note
     importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader: f43. is now public, and
     implements the *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f41. interface.
     ‘_NamespaceLoader’ is kept for backward compatibility.

   - bpo-45515(11): Add references to *note zoneinfo: 133. in the *note
     datetime: 30. documentation, mostly replacing outdated references
     to ‘dateutil.tz’.  Change by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-45475(12): Reverted optimization of iterating *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 410, *note bz2.BZ2File: 853, and *note
     lzma.LZMAFile: ff7. (see bpo-43787(13)) because it caused
     regression when user iterate them without having reference of them.
     Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-45489(14): Update *note ForwardRef: 1800. to support ‘|’
     operator.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42222(15): Removed deprecated support for float arguments in
     'randrange()'.

   - bpo-45428(16): Fix a regression in py_compile when reading
     filenames from standard input.

   - bpo-45467(17): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     "raw-unicode-escape" codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45461(18): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     "unicode-escape" codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45239(19): Fixed *note email.utils.parsedate_tz(): 183b.
     crashing with *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed. on certain invalid
     input instead of returning ‘None’.  Patch by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-45417(20): Fix quadratic behaviour in the enum module: Creation
     of enum classes with a lot of entries was quadratic.

   - bpo-45249(21): Fix the behaviour of *note traceback.print_exc():
     183c. when displaying the caret when the ‘end_offset’ in the
     exception is set to 0.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45416(22): Fix use of *note asyncio.Condition: a63. with
     explicit *note asyncio.Lock: a61. objects, which was a regression
     due to removal of explicit loop arguments.  Patch by Joongi Kim.

   - bpo-20028(23): Empty escapechar/quotechar is not allowed when
     initializing *note csv.Dialect: 1636.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44904(24): Fix bug in the *note doctest: 3a. module that caused
     it to fail if a docstring included an example with a ‘classmethod’
     ‘property’.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45406(25): Make *note inspect.getmodule(): 17a0. catch
     ‘FileNotFoundError’ raised by ‘inspect.getabsfile()’, and return
     ‘None’ to indicate that the module could not be determined.

   - bpo-45411(26): Add extensions for files containing subtitles - .srt
     & .vtt - to the mimetypes.py module.

   - bpo-10716(27): Migrated pydoc to HTML5 (without changing the look
     of it).  Side effect is to update xmlrpc's ‘ServerHTMLDoc’ which
     now uses the CSS too.  cgitb now relies less on pydoc (as it can't
     use the CSS file).

   - bpo-27580(28): Add support of null characters in *note csv: 29.

   - bpo-45262(29): Prevent use-after-free in asyncio.  Make sure the
     cached running loop holder gets cleared on dealloc to prevent
     use-after-free in get_running_loop

   - bpo-45386(30): Make *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. more robust to C
     runtimes where the underlying C ‘strftime’ function results in a
     ‘ValueError’ when testing for year formatting options.

   - bpo-20028(31): Improve error message of *note csv.Dialect: 1636.
     when initializing.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45343(32): Update bundled pip to 21.2.4 and setuptools to
     58.1.0

   - bpo-45328(33): Fixed *note http.client.HTTPConnection: b30. to work
     properly in OSs that don't support the ‘TCP_NODELAY’ socket option.

   - bpo-45243(34): Add *note setlimit(): 667. and *note getlimit():
     668. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. for setting and getting
     SQLite limits by connection basis.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45320(35): Removed from the *note inspect: 7d. module:

        * 
          the ‘getargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0;

               use *note inspect.signature(): 724. or *note
               inspect.getfullargspec(): 725. instead.

        * the ‘formatargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use
          the *note inspect.signature(): 724. function and ‘Signature’
          object directly.

        * the undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function’ functions, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 726. method
          instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45192(36): Fix the ‘tempfile._infer_return_type’ function so
     that the ‘dir’ argument of the *note tempfile: df. functions
     accepts an object implementing the ‘os.PathLike’ protocol.

     Patch by Kyungmin Lee.

   - bpo-45160(37): When tracing a tkinter variable used by a ttk
     OptionMenu, callbacks are no longer made twice.

   - bpo-25625(38): Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 5f9. context
     manager to change the current working directory and then restore it
     on exit.  Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 5fa.

   - bpo-24139(39): Add support for SQLite extended result codes in
     *note sqlite3.Error: 183d.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-24444(40): Fixed an error raised in *note argparse: 6. help
     display when help for an option is set to 1+ blank spaces or when
     'choices' arg is an empty container.

   - bpo-44547(41): Implement ‘Fraction.__int__’, so that a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e4. instance ‘f’ passes an ‘isinstance(f,
     typing.SupportsInt)’ check.

   - bpo-40321(42): Adds support for HTTP 308 redirects to *note urllib:
     107.  See RFC 7538(43) for details.  Patch by Jochem
     Schulenklopper.

   - bpo-41374(44): Ensure that ‘socket.TCP_*’ constants are exposed on
     Cygwin 3.1.6 and greater.

   - bpo-35970(45): Add help flag to the base64 module's command line
     interface.  Patch contributed by Robert Kuska.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42064

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45438

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45574

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45581

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45557

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42174

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35673

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45475

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45489

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45428

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45467

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45461

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45239

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45417

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45249

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45416

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44904

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45406

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45411

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10716

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27580

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45386

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45343

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45328

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45192

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45160

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24444

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40321

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7538.html

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41374

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35970


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<27>,  Next: Tests<30>,  Prev: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45726(1): Improve documentation for *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 626. and *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 9e0.

   - bpo-45680(2): Amend the docs on ‘GenericAlias’ objects to clarify
     that non-container classes can also implement ‘__class_getitem__’.
     Patch contributed by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45618(3): Update Sphinx version used to build the documentation
     to 4.2.0.  Patch by Maciej Olko.

   - bpo-45655(4): Add a new "relevant PEPs" section to the top of the
     documentation for the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45604(5): Add ‘level’ argument to
     ‘multiprocessing.log_to_stderr’ function docs.

   - bpo-45516(6): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 183f. documentation.

   - bpo-45464(7): Mention in the documentation of *note Built-in
     Exceptions: 1840. that inheriting from multiple exception types in
     a single subclass is not recommended due to possible memory layout
     incompatibility.

   - bpo-45449(8): Add note about PEP 585(9) in *note collections.abc:
     1e.

   - bpo-45516(10): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.Traversable: 1841. documentation.

   - bpo-20692(11): Add Programming FAQ entry explaining that int
     literal attribute access requires either a space after or
     parentheses around the literal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45618

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45464

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45449

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20692


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<30>,  Next: Build<32>,  Prev: Documentation<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45678(1): Add tests for scenarios in which *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 9e0. is stacked on top of a method
     that has already been wrapped by two other decorators.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45578(2): Add tests for ‘dis.distb()’

   - bpo-45678(3): Add tests to ensure that
     ‘functools.singledispatchmethod’ correctly wraps the attributes of
     the target function.

   - bpo-45668(4): PGO tests now pass when Python is built without test
     extension modules.

   - bpo-45577(5): Add subtests for all ‘pickle’ protocols in
     ‘test_zoneinfo’.

   - bpo-45566(6): Fix ‘test_frozen_pickle’ in ‘test_dataclasses’ to
     check all ‘pickle’ versions.

   - bpo-43592(7): ‘test.libregrtest’ now raises the soft resource limit
     for the maximum number of file descriptors when the default is too
     low for our test suite as was often the case on macOS.

   - bpo-39679(8): Add more test cases for
     ‘@functools.singledispatchmethod’ when combined with ‘@classmethod’
     or ‘@staticmethod’.

   - bpo-45410(9): When libregrtest spawns a worker process, stderr is
     now written into stdout to keep messages order.  Use a single pipe
     for stdout and stderr, rather than two pipes.  Previously, messages
     were out of order which made analysis of buildbot logs harder Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45402(10): Fix test_tools.test_sundry() when Python is built
     out of tree: fix how the freeze_modules.py tool locates the
     _freeze_module program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45403(11): Fix test_sys.test_stdlib_dir() when Python is built
     outside the source tree: compare normalized paths.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45400(12): Fix
     test_name_error_suggestions_do_not_trigger_for_too_many_locals() of
     test_exceptions if a directory name contains "a1" (like
     "Python-3.11.0a1"): use a stricter regular expression.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-10572(13): Rename *note sqlite3: ce. tests from ‘test_sqlite’
     to ‘test_sqlite3’, and relocate them to ‘Lib/test/test_sqlite3’.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45578

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45577

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45566

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43592

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45403

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45400

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10572


File: python.info,  Node: Build<32>,  Next: Windows<28>,  Prev: Tests<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-43158(1): ‘setup.py’ now uses values from configure script to
     build the ‘_uuid’ extension module.  Configure now detects
     util-linux's ‘libuuid’, too.

   - bpo-45666(2): Fix warning of ‘swprintf’ and ‘%s’ usage in
     ‘_testembed.c’

   - bpo-45548(3): ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been
     improved.  The ‘Setup’ file now contains working rules for all
     extensions.  Outdated comments have been removed.  Rules defined by
     ‘makesetup’ track dependencies correctly.

   - bpo-45548(4): The *note math: 8d. and *note cmath: 18.
     implementation now require a C99 compatible ‘libm’ and no longer
     ship with workarounds for missing acosh, asinh, atanh, expm1, and
     log1p functions.

   - bpo-45595(5): ‘setup.py’ and ‘makesetup’ now track build
     dependencies on all Python header files and module specific header
     files.

   - bpo-45571(6): ‘Modules/Setup’ now use ‘PY_CFLAGS_NODIST’ instead of
     ‘PY_CFLAGS’ to compile shared modules.

   - bpo-45570(7): ‘pyexpat’ and ‘_elementtree’ no longer define
     obsolete macros ‘HAVE_EXPAT_CONFIG_H’ and ‘USE_PYEXPAT_CAPI’.
     ‘XML_POOR_ENTROPY’ is now defined in ‘expat_config.h’.

   - bpo-43974(8): ‘setup.py’ no longer defines ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’.
     Instead every module, that uses the internal API, defines the
     macro.

   - bpo-45548(9): Fill in missing entries in Modules/Setup.

   - bpo-45532(10): Update *note sys.version: 177. to use ‘main’ as
     fallback information.  Patch by Jeong YunWon.

   - bpo-45536(11): The ‘configure’ script now checks whether OpenSSL
     headers and libraries provide required APIs.  Most common APIs are
     verified.  The check detects outdated or missing OpenSSL. Failures
     do not stop configure.

   - bpo-45221(12): Fixed regression in handling of ‘LDFLAGS’ and
     ‘CPPFLAGS’ options where ‘argparse.parse_known_args()’ could
     interpret an option as one of the built-in command line argument,
     for example ‘-h’ for help.

   - bpo-45440(13): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing the following functions: ‘copysign()’, ‘hypot()’,
     ‘isfinite()’, ‘isinf()’, ‘isnan()’, ‘round()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45405(14): Prevent ‘internal configure error’ when running
     ‘configure’ with recent versions of non-Apple clang.  Patch by
     David Bohman.

   - bpo-45433(15): Avoid linking libpython with libcrypt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43158

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45595

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45536

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45221

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45405

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<28>,  Next: macOS<23>,  Prev: Build<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43652(1): Update Tcl/Tk to 8.6.11, actually this time.  The
     previous update incorrectly included 8.6.10.

   - bpo-45337(2): venv now warns when the created environment may need
     to be accessed at a different path, due to redirections, links or
     junctions.  It also now correctly installs or upgrades components
     when the alternate path is required.

   - bpo-43851(3): Build SQLite ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on Windows.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45337

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<23>,  Next: IDLE<19>,  Prev: Windows<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-44828(1): Avoid tkinter file dialog failure on macOS 12
     Monterey when using the Tk 8.6.11 provided by python.org macOS
     installers.  Patch by Marc Culler of the Tk project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44828


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<19>,  Next: C API<31>,  Prev: macOS<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45495(1): Add context keywords 'case' and 'match' to
     completions list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45495


File: python.info,  Node: C API<31>,  Prev: IDLE<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.33.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-29103(1): *note PyType_FromSpec*: 53f. now copies the class
     name from the spec to a buffer owned by the class, so the original
     can be safely deallocated.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-45522(2): The internal freelists for frame, float, list, dict,
     async generators, and context objects can now be disabled.

   - bpo-35134(3): Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b6. from the
     limited C API. It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’
     structure is opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-35081(4): Move the ‘interpreteridobject.h’ header file from
     ‘Include/’ to ‘Include/internal/’.  It only provides private
     functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35134(5): The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’,
     ‘classobject.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 770.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45474(6): The following items are no longer available when
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 782.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 783.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 784.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 785.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 786.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(7): Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only
     contains private functions.  C extensions should only include the
     main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45440(8): Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by
     the ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(9): ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files
     ‘<stdlib.h>’, ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or
     higher.  C extensions should explicitly include the header files
     after ‘#include <Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’
     macros, deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use
     ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and
     ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(11): Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’
     variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45395(12): Custom frozen modules (the array set to
     ‘PyImport_FrozenModules’) are now treated as additions, rather than
     replacing all the default frozen modules.  Frozen stdlib modules
     can still be disabled by setting the "code" field of the custom
     array entry to NULL.

   - bpo-43760(13): Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 740, and
     *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 741. functions to the limited C
     API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44220(14): *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 971. is added
     to the Stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45395

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44220


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.34 Python 3.11.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<32>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<19>,  Next: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42278(1): Replaced usage of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 184a. with
     *note TemporaryDirectory: 1214. to avoid a potential race
     condition.

   - bpo-44600(2): Fix incorrect line numbers while tracing some failed
     patterns in *note match: 7f9. statements.  Patch by Charles
     Burkland.

   - bpo-41180(3): Add auditing events to the *note marshal: 8c. module,
     and stop raising ‘code.__init__’ events for every unmarshalled code
     object.  Directly instantiated code objects will continue to raise
     an event, and audit event handlers should inspect or collect the
     raw marshal data.  This reduces a significant performance overhead
     when loading from ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-44394(4): Update the vendored copy of libexpat to 2.4.1 (from
     2.2.8) to get the fix for the CVE 2013-0340(5) "Billion Laughs"
     vulnerability.  This copy is most used on Windows and macOS.

   - bpo-43124(6): Made the internal ‘putcmd’ function in *note smtplib:
     c9. sanitize input for presence of ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters to
     avoid (unlikely) command injection.

   - bpo-44022(7): *note http.client: 6e. now avoids infinitely reading
     potential HTTP headers after a ‘100 Continue’ status response from
     the server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41180

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44394

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-0340

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43124

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44022


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<34>,  Next: Library<33>,  Prev: Security<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43760(1): The number of hardware branches per instruction
     dispatch is reduced from two to one by adding a special instruction
     for tracing.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45061(2): Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount
     bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True) or
     Py_DECREF(Py_False) by mistake.  Detect also refcount bugs when the
     empty tuple singleton or the Unicode empty string singleton is
     destroyed by mistake.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-24076(3): sum() was further optimised for summing up single
     digit integers.

   - bpo-45190(4): Update Unicode databases to Unicode 14.0.0.

   - bpo-45167(5): Fix deepcopying of *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.
     objects.

   - bpo-45155(6): *note int.to_bytes(): 184c. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 180c. now take a default value of ‘"big"’ for the
     ‘byteorder’ argument.  *note int.to_bytes(): 184c. also takes a
     default value of ‘1’ for the ‘length’ argument.

   - bpo-44219(7): Release the GIL while performing ‘isatty’ system
     calls on arbitrary file descriptors.  In particular, this affects
     *note os.isatty(): 184d, *note os.device_encoding(): 184e. and
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.  By extension, *note io.open(): 509.
     in text mode is also affected.  This change solves a deadlock in
     *note os.isatty(): 184d.  Patch by Vincent Michel in bpo-44219(8).

   - bpo-44959(9): Added fallback to extension modules with '.sl' suffix
     on HP-UX

   - bpo-45121(10): Fix issue where ‘Protocol.__init__’ raises
     ‘RecursionError’ when it's called directly or via ‘super()’.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44348(11): The deallocator function of the *note BaseException:
     5a7. type now uses the trashcan mechanism to prevent stack
     overflow.  For example, when a *note RecursionError: d5b. instance
     is raised, it can be linked to another RecursionError through the
     ‘__context__’ attribute or the ‘__traceback__’ attribute, and then
     a chain of exceptions is created.  When the chain is destroyed,
     nested deallocator function calls can crash with a stack overflow
     if the chain is too long compared to the available stack memory.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45123(12): Fix PyAiter_Check to only check for the __anext__
     presence (not for __aiter__).  Rename PyAiter_Check to
     PyAIter_Check, PyObject_GetAiter -> PyObject_GetAIter.

   - bpo-1514420(13): Interpreter no longer attempts to open files with
     names in angle brackets (like "<string>" or "<stdin>") when
     formatting an exception.

   - bpo-41031(14): Match C and Python code formatting of unprintable
     exceptions and exceptions in the *note __main__: 1. module.

   - bpo-37330(15): *note open(): 508, *note io.open(): 509, *note
     codecs.open(): 72c. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ ("universal newline") in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45083(16): When the interpreter renders an exception, its name
     now has a complete qualname.  Previously only the class name was
     concatenated to the module name, which sometimes resulted in an
     incorrect full name being displayed.

     (This issue impacted only the C code exception rendering, the *note
     traceback: fd. module was using qualname already).

   - bpo-34561(17): List sorting now uses the merge-ordering strategy
     from Munro and Wild's ‘powersort()’.  Unlike the former strategy,
     this is provably near-optimal in the entropy of the distribution of
     run lengths.  Most uses of ‘list.sort()’ probably won't see a
     significant time difference, but may see significant improvements
     in cases where the former strategy was exceptionally poor.
     However, as these are all fast linear-time approximations to a
     problem that's inherently at best quadratic-time to solve truly
     optimally, it's also possible to contrive cases where the former
     strategy did better.

   - bpo-45056(18): Compiler now removes trailing unused constants from
     co_consts.

   - bpo-45020(19): Add a new command line option, "-X
     frozen_modules=[on|off]" to opt out of (or into) using optional
     frozen modules.  This defaults to "on" (or "off" if it's running
     out of the source tree).

   - bpo-45012(20): In *note posix: ac, release GIL during ‘stat()’,
     ‘lstat()’, and ‘fstatat()’ syscalls made by *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 16b4.  Patch by Stanisław Skonieczny.

   - bpo-45018(21): Fixed pickling of range iterators that iterated for
     over ‘2**32’ times.

   - bpo-45000(22): A *note SyntaxError: 18b. is now raised when trying
     to delete *note __debug__: 7c6.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44963(23): Implement ‘send()’ and ‘throw()’ methods for
     ‘anext_awaitable’ objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44962(24): Fix a race in WeakKeyDictionary, WeakValueDictionary
     and WeakSet when two threads attempt to commit the last pending
     removal.  This fixes asyncio.create_task and fixes a data loss in
     asyncio.run where shutdown_asyncgens is not run

   - bpo-24234(25): Implement the ‘__bytes__()’ special method on the
     *note bytes: 1bd. type, so a bytes object ‘b’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(b, typing.SupportsBytes)’ check.

   - bpo-24234(26): Implement the ‘__complex__()’ special method on the
     *note complex: 2ed. type, so a complex number ‘z’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(z, typing.SupportsComplex)’ check.

   - bpo-44954(27): Fixed a corner case bug where the result of
     ‘float.fromhex('0x.8p-1074')’ was rounded the wrong way.

   - bpo-44947(28): Refine the syntax error for trailing commas in
     import statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44945(29): Specialize the BINARY_ADD instruction using the PEP
     659 machinery.  Adds five new instructions:

        * BINARY_ADD_ADAPTIVE

        * BINARY_ADD_FLOAT

        * BINARY_ADD_INT

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE_INPLACE_FAST

   - bpo-44929(30): Fix some edge cases of ‘enum.Flag’ string
     representation in the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44914(31): Class version tags are no longer recycled.

     This means that a version tag serves as a unique identifier for the
     state of a class.  We rely on this for effective specialization of
     the LOAD_ATTR and other instructions.

   - bpo-44698(32): Restore behaviour of complex exponentiation with
     integer-valued exponent of type *note float: 2ec. or *note complex:
     2ed.

   - bpo-44895(33): A debug variable *note PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: 184f. is
     added for creating a dump file which is generated by *note
     -with-trace-refs: 38b.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44900(34): Add five superinstructions for PEP 659 quickening:

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST

        * LOAD_CONST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST STORE_FAST

   - bpo-44889(35): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.  The following specialized forms were added:

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CACHED’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_MODULE’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CLASS’

   - bpo-44890(36): Specialization stats are always collected in debug
     builds.

   - bpo-44885(37): Correct the ast locations of f-strings with format
     specs and repeated expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44878(38): Remove the loop from the bytecode interpreter.  All
     instructions end with a DISPATCH macro, so the loop is now
     redundant.

   - bpo-44878(39): Remove switch statement for interpreter loop when
     using computed gotos.  This makes sure that we only have one
     dispatch table in the interpreter.

   - bpo-44874(40): Deprecate the old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’).  They should be
     replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - bpo-44872(41): Use new trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN/END) in
     frameobject.c instead of the old ones (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/END).

   - bpo-33930(42): Fix segmentation fault with deep recursion when
     cleaning method objects.  Patch by Augusto Goulart and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-25782(43): Fix bug where ‘PyErr_SetObject’ hangs when the
     current exception has a cycle in its context chain.

   - bpo-44856(44): Fix reference leaks in the error paths of
     ‘update_bases()’ and ‘__build_class__’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44826(45): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     STORE_ATTR

     Three specialized forms of STORE_ATTR are added:

        * STORE_ATTR_SLOT

        * STORE_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT

   - bpo-44838(46): Fixed a bug that was causing the parser to raise an
     incorrect custom *note SyntaxError: 18b. for invalid 'if'
     expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44821(47): Create instance dictionaries (__dict__) eagerly, to
     improve regularity of object layout and assist specialization.

   - bpo-44792(48): Improve syntax errors for if expressions.  Patch by
     Miguel Brito

   - bpo-34013(49): Generalize the invalid legacy statement custom error
     message (like the one generated when "print" is called without
     parentheses) to include more generic expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44732(50): Rename ‘types.Union’ to ‘types.UnionType’.

   - bpo-44725(51): Expose specialization stats in python via
     ‘_opcode.get_specialization_stats()’.

   - bpo-44717(52): Improve AttributeError on circular imports of
     submodules.

   - bpo-44698(53): Fix undefined behaviour in complex object
     exponentiation.

   - bpo-44653(54): Support *note typing: 103. types in parameter
     substitution in the union type.

   - bpo-44676(55): Add ability to serialise ‘types.Union’ objects.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44633(56): Parameter substitution of the union type with wrong
     types now raises ‘TypeError’ instead of returning *note
     NotImplemented: 7be.

   - bpo-44661(57): Update ‘property_descr_set’ to use vectorcall if
     possible.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44662(58): Add ‘__module__’ to ‘types.Union’.  This also fixes
     ‘types.Union’ issues with ‘typing.Annotated’.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44655(59): Include the name of the type in unset __slots__
     attribute errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44655(60): Don't include a missing attribute with the same name
     as the failing one when offering suggestions for missing
     attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44646(61): Fix the hash of the union type: it no longer depends
     on the order of arguments.

   - bpo-44636(62): Collapse union of equal types.  E.g.  the result of
     ‘int | int’ is now ‘int’.  Fix comparison of the union type with
     non-hashable objects.  E.g.  ‘int | str == {}’ no longer raises a
     TypeError.

   - bpo-44611(63): On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 50f.: uses
     BCryptGenRandom API instead of CryptGenRandom API which is
     deprecated from Microsoft Windows API. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44635(64): Convert ‘None’ to ‘type(None)’ in the union type
     constructor.

   - bpo-26280(65): Implement adaptive specialization for BINARY_SUBSCR

     Three specialized forms of BINARY_SUBSCR are added:

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_DICT

   - bpo-44589(66): Mapping patterns in ‘match’ statements with two or
     more equal literal keys will now raise a *note SyntaxError: 18b. at
     compile-time.

   - bpo-44606(67): Fix ‘__instancecheck__’ and ‘__subclasscheck__’ for
     the union type.

   - bpo-42073(68): The ‘@classmethod’ decorator can now wrap other
     classmethod-like descriptors.

   - bpo-41972(69): Tuned the string-searching algorithm of fastsearch.h
     to have a shorter inner loop for most cases.

   - bpo-44590(70): All necessary data for executing a Python function
     (local variables, stack, etc) is now kept in a per-thread stack.
     Frame objects are lazily allocated on demand.  This increases
     performance by about 7% on the standard benchmark suite.
     Introspection and debugging are unaffected as frame objects are
     always available when needed.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44584(71): The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment
     variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  This feature requires a debug build of Python.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43895(72): An obsolete internal cache of shared object file
     handles added in 1995 that attempted, but did not guarantee, that a
     .so would not be dlopen'ed twice to work around flaws in mid-1990s
     posix-ish operating systems has been removed from dynload_shlib.c.

   - bpo-44490(73): *note typing: 103. now searches for type parameters
     in ‘types.Union’ objects.  ‘get_type_hints’ will also properly
     resolve annotations with nested ‘types.Union’ objects.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-43950(74): Code objects can now provide the column information
     for instructions when available.  This is levaraged during
     traceback printing to show the expressions responsible for errors.

     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar as
     part of PEP 657(75).

   - bpo-44562(76): Remove uses of *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc. in
     error path when initializing *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.

   - bpo-41486(77): Fix a memory consumption and copying performance
     regression in earlier 3.10 beta releases if someone used an output
     buffer larger than 4GiB with zlib.decompress on input data that
     expands that large.

   - bpo-43908(78): Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE:
     3b9. flag can now inherit the PEP 590(79) vectorcall protocol.
     Previously, this was only possible for *note static types: 76b.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44553(80): Implement GC methods for ‘types.Union’ to break
     reference cycles and prevent memory leaks.

   - bpo-44490(81): Add ‘__parameters__’ attribute and ‘__getitem__’
     operator to ‘types.Union’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44523(82): Remove the pass-through for *note hash(): 5d7. of
     *note weakref.proxy: a42. objects to prevent unintended
     consequences when the original referred object dies while the proxy
     is part of a hashable object.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44483(83): Fix a crash in ‘types.Union’ objects when creating a
     union of an object with bad ‘__module__’ field.

   - bpo-44486(84): Modules will always have a dictionary, even when
     created by ‘types.ModuleType.__new__()’

   - bpo-44472(85): Fix ltrace functionality when exceptions are raised.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-12022(86): A *note TypeError: 525. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 343. in *note with: 5be. and *note async
     with: 5c1. statements for objects which do not support the *note
     context manager: 5c0. or *note asynchronous context manager: 5c3.
     protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44297(87): Make sure that the line number is set when entering
     a comprehension scope.  This ensures that backtraces including
     generator expressions show the correct line number.

   - bpo-44456(88): Improve the syntax error when mixing positional and
     keyword patterns.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44409(89): Fix error location information for tokenizer errors
     raised on initialization of the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44396(90): Fix a possible crash in the tokenizer when raising
     syntax errors for unclosed strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44376(91): Exact integer exponentiation (like ‘i**2’ or ‘pow(i,
     2)’) with a small exponent is much faster, due to reducing overhead
     in such cases.

   - bpo-44313(92): Directly imported objects and modules (through
     import and from import statements) don't generate
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ for directly accessed objects on their
     namespace.  They now use the regular ‘LOAD_ATTR’/‘CALL_FUNCTION’.

   - bpo-44338(93): Implement adaptive specialization for LOAD_GLOBAL

     Two specialized forms of LOAD_GLOBAL are added:

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_BUILTIN

   - bpo-44368(94): Improve syntax errors for invalid "as" targets.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44349(95): Fix an edge case when displaying text from files
     with encoding in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44337(96): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     LOAD_ATTR

     Four specialized forms of LOAD_ATTR are added:

        * LOAD_ATTR_SLOT

        * LOAD_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * LOAD_ATTR_WITH_HINT

        * LOAD_ATTR_MODULE

   - bpo-44335(97): Fix a regression when identifying incorrect
     characters in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43693(98): Computation of the offsets of cell variables is done
     in the compiler instead of at runtime.  This reduces the overhead
     of handling cell and free variables, especially in the case where a
     variable is both an argument and cell variable.

   - bpo-44317(99): Improve tokenizer error with improved locations.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44304(100): Fix a crash in the *note sqlite3: ce. module that
     happened when the garbage collector clears ‘sqlite.Statement’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44305(101): Improve error message for ‘try’ blocks without
     ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43413(102): Constructors of subclasses of some builtin classes
     (e.g.  *note tuple: 366, *note list: 5fe, *note frozenset: 5c6.) no
     longer accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  [reverted in 3.11a4]
     Subclass of *note set: 5c5. can now define a ‘__new__()’ method
     with additional keyword parameters without overriding also
     ‘__init__()’.

   - bpo-43667(103): Improve Unicode support in non-UTF locales on
     Oracle Solaris.  This issue does not affect other Solaris systems.

   - bpo-43693(104): A new opcode MAKE_CELL has been added that
     effectively moves some of the work done on function entry into the
     compiler and into the eval loop.  In addition to creating the
     required cell objects, the new opcode converts relevant arguments
     (and other locals) to cell variables on function entry.

   - bpo-44232(105): Fix a regression in *note type(): d38. when a
     metaclass raises an exception.  The C function ‘type_new()’ must
     properly report the exception when a metaclass constructor raises
     an exception and the winner class is not the metaclass.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44201(106): Avoid side effects of checking for specialized
     syntax errors in the REPL that was causing it to ask for extra
     tokens after a syntax error had been detected.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43693(107): ‘PyCodeObject’ gained ‘co_fastlocalnames’ and
     ‘co_fastlocalkinds’ as the authoritative source of fast locals
     info.  Marshaled code objects have changed accordingly.

   - bpo-44184(108): Fix a crash at Python exit when a deallocator
     function removes the last strong reference to a heap type.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44187(109): Implement quickening in the interpreter.  This
     offers no advantages as yet, but is an enabler of future
     optimizations.  See PEP 659 for full explanation.

   - bpo-44180(110): The parser doesn't report generic syntax errors
     that happen in a position further away that the one it reached in
     the first pass.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44168(111): Fix error message in the parser involving keyword
     arguments with invalid expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44156(112): String caches in ‘compile.c’ are now subinterpreter
     compatible.

   - bpo-44143(113): Fixed a crash in the parser that manifest when
     raising tokenizer errors when an existing exception was present.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44032(114): Move 'fast' locals and other variables from the
     frame object to a per-thread datastack.

   - bpo-44114(115): Fix incorrect dictkeys_reversed and
     dictitems_reversed function signatures in C code, which broke
     webassembly builds.

   - bpo-44110(116): Improve ‘str.__getitem__()’ error message

   - bpo-26110(117): Add ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’ opcode to speed up method
     calls with keyword arguments.  Idea originated from PyPy.  A side
     effect is executing ‘CALL_METHOD’ is now branchless in the
     evaluation loop.

   - bpo-28307(118): Compiler now optimizes simple C-style formatting
     with literal format containing only format codes %s, %r and %a by
     converting them to f-string expressions.

   - bpo-43149(119): Correct the syntax error message regarding multiple
     exception types to not refer to "exception groups".  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43822(120): The parser will prioritize tokenizer errors over
     custom syntax errors when raising exceptions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-40222(121): "Zero cost" exception handling.

        * Uses a lookup table to determine how to handle exceptions.

        * Removes SETUP_FINALLY and POP_TOP block instructions,
          eliminating the runtime overhead of try statements.

        * Reduces the size of the frame object by about 60%.

     Patch by Mark Shannon

   - bpo-43918(122): Document the signature and ‘default’ argument in
     the docstring of the new ‘anext’ builtin.

   - bpo-43833(123): Emit a deprecation warning if the numeric literal
     is immediately followed by one of keywords: and, else, for, if, in,
     is, or.  Raise a syntax error with more informative message if it
     is immediately followed by other keyword or identifier.

   - bpo-43879(124): Add native_thread_id to PyThreadState.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   - bpo-43693(125): Compute cell offsets relative to locals in
     compiler.  Allows the interpreter to treats locals and cells a
     single array, which is slightly more efficient.  Also make the
     LOAD_CLOSURE opcode an alias for LOAD_FAST. Preserving LOAD_CLOSURE
     helps keep bytecode a bit more readable.

   - bpo-17792(126): More accurate error messages for access of unbound
     locals or free vars.

   - bpo-28146(127): Fix a confusing error message in *note
     str.format(): 60e.

   - bpo-11105(128): When compiling *note ast.AST: 1a4. objects with
     recursive references through *note compile(): 190, the interpreter
     doesn't crash anymore instead it raises a *note RecursionError:
     d5b.

   - bpo-39091(129): Fix crash when using passing a non-exception to a
     generator's ‘throw()’ method.  Patch by Noah Oxer

   - bpo-33346(130): Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
     implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45167

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45155

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44959

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45121

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1514420

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41031

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45083

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34561

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45056

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45012

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45018

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   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44962

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

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   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44900

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44889

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44890

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44885

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44874

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44872

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33930

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25782

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44856

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44826

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44838

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44821

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44792

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34013

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44732

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44725

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44717

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44653

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44676

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44633

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44661

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44662

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44646

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44636

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44635

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26280

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44589

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44606

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42073

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43895

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (75) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44562

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (79) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44553

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

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   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44335

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<33>,  Next: Documentation<28>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-45371(1): Fix clang rpath issue in ‘distutils’.  The
     UnixCCompiler now uses correct clang option to add a runtime
     library directory (rpath) to a shared library.

   - bpo-45329(2): Fix freed memory access in ‘pyexpat.xmlparser’ when
     building it with an installed expat library <= 2.2.0.

   - bpo-41710(3): On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is
     available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note
     threading.Lock.acquire(): 685. method now uses the monotonic clock
     (*note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686.) for the timeout, rather than
     using the system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 687.), to not be
     affected by system clock changes.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1596321(4): Fix the ‘threading._shutdown()’ function when the
     *note threading: ec. module was imported first from a thread
     different than the main thread: no longer log an error at Python
     exit.

   - bpo-45274(5): Fix a race condition in the *note Thread.join():
     11c3. method of the *note threading: ec. module.  If the function
     is interrupted by a signal and the signal handler raises an
     exception, make sure that the thread remains in a consistent state
     to prevent a deadlock.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-21302(6): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 68a.
     now uses the ‘nanosleep()’ function, if ‘clock_nanosleep()’ is not
     available but ‘nanosleep()’ is available.  ‘nanosleep()’ allows to
     sleep with nanosecond precision.

   - bpo-21302(7): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 68a. now uses a
     waitable timer which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7
     seconds).  Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3
     seconds).  Patch by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45238(8): Fix ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.debug()’: it
     runs now asynchronous methods and callbacks.

   - bpo-36674(9): *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 1851. raises now a
     *note unittest.SkipTest: fd1. if the class or the test method are
     decorated with the skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45235(10): Fix an issue where argparse would not preserve
     values in a provided namespace when using a subparser with
     defaults.

   - bpo-45183(11): Have zipimport.zipimporter.find_spec() not raise an
     exception when the underlying zip file has been deleted and the
     internal cache has been reset via invalidate_cache().

   - bpo-45234(12): Fixed a regression in *note copyfile(): a49, *note
     copy(): a4a, *note copy2(): a4b. raising *note FileNotFoundError:
     eb0. when source is a directory, which should raise *note
     IsADirectoryError: 1044.

   - bpo-45228(13): Fix stack buffer overflow in parsing J1939 network
     address.

   - bpo-45225(14): use map function instead of genexpr in capwords.

   - bpo-42135(15): Fix typo: ‘importlib.find_loader’ is really slated
     for removal in Python 3.12 not 3.10, like the others in PR 25169.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-20524(16): Improves error messages on ‘.format()’ operation for
     ‘str’, ‘float’, ‘int’, and ‘complex’.  New format now shows the
     problematic pattern and the object type.

   - bpo-45168(17): Change *note dis.dis(): b24. output to omit op arg
     values that cannot be resolved due to ‘co_consts’, ‘co_names’ etc
     not being provided.  Previously the oparg itself was repeated in
     the value field, which is not useful and can be confusing.

   - bpo-21302(18): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 68a.
     now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ function, if available, which
     allows to sleep for an interval specified with nanosecond
     precision.

   - bpo-45173(19): Remove from the *note configparser: 22. module: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class, the ‘filename’ property of the *note
     ParsingError: 4f1. class, the ‘readfp()’ method of the *note
     ConfigParser: 1c3. class, deprecated since Python 3.2.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-44987(20): Pure ASCII strings are now normalized in constant
     time by *note unicodedata.normalize(): 6c1.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35474(21): Calling *note mimetypes.guess_all_extensions():
     1852. with ‘strict=False’ no longer affects the result of the
     following call with ‘strict=True’.  Also, mutating the returned
     list no longer affects the global state.

   - bpo-45166(22): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. now works with
     *note Final: 264. wrapped in *note ForwardRef: 1800.

   - bpo-45162(23): Remove many old deprecated *note unittest: 105.
     features:

        * "‘fail*’" and "‘assert*’" aliases of *note TestCase: 439.
          methods.

        * Broken from start *note TestCase: 439. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’.

        * Ignored ‘<unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule>
          TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ parameter 'use_load_tests'.

        * Old alias ‘_TextTestResult’ of *note TextTestResult: 51d.

   - bpo-38371(24): Remove the deprecated ‘split()’ method of
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-20499(25): Improve the speed and accuracy of
     statistics.pvariance().

   - bpo-45132(26): Remove *note __getitem__(): 280. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 721, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 722. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45129(27): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f, disabled in Python
     3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the behavior of
     the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45124(28): The ‘bdist_msi’ command, deprecated in Python 3.9,
     is now removed.

     Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-30856(29): *note unittest.TestResult: 1149. methods *note
     addFailure(): 1853, *note addError(): 1854, *note addSkip(): 1855.
     and *note addSubTest(): 1856. are now called immediately after
     raising an exception in test or finishing a subtest.  Previously
     they were called only after finishing the test clean up.

   - bpo-45034(30): Changes how error is formatted for ‘struct.pack’
     with ‘'H'’ and ‘'h'’ modes and too large / small numbers.  Now it
     shows the actual numeric limits, while previously it was showing
     arithmetic expressions.

   - bpo-25894(31): *note unittest: 105. now always reports skipped and
     failed subtests separately: separate characters in default mode and
     separate lines in verbose mode.  Also the test description is now
     output for errors in test method, class and module cleanups.

   - bpo-45081(32): Fix issue when dataclasses that inherit from
     ‘typing.Protocol’ subclasses have wrong ‘__init__’.  Patch provided
     by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-45085(33): The ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9, is
     now removed.  The following *note binascii: 10. functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.9, are now also removed:

        * ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘b2a_hqx()’;

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’.

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 720. function remains available.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40360(34): The ‘lib2to3’ package is now deprecated and may not
     be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See the PEP 617(35) (New
     PEG parser for CPython).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45075(36): Rename ‘traceback.StackSummary.format_frame()’ to
     *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 690.  This
     method was added for 3.11 so it was not released yet.

     Updated code and docs to better distinguish frame and FrameSummary.

   - bpo-31299(37): Add option to completely drop frames from a
     traceback by returning ‘None’ from a ‘format_frame()’ override.

   - bpo-41620(38): *note run(): 1148. now always return a *note
     TestResult: 1149. instance.  Previously it returned ‘None’ if the
     test class or method was decorated with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45021(39): Fix a potential deadlock at shutdown of forked
     children when using *note concurrent.futures: 21. module

   - bpo-43913(40): Fix bugs in cleaning up classes and modules in *note
     unittest: 105.:

        * Functions registered with *note addModuleCleanup(): a3d. were
          not called unless the user defines ‘tearDownModule()’ in their
          test module.

        * Functions registered with *note addClassCleanup(): a3e. were
          not called if ‘tearDownClass’ is set to ‘None’.

        * Buffering in *note TestResult: 1149. did not work with
          functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’.

        * Errors in functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were not handled correctly in buffered
          and debug modes.

        * Errors in ‘setUpModule()’ and functions registered with
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were reported in wrong order.

        * And several lesser bugs.

   - bpo-45030(41): Fix integer overflow in pickling and copying the
     range iterator.

   - bpo-45001(42): Made email date parsing more robust against
     malformed input, namely a whitespace-only ‘Date:’ header.  Patch by
     Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-45010(43): Remove support of special method ‘__div__’ in *note
     unittest.mock: 106.  It is not used in Python 3.

   - bpo-39218(44): Improve accuracy of variance calculations by using
     ‘x*x’ instead of ‘x**2’.

   - bpo-43613(45): Improve the speed of *note gzip.compress(): 62b. and
     *note gzip.decompress(): 11ec. by compressing and decompressing at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

   - bpo-37596(46): Ensure that *note set: 5c5. and *note frozenset:
     5c6. objects are always *note marshalled: 8c. reproducibly.

   - bpo-44019(47): A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such
     that ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

   - bpo-42255(48): ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  It is untested and undocumented and also
     not used by *note webbrowser: 114. itself.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44955(49): Method *note stopTestRun(): 132b. is now always
     called in pair with method *note startTestRun(): 132a. for *note
     TestResult: 1149. objects implicitly created in *note run(): 1148.
     Previously it was not called for test methods and classes decorated
     with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-39039(50): tarfile.open raises *note ReadError: 1857. when a
     zlib error occurs during file extraction.

   - bpo-44935(51): *note subprocess: d5. on Solaris now also uses *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 21d. for better performance.

   - bpo-44911(52): *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. will no longer
     throw an exception while cancelling leaked tasks.  Patch by Bar
     Harel.

   - bpo-41322(53): Added ‘DeprecationWarning’ for tests and async tests
     that return a value!=None (as this may indicate an improperly
     written test, for example a test written as a generator function).

   - bpo-44524(54): Make exception message more useful when subclass
     from typing special form alias.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-38956(55): *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1812.'s
     default value is no longer printed twice when used with *note
     argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 1858.

   - bpo-44860(56): Fix the ‘posix_user’ scheme in *note sysconfig: da.
     to not depend on *note sys.platlibdir: 927.

   - bpo-44859(57): Improve error handling in *note sqlite3: ce. and
     raise more accurate exceptions.

        * *note MemoryError: 1530. is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 17e2. when memory is not enough for encoding
          a statement to UTF-8 in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and
          ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * ‘UnicodEncodeError’ is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 17e2. when the statement contains surrogate
          characters in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * *note TypeError: 525. is now raised instead of *note
          ValueError: 1ff. for non-string script argument in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * *note ValueError: 1ff. is now raised for script containing the
          null character instead of truncating it in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * Correctly handle exceptions raised when getting boolean value
          of the result of the progress handler.

        * Add many tests covering different corner cases.

   - bpo-44581(58): Upgrade bundled pip to 21.2.3 and setuptools to
     57.4.0

   - bpo-44849(59): Fix the *note os.set_inheritable(): ee8. function on
     FreeBSD 14 for file descriptor opened with the *note O_PATH: f5f.
     flag: ignore the *note EBADF: 94a. error on ‘ioctl()’, fallback on
     the ‘fcntl()’ implementation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44605(60): The @functools.total_ordering() decorator now works
     with metaclasses.

   - bpo-44524(61): Fixed an issue wherein the ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ attributes of subscribed specialforms could be
     ‘None’.

   - bpo-44839(62): *note MemoryError: 1530. raised in user-defined
     functions will now produce a ‘MemoryError’ in *note sqlite3: ce.
     *note OverflowError: 86f. will now be converted to *note DataError:
     1859.  Previously *note OperationalError: 185a. was produced in
     these cases.

   - bpo-44822(63): *note sqlite3: ce. user-defined functions and
     aggregators returning *note strings: 437. with embedded NUL
     characters are no longer truncated.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44801(64): Ensure that the *note ParamSpec: 15d. variable in
     Callable can only be substituted with a parameters expression (a
     list of types, an ellipsis, ParamSpec or Concatenate).

   - bpo-44806(65): Non-protocol subclasses of *note typing.Protocol:
     261. ignore now the ‘__init__’ method inherited from protocol base
     classes.

   - bpo-27275(66): *note collections.OrderedDict.popitem(): 12cd. and
     ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ no longer call ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__delitem__’ methods of the OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-44793(67): Fix checking the number of arguments when subscribe
     a generic type with ‘ParamSpec’ parameter.

   - bpo-44784(68): In importlib.metadata tests, override warnings
     behavior under expected DeprecationWarnings (importlib_metadata
     4.6.3).

   - bpo-44667(69): The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4c6. doesn't
     incorrectly generate a ‘NEWLINE’ token if the source doesn't end
     with a new line character but the last line is a comment, as the
     function is already generating a ‘NL’ token.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44771(70): Added ‘importlib.simple’ module implementing
     adapters from a low-level resources reader interface to a
     ‘TraversableResources’ interface.  Legacy API (‘path’, ‘contents’,
     ...)  is now supported entirely by the ‘.files()’ API with a
     compatibility shim supplied for resource loaders without that
     functionality.  Feature parity with ‘importlib_resources’ 5.2.

   - bpo-44752(71): ‘rcompleter’ does not call *note getattr(): bc1. on
     *note property: 192. objects to avoid the side-effect of evaluating
     the corresponding method.

   - bpo-44747(72): Refactor usage of ‘sys._getframe’ in ‘typing’
     module.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42378(73): Fixes the issue with log file being overwritten when
     *note logging.FileHandler: 185b. is used in *note atexit: c. with
     'filemode' set to ‘'w'’.  Note this will cause the message in
     'atexit' not being logged if the log stream is already closed due
     to shutdown of logging.

   - bpo-44720(74): ‘weakref.proxy’ objects referencing non-iterators
     now raise ‘TypeError’ rather than dereferencing the null
     ‘tp_iternext’ slot and crashing.

   - bpo-44704(75): The implementation of ‘collections.abc.Set._hash()’
     now matches that of ‘frozenset.__hash__()’.

   - bpo-44666(76): Fixed issue in *note compileall.compile_file(): dd0.
     when ‘sys.stdout’ is redirected.  Patch by Stefan Hölzl.

   - bpo-44688(77): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_collation(): 663.
     now accepts non-ASCII collation names.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44690(78): Adopt 'binacii.a2b_base64"s strict mode in
     'base64.b64decode'.

   - bpo-42854(79): Fixed a bug in the ‘_ssl’ module that was throwing
     *note OverflowError: 86f. when using ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.write()’ and
     ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.read()’ for a big value of the ‘len’ parameter.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44686(80): Replace ‘unittest.mock._importer’ with
     ‘pkgutil.resolve_name’.

   - bpo-44353(81): Make ‘NewType.__call__’ faster by implementing it in
     C. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44682(82): Change the *note pdb: a4. 'commands' directive to
     disallow setting commands for an invalid breakpoint and to display
     an appropriate error.

   - bpo-44353(83): Refactor ‘typing.NewType’ from function into
     callable class.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44678(84): Added a separate error message for discontinuous
     padding in 'binascii.a2b_base64' strict mode.

   - bpo-44524(85): Add missing ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ attributes
     to ‘typing’ module classes.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-40897(86): Give priority to using the current class constructor
     in *note inspect.signature(): 724.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-44638(87): Add a reference to the zipp project and hint as to
     how to use it.

   - bpo-44648(88): Fixed wrong error being thrown by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 1580. when examining a class in the
     interactive session.  Instead of *note TypeError: 525, it should be
     *note OSError: 40d. with appropriate error message.

   - bpo-44608(89): Fix memory leak in ‘_tkinter._flatten()’ if it is
     called with a sequence or set, but not list or tuple.

   - bpo-44594(90): Fix an edge case of ‘ExitStack’ and ‘AsyncExitStack’
     exception chaining.  They will now match ‘with’ block behavior when
     ‘__context__’ is explicitly set to ‘None’ when the exception is in
     flight.

   - bpo-42799(91): In *note fnmatch: 5b, the cache size for compiled
     regex patterns (*note functools.lru_cache(): 9df.) was bumped up
     from 256 to 32768, affecting functions: *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
     185c, *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 185d, *note fnmatch.filter():
     185e.

   - bpo-41928(92): Update *note shutil.copyfile(): a49. to raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. instead of confusing *note
     IsADirectoryError: 1044. when a path ending with a ‘os.path.sep’
     does not exist; *note shutil.copy(): a4a. and *note shutil.copy2():
     a4b. are also affected.

   - bpo-44569(93): Added the ‘StackSummary.format_frame()’ function in
     *note traceback: fd.  This allows users to customize the way
     individual lines are formatted in tracebacks without
     re-implementing logic to handle recursive tracebacks.

   - bpo-44566(94): handle StopIteration subclass raised from
     @contextlib.contextmanager generator

   - bpo-44558(95): Make the implementation consistency of *note
     indexOf(): 8ca. between C and Python versions.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-41249(96): Fixes ‘TypedDict’ to work with
     ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ and postponed evaluation of annotations
     across modules.

   - bpo-44554(97): Refactor argument processing in ‘pdb.main()’ to
     simplify detection of errors in input loading and clarify behavior
     around module or script invocation.

   - bpo-34798(98): Break up paragraph about *note pprint.PrettyPrinter:
     f6c. construction parameters to make it easier to read.

   - bpo-44539(99): Added support for recognizing JPEG files without
     JFIF or Exif markers.

   - bpo-44461(100): Fix bug with *note pdb: a4.'s handling of import
     error due to a package which does not have a ‘__main__’ module

   - bpo-43625(101): Fix a bug in the detection of CSV file headers by
     *note csv.Sniffer.has_header(): 185f. and improve documentation of
     same.

   - bpo-44516(102): Update vendored pip to 21.1.3

   - bpo-42892(103): Fixed an exception thrown while parsing a malformed
     multipart email by *note email.message.EmailMessage: 278.

   - bpo-44468(104): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. now finds
     annotations in classes and base classes with unexpected
     ‘__module__’.  Previously, it skipped those MRO elements.

   - bpo-44491(105): Allow clearing the *note sqlite3: ce. authorizer
     callback by passing *note None: 662. to *note set_authorizer():
     2a8.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43977(106): Set the proper *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1860. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1861. flags for subclasses created
     before a parent has been registered as a *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9. or *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     11a3.

   - bpo-44482(107): Fix very unlikely resource leak in *note glob: 63.
     in alternate Python implementations.

   - bpo-44466(108): The *note faulthandler: 57. module now detects if a
     fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44471(109): A *note TypeError: 525. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 343. in *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 5bf. and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 5c2. for objects
     which do not support the *note context manager: 5c0. or *note
     asynchronous context manager: 5c3. protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44404(110): *note tkinter: ef.'s ‘after()’ method now supports
     callables without the ‘__name__’ attribute.

   - bpo-41546(111): Make *note pprint: ad. (like the builtin ‘print’)
     not attempt to write to ‘stdout’ when it is ‘None’.

   - bpo-44458(112): ‘BUFFER_BLOCK_SIZE’ is now declared static, to
     avoid linking collisions when bz2, lmza or zlib are statically
     linked.

   - bpo-44464(113): Remove exception for flake8 in deprecated
     importlib.metadata interfaces.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.6.

   - bpo-44446(114): Take into account that ‘lineno’ might be ‘None’ in
     *note traceback.FrameSummary: e71.

   - bpo-44439(115): Fix in ‘bz2.BZ2File.write()’ /
     ‘lzma.LZMAFile.write()’ methods, when the input data is an object
     that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-44434(116): _thread.start_new_thread() no longer calls
     PyThread_exit_thread() explicitly at the thread exit, the call was
     redundant.  On Linux with the glibc, pthread_exit() aborts the
     whole process if dlopen() fails to open libgcc_s.so file (ex:
     EMFILE error).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42972(117): The _thread.RLock type now fully implement the GC
     protocol: add a traverse function and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     769. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44422(118): The *note threading.enumerate(): 1862. function now
     uses a reentrant lock to prevent a hang on reentrant call.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38291(119): Importing typing.io or typing.re now prints a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-37880(120): argparse actions store_const and append_const each
     receive a default value of ‘None’ when the ‘const’ kwarg is not
     provided.  Previously, this raised a *note TypeError: 525.

   - bpo-44389(121): Fix deprecation of *note ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3: 1863.

   - bpo-27827(122): ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_reserved()’ now
     identifies a greater range of reserved filenames, including those
     with trailing spaces or colons.

   - bpo-44395(123): Fix ‘as_string()’ to pass unixfrom properly.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-34266(124): Handle exceptions from parsing the arg of *note
     pdb: a4.'s run/restart command.

   - bpo-44362(125): Improve *note ssl: cf. module's deprecation
     messages, error reporting, and documentation for deprecations.

   - bpo-44342(126): [Enum] Change pickling from by-value to by-name.

   - bpo-44356(127): [Enum] Allow multiple data-type mixins if they are
     all the same.

   - bpo-44351(128): Restore back ‘parse_makefile()’ in
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’ because it behaves differently than the
     similar implementation in *note sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-35800(129): ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ is now removed as it is
     unusable without an external module, ‘mailman’.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-44357(130): Added a function that returns cube root of the
     given number *note math.cbrt(): 64e.

   - bpo-44339(131): Change ‘math.pow(±0.0, -math.inf)’ to return ‘inf’
     instead of raising ‘ValueError’.  This brings the special-case
     handling of ‘math.pow’ into compliance with the IEEE 754 standard.

   - bpo-44242(132): Remove missing flag check from Enum creation and
     move into a ‘verify’ decorator.

   - bpo-44246(133): In ‘importlib.metadata’, restore compatibility in
     the result from ‘Distribution.entry_points’ (‘EntryPoints’) to
     honor expectations in older implementations and issuing deprecation
     warnings for these cases: A. ‘EntryPoints’ objects are once again
     mutable, allowing for ‘sort()’ and other list-based mutation
     operations.  Avoid deprecation warnings by casting to a mutable
     sequence (e.g.  ‘list(dist.entry_points).sort()’).  B.
     ‘EntryPoints’ results once again allow for access by index.  To
     avoid deprecation warnings, cast the result to a Sequence first
     (e.g.  ‘tuple(dist.entry_points)[0]’).

   - bpo-44246(134): In importlib.metadata.entry_points, de-duplication
     of distributions no longer requires loading the full metadata for
     PathDistribution objects, improving entry point loading performance
     by ~10x.

   - bpo-43858(135): Added a function that returns a copy of a dict of
     logging levels: *note logging.getLevelNamesMapping(): 646.

   - bpo-44260(136): The *note random.Random: 1864. constructor no
     longer reads system entropy without need.

   - bpo-44254(137): On Mac, give turtledemo button text a color that
     works on both light or dark background.  Programmers cannot control
     the latter.

   - bpo-44258(138): Support PEP 515 for Fraction's initialization from
     string.

   - bpo-44235(139): Remove deprecated functions in the *note gettext:
     62.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38693(140): Prefer f-strings to ‘.format’ in
     importlib.resources.

   - bpo-33693(141): Importlib.metadata now prefers f-strings to
     .format.

   - bpo-44241(142): Incorporate minor tweaks from importlib_metadata
     4.1: SimplePath protocol, support for Metadata 2.2.

   - bpo-43216(143): Remove the ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ *note decorator:
     71d. enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible
     with async/await code; remove ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used
     for wrapping legacy coroutine objects in the debug mode.  The
     decorator has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was
     initially scheduled for Python 3.10.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-44210(144): Make importlib.metadata._meta.PackageMetadata
     public.

   - bpo-43643(145): Declare readers.MultiplexedPath.name as a property
     per the spec.

   - bpo-27334(146): The *note sqlite3: ce. context manager now performs
     a rollback (thus releasing the database lock) if commit failed.
     Patch by Luca Citi and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-4928(147): Documented existing behavior on POSIX:
     NamedTemporaryFiles are not deleted when creating process is killed
     with SIGKILL

   - bpo-44154(148): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. pickling
     for large components.

   - bpo-33433(149): For IPv4 mapped IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(150)
     Section 2.5.5.2), the *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 1605.
     check is deferred to the mapped IPv4 address.  This solves a bug
     where public mapped IPv4 addresses were considered private by the
     IPv6 check.

   - bpo-44150(151): Add optional 'weights' argument to
     statistics.fmean().

   - bpo-44142(152): *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. will now drop the
     redundant parentheses when tuples used as assignment targets (e.g
     in for loops).

   - bpo-44145(153): *note hmac: 69. computations were not releasing the
     GIL while calling the OpenSSL ‘HMAC_Update’ C API (a new feature in
     3.9).  This unintentionally prevented parallel computation as other
     *note hashlib: 67. algorithms support.

   - bpo-44095(154): *note zipfile.Path: 6b6. now supports *note
     zipfile.Path.stem: 6b3, *note zipfile.Path.suffixes: 6b5, and *note
     zipfile.Path.suffix: 6b4. attributes.

   - bpo-44077(155): It's now possible to receive the type of service
     (ToS), a.k.a.  differentiated services (DS), a.k.a.  differentiated
     services code point (DSCP) and explicit congestion notification
     (ECN) IP header fields with ‘socket.IP_RECVTOS’.

   - bpo-37788(156): Fix a reference leak when a Thread object is never
     joined.

   - bpo-38908(157): Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have
     data variables declared will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked
     with ‘isinstance’ unless they are decorated with
     ‘runtime_checkable()’.  Previously, these checks passed silently.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44098(158): ‘typing.ParamSpec’ will no longer be found in the
     ‘__parameters__’ of most *note typing: 103. generics except in
     valid use locations specified by PEP 612(159).  This prevents
     incorrect usage like ‘typing.List[P][int]’.  This change means
     incorrect usage which may have passed silently in 3.10 beta 1 and
     earlier will now error.

   - bpo-44089(160): Allow subclassing ‘csv.Error’ in 3.10 (it was
     allowed in 3.9 and earlier but was disallowed in early versions of
     3.10).

   - bpo-44081(161): *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. now doesn't use redundant
     spaces to separate ‘lambda’ and the ‘:’ if there are no parameters.

   - bpo-44061(162): Fix regression in previous release when calling
     *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): d3a. with a list of *note
     pathlib.Path: 226. objects

   - bpo-44059(163): Register the SerenityOS Browser in the *note
     webbrowser: 114. module.

   - bpo-36515(164): The *note hashlib: 67. module no longer does
     unaligned memory accesses when compiled for ARM platforms.

   - bpo-40465(165): Remove random module features deprecated in Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-44018(166): random.seed() no longer mutates bytearray inputs.

   - bpo-38352(167): Add ‘IO’, ‘BinaryIO’, ‘TextIO’, ‘Match’, and
     ‘Pattern’ to ‘typing.__all__’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44002(168): *note urllib.parse: 109. now uses
     ‘functool.lru_cache()’ for its internal URL splitting and quoting
     caches instead of rolling its own like its the '90s.

     The undocumented internal *note urllib.parse: 109. ‘Quoted’ class
     API is now deprecated, for removal in 3.14.

   - bpo-43972(169): When *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler:
     b33. sends a ‘301 (Moved Permanently)’ for a directory path not
     ending with ‘/’, add a ‘Content-Length: 0’ header.  This improves
     the behavior for certain clients.

   - bpo-28528(170): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a4. where ‘checkline()’
     raises *note AttributeError: 343. if it is called after ‘reset()’.

   - bpo-43853(171): Improved string handling for *note sqlite3: ce.
     user-defined functions and aggregates:

        * It is now possible to pass strings with embedded null
          characters to UDFs

        * Conversion failures now correctly raise *note MemoryError:
          1530.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43666(172): AIX: ‘Lib/_aix_support.get_platform()’ may fail in
     an AIX WPAR. The fileset bos.rte appears to have a builddate in
     both LPAR and WPAR so this fileset is queried rather than bos.mp64.
     To prevent a similar situation (no builddate in ODM) a value (9988)
     sufficient for completing a build is provided.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-43650(173): Fix *note MemoryError: 1530. in *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 457. which fails inside
     ‘shutil._unpack_zipfile()’ on large files.  Patch by Igor
     Bolshakov.

   - bpo-43612(174): *note zlib.compress(): 62c. now accepts a wbits
     parameter which allows users to compress data as a raw deflate
     block without zlib headers and trailers in one go.  Previously this
     required instantiating a ‘zlib.compressobj’.  It also provides a
     faster alternative to ‘gzip.compress’ when wbits=31 is used.

   - bpo-43392(175): ‘importlib._bootstrap._find_and_load()’ now
     implements a two-step check to avoid locking when modules have been
     already imported and are ready.  This improves performance of
     repeated calls to *note importlib.import_module(): 504. and *note
     importlib.__import__(): 1058.

   - bpo-43318(176): Fix a bug where *note pdb: a4. does not always echo
     cleared breakpoints.

   - bpo-43234(177): Prohibit passing non-*note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. executors to
     ‘loop.set_default_executor()’ following a deprecation in Python
     3.8.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-43232(178): Prohibit previously deprecated potentially
     disruptive operations on ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’.  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-30077(179): Added support for Apple's aifc/sowt
     pseudo-compression

   - bpo-42971(180): Add definition of ‘errno.EQFULL’ for platforms that
     define this constant (such as macOS).

   - bpo-43086(181): Added a new optional ‘strict_mode’ parameter to
     'binascii.a2b_base64'.  When ‘scrict_mode’ is set to ‘True’, the
     'a2b_base64' function will accept only valid base64 content.  More
     details about what "valid base64 content" is, can be found in the
     function's documentation.

   - bpo-43024(182): Improve the help signature of *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 83b, *note
     traceback.format_exception(): 839. and *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 83a.

   - bpo-33809(183): Add the *note traceback.TracebackException.print():
     691. method which prints the formatted exception information.

   - bpo-42862(184): *note sqlite3: ce. now utilizes *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 9df. to implement the connection statement
     cache.  As a small optimisation, the default statement cache size
     has been increased from 100 to 128.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41818(185): Soumendra Ganguly: add termios.tcgetwinsize(),
     termios.tcsetwinsize().

   - bpo-40497(186): *note subprocess.check_output(): fae. now raises
     *note ValueError: 1ff. when the invalid keyword argument 'check' is
     passed by user code.  Previously such use would fail later with a
     *note TypeError: 525.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37449(187): ‘ensurepip’ now uses ‘importlib.resources.files()’
     traversable APIs

   - bpo-40956(188): Use Argument Clinic in *note sqlite3: ce.  Patches
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41730(189): ‘DeprecationWarning’ is now raised when importing
     ‘tkinter.tix’, which has been deprecated in documentation since
     Python 3.6.

   - bpo-20684(190): Remove unused ‘_signature_get_bound_param’ function
     from *note inspect: 7d. - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41402(191): Fix *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content():
     1865. when called with binary data and ‘7bit’ content transfer
     encoding.

   - bpo-32695(192): The 'compresslevel' and 'preset' keyword arguments
     of *note tarfile.open(): e62. are now both documented and tested.

   - bpo-41137(193): Use utf-8 encoding while reading .pdbrc files.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

   - bpo-24391(194): Improved reprs of *note threading: ec.
     synchronization objects: *note Semaphore: 1138, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: 1139, *note Event: 113a. and *note Barrier: 11c2.

   - bpo-5846(195): Deprecated the following *note unittest: 105.
     functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘findTestCases()’

        * ‘makeSuite()’

        * ‘getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28b. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28c.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 28d.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 28e.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40563(196): Support pathlike objects on dbm/shelve.  Patch by
     Hakan Çelik and Henry-Joseph Audéoud.

   - bpo-34990(197): Fixed a Y2k38 bug in the compileall module where it
     would fail to compile files with a modification time after the year
     2038.

   - bpo-39549(198): Whereas the code for reprlib.Repr had previously
     used a hardcoded string value of '...', this PR updates it to use
     of a “fillvalue” attribute, whose value defaults to '...'  and can
     be reset in either individual reprlib.Repr instances or in
     subclasses thereof.

   - bpo-37022(199): *note pdb: a4. now displays exceptions from
     ‘repr()’ with its ‘p’ and ‘pp’ commands.

   - bpo-38840(200): Fix ‘test___all__’ on platforms lacking a shared
     memory implementation.

   - bpo-39359(201): Add one missing check that the password is a bytes
     object for an encrypted zipfile.

   - bpo-38741(202): *note configparser: 22.: using ']' inside a section
     header will no longer cut the section name short at the ']'

   - bpo-38415(203): Added missing behavior to *note
     contextlib.asynccontextmanager(): b1a. to match *note
     contextlib.contextmanager(): 11e1. so decorated functions can
     themselves be decorators.

   - bpo-30256(204): Pass multiprocessing BaseProxy argument
     ‘manager_owned’ through AutoProxy.

   - bpo-27513(205): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 1de. now accepts
     *note email.header.Header: 1866. objects along with string values.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-16379(206): Add SQLite error code and name to *note sqlite3:
     ce. exceptions.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-26228(207): pty.spawn no longer hangs on FreeBSD, macOS, and
     Solaris.

   - bpo-33349(208): lib2to3 now recognizes async generators everywhere.

   - bpo-29298(209): Fix ‘TypeError’ when required subparsers without
     ‘dest’ do not receive arguments.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45371

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45329

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1596321

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45274

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45238

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45183

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45234

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45228

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<28>,  Next: Tests<31>,  Prev: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45216(1): Remove extra documentation listing methods in
     ‘difflib’.  It was rendering twice in pydoc and was outdated in
     some places.

   - bpo-45024(2): *note collections.abc: 1e. documentation has been
     expanded to explicitly cover how instance and subclass checks work,
     with additional doctest examples and an exhaustive list of ABCs
     which test membership purely by presence of the right *note special
     method: 1868.s.  Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-44957(3): Promote PEP 604 union syntax by using it where
     possible.  Also, mention ‘X | Y’ more prominently in section about
     ‘Union’ and mention ‘X | None’ at all in section about ‘Optional’.

   - bpo-16580(4): Added code equivalents for the *note int.to_bytes():
     184c. and *note int.from_bytes(): 180c. methods, as well as tests
     ensuring that these code equivalents are valid.

   - bpo-44903(5): Removed the ‘othergui.rst’ file, any references to
     it, and the list of GUI frameworks in the FAQ. In their place I've
     added links to the Python Wiki page on GUI frameworks(6).

   - bpo-33479(7): Tkinter documentation has been greatly expanded with
     new "Architecture" and "Threading model" sections.

   - bpo-36700(8): *note base64: e. RFC references were updated to point
     to RFC 4648(9); a section was added to point users to the new
     "security considerations" section of the RFC.

   - bpo-44740(10): Replaced occurrences of uppercase "Web" and
     "Internet" with lowercase versions per the 2016 revised Associated
     Press Style Book.

   - bpo-44693(11): Update the definition of __future__ in the glossary
     by replacing the confusing word "pseudo-module" with a more
     accurate description.

   - bpo-35183(12): Add typical examples to os.path.splitext docs

   - bpo-30511(13): Clarify that *note shutil.make_archive(): 49f. is
     not thread-safe due to reliance on changing the current working
     directory.

   - bpo-44561(14): Update of three expired hyperlinks in
     Doc/distributing/index.rst: "Project structure", "Building and
     packaging the project", and "Uploading the project to the Python
     Packaging Index".

   - bpo-44651(15): Delete entry "coercion" in Doc/glossary.rst for its
     outdated definition.

   - bpo-42958(16): Updated the docstring and docs of *note
     filecmp.cmp(): 1619. to be more accurate and less confusing
     especially in respect to 'shallow' arg.

   - bpo-44631(17): Refactored the ‘repr()’ code of the ‘_Environ’ (os
     module).

   - bpo-44613(18): importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

   - bpo-44558(19): Match the docstring and python implementation of
     *note countOf(): 8cb. to the behavior of its c implementation.

   - bpo-44544(20): List all kwargs for *note textwrap.wrap(): 147d,
     *note textwrap.fill(): 147c, and *note textwrap.shorten(): fbd.
     Now, there are nav links to attributes of ‘TextWrap’, which makes
     navigation much easier while minimizing duplication in the
     documentation.

   - bpo-38062(21): Clarify that atexit uses equality comparisons
     internally.

   - bpo-40620(22): Convert examples in tutorial controlflow.rst section
     4.3 to be interpreter-demo style.

   - bpo-43066(23): Added a warning to *note zipfile: 130. docs:
     filename arg with a leading slash may cause archive to be
     un-openable on Windows systems.

   - bpo-39452(24): Rewrote ‘Doc/library/__main__.rst’.  Broadened scope
     of the document to explicitly discuss and differentiate between
     ‘__main__.py’ in packages versus the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
     expression (and the idioms that surround it).

   - bpo-13814(25): In the Design FAQ, answer "Why don't generators
     support the with statement?"

   - bpo-27752(26): Documentation of csv.Dialect is more descriptive.

   - bpo-44453(27): Fix documentation for the return type of *note
     sysconfig.get_path(): 130e.

   - bpo-44392(28): Added a new section in the C API documentation for
     types used in type hinting.  Documented ‘Py_GenericAlias’ and
     ‘Py_GenericAliasType’.

   - bpo-38291(29): Mark ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ as deprecated since
     Python 3.8 in the documentation.  They were never properly
     supported by type checkers.

   - bpo-44322(30): Document that SyntaxError args have a details tuple
     and that details are adjusted for errors in f-string field
     replacement expressions.

   - bpo-42392(31): Document the deprecation and removal of the ‘loop’
     parameter for many functions and classes in *note asyncio: a.

   - bpo-44195(32): Corrected references to ‘TraversableResources’ in
     docs.  There is no ‘TraversableReader’.

   - bpo-41963(33): Document that ‘ConfigParser’ strips off comments
     when reading configuration files.

   - bpo-44072(34): Correct where in the numeric ABC hierarchy ‘**’
     support is added, i.e., in numbers.Complex, not numbers.Integral.

   - bpo-43558(35): Add the remark to *note dataclasses: 2f.
     documentation that the ‘__init__()’ of any base class has to be
     called in ‘__post_init__()’, along with a code example.

   - bpo-44025(36): Clarify when '_' in match statements is a keyword,
     and when not.

   - bpo-41706(37): Fix docs about how methods like ‘__add__’ are
     invoked when evaluating operator expressions.

   - bpo-41621(38): Document that *note collections.defaultdict: 119c.
     parameter ‘default_factory’ defaults to ‘None’ and is
     positional-only.

   - bpo-41576(39): document BaseException in favor of bare except

   - bpo-21760(40): The description for __file__ fixed.  Patch by Furkan
     Onder

   - bpo-39498(41): Add a "Security Considerations" index which links to
     standard library modules that have explicitly documented security
     considerations.

   - bpo-33479(42): Remove the unqualified claim that tkinter is
     threadsafe.  It has not been true for several years and likely
     never was.  An explanation of what is true may be added later,
     after more discussion, and possibly after patching _tkinter.c,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45024

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44957

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16580

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44903

   (6) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36700

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44740

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44693

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35183

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30511

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44561

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44651

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42958

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44631

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44613

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44544

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38062

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40620

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43066

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39452

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13814

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27752

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44453

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44392

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44322

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44195

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41963

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44025

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41706

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41621

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41576

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21760

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39498

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<31>,  Next: Build<33>,  Prev: Documentation<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40173(1): Fix *note
     test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module(): 186a.

   - bpo-45280(2): Add a test case for empty *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2ad.

   - bpo-45269(3): Cover case when invalid ‘markers’ type is supplied to
     ‘c_make_encoder’.

   - bpo-45128(4): Fix ‘test_multiprocessing_fork’ failure due to
     ‘test_logging’ and ‘sys.modules’ manipulation.

   - bpo-45209(5): Fix ‘UserWarning: resource_tracker’ warning in
     ‘_test_multiprocessing._TestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination’

   - bpo-45185(6): Enables ‘TestEnumerations’ test cases in ‘test_ssl’
     suite.

   - bpo-45195(7): Fix test_readline.test_nonascii(): sometimes, the
     newline character is not written at the end, so don't expect it in
     the output.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45156(8): Fixes infinite loop on *note unittest.mock.seal():
     b91. of mocks created by ‘create_autospec()’.

   - bpo-45125(9): Improves pickling tests and docs of ‘SharedMemory’
     and ‘SharableList’ objects.

   - bpo-44860(10): Update ‘test_sysconfig.test_user_similar()’ for the
     posix_user scheme: ‘platlib’ doesn't use *note sys.platlibdir: 927.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45052(11):
     ‘WithProcessesTestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_basics’ test was
     ignored, because ‘self.assertEqual(sms.size, sms2.size)’ line was
     failing.  It is now removed and test is unskipped.

     The main motivation for this line to be removed from the test is
     that the ‘size’ of ‘SharedMemory’ is not ever guaranteed to be the
     same.  It is decided by the platform.

   - bpo-44895(12): libregrtest now clears the type cache later to
     reduce the risk of false alarm when checking for reference leaks.
     Previously, the type cache was cleared too early and libregrtest
     raised a false alarm about reference leaks under very specific
     conditions.  Patch by Irit Katriel and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45042(13): Fixes that test classes decorated with
     ‘@hashlib_helper.requires_hashdigest’ were skipped all the time.

   - bpo-25130(14): Add calls of *note gc.collect(): a2a. in tests to
     support PyPy.

   - bpo-45011(15): Made tests relying on the ‘_asyncio’ C extension
     module optional to allow running on alternative Python
     implementations.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-44949(16): Fix auto history tests of test_readline: sometimes,
     the newline character is not written at the end, so don't expect it
     in the output.

   - bpo-44891(17): Tests were added to clarify *note id(): 13db. is
     preserved when ‘obj * 1’ is used on *note str: 437. and *note
     bytes: 1bd. objects.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - bpo-44852(18): Add ability to wholesale silence DeprecationWarnings
     while running the regression test suite.

   - bpo-40928(19): Notify users running test_decimal regression tests
     on macOS of potential harmless "malloc can't allocate region"
     messages spewed by test_decimal.

   - bpo-44734(20): Fixed floating-point precision issue in turtle
     tests.

   - bpo-44708(21): Regression tests, when run with -w, are now
     re-running only the affected test methods instead of re-running the
     entire test file.

   - bpo-42095(22): Added interop tests for Apple plists: generate plist
     files with Python plistlib and parse with Apple plutil; and the
     other way round.

   - bpo-44647(23): Added a permanent Unicode-valued environment
     variable to regression tests to ensure they handle this use case in
     the future.  If your test environment breaks because of that,
     report a bug to us, and temporarily set
     PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD=0 in your test environment.

   - bpo-44515(24): Adjust recently added contextlib tests to avoid
     assuming the use of a refcounted GC

   - bpo-44287(25): Fix asyncio test_popen() of test_windows_utils by
     using a longer timeout.  Use military grade battle-tested *note
     test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT: 186b. timeout rather than a hardcoded
     timeout of 10 seconds: it's 30 seconds by default, but it is made
     longer on slow buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44451(26): Reset ‘DeprecationWarning’ filters in
     ‘test.test_importlib.test_metadata_api.APITests.test_entry_points_by_index’
     to avoid ‘StopIteration’ error if ‘DeprecationWarnings’ are
     ignored.

   - bpo-44363(27): Account for address sanitizer in test_capi.
     test_capi now passes when run GCC address sanitizer.

   - bpo-44364(28): Add non integral tests for *note math.sqrt(): 9f6.
     function.

   - bpo-43921(29): Fix test_ssl.test_wrong_cert_tls13(): use
     ‘suppress_ragged_eofs=False’, since ‘read()’ can raise *note
     ssl.SSLEOFError: 1703. on Windows.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43921(30): Fix test_pha_required_nocert() of test_ssl: catch
     two more EOF cases (when the ‘recv()’ method returns an empty
     string).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44131(31): Add test_frozenmain to test_embed to test the
     ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ C function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31904(32): Ignore error string case in test_file_not_exists().

   - bpo-42083(33): Add test to check that ‘PyStructSequence_NewType’
     accepts a ‘PyStructSequence_Desc’ with ‘doc’ field set to ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-35753(34): Fix crash in doctest when doctest parses modules
     that include unwrappable functions by skipping those functions.

   - bpo-30256(35): Add test for nested queues when using
     ‘multiprocessing’ shared objects ‘AutoProxy[Queue]’ inside
     ‘ListProxy’ and ‘DictProxy’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45280

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45269

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45185

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45195

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45156

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45125

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45042

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45011

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44949

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44891

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44852

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40928

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44708

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42095

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44515

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44287

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44451

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44363

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44364

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44131

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42083

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35753

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256


File: python.info,  Node: Build<33>,  Next: Windows<29>,  Prev: Tests<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-45220(1): Avoid building with the Windows 11 SDK previews
     automatically.  This may be overridden by setting the
     ‘DefaultWindowsSDKVersion’ environment variable before building.

   - bpo-45020(2): Freeze stdlib modules that are imported during
     startup.  This provides significant performance improvements to
     startup.  If necessary, use the previously added "-X
     frozen_modules=off" commandline option to force importing the
     source modules.

   - bpo-45188(3): Windows builds now regenerate frozen modules as the
     first part of the build.  Previously the regeneration was later in
     the build, which would require it to be restarted if any modules
     had changed.

   - bpo-45163(4): Fixes Haiku platform build.

   - bpo-45067(5): The ncurses function extended_color_content was
     introduced in 2017

     (‘https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/NEWS.html#index-t20170401’).
     The

     ncurses-devel package in CentOS 7 had a older version ncurses
     resulted in compilation error.  For compiling ncurses with extended
     color support, we verify the version of the ncurses library >=
     20170401.

   - bpo-45019(6): Generate lines in relevant files for frozen modules.
     Up until now each of the files had to be edited manually.  This
     change makes it easier to add to and modify the frozen modules.

   - bpo-44340(7): Add support for building with clang thin lto via
     -with-lto=thin/full.  Patch by Donghee Na and Brett Holman.

   - bpo-44535(8): Enable building using a Visual Studio 2022 install on
     Windows.

   - bpo-43298(9): Improved error message when building without a
     Windows SDK installed.

   - bpo-44381(10): The Windows build now accepts
     ‘EnableControlFlowGuard’ set to ‘guard’ to enable CFG.

   - bpo-41282(11): Fix broken ‘make install’ that caused standard
     library extension modules to be unnecessarily and incorrectly
     rebuilt during the install phase of cpython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45220

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45188

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45067

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45019

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44535

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43298

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44381

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<29>,  Next: macOS<24>,  Prev: Build<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-45375(1): Fixes an assertion failure due to searching for the
     standard library in unnormalised paths.

   - bpo-45022(2): Update Windows release to include libffi 3.4.2

   - bpo-45007(3): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1l in Windows build

   - bpo-44848(4): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44572(5): Avoid consuming standard input in the *note platform:
     a9. module

   - bpo-44582(6): Accelerate speed of *note mimetypes: 8e.
     initialization using a native implementation of the registry scan.

   - bpo-41299(7): Fix 16 milliseconds jitter when using timeouts in
     *note threading: ec, such as with *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     685. or *note threading.Condition.wait(): 186e.

   - bpo-42686(8): Build *note sqlite3: ce. with math functions enabled.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40263(9): This is a follow-on bug from
     ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue26903’.  Once that is applied we run
     into an off-by-one assertion problem.  The assert was not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45375

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44572

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44582

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41299

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40263


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<24>,  Next: IDLE<20>,  Prev: Windows<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45007(1): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1l.

   - bpo-34602(2): When building CPython on macOS with ‘./configure
     --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer --with-pydebug’, the stack size
     is now quadrupled to allow for the entire test suite to pass.

   - bpo-44848(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44689(4): *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d39. now works
     correctly on macOS 11 Big Sur even if Python is built on an older
     version of macOS. Previously, when built on older macOS systems,
     ‘find_library’ was not able to find macOS system libraries when
     running on Big Sur due to changes in how system libraries are
     stored.

   - bpo-41972(5): The framework build's user header path in sysconfig
     is changed to add a 'pythonX.Y' component to match distutils's
     behavior.

   - bpo-43109(6): Allow -with-lto configure option to work with
     Apple-supplied Xcode or Command Line Tools.

   - bpo-34932(7): Add socket.TCP_KEEPALIVE support for macOS. Patch by
     Shane Harvey.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44689

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43109

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34932


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<20>,  Next: Tools/Demos<16>,  Prev: macOS<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): On Windows, change exit/quit message to suggest
     Ctrl-D, which works, instead of <Ctrl-Z Return>, which does not
     work in IDLE.

   - bpo-45193(2): Make completion boxes appear on Ubuntu again.

   - bpo-40128(3): Mostly fix completions on macOS when not using tcl/tk
     8.6.11 (as with 3.9).  The added update_idletask call should be
     harmless and possibly helpful otherwise.

   - bpo-33962(4): Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to
     the new Windows tab.  Patch by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-40468(5): Split the settings dialog General tab into Windows
     and Shell/ED tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu,
     to the Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the
     dialog.  The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.

   - bpo-41611(6): Avoid uncaught exceptions in
     ‘AutoCompleteWindow.winconfig_event()’.

   - bpo-41611(7): Fix IDLE sometimes freezing upon tab-completion on
     macOS.

   - bpo-44010(8): Highlight the new *note match: 7f9. statement's *note
     soft keywords: 7f8.: *note match: 7f9, *note case: 7f9, and *note
     _: 7fa.  However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be
     incorrect in some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’
     patterns.

   - bpo-44026(9): Include interpreter's typo fix suggestions in message
     line for NameErrors and AttributeErrors.  Patch by E. Paine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44026


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<16>,  Next: C API<32>,  Prev: IDLE<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-44786(1): Fix a warning in regular expression in the c-analyzer
     script.

   - bpo-44967(2): pydoc now returns a non-zero status code when a
     module cannot be found.

   - bpo-44978(3): Allow the Argument Clinic tool to handle
     ‘__complex__’ special methods.

   - bpo-43425(4): Removed the 'test2to3' demo project that demonstrated
     using lib2to3 to support Python 2.x and Python 3.x from a single
     source in a distutils package.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-44074(5): Make patchcheck automatically detect the correct base
     branch name (previously it was hardcoded to 'master')

   - bpo-20291(6): Added support for variadic positional parameters in
     Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44967

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43425

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<32>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<16>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.34.11 C API
................

   - bpo-41710(1): The PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() function now clamps
     the timeout if it is too large, rather than aborting the process.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44687(2): ‘BufferedReader.peek()’ no longer raises *note
     ValueError: 1ff. when the entire file has already been buffered.

   - bpo-45116(3): Add the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 1873. macro to ask
     the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45094(4): Add the *note Py_NO_INLINE: 1874. macro to disable
     inlining on a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45061(5): Add a deallocator to the *note bool: 453. type to
     detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call
     ‘Py_DECREF(Py_True);’ or ‘Py_DECREF(Py_False);’ by mistake.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42035(6): Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 73f. function
     to get type's qualified name.

   - bpo-41103(7): Reverts removal of the old buffer protocol because
     they are part of stable ABI.

   - bpo-44751(8): Remove ‘crypt.h’ include from the public ‘Python.h’
     header.

   - bpo-42747(9): The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ type flag now does
     nothing.  The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_AM_SEND’ flag (which was added in
     3.10) is removed.  Both were unnecessary because it is not possible
     to have type objects with the relevant fields missing.

   - bpo-44530(10): Added the ‘co_qualname’ to the ‘PyCodeObject’
     structure to propagate the qualified name from the compiler to code
     objects.

     Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta

   - bpo-44441(11): *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5. now resets
     ‘PyImport_Inittab’ to its initial value at exit.  It must be
     possible to call *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f. or *note
     PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1760. at each Python initialization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39947(12): Remove 4 private trashcan C API functions which were
     only kept for the backward compatibility of the stable ABI with
     Python 3.8 and older, since the trashcan API was not usable with
     the limited C API on Python 3.8 and older.  The trashcan API was
     excluded from the limited C API in Python 3.9.

     Removed functions:

        * _PyTrash_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_destroy_chain()

        * _PyTrash_thread_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_thread_destroy_chain()

     The trashcan C API was never usable with the limited C API, since
     old trashcan macros accessed directly *note PyThreadState: 779.
     members like ‘_tstate->trash_delete_nesting’, whereas the *note
     PyThreadState: 779. structure is opaque in the limited C API.

     Exclude also the ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ constant from the C API.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40939(13): Removed documentation for the removed ‘PyParser_*’ C
     API.

   - bpo-43795(14): The list in *note Contenu de l’API restreinte: 786.
     now shows the public name *note PyFrameObject: 775. rather than
     ‘_frame’.  The non-existing entry ‘_node’ no longer appears in the
     list.

   - bpo-44378(15): *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 17d1. no longer uses *note
     Py_TYPE(): 76c. to avoid a compiler warning: no longer cast ‘const
     PyObject*’ to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert the *note Py_TYPE(): 76c. and *note
     Py_SIZE(): 76e. macros to static inline functions.  The *note
     Py_SET_TYPE(): 76d. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f. functions must
     now be used to set an object type and size.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44263(17): The *note PyType_Ready(): 768. function now raises
     an error if a type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     769. flag set but has no traverse function (*note
     PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 76a.).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43795(18): The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ is
     removed from the Limited API.

   - bpo-44113(19): Deprecate the following functions to configure the
     Python initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 39d. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e. instead ( PEP 587(20)).

   - bpo-44094(21): Remove ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithUnicodeFilename()’,
     ‘PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’, and
     ‘PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’.  They are not
     documented and have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-43795(22): *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 885. is now properly
     exported as a function in the Windows Stable ABI DLL.

   - bpo-44029(23): Remove deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’ APIs:
     ‘PyUnicode_Encode’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII’, ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap’,
     ‘PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create’, ‘PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create’.
     See PEP 393(24) and PEP 624(25) for reference.

   - bpo-42035(26): Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 73e. function to
     get type's short name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44687

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45116

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44751

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42747

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44441

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44378

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44113

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44094

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.35 Python 3.10.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-05-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<20>,  Next: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-43434(1): Creating *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. objects now
     also produces ‘sqlite3.connect’ and ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ *note
     auditing events: 1877.  Previously these events were only produced
     by *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. calls.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43998(2): The *note ssl: cf. module sets more secure cipher
     suites defaults.  Ciphers without forward secrecy and with SHA-1
     MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA,
     DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security.  *note
     SSLContext: 291. defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2.
     Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack's research.

   - bpo-43882(3): The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of
     a URL could allow some forms of attacks.

     Following the controlling specification for URLs defined by WHATWG
     *note urllib.parse(): 109. now removes ASCII newlines and tabs from
     URLs, preventing such attacks.

   - bpo-43472(4): Ensures interpreter-level audit hooks receive the
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ event when called through the
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module.

   - bpo-43362(5): Fix invalid free in _sha3 module.  The issue was
     introduced in 3.10.0a1.  Python 3.9 and earlier are not affected.

   - bpo-43762(6): Add audit events for ‘sqlite3.connect/handle()’,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 82a, and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4a4.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43756(7): Add new audit event ‘glob.glob/2’ to incorporate the
     new 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' arguments added to *note glob.glob():
     29c. and *note glob.iglob(): 7f3.

   - bpo-36384(8): *note ipaddress: 7f. module no longer accepts any
     leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are ambiguous
     and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For example
     the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 950. treats leading
     zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
     inet_pton(): 951. does not accept any leading zeros.  For a while
     the *note ipaddress: 7f. module used to accept ambiguous leading
     zeros.

   - bpo-43075(9): Fix Regular Expression Denial of Service (ReDoS)
     vulnerability in *note urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     1878.  The ReDoS-vulnerable regex has quadratic worst-case
     complexity and it allows cause a denial of service when identifying
     crafted invalid RFCs.  This ReDoS issue is on the client side and
     needs remote attackers to control the HTTP server.

   - bpo-42800(10): Audit hooks are now fired for frame.f_code,
     traceback.tb_frame, and generator code/frame attribute access.

   - bpo-37363(11): Add audit events to the *note http.client: 6e.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43434

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43472

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43362

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43075

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<35>,  Next: Library<34>,  Prev: Security<20>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43977(1): Prevent classes being both a sequence and a mapping
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43977(2): Use *note tp_flags: 187a. on the class object to
     determine if the subject is a sequence or mapping when pattern
     matching.  Avoids the need to import *note collections.abc: 1e.
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43892(3): Restore proper validation of complex literal value
     patterns when parsing ‘match’ blocks.

   - bpo-43933(4): Set frame.f_lineno to the line number of the 'with'
     kweyword when executing the call to ‘__exit__’.

   - bpo-43933(5): If the current position in a frame has no line number
     then set the f_lineno attribute to None, instead of -1, to conform
     to PEP 626.  This should not normally be possible, but might occur
     in some unusual circumstances.

   - bpo-43963(6): Importing the ‘_signal’ module in a subinterpreter
     has no longer side effects.

   - bpo-42739(7): The internal representation of line number tables is
     changed to not use sentinels, and an explicit length parameter is
     added to the out of process API function
     ‘PyLineTable_InitAddressRange’.  This makes the handling of line
     number tables more robust in some circumstances.

   - bpo-43908(8): Make *note re: b8. types immutable.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43908(9): Make the *note array.array: 19e. type immutable.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43901(10): Change class and module objects to lazy-create empty
     annotations dicts on demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in
     the object's __dict__ for backwards compatibility.

   - bpo-43892(11): Match patterns now use new dedicated AST nodes
     (‘MatchValue’, ‘MatchSingleton’, ‘MatchSequence’, ‘MatchStar’,
     ‘MatchMapping’, ‘MatchClass’) rather than reusing expression AST
     nodes.  ‘MatchAs’ and ‘MatchOr’ are now defined as pattern nodes
     rather than as expression nodes.  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42725(12): Usage of ‘await’/‘yield’/‘yield from’ and named
     expressions within an annotation is now forbidden when PEP 563 is
     activated.

   - bpo-43754(13): When performing structural pattern matching ( PEP
     634(14)), captured names are now left unbound until the 'entire'
     pattern has matched successfully.

   - bpo-42737(15): Annotations for complex targets (everything beside
     simple names) no longer cause any runtime effects with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’.

   - bpo-43914(16): *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions raised by the
     interpreter will highlight the full error range of the expression
     that constitutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the
     problem is detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38605(17): Revert making ‘from __future__ import annotations’
     the default.  This follows the Steering Council decision to
     postpone PEP 563 changes to at least Python 3.11.  See the original
     email for more information regarding the decision:
     ‘https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43475(18): Hashes of NaN values now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to 0 even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  Having the same hash for unequal values
     caused pile-ups in hash tables.

   - bpo-43859(19): Improve the error message for *note
     IndentationError: 794. exceptions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41323(20): Constant tuple folding in bytecode optimizer now
     reuses tuple in constant table.

   - bpo-43846(21): Data stack usage is much reduced for large literal
     and call expressions.

   - bpo-38530(22): When printing *note NameError: 42a. raised by the
     interpreter, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar
     variable names in the function that the exception was raised from.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43823(23): Improve syntax errors for invalid dictionary
     literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43822(24): Improve syntax errors in the parser for missing
     commas between expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43798(25): *note ast.alias: 187b. nodes now include source
     location metadata attributes e.g.  lineno, col_offset.

   - bpo-43797(26): Improve ‘SyntaxError’ error messages for invalid
     comparisons.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43760(27): Move the flag for checking whether tracing is
     enabled to the C stack, from the heap.  Should speed up dispatch in
     the interpreter.

   - bpo-43682(28): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 40c.) and class
     methods (*note @classmethod: 165.) now inherit the method
     attributes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43751(29): Fixed a bug where ‘anext(ait, default)’ would
     erroneously return None.

   - bpo-42128(30): *note __match_args__: 187c. is no longer allowed to
     be a list.

   - bpo-43683(31): Add GEN_START opcode.  Marks start of generator,
     including async, or coroutine and handles sending values to a newly
     created generator or coroutine.

   - bpo-43105(32): Importlib now resolves relative paths when creating
     module spec objects from file locations.

   - bpo-43682(33): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 40c.) are now
     callable as regular functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42609(34): Prevented crashes in the AST validator and optimizer
     when compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: d5b. is now raised instead.

   - bpo-38530(35): When printing *note AttributeError: 343,
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar attribute names
     in the object that the exception was raised from.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43963

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42739

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43754

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43859

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43846

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43798

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43751

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43105

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42609

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<34>,  Next: Documentation<29>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-44015(1): In @dataclass(), raise a TypeError if KW_ONLY is
     specified more than once.

   - bpo-25478(2): Added a 'total()' method to collections.Counter() to
     compute the sum of the counts.

   - bpo-43733(3): Change *note netrc.netrc: 187e. to use UTF-8 encoding
     before using locale encoding.

   - bpo-43979(4): Removed an unnecessary list comprehension before
     looping from *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 276.  Patch by
     Christoph Zwerschke and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-43993(5): Update bundled pip to 21.1.1.

   - bpo-43957(6): [Enum] Deprecate ‘TypeError’ when non-member is used
     in a containment check; In 3.12 ‘True’ or ‘False’ will be returned
     instead, and containment will return ‘True’ if the value is either
     a member of that enum or one of its members' value.

   - bpo-42904(7): For backwards compatibility with previous minor
     versions of Python, if *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. receives
     no namespace dictionary arguments, *note typing.get_type_hints():
     69e. will search through the global then local namespaces during
     evaluation of stringized type annotations (string forward
     references) inside a class.

   - bpo-43945(8): [Enum] Deprecate non-standard mixin format()
     behavior: in 3.12 the enum member, not the member's value, will be
     used for format() calls.

   - bpo-41139(9): Deprecate undocumented ‘cgi.log()’ API.

   - bpo-43937(10): Fixed the *note turtle: 100. module working with
     non-default root window.

   - bpo-43930(11): Update bundled pip to 21.1 and setuptools to 56.0.0

   - bpo-43907(12): Fix a bug in the pure-Python pickle implementation
     when using protocol 5, where bytearray instances that occur several
     time in the pickled object graph would incorrectly unpickle into
     repeated copies of the bytearray object.

   - bpo-43926(13): In ‘importlib.metadata’, provide a uniform interface
     to ‘Description’, allow for any field to be encoded with multiline
     values, remove continuation lines from multiline values, and add a
     ‘.json’ property for easy access to the PEP 566 JSON-compatible
     form.  Sync with ‘importlib_metadata 4.0’.

   - bpo-43920(14): OpenSSL 3.0.0: *note load_verify_locations(): ed8.
     now returns a consistent error message when cadata contains no
     valid certificate.

   - bpo-43607(15): *note urllib: 107. can now convert Windows paths
     with ‘\\?\’ prefixes into URL paths.

   - bpo-43817(16): Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff, which
     safely computes the annotations defined on an object.  It works
     around the quirks of accessing the annotations from various types
     of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object passed
     in.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. can also correctly
     un-stringize stringized annotations.

     *note inspect.signature(): 724, ‘inspect.from_callable()’, and
     ‘inspect.from_function()’ now call *note inspect.get_annotations():
     7ff. to retrieve annotations.  This means *note
     inspect.signature(): 724. and ‘inspect.from_callable()’ can now
     un-stringize stringized annotations, too.

   - bpo-43284(17): platform.win32_ver derives the windows version from
     sys.getwindowsversion().platform_version which in turn derives the
     version from kernel32.dll (which can be of a different version than
     Windows itself).  Therefore change the platform.win32_ver to
     determine the version using the platform module's _syscmd_ver
     private function to return an accurate version.

   - bpo-42854(18): The *note ssl: cf. module now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

   - bpo-42333(19): Port ‘_ssl’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-43880(20): *note ssl: cf. now raises DeprecationWarning for
     OP_NO_SSL/TLS* options, old TLS versions, old protocols, and other
     features that have been deprecated since Python 3.6, 3.7, or
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-41559(21): PEP 612(22) is now implemented purely in Python;
     builtin ‘types.GenericAlias’ objects no longer include
     ‘typing.ParamSpec’ in ‘__parameters__’ (with the exception of
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’'s ‘GenericAlias’).  This means
     previously invalid uses of ‘ParamSpec’ (such as ‘list[P]’) which
     worked in earlier versions of Python 3.10 alpha, will now raise
     ‘TypeError’ during substitution.

   - bpo-43867(23): The *note multiprocessing: 93. ‘Server’ class now
     explicitly catches *note SystemExit: d30. and closes the client
     connection in this case.  It happens when the
     ‘Server.serve_client()’ method reaches the end of file (EOF).

   - bpo-40443(24): Remove unused imports: pyclbr no longer uses copy,
     and typing no longer uses ast.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43820(25): Remove an unneeded copy of the namespace passed to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-43787(26): Add ‘__iter__()’ method to *note bz2.BZ2File: 853,
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 410, and *note lzma.LZMAFile: ff7.  It makes
     iterating them about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43680(27): Deprecate io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper: use
     io.open and _pyio.open instead.  Until Python 3.9, _pyio.open was
     not a static method and builtins.open was set to OpenWrapper to not
     become a bound method when set to a class variable.  _io.open is a
     built-in function whereas _pyio.open is a Python function.  In
     Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is now a static method, and
     builtins.open() is now io.open().

   - bpo-43680(28): The Python ‘_pyio.open()’ function becomes a static
     method to behave as *note io.open(): 509. built-in function: don't
     become a bound method when stored as a class variable.  It becomes
     possible since static methods are now callable in Python 3.10.
     Moreover, ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper()’ becomes a simple alias to
     ‘_pyio.open()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41515(29): Fix *note KeyError: 33a. raised in *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. due to synthetic modules that don't
     appear in ‘sys.modules’.

   - bpo-43776(30): When *note subprocess.Popen: 197. args are provided
     as a string or as *note pathlib.Path: 226, the Popen instance repr
     now shows the right thing.

   - bpo-42248(31): [Enum] ensure exceptions raised in ‘_missing__’ are
     released

   - bpo-43744(32): fix issue with enum member name matching the start
     of a private variable name

   - bpo-43772(33): Fixed the return value of ‘TypeVar.__ror__’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43764(34): Add match_args parameter to @dataclass decorator to
     allow suppression of __match_args__ generation.

   - bpo-43799(35): OpenSSL 3.0.0: define ‘OPENSSL_API_COMPAT’ 1.1.1 to
     suppress deprecation warnings.  Python requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 APIs.

   - bpo-43478(36): Mocks can no longer be used as the specs for other
     Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot have an
     attribute mocked using ‘autospec=True’ or be the subject of a
     ‘create_autospec(...)’ call.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     *note isinstance(): 42d.) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-43794(37): Add *note ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 823.
     constants (OpenSSL 3.0.0)

   - bpo-43785(38): Improve ‘bz2.BZ2File’ performance by removing the
     RLock from BZ2File.  This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face
     of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its
     equivalent classes in *note gzip: 66. and *note lzma: 89. have
     always been.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43789(39): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Don't call the password callback
     function a second time when first call has signaled an error
     condition.

   - bpo-43788(40): The header files for *note ssl: cf. error codes are
     now OpenSSL version-specific.  Exceptions will now show correct
     reason and library codes.  The ‘make_ssl_data.py’ script has been
     rewritten to use OpenSSL's text file with error codes.

   - bpo-43766(41): Implement PEP 647(42) in the *note typing: 103.
     module by adding ‘TypeGuard’.

   - bpo-25264(43): *note os.path.realpath(): 222. now accepts a
     'strict' keyword-only argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError:
     40d. is raised if a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is
     encountered.

   - bpo-43780(44): In ‘importlib.metadata’, incorporate changes from
     importlib_metadata 3.10: Add mtime-based caching during
     distribution discovery.  Flagged use of dict result from
     ‘entry_points()’ as deprecated.

   - gh-47383(45): The ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ attributes of *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 15d. are now instances of the new classes *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7b2. and *note typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7b3,
     which enables a more useful ‘repr()’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43731(46): Add an ‘encoding’ parameter ‘logging.fileConfig()’.

   - bpo-43712(47): Add ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters to *note
     fileinput.input(): 7eb. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723.

   - bpo-38659(48): A ‘simple_enum’ decorator is added to the ‘enum’
     module to convert a normal class into an Enum.  ‘test_simple_enum’
     added to test simple enums against a corresponding normal Enum.
     Standard library modules updated to use ‘simple_enum’.

   - bpo-43764(49): Fix an issue where *note __match_args__: 187c.
     generation could fail for some *note dataclasses: 2f.

   - bpo-43752(50): Fix *note sqlite3: ce. regression for zero-sized
     blobs with converters, where ‘b""’ was returned instead of ‘None’.
     The regression was introduced by PR 24723.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43655(51): *note tkinter: ef. dialog windows are now recognized
     as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-43723(52): The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated
     and should be replaced:

        - ‘currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread(): 2fe.

        - ‘activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count(): 2ff.

        - ‘Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 2f8.

        - ‘Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set(): 2f9.

        - ‘Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 2fd.

        - ‘thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 2fd.

        - ‘Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 2fb.

        - ‘Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 2fb.

     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-2135(53): Deprecate find_module() and find_loader()
     implementations in importlib and zipimport.

   - bpo-43534(54): *note turtle.textinput(): 187f. and *note
     turtle.numinput(): 1880. create now a transient window working on
     behalf of the canvas window.

   - bpo-43532(55): Add the ability to specify keyword-only fields to
     dataclasses.  These fields will become keyword-only arguments to
     the generated __init__.

   - bpo-43522(56): Fix problem with *note hostname_checks_common_name:
     b6d.  OpenSSL does not copy hostflags from 'struct SSL_CTX' to
     'struct SSL'.

   - bpo-8978(57): Improve error message for *note tarfile.open(): e62.
     when *note lzma: 89. / *note bz2: 13. are unavailable.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42967(58): Allow *note bytes: 1bd. ‘separator’ argument in
     ‘urllib.parse.parse_qs’ and ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’ when parsing
     *note str: 437. query strings.  Previously, this raised a
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-43296(59): Improve *note sqlite3: ce. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_value_blob()’ errors that set ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’ now raise
     *note MemoryError: 1530.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43312(60): New functions *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 67d. and *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 17e0. are added to query a platform
     for its preferred "user", "home", and "prefix" (default) scheme
     names.

   - bpo-43265(61): Improve *note sqlite3.Connection.backup(): b6a.
     error handling.  The error message for non-existent target database
     names is now ‘unknown database <database name>’ instead of ‘SQL
     logic error’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41282(62): Install schemes in ‘distutils.command.install’ are
     now loaded from *note sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-41282(63): ‘distutils.sysconfig’ has been merged to *note
     sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-43176(64): Fixed processing of a dataclass that inherits from a
     frozen dataclass with no fields.  It is now correctly detected as
     an error.

   - bpo-43080(65): *note pprint: ad. now has support for *note
     dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6.  Patch by Lewis Gaul.

   - bpo-39950(66): Add ‘pathlib.Path.hardlink_to()’ method that
     supersedes ‘link_to()’.  The new method has the same argument order
     as ‘symlink_to()’.

   - bpo-42904(67): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. now checks the
     local namespace of a class when evaluating PEP 563(68) annotations
     inside said class.

   - bpo-42269(69): Add ‘slots’ parameter to ‘dataclasses.dataclass’
     decorator to automatically generate ‘__slots__’ for class.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-39529(70): Deprecated use of *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     2bf. without running event loop.  Emit deprecation warning for
     *note asyncio: a. functions which implicitly create a *note Future:
     bbd. or *note Task: 4c5. objects if there is no running event loop
     and no explicit 'loop' argument is passed: *note ensure_future():
     c66, *note wrap_future(): 1881, *note gather(): 5ea, *note
     shield(): a60, *note as_completed(): 1a8. and constructors of *note
     Future: bbd, *note Task: 4c5, *note StreamReader: 1882,
     ‘StreamReaderProtocol’.

   - bpo-18369(71): Certificate and PrivateKey classes were added to the
     ssl module.  Certificates and keys can now be loaded from memory
     buffer, too.

   - bpo-41486(72): Use a new output buffer management code for *note
     bz2: 13. / *note lzma: 89. / *note zlib: 132. modules, and add
     ‘.readall()’ function to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.
     These bring some performance improvements.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-31870(73): The *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): 828.
     function now has a 'timeout' parameter.

   - bpo-41735(74): Fix thread locks in zlib module may go wrong in rare
     case.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-36470(75): Fix dataclasses with ‘InitVar’s and *note replace():
     16b3.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-40849(76): Expose X509_V_FLAG_PARTIAL_CHAIN ssl flag

   - bpo-35114(77): *note ssl.RAND_status(): 1883. now returns a boolean
     value (as documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-39906(78): *note pathlib.Path.stat(): 80f. and *note chmod():
     810. now accept a 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for
     consistency with corresponding functions in the *note os: a0.
     module.

   - bpo-39899(79): *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. now refuses to
     guess Windows home directories if the basename of current user's
     home directory does not match their username.

     *note pathlib.Path.expanduser(): e31. and *note home(): e32. now
     consistently raise *note RuntimeError: 193. exception when a home
     directory cannot be resolved.  Previously a *note KeyError: 33a.
     exception could be raised on Windows when the ‘"USERNAME"’
     environment variable was unset.

   - bpo-36076(80): Added SNI support to *note
     ssl.get_server_certificate(): 828.

   - bpo-38490(81): Covariance, Pearson's correlation, and simple linear
     regression functionality was added to statistics module.  Patch by
     Tymoteusz Wołodźko.

   - bpo-33731(82): Provide a locale.localize() function, which converts
     a normalized number string into a locale format.

   - bpo-32745(83): Fix a regression in the handling of ctypes' *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 16a2. type: embedded null characters would cause
     a *note ValueError: 1ff. to be raised.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44015

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25478

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43733

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43979

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43993

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43957

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43945

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43937

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43930

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43907

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43926

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43607

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43284

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43867

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40443

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43820

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41515

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43776

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42248

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43744

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43772

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25264

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43780

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47383

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43731

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38659

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43752

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43723

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2135

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43534

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43522

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8978

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43296

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43312

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43265

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43176

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (68) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39529

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18369

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36470

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35114

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39899

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36076

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33731

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32745


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<29>,  Next: Tests<32>,  Prev: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43987(1): Add "Annotations Best Practices" document as a new
     HOWTO.

   - bpo-43977(2): Document the new *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1860. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1861. type flags.

   - bpo-43959(3): The documentation on the PyContextVar C-API was
     clarified.

   - bpo-43938(4): Update dataclasses documentation to express that
     FrozenInstanceError is derived from AttributeError.

   - bpo-43778(5): Fix the Sphinx glossary_search extension: create the
     _static/ sub-directory if it doesn't exist.

   - bpo-43755(6): Update documentation to reflect that unparenthesized
     lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an ‘if’
     clause in comprehensions and generator expressions since Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-43739(7): Fixing the example code in
     Doc/extending/extending.rst to declare and initialize the pmodule
     variable to be of the right type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43959

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43938

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43739


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<32>,  Next: Build<34>,  Prev: Documentation<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43961(1): Fix test_logging.test_namer_rotator_inheritance() on
     Windows: use *note os.replace(): 10d5. rather than *note
     os.rename(): 10d4.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43842(2): Fix a race condition in the SMTP test of
     test_logging.  Don't close a file descriptor (socket) from a
     different thread while asyncore.loop() is polling the file
     descriptor.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43843(3): ‘test.libregrtest’ now marks a test as ENV_CHANGED
     (altered the execution environment) if a thread raises an exception
     but does not catch it.  It sets a hook on *note
     threading.excepthook(): 837.  Use ‘--fail-env-changed’ option to
     mark the test as failed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43811(4): Tests multiple OpenSSL versions on GitHub Actions.
     Use ccache to speed up testing.

   - bpo-43791(5): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Disable testing of legacy protocols
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1.  Tests are failing with
     TLSV1_ALERT_INTERNAL_ERROR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43961

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43842

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43843

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<34>,  Next: Windows<30>,  Prev: Tests<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43567(1): Improved generated code refresh
     (AST/tokens/opcodes/keywords) on Windows.

   - bpo-43669(2): Implement PEP 644(3).  Python now requires OpenSSL
     1.1.1 or newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43567

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<30>,  Next: macOS<25>,  Prev: Build<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35306(1): Adds additional arguments to *note os.startfile():
     1888. function.

   - bpo-43538(2): Avoid raising errors from *note
     pathlib.Path.exists(): a06. when passed an invalid filename.

   - bpo-38822(3): Fixed *note os.stat(): 48c. failing on inaccessible
     directories with a trailing slash, rather than falling back to the
     parent directory's metadata.  This implicitly affected *note
     os.path.exists(): 9fe. and *note os.path.isdir(): a00.

   - bpo-26227(4): Fixed decoding of host names in *note
     socket.gethostbyaddr(): 1889. and *note socket.gethostbyname_ex():
     188a.

   - bpo-40432(5): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.8 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.8 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - bpo-43745(6): Actually updates Windows release to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.
     Earlier releases were mislabelled and actually included 1.1.1i
     again.

   - bpo-43652(7): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.11 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-43492(8): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.35.5.

   - bpo-30555(9): Fix ‘WindowsConsoleIO’ errors in the presence of fd
     redirection.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35306

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38822

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40432

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43745

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30555


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<25>,  Next: IDLE<21>,  Prev: Windows<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42119(1): Fix check for macOS SDK paths when building Python.
     Narrow search to match contents of SDKs, namely only files in
     ‘/System/Library’, ‘/System/IOSSupport’, and ‘/usr’ other than
     ‘/usr/local’.  Previously, anything under ‘/System’ was assumed to
     be in an SDK which causes problems with the new file system layout
     in 10.15+ where user file systems may appear to be mounted under
     ‘/System’.  Paths in ‘/Library’ were also incorrectly treated as
     SDK locations.

   - bpo-43568(2): Drop support for MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET < 10.3

   - bpo-44009(3): Provide "python3.x-intel64" executable to allow
     reliably forcing macOS universal2 framework builds to run under
     Rosetta 2 Intel-64 emulation on Apple Silicon Macs.  This can be
     useful for testing or when universal2 wheels are not yet available.

   - bpo-43851(4): Build SQLite with ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on macOS.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43492(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.35.4.

   - bpo-42235(6): ‘Mac/BuildScript/build-installer.py’ will now use
     "-enable-optimizations" and ‘--with-lto’ when building on macOS
     10.15 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42119

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43568

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44009

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42235


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<21>,  Next: C API<33>,  Prev: macOS<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-37903(1): Add mouse actions to the shell sidebar.  Left click
     and optional drag selects one or more lines, as with the editor
     line number sidebar.  Right click after selecting raises a context
     menu with 'copy with prompts'.  This zips together prompts from the
     sidebar with lines from the selected text.

   - bpo-43981(2): Fix reference leak in test_sidebar and test_squeezer.
     Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-37892(3): Indent IDLE Shell input with spaces instead of tabs

   - bpo-43655(4): IDLE dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by
     window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-37903(5): IDLE's shell now shows prompts in a separate
     side-bar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43981

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<33>,  Prev: IDLE<21>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.35.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43916(1): Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION:
     570. type flag to disallow creating type instances.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43774(2): Remove the now unused ‘PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ macro.  Debug
     hooks on memory allocators are now installed by default if Python
     is built in debug mode (if ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  Moreover,
     they can now be used on Python build in release mode (ex: using
     ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable).

   - bpo-43962(3): _PyInterpreterState_IDIncref() now calls
     _PyInterpreterState_IDInitref() and always increments id_refcount.
     Previously, calling _xxsubinterpreters.get_current() could create
     an id_refcount inconsistency when a
     _xxsubinterpreters.InterpreterID object was deallocated.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-28254(4): Add new C-API functions to control the state of the
     garbage collector: *note PyGC_Enable(): 892, *note PyGC_Disable():
     893, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 894, corresponding to the functions in
     the *note gc: 5f. module.

   - bpo-43908(5): Introduce *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. flag
     for immutable type objects, and modify *note PyType_Ready(): 768.
     to set it for static types.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43795(6): *note PyMem_Calloc(): e98. is now available in the
     limited C API (‘Py_LIMITED_API’).

   - bpo-43868(7): *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 574. is no
     longer exported by limited C API headers and by ‘python3.dll’ on
     Windows.  Like any function that takes ‘FILE*’, it is not part of
     the stable ABI.

   - bpo-43795(8): Stable ABI and limited API definitions are generated
     from a central manifest ( PEP 652(9)).

   - bpo-43753(10): Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 88e. function to test if
     the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.
     Add also the *note Py_IsNone(): 88f, *note Py_IsTrue(): 890, *note
     Py_IsFalse(): 891. functions to test if an object is, respectively,
     the ‘None’ singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’
     singleton.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43774

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28254

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.36 Python 3.10.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-04-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<21>,  Next: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42988(1): CVE 2021-3426(2): Remove the ‘getfile’ feature of the
     *note pydoc: b4. module which could be abused to read arbitrary
     files on the disk (directory traversal vulnerability).  Moreover,
     even source code of Python modules can contain sensitive data like
     passwords.  Vulnerability reported by David Schwörer.

   - bpo-43285(3): *note ftplib: 5d. no longer trusts the IP address
     value returned from the server in response to the PASV command by
     default.  This prevents a malicious FTP server from using the
     response to probe IPv4 address and port combinations on the client
     network.

     Code that requires the former vulnerable behavior may set a
     ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on their *note
     ftplib.FTP: 8e9. instances to ‘True’ to re-enable it.

   - bpo-43439(4): Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 7ef,
     *note gc.get_referrers(): 7f0. and *note gc.get_referents(): 7f1.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2021-3426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43285

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<36>,  Next: Library<35>,  Prev: Security<21>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27129(1): Update CPython bytecode magic number.

   - bpo-43672(2): Raise ImportWarning when calling find_loader().

   - bpo-43660(3): Fix crash that happens when replacing ‘sys.stderr’
     with a callable that can remove the object while an exception is
     being printed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-27129(4): The bytecode interpreter uses instruction, rather
     byte, offsets internally.  This reduces the number of EXTENDED_ARG
     instructions needed and streamlines instruction dispatch a bit.

   - bpo-40645(5): Fix reference leak in the ‘_hashopenssl’ extension.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42134(6): Calls to find_module() by the import system now raise
     ImportWarning.

   - bpo-41064(7): Improve the syntax error for invalid usage of double
     starred elements ('**') in f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43575(8): Speed up calls to ‘map()’ by using the PEP 590(9)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42137(10): The import system now prefers using ‘__spec__’ for
     ‘ModuleType.__repr__’ over ‘module_repr()’.

   - bpo-43452(11): Added micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to
     improve cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits.

   - bpo-43555(12): Report the column offset for *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     for invalid line continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43517(13): Fix misdetection of circular imports when using
     ‘from pkg.mod import attr’, which caused false positives in
     non-trivial multi-threaded code.

   - bpo-43497(14): Emit SyntaxWarnings for assertions with tuple
     constants, this is a regression introduced in python3.7

   - bpo-39316(15): Tracing now has correct line numbers for attribute
     accesses when the attribute is on a different line from the object.
     Improves debugging and profiling for multi-line method chains.

   - bpo-35883(16): Python no longer fails at startup with a fatal error
     if a command line argument contains an invalid Unicode character.
     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. function now escapes byte
     sequences which would be decoded as Unicode characters outside the
     [U+0000; U+10ffff] range.

   - bpo-43410(17): Fix a bug that was causing the parser to crash when
     emitting syntax errors when reading input from stdin.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43406(18): Fix a possible race condition where
     ‘PyErr_CheckSignals’ tries to execute a non-Python signal handler.

   - bpo-42128(19): Add ‘__match_args__’ to *note struct sequence
     objects: 119e.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43390(20): CPython now sets the ‘SA_ONSTACK’ flag in
     ‘PyOS_setsig’ for the VM's default signal handlers.  This is
     friendlier to other in-process code that an extension module or
     embedding use could pull in (such as Golang's cgo) where tiny
     thread stacks are the norm and ‘sigaltstack()’ has been used to
     provide for signal handlers.  This is a no-op change for the vast
     majority of processes that don't use sigaltstack.

   - bpo-43287(21): Speed up calls to ‘filter()’ by using the PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37448(23): Add a radix tree based memory map to track in-use
     obmalloc arenas.  Use to replace the old implementation of
     address_in_range().  The radix tree approach makes it easy to
     increase pool sizes beyond the OS page size.  Boosting the pool and
     arena size allows obmalloc to handle a significantly higher
     percentage of requests from its ultra-fast paths.

     It also has the advantage of eliminating the memory unsanitary
     behavior of the previous address_in_range().  The old
     address_in_range() was marked with the annotations
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS, _Py_NO_SANITIZE_THREAD, and
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY. Those annotations are no longer needed.

     To disable the radix tree map, set a preprocessor flag as follows:
     ‘-DWITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0’.

     Co-authored-by: Tim Peters <<tim.peters@gmail.com>>

   - bpo-29988(24): Only handle asynchronous exceptions and requests to
     drop the GIL when returning from a call or on the back edges of
     loops.  Makes sure that *note __exit__(): 12e0. is always called in
     with statements, even for interrupts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43497

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39316

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35883

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43410

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43406

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43390

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37448

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29988


File: python.info,  Node: Library<35>,  Next: Documentation<30>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43720(1): Document various stdlib deprecations in imp, pkgutil,
     and importlib.util for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-43433(2): *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a47. no longer
     ignores query and fragment in the URL of the server.

   - bpo-31956(3): The *note index(): 7cc. method of *note array.array:
     19e. now has optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.

   - bpo-40066(4): Enum: adjust ‘repr()’ to show only enum and member
     name (not value, nor angle brackets) and ‘str()’ to show only
     member name.  Update and improve documentation to match.

   - bpo-42136(5): Deprecate all module_repr() methods found in
     importlib as their use is being phased out by Python 3.12.

   - bpo-35930(6): Raising an exception raised in a "future" instance
     will create reference cycles.

   - bpo-41369(7): Finish updating the vendored libmpdec to version
     2.5.1.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-43422(8): Revert the _decimal C API which was added in
     bpo-41324(9).

   - bpo-43577(10): Fix deadlock when using *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.
     debug callback with *note ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback(): 1892.

   - bpo-43571(11): It's now possible to create MPTCP sockets with
     IPPROTO_MPTCP

   - bpo-43542(12): ‘image/heic’ and ‘image/heif’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - bpo-40645(13): The *note hmac: 69. module now uses OpenSSL's HMAC
     implementation when digestmod argument is a hash name or builtin
     hash function.

   - bpo-43510(14): Implement PEP 597(15): Add ‘EncodingWarning’
     warning, ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option, *note
     PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7a8. environment variable and
     ‘encoding="locale"’ argument value.

   - bpo-43521(16): ‘ast.unparse’ can now render NaNs and empty sets.

   - bpo-42914(17): *note pprint.pprint(): 814. gains a new boolean
     ‘underscore_numbers’ optional argument to emit integers with
     thousands separated by an underscore character for improved
     readability (for example ‘1_000_000’ instead of ‘1000000’).

   - bpo-41361(18): *note rotate(): 1893. calls are now slightly faster
     due to faster argument parsing.

   - bpo-43423(19): ‘subprocess.communicate()’ no longer raises an
     IndexError when there is an empty stdout or stderr IO buffer during
     a timeout on Windows.

   - bpo-27820(20): Fixed long-standing bug of smtplib.SMTP where doing
     AUTH LOGIN with initial_response_ok=False will fail.

     The cause is that SMTP.auth_login _always_ returns a password if
     provided with a challenge string, thus non-compliant with the
     standard for AUTH LOGIN.

     Also fixes bug with the test for smtpd.

   - bpo-43445(21): Add frozen modules to *note sys.stdlib_module_names:
     82d.  For example, add ‘"_frozen_importlib"’ and
     ‘"_frozen_importlib_external"’ names.

   - bpo-43245(22): Add keyword arguments support to
     ‘ChainMap.new_child()’.

   - bpo-29982(23): Add optional parameter 'ignore_cleanup_errors' to
     *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 1214. and allow multiple
     ‘cleanup()’ attempts.  Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-43428(24): Include changes from importlib_metadata 3.7(25):

     Performance enhancements to distribution discovery.

     ‘entry_points’ only returns unique distributions.

     Introduces new ‘EntryPoints’ object for containing a set of entry
     points with convenience methods for selecting entry points by group
     or name.  ‘entry_points’ now returns this object if selection
     parameters are supplied but continues to return a dict object for
     compatibility.  Users are encouraged to rely on the selection
     interface.  The dict object result is likely to be deprecated in
     the future.

     Added packages_distributions function to return a mapping of
     packages to the distributions that provide them.

   - bpo-43332(26): Improves the networking efficiency of *note
     http.client: 6e. when using a proxy via ‘set_tunnel()’.  Fewer
     small send calls are made during connection setup.

   - bpo-43420(27): Improve performance of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1e4. arithmetics for large components.  Contributed by Sergey B.
     Kirpichev.

   - bpo-43356(28): Allow passing a signal number to
     ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’.

   - bpo-43399(29): Fix ‘ElementTree.extend’ not working on iterators
     when using the Python implementation

   - bpo-43369(30): Improve *note sqlite3: ce. error handling: If
     ‘sqlite3_column_text()’ and ‘sqlite3_column_blob()’ set
     ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’, *note MemoryError: 1530. is now raised.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43368(31): Fix a regression introduced in PR 24562, where an
     empty bytestring was fetched as ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’ in *note
     sqlite3: ce.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - bpo-41282(32): Fixed stacklevel of ‘DeprecationWarning’ emitted
     from ‘import distutils’.

   - bpo-42129(33): ‘importlib.resources’ now honors namespace packages,
     merging resources from each location in the namespace as introduced
     in ‘importlib_resources’ 3.2 and including incidental changes
     through 5.0.3.

   - bpo-43295(34): *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6. now raises
     ‘ValueError’ instead of ‘IndexError’ when matching ‘'z'’ with the
     ‘%z’ format specifier.

   - bpo-43125(35): Return empty string if base64mime.body_encode
     receive empty bytes

   - bpo-43084(36): *note curses.window.enclose(): 1894. returns now
     ‘True’ or ‘False’ (as was documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-42994(37): Add MIME types for opus, AAC, 3gpp and 3gpp2

   - bpo-14678(38): Add an invalidate_caches() method to the
     zipimport.zipimporter class to support
     importlib.invalidate_caches().  Patch by Desmond Cheong.

   - bpo-42782(39): Fail fast in *note shutil.move(): a4c. to avoid
     creating destination directories on failure.

   - bpo-40066(40): Enum's ‘repr()’ and ‘str()’ have changed: ‘repr()’
     is now 'EnumClass.MemberName' and ‘str()’ is 'MemberName'.
     Additionally, stdlib Enum's whose contents are available as module
     attributes, such as ‘RegexFlag.IGNORECASE’, have their ‘repr()’ as
     'module.name', e.g.  ‘re.IGNORECASE’.

   - bpo-26053(41): Fixed bug where the *note pdb: a4. interactive run
     command echoed the args from the shell command line, even if those
     have been overridden at the pdb prompt.

   - bpo-24160(42): Fixed bug where breakpoints did not persist across
     multiple debugger sessions in *note pdb: a4.'s interactive mode.

   - bpo-40701(43): When the *note tempfile.tempdir: 1895. global
     variable is set to a value of type bytes, it is now handled
     consistently.  Previously exceptions could be raised from some
     tempfile APIs when the directory did not already exist in this
     situation.  Also ensures that the *note tempfile.gettempdir():
     1896. and *note tempfile.gettempdirb(): 1897. functions 'always'
     return ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ respectively.

   - bpo-39342(44): Expose ‘X509_V_FLAG_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS’ as *note
     VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS: 1898. to allow proxy certificate
     validation as explained in
     ‘https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man7/proxy-certificates/’.

   - bpo-31861(45): Add builtins.aiter and builtins.anext.  Patch by
     Joshua Bronson (@jab), Daniel Pope (@lordmauve), and Justin Wang
     (@justin39).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43433

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35930

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43577

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43542

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43510

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43521

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41361

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43423

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27820

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43445

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43245

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29982

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43428

   (25) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-7-0

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43332

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43420

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43399

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43369

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43368

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42129

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43295

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43125

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43084

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42994

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42782

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26053

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40701

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39342

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<30>,  Next: Tests<33>,  Prev: Library<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43199(1): Answer "Why is there no goto?"  in the Design and
     History FAQ.

   - bpo-43407(2): Clarified that a result from *note time.monotonic():
     250, *note time.perf_counter(): a78, *note time.process_time():
     a79, or *note time.thread_time(): 925. can be compared with the
     result from any following call to the same function - not just the
     next immediate call.

   - bpo-43354(3): Fix type documentation for ‘Fault.faultCode’; the
     type has to be ‘int’ instead of ‘str’.

   - bpo-41933(4): Clarified wording of s * n in the Common Sequence
     Operations

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43407

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43354

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41933


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<33>,  Next: Build<35>,  Prev: Documentation<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37945(1): Fix test_getsetlocale_issue1813() of test_locale:
     skip the test if ‘setlocale()’ fails.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41561(2): Add workaround for Ubuntu's custom OpenSSL security
     level policy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561


File: python.info,  Node: Build<35>,  Next: Windows<31>,  Prev: Tests<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43179(1): Introduce and correctly use ALIGNOF_X in place of
     SIZEOF_X for alignment-related code in optimized string routines.
     Patch by Jessica Clarke.

   - bpo-43631(2): Update macOS, Windows, and CI to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.

   - bpo-43617(3): Improve configure.ac: Check for presence of
     autoconf-archive package and remove our copies of M4 macros.

   - bpo-43466(4): The ‘configure’ script now supports
     ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ option.

   - bpo-43372(5): Use ‘_freeze_importlib’ to generate code for the
     ‘__hello__’ module.  This approach ensures the code matches the
     interpreter version.  Previously, PYTHON_FOR_REGEN was used to
     generate the code, which might be wrong.  The marshal format for
     code objects has changed with bpo-42246(6), commit 877df851.
     Update the code and the expected code sizes in ctypes
     test_frozentable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43372

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<31>,  Next: IDLE<22>,  Prev: Build<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43440(1): Build *note sqlite3: ce. with the ‘R*Tree’ module
     enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43440


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<22>,  Next: C API<34>,  Prev: Windows<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42225(1): Document that IDLE can fail on Unix either from
     misconfigured IP masquerade rules or failure displaying complex
     colored (non-ascii) characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42225


File: python.info,  Node: C API<34>,  Prev: IDLE<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.36.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-43688(1): The limited C API is now supported if Python is built
     in debug mode (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the limited
     C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. and *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.
     functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than
     accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 88d. member, if
     Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 32f.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(2)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the ‘--with-trace-refs’
     special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(3): Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(4): Remove the compiler and parser functions using
     ‘struct _mod’ type, because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(5): Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header
     files.  These functions were undocumented and excluded from the
     limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not
     prefixed by ‘Py’ and so could create names conflicts.  For example,
     ‘Python-ast.h’ defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the
     ‘Yield’ name used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the
     Python *note ast: 8. module instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43541(6): Fix a ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx()’ regression: fix reference
     counting on builtins.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(7): Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the
     undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     The Python *note symtable: d7. module remains available and is
     unchanged.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(8): Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no
     longer possible to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the
     public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C
     API ( PEP 384(9)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43541

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.23.37 Python 3.10.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-03-01'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<22>,  Next: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42967(1): Fix web cache poisoning vulnerability by defaulting
     the query args separator to ‘&’, and allowing the user to choose a
     custom separator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<37>,  Next: Library<36>,  Prev: Security<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43321(1): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ is
     used with ‘#’ but without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - bpo-36346(2): ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions now emits
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘u’ or ‘Z’ format is used.  See PEP
     623(3) for detail.

   - bpo-43277(4): Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 88b. function to
     the C-API to check if an object is an instance of *note set: 5c5.
     but not an instance of a subtype.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42990(5): The *note types.FunctionType: 871. constructor now
     inherits the current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 17e. and *note exec():
     17d. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42990(6): Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which
     is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed,
     instead of looking into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  Patch by
     Mark Shannon and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43149(7): Improve the error message in the parser for exception
     groups without parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43121(8): Fixed an incorrect *note SyntaxError: 18b. message
     for missing comma in literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42819(9): *note readline: b9.: Explicitly disable bracketed
     paste in the interactive interpreter, even if it's set in the
     inputrc, is enabled by default (eg GNU Readline 8.1), or a user
     calls ‘readline.read_init_file()’.  The Python REPL has not
     implemented bracketed paste support.  Also, bracketed mode writes
     the ‘"\x1b[?2004h"’ escape sequence into stdout which causes test
     failures in applications that don't support it.  It can still be
     explicitly enabled by calling ‘readline.parse_and_bind("set
     enable-bracketed-paste on")’.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-42808(10): Simple calls to ‘type(object)’ are now faster due to
     the ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-42217(11): Make the compiler merges same co_code and
     co_linetable objects in a module like already did for co_consts.

   - bpo-41972(12): Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’
     and ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use the "Two-Way" string
     comparison algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings.

   - bpo-42128(13): Implement PEP 634(14) (structural pattern matching).
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-40692(15): In the *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8dd, validate that ‘multiprocess.synchronize()’ is available on a
     given platform and rely on that check in the *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. test suite so we can run tests that are
     unrelated to ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ on those platforms.

   - bpo-38302(16): If *note object.__ipow__(): 7bd. returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7be, the operator will correctly fall back to *note
     object.__pow__(): 7bf. and *note object.__rpow__(): 7c0. as
     expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43321

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43121

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42819

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42808

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42217

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40692

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302


File: python.info,  Node: Library<36>,  Next: Documentation<31>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43316(1): The ‘python -m gzip’ command line application now
     properly fails when detecting an unsupported extension.  It exits
     with a non-zero exit code and prints an error message to stderr.

   - bpo-43317(2): Set the chunk size for the ‘gzip’ module main
     function to io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE. This is slightly faster than
     the 1024 bytes constant that was used previously.

   - bpo-43146(3): Handle None in single-arg versions of *note
     print_exception(): 83b. and *note format_exception(): 839.

   - bpo-43260(4): Fix TextIOWrapper can not flush internal buffer
     forever after very large text is written.

   - bpo-43258(5): Prevent needless allocation of *note sqlite3: ce.
     aggregate function context when no rows match an aggregate query.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43251(6): Improve *note sqlite3: ce. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_column_name()’ failures now result in *note MemoryError:
     1530.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40956(7): Fix segfault in *note sqlite3.Connection.backup():
     b6a. if no argument was provided.  The regression was introduced by
     PR 23838.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43172(8): The readline module now passes its tests when built
     directly against libedit.  Existing irreconcilable API differences
     remain in *note readline.get_begidx(): 18a3. and *note
     readline.get_endidx(): 18a4. behavior based on libreadline vs
     libedit use.

   - bpo-43163(9): Fix a bug in *note codeop: 1c. that was causing it to
     not ask for more input when multi-line snippets have unclosed
     parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43162(10): deprecate unsupported ability to access enum members
     as attributes of other enum members

   - bpo-43146(11): Fix recent regression in None argument handling in
     *note traceback: fd. module functions.

   - bpo-43102(12): The namedtuple __new__ method had its __builtins__
     set to None instead of an actual dictionary.  This created problems
     for introspection tools.

   - bpo-43106(13): Added *note O_EVTONLY: 806, *note O_FSYNC: 807,
     *note O_SYMLINK: 808. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 809. for macOS.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42960(14): Adds *note resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES: 18a5. constant
     from FreeBSD to the *note resource: bb. module.

   - bpo-42151(15): Make the pure Python implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. behave the same as the C implementation
     (‘_elementree’) regarding default attribute values (by not setting
     ‘specified_attributes=1’).

   - bpo-29753(16): In ctypes, now packed bitfields are calculated
     properly and the first item of packed bitfields is now shrank
     correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43316

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43258

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43251

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43172

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43163

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43162

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43102

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42960

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42151

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29753


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<31>,  Next: Tests<34>,  Prev: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27646(1): Clarify that 'yield from <expr>' works with any
     iterable, not just iterators.

   - bpo-36346(2): Update some deprecated unicode APIs which are
     documented as "will be removed in 4.0" to "3.12".  See PEP 623(3)
     for detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<34>,  Next: Build<36>,  Prev: Documentation<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43288(1): Fix test_importlib to correctly skip Unicode file
     tests if the filesystem does not support them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43288


File: python.info,  Node: Build<36>,  Next: Windows<32>,  Prev: Tests<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43174(1): Windows build now uses ‘/utf-8’ compiler option.

   - bpo-43103(2): Add a new configure ‘--without-static-libpython’
     option to not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and
     not install the ‘python.o’ object file.

   - bpo-13501(3): The configure script can now use 'libedit' instead of
     'readline' with the command line option ‘--with-readline=editline’.

   - bpo-42603(4): Make configure script use pkg-config to detect the
     location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries, used to build tkinter.

     On macOS, a Tcl/Tk configuration provided by pkg-config will be
     preferred over Tcl/Tk frameworks installed in
     ‘/{System/,}Library/Frameworks’.  If both exist and the latter is
     preferred, the appropriate ‘--with-tcltk-*’ configuration options
     need to be explicitly set.

   - bpo-39448(5): Add the "regen-frozen" makefile target that
     regenerates the code for the frozen ‘__hello__’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43174

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13501

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<32>,  Next: macOS<26>,  Prev: Build<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43155(1): *note PyCMethod_New(): 18aa. is now present in
     ‘python3.lib’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43155


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<26>,  Next: IDLE<23>,  Prev: Windows<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41837(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<23>,  Next: C API<35>,  Prev: macOS<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43283(1): Document why printing to IDLE's Shell is often slower
     than printing to a system terminal and that it can be made faster
     by pre-formatting a single string before printing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43283


File: python.info,  Node: C API<35>,  Prev: IDLE<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.37.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43278(1): Always put compiler and system information on the
     first line of the REPL welcome message.

   - bpo-43270(2): Remove the private ‘_PyErr_OCCURRED()’ macro: use the
     public *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. function instead.

   - bpo-35134(3): Move odictobject.h, parser_interface.h,
     picklebufobject.h, pydebug.h, and pyfpe.h into the cpython/
     directory.  They must not be included directly, as they are already
     included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 770.

   - bpo-35134(4): Move pyarena.h, pyctype.h, and pytime.h into the
     cpython/ directory.  They must not be included directly, as they
     are already included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 770.

   - bpo-40170(5): ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ is now always declared as a
     function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 18af. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43239(6): The *note PyCFunction_New(): 18b0. function is now
     exported in the ABI when compiled with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40170(7): *note PyIter_Check(): 18b1. is now always declared as
     a function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_iternext: 14a7. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40170(8): Convert *note PyDescr_IsData(): 18b2. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: The macro accessed *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set: 18b3. directly.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43181(9): Convert *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 18b4. macro to a
     static inline function.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43239

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43181


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.38 Python 3.10.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-02-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<23>,  Next: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42938(1): Avoid static buffers when computing the repr of *note
     ctypes.c_double: 18b7. and *note ctypes.c_longdouble: 18b8. values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<38>,  Next: Library<37>,  Prev: Security<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42990(1): Refactor the ‘PyEval_’ family of functions.

        * An new function ‘_PyEval_Vector’ is added to simplify calls to
          Python from C.

        * ‘_PyEval_EvalCodeWithName’ is removed

        * ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx’ is retained as part of the API, but is not
          used internally

   - bpo-38631(2): Replace *note Py_FatalError(): 972. calls in the
     compiler with regular *note SystemError: 563. exceptions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42997(3): Improve error message for missing ":" before blocks.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43017(4): Improve error message in the parser when using
     un-parenthesised tuples in comprehensions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42986(5): Fix parser crash when reporting syntax errors in
     f-string with newlines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40176(6): Syntax errors for unterminated string literals now
     point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL.

   - bpo-42927(7): The inline cache for ‘LOAD_ATTR’ now also optimizes
     access to attributes defined by ‘__slots__’.  This makes reading
     such attribute up to 30% faster.

   - bpo-42864(8): Improve error messages in the parser when parentheses
     are not closed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42924(9): Fix ‘bytearray’ repetition incorrectly copying data
     from the start of the buffer, even if the data is offset within the
     buffer (e.g.  after reassigning a slice at the start of the
     ‘bytearray’ to a shorter byte string).

   - bpo-42882(10): Fix the ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function
     (_Py_IDENTIFIER(var) API) when *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. / *note
     Py_Finalize(): 1332. is called multiple times: preserve
     ‘_PyRuntime.unicode_ids.next_index’ value.

   - bpo-42827(11): Fix a crash when working out the error line of a
     *note SyntaxError: 18b. in some multi-line expressions.

   - bpo-42823(12): frame.f_lineno is correct even if frame.f_trace is
     set to True

   - bpo-37324(13): Remove deprecated aliases to *note Classes de base
     abstraites de collections: 865. from the *note collections: 1d.
     module.

   - bpo-41994(14): Fixed possible leak in ‘import’ when ‘sys.modules’
     is not a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-27772(15): In string formatting, preceding the 'width' field by
     ‘'0'’ no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42986

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42924

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42882

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42827

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41994

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27772


File: python.info,  Node: Library<37>,  Next: Documentation<32>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43108(1): Fixed a reference leak in the *note curses: 2b.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43077(2): Update the bundled pip to 21.0.1 and setuptools to
     52.0.0.

   - bpo-41282(3): Deprecate ‘distutils’ in documentation and add
     warning on import.

   - bpo-43014(4): Improve performance of *note tokenize: fa. by 20-30%.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42323(5): Fix *note math.nextafter(): 484. for NaN on AIX.

   - bpo-42955(6): Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 82d, containing
     the list of the standard library module names.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42944(7): Fix ‘random.Random.sample’ when ‘counts’ argument is
     not ‘None’.

   - bpo-42934(8): Use *note TracebackException: 259.'s new ‘compact’
     param in *note TestResult: 1149. to reduce time and memory consumed
     by traceback formatting.

   - bpo-42931(9): Add ‘randbytes()’ to ‘random.__all__’.

   - bpo-38250(10): [Enum] Flags consisting of a single bit are now
     considered canonical, and will be the only flags returned from
     listing and iterating over a Flag class or a Flag member.
     Multi-bit flags are considered aliases; they will be returned from
     lookups and operations that result in their value.  Iteration for
     both Flag and Flag members is in definition order.

   - bpo-42877(11): Added the ‘compact’ parameter to the constructor of
     *note traceback.TracebackException: 259. to reduce time and memory
     for use cases that only need to call ‘TracebackException.format()’
     and ‘TracebackException.format_exception_only()’.

   - bpo-42923(12): The *note Py_FatalError(): 972. function and the
     *note faulthandler: 57. module now dump the list of extension
     modules on a fatal error.

   - bpo-42848(13): Removed recursion from *note TracebackException:
     259. to allow it to handle long exception chains.

   - bpo-42901(14): [Enum] move member creation from ‘EnumMeta.__new__’
     to ‘_proto_member.__set_name__’, allowing members to be created and
     visible in ‘__init_subclass__’.

   - bpo-42780(15): Fix os.set_inheritable() for O_PATH file descriptors
     on Linux.

   - bpo-42866(16): Fix a reference leak in the ‘getcodec()’ function of
     CJK codecs.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42846(17): Convert the 6 CJK codec extension modules
     (_codecs_cn, _codecs_hk, _codecs_iso2022, _codecs_jp, _codecs_kr
     and _codecs_tw) to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP
     489(18)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42851(19): remove __init_subclass__ support for Enum members

   - bpo-42834(20): Make internal caches of the ‘_json’ module
     compatible with subinterpreters.

   - bpo-41748(21): Fix HTMLParser parsing rules for element attributes
     containing commas with spaces.  Patch by Karl Dubost.

   - bpo-40810(22): Require SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert the _multibytecodec extension module (CJK
     codecs) to multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42802(25): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in
     Python 3.8 has been removed.  The distutils ‘bdist_wheel’ command
     is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows.

   - bpo-24464(26): The undocumented built-in function
     ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is now deprecated, scheduled for
     removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is strongly discouraged by the
     SQLite3 documentation.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42384(27): Make pdb populate sys.path[0] exactly the same as
     regular python execution.

   - bpo-42383(28): Fix pdb: previously pdb would fail to restart the
     debugging target if it was specified using a relative path and the
     current directory changed.

   - bpo-42005(29): Fix CLI of *note cProfile: 27. and *note profile:
     ae. to catch *note BrokenPipeError: 1047.

   - bpo-41604(30): Don't decrement the reference count of the previous
     user_ptr when set_panel_userptr fails.

   - bpo-41149(31): Allow executing callables that have a boolean value
     of ‘False’ when passed to ‘Threading.thread’ as the target.  Patch
     contributed by Barney Stratford.

   - bpo-38307(32): Add an 'end_lineno' attribute to the Class and
     Function objects that appear in the tree returned by pyclbr
     functions.  This and the existing 'lineno' attribute define the
     extent of class and def statements.  Patch by Aviral Srivastava.

   - bpo-39273(33): The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the
     *note curses: 2b. module if available.

   - bpo-33289(34): Correct call to *note tkinter.colorchooser: f0. to
     return RGB triplet of ints instead of floats.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43108

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43077

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43014

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42323

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42931

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38250

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42923

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42848

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42901

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42780

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42866

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42846

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42851

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42834

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41748

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42384

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42383

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42005

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41149

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33289


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<32>,  Next: Tests<35>,  Prev: Library<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-40304(1): Fix doc for type(name, bases, dict).  Patch by Boris
     Verkhovskiy and Éric Araujo.

   - bpo-42811(2): Updated importlib.util.resolve_name() doc to use
     __spec__.parent instead of __package__.  (Thanks Yair Frid.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42811


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<35>,  Next: Build<37>,  Prev: Documentation<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40823(1): Use ‘unittest.TestLoader().loadTestsFromTestCase()’
     instead of ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ in *note sqlite3: ce. tests.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40810(2): In *note sqlite3: ce, fix ‘CheckTraceCallbackContent’
     for SQLite pre 3.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810


File: python.info,  Node: Build<37>,  Next: Windows<33>,  Prev: Tests<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43031(1): Pass ‘--timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’ option to the default
     profile task ‘./python -m test --pgo’ command.

   - bpo-36143(2): ‘make regen-all’ now also runs ‘regen-keyword’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42874(3): Removed the grep -q and -E flags in the tzpath
     validation section of the configure script to better accommodate
     users of some platforms (specifically Solaris 10).

   - bpo-31904(4): Add library search path by wr-cc in
     add_cross_compiling_paths() for VxWorks.

   - bpo-42856(5): Add ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH’ option to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 54.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don't install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43031

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<33>,  Next: macOS<27>,  Prev: Build<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41837(1): Updated Windows installer to include OpenSSL 1.1.1i

   - bpo-42584(2): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<27>,  Next: IDLE<24>,  Prev: Windows<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Ensure that the value of
     sysconfig.get_config_var('MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET') is always a
     string, even in when the value is parsable as an integer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<24>,  Next: C API<36>,  Prev: macOS<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43008(1): Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7. in
     normal, 2-process mode.  Patch by Ken Hilton.

   - bpo-33065(2): Fix problem debugging user classes with __repr__
     method.

   - bpo-23544(3): Disable Debug=>Stack Viewer when user code is running
     or Debugger is active, to prevent hang or crash.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-32631(4): Finish zzdummy example extension module: make menu
     entries work; add docstrings and tests with 100% coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33065

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23544

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32631


File: python.info,  Node: C API<36>,  Prev: IDLE<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.38.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42979(1): When Python is built in debug mode (with C
     assertions), calling a type slot like ‘sq_length’ (‘__len__()’ in
     Python) now fails with a fatal error if the slot succeeded with an
     exception set, or failed with no exception set.  The error message
     contains the slot, the type name, and the current exception (if an
     exception is set).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43030(2): Fixed a compiler warning in *note
     Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(): 18c2. on platforms with signed ‘wchar_t’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42979

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43030


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.39 Python 3.10.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-01-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<39>,  Next: Library<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42814(1): Fix undefined behavior in
     ‘Objects/genericaliasobject.c’.

   - bpo-42806(2): Fix the column offsets for f-strings *note ast: 8.
     nodes surrounded by parentheses and for nodes that spawn multiple
     lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40631(3): Fix regression where a single parenthesized starred
     expression was a valid assignment target.

   - bpo-27794(4): Improve the error message for failed writes/deletes
     to property objects.  When possible, the attribute name is now
     shown.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42745(5): Make the type attribute lookup cache per-interpreter.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42246(6): Jumps to jumps are not eliminated when it would break
     PEP 626.

   - bpo-42246(7): Make sure that the ‘f_lasti’ and ‘f_lineno’
     attributes of a frame are set correctly when an exception is raised
     or re-raised.  Required for PEP 626.

   - bpo-32381(8): The coding cookie (ex: ‘# coding: latin1’) is now
     ignored in the command passed to the *note -c: 5cc. command line
     option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-30858(9): Improve error location in expressions that contain
     assignments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou.

   - bpo-42615(10): Remove jump commands made redundant by the deletion
     of unreachable bytecode blocks

   - bpo-42639(11): Make the *note atexit: c. module state
     per-interpreter.  It is now safe have more than one *note atexit:
     c. module instance.  Patch by Donghee Na and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32381(12): Fix encoding name when running a ‘.pyc’ file on
     Windows: *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 18c5. now uses the
     correct encoding to decode the filename.

   - bpo-42195(13): The ‘__args__’ of the parameterized generics for
     *note typing.Callable: 7b1. and *note collections.abc.Callable:
     7d6. are now consistent.  The ‘__args__’ for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. are now flattened while *note
     typing.Callable: 7b1.'s have not changed.  To allow this change,
     *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7. can now be subclassed and
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’'s ‘__class_getitem__’ will now return a
     subclass of ‘types.GenericAlias’.  Tests for typing were also
     updated to not subclass things like ‘Callable[..., T]’ as that is
     not a valid base class.  Finally, both ‘Callable’s no longer
     validate their ‘argtypes’, in ‘Callable[[argtypes], resulttype]’ to
     prepare for PEP 612(14).  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-40137(15): Convert functools module to use *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f.

   - bpo-40077(16): Convert *note array: 7. to use heap types, and
     establish module state for these.

   - bpo-42008(17): Fix _random.Random() seeding.

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port the ‘pyexpat’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-40521(20): Make the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39465(21): Make ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Each interpreter now has an array of identifier
     objects (interned strings decoded from UTF-8).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42806

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30858

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42615

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40137

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465


File: python.info,  Node: Library<38>,  Next: Documentation<33>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-42257(1): Handle empty string in variable executable in
     platform.libc_ver()

   - bpo-42772(2): randrange() now raises a TypeError when step is
     specified without a stop argument.  Formerly, it silently ignored
     the step argument.

   - bpo-42759(3): Fixed equality comparison of ‘tkinter.Variable’ and
     *note tkinter.font.Font: 18c7.  Objects which belong to different
     Tcl interpreters are now always different, even if they have the
     same name.

   - bpo-42756(4): Configure LMTP Unix-domain socket to use socket
     global default timeout when a timeout is not explicitly provided.

   - bpo-23328(5): Allow / character in username, password fields on
     _PROXY envars.

   - bpo-42740(6): *note typing.get_args(): 86c. and *note
     typing.get_origin(): a37. now support PEP 604(7) union types and
     PEP 612(8) additions to ‘Callable’.

   - bpo-42655(9): *note subprocess: d5. 'extra_groups' is now correctly
     passed into setgroups() system call.

   - bpo-42727(10): ‘EnumMeta.__prepare__’ now accepts ‘**kwds’ to
     properly support ‘__init_subclass__’

   - bpo-38308(11): Add optional 'weights' to
     'statistics.harmonic_mean()'.

   - bpo-42721(12): When simple query dialogs (*note
     tkinter.simpledialog: f7.), message boxes (*note
     tkinter.messagebox: f5.) or color choose dialog (*note
     tkinter.colorchooser: f0.) are created without arguments 'master'
     and 'parent', and the default root window is not yet created, and
     ‘NoDefaultRoot()’ was not called, a new temporal hidden root window
     will be created automatically.  It will not be set as the default
     root window and will be destroyed right after closing the dialog
     window.  It will help to use these simple dialog windows in
     programs which do not need other GUI.

   - bpo-25246(13): Optimized *note collections.deque.remove(): 18c8.

   - bpo-35728(14): Added a root parameter to *note
     tkinter.font.nametofont(): 18c9.

   - bpo-15303(15): *note tkinter: ef. supports now widgets with boolean
     value False.

   - bpo-42681(16): Fixed range checks for color and pair numbers in
     *note curses: 2b.

   - bpo-42685(17): Improved placing of simple query windows in Tkinter
     (such as *note tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger(): 18ca.).  They are
     now centered at the center of the parent window if it is specified
     and shown, otherwise at the center of the screen.

   - bpo-9694(18): Argparse help no longer uses the confusing phrase,
     "optional arguments".  It uses "options" instead.

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port the ‘_thread’ extension module to the
     multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(20)) and convert its static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-37961(21): Fix crash in ‘tracemalloc.Traceback.__repr__()’
     (regressed in Python 3.9).

   - bpo-42630(22): *note tkinter: ef. functions and constructors which
     need a default root window raise now *note RuntimeError: 193. with
     descriptive message instead of obscure *note AttributeError: 343.
     or *note NameError: 42a. if it is not created yet or cannot be
     created automatically.

   - bpo-42639(23): ‘atexit._run_exitfuncs()’ now logs callback
     exceptions using *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f4, rather than logging
     them directly into *note sys.stderr: 928. and raise the last
     exception.

   - bpo-42644(24): ‘logging.disable’ will now validate the types and
     value of its parameter.  It also now accepts strings representing
     the levels (as does ‘logging.setLevel’) instead of only the
     numerical values.

   - bpo-42639(25): At Python exit, if a callback registered with *note
     atexit.register(): 86b. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.

   - bpo-36541(26): Fixed lib2to3.pgen2 to be able to parse PEP-570
     positional only argument syntax.

   - bpo-42382(27): In ‘importlib.metadata’: - ‘EntryPoint’ objects now
     expose a ‘.dist’ object referencing the ‘Distribution’ when
     constructed from a ‘Distribution’.  - Add support for package
     discovery under package normalization rules.  - The object returned
     by ‘metadata()’ now has a formally defined protocol called
     ‘PackageMetadata’ with declared support for the ‘.get_all()’
     method.  - Synced with importlib_metadata 3.3.

   - bpo-41877(28): A check is added against misspellings of autospect,
     auto_spec and set_spec being passed as arguments to patch,
     patch.object and create_autospec.

   - bpo-39717(29): [tarfile] update nested exception raising to use
     ‘from None’ or ‘from e’

   - bpo-41877(30): AttributeError for suspected misspellings of
     assertions on mocks are now pointing out that the cause are
     misspelled assertions and also what to do if the misspelling is
     actually an intended attribute name.  The unittest.mock document is
     also updated to reflect the current set of recognised misspellings.

   - bpo-41559(31): Implemented PEP 612(32): added ‘ParamSpec’ and
     ‘Concatenate’ to *note typing: 103.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42385(33): StrEnum: fix _generate_next_value_ to return a str

   - bpo-31904(34): Define THREAD_STACK_SIZE for VxWorks.

   - bpo-34750(35): [Enum] ‘_EnumDict.update()’ is now supported.

   - bpo-42517(36): Enum: private names do not become members / do not
     generate errors - they remain normal attributes

   - bpo-42678(37): ‘Enum’: call ‘__init_subclass__’ after members have
     been added

   - bpo-28964(38): *note ast.literal_eval(): c08. adds line number
     information (if available) in error message for malformed nodes.

   - bpo-42470(39): *note random.sample(): 732. no longer warns on a
     sequence which is also a set.

   - bpo-31904(40): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ returns the input 'path'
     unchanged if user home directory is None on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42388(41): Fix subprocess.check_output(..., input=None)
     behavior when text=True to be consistent with that of the
     documentation and universal_newlines=True.

   - bpo-34463(42): Fixed discrepancy between *note traceback: fd. and
     the interpreter in formatting of SyntaxError with lineno not set
     (*note traceback: fd. was changed to match interpreter).

   - bpo-42393(43): Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. instead of silent
     truncation in *note socket.ntohs(): 86e. and *note socket.htons():
     86d.  Silent truncation was deprecated in Python 3.7.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland

   - bpo-42222(44): Harmonized *note random.randrange(): 858. argument
     handling to match *note range(): 932.

        * The integer test and conversion in ‘randrange()’ now uses
          *note operator.index(): 18cb.

        * Non-integer arguments to ‘randrange()’ are deprecated.

        * The ‘ValueError’ is deprecated in favor of a ‘TypeError’.

        * It now runs a little faster than before.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-42163(45): Restore compatibility for ‘uname_result’ around
     deepcopy and _replace.

   - bpo-42090(46): ‘zipfile.Path.joinpath’ now accepts arbitrary
     arguments, same as ‘pathlib.Path.joinpath’.

   - bpo-1635741(47): Port the _csv module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(48)).

   - bpo-42059(49): *note typing.TypedDict: 161. types created using the
     alternative call-style syntax now correctly respect the ‘total’
     keyword argument when setting their ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ class attributes.

   - bpo-41960(50): Add ‘globalns’ and ‘localns’ parameters to the *note
     inspect.signature(): 724. and *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 726.

   - bpo-41907(51): fix ‘format()’ behavior for ‘IntFlag’

   - bpo-41891(52): Ensure asyncio.wait_for waits for task completion

   - bpo-24792(53): Fixed bug where ‘zipimporter’ sometimes reports an
     incorrect cause of import errors.

   - bpo-31904(54): Fix site and sysconfig modules for VxWorks RTOS
     which has no home directories.

   - bpo-41462(55): Add *note os.set_blocking(): e29. support for
     VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40219(56): Lowered ‘tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale’ dummy widget to
     prevent hiding part of the content label.

   - bpo-37193(57): Fixed memory leak in ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn’
     introduced in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-39068(58): Fix initialization race condition in ‘a85encode()’
     and ‘b85encode()’ in *note base64: e.  Patch by Brandon Stansbury.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42772

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42756

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23328

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42740

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42655

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38308

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42721

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25246

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35728

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15303

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42681

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42630

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42644

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42382

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39717

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42385

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34750

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42517

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42678

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28964

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42470

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42388

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34463

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42163

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42090

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42059

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41960

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41907

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41891

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24792

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41462

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40219

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37193

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39068


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<33>,  Next: Tests<36>,  Prev: Library<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17140(1): Add documentation for the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool: 18cd. class.

   - bpo-34398(2): Prominently feature listings from the glossary in
     documentation search results.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17140

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34398


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<36>,  Next: Build<38>,  Prev: Documentation<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-42794(1): Update test_nntplib to use official group name of
     news.aioe.org for testing.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-31904(2): Skip some asyncio tests on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42641(3): Enhance ‘test_select.test_select()’: it now takes 500
     milliseconds rather than 10 seconds.  Use Python rather than a
     shell to make the test more portable.

   - bpo-31904(4): Skip some tests in _test_all_chown_common() on
     VxWorks.

   - bpo-42199(5): Fix bytecode helper assertNotInBytecode.

   - bpo-41443(6): Add more attribute checking in test_posix.py

   - bpo-31904(7): Disable os.popen and impacted tests on VxWorks

   - bpo-41439(8): Port test_ssl and test_uuid to VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42794

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41439


File: python.info,  Node: Build<38>,  Next: macOS<28>,  Prev: Tests<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-42692(1): Fix __builtin_available check on older compilers.
     Patch by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-27640(2): Added ‘--disable-test-modules’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script: don't build nor install test modules.  Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin.

   - bpo-42604(3): Now all platforms use a value for the "EXT_SUFFIX"
     build variable derived from SOABI (for instance in freeBSD,
     "EXT_SUFFIX" is now ".cpython-310d.so" instead of ".so").
     Previously only Linux, Mac and VxWorks were using a value for
     "EXT_SUFFIX" that included "SOABI".

   - bpo-42598(4): Fix implicit function declarations in configure which
     could have resulted in incorrect configuration checks.  Patch
     contributed by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-31904(5): Enable libpython3.so for VxWorks.

   - bpo-29076(6): Add fish shell support to macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42604

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29076


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<28>,  Next: Tools/Demos<17>,  Prev: Build<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42361(1): Update macOS installer build to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.11
     (rc2, expected to be final release).

   - bpo-41837(2): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1i.

   - bpo-42584(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<17>,  Next: C API<37>,  Prev: macOS<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-42726(1): Fixed Python 3 compatibility issue with
     gdb/libpython.py handling of attribute dictionaries.

   - bpo-42613(2): Fix ‘freeze.py’ tool to use the prope config and
     library directories.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42613


File: python.info,  Node: C API<37>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<17>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.39.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-42591(1): Export the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function: fix a Python
     3.9.0 regression.  Python 3.9 uses ‘-fvisibility=hidden’ and the
     function was not exported explicitly and so not exported.

   - bpo-32381(2): Remove the private ‘_Py_fopen()’ function which is no
     longer needed.  Use ‘_Py_wfopen()’ or ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’ instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port *note resource: bb. extension module to module
     state

   - bpo-42111(4): Update the ‘xxlimited’ module to be a better example
     of how to use the limited C API.

   - bpo-40052(5): Fix an alignment build warning/error in function
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’.  Patch by Andreas Schneider, Antoine
     Pitrou and Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42591

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42111

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40052


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.40 Python 3.10.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-12-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40791(1): Add ‘volatile’ to the accumulator variable in
     ‘hmac.compare_digest’, making constant-time-defeating optimizations
     less likely.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<40>,  Next: Library<39>,  Prev: Security<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42576(1): ‘types.GenericAlias’ will now raise a ‘TypeError’
     when attempting to initialize with a keyword argument.  Previously,
     this would cause the interpreter to crash if the interpreter was
     compiled with debug symbols.  This does not affect interpreters
     compiled for release.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42536(2): Several built-in and standard library types now
     ensure that their internal result tuples are always tracked by the
     *note garbage collector: 18d6.:

        - *note collections.OrderedDict.items(): 5c7.

        - *note dict.items(): 7bb.

        - *note enumerate(): 1435.

        - *note functools.reduce(): 12bc.

        - *note itertools.combinations(): 12f2.

        - *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1261.

        - *note itertools.permutations(): 18d7.

        - *note itertools.product(): 12f3.

        - *note itertools.zip_longest(): 127d.

        - *note zip(): 7bc.

     Previously, they could have become untracked by a prior garbage
     collection.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-42500(3): Improve handling of exceptions near recursion limit.
     Converts a number of Fatal Errors in RecursionErrors.

   - bpo-42246(4): PEP 626: After a return, the f_lineno attribute of a
     frame is always the last line executed.

   - bpo-42435(5): Speed up comparison of bytes objects with non-bytes
     objects when option *note -b: 5cf. is specified.  Speed up
     comparison of bytarray objects with non-buffer object.

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port the ‘_warnings’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-41686(8): On Windows, the ‘SIGINT’ event,
     ‘_PyOS_SigintEvent()’, is now created even if Python is configured
     to not install signal handlers (if *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8ad. equals to 0, or
     ‘Py_InitializeEx(0)’).

   - bpo-42381(9): Allow assignment expressions in set literals and set
     comprehensions as per PEP 572.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42202(10): Change function parameters annotations internal
     representation to tuple of strings.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-42374(11): Fix a regression introduced by the new parser, where
     an unparenthesized walrus operator was not allowed within generator
     expressions.

   - bpo-42316(12): Allow an unparenthesized walrus in subscript
     indexes.

   - bpo-42349(13): Make sure that the compiler front-end produces a
     well-formed control flow graph.  Be more aggressive in the compiler
     back-end, as it is now safe to do so.

   - bpo-42296(14): On Windows, fix a regression in signal handling
     which prevented to interrupt a program using CTRL+C. The signal
     handler can be run in a thread different than the Python thread, in
     which case the test deciding if the thread can handle signals is
     wrong.

   - bpo-42332(15): *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-42282(16): Optimise constant subexpressions that appear as part
     of named expressions (previously the AST optimiser did not descend
     into named expressions).  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42266(17): Fixed a bug with the LOAD_ATTR opcode cache that was
     not respecting monkey-patching a class-level attribute to make it a
     descriptor.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert *note queue: b5. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42246(19): Improved accuracy of line tracing events and
     f_lineno attribute of Frame objects.  See PEP 626 for details.

   - bpo-40077(20): Convert *note mmap: 8f. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42233(21): Allow ‘GenericAlias’ objects to use *note union type
     expressions: 7ae.  This allows expressions like ‘list[int] |
     dict[float, str]’ where previously a ‘TypeError’ would have been
     thrown.  This also fixes union type expressions not de-duplicating
     ‘GenericAlias’ objects.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42233(22).)

   - bpo-26131(23): The import system triggers a ‘ImportWarning’ when it
     falls back to using ‘load_module()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42576

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42435

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42381

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42374

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42349

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42296

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42332

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42282

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42266

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131


File: python.info,  Node: Library<39>,  Next: Documentation<34>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-5054(1): CGIHTTPRequestHandler.run_cgi() HTTP_ACCEPT improperly
     parsed.  Replace the special purpose getallmatchingheaders with
     generic get_all method and add relevant tests.

     Original Patch by Martin Panter.  Modified by Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-42562(2): Fix issue when dis failed to parse function that has
     no line numbers.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-17735(3): ‘inspect.findsource()’ now raises *note OSError: 40d.
     instead of *note IndexError: 14ec. when ‘co_lineno’ of a code
     object is greater than the file length.  This can happen, for
     example, when a file is edited after it was imported.  PR by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-42116(4): Fix handling of trailing comments by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 1580.

   - bpo-42532(5): Remove unexpected call of ‘__bool__’ when passing a
     ‘spec_arg’ argument to a Mock.

   - bpo-38200(6): Added itertools.pairwise()

   - bpo-41818(7): Fix test_master_read() so that it succeeds on all
     platforms that either raise OSError or return b"" upon reading from
     master.

   - bpo-42487(8): ChainMap.__iter__ no longer calls __getitem__ on
     underlying maps

   - bpo-42482(9): *note TracebackException: 259. no longer holds a
     reference to the exception's traceback object.  Consequently,
     instances of TracebackException for equivalent but non-equal
     exceptions now compare as equal.

   - bpo-41818(10): Make test_openpty() avoid unexpected success due to
     number of rows and/or number of columns being == 0.

   - bpo-42392(11): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.subprocess’ and
     ‘asyncio.tasks’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42392(12): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.open_connection’
     and ‘asyncio.start_server’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-28468(13): Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 812.
     function to parse freedesktop.org ‘os-release’ files.

   - bpo-42299(14): Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated
     in Python 3.4.  It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not
     tested.  It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6,
     but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing
     users should copy whatever classes they use into their code.  Patch
     by Donghee Na and and Terry J. Reedy.

   - bpo-26131(15): Deprecate zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() in
     favour of exec_module().

   - bpo-41818(16): Updated tests for the pty library.  test_basic() has
     been changed to test_openpty(); this additionally checks if slave
     termios and slave winsize are being set properly by pty.openpty().
     In order to add support for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Darwin,
     this also adds test_master_read(), which demonstrates that
     pty.spawn() should not depend on an OSError to exit from its copy
     loop.

   - bpo-42392(17): Remove loop parameter from ‘__init__’ in all
     ‘asyncio.locks’ and ‘asyncio.Queue’ classes.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-15450(18): Make *note filecmp.dircmp: f2d. respect subclassing.
     Now the *note filecmp.dircmp.subdirs: 18d9. behaves as expected
     when subclassing dircmp.

   - bpo-42413(19): The exception *note socket.timeout: 820. is now an
     alias of *note TimeoutError: 821.

   - bpo-31904(20): Support signal module on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42406(21): We fixed an issue in ‘pickle.whichmodule’ in which
     importing ‘multiprocessing’ could change the how pickle identifies
     which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking the
     unpickling of those objects.

   - bpo-42403(22): Simplify the *note importlib: 76. external bootstrap
     code: ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’ now uses regular imports to
     import builtin modules.  When it is imported, the builtin *note
     __import__(): 8c3. function is already fully working and so can be
     used to import builtin modules like *note sys: d8.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert _sre module types to heap types (PEP 384).
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42375(24): subprocess module update for DragonFlyBSD support.

   - bpo-41713(25): Port the ‘_signal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(26)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner and Mohamed Koubaa.

   - bpo-37205(27): *note time.time(): 251, *note time.perf_counter():
     a78. and *note time.monotonic(): 250. functions can no longer fail
     with a Python fatal error, instead raise a regular Python exception
     on failure.

   - bpo-42328(28): Fixed *note tkinter.ttk.Style.map(): 18da.  The
     function accepts now the representation of the default state as
     empty sequence (as returned by ‘Style.map()’).  The structure of
     the result is now the same on all platform and does not depend on
     the value of ‘wantobjects’.

   - bpo-42345(29): Fix various issues with ‘typing.Literal’ parameter
     handling (flatten, deduplicate, use type to cache key).  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-37205(30): *note time.perf_counter(): a78. on Windows and *note
     time.monotonic(): 250. on macOS are now system-wide.  Previously,
     they used an offset computed at startup to reduce the precision
     loss caused by the float type.  Use *note time.perf_counter_ns():
     ad5. and *note time.monotonic_ns(): ad4. added in Python 3.7 to
     avoid this precision loss.

   - bpo-42318(31): Fixed support of non-BMP characters in *note
     tkinter: ef. on macOS.

   - bpo-42350(32): Fix the *note threading.Thread: 93b. class at fork:
     do nothing if the thread is already stopped (ex: fork called at
     Python exit).  Previously, an error was logged in the child
     process.

   - bpo-42333(33): Port _ssl extension module to heap types.

   - bpo-42014(34): The ‘onerror’ callback from ‘shutil.rmtree’ now
     receives correct function when ‘os.open’ fails.

   - bpo-42237(35): Fix ‘os.sendfile()’ on illumos.

   - bpo-42308(36): Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 836. to allow
     retrieving the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 837.
     in case it is set to a broken or a different value.  Patch by Mario
     Corchero.

   - bpo-42131(37): Implement PEP 451/spec methods on
     zipimport.zipimporter: find_spec(), create_module(), and
     exec_module().

     This also allows for the documented deprecation of find_loader(),
     find_module(), and load_module().

   - bpo-41877(38): Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an
     AttributeError if an attribute with the prefix asert, aseert, or
     assrt is accessed, in addition to this already happening for the
     prefixes assert or assret.

   - bpo-42264(39): ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and
     obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str:
     437.  It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-42251(40): Added *note threading.gettrace(): 832. and *note
     threading.getprofile(): 833. to retrieve the functions set by *note
     threading.settrace(): 834. and *note threading.setprofile(): 835.
     respectively.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-42249(41): Fixed writing binary Plist files larger than 4 GiB.

   - bpo-42236(42): On Unix, the *note os.device_encoding(): 184e.
     function now returns ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding if
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. is enabled.

   - bpo-41754(43): webbrowser: Ignore 'NotADirectoryError' when calling
     ‘xdg-settings’.

   - bpo-42183(44): Fix a stack overflow error for asyncio Task or
     Future repr().

     The overflow occurs under some circumstances when a Task or Future
     recursively returns itself.

   - bpo-42140(45): Improve asyncio.wait function to create the futures
     set just one time.

   - bpo-42133(46): Update various modules in the stdlib to fall back on
     ‘__spec__.loader’ when ‘__loader__’ isn't defined on a module.

   - bpo-26131(47): The ‘load_module()’ methods found in ‘importlib’ now
     trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-39825(48): Windows: Change
     ‘sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')’ to the expected full
     ‘platform_tag.extension’ format.  Previously it was hard-coded to
     ‘.pyd’, now it is compatible with ‘distutils.sysconfig’ and will
     result in something like ‘.cp38-win_amd64.pyd’.  This brings
     windows into conformance with the other platforms.

   - bpo-26389(49): The *note traceback.format_exception(): 839, *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 83a, and *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 83b. functions can now take an
     exception object as a positional-only argument.

   - bpo-41889(50): Enum: fix regression involving inheriting a multiply
     inherited enum

   - bpo-41861(51): Convert *note sqlite3: ce. to use heap types (PEP
     384).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40624(52): Added support for the XPath ‘!=’ operator in
     xml.etree

   - bpo-28850(53): Fix *note pprint.PrettyPrinter.format(): 18db.
     overrides being ignored for contents of small containers.  The
     ‘pprint._safe_repr()’ function was removed.

   - bpo-41625(54): Expose the ‘splice()’ as *note os.splice(): 805. in
     the *note os: a0. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-34215(55): Clarify the error message for *note
     asyncio.IncompleteReadError: 18dc. when ‘expected’ is ‘None’.

   - bpo-41543(56): Add async context manager support for
     contextlib.nullcontext.

   - bpo-21041(57): *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 80c. now supports
     negative indexing.  Patch contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych.

   - bpo-41332(58): Added missing connect_accepted_socket() method to
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop’.

   - bpo-12800(59): Extracting a symlink from a tarball should succeed
     and overwrite the symlink if it already exists.  The fix is to
     remove the existing file or symlink before extraction.  Based on
     patch by Chris AtLee, Jeffrey Kintscher, and Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-40968(60): *note urllib.request: 10a. and *note http.client:
     6e. now send ‘http/1.1’ ALPN extension during TLS handshake when no
     custom context is supplied.

   - bpo-41001(61): Add *note os.eventfd(): 804. to provide a low level
     interface for Linux's event notification file descriptor.

   - bpo-40816(62): Add AsyncContextDecorator to contextlib to support
     async context manager as a decorator.

   - bpo-40550(63): Fix time-of-check/time-of-action issue in
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal.

   - bpo-39411(64): Add an ‘is_async’ identifier to *note pyclbr: b3.'s
     ‘Function’ objects.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-35498(65): Add slice support to *note pathlib.PurePath.parents:
     80c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5054

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42562

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17735

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42116

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42487

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42482

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15450

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42406

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42403

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42375

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42328

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42318

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42350

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42014

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42237

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42249

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41754

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42183

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42140

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39825

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41889

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41861

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40624

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28850

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12800

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40968

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40816

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40550

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39411

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<34>,  Next: Tests<37>,  Prev: Library<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): Tentative to deprecate ‘make suspicious’ by first
     removing it from the CI and documentation builds, but keeping it
     around for manual uses.

   - bpo-42153(2): Fix the URL for the IMAP protocol documents.

   - bpo-41028(3): Language and version switchers, previously maintained
     in every cpython branches, are now handled by docsbuild-script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42153

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41028


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<37>,  Next: Build<39>,  Prev: Documentation<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41473(1): Re-enable test_gdb on gdb 9.2 and newer:
     ‘https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1866884’ bug is fixed
     in gdb 10.1.

   - bpo-42553(2): Fix ‘test_asyncio.test_call_later()’ race condition:
     don't measure asyncio performance in the ‘call_later()’ unit test.
     The test failed randomly on the CI.

   - bpo-31904(3): Fix test_netrc on VxWorks: create temporary
     directories using temp_cwd().

   - bpo-31904(4): skip test_getaddrinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic and
     test_getnameinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(5): skip test_test of test_mailcap on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(6): add shell requirement for test_pipes

   - bpo-31904(7): skip some tests related to fifo on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(8): Fix test_doctest.py failures for VxWorks.

   - bpo-40754(9): Include ‘_testinternalcapi’ module in Windows
     installer for test suite

   - bpo-41561(10): test_ssl: skip test_min_max_version_mismatch when
     TLS 1.0 is not available

   - bpo-31904(11): Fix os module failures for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix fifo test cases for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42553

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40754

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Build<39>,  Next: Windows<34>,  Prev: Tests<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): remove libnet dependency from detect_socket() for
     VxWorks

   - bpo-42398(2): Fix a race condition in "make regen-all" when make
     -jN option is used to run jobs in parallel.  The clinic.py script
     now only use atomic write to write files.  Moveover, generated
     files are now left unchanged if the content does not change, to not
     change the file modification time.

   - bpo-41617(3): Fix building ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ internal header on
     old clang version without ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ (ex: Xcode 4.6.3 on
     Mac OS X 10.7).  Patch by Joshua Root and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38823(4): It is no longer possible to build the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module without ‘wchar_t’ type: remove ‘CTYPES_UNICODE’
     macro.  Anyway, the ‘wchar_t’ type is required to build Python.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42087(5): Support was removed for AIX 5.3 and below.  See
     bpo-40680(6).

   - bpo-40998(7): Addressed three compiler warnings found by undefined
     behavior sanitizer (ubsan).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42398

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38823

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40680

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40998


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<34>,  Next: macOS<29>,  Prev: Build<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-42120(1): Remove macro definition of ‘copysign’ (to
     ‘_copysign’) in headers.

   - bpo-38506(2): The Windows launcher now properly handles Python 3.10
     when listing installed Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42120

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38506


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<29>,  Next: IDLE<25>,  Prev: Windows<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Fix build on macOS Big Sur when
     MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET=11

   - bpo-41116(2): Ensure distutils.unixxcompiler.find_library_file can
     find system provided libraries on macOS 11.

   - bpo-41100(3): Add support for macOS 11 and Apple Silicon systems.

     It is now possible to build "Universal 2" binaries using
     "-enable-universalsdk -with-universal-archs=universal2".

     Binaries build on later macOS versions can be deployed back to
     older versions (tested up to macOS 10.9), when using the correct
     deployment target.  This is tested using Xcode 11 and later.

   - bpo-42232(4): Added Darwin specific madvise options to mmap module.

   - bpo-38443(5): The ‘--enable-universalsdk’ and
     ‘--with-universal-archs’ options for the configure script now check
     that the specified architectures can be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38443


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<25>,  Next: Tools/Demos<18>,  Prev: macOS<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42508(1): Keep IDLE running on macOS. Remove obsolete
     workaround that prevented running files with shortcuts when using
     new universal2 installers built on macOS 11.

   - bpo-42426(2): Fix reporting offset of the RE error in searchengine.

   - bpo-42415(3): Get docstrings for IDLE calltips more often by using
     inspect.getdoc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42508

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42415


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<18>,  Next: C API<38>,  Prev: IDLE<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-42212(1): The smelly.py script now also checks the Python
     dynamic library and extension modules, not only the Python static
     library.  Make also the script more verbose: explain what it does.

   - bpo-36310(2): Allow ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’ to detect calls to
     ‘gettext’ in f-strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<38>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<18>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.40.11 C API
................

   - bpo-42423(1): The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port *note select: c0. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _posixsubprocess extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port _posixshmem extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(7))

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _struct extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9))

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port ‘spwd’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11))

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note gc: 5f. extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13))

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port _queue extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(15))

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert *note Py_TYPE(): 76c. and *note Py_SIZE():
     76e. back to macros to allow using them as an l-value.  Many third
     party C extension modules rely on the ability of using Py_TYPE()
     and Py_SIZE() to set an object type and size: ‘Py_TYPE(obj) =
     type;’ and ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = size;’.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port *note symtable: d7. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(18))

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port *note grp: 65. and *note pwd: b1. extension
     modules to multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(20))

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _random extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22))

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port _hashlib extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(24))

   - bpo-41713(25): Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’
     function.  Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal
     handlers: see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8ad.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(26): The ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ macro no longer accesses
     PyTypeObject attributes, but now can get the condition by calling
     the new private ‘_PyTrash_cond()’ function which hides
     implementation details.

   - bpo-42260(27): *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac,
     *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae,
     *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note Python
     Initialization Configuration API: 39e. to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration.: 89c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(28): The *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. function now only
     parses *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. arguments once: *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 18e5. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are
     parsed.  Since Python arguments are strippped from *note
     PyConfig.argv: 3ba, parsing arguments twice would parse the
     application options as Python options.

   - bpo-42262(29): Added *note Py_NewRef(): 888. and *note
     Py_XNewRef(): 889. functions to increment the reference count of an
     object and return the object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(30): When *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. is called twice,
     the second call now updates more *note sys: d8. attributes for the
     configuration, rather than only *note sys.argv: 1245.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41832(31): The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. function
     now accepts NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.

   - bpo-1635741(32): Added *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b.
     function: similar to *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c. but don't
     steal a reference to the value on success.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42171(33): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. calling convention is
     added to the limited API. The functions *note PyModule_AddType():
     964, *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f, *note
     PyType_GetModule(): 95d. and *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 95e.
     are added to the limited API on Windows.

   - bpo-42085(34): Add dedicated entry to PyAsyncMethods for sending
     values

   - bpo-41073(35): *note PyType_GetSlot(): 88a. can now accept static
     types.

   - bpo-30459(36): *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 384, *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 383. and *note PyCell_SET(): 89d. macros can no
     longer be used as l-value or r-value.  For example, ‘x =
     PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now
     fail with a compiler error.  It prevents bugs like ‘if
     (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.  Patch by Zackery Spytz
     and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42171

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42085

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.41 Python 3.10.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-11-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* C API: C API<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<25>,  Next: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42103(1): Prevented potential DoS attack via CPU and RAM
     exhaustion when processing malformed Apple Property List files in
     binary format.

   - bpo-42051(2): The *note plistlib: aa. module no longer accepts
     entity declarations in XML plist files to avoid XML
     vulnerabilities.  This should not affect users as entity
     declarations are not used in regular plist files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42051


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<41>,  Next: Library<40>,  Prev: Security<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42236(1): If the ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ function returns an
     empty string, Python now uses UTF-8 as the filesystem encoding.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42218(2): Fixed a bug in the PEG parser that was causing
     crashes in debug mode.  Now errors are checked in left-recursive
     rules to avoid cases where such errors do not get handled in time
     and appear as long-distance crashes in other places.

   - bpo-42214(3): Fixed a possible crash in the PEG parser when
     checking for the '!=' token in the ‘barry_as_flufl’ rule.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42206(4): Propagate and raise the errors caused by
     ‘PyAST_Validate()’ in the parser.

   - bpo-41796(5): The *note ast: 8. module internal state is now per
     interpreter.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42143(6): Fix handling of errors during creation of
     ‘PyFunctionObject’, which resulted in operations on uninitialized
     memory.  Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-41659(7): Fix a bug in the parser, where a curly brace
     following a ‘primary’ didn't fail immediately.  This led to invalid
     expressions like ‘a {b}’ to throw a *note SyntaxError: 18b. with a
     wrong offset, or invalid expressions ending with a curly brace like
     ‘a {’ to not fail immediately in the REPL.

   - bpo-42150(8): Fix possible buffer overflow in the new parser when
     checking for continuation lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42123(9): Run the parser two times.  On the first run, disable
     all the rules that only generate better error messages to gain
     performance.  If there's a parse failure, run the parser a second
     time with those enabled.

   - bpo-42093(10): The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new "per opcode
     cache" mechanism and it is about 36% faster now.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-42030(11): Support for the legacy AIX-specific shared library
     loading support has been removed.  All versions of AIX since 4.3
     have supported and defaulted to using the common Unix mechanism
     instead.

   - bpo-41984(12): The garbage collector now tracks all user-defined
     classes.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-41993(13): Fixed potential issues with removing not completely
     initialized module from ‘sys.modules’ when import fails.

   - bpo-41979(14): Star-unpacking is now allowed for with item's
     targets in the PEG parser.

   - bpo-41974(15): Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’,
     ‘__rmod__’ and ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 2ed. class.
     They always raised a *note TypeError: 525.

   - bpo-41902(16): Micro optimization when compute *note sq_item: 18e9.
     and *note mp_subscript: 18ea. of *note range: 932.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41894(17): When loading a native module and a load failure
     occurs, prevent a possible UnicodeDecodeError when not running in a
     UTF-8 locale by decoding the load error message using the current
     locale's encoding.

   - bpo-41902(18): Micro optimization for range.index if step is 1.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41435(19): Add ‘sys._current_exceptions()’ function to retrieve
     a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.

   - bpo-38605(20): Enable ‘from __future__ import annotations’ ( PEP
     563(21)) by default.  The values found in ‘__annotations__’ dicts
     are now strings, for example ‘{"x": "int"}’ instead of ‘{"x":
     int}’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42218

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42214

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42206

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41796

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42143

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41659

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42150

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42123

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42030

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41984

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41993

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41979

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41894

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41435

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<40>,  Next: Documentation<35>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35455(1): On Solaris, *note thread_time(): 925. is now
     implemented with ‘gethrvtime()’ because
     ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ is not always available.
     Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - bpo-42233(2): The *note repr(): 7e9. of *note typing: 103. types
     containing *note Generic Alias Types: 69f. previously did not show
     the parameterized types in the ‘GenericAlias’.  They have now been
     changed to do so.

   - bpo-29566(3): ‘binhex.binhex()’ consistently writes macOS 9 line
     endings.

   - bpo-26789(4): The *note logging.FileHandler: 185b. class now keeps
     a reference to the builtin *note open(): 508. function to be able
     to open or reopen the file during Python finalization.  Fix errors
     like: ‘NameError: name 'open' is not defined’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(5): Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute
     which was an internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(6): Convert the *note unicodedata: 104. extension module
     to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)) and convert the
     ‘unicodedata.UCD’ static type to a heap type.  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42146(8): Fix memory leak in *note subprocess.Popen(): 197. in
     case an uid (gid) specified in ‘user’ (‘group’, ‘extra_groups’)
     overflows ‘uid_t’ (‘gid_t’).

   - bpo-42103(9): *note InvalidFileException: 18ec. and *note
     RecursionError: d5b. are now the only errors caused by loading
     malformed binary Plist file (previously ValueError and TypeError
     could be raised in some specific cases).

   - bpo-41490(10): In ‘importlib.resources’, ‘.path’ method is more
     aggressive about releasing handles to zipfile objects early,
     enabling use-cases like certifi to leave the context open but
     delete the underlying zip file.

   - bpo-41052(11): Pickling heap types implemented in C with protocols
     0 and 1 raises now an error instead of producing incorrect data.

   - bpo-42089(12): In ‘importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError’, make
     reference to the package metadata being missing to improve the user
     experience.

   - bpo-41491(13): plistlib: fix parsing XML plists with hexadecimal
     integer values

   - bpo-42065(14): Fix an incorrectly formatted error from
     ‘_codecs.charmap_decode()’ when called with a mapped value outside
     the range of valid Unicode code points.  PR by Max Bernstein.

   - bpo-41966(15): Fix pickling pure Python *note datetime.time: 1c9.
     subclasses.  Patch by Dean Inwood.

   - bpo-19270(16): *note sched.scheduler.cancel(): 18ed. will now
     cancel the correct event, if two events with same priority are
     scheduled for the same time.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-28660(17): *note textwrap.wrap(): 147d. now attempts to break
     long words after hyphens when ‘break_long_words=True’ and
     ‘break_on_hyphens=True’.

   - bpo-35823(18): Use ‘vfork()’ instead of ‘fork()’ for *note
     subprocess.Popen(): 197. on Linux to improve performance in cases
     where it is deemed safe.

   - bpo-42043(19): Add support for ‘zipfile.Path’ inheritance.
     ‘zipfile.Path.is_file()’ now returns False for non-existent names.
     ‘zipfile.Path’ objects now expose a ‘.filename’ attribute and rely
     on that to resolve ‘.name’ and ‘.parent’ when the ‘Path’ object is
     at the root of the zipfile.

   - bpo-42021(20): Fix possible ref leaks in *note sqlite3: ce. module
     init.

   - bpo-39101(21): Fixed tests using IsolatedAsyncioTestCase from
     hanging on BaseExceptions.

   - bpo-41976(22): Fixed a bug that was causing *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): d39. to return ‘None’ when triying to
     locate a library in an environment when gcc>=9 is available and
     ‘ldconfig’ is not.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41943(23): Fix bug where TestCase.assertLogs doesn't correctly
     filter messages by level.

   - bpo-41923(24): Implement PEP 613(25), introducing *note
     typing.TypeAlias: 7b5. annotation.

   - bpo-41905(26): A new function in abc: 'update_abstractmethods' to
     re-calculate an abstract class's abstract status.  In addition,
     'dataclass' has been changed to call this function.

   - bpo-23706(27): Added 'newline' parameter to
     ‘pathlib.Path.write_text()’.

   - bpo-41876(28): Tkinter font class repr uses font name

   - bpo-41831(29): ‘str()’ for the ‘type’ attribute of the
     ‘tkinter.Event’ object always returns now the numeric code returned
     by Tk instead of the name of the event type.

   - bpo-39337(30): ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ now ignores
     non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-41747(31): Ensure all methods that generated from *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 1c6. objects now have the proper
     ‘__qualname__’ attribute referring to the class they belong to.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-30681(32): Handle exceptions caused by unparsable date headers
     when using email "default" policy.  Patch by Tim Bell, Georges Toth

   - bpo-41586(33): Add F_SETPIPE_SZ and F_GETPIPE_SZ to fcntl module.
     Allow setting pipesize on subprocess.Popen.

   - bpo-41229(34): Add ‘contextlib.aclosing’ for deterministic cleanup
     of async generators which is analogous to ‘contextlib.closing’ for
     non-async generators.  Patch by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte.

   - bpo-16396(35): Allow ‘ctypes.wintypes’ to be imported on
     non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-4356(36): Add a key function to the bisect module.

   - bpo-40592(37): *note shutil.which(): 4a0. now ignores empty entries
     in ‘PATHEXT’ instead of treating them as a match.

   - bpo-40492(38): Fix ‘--outfile’ for *note cProfile: 27. / *note
     profile: ae. not writing the output file in the original directory
     when the program being profiled changes the working directory.  PR
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-34204(39): The *note shelve: c2. module now uses *note
     pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 81a. by default instead of *note pickle:
     a5. protocol ‘3’.

   - bpo-27321(40): Fixed KeyError exception when flattening an email to
     a string attempts to replace a non-existent
     Content-Transfer-Encoding header.

   - bpo-38976(41): The *note http.cookiejar: 6f. module now supports
     the parsing of cookies in CURL-style cookiejar files through
     MozillaCookieJar on all platforms.  Previously, such cookie entries
     would be silently ignored when loading a cookiejar with such
     entries.

     Additionally, the HTTP Only attribute is persisted in the object,
     and will be correctly written to file if the MozillaCookieJar
     object is subsequently dumped.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35455

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29566

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26789

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42146

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41490

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42089

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41491

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42065

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41966

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19270

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28660

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35823

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42043

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42021

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39101

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41976

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41943

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41905

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23706

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41876

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41831

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41747

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30681

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41586

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16396

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40592

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40492

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27321

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<35>,  Next: Tests<38>,  Prev: Library<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42061(1): Document __format__ functionality for IP addresses.

   - bpo-41910(2): Document the default implementation of
     ‘object.__eq__’.

   - bpo-42010(3): Clarify that subscription expressions are also valid
     for certain *note classes: 18ef. and *note types: 18f0. in the
     standard library, and for user-defined classes and types if the
     classmethod ‘__class_getitem__()’ is provided.

   - bpo-41805(4): Documented *note generic alias type: 69f. and *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7d7.  Also added an entry in glossary for *note
     generic types: 424.

   - bpo-39693(5): Fix tarfile's extractfile documentation

   - bpo-39416(6): Document some restrictions on the default string
     representations of numeric classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42061

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42010

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41805

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39693

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39416


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<38>,  Next: Build<40>,  Prev: Documentation<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41739(1): Fix
     test_logging.test_race_between_set_target_and_flush(): the test now
     waits until all threads complete to avoid leaking running threads.

   - bpo-41970(2): Avoid a test failure in ‘test_lib2to3’ if the module
     has already imported at the time the test executes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41944(3): Tests for CJK codecs no longer call ‘eval()’ on
     content received via HTTP.

   - bpo-41306(4): Fixed a failure in ‘test_tk.test_widgets.ScaleTest’
     happening when executing the test with Tk 8.6.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41739

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41306


File: python.info,  Node: Build<40>,  Next: Windows<35>,  Prev: Tests<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38980(1): Add ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to both the compile
     and link line when building with ‘--enable-optimizations’.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<35>,  Next: macOS<30>,  Prev: Build<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38439(1): Updates the icons for IDLE in the Windows Store
     package.

   - bpo-38252(2): Use 8-byte step to detect ASCII sequence in 64-bit
     Windows build.

   - bpo-39107(3): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.10 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-41557(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-38324(5): Avoid Unicode errors when accessing certain locale
     data on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38252

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39107

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38324


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<30>,  Next: IDLE<26>,  Prev: Windows<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41471(1): Ignore invalid prefix lengths in system proxy
     excludes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41471


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<26>,  Next: C API<39>,  Prev: macOS<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33987(1): Mostly finish using ttk widgets, mainly for editor,
     settings, and searches.  Some patches by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-40511(2): Typing opening and closing parentheses inside the
     parentheses of a function call will no longer cause unnecessary
     "flashing" off and on of an existing open call-tip, e.g.  when
     typed in a string literal.

   - bpo-38439(3): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to the Windows .ico
     file.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Remove the low-color gif
     variations from the .ico file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40511

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439


File: python.info,  Node: C API<39>,  Prev: IDLE<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.41.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42157(1): The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the
     PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the
     internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42015(2): Fix potential crash in deallocating method objects
     when dynamically allocated *note PyMethodDef: 148f.'s lifetime is
     managed through the ‘self’ argument of a *note PyCFunction: 142d.

   - bpo-40423(3): The *note subprocess: d5. module and ‘os.closerange’
     will now use the ‘close_range(low, high, flags)’ syscall when it is
     available for more efficient closing of ranges of descriptors.

   - bpo-41845(4): *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 18f7. is available
     again in the limited API when targeting 3.10 or later.

   - bpo-40422(5): Add ‘_Py_closerange’ function to provide performant
     closing of a range of file descriptors.

   - bpo-41986(6): ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ and ‘Py_UTF8Mode’
     are available again in limited API.

   - bpo-41756(7): Add ‘PyIter_Send’ function to allow sending value
     into generator/coroutine/iterator without raising StopIteration
     exception to signal return.

   - bpo-41784(8): Added ‘PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize’ to the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42015

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40423

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41845

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40422

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.42 Python 3.10.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<26>,  Next: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-41304(1): Fixes ‘python3x._pth’ being ignored on Windows,
     caused by the fix for bpo-29778(2) ( CVE 2020-15801(3)).

   - bpo-41162(4): Audit hooks are now cleared later during finalization
     to avoid missing events.

   - bpo-29778(5): Ensure ‘python3.dll’ is loaded from correct locations
     when Python is embedded ( CVE 2020-15523(6)).

   - bpo-41004(7): The __hash__() methods of ipaddress.IPv4Interface and
     ipaddress.IPv6Interface incorrectly generated constant hash values
     of 32 and 128 respectively.  This resulted in always causing hash
     collisions.  The fix uses hash() to generate hash values for the
     tuple of (address, mask length, network address).

   - bpo-39603(8): Prevent http header injection by rejecting control
     characters in http.client.putrequest(...).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15801

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41162

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15523

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41004

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39603


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<42>,  Next: Library<41>,  Prev: Security<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41909(1): Fixed stack overflow in *note issubclass(): 7ad. and
     *note isinstance(): 42d. when getting the ‘__bases__’ attribute
     leads to infinite recursion.

   - bpo-41922(2): Speed up calls to ‘reversed()’ by using the PEP
     590(3) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41873(4): Calls to ‘float()’ are now faster due to the
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-41870(5): Speed up calls to ‘bool()’ by using the PEP 590(6)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(7): Port the ‘_bisect’ module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(8)).

   - bpo-39934(9): Correctly count control blocks in 'except' in
     compiler.  Ensures that a syntax error, rather a fatal error,
     occurs for deeply nested, named exception handlers.

   - bpo-41780(10): Fix ‘__dir__()’ of *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port the ‘_lsprof’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-1635741(13): Port the *note cmath: 18. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(14)).

   - bpo-1635741(15): Port the ‘_scproxy’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(16)).

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port the *note termios: e0. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Convert the ‘_sha256’ extension module types to
     heap types.

   - bpo-41690(20): Fix a possible stack overflow in the parser when
     parsing functions and classes with a huge amount of arguments.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port the ‘_overlapped’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port the ‘_curses_panel’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port the ‘_opcode’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-41681(27): Fixes the wrong error description in the error
     raised by using 2 ‘,’ in format string in f-string and *note
     str.format(): 60e.

   - bpo-41675(28): The implementation of *note signal.siginterrupt():
     1117. now uses ‘sigaction()’ (if it is available in the system)
     instead of the deprecated ‘siginterrupt()’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41670(29): Prevent line trace being skipped on platforms not
     compiled with ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’.  Fixes issue where some lines
     nested within a try-except block were not being traced on Windows.

   - bpo-41654(30): Fix a crash that occurred when destroying subclasses
     of *note MemoryError: 1530.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port the *note zlib: 132. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-41631(33): The ‘_ast’ module uses again a global state.  Using
     a module state per module instance is causing subtle practical
     problems.  For example, the Mercurial project replaces the
     ‘__import__()’ function to implement lazy import, whereas Python
     expected that ‘import _ast’ always return a fully initialized
     ‘_ast’ module.

   - bpo-40077(34): Convert ‘_operator’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     56b.

   - bpo-1653741(35): Port ‘_sha3’ to multi-phase init.  Convert static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port the ‘_blake2’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-41533(38): Free the stack allocated in ‘va_build_stack’ if
     ‘do_mkstack’ fails and the stack is not a ‘small_stack’.

   - bpo-41531(39): Fix a bug that was dropping keys when compiling dict
     literals with more than 0xFFFF elements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41525(40): The output of ‘python --help’ contains now only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-1635741(41): Port the ‘_sha1’, ‘_sha512’, and ‘_md5’ extension
     modules to multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(42)).

   - bpo-41431(43): Optimize ‘dict_merge()’ for copying dict (e.g.
     ‘dict(d)’ and ‘{}.update(d)’).

   - bpo-41428(44): Implement PEP 604.  This supports (int | str) etc.
     in place of Union[str, int].

   - bpo-41340(45): Removed fallback implementation for ‘strdup’.

   - bpo-38156(46): Handle interrupts that come after EOF correctly in
     ‘PyOS_StdioReadline’.

   - bpo-41342(47): *note round(): 12ba. with integer argument is now
     faster (9-60%).

   - bpo-41334(48): Constructors *note str(): 437, *note bytes(): 1bd.
     and *note bytearray(): 52b. are now faster (around 30-40% for small
     objects).

   - bpo-41295(49): Resolve a regression in CPython 3.8.4 where defining
     "__setattr__" in a multi-inheritance setup and calling up the
     hierarchy chain could fail if builtins/extension types were
     involved in the base types.

   - bpo-41323(50): Bytecode optimizations are performed directly on the
     control flow graph.  This will result in slightly more compact code
     objects in some circumstances.

   - bpo-41247(51): Always cache the running loop holder when running
     ‘asyncio.set_running_loop’.

   - bpo-41252(52): Fix incorrect refcounting in _ssl.c's
     ‘_servername_callback()’.

   - bpo-1635741(53): Port *note multiprocessing: 93. to multi-phase
     initialization

   - bpo-1635741(54): Port ‘winapi’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41215(55): Use non-NULL default values in the PEG parser
     keyword list to overcome a bug that was preventing Python from
     being properly compiled when using the XLC compiler.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41218(56): Python 3.8.3 had a regression where compiling with
     ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT would aggressively mark list
     comprehension with CO_COROUTINE. Now only list comprehension making
     use of async/await will tagged as so.

   - bpo-1635741(57): Port *note faulthandler: 57. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(58): Port ‘sha256’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41175(59): Guard against a NULL pointer dereference within
     bytearrayobject triggered by the ‘bytearray() + bytearray()’
     operation.

   - bpo-41100(60): add arm64 to the allowable Mac OS arches in
     mpdecimal.h

   - bpo-41094(61): Fix decoding errors with audit when open files with
     non-ASCII names on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - bpo-39960(62): The "hackcheck" that prevents sneaking around a
     type's __setattr__() by calling the superclass method was rewritten
     to allow C implemented heap types.

   - bpo-41084(63): Prefix the error message with 'f-string: ', when
     parsing an f-string expression which throws a *note SyntaxError:
     18b.

   - bpo-40521(64): Empty frozensets are no longer singletons.

   - bpo-41076(65): Pre-feed the parser with the location of the
     f-string expression, not the f-string itself, which allows us to
     skip the shifting of the AST node locations after the parsing is
     completed.

   - bpo-41056(66): Fixes a reference to deallocated stack space during
     startup when constructing sys.path involving a relative symlink
     when code was supplied via -c.  (discovered via Coverity)

   - bpo-41061(67): Fix incorrect expressions and asserts in hashtable
     code and tests.

   - bpo-41052(68): Opt out serialization/deserialization for
     _random.Random

   - bpo-40939(69): Rename ‘PyPegen*’ functions to ‘PyParser*’, so that
     we can remove the old set of ‘PyParser*’ functions that were using
     the old parser, but keep everything backwards-compatible.

   - bpo-35975(70): Stefan Behnel reported that cf_feature_version is
     used even when PyCF_ONLY_AST is not set.  This is against the
     intention and against the documented behavior, so it's been fixed.

   - bpo-40939(71): Remove the remaining files from the old parser and
     the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40077(72): Convert ‘_bz2’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.

   - bpo-41006(73): The ‘encodings.latin_1’ module is no longer imported
     at startup.  Now it is only imported when it is the filesystem
     encoding or the stdio encoding.

   - bpo-40636(74): *note zip(): 7bc. now supports PEP 618(75)'s
     ‘strict’ parameter, which raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the
     arguments are exhausted at different lengths.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-1635741(76): Port ‘_gdbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40985(77): Fix a bug that caused the *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     text to be empty when a file ends with a line ending in a line
     continuation character (i.e.  backslash).  The error text should
     contain the text of the last line.

   - bpo-40958(78): Fix a possible buffer overflow in the PEG parser
     when gathering information for emitting syntax errors.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(79): Port ‘_dbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40957(80): Fix refleak in _Py_fopen_obj() when PySys_Audit()
     fails

   - bpo-40950(81): Add a state to the ‘nis’ module ( PEP 3121(82)) and
     apply the multiphase initialization.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40947(83): The Python *note Path Configuration: 89c. now takes
     *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 18fb. in account.

   - bpo-40939(84): Remove the old parser, the ‘parser’ module and all
     associated support code, command-line options and environment
     variables.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40847(85): Fix a bug where a line with only a line continuation
     character is not considered a blank line at tokenizer level.  In
     such cases, more than a single ‘NEWLINE’ token was emitted.  The
     old parser was working around the issue, but the new parser threw a
     *note SyntaxError: 18b. for valid input due to this.  For example,
     an empty line following a line continuation character was
     interpreted as a *note SyntaxError: 18b.

   - bpo-40890(86): Each dictionary view now has a ‘mapping’ attribute
     that provides a *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. wrapping the
     original dictionary.  Patch contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40889(87): Improved the performance of symmetric difference
     operations on dictionary item views.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40904(88): Fix possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     parsing f-string containing yield statements with no value
     (‘f"{yield}"’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40903(89): Fixed a possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     producing error messages for invalid assignments of the form
     ‘p=p=’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40880(90): Fix invalid memory read in the new parser when
     checking newlines in string literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40883(91): Fix memory leak in when parsing f-strings in the new
     parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40870(92): Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. when validating custom
     AST's where the constants ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are used
     within a *note ast.Name: 18fc. node.

   - bpo-40854(93): Allow overriding *note sys.platlibdir: 927. via a
     new *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 18fd. environment variable.

   - bpo-40826(94): Fix GIL usage in ‘PyOS_Readline()’: lock the GIL to
     set an exception and pass the Python thread state when checking if
     there is a pending signal.

   - bpo-1635741(95): Port *note fcntl: 58. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-19468(96): Delete unnecessary instance check in
     importlib.reload().  Patch by Furkan Önder.

   - bpo-40824(97): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 2e9. operator
     and functions *note contains(): 8c9, *note indexOf(): 8ca. and
     *note countOf(): 8cb. of the *note operator: 9e. module.

   - bpo-40792(98): Attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘step’ of the *note
     range: 932. object now always has exact type *note int: 254.
     Previously, they could have been an instance of a subclass of
     ‘int’.

   - bpo-40780(99): Fix a corner case where g-style string formatting of
     a float failed to remove trailing zeros.

   - bpo-38964(100): When there's a *note SyntaxError: 18b. in the
     expression part of an fstring, the filename attribute of the *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. gets correctly set to the name of the file the
     fstring resides in.

   - bpo-40750(101): Support the "-d" debug flag in the new PEG parser.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40217(102): Instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. will no longer automatically visit
     their class object when traversing references in the garbage
     collector.  The user is expected to manually visit the object's
     class.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39573(103): *note Py_TYPE(): 76c. is changed to the inline
     static function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40696(104): Fix a hang that can arise after *note
     generator.throw(): 4e5. due to a cycle in the exception context
     chain.

   - bpo-40521(105): Each interpreter now its has own free lists,
     singletons and caches:

        * Free lists: float, tuple, list, dict, frame, context,
          asynchronous generator, MemoryError.

        * Singletons: empty tuple, empty bytes string, empty Unicode
          string, single byte character, single Unicode (latin1)
          character.

        * Slice cache.

     They are no longer shared by all interpreters.

   - bpo-40679(106): Certain *note TypeError: 525. messages about
     missing or extra arguments now include the function's *note
     qualified name: 18fe.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-29590(107): Make the stack trace correct after calling *note
     generator.throw(): 4e5. on a generator that has yielded from a
     ‘yield from’.

   - bpo-4022(108): Improve performance of generators by not raising
     internal StopIteration.

   - bpo-1635741(109): Port *note mmap: 8f. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(110): Port ‘_lzma’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-37999(111): Builtin and extension functions that take integer
     arguments no longer accept *note Decimal: 29a.s, *note Fraction:
     1e4.s and other objects that can be converted to integers only with
     a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__(): 708. method but do not
     have the *note __index__(): 709. method).

   - bpo-29882(112): Add *note int.bit_count(): 7b8, counting the number
     of ones in the binary representation of an integer.  Patch by
     Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-36982(113): Use ncurses extended color functions when available
     to support terminals with 256 colors, and add the new function
     *note curses.has_extended_color_support(): 7e1. to indicate whether
     extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses
     library.

   - bpo-19569(114): Add the private macros ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_PUSH’,
     ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_IGNORE_DEPR_DECLS’, and ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_POP’.

   - bpo-26680(115): The int type now supports the x.is_integer() method
     for compatibility with float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41909

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39934

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41780

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41690

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41681

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41675

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41654

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41631

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1653741

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41533

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41531

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41525

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41431

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41340

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38156

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41342

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41295

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41247

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41252

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<41>,  Next: Documentation<36>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-41900(1): C14N 2.0 serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree
     failed for unprefixed attributes when a default namespace was
     defined.

   - bpo-41887(2): Strip leading spaces and tabs on *note
     ast.literal_eval(): c08.  Also document stripping of spaces and
     tabs for *note eval(): 17e.

   - bpo-41773(3): Note in documentation that *note random.choices():
     cb6. doesn't support non-finite weights, raise *note ValueError:
     1ff. when given non-finite weights.

   - bpo-41840(4): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d7. module that was
     causing module-scope global variables to not be reported as both
     local and global.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41842(5): Add *note codecs.unregister(): 7d4. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-40564(6): In ‘zipfile.Path’, mutate the passed ZipFile object
     type instead of making a copy.  Prevents issues when both the local
     copy and the caller’s copy attempt to close the same file handle.

   - bpo-40670(7): More reliable validation of statements in *note
     timeit.Timer: 147e.  It now accepts "empty" statements (only
     whitespaces and comments) and rejects misindentent statements.

   - bpo-41833(8): The *note threading.Thread: 93b. constructor now uses
     the target name if the 'target' argument is specified but the
     'name' argument is omitted.

   - bpo-41817(9): fix ‘tkinter.EventType’ Enum so all members are
     strings, and none are tuples

   - bpo-41810(10): *note types.EllipsisType: 83d, *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 83f. and *note types.NoneType: 83e. have
     been reintroduced, providing a new set of types readily
     interpretable by static type checkers.

   - bpo-41815(11): Fix SQLite3 segfault when backing up closed
     database.  Patch contributed by Peter David McCormick.

   - bpo-41816(12): StrEnum added: it ensures that all members are
     already strings or string candidates

   - bpo-41517(13): fix bug allowing Enums to be extended via multiple
     inheritance

   - bpo-39587(14): use the correct mix-in data type when constructing
     Enums

   - bpo-41792(15): Add is_typeddict function to typing.py to check if a
     type is a TypedDict class

     Previously there was no way to check that without using private
     API.  See the relevant issue in python/typing(16).

   - bpo-41789(17): Honor ‘object’ overrides in ‘Enum’ class creation
     (specifically, ‘__str__’, ‘__repr__’, ‘__format__’, and
     ‘__reduce_ex__’).

   - bpo-32218(18): ‘enum.Flag’ and ‘enum.IntFlag’ members are now
     iterable.

   - bpo-39651(19): Fix a race condition in the ‘call_soon_threadsafe()’
     method of ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop’: do nothing if the self-pipe
     socket has been closed.

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port the ‘mashal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(21)).

   - bpo-1635741(22): Port the ‘_string’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(23)).

   - bpo-41732(24): Added an *note iterator: 1aa. to *note memoryview:
     454.

   - bpo-41720(25): Fixed ‘turtle.Vec2D.__rmul__()’ for arguments which
     are not int or float.

   - bpo-41696(26): Fix handling of debug mode in *note asyncio.run():
     468.  This allows setting ‘PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG’ or ‘-X dev’ to
     enable asyncio debug mode when using *note asyncio.run(): 468.

   - bpo-41687(27): Fix implementation of sendfile to be compatible with
     Solaris.

   - bpo-41662(28): No longer override exceptions raised in ‘__len__()’
     of a sequence of parameters in *note sqlite3: ce. with *note
     ProgrammingError: 4df.

   - bpo-39010(29): Restarting a ‘ProactorEventLoop’ on Windows no
     longer logs spurious ‘ConnectionResetErrors’.

   - bpo-41638(30): *note ProgrammingError: 4df. message for absent
     parameter in *note sqlite3: ce. contains now the name of the
     parameter instead of its index when parameters are supplied as a
     dict.

   - bpo-41662(31): Fixed crash when mutate list of parameters during
     iteration in *note sqlite3: ce.

   - bpo-41513(32): Improved the accuracy of math.hypot().  Internally,
     each step is computed with extra precision so that the result is
     now almost always correctly rounded.

   - bpo-41609(33): The pdb whatis command correctly reports instance
     methods as 'Method' rather than 'Function'.

   - bpo-39994(34): Fixed pprint's handling of dict subclasses that
     override __repr__.

   - bpo-32751(35): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete also in the case when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with
     positive timeouts.

   - bpo-37658(36): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. now properly handles
     races between cancellation of itself and the completion of the
     wrapped awaitable.

   - bpo-40782(37): Change the method
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.run_in_executor to not be a coroutine.

   - bpo-41520(38): Fix *note codeop: 1c. regression that prevented
     turning compile warnings into errors.

   - bpo-41528(39): turtle uses math module functions to convert degrees
     to radians and vice versa and to calculate vector norm

   - bpo-41513(40): Minor algorithmic improvement to math.hypot() and
     math.dist() giving small gains in speed and accuracy.

   - bpo-41503(41): Fixed a race between setTarget and flush in
     logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.

   - bpo-41497(42): Fix potential UnicodeDecodeError in dis module.

   - bpo-41467(43): On Windows, fix asyncio ‘recv_into()’ return value
     when the socket/pipe is closed (*note BrokenPipeError: 1047.):
     return ‘0’ rather than an empty byte string (‘b''’).

   - bpo-41425(44): Make tkinter doc example runnable.

   - bpo-41421(45): Make an algebraic simplification to
     random.paretovariate().  It now is slightly less subject to
     round-off error and is slightly faster.  Inputs that used to cause
     ZeroDivisionError now cause an OverflowError instead.

   - bpo-41440(46): Add *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. support for VxWorks
     RTOS.

   - bpo-41316(47): Fix the *note tarfile: dd. module to write only
     basename of TAR file to GZIP compression header.

   - bpo-41384(48): Raise TclError instead of TypeError when an unknown
     option is passed to tkinter.OptionMenu.

   - bpo-41317(49): Use add_done_callback() in
     asyncio.loop.sock_accept() to unsubscribe reader early on
     cancellation.

   - bpo-41364(50): Reduce import overhead of *note uuid: 10f.

   - bpo-35328(51): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 110. activation.

   - bpo-41341(52): Recursive evaluation of ‘typing.ForwardRef’ in
     ‘get_type_hints’.

   - bpo-41344(53): Prevent creating ‘shared_memory.SharedMemory’
     objects with ‘size=0’.

   - bpo-41333(54): ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ is now 2 times
     faster.

   - bpo-41288(55): Unpickling invalid NEWOBJ_EX opcode with the C
     implementation raises now UnpicklingError instead of crashing.

   - bpo-39017(56): Avoid infinite loop when reading specially crafted
     TAR files using the tarfile module ( CVE 2019-20907(57)).

   - bpo-41273(58): Speed up any transport using
     ‘_ProactorReadPipeTransport’ by calling ‘recv_into’ instead of
     ‘recv’, thus not creating a new buffer for each ‘recv’ call in the
     transport's read loop.

   - bpo-41235(59): Fix the error handling in *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params(): 1124.

   - bpo-41207(60): In distutils.spawn, restore expectation that
     DistutilsExecError is raised when the command is not found.

   - bpo-29727(61): Register *note array.array: 19e. as a *note
     MutableSequence: 19f.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39168(62): Remove the ‘__new__’ method of *note typing.Generic:
     15d4.

   - bpo-41194(63): Fix a crash in the ‘_ast’ module: it can no longer
     be loaded more than once.  It now uses a global state rather than a
     module state.

   - bpo-41195(64): Add read-only ssl.SSLContext.security_level
     attribute to retrieve the context's security level.

   - bpo-41193(65): The ‘write_history()’ atexit function of the
     readline completer now ignores any *note OSError: 40d. to ignore
     error if the filesystem is read-only, instead of only ignoring
     *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. and *note PermissionError: d32.

   - bpo-41182(66): selector: use DefaultSelector based upon
     implementation

   - bpo-41161(67): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.
     Users of -with-system-libmpdec should update their system library.

   - bpo-40874(68): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.

   - bpo-41138(69): Fixed the *note trace: fc. module CLI for Python
     source files with non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-31082(70): Use the term "iterable" in the docstring for *note
     functools.reduce(): 12bc.

   - bpo-40521(71): Remove freelist from collections.deque().

   - bpo-31938(72): Fix default-value signatures of several functions in
     the *note select: c0. module - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41068(73): Fixed reading files with non-ASCII names from ZIP
     archive directly after writing them.

   - bpo-41058(74): ‘pdb.find_function()’ now correctly determines the
     source file encoding.

   - bpo-41056(75): Invalid file descriptor values are now prevented
     from being passed to os.fpathconf.  (discovered by Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(76): Fix a NULL pointer dereference within the ssl module
     during a MemoryError in the keylog callback.  (discovered by
     Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(77): Fixed an instance where a MemoryError within the
     zoneinfo module might not be reported or not reported at its
     source.  (found by Coverity)

   - bpo-41048(78): *note mimetypes.read_mime_types(): 1900. function
     reads the rule file using UTF-8 encoding, not the locale encoding.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy.

   - bpo-41043(79): Fixed the use of *note glob(): 29c. in the stdlib:
     literal part of the path is now always correctly escaped.

   - bpo-41025(80): Fixed an issue preventing the C implementation of
     *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 8ce. from being subclassed.

   - bpo-35018(81): Add the *note xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler: 848.
     class that is present in other SAX XML implementations.

   - bpo-41002(82): Improve performance of HTTPResponse.read with a
     given amount.  Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-40448(83): *note ensurepip: 54. now disables the use of ‘pip’
     cache when installing the bundled versions of ‘pip’ and
     ‘setuptools’.  Patch by Krzysztof Konopko.

   - bpo-40967(84): Removed ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-40924(85): Ensure ‘importlib.resources.path’ returns an extant
     path for the SourceFileLoader's resource reader.  Avoids the
     regression identified in master while a long-term solution is
     devised.

   - bpo-40955(86): Fix a minor memory leak in *note subprocess: d5.
     module when extra_groups was specified.

   - bpo-40855(87): The standard deviation and variance functions in the
     statistics module were ignoring their mu and xbar arguments.

   - bpo-40939(88): Use the new PEG parser when generating the stdlib
     *note keyword: 83. module.

   - bpo-23427(89): Add *note sys.orig_argv: 82c. attribute: the list of
     the original command line arguments passed to the Python
     executable.

   - bpo-33689(90): Ignore empty or whitespace-only lines in .pth files.
     This matches the documentated behavior.  Before, empty lines caused
     the site-packages dir to appear multiple times in sys.path.  By Ido
     Michael, contributors Malcolm Smith and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-40884(91): Added a ‘defaults’ parameter to *note
     logging.Formatter: 144b, to allow specifying default values for
     custom fields.  Patch by Asaf Alon and Bar Harel.

   - bpo-40876(92): Clarify error message in the *note csv: 29. module.

   - bpo-39791(93): Refresh importlib.metadata from importlib_metadata
     1.6.1.

   - bpo-40807(94): Stop codeop._maybe_compile, used by
     code.InteractiveInterpreter (and IDLE). from emitting each warning
     three times.

   - bpo-32604(95): Fix reference leak in the *note select: c0. module
     when the module is imported in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-39791(96): Built-in loaders (SourceFileLoader and ZipImporter)
     now supply ‘TraversableResources’ implementations for
     ‘ResourceReader’, and the fallback function has been removed.

   - bpo-39314(97): *note rlcompleter.Completer: 1901. and the standard
     Python shell now close the parenthesis for functions that take no
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-17005(98): The topological sort functionality that was
     introduced initially in the *note functools: 5e. module has been
     moved to a new *note graphlib: 64. module to better accommodate the
     new tools and keep the original scope of the *note functools: 5e.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40834(99): Fix truncate when sending str object
     with_xxsubinterpreters.channel_send.

   - bpo-40755(100): Add rich comparisons to collections.Counter().

   - bpo-26407(101): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in *note csv.reader(): 472,
     ‘csv.writer.writerow()’ and ‘csv.writer.writerows()’.

   - bpo-39384(102): Fixed email.contentmanager to allow set_content()
     to set a null string.

   - bpo-40744(103): The *note sqlite3: ce. module uses SQLite API
     functions that require SQLite v3.7.3 or higher.  This patch removes
     support for older SQLite versions, and explicitly requires SQLite
     3.7.3 both at build, compile and runtime.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev
     and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40777(104): Initialize PyDateTime_IsoCalendarDateType.tp_base
     at run-time to avoid errors on some compilers.

   - bpo-38488(105): Update ensurepip to install pip 20.1.1 and
     setuptools 47.1.0.

   - bpo-40792(106): The result of *note operator.index(): 18cb. now
     always has exact type *note int: 254.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-40767(107): *note webbrowser: 114. now properly finds the
     default browser in pure Wayland systems by checking the
     WAYLAND_DISPLAY environment variable.  Patch contributed by Jérémy
     Attali.

   - bpo-40791(108): ‘hashlib.compare_digest()’ uses OpenSSL's
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ function when OpenSSL is available.

   - bpo-40795(109): *note ctypes: 2a. module: If ctypes fails to
     convert the result of a callback or if a ctypes callback function
     raises an exception, sys.unraisablehook is now called with an
     exception set.  Previously, the error was logged into stderr by
     *note PyErr_Print(): 1902.

   - bpo-16995(110): Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 7cf. and *note
     base64.b32hexdecode(): 7d0. to support the Base32 Encoding with
     Extended Hex Alphabet.

   - bpo-30008(111): Fix *note ssl: cf. code to be compatible with
     OpenSSL 1.1.x builds that use ‘no-deprecated’ and ‘--api=1.1.0’.

   - bpo-30064(112): Fix asyncio ‘loop.sock_*’ race condition issue

   - bpo-40759(113): Deprecate the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40756(114): The second argument (extra) of
     ‘LoggerAdapter.__init__’ now defaults to None.

   - bpo-37129(115): Add a new *note os.RWF_APPEND: 1903. flag for *note
     os.pwritev(): b50.

   - bpo-40737(116): Fix possible reference leak for *note sqlite3: ce.
     initialization.

   - bpo-40726(117): Handle cases where the ‘end_lineno’ is ‘None’ on
     *note ast.increment_lineno(): 1752.

   - bpo-40698(118): ‘distutils’ upload creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256
     digests.  MD5 digests is skipped if platform blocks MD5.

   - bpo-40695(119): *note hashlib: 67. no longer falls back to builtin
     hash implementations when OpenSSL provides a hash digest and the
     algorithm is blocked by security policy.

   - bpo-9216(120): *note hashlib.new(): 1904. passed ‘usedforsecurity’
     to OpenSSL EVP constructor ‘_hashlib.new()’.  test_hashlib and
     test_smtplib handle strict security policy better.

   - bpo-40614(121): *note ast.parse(): 1a6. will not parse self
     documenting expressions in f-strings when passed ‘feature_version’
     is less than ‘(3, 8)’.

   - bpo-40626(122): Add h5 file extension as MIME Type
     application/x-hdf5, as per HDF Group recommendation for HDF5
     formatted data files.  Patch contributed by Mark Schwab.

   - bpo-25920(123): On macOS, when building Python for macOS 10.4 and
     older, which wasn't the case for python.org macOS installer, *note
     socket.getaddrinfo(): 170e. no longer uses an internal lock to
     prevent race conditions when calling ‘getaddrinfo()’ which is
     thread-safe since macOS 10.5.  Python 3.9 requires macOS 10.6 or
     newer.  The internal lock caused random hang on fork when another
     thread was calling *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 170e.  The lock was
     also used on FreeBSD older than 5.3, OpenBSD older than 201311 and
     NetBSD older than 4.

   - bpo-40671(124): Prepare ‘_hashlib’ for PEP 489(125) and use *note
     PyModule_AddType(): 964.

   - bpo-32309(126): Added a new *note coroutine: 47d. *note
     asyncio.to_thread(): 8d7.  It is mainly used for running IO-bound
     functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop,
     and essentially works as a high-level version of *note
     run_in_executor(): 8d8. that can directly take keyword arguments.

   - bpo-36543(127): Restored the deprecated ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’
     module.

   - bpo-40611(128): *note MAP_POPULATE: 1905. constant has now been
     added to the list of exported *note mmap: 8f. module flags.

   - bpo-39881(129): PEP 554 for use in the test suite.  (Patch By
     Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-13097(130): ‘ctypes’ now raises an ‘ArgumentError’ when a
     callback is invoked with more than 1024 arguments.

   - bpo-39385(131): A new test assertion context-manager,
     ‘unittest.assertNoLogs()’ will ensure a given block of code emits
     no log messages using the logging module.  Contributed by Kit Yan
     Choi.

   - bpo-23082(132): Updated the error message and docs of
     PurePath.relative_to() to better reflect the function behaviour.

   - bpo-40318(133): Use SQLite3 trace v2 API, if it is available.

   - bpo-40105(134): ZipFile truncates files to avoid corruption when a
     shorter comment is provided in append ("a") mode.  Patch by Jan
     Mazur.

   - bpo-40084(135): Fix ‘Enum.__dir__’: dir(Enum.member) now includes
     attributes as well as methods.

   - bpo-31122(136): ssl.wrap_socket() now raises ssl.SSLEOFError rather
     than OSError when peer closes connection during TLS negotiation

   - bpo-39728(137): fix default ‘_missing_’ so a duplicate ‘ValueError’
     is not set as the ‘__context__’ of the original ‘ValueError’.

   - bpo-39244(138): Fixed
     ‘multiprocessing.context.get_all_start_methods’ to properly return
     the default method first on macOS.

   - bpo-39040(139): Fix parsing of invalid mime headers parameters by
     collapsing whitespace between encoded words in a bare-quote-string.

   - bpo-38731(140): Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of
     *note py_compile: b2.  Patch by Gregory Schevchenko.

   - bpo-35714(141): *note struct.error: 1303. is now raised if there is
     a null character in a *note struct: d4. format string.

   - bpo-38144(142): Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in
     *note glob.glob(): 29c.

   - bpo-26543(143): Fix ‘IMAP4.noop()’ when debug mode is enabled (ex:
     ‘imaplib.Debug = 3’).

   - bpo-12178(144): *note csv.writer(): 473. now correctly escapes
     'escapechar' when input contains 'escapechar'.  Patch by Catalin
     Iacob, Berker Peksag, and Itay Elbirt.

   - bpo-36290(145): AST nodes are now raising *note TypeError: 525. on
     conflicting keyword arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33944(146): Added site.py site-packages tracing in verbose
     mode.

   - bpo-35078(147): Refactor formatweekday, formatmonthname methods in
     LocaleHTMLCalendar and LocaleTextCalendar classes in calendar
     module to call the base class methods.This enables customizable CSS
     classes for LocaleHTMLCalendar.  Patch by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy

   - bpo-29620(148): *note assertWarns(): 1146. no longer raises a
     ‘RuntimeException’ when accessing a module's ‘__warningregistry__’
     causes importation of a new module, or when a new module is
     imported in another thread.  Patch by Kernc.

   - bpo-31844(149): Remove ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private
     and undocumented ‘_markupbase’ module.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 864. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was deprecated in Python 3.4 and
     removed in Python 3.5.

   - bpo-34226(150): Fix ‘cgi.parse_multipart’ without content_length.
     Patch by Roger Duran

   - bpo-33660(151): Fix pathlib.PosixPath to resolve a relative path
     located on the root directory properly.

   - bpo-28557(152): Improve the error message for a misbehaving
     ‘rawio.readinto’

   - bpo-26680(153): The d.is_integer() method is added to the Decimal
     type, for compatibility with other number types.

   - bpo-26680(154): The x.is_integer() method is incorporated into the
     abstract types of the numeric tower, Real, Rational and Integral,
     with appropriate default implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41887

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41773

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41840

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40564

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41833

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41817

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41815

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39587

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (16) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/751

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41789

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32218

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39651

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41732

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41720

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41696

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41687

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39010

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41638

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39994

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40782

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41520

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41528

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41503

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41497

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41467

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41425

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41421

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41316

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41384

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41317

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41364

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35328

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41341

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41344

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41333

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41288

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39017

   (57) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-20907

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41273

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41235

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41207

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29727

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   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41138

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31082

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   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16995

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   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40671

   (125) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<36>,  Next: Tests<39>,  Prev: Library<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-41428(1): Add documentation for PEP 604(2) (Allow writing union
     types as ‘X | Y’).

   - bpo-41774(3): In Programming FAQ "Sequences (Tuples/Lists)"
     section, add "How do you remove multiple items from a list".

   - bpo-35293(4): Fix RemovedInSphinx40Warning when building the
     documentation.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37149(5): Change Shipman tkinter doc link from archive.org to
     TkDocs.  (The doc has been removed from the NMT server.)  The new
     link responds much faster and includes a short explanatory note.

   - bpo-41726(6): Update the refcounts info of
     ‘PyType_FromModuleAndSpec’.

   - bpo-41624(7): Fix the signature of *note typing.Coroutine: 1907.

   - bpo-40204(8): Enable Sphinx 3.2 ‘c_allow_pre_v3’ option and disable
     ‘c_warn_on_allowed_pre_v3’ option to make the documentation
     compatible with Sphinx 2 and Sphinx 3.

   - bpo-41045(9): Add documentation for debug feature of f-strings.

   - bpo-41314(10): Changed the release when ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ becomes the default from ‘4.0’ to ‘3.10’ (following a
     change in PEP 563).

   - bpo-40979(11): Refactored typing.rst, arranging more than 70
     classes, functions, and decorators into new sub-sections.

   - bpo-40552(12): Fix in tutorial section 4.2.  Code snippet is now
     correct.

   - bpo-39883(13): Make code, examples, and recipes in the Python
     documentation be licensed under the more permissive BSD0 license in
     addition to the existing Python 2.0 license.

   - bpo-37703(14): Updated Documentation to comprehensively elaborate
     on the behaviour of gather.cancel()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41774

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41045

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41314

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40552

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39883

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37703


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<39>,  Next: Build<41>,  Prev: Documentation<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41939(1): Fix test_site.test_license_exists_at_url(): call
     ‘urllib.request.urlcleanup()’ to reset the global
     ‘urllib.request._opener’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41731(2): Make test_cmd_line_script pass with option '-vv'.

   - bpo-41602(3): Add tests for SIGINT handling in the runpy module.

   - bpo-41521(4): *note test.support: e3.: Rename ‘blacklist’ parameter
     of *note check__all__(): 1909. to ‘not_exported’.

   - bpo-41477(5): Make ctypes optional in test_genericalias.

   - bpo-41085(6): Fix integer overflow in the *note
     array.array.index(): 7cc. method on 64-bit Windows for index larger
     than ‘2**31’.

   - bpo-41069(7): ‘test.support.TESTFN’ and the current directory for
     tests when run via ‘test.regrtest’ contain now non-ascii characters
     if possible.

   - bpo-38377(8): On Linux, skip tests using multiprocessing if the
     current user cannot create a file in ‘/dev/shm/’ directory.  Add
     the *note skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize(): 190a.
     function to the *note test.support: e3. module.

   - bpo-41009(9): Fix use of
     ‘support.require_{linux|mac|freebsd}_version()’ decorators as class
     decorator.

   - bpo-41003(10): Fix ‘test_copyreg’ when ‘numpy’ is installed:
     ‘test.pickletester’ now saves/restores warnings filters when
     importing ‘numpy’, to ignore filters installed by ‘numpy’.

   - bpo-40964(11): Disable remote *note imaplib: 73. tests, host
     cyrus.andrew.cmu.edu is blocking incoming connections.

   - bpo-40927(12): Fix test_binhex when run twice: it now uses
     import_fresh_module() to ensure that it raises DeprecationWarning
     each time.

   - bpo-17258(13): Skip some *note multiprocessing: 93. tests when MD5
     hash digest is blocked.

   - bpo-31904(14): Increase LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT to 10 for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-38169(15): Increase code coverage for SharedMemory and
     ShareableList

   - bpo-34401(16): Make test_gdb properly run on HP-UX. Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41939

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41521

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41477

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41085

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41069

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41009

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40964

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40927

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38169

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34401


File: python.info,  Node: Build<41>,  Next: Windows<36>,  Prev: Tests<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38249(1): Update *note Py_UNREACHABLE: ba5. to use
     __builtin_unreachable() if only the compiler is able to use it.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41617(2): Fix ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ header file to support old
     clang versions: ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ is not available in LLVM
     clang 3.0.

   - bpo-40204(3): Pin Sphinx version to 2.3.1 in ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-36020(4): The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are
     now required to build Python.

   - bpo-40684(5): ‘make install’ now uses the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ variable for
     the destination ‘lib-dynload/’ directory when ‘./configure
     --with-platlibdir’ is used.

   - bpo-40683(6): Fixed an issue where the *note zoneinfo: 133. module
     and its tests were not included when Python is installed with
     ‘make’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40683


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<36>,  Next: macOS<31>,  Prev: Build<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41744(1): Fixes automatic import of props file when using the
     Nuget package.

   - bpo-41627(2): The user site directory for 32-bit now includes a
     ‘-32’ suffix to distinguish it from the 64-bit interpreter's
     directory.

   - bpo-41526(3): Fixed layout of final page of the installer by
     removing the special thanks to Mark Hammond (with his permission).

   - bpo-41492(4): Fixes the description that appears in UAC prompts.

   - bpo-40948(5): Improve post-install message to direct people to the
     "py" command.

   - bpo-41412(6): The installer will now fail to install on Windows 7
     and Windows 8.  Further, the UCRT dependency is now always
     downloaded on demand.

   - bpo-40741(7): Update Windows release to include SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41142(8): ‘msilib’ now supports creating CAB files with
     non-ASCII file path and adding files with non-ASCII file path to
     them.

   - bpo-41074(9): Fixed support of non-ASCII names in functions
     ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ and ‘msilib.init_database()’ and non-ASCII
     SQL in method ‘msilib.Database.OpenView()’.

   - bpo-41039(10): Stable ABI redirection DLL (python3.dll) now uses
     ‘#pragma comment(linker)’ for re-exporting.

   - bpo-40164(11): Updates Windows OpenSSL to 1.1.1g

   - bpo-39631(12): Changes the registered MIME type for ‘.py’ files on
     Windows to ‘text/x-python’ instead of ‘text/plain’.

   - bpo-40677(13): Manually define IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK in case
     some old Windows SDK doesn't have it.

   - bpo-37556(14): Extend py.exe help to mention overrides via venv,
     shebang, environmental variables & ini files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41627

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41526

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40948

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41412

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41142

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41074

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41039

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39631

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40677

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37556


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<31>,  Next: IDLE<27>,  Prev: Windows<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41557(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-39580(2): Avoid opening Finder window if running installer from
     the command line.  Patch contributed by Rick Heil.

   - bpo-41100(3): Fix configure error when building on macOS 11.  Note
     that the current Python release was released shortly after the
     first developer preview of macOS 11 (Big Sur); there are other
     known issues with building and running on the developer preview.
     Big Sur is expected to be fully supported in a future bugfix
     release of Python 3.8.x and with 3.9.0.

   - bpo-40741(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41005(5): fixed an XDG settings issue not allowing macos to
     open browser in webbrowser.py

   - bpo-40741(6): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39580

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<27>,  Next: C API<40>,  Prev: macOS<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-41775(1): Use 'IDLE Shell' as shell title

   - bpo-35764(2): Rewrite the Calltips doc section.

   - bpo-40181(3): In calltips, stop reminding that '/' marks the end of
     positional-only arguments.

   - bpo-41468(4): Improve IDLE run crash error message (which users
     should never see).

   - bpo-41373(5): Save files loaded with no line ending, as when blank,
     or different line endings, by setting its line ending to the system
     default.  Fix regression in 3.8.4 and 3.9.0b4.

   - bpo-41300(6): Save files with non-ascii chars.  Fix regression
     released in 3.9.0b4 and 3.8.4.

   - bpo-37765(7): Add keywords to module name completion list.  Rewrite
     Completions section of IDLE doc.

   - bpo-41152(8): The encoding of ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ in
     IDLE is now always UTF-8.

   - bpo-41144(9): Make Open Module open a special module such as
     os.path.

   - bpo-39885(10): Make context menu Cut and Copy work again when
     right-clicking within a selection.

   - bpo-40723(11): Make test_idle pass when run after import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41300

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41152

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41144

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40723


File: python.info,  Node: C API<40>,  Prev: IDLE<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.42.10 C API
................

   - bpo-41936(1): Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. structure.

   - bpo-41692(2): The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8a0. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41842(3): Add *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 885. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-41834(4): Remove the ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has
     been replaced by ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 8ac. structure.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41689(5): Types created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b. now
     make any signature in their ‘tp_doc’ slot accessible from
     ‘__text_signature__’.

   - bpo-41524(6): Fix bug in PyOS_mystrnicmp and PyOS_mystricmp that
     incremented pointers beyond the end of a string.

   - bpo-41324(7): Add a minimal decimal capsule API. The API supports
     fast conversions between Decimals up to 38 digits and their triple
     representation as a C struct.

   - bpo-30155(8): Add *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 883. and
     *note PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 884. macros for accessing the
     ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. and *note
     datetime.time: 1c9. objects.

   - bpo-40170(9): Revert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1910. change: it
     reads again directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 187a. member
     when the limited C API is not used, rather than always calling
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1911. which hides implementation details.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy’.

   - bpo-41123(11): Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.

   - bpo-41123(12): Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.

   - bpo-41123(13): Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating
     ‘Py_UNICODE*’ strings.

   - bpo-41103(14): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and
     ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are removed.  Please migrate to new
     buffer protocol; *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 391.

   - bpo-36346(15): Raises DeprecationWarning for
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ with ‘size > 0’.

   - bpo-36346(16): Mark ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’,
     ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’, ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize’ as
     deprecated in C. Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ which was deprecated and
     broken since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-40989(17): The ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’
     macros become aliases to, respectively, *note PyObject_Init(): a5a.
     and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1912. functions.

   - bpo-36020(18): On Windows, ‘#include "pyerrors.h"’ no longer
     defines ‘snprintf’ and ‘vsnprintf’ macros.

   - bpo-40943(19): The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 896.
     formats which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’
     and ‘Z#’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 897.
     and the PEP 353(20).

   - bpo-40910(21): Export explicitly the *note Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1913.
     function to the C API and document the function.  Previously, it
     was exported implicitly which no longer works since Python is built
     with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40724(22): Allow defining buffer slots in type specs.

   - bpo-40679(23): Fix a ‘_PyEval_EvalCode()’ crash if 'qualname'
     argument is NULL.

   - bpo-40839(24): Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d. without *note
     GIL: 158. held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no
     longer allowed.

   - bpo-40826(25): ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’ now fails with a fatal
     error if it is called with the GIL released.

   - bpo-40792(26): The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 881. now
     always has exact type *note int: 254.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-39573(27): Convert *note Py_REFCNT(): 898. and *note Py_SIZE():
     76e. macros to static inline functions.  They cannot be used as
     l-value anymore: use *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 899. and *note
     Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f. to set an object reference count and size.
     This change is backward incompatible on purpose, to prepare the C
     API for an opaque *note PyObject: 32f. structure.

   - bpo-40703(28): The PyType_FromSpec*() functions no longer overwrite
     the type's "__module__" attribute if it is set via "Py_tp_members"
     or "Py_tp_getset".

   - bpo-39583(29): Remove superfluous "extern C" declarations from
     ‘Include/cpython/*.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41689

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41524

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40989

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40724

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40703

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.43 Python 3.9.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2020-05-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<27>,  Next: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40501(1): *note uuid: 10f. no longer uses *note ctypes: 2a. to
     load ‘libuuid’ or ‘rpcrt4.dll’ at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40501


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<43>,  Next: Library<42>,  Prev: Security<27>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40663(1): Correctly generate annotations where parentheses are
     omitted but required (e.g: ‘Type[(str, int, *other))]’.

   - bpo-40596(2): Fixed *note str.isidentifier(): 1917. for
     non-canonicalized strings containing non-BMP characters on Windows.

   - bpo-40593(3): Improved syntax errors for invalid characters in
     source code.

   - bpo-40585(4): Fixed a bug when using *note
     codeop.compile_command(): 1784. that was causing exceptions to be
     swallowed with the new parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40566(5): Apply PEP 573(6) to *note abc: 4.

   - bpo-40502(7): Initialize ‘n->n_col_offset’.  (Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye)

   - bpo-40527(8): Fix command line argument parsing: no longer write
     errors multiple times into stderr.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port *note errno: 56. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-40523(11): Add pass-throughs for *note hash(): 5d7. and *note
     reversed(): 852. to *note weakref.proxy: a42. objects.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note syslog: db. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-40246(14): Reporting a specialised error message for invalid
     string prefixes, which was introduced in bpo-40246(15), is being
     reverted due to backwards compatibility concerns for strings that
     immediately follow a reserved keyword without whitespace between
     them.  Constructs like ‘bg="#d00" if clear else"#fca"’ were failing
     to parse, which is not an acceptable breakage on such short notice.

   - bpo-40417(16): Fix imp module deprecation warning when
     PyImport_ReloadModule is called.  Patch by Robert Rouhani.

   - bpo-40408(17): Fixed support of nested type variables in
     GenericAlias (e.g.  ‘list[list[T]]’).

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port _stat module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-29587(20): Enable implicit exception chaining when calling
     *note generator.throw(): 4e5.

   - bpo-40328(21): Add tools for generating mappings headers for
     CJKCodecs.

   - bpo-40228(22): Setting frame.f_lineno is now robust w.r.t.  changes
     in the source-to-bytecode compiler

   - bpo-38880(23): Added the ability to list interpreters associated
     with channel ends in the internal subinterpreters module.

   - bpo-37986(24): Improve performance of *note PyLong_FromDouble():
     931. for values that fit into long.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40596

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40585

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40566

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40502

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40527

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40523

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40417

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40408

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29587

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40328

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40228

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38880

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986


File: python.info,  Node: Library<42>,  Next: Documentation<37>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40662(1): Fixed *note ast.get_source_segment(): 9c7. for ast
     nodes that have incomplete location information.  Patch by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-40665(2): Convert *note bisect: 11. to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40536(3): Added the *note available_timezones(): 1919. function
     to the *note zoneinfo: 133. module.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-40645(4): The ‘hmac.HMAC’ exposes internal implementation
     details.  The attributes ‘digest_cons’, ‘inner’, and ‘outer’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-40645(5): The internal module ‘_hashlib’ wraps and exposes
     OpenSSL's HMAC API. The new code will be used in Python 3.10 after
     the internal implementation details of the pure Python HMAC module
     are no longer part of the public API.

   - bpo-40637(6): Builtin hash modules can now be disabled or
     selectively enabled with ‘configure
     --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake1’ or
     ‘--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’.

   - bpo-37630(7): The *note hashlib: 67. module can now use SHA3 hashes
     and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available.

   - bpo-40479(8): The *note hashlib: 67. now compiles with OpenSSL
     3.0.0-alpha2.

   - bpo-40257(9): Revert changes to *note inspect.getdoc(): 9ea.

   - bpo-40607(10): When cancelling a task due to timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. will now propagate the exception if an
     error happens during cancellation.  Patch by Roman Skurikhin.

   - bpo-40612(11): Fix edge cases in SyntaxError formatting.  If the
     offset is <= 0, no caret is printed.  If the offset is > line
     length, the caret is printed pointing just after the last
     character.

   - bpo-40597(12): If text content lines are longer than
     policy.max_line_length, always use a content-encoding to make sure
     they are wrapped.

   - bpo-40571(13): Added functools.cache() as a simpler, more
     discoverable way to access the unbounded cache variant of
     lru_cache(maxsize=None).

   - bpo-40503(14): PEP 615(15), the *note zoneinfo: 133. module.  Adds
     support for the IANA time zone database.

   - bpo-40397(16): Removed attributes ‘__args__’ and ‘__parameters__’
     from special generic aliases like ‘typing.List’ (not subscripted).

   - bpo-40549(17): Convert posixmodule.c ("posix" or "nt" module) to
     the multiphase initialization (PEP 489).

   - bpo-31033(18): Add a ‘msg’ argument to ‘Future.cancel()’ and
     ‘Task.cancel()’.

   - bpo-40541(19): Added an optional 'counts' parameter to
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40515(20): The *note ssl: cf. and *note hashlib: 67. modules
     now actively check that OpenSSL is build with thread support.
     Python 3.7.0 made thread support mandatory and no longer works
     safely with a no-thread builds.

   - bpo-31033(21): When a *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. is cancelled, the
     exception traceback now chains all the way back to where the task
     was first interrupted.

   - bpo-40504(22): *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-40559(23): Fix possible memory leak in the C implementation of
     *note asyncio.Task: 4c5.

   - bpo-40480(24): ‘fnmatch.fnmatch()’ could take exponential time in
     the presence of multiple ‘*’ pattern characters.  This was repaired
     by generating more elaborate regular expressions to avoid futile
     backtracking.

   - bpo-40495(25): *note compileall: 20. is now able to use hardlinks
     to prevent duplicates in a case when ‘.pyc’ files for different
     optimization levels have the same content.

   - bpo-40457(26): The ssl module now support OpenSSL builds without
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1 methods.

   - bpo-40355(27): Improve error reporting in *note ast.literal_eval():
     c08. in the presence of malformed *note ast.Dict: 191a. nodes
     instead of silently ignoring any non-conforming elements.  Patch by
     Curtis Bucher.

   - bpo-40465(28): Deprecated the optional 'random' argument to
     'random.shuffle()'.

   - bpo-40459(29): *note platform.win32_ver(): 191b. now produces
     correct 'ptype' strings instead of empty strings.

   - bpo-39435(30): The first argument of *note pickle.loads(): d01. is
     now positional-only.

   - bpo-39305(31): Update ‘nntplib’ to merge ‘nntplib.NNTP’ and
     ‘nntplib._NNTPBase’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32494(32): Update *note dbm.gnu: 33. to use gdbm_count if
     possible when calling *note len(): 61b.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40453(33): Add ‘isolated=True’ keyword-only parameter to
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters.create()’.  An isolated subinterpreter cannot
     spawn threads, spawn a child process or call ‘os.fork()’.

   - bpo-40286(34): Remove ‘_random.Random.randbytes()’: the C
     implementation of ‘randbytes()’.  Implement the method in Python to
     ease subclassing: ‘randbytes()’ now directly reuses
     ‘getrandbits()’.

   - bpo-40394(35): Added default arguments to *note
     difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match(): 191c.

   - bpo-39995(36): Fix a race condition in
     concurrent.futures._ThreadWakeup: access to _ThreadWakeup is now
     protected with the shutdown lock.

   - bpo-30966(37): ‘Process.shutdown(wait=True)’ of *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. now closes explicitly the result queue.

   - bpo-30966(38): Add a new *note close(): 904. method to the *note
     SimpleQueue: 903. class to explicitly close the queue.

   - bpo-39966(39): Revert bpo-25597(40).  *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: e7c. with wraps' set uses default return
     values for magic methods.

   - bpo-39791(41): Added ‘files()’ function to importlib.resources with
     support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
     importlib_resources 1.5.

   - bpo-40375(42): *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 8f6. is added.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40389(43): ‘repr()’ now returns ‘typing.Optional[T]’ when
     called for ‘typing.Union’ of two types, one of which is ‘NoneType’.

   - bpo-40291(44): Add support for CAN_J1939 sockets (available on
     Linux 5.4+)

   - bpo-40273(45): *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. is now
     reversible.

   - bpo-39075(46): The repr for *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc. is
     now insertion ordered rather than alphabetical.

   - bpo-40192(47): On AIX, *note thread_time(): 925. is now implemented
     with ‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather
     than ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a
     resolution of 10 milliseconds.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40025(48): Raise TypeError when _generate_next_value_ is
     defined after members.  Patch by Ethan Onstott.

   - bpo-39058(49): In the argparse module, the repr for Namespace() and
     other argument holders now displayed in the order attributes were
     added.  Formerly, it displayed in alphabetical order even though
     argument order is preserved the user visible parts of the module.

   - bpo-24416(50): The ‘isocalendar()’ methods of *note datetime.date:
     1c8. and *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. now return a *note named
     tuple: 63b. instead of a *note tuple: 366.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40665

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40637

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40607

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40612

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40597

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40571

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40503

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40397

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40549

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40541

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40515

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40504

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40559

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40480

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40457

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40355

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40459

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39305

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32494

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40453

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40394

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39995

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39966

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40389

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40273

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39075

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40025

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39058

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<37>,  Next: Tests<40>,  Prev: Library<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-34790(1): Add version of removal for explicit passing of coros
     to ‘asyncio.wait()’'s documentation

   - bpo-40561(2): Provide docstrings for webbrowser open functions.

   - bpo-40499(3): Mention that *note asyncio.wait(): 46b. requires a
     non-empty set of awaitables.

   - bpo-39705(4): Tutorial example for sorted() in the Loop Techniques
     section is given a better explanation.  Also a new example is
     included to explain sorted()'s basic behavior.

   - bpo-39435(5): Fix an incorrect signature for *note pickle.loads():
     d01. in the docs

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40561

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40499

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39705

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<40>,  Next: Build<42>,  Prev: Documentation<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40055(1): distutils.tests now saves/restores warnings filters
     to leave them unchanged.  Importing tests imports docutils which
     imports pkg_resources which adds a warnings filter.

   - bpo-40436(2): test_gdb and test.pythoninfo now check gdb command
     exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40055

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40436


File: python.info,  Node: Build<42>,  Next: Windows<37>,  Prev: Tests<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-40653(1): Move _dirnameW out of HAVE_SYMLINK to fix a potential
     compiling issue.

   - bpo-40514(2): Add ‘--with-experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     build option to ‘configure’: better isolate subinterpreters,
     experimental build mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40653

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40514


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<37>,  Next: macOS<32>,  Prev: Build<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40650(1): Include winsock2.h in pytime.c for timeval.

   - bpo-40458(2): Increase reserved stack space to prevent overflow
     crash on Windows.

   - bpo-39148(3): Add IPv6 support to *note asyncio: a. datagram
     endpoints in ProactorEventLoop.  Change the raised exception for
     unknown address families to ValueError as it's not coming from
     Windows API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40458

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39148


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<32>,  Next: Tools/Demos<19>,  Prev: Windows<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34956(1): When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’
     now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are
     installed in ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older
     releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by
     using ‘--enable-universalsdk=’ or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself
     is searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.

   - bpo-35569(2): Expose RFC 3542 IPv6 socket options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35569


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<19>,  Next: C API<41>,  Prev: macOS<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40479(1): Update multissltest helper to test with latest
     OpenSSL 1.0.2, 1.1.0, 1.1.1, and 3.0.0-alpha.

   - bpo-40431(2): Fix a syntax typo in ‘turtledemo’ that now raises a
     ‘SyntaxError’.

   - bpo-40163(3): Fix multissltest tool.  OpenSSL has changed download
     URL for old releases.  The multissltest tool now tries to download
     from current and old download URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40431

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40163


File: python.info,  Node: C API<41>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<19>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.43.10 C API
................

   - bpo-39465(1): Remove the ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function
     from the C API.

   - bpo-38787(2): Add PyCFunction_CheckExact() macro for exact type
     checks now that we allow subtypes of PyCFunction, as well as
     PyCMethod_CheckExact() and PyCMethod_Check() for the new PyCMethod
     subtype.

   - bpo-40545(3): Declare ‘_PyErr_GetTopmostException()’ with
     ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’ to properly export the function in the C API. The
     function remains private (‘_Py’) prefix.

   - bpo-40412(4): Nullify inittab_copy during finalization, preventing
     future interpreter initializations in an embedded situation from
     crashing.  Patch by Gregory Szorc.

   - bpo-40429(5): The *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a. function now
     returns a strong reference to the frame.

   - bpo-40428(6): Remove the following functions from the C API. Call
     *note PyGC_Collect(): 97d. explicitly to free all free lists.

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

   - bpo-40421(7): New *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 772. function: get the
     frame next outer frame.

   - bpo-40421(8): New *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 776. function: return a
     borrowed reference to the frame code.

   - bpo-40217(9): Ensure that instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. will visit its class object when
     traversing references in the garbage collector (implemented as an
     extension of the provided *note tp_traverse: 76a.).  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-38787(10): Module C state is now accessible from C-defined heap
     type methods ( PEP 573(11)).  Patch by Marcel Plch and Petr
     Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40545

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.44 Python 3.9.0 alpha 6
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-04-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<28>,  Next: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40121(1): Fixes audit events raised on creating a new socket.

   - bpo-39073(2): Disallow CR or LF in email.headerregistry.Address
     arguments to guard against header injection attacks.

   - bpo-39503(3): CVE 2020-8492(4): The *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     1878. class of the *note urllib.request: 10a. module uses an
     inefficient regular expression which can be exploited by an
     attacker to cause a denial of service.  Fix the regex to prevent
     the catastrophic backtracking.  Vulnerability reported by Ben
     Caller and Matt Schwager.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40121

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-8492


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<44>,  Next: Library<43>,  Prev: Security<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40313(1): Improve the performance of bytes.hex().

   - bpo-40334(2): Switch to a new parser, based on PEG. For more
     details see PEP 617.  To temporarily switch back to the old parser,
     use ‘-X oldparser’ or ‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’.  In Python 3.10 we will
     remove the old parser completely, including the ‘parser’ module
     (already deprecated) and anything that depends on it.

   - bpo-40267(3): Fix the tokenizer to display the correct error
     message, when there is a ‘SyntaxError’ on the last input character
     and no newline follows.  It used to be ‘unexpected EOF while
     parsing’, while it should be ‘invalid syntax’.

   - bpo-39522(4): Correctly unparse explicit ‘u’ prefix for strings
     when postponed evaluation for annotations activated.  Patch by
     Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40246(5): Report a specialized error message, ‘invalid string
     prefix’, when the tokenizer encounters a string with an invalid
     prefix.

   - bpo-40082(6): Fix the signal handler: it now always uses the main
     interpreter, rather than trying to get the current Python thread
     state.

   - bpo-37388(7): str.encode() and str.decode() no longer check the
     encoding and errors in development mode or in debug mode during
     Python finalization.  The codecs machinery can no longer work on
     very late calls to str.encode() and str.decode().

   - bpo-40077(8): Fix possible refleaks in ‘_json’, memo of
     PyScannerObject should be traversed.

   - bpo-37207(9): Speed up calls to ‘dict()’ by using the PEP 590(10)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.

   - bpo-40141(11): Add column and line information to ‘ast.keyword’
     nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note resource: bb. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port *note math: 8d. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(15)).

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _uuid module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert json module to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     56b.

   - bpo-40067(19): Improve the error message for multiple star
     expressions in an assignment.  Patch by Furkan Onder

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port _functools module to multiphase
     initialization (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port operator module to multiphase initialization
     (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-20526(22): Fix *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 15dc.
     ‘PyThreadState.frame’ is a borrowed reference, not a strong
     reference: ‘PyThreadState_Clear()’ must not call
     ‘Py_CLEAR(tstate->frame)’.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port time module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(24)).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-40020(27): Fix a leak and subsequent crash in parsetok.c caused
     by realloc misuse on a rare codepath.

   - bpo-39939(28): Added str.removeprefix and str.removesuffix methods
     and corresponding bytes, bytearray, and collections.UserString
     methods to remove affixes from a string if present.  See PEP
     616(29) for a full description.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-39481(30): Implement PEP 585.  This supports list[int],
     tuple[str, ...]  etc.

   - bpo-32894(31): Support unparsing of infinity numbers in postponed
     annotations.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-37207(32): Speed up calls to ‘list()’ by using the PEP 590(33)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40267

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39522

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40082

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40141

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40067

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20526

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40020

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32894

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<43>,  Next: Documentation<38>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40398(1): *note typing.get_args(): 86c. now always returns an
     empty tuple for special generic aliases.

   - bpo-40396(2): Functions *note typing.get_origin(): a37, *note
     typing.get_args(): 86c. and *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e.
     support now generic aliases like ‘list[int]’.

   - bpo-38061(3): Optimize the *note subprocess: d5. module on FreeBSD
     using ‘closefrom()’.  A single ‘close(fd)’ syscall is cheap, but
     when ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’ is high, the loop calling ‘close(fd)’
     on each file descriptor can take several milliseconds.

     The workaround on FreeBSD to improve performance was to load and
     mount the fdescfs kernel module, but this is not enabled by
     default.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-38061(4): On FreeBSD, ‘os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)’ now
     calls ‘closefrom(fd_low)’ if 'fd_high' is greater than or equal to
     ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-40360(5): The ‘lib2to3’ module is pending deprecation due to
     PEP 617(6).

   - bpo-40138(7): Fix the Windows implementation of *note os.waitpid():
     d89. for exit code larger than ‘INT_MAX >> 8’.  The exit status is
     now interpreted as an unsigned number.

   - bpo-39942(8): Set "__main__" as the default module name when
     "__name__" is missing in *note typing.TypeVar: 15c.  Patch by
     Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-40275(9): The *note logging: 86. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 105. only when the *note assertLogs(): 845.
     assertion is used.

   - bpo-40275(10): The *note asyncio: a. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 105. only when the *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301. class is used.

   - bpo-40330(11): In ‘ShareableList.__setitem__()’, check the size of
     a new string item after encoding it to utf-8, not before.

   - bpo-40148(12): Added ‘pathlib.Path.with_stem()’ to create a new
     Path with the stem replaced.

   - bpo-40325(13): Deprecated support for set objects in
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40257(14): Improved help for the *note typing: 103. module.
     Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic
     aliases (like ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using ‘help()’ with generic
     alias like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent
     concrete type (‘list’ in this case).

   - bpo-40257(15): *note inspect.getdoc(): 9ea. no longer returns
     docstring inherited from the type of the object or from parent
     class if it is a class if it is not defined in the object itself.
     In *note pydoc: b4. the documentation string is now shown not only
     for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its
     own ‘__doc__’ attribute.

   - bpo-40287(16): Fixed ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.seek()’ to return the
     position.

   - bpo-40290(17): Added zscore() to statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-40282(18): Allow ‘random.getrandbits(0)’ to succeed and to
     return 0.

   - bpo-40286(19): Add *note random.randbytes(): 1928. function and
     ‘random.Random.randbytes()’ method to generate random bytes.

   - bpo-40277(20): *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. now provides a
     human-readable repr for its field accessors.

   - bpo-40270(21): The included copy of sqlite3 on Windows is now
     compiled with the json extension.  This allows the use of functions
     such as ‘json_object’.

   - bpo-29255(22): Wait in ‘KqueueSelector.select’ when no fds are
     registered

   - bpo-40260(23): Ensure *note modulefinder: 90. uses *note
     io.open_code(): 16e3. and respects coding comments.

   - bpo-40234(24): Allow again to spawn daemon threads in
     subinterpreters (revert change which denied them).

   - bpo-39207(25): Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. are now
     spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to
     reuse.  This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of
     lost CPU time to idle workers.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-40091(26): Fix a hang at fork in the logging module: the new
     private _at_fork_reinit() method is now used to reinitialize locks
     at fork in the child process.

   - bpo-40149(27): Implement traverse and clear slots in _abc._abc_data
     type.

   - bpo-40208(28): Remove deprecated ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’.

   - bpo-40196(29): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d7. module that was
     causing incorrectly report global variables as local.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40190(30): Add support for ‘_SC_AIX_REALMEM’ to
     ‘posix.sysconf()’.

   - bpo-40182(31): Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2ad. class.

   - bpo-36517(32): Multiple inheritance with *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2ad. now raises an error instead of silently ignoring other types.

   - bpo-40126(33): Fixed reverting multiple patches in unittest.mock.
     Patcher's ‘__exit__()’ is now never called if its ‘__enter__()’ is
     failed.  Returning true from ‘__exit__()’ silences now the
     exception.

   - bpo-40094(34): CGIHTTPRequestHandler of http.server now logs the
     CGI script exit code, rather than the CGI script exit status of
     os.waitpid().  For example, if the script is killed by signal 11,
     it now logs: "CGI script exit code -11."

   - bpo-40108(35): Improve the error message when triying to import a
     module using *note runpy: bd. and incorrectly using the ".py"
     extension at the end of the module name.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40094(36): Add *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c.
     function: convert a wait status to an exit code.

   - bpo-40089(37): Fix threading._after_fork(): if fork was not called
     by a thread spawned by threading.Thread, threading._after_fork()
     now creates a _MainThread instance for _main_thread, instead of a
     _DummyThread instance.

   - bpo-40089(38): Add a private ‘_at_fork_reinit()’ method to
     ‘_thread.Lock’, ‘_thread.RLock’, *note threading.RLock: 2dd. and
     *note threading.Condition: 1137. classes: reinitialize the lock at
     fork in the child process, reset the lock to the unlocked state.
     Rename also the private ‘_reset_internal_locks()’ method of *note
     threading.Event: 113a. to ‘_at_fork_reinit()’.

   - bpo-25780(39): Expose *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: 920. in the *note
     socket: cb. module.

   - bpo-39503(40): *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler: 1878. of *note
     urllib.request: 10a. now parses all WWW-Authenticate HTTP headers
     and accepts multiple challenges per header: use the realm of the
     first Basic challenge.

   - bpo-39812(41): Removed daemon threads from *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. by adding an internal
     ‘threading._register_atexit()’, which calls registered functions
     prior to joining all non-daemon threads.  This allows for
     compatibility with subinterpreters, which don't support daemon
     threads.

   - bpo-40050(42): Fix ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’: avoid creating
     a new ‘winreg’ builtin module if it's already available in *note
     sys.modules: 1929, and remove redundant imports.

   - bpo-40014(43): Fix ‘os.getgrouplist()’: if ‘getgrouplist()’
     function fails because the group list is too small, retry with a
     larger group list.  On failure, the glibc implementation of
     ‘getgrouplist()’ sets ‘ngroups’ to the total number of groups.  For
     other implementations, double the group list size.

   - bpo-40017(44): Add *note time.CLOCK_TAI: 192a. constant if the
     operating system support it.

   - bpo-40016(45): In re docstring, clarify the relationship between
     inline and argument compile flags.

   - bpo-39953(46): Update internal table of OpenSSL error codes in the
     ‘ssl’ module.

   - bpo-36144(47): Added PEP 584(48) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 192b.

   - bpo-36144(49): Added PEP 584(50) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 192c.

   - bpo-38891(51): Fix linear runtime behaviour of the ‘__getitem__’
     and ‘__setitem__’ methods in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList: 192d.  This avoids
     quadratic performance when iterating a ‘ShareableList’.  Patch by
     Thomas Krennwallner.

   - bpo-39682(52): Remove undocumented support for 'closing' a
     ‘pathlib.Path’ object via its context manager.  The context manager
     magic methods remain, but they are now a no-op, making ‘Path’
     objects immutable.

   - bpo-36144(53): Added PEP 584(54) operators (‘|’ and ‘|=’) to *note
     collections.ChainMap: c0c.

   - bpo-39011(55): Normalization of line endings in ElementTree
     attributes was removed, as line endings which were replaced by
     entity numbers should be preserved in original form.

   - bpo-38410(56): Properly handle *note sys.audit(): 1573. failures in
     *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 15e1.

   - bpo-36541(57): lib2to3 now recognizes named assignment expressions
     (the walrus operator, ‘:=’)

   - bpo-35967(58): In platform, delay the invocation of 'uname -p'
     until the processor attribute is requested.

   - bpo-35113(59): *note inspect.getsource(): 1580. now returns correct
     source code for inner class with same name as module level class.
     Decorators are also returned as part of source of the class.  Patch
     by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33262(60): Deprecate passing None as an argument for *note
     shlex.split(): 529.'s ‘s’ parameter.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-31758(61): Prevent crashes when using an uninitialized
     ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’ object.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40398

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40138

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39942

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40330

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40148

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40325

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40290

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40282

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40277

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40270

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40260

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40234

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40091

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40149

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40196

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40190

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36517

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40126

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40108

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40050

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40014

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40017

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40016

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39953

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38891

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39682

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (54) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38410

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35113

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31758


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<38>,  Next: Tests<41>,  Prev: Library<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27635(1): The pickle documentation incorrectly claimed that
     ‘__new__’ isn't called by default when unpickling.

   - bpo-39879(2): Updated *note Modèle de données: 192f. docs to
     include *note dict(): 253. insertion order preservation.  Patch by
     Furkan Onder and Samy Lahfa.

   - bpo-38387(3): Document *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1930. macro in the C-API
     reference.

   - bpo-13743(4): Some methods within xml.dom.minidom.Element class are
     now better documented.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39879

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38387

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13743


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<41>,  Next: Build<43>,  Prev: Documentation<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): Set expected default encoding in
     test_c_locale_coercion.py for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40162(2): Update Travis CI configuration to OpenSSL 1.1.1f.

   - bpo-40146(3): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1f in Azure Pipelines.

   - bpo-40094(4): Add *note test.support.wait_process(): 1932.
     function.

   - bpo-40003(5): ‘test.bisect_cmd’ now copies Python command line
     options like ‘-O’ or ‘-W’.  Moreover, emit a warning if
     ‘test.bisect_cmd’ is used with ‘-w’/‘--verbose2’ option.

   - bpo-39380(6): Add the encoding in *note ftplib.FTP: 8e9. and *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: 8ea. to the constructor as keyword-only and change
     the default from ‘latin-1’ to ‘utf-8’ to follow RFC 2640(7).

   - bpo-39793(8): Use the same domain when testing ‘make_msgid’.  Patch
     by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1812(9): Fix newline handling in doctest.testfile when loading
     from a package whose loader has a get_data method.  Patch by Peter
     Donis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40162

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40003

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39380

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39793

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1812


File: python.info,  Node: Build<43>,  Next: Windows<38>,  Prev: Tests<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38360(1): Support single-argument form of macOS -isysroot flag.

   - bpo-40158(2): Fix CPython MSBuild Properties in NuGet Package
     (build/native/python.props)

   - bpo-38527(3): Fix configure check on Solaris for "float word
     ordering": sometimes, the correct "grep" command was not being
     used.  Patch by Arnon Yaari.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40158

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38527


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<38>,  Next: macOS<33>,  Prev: Build<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40164(1): Updates Windows to OpenSSL 1.1.1f

   - bpo-8901(2): Ignore the Windows registry when the ‘-E’ option is
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<33>,  Next: IDLE<28>,  Prev: Windows<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38329(1): python.org macOS installers now update the Current
     version symlink of /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions
     for 3.9 installs.  Previously, Current was only updated for Python
     2.x installs.  This should make it easier to embed Python 3 into
     other macOS applications.

   - bpo-40164(2): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1g.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<28>,  Next: Tools/Demos<20>,  Prev: macOS<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38439(1): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to support more modern
     environments.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Delete the unused macOS
     idle.icns icon file.

   - bpo-38689(2): IDLE will no longer freeze when inspect.signature
     fails when fetching a calltip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38689


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<20>,  Next: C API<42>,  Prev: IDLE<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-40385(1): Removed the checkpyc.py tool.  Please see compileall
     without force mode as a potential alternative.

   - bpo-40179(2): Fixed translation of ‘#elif’ in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40094(3): Fix ‘which.py’ script exit code: it now uses *note
     os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. to convert *note os.system():
     1413. exit status into an exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40385

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40179

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: C API<42>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<20>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.44.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40241(1): Move the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure to the internal C API.

   - bpo-40170(2): Convert *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 973. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details.

   - bpo-40241(3): Add the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 965.
     and *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 966. to the public API to
     allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or
     have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40170(4): The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the
     *note PyObject_New(): 974. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’
     macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar(): 975. macro,
     to hide implementation details.  They no longer access directly the
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 976. member.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1910. now always calls
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1911. to hide implementation details.
     Previously, it accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags:
     187a. member when the limited C API was not used.

   - bpo-40170(6): Convert the ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro
     to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly to the *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 977. member.

   - bpo-40170(7): Convert *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 38f. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 978. member.

   - bpo-40170(8): Always declare *note PyIndex_Check(): 979. as an
     opaque function to hide implementation details: remove
     ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 97a. member.

   - bpo-39947(9): Add *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 961. function: get
     the unique identifier of a Python thread state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.45 Python 3.9.0 alpha 5
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-03-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<43>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<29>,  Next: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38576(1): Disallow control characters in hostnames in
     http.client, addressing CVE 2019-18348(2).  Such potentially
     malicious header injection URLs now cause a InvalidURL to be
     raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38576

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-18348


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<45>,  Next: Library<44>,  Prev: Security<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40010(1): Optimize pending calls in multithreaded applications.
     If a thread different than the main thread schedules a pending call
     (*note Py_AddPendingCall(): 970.), the bytecode evaluation loop is
     no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for
     pending calls which cannot be executed.  Only the main thread can
     execute pending calls.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread executes pending calls.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _collections module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-40010(6): Optimize signal handling in multithreaded
     applications.  If a thread different than the main thread gets a
     signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at
     each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot
     be handled.  Only the main thread of the main interpreter can
     handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.

   - bpo-39984(7): If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 970. is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the
     subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter.
     Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _heapq module to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port itertools module to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-37207(11): Speed up calls to ‘frozenset()’ by using the PEP
     590(12) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39984(13): subinterpreters: Move
     ‘_PyRuntimeState.ceval.tracing_possible’ to
     ‘PyInterpreterState.ceval.tracing_possible’: each interpreter now
     has its own variable.

   - bpo-37207(14): Speed up calls to ‘set()’ by using the PEP 590(15)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _statistics module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-39968(18): Use inline function to replace extension modules'
     get_module_state macros.

   - bpo-39965(19): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ if 'await' is used
     inside non-async functions and ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ is set
     (like in the asyncio REPL). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39562(20): Allow executing asynchronous comprehensions on the
     top level when the ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag is given.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-37207(21): Speed up calls to ‘tuple()’ by using the PEP 590(22)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38373(23): Changed list overallocation strategy.  It no longer
     overallocates if the new size is closer to overallocated size than
     to the old size and adds padding.

   - bpo-39926(24): Update Unicode database to Unicode version 13.0.0.

   - bpo-19466(25): Clear the frames of daemon threads earlier during
     the Python shutdown to call objects destructors.  So "unclosed
     file" resource warnings are now emitted for daemon threads in a
     more reliable way.

   - bpo-38894(26): Fix a bug that was causing incomplete results when
     calling ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ in the presence of symlinks that point
     to files where the user does not have read access.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Matt Wozniski.

   - bpo-39877(27): Fix *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0. random crash
     at exit with daemon threads.  It now accesses the ‘_PyRuntime’
     variable directly instead of using ‘tstate->interp->runtime’, since
     ‘tstate’ can be a dangling pointer after *note Py_Finalize(): 1332.
     has been called.  Moreover, the daemon thread now exits before
     trying to take the GIL.

   - bpo-39871(28): Fix a possible *note SystemError: 563. in
     ‘math.{atan2,copysign,remainder}()’ when the first argument cannot
     be converted to a *note float: 2ec.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-39776(29): Fix race condition where threads created by
     PyGILState_Ensure() could get a duplicate id.

     This affects consumers of tstate->id like the contextvar caching
     machinery, which could return invalid cached objects under heavy
     thread load (observed in embedded scenarios).

   - bpo-39778(30): Fixed a crash due to incorrect handling of weak
     references in ‘collections.OrderedDict’ classes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port audioop extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-39702(33): Relax *note decorator: 71d. grammar restrictions to
     allow any valid expression ( PEP 614(34)).

   - bpo-38091(35): Tweak import deadlock detection code to not deadlock
     itself.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port _locale extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-39087(38): Optimize *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bab. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 887. slightly when they need to create
     internal UTF-8 cache.

   - bpo-39520(39): Fix unparsing of ext slices with no items
     (‘foo[:,]’).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39220(40): Do not optimize annotations if 'from __future__
     import annotations' is used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35712(41): Using *note NotImplemented: 7be. in a boolean
     context has been deprecated.  Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22490(42): Don't leak environment variable
     ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ into the interpreter session on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39965

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38373

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19466

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38894

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39871

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39776

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39778

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38091

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39087

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39520

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39220

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22490


File: python.info,  Node: Library<44>,  Next: Documentation<39>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39830(1): Add *note zipfile.Path: 6b6. to ‘__all__’ in the
     *note zipfile: 130. module.

   - bpo-40000(2): Improved error messages for validation of
     ‘ast.Constant’ nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39999(3): ‘__module__’ of the AST node classes is now set to
     "ast" instead of "_ast".  Added docstrings for dummy AST node
     classes and deprecated attributes.

   - bpo-39991(4): *note uuid.getnode(): b97. now skips IPv6 addresses
     with the same string length than a MAC address (17 characters):
     only use MAC addresses.

   - bpo-39988(5): Deprecated ‘ast.AugLoad’ and ‘ast.AugStore’ node
     classes because they are no longer used.

   - bpo-39656(6): Ensure ‘bin/python3.#’ is always present in virtual
     environments on POSIX platforms - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39969(7): Deprecated ‘ast.Param’ node class because it's no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39360(8): Ensure all workers exit when finalizing a
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ implicitly via the module finalization
     handlers of multiprocessing.  This fixes a deadlock situation that
     can be experienced when the Pool is not properly finalized via the
     context manager or a call to ‘multiprocessing.Pool.terminate’.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35370(9): sys.settrace(), sys.setprofile() and
     _lsprof.Profiler.enable() now properly report *note PySys_Audit():
     365. error if "sys.setprofile" or "sys.settrace" audit event is
     denied.

   - bpo-39936(10): AIX: Fix _aix_support module when the subprocess is
     not available, when building Python from scratch.  It now uses new
     private _bootsubprocess module, rather than having two
     implementations depending if subprocess is available or not.  So
     _aix_support.aix_platform() result is now the same if subprocess is
     available or not.

   - bpo-36144(11): *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7. now implements
     ‘|’ and ‘|=’ ( PEP 584(12)).

   - bpo-39652(13): The column name found in
     ‘sqlite3.Cursor.description’ is now truncated on the first '[' only
     if the PARSE_COLNAMES option is set.

   - bpo-39915(14): Ensure *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock.await_args_list: 193d. has call objects in
     the order of awaited arguments instead of using *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.call_args: 193e. which has the last value of the
     call.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36144(15): Updated *note os.environ: 1199. and *note
     os.environb: 11f6. to support PEP 584(16)'s merge (‘|’) and update
     (‘|=’) operators.

   - bpo-38662(17): The ‘ensurepip’ module now invokes ‘pip’ via the
     ‘runpy’ module.  Hence it is no longer tightly coupled with the
     internal API of the bundled ‘pip’ version, allowing easier updates
     to a newer ‘pip’ version both internally and for distributors.

   - bpo-38075(18): Fix the *note random.Random.seed(): 193f. method
     when a *note bool: 453. is passed as the seed.

   - bpo-39916(19): More reliable use of ‘os.scandir()’ in
     ‘Path.glob()’.  It no longer emits a ResourceWarning when
     interrupted.

   - bpo-39850(20): *note multiprocessing: 93. now supports abstract
     socket addresses (if abstract sockets are supported in the running
     platform).  When creating arbitrary addresses (like when
     default-constructing *note multiprocessing.connection.Listener:
     1664. objects) abstract sockets are preferred to avoid the case
     when the temporary-file-generated address is too large for an
     AF_UNIX socket address.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36287(21): *note ast.dump(): 8d3. no longer outputs optional
     fields and attributes with default values.  The default values for
     optional fields and attributes of AST nodes are now set as class
     attributes (e.g.  ‘Constant.kind’ is set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-39889(22): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. for extended slices
     containing a single element (e.g.  ‘a[i:j,]’).  Remove redundant
     tuples when index with a tuple (e.g.  ‘a[i, j]’).

   - bpo-39828(23): Fix *note json.tool: 82. to catch *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1047.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-13487(24): Avoid a possible '"RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration"' from *note inspect.getmodule(): 17a0. when
     it tried to loop through *note sys.modules: 1929.

   - bpo-39674(25): Revert "bpo-37330(26): open() no longer accept 'U'
     in file mode".  The "U" mode of open() is kept in Python 3.9 to
     ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python
     3.10.

   - bpo-28577(27): The hosts method on 32-bit prefix length
     IPv4Networks and 128-bit prefix IPv6Networks now returns a list
     containing the single Address instead of an empty list.

   - bpo-39826(28): Add getConnection method to logging HTTPHandler to
     enable custom connections.

   - bpo-39763(29): Reimplement ‘distutils.spawn.spawn’ function with
     the *note subprocess: d5. module.

   - bpo-39794(30): Add -without-decimal-contextvar build option.  This
     enables a thread-local rather than a coroutine local context.

   - bpo-36144(31): *note collections.defaultdict: 119c. now implements
     ‘|’ ( PEP 584(32)).

   - bpo-39517(33): Fix runpy.run_path() when using pathlike objects

   - bpo-39775(34): Change ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ back to
     ‘collections.OrderedDict’.  This was changed to ‘dict’ in Python
     3.9.0a4.

   - bpo-39678(35): Refactor queue_manager in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. to make it easier to
     maintain.

   - bpo-39764(36): Fix AttributeError when calling get_stack on a
     PyAsyncGenObject Task

   - bpo-39769(37): The *note compileall.compile_dir(): b16. function's
     'ddir' parameter and the compileall command line flag ‘-d’ no
     longer write the wrong pathname to the generated pyc file for
     submodules beneath the root of the directory tree being compiled.
     This fixes a regression introduced with Python 3.5.

   - bpo-36144(38): *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. objects now
     support the merge (‘|’) operator from PEP 584(39).

   - bpo-38691(40): The *note importlib: 76. module now ignores the
     *note PYTHONCASEOK: 94b. environment variable when the *note -E:
     94c. or *note -I: 94d. command line options are being used.

   - bpo-39719(41): Remove ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.softspace()’
     as files no longer have the ‘softspace’ attribute in Python 3.
     Patch by Shantanu.

   - bpo-39667(42): Improve pathlib.Path compatibility on zipfile.Path
     and correct performance degradation as found in zipp 3.0.

   - bpo-39638(43): Keep ASDL signatures in the docstrings for ‘AST’
     nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-39639(44): Deprecated ‘ast.Suite’ node class because it's no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39609(45): Add thread_name_prefix to default asyncio executor

   - bpo-39548(46): Fix handling of header in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 1940. when the optional
     ‘qop’ parameter is not present.

   - bpo-39509(47): HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’ and ‘425
     TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 8ef.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39507(48): Adding HTTP status 418 "I'm a Teapot" to HTTPStatus
     in http library.  Patch by Ross Rhodes.

   - bpo-39495(49): Remove default value from 'attrs' parameter of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start(): 1941. for consistency
     between Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-38971(50): Open issue in the BPO indicated a desire to make the
     implementation of codecs.open() at parity with io.open(), which
     implements a try/except to assure file stream gets closed before an
     exception is raised.

   - bpo-38641(51): Added starred expressions support to ‘return’ and
     ‘yield’ statements for ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Vlad Emelianov.

   - bpo-37534(52): When using minidom module to generate XML documents
     the ability to add Standalone Document Declaration is added.  All
     the changes are made to generate a document in compliance with
     Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition) W3C
     Recommendation (available here:
     ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/#sec-prolog-dtd’).

   - bpo-34788(53): Add support for scoped IPv6 addresses to *note
     ipaddress: 7f.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-34822(54): Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices are
     now represented by their value, extended slices are represented as
     tuples.  *note ast: 8. classes ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  In the meantime, ‘Index(value)’ now returns a ‘value’
     itself, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ returns ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39830

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40000

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39999

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39656

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39360

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39652

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39915

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38662

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39916

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39850

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36287

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39889

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39828

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13487

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28577

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39826

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39794

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39517

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39678

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39764

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39769

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38691

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39719

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39667

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39609

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39548

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39495

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38971

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38641

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37534

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<39>,  Next: Tests<42>,  Prev: Library<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39868(1): Updated the Language Reference for PEP 572(2).

   - bpo-13790(3): Change 'string' to 'specification' in format doc.

   - bpo-17422(4): The language reference no longer restricts default
     class namespaces to dicts only.

   - bpo-39530(5): Fix misleading documentation about mixed-type numeric
     comparisons.

   - bpo-39718(6): Update *note token: f9. documentation to reflect
     additions in Python 3.8

   - bpo-39677(7): Changed operand name of 'MAKE_FUNCTION' from 'argc'
     to 'flags' for module *note dis: 38.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39868

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13790

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39718

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39677


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<42>,  Next: Build<44>,  Prev: Documentation<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40019(1): test_gdb now skips tests if it detects that gdb
     failed to read debug information because the Python binary is
     optimized.

   - bpo-27807(2): ‘test_site.test_startup_imports()’ is now skipped if
     a path of *note sys.path: 3ab. contains a ‘.pth’ file.

   - bpo-26067(3): Do not fail test_shutil test_chown test when uid or
     gid of user cannot be resolved to a name.

   - bpo-39855(4): test_subprocess.test_user() now skips the test on an
     user name if the user name doesn't exist.  For example, skip the
     test if the user "nobody" doesn't exist on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40019

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26067

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39855


File: python.info,  Node: Build<44>,  Next: Windows<39>,  Prev: Tests<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39761(1): Fix build with DTrace but without additional DFLAGS.

   - bpo-39763(2): setup.py now uses a basic implementation of the *note
     subprocess: d5. module if the *note subprocess: d5. module is not
     available: before required C extension modules are built.

   - bpo-1294959(3): Add ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the configure
     script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in
     the new *note sys.platlibdir: 927. attribute.  It is used to build
     the path of platform-specific extension modules and the path of the
     standard library.  It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On
     Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.
     Patch by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39761

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<39>,  Next: macOS<34>,  Prev: Build<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39930(1): Ensures the required ‘vcruntime140.dll’ is included
     in install packages.

   - bpo-39847(2): Avoid hang when computer is hibernated whilst waiting
     for a mutex (for lock-related objects from *note threading: ec.)
     around 49-day uptime.

   - bpo-38597(3): ‘distutils’ will no longer statically link
     ‘vcruntime140.dll’ when a redistributable version is unavailable.
     All future releases of CPython will include a copy of this DLL to
     ensure distributed extensions can continue to load.

   - bpo-38380(4): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   - bpo-39789(5): Update Windows release build machines to Visual
     Studio 2019 (MSVC 14.2).

   - bpo-34803(6): Package for nuget.org now includes repository
     reference and bundled icon image.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39930

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38597

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39789

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<34>,  Next: IDLE<29>,  Prev: Windows<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38380(1): Update macOS builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<29>,  Next: Tools/Demos<21>,  Prev: macOS<34>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27115(1): For 'Go to Line', use a Query box subclass with IDLE
     standard behavior and improved error checking.

   - bpo-39885(2): Since clicking to get an IDLE context menu moves the
     cursor, any text selection should be and now is cleared.

   - bpo-39852(3): Edit "Go to line" now clears any selection,
     preventing accidental deletion.  It also updates Ln and Col on the
     status bar.

   - bpo-39781(4): Selecting code context lines no longer causes a jump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39852

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39781


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<21>,  Next: C API<43>,  Prev: IDLE<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-36184(1): Port python-gdb.py to FreeBSD. python-gdb.py now
     checks for "take_gil" function name to check if a frame tries to
     acquire the GIL, instead of checking for "pthread_cond_timedwait"
     which is specific to Linux and can be a different condition than
     the GIL.

   - bpo-38080(2): Added support to fix ‘getproxies’ in the
     ‘lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib’ module.  Patch by José Roberto Meza
     Cabrera.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38080


File: python.info,  Node: C API<43>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<21>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.45.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40024(1): Add *note PyModule_AddType(): 964. helper function:
     add a type to a module.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39946(2): Remove ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and remove
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Remove also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.

   - bpo-39947(3): Add *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a. function:
     get the current frame of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-37207(4): Add _PyArg_NoKwnames helper function.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39947(5): Add *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 960.: get
     the interpreter of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-39947(6): Add *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a4. function to
     the limited C API.

   - bpo-35370(7): If *note PySys_Audit(): 365. fails in *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5. or *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417, log the
     error as an unraisable exception.

   - bpo-39947(8): Move the static inline function flavor of
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() to the internal
     C API: they access PyThreadState attributes.  The limited C API
     provides regular functions which hide implementation details.

   - bpo-39947(9): Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION and Py_TRASHCAN_END macro
     no longer access PyThreadState attributes, but call new private
     _PyTrash_begin() and _PyTrash_end() functions which hide
     implementation details.

   - bpo-39884(10): *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 194a. and *note
     PyCFunction_NewEx(): 194b. now include the method name in the
     SystemError "bad call flags" error message to ease debug.

   - bpo-39877(11): Deprecated ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’.  Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now
     does nothing.

   - bpo-38249(12): *note Py_UNREACHABLE: ba5. is now implemented with
     ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ and analogs in release mode.

   - bpo-38643(13): *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17a6. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 563. instead of crashing when called with invalid
     base.

   - bpo-39882(14): The *note Py_FatalError(): 972. function is replaced
     with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current
     function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

   - bpo-39824(15): Extension modules: *note m_traverse: 969, *note
     m_clear: 96a. and *note m_free: 96b. functions of *note
     PyModuleDef: 96c. are no longer called if the module state was
     requested but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately
     after the module is created and before the module is executed
     (*note Py_mod_exec: 96d. function).  More precisely, these
     functions are not called if *note m_size: 96e. is greater than 0
     and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState():
     96f.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   - bpo-38913(16): Fixed segfault in ‘Py_BuildValue()’ called with a
     format containing "#" and undefined PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN whwn an
     exception is set.

   - bpo-38500(17): Add a private API to get and set the frame
     evaluation function: add *note
     _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc(): 194c. and *note
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc(): 194d. C functions.  The
     *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 762. function type now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39884

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38643

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39824

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38913

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.46 Python 3.9.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-02-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* C API: C API<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-39184(1): Add audit events to functions in ‘fcntl’, ‘msvcrt’,
     ‘os’, ‘resource’, ‘shutil’, ‘signal’ and ‘syslog’.

   - bpo-39401(2): Avoid unsafe DLL load at startup on Windows 7 and
     earlier.

   - bpo-39184(3): Add audit events to command execution functions in os
     and pty modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39401

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<46>,  Next: Library<45>,  Prev: Security<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39382(1): Fix a use-after-free in the single inheritance path
     of ‘issubclass()’, when the ‘__bases__’ of an object has a single
     reference, and so does its first item.  Patch by Yonatan
     Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-39573(2): Update clinic tool to use *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 17d1.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39619(3): Enable use of *note os.chroot(): 1951. on HP-UX
     systems.

   - bpo-39573(4): Add *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 17d1. static inline function
     to check whether the object 'o' type is 'type'.

   - bpo-39606(5): Fix regression caused by fix for bpo-39386(6), that
     prevented calling ‘aclose’ on an async generator that had already
     been closed or exhausted.

   - bpo-39579(7): Change the ending column offset of ‘Attribute’ nodes
     constructed in ‘ast_for_dotted_name’ to point at the end of the
     current node and not at the end of the last ‘NAME’ node.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _crypt extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9)).

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port _contextvars extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11)).

   - bpo-39510(12): Fix segfault in ‘readinto()’ method on closed
     BufferedReader.

   - bpo-39502(13): Fix *note time.localtime(): 14b1. on 64-bit AIX to
     support years before 1902 and after 2038.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-39492(14): Fix a reference cycle in the C Pickler that was
     preventing the garbage collection of deleted, pickled objects.

   - bpo-39453(15): Fixed a possible crash in ‘list.__contains__()’ when
     a list is changed during comparing items.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39434(16): *note floor division: 933. of float operation now
     has a better performance.  Also the message of *note
     ZeroDivisionError: 934. for this operation is updated.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port _codecs extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port _bz2 extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(20)).

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _abc extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-39320(23): Replace two complex bytecodes for building dicts
     with two simpler ones.  The new bytecodes ‘DICT_MERGE’ and
     ‘DICT_UPDATE’ have been added The old bytecodes ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK’
     and ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39219(24): Syntax errors raised in the tokenizer now always set
     correct "text" and "offset" attributes.

   - bpo-36051(25): Drop the GIL during large ‘bytes.join’ operations.
     Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-38960(26): Fix DTrace build issues on FreeBSD. Patch by David
     Carlier.

   - bpo-37207(27): Speed up calls to ‘range()’ by about 30%, by using
     the PEP 590 ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark
     Shannon.

   - bpo-36144(28): *note dict: 253. (and *note collections.UserDict:
     1952.) objects now support PEP 584's merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-32856(29): Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary
     variable in comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in
     comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39382

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39619

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39606

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39579

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39453

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36051

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38960

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856


File: python.info,  Node: Library<45>,  Next: Documentation<40>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30566(1): Fix *note IndexError: 14ec. when trying to decode an
     invalid string with punycode codec.

   - bpo-39649(2): Remove obsolete check for ‘__args__’ in
     ‘bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry’.

   - bpo-39648(3): Expanded *note math.gcd(): 8ff. and *note math.lcm():
     900. to handle multiple arguments.

   - bpo-39681(4): Fix a regression where the C pickle module wouldn't
     allow unpickling from a file-like object that doesn't expose a
     readinto() method.

   - bpo-35950(5): Raise *note io.UnsupportedOperation: 1954. in
     ‘io.BufferedReader.truncate()’ when it is called on a read-only
     *note io.BufferedReader: 11ed. instance.

   - bpo-39479(6): Add *note math.lcm(): 900. function: least common
     multiple.

   - bpo-39674(7): Revert "Do not expose abstract collection classes in
     the collections module" change (bpo-25988(8)).  Aliases to ABC like
     collections.Mapping are kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from
     Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

   - bpo-39104(9): Fix hanging ProcessPoolExcutor on
     ‘shutdown(wait=False)’ when a task has failed pickling.

   - bpo-39627(10): Fixed TypedDict totality check for inherited keys.

   - bpo-39474(11): Fixed starting position of AST for expressions like
     ‘(a)(b)’, ‘(a)[b]’ and ‘(a).b’.

   - bpo-21016(12): The *note pydoc: b4. and *note trace: fc. modules
     now use the *note sysconfig: da. module to get the path to the
     Python standard library, to support uncommon installation path like
     ‘/usr/lib64/python3.9/’ on Fedora.  Patch by Jan Matějek.

   - bpo-39590(13): Collections.deque now holds strong references during
     deque.__contains__ and deque.count, fixing crashes.

   - bpo-39586(14): The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is deprecated in
     Python 3.9, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-39595(15): Improved performance of zipfile.Path for files with
     a large number of entries.  Also improved performance and fixed
     minor issue as published with importlib_metadata 1.5(16).

   - bpo-39350(17): Fix regression in *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. if
     the numerator and/or the denominator is an *note int: 254.
     subclass.  The *note math.gcd(): 8ff. function is now used to
     normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note math.gcd():
     8ff. always return a *note int: 254. type.  Previously, the GCD
     type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

   - bpo-39567(18): Added audit for *note os.walk(): 495, *note
     os.fwalk(): b4b, *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. and *note
     pathlib.Path.rglob(): 22b.

   - bpo-39559(19): Remove unused, undocumented argument ‘getters’ from
     *note uuid.getnode(): b97.

   - bpo-38149(20): *note sys.audit(): 1573. is now called only once per
     call of *note glob.glob(): 29c. and *note glob.iglob(): 7f3.

   - bpo-39546(21): Fix a regression in *note ArgumentParser: 526. where
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ was ignored for long options that used a
     prefix character other than "-".

   - bpo-39450(22): Striped whitespace from docstring before returning
     it from ‘unittest.case.shortDescription()’.

   - bpo-12915(23): A new function ‘resolve_name’ has been added to the
     ‘pkgutil’ module.  This resolves a string of the form ‘'a.b.c.d'’
     or ‘'a.b:c.d'’ to an object.  In the example, ‘a.b’ is a
     package/module and ‘c.d’ is an object within that package/module
     reached via recursive attribute access.

   - bpo-39353(24): The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 720. function is no
     longer deprecated.

   - bpo-39493(25): Mark ‘typing.IO.closed’ as a property

   - bpo-39491(26): Add *note typing.Annotated: 92c. and
     ‘include_extras’ parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e.
     as part of PEP 593(27).  Patch by Till Varoquaux, documentation by
     Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.

   - bpo-39485(28): Fix a bug in *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     15c3. that would complain about the wrong number of arguments for
     custom descriptors defined in an extension module returning
     functions.

   - bpo-38932(29): Mock fully resets child objects on reset_mock().
     Patch by Vegard Stikbakke

   - bpo-39082(30): Allow AsyncMock to correctly patch static/class
     methods

   - bpo-39432(31): Implement PEP-489 algorithm for non-ascii
     "PyInit_..."  symbol names in distutils to make it export the
     correct init symbol also on Windows.

   - bpo-18819(32): Omit ‘devmajor’ and ‘devminor’ fields for non-device
     files in *note tarfile: dd. archives, enabling bit-for-bit
     compatibility with GNU ‘tar(1)’.

   - bpo-39349(33): Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 8dc. that cancels all
     pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting
     for them to complete before shutting down the executor.

   - bpo-39274(34): ‘bool(fraction.Fraction)’ now returns a boolean even
     if (numerator != 0) does not return a boolean (ex: numpy number).

   - bpo-34793(35): Remove support for ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and
     ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’.  The same is correct for
     ‘asyncio.Condition’ and ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.

   - bpo-25597(36): Ensure, if ‘wraps’ is supplied to *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: e7c, it is used to calculate return values
     for the magic methods instead of using the default return values.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36350(37): ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ and
     ‘inspect.BoundArguments.arguments’ are now dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35727(38): Fix sys.exit() and sys.exit(None) exit code
     propagation when used in multiprocessing.Process.

   - bpo-32173(39): * Add ‘lazycache’ function to ‘__all__’.  * Use
     ‘dict.clear’ to clear the cache.  * Refactoring ‘getline’ function
     and ‘checkcache’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39681

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35950

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39627

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39474

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21016

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39590

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39595

   (16) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v1-5-0

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39567

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39559

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38149

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39546

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39450

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39493

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39491

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39485

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38932

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39082

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39432

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18819

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35727

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32173


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<40>,  Next: Tests<43>,  Prev: Library<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17422(1): The language reference now specifies restrictions on
     class namespaces.  Adapted from a patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-39572(2): Updated documentation of ‘total’ flag of ‘TypedDict’.

   - bpo-39654(3): In pyclbr doc, update 'class' to 'module' where
     appropriate and add readmodule comment.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-39153(4): Clarify refcounting semantics for the following
     functions: - PyObject_SetItem - PyMapping_SetItemString -
     PyDict_SetItem - PyDict_SetItemString

   - bpo-39392(5): Explain that when filling with turtle, overlap
     regions may be left unfilled.

   - bpo-39369(6): Update mmap readline method description.  The fact
     that the readline method does update the file position should not
     be ignored since this might give the impression for the programmer
     that it doesn't update it.

   - bpo-9056(7): Include subsection in TOC for PDF version of docs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39153

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39369

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9056


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<43>,  Next: Build<45>,  Prev: Documentation<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38325(1): Skip tests on non-BMP characters of
     test_winconsoleio.

   - bpo-39502(2): Skip test_zipfile.test_add_file_after_2107() if *note
     time.localtime(): 14b1. fails with *note OverflowError: 86f.  It is
     the case on AIX 6.1 for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38325

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502


File: python.info,  Node: Build<45>,  Next: Windows<40>,  Prev: Tests<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39489(1): Remove ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<40>,  Next: IDLE<30>,  Prev: Build<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39553(1): Delete unused code related to SxS manifests.

   - bpo-39439(2): Honor the Python path when a virtualenv is active on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39393(3): Improve the error message when attempting to load a
     DLL with unresolved dependencies.

   - bpo-38883(4): *note home(): e32. and *note expanduser(): e31. on
     Windows now prefer ‘USERPROFILE’ and no longer use ‘HOME’, which is
     not normally set for regular user accounts.  This makes them again
     behave like *note os.path.expanduser(): a04, which was changed to
     ignore ‘HOME’ in 3.8, see bpo-36264(5).

   - bpo-39185(6): The build.bat script has additional options for
     very-quiet output (-q) and very-verbose output (-vv)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39553

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39393

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38883

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39185


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<30>,  Next: C API<44>,  Prev: Windows<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39663(1): Add tests for pyparse find_good_parse_start().

   - bpo-39600(2): In the font configuration window, remove duplicated
     font names.

   - bpo-30780(3): Add remaining configdialog tests for buttons and
     highlights and keys tabs.

   - bpo-39388(4): IDLE Settings Cancel button now cancels pending
     changes

   - bpo-38792(5): Close an IDLE shell calltip if a *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. or shell restart occurs.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30780

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39388

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38792


File: python.info,  Node: C API<44>,  Prev: IDLE<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.46.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-35081(1): Move the ‘bytes_methods.h’ header file to the
     internal C API as ‘pycore_bytes_methods.h’: it only contains
     private symbols (prefixed by ‘_Py’), except of the
     ‘PyDoc_STRVAR_shared()’ macro.

   - bpo-35081(2): Move the ‘dtoa.h’ header file to the internal C API
     as ‘pycore_dtoa.h’: it only contains private functions (prefixed by
     ‘_Py’).  The *note math: 8d. and *note cmath: 18. modules must now
     be compiled with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ macro defined.

   - bpo-39573(3): Add *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f. function to set the
     size of an object.

   - bpo-39500(4): *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 195b. does not call
     *note Py_FatalError(): 972. anymore if the string is not ready.

   - bpo-39573(5): Add *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 76d. function to set the
     type of an object.

   - bpo-39573(6): Add a *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 899. function to set the
     reference counter of an object.

   - bpo-39542(7): Convert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1910, *note
     PyType_Check(): 195c. and *note PyType_CheckExact(): 195d. macros
     to static inline functions.

   - bpo-39542(8): In the limited C API, ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and
     ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ are now defined as aliases to *note
     PyObject_Init(): a5a. and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1912. to make
     their implementation opaque.  It avoids to leak implementation
     details in the limited C API. Exclude the following functions from
     the limited C API: ‘_Py_NewReference()’, ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’,
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ and ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’.

   - bpo-39542(9): Exclude trashcan mechanism from the limited C API: it
     requires access to PyTypeObject and PyThreadState structure fields,
     whereas these structures are opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-39511(10): The *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 15dc. function now
     calls the ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that
     happened in *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 195e.

   - bpo-38076(11): Fix to clear the interpreter state only after
     clearing module globals to guarantee module state access from C
     Extensions during runtime destruction

   - bpo-39245(12): The Vectorcall API (PEP 590) was made public, adding
     the functions ‘PyObject_Vectorcall’, ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod’,
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function’, ‘PyObject_CallOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’, ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_FastCallDict’, and the flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39511

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39245


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.47 Python 3.9.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-01-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* C API: C API<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<47>,  Next: Library<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.47.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39427(1): Document all possibilities for the ‘-X’ options in
     the command line help section.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39421(2): Fix possible crashes when operating with the
     functions in the *note heapq: 68. module and custom comparison
     operators.

   - bpo-39386(3): Prevent double awaiting of async iterator.

   - bpo-17005(4): Add ‘functools.TopologicalSorter’ to the *note
     functools: 5e. module to offers functionality to perform
     topological sorting of graphs.  Patch by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters
     and Larry Hastings.

   - bpo-39320(5): Replace four complex bytecodes for building sequences
     with three simpler ones.

     The following four bytecodes have been removed:

        * BUILD_LIST_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK

        * BUILD_SET_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL

     The following three bytecodes have been added:

        * LIST_TO_TUPLE

        * LIST_EXTEND

        * SET_UPDATE

   - bpo-39336(6): Import loaders which publish immutable module objects
     can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual
     modules.

   - bpo-39322(7): Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): 8ec. to
     check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39048(8): Improve the displayed error message when incorrect
     types are passed to ‘async with’ statements by looking up the
     ‘__aenter__()’ special method before the ‘__aexit__()’ special
     method when entering an asynchronous context manager.  Patch by
     Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-39235(9): Fix AST end location for lone generator expression in
     function call, e.g.  f(i for i in a).

   - bpo-39209(10): Correctly handle multi-line tokens in interactive
     mode.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port _json extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-39216(13): Fix constant folding optimization for positional
     only arguments - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39215(14): Fix ‘SystemError’ when nested function has
     annotation on positional-only argument - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39200(15): Correct the error message when calling the *note
     min(): ef5. or *note max(): ef6. with no arguments.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39200(16): Correct the error message when trying to construct
     *note range: 932. objects with no arguments.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-39166(17): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing the last iteration of asynchronous for
     loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39114(18): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing exception handlers with name binding.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39156(19): Split the COMPARE_OP bytecode instruction into four
     distinct instructions.

        * COMPARE_OP for rich comparisons

        * IS_OP for 'is' and 'is not' tests

        * CONTAINS_OP for 'in' and 'is not' tests

        * JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH for checking exceptions in 'try-except'
          statements.

     This improves the clarity of the interpreter and should provide a
     modest speedup.

   - bpo-38588(20): Fix possible crashes in dict and list when calling
     *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1961.

   - bpo-13601(21): By default, ‘sys.stderr’ is line-buffered now, even
     if ‘stderr’ is redirected to a file.  You can still make
     ‘sys.stderr’ unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 1962. command-line
     option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1963. environment
     variable.

     (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(22).)

   - bpo-38610(23): Fix possible crashes in several list methods by
     holding strong references to list elements when calling *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1961.

   - bpo-32021(24): Include brotli .br encoding in mimetypes
     encodings_map

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39235

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39209

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39216

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39215

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39166

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39114

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38588

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38610

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32021


File: python.info,  Node: Library<46>,  Next: Documentation<41>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.47.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-39430(1): Fixed race condition in lazy imports in *note
     tarfile: dd.

   - bpo-39413(2): The *note os.unsetenv(): 90a. function is now also
     available on Windows.

   - bpo-39390(3): Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of
     *note shutil.copytree(): a19.  The argument types are now ‘str’ and
     ‘List[str]’ again.

   - bpo-39395(4): The *note os.putenv(): 90b. and *note os.unsetenv():
     90a. functions are now always available.

   - bpo-39406(5): If ‘setenv()’ C function is available, *note
     os.putenv(): 90b. is now implemented with ‘setenv()’ instead of
     ‘putenv()’, so Python doesn't have to handle the environment
     variable memory.

   - bpo-39396(6): Fix ‘math.nextafter(-0.0, +0.0)’ on AIX 7.1.

   - bpo-29435(7): Allow *note tarfile.is_tarfile(): 1801. to be used
     with file and file-like objects, like *note zipfile.is_zipfile():
     130a.  Patch by William Woodruff.

   - bpo-39377(8): Removed ‘encoding’ option from *note json.loads():
     944.  It has been deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-39389(9): Write accurate compression level metadata in *note
     gzip: 66. archives, rather than always signaling maximum
     compression.

   - bpo-39366(10): The previously deprecated ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’
     methods of ‘nntplib.NNTP’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39357(11): Remove the 'buffering' parameter of *note
     bz2.BZ2File: 853.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it
     was emitting *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Pass an open file
     object, to control how the file is opened.  The 'compresslevel'
     parameter becomes keyword-only.

   - bpo-39353(12): Deprecate binhex4 and hexbin4 standards.  Deprecate
     the ‘binhex’ module and the following *note binascii: 10.
     functions: ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘rlecode_hqx()’,
     ‘rledecode_hqx()’, *note crc_hqx(): 720.

   - bpo-39351(13): Remove ‘base64.encodestring()’ and
     ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases deprecated since Python 3.1: use
     *note base64.encodebytes(): 942. and *note base64.decodebytes():
     943. instead.

   - bpo-39350(14): Remove ‘fractions.gcd()’ function, deprecated since
     Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(15)): use *note math.gcd(): 8ff. instead.

   - bpo-39329(16): *note LMTP: 91e. constructor now has an optional
     'timeout' parameter.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39313(17): Add a new ‘exec_function’ option ('-exec-function'
     in the CLI) to ‘RefactoringTool’ for making ‘exec’ a function.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39259(18): *note FTP_TLS: 8ea. and *note FTP_TLS: 8ea. now
     raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the given timeout for their
     constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking
     socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39259(19): *note SMTP: 91c. and *note SMTP_SSL: 91d. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39310(20): Add *note math.ulp(): 901.: return the value of the
     least significant bit of a float.

   - bpo-39297(21): Improved performance of importlib.metadata
     distribution discovery and resilients to inaccessible sys.path
     entries (importlib_metadata v1.4.0).

   - bpo-39259(22): ‘NNTP’ and ‘NNTP_SSL’ now raise a *note ValueError:
     1ff. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent
     the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38901(23): When you specify prompt='.'  or equivalently python
     -m venv -prompt .  ...  the basename of the current directory is
     used to set the created venv's prompt when it's activated.

   - bpo-39288(24): Add *note math.nextafter(): 484.: return the next
     floating-point value after 'x' towards 'y'.

   - bpo-39259(25): *note POP3: 913. and *note POP3_SSL: 914. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39242(26): Updated the Gmane domain from news.gmane.org to
     news.gmane.io which is used for examples of ‘NNTP’ news reader
     server and nntplib tests.

   - bpo-35292(27): Proxy the ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.guess_type’ to
     ‘mimetypes.guess_type’ so the ‘mimetypes.init’ is called lazily to
     avoid unnecessary costs when *note http.server: 71. module is
     imported.

   - bpo-39239(28): The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 949. method no
     longer ignores the *note EBADF: 94a. error.

   - bpo-38907(29): In http.server script, restore binding to IPv4 on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39152(30): Fix ttk.Scale.configure([name]) to return
     configuration tuple for name or all options.  Giovanni Lombardo
     contributed part of the patch.

   - bpo-39198(31): If an exception were to be thrown in
     ‘Logger.isEnabledFor’ (say, by asyncio timeouts or stopit) , the
     ‘logging’ global lock may not be released appropriately, resulting
     in deadlock.  This change wraps that block of code with
     ‘try...finally’ to ensure the lock is released.

   - bpo-39191(32): Perform a check for running loop before starting a
     new task in ‘loop.run_until_complete()’ to fail fast; it prevents
     the side effect of new task spawning before exception raising.

   - bpo-38871(33): Correctly parenthesize filter-based statements that
     contain lambda expressions in ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39142(34): A change was made to logging.config.dictConfig to
     avoid converting instances of named tuples to ConvertingTuple.
     It's assumed that named tuples are too specialised to be treated
     like ordinary tuples; if a user of named tuples requires
     ConvertingTuple functionality, they will have to implement that
     themselves in their named tuple class.

   - bpo-39158(35): ast.literal_eval() now supports empty sets.

   - bpo-39129(36): Fix import path for ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’

   - bpo-39057(37): ‘urllib.request.proxy_bypass_environment()’ now
     ignores leading dots and no longer ignores a trailing newline.

   - bpo-39056(38): Fixed handling invalid warning category in the -W
     option.  No longer import the re module if it is not needed.

   - bpo-39055(39): *note base64.b64decode(): 1965. with ‘validate=True’
     raises now a binascii.Error if the input ends with a single ‘\n’.

   - bpo-21600(40): Fix ‘mock.patch.stopall()’ to stop active patches
     that were created with ‘mock.patch.dict()’.

   - bpo-39019(41): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 680.

   - bpo-39019(42): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for
     ‘subprocess.Popen’, ‘subprocess.CompletedProcess’

   - bpo-38914(43): Adjusted the wording of the warning issued by
     distutils' ‘check’ command when the ‘author’ and ‘maintainer’
     fields are supplied but no corresponding e-mail field
     (‘author_email’ or ‘maintainer_email’) is found.  The wording now
     reflects the fact that these fields are suggested, but not
     required.  Patch by Juergen Gmach.

   - bpo-38878(44): Fixed __subclasshook__ of *note os.PathLike: c41. to
     return a correct result upon inheritance.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38615(45): *note IMAP4: 8f2. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 8f3. now have
     an optional 'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the
     *note open(): 8f4. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter
     with this change.  The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 8f3.
     and *note IMAP4_stream: 8f5. were applied to this change.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35182(46): Fixed ‘Popen.communicate()’ subsequent call crash
     when the child process has already closed any piped standard
     stream, but still continues to be running.  Patch by Andriy
     Maletsky.

   - bpo-38630(47): On Unix, *note subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 1397.
     now polls the process status.  Polling reduces the risk of sending
     a signal to the wrong process if the process completed, the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: 1966. attribute is still ‘None’, and
     the pid has been reassigned (recycled) to a new different process.

   - bpo-38536(48): Removes trailing space in formatted currency with
     ‘international=True’ and a locale with symbol following value.
     E.g.  ‘locale.currency(12.34, international=True)’ returned ‘'12,34
     EUR '’ instead of ‘'12,34 EUR'’.

   - bpo-38473(49): Use signature from inner mock for autospecced
     methods attached with ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-38361(50): Fixed an issue where ‘ident’ could include a leading
     path separator when *note syslog.openlog(): 52c. was called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-38293(51): Add *note copy.copy(): 520. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b5e. support to *note property(): 192. objects.

   - bpo-37958(52): Added the pstats.Stats.get_profile_dict() method to
     return the profile data as a StatsProfile instance.

   - bpo-28367(53): Termios magic constants for the following baud
     rates: - B500000 - B576000 - B921600 - B1000000 - B1152000 -
     B1500000 - B2000000 - B2500000 - B3000000 - B3500000 - B4000000
     Patch by Andrey Smirnov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39430

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39390

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39406

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39396

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29435

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39389

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39313

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39297

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38901

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39242

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38907

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39152

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39198

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39191

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38871

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39142

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39129

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39057

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39056

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39055

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21600

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38914

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38878

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35182

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38630

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38536

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38473

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38361

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38293

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37958

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28367


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<41>,  Next: Build<46>,  Prev: Library<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.47.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39381(1): Mention in docs that *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     2bf. implicitly creates new event loop only if called from the main
     thread.

   - bpo-38918(2): Add an entry for ‘__module__’ in the "function" &
     "method" sections of the *note inspect: 7d. docs' *note Types et
     membres: 1968. table.

   - bpo-3530(3): In the *note ast: 8. module documentation, fix a
     misleading ‘NodeTransformer’ example and add advice on when to use
     the ‘fix_missing_locations’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38918

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3530


File: python.info,  Node: Build<46>,  Next: IDLE<31>,  Prev: Documentation<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.47.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-39395(1): On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and
     ‘unsetenv()’ functions are now required to build Python.

   - bpo-39160(2): Updated the documentation in ‘./configure --help’ to
     show default values, reference documentation where required and add
     additional explanation where needed.

   - bpo-39144(3): The ctags and etags build targets both include
     Modules/_ctypes and Python standard library source files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39160

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39144


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<31>,  Next: C API<45>,  Prev: Build<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.47.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39050(1): Make IDLE Settings dialog Help button work again.

   - bpo-34118(2): Tag memoryview, range, and tuple as classes, the same
     as list, etcetera, in the library manual built-in functions list.

   - bpo-32989(3): Add tests for editor newline_and_indent_event method.
     Remove dead code from pyparse find_good_parse_start method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39050

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34118

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32989


File: python.info,  Node: C API<45>,  Prev: IDLE<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.47.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-39372(1): Clean header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.

   - bpo-39164(2): Add a private ‘_PyErr_GetExcInfo()’ function to
     retrieve exception information of the specified Python thread
     state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39164


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.48 Python 3.9.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-12-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* C API: C API<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<31>,  Next: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38945(1): Newline characters have been escaped when performing
     uu encoding to prevent them from overflowing into to content
     section of the encoded file.  This prevents malicious or accidental
     modification of data during the decoding process.

   - bpo-37228(2): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f. is no longer
     supported.  This is because of the behavior of ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in
     UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
     ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
     Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(3).)

   - bpo-38804(4): Fixes a ReDoS vulnerability in *note http.cookiejar:
     6f.  Patch by Ben Caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38804


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<48>,  Next: Library<47>,  Prev: Security<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39028(1): Slightly improve the speed of keyword argument
     parsing with many kwargs by strengthening the assumption that
     kwargs are interned strings.

   - bpo-39080(2): Fix the value of 'end_col_offset' for Starred
     Expression AST nodes when they are among the elements in the 'args'
     attribute of Call AST nodes.

   - bpo-39031(3): When parsing an "elif" node, lineno and col_offset of
     the node now point to the "elif" keyword and not to its condition,
     making it consistent with the "if" node.  Patch by Lysandros
     Nikolaou.

   - bpo-20443(4): In Python 3.9.0a1, sys.argv[0] was made an absolute
     path if a filename was specified on the command line.  Revert this
     change, since most users expect sys.argv to be unmodified.

   - bpo-39008(5): *note PySys_Audit(): 365. now requires ‘Py_ssize_t’
     to be used for size arguments in the format string, regardless of
     whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was defined at include time.

   - bpo-38673(6): In REPL mode, don't switch to PS2 if the line starts
     with comment or whitespace.  Based on work by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-38922(7): Calling ‘replace’ on a code object now raises the
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event.

   - bpo-38920(8): Add audit hooks for when *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7.
     and *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. are invoked.

   - bpo-38892(9): Improve documentation for audit events table and
     functions.

   - bpo-38852(10): Set the thread stack size to 8 Mb for debug builds
     on android platforms.

   - bpo-38858(11): Each Python subinterpreter now has its own "small
     integer singletons": numbers in [-5; 257] range.  It is no longer
     possible to change the number of small integers at build time by
     overriding ‘NSMALLNEGINTS’ and ‘NSMALLPOSINTS’ macros: macros
     should now be modified manually in ‘pycore_pystate.h’ header file.

   - bpo-36854(12): The garbage collector state becomes per interpreter
     (‘PyInterpreterState.gc’), rather than being global
     (‘_PyRuntimeState.gc’).

   - bpo-38835(13): The ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros are empty: they have been doing
     nothing for the last year, so stop using them.

   - bpo-38328(14): Sped up the creation time of constant *note list:
     5fe. and *note set: 5c5. displays.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-38707(15): ‘MainThread.native_id’ is now correctly reset in
     child processes spawned using *note multiprocessing.Process: b49,
     instead of retaining the parent's value.

   - bpo-38629(16): Added ‘__floor__’ and ‘__ceil__’ methods to float
     object.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-27145(17): int + int and int - int operators can now return
     small integer singletons.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-38021(18): Provide a platform tag for AIX that is sufficient
     for PEP425 binary distribution identification.  Patch by Michael
     Felt.

   - bpo-35409(19): Ignore GeneratorExit exceptions when throwing an
     exception into the aclose coroutine of an asynchronous generator.

   - bpo-33387(20): Removed WITH_CLEANUP_START, WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH,
     BEGIN_FINALLY, END_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY bytecodes.
     Replaced with RERAISE and WITH_EXCEPT_START bytecodes.  The
     compiler now generates different code for exceptional and
     non-exceptional branches for 'with' and 'try-except' statements.
     For 'try-finally' statements the 'finally' block is replicated for
     each exit from the 'try' body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39080

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39008

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38892

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38852

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38858

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36854

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38328

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38707

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38629

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27145

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38021

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33387


File: python.info,  Node: Library<47>,  Next: Documentation<42>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39033(1): Fix *note NameError: 42a. in *note zipimport: 131.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-39022(2): Update importlib.metadata to include improvements
     from importlib_metadata 1.3 including better serialization of
     EntryPoints and improved documentation for custom finders.

   - bpo-39006(3): Fix asyncio when the ssl module is missing: only
     check for ssl.SSLSocket instance if the ssl module is available.

   - bpo-38708(4): Fix a potential IndexError in email parser when
     parsing an empty msg-id.

   - bpo-38698(5): Add a new ‘InvalidMessageID’ token to email parser to
     represent invalid Message-ID headers.  Also, add defects when there
     is remaining value after parsing the header.

   - bpo-38994(6): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ for ‘os.PathLike’,
     ‘pathlib.Path’.

   - bpo-38979(7): Return class from ‘ContextVar.__class_getitem__’ to
     simplify subclassing.

   - bpo-38978(8): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ on asyncio objects
     (Future, Task, Queue).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38916(9): *note array.array: 19e.: Remove ‘tostring()’ and
     ‘fromstring()’ methods.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - bpo-38986(10): Make repr of C accelerated TaskWakeupMethWrapper the
     same as of pure Python version.

   - bpo-38982(11): Fix asyncio ‘PidfdChildWatcher’: handle ‘waitpid()’
     error.  If ‘waitpid()’ is called elsewhere, ‘waitpid()’ call fails
     with *note ChildProcessError: 1043.: use return code 255 in this
     case, and log a warning.  It ensures that the pidfd file descriptor
     is closed if this error occurs.

   - bpo-38529(12): Drop too noisy asyncio warning about deletion of a
     stream without explicit ‘.close()’ call.

   - bpo-27413(13): Added ability to pass through ‘ensure_ascii’ options
     to json.dumps in the ‘json.tool’ command-line interface.

   - bpo-38634(14): The *note readline: b9. module now detects if Python
     is linked to libedit at runtime on all platforms.  Previously, the
     check was only done on macOS.

   - bpo-33684(15): Fix ‘json.tool’ failed to read a JSON file with
     non-ASCII characters when locale encoding is not UTF-8.

   - bpo-38698(16): Prevent UnboundLocalError to pop up in
     parse_message_id.

     parse_message_id() was improperly using a token defined inside an
     exception handler, which was raising ‘UnboundLocalError’ on parsing
     an invalid value.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38927(17): Use ‘python -m pip’ instead of ‘pip’ to upgrade
     dependencies in venv.

   - bpo-26730(18): Fix ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.rollover()’ might corrupt
     the file when it is in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-38881(19): random.choices() now raises a ValueError when all
     the weights are zero.

   - bpo-38876(20): Raise pickle.UnpicklingError when loading an item
     from memo for invalid input.

     The previous code was raising a ‘KeyError’ for both the Python and
     C implementation.  This was caused by the specified index of an
     invalid input which did not exist in the memo structure, where the
     pickle stores what objects it has seen.  The malformed input would
     have caused either a ‘BINGET’ or ‘LONG_BINGET’ load from the memo,
     leading to a ‘KeyError’ as the determined index was bogus.  Patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38688(21): Calling func:‘shutil.copytree’ to copy a directory
     tree from one directory to another subdirectory resulted in an
     endless loop and a RecursionError.  A fix was added to consume an
     iterator and create the list of the entries to be copied, avoiding
     the recursion for newly created directories.  Patch by Bruno P.
     Kinoshita.

   - bpo-38863(22): Improve ‘is_cgi()’ function in *note http.server:
     71, which enables processing the case that cgi directory is a child
     of another directory other than root.

   - bpo-37838(23): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e. properly handles
     functions decorated with *note functools.wraps(): f4a.

   - bpo-38870(24): Expose *note ast.unparse(): 8d4. as a function of
     the *note ast: 8. module that can be used to unparse an *note
     ast.AST: 1a4. object and produce a string with code that would
     produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 1a4. object when parsed.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38859(25): AsyncMock now returns StopAsyncIteration on the
     exhaustion of a side_effects iterable.  Since PEP-479 its
     Impossible to raise a StopIteration exception from a coroutine.

   - bpo-38857(26): AsyncMock fix for return values that are awaitable
     types.  This also covers side_effect iterable values that happened
     to be awaitable, and wraps callables that return an awaitable type.
     Before these awaitables were being awaited instead of being
     returned as is.

   - bpo-38834(27): *note typing.TypedDict: 161. subclasses now track
     which keys are optional using the ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes, to enable runtime validation by
     downstream projects.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-38821(28): Fix unhandled exceptions in *note argparse: 6. when
     internationalizing error messages for arguments with ‘nargs’ set to
     special (non-integer) values.  Patch by Federico Bond.

   - bpo-38820(29): Make Python compatible with OpenSSL 3.0.0.  *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4. no longer returns IPv6 addresses
     with a trailing new line.

   - bpo-38811(30): Fix an unhandled exception in *note pathlib: a3.
     when *note os.link(): 10d2. is missing.  Patch by Toke
     Høiland-Jørgensen.

   - bpo-38686(31): Added support for multiple ‘qop’ values in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 1940.

   - bpo-38712(32): Add the Linux-specific *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 91a. function, which allows sending a
     signal to a process identified by a file descriptor rather than a
     pid.

   - bpo-38348(33): Add ‘-i’ and ‘--indent’ (indentation level), and
     ‘--no-type-comments’ (type comments) command line options to ast
     parsing tool.

   - bpo-37523(34): Change ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’ to raise ‘ValueError’
     when trying to access the underlying file object after it has been
     closed.  This new behavior is consistent with how accessing closed
     files is handled in other parts of Python.

   - bpo-38045(35): Improve the performance of ‘enum._decompose()’ in
     *note enum: 55.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-36820(36): Break cycle generated when saving an exception in
     socket.py, codeop.py and dyld.py as they keep alive not only the
     exception but user objects through the ‘__traceback__’ attribute.
     Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-36406(37): Handle namespace packages in *note doctest: 3a.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-34776(38): Fix dataclasses to support forward references in
     type annotations

   - bpo-20928(39): ElementTree supports recursive XInclude processing.
     Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-29636(40): Add whitespace options for formatting JSON with the
     ‘json.tool’ CLI. The following mutually exclusive options are now
     supported: ‘--indent’ for setting the indent level in spaces;
     ‘--tab’ for indenting with tabs; ‘--no-indent’ for suppressing
     newlines; and ‘--compact’ for suppressing all whitespace.  The
     default behavior remains the same as ‘--indent=4’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39033

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39006

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38979

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38978

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38986

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38982

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38529

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27413

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38927

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26730

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38876

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38688

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38863

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37838

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38859

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38857

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38834

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38821

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38811

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38686

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38348

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37523

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38045

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36820

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36406

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34776

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20928

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29636


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<42>,  Next: Tests<44>,  Prev: Library<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-38928(1): Correct when venv's ‘upgrade_dependencies()’ and
     ‘--upgrade-deps’ are added.

   - bpo-38899(2): Update documentation to state that to activate
     virtual environments under fish one should use ‘source’, not ‘.’ as
     documented at
     ‘https://fishshell.com/docs/current/cmds/source.html’.

   - bpo-22377(3): Improves documentation of the values that *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6. accepts for ‘%Z’.  Patch by
     Karl Dubost.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38928

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38899

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<44>,  Next: Build<47>,  Prev: Documentation<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38546(1): Fix test_ressources_gced_in_workers() of
     test_concurrent_futures: explicitly stop the manager to prevent
     leaking a child process running in the background after the test
     completes.

   - bpo-38546(2): Multiprocessing and concurrent.futures tests now stop
     the resource tracker process when tests complete.

   - bpo-38614(3): Replace hardcoded timeout constants in tests with new
     *note test.support: e3. constants: *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1972,
     *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1973, *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 186b. and *note
     LONG_TIMEOUT: 1974.  It becomes easier to adjust these four timeout
     constants for all tests at once, rather than having to adjust every
     single test file.

   - bpo-38547(4): Fix test_pty: if the process is the session leader,
     closing the master file descriptor raises a SIGHUP signal: simply
     ignore SIGHUP when running the tests.

   - bpo-38992(5): Fix a test for *note math.fsum(): 138d. that was
     failing due to constant folding.

   - bpo-38991(6): *note test.support: e3.: ‘run_python_until_end()’,
     ‘assert_python_ok()’ and ‘assert_python_failure()’ functions no
     longer strip whitespaces from stderr.  Remove
     ‘test.support.strip_python_stderr()’ function.

   - bpo-38965(7): Fix test_faulthandler on GCC 10.  Use the "volatile"
     keyword in ‘faulthandler._stack_overflow()’ to prevent tail call
     optimization on any compiler, rather than relying on compiler
     specific pragma.

   - bpo-38875(8): test_capi: trashcan tests now require the test "cpu"
     resource.

   - bpo-38841(9): Skip asyncio
     test_create_datagram_endpoint_existing_sock_unix on platforms
     lacking a functional bind() for named unix domain sockets.

   - bpo-38692(10): Skip the test_posix.test_pidfd_open() test if
     ‘os.pidfd_open()’ fails with a *note PermissionError: d32.  This
     situation can happen in a Linux sandbox using a syscall whitelist
     which doesn't allow the ‘pidfd_open()’ syscall yet.

   - bpo-38839(11): Fix some unused functions in tests.  Patch by Adam
     Johnson.

   - bpo-38669(12): Raise *note TypeError: 525. when passing target as a
     string with *note unittest.mock.patch.object(): 1552.

   - bpo-37957(13): test.regrtest now can receive a list of test
     patterns to ignore (using the -i/-ignore argument) or a file with a
     list of patterns to ignore (using the -ignore-file argument).
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38547

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38992

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38965

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38875

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38839

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38669

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37957


File: python.info,  Node: Build<47>,  Next: Windows<41>,  Prev: Tests<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-37404(1): *note asyncio: a. now raises *note TypeError: 525.
     when calling incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9.
     socket.  Patch by Ido Michael.

   - bpo-36500(2): Added an optional "regen" project to the Visual
     Studio solution that will regenerate all grammar, tokens, and
     opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36500


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<41>,  Next: macOS<35>,  Prev: Build<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39007(1): Add auditing events to functions in *note winreg:
     115.

   - bpo-33125(2): Add support for building and releasing Windows ARM64
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<35>,  Next: IDLE<32>,  Prev: Windows<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-37931(1): Fixed a crash on OSX dynamic builds that occurred
     when re-initializing the posix module after a Py_Finalize if the
     environment had changed since the previous ‘import posix’.  Patch
     by Benoît Hudson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37931


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<32>,  Next: C API<46>,  Prev: macOS<35>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38944(1): Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  Patch
     by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38943(2): Fix IDLE autocomplete windows not always appearing on
     some systems.  Patch by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38862(3): 'Strip Trailing Whitespace' on the Format menu
     removes extra newlines at the end of non-shell files.

   - bpo-38636(4): Fix IDLE Format menu tab toggle and file indent
     width.  These functions (default shortcuts Alt-T and Alt-U) were
     mistakenly disabled in 3.7.5 and 3.8.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38862

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38636


File: python.info,  Node: C API<46>,  Prev: IDLE<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.48.10 C API
................

   - bpo-38896(1): Remove ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’ function: the
     Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-37340(2): Remove ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and
     ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’ functions: the free lists of bound
     method objects have been removed.

   - bpo-38835(3): Exclude ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros of ‘pyfpe.h’ from ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     (stable API).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.49 Python 3.9.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-11-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<32>,  Next: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38722(1): *note runpy: bd. now uses *note io.open_code(): 16e3.
     to open code files.  Patch by Jason Killen.

   - bpo-38622(2): Add additional audit events for the *note ctypes: 2a.
     module.

   - bpo-38418(3): Fixes audit event for *note os.system(): 1413. to be
     named ‘os.system’.

   - bpo-38243(4): Escape the server title of *note
     xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer: 197c. when rendering the document
     page as HTML. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38243(5).)

   - bpo-38174(6): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.8,
     which resolves CVE 2019-15903(7).

   - bpo-37764(8): Fixes email._header_value_parser.get_unstructured
     going into an infinite loop for a specific case in which the email
     header does not have trailing whitespace, and the case in which it
     contains an invalid encoded word.  Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

   - bpo-37461(9): Fix an infinite loop when parsing specially crafted
     email headers.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-37363(10): Adds audit events for the range of supported run
     commands (see *note Ligne de commande et environnement: 197d.).

   - bpo-37463(11): ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4
     addresses with additional text after the address and only
     quad-dotted notation without trailing whitespaces.  Some
     inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace and all data after
     whitespace, e.g.  '127.0.0.1 whatever'.

   - bpo-37363(12): Adds audit events for *note ensurepip: 54, *note
     ftplib: 5d, *note glob: 63, *note imaplib: 73, ‘nntplib’, *note
     pdb: a4, *note poplib: ab, *note shutil: c4, *note smtplib: c9,
     *note sqlite3: ce, *note subprocess: d5, ‘telnetlib’, *note
     tempfile: df. and *note webbrowser: 114, as well as *note
     os.listdir(): 10dc, *note os.scandir(): a4f. and *note
     breakpoint(): 231.

   - bpo-37364(13): *note io.open_code(): 16e3. is now used when reading
     ‘.pth’ files.

   - bpo-34631(14): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer

   - bpo-34155(15): Fix parsing of invalid email addresses with more
     than one ‘@’ (e.g.  a@b@c.com.)  to not return the part before 2nd
     ‘@’ as valid email address.  Patch by maxking & jpic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38622

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38174

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-15903

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37764

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37461

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37463

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37364

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34155


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<49>,  Next: Library<48>,  Prev: Security<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38631(1): Replace ‘Py_FatalError()’ call with a regular *note
     RuntimeError: 193. exception in ‘float.__getformat__()’.

   - bpo-38639(2): Optimized *note math.floor(): 137a, *note
     math.ceil(): 137b. and *note math.trunc(): 137c. for floats.

   - bpo-38640(3): Fixed a bug in the compiler that was causing to raise
     in the presence of break statements and continue statements inside
     always false while loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38613(4): Optimized some set operations (e.g.  ‘|’, ‘^’, and
     ‘-’) of ‘dict_keys’.  ‘d.keys() | other’ was slower than ‘set(d) |
     other’ but they are almost same performance for now.

   - bpo-28029(5): ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an
     empty string for all non-zero ‘n’.  There are similar changes for
     *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. objects.

   - bpo-38535(6): Fixed line numbers and column offsets for AST nodes
     for calls without arguments in decorators.

   - bpo-38525(7): Fix a segmentation fault when using reverse iterators
     of empty ‘dict’ objects.  Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-38465(8): *note bytearray: 52b, *note array: 19e. and *note
     mmap: 208. objects allow now to export more than ‘2**31’ buffers at
     a time.

   - bpo-38469(9): Fixed a bug where the scope of named expressions was
     not being resolved correctly in the presence of the 'global'
     keyword.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38437(10): Activate the ‘GC_DEBUG’ macro for debug builds of
     the interpreter (when ‘Py_DEBUG’ is set).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38379(11): When the garbage collector makes a collection in
     which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the
     isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not
     block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters.

   - bpo-38379(12): When cyclic garbage collection (gc) runs finalizers
     that resurrect unreachable objects, the current gc run ends,
     without collecting any cyclic trash.  However, the statistics
     reported by ‘collect()’ and ‘get_stats()’ claimed that all cyclic
     trash found was collected, and that the resurrected objects were
     collected.  Changed the stats to report that none were collected.

   - bpo-38392(13): In debug mode, *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14bd. now
     calls ‘tp_traverse()’ of the object type to ensure that the object
     is valid: test that objects visited by ‘tp_traverse()’ are valid.

   - bpo-38210(14): Remove unnecessary intersection and update set
     operation in dictview with empty set.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in bpo-38210(15).)

   - bpo-38402(16): Check the error from the system's underlying ‘crypt’
     or ‘crypt_r’.

   - bpo-37474(17): On FreeBSD, Python no longer calls
     ‘fedisableexcept()’ at startup to control the floating-point
     control mode.  The call became useless since FreeBSD 6: it became
     the default mode.

   - bpo-38006(18): Fix a bug due to the interaction of weakrefs and the
     cyclic garbage collector.  We must clear any weakrefs in garbage in
     order to prevent their callbacks from executing and causing a
     crash.

   - bpo-38317(19): Fix warnings options priority:
     ‘PyConfig.warnoptions’ has the highest priority, as stated in the
     PEP 587(20).

   - bpo-38310(21): Predict ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ ->
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode pairs in the main interpreter loop.
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-36871(22): Improve error handling for the assert_has_calls and
     assert_has_awaits methods of mocks.  Fixed a bug where any errors
     encountered while binding the expected calls to the mock's spec
     were silently swallowed, leading to misleading error output.

   - bpo-11410(23): Better control over symbol visibility is provided
     through use of the visibility attributes available in gcc >= 4.0,
     provided in a uniform way across POSIX and Windows.  The POSIX
     build files have been updated to compile with -fvisibility=hidden,
     minimising exported symbols.

   - bpo-38219(24): Optimized the *note dict: 253. constructor and the
     *note update(): 141b. method for the case when the argument is a
     dict.

   - bpo-38236(25): Python now dumps path configuration if it fails to
     import the Python codecs of the filesystem and stdio encodings.

   - bpo-38013(26): Allow to call ‘async_generator_athrow().throw(...)’
     even for non-started async generator helper.  It fixes annoying
     warning at the end of *note asyncio.run(): 468. call.

   - bpo-38124(27): Fix an off-by-one error in PyState_AddModule that
     could cause out-of-bounds memory access.

   - bpo-38116(28): The select module is now PEP-384 compliant and no
     longer has static state

   - bpo-38113(29): ast module updated to PEP-384 and all statics
     removed

   - bpo-38076(30): The struct module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38075(31): The random module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38074(32): zlib module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38073(33): Make pwd extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38072(34): grp module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38069(35): Make _posixsubprocess PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38071(36): Make termios extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38005(37): Fixed comparing and creating of InterpreterID and
     ChannelID.

   - bpo-36946(38): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-37994(39): Fixed silencing arbitrary errors if an attribute
     lookup fails in several sites.  Only AttributeError should be
     silenced.

   - bpo-8425(40): Optimize set difference_update for the case when the
     other set is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny
     Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù).

   - bpo-37966(41): The implementation of *note is_normalized(): a39.
     has been greatly sped up on strings that aren't normalized, by
     implementing the full normalization-quick-check algorithm from the
     Unicode standard.

   - bpo-37947(42): Adjust correctly the recursion level in the symtable
     generation for named expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37812(43): The ‘CHECK_SMALL_INT’ macro used inside
     ‘Object/longobject.c’ has been replaced with an explicit ‘return’
     at each call site.

   - bpo-37751(44): Fix *note codecs.lookup(): 952. to normalize the
     encoding name the same way than ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’,
     except that *note codecs.lookup(): 952. also converts the name to
     lower case.

   - bpo-37830(45): Fixed compilation of *note break: a99. and *note
     continue: 9b9. in the *note finally: 9ba. block when the
     corresponding *note try: 6d5. block contains *note return: 9be.
     with a non-constant value.

   - bpo-20490(46): Improve import error message for partially
     initialized module on circular ‘from’ imports - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37840(47): Fix handling of negative indices in *note sq_item:
     18e9. of *note bytearray: 52b.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37802(48): Slightly improve performance of *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 197f, *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 1980. and *note PyLong_FromSize_t():
     1981.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37409(49): Ensure explicit relative imports from interactive
     sessions and scripts (having no parent package) always raise
     ImportError, rather than treating the current module as the
     package.  Patch by Ben Lewis.

   - bpo-32912(50): Reverted bpo-32912(51): emitting *note
     SyntaxWarning: 451. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. for
     invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-37757(52): PEP 572(53): As described in the PEP, assignment
     expressions now raise *note SyntaxError: 18b. when their
     interaction with comprehension scoping results in an ambiguous
     target scope.

     The ‘TargetScopeError’ subclass originally proposed by the PEP has
     been removed in favour of just raising regular syntax errors for
     the disallowed cases.

   - bpo-36279(54): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in *note
     os.wait3(): d85.

   - bpo-36311(55): Decoding bytes objects larger than 2GiB is faster
     and no longer fails when a multibyte characters spans a chunk
     boundary.

   - bpo-34880(56): The *note assert: 957. statement now works properly
     if the *note AssertionError: 696. exception is being shadowed.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-37340(57): Removed object cache (‘free_list’) for bound method
     objects.  Temporary bound method objects are less used than before
     thanks to the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ opcode and the
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’ C API.

   - bpo-37648(58): Fixed minor inconsistency in ‘list.__contains__()’,
     ‘tuple.__contains__()’ and a few other places.  The collection's
     item is now always at the left and the needle is on the right of
     ‘==’.

   - bpo-37444(59): Update differing exception between
     ‘builtins.__import__()’ and *note importlib.__import__(): 1058.

   - bpo-37619(60): When adding a wrapper descriptor from one class to a
     different class (for example, setting ‘__add__ = str.__add__’ on an
     ‘int’ subclass), an exception is correctly raised when the operator
     is called.

   - bpo-37593(61): Swap the positions of the 'posonlyargs' and 'args'
     parameters in the constructor of ‘ast.parameters’ nodes.

   - bpo-37543(62): Optimized pymalloc for non PGO build.

   - bpo-37537(63): Compute allocated pymalloc blocks inside
     _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks().  This slows down _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks()
     but gives a small speedup to _PyObject_Malloc() and
     _PyObject_Free().

   - bpo-37467(64): Fix *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7. and
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ if a filename is a bytes string.  For example,
     for a SyntaxError exception where the filename attribute is a bytes
     string.

   - bpo-37433(65): Fix ‘SyntaxError’ indicator printing too many spaces
     for multi-line strings - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37417(66): ‘bytearray.extend()’ now correctly handles errors
     that arise during iteration.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37414(67): The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned
     ‘None’.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which
     was already removed in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37392(68): Remove ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and
     ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.2.  Use *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 938. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 939. instead.  Remove also
     ‘check_interval’ field of the ‘PyInterpreterState’ structure.

   - bpo-37388(69): In development mode and in debug build, 'encoding'
     and 'errors' arguments are now checked on string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 508, *note
     str.encode(): 8c4. and *note bytes.decode(): 8c5.

     By default, for best performances, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error, and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   - bpo-37348(70): Optimized decoding short ASCII string with UTF-8 and
     ascii codecs.  ‘b"foo".decode()’ is about 15% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-24214(71): Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler
     in the UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.

   - bpo-37330(72): *note open(): 508, *note io.open(): 509, *note
     codecs.open(): 72c. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ ("universal newline") in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-35224(73): Reverse evaluation order of key: value in dict
     comprehensions as proposed in PEP 572.  I.e.  in ‘{k: v for ...}’,
     ‘k’ will be evaluated before ‘v’.

   - bpo-37316(74): Fix the *note PySys_Audit(): 365. call in *note
     mmap.mmap: 208.

   - bpo-37300(75): Remove an unnecessary Py_XINCREF in classobject.c.

   - bpo-37269(76): Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not
     treating correctly constant conditions with binary operators.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20443(77): Python now gets the absolute path of the script
     filename specified on the command line (ex: "python3 script.py"):
     the __file__ attribute of the __main__ module and sys.path[0]
     become an absolute path, rather than a relative path.

   - bpo-37257(78): Python's small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now
     allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for
     immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents
     thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and
     destroyed anew on each iteration.

   - bpo-37231(79): The dispatching of type slots to special methods
     (for example calling ‘__mul__’ when doing ‘x * y’) has been made
     faster.

   - bpo-36974(80): Implemented separate vectorcall functions for every
     calling convention of builtin functions and methods.  This improves
     performance for calls.

   - bpo-37213(81): Handle correctly negative line offsets in the
     peephole optimizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37219(82): Remove erroneous optimization for empty set
     differences.

   - bpo-15913(83): Implement *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 746.
     function (previously documented but not implemented): call *note
     struct.calcsize(): 1982.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-36922(84): Slot functions optimize any callable with
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ instead of only instances of
     ‘function’.

   - bpo-36974(85): The slot ‘tp_vectorcall_offset’ is inherited
     unconditionally to support ‘super().__call__()’ when the base class
     uses vectorcall.

   - bpo-37160(86): *note threading.get_native_id(): a2e. now also
     supports NetBSD.

   - bpo-37077(87): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): a2e. support
     for AIX. Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-36781(88): *note sum(): 456. has been optimized for boolean
     values.

   - bpo-34556(89): Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ to venv module.  Patch by
     Cooper Ry Lees

   - bpo-20523(90): ‘pdb.Pdb’ supports ~/.pdbrc in Windows 7.  Patch by
     Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter.

   - bpo-35551(91): Updated encodings: - Removed the "tis260" encoding,
     which was an alias for the nonexistent "tactis" codec.  - Added
     "mac_centeuro" as an alias for the mac_latin2 encoding.

   - bpo-19072(92): The *note classmethod: 165. decorator can now wrap
     other descriptors such as property objects.  Adapted from a patch
     written by Graham Dumpleton.

   - bpo-27575(93): Improve speed of dictview intersection by directly
     using set intersection logic.  Patch by David Su.

   - bpo-30773(94): Prohibit parallel running of aclose() / asend() /
     athrow().  Fix ag_running to reflect the actual running status of
     the AG.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38535

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38525

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38437

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38392

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37474

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38317

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38310

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11410

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38013

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38124

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38116

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38113

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38074

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38073

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38069

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38071

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38005

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37994

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37947

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37812

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37830

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20490

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37840

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37802

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37409

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<48>,  Next: Documentation<43>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36589(1): The *note curses.update_lines_cols(): ddb. function
     now returns ‘None’ instead of ‘1’ on success.

   - bpo-38807(2): Update *note TypeError: 525. messages for *note
     os.path.join(): 15ee. to include *note os.PathLike: c41. objects as
     acceptable input types.

   - bpo-38724(3): Add a repr for ‘subprocess.Popen’ objects.  Patch by
     Andrey Doroschenko.

   - bpo-38786(4): pydoc now recognizes and parses HTTPS URLs.  Patch by
     python273.

   - bpo-38785(5): Prevent asyncio from crashing if parent ‘__init__’ is
     not called from a constructor of object derived from
     ‘asyncio.Future’.

   - bpo-38723(6): *note pdb: a4. now uses *note io.open_code(): 16e3.
     to trigger auditing events.

   - bpo-27805(7): Allow opening pipes and other non-seekable files in
     append mode with *note open(): 508.

   - bpo-38438(8): Simplify the *note argparse: 6. usage message for
     ‘nargs="*"’.

   - bpo-38761(9): WeakSet is now registered as a
     collections.abc.MutableSet.

   - bpo-38716(10): logging: change RotatingHandler namer and rotator to
     class-level attributes.  This stops __init__ from setting them to
     None in the case where a subclass defines them with eponymous
     methods.

   - bpo-38713(11): Add *note os.P_PIDFD: 909. constant, which may be
     passed to *note os.waitid(): d88. to wait on a Linux process file
     descriptor.

   - bpo-38692(12): Add *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 465, a
     Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file
     descriptors.

   - bpo-38692(13): Expose the Linux ‘pidfd_open’ syscall as *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 466.

   - bpo-38602(14): Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and
     ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ to the *note fcntl: 58. module.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-38334(15): Fixed seeking backward on an encrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’.

   - bpo-38312(16): Add *note curses.get_escdelay(): 8df, *note
     curses.set_escdelay(): 8e0, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 8e1, and
     *note curses.set_tabsize(): 8e2. functions - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-38586(17): Now *note fileConfig(): b41. correctly sets the
     .name of handlers loaded.

   - bpo-38565(18): Add new cache_parameters() method for
     functools.lru_cache() to better support pickling.

   - bpo-34679(19): asynci.ProactorEventLoop.close() now only calls
     signal.set_wakeup_fd() in the main thread.

   - bpo-31202(20): The case the result of ‘pathlib.WindowsPath.glob()’
     matches now the case of the pattern for literal parts.

   - bpo-36321(21): Remove misspelled attribute.  The 3.8 changelog
     noted that this would be removed in 3.9.

   - bpo-38521(22): Fixed erroneous equality comparison in
     statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-38493(23): Added *note CLD_KILLED: 907. and *note CLD_STOPPED:
     908. for ‘si_code’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38478(24): Fixed a bug in ‘inspect.signature.bind()’ that was
     causing it to fail when handling a keyword argument with same name
     as positional-only parameter.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33604(25): Fixed ‘hmac.new’ and ‘hmac.HMAC’ to raise TypeError
     instead of ValueError when the digestmod parameter, now required in
     3.8, is omitted.  Also clarified the hmac module documentation and
     docstrings.

   - bpo-38378(26): Parameters 'out' and 'in' of *note os.sendfile():
     aff. was renamed to 'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

   - bpo-38417(27): Added support for setting the umask in the child
     process to the subprocess module on POSIX systems.

   - bpo-38449(28): Revert PR 15522, which introduces a regression in
     *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 205. due to improper handling of
     filenames as urls.

   - bpo-38431(29): Fix ‘__repr__’ method for *note dataclasses.InitVar:
     17df. to support typing objects, patch by Samuel Colvin.

   - bpo-38109(30): Add missing *note stat.S_IFDOOR: fa7, *note
     stat.S_IFPORT: fa8, *note stat.S_IFWHT: fa9, *note stat.S_ISDOOR():
     1984, *note stat.S_ISPORT(): 1985, and *note stat.S_ISWHT(): 1986.
     values to the Python implementation of *note stat: d0.

   - bpo-38422(31): Clarify docstrings of pathlib suffix(es)

   - bpo-38405(32): Nested subclasses of *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad.
     are now pickleable.

   - bpo-38332(33): Prevent *note KeyError: 33a. thrown by
     ‘_encoded_words.decode()’ when given an encoded-word with invalid
     content-type encoding from propagating all the way to
     ‘email.message.get()’.

   - bpo-38371(34): Deprecated the ‘split()’ method in
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour of the ‘splitlist()’ method which
     has more consistent and predictable behavior.

   - bpo-38341(35): Add *note smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987. to
     the *note smtplib: c9. exported names.

   - bpo-38319(36): sendfile() used in socket and shutil modules was
     raising OverflowError for files >= 2GiB on 32-bit architectures.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-38242(37): Revert the new asyncio Streams API

   - bpo-13153(38): OS native encoding is now used for converting
     between Python strings and Tcl objects.  This allows to display,
     copy and paste to clipboard emoji and other non-BMP characters.
     Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails
     (except MemoryError).

   - bpo-38019(39): Correctly handle pause/resume reading of closed
     asyncio unix pipe.

   - bpo-38163(40): Child mocks will now detect their type as either
     synchronous or asynchronous, asynchronous child mocks will be
     AsyncMocks and synchronous child mocks will be either MagicMock or
     Mock (depending on their parent type).

   - bpo-38161(41): Removes _AwaitEvent from AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38216(42): Allow the rare code that wants to send invalid http
     requests from the ‘http.client’ library a way to do so.  The fixes
     for bpo-30458(43) led to breakage for some projects that were
     relying on this ability to test their own behavior in the face of
     bad requests.

   - bpo-28286(44): Deprecate opening *note GzipFile: 410. for writing
     implicitly.  Always specify the 'mode' argument for writing.

   - bpo-38108(45): Any synchronous magic methods on an AsyncMock now
     return a MagicMock.  Any asynchronous magic methods on a MagicMock
     now return an AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38265(46): Update the 'length' parameter of *note os.pread():
     b4f. to accept *note Py_ssize_t: a50. instead of int.

   - bpo-38112(47): *note compileall: 20. has a higher default recursion
     limit and new command-line arguments for path manipulation,
     symlinks handling, and multiple optimization levels.

   - bpo-38248(48): asyncio: Fix inconsistent immediate Task
     cancellation

   - bpo-38237(49): The arguments for the builtin pow function are more
     descriptive.  They can now also be passed in as keywords.

   - bpo-34002(50): Improve efficiency in parts of email package by
     changing while-pop to a for loop, using isdisjoint instead of set
     intersections.

   - bpo-38191(51): Constructors of *note NamedTuple: 2ad. and *note
     TypedDict: 161. types now accept arbitrary keyword argument names,
     including "cls", "self", "typename", "_typename", "fields" and
     "_fields".

   - bpo-38155(52): Add ‘__all__’ to *note datetime: 30.  Patch by Tahia
     Khan.

   - bpo-38185(53): Fixed case-insensitive string comparison in *note
     sqlite3.Row: e5c. indexing.

   - bpo-38136(54): Changes AsyncMock call count and await count to be
     two different counters.  Now await count only counts when a
     coroutine has been awaited, not when it has been called, and
     vice-versa.  Update the documentation around this.

   - bpo-37828(55): Fix default mock name in *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called(): ce8. exceptions.  Patch by
     Abraham Toriz Cruz.

   - bpo-38175(56): Fix a memory leak in comparison of *note
     sqlite3.Row: e5c. objects.

   - bpo-33936(57): _hashlib no longer calls obsolete OpenSSL
     initialization function with OpenSSL 1.1.0+.

   - bpo-34706(58): Preserve subclassing in
     inspect.Signature.from_callable.

   - bpo-38153(59): Names of hashing algorithms from OpenSSL are now
     normalized to follow Python's naming conventions.  For example
     OpenSSL uses sha3-512 instead of sha3_512 or blake2b512 instead of
     blake2b.

   - bpo-38115(60): Fix a bug in dis.findlinestarts() where it would
     return invalid bytecode offsets.  Document that a code object's
     co_lnotab can contain invalid bytecode offsets.

   - bpo-38148(61): Add slots to *note asyncio: a. transport classes,
     which can reduce memory usage.

   - bpo-38142(62): The _hashlib OpenSSL wrapper extension module is now
     PEP-384 compliant.

   - bpo-9216(63): hashlib constructors now support usedforsecurity flag
     to signal that a hashing algorithm is not used in a security
     context.

   - bpo-36991(64): Fixes a potential incorrect AttributeError exception
     escaping ZipFile.extract() in some unsupported input error
     situations.

   - bpo-38134(65): Remove obsolete copy of PBKDF2_HMAC_fast.  All
     supported OpenSSL versions contain a fast implementation.

   - bpo-38132(66): The OpenSSL hashlib wrapper uses a simpler
     implementation.  Several Macros and pointless caches are gone.  The
     hash name now comes from OpenSSL's EVP. The algorithm name stays
     the same, except it is now always lower case.

   - bpo-38008(67): Fix parent class check in protocols to correctly
     identify the module that provides a builtin protocol, instead of
     assuming they all come from the *note collections.abc: 1e. module

   - bpo-34037(68): For *note asyncio: a, add a new coroutine
     ‘loop.shutdown_default_executor()’.  The new coroutine provides an
     API to schedule an executor shutdown that waits on the threadpool
     to finish closing.  Also, *note asyncio.run(): 468. has been
     updated to utilize the new coroutine.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-37405(69): Fixed regression bug for socket.getsockname() for
     non-CAN_ISOTP AF_CAN address family sockets by returning a 1-tuple
     instead of string.

   - bpo-38121(70): Update parameter names on functions in
     importlib.metadata matching the changes in the 0.22 release of
     importlib_metadata.

   - bpo-38110(71): The os.closewalk() implementation now uses the libc
     fdwalk() API on platforms where it is available.

   - bpo-38093(72): Fixes AsyncMock so it doesn't crash when used with
     AsyncContextManagers or AsyncIterators.

   - bpo-37488(73): Add warning to ‘datetime.utctimetuple()’,
     ‘datetime.utcnow()’ and ‘datetime.utcfromtimestamp()’ .

   - bpo-35640(74): Allow passing a *note path-like object: 29d. as
     ‘directory’ argument to the *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. class.  Patch by Géry
     Ogam.

   - bpo-38086(75): Update importlib.metadata with changes from
     importlib_metadata 0.21(76).

   - bpo-37251(77): Remove ‘__code__’ check in AsyncMock that
     incorrectly evaluated function specs as async objects but failed to
     evaluate classes with ‘__await__’ but no ‘__code__’ attribute
     defined as async objects.

   - bpo-38037(78): Fix reference counters in the *note signal: c5.
     module.

   - bpo-38066(79): Hide internal asyncio.Stream methods: feed_eof(),
     feed_data(), set_exception() and set_transport().

   - bpo-38059(80): inspect.py now uses sys.exit() instead of exit()

   - bpo-38049(81): Added command-line interface for the *note ast: 8.
     module.

   - bpo-37953(82): In *note typing: 103, improved the ‘__hash__’ and
     ‘__eq__’ methods for ‘ForwardReferences’.

   - bpo-38026(83): Fixed *note inspect.getattr_static(): 480. used
     ‘isinstance’ while it should avoid dynamic lookup.

   - bpo-35923(84): Update *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter:
     c9f. to use ‘loader._ORIGIN’ instead of a hardcoded value.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38010(85): In ‘importlib.metadata’ sync with
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 0.20, clarifying behavior of ‘files()’ and
     fixing issue where only one requirement was returned for
     ‘requires()’ on ‘dist-info’ packages.

   - bpo-38006(86): weakref.WeakValueDictionary defines a local remove()
     function used as callback for weak references.  This function was
     created with a closure.  Modify the implementation to avoid the
     closure.

   - bpo-37995(87): Added the 'indent' option to *note ast.dump(): 8d3.
     which allows it to produce a multiline indented output.

   - bpo-34410(88): Fixed a crash in the ‘tee()’ iterator when re-enter
     it.  RuntimeError is now raised in this case.

   - bpo-37140(89): Fix a ctypes regression of Python 3.8.  When a
     ctypes.Structure is passed by copy to a function, ctypes internals
     created a temporary object which had the side effect of calling the
     structure finalizer (__del__) twice.  The Python semantics requires
     a finalizer to be called exactly once.  Fix ctypes internals to no
     longer call the finalizer twice.

   - bpo-37587(90): ‘_json.scanstring’ is now up to 3x faster when there
     are many backslash escaped characters in the JSON string.

   - bpo-37834(91): Prevent shutil.rmtree exception when built on
     non-Windows system without fd system call support, like older
     versions of macOS.

   - bpo-10978(92): Semaphores and BoundedSemaphores can now release
     more than one waiting thread at a time.

   - bpo-37972(93): Subscripts to the ‘unittest.mock.call’ objects now
     receive the same chaining mechanism as any other custom attributes,
     so that the following usage no longer raises a ‘TypeError’:

     ‘call().foo().__getitem__('bar')’

     Patch by blhsing

   - bpo-37965(94): Fix C compiler warning caused by
     distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function.

   - bpo-37964(95): Add ‘F_GETPATH’ command to *note fcntl: 58.

   - bpo-37960(96): ‘repr()’ of buffered and text streams now silences
     only expected exceptions when get the value of "name" and "mode"
     attributes.

   - bpo-37961(97): Add a ‘total_nframe’ field to the traces collected
     by the tracemalloc module.  This field indicates the original
     number of frames before it was truncated.

   - bpo-37951(98): Most features of the subprocess module now work
     again in subinterpreters.  Only 'preexec_fn' is restricted in
     subinterpreters.

   - bpo-36205(99): Fix the rusage implementation of time.process_time()
     to correctly report the sum of the system and user CPU time.

   - bpo-37950(100): Fix *note ast.dump(): 8d3. when call with
     incompletely initialized node.

   - bpo-34679(101): Restores instantiation of Windows IOCP event loops
     from the non-main thread.

   - bpo-36917(102): Add default implementation of the *note
     ast.NodeVisitor.visit_Constant(): a5e. method which emits a
     deprecation warning and calls corresponding methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, etc.

   - bpo-37798(103): Update test_statistics.py to verify that the
     statistics module works well for both C and Python implementations.
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-26589(104): Added a new status code to the http module: 451
     UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

   - bpo-37915(105): Fix a segmentation fault that appeared when
     comparing instances of ‘datetime.timezone’ and ‘datetime.tzinfo’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32554(106): Deprecate having random.seed() call hash on
     arbitrary types.

   - bpo-9938(107): Add optional keyword argument ‘exit_on_error’ for
     ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-37851(108): The *note faulthandler: 57. module no longer
     allocates its alternative stack at Python startup.  Now the stack
     is only allocated at the first faulthandler usage.

   - bpo-32793(109): Fix a duplicated debug message when *note
     smtplib.SMTP.connect(): 1988. is called.

   - bpo-37885(110): venv: Don't generate unset variable warning on
     deactivate.

   - bpo-37868(111): Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass when given an instance
     that never raises AttributeError in __getattr__.  That is, an
     object that returns something for __dataclass_fields__ even if it's
     not a dataclass.

   - bpo-37811(112): Fix ‘socket’ module's ‘socket.connect(address)’
     function being unable to establish connection in case of
     interrupted system call.  The problem was observed on all OSes
     which ‘poll(2)’ system call can take only non-negative integers and
     -1 as a timeout value.

   - bpo-37863(113): Optimizations for Fraction.__hash__ suggested by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-21131(114): Fix ‘faulthandler.register(chain=True)’ stack.
     faulthandler now allocates a dedicated stack of ‘SIGSTKSZ*2’ bytes,
     instead of just ‘SIGSTKSZ’ bytes.  Calling the previous signal
     handler in faulthandler signal handler uses more than ‘SIGSTKSZ’
     bytes of stack memory on some platforms.

   - bpo-37798(115): Add C fastpath for statistics.NormalDist.inv_cdf()
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-37804(116): Remove the deprecated method
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37819(117): Add Fraction.as_integer_ratio() to match the
     corresponding methods in bool, int, float, and decimal.

   - bpo-14465(118): Add an xml.etree.ElementTree.indent() function for
     pretty-printing XML trees.  Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-37810(119): Fix *note difflib: 37. ‘?’ hint in diff output when
     dealing with tabs.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37772(120): In ‘zipfile.Path’, when adding implicit dirs,
     ensure that ancestral directories are added and that duplicates are
     excluded.

   - bpo-18578(121): Renamed and documented ‘test.bytecode_helper’ as
     ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37785(122): Fix xgettext warnings in *note argparse: 6.

   - bpo-34488(123): ‘writelines()’ method of *note io.BytesIO: e8f. is
     now slightly faster when many small lines are passed.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37449(124): ‘ensurepip’ now uses
     ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’ to read data instead of
     ‘pkgutil.get_data()’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-28292(125): Mark calendar.py helper functions as being private.
     The follows PEP 8 guidance to maintain the style conventions in the
     module and it addresses a known case of user confusion.

   - bpo-18049(126): Add definition of THREAD_STACK_SIZE for AIX in
     Python/thread_pthread.h The default thread stacksize caused crashes
     with the default recursion limit Patch by M Felt

   - bpo-37742(127): The logging.getLogger() API now returns the root
     logger when passed the name 'root', whereas previously it returned
     a non-root logger named 'root'.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named 'root', or
     instantiates a logger using logging.getLogger(__name__) in some
     top-level module called 'root.py'.

   - bpo-37738(128): Fix the implementation of curses ‘addch(str,
     color_pair)’: pass the color pair to ‘setcchar()’, instead of
     always passing 0 as the color pair.

   - bpo-37723(129): Fix performance regression on regular expression
     parsing with huge character sets.  Patch by Yann Vaginay.

   - bpo-35943(130): The function *note PyImport_GetModule(): ba3. now
     ensures any module it returns is fully initialized.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-32178(131): Fix IndexError in *note email: 3b. package when
     trying to parse invalid address fields starting with ‘:’.

   - bpo-37268(132): The ‘parser’ module is deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.

   - bpo-11953(133): Completing WSA* error codes in *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-37685(134): Fixed comparisons of *note datetime.timedelta: 9bf.
     and *note datetime.timezone: 10a3.

   - bpo-37697(135): Synchronize ‘importlib.metadata’ with
     importlib_metadata 0.19(136), improving handling of EGG-INFO files
     and fixing a crash when entry point names contained colons.

   - bpo-37695(137): Correct *note curses.unget_wch(): 1083. error
     message.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37689(138): Add ‘is_relative_to()’ in ‘PurePath’ to determine
     whether or not one path is relative to another.

   - bpo-29553(139): Fixed *note argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage():
     1989. for mutually exclusive groups.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-37691(140): Let math.dist() accept coordinates as sequences (or
     iterables) rather than just tuples.

   - bpo-37685(141): Fixed ‘__eq__’, ‘__lt__’ etc implementations in
     some classes.  They now return *note NotImplemented: 7be. for
     unsupported type of the other operand.  This allows the other
     operand to play role (for example the equality comparison with
     *note ANY: 198a. will return ‘True’).

   - bpo-37354(142): Make Activate.ps1 Powershell script static to allow
     for signing it.

   - bpo-37664(143): Update wheels bundled with ensurepip (pip 19.2.3
     and setuptools 41.2.0)

   - bpo-37663(144): Bring consistency to venv shell activation scripts
     by always using __VENV_PROMPT__.

   - bpo-37642(145): Allowed the pure Python implementation of *note
     datetime.timezone: 10a3. to represent sub-minute offsets close to
     minimum and maximum boundaries, specifically in the ranges (23:59,
     24:00) and (-23:59, 24:00).  Patch by Ngalim Siregar

   - bpo-36161(146): In *note posix: ac, use ‘ttyname_r’ instead of
     ‘ttyname’ for thread safety.

   - bpo-36324(147): Make internal attributes for
     statistics.NormalDist() private.

   - bpo-37555(148): Fix ‘NonCallableMock._call_matcher’ returning tuple
     instead of ‘_Call’ object when ‘self._spec_signature’ exists.
     Patch by Elizabeth Uselton

   - bpo-29446(149): Make ‘from tkinter import *’ import only the
     expected objects.

   - bpo-16970(150): Adding a value error when an invalid value in
     passed to nargs Patch by Robert Leenders

   - bpo-34443(151): Exceptions from *note enum: 55. now use the
     ‘__qualname’ of the enum class in the exception message instead of
     the ‘__name__’.

   - bpo-37491(152): Fix ‘IndexError’ when parsing email headers with
     unexpectedly ending bare-quoted string value.  Patch by Abhilash
     Raj.

   - bpo-37587(153): Make json.loads faster for long strings.  (Patch by
     Marco Paolini)

   - bpo-18378(154): Recognize "UTF-8" as a valid value for LC_CTYPE in
     locale._parse_localename.

   - bpo-37579(155): Return *note NotImplemented: 7be. in Python
     implementation of ‘__eq__’ for *note timedelta: 9bf. and *note
     time: 1c9. when the other object being compared is not of the same
     type to match C implementation.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(156): Record calls to parent when autospecced object is
     attached to a mock using ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37531(157): "python3 -m test -jN -timeout=TIMEOUT" now kills a
     worker process if it runs longer than 'TIMEOUT' seconds.

   - bpo-37482(158): Fix serialization of display name in originator or
     destination address fields with both encoded words and special
     chars.

   - bpo-36993(159): Improve error reporting for corrupt zip files with
     bad zip64 extra data.  Patch by Daniel Hillier.

   - bpo-37502(160): pickle.loads() no longer raises TypeError when the
     buffers argument is set to None

   - bpo-37520(161): Correct behavior for zipfile.Path.parent when the
     path object identifies a subdirectory.

   - bpo-18374(162): Fix the ‘.col_offset’ attribute of nested *note
     ast.BinOp: 198b. instances which had a too large value in some
     situations.

   - bpo-37424(163): Fixes a possible hang when using a timeout on
     ‘subprocess.run()’ while capturing output.  If the child process
     spawned its own children or otherwise connected its stdout or
     stderr handles with another process, we could hang after the
     timeout was reached and our child was killed when attempting to
     read final output from the pipes.

   - bpo-37421(164): Fix ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’
     finalizer: clear also the 'tempdir' configuration of the current
     process, so next call to ‘get_temp_dir()’ will create a new
     temporary directory, rather than reusing the removed temporary
     directory.

   - bpo-37481(165): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is deprecated
     in Python 3.8, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-37479(166): When ‘Enum.__str__’ is overridden in a derived
     class, the override will be used by ‘Enum.__format__’ regardless of
     whether mixin classes are present.

   - bpo-37440(167): http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake
     authentication for default context or if a cert_file is passed to
     HTTPSConnection.

   - bpo-37437(168): Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.

   - bpo-37428(169): SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer
     sets SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections.
     Although the option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL
     implicitly enables cert chain validation when the flag is set.

   - bpo-37420(170): *note os.sched_setaffinity(): 10f0. now correctly
     handles errors that arise during iteration over its ‘mask’
     argument.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37412(171): The *note os.getcwdb(): a81. function now uses the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP
     529(172) for the rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated
     on Windows.

   - bpo-37406(173): The sqlite3 module now raises TypeError, rather
     than ValueError, if operation argument type is not str: execute(),
     executemany() and calling a connection.

   - bpo-29412(174): Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending
     unexpectedly.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-36546(175): The 'dist' argument for statistics.quantiles() is
     now positional only.  The current name doesn't reflect that the
     argument can be either a dataset or a distribution.  Marking the
     parameter as positional avoids confusion and makes it possible to
     change the name later.

   - bpo-37394(176): Fix a bug that was causing the *note queue: b5.
     module to fail if the accelerator module was not available.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37376(177): *note pprint: ad. now has support for *note
     types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc.  Patch by Carl Bordum Hansen.

   - bpo-26967(178): An *note ArgumentParser: 526. with
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ no longer disables grouping of short flags,
     such as ‘-vv’, but only disables abbreviation of long flags as
     documented.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-37212(179): *note unittest.mock.call(): 198c. now preserves the
     order of keyword arguments in repr output.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37372(180): Fix error unpickling datetime.time objects from
     Python 2 with seconds>=24.  Patch by Justin Blanchard.

   - bpo-37345(181): Add formal support for UDPLITE sockets.  Support
     was present before, but it is now easier to detect support with
     ‘hasattr(socket, 'IPPROTO_UDPLITE')’ and there are constants
     defined for each of the values needed: ‘socket.IPPROTO_UDPLITE’,
     ‘UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV’, and ‘UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV’.  Patch by Gabe
     Appleton.

   - bpo-37358(182): Optimized ‘functools.partial’ by using vectorcall.

   - bpo-37347(183): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 2a7,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 2a6, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 2a8, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 2a9. *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback(): 2aa. methods lead to
     segfaults if some of these methods are called twice with an equal
     object but not the same.  Now callbacks are stored more carefully.
     Patch by Aleksandr Balezin.

   - bpo-37163(184): The 'obj' argument of *note dataclasses.replace():
     16b3. is positional-only now.

   - bpo-37085(185): Add the optional Linux SocketCAN Broadcast Manager
     constants, used as flags to configure the BCM behaviour, in the
     socket module.  Patch by Karl Ding.

   - bpo-37328(186): ‘HTMLParser.unescape’ is removed.  It was
     undocumented and deprecated since Python 3.4.

   - bpo-37305(187): Add .webmanifest -> application/manifest+json to
     list of recognized file types and content type headers

   - bpo-37320(188): ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’,
     ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias
     to ‘wave.open()’ have been removed.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37315(189): Deprecated accepting floats with integral value
     (like ‘5.0’) in *note math.factorial(): 936.

   - bpo-37312(190): ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have
     been removed.  These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which
     requires threading support.

   - bpo-33972(191): Email with single part but content-type set to
     ‘multipart/*’ doesn't raise AttributeError anymore.

   - bpo-37280(192): Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile
     fallback mode.

   - bpo-37279(193): Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends
     extra data in fallback mode.

   - bpo-19865(194): *note ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(): 198d. now
     also supports non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit ‘wchar_t’
     (for example, Windows and AIX).

   - bpo-37266(195): In a subinterpreter, spawning a daemon thread now
     raises an exception.  Daemon threads were never supported in
     subinterpreters.  Previously, the subinterpreter finalization
     crashed with a Python fatal error if a daemon thread was still
     running.

   - bpo-37210(196): Allow pure Python implementation of *note pickle:
     a5. to work even when the C ‘_pickle’ module is unavailable.

   - bpo-21872(197): Fix *note lzma: 89.: module decompresses data
     incompletely.  When decompressing a FORMAT_ALONE format file, and
     it doesn't have the end marker, sometimes the last one to dozens
     bytes can't be output.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35922(198): Fix ‘RobotFileParser.crawl_delay()’ and
     ‘RobotFileParser.request_rate()’ to return ‘None’ rather than raise
     *note AttributeError: 343. when no relevant rule is defined in the
     robots.txt file.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35766(199): Change the format of feature_version to be a
     (major, minor) tuple.

   - bpo-36607(200): Eliminate *note RuntimeError: 193. raised by *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 945. if internal tasks weak set is changed by
     another thread during iteration.

   - bpo-18748(201): ‘_pyio.IOBase’ destructor now does nothing if
     getting the ‘closed’ attribute fails to better mimic ‘_io.IOBase’
     finalizer.

   - bpo-36402(202): Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when
     waiting for threads.  Wait until the Python thread state of all
     non-daemon threads get deleted (join all non-daemon threads),
     rather than just wait until non-daemon Python threads complete.

   - bpo-37206(203): Default values which cannot be represented as
     Python objects no longer improperly represented as ‘None’ in
     function signatures.

   - bpo-37111(204): Added ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ keyword parameters to
     ‘logging.basicConfig’.

   - bpo-12144(205): Ensure cookies with ‘expires’ attribute are handled
     in ‘CookieJar.make_cookies()’.

   - bpo-34886(206): Fix an unintended ValueError from *note
     subprocess.run(): b76. when checking for conflicting 'input' and
     'stdin' or 'capture_output' and 'stdout' or 'stderr' args when they
     were explicitly provided but with ‘None’ values within a passed in
     ‘**kwargs’ dict rather than as passed directly by name.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37173(207): The exception message for ‘inspect.getfile()’ now
     correctly reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.

   - bpo-37178(208): Give math.perm() a one argument form that means the
     same as math.factorial().

   - bpo-37178(209): For math.perm(n, k), let k default to n, giving the
     same result as factorial.

   - bpo-37165(210): Converted _collections._count_elements to use the
     Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-34767(211): Do not always create a *note collections.deque:
     5c8. in *note asyncio.Lock: a61.

   - bpo-37158(212): Speed-up statistics.fmean() by switching from a
     function to a generator.

   - bpo-34282(213): Remove ‘Enum._convert’ method, deprecated in 3.8.

   - bpo-37150(214): ‘argparse._ActionsContainer.add_argument’ now
     throws error, if someone accidentally pass FileType class object
     instead of instance of FileType as ‘type’ argument.

   - bpo-28724(215): The socket module now has the *note
     socket.send_fds(): 922. and ‘socket.recv.fds()’ methods.
     Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35621(216): Support running asyncio subprocesses when execution
     event loop in a thread on UNIX.

   - bpo-36520(217): Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now
     properly encoded when they are folded.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-30835(218): Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with
     invalid bytes in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message
     can cause an AttributeError.  Patch by Andrew Donnellan.

   - bpo-31163(219): pathlib.Path instance's rename and replace methods
     now return the new Path instance.

   - bpo-25068(220): *note urllib.request.ProxyHandler: 198e. now
     lowercases the keys of the passed dictionary.

   - bpo-26185(221): Fix *note repr(): 7e9. on empty ‘ZipInfo’ object.
     Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-21315(222): Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are
     parsed despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered.
     Also missing trailing whitespace after encoded words is now
     registered as a defect.

   - bpo-31904(223): Port test_datetime to VxWorks: skip zoneinfo tests
     on VxWorks

   - bpo-35805(224): Add parser for Message-ID header and add it to
     default HeaderRegistry.  This should prevent folding of Message-ID
     using RFC 2048 encoded words.

   - bpo-36871(225): Ensure method signature is used instead of
     constructor signature of a class while asserting mock object
     against method calls.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35070(226): posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the
     user belongs to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups.  Patch by Jeffrey
     Kintscher.

   - bpo-31783(227): Fix race condition in ThreadPoolExecutor when
     worker threads are created during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-36582(228): Fix ‘UserString.encode()’ to correctly return
     ‘bytes’ rather than a ‘UserString’ instance.

   - bpo-32424(229): Deprecate xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.copy() in
     favor of copy.copy().

     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley

   - bpo-36564(230): Fix infinite loop in email header folding logic
     that would be triggered when an email policy's max_line_length is
     not long enough to include the required markup and any values in
     the message.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-36543(231): Removed methods Element.getchildren(),
     Element.getiterator() and ElementTree.getiterator() and the
     xml.etree.cElementTree module.

   - bpo-36409(232): Remove the old plistlib API deprecated in Python
     3.4

   - bpo-36302(233): distutils sorts source file lists so that Extension
     .so files build more reproducibly by default

   - bpo-36250(234): Ignore ‘ValueError’ from ‘signal’ with
     ‘interaction’ in non-main thread.

   - bpo-36046(235): Added ‘user’, ‘group’ and ‘extra_groups’ parameters
     to the subprocess.Popen constructor.  Patch by Patrick McLean.

   - bpo-32627(236): Fix compile error when ‘_uuid’ headers conflicting
     included.

   - bpo-35800(237): Deprecate ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ ready for future
     removal.

   - bpo-35168(238): *note shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars: 198f. is now a
     read-only property.

   - bpo-8538(239): Add support for boolean actions like ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’ to argparse.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-20504(240): Fixes a bug in ‘cgi’ module when a
     multipart/form-data request has no ‘Content-Length’ header.

   - bpo-25988(241): The abstract base classes in *note collections.abc:
     1e. no longer are exposed in the regular *note collections: 1d.
     module.

   - bpo-11122(242): Distutils won't check for rpmbuild in specified
     paths only.

   - bpo-34775(243): Division handling of PurePath now returns
     NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something
     other than an instance of str or PurePath.  Patch by Roger Aiudi.

   - bpo-34749(244): *note binascii.a2b_base64(): 15e8. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34519(245): Add additional aliases for HP Roman 8.  Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-28009(246): Fix uuid.getnode() on platforms with '.'  as MAC
     Addr delimiter as well fix for MAC Addr format that omits a leading
     0 in MAC Addr values.  Currently, AIX is the only know platform
     with these settings.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-30618(247): Add *note readlink(): 90e.  Patch by Girts
     Folkmanis.

   - bpo-32498(248): Made *note urllib.parse.unquote(): 1742. accept
     bytes in addition to strings.  Patch by Stein Karlsen.

   - bpo-33348(249): lib2to3 now recognizes expressions after ‘*’ and
     ‘**’ like in ‘f(*[] or [])’.

   - bpo-32689(250): Update *note shutil.move(): a4c. function to allow
     for Path objects to be used as source argument.  Patch by Emily
     Morehouse and Maxwell "5.13b" McKinnon.

   - bpo-32820(251): Added ‘__format__’ to IPv4 and IPv6 classes.
     Always outputs a fully zero-padded string.  Supports b/x/n
     modifiers (bin/hex/native format).  Native format for IPv4 is bin,
     native format for IPv6 is hex.  Also supports '#' and '_'
     modifiers.

   - bpo-27657(252): Fix urllib.parse.urlparse() with numeric paths.  A
     string like "path:80" is no longer parsed as a path but as a scheme
     ("path") and a path ("80").

   - bpo-4963(253): Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to
     mimetypes extension mapping and module reinitialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38724

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38786

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38785

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38723

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27805

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38761

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38716

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38334

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38586

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38565

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31202

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38478

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38378

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38417

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38449

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38431

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38109

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38422

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38405

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38332

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38341

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38319

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38242

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38019

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38163

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38161

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38216

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38108

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38265

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38248

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38237

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34002

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38191

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38155

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38185

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38136

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37828

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38175

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33936

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34706

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38153

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38115

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38148

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38142

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9216

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36991

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38134

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38132

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38008

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37405

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38121

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38110

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38093

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37488

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35640

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38086

   (76) 
https://gitlab.com/python-devs/importlib_metadata/blob/0.21/importlib_metadata/docs/changelog.rst

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37251

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38037

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38066

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38059

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38049

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37953

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38026

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35923

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38010

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34410

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37140

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37587

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10978

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37972

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37965

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37964

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37960

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36205

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37950

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37798

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26589

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37915

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32554

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9938

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37851

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<43>,  Next: Tests<45>,  Prev: Library<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21767(1): Explicitly mention abc support in
     functools.singledispatch

   - bpo-38816(2): Provides more details about the interaction between
     ‘fork()’ and CPython's runtime, focusing just on the C-API. This
     includes cautions about where ‘fork()’ should and shouldn't be
     called.

   - bpo-38351(3): Modernize *note email: 3b. examples from %-formatting
     to f-strings.

   - bpo-38778(4): Document the fact that *note RuntimeError: 193. is
     raised if *note os.fork(): 195. is called in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-38592(5): Add Brazilian Portuguese to the language switcher at
     Python Documentation website.

   - bpo-38294(6): Add list of no-longer-escaped chars to re.escape
     documentation

   - bpo-38053(7): Modernized the plistlib documentation

   - bpo-26868(8): Fix example usage of *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c.
     to properly handle errors.

   - bpo-36797(9): Fix a dead link in the distutils API Reference.

   - bpo-37977(10): Warn more strongly and clearly about pickle
     insecurity

   - bpo-37979(11): Added a link to dateutil.parser.isoparse in the
     datetime.fromisoformat documentation.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-12707(12): Deprecate info(), geturl(), getcode() methods in
     favor of the headers, url, and status properties, respectively, for
     HTTPResponse and addinfourl.  Also deprecate the code attribute of
     addinfourl in favor of the status attribute.  Patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami

   - bpo-37937(13): Mention ‘frame.f_trace’ in *note sys.settrace():
     14b7. docs.

   - bpo-37878(14): Make *note PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(): 1991.
     Internal.

   - bpo-37759(15): Beginning edits to Whatsnew 3.8

   - bpo-37726(16): Stop recommending getopt in the tutorial for command
     line argument parsing and promote argparse.

   - bpo-32910(17): Remove implementation-specific behaviour of how
     venv's Deactivate works.

   - bpo-37256(18): Fix wording of arguments for ‘Request’ in *note
     urllib.request: 10a.

   - bpo-37284(19): Add a brief note to indicate that any new
     ‘sys.implementation’ required attributes must go through the PEP
     process.

   - bpo-30088(20): Documented that *note mailbox.Maildir: 412.
     constructor doesn't attempt to verify the maildir folder layout
     correctness.  Patch by Sviatoslav Sydorenko.

   - bpo-37521(21): Fix ‘importlib’ examples to insert any newly created
     modules via importlib.util.module_from_spec() immediately into
     sys.modules instead of after calling loader.exec_module().

     Thanks to Benjamin Mintz for finding the bug.

   - bpo-37456(22): Slash ('/') is now part of syntax.

   - bpo-37487(23): Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.

   - bpo-37149(24): Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference
     by John Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org
     copy.

   - bpo-37478(25): Added possible exceptions to the description of
     os.chdir().

   - bpo-34903(26): Documented that in *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6, the leading zero in some
     two-digit formats is optional.  Patch by Mike Gleen.

   - bpo-36260(27): Add decompression pitfalls to zipfile module
     documentation.

   - bpo-37004(28): In the documentation for difflib, a note was added
     explicitly warning that the results of SequenceMatcher's ratio
     method may depend on the order of the input strings.

   - bpo-36960(29): Restructured the *note datetime: 30. docs in the
     interest of making them more user-friendly and improving
     readability.  Patch by Brad Solomon.

   - bpo-36487(30): Make C-API docs clear about what the "main"
     interpreter is.

   - bpo-23460(31): The documentation for decimal string formatting
     using the ‘:g’ specifier has been updated to reflect the correct
     exponential notation cutoff point.  Original patch contributed by
     Tuomas Suutari.

   - bpo-35803(32): Document and test that ‘tempfile’ functions may
     accept a *note path-like object: 29d. for the ‘dir’ argument.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33944(33): Added a note about the intended use of code in .pth
     files.

   - bpo-34293(34): Fix the Doc/Makefile regarding PAPER environment
     variable and PDF builds

   - bpo-25237(35): Add documentation for tkinter modules

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21767

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38816

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38351

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38778

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38592

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38294

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38053

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26868

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37977

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12707

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37937

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37726

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37256

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37284

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30088

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37521

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37487

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37478

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34903

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37004

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36960

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36487

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23460

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35803

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34293

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25237


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<45>,  Next: Build<48>,  Prev: Documentation<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38614(1): Fix test_communicate() of
     test_asyncio.test_subprocess: use ‘support.LONG_TIMEOUT’ (5
     minutes), instead of just 1 minute.

   - bpo-38614(2): Add timeout constants to *note test.support: e3.:
     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1972, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1973, *note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 186b. and *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 1974.

   - bpo-38502(3): test.regrtest now uses process groups in the
     multiprocessing mode (-jN command line option) if process groups
     are available: if *note os.setsid(): 1993. and *note os.killpg():
     1994. functions are available.

   - bpo-35998(4): Fix a race condition in
     test_asyncio.test_start_tls_server_1().  Previously, there was a
     race condition between the test main() function which replaces the
     protocol and the test ServerProto protocol which sends ANSWER once
     it gets HELLO. Now, only the test main() function is responsible to
     send data, ServerProto no longer sends data.

   - bpo-38470(5): Fix ‘test_compileall.test_compile_dir_maxlevels()’ on
     Windows without long path support: only create 3 subdirectories
     instead of between 20 and 100 subdirectories.

   - bpo-37531(6): On timeout, regrtest no longer attempts to call
     ‘popen.communicate()’ again: it can hang until all child processes
     using stdout and stderr pipes completes.  Kill the worker process
     and ignores its output.  Change also the faulthandler timeout of
     the main process from 1 minute to 5 minutes, for Python slowest
     buildbots.

   - bpo-38239(7): Fix test_gdb for Link Time Optimization (LTO) builds.

   - bpo-38275(8): test_ssl now handles disabled TLS/SSL versions
     better.  OpenSSL's crypto policy and run-time settings are
     recognized and tests for disabled versions are skipped.  Tests also
     accept more TLS minimum_versions for platforms that override
     OpenSSL's default with strict settings.

   - bpo-38271(9): The private keys for test_ssl were encrypted with
     3DES in traditional PKCS#5 format.  3DES and the digest algorithm
     of PKCS#5 are blocked by some strict crypto policies.  Use PKCS#8
     format with AES256 encryption instead.

   - bpo-38270(10): test.support now has a helper function to check for
     availability of a hash digest function.  Several tests are
     refactored avoid MD5 and use SHA256 instead.  Other tests are
     marked to use MD5 and skipped when MD5 is disabled.

   - bpo-37123(11): Multiprocessing test test_mymanager() now also
     expects -SIGTERM, not only exitcode 0.
     BaseManager._finalize_manager() sends SIGTERM to the manager
     process if it takes longer than 1 second to stop, which happens on
     slow buildbots.

   - bpo-38212(12): Multiprocessing tests: increase
     test_queue_feeder_donot_stop_onexc() timeout from 1 to 60 seconds.

   - bpo-38117(13): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38018(14): Increase code coverage for
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.

   - bpo-37805(15): Add tests for json.dump(..., skipkeys=True).  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37531(16): Enhance regrtest multiprocess timeout: write a
     message when killing a worker process, catch popen.kill() and
     popen.wait() exceptions, put a timeout on the second call to
     popen.communicate().

   - bpo-37876(17): Add tests for ROT-13 codec.

   - bpo-36833(18): Added tests for ‘PyDateTime_XXX_GET_XXX()’ macros of
     the C API of the *note datetime: 30. module.  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37558(19): Fix
     test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination name handling

   - bpo-37526(20): Add ‘test.support.catch_threading_exception()’:
     context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 93b. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 837.

   - bpo-37421(21): test_concurrent_futures now explicitly stops the
     ForkServer instance if it's running.

   - bpo-37421(22): multiprocessing tests now stop the ForkServer
     instance if it's running: close the "alive" file descriptor to ask
     the server to stop and then remove its UNIX address.

   - bpo-37421(23): test_distutils.test_build_ext() is now able to
     remove the temporary directory on Windows: don't import the newly
     built C extension ("xx") in the current process, but test it in a
     separated process.

   - bpo-37421(24): test_concurrent_futures now cleans up
     multiprocessing to remove immediately temporary directories created
     by multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir().

   - bpo-37421(25): test_winconsoleio doesn't leak a temporary file
     anymore: use tempfile.TemporaryFile() to remove it when the test
     completes.

   - bpo-37421(26): multiprocessing tests now explicitly call
     ‘_run_finalizers()’ to immediately remove temporary directories
     created by tests.

   - bpo-37421(27): urllib.request tests now call *note urlcleanup():
     1995. to remove temporary files created by ‘urlretrieve()’ tests
     and to clear the ‘_opener’ global variable set by ‘urlopen()’ and
     functions calling indirectly ‘urlopen()’.

   - bpo-37472(28): Remove ‘Lib/test/outstanding_bugs.py’.

   - bpo-37199(29): Fix test failures when IPv6 is unavailable or
     disabled.

   - bpo-19696(30): Replace deprecated method "random.choose" with
     "random.choice" in "test_pkg_import.py".

   - bpo-37335(31): Remove no longer necessary code from c locale
     coercion tests

   - bpo-37421(32): Fix test_shutil to no longer leak temporary files.

   - bpo-37411(33): Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend
     on the environment variables (don't fail if "X" variable is set).

   - bpo-37400(34): Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather
     than grp.getgrall() to get groups.  Rename also the test to
     test_chown_gid().

   - bpo-37359(35): Add -cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove
     ‘test_python_*’ directories of previous failed jobs.  Add "make
     cleantest" to run ‘python3 -m test --cleanup’.

   - bpo-37362(36): test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an "unexpected"
     message on stderr: it now ignores stderr.  The purpose of test_gdb
     is to test that python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to
     test gdb.

   - bpo-35998(37): Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio:
     test_start_tls_server_1()

   - bpo-37278(38): Fix test_asyncio ProactorLoopCtrlC: join the thread
     to prevent leaking a running thread and leaking a reference.

   - bpo-37261(39): Fix *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     1996.: its __exit__() method now ignores unraisable exception
     raised when clearing its ‘unraisable’ attribute.

   - bpo-37069(40): regrtest now uses *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.
     to mark a test as "environment altered" (ENV_CHANGED) if it emits
     an "unraisable exception".  Moreover, regrtest logs a warning in
     this case.

     Use ‘python3 -m test --fail-env-changed’ to catch unraisable
     exceptions in tests.

   - bpo-37252(41): Fix assertions in ‘test_close’ and
     ‘test_events_mask_overflow’ devpoll tests.

   - bpo-37169(42): Rewrite ‘_PyObject_IsFreed()’ unit tests.

   - bpo-37153(43): ‘test_venv.test_multiprocessing()’ now explicitly
     calls ‘pool.terminate()’ to wait until the pool completes.

   - bpo-34001(44): Make test_ssl pass with LibreSSL. LibreSSL handles
     minimum and maximum TLS version differently than OpenSSL.

   - bpo-36919(45): Make ‘test_source_encoding.test_issue2301’
     implementation independent.  The test will work now for both
     CPython and IronPython.

   - bpo-30202(46): Update ‘test.test_importlib.test_abc’ to test
     ‘find_spec()’.

   - bpo-28009(47): Modify the test_uuid logic to test when a program is
     available AND can be used to obtain a MACADDR as basis for an UUID.
     Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-34596(48): Fallback to a default reason when *note
     unittest.skip(): 1997. is uncalled.  Patch by Naitree Zhu.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38502

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38470

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38275

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38270

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38212

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38018

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37805

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36833

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37526

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37472

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37199

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19696

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37335

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37411

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37400

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37359

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37362

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37278

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37261

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37252

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37169

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37153

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34001

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36919

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30202

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<48>,  Next: Windows<42>,  Prev: Tests<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38809(1): On Windows, build scripts will now recognize and use
     python.exe from an active virtual env.

   - bpo-38684(2): Fix _hashlib build when Blake2 is disabled, but
     OpenSSL supports it.

   - bpo-38468(3): Misc/python-config.in now uses ‘getvar()’ for all
     still existing ‘sysconfig.get_config_var()’ calls.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37415(4): Fix stdatomic.h header check for ICC compiler: the
     ICC implementation lacks atomic_uintptr_t type which is needed by
     Python.

   - bpo-38301(5): In Solaris family, we must be sure to use
     ‘-D_REENTRANT’.  Patch by Jesús Cea Avión.

   - bpo-36002(6): Locate ‘llvm-profdata’ and ‘llvm-ar’ binaries using
     ‘AC_PATH_TOOL’ rather than ‘AC_PATH_TARGET_TOOL’.

   - bpo-37936(7): The ‘.gitignore’ file systematically keeps "rooted",
     with a non-trailing slash, all the rules that are meant to apply to
     files in a specific place in the repo.  Previously, when the
     intended file to ignore happened to be at the root of the repo,
     we'd most often accidentally also ignore files and directories with
     the same name anywhere in the tree.

   - bpo-37760(8): The ‘Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py’ script, which
     is used for converting information from the Unicode Character
     Database into generated code and data used by the methods of *note
     str: 437. and by the *note unicodedata: 104. module, now handles
     each character's data as a ‘dataclass’ with named attributes,
     rather than a length-18 list of different fields.

   - bpo-37936(9): The ‘.gitignore’ file no longer applies to any files
     that are in fact tracked in the Git repository.  Patch by Greg
     Price.

   - bpo-37725(10): Change "clean" makefile target to also clean the
     program guided optimization (PGO) data.  Previously you would have
     to use "make clean" and "make profile-removal", or "make clobber".

   - bpo-37707(11): Mark some individual tests to skip when -pgo is
     used.  The tests marked increase the PGO task time significantly
     and likely don't help improve optimization of the final executable.

   - bpo-36044(12): Reduce the number of unit tests run for the PGO
     generation task.  This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.
     Running the full unit test suite is slow.  This change may result
     in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches
     will be executed.  If you are willing to wait for the much slower
     build, the old behavior can be restored using './configure [..]
     PROFILE_TASK="-m test -pgo-extended"'.  We make no guarantees as to
     which PGO task set produces a faster build.  Users who care should
     run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the
     environment, workload, and compiler tool chain.

   - bpo-37468(13): ‘make install’ no longer installs ‘wininst-*.exe’
     files used by distutils bdist_wininst: bdist_wininst only works on
     Windows.

   - bpo-37189(14): Many ‘PyRun_XXX()’ functions like *note
     PyRun_String(): 1999. were no longer exported in ‘libpython38.dll’
     by mistake.  Export them again to fix the ABI compatibility.

   - bpo-25361(15): Enables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build.

   - bpo-36210(16): Update optional extension module detection for AIX.
     ossaudiodev and spwd are not applicable for AIX, and are no longer
     reported as missing.  3rd-party packaging of ncurses (with ASIS
     support) conflicts with officially supported AIX curses library, so
     configure AIX to use libcurses.a.  However, skip trying to build
     _curses_panel.

     patch by M Felt

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38809

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38468

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37415

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38301

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36002

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37760

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37189

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36210


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<42>,  Next: macOS<36>,  Prev: Build<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38589(1): Fixes HTML Help shortcut when Windows is not
     installed to C drive

   - bpo-38453(2): Ensure ntpath.realpath() correctly resolves relative
     paths.

   - bpo-38519(3): Restores the internal C headers that were missing
     from the nuget.org and Microsoft Store packages.

   - bpo-38492(4): Remove ‘pythonw.exe’ dependency on the Microsoft C++
     runtime.

   - bpo-38344(5): Fix error message in activate.bat

   - bpo-38359(6): Ensures ‘pyw.exe’ launcher reads correct registry
     key.

   - bpo-38355(7): Fixes ‘ntpath.realpath’ failing on ‘sys.executable’.

   - bpo-38117(8): Update bundled OpenSSL to 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38092(9): Reduce overhead when using multiprocessing in a
     Windows virtual environment.

   - bpo-38133(10): Allow py.exe launcher to locate installations from
     the Microsoft Store and improve display of active virtual
     environments.

   - bpo-38114(11): The ‘pip.ini’ is no longer included in the Nuget
     package.

   - bpo-32592(12): Set Windows 8 as the minimum required version for
     API support

   - bpo-36634(13): *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. now returns active
     processors rather than maximum processors.

   - bpo-36634(14): venv activate.bat now works when the existing
     variables contain double quote characters.

   - bpo-38081(15): Prevent error calling *note os.path.realpath(): 222.
     on ‘'NUL'’.

   - bpo-38087(16): Fix case sensitivity in test_pathlib and
     test_ntpath.

   - bpo-38088(17): Fixes distutils not finding vcruntime140.dll with
     only the v142 toolset installed.

   - bpo-37283(18): Ensure command-line and unattend.xml setting
     override previously detected states in Windows installer.

   - bpo-38030(19): Fixes *note os.stat(): 48c. failing for block
     devices on Windows

   - bpo-38020(20): Fixes potential crash when calling *note
     os.readlink(): 90f. (or indirectly through *note realpath(): 222.)
     on a file that is not a supported link.

   - bpo-37705(21): Improve the implementation of ‘winerror_to_errno()’.

   - bpo-37549(22): *note os.dup(): 199b. no longer fails for standard
     streams on Windows 7.

   - bpo-1311(23): The ‘nul’ file on Windows now returns True from *note
     exists(): 9fe. and a valid result from *note os.stat(): 48c. with
     ‘S_IFCHR’ set.

   - bpo-9949(24): Enable support for following symlinks in
     ‘os.realpath()’.

   - bpo-37834(25): Treat all name surrogate reparse points on Windows
     in *note os.lstat(): 48d. and other reparse points as regular files
     in *note os.stat(): 48c.

   - bpo-36266(26): Add the module name in the formatted error message
     when DLL load fail happens during module import in
     ‘_PyImport_FindSharedFuncptrWindows()’.  Patch by Srinivas
     Nyayapati.

   - bpo-25172(27): Trying to import the ‘crypt’ module on Windows will
     result in an *note ImportError: 40f. with a message explaining that
     the module isn't supported on Windows.  On other platforms, if the
     underlying ‘_crypt’ module is not available, the ImportError will
     include a message explaining the problem.

   - bpo-37778(28): Fixes the icons used for file associations to the
     Microsoft Store package.

   - bpo-37734(29): Fix use of registry values to launch Python from
     Microsoft Store app.

   - bpo-37702(30): Fix memory leak on Windows in creating an SSLContext
     object or running ‘urllib.request.urlopen('https://...')’.

   - bpo-37672(31): Switch Windows Store package's pip to use bundled
     ‘pip.ini’ instead of ‘PIP_USER’ variable.

   - bpo-10945(32): Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst
     installers on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-37445(33): Include the ‘FORMAT_MESSAGE_IGNORE_INSERTS’ flag in
     ‘FormatMessageW()’ calls.

   - bpo-37369(34): Fixes path for *note sys.executable: 3af. when
     running from the Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-37380(35): Don't collect unfinished processes with
     ‘subprocess._active’ on Windows to cleanup later.  Patch by Ruslan
     Kuprieiev.

   - bpo-37351(36): Removes libpython38.a from standard Windows
     distribution.

   - bpo-35360(37): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-37267(38): On Windows, *note os.dup(): 199b. no longer creates
     an inheritable fd when handling a character file.

   - bpo-36779(39): Ensure ‘time.tzname’ is correct on Windows when the
     active code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.

   - bpo-32587(40): Make *note winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ: 199c. support
     zero-length strings.

   - bpo-28269(41): Replace use of ‘strcasecmp()’ for the system
     function ‘_stricmp()’.  Patch by Minmin Gong.

   - bpo-36590(42): Add native Bluetooth RFCOMM support to socket
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38453

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38519

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38344

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38355

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38133

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38081

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38088

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37283

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38030

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38020

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37705

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37549

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9949

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36266

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25172

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37778

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37734

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37702

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37672

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37445

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37369

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37380

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37267

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36779

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32587

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28269

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36590


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<36>,  Next: IDLE<33>,  Prev: Windows<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38117(1): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1d in macOS installer.

   - bpo-38089(2): Move Azure Pipelines to latest VM versions and make
     macOS tests optional

   - bpo-18049(3): Increase the default stack size of threads from 5MB
     to 16MB on macOS, to match the stack size of the main thread.  This
     avoids crashes on deep recursion in threads.

   - bpo-34602(4): Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer
     calling resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit
     at runtime.  The runtime change is no longer needed since the
     interpreter is being built with a larger default stack size.

   - bpo-35360(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-34631(6): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<33>,  Next: Tools/Demos<22>,  Prev: macOS<36>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-26353(1): Stop adding newline when saving an IDLE shell window.

   - bpo-4630(2): Add an option to toggle IDLE's cursor blink for shell,
     editor, and output windows.  See Settings, General, Window
     Preferences, Cursor Blink.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-38598(3): Do not try to compile IDLE shell or output windows

   - bpo-36698(4): IDLE no longer fails when write non-encodable
     characters to stderr.  It now escapes them with a backslash, as the
     regular Python interpreter.  Added the ‘errors’ field to the
     standard streams.

   - bpo-35379(5): When exiting IDLE, catch any AttributeError.  One
     happens when EditorWindow.close is called twice.  Printing a
     traceback, when IDLE is run from a terminal, is useless and
     annoying.

   - bpo-38183(6): To avoid problems, test_idle ignores the user config
     directory.  It no longer tries to create or access .idlerc or any
     files within.  Users must run IDLE to discover problems with saving
     settings.

   - bpo-38077(7): IDLE no longer adds 'argv' to the user namespace when
     initializing it.  This bug only affected 3.7.4 and 3.8.0b2 to
     3.8.0b4.

   - bpo-38041(8): Shell restart lines now fill the window width, always
     start with '=', and avoid wrapping unnecessarily.  The line will
     still wrap if the included file name is long relative to the width.

   - bpo-35771(9): To avoid occasional spurious test_idle failures on
     slower machines, increase the ‘hover_delay’ in test_tooltip.

   - bpo-37824(10): Properly handle user input warnings in IDLE shell.
     Cease turning SyntaxWarnings into SyntaxErrors.

   - bpo-37929(11): IDLE Settings dialog now closes properly when there
     is no shell window.

   - bpo-37902(12): Add mousewheel scrolling for IDLE module, path, and
     stack browsers.  Patch by George Zhang.

   - bpo-37849(13): Fixed completions list appearing too high or low
     when shown above the current line.

   - bpo-36419(14): Refactor IDLE autocomplete and improve testing.

   - bpo-37748(15): Reorder the Run menu.  Put the most common choice,
     Run Module, at the top.

   - bpo-37692(16): Improve highlight config sample with example shell
     interaction and better labels for shell elements.

   - bpo-37628(17): Settings dialog no longer expands with font size.

   - bpo-37627(18): Initialize the Customize Run dialog with the command
     line arguments most recently entered before.  The user can
     optionally edit before submitting them.

   - bpo-33610(19): Fix code context not showing the correct context
     when first toggled on.

   - bpo-37530(20): Optimize code context to reduce unneeded background
     activity.  Font and highlight changes now occur along with text
     changes instead of after a random delay.

   - bpo-27452(21): Cleanup ‘config.py’ by inlining ‘RemoveFile’ and
     simplifying the handling of ‘file’ in ‘CreateConfigHandlers’.

   - bpo-37325(22): Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and
     custom run dialogs.

   - bpo-37321(23): Both subprocess connection error messages now refer
     to the 'Startup failure' section of the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-17535(24): Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.
     Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the
     General tab of the configuration dialog.

   - bpo-26806(25): To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and
     avoid possible problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits
     in the user code execution process.  Subtract 30 when reporting
     recursion limits to make this addition mostly transparent.

   - bpo-37177(26): Properly 'attach' search dialogs to their main
     window so that they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden
     behind their main window.

   - bpo-37039(27): Adjust "Zoom Height" to individual screens by
     momentarily maximizing the window on first use with a particular
     screen.  Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.
     While a window is maximized, "Zoom Height" has no effect.

   - bpo-35763(28): Make calltip reminder about '/' meaning
     positional-only less obtrusive by only adding it when there is room
     on the first line.

   - bpo-5680(29): Add 'Run...  Customized' to the Run menu to run a
     module with customized settings.  Any 'command line arguments'
     entered are added to sys.argv.  One can suppress the normal Shell
     main module restart.

   - bpo-36390(30): Gather Format menu functions into format.py.
     Combine paragraph.py, rstrip.py, and format methods from editor.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4630

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38598

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36698

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35379

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38183

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38077

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38041

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35771

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37824

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37902

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37849

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36419

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37748

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37692

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37628

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33610

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37530

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37325

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37321

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26806

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37177

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37039

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35763

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<22>,  Next: C API<47>,  Prev: IDLE<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-38118(1): Update Valgrind suppression file to ignore a false
     alarm in *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 19a0. when using GCC builtin
     strcmp().

   - bpo-38347(2): pathfix.py: Assume all files that end on '.py' are
     Python scripts when working recursively.

   - bpo-37803(3): pdb's ‘--help’ and ‘--version’ long options now work.

   - bpo-37942(4): Improve ArgumentClinic converter for floats.

   - bpo-37704(5): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/h2py.py’: use cffi to access a
     C API in Python.

   - bpo-37675(6): 2to3 now works when run from a zipped standard
     library.

   - bpo-37034(7): Argument Clinic now uses the argument name on errors
     with keyword-only argument instead of their position.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37064(8): Add option -k to pathscript.py script: preserve
     shebang flags.  Add option -a to pathscript.py script: add flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37942

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37704

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37675

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37064


File: python.info,  Node: C API<47>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<22>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.49.11 C API
................

   - bpo-37633(1): Re-export some function compatibility wrappers for
     macros in ‘pythonrun.h’.

   - bpo-38644(2): Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 962. and *note
     Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 963. as regular functions for the limited
     API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros
     didn't work with the limited API which cannot access
     ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field.  Remove
     ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ from the stable ABI.

   - bpo-38650(3): The global variable *note
     PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 971. is now a constant and refers to
     a constant string.

   - bpo-38540(4): Fixed possible leak in *note PyArg_Parse(): 19a2. and
     similar functions for format units ‘"es#"’ and ‘"et#"’ when the
     macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is not defined.

   - bpo-38395(5): Fix a crash in *note weakref.proxy: a42. objects due
     to incorrect lifetime management when calling some associated
     methods that may delete the last reference to object being
     referenced by the proxy.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36389(6): The ‘_PyObject_CheckConsistency()’ function is now
     also available in release mode.  For example, it can be used to
     debug a crash in the ‘visit_decref()’ function of the GC.

   - bpo-38266(7): Revert the removal of PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()
     with documentation.

   - bpo-38303(8): Update audioop extension module to use the stable ABI
     (PEP-384).  Patch by Tyler Kieft.

   - bpo-38234(9): ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 3af. to
     the program full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.) rather
     than to the program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.).

   - bpo-38234(10): Python ignored arguments passed to ‘Py_SetPath()’,
     ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ and ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: fix Python
     initialization to use specified arguments.

   - bpo-38205(11): The *note Py_UNREACHABLE(): ba5. macro now calls
     *note Py_FatalError(): 972.

   - bpo-38140(12): Make dict and weakref offsets opaque for C heap
     types by passing the offsets through PyMemberDef

   - bpo-15088(13): The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been
     removed.  It was not documented, tested or used anywhere within
     CPython after the implementation of PEP 442(14).  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.  (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-36763(15): Options added by ‘PySys_AddXOption()’ are now
     handled the same way than ‘PyConfig.xoptions’ and command line ‘-X’
     options.

   - bpo-37926(16): Fix a crash in ‘PySys_SetArgvEx(0, NULL, 0)’.

   - bpo-37879(17): Fix subtype_dealloc to suppress the type decref when
     the base type is a C heap type

   - bpo-37645(18): Add ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly
     string representation of a function-like object.  Patch by Jeroen
     Demeyer.

   - bpo-29548(19): The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’,
     ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are deprecated.  Use *note
     PyObject_Call(): 393. and its variants instead.

   - bpo-37151(20): ‘PyCFunction_Call’ is now a deprecated alias of
     *note PyObject_Call(): 393.

   - bpo-37540(21): The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller
     passes only strings as keyword names.

   - bpo-37207(22): The vectorcall protocol is now enabled for ‘type’
     objects: set ‘tp_vectorcall’ to a vectorcall function to be used
     instead of ‘tp_new’ and ‘tp_init’ when calling the class itself.

   - bpo-21120(23): Exclude Python-ast.h, ast.h and asdl.h from the
     limited API.

   - bpo-37483(24): Add new function ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’ for calling
     an object with one positional argument.

   - bpo-36763(25): Add *note PyConfig_SetWideStringList(): 19a3.
     function.

   - bpo-37337(26): Add fast functions for calling methods:
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’, ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’.

   - bpo-28805(27): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. calling convention
     has been documented.

   - bpo-37221(28): The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’
     allows to create code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an
     extra 'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positonal-only arguments.

   - bpo-37215(29): Fix dtrace issue introduce by bpo-36842(30)

   - bpo-37194(31): Add a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 392.
     function to the C API: call a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callback without
     any argument.  On x86-64, for example,
     ‘PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(func, NULL)’ allocates 960 bytes on
     the stack per call, whereas ‘PyObject_CallNoArgs(func)’ only
     allocates 624 bytes per call.

   - bpo-37170(32): Fix the cast on error in *note
     PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 19a4.

   - bpo-35381(33): Convert posixmodule.c statically allocated types
     ‘DirEntryType’ and ‘ScandirIteratorType’ to heap-allocated types.

   - bpo-34331(34): Use singular/plural noun in error message when
     instantiating an abstract class with non-overridden abstract
     method(s).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37633

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38303

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38205

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38140

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37926

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37879

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37151

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21120

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37337

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28805

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37215

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37170

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35381

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34331


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.50 Python 3.8.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2019-06-04'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<33>,  Next: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35907(1): CVE 2019-9948(2): Avoid file reading by disallowing
     ‘local-file://’ and ‘local_file://’ URL schemes in
     ‘URLopener().open()’ and ‘URLopener().retrieve()’ of *note
     urllib.request: 10a.

   - bpo-33529(3): Prevent fold function used in email header encoding
     from entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII
     characters in a header.

   - bpo-33164(4): Updated blake2 implementation which uses secure
     memset implementation provided by platform.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35907

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9948

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33529

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33164


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<50>,  Next: Library<49>,  Prev: Security<33>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35814(1): Allow unpacking in the right hand side of annotated
     assignments.  In particular, ‘t: Tuple[int, ...] = x, y, *z’ is now
     allowed.

   - bpo-37126(2): All structseq objects are now tracked by the garbage
     collector.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37122(3): Make the 'co_argcount' attribute of code objects
     represent the total number of positional arguments (including
     positional-only arguments).  The value of 'co_posonlyargcount' can
     be used to distinguish which arguments are positional only, and the
     difference ('co_argcount' - 'co_posonlyargcount') is the number of
     positional-or-keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20092(4): Constructors of *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec. and
     *note complex: 2ed. will now use the *note __index__(): 709.
     special method, if available and the corresponding method *note
     __int__(): 708, *note __float__(): 9bc. or *note __complex__():
     5d3. is not available.

   - bpo-37087(5): Add native thread ID (TID) support to OpenBSD.

   - bpo-26219(6): Implemented per opcode cache mechanism and
     ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction use it.  ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ is now about 40%
     faster.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov, and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-37072(7): Fix crash in PyAST_FromNodeObject() when flags is
     NULL.

   - bpo-37029(8): Freeing a great many small objects could take time
     quadratic in the number of arenas, due to using linear search to
     keep ‘obmalloc.c’'s list of usable arenas sorted by order of number
     of free memory pools.  This is accomplished without search now,
     leaving the worst-case time linear in the number of arenas.  For
     programs where this quite visibly matters (typically with more than
     100 thousand small objects alive simultaneously), this can greatly
     reduce the time needed to release their memory.

   - bpo-26423(9): Fix possible overflow in ‘wrap_lenfunc()’ when
     ‘sizeof(long) < sizeof(Py_ssize_t)’ (e.g., 64-bit Windows).

   - bpo-37050(10): Improve the AST for "debug" f-strings, which use '='
     to print out the source of the expression being evaluated.  Delete
     expr_text from the FormattedValue node, and instead use a Constant
     string node (possibly merged with adjacent constant expressions
     inside the f-string).

   - bpo-22385(11): The ‘bytes.hex’, ‘bytearray.hex’, and
     ‘memoryview.hex’ methods as well as the ‘binascii.hexlify’ and
     ‘b2a_hex’ functions now have the ability to include an optional
     separator between hex bytes.  This functionality was inspired by
     MicroPython's hexlify implementation.

   - bpo-26836(12): Add *note os.memfd_create(): 9fb.

   - bpo-37032(13): Added new ‘replace()’ method to the code type (*note
     types.CodeType: 2de.).

   - bpo-37007(14): Implement *note socket.if_nameindex(): a1d, *note
     socket.if_nametoindex(): a1e, and *note socket.if_indextoname():
     a1f. on Windows.

   - bpo-36829(15): *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345. now creates a
     traceback object if there is no current traceback.  Moreover, call
     *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3eb. and *note
     PyException_SetTraceback(): 19a8. to normalize the exception value.
     Ignore any error.

   - bpo-36878(16): Only accept text after ‘# type: ignore’ if the first
     character is ASCII. This is to disallow things like ‘# type:
     ignoreé’.

   - bpo-36878(17): Store text appearing after a ‘# type: ignore’
     comment in the AST. For example a type ignore like ‘# type:
     ignore[E1000]’ will have the string ‘"[E1000]"’ stored in its AST
     node.

   - bpo-2180(18): Treat line continuation at EOF as a ‘SyntaxError’ by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36907(19): Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword
     dict (‘f(**kwargs)’) and changing the dict ‘kwargs’ while that
     function is running.

   - bpo-36946(20): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.

   - bpo-36826(21): Add NamedExpression kind support to ast_unparse.c

   - bpo-1875(22): A *note SyntaxError: 18b. is now raised if a code
     blocks that will be optimized away (e.g.  if conditions that are
     always false) contains syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36027(23): Allow computation of modular inverses via
     three-argument ‘pow’: the second argument is now permitted to be
     negative in the case where the first and third arguments are
     relatively prime.

   - bpo-36861(24): Update the Unicode database to version 12.1.0.

   - bpo-28866(25): Avoid caching attributes of classes which type
     defines mro() to avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.

   - bpo-36851(26): The ‘FrameType’ stack is now correctly cleaned up if
     the execution ends with a return and the stack is not empty.

   - bpo-34616(27): The ‘compile()’ builtin functions now support the
     ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag, which allow to compile
     sources that contains top-level ‘await’, ‘async with’ or ‘async
     for’.  This is useful to evaluate async-code from with an already
     async functions; for example in a custom REPL.

   - bpo-36842(28): Implement PEP 578, adding sys.audit, io.open_code
     and related APIs.

   - bpo-27639(29): Correct return type for UserList slicing operations.
     Patch by Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah

   - bpo-36737(30): Move PyRuntimeState.warnings into per-interpreter
     state (via "module state").

   - bpo-36793(31): Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types
     *note bool: 453, *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note complex:
     2ed. and few classes from the standard library.  They now inherit
     ‘__str__()’ from *note object: a7c.

   - bpo-36817(32): Add a ‘=’ feature f-strings for debugging.  This can
     precede ‘!s’, ‘!r’, or ‘!a’.  It produces the text of the
     expression, followed by an equal sign, followed by the repr of the
     value of the expression.  So ‘f'{3*9+15=}'’ would be equal to the
     string ‘'3*9+15=42'’.  If ‘=’ is specified, the default conversion
     is set to ‘!r’, unless a format spec is given, in which case the
     formatting behavior is unchanged, and __format__ will be used.

   - bpo-24048(33): Save the live exception during import.c's
     ‘remove_module()’.

   - bpo-27987(34): pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes,
     instead of 8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI.
     Recent compilers assume this alignment more often.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36601(35): A long-since-meaningless check for ‘getpid() ==
     main_pid’ was removed from Python's internal C signal handler.

   - bpo-36594(36): Fix incorrect use of ‘%p’ in format strings.  Patch
     by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36045(37): ‘builtins.help()’ now prefixes ‘async’ for async
     functions.

   - bpo-36084(38): Add native thread ID (TID) to threading.Thread
     objects (supported platforms: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS)

   - bpo-36035(39): Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with
     pathlib

   - bpo-35983(40): Added new trashcan macros to deal with a double
     deallocation that could occur when the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a subclass
     calls the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a base class and that base class uses the
     trashcan mechanism.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-20602(41): Do not clear *note sys.flags: 679. and *note
     sys.float_info: 19a9. during shutdown.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26826(42): Expose ‘copy_file_range()’ as a low level API in the
     *note os: a0. module.

   - bpo-32388(43): Remove cross-version binary compatibility
     requirement in tp_flags.

   - bpo-31862(44): Port binascii to PEP 489 multiphase initialization.
     Patch by Marcel Plch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37122

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37072

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37029

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37050

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22385

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2180

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36907

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36826

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1875

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28866

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36851

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27639

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36737

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24048

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27987

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36601

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36594

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36045

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36035

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35983

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20602

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26826

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31862


File: python.info,  Node: Library<49>,  Next: Documentation<44>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-37128(1): Added *note math.perm(): 6bd.

   - bpo-37120(2): Add SSLContext.num_tickets to control the number of
     TLSv1.3 session tickets.

   - bpo-12202(3): Fix the error handling in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26835(4): The fcntl module now contains file sealing constants
     for sealing of memfds.

   - bpo-29262(5): Add ‘get_origin()’ and ‘get_args()’ introspection
     helpers to ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-12639(6): ‘msilib.Directory.start_component()’ no longer fails
     if 'keyfile' is not ‘None’.

   - bpo-36999(7): Add the ‘asyncio.Task.get_coro()’ method to publicly
     expose the tasks's coroutine object.

   - bpo-35246(8): Make *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a67.
     accept path-like arguments.

   - bpo-35279(9): Change default 'max_workers' of ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     from ‘cpu_count() * 5’ to ‘min(32, cpu_count() + 4)’.  Previous
     value was unreasonably large on many cores machines.

   - bpo-37076(10): *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 194. now logs
     uncaught exception raised by the function using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4, rather than *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7,
     so the hook gets access to the function which raised the exception.

   - bpo-33725(11): On macOS, the *note multiprocessing: 93. module now
     uses 'spawn' start method by default.

   - bpo-37054(12): Fix destructor ‘_pyio.BytesIO’ and
     ‘_pyio.TextIOWrapper’: initialize their ‘_buffer’ attribute as soon
     as possible (in the class body), because it's used by ‘__del__()’
     which calls ‘close()’.

   - bpo-37058(13): PEP 544: Add ‘Protocol’ and ‘@runtime_checkable’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-36933(14): The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper’ that were deprecated and marked for
     removal in 3.8 have been removed.

   - bpo-37047(15): Handle late binding and attribute access in *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: a3b. setup for autospeccing.  Document
     newly implemented async methods in *note unittest.mock.MagicMock:
     e7c.

   - bpo-37049(16): PEP 589: Add ‘TypedDict’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37046(17): PEP 586: Add ‘Literal’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37045(18): PEP 591: Add ‘Final’ qualifier and ‘@final’
     decorator to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37035(19): Don't log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error
     has occurred in asyncio transport.  Peer can generate almost any
     OSError, user cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code.
     Errors are still propagated to user code, it's just logging them is
     pointless and pollute asyncio logs.

   - bpo-37001(20): *note symtable.symtable(): 19ab. now accepts the
     same input types for source code as the built-in *note compile():
     190. function.  Patch by Dino Viehland.

   - bpo-37028(21): Implement asyncio REPL

   - bpo-37027(22): Return safe to use proxy socket object from
     transport.get_extra_info('socket')

   - bpo-32528(23): Make asyncio.CancelledError a BaseException.

     This will address the common mistake many asyncio users make: an
     "except Exception" clause breaking Tasks cancellation.

     In addition to this change, we stop inheriting asyncio.TimeoutError
     and asyncio.InvalidStateError from their concurrent.futures.*
     counterparts.  There's no point for these exceptions to share the
     inheritance chain.

   - bpo-1230540(24): Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 837.
     function which handles uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): a2d.
     exception.  It can be overridden to control how uncaught *note
     threading.Thread.run(): a2d. exceptions are handled.

   - bpo-36996(25): Handle *note unittest.mock.patch(): e7d. used as a
     decorator on async functions.

   - bpo-37008(26): Add support for calling *note next(): 7c4. with the
     mock resulting from *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 16c4.

   - bpo-27737(27): Allow whitespace only header encoding in
     ‘email.header’ - by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-36969(28): PDB command ‘args’ now display positional only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36969(29): PDB command ‘args’ now display keyword only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36983(30): Add missing names to ‘typing.__all__’: ‘ChainMap’,
     ‘ForwardRef’, ‘OrderedDict’ - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36972(31): Add SupportsIndex protocol to the typing module to
     allow type checking to detect classes that can be passed to
     ‘hex()’, ‘oct()’ and ‘bin()’.

   - bpo-32972(32): Implement ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase’ to help
     testing asyncio-based code.

   - bpo-36952(33): *note fileinput.input(): 7eb. and *note
     fileinput.FileInput: 723. 'bufsize' argument has been removed (was
     deprecated and ignored since Python 3.6), and as a result the
     'mode' and 'openhook' arguments have been made keyword-only.

   - bpo-36952(34): Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note
     collections: 1d. is deprecated, and import should be done from
     *note collections.abc: 1e.  Still being able to import from *note
     collections: 1d. was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been
     delayed to 3.9; documentation and ‘DeprecationWarning’ clarified.

   - bpo-36949(35): Implement __repr__ for WeakSet objects.

   - bpo-36948(36): Fix *note NameError: 42a. in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve(): 19ac.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33524(37): Fix the folding of email header when the
     max_line_length is 0 or None and the header contains non-ascii
     characters.  Contributed by Licht Takeuchi (@Licht-T).

   - bpo-24564(38): *note shutil.copystat(): 1110. now ignores *note
     errno.EINVAL: 19ad. on *note os.setxattr(): 10e9. which may occur
     when copying files on filesystems without extended attributes
     support.

     Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.

   - bpo-36888(39): Python child processes can now access the status of
     their parent process using multiprocessing.process.parent_process

   - bpo-36921(40): Deprecate ‘@coroutine’ for sake of ‘async def’.

   - bpo-25652(41): Fix bug in ‘__rmod__’ of ‘UserString’ - by Batuhan
     Taskaya.

   - bpo-36916(42): Remove a message about an unhandled exception in a
     task when writer.write() is used without await and writer.drain()
     fails with an exception.

   - bpo-36889(43): Introduce ‘asyncio.Stream’ class that merges *note
     asyncio.StreamReader: 1882. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 16ba.
     functionality.  ‘asyncio.Stream’ can work in readonly, writeonly
     and readwrite modes.  Provide ‘asyncio.connect()’,
     ‘asyncio.connect_unix()’, ‘asyncio.connect_read_pipe()’ and
     ‘asyncio.connect_write_pipe()’ factories to open ‘asyncio.Stream’
     connections.  Provide ‘asyncio.StreamServer’ and ‘UnixStreamServer’
     to serve servers with asyncio.Stream API. Modify *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a68. and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a67. to use ‘asyncio.Stream’
     instead of deprecated ‘StreamReader’ and ‘StreamWriter’.  Deprecate
     *note asyncio.StreamReader: 1882. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter:
     16ba.  Deprecate usage of private classes, e.g.
     ‘asyncio.FlowControlMixing’ and ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol’
     outside of asyncio package.

   - bpo-36845(44): Added validation of integer prefixes to the
     construction of IP networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.

   - bpo-23378(45): Add an extend action to argparser.

   - bpo-36867(46): Fix a bug making a SharedMemoryManager instance and
     its parent process use two separate resource_tracker processes.

   - bpo-23896(47): Adds a grammar to lib2to3.pygram that contains exec
     as a function not as statement.

   - bpo-36895(48): The function ‘time.clock()’ was deprecated in 3.3 in
     favor of ‘time.perf_counter()’ and marked for removal in 3.8, it
     has removed.

   - bpo-35545(49): Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring
     hostname resolutions internally

   - bpo-36887(50): Add new function *note math.isqrt(): 9f5. to compute
     integer square roots.

   - bpo-34632(51): Introduce the ‘importlib.metadata’ module with
     (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party
     packages.

   - bpo-36878(52): When using ‘type_comments=True’ in ‘ast.parse’,
     treat ‘# type: ignore’ followed by a non-alphanumeric character and
     then arbitrary text as a type ignore, instead of requiring nothing
     but whitespace or another comment.  This is to permit formations
     such as ‘# type: ignore[E1000]’.

   - bpo-36778(53): ‘cp65001’ encoding (Windows code page 65001) becomes
     an alias to ‘utf_8’ encoding.

   - bpo-36867(54): The multiprocessing.resource_tracker replaces the
     multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker module.  Other than semaphores,
     resource_tracker also tracks shared_memory segments.

   - bpo-30262(55): The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note
     sqlite3: ce. module are not exposed to the user.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-24538(56): In ‘shutil.copystat()’, first copy extended file
     attributes and then file permissions, since extended attributes can
     only be set on the destination while it is still writeable.

   - bpo-36829(57): Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. function
     which can be overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" are
     handled.  It is called when an exception has occurred but there is
     no way for Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor
     raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note
     gc.collect(): a2a.).

   - bpo-36832(58): Introducing ‘zipfile.Path’, a pathlib-compatible
     wrapper for traversing zip files.

   - bpo-36814(59): Fix an issue where os.posix_spawnp() would
     incorrectly raise a TypeError when file_actions is None.

   - bpo-33110(60): Handle exceptions raised by functions added by
     concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has
     already completed.

   - bpo-26903(61): Limit ‘max_workers’ in ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ to 61
     to work around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.

   - bpo-36813(62): Fix *note QueueListener: e1b. to call
     ‘queue.task_done()’ upon stopping.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-36806(63): Forbid creation of asyncio stream objects like
     StreamReader, StreamWriter, Process, and their protocols outside of
     asyncio package.

   - bpo-36802(64): Provide both sync and async calls for
     StreamWriter.write() and StreamWriter.close()

   - bpo-36801(65): Properly handle SSL connection closing in asyncio
     StreamWriter.drain() call.

   - bpo-36785(66): Implement PEP 574 (pickle protocol 5 with
     out-of-band buffers).

   - bpo-36772(67): functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight
     decorator in addition to its existing usage as a function that
     returns a decorator.

   - bpo-6584(68): Add a *note BadGzipFile: 9e7. exception to the *note
     gzip: 66. module.

   - bpo-36748(69): Optimized write buffering in C implementation of
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  Writing ASCII string to ‘TextIOWrapper’ with
     ascii, latin1, or utf-8 encoding is about 20% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-8138(70): Don't mark ‘wsgiref.simple_server.SimpleServer’ as
     multi-threaded since ‘wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer’ is
     single-threaded.

   - bpo-22640(71): *note py_compile.compile(): a15. now supports silent
     mode.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye

   - bpo-29183(72): Fix double exceptions in *note
     wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 19ae. by calling its ‘close()’ method
     only when no exception is raised.

   - bpo-36548(73): Improved the repr of regular expression flags.

   - bpo-36542(74): The signature of Python functions can now be
     overridden by specifying the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.

   - bpo-36533(75): Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child
     processes instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent
     before forking only to be released in the child process.  The
     acquire/release pattern was leading to deadlocks in code that has
     implemented any form of chained logging handlers that depend upon
     one another as the lock acquisition order cannot be guaranteed.

   - bpo-35252(76): Throw a TypeError instead of an AssertionError when
     using an invalid type annotation with singledispatch.

   - bpo-35900(77): Allow reduction methods to return a 6-item tuple
     where the 6th item specifies a custom state-setting method that's
     called instead of the regular ‘__setstate__’ method.

   - bpo-35900(78): enable custom reduction callback registration for
     functions and classes in _pickle.c, using the new Pickler's
     attribute ‘reducer_override’

   - bpo-36368(79): Fix a bug crashing SharedMemoryManager instances in
     interactive sessions after a ctrl-c (KeyboardInterrupt) was sent

   - bpo-31904(80): Fix mmap fail for VxWorks

   - bpo-27497(81): *note csv.DictWriter.writeheader(): 11de. now
     returns the return value of the underlying ‘csv.Writer.writerow()’
     method.  Patch contributed by Ashish Nitin Patil.

   - bpo-36239(82): Parsing .mo files now ignores comments starting and
     ending with #-#-#-#-#.

   - bpo-26707(83): Enable plistlib to read and write binary plist files
     that were created as a KeyedArchive file.  Specifically, this
     allows the plistlib to process 0x80 tokens as UID objects.

   - bpo-31904(84): Add posix module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-35125(85): Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation
     in shield

   - bpo-35721(86): Fix ‘asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec()’
     leaks file descriptors if ‘Popen’ fails and called with
     ‘stdin=subprocess.PIPE’.  Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-31855(87): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 16c4. results now
     respects the argument of read([size]).  Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35431(88): Implement *note math.comb(): 6bc. that returns
     binomial coefficient, that computes the number of ways to choose k
     items from n items without repetition and without order.  Patch by
     Yash Aggarwal and Keller Fuchs.

   - bpo-26660(89): Fixed permission errors in *note TemporaryDirectory:
     1214. clean up.  Previously ‘TemporaryDirectory.cleanup()’ failed
     when non-writeable or non-searchable files or directories were
     created inside a temporary directory.

   - bpo-34271(90): Add debugging helpers to ssl module.  It's now
     possible to dump key material and to trace TLS protocol.  The
     default and stdlib contexts also support SSLKEYLOGFILE env var.

   - bpo-26467(91): Added AsyncMock to support using unittest to mock
     asyncio coroutines.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-33569(92): dataclasses.InitVar: Exposes the type used to create
     the init var.

   - bpo-34424(93): Fix serialization of messages containing encoded
     strings when the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string.
     Patch by Jens Troeger.

   - bpo-34303(94): Performance of *note functools.reduce(): 12bc. is
     slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-33361(95): Fix a bug in *note codecs.StreamRecoder: 19af. where
     seeking might leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read
     calls.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-22454(96): The *note shlex: c3. module now exposes *note
     shlex.join(): a17, the inverse of *note shlex.split(): 529.  Patch
     by Bo Bayles.

   - bpo-31922(97):
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint()’: Do not
     connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed.  This allows to
     receive replies after a UDP broadcast.

   - bpo-24882(98): Change ThreadPoolExecutor to use existing idle
     threads before spinning up new ones.

   - bpo-31961(99): Added support for bytes and path-like objects in
     *note subprocess.Popen(): 197. on Windows.  The 'args' parameter
     now accepts a *note path-like object: 29d. if 'shell' is ‘False’
     and a sequence containing bytes and path-like objects.  The
     'executable' parameter now accepts a bytes and *note path-like
     object: 29d.  The 'cwd' parameter now accepts a bytes object.
     Based on patch by Anders Lorentsen.

   - bpo-33123(100): *note pathlib.Path.unlink: 19b0. now accepts a
     'missing_ok' parameter to avoid a *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.
     from being raised.  Patch by Robert Buchholz.

   - bpo-32941(101): Allow *note mmap.mmap: 208. objects to access the
     madvise() system call (through *note mmap.mmap.madvise(): 9f8.).

   - bpo-22102(102): Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0.
     Such files are commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when
     use ZIP64 extension.  Patch by Francisco Facioni.

   - bpo-32515(103): trace.py can now run modules via python3 -m trace
     -t -module module_name

   - bpo-32299(104): Changed *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 19b1. to
     return the patched dictionary when used as context manager.  Patch
     by Vadim Tsander.

   - bpo-27141(105): Added a ‘__copy__()’ to ‘collections.UserList’ and
     ‘collections.UserDict’ in order to correctly implement shallow
     copying of the objects.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31829(106): ‘\r’, ‘\0’ and ‘\x1a’ (end-of-file on Windows) are
     now escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings.  This allows
     to load them without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.

   - bpo-23395(107): ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’ now avoids setting the
     Python error status if the ‘SIGINT’ signal is ignored or not
     handled by Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26835

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35246

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35279

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37076

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37054

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37058

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37047

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37049

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37046

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37045

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37035

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37001

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36996

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37008

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27737

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36983

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36972

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36949

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36948

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33524

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24564

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36888

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25652

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36916

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36889

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36845

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23378

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23896

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35545

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36778

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24538

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36832

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36814

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26903

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36813

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36806

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36802

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36801

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36748

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8138

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29183

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36548

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36542

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36533

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35252

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36368

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27497

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36239

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35125

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35721

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31855

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26660

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34271

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33569

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34424

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34303

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33361

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22454

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31922

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24882

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33123

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22102

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32515

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32299

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27141

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31829

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23395


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<44>,  Next: Tests<46>,  Prev: Library<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36896(1): Clarify that some types have unstable constructor
     signature between Python versions.

   - bpo-36686(2): Improve documentation of the stdin, stdout, and
     stderr arguments of the ‘asyncio.subprocess_exec’ function to
     specify which values are supported.  Also mention that decoding as
     text is not supported.

     Add a few tests to verify that the various values passed to the
     std* arguments actually work.

   - bpo-36984(3): Improve version added references in ‘typing’ module -
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36868(4): What's new now mentions
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name instead of
     SSLContext.host_flags.

   - bpo-35924(5): Add a note to the ‘curses.addstr()’ documentation to
     warn that multiline strings can cause segfaults because of an
     ncurses bug.

   - bpo-36783(6): Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold
     and PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495.  Patch by
     Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36797(7): More of the legacy distutils documentation has been
     either pruned, or else more clearly marked as being retained solely
     until the setuptools documentation covers it independently.

   - bpo-22865(8): Add detail to the documentation on the ‘pty.spawn’
     function.

   - bpo-35397(9): Remove deprecation and document
     urllib.parse.unwrap().  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-32995(10): Added the context variable in glossary.

   - bpo-33519(11): Clarify that ‘copy()’ is not part of the
     ‘MutableSequence’ ABC.

   - bpo-33482(12): Make ‘codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines’ take a list
     of bytes.

   - bpo-25735(13): Added documentation for func factorial to indicate
     that returns integer values

   - bpo-20285(14): Expand object.__doc__ (docstring) to make it
     clearer.  Modify pydoc.py so that help(object) lists object methods
     (for other classes, help omits methods of the object base class.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36686

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36868

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35924

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36783

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22865

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35397

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32995

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33519

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33482

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<46>,  Next: Build<49>,  Prev: Documentation<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37069(1): Modify test_coroutines, test_cprofile,
     test_generators, test_raise, test_ssl and test_yield_from to use
     *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): 1996. rather than
     *note test.support.captured_stderr(): 19b4.

   - bpo-37098(2): Fix test_memfd_create on older Linux Kernels.

   - bpo-37081(3): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c

   - bpo-36829(4): Add *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     1996.: context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.

   - bpo-36915(5): The main regrtest process now always removes all
     temporary directories of worker processes even if they crash or if
     they are killed on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).

   - bpo-36719(6): "python3 -m test -jN ..."  now continues the
     execution of next tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR
     state).  Previously, the test suite stopped immediately.  Use
     -failfast to stop at the first error.

   - bpo-36816(7): Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to
     match self-signed.pythontest.net's new TLS certificate.

   - bpo-35925(8): Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they
     would otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default
     OpenSSL policy of rejecting connections to servers with weak
     certificates.

   - bpo-36782(9): Add tests for several C API functions in the *note
     datetime: 30. module.  Patch by Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36342(10): Fix test_multiprocessing in test_venv if platform
     lacks functioning sem_open.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37098

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36816

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35925

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36782

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36342


File: python.info,  Node: Build<49>,  Next: Windows<43>,  Prev: Tests<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36721(1): To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’
     option must be passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get
     ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the application to libpython).  To support both
     3.8 and older, try ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and
     fallback to ‘python3-config --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the
     previous command fails.

     Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
     application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command
     fails (replace ‘X.Y’ with the Python version).

     On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython
     (except on Android, case handled by the script); this change is
     backward incompatible on purpose.

   - bpo-36786(2): "make install" now runs compileall in parallel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36786


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<43>,  Next: macOS<37>,  Prev: Build<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36965(1): include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on
     MSC compiler

   - bpo-35926(2): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1b for Windows.

   - bpo-29883(3): Add Windows support for UDP transports for the
     Proactor Event Loop.  Patch by Adam Meily.

   - bpo-33407(4): The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): a94. macro has been
     implemented for MSVC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36965

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35926

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<37>,  Next: IDLE<34>,  Prev: Windows<43>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-36231(1): Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include
     installed.  As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only
     available within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools
     or the Xcode app.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36231


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<34>,  Next: Tools/Demos<23>,  Prev: macOS<37>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35610(1): Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with
     .prompt_last_line.  This finishes change started in bpo-31858(2).

   - bpo-37038(3): Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.

   - bpo-36958(4): Print any argument other than None or int passed to
     SystemExit or sys.exit().

   - bpo-36807(5): When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are
     flushed to e.g.  USB drive.

   - bpo-32411(6): In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line
     number since dictionary was created in line number order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37038

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36958

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32411


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<23>,  Next: C API<48>,  Prev: IDLE<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-37053(1): Handle strings like u"bar" correctly in
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Chih-Hsuan Yen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37053


File: python.info,  Node: C API<48>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<23>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.50.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Implement the PEP 587(2) "Python Initialization
     Configuration".

   - bpo-36379(3): Fix crashes when attempting to use the 'modulo'
     parameter when ‘__ipow__’ is implemented in C.

   - bpo-37107(4): Update *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19bb. and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodIdObjArgs’ to use ‘_PyObject_GetMethod’ to
     avoid creating a bound method object in many cases.  Patch by
     Michael J. Sullivan.

   - bpo-36974(5): Implement PEP 590(6): Vectorcall: a fast calling
     protocol for CPython.  This is a new protocol to optimize calls of
     custom callable objects.

   - bpo-36763(7): ‘Py_Main()’ now returns the exitcode rather than
     calling ‘Py_Exit(exitcode)’ when calling ‘PyErr_Print()’ if the
     current exception type is ‘SystemExit’.

   - bpo-36922(8): Add new type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ for
     objects behaving like unbound methods.  These are objects
     supporting the optimization given by the
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ opcodes.  See PEP 590.

   - bpo-36728(9): The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been
     removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37107

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.51 Python 3.8.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<34>,  Next: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36742(1): Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in
     urlsplit().

   - bpo-30458(2): Address CVE 2019-9740(3) by disallowing URL paths
     with embedded whitespace or control characters through into the
     underlying http client request.  Such potentially malicious header
     injection URLs now cause an http.client.InvalidURL exception to be
     raised.

   - bpo-35755(4): *note shutil.which(): 4a0. now uses
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ if available and if the ‘PATH’ environment
     variable is not set.  Remove also the current directory from
     ‘posixpath.defpath’.  On Unix, *note shutil.which(): 4a0. and the
     *note subprocess: d5. module no longer search the executable in the
     current directory if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9740

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<51>,  Next: Library<50>,  Prev: Security<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36722(1): In debug build, import now also looks for C
     extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled
     in the stable ABI.

   - bpo-32849(2): Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect
     properly when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.

   - bpo-36623(3): Remove parser headers and related function
     declarations that lack implementations after the removal of pgen.

   - bpo-20180(4): ‘dict.pop()’ is now up to 33% faster thanks to
     Argument Clinic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36611(5): Debug memory allocators: disable serialno field by
     default from debug hooks on Python memory allocators to reduce the
     memory footprint by 5%.  Enable *note tracemalloc: fe. to get the
     traceback where a memory block has been allocated when a fatal
     memory error is logged to decide where to put a breakpoint.
     Compile Python with ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ defined to get back the
     field.

   - bpo-36588(6): On AIX, *note sys.platform: a7d. doesn't contain the
     major version anymore.  Always return ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’
     ..  ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the version
     number, it is recommended to always use
     ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.  Contributed by M. Felt.

   - bpo-36549(7): Change str.capitalize to use titlecase for the first
     character instead of uppercase.

   - bpo-36540(8): Implement PEP 570(9) (Python positional-only
     parameters).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36475(10): ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’
     now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is
     finalizing, making them consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a7e, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2.

   - bpo-36504(11): Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c's
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-20844(12): Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line
     ending may fail on Windows.

   - bpo-24214(13): Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in
     the UTF-8 incremental decoder.

   - bpo-36452(14): Changing ‘dict’ keys during iteration of the dict
     itself, ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, or ‘items()’ will now be detected in
     certain corner cases where keys are deleted/added so that the
     number of keys isn't changed.  A ‘RuntimeError’ will be raised
     after ‘len(dict)’ iterations.  Contributed by Thomas Perl.

   - bpo-36459(15): Fix a possible double ‘PyMem_FREE()’ due to
     tokenizer.c's ‘tok_nextc()’.

   - bpo-36433(16): Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.

   - bpo-36430(17): Fix a possible reference leak in *note
     itertools.count(): 1263.

   - bpo-36440(18): Include node names in ‘ParserError’ messages,
     instead of numeric IDs.  Patch by A. Skrobov.

   - bpo-36143(19): Regenerate *note keyword: 83. from the Grammar and
     Tokens file using pgen.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-18372(20): Add missing *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14bd. calls
     in the *note pickle: a5. module.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32849

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20180

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36549

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36504

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20844

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36452

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36459

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36433

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36430

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36440

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18372


File: python.info,  Node: Library<50>,  Next: Documentation<45>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35952(1): Fix pythoninfo when the compiler is missing.

   - bpo-28238(2): The ‘.find*()’ methods of xml.etree.ElementTree can
     now search for wildcards like ‘{*}tag’ and ‘{ns}*’ that match a tag
     in any namespace or all tags in a namespace.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-26978(3): ‘pathlib.path.link_to()’ is now implemented.  It
     creates a hard link pointing to a path.

   - bpo-1613500(4): *note fileinput.FileInput: 723. now uses the input
     file mode to correctly set the output file mode (previously it was
     hardcoded to ‘'w'’) when ‘inplace=True’ is passed to its
     constructor.

   - bpo-36734(5): Fix compilation of ‘faulthandler.c’ on HP-UX.
     Initialize ‘stack_t current_stack’ to zero using ‘memset()’.

   - bpo-13611(6): The xml.etree.ElementTree packages gained support for
     C14N 2.0 serialisation.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36669(7): Add missing matrix multiplication operator support to
     weakref.proxy.

   - bpo-36676(8): The XMLParser() in xml.etree.ElementTree provides
     namespace prefix context to the parser target if it defines the
     callback methods "start_ns()" and/or "end_ns()".  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-36673(9): The TreeBuilder and XMLPullParser in
     xml.etree.ElementTree gained support for parsing comments and
     processing instructions.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36650(10): The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating
     calls with an empty ‘**kwargs’ dictionary as being distinct from
     calls with no keywords at all.  This did not result in an incorrect
     answer, but it did trigger an unexpected cache miss.

   - bpo-28552(11): Fix ‘distutils.sysconfig’ if *note sys.executable:
     3af. is ‘None’ or an empty string: use *note os.getcwd(): 1555. to
     initialize ‘project_base’.  Fix also the distutils build command:
     don't use *note sys.executable: 3af. if it is ‘None’ or an empty
     string.

   - bpo-35755(12): *note shutil.which(): 4a0. and
     ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable’ now use ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’
     if available instead of *note os.defpath: 19c0, if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is not set.  Moreover, don't use
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ nor *note os.defpath: 19c0. if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is set to an empty string.

   - bpo-25430(13): improve performance of ‘IPNetwork.__contains__()’

   - bpo-30485(14): Path expressions in xml.etree.ElementTree can now
     avoid explicit namespace prefixes for tags (or the "{namespace}tag"
     notation) by passing a default namespace with an empty string
     prefix.

   - bpo-36613(15): Fix *note asyncio: a. wait() not removing callback
     if exception

   - bpo-36598(16): Fix ‘isinstance’ check for Mock objects with spec
     when the code is executed under tracing.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-18748(17): In development mode (*note -X: 175. ‘dev’) and in
     debug build, the *note io.IOBase: 1f2. destructor now logs
     ‘close()’ exceptions.  These exceptions are silent by default in
     release mode.

   - bpo-36575(18): The ‘_lsprof’ module now uses internal timer same to
     ‘time.perf_counter()’ by default.  ‘gettimeofday(2)’ was used on
     Unix.  New timer has better resolution on most Unix platforms and
     timings are no longer impacted by system clock updates since
     ‘perf_counter()’ is monotonic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-33461(19): ‘json.loads’ now emits ‘DeprecationWarning’ when
     ‘encoding’ option is specified.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-36559(20): The random module now prefers the lean internal
     _sha512 module over hashlib for seed(version=2) to optimize import
     time.

   - bpo-17561(21): Set backlog=None as the default for
     socket.create_server.

   - bpo-34373(22): Fix *note time.mktime(): 11c7. error handling on AIX
     for year before 1970.

   - bpo-36232(23): Improve error message when trying to open existing
     DBM database that actually doesn't exist.  Patch by Marco Rougeth.

   - bpo-36546(24): Add statistics.quantiles()

   - bpo-36050(25): Optimized ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read()’ for
     large response.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36522(26): If 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note http.client:
     6e, print all values for headers with multiple values for the same
     header name.  Patch by Matt Houglum.

   - bpo-36492(27): Deprecated passing required arguments like 'func' as
     keyword arguments in functions which should accept arbitrary
     keyword arguments and pass them to other function.  Arbitrary
     keyword arguments (even with names "self" and "func") can now be
     passed to these functions if the required arguments are passed as
     positional arguments.

   - bpo-27181(28): Add statistics.geometric_mean().

   - bpo-30427(29): ‘os.path.normcase()’ relies on ‘os.fspath()’ to
     check the type of its argument.  Redundant checks have been removed
     from its ‘posixpath.normcase()’ and ‘ntpath.normcase()’
     implementations.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-36385(30): Stop rejecting IPv4 octets for being ambiguously
     octal.  Leading zeros are ignored, and no longer are assumed to
     specify octal octets.  Octets are always decimal numbers.  Octets
     must still be no more than three digits, including leading zeroes.

   - bpo-36434(31): Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer
     prevent to properly close it.

   - bpo-36407(32): Fixed wrong indentation writing for CDATA section in
     xml.dom.minidom.  Patch by Vladimir Surjaninov.

   - bpo-36326(33): inspect.getdoc() can now find docstrings for member
     objects when __slots__ is a dictionary.

   - bpo-36366(34): Calling ‘stop()’ on an unstarted or stopped *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): e7d. object will now return ‘None’ instead
     of raising *note RuntimeError: 193, making the method idempotent.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36348(35): The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer ignores
     silently arbitrary exceptions.

   - bpo-31904(36): Add time module support and fix test_time failures
     for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36227(37): Added support for keyword arguments
     ‘default_namespace’ and ‘xml_declaration’ in functions
     ‘ElementTree.tostring()’ and ‘ElementTree.tostringlist()’.

   - bpo-36004(38): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): 9dc. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9dd, which construct date
     objects from ISO year, week number and weekday; these are the
     inverse of each class's ‘isocalendar’ method.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35936(39): *note modulefinder: 90. no longer depends on the
     deprecated *note imp: 75. module, and the initializer for *note
     modulefinder.ModuleFinder: 19c1. now has immutable default
     arguments.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-35376(40): *note modulefinder: 90. correctly handles modules
     that have the same name as a bad package.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-17396(41): *note modulefinder: 90. no longer crashes when
     encountering syntax errors in followed imports.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-35934(42): Added *note create_server(): a1b. and *note
     has_dualstack_ipv6(): a1c. convenience functions to automate the
     necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket,
     including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same
     socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-17561(43).)

   - bpo-23078(44): Add support for *note classmethod(): 165. and *note
     staticmethod(): 40c. to *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     15c3.  Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.

   - bpo-35416(45): Fix potential resource warnings in distutils.  Patch
     by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-25451(46): Add transparency methods to ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35082(47): Don't return deleted attributes when calling dir on
     a *note unittest.mock.Mock: a3c.

   - bpo-34547(48): *note wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 19ae. now
     handles abrupt client connection terminations gracefully.  Patch by
     Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31658(49): *note xml.sax.parse(): 19c2. now supports *note
     path-like: 29d.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-34139(50): Remove stale unix datagram socket before binding

   - bpo-33530(51): Implemented Happy Eyeballs in
     ‘asyncio.create_connection()’.  Added two new arguments,
     'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave', to specify Happy Eyeballs
     behavior.

   - bpo-33291(52): Do not raise AttributeError when calling the inspect
     functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction,
     isasyncgenfunction on a method created from an arbitrary callable.
     Instead, return False.

   - bpo-31310(53): Fix the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker so it is
     reused by child processes

   - bpo-31292(54): Fix ‘setup.py check --restructuredtext’ for files
     containing ‘include’ directives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1613500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36734

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36650

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25430

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30485

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36613

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36598

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36575

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33461

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36559

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36232

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36050

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30427

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36385

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36434

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36407

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36366

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36227

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35936

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35376

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17396

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35934

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23078

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35416

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35082

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34547

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31658

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34139

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33291

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31292


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<45>,  Next: Tests<47>,  Prev: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36625(1): Remove obsolete comments from docstrings in
     fractions.Fraction

   - bpo-30840(2): Document relative imports

   - bpo-36523(3): Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().

   - bpo-36425(4): New documentation translation: Simplified Chinese(5).

   - bpo-36345(6): Avoid the duplication of code from
     ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ in using the ‘literalinclude’ directive
     for the basic wsgiref-based web server in the documentation of
     *note wsgiref: 117.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36345(7): Using the code of the ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ script
     as an example in the *note wsgiref: 117. documentation.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36157(8): Added documentation for PyInterpreterState_Main().

   - bpo-33043(9): Updates the docs.python.org page with the addition of
     a 'Contributing to Docs' link at the end of the page (between
     'Reporting Bugs' and 'About Documentation').  Updates the 'Found a
     Bug' page with additional links and information in the
     Documentation Bugs section.

   - bpo-35581(10): @typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to
     mark functions and classes not available during runtime.

   - bpo-33832(11): Add glossary entry for 'magic method'.

   - bpo-32913(12): Added re.Match.groupdict example to regex HOWTO.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36425

   (5) https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36157

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33043

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35581

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33832

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32913


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<47>,  Next: Build<50>,  Prev: Documentation<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36719(1): regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects.
     Previously, the check was only enabled by ‘--findleaks’.  The check
     now also works with ‘-jN/--multiprocess N’.  ‘--findleaks’ becomes
     a deprecated alias to ‘--fail-env-changed’.

   - bpo-36725(2): When using multiprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now
     better reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits
     immediately on a worker thread failure or when interrupted.

   - bpo-36454(3): Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the
     lower bound of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the
     upper bound.  This prevents unnecessary test failures on slow
     buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32424(4): Improve test coverage for xml.etree.ElementTree.
     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-32424(5): Fix typo in test_cyclic_gc() test for
     xml.etree.ElementTree.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-36635(6): Add a new ‘_testinternalcapi’ module to test the
     internal C API.

   - bpo-36629(7): Fix ‘test_imap4_host_default_value()’ of
     ‘test_imaplib’: catch also *note errno.ENETUNREACH: 19c5. error.

   - bpo-36611(8): Fix ‘test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks()’ when *note
     tracemalloc: fe. is enabled.

   - bpo-36560(9): Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also
     deltas (of reference count, allocated memory blocks, file
     descriptor count) during warmup, to ensure that everything is
     initialized before starting to hunt reference leaks.

   - bpo-36565(10): Fix reference hunting (‘python3 -m test -R 3:3’)
     when Python has no built-in abc module.

   - bpo-31904(11): Port test_resource to VxWorks: skip tests cases
     setting RLIMIT_FSIZE and RLIMIT_CPU.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix test_tabnanny on VxWorks: adjust ENOENT error
     message.

   - bpo-36436(13): Fix ‘_testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow()’: handle
     memory allocation failure.

   - bpo-31904(14): Fix test_utf8_mode on VxWorks: Python always use
     UTF-8 on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36341(15): Fix tests that may fail with PermissionError upon
     calling bind() on AF_UNIX sockets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36725

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36454

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36629

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36560

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36565

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36341


File: python.info,  Node: Build<50>,  Next: Windows<44>,  Prev: Tests<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36747(1): Remove the stale scriptsinstall Makefile target.

   - bpo-21536(2): On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to
     libpython except on Android and Cygwin.

     It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C
     extension built using a shared library Python.

     When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not be loaded with
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.  Previously, using
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load C extensions
     which were not linked to ‘libpython’, such as C extensions of the
     standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section of
     ‘Modules/Setup’.

     distutils, python-config and python-config.py have been modified.

   - bpo-36707(3): ‘./configure --with-pymalloc’ no longer adds the ‘m’
     flag to SOABI (sys.implementation.cache_tag).  Enabling or
     disabling pymalloc has no impact on the ABI.

   - bpo-36635(4): Change ‘PyAPI_FUNC(type)’, ‘PyAPI_DATA(type)’ and
     ‘PyMODINIT_FUNC’ macros of ‘pyport.h’ when ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     is defined.  The ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ define must be now be used
     to build a C extension as a dynamic library accessing Python
     internals: export the ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function in DLL exports on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31904(5): Don't build the ‘_crypt’ extension on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36618(6): Add ‘-fmax-type-align=8’ to CFLAGS when clang
     compiler is detected.  The pymalloc memory allocator aligns memory
     on 8 bytes.  On x86-64, clang expects alignment on 16 bytes by
     default and so uses MOVAPS instruction which can lead to
     segmentation fault.  Instruct clang that Python is limited to
     alignment on 8 bytes to use MOVUPS instruction instead: slower but
     don't trigger a SIGSEGV if the memory is not aligned on 16 bytes.
     Sadly, the flag must be added to ‘CFLAGS’ and not just
     ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’, since third party C extensions can have the same
     issue.

   - bpo-36605(7): ‘make tags’ and ‘make TAGS’ now also parse
     ‘Modules/_io/*.c’ and ‘Modules/_io/*.h’.

   - bpo-36465(8): Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
     compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
     ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which introduces the only ABI
     incompatibility.  The ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note
     sys.getobjects(): 41d. function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 996.
     environment variable, can be set using the new ‘./configure
     --with-trace-refs’ build option.

   - bpo-36577(9): setup.py now correctly reports missing OpenSSL
     headers and libraries again.

   - bpo-36544(10): Fix regression introduced in bpo-36146(11)
     refactoring setup.py

   - bpo-36508(12): ‘python-config --ldflags’ no longer includes flags
     of the ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable.  The ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable must
     only be used to build executables.

   - bpo-36503(13): Remove references to "aix3" and "aix4".  Patch by M.
     Felt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36747

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36618

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36605

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36577

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36544

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36508

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36503


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<44>,  Next: macOS<38>,  Prev: Build<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35920(1): Added platform.win32_edition() and
     platform.win32_is_iot().  Added support for cross-compiling
     packages for Windows ARM32.  Skip tests that are not expected to
     work on Windows IoT Core ARM32.

   - bpo-36649(2): Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when
     installed via the Store.

   - bpo-34144(3): Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when
     chcp.com returns dots in output.  Patch by Lorenz Mende.

   - bpo-36509(4): Added preset-iot layout for Windows IoT ARM
     containers.  This layout doesn't contain UI components like tkinter
     or IDLE. It also doesn't contain files to support on-target builds
     since Windows ARM32 builds must be cross-compiled when using MSVC.

   - bpo-35941(5): enum_certificates function of the ssl module now
     returns certificates from all available certificate stores inside
     windows in a query instead of returning only certificates from the
     system wide certificate store.  This includes certificates from
     these certificate stores: local machine, local machine enterprise,
     local machine group policy, current user, current user group
     policy, services, users.  ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in
     the same way to return all certificate revocation lists inside the
     windows certificate revocation list stores.

   - bpo-36441(6): Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are
     installed.

   - bpo-36085(7): Enable better DLL resolution on Windows by using safe
     DLL search paths and adding *note os.add_dll_directory(): 9da.

   - bpo-36010(8): Add the venv standard library module to the nuget
     distribution for Windows.

   - bpo-29515(9): Add the following socket module constants on Windows:
     IPPROTO_AH IPPROTO_CBT IPPROTO_DSTOPTS IPPROTO_EGP IPPROTO_ESP
     IPPROTO_FRAGMENT IPPROTO_GGP IPPROTO_HOPOPTS IPPROTO_ICLFXBM
     IPPROTO_ICMPV6 IPPROTO_IDP IPPROTO_IGMP IPPROTO_IGP IPPROTO_IPV4
     IPPROTO_IPV6 IPPROTO_L2TP IPPROTO_MAX IPPROTO_ND IPPROTO_NONE
     IPPROTO_PGM IPPROTO_PIM IPPROTO_PUP IPPROTO_RDP IPPROTO_ROUTING
     IPPROTO_SCTP IPPROTO_ST

   - bpo-35947(10): Added current version of libffi to
     cpython-source-deps.  Change _ctypes to use current version of
     libffi on Windows.

   - bpo-34060(11): Report system load when running test suite on
     Windows.  Patch by Ammar Askar.  Based on prior work by Jeremy
     Kloth.

   - bpo-31512(12): With the Windows 10 Creators Update, non-elevated
     users can now create symlinks as long as the computer has Developer
     Mode enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35920

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36509

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35941

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29515

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35947

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31512


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<38>,  Next: IDLE<35>,  Prev: Windows<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34602(1): Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit
     with resource.setrlimit.  This reverts an earlier fix for
     bpo-18075(2) which forced a non-default stack size when building
     the interpreter executable on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18075


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<35>,  Next: Tools/Demos<24>,  Prev: macOS<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36429(1): Fix starting IDLE with pyshell.  Add idlelib.pyshell
     alias at top; remove pyshell alias at bottom.  Remove obsolete
     __name__=='__main__' command.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36429


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<24>,  Next: C API<49>,  Prev: IDLE<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-14546(1): Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14546


File: python.info,  Node: C API<49>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<24>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.51.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Fix memory leak in ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’:
     release memory if the function is called twice.

   - bpo-36641(2): PyDoc_VAR(name) and *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1930.(name,
     str) now create ‘static const char name[]’ instead of ‘static char
     name[]’.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36389(3): Change the value of ‘CLEANBYTE’, ‘DEADDYTE’ and
     ‘FORBIDDENBYTE’ internal constants used by debug hooks on Python
     memory allocators (*note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. function).
     Byte patterns ‘0xCB’, ‘0xDB’ and ‘0xFB’ have been replaced with
     ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
     debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   - bpo-36443(4): Since Python 3.7.0, calling *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     bb7. before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. produces mojibake if the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is coerced and/or if the UTF-8 Mode is enabled by
     the user configuration.  The LC_CTYPE coercion and UTF-8 Mode are
     now disabled by default to fix the mojibake issue.  They must now
     be enabled explicitly (opt-in) using the new ‘_Py_PreInitialize()’
     API with ‘_PyPreConfig’.

   - bpo-36025(5): Fixed an accidental change to the datetime C API
     where the arguments to the *note PyDate_FromTimestamp(): 19cc.
     function were incorrectly interpreted as a single timestamp rather
     than an arguments tuple, which causes existing code to start
     raising *note TypeError: 525.  The backwards-incompatible change
     was only present in alpha releases of Python 3.8.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35810(6): Modify ‘PyObject_Init’ to correctly increase the
     refcount of heap-allocated Type objects.  Also fix the refcounts of
     the heap-allocated types that were either doing this manually or
     not decreasing the type's refcount in tp_dealloc

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36025

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.52 Python 3.8.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-03-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<50>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<35>,  Next: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36216(1): Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL
     contains characters that decompose under IDNA encoding
     (NFKC-normalization) into characters that affect how the URL is
     parsed.

   - bpo-35121(2): Don't send cookies of domain A without Domain
     attribute to domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B
     while using a cookiejar with *note
     http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf. policy.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<52>,  Next: Library<51>,  Prev: Security<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36421(1): Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c's
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-36412(2): Fix a possible crash when creating a new dictionary.

   - bpo-36398(3): Fix a possible crash in ‘structseq_repr()’.

   - bpo-36256(4): Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA
     that has two or more arcs with labels of the same type.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36365(5): repr(structseq) is no longer limited to 512 bytes.

   - bpo-36374(6): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     ‘merge_consts_recursive()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36236(7): At Python initialization, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to *note sys.path: 3ab. if it has been removed.

   - bpo-36352(8): Python initialization now fails with an error, rather
     than silently truncating paths, if a path is too long.

   - bpo-36301(9): Python initialization now fails if decoding
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ configuration file fails at startup.

   - bpo-36333(10): Fix leak in _PyRuntimeState_Fini.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36332(11): The builtin *note compile(): 190. can now handle AST
     objects that contain assignment expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-36282(12): Improved error message for too much positional
     arguments in some builtin functions.

   - bpo-30040(13): New empty dict uses fewer memory for now.  It used
     more memory than empty dict created by ‘dict.clear()’.  And empty
     dict creation and deletion is about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36262(14): Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from
     string to float in the function ‘_Py_dg_strtod()’ used by
     ‘float(str)’, ‘complex(str)’, *note pickle.load(): d00, *note
     marshal.load(): 19d1, etc.

   - bpo-36252(15): Update Unicode databases to version 12.0.0.

   - bpo-36218(16): Fix a segfault occurring when sorting a list of
     heterogeneous values.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot
     Gorokhovsky.

   - bpo-36188(17): Cleaned up left-over vestiges of Python 2 unbound
     method handling in method objects and documentation.  Patch by
     Martijn Pieters

   - bpo-36124(18): Add a new interpreter-specific dict and expose it in
     the C-API via PyInterpreterState_GetDict().  This parallels
     PyThreadState_GetDict().  However, extension modules should
     continue using PyModule_GetState() for their own internal
     per-interpreter state.

   - bpo-35975(19): Add a ‘feature_version’ flag to ‘ast.parse()’
     (documented) and ‘compile()’ (hidden) that allows tweaking the
     parser to support older versions of the grammar.  In particular, if
     ‘feature_version’ is 5 or 6, the hacks for the ‘async’ and ‘await’
     keyword from PEP 492 are reinstated.  (For 7 or higher, these are
     unconditionally treated as keywords, but they are still special
     tokens rather than ‘NAME’ tokens that the parser driver
     recognizes.)

   - bpo-31904(20): Use UTF-8 as the system encoding on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36048(21): The *note __index__(): 709. special method will be
     used instead of *note __int__(): 708. for implicit conversion of
     Python numbers to C integers.  Using the ‘__int__()’ method in
     implicit conversions has been deprecated.

   - bpo-35808(22): Retire pgen and use a modified version of pgen2 to
     generate the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36398

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36256

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36365

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36374

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36236

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36352

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36333

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36332

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30040

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36262

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36252

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36218

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36188

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36124

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35808


File: python.info,  Node: Library<51>,  Next: Documentation<46>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36401(1): The class documentation created by pydoc now has a
     separate section for readonly properties.

   - bpo-36320(2): The typing.NamedTuple() class has deprecated the
     _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute
     which carried the same information.  Also, both attributes were
     converted from OrderedDict to a regular dict.

   - bpo-34745(3): Fix *note asyncio: a. ssl memory issues caused by
     circular references

   - bpo-36324(4): Add method to statistics.NormalDist for computing the
     inverse cumulative normal distribution.

   - bpo-36321(5): collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an
     attribute.  To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute
     name should have been "_field_defaults" instead of
     "_fields_defaults".  For backwards compatibility, both spellings
     are now created.  The misspelled version may be removed in the
     future.

   - bpo-36297(6): "unicode_internal" codec is removed.  It was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36298(7): Raise ModuleNotFoundError in pyclbr when a module
     can't be found.  Thanks to 'mental' for the bug report.

   - bpo-36268(8): Switch the default format used for writing tars with
     *note tarfile: dd. to the modern POSIX.1-2001 pax standard, from
     the vendor-specific GNU. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-36285(9): Fix integer overflows in the array module.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-31904(10): Add _signal module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36272(11): *note logging: 86. does not silently ignore
     RecursionError anymore.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36280(12): Add a kind field to ast.Constant.  It is 'u' if the
     literal has a 'u' prefix (i.e.  a Python 2 style unicode literal),
     else None.

   - bpo-35931(13): The *note pdb: a4. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles all exceptions.

   - bpo-36251(14): Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and
     re.Match reprs.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-36235(15): Fix ‘CFLAGS’ in ‘customize_compiler()’ of
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’: when the ‘CFLAGS’ environment variable is
     defined, don't override ‘CFLAGS’ variable with the ‘OPT’ variable
     anymore.  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-35807(16): Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and
     setuptools 40.8.0.

   - bpo-36139(17): Release GIL when closing *note mmap: 208. objects.

   - bpo-36179(18): Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl.
     The leaks only occur in out-of-memory cases.

   - bpo-36169(19): Add overlap() method to statistics.NormalDist.
     Computes the overlapping coefficient for two normal distributions.

   - bpo-36103(20): Default buffer size used by ‘shutil.copyfileobj()’
     is changed from 16 KiB to 64 KiB on non-Windows platform to reduce
     system call overhead.  Contributed by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36130(21): Fix ‘pdb’ with ‘skip=...’ when stepping into a frame
     without a ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35652(22): shutil.copytree(copy_function=...)  erroneously pass
     DirEntry instead of a path string.

   - bpo-35178(23): Ensure custom *note warnings.formatwarning(): 19d3.
     function can receive ‘line’ as positional argument.  Based on patch
     by Tashrif Billah.

   - bpo-36106(24): Resolve potential name clash with libm's sinpi().
     Patch by Dmitrii Pasechnik.

   - bpo-36091(25): Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types.
     Patch by Henry Chen.

   - bpo-36043(26): ‘FileCookieJar’ supports *note path-like object:
     29d.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35899(27): Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty
     strings and strings with non-Latin characters (ie.  'α', 'א')
     without crashing.  Original patch contributed by Maxwell.  Assisted
     by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-21269(28): Add ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties to mock call
     objects.  Contributed by Kumar Akshay.

   - bpo-30670(29): ‘pprint.pp’ has been added to pretty-print objects
     with dictionary keys being sorted with their insertion order by
     default.  Parameter 'sort_dicts' has been added to ‘pprint.pprint’,
     ‘pprint.pformat’ and ‘pprint.PrettyPrinter’.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35843(30): Implement ‘__getitem__’ for ‘_NamespacePath’.  Patch
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35802(31): Clean up code which checked presence of ‘os.stat’ /
     ‘os.lstat’ / ‘os.chmod’ which are always present.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-35715(32): Librates the return value of a ProcessPoolExecutor
     _process_worker after it's no longer needed to free memory

   - bpo-35493(33): Use *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10c3.
     instead of polling each 0.2 seconds for worker updates in
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35661(34): Store the venv prompt in pyvenv.cfg.

   - bpo-35121(35): Don't set cookie for a request when the request path
     is a prefix match of the cookie's path attribute but doesn't end
     with "/".  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(36): Calls to a child function created with *note
     unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 15c3. should propagate to the
     parent.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35198(37): Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34745

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36298

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36285

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36272

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36280

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36251

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35807

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36139

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36169

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36103

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36130

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35652

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35178

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36106

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36091

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36043

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35899

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21269

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35843

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35802

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35715

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35493

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35198


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<46>,  Next: Tests<48>,  Prev: Library<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36329(1): Declare the path of the Python binary for the usage
     of ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ when executing ‘make -C Doc/ serve’.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-36138(2): Improve documentation about converting
     datetime.timedelta to scalars.

   - bpo-21314(3): A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of
     the Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the
     signature of a function.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36138

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21314


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<48>,  Next: Build<51>,  Prev: Documentation<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36234(1): test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid
     uid/gid type (str).  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-29571(2): Fix ‘test_re.test_locale_flag()’: use
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ rather than ‘locale.getlocale()’ to
     get the locale encoding.  With some locales, ‘locale.getlocale()’
     returns the wrong encoding.

   - bpo-36123(3): Fix race condition in test_socket.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36234

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36123


File: python.info,  Node: Build<51>,  Next: Windows<45>,  Prev: Tests<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36356(1): Fix leaks that led to build failure when configured
     with address sanitizer.

   - bpo-36146(2): Add ‘TEST_EXTENSIONS’ constant to ‘setup.py’ to allow
     to not build test extensions like ‘_testcapi’.

   - bpo-36146(3): Fix setup.py on macOS: only add ‘/usr/include/ffi’ to
     include directories of _ctypes, not for all extensions.

   - bpo-31904(4): Enable build system to cross-build for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36356

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<45>,  Next: IDLE<36>,  Prev: Build<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36312(1): Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220,
     50221, 50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and
     42.

   - bpo-36264(2): Don't honor POSIX ‘HOME’ in ‘os.path.expanduser’ on
     windows.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-24643(3): Fix name collisions due to ‘#define timezone
     _timezone’ in PC/pyconfig.h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24643


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<36>,  Next: Tools/Demos<25>,  Prev: Windows<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36405(1): Use dict unpacking in idlelib.

   - bpo-36396(2): Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight().
     This param was only used twice and changed the return type.

   - bpo-36176(3): Fix IDLE autocomplete & calltip popup colors.
     Prevent conflicts with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken
     calltip background).

   - bpo-23205(4): For the grep module, add tests for findfiles,
     refactor findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor
     findfiles to use os.walk.

   - bpo-23216(5): Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.

   - bpo-36152(6): Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and
     the corresponding argument of .close().  In IDLE, both have always
     been None or False since 2007.

   - bpo-32129(7): Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk
     8.6.  Patch by Kevin Walzer.

   - bpo-36096(8): Refactor class variables to instance variables in
     colorizer.

   - bpo-30348(9): Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by
     30%.  Patch by Louie Lu

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36405

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23216

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36152

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32129

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36096

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30348


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<25>,  Next: C API<50>,  Prev: IDLE<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-35132(1): Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on
     gdb7.

   - bpo-32217(2): Fix freeze script on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32217


File: python.info,  Node: C API<50>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<25>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.52.10 C API
................

   - bpo-36381(1): Raise ‘DeprecationWarning’ when '#' formats are used
     for building or parsing values without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - bpo-36142(2): The whole coreconfig.h header is now excluded from
     Py_LIMITED_API. Move functions definitions into a new internal
     pycore_coreconfig.h header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36142


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.53 Python 3.8.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<53>,  Next: Library<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.53.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36052(1): Raise a *note SyntaxError: 18b. when assigning a
     value to ‘__debug__’ with the Assignment Operator.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36012(2): Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a
     non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to
     update slots.

   - bpo-35942(3): The error message emitted when returning invalid
     types from ‘__fspath__’ in interfaces that allow passing *note
     PathLike: c41. objects has been improved and now it does explain
     the origin of the error.

   - bpo-36016(4): ‘gc.get_objects’ can now receive an optional
     parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1054041(5): When the main interpreter exits due to an uncaught
     KeyboardInterrupt, the process now exits in the appropriate manner
     for its parent process to detect that a SIGINT or ^C terminated the
     process.  This allows shells and batch scripts to understand that
     the user has asked them to stop.

   - bpo-35992(6): Fix ‘__class_getitem__()’ not being called on a class
     with a custom non-subscriptable metaclass.

   - bpo-35993(7): Fix a crash on fork when using subinterpreters.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35991(8): Fix a potential double free in
     Modules/_randommodule.c.

   - bpo-35961(9): Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong
     references rather than stolen references for the two temporary
     internal tuples.

   - bpo-35911(10): Enable the creation of cell objects by adding a
     ‘cell.__new__’ method, and expose the type ‘cell’ in ‘Lib/types.py’
     under the name CellType.  Patch by Pierre Glaser.

   - bpo-12822(11): Use monotonic clock for ‘pthread_cond_timedwait’
     when ‘pthread_condattr_setclock’ and ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC’ are
     available.

   - bpo-15248(12): The compiler emits now syntax warnings in the case
     when a comma is likely missed before tuple or list.

   - bpo-35886(13): The implementation of PyInterpreterState has been
     moved into the internal header files (guarded by Py_BUILD_CORE).

   - bpo-31506(14): Clarify the errors reported when ‘object.__new__’
     and ‘object.__init__’ receive more than one argument.  Contributed
     by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-35724(15): Signal-handling is now guaranteed to happen relative
     to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33608(16): We added a new internal _Py_AddPendingCall() that
     operates relative to the provided interpreter.  This allows us to
     use the existing implementation to ask another interpreter to do
     work that cannot be done in the current interpreter, like decref an
     object the other interpreter owns.  The existing
     Py_AddPendingCall() only operates relative to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33989(17): Fix a possible crash in *note list.sort(): bbf. when
     sorting objects with ‘ob_type->tp_richcompare == NULL’.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35942

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35992

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35991

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35961

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35911

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12822

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35724

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33608

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33989


File: python.info,  Node: Library<52>,  Next: Documentation<47>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.53.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-35512(1): *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 19b1. used as a
     decorator with string target resolves the target during function
     call instead of during decorator construction.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36018(2): Add statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and
     manipulating normal distributions of random variable.  Features a
     composite class that treats the mean and standard deviation of
     measurement data as single entity.

   - bpo-35904(3): Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point
     variant of the existing mean() function.

   - bpo-35918(4): Removed broken ‘has_key’ method from
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-18283(5): Add support for bytes to *note shutil.which(): 4a0.

   - bpo-35960(6): Fix *note dataclasses.field(): 19de. throwing away
     empty mapping objects passed as metadata.

   - bpo-35500(7): Write expected and actual call parameters on separate
     lines in *note unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with(): 19df.
     assertion errors.  Contributed by Susan Su.

   - bpo-35931(8): The *note pdb: a4. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles syntax errors.

   - bpo-24209(9): In http.server script, rely on getaddrinfo to bind to
     preferred address based on the bind parameter.  Now default bind or
     binding to a name may bind to IPv6 or dual-stack, depending on the
     environment.

   - bpo-35321(10): Set ‘__spec__.origin’ of ‘_frozen_importlib’ to
     frozen so that it matches the behavior of
     ‘_frozen_importlib_external’.  Patch by Nina Zakharenko.

   - bpo-35378(11): Fix a reference issue inside ‘multiprocessing.Pool’
     that caused the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without
     being closed or terminated explicitly.  A new strong reference is
     added to the pool iterators to link the lifetime of the pool to the
     lifetime of its iterators so the pool does not get destroyed if a
     pool iterator is still alive.

   - bpo-34294(12): re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases.
     *note re.search(): 120c, *note re.findall(): 1015, *note re.sub():
     2a0. and other functions that scan through string looking for a
     match, should reset capturing groups between two match attempts.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35615(13): *note weakref: 113.: Fix a RuntimeError when copying
     a WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or
     values disappearing while iterating.

   - bpo-35606(14): Implement *note math.prod(): 9f4. as analogous
     function to *note sum(): 456. that returns the product of a 'start'
     value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-32417(15): Performing arithmetic between *note
     datetime.datetime: 1c7. subclasses and *note datetime.timedelta:
     9bf. now returns an object of the same type as the *note
     datetime.datetime: 1c7. subclass.  As a result, *note
     datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 9c0. and alternate constructors
     like *note datetime.datetime.now(): 4d9. and
     ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ called with a ‘tz’ argument now 'also'
     retain their subclass.

   - bpo-35153(16): Add 'headers' optional keyword-only parameter to
     *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a47, ‘xmlrpc.client.Transport’ and
     ‘xmlrpc.client.SafeTransport’.  Patch by Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-34572(17): Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use
     importlib's locking mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially
     loaded modules.  Patch by Tim Burgess.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35918

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18283

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35960

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35321

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35378

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34294

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35615

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34572


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<47>,  Next: Tests<49>,  Prev: Library<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.53.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36083(1): Fix formatting of -check-hash-based-pycs options in
     the manpage Synopsis.

   - bpo-36007(2): Bump minimum sphinx version to 1.8.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-22062(3): Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib.
     Original patch by Mike Short.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36083

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36007

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22062


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<49>,  Next: Windows<46>,  Prev: Documentation<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.53.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27313(1): Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with
     macOS Cocoa Tk.

   - bpo-36019(2): Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references
     of ‘http://www.example.com’ by this new constant.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36037(3): Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like
     RHEL8 strict crypto policy.  Use older TLS version for minimum TLS
     version of the server SSL context if needed, to test TLS version
     older than default minimum TLS version.

   - bpo-35798(4): Added ‘test.support.check_syntax_warning()’.

   - bpo-35505(5): Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on
     whether the local IMAP server is running.

   - bpo-35917(6): multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager
     and SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are
     supposed to be supported by them.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35704(7): Skip ‘test_shutil.test_unpack_archive_xztar’ to
     prevent a MemoryError on 32-bit AIX when MAXDATA setting is less
     than 0x20000000.

     Patch by Michael Felt (aixtools)

   - bpo-34720(8): Assert m_state != NULL to mimic GC traversal
     functions that do not correctly handle module creation when the
     module state has not been created.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36019

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35798

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35505

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35917

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35704

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34720


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<46>,  Next: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Tests<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.53.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35976(1): Added ARM build support to Windows build files in
     PCBuild.

   - bpo-35692(2): ‘pathlib’ no longer raises when checking file and
     directory existence on drives that are not ready

   - bpo-35872(3): Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in
     a virtual environment

   - bpo-35873(4): Prevents venv paths being inherited by child
     processes

   - bpo-35299(5): Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and
     distutils handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35976

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35872

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35299


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Windows<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.53.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-24310(1): IDLE - Document settings dialog font tab sample.

   - bpo-35833(2): Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell.  Add
     a code example block.

   - bpo-35689(3): Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24310

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35833

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35689


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.54 Python 3.8.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<36>,  Next: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35746(1): CVE 2019-5010(2): Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl
     module.  The cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points
     with empty DP or URI correctly.  A malicious or buggy certificate
     can result into segfault.  Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported
     by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of Cisco.

   - bpo-34812(3): The *note -I: 94d. command line option (run Python in
     isolated mode) is now also copied by the *note multiprocessing: 93.
     and ‘distutils’ modules when spawning child processes.  Previously,
     only *note -E: 94c. and *note -s: 1364. options (enabled by *note
     -I: 94d.) were copied.

   - bpo-34791(4): The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use
     environment variables to override parser implementations when
     sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.

   - bpo-17239(5): The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer
     processes external entities by default.  External DTD and ENTITY
     declarations no longer load files or create network connections.

   - bpo-34623(6): CVE 2018-14647(7): The C accelerated _elementtree
     module now initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret
     instead of libexpat's default CSPRNG.

   - bpo-34405(8): Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.

   - bpo-33871(9): Fixed sending the part of the file in *note
     os.sendfile(): aff. on macOS. Using the 'trailers' argument could
     cause sending more bytes from the input file than was specified.

   - bpo-32533(10): Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.

   - bpo-33136(11): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE
     2018-8970(12).  X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an
     explicit namelen.  A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not
     allowed.

   - bpo-33001(13): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(14): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(15) and CVE 2018-1061(16).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   - bpo-28414(17): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35746

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-5010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34812

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34791

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34623

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-14647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32533

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (16) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<54>,  Next: Library<53>,  Prev: Security<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35877(1): Make parenthesis optional for named expressions in
     while statement.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35814(2): Allow same right hand side expressions in annotated
     assignments as in normal ones.  In particular, ‘x: Tuple[int, int]
     = 1, 2’ (without parentheses on the right) is now allowed.

   - bpo-35766(3): Add the option to parse PEP 484 type comments in the
     ast module.  (Off by default.)  This is merging the key
     functionality of the third party fork thereof,
     [typed_ast](‘https://github.com/python/typed_ast’).

   - bpo-35713(4): Reorganize Python initialization to get working
     exceptions and sys.stderr earlier.

   - bpo-33416(5): Add end line and end column position information to
     the Python AST nodes.  This is a C-level backwards incompatible
     change.

   - bpo-35720(6): Fixed a minor memory leak in
     pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function in Modules/main.c

   - bpo-35634(7): ‘func(**kwargs)’ will now raise an error when
     ‘kwargs’ is a mapping containing multiple entries with the same
     key.  An error was already raised when other keyword arguments are
     passed before ‘**kwargs’ since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-35623(8): Fix a crash when sorting very long lists.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-35214(9): clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was
     added to work around false positives from posix, socket, time,
     test_io, and test_faulthandler.

   - bpo-35560(10): Fix an assertion error in *note format(): 60c. in
     debug build for floating-point formatting with "n" format, zero
     padding and small width.  Release build is not impacted.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35552(11): Format characters ‘%s’ and ‘%V’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. and ‘%s’ in *note
     PyBytes_FromFormat(): 19e7. no longer read memory past the limit if
     'precision' is specified.

   - bpo-35504(12): Fix segfaults and *note SystemError: 563.s when
     deleting certain attributes.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35504(13): Fixed a SystemError when delete the
     characters_written attribute of an OSError.

   - bpo-35494(14): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses in f-string.

   - bpo-35444(15): Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail
     to look up builtin "getattr".  Sped up pickling iterators.

   - bpo-35436(16): Fix various issues with memory allocation error
     handling.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35423(17): Separate the signal handling trigger in the eval
     loop from the "pending calls" machinery.  There is no semantic
     change and the difference in performance is insignificant.

   - bpo-35357(18): Internal attributes' names of unittest.mock._Call
     and unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent & from_kall) are now
     prefixed with _mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used
     object attributes.  Fixed minor typo in test function name.

   - bpo-35372(19): Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2
     GiB containing undecodable bytes.

   - bpo-35336(20): Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only
     coerce the C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C".

   - bpo-31241(21): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of AST
     nodes for list comprehensions, generator expressions and tuples are
     now point to the opening parenthesis or square brace.  For tuples
     without parenthesis they point to the position of the first item.

   - bpo-33954(22): For *note str.format(): 60e, ‘float.__format__()’
     and ‘complex.__format__()’ methods for non-ASCII decimal point when
     using the "n" formatter.

   - bpo-35269(23): Fix a possible segfault involving a newly created
     coroutine.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35224(24): Implement PEP 572(25) (assignment expressions).
     Patch by Emily Morehouse.

   - bpo-32492(26): Speed up ‘namedtuple()’ attribute access by 1.6x
     using a C fast-path for the name descriptors.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-35214(27): Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a
     truncated unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as
     ‘'\N'’.  It would read one byte beyond the end of the memory
     allocation.

   - bpo-35214(28): The interpreter and extension modules have had
     annotations added so that they work properly under clang's Memory
     Sanitizer.  A new configure flag -with-memory-sanitizer has been
     added to make test builds of this nature easier to perform.

   - bpo-35193(29): Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole
     optimizer where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an
     array when removing unreachable code.  This bug was present in
     every release of Python 3.6 and 3.7 until now.

   - bpo-35169(30): Improved error messages for forbidden assignments.

   - bpo-34022(31): Fix handling of hash-based bytecode files in *note
     zipimport: 131.  Patch by Elvis Pranskevichus.

   - bpo-28401(32): Debug builds will no longer to attempt to import
     extension modules built for the ABI as they were never compatible
     to begin with.  Patch by Stefano Rivera.

   - bpo-29341(33): Clarify in the docstrings of *note os: a0. methods
     that path-like objects are also accepted as input parameters.

   - bpo-35050(34): *note socket: cb.: Fix off-by-one bug in length
     check for ‘AF_ALG’ name and type.

   - bpo-29743(35): Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. instead of *note
     OverflowError: 86f. in case of a negative ‘_length_’ in a *note
     ctypes.Array: 19e8. subclass.  Also raise *note TypeError: 525.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 343. for non-integer ‘_length_’.
     Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-16806(36): Fix ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ for multi-line string
     tokens.

   - bpo-35029(37): *note SyntaxWarning: 451. raised as an exception at
     code generation time will be now replaced with a *note SyntaxError:
     18b. for better error reporting.

   - bpo-34983(38): Expose *note symtable.Symbol.is_nonlocal(): 19e9. in
     the symtable module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34974(39): *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b.
     constructors no longer convert unexpected exceptions (e.g.  *note
     MemoryError: 1530. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.) to *note
     TypeError: 525.

   - bpo-34939(40): Allow annotated names in module namespace that are
     declared global before the annotation happens.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-34973(41): Fixed crash in *note bytes(): 1bd. when the *note
     list: 5fe. argument is mutated while it is iterated.

   - bpo-34876(42): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of the AST
     for decorated function and class refer now to the position of the
     corresponding ‘def’, ‘async def’ and ‘class’ instead of the
     position of the first decorator.  This leads to more correct line
     reporting in tracing.  This is the only case when the position of
     child AST nodes can precede the position of the parent AST node.

   - bpo-34879(43): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     bytesobject.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34784(44): Fix the implementation of PyStructSequence_NewType
     in order to create heap allocated StructSequences.

   - bpo-32912(45): A *note SyntaxWarning: 451. is now emitted instead
     of a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. for invalid escape sequences in
     string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-34854(46): Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations
     containing a lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn't have
     a default value.

   - bpo-34850(47): The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning:
     451. when identity checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain
     types of literals (e.g.  strings, ints).  These can often work by
     accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.
     The warning advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’)
     instead.

   - bpo-34824(48): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     Modules/_ssl.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30156(49): The C function ‘property_descr_get()’ uses a
     "cached" tuple to optimize function calls.  But this tuple can be
     discovered in debug mode with *note sys.getobjects(): 41d.  Remove
     the optimization, it's not really worth it and it causes 3
     different crashes last years.

   - bpo-34762(50): Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer
     types.

   - bpo-34751(51): The hash function for tuples is now based on xxHash
     which gives better collision results on (formerly) pathological
     cases.  Additionally, on 64-bit systems it improves tuple hashes in
     general.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer with substantial contributions by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-34735(52): Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34683(53): Fixed a bug where some SyntaxError error pointed to
     locations that were off-by-one.

   - bpo-34651(54): Only allow the main interpreter to fork.  The avoids
     the possibility of affecting the main interpreter, which is
     critical to operation of the runtime.

   - bpo-34653(55): Remove unused function
     PyParser_SimpleParseStringFilename.

   - bpo-32236(56): Warn that line buffering is not supported if *note
     open(): 508. is called with binary mode and ‘buffering=1’.

   - bpo-34641(57): Further restrict the syntax of the left-hand side of
     keyword arguments in function calls.  In particular,
     ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is now disallowed.

   - bpo-34637(58): Make the 'start' argument to 'sum()' visible as a
     keyword argument.

   - bpo-1621(59): Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C
     undefined behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.

   - bpo-34588(60): Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning
     feature of traceback formatting.

   - bpo-34485(61): On Windows, the LC_CTYPE is now set to the user
     preferred locale at startup.  Previously, the LC_CTYPE locale was
     "C" at startup, but changed when calling setlocale(LC_CTYPE, "") or
     setlocale(LC_ALL, "").

   - bpo-34485(62): Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the
     "surrogateescape" error handler, instead of "strict", on the POSIX
     locale (when the C locale is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is
     disabled).

   - bpo-34485(63): Fix the error handler of standard streams like
     sys.stdout: PYTHONIOENCODING=":" is now ignored instead of setting
     the error handler to "strict".

   - bpo-34485(64): Python now gets the locale encoding with C code to
     initialize the encoding of standard streams like sys.stdout.
     Moreover, the encoding is now initialized to the Python codec name
     to get a normalized encoding name and to ensure that the codec is
     loaded.  The change avoids importing _bootlocale and _locale
     modules at startup by default.

   - bpo-34527(65): On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale()
     now also forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is
     "POSIX", not only if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C".

   - bpo-34527(66): The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the "POSIX"
     locale, not only by the "C" locale.

   - bpo-34403(67): On HP-UX with C or POSIX locale,
     sys.getfilesystemencoding() now returns "ascii" instead of "roman8"
     (when the UTF-8 Mode is disabled and the C locale is not coerced).

   - bpo-34523(68): The Python filesystem encoding is now read earlier
     during the Python initialization.

   - bpo-12458(69): Tracebacks show now correct line number for
     subexpressions in multiline expressions.  Tracebacks show now the
     line number of the first line for multiline expressions instead of
     the line number of the last subexpression.

   - bpo-34408(70): Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource
     leakage in ‘PyInterpreterState_New()’.

   - bpo-34400(71): Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33073(72): Added as_integer_ratio to ints to make them more
     interoperable with floats.

   - bpo-34377(73): Update valgrind suppression list to use
     ‘_PyObject_Free’/‘_PyObject_Realloc’ instead of
     ‘PyObject_Free’/‘PyObject_Realloc’.

   - bpo-34353(74): Added the "socket" option in the ‘stat.filemode()’
     Python implementation to match the C implementation.

   - bpo-34320(75): Fix ‘dict(od)’ didn't copy iteration order of
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-34113(76): Fixed crash on debug builds when opcode stack was
     adjusted with negative numbers.  Patch by Constantin Petrisor.

   - bpo-34100(77): Compiler now merges constants in tuples and
     frozensets recursively.  Code attributes like ‘co_names’ are merged
     too.

   - bpo-34151(78): Performance of list concatenation, repetition and
     slicing operations is slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34170(79): -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory
     allocator using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.

   - bpo-33237(80): Improved *note AttributeError: 343. message for
     partially initialized module.

   - bpo-34149(81): Fix min and max functions to get default behavior
     when key is None.

   - bpo-34125(82): Profiling of unbound built-in methods now works when
     ‘**kwargs’ is given.

   - bpo-34141(83): Optimized pickling atomic types (None, bool, int,
     float, bytes, str).

   - bpo-34126(84): Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of
     unbound methods.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-24618(85): Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code
     object with too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.

   - bpo-34068(86): In *note io.IOBase.close(): 1f3, ensure that the
     *note closed: 19ea. attribute is not set with a live exception.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-34087(87): Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to
     numeric values.

   - bpo-34080(88): Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised
     some uncommon errors during tokenizing.

   - bpo-34066(89): Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling
     ‘open()’ and entering a 'with' block in ‘with open()’.

   - bpo-34042(90): Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount
     (as reported by sys.gettotalrefcount()).

   - bpo-33418(91): Fix potential memory leak in function object when it
     creates reference cycle.

   - bpo-33985(92): Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.

   - bpo-33956(93): Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.

   - bpo-24596(94): Decref the module object in *note
     PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 18c5. before calling *note
     PyErr_Print(): 1902.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33451(95): Close directly executed pyc files before calling
     ‘PyEval_EvalCode()’.

   - bpo-1617161(96): The hash of ‘BuiltinMethodType’ instances (methods
     of built-in classes) now depends on the hash of the identity of
     '__self__' instead of its value.  The hash and equality of
     ‘ModuleType’ and ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances (methods of
     user-defined classes and some methods of built-in classes like
     ‘str.__add__’) now depend on the hash and equality of the identity
     of '__self__' instead of its value.  ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances
     no longer support ordering.

   - bpo-33824(97): Fix "LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V": reset properly the
     command line parser when the encoding changes after reading the
     Python configuration.

   - bpo-33803(98): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn't all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33738(99): Seven macro incompatibilities with the Limited API
     were fixed, and the macros *note PyIter_Check(): 18b1, *note
     PyIndex_Check(): 979. and ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ were added as
     functions.  A script for automatic macro checks was added.

   - bpo-33786(100): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30167(101): ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags’ removes ‘__cached__’ from
     module in addition to ‘__file__’.

   - bpo-33706(102): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing
     the command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug
     report and the fix!

   - bpo-33597(103): Reduce ‘PyGC_Head’ size from 3 words to 2 words.

   - bpo-30654(104): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(105): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to
     add an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into
     the *note gc.garbage: 11a0. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 97d. can
     now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33462(106): Make dict and dict views reversible.  Patch by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-23722(107): A *note RuntimeError: 193. is now raised when the
     custom metaclass doesn't provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the
     namespace passed to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3. was emitted in Python 3.6-3.7.

   - bpo-33499(108): Add *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 993. environment
     variable and *note -X: 175. ‘pycache_prefix’ command-line option to
     set an alternate root directory for writing module bytecode cache
     files.

   - bpo-25711(109): The *note zipimport: 131. module has been rewritten
     in pure Python.

   - bpo-33509(110): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don't crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-31849(111): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33475(112): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations
     to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-20104(113): Added support for the ‘setpgroup’, ‘resetids’,
     ‘setsigmask’, ‘setsigdef’ and ‘scheduler’ parameters of
     ‘posix_spawn’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33391(114): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-33363(115): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async
     for’ statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-28055(116): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by
     Rolf Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33128(117): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33331(118): Modules imported last are now cleared first at
     interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-33312(119): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33305(120): Improved syntax error messages for invalid
     numerical literals.

   - bpo-33306(121): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses.

   - bpo-33234(122): The list constructor will pre-size and not
     over-allocate when the input length is known.

   - bpo-33270(123): Intern the names for all anonymous code objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30455(124): The C and Python code and the documentation related
     to tokens are now generated from a single source file
     ‘Grammar/Tokens’.

   - bpo-33176(125): Add a ‘toreadonly()’ method to memoryviews.

   - bpo-33231(126): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(127): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(128): Improved error messages in 'async with' when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(129): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33053(130): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33138(131): Changed standard error message for non-pickleable
     and non-copyable types.  It now says "cannot pickle" instead of
     "can't pickle" or "cannot serialize".

   - bpo-33018(132): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33083(133): ‘math.factorial’ no longer accepts arguments that
     are not int-like.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33041(134): Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: a9a. and
     fixes the following issues:

        * Setting global *note StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. no longer
          breaks ‘async for’ loops.

        * Jumping into an ‘async for’ loop is now disabled.

        * Jumping out of an ‘async for’ loop no longer corrupts the
          stack.

   - bpo-25750(135): Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in
     ‘type_getattro()’ if a descriptor deletes itself from the class.
     Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-33041(136): Fixed bytecode generation for "async for" with a
     complex target.  A StopAsyncIteration raised on assigning or
     unpacking will be now propagated instead of stopping the iteration.

   - bpo-33026(137): Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(138): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-32911(139): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(140).
     ‘docstring’ field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef,
     and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-17288(141): Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace
     events.

   - bpo-32946(142): Importing names from already imported module with
     "from ...  import ..."  is now 30% faster if the module is not a
     package.

   - bpo-32932(143): Make error message more revealing when there are
     non-str objects in ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-32925(144): Optimized iterating and containing test for literal
     lists consisting of non-constants: ‘x in [a, b]’ and ‘for x in [a,
     b]’.  The case of all constant elements already was optimized.

   - bpo-32889(145): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32836(146): Don't use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   - bpo-31356(147): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(148)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(149): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(150): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’
     for namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(151): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(152): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-32489(153): A *note continue: 9b9. statement is now allowed in
     the *note finally: 9ba. clause.

   - bpo-17611(154): Simplified the interpreter loop by moving the logic
     of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning up code for *note break: a99, *note
     continue: 9b9. and *note return: 9be.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’ and
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

   - bpo-32285(155): New function unicodedata.is_normalized, which can
     check whether a string is in a specific normal form.

   - bpo-10544(156): Yield expressions are now disallowed in
     comprehensions and generator expressions except the expression for
     the outermost iterable.

   - bpo-32117(157): Iterable unpacking is now allowed without
     parentheses in yield and return statements, e.g.  ‘yield 1, 2, 3,
     *rest’.  Thanks to David Cuthbert for the change and Jordan Chapman
     for added tests.

   - bpo-31902(158): Fix the ‘col_offset’ attribute for ast nodes
     ‘ast.AsyncFor’, ‘ast.AsyncFunctionDef’, and ‘ast.AsyncWith’.
     Previously, ‘col_offset’ pointed to the keyword after ‘async’.

   - bpo-25862(159): Fix assertion failures in the ‘tell()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-21983(160): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31577(161): Fix a crash in ‘os.utime()’ in case of a bad ns
     argument.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29832(162): Remove references to 'getsockaddrarg' from various
     socket error messages.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35877

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35623

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35560

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35494

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35444

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35436

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35423

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35357

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35372

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35336

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31241

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33954

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35269

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35193

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35169

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34022

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28401

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29341

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35050

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35029

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34983

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34974

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34939

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34973

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34876

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34879

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34784

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34854

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34824

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30156

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34751

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34735

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34683

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34653

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32236

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34637

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34588

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34527

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34527

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34403

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12458

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34408

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34400

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34377

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34353

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34320

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34113

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34100

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34151

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34170

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33237

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   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33985

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33956

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24596

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   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1617161

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33824

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33738

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

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   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25711

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<53>,  Next: Documentation<48>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35845(1): Add 'order' parameter to memoryview.tobytes().

   - bpo-35864(2): The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple now
     returns a regular dict instead of an OrderedDict.

   - bpo-35537(3): An ExitStack is now used internally within
     subprocess.Popen to clean up pipe file handles.  No behavior change
     in normal operation.  But if closing one handle were ever to cause
     an exception, the others will now be closed instead of leaked.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35847(4): RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK. Fixes
     ctypes Structure test_pass_by_value.

   - bpo-35813(5): Shared memory submodule added to multiprocessing to
     avoid need for serialization between processes

   - bpo-35780(6): Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive,
     reentrant, or multi-threaded code.  These errors could result in
     orphan links and in the cache being trapped in a state with fewer
     than the specified maximum number of links.  Fix handling of
     negative maxsize which should have been treated as zero.  Fix
     errors in toggling the "full" status flag.  Fix misordering of
     links when errors are encountered.  Sync-up the C code and pure
     Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single
     positional argument.  In this common case, the space overhead of an
     lru cache entry is reduced by almost half.  Fix counting of cache
     misses.  In error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the
     actual number of times the underlying user function was called.

   - bpo-35537(7): *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d. and *note
     os.posix_spawnp(): 19ed. now have a 'setsid' parameter.

   - bpo-23846(8): *note asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. now catches and
     logs send errors when the self-pipe is full.

   - bpo-34323(9): *note asyncio: a.: Enhance ‘IocpProactor.close()’
     log: wait 1 second before the first log, then log every second.
     Log also the number of seconds since ‘close()’ was called.

   - bpo-35674(10): Add a new *note os.posix_spawnp(): 19ed. function.
     Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-35733(11): ‘ast.Constant(boolean)’ no longer an instance of
     ‘ast.Num’.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35726(12): QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the
     record before modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other
     handlers in the chain.

   - bpo-35719(13): Sped up multi-argument *note math: 8d. functions
     atan2(), copysign(), remainder() and hypot() by 1.3-2.5 times.

   - bpo-35717(14): Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and
     compile.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35699(15): Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in
     distutils

   - bpo-32710(16): Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on
     overlapped operation failure.

   - bpo-35702(17): The *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a33. constant is
     now available for macOS 10.12.

   - bpo-32710(18): Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the
     ProactorEventLoop when ‘ReadFile()’ or ‘WSASend()’ overlapped
     operation fail immediately: release the internal buffer.

   - bpo-35682(19): Fix ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile()’: don't
     attempt to set the result of an internal future if it's already
     done.

   - bpo-35283(20): Add a deprecated warning for the
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’ method.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35664(21): Improve operator.itemgetter() performance by 33%
     with optimized argument handling and with adding a fast path for
     the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple
     (which is the typical use case in the standard library).

   - bpo-35643(22): Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in
     Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-35619(23): Improved support of custom data descriptors in *note
     help(): 8c6. and *note pydoc: b4.

   - bpo-28503(24): The ‘crypt’ module now internally uses the
     ‘crypt_r()’ library function instead of ‘crypt()’ when available.

   - bpo-35614(25): Fixed help() on metaclasses.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-35568(26): Expose ‘raise(signum)’ as ‘raise_signal’

   - bpo-35588(27): The floor division and modulo operations and the
     *note divmod(): 991. function on *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4.
     types are 2-4x faster.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-35585(28): Speed-up building enums by value, e.g.
     http.HTTPStatus(200).

   - bpo-30561(29): random.gammavariate(1.0, beta) now computes the same
     result as random.expovariate(1.0 / beta).  This synchronizes the
     two algorithms and eliminates some idiosyncrasies in the old
     implementation.  It does however produce a difference stream of
     random variables than it used to.

   - bpo-35537(30): The *note subprocess: d5. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d. function in some cases for better
     performance.

   - bpo-35526(31): Delaying the 'joke' of barry_as_FLUFL.mandatory to
     Python version 4.0

   - bpo-35523(32): Remove *note ctypes: 2a. callback workaround: no
     longer create a callback at startup.  Avoid SELinux alert on
     ‘import ctypes’ and ‘import uuid’.

   - bpo-31784(33): *note uuid.uuid1(): b98. now calls *note
     time.time_ns(): ad7. rather than ‘int(time.time() * 1e9)’.

   - bpo-35513(34): ‘TextTestRunner’ of ‘unittest.runner’ now uses *note
     time.perf_counter(): a78. rather than *note time.time(): 251. to
     measure the execution time of a test: *note time.time(): 251. can
     go backwards, whereas *note time.perf_counter(): a78. is monotonic.

   - bpo-35502(35): Fixed reference leaks in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: a45. in case of unfinished
     building of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during
     parsing XML).

   - bpo-35348(36): Make *note platform.architecture(): 1646. parsing of
     ‘file’ command output more reliable: add the ‘-b’ option to the
     ‘file’ command to omit the filename, force the usage of the C
     locale, and search also the "shared object" pattern.

   - bpo-35491(37): *note multiprocessing: 93.: Add ‘Pool.__repr__()’
     and enhance ‘BaseProcess.__repr__()’ (add pid and parent pid) to
     ease debugging.  Pool state constant values are now strings instead
     of integers, for example ‘RUN’ value becomes ‘'RUN'’ instead of
     ‘0’.

   - bpo-35477(38): ‘multiprocessing.Pool.__enter__()’ now fails if the
     pool is not running: ‘with pool:’ fails if used more than once.

   - bpo-31446(39): Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW
     since this function can change the content of the input buffer.

   - bpo-35471(40): Python 2.4 dropped MacOS 9 support.  The macpath
     module was deprecated in Python 3.7.  The module is now removed.

   - bpo-23057(41): Unblock Proactor event loop when keyboard interrupt
     is received on Windows

   - bpo-35052(42): Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with
     an entity: pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of
     an entity.

   - bpo-20239(43): Allow repeated assignment deletion of *note
     unittest.mock.Mock: a3c. attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-17185(44): Set ‘__signature__’ on mock for *note inspect: 7d.
     to get signature.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35445(45): Memory errors during creating posix.environ no
     longer ignored.

   - bpo-35415(46): Validate fileno= argument to socket.socket().

   - bpo-35424(47): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ destructor now emits *note
     ResourceWarning: 241. if the pool is still running.

   - bpo-35330(48): When a ‘Mock’ instance was used to wrap an object,
     if ‘side_effect’ is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don't
     call the original implementation and return the result of using the
     side effect the same way that it is done with return_value.

   - bpo-35346(49): Drop Mac OS 9 and Rhapsody support from the *note
     platform: a9. module.  Rhapsody last release was in 2000.  Mac OS 9
     last release was in 2001.

   - bpo-10496(50): ‘check_environ()’ of ‘distutils.utils’ now catches
     *note KeyError: 33a. on calling *note pwd.getpwuid(): 19ee.: don't
     create the ‘HOME’ environment variable in this case.

   - bpo-10496(51): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ now returns the input
     'path' unchanged if the ‘HOME’ environment variable is not set and
     the current user has no home directory (if the current user
     identifier doesn't exist in the password database).  This change
     fix the *note site: c6. module if the current user doesn't exist in
     the password database (if the user has no home directory).

   - bpo-35389(52): *note platform.libc_ver(): 19ef. now uses
     ‘os.confstr('CS_GNU_LIBC_VERSION')’ if available and the
     'executable' parameter is not set.

   - bpo-35394(53): Add empty slots to asyncio abstract protocols.

   - bpo-35310(54): Fix a bug in *note select.select(): d8f. where, in
     some cases, the file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified
     after a signal interruption, even though the file descriptors might
     not be ready yet.  *note select.select(): d8f. will now always
     return empty lists if a timeout has occurred.  Patch by Oran
     Avraham.

   - bpo-35380(55): Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio
     event loop.

   - bpo-35341(56): Add generic version of ‘collections.OrderedDict’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Ismo Toijala.

   - bpo-35371(57): Fixed possible crash in ‘os.utime()’ on Windows when
     pass incorrect arguments.

   - bpo-35346(58): *note platform.uname(): 19f0. now redirects ‘stderr’
     to *note os.devnull: 19f1. when running external programs like ‘cmd
     /c ver’.

   - bpo-35066(59): Previously, calling the strftime() method on a
     datetime object with a trailing '%' in the format string would
     result in an exception.  However, this only occurred when the
     datetime C module was being used; the python implementation did not
     match this behavior.  Datetime is now PEP-399 compliant, and will
     not throw an exception on a trailing '%'.

   - bpo-35345(60): The function ‘platform.popen’ has been removed, it
     was deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): a77.
     instead.

   - bpo-35344(61): On macOS, *note platform.platform(): 1711. now uses
     *note platform.mac_ver(): 19f2, if it returns a non-empty release
     string, to get the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

   - bpo-35312(62): Make ‘lib2to3.pgen2.parse.ParseError’ round-trip
     pickle-able.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35308(63): Fix regression in ‘webbrowser’ where default
     browsers may be preferred over browsers in the ‘BROWSER’
     environment variable.

   - bpo-24746(64): Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy
     diff.  Original patch by R. David Murray & Jairo Trad.  Enhanced by
     Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-28604(65): *note locale.localeconv(): bee. now sets temporarily
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if the two
     locales are different and monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

   - bpo-35277(66): Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools
     40.6.2.

   - bpo-24209(67): Adds IPv6 support when invoking http.server
     directly.

   - bpo-35226(68): Recursively check arguments when testing for
     equality of *note unittest.mock.call: 198c. objects and add note
     that tracking of parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in
     ‘mock_calls’ is not possible.

   - bpo-29564(69): The warnings module now suggests to enable
     tracemalloc if the source is specified, the tracemalloc module is
     available, but tracemalloc is not tracing memory allocations.

   - bpo-35189(70): Modify the following fnctl function to retry if
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl

   - bpo-30064(71): Use add_done_callback() in sock_* asyncio API to
     unsubscribe reader/writer early on calcellation.

   - bpo-35186(72): Removed the "built with" comment added when
     ‘setup.py upload’ is used with either ‘bdist_rpm’ or ‘bdist_dumb’.

   - bpo-35152(73): Allow sending more than 2 GB at once on a
     multiprocessing connection on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-35062(74): Fix incorrect parsing of *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1683.'s 'translate' argument.

   - bpo-35065(75): Remove ‘StreamReaderProtocol._untrack_reader’.  The
     call to ‘_untrack_reader’ is currently performed too soon, causing
     the protocol to forget about the reader before ‘connection_lost’
     can run and feed the EOF to the reader.

   - bpo-34160(76): ElementTree and minidom now preserve the attribute
     order specified by the user.

   - bpo-35079(77): Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks
     doc by adding 'non-overlapping' and changing '!=' to '<'.

   - bpo-33710(78): Deprecated ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods in
     the *note gettext: 62. module.  They return encoded bytes instead
     of Unicode strings and are artifacts from Python 2 times.  Also
     deprecated functions and methods related to setting the charset for
     ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods.

   - bpo-35017(79): *note socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever(): 1121.
     now exits immediately if it's *note shutdown(): 19f3. method is
     called while it is polling for new events.

   - bpo-35024(80): ‘importlib’ no longer logs ‘wrote <bytecode path>’
     redundantly after ‘(created|could not create) <bytecode path>’ is
     already logged.  Patch by Quentin Agren.

   - bpo-35047(81): ‘unittest.mock’ now includes mock calls in exception
     messages if ‘assert_not_called’, ‘assert_called_once’, or
     ‘assert_called_once_with’ fails.  Patch by Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31047(82): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ regression where it didn't
     remove a trailing separator on Windows.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-35053(83): tracemalloc now tries to update the traceback when
     an object is reused from a "free list" (optimization for faster
     object creation, used by the builtin list type for example).

   - bpo-31553(84): Add the -json-lines option to json.tool.  Patch by
     hongweipeng.

   - bpo-34794(85): Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper
     around Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-34909(86): Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent
     mixed with concrete data types.

   - bpo-35022(87): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: e7c. now supports the
     ‘__fspath__’ method (from *note os.PathLike: c41.).

   - bpo-35008(88): Fixed references leaks when call the
     ‘__setstate__()’ method of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     305. in the C implementation for already initialized element.

   - bpo-23420(89): Verify the value for the parameter '-s' of the
     cProfile CLI. Patch by Robert Kuska

   - bpo-33947(90): dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without
     raising RecursionError.

   - bpo-34890(91): Make *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 178d. and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 178e. work with *note
     functools.partial(): 40a.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34521(92): Use *note socket.CMSG_SPACE(): 19f4. to calculate
     ancillary data size instead of *note socket.CMSG_LEN(): 19f5. in
     ‘multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds()’ as RFC 3542(93) requires the
     use of the former for portable applications.

   - bpo-31522(94): The ‘mailbox.mbox.get_string’ function 'from_'
     parameter can now successfully be set to a non-default value.

   - bpo-34970(95): Protect tasks weak set manipulation in
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’

   - bpo-34969(96): gzip: Add -fast, -best on the gzip CLI, these
     parameters will be used for the fast compression method (quick) or
     the best method compress (slower, but smaller file).  Also, change
     the default compression level to 6 (tradeoff).

   - bpo-16965(97): The 2to3 ‘execfile’ fixer now opens the file with
     mode ‘'rb'’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34966(98): *note pydoc: b4. now supports aliases not only to
     methods defined in the end class, but also to inherited methods.
     The docstring is not duplicated for aliases.

   - bpo-34926(99): *note mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type(): 19f6. now
     accepts *note path-like object: 29d. in addition to url strings.
     Patch by Mayank Asthana.

   - bpo-23831(100): Add ‘moveto()’ method to the ‘tkinter.Canvas’
     widget.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34941(101): Methods ‘find()’, ‘findtext()’ and ‘findall()’ of
     the ‘Element’ class in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. module
     are now able to find children which are instances of ‘Element’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-32680(102): *note smtplib.SMTP: 91c. objects now always have a
     ‘sock’ attribute present

   - bpo-34769(103): Fix for async generators not finalizing when event
     loop is in debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.

   - bpo-34936(104): Fix ‘TclError’ in
     ‘tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element()’.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34829(105): Add methods ‘selection_from’, ‘selection_range’,
     ‘selection_present’ and ‘selection_to’ to the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ for
     consistency with the ‘tkinter.Entry’ widget.  Patch by Juliette
     Monsel.

   - bpo-34911(106): Added 'secure_protocols' argument to
     'http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy' to allow for tweaking of
     protocols and also to add support by default for 'wss', the secure
     websocket protocol.

   - bpo-34922(107): Fixed integer overflow in the *note digest(): 19f7.
     and *note hexdigest(): 19f8. methods for the SHAKE algorithm in the
     *note hashlib: 67. module.

   - bpo-34925(108): 25% speedup in argument parsing for the functions
     in the bisect module.

   - bpo-34900(109): Fixed *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 1851. when
     used to call test methods with subtests.  Patch by Bruno Oliveira.

   - bpo-34844(110): logging.Formatter enhancement - Ensure styles and
     fmt matches in logging.Formatter - Added validate method in each
     format style class: StrFormatStyle, PercentStyle,
     StringTemplateStyle.  - This method is called in the constructor of
     logging.Formatter class - Also re-raise the KeyError in the format
     method of each style class, so it would a bit clear that it's an
     error with the invalid format fields.

   - bpo-34897(111): Adjust test.support.missing_compiler_executable
     check so that a nominal command name of "" is ignored.  Patch by
     Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34871(112): Fix inspect module polluted ‘sys.modules’ when
     parsing ‘__text_signature__’ of callable.

   - bpo-34898(113): Add ‘mtime’ argument to ‘gzip.compress’ for
     reproducible output.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-28441(114): On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that ‘sys.executable’
     always includes the full filename in the path, including the ‘.exe’
     suffix (unless it is a symbolic link).

   - bpo-34866(115): Adding ‘max_num_fields’ to ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ to
     make DOS attacks harder by limiting the number of
     ‘MiniFieldStorage’ objects created by ‘FieldStorage’.

   - bpo-34711(116): http.server ensures it reports HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND
     when the local path ends with "/" and is not a directory, even if
     the underlying OS (e.g.  AIX) accepts such paths as a valid file
     reference.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34872(117): Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of
     asyncio.Task

   - bpo-34849(118): Don't log waiting for ‘selector.select’ in asyncio
     loop iteration.  The waiting is pretty normal for any asyncio
     program, logging its time just adds a noise to logs without any
     useful information provided.

   - bpo-34022(119): The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no
     longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument to
     *note py_compile.compile(): a15, and determines its default value
     instead.

   - bpo-34819(120): Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in
     ‘Executor.map()’ and ‘as_completed()’, in order to prevent timeouts
     from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.

   - bpo-34758(121): Add .wasm -> application/wasm to list of recognized
     file types and content type headers

   - bpo-34789(122): *note xml.sax.make_parser(): 19f9. now accepts any
     iterable as its 'parser_list' argument.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-34334(123): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘exc_text’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent traceback from being written twice.

   - bpo-34687(124): On Windows, asyncio now uses ProactorEventLoop,
     instead of SelectorEventLoop, by default.

   - bpo-5950(125): Support reading zip files with archive comments in
     *note zipimport: 131.

   - bpo-32892(126): The parser now represents all constants as *note
     ast.Constant: 2b6. instead of using specific constant AST types
     (‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’).  These
     classes are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.

   - bpo-34728(127): Add deprecation warning when ‘loop’ is used in
     methods: ‘asyncio.sleep’, ‘asyncio.wait’ and ‘asyncio.wait_for’.

   - bpo-34738(128): ZIP files created by ‘distutils’ will now include
     entries for directories.

   - bpo-34659(129): Add an optional 'initial' argument to
     itertools.accumulate().

   - bpo-29577(130): Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.

   - bpo-34670(131): Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and
     SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3's post handshake
     authentication feature.

   - bpo-32718(132): The Activate.ps1 script from venv works with
     PowerShell Core 6.1 and is now available under all operating
     systems.

   - bpo-31177(133): Fix bug that prevented using *note reset_mock: cea.
     on mock instances with deleted attributes

   - bpo-34672(134): Add a workaround, so the ‘'Z'’ *note
     time.strftime(): 11c8. specifier on the musl C library can work in
     some cases.

   - bpo-34666(135): Implement ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.awrite’ and
     ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.aclose()’ coroutines.  Methods are needed for
     providing a consistent stream API with control flow switched on by
     default.

   - bpo-6721(136): Acquire the logging module's commonly used internal
     locks while fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.

   - bpo-34658(137): Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state
     SystemError only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while
     an after_parent handler has been registered with
     os.register_at_fork and the fork system call fails.

   - bpo-34652(138): Ensure *note os.lchmod(): 217. is never defined on
     Linux.

   - bpo-34638(139): Store a weak reference to stream reader to break
     strong references loop between reader and protocol.  It allows to
     detect and close the socket if the stream is deleted (garbage
     collected) without ‘close()’ call.

   - bpo-34536(140): ‘Enum._missing_’: raise ‘ValueError’ if None
     returned and ‘TypeError’ if non-member is returned.

   - bpo-34636(141): Speed up re scanning of many non-matching
     characters for s w and d within bytes objects.  (microoptimization)

   - bpo-24412(142): Add *note addModuleCleanup(): a3d. and *note
     addClassCleanup(): a3e. to unittest to support cleanups for
     ‘setUpModule()’ and *note setUpClass(): a3f.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-34630(143): Don't log SSL certificate errors in asyncio code
     (connection error logging is skipped already).

   - bpo-32490(144): Prevent filename duplication in *note subprocess:
     d5. exception messages.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34363(145): dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle
     namedtuples correctly.

   - bpo-34625(146): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.

   - bpo-32270(147): The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes
     redirected fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the
     default {0, 1, 2} set.

   - bpo-34622(148): Create a dedicated ‘asyncio.CancelledError’,
     ‘asyncio.InvalidStateError’ and ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ exception
     classes.  Inherit them from corresponding exceptions from
     ‘concurrent.futures’ package.  Extract ‘asyncio’ exceptions into a
     separate file.

   - bpo-34610(149): Fixed iterator of
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’.

   - bpo-34421(150): Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings.  This
     caused installation issues on Windows.

   - bpo-34604(151): Fix possible mojibake in the error message of
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘grp.getgrnam’ using string representation
     because of invisible characters or trailing whitespaces.  Patch by
     William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-30977(152): Make uuid.UUID use ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  Based on original patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-34574(153): OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during
     pickling anymore.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-8110(154): Refactored *note subprocess: d5. to check for
     Windows-specific modules rather than ‘sys.platform == 'win32'’.

   - bpo-34530(155): ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable()’ now falls back
     on *note os.defpath: 19c0. if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is
     not set.

   - bpo-34563(156): On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very
     large read: fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for
     read larger than INT_MAX (usually ‘2**31-1’).

   - bpo-34558(157): Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py

   - bpo-34282(158): Move ‘Enum._convert’ to ‘EnumMeta._convert_’ and
     fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.

   - bpo-22872(159): When the queue is closed, *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     now raised by *note multiprocessing.Queue.put(): 19fa. and *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.get(): 19fb. instead of *note AssertionError:
     696. and *note OSError: 40d, respectively.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34515(160): Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in
     ‘lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize’ ( PEP 3131(161)).

   - bpo-13312(162): Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined
     behavior) in the time module's year handling code when passed a
     very low negative year value.

   - bpo-34472(163): Improved compatibility for streamed files in *note
     zipfile: 130.  Previously an optional signature was not being
     written and certain ZIP applications were not supported.  Patch by
     Silas Sewell.

   - bpo-34454(164): Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types
     crashing when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points.
     Specifically, datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate
     unicode code points used as the separator.  Report and tests by
     Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-6700(165): Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level
     frames/tracebacks.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev.

   - bpo-34171(166): Running the *note trace: fc. module no longer
     creates the ‘trace.cover’ file.

   - bpo-34441(167): Fix crash when an ‘ABC’-derived class with invalid
     ‘__subclasses__’ is passed as the second argument to *note
     issubclass(): 7ad.  Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.

   - bpo-34427(168): Fix infinite loop in ‘a.extend(a)’ for
     ‘MutableSequence’ subclasses.

   - bpo-34412(169): Make *note signal.strsignal(): 19fc. work on HP-UX.
     Patch by Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-20849(170): shutil.copytree now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’
     keyword argument.  Patch by Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-31715(171): Associate ‘.mjs’ file extension with
     ‘application/javascript’ MIME Type.

   - bpo-34384(172): *note os.readlink(): 90f. now accepts *note
     path-like: 29d. and *note bytes: 1bd. objects on Windows.

   - bpo-22602(173): The UTF-7 decoder now raises *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a03. for ill-formed sequences starting with "+"
     (as specified in RFC 2152).  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-2122(174): The *note mmap.flush(): a88. method now returns
     ‘None’ on success, raises an exception on error under all
     platforms.

   - bpo-34341(175): Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64
     extension no longer grows the size of extra fields of existing
     entries.

   - bpo-34333(176): Fix %-formatting in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 15d3. when formatting an error
     message.

   - bpo-18540(177): The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 8f2. and *note
     imaplib.IMAP4_SSL: 8f3. classes now resolve to the local host IP
     correctly when the default value of 'host' parameter (‘''’) is
     used.

   - bpo-26502(178): Implement ‘traceback.FrameSummary.__len__()’ method
     to preserve compatibility with the old tuple API.

   - bpo-34318(179): *note assertRaises(): 519, *note
     assertRaisesRegex(): 51b, *note assertWarns(): 1146. and *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): 1147. no longer success if the passed callable
     is None.  They no longer ignore unknown keyword arguments in the
     context manager mode.  A DeprecationWarning was raised in these
     cases since Python 3.5.

   - bpo-9372(180): Deprecate *note __getitem__(): 280. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 721, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 722. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 723.

   - bpo-33613(181): Fix a race condition in
     ‘multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker’ when the tracker receives
     SIGINT before it can register signal handlers for ignoring it.

   - bpo-34248(182): Report filename in the exception raised when the
     database file cannot be opened by *note dbm.gnu.open(): 19fd. and
     *note dbm.ndbm.open(): 19fe. due to OS-related error.  Patch by
     Zsolt Cserna.

   - bpo-33089(183): Add math.dist() to compute the Euclidean distance
     between two points.

   - bpo-34246(184): *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): e45. no longer
     modifies the content of the 'mail_options' argument.  Patch by
     Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.

   - bpo-31047(185): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ for invalid paths on windows.
     Patch by Franz Woellert.

   - bpo-32321(186): Add pure Python fallback for functools.reduce.
     Patch by Robert Wright.

   - bpo-34270(187): The default asyncio task class now always has a
     name which can be get or set using two new methods (*note
     get_name(): 9ce. and *note set_name(): 9cd.) and is visible in the
     *note repr(): 7e9. output.  An initial name can also be set using
     the new ‘name’ keyword argument to *note asyncio.create_task():
     5e9. or the ‘create_task()’ method of the event loop.  If no
     initial name is set, the default Task implementation generates a
     name like ‘Task-1’ using a monotonic counter.

   - bpo-34263(188): asyncio's event loop will not pass timeouts longer
     than one day to epoll/select etc.

   - bpo-34035(189): Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek()
     methods.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-32215(190): Fix performance regression in *note sqlite3: ce.
     when a DML statement appeared in a different line than the rest of
     the SQL query.

   - bpo-34075(191): Deprecate passing non-ThreadPoolExecutor instances
     to ‘AbstractEventLoop.set_default_executor()’.

   - bpo-34251(192): Restore ‘msilib.Win64’ to preserve backwards
     compatibility since it's already used by ‘distutils’' ‘bdist_msi’
     command.

   - bpo-19891(193): Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable
     homedir while writing history during exit of an interactive
     session.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33089(194): Enhanced math.hypot() to support more than two
     dimensions.

   - bpo-34228(195): tracemalloc: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=0 environment
     variable and -X tracemalloc=0 command line option are now allowed
     to disable explicitly tracemalloc at startup.

   - bpo-13041(196): Use *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5. to
     calculate the terminal width correctly in the
     ‘argparse.HelpFormatter’ class.  Initial patch by Zbyszek
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-34213(197): Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named
     "object".  Previously this conflicted with an internal use of
     "object".

   - bpo-34052(198): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 2a7,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 2a6, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 2a8, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 2a9. methods raises
     TypeError when unhashable objects are passed as callable.  These
     methods now don't pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous
     behavior could lead to segfaults.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34197(199): Attributes 'skipinitialspace', 'doublequote' and
     'strict' of the 'dialect' attribute of the *note csv: 29. reader
     are now *note bool: 453. instances instead of integers 0 or 1.

   - bpo-32788(200): Errors other than *note TypeError: 525. raised in
     methods ‘__adapt__()’ and ‘__conform__()’ in the *note sqlite3: ce.
     module are now propagated to the user.

   - bpo-21446(201): The ‘reload’ fixer now uses *note
     importlib.reload(): 505. instead of deprecated ‘imp.reload()’.

   - bpo-940286(202): pydoc's ‘Helper.showtopic()’ method now prints the
     cross references of a topic correctly.

   - bpo-34164(203): *note base64.b32decode(): 1010. could raise
     UnboundLocalError or OverflowError for incorrect padding.  Now it
     always raises ‘base64.Error’ in these cases.

   - bpo-33729(204): Fixed issues with arguments parsing in *note
     hashlib: 67.

   - bpo-34097(205): ZipFile can zip files older than 1980-01-01 and
     newer than 2107-12-31 using a new ‘strict_timestamps’ parameter at
     the cost of setting the timestamp to the limit.

   - bpo-34108(206): Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.

   - bpo-34070(207): Make sure to only check if the handle is a tty,
     when opening a file with ‘buffering=-1’.

   - bpo-27494(208): Reverted bpo-27494(209).  2to3 rejects now a
     trailing comma in generator expressions.

   - bpo-33967(210): functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError
     instead of IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.

   - bpo-34041(211): Add the parameter 'deterministic' to the *note
     sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 2a6. method.  Patch by Sergey
     Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34056(212): Ensure the loader shim created by ‘imp.load_module’
     always returns bytes from its ‘get_data()’ function.  This fixes
     using ‘imp.load_module’ with PEP 552(213) hash-based pycs.

   - bpo-34054(214): The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic
     clock *note time.monotonic(): 250. instead of the system clock
     *note time.time(): 251. to implement timeout.

   - bpo-34043(215): Optimize tarfile uncompress performance about 15%
     when gzip is used.

   - bpo-34044(216): ‘subprocess.Popen’ now copies the 'startupinfo'
     argument to leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that
     the same ‘STARTUPINFO’ object can be used multiple times.

   - bpo-34010(217): Fixed a performance regression for reading streams
     with tarfile.  The buffered read should use a list, instead of
     appending to a bytes object.

   - bpo-34019(218): webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera
     Browser when opening a new URL using the ‘webbrowser’ module.
     Patch by Bumsik Kim.

   - bpo-34003(219): csv.DictReader now creates dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-33978(220): Closed existing logging handlers before
     reconfiguration via fileConfig and dictConfig.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-14117(221): Make minor tweaks to turtledemo.  The 'wikipedia'
     example is now 'rosette', describing what it draws.  The 'penrose'
     print output is reduced.  The'1024' output of 'tree' is eliminated.

   - bpo-33974(222): Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings
     containing special characters ‘"’, ‘\’, ‘{’, ‘}’ and ‘\n’ as
     options to *note ttk: f8. widgets.

   - bpo-27500(223): Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses
     correctly.

   - bpo-24567(224): Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input
     weights that could occasionally trigger an IndexError.

   - bpo-33871(225): Fixed integer overflow in *note os.readv(): b4e,
     *note os.writev(): b51, *note os.preadv(): b4d. and *note
     os.pwritev(): b50. and in *note os.sendfile(): aff. with 'headers'
     or 'trailers' arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).

   - bpo-25007(226): Add *note copy.copy(): 520. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b5e. support to zlib compressors and
     decompressors.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33929(227): multiprocessing: Fix a race condition in Popen of
     multiprocessing.popen_spawn_win32.  The child process now
     duplicates the read end of pipe instead of "stealing" it.
     Previously, the read end of pipe was "stolen" by the child process,
     but it leaked a handle if the child process had been terminated
     before it could steal the handle from the parent process.

   - bpo-33899(228): Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when
     provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
     behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
     Contributed by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33897(229): Added a 'force' keyword argument to
     logging.basicConfig().

   - bpo-33695(230): *note shutil.copytree(): a19. uses *note
     os.scandir(): a4f. function and all copy functions depending from
     it use cached *note os.stat(): 48c. values.  The speedup for
     copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on
     Windows and + 30% on a Windows SMB share.  Also the number of *note
     os.stat(): 48c. syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note
     shutil.copytree(): a19. especially faster on network filesystems.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-33695(231).)

   - bpo-33916(232): bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is
     called twice, free the old lock to not leak memory.

   - bpo-32568(233): Make select.epoll() and its documentation
     consistent regarding 'sizehint' and 'flags'.

   - bpo-33833(234): Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport
     logs AssertionError if force closed during write.

   - bpo-33663(235): Convert content length to string before putting to
     header.

   - bpo-33721(236): *note os.path: a1. functions that return a boolean
     result like *note exists(): 9fe, *note lexists(): 9ff, *note
     isdir(): a00, *note isfile(): a01, *note islink(): 9fc, and *note
     ismount(): a02, and *note pathlib.Path: 226. methods that return a
     boolean result like *note exists(): a06, *note is_dir(): 22d, *note
     is_file(): 22c, *note is_mount(): a07, *note is_symlink(): a08,
     *note is_block_device(): a09, *note is_char_device(): a0a, *note
     is_fifo(): a0b, *note is_socket(): a0c. now return ‘False’ instead
     of raising *note ValueError: 1ff. or its subclasses *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 664. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. for
     paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS
     level.

   - bpo-26544(237): Fixed implementation of *note platform.libc_ver():
     19ef.  It almost always returned version '2.9' for glibc.

   - bpo-33843(238): Remove deprecated ‘cgi.escape’, ‘cgi.parse_qs’ and
     ‘cgi.parse_qsl’.

   - bpo-33842(239): Remove ‘tarfile.filemode’ which is deprecated since
     Python 3.3.

   - bpo-30167(240): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33805(241): Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when
     an InitVar is not specified

   - bpo-33687(242): Fix the call to ‘os.chmod()’ for ‘uu.decode()’ if a
     mode is given or decoded.  Patch by Timo Furrer.

   - bpo-33812(243): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-32108(244): In configparser, don't clear section when it is
     assigned to itself.

   - bpo-27397(245): Make email module properly handle invalid-length
     base64 strings.

   - bpo-33578(246): Implement multibyte encoder/decoder state methods

   - bpo-30805(247): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33476(248): Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is
     missing final ';'.  Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron

   - bpo-33694(249): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(250): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(251): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33274(252): W3C DOM Level 1 specifies return value of
     Element.removeAttributeNode() as "The Attr node that was removed."
     xml.dom.minidom now complies with this requirement.

   - bpo-33778(253): Update ‘unicodedata’'s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33165(254): Added a stacklevel parameter to logging calls to
     allow use of wrapper/helper functions for logging APIs.

   - bpo-33770(255): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(256): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(257): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 525. instead of
     *note SystemError: 563. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 208.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(258): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-31014(259): Fixed creating a controller for *note webbrowser:
     114. when a user specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER
     environment variable.  Based on patch by John Still.

   - bpo-2504(260): Add gettext.pgettext() and variants.

   - bpo-33197(261): Add description property for _ParameterKind

   - bpo-32751(262): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(263): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(264): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(265): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33671(266): *note shutil.copyfile(): a49, *note shutil.copy():
     a4a, *note shutil.copy2(): a4b, *note shutil.copytree(): a19. and
     *note shutil.move(): a4c. use platform-specific fast-copy syscalls
     on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.  On
     Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): a49. uses a bigger default buffer
     size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 454.-based
     variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a4d. is used.  The speedup
     for copying a 512MiB file is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and
     +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-25427(267).)

   - bpo-33674(268): Fix a race condition in
     SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start
     immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon().
     Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake
     started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

   - bpo-31647(269): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(270): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(271): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(272): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(273): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(274): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(275): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(276): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): b98. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33238(277): Add ‘InvalidStateError’ to *note
     concurrent.futures: 21.  ‘Future.set_result’ and
     ‘Future.set_exception’ now raise ‘InvalidStateError’ if the futures
     are not pending or running.  Patch by Jason Haydaman.

   - bpo-33618(278): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33625(279): Release GIL on ‘grp.getgrnam’, ‘grp.getgrgid’,
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘pwd.getpwuid’ if reentrant variants of these
     functions are available.  Patch by William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-33623(280): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-11874(281): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(282): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the
     JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from
     clearing after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33604(283): Remove HMAC default to md5 marked for removal in
     3.8 (removal originally planned in 3.6, bump to 3.8 in PR 7062).

   - bpo-33582(284): Emit a deprecation warning for
     inspect.formatargspec

   - bpo-21145(285): Add ‘functools.cached_property’ decorator, for
     computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

   - bpo-33570(286): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(287): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-12486(288): *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4c7. is now
     documented as a public API to tokenize unicode strings.  It was
     previously present but undocumented.

   - bpo-33540(289): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     cc.

   - bpo-33548(290): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(291): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(292) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33541(293): Remove unused private method
     ‘_strptime.LocaleTime.__pad’ (a.k.a.  ‘_LocaleTime__pad’).

   - bpo-33536(294): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(295): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead
     of a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(296): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33516(297): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: e7c. now supports
     the ‘__round__’ magic method.

   - bpo-28612(298): Added support for Site Maps to urllib's
     ‘RobotFileParser’ as *note RobotFileParser.site_maps(): 19ff.
     Patch by Lady Red, based on patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-28167(299): Remove platform.linux_distribution, which was
     deprecated since 3.5.

   - bpo-33504(300): Switch the default dictionary implementation for
     *note configparser: 22. from *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7. to
     the standard *note dict: 253. type.

   - bpo-33505(301): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(302): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-29235(303): The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a
     context manager.  Patch by Scott Sanderson.

   - bpo-33495(304): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     'type' member.

   - bpo-26103(305): Correct ‘inspect.isdatadescriptor’ to look for
     ‘__set__’ or ‘__delete__’.  Patch by Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-29209(306): Removed the ‘doctype()’ method and the 'html'
     parameter of the constructor of *note XMLParser: a44.  The
     ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass will no longer be called.
     Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 124. module emit now a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.

   - bpo-33453(307): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string
     type annotations or if using PEP 563 "Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations".  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar ("ClassVar" and "typing.ClassVar") and InitVar ("InitVar"
     and "dataclasses.InitVar").

   - bpo-28556(308): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-33365(309): Print the header values besides the header keys
     instead just the header keys if 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note
     http.client: 6e.  Patch by Marco Strigl.

   - bpo-20087(310): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(311): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(312): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33281(313): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33311(314): Text and html output generated by cgitb does not
     display parentheses if the current call is done directly in the
     module.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-27300(315): The file classes in 'tempfile' now accept an
     'errors' parameter that complements the already existing
     'encoding'.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-32933(316): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 16c4. now supports
     iteration over the file contents.  Patch by Tony Flury.

   - bpo-33217(317): Raise *note TypeError: 525. when looking up
     non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members.

   - bpo-33197(318): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(319): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33375(320): The warnings module now finds the Python file
     associated with a warning from the code object, rather than the
     frame's global namespace.  This is consistent with how tracebacks
     and pdb find filenames, and should work better for dynamically
     executed code.

   - bpo-33336(321): ‘imaplib’ now allows ‘MOVE’ command in
     ‘IMAP4.uid()’ (RFC 6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a
     name of supported method of ‘IMAP4’ object.

   - bpo-32455(322): Added 'jump' parameter to *note dis.stack_effect():
     f1e.

   - bpo-27485(323): Rename and deprecate undocumented functions in
     *note urllib.parse(): 109.

   - bpo-33332(324): Add ‘signal.valid_signals()’ to expose the POSIX
     sigfillset() functionality.

   - bpo-33251(325): ‘ConfigParser.items()’ was fixed so that key-value
     pairs passed in via *note vars(): 1a00. are not included in the
     resulting output.

   - bpo-33329(326): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-33334(327): *note dis.stack_effect(): f1e. now supports all
     defined opcodes including NOP and EXTENDED_ARG.

   - bpo-991266(328): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1a01.

   - bpo-33131(329): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(330): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when
     converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with
     ‘line_info=False’ and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-23403(331): lib2to3 now uses pickle protocol 4 for pre-computed
     grammars.

   - bpo-33266(332): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(333): Ensure line-endings are respected when using
     lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(334): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 1ef. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1a02. return an
     *note iterable: 1207. instead of an *note iterator: 1aa.

   - bpo-33265(335): ‘contextlib.ExitStack’ and
     ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack’ now use a method instead of a wrapper
     function for exit callbacks.

   - bpo-33263(336): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(337): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33144(338): ‘random.Random()’ and its subclassing mechanism got
     optimized to check only once at class/subclass instantiation time
     whether its ‘getrandbits()’ method can be relied on by other
     methods, including ‘randrange()’, for the generation of arbitrarily
     large random integers.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-33185(339): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 5cd. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(340))

     This fix also changed pydoc to add ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path:
     3ab. when necessary, rather than adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-29613(341): Added support for the ‘SameSite’ cookie flag to the
     ‘http.cookies’ module.

   - bpo-33169(342): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33203(343): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’
     for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(344): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(345).  Convert
     an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(346): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1a03.

   - bpo-32861(347): The urllib.robotparser's ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and
     "Request-rate" fields.  Also removes extra newlines that were being
     appended to the end of the string.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-23403(348): ‘DEFAULT_PROTOCOL’ in *note pickle: a5. was bumped
     to 4.  Protocol 4 is described in PEP 3154(349) and available since
     Python 3.4.  It offers better performance and smaller size compared
     to protocol 3 introduced in Python 3.0.

   - bpo-20104(350): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d.

   - bpo-33106(351): Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database raises
     module specific error instead of KeyError.

   - bpo-33175(352): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-32380(353): Create functools.singledispatchmethod to support
     generic single dispatch on descriptors and methods.

   - bpo-33141(354): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to
     their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(355): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(356): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(357): When computing dataclass's __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(358): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(359): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn't have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(360): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying
     on sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(361): Add 'Field' to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(362): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(363): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that's
     a MemberDescriptorType, then it's from that field being in
     __slots__, not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(364): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen
     dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only
     attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.
     Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or
     all non-frozen.

   - bpo-33097(365): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32968(366): Modulo and floor division involving Fraction and
     float should return float.

   - bpo-33061(367): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(368): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(369): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(370): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(371): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(372): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33034(373): Providing an explicit error message when casting
     the port property to anything that is not an integer value using
     ‘urlparse()’ and ‘urlsplit()’.  Patch by Matt Eaton.

   - bpo-30249(374): Improve struct.unpack_from() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.

   - bpo-33037(375): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(376): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7f. that
     result of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a
     tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-22674(377): Add the strsignal() function in the signal module
     that returns the system description of the given signal, as
     returned by strsignal(3).

   - bpo-32999(378): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(379): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(380): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(381): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules
     ‘aifc’, *note wave: 112. and ‘sunau’.

   - bpo-32970(382): Improved disassembly of the MAKE_FUNCTION
     instruction.

   - bpo-32844(383): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32960(384): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(385): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32257(386): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32951(387): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(388): Remove the tri-state parameter "hash", and add the
     boolean "unsafe_hash".  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(389): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32146(390): Document the interaction between frozen executables
     and the spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.

   - bpo-30622(391): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(392): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32759(393): Free unused arenas in multiprocessing.heap.

   - bpo-32859(394): In ‘os.dup2’, don't check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(395): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-21060(396): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must
     create and upload files in one command".

   - bpo-32857(397): In *note tkinter: ef, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(398): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(399): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module
     with C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.

     Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and
     caches, previously accessible via private attributes
     ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’, and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There
     are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead
     ‘_dump_registry’, ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(400): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(401): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-19675(402): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ no longer leaks processes if
     its initialization fails.

   - bpo-32394(403): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(404): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(405): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-30688(406): Added support of ‘\N{name}’ escapes in regular
     expressions.  Based on patch by Jonathan Eunice.

   - bpo-32792(407): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(408): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a04. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with '[' or
     containing '-', '&&', '~~' or '||' will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(409): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(410): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(411): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect
     linking for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked
     against libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32749(412): A *note dbm.dumb: 32. database opened with flags
     'r' is now read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): a86. with flags 'r'
     and 'w' no longer creates a database if it does not exist.

   - bpo-32741(413): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(414): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(415): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(416): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(417): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(418): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(419): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(420): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f8.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32512(421): *note profile: ae. CLI accepts ‘-m module_name’ as
     an alternative to script path.

   - bpo-8525(422): help() on a type now displays builtin subclasses.
     This is intended primarily to help with notification of more
     specific exception subclasses.

     Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31639(423): http.server now exposes a ThreadingHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-29877(424): compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when
     needed, preventing hangs on low resource platforms

   - bpo-32221(425): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-32147(426): *note binascii.unhexlify(): 1a05. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-30693(427): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(428): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-31680(429): Added *note curses.ncurses_version: 9d7.

   - bpo-31908(430): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31608(431): Raise a ‘TypeError’ instead of crashing if a
     ‘collections.deque’ subclass returns a non-deque from ‘__new__’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31425(432): Add support for sockets of the AF_QIPCRTR address
     family, supported by the Linux kernel.  This is used to communicate
     with services, such as GPS or radio, running on Qualcomm devices.
     Patch by Bjorn Andersson.

   - bpo-22005(433): Implemented unpickling instances of *note datetime:
     1c7, *note date: 1c8. and *note time: 1c9. pickled by Python 2.
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ should be used for successful decoding.

   - bpo-27645(434): *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. now exposes a *note
     backup: b6a. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   - bpo-16865(435): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch
     by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31508(436): Removed support of arguments in
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection’.  It was deprecated in 3.6.  Use
     specialized methods like ‘selection_set’ for changing the
     selection.

   - bpo-29456(437): Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and
     u11c3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35845

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35847

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35780

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23846

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34323

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35674

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35733

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35726

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35719

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35717

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35699

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35682

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35643

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35619

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28503

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35614

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35568

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35588

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35585

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30561

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35526

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35523

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35502

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35348

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35491

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35477

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31446

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35052

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20239

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17185

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35445

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35415

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35330

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35346

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10496

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10496

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35389

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35394

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35310

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35380

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35341

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35371

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<48>,  Next: Tests<50>,  Prev: Library<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21257(1): Document *note http.client.parse_headers(): 1a07.

   - bpo-34764(2): Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.

   - bpo-35564(3): Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for
     compliance with Sphinx 2.0

   - bpo-35511(4): Specified that profile.Profile class doesn't not
     support enable or disable methods.  Also, elaborated that Profile
     object as a context manager is only supported in cProfile module.

   - bpo-10536(5): Enhance the gettext docs.  Patch by Éric Araujo

   - bpo-35089(6): Remove mention of ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’.  Their
     types should be imported from ‘typing’ directly.

   - bpo-35038(7): Fix the documentation about an unexisting
     ‘f_restricted’ attribute in the frame object.  Patch by Stéphane
     Wirtel

   - bpo-35042(8): Replace PEP XYZ by the pep role and allow to use the
     direct links to the PEPs.

   - bpo-35044(9): Fix the documentation with the role ‘exc’ for the
     appropriated exception.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35035(10): Rename documentation for *note email.utils: 50. to
     ‘email.utils.rst’.

   - bpo-34967(11): Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated
     Sphinx function app.description_unit()

   - bpo-34913(12): Add documentation about the new command line
     interface of the gzip module.

   - bpo-32174(13): chm document displays non-ASCII characters properly
     on some MBCS Windows systems.

   - bpo-11233(14): Create availability directive for documentation.
     Original patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-34790(15): Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait()
     can be confusing.

   - bpo-34552(16): Make clear that ‘==’ operator sometimes is
     equivalent to ‘is’.  The ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ and ‘>=’ operators are only
     defined where they make sense.

   - bpo-28617(17): Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types
     that support membership tests.

   - bpo-20177(18): Migrate datetime.date.fromtimestamp to Argument
     Clinic.  Patch by Tim Hoffmann.

   - bpo-34065(19): Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup
     syntax

   - bpo-33460(20): replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in
     tutorial chapter 3.

   - bpo-33847(21): Add '@' operator entry to index.

   - bpo-33409(22): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(23)'s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540's PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33197(24): Add versionadded tag to the documentation of
     ParameterKind.description

   - bpo-17045(25): Improve the C-API doc for PyTypeObject.  This
     includes adding several quick-reference tables and a lot of missing
     slot/typedef entries.  The existing entries were also cleaned up
     with a slightly more consistent format.

   - bpo-33736(26): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b08, *note asyncio.start_server(): b09.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-23859(27): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(28): Document PEP 567(29) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(30): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning,
     bump removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33594(31): Document ‘getargspec’, ‘from_function’ and
     ‘from_builtin’ as deprecated in their respective docstring, and
     include version since deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.

   - bpo-33503(32): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(33): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33487(34): BZ2file now emit a DeprecationWarning when
     buffering=None is passed, the deprecation message and documentation
     also now explicitly state it is deprecated since 3.0.

   - bpo-33378(35): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(36): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(37): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(38): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’
     document.  ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python
     3.3, but it is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(39): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(40): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(41): Update *note zipapp: 12f. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(42): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(43): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-28124(44): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(45): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(46): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(47): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(48): Update *note test.support: e3. documentation.

   - bpo-32613(49): Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command
     from PEP 397 instead of python.

   - bpo-8722(50): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 343.

   - bpo-32614(51): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-20709(52): Remove the paragraph where we explain that
     os.utime() does not support a directory as path under Windows.
     Patch by Jan-Philip Gehrcke

   - bpo-32722(53): Remove the bad example in the tutorial of the
     Generator Expression.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31972(54): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-30607(55): Use the externalized ‘python-docs-theme’ package
     when building the documentation.

   - bpo-8243(56): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(57): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   - bpo-25041(58): Document ‘AF_PACKET’ in the *note socket: cb.
     module.

   - bpo-31432(59): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35511

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10536

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35038

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35042

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35044

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35035

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34967

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34913

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32174

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11233

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34552

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28617

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20177

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34065

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33460

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33847

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17045

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33594

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32613

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20709

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32722

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30607

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25041

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<50>,  Next: Build<52>,  Prev: Documentation<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-35772(1): Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with
     the tmpfs filesystem.  Fix the function testing if the filesystem
     supports sparse files: create a file which contains data and
     "holes", instead of creating a file which contains no data.  tmpfs
     effective block size is a page size (tmpfs lives in the page
     cache).  RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64, ppc64le, only
     s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch holes of 4
     KiB.

   - bpo-35045(2): Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as
     system default.  The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on
     Fedora 29.

   - bpo-32710(3): ‘test_asyncio/test_sendfile.py’ now resets the event
     loop policy using ‘tearDownModule()’ as done in other tests, to
     prevent a warning when running tests on Windows.

   - bpo-33717(4): test.pythoninfo now logs information of all clocks,
     not only time.time() and time.perf_counter().

   - bpo-35488(5): Add a test to pathlib's Path.match() to verify it
     does not support glob-style ** recursive pattern matching.

   - bpo-31731(6): Fix a race condition in ‘check_interrupted_write()’
     of test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked,
     rather than blocking the signal later from the thread.  Previously,
     it was possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal
     is blocked.

   - bpo-35424(7): Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ with a context manager and then explicitly
     join the pool.

   - bpo-35519(8): Rename ‘test.bisect’ module to ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to
     avoid conflict with *note bisect: 11. module when running directly
     a test like ‘./python Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py’.

   - bpo-35513(9): Replace *note time.time(): 251. with *note
     time.monotonic(): 250. in tests to measure time delta.

   - bpo-34279(10): ‘test.support.run_unittest()’ no longer raise
     ‘TestDidNotRun’ if the test result contains skipped tests.  The
     exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test
     have been skipped.

   - bpo-35412(11): Add testcase to ‘test_future4’: check unicode
     literal.

   - bpo-26704(12): Added test demonstrating double-patching of an
     instance method.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33725(13): test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent
     versions of macOS. Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on
     macOS.

   - bpo-35352(14): Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from
     the test directory.

   - bpo-35317(15): Fix ‘mktime()’ overflow error in ‘test_email’: run
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true()’ and
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true()’ with a specific
     timezone.

   - bpo-21263(16): After several reports that test_gdb does not work
     properly on macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore,
     test_gdb is now skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to
     compile Python.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   - bpo-34279(17): regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been
     executed in a particular test file.  Also, a new final result state
     is issued if no test have been executed across all test files.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34962(18): make docstest in Doc now passes., and is enforced in
     CI

   - bpo-23596(19): Use argparse for the command line of the gzip
     module.  Patch by Antony Lee

   - bpo-34537(20): Fix ‘test_gdb.test_strings()’ when ‘LC_ALL=C’ and
     GDB was compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.

   - bpo-34587(21): test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion().  The
     test tries to fill the receiver's socket buffer and expects an
     error.  But the RDS protocol doesn't require that.  Moreover, the
     Linux implementation of RDS expects that the producer of the
     messages reduces its rate, it's not the role of the receiver to
     trigger an error.  The test fails on Fedora 28 by design, so just
     remove it.

   - bpo-34661(22): Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn't support -t.

   - bpo-34200(23): Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not
     using the scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and
     restore sys.modules contents between test cases.

   - bpo-34569(24): The experimental PEP 554 data channels now correctly
     pass negative PyLong objects between subinterpreters on 32-bit
     systems.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34594(25): Fix usage of hardcoded ‘errno’ values in the tests.

   - bpo-34579(26): Fix test_embed for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-34542(27): Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test
     certs and keys.

   - bpo-11193(28): Remove special condition for AIX in
     ‘test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env’

   - bpo-34347(29): Fix ‘test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line’ for AIX

   - bpo-34490(30): On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname()
     does not provide 'sockname', so skip calls to
     transport.get_extra_info('sockname')

   - bpo-34391(31): Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data
     socket.

   - bpo-11192(32): Fix ‘test_socket’ on AIX 6.1 and later IPv6 zone id
     supports only supported by ‘inet_pton6_zone()’.  Switch to
     runtime-based ‘platform.system()’ to establish current platform
     rather than build-time based ‘sys.platform()’

   - bpo-34399(33): Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least
     2048 bits.

   - bpo-34373(34): Fix ‘test_mktime’ and ‘test_pthread_getcpuclickid’
     tests for AIX Add range checking for ‘_PyTime_localtime’ for AIX
     Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-11191(35): Skip the distutils test 'test_search_cpp' when using
     XLC as compiler patch by aixtools (Michael Felt)

   - Improved an error message when mock assert_has_calls fails.

   - bpo-33746(36): Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.

   - bpo-33901(37): Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a
     larger value to make sure that the file size changes.

   - bpo-33873(38): Fix a bug in ‘regrtest’ that caused an extra test to
     run if -huntrleaks/-R was used.  Exit with error in case that
     invalid parameters are specified to -huntrleaks/-R (at least one
     warmup run and one repetition must be used).

   - bpo-33562(39): Check that a global asyncio event loop policy is not
     left behind by any tests.

   - bpo-33655(40): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD
     platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32962(41): Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags
     -mcet -fcf-protection -O0.

   - bpo-33358(42): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   - bpo-32872(43): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(44): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32663(45): Making sure the ‘SMTPUTF8SimTests’ class of tests
     gets run in ‘test_smtplib.py’.

   - bpo-27643(46): Test_C test case needs "signed short" bitfields, but
     the IBM XLC compiler (on AIX) does not support this Skip the code
     and test when AIX and XLC are used

     Applicable to Python2-2.7 and later

   - bpo-19417(47): Add test_bdb.py.

   - bpo-31809(48): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH
     curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35045

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33717

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35488

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31731

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35519

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26704

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35352

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35317

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21263

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34962

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23596

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34537

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34587

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34200

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34569

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34594

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34579

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34542

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11193

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34347

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34490

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34391

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11192

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34399

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11191

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33746

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33901

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33873

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33562

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32663

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27643

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<52>,  Next: Windows<47>,  Prev: Tests<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-34691(1): The _contextvars module is now built into the core
     Python library on Windows.

   - bpo-35683(2): Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now
     verifying layouts correctly

   - bpo-35642(3): Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj

   - bpo-35550(4): Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun
     && __SVR4 instead of sun when compiling.

   - bpo-35499(5): ‘make profile-opt’ no longer replaces ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     with ‘CFLAGS’.  It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags
     to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’: existing ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’ flags are kept.

   - bpo-35257(6): Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time
     Optimizations (LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.

   - bpo-35351(7): When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags
     are no longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions
     through distutils.

   - bpo-35139(8): Fix a compiler error when statically linking
     ‘pyexpat’ in ‘Modules/Setup’.

   - bpo-35059(9): PCbuild: Set InlineFunctionExpansion to
     OnlyExplicitInline ("/Ob1" option) in pyproject.props in Debug mode
     to expand functions marked as inline.  This change should make
     Python compiled in Debug mode a little bit faster on Windows.

   - bpo-35011(10): Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our
     embedded copy of the expat C library so that its symbols do not
     conflict at link or dynamic loading time with an embedding
     application or other extension modules with their own version of
     libexpat.

   - bpo-28015(11): Have -with-lto works correctly with clang.

   - bpo-34765(12): Update the outdated install-sh file to the latest
     revision from automake v1.16.1

   - bpo-34585(13): Check for floating-point byte order in configure.ac
     using compilation tests instead of executing code, so that these
     checks work in cross-compiled builds.

   - bpo-34710(14): Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL & pedantic
     CFLAGS.

   - bpo-34582(15): Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update
     Azure DevOps builds.

   - bpo-34081(16): Make Sphinx warnings as errors in the Docs Makefile.

   - bpo-34555(17): Fix for case where it was not possible to have both
     ‘HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H’ and ‘HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG’ be undefined.

   - bpo-33015(18): Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread
     implementation of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’: add a function
     wrapper to always return ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-34245(19): The Python shared library is now installed with
     write permission (mode 0755), which is the standard way of
     installing such libraries.

   - bpo-34121(20): Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.

   - bpo-32430(21): Rename Modules/Setup.dist to Modules/Setup, and
     remove the necessity to copy the former manually to the latter when
     updating the local source tree.

   - bpo-30345(22): Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get
     debug symbols.

   - bpo-5755(23): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(24): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI
     on Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33648(25): The -with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has
     been removed.  It has had no effect for about a year.

   - bpo-33522(26): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33512(27): configure's check for "long double" has been
     simplified

   - bpo-33483(28): C compiler is now correctly detected from the
     standard environment variables.  -without-gcc and -with-icc options
     have been removed.

   - bpo-33394(29): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(30): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(31): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants
     (used in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(32): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’
     are no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(33): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   - bpo-33163(34): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   - bpo-33012(35): gcc 8 has added a new warning heuristic to detect
     invalid function casts and a stock python build seems to hit that
     warning quite often.  The most common is the cast of a METH_NOARGS
     function (that uses just one argument) to a PyCFunction.  Fix this
     by adding a dummy argument to all functions that implement
     METH_NOARGS.

   - bpo-32898(36): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   - bpo-29442(37): Replace optparse with argparse in setup.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34691

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35550

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35499

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35257

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35351

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35139

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35011

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28015

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34765

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34585

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34710

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34582

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34081

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34555

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33015

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34245

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34121

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30345

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33648

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33512

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33483

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29442


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<47>,  Next: macOS<39>,  Prev: Build<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35890(1): Fix API calling consistency of GetVersionEx and
     wcstok.

   - bpo-32560(2): The ‘py’ launcher now forwards its ‘STARTUPINFO’
     structure to child processes.

   - bpo-35854(3): Fix EnvBuilder and -symlinks in venv on Windows

   - bpo-35811(4): Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via
     py.exe

   - bpo-35797(5): Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing
     module

   - bpo-35758(6): Allow building on ARM with MSVC.

   - bpo-29734(7): Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.

   - bpo-35596(8): Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid
     zipimport restrictions.

   - bpo-35596(9): Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro
     multiple times.

   - bpo-35402(10): Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9

   - bpo-35401(11): Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j

   - bpo-34977(12): venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector
     rather than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.

   - bpo-34977(13): Adds support for building a Windows App Store
     package

   - bpo-35067(14): Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe
     instead.

   - bpo-32557(15): Allow shutil.disk_usage to take a file path on
     Windows

   - bpo-34770(16): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     pyshellext.cpp.

   - bpo-34603(17): Fix returning structs from functions produced by
     MSVC

   - bpo-34581(18): Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with
     ‘#ifdef _MSC_VER’.

   - bpo-34532(19): Fixes exit code of list version arguments for
     py.exe.

   - bpo-34062(20): Fixed the '-list' and '-list-paths' arguments for
     the py.exe launcher

   - bpo-34225(21): Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a
     backslash.

   - bpo-34011(22): A suite of code has been changed which copied across
     DLLs and init.tcl from the running Python location into a venv
     being created.  These copies are needed only when running from a
     Python source build, and the copying code is now only run when that
     is the case, rather than whenever a venv is created.

   - bpo-34006(23): Revert line length limit for Windows help docs.  The
     line-length limit is not needed because the pages appear in a
     separate app rather than on a browser tab.  It can also interact
     badly with the DPI setting.

   - bpo-31546(24): Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for
     user input at the prompt.  The restores integration of interactive
     GUI windows (such as Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on
     Windows.

   - bpo-30237(25): Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by
     CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.

   - bpo-33895(26): GIL is released while calling functions that acquire
     Windows loader lock.

   - bpo-33720(27): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   - bpo-29097(28): Fix bug where ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ erroneously
     throws an *note OSError: 40d. on Windows for values between 0 and
     86400.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33316(29): PyThread_release_lock always fails

   - bpo-33184(30): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32890(31): Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in
     os.execve() and os.truncate().

   - bpo-33016(32): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(33): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-32901(34): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(35): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(36): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(37): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(38): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(39): Fix *note os.readlink(): 90f. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-1104(40): Correctly handle string length in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty()’ to prevent it from truncating
     the last character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32560

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35854

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35797

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35758

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29734

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35067

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32557

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34770

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34532

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34062

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34225

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34006

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30237

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33895

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29097

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33316

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32890

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1104


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<39>,  Next: IDLE<38>,  Prev: Windows<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-35401(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.

   - bpo-35025(2): Properly guard the use of the ‘CLOCK_GETTIME’ et al.
     macros in ‘timemodule’ on macOS.

   - bpo-24658(3): On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file
     with a size larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-34405(4): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.

   - bpo-33635(5): In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3
     f.e) will result in bad file descriptor OSError.  Guard against
     this exception was added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods.
     DirEntry.is_dir can also throw this exception so
     _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories was also extended
     with the same error ignoring pattern.

   - bpo-13631(6): The .editrc file in user's home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   - bpo-33184(7): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32726(8): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   - bpo-32901(9): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   - bpo-31903(10): In ‘_scproxy’, drop the GIL when calling into
     ‘SystemConfiguration’ to avoid deadlocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35025

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24658

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31903


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<38>,  Next: Tools/Demos<26>,  Prev: macOS<39>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35770(1): IDLE macosx deletes Options => Configure IDLE. It
     previously deleted Window => Zoom Height by mistake.  (Zoom Height
     is now on the Options menu).  On Mac, the settings dialog is
     accessed via Preferences on the IDLE menu.

   - bpo-35769(2): Change IDLE's new file name from 'Untitled' to
     'untitled'

   - bpo-35660(3): Fix imports in idlelib.window.

   - bpo-35641(4): Proper format ‘calltip’ when the function has no
     docstring.

   - bpo-33987(5): Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.

   - bpo-34055(6): Fix erroneous 'smart' indents and newlines in IDLE
     Shell.

   - bpo-35591(7): Find Selection now works when selection not found.

   - bpo-35196(8): Speed up squeezer line counting.

   - bpo-35598(9): Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets,
     make some objects global, and add tests.

   - bpo-28097(10): Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.

   - bpo-35208(11): Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before
     newlines.

   - bpo-35555(12): Gray out Code Context menu entry when it's not
     applicable.

   - bpo-35521(13): Document the IDLE editor code context feature.  Add
     some internal references within the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-22703(14): The Code Context menu label now toggles between
     Show/Hide Code Context.  The Zoom Height menu now toggles between
     Zoom/Restore Height.  Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to
     the Options menu.

   - bpo-35213(15): Where appropriate, use 'macOS' in idlelib.

   - bpo-34864(16): On macOS, warn if the system preference "Prefer tabs
     when opening documents" is set to "Always".

   - bpo-34864(17): Document two IDLE on MacOS issues.  The System
     Preferences Dock "prefer tabs always" setting disables some IDLE
     features.  Menus are a bit different than as described for Windows
     and Linux.

   - bpo-35202(18): Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib

   - bpo-33000(19): Document that IDLE's shell has no line limit.  A
     program that runs indefinitely can overfill memory.

   - bpo-23220(20): Explain how IDLE's Shell displays output.

   - bpo-35099(21): Improve the doc about IDLE running user code.  The
     section is renamed from "IDLE - console differences" is renamed
     "Running user code".  It mostly covers the implications of using
     custom ‘sys.stdXXX’ objects.

   - bpo-35097(22): Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows.
     Topics include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and
     running.

   - bpo-35093(23): Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc.
     Add a paragraph in "Help and preferences", "Help sources"
     subsection.

   - bpo-35088(24): Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring.  We now
     use git and backporting instead of hg and forward merging.

   - bpo-35087(25): Update idlelib help files for the current doc build.
     The main change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.

   - bpo-34548(26): Use configured color theme for read-only text views.

   - bpo-1529353(27): Enable "squeezing" of long outputs in the shell,
     to avoid performance degradation and to clean up the history
     without losing it.  Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a
     separate window, and "unsqueezed".

   - bpo-34047(28): Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.

   - bpo-34275(29): Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac.  Some
     MacOS-tk combinations need .update_idletasks().  Patch by Kevin
     Walzer.

   - bpo-34120(30): Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows
     and dialogs.

   - bpo-33975(31): Avoid small type when running htests.  Since part of
     the purpose of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look
     right, it is important that they look the same for testing as when
     running IDLE.

   - bpo-33905(32): Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.

   - bpo-33924(33): Change mainmenu.menudefs key 'windows' to 'window'.
     Every other menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.

   - bpo-33906(34): Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the
     main menu and remove last plural module name.

   - bpo-33917(35): Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py.  The
     revised file compiles, runs, and tests OK. idle_test/README.txt
     explains how to use it to create new IDLE test files.

   - bpo-33904(36): IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as
     Rstrip

   - bpo-33907(37): For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module
     and classes.  Module calltips and its class CallTips are now
     calltip and Calltip.  In module calltip_w, class CallTip is now
     CalltipWindow.

   - bpo-33856(38): Add "help" in the welcome message of IDLE

   - bpo-33839(39): IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add
     documentation and tests

   - bpo-33855(40): Minimally test all IDLE modules.  Add missing files,
     import module, instantiate classes, and check coverage.  Check
     existing files.

   - bpo-33656(41): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(42): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the
     top of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(43): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(44): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(45): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(46): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(47): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(48): IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-21474(49): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(50): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32984(51): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(52): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(53): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(54): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(55): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(56): Using the system and place-dependent default
     encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and
     location-independent files.

   - bpo-32826(57): Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32831(58): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   - bpo-32765(59): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35770

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35591

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35196

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28097

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35208

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35521

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22703

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35213

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35202

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33000

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23220

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35099

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35097

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35093

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35087

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34548

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34275

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34120

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33975

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33905

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33924

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33906

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33917

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33907

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33856

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33839

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33855

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<26>,  Next: C API<51>,  Prev: IDLE<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-35884(1): Add a benchmark script for timing various ways to
     access variables: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.

   - bpo-34989(2): python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the
     line number of a Python frame.

   - bpo-20260(3): Argument Clinic now has non-bitwise unsigned int
     converters.

   - bpo-32962(4): python-gdb now catches ‘UnicodeDecodeError’
     exceptions when calling ‘string()’.

   - bpo-32962(5): python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when
     Python has no debug symbols for example.

   - bpo-33189(6): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(7): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(8): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-25427(9): Remove the pyvenv script in favor of ‘python3 -m
     venv’ in order to lower confusion as to what Python interpreter a
     virtual environment will be created for.

   - bpo-32885(10): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-32222(11): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for
     functions with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   - bpo-31583(12): Fix 2to3 for using with -add-suffix option but
     without -output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34989

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20260

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<51>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<26>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.54.11 C API
................

   - bpo-35713(1): The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’
     functions have been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4
     and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI),
     and were not documented.

   - bpo-33817(2): Fixed *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 160f. for empty bytes
     objects.

   - bpo-35322(3): Fix memory leak in *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale():
     bba. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a0f. on error
     handling.

   - bpo-35059(4): The following C macros have been converted to static
     inline functions: *note Py_INCREF(): 55c, *note Py_DECREF(): 55d,
     *note Py_XINCREF(): a55, *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b,
     ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’.

   - bpo-35296(5): ‘make install’ now also installs the internal API:
     ‘Include/internal/*.h’ header files.

   - bpo-35081(6): Internal APIs surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_BUILD_CORE’
     have been moved from ‘Include/*.h’ headers to new header files
     ‘Include/internal/pycore_*.h’.

   - bpo-35259(7): Conditionally declare *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05.
     (new in 3.6) based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.

   - bpo-35081(8): The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C
     API.

   - bpo-35134(9): Creation of a new ‘Include/cpython/’ subdirectory.

   - bpo-34725(10): Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may
     override sys.executable

   - bpo-34910(11): Ensure that *note PyObject_Print(): 15ac. always
     returns ‘-1’ on error.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34523(12): Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now use the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows if Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag is
     zero.

   - bpo-34193(13): Fix pluralization in TypeError messages in getargs.c
     and typeobject.c: '1 argument' instead of '1 arguments' and '1
     element' instead of '1 elements'.

   - bpo-34127(14): Return grammatically correct error message based on
     argument count.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-23927(15): Fixed *note SystemError: 563. in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. when the ‘w*’ format unit is
     used for optional parameter.

   - bpo-32455(16): Added ‘PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump()’.

   - bpo-34008(17): Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(),
     as in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-32500(18): Fixed error messages for *note PySequence_Size():
     1a10, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11, *note PySequence_SetItem():
     1a12. and *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a13. called with a mapping
     and *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a14. called with a sequence.

   - bpo-33818(19): ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ will now return ‘const
     char *’ instead of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-33042(20): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(21): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   - bpo-30863(22): *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1a15. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8ab. no longer cache the ‘wchar_t*’
     representation of string objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33817

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35322

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35296

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34910

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34193

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34127

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23927

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32500

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30863


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 final,  Next: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.55 Python 3.7.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<54>.
* C API: C API<52>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<54>,  Next: C API<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.23.55.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-33851(1): Fix *note ast.get_docstring(): 1a18. for a node that
     lacks a docstring.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33851


File: python.info,  Node: C API<52>,  Prev: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.23.55.2 C API
...............

   - bpo-33932(1): Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead
     of failing with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33932


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.56 Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<55>,  Next: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.56.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33803(1): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn't all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33706(2): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the
     command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report
     and the fix!

   - bpo-30654(3): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849


File: python.info,  Node: Library<55>,  Next: Documentation<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.56.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33694(4): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(5): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(6): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33778(7): Update ‘unicodedata’'s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33770(8): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(9): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(10): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 525. instead of
     *note SystemError: 563. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 208.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(11): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-11874(12): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-33582(13): Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<49>,  Next: Build<53>,  Prev: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.56.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33409(1): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(2)'s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540's PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33736(3): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b08, *note asyncio.start_server(): b09.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-31432(4): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Build<53>,  Next: Windows<48>,  Prev: Documentation<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.56.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<48>,  Next: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Build<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.56.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33720(1): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Windows<48>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.56.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.57 Python 3.7.0 beta 5
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<56>,  Next: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33622(1): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 11a0. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 97d. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33509(2): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don't crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-20104(3): The new ‘os.posix_spawn’ added in 3.7.0b1 was removed
     as we are still working on what the API should look like.  Expect
     this in 3.8 instead.

   - bpo-33475(4): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to
     strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-32911(7): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(8).  ‘docstring’
     field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and
     AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-21983(9): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<56>,  Next: Documentation<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32751(1): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(2): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(3): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(4): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33674(5): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(6): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(7): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(8): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(10): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(11): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(12): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(13): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): b98. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33618(14): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33623(15): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-30877(16): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33570(17): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(18): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-33540(19): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     cc.

   - bpo-33548(20): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(21): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(22) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33536(23): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(24): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(25): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33505(26): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(27): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-33495(28): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     'type' member.

   - bpo-33453(29): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type
     annotations or if using PEP 563 "Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations".  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar ("ClassVar" and "typing.ClassVar") and InitVar ("InitVar"
     and "dataclasses.InitVar").

   - bpo-28556(30): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(31): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(32): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(33): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33197(34): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33263(35): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-32861(36): The urllib.robotparser's ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and
     "Request-rate" fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-32257(37): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<50>,  Next: Tests<51>,  Prev: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23859(1): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(2): Document PEP 567(3) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(4): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump
     removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33503(5): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(6): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<51>,  Next: Build<54>,  Prev: Documentation<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32604(2): Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for
     testing) and associated helpers.  This module was originally added
     recently in 3.7b1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604


File: python.info,  Node: Build<54>,  Next: macOS<40>,  Prev: Tests<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33614(1): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(2): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(3): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<40>,  Next: IDLE<40>,  Prev: Build<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-13631(1): The .editrc file in user's home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<40>,  Prev: macOS<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.57.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33628(1): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(2): IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-32831(3): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.58 Python 3.7.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<57>,  Next: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33363(1): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async for’
     statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-33128(2): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33312(3): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33231(4): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(5): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(6): Improved error messages in 'async with' when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(7): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199


File: python.info,  Node: Library<57>,  Next: Documentation<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-33281(1): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33383(2): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(3): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(4): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1a01.

   - bpo-33131(5): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(6): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33266(7): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(8): Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(9): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 1ef. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1a02. return an
     *note iterable: 1207. instead of an *note iterator: 1aa.

   - bpo-33256(10): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33185(11): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 5cd. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(12)) This fix also changed pydoc to add
     ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path: 3ab. when necessary, rather than
     adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-33169(13): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33217(14): Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum
     classes and Enum members (will raise *note TypeError: 525. in
     3.8+).

   - bpo-33203(15): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(16): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(17).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(18): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1a03.

   - bpo-20104(19): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 21d.

   - bpo-33175(20): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-33097(21): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-31908(22): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<51>,  Next: Tests<52>,  Prev: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33378(1): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(2): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(3): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(4): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-8243(5): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(6): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<52>,  Next: Build<55>,  Prev: Documentation<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33358(1): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358


File: python.info,  Node: Build<55>,  Next: Windows<49>,  Prev: Tests<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33394(1): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(2): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(3): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used
     in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(4): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’ are
     no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(5): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<49>,  Next: macOS<41>,  Prev: Build<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<41>,  Next: IDLE<41>,  Prev: Windows<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<41>,  Next: Tools/Demos<27>,  Prev: macOS<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-21474(1): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(2): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<27>,  Prev: IDLE<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.58.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-31583(4): Fix 2to3 for using with -add-suffix option but
     without -output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.59 Python 3.7.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-29'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<53>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33136(1): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970(2).
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen.
     A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

   - bpo-33001(3): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(4): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(5) and CVE 2018-1061(6).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<58>,  Next: Library<58>,  Prev: Security<37>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33053(1): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33018(2): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33041(3): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-33026(4): Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(5): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-17288(6): Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace
     events.

   - bpo-32836(7): Don't use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836


File: python.info,  Node: Library<58>,  Next: Documentation<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33141(1): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their
     default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(2): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(3): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(4): When computing dataclass's __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(5): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(6): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn't have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(7): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on
     sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(8): Add 'Field' to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(9): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(10): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that's a
     MemberDescriptorType, then it's from that field being in __slots__,
     not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(11): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass,
     allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only attributes
     from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.  Require all
     dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all
     non-frozen.

   - bpo-33061(12): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(13): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(14): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(15): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(16): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(17): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(18): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(19): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7f. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32999(20): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(21): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(22): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(23): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules
     ‘aifc’, *note wave: 112. and ‘sunau’.

   - bpo-32844(24): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32857(25): In *note tkinter: ef, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31639(26): http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-27645(27): *note sqlite3.Connection: 242. now exposes a *note
     backup: b6a. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<52>,  Next: Tests<53>,  Prev: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33126(1): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(2): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(3): Update *note zipapp: 12f. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(4): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(5): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<53>,  Next: Build<56>,  Prev: Documentation<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(2): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-19417(3): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<56>,  Next: Windows<50>,  Prev: Tests<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<50>,  Next: macOS<42>,  Prev: Build<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<42>,  Next: IDLE<42>,  Prev: Windows<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<42>,  Next: Tools/Demos<28>,  Prev: macOS<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<28>,  Next: C API<53>,  Prev: IDLE<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32885(1): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885


File: python.info,  Node: C API<53>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<28>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.59.11 C API
................

   - bpo-33042(1): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(2): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.60 Python 3.7.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<38>,  Next: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-28414(1): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<59>,  Next: Library<59>,  Prev: Security<38>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32889(1): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-31356(2): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(3)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(4): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(5): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’ for
     namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(6): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(7): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583


File: python.info,  Node: Library<59>,  Next: Documentation<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32960(1): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(2): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32951(3): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(4): Remove the tri-state parameter "hash", and add the
     boolean "unsafe_hash".  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(5): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-30622(6): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(7): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(8): In ‘os.dup2’, don't check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(9): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-25988(10): Emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. when using or
     importing an ABC directly from *note collections: 1d. rather than
     from *note collections.abc: 1e.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must
     create and upload files in one command".

   - bpo-32852(12): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(13): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module with
     C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.  Note that the new
     implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously
     accessible via private attributes ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’,
     and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There are three debugging helper
     methods that can be used instead ‘_dump_registry’,
     ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(15): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-32394(16): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(17): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(18): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32792(19): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(20): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a04. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with '[' or
     containing '-', '&&', '~~' or '||' will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(21): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(22): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(23): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32741(24): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(25): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(26): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(27): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(28): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(29): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(30): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(31): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f8.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32221(32): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-30693(33): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(34): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<53>,  Next: Tests<54>,  Prev: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28124(1): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(2): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(3): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(4): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(5): Update *note test.support: e3. documentation.

   - bpo-8722(6): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 343.

   - bpo-32614(7): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(8): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<54>,  Next: Build<57>,  Prev: Documentation<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31809(1): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<57>,  Next: Windows<51>,  Prev: Tests<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32898(1): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<51>,  Next: macOS<43>,  Prev: Build<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32901(1): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(2): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(3): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(4): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(5): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(6): Fix *note os.readlink(): 90f. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<43>,  Next: IDLE<43>,  Prev: Windows<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32901(1): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<43>,  Next: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: macOS<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32916(1): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(2): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(3): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(4): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(5): Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(6): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: IDLE<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.60.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32222(1): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.61 Python 3.7.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* C API: C API<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<60>,  Next: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32703(1): Fix coroutine's ResourceWarning when there's an
     active error set when it's being finalized.

   - bpo-32650(2): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28685(3): Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type
     specialized comparisons when possible.

   - bpo-32685(4): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32697(5): Python now explicitly preserves the definition order
     of keyword-only parameters.  It's always preserved their order, but
     this behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now
     guaranteed and tested.

   - bpo-32690(6): The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     reversed.

   - bpo-32677(7): Add ‘.isascii()’ method to ‘str’, ‘bytes’ and
     ‘bytearray’.  It can be used to test that string contains only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-32670(8): Enforce PEP 479(9) for all code.  This means that
     manually raising a StopIteration exception from a generator is
     prohibited for all code, regardless of whether 'from __future__
     import generator_stop' was used or not.

   - bpo-32591(10): Added built-in support for tracking the origin of
     coroutine objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and
     CoroutineType.cr_origin.  This replaces the asyncio debug mode's
     use of coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.

   - bpo-31368(11): Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-32544(12): ‘hasattr(obj, name)’ and ‘getattr(obj, name,
     default)’ are about 4 times faster than before when ‘name’ is not
     found and ‘obj’ doesn't override ‘__getattr__’ or
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - bpo-26163(13): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-32550(14): Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.

   - bpo-20104(15): Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os
     module.  (removed before 3.7.0rc1)

   - bpo-24340(16): Fixed estimation of the code stack size.

   - bpo-32436(17): Implement PEP 567(18) Context Variables.

   - bpo-18533(19): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-20891(20): Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no
     longer created "on demand" to fix a race condition when
     PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread.

   - bpo-32028(21): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31179(22): Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.

   - bpo-31113(23): Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal
     control flow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32703

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24340

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31113


File: python.info,  Node: Library<60>,  Next: Documentation<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25988(1): Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in
     the regular collections module.

   - bpo-31429(2): The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module
     now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.
     Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by
     OpenSSL security update.  Default cipher suite selection can be
     configured on compile time.

   - bpo-30306(3): contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments
     passed to the underlying generator as soon as the context manager
     is entered.  Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the
     context manager was alive, even when not being used as a function
     decorator.  Patch by Martin Teichmann.

   - bpo-21417(4): Added support for setting the compression level for
     zipfile.ZipFile.

   - bpo-32251(5): Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).

   - bpo-32513(6): In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder
     methods without specifying decorator parameters.

   - bpo-32660(7): *note termios: e0. makes available ‘FIONREAD’,
     ‘FIONCLEX’, ‘FIOCLEX’, ‘FIOASYNC’ and ‘FIONBIO’ also under
     Solaris/derivatives.

   - bpo-27931(8): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32659(9): Under Solaris and derivatives, *note os.stat_result:
     1477. provides a st_fstype attribute.

   - bpo-32662(10): Implement Server.start_serving(),
     Server.serve_forever(), and Server.is_serving() methods.  Add
     'start_serving' keyword parameter to loop.create_server() and
     loop.create_unix_server().

   - bpo-32391(11): Implement *note asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed():
     afc. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing(): afd. methods

   - bpo-32643(12): Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and
     Future._schedule_callbacks methods private.

   - bpo-32630(13): Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store
     decimal context.

   - bpo-32622(14): Add ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile()’ method.

   - bpo-32304(15): distutils' upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(16): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-32596(17): ‘concurrent.futures’ imports ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     and ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ lazily (using PEP 562(18)).  It makes
     ‘import asyncio’ about 15% faster because asyncio uses only
     ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ by default.

   - bpo-31801(19): Add ‘_ignore_’ to ‘Enum’ so temporary variables can
     be used during class construction without being turned into
     members.

   - bpo-32576(20): Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be
     invoked from a weakref callback.

   - bpo-32574(21): Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has
     limited size and it is full, the cancelation of queue.put() can
     cause a memory leak.  Patch by: José Melero.

   - bpo-32521(22): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32467(23): collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from
     collections.abc.Collection.

   - bpo-32473(24): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32102(25): New argument ‘capture_output’ for subprocess.run

   - bpo-32521(26): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32493(27): UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD

   - bpo-32503(28): Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small
     frames.

   - bpo-29237(29): Create enum for pstats sorting options

   - bpo-32454(30): Add close(fd) function to the socket module.

   - bpo-25942(31): The subprocess module is now more graceful when
     handling a Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call,
     subprocess.run, or a Popen context manager.  It now waits a short
     amount of time for the child (presumed to have also gotten the
     SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the KeyboardInterrupt exception
     handling.  This still includes a SIGKILL in the call() and run()
     APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.

   - bpo-32433(32): The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which
     provides an optimized HMAC digest.

   - bpo-28134(33): Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol
     from file descriptor by default.

   - bpo-32404(34): Fix bug where *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4da. did not call __new__ in
     *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. subclasses.

   - bpo-32403(35): Improved speed of *note datetime.date: 1c8. and
     *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. alternate constructors.

   - bpo-32228(36): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-32410(37): Implement ‘loop.sock_sendfile’ for asyncio event
     loop.

   - bpo-22908(38): Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class.  This
     only works if the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.

   - bpo-32373(39): Add socket.getblocking() method.

   - bpo-32248(40): Add *note importlib.resources: 7a. and *note
     importlib.abc.ResourceReader: aed. as the unified API for reading
     resources contained within packages.  Loaders wishing to support
     resource reading must implement the ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.
     File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs.
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: bd7. is deprecated in favor of
     these new APIs.

   - bpo-32320(41): collections.namedtuple() now supports default
     values.

   - bpo-29302(42): Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack.  Patch by Alexander
     Mohr and Ilya Kulakov.

   - bpo-31961(43): 'Removed in Python 3.7.0b2.'  The 'args' argument of
     subprocess.Popen can now be a *note path-like object: 29d.  If
     'args' is given as a sequence, it's first element can now be a
     *note path-like object: 29d. as well.

   - bpo-31900(44): The *note locale.localeconv(): bee. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     60e. method when formatting a number (*note int: 254, *note float:
     2ec, *note float: 2ec. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31853(45): Use super().method instead of socket.method in
     SSLSocket.  They were there most likely for legacy reasons.

   - bpo-31399(46): The ssl module now uses OpenSSL's
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API
     to verify hostname and IP addresses.  Subject common name fallback
     can be disabled with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.

   - bpo-14976(47): Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO
     queue with a reentrant C implementation of put().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32513

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32660

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32596

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32576

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32574

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32467

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32503

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29237

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32404

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22908

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31853

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<54>,  Next: Tests<55>,  Prev: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32724(1): Add references to some commands in the documentation
     of Pdb.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32649(2): Complete the C API documentation, profiling and
     tracing part with the newly added per-opcode events.

   - bpo-17799(3): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32724

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<55>,  Next: Build<58>,  Prev: Documentation<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32721(1): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-28414(2): Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names.
     IDNA 2003 internationalized host names are working since
     bpo-31399(3) has landed.  IDNA 2008 are still broken.

   - bpo-32604(4): Add a new "_xxsubinterpreters" extension module that
     exposes the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new
     cross-interpreter data sharing mechanism.  The module is primarily
     intended for more thorough testing of the existing subinterpreter
     support.  Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed
     in 3.7.0rc1.

   - bpo-32602(5): Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA
     dual mode.

   - bpo-32549(6): On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local
     copy of OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32602

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32549


File: python.info,  Node: Build<58>,  Next: Windows<52>,  Prev: Tests<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   - bpo-32598(2): Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and
     supported features.  The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config
     to locate OpenSSL and falls back to manual search.

   - bpo-32593(3): Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.

   - bpo-29708(4): If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set, *note py_compile: b2. will always create hash-based ‘.pyc’
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32598

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<52>,  Next: macOS<44>,  Prev: Build<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32588(1): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add
     missing _queue module to installer.

   - bpo-29911(2): Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are
     displayed.

   - bpo-32507(3): Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper
     update for old versions of Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32507


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<44>,  Next: C API<54>,  Prev: Windows<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to
     SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its
     own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.

   - bpo-28440(2): No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to
     sys.path for macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: C API<54>,  Prev: macOS<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.61.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-32681(1): Fix uninitialized variable 'res' in the C
     implementation of os.dup2.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-10381(2): Add C API access to the ‘datetime.timezone’
     constructor and ‘datetime.timzone.UTC’ singleton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32681

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.62 Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<55>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<61>,  Next: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31975(1): The default warning filter list now starts with a
     "default::DeprecationWarning:__main__" entry, so deprecation
     warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
     at the interactive prompt.

   - bpo-32226(2): ‘__class_getitem__’ is now an automatic class method.

   - bpo-32399(3): Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using
     uuid_create() in libc.a

   - bpo-32390(4): Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid
     field has been added to the object returned by os.statvfs()
     (bpo-32143(5)).  Original patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-32379(6): Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits
     from a single base.

   - bpo-32259(7): The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack
     non-iterable is now more specific.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): The *note -R: 1a55. option now turns on hash
     randomization when the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068. environment
     variable is set to ‘0’.  Previously, the option was ignored.
     Moreover, ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set to 0
     when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.  Increased limits for
     constants that can be produced in constant folding.

   - bpo-32282(12): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-30579(13): Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow
     Python-level creation of traceback objects, and make
     TracebackType.tb_next mutable.

   - bpo-32260(14): Don't byte swap the input keys to the SipHash
     algorithm on big-endian platforms.  This should ensure siphash
     gives consistent results across platforms.

   - bpo-31506(15): Improve the error message logic for object.__new__
     and object.__init__.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-20361(16): ‘-b’ and ‘-bb’ now inject ‘'default::BytesWarning'’
     and ‘error::BytesWarning’ entries into ‘sys.warnoptions’, ensuring
     that they take precedence over any other warning filters configured
     via the ‘-W’ option or the ‘PYTHONWARNINGS’ environment variable.

   - bpo-32230(17): ‘-X dev’ now injects a ‘'default'’ entry into
     sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually
     passing ‘-Wdefault’ at the command line.

   - bpo-29240(18): Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the PEP
     540(19).

   - bpo-32226(20): PEP 560(21): Add support for ‘__mro_entries__’ and
     ‘__class_getitem__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32225(22): PEP 562(23): Add support for module ‘__getattr__’
     and ‘__dir__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31901(24): The ‘atexit’ module now has its callback stored per
     interpreter.

   - bpo-31650(25): Implement PEP 552(26) (Deterministic pycs).  Python
     now supports invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source
     content hash rather than source last-modified time.

   - bpo-29469(27): Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST
     layer.  Original patch by Eugene Toder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32390

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32379

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32260

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32225

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31901

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469


File: python.info,  Node: Library<61>,  Next: Documentation<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32506(1): Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order,
     drop OrderedDict and just use plain dict.

   - bpo-32279(2): Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init,
     repr, eq, order, hash, and frozen.  Pass them through to
     dataclass().

   - bpo-32278(3): Make type information optional on
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().  If omitted, the string 'typing.Any'
     is used.

   - bpo-32499(4): Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True
     if obj is a dataclass or an instance of one.

   - bpo-32468(5): Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name
     and current line number.

   - bpo-23749(6): asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()

   - bpo-32441(7): Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second
     argument) from ‘os.dup2’.  Previously, ‘None’ was always returned.

   - bpo-32422(8): ‘functools.lru_cache’ uses less memory (3 words for
     each cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.

   - bpo-31721(9): Prevent Python crash from happening when
     Future._log_traceback is set to True manually.  Now it can only be
     set to False, or a ValueError is raised.

   - bpo-32415(10): asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()

   - bpo-26133(11): Don't unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32363(12): Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result()
     raise NotImplementedError.  Task._step() and Future.__await__()
     raise proper exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead
     of raising an AssertionError.

   - bpo-32357(13): Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and
     loop.create_task() for non-native coroutines (e.g.  async/await
     compiled with Cython).  'loop.create_task(python_coroutine)' used
     to be 20% faster than 'loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)'.  Now,
     the latter is as fast.

   - bpo-32356(14): asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and
     pause_reading() are now idempotent.  New transport.is_reading()
     method is added.

   - bpo-32355(15): Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.

   - bpo-32351(16): Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay<0 (2x boost)

   - bpo-32348(17): Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove
     callback.  The optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of
     async/await code.

   - bpo-32331(18): Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to
     keep socket.type as is.  Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset
     any bit flags applied to socket's type.  This change only affects
     OSes that have SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.

   - bpo-32248(19): Add *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: aed. as an
     ABC for loaders to provide a unified API for reading resources
     contained within packages.  Also add *note importlib.resources: 7a.
     as the port of ‘importlib_resources’.

   - bpo-32311(20): Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut

   - bpo-32327(21): Convert asyncio functions that were documented as
     coroutines to coroutines.  Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall,
     loop.sock_recv, loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo,
     loop.getnameinfo.

   - bpo-32323(22): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d2f. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(23): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-29711(24): Fix ‘stop_serving’ in asyncio proactor loop kill all
     listening servers

   - bpo-32308(25): *note re.sub(): 2a0. now replaces empty matches
     adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

   - bpo-29970(26): Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake
     not complete within 10 seconds.

   - bpo-32314(27): Implement asyncio.run().

   - bpo-17852(28): Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of
     _Py_PyAtExit() semantics.

   - bpo-32296(29): Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and
     get_event_loop() in C. This makes them 4x faster.

   - bpo-32250(30): Implement ‘asyncio.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’.  Add helpers intended to be used by
     alternative task implementations: ‘asyncio._register_task’,
     ‘asyncio._enter_task’, ‘asyncio._leave_task’ and
     ‘asyncio._unregister_task’.  Deprecate
     ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.

   - bpo-32255(31): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(32): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-30050(33): New argument warn_on_full_buffer to
     signal.set_wakeup_fd lets you control whether Python prints a
     warning on stderr when the wakeup fd buffer overflows.

   - bpo-29137(34): The ‘fpectl’ library has been removed.  It was never
     enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it
     changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C
     extensions.

   - bpo-32273(35): Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.

   - bpo-32272(36): Remove asyncio.async() function.

   - bpo-32269(37): Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.

   - bpo-32265(38): All class and static methods of builtin types now
     are correctly classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and
     grouped in pydoc ouput.  Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for
     unbound class methods of builtin types.

   - bpo-32253(39): Deprecate ‘yield from lock’, ‘await lock’, ‘with
     (yield from lock)’ and ‘with await lock’ for asyncio
     synchronization primitives.

   - bpo-22589(40): Changed MIME type of .bmp from 'image/x-ms-bmp' to
     'image/bmp'

   - bpo-32193(41): Convert asyncio to use 'async/await' syntax.  Old
     styled ‘yield from’ is still supported too.

   - bpo-32206(42): Add support to run modules with pdb

   - bpo-32227(43): ‘functools.singledispatch’ now supports registering
     implementations using type annotations.

   - bpo-15873(44): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 604, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 603. and *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 602. as the inverse operation of
     each classes's respective ‘isoformat’ methods.

   - bpo-32199(45): The getnode() ip getter now uses 'ip link' instead
     of 'ip link list'.

   - bpo-32143(46): os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from
     statvfs(2)

   - bpo-26439(47): Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by
     implementing ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt

   - bpo-31993(48): The pickler now uses less memory when serializing
     large bytes and str objects into a file.  Pickles created with
     protocol 4 will require less memory for unpickling large bytes and
     str objects.

   - bpo-27456(49): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31778(50): ast.literal_eval() is now more strict.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.

   - bpo-31802(51): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   - bpo-30241(52): Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-31699(53): Fix deadlocks in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. when task arguments or
     results cause pickling or unpickling errors.  This should make sure
     that calls to the ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ API always eventually
     return.

   - bpo-15216(54): ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’ supports changing
     'encoding', 'errors', and 'newline'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32278

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32499

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31721

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32357

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32273

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32272

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26439

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31993

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31699

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<55>,  Next: Tests<56>,  Prev: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32418(1): Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer
     classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<56>,  Next: Windows<53>,  Prev: Documentation<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32252(1): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-32002(2): Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale
     and POSIX locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent
     behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32002


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<53>,  Next: Tools/Demos<30>,  Prev: Tests<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-19764(1): Implement support for
     ‘subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True)’ on Windows.  Patch by Segev
     Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<30>,  Next: C API<55>,  Prev: Windows<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.6 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960


File: python.info,  Node: C API<55>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<30>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.62.7 C API
...............

   - bpo-32030(1): Py_Initialize() doesn't reset the memory allocators
     to default if the ‘PYTHONMALLOC’ environment variable is not set.

   - bpo-29084(2): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   - bpo-32264(3): Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it
     has no public APIs.

   - bpo-32241(4): ‘Py_SetProgramName()’ and ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ now
     take the ‘const wchar *’ arguments instead of ‘wchar *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32264

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32241


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.63 Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.
* C API: C API<56>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<62>,  Next: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-10544(2): Yield expressions are now deprecated in
     comprehensions and generator expressions.  They are still permitted
     in the definition of the outermost iterable, as that is evaluated
     directly in the enclosing scope.

   - bpo-32137(3): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   - bpo-32096(4): Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move
     structures back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c.  The memory
     allocators are once again initialized statically, and so
     PyMem_RawMalloc() and Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before
     _PyRuntime_Initialize().

   - bpo-32043(5): Add a new "developer mode": new "-X dev" command line
     option to enable debug checks at runtime.

   - bpo-32023(6): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance
     list in a class definition.  The duplication of the parentheses can
     be omitted only on calls.

   - bpo-32012(7): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but
     followed by a trailing comma.  A generator expression always needs
     to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma
     on either side.

   - bpo-28180(8): A new internal ‘_Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category)’
     helper function has been added in order to improve the consistency
     of behaviour across different ‘libc’ implementations (e.g.  Android
     doesn't support setting the locale from the environment by
     default).

   - bpo-31949(9): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(10): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(11): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-21720(12): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31845(13): Environment variables are once more read correctly
     at interpreter startup.

   - bpo-28936(14): Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a
     parameter and ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ is detected first at a given
     scope.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31825(15): Fixed OverflowError in the 'unicode-escape' codec
     and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii
     byte.

   - bpo-31618(16): The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been
     altered so that ‘frame->f_lineno’ is updated before either ‘"line"’
     or ‘"opcode"’ events are emitted.  Previously, opcode events were
     emitted first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line
     numbers on the frame.  The behavior of this feature has changed
     slightly as a result: when both ‘f_trace_lines’ and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ are enabled, line events now occur first.

   - bpo-28603(17): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(18): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31781(19): Prevent crashes when calling methods of an
     uninitialized ‘zipimport.zipimporter’ object.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-30399(20): Standard repr() of BaseException with a single
     argument no longer contains redundant trailing comma.

   - bpo-31626(21): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-30817(22): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32096

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31845

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31618

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31781

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<62>,  Next: Documentation<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32214(2): PEP 557, Data Classes.  Provides a decorator which
     adds boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so
     specify fields.

   - bpo-27240(3): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(4),
     bpo-31831(5), and bpo-32182(6).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(7): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-32101(8): Add *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 1a5f. flag

   - bpo-32154(9): The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has
     been removed: use directly *note socket.socketpair(): be5. which is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn't
     available on Windows).  ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ was
     just an alias to ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   - bpo-32089(10): warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode
     (pydebug build), use the "default" action for ResourceWarning,
     rather than the "always" action, in the default warnings filters.

   - bpo-32107(11): ‘uuid.getnode()’ now preferentially returns
     universally administered MAC addresses if available, over locally
     administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better guarantee for
     global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from ‘uuid.uuid1()’.  If only
     locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such
     one found is returned.

   - bpo-23033(12): Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one
     and only character in the left most segment of hostname in second
     argument of ‘ssl.match_hostname()’.  Patch by Mandeep Singh.

   - bpo-12239(13): Make ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’
     return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.  Initial
     patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-28334(14): Use *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. to find the
     ‘~/.netrc’ file in *note netrc.netrc: 187e.  If it does not exist,
     *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. is raised.  Patch by Dimitri
     Merejkowsky.

   - bpo-32121(15): Made ‘tracemalloc.Traceback’ behave more like the
     traceback module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
     ‘Traceback.format()’ now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
     result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old
     behaviour, one can use the new 'most_recent_first' argument to
     ‘Traceback.format()’.  (Patch by Jesse Bakker.)

   - bpo-31325(16): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     1c5. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 1a60. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(17): ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ now raises a better
     exception message when it couldn't open or create an MSI file.
     Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-19610(18): ‘setup()’ now warns about invalid types for some
     fields.  The ‘distutils.dist.Distribution’ class now warns when
     ‘classifiers’, ‘keywords’ and ‘platforms’ fields are not specified
     as a list or a string.

   - bpo-32071(19): Added the ‘-k’ command-line option to ‘python -m
     unittest’ to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).

   - bpo-10049(20): Added 'nullcontext' no-op context manager to
     contextlib.  This provides a simpler and faster alternative to
     ExitStack() when handling optional context managers.

   - bpo-28684(21): The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket()
     decorator is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the
     platform lacks a functional bind() function for unix domain sockets
     (as it is the case for non root users on the recent Android
     versions that run now SELinux in enforcing mode).

   - bpo-32110(22): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-27535(23): The warnings module doesn't leak memory anymore in
     the hidden warnings registry for the "ignore" action of warnings
     filters.  warn_explicit() function doesn't add the warning key to
     the registry anymore for the "ignore" action.

   - bpo-32088(24): warnings: When Python is build is debug mode
     (‘Py_DEBUG’), *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7. and *note ImportWarning: 4e7.
     warnings are now displayed by default.

   - bpo-1647489(25): Fixed searching regular expression patterns that
     could match an empty string.  Non-empty string can now be correctly
     found after matching an empty string.

   - bpo-25054(26): Added support of splitting on a pattern that could
     match an empty string.

   - bpo-32072(27): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32069(28): Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio,
     ssl.MemoryBIO is always used anyway.

   - bpo-32066(29): asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in
     create_unix_connection; sock arg should be optional

   - bpo-32046(30): Updates 2to3 to convert from
     operator.isCallable(obj) to callable(obj).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32018(31): inspect.signature should follow PEP 8(32), if the
     parameter has an annotation and a default value.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-32025(33): Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()

   - bpo-32037(34): Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be
     now pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode.  This will
     decrease the size of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling,
     and make these integers be unpickled as int instances in Python 2.

   - bpo-32034(35): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(36): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(37): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-28369(38): Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not
     used by some transport.  Before, only cases when add_reader/writer
     were called with an int FD were supported.  Now the check is
     implemented correctly for all file-like objects.

   - bpo-31976(39): Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow,
     which can cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.

   - bpo-31985(40): Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and
     wave.openfp.  Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a
     in 1993, openfp in each of the three modules had been pointing to
     that module's open function as a matter of backwards compatibility,
     though it had been both untested and undocumented.

   - bpo-21862(41): cProfile command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’
     as an alternative to script path.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31970(42): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-31843(43): 'database' argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts
     a *note path-like object: 29d, instead of just a string.

   - bpo-31945(44): Add Configurable 'blocksize' to ‘HTTPConnection’ and
     ‘HTTPSConnection’ for improved upload throughput.  Patch by Nir
     Soffer.

   - bpo-31943(45): Add a ‘cancelled()’ method to *note asyncio.Handle:
     1a61.  Patch by Marat Sharafutdinov.

   - bpo-9678(46): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(47): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(48): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-21423(49): Add an initializer argument to
     {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor

   - bpo-31927(50): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(51): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31917(52): Add 3 new clock identifiers: *note
     time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b7e, *note time.CLOCK_PROF: b7f. and *note
     time.CLOCK_UPTIME: b80.

   - bpo-31897(53): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(54): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(55): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(56): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-31884(57): added required constants to subprocess module for
     setting priority on windows

   - bpo-28281(58): Remove year (1-9999) limits on the
     Calendar.weekday() function.  Patch by Mark Gollahon.

   - bpo-31702(59): crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of
     rounds for SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.

   - bpo-30639(60): *note inspect.getfile(): 1a62. no longer computes
     the repr of unknown objects to display in an error message, to
     protect against badly behaved custom reprs.

   - bpo-30768(61): Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of
     PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout > 0 and
     intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR). See also the PEP 475(62).

   - bpo-31854(63): Add ‘mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

   - bpo-31834(64): Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+.  The
     pure SSE2 implementation is slower than the pure C reference
     implementation.

   - bpo-28292(65): Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently
     raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01
     through 9999-12-31 range.  To support applications that cannot
     tolerate such exceptions, the new methods itermonthdays3() and
     itermonthdays4() are added.  The new methods return tuples and are
     not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date.

   - bpo-28564(66): The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to
     20-40%.  This was done using the os.scandir() function.

   - bpo-28416(67): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-31653(68): Don't release the GIL if we can acquire a
     multiprocessing semaphore immediately.

   - bpo-28326(69): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-20825(70): Add ‘subnet_of’ and ‘superset_of’ containment tests
     to *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 1fc. and *note
     ipaddress.IPv4Network: 1fb.  Patch by Michel Albert and Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-31827(71): Remove the os.stat_float_times() function.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-31756(72): Add a ‘subprocess.Popen(text=False)’ keyword
     argument to ‘subprocess’ functions to be more explicit about when
     the library should attempt to decode outputs into text.  Patch by
     Andrew Clegg.

   - bpo-31819(73): Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().

   - bpo-31457(74): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(75): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(76): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31803(77): time.clock() and time.get_clock_info('clock') now
     emit a DeprecationWarning warning.

   - bpo-31800(78): Extended support for parsing UTC offsets.  strptime
     '%z' can now parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat,
     including seconds and microseconds.

   - bpo-28603(79): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30541(80): Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the
     automatically creation of child mocks.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-31784(81): Implement the PEP 564(82), add new 6 new functions
     with nanosecond resolution to the *note time: ed. module: *note
     clock_gettime_ns(): ad2, *note clock_settime_ns(): ad3, *note
     monotonic_ns(): ad4, *note perf_counter_ns(): ad5, *note
     process_time_ns(): ad6, *note time_ns(): ad7.

   - bpo-30143(83): 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract
     collection classes from collections.abc rather than collections.

   - bpo-31770(84): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31764(85): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(86): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31620(87): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn't leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31690(88): Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE
     to be used as group flags for regular expressions.

   - bpo-30349(89): FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression
     contains character set constructs that will change semantically in
     the future (nested sets and set operations).

   - bpo-31664(90): Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt
     module.

   - bpo-31632(91): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-15037(92): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-31307(93): Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to *note
     configparser.ConfigParser.read(): 141e.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-31334(94): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(95): multiprocessing's semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(96): Make multiprocessing's forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   - bpo-31245(97): Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio
     ‘create_datagram_endpoint’.

   - bpo-30553(98): Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to
     *note http.HTTPStatus: 8ef.  Patch by Vitor Pereira.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32214

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32101

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32154

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32089

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28334

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19610

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28684

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27535

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1647489

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32069

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32046

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32018

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32037

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31976

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31917

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31884

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28281

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30639

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30768

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31854

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31834

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31653

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31827

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31803

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31800

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30143

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31307

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30553


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<56>,  Next: Tests<57>,  Prev: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<57>,  Next: Build<59>,  Prev: Documentation<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-32138(3): Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise
     SIGSEGV and remove the test.support.requires_android_level
     decorator.

   - bpo-32136(4): The runtime embedding tests have been split out from
     ‘Lib/test/test_capi.py’ into a new ‘Lib/test/test_embed.py’ file.

   - bpo-28668(5): test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is
     removed.  Skip tests with
     test.support.import_module('multiprocessing.synchronize') instead
     when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.

   - bpo-32126(6): Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in
     test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.

   - bpo-31174(7): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32136

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32126

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174


File: python.info,  Node: Build<59>,  Next: Windows<54>,  Prev: Tests<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28538(1): Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex
     structure is defined by Unified Headers.

   - bpo-28762(2): Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined
     by Android Unified Headers.

   - bpo-29040(3): Support building Android with Unified Headers.  The
     first NDK release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.

   - bpo-32059(4): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(5): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(6): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(7): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(8): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(9): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(10): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28643(11): Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.

   - bpo-31866(12): Finish removing support for AtheOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28643

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31866


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<54>,  Next: macOS<45>,  Prev: Build<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   - bpo-20486(3): Implement the ‘Database.Close()’ method to help
     closing MSI database objects.

   - bpo-31857(4): Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in
     a multi-threaded environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31857


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<45>,  Next: IDLE<44>,  Prev: Windows<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<44>,  Next: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: macOS<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE's run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE - Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to '>>> ' if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE's Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE's
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<31>,  Next: C API<56>,  Prev: IDLE<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-32159(1): Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and
     treesync.py scripts.  CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to
     Mercurial, and then to Git.  CVS and Subversion are no longer used
     to develop CPython.

   - bpo-30722(2): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn't work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32159

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<56>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<31>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.63.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-32125(2): The ‘Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag’ flag has been
     removed.  It was deprecated and wasn't used anymore since Python
     2.0.

   - bpo-25612(3): Move the current exception state from the frame
     object to the co-routine.  This simplifies the interpreter and
     fixes a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception
     state when entering or exiting a generator.

   - bpo-23699(4): Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate
     code in rich comparison functions.

   - bpo-30697(5): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32125

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.64 Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* C API: C API<57>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<63>,  Next: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.64.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31558(1): ‘gc.freeze()’ is a new API that allows for moving all
     objects currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent
     generation, effectively removing them from future collection
     events.  This can be used to protect those objects from having
     their PyGC_Head mutated.  In effect, this enables great
     copy-on-write stability at fork().

   - bpo-31642(2): Restored blocking "from package import module" by
     setting sys.modules["package.module"] to None.

   - bpo-31708(3): Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in
     synchronous functions.

   - bpo-31709(4): Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.

   - bpo-30404(5): The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams
     unbuffered rather than line-buffered.

   - bpo-31619(6): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31602(7): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimporter.get_source()’ in case of a bad ‘zlib.decompress()’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31592(8): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(9): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message when
     class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad ‘__prepare__()’
     method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31574(10): Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to
     profile import timing.

   - bpo-31566(11): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31506(12): Improved the error message logic for
     ‘object.__new__’ and ‘object.__init__’.

   - bpo-31505(13): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(14): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31336(16): Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the
     overhead in the necessary special method lookups.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-31415(17): Add ‘-X importtime’ option to show how long each
     import takes.  It can be used to optimize application's startup
     time.  Support the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ae5. as an
     equivalent way to enable this.

   - bpo-31410(18): Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod
     descriptors.

   - bpo-31353(19): PEP 553(20) - Add a new built-in called
     ‘breakpoint()’ which calls ‘sys.breakpointhook()’.  By default this
     imports ‘pdb’ and calls ‘pdb.set_trace()’, but users may override
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to call whatever debugger they want.  The
     original value of the hook is saved in ‘sys.__breakpointhook__’.

   - bpo-17852(21): Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them
     before exiting the interpreter.  Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-31315(22): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(23): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(24): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(25): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader's ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30406(26): Make ‘async’ and ‘await’ proper keywords, as
     specified in PEP 492(27).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30404

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31602

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31336

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31410

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<63>,  Next: Documentation<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.64.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30058(1): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31672(2): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31701(3): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and
     COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(4): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31671(5): Now ‘re.compile()’ converts passed RegexFlag to
     normal int object before compiling.  bm_regex_compile benchmark
     shows 14% performance improvements.

   - bpo-30397(6): The types of compiled regular objects and match
     objects are now exposed as ‘re.Pattern’ and ‘re.Match’.  This adds
     information in pydoc output for the ‘re’ module.

   - bpo-31675(7): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter's methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(8): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter's method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-31648(9): Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree: Allow
     whitespace around predicate parts, i.e.  "[a = 'text']" instead of
     requiring the less readable "[a='text']".  Add support for text
     comparison of the current node, like "[.='text']".  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-30806(10): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-31638(11): Add optional argument ‘compressed’ to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive’, and add option ‘--compress’ to the command
     line interface of ‘zipapp’.

   - bpo-25351(12): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-20519(13): Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import
     time for uuid.

   - bpo-28293(14): The regular expression cache is no longer completely
     dumped when it is full.

   - bpo-31596(15): Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module

   - bpo-27494(16): Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator
     expressions.  For example, ‘set(x for x in [],)’ is now allowed.

   - bpo-30347(17): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-30346(18): An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator
     now becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.

   - bpo-31556(19): Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout <=
     0

   - bpo-31540(20): Allow passing a context object in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. constructor.  Also,
     free job resources in *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8dd. earlier to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new
     jobs.

   - bpo-31516(21): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31525(22): In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2
     API. Thus, the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least
     3.3.9.

   - bpo-26510(23): argparse subparsers are now required by default.
     This matches behaviour in Python 2.  For optional subparsers, use
     the new parameter ‘add_subparsers(required=False)’.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.  (As of 3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not
     required as had been the case since Python 3.3.)

   - bpo-27541(24): Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator
     classes (‘bytearray’, ‘array.array’, ‘collections.deque’,
     ‘collections.defaultdict’, ‘itertools.count’, ‘itertools.repeat’)
     now contain actual type name instead of hardcoded names of the base
     class.

   - bpo-31351(25): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31389(26): ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now takes an optional keyword-only
     argument ‘header’.  If given, this is printed to the console just
     before debugging begins.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30397

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20519

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28293

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31596

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30346

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31525

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27541

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<57>,  Next: Build<60>,  Prev: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.64.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31537(1): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(2): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Build<60>,  Next: IDLE<45>,  Prev: Documentation<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.64.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-31696(1): Improve compiler version information in *note
     sys.version: 177. when Python is built with Clang.

   - bpo-31625(2): Stop using ranlib on static libraries.  Instead, we
     assume ar supports the 's' flag.

   - bpo-31624(3): Remove support for BSD/OS.

   - bpo-22140(4): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31569(5): Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts
     and documentation.

   - bpo-31536(6): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31696

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31625

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31624

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31569

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<45>,  Next: C API<57>,  Prev: Build<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.64.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31460(1): Simplify the API of IDLE's Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(2): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(3): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(4): Rename IDLE's module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(5): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(6): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: C API<57>,  Prev: IDLE<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.64.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-28280(1): Make ‘PyMapping_Keys()’, ‘PyMapping_Values()’ and
     ‘PyMapping_Items()’ always return a ‘list’ (rather than a ‘list’ or
     a ‘tuple’).  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-25658(3): Implement PEP 539(4) for Thread Specific Storage
     (TSS) API: it is a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython
     which would supersede use of the existing TLS API within the
     CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. PEP
     written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 6 6 final,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.65 Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<58>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<39>,  Next: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-29505(2): Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str),
     unicode(str); for oss-fuzz.

   - bpo-30947(3): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   - bpo-30730(4): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(5): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(6)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(7) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(8) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718(9)) and CVE 2012-0876(10) (Counter
     hash flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(11) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(12): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(13): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(14) and CVE 2016-4472(15).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<64>,  Next: Library<64>,  Prev: Security<39>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31490(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31471(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(3): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(4): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28411(5): Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to
     PyImport_GetModuleDict().  Also introduce more uniformity in other
     code that deals with sys.modules.  This helps reduce complications
     when working on sys.modules.

   - bpo-28411(6): Switch to the abstract API when dealing with
     ‘PyInterpreterState.modules’.  This allows later support for all
     dict subclasses and other Mapping implementations.  Also add a
     ‘PyImport_GetModule()’ function to reduce a bunch of duplicated
     code.

   - bpo-31411(7): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31344(8): For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing
     the interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to
     control the emission of particular trace events: ‘f_trace_lines’
     (‘True’ by default) to turn off per-line trace events; and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ (‘False’ by default) to turn on per-opcode trace
     events.

   - bpo-31373(9): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(10): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-30860(11): Consolidate CPython's global runtime state under a
     single struct.  This improves discoverability of the runtime state.

   - bpo-31347(12): Fix possible undefined behavior in
     _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.

   - bpo-31343(13): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(14): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn't a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(15): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn't return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(16): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder's state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(17): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(18): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-30747(19): Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store
     and _Py_atomic_load on MSVC.

   - bpo-31095(20): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn't call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(21): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(22): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(23): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(24): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(25): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I'm adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(26): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(27): Make sure the 'Missing parentheses' syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(28): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30736(29): The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded
     to Unicode 10.0.

   - bpo-30604(30): Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to
     per-interpreter to avoid crashes.

   - bpo-30597(31): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-30682(32): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval("f'\n'") and eval("f'\r'").

   - bpo-30501(33): The compiler now produces more optimal code for
     complex condition expressions in the "if", "while" and "assert"
     statement, the "if" expression, and generator expressions and
     comprehensions.

   - bpo-28180(34): Implement PEP 538(35) (legacy C locale coercion).
     This means that when a suitable coercion target locale is
     available, both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions
     will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather
     than ASCII.

   - bpo-30486(36): Allows setting cell values for __closure__.  Patch
     by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-30537(37): itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects
     (having an __index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments

   - bpo-25324(38): Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C.
     ‘COMMENT’, ‘NL’ and ‘ENCODING’.  This way the tokens and tok_names
     in the token module don't get changed when you import the tokenize
     module.

   - bpo-29104(39): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(40): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(41): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(42): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested 'yield from' or
     'await' calls, it's now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-28974(43): ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to
     ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(self), '')’.

   - bpo-30024(44): Circular imports involving absolute imports with
     binding a submodule to a name are now supported.

   - bpo-12414(45): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29839(46): len() now raises ValueError rather than
     OverflowError if __len__() returned a large negative integer.

   - bpo-11913(47): README.rst is now included in the list of distutils
     standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.

   - bpo-29914(48): Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__().  object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments,
     object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.

   - bpo-29949(49): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(50): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29816(51): Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise
     OverflowError.  ValueError always is raised rather than
     OverflowError for negative counts.  Shifting zero with non-negative
     count always returns zero.

   - bpo-24821(52): Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching
     of some unlucky Unicode characters.

   - bpo-29102(53): Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState.  This makes
     it easier to identify each subinterpreter.

   - bpo-29894(54): The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__
     returns an instance of a strict subclass of complex.  In a future
     versions of Python this can be an error.

   - bpo-29859(55): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-29849(56): Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised
     during from import.

   - bpo-28856(57): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29723(58): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(59) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   - bpo-29568(60): Escaped percent "%%" in the format string for
     classic string formatting no longer allows any characters between
     two percents.

   - bpo-29714(61): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29695(62): bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take
     keyword arguments.  The first argument of int() can now be passes
     only as positional argument.

   - bpo-28893(63): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-28876(64): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 86f.

   - bpo-29683(65): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(66): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(67): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(68): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(69): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(70): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29463(71): Add ‘docstring’ field to Module, ClassDef,
     FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes.  docstring is not
     first stmt in their body anymore.  It affects ‘co_firstlineno’ and
     ‘co_lnotab’ of code object for module and class.  (Reverted in
     bpo-32911(72).)

   - bpo-29438(73): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29546(74): Set the 'path' and 'name' attribute on ImportError
     for ‘from ... import ...’.

   - bpo-29546(75): Improve from-import error message with location

   - bpo-29478(76): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   - bpo-29319(77): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(78): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(79): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(80): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(81): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-29049(82): Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python
     function.  Calling function is up to 5% faster.

   - bpo-28927(83): bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore
     all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  Patch by Robert Xiao.

   - bpo-28932(84): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(85): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(86): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-18896(87): Python function can now have more than 255
     parameters.  collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more
     than 255 elements.

   - bpo-28596(88): The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android.  Patch
     written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22257(89): Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432(90)).

   - bpo-26919(91): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(92): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28147(93): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28739(94): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(95): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(96): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-23722(97): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn't
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(98): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28799(99): Remove the ‘PyEval_GetCallStats()’ function and
     deprecate the untested and undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function.
     Remove the ‘CALL_PROFILE’ special build: use the *note
     sys.setprofile(): 14b6. function, *note cProfile: 27. or *note
     profile: ae. to profile function calls.

   - bpo-12844(100): More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a
     function.

   - bpo-28782(101): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(102)).

   - bpo-28774(103): Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII
     and Latin1 encoders when a string returned by the error handler
     contains multiple non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII
     codec, characters out of the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).

   - bpo-28731(104): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   - bpo-28532(105): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(106): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before
     it checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages
     when both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(107): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(108): Fix not getting the locale's charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(109): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28665(110): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-19398(111): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components
     in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28621(112): Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster
     bits counting implementation.  Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.

   - bpo-28580(113): Optimize iterating split table values.  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28583(114): PyDict_SetDefault didn't combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28128(115): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(116): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(117): Fixed potential crash in
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(118): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer
     that caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(119): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(120): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add()
     and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28183(121): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(122): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(123): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(124): The type of long range iterator is now registered
     as Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(125): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is disallowed.  Calling iter() on range
     instance is the only way.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(126): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(127): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(128): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(129): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(130): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(131): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(132): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-28289(133): ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified
     attributes.

   - bpo-21578(134): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(135): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(136): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(137): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(138): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(139): Don't import readline in isolated mode.

   - bpo-27441(140): Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in
     longobject.c.  Thanks Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27222(141): Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function.
     Thanks Oren Milman.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(142): Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(143): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(144): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a "pending key" (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(145): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   - bpo-26182(146): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(147): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow()
     to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   - bpo-26110(148): Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and
     CALL_METHOD opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30860

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30747

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30736

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30501

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30486

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25324

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29839

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29914

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29816

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29894

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29849

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29568

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29695

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

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   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

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   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29049

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   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

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   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28774

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

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   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

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   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28621

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<64>,  Next: Documentation<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-31482(2): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-28556(3): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(4): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(5): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(6): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(7): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31431(8): SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets
     SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with
     a ValueError.

   - bpo-31233(9): socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of
     non-daemonic threads to wait until all these threads complete in
     server_close().

   - bpo-28638(10): Changed the implementation strategy for
     collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec()
     in favor of precomputed methods.  As a result, the 'verbose'
     parameter and '_source' attribute are no longer supported.  The
     benefits include 1) having a smaller memory footprint for
     applications using multiple named tuples, 2) faster creation of the
     named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x depending on how it is
     measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance creation using
     __new__, _make, and _replace.  (The primary patch contributor is
     Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)

   - bpo-31400(11): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-27629(12): Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and
     SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.

   - bpo-28958(13): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-28182(14): The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError
     when OpenSSL fails to verify the peer's certificate.  The exception
     contains more information about the error.

   - bpo-27340(15): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-14191(16): A new function
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args’ provides the
     ability to parse command lines where there user intermixes options
     and positional arguments.

   - bpo-31178(17): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(18): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(19): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(20): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-1198569(21): ‘string.Template’ subclasses can optionally define
     ‘braceidpattern’ if they want to specify different placeholder
     patterns inside and outside the braces.  If None (the default) it
     falls back to ‘idpattern’.

   - bpo-31326(22): concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown()
     now explicitly closes the call queue.  Moreover,
     shutdown(wait=True) now also join the call queue thread, to prevent
     leaking a dangling thread.

   - bpo-27144(23): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-31281(24): Fix ‘fileinput.FileInput(files, inplace=True)’ when
     ‘files’ contain ‘pathlib.Path’ objects.

   - bpo-10746(25): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(26) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-27584(27): ‘AF_VSOCK’ has been added to the socket interface
     which allows communication between virtual machines and their host.

   - bpo-22536(28): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-29741(29): Update some methods in the _pyio module to also
     accept integer types.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31249(30): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(31): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-23835(32): configparser: reading defaults in the
     ‘ConfigParser()’ constructor is now using ‘read_dict()’, making its
     behavior consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys
     and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly
     converted to strings.  Patch by James Tocknell.

   - bpo-31238(33): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-5001(34): Many asserts in ‘multiprocessing’ are now more
     informative, and some error types have been changed to more
     specific ones.

   - bpo-31109(35): Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-30102(36): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-18966(37): Non-daemonic threads created by a
     multiprocessing.Process are now joined on child exit.

   - bpo-31183(38): ‘dis’ now works with asynchronous generator and
     coroutine objects.  Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by
     Luciano Ramalho.

   - bpo-5001(39): There are a number of uninformative asserts in the
     ‘multiprocessing’ module, as noted in issue 5001.  This change
     fixes two of the most potentially problematic ones, since they are
     in error-reporting code, in the
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error’ function.  (It also
     makes more informative a ValueError message.)  The only potentially
     problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError;
     however, this should also help distinguish it from an
     AssertionError being 'reported' by the function/its caller (such as
     in issue 31169).  - Patch by Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on
     github).

   - bpo-31185(40): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31151(41): socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits
     until all child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie
     processes.

   - bpo-31072(42): Add an ‘include_file’ parameter to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive()’

   - bpo-24700(43): Optimize array.array comparison.  It is now from 10x
     up to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same
     integer type.

   - bpo-31135(44): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn't exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(45): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31080(46): Allow ‘logging.config.fileConfig’ to accept kwargs
     and/or args.

   - bpo-30897(47): ‘pathlib.Path’ objects now include an ‘is_mount()’
     method (only implemented on POSIX). This is similar to
     ‘os.path.ismount(p)’.  Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.

   - bpo-31061(48): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30987(49): Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket
     module.

   - bpo-30522(50): Added a ‘setStream’ method to
     ‘logging.StreamHandler’ to allow the stream to be set after
     creation.

   - bpo-30502(51): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-5288(52): Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.

   - bpo-30919(53): Fix shared memory performance regression in
     multiprocessing in 3.x.  Shared memory used anonymous memory
     mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps actual files.  Try to be careful
     to do as little disk I/O as possible.

   - bpo-26732(54): Fix too many fds in processes started with the
     "forkserver" method.  A child process would inherit as many fds as
     the number of still-running children.

   - bpo-29403(55): Fix ‘unittest.mock’'s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(56): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-19896(57): Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize
     typecodes ‘'q'’ and ‘'Q'’.

   - bpo-30946(58): Remove obsolete code in readline module for
     platforms where GNU readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is
     not available.

   - bpo-25684(59): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(60): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(61): Fix segfault in readline when using readline's
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30794(62): Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to
     terminate using the SIGKILL signal on Unix.

   - bpo-30319(63): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(64): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30302(65): Use keywords in the ‘repr’ of ‘datetime.timedelta’.

   - bpo-30807(66): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(67): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-29585(68): Avoid importing ‘sysconfig’ from ‘site’ to improve
     startup speed.  Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30%
     faster on macOS.

   - bpo-29293(69): Add missing parameter "n" on
     multiprocessing.Condition.notify().  The doc claims
     multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition, but its
     notify() method lacked the optional "n" argument (to specify the
     number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify()
     accepts.

   - bpo-30532(70): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30596(71): Add a ‘close()’ method to ‘multiprocessing.Process’.

   - bpo-9146(72): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-29169(73): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30119(74): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30879(75): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(76): Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-30664(77): The description of a unittest subtest now preserves
     the order of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().

   - bpo-21071(78): struct.Struct.format type is now *note str: 437.
     instead of *note bytes: 1bd.

   - bpo-29212(79): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as "ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n".

   - bpo-29755(80): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30616(81): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(82): Fix race condition between signal delivery and
     wakeup file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(83): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-24744(84): pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError
     if 'path' is a string.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-24484(85): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-30589(86): Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the
     opposite of the signal number when the process is killed by a
     signal (instead of 255) when using the "forkserver" method.

   - bpo-28994(87): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(88): Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()"
     method was called.

   - bpo-30645(89): Fix path calculation in ‘imp.load_package()’, fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-11822(90): The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble
     nested code objects.

   - bpo-30624(91): selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and
     SystemExit into account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of
     error.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-30595(92): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-28556(93): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-30605(94): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-29870(95): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(96): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(97): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30014(98): modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll()
     based classes of selectors module is around 10% faster.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-30418(99): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30463(100): Addded empty __slots__ to abc.ABC. This allows
     subclassers to deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation.  Patch by
     Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-30520(101): Loggers are now pickleable.

   - bpo-30557(102): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30526(103): Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a
     TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.

   - bpo-30245(104): Fix possible overflow when organize
     struct.pack_into error message.  Patch by Yuan Liu.

   - bpo-30378(105): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-16500(106): Allow registering at-fork handlers.

   - bpo-30470(107): Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on
     Windows.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-30414(108): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(109): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30149(110): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30436(111): importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError
     instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a __path__ attribute).

   - bpo-30301(112): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30375(113): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30329(114): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-29196(115): Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes
     Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are
     now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to access
     items of these dictionaries.

   - bpo-9850(116): The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.8.

   - bpo-30299(117): Compiling regular expression in debug mode on
     CPython now displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.

   - bpo-30048(118): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(119): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(120).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30340(121): Enhanced regular expressions optimization.  This
     increased the performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.

   - bpo-30298(122): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-30285(123): Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching
     of regular expressions.

   - bpo-29990(124): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-29979(125): rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the
     FieldStorage class and making its results consistent with those of
     FieldStorage for multipart/form-data requests.  Patch by Pierre
     Quentel.

   - bpo-30243(126): Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30215(127): Compiled regular expression objects with the
     re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time.
     Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

   - bpo-30185(128): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-30103(129): binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using
     ‘'`'’ as zero instead of space.

   - bpo-28556(130): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(131): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30228(132): The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set
     the internal seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in
     buffered or text mode).

   - bpo-30190(133): unittest's assertAlmostEqual and
     assertNotAlmostEqual provide a better message in case of failure
     which includes the difference between left and right arguments.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola')

   - bpo-30101(134): Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.

   - bpo-29822(135): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29960(136): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30070(137): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-22352(138): Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now
     adjusted for large line numbers and instruction offsets.

   - bpo-30061(139): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30218(140): Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive.
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-10076(141): Compiled regular expression and match objects in
     the re module now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are
     considered atomic).

   - bpo-30068(142): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(143): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(144): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-26187(145): Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called
     multiple times when schema is changing.  Indirectly fixed by
     switching to use sqlite3_prepare_v2() in bpo-9303(146).  Patch by
     Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-30017(147): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-29998(148): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29995(149): re.escape() now escapes only regex special
     characters.

   - bpo-29962(150): Add math.remainder operation, implementing
     remainder as specified in IEEE 754.

   - bpo-29649(151): Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-29654(152): Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser
     cache).  Patch by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-29931(153): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-29953(154): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(155): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-10030(156): Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.

   - bpo-29204(157): Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of
     XMLParser() were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python
     3.2 and 3.4 correspondingly).  Now using them emits a deprecation
     warning.

   - bpo-27863(158): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by
     race conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-25996(159): Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir()
     on Unix.  os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().

   - bpo-28699(160): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23890(161): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually
     breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than
     expected.

   - bpo-29901(162): The zipapp module now supports general path-like
     objects, not just pathlib.Path.

   - bpo-25803(163): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(164): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-19930(165): The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer
     affects the file permission bits of newly created
     intermediate-level directories.

   - bpo-29884(166): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(167): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(168): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-8256(169): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28692(170): Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form
     in gettext is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26121(171): Use C library implementation for math functions
     erf() and erfc().

   - bpo-29619(172): os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode
     (st_ino) using unsigned integers.

   - bpo-28298(173): Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I'
     from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as
     elements.

   - bpo-29645(174): Speed up importing the webbrowser module.
     webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.

   - bpo-28231(175): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects
     for external paths.

   - bpo-26915(176): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-28682(177): Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().

   - bpo-29728(178): Add new ‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12)
     constant.  Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.

   - bpo-29623(179): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument
     in ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-9303(180): Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API. Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-28963(181): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(182): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(183): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks
     implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-29703(184): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29615(185): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError
     (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-7769(186): Method register_function() of
     xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be
     used as a decorator.

   - bpo-29376(187): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(188): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of
     Popen() accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(189): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29742(190): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-16285(191): urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and
     hence includes '~' in the set of characters that is not quoted by
     default.  Patch by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.

   - bpo-29532(192): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(193): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-22807(194): Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay
     information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are
     generated with a multiprocessing safe method.

   - bpo-29576(195): Improve some deprecations in importlib.  Some
     deprecated methods now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better
     descriptive messages.

   - bpo-29534(196): Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float()
     for _decimal and _pydecimal.  Thanks Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-10379(197): locale.format_string now supports the 'monetary'
     keyword argument, and locale.format is deprecated.

   - bpo-29851(198): importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError
     if the module lacks a spec.

   - bpo-28556(199): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(200): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29416(201): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(202): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29377(203): Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and
     MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module.  Original
     patch by Manuel Krebber.

   - bpo-29218(204): Unused install_misc command is now removed.  It has
     been documented as unused since 2000.  Patch by Eric N. Vander
     Weele.

   - bpo-29368(205): The extend() method is now called instead of the
     append() method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like
     objects.  This can speed up unpickling to 2 times.

   - bpo-29338(206): The help of a builtin or extension class now
     includes the constructor signature if __text_signature__ is
     provided for the class.

   - bpo-29335(207): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(208): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(209): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29197(210): Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().

   - bpo-29210(211): Removed support of deprecated argument "exclude" in
     tarfile.TarFile.add().

   - bpo-29219(212): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29192(213): Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies
     module.

   - bpo-29193(214): A format string argument for
     string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only.

   - bpo-29195(215): Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword
     arguments in methods of regular expression objects.

   - bpo-28969(216): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-20804(217): The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are copied or pickled.

   - bpo-29142(218): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(219): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-15812(220): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the
     first line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-28985(221): Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module.
     Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-29079(222): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(223): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-9770(224): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(225): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(226): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(227): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(228): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(229): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-16255(230): subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as
     the shell, instead of /bin/sh.

   - bpo-28779(231): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would
     crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated
     some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-26937(232): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class
     does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for
     example on Android platforms.

   - bpo-28847(233): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and
     no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.  A
     deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missed and
     recreated in the 'r' and 'w' modes (will be an error in future
     Python releases).

   - bpo-27030(234): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now
     are errors.

   - bpo-28835(235): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(236): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-28740(237): Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time
     API version of Android as an integer.  Function only available on
     Android.

   - bpo-26273(238): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-28752(239): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(240): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern
     objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and
     x!=y operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(241): don't
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(242): Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter.
     It was deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.

   - bpo-25659(243): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the
     from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes
     like Array.

   - bpo-28548(244): In the "http.server" module, parse the protocol
     version if possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error
     responses.

   - bpo-19717(245): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(246): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution
     when handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(247): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(248): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(249): Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(250): tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(251): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-24241(252): The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers
     using the default browser directly.  Also, the webbrowser
     register() function now has a documented 'preferred' argument, to
     specify browsers to be returned by get() with no arguments.  Patch
     by David Steele

   - bpo-27939(253): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(254): calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a
     space after a weeks's calendar.  calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no
     longer prints redundant newline after a year's calendar.  Based on
     patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28255(255): calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(256): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(257): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(258): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future
     doesn't accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(259): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by
     the "!"  prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(260): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module
     by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(261): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry "./" to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(262): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-28469(263): timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20,
     50,...  instead of 1, 10, 100,...  for autoranging.

   - bpo-28115(264): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     uses argparse.  Added support of long options.

   - bpo-18219(265): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of
     columns.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(266): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn't work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-23214(267): In the "io" module, the argument to BufferedReader
     and BytesIO's read1() methods is now optional and can be -1,
     matching the BufferedIOBase specification.

   - bpo-28480(268): Fix error building socket module when
     multithreading is disabled.

   - bpo-28240(269): timeit: remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ command
     line options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-28240(270): timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead
     of only 3 to make benchmarks more reliable.

   - bpo-28240(271): timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration
     if the benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10
     iterations.  "python3 -m timeit -s 'import time' 'time.sleep(1)'"
     now takes 4 seconds instead of 40 seconds.

   - Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case
     sensitivity.  This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0
     and later.  See setuptools 100(272) for rationale.

   - bpo-24452(273): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch
     by Ned Batchelder.

   - bpo-20766(274): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-27998(275): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on
     Windows.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(276): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-28380(277): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-28229(278): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(279): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(280): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(281): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28332(282): Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and
     socket.ntohs.  Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27358(283): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and
     improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword
     argument.

   - bpo-28257(284): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(285): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(286): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(287): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(288): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(289): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(290): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months:
     0001-01 and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2()
     are reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which
     can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(291): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(292): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(293): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(294): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(295): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(296): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like "Exception: None".  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(297): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(298): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(299): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(300): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default
     values for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter
     Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(301): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(302): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(303): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in
     the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(304): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(305): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(306): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(307): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(308): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(309): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(310): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(311): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(312): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(313): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(314): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28325(315): Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its
     tests.

   - bpo-28368(316): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(317): Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(318): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(319): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(320): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(321): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(322): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-24142(323): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in
     an invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-29581(324): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-25532(325): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30177(326): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31431

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27629

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28182

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

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   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31281

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<58>,  Next: Tests<58>,  Prev: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-31128(3): Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary
     hostnames.

   - bpo-30803(4): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   - bpo-30176(5): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(6): the link targets for *note bytes(): 1bd. and *note
     bytearray(): 52b. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     1a77. and *note bytearray: 1a78. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(7): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-19824(8): Improve the documentation for, and links to, template
     strings by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and
     by clarifying some usage constraints.  (See also: bpo-20314(9),
     bpo-12518(10))

   - bpo-28929(11): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(12): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add
     a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(13): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(14): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   - bpo-23722(15): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the 3.6 What's New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(16)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28513(17): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19824

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20314

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12518

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<58>,  Next: Build<61>,  Prev: Documentation<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-29639(1): test.support.HOST is now "localhost", a new HOSTv4
     constant has been added for your ‘127.0.0.1’ needs, similar to the
     existing HOSTv6 constant.

   - bpo-31320(2): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-31346(3): Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER
     protocols for SSLContext.

   - bpo-25674(4): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(5): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(6): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest -all.  When
     running the test suite using -use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30695(7): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   - bpo-30357(8): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(9): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-24932(10): Use proper command line parsing in _testembed

   - bpo-28950(11): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(12): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26936(13): Fix the test_socket failures on Android -
     getservbyname(), getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on
     some Android API levels.

   - bpo-28666(14): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(15): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-26944(16): Fix test_posix for Android where 'id -G' is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(17): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-28217(18): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   - bpo-26939(19): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29639

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31346

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24932

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26936

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<61>,  Next: Windows<55>,  Prev: Tests<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31354(1): Allow ‘--with-lto’ to be used on all builds, not just
     ‘make profile-opt’.

   - bpo-31370(2): Remove support for building -without-threads.  This
     option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century.  Removing
     lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base,
     including in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.

   - bpo-31341(3): Per PEP 11(4), support for the IRIX operating system
     was removed.

   - bpo-30854(5): Fix compile error when compiling -without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-30687(6): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-20210(7): Support the 'disabled' marker in Setup files.
     Extension modules listed after this marker are not built at all,
     neither by the Makefile nor by setup.py.

   - bpo-29941(8): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(9): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(10): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during
     ‘make test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when
     configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(11): Don't regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(12): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn't work.

   - bpo-27593(13): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(14): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-27659(15): Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use
     ‘-Werror=implicit-function-declaration’ when possible (GCC and
     Clang, but it depends on the compiler version).  Patch written by
     Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-29384(16): Remove old Be OS helper scripts.

   - bpo-26851(17): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(18): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(19): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(20): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(21): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but
     the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(22): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(23): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(24): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   - bpo-10656(25): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(26): Rename -with-optimiations to -enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(27): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(28): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(29): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-21124(30): Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing
     ‘NULL’ instead of ‘&PyType_Type’ to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT. Patch by
     Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-13756(31): Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin.  Patch by
     Roumen Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.

   - bpo-21085(32): Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which
     Cygwin does not provide.  Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review
     and rebase by Erik Bray.

   - bpo-28258(33): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(34): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-27979(35): A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use
     when building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
     of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.

   - bpo-15819(36): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-28676(37): Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31354

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31341

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20210

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27659

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29384

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21124

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13756

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21085

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<55>,  Next: IDLE<46>,  Prev: Build<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-31392(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f

   - bpo-30389(2): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31358(3): zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source,
     instead it is downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL,
     Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.

   - bpo-31340(4): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(5): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30916(6): Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the
     binaries in the build.

   - bpo-30731(7): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   - bpo-30291(8): Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using
     -64 suffix.  Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.

   - bpo-30362(9): Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher.
     Contributed by Steve Barnes.

   - bpo-23451(10): Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c.
     Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-30450(11): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   - bpo-29579(12): Removes readme.txt from the installer.

   - bpo-25778(13): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(14): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default

   - bpo-28522(15): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   - bpo-28402(16): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(17): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(18): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(19): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(20): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(21): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line
     starts with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(22): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(23): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(24): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(25): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31358

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30916

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23451

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<46>,  Next: Tools/Demos<32>,  Prev: Windows<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context - fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE - fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int('') will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE's built-in 'extensions' to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are '<<force-open-completions>>', '<<expand-word>>',
     '<<force-open-calltip>>', '<<flash-paren>>',
     '<<format-paragraph>>', '<<run-module>>', '<<check-module>>', and
     '<<zoom-height>>'.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE - stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE - Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE - Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace 'colour' with 'color' in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in 'if __name__ == '__main__'.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     'parens' style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make 'default'
     style, which is not default, a synonym for 'opener'.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE's basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace 'colour' with
     'color', expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-15786(44): Fix several problems with IDLE's autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(45): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(46): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(47): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(48): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(49): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   - bpo-29071(50): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(51): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE's test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<32>,  Next: C API<58>,  Prev: IDLE<46>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno "Polaco"
     Penteado.

   - bpo-29748(3): Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-24037(4): Argument Clinic now uses the converter
     ‘bool(accept={int})’ rather than ‘int’ for semantical booleans.
     This avoids repeating the default value for Python and C and will
     help in converting to ‘bool’ in future.

   - bpo-29367(5): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   - bpo-28023(6): Fix python-gdb.py didn't support new dict
     implementation.

   - bpo-15369(7): The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been
     removed from Tools.  Please use the new Python benchmark suite
     ‘https://github.com/python/pyperformance’ which is more reliable
     and includes a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and
     Python 3.

   - bpo-28102(8): The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr.
     Patch by Stephen J. Turnbull.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29748

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24037

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28102


File: python.info,  Node: C API<58>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<32>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.65.10 C API
................

   - bpo-31338(1): Added the ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ macro for code paths
     which are never expected to be reached.  This and a few other
     useful macros are now documented in the C API manual.

   - bpo-30832(2): Remove own implementation for thread-local storage.
     CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local
     storage (TLS) on Python/thread.c, it's used in the case which a
     platform has not supplied native TLS. However, currently all
     supported platforms (Windows and pthreads) have provided native TLS
     and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS macro with unconditional in any
     case.

   - bpo-30708(3): PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError
     if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains
     null characters.

   - bpo-16500(4): Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(),
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

   - bpo-6532(5): The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and
     PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of
     PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from "long" to "unsigned long".

   - bpo-27867(6): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and
     replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the
     value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or
     0x03060100 or higher.  Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and
     PySlice_AdjustIndices().

   - bpo-29083(7): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-28769(8): The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
     *’.

   - bpo-29058(9): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   - bpo-28822(10): The index parameters 'start' and 'end' of
     PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like
     ‘str[start:end]’.

   - bpo-28808(11): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-28761(12): The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef,
     PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and
     wrapperbase are now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-28748(13): Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type
     ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-19569(14): Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of
     deprecated functions.

   - bpo-28426(15): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30832

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28748

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 final,  Next: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.66 Python 3.6.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.67 Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-11'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<59>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<65>,  Next: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33786(1): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30654(2): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(3): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 11a0. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 97d. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33231(7): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-29922(8): Improved error messages in 'async with' when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(9): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33041(10): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-32282(11): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-21983(12): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<65>,  Next: Documentation<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33767(4): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’) sequence
     operations now raise *note TypeError: 525. instead of *note
     SystemError: 563. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 208. objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32684(5): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33674(6): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(7): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-33672(8): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-11874(10): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(11): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33548(12): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33542(13): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(14): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - bpo-28556(15): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(16): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(17): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-33197(18): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(19): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(20): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(21): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1a01.

   - bpo-33131(22): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(23): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33263(24): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(25): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33203(26): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(27): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(28).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(29): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1a03.

   - bpo-32861(30): The urllib.robotparser's ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and
     "Request-rate" fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-33096(31): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-33127(32): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-33021(33): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-27683(34): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7f. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32844(35): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-31908(36): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31457(37): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31238(39): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<59>,  Next: Tests<59>,  Prev: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33503(1): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(2): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33378(3): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(4): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(5): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(6): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(7): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(8): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(9): Update *note zipapp: 12f. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(10): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(11): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-8243(12): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-31432(13): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<59>,  Next: Build<62>,  Prev: Documentation<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-19417(2): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<62>,  Next: Windows<56>,  Prev: Tests<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(2): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(3): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(4): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   - bpo-33394(5): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<56>,  Next: macOS<46>,  Prev: Build<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<46>,  Next: IDLE<47>,  Prev: Windows<56>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<47>,  Next: Tools/Demos<33>,  Prev: macOS<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(7): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(8): IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-29706(9): IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6.
     They become full keywords in 3.7.

   - bpo-21474(10): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(11): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32831(12): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29706

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<33>,  Next: C API<59>,  Prev: IDLE<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-32885(4): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-31583(5): Fix 2to3 for using with -add-suffix option but
     without -output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<59>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<33>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.67.10 C API
................

   - bpo-32374(1): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 final,  Next: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.68 Python 3.6.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-28'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<63>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<60>,  Next: Build<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.23.68.1 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872


File: python.info,  Node: Build<63>,  Prev: Tests<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.23.68.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.69 Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<40>,  Next: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33001(1): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(2): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(3) and CVE 2018-1061(4).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<66>,  Next: Library<66>,  Prev: Security<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33026(1): Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-17288(2): Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace
     events.

   - bpo-32889(3): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32650(4): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32685(5): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32583(6): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-26163(7): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set
     to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.

   - bpo-18533(12): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-32028(13): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-32137(14): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137


File: python.info,  Node: Library<66>,  Next: Documentation<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33064(1): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-31804(2): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(3): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-30353(4): Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit
     Cygwin/MinGW.

   - bpo-33009(5): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(6): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32713(7): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-30622(8): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(9): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(10): In ‘os.dup2’, don't check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must
     create and upload files in one command".

   - bpo-32857(12): In *note tkinter: ef, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(13): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31787(15): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(16): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32394(17): socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on
     older version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-32777(18): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(19): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32734(20): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(21): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-27931(22): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32304(23): distutils' upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(24): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-31848(25): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32555(26): On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always
     decode the byte string from the current locale encoding, rather
     than using ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.

   - bpo-32521(27): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32473(28): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32521(29): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32228(30): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-26133(31): Don't unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32185(32): The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI
     TLS extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.

   - bpo-32323(33): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d2f. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(34): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-32255(35): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(36): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-32199(37): The getnode() ip getter now uses 'ip link' instead
     of 'ip link list'.

   - bpo-27456(38): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31900(39): The *note locale.localeconv(): bee. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     60e. method when formatting a number (*note int: 254, *note float:
     2ec, *note float: 2ec. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31802(40): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30353

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32555

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<60>,  Next: Tests<61>,  Prev: Library<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17232(1): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32800(2): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-8722(3): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 343.

   - bpo-32614(4): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(5): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   - bpo-17799(6): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<61>,  Next: Build<64>,  Prev: Documentation<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32517(1): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32721(2): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-32252(3): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-31518(4): Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for
     SSLv23_METHOD().  Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to
     PROTOCOL_TLS or PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31518


File: python.info,  Node: Build<64>,  Next: Windows<57>,  Prev: Tests<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<57>,  Next: macOS<47>,  Prev: Build<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-31966(3): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(4): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(5): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(6): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(7): Fix *note os.readlink(): 90f. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-32588(8): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<47>,  Next: IDLE<48>,  Prev: Windows<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ
     5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and
     supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<48>,  Next: Tools/Demos<34>,  Prev: macOS<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(3): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(4): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(5): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(6): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(7): Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(8): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<34>,  Next: C API<60>,  Prev: IDLE<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   - bpo-32222(2): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: C API<60>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<34>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.69.11 C API
................

   - bpo-29084(1): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 final,  Next: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.70 Python 3.6.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-18'

There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.71 Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<65>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<61>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<67>,  Next: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-31949(2): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(3): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(4): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-31852(5): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of
     the async soft keyword and continuation lines.

   - bpo-21720(6): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31825(7): Fixed OverflowError in the 'unicode-escape' codec and
     in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

   - bpo-28603(8): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(9): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31642(10): Restored blocking "from package import module" by
     setting sys.modules["package.module"] to None.

   - bpo-31626(11): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-31619(12): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31592(13): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(14): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message
     when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad
     ‘__prepare__()’ method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31566(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31505(16): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(17): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31490(18): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(19): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31315(20): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(21): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(22): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(23): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader's ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30817(24): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31852

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<67>,  Next: Documentation<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-27240(2): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(3),
     bpo-31831(4), and bpo-32182(5).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(6): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-12239(7): Make ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’ return
     ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.  Initial patch by
     Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-31325(8): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     1c5. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 1a60. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(9): ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ now raises a better exception
     message when it couldn't open or create an MSI file.  Initial patch
     by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-32110(10): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-32072(11): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32034(12): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(13): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(14): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-31970(15): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-9678(16): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(17): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(18): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-31927(19): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(20): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31897(21): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(22): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(23): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(24): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-28416(25): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-28326(26): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-31457(27): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(28): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(29): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28603(30): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30058(31): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31770(32): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31672(33): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31764(34): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(35): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31701(36): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC
     and COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(37): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31620(38): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn't leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31632(39): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-31675(40): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter's methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(41): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter's method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-30806(42): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-15037(43): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-25351(44): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-25532(45): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30347(46): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-31516(47): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31351(48): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31482(49): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-31334(50): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(51): multiprocessing's semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(52): Make multiprocessing's forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<61>,  Next: Tests<62>,  Prev: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   - bpo-31537(2): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(3): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<62>,  Next: Build<65>,  Prev: Documentation<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-31174(3): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   - bpo-30695(4): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695


File: python.info,  Node: Build<65>,  Next: Windows<58>,  Prev: Tests<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32059(1): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(2): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(3): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(4): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(5): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(6): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(7): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-22140(8): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31536(9): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<58>,  Next: macOS<48>,  Prev: Build<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<48>,  Next: IDLE<49>,  Prev: Windows<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<49>,  Next: Tools/Demos<35>,  Prev: macOS<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE's run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE - Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to '>>> ' if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE's Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE's
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   - bpo-31460(9): Simplify the API of IDLE's Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(10): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(11): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(12): Rename IDLE's module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(13): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(14): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<35>,  Next: C API<61>,  Prev: IDLE<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30722(1): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn't work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<61>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<35>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.71.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-30697(3): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 final,  Next: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.72 Python 3.6.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-03'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<68>.
* Build: Build<66>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<68>,  Next: Build<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.23.72.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-31641(1): Re-allow arbitrary iterables in
     ‘concurrent.futures.as_completed()’.  Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31641


File: python.info,  Node: Build<66>,  Prev: Library<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.23.72.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-31662(1): Fix typos in Windows ‘uploadrelease.bat’ script.  Fix
     Windows Doc build issues in ‘Doc/make.bat’.

   - bpo-31423(2): Fix building the PDF documentation with newer
     versions of Sphinx.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31423


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.73 Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<67>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<41>,  Next: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-30947(2): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<68>,  Next: Library<69>,  Prev: Security<41>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31471(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(3): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31411(4): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31373(5): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(6): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-31343(7): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(8): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn't a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(9): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn't return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(10): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder's state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(11): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(12): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-31095(13): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn't call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(14): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(15): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(16): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(17): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(18): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I'm adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(19): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(20): Make sure the 'Missing parentheses' syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(21): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30597(22): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597


File: python.info,  Node: Library<69>,  Next: Documentation<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-28556(2): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(3): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(4): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(5): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(6): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31400(7): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-28958(8): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-27340(9): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-31178(10): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(11): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(12): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(13): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-29212(14): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as "ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n".

   - bpo-9146(15): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-27144(16): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-10746(17): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(18) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-22536(19): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-31249(20): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(21): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-30102(22): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-31185(23): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31135(24): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn't exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(25): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31061(26): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30502(27): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-30119(28): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30595(29): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-29403(30): Fix ‘unittest.mock’'s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(31): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-25684(32): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(33): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(34): Fix segfault in readline when using readline's
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30319(35): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(36): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30807(37): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(38): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(39): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30879(40): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(41): Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(42): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<62>,  Next: Tests<63>,  Prev: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-30803(3): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<63>,  Next: Build<67>,  Prev: Documentation<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31320(1): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-25674(2): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(3): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(4): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest -all.  When
     running the test suite using -use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822


File: python.info,  Node: Build<67>,  Next: Windows<59>,  Prev: Tests<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-30854(1): Fix compile error when compiling -without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<59>,  Next: IDLE<50>,  Prev: Build<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30389(1): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31340(2): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(3): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30731(4): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<50>,  Next: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: Windows<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context - fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE - fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int('') will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE's built-in 'extensions' to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are '<<force-open-completions>>', '<<expand-word>>',
     '<<force-open-calltip>>', '<<flash-paren>>',
     '<<format-paragraph>>', '<<run-module>>', '<<check-module>>', and
     '<<zoom-height>>'.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE - stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE - Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE - Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace 'colour' with 'color' in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in 'if __name__ == '__main__'.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     'parens' style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make 'default'
     style, which is not default, a synonym for 'opener'.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE's basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace 'colour' with
     'color', expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: IDLE<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.73.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno "Polaco"
     Penteado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 final,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.74 Python 3.6.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-17'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.75 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<42>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2

1.23.75.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.76 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-06-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* C API: C API<62>.
* Build: Build<68>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<43>,  Next: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29591(1): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
     CVE 2016-0718(2) and CVE 2016-4472(3).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<69>,  Next: Library<70>,  Prev: Security<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30682(1): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval("f'\n'") and eval("f'\r'").

   - bpo-30604(2): Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid
     crashes

   - bpo-29104(3): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(4): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(5): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(6): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested 'yield from' or
     'await' calls, it's now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-12414(7): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29949(8): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(9): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29859(10): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-28876(11): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 86f.

   - bpo-29600(12): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-28856(13): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29714(14): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<70>,  Next: IDLE<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30616(1): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(2): Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup
     file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(3): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-23890(4): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(5): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30645(6): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it
     for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch by
     Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-29931(7): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-30605(8): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-24484(9): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup
     (#2159)

   - bpo-28994(10): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(11): Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()"
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(12): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(13): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(14): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(15): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(16): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-29822(17): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29581(18): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-30557(19): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30378(20): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(21): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(22): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(23): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(24): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(25): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(26): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(27): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(28): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(29).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30298(30): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-29990(31): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(32): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(33))

   - bpo-30243(34): Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(35): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(36): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(37): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(38): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(39): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30017(40): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29953(45): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(46): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(47): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(48): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(49): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(50): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(51): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(52): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(53): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(54): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(55): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(56): Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28231(57): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for
     external paths.

   - bpo-26915(58): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-29615(59): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-30177(60): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<51>,  Next: C API<62>,  Prev: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15786(1): Fix several problems with IDLE's autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(2): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(3): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(4): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(5): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(6): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303


File: python.info,  Node: C API<62>,  Next: Build<68>,  Prev: IDLE<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced
     with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: Build<68>,  Next: Documentation<63>,  Prev: C API<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29941(1): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(2): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(3): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(4): Don't regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(5): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn't work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<63>,  Next: Tools/Demos<37>,  Prev: Build<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(2): the link targets for *note bytes(): 1bd. and *note
     bytearray(): 52b. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     1a77. and *note bytearray: 1a78. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(3): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<37>,  Next: Tests<64>,  Prev: Documentation<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-29367(1): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<64>,  Next: Windows<60>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<37>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30357(1): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(2): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<60>,  Prev: Tests<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.76.10 Windows
..................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-30450(2): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 final,  Next: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.77 Python 3.6.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Build: Build<69>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<70>,  Next: Build<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.23.77.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29723(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139


File: python.info,  Node: Build<69>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.23.77.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): fix format of git information used in sys.version

   - Fix incompatible comment in python.h

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.78 Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* C API: C API<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<70>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<71>,  Next: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28893(1): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-29683(2): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(3): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(4): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(5): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(6): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(7): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(8): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(9): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(10): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(11): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(12): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(13): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-28932(14): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(15): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(16): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-26919(17): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(18): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28739(19): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(20): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(21): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-28731(22): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731


File: python.info,  Node: Library<71>,  Next: IDLE<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-29169(1): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-29623(2): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
     ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-28963(3): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(4): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer
     closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(5): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented
     in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

   - bpo-29703(6): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(7): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(8): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen()
     accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(9): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29532(10): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(11): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28556(12): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(13): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(14): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(15): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(16): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(17): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(18): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(19): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29316(20): Restore the provisional status of typing module, add
     corresponding note to documentation.  Patch by Ivan L.

   - bpo-29219(21): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29011(22): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-28969(23): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(24): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(25): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29203(26): functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468(27) and
     preserves the order of keyword arguments.  f(a=1, b=2) is now
     cached separately from f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could
     potentially give different results.

   - bpo-15812(28): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(29): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file
     object and modes "w" and "x" now are relative to the start of the
     file.

   - bpo-29085(30): Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS
     randomness rather than the pid and time.

   - bpo-29061(31): Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang
     when given a negative input.  Patch by Brendan Donegan.

   - bpo-29079(32): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(33): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(34): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(35): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(36): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(37): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-29055(38): Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice()
     by suppressing the upstream exception.

   - bpo-28871(39): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(40): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(41): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(42): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(43): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-26937(44): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does
     not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example
     on Android platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29316

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29203

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29085

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29061

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29055

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<52>,  Next: Windows<61>,  Prev: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-29071(1): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(2): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE's test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<61>,  Next: C API<63>,  Prev: IDLE<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.4 Windows
.................

   - bpo-29579(1): Removes readme.txt from the installer

   - bpo-29326(2): Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey
     Izbyshev)

   - bpo-28164(3): Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-29409(4): Implement PEP 529(5) for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk
     Sun)

   - bpo-29392(6): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   - bpo-25778(7): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(8): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29326

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29409

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: C API<63>,  Next: Documentation<64>,  Prev: Windows<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between
     0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-29058(3): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<64>,  Next: Tests<65>,  Prev: C API<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28929(1): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(2): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(3): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(4): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<65>,  Next: Build<70>,  Prev: Documentation<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28087(1): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-29571(2): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   - bpo-28950(3): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(4): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26939(5): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<70>,  Prev: Tests<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.78.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-26851(3): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(4): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.  Patch
     by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(5): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(6): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(7): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(8): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(9): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(10): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 final,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.79 Python 3.6.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-23'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.80 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* Build: Build<71>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<72>,  Next: Tools/Demos<38>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.80.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28147(1): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28990(2): Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed
     before handshake is completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<38>,  Next: Windows<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.80.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28770(1): Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28770


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<62>,  Next: Build<71>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<38>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.80.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28896(1): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: Build<71>,  Prev: Windows<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.80.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28898(1): Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG
     redefinition.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.81 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* C API: C API<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<73>,  Next: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.81.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn't
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(2): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28782(3): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647


File: python.info,  Node: Library<72>,  Next: C API<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.81.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27030(1): Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are
     allowed again.  But they still are deprecated and will be disabled
     in 3.7.

   - bpo-28835(2): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(3): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-26273(4): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-24142(5): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28843(6): Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions
     __traceback__.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28843


File: python.info,  Node: C API<64>,  Next: Documentation<65>,  Prev: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.81.3 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<65>,  Next: Tools/Demos<39>,  Prev: C API<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.81.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23722(1): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the What's New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(2)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<39>,  Prev: Documentation<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.81.5 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28023(1): Fix python-gdb.py didn't support new dict
     implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.82 Python 3.6.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-11-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Build: Build<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<74>,  Next: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.82.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28532(1): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(2): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it
     checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages when
     both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(3): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(4): Fix not getting the locale's charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(5): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(6): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28665(7): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-28583(8): PyDict_SetDefault didn't combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27243(9): Change PendingDeprecationWarning ->
     DeprecationWarning.  As it was agreed in the issue, __aiter__
     returning an awaitable should result in PendingDeprecationWarning
     in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.

   - bpo-26182(10): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(11): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to
     handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721


File: python.info,  Node: Library<73>,  Next: Documentation<66>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.82.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28752(1): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(2): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects
     created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y
     operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(3): don't
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(4): The subprocess.Popen.wait method's undocumented
     endtime parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25659(5): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-19717(6): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(7): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when
     handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(8): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator
     when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on
     patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-28600(9): Optimize loop.call_soon.

   - bpo-28613(10): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28634(11): Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.

   - bpo-26081(12): Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.

   - bpo-28639(13): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(14): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(15): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(16): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-28704(17): Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects
     (PEP 519).

   - bpo-28720(18): Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28634

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28704

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<66>,  Next: Tests<66>,  Prev: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.82.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<66>,  Next: Build<72>,  Prev: Documentation<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.82.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28666(1): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(2): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839


File: python.info,  Node: Build<72>,  Prev: Tests<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.82.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-10656(1): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(2): Rename -with-optimiations to -enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28676(3): Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.83 Python 3.6.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* Build: Build<73>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<75>,  Next: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.83.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28128(1): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(2): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(3): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(4): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that
     caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(5): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(6): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28471(7): Fix "Python memory allocator called without holding
     the GIL" crash in socket.setblocking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28471


File: python.info,  Node: Library<74>,  Next: Windows<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.83.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27517(1): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(2): Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(3): tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(4): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(5): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-18844(6): The various ways of specifying weights for
     random.choices() now produce the same result sequences.

   - bpo-28255(7): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(8): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(9): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(10): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn't
     accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(11): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the
     "!"  prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(12): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(13): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry "./" to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(14): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-18219(15): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns.
     Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(16): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn't work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-28480(17): Fix error building socket module when multithreading
     is disabled.

   - bpo-24452(18): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(19): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-28492(20): Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in
     _asyncio.Future.

   - bpo-28500(21): Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another
     thread.

   - bpo-26923(22): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(23): Don't configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28544(24): Implement asyncio.Task in C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28492

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28500

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<63>,  Next: Build<73>,  Prev: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.83.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28522(1): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522


File: python.info,  Node: Build<73>,  Next: Tests<67>,  Prev: Windows<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.83.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28444(1): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(3): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<67>,  Prev: Build<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.83.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26944(1): Fix test_posix for Android where 'id -G' is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(2): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.84 Python 3.6.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* C API: C API<65>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<76>,  Next: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.84.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28183(1): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(2): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(3): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(4): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(5): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is deprecated.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(6): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(7): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(8): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(9): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(10): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(11): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(12): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(13): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(14): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(15): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(16): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(17): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(18): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(19): Don't import readline in isolated mode.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(20): Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(21): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(22): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a "pending key" (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(23): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182


File: python.info,  Node: Library<75>,  Next: Windows<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.84.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27998(1): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows.
     Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(2): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-26293(3): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28380(4): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-27181(5): remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.

   - bpo-28229(6): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(7): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(8): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(9): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-27358(10): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved
     error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

   - bpo-28257(11): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(12): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(13): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(14): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(15): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(16): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(17): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(18): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(19): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(20): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(21): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(22): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(23): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like "Exception: None".  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(24): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(25): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(26): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(27): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values
     for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(28): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(29): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(30): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the
     middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(31): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(32): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(33): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(34): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(35): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(36): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(37): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(38): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(39): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(40): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(41): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(42): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has
     no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(43): Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(44): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(45): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(46): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(47): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(48): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<64>,  Next: C API<65>,  Prev: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.84.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28402(1): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(2): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(3): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(4): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(5): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(6): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts
     with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(7): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(8): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(9): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(10): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: C API<65>,  Next: Build<74>,  Prev: Windows<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.84.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-28426(1): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Build<74>,  Next: Tests<68>,  Prev: C API<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.84.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28258(1): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(2): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-15819(3): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<68>,  Prev: Build<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.84.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28217(1): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.85 Python 3.6.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-09-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<77>,  Next: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is
     now initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so
     class methods relying on that will now work correctly when called
     from metaclass methods during class creation.  Patch by Martin
     Teichmann.

   - bpo-25221(2): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-27080(3): Implement formatting support for PEP 515(4).  Initial
     patch by Chris Angelico.

   - bpo-27199(5): In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve
     throughput.  Patch by Jason Fried.

   - bpo-27948(6): In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the
     braces (where the expressions are).  This is a breaking change from
     the 3.6 alpha releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in
     an f-string.  Also, require that expressions inside f-strings be
     enclosed within literal braces, and not escapes like
     ‘f'\x7b"hi"\x7d'’.

   - bpo-28046(7): Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.

   - bpo-28071(8): Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.

   - bpo-25758(9): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-25856(10): The __module__ attribute of extension classes and
     functions now is interned.  This leads to more compact pickle data
     with protocol 4.

   - bpo-27213(11): Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and
     more efficient bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy
     Storchaka, reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-26331(12): Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515(13).  Patch
     by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-27999(14): Make "global after use" a SyntaxError, and ditto for
     nonlocal.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-28003(15): Implement PEP 525(16) - Asynchronous Generators.

   - bpo-27985(17): Implement PEP 526(18) - Syntax for Variable
     Annotations.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-26058(19): Add a new private version to the builtin dict type,
     incremented at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary
     change.  Implementation of the PEP 509.

   - bpo-27364(20): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid
     escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning.  Patch by
     Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27350(21): ‘dict’ implementation is changed like PyPy.  It is
     more compact and preserves insertion order.  (Concept developed by
     Raymond Hettinger and patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - bpo-27911(22): Remove unnecessary error checks in
     ‘exec_builtin_or_dynamic()’.

   - bpo-27078(23): Added BUILD_STRING opcode.  Optimized f-strings
     evaluation.

   - bpo-17884(24): Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and
     stdint.h

   - bpo-27961(25): Require platforms to support ‘long long’.  Python
     hasn't compiled without ‘long long’ for years, so this is basically
     a formality.

   - bpo-27355(26): Removed support for Windows CE. It was never
     finished, and Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for
     Python.

   - Implement PEP 523(27).

   - bpo-27870(28): A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer
     attempts to allocate large amounts of memory.

   - bpo-25402(29): In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the
     estimate of the intermediate memory required, and remove an
     unnecessarily strict overflow check.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-27214(30): In long_invert, be more careful about modifying
     object returned by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for
     small longs.  Thanks Oren Milman for analysis and patch.

   - bpo-27506(31): Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate()
     "delete" argument by keyword.

   - bpo-27812(32): Properly clear out a generator's frame's
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(33): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(34): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of 'def' in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27792(35): The modulo operation applied to ‘bool’ and other
     ‘int’ subclasses now always returns an ‘int’.  Previously the
     return type depended on the input values.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26984(36): int() now always returns an instance of exact int.

   - bpo-25604(37): Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug
     could potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms
     with unreliable ldexp implementations.

   - bpo-24254(38): Make class definition namespace ordered by default.

   - bpo-27662(39): Fix an overflow check in ‘List_New’: the original
     code was checking against ‘Py_SIZE_MAX’ instead of the correct
     upper bound of ‘Py_SSIZE_T_MAX’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27782(40): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(41): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(42): Warn if a submodule argument to "python -m" or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27157(43): Make only type() itself accept the one-argument
     form.  Patch by Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27558(44): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of "raise"
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28008(45): Implement PEP 530(46) - asynchronous comprehensions.

   - bpo-27942(47): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27080

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27948

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28046

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28071

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25856

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26331

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27999

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26058

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27911

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27355

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27870

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25402

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27214

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27506

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27792

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26984

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24254

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27662

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27157

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28008

   (46) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<76>,  Next: IDLE<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28732(1): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(2): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=...)  parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28037(3): Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting
     Connection->inTransaction manually.

   - bpo-25283(4): Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on
     all platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and
     time.gmtime().

   - bpo-24454(5): Regular expression match object groups are now
     accessible using __getitem__.  "mo[x]" is equivalent to
     "mo.group(x)".

   - bpo-10740(6): sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open
     transaction before DDL statements.

   - bpo-17941(7): Add a 'module' parameter to collections.namedtuple().

   - bpo-22493(8): Inline flags now should be used only at the start of
     the regular expression.  Deprecation warning is emitted if uses
     them in the middle of the regular expression.

   - bpo-26885(9): xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data
     types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.

   - bpo-28070(10): Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-19500(11): Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl
     module.

   - bpo-28022(12): Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of
     SSLContext.  The deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket
     and certfile/keyfile (or similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib,
     smtplib, poplib and urllib.

   - bpo-28043(13): SSLContext has improved default settings:
     OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION,
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
     and HIGH ciphers without MD5.

   - bpo-24693(14): Changed some RuntimeError's in the zipfile module to
     more appropriate types.  Improved some error messages and debugging
     output.

   - bpo-17909(15): ‘json.load’ and ‘json.loads’ now support binary
     input encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.  Patch by Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-27137(16): the pure Python fallback implementation of
     ‘functools.partial’ now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C
     counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation
     purposes.  Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(17): Fix the ability to pass the -link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28019(18): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-18401(19): Pdb now supports the 'readrc' keyword argument to
     control whether .pdbrc files should be read.  Patch by Martin
     Matusiak and Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-25969(20): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(21): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files ("first match"), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-28082(22): Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.

   - bpo-28025(23): Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and
     IntFlags.  SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.

   - bpo-23591(24): Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.

   - bpo-433028(25): Added support of modifier spans in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-24594(26): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(27): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(28): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27576(29): Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().

   - email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

   - bpo-28027(30): Remove undocumented modules from ‘Lib/plat-*’: IN,
     CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.

   - bpo-27445(31): Don't pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-24277(32): The new email API is no longer provisional, and the
     docs have been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.

   - bpo-22450(33): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-28005(34): Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to
     propagate.

   - bpo-26667(35): Support path-like objects in importlib.util.

   - bpo-27570(36): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the "ctypes" and "array" modules.

   - bpo-22233(37): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27331(38): The email.mime classes now all accept an optional
     policy keyword.

   - bpo-27988(39): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-16113(40): Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.

   - Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.

   - bpo-27776(41): The *note os.urandom(): 50f. function does now block
     on Linux 3.17 and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized to increase the security.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(42).

   - bpo-27778(43): Expose the Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall as a new
     *note os.getrandom(): cad. function.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(44).

   - bpo-27691(45): Fix ssl module's parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-18844(46): Add random.choices().

   - bpo-25761(47): Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data
     in C implementation of unpickler.  UnpicklingError is now raised
     instead of AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.

   - bpo-26798(48): Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.

   - bpo-26032(49): Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir();
     it is now about 1.5-4 times faster.

   - bpo-25596(50): Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob
     module; they are now about 3-6 times faster.

   - bpo-27928(51): Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function)
     to hashlib module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).

   - bpo-27850(52): Remove 3DES from ssl module's default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(53)).

   - bpo-27766(54): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module's default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-25387(55): Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.

   - bpo-27866(56): Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of
     all enabled ciphers.

   - bpo-27744(57): Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.

   - bpo-26470(58): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-11620(59): Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound.
     Based on a patch by Tim Lesher.

   - bpo-11734(60): Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to
     the struct module.  Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.

   - bpo-27919(61): Deprecated ‘extra_path’ distribution option in
     distutils packaging.

   - bpo-23229(62): Add new ‘cmath’ constants: ‘cmath.inf’ and
     ‘cmath.nan’ to match ‘math.inf’ and ‘math.nan’, and also
     ‘cmath.infj’ and ‘cmath.nanj’ to match the format used by complex
     repr.

   - bpo-27842(63): The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type
     OrderedDict.  (Contributed by Steve Holden.)

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn't raise.

   - bpo-12885(64): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(65): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(66): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(67): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(68): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(69): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - bpo-12319(70): Chunked transfer encoding support added to
     http.client.HTTPConnection requests.  The
     urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a
     Content-Length header any more.  If a HTTP request has a file or
     iterable body, but no Content-Length header, the library now falls
     back to use chunked transfer-encoding.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     - Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(71)) - Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259) - Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252)

   - bpo-27832(72): Make ‘_normalize’ parameter to ‘Fraction’
     constructor keyword-only, so that ‘Fraction(2, 3, 4)’ now raises
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-27539(73): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(74): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-27819(75): In distutils sdists, simply produce the "gztar"
     (gzipped tar format) distributions on all platforms unless
     "formats" is supplied.

   - bpo-2466(76): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-9998(77): On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in
     LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries.

   - bpo-27573(78): exit message for code.interact is now configurable.

   - bpo-27930(79): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-6766(80): Distributed reference counting added to
     multiprocessing to support nesting of shared values / proxy
     objects.

   - bpo-21201(81): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.

   - bpo-27456(82): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25283

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10740

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28070

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24693

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27137

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18401

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28082

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27576

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28027

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28005

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26667

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27776

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (44) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (53) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25387

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27866

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11620

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27832

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<53>,  Next: C API<66>,  Prev: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add 'interrupt execution' (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from 'flashing' gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - bpo-27891(3): Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib
     modules.

   - bpo-17642(4): add larger font sizes for classroom projection.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(5): In section on IDLE - console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27821(6): Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets
     from being selected when no custom theme was defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17642

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27821


File: python.info,  Node: C API<66>,  Next: Tests<69>,  Prev: IDLE<53>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-26900(1): Excluded underscored names and other private API from
     limited API.

   - bpo-26027(2): Add support for path-like objects in
     PyUnicode_FSConverter() & PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<69>,  Next: Build<75>,  Prev: C API<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27427(1): Additional tests for the math module.  Patch by
     Francisco Couzo.

   - bpo-27953(2): Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due
     to a poor libm implementation of tan.

   - bpo-26040(3): Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour.
     Patch by Jeff Allen.

   - bpo-27787(4): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     "dangling threads", since the dangling threads are weak references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787


File: python.info,  Node: Build<75>,  Next: Tools/Demos<40>,  Prev: Tests<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27566(1): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(2): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27976(3): Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of
     libffi on non-OSX UNIX platforms.

   - bpo-27983(4): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when ‘--with-optimizations’ is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-21590(5): Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.

   - bpo-26307(6): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in
     modules.

   - bpo-26359(7): Add the -with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and
     PGO build support when available.

   - bpo-27917(8): Set platform triplets for Android builds.

   - bpo-25825(9): Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path
     on AIX. This path was changed in 3.2a4.

   - Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.

   - bpo-21122(10): Fix LTO builds on OS X.

   - bpo-17128(11): Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL.
     Also provide a sample Install Certificates command script to
     install a set of root certificates from the third-party certifi
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27976

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21122

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<40>,  Next: Windows<65>,  Prev: Build<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current "re" module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<65>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.85.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28065(1): Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from
     source.

   - bpo-25144(2): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-1602(3): Windows console doesn't input or print Unicode (PEP
     528)

   - bpo-27781(4): Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP
     529)

   - bpo-27731(5): Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10

   - bpo-6135(6): Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.

   - bpo-27959(7): Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs
     to codec lookup.

   - bpo-27982(8): The functions of the winsound module now accept
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-20366(9): Build full text search support into SQLite on
     Windows.

   - bpo-27756(10): Adds new icons for Python files and processes on
     Windows.  Designs by Cherry Wang.

   - bpo-27883(11): Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28065

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27731

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20366

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27756

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27883


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.86 Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-08-15'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* Build: Build<76>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<78>,  Next: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.86.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27704(1): Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like
     objects and iterables.  Speed up to 3 times for short objects.
     Original patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-26823(2): Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are
     now abbreviated as "[Previous line repeated {count} more times]" by
     the builtin traceback rendering.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27574(3): Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in
     functions implemented with using Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-22557(4): Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5
     times faster.

   - bpo-17596(5): Include <wincrypt.h> to help with Min GW building.

   - bpo-17599(6): On Windows, rename the privately defined
     REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER structure to avoid conflicting with the
     definition from Min GW.

   - bpo-27507(7): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(8): Don't rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-1621(9): Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple
     operations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(10): Standard __import__() no longer look up "__import__"
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or "from import".
     Fixed a crash if raise a warning about unabling to resolve package
     from __spec__ or __package__.

   - bpo-27083(11): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(12): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27366(13): Implemented PEP 487(14) (Simpler customization of
     class creation).  Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__
     classmethod is called on the base class.  Descriptors are
     initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27704

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17596

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17599

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27366

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<77>,  Next: IDLE<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.86.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-26027(1): Add PEP 519(2)/__fspath__() support to the os and
     os.path modules.  Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra.  (See also:
     bpo-27524(3))

   - bpo-27598(4): Add Collections to collections.abc.  Patch by Ivan
     Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar.

   - bpo-25958(5): Support "anti-registration" of special methods from
     various ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__.  All these (and
     several more) can be set to None in an implementation class and the
     behavior will be as if the method is not defined at all.
     (Previously, this mechanism existed only for __hash__, to make
     mutable classes unhashable.)  Code contributed by Andrew Barnert
     and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-16764(6): Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27736(7): Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization
     due to ref count problem introduced in code for bpo-27038(8) in
     3.6.0a3.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25628(9): The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters for
     collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-12345(10): Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath.
     See also PEP 628(11).

   - bpo-26823(12): traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large
     sections of repeated lines as "[Previous line repeated {count} more
     times]" (this change then further affects other traceback display
     operations in the module).  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27664(13): Add to
     concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the ability to
     specify a thread name prefix.

   - bpo-27181(14): Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics
     module.

   - bpo-27573(15): code.interact now prints an message when exiting.

   - bpo-6422(16): Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.

   - bpo-27773(17): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(18): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.  Removes
     the never publicly used, never documented
     unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.

   - bpo-26754(19): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as path in compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26800(20): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as paths in os functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26981(21): Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for
     Python 2/3 code bases.

   - bpo-27661(22): Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(23): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(24): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(25): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(26): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(27): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(28)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-7063(29): Remove dead code from the "array" module's slice
     handling.  Patch by Chuck.

   - bpo-27656(30): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(31): In the "zlib" module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-24773(32): Implemented PEP 495(33) (Local Time Disambiguation).

   - Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the
     select module.

   - bpo-27567(34): Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the
     select module.

   - bpo-1621(35): Avoid signed int negation overflow in the "audioop"
     module.

   - bpo-27533(36): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(37): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(38): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-27512(39): Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an
     __fspath__() method that raised an exception.  Patch by Xiang
     Zhang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27524

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27736

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26800

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26981

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (28) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7063

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27567

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27512


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<54>,  Next: Tests<70>,  Prev: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.86.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27714(1): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-27621(2): Put query response validation error messages in the
     query box itself instead of in a separate messagebox.  Redo tests
     to match.  Add Mac OSX refinements.  Original patch by Mark
     Roseman.

   - bpo-27620(3): Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.

   - bpo-27609(4): IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not
     autocomplete.  This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least
     twice indented.

   - bpo-27609(5): Explicitly return None when there are also non-None
     returns.  In a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a
     return.

   - bpo-25507(6): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27173(7): Add 'IDLE Modern Unix' to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(8): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27621

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27620

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<70>,  Next: Windows<66>,  Prev: IDLE<54>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.86.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25805(1): Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn't
     work when ‘__name__ == __main__’.  Patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-27472(2): Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the
     default shell.

   - bpo-27369(3): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   - bpo-27594(4): Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with
     coverage enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number.
     Patch suggested by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25805

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27594


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<66>,  Next: Build<76>,  Prev: Tests<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.86.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27647(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.

   - bpo-27610(2): Adds PEP 514(3) metadata to Windows installer

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27610

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<76>,  Prev: Windows<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.86.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27713(1): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib's bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(2): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which
     is required on AIX. The references were accidentally changed in
     3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(3): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(4): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(5): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program
     to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(6): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.87 Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* C API: C API<67>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<44>,  Next: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<79>,  Next: Library<78>,  Prev: Security<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27473(1): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23034(2): The output of a special Python build with defined
     COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now
     off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the "-X showalloccount"
     option.  It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout.

   - bpo-27443(3): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27007(4): The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray
     subclasses now return an instance of corresponding subclass.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27007


File: python.info,  Node: Library<78>,  Next: IDLE<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-26844(1): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     'path' instead of 'name'.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(2): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not
     raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(3): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-21708(4): Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common
     dbm behavior: creating a database in 'r' and 'w' modes and
     modifying a database in 'r' mode.

   - bpo-26721(5): Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile
     attribute to implement BufferedIOBase.  In particular, the write()
     method no longer does partial writes.

   - bpo-22115(6): Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info
     in the tkinter.Variable class.  They replace old methods
     trace_variable, trace, trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use
     obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.
     Fixed old tracing methods: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no
     longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of
     pairs of strings, tracing in the "u" mode now works.

   - bpo-26243(7): Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword
     argument now.  The first argument is positional-only.

   - bpo-27038(8): Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry.  Code patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27186(9): Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return
     value of __fspath__() to be either str or bytes.

   - bpo-18726(10): All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(),
     load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class
     constructors in the json module are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-27319(11): Methods selection_set(), selection_add(),
     selection_remove() and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow
     passing multiple items as multiple arguments instead of passing
     them as a tuple.  Deprecated undocumented ability of calling the
     selection() method with arguments.

   - bpo-27079(12): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-27294(13): Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event
     objects is now represented as a combination of known flags.

   - bpo-27177(14): Match objects in the re module now support
     index-like objects as group indices.  Based on patches by Jeroen
     Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26754(15): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-26536(16): socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH.
     Patch by Daniel Stokes.

   - bpo-27048(17): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(18): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(19): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(20): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(21) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-16864(22): sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE
     statement.  Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.

   - bpo-26386(23): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id's containing spaces.

   - bpo-8637(24): Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in
     preference to one set by the env var PAGER).

   - bpo-16182(25): Fix various functions in the "readline" module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(26): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<55>,  Next: C API<67>,  Prev: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27477(1): IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.

   - bpo-27173(2): Add 'IDLE Modern Unix' to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(3): make command line "idle-test> python test_help.py"
     work.  __file__ is relative when python is started in the file's
     directory.

   - bpo-27452(4): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27380(5): IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk
     widgets.  Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and
     HelpSource, which are used to get information from users by
     configdialog and file =>Load Module.  Each subclass has itw own
     validity checks.  Using ModuleName allows users to edit bad module
     names instead of starting over.  Add tests and delete the two files
     combined into the new one.

   - bpo-27372(6): Test_idle no longer changes the locale.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24137(9): Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default
     root disabled.  Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction.
     Fix htests to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.

   - bpo-27310(10): Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to
     vestigial import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27477

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27380

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27372

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<67>,  Next: Build<77>,  Prev: IDLE<55>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-26754(1): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and byte-like
     objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Build<77>,  Next: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: C API<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-28066(1): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27442(2): Expose the Android API level that python was built
     against, in sysconfig.get_config_vars() as 'ANDROID_API_LEVEL'.

   - bpo-27434(3): The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in
     PATH, must now be of the same feature version (e.g.  3.6) as the
     source being built.

   - bpo-26930(4): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-23968(5): Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to
     plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from
     config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET).
     Install the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the
     platform directory and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.

   - Don't use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27442

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27434

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23968


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<41>,  Next: Documentation<67>,  Prev: Build<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27332(1): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(2): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<67>,  Next: Tests<71>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<41>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-27285(2): Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of
     ‘pyvenv’ and normalize on the term "virtual environment".  Patch by
     Steve Piercy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<71>,  Prev: Documentation<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.87.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27027(1): Added test.support.is_android that is True when this
     is an Android build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.88 Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* Build: Build<78>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<45>,  Next: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 50f. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<80>,  Next: Library<79>,  Prev: Security<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27095(1): Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE
     opcodes.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-27190(2): Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than
     3.3.1.  Patch by Dave Sawyer.

   - bpo-27286(3): Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode.
     Calling function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and
     conflicting keyword names could cause undefined behavior.

   - bpo-27140(4): Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.

   - bpo-27186(5): Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part
     of PEP 519(6)).

   - bpo-27066(7): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-26983(8): float() now always return an instance of exact float.
     The deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance
     of a strict subclass of float.  In a future versions of Python this
     can be an error.

   - bpo-27097(9): Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to
     optimized instruction decoding.  Based on patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-26647(10): Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead
     of bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-23275(11): Allow assigning to an empty target list in round
     brackets: () = iterable.

   - bpo-27243(12): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27190

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27097

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23275

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<79>,  Next: IDLE<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.3 Library
.................

   - Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK)
     constants exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd.
     They would not work at runtime anyway.

   - bpo-27025(1): Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more
     meaningful and recognizable.

   - bpo-25455(2): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive
     ElementTree.Element and functools.partial objects.

   - bpo-27294(3): Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.

   - bpo-20508(4): Improve exception message of
     IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__.  Patch by Gareth Rees.

   - bpo-21386(5): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-27029(6): Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode
     from ZipFile.open().

   - bpo-27030(7): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in regular expressions now are errors.  The re.LOCALE flag
     now can be used only with bytes patterns.

   - bpo-27186(8): Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP
     519(9)).  Initial patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-20900(10): distutils register command now decodes HTTP
     responses correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - bpo-27186(11): Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its
     provisional status (part of PEP 519).  Initial patch by Dusty
     Phillips.

   - bpo-27186(12): Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode()
     and os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519(13)).

   - bpo-27186(14): Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP
     519(15)).

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(16)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(17): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don't
     send Content header fields in responses that don't have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(18): Fix the "platform" module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-23883(19): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes,
     plistlib and smtpd.  Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.

   - bpo-27164(20): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(21): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-21272(22): Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize
     distutils.sysconfig.

   - bpo-19611(23): *note inspect: 7d. now reports the implicit ‘.0’
     parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
     generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only
     parameters called ‘implicit0’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26809(24): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: d2.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(25): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now
     return a consistent name for values having multiple names.  Ex:
     signal.Signals(6) now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather
     than flipping between that and signal.SIGIOT based on the
     interpreter's hash randomization seed.

   - bpo-27167(26): Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error
     message text when the child process died due to a signal.

   - bpo-25931(27): Don't define socketserver.Forking* names on
     platforms such as Windows that do not support os.fork().

   - bpo-21776(28): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-26526(29): Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser
     module with a simple DFA validator.

   - bpo-27114(30): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(31): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-23026(32): winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for
     REG_QWORD type.

   - bpo-26741(33): subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a
     ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running.

   - bpo-27056(34): Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10%
     faster to deserialize a lot of small objects.

   - bpo-21271(35): New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20508

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27029

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21272

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27167

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25931

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26526

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<56>,  Next: Documentation<68>,  Prev: Library<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24750(2): Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions.  Where
     needed, minimal tests are added to cover changes.

   - bpo-24759(3): IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets.
     Delete now unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions.
     Add test for IDLE syntax colorizer.

   - bpo-27239(4): idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as
     needed.

   - bpo-27262(5): move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus,
     to macosx.

   - bpo-24759(6): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(7): Stop 'ThemeChanged' warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka's update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(8): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-24225(9): Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and
     event handlers.

   - bpo-27156(10): Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.

   - bpo-27117(11): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-24225(12): Rename many ‘idlelib/*.py’ and ‘idle_test/test_*.py’
     files.  Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old
     name referred to the module rather than the class it contained.
     See the issue and IDLE section in What's New in 3.6 for more.

   - bpo-26673(13): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(14): Add test for IDLE's percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(15): Add test for IDLE's replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(16): Add test for IDLE's search dialog.  Original patch
     by Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(17): Add test for undo delegator.  Patch mostly by
     Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(18): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(19): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27239

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27156

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<68>,  Next: Tests<72>,  Prev: IDLE<56>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-16484(1): Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to "https:", and
     fix the resulting links to use lowercase.  Patch by Sean Rodman,
     test by Kaushik Nadikuditi.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-22558(4): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16484

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<72>,  Next: Windows<67>,  Prev: Documentation<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25285(1): regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command
     line option is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process.
     Before, the -j1 option was ignored.

   - bpo-25285(2): Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by
     default to run each test file in fresh child process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<67>,  Next: Build<78>,  Prev: Tests<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27064(1): The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3.  The
     Windows launcher ‘py.exe’ no longer prefers an installed Python 2
     version over Python 3 by default when used interactively.

   - bpo-17500(2): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Build<78>,  Next: C API<68>,  Prev: Windows<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27229(1): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26930(2): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: C API<68>,  Next: Tools/Demos<42>,  Prev: Build<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-27186(1): Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519(2)).

   - bpo-26282(3): PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports
     positional-only parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<42>,  Prev: C API<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.88.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26282(1): Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and
     keyword parameters in the same function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 5 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.89 Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-05-16'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Build: Build<79>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* C API: C API<69>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<46>,  Next: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26657(1): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(2): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(3): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<81>,  Next: Library<80>,  Prev: Security<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-20041(1): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(2): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the "N" format unit.

   - bpo-26991(3): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(4): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Based on patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(5): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-27005(6): Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact
     float.  It is now 2 times faster.

   - bpo-18531(7): Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact dict.

   - bpo-26811(8): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(9): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26249(10): Memory functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.
     domain (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59.) now use the *note pymalloc
     allocator: cff. rather than system ‘malloc()’.  Applications
     calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. without holding the GIL can now
     crash: use ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable to validate
     the usage of memory allocators in your application.

   - bpo-26802(11): Optimize function calls only using unpacking like
     ‘func(*tuple)’ (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid
     copying the tuple.  Patch written by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-26659(12): Make the builtin slice type support cycle
     collection.

   - bpo-26718(13): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-27138(14): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-27147(15): Mention PEP 420(16) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-25339(17): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(18): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26574(19): Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and
     ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’.  Patch written by Josh Snider.

   - bpo-26581(20): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-19711(21): Add tests for reloading namespace packages.

   - bpo-21099(22): Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451(23)
     API.

   - bpo-26563(24): Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a
     fatal error if functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. family
     are called without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26564(25): On error, the debug hooks on Python memory
     allocators now use the *note tracemalloc: fe. module to get the
     traceback where a memory block was allocated.

   - bpo-26558(26): The debug hooks on Python memory allocator *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): c58. now detect when functions are called
     without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26516(27): Add *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable to
     set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

   - bpo-26516(28): The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. function can
     now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.

   - bpo-26516(29): The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b14. environment
     variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
     It now has no effect if set to an empty string.

   - bpo-26516(30): In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on
     Python memory allocators when Python is configured without
     pymalloc.

   - bpo-26464(31): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(32): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(33): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-26136(34): Upgrade the warning when a generator raises
     StopIteration from PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.
     Patch by Anish Shah.

   - bpo-26204(35): The compiler now ignores all constant statements:
     bytes, str, int, float, complex, name constants (None, False,
     True), Ellipsis and ast.Constant; not only str and int.  For
     example, ‘1.0’ is now ignored in ‘def f(): 1.0’.

   - bpo-4806(36): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-26146(37): Add a new kind of AST node: ‘ast.Constant’.  It can
     be used by external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit
     directly such node.

   - bpo-23601(38): Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using
     Python's small object allocator.  (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)

   - bpo-18018(39): Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if
     a relative import is attempted without a known parent package.

   - bpo-25843(40): When compiling code, don't merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘float’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-26107(41): The format of the ‘co_lnotab’ attribute of code
     objects changes to support negative line number delta.

   - bpo-26154(42): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don't issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-25791(43): If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither
     __package__ or __spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.

   - bpo-22995(44): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(45): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(46): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(47): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren't subclasses of list or dict and haven't implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(48): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(49): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(50): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(51): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-5319(52): New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an
     exit status of 120 on failure to flush buffered streams.

   - bpo-25485(53): telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.

   - bpo-24097(54): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(55): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-25630(56): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(57): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(58): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(59): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(60): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-24802(61): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-25555(62): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     "arg" node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24726(63): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(64): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(65): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25401(66): Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex():
     they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.

   - bpo-25399(67): Optimize bytearray % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times
     faster.

   - bpo-25274(68): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the "lower-water mark" formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(69): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-25349(70): Optimize bytes % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.

   - bpo-24806(71): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-25301(72): The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’.

   - bpo-24848(73): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25267(74): The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’,
     ‘surrogatepass’.  Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25280(75): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25227(76): Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times
     as fast.  Initial patch written by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25003(77): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn't need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-9232(78): Modify Python's grammar to allow trailing commas in
     the argument list of a function declaration.  For example, "def
     f(*, a = 3,): pass" is now legal.  Patch from Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24965(79): Implement PEP 498(80) "Literal String
     Interpolation".  This allows you to embed expressions inside
     f-strings, which are converted to normal strings at run time.
     Given x=3, then f'value={x}' == 'value=3'.  Patch by Eric V. Smith.

   - bpo-26478(81): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(82): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(83): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-26288(84): Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.

   - bpo-26289(85): Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit
     longs.  Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement.  Built-in 'divmod'
     function is now also ~10% faster.  (See also: bpo-26315(86))

   - bpo-25887(87): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27005

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18531

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26802

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19711

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21099

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26563

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26558

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26136

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26204

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23601

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26107

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9232

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24965

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26288

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26289

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26315

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887


File: python.info,  Node: Library<80>,  Next: IDLE<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-27057(1): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(2): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-27031(3): Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes:
     tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal().

   - bpo-14132(4): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(5): The "urllib.request" module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but "http.client"
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27033(6): The default value of the decode_data parameter for
     smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to
     False.

   - bpo-27034(7): Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.

   - bpo-26870(8): Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop
     entries being automatically added to the history list.  Based on
     patch by Tyler Crompton.

   - bpo-26039(9): zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data
     into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  Patch by Thomas
     Kluyver.

   - bpo-26892(10): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(11): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(12): mock_open 'files' no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(13): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(14): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26002(15): Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear
     search.  Patch by Upendra Kuma.

   - bpo-25974(16): Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in
     statistics module.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-26996(17): Add secrets module as described in PEP 506(18).

   - bpo-26881(19): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(20): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(21): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(22): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26915(23): The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now
     check for identity before checking equality.  This better matches
     the behavior of the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of
     NaNs, and makes it easier to reason about container invariants.

   - bpo-26711(24): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(25): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(26): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24902(27): Print server URL on http.server startup.  Initial
     patch by Felix Kaiser.

   - bpo-25788(28): fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an "errors"
     argument for passing to open.  Original patch by Joseph Hackman.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove "will be removed in Python 3.7" from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5, catch *note AttributeError: 343.
     instead of *note NameError: 42a.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile's ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26782(38): Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.

   - bpo-26404(39): Add context manager to socketserver.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26735(40): Fix *note os.urandom(): 50f. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-26585(41): Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use
     html.escape(quote=False).  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26685(42): Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.

   - bpo-16329(43): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-13952(44): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26587(45): the site module now allows .pth files to specify
     files to be added to sys.path (e.g.  zip files).

   - bpo-25609(46): Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and
     typing.ContextManager.

   - bpo-26709(47): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(48): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-25951(49): Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as
     explicitly documented for plain socket objects.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26586(50): In http.server, respond with "413 Request header
     fields too large" if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26676(51): Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.

   - bpo-22854(52): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-26492(53): Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with
     the behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts
     exhausted even if iterated array is extended.

   - bpo-26641(54): doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now
     support packages (module splitted into multiple directories) for
     the package parameter.

   - bpo-25195(55): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(56): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(57): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(58): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-26637(59): The *note importlib: 76. module now emits an *note
     ImportError: 40f. rather than a *note TypeError: 525. if *note
     __import__(): 8c3. is tried during the Python shutdown process but
     *note sys.path: 3ab. is already cleared (set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-21925(60): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 19d3. now catches
     exceptions when calling *note linecache.getline(): e12. and *note
     tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(): 1b16. to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: 241. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-23848(61): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs
     an exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on
     any Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE,
     SIGABRT).

   - bpo-26530(62): Add C functions ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Track()’ and
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()’ to track memory blocks using the *note
     tracemalloc: fe. module.  Add ‘_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback()’ to
     get the traceback of an object.

   - bpo-26588(63): The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory
     allocations of multiple address spaces (domains).

   - bpo-24266(64): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26590(65): Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket
     type.  It now releases the GIL to close the socket.

   - bpo-18787(66): spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the
     user doesn't have privileges.

   - bpo-26560(67): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26567(68): Add a new function *note PyErr_ResourceWarning():
     d07. function to pass the destroyed object.  Add a 'source'
     attribute to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.  Add
     warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses tracemalloc to get the traceback
     where source object was allocated.

   - bpo-26569(69): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 817. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 818. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(70): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(71): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(72): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(73): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(74): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-26323(75): Add Mock.assert_called() and
     Mock.assert_called_once() methods to unittest.mock.  Patch written
     by Amit Saha.

   - bpo-20589(76): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(77): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(78): Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput.  The
     bufsize parameter is now deprecated and ignored.

   - bpo-19475(79): Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime
     isoformat() method to choose the precision of the time component.

   - bpo-2202(80): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-26167(81): Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and
     copy.deepcopy().  Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays,
     NotImplemented, slices, short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.

   - bpo-25718(82): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(83): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26482(84): Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.

   - bpo-26335(85): Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  Patch by Jakub Stasiak.

   - bpo-26457(86): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(87): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(88): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(89): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(90): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(91): importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(92): In the "socketserver" module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-23430(93): Change the socketserver module to only catch
     exceptions raised from a request handler that are derived from
     Exception (instead of BaseException).  Therefore SystemExit and
     KeyboardInterrupt no longer trigger the handle_error() method, and
     will now to stop a single-threaded server.

   - bpo-25995(94): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-25994(95): Added the close() method and the support of the
     context manager protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-23992(96): multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon
     exception.

   - bpo-26243(97): Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress().  Patch
     by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-26117(98): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25949(99): __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created
     only when needed.

   - bpo-25911(100): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(101): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting
     a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-26039(102): Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and
     zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-12923(103): Reset FancyURLopener's redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(104): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  "args" and "keywords" attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(105): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range()
     objects with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(106): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it's called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(107): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(108): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26099(109): The site module now writes an error into stderr if
     sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise
     an ImportError.  Same change for usercustomize.

   - bpo-26147(110): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(111): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(112): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(113): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-26129(114): Deprecated accepting non-integers in
     grp.getgrgid().

   - bpo-25850(115): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit
     Windows.

   - bpo-25822(116): Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse
     results.  Patch contributed by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-22642(117): Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to
     argparse.  Patch contributed by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-24705(118): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${}
     vars appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-26069(119): Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.

   - bpo-22138(120): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(121): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(122): Don't traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(123): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-21815(124): Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap
     responses, in order to handle the flags with square brackets
     accepted and produced by servers such as gmail.

   - bpo-25447(125): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25971(126): Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times
     and from Decimals by 3 times.

   - bpo-25802(127): Document as deprecated the remaining
     implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

   - bpo-25928(128): Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().

   - bpo-25447(129): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25768(130): Have the functions in compileall return booleans
     instead of ints and add proper documentation and tests for the
     return values.

   - bpo-24103(131): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(132): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(133): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25869(134): Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20
     times faster.

   - bpo-25873(135): Optimized iterating ElementTree.  Iterating
     elements Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text
     Element.itertext() is now up to 2.5 times faster.

   - bpo-25902(136): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-22227(137): The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using
     generator.  This implementation is simpler that using class.

   - bpo-25638(138): Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x
     faster.  Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.

   - bpo-25761(139): Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.

   - bpo-25717(140): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(141): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when '-d' is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(142): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-25771(143): Tweak the exception message for
     importlib.util.resolve_name() when 'package' isn't specified but
     necessary.

   - bpo-6478(144): _strptime's regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(145): When executing a package with the "python -m
     package" option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The "runpy" module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(146): Also in runpy and the "-m" option, omit the
     irrelevant message ".  .  .  is a package and cannot be directly
     executed" if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due
     to a bad ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(147): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(148): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(149): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-7990(150): dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties:
     "tag", "text", "tail" and "attrib".  Original patch by Santoso
     Wijaya.

   - bpo-25725(151): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(152): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(153): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(154): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(155): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(156): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-25626(157): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that
     fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(158): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(159): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(160): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-23883(161): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: calendar, csv, enum,
     fileinput, ftplib, logging, optparse, tarfile, threading and wave.
     Also added a test.support.check__all__() helper.  Patches by Jacek
     Kołodziej, Mauro S. M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.

   - bpo-25590(162): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.  Also complete names of attributes such as
     properties and slots which are listed by dir() but not yet created
     on an instance.

   - bpo-25498(163): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(164): Added "escape" to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(165): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(166): Fix regression in smtplib's AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(167): Fix the pydoc web server's module search function
     to handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(168): Got rid of circular references in regular
     expression parsing.

   - bpo-18973(169): Command-line interface of the calendar module now
     uses argparse instead of optparse.

   - bpo-25510(170): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b''
     instead of '' at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(171): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(172): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(173): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(174): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(175): typing: Don't crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(176): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(177): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(178): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25407(179): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(180): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25382(181): pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index
     for the MEMOIZE opcode.

   - bpo-25357(182): Add an optional newline parameter to
     binascii.b2a_base64().  base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a
     memory copy.

   - bpo-24164(183): Objects that need calling ‘__new__’ with keyword
     arguments, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than
     protocol version 4.

   - bpo-25364(184): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(185): smtpd's SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-16099(186): RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and
     Request-rate extensions.  Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.

   - bpo-25316(187): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(188): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(189): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is 'posix' (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(190): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(191): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(192): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes
     in the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25287(193): Don't add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if
     it's not supported.  Check if it is supported, it may not be
     supported on OpenBSD for example.

   - bpo-23600(194): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-25203(195): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-25011(196): rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute
     names unless the prefix starts with underscores.

   - bpo-25209(197): rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after
     completed keyword.

   - bpo-22241(198): timezone.utc name is now plain 'UTC', not
     'UTC-00:00'.

   - bpo-23517(199): fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of
     datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going
     to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead
     of rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).

   - bpo-23552(200): Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x)
     variance between best and worst times.  Patch from Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-24633(201): site-packages/README -> README.txt.

   - bpo-24879(202): help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in
     the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  The
     ordering is determined by the _fields attribute if present.

   - bpo-24874(203): Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its
     pickle more compact.

   - Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument
     wasn't a list.

   - bpo-20059(204): urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid
     ports.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-24360(205): Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for
     invalid identifiers.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-23426(206): run_setup was broken in distutils.  Patch from
     Alexander Belopolsky.

   - bpo-13938(207): 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple.  Patch from
     Mark Hammond.

   - bpo-2091(208): open() accepted a 'U' mode string containing '+',
     but 'U' can only be used with 'r'.  Patch from Jeff Balogh and John
     O'Connor.

   - bpo-8585(209): improved tests for zipimporter2.  Patch from Mark
     Lawrence.

   - bpo-18622(210): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-24426(211): Fast searching optimization in regular expressions
     now works for patterns that starts with capturing groups.  Fast
     searching optimization now can't be disabled at compile time.

   - bpo-23661(212): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-13248(213): Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.

   - bpo-25578(214): Fix (another) memory leak in
     SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(215): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(216): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(217): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn't appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(218): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(219): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(220): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(221): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(222): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-27040(223): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(224): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

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   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25974

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26996

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<57>,  Next: Documentation<69>,  Prev: Library<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-20640(1): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the 'IDLE-console differences' section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(2): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(3): Revert unwanted conversion of ' to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     'ascii'.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with 'utf-8'.

   - bpo-15348(4): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(5): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change 'The program' to 'Your program' in an IDLE 'kill program?'
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(6): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(7): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(8): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(9): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(10): IDLE now has an 'IDLE Dark' built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, ...  are still
     green, red, orange, ...  .  To use it with IDLEs released before
     November 2015, hit the 'Save as New Custom Theme' button and enter
     a new name, such as 'Custom Dark'.  The custom theme will work with
     any IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(11): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  'IDLE' now means 'Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment'.

   - bpo-24820(12): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(13): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(14): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(15): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(16): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(17): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a 'sheet'.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(18): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(19): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(20): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(21): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(22): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(23): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(24): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(25): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(26): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(27): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(28): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<69>,  Next: Tests<73>,  Prev: IDLE<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-26736(1): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(2): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(3): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-24952(4): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the "threading" and "_thread" modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-26014(5): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * "See also"
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<73>,  Next: Build<79>,  Prev: Documentation<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26295(2): When using "python3 -m test -testdir=TESTDIR",
     regrtest doesn't add "test."  prefix to test module names.

   - bpo-26523(3): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(4): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(5): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(6): Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server
     more.  This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently
     changed root certificate.

   - bpo-25616(7): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-25449(8): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25188(9): Add -P/-pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output
     when running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build.
     Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu.

   - bpo-22806(10): Add ‘python -m test --list-tests’ command to list
     tests.

   - bpo-18174(11): ‘python -m test --huntrleaks ...’ now also checks
     for leak of file descriptors.  Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.

   - bpo-25260(12): Fix ‘python -m test --coverage’ on Windows.  Remove
     the list of ignored directories.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   - bpo-26583(13): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25188

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18174

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25260

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<79>,  Next: Windows<68>,  Prev: Tests<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-21277(1): Don't try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience
     library.

   - bpo-26884(2): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26932(3): Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum
     values, not via macros (in particular on Android).  Patch by Chi
     Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22359(4): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(5): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-25702(6): A -with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(7): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(8): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(9): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(10): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is removed.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-24986(14): It is now possible to build Python on Windows
     without errors when external libraries are not available.

   - bpo-24421(15): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-26465(16): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-26268(17): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(18): Support Apple Xcode 7's new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(19): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26932

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<68>,  Next: Tools/Demos<43>,  Prev: Build<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don't include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-25022(6): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<43>,  Next: C API<69>,  Prev: Windows<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don't get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-25440(5): Fix output of python-config -extension-suffix.

   - bpo-25154(6): The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of
     ‘python3 -m venv’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: C API<69>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.89.10 C API
................

   - bpo-26312(1): SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs
     with using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().  RuntimeError did raised
     before in some programming bugs.

   - bpo-26198(2): ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on
     buffer overflow in parsing "es#" and "et#" format units.
     SystemError is now raised instead of TypeError on programmatical
     error in parsing format string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26198


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 final,  Next: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.90 Python 3.5.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-04'

There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.91 Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<47>,  Next: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.23.91.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-32551(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  This is considered a
     potential security issue, as it may lead to privileged processes
     unexpectedly loading code from user controlled directories in
     situations where that was not previously the case.  The interpreter
     now consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.  (Originally reported as bpo-29723(3) against
     Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming
     Python 3.5.4 release would also be affected)

   - bpo-30657(4): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     PyBytes_DecodeEscape, CVE 2017-1000158(5).  Original patch by Jay
     Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by Miro Hrončok.

   - bpo-30947(6): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32551

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30657

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-1000158

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<82>,  Next: Library<81>,  Prev: Security<47>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.23.91.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31095(1): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn't call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<81>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.23.91.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32072(1): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-31170(2): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 final,  Next: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.92 Python 3.5.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-08-07'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<82>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 final

1.23.92.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-30119(1): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.93 Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Build: Build<80>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* C API: C API<70>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<48>,  Next: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(10): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(11) and CVE 2016-4472(12).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<83>,  Next: Library<83>,  Prev: Security<48>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30876(1): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30765(2): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-27945(3): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(4): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-29935(5): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-28876(6): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises *note
     OverflowError: 86f.

   - bpo-29600(7): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-29537(8): Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files
     generated by CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to
     avoid the problems that could be caused by the malformed variant of
     the BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain.  Patch
     by Petr Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-28598(9): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29602(10): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(11): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(12): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(13): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(14): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29537

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<83>,  Next: Documentation<70>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-29403(1): Fix ‘unittest.mock’'s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(2): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

   - bpo-30886(3): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits
     until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the
     same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(4): Fix segfault in readline when using readline's
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30807(5): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(6): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(7): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-29169(8): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30879(9): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(10): Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(11): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30645(12): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-23890(13): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(14): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29931(15): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-24484(16): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-28994(17): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(18): Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()"
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(19): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(20): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(21): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(22): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(23): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30378(24): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(25): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(26): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(27): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(28): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(29): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(30): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(31): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-29990(32): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(33): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(34))

   - bpo-30243(35): Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(36): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(37): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(38): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(39): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(40): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29942(45): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(46): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(47): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(48): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(49): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(50): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(51): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(52): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(53): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(54): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(55): Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29615(56): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-29704(57): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29703(58): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(59): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-29110(60): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28961(61): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29532(62): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-28556(63): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(64): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(65): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(66): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(67): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(68): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(69): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(70): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29011(71): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-29219(72): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-28969(73): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(74): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<70>,  Next: Tests<74>,  Prev: Library<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-26985(2): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-28929(3): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(4): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(5): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(6): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<74>,  Next: Build<80>,  Prev: Documentation<70>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30822(1): Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u
     extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30383(2): regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from
     the master branch.  Add options: -coverage, -testdir, -list-tests
     (list test files, don't run them), -list-cases (list test
     identifiers, don't run them, bpo-30523(3)), -matchfile (load a list
     of test filters from a text file, bpo-30540(4)), -slowest (alias to
     -slow).  Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently
     running tests, "Tests result: xxx" summary with total duration,
     etc.  Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, -huntrleaks: regrtest
     now warms up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons
     which are created on demand to prevent false positives when
     checking for reference leaks.  (bpo-30675(5)).

   - bpo-30357(6): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-28087(7): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-30197(8): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-29571(9): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30675

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571


File: python.info,  Node: Build<80>,  Next: Windows<69>,  Prev: Tests<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29243(1): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(2): Don't regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(3): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn't work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<69>,  Next: C API<70>,  Prev: Build<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-29392(2): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392


File: python.info,  Node: C API<70>,  Prev: Windows<69>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.93.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and
     0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 final,  Next: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.94 Python 3.5.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-17'

There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.95 Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* C API: C API<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<49>,  Next: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<84>,  Next: Library<84>,  Prev: Security<49>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29073(1): bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first
     null byte.

   - bpo-28932(2): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-28147(3): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.

   - bpo-25677(4): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for
     indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(5): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in
     alternate form.

   - bpo-28512(6): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28991(7): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28648(8): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(9): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28426(10): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-23782(11): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28379(12): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(13): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(14): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(15): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(16): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(17): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28350(18): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(19): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(20): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(21): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(22): Fix incorrect type in error message from
     ‘complex(1.0, {2:3})’.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-27955(23): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28131(24): Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-25221(25): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-25758(26): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28189(27): dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare
     errors.  (Patch by Xiang Zhang)

   - bpo-27812(28): Properly clear out a generator's frame's
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(29): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(30): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of 'def' in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26020(31): set literal evaluation order did not match
     documented behaviour.

   - bpo-27782(32): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(33): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(34): Warn if a submodule argument to "python -m" or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27558(35): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of "raise"
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(36): Standard __import__() no longer look up "__import__"
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or "from import".
     Fixed handling an error of non-string package name.

   - bpo-27083(37): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(38): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27473(39): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27507(40): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(41): Don't rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27443(42): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27942(43): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29073

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28189

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26020

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<84>,  Next: IDLE<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-15812(1): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(2): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object
     and modes "w" and "x" now are relative to the start of the file.

   - bpo-13051(3): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(4): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(5): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(6): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(7): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(8): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(9): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(10): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a
     sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(11): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(12): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-25659(13): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-28732(14): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(15): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=...)  parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28387(16): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(17): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(18): Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(19): tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(20): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(21): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(22): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(23): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(24): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-25464(25): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(26): shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry "./" to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-24452(27): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(28): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-26293(29): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28321(30): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28322(31): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(32): Fix the ability to pass the -link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28253(33): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(34): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(35): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18893(36): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(37): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.

   - bpo-27348(38): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like "Exception: None".  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(39): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27932(40): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(41): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-25270(42): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(43): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(44): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-27599(45): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-19003(46): m email.generator now replaces only ‘\r’ and/or ‘\n’
     line endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.

   - bpo-28019(47): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-25969(48): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(49): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files ("first match"), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-24594(50): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(51): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(52): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27445(53): Don't pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-22450(54): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-27570(55): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the "ctypes" and "array" modules.

   - bpo-22233(56): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27988(57): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-27691(58): Fix ssl module's parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-27850(59): Remove 3DES from ssl module's default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(60)).

   - bpo-27766(61): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module's default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-26470(62): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn't raise.

   - bpo-12885(63): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(64): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(65): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(66): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(67): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(68): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(69)).  Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261).  Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259).  Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252).

   - bpo-27539(70): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(71): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-2466(72): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-27773(73): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(74): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(75): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(76): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(77): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(78): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(79): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(80)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-27656(81): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(82): In the "zlib" module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-27533(83): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(84): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(85): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-26844(86): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     'path' instead of 'name'.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(87): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and
     not raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(88): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-26664(89): Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of ‘$’.

   - bpo-22115(90): Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete()
     with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always
     returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the "u" mode now
     works.

   - Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an
     UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put
     into sys.modules.

   - bpo-27079(91): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-26754(92): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-27048(93): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(94): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(95): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(96): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(97) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-26386(98): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id's containing spaces.

   - bpo-16182(99): Fix various functions in the "readline" module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(100): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   - bpo-27930(101): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-21201(102): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - bpo-27456(103): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   - bpo-27906(104): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(105): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(106): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(107): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(108): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(109): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(110): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(111): Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(112): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(113): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(114): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(115): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(116): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-26923(117): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(118): Don't configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28600(119): Optimize loop.call_soon().

   - bpo-28613(120): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28639(121): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(122): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(123): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(124): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-24142(125): Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28990(126): Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before
     handshake completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19003

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (60) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (80) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26664

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (97) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<58>,  Next: C API<71>,  Prev: Library<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add 'interrupt execution' (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from 'flashing' gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(3): In section on IDLE - console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27714(4): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-25507(5): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27452(6): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245


File: python.info,  Node: C API<71>,  Next: Documentation<71>,  Prev: IDLE<58>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-26754(2): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     bytes-like objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<71>,  Next: Tests<75>,  Prev: C API<71>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<75>,  Next: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: Documentation<71>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28950(1): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28666(2): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(3): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-28409(4): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-27787(5): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     "dangling threads", since the dangling threads are weak references.

   - bpo-27369(6): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<44>,  Next: Windows<70>,  Prev: Tests<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current "re" module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   - bpo-27332(2): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(3): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<70>,  Next: Build<81>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<44>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28251(1): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(2): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-25144(3): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<81>,  Prev: Windows<70>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.95.10 Build
................

   - bpo-29080(1): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(2): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-10656(3): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(4): Rename -with-optimiations to -enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(5): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28248(6): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-28258(7): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(8): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-28066(9): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-15819(10): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27566(11): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(12): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27983(13): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when -with-optimizations is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-26307(14): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the
     built-in modules.

   - bpo-26359(15): Add the -with-optimizations configure flag.

   - bpo-27713(16): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib's bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(17): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and
     ld_so_aix, which are required on AIX. This updates references to an
     installation path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed
     references to the build tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(18): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(19): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(20): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python
     program to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(21): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   - bpo-28676(22): Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 final,  Next: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.96 Python 3.5.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<85>,  Next: Tests<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.23.96.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-26930(1): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<76>,  Next: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.23.96.2 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26867(1): Ubuntu's openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default;
     fix test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26867


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Tests<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.23.96.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27365(1): Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part
     for 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.97 Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<85>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Build: Build<82>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<50>,  Next: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 50f. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   - bpo-26657(5): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(6): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(7): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<86>,  Next: Library<85>,  Prev: Security<50>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27066(1): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-20041(2): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(3): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the "N" format unit.

   - bpo-26991(4): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(5): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(6): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-26811(7): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(8): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26659(9): Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

   - bpo-26718(10): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-25339(11): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(12): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26581(13): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-26464(14): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(15): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(16): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-4806(17): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-27138(18): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-26154(19): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don't issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-26194(20): Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques
     that had reached their maximum size.  Now an IndexError will be
     raised when attempting to insert into a full deque.

   - bpo-25843(21): When compiling code, don't merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘int’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-22995(22): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(23): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(24): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(25): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren't subclasses of list or dict and haven't implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(26): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(27): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(28): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(29): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-27147(30): Mention PEP 420(31) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-24097(32): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(33): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-26478(34): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(35): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(36): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-25887(37): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   - bpo-27243(38): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26194

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<85>,  Next: IDLE<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-21386(1): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-20900(2): distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
     correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(3)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(4): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don't
     send Content header fields in responses that don't have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(5): Fix the "platform" module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-27164(6): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(7): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-26809(8): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: d2.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(9): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - bpo-21776(10): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-27114(11): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(12): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-27057(13): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(14): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-14132(15): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(16): The "urllib.request" module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but "http.client"
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26892(17): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(18): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(19): mock_open 'files' no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(20): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(21): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26881(22): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(23): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(24): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(25): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26711(26): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(27): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(28): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove "will be removed in Python 3.7" from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5, catch *note AttributeError: 343.
     instead of *note NameError: 42a.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile's ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26735(38): Fix *note os.urandom(): 50f. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-16329(39): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-13952(40): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26709(41): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(42): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-26586(43): In http.server, respond with "413 Request header
     fields too large" if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-22854(44): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-25195(45): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(46): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(47): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(48): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-21925(49): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 19d3. now catches
     exceptions on ‘linecache.getline(...)’ to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: 241. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-24266(50): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26560(51): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26569(52): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 817. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 818. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(53): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(54): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(55): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(56): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(57): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-20589(58): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(59): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(60): Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput
     module.  The bufsize parameter is no longer used.

   - bpo-2202(61): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-25718(62): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(63): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26457(64): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(65): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(66): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(67): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(68): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(69): importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(70): In the "socketserver" module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-25995(71): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-26117(72): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25911(73): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(74): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
     non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-12923(75): Reset FancyURLopener's redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(76): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  "args" and "keywords" attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(77): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects
     with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(78): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it's called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(79): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(80): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26147(81): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(82): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(83): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(84): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-25850(85): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-17633(86): Improve zipimport's support for namespace packages.

   - bpo-24705(87): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars
     appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-22138(88): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(89): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(90): Don't traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(91): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-25447(92): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25447(93): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-24103(94): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(95): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(96): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25902(97): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-25717(98): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(99): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when '-d' is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(100): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-6478(101): _strptime's regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(102): When executing a package with the "python -m
     package" option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The "runpy" module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(103): Also in runpy and the "-m" option, omit the
     irrelevant message ".  .  .  is a package and cannot be directly
     executed" if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due
     to a bad ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(104): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(105): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(106): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-25725(107): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(108): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(109): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(110): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(111): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(112): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(113): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(114): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(115): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(116): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O'Connor.

   - bpo-27040(117): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(118): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   - bpo-27223(119): asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to
     respect _conn_lost.  Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-22970(120): asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling
     Condition.wait.  Patch by David Coles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589

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   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26309

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25995

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26117

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25911

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26045

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12923

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25945

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26202

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23076

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   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

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   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25914

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   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25717

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<60>,  Next: Documentation<72>,  Prev: Library<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24759(2): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(3): Stop 'ThemeChanged' warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka's update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(4): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-27117(5): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-26673(6): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(7): Add test for IDLE's percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(8): Add test for IDLE's replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(9): Add test for IDLE's search dialog.  Original patch by
     Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(10): Add test for IDLE's undo delegator.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(11): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(12): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   - bpo-20640(13): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the 'IDLE-console differences' section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(14): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(15): Revert unwanted conversion of ' to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     'ascii'.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with 'utf-8'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<72>,  Next: Tests<77>,  Prev: IDLE<60>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-26736(4): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(5): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(6): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-25500(7): Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is
     searched for in the global scope.

   - bpo-26014(8): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * "See also"
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<77>,  Next: Build<82>,  Prev: Documentation<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26523(2): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(3): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(4): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(5): Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net.
     This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root
     certificate.

   - bpo-25616(6): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-26583(7): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<82>,  Next: Windows<71>,  Prev: Tests<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-26884(1): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22359(2): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-27229(3): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(4): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-25702(5): A -with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(6): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(7): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(8): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(9): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-24421(10): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is now deprecated, and
     simply calls ‘PCbuild\build.bat --pgo %*’.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-26930(14): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-26268(15): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(16): Support Apple Xcode 7's new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(17): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<71>,  Next: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Build<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don't include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-17500(6): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Windows<71>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.97.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don't get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 final,  Next: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.98 Python 3.5.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2015-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<87>,  Next: Windows<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.23.98.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-25709(1): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<72>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.23.98.2 Windows
.................

   - bpo-25715(1): Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and
     incorrect logic for launcher detection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25715


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.99 Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<86>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Build: Build<83>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<88>,  Next: Library<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-25630(1): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(2): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(3): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(4): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(5): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-25555(6): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     "arg" node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24802(7): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-24726(8): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(9): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(10): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25274(11): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the "lower-water mark" formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(12): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-24806(13): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-24848(14): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25280(15): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25003(16): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn't need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-25182(17): The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io
     module is imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error
     handler.

   - bpo-25131(18): Make the line number and column offset of set/dict
     literals and comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.

   - bpo-25150(19): Hide the private ‘_Py_atomic_XXX’ symbols from the
     public Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP.
     PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to
     avoid ABI incompatibilities.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25182

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25131

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25150


File: python.info,  Node: Library<86>,  Next: IDLE<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25626(1): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit
     in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(2): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(3): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(4): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-25590(5): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.

   - bpo-25498(6): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(7): Added "escape" to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(8): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(9): Fix regression in smtplib's AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(10): Fix the pydoc web server's module search function to
     handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(11): Got rid of circular references in regular expression
     parsing.

   - bpo-25510(12): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b''
     instead of '' at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(13): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(14): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(15): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(16): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(17): typing: Don't crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(18): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(19): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(20): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - bpo-25407(21): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(22): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25364(23): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(24): smtpd's SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-25316(25): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(26): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(27): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is 'posix' (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(28): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(29): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(30): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in
     the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from Xiang
     Zhang.

   - bpo-24483(31): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now
     calculates key's hash only once.

   - bpo-22958(32): Constructor and update method of
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary now accept the self and the dict
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-22609(33): Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the
     self keyword argument.

   - bpo-25111(34): Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.

   - bpo-25262(35): Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python
     implementation of unpickler.  Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for
     BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8 opcodes no longer silently ignored on
     32-bit platforms in C implementation.

   - bpo-25034(36): Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and
     nested format_specs.  Patch by Anthon van der Neut.

   - bpo-25233(37): Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and
     asyncio.Semaphore to be more understandable and correct.

   - bpo-25203(38): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-23600(39): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-23329(40): Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions
     of LibreSSL.

   - Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.

   - bpo-25047(41): The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree
     now respects the letter case given by the user.  This restores the
     ability to write encoding names in uppercase like "UTF-8", which
     worked in Python 2.

   - bpo-25135(42): Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque
     before clearing.  This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.

   - bpo-19143(43): platform module now reads Windows version from
     kernel32.dll to avoid compatibility shims.

   - bpo-25092(44): Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was
     already set to EINVAL.

   - bpo-23517(45): Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and
     utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime: microseconds are
     now rounded to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer
     (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding towards minus infinity
     (ROUND_FLOOR). It's important that these methods use the same
     rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property:
     (datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) ==
     datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t).  It also the rounding mode used by
     round(float) for example.

   - bpo-25155(46): Fix datetime.datetime.now() and
     datetime.datetime.utcnow() on Windows to support date after year
     2038.  It was a regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-25108(47): Omitted internal frames in traceback functions
     print_stack(), format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-25118(48): Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-24684(49): socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method
     of the host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode()
     method which doesn't return a byte string.  The encoder of the IDNA
     codec is now called directly instead of calling the encode() method
     of the string.

   - bpo-25060(50): Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP
     opcode.

   - bpo-24857(51): Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly
     returns a boolean result instead of raising an exception.  Patch by
     A Kaptur.

   - bpo-23144(52): Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the
     data, even when convert_charrefs is True.

   - bpo-24982(53): shutil.make_archive() with the "zip" format now adds
     entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-25019(54): Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of
     expat parser.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-16180(55): Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of
     trapping user in an infinite loop.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-24891(56): Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file
     descriptor of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while
     Python is creating sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects.
     These attributes are now set to None if the creation of the object
     failed, instead of raising an OSError exception.  Initial patch
     written by Marco Paolini.

   - bpo-24992(57): Fix error handling and a race condition (related to
     garbage collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.

   - bpo-24881(58): Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation
     of FileIO on Windows and Cygwin.  Patch from Akira Li.

   - bpo-25578(59): Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(60): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(61): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(62): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn't appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(63): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - bpo-21112(64): Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on
     subclasses.  Patch from Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-24764(65): cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the
     Content-Length header in part headers.  Patch written by Peter
     Landry and reviewed by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-24913(66): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   - bpo-24774(67): Fix docstring in http.server.test.  Patch from
     Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.

   - bpo-21159(68): Improve message in
     configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError.  Patch from Łukasz
     Langa.

   - bpo-20362(69): Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in
     assertRegex.  Patch from Ilia Kurenkov.

   - bpo-23572(70): Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with false
     metaclasses.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24483

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22958

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25111

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25262

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25034

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23329

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25047

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25135

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19143

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25092

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25155

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25108

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25118

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24684

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25060

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24857

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23144

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24982

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25019

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16180

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24992

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24881

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21112

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24764

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24774

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21159

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20362

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23572


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<61>,  Next: Documentation<73>,  Prev: Library<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15348(1): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(2): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change 'The program' to 'Your program' in an IDLE 'kill program?'
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(3): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(4): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(5): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(6): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(7): IDLE now has an 'IDLE Dark' built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, ...  are still
     green, red, orange, ...  .  To use it with IDLEs released before
     November 2015, hit the 'Save as New Custom Theme' button and enter
     a new name, such as 'Custom Dark'.  The custom theme will work with
     any IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(8): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  'IDLE' now means 'Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment'.

   - bpo-24820(9): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(10): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(11): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(12): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(13): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(14): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a 'sheet'.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(15): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(16): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(17): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(18): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(19): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(20): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(21): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(22): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(23): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(24): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(25): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<73>,  Next: Tests<78>,  Prev: IDLE<61>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-22558(1): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   - bpo-12067(2): Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions
     chapter of the language reference.  Some of the details of
     comparing mixed types were incorrect or ambiguous.  NotImplemented
     is only relevant at a lower level than the Expressions chapter.
     Added details of comparing range() objects, and default behaviour
     and consistency suggestions for user-defined classes.  Patch from
     Andy Maier.

   - bpo-24952(3): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the "threading" and "_thread" modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-23725(4): Overhaul tempfile docs.  Note deprecated status of
     mktemp.  Patch from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-24808(5): Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields.  Patch
     by Joseph Weston.

   - bpo-22812(6): Fix unittest discovery examples.  Patch from Pam
     McA'Nulty.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12067

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23725

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24808

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22812


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<78>,  Next: Build<83>,  Prev: Documentation<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25449(1): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25099(2): Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on
     sys.path cannot be written to (commonly seen in administrative
     installs on Windows).

   - bpo-23919(3): Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25099

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23919


File: python.info,  Node: Build<83>,  Next: Windows<73>,  Prev: Tests<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-24915(1): Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test
     suite to generate the profile data.  Initial patch by Alecsandru
     Patrascu of Intel.

   - bpo-24910(2): Windows MSIs now have unique display names.

   - bpo-24986(3): It is now possible to build Python on Windows without
     errors when external libraries are not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24915

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<73>,  Next: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Build<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-25450(1): Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation
     directory.

   - bpo-25164(2): Changes default all-users install directory to match
     per-user directory.

   - bpo-25143(3): Improves installer error messages for unsupported
     platforms.

   - bpo-25163(4): Display correct directory in installer when using
     non-default settings.

   - bpo-25361(5): Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build

   - bpo-25089(6): Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is
     not selected on upgrade.

   - bpo-25165(7): Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if
     other versions remain

   - bpo-25112(8): py.exe launcher is missing icons

   - bpo-25102(9): Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.

   - bpo-25081(10): Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade
     page when upgrading.

   - bpo-25091(11): Increases font size of the installer.

   - bpo-25126(12): Clarifies that the non-web installer will download
     some components.

   - bpo-25213(13): Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to
     disable UAC virtualization.

   - bpo-25022(14): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25450

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25143

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25165

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25112

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25102

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25081

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25091

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25126

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25213

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Windows<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.99.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-25440(1): Fix output of python-config -extension-suffix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 final,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.100 Python 3.5.0 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-13'

* Menu:

* Build: Build<84>.


File: python.info,  Node: Build<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 final

1.23.100.1 Build
................

   - bpo-25071(1): Windows installer should not require TargetDir
     parameter when installing quietly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25071


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.101 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-09'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<87>.
* Build: Build<85>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<87>,  Next: Build<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.23.101.1 Library
..................

   - bpo-25029(1): Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25029


File: python.info,  Node: Build<85>,  Prev: Library<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.23.101.2 Build
................

   - bpo-25027(1): Reverts partial-static build options and adds
     vcruntime140.dll to Windows installation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.102 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<88>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<89>,  Next: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.23.102.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24305(1): Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being
     counted by the warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.

   - bpo-24912(2): Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in
     objects.

   - bpo-24975(3): Fix AST compilation for PEP 448(4) syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24305

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24912

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24975

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<88>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.23.102.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24917(1): time_strftime() buffer over-read.

   - bpo-24748(2): To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe
     and pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously
     loaded modules to support Python modules replacing themselves with
     extension modules.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-24635(3): Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([],
     typing.Iterable) would return True once, then False on subsequent
     calls.

   - bpo-24989(4): Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a
     position is set beyond size.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-24913(5): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24748

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24635

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24989

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.103 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<89>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<90>,  Next: Library<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.23.103.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24769(1): Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading
     is disabled.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-21167(2): NAN operations are now handled correctly when python
     is compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.

   - bpo-24492(3): A "package" lacking a __name__ attribute when trying
     to perform a ‘from .. import ...’ statement will trigger an
     ImportError instead of an AttributeError.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24769

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21167

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24492


File: python.info,  Node: Library<89>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.23.103.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24847(1): Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-24839(2): platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning

   - bpo-24867(3): Fix Task.get_stack() for 'async def' coroutines

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24847

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24839

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24867


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.104 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<91>,  Next: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.104.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24667(1): Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict
     resizes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24667


File: python.info,  Node: Library<90>,  Next: IDLE<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.104.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24824(1): Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now
     are compatible with pydoc.

   - bpo-24634(2): Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows

   - bpo-24798(3): _msvccompiler.py doesn't properly support manifests

   - bpo-4395(4): Better testing and documentation of binary operators.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23973(5): Update typing.py from GitHub repo.

   - bpo-23004(6): mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the
     type of read_data is bytes.  Initial patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-23888(7): Handle fractional time in cookie expiry.  Patch by
     ssh.

   - bpo-23652(8): Make it possible to compile the select module against
     the libc headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include
     some EPOLL macros.  Patch by Matt Frank.

   - bpo-22932(9): Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate.  Patch from
     Dmitry Shachnev.

   - bpo-23779(10): imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to
     abort.  Patch from Craig Holmquist.

   - bpo-23319(11): Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes.
     Patch written by Matthieu Gautier.

   - bpo-23254(12): Document how to close the TCPServer listening
     socket.  Patch from Martin Panter.

   - bpo-19450(13): Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use
     SQLite 3.8.11.

   - bpo-17527(14): Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator.  Patch from Luca
     Sbardella.

   - bpo-24791(15): Fix grammar regression for call syntax: 'g(*a or
     b)'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24824

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24634

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24798

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23004

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23888

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23652

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22932

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23779

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23254

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19450

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17527

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24791


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<62>,  Next: Documentation<74>,  Prev: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.104.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23672(1): Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in
     name.  Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.

   - bpo-24745(2): Idle editor default font.  Switch from Courier to
     platform-sensitive TkFixedFont.  This should not affect current
     customized font selections.  If there is a problem, edit
     $HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove '‘fontXXX’' entries from
     [Editor Window].  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-21192(3): Idle editor.  When a file is run, put its name in the
     restart bar.  Do not print false prompts.  Original patch by Adnan
     Umer.

   - bpo-13884(4): Idle menus.  Remove tearoff lines.  Patch by Roger
     Serwy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23672

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24745

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21192

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13884


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<74>,  Next: Tests<79>,  Prev: IDLE<62>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.104.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24129(1): Clarify the reference documentation for name
     resolution.  This includes removing the assumption that readers
     will be familiar with the name resolution scheme Python used prior
     to the introduction of lexical scoping for function namespaces.
     Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-20769(2): Improve reload() docs.  Patch by Dorian Pula.

   - bpo-23589(3): Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ. Patch by
     Yongzhi Pan.

   - bpo-24729(4): Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding
     encoding parameter to open function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23589

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24729


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<79>,  Prev: Documentation<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.104.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-24751(1): When running regrtest with the ‘-w’ command line
     option, a test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests
     succeed when re-run.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24751


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.105 Python 3.5.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<91>.
* Build: Build<86>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<92>,  Next: Library<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.23.105.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and
     bytearray.rfind() for single-byte argument on Linux.

   - bpo-24569(2): Make PEP 448(3) dictionary evaluation more
     consistent.

   - bpo-24583(4): Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24407(5): Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24619(6): New approach for tokenizing async/await.  As a
     consequence, it is now possible to have one-line 'async def foo():
     await ..'  functions.

   - bpo-24687(7): Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters
     annotations.

   - bpo-15944(8): memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to
     bytes.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24569

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24583

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24407

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24687

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15944


File: python.info,  Node: Library<91>,  Next: Build<86>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.23.105.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23441(1): rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of
     displaying possible completions for an empty word.  Initial patch
     by Martin Sekera.

   - bpo-24683(2): Fixed crashes in _json functions called with
     arguments of inappropriate type.

   - bpo-21697(3): shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic
     links that point to directories.  Patch by Eduardo Seabra and
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-14373(4): Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called
     during constructing lru_cache (C implementation).

   - bpo-24695(5): Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception().  If
     exc_traceback is None we shouldn't print a traceback header like
     described in the documentation.

   - bpo-24620(6): Random.setstate() now validates the value of state
     last element.

   - bpo-22485(7): Fixed an issue that caused ‘inspect.getsource’ to
     return incorrect results on nested functions.

   - bpo-22153(8): Improve unittest docs.  Patch from Martin Panter and
     evilzero.

   - bpo-24580(9): Symbolic group references to open group in re
     patterns now are explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group
     references.

   - bpo-24206(10): Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.

   - bpo-24631(11): Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline
     setup.

   - bpo-18622(12): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-23661(13): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-24608(14): chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not
     str.

   - bpo-18684(15): Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.

   - bpo-24259(16): tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is
     truncated inside a data segment.

   - bpo-15014(17): SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954's
     optional initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.

   - bpo-24669(18): Fix inspect.getsource() for 'async def' functions.
     Patch by Kai Groner.

   - bpo-24688(19): ast.get_docstring() for 'async def' functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24695

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24620

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22485

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22153

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24580

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24206

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24631

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24608

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24259

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24669

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24688


File: python.info,  Node: Build<86>,  Prev: Library<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.23.105.3 Build
................

   - bpo-24603(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24603


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.106 Python 3.5.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Build: Build<87>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<93>,  Next: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.106.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24467(1): Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray.  The
     bytearray object now always allocates place for trailing null byte
     and it's buffer now is always null-terminated.

   - Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.

   - bpo-24345(2): Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.

   - bpo-24400(3): Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492(4) coroutines;
     add types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate,
     inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR
     flag; sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for 'async def'
     coroutines; inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses
     collections.abc.Coroutine, it's intended to test for pure 'async
     def' coroutines only; add new opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix
     generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be instance of
     collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and
     collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect
     generator-based coroutines-use inspect.isawaitable instead.

   - bpo-24450(5): Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to
     coroutines.  Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-19235(6): Add new RecursionError exception.  Patch by Georg
     Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<92>,  Next: Tests<80>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.106.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-21750(1): mock_open.read_data can now be read from each
     instance, as it could in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-24552(2): Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle
     module.

   - bpo-24514(3): tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of
     only whitespace.

   - bpo-19176(4): Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of
     ElementTree.  A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser
     subclass with default doctype() method.  Direct call of doctype()
     now issues a warning.  Parser's doctype() now is not called if
     target's doctype() is called.  Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20387(5): Restore semantic round-trip correctness in
     tokenize/untokenize for tab-indented blocks.

   - bpo-24456(6): Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and
     lin2adpcm() functions of the audioop module.

   - bpo-24336(7): The contextmanager decorator now works with functions
     with keyword arguments called "func" and "self".  Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24522(8): Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator
     module.

   - bpo-24489(9): ensure a previously set C errno doesn't disturb
     cmath.polar().

   - bpo-24408(10): Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics()
     methods of tkinter.Font.

   - bpo-14373(11): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be
     used with methods.

   - bpo-24347(12): Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns
     NULL.

   - bpo-24348(13): Drop superfluous incref/decref.

   - bpo-24359(14): Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.

   - bpo-24368(15): Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.

   - bpo-24362(16): Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.

   - bpo-24377(17): Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.

   - bpo-24369(18): Defend against key-changes during iteration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21750

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19176

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20387

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24336

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24522

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24489

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24408

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24348

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24359

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24368

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24362

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24369


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<80>,  Next: Documentation<75>,  Prev: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.106.3 Tests
................

   - bpo-24373(1): _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and
     tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining
     tp_dealloc with PyType_FromSpec (see bpo-16690(2) for details)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16690


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<75>,  Next: Build<87>,  Prev: Tests<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.106.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24458(1): Update documentation to cover multi-phase
     initialization for extension modules (PEP 489).  Patch by Petr
     Viktorin.

   - bpo-24351(2): Clarify what is meant by "identifier" in the context
     of string.Template instances.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24458

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24351


File: python.info,  Node: Build<87>,  Prev: Documentation<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.106.5 Build
................

   - bpo-24432(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24432


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.107 Python 3.5.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<93>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<94>,  Next: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.23.107.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24284(1): The startswith and endswith methods of the str class
     no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes
     are completely out of range.

   - bpo-24115(2): Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(),
     PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and
     _PyDict_Contains() to check for and handle errors correctly.

   - bpo-24328(3): Fix importing one character extension modules.

   - bpo-11205(4): In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the
     value.

   - bpo-24285(5): Fixed regression that prevented importing extension
     modules from inside packages.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24115

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24328

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<93>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.23.107.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23247(1): Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK
     codecs.

   - bpo-24270(2): Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as
     per PEP 485(3).  Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-5633(4): Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the
     setup is not.

   - bpo-24326(5): Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB
     argument.  Original patch by David Moore.

   - bpo-16991(6): Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-23934(7): Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin
     types lacking signature information.  Initial patch by James
     Powell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5633

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24326

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23934


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.108 Python 3.5.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* IDLE: IDLE<63>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<95>,  Next: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.108.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24276(1): Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.

   - bpo-24268(2): PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization.
     Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-23955(3): Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress
     registry/environment lookup for generating sys.path on Windows.

   - bpo-24257(4): Fixed system error in the comparison of faked
     types.SimpleNamespace.

   - bpo-22939(5): Fixed integer overflow in iterator object.  Patch by
     Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-23985(6): Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice
     from the front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes
     data.

   - bpo-24102(7): Fixed exception type checking in standard error
     handlers.

   - bpo-15027(8): The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.

   - bpo-23290(9): Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is
     empty.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-2292(10): PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.

   - bpo-24096(11): Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against
     mutation of the warnings.filters list.

   - bpo-23996(12): Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an
     unnormalized StopIteration exception.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23910(13): Optimize property() getter calls.  Patch by Joe
     Jevnik.

   - bpo-23911(14): Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a
     separate frozen module.

   - bpo-24192(15): Fix namespace package imports.

   - bpo-24022(16): Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code.

   - bpo-9951(17): Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and
     memoryview.

   - bpo-22906(18): PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside
     generators.

   - bpo-24017(19): PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23955

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23985

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23290

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2292

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24096

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23996

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23911

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24192

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24022

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22906

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017


File: python.info,  Node: Library<94>,  Next: IDLE<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.108.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14373(1): Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache().
     Based on patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.

   - bpo-24230(2): The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix,
     suffix and dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations
     (matching the os module APIs).

   - bpo-22189(3): collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(),
     __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and
     maketrans().  Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-24244(4): Prevents termination when an invalid format string is
     encountered on Windows in strftime.

   - bpo-23973(5): PEP 484: Add the typing module.

   - bpo-23086(6): The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class
     added 'start' and 'stop' parameters to the index() mixin.  Patch by
     Devin Jeanpierre.

   - bpo-20035(7): Replaced the ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting
     up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the
     ‘_tkinter’ module that makes no permanent changes to the
     environment.

   - bpo-24257(8): Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor
     with faked cursor type.

   - bpo-15836(9): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first
     argument to prevent possible user error.  Based on patch by Daniel
     Wagner-Hall.

   - bpo-9858(10): Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase.  Patch by
     Laura Rupprecht.

   - bpo-22955(11): attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in
     the operator module now support pickling.  Added readable and
     evaluable repr for these objects.  Based on patch by Josh
     Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22107(12): tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try
     again when a directory with the chosen name already exists on
     Windows as well as on Unix.  tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if
     parent directory is not valid (not exists or is a file) on Windows.

   - bpo-23780(13): Improved error message in os.path.join() with single
     argument.

   - bpo-6598(14): Increased time precision and random number range in
     email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the
     message ID.

   - bpo-24091(15): Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C
     implementation of ElementTree.

   - bpo-21931(16): msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case
     of a bad argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error
     number.  Patch by Jeffrey Armstrong.

   - bpo-13866(17): 'quote_via' argument added to
     urllib.parse.urlencode.

   - bpo-20098(18): New mangle_from policy option for email, default
     True for compat32, but False for all other policies.

   - bpo-24211(19): The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can
     generate headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.

   - bpo-16314(20): Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.

   - bpo-21804(21): poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).

   - bpo-18682(22): Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.

   - bpo-22027(23): smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).

   - bpo-23488(24): Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory
     on 64-bit.

   - bpo-1322(25): platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution()
     functions are now deprecated.  Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-22486(26): Added the math.gcd() function.  The fractions.gcd()
     function now is deprecated.  Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24064(27): Property() docstrings are now writeable.  (Patch by
     Berker Peksag.)

   - bpo-22681(28): Added support for the koi8_t encoding.

   - bpo-22682(29): Added support for the kz1048 encoding.

   - bpo-23796(30): peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise
     ValueError if they called on a closed object.  Patch by John
     Hergenroeder.

   - bpo-21795(31): smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever
     the new 'decode_data' constructor argument is set to False.

   - bpo-24155(32): optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache
     performance when heapifying large lists.

   - bpo-21800(33): imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855
     (utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII
     usernames and passwords to UTF8.

   - bpo-20274(34): When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains
     if passed any keyword arguments.  Previously it silently ignored
     them.

   - bpo-20274(35): Remove ignored and erroneous "kwargs" parameters
     from three METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.

   - bpo-24134(36): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when
     callable is None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the
     context manager mode.

   - bpo-24018(37): Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class.
     Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23880(38): Tkinter's getint() and getdouble() now support
     Tcl_Obj.  Tkinter's getdouble() now supports any numbers (in
     particular int).

   - bpo-22619(39): Added negative limit support in the traceback
     module.  Based on patch by Dmitry Kazakov.

   - bpo-24094(40): Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly
     behaved dict subclasses.

   - bpo-9246(41): On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than
     1025 bytes.  Patch written by William Orr.

   - bpo-17445(42): add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of
     byte strings (fixes a regression from Python 2).

   - bpo-23917(43): Fall back to sequential compilation when
     ProcessPoolExecutor doesn't exist.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23008(44): Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is
     False in pydoc.

   - Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue's put didn't
     increment unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when
     JoinableQueue was merged with Queue).

   - bpo-23908(45): os functions now reject paths with embedded null
     character on Windows instead of silently truncating them.

   - bpo-23728(46): binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside
     of the range 0-0xffff for empty data.

   - bpo-23887(47): urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr()
     representation.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and
     get_task_factory().

   - asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of
     ensure_future().

   - bpo-24178(48): asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and
     BoundedSemaphore support new 'async with' syntax.  Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24179(49): Support 'async for' for asyncio.StreamReader.
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24184(50): Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to
     collections.abc.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-22547(51): Implement informative __repr__ for
     inspect.BoundArguments.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24190(52): Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults()
     method.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-20691(53): Add 'follow_wrapped' argument to
     inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature().
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24248(54): Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and
     inspect.Signature.from_builtin().

   - bpo-23898(55): Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support
     attributes with overloaded __eq__ and __bool__.  Patch by Mike
     Bayer.

   - bpo-24298(56): Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers
     around bound methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24230

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15836

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9858

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22107

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23780

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6598

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24091

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21931

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18682

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23796

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24155

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24134

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23880

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24094

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9246

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23917

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23008

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23908

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23728

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23887

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24178

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24179

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22547

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23898

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24298


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<63>,  Next: Tests<81>,  Prev: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.108.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23184(1): remove unused names and imports in idlelib.  Initial
     patch by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23184


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<81>,  Next: Documentation<76>,  Prev: IDLE<63>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.108.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-21520(1): test_zipfile no longer fails if the word 'bad'
     appears anywhere in the name of the current directory.

   - bpo-9517(2): Move script_helper into the support package.  Patch by
     Christie Wilson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9517


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<76>,  Next: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Tests<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.108.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22155(1): Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler
     to tkinter doc.  Remove obsolete example from FAQ. Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24029(2): Document the name binding behavior for submodule
     imports.

   - bpo-24077(3): Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not
     -S

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24029

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24077


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Documentation<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.108.6 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24000(1): Improved Argument Clinic's mapping of converters to
     legacy "format units".  Updated the documentation to match.

   - bpo-24001(2): Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type}
     instead of types={'type'} to specify the types the converter
     accepts.

   - bpo-23330(3): h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.

   - bpo-24031(4): make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24000

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23330

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24031


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.109 Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-04-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Build: Build<88>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.
* C API: C API<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<96>,  Next: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.109.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-22980(1): Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions
     now include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make
     it easy to test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree.
     Under OS X, the extension name now includes PEP 3149(2)-style
     information.

   - bpo-22631(3): Added Linux-specific socket constant
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch courtesy of Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23731(4): Implement PEP 488(5): removal of .pyo files.

   - bpo-23726(6): Don't enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types
     that don't add any new fields.  Patch by Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-23309(7): Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is
     aborted while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and
     the main thread tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout
     or stderr).  A fatal error is emitted instead.

   - bpo-22977(8): Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23466(9): %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise
     TypeError on non-integer input.

   - bpo-24044(10): Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort
     in out of memory conditions.

   - bpo-21354(11): PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL
     again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23731

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23309

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22977

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23466

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24044

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21354


File: python.info,  Node: Library<95>,  Next: Build<88>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.109.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23840(1): tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file
     on error to fix a resource warning.

   - bpo-16914(2): new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug
     output.

   - bpo-7159(3): urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials
     automatically after the first 401.  This enhancement is a superset
     of the enhancement from bpo-19494(4) and supersedes that change.

   - bpo-23703(5): Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in
     901e4e52b20a.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-4254(6): Adds _curses.update_lines_cols().  Patch by Arnon
     Yaari

   - bpo-19933(7): Provide default argument for ndigits in round.  Patch
     by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-23193(8): Add a numeric_owner parameter to
     tarfile.TarFile.extract and tarfile.TarFile.extractall.  Patch by
     Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-23342(9): Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a
     CalledProcess instance for a more consistent API than the existing
     call* functions.

   - bpo-21217(10): inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the
     start and end lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a
     lambda function is used as decorator argument.  Patch by Thomas
     Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.

   - bpo-24521(11): Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.

   - bpo-22931(12): Allow '[' and ']' in cookie values.

   - The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a
     dictionary.

   - bpo-23811(13): Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error
     message.  Patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-21116(14): Avoid blowing memory when allocating a
     multiprocessing shared array that's larger than 50% of the
     available RAM. Patch by Médéric Boquien.

   - bpo-22982(15): Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple
     positions of a writable text file.

   - bpo-23464(16): Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.

   - bpo-23529(17): Limit the size of decompressed data when reading
     from GzipFile, BZ2File or LZMAFile.  This defeats denial of service
     attacks using compressed bombs (i.e.  compressed payloads which
     decompress to a huge size).  Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-21859(18): Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.

   - bpo-23865(19): close() methods in multiple modules now are
     idempotent and more robust at shutdown.  If they need to release
     multiple resources, all are released even if errors occur.

   - bpo-23400(20): Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if
     sem_open is not available.  Patch by Davin Potts.

   - bpo-10838(21): The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError
     and TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild
     enough to use ‘from subprocess import *’.

   - bpo-23411(22): Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult,
     DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to
     urllib.parse.__all__.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23881(23): urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the
     socket if the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.

   - bpo-23853(24): *note socket.socket.sendall(): d97. does no more
     reset the socket timeout each time data is sent successfully.  The
     socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

   - bpo-22721(25): An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict
     containing orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends
     on iteration order of set or dict.

   - bpo-15133(26): _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and
     always returns bool.  tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values
     (accepted bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj).  tkinter.BooleanVar.get()
     now always returns bool.

   - bpo-10590(27): xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.

   - bpo-23338(28): Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin.
     Patch by Makoto Kato.

   - bpo-15582(29): inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.

   - bpo-2175(30): SAX parsers now support a character stream of
     InputSource object.

   - bpo-16840(31): Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl
     8.4 and arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23834(32): Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to
     store the result of sendto() instead of the C int type.

   - bpo-23618(33): *note socket.socket.connect(): d92. now waits until
     the connection completes instead of raising *note InterruptedError:
     d77. if the connection is interrupted by signals, signal handlers
     don't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a
     timeout.  *note socket.socket.connect(): d92. still raise *note
     InterruptedError: d77. for non-blocking sockets.

   - bpo-21526(34): Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23836(35): Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant
     calls to its signal handlers.

   - bpo-23838(36): linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty
     result on MemoryError.

   - bpo-10395(37): Added os.path.commonpath().  Implemented in
     posixpath and ntpath.  Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.

   - bpo-23611(38): Serializing more "lookupable" objects (such as
     unbound methods or nested classes) now are supported with pickle
     protocols < 4.

   - bpo-13583(39): sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.

   - bpo-18473(40): Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings.
     Fixed ambiguous reverse mappings.  Added many new mappings.  Import
     mapping is no longer applied to modules already mapped with full
     name mapping.

   - bpo-23485(41): select.select() is now retried automatically with
     the recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception.  This change is part of the PEP
     475(42).

   - bpo-23752(43): When built from an existing file descriptor,
     io.FileIO() now only calls fstat() once.  Before fstat() was called
     twice, which was not necessary.

   - bpo-23704(44): collections.deque() objects now support __add__,
     __mul__, and __imul__().

   - bpo-23171(45): csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary
     iterables.

   - bpo-23745(46): The new email header parser now handles duplicate
     MIME parameter names without error, similar to how get_param
     behaves.

   - bpo-22117(47): Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards
     minus infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.

   - bpo-23310(48): Fix MagicMock's initializer to work with
     __methods__, just like configure_mock().  Patch by Kasia Jachim.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23703

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19933

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21217

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24521

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22931

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23811

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21116

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22982

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23529

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21859

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23865

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23400

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10838

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23411

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23881

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22721

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15133

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23338

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16840

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23834

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23618

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21526

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23836

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18473

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23485

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23752

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23745

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22117

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23310


File: python.info,  Node: Build<88>,  Next: Tests<82>,  Prev: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.109.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23817(1): FreeBSD now uses "1.0" in the SOVERSION as other
     operating systems, instead of just "1".

   - bpo-23501(2): Argument Clinic now generates code into separate
     files by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23817

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23501


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<82>,  Next: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Build<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.109.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23799(1): Added test.support.start_threads() for running and
     cleaning up multiple threads.

   - bpo-22390(2): test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files
     or directories are left after running a test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<48>,  Next: C API<72>,  Prev: Tests<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.109.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-18128(1): pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the
     POT-Creation-Date header.

   - bpo-23935(2): Argument Clinic's understanding of format units
     accepting bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with
     both the documentation and the implementation.

   - bpo-23944(3): Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at
     column 78.

   - bpo-20586(4): Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without
     docstrings have signatures.

   - bpo-23492(5): Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code
     with PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.

   - bpo-23500(6): Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the
     "#ifndef" (empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it's only
     generated once, even if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol
     multiple times, and it's emitted at the end of all processing
     rather than immediately after the first use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20586

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23500


File: python.info,  Node: C API<72>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<48>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.109.6 C API
................

   - bpo-23998(1): PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation
     error

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23998


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.110 Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-28'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* Build: Build<89>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<97>,  Next: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.110.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Increased performance of string search operations
     (str.find, str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split,
     str.partition) with arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2,
     UCS4).

   - bpo-23753(2): Python doesn't support anymore platforms without
     stat() or fstat(), these functions are always required.

   - bpo-23681(3): The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with
     int.

   - bpo-23632(4): Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for
     multi-dimensional memoryviews).

   - bpo-23192(5): Fixed generator lambdas.  Patch by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-23629(6): Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for
     variable-sized objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23753

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23192

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23629


File: python.info,  Node: Library<96>,  Next: Build<89>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.110.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14260(1): The groupindex attribute of regular expression
     pattern object now is non-modifiable mapping.

   - bpo-23792(2): Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is
     active.  This mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and
     prevents pipepager from shutting down while the pager itself is
     still running.

   - bpo-23775(3): pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same
     representation as repr().

   - bpo-23765(4): Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes

   - bpo-22364(5): Improved some re error messages using regex for
     hints.

   - bpo-23742(6): ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single
     quotes.

   - bpo-21717(7): The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports 'x'
     (exclusive creation) mode.

   - bpo-21802(8): The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when
     closing writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().

   - bpo-23622(9): Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist
     of ‘'\'’ and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will
     be forbidden in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-23671(10): string.Template now allows specifying the "self"
     parameter as a keyword argument.  string.Formatter now allows
     specifying the "self" and the "format_string" parameters as keyword
     arguments.

   - bpo-23502(11): The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.

   - bpo-17530(12): pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.

   - bpo-22687(13): Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in
     tetxtwrap.  Got rid of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.

   - bpo-4727(14): The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154)
     and supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method
     takes keyword-only arguments.

   - bpo-23491(15): Added a zipapp module to support creating executable
     zip file archives of Python code.  Registered ".pyz" and ".pyzw"
     extensions on Windows for these archives (PEP 441).

   - bpo-23657(16): Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding
     support for pathlib.Path objects as arguments.

   - bpo-23688(17): Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and
     avoided unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write().
     Original patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-23252(18): Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable
     streams.

   - bpo-23647(19): Increase imaplib's MAXLINE to accommodate modern
     mailbox sizes.

   - bpo-23539(20): If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request
     now sets Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to
     avoid 411 errors from some web servers.

   - bpo-22351(21): The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the
     connection and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them
     up.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23704(22): collections.deque() objects now support methods for
     index(), insert(), and copy().  This allows deques to be registered
     as a MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for
     lists.

   - bpo-23715(23): *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): d9a. and *note
     signal.sigtimedwait(): d99. are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal not in the 'sigset' parameter, if the signal handler does
     not raise an exception.  signal.sigtimedwait() recomputes the
     timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.

   - bpo-23001(24): Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket,
     ssl, and codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now
     accept writable bytes-like object too.

   - bpo-23646(25): If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the
     sleep is now retried with the recomputed delay, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (PEP 475).

   - bpo-23136(26): _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0,
     including Dec 30 of previous year.  Based on patch by Jim Carroll.

   - bpo-23700(27): Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference
     to NamedTemporaryFile instance.  Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-22903(28): The fake test case created by unittest.loader when
     it fails importing a test module is now picklable.

   - bpo-22181(29): On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom()
     syscall if available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17.
     It is more reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of
     a file descriptor and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.

   - bpo-2211(30): Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel
     class.  Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now
     is deprecated.  update() and setdefault() now transform and check
     keys.  Comparing for equality now takes into account attributes
     key, value and coded_value.  copy() now returns a Morsel, not a
     dict.  repr() now contains all attributes.  Optimized checking keys
     and quoting values.  Added new tests.  Original patch by Demian
     Brecht.

   - bpo-18983(31): Allow selection of output units in timeit.  Patch by
     Julian Gindi.

   - bpo-23631(32): Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been
     mutated.

   - bpo-23568(33): Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects.  Patch
     by Håkan Lövdahl.

   - bpo-2052(34): Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().

   - bpo-23668(35): Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.

   - bpo-23138(36): Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in
     cookiejar.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23051(37): multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and
     imap_unordered() now handle exceptions raised by an iterator.
     Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin Potts.

   - bpo-23581(38): Add matmul support to MagicMock.  Patch by Håkan
     Lövdahl.

   - bpo-23566(39): enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and
     dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file
     descriptors.  Patch by Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22928(40): Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client.
     Original patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23615(41): Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be
     reloaded with imp.reload().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-23605(42): os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of
     os.listdir().  The usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of
     calls to os.stat().  Initial patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23792

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23775

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23765

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22364

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23742

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23502

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17530

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22687

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4727

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23657

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23688

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23539

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22351

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23715

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23646

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23136

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23700

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22903

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23631

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23138

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23051

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22928

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23615

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605


File: python.info,  Node: Build<89>,  Next: Tests<83>,  Prev: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.110.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23585(1): make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23585


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<83>,  Next: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Build<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.110.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23583(1): Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.

   - bpo-22289(2): Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp
     connection timeout.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23583

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22289


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Tests<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.110.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22826(1): The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now
     better compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports
     the context management protocol).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22826


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.111 Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<97>.
* Build: Build<90>.
* C API: C API<73>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<98>,  Next: Library<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.111.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23571(1): PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a
     SystemError if a function returns a result and raises an exception.
     The SystemError is chained to the previous exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23571


File: python.info,  Node: Library<97>,  Next: Build<90>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.111.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-22524(1): New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471(2):
     "os.scandir() function - a better and faster directory iterator".
     Patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-23103(3): Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and
     IPv6Address.

   - bpo-21793(4): BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as
     numeric, not as stringified enum.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23476(5): In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL's
     X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST flag on certificate stores when it is
     available.

   - bpo-23576(6): Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached
     in the SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn't been closed.

   - bpo-23504(7): Added an __all__ to the types module.

   - bpo-23563(8): Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.

   - bpo-7830(9): Flatten nested functools.partial.

   - bpo-20204(10): Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.

   - bpo-19980(11): Improved help() for non-recognized strings.
     help('') now shows the help on str.  help('help') now shows the
     help on help().  Original patch by Mark Lawrence.

   - bpo-23521(12): Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta
     division.  Eliminated OverflowError from ‘timedelta * float’ for
     some floats; Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.

   - bpo-21619(13): Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in
     the with statement if the pipe was broken.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22936(14): Make it possible to show local variables in
     tracebacks for both the traceback module and unittest.

   - bpo-15955(15): Add an option to limit the output size in
     bz2.decompress().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-6639(16): Module-level turtle functions no longer raise
     TclError after closing the window.

   - bpo-814253(17): Group references and conditional group references
     now work in lookbehind assertions in regular expressions.  (See
     also: bpo-9179(18))

   - bpo-23215(19): Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that
     ignores errors consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or
     MemoryError.  Original patch by Aleksi Torhamo.

   - bpo-5700(20): io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file.
     flush() was not called in close() if closefd=False.

   - bpo-23374(21): Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout
     encoding differs from file system encoding (e.g.  on Mac OS).

   - bpo-23481(22): Remove RC4 from the SSL module's default cipher
     list.

   - bpo-21548(23): Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules
     with empty docstrings.

   - bpo-22885(24): Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the
     dbm.dumb module.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23239(25): ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP
     addresses.

   - bpo-23146(26): Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with
     forward slashes in pathlib.

   - bpo-23096(27): Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now
     is the same for both Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-19105(28): pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the
     right.

   - bpo-14910(29): Add allow_abbrev parameter to
     argparse.ArgumentParser.  Patch by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard,
     paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.

   - bpo-21717(30): tarfile.open() now supports 'x' (exclusive creation)
     mode.

   - bpo-23344(31): marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.

   - bpo-20416(32): marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50%
     faster on average.

   - bpo-23421(33): Fixed compression in tarfile CLI. Patch by wdv4758h.

   - bpo-23367(34): Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.

   - bpo-23361(35): Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation
     code.

   - logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level
     keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to
     handlers taking handler levels into account.

   - bpo-19705(36): turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo.
     Original patch from Jason Yeo.

   - bpo-23801(37): Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always
     ignore the entire preamble to a multipart body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23476

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23504

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23563

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19980

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23521

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21619

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6639

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=814253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23215

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5700

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23481

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21548

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22885

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23146

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23096

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19105

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23367

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23361

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19705

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23801


File: python.info,  Node: Build<90>,  Next: C API<73>,  Prev: Library<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.111.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23445(1): pydebug builds now use "gcc -Og" where possible, to
     make the resulting executable faster.

   - bpo-23686(2): Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL
     1.0.2a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23445

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23686


File: python.info,  Node: C API<73>,  Next: Windows<74>,  Prev: Build<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.111.4 C API
................

   - bpo-20204(1): Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types
     without the __module__ attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<74>,  Prev: C API<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.111.5 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23465(1): Implement PEP 486(2) - Make the Python Launcher aware
     of virtual environments.  Patch by Paul Moore.

   - bpo-23437(3): Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows.
     Patch by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23465

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.112 Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-02-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* IDLE: IDLE<64>.
* Build: Build<91>.
* C API: C API<74>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<99>,  Next: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23285(1): PEP 475 - EINTR handling.

   - bpo-22735(2): Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving
     custom mro() implementations.

   - bpo-22896(3): Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(),
     PyObject_AsReadBuffer() and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().

   - bpo-21295(4): Revert some changes (bpo-16795(5)) to AST line
     numbers and column offsets that constituted a regression.

   - bpo-22986(6): Allow changing an object's __class__ between a
     dynamic type and static type in some cases.

   - bpo-15859(7): PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()
     and PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object
     is not a Unicode object.  For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was
     already the case on platforms other than Windows.  Patch written by
     Campbell Barton.

   - bpo-21408(8): The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if
     __eq__() returned NotImplemented.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23321(9): Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler
     returned replacement string longer than malformed input data.

   - bpo-22286(10): The "backslashreplace" error handlers now works with
     decoding and translating.

   - bpo-23253(11): Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for
     reduced startup overhead on Windows.

   - bpo-22038(12): pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in
     functions for atomic memory access if available.  Patch written by
     Vitor de Lima and Gustavo Temple.

   - bpo-20284(13): %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for
     bytes and bytearray.

   - bpo-23048(14): Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the
     pdb.

   - bpo-20335(15): bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding
     or errors is specified with non-string argument.  Based on patch by
     Renaud Blanch.

   - bpo-22834(16): If the current working directory ends up being set
     to a non-existent directory then import will no longer raise
     FileNotFoundError.

   - bpo-22869(17): Move the interpreter startup & shutdown code to a
     new dedicated pylifecycle.c module

   - bpo-22847(18): Improve method cache efficiency.

   - bpo-22335(19): Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to
     0x7fffffff bytes on a 32-bit platform.

   - bpo-22653(20): Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a
     reentrant dict insertion in debug mode.

   - bpo-22643(21): Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations
     (upper, lower, title, swapcase, casefold).

   - bpo-17636(22): Circular imports involving relative imports are now
     supported.

   - bpo-22604(23): Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a
     complex number by (nan+0j).

   - bpo-21052(24): Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or
     sys.meta_path are set to None.

   - bpo-16518(25): Use 'bytes-like object required' in error messages
     that previously used the far more cryptic "'x' does not support the
     buffer protocol.

   - bpo-22470(26): Fixed integer overflow issues in "backslashreplace",
     "xmlcharrefreplace", and "surrogatepass" error handlers.

   - bpo-22540(27): speed up ‘PyObject_IsInstance’ and
     ‘PyObject_IsSubclass’ in the common case that the second argument
     has metaclass ‘type’.

   - bpo-18711(28): Add a new ‘PyErr_FormatV’ function, similar to
     ‘PyErr_Format’ but accepting a ‘va_list’ argument.

   - bpo-22520(29): Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a
     unicode object.

   - bpo-22519(30): Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.

   - bpo-22518(31): Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.

   - bpo-16324(32): _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts
     email.charset.Charset instances.  Initial patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-1764286(33): Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated
     functions.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18554(34): os.__all__ includes posix functions.

   - bpo-21391(35): Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.

   - bpo-11471(36): avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the
     end of an if-block if there is no else-clause.  Original patch by
     Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-22215(37): Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when
     str or bytes argument contains not permitted null character or
     byte.

   - bpo-22258(38): Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on
     Illumos.  This platform exposes the function ‘ioctl(FIOCLEX)’, but
     calling it fails with errno is ENOTTY: "Inappropriate ioctl for
     device".  set_inheritable() now falls back to the slower ‘fcntl()’
     (‘F_GETFD’ and then ‘F_SETFD’).

   - bpo-21389(39): Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying
     function in the repr of a bound method.

   - bpo-22206(40): Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno
     to ENOMEM and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.

   - bpo-20184(41): Argument Clinic based signature introspection added
     for 30 of the builtin functions.

   - bpo-22116(42): C functions and methods (of the
     'builtin_function_or_method' type) can now be weakref'ed.  Patch by
     Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22077(43): Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes,
     lists, and tuples by adding 'or slices'.  Added ', not <typename>'
     for bytearrays.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-20179(44): Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray.  Patch
     by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-22082(45): Clear interned strings in slotdefs.

   - Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.

   - bpo-21897(46): Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure
     variables when frame.clear() has been called.

   - bpo-21205(47): Add a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute to generator, the
     qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator
     (‘repr(gen)’).  The default name of the generator (‘__name__’
     attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to get the name of the code.

   - bpo-21669(48): With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__,
     the parser now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least
     more search engine friendly) error messages when "exec" and "print"
     are used as statements.

   - bpo-21642(49): In the conditional if-else expression, allow an
     integer written with no space between itself and the ‘else’ keyword
     (e.g.  ‘True if 42else False’) to be valid syntax.

   - bpo-21523(50): Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect
     of some opcodes in the compiler.  This also fixes a quadratic
     compilation time issue noticeable when compiling code with a large
     number of "and" and "or" operators.

   - bpo-21418(51): Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when
     called without argument and without current frame (ex: embedded
     Python).

   - bpo-21425(52): Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive
     interpreter.

   - bpo-21435(53): In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in
     cyclic trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle
     flaw in internal iteration logic.

   - bpo-21377(54): PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place
     when the first argument has a reference count of 1.  Patch by
     Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20355(55): -W command line options now have higher priority
     than the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.  Patch by Arfrever.

   - bpo-21274(56): Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.

   - bpo-20904(57): Support setting FPU precision on m68k.

   - bpo-21209(58): Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with
     the yield from syntax.

   - bpo-21193(59): pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than
     TypeError when b is negative.  Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21176(60): PEP 465: Add the '@' operator for matrix
     multiplication.

   - bpo-21134(61): Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized
     UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError
     object.

   - bpo-19537(62): Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k.  Patch by
     Andreas Schwab.

   - bpo-20929(63): Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.

   - bpo-20731(64): Properly position in source code files even if they
     are opened in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-20637(65): Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries
     of subclasses.  Patch by Peter Ingebretson.

   - bpo-8297(66): Attributes missing from modules now include the
     module name in the error text.  Original patch by ysj.ray.

   - bpo-19995(67): %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on
     non-integer input.

   - bpo-19655(68): The ASDL parser - used by the build process to
     generate code for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten.
     The new parser is self contained and does not require to carry long
     the spark.py parser-generator library; spark.py was removed from
     the source base.

   - bpo-12546(69): Allow ‘\x00’ to be used as a fill character when
     using str, int, float, and complex __format__ methods.

   - bpo-20480(70): Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer.  Patch by Leon Weber.

   - bpo-13598(71): Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of
     replacement fields.  It now matches the behavior of str.format() in
     this regard.  Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.

   - bpo-8931(72): Make alternate formatting ('#') for type 'c' raise an
     exception.  In versions prior to 3.5, '#' with 'c' had no effect.
     Now specifying it is an error.  Patch by Torsten Landschoff.

   - bpo-23165(73): Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in
     the _Py_char2wchar function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22735

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22896

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21295

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16795

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15859

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23321

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23253

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20284

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23048

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20335

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22869

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22335

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22653

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22643

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22604

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21052

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22470

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22520

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22519

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22518

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1764286

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18554

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21391

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11471

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22215

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22258

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21389

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22206

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20184

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22116

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22077

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20179

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22082

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21897

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21669

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21642

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21523

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21418

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21425

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21435

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21377

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20355

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21274

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20904

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21193

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21134

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19537

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20929

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20731

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20637

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8297

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19995

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19655

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12546

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8931

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23165


File: python.info,  Node: Library<98>,  Next: IDLE<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23399(1): pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.

   - bpo-20289(2): cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context
     management protocol.

   - bpo-13128(3): Print response headers for CONNECT requests when
     debuglevel > 0.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-15381(4): Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and
     copyings.

   - bpo-22818(5): Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty
     string now raises a warning.  Patterns that can only match empty
     strings are now rejected.

   - bpo-23099(6): Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected
     now to prevent corrupting exported buffer.

   - bpo-23326(7): Removed __ne__ implementations.  Since fixing default
     __ne__ implementation in bpo-21408(8) they are redundant.

   - bpo-23363(9): Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.

   - bpo-23364(10): Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.

   - bpo-23366(11): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     itertools.combinations.

   - bpo-23369(12): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     _json.encode_basestring_ascii.

   - bpo-23353(13): Fix the exception handling of generators in
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx().  At entry, save or swap the exception state
     even if PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0.  At exit,
     the exception state is now always restored or swapped, not only if
     why is WHY_YIELD or WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine
     Pitrou.

   - bpo-14099(14): Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable
     but non-seekable streams.

   - bpo-14099(15): Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles
     is threadsafe now.

   - bpo-19361(16): JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of
     ValueError.

   - bpo-18518(17): timeit now rejects statements which can't be
     compiled outside a function or a loop (e.g.  "return" or "break").

   - bpo-23094(18): Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation
     of pickle.

   - bpo-23268(19): Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.

   - bpo-21408(20): Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which
     didn't returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented.
     The default __ne__() now works correctly.

   - bpo-19996(21): ‘email.feedparser.FeedParser’ now handles
     (malformed) headers with no key rather than assuming the body has
     started.

   - bpo-20188(22): Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
     (ALPN) in the ssl module.

   - bpo-23133(23): Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more
     compact and portable representation.

   - bpo-23248(24): Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git
     master.

   - bpo-23266(25): Much faster implementation of
     ipaddress.collapse_addresses() when there are many non-consecutive
     addresses.

   - bpo-23098(26): 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.

   - bpo-21817(27): When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a
     ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the
     parent process.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-15955(28): Add an option to limit output size when
     decompressing LZMA data.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23250(29): In the http.cookies module, capitalize "HttpOnly"
     and "Secure" as they are written in the standard.

   - bpo-23063(30): In the distutils' check command, fix parsing of reST
     with code or code-block directives.

   - bpo-23209(31): selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a
     RuntimeError if the selector is closed.  And
     selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its internal reference to
     the selector mapping to break a reference cycle.  Initial patch
     written by Martin Richard.  (See also: bpo-23225(32))

   - bpo-17911(33): Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302
     module without actually loading the code.

   - bpo-17911(34): Provide a new object API for traceback, including
     the ability to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is
     actually rendered, without any trace of the original objects being
     kept alive.

   - bpo-19777(35): Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects.
     Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.

   - bpo-23206(36): Make ‘json.dumps(..., ensure_ascii=False)’ as fast
     as the default case of ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  Patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-23185(37): Add math.inf and math.nan constants.

   - bpo-23186(38): Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client's list ciphers
     sent at handshake.

   - bpo-23143(39): Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.

   - bpo-23132(40): Improve performance and introspection support of
     comparison methods created by functool.total_ordering.

   - bpo-19776(41): Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.

   - bpo-23112(42): Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query
     string and fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.

   - bpo-21793(43): Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e.  HTTPStatus.OK,
     HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23093(44): In the io, module allow more operations to work on
     detached streams.

   - bpo-23111(45): In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default
     protocol version.

   - bpo-22585(46): On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls
     getentropy(), instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random
     bytes.

   - bpo-19104(47): pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped
     strings.

   - bpo-23071(48): Added missing names to codecs.__all__.  Patch by
     Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22783(49): Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the
     NEWOBJ_EX opcode if possible.

   - bpo-15513(50): Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle
     classes.

   - bpo-19858(51): pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE
     opcode, can produce more compact result and no longer produces
     invalid output if input data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with
     PUT or BINPUT opcodes.

   - bpo-22095(52): Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port.
     The port value in the host header was set to "None".  Patch by
     Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23016(53): A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when
     the program is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-21775(54): shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT.
     An exception handler assumed that OSError objects always have a
     'winerror' attribute.  That is not the case, so the exception
     handler itself raised AttributeError when run on Linux (and,
     presumably, any other non-Windows OS). Patch by Greg Ward.

   - bpo-1218234(55): Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of
     reloaded module.  Initial patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21740(56): Support wrapped callables in doctest.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23009(57): Make sure selectors.EpollSelector.select() works
     when no FD is registered.

   - bpo-22959(58): In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection,
     prefer the context's check_hostname attribute over the
     'check_hostname' parameter.

   - bpo-22696(59): Add function *note sys.is_finalizing(): a7f. to know
     about interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-16043(60): Add a default limit for the amount of data
     xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return.  This resolves CVE
     2013-1753(61).

   - bpo-14099(62): ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file.
     Objects returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of
     the ZipFile even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a
     file-like object as the first argument to the constructor.

   - bpo-22966(63): Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when
     pyc_compile is asked to compile a source file containing multiple
     dots in the source file name.

   - bpo-21971(64): Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.

   - bpo-21032(65): Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse()
     fails.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22407(66): Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str
     patterns or re.ASCII. It was newer worked.

   - bpo-22902(67): The "ip" command is now used on Linux to determine
     MAC address in uuid.getnode().  Pach by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-22960(68): Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy
     constructor.

   - bpo-22389(69): Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().

   - bpo-21356(70): Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL.
     The availability of the function is checked during the compilation.
     Patch written by Bernard Spil.

   - bpo-22915(71): SAX parser now supports files opened with file
     descriptor or bytes path.

   - bpo-22609(72): Constructors and update methods of mapping classes
     in the collections module now accept the self keyword argument.

   - bpo-22940(73): Add readline.append_history_file.

   - bpo-19676(74): Added the "namereplace" error handler.

   - bpo-22788(75): Add 'context' parameter to
     logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.

   - bpo-22921(76): Allow SSLContext to take the 'hostname' parameter
     even if OpenSSL doesn't support SNI.

   - bpo-22894(77): TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be
     stopped when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.

   - bpo-22796(78): HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to
     protect against potential injection attacks.

   - bpo-22370(79): Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.

   - bpo-22841(80): Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler().
     Patch by Ludovic.Gasc.

   - bpo-19494(81): Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler.
     Patch by Matej Cepl.

   - bpo-22578(82): Added attributes to the re.error class.

   - bpo-22849(83): Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper
     constructor.

   - bpo-12728(84): Different Unicode characters having the same
     uppercase but different lowercase are now matched in
     case-insensitive regular expressions.

   - bpo-22821(85): Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit
     big-endian platforms.

   - bpo-21650(86): Add an ‘--sort-keys’ option to ‘json.tool’ CLI.

   - bpo-22824(87): Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set
     literals.  Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22824(88): Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display
     empty arrays without an unnecessary empty list.  Suggested by
     Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-22406(89): Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x.
     Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-17293(90): uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX
     using netstat.  Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.

   - bpo-22769(91): Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-22417(92): Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).

   - bpo-22775(93): Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with
     protocol 2 and above.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-22776(94): Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block
     in SysLogHandler.emit().

   - bpo-22665(95): Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to
     shutil.__all__.

   - bpo-6623(96): Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module.
     Patch by Matt Chaput.

   - bpo-17381(97): Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-22410(98): Module level functions in the re module now cache
     compiled locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account
     the locale.

   - bpo-22759(99): Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(),
     etc.)  now return False when the underlying stat call raises
     NotADirectoryError.

   - bpo-8876(100): distutils now falls back to copying files when hard
     linking doesn't work.  This allows use with special filesystems
     such as VirtualBox shared folders.

   - bpo-22217(101): Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.

   - bpo-22457(102): Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.

   - bpo-18216(103): gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an
     unsupported major version number.  Patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-13918(104): Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can
     remove locale-specific number formatting from a string representing
     a number, without then converting it to a specific type.  Patch by
     Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-22676(105): Make the pickling of global objects which don't
     have a __module__ attribute less slow.

   - bpo-18853(106): Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.

   - bpo-9351(107): Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse
     subparser are no longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.

   - bpo-7559(108): unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as
     import errors with their import exception rather than as attribute
     errors after the import has already failed.

   - bpo-19746(109): Make it possible to examine the errors from
     unittest discovery without executing the test suite.  The new
     ‘errors’ attribute on ‘TestLoader’ exposes these non-fatal errors
     encountered during discovery.

   - bpo-21991(110): Make email.headerregistry's header 'params'
     attributes be read-only (MappingProxyType).  Previously the
     dictionary was modifiable but a new one was created on each access
     of the attribute.

   - bpo-22638(111): SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard
     library.  It can still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext
     manually.

   - bpo-22641(112): In asyncio, the default SSL context for client
     connections is now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for
     stronger security.

   - bpo-17401(113): Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.

   - bpo-21338(114): Add silent mode for compileall.  quiet parameters
     of compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value.
     Also, -q option of the CLI now have a multilevel value.  Patch by
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-20152(115): Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument
     Clinic.

   - bpo-18643(116): Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.

   - bpo-22435(117): Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind
     fails.

   - bpo-13096(118): Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large
     values.

   - bpo-11694(119): Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented.
     Patch by Filip Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19380(120): Optimized parsing of regular expressions.

   - bpo-1519638(121): Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty
     strings in re.sub() and re.subn().

   - bpo-18615(122): sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.

   - bpo-22462(123): Fix pyexpat's creation of a dummy frame to make it
     appear in exception tracebacks.

   - bpo-21965(124): Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module.
     Patch by Geert Jansen.

   - bpo-21173(125): Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was
     called with an iterator alive.

   - bpo-11866(126): Eliminated race condition in the computation of
     names for new threads.

   - bpo-21905(127): Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when
     sys.modules is mutated while iterating.  Patch by Olivier Grisel.

   - bpo-11271(128): concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a
     'chunksize' argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes
     and improve performance of ProcessPoolExecutor.  Patch by Dan
     O'Reilly.

   - bpo-21883(129): os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a
     TypeError with more helpful error message for unsupported or
     mismatched types of arguments.

   - bpo-22219(130): The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for
     directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-22449(131): In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult
     the environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22508(132): The email.__version__ variable has been removed;
     the email code is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and
     __version__ hasn't been updated in several releases.

   - bpo-20076(133): Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases
     table.

   - bpo-20079(134): Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale
     alias table.

   - bpo-20218(135): Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and
     read_bytes/ write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.

   - bpo-22396(136): On 32-bit AIX platform, don't expose
     os.posix_fadvise() nor os.posix_fallocate() because their
     prototypes in system headers are wrong.

   - bpo-22517(137): When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated,
     clear its weakrefs.

   - bpo-22437(138): Number of capturing groups in regular expression is
     no longer limited by 100.

   - bpo-17442(139): InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full
     chained traceback in its showtraceback method, to match the built
     in interactive interpreter.

   - bpo-23392(140): Added tests for marshal C API that works with
     FILE*.

   - bpo-10510(141): distutils register and upload methods now use HTML
     standards compliant CRLF line endings.

   - bpo-9850(142): Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component.
     Patch by Oleg Oshmyan.

   - bpo-5309(143): distutils' build and build_ext commands now accept a
     ‘-j’ option to enable parallel building of extension modules.

   - bpo-22448(144): Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent
     unbound memory usage.  Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.

   - bpo-22427(145): TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up
     twice when used in the with statement in generator.

   - bpo-22362(146): Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range
     0-0o377 in regular expressions.

   - bpo-20912(147): Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix
     and MS-DOS directory attributes.

   - bpo-21866(148): ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central
     directory records if allowZip64 is false.

   - bpo-22278(149): Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a
     regression observed after changes to issue22118 were submitted.

   - bpo-22415(150): Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS
     opcode in the re module.  Removed trailing spaces in debugging
     output.

   - bpo-22423(151): Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes
     unhandled AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.

   - bpo-21332(152): Ensure that ‘bufsize=1’ in subprocess.Popen()
     selects line buffering, rather than block buffering.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-21091(153): Fix API bug:
     email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a method.

   - bpo-21079(154): Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to
     return the correct result when the header has parameters as well as
     a value.

   - bpo-22247(155): Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.

   - bpo-22366(156): urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object
     (SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS
     connection.  Patch by Alex Gaynor.

   - bpo-4180(157): The warnings registries are now reset when the
     filters are modified.

   - bpo-22419(158): Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in
     wsgiref server to 65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher
     lengths.  Patch contributed by Devin Cook.

   - Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when
     combined with non-standard cookie handling in some web browsers.
     Reported by Sergey Bobrov.

   - bpo-20537(159): logging methods now accept an exception instance as
     well as a Boolean value or exception tuple.  Thanks to Yury
     Selivanov for the patch.

   - bpo-22384(160): An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes
     the program when it is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-22168(161): Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default
     Canvas on OS X.

   - bpo-21147(162): sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request
     contains a null character instead of truncating it.  Based on patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13968(163): The glob module now supports recursive search in
     subdirectories using the ‘**’ pattern.

   - bpo-21951(164): Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl
     command with empty string or tuple argument.

   - bpo-21951(165): Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead
     of crash if the memory allocation fails.

   - bpo-22338(166): Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation
     failure.

   - bpo-12410(167): imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management
     protocol.  Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.

   - bpo-21270(168): We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects
     so that they can be used as normal call attributes.

   - bpo-16662(169): ‘load_tests()’ is now unconditionally run when it
     is present in a package's ‘__init__.py’.
     ‘TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ still accepts use_load_tests,
     but it is deprecated and ignored.  A new keyword-only attribute
     ‘pattern’ is added and documented.  Patch given by Robert Collins,
     tweaked by Barry Warsaw.

   - bpo-22226(170): First letter no longer is stripped from the
     "status" key in the result of Treeview.heading().

   - bpo-19524(171): Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an
     invalid response is received.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20421(172): Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the
     actual protocol version in use.

   - bpo-19546(173): configparser exceptions no longer expose
     implementation details.  Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads
     to cleaner tracebacks.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22051(174): turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run
     them.  Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in
     main(), which is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.

   - bpo-21933(175): Turtledemo users can change the code font size with
     a menu selection or control(command) '-' or '+' or
     control-mousewheel.  Original patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21597(176): The separator between the turtledemo text pane and
     the drawing canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse.
     The code text pane can be widened to easily view or copy the full
     width of the text.  The canvas can be widened on small screens.
     Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-18132(177): Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the
     window is shrunk.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-22043(178): time.monotonic() is now always available.
     ‘threading.Lock.acquire()’, ‘threading.RLock.acquire()’ and socket
     operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock,
     when a timeout is used.

   - bpo-21527(179): Add a default number of workers to
     ThreadPoolExecutor equal to 5 times the number of CPUs.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22216(180): smtplib now resets its state more completely after
     a quit.  The most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was
     a STARTTLS failure during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls
     sequence.

   - bpo-22098(181): ctypes' BigEndianStructure and
     LittleEndianStructure now define an empty __slots__ so that
     subclasses don't always get an instance dict.  Patch by Claudiu
     Popa.

   - bpo-22185(182): Fix an occasional RuntimeError in
     threading.Condition.wait() caused by mutation of the waiters queue
     without holding the lock.  Patch by Doug Zongker.

   - bpo-22287(183): On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses
     clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available.  As a side effect,
     Python now depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux
     (only with glibc older than 2.17).

   - bpo-22182(184): Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in
     distutils.file_util.move_file.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - The webbrowser module now uses subprocess's start_new_session=True
     rather than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.

   - bpo-22042(185): signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if
     the file descriptor is in blocking mode.

   - bpo-16808(186): inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead
     of a tuple.  Patch by Daniel Shahaf.

   - bpo-22236(187): Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in
     NoDefaultRoot mode.

   - bpo-2527(188): Add a 'globals' argument to timeit functions, in
     order to override the globals namespace in which the timed code is
     executed.  Patch by Ben Roberts.

   - bpo-22118(189): Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for
     the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396.
     Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-21549(190): Added the "members" parameter to TarFile.list().

   - bpo-19628(191): Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified
     with a -r option.

   - bpo-15696(192): Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22068(193): Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in
     Tkinter.

   - bpo-22165(194): SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable
     file names.

   - bpo-15381(195): Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.

   - bpo-8797(196): Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication
     immediately.  Initial patch by Sam Bull.

   - bpo-20729(197): Restored the use of lazy
     iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in the mailbox module.

   - bpo-21448(198): Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid 'O'('n'^2)
     behavior when parsing long line.  Original patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-22184(199): The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives
     an earlier and clearer error message when the user forgets the
     required parameters.

   - bpo-17923(200): glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match
     non-dirs on AIX. Based on patch by Delhallt.

   - bpo-21725(201): Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.

   - bpo-22176(202): Update the ctypes module's libffi to v3.1.  This
     release adds support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2
     little endian architectures.

   - bpo-5411(203): Added support for the "xztar" format in the shutil
     module.

   - bpo-21121(204): Don't force 3rd party C extensions to be built with
     -Werror=declaration-after-statement.

   - bpo-21975(205): Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row
     (in particular when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row).  sqlite3.Row
     is now initialized in the __new__() method.

   - bpo-20170(206): Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-21539(207): Add an 'exists_ok' argument to ‘Pathlib.mkdir()’ to
     mimic ‘mkdir -p’ and ‘os.makedirs()’ functionality.  When true,
     ignore ‘FileExistsErrors’.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22127(208): Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket
     module (in particular for numeric IPs).

   - bpo-21047(209): set the default value for the 'convert_charrefs'
     argument of HTMLParser to True.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - Add an __all__ to html.entities.

   - bpo-15114(210): the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser,
     HTMLParser.error, and the HTMLParserError exception have been
     removed.

   - bpo-22085(211): Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.

   - bpo-21580(212): Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments
     passed to Tk.  In particular this allows initializing images from
     binary data.

   - bpo-22003(213): When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO()
     now defers making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance
     and memory use on some use cases.  Patch by David Wilson.

   - bpo-22018(214): On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also
     supports sockets.  A side effect is that Python depends to the
     WinSock library.

   - bpo-22054(215): Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking()
     functions to get and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor
     (False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True otherwise).  These
     functions are not available on Windows.

   - bpo-17172(216): Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when
     run with subprocess.  Patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21704(217): Fix build error for _multiprocessing when
     semaphores are not available.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis.

   - bpo-20173(218): Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to
     ArgumentClinic.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don't fail with
     OverflowError on closed socket.  repr(socket.socket) already works
     fine.

   - bpo-22033(219): Reprs of most Python implemented classes now
     contain actual class name instead of hardcoded one.

   - bpo-21947(220): The dis module can now disassemble
     generator-iterator objects based on their gi_code attribute.  Patch
     by Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-16133(221): The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now
     ignores BlockingIOError exceptions.

   - bpo-22044(222): Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method.
     Patch by Tom Flanagan.

   - bpo-19884(223): readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout
     is not a terminal to not write the ANSI sequence ‘"\033[1034h"’
     into stdout.  This sequence is used on some terminal (ex:
     TERM=xterm-256color") to enable support of 8 bit characters.

   - bpo-4350(224): Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for
     a long time Tkinter methods.

   - bpo-6167(225): Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active
     element if the argument is not specified.  Scrollbar.set() now
     always accepts only 2 arguments.

   - bpo-15275(226): Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.

   - bpo-21888(227): plistlib's load() and loads() now work if the fmt
     parameter is specified.

   - bpo-22032(228): __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used
     to format fully qualified class names of Python implemented
     classes.

   - bpo-22031(229): Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the
     "0x" prefix when contain an id in form " at 0x...".

   - bpo-22018(230): signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError
     instead of a ValueError on ‘fstat()’ failure.

   - bpo-21044(231): tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer
     'name' attribute.  Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.

   - bpo-21966(232): Respect -q command-line option when code module is
     ran.

   - bpo-19076(233): Don't pass the redundant 'file' argument to
     self.error().

   - bpo-16382(234): Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for
     bad category.  Initial patch by Phil Elson.

   - bpo-21932(235): os.read() now uses a *note Py_ssize_t(): a50. type
     instead of int for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at
     once.  On Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to
     os.read(), the OS may read less bytes than the number of requested
     bytes.

   - bpo-21942(236): Fixed source file viewing in pydoc's server mode on
     Windows.

   - bpo-11259(237): asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a
     ValueError if the number of received bytes is negative.

   - bpo-12523(238): asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError
     if it doesn't get a bytes string

   - bpo-21707(239): Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to
     ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().

   - bpo-20639(240): calling Path.with_suffix('') allows removing the
     suffix again.  Patch by July Tikhonov.

   - bpo-21714(241): Disallow the construction of invalid paths using
     Path.with_name().  Original patch by Antony Lee.

   - bpo-15014(242): Added 'auth' method to smtplib to make implementing
     auth mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login
     method.

   - bpo-21151(243): Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when ‘None’
     is passed as a ‘REG_BINARY’ value to SetValueEx.  Patch by John
     Ehresman.

   - bpo-21090(244): io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors
     anymore.  Before, it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C
     call read() succeed.

   - bpo-5800(245): headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now
     optional.  Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.

   - bpo-21781(246): ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2
     GB.

   - bpo-21679(247): Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open().
     Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-21863(248): cProfile now displays the module name of C
     extension functions, in addition to their own name.

   - bpo-11453(249): asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed
     file_wrapper object is destroyed.  The destructor now closes the
     file if needed.  The close() method can now be called twice: the
     second call does nothing.

   - bpo-21858(250): Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3
     module.

   - bpo-21476(251): Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser
     TextIOWrapper is discarded after parsing, so the input file isn't
     unexpectedly closed.

   - bpo-20295(252): imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.

   - bpo-21729(253): Used the "with" statement in the dbm.dumb module to
     ensure files closing.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21491(254): socketserver: Fix a race condition in child
     processes reaping.

   - bpo-21719(255): Added the ‘st_file_attributes’ field to
     os.stat_result on Windows.

   - bpo-21832(256): Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.

   - bpo-21722(257): The distutils "upload" command now exits with a
     non-zero return code when uploading fails.  Patch by Martin
     Dengler.

   - bpo-21723(258): asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex:
     float) for the maximum size.  Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21711(259): support for "site-python" directories has now been
     removed from the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).

   - bpo-17552(260): new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be
     sent over a socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-18039(261): dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database
     when the flag has the value 'n'.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21326(262): Add a new is_closed() method to
     asyncio.BaseEventLoop.  run_forever() and run_until_complete()
     methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop now raise an exception if the
     event loop was closed.

   - bpo-21766(263): Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL
     unquoting paths before checking for a CGI script at that path.

   - bpo-21310(264): Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().

   - bpo-21256(265): Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic
     order in a mock function call.  This will help to write better
     doctests.

   - bpo-21677(266): Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io
     close() methods.

   - bpo-11709(267): Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when
     sys.stdin is not a valid file.

   - bpo-21515(268): tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag
     is available.

   - bpo-13223(269): Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation
     for methods that use 'self' in the example code is generated
     correctly.

   - bpo-21463(270): In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.

   - bpo-21618(271): The subprocess module could fail to close open fds
     that were inherited by the calling process and already higher than
     POSIX resource limits would otherwise allow.  On systems with a
     functioning /proc/self/fd or /dev/fd interface the max is now
     ignored and all fds are closed.

   - bpo-20383(272): Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the
     preferred way to create a new module.

   - bpo-21552(273): Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string
     lengths in the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.

   - bpo-14315(274): The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the
     central directory that are too short to be parsed instead of
     letting a struct.unpack error bubble up as this "bad data" appears
     in many real world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other
     zip tools.

   - bpo-13742(275): Added "key" and "reverse" parameters to
     heapq.merge().  (First draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)

   - bpo-21402(276): tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is
     not set.

   - bpo-3015(277): ‘_tkinter.create()’ now creates ‘tkapp’ object with
     ‘wantobjects=1’ by default.

   - bpo-10203(278): sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol.
     In particular it supports reverse() and negative indices.  Original
     patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18807(279): If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then
     the python interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by
     copying rather than symlinking.

   - bpo-20197(280): Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr
     module.  Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21513(281): Speedup some properties of IP addresses
     (IPv4Address, IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.

   - bpo-21137(282): Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its
     variants by showing the "locked" or "unlocked" status.  Patch by
     Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21538(283): The plistlib module now supports loading of binary
     plist files when reference or offset size is not a power of two.

   - bpo-21455(284): Add a default backlog to socket.listen().

   - bpo-21525(285): Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now
     accept lists too.

   - bpo-22166(286): With the assistance of a new internal
     _codecs._forget_codec helping function, test_codecs now clears the
     encoding caches to avoid the appearance of a reference leak

   - bpo-22236(287): Tkinter tests now don't reuse default root window.
     New root window is created for every test class.

   - bpo-10744(288): Fix PEP 3118(289) format strings on ctypes objects
     with a nontrivial shape.

   - bpo-20826(290): Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().

   - bpo-21487(291): Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and
     ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().

   - bpo-21486(292): Optimize parsing of netmasks in
     ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network.

   - bpo-13916(293): Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non
     UTF-* encodings.

   - bpo-20998(294): Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character
     pattern with ignore case.  Original patch by Matthew Barnett.

   - bpo-21075(295): fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard
     stream if binary mode is specified.  Patch by Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-19775(296): Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects.
     Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21226(297): Set up modules properly in
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and friends).

   - bpo-21398(298): Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the
     documentation contains characters not encodable to the stdout
     encoding.

   - bpo-16531(299): ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now
     accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily
     construct network objects from existing addresses.

   - bpo-21156(300): importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now
     a staticmethod.

   - bpo-21424(301): Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and
     nmsmallest() to make fewer tuple comparisons.

   - bpo-21396(302): Fix TextIOWrapper(..., write_through=True) to not
     force a flush() on the underlying binary stream.  Patch by akira.

   - bpo-18314(303): Unlink now removes junctions on Windows.  Patch by
     Kim Gräsman

   - bpo-21088(304): Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in
     3.4.0.  In porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were
     reversed.

   - bpo-21407(305): _decimal: The module now supports function
     signatures.

   - bpo-10650(306): Remove the non-standard 'watchexp' parameter from
     the Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version.  It had never
     been present in the C version.

   - bpo-21469(307): Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser
     by checking to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not
     exist prior to returning True in can_fetch().

   - bpo-19414(308): Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as
     unusable.  This gives an early failure if the link is deleted
     during iteration.

   - bpo-21421(309): Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by
     Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21101(310): Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for
     collections.Counter().

   - bpo-21321(311): itertools.islice() now releases the reference to
     the source iterator when the slice is exhausted.  Patch by Anton
     Afanasyev.

   - bpo-21057(312): TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary
     stream's read() or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like
     object (such as a memoryview).  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20951(313): SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError
     or SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation
     would block.  Previously, it would return 0.  Patch by Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-13248(314): removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher
     __getattr__ cheap inheritance hack.

   - bpo-9815(315): assertRaises now tries to clear references to local
     variables in the exception's traceback.

   - bpo-19940(316): ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given
     time string in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the
     local timezone.

   - bpo-13204(317): Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the
     interpreter, now it raises a TypeError.

   - bpo-19385(318): Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database
     always raise the same exception.

   - bpo-21207(319): Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been
     closed or replaced, and open it anew.

   - bpo-21291(320): subprocess's Popen.wait() is now thread safe so
     that multiple threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen
     instance at the same time without losing the Popen.returncode
     value.

   - bpo-21127(321): Path objects can now be instantiated from str
     subclass instances (such as ‘numpy.str_’).

   - bpo-15002(322): urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper
     (and _TemporaryFileCloser) facility.  Provides a better way to
     handle file descriptor close.  Patch contributed by Christian
     Theune.

   - bpo-12220(323): mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it
     doesn't support spaces in URIs instead of letting a 'split'
     ValueError bubble up.

   - bpo-21068(324): The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.

   - bpo-21276(325): posixmodule: Don't define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD
     and the Hurd.

   - bpo-21262(326): New method assert_not_called for Mock.  It raises
     AssertionError if the mock has been called.

   - bpo-21238(327): New keyword argument ‘unsafe’ to Mock.  It raises
     ‘AttributeError’ incase of an attribute startswith assert or
     assret.

   - bpo-20896(328): ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses
     PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.

   - bpo-21239(329): patch.stopall() didn't work deterministically when
     the same name was patched more than once.

   - bpo-21203(330): Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove
     inconsistencies.  Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.

   - bpo-21222(331): Passing name keyword argument to
     mock.create_autospec now works.

   - bpo-21197(332): Add lib64 -> lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS
     X POSIX.

   - bpo-17498(333): Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors,
     violating strict RFC conformance.  Instead of losing the error code
     when we issue the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error
     code and defers raising the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the
     next command is issued.

   - bpo-17826(334): setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function
     created by create_autospec now works.  Patch by Kushal Das.

   - bpo-7776(335): Fix ‘Host:’ header and reconnection when using
     http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20968(336): unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division.
     Patch by Johannes Baiter.

   - bpo-21529(337): Fix arbitrary memory access in
     JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a negative second parameter.  Bug
     reported by Guido Vranken.  (See also: CVE 2014-4616(338))

   - bpo-21169(339): getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the
     input stream encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the
     replace error handler.

   - bpo-21171(340): Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec.
     Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-20539(341): Improved math.factorial error message for large
     positive inputs and changed exception type (OverflowError ->
     ValueError) for large negative inputs.

   - bpo-21172(342): isinstance check relaxed from dict to
     collections.Mapping.

   - bpo-21155(343): asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a
     ValueError if path and sock are specified at the same time.

   - bpo-21136(344): Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions
     resulting from power and other operations.  Patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-17621(345): Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-21076(346): signal module constants were turned into enums.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-20636(347): Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.

   - bpo-19505(348): The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict
     now support reverse iteration using reversed().

   - bpo-21149(349): Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during
     interpreter shutdown.  Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.

   - bpo-21058(350): Fix a leak of file descriptor in *note
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 4b2, close the file descriptor if
     *note io.open(): 509. fails

   - bpo-21200(351): Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__
     is missing.

   - bpo-21013(352): Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for
     server side sockets to provide better security by default.

   - bpo-20145(353): ‘assertRaisesRegex’ and ‘assertWarnsRegex’ now
     raise a ‘TypeError’ if the second argument is not a string or
     compiled regex.

   - bpo-20633(354): Replace relative import by absolute import.

   - bpo-20980(355): Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.

   - bpo-21082(356): In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask.
     Note this changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.

   - bpo-20990(357): Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.

   - bpo-21015(358): SSL contexts will now automatically select an
     elliptic curve for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later,
     and otherwise default to "prime256v1".

   - bpo-21000(359): Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.

   - bpo-20995(360): Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to
     enable better security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.

   - bpo-20884(361): Don't assume that __file__ is defined on
     importlib.__init__.

   - bpo-21499(362): Ignore __builtins__ in several
     test_importlib.test_api tests.

   - bpo-20627(363): xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.

   - bpo-19165(364): The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning
     instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-13936(365): Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be
     considered false in boolean contexts.

   - bpo-18931(366): selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

   - bpo-19977(367): When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’
     locale), *note sys.stdin: 52a. and *note sys.stdout: ac6. are now
     using the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’
     error handler.

   - bpo-20574(368): Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code
     (Windows code page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).

   - bpo-20879(369): Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding
     tables for base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module,
     and delay the initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the
     urllib.parse module, to not waste memory if these modules are not
     used.

   - bpo-19157(370): Include the broadcast address in the usuable hosts
     for IPv6 in ipaddress.

   - bpo-11599(371): When an external command (e.g.  compiler) fails,
     distutils now prints out the whole command line (instead of just
     the command name) if the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is
     set.

   - bpo-4931(372): distutils should not produce unhelpful "error: None"
     messages anymore.  distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept
     but doc-deprecated.

   - bpo-20875(373): Prevent possible gzip "'read' is not defined"
     NameError.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-11558(374): ‘email.message.Message.attach’ now returns a more
     useful error message if ‘attach’ is called on a message for which
     ‘is_multipart’ is False.

   - bpo-20283(375): RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword
     parameters as documented.  The pattern and source keyword
     parameters are left as deprecated aliases.

   - bpo-20778(376): Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only
     modules.

   - bpo-20791(377): copy.copy() now doesn't make a copy when the input
     is a bytes object.  Initial patch by Peter Otten.

   - bpo-19748(378): On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError
     for year outsize range [1902; 2037].

   - bpo-19573(379): inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind
     constants.

   - bpo-20726(380): inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter
     picklable.

   - bpo-17373(381): Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.

   - bpo-20378(382): Improve repr of inspect.Signature and
     inspect.Parameter.

   - bpo-20816(383): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct
     TypeError for missing keyword-only arguments.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Lowin.

   - bpo-20817(384): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more
     than 3 arguments are missing.  Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

   - bpo-6676(385): Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when
     attempting to parse more than one XML document per pyexpat
     xmlparser instance.  (Original patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and
     Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, with suggested wording by David Gutteridge)

   - bpo-21117(386): Fix inspect.signature to better support
     functools.partial.  Due to the specifics of functools.partial
     implementation, positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword
     arguments become keyword-only.

   - bpo-20334(387): inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now
     hashable.  Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.

   - bpo-15916(388): doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty
     unittest.TestSuite instead of raising ValueError if it finds no
     tests

   - bpo-21209(389): Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug
     in yield-from implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.

   - asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper
     (upstream bpo-163(390)).

   - bpo-21311(391): Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard
     compiler configurations.  Patch by John Szakmeister.

   - bpo-11571(392): Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost
     window when launched on OS X.

   - bpo-21801(393): Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance
     of Signature.

   - bpo-21923(394): Prevent AttributeError in
     distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible
     uninitialized _config_vars.

   - bpo-21323(395): Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI
     subdirectories, broken by the fix for security bpo-19435(396).
     Patch by Zach Byrne.

   - bpo-22733(397): Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument
     values correctly on 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-23302(398): Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an
     HTTPConnection.  Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it's an
     optimization that's no longer needed with Nagle disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23099

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23326

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23363

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23364

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23366

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23369

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23353

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18518

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23094

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23268

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19996

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23248

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23098

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21817

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   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23071

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22783

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15513

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19858

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22095

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<64>,  Next: Build<91>,  Prev: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-20577(1): Configuration of the max line length for the
     FormatParagraph extension has been moved from the General tab of
     the Idle preferences dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the
     Config Extensions dialog.  Patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16893(2): Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add
     new information.

   - bpo-3068(3): Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options
     menu.  Changes are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg.
     Original patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16233(4): A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C)
     requires an editor window with a filename.  When Class Browser is
     requested otherwise, from a shell, output window, or 'Untitled'
     editor, Idle no longer displays an error box.  It now pops up an
     Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name is entered and a module is
     opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.

   - bpo-4832(5): Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to
     the name you enter (even if your system does not display it).  Some
     systems automatically add .txt when type is Text files.

   - bpo-21986(6): Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle
     module.  To match this, they are no longer pickled when running
     under Idle.

   - bpo-17390(7): Adjust Editor window title; remove 'Python', move
     version to end.

   - bpo-14105(8): Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when
     inserting or deleting lines.

   - bpo-17172(9): Turtledemo can now be run from Idle.  Currently, the
     entry is on the Help menu, but it may move to Run.  Patch by
     Ramchandra Apt and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21765(10): Add support for non-ascii identifiers to
     HyperParser.

   - bpo-21940(11): Add unittest for WidgetRedirector.  Initial patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18592(12): Add unittest for SearchDialogBase.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21694(13): Add unittest for ParenMatch.  Patch by Saimadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-21686(14): add unittest for HyperParser.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-12387(15): Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default
     Windows key bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them.
     Patch by Roger Serwy.

   - bpo-21695(16): Closing a Find-in-files output window while the
     search is still in progress no longer closes Idle.

   - bpo-18910(17): Add unittest for textView.  Patch by Phil Webster.

   - bpo-18292(18): Add unittest for AutoExpand.  Patch by Saihadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-18409(19): Add unittest for AutoComplete.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21477(20): htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests.
     Patches by Saimadhav Heblikar

   - bpo-18104(21): Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample
     tests to begin consolidating and improving human-validated tests of
     Idle.  Change other files as needed to work with htest.  Running
     the module as __main__ runs all tests.

   - bpo-21139(22): Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8(23)
     recommendation.

   - bpo-21284(24): Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes
     reformat width.

   - bpo-17654(25): Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X
     for non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.

   - bpo-23180(26): Rename IDLE "Windows" menu item to "Window".  Patch
     by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20577

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3068

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16233

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4832

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17390

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14105

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21765

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21940

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21694

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21686

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12387

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21695

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18292

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21477

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18104

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21139

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21284

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17654

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23180


File: python.info,  Node: Build<91>,  Next: C API<74>,  Prev: IDLE<64>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.4 Build
................

   - bpo-15506(1): Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in
     the configure script.

   - bpo-22935(2): Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl
     doesn't support SSL 3.

   - bpo-22592(3): Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build
     Python.  The distutils module still supports it to build
     extensions.

   - bpo-22591(4): Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP
     compiler (MS-DOS port of GCC).

   - bpo-16537(5): Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py.
     Patch by Jonathan Hosmer.

   - bpo-22359(6): Remove incorrect uses of recursive make.  Patch by
     Jonas Wagner.

   - bpo-21958(7): Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio
     2013 and above.  Patch by Zachary Turner.

   - bpo-18093(8): the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now
     in a separate "Programs" directory, rather than being kept in the
     Modules directory.

   - bpo-15759(9): "make suspicious", "make linkcheck" and "make
     doctest" in Doc/ now display special message when and only when
     there are failures.

   - bpo-21141(10): The Windows build process no longer attempts to find
     Perl, instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready
     to build.  The ‘PCbuild\build_ssl.py’ script has been re-written
     and re-named to ‘PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py’, and takes care of
     configuring OpenSSL source for both 32 and 64 bit platforms.
     OpenSSL sources obtained from svn.python.org will always be
     pre-configured and ready to build.

   - bpo-21037(11): Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer
     support.

   - bpo-19962(12): The Windows build process now creates "python.bat"
     in the root of the source tree, which passes all arguments through
     to the most recently built interpreter.

   - bpo-21285(13): Refactor and fix curses configure check to always
     search in a ncursesw directory.

   - bpo-15234(14): For BerkeleyDB and Sqlite, only add the found
     library and include directories if they aren't already being
     searched.  This avoids an explicit runtime library dependency.

   - bpo-17861(15): Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically
     regenerates Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets
     any change.

   - bpo-20644(16): OS X installer build support for documentation build
     changes in 3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is
     available in /usr/bin.

   - bpo-20022(17): Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X
     builds.

   - bpo-15968(18): Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the
     Windows build solution.

   - bpo-17095(19): Fix Modules/Setup 'shared' support.

   - bpo-21811(20): Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions > 10.9.

   - bpo-21166(21): Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures
     of python -generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.

   - bpo-18096(22): Fix library order returned by python-config.

   - bpo-17219(23): Add library build dir for Python extension
     cross-builds.

   - bpo-22919(24): Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual
     Studio 2015), which will be used for the official release.

   - bpo-21236(25): Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib

   - bpo-17128(26): Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+
     installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22592

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22591

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16537

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21958

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18093

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15759

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21141

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21037

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19962

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21285

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15234

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17861

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20644

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20022

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17095

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21811

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21166

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18096

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22919

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: C API<74>,  Next: Documentation<77>,  Prev: Build<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.5 C API
................

   - bpo-14203(1): Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in
     PyBuffer_FillInfo(), bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer()
     and array_buffer_getbuf().  All functions now raise BufferError in
     that case.

   - bpo-22445(2): PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise
     contiguity tests, compatible with NumPy's
     NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation flag.  Previously the
     function reported false negatives for corner cases.

   - bpo-22079(3): PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated
     type has no dynamically allocated bases.

   - bpo-22453(4): Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().

   - bpo-18395(5): Rename ‘_Py_char2wchar()’ to *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     bb7, rename ‘_Py_wchar2char()’ to *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8, and
     document these functions.

   - bpo-21233(6): Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(),
     PyMem_Calloc(), PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc().
     bytes(int) is now using ‘calloc()’ instead of ‘malloc()’ for large
     objects which is faster and use less memory.

   - bpo-20942(7): PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets
     __file__ to match what importlib does; this affects
     _frozen_importlib as well as any module loaded using
     imp.init_frozen().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22445

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22079

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20942


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<77>,  Next: Tests<84>,  Prev: C API<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.6 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19548(1): Update the codecs module documentation to better
     cover the distinction between text encodings and other codecs,
     together with other clarifications.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22394(2): Doc/Makefile now supports ‘make venv
     PYTHON=../python’ to create a venv for generating the
     documentation, e.g., ‘make html PYTHON=venv/bin/python3’.

   - bpo-21514(3): The documentation of the json module now refers to
     new JSON RFC 7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.

   - bpo-21777(4): The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray
     are now documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be
     able to derive the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the
     corresponding str methods.

   - bpo-6916(5): undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.

   - bpo-17386(6): Expanded functionality of the ‘Doc/make.bat’ script
     to make it much more comparable to ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-21312(7): Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include
     newer threading APIs.  Patch by Jack McCracken.

   - bpo-21043(8): Remove the recommendation for specific CA
     organizations and to mention the ability to load the OS
     certificates.

   - bpo-20765(9): Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name()
     and PurePath.with_suffix().

   - bpo-19407(10): New package installation and distribution guides
     based on the Python Packaging Authority tools.  Existing guides
     have been retained as legacy links from the distutils docs, as they
     still contain some required reference material for tool developers
     that isn't recorded anywhere else.

   - bpo-19697(11): Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22394

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6916

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21312

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21043

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20765

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19407

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19697


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<84>,  Next: Tools/Demos<50>,  Prev: Documentation<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.7 Tests
................

   - bpo-18982(1): Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.

   - bpo-19548(2): Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure
     that statements in the updated documentation remain accurate.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22838(3): All test_re tests now work with unittest test
     discovery.

   - bpo-22173(4): Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.

   - bpo-16000(5): Convert test_curses to use unittest.

   - bpo-21456(6): Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module
     not present.  Patch by Remi Pointel.

   - bpo-20746(7): Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R). Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22060(8): test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and
     simplified; it now uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.

   - bpo-22104(9): regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite
     of tests loaded from test modules that don't define test_main().

   - bpo-22111(10): Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib.  Patch by Milan
     Oberkirch.

   - bpo-22002(11): Added ‘load_package_tests’ function to test.support
     and used it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio,
     test_email, test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.

   - bpo-21976(12): Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings.
     Thanks to William Orr.

   - bpo-21918(13): Converted test_tools from a module to a package
     containing separate test files for each tested script.

   - bpo-9554(14): Use modern unittest features in test_argparse.
     Initial patch by Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.

   - bpo-20155(15): Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in
     test_httpservers so that packet filtering software (specifically
     Windows Base Filtering Engine) does not interfere with the
     transaction semantics expected by the tests.

   - bpo-19493(16): Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests
     explicitly rather than silently.

   - bpo-18492(17): All resources are now allowed when tests are not run
     by regrtest.py.

   - bpo-21634(18): Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division
     instead of true division to benchmark integers instead of
     floating-point numbers.  Set pystone version to 1.2.  Patch written
     by Lennart Regebro.

   - bpo-21605(19): Added tests for Tkinter images.

   - bpo-21493(20): Added test for ntpath.expanduser().  Original patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19925(21): Added tests for the spwd module.  Original patch by
     Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21522(22): Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(),
     PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().

   - bpo-17756(23): Fix test_code test when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-17752(24): Fix distutils tests when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-18604(25): Consolidated checks for GUI availability.  All
     platforms now at least check whether Tk can be instantiated when
     the GUI resource is requested.

   - bpo-21275(26): Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.

   - bpo-21223(27): Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the
     extensions are built as builtins.

   - bpo-20635(28): Added tests for Tk geometry managers.

   - Add test case for freeze.

   - bpo-20743(29): Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.

   - bpo-21097(30): Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.

   - bpo-21503(31): Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.

   - bpo-20939(32): Avoid various network test failures due to new
     redirect of ‘http://www.python.org/’ to ‘https://www.python.org’:
     use ‘http://www.example.com’ instead.

   - bpo-20668(33): asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file.
     (Patch by Vajrasky Kok)

   - bpo-21093(34): Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if
     a copy of libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.

   - bpo-22770(35): Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui
     tests.

   - bpo-23211(36): Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6
     systems.

   - bpo-23345(37): Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch
     level values (like 0.9.8zc).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22838

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22173

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20746

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22060

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22111

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22002

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21976

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21918

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9554

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20155

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19493

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21634

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21605

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21493

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19925

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21522

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17756

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17752

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21275

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21223

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20635

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20743

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21097

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21503

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20939

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20668

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21093

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23211

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23345


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<50>,  Next: Windows<75>,  Prev: Tests<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22314(1): pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable
     is set.

   - bpo-22615(2): Argument Clinic now supports the "type" argument for
     the int converter.  This permits using the int converter with enums
     and typedefs.

   - bpo-20076(3): The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8
     mapping.

   - bpo-20079(4): The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the
     SUPPORTED file from glibc sources and supports command line options
     for source paths.

   - bpo-22201(5): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     correctly extracts ZIP files with directory entries.  Patch by Ryan
     Wilson.

   - bpo-22120(6): For functions using an unsigned integer return
     converter, Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for
     the comparison to -1 in the generated code.  (This suppresses a
     compilation warning.)

   - bpo-18974(7): Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of
     optparse.

   - bpo-21906(8): Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3.  Patch
     by Zachary Ware.

   - bpo-21629(9): Fix Argument Clinic's "-converters" feature.

   - Add support for ‘yield from’ to 2to3.

   - Add support for the PEP 465(10) matrix multiplication operator to
     2to3.

   - bpo-16047(11): Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in
     freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-11824(12): Consider ABI tags in freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-20535(13): PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py
     script.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22615

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22120

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21906

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21629

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11824

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20535


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<75>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<50>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.112.9 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23260(1): Update Windows installer

   - The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3.  The most
     visible result of this change is the addition of new native file
     dialogs when running on Windows Vista or newer.  See Tcl/Tk's TIP
     432 for more information.  Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes
     support for Windows 10.

   - bpo-17896(2): The Windows build scripts now expect external library
     sources to be in ‘PCbuild\..\externals’ rather than
     ‘PCbuild\..\..’.

   - bpo-17717(3): The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM
     pulled from svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.

   - bpo-21907(4): Improved the batch scripts provided for building
     Python.

   - bpo-22644(5): The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to
     1.0.1j.

   - bpo-10747(6): Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu.
     Patch by Olive Kilburn.

   - bpo-22980(7): .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for
     example, ".cp35-win32.pyd") will now be loaded in preference to
     those without tags.

'(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17717

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21907

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22644

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10747

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980


File: python.info,  Node: Le tutoriel Python,  Next: Installation et utilisation de Python,  Prev: Nouveautés de Python,  Up: Top

2 Le tutoriel Python
********************

Python est un langage de programmation puissant et facile à apprendre.
Il dispose de structures de données de haut niveau et permet une
approche simple mais efficace de la programmation orientée objet.  Parce
que sa syntaxe est élégante, que son typage est dynamique et qu'il est
interprété, Python est un langage idéal pour l'écriture de scripts et le
développement rapide d'applications dans de nombreux domaines et sur la
plupart des plateformes.

L'interpréteur Python et sa vaste bibliothèque standard sont disponibles
librement, sous forme de sources ou de binaires, pour toutes les
plateformes majeures depuis le site Internet ‘https://www.python.org/’
et peuvent être librement redistribués.  Ce même site distribue et
pointe vers des modules, des programmes et des outils tiers.  Enfin, il
constitue une source de documentation.

L'interpréteur Python peut être facilement étendu par de nouvelles
fonctions et types de données implémentés en C ou C++ (ou tout autre
langage appelable depuis le C). Python est également adapté comme
langage d'extension pour personnaliser des applications.

Dans ce tutoriel, nous introduisons, de façon informelle, les concepts
de base ainsi que les fonctionnalités du langage Python et de son
écosystème.  Il est utile de disposer d'un interpréteur Python à portée
de main pour mettre en pratique les notions abordées.  Si ce n'est pas
possible, pas de souci, les exemples sont inclus et le tutoriel est
adapté à une lecture "hors ligne".

Pour une description des objets et modules de la bibliothèque standard,
reportez-vous à *note La bibliothèque standard: 143.  *note La référence
du langage Python: 144. présente le langage de manière plus formelle.
Pour écrire des extensions en C ou en C++, lisez *note Extension et
intégration de l'interpréteur Python: 1b99. et *note Manuel de référence
de l'API Python/C: 1b9a.  Des livres sont également disponibles qui
couvrent Python dans le détail.

L'ambition de ce tutoriel n'est pas d'être exhaustif et de couvrir
chaque fonctionnalité, ni même toutes les fonctionnalités les plus
utilisées.  Il vise, en revanche, à introduire les fonctionnalités les
plus notables et à vous donner une bonne idée de la saveur et du style
du langage.  Après l'avoir lu, vous serez capable de lire et d'écrire
des modules et des programmes Python et vous serez prêt à en apprendre
davantage sur les modules de la bibliothèque Python décrits dans *note
La bibliothèque standard: 143.

Pensez aussi à consulter le *note Glossaire: 1b9b.

* Menu:

* Mise en bouche::
* Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python::
* Introduction informelle à Python::
* D'autres outils de contrôle de flux::
* Structures de données::
* Modules: Modules<2>.
* Les entrées/sorties::
* Erreurs et exceptions::
* Classes::
* Survol de la bibliothèque standard::
* Survol de la bibliothèque standard: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie. Deuxième partie
* Environnements virtuels et paquets::
* Pour aller plus loin::
* Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique::
* Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations.
* Annexe::


File: python.info,  Node: Mise en bouche,  Next: Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.1 Mise en bouche
==================

Lorsqu'on travaille beaucoup sur ordinateur, on finit souvent par
vouloir automatiser certaines tâches : par exemple, effectuer une
recherche et un remplacement sur un grand nombre de fichiers de texte ;
ou renommer et réorganiser des photos d'une manière un peu compliquée.
Pour vous, ce peut être créer une petite base de données, une
application graphique ou un simple jeu.

Quand on est un développeur professionnel, le besoin peut se faire
sentir de travailler avec des bibliothèques C/C++/Java, mais on trouve
que le cycle habituel écriture/compilation/test/compilation est trop
lourd.  Vous écrivez peut-être une suite de tests pour une telle
bibliothèque et vous trouvez que l'écriture du code de test est pénible.
Ou bien vous avez écrit un logiciel qui a besoin d'être extensible grâce
à un langage de script, mais vous ne voulez pas concevoir ni implémenter
un nouveau langage pour votre application.

Python est le langage parfait pour vous.

Vous pouvez écrire un script shell Unix ou des fichiers batch Windows
pour certaines de ces tâches.  Les scripts shell sont appropriés pour
déplacer des fichiers et modifier des données textuelles, mais pas pour
une application ayant une interface graphique ni pour des jeux.  Vous
pouvez écrire un programme en C/C++/Java, mais cela peut prendre
beaucoup de temps, ne serait-ce que pour avoir une première maquette.
Python est plus facile à utiliser et il vous aidera à terminer plus
rapidement votre travail, que ce soit sous Windows, macOS ou Unix.

Python reste facile à utiliser, mais c'est un vrai langage de
programmation : il offre une bien meilleure structure et prise en charge
des grands programmes que les scripts shell ou les fichiers batch.  Par
ailleurs, Python permet de beaucoup mieux vérifier les erreurs que le
langage C et, en tant que 'langage de très haut niveau', il possède
nativement des types de données très évolués tels que les tableaux de
taille variable ou les dictionnaires.  Grâce à ses types de données plus
universels, Python est utilisable pour des domaines beaucoup plus variés
que ne peuvent l'être 'Awk' ou même Perl.  Pourtant, vous pouvez faire
de nombreuses choses au moins aussi facilement en Python que dans ces
langages.

Python vous permet de découper votre programme en modules qui peuvent
être réutilisés dans d'autres programmes Python.  Il est fourni avec une
grande variété de modules standards que vous pouvez utiliser comme base
de vos programmes, ou comme exemples pour apprendre à programmer.
Certains de ces modules donnent accès aux entrées/sorties, aux appels
système, aux connecteurs réseaux et même aux outils comme Tk pour créer
des interfaces graphiques.

Python est un langage interprété, ce qui peut vous faire gagner un temps
considérable pendant le développement de vos programmes car aucune
compilation ni édition de liens n'est nécessaire.  L'interpréteur peut
être utilisé de manière interactive, pour vous permettre d'expérimenter
les fonctionnalités du langage, d'écrire des programmes jetables ou de
tester des fonctions lors d'un développement incrémental.  C'est aussi
une calculatrice de bureau bien pratique.

Python permet d'écrire des programmes compacts et lisibles.  Les
programmes écrits en Python sont généralement beaucoup plus courts que
leurs équivalents en C, C++ ou Java.  Et ceci pour plusieurs raisons :

   * les types de données de haut niveau vous permettent d'exprimer des
     opérations complexes en une seule instruction ;

   * les instructions sont regroupées entre elles grâce à l'indentation,
     plutôt que par l'utilisation d'accolades ;

   * aucune déclaration de variable ou d'argument n'est nécessaire.

Python est 'extensible' : si vous savez écrire un programme en C, une
nouvelle fonction ou module peut être facilement ajouté à l'interpréteur
afin de l'étendre, que ce soit pour effectuer des opérations critiques à
vitesse maximale ou pour lier des programmes en Python à des
bibliothèques disponibles uniquement sous forme binaire (par exemple des
bibliothèques graphiques dédiées à un matériel).  Une fois que vous êtes
à l'aise avec ces principes, vous pouvez relier l'interpréteur Python à
une application écrite en C et l'utiliser comme un langage d'extensions
ou de commandes pour cette application.

Au fait, le nom du langage provient de l'émission de la BBC « Monty
Python's Flying Circus » et n'a rien à voir avec les reptiles.  Faire
référence aux sketchs des Monty Python dans la documentation n'est pas
seulement permis, c'est encouragé !

Maintenant que vos papilles ont été chatouillées, nous allons pouvoir
rentrer dans le vif du sujet Python.  Et comme la meilleure façon
d'apprendre un langage est de l'utiliser, ce tutoriel vous invite à
jouer avec l'interpréteur au fur et à mesure de votre lecture.

Dans le prochain chapitre, nous expliquons l'utilisation de
l'interpréteur.  Ce n'est pas la section la plus passionnante, mais
c'est un passage obligé pour que vous puissiez mettre en pratique les
exemples donnés plus loin.

Le reste du tutoriel présente diverses fonctionnalités du langage et du
système Python au travers d'exemples, en commençant par les expressions
simples, les instructions et les types de données, jusqu'à aborder des
concepts avancés comme les exceptions et les classes, en passant par les
fonctions et modules.


File: python.info,  Node: Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python,  Next: Introduction informelle à Python,  Prev: Mise en bouche,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.2 Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python
==========================================

* Menu:

* Lancement de l'interpréteur::
* L'interpréteur et son environnement::


File: python.info,  Node: Lancement de l'interpréteur,  Next: L'interpréteur et son environnement,  Up: Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python

2.2.1 Lancement de l'interpréteur
---------------------------------

En général, vous trouvez l'interpréteur Python sous
‘/usr/local/bin/python3.13’ sur les machines où il est disponible ;
ajoutez ‘/usr/local/bin’ au chemin de recherche de votre shell Unix afin
de pouvoir le lancer en tapant la commande :

     python3.13

dans le shell.  (1)  Le choix du répertoire où se trouve l'interpréteur
étant une option d'installation, d'autres chemins sont possibles ; voyez
avec votre gourou Python local ou votre administrateur système (par
exemple, ‘/usr/local/python’ est un endroit courant).

Sur les machines Windows sur lesquelles vous avez installé Python à
partir du *note Microsoft Store: 1ba4, la commande ‘python3.13’ est
disponible.  Si le *note lanceur py.exe: 5aa. est installé, vous pouvez
utiliser la commande ‘py’.  Voir *note Digression ; définition des
variables d'environnement: 1ba5. pour d'autres façons de lancer Python.

Tapez un caractère de fin de fichier (‘Ctrl’-‘D’ sous Unix, ‘Ctrl’-‘Z’
sous Windows) dans une invite de commande primaire provoque la fermeture
de l'interpréteur avec un code de sortie nul.  Si cela ne fonctionne
pas, vous pouvez fermer l'interpréteur en tapant la commande ‘quit()’.

Les fonctionnalités d'édition de l'interpréteur comprennent l'édition
interactive, la substitution depuis l'historique et la complétion sur
les systèmes qui gèrent la bibliothèque GNU Readline(2).  Un moyen
rapide de tester comment est gérée l'édition de la ligne de commande,
c'est de taper ‘Control’-‘P’ à la première invite de commande que vous
rencontrez.  Si cela bipe, vous disposez de l'édition de la ligne de
commande ; lisez l'appendice *note Édition interactive des entrées et
substitution d'historique: 1ba6. pour une introduction aux touches.  Si
rien ne semble se produire ou si ‘^P’ s'affiche, l'édition de la ligne
de commande n'est pas disponible ; vous serez seulement en mesure
d'utiliser la touche retour arrière pour supprimer des caractères de la
ligne courante.

L'interpréteur fonctionne de façon similaire au shell Unix : lorsqu'il
est appelé avec l'entrée standard connectée à un périphérique tty, il
lit et exécute les commandes de façon interactive ; lorsqu'il est appelé
avec un nom de fichier en argument ou avec un fichier comme entrée
standard, il lit et exécute un 'script' depuis ce fichier.

Une autre façon de lancer l'interpréteur est ‘python -c commande [arg]
...’.  Cela exécute les instructions de 'commande' de façon analogue à
l'option *note -c: 5cc. du shell.  Parce que les instructions Python
contiennent souvent des espaces et d'autres caractères spéciaux pour le
shell, il est généralement conseillé de mettre 'commande' entre
guillemets simples.

Certains modules Python sont aussi utiles en tant que scripts.  Ils
peuvent être appelés avec ‘python -m module [arg] ...’ qui exécute le
fichier source de 'module' comme si vous aviez tapé son nom complet dans
la ligne de commande.

Quand un fichier de script est utilisé, il est parfois utile de pouvoir
lancer le script puis d'entrer dans le mode interactif après coup.  Cela
est possible en passant *note -i: 1493. avant le script.

Tous les paramètres utilisables en ligne de commande sont documentés
dans *note Ligne de commande et environnement: 197d.

* Menu:

* Passage d'arguments::
* Mode interactif::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Sous Unix, par défaut, l'interpréteur Python 3.x n'est pas
installé sous le nom de ‘python’ afin de ne pas entrer en conflit avec
une éventuelle installation de Python 2.x.

   (2) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: Passage d'arguments,  Next: Mode interactif,  Up: Lancement de l'interpréteur

2.2.1.1 Passage d'arguments
...........................

Lorsqu'ils sont connus de l'interpréteur, le nom du script et les
arguments additionnels sont représentés sous forme d'une liste de
chaînes de caractères assignée à la variable ‘argv’ du module ‘sys’.
Vous pouvez y accéder en exécutant ‘import sys’.  La liste contient au
minimum un élément ; quand aucun script ni aucun argument n'est donné,
‘sys.argv[0]’ est une chaine vide.  Quand ‘'-'’ (qui représente l'entrée
standard) est passé comme nom de script, ‘sys.argv[0]’ contient ‘'-'’.
Quand *note -c: 5cc. 'commande' est utilisé, ‘sys.argv[0]’ contient
‘'-c'’.  Enfin, quand *note -m: 5cd. 'module' est utilisé, le nom
complet du module est assigné à ‘sys.argv[0]’.  Les options trouvées
après *note -c: 5cc. 'commande' ou *note -m: 5cd. 'module' ne sont pas
lues comme options de l'interpréteur Python mais laissées dans
‘sys.argv’ pour être utilisées par le module ou la commande.


File: python.info,  Node: Mode interactif,  Prev: Passage d'arguments,  Up: Lancement de l'interpréteur

2.2.1.2 Mode interactif
.......................

Lorsque des commandes sont lues depuis un tty, l'interpréteur est dit
être en 'mode interactif'.  Dans ce mode, il demande la commande
suivante avec le 'prompt primaire', en général trois signes
plus-grand-que (‘>>>’) ; pour les lignes de continuation, il affiche le
'prompt secondaire', par défaut trois points (‘...’).  L'interpréteur
affiche un message de bienvenue indiquant son numéro de version et une
notice de copyright avant d'afficher le premier prompt :

     $ python3.13
     Python 3.13 (default, April 4 2023, 09:25:04)
     [GCC 10.2.0] on linux
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

Les lignes de continuation sont nécessaires pour entrer une construction
multi-lignes.  Par exemple, regardez cette instruction *note if: 2e8. :

     >>> the_world_is_flat = True
     >>> if the_world_is_flat:
     ...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
     ...
     Be careful not to fall off!

Pour plus d'informations sur le mode interactif, voir *note Mode
interactif: 16e.


File: python.info,  Node: L'interpréteur et son environnement,  Prev: Lancement de l'interpréteur,  Up: Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python

2.2.2 L'interpréteur et son environnement
-----------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Encodage du code source::


File: python.info,  Node: Encodage du code source,  Up: L'interpréteur et son environnement

2.2.2.1 Encodage du code source
...............................

Par défaut, Python considère que ses fichiers sources sont encodés en
UTF-8.  Dans cet encodage, les caractères de la plupart des langues
peuvent être utilisés à la fois dans les chaînes de caractères,
identifiants et commentaires.  Notez que la bibliothèque standard
n'utilise que des caractères ASCII dans ses identifiants et que nous
considérons que c'est une bonne habitude que tout code portable devrait
suivre.  Pour afficher correctement tous ces caractères, votre éditeur
doit reconnaître que le fichier est en UTF-8 et utiliser une police qui
comprend tous les caractères utilisés dans le fichier.

Pour annoncer un encodage différent de l'encodage par défaut, une ligne
de commentaire particulière doit être ajoutée en tant que 'première'
ligne du fichier.  Sa syntaxe est la suivante :

     # -*- coding: encoding -*-

où 'encoding' est un des *note codecs: 1b. géré par Python.

Par exemple, pour déclarer un encodage 'Windows-1252', la première ligne
de votre code source doit être :

     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

Une exception à la règle 'première ligne' est lorsque la première ligne
est un *note shebang UNIX: 1bae.  Dans ce cas, la déclaration de
l'encodage doit être placée sur la deuxième ligne du fichier.  Par
exemple :

     #!/usr/bin/env python3
     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction informelle à Python,  Next: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux,  Prev: Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.3 Introduction informelle à Python
====================================

Dans les exemples qui suivent, les entrées et sorties se distinguent par
la présence ou l'absence d'invite (*note >>>: 16b. et *note ...: 16c.) :
pour reproduire les exemples, vous devez taper tout ce qui est après
l'invite, au moment où celle-ci apparaît ; les lignes qui n'affichent
pas d'invite sont les sorties de l'interpréteur.  Notez qu'une invite
secondaire affichée seule sur une ligne dans un exemple indique que vous
devez entrer une ligne vide ; ceci est utilisé pour terminer une
commande multi-lignes.

Beaucoup d'exemples de ce manuel, même ceux saisis à l'invite de
l'interpréteur, incluent des commentaires.  Les commentaires en Python
commencent avec un caractère croisillon, ‘#’, et s'étendent jusqu'à la
fin de la ligne.  Un commentaire peut apparaître au début d'une ligne ou
à la suite d'un espace ou de code, mais pas à l'intérieur d'une chaîne
de caractères littérale.  Un caractère croisillon à l'intérieur d'une
chaîne de caractères est juste un caractère croisillon.  Comme les
commentaires ne servent qu'à expliquer le code et ne sont pas
interprétés par Python, ils peuvent être ignorés lorsque vous tapez les
exemples.

Quelques exemples :

     # this is the first comment
     spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
               # ... and now a third!
     text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."

* Menu:

* Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice::
* Premiers pas vers la programmation::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice,  Next: Premiers pas vers la programmation,  Up: Introduction informelle à Python

2.3.1 Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice
--------------------------------------------------

Essayons quelques commandes Python simples.  Démarrez l'interpréteur et
attendez l'invite primaire, ‘>>>’.  Ça ne devrait pas être long.

* Menu:

* Les nombres::
* Text::
* Listes::


File: python.info,  Node: Les nombres,  Next: Text,  Up: Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

2.3.1.1 Les nombres
...................

L'interpréteur agit comme une simple calculatrice : vous pouvez lui
entrer une expression et il vous affiche la valeur.  La syntaxe des
expressions est simple : les opérateurs ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’ et ‘/’ peuvent
être utilisés pour effectuer des calculs arithmétiques ; les parenthèses
(‘()’) peuvent être utilisées pour faire des regroupements.  Par
exemple :

     >>> 2 + 2
     4
     >>> 50 - 5*6
     20
     >>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
     5.0
     >>> 8 / 5  # division always returns a floating-point number
     1.6

Les nombres entiers (comme ‘2’, ‘4’, ‘20’) sont de type *note int: 254,
alors que les décimaux (comme ‘5.0’, ‘1.6’) sont de type *note float:
2ec.  Vous trouvez plus de détails sur les types numériques plus loin
dans ce tutoriel.

Les divisions (‘/’) donnent toujours des ‘float’.  Utilisez l'opérateur
‘//’ pour effectuer une *note division entière: 933. et donc obtenir un
résultat entier.  Pour obtenir le reste d'une division entière, utilisez
l'opérateur ‘%’ :

     >>> 17 / 3  # classic division returns a float
     5.666666666666667
     >>>
     >>> 17 // 3  # floor division discards the fractional part
     5
     >>> 17 % 3  # the % operator returns the remainder of the division
     2
     >>> 5 * 3 + 2  # floored quotient * divisor + remainder
     17

En Python, il est possible de calculer des puissances avec l'opérateur
‘**’ (1) :

     >>> 5 ** 2  # 5 squared
     25
     >>> 2 ** 7  # 2 to the power of 7
     128

Le signe égal (‘=’) est utilisé pour affecter une valeur à une variable.
Dans ce cas, aucun résultat n'est affiché avant l'invite suivante :

     >>> width = 20
     >>> height = 5 * 9
     >>> width * height
     900

Si une variable n'est pas « définie » (si aucune valeur ne lui a été
affectée), son utilisation produit une erreur :

     >>> n  # try to access an undefined variable
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'n' is not defined

Les nombres à virgule flottante sont tout à fait admis (NdT : Python
utilise le point '.'  comme séparateur entre la partie entière et la
partie décimale des nombres, c'est la convention anglo-saxonne) ; les
opérateurs avec des opérandes de types différents convertissent
l'opérande de type entier en type virgule flottante :

     >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
     14.0

En mode interactif, la dernière expression affichée est affectée à la
variable ‘_’.  Ainsi, lorsque vous utilisez Python comme calculatrice,
cela vous permet de continuer des calculs facilement, par exemple :

     >>> tax = 12.5 / 100
     >>> price = 100.50
     >>> price * tax
     12.5625
     >>> price + _
     113.0625
     >>> round(_, 2)
     113.06

Cette variable doit être considérée comme une variable en lecture seule
par l'utilisateur.  Ne lui affectez pas de valeur explicitement — vous
créeriez ainsi une variable locale indépendante, avec le même nom, qui
masquerait la variable native et son fonctionnement magique.

En plus des *note int: 254. et des *note float: 2ec, il existe les *note
Decimal: 29a. et les *note Fraction: 1e4.  Python gère aussi les *note
nombres complexes: 1bb6, en utilisant le suffixe ‘j’ ou ‘J’ pour
indiquer la partie imaginaire (tel que ‘3+5j’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Puisque ‘**’ est prioritaire sur ‘-’, ‘-3 ** 2’ est interprété
‘-(3 ** 2)’ et vaut donc ‘-9’.  Pour éviter cela et obtenir ‘9’,
utilisez des parenthèses : ‘(-3) ** 2’.


File: python.info,  Node: Text,  Next: Listes,  Prev: Les nombres,  Up: Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

2.3.1.2 Text
............

Python can manipulate text (represented by type *note str: 437,
so-called "strings") as well as numbers.  This includes characters
"‘!’", words "‘rabbit’", names "‘Paris’", sentences "‘Got your back.’",
etc.  "‘Yay! :)’".  They can be enclosed in single quotes (‘'...'’) or
double quotes (‘"..."’) with the same result (1).

     >>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
     'spam eggs'
     >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!"  # double quotes
     'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!'
     >>> '1975'  # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings
     '1975'

To quote a quote, we need to "escape" it, by preceding it with ‘\’.
Alternatively, we can use the other type of quotation marks:

     >>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
     "doesn't"
     >>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
     "doesn't"
     >>> '"Yes," they said.'
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
     '"Isn\'t," they said.'

In the Python shell, the string definition and output string can look
different.  The *note print(): f62. function produces a more readable
output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped and
special characters:

     >>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n means newline
     >>> s  # without print(), special characters are included in the string
     'First line.\nSecond line.'
     >>> print(s)  # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line
     First line.
     Second line.

Si vous ne voulez pas que les caractères précédés d'un ‘\’ soient
interprétés comme étant spéciaux, utilisez les 'chaînes brutes' ('raw
strings' en anglais) en préfixant la chaîne d'un ‘r’ :

     >>> print('C:\some\name')  # here \n means newline!
     C:\some
     ame
     >>> print(r'C:\some\name')  # note the r before the quote
     C:\some\name

Il existe une petite subtilité concernant les chaînes brutes : une
chaîne brute ne peut pas se terminer par un nombre impair de caractères
‘\’ ; voir *note l'entrée FAQ: 1bb9. pour plus d'informations et des
solutions de contournement.

String literals can span multiple lines.  One way is using
triple-quotes: ‘"""..."""’ or ‘'''...'''’.  End-of-line characters are
automatically included in the string, but it's possible to prevent this
by adding a ‘\’ at the end of the line.  In the following example, the
initial newline is not included:

     >>> print("""\
     ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     ...      -h                        Display this usage message
     ...      -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
     ... """)
     Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
          -h                        Display this usage message
          -H hostname               Hostname to connect to

     >>>

Les chaînes peuvent être concaténées (collées ensemble) avec l'opérateur
‘+’ et répétées avec l'opérateur ‘*’ :

     >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
     >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
     'unununium'

Plusieurs chaînes de caractères, écrites littéralement (c'est-à-dire
entre guillemets), côte à côte, sont automatiquement concaténées.

     >>> 'Py' 'thon'
     'Python'

Cette fonctionnalité est surtout intéressante pour couper des chaînes
trop longues :

     >>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
     ...         'to have them joined together.')
     >>> text
     'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

Cela ne fonctionne cependant qu'avec les chaînes littérales, pas avec
les variables ni les expressions :

     >>> prefix = 'Py'
     >>> prefix 'thon'  # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         prefix 'thon'
                ^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
     >>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         ('un' * 3) 'ium'
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Pour concaténer des variables, ou des variables avec des chaînes
littérales, utilisez l'opérateur ‘+’ :

     >>> prefix + 'thon'
     'Python'

Les chaînes de caractères peuvent être indexées (ou indicées,
c'est-à-dire que l'on peut accéder aux caractères par leur position), le
premier caractère d'une chaîne étant à la position 0.  Il n'existe pas
de type distinct pour les caractères, un caractère est simplement une
chaîne de longueur 1 :

     >>> word = 'Python'
     >>> word[0]  # character in position 0
     'P'
     >>> word[5]  # character in position 5
     'n'

Les indices peuvent également être négatifs, on compte alors en partant
de la droite.  Par exemple :

     >>> word[-1]  # last character
     'n'
     >>> word[-2]  # second-last character
     'o'
     >>> word[-6]
     'P'

Notez que, comme ‘-0’ égale ‘0’, les indices négatifs commencent par
‘-1’.

En plus d'accéder à un élément par son indice, il est aussi possible de
« trancher » ('slice' en anglais) une chaîne.  Accéder à une chaîne par
un indice permet d'obtenir un caractère, 'trancher' permet d'obtenir une
sous-chaîne :

     >>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
     'tho'

Les valeurs par défaut des indices de tranches ont une utilité ; le
premier indice vaut zéro par défaut (c.-à-d.  lorsqu'il est omis), le
deuxième correspond par défaut à la taille de la chaîne de caractères

     >>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
     'on'
     >>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
     'on'

Notez que le début est toujours inclus et la fin toujours exclue.  Cela
assure que ‘s[:i] + s[i:]’ est toujours égal à ‘s’ :

     >>> word[:2] + word[2:]
     'Python'
     >>> word[:4] + word[4:]
     'Python'

Pour mémoriser la façon dont les tranches fonctionnent, vous pouvez
imaginer que les indices pointent 'entre' les caractères, le côté gauche
du premier caractère ayant la position 0.  Le côté droit du dernier
caractère d'une chaîne de 'n' caractères a alors pour indice 'n'.  Par
exemple :

      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      | P | y | t | h | o | n |
      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      0   1   2   3   4   5   6
     -6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1

La première ligne de nombres donne la position des indices 0…6 dans la
chaîne ; la deuxième ligne donne l'indice négatif correspondant.  La
tranche de 'i' à 'j' est constituée de tous les caractères situés entre
les bords libellés 'i' et 'j', respectivement.

Pour des indices non négatifs, la longueur d'une tranche est la
différence entre ces indices, si les deux sont entre les bornes.  Par
exemple, la longueur de ‘word[1:3]’ est 2.

Utiliser un indice trop grand produit une erreur :

     >>> word[42]  # the word only has 6 characters
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     IndexError: string index out of range

Cependant, les indices hors bornes sont gérés silencieusement lorsqu'ils
sont utilisés dans des tranches :

     >>> word[4:42]
     'on'
     >>> word[42:]
     ''

Les chaînes de caractères, en Python, ne peuvent pas être modifiées.  On
dit qu'elles sont *note immuables: 980.  Affecter une nouvelle valeur à
un indice dans une chaîne produit une erreur :

     >>> word[0] = 'J'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
     >>> word[2:] = 'py'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

Si vous avez besoin d'une chaîne différente, vous devez en créer une
nouvelle :

     >>> 'J' + word[1:]
     'Jython'
     >>> word[:2] + 'py'
     'Pypy'

La fonction native *note len(): 61b. renvoie la longueur d'une chaîne :

     >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
     >>> len(s)
     34

Voir aussi
..........

*note Type Séquence de Texte — str: 1bba.

     Les chaînes de caractères sont des exemples de 'types séquences' ;
     elles acceptent donc les opérations classiques prises en charge par
     ces types.

*note Méthodes de chaînes de caractères: 1bbb.

     Les chaînes de caractères gèrent un large éventail de méthodes de
     transformations basiques et de recherche.

*note f-strings: 999.

     Des chaînes littérales qui contiennent des expressions.

*note Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369.

     Informations sur le formatage des chaînes avec la méthode *note
     str.format(): 60e.

*note Formatage de chaines à la printf: 6b9.

     Description détaillée des anciennes méthodes de mise en forme,
     appelées lorsque les chaînes de caractères sont à gauche de
     l'opérateur ‘%’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Contrairement à d'autres langages, les caractères spéciaux comme
‘\n’ ont la même signification entre guillemets (‘"..."’) ou entre
guillemets simples (‘'...'’).  La seule différence est que, dans une
chaîne entre guillemets, il n'est pas nécessaire de protéger les
guillemets simples et vice-versa.


File: python.info,  Node: Listes,  Prev: Text,  Up: Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

2.3.1.3 Listes
..............

Python connaît différents types de données 'combinés', utilisés pour
regrouper plusieurs valeurs.  Le plus souple est la 'liste', qui peut
être écrit comme une suite, placée entre crochets, de valeurs (éléments)
séparées par des virgules.  Les éléments d'une liste ne sont pas
obligatoirement tous du même type, bien qu'à l'usage ce soit souvent le
cas.

     >>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
     >>> squares
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

Comme les chaînes de caractères (et toute autre type de *note sequence:
4de.), les listes peuvent être indicées et découpées :

     >>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
     1
     >>> squares[-1]
     25
     >>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
     [9, 16, 25]

Les listes gèrent aussi les opérations comme les concaténations :

     >>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

Mais à la différence des chaînes qui sont *note immuables: 980, les
listes sont *note mutables: 1bbe. : il est possible de modifier leur
contenu :

     >>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
     >>> 4 ** 3  # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!
     64
     >>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

Il est aussi possible d'ajouter de nouveaux éléments à la fin d'une
liste avec la 'méthode' ‘list.append()’ (les méthodes sont abordées plus
tard) :

     >>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
     >>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

Simple assignment in Python never copies data.  When you assign a list
to a variable, the variable refers to the 'existing list'.  Any changes
you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other
variables that refer to it.:

     >>> rgb = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
     >>> rgba = rgb
     >>> id(rgb) == id(rgba)  # they reference the same object
     True
     >>> rgba.append("Alph")
     >>> rgb
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Toutes les opérations par tranches renvoient une nouvelle liste
contenant les éléments demandés.  Cela signifie que l'opération suivante
renvoie une *note copie (superficielle): 1bbf. de la liste :

     >>> correct_rgba = rgba[:]
     >>> correct_rgba[-1] = "Alpha"
     >>> correct_rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"]
     >>> rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Des affectations de tranches sont également possibles, ce qui peut même
modifier la taille de la liste ou la vider complètement :

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # replace some values
     >>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # now remove them
     >>> letters[2:5] = []
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
     >>> letters[:] = []
     >>> letters
     []

La primitive *note len(): 61b. s'applique aussi aux listes :

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
     >>> len(letters)
     4

Il est possible d'imbriquer des listes (c.-à-d.  créer des listes
contenant d'autres listes).  Par exemple :

     >>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> n = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> x = [a, n]
     >>> x
     [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
     >>> x[0]
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> x[0][1]
     'b'


File: python.info,  Node: Premiers pas vers la programmation,  Prev: Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice,  Up: Introduction informelle à Python

2.3.2 Premiers pas vers la programmation
----------------------------------------

Bien entendu, on peut utiliser Python pour des tâches plus compliquées
que d'additionner deux et deux.  Par exemple, on peut écrire le début de
la suite de Fibonacci(1) comme ceci :

     >>> # Fibonacci series:
     >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next
     >>> a, b = 0, 1
     >>> while a < 10:
     ...     print(a)
     ...     a, b = b, a+b
     ...
     0
     1
     1
     2
     3
     5
     8

Cet exemple introduit plusieurs nouvelles fonctionnalités.

   * La première ligne contient une 'affectation multiple' : les
     variables ‘a’ et ‘b’ se voient affecter simultanément leurs
     nouvelles valeurs 0 et 1.  Cette méthode est encore utilisée à la
     dernière ligne, pour démontrer que les expressions sur la partie
     droite de l'affectation sont toutes évaluées avant que les
     affectations ne soient effectuées.  Ces expressions en partie
     droite sont toujours évaluées de la gauche vers la droite.

   * La boucle *note while: 1bc2. s'exécute tant que la condition (ici :
     ‘a < 10’) reste vraie.  En Python, comme en C, tout entier
     différent de zéro est vrai et zéro est faux.  La condition peut
     aussi être une chaîne de caractères, une liste, ou en fait toute
     séquence ; une séquence avec une valeur non nulle est vraie, une
     séquence vide est fausse.  Le test utilisé dans l'exemple est une
     simple comparaison.  Les opérateurs de comparaison standards sont
     écrits comme en C : ‘<’ (inférieur), ‘>’ (supérieur), ‘==’ (égal),
     ‘<=’ (inférieur ou égal), ‘>=’ (supérieur ou égal) et ‘!=’ (non
     égal).

   * Le 'corps' de la boucle est 'indenté' : l'indentation est la
     méthode utilisée par Python pour regrouper des instructions.  En
     mode interactif, vous devez saisir une tabulation ou des espaces
     pour chaque ligne indentée.  En pratique, vous aurez intérêt à
     utiliser un éditeur de texte pour les saisies plus compliquées ;
     tous les éditeurs de texte dignes de ce nom disposent d'une
     fonction d'auto-indentation.  Lorsqu'une expression composée est
     saisie en mode interactif, elle doit être suivie d'une ligne vide
     pour indiquer qu'elle est terminée (car l'analyseur ne peut pas
     deviner que vous venez de saisir la dernière ligne).  Notez bien
     que toutes les lignes à l'intérieur d'un bloc doivent être
     indentées au même niveau.

   * La fonction *note print(): f62. écrit les valeurs des paramètres
     qui lui sont fournis.  Ce n'est pas la même chose que d'écrire
     l'expression que vous voulez afficher (comme nous l'avons fait dans
     l'exemple de la calculatrice), en raison de la manière qu'a ‘print’
     de gérer les paramètres multiples, les nombres décimaux et les
     chaînes.  Les chaînes sont affichées sans apostrophe et une espace
     est insérée entre les éléments de telle sorte que vous pouvez
     facilement formater les choses, comme ceci :

          >>> i = 256*256
          >>> print('The value of i is', i)
          The value of i is 65536

     Le paramètre nommé 'end' peut servir pour enlever le retour à la
     ligne ou pour terminer la ligne par une autre chaîne :

          >>> a, b = 0, 1
          >>> while a < 1000:
          ...     print(a, end=',')
          ...     a, b = b, a+b
          ...
          0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_de_Fibonacci


File: python.info,  Node: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux,  Next: Structures de données,  Prev: Introduction informelle à Python,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.4 D'autres outils de contrôle de flux
=======================================

En plus de l'instruction *note while: 1bc2. qui vient d'être présentée,
Python dispose d'autres instructions de contrôle de flux que l'on
détaillera dans ce chapitre.

* Menu:

* L'instruction if::
* L'instruction for::
* La fonction range(): La fonction range.
* Les instructions break et continue::
* La clause else au sein des boucles::
* L'instruction pass::
* L'instruction match::
* Définir des fonctions::
* Davantage sur la définition des fonctions::
* Aparté ; le style de codage: Aparté le style de codage.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction if,  Next: L'instruction for,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.1 L'instruction ‘if’
------------------------

L'instruction *note if: 2e8. est sans doute la plus connue.  Par
exemple :

     >>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
     Please enter an integer: 42
     >>> if x < 0:
     ...     x = 0
     ...     print('Negative changed to zero')
     ... elif x == 0:
     ...     print('Zero')
     ... elif x == 1:
     ...     print('Single')
     ... else:
     ...     print('More')
     ...
     More

Il peut y avoir un nombre quelconque de parties *note elif: 1bc8. et la
partie *note else: 18a. est facultative.  Le mot clé ‘elif’ est un
raccourci pour 'else if', et permet de gagner un niveau d'indentation.
Une séquence ‘if’ ...  ‘elif’ ...  ‘elif’ ...  est par ailleurs
équivalente aux instructions ‘switch’ ou ‘case’ disponibles dans
d'autres langages.

Pour les comparaisons avec beaucoup de constantes, ainsi que les tests
d'appartenance à un type ou de forme d'un attribut, l'instruction
‘match’ décrite plus bas peut se révéler utile (voir *note L'instruction
match: 1bc9.).


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction for,  Next: La fonction range,  Prev: L'instruction if,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.2 L'instruction ‘for’
-------------------------

L'instruction *note for: 2e7. que propose Python est un peu différente
de celle que l'on peut trouver en C ou en Pascal.  Au lieu de toujours
itérer sur une suite arithmétique de nombres (comme en Pascal), ou de
donner à l'utilisateur la possibilité de définir le pas d'itération et
la condition de fin (comme en C), l'instruction ‘for’ en Python itère
sur les éléments d'une séquence (qui peut être une liste, une chaîne de
caractères…), dans l'ordre dans lequel ils apparaissent dans la
séquence.  Par exemple :

     >>> # Measure some strings:
     >>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
     >>> for w in words:
     ...     print(w, len(w))
     ...
     cat 3
     window 6
     defenestrate 12

Écrire du code qui modifie une collection tout en itérant dessus peut
s'avérer délicat.  Il est généralement plus simple de boucler sur une
copie de la collection ou de créer une nouvelle collection :

     # Create a sample collection
     users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '景太郎': 'active'}

     # Strategy:  Iterate over a copy
     for user, status in users.copy().items():
         if status == 'inactive':
             del users[user]

     # Strategy:  Create a new collection
     active_users = {}
     for user, status in users.items():
         if status == 'active':
             active_users[user] = status


File: python.info,  Node: La fonction range,  Next: Les instructions break et continue,  Prev: L'instruction for,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.3 La fonction ‘range()’
---------------------------

Si vous devez itérer sur une suite de nombres, la fonction native *note
range(): 932. est faite pour cela.  Elle génère des suites
arithmétiques :

     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     0
     1
     2
     3
     4

Le dernier élément fourni en paramètre ne fait jamais partie de la liste
générée ; ‘range(10)’ génère une liste de 10 valeurs, dont les valeurs
vont de 0 à 9.  Il est possible de spécifier une valeur de début et une
valeur d'incrément différentes (y compris négative pour cette dernière,
que l'on appelle également parfois le « pas ») :

     >>> list(range(5, 10))
     [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
     [0, 3, 6, 9]

     >>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))
     [-10, -40, -70]

Pour itérer sur les indices d'une séquence, on peut combiner les
fonctions *note range(): 932. et *note len(): 61b. :

     >>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
     >>> for i in range(len(a)):
     ...     print(i, a[i])
     ...
     0 Mary
     1 had
     2 a
     3 little
     4 lamb

Cependant, dans la plupart des cas, il est plus pratique d'utiliser la
fonction *note enumerate(): 1435.  Voyez pour cela *note Techniques de
boucles: 1bce.

Une chose étrange se produit lorsqu'on affiche un 'range' :

     >>> range(10)
     range(0, 10)

L'objet renvoyé par *note range(): 932. se comporte presque comme une
liste, mais ce n'en est pas une.  Cet objet génère les éléments de la
séquence au fur et à mesure de l'itération, sans réellement produire la
liste en tant que telle, économisant ainsi de l'espace.

On appelle de tels objets des *note itérables: 1207, c'est-à-dire des
objets qui conviennent à des fonctions ou constructions qui s'attendent
à quelque chose duquel elles peuvent tirer des éléments, successivement,
jusqu'à épuisement.  Nous avons vu que l'instruction *note for: 2e7. est
une de ces constructions, et un exemple de fonction qui prend un
itérable en paramètre est *note sum(): 456. :

     >>> sum(range(4))  # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
     6

Plus loin nous voyons d'autres fonctions qui donnent des itérables ou en
prennent en paramètre.  De plus amples détails sur *note list(): 5fe.
sont donnés dans *note Structures de données: 1bcf.


File: python.info,  Node: Les instructions break et continue,  Next: La clause else au sein des boucles,  Prev: La fonction range,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.4 Les instructions ‘break’ et ‘continue’
--------------------------------------------

L'instruction *note break: a99. interrompt la boucle *note for: 2e7. ou
*note while: 1bc2. la plus profonde.

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
     ...             break
     ...
     4 equals 2 * 2
     6 equals 2 * 3
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

L'instruction *note continue: 9b9. fait passer la boucle à son itération
suivante :

     >>> for num in range(2, 10):
     ...     if num % 2 == 0:
     ...         print(f"Found an even number {num}")
     ...         continue
     ...     print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
     ...
     Found an even number 2
     Found an odd number 3
     Found an even number 4
     Found an odd number 5
     Found an even number 6
     Found an odd number 7
     Found an even number 8
     Found an odd number 9


File: python.info,  Node: La clause else au sein des boucles,  Next: L'instruction pass,  Prev: Les instructions break et continue,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.5 La clause ‘else’ au sein des boucles
------------------------------------------

Dans une boucle ‘for’ ou ‘while’, l'instruction ‘break’ peut être
couplée à la clause ‘else’.  Si la boucle finit sans exécuter le
‘break’, alors la clause ‘else’ s'exécute.

Dans une boucle *note for: 2e7, la clause ‘else’ s'exécute après
l'exécution de la dernière itération, c'est-à-dire uniquement si la
boucle n'a pas été interrompue.

Dans une boucle *note while: 1bc2, celle-ci est exécutée lorsque la
condition devient fausse.

Dans les deux types de boucles, la clause ‘else’ n'est 'pas' exécutée si
la boucle a été interrompue par un *note break: a99.  Bien sûr, d'autres
façons de terminer une boucle de manière prématurée, comme avec *note
return: 9be. ou le déclenchement d'une exception, vont aussi ignorer
l'exécution de la clause *note else: 18a.

Un exemple est donné dans la boucle ‘for’ ci-dessous, qui cherche des
nombres premiers :

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
     ...             break
     ...     else:
     ...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
     ...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
     ...
     2 is a prime number
     3 is a prime number
     4 equals 2 * 2
     5 is a prime number
     6 equals 2 * 3
     7 is a prime number
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

(Oui, ce code est correct.  Regardez attentivement : la clause ‘else’
est rattachée à la boucle ‘for’, et 'non' à l'instruction ‘if’.)

Une façon de voir la clause ‘else’ est de l'imaginer couplée à ‘if’ dans
une boucle.  Lorsque la boucle s'exécute, une séquence similaire à
‘if/if/if/else’ est exécutée.  Le ‘if’ étant dans la boucle il est
exécuté un certain nombre de fois.  Si sa condition est vraie, un
‘break’ est déclenché.  Si la condition n'est jamais vraie, la clause
‘else’ en dehors de la boucle est exécutée.

Lorsqu'elle utilisée dans une boucle, la clause ‘else’ est donc plus
proche de celle associée à une instruction *note try: 6d5. que de celle
associée à une instruction ‘if’ : la clause ‘else’ d'une instruction
‘try’ s'exécute lorsqu'aucune exception n'est déclenchée, et celle d'une
boucle lorsqu'aucun ‘break’ n'intervient.  Pour plus d'informations sur
l'instruction ‘try’ et le traitement des exceptions, consultez la
section *note Gestion des exceptions: 1bd5.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction pass,  Next: L'instruction match,  Prev: La clause else au sein des boucles,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.6 L'instruction ‘pass’
--------------------------

L'instruction *note pass: 1bd8. ne fait rien.  Elle peut être utilisée
lorsqu'une instruction est nécessaire pour fournir une syntaxe correcte,
mais qu'aucune action ne doit être effectuée.  Par exemple :

     >>> while True:
     ...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
     ...

On utilise couramment cette instruction pour créer des classes
minimales :

     >>> class MyEmptyClass:
     ...     pass
     ...

Un autre cas d'utilisation du *note pass: 1bd8. est de réserver un
espace en phase de développement pour une fonction ou un traitement
conditionnel, vous permettant ainsi de construire votre code à un niveau
plus abstrait.  L'instruction ‘pass’ est alors ignorée silencieusement :

     >>> def initlog(*args):
     ...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction match,  Next: Définir des fonctions,  Prev: L'instruction pass,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.7 L'instruction ‘match’
---------------------------

L'instruction *note match: 7f9. confronte la valeur d'une expression à
plusieurs filtres successifs donnés par les instructions ‘case’.
L’instruction ‘match’ peut faire penser au ‘switch’ que l'on trouve dans
les langages C, Java, JavaScript et autres, mais elle ressemble plus au
filtrage par motif des langages Rust et Haskell.  Seul le premier filtre
qui correspond est exécuté et elle permet aussi d'extraire dans des
variables des composantes de la valeur, comme les éléments d'une
séquence ou les attributs d'un objet.

Dans sa plus simple expression, une instruction ‘match’ compare une
valeur à des littéraux :

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Remarquez l'emploi du signe souligné ‘_’ dans le dernier bloc, qui est
normalement un nom de variable spécial.  Ici, c'est un filtre
'attrape-tout', c'est-à-dire qu'il accepte toutes les valeurs.  Si aucun
des filtres dans les ‘case’ ne fonctionne, aucune des branches indentées
sous les ‘case’ n'est exécutée.

On peut combiner plusieurs littéraux en un seul filtre avec le signe
‘|’, qui se lit OU :

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

Les filtres peuvent prendre une forme similaire aux affectations
multiples, et provoquer la liaison de variables :

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

Observez bien cet exemple !  Le premier filtre contient simplement deux
littéraux.  C'est une sorte d'extension des filtres littéraux.  Mais les
deux filtres suivants mélangent un littéral et un nom de variable.  Si
un tel filtre réussit, il provoque l'affectation à la variable.  Le
quatrième filtre est constitué de deux variables, ce qui le fait
beaucoup ressembler à l'affectation multiple ‘(x, y) = point’.

Si vous structurez vos données par l'utilisation de classes, vous pouvez
former des filtres avec le nom de la classe suivi d'une liste
d'arguments.  Ces filtres sont semblables à l'appel d'un constructeur,
et permettent de capturer des attributs :

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def where_is(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y}")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x}")
             case Point():
                 print("Somewhere else")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

Un certain nombre de classes natives, notamment les classes de données,
prennent en charge le filtrage par arguments positionnels en définissant
un ordre des attributs.  Vous pouvez ajouter cette possibilité à vos
propres classes en y définissant l'attribut spécial ‘__match_args__’.
Par exemple, le mettre à ‘("x", "y")’ rend tous les filtres ci-dessous
équivalents (en particulier, tous provoquent la liaison de l'attribut
‘y’ à la variable ‘var’) :

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)

Une méthode préconisée pour lire les filtres est de les voir comme une
extension de ce que l'on peut placer à gauche du signe ‘=’ dans une
affectation.  Cela permet de visualiser quelles variables sont liées à
quoi.  Seuls les noms simples, comme ‘var’ ci-dessus, sont des variables
susceptibles d'être liées à une valeur.  Il n'y a jamais de liaison pour
les noms qualifiés (avec un point, comme dans ‘truc.machin’), les noms
d'attributs (tels que ‘x=’ et ‘y=’ dans l'exemple précédent) et les noms
de classes (identifiés par les parenthèses à leur droite, comme
‘Point’).

On peut imbriquer les filtres autant que de besoin.  Ainsi, on peut lire
une courte liste de points, avec ‘__match_args__’, comme ceci :

     class Point:
         __match_args__ = ('x', 'y')
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
         case _:
             print("Something else")

Un filtre peut comporter un ‘if’, qui introduit ce que l'on appelle une
garde.  Si le filtre réussit, la garde est alors testée et, si elle
s'évalue à une valeur fausse, l'exécution continue au bloc ‘case’
suivant.  Les variables sont liées avant l'évaluation de la garde, et
peuvent être utilisées à l'intérieur :

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"Y=X at {x}")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Not on the diagonal")

Voici d’autres caractéristiques importantes de cette instruction :

   - comme dans les affectations multiples, les filtres de 'n'-uplet et
     de liste sont totalement équivalents et autorisent tous les types
     de séquences.  Exception importante, ils n'autorisent pas les
     itérateurs ni les chaînes de caractères ;

   - les filtres de séquence peuvent faire intervenir l'affectation
     étoilée : ‘[x, y, *reste]’ ou ‘(x, y, *reste)’ ont le même sens que
     dans une affectation avec ‘=’.  Le nom de variable après l'étoile
     peut aussi être l'attrape-tout ‘_’.  Ainsi, ‘(x, y, *_)’ est un
     filtre qui reconnaît les séquences à deux éléments ou plus, en
     capturant les deux premiers et en ignorant le reste ;

   - Il existe des filtres d'association.  Par exemple, le filtre
     ‘{"bande_passante": b, "latence": l}’ extrait les valeurs des clés
     ‘"bande_passante"’ et ‘"latence"’ dans un dictionnaire.
     Contrairement aux filtres de séquence, les clés absentes du filtre
     sont ignorées.  L'affectation double-étoilée (‘**reste’) fonctionne
     aussi (cependant, ‘**_’ serait redondant et n'est donc pas
     permis) ;

   - on peut capturer la valeur d'une partie d'un filtre avec le mot-clé
     ‘as’, par exemple :

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     Ce filtre, lorsqu'il est comparé à une séquence de deux points,
     réussit et capture le second dans la variable ‘p2’ ;

   - la plupart des littéraux sont comparés par égalité.  Néanmoins, les
     singletons ‘True’, ‘False’ et ‘None’ sont comparés par identité ;

   - les filtres peuvent contenir des noms qui se réfèrent à des
     constantes.  Ces noms doivent impérativement être qualifiés
     (contenir un point) pour ne pas être interprétés comme des
     variables de capture :

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 'red'
              GREEN = 'green'
              BLUE = 'blue'

          color = Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': "))

          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

Pour plus d'explications et d'exemples, lire la PEP 636(1) (en anglais),
qui est écrite sous forme de tutoriel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Définir des fonctions,  Next: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions,  Prev: L'instruction match,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.8 Définir des fonctions
---------------------------

On peut créer une fonction qui écrit la suite de Fibonacci jusqu'à une
limite imposée :

     >>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series less than n
     ...     """Print a Fibonacci series less than n."""
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         print(a, end=' ')
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     print()
     ...
     >>> # Now call the function we just defined:
     >>> fib(2000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

Le mot-clé *note def: 1410. introduit une 'définition' de fonction.  Il
doit être suivi du nom de la fonction et d'une liste, entre parenthèses,
de ses paramètres.  L'instruction qui constitue le corps de la fonction
débute à la ligne suivante et doit être indentée.

La première instruction d'une fonction peut, de façon facultative, être
une chaîne de caractères littérale ; cette chaîne de caractères est
alors la chaîne de documentation de la fonction, appelée 'docstring'
(consultez la section *note Chaînes de documentation: 1bdc. pour en
savoir plus).  Il existe des outils qui utilisent ces chaînes de
documentation pour générer automatiquement une documentation en ligne ou
imprimée, ou pour permettre à l'utilisateur de naviguer de façon
interactive dans le code ; prenez-en l'habitude, c'est une bonne
pratique que de documenter le code que vous écrivez.

'L'exécution' d'une fonction introduit une nouvelle table de symboles
utilisée par les variables locales de la fonction.  Plus précisément,
toutes les affectations de variables effectuées au sein d'une fonction
stockent les valeurs dans la table des symboles locaux ; en revanche,
les références de variables sont recherchées dans la table des symboles
locaux, puis dans les tables des symboles locaux des fonctions
englobantes, puis dans la table des symboles globaux et finalement dans
la table des noms des primitives.  Par conséquent, bien qu'elles
puissent être référencées, il est impossible d'affecter une valeur à une
variable globale ou à une variable d'une fonction englobante (sauf pour
les variables globales désignées dans une instruction *note global: 188.
et, pour les variables des fonctions englobantes, désignées dans une
instruction *note nonlocal: 1287.).

Les paramètres effectifs (arguments) d'une fonction sont introduits dans
la table des symboles locaux de la fonction appelée, au moment où elle
est appelée ; par conséquent, les passages de paramètres se font 'par
valeur', la 'valeur' étant toujours une 'référence' à un objet et non la
valeur de l'objet lui-même (1).  Lorsqu'une fonction appelle une autre
fonction, ou s'appelle elle-même par récursion, une nouvelle table de
symboles locaux est créée pour cet appel.

Une définition de fonction associe un nom de fonction à un objet
fonction dans l'espace de noms actuel.  Pour l'interpréteur, l'objet
référencé par ce nom est une fonction définie par l'utilisateur.
Plusieurs noms peuvent faire référence à une même fonction, ils peuvent
alors tous être utilisés pour appeler la fonction :

     >>> fib
     <function fib at 10042ed0>
     >>> f = fib
     >>> f(100)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Si vous venez d'autres langages, vous pouvez penser que ‘fib’ n'est pas
une fonction mais une procédure, puisqu'elle ne renvoie pas de résultat.
En fait, même les fonctions sans instruction *note return: 9be.
renvoient une valeur, quoique ennuyeuse.  Cette valeur est appelée
‘None’ (c'est le nom d'une primitive).  Écrire la valeur ‘None’ est
normalement supprimé par l'interpréteur lorsqu'il s'agit de la seule
valeur qui doit être écrite.  Vous pouvez le constater, si vous y tenez
vraiment, en utilisant *note print(): f62. :

     >>> fib(0)
     >>> print(fib(0))
     None

Il est facile d'écrire une fonction qui renvoie une liste de la série de
Fibonacci au lieu de l'afficher :

     >>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
     ...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
     ...     result = []
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         result.append(a)    # see below
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     return result
     ...
     >>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
     >>> f100                # write the result
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

Cet exemple, comme d'habitude, illustre de nouvelles fonctionnalités de
Python :

   * l'instruction *note return: 9be. provoque la sortie de la fonction
     en renvoyant une valeur.  ‘return’ sans expression en paramètre
     renvoie ‘None’.  Arriver à la fin d'une fonction renvoie également
     ‘None’ ;

   * l'instruction ‘result.append(a)’ appelle une 'méthode' de l'objet
     ‘result’ qui est une liste.  Une méthode est une fonction qui
     « appartient » à un objet et qui est nommée ‘obj.methodname’, où
     ‘obj’ est un objet (il peut également s'agir d'une expression) et
     ‘methodname’ est le nom d'une méthode que le type de l'objet
     définit.  Différents types définissent différentes méthodes.  Des
     méthodes de différents types peuvent porter le même nom sans qu'il
     n'y ait d'ambigüité (vous pouvez définir vos propres types d'objets
     et leurs méthodes en utilisant des 'classes', voir *note Classes:
     1bdd.).  La méthode ‘append()’ utilisée dans cet exemple est
     définie pour les listes ; elle ajoute un nouvel élément à la fin de
     la liste.  Dans cet exemple, elle est l'équivalent de ‘result =
     result + [a]’, en plus efficace.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) En fait, 'appels par référence d'objets' serait sans doute une
description plus juste dans la mesure où, si un objet mutable est passé
en argument, l'appelant verra toutes les modifications qui lui auront
été apportées par l'appelé (insertion d'éléments dans une liste…).


File: python.info,  Node: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions,  Next: Aparté le style de codage,  Prev: Définir des fonctions,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.9 Davantage sur la définition des fonctions
-----------------------------------------------

Il est également possible de définir des fonctions avec un nombre
variable d'arguments.  Trois syntaxes peuvent être utilisées,
éventuellement combinées.

* Menu:

* Valeur par défaut des arguments::
* Les arguments nommés::
* Paramètres spéciaux::
* Listes d'arguments arbitraires::
* Séparation des listes d'arguments::
* Fonctions anonymes::
* Chaînes de documentation::
* Annotations de fonctions::


File: python.info,  Node: Valeur par défaut des arguments,  Next: Les arguments nommés,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.1 Valeur par défaut des arguments
.......................................

La forme la plus utile consiste à indiquer une valeur par défaut pour
certains arguments.  Ceci crée une fonction qui peut être appelée avec
moins d'arguments que ceux présents dans sa définition.  Par exemple :

     def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
         while True:
             reply = input(prompt)
             if reply in {'y', 'ye', 'yes'}:
                 return True
             if reply in {'n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'}:
                 return False
             retries = retries - 1
             if retries < 0:
                 raise ValueError('invalid user response')
             print(reminder)

Cette fonction peut être appelée de plusieurs façons :

   * en ne fournissant que les arguments obligatoires : ‘ask_ok('Do you
     really want to quit?')’ ;

   * en fournissant une partie des arguments facultatifs : ‘ask_ok('OK
     to overwrite the file?', 2)’ ;

   * en fournissant tous les arguments : ‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite the
     file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!')’.

Cet exemple présente également le mot-clé *note in: 2e9.  Celui-ci
permet de tester si une séquence contient une certaine valeur.

Les valeurs par défaut sont évaluées lors de la définition de la
fonction dans la portée de la 'définition', de telle sorte que

     i = 5

     def f(arg=i):
         print(arg)

     i = 6
     f()

affiche ‘5’.

'Avertissement important :' la valeur par défaut n'est évaluée qu'une
seule fois.  Ceci fait une différence lorsque cette valeur par défaut
est un objet mutable tel qu'une liste, un dictionnaire ou des instances
de la plupart des classes.  Par exemple, la fonction suivante accumule
les arguments qui lui sont passés au fil des appels successifs :

     def f(a, L=[]):
         L.append(a)
         return L

     print(f(1))
     print(f(2))
     print(f(3))

affiche

     [1]
     [1, 2]
     [1, 2, 3]

Si vous ne voulez pas que cette valeur par défaut soit partagée entre
des appels successifs, vous pouvez écrire la fonction de cette façon :

     def f(a, L=None):
         if L is None:
             L = []
         L.append(a)
         return L


File: python.info,  Node: Les arguments nommés,  Next: Paramètres spéciaux,  Prev: Valeur par défaut des arguments,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.2 Les arguments nommés
............................

Les fonctions peuvent également être appelées en utilisant des *note
arguments nommés: d02. sous la forme ‘kwarg=value’.  Par exemple, la
fonction suivante :

     def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
         print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
         print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
         print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
         print("-- It's", state, "!")

accepte un argument obligatoire (‘voltage’) et trois arguments
facultatifs (‘state’, ‘action’ et ‘type’).  Cette fonction peut être
appelée de n'importe laquelle des façons suivantes :

     parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
     parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
     parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
     parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

mais tous les appels qui suivent sont incorrects :

     parrot()                     # required argument missing
     parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
     parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
     parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument

Dans un appel de fonction, les arguments nommés doivent suivre les
arguments positionnés.  Tous les arguments nommés doivent correspondre à
l'un des arguments acceptés par la fonction (par exemple, ‘actor’ n'est
pas un argument accepté par la fonction ‘parrot’), mais leur ordre n'est
pas important.  Ceci inclut également les arguments obligatoires
(‘parrot(voltage=1000)’ est également correct).  Aucun argument ne peut
recevoir une valeur plus d'une fois, comme l'illustre cet exemple
incorrect du fait de cette restriction :

     >>> def function(a):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> function(0, a=0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

Quand un dernier paramètre formel est présent sous la forme ‘**name’, il
reçoit un dictionnaire (voir *note Les types de correspondances — dict:
ab6.) contenant tous les arguments nommés à l'exception de ceux
correspondant à un paramètre formel.  Ceci peut être combiné à un
paramètre formel sous la forme ‘*name’ (décrit dans la section suivante)
qui lui reçoit un *note n-uplet: 1be4. contenant les arguments
positionnés au-delà de la liste des paramètres formels (‘*name’ doit
être présent avant ‘**name’).  Par exemple, si vous définissez une
fonction comme ceci :

     def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
         print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
         print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
         for arg in arguments:
             print(arg)
         print("-" * 40)
         for kw in keywords:
             print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

Elle pourrait être appelée comme ceci :

     cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
                "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
                shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
                client="John Cleese",
                sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

et, bien sûr, elle affiche :

     -- Do you have any Limburger ?
     -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
     It's very runny, sir.
     It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
     ----------------------------------------
     shopkeeper : Michael Palin
     client : John Cleese
     sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Notez que Python garantit que l'ordre d'affichage des arguments est le
même que l'ordre dans lesquels ils sont fournis lors de l'appel à la
fonction.


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres spéciaux,  Next: Listes d'arguments arbitraires,  Prev: Les arguments nommés,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.3 Paramètres spéciaux
...........................

Par défaut, les arguments peuvent être passés à une fonction Python par
position, ou explicitement en les nommant.  Pour la lisibilité et la
performance, il est logique de restreindre la façon dont les arguments
peuvent être transmis afin qu'un développeur n'ait qu'à regarder la
définition de la fonction pour déterminer si les éléments sont transmis
par position seule, par position ou nommé, ou seulement nommé.

Voici à quoi ressemble une définition de fonction :

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):
           -----------    ----------     ----------
             |             |                  |
             |        Positional or keyword   |
             |                                - Keyword only
              -- Positional only

où ‘/’ et ‘*’ sont facultatifs.  S'ils sont utilisés, ces symboles
indiquent par quel type de paramètre un argument peut être transmis à la
fonction : position seule, position ou nommé, et seulement nommé.  Les
paramètres par mot-clé sont aussi appelés paramètres nommés.

* Menu:

* Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés::
* Paramètres positionnels uniquement::
* Arguments nommés uniquement::
* Exemples de fonctions::
* Récapitulatif::


File: python.info,  Node: Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés,  Next: Paramètres positionnels uniquement,  Up: Paramètres spéciaux

2.4.9.4 Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés
............................................

Si ‘/’ et ‘*’ ne sont pas présents dans la définition de fonction, les
arguments peuvent être passés à une fonction par position ou par nommés.


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres positionnels uniquement,  Next: Arguments nommés uniquement,  Prev: Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés,  Up: Paramètres spéciaux

2.4.9.5 Paramètres positionnels uniquement
..........................................

En y regardant de plus près, il est possible de marquer certains
paramètres comme 'positionnels uniquement'.  S'ils sont marqués comme
'positionnels uniquement', l'ordre des paramètres est important, et les
paramètres ne peuvent pas être transmis en tant que « arguments
nommés ».  Les paramètres « positionnels uniquement » sont placés avant
un ‘/’.  Le ‘/’ est utilisé pour séparer logiquement les paramètres
« positionnels uniquement » du reste des paramètres.  S'il n'y a pas de
‘/’ dans la définition de fonction, il n'y a pas de paramètres
« positionnels uniquement ».

Les paramètres qui suivent le ‘/’ peuvent être 'positionnels-ou-nommés'
ou 'nommés-uniquement'.


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments nommés uniquement,  Next: Exemples de fonctions,  Prev: Paramètres positionnels uniquement,  Up: Paramètres spéciaux

2.4.9.6 Arguments nommés uniquement
...................................

Pour marquer les paramètres comme 'uniquement nommés', indiquant que les
paramètres doivent être passés avec l'argument comme mot-clé, placez un
‘*’ dans la liste des arguments juste avant le premier paramètre
'uniquement nommé'.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples de fonctions,  Next: Récapitulatif,  Prev: Arguments nommés uniquement,  Up: Paramètres spéciaux

2.4.9.7 Exemples de fonctions
.............................

Considérons l'exemple suivant de définitions de fonctions en portant une
attention particulière aux marqueurs ‘/’ et ‘*’ :

     >>> def standard_arg(arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
     ...     print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

La première définition de fonction, ‘standard_arg’, la forme la plus
familière, n'impose aucune restriction sur la convention d'appel et les
arguments peuvent être passés par position ou nommés :

     >>> standard_arg(2)
     2

     >>> standard_arg(arg=2)
     2

La deuxième fonction ‘pos_only_arg’ restreint le passage aux seuls
arguments par position car il y a un ‘/’ dans la définition de
fonction :

     >>> pos_only_arg(1)
     1

     >>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'

La troisième fonction ‘kwd_only_arg’ n'autorise que les arguments nommés
comme l'indique le ‘*’ dans la définition de fonction :

     >>> kwd_only_arg(3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

     >>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
     3

Et la dernière utilise les trois conventions d'appel dans la même
définition de fonction :

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only'

Enfin, considérons cette définition de fonction qui a une collision
potentielle entre l'argument positionnel ‘name’ et ‘**kwds’ qui a ‘name’
comme mot-clé :

     def foo(name, **kwds):
         return 'name' in kwds

Il n'y a pas d'appel possible qui renvoie ‘True’ car le mot-clé ‘'name'’
est toujours lié au premier paramètre.  Par exemple :

     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
     >>>

Mais en utilisant ‘/’ (arguments positionnels seulement), c'est possible
puisqu'il permet d'utiliser ‘name’ comme argument positionnel et
‘'name'’ comme mot-clé dans les arguments nommés :

     >>> def foo(name, /, **kwds):
     ...     return 'name' in kwds
     ...
     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     True

En d'autres termes, les noms des paramètres seulement positionnels
peuvent être utilisés sans ambiguïté dans ‘**kwds’.


File: python.info,  Node: Récapitulatif,  Prev: Exemples de fonctions,  Up: Paramètres spéciaux

2.4.9.8 Récapitulatif
.....................

Le cas d'utilisation détermine les paramètres à utiliser dans la
définition de fonction :

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

Quelques conseils :

   * utilisez les paramètres positionnels si vous voulez que le nom des
     paramètres soit masqué à l'utilisateur.  Ceci est utile lorsque les
     noms de paramètres n'ont pas de signification réelle, si vous
     voulez faire respecter l'ordre des arguments lorsque la fonction
     est appelée ou si vous avez besoin de prendre certains paramètres
     positionnels et mots-clés arbitraires ;

   * utilisez les paramètres nommés lorsque les noms ont un sens et que
     la définition de la fonction est plus compréhensible avec des noms
     explicites ou si vous voulez empêcher les utilisateurs de se fier à
     la position de l'argument qui est passé ;

   * dans le cas d'une API, utilisez les paramètres seulement
     positionnels pour éviter de casser l'API si le nom du paramètre est
     modifié dans l'avenir.


File: python.info,  Node: Listes d'arguments arbitraires,  Next: Séparation des listes d'arguments,  Prev: Paramètres spéciaux,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.9 Listes d'arguments arbitraires
......................................

Pour terminer, l'option la moins fréquente consiste à indiquer qu'une
fonction peut être appelée avec un nombre arbitraire d'arguments.  Ces
arguments sont intégrés dans un 'n'-uplet (voir *note n-uplets et
séquences: 1be4.).  Avant le nombre variable d'arguments, zéro ou plus
arguments normaux peuvent apparaître

     def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
         file.write(separator.join(args))

Normalement, ces arguments ‘variadiques’ sont les derniers paramètres,
parce qu'ils agrègent toutes les valeurs suivantes.  Tout paramètre
placé après le paramètre ‘*arg’ ne pourra être utilisé que comme
argument nommé, pas comme argument positionnel

     >>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
     ...     return sep.join(args)
     ...
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
     'earth/mars/venus'
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
     'earth.mars.venus'


File: python.info,  Node: Séparation des listes d'arguments,  Next: Fonctions anonymes,  Prev: Listes d'arguments arbitraires,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.10 Séparation des listes d'arguments
..........................................

La situation inverse intervient lorsque les arguments sont déjà dans une
liste ou un 'n'-uplet mais doivent être séparés pour un appel de
fonction nécessitant des arguments positionnés séparés.  Par exemple, la
primitive *note range(): 932. attend des arguments 'start' et 'stop'
distincts.  S'ils ne sont pas disponibles séparément, écrivez l'appel de
fonction en utilisant l'opérateur ‘*’ pour séparer les arguments
présents dans une liste ou un 'n'-uplet :

     >>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
     [3, 4, 5]
     >>> args = [3, 6]
     >>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
     [3, 4, 5]

De la même façon, les dictionnaires peuvent fournir des arguments nommés
en utilisant l'opérateur ‘**’ :

     >>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
     ...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
     ...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
     ...     print("E's", state, "!")
     ...
     >>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
     >>> parrot(**d)
     -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions anonymes,  Next: Chaînes de documentation,  Prev: Séparation des listes d'arguments,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.11 Fonctions anonymes
...........................

Avec le mot-clé *note lambda: 127c, vous pouvez créer de petites
fonctions anonymes.  En voici une qui renvoie la somme de ses deux
arguments : ‘lambda a, b: a+b’.  Les fonctions lambda peuvent être
utilisées partout où un objet fonction est attendu.  Elles sont
syntaxiquement restreintes à une seule expression.  Sémantiquement,
elles ne sont que du sucre syntaxique pour une définition de fonction
normale.  Comme les fonctions imbriquées, les fonctions lambda peuvent
référencer des variables de la portée englobante :

     >>> def make_incrementor(n):
     ...     return lambda x: x + n
     ...
     >>> f = make_incrementor(42)
     >>> f(0)
     42
     >>> f(1)
     43

L'exemple précédent utilise une fonction anonyme pour renvoyer une
fonction.  Une autre utilisation classique est de donner une fonction
minimaliste directement en tant que paramètre :

     >>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
     >>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
     >>> pairs
     [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]


File: python.info,  Node: Chaînes de documentation,  Next: Annotations de fonctions,  Prev: Fonctions anonymes,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.12 Chaînes de documentation
.................................

Voici quelques conventions concernant le contenu et le format des
chaînes de documentation.

Il convient que la première ligne soit toujours courte et résume de
manière concise l'utilité de l'objet.  Afin d'être bref, nul besoin de
rappeler le nom de l'objet ou son type, qui sont accessibles par
d'autres moyens (sauf si le nom est un verbe qui décrit une opération).
La convention veut que la ligne commence par une majuscule et se termine
par un point.

S'il y a d'autres lignes dans la chaîne de documentation, la deuxième
ligne devrait être vide, pour la séparer visuellement du reste de la
description.  Les autres lignes peuvent alors constituer un ou plusieurs
paragraphes décrivant le mode d'utilisation de l'objet, ses effets de
bord, etc.

L'analyseur de code Python ne supprime pas l'indentation des chaînes de
caractères littérales multi-lignes, donc les outils qui utilisent la
documentation doivent si besoin faire cette opération eux-mêmes.  La
convention suivante s'applique : la première ligne non vide 'après' la
première détermine la profondeur d'indentation de l'ensemble de la
chaîne de documentation (on ne peut pas utiliser la première ligne qui
est généralement accolée aux guillemets d'ouverture de la chaîne de
caractères et dont l'indentation n'est donc pas visible).  Les espaces
« correspondant » à cette profondeur d'indentation sont alors supprimées
du début de chacune des lignes de la chaîne.  Aucune ligne ne devrait
présenter un niveau d'indentation inférieur mais, si cela arrive, toutes
les espaces situées en début de ligne doivent être supprimées.
L'équivalent des espaces doit être testé après expansion des tabulations
(normalement remplacées par 8 espaces).

Voici un exemple de chaîne de documentation multi-lignes :

     >>> def my_function():
     ...     """Do nothing, but document it.
     ...
     ...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
     ...     """
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> print(my_function.__doc__)
     Do nothing, but document it.

         No, really, it doesn't do anything.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations de fonctions,  Prev: Chaînes de documentation,  Up: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

2.4.9.13 Annotations de fonctions
.................................

*note Les annotations de fonction: 1bf4. sont des métadonnées
optionnelles décrivant les types utilisés par une fonction définie par
l'utilisateur (voir les PEP 3107(1) et PEP 484(2) pour plus
d'informations).

Les *note annotations: 1bf5. sont stockées dans
l'attribut ‘__annotations__’ de la fonction, sous la forme d'un
dictionnaire, et n'ont aucun autre effet.  Les annotations sur les
paramètres sont définies par deux points (‘:’) après le nom du paramètre
suivi d'une expression donnant la valeur de l'annotation.  Les
annotations de retour sont définies par ‘->’ suivi d'une expression,
entre la liste des paramètres et les deux points de fin de l'instruction
*note def: 1410.  L'exemple suivant a un paramètre requis, un paramètre
optionnel et la valeur de retour annotés :

     >>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
     ...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
     ...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
     ...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
     ...
     >>> f('spam')
     Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
     Arguments: spam eggs
     'spam and eggs'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Aparté le style de codage,  Prev: Davantage sur la définition des fonctions,  Up: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

2.4.10 Aparté : le style de codage
----------------------------------

Maintenant que vous êtes prêt à écrire des programmes plus longs et plus
complexes, il est temps de parler du 'style de codage'.  La plupart des
langages peuvent être écrits (ou plutôt 'formatés') selon différents
styles ; certains sont plus lisibles que d'autres.  Rendre la lecture de
votre code plus facile aux autres est toujours une bonne idée et adopter
un bon style de codage peut énormément vous y aider.

En Python, la plupart des projets adhèrent au style défini dans la PEP
8(1) ; elle met en avant un style de codage très lisible et agréable à
l’œil.  Chaque développeur Python se doit donc de la lire et de s'en
inspirer autant que possible ; voici ses principaux points notables :

   * utilisez des indentations de 4 espaces et pas de tabulation.

     4 espaces constituent un bon compromis entre une indentation courte
     (qui permet une profondeur d'imbrication plus importante) et une
     longue (qui rend le code plus facile à lire).  Les tabulations
     introduisent de la confusion et doivent être proscrites autant que
     possible ;

   * faites en sorte que les lignes ne dépassent pas 79 caractères, au
     besoin en insérant des retours à la ligne.

     Vous facilitez ainsi la lecture pour les utilisateurs qui n'ont
     qu'un petit écran et, pour les autres, cela leur permet de
     visualiser plusieurs fichiers côte à côte ;

   * utilisez des lignes vides pour séparer les fonctions et les
     classes, ou pour scinder de gros blocs de code à l'intérieur de
     fonctions ;

   * lorsque c'est possible, placez les commentaires sur leurs propres
     lignes ;

   * utilisez les chaînes de documentation ;

   * utilisez des espaces autour des opérateurs et après les virgules,
     mais pas juste à l'intérieur des parenthèses : ‘a = f(1, 2) + g(3,
     4)’ ;

   * nommez toujours vos classes et fonctions de la même manière ; la
     convention est d'utiliser une notation ‘UpperCamelCase’ pour les
     classes, et ‘minuscules_avec_trait_bas’ pour les fonctions et
     méthodes.  Utilisez toujours ‘self’ comme nom du premier argument
     des méthodes (voyez *note Une première approche des classes: 1bf8.
     pour en savoir plus sur les classes et les méthodes) ;

   * n’utilisez pas d'encodage exotique dès lors que votre code est
     censé être utilisé dans des environnements internationaux.  Par
     défaut, Python travaille en UTF-8.  Pour couvrir tous les cas,
     préférez le simple ASCII ;

   * de la même manière, n'utilisez que des caractères ASCII pour vos
     noms de variables s'il est envisageable qu'une personne parlant une
     autre langue lise ou doive modifier votre code.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Structures de données,  Next: Modules<2>,  Prev: D'autres outils de contrôle de flux,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.5 Structures de données
=========================

Ce chapitre reprend plus en détail quelques points déjà décrits
précédemment et introduit également de nouvelles notions.

* Menu:

* Compléments sur les listes::
* L'instruction del::
* n-uplets et séquences::
* Ensembles::
* Dictionnaires::
* Techniques de boucles::
* Plus d'informations sur les conditions::
* Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types::


File: python.info,  Node: Compléments sur les listes,  Next: L'instruction del,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.1 Compléments sur les listes
--------------------------------

Le type liste dispose de méthodes supplémentaires.  Voici toutes les
méthodes des objets liste :

 -- Méthode: list.append (x)

     Add an item to the end of the list.  Similar to ‘a[len(a):] = [x]’.

 -- Méthode: list.extend (iterable)

     Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable.
     Similar to ‘a[len(a):] = iterable’.

 -- Méthode: list.insert (i, x)

     Insère un élément à la position indiquée.  Le premier argument est
     la position de l'élément avant lequel l'insertion doit s'effectuer,
     donc ‘a.insert(0, x)’ insère l'élément en tête de la liste et
     ‘a.insert(len(a), x)’ est équivalent à ‘a.append(x)’.

 -- Méthode: list.remove (x)

     Supprime de la liste le premier élément dont la valeur est égale à
     'x'.  Une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée s'il n'existe
     aucun élément avec cette valeur.

 -- Méthode: list.pop ([i])

     Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it.
     If no index is specified, ‘a.pop()’ removes and returns the last
     item in the list.  It raises an *note IndexError: 14ec. if the list
     is empty or the index is outside the list range.

 -- Méthode: list.clear ()

     Remove all items from the list.  Similar to ‘del a[:]’.

 -- Méthode: list.index (x[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie la position du premier élément de la liste dont la valeur
     égale 'x' (en commençant à compter les positions à partir de zéro).
     Une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée si aucun élément
     n'est trouvé.

     Les arguments optionnels 'start' et 'end' sont interprétés de la
     même manière que dans la notation des tranches et sont utilisés
     pour limiter la recherche à une sous-séquence particulière.
     L'indice renvoyé est calculé relativement au début de la séquence
     complète et non relativement à 'start'.

 -- Méthode: list.count (x)

     Renvoie le nombre d'éléments ayant la valeur 'x' dans la liste.

 -- Méthode: list.sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

     Ordonne les éléments dans la liste (les arguments peuvent
     personnaliser l'ordonnancement, voir *note sorted(): bbe. pour leur
     explication).

 -- Méthode: list.reverse ()

     Inverse l'ordre des éléments dans la liste.

 -- Méthode: list.copy ()

     Return a shallow copy of the list.  Similar to ‘a[:]’.

L'exemple suivant utilise la plupart des méthodes des listes :

     >>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
     >>> fruits.count('apple')
     2
     >>> fruits.count('tangerine')
     0
     >>> fruits.index('banana')
     3
     >>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # Find next banana starting at position 4
     6
     >>> fruits.reverse()
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
     >>> fruits.append('grape')
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
     >>> fruits.sort()
     >>> fruits
     ['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
     >>> fruits.pop()
     'pear'

Vous avez probablement remarqué que les méthodes qui ne font que
modifier la liste, comme ‘insert’, ‘remove’ ou ‘sort’, n'affichent pas
de valeur de retour (elles renvoient ‘None’) (1).  C'est un principe
respecté par toutes les structures de données mutables en Python.

Another thing you might notice is that not all data can be sorted or
compared.  For instance, ‘[None, 'hello', 10]’ doesn't sort because
integers can't be compared to strings and ‘None’ can't be compared to
other types.  Also, there are some types that don't have a defined
ordering relation.  For example, ‘3+4j < 5+7j’ isn't a valid comparison.

* Menu:

* Utilisation des listes comme des piles::
* Utilisation des listes comme des files::
* Listes en compréhension::
* Listes en compréhensions imbriquées::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) D'autres langages renvoient l'objet modifié, ce qui permet de
chaîner les méthodes comme ceci :
‘d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();’.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation des listes comme des piles,  Next: Utilisation des listes comme des files,  Up: Compléments sur les listes

2.5.1.1 Utilisation des listes comme des piles
..............................................

The list methods make it very easy to use a list as a stack, where the
last element added is the first element retrieved ("last-in,
first-out").  To add an item to the top of the stack, use ‘append()’.
To retrieve an item from the top of the stack, use ‘pop()’ without an
explicit index.  For example:

     >>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
     >>> stack.append(6)
     >>> stack.append(7)
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
     >>> stack.pop()
     7
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6]
     >>> stack.pop()
     6
     >>> stack.pop()
     5
     >>> stack
     [3, 4]


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation des listes comme des files,  Next: Listes en compréhension,  Prev: Utilisation des listes comme des piles,  Up: Compléments sur les listes

2.5.1.2 Utilisation des listes comme des files
..............................................

Il est également possible d'utiliser une liste comme une file, où le
premier élément ajouté est le premier récupéré (« premier entré, premier
sorti » ou FIFO pour 'first-in, first-out') ; toutefois, les listes ne
sont pas très efficaces pour réaliser ce type de traitement.  Alors que
les ajouts et suppressions en fin de liste sont rapides, les insertions
ou les retraits en début de liste sont lents (car tous les autres
éléments doivent être décalés d'une position).

Pour implémenter une file, utilisez plutôt la classe *note
collections.deque: 5c8. qui a été conçue spécialement pour réaliser
rapidement les opérations d'ajout et de retrait aux deux extrémités.
Par exemple :

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
     >>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry arrives
     >>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham arrives
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The first to arrive now leaves
     'Eric'
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The second to arrive now leaves
     'John'
     >>> queue                           # Remaining queue in order of arrival
     deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])


File: python.info,  Node: Listes en compréhension,  Next: Listes en compréhensions imbriquées,  Prev: Utilisation des listes comme des files,  Up: Compléments sur les listes

2.5.1.3 Listes en compréhension
...............................

Les listes en compréhension fournissent un moyen de construire des
listes de manière très concise.  Une application classique consiste à
construire une liste dont les éléments sont les résultats d'une
opération appliquée à chaque élément d'une autre séquence ; une autre
consiste à créer une sous-séquence des éléments respectant une condition
donnée.

Par exemple, supposons que l'on veuille créer une liste de carrés,
comme :

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(10):
     ...     squares.append(x**2)
     ...
     >>> squares
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

Notez que cela crée (ou remplace) une variable nommée ‘x’ qui existe
toujours après l'exécution de la boucle.  On peut calculer une liste de
carrés sans effet de bord avec :

     squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

ou, de manière équivalente :

     squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

ce qui est plus court et lisible.

Une liste en compréhension consiste à placer entre crochets une
expression suivie par une clause ‘for’ puis par zéro ou plus clauses
‘for’ ou ‘if’.  Le résultat est une nouvelle liste résultat de
l'évaluation de l'expression dans le contexte des clauses ‘for’ et ‘if’
qui la suivent.  Par exemple, cette compréhension de liste combine les
éléments de deux listes s'ils ne sont pas égaux :

     >>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

et c'est équivalent à :

     >>> combs = []
     >>> for x in [1,2,3]:
     ...     for y in [3,1,4]:
     ...         if x != y:
     ...             combs.append((x, y))
     ...
     >>> combs
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

Notez que l'ordre des instructions *note for: 2e7. et *note if: 2e8. est
le même dans ces différents extraits de code.

Si l'expression est un 'n'-uplet (c'est-à-dire ‘(x, y)’ dans cet
exemple), elle doit être mise entre parenthèses

     >>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # create a new list with the values doubled
     >>> [x*2 for x in vec]
     [-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
     >>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
     >>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
     [0, 2, 4]
     >>> # apply a function to all the elements
     >>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
     [4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # call a method on each element
     >>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
     >>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
     ['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
     >>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
     >>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
     [(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
     >>> # the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
     >>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
          ^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
     >>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
     >>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
     >>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Les listes en compréhension peuvent contenir des expressions complexes
et des fonctions imbriquées :

     >>> from math import pi
     >>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
     ['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']


File: python.info,  Node: Listes en compréhensions imbriquées,  Prev: Listes en compréhension,  Up: Compléments sur les listes

2.5.1.4 Listes en compréhensions imbriquées
...........................................

La première expression dans une liste en compréhension peut être
n'importe quelle expression, y compris une autre liste en compréhension.

Voyez l'exemple suivant d'une matrice de 3 par 4, implémentée sous la
forme de 3 listes de 4 éléments :

     >>> matrix = [
     ...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
     ...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
     ...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
     ... ]

Cette compréhension de liste transpose les lignes et les colonnes :

     >>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Comme nous l'avons vu dans la section précédente, la liste en
compréhension à l'intérieur est évaluée dans le contexte de
l'instruction *note for: 2e7. qui la suit, donc cet exemple est
équivalent à :

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

lequel est lui-même équivalent à :

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     # the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
     ...     transposed_row = []
     ...     for row in matrix:
     ...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
     ...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Dans des cas concrets, il est toujours préférable d'utiliser des
fonctions natives plutôt que des instructions de contrôle de flux
complexes.  La fonction *note zip(): 7bc. fait dans ce cas un excellent
travail :

     >>> list(zip(*matrix))
     [(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

Voir *note Séparation des listes d'arguments: 1bed. pour plus de détails
sur l'astérisque de cette ligne.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction del,  Next: n-uplets et séquences,  Prev: Compléments sur les listes,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.2 L'instruction ‘del’
-------------------------

There is a way to remove an item from a list given its index instead of
its value: the *note del: 1762. statement.  This differs from the
‘pop()’ method which returns a value.  The ‘del’ statement can also be
used to remove slices from a list or clear the entire list (which we did
earlier by assignment of an empty list to the slice).  For example:

     >>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[0]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[2:4]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[:]
     >>> a
     []

*note del: 1762. peut aussi être utilisée pour supprimer des variables :

     >>> del a

À partir de là, référencer le nom ‘a’ est une erreur (au moins jusqu'à
ce qu'une autre valeur lui soit affectée).  Vous trouverez d'autres
utilisations de la fonction *note del: 1762. dans la suite de ce
tutoriel.


File: python.info,  Node: n-uplets et séquences,  Next: Ensembles,  Prev: L'instruction del,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.3 'n'-uplets et séquences
-----------------------------

Nous avons vu que les listes et les chaînes de caractères ont beaucoup
de propriétés en commun, comme l'indiçage et les opérations sur des
tranches.  Ce sont deux exemples de 'séquences' (voir *note Types
séquentiels — list, tuple, range: 1c07.).  Comme Python est un langage
en constante évolution, d'autres types de séquences y seront peut-être
ajoutés.  Il existe également un autre type standard de séquence : le
'n'-uplet ('tuple' en anglais).

Un 'n'-uplet consiste en différentes valeurs séparées par des virgules,
par exemple :

     >>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
     >>> t[0]
     12345
     >>> t
     (12345, 54321, 'hello!')
     >>> # Tuples may be nested:
     >>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
     >>> u
     ((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
     >>> # Tuples are immutable:
     >>> t[0] = 88888
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
     >>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
     >>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
     >>> v
     ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])

Comme vous pouvez le voir, les 'n'-uplets sont toujours affichés entre
parenthèses, de façon à ce que des 'n'-uplets imbriqués soient
interprétés correctement ; ils peuvent être saisis avec ou sans
parenthèses, même si celles-ci sont souvent nécessaires (notamment
lorsqu'un 'n'-uplet fait partie d'une expression plus longue).  Il n'est
pas possible d'affecter de valeur à un élément d'un 'n'-uplet ; par
contre, il est en revanche possible de créer des 'n'-uplets contenant
des objets mutables, comme des listes.

Si les 'n'-uplets peuvent sembler similaires aux listes, ils sont
souvent utilisés dans des cas différents et pour des raisons
différentes.  Les 'n'-uplets sont *note immuables: 980. et contiennent
souvent des séquences hétérogènes d'éléments auxquelles on accède par
« dissociation » ('unpacking' en anglais, voir plus loin) ou par indice
(ou même par attribut dans le cas des *note namedtuples: 1c5.).  Les
listes sont souvent *note mutables: 1bbe. et contiennent des éléments
généralement homogènes auxquels on accède en itérant sur la liste.

La construction de 'n'-uplets ne contenant aucun ou un seul élément est
un cas particulier : la syntaxe a quelques tournures spécifiques pour le
gérer.  Un 'n'-uplet vide se construit avec une paire de parenthèses
vides ; un 'n'-uplet avec un seul élément se construit en faisant suivre
la valeur par une virgule (placer cette valeur entre parenthèses ne
suffit pas).  Pas très joli, mais efficace.  Par exemple :

     >>> empty = ()
     >>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- note trailing comma
     >>> len(empty)
     0
     >>> len(singleton)
     1
     >>> singleton
     ('hello',)

L'instruction ‘t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'’ est un exemple 'd'agrégation
de *n'-uplet* ('tuple packing' en anglais) : les valeurs ‘12345’,
‘54321’ et ‘hello!’ sont agrégées ensemble dans un 'n'-uplet.
L'opération inverse est aussi possible :

     >>> x, y, z = t

Ceci est appelé, de façon plus ou moins appropriée, une 'dissociation de
séquence' ('sequence unpacking' en anglais) et fonctionne pour toute
séquence placée à droite de l'expression.  Cette dissociation requiert
autant de variables dans la partie gauche qu'il y a d'éléments dans la
séquence.  Notez également que cette affectation multiple est juste une
combinaison entre une agrégation de 'n'-uplet et une dissociation de
séquence.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensembles,  Next: Dictionnaires,  Prev: n-uplets et séquences,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.4 Ensembles
---------------

Python fournit également un type de donnée pour les 'ensembles'.  Un
ensemble est une collection non ordonnée sans éléments en double.  Un
ensemble permet de réaliser des tests d'appartenance ou des suppressions
de doublons de manière simple.  Les ensembles savent également effectuer
les opérations mathématiques telles que les unions, intersections,
différences et différences symétriques.

On crée des ensembles en appelant avec des accolades ou avec la fonction
*note set(): 5c5.  Notez que ‘{}’ ne crée pas un ensemble vide, mais un
dictionnaire (une structure de données dont nous allons parler dans la
séquence suivante) vide ; utilisez ‘set()’ pour ce cas.

Voici une brève démonstration :

     >>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
     >>> print(basket)                      # show that duplicates have been removed
     {'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
     >>> 'orange' in basket                 # fast membership testing
     True
     >>> 'crabgrass' in basket
     False

     >>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
     >>>
     >>> a = set('abracadabra')
     >>> b = set('alacazam')
     >>> a                                  # unique letters in a
     {'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
     >>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
     {'r', 'd', 'b'}
     >>> a | b                              # letters in a or b or both
     {'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
     >>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
     {'a', 'c'}
     >>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
     {'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}

Tout comme pour les *note listes en compréhension: 1c02, il est possible
d'écrire des ensembles en compréhension :

     >>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
     >>> a
     {'r', 'd'}


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionnaires,  Next: Techniques de boucles,  Prev: Ensembles,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.5 Dictionnaires
-------------------

Another useful data type built into Python is the 'dictionary' (see
*note Les types de correspondances — dict: ab6.).  Dictionaries are
sometimes found in other languages as "associative memories" or
"associative arrays".  Unlike sequences, which are indexed by a range of
numbers, dictionaries are indexed by 'keys', which can be any immutable
type; strings and numbers can always be keys.  Tuples can be used as
keys if they contain only strings, numbers, or tuples; if a tuple
contains any mutable object either directly or indirectly, it cannot be
used as a key.  You can't use lists as keys, since lists can be modified
in place using index assignments, slice assignments, or methods like
‘append()’ and ‘extend()’.

Le plus simple est de voir un dictionnaire comme un ensemble de paires
'clé-valeur' au sein duquel les clés doivent être uniques.  Une paire
d'accolades crée un dictionnaire vide : ‘{}’.  Placer une liste de
paires clé-valeur séparées par des virgules à l'intérieur des accolades
ajoute les valeurs correspondantes au dictionnaire ; c'est également de
cette façon que les dictionnaires sont affichés.

Les opérations classiques sur un dictionnaire consistent à stocker une
valeur pour une clé et à extraire la valeur correspondant à une clé.  Il
est également possible de supprimer une paire clé-valeur avec ‘del’.  Si
vous stockez une valeur pour une clé qui est déjà utilisée, l'ancienne
valeur associée à cette clé est perdue.  Si vous tentez d'extraire une
valeur associée à une clé qui n'existe pas, une exception est levée.

Exécuter ‘list(d)’ sur un dictionnaire ‘d’ renvoie une liste de toutes
les clés utilisées dans le dictionnaire, dans l'ordre d'insertion (si
vous voulez qu'elles soient ordonnées, utilisez ‘sorted(d)’).  Pour
tester si une clé est dans le dictionnaire, utilisez le mot-clé *note
in: 2e9.

Voici un petit exemple utilisant un dictionnaire :

     >>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
     >>> tel['guido'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
     >>> tel['jack']
     4098
     >>> del tel['sape']
     >>> tel['irv'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
     >>> list(tel)
     ['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
     >>> sorted(tel)
     ['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
     >>> 'guido' in tel
     True
     >>> 'jack' not in tel
     False

Le constructeur *note dict(): 253. fabrique un dictionnaire directement
à partir d'une liste de paires clé-valeur stockées sous la forme de
'n'-uplets :

     >>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

De plus, il est possible de créer des dictionnaires en compréhension
depuis un jeu de clés et valeurs :

     >>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
     {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

Lorsque les clés sont de simples chaînes de caractères, il est parfois
plus facile de définir les paires en utilisant des paramètres nommés :

     >>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}


File: python.info,  Node: Techniques de boucles,  Next: Plus d'informations sur les conditions,  Prev: Dictionnaires,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.6 Techniques de boucles
---------------------------

When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can
be retrieved at the same time using the *note items(): 7bb. method.

     >>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
     >>> for k, v in knights.items():
     ...     print(k, v)
     ...
     gallahad the pure
     robin the brave

Lorsque vous faites une boucle sur une séquence, la position et la
valeur associée peuvent être récupérées en même temps en utilisant la
fonction *note enumerate(): 1435.

     >>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
     ...     print(i, v)
     ...
     0 tic
     1 tac
     2 toe

Pour faire une boucle sur deux séquences ou plus en même temps, les
éléments peuvent être associés en utilisant la fonction *note zip():
7bc.

     >>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
     >>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
     >>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
     ...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
     ...
     What is your name?  It is lancelot.
     What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
     What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

Pour faire une boucle en sens inverse sur une séquence, commencez par
spécifier la séquence dans son ordre normal, puis appliquez la fonction
*note reversed(): 852.

     >>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     9
     7
     5
     3
     1

Pour faire une boucle sur une séquence de manière ordonnée, utilisez la
fonction *note sorted(): bbe. qui renvoie une nouvelle liste ordonnée
sans altérer la source

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for i in sorted(basket):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     apple
     apple
     banana
     orange
     orange
     pear

L'utilisation de la fonction *note set(): 5c5. sur une séquence élimine
les doublons.  Combiner les fonctions *note sorted(): bbe. et *note
set(): 5c5. sur une séquence est la façon « canonique » d'itérer sur les
éléments uniques d'une séquence dans l'ordre.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
     ...     print(f)
     ...
     apple
     banana
     orange
     pear

Il est parfois tentant de modifier une liste pendant que l'on itère
dessus.  Il est souvent plus simple et plus sûr de créer une nouvelle
liste à la place.

     >>> import math
     >>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
     >>> filtered_data = []
     >>> for value in raw_data:
     ...     if not math.isnan(value):
     ...         filtered_data.append(value)
     ...
     >>> filtered_data
     [56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]


File: python.info,  Node: Plus d'informations sur les conditions,  Next: Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types,  Prev: Techniques de boucles,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.7 Plus d'informations sur les conditions
--------------------------------------------

Les conditions utilisées dans une instruction ‘while’ ou ‘if’ peuvent
contenir n'importe quel opérateur, pas seulement des comparaisons.

Les opérateurs de comparaison ‘in’ et ‘not in’ testent si une valeur
appartient (ou pas) à un conteneur.  Les opérateurs ‘is’ et ‘is not’
testent si deux objets sont vraiment le même objet.  Tous les opérateurs
de comparaison ont la même priorité, qui est plus faible que celle des
opérateurs numériques.

Les comparaisons peuvent être chaînées.  Par exemple, ‘a < b == c’ teste
si ‘a’ est inférieur à ‘b’ et si, de plus, ‘b’ égale ‘c’.

Les comparaisons peuvent être combinées en utilisant les opérateurs
booléens ‘and’ et ‘or’, le résultat d'une comparaison (ou de toute
expression booléenne) pouvant être inversé avec ‘not’.  Ces opérateurs
ont une priorité inférieure à celle des opérateurs de comparaison ;
entre eux, ‘not’ a la priorité la plus élevée et ‘or’ la plus faible, de
telle sorte que ‘A and not B or C’ est équivalent à ‘(A and (not B)) or
C’.  Comme d'habitude, les parenthèses permettent d'exprimer
l'instruction désirée.

Les opérateurs booléens ‘and’ et ‘or’ sont appelés opérateurs 'en
circuit court' : leurs arguments sont évalués de la gauche vers la
droite et l'évaluation s'arrête dès que le résultat est déterminé.  Par
exemple, si ‘A’ et ‘C’ sont vrais et ‘B’ est faux, ‘A and B and C’
n'évalue pas l'expression ‘C’.  Lorsqu'elle est utilisée en tant que
valeur et non en tant que booléen, la valeur de retour d'un opérateur en
circuit court est celle du dernier argument évalué.

Il est possible d'affecter le résultat d'une comparaison ou d'une autre
expression booléenne à une variable.  Par exemple

     >>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
     >>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
     >>> non_null
     'Trondheim'

Notez qu'en Python, à la différence du C, une affectation à l'intérieur
d'une expression doit être faite explicitement avec *note l'opérateur
morse: 1c0f. ‘:=’.  Cela évite des erreurs fréquentes que l'on rencontre
en C, lorsque l'on tape ‘=’ alors que l'on voulait faire un test avec
‘==’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types,  Prev: Plus d'informations sur les conditions,  Up: Structures de données

2.5.8 Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types
------------------------------------------------

Des séquences peuvent être comparées avec d'autres séquences du même
type.  La comparaison utilise un ordre 'lexicographique' : les deux
premiers éléments de chaque séquence sont comparés et, s'ils diffèrent,
cela détermine le résultat de la comparaison ; s'ils sont égaux, les
deux éléments suivants sont comparés à leur tour et ainsi de suite
jusqu'à ce que l'une des séquences soit épuisée.  Si deux éléments à
comparer sont eux-mêmes des séquences du même type, alors la comparaison
lexicographique est effectuée récursivement.  Si tous les éléments des
deux séquences sont égaux, les deux séquences sont alors considérées
comme égales.  Si une séquence est une sous-séquence de l'autre, la
séquence la plus courte est celle dont la valeur est inférieure.  La
comparaison lexicographique des chaînes de caractères utilise le code
Unicode des caractères.  Voici quelques exemples de comparaisons entre
séquences de même type :

     (1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
     [1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
     'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
     (1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
     (1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
     (1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
     (1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

Comparer des objets de type différents avec ‘<’ ou ‘>’ est autorisé si
les objets ont des méthodes de comparaison appropriées.  Par exemple,
les types numériques sont comparés via leur valeur numérique, donc ‘0’
égale ‘0,0’, etc.  Dans les autres cas, au lieu de donner un ordre
imprévisible, l'interpréteur lève une exception *note TypeError: 525.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<2>,  Next: Les entrées/sorties,  Prev: Structures de données,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.6 Modules
===========

Lorsque vous quittez et entrez à nouveau dans l'interpréteur Python,
tout ce que vous avez déclaré dans la session précédente est perdu.
Afin de rédiger des programmes plus longs, vous devez utiliser un
éditeur de texte, préparer votre code dans un fichier et exécuter Python
avec ce fichier en paramètre.  Cela s'appelle créer un 'script'.
Lorsque votre programme grandit, vous pouvez séparer votre code dans
plusieurs fichiers.  Ainsi, il vous est facile de réutiliser des
fonctions écrites pour un programme dans un autre sans avoir à les
copier.

Pour gérer cela, Python vous permet de placer des définitions dans un
fichier et de les utiliser dans un script ou une session interactive.
Un tel fichier est appelé un 'module' et les définitions d'un module
peuvent être importées dans un autre module ou dans le module 'main'
(qui est le module qui contient vos variables et définitions lors de
l'exécution d'un script au niveau le plus haut ou en mode interactif).

Un module est un fichier contenant des définitions et des instructions.
Son nom de fichier est le nom du module suffixé de ‘.py’.  À l'intérieur
d'un module, son propre nom est accessible par la variable ‘__name__’.
Par exemple, prenez votre éditeur favori et créez un fichier ‘fibo.py’
dans le répertoire courant qui contient :

     # Fibonacci numbers module

     def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             print(a, end=' ')
             a, b = b, a+b
         print()

     def fib2(n):   # return Fibonacci series up to n
         result = []
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             result.append(a)
             a, b = b, a+b
         return result

Maintenant, ouvrez un interpréteur et importez le module en tapant :

     >>> import fibo

Les noms des fonctions définies dans ‘fibo’ ne sont pas ajoutés
directement dans l'*note espace de nommage: 1c15. courant (voir *note
Portées et espaces de nommage en Python: 1c16. pour plus de détails),
seul le nom de module ‘fibo’ est ajouté.  L'appel des fonctions se fait
donc 'via' le nom du module :

     >>> fibo.fib(1000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
     >>> fibo.fib2(100)
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
     >>> fibo.__name__
     'fibo'

Si vous avez l'intention d'utiliser souvent une fonction, il est
possible de lui assigner un nom local :

     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

* Menu:

* Les modules en détail::
* Modules standards::
* La fonction dir(): La fonction dir.
* Les paquets::


File: python.info,  Node: Les modules en détail,  Next: Modules standards,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.1 Les modules en détail
---------------------------

Un module peut contenir aussi bien des instructions que des déclarations
de fonctions.  Ces instructions permettent d'initialiser le module.
Elles ne sont exécutées que la 'première' fois que le nom d'un module
est trouvé dans un ‘import’ (1) (elles sont aussi exécutées lorsque le
fichier est exécuté en tant que script).

Chaque module possède son propre espace de nommage, utilisé comme espace
de nommage global par toutes les fonctions définies par le module.
Ainsi l'auteur d'un module peut utiliser des variables globales dans un
module sans se soucier de collisions de noms avec des variables globales
définies par l'utilisateur du module.  Cependant, si vous savez ce que
vous faites, vous pouvez modifier une variable globale d'un module avec
la même notation que pour accéder aux fonctions :
‘nommodule.nomelement’.

Des modules peuvent importer d'autres modules.  Il est courant, mais pas
obligatoire, de ranger tous les *note import: 5ce. au début du module
(ou du script).  Les noms des modules importés, s'ils sont placés au
début d'un module (en dehors des fonctions et des classes) sont ajoutés
à l'espace de nommage global du module.

Il existe une variante de l'instruction *note import: 5ce. qui importe
les noms d'un module directement dans l'espace de nommage du module qui
l'importe, par exemple :

     >>> from fibo import fib, fib2
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Cela n'insère pas le nom du module depuis lequel les définitions sont
récupérées dans l'espace de nommage local (dans cet exemple, ‘fibo’
n'est pas défini).

Il existe même une variante permettant d'importer tous les noms qu'un
module définit :

     >>> from fibo import *
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Tous les noms ne commençant pas par un tiret bas (‘_’) sont importés.
Dans la grande majorité des cas, les développeurs n'utilisent pas cette
syntaxe puisqu'en important un ensemble indéfini de noms, des noms déjà
définis peuvent se retrouver masqués.

Notez qu'en général, importer ‘*’ d'un module ou d'un paquet est
déconseillé.  Souvent, le code devient difficilement lisible.  Son
utilisation en mode interactif est acceptée pour gagner quelques
secondes.

Si le nom du module est suivi par ‘as’, alors le nom suivant ‘as’ est
directement lié au module importé.

     >>> import fibo as fib
     >>> fib.fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Dans les faits, le module est importé de la même manière qu'avec ‘import
fibo’, la seule différence est qu'il sera disponible sous le nom de
‘fib’.

C'est aussi valide en utilisant *note from: 128b, et a le même effet :

     >>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
     >>> fibonacci(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

     Note: pour des raisons d’efficacité, chaque module n’est importé
     qu’une fois par session de l’interpréteur.  Par conséquent, si vous
     modifiez vos modules, vous devez redémarrer l’interpréteur — ou, si
     c’est juste un module que vous voulez tester interactivement,
     utilisez *note importlib.reload(): 505, par exemple ‘import
     importlib ; importlib.reload(modulename)’.

* Menu:

* Exécuter des modules comme des scripts::
* Les dossiers de recherche de modules::
* Fichiers Python « compilés »::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) En réalité, la déclaration d'une fonction est elle-même une
instruction ; son exécution ajoute le nom de la fonction dans l'espace
de nommage global du module.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécuter des modules comme des scripts,  Next: Les dossiers de recherche de modules,  Up: Les modules en détail

2.6.1.1 Exécuter des modules comme des scripts
..............................................

Lorsque vous exécutez un module Python avec

     python fibo.py <arguments>

le code du module est exécuté comme si vous l'aviez importé mais son
‘__name__’ vaut ‘"__main__"’.  Donc, en ajoutant ces lignes à la fin du
module :

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import sys
         fib(int(sys.argv[1]))

vous pouvez rendre le fichier utilisable comme script aussi bien que
comme module importable, car le code qui analyse la ligne de commande
n'est lancé que si le module est exécuté comme fichier « main » :

     $ python fibo.py 50
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

Si le fichier est importé, le code n'est pas exécuté :

     >>> import fibo
     >>>

C'est typiquement utilisé soit pour proposer une interface utilisateur
pour un module, soit pour lancer les tests sur le module (exécuter le
module en tant que script lance les tests).


File: python.info,  Node: Les dossiers de recherche de modules,  Next: Fichiers Python « compilés »,  Prev: Exécuter des modules comme des scripts,  Up: Les modules en détail

2.6.1.2 Les dossiers de recherche de modules
............................................

When a module named ‘spam’ is imported, the interpreter first searches
for a built-in module with that name.  These module names are listed in
*note sys.builtin_module_names: 1c1d.  If not found, it then searches
for a file named ‘spam.py’ in a list of directories given by the
variable *note sys.path: 3ab.  *note sys.path: 3ab. is initialized from
these locations:

   * le dossier contenant le script courant (ou le dossier courant si
     aucun script n'est donné) ;

   * *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. (une liste de dossiers, utilisant la même
     syntaxe que la variable shell ‘PATH’) ;

   * La valeur par défaut, qui dépend de l'installation (incluant par
     convention un dossier ‘site-packages’, géré par le module *note
     site: c6.).

Vous trouverez plus de détails dans *note The initialization of the
sys.path module search path: 1c1e.

     Note: sur les systèmes qui gèrent les liens symboliques, le dossier
     contenant le script courant est résolu après avoir suivi le lien
     symbolique du script.  Autrement dit, le dossier contenant le lien
     symbolique n'est 'pas' ajouté aux dossiers de recherche de modules.

Après leur initialisation, les programmes Python peuvent modifier leur
*note sys.path: 3ab.  Le dossier contenant le script courant est placé
au début de la liste des dossiers à rechercher, avant les dossiers de
bibliothèques.  Cela signifie qu'un module dans ce dossier, ayant le
même nom qu'un module, sera chargé à sa place.  C'est une erreur
typique, à moins que ce ne soit voulu.  Voir *note Modules standards:
1c1f. pour plus d'informations.


File: python.info,  Node: Fichiers Python « compilés »,  Prev: Les dossiers de recherche de modules,  Up: Les modules en détail

2.6.1.3 Fichiers Python « compilés »
....................................

Pour accélérer le chargement des modules, Python cache une version
compilée de chaque module dans un fichier nommé ‘module(version).pyc’
(ou 'version' représente le format du fichier compilé, typiquement une
version de Python) dans le dossier ‘__pycache__’.  Par exemple, avec
CPython 3.3, la version compilée de 'spam.py' serait
‘__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc’.  Cette règle de nommage permet à des
versions compilées par des versions différentes de Python de coexister.

Python compare les dates de modification du fichier source et de sa
version compilée pour voir si le module doit être recompilé.  Ce
processus est entièrement automatique.  Par ailleurs, les versions
compilées sont indépendantes de la plateforme et peuvent donc être
partagées entre des systèmes d'architectures différentes.

Il existe deux situations où Python ne vérifie pas le cache : le premier
cas est lorsque le module est donné par la ligne de commande (cas où le
module est toujours recompilé, sans même cacher sa version compilée) ;
le second cas est lorsque le module n'a pas de source.  Pour gérer un
module sans source (où seule la version compilée est fournie), le module
compilé doit se trouver dans le dossier source et sa source ne doit pas
être présente.

Astuces pour les experts :

   * vous pouvez utiliser les options *note -O: da4. ou *note -OO: da5.
     lors de l'appel à Python pour réduire la taille des modules
     compilés.  L'option ‘-O’ supprime les instructions ‘assert’ et
     l'option ‘-OO’ supprime aussi les documentations ‘__doc__’.
     Cependant, puisque certains programmes ont besoin de ces ‘__doc__’,
     vous ne devriez utiliser ‘-OO’ que si vous savez ce que vous
     faites.  Les modules « optimisés » sont marqués d'un ‘opt-’ et sont
     généralement plus petits.  Les versions futures de Python
     pourraient changer les effets de l'optimisation ;

   * un programme ne s'exécute pas plus vite lorsqu'il est lu depuis un
     ‘.pyc’, il est juste chargé plus vite ;

   * le module *note compileall: 20. peut créer des fichiers ‘.pyc’ pour
     tous les modules d'un dossier ;

   * vous trouvez plus de détails sur ce processus, ainsi qu'un
     organigramme des décisions, dans la PEP 3147(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Modules standards,  Next: La fonction dir,  Prev: Les modules en détail,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.2 Modules standards
-----------------------

Python est accompagné d'une bibliothèque de modules standards, décrits
dans la documentation de la Bibliothèque Python, plus loin.  Certains
modules sont intégrés dans l'interpréteur, ils proposent des outils qui
ne font pas partie du langage mais qui font tout de même partie de
l'interpréteur, soit pour le côté pratique, soit pour mettre à
disposition des outils essentiels tels que l'accès aux appels système.
La composition de ces modules est configurable à la compilation et
dépend aussi de la plateforme cible.  Par exemple, le module *note
winreg: 115. n'est proposé que sur les systèmes Windows.  Un module
mérite une attention particulière, le module *note sys: d8, qui est
présent dans tous les interpréteurs Python.  Les variables ‘sys.ps1’ et
‘sys.ps2’ définissent les chaînes d'invites principales et secondaires :

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.ps1
     '>>> '
     >>> sys.ps2
     '... '
     >>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
     C> print('Yuck!')
     Yuck!
     C>

Ces deux variables ne sont définies que si l'interpréteur est en mode
interactif.

La variable ‘sys.path’ est une liste de chaînes qui détermine les
chemins de recherche de modules pour l'interpréteur.  Elle est
initialisée à un chemin par défaut pris de la variable d'environnement
*note PYTHONPATH: 1008. ou d'une valeur par défaut interne si *note
PYTHONPATH: 1008. n'est pas définie.  ‘sys.path’ est modifiable en
utilisant les opérations habituelles des listes :

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')


File: python.info,  Node: La fonction dir,  Next: Les paquets,  Prev: Modules standards,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.3 La fonction ‘dir()’
-------------------------

La fonction interne *note dir(): 61f. est utilisée pour trouver quels
noms sont définis par un module.  Elle donne une liste de chaînes
classées par ordre lexicographique :

     >>> import fibo, sys
     >>> dir(fibo)
     ['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
     >>> dir(sys)
     ['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',
      '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
      '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',
      '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',
      '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',
      'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',
      'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',
      'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',
      'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',
      'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',
      'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
      'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',
      'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',
      'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
      'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',
      'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',
      'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',
      'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',
      'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',
      'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',
      'warnoptions']

Sans paramètre, *note dir(): 61f. liste les noms actuellement définis :

     >>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
     >>> import fibo
     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> dir()
     ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

Notez qu'elle liste tous les types de noms : les variables, fonctions,
modules, etc.

*note dir(): 61f. ne liste ni les fonctions primitives, ni les variables
internes.  Si vous voulez les lister, elles sont définies dans le module
*note builtins: 12. :

     >>> import builtins
     >>> dir(builtins)
     ['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
      'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
      'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
      'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
      'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
      'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
      'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
      'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
      'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
      'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
      'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
      'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
      'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
      'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
      'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
      'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
      'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
      'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
      '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
      'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
      'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
      'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
      'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
      'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
      'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
      'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
      'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
      'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
      'zip']


File: python.info,  Node: Les paquets,  Prev: La fonction dir,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.4 Les paquets
-----------------

Packages are a way of structuring Python's module namespace by using
"dotted module names".  For example, the module name ‘A.B’ designates a
submodule named ‘B’ in a package named ‘A’.  Just like the use of
modules saves the authors of different modules from having to worry
about each other's global variable names, the use of dotted module names
saves the authors of multi-module packages like NumPy or Pillow from
having to worry about each other's module names.

Imaginez que vous voulez construire un ensemble de modules (un
« paquet ») pour gérer uniformément les fichiers contenant du son et des
données sonores.  Il existe un grand nombre de formats de fichiers pour
stocker du son (généralement identifiés par leur extension, par exemple
‘.wav’, ‘.aiff’, ‘.au’), vous avez donc besoin de créer et maintenir un
nombre croissant de modules pour gérer la conversion entre tous ces
formats.  Vous voulez aussi pouvoir appliquer un certain nombre
d'opérations sur ces sons : mixer, ajouter de l'écho, égaliser, ajouter
un effet stéréo artificiel, etc.  Donc, en plus des modules de
conversion, vous allez écrire une myriade de modules permettant
d'effectuer ces opérations.  Voici une structure possible pour votre
paquet (exprimée sous la forme d'une arborescence de fichiers) :

     sound/                          Top-level package
           __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
           formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
                   __init__.py
                   wavread.py
                   wavwrite.py
                   aiffread.py
                   aiffwrite.py
                   auread.py
                   auwrite.py
                   ...
           effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
                   __init__.py
                   echo.py
                   surround.py
                   reverse.py
                   ...
           filters/                  Subpackage for filters
                   __init__.py
                   equalizer.py
                   vocoder.py
                   karaoke.py
                   ...

Lorsqu'il importe des paquets, Python cherche dans chaque dossier de
‘sys.path’ un sous-dossier du nom du paquet.

The ‘__init__.py’ files are required to make Python treat directories
containing the file as packages (unless using a *note namespace package:
1c26, a relatively advanced feature).  This prevents directories with a
common name, such as ‘string’, from unintentionally hiding valid modules
that occur later on the module search path.  In the simplest case,
‘__init__.py’ can just be an empty file, but it can also execute
initialization code for the package or set the ‘__all__’ variable,
described later.

Les utilisateurs d'un module peuvent importer ses modules
individuellement, par exemple :

     import sound.effects.echo

This loads the submodule ‘sound.effects.echo’.  It must be referenced
with its full name.

     sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Une autre manière d'importer des sous-modules est :

     from sound.effects import echo

This also loads the submodule ‘echo’, and makes it available without its
package prefix, so it can be used as follows:

     echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Une autre méthode consiste à importer la fonction ou la variable désirée
directement :

     from sound.effects.echo import echofilter

Again, this loads the submodule ‘echo’, but this makes its function
‘echofilter()’ directly available:

     echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Notez que lorsque vous utilisez ‘from package import element’, ‘element’
peut aussi bien être un sous-module, un sous-paquet ou simplement un nom
déclaré dans le paquet (une variable, une fonction ou une classe).
L'instruction ‘import’ cherche en premier si ‘element’ est défini dans
le paquet ; s'il ne l'est pas, elle cherche à charger un module et, si
elle n'en trouve pas, une exception *note ImportError: 40f. est levée.

Au contraire, en utilisant la syntaxe ‘import
element.souselement.soussouselement’, chaque ‘element’ sauf le dernier
doit être un paquet.  Le dernier ‘element’ peut être un module ou un
paquet, mais ne peut être ni une fonction, ni une classe, ni une
variable définie dans l'élément précédent.

* Menu:

* Importer * depuis un paquet::
* Références internes dans un paquet::
* Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers::


File: python.info,  Node: Importer * depuis un paquet,  Next: Références internes dans un paquet,  Up: Les paquets

2.6.4.1 Importer * depuis un paquet
...................................

Qu'arrive-t-il lorsqu'un utilisateur écrit ‘from sound.effects import
*’ ?  Idéalement, on pourrait espérer que Python aille chercher tous les
sous-modules du paquet sur le système de fichiers et qu'ils seraient
tous importés.  Cela pourrait être long et importer certains
sous-modules pourrait avoir des effets secondaires indésirables ou, du
moins, désirés seulement lorsque le sous-module est importé
explicitement.

La seule solution, pour l'auteur du paquet, est de fournir un index
explicite du contenu du paquet.  L'instruction *note import: 5ce.
utilise la convention suivante : si le fichier ‘__init__.py’ du paquet
définit une liste nommée ‘__all__’, cette liste est utilisée comme liste
des noms de modules devant être importés lorsque ‘from package import *’
est utilisé.  Il est de la responsabilité de l'auteur du paquet de
maintenir cette liste à jour lorsque de nouvelles versions du paquet
sont publiées.  Un auteur de paquet peut aussi décider de ne pas
autoriser d'importer ‘*’ pour son paquet.  Par exemple, le fichier
‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ peut contenir le code suivant :

     __all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

This would mean that ‘from sound.effects import *’ would import the
three named submodules of the ‘sound.effects’ package.

Be aware that submodules might become shadowed by locally defined names.
For example, if you added a ‘reverse’ function to the
‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ file, the ‘from sound.effects import *’
would only import the two submodules ‘echo’ and ‘surround’, but 'not'
the ‘reverse’ submodule, because it is shadowed by the locally defined
‘reverse’ function:

     __all__ = [
         "echo",      # refers to the 'echo.py' file
         "surround",  # refers to the 'surround.py' file
         "reverse",   # !!! refers to the 'reverse' function now !!!
     ]

     def reverse(msg: str):  # <-- this name shadows the 'reverse.py' submodule
         return msg[::-1]    #     in the case of a 'from sound.effects import *'

If ‘__all__’ is not defined, the statement ‘from sound.effects import *’
does 'not' import all submodules from the package ‘sound.effects’ into
the current namespace; it only ensures that the package ‘sound.effects’
has been imported (possibly running any initialization code in
‘__init__.py’) and then imports whatever names are defined in the
package.  This includes any names defined (and submodules explicitly
loaded) by ‘__init__.py’.  It also includes any submodules of the
package that were explicitly loaded by previous *note import: 5ce.
statements.  Consider this code:

     import sound.effects.echo
     import sound.effects.surround
     from sound.effects import *

In this example, the ‘echo’ and ‘surround’ modules are imported in the
current namespace because they are defined in the ‘sound.effects’
package when the ‘from...import’ statement is executed.  (This also
works when ‘__all__’ is defined.)

Bien que certains modules ont été pensés pour n'exporter que les noms
respectant une certaine structure lorsque ‘import *’ est utilisé,
‘import *’ reste considéré comme une mauvaise pratique dans du code à
destination d'un environnement de production.

Rappelez-vous que rien ne vous empêche d'utiliser ‘from paquet import
sous_module_specifique’ !  C'est d'ailleurs la manière recommandée, à
moins que le module qui fait les importations ait besoin de sous-modules
ayant le même nom mais provenant de paquets différents.


File: python.info,  Node: Références internes dans un paquet,  Next: Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers,  Prev: Importer * depuis un paquet,  Up: Les paquets

2.6.4.2 Références internes dans un paquet
..........................................

When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the ‘sound’
package in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to
submodules of siblings packages.  For example, if the module
‘sound.filters.vocoder’ needs to use the ‘echo’ module in the
‘sound.effects’ package, it can use ‘from sound.effects import echo’.

You can also write relative imports, with the ‘from module import name’
form of import statement.  These imports use leading dots to indicate
the current and parent packages involved in the relative import.  From
the ‘surround’ module for example, you might use:

     from . import echo
     from .. import formats
     from ..filters import equalizer

Notez que les importations relatives se fient au nom du module actuel.
Puisque le nom du module principal est toujours ‘"__main__"’, les
modules utilisés par le module principal d'une application ne peuvent
être importés que par des importations absolues.


File: python.info,  Node: Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers,  Prev: Références internes dans un paquet,  Up: Les paquets

2.6.4.3 Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers
.......................................

Packages support one more special attribute, *note __path__: 1c2c.  This
is initialized to be a *note sequence: 4de. of strings containing the
name of the directory holding the package's ‘__init__.py’ before the
code in that file is executed.  This variable can be modified; doing so
affects future searches for modules and subpackages contained in the
package.

Bien que cette fonctionnalité ne soit que rarement utile, elle peut
servir à élargir la liste des modules trouvés dans un paquet.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Les entrées/sorties,  Next: Erreurs et exceptions,  Prev: Modules<2>,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.7 Les entrées/sorties
=======================

Il existe bien des moyens de présenter les sorties d'un programme ; les
données peuvent être affichées sous une forme lisible par un être humain
ou sauvegardées dans un fichier pour une utilisation future.  Ce
chapitre présente quelques possibilités.

* Menu:

* Formatage de données::
* Lecture et écriture de fichiers::


File: python.info,  Node: Formatage de données,  Next: Lecture et écriture de fichiers,  Up: Les entrées/sorties

2.7.1 Formatage de données
--------------------------

So far we've encountered two ways of writing values: 'expression
statements' and the *note print(): f62. function.  (A third way is using
the *note write(): 1c32. method of file objects; the standard output
file can be referenced as ‘sys.stdout’.  See the Library Reference for
more information on this.)

Souvent vous voudrez plus de contrôle sur le formatage de vos sorties et
aller au delà d’un affichage de valeurs séparées par des espaces.  Il y
a plusieurs moyens de les formater.

   * Pour utiliser *note les expressions formatées: 1c33, commencez une
     chaine de caractère avec ‘f’ ou ‘F’ avant d’ouvrir vos guillemets
     doubles ou triples.  Dans ces chaines de caractère, vous pouvez
     entrer des expressions Python entre les caractères ‘{’ et ‘}’ qui
     peuvent contenir des variables ou des valeurs littérales.

          >>> year = 2016
          >>> event = 'Referendum'
          >>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
          'Results of the 2016 Referendum'

   * The *note str.format(): 60e. method of strings requires more manual
     effort.  You'll still use ‘{’ and ‘}’ to mark where a variable will
     be substituted and can provide detailed formatting directives, but
     you'll also need to provide the information to be formatted.  In
     the following code block there are two examples of how to format
     variables:

          >>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
          >>> total_votes = 85_705_149
          >>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
          >>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
          ' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'

     Notice how the ‘yes_votes’ are padded with spaces and a negative
     sign only for negative numbers.  The example also prints
     ‘percentage’ multiplied by 100, with 2 decimal places and followed
     by a percent sign (see *note Mini-langage de spécification de
     format: 1e5. for details).

   * Enfin, vous pouvez construire des concaténations de tranches de
     chaînes vous-même, et ainsi créer n'importe quel agencement.  Le
     type des chaînes a des méthodes utiles pour aligner des chaînes
     dans une largeur de taille fixe.

Lorsque qu'un affichage basique suffit, pour afficher simplement une
variable pour en inspecter le contenu, vous pouvez convertir n'importe
quelle valeur en chaîne de caractères en utilisant la fonction *note
repr(): 7e9. ou la fonction *note str(): 437.

La fonction *note str(): 437. est destinée à représenter les valeurs
sous une forme lisible par un être humain, alors que la fonction *note
repr(): 7e9. est destinée à générer des représentations qui puissent
être lues par l'interpréteur (ou qui lèvera une *note SyntaxError: 18b.
s'il n'existe aucune syntaxe équivalente).  Pour les objets qui n'ont
pas de représentation humaine spécifique, *note str(): 437. renvoie la
même valeur que *note repr(): 7e9.  Beaucoup de valeurs, comme les
nombres ou les structures telles que les listes ou les dictionnaires,
ont la même représentation en utilisant les deux fonctions.  Les chaînes
de caractères, en particulier, ont deux représentations distinctes.

Quelques exemples :

     >>> s = 'Hello, world.'
     >>> str(s)
     'Hello, world.'
     >>> repr(s)
     "'Hello, world.'"
     >>> str(1/7)
     '0.14285714285714285'
     >>> x = 10 * 3.25
     >>> y = 200 * 200
     >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
     >>> print(s)
     The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
     >>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
     >>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
     >>> hellos = repr(hello)
     >>> print(hellos)
     'hello, world\n'
     >>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
     >>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
     "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"

Le module *note string: d2. contient une classe *note Template: 674. qui
permet aussi de remplacer des valeurs au sein de chaînes de caractères,
en utilisant des marqueurs comme ‘$x’, et en les remplaçant par les
valeurs d'un dictionnaire, mais sa capacité à formater les chaînes est
plus limitée.

* Menu:

* Les chaines de caractères formatées (f-strings): Les chaines de caractères formatées f-strings.
* La méthode de chaine de caractères format(): La méthode de chaine de caractères format.
* Formatage de chaînes à la main::
* Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes::


File: python.info,  Node: Les chaines de caractères formatées f-strings,  Next: La méthode de chaine de caractères format,  Up: Formatage de données

2.7.1.1 Les chaines de caractères formatées ('f-strings')
.........................................................

*note Les chaines de caractères formatées: 999. (aussi appelées
f-strings) vous permettent d’inclure la valeur d’expressions Python dans
des chaines de caractères en les préfixant avec ‘f’ ou ‘F’ et écrire des
expressions comme ‘{expression}’.

L'expression peut être suivie d'un spécificateur de format.  Cela permet
un plus grand contrôle sur la façon dont la valeur est rendue.
L'exemple suivant arrondit pi à trois décimales après la virgule :

     >>> import math
     >>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Donner un entier après le ‘':'’ indique la largeur minimale de ce champ
en nombre de caractères.  C'est utile pour faire de jolis tableaux

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
     >>> for name, phone in table.items():
     ...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
     ...
     Sjoerd     ==>       4127
     Jack       ==>       4098
     Dcab       ==>       7678

D’autres modificateurs peuvent être utilisés pour convertir la valeur
avant son formatage.  ‘'!a'’ applique *note ascii(): 139f, ‘'!s'’
applique *note str(): 437, et ‘'!r'’ applique *note repr(): 7e9. :

     >>> animals = 'eels'
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
     My hovercraft is full of eels.
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
     My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.

Le spécificateur ‘=’ peut être utilisé pour développer une expression en
« texte de l'expression, un signe égal, puis la représentation de
l'expression évaluée » :

     >>> bugs = 'roaches'
     >>> count = 13
     >>> area = 'living room'
     >>> print(f'Debugging {bugs=} {count=} {area=}')
     Debugging bugs='roaches' count=13 area='living room'

Lisez *note self-documenting expressions: 997. pour davantage
d'information sur le spécificateur ‘=’.  Pour une référence sur ces
spécifications de formats, voir le guide de référence pour le *note
Mini-langage de spécification de format: 1e5.


File: python.info,  Node: La méthode de chaine de caractères format,  Next: Formatage de chaînes à la main,  Prev: Les chaines de caractères formatées f-strings,  Up: Formatage de données

2.7.1.2 La méthode de chaine de caractères ‘format()’
.....................................................

L'utilisation de base de la méthode *note str.format(): 60e. ressemble à
ceci :

     >>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
     We are the knights who say "Ni!"

Les accolades et les caractères à l'intérieur (appelés les champs de
formatage) sont remplacés par les objets passés en paramètres à la
méthode *note str.format(): 60e.  Un nombre entre accolades se réfère à
la position de l'objet passé à la méthode *note str.format(): 60e.

     >>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     spam and eggs
     >>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     eggs and spam

Si des arguments nommés sont utilisés dans la méthode *note
str.format(): 60e, leurs valeurs sont utilisées en se basant sur le nom
des arguments

     >>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
     ...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
     This spam is absolutely horrible.

Les arguments positionnés et nommés peuvent être combinés
arbitrairement :

     >>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
     ...                                                    other='Georg'))
     The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.

Si vous avez une chaîne de formatage vraiment longue que vous ne voulez
pas découper, il est possible de référencer les variables à formater par
leur nom plutôt que par leur position.  Utilisez simplement un
dictionnaire et la notation entre crochets ‘'[]'’ pour accéder aux clés

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
     ...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

Vous pouvez obtenir le même résultat en passant le dictionnaire ‘table’
comme des arguments nommés en utilisant la notation ‘**’

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function
*note vars(): 1a00, which returns a dictionary containing all local
variables:

     >>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
     >>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
     >>> print(message.format(**table))
     __name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...

À titre d’exemple, les lignes suivantes produisent un ensemble de
colonnes alignées de façon ordonnée donnant les entiers, leurs carrés et
leurs cubes :

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

Pour avoir une description complète du formatage des chaînes de
caractères avec la méthode *note str.format(): 60e, lisez : *note
Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatage de chaînes à la main,  Next: Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes,  Prev: La méthode de chaine de caractères format,  Up: Formatage de données

2.7.1.3 Formatage de chaînes à la main
......................................

Voici le même tableau de carrés et de cubes, formaté à la main :

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
     ...     # Note use of 'end' on previous line
     ...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

(Remarquez que l'espace séparant les colonnes vient de la manière dont
*note print(): f62. fonctionne : il ajoute toujours des espaces entre
ses arguments.)

La méthode *note str.rjust(): 1c38. des chaînes de caractères justifie à
droite une chaîne dans un champ d'une largeur donnée en ajoutant des
espaces sur la gauche.  Il existe des méthodes similaires *note
str.ljust(): 1c39. et *note str.center(): 1c3a.  Ces méthodes n'écrivent
rien, elles renvoient simplement une nouvelle chaîne.  Si la chaîne
passée en paramètre est trop longue, elle n'est pas tronquée mais
renvoyée sans modification ; cela peut chambouler votre mise en page
mais c'est souvent préférable à l'alternative, qui pourrait mentir sur
une valeur (et si vous voulez vraiment tronquer vos valeurs, vous pouvez
toujours utiliser une tranche, comme dans ‘x.ljust(n)[:n]’).

Il existe une autre méthode, *note str.zfill(): 1468, qui comble une
chaîne numérique à gauche avec des zéros.  Elle comprend les signes plus
et moins :

     >>> '12'.zfill(5)
     '00012'
     >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
     '-003.14'
     >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
     '3.14159265359'


File: python.info,  Node: Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes,  Prev: Formatage de chaînes à la main,  Up: Formatage de données

2.7.1.4 Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes
..................................................

The % operator (modulo) can also be used for string formatting.  Given
‘format % values’ (where 'format' is a string), ‘%’ conversion
specifications in 'format' are replaced with zero or more elements of
'values'.  This operation is commonly known as string interpolation.
For example:

     >>> import math
     >>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Vous trouvez plus d'informations dans la section *note Formatage de
chaines à la printf: 6b9.


File: python.info,  Node: Lecture et écriture de fichiers,  Prev: Formatage de données,  Up: Les entrées/sorties

2.7.2 Lecture et écriture de fichiers
-------------------------------------

La fonction *note open(): 508. renvoie un *note objet fichier: 11a2. et
est le plus souvent utilisée avec deux arguments positionnels et un
argument nommé : ‘open(filename, mode, encoding=None)’

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'w', encoding="utf-8")

Le premier argument est une chaîne contenant le nom du fichier.  Le
deuxième argument est une autre chaîne contenant quelques caractères
décrivant la façon dont le fichier est utilisé.  'mode' peut être ‘'r'’
quand le fichier n'est accédé qu'en lecture, ‘'w'’ en écriture seulement
(un fichier existant portant le même nom sera alors écrasé) et ‘'a'’
ouvre le fichier en mode ajout (toute donnée écrite dans le fichier est
automatiquement ajoutée à la fin).  ‘'r+'’ ouvre le fichier en mode
lecture/écriture.  L'argument 'mode' est optionnel, sa valeur par défaut
est ‘'r'’.

Normalement, les fichiers sont ouverts en 'mode texte', c'est-à-dire que
vous lisez et écrivez des chaînes de caractères depuis et dans ce
fichier, suivant un encodage donné via 'encoding'.  Si 'encoding' n'est
pas spécifié, l'encodage par défaut dépend de la plateforme (voir *note
open(): 508.).  UTF-8 étant le standard moderne de facto,
‘encoding="utf-8"’ est recommandé à moins que vous ne sachiez que vous
devez utiliser un autre encodage.  L’ajout d’un ‘'b'’ au mode ouvre le
fichier en 'mode binaire'.  Les données en mode binaire sont lues et
écrites sous forme d’objets *note bytes: 1bd.  Vous ne pouvez pas
spécifier 'encoding' lorsque vous ouvrez un fichier en mode binaire.

En mode texte, le comportement par défaut, à la lecture, est de
convertir les fin de lignes spécifiques à la plateforme (‘\n’ sur Unix,
‘\r\n’ sur Windows, etc.)  en simples ‘\n’.  Lors de l'écriture, le
comportement par défaut est d'appliquer l'opération inverse : les ‘\n’
sont convertis dans leur équivalent sur la plateforme courante.  Ces
modifications effectuées automatiquement sont normales pour du texte
mais détérioreraient des données binaires contenues dans un fichier de
type ‘JPEG’ ou ‘EXE’.  Soyez particulièrement attentifs à ouvrir ces
fichiers binaires en mode binaire.

C'est une bonne pratique d'utiliser le mot-clé *note with: 5be. lorsque
vous traitez des fichiers.  Vous fermez ainsi toujours correctement le
fichier, même si une exception est levée.  Utiliser ‘with’ est aussi
beaucoup plus court que d'utiliser l'équivalent avec des blocs *note
try: 6d5.…*note finally: 9ba. :

     >>> with open('workfile', encoding="utf-8") as f:
     ...     read_data = f.read()

     >>> # We can check that the file has been automatically closed.
     >>> f.closed
     True

Si vous n'utilisez pas le mot clé *note with: 5be, vous devez appeler
‘f.close()’ pour fermer le fichier, et ainsi immédiatement libérer les
ressources qu'il utilise.

     Avertissement: Appeler ‘f.write()’ sans utiliser le mot clé ‘with’
     ni appeler ‘f.close()’ 'pourrait' mener à une situation où les
     arguments de ‘f.write()’ ne seraient pas complètement écrits sur le
     disque, même si le programme se termine avec succès.

Après la fermeture du fichier, que ce soit 'via' une instruction *note
with: 5be. ou en appelant ‘f.close()’, toute tentative d'utilisation de
l'objet fichier échoue systématiquement.

     >>> f.close()
     >>> f.read()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.

* Menu:

* Méthodes des objets fichiers::
* Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json::


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes des objets fichiers,  Next: Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json,  Up: Lecture et écriture de fichiers

2.7.2.1 Méthodes des objets fichiers
....................................

Les derniers exemples de cette section supposent qu'un objet fichier
appelé ‘f’ a déjà été créé.

Pour lire le contenu d'un fichier, appelez ‘f.read(taille)’, cette
dernière lit une certaine quantité de données et la renvoie sous forme
de chaîne (en mode texte) ou d'objet 'bytes' (en mode binaire).
'taille' est un argument numérique facultatif.  Lorsque 'taille' est
omis ou négatif, la totalité du contenu du fichier sera lue et
renvoyée ; c'est votre problème si le fichier est deux fois plus grand
que la mémoire de votre machine.  Sinon, au maximum 'taille' caractères
(en mode texte) ou 'taille' octets (en mode binaire) sont lus et
renvoyés.  Si la fin du fichier est atteinte, ‘f.read()’ renvoie une
chaîne vide (‘''’).

     >>> f.read()
     'This is the entire file.\n'
     >>> f.read()
     ''

‘f.readline()’ lit une seule ligne du fichier ; un caractère de fin de
ligne (‘\n’) est laissé à la fin de la chaîne.  Il n'est omis que sur la
dernière ligne du fichier si celui-ci ne se termine pas un caractère de
fin de ligne.  Ceci permet de rendre la valeur de retour non ambigüe :
si ‘f.readline()’ renvoie une chaîne vide, c'est que la fin du fichier a
été atteinte, alors qu'une ligne vide est représentée par ‘'\n'’ (une
chaîne de caractères ne contenant qu'une fin de ligne).

     >>> f.readline()
     'This is the first line of the file.\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     'Second line of the file\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     ''

Pour lire ligne à ligne, vous pouvez aussi boucler sur l'objet fichier.
C'est plus efficace en termes de gestion mémoire, plus rapide et donne
un code plus simple :

     >>> for line in f:
     ...     print(line, end='')
     ...
     This is the first line of the file.
     Second line of the file

Pour construire une liste avec toutes les lignes d'un fichier, il est
aussi possible d'utiliser ‘list(f)’ ou ‘f.readlines()’.

‘f.write(chaine)’ écrit le contenu de 'chaine' dans le fichier et
renvoie le nombre de caractères écrits.

     >>> f.write('This is a test\n')
     15

Les autres types doivent être convertis, soit en une chaîne (en mode
texte), soit en objet 'bytes' (en mode binaire) avant de les écrire :

     >>> value = ('the answer', 42)
     >>> s = str(value)  # convert the tuple to string
     >>> f.write(s)
     18

‘f.tell()’ renvoie un entier indiquant la position actuelle dans le
fichier, mesurée en octets à partir du début du fichier lorsque le
fichier est ouvert en mode binaire, ou un nombre obscur en mode texte.

Pour modifier la position dans le fichier, utilisez ‘f.seek(décalage,
origine)’.  La position est calculée en ajoutant 'décalage' à un point
de référence ; ce point de référence est déterminé par l'argument
'origine' : la valeur 0 pour le début du fichier, 1 pour la position
actuelle et 2 pour la fin du fichier.  'origine' peut être omis et sa
valeur par défaut est 0 (Python utilise le début du fichier comme point
de référence).

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
     >>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
     16
     >>> f.seek(5)      # Go to the 6th byte in the file
     5
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'5'
     >>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # Go to the 3rd byte before the end
     13
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'd'

Sur un fichier en mode texte (ceux ouverts sans ‘b’ dans le mode), seuls
les changements de position relatifs au début du fichier sont autorisés
(sauf une exception : se rendre à la fin du fichier avec ‘seek(0, 2)’)
et les seules valeurs possibles pour le paramètre 'décalage' sont les
valeurs renvoyées par ‘f.tell()’, ou zéro.  Toute autre valeur pour le
paramètre 'décalage' produit un comportement indéfini.

File objects have some additional methods, such as *note isatty(): 1c40.
and *note truncate(): 12f1. which are less frequently used; consult the
Library Reference for a complete guide to file objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json,  Prev: Méthodes des objets fichiers,  Up: Lecture et écriture de fichiers

2.7.2.2 Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module ‘json’
...............................................................

Strings can easily be written to and read from a file.  Numbers take a
bit more effort, since the *note read(): 1c43. method only returns
strings, which will have to be passed to a function like *note int():
254, which takes a string like ‘'123'’ and returns its numeric value
123.  When you want to save more complex data types like nested lists
and dictionaries, parsing and serializing by hand becomes complicated.

Plutôt que de passer son temps à écrire et déboguer du code permettant
de sauvegarder des types de données compliqués, Python permet d'utiliser
JSON (*JavaScript Object Notation*)(1), un format répandu de
représentation et d'échange de données.  Le module standard appelé *note
json: 81. peut transformer des données hiérarchisées Python en une
représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères.  Ce processus est
nommé 'sérialiser'.  Reconstruire les données à partir de leur
représentation sous forme de chaîne est appelé 'déserialiser'.  Entre sa
sérialisation et sa dé-sérialisation, la chaîne représentant les données
peut avoir été stockée ou transmise à une autre machine.

     Note: Le format JSON est couramment utilisé dans les applications
     modernes pour échanger des données.  Beaucoup de développeurs le
     maîtrisent, ce qui en fait un format de prédilection pour
     l'interopérabilité.

Si vous avez un objet ‘x’, vous pouvez voir sa représentation JSON en
tapant simplement :

     >>> import json
     >>> x = [1, 'simple', 'list']
     >>> json.dumps(x)
     '[1, "simple", "list"]'

Une variante de la fonction *note dumps(): d35, nommée *note dump():
d34, sérialise simplement l'objet donné vers un *note text file: 1c44.
Donc si ‘f’ est un *note text file: 1c44. ouvert en écriture, il est
possible de faire :

     json.dump(x, f)

Pour reconstruire l'objet, si ‘f’ est cette fois un *note binary file:
1c45. ou un *note text file: 1c44. ouvert en lecture :

     x = json.load(f)

     Note: Les fichiers JSON doivent être encodés en UTF-8.  Utilisez
     ‘encoding="utf-8"’ lorsque vous ouvrez un fichier JSON en tant que
     *note fichier texte: 1c44, que ce soit en lecture ou en écriture.

Cette méthode de sérialisation peut sérialiser des listes et des
dictionnaires.  Mais sérialiser d'autres types de données requiert un
peu plus de travail.  La documentation du module *note json: 81.
explique comment faire.

Voir aussi
..........

Le module *note pickle: a5.

Au contraire de *note JSON: 1c42, 'pickle' est un protocole permettant
la sérialisation d'objets Python arbitrairement complexes.  Il est donc
spécifique à Python et ne peut pas être utilisé pour communiquer avec
d'autres langages.  Il est aussi, par défaut, une source de
vulnérabilité : dé-sérialiser des données au format 'pickle' provenant
d'une source malveillante et particulièrement habile peut mener à
exécuter du code arbitraire.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Erreurs et exceptions,  Next: Classes,  Prev: Les entrées/sorties,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.8 Erreurs et exceptions
=========================

Jusqu'ici, les messages d'erreurs ont seulement été mentionnés.  Mais si
vous avez essayé les exemples vous avez certainement vu plus que cela.
En fait, il y a au moins deux types d'erreurs à distinguer : les
'erreurs de syntaxe' et les 'exceptions'.

* Menu:

* Les erreurs de syntaxe::
* Exceptions::
* Gestion des exceptions::
* Déclencher des exceptions::
* Chaînage d'exceptions::
* Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur::
* Définition d'actions de nettoyage::
* Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies::
* Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées::
* Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes::


File: python.info,  Node: Les erreurs de syntaxe,  Next: Exceptions,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.1 Les erreurs de syntaxe
----------------------------

Les erreurs de syntaxe, qui sont des erreurs d'analyse du code, sont
peut-être celles que vous rencontrez le plus souvent lorsque vous êtes
encore en phase d'apprentissage de Python :

     >>> while True print('Hello world')
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         while True print('Hello world')
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The parser repeats the offending line and displays little arrows
pointing at the place where the error was detected.  Note that this is
not always the place that needs to be fixed.  In the example, the error
is detected at the function *note print(): f62, since a colon (‘':'’) is
missing just before it.

The file name (‘<stdin>’ in our example) and line number are printed so
you know where to look in case the input came from a file.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions,  Next: Gestion des exceptions,  Prev: Les erreurs de syntaxe,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.2 Exceptions
----------------

Même si une instruction ou une expression est syntaxiquement correcte,
elle peut générer une erreur lors de son exécution.  Les erreurs
détectées durant l'exécution sont appelées des 'exceptions' et ne sont
pas toujours fatales : nous apprendrons bientôt comment les traiter dans
vos programmes.  La plupart des exceptions toutefois ne sont pas prises
en charge par les programmes, ce qui génère des messages d'erreurs comme
celui-ci :

     >>> 10 * (1/0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         10 * (1/0)
               ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> 4 + spam*3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         4 + spam*3
             ^^^^
     NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
     >>> '2' + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         '2' + 2
         ~~~~^~~
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

La dernière ligne du message d'erreur indique ce qui s'est passé.  Les
exceptions peuvent être de différents types et ce type est indiqué dans
le message : les types indiqués dans l'exemple sont *note
ZeroDivisionError: 934, *note NameError: 42a. et *note TypeError: 525.
Le texte affiché comme type de l'exception est le nom de l'exception
native qui a été déclenchée.  Ceci est vrai pour toutes les exceptions
natives mais n'est pas une obligation pour les exceptions définies par
l'utilisateur (même si c'est une convention bien pratique).  Les noms
des exceptions standards sont des identifiants natifs (pas des mots-clef
réservés).

Le reste de la ligne fournit plus de détails en fonction du type de
l'exception et de ce qui l'a causée.

La partie précédente du message d'erreur indique le contexte dans lequel
s'est produite l'exception, sous la forme d'une trace de pile
d'exécution.  En général, celle-ci contient les lignes du code source ;
toutefois, les lignes lues à partir de l'entrée standard ne sont pas
affichées.

Vous trouvez la liste des exceptions natives et leur signification dans
*note Exceptions natives: 1840.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des exceptions,  Next: Déclencher des exceptions,  Prev: Exceptions,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.3 Gestion des exceptions
----------------------------

Il est possible d'écrire des programmes qui prennent en charge certaines
exceptions.  Regardez l'exemple suivant, qui demande une saisie à
l'utilisateur jusqu'à ce qu'un entier valide ait été entré, mais permet
à l'utilisateur d'interrompre le programme (en utilisant ‘Control’-‘C’
ou un autre raccourci que le système accepte) ; notez qu'une
interruption générée par l'utilisateur est signalée en levant
l'exception *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.

     >>> while True:
     ...     try:
     ...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
     ...         break
     ...     except ValueError:
     ...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
     ...

L'instruction *note try: 6d5. fonctionne comme ceci :

   * premièrement, la 'clause try' (instruction(s) placée(s) entre les
     mots-clés *note try: 6d5. et *note except: 189.) est exécutée.

   * si aucune exception n'intervient, la clause ‘except’ est sautée et
     l'exécution de l'instruction *note try: 6d5. est terminée.

   * si une exception intervient pendant l'exécution de la clause *note
     try: 6d5, le reste de cette clause est sauté.  Si le type
     d'exception levée correspond à un nom indiqué après le mot-clé
     *note except: 189, la clause ‘except’ correspondante est exécutée,
     puis l'exécution continue après le bloc ‘try’/‘except’.

   * si une exception intervient et ne correspond à aucune exception
     mentionnée dans la clause ‘except’, elle est transmise à
     l'instruction *note try: 6d5. de niveau supérieur ; si aucun
     gestionnaire d'exception n'est trouvé, il s'agit d'une 'exception
     non gérée' et l'exécution s'arrête avec un message.

Une instruction *note try: 6d5. peut comporter plusieurs clauses
‘except’ pour permettre la prise en charge de différentes exceptions.
Mais un seul gestionnaire, au plus, sera exécuté.  Les gestionnaires ne
prennent en charge que les exceptions qui interviennent dans la clause
‘try’ correspondante, pas dans d'autres gestionnaires de la même
instruction ‘try’.  Mais une même clause ‘except’ peut citer plusieurs
exceptions sous la forme d'un 'n'-uplet entre parenthèses, comme dans
cet exemple :

     ... except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
     ...     pass

Une classe dans une clause *note except: 189. correspond avec une
exception si elle est de la même classe ou d'une de ses classes
dérivées.  Mais l'inverse n'est pas vrai, une clause ‘except’ spécifiant
une classe dérivée ne correspond pas avec une classe mère.  Par exemple,
le code suivant affiche B, C et D dans cet ordre :

     class B(Exception):
         pass

     class C(B):
         pass

     class D(C):
         pass

     for cls in [B, C, D]:
         try:
             raise cls()
         except D:
             print("D")
         except C:
             print("C")
         except B:
             print("B")

Notez que si les clauses ‘except’ avaient été inversées (avec ‘except B’
en premier), il aurait affiché B, B, B — la première clause ‘except’ qui
correspond est déclenchée.

Quand une exception intervient, une valeur peut lui être associée, que
l'on appelle 'l'argument' de l'exception.  La présence de cet argument
et son type dépendent du type de l'exception.

La clause ‘except’ peut spécifier un nom de variable après le nom de
l'exception.  Cette variable est liée à l'instance d'exception avec les
arguments stockés dans l'attribut ‘args’.  Pour plus de commodité,
l'instance de l'exception définit la méthode *note __str__(): 60a. afin
que les arguments puissent être affichés directement sans avoir à
référencer ‘.args’.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
     ... except Exception as inst:
     ...     print(type(inst))    # the exception type
     ...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
     ...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly,
     ...                          # but may be overridden in exception subclasses
     ...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
     ...     print('x =', x)
     ...     print('y =', y)
     ...
     <class 'Exception'>
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     x = spam
     y = eggs

La sortie produite par *note __str__(): 60a. de l'exception est affichée
en dernière partie (« détail ») du message des exceptions qui ne sont
pas gérées.

*note BaseException: 5a7. est la classe mère de toutes les exceptions.
Une de ses sous-classes, *note Exception: 9c9, est la classe mère de
toutes les exceptions non fatales.  Les exceptions qui ne sont pas des
sous-classes de *note Exception: 9c9. ne sont normalement pas gérées,
car elles sont utilisées pour indiquer que le programme doit se
terminer.  C'est le cas de *note SystemExit: d30. qui est levée par
*note sys.exit(): 1329. et *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. qui est levée
quand l'utilisateur souhaite interrompre le programme.

*note Exception: 9c9. peut être utilisée pour intercepter (presque) tous
les cas.  Cependant, une bonne pratique consiste à être aussi précis que
possible dans les types d'exception que l'on souhaite gérer et autoriser
toutes les exceptions non prévues à se propager.

La manière la plus utilisée pour gérer une *note Exception: 9c9.
consiste à afficher ou journaliser l'exception et ensuite la lever à
nouveau afin de permettre à l'appelant de la gérer à son tour :

     import sys

     try:
         f = open('myfile.txt')
         s = f.readline()
         i = int(s.strip())
     except OSError as err:
         print("OS error:", err)
     except ValueError:
         print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
     except Exception as err:
         print(f"Unexpected {err=}, {type(err)=}")
         raise

L'instruction *note try: 6d5. … *note except: 189. accepte également une
clause ‘else’ optionnelle qui, lorsqu'elle est présente, doit se placer
après toutes les clauses ‘except’.  Elle est utile pour du code qui doit
être exécuté lorsqu'aucune exception n'a été levée par la clause ‘try’.
Par exemple :

     for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
         try:
             f = open(arg, 'r')
         except OSError:
             print('cannot open', arg)
         else:
             print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
             f.close()

Il vaut mieux utiliser la clause ‘else’ plutôt que d'ajouter du code à
la clause *note try: 6d5. car cela évite de capturer accidentellement
une exception qui n'a pas été levée par le code initialement protégé par
l'instruction ‘try’ … ‘except’.

Les gestionnaires d'exceptions n'interceptent pas que les exceptions qui
sont levées immédiatement dans leur clause ‘try’, mais aussi celles qui
sont levées au sein de fonctions appelées (parfois indirectement) dans
la clause ‘try’.  Par exemple :

     >>> def this_fails():
     ...     x = 1/0
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     this_fails()
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
     ...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
     ...
     Handling run-time error: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: Déclencher des exceptions,  Next: Chaînage d'exceptions,  Prev: Gestion des exceptions,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.4 Déclencher des exceptions
-------------------------------

L'instruction *note raise: 5d9. permet au programmeur de déclencher une
exception spécifique.  Par exemple :

     >>> raise NameError('HiThere')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         raise NameError('HiThere')
     NameError: HiThere

Le seul argument à *note raise: 5d9. indique l'exception à déclencher.
Cela peut être soit une instance d'exception, soit une classe
d'exception (une classe dérivée de *note BaseException: 5a7, telle que
*note Exception: 9c9. ou une de ses sous-classes).  Si une classe est
donnée, elle est implicitement instanciée 'via' l'appel de son
constructeur, sans argument :

     raise ValueError  # shorthand for 'raise ValueError()'

Si vous avez besoin de savoir si une exception a été levée mais que vous
n'avez pas intention de la gérer, une forme plus simple de l'instruction
*note raise: 5d9. permet de propager l'exception :

     >>> try:
     ...     raise NameError('HiThere')
     ... except NameError:
     ...     print('An exception flew by!')
     ...     raise
     ...
     An exception flew by!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise NameError('HiThere')
     NameError: HiThere


File: python.info,  Node: Chaînage d'exceptions,  Next: Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur,  Prev: Déclencher des exceptions,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.5 Chaînage d'exceptions
---------------------------

Si une exception non gérée se produit à l'intérieur d'une section *note
except: 189, l'exception en cours de traitement est jointe à l'exception
non gérée et incluse dans le message d'erreur :

     >>> try:
     ...     open("database.sqlite")
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         open("database.sqlite")
         ~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     RuntimeError: unable to handle error

Pour indiquer qu'une exception est la conséquence directe d'une autre,
l'instruction *note raise: 5d9. autorise une clause facultative *note
from: 5d9. :

     # exc must be exception instance or None.
     raise RuntimeError from exc

Cela peut être utile lorsque vous transformez des exceptions.  Par
exemple :

     >>> def func():
     ...     raise ConnectionError
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     func()
     ... except ConnectionError as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         func()
         ~~~~^^
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in func
     ConnectionError

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     RuntimeError: Failed to open database

Cela permet également de désactiver le chaînage automatique des
exceptions à l'aide de l'idiome ‘from None’ :

     >>> try:
     ...     open('database.sqlite')
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError from None
     RuntimeError

Pour plus d'informations sur les mécanismes de chaînage, voir *note
Exceptions natives: 1840.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur,  Next: Définition d'actions de nettoyage,  Prev: Chaînage d'exceptions,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.6 Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur
-------------------------------------------

Les programmes peuvent nommer leurs propres exceptions en créant une
nouvelle classe d'exception (voir *note Classes: 1bdd. pour en savoir
plus sur les classes de Python).  Les exceptions sont typiquement
dérivées de la classe *note Exception: 9c9, directement ou non.

Les classes d'exceptions sont des classes comme les autres, et peuvent
donc utiliser toutes les fonctionnalités des classes.  Néanmoins, en
général, elles demeurent assez simples, et se contentent d'offrir des
attributs qui permettent aux gestionnaires de ces exceptions d'extraire
les informations relatives à l'erreur qui s'est produite.

La plupart des exceptions sont définies avec des noms qui se terminent
par "Error", comme les exceptions standards.

Beaucoup de modules standards définissent leurs propres exceptions pour
signaler les erreurs possibles dans les fonctions qu'ils définissent.


File: python.info,  Node: Définition d'actions de nettoyage,  Next: Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies,  Prev: Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.7 Définition d'actions de nettoyage
---------------------------------------

L'instruction *note try: 6d5. a une autre clause optionnelle qui est
destinée à définir des actions de nettoyage devant être exécutées dans
certaines circonstances.  Par exemple :

     >>> try:
     ...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
     ... finally:
     ...     print('Goodbye, world!')
     ...
     Goodbye, world!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise KeyboardInterrupt
     KeyboardInterrupt

Si la clause *note finally: 9ba. est présente, la clause ‘finally’ est
la dernière tâche exécutée avant la fin du bloc *note try: 6d5.  La
clause ‘finally’ se lance que le bloc ‘try’ produise une exception ou
non.  Les prochains points parlent de cas plus complexes lorsqu'une
exception apparait :

   * Si une exception se produit durant l'exécution de la clause ‘try’,
     elle peut être récupérée par une clause *note except: 189.  Si
     l'exception n'est pas récupérée par une clause ‘except’,
     l'exception est levée à nouveau après que la clause ‘finally’ a été
     exécutée.

   * Une exception peut se produire durant l'exécution d'une clause
     ‘except’ ou ‘else’.  Encore une fois, l'exception est reprise après
     que la clause ‘finally’ a été exécutée.

   * Si dans l'exécution d'un bloc ‘finally’, on atteint une instruction
     *note break: a99, *note continue: 9b9. ou *note return: 9be, alors
     les exceptions ne sont pas reprises.

   * Si dans l'exécution d'un bloc ‘try’, on atteint une instruction
     *note break: a99, *note continue: 9b9. ou *note return: 9be, alors
     la clause ‘finally’ s'exécute juste avant l'exécution de ‘break’,
     ‘continue’ ou ‘return’.

   * Si la clause ‘finally’ contient une instruction ‘return’, la valeur
     retournée sera celle du ‘return’ de la clause ‘finally’, et non la
     valeur du ‘return’ de la clause ‘try’.

Par exemple :

     >>> def bool_return():
     ...     try:
     ...         return True
     ...     finally:
     ...         return False
     ...
     >>> bool_return()
     False

Un exemple plus compliqué :

     >>> def divide(x, y):
     ...     try:
     ...         result = x / y
     ...     except ZeroDivisionError:
     ...         print("division by zero!")
     ...     else:
     ...         print("result is", result)
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("executing finally clause")
     ...
     >>> divide(2, 1)
     result is 2.0
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide(2, 0)
     division by zero!
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide("2", "1")
     executing finally clause
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         divide("2", "1")
         ~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
         result = x / y
                  ~~^~~
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

Comme vous pouvez le voir, la clause *note finally: 9ba. est exécutée
dans tous les cas.  L'exception de type *note TypeError: 525, déclenchée
en divisant deux chaînes de caractères, n'est pas prise en charge par la
clause *note except: 189. et est donc propagée après que la clause
‘finally’ a été exécutée.

Dans les vraies applications, la clause *note finally: 9ba. est
notamment utile pour libérer des ressources externes (telles que des
fichiers ou des connexions réseau), quelle qu'ait été l'utilisation de
ces ressources.


File: python.info,  Node: Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies,  Next: Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées,  Prev: Définition d'actions de nettoyage,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.8 Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies
--------------------------------------

Certains objets définissent des actions de nettoyage standards qui
doivent être exécutées lorsque l'objet n'est plus nécessaire,
indépendamment du fait que l'opération ayant utilisé l'objet ait réussi
ou non.  Regardez l'exemple suivant, qui tente d'ouvrir un fichier et
d'afficher son contenu à l'écran

     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end="")

Le problème avec ce code est qu'il laisse le fichier ouvert pendant une
durée indéterminée après que le code a fini de s'exécuter.  Ce n'est pas
un problème avec des scripts simples, mais peut l'être au sein
d'applications plus conséquentes.  L'instruction *note with: 5be. permet
d'utiliser certains objets comme des fichiers d'une façon qui assure
qu'ils seront toujours nettoyés rapidement et correctement.

     with open("myfile.txt") as f:
         for line in f:
             print(line, end="")

Après l'exécution du bloc, le fichier 'f' est toujours fermé, même si un
problème est survenu pendant l'exécution de ces lignes.  D'autres objets
qui, comme pour les fichiers, fournissent des actions de nettoyage
prédéfinies l'indiquent dans leur documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées,  Next: Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes,  Prev: Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.9 Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées
------------------------------------------------------------

Il existe des situations où il est nécessaire de signaler plusieurs
exceptions qui se sont produites.  C'est souvent le cas dans les
programmes à multiples fils, lorsque plusieurs tâches échouent en
parallèle.  Mais il existe également d'autres cas où il est souhaitable
de poursuivre l'exécution, de collecter plusieurs erreurs plutôt que de
lever la première exception rencontrée.

L'idiome natif *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. englobe une liste d'instances
d'exceptions afin de pouvoir les lever en même temps.  C'est une
exception, et peut donc être interceptée comme toute autre exception.

     >>> def f():
     ...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
     ...
     >>> f()
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |     f()
       |     ~^^
       |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
       |     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
       | ExceptionGroup: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | OSError: error 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | SystemError: error 2
         +------------------------------------
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)}: e')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'>: e
     >>>

En utilisant ‘except*’ au lieu de ‘except’, vous pouvez choisir de ne
gérer que les exceptions du groupe qui correspondent à un certain type.
Dans l'exemple qui suit, dans lequel se trouve imbriqué un groupe
d'exceptions, chaque clause ‘except*’ extrait du groupe des exceptions
d'un certain type tout en laissant toutes les autres exceptions se
propager vers d'autres clauses et éventuellement être réactivées.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup(
     ...         "group1",
     ...         [
     ...             OSError(1),
     ...             SystemError(2),
     ...             ExceptionGroup(
     ...                 "group2",
     ...                 [
     ...                     OSError(3),
     ...                     RecursionError(4)
     ...                 ]
     ...             )
     ...         ]
     ...     )
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print("There were OSErrors")
     ... except* SystemError as e:
     ...     print("There were SystemErrors")
     ...
     There were OSErrors
     There were SystemErrors
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       |     f()
       |     ~^^
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
       |     raise ExceptionGroup(
       |     ...<12 lines>...
       |     )
       | ExceptionGroup: group1 (1 sub-exception)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ExceptionGroup: group2 (1 sub-exception)
         +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
           | RecursionError: 4
           +------------------------------------
     >>>

Notez que les exceptions imbriquées dans un groupe d'exceptions doivent
être des instances, pas des types.  En effet, dans la pratique, les
exceptions sont normalement celles qui ont déjà été déclenchées et
interceptées par le programme, en utilisant le modèle suivant :

     >>> excs = []
     ... for test in tests:
     ...     try:
     ...         test.run()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> if excs:
     ...    raise ExceptionGroup("Test Failures", excs)
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes,  Prev: Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées,  Up: Erreurs et exceptions

2.8.10 Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes
---------------------------------------------------

Quand une exception est créée pour être levée, elle est généralement
initialisée avec des informations décrivant l'erreur qui s'est produite.
Il existe des cas où il est utile d'ajouter des informations après que
l'exception a été interceptée.  Dans ce but, les exceptions ont une
méthode ‘add_note(note)’ qui reçoit une chaîne et l'ajoute à la liste
des notes de l'exception.  L'affichage de la pile de trace standard
inclut toutes les notes, dans l'ordre dans lequel elles ont été
ajoutées, après l'exception.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError('bad type')
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     e.add_note('Add some information')
     ...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
     ...     raise
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise TypeError('bad type')
     TypeError: bad type
     Add some information
     Add some more information
     >>>

Par exemple, lors de la collecte d'exceptions dans un groupe
d'exceptions, il est probable que vous souhaitiez ajouter des
informations de contexte aux erreurs individuelles.  Dans ce qui suit,
chaque exception du groupe est accompagnée d'une note indiquant quand
cette erreur s'est produite.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise OSError('operation failed')
     ...
     >>> excs = []
     >>> for i in range(3):
     ...     try:
     ...         f()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |     raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       | ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 2
         +---------------- 3 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 3
         +------------------------------------
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Classes,  Next: Survol de la bibliothèque standard,  Prev: Erreurs et exceptions,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.9 Classes
===========

Les classes sont un moyen de réunir des données et des fonctionnalités.
Créer une nouvelle classe crée un nouveau 'type' d'objet et ainsi de
nouvelles 'instances' de ce type peuvent être construites.  Chaque
instance peut avoir ses propres attributs, ce qui définit son état.  Une
instance peut aussi avoir des méthodes (définies par la classe de
l'instance) pour modifier son état.

La notion de classes en Python s'inscrit dans le langage avec un minimum
de syntaxe et de sémantique nouvelles.  C'est un mélange des mécanismes
rencontrés dans C++ et Modula-3.  Les classes fournissent toutes les
fonctionnalités standards de la programmation orientée objet :
l'héritage de classes autorise les héritages multiples, une classe
dérivée peut surcharger les méthodes de sa ou ses classes mères et une
méthode peut appeler la méthode d'une classe mère qui possède le même
nom.  Les objets peuvent contenir n'importe quel nombre ou type de
données.  De la même manière que les modules, les classes participent à
la nature dynamique de Python : elles sont créées pendant l'exécution et
peuvent être modifiées après leur création.

Dans la terminologie C++, les membres des classes (y compris les
données) sont 'publics' (sauf exception, voir *note Variables privées:
1c5e.) et toutes les fonctions membres sont 'virtuelles'.  Comme avec
Modula-3, il n'y a aucune façon d'accéder aux membres d'un objet à
partir de ses méthodes : une méthode est déclarée avec un premier
argument explicite représentant l'objet et cet argument est transmis de
manière implicite lors de l'appel.  Comme avec Smalltalk, les classes
elles-mêmes sont des objets.  Il existe ainsi une sémantique pour les
importer et les renommer.  Au contraire de C++ et Modula-3, les types
natifs peuvent être utilisés comme classes mères pour être étendus par
l'utilisateur.  Enfin, comme en C++, la plupart des opérateurs natifs
avec une syntaxe spéciale (opérateurs arithmétiques, indiçage, etc.)
peuvent être redéfinis pour les instances de classes.

En l'absence d'une terminologie communément admise pour parler des
classes, nous utilisons parfois des termes de Smalltalk et C++.  Nous
voulions utiliser les termes de Modula-3 puisque sa sémantique orientée
objet est plus proche de celle de Python que C++, mais il est probable
que seul un petit nombre de lecteurs les connaissent.

* Menu:

* Objets et noms ; préambule: Objets et noms préambule.
* Portées et espaces de nommage en Python::
* Une première approche des classes::
* Remarques diverses::
* Héritage::
* Variables privées::
* Trucs et astuces::
* Itérateurs::
* Générateurs::
* Expressions et générateurs::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets et noms préambule,  Next: Portées et espaces de nommage en Python,  Up: Classes

2.9.1 Objets et noms : préambule
--------------------------------

Les objets possèdent une existence propre et plusieurs noms peuvent être
utilisés (dans divers contextes) pour faire référence à un même objet.
Ce concept est connu sous le nom d'alias dans d'autres langages.  Il
n'apparaît pas au premier coup d'œil en Python et il peut être ignoré
tant qu'on travaille avec des types de base immuables (nombres, chaînes,
'n'-uplets).  Cependant, les alias peuvent produire des effets
surprenants sur la sémantique d'un code Python mettant en jeu des objets
mutables comme les listes, les dictionnaires et la plupart des autres
types.  En général, leur utilisation est bénéfique au programme car les
alias se comportent, d'un certain point de vue, comme des pointeurs.
Par exemple, transmettre un objet n'a aucun coût car c'est simplement un
pointeur qui est transmis par l'implémentation ; et si une fonction
modifie un objet passé en argument, le code à l'origine de l'appel voit
le changement.  Ceci élimine le besoin d'avoir deux mécanismes de
transmission d'arguments comme en Pascal.


File: python.info,  Node: Portées et espaces de nommage en Python,  Next: Une première approche des classes,  Prev: Objets et noms préambule,  Up: Classes

2.9.2 Portées et espaces de nommage en Python
---------------------------------------------

Avant de présenter les classes, nous devons aborder la notion de portée
en Python.  Les définitions de classes font d'habiles manipulations avec
les espaces de nommage, vous devez donc savoir comment les portées et
les espaces de nommage fonctionnent.  Soit dit en passant, la
connaissance de ce sujet est aussi utile aux développeurs Python
expérimentés.

Commençons par quelques définitions.

Un 'espace de nommage' est une table de correspondance entre des noms et
des objets.  La plupart des espaces de nommage sont actuellement
implémentés sous forme de dictionnaires Python, mais ceci n'est
normalement pas visible (sauf pour les performances) et peut changer
dans le futur.  Comme exemples d'espaces de nommage, nous pouvons citer
les primitives (fonctions comme *note abs(): 1c62. et les noms des
exceptions de base) ; les noms globaux dans un module ; et les noms
locaux lors d'un appel de fonction.  D'une certaine manière, l'ensemble
des attributs d'un objet forme lui-même un espace de nommage.
L'important à retenir concernant les espaces de nommage est qu'il n'y a
absolument aucun lien entre les noms de différents espaces de nommage ;
par exemple, deux modules différents peuvent définir une fonction
‘maximize’ sans qu'il n'y ait de confusion.  Les utilisateurs des
modules doivent préfixer le nom de la fonction avec celui du module.

À ce propos, nous utilisons le mot 'attribut' pour tout nom suivant un
point.  Par exemple, dans l'expression ‘z.real’, ‘real’ est un attribut
de l'objet ‘z’.  Rigoureusement parlant, les références à des noms dans
des modules sont des références d'attributs : dans l'expression
‘nommodule.nomfonction’, ‘nommodule’ est un objet module et
‘nomfonction’ est un attribut de cet objet.  Dans ces conditions, il
existe une correspondance directe entre les attributs du module et les
noms globaux définis dans le module : ils partagent le même espace de
nommage (1) !

Les attributs peuvent être en lecture seule ou modifiables.  S'ils sont
modifiables, l'affectation à un attribut est possible.  Les attributs de
modules sont modifiables : vous pouvez écrire ‘nommodule.la_reponse =
42’.  Les attributs modifiables peuvent aussi être effacés avec
l'instruction *note del: 1762.  Par exemple, ‘del nommodule.la_reponse’
supprime l'attribut ‘la_reponse’ de l'objet nommé ‘nommodule’.

Les espaces de nommage sont créés à différents moments et ont
différentes durées de vie.  L'espace de nommage contenant les primitives
est créé au démarrage de l'interpréteur Python et n'est jamais effacé.
L'espace de nommage globaux pour un module est créé lorsque la
définition du module est lue.  Habituellement, les espaces de nommage
des modules durent aussi jusqu'à l'arrêt de l'interpréteur.  Les
instructions exécutées par la première invocation de l'interpréteur,
qu'elles soient lues depuis un fichier de script ou de manière
interactive, sont considérées comme faisant partie d'un module appelé
*note __main__: 1, de façon qu'elles possèdent leur propre espace de
nommage (les primitives vivent elles-mêmes dans un module, appelé *note
builtins: 12.).

L'espace des noms locaux d'une fonction est créé lors de son appel, puis
effacé lorsqu'elle renvoie un résultat ou lève une exception non prise
en charge (en fait, « oublié » serait une meilleure façon de décrire ce
qui se passe réellement).  Bien sûr, des invocations récursives ont
chacune leur propre espace de nommage.

La 'portée' est la zone textuelle d'un programme Python où un espace de
nommage est directement accessible.  « Directement accessible » signifie
ici qu'une référence non qualifiée à un nom est cherchée dans l'espace
de nommage.

Bien que les portées soient déterminées de manière statique, elles sont
utilisées de manière dynamique.  À n'importe quel moment de l'exécution,
il y a au minimum trois ou quatre portées imbriquées dont les espaces de
nommage sont directement accessibles :

   * la portée la plus au centre, celle qui est consultée en premier,
     contient les noms locaux ;

   * les portées des fonctions englobantes, qui sont consultées en
     commençant avec la portée englobante la plus proche, contiennent
     des noms non-locaux mais aussi non-globaux ;

   * l'avant-dernière portée contient les noms globaux du module
     courant ;

   * la portée englobante, consultée en dernier, est l'espace de nommage
     contenant les primitives.

Si un nom est déclaré comme global, alors toutes les références et
affectations vont directement dans l'avant-dernière portée contenant les
noms globaux du module.  Pour pointer une variable qui se trouve en
dehors de la portée la plus locale, vous pouvez utiliser l'instruction
*note nonlocal: 1287.  Si une telle variable n'est pas déclarée
'nonlocal', elle est en lecture seule (toute tentative de la modifier
crée simplement une 'nouvelle' variable dans la portée la plus locale,
en laissant inchangée la variable du même nom dans sa portée d'origine).

Habituellement, la portée locale référence les noms locaux de la
fonction courante.  En dehors des fonctions, la portée locale référence
le même espace de nommage que la portée globale : l'espace de nommage du
module.  Les définitions de classes créent un nouvel espace de nommage
dans la portée locale.

Il est important de réaliser que les portées sont déterminées de manière
textuelle : la portée globale d'une fonction définie dans un module est
l'espace de nommage de ce module, quelle que soit la provenance de
l'appel à la fonction.  En revanche, la recherche réelle des noms est
faite dynamiquement au moment de l'exécution.  Cependant la définition
du langage est en train d'évoluer vers une résolution statique des noms
au moment de la « compilation », donc ne vous basez pas sur une
résolution dynamique (en réalité, les variables locales sont déjà
déterminées de manière statique) !

Une particularité de Python est que, si aucune instruction *note global:
188. ou *note nonlocal: 1287. n'est active, les affectations de noms
vont toujours dans la portée la plus proche.  Les affectations ne
copient aucune donnée : elles se contentent de lier des noms à des
objets.  Ceci est également vrai pour l'effacement : l'instruction ‘del
x’ supprime la liaison de ‘x’ dans l'espace de nommage référencé par la
portée locale.  En réalité, toutes les opérations qui impliquent des
nouveaux noms utilisent la portée locale : en particulier, les
instructions *note import: 5ce. et les définitions de fonctions
effectuent une liaison du module ou du nom de fonction dans la portée
locale.

L'instruction *note global: 188. peut être utilisée pour indiquer que
certaines variables existent dans la portée globale et doivent être
reliées en local ; l'instruction *note nonlocal: 1287. indique que
certaines variables existent dans une portée supérieure et doivent être
reliées en local.

* Menu:

* Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Il existe une exception : les modules disposent d'un attribut
secret en lecture seule appelé *note __dict__: 549. qui renvoie le
dictionnaire utilisé pour implémenter l'espace de nommage du module ; le
nom ‘__dict__’ est un attribut mais pas un nom global.  Évidemment, si
vous l'utilisez, vous brisez l'abstraction de l'implémentation des
espaces de nommage.  Il est donc réservé à des choses comme les
débogueurs post-mortem.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage,  Up: Portées et espaces de nommage en Python

2.9.2.1 Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage
..................................................

Ceci est un exemple montrant comment utiliser les différentes portées et
espaces de nommage, et comment *note global: 188. et *note nonlocal:
1287. modifient l'affectation de variable :

     def scope_test():
         def do_local():
             spam = "local spam"

         def do_nonlocal():
             nonlocal spam
             spam = "nonlocal spam"

         def do_global():
             global spam
             spam = "global spam"

         spam = "test spam"
         do_local()
         print("After local assignment:", spam)
         do_nonlocal()
         print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
         do_global()
         print("After global assignment:", spam)

     scope_test()
     print("In global scope:", spam)

Ce code donne le résultat suivant :

     After local assignment: test spam
     After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
     After global assignment: nonlocal spam
     In global scope: global spam

Vous pouvez constater que l'affectation 'locale' (qui est effectuée par
défaut) n'a pas modifié la liaison de 'spam' dans 'scope_test'.
L'affectation *note nonlocal: 1287. a changé la liaison de 'spam' dans
'scope_test' et l'affectation *note global: 188. a changé la liaison au
niveau du module.

Vous pouvez également voir qu'aucune liaison pour 'spam' n'a été faite
avant l'affectation *note global: 188.


File: python.info,  Node: Une première approche des classes,  Next: Remarques diverses,  Prev: Portées et espaces de nommage en Python,  Up: Classes

2.9.3 Une première approche des classes
---------------------------------------

Le concept de classe introduit un peu de syntaxe nouvelle, trois
nouveaux types d'objets ainsi que quelques nouveaux éléments de
sémantique.

* Menu:

* Syntaxe de définition des classes::
* Objets classes::
* Objets instances::
* Objets méthode::
* Variables de classe et d’instance::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntaxe de définition des classes,  Next: Objets classes,  Up: Une première approche des classes

2.9.3.1 Syntaxe de définition des classes
.........................................

La forme la plus simple de définition d'une classe est la suivante :

     class ClassName:
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Les définitions de classes, comme les définitions de fonctions
(définitions *note def: 1410.), doivent être exécutées avant d'avoir un
effet.  Vous pouvez tout à fait placer une définition de classe dans une
branche d'une instruction conditionnelle *note if: 2e8. ou encore à
l'intérieur d'une fonction.

Dans la pratique, les déclarations dans une définition de classe sont
généralement des définitions de fonctions mais d'autres déclarations
sont permises et parfois utiles (nous revenons sur ce point plus tard).
Les définitions de fonction à l'intérieur d'une classe ont normalement
une forme particulière de liste d'arguments, dictée par les conventions
d'appel aux méthodes (à nouveau, tout ceci est expliqué plus loin).

Quand une classe est définie, un nouvel espace de nommage est créé et
utilisé comme portée locale -- Ainsi, toutes les affectations de
variables locales entrent dans ce nouvel espace de nommage.  En
particulier, les définitions de fonctions y lient le nom de la nouvelle
fonction.

À la fin de la définition d'une classe, un 'objet classe' est créé.
C'est, pour simplifier, une encapsulation du contenu de l'espace de
nommage créé par la définition de classe.  Nous en apprendrons plus sur
les objets classes dans la prochaine section.  La portée locale initiale
(celle qui prévaut avant le début de la définition de la classe) est
ré-instanciée et l'objet de classe est lié ici au nom de classe donné
dans l'en-tête de définition de classe (‘ClassName’ dans l'exemple).


File: python.info,  Node: Objets classes,  Next: Objets instances,  Prev: Syntaxe de définition des classes,  Up: Une première approche des classes

2.9.3.2 Objets classes
......................

Les objets classes prennent en charge deux types d'opérations : des
références à des attributs et l'instanciation.

Les 'références d'attributs' utilisent la syntaxe standard utilisée pour
toutes les références d'attributs en Python : ‘obj.nom’.  Les noms
d'attribut valides sont tous les noms qui se trouvaient dans l'espace de
nommage de la classe quand l'objet classe a été créé.  Donc, si la
définition de classe est de cette forme :

     class MyClass:
         """A simple example class"""
         i = 12345

         def f(self):
             return 'hello world'

alors ‘MyClass.i’ et ‘MyClass.f’ sont des références valides à des
attributs, renvoyant respectivement un entier et un objet fonction.  Les
attributs de classes peuvent également être affectés, de sorte que vous
pouvez modifier la valeur de ‘MyClass.i’ par affectation.  *note
__doc__: 1c6a. est aussi un attribut valide, renvoyant la 'docstring'
appartenant à la classe : ‘"A simple example class"’.

L''instanciation' de classes utilise la notation des fonctions.
Considérez simplement que l'objet classe est une fonction sans paramètre
qui renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe.  Par exemple (en
considérant la classe définie ci-dessus) :

     x = MyClass()

crée une nouvelle 'instance' de la classe et affecte cet objet à la
variable locale ‘x’.

L'opération d'instanciation (en "appelant" un objet classe) crée un
objet vide.  De nombreuses classes aiment créer des instances
personnalisées correspondant à un état initial spécifique.  À cet effet,
une classe peut définir une méthode spéciale nommée *note __init__():
69d, comme ceci :

     def __init__(self):
         self.data = []

Quand une classe définit une méthode *note __init__(): 69d,
l'instanciation de la classe appelle automatiquement ‘__init__()’ pour
la nouvelle instance de la classe.  Donc, dans cet exemple,
l'initialisation d'une nouvelle instance peut être obtenue par :

     x = MyClass()

Bien sûr, la méthode *note __init__(): 69d. peut avoir des arguments
pour une plus grande flexibilité.  Dans ce cas, les arguments donnés à
l'opérateur d'instanciation de classe sont transmis à ‘__init__()’.  Par
exemple

     >>> class Complex:
     ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
     ...         self.r = realpart
     ...         self.i = imagpart
     ...
     >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
     >>> x.r, x.i
     (3.0, -4.5)


File: python.info,  Node: Objets instances,  Next: Objets méthode,  Prev: Objets classes,  Up: Une première approche des classes

2.9.3.3 Objets instances
........................

Maintenant, que pouvons-nous faire avec des objets instances ?  Les
seules opérations comprises par les objets instances sont des références
d'attributs.  Il y a deux sortes de noms d'attributs valides, les
attributs 'données' et les méthodes.

Les 'attributs 'données" correspondent à des "variables d'instance" en
Smalltalk et aux "membres de données" en C++.  Les attributs 'données'
n'ont pas à être déclarés.  Comme les variables locales, ils existent
dès lors qu'ils sont assignés une première fois.  Par exemple, si ‘x’
est l'instance de ‘MyClass’ créée ci-dessus, le code suivant affiche la
valeur ‘16’, sans laisser de trace :

     x.counter = 1
     while x.counter < 10:
         x.counter = x.counter * 2
     print(x.counter)
     del x.counter

La deuxième sorte d'attribut d'instance est une 'méthode'.  Une méthode
est une fonction qui « appartient à » un objet.

Les noms de méthodes valides d'un objet instance dépendent de sa classe.
Par définition, tous les attributs d'une classe qui sont des objets
fonctions définissent les méthodes correspondantes de ses instances.
Donc, dans notre exemple, ‘x.f’ est une référence valide à une méthode
car ‘MyClass.f’ est une fonction, mais pas ‘x.i’ car ‘MyClass.i’ n'en
est pas une.  Attention cependant, ‘x.f’ n'est pas la même chose que
‘MyClass.f’ -- Il s'agit d'un 'objet méthode', pas d'un objet fonction.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets méthode,  Next: Variables de classe et d’instance,  Prev: Objets instances,  Up: Une première approche des classes

2.9.3.4 Objets méthode
......................

Le plus souvent, une méthode est appelée juste après avoir été liée :

     x.f()

Dans l'exemple de la classe ‘MyClass’, cela renvoie la chaîne de
caractères ‘hello world’.  Toutefois, il n'est pas nécessaire d'appeler
la méthode directement : ‘x.f’ est un objet méthode, il peut être gardé
de côté et être appelé plus tard.  Par exemple :

     xf = x.f
     while True:
         print(xf())

affiche ‘hello world’ jusqu'à la fin des temps.

Que se passe-t-il exactement quand une méthode est appelée ?  Vous avez
dû remarquer que ‘x.f()’ a été appelée dans le code ci-dessus sans
argument, alors que la définition de la méthode ‘f()’ spécifie bien
qu'elle prend un argument.  Qu'est-il arrivé à l'argument ?  Python doit
sûrement lever une exception lorsqu'une fonction qui requiert un
argument est appelée sans - même si l'argument n'est pas utilisé…

En fait, vous avez peut-être deviné la réponse : la particularité des
méthodes est que l'objet est passé comme premier argument de la
fonction.  Dans notre exemple, l'appel ‘x.f()’ est exactement équivalent
à ‘MyClass.f(x)’.  En général, appeler une méthode avec une liste de 'n'
arguments est équivalent à appeler la fonction correspondante avec une
liste d'arguments créée en ajoutant l'instance de l'objet de la méthode
avant le premier argument.

En général, les méthodes marchent de la manière suivante.  Lorsque un
attribut d'une instance est référencé et que ce n'est pas un attribut
'données', sa classe est recherchée.  Si le nom correspond à un attribut
valide et que c'est un objet fonction, des références à l'objet instance
et l'objet fonction sont empaquetées dans un objet méthode.  Quand
l'objet méthode est appelé avec une liste d'arguments, une nouvelle
liste d'arguments est construite à partir de l'objet instance et de la
liste des arguments.  L'objet fonction est alors appelé avec cette
nouvelle liste d'arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Variables de classe et d’instance,  Prev: Objets méthode,  Up: Une première approche des classes

2.9.3.5 Variables de classe et d’instance
.........................................

En général, les variables d'instance stockent des informations relatives
à chaque instance alors que les variables de classe servent à stocker
les attributs et méthodes communes à toutes les instances de la classe :

     class Dog:

         kind = 'canine'         # class variable shared by all instances

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name    # instance variable unique to each instance

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> e.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> d.name                  # unique to d
     'Fido'
     >>> e.name                  # unique to e
     'Buddy'

Comme nous l'avons vu dans *note Objets et noms ; préambule: 1c60, les
données partagées *note mutable: 1bbe. (telles que les listes,
dictionnaires, etc.)  peuvent avoir des effets surprenants.  Par
exemple, la liste 'tricks' dans le code suivant ne devrait pas être
utilisée en tant que variable de classe car, dans ce cas, une seule
liste est partagée par toutes les instances de 'Dog' :

     class Dog:

         tricks = []             # mistaken use of a class variable

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks                # unexpectedly shared by all dogs
     ['roll over', 'play dead']

Une conception correcte de la classe est d'utiliser une variable
d'instance à la place :

     class Dog:

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             self.tricks = []    # creates a new empty list for each dog

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks
     ['roll over']
     >>> e.tricks
     ['play dead']


File: python.info,  Node: Remarques diverses,  Next: Héritage,  Prev: Une première approche des classes,  Up: Classes

2.9.4 Remarques diverses
------------------------

Si le même nom d'attribut apparaît à la fois dans une instance et dans
une classe, alors la recherche d'attribut donne la priorité à
l'instance :

     >>> class Warehouse:
     ...    purpose = 'storage'
     ...    region = 'west'
     ...
     >>> w1 = Warehouse()
     >>> print(w1.purpose, w1.region)
     storage west
     >>> w2 = Warehouse()
     >>> w2.region = 'east'
     >>> print(w2.purpose, w2.region)
     storage east

Les attributs 'données' peuvent être référencés par des méthodes comme
par des utilisateurs ordinaires ("clients") d'un objet.  En d'autres
termes, les classes ne sont pas utilisables pour implémenter des types
de données purement abstraits.  En fait, il n'est pas possible en Python
d'imposer de masquer des données — tout est basé sur des conventions
(d'un autre côté, l'implémentation de Python, écrite en C, peut
complètement masquer les détails d'implémentation et contrôler l'accès à
un objet si nécessaire ; ceci peut être utilisé par des extensions de
Python écrites en C).

Les clients doivent utiliser les attributs 'données' avec précaution --
ils pourraient mettre le désordre dans les invariants gérés par les
méthodes avec leurs propres valeurs d'attributs.  Remarquez que les
clients peuvent ajouter leurs propres attributs 'données' à une instance
d'objet sans altérer la validité des méthodes, pour autant que les noms
n'entrent pas en conflit -- là aussi, adopter une convention de nommage
peut éviter bien des problèmes.

Il n'y a pas de notation abrégée pour référencer des attributs 'données'
(ou les autres méthodes !)  depuis les méthodes.  Nous pensons que ceci
améliore en fait la lisibilité des méthodes : il n'y a aucune chance de
confondre variables locales et variables d'instances quand on regarde le
code d'une méthode.

Souvent, le premier argument d'une méthode est nommé ‘self’.  Ce n'est
qu'une convention : le nom ‘self’ n'a aucune signification particulière
en Python.  Notez cependant que si vous ne suivez pas cette convention,
votre code risque d'être moins lisible pour d'autres programmeurs Python
et il est aussi possible qu'un programme qui fasse l'introspection de
classes repose sur une telle convention.

Tout objet fonction qui est un attribut de classe définit une méthode
pour des instances de cette classe.  Il n'est pas nécessaire que le
texte de définition de la fonction soit dans la définition de la
classe : il est possible d'affecter un objet fonction à une variable
locale de la classe.  Par exemple :

     # Function defined outside the class
     def f1(self, x, y):
         return min(x, x+y)

     class C:
         f = f1

         def g(self):
             return 'hello world'

         h = g

Maintenant, ‘f’, ‘g’ et ‘h’ sont toutes des attributs de la classe ‘C’
et font référence à des fonctions objets.  Par conséquent, ce sont
toutes des méthodes des instances de ‘C’ -- ‘h’ est exactement identique
à ‘g’.  Remarquez qu'en pratique, ceci ne sert qu'à embrouiller le
lecteur d'un programme.

Les méthodes peuvent appeler d'autres méthodes en utilisant des méthodes
qui sont des attributs de l'argument ‘self’ :

     class Bag:
         def __init__(self):
             self.data = []

         def add(self, x):
             self.data.append(x)

         def addtwice(self, x):
             self.add(x)
             self.add(x)

Les méthodes peuvent faire référence à des noms globaux de la même
manière que les fonctions.  La portée globale associée à une méthode est
le module contenant la définition de la classe (la classe elle-même
n'est jamais utilisée en tant que portée globale).  Alors qu'il est rare
d'avoir une bonne raison d'utiliser des données globales dans une
méthode, il y a de nombreuses utilisations légitimes de la portée
globale : par exemple, les fonctions et modules importés dans une portée
globale peuvent être utilisés par des méthodes, de même que les
fonctions et classes définies dans cette même portée.  Habituellement,
la classe contenant la méthode est elle-même définie dans cette portée
globale et, dans la section suivante, nous verrons de bonnes raisons
pour qu'une méthode référence sa propre classe.

Toute valeur est un objet et a donc une 'classe' (appelée aussi son
'type').  Elle est stockée dans ‘objet.__class__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Héritage,  Next: Variables privées,  Prev: Remarques diverses,  Up: Classes

2.9.5 Héritage
--------------

Bien sûr, ce terme de "classe" ne serait pas utilisé s'il n'y avait pas
d'héritage.  La syntaxe pour définir une sous-classe est de cette
forme :

     class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Le nom ‘BaseClassName’ doit être défini dans une portée contenant la
définition de la classe dérivée.  À la place du nom d'une classe mère,
une expression est aussi autorisée.  Ceci peut être utile, par exemple,
lorsque la classe mère est définie dans un autre module :

     class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

L'exécution d'une définition de classe dérivée se déroule comme pour une
classe mère.  Quand l'objet de la classe est construit, la classe mère
est mémorisée.  Elle est utilisée pour la résolution des références
d'attributs : si un attribut n'est pas trouvé dans la classe, la
recherche se poursuit en regardant dans la classe mère.  Cette règle est
appliquée récursivement si la classe mère est elle-même dérivée d'une
autre classe.

Il n'y a rien de particulier dans l'instanciation des classes dérivées :
‘DerivedClassName()’ crée une nouvelle instance de la classe.  Les
références aux méthodes sont résolues comme suit : l'attribut
correspondant de la classe est recherché, en remontant la hiérarchie des
classes mères si nécessaire, et la référence de méthode est valide si
cela conduit à une fonction.

Les classes dérivées peuvent surcharger des méthodes de leurs classes
mères.  Comme les méthodes n'ont aucun privilège particulier quand elles
appellent d'autres méthodes d'un même objet, une méthode d'une classe
mère qui appelle une autre méthode définie dans la même classe peut en
fait appeler une méthode d'une classe dérivée qui la surcharge (pour les
programmeurs C++ : toutes les méthodes de Python sont en effet
"virtuelles").

Une méthode dans une classe dérivée peut aussi, en fait, vouloir étendre
plutôt que simplement remplacer la méthode du même nom de sa classe
mère.  L'appel direct à la méthode de la classe mère s'écrit simplement
‘BaseClassName.nomMethode(self, arguments)’.  C'est parfois utile
également aux clients (notez bien que ceci ne fonctionne que si la
classe mère est accessible en tant que ‘BaseClassName’ dans la portée
globale).

Python définit deux fonctions primitives pour gérer l'héritage :

   * utilisez *note isinstance(): 42d. pour tester le type d'une
     instance : ‘isinstance(obj, int)’ renvoie ‘True’ seulement si
     ‘obj.__class__’ est égal à *note int: 254. ou à une autre classe
     dérivée de *note int: 254. ;

   * utilisez *note issubclass(): 7ad. pour tester l'héritage d'une
     classe : ‘issubclass(bool, int)’ renvoie ‘True’ car la classe *note
     bool: 453. est une sous-classe de *note int: 254.  Cependant,
     ‘issubclass(float, int)’ renvoie ‘False’ car *note float: 2ec.
     n'est pas une sous-classe de *note int: 254.

* Menu:

* Héritage multiple::


File: python.info,  Node: Héritage multiple,  Up: Héritage

2.9.5.1 Héritage multiple
.........................

Python gère également une forme d'héritage multiple.  Une définition de
classe ayant plusieurs classes mères est de cette forme :

     class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Dans la plupart des cas, vous pouvez vous représenter la recherche
d'attributs dans les classes parentes comme étant : le plus profond
d'abord, de gauche à droite, sans chercher deux fois dans la même classe
si elle apparaît plusieurs fois dans la hiérarchie.  Ainsi, si un
attribut n'est pas trouvé dans ‘DerivedClassName’, il est recherché dans
‘Base1’, puis (récursivement) dans les classes mères de ‘Base1’ ; s'il
n'y est pas trouvé, il est recherché dans ‘Base2’ et ses classes mères,
et ainsi de suite.

Dans les faits, c'est un peu plus complexe que ça ; l'ordre de la
recherche ('method resolution order, ou MRO' en anglais) change
dynamiquement pour gérer des appels coopératifs à *note super(): 4c8.
Cette approche est connue sous le nom de la "appel de la méthode la plus
proche" ('call-next-method' en anglais) dans d'autres langages avec
héritage multiple.  Elle est plus puissante que le simple appel à super
que l'on trouve dans les langages à héritage simple.

L'ordre défini dynamiquement est nécessaire car tous les cas d'héritage
multiple comportent une ou plusieurs relations en losange (où au moins
une classe peut être accédée à partir de plusieurs chemins en partant de
la classe la plus basse).  Par exemple, puisque toutes les classes
héritent de *note object: a7c, tout héritage multiple ouvre plusieurs
chemins pour atteindre *note object: a7c.  Pour qu'une classe mère ne
soit pas appelée plusieurs fois, l'algorithme dynamique linéarise
l'ordre de recherche d'une façon qui préserve l'ordre d'héritage, de la
gauche vers la droite, spécifié dans chaque classe, qui appelle chaque
classe parente une seule fois, qui est monotone (ce qui signifie qu'une
classe peut être sous-classée sans affecter l'ordre d'héritage de ses
parents).  Prises ensemble, ces propriétés permettent de concevoir des
classes de façon fiable et extensible dans un contexte d'héritage
multiple.  Pour plus de détails, consultez *note The Python 2.3 Method
Resolution Order: 1460.


File: python.info,  Node: Variables privées,  Next: Trucs et astuces,  Prev: Héritage,  Up: Classes

2.9.6 Variables privées
-----------------------

Les membres "privés", qui ne peuvent être accédés que depuis l'intérieur
d'un objet, n'existent pas en Python.  Toutefois, il existe une
convention respectée par la majorité du code Python : un nom préfixé par
un tiret bas (comme ‘_spam’) doit être considéré comme une partie non
publique de l'API (qu'il s'agisse d'une fonction, d'une méthode ou d'un
attribut 'données').  Il doit être vu comme un détail d'implémentation
pouvant faire l'objet de modifications futures sans préavis.

Dès lors qu'il y a un cas d'utilisation valable pour avoir des attributs
privés aux classes (notamment pour éviter des conflits avec des noms
définis dans des sous-classes), il existe un support (certes limité)
pour un tel mécanisme, appelé 'name mangling'.  Tout identifiant de la
forme ‘__spam’ (avec au moins deux tirets bas en tête et au plus un à la
fin) est remplacé textuellement par ‘_classname__spam’, où ‘classname’
est le nom de la classe sans le ou les premiers tirets-bas.  Ce
"découpage" est effectué sans tenir compte de la position syntaxique de
l'identifiant, tant qu'il est présent dans la définition d'une classe.

Voir aussi
..........

La *note spécification des transformations de noms: 1c78. pour les
détails et cas particuliers.

Ce changement de nom est utile pour permettre à des sous-classes de
surcharger des méthodes sans casser les appels de méthodes à l'intérieur
d'une classe.  Par exemple :

     class Mapping:
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.items_list = []
             self.__update(iterable)

         def update(self, iterable):
             for item in iterable:
                 self.items_list.append(item)

         __update = update   # private copy of original update() method

     class MappingSubclass(Mapping):

         def update(self, keys, values):
             # provides new signature for update()
             # but does not break __init__()
             for item in zip(keys, values):
                 self.items_list.append(item)

L'exemple si dessus fonctionnerait même si ‘MappingSubclass’
introduisait un identifieur ‘__update’ puisqu'il a été remplacé avec
‘_Mapping__update’ dans la classe ‘Mapping’ et
‘_MappingSubclass__update’ dans la classe ‘MappingSubclass’
respectivement.

Notez que ces règles sont conçues avant tout pour éviter les accidents ;
il reste possible d'accéder ou de modifier une variable considérée comme
privée.  Ceci peut même être utile dans certaines circonstances, comme
au sein du débogueur.

Remarquez que le code que vous passez à ‘exec()’, ‘eval()’ ne considère
pas le nom de la classe appelante comme étant la classe courante ; le
même effet s'applique à la directive ‘global’ dont l'effet est, de la
même façon, restreint au code compilé dans le même ensemble de
byte-code.  Les mêmes restrictions s'appliquent à ‘getattr()’,
‘setattr()’ et ‘delattr()’, ainsi qu'aux références directes à
‘__dict__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Trucs et astuces,  Next: Itérateurs,  Prev: Variables privées,  Up: Classes

2.9.7 Trucs et astuces
----------------------

Il est parfois utile d'avoir un type de donnée similaire au 'record' du
Pascal ou au 'struct' du C, qui regroupent ensemble quelques attributs
« données » nommés.  L'approche idiomatique correspondante en Python est
d'utiliser des *note dataclasses: 2f. :

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class Employee:
         name: str
         dept: str
         salary: int

     >>> john = Employee('john', 'computer lab', 1000)
     >>> john.dept
     'computer lab'
     >>> john.salary
     1000

À du code Python qui s'attend à recevoir un type de donnée abstrait
spécifique, on peut souvent fournir une classe qui simule les méthodes
de ce type.  Par exemple, à une fonction qui formate des données
extraites d'un objet fichier, vous pouvez lui passer comme argument une
instance d'une classe qui implémente les méthodes *note read(): 1c43. et
*note readline(): 1c7b. en puisant ses données à partir d'un tampon de
chaînes de caractères.

Les objets méthodes d'instances ont aussi des attributs : *note
m.__self__: 1381. est l'instance d'objet avec la méthode ‘m()’ et *note
m.__func__: 12dc. est l'*note objet fonction: 296. correspondant à la
méthode.


File: python.info,  Node: Itérateurs,  Next: Générateurs,  Prev: Trucs et astuces,  Up: Classes

2.9.8 Itérateurs
----------------

Vous avez maintenant certainement remarqué que l'on peut itérer sur la
plupart des objets conteneurs en utilisant une instruction *note for:
2e7. :

     for element in [1, 2, 3]:
         print(element)
     for element in (1, 2, 3):
         print(element)
     for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
         print(key)
     for char in "123":
         print(char)
     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end='')

Ce style est simple, concis et pratique.  L'utilisation d'itérateurs
imprègne et unifie Python.  En arrière plan, l'instruction *note for:
2e7. appelle la fonction *note iter(): 7c3. sur l'objet conteneur.
Cette fonction renvoie un objet itérateur qui définit la méthode *note
__next__(): 12ad, laquelle accède aux éléments du conteneur un par un.
Lorsqu'il n'y a plus d'élément, *note __next__(): 12ad. lève une
exception *note StopIteration: bea. qui indique à la boucle de
l'instruction ‘for’ de se terminer.  Vous pouvez appeler la méthode
*note __next__(): 12ad. en utilisant la fonction native *note next():
7c4.  Cet exemple montre comment tout cela fonctionne :

     >>> s = 'abc'
     >>> it = iter(s)
     >>> it
     <str_iterator object at 0x10c90e650>
     >>> next(it)
     'a'
     >>> next(it)
     'b'
     >>> next(it)
     'c'
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         next(it)
     StopIteration

Une fois compris les mécanismes de gestion des itérateurs, il est simple
d'ajouter ce comportement à vos classes.  Définissez une méthode *note
__iter__(): 1c7e. qui renvoie un objet disposant d'une méthode
‘!__next__()’.  Si la classe définit elle-même la méthode ‘__next__()’,
alors ‘__iter__()’ peut simplement renvoyer ‘self’ :

     class Reverse:
         """Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards."""
         def __init__(self, data):
             self.data = data
             self.index = len(data)

         def __iter__(self):
             return self

         def __next__(self):
             if self.index == 0:
                 raise StopIteration
             self.index = self.index - 1
             return self.data[self.index]

     >>> rev = Reverse('spam')
     >>> iter(rev)
     <__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
     >>> for char in rev:
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     m
     a
     p
     s


File: python.info,  Node: Générateurs,  Next: Expressions et générateurs,  Prev: Itérateurs,  Up: Classes

2.9.9 Générateurs
-----------------

Les *note générateurs: 104c. sont des outils simples et puissants pour
créer des itérateurs.  Ils sont écrits comme des fonctions classiques
mais utilisent l'instruction *note yield: 9bd. lorsqu'ils veulent
renvoyer des données.  À chaque fois qu'il est appelé par *note next():
7c4, le générateur reprend son exécution là où il s'était arrêté (en
conservant tout son contexte d'exécution).  Un exemple montre très bien
combien les générateurs sont simples à créer :

     def reverse(data):
         for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
             yield data[index]

     >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     f
     l
     o
     g

Tout ce qui peut être fait avec des générateurs peut également être fait
avec des itérateurs basés sur des classes, comme décrit dans le
paragraphe précédent.  Ce qui rend les générateurs si compacts, c'est
que les méthodes *note __iter__(): 1c81. et *note __next__(): 1c82. sont
créées automatiquement.

Une autre fonctionnalité clé est que les variables locales ainsi que le
contexte d'exécution sont sauvegardés automatiquement entre les appels.
Cela simplifie d'autant plus l'écriture de ces fonctions et rend leur
code beaucoup plus lisible qu'avec une approche utilisant des variables
d'instance telles que ‘self.index’ et ‘self.data’.

En plus de la création automatique de méthodes et de la sauvegarde du
contexte d'exécution, les générateurs lèvent automatiquement une
exception *note StopIteration: bea. lorsqu'ils terminent leur exécution.
La combinaison de ces fonctionnalités rend très simple la création
d'itérateurs, sans plus d'effort que l'écriture d'une fonction
classique.


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions et générateurs,  Prev: Générateurs,  Up: Classes

2.9.10 Expressions et générateurs
---------------------------------

Des générateurs simples peuvent être codés très rapidement avec des
expressions utilisant la même syntaxe que les compréhensions de listes,
mais en utilisant des parenthèses à la place des crochets.  Ces
expressions sont conçues pour des situations où le générateur est
utilisé tout de suite dans une fonction.  Ces expressions sont plus
compactes mais moins souples que des définitions complètes de
générateurs et ont tendance à être plus économes en mémoire que leur
équivalent en compréhension de listes.

Exemples :

     >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # sum of squares
     285

     >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
     >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
     >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # dot product
     260

     >>> unique_words = set(word for line in page  for word in line.split())

     >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)

     >>> data = 'golf'
     >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
     ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']


File: python.info,  Node: Survol de la bibliothèque standard,  Next: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie,  Prev: Classes,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.10 Survol de la bibliothèque standard
=======================================

* Menu:

* Interface avec le système d'exploitation::
* Jokers sur les noms de fichiers::
* Paramètres passés en ligne de commande::
* Redirection de la sortie d'erreur et fin d'exécution::
* Recherche de motifs dans les chaînes::
* Mathématiques::
* Accès à internet::
* Dates et heures::
* Compression de données::
* Mesure des performances::
* Contrôle qualité::
* Piles fournies::


File: python.info,  Node: Interface avec le système d'exploitation,  Next: Jokers sur les noms de fichiers,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.1 Interface avec le système d'exploitation
-----------------------------------------------

Le module *note os: a0. propose des dizaines de fonctions pour interagir
avec le système d'exploitation :

     >>> import os
     >>> os.getcwd()      # Return the current working directory
     'C:\\Python313'
     >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
     >>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
     0

Veillez bien à utiliser ‘import os’ plutôt que ‘from os import *’, sinon
*note os.open(): d81. cache la primitive *note open(): 508. qui
fonctionne différemment.

Les primitives *note dir(): 61f. et *note help(): 8c6. sont des aides
utiles lorsque vous travaillez en mode interactif avez des gros modules
comme *note os: a0. :

     >>> import os
     >>> dir(os)
     <returns a list of all module functions>
     >>> help(os)
     <returns an extensive manual page created from the module's docstrings>

Pour la gestion des fichiers et dossiers, le module *note shutil: c4.
expose une interface plus abstraite et plus facile à utiliser :

     >>> import shutil
     >>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
     'archive.db'
     >>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
     'installdir'


File: python.info,  Node: Jokers sur les noms de fichiers,  Next: Paramètres passés en ligne de commande,  Prev: Interface avec le système d'exploitation,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.2 Jokers sur les noms de fichiers
--------------------------------------

Le module *note glob: 63. fournit une fonction pour construire des
listes de fichiers à partir de motifs :

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.py')
     ['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres passés en ligne de commande,  Next: Redirection de la sortie d'erreur et fin d'exécution,  Prev: Jokers sur les noms de fichiers,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.3 Paramètres passés en ligne de commande
---------------------------------------------

Common utility scripts often need to process command line arguments.
These arguments are stored in the *note sys: d8. module's 'argv'
attribute as a list.  For instance, let's take the following ‘demo.py’
file:

     # File demo.py
     import sys
     print(sys.argv)

Here is the output from running ‘python demo.py one two three’ at the
command line:

     ['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']

Le module *note argparse: 6. fournit un mécanisme plus sophistiqué pour
traiter les arguments de la ligne de commande.  Le script suivant
extrait un ou plusieurs noms de fichiers et un nombre facultatif de
lignes à afficher :

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
         prog='top',
         description='Show top lines from each file')
     parser.add_argument('filenames', nargs='+')
     parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=10)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

Lorsqu'il est exécuté avec la ligne de commande ‘python top.py --lines=5
alpha.txt beta.txt’, le script définit ‘args.lines’ à ‘5’ et
‘args.filenames’ à ‘['alpha.txt', 'beta.txt']’.


File: python.info,  Node: Redirection de la sortie d'erreur et fin d'exécution,  Next: Recherche de motifs dans les chaînes,  Prev: Paramètres passés en ligne de commande,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.4 Redirection de la sortie d'erreur et fin d'exécution
-----------------------------------------------------------

Le module *note sys: d8. a aussi des attributs pour 'stdin', 'stdout' et
'stderr'.  Ce dernier est utile pour émettre des messages
d'avertissement ou d'erreur qui restent visibles même si 'stdout' est
redirigé :

     >>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
     Warning, log file not found starting a new one

Le moyen le plus direct de terminer un script est d'utiliser
‘sys.exit()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche de motifs dans les chaînes,  Next: Mathématiques,  Prev: Redirection de la sortie d'erreur et fin d'exécution,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.5 Recherche de motifs dans les chaînes
-------------------------------------------

Le module *note re: b8. fournit des outils basés sur les expressions
rationnelles permettant des opérations complexes sur les chaînes.  C'est
une solution optimisée, utilisant une syntaxe concise, pour rechercher
des motifs complexes ou effectuer des remplacements complexes dans les
chaînes :

     >>> import re
     >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
     ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
     >>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
     'cat in the hat'

Lorsque les opérations sont simples, il est préférable d'utiliser les
méthodes des chaînes.  Elles sont plus lisibles et plus faciles à
déboguer :

     >>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
     'tea for two'


File: python.info,  Node: Mathématiques,  Next: Accès à internet,  Prev: Recherche de motifs dans les chaînes,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.6 Mathématiques
--------------------

The *note math: 8d. module gives access to the underlying C library
functions for floating-point math:

     >>> import math
     >>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
     0.70710678118654757
     >>> math.log(1024, 2)
     10.0

Le module *note random: b7. offre des outils pour faire des tirages
aléatoires :

     >>> import random
     >>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
     'apple'
     >>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # sampling without replacement
     [30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
     >>> random.random()    # random float from the interval [0.0, 1.0)
     0.17970987693706186
     >>> random.randrange(6)    # random integer chosen from range(6)
     4

Le module *note statistics: d1. permet de calculer des valeurs
statistiques basiques (moyenne, médiane, variance…) :

     >>> import statistics
     >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
     >>> statistics.mean(data)
     1.6071428571428572
     >>> statistics.median(data)
     1.25
     >>> statistics.variance(data)
     1.3720238095238095

Le projet SciPy <‘https://scipy.org’> contient beaucoup d'autres modules
dédiés aux calculs numériques.


File: python.info,  Node: Accès à internet,  Next: Dates et heures,  Prev: Mathématiques,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.7 Accès à internet
-----------------------

Il existe beaucoup de modules permettant d'accéder à internet et gérer
les protocoles réseaux.  Les deux plus simples sont *note
urllib.request: 10a. qui permet de récupérer des données à partir d'une
URL et *note smtplib: c9. pour envoyer des courriers électroniques :

     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('http://worldtimeapi.org/api/timezone/etc/UTC.txt') as response:
     ...     for line in response:
     ...         line = line.decode()             # Convert bytes to a str
     ...         if line.startswith('datetime'):
     ...             print(line.rstrip())         # Remove trailing newline
     ...
     datetime: 2022-01-01T01:36:47.689215+00:00

     >>> import smtplib
     >>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     >>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
     ... """To: jcaesar@example.org
     ... From: soothsayer@example.org
     ...
     ... Beware the Ides of March.
     ... """)
     >>> server.quit()

(Notez que le deuxième exemple a besoin d'un serveur mail tournant
localement.)


File: python.info,  Node: Dates et heures,  Next: Compression de données,  Prev: Accès à internet,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.8 Dates et heures
----------------------

Le module *note datetime: 30. propose des classes pour manipuler les
dates et les heures de manière simple ou plus complexe.  Bien que faire
des calculs de dates et d'heures soit possible, la priorité de
l'implémentation est mise sur l'extraction efficace des attributs pour
le formatage et la manipulation.  Le module gère aussi les objets
dépendant des fuseaux horaires

     >>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> now = date.today()
     >>> now
     datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
     >>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
     '12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'

     >>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
     >>> birthday = date(1964, 7, 31)
     >>> age = now - birthday
     >>> age.days
     14368


File: python.info,  Node: Compression de données,  Next: Mesure des performances,  Prev: Dates et heures,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.9 Compression de données
-----------------------------

Les formats d'archivage et de compression les plus communs sont
directement gérés par les modules *note zlib: 132, *note gzip: 66, *note
bz2: 13, *note lzma: 89, *note zipfile: 130. et *note tarfile: dd.

     >>> import zlib
     >>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> len(s)
     41
     >>> t = zlib.compress(s)
     >>> len(t)
     37
     >>> zlib.decompress(t)
     b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> zlib.crc32(s)
     226805979


File: python.info,  Node: Mesure des performances,  Next: Contrôle qualité,  Prev: Compression de données,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.10 Mesure des performances
-------------------------------

Certains utilisateurs de Python sont très intéressés par les
performances de différentes approches d'un même problème.  Python
propose un outil de mesure répondant simplement à ces questions.

Par exemple, pour échanger deux variables, il peut être tentant
d'utiliser l'empaquetage et le dépaquetage de 'n'-uplets plutôt que la
méthode traditionnelle.  Le module *note timeit: ee. montre rapidement
le léger gain de performance obtenu :

     >>> from timeit import Timer
     >>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.57535828626024577
     >>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.54962537085770791

En opposition à *note timeit: ee. et sa granularité fine, *note profile:
ae. et *note pstats: af. fournissent des outils permettant d'identifier
les parties les plus gourmandes en temps d'exécution dans des volumes de
code plus grands.


File: python.info,  Node: Contrôle qualité,  Next: Piles fournies,  Prev: Mesure des performances,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.11 Contrôle qualité
------------------------

Une approche possible pour développer des applications de très bonne
qualité est d'écrire des tests pour chaque fonction au fur et à mesure
de son développement, puis d'exécuter ces tests fréquemment lors du
processus de développement.

Le module *note doctest: 3a. cherche des tests dans les chaînes de
documentation.  Un test ressemble à un simple copier-coller d'un appel
et son résultat depuis le mode interactif.  Cela améliore la
documentation en fournissant des exemples tout en prouvant qu'ils sont
justes :

     def average(values):
         """Computes the arithmetic mean of a list of numbers.

         >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
         40.0
         """
         return sum(values) / len(values)

     import doctest
     doctest.testmod()   # automatically validate the embedded tests

Le module *note unittest: 105. requiert plus d'efforts que le module
*note doctest: 3a. mais il permet de construire un jeu de tests plus
complet que l'on fait évoluer dans un fichier séparé :

     import unittest

     class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_average(self):
             self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
             self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
             with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                 average([])
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 average(20, 30, 70)

     unittest.main()  # Calling from the command line invokes all tests


File: python.info,  Node: Piles fournies,  Prev: Contrôle qualité,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard

2.10.12 Piles fournies
----------------------

Python adopte le principe des "piles fournies".  Vous pouvez le
constater au travers des fonctionnalités évoluées et solides fournies
par ses plus gros paquets.  Par exemple :

   * Les modules *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. et *note xmlrpc.server: 12e.
     permettent d'appeler des fonctions à distance quasiment sans
     effort.  En dépit du nom des modules, aucune connaissance du XML
     n'est nécessaire.

   * Le paquet *note email: 3b. est une bibliothèque pour gérer les
     messages électroniques, incluant les MIME et autres encodages basés
     sur la RFC 2822(1).  Contrairement à *note smtplib: c9. et *note
     poplib: ab. qui envoient et reçoivent des messages, le paquet
     'email' est une boite à outils pour construire, lire des structures
     de messages complexes (comprenant des pièces jointes) ou
     implémenter des encodages et protocoles.

   * Le paquet *note json: 81. permet de lire et d'écrire du JSON,
     format d'encodage de données répandu.  Le module *note csv: 29.
     gère la lecture et l'écriture de données stockées sous forme de
     valeurs séparées par des virgules dans des fichiers
     ('Comma-Separated Values' en anglais), format typiquement
     interopérable avec les bases de données et les feuilles de calculs.
     Pour la lecture du XML, utilisez les paquets *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 124, *note xml.dom: 120. et *note xml.sax:
     128.  Combinés, ces modules et paquets simplifient grandement
     l'échange de données entre les applications Python et les autres
     outils.

   * Le module *note sqlite3: ce. est une abstraction de la bibliothèque
     SQLite, permettant de manipuler une base de données persistante,
     accédée et manipulée en utilisant une syntaxe SQL quasi standard.

   * L'internationalisation est possible grâce à de nombreux paquets
     tels que *note gettext: 62, *note locale: 85. ou *note codecs: 1b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie,  Next: Environnements virtuels et paquets,  Prev: Survol de la bibliothèque standard,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.11 Survol de la bibliothèque standard - Deuxième partie
=========================================================

Cette deuxième partie aborde des modules plus à destination des
programmeurs professionnels.  Ces modules sont rarement nécessaires dans
de petits scripts.

* Menu:

* Formatage de l'affichage::
* Gabarits (templates en anglais): Gabarits templates en anglais.
* Traitement des données binaires::
* Fils d'exécution: Fils d'exécution<2>.
* Journalisation::
* Références faibles::
* Outils pour les listes::
* Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic::


File: python.info,  Node: Formatage de l'affichage,  Next: Gabarits templates en anglais,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.1 Formatage de l'affichage
-------------------------------

Le module *note reprlib: ba. est une variante de la fonction *note
repr(): 7e9, spécialisé dans l'affichage concis de conteneurs volumineux
ou fortement imbriqués :

     >>> import reprlib
     >>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
     "{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"

Le module *note pprint: ad. propose un contrôle plus fin de l'affichage
des objets, aussi bien natifs que ceux définis par l'utilisateur, de
manière à être lisible par l'interpréteur.  Lorsque le résultat fait
plus d'une ligne, il est séparé sur plusieurs lignes et est indenté pour
rendre la structure plus visible :

     >>> import pprint
     >>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
     ...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
     ...
     >>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
     [[[['black', 'cyan'],
        'white',
        ['green', 'red']],
       [['magenta', 'yellow'],
        'blue']]]

Le module *note textwrap: eb. formate des paragraphes de texte pour
tenir sur un écran d'une largeur donnée :

     >>> import textwrap
     >>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
     ... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
     ... the wrapped lines."""
     ...
     >>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
     The wrap() method is just like fill()
     except that it returns a list of strings
     instead of one big string with newlines
     to separate the wrapped lines.

Le module *note locale: 85. utilise une base de données des formats
spécifiques à chaque région pour les dates, nombres, etc.  L'attribut
‘grouping’ de la fonction de formatage permet de formater directement
des nombres avec un séparateur :

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
     'English_United States.1252'
     >>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # get a mapping of conventions
     >>> x = 1234567.8
     >>> locale.format_string("%d", x, grouping=True)
     '1,234,567'
     >>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
     ...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
     '$1,234,567.80'


File: python.info,  Node: Gabarits templates en anglais,  Next: Traitement des données binaires,  Prev: Formatage de l'affichage,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.2 Gabarits ('templates' en anglais)
----------------------------------------

Le module *note string: d2. contient une classe polyvalente : *note
Template: 674.  Elle permet d'écrire des gabarits ('templates' en
anglais) avec une syntaxe simple, dans le but d'être utilisable par des
non-développeurs.  Ainsi, vos utilisateurs peuvent personnaliser leur
application sans la modifier.

Le format utilise des marqueurs formés d'un ‘$’ suivi d'un identifiant
Python valide (caractères alphanumériques et tirets-bas).  Entourer le
marqueur d'accolades permet de lui coller d'autres caractères
alphanumériques sans intercaler une espace.  Écrire ‘$$’ produit un
simple ‘$’ :

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
     >>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
     'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'

La méthode *note substitute(): 1ca7. lève une exception *note KeyError:
33a. lorsqu'un marqueur n'a pas été fourni, ni dans un dictionnaire, ni
sous forme d'un paramètre nommé.  Dans certains cas, lorsque la donnée à
appliquer peut n'être fournie que partiellement par l'utilisateur, la
méthode *note safe_substitute(): 1ca8. est plus appropriée car elle
laisse tels quels les marqueurs manquants :

     >>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
     >>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
     >>> t.substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'owner'
     >>> t.safe_substitute(d)
     'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'

Les classes filles de ‘Template’ peuvent définir leur propre délimiteur.
Typiquement, un script de renommage de photos par lots peut choisir le
symbole pourcent comme marqueur pour les champs tels que la date
actuelle, le numéro de l'image ou son format :

     >>> import time, os.path
     >>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
     >>> class BatchRename(Template):
     ...     delimiter = '%'
     ...
     >>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
     Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f

     >>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
     >>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
     >>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
     ...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
     ...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
     ...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))

     img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
     img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
     img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg

Une autre utilisation des gabarits consiste à séparer la logique métier
des détails spécifiques à chaque format de sortie.  Il est ainsi
possible de générer des gabarits spécifiques pour les fichiers XML,
texte, HTML…


File: python.info,  Node: Traitement des données binaires,  Next: Fils d'exécution<2>,  Prev: Gabarits templates en anglais,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.3 Traitement des données binaires
--------------------------------------

Le module *note struct: d4. expose les fonctions *note pack(): 1257. et
*note unpack(): 1782. permettant de travailler avec des données
binaires.  L'exemple suivant montre comment parcourir un entête de
fichier ZIP sans recourir au module *note zipfile: 130.  Les marqueurs
‘"H"’ et ‘"I"’ représentent des nombres entiers non signés, stockés
respectivement sur deux et quatre octets.  Le ‘"<"’ indique qu'ils ont
une taille standard et utilisent la convention petit-boutiste :

     import struct

     with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
         data = f.read()

     start = 0
     for i in range(3):                      # show the first 3 file headers
         start += 14
         fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
         crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields

         start += 16
         filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
         start += filenamesize
         extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
         print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)

         start += extra_size + comp_size     # skip to the next header


File: python.info,  Node: Fils d'exécution<2>,  Next: Journalisation,  Prev: Traitement des données binaires,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.4 Fils d'exécution
-----------------------

Des tâches indépendantes peuvent être exécutées de manière non
séquentielle en utilisant des fils d'exécution ('threading' en anglais).
Les fils d'exécution peuvent être utilisés pour améliorer la réactivité
d'une application qui interagit avec l'utilisateur pendant que d'autres
traitements sont exécutés en arrière-plan.  Une autre utilisation
typique est de séparer sur deux fils d'exécution distincts les entrées /
sorties et le calcul.

Le code suivant donne un exemple d'utilisation du module *note
threading: ec. exécutant des tâches en arrière-plan pendant que le
programme principal continue de s'exécuter :

     import threading, zipfile

     class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
         def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
             threading.Thread.__init__(self)
             self.infile = infile
             self.outfile = outfile

         def run(self):
             f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
             f.write(self.infile)
             f.close()
             print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)

     background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
     background.start()
     print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')

     background.join()    # Wait for the background task to finish
     print('Main program waited until background was done.')

Le principal défi des applications avec plusieurs fils d'exécution
consiste à coordonner ces fils qui partagent des données ou des
ressources.  Pour ce faire, le module ‘threading’ expose quelques outils
dédiés à la synchronisation comme les verrous ('locks' en anglais), les
événements ('events' en anglais), les variables conditionnelles
('condition variables' en anglais) et les sémaphores ('semaphore' en
anglais).

Bien que ces outils soient puissants, de petites erreurs de conception
peuvent engendrer des problèmes difficiles à reproduire.  Donc,
l'approche classique pour coordonner des tâches est de restreindre
l'accès d'une ressource à un seul fil d'exécution et d'utiliser le
module *note queue: b5. pour alimenter ce fil d'exécution en requêtes
venant d'autres fils d'exécution.  Les applications utilisant des *note
Queue: 1367. pour leurs communication et coordination entre fils
d'exécution sont plus simples à concevoir, plus lisibles et plus
fiables.


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation,  Next: Références faibles,  Prev: Fils d'exécution<2>,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.5 Journalisation
---------------------

Le module *note logging: 86. est un système de journalisation complet.
Dans son utilisation la plus élémentaire, les messages sont simplement
envoyés dans un fichier ou sur ‘sys.stderr’ :

     import logging
     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

Cela produit l'affichage suivant :

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

Par défaut, les messages d'information et de débogage sont ignorés, les
autres sont envoyés vers la sortie standard.  Il est aussi possible
d'envoyer les messages par courriel, datagrammes, en utilisant des
connecteurs réseau ou vers un serveur HTTP. Des nouveaux filtres
permettent d'utiliser des sorties différentes en fonction de la priorité
du message : *note DEBUG: 1caf, *note INFO: 1cb0, *note WARNING: 1cb1,
*note ERROR: 1cb2. et *note CRITICAL: 1cb3.

La configuration de la journalisation peut être effectuée directement
dans le code Python ou peut être chargée depuis un fichier de
configuration, permettant de personnaliser la journalisation sans
modifier l'application.


File: python.info,  Node: Références faibles,  Next: Outils pour les listes,  Prev: Journalisation,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.6 Références faibles
-------------------------

Python gère lui-même la mémoire (par comptage des références pour la
plupart des objets et en utilisant un *note ramasse-miettes: 18d6.
('garbage collector' en anglais) pour éliminer les cycles).  La mémoire
est libérée rapidement lorsque sa dernière référence est supprimée.

Cette approche fonctionne bien pour la majorité des applications mais,
parfois, il est nécessaire de surveiller un objet seulement durant son
utilisation par quelque chose d'autre.  Malheureusement, le simple fait
de le suivre crée une référence qui rend l'objet permanent.  Le module
*note weakref: 113. expose des outils pour suivre les objets sans pour
autant créer une référence.  Lorsqu'un objet n'est pas utilisé, il est
automatiquement supprimé du tableau des références faibles et une
fonction de rappel ('callback' en anglais) est appelée.  Un exemple
typique est le cache d'objets coûteux à créer :

     >>> import weakref, gc
     >>> class A:
     ...     def __init__(self, value):
     ...         self.value = value
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return str(self.value)
     ...
     >>> a = A(10)                   # create a reference
     >>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
     >>> d['primary'] = a            # does not create a reference
     >>> d['primary']                # fetch the object if it is still alive
     10
     >>> del a                       # remove the one reference
     >>> gc.collect()                # run garbage collection right away
     0
     >>> d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
       File "C:/python313/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
         o = self.data[key]()
     KeyError: 'primary'


File: python.info,  Node: Outils pour les listes,  Next: Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic,  Prev: Références faibles,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.7 Outils pour les listes
-----------------------------

Beaucoup de structures de données peuvent être représentées avec les
listes natives.  Cependant, d'autres besoins peuvent émerger pour des
structures ayant des caractéristiques différentes, typiquement en termes
de performance.

The *note array: 7. module provides an *note array: 19e. object that is
like a list that stores only homogeneous data and stores it more
compactly.  The following example shows an array of numbers stored as
two byte unsigned binary numbers (typecode ‘"H"’) rather than the usual
16 bytes per entry for regular lists of Python int objects:

     >>> from array import array
     >>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
     >>> sum(a)
     26932
     >>> a[1:3]
     array('H', [10, 700])

The *note collections: 1d. module provides a *note deque: 5c8. object
that is like a list with faster appends and pops from the left side but
slower lookups in the middle.  These objects are well suited for
implementing queues and breadth first tree searches:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
     >>> d.append("task4")
     >>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
     Handling task1

     unsearched = deque([starting_node])
     def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
         node = unsearched.popleft()
         for m in gen_moves(node):
             if is_goal(m):
                 return m
             unsearched.append(m)

En plus de fournir des implémentations de listes alternatives, la
bibliothèque fournit des outils tels que *note bisect: 11, un module
contenant des fonctions de manipulation de listes triées :

     >>> import bisect
     >>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
     >>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
     >>> scores
     [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]

Le module *note heapq: 68. permet d'implémenter des tas ('heap' en
anglais) à partir de simples listes.  La valeur la plus faible est
toujours à la première position (indice 0).  C'est utile dans les cas où
l'application accède souvent à l'élément le plus petit mais sans vouloir
classer entièrement la liste :

     >>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
     >>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
     >>> heapify(data)                      # rearrange the list into heap order
     >>> heappush(data, -5)                 # add a new entry
     >>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # fetch the three smallest entries
     [-5, 0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic,  Prev: Outils pour les listes,  Up: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

2.11.8 Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic
----------------------------------------

The *note decimal: 36. module offers a *note Decimal: 29a. datatype for
decimal floating-point arithmetic.  Compared to the built-in *note
float: 2ec. implementation of binary floating point, the class is
especially helpful for

   * les applications traitant de finance et autres utilisations
     nécessitant une représentation décimale exacte,

   * le contrôle de la précision,

   * le contrôle sur les arrondis pour répondre à des obligations
     légales ou réglementaires,

   * suivre les décimales significatives, ou

   * les applications pour lesquelles l'utilisateur attend des résultats
     identiques aux calculs faits à la main.

Par exemple, calculer 5 % de taxe sur une facture de 70 centimes donne
un résultat différent en nombre à virgule flottante binaire et décimale.
La différence devient significative lorsqu'on arrondit le résultat au
centime près :

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
     Decimal('0.74')
     >>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
     0.73

Le résultat d'un calcul donné par *note Decimal: 29a. conserve les zéros
non-significatifs.  La classe conserve automatiquement quatre décimales
significatives pour des opérandes à deux décimales significatives.  La
classe ‘Decimal’ imite les mathématiques telles qu'elles pourraient être
effectuées à la main, évitant les problèmes typiques de l'arithmétique
binaire à virgule flottante qui n'est pas capable de représenter
exactement certaines quantités décimales.

La représentation exacte de la classe *note Decimal: 29a. lui permet de
faire des calculs de modulo ou des tests d'égalité qui ne seraient pas
possibles avec une représentation à virgule flottante binaire :

     >>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
     Decimal('0.00')
     >>> 1.00 % 0.10
     0.09999999999999995

     >>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
     True
     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False

Le module *note decimal: 36. permet de faire des calculs avec autant de
précision que nécessaire :

     >>> getcontext().prec = 36
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')


File: python.info,  Node: Environnements virtuels et paquets,  Next: Pour aller plus loin,  Prev: Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.12 Environnements virtuels et paquets
=======================================

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* Création d'environnements virtuels::
* Gestion des paquets avec pip::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<4>,  Next: Création d'environnements virtuels,  Up: Environnements virtuels et paquets

2.12.1 Introduction
-------------------

Les programmes Python utilisent souvent des paquets et modules qui ne
font pas partie de la bibliothèque standard.  Ils nécessitent aussi,
parfois, une version spécifique d'une bibliothèque, par exemple parce
qu'un certain bogue a été corrigé ou encore que le programme a été
implémenté en utilisant une version obsolète de l'interface de cette
bibliothèque.

Cela signifie qu'il n'est pas toujours possible, pour une installation
unique de Python, de couvrir tous les besoins de toutes les
applications.  Basiquement, si une application A dépend de la version
1.0 d'un module et qu'une application B dépend de la version 2.0, ces
dépendances entrent en conflit et installer la version 1.0 ou 2.0 laisse
une des deux applications incapable de fonctionner.

La solution est de créer un *note environnement virtuel: 1cbe, un
dossier auto-suffisant qui contient une installation de Python pour une
version particulière de Python ainsi que des paquets additionnels.

Différentes applications peuvent alors utiliser des environnements
virtuels différents.  Pour résoudre l'exemple précédent où il existe un
conflit de dépendances, l'application A a son environnement virtuel avec
la version 1.0 installée pendant que l'application B a un autre
environnement virtuel avec la version 2.0.  Si l'application B requiert
que la bibliothèque soit mise à jour à la version 3.0, cela n'affecte
pas l'environnement de A.


File: python.info,  Node: Création d'environnements virtuels,  Next: Gestion des paquets avec pip,  Prev: Introduction<4>,  Up: Environnements virtuels et paquets

2.12.2 Création d'environnements virtuels
-----------------------------------------

The module used to create and manage virtual environments is called
*note venv: 110.  *note venv: 110. will install the Python version from
which the command was run (as reported by the *note -version: d0b.
option).  For instance, executing the command with ‘python3.12’ will
install version 3.12.

Pour créer un environnement virtuel, décidez d'un dossier où vous voulez
le placer et exécutez le module *note venv: 110. comme un script avec le
chemin du dossier :

     python -m venv tutorial-env

Cela crée le dossier ‘tutorial-env’ (s'il n'existe pas) et des
sous-dossiers contenant une copie de l'interpréteur Python et d'autres
fichiers utiles.

Un répertoire habituel pour un environnement virtuel est ‘.venv’.  Ce
nom fait que le répertoire est généralement caché dans votre explorateur
de fichiers, et donc non gênant, tout en lui donnant un nom qui explique
pourquoi le répertoire existe.  Il empêche également de rentrer en
conflit avec les fichiers de définition de variable d'environnement
‘.env’ que certains outils utilisent.

Une fois l'environnement virtuel créé, vous pouvez l'activer.

Sur Windows, lancez :

     tutorial-env\Scripts\activate

Sur Unix et MacOS, lancez :

     source tutorial-env/bin/activate

(Ce script est écrit pour le shell ‘bash’.  Si vous utilisez ‘csh’ ou
‘fish’, utilisez les variantes ‘activate.csh’ ou ‘activate.fish’.)

Activer l'environnement virtuel change le prompt de votre ligne de
commande pour afficher le nom de l'environnement virtuel que vous
utilisez.  Cela modifie aussi l'environnement afin, lorsque vous tapez
‘python’, d'exécuter la version spécifique de Python installée dans
l'environnement.  Par exemple :

     $ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
     (tutorial-env) $ python
     Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
       ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path
     ['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
     '~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
     >>>

Pour désactiver un environnement virtuel, tapez :

     deactivate

dans le terminal.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des paquets avec pip,  Prev: Création d'environnements virtuels,  Up: Environnements virtuels et paquets

2.12.3 Gestion des paquets avec 'pip'
-------------------------------------

Vous pouvez installer, mettre à jour et supprimer des paquets en
utilisant un programme appelé ‘pip’.  Par défaut, ‘pip’ installe les
paquets du Python Package Index(1).  Vous pouvez parcourir le Python
Package Index avec un navigateur.

‘pip’ a plusieurs sous-commandes : ‘install’, ‘uninstall’, ‘freeze’,
etc.  Consultez le guide *note Installation de modules Python: ee2. pour
une documentation exhaustive sur ‘pip’.

Vous pouvez installer la dernière version d'un paquet en indiquant son
nom :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install novas
     Collecting novas
       Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
     Installing collected packages: novas
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3

Vous pouvez installer une version spécifique d'un paquet en donnant le
nom du paquet suivi de ‘==’ et du numéro de version souhaitée :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install requests==2.6.0
     Collecting requests==2.6.0
       Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
     Installing collected packages: requests
     Successfully installed requests-2.6.0

Si vous relancez cette commande, ‘pip’ remarque que la version demandée
est déjà installée et ne fait rien.  Vous pouvez fournir un numéro de
version différent pour récupérer cette version ou lancer ‘python -m pip
install --upgrade’ pour mettre à jour le paquet à la dernière version :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install --upgrade requests
     Collecting requests
     Installing collected packages: requests
       Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
         Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
           Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
     Successfully installed requests-2.7.0

‘python -m pip uninstall’ suivi d'un ou plusieurs noms de paquets les
supprime de votre environnement virtuel.

‘python -m pip show’ affiche des informations à propos d'un paquet
précis :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip show requests
     ---
     Metadata-Version: 2.0
     Name: requests
     Version: 2.7.0
     Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
     Home-page: http://python-requests.org
     Author: Kenneth Reitz
     Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
     License: Apache 2.0
     Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
     Requires:

‘python -m pip list’ liste tous les paquets installés dans
l'environnement virtuel :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip list
     novas (3.1.1.3)
     numpy (1.9.2)
     pip (7.0.3)
     requests (2.7.0)
     setuptools (16.0)

‘python -m pip freeze’ produit une liste similaire des paquets installés
mais l'affichage adopte un format que ‘pip install’ peut lire.  La
convention habituelle est de mettre cette liste dans un fichier
‘requirements.txt’ :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
     (tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
     novas==3.1.1.3
     numpy==1.9.2
     requests==2.7.0

Le fichier ‘requirements.txt’ peut alors être ajouté dans un système de
gestion de versions comme faisant partie de votre application.  Les
utilisateurs peuvent alors installer tous les paquets nécessaires à
l'application avec ‘install -r’ :

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
     Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
       ...
     Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
       ...
     Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
       ...
     Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0

‘pip’ has many more options.  Consult the *note Installation de modules
Python: ee2. guide for complete documentation for ‘pip’.  When you've
written a package and want to make it available on the Python Package
Index, consult the Python packaging user guide(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: Pour aller plus loin,  Next: Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique,  Prev: Environnements virtuels et paquets,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.13 Pour aller plus loin
=========================

La lecture de ce tutoriel a probablement renforcé votre intérêt pour
Python et vous devez être impatient de l'utiliser pour résoudre des
vrais problèmes.  Où aller pour en apprendre plus ?

Ce tutoriel fait partie de la documentation de Python, et la
documentation de Python est vaste :

   * *note La bibliothèque standard: 143. :

     Nous vous conseillons de naviguer dans le manuel, c'est une
     référence complète (quoique laconique) sur les types, fonctions et
     modules de la bibliothèque standard.  La distribution standard de
     Python inclut 'énormément' de code supplémentaire.  Il existe des
     modules pour lire les courriels, récupérer des documents 'via'
     HTTP, générer des nombres aléatoires, analyser les paramètres de la
     ligne de commande, compresser des données et beaucoup d'autres
     fonctions.  Une balade dans la documentation de la bibliothèque
     vous donnera une idée de ce qui est disponible.

   * *note Installation de modules Python: ee2. explique comment
     installer des paquets écrits par d'autres utilisateurs de Python.

   * *note La référence du langage Python: 144. contient une explication
     détaillée de la syntaxe et sémantique de Python.  C'est une lecture
     fastidieuse, mais elle a sa place dans une documentation
     exhaustive.

D'autres ressources :

   * ‘https://www.python.org’ : le site principal pour Python.  Il
     contient du code, de la documentation, des liens vers d'autres
     sites traitant de Python partout sur Internet.

   * ‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’ offre un accès rapide à la
     documentation de Python en français.

   * ‘https://pypi.org’ ('The Python Package Index' en anglais, pour le
     "répertoire des paquets Python") : auparavant surnommé "La
     Fromagerie" (1) ('The Cheese Shop' en anglais), c'est un catalogue
     de modules Python disponibles au téléchargement, construit par les
     utilisateurs.  Lorsque vous commencez à distribuer du code, vous
     pouvez l'inscrire ici afin que les autres puissent le trouver.

   * ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/’ : "The Python
     Cookbook" est un recueil assez imposant d'exemples de code, de
     modules et de scripts.  Les contributions les plus remarquables y
     sont regroupées dans le livre "Python Cookbook" (O'Reilly &
     Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3).

   * ‘https://pyvideo.org’ regroupe des liens vers des vidéos relatives
     à Python, enregistrées lors de conférences ou de réunions de
     groupes d'utilisateurs.

   * ‘https://scipy.org’ : le projet "The Scientific Python" contient
     des modules pour manipuler et calculer rapidement sur des tableaux.
     Le projet héberge aussi divers paquets sur l'algèbre linéaire, les
     transformées de Fourier, des résolveurs non-linéaires, différentes
     distributions de nombres aléatoires, l'analyse statistique et
     d'autres choses du domaine scientifique.

Pour poser des questions ou remonter des problèmes liés à Python, vous
pouvez écrire sur le forum ‘comp.lang.python’ ou les envoyer à la liste
de diffusion <<python-list@python.org>>.  Le forum et la liste de
diffusion sont liées, un message publié sur l'un sera automatiquement
transféré sur l'autre.  Des centaines de messages y sont publiés chaque
jour, posant (ou répondant à) des questions, suggérant de nouvelles
fonctionnalités et annonçant des nouveaux modules.  Les archives sont
disponibles à ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/’.

Avant de publier un message, assurez-vous d'avoir lu la liste de la
*note Foire Aux Questions: 1cc4. (aussi appelée FAQ). La FAQ répond à
beaucoup de questions fréquentes et contient probablement une solution à
votre problème.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) « Cheese Shop » est un sketch de Monty Python : un client entre
dans une fromagerie, mais peu importe le fromage que demande le client,
le vendeur dit qu’il n’en a pas.


File: python.info,  Node: Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique,  Next: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations,  Prev: Pour aller plus loin,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.14 Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique
=================================================================

Certaines versions de l'interpréteur Python prennent en charge l'édition
de la ligne d'entrée courante et la substitution d'historique,
similaires aux facilités que l'on trouve dans le shell Korn et dans le
shell GNU Bash.  Ces implémentations utilisent la bibliothèque GNU
Readline(1), qui gère plusieurs styles d'édition.  La bibliothèque a sa
propre documentation, nous ne la dupliquons pas ici.

* Menu:

* Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique::
* Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique,  Next: Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif,  Up: Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique

2.14.1 Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique
--------------------------------------------------------

Completion of variable and module names is *note automatically enabled:
fb6. at interpreter startup so that the ‘Tab’ key invokes the completion
function; it looks at Python statement names, the current local
variables, and the available module names.  For dotted expressions such
as ‘string.a’, it will evaluate the expression up to the final ‘'.'’ and
then suggest completions from the attributes of the resulting object.
Note that this may execute application-defined code if an object with a
*note __getattr__(): 4bf. method is part of the expression.  The default
configuration also saves your history into a file named
‘.python_history’ in your user directory.  The history will be available
again during the next interactive interpreter session.


File: python.info,  Node: Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif,  Prev: Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique,  Up: Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique

2.14.2 Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif
-----------------------------------------------

This facility is an enormous step forward compared to earlier versions
of the interpreter; however, some wishes are left: It would be nice if
the proper indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser
knows if an *note INDENT: 1ccb. token is required next).  The completion
mechanism might use the interpreter's symbol table.  A command to check
(or even suggest) matching parentheses, quotes, etc., would also be
useful.

Une alternative améliorée de l'interpréteur interactif est développée
depuis maintenant quelques temps : IPython(1).  Il fournit la
complétion, l'exploration d'objets et une gestion avancée de
l'historique.  Il peut également être personnalisé en profondeur et
embarqué dans d'autres applications.  Un autre environnement interactif
amélioré similaire est bpython(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ipython.org/

   (2) https://bpython-interpreter.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations,  Next: Annexe,  Prev: Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.15 Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
======================================================

Floating-point numbers are represented in computer hardware as base 2
(binary) fractions.  For example, the 'decimal' fraction ‘0.625’ has
value 6/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000, and in the same way the 'binary' fraction
‘0.101’ has value 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8.  These two fractions have identical
values, the only real difference being that the first is written in base
10 fractional notation, and the second in base 2.

Malheureusement, la plupart des fractions décimales ne peuvent pas avoir
de représentation exacte en fractions binaires.  Par conséquent, en
général, les nombres à virgule flottante que vous donnez sont seulement
approximés en fractions binaires pour être stockés dans la machine.

Le problème est plus simple à aborder en base 10.  Prenons par exemple,
la fraction 1/3.  Vous pouvez l'approximer en une fraction décimale :

     0.3

ou, mieux

     0.33

ou, mieux

     0.333

etc.  Peu importe le nombre de décimales que vous écrivez, le résultat
ne vaut jamais exactement 1/3, mais c'est une estimation s'en approchant
toujours mieux.

De la même manière, peu importe combien de décimales en base 2 vous
utilisez, la valeur décimale 0.1 ne peut pas être représentée exactement
en fraction binaire.  En base 2, 1/10 est le nombre périodique suivant

     0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...

En se limitant à une quantité finie de bits, on ne peut obtenir qu'une
approximation.  Sur la majorité des machines aujourd'hui, les nombres à
virgule flottante sont approximés par une fraction binaire avec les 53
premiers bits comme numérateur et une puissance de deux au dénominateur.
Dans le cas de 1/10, la fraction binaire est ‘3602879701896397 / 2 **
55’ qui est proche mais ne vaut pas exactement 1/10.

Many users are not aware of the approximation because of the way values
are displayed.  Python only prints a decimal approximation to the true
decimal value of the binary approximation stored by the machine.  On
most machines, if Python were to print the true decimal value of the
binary approximation stored for 0.1, it would have to display:

     >>> 0.1
     0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

That is more digits than most people find useful, so Python keeps the
number of digits manageable by displaying a rounded value instead:

     >>> 1 / 10
     0.1

Rappelez-vous simplement que, bien que la valeur affichée ressemble à la
valeur exacte de 1/10, la valeur stockée est la représentation la plus
proche en fraction binaire.

Il existe beaucoup de nombres décimaux qui partagent une même
approximation en fraction binaire.  Par exemple, ‘0.1’,
‘0.10000000000000001’ et
‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’ ont tous
pour approximation ‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’.  Puisque toutes ces
valeurs décimales partagent la même approximation, chacune peut être
affichée tout en respectant ‘eval(repr(x)) == x’.

Historiquement, le mode interactif de Python et la primitive *note
repr(): 7e9. choisissaient la version avec 17 décimales significatives,
‘0.10000000000000001’.  Python, depuis la version 3.1 (sur la majorité
des systèmes) est maintenant capable de choisir la plus courte
représentation et n'affiche que ‘0.1’.

Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating point: this is
not a bug in Python, and it is not a bug in your code either.  You'll
see the same kind of thing in all languages that support your hardware's
floating-point arithmetic (although some languages may not 'display' the
difference by default, or in all output modes).

For more pleasant output, you may wish to use string formatting to
produce a limited number of significant digits:

     >>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # give 12 significant digits
     '3.14159265359'

     >>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # give 2 digits after the point
     '3.14'

     >>> repr(math.pi)
     '3.141592653589793'

Il est important de comprendre que tout cela n'est, au sens propre,
qu'une illusion : vous demandez simplement à Python d'arrondir la valeur
stockée réellement dans la machine à 'l'affichage'.

One illusion may beget another.  For example, since 0.1 is not exactly
1/10, summing three values of 0.1 may not yield exactly 0.3, either:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
     False

Also, since the 0.1 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 1/10 and
0.3 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 3/10, then pre-rounding
with *note round(): 12ba. function cannot help:

     >>> round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) == round(0.3, 1)
     False

Though the numbers cannot be made closer to their intended exact values,
the *note math.isclose(): d9f. function can be useful for comparing
inexact values:

     >>> math.isclose(0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1, 0.3)
     True

Alternatively, the *note round(): 12ba. function can be used to compare
rough approximations:

     >>> round(math.pi, ndigits=2) == round(22 / 7, ndigits=2)
     True

Binary floating-point arithmetic holds many surprises like this.  The
problem with "0.1" is explained in precise detail below, in the
"Representation Error" section.  See Examples of Floating Point
Problems(1) for a pleasant summary of how binary floating point works
and the kinds of problems commonly encountered in practice.  Also see
The Perils of Floating Point(2) for a more complete account of other
common surprises.

As that says near the end, "there are no easy answers."  Still, don't be
unduly wary of floating point!  The errors in Python float operations
are inherited from the floating-point hardware, and on most machines are
on the order of no more than 1 part in 2**53 per operation.  That's more
than adequate for most tasks, but you do need to keep in mind that it's
not decimal arithmetic and that every float operation can suffer a new
rounding error.

Bien que des cas pathologiques existent, pour la plupart des cas
d'utilisations courants vous obtiendrez le résultat attendu à la fin en
arrondissant simplement au nombre de décimales désirées à l'affichage
avec *note str(): 437.  Pour un contrôle fin sur la manière dont les
décimales sont affichées, consultez dans *note Syntaxe de formatage de
chaîne: 1369. les spécifications de formatage de la méthode *note
str.format(): 60e.

Pour les cas requérant une représentation décimale exacte, le module
*note decimal: 36. peut être utile : il implémente l'arithmétique
décimale et peut donc être un choix adapté pour des applications
nécessitant une grande précision.

Une autre forme d'arithmétique exacte est implémentée dans le module
*note fractions: 5c. qui se base sur les nombres rationnels (donc 1/3
peut y être représenté exactement).

If you are a heavy user of floating-point operations you should take a
look at the NumPy package and many other packages for mathematical and
statistical operations supplied by the SciPy project.  See
<‘https://scipy.org’>.

Python provides tools that may help on those rare occasions when you
really 'do' want to know the exact value of a float.  The *note
float.as_integer_ratio(): 1ccf. method expresses the value of a float as
a fraction:

     >>> x = 3.14159
     >>> x.as_integer_ratio()
     (3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)

Since the ratio is exact, it can be used to losslessly recreate the
original value:

     >>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
     True

The *note float.hex(): 1cd0. method expresses a float in hexadecimal
(base 16), again giving the exact value stored by your computer:

     >>> x.hex()
     '0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'

This precise hexadecimal representation can be used to reconstruct the
float value exactly:

     >>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
     True

Puisque cette représentation est exacte, elle est pratique pour échanger
des valeurs entre différentes versions de Python (indépendamment de la
machine) ou d'autres langages qui comprennent ce format (tels que Java
et C99).

Another helpful tool is the *note sum(): 456. function which helps
mitigate loss-of-precision during summation.  It uses extended precision
for intermediate rounding steps as values are added onto a running
total.  That can make a difference in overall accuracy so that the
errors do not accumulate to the point where they affect the final total:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False
     >>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
     True

The *note math.fsum(): 138d. goes further and tracks all of the "lost
digits" as values are added onto a running total so that the result has
only a single rounding.  This is slower than *note sum(): 456. but will
be more accurate in uncommon cases where large magnitude inputs mostly
cancel each other out leaving a final sum near zero:

     >>> arr = [-0.10430216751806065, -266310978.67179024, 143401161448607.16,
     ...        -143401161400469.7, 266262841.31058735, -0.003244936839808227]
     >>> float(sum(map(Fraction, arr)))   # Exact summation with single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> math.fsum(arr)                   # Single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> sum(arr)                         # Multiple roundings in extended precision
     8.042178034628478e-13
     >>> total = 0.0
     >>> for x in arr:
     ...     total += x                   # Multiple roundings in standard precision
     ...
     >>> total                            # Straight addition has no correct digits!
     -0.0051575902860057365

* Menu:

* Erreurs de représentation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://jvns.ca/blog/2023/01/13/examples-of-floating-point-problems/

   (2) http://www.indowsway.com/floatingpoint.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Erreurs de représentation,  Up: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations

2.15.1 Erreurs de représentation
--------------------------------

Cette section explique en détail l'exemple du « 0.1 » et montre comment
vous pouvez effectuer une analyse exacte de ce type de cas par
vous-même.  Nous supposons que la représentation binaire des nombres
flottants vous est familière.

Le terme 'Erreur de représentation' ('representation error' en anglais)
signifie que la plupart des fractions décimales ne peuvent être
représentées exactement en binaire.  C'est la principale raison pour
laquelle Python (ou Perl, C, C++, Java, Fortran et beaucoup d'autres)
n'affiche habituellement pas le résultat exact en décimal.

Why is that?  1/10 is not exactly representable as a binary fraction.
Since at least 2000, almost all machines use IEEE 754 binary
floating-point arithmetic, and almost all platforms map Python floats to
IEEE 754 binary64 "double precision" values.  IEEE 754 binary64 values
contain 53 bits of precision, so on input the computer strives to
convert 0.1 to the closest fraction it can of the form 'J'/2**'N' where
'J' is an integer containing exactly 53 bits.  Rewriting

     1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)

en

     J ~= 2**N / 10

and recalling that 'J' has exactly 53 bits (is ‘>= 2**52’ but ‘<
2**53’), the best value for 'N' is 56:

     >>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
     True

That is, 56 is the only value for 'N' that leaves 'J' with exactly 53
bits.  The best possible value for 'J' is then that quotient rounded:

     >>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
     >>> r
     6

Since the remainder is more than half of 10, the best approximation is
obtained by rounding up:

     >>> q+1
     7205759403792794

Therefore the best possible approximation to 1/10 in IEEE 754 double
precision is:

     7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56

Diviser le numérateur et le dénominateur par deux réduit la fraction à :

     3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55

Notez que puisque l'arrondi a été fait vers le haut, le résultat est en
réalité légèrement plus grand que 1/10 ; si nous n'avions pas arrondi
par le haut, le quotient aurait été légèrement plus petit que 1/10.
Mais dans aucun cas il ne vaut 'exactement' 1/10 !

So the computer never "sees" 1/10: what it sees is the exact fraction
given above, the best IEEE 754 double approximation it can get:

     >>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
     3602879701896397.0

If we multiply that fraction by 10**55, we can see the value out to 55
decimal digits:

     >>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
     1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

meaning that the exact number stored in the computer is equal to the
decimal value 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.
Instead of displaying the full decimal value, many languages (including
older versions of Python), round the result to 17 significant digits:

     >>> format(0.1, '.17f')
     '0.10000000000000001'

The *note fractions: 5c. and *note decimal: 36. modules make these
calculations easy:

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction

     >>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
     Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
     (3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
     Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

     >>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
     '0.10000000000000001'


File: python.info,  Node: Annexe,  Prev: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations,  Up: Le tutoriel Python

2.16 Annexe
===========

* Menu:

* Mode interactif: Mode interactif<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Mode interactif<2>,  Up: Annexe

2.16.1 Mode interactif
----------------------

There are two variants of the interactive *note REPL: 169.  The classic
basic interpreter is supported on all platforms with minimal line
control capabilities.

On Windows, or Unix-like systems with *note curses: 2b. support, a new
interactive shell is used by default.  This one supports color,
multiline editing, history browsing, and paste mode.  To disable color,
see *note Controlling color: 16a. for details.  Function keys provide
some additional functionality.  ‘F1’ enters the interactive help browser
*note pydoc: b4.  ‘F2’ allows for browsing command-line history with
neither output nor the *note >>>: 16b. and *note ...: 16c. prompts.
‘F3’ enters "paste mode", which makes pasting larger blocks of code
easier.  Press ‘F3’ to return to the regular prompt.

When using the new interactive shell, exit the shell by typing ‘exit’ or
‘quit’.  Adding call parentheses after those commands is not required.

If the new interactive shell is not desired, it can be disabled via the
*note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16d. environment variable.

* Menu:

* Gestion des erreurs::
* Scripts Python exécutables::
* Configuration du mode interactif::
* Modules de personnalisation::


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des erreurs,  Next: Scripts Python exécutables,  Up: Mode interactif<2>

2.16.1.1 Gestion des erreurs
............................

When an error occurs, the interpreter prints an error message and a
stack trace.  In interactive mode, it then returns to the primary
prompt; when input came from a file, it exits with a nonzero exit status
after printing the stack trace.  (Exceptions handled by an *note except:
189. clause in a *note try: 6d5. statement are not errors in this
context.)  Some errors are unconditionally fatal and cause an exit with
a nonzero exit status; this applies to internal inconsistencies and some
cases of running out of memory.  All error messages are written to the
standard error stream; normal output from executed commands is written
to standard output.

Taper le caractère d'interruption (généralement ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ ou
‘Supprimer’) au niveau de l'invite de commande primaire annule l'entrée
et revient à l'invite (1).  Saisir une interruption tandis qu'une
commande s'exécute lève une exception *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. qui
peut être gérée par une instruction *note try: 6d5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Un problème avec GNU 'Readline' peut l'en empêcher.


File: python.info,  Node: Scripts Python exécutables,  Next: Configuration du mode interactif,  Prev: Gestion des erreurs,  Up: Mode interactif<2>

2.16.1.2 Scripts Python exécutables
...................................

Sur les systèmes Unix, un script Python peut être rendu directement
exécutable, comme un script 'shell', en ajoutant la ligne

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

(en supposant que l'interpréteur est dans le ‘PATH’ de l'utilisateur) au
début du script et en rendant le fichier exécutable.  ‘'#!'’ doivent
être les deux premiers caractères du fichier.  Sur certaines
plateformes, cette première ligne doit finir avec une fin de ligne de
type Unix (‘'\n'’) et pas de type Windows (‘'\r\n'’).  Notez que le
caractère croisillon, ‘'#'’, est utilisé pour initier un commentaire en
Python.

Un script peut être rendu exécutable en utilisant la commande ‘chmod’.

     $ chmod +x myscript.py

Sur les systèmes Windows il n'y a pas de "mode exécutable".
L'installateur Python associe automatiquement les fichiers en ‘.py’ avec
‘python.exe’ de telle sorte qu'un double clic sur un fichier Python le
lance comme un script.  L'extension peut aussi être ‘.pyw’.  Dans ce
cas, la console n'apparait pas.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration du mode interactif,  Next: Modules de personnalisation,  Prev: Scripts Python exécutables,  Up: Mode interactif<2>

2.16.1.3 Configuration du mode interactif
.........................................

En mode interactif, il peut être pratique de faire exécuter quelques
commandes au lancement de l’interpréteur.  Configurez la variable
d'environnement *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. avec le nom d'un fichier
contenant les instructions à exécuter, à la même manière du ‘.profile’
pour un 'shell' Unix.

Ce fichier n'est lu qu'en mode interactif, pas quand Python lit les
instructions depuis un fichier, ni quand ‘/dev/tty’ est donné
explicitement comme fichier source (pour tout le reste, Python se
comporte alors comme dans une session interactive).  Les instructions de
ce fichier sont exécutées dans le même espace de nommage que vos
commandes, donc les objets définis et modules importés peuvent être
utilisés directement dans la session interactive.  Dans ce fichier, il
est aussi possible de changer les invites de commande ‘sys.ps1’ et
‘sys.ps2’.

Si vous voulez exécuter d'autres fichiers du dossier courant au
démarrage, vous pouvez le programmer dans le fichier de démarrage
global, par exemple avec le code suivant : ‘if
os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'): exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read())’.  Et
si vous voulez exécuter le fichier de démarrage depuis un script, vous
devez le faire explicitement dans le script :

     import os
     filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
     if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
         with open(filename) as fobj:
             startup_file = fobj.read()
         exec(startup_file)


File: python.info,  Node: Modules de personnalisation,  Prev: Configuration du mode interactif,  Up: Mode interactif<2>

2.16.1.4 Modules de personnalisation
....................................

Python provides two hooks to let you customize it: sitecustomize and
usercustomize.  To see how it works, you need first to find the location
of your user site-packages directory.  Start Python and run this code:

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/home/user/.local/lib/python3.x/site-packages'

Vous pouvez maintenant y créer un fichier ‘usercustomize.py’ et y écrire
ce que vous voulez.  Il est toujours pris en compte par Python, peu
importe le mode, sauf lorsque vous démarrez avec l'option *note -s:
1364. qui désactive l'importation automatique.

sitecustomize works in the same way, but is typically created by an
administrator of the computer in the global site-packages directory, and
is imported before usercustomize.  See the documentation of the *note
site: c6. module for more details.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Installation et utilisation de Python,  Next: La référence du langage Python,  Prev: Le tutoriel Python,  Up: Top

3 Installation et utilisation de Python
***************************************

Cette partie de la documentation est consacrée aux informations
générales au sujet de l'installation de l'environnement Python sur
différentes plateformes, l'invocation de l'interpréteur et des choses
qui facilitent le travail avec Python.

* Menu:

* Ligne de commande et environnement::
* Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix::
* Configurer Python::
* Utilisation de Python sur Windows::
* Using Python on macOS::
* Using Python on Android::
* Using Python on iOS::
* Éditeurs et IDEs::


File: python.info,  Node: Ligne de commande et environnement,  Next: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.1 Ligne de commande et environnement
======================================

L'interpréteur CPython analyse la ligne de commande et l'environnement à
la recherche de différents paramètres.

Le format des lignes de commande utilisé par d'autres implémentations
peut s'avérer différent.  Voir *note Autres implémentations: 1ce3. pour
plus d'informations.

* Menu:

* Ligne de commande::
* Variables d'environnement::


File: python.info,  Node: Ligne de commande,  Next: Variables d'environnement,  Up: Ligne de commande et environnement

3.1.1 Ligne de commande
-----------------------

Quand vous invoquez Python, vous pouvez spécifier n’importe laquelle de
ces options :

     python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]

Le cas d'utilisation le plus courant est, bien entendu, la simple
invocation d'un script :

     python myscript.py

* Menu:

* Options de l'interface::
* Options génériques::
* Options diverses::
* Controlling color::
* Options à ne pas utiliser::


File: python.info,  Node: Options de l'interface,  Next: Options génériques,  Up: Ligne de commande

3.1.1.1 Options de l'interface
..............................

L'interface de l’interpréteur ressemble à celle du shell UNIX mais
fournit quelques méthodes d'invocation supplémentaires :

   * When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it
     prompts for commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file
     character, you can produce that with ‘Ctrl’-‘D’ on UNIX or
     ‘Ctrl’-‘Z,’ ‘Enter’ on Windows) is read.  For more on interactive
     mode, see *note Mode interactif: 16e.

   * Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec un argument correspondant à un
     nom de fichier ou avec un fichier comme entrée standard, il lit et
     exécute le script contenu dans ce fichier.

   * Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec un argument correspondant à un
     répertoire, il lit et exécute un script d’un certain nom dans ce
     répertoire.

   * Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec l'option ‘-c commande’, il
     exécute la ou les instructions Python données comme 'commande'.
     Ici 'commande' peut contenir plusieurs instructions séparées par
     des fins de ligne.  Les blancs en début de ligne ne sont pas
     ignorés dans les instructions Python !

   * Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec l'option ‘-m nom-de-module’,
     le module donné est recherché dans le chemin des modules Python et
     est exécuté en tant que script.

En mode non-interactif, toute l’entrée est analysée avant d’être
exécutée.

Une option d'interface termine la liste des options consommées par
l'interpréteur ; tous les arguments atterrissent dans *note sys.argv:
1245. — notez que le premier élément, à l'indice zéro (‘sys.argv|0]’),
est une chaîne de caractères indiquant la source du programme.

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Exécute le code Python dans 'command'.  'command' peut être une ou
     plusieurs instructions, séparées par des fins de ligne, dont les
     espaces en début de ligne sont significatives, comme dans le code
     d’un module.

     Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de *note sys.argv:
     1245. est ‘"-c"’ et le répertoire courant est ajouté au début de
     *note sys.path: 3ab. (permettant aux modules de ce répertoire
     d'être importés comme des modules de premier niveau).

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_command’ avec
     comme argument ‘command’.

 -- Option: -m <module-name>

     Parcourt *note sys.path: 3ab. à la recherche du module donné et
     exécute son contenu en tant que module *note __main__: 1.

     L'argument étant un nom de 'module', vous ne devez pas fournir
     d’extension de fichier (‘.py’).  Le nom du module doit être un nom
     de module Python valide, absolu, mais l'implémentation peut ne pas
     l'imposer (par exemple, l'utilisation d'un trait d'union peut être
     autorisée).

     Les noms de paquets sont aussi autorisés (ainsi que les
     paquets-espace de nommage, 'namespace packages' en anglais).  Quand
     un nom de paquet est donné à la place d'un simple module,
     l'interpréteur exécute ‘<pkg>.__main__’ comme module principal.  Ce
     comportement est délibérément identique au traitement d'un dossier
     ou d'un fichier zip donné en argument à l'interpréteur comme
     script.

          Note: Cette option ne peut pas être utilisée avec les modules
          natifs et les modules d'extension écrits en C, étant donné
          qu'ils ne possèdent pas de fichiers modules en Python.
          Cependant, elle peut toujours être utilisée pour les modules
          pré-compilés, même si le fichier source original n'est pas
          disponible.

     Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de *note sys.argv:
     1245. est le chemin complet d'accès au fichier du module (pendant
     que le fichier est recherché, le premier élément est mis à ‘"-m"’).
     Comme avec l'option *note -c: 5cc, le dossier courant est ajouté au
     début de *note sys.path: 3ab.

     *note -I: 94d. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 3ab. contains neither the current
     directory nor the user's site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     De nombreux modules de la bibliothèque standard contiennent du code
     qui est invoqué quand ils sont exécutés comme scripts.  Un exemple
     est le module *note timeit: ee. :

          python -m timeit -s "setup here" "benchmarked code here"
          python -m timeit -h # for details

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_command’ avec
     comme argument ‘module-name’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note runpy.run_module(): 17c8.

          Fonctionnalité équivalente directement disponible en code
          Python

     PEP 338(1) - Exécuter des modules en tant que scripts

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Fournir le nom d'un paquet pour
     exécuter un sous-module ‘__main__’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: les paquets-espaces de nommage sont
     aussi gérés

 -- Describe: -

     Lit les commandes depuis l'entrée standard (*note sys.stdin: 52a.).
     Si l'entrée standard est un terminal, l'option *note -i: 1493. est
     activée implicitement.

     Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de *note sys.argv:
     1245. est ‘"-"’ et le dossier courant est ajouté au début de *note
     sys.path: 3ab.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ sans
     argument.

 -- Describe: <script>

     Exécute le code Python contenu dans 'script', qui doit être un
     chemin d'accès (absolu ou relatif) à un fichier, faisant référence
     à un fichier Python, à un répertoire contenant un fichier
     ‘__main__.py’ ou à un fichier zip contenant un fichier
     ‘__main__.py’.

     Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de *note sys.argv:
     1245. est le nom du script tel que donné sur la ligne de commande.

     Si le nom du script se réfère directement à un fichier Python, le
     répertoire contenant ce fichier est ajouté au début de *note
     sys.path: 3ab. et le fichier est exécuté en tant que module *note
     __main__: 1.

     Si le nom du script fait référence à un dossier ou à un fichier
     zip, le nom du script est ajouté au début de *note sys.path: 3ab.
     et le fichier ‘__main__.py’ à cet endroit est exécuté en tant que
     module *note __main__: 1.

     *note -I: 94d. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 3ab. contains neither the script's
     directory nor the user's site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_file’ avec
     comme argument ‘filename’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note runpy.run_path(): 17f.

          Fonctionnalité équivalente directement disponible en code
          Python

Si aucune option d'interface n'est donnée, l'option *note -i: 1493. est
activée implicitement, ‘sys.argv[0]’ est une chaine vide (‘""’) et le
dossier courant est ajouté au début de *note sys.path: 3ab.  Aussi, la
complétion par tabulation et l'édition de l'historique sont
automatiquement activés, s'ils sont disponibles sur votre système (voir
*note Readline configuration: fb6.).

Voir aussi
..........

*note Lancement de l'interpréteur: 1ba3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Activation automatique de la complétion par
tabulation et édition de l'historique.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: Options génériques,  Next: Options diverses,  Prev: Options de l'interface,  Up: Ligne de commande

3.1.1.2 Options génériques
..........................

 -- Option: -?
 -- Option: -h
 -- Option: --help

     Affiche une brève description de toutes les options de la ligne de
     commande et des variables d'environnement correspondantes, puis
     quitte.

 -- Option: --help-env

     Affiche une brève description des variables d'environnement
     spécifiques à Python et quitte.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-xoptions

     Affiche une description spécifique à l'implémentation des options
     *note -X: 175. et quitte.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-all

     Affiche toutes les informations d'utilisation et quitte.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: -V
 -- Option: --version

     Affiche la version de Python et termine.  Par exemple :

          Python 3.8.0b2+

     Lorsque l'option est doublée, affiche davantage d'informations sur
     la manière dont Python a été compilé, comme :

          Python 3.8.0b2+ (3.8:0c076caaa8, Apr 20 2019, 21:55:00)
          [GCC 6.2.0 20161005]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: L'option ‘-VV’.


File: python.info,  Node: Options diverses,  Next: Controlling color,  Prev: Options génériques,  Up: Ligne de commande

3.1.1.3 Options diverses
........................

 -- Option: -b

     Issue a warning when converting *note bytes: 1bd. or *note
     bytearray: 52b. to *note str: 437. without specifying encoding or
     comparing ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’ with ‘str’ or ‘bytes’ with *note
     int: 254.  Issue an error when the option is given twice (‘-bb’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Affects also comparisons of *note
     bytes: 1bd. with *note int: 254.

 -- Option: -B

     S'il est donné, Python ne tente pas d'écrire de fichier ‘.pyc’ ou
     ‘.pyo’ à l'importation des modules sources.  Voir aussi *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1387.

 -- Option: --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never

     Contrôle la façon dont sont validés les fichiers ‘.pyc’ avec
     empreinte (voir *note Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache: 5d8.).
     Quand la valeur est ‘default’, les caches de fichiers de code
     intermédiaire sont validés en fonction de leur sémantique par
     défaut.  Quand la valeur est ‘always’, tous les fichiers ‘.pyc’,
     qu'ils soient vérifiés ou non, sont validés par rapport à leurs
     fichiers sources correspondants.  Quand la valeur est ‘never’, les
     fichiers ‘.pyc’ ne sont pas validés par rapport à leurs fichiers
     sources correspondants.

     La sémantique des fichiers ‘.pyc’ générés en fonction de
     l'horodatage n'est pas affectée par cette option.

 -- Option: -d

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only).  See also the
     *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1cef. environment variable.

     This option requires a *note debug build of Python: 1f6, otherwise
     it's ignored.

 -- Option: -E

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     1008. and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3, that might be set.

     Voir aussi les options *note -P: 590. et *note -I: 94d. (mode
     isolé).

 -- Option: -i

     Enter interactive mode after execution.

     Using the *note -i: 1493. option will enter interactive mode in any
     of the following circumstances:

        * When a script is passed as first argument

        * When the *note -c: 5cc. option is used

        * When the *note -m: 5cd. option is used

     Interactive mode will start even when *note sys.stdin: 52a. does
     not appear to be a terminal.  The *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. file is
     not read.

     Cela peut être utile pour examiner les variables globales ou une
     trace de la pile lorsque le script lève une exception.  Voir aussi
     *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1492.

 -- Option: -I

     Lance Python en mode isolé.  Cela implique les options *note -E:
     94c, *note -P: 590. et *note -s: 1364.

     In isolated mode *note sys.path: 3ab. contains neither the script's
     directory nor the user's site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.  Further restrictions may
     be imposed to prevent the user from injecting malicious code.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Option: -O

     Enlève les instructions 'assert' et tout le code qui dépend de la
     valeur de *note __debug__: 7c6.  Ajoute ‘.opt-1’ au nom de fichier
     du code intermédiaire (*note bytecode: 185.), avant l'extension
     ‘.pyc’ (voir la PEP 488(1)).  Voir aussi *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE:
     1cf0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Modifie les noms de fichiers ‘.pyc’
     suivant la PEP 488(2).

 -- Option: -OO

     Agit comme *note -O: da4. et ignore aussi les 'docstrings'.  Ajoute
     ‘.opt-2’ au nom de fichier du code intermédiaire (*note bytecode:
     185.), avant l'extension ‘.pyc’ (voir la PEP 488(3)).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Modifie les noms de fichiers ‘.pyc’
     suivant la PEP 488(4).

 -- Option: -P

     Ne pas ajouter de chemin (qui serait alors prioritaire)
     potentiellement non sûr à *note sys.path: 3ab. :

        * ‘python -m module’ en ligne de commande : ne pas ajouter le
          répertoire de travail courant.

        * ‘python script.py’ en ligne de commande : ne pas ajouter le
          répertoire du script.  Si c'est un lien symbolique, résoudre
          les liens symboliques.

        * ‘python -c code’ et ‘python’ (REPL) en lignes de commande : ne
          pas ajouter de chaîne vide, ce qui voudrait dire le répertoire
          de travail courant.

     Voir aussi la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 591.
     ainsi que les options *note -E: 94c. et *note -I: 94d. (mode
     isolé).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: -q

     N'affiche pas le copyright et la version, même en mode interactif.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Option: -R

     Active l'imprévisibilité du hachage.  Cette option ne produit un
     effet que si la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONHASHSEED:
     1068. est mise à ‘0’, puisque l'imprévisibilité du hachage est
     activée par défaut.

     On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash
     randomization, so that the *note __hash__(): aeb. values of str and
     bytes objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value.
     Although they remain constant within an individual Python process,
     they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python.

     Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
     denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit
     the worst case performance of a dict construction, 'O'('n'^2)
     complexity.  See ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’
     for details.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068. vous permet de définir vous-même la
     valeur du sel pour l'algorithme de calcul des empreintes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette option n'est plus ignorée.

 -- Option: -s

     N'ajoute pas le répertoire utilisateur *note site-packages: 1cf2. à
     *note sys.path: 3ab.

     See also *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1365.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 370(5) - Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur

 -- Option: -S

     Désactive l’importation du module *note site: c6. et les
     modifications locales de *note sys.path: 3ab. qu’il implique.
     Désactive aussi ces manipulations si *note site: c6. est importé
     explicitement plus tard (appelez *note site.main(): 1cf3. si vous
     voulez les déclencher).

 -- Option: -u

     Force les flux de sortie et d'erreur standards à ne pas utiliser de
     tampon.  Cette option n'a pas d'effet sur le flux d'entrée
     standard.

     Voir aussi *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1963.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: La couche texte des flux de sortie et
     d'erreur standards n'utilise maintenant plus de tampon.

 -- Option: -v

     Affiche un message chaque fois qu'un module est initialisé,
     montrant l'emplacement (nom du fichier ou module natif) à partir
     duquel il est chargé.  Lorsque l'option est doublée (‘-vv’),
     affiche un message pour chaque fichier vérifié lors de la recherche
     du module.  Fournit aussi des informations sur le nettoyage des
     modules à la fin.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Le module *note site: c6. affiche les
     emplacements de recherche de modules spécifiques à l'installation
     ainsi que les fichiers ‘.pth’ qui sont lus.

     Voir aussi *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1cf4.

 -- Option: -W arg

     Contrôle des avertissements.  Le mécanisme d'avertissement de
     Python, par défaut, affiche les messages d'avertissement sur *note
     sys.stderr: 928.

     Les configurations les plus simples forcent l'application de
     l'action à tous les avertissements émis par un processus (même ceux
     qui auraient été ignorés par défaut) :

          -Wdefault  # Warn once per call location
          -Werror    # Convert to exceptions
          -Walways   # Warn every time
          -Wall      # Same as -Walways
          -Wmodule   # Warn once per calling module
          -Wonce     # Warn once per Python process
          -Wignore   # Never warn

     Les noms des actions peuvent être abrégés à votre convenance,
     l'interpréteur fait la résolution vers le nom adéquat.  Par
     exemple, ‘-Wi’ équivaut à ‘-Wignore’.

     La forme développée de l'argument de ‘-W’ est :

          action:message:category:module:lineno

     Les champs 'message', 'category', 'module', 'line' appliquent des
     filtres de sélection.  Ils sont facultatifs : on peut les laisser
     vides, ou en omettre certains à la fin.  Par exemple, ‘-W
     ignore::DeprecationWarning’ permet d'ignorer tous les
     avertissements de type ‘DeprecationWarning’.

     Le champ 'action' déjà décrit s'applique donc uniquement aux
     avertissements qui sont passés à travers les filtres.

     Un filtre 'message' restreint l'action aux avertissements dont le
     texte complet correspond à 'message' (la comparaison ne prend pas
     en compte la casse).

     Un filtre 'category' restreint l'action aux avertissements dont la
     classe est celle nommée 'category', ou bien une classe fille de la
     classe nommée 'category'.  Un exemple pour 'category' est
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.

     The 'module' field matches the (fully qualified) module name; this
     match is case-sensitive.

     Enfin, un filtre 'lineno' restreint l'action aux avertissements qui
     proviennent d'un numéro de ligne donné.  La valeur zéro revient à
     appliquer le filtre sur toutes les lignes, c.-à-d.  l'équivalent de
     ne pas mettre de numéro.

     L'option *note -W: 8b6. peut être répétée ; lorsqu'un avertissement
     correspond à plus d'une option, l'action associée à la dernière
     correspondance est effectuée.  Les options *note -W: 8b6. invalides
     sont ignorées (cependant, un message d'avertissement est affiché
     sur les options invalides au moment où le premier avertissement est
     généré).

     Les avertissements peuvent aussi être contrôlés en utilisant la
     variable d'environnement *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a. et depuis un
     programme Python en utilisant le module *note warnings: 111.  Par
     exemple, la fonction *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 145f. peut
     être utilisée pour filtrer les messages d'avertissement en
     utilisant une expression rationnelle.

     Voir *note Le filtre des avertissements: 8b8. et *note Rédaction de
     filtres d'avertissement: 1cf6. pour plus de détails.

 -- Option: -x

     Saute la première ligne du code source, autorisant ainsi les
     directives de type ‘#!cmd’ non conformes au standard Unix.
     L'objectif est de proposer une astuce spécifique pour le DOS.

 -- Option: -X

     Réservée pour les options spécifiques aux différentes
     implémentations.  CPython reconnaît actuellement les valeurs
     suivantes :

        * ‘-X faulthandler’ to enable *note faulthandler: 57.  See also
          *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 106b.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

        * ‘-X showrefcount’ pour afficher le compteur des références et
          le nombre de blocs mémoire utilisés lorsque le programme se
          termine ou après chaque entrée de l'interpréteur interactif.
          Ceci ne fonctionne que sur les versions *note compilées en
          mode débogage: 1f6.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

        * ‘-X tracemalloc’ to start tracing Python memory allocations
          using the *note tracemalloc: fe. module.  By default, only the
          most recent frame is stored in a traceback of a trace.  Use
          ‘-X tracemalloc=NFRAME’ to start tracing with a traceback
          limit of 'NFRAME' frames.  See *note tracemalloc.start():
          1cf8. and *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1cf9. for more information.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

        * ‘-X int_max_str_digits’ configure la *note limitation de la
          longueur de conversion des chaînes entières: 5e1.  Voir aussi
          *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1779.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

        * ‘-X importtime’ affiche le temps mis pour chaque importation.
          Le temps total par module est affiché (y compris le temps pris
          par les importations imbriquées) ainsi que le temps propre du
          module (c.-à-d.  sans les importations imbriquées).  Notez que
          l'affichage peut être perturbé dans une application avec de
          multiples fils d'exécution.  L'utilisation classique est
          ‘python3 -X importtime -c 'import asyncio'’.  Voir aussi *note
          PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ae5.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

        * ‘-X dev’: enable *note Python Development Mode: 1f5,
          introducing additional runtime checks that are too expensive
          to be enabled by default.  See also *note PYTHONDEVMODE: add.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

        * ‘-X utf8’ enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.  ‘-X
          utf8=0’ explicitly disables *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.
          (even when it would otherwise activate automatically).  See
          also *note PYTHONUTF8: ac8.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

        * ‘-X pycache_prefix=PATH’ place l'arborescence des fichiers
          ‘.pyc’ à partir du chemin donné au lieu de l'arborescence du
          code source.  Voir aussi *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 993.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

        * ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ pour émettre un *note
          EncodingWarning: 1cfa. lorsqu'un fichier est ouvert avec
          l'encodage par défaut des paramètres régionaux.  Voir aussi
          *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7a8.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

        * ‘-X no_debug_ranges’ désactive l'inclusion des tableaux qui
          font la correspondance avec des informations extérieures
          (ligne de fin, numéros des colonnes de début et de fin) pour
          toutes les instructions du code.  C'est utile quand vous
          souhaitez diminuer la taille du code objet et des fichiers pyc
          ou alors quand vous voulez supprimer des informations de
          position quand l'interpréteur affiche les traces d'appels.
          Regardez aussi *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5a2.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

        * ‘-X frozen_modules’ determines whether or not frozen modules
          are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of ‘on’ means
          they get imported and ‘off’ means they are ignored.  The
          default is ‘on’ if this is an installed Python (the normal
          case).  If it's under development (running from the source
          tree) then the default is ‘off’.  Note that the
          ‘importlib_bootstrap’ and ‘importlib_bootstrap_external’
          frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to
          ‘off’.  See also *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18c.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

        * ‘-X perf’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler.  When
          this option is provided, the ‘perf’ profiler will be able to
          report Python calls.  This option is only available on some
          platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the
          current system.  The default value is "off".  See also *note
          PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 45a. and *note Python support for the Linux
          perf profiler: 18d.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

        * ‘-X perf_jit’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
          with DWARF support.  When this option is provided, the ‘perf’
          profiler will be able to report Python calls using DWARF
          information.  This option is only available on some platforms
          and will do nothing if is not supported on the current system.
          The default value is "off".  See also *note
          PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 18e. and *note Python support for the
          Linux perf profiler: 18d.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

        * ‘-X cpu_count=N’ overrides *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0, *note
          os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf, and *note
          multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f5c.  'n' must be greater than or
          equal to 1.  This option may be useful for users who need to
          limit CPU resources of a container system.  See also *note
          PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 20d.  If 'n' is ‘default’, nothing is
          overridden.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

        * ‘-X presite=PACKAGE.MODULE’ specifies a module that should be
          imported before the *note site: c6. module is executed and
          before the *note __main__: 1. module exists.  Therefore, the
          imported module isn't *note __main__: 1.  This can be used to
          execute code early during Python initialization.  Python needs
          to be *note built in debug mode: 1f6. for this option to
          exist.  See also *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 1cfb.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

        * ‘-X gil=0,1’ forces the GIL to be disabled or enabled,
          respectively.  Setting to ‘0’ is only available in builds
          configured with *note -disable-gil: 173.  See also *note
          PYTHON_GIL: 174. and *note Free-threaded CPython: 13e.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Il est aussi possible de passer des valeurs arbitraires et de les
     récupérer par le dictionnaire *note sys._xoptions: 1cfc.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Removed the ‘-X showalloccount’
     option.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Removed the ‘-X oldparser’ option.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling color,  Next: Options à ne pas utiliser,  Prev: Options diverses,  Up: Ligne de commande

3.1.1.4 Controlling color
.........................

The Python interpreter is configured by default to use colors to
highlight output in certain situations such as when displaying
tracebacks.  This behavior can be controlled by setting different
environment variables.

Setting the environment variable ‘TERM’ to ‘dumb’ will disable color.

If the FORCE_COLOR(1) environment variable is set, then color will be
enabled regardless of the value of TERM. This is useful on CI systems
which aren’t terminals but can still display ANSI escape sequences.

If the NO_COLOR(2) environment variable is set, Python will disable all
color in the output.  This takes precedence over ‘FORCE_COLOR’.

All these environment variables are used also by other tools to control
color output.  To control the color output only in the Python
interpreter, the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 149. environment variable can be
used.  This variable takes precedence over ‘NO_COLOR’, which in turn
takes precedence over ‘FORCE_COLOR’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://force-color.org/

   (2) https://no-color.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Options à ne pas utiliser,  Prev: Controlling color,  Up: Ligne de commande

3.1.1.5 Options à ne pas utiliser
.................................

 -- Option: -J

     Utilisation réservée à Jython(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Variables d'environnement,  Prev: Ligne de commande,  Up: Ligne de commande et environnement

3.1.2 Variables d'environnement
-------------------------------

Les variables d'environnement suivantes modifient le comportement de
Python.  Elles sont analysées avant les options de la ligne de commande,
autres que '-E' ou '-I'. Il est d'usage que les options de la ligne de
commande prennent le pas sur les variables d'environnement en cas de
conflit.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONHOME

     Modifie l'emplacement des bibliothèques standards de Python.  Par
     défaut, les bibliothèques sont recherchées dans
     ‘`préfixe'/lib/python`version'’ et
     ‘`préfixe_exec'/lib/python`version'’ où ‘`préfixe'’ et
     ‘`préfixe_exec'’ sont des répertoires qui dépendent de
     l'installation (leur valeur par défaut étant ‘/usr/local’).

     Quand *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. est défini à un simple répertoire, sa
     valeur remplace à la fois ‘`préfixe'’ et ‘`préfixe_exec'’.  Pour
     spécifier des valeurs différentes à ces variables, définissez *note
     PYTHONHOME: 3b3. à ‘`préfixe':`préfixe_exec'’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONPATH

     Augmente le chemin de recherche par défaut des fichiers de modules.
     Le format est le même que pour ‘PATH’ du shell : un ou plusieurs
     chemins de répertoires séparés par *note os.pathsep: 1d01. (par
     exemple, le caractère deux-points sous Unix et point-virgule sous
     Windows).  Les répertoires qui n'existent pas sont ignorés
     silencieusement.

     En plus des répertoires normaux, des entrées individuelles de *note
     PYTHONPATH: 1008. peuvent faire référence à des fichiers zip
     contenant des modules en pur Python (soit sous forme de code
     source, soit sous forme compilée).  Les modules d'extensions ne
     peuvent pas être importés à partir de fichiers zip.

     Le chemin de recherche par défaut dépend de l'installation mais
     commence généralement par ‘`préfixe'/lib/python`version'’ (voir
     *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. ci-dessus).  Il est 'toujours' ajouté à
     *note PYTHONPATH: 1008.

     Comme indiqué ci-dessus dans *note Options de l'interface: 1ce6, un
     répertoire supplémentaire est inséré dans le chemin de recherche
     devant *note PYTHONPATH: 1008.  Le chemin de recherche peut être
     manipulé depuis un programme Python avec la variable *note
     sys.path: 3ab.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONSAFEPATH

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, ne pas ajouter un chemin
     potentiellement non sûr à *note sys.path: 3ab. : voir l'option
     *note -P: 590. pour les détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONPLATLIBDIR

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, elle remplace la valeur
     de *note sys.platlibdir: 927.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONSTARTUP

     S'il s'agit d'un nom de fichier accessible en lecture, les
     commandes Python de ce fichier sont exécutées avant que la première
     invite ne soit affichée en mode interactif.  Le fichier est exécuté
     dans le même espace de nommage que les commandes interactives, de
     manière à ce que les objets définis ou importés puissent être
     utilisés sans qualificatif dans la session interactive.  Vous
     pouvez aussi changer les invites *note sys.ps1: 1d02. et *note
     sys.ps2: 1d03. ainsi que le point d'entrée ('hook' en anglais)
     *note sys.__interactivehook__: fb4. dans ce fichier.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_startup’ avec
     le nom du fichier en argument lorsqu'il est lancé au démarrage.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONOPTIMIZE

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à
     spécifier l'option *note -O: da4.  Si elle est définie à un entier,
     c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option *note -O: da4. plusieurs
     fois.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONBREAKPOINT

     Si elle est définie, elle fait référence à un appelable en
     utilisant la notation des chemins délimités par des points.  Le
     module contenant l'appelable est importé et l'appelable est alors
     lancé par l'implémentation par défaut de *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): aca, elle-même étant appelée par la fonction
     native *note breakpoint(): 231.  Si elle n'est pas définie ou
     définie par une chaîne vide, elle vaut la même chose que
     ‘pdb.set_trace’.  La définir à la chaîne "0" entraine que
     l'implémentation par défaut de *note sys.breakpointhook(): aca. ne
     fait rien et s'interrompt immédiatement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONDEBUG

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à
     spécifier l'option *note -d: 1cee.  Si elle est définie à un
     entier, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option *note -d: 1cee.
     plusieurs fois.

     This environment variable requires a *note debug build of Python:
     1f6, otherwise it's ignored.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONINSPECT

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à
     spécifier l'option *note -i: 1493.

     Cette variable peut aussi être modifiée par du code Python en
     utilisant *note os.environ: 1199. pour forcer le mode introspectif
     à la fin du programme.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ sans
     argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12.5: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and
     3.8.20) Emits audit events.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which
     case *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. is also executed.  Emits audit
     events.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONUNBUFFERED

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à
     spécifier l'option *note -u: 1962.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONVERBOSE

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à
     spécifier l'option *note -v: 13dd.  Si elle est définie à un
     entier, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option *note -v: 13dd.
     plusieurs fois.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONCASEOK

     Si elle est définie, Python ignore la casse dans les instructions
     *note import: 5ce.  Ceci ne fonctionne que sous Windows et macOS.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE

     Si elle est définie et n'est pas une chaîne vide, Python n'écrit
     pas de fichier ‘.pyc’ à l'importation des modules sources.  C'est
     équivalent à spécifier l'option *note -B: 1386.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX

     Si elle est définie, Python n'écrit pas ses fichiers ‘.pyc’ dans
     ‘__pycache__’ mais dans une arborescence miroir à ce chemin.  C'est
     l'équivalent de l'option *note -X: 175. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONHASHSEED

     Si cette variable n'est pas définie ou définie à ‘random’, une
     valeur aléatoire est utilisée pour saler les empreintes des objets
     ‘str’ et ‘bytes’.

     Si *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068. est définie à une valeur entière,
     elle est utilisée comme valeur de salage pour générer les
     empreintes des types utilisant l'imprévisibilité du hachage.

     L'objectif est d'avoir des empreintes reproductibles, pour des
     tests de l'interpréteur lui-même ou pour qu'un groupe de processus
     Python puisse partager des empreintes.

     Le nombre entier doit être écrit en base 10 et être compris entre 0
     et 4 294 967 295.  Spécifier la valeur 0 désactive
     l'imprévisibilité des empreintes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.3.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS

     Si un entier est assigné à cette variable, elle est utilisée pour
     configurer la limite globale de l'interpréteur *note limitation de
     la longueur de conversion des chaînes de caractères entiers: 5e1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONIOENCODING

     Si la variable est définie sous la forme
     ‘nom_encodage:gestionnaire_erreur’ avant le lancement de
     l'interpréteur, cela prend le pas sur l'encodage utilisé pour
     l'entrée standard, la sortie standard ou la sortie d'erreur.
     ‘nom_encodage’ et ‘:gestionnaire_erreur’ sont facultatifs tous les
     deux et possèdent la même signification que dans *note
     str.encode(): 8c4.

     Pour la sortie d'erreur, la partie ‘:gestionnaire_erreur’ est
     ignorée : le gestionnaire est toujours ‘'backslashreplace'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: La partie ‘nom_encodage’ est
     maintenant optionnelle.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sous Windows, l'encodage spécifié par
     cette variable est ignoré pour le tampon des consoles interactives
     à moins que *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c4b. ne soit aussi
     spécifié.  Les fichiers et tubes ('pipes' en anglais) redirigés
     vers les flux standards ne sont pas concernés.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONNOUSERSITE

     Si elle est définie, Python n'ajoute pas le répertoire *note
     site-packages propre à l'utilisateur: 1cf2. à *note sys.path: 3ab.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 370(1) - Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONUSERBASE

     Defines the *note user base directory: 12fc, which is used to
     compute the path of the *note user site-packages directory: 1cf2.
     and *note installation paths: 1d04. for ‘python -m pip install
     --user’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 370(2) - Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONEXECUTABLE

     Si cette variable d'environnement est définie, ‘sys.argv[0]’ est
     définie à cette valeur au lieu de la valeur fournie par
     l'exécutable.  Ne fonctionne que sur macOS.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONWARNINGS

     C'est équivalent à spécifier l'option *note -W: 8b6.  Si la valeur
     est une chaîne séparée par des virgules, c'est équivalent à
     spécifier l'option *note -W: 8b6. plusieurs fois.  Dans ce cas, les
     filtres spécifiés en derniers prennent le pas sur ceux qui les
     précèdent dans la liste.

     Les configurations les plus simples forcent l'application de
     l'action à tous les avertissements émis par un processus (même ceux
     qui auraient été ignorés par défaut) :

          PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # Warn once per call location
          PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # Convert to exceptions
          PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # Warn every time
          PYTHONWARNINGS=all      # Same as PYTHONWARNINGS=always
          PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # Warn once per calling module
          PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # Warn once per Python process
          PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # Never warn

     Voir *note Le filtre des avertissements: 8b8. et *note Rédaction de
     filtres d'avertissement: 1cf6. pour plus de détails.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, *note
     faulthandler.enable(): c8e. is called at startup: install a handler
     for *note SIGSEGV: 1d06, *note SIGFPE: 1d07, *note SIGABRT: 1d08,
     *note SIGBUS: 1d09. and *note SIGILL: 1d0a. signals to dump the
     Python traceback.  This is equivalent to *note -X: 175.
     ‘faulthandler’ option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start
     tracing Python memory allocations using the *note tracemalloc: fe.
     module.  The value of the variable is the maximum number of frames
     stored in a traceback of a trace.  For example,
     ‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1’ stores only the most recent frame.  See the
     *note tracemalloc.start(): 1cf8. function for more information.
     This is equivalent to setting the *note -X: 175. ‘tracemalloc’
     option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, Python
     will show how long each import takes.  This is equivalent to
     setting the *note -X: 175. ‘importtime’ option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, active le *note mode
     debogage: 1d0c. du module *note asyncio: a.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONMALLOC

     Définit l'allocateur mémoire de Python ou installe des points
     d'entrée ('hooks' en anglais) de débogage.

     Définit la famille d'allocateurs mémoire utilisés par Python :

        * ‘default’: utilise les *note allocateurs de mémoire par
          défaut: 1d0d.

        * ‘malloc’: use the ‘malloc()’ function of the C library for all
          domains (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d0e, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM:
          c59, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57.).

        * ‘pymalloc’: use the *note pymalloc allocator: cff. for *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57.
          domains and use the ‘malloc()’ function for the *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d0e. domain.

        * ‘mimalloc’: use the *note mimalloc allocator: 1d0f. for *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57.
          domains and use the ‘malloc()’ function for the *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d0e. domain.

     Chacun de ces modes possède un pendant qui ajoute en plus des *note
     points d'entrée de débogage: 1d10. :

        * ‘debug’ : installe des points d'entrée de débogage au-dessus
          des *note allocateurs de mémoire par défaut: 1d0d.

        * ‘malloc_debug’: identique à ‘malloc’ mais installe aussi des
          points d'entrée de débogage.

        * ‘pymalloc_debug’ pour ‘pymalloc’.

        * ‘mimalloc_debug’: same as ‘mimalloc’ but also install debug
          hooks.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: L'allocateur ‘default’ a été ajouté.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONMALLOCSTATS

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, Python affiche des
     statistiques relatives à l’*note allocateur mémoire pymalloc: cff.
     chaque fois qu'un objet est créé par ce gestionnaire, ainsi qu'à la
     fin de l'exécution du programme.

     Cette variable est ignorée si la variable d'environnement *note
     PYTHONMALLOC: c54. est utilisée pour forcer l'allocateur ‘malloc()’
     de la bibliothèque C standard ou si Python est configuré sans le
     support de ‘pymalloc’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Cette variable peut maintenant être
     utilisée avec Python compilé en mode 'release'.  Elle n'a pas
     d'effet si elle est définie à une chaine vide.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

     Si elle est définie et n’est pas une chaîne vide, *note l'encodage
     utilisé pour interagir avec le système de fichiers et le
     gestionnaire d'erreurs associé: 528. reviennent à leurs valeurs par
     défaut pré-3.6, respectivement ‘'mbcs'’ et ‘'replace'’.  Sinon,
     elles prennent les nouvelles valeurs par défaut ‘"UTF-8"’ et
     ‘"surrogatepass"’.

     This may also be enabled at runtime with *note
     sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 529(3) pour plus
     d'informations.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO

     Si elle est définie et n’est pas une chaîne vide, n'utilise pas les
     lecteur et écrivain de la nouvelle console.  Cela signifie que les
     caractères Unicode sont encodés avec l'encodage de la console
     active plutôt qu'en UTF-8.

     Cette variable est ignorée si les flux standards sont redirigés
     (vers des fichiers ou des tubes) plutôt que pointant vers des
     mémoires tampons de console.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE

     Si elle est définie à la valeur ‘0’, l'application en ligne de
     commande principale Python ne prend pas en compte les
     configurations régionales C et POSIX à base ASCII, mais bascule sur
     une alternative basée sur l'UTF-8 qui doit posséder plus de
     possibilités.

     Si cette variable n'est pas définie (ou est définie à une valeur
     autre que ‘0’), que la variable d'environnement de configuration
     régionale ‘LC_ALL’ est également non définie et que la
     configuration régionale indiquée dans la catégorie ‘LC_TYPE’ est
     soit la région par défaut ‘C’, soit la région ‘POSIX’ qui demande
     explicitement de l'ASCII, alors l'interpréteur en ligne de commande
     Python essaie de configurer les paramètres régionaux pour la
     catégorie ‘LC_TYPE’ dans l'ordre suivant avant de charger
     l'exécutable de l'interpréteur :

        * ‘C.UTF-8’

        * ‘C.utf8’

        * ‘UTF-8’

     Si la définition d'une des configurations régionales fonctionne, la
     variable d'environnement ‘LC_TYPE’ est aussi définie ainsi dans
     l'environnement du processus avant que l'exécutable Python ne soit
     initialisé.  Ceci assure que, en plus d'être vue par l'interpréteur
     lui-même et tous les autres composants prenant en charge la
     configuration régionale dans le même processus (telle que la
     bibliothèque GNU ‘readline’), la configuration mise à jour est
     aussi valable pour les sous-processus (indépendamment du fait
     qu'ils utilisent un interpréteur Python ou non) ainsi que pour les
     opérations qui font appel à l'environnement (qui utiliseraient
     sinon la configuration régionale C courante, tel que c'est le cas
     pour la propre fonction Python *note locale.getdefaultlocale():
     2d8.).

     La configuration d'une de ces variables régionales (soit
     explicitement, soit 'via' le mécanisme décrit ci-dessus) active
     automatiquement ‘surrogateescape’ pour la *note gestion des
     erreurs: 17a2. de *note sys.stdin: 52a. et *note sys.stdout: ac6.
     (*note sys.stderr: 928. continue d'utiliser ‘backslashreplace’
     comme pour toute autre configuration régionale).  Ce comportement
     relatif à la gestion des flux standards peut être surchargé, comme
     d'habitude, par *note PYTHONIOENCODING: ff5.

     À fin de débogage, définir ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’ indique à
     Python d'émettre les messages d'avertissement sur ‘stderr’ si la
     configuration régionale est activée, ou si une configuration
     régionale qui 'aurait' activé est toujours active quand
     l'interpréteur Python est initialisé.

     Notez également que même si la contrainte sur la configuration
     régionale est désactivée, ou si elle ne trouve pas une
     configuration satisfaisante et échoue, *note PYTHONUTF8: ac8.
     s'active par défaut avec une configuration régionale par défaut à
     base ASCII. Ces fonctionnalités doivent être désactivées pour
     forcer l'interpréteur à utiliser ‘ASCII’ en lieu et place de
     ‘UTF-8’ pour les interfaces avec le système.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Voir la PEP 538(4) pour plus
     d'informations.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONDEVMODE

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     *note Python Development Mode: 1f5, introducing additional runtime
     checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default.  This is
     equivalent to setting the *note -X: 175. ‘dev’ option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONUTF8

     La valeur ‘1’ active le *note mode UTF-8: 643.

     La valeur ‘0’ désactive le *note mode UTF-8: 643.

     Définir une valeur autre (non vide) entraine une erreur pendant
     l'initialisation de l'interpréteur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING

     Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, un avertissement *note
     EncodingWarning: 1cfa. est émis lorsque l'encodage par défaut de la
     configuration régionale est utilisé.

     Voir *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d12. pour plus de détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES

     Si cette variable est définie, cela désactive l'inclusion des
     tableaux qui font la correspondance avec des informations
     extérieures (ligne de fin, numéros des colonnes de début et de fin)
     pour toutes les instructions du code.  C'est utile quand vous
     souhaitez diminuer la taille du code objet et des fichiers pyc ou
     alors quand vous voulez supprimer des informations de position
     quand l'interpréteur affiche les traces d'appels.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONPERFSUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     See also the *note -X perf: 175. command-line option and *note
     Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it
     using DWARF information.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     See also the *note -X perf_jit: 175. command-line option and *note
     Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_CPU_COUNT

     If this variable is set to a positive integer, it overrides the
     return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. and *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf.

     See also the *note -X cpu_count: 175. command-line option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES

     If this variable is set to ‘on’ or ‘off’, it determines whether or
     not frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of
     ‘on’ means they get imported and ‘off’ means they are ignored.  The
     default is ‘on’ for non-debug builds (the normal case) and ‘off’
     for debug builds.  Note that the ‘importlib_bootstrap’ and
     ‘importlib_bootstrap_external’ frozen modules are always used, even
     if this flag is set to ‘off’.

     See also the *note -X frozen_modules: 175. command-line option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_COLORS

     If this variable is set to ‘1’, the interpreter will colorize
     various kinds of output.  Setting it to ‘0’ deactivates this
     behavior.  See also *note Controlling color: 16a.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_BASIC_REPL

     If this variable is set to any value, the interpreter will not
     attempt to load the Python-based *note REPL: 169. that requires
     *note curses: 2b. and *note readline: b9, and will instead use the
     traditional parser-based *note REPL: 169.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_HISTORY

     This environment variable can be used to set the location of a
     ‘.python_history’ file (by default, it is ‘.python_history’ in the
     user's home directory).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_GIL

     If this variable is set to ‘1’, the global interpreter lock (GIL)
     will be forced on.  Setting it to ‘0’ forces the GIL off (needs
     Python configured with the *note -disable-gil: 173. build option).

     See also the *note -X gil: 175. command-line option, which takes
     precedence over this variable, and *note Free-threaded CPython:
     13e.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Variables en mode débogage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: Variables en mode débogage,  Up: Variables d'environnement

3.1.2.1 Variables en mode débogage
..................................

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONDUMPREFS

     Si elle est définie, Python affiche (de manière brute) les objets
     et les compteurs de références toujours existant après la fermeture
     de l'interpréteur.

     Needs Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 38b. build
     option.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter into a file under the path
     given as the value to this environment variable.

     Needs Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 38b. build
     option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHON_PRESITE

     If this variable is set to a module, that module will be imported
     early in the interpreter lifecycle, before the *note site: c6.
     module is executed, and before the *note __main__: 1. module is
     created.  Therefore, the imported module is not treated as *note
     __main__: 1.

     This can be used to execute code early during Python
     initialization.

     To import a submodule, use ‘package.module’ as the value, like in
     an import statement.

     See also the *note -X presite: 175. command-line option, which
     takes precedence over this variable.

     Needs Python configured with the *note -with-pydebug: 41a. build
     option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix,  Next: Configurer Python,  Prev: Ligne de commande et environnement,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.2 Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix
==================================================

* Menu:

* Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python::
* Compiler Python::
* Fichiers et chemins liés à Python::
* Divers::
* Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python,  Next: Compiler Python,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

3.2.1 Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python
----------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Sur Linux::
* Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD::


File: python.info,  Node: Sur Linux,  Next: Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD,  Up: Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python

3.2.1.1 Sur Linux
.................

Python est préinstallé sur la plupart des distributions Linux, et est
disponible en paquet sur toutes les autres.  Cependant, il y a certaines
fonctionnalités que vous pourriez vouloir utiliser qui ne sont pas
disponibles dans le paquet de votre distribution.  Vous pouvez compiler
la dernière version de Python depuis les sources.

Dans le cas où Python n'est pas préinstallé et n'est pas disponible dans
les dépôts, vous pouvez faire les paquets pour votre propre
distribution.  Jetez un œil à ces liens :

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.fr.html’

     pour les utilisateurs de Debian

‘https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging’

     pour les utilisateurs d'OpenSuse

‘https://docs.fedoraproject.org/fr/package-maintainers/Packaging_Tutorial_2_GNU_Hello/’

     pour les utilisateurs de Fedora

‘https://slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html’

     pour les utilisateurs de Slackware

* Menu:

* Installing IDLE::


File: python.info,  Node: Installing IDLE,  Up: Sur Linux

3.2.1.2 Installing IDLE
.......................

In some cases, IDLE might not be included in your Python installation.

   * For Debian and Ubuntu users:

          sudo apt update
          sudo apt install idle

   * For Fedora, RHEL, and CentOS users:

          sudo dnf install python3-idle

   * For SUSE and OpenSUSE users:

          sudo zypper install python3-idle

   * For Alpine Linux users:

          sudo apk add python3-idle


File: python.info,  Node: Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD,  Prev: Sur Linux,  Up: Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python

3.2.1.3 Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD
..............................

   * Utilisateurs de FreeBSD, pour installer le paquet, utilisez :

          pkg install python3

   * Utilisateurs d'OpenBSD, pour installer le paquet, utilisez :

          pkg_add -r python

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz

     Par exemple les utilisateurs d'‘i386’ récupèrent la version 2.5.1
     de Python en faisant :

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler Python,  Next: Fichiers et chemins liés à Python,  Prev: Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

3.2.2 Compiler Python
---------------------

Si vous voulez compiler CPython vous-même, la première chose à faire est
de récupérer le code source(1).  Vous pouvez télécharger la dernière
version ou faire un clone(2).  (Si vous voulez contribuer à des
correctifs, il vous faut un clone.)

La compilation s'effectue avec les commandes habituelles :

     ./configure
     make
     make install

Les *note options de configuration: 1d1d. et mises en garde pour
certaines plateformes Unix spécifiques sont largement documentées dans
le fichier README.rst(3) à la racine du dossier des sources Python.

     Avertissement: ‘make install’ peut écraser ou cacher le binaire
     ‘python3’.  ‘make altinstall’ est donc recommandé à la place de
     ‘make install’ puisqu'il installe seulement
     ‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python`version'’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Fichiers et chemins liés à Python,  Next: Divers,  Prev: Compiler Python,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

3.2.3 Fichiers et chemins liés à Python
---------------------------------------

Ceux-ci sont sujets à des différences en fonction des conventions
locales d'installation ; *note prefix: 1d1f. et *note exec_prefix: 1d20.
sont dépendants de l’installation et doivent être interprétés comme pour
des logiciels GNU ; ils peuvent être égaux.

Par exemple, sur la plupart des systèmes Linux, leur valeur par défaut
est ‘/usr’.

Fichier/dossier                                     Signification
                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python3’                         Emplacement recommandé de l'interpréteur.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’,                     Emplacements recommandés des dossiers
‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’                 contenant les modules standards.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/include/python`version'’,                 Emplacements recommandés des dossiers
‘`exec_prefix'/include/python`version'’             contenant les entêtes nécessaires au
                                                    développement d'extensions Python et à
                                                    l'intégration de l'interpréteur.
                                                    


File: python.info,  Node: Divers,  Next: Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL,  Prev: Fichiers et chemins liés à Python,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

3.2.4 Divers
------------

Pour utiliser facilement des scripts Python sur Unix, vous devez les
rendre exécutables, par exemple avec

     $ chmod +x script

et mettre un 'shebang' approprié en haut du script.  Un bon choix est
généralement

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

qui cherche l’interpréteur Python dans le ‘PATH’ complet.  Cependant,
certains systèmes Unix peuvent ne pas avoir la commande ‘env’, donc vous
devrez littéralement écrire ‘/usr/bin/python3’ en tant que chemin
d’interpréteur.

Pour utiliser des commandes 'shell' dans vos scripts Python, regardez le
module *note subprocess: d5.


File: python.info,  Node: Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL,  Prev: Divers,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

3.2.5 Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL
-------------------------------------

  1. Pour compiler avec votre propre configuration d'OpenSSL et le
     magasin des certificats de confiance du système, commencez par
     trouver le sous-dossier de ‘/etc’ qui contient le fichier ou le
     lien symbolique ‘openssl.cnf’.  Sur la plupart des distributions,
     c'est soit ‘/etc/ssl’, soit ‘/etc/pki/tls’.  Ce dossier doit
     également contenir un fichier ‘cert.pem’ ou un sous-dossier ‘certs’
     (ou les deux).

          $ find /etc/ -name openssl.cnf -printf "%h\n"
          /etc/ssl

  2. Téléchargez et compilez OpenSSL. Installez-le, en prenant bien
     garde de le faire avec la cible ‘install_sw’ et non pas ‘install’.
     En effet, ‘install’ réécrirait le fichier ‘openssl.cnf’.

          $ curl -O https://www.openssl.org/source/openssl-VERSION.tar.gz
          $ tar xzf openssl-VERSION
          $ pushd openssl-VERSION
          $ ./config \
              --prefix=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --libdir=lib \
              --openssldir=/etc/ssl
          $ make -j1 depend
          $ make -j8
          $ make install_sw
          $ popd

  3. Ensuite, compilez Python avec votre version d'OpenSSL personnalisée
     (voir les options ‘--with-openssl’ et ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ du
     script ‘configure’).

          $ pushd python-3.x.x
          $ ./configure -C \
              --with-openssl=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --with-openssl-rpath=auto \
              --prefix=/usr/local/python-3.x.x
          $ make -j8
          $ make altinstall

     Note: Les versions d'OpenSSL dans une même série (incrémentation du
     troisième chiffre) conservent la compatibilité de l'interface
     binaire.  Pour mettre à jour OpenSSL, il n'y a pas besoin de
     recompiler Python, il suffit de remplacer l'installation d'OpenSSL
     avec la nouvelle version.


File: python.info,  Node: Configurer Python,  Next: Utilisation de Python sur Windows,  Prev: Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.3 Configurer Python
=====================

* Menu:

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Options de configuration::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Build Requirements,  Next: Generated files,  Up: Configurer Python

3.3.1 Build Requirements
------------------------

Features and minimum versions required to build CPython:

   * A C11(1) compiler.  Optional C11 features(2) are not required.

   * On Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

   * Support for IEEE 754(3) floating-point numbers and floating-point
     Not-a-Number (NaN)(4).

   * Support for threads.

   * OpenSSL 1.1.1 is the minimum version and OpenSSL 3.0.9 is the
     recommended minimum version for the *note ssl: cf. and *note
     hashlib: 67. extension modules.

   * SQLite 3.15.2 for the *note sqlite3: ce. extension module.

   * Tcl/Tk 8.5.12 for the *note tkinter: ef. module.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are required to regenerate the
     ‘configure’ script.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Tcl/Tk version 8.3.1 is now required.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: On Windows, Visual Studio 2015 or later is
now required.  Tcl/Tk version 8.4 is now required.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Selected C99 features are now required,
like ‘<stdint.h>’ and ‘static inline’ functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Thread support and OpenSSL 1.0.2 are now
required.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: OpenSSL 1.1.1 is now required.  Require
SQLite 3.7.15.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: C11 compiler, IEEE 754 and NaN support are
now required.  On Windows, Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.
Tcl/Tk version 8.5.12 is now required for the *note tkinter: ef. module.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Autoconf 2.71, aclocal 1.16.5 and SQLite
3.15.2 are now required.

See also PEP 7(5) "Style Guide for C Code" and PEP 11(6) "CPython
platform support".

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN#Floating_point

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Generated files,  Next: Options de configuration,  Prev: Build Requirements,  Up: Configurer Python

3.3.2 Generated files
---------------------

To reduce build dependencies, Python source code contains multiple
generated files.  Commands to regenerate all generated files:

     make regen-all
     make regen-stdlib-module-names
     make regen-limited-abi
     make regen-configure

The ‘Makefile.pre.in’ file documents generated files, their inputs, and
tools used to regenerate them.  Search for ‘regen-*’ make targets.

* Menu:

* configure script::


File: python.info,  Node: configure script,  Up: Generated files

3.3.2.1 configure script
........................

The ‘make regen-configure’ command regenerates the ‘aclocal.m4’ file and
the ‘configure’ script using the ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ shell
script which uses an Ubuntu container to get the same tools versions and
have a reproducible output.

The container is optional, the following command can be run locally:

     autoreconf -ivf -Werror

The generated files can change depending on the exact
‘autoconf-archive’, ‘aclocal’ and ‘pkg-config’ versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de configuration,  Next: Python Build System,  Prev: Generated files,  Up: Configurer Python

3.3.3 Options de configuration
------------------------------

List all ‘configure’ script options using:

     ./configure --help

Voir aussi le fichier ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ dans la distribution des
sources Python.

* Menu:

* Options générales::
* C compiler options::
* Linker options::
* Options for third-party dependencies::
* Options de WebAssembly::
* Options d'installation::
* Options de performance::
* Compilation de Python en mode débogage::
* Debug options::
* Linker options: Linker options<2>.
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* iOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::


File: python.info,  Node: Options générales,  Next: C compiler options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.1 Options générales
.........................

 -- Option: --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions

     Support loadable extensions in the ‘_sqlite’ extension module
     (default is no) of the *note sqlite3: ce. module.

     Voir la méthode *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension():
     82a. du module *note sqlite3: ce.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Option: --disable-ipv6

     Désactive la prise en charge d'IPv6 (activé par défaut si géré),
     voir le module *note socket: cb.

 -- Option: --enable-big-digits=[15|30]

     Définit la taille en bits des chiffres Python *note int: 254. : 15
     ou 30 bits.

     La valeur par défaut est ‘30’ bits.

     Définit ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ à ‘15’ ou ‘30’.

     Voir *note sys.int_info.bits_per_digit: 1273.

 -- Option: --with-suffix=SUFFIX

     Définit à 'SUFFIX' le suffixe de l'exécutable Python.

     Le suffixe par défaut est ‘.exe’ sur Windows et macOS (exécutable
     ‘python.exe’), ‘.js’ pour Emscripten (‘node’), ‘.html’ pour
     Emscripten (navigateur), ‘.wasm’ pour WASI, et une chaîne vide sur
     les autres plateformes (exécutable ‘python’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: les suffixes par défaut pour la
     plateforme WASM sont maintenant ‘.js’, ‘.html’ et ‘.wasm’.

 -- Option: --with-tzpath=<list of absolute paths separated by pathsep>

     Select the default time zone search path for *note zoneinfo.TZPATH:
     1d2f.  See the *note Compile-time configuration: 1d30. of the *note
     zoneinfo: 133. module.

     Par défaut :
     ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo:/usr/lib/zoneinfo:/usr/share/lib/zoneinfo:/etc/zoneinfo’.

     Voir le séparateur de chemins *note os.pathsep: 1d01.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Option: --without-decimal-contextvar

     Compile le module d'extension ‘_decimal’ en utilisant un contexte
     local au fil d'exécution plutôt qu'un contexte local de coroutine
     (défaut).  Voir le module *note decimal: 36.

     See *note decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR: 1d32. and the *note contextvars:
     24. module.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-dbmliborder=<list of backend names>

     Change l'ordre de détection des implémentations de base de données
     pour le module *note dbm: 31.

     Une valeur valide est une chaîne de noms d'implémentations séparés
     par des deux-points (‘:’) :

        * ‘ndbm’ ;

        * ‘gdbm’ ;

        * ‘bdb’.

 -- Option: --without-c-locale-coercion

     Désactive le forçage des paramètres régionaux C pour un paramètre
     régional basé sur UTF-8 (activé par défaut).

     Ne pas définir la macro ‘PY_COERCE_C_LOCALE’.

     Voir *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ac5. et la PEP 538(1).

 -- Option: --without-freelists

     Disable all freelists except the empty tuple singleton.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --with-platlibdir=DIRNAME

     Nom du dossier de bibliothèques Python (par défaut : ‘lib’).

     Fedora et SuSE utilisent ‘lib64’ sur les systèmes 64-bit.

     Voir *note sys.platlibdir: 927.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH

     Dossier de paquets 'wheel' utilisé par le module *note ensurepip:
     54. (par défaut : aucun).

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don't install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-pkg-config=[check|yes|no]

     Est-ce que 'configure' doit utiliser ‘pkg-config’ pour détecter les
     dépendances de construction.

        * ‘check’ (par défaut) : ‘pkg-config’ est optionnel

        * ‘yes’ : ‘pkg-config’ est obligatoire

        * ‘no’ : 'configure' n'utilise pas ‘pkg-config’ même s'il est
          présent

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-pystats

     Turn on internal Python performance statistics gathering.

     By default, statistics gathering is off.  Use ‘python3 -X pystats’
     command or set ‘PYTHONSTATS=1’ environment variable to turn on
     statistics gathering at Python startup.

     At Python exit, dump statistics if statistics gathering was on and
     not cleared.

     Effects:

        * Add *note -X pystats: 175. command line option.

        * Add ‘PYTHONSTATS’ environment variable.

        * Define the ‘Py_STATS’ macro.

        * Add functions to the *note sys: d8. module:

             * ‘sys._stats_on()’: Turns on statistics gathering.

             * ‘sys._stats_off()’: Turns off statistics gathering.

             * ‘sys._stats_clear()’: Clears the statistics.

             * ‘sys._stats_dump()’: Dump statistics to file, and clears
               the statistics.

     The statistics will be dumped to a arbitrary (probably unique) file
     in ‘/tmp/py_stats/’ (Unix) or ‘C:\temp\py_stats\’ (Windows).  If
     that directory does not exist, results will be printed on stderr.

     Utilisez ‘Tools/scripts/summarize_stats.py’ pour lire les
     statistiques.

     Statistics:

        * Opcode:

             * Specialization: success, failure, hit, deferred, miss,
               deopt, failures;

             * Execution count;

             * Pair count.

        * Call:

             * Inlined Python calls;

             * PyEval calls;

             * Frames pushed;

             * Frame object created;

             * Eval calls: vector, generator, legacy, function
               VECTORCALL, build class, slot, function "ex", API,
               method.

        * Object:

             * incref and decref;

             * interpreter incref and decref;

             * allocations: all, 512 bytes, 4 kiB, big;

             * free;

             * to/from free lists;

             * dictionary materialized/dematerialized;

             * type cache;

             * optimization attempts;

             * optimization traces created/executed;

             * uops executed.

        * Garbage collector:

             * Garbage collections;

             * Objects visited;

             * Objects collected.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --disable-gil

     Enables 'experimental' support for running Python without the *note
     global interpreter lock: 147. (GIL): free threading build.

     Defines the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro and adds ‘"t"’ to *note
     sys.abiflags: a54.

     See *note Free-threaded CPython: 13e. for more detail.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Option: --enable-experimental-jit=[no|yes|yes-off|interpreter]

     Indicate how to integrate the *note JIT compiler: 13f.

        * ‘no’ - build the interpreter without the JIT.

        * ‘yes’ - build the interpreter with the JIT.

        * ‘yes-off’ - build the interpreter with the JIT but disable it
          by default.

        * ‘interpreter’ - build the interpreter without the JIT, but
          with the tier 2 enabled interpreter.

     By convention, ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is a shorthand for
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit=yes’.

          Note: When building CPython with JIT enabled, ensure that your
          system has Python 3.11 or later installed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG

     Path to ‘pkg-config’ utility.

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG_PATH

     ‘pkg-config’ options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: C compiler options,  Next: Linker options,  Prev: Options générales,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.2 C compiler options
..........................

 -- Option: CC

     C compiler command.

 -- Option: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- Option: CPP

     C preprocessor command.

 -- Option: CPPFLAGS

     C preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options,  Next: Options for third-party dependencies,  Prev: C compiler options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.3 Linker options
......................

 -- Option: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIBRARY_DIRECTORY’.

 -- Option: LIBS

     Libraries to pass to the linker, e.g.  ‘-lLIBRARY’.

 -- Option: MACHDEP

     Name for machine-dependent library files.


File: python.info,  Node: Options for third-party dependencies,  Next: Options de WebAssembly,  Prev: Linker options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.4 Options for third-party dependencies
............................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: BZIP2_CFLAGS

 -- Option: BZIP2_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags to link Python to ‘libbz2’, used by
     *note bz2: 13. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: CURSES_CFLAGS

 -- Option: CURSES_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libncurses’ or ‘libncursesw’, used
     by *note curses: 2b. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: GDBM_CFLAGS

 -- Option: GDBM_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘gdbm’.

 -- Option: LIBB2_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBB2_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libb2’ (*note BLAKE2: 1d4e.), used
     by *note hashlib: 67. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBEDIT_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBEDIT_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libedit’, used by *note readline:
     b9. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBFFI_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBFFI_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libffi’, used by *note ctypes: 2a.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBMPDEC_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libmpdec’, used by *note decimal:
     36. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

          Note: These environment variables have no effect unless *note
          -with-system-libmpdec: 408. is specified.

 -- Option: LIBLZMA_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBLZMA_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘liblzma’, used by *note lzma: 89.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBREADLINE_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libreadline’, used by *note
     readline: b9. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBSQLITE3_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libsqlite3’, used by *note
     sqlite3: ce. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBUUID_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBUUID_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libuuid’, used by *note uuid: 10f.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: PANEL_CFLAGS

 -- Option: PANEL_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for PANEL, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libpanel’ or ‘libpanelw’, used by
     *note curses.panel: 2d. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: TCLTK_CFLAGS

 -- Option: TCLTK_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for TCLTK, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: ZLIB_CFLAGS

 -- Option: ZLIB_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libzlib’, used by *note gzip: 66.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de WebAssembly,  Next: Options d'installation,  Prev: Options for third-party dependencies,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.5 Options de WebAssembly
..............................

 -- Option: --with-emscripten-target=[browser|node]

     Définit la version de construction pour ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

        * ‘browser’ (par défaut) : précharge une version minimale de la
          'stdlib', par défaut MEMFS.

        * ‘node’: NODERAWFS et la gestion des 'pthread'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-dynamic-linking

     Active la gestion d'édition de liens dynamique pour WASM

     L'édition de liens dynamique autorise ‘dlopen’.  La taille du
     fichier exécutable augmente en raison de l'élimination moindre du
     code mort et des fonctionnalités supplémentaires.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-pthreads

     Active la gestion des 'pthreads' pour WASM.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Options d'installation,  Next: Options de performance,  Prev: Options de WebAssembly,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.6 Options d'installation
..............................

 -- Option: --prefix=PREFIX

     Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX. On Unix, it
     defaults to ‘/usr/local’.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.prefix: 3ad.

     As an example, one can use ‘--prefix="$HOME/.local/"’ to install a
     Python in its home directory.

 -- Option: --exec-prefix=EPREFIX

     Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX, defaults to *note
     -prefix: 1d1f.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.exec_prefix:
     3a9.

 -- Option: --disable-test-modules

     Don't build nor install test modules, like the *note test: e1.
     package or the ‘_testcapi’ extension module (built and installed by
     default).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-ensurepip=[upgrade|install|no]

     Sélectionne la commande *note ensurepip: 54. exécutée à
     l'installation de Python :

        * ‘upgrade’ (défaut) : exécute la commande ‘python -m ensurepip
          --altinstall --upgrade’ ;

        * ‘install’ : exécute la commande ‘python -m ensurepip
          --altinstall’ ;

        * ‘no’ : n'exécute pas 'ensurepip'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de performance,  Next: Compilation de Python en mode débogage,  Prev: Options d'installation,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.7 Options de performance
..............................

Configuring Python using ‘--enable-optimizations --with-lto’ (PGO + LTO)
is recommended for best performance.  The experimental ‘--enable-bolt’
flag can also be used to improve performance.

 -- Option: --enable-optimizations

     Active l'optimisation guidée par profilage ('Profile Guided
     Optimization', PGO) en utilisant *note PROFILE_TASK: 16cb.
     (désactivé par défaut).

     L'utilisation de PGO avec le compilateur C Clang nécessite
     ‘llvm-profdata’.  Sur macOS, GCC est juste un alias vers Clang et
     partage donc cette contrainte.

     Désactive également l'interposition sémantique dans 'libpython' si
     GCC est utilisé avec ‘--enable-shared’ : ajoute l'option
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ à la compilation et à l'édition des
     liens.

          Note: During the build, you may encounter compiler warnings
          about profile data not being available for some source files.
          These warnings are harmless, as only a subset of the code is
          exercised during profile data acquisition.  To disable these
          warnings on Clang, manually suppress them by adding
          ‘-Wno-profile-instr-unprofiled’ to *note CFLAGS: 146d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Utilisation de
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ avec GCC.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PROFILE_TASK

     Variable d'environnement utilisée dans le ‘Makefile’ : arguments
     Python utilisés pour la tâche de préparation de la PGO.

     Par défaut : ‘-m test --pgo --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Task failure is no longer ignored
     silently.

 -- Option: --with-lto=[full|thin|no|yes]

     Active l'optimisation à l'édition des liens ('Link Time
     Optimization', LTO) à la compilation (désactivé par défaut).

     Le compilateur C Clang nécessite ‘llvm-ar’ pour la LTO (‘ar’ sur
     macOS), ainsi qu'un éditeur de liens implémentant la LTO (‘ld.gold’
     ou ‘lld’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Pour avoir la fonctionnalité ThinLTO,
     utilisez ‘--with-lto=thin’ avec Clang.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Use ThinLTO as the default
     optimization policy on Clang if the compiler accepts the flag.

 -- Option: --enable-bolt

     Enable usage of the BOLT post-link binary optimizer(1) (disabled by
     default).

     BOLT is part of the LLVM project but is not always included in
     their binary distributions.  This flag requires that ‘llvm-bolt’
     and ‘merge-fdata’ are available.

     BOLT is still a fairly new project so this flag should be
     considered experimental for now.  Because this tool operates on
     machine code its success is dependent on a combination of the build
     environment + the other optimization configure args + the CPU
     architecture, and not all combinations are supported.  BOLT
     versions before LLVM 16 are known to crash BOLT under some
     scenarios.  Use of LLVM 16 or newer for BOLT optimization is
     strongly encouraged.

     The ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ ‘configure’
     variables can be defined to override the default set of arguments
     for ‘llvm-bolt’ to instrument and apply BOLT data to binaries,
     respectively.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Option: BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS

     Arguments to ‘llvm-bolt’ when creating a BOLT optimized binary(2).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Option: BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS

     Arguments to ‘llvm-bolt’ when instrumenting binaries.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Option: --with-computed-gotos

     Autorise les 'gotos' calculés dans les boucles (activé par défaut
     pour les compilateurs qui le gèrent).

 -- Option: --without-mimalloc

     Disable the fast *note mimalloc: 1d0f. allocator (enabled by
     default).

     Voir aussi la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54.

 -- Option: --without-pymalloc

     Désactive l'allocateur spécialisé de mémoire de Python *note
     pymalloc: cff. (activé par défaut).

     Voir aussi la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54.

 -- Option: --without-doc-strings

     Désactive les chaînes de documentation statiques pour réduire
     l'empreinte mémoire (activé par défaut).  Les chaînes définies dans
     Python ne sont pas affectées.

     Ne définit pas la macro ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’.

     Voir la macro ‘PyDoc_STRVAR()’.

 -- Option: --enable-profiling

     Active le profilage du code C avec ‘gprof’ (désactivé par défaut).

 -- Option: --with-strict-overflow

     Add ‘-fstrict-overflow’ to the C compiler flags (by default we add
     ‘-fno-strict-overflow’ instead).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/tree/main/bolt

   (2) https://github.com/facebookarchive/BOLT


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation de Python en mode débogage,  Next: Debug options,  Prev: Options de performance,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.8 Compilation de Python en mode débogage
..............................................

Une compilation de Python en mode débogage se fait avec l'option de
configuration *note -with-pydebug: 41a.

Effets du mode débogage :

   * Affichage de tous les avertissements par défaut : le filtre par
     défaut des avertissements est vide dans le module *note warnings:
     111.

   * Ajout de ‘d’ à *note sys.abiflags: a54.

   * Add ‘sys.gettotalrefcount()’ function.

   * Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande *note -X showrefcount: 175.

   * Add *note -d: 1cee. command line option and *note PYTHONDEBUG:
     1cef. environment variable to debug the parser.

   * Prise en charge de la variable ‘__ltrace__’ : si la variable est
     définie, active le traçage de bas niveau dans la boucle
     d'évaluation du code intermédiaire.

   * Installation des *note debug hooks on memory allocators: 1d0d. pour
     détecter les débordements de mémoire tampon et autres erreurs de
     mémoire.

   * Définition des macros ‘Py_DEBUG’ et ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’.

   * Ajout de vérifications à l'exécution : codes entourés de ‘#ifdef
     Py_DEBUG’ et ‘#endif’.  Active les assertions ‘assert(...)’ et
     ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...)’ : ne définit pas la macro ‘NDEBUG’ (voir
     aussi l'option de configuration *note -with-assertions: 382.).  Les
     principales vérifications à l'exécution :

        * Ajout des contrôles d'intégrité sur les arguments de fonction.

        * Les objets ‘unicode’ et ‘int’ sont créés avec un motif
          particulier à l'initialisation de leur mémoire afin de
          détecter l'usage d'objets non initialisés.

        * S'assurer que les fonctions qui peuvent effacer ou remplacer
          l'exception courante ne sont pas appelées avec une exception
          levée.

        * S'assurer que les fonctions qui désallouent ne changent pas
          l'exception en cours.

        * Le ramasse-miettes (la fonction *note gc.collect(): a2a.)
          effectue quelques tests basiques relatifs à la cohérence des
          objets.

        * The ‘Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST()’ macro checks for integer underflow
          and overflow when downcasting from wide types to narrow types.

Voir aussi le *note mode de développement Python: 1f5. et l'option de
configuration *note -with-trace-refs: 38b.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro (see the *note -with-trace-refs: 38b. option).


File: python.info,  Node: Debug options,  Next: Linker options<2>,  Prev: Compilation de Python en mode débogage,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.9 Debug options
.....................

 -- Option: --with-pydebug

     *note Build Python in debug mode: 1f6.: define the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
     (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-trace-refs

     Enable tracing references for debugging purpose (disabled by
     default).

     Effects:

        * Define the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro.

        * Add *note sys.getobjects(): 41d. function.

        * Add *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 996. environment variable.

     The *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 996. environment variable can be used to
     dump objects and reference counts still alive at Python exit.

     *note Statically allocated objects: 76b. are not traced.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This build is now ABI compatible with
     release build and *note debug build: 1f6.

 -- Option: --with-assertions

     Build with C assertions enabled (default is no): ‘assert(...);’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...);’.

     If set, the ‘NDEBUG’ macro is not defined in the *note OPT: 1d72.
     compiler variable.

     See also the *note -with-pydebug: 41a. option (*note debug build:
     1f6.) which also enables assertions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-valgrind

     Enable Valgrind support (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-dtrace

     Enable DTrace support (default is no).

     See *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: c5c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-address-sanitizer

     Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, ‘asan’ (default is
     no).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-memory-sanitizer

     Enable MemorySanitizer allocation error detector, ‘msan’ (default
     is no).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer

     Enable UndefinedBehaviorSanitizer undefined behaviour detector,
     ‘ubsan’ (default is no).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-thread-sanitizer

     Enable ThreadSanitizer data race detector, ‘tsan’ (default is no).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options<2>,  Next: Libraries options,  Prev: Debug options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.10 Linker options
.......................

 -- Option: --enable-shared

     Enable building a shared Python library: ‘libpython’ (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --without-static-libpython

     Do not build ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ and do not install ‘python.o’
     (built and enabled by default).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Libraries options,  Next: Security Options,  Prev: Linker options<2>,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.11 Libraries options
..........................

 -- Option: --with-libs='lib1 ...'

     Link against additional libraries (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-expat

     Build the ‘pyexpat’ module using an installed ‘expat’ library
     (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-libmpdec

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using an installed
     ‘mpdecimal’ library, see the *note decimal: 36. module (default is
     yes).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Default to using the installed
     ‘mpdecimal’ library.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: A
     copy of the ‘mpdecimal’ library sources will no longer be
     distributed with Python 3.15.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS: 1d53. and *note LIBMPDEC_LIBS: 1d54.

 -- Option: --with-readline=readline|editline

     Designate a backend library for the *note readline: b9. module.

        * readline: Use readline as the backend.

        * editline: Use editline as the backend.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Option: --without-readline

     Don't build the *note readline: b9. module (built by default).

     Don't define the ‘HAVE_LIBREADLINE’ macro.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-libm=STRING

     Override ‘libm’ math library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-libc=STRING

     Override ‘libc’ C library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-openssl=DIR

     Root of the OpenSSL directory.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Option: --with-openssl-rpath=[no|auto|DIR]

     Set runtime library directory (rpath) for OpenSSL libraries:

        * ‘no’ (default): don't set rpath;

        * ‘auto’: auto-detect rpath from *note -with-openssl: 1d80. and
          ‘pkg-config’;

        * 'DIR': set an explicit rpath.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Options,  Next: macOS Options,  Prev: Libraries options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.12 Security Options
.........................

 -- Option: --with-hash-algorithm=[fnv|siphash13|siphash24]

     Select hash algorithm for use in ‘Python/pyhash.c’:

        * ‘siphash13’ (default);

        * ‘siphash24’;

        * ‘fnv’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: ‘siphash13’ is added and it is the new
     default.

 -- Option:
          --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=md5,sha1,sha256,sha512,sha3,blake2

     Built-in hash modules:

        * ‘md5’;

        * ‘sha1’;

        * ‘sha256’;

        * ‘sha512’;

        * ‘sha3’ (with shake);

        * ‘blake2’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-ssl-default-suites=[python|openssl|STRING]

     Override the OpenSSL default cipher suites string:

        * ‘python’ (default): use Python's preferred selection;

        * ‘openssl’: leave OpenSSL's defaults untouched;

        * 'STRING': use a custom string

     See the *note ssl: cf. module.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The settings ‘python’ and 'STRING'
     also set TLS 1.2 as minimum protocol version.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS Options,  Next: iOS Options,  Prev: Security Options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.13 macOS Options
......................

See Mac/README.rst(1).

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk=SDKDIR

     Create a universal binary build.  'SDKDIR' specifies which macOS
     SDK should be used to perform the build (default is no).

 -- Option: --enable-framework

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework rather than a traditional Unix install.
     Optional 'INSTALLDIR' specifies the installation path (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --with-universal-archs=ARCH

     Specify the kind of universal binary that should be created.  This
     option is only valid when *note -enable-universalsdk: 95a. is set.

     Options:

        * ‘universal2’ (x86-64 and arm64);

        * ‘32-bit’ (PPC and i386);

        * ‘64-bit’ (PPC64 and x86-64);

        * ‘3-way’ (i386, PPC and x86-64);

        * ‘intel’ (i386 and x86-64);

        * ‘intel-32’ (i386);

        * ‘intel-64’ (x86-64);

        * ‘all’ (PPC, i386, PPC64 and x86-64).

     Note that values for this configuration item are 'not' the same as
     the identifiers used for universal binary wheels on macOS. See the
     Python Packaging User Guide for details on the packaging platform
     compatibility tags used on macOS(2)

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when
     *note -enable-framework: 1d87. is set (default: ‘Python’).

 -- Option: --with-app-store-compliance

 -- Option: --with-app-store-compliance=PATCH-FILE

     The Python standard library contains strings that are known to
     trigger automated inspection tool errors when submitted for
     distribution by the macOS and iOS App Stores.  If enabled, this
     option will apply the list of patches that are known to correct app
     store compliance.  A custom patch file can also be specified.  This
     option is disabled by default.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Mac/README.rst

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/platform-compatibility-tags/#macos


File: python.info,  Node: iOS Options,  Next: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: macOS Options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.14 iOS Options
....................

See iOS/README.rst(1).

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework.  Unlike macOS, the 'INSTALLDIR' argument
     specifying the installation path is mandatory.

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the framework (default: ‘Python’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: iOS Options,  Up: Options de configuration

3.3.3.15 Cross Compiling Options
................................

Cross compiling, also known as cross building, can be used to build
Python for another CPU architecture or platform.  Cross compiling
requires a Python interpreter for the build platform.  The version of
the build Python must match the version of the cross compiled host
Python.

 -- Option: --build=BUILD

     configure for building on BUILD, usually guessed by ‘config.guess’.

 -- Option: --host=HOST

     cross-compile to build programs to run on HOST (target platform)

 -- Option: --with-build-python=path/to/python

     path to build ‘python’ binary for cross compiling

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: CONFIG_SITE=file

     An environment variable that points to a file with configure
     overrides.

     Example 'config.site' file:

          # config.site-aarch64
          ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no

 -- Option: HOSTRUNNER

     Program to run CPython for the host platform for cross-compilation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Cross compiling example:

     CONFIG_SITE=config.site-aarch64 ../configure \
         --build=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu \
         --host=aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu \
         --with-build-python=../x86_64/python


File: python.info,  Node: Python Build System,  Next: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Options de configuration,  Up: Configurer Python

3.3.4 Python Build System
-------------------------

* Menu:

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Main files of the build system,  Next: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.1 Main files of the build system
......................................

   * ‘configure.ac’ => ‘configure’;

   * ‘Makefile.pre.in’ => ‘Makefile’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘pyconfig.h’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘Modules/Setup’: C extensions built by the Makefile using
     ‘Module/makesetup’ shell script;


File: python.info,  Node: Main build steps,  Next: Main Makefile targets,  Prev: Main files of the build system,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.2 Main build steps
........................

   * C files (‘.c’) are built as object files (‘.o’).

   * A static ‘libpython’ library (‘.a’) is created from objects files.

   * ‘python.o’ and the static ‘libpython’ library are linked into the
     final ‘python’ program.

   * C extensions are built by the Makefile (see ‘Modules/Setup’).


File: python.info,  Node: Main Makefile targets,  Next: C extensions,  Prev: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.3 Main Makefile targets
.............................

* Menu:

* make::
* make platform::
* make profile-opt::
* make clean::
* make distclean::
* make install::
* make test::
* make buildbottest::
* make regen-all::


File: python.info,  Node: make,  Next: make platform,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.4 make
............

For the most part, when rebuilding after editing some code or refreshing
your checkout from upstream, all you need to do is execute ‘make’, which
(per Make's semantics) builds the default target, the first one defined
in the Makefile.  By tradition (including in the CPython project) this
is usually the ‘all’ target.  The ‘configure’ script expands an
‘autoconf’ variable, ‘@DEF_MAKE_ALL_RULE@’ to describe precisely which
targets ‘make all’ will build.  The three choices are:

   * ‘profile-opt’ (configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’)

   * ‘build_wasm’ (configured with ‘--with-emscripten-target’)

   * ‘build_all’ (configured without explicitly using either of the
     others)

Depending on the most recent source file changes, Make will rebuild any
targets (object files and executables) deemed out-of-date, including
running ‘configure’ again if necessary.  Source/target dependencies are
many and maintained manually however, so Make sometimes doesn't have all
the information necessary to correctly detect all targets which need to
be rebuilt.  Depending on which targets aren't rebuilt, you might
experience a number of problems.  If you have build or test problems
which you can't otherwise explain, ‘make clean && make’ should work
around most dependency problems, at the expense of longer build times.


File: python.info,  Node: make platform,  Next: make profile-opt,  Prev: make,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.5 make platform
.....................

Build the ‘python’ program, but don't build the standard library
extension modules.  This generates a file named ‘platform’ which
contains a single line describing the details of the build platform,
e.g., ‘macosx-14.3-arm64-3.12’ or ‘linux-x86_64-3.13’.


File: python.info,  Node: make profile-opt,  Next: make clean,  Prev: make platform,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.6 make profile-opt
........................

Build Python using profile-guided optimization (PGO). You can use the
configure *note -enable-optimizations: 84e. option to make this the
default target of the ‘make’ command (‘make all’ or just ‘make’).


File: python.info,  Node: make clean,  Next: make distclean,  Prev: make profile-opt,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.7 make clean
..................

Remove built files.


File: python.info,  Node: make distclean,  Next: make install,  Prev: make clean,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.8 make distclean
......................

In addition to the work done by ‘make clean’, remove files created by
the configure script.  ‘configure’ will have to be run before building
again.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘git clean -fdx’ is an even more extreme way to "clean" your
checkout.  It removes all files not known to Git.  When bug hunting
using ‘git bisect’, this is recommended between probes
(https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114505#issuecomment-1907021718)
to guarantee a completely clean build.  'Use with care', as it will
delete all files not checked into Git, including your new, uncommitted
work.


File: python.info,  Node: make install,  Next: make test,  Prev: make distclean,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.9 make install
....................

Build the ‘all’ target and install Python.


File: python.info,  Node: make test,  Next: make buildbottest,  Prev: make install,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.10 make test
..................

Build the ‘all’ target and run the Python test suite with the
‘--fast-ci’ option.  Variables:

   * ‘TESTOPTS’: additional regrtest command-line options.

   * ‘TESTPYTHONOPTS’: additional Python command-line options.

   * ‘TESTTIMEOUT’: timeout in seconds (default: 10 minutes).


File: python.info,  Node: make buildbottest,  Next: make regen-all,  Prev: make test,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.11 make buildbottest
..........................

This is similar to ‘make test’, but uses the ‘--slow-ci’ option and
default timeout of 20 minutes, instead of ‘--fast-ci’ option.


File: python.info,  Node: make regen-all,  Prev: make buildbottest,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.12 make regen-all
.......................

Regenerate (almost) all generated files.  These include (but are not
limited to) bytecode cases, and parser generator file.  ‘make
regen-stdlib-module-names’ and ‘autoconf’ must be run separately for the
remaining *note generated files: 1d27.


File: python.info,  Node: C extensions,  Prev: Main Makefile targets,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.13 C extensions
.....................

Some C extensions are built as built-in modules, like the ‘sys’ module.
They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro defined.  Built-in
modules have no ‘__file__’ attribute:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys
     <module 'sys' (built-in)>
     >>> sys.__file__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute '__file__'

Other C extensions are built as dynamic libraries, like the ‘_asyncio’
module.  They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro defined.
Example on Linux x86-64:

     >>> import _asyncio
     >>> _asyncio
     <module '_asyncio' from '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'>
     >>> _asyncio.__file__
     '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'

‘Modules/Setup’ is used to generate Makefile targets to build C
extensions.  At the beginning of the files, C extensions are built as
built-in modules.  Extensions defined after the ‘*shared*’ marker are
built as dynamic libraries.

The ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’, ‘PyAPI_DATA()’ and *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 148b.
macros of ‘Include/exports.h’ are defined differently depending if the
‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro is defined:

   * Use ‘Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL’ if the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ is defined

   * Use ‘Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL’ otherwise.

If the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro is used by mistake on a C extension
built as a shared library, its ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function is not exported,
causing an *note ImportError: 40f. on import.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Python Build System,  Up: Configurer Python

3.3.5 Compiler and linker flags
-------------------------------

Options set by the ‘./configure’ script and environment variables and
used by ‘Makefile’.

* Menu:

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Preprocessor flags,  Next: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.1 Preprocessor flags
..........................

 -- Variable d'environnement: CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS

     Value of *note CPPFLAGS: 146f. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CPPFLAGS

     (Objective) C/C++ preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’ if you
     have headers in a nonstandard directory 'include_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 146f. and *note LDFLAGS: 146e. need to contain
     the shell's value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- Variable d'environnement: BASECPPFLAGS

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_CPPFLAGS

     Extra preprocessor flags added for building the interpreter object
     files.

     Default: ‘$(BASECPPFLAGS) -I. -I$(srcdir)/Include
     $(CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler flags,  Next: Linker flags,  Prev: Preprocessor flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.2 Compiler flags
......................

 -- Variable d'environnement: CC

     C compiler command.

     Example: ‘gcc -pthread’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CXX

     C++ compiler command.

     Example: ‘g++ -pthread’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CFLAGS_NODIST

     *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1daa. is used for building the interpreter and
     stdlib C extensions.  Use it when a compiler flag should 'not' be
     part of *note CFLAGS: 146d. once Python is installed (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note CFLAGS: 146d. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-I’ (for setting the search path for
          include files).  The ‘-I’ flags are processed from left to
          right, and any flags in *note CFLAGS: 146d. would take
          precedence over user- and package-supplied ‘-I’ flags.

        * hardening flags such as ‘-Werror’ because distributions cannot
          control whether packages installed by users conform to such
          heightened standards.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Variable d'environnement: COMPILEALL_OPTS

     Options passed to the *note compileall: 20. command line when
     building PYC files in ‘make install’.  Default: ‘-j0’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Variable d'environnement: EXTRA_CFLAGS

     Extra C compiler flags.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS

     Value of *note CFLAGS: 146d. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1daa. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Variable d'environnement: BASECFLAGS

     Base compiler flags.

 -- Variable d'environnement: OPT

     Optimization flags.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CFLAGS_ALIASING

     Strict or non-strict aliasing flags used to compile
     ‘Python/dtoa.c’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CCSHARED

     Compiler flags used to build a shared library.

     For example, ‘-fPIC’ is used on Linux and on BSD.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CFLAGSFORSHARED

     Extra C flags added for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(CCSHARED)’ when *note -enable-shared: 84f. is used, or
     an empty string otherwise.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(BASECFLAGS) $(OPT) $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)
     $(EXTRA_CFLAGS)’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(CFLAGS_NODIST)
     -I$(srcdir)/Include/internal’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS

     C flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(PY_CFLAGS) $(PY_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(PY_CPPFLAGS)
     $(CFLAGSFORSHARED)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_CORE_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS

     Compiler flags to build a standard library extension module as a
     built-in module, like the *note posix: ac. module.

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PURIFY

     Purify command.  Purify is a memory debugger program.

     Default: empty string (not used).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Linker flags,  Prev: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.3 Linker flags
....................

 -- Variable d'environnement: LINKCC

     Linker command used to build programs like ‘python’ and
     ‘_testembed’.

     Default: ‘$(PURIFY) $(CC)’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS

     Value of *note LDFLAGS: 146e. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Avoid assigning *note CFLAGS: 146d, *note LDFLAGS: 146e, etc.  so
     users can use them on the command line to append to these values
     without stomping the pre-set values.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Variable d'environnement: LDFLAGS_NODIST

     *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1dbc. is used in the same manner as *note
     CFLAGS_NODIST: 1daa.  Use it when a linker flag should 'not' be
     part of *note LDFLAGS: 146e. once Python is installed
     (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note LDFLAGS: 146e. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-L’ (for setting the search path for
          libraries).  The ‘-L’ flags are processed from left to right,
          and any flags in *note LDFLAGS: 146e. would take precedence
          over user- and package-supplied ‘-L’ flags.

 -- Variable d'environnement: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1dbc. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Variable d'environnement: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIB_DIR’ if you have libraries in a
     nonstandard directory 'lib_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 146f. and *note LDFLAGS: 146e. need to contain
     the shell's value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- Variable d'environnement: LIBS

     Linker flags to pass libraries to the linker when linking the
     Python executable.

     Example: ‘-lrt’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: LDSHARED

     Command to build a shared library.

     Default: ‘@LDSHARED@ $(PY_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: BLDSHARED

     Command to build ‘libpython’ shared library.

     Default: ‘@BLDSHARED@ $(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_LDFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST) $(LDFLAGS_NODIST)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PY_CORE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de Python sur Windows,  Next: Using Python on macOS,  Prev: Configurer Python,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.4 Utilisation de Python sur Windows
=====================================

Ce document a pour but de donner une vue d'ensemble des comportements
spécifiques à Windows dont vous devriez être au courant si vous utilisez
Python sur Microsoft Windows.

Unlike most Unix systems and services, Windows does not include a system
supported installation of Python.  To make Python available, the CPython
team has compiled Windows installers with every release(1) for many
years.  These installers are primarily intended to add a per-user
installation of Python, with the core interpreter and library being used
by a single user.  The installer is also able to install for all users
of a single machine, and a separate ZIP file is available for
application-local distributions.

Comme spécifié dans la PEP 11(2), une 'release' Python ne gère qu'une
plateforme Windows alors que Microsoft considère la plateforme sous
support étendu.  Ce qui veut dire que Python 3.13 fonctionne sur Windows
8.1 et plus.  Si vous avez besoin de compatibilité Windows 7, vous devez
utiliser Python 3.8.

Il existe un certain nombre d'installateurs différents disponibles pour
Windows, chacun avec certains avantages et inconvénients.

*note L'installateur complet: 1dc6. contient tous les composants et est
la meilleure option pour les développeurs utilisant Python pour tout
type de projet.

*note Le paquet Microsoft Store: 1ba4. est une simple installation de
Python qui convient à l'exécution de scripts, de paquets et à
l’utilisation d’IDLE ou d'autres environnements de développement.  Il
nécessite Windows 10 ou supérieur, mais peut être installé en toute
sécurité sans endommager d'autres programmes.  Il fournit également de
nombreuses commandes pratiques pour lancer Python et ses outils.

*note Les paquets nuget.org: 1dc7. sont des installations légères
destinées aux systèmes d'intégration continue.  Ils peuvent être
utilisés pour créer des packages Python ou exécuter des scripts, mais ne
sont pas modifiables et n'ont pas d'outils d'interface utilisateur.

*note Le paquet intégrable: 1dc8. est un paquet minimal de Python
approprié pour l'intégration dans une plus grande application.

* Menu:

* L'installateur complet::
* Le paquet Microsoft Store::
* Les paquets nuget.org: Les paquets nuget org.
* Le paquet intégrable::
* Paquets alternatifs::
* Configurer Python: Configurer Python<2>.
* Mode UTF-8::
* Lanceur Python pour Windows::
* Recherche de modules::
* Modules supplémentaires::
* Compiler Python sous Windows::
* Autres plateformes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: L'installateur complet,  Next: Le paquet Microsoft Store,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.1 L'installateur complet
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Étapes d'installation::
* Suppression de la limitation MAX_PATH::
* Installation sans l'interface utilisateur::
* Installation sans téléchargement::
* Modification d'une installation::
* Installing Free-threaded Binaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Étapes d'installation,  Next: Suppression de la limitation MAX_PATH,  Up: L'installateur complet

3.4.1.1 Étapes d'installation
.............................

Quatre installateurs Python 3.13 sont disponibles au téléchargement —
deux de chaque pour les versions 32-bit et 64-bit de l'interpréteur.
L''installateur web' est léger, et téléchargera automatiquement les
composants nécessaires.  L''installateur hors-ligne' inclut les
composants nécessaires pour une installation par défaut et n'a besoin
d'une connexion internet que pour des fonctionnalités optionnelles.
Voir *note Installation sans téléchargement: 1dcb. pour d'autres moyens
d’éviter des téléchargements durant l'installation.

Après avoir lancé l'installateur, deux options s'affichent :

[image src="python-figures/win_installer.png"]


Si vous sélectionnez « Installer Maintenant » (‘Install Now’) :

   * Vous n'aurez 'pas' besoin d'avoir les droits d'administrateur (sauf
     si une mise à jour de la bibliothèque d'exécution C est nécessaire
     ou si vous installez le *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa.
     pour tous les utilisateurs)

   * Python sera installé dans votre répertoire utilisateur

   * Le *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. sera installé suivant
     l'option en bas de la première page

   * La bibliothèque standard, la suite de tests, le lanceur et 'pip'
     seront installés

   * Si l'option est cochée, le dossier d'installation sera ajouté à
     votre ‘PATH’

   * Les raccourcis ne seront visibles que pour l'utilisateur actuel

Sélectionner « Personnaliser l’installation » (‘Customize installation’)
vous permettra de sélectionner les fonctionnalités à installer, le
chemin d'installation et d'autres options ou des options
post-installation.  Pour installer des binaires ou symboles de débogage,
vous devrez utiliser cette option.

Pour effectuer une installation pour tous les utilisateurs, vous devez
sélectionner « Personnaliser l’installation ».  Dans ce cas :

   * Vous pouvez avoir à donner une approbation ou des identifiants
     administrateur

   * Python sera installé dans le dossier 'Program Files'

   * Le *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. sera installé dans le
     dossier 'Windows'

   * Des fonctionnalités optionnelles peuvent être sélectionnées durant
     l'installation

   * La bibliothèque standard peut être pré-compilée en code
     intermédiaire ('bytecode' en anglais)

   * Si sélectionné, le chemin d'installation sera ajouté au ‘PATH’
     système

   * Les raccourcis sont disponibles pour tous les utilisateurs


File: python.info,  Node: Suppression de la limitation MAX_PATH,  Next: Installation sans l'interface utilisateur,  Prev: Étapes d'installation,  Up: L'installateur complet

3.4.1.2 Suppression de la limitation ‘MAX_PATH’
...............................................

Historiquement les chemins sous Windows étaient limités 260 caractères.
Cela impliquait que les chemins plus longs n'étaient pas résolus, et
seraient une cause d'erreurs.

Dans les dernières versions de Windows, cette limitation peut être
étendue à approximativement 32.000 caractères.  Votre administrateur
devra activer la stratégie de groupe « 'Enable Win32 long paths' » ou
mettre la valeur de ‘LongPathsEnabled’ à ‘1’ dans de registre à
‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem’.

Ceci permet à la fonction *note open(): 508, au module *note os: a0. et
à la plupart des autres fonctionnalités utilisant des chemins d'accepter
et de renvoyer des chemins plus longs que 260 caractères.

Après avoir changé l'option si-dessus, aucune configuration
supplémentaire n'est requise.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Gestion des chemins longs.


File: python.info,  Node: Installation sans l'interface utilisateur,  Next: Installation sans téléchargement,  Prev: Suppression de la limitation MAX_PATH,  Up: L'installateur complet

3.4.1.3 Installation sans l'interface utilisateur
.................................................

Toutes les options disponibles dans l'installateur graphique peuvent
aussi être spécifiées dans l'invite de commande, permettant à des
installateurs scriptés de répliquer une installation sur plusieurs
machines sans interaction humaine.  Ces options peuvent aussi être
ajoutées sans enlever l'interface graphique pour changer les valeurs par
défauts.

The following options (found by executing the installer with ‘/?’) can
be passed into the installer:

Nom                       Description
                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                          
/passive                  to display progress without requiring user interaction
                          
                          
/quiet                    to install/uninstall without displaying any UI
                          
                          
/simple                   to prevent user customization
                          
                          
/uninstall                to remove Python (without confirmation)
                          
                          
/layout [directory]       to pre-download all components
                          
                          
/log [filename]           to specify log files location
                          

Toutes les autres options sont passées sous la forme ‘name=value’, ou
‘value’ est normalement soit ‘0’ pour désactiver une fonctionnalité,
soit ‘1’ pour activer une fonctionnalité, soit un chemin.  Ci-dessous la
liste complète des options.

Nom                             Description                                Valeur par défaut
                                                                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
InstallAllUsers                 Effectue une installation pour tous les    0
                                utilisateurs.                              
                                
                                                                           
TargetDir                       Le dossier d'installation                  Sélection basée sur
                                                                           InstallAllUsers
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultAllUsersTargetDir        Le dossier d'installation par défaut       ‘%ProgramFiles%\Python X.Y’
                                pour les installations pour tous les       ou
                                utilisateurs                               ‘%ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python
                                                                           X.Y’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultJustForMeTargetDir       Le dossier d'installation par défaut       ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY’
                                pour des installations juste pour soi      ou
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-32’
                                                                           ou
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-64’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultCustomTargetDir          Le dossier d'installation personnalisé     (vide)
                                par défaut affiché par l'interface         
                                utilisateur
                                
                                                                           
AssociateFiles                  Crée les associations de fichiers si le    1
                                lanceur est aussi installé.                
                                
                                                                           
CompileAll                      Compile tous les fichiers ‘.py’ en         0
                                ‘.pyc’.                                    
                                
                                                                           
PrependPath                     Ajoute les dossiers ‘install’ et           0
                                ‘Scripts’ à ‘PATH’ et assigne ‘.PY’ à      
                                ‘PATHEXT’
                                
                                                                           
AppendPath                      Ajoute les dossiers ‘install’ et           0
                                ‘Scripts’ à ‘PATH’ et assigne ‘.PY’ à      
                                ‘PATHEXT’
                                
                                                                           
Shortcuts                       Crée des raccourcis pour l'interpréteur,   1
                                la documentation et IDLE si installé.      
                                
                                                                           
Include_doc                     Installe le manuel Python                  1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_debug                   Installe les binaires de débogage          0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_dev                     Installe les en-têtes et les               1
                                bibliothèques de développement.            
                                L'omission de cette étape peut conduire
                                à une installation inutilisable.
                                
                                                                           
Include_exe                     Installer ‘python.exe’ et les fichiers     1
                                associés.  L'omission de cette étape       
                                peut conduire à une installation
                                inutilisable.
                                
                                                                           
Include_launcher                Installe le                                1
                                *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa.    
                                
                                                                           
InstallLauncherAllUsers         Installe le lanceur pour tous les          1
                                utilisateurs.  Nécessite que               
                                ‘Include_launcher’ soit mis à ‘1’
                                
                                                                           
Include_lib                     Installe la bibliothèque standard et les   1
                                modules d'extension.  L'omission de        
                                cette étape peut conduire à une
                                installation inutilisable.
                                
                                                                           
Include_pip                     Installe ‘pip’ et ‘setuptools’             1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_symbols                 Installe les symboles de débogage          0
                                (‘*.pdb’)                                  
                                
                                                                           
Include_tcltk                   Installe Tcl/Tk et IDLE                    1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_test                    Installe la suite de tests de la           1
                                bibliothèque standard                      
                                
                                                                           
Include_tools                   Installe les scripts utilitaires           1
                                                                           
                                                                           
LauncherOnly                    Installe seulement le lanceur.  Ceci       0
                                écrasera la plupart des autres options.    
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstall                   Désactive la plupart de l'interface        0
                                d'installation                             
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstallDescription        Un message personnalisé à afficher quand   (vide)
                                l'interface d'installation simplifiée      
                                est utilisée.
                                

Par exemple, pour installer silencieusement Python sur tout le système,
vous pourriez utilisez la commande suivante (depuis une invite de
commande administrateur) :

     python-3.9.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0

Pour permettre à l'utilisateur d'installer facilement une copie de
Python sans la suite de tests, vous pouvez proposer un raccourci avec la
commande suivante.  Cela affichera une page initiale simplifiée et
interdira la personnalisation :

     python-3.9.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
         SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."

(Notez qu'omettre le lanceur omet aussi les associations de fichiers, et
n'est recommandé que pour les installations par utilisateur quand il y a
aussi une installation complète sur le système qui a inclus de lanceur.)

Les options listées ci-dessus peuvent aussi être passées dans un fichier
nommé ‘unattend.xml’ à côté de l'exécutable.  Ce fichier spécifie une
liste d'options et de valeurs.  Quand une valeur est donnée en tant
qu'attribut, elle sera convertie en nombre si possible.  Les valeurs
données en élément texte sont toujours laissées en tant que chaînes de
caractères.  Ce fichier d'exemple propose les mêmes options que
l'exemple précédent :

     <Options>
         <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
         <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
     </Options>


File: python.info,  Node: Installation sans téléchargement,  Next: Modification d'une installation,  Prev: Installation sans l'interface utilisateur,  Up: L'installateur complet

3.4.1.4 Installation sans téléchargement
........................................

Comme certaines fonctionnalités de Python ne sont pas incluses dans
l'installateur initial, la sélection de certaines de ces fonctionnalités
peut demander une connexion Internet.  Pour éviter ce besoin, tous les
composants nécessaires peuvent être téléchargés à la demande pour créer
un agencement ('layout') complet qui ne demandera plus de connexion
Internet indépendamment des options sélectionnées.  Notez que ce
téléchargement peut être plus gros que nécessaire, mais lorsqu'un un
grand nombre d'installations doivent être faites, il est très utile
d'avoir une copie locale.

Exécutez la commande suivante depuis l'invite de commande pour
télécharger tous les fichiers requis possibles.  Rappelez-vous de
remplacer ‘python-3.9.0.exe’ par le nom réel de votre installateur et de
créer des agencements avec leurs propres dossiers pour éviter les
conflits entre fichiers du même nom.

     python-3.9.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]

Vous pouvez aussi spécifier l'option ‘/quiet’ pour masquer la
progression.


File: python.info,  Node: Modification d'une installation,  Next: Installing Free-threaded Binaries,  Prev: Installation sans téléchargement,  Up: L'installateur complet

3.4.1.5 Modification d'une installation
.......................................

Une fois Python installé, vous pouvez ajouter ou supprimer des
fonctionnalités depuis l'outil Windows 'Programs and Features'
(Programmes et Fonctionnalités).  Sélectionnez la ligne ‘Python’ et
choisissez « Uninstall/Change » (Désinstaller/Modifier) pour ouvrir
l'installateur en mode maintenance.

« Modify » vous permet d'ajouter ou d'enlever des fonctionnalités en
modifiant les cases à cocher (les cases inchangées n'installeront ou ne
supprimeront rien).  Certaines options ne peuvent pas être modifiées
dans ce mode, comme le dossier d'installation.  Pour modifier ces
options, vous devrez ré-installer Python entièrement.

« Repair » vérifiera tous les fichiers qui doivent être installés avec
les paramètres actuels le sont, et remplacera ceux qui ont étés
supprimés ou modifiés.

« Uninstall » désinstallera Python entièrement, à l'exception du *note
Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. qui à sa propre ligne dans 'Programs
and Features'.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Free-threaded Binaries,  Prev: Modification d'une installation,  Up: L'installateur complet

3.4.1.6 Installing Free-threaded Binaries
.........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: (Experimental)

     Note: Everything described in this section is considered
     experimental, and should be expected to change in future releases.

To install pre-built binaries with free-threading enabled (see PEP
703(1)), you should select "Customize installation".  The second page of
options includes the "Download free-threaded binaries" checkbox.

[image src="python-figures/win_install_freethreaded.png"]


Selecting this option will download and install additional binaries to
the same location as the main Python install.  The main executable is
called ‘python3.13t.exe’, and other binaries either receive a ‘t’ suffix
or a full ABI suffix.  Python source files and bundled third-party
dependencies are shared with the main install.

The free-threaded version is registered as a regular Python install with
the tag ‘3.13t’ (with a ‘-32’ or ‘-arm64’ suffix as normal for those
platforms).  This allows tools to discover it, and for the *note Lanceur
Python pour Windows: 5aa. to support ‘py.exe -3.13t’.  Note that the
launcher will interpret ‘py.exe -3’ (or a ‘python3’ shebang) as "the
latest 3.x install", which will prefer the free-threaded binaries over
the regular ones, while ‘py.exe -3.13’ will not.  If you use the short
style of option, you may prefer to not install the free-threaded
binaries at this time.

To specify the install option at the command line, use
‘Include_freethreaded=1’.  See *note Installation sans téléchargement:
1dcb. for instructions on pre-emptively downloading the additional
binaries for offline install.  The options to include debug symbols and
binaries also apply to the free-threaded builds.

Free-threaded binaries are also available *note on nuget.org: 1dc7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Le paquet Microsoft Store,  Next: Les paquets nuget org,  Prev: L'installateur complet,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.2 Le paquet Microsoft Store
-------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.2.

Le paquet 'Microsoft Store' est un interpréteur Python facilement
installable qui est destiné principalement à une utilisation
interactive, par exemple, par des étudiants.

Pour installer le paquet, assurez-vous d'avoir les dernières mises à
jour de Windows 10 et de chercher dans l'application 'Microsoft Store'
“Python 3.13”.  Assurez-vous que l'application que vous sélectionnez est
publiée par la 'Python Software Foundation' et installez-la.

     Avertissement: Python sera toujours disponible gratuitement sur le
     Microsoft Store.  Si vous êtes invité à payer, vous n'avez pas
     sélectionné le bon paquet.

Après l'installation, Python peut être lancé depuis le menu Démarrer.
Il est aussi disponible à partir de n'importe quelle invite de commande
ou session PowerShell en entrant ‘python’.  De plus, pip et IDLE peuvent
être utilisés en entrant ‘pip’ ou ‘idle’ .  IDLE peut également être
trouvé dans le menu Démarrer.

Les trois commandes sont également disponibles avec les suffixes de
numéro de version, par exemple, ‘python3.exe’ et ‘python3.x.exe’ ainsi
que ‘python.exe’ (ou ‘3.x’ est la version spécifique que vous souhaitez
lancer, tel que 3.13).  Depuis le « menu Démarrer », ouvrez « Alias
d'exécution d'application » (ou « 'Manage App Execution Aliases' » en
anglais) pour choisir quelle version de Python est associée à quelle
commande.  Il est recommandé de s'assurer que ‘pip’ et ‘idle’ utilisent
la même version de Python que la commande ‘python’.

Les environnements virtuels peuvent être créés avec ‘python -m venv’ et
activés et utilisés normalement.

Si vous avez installé une autre version de Python et l'avez ajoutée à
votre variable d'environnement ‘PATH’, elle sera disponible en tant que
‘python.exe’ plutôt que celle de la boutique Microsoft.  Pour accéder à
la nouvelle installation, utilisez ‘python3.exe’ ou ‘python3.x.exe’.

Le lanceur ‘py.exe’ va détecter cette installation Python, mais
préfèrera les versions de l'installateur traditionnel.

Pour supprimer Python, depuis les paramètres Windows ouvrez 'Apps and
Features' (Applications et Fonctionnalités), ou bien trouvez Python dans
le menu Démarrer et cliquez avec le bouton droit pour sélectionner
désinstaller.  La désinstallation supprimera tous les paquets que vous
avez installés directement dans cette installation Python, mais ne
supprimera aucun environnement virtuel

* Menu:

* Problèmes connus::


File: python.info,  Node: Problèmes connus,  Up: Le paquet Microsoft Store

3.4.2.1 Problèmes connus
........................

* Menu:

* Redirection des données locales, du registre et des chemins temporaires: Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires.


File: python.info,  Node: Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires,  Up: Problèmes connus

3.4.2.2 Redirection des données locales, du registre et des chemins temporaires
...............................................................................

En raison de restrictions sur les applications Microsoft Store, les
scripts Python peuvent ne pas avoir un accès en écriture complet aux
emplacements partagés tels que ‘TEMP’ et le registre.  Au lieu de cela,
il écrira sur une copie privée.  Si vos scripts doivent modifier les
emplacements partagés, vous devrez installer le programme d'installation
complet.

At runtime, Python will use a private copy of well-known Windows folders
and the registry.  For example, if the environment variable ‘%APPDATA%’
is ‘c:\Users\<user>\AppData\’, then when writing to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local’ will write to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local\Packages\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\LocalCache\Local\’.

When reading files, Windows will return the file from the private
folder, or if that does not exist, the real Windows directory.  For
example reading ‘C:\Windows\System32’ returns the contents of
‘C:\Windows\System32’ plus the contents of ‘C:\Program
Files\WindowsApps\package_name\VFS\SystemX86’.

Vous pouvez trouver le chemin réel de n'importe quel fichier existant en
utilisant *note os.path.realpath(): 222. :

     >>> import os
     >>> test_file = 'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\test.txt'
     >>> os.path.realpath(test_file)
     'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\Packages\\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\\LocalCache\\Local\\test.txt'

Lors de l'écriture dans le registre Windows, les comportements suivants
existent :

   * Reading from ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed and results are merged
     with the ‘registry.dat’ file in the package.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is not allowed if the corresponding
     key/value exists, i.e.  modifying existing keys.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed as long as a corresponding
     key/value does not exist in the package and the user has the
     correct access permissions.

For more detail on the technical basis for these limitations, please
consult Microsoft's documentation on packaged full-trust apps, currently
available at
docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes


File: python.info,  Node: Les paquets nuget org,  Next: Le paquet intégrable,  Prev: Le paquet Microsoft Store,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.3 Les paquets 'nuget.org'
-----------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Le paquet 'nuget.org' est un environnement Python de taille réduite
destiné à être utilisé sur des systèmes d'intégration et de génération
continus qui n'ont pas Python d'installé.  Alors que 'nuget' est “le
gestionnaire de package pour .NET”, il fonctionne également parfaitement
bien pour les packages contenant des outils de 'build-time'.

Visitez nuget.org(1) pour les informations les plus à jour sur
l'utilisation de 'nuget'.  Ce qui suit est un résumé suffisant pour les
développeurs Python.

L'outil de ligne de commande ‘nuget.exe’ peut être téléchargé
directement à partir de ‘https://aka.ms/nugetclidl’, par exemple, à
l'aide de 'curl' ou de PowerShell.  Avec l'outil, la dernière version de
Python pour les machines 64 bits ou 32 bits est installée à l'aide de :

     nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
     nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .

Pour sélectionner une version particulière, ajoutez un ‘-Version 3.x.y’.
Le répertoire d'installation être modifié (de ‘.’), et le paquet sera
installé dans un sous-répertoire.  Par défaut, le sous-répertoire est
nommé comme le paquet, et sans l'option ‘-ExcludeVersion’, ce nom
inclura la version spécifique installée.  À l'intérieur du
sous-répertoire se trouve un répertoire ‘tools’ qui contient
l'installation Python :

     # Without -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

     # With -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

En général, les paquets 'nuget' ne peuvent pas êtres mis à jour et les
versions plus récentes doivent être installées côte à côte et
référencées à l'aide du chemin d'accès complet.  Vous pouvez également
supprimer le répertoire du paquet manuellement et l'installer à nouveau.
De nombreux systèmes CI le feront automatiquement s'ils ne conservent
pas les fichiers entre les 'builds'.

À côté du répertoire ‘tools’ est un répertoire ‘build\native’.  Il
contient un fichier de propriétés MSBuild ‘python.props’ qui peut être
utilisé dans un projet C++ pour référencer l'installation de Python.
L'inclusion des paramètres utilisera automatiquement les en-têtes et les
bibliothèques d'importation dans votre 'build'.

The package information pages on nuget.org are
www.nuget.org/packages/python(2) for the 64-bit version,
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86(3) for the 32-bit version, and
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64(4) for the ARM64 version

* Menu:

* Free-threaded packages::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86

   (4) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64


File: python.info,  Node: Free-threaded packages,  Up: Les paquets nuget org

3.4.3.1 Free-threaded packages
..............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: (Experimental)

     Note: Everything described in this section is considered
     experimental, and should be expected to change in future releases.

Packages containing free-threaded binaries are named
python-freethreaded(1) for the 64-bit version, pythonx86-freethreaded(2)
for the 32-bit version, and pythonarm64-freethreaded(3) for the ARM64
version.  These packages contain both the ‘python3.13t.exe’ and
‘python.exe’ entry points, both of which run free threaded.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python-freethreaded

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86-freethreaded

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64-freethreaded


File: python.info,  Node: Le paquet intégrable,  Next: Paquets alternatifs,  Prev: Les paquets nuget org,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.4 Le paquet intégrable
--------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

La distribution embarquée est un fichier ZIP contenant un environnement
Python minimal.  Il est destiné à agir dans le cadre d'une autre
application, plutôt que d'être directement accessible par les
utilisateurs finaux.

When extracted, the embedded distribution is (almost) fully isolated
from the user's system, including environment variables, system registry
settings, and installed packages.  The standard library is included as
pre-compiled and optimized ‘.pyc’ files in a ZIP, and ‘python3.dll’,
‘python37.dll’, ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ are all provided.  Tcl/tk
(including all dependents, such as Idle), pip and the Python
documentation are not included.

     Note: The embedded distribution does not include the Microsoft C
     Runtime(1) and it is the responsibility of the application
     installer to provide this.  The runtime may have already been
     installed on a user's system previously or automatically via
     Windows Update, and can be detected by finding ‘ucrtbase.dll’ in
     the system directory.

Les paquets tiers doivent être installés par le programme d'installation
de l'application parallèlement à la distribution embarquée.
L'utilisation de pip pour gérer les dépendances comme pour une
installation Python régulière n'est pas prise en charge avec cette
distribution, mais il reste possible d'inclure et d'utiliser pip pour
les mises à jour automatiques.  En général, les paquets tiers doivent
être traités dans le cadre de l'application ('vendoring') afin que le
développeur puisse assurer la compatibilité avec les versions plus
récentes avant de fournir des mises à jour aux utilisateurs.

Les deux cas d'utilisation recommandés pour cette distribution sont
décrits ci-dessous.

* Menu:

* Application Python::
* Embarquer Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/windows/latest-supported-vc-redist#visual-studio-2015-2017-2019-and-2022


File: python.info,  Node: Application Python,  Next: Embarquer Python,  Up: Le paquet intégrable

3.4.4.1 Application Python
..........................

Une application écrite en Python n'exige pas nécessairement que les
utilisateurs soient au courant de ce fait.  La distribution embarquée
peut être utilisée dans ce cas pour inclure une version privée de Python
dans un package d'installation.  Selon la façon dont il devrait être
transparent (ou inversement, à quel point il doit paraître
professionnel), il y a deux options.

L'utilisation d'un exécutable spécialisé en tant que lanceur nécessite
de la programmation, mais fournit l'expérience la plus transparente pour
les utilisateurs.  Avec un lanceur personnalisé, il n'y a pas
d'indications évidentes que le programme s'exécute sur Python : les
icônes peuvent être personnalisées, les informations de la société et de
la version peuvent être spécifiées, et les associations de fichiers se
comportent correctement.  Dans la plupart des cas, un lanceur
personnalisé devrait simplement pouvoir appeler ‘Py_Main’ avec une ligne
de commande codée en dur.

L'approche la plus simple consiste à fournir un fichier batch ou un
raccourci généré qui appelle directement le ‘python.exe’ ou
‘pythonw.exe’ avec les arguments de ligne de commande requis.  Dans ce
cas, l'application semble être Python et non son nom réel, et les
utilisateurs peuvent avoir du mal à le distinguer des autres processus
Python en cours d'exécution ou des associations de fichiers.

Avec cette dernière approche, les packages doivent être installés en
tant que répertoires à côté de l'exécutable Python pour s'assurer qu'ils
soient visibles par Python.  Avec le lanceur spécialisé, les paquets
peuvent être installés dans d'autres emplacements car il y a une
possibilité de spécifier le chemin de recherche avant de lancer
l'application.


File: python.info,  Node: Embarquer Python,  Prev: Application Python,  Up: Le paquet intégrable

3.4.4.2 Embarquer Python
........................

Les applications écrites en code natif nécessitent souvent une certaine
forme de langage de 'scripting', et la distribution Python intégrée peut
être utilisée à cette fin.  En général, la majorité de l'application est
dans le code natif, qui soit invoque ‘python.exe’ soit utilise
directement ‘python3.dll’.  Dans les deux cas, l'extraction de la
distribution intégrée dans un sous-répertoire de l'installation de
l'application est suffisante pour fournir un interpréteur Python
chargeable.

Comme pour l'utilisation de l'application, les paquets peuvent être
installés sur n'importe quel emplacement, car il est possible de
spécifier des chemins de recherche avant d'initialiser l'interpréteur.
Sinon, il n'y a pas de différences fondamentales entre l'utilisation de
la distribution embarquée et une installation classique.


File: python.info,  Node: Paquets alternatifs,  Next: Configurer Python<2>,  Prev: Le paquet intégrable,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.5 Paquets alternatifs
-------------------------

À part la distribution standard CPython, il y a des paquets modifiés
incluant des fonctionnalités additionnelles.  La liste qui suit est une
liste de versions populaires et de leurs fonctionnalités principales :

ActivePython(1)

     Installateur avec une compatibilité multiplateforme, de la
     documentation, et 'PyWin32'

Anaconda(2)

     Des modules scientifiques populaires (comme 'numpy', 'scipy' et
     'pandas') et le gestionnaire de paquets ‘conda’.

Enthought Deployment Manager(3)

     « L’environnement Python et gestionnaire de paquets de nouvelle
     génération ».

     Auparavant, Enthought fournissait Canopy, mais celui-ci est arrivé
     en fin de vie en 2016(4).

WinPython(5)

     Distribution spécifique à Windows avec des paquets scientifiques
     pré-compilés et des outils pour construire des paquets.

Notez que ces paquets peuvent ne pas inclure la dernière version de
Python ou d'autres bibliothèques, et ne sont pas maintenus ni supportés
par les 'core devs' Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://assets.enthought.com/downloads/edm/

   (4) 
https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/360038600051-Canopy-GUI-end-of-life-transition-to-the-Enthought-Deployment-Manager-EDM-and-Visual-Studio-Code

   (5) https://winPython.github.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Configurer Python<2>,  Next: Mode UTF-8,  Prev: Paquets alternatifs,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.6 Configurer Python
-----------------------

Pour exécuter Python confortablement à partir d'une invite de commandes,
vous pouvez envisager de modifier certaines variables d'environnement
par défaut dans Windows.  Bien que l'installateur offre une option pour
configurer les variables ‘PATH’ et ‘PATHEXT’ pour vous, ce n'est fiable
que pour une seule installation à l'échelle du système.  Si vous
utilisez régulièrement plusieurs versions de Python, pensez à utiliser
le *note Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa.

* Menu:

* Digression ; définition des variables d'environnement: Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
* Trouver l'exécutable Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Digression définition des variables d'environnement,  Next: Trouver l'exécutable Python,  Up: Configurer Python<2>

3.4.6.1 Digression : définition des variables d'environnement
.............................................................

Windows permet de configurer les variables d'environnement de façon
permanente au niveau de l'utilisateur et du système, ou temporairement
dans une invite de commandes.

Pour définir temporairement les variables d'environnement, ouvrez
l'invite de commandes et utilisez la commande ‘set’ :

     C:\>set PATH=C:\Program Files\Python 3.9;%PATH%
     C:\>set PYTHONPATH=%PYTHONPATH%;C:\My_python_lib
     C:\>python

Ces modifications s'appliqueront à toutes les autres commandes exécutées
dans cette console et seront héritées par toutes les applications
démarrées à partir de cette console.

Un nom de variable entre des signes pour cent sera remplacé par sa
valeur, vous permettant d'ajouter votre nouvelle valeur au début ou à la
fin.  Ajouter ‘python.exe’ au début de ‘PATH’ est un moyen courant de
s'assurer que la version correcte de Python est lancée.

Pour modifier définitivement les variables d'environnement par défaut,
recherchez « modifier les variables d'environnement », via le menu
démarrer, ou ouvrez « Propriétés Système », Paramètres Système Avancés
et cliquez sur le bouton Variables d'Environnement.  Dans cette boîte de
dialogue, vous pouvez ajouter ou modifier des variables utilisateurs et
systèmes.  Pour modifier les variables systèmes, vous avez besoin d'un
accès non restreint à votre ordinateur (c'est-à-dire aux droits
d'administrateur).

     Note: Windows va concaténer les variables utilisateurs 'après' les
     variables systèmes, ce qui peut provoquer des résultats inattendus
     lors de la modification de ‘PATH’.

     La variable *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. est utilisée par toutes les
     versions de Python, vous ne devez donc pas configurer cette
     variable de façon permanente à moins qu'elle n'ajoute que du code
     compatible avec toutes les versions de Python installées.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/procthread/environment-variables’

     Aperçu des variables d'environnement dans Windows

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/set_1’

     La commande ‘set’, pour modifier temporairement les variables
     d'environnement

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/setx’

     La commande ‘setx’, pour modifier de façon permanente les variables
     d'environnement


File: python.info,  Node: Trouver l'exécutable Python,  Prev: Digression définition des variables d'environnement,  Up: Configurer Python<2>

3.4.6.2 Trouver l'exécutable Python
...................................

Modifié dans la version 3.5.

En plus d'utiliser l'entrée du menu Démarrer automatiquement créée pour
l'interpréteur Python, vous souhaiterez peut-être démarrer Python depuis
l'invite de commandes.  L'installateur a une option pour installer cela
pour vous.

Sur la première page de l'installateur, une option intitulée « Ajouter
Python au 'PATH' » peut être sélectionnée pour que l'installateur ajoute
l'emplacement d'installation dans le ‘PATH’.  L'emplacement du dossier
‘Scripts\’ y est également ajouté.  Cela vous permet de taper ‘Python’
pour exécuter l'interpréteur, et ‘pip’ pour l'installateur de paquets.
Ainsi, vous pouvez également exécuter vos scripts avec les options de
ligne de commande, voir la documentation *note Ligne de commande: ff2.

Si vous n'activez pas cette option au moment de l'installation, vous
pouvez toujours ré-exécuter l'installateur, sélectionner Modifier et
l'activer.  Vous pouvez également modifier manuellement le ‘PATH’ à
l'aide des instructions de *note Digression ; définition des variables
d'environnement: 1ba5.  Vous devez définir votre variable
d'environnement ‘PATH’ pour inclure le répertoire de votre installation
Python, délimité par un point-virgule des autres entrées.  Une variable
d'exemple pourrait ressembler à ceci (en supposant que les deux
premières entrées existaient déjà) :

     C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Program Files\Python 3.9


File: python.info,  Node: Mode UTF-8,  Next: Lanceur Python pour Windows,  Prev: Configurer Python<2>,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.7 Mode UTF-8
----------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Windows utilise toujours les anciens codages pour l'encodage du système
(la page de code ANSI). Python l'utilise pour le codage par défaut des
fichiers texte (par exemple *note locale.getencoding(): 2db.).

Cela peut poser des problèmes car l'UTF-8 est largement utilisé sur
Internet et sur la plupart des systèmes Unix, y compris le WSL ('Windows
Subsystem for Linux').

Vous pouvez utiliser le *note mode UTF-8: 643. pour changer le codage de
texte par défaut en UTF-8.  Vous pouvez activer le *note mode UTF-8:
643. via l'option de ligne de commande ‘-X utf8’ ou la variable
d'environnement ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’.  Voir *note PYTHONUTF8: ac8. pour
activer le mode UTF-8, et *note Digression ; définition des variables
d'environnement: 1ba5. pour savoir comment modifier les variables
d'environnement.

Lorsque le *note mode UTF-8: 643. est activé, vous pouvez toujours
utiliser l’encodage système (la page de code ANSI) via le codec
« 'mbcs' ».

Notez que l'ajout de ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’ aux variables d'environnement par
défaut affectera toutes les applications Python 3.7+ sur votre système.
Si vous avez des applications Python 3.7+ qui dépendent de l'encodage du
système existant, il est recommandé de définir la variable
d'environnement temporairement ou d'utiliser l'option de ligne de
commande ‘-X utf8’.

     Note: même lorsque le mode UTF-8 est désactivé, Python utilise
     UTF-8 par défaut sur Windows pour :

        * Les E/S de la console, y compris les E/S standards (voir PEP
          528(1) pour plus de détails).

        * L'*note encodage du système de fichiers: 528. (voir PEP 529(2)
          pour plus de détails).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: Lanceur Python pour Windows,  Next: Recherche de modules,  Prev: Mode UTF-8,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.8 Lanceur Python pour Windows
---------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le lanceur Python pour Windows est un utilitaire qui facilite la
recherche et l'exécution de différentes versions de Python.  Il permet
aux scripts (ou à la ligne de commande) d'indiquer une préférence pour
une version Python spécifique, cherchera et exécutera cette version.

Contrairement à la variable ‘PATH’, le lanceur sélectionne correctement
la version la plus appropriée de Python.  Il préfère les installations
par utilisateur sur celles du système, et les trie par version plutôt
que d'utiliser la version la plus récente installée.

Le lanceur a été initialement spécifié dans PEP 397(1).

* Menu:

* Pour commencer::
* Lignes Shebang::
* Arguments dans les lignes shebang::
* Personnalisation::
* Diagnostics::
* Exécution à vide::
* Installation à la demande::
* Codes de retour::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: Pour commencer,  Next: Lignes Shebang,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.1 Pour commencer
......................

* Menu:

* Depuis la ligne de commande::
* Environnements virtuels::
* À partir d'un script::
* À partir d'associations de fichiers::


File: python.info,  Node: Depuis la ligne de commande,  Next: Environnements virtuels,  Up: Pour commencer

3.4.8.2 Depuis la ligne de commande
...................................

Modifié dans la version 3.6.

Les installations systèmes de Python 3.3 et ultérieur placent le lanceur
dans votre ‘PATH’.  Le lanceur est compatible avec toutes les versions
disponibles de Python, peu importe lesquelles sont installées.  Pour
vérifier que le lanceur est disponible, exécutez la commande suivante
dans l'invite de commandes :

     py

Vous devriez voir se lancer la dernière version de Python installée — il
peut être quitté normalement, et tous les arguments de ligne de commande
supplémentaires spécifiés seront envoyés directement à Python.

Si plusieurs versions de Python sont installées (par exemple, 3.7 et
3.13), vous aurez remarqué que Python 3.13 se lance - pour lancer Python
3.7, essayez la commande :

     py -3.7

Si vous voulez que la dernière version de Python 2.x que vous avez
installé, essayez la commande :

     py -2

Si vous voyez l'erreur suivante, le lanceur n'est pas installé :

     'py' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
     operable program or batch file.

La commande :

     py --list

affiche la ou les versions actuellement installées de Python.

The ‘-x.y’ argument is the short form of the ‘-V:Company/Tag’ argument,
which allows selecting a specific Python runtime, including those that
may have come from somewhere other than python.org.  Any runtime
registered by following PEP 514(1) will be discoverable.  The ‘--list’
command lists all available runtimes using the ‘-V:’ format.

When using the ‘-V:’ argument, specifying the Company will limit
selection to runtimes from that provider, while specifying only the Tag
will select from all providers.  Note that omitting the slash implies a
tag:

     # Select any '3.*' tagged runtime
     py -V:3

     # Select any 'PythonCore' released runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/

     # Select PythonCore's latest Python 3 runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/3

The short form of the argument (‘-3’) only ever selects from core Python
releases, and not other distributions.  However, the longer form
(‘-V:3’) will select from any.

The Company is matched on the full string, case-insensitive.  The Tag is
matched on either the full string, or a prefix, provided the next
character is a dot or a hyphen.  This allows ‘-V:3.1’ to match ‘3.1-32’,
but not ‘3.10’.  Tags are sorted using numerical ordering (‘3.10’ is
newer than ‘3.1’), but are compared using text (‘-V:3.01’ does not match
‘3.1’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/


File: python.info,  Node: Environnements virtuels,  Next: À partir d'un script,  Prev: Depuis la ligne de commande,  Up: Pour commencer

3.4.8.3 Environnements virtuels
...............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Si le lanceur est exécuté sans version de Python explicite et qu'un
environnement virtuel (créé avec le module de la bibliothèque standard
*note venv: 110. ou l'outil externe ‘virtualenv’) est actif, le lanceur
exécute l'interpréteur de l'environnement virtuel plutôt que
l'interpréteur global.  Pour exécuter l'interpréteur global, désactivez
l'environnement virtuel ou spécifiez explicitement la version Python
globale.


File: python.info,  Node: À partir d'un script,  Next: À partir d'associations de fichiers,  Prev: Environnements virtuels,  Up: Pour commencer

3.4.8.4 À partir d'un script
............................

Créons un script Python de test, créez un fichier appelé ‘hello.py’ avec
le contenu suivant

     #! python
     import sys
     sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))

À partir du répertoire dans lequel se trouve ‘hello.py’, exécutez la
commande :

     py hello.py

Vous devriez voir le numéro de version du Python 2.x le plus récemment
installé.  Maintenant, essayez de changer la première ligne en :

     #! python3

La commande doit maintenant afficher les dernières informations de
Python 3.x.  Comme pour les exemples de ligne de commande ci-dessus,
vous pouvez spécifier un qualificateur de version plus explicite.  En
supposant que vous avez installé Python 3.7, essayez de changer la
première ligne en ‘#! python3.7’ et vous devriez trouver les
informations de version 3.7 affichées.

Notez que, contrairement à l'utilisation interactive, un "python" nu
utilisera la dernière version de Python 2.x que vous avez installé.
C'est pour la compatibilité ascendante et pour la compatibilité avec
UNIX, où la commande ‘python’ fait généralement référence à Python 2.


File: python.info,  Node: À partir d'associations de fichiers,  Prev: À partir d'un script,  Up: Pour commencer

3.4.8.5 À partir d'associations de fichiers
...........................................

Le lanceur aurait dû être associé à des fichiers Python (des fichiers
comme ‘.py’, ‘.pyw’, ‘.pyc’) lorsqu'il a été installé.  Cela signifie
que lorsque vous double-cliquez sur l'un de ces fichiers à partir de
l'Explorateur Windows, le lanceur sera utilisé, et donc vous pouvez
utiliser les mêmes installations décrites ci-dessus pour que le script
spécifie la version qui doit être utilisée.

L'avantage principal de ceci est qu'un seul lanceur peut prendre en
charge plusieurs versions de Python en même temps en fonction du contenu
de la première ligne.


File: python.info,  Node: Lignes Shebang,  Next: Arguments dans les lignes shebang,  Prev: Pour commencer,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.6 Lignes Shebang
......................

Si la première ligne d'un fichier de script commence par ‘#!’, elle est
connue sous le nom de ligne « 'shebang' ».  Linux et d'autres systèmes
basés sur Unix ont une prise en charge native de ces lignes et les
'shebangs' sont couramment utilisés sur ces systèmes pour indiquer
comment un script doit être exécuté.  Ce lanceur permet aux mêmes
installations d'être utilisés avec des scripts Python sur Windows et les
exemples ci-dessus démontrent leur utilisation.

Pour permettre aux 'shebang' dans les scripts Python d'être portables
entre UNIX et Windows, ce lanceur prend en charge un certain nombre de
commandes « virtuelles » pour spécifier l'interpréteur à utiliser.  Les
commandes virtuelles prises en charge sont :

   * ‘/usr/bin/env’

   * ‘/usr/bin/python’

   * ‘/usr/local/bin/python’

   * ‘python’

Par exemple, si la première ligne de votre script commence par

     #! /usr/bin/python

The default Python or an active virtual environment will be located and
used.  As many Python scripts written to work on Unix will already have
this line, you should find these scripts can be used by the launcher
without modification.  If you are writing a new script on Windows which
you hope will be useful on Unix, you should use one of the shebang lines
starting with ‘/usr’.

Any of the above virtual commands can be suffixed with an explicit
version (either just the major version, or the major and minor version).
Furthermore the 32-bit version can be requested by adding "-32" after
the minor version.  I.e.  ‘/usr/bin/python3.7-32’ will request usage of
the 32-bit Python 3.7.  If a virtual environment is active, the version
will be ignored and the environment will be used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Depuis la version 3.7 du lanceur Python, il
est possible de demander une version '64-bit' en utilisant le suffixe
'-64'.  De plus il est possible de spécifier une version majeure et une
architecture sans version mineure (par exemple ‘/usr/bin/python3-64’).

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The "-64" suffix is deprecated, and now
implies "any architecture that is not provably i386/32-bit".  To request
a specific environment, use the new ‘-V:TAG’ argument with the complete
tag.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Virtual commands referencing ‘python’ now
prefer an active virtual environment rather than searching ‘PATH’.  This
handles cases where the shebang specifies ‘/usr/bin/env python3’ but
‘python3.exe’ is not present in the active environment.

La forme ‘/usr/bin/env’ de la ligne shebang possède une autre propriété
spéciale.  Avant de rechercher les interpréteurs Python installés, cette
forme recherchera dans ‘PATH’ un exécutable Python correspondant au nom
fourni en premier argument.  Cela correspond au comportement du
programme Unix ‘env’, qui effectue une recherche dans ‘PATH’.  Si un
exécutable correspondant au premier argument de la commande ‘env’ ne
peut être trouvé, mais que l'argument commence par ‘python’, il sera
traité comme décrit pour les autres commandes virtuelles.  La variable
d'environnement ‘PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH’ peut être définie (à
n'importe quelle valeur) pour ignorer cette recherche dans ‘PATH’.

Shebang lines that do not match any of these patterns are looked up in
the ‘[commands]’ section of the launcher's *note .INI file: 1de6.  This
may be used to handle certain commands in a way that makes sense for
your system.  The name of the command must be a single argument (no
spaces in the shebang executable), and the value substituted is the full
path to the executable (additional arguments specified in the .INI will
be quoted as part of the filename).

     [commands]
     /bin/xpython=C:\Program Files\XPython\python.exe

Any commands not found in the .INI file are treated as 'Windows'
executable paths that are absolute or relative to the directory
containing the script file.  This is a convenience for Windows-only
scripts, such as those generated by an installer, since the behavior is
not compatible with Unix-style shells.  These paths may be quoted, and
may include multiple arguments, after which the path to the script and
any additional arguments will be appended.


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments dans les lignes shebang,  Next: Personnalisation,  Prev: Lignes Shebang,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.7 Arguments dans les lignes 'shebang'
...........................................

Les lignes 'shebang' peuvent également spécifier des options
supplémentaires à passer à l'interpréteur Python.  Par exemple, si vous
avez une ligne 'shebang' :

     #! /usr/bin/python -v

Alors, Python sera démarré avec l'option ‘-v’


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation,  Next: Diagnostics,  Prev: Arguments dans les lignes shebang,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.8 Personnalisation
........................

* Menu:

* Personnalisation via des fichiers INI::
* Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut::


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation via des fichiers INI,  Next: Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut,  Up: Personnalisation

3.4.8.9 Personnalisation via des fichiers INI
.............................................

Deux fichiers ‘.ini’ seront recherchés par le lanceur - ‘py.ini’ dans le
répertoire de données de l'application de l'utilisateur courant
(‘%LOCALAPPDATA%’ ou ‘$env:LocalAppData’) et ‘py.ini’ dans le même
répertoire que le lanceur.  Les mêmes fichiers ‘.ini’ sont utilisés à la
fois pour la version 'console' du lanceur (i.e.  ‘py.exe’) et pour la
version 'windows' (i.e.  ‘pyw.exe’).

La personnalisation spécifiée dans le « répertoire de l'application »
aura la priorité sur celle à côté de l'exécutable, de sorte qu'un
utilisateur, qui peut ne pas avoir accès en écriture au fichier ‘.ini’ à
côté du lanceur, peut substituer des commandes dans ce fichier ‘.ini’
global)


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut,  Prev: Personnalisation via des fichiers INI,  Up: Personnalisation

3.4.8.10 Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut
........................................................

Dans certains cas, un qualificateur de version peut être inclus dans une
commande pour dicter quelle version de Python sera utilisée par la
commande.  Un qualificateur de version commence par un numéro de version
majeure et peut éventuellement être suivi d'un point (‘.’) et d'un
spécificateur de version secondaire.  De plus il est possible de
préciser si une implémentation 32 ou 64 bit doit être demandée en
ajoutant '-32' ou '-64'.

Par exemple, une ligne 'shebang' valant ‘#!python’ n'a pas de
qualificateur de version, tandis que ‘#!python3’ a un qualificateur de
version qui ne spécifie qu'une version majeure.

Si aucun qualificateur de version n'est trouvé dans une commande, la
variable d'environnement ‘PY_PYTHON’ peut être définie pour spécifier le
qualificateur de version par défaut.  Si non définie, la valeur par
défaut est ‘3’.  La variable peut spécifier n’importe quelle valeur qui
peut être passée dans la ligne de commande telle que ‘3’, ‘3.7’,
‘3.7-32’ ou ‘3.7-64’.  (Notez que l’option '-64' est seulement
disponible avec le lanceur inclus avec Python 3.7 ou plus récent.)

Si aucun qualificateur de version mineure n'est trouvé, la variable
d'environnement ‘PY_PYTHON{major}’ (où ‘{major}’ est le qualificateur de
version principale actuelle tel que déterminé ci-dessus) peut être
définie pour spécifier la version complète.  Si aucune option de ce type
n'est trouvée, le lanceur énumérera les versions de Python installées et
utilisera la dernière version mineure trouvée pour la version
principale, qui est probablement la plus récemment installée dans cette
famille.

Sur Windows 64-bits avec les implémentations 32-bits et 64-bits de la
même version Python (‘major.minor’) installée, la version 64-bit est
toujours préférée.  Cela est vrai pour les implémentations 32-bits et
64-bits du lanceur – un lanceur 32-bits préfère exécuter une
installation Python de 64-bits de la version spécifiée si elle est
disponible.  Le comportement du lanceur est donc prévisible en sachant
seulement quelles versions sont installées sur le PC et sans tenir
compte de l'ordre dans lequel ils ont été installés (c.-à-d.  sans
savoir si une version 32 ou 64-bit de Python et le lanceur correspondant
a été installé en dernier).  Comme indiqué ci-dessus, un suffixe
optionnel ‘-32’ ou ‘-64’ peut être utilisé sur un spécificateur de
version pour modifier ce comportement.

Exemples :

   * Si aucune option pertinente n'est définie, les commandes ‘python’
     et ‘python2’ utiliseront la dernière version de Python 2.x
     installée et la commande ‘python3’ utilisera le dernier Python 3.x
     installé.

   * La commande ‘python3.7’ ne consulte aucune option du tout car les
     versions sont entièrement spécifiées.

   * Si ‘PY_PYTHON=3’, les commandes ‘python’ et ‘python3’ utiliseront
     la dernière version de Python 3 installée.

   * Si ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7-32’, la commande ‘python’ utilisera
     l'implémentation 32-bits de 3.7 alors que la commande ‘python3’
     utilisera le dernier Python installé ('PY_PYTHON' n'a pas été
     considéré du tout comme une version majeure a été spécifiée.)

   * Si ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ et ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’, les commandes ‘python’ et
     ‘python3’ utiliseront spécifiquement 3.7

En plus des variables d'environnement, les mêmes paramètres peuvent être
configurés dans le ‘.INI’ utilisé par le lanceur.  La section dans le
fichier INI est appelée ‘[defaults]’ et le nom de la clé sera le même
que les variables d'environnement sans le préfixe ‘PY_’ principal (et
notez que les noms de clés dans le fichier 'INI' sont insensibles à la
case.)  Le contenu d'une variable d'environnement remplacera les
éléments spécifiés dans le fichier 'INI'.

Par exemple :

   * Le paramètre ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7’ équivaut au fichier 'INI' contenant :

     [defaults]
     python=3.7

   * Le paramètre ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ et ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’ équivaut au fichier
     'INI' contenant :

     [defaults]
     python=3
     python3=3.7


File: python.info,  Node: Diagnostics,  Next: Exécution à vide,  Prev: Personnalisation,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.11 Diagnostics
....................

Si une variable d'environnement ‘PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG’ est définie (à
n'importe quelle valeur), le lanceur affiche des informations de
diagnostic sur 'stderr' (c'est-à-dire sur la console).  Bien que ces
informations parviennent à être en même temps nombreuses et concises,
elles devraient vous permettre de voir quelles versions de Python ont
été trouvées, pourquoi une version particulière a été choisie et la
ligne de commande exacte utilisée pour exécuter le Python cible.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution à vide,  Next: Installation à la demande,  Prev: Diagnostics,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.12 Exécution à vide
.........................

Si une variable d'environnement ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’ est définie (à
n'importe quelle valeur), le lanceur affiche la commande qu'il aurait
exécutée, mais ne lance pas réellement Python.  Cela peut être utile
pour les outils qui souhaitent utiliser le lanceur pour détecter puis
lancer Python directement.  Notez que la commande écrite sur la sortie
standard est toujours codée en UTF-8 et peut ne pas s'afficher
correctement dans la console.


File: python.info,  Node: Installation à la demande,  Next: Codes de retour,  Prev: Exécution à vide,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.13 Installation à la demande
..................................

Si une variable d'environnement ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ est définie
(à n'importe quelle valeur) et que la version de Python demandée n'est
pas installée mais est disponible sur le Microsoft Store, le lanceur
tente de l'installer.  Cela peut nécessiter une intervention de
l'utilisateur et il faudra peut-être exécuter à nouveau la commande.

Une variable supplémentaire ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL’ oblige le
lanceur à toujours essayer d'installer Python, même s'il est détecté.
Ceci est principalement destiné aux tests (et doit être utilisé avec
‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’).


File: python.info,  Node: Codes de retour,  Prev: Installation à la demande,  Up: Lanceur Python pour Windows

3.4.8.14 Codes de retour
........................

Les codes de retour suivants peuvent être renvoyés par le lanceur
Python.  Malheureusement, il n'y a aucun moyen de les distinguer du code
de sortie de Python lui-même.

Les noms des codes sont tels qu'utilisés dans les sources et ne sont
donnés qu'à titre de référence.  Il n'y a aucun moyen d'y accéder ou de
les résoudre en dehors de la lecture de cette page.  Les entrées sont
classées par ordre alphabétique des noms.

Nom                     Valeur      Description
                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
RC_BAD_VENV_CFG         107         ‘pyvenv.cfg’ a été trouvé mais est corrompu.
                                    
                                    
RC_CREATE_PROCESS       101         Échec du lancement de Python.
                                    
                                    
RC_INSTALLING           111         Une installation a commencé, mais la commande
                                    doit être relancée après qu'elle a terminé.
                                    
                                    
RC_INTERNAL_ERROR       109         Erreur non prévue.  Merci de remonter un bogue.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_COMMANDLINE       108         Le système d'exploitation n'a pas fourni de ligne
                                    de commande.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_PYTHON            103         Impossible de trouver la version demandée.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_VENV_CFG          106         ‘pyvenv.cfg’ est requis mais n'a pas été trouvé.
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche de modules,  Next: Modules supplémentaires,  Prev: Lanceur Python pour Windows,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.9 Recherche de modules
--------------------------

Ces notes complètent la description de *note The initialization of the
sys.path module search path: 1c1e. avec des notes Windows détaillées.

Lorsque aucun fichier ‘._pth’ n'est trouvé, voilà comment *note
sys.path: 3ab. est construit sur Windows :

   * Une entrée vide est ajoutée au début, qui correspond au répertoire
     courant.

   * Si la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. existe,
     comme décrit dans *note Variables d'environnement: 5dd, ses entrées
     sont ajoutées ensuite.  Notez que sur Windows, les chemins d'accès
     de cette variable doivent être séparés par des points-virgules,
     pour les distinguer des deux points utilisés dans les
     identificateurs de lecteur (‘C:\’ etc.).

   * Des "chemins d'accès d'application" supplémentaires peuvent être
     ajoutés dans le registre en tant que sous-clés de
     ‘\SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath’ sous les ruches
     ‘HKEY_CURRENT_USER’ et ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE’.  Les sous-clés qui ont
     des chaînes de chemin délimitées par des points-virgules comme
     valeur par défaut entraînent l'ajout de chaque chemin d'accès à
     *note sys.path: 3ab.  (Notez que tous les installateurs connus
     utilisent seulement HKLM, donc HKCU est généralement vide.)

   * Si la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. est définie,
     elle est supposée comme "Python Home".  Sinon, le chemin de
     l'exécutable principal de Python est utilisé pour chercher un
     "fichier de repère" (soit ‘Lib\os.py’ ou ‘pythonXY.zip’) pour
     déduire le "Python Home".  Si un "Python Home" est trouvé, les
     sous-répertoires correspondants ajoutés à *note sys.path: 3ab.
     (‘Lib’, ‘plat-win’, etc) sont basés sur ce dossier.  Sinon, le
     chemin d'accès Python principal est construit à partir du
     PythonPath stocké dans le registre.

   * Si le "Python Home" ne peut pas être trouvé, *note PYTHONPATH:
     1008. n'est pas spécifié dans l'environnement et aucune entrée de
     registre ne peut être trouvée, un chemin par défaut avec des
     entrées relatives est utilisé (par exemple ‘.\Lib’ ; ‘.\plat-win’,
     etc.).

Si un fichier ‘pyvenv.cfg’ se trouve à côté de l'exécutable principal ou
dans le répertoire un niveau au-dessus de l'exécutable, les variantes
suivantes s'appliquent :

   * Si ‘home’ est un chemin absolu et *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. n'est pas
     défini, ce chemin d'accès est utilisé au lieu du chemin d'accès à
     l'exécutable principal lors de la déduction de l'emplacement du
     ‘home’.

Le résultat final de tout ceci est :

   * Lors de l'exécution de ‘python.exe’, ou tout autre ‘.exe’ dans le
     répertoire principal de Python (soit une version installée, soit
     directement à partir du répertoire PCbuild), le chemin principal
     est déduit et les chemins d'accès principaux dans le Registre sont
     ignorés.  D'autres "chemins d'application" dans le registre sont
     toujours lus.

   * Lorsque Python est hébergé dans un autre fichier ‘.exe’ (répertoire
     différent, intégré via COM, etc.), le "Python Home" ne sera pas
     déduit, de sorte que le chemin d'accès principal du registre est
     utilisé.  D'autres "chemins d'application" dans le registre sont
     toujours lus.

   * Si Python ne peut pas trouver son "home" et il n'y a pas de valeur
     de registre ('.exe' figé, une installation très étrange) vous
     obtenez un chemin d'accès avec certains chemins par défaut, mais
     relatif.

Pour ceux qui veulent intégrer Python dans leur application ou leur
distribution, les conseils suivants empêcheront les conflits avec
d'autres installations :

   * Incluez un fichier ‘._pth’ à côté de votre exécutable contenant les
     répertoires à inclure.  Ceci ignorera les chemins répertoriés dans
     le registre et les variables d'environnement, et ignorera également
     *note site: c6. à moins que ‘import site’ soit listé.

   * If you are loading ‘python3.dll’ or ‘python37.dll’ in your own
     executable, explicitly set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399.
     before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc.

   * Effacer et/ou écraser *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. et configurez *note
     PYTHONHOME: 3b3. avant de lancer le ‘python.exe’ de votre
     application.

   * Si vous ne pouvez pas utiliser les suggestions précédentes (par
     exemple, vous êtes une distribution qui permet aux gens d'exécuter
     ‘python.exe’ directement), assurez-vous que le point de repère
     ‘Lib\os.py’ existe dans votre répertoire d'installation.  (Notez
     qu'il ne sera pas détecté à l'intérieur d'un fichier ZIP, mais un
     fichier ZIP correctement nommé sera détecté à la place.)

Ceux-ci garantiront que les fichiers d'une installation à l'échelle du
système n'auront pas la priorité sur la copie de la bibliothèque
standard livrée avec votre application.  Sinon, vos utilisateurs
pourraient rencontrer des problèmes en utilisant votre application.
Notez que la première suggestion est la meilleure, car les autres
peuvent encore être sensibles aux chemins non-standard dans le registre
et le 'site-packages' utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Add ‘._pth’ file support and removes
‘applocal’ option from ‘pyvenv.cfg’.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Add ‘python`XX'.zip’ as a potential
landmark when directly adjacent to the executable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Modules specified in the registry under
‘Modules’ (not ‘PythonPath’) may be imported by *note
importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: d1a.  This finder is enabled
on Windows in 3.6.0 and earlier, but may need to be explicitly added to
*note sys.meta_path: d1b. in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules supplémentaires,  Next: Compiler Python sous Windows,  Prev: Recherche de modules,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.10 Modules supplémentaires
------------------------------

Même si Python a l'ambition d'être portable parmi toutes les
plates-formes, il existe des fonctionnalités propres à Windows.
Certains modules, à la fois dans la bibliothèque standard et externe, et
des exemples existent pour utiliser ces fonctionnalités.

Les modules standard de Windows sont documentés dans *note Services
spécifiques à MS Windows: 1df1.

* Menu:

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::


File: python.info,  Node: PyWin32,  Next: cx_Freeze,  Up: Modules supplémentaires

3.4.10.1 PyWin32
................

The PyWin32(1) module by Mark Hammond is a collection of modules for
advanced Windows-specific support.  This includes utilities for:

   * Component Object Model(2) (COM)

   * Appels à l'API Win32

   * Registre

   * Journal d'événement

   * Microsoft Foundation Classes(3) (MFC) user interfaces

PythonWin(4) est un exemple d'application MFC livrée avec PyWin32.  Il
s'agit d'un IDE embarqué avec débogueur intégré.

Voir aussi
..........

Win32 How Do I...?(5)

     par Tim Golden

Python and COM(6)

     par David et Paul Boddie

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/PyWin32/

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/com/component-object-model-com-portal

   (3) https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/mfc/mfc-desktop-applications

   (4) 
http://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/http://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/

   (5) https://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html

   (6) https://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html


File: python.info,  Node: cx_Freeze,  Prev: PyWin32,  Up: Modules supplémentaires

3.4.10.2 cx_Freeze
..................

cx_Freeze(1) wraps Python scripts into executable Windows programs
(‘`*'.exe’ files).  When you have done this, you can distribute your
application without requiring your users to install Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cx-freeze.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler Python sous Windows,  Next: Autres plateformes,  Prev: Modules supplémentaires,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.11 Compiler Python sous Windows
-----------------------------------

Si vous voulez compiler CPython vous-même, la première chose à faire est
obtenir la source(1).  Vous pouvez télécharger soit la source de la
dernière version ou tout simplement prendre un checkout(2).

L'arborescence source contient une solution de compilation et des
fichiers projet pour Microsoft Visual Studio, qui est le compilateur
utilisé pour générer les versions officielles de Python.  Ces fichiers
se trouvent dans le répertoire ‘PCbuild’.

Consultez ‘PC/readme.txt’ pour des informations générales sur le
processus de construction.

Pour les modules d'extension, consultez *note Construire des extensions
C et C++ sur Windows: 1df5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code


File: python.info,  Node: Autres plateformes,  Prev: Compiler Python sous Windows,  Up: Utilisation de Python sur Windows

3.4.12 Autres plateformes
-------------------------

Avec le développement continu de Python, certaines plateformes qui
étaient auparavant prises en charge ne sont plus prises en charge (en
raison du manque d'utilisateurs ou de développeurs).  Voir PEP 11(1)
pour plus de détails sur toutes les plateformes non prises en charge.

   * Windows CE(2) n’est plus pris en charge
     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71542’ depuis Python 3
     (s’il l’a jamais été).

   * Le programme d’installation de Cygwin(3) propose d’installer
     également l’interpréteur Python(4).

Voir Python pour Windows(5) pour des instructions détaillées sur les
plateformes avec installateurs pré-compilés.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/

   (3) https://cygwin.com/

   (4) https://cygwin.com/packages/summary/python3.html

   (5) https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on macOS,  Next: Using Python on Android,  Prev: Utilisation de Python sur Windows,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.5 Using Python on macOS
=========================

This document aims to give an overview of macOS-specific behavior you
should know about to get started with Python on Mac computers.  Python
on a Mac running macOS is very similar to Python on other Unix-derived
platforms, but there are some differences in installation and some
features.

There are various ways to obtain and install Python for macOS. Pre-built
versions of the most recent versions of Python are available from a
number of distributors.  Much of this document describes use of the
Pythons provided by the CPython release team for download from the
python.org website(1).  See *note Alternative Distributions: 1dfa. for
some other options.
* Menu:

* Using Python for macOS from python.org: Using Python for macOS from python org.
* Alternative Distributions::
* Installation de paquets Python additionnels::
* GUI Programming::
* Sujets avancés::
* Autres ressources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python for macOS from python org,  Next: Alternative Distributions,  Up: Using Python on macOS

3.5.1 Using Python for macOS from ‘python.org’
----------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Étapes d'installation: Étapes d'installation<2>.
* Comment exécuter un script Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Étapes d'installation<2>,  Next: Comment exécuter un script Python,  Up: Using Python for macOS from python org

3.5.1.1 Étapes d'installation
.............................

For current Python versions(1) (other than those in ‘security’ status),
the release team produces a 'Python for macOS' installer package for
each new release.  A list of available installers is available here(2).
We recommend using the most recent supported Python version where
possible.  Current installers provide a universal2 binary(3) build of
Python which runs natively on all Macs (Apple Silicon and Intel) that
are supported by a wide range of macOS versions, currently typically
from at least 'macOS 10.13 High Sierra' on.

The downloaded file is a standard macOS installer package file (‘.pkg’).
File integrity information (checksum, size, sigstore signature, etc) for
each file is included on the release download page.  Installer packages
and their contents are signed and notarized with ‘Python Software
Foundation’ Apple Developer ID certificates to meet macOS Gatekeeper
requirements(4).

For a default installation, double-click on the downloaded installer
package file.  This should launch the standard macOS Installer app and
display the first of several installer windows steps.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_01_introduction.png"]


Clicking on the 'Continue' button brings up the 'Read Me' for this
installer.  Besides other important information, the 'Read Me' documents
which Python version is going to be installed and on what versions of
macOS it is supported.  You may need to scroll through to read the whole
file.  By default, this 'Read Me' will also be installed in
‘/Applications/Python 3.13/’ and available to read anytime.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_02_readme.png"]


Clicking on 'Continue' proceeds to display the license for Python and
for other included software.  You will then need to 'Agree' to the
license terms before proceeding to the next step.  This license file
will also be installed and available to be read later.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_03_license.png"]


After the license terms are accepted, the next step is the 'Installation
Type' display.  For most uses, the standard set of installation
operations is appropriate.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_04_installation_type.png"]


By pressing the 'Customize' button, you can choose to omit or select
certain package components of the installer.  Click on each package name
to see a description of what it installs.  To also install support for
the optional experimental free-threaded feature, see *note Installing
Free-threaded Binaries: 172.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_05_custom_install.png"]


In either case, clicking 'Install' will begin the install process by
asking permission to install new software.  A macOS user name with
‘Administrator’ privilege is needed as the installed Python will be
available to all users of the Mac.

When the installation is complete, the 'Summary' window will appear.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_06_summary.png"]


Double-click on the ‘Install Certificates.command’ icon or file in the
‘/Applications/Python 3.13/’ window to complete the installation.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_07_applications.png"]


This will open a temporary ‘Terminal’ shell window that will use the new
Python to download and install SSL root certificates for its use.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_08_install_certificates.png"]


If ‘Successfully installed certifi’ and ‘update complete’ appears in the
terminal window, the installation is complete.  Close this terminal
window and the installer window.

A default install will include:

   * A ‘Python 3.13’ folder in your ‘Applications’ folder.  In here you
     find ‘IDLE’, the development environment that is a standard part of
     official Python distributions; and ‘Python Launcher’, which handles
     double-clicking Python scripts from the macOS Finder(5).

   * A framework ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’, which includes
     the Python executable and libraries.  The installer adds this
     location to your shell path.  To uninstall Python, you can remove
     these three things.  Symlinks to the Python executable are placed
     in ‘/usr/local/bin/’.

     Note: Recent versions of macOS include a ‘python3’ command in
     ‘/usr/bin/python3’ that links to a usually older and incomplete
     version of Python provided by and for use by the Apple development
     tools, ‘Xcode’ or the ‘Command Line Tools for Xcode’.  You should
     never modify or attempt to delete this installation, as it is
     Apple-controlled and is used by Apple-provided or third-party
     software.  If you choose to install a newer Python version from
     ‘python.org’, you will have two different but functional Python
     installations on your computer that can co-exist.  The default
     installer options should ensure that its ‘python3’ will be used
     instead of the system ‘python3’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_binary

   (4) https://support.apple.com/en-us/102445

   (5) https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201732


File: python.info,  Node: Comment exécuter un script Python,  Prev: Étapes d'installation<2>,  Up: Using Python for macOS from python org

3.5.1.2 Comment exécuter un script Python
.........................................

There are two ways to invoke the Python interpreter.  If you are
familiar with using a Unix shell in a terminal window, you can invoke
‘python3.13’ or ‘python3’ optionally followed by one or more command
line options (described in *note Ligne de commande et environnement:
197d.).  The Python tutorial also has a useful section on *note using
Python interactively from a shell: 16e.

You can also invoke the interpreter through an integrated development
environment.  *note IDLE -- Python editor and shell: 1000. is a basic
editor and interpreter environment which is included with the standard
distribution of Python.  ‘IDLE’ includes a Help menu that allows you to
access Python documentation.  If you are completely new to Python, you
can read the tutorial introduction in that document.

There are many other editors and IDEs available, see *note Éditeurs et
IDEs: 1e00. for more information.

To run a Python script file from the terminal window, you can invoke the
interpreter with the name of the script file:

     ‘python3.13’ ‘myscript.py’

To run your script from the Finder, you can either:

   * Drag it to ‘Python Launcher’.

   * Select ‘Python Launcher’ as the default application to open your
     script (or any ‘.py’ script) through the Finder Info window and
     double-click it.  ‘Python Launcher’ has various preferences to
     control how your script is launched.  Option-dragging allows you to
     change these for one invocation, or use its ‘Preferences’ menu to
     change things globally.

Be aware that running the script directly from the macOS Finder might
produce different results than when running from a terminal window as
the script will not be run in the usual shell environment including any
setting of environment variables in shell profiles.  And, as with any
other script or program, be certain of what you are about to run.


File: python.info,  Node: Alternative Distributions,  Next: Installation de paquets Python additionnels,  Prev: Using Python for macOS from python org,  Up: Using Python on macOS

3.5.2 Alternative Distributions
-------------------------------

Besides the standard ‘python.org’ for macOS installer, there are
third-party distributions for macOS that may include additional
functionality.  Some popular distributions and their key features:

ActivePython(1)

     Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation

Anaconda(2)

     Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy, and pandas) and
     the ‘conda’ package manager.

Homebrew(3)

     Package manager for macOS including multiple versions of Python and
     many third-party Python-based packages (including numpy, scipy, and
     pandas).

MacPorts(4)

     Another package manager for macOS including multiple versions of
     Python and many third-party Python-based packages.  May include
     pre-built versions of Python and many packages for older versions
     of macOS.

Note that distributions might not include the latest versions of Python
or other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core
Python team.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://brew.sh

   (4) https://www.macports.org


File: python.info,  Node: Installation de paquets Python additionnels,  Next: GUI Programming,  Prev: Alternative Distributions,  Up: Using Python on macOS

3.5.3 Installation de paquets Python additionnels
-------------------------------------------------

Refer to the Python Packaging User Guide(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/


File: python.info,  Node: GUI Programming,  Next: Sujets avancés,  Prev: Installation de paquets Python additionnels,  Up: Using Python on macOS

3.5.4 GUI Programming
---------------------

Il y a plusieurs options pour construire des applications avec interface
graphique sur le Mac avec Python.

The standard Python GUI toolkit is *note tkinter: ef, based on the
cross-platform Tk toolkit (‘https://www.tcl.tk’).  A macOS-native
version of Tk is included with the installer.

'PyObjC' is a Python binding to Apple's Objective-C/Cocoa framework.
Information on PyObjC is available from pyobjc(1).

A number of alternative macOS GUI toolkits are available including:

   * PySide(2): Official Python bindings to the Qt GUI toolkit(3).

   * PyQt(4): Alternative Python bindings to Qt.

   * Kivy(5): A cross-platform GUI toolkit that supports desktop and
     mobile platforms.

   * Toga(6): Part of the BeeWare Project(7); supports desktop, mobile,
     web and console apps.

   * wxPython(8): A cross-platform toolkit that supports desktop
     operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/

   (2) https://www.qt.io/qt-for-python

   (3) https://wiki.qt.io/Qt_for_Python

   (4) https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/

   (5) https://kivy.org

   (6) https://toga.readthedocs.io

   (7) https://beeware.org

   (8) https://wxpython.org


File: python.info,  Node: Sujets avancés,  Next: Autres ressources,  Prev: GUI Programming,  Up: Using Python on macOS

3.5.5 Sujets avancés
--------------------

* Menu:

* Installing Free-threaded Binaries: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>.
* Installing using the command line::
* Distributing Python Applications::
* App Store Compliance::


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>,  Next: Installing using the command line,  Up: Sujets avancés

3.5.5.1 Installing Free-threaded Binaries
.........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: (Experimental)

     Note: Everything described in this section is considered
     experimental, and should be expected to change in future releases.

The ‘python.org’ *note Python for macOS: 1dfc. installer package can
optionally install an additional build of Python 3.13 that supports PEP
703(1), the experimental free-threading feature (running with the *note
global interpreter lock: 147. disabled).  Check the release page on
‘python.org’ for possible updated information.

Because this feature is still considered experimental, the support for
it is not installed by default.  It is packaged as a separate install
option, available by clicking the 'Customize' button on the
'Installation Type' step of the installer as described above.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_09_custom_install_free_threaded.png"]


If the box next to the 'Free-threaded Python' package name is checked, a
separate ‘PythonT.framework’ will also be installed alongside the normal
‘Python.framework’ in ‘/Library/Frameworks’.  This configuration allows
a free-threaded Python 3.13 build to co-exist on your system with a
traditional (GIL only) Python 3.13 build with minimal risk while
installing or testing.  This installation layout is itself experimental
and is subject to change in future releases.

Known cautions and limitations:

   - The 'UNIX command-line tools' package, which is selected by
     default, will install links in ‘/usr/local/bin’ for ‘python3.13t’,
     the free-threaded interpreter, and ‘python3.13t-config’, a
     configuration utility which may be useful for package builders.
     Since ‘/usr/local/bin’ is typically included in your shell ‘PATH’,
     in most cases no changes to your ‘PATH’ environment variables
     should be needed to use ‘python3.13t’.

   - For this release, the 'Shell profile updater' package and the
     ‘Update Shell Profile.command’ in ‘/Applications/Python 3.13/’ do
     not support the free-threaded package.

   - The free-threaded build and the traditional build have separate
     search paths and separate ‘site-packages’ directories so, by
     default, if you need a package available in both builds, it may
     need to be installed in both.  The free-threaded package will
     install a separate instance of ‘pip’ for use with ‘python3.13t’.

        - To install a package using ‘pip’ without a ‘venv’:

               ‘python3.13t’ ‘-m pip install <package_name>’

   - When working with multiple Python environments, it is usually
     safest and easiest to *note create and use virtual environments:
     1cbb.  This can avoid possible command name conflicts and confusion
     about which Python is in use:

          ‘python3.13t’ ‘-m venv <venv_name>’

     then ‘activate’.

   - To run a free-threaded version of IDLE:

          ‘python3.13t’ ‘-m idlelib’

   - The interpreters in both builds respond to the same *note PYTHON
     environment variables: 5dd. which may have unexpected results, for
     example, if you have ‘PYTHONPATH’ set in a shell profile.  If
     necessary, there are *note command line options: 1ce6. like ‘-E’ to
     ignore these environment variables.

   - The free-threaded build links to the third-party shared libraries,
     such as ‘OpenSSL’ and ‘Tk’, installed in the traditional framework.
     This means that both builds also share one set of trust
     certificates as installed by the ‘Install Certificates.command’
     script, thus it only needs to be run once.

   - If you cannot depend on the link in ‘/usr/local/bin’ pointing to
     the ‘python.org’ free-threaded ‘python3.13t’ (for example, if you
     want to install your own version there or some other distribution
     does), you can explicitly set your shell ‘PATH’ environment
     variable to include the ‘PythonT’ framework ‘bin’ directory:

          export PATH="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.13/bin":"$PATH"

     The traditional framework installation by default does something
     similar, except for ‘Python.framework’.  Be aware that having both
     framework ‘bin’ directories in ‘PATH’ can lead to confusion if
     there are duplicate names like ‘python3.13’ in both; which one is
     actually used depends on the order they appear in ‘PATH’.  The
     ‘which python3.x’ or ‘which python3.xt’ commands can show which
     path is being used.  Using virtual environments can help avoid such
     ambiguities.  Another option might be to create a shell ‘alias’ to
     the desired interpreter, like:

          alias py3.13="/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.13/bin/python3.13"
          alias py3.13t="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.13/bin/python3.13t"

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Installing using the command line,  Next: Distributing Python Applications,  Prev: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>,  Up: Sujets avancés

3.5.5.2 Installing using the command line
.........................................

If you want to use automation to install the ‘python.org’ installer
package (rather than by using the familiar macOS ‘Installer’ GUI app),
the macOS command line ‘installer’ utility lets you select non-default
options, too.  If you are not familiar with ‘installer’, it can be
somewhat cryptic (see ‘man installer’ for more information).  As an
example, the following shell snippet shows one way to do it, using the
‘3.13.0b2’ release and selecting the free-threaded interpreter option:

     RELEASE="python-3.13.0b2-macos11.pkg"

     # download installer pkg
     curl -O https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/${RELEASE}

     # create installer choicechanges to customize the install:
     #    enable the PythonTFramework-3.13 package
     #    while accepting the other defaults (install all other packages)
     cat > ./choicechanges.plist <<EOF
     <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
     <!DOCTYPE plist PUBLIC "-//Apple//DTD PLIST 1.0//EN" "http://www.apple.com/DTDs/PropertyList-1.0.dtd">
     <plist version="1.0">
     <array>
             <dict>
                     <key>attributeSetting</key>
                     <integer>1</integer>
                     <key>choiceAttribute</key>
                     <string>selected</string>
                     <key>choiceIdentifier</key>
                     <string>org.python.Python.PythonTFramework-3.13</string>
             </dict>
     </array>
     </plist>
     EOF

     sudo installer -pkg ./${RELEASE} -applyChoiceChangesXML ./choicechanges.plist -target /

You can then test that both installer builds are now available with
something like:

     $ # test that the free-threaded interpreter was installed if the Unix Command Tools package was enabled
     $ /usr/local/bin/python3.13t -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 experimental free-threading build (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ #    and the traditional interpreter
     $ /usr/local/bin/python3.13 -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ # test that they are also available without the prefix if /usr/local/bin is on $PATH
     $ python3.13t -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 experimental free-threading build (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ python3.13 -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]

     Note: Current ‘python.org’ installers only install to fixed
     locations like ‘/Library/Frameworks/’, ‘/Applications’, and
     ‘/usr/local/bin’.  You cannot use the ‘installer’ ‘-domain’ option
     to install to other locations.


File: python.info,  Node: Distributing Python Applications,  Next: App Store Compliance,  Prev: Installing using the command line,  Up: Sujets avancés

3.5.5.3 Distributing Python Applications
........................................

A range of tools exist for converting your Python code into a standalone
distributable application:

   * py2app(1): Supports creating macOS ‘.app’ bundles from a Python
     project.

   * Briefcase(2): Part of the BeeWare Project(3); a cross-platform
     packaging tool that supports creation of ‘.app’ bundles on macOS,
     as well as managing signing and notarization.

   * PyInstaller(4): A cross-platform packaging tool that creates a
     single file or folder as a distributable artifact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/py2app/

   (2) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://beeware.org

   (4) https://pyinstaller.org/


File: python.info,  Node: App Store Compliance,  Prev: Distributing Python Applications,  Up: Sujets avancés

3.5.5.4 App Store Compliance
............................

Apps submitted for distribution through the macOS App Store must pass
Apple's app review process.  This process includes a set of automated
validation rules that inspect the submitted application bundle for
problematic code.

The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate
these automated rules.  While these violations appear to be false
positives, Apple's review rules cannot be challenged.  Therefore, it is
necessary to modify the Python standard library for an app to pass App
Store review.

The Python source tree contains a patch file(1) that will remove all
code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process.
This patch is applied automatically when CPython is configured with the
*note -with-app-store-compliance: 15ae. option.

This patch is not normally required to use CPython on a Mac; nor is it
required if you are distributing an app 'outside' the macOS App Store.
It is 'only' required if you are using the macOS App Store as a
distribution channel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch


File: python.info,  Node: Autres ressources,  Prev: Sujets avancés,  Up: Using Python on macOS

3.5.6 Autres ressources
-----------------------

The python.org Help page(1) has links to many useful resources.  The
Pythonmac-SIG mailing list(2) is another support resource specifically
for Python users and developers on the Mac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/about/help/

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on Android,  Next: Using Python on iOS,  Prev: Using Python on macOS,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.6 Using Python on Android
===========================

Python on Android is unlike Python on desktop platforms.  On a desktop
platform, Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be
used by any user of that computer.  Users then interact with Python by
running a ‘python’ executable and entering commands at an interactive
prompt, or by running a Python script.

On Android, there is no concept of installing as a system resource.  The
only unit of software distribution is an "app".  There is also no
console where you could run a ‘python’ executable, or interact with a
Python REPL.

As a result, the only way you can use Python on Android is in embedded
mode – that is, by writing a native Android application, embedding a
Python interpreter using ‘libpython’, and invoking Python code using the
*note Python embedding API: 1e11.  The full Python interpreter, the
standard library, and all your Python code is then packaged into your
app for its own private use.

The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions
on Android.  See the *note API availability guide: 1e12. for details.

* Menu:

* Adding Python to an Android app::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding Python to an Android app,  Up: Using Python on Android

3.6.1 Adding Python to an Android app
-------------------------------------

Most app developers should use one of the following tools, which will
provide a much easier experience:

   * Briefcase(1), from the BeeWare project

   * Buildozer(2), from the Kivy project

   * Chaquopy(3)

   * pyqtdeploy(4)

   * Termux(5)

If you're sure you want to do all of this manually, read on.  You can
use the testbed app(6) as a guide; each step below contains a link to
the relevant file.

   * Build Python by following the instructions in Android/README.md(7).
     This will create the directory ‘cross-build/HOST/prefix’.

   * Add code to your build.gradle(8) file to copy the following items
     into your project.  All except your own Python code can be copied
     from ‘prefix/lib’:

        * In your JNI libraries:

             * ‘libpython*.*.so’

             * ‘lib*_python.so’ (external libraries such as OpenSSL)

        * In your assets:

             * ‘python*.*’ (the Python standard library)

             * ‘python*.*/site-packages’ (your own Python code)

   * Add code to your app to extract the assets to the filesystem(9).

   * Add code to your app to start Python in embedded mode(10).  This
     will need to be C code called via JNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (2) https://buildozer.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://chaquo.com/chaquopy

   (4) https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/static/Docs/pyqtdeploy/

   (5) https://termux.dev/en/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/README.md

   (8) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts

   (9) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt

   (10) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on iOS,  Next: Éditeurs et IDEs,  Prev: Using Python on Android,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.7 Using Python on iOS
=======================


Authors: Russell Keith-Magee (2024-03)

Python on iOS is unlike Python on desktop platforms.  On a desktop
platform, Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be
used by any user of that computer.  Users then interact with Python by
running a ‘python’ executable and entering commands at an interactive
prompt, or by running a Python script.

On iOS, there is no concept of installing as a system resource.  The
only unit of software distribution is an "app".  There is also no
console where you could run a ‘python’ executable, or interact with a
Python REPL.

As a result, the only way you can use Python on iOS is in embedded mode
- that is, by writing a native iOS application, and embedding a Python
interpreter using ‘libPython’, and invoking Python code using the *note
Python embedding API: 1e11.  The full Python interpreter, the standard
library, and all your Python code is then packaged as a standalone
bundle that can be distributed via the iOS App Store.

If you're looking to experiment for the first time with writing an iOS
app in Python, projects such as BeeWare(1) and Kivy(2) will provide a
much more approachable user experience.  These projects manage the
complexities associated with getting an iOS project running, so you only
need to deal with the Python code itself.

* Menu:

* Python at runtime on iOS::
* Installing Python on iOS::
* App Store Compliance: App Store Compliance<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://beeware.org

   (2) https://kivy.org


File: python.info,  Node: Python at runtime on iOS,  Next: Installing Python on iOS,  Up: Using Python on iOS

3.7.1 Python at runtime on iOS
------------------------------

* Menu:

* iOS version compatibility::
* Platform identification::
* Standard library availability::
* Binary extension modules::
* Compiler stub binaries::


File: python.info,  Node: iOS version compatibility,  Next: Platform identification,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.1 iOS version compatibility
.................................

The minimum supported iOS version is specified at compile time, using
the *note -host: 1d91. option to ‘configure’.  By default, when compiled
for iOS, Python will be compiled with a minimum supported iOS version of
13.0.  To use a different minimum iOS version, provide the version
number as part of the ‘--host’ argument - for example,
‘--host=arm64-apple-ios15.4-simulator’ would compile an ARM64 simulator
build with a deployment target of 15.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Platform identification,  Next: Standard library availability,  Prev: iOS version compatibility,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.2 Platform identification
...............................

When executing on iOS, ‘sys.platform’ will report as ‘ios’.  This value
will be returned on an iPhone or iPad, regardless of whether the app is
running on the simulator or a physical device.

Information about the specific runtime environment, including the iOS
version, device model, and whether the device is a simulator, can be
obtained using *note platform.ios_ver(): 1e1a.  *note platform.system():
1e1b. will report ‘iOS’ or ‘iPadOS’, depending on the device.

*note os.uname(): 10f8. reports kernel-level details; it will report a
name of ‘Darwin’.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard library availability,  Next: Binary extension modules,  Prev: Platform identification,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.3 Standard library availability
.....................................

The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions
on iOS. See the *note API availability guide for iOS: 1e12. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary extension modules,  Next: Compiler stub binaries,  Prev: Standard library availability,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.4 Binary extension modules
................................

One notable difference about iOS as a platform is that App Store
distribution imposes hard requirements on the packaging of an
application.  One of these requirements governs how binary extension
modules are distributed.

The iOS App Store requires that 'all' binary modules in an iOS app must
be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with appropriate
metadata, stored in the ‘Frameworks’ folder of the packaged app.  There
can be only a single binary per framework, and there can be no
executable binary material outside the ‘Frameworks’ folder.

This conflicts with the usual Python approach for distributing binaries,
which allows a binary extension module to be loaded from any location on
‘sys.path’.  To ensure compliance with App Store policies, an iOS
project must post-process any Python packages, converting ‘.so’ binary
modules into individual standalone frameworks with appropriate metadata
and signing.  For details on how to perform this post-processing, see
the guide for *note adding Python to your project: 1e1e.

To help Python discover binaries in their new location, the original
‘.so’ file on ‘sys.path’ is replaced with a ‘.fwork’ file.  This file is
a text file containing the location of the framework binary, relative to
the app bundle.  To allow the framework to resolve back to the original
location, the framework must contain a ‘.origin’ file that contains the
location of the ‘.fwork’ file, relative to the app bundle.

For example, consider the case of an import ‘from foo.bar import _whiz’,
where ‘_whiz’ is implemented with the binary module
‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, with ‘sources’ being the location
registered on ‘sys.path’, relative to the application bundle.  This
module 'must' be distributed as
‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (creating the
framework name from the full import path of the module), with an
‘Info.plist’ file in the ‘.framework’ directory identifying the binary
as a framework.  The ‘foo.bar._whiz’ module would be represented in the
original location with a ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’ marker file,
containing the path ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’.  The
framework would also contain
‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’, containing
the path to the ‘.fwork’ file.

When running on iOS, the Python interpreter will install an *note
AppleFrameworkLoader: 1e1f. that is able to read and import ‘.fwork’
files.  Once imported, the ‘__file__’ attribute of the binary module
will report as the location of the ‘.fwork’ file.  However, the *note
ModuleSpec: 1e20. for the loaded module will report the ‘origin’ as the
location of the binary in the framework folder.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler stub binaries,  Prev: Binary extension modules,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.5 Compiler stub binaries
..............................

Xcode doesn't expose explicit compilers for iOS; instead, it uses an
‘xcrun’ script that resolves to a full compiler path (e.g., ‘xcrun --sdk
iphoneos clang’ to get the ‘clang’ for an iPhone device).  However,
using this script poses two problems:

   * The output of ‘xcrun’ includes paths that are machine specific,
     resulting in a sysconfig module that cannot be shared between
     users; and

   * It results in ‘CC’/‘CPP’/‘LD’/‘AR’ definitions that include spaces.
     There is a lot of C ecosystem tooling that assumes that you can
     split a command line at the first space to get the path to the
     compiler executable; this isn't the case when using ‘xcrun’.

To avoid these problems, Python provided stubs for these tools.  These
stubs are shell script wrappers around the underingly ‘xcrun’ tools,
distributed in a ‘bin’ folder distributed alongside the compiled iOS
framework.  These scripts are relocatable, and will always resolve to
the appropriate local system paths.  By including these scripts in the
bin folder that accompanies a framework, the contents of the ‘sysconfig’
module becomes useful for end-users to compile their own modules.  When
compiling third-party Python modules for iOS, you should ensure these
stub binaries are on your path.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Python on iOS,  Next: App Store Compliance<2>,  Prev: Python at runtime on iOS,  Up: Using Python on iOS

3.7.2 Installing Python on iOS
------------------------------

* Menu:

* Tools for building iOS apps::
* Adding Python to an iOS project::
* Testing a Python package::


File: python.info,  Node: Tools for building iOS apps,  Next: Adding Python to an iOS project,  Up: Installing Python on iOS

3.7.2.1 Tools for building iOS apps
...................................

Building for iOS requires the use of Apple's Xcode tooling.  It is
strongly recommended that you use the most recent stable release of
Xcode.  This will require the use of the most (or second-most) recently
released macOS version, as Apple does not maintain Xcode for older macOS
versions.  The Xcode Command Line Tools are not sufficient for iOS
development; you need a 'full' Xcode install.

If you want to run your code on the iOS simulator, you'll also need to
install an iOS Simulator Platform.  You should be prompted to select an
iOS Simulator Platform when you first run Xcode.  Alternatively, you can
add an iOS Simulator Platform by selecting from the Platforms tab of the
Xcode Settings panel.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding Python to an iOS project,  Next: Testing a Python package,  Prev: Tools for building iOS apps,  Up: Installing Python on iOS

3.7.2.2 Adding Python to an iOS project
.......................................

Python can be added to any iOS project, using either Swift or Objective
C. The following examples will use Objective C; if you are using Swift,
you may find a library like PythonKit(1) to be helpful.

To add Python to an iOS Xcode project:

  1. Build or obtain a Python ‘XCFramework’.  See the instructions in
     iOS/README.rst(2) (in the CPython source distribution) for details
     on how to build a Python ‘XCFramework’.  At a minimum, you will
     need a build that supports ‘arm64-apple-ios’, plus one of either
     ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ or ‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’.

  2. Drag the ‘XCframework’ into your iOS project.  In the following
     instructions, we'll assume you've dropped the ‘XCframework’ into
     the root of your project; however, you can use any other location
     that you want by adjusting paths as needed.

  3. Drag the ‘iOS/Resources/dylib-Info-template.plist’ file into your
     project, and ensure it is associated with the app target.

  4. Add your application code as a folder in your Xcode project.  In
     the following instructions, we'll assume that your user code is in
     a folder named ‘app’ in the root of your project; you can use any
     other location by adjusting paths as needed.  Ensure that this
     folder is associated with your app target.

  5. Select the app target by selecting the root node of your Xcode
     project, then the target name in the sidebar that appears.

  6. In the "General" settings, under "Frameworks, Libraries and
     Embedded Content", add ‘Python.xcframework’, with "Embed & Sign"
     selected.

  7. In the "Build Settings" tab, modify the following:

        - Build Options

             * User Script Sandboxing: No

             * Enable Testability: Yes

        - Search Paths

             * Framework Search Paths: ‘$(PROJECT_DIR)’

             * Header Search Paths:
               ‘"$(BUILT_PRODUCTS_DIR)/Python.framework/Headers"’

        - Apple Clang - Warnings - All languages

             * Quoted Include In Framework Header: No

  8. Add a build step that copies the Python standard library into your
     app.  In the "Build Phases" tab, add a new "Run Script" build step
     'before' the "Embed Frameworks" step, but 'after' the "Copy Bundle
     Resources" step.  Name the step "Install Target Specific Python
     Standard Library", disable the "Based on dependency analysis"
     checkbox, and set the script content to:

          set -e

          mkdir -p "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib"
          if [ "$EFFECTIVE_PLATFORM_NAME" = "-iphonesimulator" ]; then
              echo "Installing Python modules for iOS Simulator"
              rsync -au --delete "$PROJECT_DIR/Python.xcframework/ios-arm64_x86_64-simulator/lib/" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib/"
          else
              echo "Installing Python modules for iOS Device"
              rsync -au --delete "$PROJECT_DIR/Python.xcframework/ios-arm64/lib/" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib/"
          fi

     Note that the name of the simulator "slice" in the XCframework may
     be different, depending the CPU architectures your ‘XCFramework’
     supports.

  9. Add a second build step that processes the binary extension modules
     in the standard library into "Framework" format.  Add a "Run
     Script" build step 'directly after' the one you added in step 8,
     named "Prepare Python Binary Modules".  It should also have "Based
     on dependency analysis" unchecked, with the following script
     content:

          set -e

          install_dylib () {
              INSTALL_BASE=$1
              FULL_EXT=$2

              # The name of the extension file
              EXT=$(basename "$FULL_EXT")
              # The location of the extension file, relative to the bundle
              RELATIVE_EXT=${FULL_EXT#$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/}
              # The path to the extension file, relative to the install base
              PYTHON_EXT=${RELATIVE_EXT/$INSTALL_BASE/}
              # The full dotted name of the extension module, constructed from the file path.
              FULL_MODULE_NAME=$(echo $PYTHON_EXT | cut -d "." -f 1 | tr "/" ".");
              # A bundle identifier; not actually used, but required by Xcode framework packaging
              FRAMEWORK_BUNDLE_ID=$(echo $PRODUCT_BUNDLE_IDENTIFIER.$FULL_MODULE_NAME | tr "_" "-")
              # The name of the framework folder.
              FRAMEWORK_FOLDER="Frameworks/$FULL_MODULE_NAME.framework"

              # If the framework folder doesn't exist, create it.
              if [ ! -d "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER" ]; then
                  echo "Creating framework for $RELATIVE_EXT"
                  mkdir -p "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER"
                  cp "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/dylib-Info-template.plist" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/Info.plist"
                  plutil -replace CFBundleExecutable -string "$FULL_MODULE_NAME" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/Info.plist"
                  plutil -replace CFBundleIdentifier -string "$FRAMEWORK_BUNDLE_ID" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/Info.plist"
              fi

              echo "Installing binary for $FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME"
              mv "$FULL_EXT" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME"
              # Create a placeholder .fwork file where the .so was
              echo "$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME" > ${FULL_EXT%.so}.fwork
              # Create a back reference to the .so file location in the framework
              echo "${RELATIVE_EXT%.so}.fwork" > "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME.origin"
           }

           PYTHON_VER=$(ls -1 "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib")
           echo "Install Python $PYTHON_VER standard library extension modules..."
           find "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib/$PYTHON_VER/lib-dynload" -name "*.so" | while read FULL_EXT; do
              install_dylib python/lib/$PYTHON_VER/lib-dynload/ "$FULL_EXT"
           done

           # Clean up dylib template
           rm -f "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/dylib-Info-template.plist"

           echo "Signing frameworks as $EXPANDED_CODE_SIGN_IDENTITY_NAME ($EXPANDED_CODE_SIGN_IDENTITY)..."
           find "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/Frameworks" -name "*.framework" -exec /usr/bin/codesign --force --sign "$EXPANDED_CODE_SIGN_IDENTITY" ${OTHER_CODE_SIGN_FLAGS:-} -o runtime --timestamp=none --preserve-metadata=identifier,entitlements,flags --generate-entitlement-der "{}" \;

  10. Add Objective C code to initialize and use a Python interpreter in
     embedded mode.  You should ensure that:

        * UTF-8 mode (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1.) is 'enabled';

        * Buffered stdio (*note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d6.) is
          'disabled';

        * Writing bytecode (*note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d2.) is
          'disabled';

        * Signal handlers (*note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8ad.)
          are 'enabled';

        * ‘PYTHONHOME’ for the interpreter is configured to point at the
          ‘python’ subfolder of your app's bundle; and

        * The ‘PYTHONPATH’ for the interpreter includes:

             - the ‘python/lib/python3.X’ subfolder of your app's
               bundle,

             - the ‘python/lib/python3.X/lib-dynload’ subfolder of your
               app's bundle, and

             - the ‘app’ subfolder of your app's bundle

     Your app's bundle location can be determined using ‘[[NSBundle
     mainBundle] resourcePath]’.

Steps 8, 9 and 10 of these instructions assume that you have a single
folder of pure Python application code, named ‘app’.  If you have
third-party binary modules in your app, some additional steps will be
required:

   * You need to ensure that any folders containing third-party binaries
     are either associated with the app target, or copied in as part of
     step 8.  Step 8 should also purge any binaries that are not
     appropriate for the platform a specific build is targeting (i.e.,
     delete any device binaries if you're building an app targeting the
     simulator).

   * Any folders that contain third-party binaries must be processed
     into framework form by step 9.  The invocation of ‘install_dylib’
     that processes the ‘lib-dynload’ folder can be copied and adapted
     for this purpose.

   * If you're using a separate folder for third-party packages, ensure
     that folder is included as part of the ‘PYTHONPATH’ configuration
     in step 10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pvieito/PythonKit

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Testing a Python package,  Prev: Adding Python to an iOS project,  Up: Installing Python on iOS

3.7.2.3 Testing a Python package
................................

The CPython source tree contains a testbed project(1) that is used to
run the CPython test suite on the iOS simulator.  This testbed can also
be used as a testbed project for running your Python library's test
suite on iOS.

After building or obtaining an iOS XCFramework (See iOS/README.rst(2)
for details), create a clone of the Python iOS testbed project by
running:

     $ python iOS/testbed clone --framework <path/to/Python.xcframework> --app <path/to/module1> --app <path/to/module2> app-testbed

You will need to modify the ‘iOS/testbed’ reference to point to that
directory in the CPython source tree; any folders specified with the
‘--app’ flag will be copied into the cloned testbed project.  The
resulting testbed will be created in the ‘app-testbed’ folder.  In this
example, the ‘module1’ and ‘module2’ would be importable modules at
runtime.  If your project has additional dependencies, they can be
installed into the ‘app-testbed/iOSTestbed/app_packages’ folder (using
‘pip install --target app-testbed/iOSTestbed/app_packages’ or similar).

You can then use the ‘app-testbed’ folder to run the test suite for your
app, For example, if ‘module1.tests’ was the entry point to your test
suite, you could run:

     $ python app-testbed run -- module1.tests

This is the equivalent of running ‘python -m module1.tests’ on a desktop
Python build.  Any arguments after the ‘--’ will be passed to the
testbed as if they were arguments to ‘python -m’ on a desktop machine.

You can also open the testbed project in Xcode by running:

     $ open app-testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj

This will allow you to use the full Xcode suite of tools for debugging.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/testbed

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: App Store Compliance<2>,  Prev: Installing Python on iOS,  Up: Using Python on iOS

3.7.3 App Store Compliance
--------------------------

The only mechanism for distributing apps to third-party iOS devices is
to submit the app to the iOS App Store; apps submitted for distribution
must pass Apple's app review process.  This process includes a set of
automated validation rules that inspect the submitted application bundle
for problematic code.

The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate
these automated rules.  While these violations appear to be false
positives, Apple's review rules cannot be challenged; so, it is
necessary to modify the Python standard library for an app to pass App
Store review.

The Python source tree contains a patch file(1) that will remove all
code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process.
This patch is applied automatically when building for iOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch


File: python.info,  Node: Éditeurs et IDEs,  Prev: Using Python on iOS,  Up: Installation et utilisation de Python

3.8 Éditeurs et IDEs
====================

Il y a un grand nombre d'environnement de développement qui gèrent le
langage de programmation Python.  Beaucoup d'éditeurs et d'EDIs
proposent une mise en surbrillance de la syntaxe, des outils de débogage
et une vérification PEP-8.

* Menu:

* IDLE: IDLE --- Python editor and shell. Python editor and shell
* Other Editors and IDEs::


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE --- Python editor and shell,  Next: Other Editors and IDEs,  Up: Éditeurs et IDEs

3.8.1 IDLE -- Python editor and shell
-------------------------------------

IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment and is
generally bundled with Python installs.  If you are on Linux and do not
have IDLE installed see *note Installing IDLE on Linux: 1d1a.  For more
information see the *note IDLE docs: 1000.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Editors and IDEs,  Prev: IDLE --- Python editor and shell,  Up: Éditeurs et IDEs

3.8.2 Other Editors and IDEs
----------------------------

Python's community wiki has information submitted by the community on
Editors and IDEs.  Please go to Python Editors(1) and Integrated
Development Environments(2) for a comprehensive list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments


File: python.info,  Node: La référence du langage Python,  Next: La bibliothèque standard,  Prev: Installation et utilisation de Python,  Up: Top

4 La référence du langage Python
********************************

Cette documentation décrit la syntaxe et la « sémantique interne » du
langage.  Elle peut être laconique, mais essaye d'être exhaustive et
exacte.  La sémantique des objets natifs secondaires, des fonctions, et
des modules est documentée dans *note La bibliothèque standard: 143.
Pour une présentation informelle du langage, voyez plutôt *note Le
tutoriel Python: 1b98.  Pour les développeurs C ou C++, deux manuels
supplémentaires existent : *note Extension et intégration de
l'interpréteur Python: 1b99. survole l'écriture d'extensions, et *note
Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C: 1b9a. décrit l'interface C/C++ en
détail.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* Analyse lexicale::
* Modèle de données::
* Modèle d'exécution::
* Le système d'importation::
* Expressions::
* Les instructions simples::
* Instructions composées::
* Composants de plus haut niveau::
* Spécification complète de la grammaire::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<5>,  Next: Analyse lexicale,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.1 Introduction
================

Ce manuel de référence décrit le langage de programmation Python.  Il
n'a pas vocation à être un tutoriel.

Nous essayons d'être le plus précis possible et nous utilisons le
français (NdT : ou l’anglais pour les parties qui ne sont pas encore
traduites) plutôt que des spécifications formelles, sauf pour la syntaxe
et l’analyse lexicale.  Nous espérons ainsi rendre ce document plus
compréhensible pour un grand nombre de lecteurs, même si cela laisse un
peu de place à l’ambiguïté.  En conséquence, si vous arrivez de Mars et
que vous essayez de ré-implémenter Python à partir de cet unique
document, vous devrez faire des hypothèses et, finalement, vous aurez
certainement implémenté un langage sensiblement différent.  D’un autre
côté, si vous utilisez Python et que vous vous demandez quelles règles
s’appliquent pour telle partie du langage, vous devriez trouver une
réponse satisfaisante ici.  Si vous souhaitez voir une définition plus
formelle du langage, nous acceptons toutes les bonnes volontés (ou bien
inventez une machine pour nous cloner ☺).

S’agissant du manuel de référence d’un langage, il est dangereux de
rentrer profondément dans les détails d’implémentation ;
l’implémentation peut changer et d’autres implémentations du même
langage peuvent fonctionner différemment.  En même temps, CPython est
l’implémentation de Python la plus répandue (bien que d’autres
implémentations gagnent en popularité) et certaines de ses bizarreries
méritent parfois d’être mentionnées, en particulier lorsque
l’implémentation impose des limitations supplémentaires.  Par
conséquent, vous trouvez de courtes "notes d’implémentation" saupoudrées
dans le texte.

Chaque implémentation de Python est livrée avec un certain nombre de
modules natifs.  Ceux-ci sont documentés dans *note La bibliothèque
standard: 143.  Quelques modules natifs sont mentionnés quand ils
interagissent significativement avec la définition du langage.

* Menu:

* Autres implémentations::
* Notations::


File: python.info,  Node: Autres implémentations,  Next: Notations,  Up: Introduction<5>

4.1.1 Autres implémentations
----------------------------

Bien qu’il existe une implémentation Python qui soit de loin la plus
populaire, il existe d’autres implémentations qui présentent un intérêt
particulier pour différents publics.

Parmi les implémentations les plus connues, nous pouvons citer :

CPython

     C’est l’implémentation originelle et la plus entretenue de Python,
     écrite en C. Elle implémente généralement en premier les nouvelles
     fonctionnalités du langage.

Jython

     Python implemented in Java.  This implementation can be used as a
     scripting language for Java applications, or can be used to create
     applications using the Java class libraries.  It is also often used
     to create tests for Java libraries.  More information can be found
     at the Jython website(1).

Python pour .NET

     Cette implémentation utilise en fait l’implémentation CPython, mais
     c’est une application .NET et permet un accès aux bibliothèques
     .NET. Elle a été créée par Brian Lloyd.  Pour plus d’informations,
     consultez la page d’accueil Python pour .NET(2) (site en anglais).

IronPython

     An alternate Python for .NET. Unlike Python.NET, this is a complete
     Python implementation that generates IL, and compiles Python code
     directly to .NET assemblies.  It was created by Jim Hugunin, the
     original creator of Jython.  For more information, see the
     IronPython website(3).

PyPy

     An implementation of Python written completely in Python.  It
     supports several advanced features not found in other
     implementations like stackless support and a Just in Time compiler.
     One of the goals of the project is to encourage experimentation
     with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
     interpreter (since it is written in Python).  Additional
     information is available on the PyPy project's home page(4).

Chacune de ces implémentations diffère d'une manière ou d'une autre par
rapport au langage décrit dans ce manuel, ou comporte des spécificités
que la documentation standard de Python ne couvre pas.  Reportez-vous à
la documentation spécifique à l'implémentation pour déterminer ce que
vous devez savoir sur l'implémentation que vous utilisez.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/

   (2) https://pythonnet.github.io/

   (3) https://ironpython.net/

   (4) https://pypy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Notations,  Prev: Autres implémentations,  Up: Introduction<5>

4.1.2 Notations
---------------

The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified
Backus–Naur form (BNF)(1) grammar notation.  This uses the following
style of definition:

     name      ::= *note lc_letter: 1e34. (*note lc_letter: 1e34. | "_")*
     lc_letter ::= "a"..."z"

La première ligne indique qu'un ‘name’ est un ‘lc_letter’ suivi d'une
suite de zéro ou plus ‘lc_letter’s ou tiret bas.  Un ‘lc_letter’ est, à
son tour, l'un des caractères ‘'a'’ à ‘'z'’ (cette règle est
effectivement respectée pour les noms définis dans les règles lexicales
et grammaticales de ce document).

Chaque règle commence par un nom (qui est le nom que la règle définit)
et ‘::=’.  Une barre verticale (‘|’) est utilisée pour séparer les
alternatives ; c'est l'opérateur le moins prioritaire de cette notation.
Une étoile (‘*’) signifie zéro ou plusieurs répétitions de l'élément
précédent ; de même, un plus (‘+’) signifie une ou plusieurs
répétitions, et une expression entre crochets (‘[ ]’) signifie zéro ou
une occurrence (en d'autres termes, l'expression encadrée est
facultative).  Les opérateurs ‘*’ et ‘+’ agissent aussi étroitement que
possible ; les parenthèses sont utilisées pour le regroupement.  Les
chaînes littérales sont entourées de guillemets anglais ‘"’.  L'espace
n'est utilisée que pour séparer les lexèmes.  Les règles sont
normalement contenues sur une seule ligne ; les règles avec de
nombreuses alternatives peuvent être formatées avec chaque ligne
représentant une alternative (et donc débutant par une barre verticale,
sauf la première).

Dans les définitions lexicales (comme dans l'exemple ci-dessus), deux
autres conventions sont utilisées : deux caractères littéraux séparés
par des points de suspension signifient le choix d'un seul caractère
dans la plage donnée (en incluant les bornes) de caractères ASCII. Une
phrase entre les signes inférieur et supérieur (‘<...>’) donne une
description informelle du symbole défini ; par exemple, pour décrire la
notion de "caractère de contrôle" si nécessaire.

Même si la notation utilisée est presque la même, il existe une grande
différence entre la signification des définitions lexicales et
syntaxiques : une définition lexicale opère sur les caractères
individuels de l'entrée, tandis qu'une définition syntaxique opère sur
le flux de lexèmes générés par l'analyse lexicale.  Toutes les notations
sous la forme BNF dans le chapitre suivant (« Analyse lexicale ») sont
des définitions lexicales ; les notations dans les chapitres suivants
sont des définitions syntaxiques.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse lexicale,  Next: Modèle de données,  Prev: Introduction<5>,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.2 Analyse lexicale
====================

A Python program is read by a 'parser'.  Input to the parser is a stream
of *note tokens: 1e38, generated by the 'lexical analyzer' (also known
as the 'tokenizer').  This chapter describes how the lexical analyzer
breaks a file into tokens.

Python lit le texte du programme comme des suites de caractères
Unicode ; l'encodage du fichier source peut être spécifié par une
déclaration d'encodage et vaut par défaut UTF-8, voir la PEP 3120(1)
pour les détails.  Si le fichier source ne peut pas être décodé, une
exception *note SyntaxError: 18b. (erreur de syntaxe) est levée.

* Menu:

* Structure des lignes::
* Autres lexèmes::
* Identifiants et mots-clés::
* Littéraux::
* Opérateurs::
* Délimiteurs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/


File: python.info,  Node: Structure des lignes,  Next: Autres lexèmes,  Up: Analyse lexicale

4.2.1 Structure des lignes
--------------------------

Un programme en Python est divisé en 'lignes logiques'.

* Menu:

* Lignes logiques::
* Lignes physiques::
* Commentaires::
* Déclaration d'encodage::
* Continuation de ligne explicite::
* Continuation de ligne implicite::
* Lignes vierges::
* Indentation::
* Espaces entre lexèmes::


File: python.info,  Node: Lignes logiques,  Next: Lignes physiques,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.1 Lignes logiques
.......................

La fin d'une ligne logique est représentée par le lexème NEWLINE. Les
instructions ne peuvent pas traverser les limites des lignes logiques,
sauf quand NEWLINE est autorisé par la syntaxe (par exemple, entre les
instructions des instructions composées).  Une ligne logique est
constituée d'une ou plusieurs 'lignes physiques' en fonction des règles,
explicites ou implicites, de 'continuation de ligne'.


File: python.info,  Node: Lignes physiques,  Next: Commentaires,  Prev: Lignes logiques,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.2 Lignes physiques
........................

Une ligne physique est une suite de caractères terminée par une séquence
de fin de ligne.  Dans les fichiers sources et les chaînes de
caractères, n'importe quelle séquence de fin de ligne des plateformes
standards peut être utilisée ; Unix utilise le caractère ASCII LF (pour
'linefeed', saut de ligne en français), Windows utilise la séquence CR
LF ('carriage return' suivi de 'linefeed') et Macintosh utilisait le
caractère ASCII CR. Toutes ces séquences peuvent être utilisées, quelle
que soit la plateforme.  La fin de l'entrée est aussi une fin de ligne
physique implicite.

Lorsque vous encapsulez Python, les chaînes de code source doivent être
passées à l'API Python en utilisant les conventions du C standard pour
les caractères de fin de ligne : le caractère ‘\n’, dont le code ASCII
est LF.


File: python.info,  Node: Commentaires,  Next: Déclaration d'encodage,  Prev: Lignes physiques,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.3 Commentaires
....................

Un commentaire commence par le caractère croisillon (‘#’, 'hash' en
anglais et qui ressemble au symbole musical dièse, c'est pourquoi il est
souvent improprement appelé caractère dièse) situé en dehors d'une
chaine de caractères littérale et se termine à la fin de la ligne
physique.  Un commentaire signifie la fin de la ligne logique à moins
qu'une règle de continuation de ligne implicite ne s'applique.  Les
commentaires sont ignorés au niveau syntaxique, ce ne sont pas des
lexèmes.


File: python.info,  Node: Déclaration d'encodage,  Next: Continuation de ligne explicite,  Prev: Commentaires,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.4 Déclaration d'encodage
..............................

Si un commentaire placé sur la première ou deuxième ligne du script
Python correspond à l'expression rationnelle ‘coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)’,
ce commentaire est analysé comme une déclaration d'encodage ; le premier
groupe de cette expression désigne l'encodage du fichier source.  Cette
déclaration d'encodage doit être seule sur sa ligne et, si elle est sur
la deuxième ligne, la première ligne doit aussi être une ligne composée
uniquement d'un commentaire.  Les formes recommandées pour l'expression
de l'encodage sont

     # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-

qui est reconnue aussi par GNU Emacs et

     # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>

qui est reconnue par VIM de Bram Moolenaar.

If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8.  If
the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8
byte-order mark (b'xefxbbxbf') is ignored rather than being a syntax
error.

Si un encodage est déclaré, le nom de l'encodage doit être reconnu par
Python (voir *note Standard Encodings: da8.).  L'encodage est utilisé
pour toute l'analyse lexicale, y compris les chaînes de caractères, les
commentaires et les identifiants.


File: python.info,  Node: Continuation de ligne explicite,  Next: Continuation de ligne implicite,  Prev: Déclaration d'encodage,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.5 Continuation de ligne explicite
.......................................

Deux lignes physiques, ou plus, peuvent être jointes pour former une
seule ligne logique en utilisant la barre oblique inversée (‘\’) selon
la règle suivante : quand la ligne physique se termine par une barre
oblique inversée qui ne fait pas partie d'une chaine de caractères ou
d'un commentaire, la ligne immédiatement suivante lui est adjointe pour
former une seule ligne logique, en supprimant la barre oblique inversée
et le caractère de fin de ligne.  Par exemple :

     if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
        and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
        and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # Looks like a valid date
             return 1

Une ligne que se termine par une barre oblique inversée ne peut pas
avoir de commentaire.  La barre oblique inversée ne permet pas de
continuer un commentaire.  La barre oblique inversée ne permet pas de
continuer un lexème, sauf s'il s'agit d'une chaîne de caractères (par
exemple, les lexèmes autres que les chaînes de caractères ne peuvent pas
être répartis sur plusieurs lignes en utilisant une barre oblique
inversée).  La barre oblique inversée n'est pas autorisée ailleurs sur
la ligne, en dehors d'une chaîne de caractères.


File: python.info,  Node: Continuation de ligne implicite,  Next: Lignes vierges,  Prev: Continuation de ligne explicite,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.6 Continuation de ligne implicite
.......................................

Les expressions entre parenthèses, crochets ou accolades peuvent être
réparties sur plusieurs lignes sans utiliser de barre oblique inversée.
Par exemple :

     month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # These are the
                    'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # Dutch names
                    'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # for the months
                    'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # of the year

Les lignes continuées implicitement peuvent avoir des commentaires.
L'indentation des lignes de continuation n'est pas importante.  Une
ligne blanche est autorisée comme ligne de continuation.  Il ne doit pas
y avoir de lexème NEWLINE entre des lignes implicitement continuées.
Les lignes continuées implicitement peuvent être utilisées dans des
chaînes entre triples guillemets (voir ci-dessous) ; dans ce cas, elles
ne peuvent pas avoir de commentaires.


File: python.info,  Node: Lignes vierges,  Next: Indentation,  Prev: Continuation de ligne implicite,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.7 Lignes vierges
......................

Une ligne logique qui ne contient que des espaces, tabulations,
caractères de saut de page ('formfeed' en anglais) ou commentaires est
ignorée (c'est-à-dire que le lexème NEWLINE n'est pas produit).  Pendant
l'édition interactive d'instructions, la gestion des lignes vierges peut
différer en fonction de l'implémentation de la boucle REPL. Dans
l'interpréteur standard, une ligne complètement vierge (c'est-à-dire ne
contenant strictement rien, même pas une espace ou un commentaire)
termine une instruction multi-lignes.


File: python.info,  Node: Indentation,  Next: Espaces entre lexèmes,  Prev: Lignes vierges,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.8 Indentation
...................

Des espaces ou tabulations au début d’une ligne logique sont utilisées
pour connaître le niveau d’indentation de la ligne, qui est ensuite
utilisé pour déterminer comment les instructions sont groupées.

Les tabulations sont remplacées (de la gauche vers la droite) par une à
huit espaces de manière à ce que le nombre de caractères remplacés soit
un multiple de huit (nous avons ainsi la même règle que celle d'Unix).
Le nombre total d'espaces précédant le premier caractère non blanc
détermine alors le niveau d'indentation de la ligne.  L'indentation ne
peut pas être répartie sur plusieurs lignes physiques à l'aide de barres
obliques inversées ; les espaces jusqu'à la première barre oblique
inversée déterminent l'indentation.

L'indentation est déclarée inconsistante et rejetée si, dans un même
fichier source, le mélange des tabulations et des espaces est tel que la
signification dépend du nombre d'espaces que représente une tabulation.
Une exception *note TabError: 531. est levée dans ce cas.

'Note de compatibilité entre les plateformes :' en raison de la nature
des éditeurs de texte sur les plateformes non Unix, il n'est pas
judicieux d'utiliser un mélange d'espaces et de tabulations pour
l'indentation dans un seul fichier source.  Il convient également de
noter que des plateformes peuvent explicitement limiter le niveau
d'indentation maximal.

Un caractère de saut de page peut être présent au début de la ligne ; il
est ignoré pour les calculs d'indentation ci-dessus.  Les caractères de
saut de page se trouvant ailleurs avec les espaces en tête de ligne ont
un effet indéfini (par exemple, ils peuvent remettre à zéro le nombre
d'espaces).

Les niveaux d'indentation de lignes consécutives sont utilisés pour
générer les lexèmes INDENT et DEDENT, en utilisant une pile, de cette
façon :

Avant que la première ligne du fichier ne soit lue, un « zéro » est posé
sur la pile ; il ne sera plus jamais enlevé.  Les nombres empilés sont
toujours strictement croissants de bas en haut.  Au début de chaque
ligne logique, le niveau d'indentation de la ligne est comparé au sommet
de la pile.  S'ils sont égaux, il ne se passe rien.  S'il est plus
grand, il est empilé et un lexème INDENT est produit.  S'il est plus
petit, il 'doit' être l'un des nombres présents dans la pile ; tous les
nombres de la pile qui sont plus grands sont retirés et, pour chaque
nombre retiré, un lexème DEDENT est produit.  À la fin du fichier, un
lexème DEDENT est produit pour chaque nombre supérieur à zéro restant
sur la pile.

Voici un exemple de code Python correctement indenté (bien que très
confus) :

     def perm(l):
             # Compute the list of all permutations of l
         if len(l) <= 1:
                       return [l]
         r = []
         for i in range(len(l)):
                  s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
                  p = perm(s)
                  for x in p:
                   r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
         return r

L'exemple suivant montre plusieurs erreurs d'indentation :

      def perm(l):                       # error: first line indented
     for i in range(len(l)):             # error: not indented
         s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
             p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # error: unexpected indent
             for x in p:
                     r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
                 return r                # error: inconsistent dedent

En fait, les trois premières erreurs sont détectées par l'analyseur
syntaxique ; seule la dernière erreur est trouvée par l'analyseur
lexical (l'indentation de ‘return r’ ne correspond à aucun niveau dans
la pile).


File: python.info,  Node: Espaces entre lexèmes,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Structure des lignes

4.2.1.9 Espaces entre lexèmes
.............................

Sauf au début d'une ligne logique ou dans les chaînes de caractères, les
caractères « blancs » espace, tabulation et saut de page peuvent être
utilisés de manière interchangeable pour séparer les lexèmes.  Un blanc
n'est nécessaire entre deux lexèmes que si leur concaténation pourrait
être interprétée comme un lexème différent (par exemple, ab est un
lexème, mais a b comporte deux lexèmes).


File: python.info,  Node: Autres lexèmes,  Next: Identifiants et mots-clés,  Prev: Structure des lignes,  Up: Analyse lexicale

4.2.2 Autres lexèmes
--------------------

Outre NEWLINE, INDENT et DEDENT, il existe les catégories de lexèmes
suivantes : 'identifiants', 'mots clés', 'littéraux', 'opérateurs' et
'délimiteurs'.  Les blancs (autres que les fins de lignes, vus
auparavant) ne sont pas des lexèmes mais servent à délimiter les
lexèmes.  Quand une ambiguïté existe, le lexème correspond à la plus
grande chaîne possible qui forme un lexème licite, en lisant de la
gauche vers la droite.


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiants et mots-clés,  Next: Littéraux,  Prev: Autres lexèmes,  Up: Analyse lexicale

4.2.3 Identifiants et mots-clés
-------------------------------

Les identifiants (aussi appelés 'noms') sont décrits par les définitions
lexicales suivantes.

La syntaxe des identifiants en Python est basée sur l'annexe UAX-31 du
standard Unicode avec les modifications définies ci-dessous ; consultez
la PEP 3131(1) pour plus de détails.

Within the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for
identifiers include the uppercase and lowercase letters ‘A’ through ‘Z’,
the underscore ‘_’ and, except for the first character, the digits ‘0’
through ‘9’.  Python 3.0 introduced additional characters from outside
the ASCII range (see PEP 3131(2)).  For these characters, the
classification uses the version of the Unicode Character Database as
included in the *note unicodedata: 104. module.

Les identifiants n'ont pas de limite de longueur.  La casse est prise en
compte.

     identifier   ::= *note xid_start: 1e52. *note xid_continue: 1e53.*
     id_start     ::= <all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property>
     id_continue  ::= <all characters in *note id_start: 1e54, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property>
     xid_start    ::= <all characters in *note id_start: 1e54. whose NFKC normalization is in "id_start xid_continue*">
     xid_continue ::= <all characters in *note id_continue: 1e55. whose NFKC normalization is in "id_continue*">

Les codes de catégories Unicode cités ci-dessus signifient :

   * 'Lu' — lettres majuscules

   * 'Ll' — lettres minuscules

   * 'Lt' — lettres majuscules particulières (catégorie 'titlecase' de
     l'Unicode)

   * 'Lm' — lettres modificatives avec chasse

   * 'Lo' — autres lettres

   * 'Nl' — nombres lettres (par exemple, les nombres romains)

   * 'Mn' — symboles que l'on combine avec d'autres (accents ou autres)
     sans générer d'espace ('nonspacing marks' en anglais)

   * 'Mc' — symboles que l'on combine avec d'autres en générant une
     espace ('spacing combining marks' en anglais)

   * 'Nd' — chiffres (arabes et autres)

   * 'Pc' — connecteurs (tirets et autres lignes)

   * 'Other_ID_Start' - explicit list of characters in PropList.txt(3)
     to support backwards compatibility

   * 'Other_ID_Continue' — pareillement

Tous les identifiants sont convertis dans la forme normale NFKC pendant
l'analyse syntaxique : la comparaison des identifiants se base sur leur
forme NFKC.

A non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for
Unicode 15.1.0 can be found at
‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt’

* Menu:

* Mots-clés::
* Mots-clés ad hoc::
* Classes réservées pour les identifiants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/PropList.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Mots-clés,  Next: Mots-clés ad hoc,  Up: Identifiants et mots-clés

4.2.3.1 Mots-clés
.................

Les identifiants suivants sont des mots réservés par le langage et ne
peuvent pas être utilisés en tant qu'identifiants normaux.  Ils doivent
être écrits exactement comme ci-dessous :

     False      await      else       import     pass
     None       break      except     in         raise
     True       class      finally    is         return
     and        continue   for        lambda     try
     as         def        from       nonlocal   while
     assert     del        global     not        with
     async      elif       if         or         yield


File: python.info,  Node: Mots-clés ad hoc,  Next: Classes réservées pour les identifiants,  Prev: Mots-clés,  Up: Identifiants et mots-clés

4.2.3.2 Mots-clés ad hoc
........................

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Some identifiers are only reserved under specific contexts.  These are
known as 'soft keywords'.  The identifiers ‘match’, ‘case’, ‘type’ and
‘_’ can syntactically act as keywords in certain contexts, but this
distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing.

As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still
preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as
identifier names.

‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ are used in the *note match: 7f9. statement.
‘type’ is used in the *note type: 423. statement.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘type’ is now a soft keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes réservées pour les identifiants,  Prev: Mots-clés ad hoc,  Up: Identifiants et mots-clés

4.2.3.3 Classes réservées pour les identifiants
...............................................

Certaines classes d'identifiants (outre les mots-clés) ont une
signification particulière.  Ces classes se reconnaissent par des
caractères de soulignement en tête et en queue d'identifiant :

‘_*’

     N'est pas importé par ‘from module import *’.

‘_’

     Dans un motif ‘case’ d'une instruction *note match: 7f9, ‘_’ est un
     *note mot-clé ad hoc: 7f8. qui décrit un motif *note attrape-tout:
     7fa.

     De son côté, l'interpréteur interactif place le résultat de la
     dernière évaluation dans la variable ‘-’ (son emplacement se situe
     dans le module *note builtins: 12, avec les fonctions natives
     telles que ‘print’).

     Ailleurs, ‘_’ est un identifiant comme un autre.  Il est souvent
     utilisé pour désigner des éléments « spéciaux », mais il n'est pas
     spécial pour Python en tant que tel.

          Note: Le nom ‘_’ est souvent utilisé pour internationaliser
          l'affichage ; reportez-vous à la documentation du module *note
          gettext: 62. pour plus d'informations sur cette convention.

          Il est aussi communément utilisé pour signifier que la
          variable n'est pas utilisée.

‘__*__’

     Noms définis par le système, appelés noms « 'dunder' » (pour
     'Double Underscores') de manière informelle.  Ces noms sont définis
     par l'interpréteur et son implémentation (y compris la bibliothèque
     standard).  Les noms actuels définis par le système sont abordés
     dans la section *note Méthodes spéciales: c5e, mais aussi ailleurs.
     D'autres noms seront probablement définis dans les futures versions
     de Python.  Toute utilisation de noms de la forme ‘__*__’, dans
     n'importe quel contexte, qui n'est pas conforme à ce qu'indique
     explicitement la documentation, est sujette à des mauvaises
     surprises sans avertissement.

‘__*’

     Noms privés pour une classe.  Les noms de cette forme, lorsqu'ils
     sont utilisés dans le contexte d'une définition de classe, sont
     réécrits sous une forme modifiée pour éviter les conflits de noms
     entre les attributs « privés » des classes de base et les classes
     dérivées.  Voir la section *note Identifiants (noms): 1e5b.


File: python.info,  Node: Littéraux,  Next: Opérateurs,  Prev: Identifiants et mots-clés,  Up: Analyse lexicale

4.2.4 Littéraux
---------------

Les littéraux sont des notations pour indiquer des valeurs constantes de
certains types natifs.

* Menu:

* Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets::
* Concaténation de chaînes de caractères::
* f-strings::
* Littéraux numériques::
* Entiers littéraux::
* Floating-point literals::
* Imaginaires littéraux::


File: python.info,  Node: Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets,  Next: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.1 Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets
................................................................

Les chaînes de caractères littérales sont définies par les définitions
lexicales suivantes :

     stringliteral   ::= [*note stringprefix: 1e61.](*note shortstring: 1e62. | *note longstring: 1e63.)
     stringprefix    ::= "r" | "u" | "R" | "U" | "f" | "F"
                         | "fr" | "Fr" | "fR" | "FR" | "rf" | "rF" | "Rf" | "RF"
     shortstring     ::= "'" *note shortstringitem: 1e64.* "'" | '"' *note shortstringitem: 1e64.* '"'
     longstring      ::= "'''" *note longstringitem: 1e65.* "'''" | '"""' *note longstringitem: 1e65.* '"""'
     shortstringitem ::= *note shortstringchar: 1e66. | *note stringescapeseq: 1e67.
     longstringitem  ::= *note longstringchar: 1e68. | *note stringescapeseq: 1e67.
     shortstringchar ::= <any source character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longstringchar  ::= <any source character except "\">
     stringescapeseq ::= "\" <any source character>

     bytesliteral   ::= *note bytesprefix: 1e6a.(*note shortbytes: 1e6b. | *note longbytes: 1e6c.)
     bytesprefix    ::= "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" | "rb" | "rB" | "Rb" | "RB"
     shortbytes     ::= "'" *note shortbytesitem: 1e6d.* "'" | '"' *note shortbytesitem: 1e6d.* '"'
     longbytes      ::= "'''" *note longbytesitem: 1e6e.* "'''" | '"""' *note longbytesitem: 1e6e.* '"""'
     shortbytesitem ::= *note shortbyteschar: 1e6f. | *note bytesescapeseq: 1e70.
     longbytesitem  ::= *note longbyteschar: 1e71. | *note bytesescapeseq: 1e70.
     shortbyteschar ::= <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longbyteschar  ::= <any ASCII character except "\">
     bytesescapeseq ::= "\" <any ASCII character>

Une restriction syntaxique non indiquée par ces règles est qu'aucun
blanc n'est autorisé entre le *note stringprefix: 1e61. ou *note
bytesprefix: 1e6a. et le reste du littéral.  Le jeu de caractères source
est défini par la déclaration d'encodage ; il vaut UTF-8 si aucune
déclaration d'encodage n'est donnée dans le fichier source ; voir la
section *note Déclaration d'encodage: 1e42.

In plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching
single quotes (‘'’) or double quotes (‘"’).  They can also be enclosed
in matching groups of three single or double quotes (these are generally
referred to as 'triple-quoted strings').  The backslash (‘\’) character
is used to give special meaning to otherwise ordinary characters like
‘n’, which means 'newline' when escaped (‘\n’).  It can also be used to
escape characters that otherwise have a special meaning, such as
newline, backslash itself, or the quote character.  See *note escape
sequences: 445. below for examples.

Les littéraux de suites d'octets sont toujours préfixés par ‘'b'’ ou
‘'B'’ ; cela crée une instance de type *note bytes: 1bd. au lieu du type
*note str: 437.  Ils ne peuvent contenir que des caractères ASCII ; les
octets dont la valeur est supérieure ou égale à 128 doivent être
exprimés à l'aide d'échappements.

Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter
‘'r'’ or ‘'R'’; such constructs are called 'raw string literals' and
'raw bytes literals' respectively and treat backslashes as literal
characters.  As a result, in raw string literals, ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’
escapes are not treated specially.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: le préfixe ‘'rb'’ a été ajouté comme
synonyme de ‘'br'’ pour les littéraux de suites d'octets.

la gestion du préfixe historique pour les chaînes Unicode (‘u'chaine'’)
a été réintroduite afin de simplifier la maintenance de code compatible
Python 2.x et 3.x.  Voir la PEP 414(1) pour davantage d'informations.

Une chaîne littérale qui contient ‘'f'’ ou ‘'F'’ dans le préfixe est une
'chaîne de caractères littérale formatée' ; lisez *note f-strings: 999.
Le ‘'f'’ peut être combiné avec ‘'r'’ mais pas avec ‘'b'’ ou ‘'u'’, donc
les chaînes de caractères formatées sont possibles mais les littéraux de
suites d'octets ne peuvent pas l'être.

Dans les chaînes entre triples guillemets, les sauts de ligne et
guillemets peuvent ne pas être échappés (et sont donc pris en compte),
mais trois guillemets non échappés à la suite terminent le littéral (on
entend par guillemet le caractère utilisé pour commencer le littéral,
c'est-à-dire ‘'’ ou ‘"’).

* Menu:

* Escape sequences::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: Escape sequences,  Up: Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets

4.2.4.2 Escape sequences
........................

À moins que le préfixe ‘'r'’ ou ‘'R'’ ne soit présent, les séquences
d'échappement dans les littéraux de chaînes et suites d'octets sont
interprétées comme elles le seraient par le C Standard.  Les séquences
d'échappement reconnues sont :

Séquence d'échappement        Signification                         Notes
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\’<newline>                  barre oblique inversée et retour à    (1)
                              la ligne ignorés                      
                              
                                                                    
‘\\’                          barre oblique inversée (‘\’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\'’                          guillemet simple (‘'’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\"’                          guillemet double (‘"’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\a’                          cloche ASCII (BEL)
                              
                                                                    
‘\b’                          retour arrière ASCII (BS)
                              
                                                                    
‘\f’                          saut de page ASCII (FF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\n’                          saut de ligne ASCII (LF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\r’                          retour à la ligne ASCII (CR)
                              
                                                                    
‘\t’                          tabulation horizontale ASCII (TAB)
                              
                                                                    
‘\v’                          tabulation verticale ASCII (VT)
                              
                                                                    
‘\OOO’                        caractère dont le code est 'ooo' en   (2,4)
                              octal                                 
                              
                                                                    
‘\xHH’                        caractère dont le code est 'ooo' en   (3,4)
                              hexadécimal                           
                              

Les séquences d'échappement reconnues seulement dans les chaînes
littérales sont :

Séquence d'échappement        Signification                         Notes
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\N{NAME}’                    caractère dont le nom est 'name'      (5)
                              dans la base de données Unicode       
                              
                                                                    
‘\uXXXX’                      caractère dont le code est 'xxxx'     (6)
                              en hexadécimal                        
                              
                                                                    
‘\UXXXXXXXX’                  caractère dont le code est            (7)
                              'xxxxxxxx' en hexadécimal sur 32      
                              bits
                              

Notes :

  1. A backslash can be added at the end of a line to ignore the
     newline:

          >>> 'This string will not include \
          ... backslashes or newline characters.'
          'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.'

     The same result can be achieved using *note triple-quoted strings:
     1e5f, or parentheses and *note string literal concatenation: 1e73.

  2. Comme dans le C Standard, jusqu'à trois chiffres en base huit sont
     acceptés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Octal escapes with value larger than
     ‘0o377’ produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Octal escapes with value larger than
     ‘0o377’ produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 451.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18b.

  3. Contrairement au C Standard, il est obligatoire de fournir deux
     chiffres hexadécimaux.

  4. Dans un littéral de suite d'octets, un échappement hexadécimal ou
     octal est un octet dont la valeur est donnée.  Dans une chaîne
     littérale, un échappement est un caractère Unicode dont le code est
     donné.

  5. 
     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout du support pour les alias de
     noms (1).

  6. Exactement quatre chiffres hexadécimaux sont requis.

  7. N'importe quel caractère Unicode peut être encodé de cette façon.
     Exactement huit chiffres hexadécimaux sont requis.

Contrairement au C standard, toutes les séquences d'échappement non
reconnues sont laissées inchangées dans la chaîne, c'est-à-dire que 'la
barre oblique inversée est laissée dans le résultat' (ce comportement
est utile en cas de débogage : si une séquence d'échappement est mal
tapée, la sortie résultante est plus facilement reconnue comme source de
l'erreur).  Notez bien également que les séquences d'échappement
reconnues uniquement dans les littéraux de chaînes de caractères ne sont
pas reconnues pour les littéraux de suites d'octets.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a
*note SyntaxWarning: 451.  In a future Python version they will be
eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18b.

Même dans une chaîne littérale brute, les guillemets peuvent être
échappés avec une barre oblique inversée mais la barre oblique inversée
reste dans le résultat ; par exemple, ‘r"\""’ est une chaîne de
caractères valide composée de deux caractères : une barre oblique
inversée et un guillemet double ; ‘r"\"’ n'est pas une chaîne de
caractères valide (même une chaîne de caractères brute ne peut pas se
terminer par un nombre impair de barres obliques inversées).  Plus
précisément, 'une chaîne littérale brute ne peut pas se terminer par une
seule barre oblique inversée' (puisque la barre oblique inversée échappe
le guillemet suivant).  Notez également qu'une simple barre oblique
inversée suivie d'un saut de ligne est interprétée comme deux caractères
faisant partie du littéral et 'non' comme une continuation de ligne.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères,  Next: f-strings,  Prev: Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.3 Concaténation de chaînes de caractères
..............................................

Plusieurs chaînes de caractères ou suites d'octets adjacentes (séparées
par des blancs), utilisant éventuellement des conventions de guillemets
différentes, sont autorisées.  La signification est la même que leur
concaténation.  Ainsi, ‘"hello" 'world'’ est l'équivalent de
‘"helloworld"’.  Cette fonctionnalité peut être utilisée pour réduire le
nombre de barres obliques inverses, pour diviser de longues chaînes de
caractères sur plusieurs lignes ou même pour ajouter des commentaires à
des portions de chaînes de caractères.  Par exemple :

     re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # letter or underscore
                "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # letter, digit or underscore
               )

Notez que cette fonctionnalité agit au niveau syntaxique mais est
implémentée au moment de la compilation.  Pour concaténer les
expressions des chaînes de caractères au moment de l'exécution, vous
devez utiliser l'opérateur ‘+’.  Notez également que la concaténation
littérale peut utiliser un style différent de guillemets pour chaque
composant (et même mélanger des chaînes de caractères brutes et des
chaînes de caractères entre triples guillemets).  Enfin, les chaînes de
caractères formatées peuvent être concaténées avec des chaînes de
caractères ordinaires.


File: python.info,  Node: f-strings,  Next: Littéraux numériques,  Prev: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.4 f-strings
.................

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Une 'chaine de caractères littérale formatée' ou 'f-string' est une
chaine de caractères littérale préfixée par ‘'f'’ ou ‘'F'’.  Ces chaines
peuvent contenir des champs à remplacer, c'est-à-dire des expressions
délimitées par des accolades ‘{}’.  Alors que les autres littéraux de
chaines ont des valeurs constantes, les chaines formatées sont de vraies
expressions évaluées à l'exécution.

Les séquences d'échappement sont décodées comme à l'intérieur des
chaînes de caractères ordinaires (sauf lorsqu'une chaîne de caractères
est également marquée comme une chaîne brute).  Après décodage, la
grammaire s'appliquant au contenu de la chaîne de caractères est :

     f_string          ::= (*note literal_char: 1e78. | "{{" | "}}" | *note replacement_field: 1e79.)*
     replacement_field ::= "{" *note f_expression: 1e7a. ["="] ["!" *note conversion: 1e7b.] [":" *note format_spec: 1e7c.] "}"
     f_expression      ::= (*note conditional_expression: 1e7d. | "*" *note or_expr: 1e7e.)
                           ("," *note conditional_expression: 1e7d. | "," "*" *note or_expr: 1e7e.)* [","]
                           | *note yield_expression: 1e7f.
     conversion        ::= "s" | "r" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= (*note literal_char: 1e78. | *note replacement_field: 1e79.)*
     literal_char      ::= <any code point except "{", "}" or NULL>

Les portions qui sont en dehors des accolades sont traitées comme les
littéraux, sauf les doubles accolades ‘'{{'’ ou ‘'}}'’ qui sont
remplacées par la simple accolade correspondante.  Une simple accolade
ouvrante ‘'{'’ marque le début du champ à remplacer, qui commence par
une expression Python.  Pour afficher à la fois le texte de l'expression
et sa valeur une fois évaluée (utile lors du débogage), un signe égal
‘'='’ peut être ajouté après l'expression.  Ensuite, il peut y avoir un
champ de conversion, introduit par un point d'exclamation ‘'!'’.  Une
spécification de format peut aussi être rajoutée, introduite par le
caractère deux-points ‘':'’.  Le champ à remplacer se termine par une
accolade fermante ‘'}'’.

Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python
expressions surrounded by parentheses, with a few exceptions.  An empty
expression is not allowed, and both *note lambda: 127c. and assignment
expressions ‘:=’ must be surrounded by explicit parentheses.  Each
expression is evaluated in the context where the formatted string
literal appears, in order from left to right.  Replacement expressions
can contain newlines in both single-quoted and triple-quoted f-strings
and they can contain comments.  Everything that comes after a ‘#’ inside
a replacement field is a comment (even closing braces and quotes).  In
that case, replacement fields must be closed in a different line.

     >>> f"abc{a # This is a comment }"
     ... + 3}"
     'abc5'

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Avant Python 3.7, il était illégal
d’utiliser *note await: 1b7. ainsi que les compréhensions utilisant
*note async for: a9b. dans les expressions au sein des chaînes de
caractères formatées littérales à cause d’un problème dans
l’implémentation.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Prior to Python 3.12, comments were not
allowed inside f-string replacement fields.

Lorsqu'un signe égal ‘'='’ est présent, la sortie comprend le texte de
l'expression, le signe ‘'='’ et la valeur calculée.  Les espaces après
l'accolade ouvrante ‘'{'’, dans l'expression et après le signe ‘'='’
sont conservées à l'affichage.  Par défaut, le signe ‘'='’ utilise la
*note repr(): 7e9. de l'expression, sauf si un format est indiqué.
Quand le format est indiqué, c'est *note str(): 437. de l'expression qui
est utilisée à moins qu'une conversion ‘!r’ ne soit déclarée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: le signe égal ‘'='’.

Si une conversion est spécifiée, le résultat de l'évaluation de
l'expression est converti avant d'être formaté.  La conversion ‘'!s'’
appelle *note str(): 437. sur le résultat, ‘'!r'’ appelle *note repr():
7e9. et ‘'!a'’ appelle *note ascii(): 139f.

The result is then formatted using the *note format(): 60c. protocol.
The format specifier is passed to the *note __format__(): 60b. method of
the expression or conversion result.  An empty string is passed when the
format specifier is omitted.  The formatted result is then included in
the final value of the whole string.

Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields.
These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and *note
format specifiers: 1e5, but may not include more deeply nested
replacement fields.  The *note format specifier mini-language: 1e5. is
the same as that used by the *note str.format(): 60e. method.

Les chaînes formatées littérales peuvent être concaténées mais les
champs à remplacer ne peuvent pas être divisés entre les littéraux.

Quelques exemples de chaines formatées littérales :

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name!r}."
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> f"He said his name is {repr(name)}."  # repr() is equivalent to !r
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'
     >>> today = datetime(year=2017, month=1, day=27)
     >>> f"{today:%B %d, %Y}"  # using date format specifier
     'January 27, 2017'
     >>> f"{today=:%B %d, %Y}" # using date format specifier and debugging
     'today=January 27, 2017'
     >>> number = 1024
     >>> f"{number:#0x}"  # using integer format specifier
     '0x400'
     >>> foo = "bar"
     >>> f"{ foo = }" # preserves whitespace
     " foo = 'bar'"
     >>> line = "The mill's closed"
     >>> f"{line = }"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed"'
     >>> f"{line = :20}"
     "line = The mill's closed   "
     >>> f"{line = !r:20}"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed" '

Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is
permitted:

     >>> a = dict(x=2)
     >>> f"abc {a["x"]} def"
     'abc 2 def'

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Prior to Python 3.12, reuse of the same
quoting type of the outer f-string inside a replacement field was not
possible.

Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the
same way as in any other context:

     >>> a = ["a", "b", "c"]
     >>> print(f"List a contains:\n{"\n".join(a)}")
     List a contains:
     a
     b
     c

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Prior to Python 3.12, backslashes were not
permitted inside an f-string replacement field.

Une chaine formatée littérale ne peut pas être utilisée en tant que
'docstring', même si elle ne comporte pas d'expression.

     >>> def foo():
     ...     f"Not a docstring"
     ...
     >>> foo.__doc__ is None
     True

Consultez aussi la PEP 498(1) qui propose l'ajout des chaines formatées
littérales et *note str.format(): 60e. qui utilise un mécanisme
similaire pour formater les chaînes de caractères.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: Littéraux numériques,  Next: Entiers littéraux,  Prev: f-strings,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.5 Littéraux numériques
............................

There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating-point
numbers, and imaginary numbers.  There are no complex literals (complex
numbers can be formed by adding a real number and an imaginary number).

Notez que les littéraux numériques ne comportent pas de signe ; une
phrase telle que ‘-1’ est en fait une expression composée de l'opérateur
unitaire ‘-’ et du littéral ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Entiers littéraux,  Next: Floating-point literals,  Prev: Littéraux numériques,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.6 Entiers littéraux
.........................

Les entiers littéraux sont décrits par les définitions lexicales
suivantes :

     integer      ::= *note decinteger: 1e85. | *note bininteger: 1e86. | *note octinteger: 1e87. | *note hexinteger: 1e88.
     decinteger   ::= *note nonzerodigit: 1e89. (["_"] *note digit: 1e8a.)* | "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
     bininteger   ::= "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] *note bindigit: 1e8b.)+
     octinteger   ::= "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] *note octdigit: 1e8c.)+
     hexinteger   ::= "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] *note hexdigit: 1e8d.)+
     nonzerodigit ::= "1"..."9"
     digit        ::= "0"..."9"
     bindigit     ::= "0" | "1"
     octdigit     ::= "0"..."7"
     hexdigit     ::= *note digit: 1e8a. | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"

Il n'y a pas de limite pour la longueur des entiers littéraux, sauf
celle relative à la capacité mémoire.

Les tirets bas sont ignorés pour déterminer la valeur numérique du
littéral.  Ils peuvent être utilisés pour grouper les chiffres afin de
faciliter la lecture.  Un souligné peut être placé entre des chiffres ou
après la spécification de la base telle que ‘0x’.

Notez que placer des zéros en tête de nombre pour un nombre décimal
différent de zéro n'est pas autorisé.  Cela permet d'éviter l’ambigüité
avec les littéraux en base octale selon le style C que Python utilisait
avant la version 3.0.

Quelques exemples d'entiers littéraux :

     7     2147483647                        0o177    0b100110111
     3     79228162514264337593543950336     0o377    0xdeadbeef
           100_000_000_000                   0b_1110_0101

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les tirets bas ne sont pas autorisés pour
grouper les littéraux.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-point literals,  Next: Imaginaires littéraux,  Prev: Entiers littéraux,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.7 Floating-point literals
...............................

Floating-point literals are described by the following lexical
definitions:

     floatnumber   ::= *note pointfloat: 1e91. | *note exponentfloat: 1e92.
     pointfloat    ::= [*note digitpart: 1e93.] *note fraction: 1e94. | *note digitpart: 1e93. "."
     exponentfloat ::= (*note digitpart: 1e93. | *note pointfloat: 1e91.) *note exponent: 1e95.
     digitpart     ::= *note digit: 1e8a. (["_"] *note digit: 1e8a.)*
     fraction      ::= "." *note digitpart: 1e93.
     exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] *note digitpart: 1e93.

Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using
radix 10.  For example, ‘077e010’ is legal, and denotes the same number
as ‘77e10’.  The allowed range of floating-point literals is
implementation-dependent.  As in integer literals, underscores are
supported for digit grouping.

Some examples of floating-point literals:

     3.14    10.    .001    1e100    3.14e-10    0e0    3.14_15_93

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les tirets bas ne sont pas autorisés pour
grouper les littéraux.


File: python.info,  Node: Imaginaires littéraux,  Prev: Floating-point literals,  Up: Littéraux

4.2.4.8 Imaginaires littéraux
.............................

Les nombres imaginaires sont décrits par les définitions lexicales
suivantes :

     imagnumber ::= (*note floatnumber: 1e90. | *note digitpart: 1e93.) ("j" | "J")

An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0.
Complex numbers are represented as a pair of floating-point numbers and
have the same restrictions on their range.  To create a complex number
with a nonzero real part, add a floating-point number to it, e.g.,
‘(3+4j)’.  Some examples of imaginary literals:

     3.14j   10.j    10j     .001j   1e100j   3.14e-10j   3.14_15_93j


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs,  Next: Délimiteurs,  Prev: Littéraux,  Up: Analyse lexicale

4.2.5 Opérateurs
----------------

Les lexèmes suivants sont des opérateurs :

     +       -       *       **      /       //      %      @
     <<      >>      &       |       ^       ~       :=
     <       >       <=      >=      ==      !=


File: python.info,  Node: Délimiteurs,  Prev: Opérateurs,  Up: Analyse lexicale

4.2.6 Délimiteurs
-----------------

Les lexèmes suivants servent de délimiteurs dans la grammaire :

     (       )       [       ]       {       }
     ,       :       !       .       ;       @       =
     ->      +=      -=      *=      /=      //=     %=
     @=      &=      |=      ^=      >>=     <<=     **=

Le point peut aussi apparaître dans les littéraux de nombres à virgule
flottante et imaginaires.  Une suite de trois points possède une
signification spéciale : c'est une ellipse littérale.  La deuxième
partie de la liste, les opérateurs d'affectation augmentés, servent de
délimiteurs pour l'analyseur lexical mais sont aussi des opérateurs.

Les caractères ASCII suivants ont une signification spéciale en tant que
partie d'autres lexèmes ou ont une signification particulière pour
l'analyseur lexical :

     '       "       #       \

Les caractères ASCII suivants ne sont pas utilisés en Python.  S'ils
apparaissent en dehors de chaines littérales ou de commentaires, ils
produisent une erreur :

     $       ?       `

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Modèle de données,  Next: Modèle d'exécution,  Prev: Analyse lexicale,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.3 Modèle de données
=====================

* Menu:

* Objets, valeurs et types: Objets valeurs et types.
* Hiérarchie des types standards::
* Méthodes spéciales::
* Coroutines::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets valeurs et types,  Next: Hiérarchie des types standards,  Up: Modèle de données

4.3.1 Objets, valeurs et types
------------------------------

En Python, les données sont représentées sous forme 'd'objets'.  Toutes
les données d'un programme Python sont représentées par des objets ou
par des relations entre les objets (dans un certain sens, et en
conformité avec le modèle de Von Neumann d'« ordinateur à programme
enregistré », le code est aussi représenté par des objets).

Every object has an identity, a type and a value.  An object's
'identity' never changes once it has been created; you may think of it
as the object's address in memory.  The *note is: 2ea. operator compares
the identity of two objects; the *note id(): 13db. function returns an
integer representing its identity.

en CPython, ‘id(x)’ est l'adresse mémoire où est stocké ‘x’.

Le type de l'objet détermine les opérations que l'on peut appliquer à
l'objet (par exemple, « a-t-il une longueur ? ») et définit aussi les
valeurs possibles pour les objets de ce type.  La fonction *note type():
d38. renvoie le type de l'objet (qui est lui-même un objet).  Comme
l'identifiant, le 'type' d'un objet ne peut pas être modifié (1).

La 'valeur' de certains objets peut changer.  Les objets dont la valeur
peut changer sont dits mutables ; les objets dont la valeur est
définitivement fixée à leur création sont dits 'immuables' ('immutable'
en anglais).  La valeur d'un objet conteneur immuable qui contient une
référence vers un objet mutable peut varier lorsque la valeur de l'objet
mutable change ; cependant, le conteneur est quand même considéré comme
immuable parce que l'ensemble des objets qu'il contient ne peut pas être
modifié.  Ainsi, l'immuabilité n'est pas strictement équivalente au fait
d'avoir une valeur non modifiable, c'est plus subtil.  La muabilité d'un
objet est définie par son type ; par exemple, les nombres, les chaînes
de caractères et les 'n'-uplets sont immuables alors que les
dictionnaires et les listes sont mutables.

Un objet n'est jamais explicitement détruit ; cependant, lorsqu'il ne
peut plus être atteint, il a vocation à être supprimé par le
ramasse-miettes ('garbage-collector' en anglais).  L'implémentation peut
retarder cette opération ou même ne pas la faire du tout — la façon dont
fonctionne le ramasse-miette est particulière à chaque implémentation,
l'important étant qu'il ne supprime pas d'objet qui peut encore être
atteint.

CPython utilise aujourd'hui un mécanisme de compteur de références avec
une détection, en temps différé et optionnelle, des cycles d'objets.  Ce
mécanisme supprime la plupart des objets dès qu'ils ne sont plus
accessibles mais il ne garantit pas la suppression des objets où il
existe des références circulaires.  Consultez la documentation du module
*note gc: 5f. pour tout ce qui concerne la suppression des cycles.
D'autres implémentations agissent différemment et CPython pourrait
évoluer.  Ne vous reposez pas sur la finalisation immédiate des objets
devenus inaccessibles (ainsi, vous devez toujours fermer les fichiers
explicitement).

Note that the use of the implementation's tracing or debugging
facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable.
Also note that catching an exception with a *note try: 6d5...*note
except: 189. statement may keep objects alive.

Some objects contain references to "external" resources such as open
files or windows.  It is understood that these resources are freed when
the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not
guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to
release the external resource, usually a ‘close()’ method.  Programs are
strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects.  The *note try:
6d5...*note finally: 9ba. statement and the *note with: 5be. statement
provide convenient ways to do this.

Certains objets contiennent des références à d'autres objets ; on les
appelle 'conteneurs'.  Comme exemples de conteneurs, nous pouvons citer
les 'n'-uplets, les listes et les dictionnaires.  Les références sont
parties intégrantes de la valeur d'un conteneur.  Dans la plupart des
cas, lorsque nous parlons de la valeur d'un conteneur, nous parlons des
valeurs, pas des identifiants des objets contenus ; cependant, lorsque
nous parlons de la muabilité d'un conteneur, seuls les identifiants des
objets immédiatement contenus sont concernés.  Ainsi, si un conteneur
immuable (comme un 'n'-uplet) contient une référence à un objet mutable,
sa valeur change si cet objet mutable est modifié.

Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior.  Even the importance
of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types,
operations that compute new values may actually return a reference to
any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable
objects this is not allowed.  For example, after ‘a = 1; b = 1’, 'a' and
'b' may or may not refer to the same object with the value one,
depending on the implementation.  This is because *note int: 254. is an
immutable type, so the reference to ‘1’ can be reused.  This behaviour
depends on the implementation used, so should not be relied upon, but is
something to be aware of when making use of object identity tests.
However, after ‘c = []; d = []’, 'c' and 'd' are guaranteed to refer to
two different, unique, newly created empty lists.  (Note that ‘e = f =
[]’ assigns the 'same' object to both 'e' and 'f'.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Il 'est' possible, dans certains cas, de changer le type d'un
objet, sous certaines conditions.  Cependant, ce n'est généralement pas
une bonne idée car cela peut conduire à un comportement très étrange si
ce n'est pas géré correctement.


File: python.info,  Node: Hiérarchie des types standards,  Next: Méthodes spéciales,  Prev: Objets valeurs et types,  Up: Modèle de données

4.3.2 Hiérarchie des types standards
------------------------------------

Vous trouvez ci-dessous une liste des types natifs de Python.  Des
modules d'extension (écrits en C, Java ou d'autres langages) peuvent
définir des types supplémentaires.  Les futures versions de Python
pourront ajouter des types à cette hiérarchie (par exemple les nombres
rationnels, des tableaux d'entiers stockés efficacement, etc.), bien que
de tels ajouts se trouvent souvent plutôt dans la bibliothèque standard.

Quelques descriptions des types ci-dessous contiennent un paragraphe
listant des « attributs spéciaux ».  Ces attributs donnent accès à
l'implémentation et n'ont, en général, pas vocation à être utilisés.
Leur définition peut changer dans le futur.

* Menu:

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipse::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Séquences::
* Ensembles: Ensembles<2>.
* Tableaux de correspondances::
* Types appelables::
* Modules: Modules<3>.
* Classes déclarées par le développeur::
* Instances de classe: Instances de classe<2>.
* Objets entrées-sorties (ou objets fichiers): Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
* Types internes::


File: python.info,  Node: None,  Next: NotImplemented,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.1 ‘None’
..............

Ce type ne possède qu'une seule valeur.  Il n'existe qu'un seul objet
avec cette valeur.  Vous accédez à cet objet avec le nom natif ‘None’.
Il est utilisé pour signifier l'absence de valeur dans de nombreux cas,
par exemple pour des fonctions qui ne renvoient rien explicitement.  Sa
valeur booléenne est fausse.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented,  Next: Ellipse,  Prev: None,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.2 NotImplemented
......................

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name *note NotImplemented:
7be.  Numeric methods and rich comparison methods should return this
value if they do not implement the operation for the operands provided.
(The interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other
fallback, depending on the operator.)  It should not be evaluated in a
boolean context.

Consultez *note Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques: 1ea5. pour
davantage de détails.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Evaluating *note NotImplemented: 7be. in a
boolean context is deprecated.  While it currently evaluates as true, it
will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  It will raise a *note
TypeError: 525. in a future version of Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipse,  Next: numbers Number,  Prev: NotImplemented,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.3 Ellipse
...............

Ce type ne possède qu'une seule valeur.  Il n'existe qu'un seul objet
avec cette valeur.  Vous accédez à cet objet avec le littéral ‘...’ ou
le nom natif ‘Ellipsis’.  Sa valeur booléenne est vraie.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Number,  Next: Séquences,  Prev: Ellipse,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.4 ‘numbers.Number’
........................

Ces objets sont créés par les littéraux numériques et renvoyés en tant
que résultats par les opérateurs et les fonctions arithmétiques natives.
Les objets numériques sont immuables ; une fois créés, leur valeur ne
change pas.  Les nombres Python sont bien sûr très fortement corrélés
aux nombres mathématiques mais ils sont soumis aux limitations des
représentations numériques par les ordinateurs.

Les représentations sous forme de chaînes de caractères des objets
numériques, produites par *note __repr__(): 609. et *note __str__():
60a, ont les propriétés suivantes :

   * Ce sont des littéraux numériques valides qui, s'ils sont passés au
     constructeur de leur classe, produisent un objet qui a la valeur
     numérique de l'objet d'origine.

   * La représentation est en base 10, si possible.

   * Les zéros en tête, sauf en ce qui concerne un zéro seul avant la
     virgule (représentée par un point en Python conformément à la
     convention anglo-saxonne), ne sont pas affichés.

   * Les zéros en fin, sauf en ce qui concerne un zéro seul après la
     virgule, ne sont pas affichés.

   * Le signe n'est affiché que lorsque le nombre est négatif.

Python distinguishes between integers, floating-point numbers, and
complex numbers:

* Menu:

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Integral,  Next: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.5 ‘numbers.Integral’
..........................

Ils représentent des éléments de l'ensemble mathématique des entiers
(positifs ou négatifs).

     Note: 
     Les règles pour la représentation des entiers ont pour objet de
     donner l'interprétation la plus naturelle pour les opérations de
     décalage et masquage qui impliquent des entiers négatifs.

Il existe deux types d'entiers :

Entiers (*note int: 254.)

     Ils représentent les nombres, sans limite de taille, sous réserve
     de pouvoir être stockés en mémoire (virtuelle).  Afin de pouvoir
     effectuer des décalages et appliquer des masques, on considère
     qu'ils ont une représentation binaire.  Les nombres négatifs sont
     représentés comme une variante du complément à 2, qui donne
     l'illusion d'une chaîne infinie de bits de signe s'étendant vers la
     gauche.

Booléens (*note bool: 453.)

     Ils représentent les valeurs 'faux' et 'vrai'.  Deux objets,
     ‘False’ et ‘True’, sont les seuls objets booléens.  Le type booléen
     est un sous-type du type entier et les valeurs booléennes se
     comportent comme les valeurs 0 (pour ‘False’) et 1 (pour ‘True’)
     dans presque tous les contextes.  L'exception concerne la
     conversion en chaîne de caractères où ‘"False"’ et ‘"True"’ sont
     renvoyées.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Real float,  Next: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Integral,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.6 ‘numbers.Real’ (‘float’)
................................

These represent machine-level double precision floating-point numbers.
You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or
Java implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow.
Python does not support single-precision floating-point numbers; the
savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for
using these are dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so
there is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of
floating-point numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.7 ‘numbers.Complex’ (‘complex’)
.....................................

These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double
precision floating-point numbers.  The same caveats apply as for
floating-point numbers.  The real and imaginary parts of a complex
number ‘z’ can be retrieved through the read-only attributes ‘z.real’
and ‘z.imag’.


File: python.info,  Node: Séquences,  Next: Ensembles<2>,  Prev: numbers Number,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.8 Séquences
.................

These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers.
The built-in function *note len(): 61b. returns the number of items of a
sequence.  When the length of a sequence is 'n', the index set contains
the numbers 0, 1, ..., 'n'-1.  Item 'i' of sequence 'a' is selected by
‘a[i]’.  Some sequences, including built-in sequences, interpret
negative subscripts by adding the sequence length.  For example, ‘a[-2]’
equals ‘a[n-2]’, the second to last item of sequence a with length ‘n’.

Sequences also support slicing: ‘a[i:j]’ selects all items with index
'k' such that 'i' ‘<=’ 'k' ‘<’ 'j'.  When used as an expression, a slice
is a sequence of the same type.  The comment above about negative
indexes also applies to negative slice positions.

Quelques séquences gèrent le « découpage étendu » ('extended slicing' en
anglais) avec un troisième paramètre : ‘a[i:j:k]’ sélectionne tous les
éléments de 'a' d'indice 'x' où ‘x = i + n*k’, avec 'n' ‘>=’ ‘0’ et 'i'
‘<=’ 'x' ‘<’ 'j'.

Les séquences se différencient en fonction de leur muabilité :

* Menu:

* Séquences immuables::
* Séquences mutables::


File: python.info,  Node: Séquences immuables,  Next: Séquences mutables,  Up: Séquences

4.3.2.9 Séquences immuables
...........................

Un objet de type de séquence immuable ne peut pas être modifié une fois
qu'il a été créé.  Si l'objet contient des références à d'autres objets,
ces autres objets peuvent être mutables et peuvent être modifiés ;
cependant, les objets directement référencés par un objet immuable ne
peuvent pas être modifiés.

Les types suivants sont des séquences immuables :

Chaînes de caractères

     A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code
     points.  All the code points in the range ‘U+0000 - U+10FFFF’ can
     be represented in a string.  Python doesn't have a char type;
     instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string
     object with length ‘1’.  The built-in function *note ord(): 1ead.
     converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’; *note chr(): 162d. converts an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’ to the corresponding length ‘1’ string object.
     *note str.encode(): 8c4. can be used to convert a *note str: 437.
     to *note bytes: 1bd. using the given text encoding, and *note
     bytes.decode(): 8c5. can be used to achieve the opposite.

'n'-uplets ('tuples' en anglais)

     Les éléments d'un 'n'-uplet peuvent être n'importe quel objet
     Python.  Les 'n'-uplets de deux éléments ou plus sont formés par
     une liste d'expressions dont les éléments sont séparés par des
     virgules.  Un 'n'-uplet composé d'un seul élément (un
     « singleton ») est formé en suffixant une expression avec une
     virgule (une expression en tant que telle ne crée pas un 'n'-uplet
     car les parenthèses doivent rester disponibles pour grouper les
     expressions).  Un 'n'-uplet vide est formé à l'aide d'une paire de
     parenthèses vide.

Chaînes d'octets (ou 'bytes')

     A bytes object is an immutable array.  The items are 8-bit bytes,
     represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  Bytes literals
     (like ‘b'abc'’) and the built-in *note bytes(): 1bd. constructor
     can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes objects can be
     decoded to strings via the *note decode(): 8c5. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Séquences mutables,  Prev: Séquences immuables,  Up: Séquences

4.3.2.10 Séquences mutables
...........................

Les séquences mutables peuvent être modifiées après leur création.  Les
notations de tranches et de sous-ensembles peuvent être utilisées en
tant que cibles d'une affectation ou de l'instruction *note del: 1762.
(suppression).

     Note: 
     The *note collections: 1d. and *note array: 7. module provide
     additional examples of mutable sequence types.

Il existe aujourd'hui deux types intrinsèques de séquences mutables :

Listes

     N'importe quel objet Python peut être élément d'une liste.  Les
     listes sont créées en plaçant entre crochets une liste
     d'expressions dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules
     (notez que les listes de longueur 0 ou 1 ne sont pas des cas
     particuliers).

Tableaux d'octets

     Un objet 'bytearray' est un tableau mutable.  Il est créé par la
     fonction native constructeur *note bytearray(): 52b.  À part la
     propriété d'être mutable (et donc de ne pas pouvoir calculer son
     empreinte par hachage), un tableau d'octets possède la même
     interface et les mêmes fonctionnalités qu'un objet immuable *note
     bytes: 1bd.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensembles<2>,  Next: Tableaux de correspondances,  Prev: Séquences,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.11 Ensembles
..................

Ils représentent les ensembles d'objets, non ordonnés, finis et dont les
éléments sont uniques.  Tels quels, ils ne peuvent pas être indicés.
Cependant, il est possible d'itérer dessus et la fonction native *note
len(): 61b. renvoie le nombre d'éléments de l'ensemble.  Les
utilisations classiques des ensembles sont les tests d'appartenance
rapides, la suppression de doublons dans une séquence et le calcul
d'opérations mathématiques telles que l'intersection, l'union, la
différence et le complémentaire.

Pour les éléments des ensembles, les mêmes règles concernant
l'immuabilité s'appliquent que pour les clés de dictionnaires.  Notez
que les types numériques obéissent aux règles normales pour les
comparaisons numériques : si deux nombres sont égaux (pour l'opération
de comparaison, par exemple ‘1’ et ‘1.0’), un seul élément est conservé
dans l'ensemble.

Actuellement, il existe deux types d'ensembles natifs :

Ensembles

     Ils représentent les ensembles mutables.  Un ensemble est créé par
     la fonction native constructeur *note set(): 5c5. et peut être
     modifié par la suite à l'aide de différentes méthodes, par exemple
     ‘add()’.

Ensembles figés

     Ils représentent les ensembles immuables.  Ils sont créés par la
     fonction native constructeur *note frozenset(): 5c6.  Comme un
     ensemble figé est immuable et *note hachable: 5fd, il peut être
     utilisé comme élément d'un autre ensemble ou comme clé de
     dictionnaire.


File: python.info,  Node: Tableaux de correspondances,  Next: Types appelables,  Prev: Ensembles<2>,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.12 Tableaux de correspondances
....................................

Ils représentent les ensembles finis d'objets indicés par des ensembles
index arbitraires.  La notation ‘a[k]’ sélectionne l'élément indicé par
‘k’ dans le tableau de correspondances ‘a’ ; elle peut être utilisée
dans des expressions, comme cible d'une affectation ou avec
l'instruction *note del: 1762.  La fonction native *note len(): 61b.
renvoie le nombre d'éléments du tableau de correspondances.

Il n'existe actuellement qu'un seul type natif pour les tableaux de
correspondances :

* Menu:

* Dictionnaires: Dictionnaires<2>.


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4.3.2.13 Dictionnaires
......................

Ils représentent les ensembles finis d'objets indicés par des valeurs
presque arbitraires.  Les seuls types de valeurs non reconnus comme clés
sont les valeurs contenant des listes, des dictionnaires ou les autres
types mutables qui sont comparés par valeur plutôt que par l'identifiant
de l'objet.  La raison de cette limitation est qu'une implémentation
efficace de dictionnaire requiert que l'empreinte par hachage des clés
reste constante dans le temps.  Les types numériques obéissent aux
règles normales pour les comparaisons numériques : si deux nombres sont
égaux pour l'opération de comparaison, par exemple ‘1’ et ‘1.0’, alors
ces deux nombres peuvent être utilisés indifféremment pour désigner la
même entrée du dictionnaire.

Les dictionnaires préservent l’ordre d’insertion, ce qui signifie que
les clés sont renvoyées séquentiellement dans le même ordre que celui de
l’insertion.  Remplacer une clé existante ne change pas l’ordre.  Par
contre, la retirer puis la réinsérer la met à la fin et non à sa
précédente position.

Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ‘{}’ notation (see
section *note Agencements de dictionnaires: d6e.).

Les modules d'extensions *note dbm.ndbm: 34. et *note dbm.gnu: 33.
apportent d'autres exemples de types tableaux de correspondances, de
même que le module *note collections: 1d.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: les dictionnaires ne conservaient pas
l’ordre d’insertion dans les versions antérieures à Python 3.6.  Dans
CPython 3.6, l’ordre d’insertion était déjà conservé, mais considéré
comme un détail d’implémentation et non comme une garantie du langage.


File: python.info,  Node: Types appelables,  Next: Modules<3>,  Prev: Tableaux de correspondances,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.14 Types appelables
.........................

Ce sont les types sur lesquels on peut faire un appel de fonction (lisez
la section *note Appels: d6c.) :

* Menu:

* Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur::
* Méthodes d'instances::
* Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs): Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs.
* Fonctions coroutines::
* Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs) asynchrones: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones.
* Fonctions natives::
* Méthodes natives::
* Classes: Classes<2>.
* Instances de classe::


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur,  Next: Méthodes d'instances,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.15 Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur
.............................................

Un objet fonction définie par l'utilisateur (mais ce n'est pas forcément
l'utilisateur courant qui a défini cette fonction) est créé par la
définition d'une fonction (voir la section *note Définition de
fonctions: 1bf4.).  Il doit être appelé avec une liste d'arguments
contenant le même nombre d'éléments que la liste des paramètres formels
de la fonction.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes::
* Special writable attributes::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes,  Next: Special writable attributes,  Up: Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur

4.3.2.16 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

Attribut                                               Signification
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__globals__                     A reference to the *note dictionary: 253. that holds
                                                       the function's *note global variables: 1eb5. - the
                                                       global namespace of the module in which the function
                                                       was defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__closure__                     ‘None’ or a *note tuple: 366. of cells that contain
                                                       bindings for the names specified in the
                                                       *note co_freevars: 1eb6. attribute of the function's
                                                       *note code object: 297.
                                                       
                                                       Un objet cellule possède un attribut
                                                       ‘cell_contents’.  Il peut être utilisé pour obtenir
                                                       la valeur de la cellule et pour en définir la
                                                       valeur.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special writable attributes,  Prev: Special read-only attributes,  Up: Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur

4.3.2.17 Special writable attributes
....................................

Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:

Attribut                                               Signification
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__doc__                         The function's documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       unavailable.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__name__                        The function's name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: 1051.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__qualname__                    The function's *note qualified name: 18fe.  See
                                                       also: *note __qualname__ attributes: 1050.
                                                       
                                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.3.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__module__                      Nom du module où la fonction est définie ou ‘None’
                                                       si ce nom n'est pas disponible.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__defaults__                    A *note tuple: 366. containing default
                                                       *note parameter: 1eba. values for those parameters
                                                       that have defaults, or ‘None’ if no parameters have
                                                       a default value.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__code__                        The *note code object: 1cd. representing the
                                                       compiled function body.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__dict__                        The namespace supporting arbitrary function
                                                       attributes.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 549.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__annotations__                 A *note dictionary: 253. containing annotations of
                                                       *note parameters: 1eba.  The keys of the dictionary
                                                       are the parameter names, and ‘'return'’ for the
                                                       return annotation, if provided.  See also:
                                                       *note Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations: 7c5.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__kwdefaults__                  A *note dictionary: 253. containing defaults for
                                                       keyword-only *note parameters: 1eba.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: function.__type_params__                 A *note tuple: 366. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 2b0. of a
                                                       *note generic function: 43e.
                                                       
                                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.12.
                                                       

Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes,
which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions.
Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes.

'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' CPython's current
implementation only supports function attributes on user-defined
functions.  Function attributes on *note built-in functions: 1ebc. may
be supported in the future.

Additional information about a function's definition can be retrieved
from its *note code object: 1cd. (accessible via the *note __code__:
297. attribute).


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes d'instances,  Next: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs,  Prev: Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.18 Méthodes d'instances
.............................

Un objet méthode d'instance combine une classe, une instance de classe
et tout objet appelable (normalement une fonction définie par
l'utilisateur).

Special read-only attributes:

 -- Attribut: method.__self__                          Refers to the class instance object to which the
                                                       method is *note bound: 1ebf.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: method.__func__                          Refers to the original *note function object: 296.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: method.__doc__                           The method's documentation (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__doc__: 11b8.).  A
                                                       *note string: 437. if the original function had a
                                                       docstring, else ‘None’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: method.__name__                          The name of the method (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__name__: 12b4.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: method.__module__                        The name of the module the method was defined in, or
                                                       ‘None’ if unavailable.
                                                       

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function
attributes on the underlying *note function object: 296.

User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of
a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a
user-defined *note function object: 296. or a *note classmethod: 165.
object.  When an instance method object is created by retrieving a
user-defined *note function object: 296. from a class via one of its
instances, its *note __self__: 1381. attribute is the instance, and the
method object is said to be 'bound'.  The new method's *note __func__:
12dc. attribute is the original function object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a *note
classmethod: 165. object from a class or instance, its *note __self__:
1381. attribute is the class itself, and its *note __func__: 12dc.
attribute is the function object underlying the class method.

When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (*note
__func__: 12dc.) is called, inserting the class instance (*note
__self__: 1381.) in front of the argument list.  For instance, when ‘C’
is a class which contains a definition for a function ‘f()’, and ‘x’ is
an instance of ‘C’, calling ‘x.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘C.f(x,
1)’.

When an instance method object is derived from a *note classmethod: 165.
object, the "class instance" stored in *note __self__: 1381. will
actually be the class itself, so that calling either ‘x.f(1)’ or
‘C.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘f(C,1)’ where ‘f’ is the underlying
function.

It is important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes
of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this 'only'
happens when the function is an attribute of the class.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs,  Next: Fonctions coroutines,  Prev: Méthodes d'instances,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.19 Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs)
................................................

Une fonction ou une méthode qui utilise l'instruction *note yield: 9bd.
(voir la section *note L'instruction yield: 9bd.) est appelée 'fonction
génératrice'.  Une telle fonction, lorsqu'elle est appelée, renvoie
toujours un objet *note itérateur: 1aa. qui peut être utilisé pour
exécuter le corps de la fonction : appeler la méthode *note
iterator.__next__(): 12ad. de l'itérateur exécute la fonction jusqu'à ce
qu'elle renvoie une valeur à l'aide de l'instruction ‘yield’.  Quand la
fonction exécute l'instruction *note return: 9be. ou se termine, une
exception *note StopIteration: bea. est levée et l'itérateur a atteint
la fin de l'ensemble de valeurs qu'il peut renvoyer.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions coroutines,  Next: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones,  Prev: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.20 Fonctions coroutines
.............................

Une fonction ou méthode définie en utilisant *note async def: 5bd. est
appelée 'fonction coroutine'.  Une telle fonction, quand elle est
appelée, renvoie un objet *note coroutine: 47d.  Elle peut contenir des
expressions *note await: 1b7. ou *note async with: 5c1. ou des
instructions *note async for: a9b.  Voir également la section *note
Objets coroutines: 1ec5.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones,  Next: Fonctions natives,  Prev: Fonctions coroutines,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.21 Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs) asynchrones
............................................................

Une fonction ou une méthode définie avec *note async def: 5bd. et qui
utilise l'instruction *note yield: 9bd. est appelée 'fonction
génératrice asynchrone'.  Une telle fonction, quand elle est appelée,
renvoie un objet *note itérateur asynchrone: 1a9. qui peut être utilisé
dans des instructions *note async for: a9b. pour exécuter le corps de la
fonction.

Appeler la méthode *note aiterator.__anext__: 152d. de l'itérateur
asynchrone renvoie un *note awaitable: 1ab. qui, lorsqu'on l'attend,
s'exécute jusqu'à ce qu'il fournisse une valeur à l'aide de l'expression
*note yield: 9bd.  Quand la fonction exécute une instruction *note
return: 9be. (sans valeur) ou arrive à la fin, une exception *note
StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. est levée et l'itérateur asynchrone a atteint
la fin de l'ensemble des valeurs qu'il peut produire.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions natives,  Next: Méthodes natives,  Prev: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.22 Fonctions natives
..........................

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.  Examples
of built-in functions are *note len(): 61b. and *note math.sin(): 1474.
(*note math: 8d. is a standard built-in module).  The number and type of
the arguments are determined by the C function.  Special read-only
attributes:

   * ‘__doc__’ is the function's documentation string, or ‘None’ if
     unavailable.  See *note function.__doc__: 11b8.

   * ‘__name__’ is the function's name.  See *note function.__name__:
     12b4.

   * ‘__self__’ is set to ‘None’ (but see the next item).

   * ‘__module__’ is the name of the module the function was defined in
     or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See *note function.__module__: 1eb9.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes natives,  Next: Classes<2>,  Prev: Fonctions natives,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.23 Méthodes natives
.........................

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time
containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra
argument.  An example of a built-in method is ‘alist.append()’, assuming
'alist' is a list object.  In this case, the special read-only attribute
‘__self__’ is set to the object denoted by 'alist'.  (The attribute has
the same semantics as it does with *note other instance methods: 1381.)


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<2>,  Next: Instances de classe,  Prev: Méthodes natives,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.24 Classes
................

Classes are callable.  These objects normally act as factories for new
instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types
that override *note __new__(): 56e.  The arguments of the call are
passed to ‘__new__()’ and, in the typical case, to *note __init__():
69d. to initialize the new instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Instances de classe,  Prev: Classes<2>,  Up: Types appelables

4.3.2.25 Instances de classe
............................

Les instances d'une classe peuvent devenir des appelables si vous
définissez la méthode *note __call__(): 546. de leur classe.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<3>,  Next: Classes déclarées par le développeur,  Prev: Types appelables,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.26 Modules
................

Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created
by the *note import system: 1ecf. as invoked either by the *note import:
5ce. statement, or by calling functions such as *note
importlib.import_module(): 504. and built-in *note __import__(): 8c3.  A
module object has a namespace implemented by a *note dictionary: 253.
object (this is the dictionary referenced by the *note __globals__:
12b3. attribute of functions defined in the module).  Attribute
references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘m.x’ is
equivalent to ‘m.__dict__["x"]’.  A module object does not contain the
code object used to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once
the initialization is done).

L'affectation d'un attribut met à jour le dictionnaire d'espace de
nommage du module, par exemple ‘m.x = 1’ est équivalent à
‘m.__dict__["x"] = 1’.

* Menu:

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Import-related attributes on module objects,  Next: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: Modules<3>

4.3.2.27 Import-related attributes on module objects
....................................................

Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the *note
import system: 1ecf.  When a module is created using the machinery
associated with the import system, these attributes are filled in based
on the module's *note spec: 1ed2, before the *note loader: 166b.
executes and loads the module.

To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system, it's
recommended to use *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e01, which
will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values.
It's also possible to use the *note types.ModuleType: e02. constructor
to create modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as
most attributes must be manually set on the module object after it has
been created when using this approach.

     Prudence: With the exception of *note __name__: 1361, it is
     'strongly' recommended that you rely on *note __spec__: 1ed3. and
     its attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes
     listed in this subsection.  Note that updating an attribute on
     ‘__spec__’ will not update the corresponding attribute on the
     module itself:

          >>> import typing
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'typing')
          >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'spelling')
          >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

 -- Attribut: module.__name__

     The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system.
     For a directly executed module, this will be set to ‘"__main__"’.

     This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the
     module.  It is expected to match the value of *note
     module.__spec__.name: 1ed4.

 -- Attribut: module.__spec__

     A record of the module's import-system-related state.

     Set to the *note module spec: 1e20. that was used when importing
     the module.  See *note Spécificateurs de modules: 1ed5. for more
     details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Attribut: module.__package__

     The *note package: 1ed6. a module belongs to.

     If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific
     package) then the attribute should be set to ‘''’ (the empty
     string).  Otherwise, it should be set to the name of the module's
     package (which can be equal to *note module.__name__: 1361. if the
     module itself is a package).  See PEP 366(1) for further details.

     This attribute is used instead of *note __name__: 1361. to
     calculate explicit relative imports for main modules.  It defaults
     to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically using the *note
     types.ModuleType: e02. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e01. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note str: 437.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.parent: 2d7. instead of ‘module.__package__’.
     *note __package__: 2d6. is now only used as a fallback if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not set, and this fallback path is deprecated.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’
     for modules created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType:
     e02. constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The value of ‘__package__’ is expected
     to be the same as *note __spec__.parent: 2d7.  *note __package__:
     2d6. is now only used as a fallback during import resolution if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not defined.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note ImportWarning: 4e7. is raised
     if an import resolution falls back to ‘__package__’ instead of
     *note __spec__.parent: 2d7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     instead of *note ImportWarning: 4e7. when falling back to
     ‘__package__’ during import resolution.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by
     the import system or standard library.

 -- Attribut: module.__loader__

     The *note loader: 166b. object that the import machinery used to
     load the module.

     This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used
     for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting
     data associated with a loader.

     ‘__loader__’ defaults to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically
     using the *note types.ModuleType: e02. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e01. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note loader: 166b. object.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.loader: 2e2. instead of ‘module.__loader__’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’
     for modules created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType:
     e02. constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.16:
     Setting ‘__loader__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.16, ‘__loader__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     the standard library.

 -- Attribut: module.__path__

     A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 4de. of strings enumerating the
     locations where the package's submodules will be found.
     Non-package modules should not have a ‘__path__’ attribute.  See
     *note l'attribut __path__ des modules: 1ed7. for more details.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations: 1ed8. instead of
     ‘module.__path__’.

 -- Attribut: module.__file__

 -- Attribut: module.__cached__

     ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are both optional attributes that may
     or may not be set.  Both attributes should be a *note str: 437.
     when they are available.

     ‘__file__’ indicates the pathname of the file from which the module
     was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared
     library file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared
     library.  It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as
     C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the
     *note import system: 1ecf. may opt to leave it unset if it has no
     semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).

     If ‘__file__’ is set then the ‘__cached__’ attribute might also be
     set, which is the path to any compiled version of the code (for
     example, a byte-compiled file).  The file does not need to exist to
     set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the compiled
     file 'would' exist (see PEP 3147(2)).

     Note that ‘__cached__’ may be set even if ‘__file__’ is not set.
     However, that scenario is quite atypical.  Ultimately, the *note
     loader: 166b. is what makes use of the module spec provided by the
     *note finder: 1eda. (from which ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are
     derived).  So if a loader can load from a cached module but
     otherwise does not load from a file, that atypical scenario may be
     appropriate.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.cached: 2d5. instead of ‘module.__cached__’.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.cached’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.15, ‘__cached__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Next: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Import-related attributes on module objects,  Up: Modules<3>

4.3.2.28 Other writable attributes on module objects
....................................................

As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects
also have the following writable attributes:

 -- Attribut: module.__doc__

     The module's documentation string, or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See
     also: *note __doc__ attributes: 917.

 -- Attribut: module.__annotations__

     Dictionnaire des *note annotations de variable: d45. trouvées lors
     de l'exécution du code du module.  Pour plus de détails sur
     l'attribut *note __annotations__: 1edc, voir *note Bonnes pratiques
     concernant les annotations: 7c5.


File: python.info,  Node: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: Modules<3>

4.3.2.29 Module dictionaries
............................

Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:

 -- Attribut: module.__dict__

     The module's namespace as a dictionary object.  Uniquely among the
     attributes listed here, ‘__dict__’ cannot be accessed as a global
     variable from within a module; it can only be accessed as an
     attribute on module objects.

     en raison de la manière dont CPython nettoie les dictionnaires de
     modules, le dictionnaire du module est effacé quand le module n'est
     plus visible, même si le dictionnaire possède encore des références
     actives.  Pour éviter ceci, copiez le dictionnaire ou gardez le
     module dans votre champ de visibilité tant que vous souhaitez
     utiliser le dictionnaire directement.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes déclarées par le développeur,  Next: Instances de classe<2>,  Prev: Modules<3>,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.30 Classes déclarées par le développeur
.............................................

Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see
section *note Définition de classes: 12b7.).  A class has a namespace
implemented by a dictionary object.  Class attribute references are
translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘C.x’ is translated to
‘C.__dict__["x"]’ (although there are a number of hooks which allow for
other means of locating attributes).  When the attribute name is not
found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes.  This
search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which
behaves correctly even in the presence of 'diamond' inheritance
structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a
common ancestor.  Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be
found at *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1460.

When a class attribute reference (for class ‘C’, say) would yield a
class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object
whose *note __self__: 1381. attribute is ‘C’.  When it would yield a
*note staticmethod: 40c. object, it is transformed into the object
wrapped by the static method object.  See section *note Implémentation
de descripteurs: c3f. for another way in which attributes retrieved from
a class may differ from those actually contained in its *note __dict__:
549.

Les affectations d'un attribut de classe mettent à jour le dictionnaire
de la classe, jamais le dictionnaire d'une classe de base.

Un objet classe peut être appelé (voir ci-dessus) pour produire une
instance de classe (voir ci-dessous).

* Menu:

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes,  Next: Special methods,  Up: Classes déclarées par le développeur

4.3.2.31 Special attributes
...........................

Attribut                                               Signification
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__name__                            The class's name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: 1051.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__qualname__                        The class's *note qualified name: 18fe.  See also:
                                                       *note __qualname__ attributes: 1050.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__module__                          Nom du module où la classe a été définie.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__dict__                            A *note mapping proxy: 459. providing a read-only
                                                       view of the class's namespace.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 549.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__bases__                           A *note tuple: 366. containing the class's bases.
                                                       In most cases, for a class defined as ‘class X(A, B,
                                                       C)’, ‘X.__bases__’ will be exactly equal to ‘(A, B,
                                                       C)’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__doc__                             The class's documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       undefined.  Not inherited by subclasses.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__annotations__                     A dictionary containing
                                                       *note variable annotations: d45. collected during
                                                       class body execution.  For best practices on working
                                                       with ‘__annotations__’, please see
                                                       *note Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations: 7c5.
                                                       
                                                            Prudence: Accessing the ‘__annotations__’
                                                            attribute of a class object directly may yield
                                                            incorrect results in the presence of
                                                            metaclasses.  In addition, the attribute may
                                                            not exist for some classes.  Use
                                                            *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. to
                                                            retrieve class annotations safely.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__type_params__                     A *note tuple: 366. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 2b0. of a
                                                       *note generic class: 43d.
                                                       
                                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.12.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__static_attributes__               A *note tuple: 366. containing names of attributes
                                                       of this class which are assigned through ‘self.X’
                                                       from any function in its body.
                                                       
                                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.13.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__firstlineno__                     The line number of the first line of the class
                                                       definition, including decorators.  Setting the
                                                       ‘__module__’ attribute removes the ‘__firstlineno__’
                                                       item from the type's dictionary.
                                                       
                                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.13.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: type.__mro__                             The *note tuple: 366. of classes that are considered
                                                       when looking for base classes during method
                                                       resolution.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special methods,  Prev: Special attributes,  Up: Classes déclarées par le développeur

4.3.2.32 Special methods
........................

In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python
classes also have the following two methods available:

 -- Méthode: type.mro ()

     This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the
     method resolution order for its instances.  It is called at class
     instantiation, and its result is stored in *note __mro__: 1ee5.

 -- Méthode: type.__subclasses__ ()

     Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate
     subclasses.  This method returns a list of all those references
     still alive.  The list is in definition order.  Example:

          >>> class A: pass
          >>> class B(A): pass
          >>> A.__subclasses__()
          [<class 'B'>]


File: python.info,  Node: Instances de classe<2>,  Next: Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers,  Prev: Classes déclarées par le développeur,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.33 Instances de classe
............................

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).  A
class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the
first place in which attribute references are searched.  When an
attribute is not found there, and the instance's class has an attribute
by that name, the search continues with the class attributes.  If a
class attribute is found that is a user-defined function object, it is
transformed into an instance method object whose *note __self__: 1381.
attribute is the instance.  Static method and class method objects are
also transformed; see above under "Classes".  See section *note
Implémentation de descripteurs: c3f. for another way in which attributes
of a class retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects
actually stored in the class's *note __dict__: 549.  If no class
attribute is found, and the object's class has a *note __getattr__():
4bf. method, that is called to satisfy the lookup.

Les affectations et suppressions d'attributs mettent à jour le
dictionnaire de l'instance, jamais le dictionnaire de la classe.  Si la
classe possède une méthode *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. ou *note
__delattr__(): 1eea, elle est appelée au lieu de mettre à jour le
dictionnaire de l'instance directement.

Les instances de classes peuvent prétendre être des nombres, des
séquences ou des tableaux de correspondances si elles ont des méthodes
avec des noms spéciaux.  Voir la section *note Méthodes spéciales: c5e.

* Menu:

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes<2>,  Up: Instances de classe<2>

4.3.2.34 Special attributes
...........................

 -- Attribut: object.__class__

     Classe de l'instance de classe.

 -- Attribut: object.__dict__

     A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's
     (writable) attributes.  Not all instances have a ‘__dict__’
     attribute; see the section on *note créneaux prédéfinis
     (__slots__): 1eec. for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers,  Next: Types internes,  Prev: Instances de classe<2>,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.35 Objets entrées-sorties (ou objets fichiers)
....................................................

Un *note objet fichier: 11a2. représente un fichier ouvert.  Différents
raccourcis existent pour créer des objets fichiers : la fonction native
*note open(): 508. et aussi *note os.popen(): a77, *note os.fdopen():
1eee. ou la méthode *note makefile(): 117f. des objets connecteurs (et
sûrement d'autres fonctions ou méthodes fournies par les modules
d'extensions).

Les objets ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ et ‘sys.stderr’ sont initialisés à
des objets fichiers correspondant à l'entrée standard, la sortie
standard et le flux d'erreurs de l'interpréteur ; ils sont tous ouverts
en mode texte et se conforment donc à l'interface définie par la classe
abstraite *note io.TextIOBase: 682.


File: python.info,  Node: Types internes,  Prev: Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers,  Up: Hiérarchie des types standards

4.3.2.36 Types internes
.......................

Quelques types utilisés en interne par l'interpréteur sont accessibles à
l'utilisateur.  Leur définition peut changer dans les futures versions
de l'interpréteur mais ils sont donnés ci-dessous à fin d'exhaustivité.

* Menu:

* Objets Code::
* Objets cadres::
* Objets traces d'appels::
* Objets tranches::
* Objets méthodes statiques::
* Objets méthodes de classes::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Code,  Next: Objets cadres,  Up: Types internes

4.3.2.37 Objets Code
....................

Un objet code représente le code Python sous sa forme compilée en *note
code intermédiaire: 185.  La différence entre un objet code et un objet
fonction est que l'objet fonction contient une référence explicite vers
les globales de la fonction (le module dans lequel elle est définie)
alors qu'un objet code ne contient aucun contexte ; par ailleurs, les
valeurs par défaut des arguments sont stockées dans l'objet fonction,
pas dans l'objet code (parce que ce sont des valeurs calculées au moment
de l'exécution).  Contrairement aux objets fonctions, les objets codes
sont immuables et ne contiennent aucune référence (directe ou indirecte)
à des objets mutables.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>.
* Methods on code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes<2>,  Next: Methods on code objects,  Up: Objets Code

4.3.2.38 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_name                       The function name
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_qualname                   The fully qualified function name
                                                       
                                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.11.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_argcount                   The total number of positional
                                                       *note parameters: 1eba. (including positional-only
                                                       parameters and parameters with default values) that
                                                       the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_posonlyargcount            The number of positional-only
                                                       *note parameters: 1eba. (including arguments with
                                                       default values) that the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount             The number of keyword-only *note parameters: 1eba.
                                                       (including arguments with default values) that the
                                                       function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_nlocals                    The number of *note local variables: 1eb5. used by
                                                       the function (including parameters)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_varnames                   A *note tuple: 366. containing the names of the
                                                       local variables in the function (starting with the
                                                       parameter names)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_cellvars                   A *note tuple: 366. containing the names of
                                                       *note local variables: 1eb5. that are referenced
                                                       from at least one *note nested scope: 1efa. inside
                                                       the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_freevars                   A *note tuple: 366. containing the names of
                                                       *note free (closure) variables: 1efb. that a
                                                       *note nested scope: 1efa. references in an outer
                                                       scope.  See also *note function.__closure__: 12b0.
                                                       
                                                       Note: references to global and builtin names are
                                                       'not' included.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_code                       A string representing the sequence of
                                                       *note bytecode: 185. instructions in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_consts                     A *note tuple: 366. containing the literals used by
                                                       the *note bytecode: 185. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_names                      A *note tuple: 366. containing the names used by the
                                                       *note bytecode: 185. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_filename                   The name of the file from which the code was
                                                       compiled
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_firstlineno                The line number of the first line of the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_lnotab                     A string encoding the mapping from
                                                       *note bytecode: 185. offsets to line numbers.  For
                                                       details, see the source code of the interpreter.
                                                       
                                                       Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: This attribute of
                                                       code objects is deprecated, and may be removed in
                                                       Python 3.15.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_stacksize                  The required stack size of the code object
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: codeobject.co_flags                      An *note integer: 254. encoding a number of flags
                                                       for the interpreter.
                                                       

The following flag bits are defined for *note co_flags: 1f00.: bit
‘0x04’ is set if the function uses the ‘*arguments’ syntax to accept an
arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit ‘0x08’ is set if the
function uses the ‘**keywords’ syntax to accept arbitrary keyword
arguments; bit ‘0x20’ is set if the function is a generator.  See *note
Bit d'option des objets code: 1f01. for details on the semantics of each
flags that might be present.

Future feature declarations (for example, ‘from __future__ import
division’) also use bits in *note co_flags: 1f00. to indicate whether a
code object was compiled with a particular feature enabled.  See *note
compiler_flag: 1f02.

Other bits in *note co_flags: 1f00. are reserved for internal use.

If a code object represents a function, the first item in *note
co_consts: 152e. is the documentation string of the function, or ‘None’
if undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods on code objects,  Prev: Special read-only attributes<2>,  Up: Objets Code

4.3.2.39 Methods on code objects
................................

 -- Méthode: codeobject.co_positions ()

     Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each *note
     bytecode: 185. instruction in the code object.

     The iterator returns *note tuple: 366.s containing the
     ‘(start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column)’.  The 'i-th'
     tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled
     to the 'i-th' code unit.  Column information is 0-indexed utf-8
     byte offsets on the given source line.

     L'information sur la position peut être manquante.  Ce peut être le
     cas si (liste non exhaustive) :

        - l'interpréteur est lancé avec l'option *note -X: 175.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’ ;

        - le fichier '.pyc' est le produit d'une compilation avec
          l'option *note -X: 175. ‘no_debug_ranges’ ;

        - le 'n'-uplet de position correspond à des instructions
          artificielles ;

        - les lignes et colonnes ne peuvent pas être représentées en
          tant que nombre, en raison de limitations dues à
          l'implémentation ;

     Dans ce cas, certains ou tous les éléments du 'n'-uplet peuvent
     valoir *note None: 662.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

          Note: cette fonctionnalité nécessite de stocker les positions
          de colonne dans les objets code, ce qui peut conduire à une
          légère augmentation de l'utilisation du disque par les
          fichiers Python compilés ou de l'utilisation de la mémoire.
          Pour éviter de stocker cette information supplémentaire ou
          pour désactiver l'affichage supplémentaire dans la pile
          d'appels, vous pouvez activer l'option de ligne de commande
          *note -X: 175. ‘no_debug_ranges’ ou la variable
          d'environnement *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5a2.

 -- Méthode: codeobject.co_lines ()

     Returns an iterator that yields information about successive ranges
     of *note bytecode: 185.s.  Each item yielded is a ‘(start, end,
     lineno)’ *note tuple: 366.:

        * ‘start’ (an *note int: 254.) represents the offset (inclusive)
          of the start of the *note bytecode: 185. range

        * ‘end’ (an *note int: 254.) represents the offset (exclusive)
          of the end of the *note bytecode: 185. range

        * ‘lineno’ is an *note int: 254. representing the line number of
          the *note bytecode: 185. range, or ‘None’ if the bytecodes in
          the given range have no line number

     The items yielded will have the following properties:

        * The first range yielded will have a ‘start’ of 0.

        * The ‘(start, end)’ ranges will be non-decreasing and
          consecutive.  That is, for any pair of *note tuple: 366.s, the
          ‘start’ of the second will be equal to the ‘end’ of the first.

        * No range will be backwards: ‘end >= start’ for all triples.

        * The last *note tuple: 366. yielded will have ‘end’ equal to
          the size of the *note bytecode: 185.

     Zero-width ranges, where ‘start == end’, are allowed.  Zero-width
     ranges are used for lines that are present in the source code, but
     have been eliminated by the *note bytecode: 185. compiler.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 626(1) - Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

          The PEP that introduced the ‘co_lines()’ method.

 -- Méthode: codeobject.replace (**kwargs)

     Return a copy of the code object with new values for the specified
     fields.

     Code objects are also supported by the generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 150.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets cadres,  Next: Objets traces d'appels,  Prev: Objets Code,  Up: Types internes

4.3.2.40 Objets cadres
......................

Frame objects represent execution frames.  They may occur in *note
traceback objects: ae4, and are also passed to registered trace
functions.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>.
* Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>.
* Frame object methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes<3>,  Next: Special writable attributes<2>,  Up: Objets cadres

4.3.2.41 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

 -- Attribut: frame.f_back                             Points to the previous stack frame (towards the
                                                       caller), or ‘None’ if this is the bottom stack frame
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_code                             The *note code object: 1cd. being executed in this
                                                       frame.  Accessing this attribute raises an
                                                       *note auditing event: 1877. ‘object.__getattr__’
                                                       with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"f_code"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_locals                           The mapping used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note local variables: 1eb5.  If the frame refers to
                                                       an *note optimized scope: 17c, this may return a
                                                       write-through proxy object.
                                                       
                                                       Modifié dans la version 3.13: Return a proxy for
                                                       optimized scopes.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_globals                          The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note global variables: 1eb5.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_builtins                         The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note built-in (intrinsic) names: 1eb5.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_lasti                            The "precise instruction" of the frame object (this
                                                       is an index into the *note bytecode: 185. string of
                                                       the *note code object: 1cd.)
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special writable attributes<2>,  Next: Frame object methods,  Prev: Special read-only attributes<3>,  Up: Objets cadres

4.3.2.42 Special writable attributes
....................................

 -- Attribut: frame.f_trace                            If not ‘None’, this is a function called for various
                                                       events during code execution (this is used by
                                                       debuggers).  Normally an event is triggered for each
                                                       new source line (see *note f_trace_lines: bcb.).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_trace_lines                      Set this attribute to *note False: b27. to disable
                                                       triggering a tracing event for each source line.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_trace_opcodes                    Set this attribute to *note True: bfd. to allow
                                                       per-opcode events to be requested.  Note that this
                                                       may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if
                                                       exceptions raised by the trace function escape to
                                                       the function being traced.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: frame.f_lineno                           The current line number of the frame - writing to
                                                       this from within a trace function jumps to the given
                                                       line (only for the bottom-most frame).  A debugger
                                                       can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next
                                                       Statement) by writing to this attribute.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Frame object methods,  Prev: Special writable attributes<2>,  Up: Objets cadres

4.3.2.43 Frame object methods
.............................

Les objets cadres comprennent une méthode :

 -- Méthode: frame.clear ()

     This method clears all references to *note local variables: 1eb5.
     held by the frame.  Also, if the frame belonged to a *note
     generator: 104c, the generator is finalized.  This helps break
     reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching
     an *note exception: 1840. and storing its *note traceback: ae4. for
     later use).

     *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised if the frame is currently
     executing or suspended.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Attempting to clear a suspended frame
     raises *note RuntimeError: 193. (as has always been the case for
     executing frames).


File: python.info,  Node: Objets traces d'appels,  Next: Objets tranches,  Prev: Objets cadres,  Up: Types internes

4.3.2.44 Objets traces d'appels
...............................

Traceback objects represent the stack trace of an *note exception: 1c48.
A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and
may also be explicitly created by calling *note types.TracebackType:
ae2.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Traceback objects can now be explicitly
instantiated from Python code.

For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception
handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback
object is inserted in front of the current traceback.  When an exception
handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program.
(See section *note L'instruction try: 6d5.)  It is accessible as the
third item of the tuple returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 677, and as
the *note __traceback__: 12a6. attribute of the caught exception.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is
written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the
interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user as
*note sys.last_traceback: 4ad.

For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the
traceback to determine how the *note tb_next: ae3. attributes should be
linked to form a full stack trace.

Special read-only attributes:

 -- Attribut: traceback.tb_frame                       Points to the execution *note frame: 6cc. of the
                                                       current level.
                                                       
                                                       Accessing this attribute raises an
                                                       *note auditing event: 1877. ‘object.__getattr__’
                                                       with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"tb_frame"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: traceback.tb_lineno                      Gives the line number where the exception occurred
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: traceback.tb_lasti                       Indicates the "precise instruction".
                                                       

The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from
the line number of its *note frame object: 6cc. if the exception
occurred in a *note try: 6d5. statement with no matching except clause
or with a *note finally: 9ba. clause.

 -- Attribut: traceback.tb_next

     The special writable attribute ‘tb_next’ is the next level in the
     stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or
     ‘None’ if there is no next level.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: This attribute is now writable


File: python.info,  Node: Objets tranches,  Next: Objets méthodes statiques,  Prev: Objets traces d'appels,  Up: Types internes

4.3.2.45 Objets tranches
........................

Un objet tranche est utilisé pour représenter des découpes des méthodes
*note __getitem__(): 280.  Ils sont aussi créés par la fonction native
*note slice(): 455.

Attributs spéciaux en lecture seule : ‘start’ est la borne inférieure ;
‘stop’ est la borne supérieure ; ‘step’ est la valeur du pas ; chaque
attribut vaut ‘None’ s'il est omis.  Ces attributs peuvent être de
n'importe quel type.

Les objets tranches comprennent une méthode :

 -- Méthode: slice.indices (self, length)

     Cette méthode prend un argument entier 'length' et calcule les
     informations de la tranche que l'objet 'slice' décrit s'il est
     appliqué à une séquence de 'length' éléments.  Elle renvoie un
     triplet d'entiers ; respectivement, ce sont les indices de 'début'
     et 'fin' ainsi que le 'pas' de découpe.  Les indices manquants ou
     en dehors sont gérés de manière cohérente avec les tranches
     normales.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets méthodes statiques,  Next: Objets méthodes de classes,  Prev: Objets tranches,  Up: Types internes

4.3.2.46 Objets méthodes statiques
..................................

Les objets méthodes statiques permettent la transformation des objets
fonctions en objets méthodes décrits au-dessus.  Un objet méthode
statique encapsule tout autre objet, souvent un objet méthode définie
par l'utilisateur.  Quand un objet méthode statique est récupéré depuis
une classe ou une instance de classe, l'objet réellement renvoyé est un
objet encapsulé, qui n'a pas vocation à être transformé encore une fois.
Les objets méthodes statiques sont aussi appelables.  Les objets
méthodes statiques sont créés par le constructeur natif *note
staticmethod(): 40c.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets méthodes de classes,  Prev: Objets méthodes statiques,  Up: Types internes

4.3.2.47 Objets méthodes de classes
...................................

A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around
another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved
from classes and class instances.  The behaviour of class method objects
upon such retrieval is described above, under *note "instance methods":
1ebe.  Class method objects are created by the built-in *note
classmethod(): 165. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes spéciales,  Next: Coroutines,  Prev: Hiérarchie des types standards,  Up: Modèle de données

4.3.3 Méthodes spéciales
------------------------

Une classe peut implémenter certaines opérations que l'on invoque par
une syntaxe spéciale (telles que les opérations arithmétiques ou la
découpe en tranches) en définissant des méthodes aux noms particuliers.
C'est l'approche utilisée par Python pour la 'surcharge d'opérateur',
permettant à une classe de définir son propre comportement vis-à-vis des
opérateurs du langage.  Par exemple, si une classe définit une méthode
*note __getitem__(): 280. et que ‘x’ est une instance de cette classe,
alors ‘x[i]’ est globalement équivalent à ‘type(x).__getitem__(x, i)’.
Sauf lorsque c'est mentionné, toute tentative d'appliquer une opération
alors que la méthode appropriée n'est pas définie lève une exception
(typiquement *note AttributeError: 343. ou *note TypeError: 525.).

Définir une méthode spéciale à ‘None’ indique que l'opération
correspondante n'est pas disponible.  Par exemple, si une classe assigne
‘None’ à *note __iter__(): 1f15, vous ne pouvez pas itérer sur la classe
et appeler *note iter(): 7c3. sur une instance lève *note TypeError:
525. (sans se replier sur *note __getitem__(): 280.) (1).

Lorsque vous implémentez une classe qui émule un type natif, il est
important que cette émulation n'implémente que ce qui fait sens pour
l'objet qui est modélisé.  Par exemple, la recherche d'éléments
individuels d'une séquence peut faire sens, mais pas l'extraction d'une
tranche (un exemple est l'interface de ‘NodeList’ dans le modèle objet
des documents W3C).

* Menu:

* Personnalisation de base::
* Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs::
* Personnalisation de la création de classes::
* Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes::
* Émulation de types génériques::
* Émulation d'objets appelables::
* Émulation de types conteneurs::
* Émulation de types numériques::
* Gestionnaire de contexte With::
* Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes::
* Emulating buffer types::
* Recherche des méthodes spéciales::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note __hash__(): aeb, *note __iter__(): 1f15, *note
__reversed__(): 1f16, *note __contains__(): 1f17, *note
__class_getitem__(): 727. and *note __fspath__(): c42. methods have
special handling for this.  Others will still raise a *note TypeError:
525, but may do so by relying on the behavior that ‘None’ is not
callable.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation de base,  Next: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.1 Personnalisation de base
................................

 -- Méthode: object.__new__ (cls[, ...])

     Appelée pour créer une nouvelle instance de la classe 'cls'.  La
     méthode *note __new__(): 56e. est statique (c'est un cas
     particulier, vous n'avez pas besoin de la déclarer comme telle) qui
     prend comme premier argument la classe pour laquelle on veut créer
     une instance.  Les autres arguments sont ceux passés à l'expression
     de l'objet constructeur (l'appel à la classe).  La valeur de retour
     de *note __new__(): 56e. doit être l'instance du nouvel objet
     (classiquement une instance de 'cls').

     Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by
     invoking the superclass's *note __new__(): 56e. method using
     ‘super().__new__(cls[, ...])’ with appropriate arguments and then
     modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning
     it.

     Si *note __new__(): 56e. est appelée pendant la construction de
     l'objet et renvoie une instance de 'cls', alors la méthode *note
     __init__(): 69d. de la nouvelle instance est invoquée avec
     ‘__init__(self[, …])’ où 'self' est la nouvelle instance et les
     autres arguments sont les mêmes que ceux passés au constructeur de
     l'objet.

     Si *note __new__(): 56e. ne renvoie pas une instance de 'cls',
     alors la méthode *note __init__(): 69d. de la nouvelle instance
     n'est pas invoquée.

     L'objectif de *note __new__(): 56e. est principalement, pour les
     sous-classes de types immuables (comme ‘int’, ‘str’ ou ‘tuple’),
     d'autoriser la création sur mesure des instances.  Elle est aussi
     souvent surchargée dans les métaclasses pour particulariser la
     création des classes.

 -- Méthode: object.__init__ (self[, ...])

     Appelée après la création de l'instance (par *note __new__():
     56e.), mais avant le retour vers l'appelant.  Les arguments sont
     ceux passés à l'expression du constructeur de classe.  Si une
     classe de base possède une méthode *note __init__(): 69d, la
     méthode *note __init__(): 69d. de la classe dérivée, si elle
     existe, doit explicitement appeler cette méthode pour assurer une
     initialisation correcte de la partie classe de base de l'instance ;
     par exemple : ‘super().__init__([args…])’.

     Comme *note __new__(): 56e. et *note __init__(): 69d. travaillent
     ensemble pour créer des objets (*note __new__(): 56e. pour le
     créer, *note __init__(): 69d. pour le particulariser), *note
     __init__(): 69d. ne doit pas renvoyer de valeur ‘None’ ; sinon une
     exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée à l'exécution.

 -- Méthode: object.__del__ (self)

     Appelée au moment où une instance est sur le point d'être détruite.
     On l'appelle aussi finaliseur ou (improprement) destructeur.  Si
     une classe de base possède une méthode *note __del__(): 1f1a, la
     méthode *note __del__(): 1f1a. de la classe dérivée, si elle
     existe, doit explicitement l'appeler pour s'assurer de l'effacement
     correct de la partie classe de base de l'instance.

     Il est possible (mais pas recommandé) que la méthode *note
     __del__(): 1f1a. retarde la destruction de l'instance en créant une
     nouvelle référence vers cet objet.  Python appelle ceci la
     'résurrection' d'objet.  En fonction de l'implémentation, *note
     __del__(): 1f1a. peut être appelée une deuxième fois au moment où
     l'objet ressuscité va être détruit ; l'implémentation actuelle de
     *note CPython: 6e2. ne l'appelle qu'une fois.

     It is not guaranteed that *note __del__(): 1f1a. methods are called
     for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits.  *note
     weakref.finalize: a6c. provides a straightforward way to register a
     cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.

          Note: ‘del x’ n'appelle pas directement ‘x.__del__()’ — la
          première décrémente le compteur de références de ‘x’.  La
          seconde n'est appelée que quand le compteur de références de
          ‘x’ atteint zéro.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' It is possible for a
     reference cycle to prevent the reference count of an object from
     going to zero.  In this case, the cycle will be later detected and
     deleted by the *note cyclic garbage collector: 18d6.  A common
     cause of reference cycles is when an exception has been caught in a
     local variable.  The frame's locals then reference the exception,
     which references its own traceback, which references the locals of
     all frames caught in the traceback.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     Documentation du module *note gc: 5f.

          Avertissement: en raison des conditions particulières qui
          règnent quand *note __del__(): 1f1a. est appelée, les
          exceptions levées pendant son exécution sont ignorées et, à la
          place, un avertissement est affiché sur ‘sys.stderr’.  En
          particulier :

             * *note __del__(): 1f1a. peut être invoquée quand du code
               arbitraire est en cours d'exécution, et ce dans n'importe
               quel fil d'exécution.  Si *note __del__(): 1f1a. a besoin
               de poser un verrou ou d'accéder à tout autre ressource
               bloquante, elle peut provoquer un blocage mutuel
               ('deadlock' en anglais) car la ressource peut être déjà
               utilisée par le code qui est interrompu pour exécuter la
               méthode *note __del__(): 1f1a.

             * *note __del__(): 1f1a. peut être exécutée pendant que
               l'interpréteur se ferme.  En conséquence, les variables
               globales auxquelles elle souhaite accéder (y compris les
               autres modules) peuvent déjà être détruites ou assignées
               à ‘None’.  Python garantit que les variables globales
               dont le nom commence par un tiret bas sont supprimées de
               leur module avant que les autres variables globales ne le
               soient ; si aucune autre référence vers ces variables
               globales n'existe, cela peut aider à s'assurer que les
               modules importés soient toujours accessibles au moment où
               la méthode *note __del__(): 1f1a. est appelée.

 -- Méthode: object.__repr__ (self)

     Appelée par la fonction native *note repr(): 7e9. pour calculer la
     représentation « officielle » en chaîne de caractères d'un objet.
     Tout est fait pour que celle-ci ressemble à une expression Python
     valide pouvant être utilisée pour recréer un objet avec la même
     valeur (dans un environnement donné).  Si ce n'est pas possible,
     une chaîne de la forme ‘<…une description utile…>’ est renvoyée.
     La valeur renvoyée doit être un objet chaîne de caractères.  Si une
     classe définit *note __repr__(): 609. mais pas *note __str__():
     60a, alors *note __repr__(): 609. est aussi utilisée quand une
     représentation « informelle » en chaîne de caractères est demandée
     pour une instance de cette classe.

     This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the
     representation is information-rich and unambiguous.  A default
     implementation is provided by the *note object: a7c. class itself.

 -- Méthode: object.__str__ (self)

     Called by *note str(object): 437, the default *note __format__():
     60b. implementation, and the built-in function *note print(): f62,
     to compute the "informal" or nicely printable string representation
     of an object.  The return value must be a *note str: 1bba. object.

     Cette méthode diffère de *note object.__repr__(): 609. car il n'est
     pas attendu que *note __str__(): 60a. renvoie une expression Python
     valide : une représentation plus agréable à lire ou plus concise
     peut être utilisée.

     L'implémentation par défaut du type natif *note object: a7c.
     appelle *note object.__repr__(): 609. .

 -- Méthode: object.__bytes__ (self)

     Called by *note bytes: 1a77. to compute a byte-string
     representation of an object.  This should return a *note bytes:
     1bd. object.  The *note object: a7c. class itself does not provide
     this method.

 -- Méthode: object.__format__ (self, format_spec)

     Appelée par la fonction native *note format(): 60c. et, par
     extension, lors de l'évaluation de *note chaînes de caractères
     littérales formatées: 999. et la méthode *note str.format(): 60e.
     Elle produit une chaîne de caractères « formatée » représentant un
     objet.  L'argument ‘format_spec’ est une chaîne de caractères
     contenant la description des options de formatage voulues.
     L'interprétation de l'argument ‘format_spec’ est laissée au type
     implémentant *note __format__(): 60b.  Cependant, la plupart des
     classes délèguent le formatage aux types natifs ou utilisent une
     syntaxe similaire pour les options de formatage.

     Lisez *note Mini-langage de spécification de format: 1e5. pour une
     description de la syntaxe standard du formatage.

     La valeur renvoyée doit être un objet chaîne de caractères.

     The default implementation by the *note object: a7c. class should
     be given an empty 'format_spec' string.  It delegates to *note
     __str__(): 60a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode ‘__format__’ de ‘object’
     lui-même lève une *note TypeError: 525. si vous lui passez une
     chaîne non vide.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ est
     maintenant équivalent à ‘str(x)’ plutôt qu'à ‘format(str(x), '')’.

 -- Méthode: object.__lt__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__le__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__eq__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ne__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__gt__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ge__ (self, other)

     Ce sont les méthodes dites de « comparaisons riches ».  La
     correspondance entre les symboles opérateurs et les noms de
     méthodes est la suivante : ‘x<y’ appelle ‘x.__lt__(y)’, ‘x<=y’
     appelle ‘x.__le__(y)’, ‘x==y’ appelle ‘x.__eq__(y)’, ‘x!=y’ appelle
     ‘x.__ne__(y)’, ‘x>y’ appelle ‘x.__gt__(y)’ et ‘x>=y’ appelle
     ‘x.__ge__(y)’.

     A rich comparison method may return the singleton *note
     NotImplemented: 7be. if it does not implement the operation for a
     given pair of arguments.  By convention, ‘False’ and ‘True’ are
     returned for a successful comparison.  However, these methods can
     return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a
     Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an ‘if’ statement),
     Python will call *note bool(): 453. on the value to determine if
     the result is true or false.

     By default, ‘object’ implements *note __eq__(): aea. by using ‘is’,
     returning *note NotImplemented: 7be. in the case of a false
     comparison: ‘True if x is y else NotImplemented’.  For *note
     __ne__(): 14cf, by default it delegates to *note __eq__(): aea. and
     inverts the result unless it is ‘NotImplemented’.  There are no
     other implied relationships among the comparison operators or
     default implementations; for example, the truth of ‘(x<y or x==y)’
     does not imply ‘x<=y’.  To automatically generate ordering
     operations from a single root operation, see *note
     functools.total_ordering(): f2f.

     By default, the *note object: a7c. class provides implementations
     consistent with *note Comparaisons de valeurs: 1838.: equality
     compares according to object identity, and order comparisons raise
     *note TypeError: 525.  Each default method may generate these
     results directly, but may also return *note NotImplemented: 7be.

     Lisez le paragraphe *note __hash__(): aeb. pour connaître certaines
     notions importantes relatives à la création d'objets *note
     hachables: 5fd. qui acceptent les opérations de comparaison
     personnalisées et qui sont utilisables en tant que clés de
     dictionnaires.

     There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used
     when the left argument does not support the operation but the right
     argument does); rather, *note __lt__(): 127f. and *note __gt__():
     12ec. are each other's reflection, *note __le__(): 12eb. and *note
     __ge__(): 12ed. are each other's reflection, and *note __eq__():
     aea. and *note __ne__(): 14cf. are their own reflection.  If the
     operands are of different types, and the right operand's type is a
     direct or indirect subclass of the left operand's type, the
     reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise the
     left operand's method has priority.  Virtual subclassing is not
     considered.

     When no appropriate method returns any value other than *note
     NotImplemented: 7be, the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators will fall back to
     ‘is’ and ‘is not’, respectively.

 -- Méthode: object.__hash__ (self)

     Appelée par la fonction native *note hash(): 5d7. et par les
     opérations sur les membres de collections hachées (ce qui comprend
     *note set: 5c5, *note frozenset: 5c6. et *note dict: 253.).  La
     méthode ‘__hash__()’ doit renvoyer un entier.  La seule propriété
     requise est que les objets qui sont égaux pour la comparaison
     doivent avoir la même valeur de hachage ; il est conseillé de
     mélanger les valeurs de hachage des composants d'un objet qui
     jouent un rôle dans la comparaison des objets, en les emballant
     dans un 'n'-uplet dont on calcule l'empreinte.  Par exemple :

          def __hash__(self):
              return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

          Note: *note hash(): 5d7. limite la valeur renvoyée d'un objet
          ayant une méthode *note __hash__(): aeb. personnalisée à la
          taille d'un *note Py_ssize_t: a50.  C'est classiquement 8
          octets pour une implémentation 64 bits et 4 octets sur une
          implémentation 32 bits.  Si la méthode *note __hash__(): aeb.
          d'un objet doit être interopérable sur des plateformes ayant
          des implémentations différentes, assurez-vous de vérifier la
          taille du hachage sur toutes les plateformes.  Une manière
          facile de le faire est la suivante : ‘python -c "import sys;
          print(sys.hash_info.width)"’.

     If a class does not define an *note __eq__(): aea. method it should
     not define a *note __hash__(): aeb. operation either; if it defines
     *note __eq__(): aea. but not *note __hash__(): aeb, its instances
     will not be usable as items in hashable collections.  If a class
     defines mutable objects and implements an *note __eq__(): aea.
     method, it should not implement *note __hash__(): aeb, since the
     implementation of *note hashable: 5fd. collections requires that a
     key's hash value is immutable (if the object's hash value changes,
     it will be in the wrong hash bucket).

     User-defined classes have *note __eq__(): aea. and *note
     __hash__(): aeb. methods by default (inherited from the *note
     object: a7c. class); with them, all objects compare unequal (except
     with themselves) and ‘x.__hash__()’ returns an appropriate value
     such that ‘x == y’ implies both that ‘x is y’ and ‘hash(x) ==
     hash(y)’.

     Une classe qui surcharge *note __eq__(): aea. et qui ne définit pas
     *note __hash__(): aeb. a sa méthode *note __hash__(): aeb.
     implicitement assignée à ‘None’.  Quand la méthode *note
     __hash__(): aeb. d'une classe est ‘None’, une instance de cette
     classe lève *note TypeError: 525. quand un programme essaie de
     demander son empreinte et elle est correctement identifiée comme
     'non hachable' quand on vérifie ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’.

     Si une classe qui surcharge *note __eq__(): aea. a besoin de
     conserver l'implémentation de *note __hash__(): aeb. de la classe
     parente, vous devez l'indiquer explicitement à l'interpréteur en
     définissant ‘__hash__ = <ClasseParente>.__hash__’.

     Si une classe ne surcharge pas *note __eq__(): aea. et veut
     supprimer le calcul des empreintes, elle doit inclure ‘__hash__ =
     None’ dans la définition de la classe.  Une classe qui définit sa
     propre méthode *note __hash__(): aeb. qui lève explicitement *note
     TypeError: 525. serait incorrectement identifiée comme hachable par
     un appel à ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)’.

          Note: par défaut, les valeurs renvoyées par *note __hash__():
          aeb. pour les chaînes et les 'bytes' sont « salées » avec une
          valeur aléatoire non prévisible.  Bien qu'une empreinte reste
          constante tout au long d'un processus Python, sa valeur n'est
          pas prévisible entre deux invocations de Python.

          This is intended to provide protection against a
          denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that
          exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion,
          'O'('n'^2) complexity.  See
          ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’ for details.

          Modifier les empreintes obtenues par hachage modifie l'ordre
          d'itération sur les 'sets'.  Python n'a jamais donné de
          garantie sur cet ordre (d'ailleurs, l'ordre n'est pas le même
          entre les implémentations 32 et 64 bits).

          Voir aussi *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: la randomisation des empreintes est
     activée par défaut.

 -- Méthode: object.__bool__ (self)

     Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation
     ‘bool()’; should return ‘False’ or ‘True’.  When this method is not
     defined, *note __len__(): 1f1c. is called, if it is defined, and
     the object is considered true if its result is nonzero.  If a class
     defines neither ‘__len__()’ nor ‘__bool__()’ (which is true of the
     *note object: a7c. class itself), all its instances are considered
     true.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs,  Next: Personnalisation de la création de classes,  Prev: Personnalisation de base,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.2 Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs
.................................................

Les méthodes suivantes peuvent être définies pour personnaliser l'accès
aux attributs (utilisation, assignation, suppression de ‘x.name’) pour
les instances de classes.

 -- Méthode: object.__getattr__ (self, name)

     Called when the default attribute access fails with an *note
     AttributeError: 343. (either *note __getattribute__(): bc2. raises
     an *note AttributeError: 343. because 'name' is not an instance
     attribute or an attribute in the class tree for ‘self’; or *note
     __get__(): 149f. of a 'name' property raises *note AttributeError:
     343.).  This method should either return the (computed) attribute
     value or raise an *note AttributeError: 343. exception.  The *note
     object: a7c. class itself does not provide this method.

     Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
     *note __getattr__(): 4bf. is not called.  (This is an intentional
     asymmetry between *note __getattr__(): 4bf. and *note
     __setattr__(): 1ee9.)  This is done both for efficiency reasons and
     because otherwise *note __getattr__(): 4bf. would have no way to
     access other attributes of the instance.  Note that at least for
     instance variables, you can take total control by not inserting any
     values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting
     them in another object).  See the *note __getattribute__(): bc2.
     method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute
     access.

 -- Méthode: object.__getattribute__ (self, name)

     Appelée de manière inconditionnelle pour implémenter l'accès aux
     attributs des instances de la classe.  Si la classe définit
     également *note __getattr__(): 4bf, cette dernière n'est pas
     appelée à moins que *note __getattribute__(): bc2. ne l'appelle
     explicitement ou ne lève une exception *note AttributeError: 343.
     Cette méthode doit renvoyer la valeur (calculée) de l'attribut ou
     lever une exception *note AttributeError: 343.  Afin d'éviter une
     récursion infinie sur cette méthode, son implémentation doit
     toujours appeler la méthode de la classe de base avec le même
     paramètre 'name' pour accéder à n'importe quel attribut dont elle a
     besoin.  Par exemple, ‘object.__getattribute__(self, name)’.

          Note: This method may still be bypassed when looking up
          special methods as the result of implicit invocation via
          language syntax or *note built-in functions: 1ebc.  See *note
          Recherche des méthodes spéciales: 1f1f.

     Pour les accès à certains attributs sensibles, lève un *note
     événement d'audit: 1877. ‘object.__getattr__’ avec les arguments
     ‘obj’ et ‘name’.

 -- Méthode: object.__setattr__ (self, name, value)

     Appelée lors d'une assignation d'attribut.  Elle est appelée à la
     place du mécanisme normal (c'est-à-dire stocker la valeur dans le
     dictionnaire de l'instance).  'name' est le nom de l'attribut,
     'value' est la valeur à assigner à cet attribut.

     Si *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. veut assigner un attribut d'instance,
     elle doit appeler la méthode de la classe de base avec le même nom,
     par exemple ‘object.__setattr__(self, name, value)’.

     Pour les assignations de certains attributs sensibles, lève un
     *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘object.__setattr__’ avec les
     arguments ‘obj’, ‘name’ et ‘value’.

 -- Méthode: object.__delattr__ (self, name)

     Comme *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. mais pour supprimer un attribut au
     lieu de l'assigner.  Elle ne doit être implémentée que si ‘del
     obj.name’ a du sens pour cet objet.

     Pour les suppressions de certains attributs sensibles, lève un
     *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘object.__deltattr__’ avec les
     arguments ‘obj’ et ‘name’.

 -- Méthode: object.__dir__ (self)

     Called when *note dir(): 61f. is called on the object.  An iterable
     must be returned.  *note dir(): 61f. converts the returned iterable
     to a list and sorts it.

* Menu:

* Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module::
* Implémentation de descripteurs::
* Invocation des descripteurs::
* créneaux prédéfinis (__slots__): créneaux prédéfinis __slots__.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module,  Next: Implémentation de descripteurs,  Up: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

4.3.3.3 Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module
.............................................................

Les noms spéciaux ‘__getattr__’ et ‘__dir__’ peuvent aussi être
personnalisés pour accéder aux attributs du module.  La fonction
‘__getattr__’ au niveau du module doit accepter un argument qui est un
nom d'attribut et doit renvoyer la valeur calculée ou lever une *note
AttributeError: 343.  Si un attribut n'est pas trouvé dans l'objet
module en utilisant la recherche normale, c'est-à-dire *note
object.__getattribute__(): bc2, alors Python recherche ‘__getattr__’
dans le ‘__dict__’ du module avant de lever une *note AttributeError:
343.  S'il la trouve, il l'appelle avec le nom de l'attribut et renvoie
le résultat.

The ‘__dir__’ function should accept no arguments, and return an
iterable of strings that represents the names accessible on module.  If
present, this function overrides the standard *note dir(): 61f. search
on a module.

Pour une personnalisation plus fine du comportement d'un module
(assignation des attributs, propriétés, etc.), vous pouvez assigner
l'attribut ‘__class__’ d'un objet module à une sous-classe de *note
types.ModuleType: e02.  Par exemple :

     import sys
     from types import ModuleType

     class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
         def __repr__(self):
             return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

         def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
             print(f'Setting {attr}...')
             super().__setattr__(attr, value)

     sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

     Note: définir ‘__getattr__’ du module et ‘__class__’ pour le module
     impacte uniquement les recherches qui utilisent la syntaxe d'accès
     aux attributs — accéder directement aux globales d'un module (soit
     par le code dans le module, soit 'via' une référence au
     dictionnaire des variables globales du module) fonctionne toujours
     de la même façon.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: l'attribut ‘__class__’ du module est
maintenant en lecture-écriture.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: attributs ‘__getattr__’ et ‘__dir__’ du
module.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 562(1) — ‘__getattr__’ et ‘__dir__’ pour un module

     Décrit les fonctions ‘__getattr__’ et ‘__dir__’ des modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: Implémentation de descripteurs,  Next: Invocation des descripteurs,  Prev: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module,  Up: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

4.3.3.4 Implémentation de descripteurs
......................................

The following methods only apply when an instance of the class
containing the method (a so-called 'descriptor' class) appears in an
'owner' class (the descriptor must be in either the owner's class
dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents).  In the
examples below, "the attribute" refers to the attribute whose name is
the key of the property in the owner class' *note __dict__: 549.  The
*note object: a7c. class itself does not implement any of these
protocols.

 -- Méthode: object.__get__ (self, instance, owner=None)

     Appelée pour obtenir l'attribut de la classe propriétaire (accès à
     un attribut de classe) ou d'une instance de cette classe (accès à
     un attribut d'instance).  L'argument optionnel 'owner' est la
     classe propriétaire alors que 'instance' est l'instance par
     laquelle on accède à l'attribut ou ‘None’ lorsque l'on accède par
     la classe 'owner'.

     Il convient que cette méthode renvoie la valeur calculée de
     l'attribut ou lève une exception *note AttributeError: 343.

     La PEP 252(1) spécifie que *note __get__(): 149f. soit un appelable
     avec un ou deux arguments.  Les descripteurs natifs de Python
     suivent cette spécification ; cependant, il est probable que des
     outils tiers aient des descripteurs qui requièrent les deux
     arguments.  L'implémentation de *note __getattribute__(): bc2. de
     Python passe toujours les deux arguments, qu'ils soient requis ou
     non.

 -- Méthode: object.__set__ (self, instance, value)

     Appelée pour définir l'attribut d'une instance 'instance' de la
     classe propriétaire à la nouvelle valeur 'value'.

     Notez que ajouter *note __set__(): 1f23. ou *note __delete__():
     15c4. modifie la nature du descripteur vers un « descripteur de
     donnée ».  Reportez-vous à *note Invocation des descripteurs: 1f24.
     pour plus de détails.

 -- Méthode: object.__delete__ (self, instance)

     Appelée pour supprimer l'attribut de l'instance 'instance' de la
     classe propriétaire.

Instances of descriptors may also have the ‘__objclass__’ attribute
present:

 -- Attribut: object.__objclass__

     The attribute ‘__objclass__’ is interpreted by the *note inspect:
     7d. module as specifying the class where this object was defined
     (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of
     dynamic class attributes).  For callables, it may indicate that an
     instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required
     as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this
     attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation des descripteurs,  Next: créneaux prédéfinis __slots__,  Prev: Implémentation de descripteurs,  Up: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

4.3.3.5 Invocation des descripteurs
...................................

En général, un descripteur est un attribut d'objet dont le comportement
est « lié » ('binding dehavior' en anglais), c'est-à-dire que les accès
aux attributs ont été surchargés par des méthodes conformes au protocole
des descripteurs : *note __get__(): 149f, *note __set__(): 1f23. et
*note __delete__(): 15c4.  Si l'une de ces méthodes est définie pour un
objet, il est réputé être un descripteur.

Le comportement par défaut pour la gestion d'un attribut est de définir,
obtenir et supprimer cet attribut du dictionnaire de l'objet.  Par
exemple, pour ‘a.x’ Python commence d'abord par rechercher
‘a.__dict__['x']’, puis ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’ ; ensuite Python
continue en remontant les classes de base de ‘type(a)’, en excluant les
métaclasses.

Cependant, si la valeur cherchée est un objet qui définit une des
méthodes de descripteur, alors Python modifie son comportement et
invoque la méthode du descripteur à la place.  Le moment où cela
intervient dans la recherche citée ci-dessus dépend de l'endroit où a
été définie la méthode de descripteur et comment elle a été appelée.

Le point de départ pour une invocation de descripteur est la liaison
‘a.x’.  La façon dont les arguments sont assemblés dépend de ‘a’ :

Appel direct

     Le plus simple et le plus rare des appels est quand l'utilisateur
     code directement l'appel à la méthode du descripteur :
     ‘x.__get__(a)’.

Liaison avec une instance

     Si elle est liée à un objet instance, ‘a.x’ est transformé en
     l'appel suivant : ‘type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a))’.

Liaison avec une classe

     Si elle est liée à une classe, ‘A.x’ est transformé en l'appel
     suivant : ‘A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)’.

Liaison super

     Une recherche avec un point telle que ‘super(A, a).x’ cherche
     ‘a.__class__.__mro__’ pour une classe de base ‘B’ qui suit (dans
     l'ordre MRO) ‘A’, puis renvoie ‘B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A)’.  Si
     ce n'est pas un descripteur, ‘x’ est renvoyé inchangé.

For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends
on which descriptor methods are defined.  A descriptor can define any
combination of *note __get__(): 149f, *note __set__(): 1f23. and *note
__delete__(): 15c4.  If it does not define ‘__get__()’, then accessing
the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a
value in the object's instance dictionary.  If the descriptor defines
‘__set__()’ and/or ‘__delete__()’, it is a data descriptor; if it
defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.  Normally, data
descriptors define both ‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’, while non-data
descriptors have just the ‘__get__()’ method.  Data descriptors with
‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’ (and/or ‘__delete__()’) defined always
override a redefinition in an instance dictionary.  In contrast,
non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances.

Les méthodes Python (y compris celles décorées par *note @staticmethod:
40c. et *note @classmethod: 165.) sont implémentées comme des
descripteurs hors-données.  De la même manière, les instances peuvent
redéfinir et surcharger les méthodes.  Ceci permet à chaque instance
d'avoir un comportement qui diffère des autres instances de la même
classe.

La fonction *note property(): 192. est implémentée en tant que
descripteur de données.  Ainsi, les instances ne peuvent pas surcharger
le comportement d'une propriété.


File: python.info,  Node: créneaux prédéfinis __slots__,  Prev: Invocation des descripteurs,  Up: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

4.3.3.6 créneaux prédéfinis (‘__slots__’)
.........................................

Les créneaux prédéfinis (‘__slots__’) vous permettent de déclarer des
membres d'une donnée (comme une propriété) et d'interdire la création de
*note __dict__: 549. ou de '__weakref__' (à moins qu'ils ne soient
explicitement déclarés dans le ‘__slots__’ ou présent dans le parent).

L'espace gagné par rapport à l'utilisation d'un *note __dict__: 549.
peut être significatif.  La recherche d'attribut peut aussi s'avérer
beaucoup plus rapide.

 -- Données: object.__slots__

     Cette variable de classe peut être assignée avec une chaîne, un
     itérable ou une séquence de chaînes avec les noms de variables
     utilisés par les instances.  '__slots__' réserve de la place pour
     ces variables déclarées et interdit la création automatique de
     *note __dict__: 549. et '__weakref__' pour chaque instance.
Notes on using '__slots__':

   * Lorsque vous héritez d'une classe sans '__slots__', les attributs
     *note __dict__: 549. et '__weakref__' des instances sont toujours
     accessibles.

   * Sans variable *note __dict__: 549, les instances ne peuvent pas
     assigner de nouvelles variables (non listées dans la définition de
     '__slots__').  Les tentatives d'assignation sur un nom de variable
     non listé lève *note AttributeError: 343.  Si l'assignation
     dynamique de nouvelles variables est nécessaire, ajoutez
     ‘'__dict__'’ à la séquence de chaînes dans la déclaration
     '__slots__'.

   * Sans variable '__weakref__' pour chaque instance, les classes qui
     définissent '__slots__' ne gèrent pas les *note références faibles:
     113. vers leurs instances.  Si vous avez besoin de gérer des
     références faibles, ajoutez ‘'__weakref__'’ à la séquence de
     chaînes dans la déclaration de '__slots__'.

   * Les '__slots__' sont implémentés au niveau de la classe en créant
     des *note descripteurs: c3f. pour chaque nom de variable.  Ainsi,
     les attributs de classe ne peuvent pas être utilisés pour des
     valeurs par défaut aux variables d'instances définies par
     '__slots__' ; sinon, l'attribut de classe surchargerait
     l'assignation par descripteur.

   * The action of a '__slots__' declaration is not limited to the class
     where it is defined.  '__slots__' declared in parents are available
     in child classes.  However, instances of a child subclass will get
     a *note __dict__: 549. and '__weakref__' unless the subclass also
     defines '__slots__' (which should only contain names of any
     'additional' slots).

   * Si une classe définit un 'slot' déjà défini dans une classe de
     base, la variable d'instance définie par la classe de base est
     inaccessible (sauf à utiliser le descripteur de la classe de base
     directement).  Cela rend la signification du programme indéfinie.
     Dans le futur, une vérification sera ajoutée pour empêcher cela.

   * *note TypeError: 525. will be raised if nonempty '__slots__' are
     defined for a class derived from a *note "variable-length" built-in
     type: 1f29. such as *note int: 254, *note bytes: 1bd, and *note
     tuple: 366.

   * Tout *note itérable: 1207, sauf les chaînes de caractères, peuvent
     être affectés à '__slots__'.

   * Si vous affectez '__slots__' à un *note dictionnaire: 253, les clés
     du dictionnaires seront les noms du 'slot'.  Les valeurs du
     dictionnaire peuvent être utilisées en tant que chaines de
     description ('docstrings') et sont reconnues par *note
     inspect.getdoc(): 9ea. qui les affiche dans la sortie de *note
     help(): 8c6.

   * *note __class__: 1463. assignment works only if both classes have
     the same '__slots__'.

   * L'*note héritage multiple: 1c76. avec plusieurs classes parentes
     qui ont des '__slots__' est possible, mais seul un parent peut
     avoir des attributs créés par '__slots__' (les autres classes
     parentes doivent avoir des '__slots__' vides).  La violation de
     cette règle lève *note TypeError: 525.

   * Si un *note itérateur: 1aa. est utilisé pour '__slots__', alors un
     *note descripteur: 152c. est créé pour chacune des valeurs de
     l'itérateur.  Cependant, l'attribut '__slots__' est un itérateur
     vide.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation de la création de classes,  Next: Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes,  Prev: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.7 Personnalisation de la création de classes
..................................................

Quand une classe hérite d'une classe parente, la méthode *note
__init_subclass__(): 61e. de la classe parente est appelée.  Ainsi, il
est possible d'écrire des classes qui modifient le comportement des
sous-classes.  Ce comportement est corrélé aux décorateurs de classes
mais, alors que les décorateurs de classes agissent seulement sur la
classe qu'ils décorent, ‘__init_subclass__’ agit uniquement sur les
futures sous-classes de la classe qui définit cette méthode.

 -- Méthode: classmethod object.__init_subclass__ (cls)

     Cette méthode est appelée quand la classe est sous-classée.  'cls'
     est alors la nouvelle sous-classe.  Si elle est définie en tant que
     méthode d'instance normale, cette méthode est implicitement
     convertie en méthode de classe.

     Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the
     parent class's ‘__init_subclass__’.  For compatibility with other
     classes using ‘__init_subclass__’, one should take out the needed
     keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as
     in:

          class Philosopher:
              def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
                  super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
                  cls.default_name = default_name

          class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
              pass

     L'implémentation par défaut de ‘object.__init_subclass__’ ne fait
     rien sans argument, mais lève une erreur si elle est appelée avec
     un argument ou plus.

          Note: l'indication de métaclasse ‘metaclass’ est absorbée par
          le reste du mécanisme de types et n'est jamais passée à
          l'implémentation de ‘__init_subclass__’.  La métaclasse réelle
          (plutôt que l'indication explicite) peut être récupérée par
          ‘type(cls)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Lorsqu'une classe est créée, ‘type.__new__()’ exécute le point d'entrée
‘___set_name__()’ de toute variable de la classe qui en possède un.

 -- Méthode: object.__set_name__ (self, owner, name)

     Appelée automatiquement au moment où la classe propriétaire 'owner'
     est créée.  L'objet 'self' a été assigné à 'name' dans 'owner' :

          class A:
              x = C()  # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

     Si l'affectation se produit après la création de la classe, le
     point d'entrée *note __set_name__(): c3e. n'est pas appelé
     automatiquement.  Mais il est autorisé d'appeler *note
     __set_name__(): c3e. manuellement :

          class A:
             pass

          c = C()
          A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
          c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

     Consultez *note Création de l'objet classe: c3a. pour davantage de
     détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

* Menu:

* Métaclasses::
* Résolution des entrées MRO::
* Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée::
* Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe::
* Exécution du corps de la classe::
* Création de l'objet classe::
* Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses::


File: python.info,  Node: Métaclasses,  Next: Résolution des entrées MRO,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.8 Métaclasses
...................

Par défaut, les classes sont construites en utilisant *note type(): d38.
Le corps de la classe est exécuté dans un nouvel espace de nommage et le
nom de la classe est lié localement au résultat de ‘type(name, bases,
namespace)’.

Le déroulement de création de la classe peut être personnalisé en
passant l'argument nommé ‘metaclass’ dans la ligne de définition de la
classe ou en héritant d'une classe existante qui comporte déjà un tel
argument.  Dans l'exemple qui suit, ‘MyClass’ et ‘MySubclass’ sont des
instances de ‘Meta’ :

     class Meta(type):
         pass

     class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
         pass

     class MySubclass(MyClass):
         pass

Tout autre argument nommé spécifié dans la définition de la classe est
passé aux opérations de métaclasses décrites auparavant.

Quand la définition d'une classe est exécutée, les différentes étapes
suivies sont :

   * les entrées MRO sont résolues ;

   * la métaclasse appropriée est déterminée ;

   * l'espace de nommage de la classe est préparé ;

   * le corps de la classe est exécuté ;

   * l'objet classe est créé.


File: python.info,  Node: Résolution des entrées MRO,  Next: Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée,  Prev: Métaclasses,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.9 Résolution des entrées MRO
..................................

 -- Méthode: object.__mro_entries__ (self, bases)

     If a base that appears in a class definition is not an instance of
     *note type: d38, then an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is searched on
     the base.  If an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is found, the base is
     substituted with the result of a call to ‘__mro_entries__()’ when
     creating the class.  The method is called with the original bases
     tuple passed to the 'bases' parameter, and must return a tuple of
     classes that will be used instead of the base.  The returned tuple
     may be empty: in these cases, the original base is ignored.

Voir aussi
..........

*note types.resolve_bases(): b8c.

     Dynamically resolve bases that are not instances of *note type:
     d38.

*note types.get_original_bases(): 4ba.

     Retrieve a class's "original bases" prior to modifications by *note
     __mro_entries__(): 1f2e.

PEP 560(1)

     Core support for typing module and generic types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée,  Next: Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe,  Prev: Résolution des entrées MRO,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.10 Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée
..................................................

La métaclasse appropriée pour une définition de classe est déterminée de
la manière suivante :

   * si aucune classe et aucune métaclasse n'est donnée, alors *note
     type(): d38. est utilisée ;

   * si une métaclasse explicite est donnée et que 'ce n'est pas' une
     instance de *note type(): d38, alors elle est utilisée directement
     en tant que métaclasse ;

   * si une instance de *note type(): d38. est donnée comme métaclasse
     explicite ou si 'bases' est définie, alors la métaclasse la plus
     dérivée est utilisée.

La métaclasse la plus dérivée est choisie à partir des métaclasses
explicitement spécifiées (s'il y en a) et les métaclasses (c'est-à-dire
les ‘type(cls)’) de toutes les classes de base spécifiées.  La
métaclasse la plus dérivée est celle qui est un sous-type de 'toutes'
ces métaclasses candidates.  Si aucune des métaclasses candidates ne
remplit ce critère, alors la définition de la classe échoue en levant
‘TypeError’.


File: python.info,  Node: Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe,  Next: Exécution du corps de la classe,  Prev: Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.11 Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe
........................................................

Une fois que la métaclasse appropriée est identifiée, l'espace de
nommage de la classe est préparé.  Si la métaclasse possède un attribut
‘__prepare__’, il est appelé avec ‘namespace =
metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)’ (où les arguments nommés
supplémentaires, s'il y en a, sont les arguments de la définition de la
classe).  La méthode ‘__prepare__’ doit être implémentée comme une *note
méthode de classe: 165.).  L’espace de nommage renvoyé par ‘__prepare__’
est passé à ‘__new__’, mais quand l’instance finale est créée, l’espace
de nommage est copié vers un nouveau ‘dict’.

Si la métaclasse ne possède pas d'attribut ‘__prepare__’, alors l'espace
de nommage de la classe est initialisé en tant que tableau de
correspondances ordonné.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3115(1) — Métaclasses dans Python 3000

     introduction de la fonction automatique ‘__prepare__’ de l'espace
     de nommage

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution du corps de la classe,  Next: Création de l'objet classe,  Prev: Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.12 Exécution du corps de la classe
........................................

Le corps de la classe est exécuté (approximativement) avec ‘exec(body,
globals(), namespace)’.  La principale différence avec un appel normal à
*note exec(): 17d. est que la portée lexicale autorise le corps de la
classe (y compris les méthodes) à faire référence aux noms de la portée
courante et des portées externes lorsque la définition de classe a lieu
dans une fonction.

Cependant, même quand une définition de classe intervient dans une
fonction, les méthodes définies à l'intérieur de la classe ne peuvent
pas voir les noms définis en dehors de la portée de la classe.  On
accède aux variables de la classe 'via' le premier paramètre des
méthodes d'instance ou de classe, ou 'via' la référence implicite
‘__class__’ incluse dans la portée lexicale et décrite dans la section
suivante.


File: python.info,  Node: Création de l'objet classe,  Next: Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses,  Prev: Exécution du corps de la classe,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.13 Création de l'objet classe
...................................

Quand l'espace de nommage a été rempli en exécutant le corps de la
classe, l'objet classe est créé en appelant ‘metaclass(name, bases,
namespace, **kwds)’ (les arguments nommés supplémentaires passés ici
sont les mêmes que ceux passés à ‘__prepare__’).

Cet objet classe est celui qui est référencé par la forme sans argument
de *note super(): 4c8.  ‘__class__’ est une référence implicite créée
par le compilateur si une méthode du corps de la classe fait référence
soit à ‘__class__’, soit à ‘super’.  Ceci permet que la forme sans
argument de *note super(): 4c8. identifie la classe en cours de
définition en fonction de la portée lexicale, tandis que la classe ou
l'instance utilisée pour effectuer l'appel en cours est identifiée en
fonction du premier argument transmis à la méthode.

dans CPython 3.6 et suivants, la cellule ‘__class__’ est passée à la
métaclasse en tant qu'entrée ‘__classcell__’ dans l'espace de nommage de
la classe.  Si elle est présente, elle doit être propagée à l'appel
‘type.__new__’ pour que la classe soit correctement initialisée.  Ne pas
le faire se traduit par un *note RuntimeError: 193. dans Python 3.8.

Quand vous utilisez la métaclasse par défaut *note type: d38. ou toute
autre métaclasse qui finit par appeler ‘type.__new__’, les étapes de
personnalisation supplémentaires suivantes sont suivies après la
création de l'objet classe :

  1. ‘type.__new__’ récupère, dans l'espace de nommage de la classe,
     tous les descripteurs qui définissent une méthode *note
     __set_name__(): c3e. ;

  2. Toutes ces méthodes ‘__set_name__’ sont appelées avec la classe en
     cours de définition et le nom assigné à chaque descripteur ;

  3. La méthode automatique *note __init_subclass__(): 61e. est appelée
     sur le parent immédiat de la nouvelle classe en utilisant l'ordre
     de résolution des méthodes.

Après la création de l'objet classe, il est passé aux décorateurs de la
classe, y compris ceux inclus dans la définition de la classe (s'il y en
a) et l'objet résultant est lié à l'espace de nommage local en tant que
classe définie.

When a new class is created by ‘type.__new__’, the object provided as
the namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the
original object is discarded.  The new copy is wrapped in a read-only
proxy, which becomes the *note __dict__: c4d. attribute of the class
object.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3135(1) — Nouvelle méthode super

     Décrit la référence à la fermeture ('closure' en anglais) de la
     ‘__class__’ implicite

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/


File: python.info,  Node: Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses,  Prev: Création de l'objet classe,  Up: Personnalisation de la création de classes

4.3.3.14 Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses
...........................................

Les utilisations possibles des métaclasses sont immenses.  Quelques
pistes ont déjà été explorées comme l'énumération, la gestion des
traces, le contrôle des interfaces, la délégation automatique, la
création automatique de propriétés, les mandataires, les 'frameworks'
ainsi que le verrouillage ou la synchronisation automatique de
ressources.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes,  Next: Émulation de types génériques,  Prev: Personnalisation de la création de classes,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.15 Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes
........................................................................

Les méthodes suivantes sont utilisées pour surcharger le comportement
par défaut des fonctions natives *note isinstance(): 42d. et *note
issubclass(): 7ad.

En particulier, la métaclasse *note abc.ABCMeta: f05. implémente ces
méthodes pour autoriser l'ajout de classes de base abstraites (ABC pour
'Abstract Base Classes' en anglais) en tant que « classes de base
virtuelles » pour toute classe ou type (y compris les types natifs).

 -- Méthode: type.__instancecheck__ (self, instance)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'instance' doit être considérée comme une
     instance (directe ou indirecte) de 'class'.  Si elle est définie,
     elle est appelée pour implémenter ‘isinstance(instance, class)’.

 -- Méthode: type.__subclasscheck__ (self, subclass)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'subclass' doit être considérée comme une
     sous-classe (directe ou indirecte) de 'class'.  Si elle est
     définie, appelée pour implémenter ‘issubclass(subclass, class)’.

Notez que ces méthodes sont recherchées dans le type (la métaclasse)
d'une classe.  Elles ne peuvent pas être définies en tant que méthodes
de classe dans la classe réelle.  C'est cohérent avec la recherche des
méthodes spéciales qui sont appelées pour les instances, sauf qu'ici
l'instance est elle-même une classe.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3119(1) — Introduction aux classes de bases abstraites

     Includes the specification for customizing *note isinstance(): 42d.
     and *note issubclass(): 7ad. behavior through *note
     __instancecheck__(): 1f35. and *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f36,
     with motivation for this functionality in the context of adding
     Abstract Base Classes (see the *note abc: 4. module) to the
     language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: Émulation de types génériques,  Next: Émulation d'objets appelables,  Prev: Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.16 Émulation de types génériques
......................................

Lors de l'utilisation d'*note annotations de types: 443, il est souvent
utile de 'paramètrer' un *note type générique: 424. en se servant de la
notation crochets de Python.  Par exemple, l'annotation ‘list[int]’ peut
être utilisée pour signifier une *note liste: 5fe. dans laquelle tous
les éléments sont de type *note entiers: 254.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 343(1) — Indications de types

     Introduction à l'annotation de types en Python (document en
     anglais)

*note Types alias génériques: 69f.

     Documentation pour les objets qui représentent des classes
     génériques paramétrées

*note Génériques: 1f38, *note Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur: 4bb. et classe *note typing.Generic (classe de base abstraite pour les types génériques): 15d4.

     Documentation sur la manière d'implémenter des classes génériques
     qui peuvent être paramétrées à l'exécution et comprises par les
     vérificateurs statiques de types.

'Généralement', une classe ne peut être paramétrée que si elle définit
une méthode spéciale de classe ‘__class_getitem__()’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod object.__class_getitem__ (cls, key)

     Renvoie un objet représentant la spécialisation d'une classe
     générique en fonction des arguments types trouvés dans 'key'.

     Lorsqu'elle est définie dans une classe, ‘__class_getitem__()’ est
     automatiquement une méthode de classe.  Ainsi, il est superflu de
     la décorer avec *note @classmethod: 165. lors de sa définition.

* Menu:

* Intention de __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Intention de __class_getitem__,  Next: __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__,  Up: Émulation de types génériques

4.3.3.17 Intention de '__class_getitem__'
.........................................

Le but de *note __class_getitem__(): 727. est de permettre la
paramétrisation à l'exécution des classes génériques de la bibliothèque
standard de façon à pouvoir appliquer plus facilement des *note
annotations de type: 1f3a. à ces classes.

Pour implémenter des classes génériques particularisées pouvant être
paramétrées à l'exécution, et comprises par les vérificateurs statiques
de type, vous pouvez soit hériter d'une classe de la bibliothèque
standard qui implémente déjà *note __class_getitem__(): 727, ou hériter
de *note typing.Generic: 15d4, qui a sa propre implémentation de
‘__class_getitem__()’.

Les implémentations particularisées de *note __class_getitem__(): 727.
sur des classes définies ailleurs que la bibliothèque standard peuvent
ne pas être comprises par des vérificateurs de types tiers tels que
'mypy'.  L'utilisation de ‘__class_getitem__()’ pour tout autre objectif
que l'annotation de type n'est pas conseillée.


File: python.info,  Node: __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__,  Prev: Intention de __class_getitem__,  Up: Émulation de types génériques

4.3.3.18 '__class_getitem__' contre '__getitem__'
.................................................

D'habitude, l'*note indiçage: 1f3d. d'un objet en utilisant des crochets
appelle la méthode *note __getitem__(): 280. de l'instance, définie dans
la classe de l'objet.  Cependant, si l'objet dont on cherche un indice
est lui-même une classe, la méthode de classe *note __class_getitem__():
727. peut être appelée à la place.  ‘__class_getitem__()’ doit renvoyer
un objet *note GenericAlias: 69f. si elle est correctement définie.

Lorsqu'on lui présente l'*note expression: 1f3e. ‘obj[x]’,
l'interpréteur Python suit une sorte de processus suivant pour décider
s'il faut appeler *note __getitem__(): 280. ou *note
__class_getitem__(): 727. :

     from inspect import isclass

     def subscribe(obj, x):
         """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

         class_of_obj = type(obj)

         # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
         # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
         if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
             return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

         # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
         # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
         elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
             return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

         # Else, raise an exception
         else:
             raise TypeError(
                 f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
             )

En Python, toutes les classes sont des instances d'autres classes.  La
classe d'une classe est appelée la *note métaclasse: 1f3f. de la classe
et la plupart des classes ont la classe *note type: d38. comme
métaclasse.  *note type: d38. ne définit pas *note __getitem__(): 280,
ce qui veut dire que des expressions telles que ‘list[int]’, ‘dict[str,
float]’ et ‘tuple[str, bytes]’ aboutissent toutes à l'appel de *note
__class_getitem__(): 727. :

     >>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
     >>> type(list)
     <class 'type'>
     >>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
     True
     >>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
     >>> list[int]
     list[int]
     >>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
     >>> type(list[int])
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

Cependant, si une classe a une métaclasse particularisée qui définit
*note __getitem__(): 280, l'indiçage de la classe peut conduire à un
comportement différent.  Un exemple peut être trouvé dans le module
*note enum: 55. :

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Menu(Enum):
     ...     """A breakfast menu"""
     ...     SPAM = 'spam'
     ...     BACON = 'bacon'
     ...
     >>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
     >>> type(Menu)
     <class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
     >>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
     >>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
     >>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
     >>> Menu['SPAM']
     <Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
     >>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
     <enum 'Menu'>

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 560(1) — Gestion de base pour les types modules et les types génériques

     Introduction de *note __class_getitem__(): 727, et présentation des
     cas où un *note indiçage: 1f3d. conduit à l'appel de
     ‘__class_getitem__()’ au lieu de *note __getitem__(): 280.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Émulation d'objets appelables,  Next: Émulation de types conteneurs,  Prev: Émulation de types génériques,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.19 Émulation d'objets appelables
......................................

 -- Méthode: object.__call__ (self[, args...])

     Called when the instance is "called" as a function; if this method
     is defined, ‘x(arg1, arg2, ...)’ roughly translates to
     ‘type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)’.  The *note object: a7c. class
     itself does not provide this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Émulation de types conteneurs,  Next: Émulation de types numériques,  Prev: Émulation d'objets appelables,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.20 Émulation de types conteneurs
......................................

The following methods can be defined to implement container objects.
None of them are provided by the *note object: a7c. class itself.
Containers usually are *note sequences: 4de. (such as *note lists: 5fe.
or *note tuples: 366.) or *note mappings: 119b. (like *note
dictionaries: 1f44.), but can represent other containers as well.  The
first set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to emulate
a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the allowable keys
should be the integers 'k' for which ‘0 <= k < N’ where 'N' is the
length of the sequence, or *note slice: 455. objects, which define a
range of items.  It is also recommended that mappings provide the
methods ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘get()’, ‘clear()’,
‘setdefault()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, ‘copy()’, and ‘update()’ behaving
similar to those for Python's standard *note dictionary: 253. objects.
The *note collections.abc: 1e. module provides a *note MutableMapping:
1092. *note abstract base class: 1195. to help create those methods from
a base set of *note __getitem__(): 280, *note __setitem__(): 12ab, *note
__delitem__(): 12ac, and ‘keys()’.  Mutable sequences should provide
methods ‘append()’, ‘count()’, ‘index()’, ‘extend()’, ‘insert()’,
‘pop()’, ‘remove()’, ‘reverse()’ and ‘sort()’, like Python standard
*note list: 5fe. objects.  Finally, sequence types should implement
addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning repetition)
by defining the methods *note __add__(): 1f45, *note __radd__(): 1f46,
*note __iadd__(): 1f47, *note __mul__(): 1f48, *note __rmul__(): 1f49.
and *note __imul__(): 1f4a. described below; they should not define
other numerical operators.  It is recommended that both mappings and
sequences implement the *note __contains__(): 1f17. method to allow
efficient use of the ‘in’ operator; for mappings, ‘in’ should search the
mapping's keys; for sequences, it should search through the values.  It
is further recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
*note __iter__(): 1f15. method to allow efficient iteration through the
container; for mappings, ‘__iter__()’ should iterate through the
object's keys; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.

 -- Méthode: object.__len__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in function *note len(): 61b.  Should
     return the length of the object, an integer ‘>=’ 0.  Also, an
     object that doesn't define a *note __bool__(): 12b5. method and
     whose ‘__len__()’ method returns zero is considered to be false in
     a Boolean context.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' In CPython, the
     length is required to be at most *note sys.maxsize: 11a4.  If the
     length is larger than ‘sys.maxsize’ some features (such as *note
     len(): 61b.) may raise *note OverflowError: 86f.  To prevent
     raising ‘OverflowError’ by truth value testing, an object must
     define a *note __bool__(): 12b5. method.

 -- Méthode: object.__length_hint__ (self)

     Called to implement *note operator.length_hint(): f5a.  Should
     return an estimated length for the object (which may be greater or
     less than the actual length).  The length must be an integer ‘>=’
     0.  The return value may also be *note NotImplemented: 7be, which
     is treated the same as if the ‘__length_hint__’ method didn't exist
     at all.  This method is purely an optimization and is never
     required for correctness.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Note: le découpage est effectué uniquement à l'aide des trois
     méthodes suivantes.  Un appel comme

          a[1:2] = b

     est traduit en

          a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

     et ainsi de suite.  Les éléments manquants sont remplacés par
     ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: object.__getitem__ (self, key)

     Called to implement evaluation of ‘self[key]’.  For *note sequence:
     4de. types, the accepted keys should be integers.  Optionally, they
     may support *note slice: 455. objects as well.  Negative index
     support is also optional.  If 'key' is of an inappropriate type,
     *note TypeError: 525. may be raised; if 'key' is a value outside
     the set of indexes for the sequence (after any special
     interpretation of negative values), *note IndexError: 14ec. should
     be raised.  For *note mapping: 119b. types, if 'key' is missing
     (not in the container), *note KeyError: 33a. should be raised.

          Note: *note for: 2e7. s'attend à ce qu'une *note IndexError:
          14ec. soit levée en cas d'indice illégal afin de détecter
          correctement la fin de la séquence.

          Note: quand on vous *note spécifiez un indice: 1f3d. pour une
          'classe', la méthode de classe spéciale *note
          __class_getitem__(): 727. peut être appelée au lieu de
          ‘__getitem__()’.  Reportez-vous à *note __class_getitem__
          contre __getitem__: 1f3c. pour plus de détails.

 -- Méthode: object.__setitem__ (self, key, value)

     Appelée pour implémenter l'assignation à ‘self[key]’.  La même note
     que pour *note __getitem__(): 280. s'applique.  Elle ne doit être
     implémentée que pour les tableaux de correspondances qui autorisent
     les modifications de valeurs des clés, ceux pour lesquels on peut
     ajouter de nouvelles clés ou, pour les séquences, celles dont les
     éléments peuvent être remplacés.  Les mêmes exceptions que pour la
     méthode *note __getitem__(): 280. doivent être levées en cas de
     mauvaises valeurs de clés.

 -- Méthode: object.__delitem__ (self, key)

     Appelée pour implémenter la suppression de ‘self[key]’.  La même
     note que pour *note __getitem__(): 280. s'applique.  Elle ne doit
     être implémentée que pour les tableaux de correspondances qui
     autorisent les suppressions de clés ou pour les séquences dont les
     éléments peuvent être supprimés de la séquence.  Les mêmes
     exceptions que pour la méthode *note __getitem__(): 280. doivent
     être levées en cas de mauvaises valeurs de clés.

 -- Méthode: object.__missing__ (self, key)

     Appelée par *note dict: 253.*note __getitem__(): 280. pour
     implémenter ‘self[key]’ dans les sous-classes de dictionnaires
     lorsque la clé n'est pas dans le dictionnaire.

 -- Méthode: object.__iter__ (self)

     Cette méthode est appelée quand un *note itérateur: 1aa. est requis
     pour un conteneur.  Cette méthode doit renvoyer un nouvel objet
     itérateur qui peut itérer sur tous les objets du conteneur.  Pour
     les tableaux de correspondances, elle doit itérer sur les clés du
     conteneur.

 -- Méthode: object.__reversed__ (self)

     Appelée (si elle existe) par la fonction native *note reversed():
     852. pour implémenter l'itération en sens inverse.  Elle doit
     renvoyer un nouvel objet itérateur qui itère sur tous les objets du
     conteneur en sens inverse.

     Si la méthode *note __reversed__(): 1f16. n'est pas fournie, la
     fonction native *note reversed(): 852. se replie sur le protocole
     de séquence (*note __len__(): 1f1c. et *note __getitem__(): 280.).
     Les objets qui connaissent le protocole de séquence ne doivent
     fournir *note __reversed__(): 1f16. que si l'implémentation qu'ils
     proposent est plus efficace que celle de *note reversed(): 852.

Les opérateurs de tests d'appartenance (*note in: 2e9. et *note not in:
61c.) sont normalement implémentés comme des itérations sur un
conteneur.  Cependant, les objets conteneurs peuvent fournir les
méthodes spéciales suivantes avec une implémentation plus efficace, qui
ne requièrent d'ailleurs pas que l'objet soit itérable.

 -- Méthode: object.__contains__ (self, item)

     Appelée pour implémenter les opérateurs de test d'appartenance.
     Elle doit renvoyer ‘True’ si 'item' est dans 'self' et ‘False’
     sinon.  Pour les tableaux de correspondances, seules les clés sont
     considérées (pas les valeurs des paires clés-valeurs).

     Pour les objets qui ne définissent pas *note __contains__(): 1f17,
     les tests d'appartenance essaient d'abord d'itérer avec *note
     __iter__(): 1f15. puis avec le vieux protocole d'itération sur les
     séquences 'via' *note __getitem__(): 280, reportez-vous à *note
     cette section dans la référence du langage: 1f4c.


File: python.info,  Node: Émulation de types numériques,  Next: Gestionnaire de contexte With,  Prev: Émulation de types conteneurs,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.21 Émulation de types numériques
......................................

Les méthodes suivantes peuvent être définies pour émuler des objets
numériques.  Les méthodes correspondant à des opérations qui ne sont pas
autorisées pour la catégorie de nombres considérée (par exemple, les
opérations bit à bit pour les nombres qui ne sont pas entiers) doivent
être laissées indéfinies.

 -- Méthode: object.__add__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__sub__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__mul__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__matmul__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__truediv__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__floordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__mod__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__divmod__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__pow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Méthode: object.__lshift__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rshift__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__and__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__xor__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__or__ (self, other)

     Ces méthodes sont appelées pour implémenter les opérations
     arithmétiques binaires (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note
     divmod(): 991, *note pow(): 9c2, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’).
     Par exemple, pour évaluer l'expression ‘x + y’, où 'x' est une
     instance d'une classe qui possède une méthode *note __add__():
     1f45, ‘type(x).__add__(x, y)’ est appelée.  La méthode *note
     __divmod__(): 1f52. doit être l'équivalent d'appeler *note
     __floordiv__(): 14ac. et *note __mod__(): 1f51. ; elle ne doit pas
     être reliée à *note __truediv__(): 14ab.  Notez que *note
     __pow__(): 7bf. doit être définie de manière à accepter un
     troisième argument optionnel si la version ternaire de la fonction
     native *note pow(): 9c2. est autorisée.

     If one of those methods does not support the operation with the
     supplied arguments, it should return *note NotImplemented: 7be.

 -- Méthode: object.__radd__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rsub__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rmul__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rmatmul__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rtruediv__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rfloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rmod__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rdivmod__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rpow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Méthode: object.__rlshift__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rrshift__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rand__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__rxor__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ror__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     991, *note pow(): 9c2, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’) with
     reflected (swapped) operands.  These functions are only called if
     the left operand does not support the corresponding operation (1)
     and the operands are of different types.  (2)  For instance, to
     evaluate the expression ‘x - y’, where 'y' is an instance of a
     class that has an *note __rsub__(): 1f58. method,
     ‘type(y).__rsub__(y, x)’ is called if ‘type(x).__sub__(x, y)’
     returns *note NotImplemented: 7be.

     Notez que la fonction ternaire *note pow(): 9c2. n'essaie pas
     d'appeler *note __rpow__(): 7c0. (les règles de coercition seraient
     trop compliquées).

          Note: si le type de l'opérande de droite est une sous-classe
          du type de l'opérande de gauche et que cette sous-classe
          fournit une implémentation différente de la méthode symétrique
          pour l'opération, cette méthode est appelée avant la méthode
          originelle de l'opérande gauche.  Ce comportement permet à des
          sous-classes de surcharger les opérations de leurs ancêtres.

 -- Méthode: object.__iadd__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__isub__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__imul__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__imatmul__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__itruediv__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ifloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__imod__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ipow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Méthode: object.__ilshift__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__irshift__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__iand__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ixor__ (self, other)
 -- Méthode: object.__ior__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic
     assignments (‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, ‘@=’, ‘/=’, ‘//=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’,
     ‘<<=’, ‘>>=’, ‘&=’, ‘^=’, ‘|=’).  These methods should attempt to
     do the operation in-place (modifying 'self') and return the result
     (which could be, but does not have to be, 'self').  If a specific
     method is not defined, or if that method returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7be, the augmented assignment falls back to the
     normal methods.  For instance, if 'x' is an instance of a class
     with an *note __iadd__(): 1f47. method, ‘x += y’ is equivalent to
     ‘x = x.__iadd__(y)’ .  If *note __iadd__(): 1f47. does not exist,
     or if ‘x.__iadd__(y)’ returns ‘NotImplemented’, ‘x.__add__(y)’ and
     ‘y.__radd__(x)’ are considered, as with the evaluation of ‘x + y’.
     In certain situations, augmented assignment can result in
     unexpected errors (see *note Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item']
     lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?: 1f6d.),
     but this behavior is in fact part of the data model.

 -- Méthode: object.__neg__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__pos__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__abs__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__invert__ (self)

     Appelées pour implémenter les opérations arithmétiques unaires
     (‘-’, ‘+’, *note abs(): 1c62. et ‘~’).

 -- Méthode: object.__complex__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__int__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__float__ (self)

     Appelées pour implémenter les fonctions natives *note complex():
     2ed, *note int(): 254. et *note float(): 2ec.  Elles doivent
     renvoyer une valeur du type approprié.

 -- Méthode: object.__index__ (self)

     Appelée pour implémenter *note operator.index(): 18cb. et lorsque
     Python a besoin de convertir sans perte un objet numérique en objet
     entier (pour un découpage ou dans les fonctions natives *note
     bin(): 1288, *note hex(): 12af. et *note oct(): 12ae.).  La
     présence de cette méthode indique que l'objet numérique est un type
     entier.  Elle doit renvoyer un entier.

     Si *note __int__(): 708, *note __float__(): 9bc. et *note
     __complex__(): 5d3. ne sont pas définies, alors les fonctions
     natives *note int(): 254, *note float(): 2ec. et *note complex():
     2ed. redirigent par défaut vers *note __index__(): 709.

 -- Méthode: object.__round__ (self[, ndigits])
 -- Méthode: object.__trunc__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__floor__ (self)
 -- Méthode: object.__ceil__ (self)

     Appelées pour implémenter la fonction native *note round(): 12ba.
     et les fonctions du module *note math: 8d. *note trunc(): 137c,
     *note floor(): 137a. et *note ceil(): 137b.  À moins que 'ndigits'
     ne soit passé à ‘__round__()’, toutes ces méthodes doivent renvoyer
     la valeur de l'objet tronquée pour donner un *note Integral: 1f75.
     (typiquement un *note int: 254.).

     La fonction native *note int(): 254. se replie sur *note
     __trunc__(): 707. dans le cas où ni *note __int__(): 708. ni *note
     __index__(): 709. ne sont définies.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: la délégation de *note int(): 254.
     vers ‘__trunc__()’ est obsolète.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) "Does not support" here means that the class has no such method,
or the method returns *note NotImplemented: 7be.  Do not set the method
to ‘None’ if you want to force fallback to the right operand's reflected
method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly
'blocking' such fallback.

   (2) Pour des opérandes de même type, on considère que si la méthode
originelle (telle que *note __add__(): 1f45.) échoue, alors l'opération
en tant que telle n'est pas autorisée et donc la méthode symétrique
n'est pas appelée.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire de contexte With,  Next: Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes,  Prev: Émulation de types numériques,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.22 Gestionnaire de contexte With
......................................

Un 'gestionnaire de contexte' est un objet qui met en place un contexte
prédéfini au moment de l'exécution de l'instruction *note with: 5be.  Le
gestionnaire de contexte gère l'entrée et la sortie de ce contexte
d'exécution pour tout un bloc de code.  Les gestionnaires de contextes
sont normalement invoqués en utilisant une instruction ‘with’ (décrite
dans la section *note L'instruction with: 5be.), mais ils peuvent aussi
être directement invoqués par leurs méthodes.

Les utilisations classiques des gestionnaires de contexte sont la
sauvegarde et la restauration d'états divers, le verrouillage et le
déverrouillage de ressources, la fermeture de fichiers ouverts, etc.

For more information on context managers, see *note Le type gestionnaire
de contexte: 1f78.  The *note object: a7c. class itself does not provide
the context manager methods.

 -- Méthode: object.__enter__ (self)

     Entre dans le contexte d'exécution relatif à cet objet.
     L'instruction *note with: 5be. lie la valeur de retour de cette
     méthode à une (ou plusieurs) cible spécifiée par la clause ‘as’ de
     l'instruction, si elle est spécifiée.

 -- Méthode: object.__exit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Sort du contexte d'exécution relatif à cet objet.  Les paramètres
     décrivent l'exception qui a causé la sortie du contexte.  Si l'on
     sort du contexte sans exception, les trois arguments sont à *note
     None: 662.

     Si une exception est indiquée et que la méthode souhaite supprimer
     l'exception (c'est-à-dire qu'elle ne veut pas que l'exception soit
     propagée), elle doit renvoyer ‘True’.  Sinon, l'exception est
     traitée normalement à la sortie de cette méthode.

     Note that *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods should not reraise the
     passed-in exception; this is the caller's responsibility.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 343(1) — L'instruction ‘with’

     La spécification, les motivations et des exemples de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. en Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes,  Next: Emulating buffer types,  Prev: Gestionnaire de contexte With,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.23 Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes
..........................................................................

When using a class name in a pattern, positional arguments in the
pattern are not allowed by default, i.e.  ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is
typically invalid without special support in ‘MyClass’.  To be able to
use that kind of pattern, the class needs to define a '__match_args__'
attribute.

 -- Données: object.__match_args__

     Cet attribut de la classe est un 'n'-uplet de chaînes.  Lorsque la
     classe apparaît dans un filtre avec des arguments positionnels, ils
     sont convertis en arguments nommés avec les noms du 'n'-uplet, dans
     l'ordre.  Si l'attribut n'est pas défini, tout se passe comme si sa
     valeur était le 'n'-uplet vide ‘()’.

Ainsi, si ‘UneClasse.__match_args__’ est mis à ‘("gauche", "milieu",
"droite")’, le filtre ‘case UneClasse(x, y)’ est équivalent à ‘case
UneClasse(gauche=x, milieu=y)’.  Le filtre doit comporter au maximum
autant d'arguments positionnels que la longueur ‘__match_args__’.  Dans
le cas contraire, le filtrage lève l'exception *note TypeError: 525.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 634(1) — Filtrage par motif structurel

     Spécification de l'instruction ‘match’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating buffer types,  Next: Recherche des méthodes spéciales,  Prev: Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.24 Emulating buffer types
...............................

The *note buffer protocol: 38e. provides a way for Python objects to
expose efficient access to a low-level memory array.  This protocol is
implemented by builtin types such as *note bytes: 1bd. and *note
memoryview: 454, and third-party libraries may define additional buffer
types.

While buffer types are usually implemented in C, it is also possible to
implement the protocol in Python.

 -- Méthode: object.__buffer__ (self, flags)

     Called when a buffer is requested from 'self' (for example, by the
     *note memoryview: 454. constructor).  The 'flags' argument is an
     integer representing the kind of buffer requested, affecting for
     example whether the returned buffer is read-only or writable.
     *note inspect.BufferFlags: 44b. provides a convenient way to
     interpret the flags.  The method must return a *note memoryview:
     454. object.

 -- Méthode: object.__release_buffer__ (self, buffer)

     Called when a buffer is no longer needed.  The 'buffer' argument is
     a *note memoryview: 454. object that was previously returned by
     *note __buffer__(): 44a.  The method must release any resources
     associated with the buffer.  This method should return ‘None’.
     Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not
     required to implement this method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 688(1) - Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

     Introduces the Python ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’
     methods.

*note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1.

     ABC for buffer types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche des méthodes spéciales,  Prev: Emulating buffer types,  Up: Méthodes spéciales

4.3.3.25 Recherche des méthodes spéciales
.........................................

Pour les classes définies par le développeur, l'invocation implicite de
méthodes spéciales n'est garantie que si ces méthodes sont définies par
le type d'objet, pas dans le dictionnaire de l'objet instance.  Ce
comportement explique pourquoi le code suivant lève une exception :

     >>> class C:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
     >>> len(c)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

La raison de ce comportement vient de certaines méthodes spéciales
telles que *note __hash__(): aeb. et *note __repr__(): 609. qui sont
implémentées par tous les objets, y compris les objets types.  Si la
recherche effectuée par ces méthodes utilisait le processus normal de
recherche, elles ne fonctionneraient pas si on les appelait sur l'objet
type lui-même :

     >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
     True
     >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

Essayer d'invoquer une méthode non liée d'une classe de cette manière
est parfois appelé « confusion de métaclasse » et se contourne en
shuntant l'instance lors de la recherche des méthodes spéciales :

     >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
     True
     >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
     True

En plus de shunter les attributs des instances pour fonctionner
correctement, la recherche des méthodes spéciales implicites shunte
aussi la méthode *note __getattribute__(): bc2. même dans la métaclasse
de l'objet :

     >>> class Meta(type):
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
     ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
     ...     def __len__(self):
     ...         return 10
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
     ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
     Class getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
     Metaclass getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
     10

En shuntant le mécanisme de *note __getattribute__(): bc2. de cette
façon, cela permet d'optimiser la vitesse de l'interpréteur moyennant
une certaine manœuvre dans la gestion des méthodes spéciales (la méthode
spéciale 'doit' être définie sur l'objet classe lui-même afin d'être
invoquée de manière cohérente par l'interpréteur).


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines,  Prev: Méthodes spéciales,  Up: Modèle de données

4.3.4 Coroutines
----------------

* Menu:

* Objets attendables (awaitable): Objets attendables awaitable.
* Objets coroutines::
* Itérateurs asynchrones::
* Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets attendables awaitable,  Next: Objets coroutines,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.1 Objets 'attendables' ('awaitable')
..........................................

Un objet *note awaitable: 1ab. implémente généralement une méthode *note
__await__(): 1f80.  Les objets *note coroutine: 47d. renvoyés par les
fonctions *note async def: 5bd. sont des 'attendables' ('awaitable').

     Note: les objets *note itérateur de générateur: bce. renvoyés par
     les générateurs décorés par *note types.coroutine(): e75. sont
     aussi des 'attendables' ('awaitable'), mais ils n'implémentent pas
     *note __await__(): 1f80.

 -- Méthode: object.__await__ (self)

     Must return an *note iterator: 1aa.  Should be used to implement
     *note awaitable: 1ab. objects.  For instance, *note asyncio.Future:
     bbd. implements this method to be compatible with the *note await:
     1b7. expression.  The *note object: a7c. class itself is not
     awaitable and does not provide this method.

          Note: The language doesn't place any restriction on the type
          or value of the objects yielded by the iterator returned by
          ‘__await__’, as this is specific to the implementation of the
          asynchronous execution framework (e.g.  *note asyncio: a.)
          that will be managing the *note awaitable: 1ab. object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 492(1) pour les informations relatives aux objets 'attendables'
('awaitable').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets coroutines,  Next: Itérateurs asynchrones,  Prev: Objets attendables awaitable,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.2 Objets coroutines
.........................

Les objets *note coroutine: 47d. sont des objets *note awaitable: 1ab.
L'exécution d'une coroutine peut être contrôlée en appelant *note
__await__(): 1f80. et en itérant sur le résultat.  Quand la coroutine a
fini de s'exécuter et termine, l'itérateur lève *note StopIteration:
bea. et l'attribut *note value: 1f82. de l'exception contient la valeur
de retour.  Si la coroutine lève une exception, elle est propagée par
l'itérateur.  Les coroutines ne doivent pas lever directement des
exceptions *note StopIteration: bea. non gérées.

Les coroutines disposent aussi des méthodes listées ci-dessous,
analogues à celles des générateurs (voir *note Méthodes des
générateurs-itérateurs: 1f83.).  Cependant, au contraire des
générateurs, vous ne pouvez pas itérer directement sur des coroutines.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: utiliser 'await' plus d'une fois sur une
coroutine lève une *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Méthode: coroutine.send (value)

     Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine.  If 'value' is
     ‘None’, this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by
     *note __await__(): 1f80.  If 'value' is not ‘None’, this method
     delegates to the *note send(): 1f85. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend.  The result (return value, *note
     StopIteration: bea, or other exception) is the same as when
     iterating over the ‘__await__()’ return value, described above.

 -- Méthode: coroutine.throw (value)

 -- Méthode: coroutine.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Lève l'exception spécifiée dans la coroutine.  Cette méthode
     délègue à la méthode *note throw(): 4e5. de l'itérateur qui a causé
     la suspension de la coroutine, s'il possède une telle méthode.
     Sinon, l'exception est levée au point de suspension.  Le résultat
     (valeur de retour, *note StopIteration: bea. ou une autre
     exception) est le même que lorsque vous itérez sur la valeur de
     retour de *note __await__(): 1f80, décrite ci-dessus.  Si
     l'exception n'est pas gérée par la coroutine, elle est propagée à
     l'appelant.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Méthode: coroutine.close ()

     Demande à la coroutine de faire le ménage et de se terminer.  Si la
     coroutine est suspendue, cette méthode délègue d'abord à la méthode
     *note close(): 16ae. de l'itérateur qui a causé la suspension de la
     coroutine, s'il possède une telle méthode.  Ensuite, elle lève
     *note GeneratorExit: 1380. au point de suspension, ce qui fait le
     ménage dans la coroutine immédiatement.  Enfin, la coroutine est
     marquée comme ayant terminé son exécution, même si elle n'a jamais
     démarré.

     Les objets coroutines sont automatiquement fermés en utilisant le
     processus décrit au-dessus au moment où ils sont détruits.


File: python.info,  Node: Itérateurs asynchrones,  Next: Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones,  Prev: Objets coroutines,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.3 Itérateurs asynchrones
..............................

Un 'itérateur asynchrone' peut appeler du code asynchrone dans sa
méthode ‘__anext__’.

Les itérateurs asynchrones peuvent être utilisés dans des instructions
*note async for: a9b.

The *note object: a7c. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- Méthode: object.__aiter__ (self)

     Doit renvoyer un objet 'itérateur asynchrone'.

 -- Méthode: object.__anext__ (self)

     Doit renvoyer un 'attendable' ('awaitable') qui se traduit par la
     valeur suivante de l'itérateur.  Doit lever une *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. quand l'itération est terminée.

Un exemple d'objet itérateur asynchrone :

     class Reader:
         async def readline(self):
             ...

         def __aiter__(self):
             return self

         async def __anext__(self):
             val = await self.readline()
             if val == b'':
                 raise StopAsyncIteration
             return val

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: avant Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): beb.
pouvait renvoyer un 'attendable' ('awaitable') qui se résolvait
potentiellement en un *note itérateur asynchrone: 1a9.

À partir de Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): beb. doit renvoyer un objet
itérateur asynchrone.  Renvoyer autre chose entraine une erreur *note
TypeError: 525.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones,  Prev: Itérateurs asynchrones,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.4 Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones
.............................................

Un 'gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone' est un 'gestionnaire de
contexte' qui est capable de suspendre son exécution dans ses méthodes
‘__aenter__’ et ‘__aexit__’.

Les gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones peuvent être utilisés dans des
instructions *note async with: 5c1.

The *note object: a7c. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- Méthode: object.__aenter__ (self)

     Semantically similar to *note __enter__(): 5b4, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

 -- Méthode: object.__aexit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Semantically similar to *note __exit__(): 12e0, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

Un exemple de classe de gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone :

     class AsyncContextManager:
         async def __aenter__(self):
             await log('entering context')

         async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
             await log('exiting context')

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Modèle d'exécution,  Next: Le système d'importation,  Prev: Modèle de données,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.4 Modèle d'exécution
======================

* Menu:

* Structure d'un programme::
* Noms et liaisons::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Structure d'un programme,  Next: Noms et liaisons,  Up: Modèle d'exécution

4.4.1 Structure d'un programme
------------------------------

Un programme Python est construit à partir de blocs de code.  Un 'bloc'
est un morceau de texte de programme Python qui est exécuté en tant
qu'unité.  Les éléments suivants sont des blocs : un module, un corps de
fonction et une définition de classe.  Chaque commande écrite dans
l'interpréteur interactif de Python est un bloc.  Un fichier de script
(un fichier donné en entrée standard à l'interpréteur ou spécifié en
tant qu'argument de ligne de commande à l'interpréteur) est un bloc de
code.  Une commande de script (une commande spécifiée en ligne de
commande à l'interpréteur avec l'option *note -c: 5cc.) est un bloc de
code.  Un module exécuté en tant que script principal (module
‘__main__’) depuis la ligne de commande en utilisant l'option *note -m:
5cd. est aussi un bloc de code.  La chaîne passée en argument aux
fonctions natives *note eval(): 17e. et *note exec(): 17d. est un bloc
de code.

Un bloc de code est exécuté dans un 'cadre d'exécution'.  Un cadre
contient des informations administratives (utilisées pour le débogage)
et détermine où et comment l'exécution se poursuit après la fin de
l'exécution du bloc de code.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms et liaisons,  Next: Exceptions<2>,  Prev: Structure d'un programme,  Up: Modèle d'exécution

4.4.2 Noms et liaisons
----------------------

* Menu:

* Liaisons des noms::
* Résolution des noms::
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution::
* Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques::


File: python.info,  Node: Liaisons des noms,  Next: Résolution des noms,  Up: Noms et liaisons

4.4.2.1 Liaisons des noms
.........................

Les 'noms' sont des références aux objets.  Ils sont créés lors des
opérations de liaisons de noms ('name binding' en anglais).

Les noms sont liés 'via' les constructions suivantes :

   * paramètres formels de fonctions,

   * définitions de classes,

   * définitions de fonctions,

   * expressions d'affectation,

   * *note cibles: 1f92. qui sont des identifiants, lorsque c'est une
     affectation :

        + de l'entête d'une boucle *note for: 2e7,

        + after ‘as’ in a *note with: 5be. statement, *note except: 189.
          clause, *note except*: 5a4. clause, or in the as-pattern in
          structural pattern matching,

        + dans un champ de recherche d'un filtrage par motifs

   * des instructions *note import: 5ce.

   * *note type: 423. statements.

   * *note type parameter lists: 2b0.

L'instruction ‘import’ sous la forme ‘from ... import *’ lie tous les
noms définis dans le module importé, sauf ceux qui commencent par le
caractère souligné.  Cette écriture ne peut être utilisée qu'au niveau
du module.

Une cible qui apparaît dans une instruction *note del: 1762. est aussi
considérée comme une liaison à un nom dans ce cadre (bien que la
sémantique véritable soit de délier le nom).

Chaque affectation ou instruction 'import' a lieu dans un bloc défini
par une définition de classe ou de fonction, ou au niveau du module (le
bloc de code de plus haut niveau).

If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block,
unless declared as *note nonlocal: 1287. or *note global: 188.  If a
name is bound at the module level, it is a global variable.  (The
variables of the module code block are local and global.)  If a variable
is used in a code block but not defined there, it is a *note free
variable: 1f93.

Chaque occurrence d'un nom dans un programme fait référence à la
'liaison' de ce nom établie par les règles de résolution des noms
suivantes.


File: python.info,  Node: Résolution des noms,  Next: Annotation scopes,  Prev: Liaisons des noms,  Up: Noms et liaisons

4.4.2.2 Résolution des noms
...........................

La 'portée' définit la visibilité d'un nom dans un bloc.  Si une
variable locale est définie dans un bloc, sa portée comprend ce bloc.
Si la définition intervient dans le bloc d'une fonction, la portée
s'étend à tous les blocs contenus dans celui qui comprend la définition,
à moins qu'un bloc intérieur ne définisse une autre liaison pour ce nom.

Quand un nom est utilisé dans un bloc de code, la résolution utilise la
portée la plus petite.  L'ensemble de toutes les portées visibles dans
un bloc de code s'appelle 'l'environnement' du bloc.

Quand un nom n'est trouvé nulle part, une exception *note NameError:
42a. est levée.  Si la portée courante est celle d'une fonction et que
le nom fait référence à une variable locale qui n'a pas encore été liée
au moment où le nom est utilisé, une exception *note UnboundLocalError:
14ed. est levée.  *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed. est une sous-classe de
*note NameError: 42a.

If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all
uses of the name within the block are treated as references to the
current block.  This can lead to errors when a name is used within a
block before it is bound.  This rule is subtle.  Python lacks
declarations and allows name binding operations to occur anywhere within
a code block.  The local variables of a code block can be determined by
scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.  See
*note the FAQ entry on UnboundLocalError: 1f96. for examples.

If the *note global: 188. statement occurs within a block, all uses of
the names specified in the statement refer to the bindings of those
names in the top-level namespace.  Names are resolved in the top-level
namespace by searching the global namespace, i.e.  the namespace of the
module containing the code block, and the builtins namespace, the
namespace of the module *note builtins: 12.  The global namespace is
searched first.  If the names are not found there, the builtins
namespace is searched next.  If the names are also not found in the
builtins namespace, new variables are created in the global namespace.
The global statement must precede all uses of the listed names.

L'instruction *note global: 188. a la même porte qu'une opération de
liaison du même bloc.  Si la portée englobante la plus petite pour une
variable libre contient une instruction 'global', la variable libre est
considérée globale.

The *note nonlocal: 1287. statement causes corresponding names to refer
to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope.
*note SyntaxError: 18b. is raised at compile time if the given name does
not exist in any enclosing function scope.  *note Type parameters: 2b0.
cannot be rebound with the ‘nonlocal’ statement.

L'espace de nommage pour un module est créé automatiquement la première
fois que le module est importé.  Le module principal d'un script
s'appelle toujours *note __main__: 1.

Class definition blocks and arguments to *note exec(): 17d. and *note
eval(): 17e. are special in the context of name resolution.  A class
definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an
exception that unbound local variables are looked up in the global
namespace.  The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute
dictionary of the class.  The scope of names defined in a class block is
limited to the class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of
methods.  This includes comprehensions and generator expressions, but it
does not include *note annotation scopes: 186, which have access to
their enclosing class scopes.  This means that the following will fail:

     class A:
         a = 42
         b = list(a + i for i in range(10))

However, the following will succeed:

     class A:
         type Alias = Nested
         class Nested: pass

     print(A.Alias.__value__)  # <type 'A.Nested'>


File: python.info,  Node: Annotation scopes,  Next: Lazy evaluation,  Prev: Résolution des noms,  Up: Noms et liaisons

4.4.2.3 Annotation scopes
.........................

*note Type parameter lists: 2b0. and *note type: 423. statements
introduce 'annotation scopes', which behave mostly like function scopes,
but with some exceptions discussed below.  *note Annotations: 443.
currently do not use annotation scopes, but they are expected to use
annotation scopes in Python 3.13 when PEP 649(1) is implemented.

Annotation scopes are used in the following contexts:

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic type aliases: 441.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic functions: 43e.  A generic
     function's annotations are executed within the annotation scope,
     but its defaults and decorators are not.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic classes: 43d.  A generic
     class's base classes and keyword arguments are executed within the
     annotation scope, but its decorators are not.

   * The bounds, constraints, and default values for type parameters
     (*note lazily evaluated: 442.).

   * The value of type aliases (*note lazily evaluated: 442.).

Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:

   * Annotation scopes have access to their enclosing class namespace.
     If an annotation scope is immediately within a class scope, or
     within another annotation scope that is immediately within a class
     scope, the code in the annotation scope can use names defined in
     the class scope as if it were executed directly within the class
     body.  This contrasts with regular functions defined within
     classes, which cannot access names defined in the class scope.

   * Expressions in annotation scopes cannot contain *note yield: 9bd,
     ‘yield from’, *note await: 1b7, or *note ;=: 1f98. expressions.
     (These expressions are allowed in other scopes contained within the
     annotation scope.)

   * Names defined in annotation scopes cannot be rebound with *note
     nonlocal: 1287. statements in inner scopes.  This includes only
     type parameters, as no other syntactic elements that can appear
     within annotation scopes can introduce new names.

   * While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not
     reflected in the *note qualified name: 18fe. of objects defined
     within the scope.  Instead, the *note __qualname__: 1050. of such
     objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: Annotation scopes were introduced in Python
3.12 as part of PEP 695(2).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Annotation scopes are also used for type
parameter defaults, as introduced by PEP 696(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/


File: python.info,  Node: Lazy evaluation,  Next: Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution,  Prev: Annotation scopes,  Up: Noms et liaisons

4.4.2.4 Lazy evaluation
.......................

The values of type aliases created through the *note type: 423.
statement are 'lazily evaluated'.  The same applies to the bounds,
constraints, and default values of type variables created through the
*note type parameter syntax: 2b0.  This means that they are not
evaluated when the type alias or type variable is created.  Instead,
they are only evaluated when doing so is necessary to resolve an
attribute access.

Exemple :

     >>> type Alias = 1/0
     >>> Alias.__value__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> def func[T: 1/0](): pass
     >>> T = func.__type_params__[0]
     >>> T.__bound__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Here the exception is raised only when the ‘__value__’ attribute of the
type alias or the ‘__bound__’ attribute of the type variable is
accessed.

This behavior is primarily useful for references to types that have not
yet been defined when the type alias or type variable is created.  For
example, lazy evaluation enables creation of mutually recursive type
aliases:

     from typing import Literal

     type SimpleExpr = int | Parenthesized
     type Parenthesized = tuple[Literal["("], Expr, Literal[")"]]
     type Expr = SimpleExpr | tuple[SimpleExpr, Literal["+", "-"], Expr]

Lazily evaluated values are evaluated in *note annotation scope: 186,
which means that names that appear inside the lazily evaluated value are
looked up as if they were used in the immediately enclosing scope.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution,  Next: Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques,  Prev: Lazy evaluation,  Up: Noms et liaisons

4.4.2.5 Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution
...............................................

L'utilisateur ne doit pas toucher à ‘__builtins__’ ; c'est et cela doit
rester réservé aux besoins de l'implémentation.  Les utilisateurs qui
souhaitent surcharger des valeurs dans l'espace de nommage natif doivent
*note importer: 5ce. le module *note builtins: 12. et modifier ses
attributs judicieusement.

L'espace de nommage natif associé à l'exécution d'un bloc de code est
effectivement trouvé en cherchant le nom ‘__builtins__’ dans l'espace de
nommage globaux ; ce doit être un dictionnaire ou un module (dans ce
dernier cas, le dictionnaire du module est utilisé).  Par défaut,
lorsque l'on se trouve dans le module *note __main__: 1, ‘__builtins__’
est le module natif *note builtins: 12. ; lorsque l'on se trouve dans
tout autre module, ‘__builtins__’ est un pseudonyme du dictionnaire du
module *note builtins: 12. lui-même.


File: python.info,  Node: Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques,  Prev: Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution,  Up: Noms et liaisons

4.4.2.6 Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques
.......................................................

La résolution des noms de variables libres intervient à l'exécution, pas
à la compilation.  Cela signifie que le code suivant affiche 42 :

     i = 10
     def f():
         print(i)
     i = 42
     f()

Les fonctions *note eval(): 17e. et *note exec(): 17d. n'ont pas accès à
l'environnement complet pour résoudre les noms.  Les noms doivent être
résolus dans les espaces de nommage locaux et globaux de l'appelant.
Les variables libres ne sont pas résolues dans l'espace de nommage
englobant le plus proche mais dans l'espace de nommage globaux (1).  Les
fonctions *note eval(): 17e. et *note exec(): 17d. possèdent des
arguments optionnels pour surcharger les espaces de nommage globaux et
locaux.  Si seulement un espace de nommage est spécifié, il est utilisé
pour les deux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) En effet, le code qui est exécuté par ces opérations n'est pas
connu au moment où le module est compilé.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<2>,  Prev: Noms et liaisons,  Up: Modèle d'exécution

4.4.3 Exceptions
----------------

Les exceptions sont un moyen de sortir du flot normal d'exécution d'un
bloc de code de manière à gérer des erreurs ou des conditions
exceptionnelles.  Une exception est 'levée' au moment où l'erreur est
détectée ; elle doit être 'gérée' par le bloc de code qui l'entoure ou
par tout bloc de code qui a, directement ou indirectement, invoqué le
bloc de code où l'erreur s'est produite.

L'interpréteur Python lève une exception quand il détecte une erreur à
l'exécution (telle qu'une division par zéro).  Un programme Python peut
aussi lever explicitement une exception avec l'instruction *note raise:
5d9.  Les gestionnaires d'exception sont spécifiés avec l'instruction
*note try: 6d5. … *note except: 189.  La clause *note finally: 9ba.
d'une telle instruction peut être utilisée pour spécifier un code de
nettoyage qui ne gère pas l'exception mais qui est exécuté quoi qu'il
arrive (exception ou pas).

Python utilise le modèle par 'terminaison' de gestion des erreurs : un
gestionnaire d'exception peut trouver ce qui est arrivé et continuer
l'exécution à un niveau plus élevé, mais il ne peut pas réparer
l'origine de l'erreur et ré-essayer l'opération qui a échoué (sauf à
entrer à nouveau dans le code en question par le haut).

Quand une exception n'est pas du tout gérée, l'interpréteur termine
l'exécution du programme ou retourne à la boucle interactive.  Dans ces
cas, il affiche une trace de la pile d'appels, sauf si l'exception est
*note SystemExit: d30.

Les exceptions sont identifiées par des instances de classe.  La clause
*note except: 189. sélectionnée dépend de la classe de l'instance : elle
doit faire référence à la classe de l'instance ou à une de ses *note
classes ancêtres non virtuelles: 1195.  L'instance peut être transmise
au gestionnaire et peut apporter des informations complémentaires sur
les conditions de l'exception.

     Note: Les messages d'exception ne font pas partie de l'API Python.
     Leur contenu peut changer d'une version de Python à une autre sans
     avertissement et le code ne doit pas reposer sur ceux-ci s'il doit
     fonctionner sur plusieurs versions de l'interpréteur.

Reportez-vous aussi aux descriptions de l'instruction *note try: 6d5.
dans la section *note L'instruction try: 6d5. et de l'instruction *note
raise: 5d9. dans la section *note L'instruction raise: 5d9.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Le système d'importation,  Next: Expressions,  Prev: Modèle d'exécution,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.5 Le système d'importation
============================

Le code Python d'un *note module: 161a. peut accéder à du code d'un
autre module par un mécanisme qui consiste à *note importer: 1fa2. cet
autre module.  L'instruction *note import: 5ce. est la façon la plus
courante de faire appel à ce système d'importation, mais ce n'est pas la
seule.  Les fonctions telles que *note importlib.import_module(): 504.
et *note __import__(): 8c3. peuvent aussi être utilisées pour mettre en
œuvre le mécanisme d'importation.

L'instruction *note import: 5ce. effectue deux opérations ; elle cherche
le module dont le nom a été donné puis elle lie le résultat de cette
recherche à un nom dans la portée locale.  L'opération de recherche de
l'instruction ‘import’ consiste à appeler la fonction *note
__import__(): 8c3. avec les arguments adéquats.  La valeur renvoyée par
*note __import__(): 8c3. est utilisée pour effectuer l'opération de
liaison avec le nom fourni à l'instruction ‘import’.  Reportez-vous à
l'instruction ‘import’ pour les détails exacts de l'opération de liaison
avec le nom.

Un appel direct à *note __import__(): 8c3. effectue seulement la
recherche du module et, s'il est trouvé, l'opération de création du
module.  Bien que des effets collatéraux puissent se produire, tels que
l'importation de paquets parents et la mise à jour de divers caches (y
compris *note sys.modules: 1929.), il n'y a que l'instruction *note
import: 5ce. qui déclenche l'opération de liaison avec le nom.

Quand une instruction *note import: 5ce. est exécutée, la fonction
native *note __import__(): 8c3. est appelée.  D'autres mécanismes
d'appel au système d'importation (tels que *note
importlib.import_module(): 504.) peuvent choisir d'ignorer *note
__import__(): 8c3. et utiliser leurs propres solutions pour implémenter
la sémantique d'importation.

Quand un module est importé pour la première fois, Python recherche le
module et, s'il est trouvé, crée un objet module (1) en l'initialisant.
Si le module n'est pas trouvé, une *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. est
levée.  Python implémente plusieurs stratégies pour rechercher le module
d'un nom donné quand le mécanisme d'importation est invoqué.  Ces
stratégies peuvent être modifiées et étendues par divers moyens décrits
dans les sections suivantes.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: le système d'importation a été mis à jour
pour implémenter complètement la deuxième partie de la PEP 302(2).  Il
n'existe plus de mécanisme implicite d'importation (le système
d'importation complet est exposé 'via' *note sys.meta_path: d1b.).  En
complément, la gestion des paquets dans l'espace des noms natif a été
implémentée (voir la PEP 420(3)).

* Menu:

* importlib: importlib<10>.
* Les paquets: Les paquets<2>.
* Recherche::
* Chargement::
* Le chercheur dans path::
* Remplacement du système d'importation standard::
* Importations relatives au paquet::
* Cas particulier de __main__::
* Références::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Voir *note types.ModuleType: e02.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<10>,  Next: Les paquets<2>,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.1 ‘importlib’
-----------------

Le module *note importlib: 76. fournit une API riche pour interagir avec
le système d'importation.  Par exemple, *note importlib.import_module():
504. fournit une API (que nous vous recommandons) plus simple que la
fonction native *note __import__(): 8c3. pour mettre en œuvre le
mécanisme d'importation.  Reportez-vous à la documentation de la
bibliothèque *note importlib: 76. pour obtenir davantage de détails.


File: python.info,  Node: Les paquets<2>,  Next: Recherche,  Prev: importlib<10>,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.2 Les paquets
-----------------

Python ne connait qu'un seul type d'objet module et tous les modules
sont donc de ce type, que le module soit implémenté en Python, en C ou
quoi que ce soit d'autre.  Pour aider à l'organisation des modules et
fournir une hiérarchie des noms, Python développe le concept de *note
paquets: 1ed6.

Vous pouvez vous représenter les paquets comme des répertoires dans le
système de fichiers et les modules comme des fichiers dans ces
répertoires.  Mais ne prenez pas trop cette analogie au pied de la
lettre car les paquets et les modules ne proviennent pas obligatoirement
du système de fichiers.  Dans le cadre de cette documentation, nous
utilisons cette analogie bien pratique des répertoires et des fichiers.
Comme les répertoires du système de fichiers, les paquets sont organisés
de manière hiérarchique et les paquets peuvent eux-mêmes contenir des
sous-paquets ou des modules.

Il est important de garder à l'esprit que tous les paquets sont des
modules mais que tous les modules ne sont pas des paquets.  Formulé
autrement, les paquets sont juste un certain type de modules.
Spécifiquement, tout module qui contient un attribut ‘__path__’ est
réputé être un paquet.

Tous les modules ont un nom.  Les noms des sous-paquets sont séparés du
nom du paquet parent par un point (‘.’), à l'instar de la syntaxe
standard d'accès aux attributs en Python.  Ainsi, vous pouvez avoir un
paquet nommé *note email: 3b. qui possède un sous-paquet nommé *note
email.mime: 45. et un module dans ce sous-paquet nommé *note
email.mime.text: 4d.

* Menu:

* Paquets classiques::
* Paquets espaces de nommage::


File: python.info,  Node: Paquets classiques,  Next: Paquets espaces de nommage,  Up: Les paquets<2>

4.5.2.1 Paquets classiques
..........................

Python définit deux types de paquets, les *note paquets classiques:
1fa6. et les *note paquets espaces de nommage: 1c26.  Les paquets
classiques sont les paquets traditionnels tels qu'ils existaient dans
Python 3.2 et antérieurs.  Un paquet classique est typiquement
implémenté sous la forme d'un répertoire contenant un fichier
‘__init__.py’.  Quand un paquet classique est importé, ce fichier
‘__init__.py’ est implicitement exécuté.

Par exemple, l'arborescence suivante définit un paquet ‘parent’ au
niveau le plus haut avec trois sous-paquets :

     parent/
         __init__.py
         one/
             __init__.py
         two/
             __init__.py
         three/
             __init__.py

Importer ‘parent.one’ exécute implicitement ‘parent/__init__.py’ et
‘parent/one/__init__.py’.  Les importations postérieures de ‘parent.two’
ou ‘parent.three’ respectivement exécutent ‘parent/two/__init__.py’ ou
‘parent/three/__init__.py’ respectivement.


File: python.info,  Node: Paquets espaces de nommage,  Prev: Paquets classiques,  Up: Les paquets<2>

4.5.2.2 Paquets espaces de nommage
..................................

Un paquet-espace de nommage est la combinaison de plusieurs *note
portions: 1fa9. où chaque portion fournit un sous-paquet au paquet
parent.  Les portions peuvent être situées à différents endroits du
système de fichiers.  Les portions peuvent aussi être stockées dans des
fichiers zip, sur le réseau ou à tout autre endroit dans lequel Python
cherche pendant l'importation.  Les paquets-espaces de nommage peuvent
correspondre directement à des objets du système de fichiers, ou pas ;
ils peuvent être des modules virtuels qui n'ont aucune représentation
concrète.

Les paquets-espaces de nommage n'utilisent pas une liste ordinaire pour
leur attribut ‘__path__’.  Ils utilisent en lieu et place un type
itérable personnalisé qui effectue automatiquement une nouvelle
recherche de portions de paquets à la tentative suivante d'importation
dans ce paquet si le chemin de leur paquet parent (ou *note sys.path:
3ab. pour les paquets de plus haut niveau) change.

Pour les paquets-espaces de nommage, il n'existe pas de fichier
‘parent/__init__.py’.  En fait, il peut y avoir plusieurs répertoires
‘parent’ trouvés pendant le processus d'importation, où chacun est
apporté par une portion différente.  Ainsi, ‘parent/one’ n'est pas
forcément physiquement à côté de ‘parent/two’.  Dans ce cas, Python crée
un paquet-espace de nommage pour le paquet de plus haut niveau ‘parent’
dès que lui ou l'un de ses sous-paquet est importé.

Voir aussi la PEP 420(1) pour les spécifications des paquets-espaces de
nommage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche,  Next: Chargement,  Prev: Les paquets<2>,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.3 Recherche
---------------

Pour commencer la recherche, Python a besoin du *note nom qualifié:
18fe. du module (ou du paquet, mais ici cela ne fait pas de différence)
que vous souhaitez importer.  Le nom peut être donné en argument à
l'instruction *note import: 5ce. ou comme paramètre aux fonctions *note
importlib.import_module(): 504. ou *note __import__(): 8c3.

Le nom est utilisé dans plusieurs phases de la recherche et peut être un
chemin séparé par des points pour un sous-module, par exemple
‘truc.machin.bidule’.  Dans ce cas, Python essaie d'abord d'importer
‘truc’ puis ‘truc.machin’ et enfin ‘truc.machin.bidule’.  Si n'importe
laquelle des importations intermédiaires échoue, une *note
ModuleNotFoundError: b37. est levée.

* Menu:

* Cache des modules::
* Chercheurs et chargeurs::
* Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation::
* Méta-chemins::


File: python.info,  Node: Cache des modules,  Next: Chercheurs et chargeurs,  Up: Recherche

4.5.3.1 Cache des modules
.........................

Le premier endroit vérifié pendant la recherche d'une importation est
*note sys.modules: 1929.  Ce tableau de correspondances est utilisé
comme cache de tous les modules déjà importés, y compris les chemins
intermédiaires.  Ainsi, si ‘truc.machin.bidule’ a déjà été importé,
*note sys.modules: 1929. contient les entrées correspondantes à ‘truc’,
‘truc.machin’ et ‘truc.machin.bidule’.  À chaque chemin correspond une
clé.

Pendant l'importation, le nom de module est cherché dans *note
sys.modules: 1929. et, s'il est trouvé, la valeur associée est le module
recherché et le processus est fini.  Cependant, si la valeur est ‘None’,
alors une *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. est levée.  Si le nom du
module n'est pas trouvé, Python continue la recherche du module.

*note sys.modules: 1929. est accessible en lecture-écriture.  Supprimer
une clé peut ne pas détruire le module associé (car d'autres modules
contiennent possiblement des références vers ce module), mais cela
invalide l'entrée du cache pour ce nom de module.  Python cherche alors
un nouveau module pour ce nom.  La clé peut aussi être assignée à ‘None’
de manière à forcer une *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. lors de la
prochaine importation du module.

Attention cependant : s'il reste une référence à l'objet module et que
vous invalidez l'entrée dans le cache de *note sys.modules: 1929. puis
ré-importez le module, les deux objets modules ne seront pas les mêmes.
À l'inverse, *note importlib.reload(): 505. ré-utilise le 'même' objet
module et ré-initialise simplement le contenu du module en ré-exécutant
le code du module.


File: python.info,  Node: Chercheurs et chargeurs,  Next: Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation,  Prev: Cache des modules,  Up: Recherche

4.5.3.2 Chercheurs et chargeurs
...............................

Si le module n'est pas trouvé dans *note sys.modules: 1929, alors Python
utilise son protocole d'importation pour chercher et charger le module.
Ce protocole se compose de deux objets conceptuels : les *note
chercheurs: 1eda. et les *note chargeurs: 166b.  Le travail du chercheur
consiste à trouver, à l'aide de différentes stratégies, le module dont
le nom a été fourni.  Les objets qui implémentent ces deux interfaces
sont connus sous le vocable « *note importateurs: 1fa2. » (ils renvoient
une référence vers eux-mêmes quand ils trouvent un module qui répond aux
attentes).

Python inclut plusieurs chercheurs et importateurs par défaut.  Le
premier sait comment trouver les modules natifs et le deuxième sait
comment trouver les modules figés.  Un troisième chercheur recherche les
modules dans *note import path: 1fae.  *note import path: 1fae. est une
énumération sous forme de liste de chemins ou de fichiers zip.  Il peut
être étendu pour rechercher aussi dans toute ressource qui dispose d'un
identifiant pour la localiser, une URL par exemple.

Le mécanisme d'importation est extensible, vous pouvez donc ajouter de
nouveaux chercheurs pour étendre le domaine de recherche des modules.

Les chercheurs ne chargent pas les modules.  S'il trouve le module
demandé, un chercheur renvoie un 'spécificateur de module', qui contient
toutes les informations nécessaires pour importer le module ; celui-ci
sera alors utilisé par le mécanisme d'importation pour charger le
module.

Les sections suivantes décrivent plus en détail le protocole utilisé par
les chercheurs et les chargeurs, y compris la manière de les créer et
les enregistrer pour étendre le mécanisme d'importation.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: dans les versions précédentes de Python,
les chercheurs renvoyaient directement les *note chargeurs: 166b.
Dorénavant, ils renvoient des spécificateurs de modules qui
'contiennent' les chargeurs.  Les chargeurs sont encore utilisés lors de
l'importation mais ont moins de responsabilités.


File: python.info,  Node: Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation,  Next: Méta-chemins,  Prev: Chercheurs et chargeurs,  Up: Recherche

4.5.3.3 Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation
........................................................

Le mécanisme d'importation est conçu pour être extensible ; vous pouvez
y insérer des 'points d'entrée automatique' ('hooks' en anglais).  Il
existe deux types de points d'entrée automatique pour l'importation :
les 'méta-points d'entrée' et les 'points d'entrée sur le chemin des
importations'.

Les méta-points d'entrée sont appelés au début du processus
d'importation, juste après la vérification dans le cache *note
sys.modules: 1929. mais avant tout le reste.  Cela permet aux
méta-points d'entrée de surcharger le traitement effectué sur *note
sys.path: 3ab, les modules figés ou même les modules natifs.
L'enregistrement des méta-points d'entrée se fait en ajoutant de
nouveaux objets chercheurs à *note sys.meta_path: d1b, comme décrit
ci-dessous.

Les points d'entrée sur le chemin des importations sont appelés pendant
le traitement de *note sys.path: 3ab. (ou ‘package.__path__’), au moment
où le chemin qui leur correspond est atteint.  Les points d'entrée sur
le chemin des importations sont enregistrés en ajoutant de nouveaux
appelables à *note sys.path_hooks: 100f, comme décrit ci-dessous.


File: python.info,  Node: Méta-chemins,  Prev: Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation,  Up: Recherche

4.5.3.4 Méta-chemins
....................

Quand le module demandé n'est pas trouvé dans *note sys.modules: 1929,
Python recherche alors dans *note sys.meta_path: d1b. qui contient une
liste d'objets chercheurs dans des méta-chemins.  Ces chercheurs sont
interrogés dans l'ordre pour voir s'ils savent prendre en charge le
module passé en paramètre.  Les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins
implémentent une méthode *note find_spec(): 855. qui prend trois
arguments : un nom, un chemin d'importation et (optionnellement) un
module cible.  Un chercheur dans les méta-chemins peut utiliser
n'importe quelle stratégie pour déterminer s'il est apte à prendre en
charge le module.

Si un chercheur dans les méta-chemins sait prendre en charge le module
donné, il renvoie un objet spécificateur.  S'il ne sait pas, il renvoie
‘None’.  Si le traitement de *note sys.meta_path: d1b. arrive à la fin
de la liste sans qu'aucun chercheur n'a renvoyé un objet spécificateur,
alors une *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. est levée.  Toute autre
exception levée est simplement propagée à l'appelant, mettant fin au
processus d'importation.

La méthode *note find_spec(): 855. des chercheurs dans les méta-chemins
est appelée avec deux ou trois arguments.  Le premier est le nom
complètement qualifié du module à importer, par exemple
‘truc.machin.bidule’.  Le deuxième argument est l'ensemble des chemins
dans lesquels chercher.  Pour les modules de plus haut niveau, le
deuxième argument est ‘None’ mais pour les sous-modules ou les paquets,
le deuxième argument est la valeur de l'attribut ‘__path__’ du paquet
parent.  Si l'attribut ‘__path__’ approprié n'est pas accessible, une
*note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. est levée.  Le troisième argument est un
objet module existant qui va être la cible du chargement (plus tard).
Le système d'importation ne passe le module cible en paramètre que lors
d'un rechargement.

Le méta-chemin peut être parcouru plusieurs fois pour une seule requête
d'importation.  Par exemple, si nous supposons qu'aucun des modules
concernés n'a déjà été mis en cache, importer ‘truc.machin.bidule’
effectue une première importation au niveau le plus haut, en appelant
‘c_m_c.find_spec("truc", None, None)’ pour chaque chercheur dans les
méta-chemins (‘c_m_c’).  Après que ‘truc’ a été importé, ‘truc.machin’
est importé en parcourant le méta-chemin une deuxième fois, appelant
‘c_m_c.find_spec("truc.machin", truc.__path__, None)’.  Une fois
‘truc.machin’ importé, le parcours final appelle
‘c_m_c.find_spec("truc.machin.bidule", truc.machin.__path__, None)’.

Quelques chercheurs dans les méta-chemins ne gèrent que les importations
de plus haut niveau.  Ces importateurs renvoient toujours ‘None’ si on
leur passe un deuxième argument autre que ‘None’.

Le *note sys.meta_path: d1b. de Python comprend trois chercheurs par
défaut : un qui sait importer les modules natifs, un qui sait importer
les modules figés et un qui sait importer les modules depuis un *note
chemin des importations: 1fae. (c'est le *note chercheur dans path:
1fb1.).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: La méthode *note find_spec(): 855. des
chercheurs dans les méta-chemins a remplacé ‘find_module()’, devenue
obsolète.  Bien qu'elle continue de fonctionner comme avant, le
mécanisme d'importation essaie ‘find_module()’ uniquement si le
chercheur n'implémente pas *note find_spec(): 855.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: L'utilisation de ‘find_module()’ par le
système d'importation lève maintenant un *note ImportWarning: 4e7.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘find_module()’ a été supprimé.  Utiliser
*note find_spec(): 855. à la place.


File: python.info,  Node: Chargement,  Next: Le chercheur dans path,  Prev: Recherche,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.4 Chargement
----------------

Quand un spécificateur de module est trouvé, le mécanisme d'importation
l'utilise (et le chargeur qu'il contient) pour charger le module.  Voici
à peu près ce qui se passe au sein de l'importation pendant la phase de
chargement :

     module = None
     if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
         # It is assumed 'exec_module' will also be defined on the loader.
         module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
     if module is None:
         module = ModuleType(spec.name)
     # The import-related module attributes get set here:
     _init_module_attrs(spec, module)

     if spec.loader is None:
         # unsupported
         raise ImportError
     if spec.origin is None and spec.submodule_search_locations is not None:
         # namespace package
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
     elif not hasattr(spec.loader, 'exec_module'):
         module = spec.loader.load_module(spec.name)
     else:
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
         try:
             spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         except BaseException:
             try:
                 del sys.modules[spec.name]
             except KeyError:
                 pass
             raise
     return sys.modules[spec.name]

Notez les détails suivants :

   * S'il existe un objet module dans *note sys.modules: 1929. avec le
     même nom, 'import' l'aurait déjà renvoyé.

   * Le module existe dans *note sys.modules: 1929. avant que le
     chargeur exécute le code du module.  C'est crucial car le code du
     module peut (directement ou indirectement) s'importer lui-même ;
     l'ajouter à *note sys.modules: 1929. avant évite les récursions
     infinies dans le pire cas et le chargement multiple dans le
     meilleur des cas.

   * Si le chargement échoue, le module en cause (et seulement ce
     module) est enlevé de *note sys.modules: 1929.  Tout module déjà
     dans le cache de *note sys.modules: 1929. et tout module qui a été
     chargé avec succès par effet de bord doit rester dans le cache.
     C'est différent dans le cas d'un rechargement où même le module qui
     a échoué est conservé dans *note sys.modules: 1929.

   * Après que le module est créé mais avant son exécution, le mécanisme
     d'importation définit les attributs relatifs à l'importation
     (‘_init_module_attrs’ dans l'exemple de pseudo-code ci-dessus),
     comme indiqué brièvement dans une *note section: 1ed0. que nous
     abordons ensuite.

   * L'exécution du module est le moment clé du chargement dans lequel
     l'espace de nommage du module est peuplé.  L'exécution est
     entièrement déléguée au chargeur qui doit décider ce qui est peuplé
     et comment.

   * Le modulé créé pendant le chargement et passé à ‘exec_module()’
     peut ne pas être celui qui est renvoyé à la fin de l'importation
     (1).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: le système d'importation a pris en charge
les responsabilités des chargeurs.  Celles-ci étaient auparavant
effectuées par la méthode *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 856.

* Menu:

* Chargeurs::
* Sous-modules::
* Spécificateurs de modules::
* l'attribut __path__ des modules::
* Représentation textuelle d'un module::
* Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) L'implémentation de 'importlib' évite d'utiliser directement la
valeur de retour.  À la place, elle récupère l'objet module en
recherchant le nom du module dans *note sys.modules: 1929.  L'effet
indirect est que le module importé peut remplacer le module de même nom
dans *note sys.modules: 1929.  C'est un comportement spécifique à
l'implémentation dont le résultat n'est pas garanti pour les autres
implémentations de Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Chargeurs,  Next: Sous-modules,  Up: Chargement

4.5.4.1 Chargeurs
.................

Les chargeurs de modules fournissent la fonction critique du
chargement : l'exécution du module.  Le mécanisme d'importation appelle
la méthode *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 857. avec un unique
argument, l'objet module à exécuter.  Toute valeur renvoyée par *note
exec_module(): 857. est ignorée.

Les chargeurs doivent satisfaire les conditions suivantes :

   * Si le module est un module Python (par opposition aux modules
     natifs ou aux extensions chargées dynamiquement), le chargeur doit
     exécuter le code du module dans l'espace des noms globaux du module
     (‘module.__dict__’).

   * Si le chargeur ne peut pas exécuter le module, il doit lever une
     *note ImportError: 40f, alors que toute autre exception levée
     durant *note exec_module(): 857. est propagée.

Souvent, le chercheur et le chargeur sont le même objet ; dans ce cas,
la méthode *note find_spec(): 855. doit juste renvoyer un spécificateur
avec le chargeur défini à ‘self’.

Les chargeurs de modules peuvent choisir de créer l'objet module pendant
le chargement en implémentant une méthode *note create_module(): c9e.
Elle prend un argument, l'objet spécificateur du module et renvoie le
nouvel objet du module à utiliser pendant le chargement.  Notez que
‘create_module()’ n'a besoin de définir aucun attribut sur l'objet
module.  Si cette méthode renvoie ‘None’, le mécanisme d'importation
crée le nouveau module lui-même.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4: la méthode *note create_module(): c9e. des
chargeurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode *note load_module(): 856. a été
remplacée par *note exec_module(): 857. et le mécanisme d'import assume
toutes les responsabilités du chargement.

Par compatibilité avec les chargeurs existants, le mécanisme
d'importation utilise la méthode ‘load_module()’ des chargeurs si elle
existe et si le chargeur n'implémente pas ‘exec_module()’.  Cependant,
‘load_module()’ est déclarée obsolète et les chargeurs doivent
implémenter ‘exec_module()’ à la place.

La méthode ‘load_module()’ 'doit' implémenter toutes les fonctionnalités
de chargement décrites ci-dessus en plus de l'exécution du module.
Toutes les contraintes s'appliquent aussi, avec quelques précisions
supplémentaires :

   * S'il y a un objet module existant avec le même nom dans *note
     sys.modules: 1929, le chargeur doit utiliser le module existant
     (sinon, *note importlib.reload(): 505. ne fonctionnera pas
     correctement).  Si le module considéré n'est pas trouvé dans *note
     sys.modules: 1929, le chargeur doit créer un nouvel objet module et
     l'ajouter à *note sys.modules: 1929.

   * Le module 'doit' exister dans *note sys.modules: 1929. avant que le
     chargeur n'exécute le code du module, afin d'éviter les récursions
     infinies ou le chargement multiple.

   * Si le chargement échoue, le chargeur ne doit enlever de *note
     sys.modules: 1929. 'que' le (ou les) module ayant échoué et
     seulement si le chargeur lui-même a chargé le module explicitement.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: un avertissement *note DeprecationWarning:
1a3. est levé quand ‘exec_module()’ est définie mais ‘create_module()’
ne l'est pas.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: une exception *note ImportError: 40f. est
levée quand ‘exec_module()’ est définie mais ‘create_module()’ ne l'est
pas.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: l'utilisation de ‘load_module()’ lève un
*note ImportWarning: 4e7.


File: python.info,  Node: Sous-modules,  Next: Spécificateurs de modules,  Prev: Chargeurs,  Up: Chargement

4.5.4.2 Sous-modules
....................

Quand un sous-module est chargé, quel que soit le mécanisme (par exemple
avec les instructions ‘import’, ‘import-from’ ou avec la fonction native
‘__import__()’), une liaison est créée dans l'espace de nommage du
module parent vers l'objet sous-module.  Par exemple, si le paquet
‘spam’ possède un sous-module ‘foo’, après l'importation de ‘spam.foo’,
‘spam’ possède un attribut ‘foo’ qui est lié au sous-module.  Supposons
que nous ayons l'arborescence suivante :

     spam/
         __init__.py
         foo.py

et que le contenu de ‘spam/__init__.py’ contienne :

     from .foo import Foo

alors exécuter les lignes suivantes crée des liens vers ‘foo’ et ‘Foo’
dans le module ‘spam’ :

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.foo
     <module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
     >>> spam.Foo
     <class 'spam.foo.Foo'>

Connaissant la façon habituelle dont Python effectue les liens, cela
peut sembler surprenant.  Mais c'est en fait une fonctionnalité
fondamentale du système d'importation.  Si vous avez quelque part
‘sys.modules['spam']’ et ‘sys.modules['spam.foo']’ (comme dans c'est le
cas ci-dessus après l'importation), alors le dernier doit apparaître
comme l'attribut ‘foo’ du premier.


File: python.info,  Node: Spécificateurs de modules,  Next: l'attribut __path__ des modules,  Prev: Sous-modules,  Up: Chargement

4.5.4.3 Spécificateurs de modules
.................................

Le mécanisme d'importation utilise diverses informations de chaque
module pendant l'importation, spécialement avant le chargement.  La
plupart de ces informations sont communes à tous les modules.  Le but
d'un spécificateur de module est d'encapsuler ces informations relatives
à l'importation au sein de chaque module.

Utiliser un spécificateur pendant l'importation permet de transférer
l'état entre les composants du système d'importation, par exemple entre
le chercheur qui crée le spécificateur de module et le chargeur qui
l'exécute.  Surtout, cela permet au mécanisme d'importation d'effectuer
toutes les opérations classiques de chargement, alors que c'était le
chargeur qui en avait la responsabilité quand il n'y avait pas de
spécificateur.

L'attribut *note module.__spec__: 1ed3. doit contenir un lien vers le
spécificateur de module qui a été utilisé lors de l'importation du
module.  Définir ‘__spec__’ correctement s'applique aussi lors de *note
l'initialisation des modules au démarrage de l'interpréteur: 1fb6.  La
seule exception est ‘__main__’ pour lequel la valeur de ‘__spec__’ *note
peut être parfois None: 1fb7.

Lisez *note ModuleSpec: 1e20. pour davantage d'informations sur le
contenu du spécificateur de module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: l'attribut __path__ des modules,  Next: Représentation textuelle d'un module,  Prev: Spécificateurs de modules,  Up: Chargement

4.5.4.4 l'attribut ‘__path__’ des modules
.........................................

L'attribut *note __path__: 1c2c. doit être une *note sequence: 4de.
(possiblement vide) de chaînes de caractères listant tous les
emplacements où se trouvent les sous-modules du paquet.  Par définition,
si un module a un attribut ‘__path__’ alors c'est un *note paquet: 1ed6.

L'attribut *note __path__: 1c2c. d'un paquet est utilisé pendant
l'importation de ses sous-paquets.  Dans le mécanisme d'importation, son
fonctionnement ressemble beaucoup à *note sys.path: 3ab, c'est-à-dire
qu'il fournit une liste d'emplacements où rechercher les modules pendant
l'importation.  Cependant, ‘__path__’ est beaucoup plus contraint que
‘sys.path’.

Les mêmes règles que pour *note sys.path: 3ab. s'appliquent au
‘__path__’ d'un paquet.  Les *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. (dont la
description est donnée plus bas) sont consultés pendant le parcours du
‘__path__’ du paquet.

Le fichier ‘__init__.py’ d'un paquet peut définir ou modifier l'attribut
*note __path__: 1c2c. d'un paquet, et c'est ainsi qu'étaient implémentés
les paquets-espaces de nommage avant la PEP 420(1).  Depuis l'adoption
de la PEP 420(2), les paquets-espaces de nommage n'ont plus besoin
d'avoir des fichiers ‘__init__.py’ qui ne font que de la manipulation de
‘__path__’ ; le mécanisme d'importation définit automatiquement
‘__path__’ correctement pour un paquet-espace de nommage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Représentation textuelle d'un module,  Next: Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache,  Prev: l'attribut __path__ des modules,  Up: Chargement

4.5.4.5 Représentation textuelle d'un module
............................................

Par défaut, tous les modules ont une représentation textuelle
utilisable.  Cependant, en utilisant les attributs définis ci-dessus et
dans le spécificateur de module, vous pouvez explicitement mieux
contrôler l'affichage des objets modules.

Si le module possède un spécificateur (‘__spec__’), le mécanisme
d'importation essaie de générer une représentation avec celui-ci.  S'il
échoue ou s'il n'y a pas de spécificateur, le système d'importation
construit une représentation par défaut en utilisant toute information
disponible sur le module.  Il tente d'utiliser ‘module.__name__’,
‘module.__file__’ et ‘module.__loader__’ comme entrées pour la
représentation, avec des valeurs par défaut lorsque l'information est
manquante.

Les règles exactes utilisées sont :

   * Si le module possède un attribut ‘__spec__’, la valeur est utilisée
     pour générer la représentation.  Les attributs 'name', 'loader',
     'origin' et 'has_location' sont consultés.

   * Si le module possède un attribut ‘__file__’, il est utilisé pour
     construire la représentation du module.

   * Si le module ne possède pas d'attribut ‘__file__’ mais possède un
     ‘__loader__’ qui n'est pas ‘None’, alors la représentation du
     chargeur est utilisée pour construire la représentation du module.

   * Sinon, il utilise juste le ‘__name__’ du module dans la
     représentation.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: La méthode ‘module_repr()’ est obsolète
depuis Python 3.4, et a été supprimée en Python 3.12 et n'est donc plus
appelée lors de la résolution du ‘__repr__()’ d'un module.


File: python.info,  Node: Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache,  Prev: Représentation textuelle d'un module,  Up: Chargement

4.5.4.6 Invalidation de 'bytecode' mis en cache
...............................................

Avant que Python ne charge du 'bytecode' en cache à partir d'un fichier
‘.pyc’, il vérifie si ce cache est bien à jour par rapport au fichier
source ‘.py’.  Python effectue cette vérification en stockant
l'horodatage de la dernière modification de la source ainsi que sa
taille dans le fichier cache au moment où il l'écrit.  À l'exécution, le
système d'importation valide le fichier cache en comparant les
métadonnées que le cache contient avec les métadonnées de la source.

Python gère également les fichiers caches « avec empreintes », qui
stockent une empreinte ('hash' en anglais) du contenu de la source
plutôt que des métadonnées.  Il existe deux variations des fichiers
‘.pyc’ avec empreintes : vérifiés et non-vérifiés.  Pour les fichiers
‘.pyc’ avec empreinte vérifiés, Python valide le fichier cache en
calculant l'empreinte du fichier source et compare les empreintes.  Si
l'empreinte stockée dans le fichier cache est invalide, Python la
recalcule et écrit un nouveau fichier cache avec empreinte.  Pour les
fichiers ‘.pyc’ avec empreinte non vérifiés, Python considère simplement
que le fichier cache est valide s'il existe.  La validation (ou non) des
fichiers ‘.pyc’ avec empreinte peut être définie avec l'option *note
-check-hash-based-pycs: 1ced.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des fichiers ‘.pyc’ avec empreinte.
Auparavant, Python gérait les caches de 'bytecode' sur la base de
l'horodatage.


File: python.info,  Node: Le chercheur dans path,  Next: Remplacement du système d'importation standard,  Prev: Chargement,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.5 Le chercheur dans 'path'
------------------------------

Comme indiqué précédemment, Python est livré par défaut avec plusieurs
chercheurs dans les méta-chemins.  L'un deux, appelé *note chercheur
dans path: 1fb1. (*note PathFinder: 100e.), recherche dans le *note
chemin des importations: 1fae. qui contient une liste *note d'entrées
dans path: 1fbc.  Chaque entrée désigne un emplacement où rechercher des
modules.

Le chercheur dans 'path' en tant que tel ne sait pas comment importer
quoi que ce soit.  Il ne fait que parcourir chaque entrée de 'path' et
associe à chacune d'elle un « chercheur d'entrée dans 'path' » qui sait
comment gérer le type particulier de chemin considéré.

L'ensemble par défaut des « chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' » implémente
toute la sémantique pour trouver des modules dans le système de
fichiers, gérer des fichiers spéciaux tels que le code source Python
(fichiers ‘.py’), le 'bytecode' Python (fichiers ‘.pyc’) et les
bibliothèques partagées (par exemple les fichiers ‘.so’).  Quand le
module *note zipimport: 131. de la bibliothèque standard le permet, les
« chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' » par défaut savent aussi gérer tous
ces types de fichiers (autres que les bibliothèques partagées)
encapsulés dans des fichiers zip.

Les chemins ne sont pas limités au système de fichiers.  Ils peuvent
faire référence à des URL, des requêtes dans des bases de données ou
tout autre emplacement qui peut être spécifié dans une chaîne de
caractères.

Le chercheur dans 'path' fournit aussi des points d'entrées (ou 'hooks')
et des protocoles de manière à pouvoir étendre et personnaliser les
types de chemins dans lesquels chercher.  Par exemple, si vous voulez
pouvoir chercher dans des URL réseau, vous pouvez écrire une fonction
« point d'entrée » qui implémente la sémantique HTTP pour chercher des
modules sur la toile.  Ce point d'entrée (qui doit être un appelable)
doit renvoyer un *note chercheur d'entrée dans path: 105c. qui gère le
protocole décrit plus bas et qui sera utilisé pour obtenir un chargeur
de module sur la toile.

Avertissement : cette section et la précédente utilisent toutes les deux
le terme 'chercheur', dans un cas *note chercheur dans les méta-chemins:
105b. et dans l'autre *note chercheur d'entrée dans path: 105c.  Ces
deux types de chercheurs sont très similaires, gèrent des protocoles
similaires et fonctionnent de manière semblable pendant le processus
d'importation, mais il est important de garder à l'esprit qu'ils sont
subtilement différents.  En particulier, les chercheurs dans les
méta-chemins opèrent au début du processus d'importation, comme clé de
parcours de *note sys.meta_path: d1b.

Au contraire, les « chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' » sont, dans un
sens, un détail d'implémentation du chercheur dans 'path' et, en fait,
si le chercheur dans 'path' était enlevé de *note sys.meta_path: d1b,
aucune des sémantiques des « chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' » ne serait
invoquée.

* Menu:

* Chercheurs d'entrée dans path::
* Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans path::


File: python.info,  Node: Chercheurs d'entrée dans path,  Next: Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans path,  Up: Le chercheur dans path

4.5.5.1 Chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path'
.......................................

Le *note chercheur dans path: 1fb1. ('path based finder' en anglais) est
responsable de trouver et charger les modules et les paquets Python dont
l'emplacement est spécifié par une chaîne dite *note d'entrée dans path:
1fbc.  La plupart de ces entrées désignent des emplacements sur le
système de fichiers, mais il n'y a aucune raison de les limiter à ça.

En tant que chercheur dans les méta-chemins, un *note chercheur dans
path: 1fb1. implémente le protocole *note find_spec(): 855. décrit
précédemment.  Cependant, il autorise des points d'entrée ('hooks' en
anglais) supplémentaires qui peuvent être utilisés pour personnaliser la
façon dont les modules sont trouvés et chargés depuis le *note chemin
des importations: 1fae.

Trois variables sont utilisées par le *note chercheur dans path: 1fb1. :
*note sys.path: 3ab, *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. et *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0.  L'attribut ‘__path__’ des objets paquets
est aussi utilisé.  Il permet de personnaliser encore davantage le
mécanisme d'importation.

*note sys.path: 3ab. contient une liste de chaînes de caractères
indiquant des emplacements où chercher des modules ou des paquets.  Elle
est initialisée à partir de la variable d'environnement *note
PYTHONPATH: 1008. et de plusieurs autres valeurs par défaut qui
dépendent de l'installation et de l'implémentation.  Les entrées de
*note sys.path: 3ab. désignent des répertoires du système de fichiers,
des fichiers zip et possiblement d'autres « endroits » (lisez le module
*note site: c6.) tels que des URL ou des requêtes dans des bases de
données où Python doit rechercher des modules.  *note sys.path: 3ab. ne
doit contenir que des chaînes de caractères ; tous les autres types sont
ignorés.

Le *note chercheur dans path: 1fb1. est un *note chercheur dans les
méta-chemins: 105b, donc le mécanisme d'importation commence la
recherche dans le *note chemin des importations: 1fae. par un appel à la
méthode *note find_spec(): ffc. du chercheur dans 'path', comme décrit
précédemment.  Quand l'argument 'path' de *note find_spec(): ffc. est
donné, c'est une liste de chemins à parcourir, typiquement un attribut
‘__path__’ pour une importation à l'intérieur d'un paquet.  Si
l'argument 'path' est ‘None’, cela indique une importation de niveau le
plus haut et *note sys.path: 3ab. est utilisée.

Le chercheur dans 'path' itère sur chaque entrée dans le 'path' et, pour
chacune, regarde s'il trouve un *note chercheur d'entrée dans path:
105c. (*note PathEntryFinder: 85c.) approprié à cette entrée.  Comme
cette opération est coûteuse (elle peut faire appel à plusieurs appels
‘stat()’ pour cela), le chercheur dans 'path' maintient un cache de
correspondance entre les entrées et les « chercheurs d'entrée dans
'path' ».  Ce cache est stocké sous *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0.
(en dépit de son nom, ce cache stocke les objets chercheurs plutôt que
les simples objets *note importateurs: 1fa2.).  Ainsi, la recherche
coûteuse pour une *note entrée de path: 1fbc. spécifique n'a besoin
d'être effectuée qu'une seule fois par le *note chercheur d'entrée dans
path: 105c.  Le code de l'utilisateur peut très bien supprimer les
entrées du cache *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0, forçant ainsi le
chercheur dans 'path' à effectuer une nouvelle fois la recherche sur
chaque entrée.

Si une entrée n'est pas présente dans le cache, le chercheur dans 'path'
itère sur chaque 'callable' de *note sys.path_hooks: 100f.  Chaque *note
point d'entrée sur une entrée de path: 1fbe. de cette liste est appelé
avec un unique argument, l'entrée dans laquelle chercher.  L'appelable
peut soit renvoyer un *note chercheur d'entrée dans path: 105c. apte à
prendre en charge l'entrée ou lever une *note ImportError: 40f.  Une
*note ImportError: 40f. est utilisée par le chercheur dans 'path' pour
signaler que le point d'entrée n'a pas trouvé de *note chercheur
d'entrée dans path: 105c. pour cette *note entrée: 1fbc.  L'exception
est ignorée et l'itération sur le *note chemin des importations: 1fae.
se poursuit.  Le point d'entrée doit attendre qu'on lui passe soit une
chaîne de caractères soit une chaîne d'octets ; l'encodage des chaînes
d'octets est à la main du point d'entrée (par exemple, ce peut être
l'encodage du système de fichiers, de l'UTF-8 ou autre chose) et, si le
point d'entrée n'arrive pas à décoder l'argument, il doit lever une
*note ImportError: 40f.

Si l'itération sur *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. se termine sans qu'aucun
*note chercheur d'entrée dans path: 105c. ne soit renvoyé, alors la
méthode *note find_spec(): ffc. du chercheur dans 'path' stocke ‘None’
dans le *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. (pour indiquer qu'il n'y a
pas de chercheur pour cette entrée) et renvoie ‘None’, indiquant que ce
*note chercheur dans les méta-chemins: 105b. n'a pas trouvé le module.

Si un *note chercheur d'entrée dans path: 105c. 'est' renvoyé par un des
*note points d'entrée: 1fbe. de *note sys.path_hooks: 100f, alors le
protocole suivant est utilisé pour demander un spécificateur de module
au chercheur, spécificateur qui sera utilisé pour charger le module.

Le répertoire de travail courant — noté sous la forme d'une chaîne de
caractères vide — est géré d'une manière légèrement différente des
autres entrées de *note sys.path: 3ab.  D'abord, si le répertoire de
travail courant s'avère ne pas exister, aucune valeur n'est stockée dans
*note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0.  Ensuite, la valeur pour le
répertoire de travail courant est vérifiée à chaque recherche de module.
Enfin, le chemin utilisé pour *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. et
renvoyée par *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): ffc. est
le nom réel du répertoire de travail courant et non pas la chaîne vide.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans path,  Prev: Chercheurs d'entrée dans path,  Up: Le chercheur dans path

4.5.5.2 Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path'
.....................................................

Afin de gérer les importations de modules, l'initialisation des paquets
et d'être capables de contribuer aux portions des paquets-espaces de
nommage, les chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' doivent implémenter la
méthode *note find_spec(): 859.

La méthode *note find_spec(): 859. prend deux arguments : le nom
complètement qualifié du module en cours d'importation et
(optionnellement) le module cible.  ‘find_spec()’ renvoie un
spécificateur de module pleinement peuplé.  Ce spécificateur doit avoir
son chargeur (attribut ‘loader’) défini, à une exception près.

Pour indiquer au mécanisme d'importation que le spécificateur représente
une *note portion: 1fa9. d'un espace de nommage, le chercheur d'entrée
dans 'path' définit l'attribut ‘submodule_search_locations’ à une liste
contenant la portion.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode *note find_spec(): 859. remplace
‘find_loader()’ et ‘find_module()’, ces deux méthodes étant dorénavant
obsolètes mais restant utilisées si ‘find_spec()’ n'est pas définie.

Les vieux chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' peuvent implémenter une des
deux méthodes obsolètes à la place de ‘find_spec()’.  Ces méthodes sont
toujours prises en compte dans le cadre de la compatibilité descendante.
Cependant, si ‘find_spec()’ est implémentée par le chercheur d'entrée
dans 'path', les méthodes historiques sont ignorées.

La méthode ‘find_loader()’ prend un argument : le nom complètement
qualifié du module en cours d'importation.  ‘find_loader()’ renvoie un
couple dont le premier élément est le chargeur et le second est une
*note portion: 1fa9. d'espace de nommage.

À fin de compatibilité descendante avec d'autres implémentations du
protocole d'importation, beaucoup de chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path'
gèrent aussi la méthode traditionnelle ‘find_module()’ que l'on trouve
dans les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins.  Cependant, les méthodes
‘find_module()’ des chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' ne sont jamais
appelées avec un argument 'path' (il est convenu qu'elles enregistrent
les informations relatives au chemin approprié au moment de leur appel
initial au point d'entrée).

La méthode ‘find_module()’ des chercheurs d'entrée dans 'path' est
obsolète car elle n'autorise pas le chercheur d'entrée dans 'path' à
contribuer aux portions d'espaces de nommage des paquets-espaces de
nommage.  Si à la fois ‘find_loader()’ et ‘find_module()’ sont définies
pour un chercheur d'entrée dans 'path', le système d'importation utilise
toujours ‘find_loader()’ plutôt que ‘find_module()’.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Les appels à ‘find_module()’ et
‘find_loader()’ par le système d'importation lèvent un *note
ImportWarning: 4e7.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘find_module()’ et ‘find_loader()’ ont été
supprimées.


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacement du système d'importation standard,  Next: Importations relatives au paquet,  Prev: Le chercheur dans path,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.6 Remplacement du système d'importation standard
----------------------------------------------------

La manière la plus fiable de remplacer tout le système d'importation est
de supprimer le contenu par défaut de *note sys.meta_path: d1b. et de le
remplacer complètement par un chercheur dans les méta-chemins sur
mesure.

S'il convient juste de modifier le comportement de l'instruction import
sans affecter les autres API qui utilisent le système d'importation,
alors remplacer la fonction native *note __import__(): 8c3. peut être
suffisant.  Cette technique peut aussi être employée au niveau d'un
module pour n'altérer le comportement des importations qu'à l'intérieur
de ce module.

Pour empêcher sélectivement l'importation de certains modules par un
point d'entrée placé en tête dans le méta-chemin (plutôt que de
désactiver complètement le système d'importation), il suffit de lever
une *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. directement depuis *note
find_spec(): 855. au lieu de renvoyer ‘None’.  En effet, ce dernier
indique que la recherche dans le méta-chemin peut continuer alors que la
levée de l'exception termine immédiatement la recherche.


File: python.info,  Node: Importations relatives au paquet,  Next: Cas particulier de __main__,  Prev: Remplacement du système d'importation standard,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.7 Importations relatives au paquet
--------------------------------------

Les importations relatives commencent par une suite de points.  Un seul
point avant indique une importation relative, démarrant avec le paquet
actuel.  Deux points ou plus avant indiquent une importation relative au
parent du paquet actuel, un niveau par point avant le premier.  Par
exemple, en ayant le contenu suivant :

     package/
         __init__.py
         subpackage1/
             __init__.py
             moduleX.py
             moduleY.py
         subpackage2/
             __init__.py
             moduleZ.py
         moduleA.py

Dans ‘subpackage1/moduleX.py’ ou ‘subpackage1/__init__.py’, les
importations suivantes sont des importations relatives valides :

     from .moduleY import spam
     from .moduleY import spam as ham
     from . import moduleY
     from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
     from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
     from ..moduleA import foo

Les importations absolues peuvent utiliser soit la syntaxe ‘import <>’,
soit ‘from <> import <>’, mais les importations relatives doivent
seulement utiliser la deuxième forme, la raison étant :

     import XXX.YYY.ZZZ

doit exposer ‘XXX.YYY.ZZZ’ comme une expression utilisable, mais
‘.moduleY’ n’est pas une expression valide.


File: python.info,  Node: Cas particulier de __main__,  Next: Références,  Prev: Importations relatives au paquet,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.8 Cas particulier de ‘__main__’
-----------------------------------

Le module *note __main__: 1. est un cas particulier pour le système
d'importation de Python.  Comme indiqué par *note ailleurs: 1fb6, le
module ‘__main__’ est initialisé directement au démarrage de
l'interpréteur, un peu comme *note sys: d8. et *note builtins: 12.
Cependant, au contraire des deux cités précédemment, ce n'est pas
vraiment un module natif.  Effectivement, la manière dont est initialisé
‘__main__’ dépend des drapeaux et options avec lesquels l'interpréteur
est lancé.

* Menu:

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ __spec__,  Up: Cas particulier de __main__

4.5.8.1 ‘__main__.__spec__’
...........................

En fonction de la manière dont *note __main__: 1. est initialisé,
‘__main__.__spec__’ est défini de manière conforme ou mis à ‘None’.

Quand Python est démarré avec l'option *note -m: 5cd, ‘__spec__’ est
défini à la valeur du spécificateur du module ou paquet correspondant.
Python peuple aussi ‘__spec__’ quand le module ‘__main__’ est chargé en
tant que partie de l'exécution d'un répertoire, d'un fichier zip ou
d'une entrée de *note sys.path: 3ab.

Dans *note les autres cas: 1ce6, ‘__main__.__spec__’ est mis à ‘None’,
car le code qui peuple *note __main__: 1. ne trouve pas de
correspondance directe avec un module que l'on importe :

   - invite de commande interactive

   - l'option *note -c: 5cc.

   - lecture depuis l'entrée standard

   - lecture depuis un fichier de code source ou de 'bytecode'

Notez que ‘__main__.__spec__’ vaut toujours ‘None’ dans le dernier cas,
'même si' le fichier pourrait techniquement être importé directement en
tant que module.  Utilisez l'option *note -m: 5cd. si vous souhaitez
disposer de métadonnées valides du module dans *note __main__: 1.

Notez aussi que même quand ‘__main__’ correspond à un module importable
et que ‘__main__.__spec__’ est défini en conséquence, ils seront
toujours considérés comme des modules 'distincts'.  Cela est dû au fait
que le bloc encadré par ‘if __name__ == "__main__":’ ne s'exécute que
quand le module est utilisé pour peupler l'espace de nommage de
‘__main__’, et pas durant une importation normale.


File: python.info,  Node: Références,  Prev: Cas particulier de __main__,  Up: Le système d'importation

4.5.9 Références
----------------

Le mécanisme d'importation a considérablement évolué depuis les débuts
de Python.  La spécification des paquets(1) originale est toujours
disponible, bien que quelques détails ont changé depuis l'écriture de ce
document.

La spécification originale de *note sys.meta_path: d1b. se trouve dans
la PEP 302(2).  La PEP 420(3) contient des extensions significatives.

La PEP 420(4) a introduit les *note paquets-espaces de nommage: 1c26.
pour Python 3.3.  La PEP 420(5) a aussi introduit le protocole
‘find_loader()’ comme une alternative à ‘find_module()’.

La PEP 366(6) décrit l'ajout de l'attribut ‘__package__’ pour les
importations relatives explicites dans les modules principaux.

La PEP 328(7) a introduit les importations absolues et les importations
relatives explicites.  Elle a aussi proposé ‘__name__’ pour la
sémantique que la PEP 366(8) attribuait à ‘__package__’.

PEP 338(9) définit l'exécution de modules en tant que scripts.

PEP 451(10) ajoute l'encapsulation dans les objets spécificateurs de
l'état des importations, module par module.  Elle reporte aussi la
majorité des responsabilités des chargeurs vers le mécanisme
d'importation.  Ces changements permettent de supprimer plusieurs API
dans le système d'importation et d'ajouter de nouvelles méthodes aux
chercheurs et chargeurs.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions,  Next: Les instructions simples,  Prev: Le système d'importation,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.6 Expressions
===============

Ce chapitre explique la signification des éléments des expressions en
Python.

'Notes sur la syntaxe :' dans ce chapitre et le suivant, nous utilisons
la notation BNF étendue pour décrire la syntaxe, pas l'analyse lexicale.
Quand une règle de syntaxe est de la forme

     name ::= othername

et qu'aucune sémantique n'est donnée, la sémantique de ‘name’ est la
même que celle de ‘othername’.

* Menu:

* Conversions arithmétiques::
* Atomes::
* Primaires::
* Expression await::
* L'opérateur puissance::
* Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits::
* Opérations arithmétiques binaires::
* Opérations de décalage::
* Opérations binaires bit à bit::
* Comparaisons::
* Opérations booléennes::
* Expressions d'affectation::
* Expressions conditionnelles::
* Expressions lambda::
* Listes d'expressions::
* Ordre d'évaluation::
* Priorités des opérateurs::


File: python.info,  Node: Conversions arithmétiques,  Next: Atomes,  Up: Expressions

4.6.1 Conversions arithmétiques
-------------------------------

Quand la description d'un opérateur arithmétique ci-dessous utilise la
phrase « les arguments numériques sont convertis vers un type commun »,
cela signifie que l'implémentation de l'opérateur fonctionne de la
manière suivante pour les types natifs :

   * Si l'un des deux arguments est du type nombre complexe, l'autre est
     converti en nombre complexe ;

   * otherwise, if either argument is a floating-point number, the other
     is converted to floating point;

   * sinon, les deux doivent être des entiers et aucune conversion n'est
     nécessaire.

Des règles supplémentaires s'appliquent pour certains opérateurs (par
exemple, une chaîne comme opérande de gauche pour l'opérateur ‘%’).  Les
extensions doivent définir leurs propres règles de conversion.


File: python.info,  Node: Atomes,  Next: Primaires,  Prev: Conversions arithmétiques,  Up: Expressions

4.6.2 Atomes
------------

Les atomes sont les éléments de base des expressions.  Les atomes les
plus simples sont les identifiants et les littéraux.  Les expressions
entre parenthèses, crochets ou accolades sont aussi classées
syntaxiquement comme des atomes.  La syntaxe pour les atomes est :

     atom      ::= *note identifier: 1e51. | *note literal: 1fd0. | *note enclosure: 1fd1.
     enclosure ::= *note parenth_form: 1fd2. | *note list_display: 1fd3. | *note dict_display: 1fd4. | *note set_display: 1fd5.
                   | *note generator_expression: 1fd6. | *note yield_atom: 1fd7.

* Menu:

* Identifiants (noms): Identifiants noms.
* Littéraux: Littéraux<2>.
* Formes parenthésées::
* Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires: Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
* Agencements de listes::
* Agencements d'ensembles::
* Agencements de dictionnaires::
* Expressions génératrices::
* Expressions yield::


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiants noms,  Next: Littéraux<2>,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.1 Identifiants (noms)
...........................

Un identifiant qui apparaît en tant qu'atome est un nom.  Lisez la
section *note Identifiants et mots-clés: 1e4f. pour la définition
lexicale et la section *note Noms et liaisons: 1eb5. pour la
documentation sur les noms et les liaisons afférentes.

Quand un nom est lié à un objet, l'évaluation de l'atome produit cet
objet.  Quand le nom n'est pas lié, toute tentative de l'évaluer lève
une exception *note NameError: 42a.

* Menu:

* Private name mangling::


File: python.info,  Node: Private name mangling,  Up: Identifiants noms

4.6.2.2 Private name mangling
.............................

When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins
with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more
underscores, it is considered a 'private name' of that class.

Voir aussi
..........

The *note class specifications: 12b7.

More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before
code is generated for them.  If the transformed name is longer than 255
characters, implementation-defined truncation may happen.

The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which
the identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are
mangled:

   - Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or
     any name of an attribute being accessed.

     The *note __name__: 1051. attribute of nested functions, classes,
     and type aliases is however not mangled.

   - The name of imported modules, e.g., ‘__spam’ in ‘import __spam’.
     If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot),
     the name is 'not' mangled, e.g., the ‘__foo’ in ‘import __foo.bar’
     is not mangled.

   - The name of an imported member, e.g., ‘__f’ in ‘from spam import
     __f’.

The transformation rule is defined as follows:

   - The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single
     leading underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the
     identifier, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘Foo’, ‘_Foo’ or ‘__Foo’ is transformed to ‘_Foo__spam’.

   - If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation
     is the identity, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘_’ or ‘__’ is left as is.


File: python.info,  Node: Littéraux<2>,  Next: Formes parenthésées,  Prev: Identifiants noms,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.3 Littéraux
.................

Python gère les littéraux de chaînes de caractères, de chaînes d'octets
et de plusieurs autres types numériques :

     literal ::= *note stringliteral: 1e60. | *note bytesliteral: 1e69.
                 | *note integer: 1e84. | *note floatnumber: 1e90. | *note imagnumber: 1e98.

Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string,
bytes, integer, floating-point number, complex number) with the given
value.  The value may be approximated in the case of floating-point and
imaginary (complex) literals.  See section *note Littéraux: 1e5d. for
details.

Tous les littéraux sont de types immuables et donc l'identifiant de
l'objet est moins important que sa valeur.  Des évaluations multiples de
littéraux avec la même valeur (soit la même occurrence dans le texte du
programme, soit une autre occurrence) résultent dans le même objet ou un
objet différent avec la même valeur.


File: python.info,  Node: Formes parenthésées,  Next: Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires,  Prev: Littéraux<2>,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.4 Formes parenthésées
...........................

Une forme parenthésée est une liste d'expressions (cette liste est en
fait optionnelle) placée à l'intérieur de parenthèses :

     parenth_form ::= "(" [*note starred_expression: 1fde.] ")"

Une liste d'expressions entre parenthèses produit ce que la liste de ces
expressions produirait : si la liste contient au moins une virgule, elle
produit un 'n'-uplet (type 'n'-uplet) ; sinon, elle produit l'expression
elle-même (qui constitue donc elle-même la liste d'expressions).

Une paire de parenthèses vide produit un objet 'n'-uplet vide.  Comme
les n-uplets sont immuables, la même règle que pour les littéraux
s'applique (c'est-à-dire que deux occurrences du 'n'-uplet vide peuvent,
ou pas, produire le même objet).

Notez que les 'n'-uplets ne sont pas créés par les parenthèses mais par
l'utilisation de la virgule.  L'exception est le 'n'-uplet vide, pour
lequel les parenthèses 'sont requises' (autoriser que « rien » ne soit
pas parenthésé dans les expressions aurait généré des ambigüités et
aurait permis à certaines coquilles de passer inaperçu).


File: python.info,  Node: Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires,  Next: Agencements de listes,  Prev: Formes parenthésées,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.5 Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires
..........................................................

Pour construire une liste, un ensemble ou un dictionnaire, Python
fournit des syntaxes spéciales dites « agencements » ('displays' en
anglais), chaque agencement comportant deux variantes :

   * soit le contenu du conteneur est listé explicitement,

   * soit il est calculé à l'aide de la combinaison d'une boucle et
     d'instructions de filtrage, appelée une 'compréhension' (dans le
     sens de ce qui sert à définir un concept, par opposition à
     'extension').

Les compréhensions sont constituées des éléments de syntaxe communs
suivants :

     comprehension ::= *note assignment_expression: 1f98. *note comp_for: 1fe1.
     comp_for      ::= ["async"] "for" *note target_list: 1fe2. "in" *note or_test: 1fe3. [*note comp_iter: 1fe4.]
     comp_iter     ::= *note comp_for: 1fe1. | *note comp_if: 1fe5.
     comp_if       ::= "if" *note or_test: 1fe3. [*note comp_iter: 1fe4.]

Une compréhension est constituée par une seule expression suivie par au
moins une clause ‘for’ et zéro ou plus clauses ‘for’ ou ‘if’.  Dans ce
cas, les éléments du nouveau conteneur sont ceux qui auraient été
produits si l'on avait considéré toutes les clauses ‘for’ ou ‘if’ comme
des blocs, imbriqués de la gauche vers la droite, et évalué l'expression
pour produire un élément à chaque fois que le bloc le plus imbriqué
était atteint.

Cependant, à part l'expression de l'itérable dans la clause ‘for’ la
plus à gauche, la compréhension est exécutée dans une portée séparée,
implicitement imbriquée.  Ceci assure que les noms assignés dans la
liste cible ne « fuient » pas en dehors de cette portée.

L'expression de l'itérable dans la clause ‘for’ la plus à gauche est
évaluée directement dans la portée englobante puis passée en tant
qu'argument à la portée implicite imbriquée.  Les clauses ‘for’
suivantes et les filtres conditionnels de la clause ‘for’ la plus à
gauche ne peuvent pas être évalués dans la portée englobante, car ils
peuvent dépendre de valeurs obtenues à partir de l'itérable le plus à
gauche.  Par exemple : ‘[x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x,
x+10)]’.

Pour assurer que le résultat de la compréhension soit un conteneur du
type approprié, les expressions ‘yield’ et ‘yield from’ sont interdites
dans la portée implicite imbriquée.

Since Python 3.6, in an *note async def: 5bd. function, an ‘async for’
clause may be used to iterate over a *note asynchronous iterator: 1a9.
A comprehension in an ‘async def’ function may consist of either a ‘for’
or ‘async for’ clause following the leading expression, may contain
additional ‘for’ or ‘async for’ clauses, and may also use *note await:
1b7. expressions.

If a comprehension contains ‘async for’ clauses, or if it contains
‘await’ expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except
the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause, it is called an
'asynchronous comprehension'.  An asynchronous comprehension may suspend
the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.  See also
PEP 530(1).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Les compréhensions asynchrones ont été
introduites.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ‘yield’ et ‘yield from’ sont interdites
dans la portée implicite imbriquée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: les compréhensions asynchrones sont
maintenant autorisées dans les compréhensions des fonctions asynchrones.
Les compréhensions englobantes deviennent implicitement asynchrones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: Agencements de listes,  Next: Agencements d'ensembles,  Prev: Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.6 Agencements de listes
.............................

Un agencement de liste est une suite (possiblement vide) d'expressions à
l'intérieur de crochets :

     list_display ::= "[" [*note flexible_expression_list: 1fe8. | *note comprehension: 1fe0.] "]"

Un agencement de liste produit un nouvel objet liste, dont le contenu
est spécifié soit par une liste d'expression soit par une compréhension.
Quand une liste d'expressions (dont les éléments sont séparés par des
virgules) est fournie, ces éléments sont évalués de la gauche vers la
droite et placés dans l'objet liste, dans cet ordre.  Quand c'est une
compréhension qui est fournie, la liste est construite à partir des
éléments produits par la compréhension.


File: python.info,  Node: Agencements d'ensembles,  Next: Agencements de dictionnaires,  Prev: Agencements de listes,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.7 Agencements d'ensembles
...............................

Un agencement d'ensemble (type 'set') est délimité par des accolades et
se distingue de l'agencement d'un dictionnaire par le fait qu'il n'y a
pas de « deux points » ‘:’ pour séparer les clés et les valeurs :

     set_display ::= "{" (*note flexible_expression_list: 1fe8. | *note comprehension: 1fe0.) "}"

Un agencement d'ensemble produit un nouvel objet ensemble mutable, le
contenu étant spécifié soit par une séquence d'expression, soit par une
compréhension.  Quand une liste (dont les éléments sont séparés par des
virgules) est fournie, ses éléments sont évalués de la gauche vers la
droite et ajoutés à l'objet ensemble.  Quand une compréhension est
fournie, l'ensemble est construit à partir des éléments produits par la
compréhension.

Un ensemble vide ne peut pas être construit par ‘{}’ ; cette écriture
construit un dictionnaire vide.


File: python.info,  Node: Agencements de dictionnaires,  Next: Expressions génératrices,  Prev: Agencements d'ensembles,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.8 Agencements de dictionnaires
....................................

Un agencement de dictionnaire est une série (possiblement vide) de
couples clés-valeurs entourée par des accolades :

     dict_display       ::= "{" [*note dict_item_list: 1fec. | *note dict_comprehension: 1fed.] "}"
     dict_item_list     ::= *note dict_item: 1fee. ("," *note dict_item: 1fee.)* [","]
     dict_item          ::= *note expression: 1fef. ":" *note expression: 1fef. | "**" *note or_expr: 1e7e.
     dict_comprehension ::= *note expression: 1fef. ":" *note expression: 1fef. *note comp_for: 1fe1.

Un agencement de dictionnaire produit un nouvel objet dictionnaire.

Si une séquence (dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules) de
couples clés-valeurs est fournie, les couples sont évalués de la gauche
vers la droite pour définir les entrées du dictionnaire : chaque objet
clé est utilisé comme clé dans le dictionnaire pour stocker la valeur
correspondante.  Cela signifie que vous pouvez spécifier la même clé
plusieurs fois dans la liste des couples clés-valeurs et, dans ce cas,
la valeur finalement stockée dans le dictionnaire est la dernière
donnée.

Une double astérisque ‘**’ demande de 'dépaqueter le dictionnaire'.
L'opérande doit être un *note tableau de correspondances: 119b.  Chaque
élément du tableau de correspondances est ajouté au nouveau
dictionnaire.  Les valeurs les plus récentes remplacent les valeurs déjà
définies par des couples clés-valeurs antérieurs ou par d'autres
dépaquetages de dictionnaires antérieurs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: le dépaquetage peut se faire vers un
agencement de dictionnaire, proposé à l'origine par la PEP 448(1).

Une compréhension de dictionnaire, au contraire des compréhensions de
listes ou d'ensembles, requiert deux expressions séparées par une
virgule et suivies par les clauses usuelles "for" et "if".  Quand la
compréhension est exécutée, les éléments clés-valeurs sont insérés dans
le nouveau dictionnaire dans l'ordre dans lequel ils sont produits.

Les restrictions relatives aux types des clés sont données dans la
section *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2. (pour résumer, le
type de la clé doit être *note hachable: 5fd, ce qui exclut tous les
objets mutables).  Les collisions entre les clés dupliquées ne sont pas
détectées ; la dernière valeur (celle qui apparaît le plus à droite dans
l'agencement) stockée prévaut pour une clé donnée.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Avant Python 3.8, dans les compréhensions
de dictionnaires, l'ordre d'évaluation entre les clés et les valeurs
n'était pas bien défini.  Dans CPython, la valeur était évaluée avant la
clé.  À partir de la version 3.8, la clé est évaluée avant la valeur,
comme proposé par la PEP 572(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions génératrices,  Next: Expressions yield,  Prev: Agencements de dictionnaires,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.9 Expressions génératrices
................................

Une expression génératrice est une notation concise pour un générateur,
entourée de parenthèses :

     generator_expression ::= "(" *note expression: 1fef. *note comp_for: 1fe1. ")"

Une expression génératrice produit un nouvel objet générateur.  Sa
syntaxe est la même que celle des compréhensions, sauf qu'elle est
entourée de parenthèses au lieu de crochets ou d'accolades.

Les variables utilisées dans une expression génératrice sont évaluées
paresseusement, au moment où la méthode *note __next__(): 1c82. de
l'objet générateur est appelée (de la même manière que pour les
générateurs classiques).  Cependant, l'expression de l'itérable dans la
clause ‘for’ la plus à gauche est immédiatement évaluée, de manière à ce
qu'une erreur dans cette partie soit signalée à l'endroit où
l'expression génératrice est définie plutôt qu'à l'endroit où la
première valeur est récupérée.  Les clauses ‘for’ suivantes ne peuvent
pas être évaluées dans la portée implicite imbriquée car elles peuvent
dépendre de valeurs obtenues à partir de boucles ‘for’ plus à gauche.
Par exemple, ‘(x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x, x+10))’.

Les parenthèses peuvent être omises pour les appels qui ne possèdent
qu'un seul argument.  Voir la section *note Appels: d6c. pour les
détails.

Pour éviter d'interférer avec l'opération attendue de l'expression
génératrice elle-même, les expressions ‘yield’ et ‘yield from’ sont
interdites dans les générateurs définis de manière implicite.

Si une expression génératrice contient une ou des expressions ‘async
for’ ou *note await: 1b7, elle est appelée 'expression génératrice
asynchrone'.  Une expression génératrice asynchrone produit un nouvel
objet générateur asynchrone qui est un itérateur asynchrone (voir *note
Itérateurs asynchrones: d69.).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: les expressions génératrices asynchrones ont
été introduites.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Avant Python 3.7, les expressions
génératrices asynchrones ne pouvaient apparaître que dans les coroutines
*note async def: 5bd.  À partir de la version 3.7, toute fonction peut
utiliser des expressions génératrices asynchrones.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ‘yield’ et ‘yield from’ sont interdites
dans la portée implicite imbriquée.


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions yield,  Prev: Expressions génératrices,  Up: Atomes

4.6.2.10 Expressions ‘yield’
............................

     yield_atom       ::= "(" *note yield_expression: 1e7f. ")"
     yield_from       ::= "yield" "from" *note expression: 1fef.
     yield_expression ::= "yield" *note yield_list: 1ff5. | *note yield_from: 1ff4.

Une expression ‘yield’ est utilisée pour définir une *note fonction
génératrice: 104c. ou une *note fonction génératrice asynchrone: 1ff6.
et ne peut donc être utilisée que dans le corps de la définition d'une
fonction.  L'utilisation d'une expression ‘yield’ dans le corps d'une
fonction entraîne que cette fonction devient une fonction génératrice et
son utilisation dans le corps d'une fonction *note async def: 5bd.
entraine que cette fonction coroutine devient une fonction génératrice
asynchrone.  Par exemple :

     def gen():  # defines a generator function
         yield 123

     async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
         yield 123

En raison des effets de bords sur la portée contenant, les expressions
‘yield’ ne sont pas autorisées dans la portée implicite utilisée dans
l'implémentation des compréhensions et des expressions génératrices.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les expressions ‘yield’ sont interdites
dans la portée implicite imbriquée utilisée dans l'implémentation des
compréhensions et des expressions génératrices.

Les fonctions génératrices sont décrites plus loin alors que les
fonctions générateurs asynchrones sont décrites séparément dans la
section *note Fonctions génératrices asynchrones: 1ff7.

When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator
function.  The execution starts when one of the generator's methods is
called.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 1ff5. to the generator's caller, or ‘None’ if *note
yield_list: 1ff5. is omitted.  By suspended, we mean that all local
state is retained, including the current bindings of local variables,
the instruction pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of
any exception handling.  When the execution is resumed by calling one of
the generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the
yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __next__(): 1c82. is used (typically via either a
*note for: 2e7. or the *note next(): 7c4. builtin) then the result is
*note None: 662.  Otherwise, if *note send(): 1f85. is used, then the
result will be the value passed in to that method.

Tout ceci rend les fonctions génératrices très similaires aux
coroutines : elles produisent plusieurs objets 'via' des expressions
‘yield’, elles possèdent plus qu'un seul point d'entrée et leur
exécution peut être suspendue.  La seule différence est qu'une fonction
génératrice ne peut pas contrôler où l'exécution doit se poursuivre
après une instruction ‘yield’ ; ce contrôle est toujours du ressort de
l'appelant au générateur.

Les expressions ‘yield’ sont autorisées partout dans un bloc *note try:
6d5.  Si l'exécution du générateur ne reprend pas avant qu'il ne soit
finalisé (parce que son compteur de référence est tombé à zéro ou parce
qu'il est nettoyé par le ramasse-miettes), la méthode *note close():
16ae. du générateur-itérateur est appelée, ce qui permet l'exécution de
toutes les clauses *note finally: 9ba. en attente.

L'expression passée à ‘yield from <expr>’ doit être un itérateur.
Toutes les valeurs produites par cet itérateur sont directement passées
à l'appelant des méthodes du générateur courant.  Toute valeur passée
par *note send(): 1f85. ou toute exception passée par *note throw():
4e5. est transmise à l'itérateur sous-jacent s'il possède les méthodes
appropriées.  Si ce n'est pas le cas, alors *note send(): 1f85. lève une
*note AttributeError: 343. ou une *note TypeError: 525, alors que *note
throw(): 4e5. ne fait que propager l'exception immédiatement.

Quand l'itérateur sous-jacent a terminé, l'attribut *note value: 1f82.
de l'instance *note StopIteration: bea. qui a été levée devient la
valeur produite par l'expression ‘yield’.  Elle peut être définie
explicitement quand vous levez *note StopIteration: bea. ou
automatiquement que le sous-itérateur est un générateur (en renvoyant
une valeur par le sous-générateur).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ‘yield from <expr>’ a été ajoutée pour
déléguer le contrôle du flot d'exécution à un sous-itérateur.

Les parenthèses peuvent être omises quand l'expression ‘yield’ est la
seule expression à droite de l'instruction de l'instruction
d'affectation.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 255(1) : générateurs simples

     La proposition d'ajouter à Python des générateurs et l'instruction
     *note yield: 9bd.

PEP 342(2) - Coroutines 'via' des générateurs améliorés

     Proposition d'améliorer l'API et la syntaxe des générateurs, de
     manière à pouvoir les utiliser comme de simples coroutines.

PEP 380(3) - Syntaxe pour déléguer à un sous-générateur

     Proposition d'introduire la syntaxe *note yield_from: 1ff4, de
     manière à déléguer facilement l'exécution à un sous-générateur.

PEP 525(4) : Générateurs asynchrones

     La proposition qui a amélioré la PEP 492(5) en ajoutant des
     capacités de générateur pour les coroutines.

* Menu:

* Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs::
* Exemples::
* Fonctions génératrices asynchrones::
* Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs,  Next: Exemples,  Up: Expressions yield

4.6.2.11 Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs
............................................

Cette sous-section décrit les méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
Elles peuvent être utilisées pour contrôler l'exécution des fonctions
génératrices.

Notez que l'appel à une méthode ci-dessous d'un générateur alors que le
générateur est déjà en cours d'exécution lève une exception *note
ValueError: 1ff.

 -- Méthode: generator.__next__ ()

     Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the
     last executed yield expression.  When a generator function is
     resumed with a *note __next__(): 1c82. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 662.  The execution then
     continues to the next yield expression, where the generator is
     suspended again, and the value of the *note yield_list: 1ff5. is
     returned to *note __next__(): 1c82.'s caller.  If the generator
     exits without yielding another value, a *note StopIteration: bea.
     exception is raised.

     Cette méthode est normalement appelée implicitement, par exemple
     par une boucle *note for: 2e7. ou par la fonction native *note
     next(): 7c4.

 -- Méthode: generator.send (value)

     Reprend l'exécution et « envoie » une valeur à la fonction
     génératrice.  L'argument 'value' devient le résultat de
     l'expression ‘yield’ courante.  La méthode *note send(): 1f85.
     renvoie la valeur suivante produite par le générateur ou lève *note
     StopIteration: bea. si le générateur termine sans produire de
     nouvelle valeur.  Quand *note send(): 1f85. est utilisée pour
     démarrer le générateur, elle doit avoir *note None: 662. comme
     argument, car il n'y a aucune expression ‘yield’ qui peut recevoir
     la valeur.

 -- Méthode: generator.throw (value)

 -- Méthode: generator.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Lève une exception à l'endroit où le générateur est en pause et
     renvoie la valeur suivante produite par la fonction génératrice.
     Si le générateur termine sans produire de nouvelle valeur, une
     exception *note StopIteration: bea. est levée.  Si la fonction
     génératrice ne gère pas l'exception passée ou lève une autre
     exception, alors cette exception est propagée vers l'appelant.

     Dans son utilisation typique, elle est appelée avec une seule
     instance d'exception, de façon similaire à l'utilisation du mot-clé
     *note raise: 5d9.

     Cependant, pour assurer la rétrocompatibilité, la deuxième
     signature est prise en charge, suivant une convention des anciennes
     versions de Python.  L'argument 'type' doit être une classe
     d'exception et 'value' doit être une instance d'exception.  Si
     'value' n'est pas fournie, le constructeur de 'type' est appelé
     pour obtenir une instance.  Si 'traceback' est fournie, elle est
     liée sur l'exception, sinon tout attribut *note __traceback__:
     12a6. existant stocké dans 'value' est possiblement effacé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Méthode: generator.close ()

     Raises a *note GeneratorExit: 1380. at the point where the
     generator function was paused.  If the generator function catches
     the exception and returns a value, this value is returned from
     *note close(): 16ae.  If the generator function is already closed,
     or raises *note GeneratorExit: 1380. (by not catching the
     exception), *note close(): 16ae. returns *note None: 662.  If the
     generator yields a value, a *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised.  If
     the generator raises any other exception, it is propagated to the
     caller.  If the generator has already exited due to an exception or
     normal exit, *note close(): 16ae. returns *note None: 662. and has
     no other effect.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: If a generator returns a value upon
     being closed, the value is returned by *note close(): 16ae.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples,  Next: Fonctions génératrices asynchrones,  Prev: Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs,  Up: Expressions yield

4.6.2.12 Exemples
.................

Voici un exemple simple qui montre le comportement des générateurs et
des fonctions génératrices :

     >>> def echo(value=None):
     ...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
     ...     try:
     ...         while True:
     ...             try:
     ...                 value = (yield value)
     ...             except Exception as e:
     ...                 value = e
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
     ...
     >>> generator = echo(1)
     >>> print(next(generator))
     Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
     1
     >>> print(next(generator))
     None
     >>> print(generator.send(2))
     2
     >>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
     TypeError('spam',)
     >>> generator.close()
     Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.

Pour des exemples d'utilisation de ‘yield from’, lisez la *note PEP 380;
Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: 1024. dans « Les nouveautés de
Python ».


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions génératrices asynchrones,  Next: Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones,  Prev: Exemples,  Up: Expressions yield

4.6.2.13 Fonctions génératrices asynchrones
...........................................

La présence d'une expression 'yield' dans une fonction ou une méthode
définie en utilisant *note async def: 5bd. transforme cette fonction en
fonction *note générateur asynchrone: 1ff6.

Quand une fonction génératrice asynchrone est appelée, elle renvoie un
itérateur asynchrone, autrement appelé objet générateur asynchrone.  Cet
objet contrôle l'exécution de la fonction génératrice.  Un objet
générateur asynchrone est typiquement utilisé dans une instruction *note
async for: a9b. à l'intérieur d'une fonction coroutine de la même
manière qu'un objet générateur serait utilisé dans une instruction *note
for: 2e7.

Calling one of the asynchronous generator's methods returns an *note
awaitable: 1ab. object, and the execution starts when this object is
awaited on.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 1ff5. to the awaiting coroutine.  As with a generator,
suspension means that all local state is retained, including the current
bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the
execution is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the
asynchronous generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if
the yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __anext__(): 1ffb. is used then the result is *note
None: 662.  Otherwise, if *note asend(): 8c8. is used, then the result
will be the value passed in to that method.

Si un générateur asynchrone se termine précipitamment en raison d'un
*note break: a99, de l'annulation de la tâche de l'appelant ou d'une
exception, le code de nettoyage du générateur asynchrone est exécuté et
lève possiblement des exceptions, accède à des variables de contexte
dans un contexte inattendu — peut-être parce que la tâche de laquelle il
dépend est finie, ou pendant la fermeture de la boucle d'événements
quand le point d'entrée du ramasse-miettes a déjà été appelé.  Afin
d'éviter cette situation, l'appelant doit explicitement fermer le
générateur asynchrone en appelant la méthode *note aclose(): 8c7. pour
« finaliser » le générateur et le détacher de la boucle d'événements.

Dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone, les expressions ‘yield’ sont
autorisées n'importe où dans une construction *note try: 6d5.
Cependant, si l'exécution d'un générateur asynchrone n'a pas repris
avant que le générateur ne soit finalisé (parce que son compteur de
référence a atteint zéro ou parce qu'il est nettoyé par le
ramasse-miettes), alors une expression ‘yield’ dans une construction
‘try’ pourrait ne pas atteindre la clause *note finally: 9ba. en
attente.  Dans ce cas, c'est la responsabilité de la boucle d'événements
ou du programmateur exécutant le générateur asynchrone d'appeler la
méthode *note aclose(): 8c7. du générateur asynchrone et d'exécuter
l'objet coroutine résultant, permettant ainsi à toute clause ‘finally’
en attente d'être exécutée.

Pour effectuer correctement la finalisation, une boucle d'événements
doit définir une fonction 'finalizer' qui prend un générateur-itérateur
asynchrone, appelle sans doute *note aclose(): 8c7. et exécute la
coroutine.  Ce 'finalizer' peut s'enregistrer en appelant *note
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 15e1.  Lors de la première itération, un
générateur-itérateur asynchrone stocke le 'finalizer' enregistré à
appeler lors de la finalisation.  Pour un exemple de référence relatif à
une méthode de 'finalizer', regardez l'implémentation de
‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ dans Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(1).

L'expression ‘yield from <expr>’ produit une erreur de syntaxe quand
elle est utilisée dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones,  Prev: Fonctions génératrices asynchrones,  Up: Expressions yield

4.6.2.14 Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones
........................................................

Cette sous-section décrit les méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs
asynchrones.  Elles sont utilisées pour contrôler l’exécution des
fonctions génératrices.

 -- Méthode: async agen.__anext__ ()

     Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the
     asynchronous generator or resumes it at the last executed yield
     expression.  When an asynchronous generator function is resumed
     with an *note __anext__(): 1ffb. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 662. in the returned
     awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
     expression.  The value of the *note yield_list: 1ff5. of the yield
     expression is the value of the *note StopIteration: bea. exception
     raised by the completing coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator
     exits without yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises
     a *note StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. exception, signalling that the
     asynchronous iteration has completed.

     Cette méthode est normalement appelée implicitement par une boucle
     *note async for: a9b.

 -- Méthode: async agen.asend (value)

     Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
     asynchronous generator.  As with the *note send(): 1f85. method for
     a generator, this "sends" a value into the asynchronous generator
     function, and the 'value' argument becomes the result of the
     current yield expression.  The awaitable returned by the *note
     asend(): 8c8. method will return the next value yielded by the
     generator as the value of the raised *note StopIteration: bea, or
     raises *note StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. if the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value.  When *note
     asend(): 8c8. is called to start the asynchronous generator, it
     must be called with *note None: 662. as the argument, because there
     is no yield expression that could receive the value.

 -- Méthode: async agen.athrow (value)

 -- Méthode: async agen.athrow (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Renvoie un 'awaitable' qui lève une exception du type ‘type’ à
     l'endroit où le générateur asynchrone a été mis en pause et renvoie
     la valeur suivante produite par la fonction génératrice comme
     valeur de l'exception *note StopIteration: bea. qui a été levée.
     Si le générateur asynchrone termine sans produire de nouvelle
     valeur, une exception *note StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. est levée par
     le 'awaitable'.  Si la fonction génératrice ne traite pas
     l'exception reçue ou lève une autre exception alors, quand le
     'awaitable' est lancé, cette exception est propagée vers l'appelant
     du 'awaitable'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Méthode: async agen.aclose ()

     Renvoie un 'awaitable' qui, quand il s'exécute, lève une exception
     *note GeneratorExit: 1380. dans la fonction génératrice asynchrone
     à l'endroit où le générateur était en pause.  Si la fonction
     génératrice asynchrone termine normalement, est déjà fermée ou lève
     *note GeneratorExit: 1380. (parce qu'elle ne gère pas l'exception),
     alors le 'awaitable' renvoyé lève une exception *note
     StopIteration: bea.  Tout nouveau 'awaitable' produit par un appel
     postérieur au générateur asynchrone lève une exception *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 19eb.  Si le générateur asynchrone produit une
     valeur, une *note RuntimeError: 193. est levée par le 'awaitable'.
     Si le générateur asynchrone lève une autre exception, elle est
     propagée à l'appelant du 'awaitable'.  Si le générateur asynchrone
     a déjà terminé (soit par une exception, soit normalement), alors
     tout nouvel appel à *note aclose(): 8c7. renvoie un 'awaitable' qui
     ne fait rien.


File: python.info,  Node: Primaires,  Next: Expression await,  Prev: Atomes,  Up: Expressions

4.6.3 Primaires
---------------

Les primaires ('primary' dans la grammaire formelle ci-dessous)
représentent les opérations qui se lient au plus proche dans le langage.
Leur syntaxe est :

     primary ::= *note atom: 1fcf. | *note attributeref: 2001. | *note subscription: 2002. | *note slicing: 2003. | *note call: 2004.

* Menu:

* Références à des attributs::
* sélection (ou indiçage): sélection ou indiçage.
* Tranches::
* Appels::


File: python.info,  Node: Références à des attributs,  Next: sélection ou indiçage,  Up: Primaires

4.6.3.1 Références à des attributs
..................................

Une référence à un attribut ('attributeref' dans la grammaire formelle
ci-dessous) est une primaire suivie par un point et un nom :

     attributeref ::= *note primary: 2000. "." *note identifier: 1e51.

The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce
the attribute whose name is the identifier.  The type and value produced
is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.

This production can be customized by overriding the *note
__getattribute__(): bc2. method or the *note __getattr__(): 4bf. method.
The ‘__getattribute__()’ method is called first and either returns a
value or raises *note AttributeError: 343. if the attribute is not
available.

If an *note AttributeError: 343. is raised and the object has a
‘__getattr__()’ method, that method is called as a fallback.


File: python.info,  Node: sélection ou indiçage,  Next: Tranches,  Prev: Références à des attributs,  Up: Primaires

4.6.3.2 sélection (ou indiçage)
...............................

L'indiçage d'une instance de *note classe conteneur: 1f43. sélectionne
généralement un élément du conteneur.  L'indiçage d'une *note classe
générique: 424. renvoie généralement un objet *note GenericAlias: 69f.

     subscription ::= *note primary: 2000. "[" *note flexible_expression_list: 1fe8. "]"

Lorsqu'on accède à l'indice d'un objet, l'interpréteur évalue la
primaire et la liste d'expressions.

L'évaluation de la primaire doit produire un objet qui gère l'indiçage.
Un objet est susceptible de gérer l'indiçage s'il définit la ou les deux
méthodes *note __getitem__(): 280. et *note __class_getitem__(): 727.
Quand on spécifie un indice du primaire, le résultat de l'évaluation de
la liste d'expression est passé à l'une de ces méthodes.  Pour plus de
détails sur le choix de ‘__class_getitem__’ ou ‘__getitem__’ pour
l'appel, lisez *note __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__: 1f3c.

If the expression list contains at least one comma, or if any of the
expressions are starred, the expression list will evaluate to a *note
tuple: 366. containing the items of the expression list.  Otherwise, the
expression list will evaluate to the value of the list's sole member.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Expressions in an expression list may be
starred.  See PEP 646(1).

Pour les objets natifs, deux types d'objets gèrent la sélection 'via'
*note __getitem__(): 280. :

  1. Si la primaire est un *note tableau de correspondances: 119b, la
     liste d'expressions ('expression_list' dans la grammaire formelle
     ci-dessous) doit pouvoir être évaluée comme un objet dont la valeur
     est une des clés du tableau de correspondances et la sélection
     désigne la valeur qui correspond à cette clé.  Un exemple de classe
     implémentant le concept de tableau de correspondances est la classe
     *note dict: 253.

  2. Si la primaire est une *note séquence: 4de, la liste d'expressions
     ('expression_list' dans la grammaire) doit pouvoir être évaluée
     comme un *note entier: 254. ou une *note tranche: 455. (comme
     expliqué dans la section suivante).  Des exemples de classes
     natives implémentant le concept de séquence sont les *note chaînes:
     437, *note listes: 5fe. et les *note n-uplets: 366.

The formal syntax makes no special provision for negative indices in
*note sequences: 4de.  However, built-in sequences all provide a *note
__getitem__(): 280. method that interprets negative indices by adding
the length of the sequence to the index so that, for example, ‘x[-1]’
selects the last item of ‘x’.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative
integer less than the number of items in the sequence, and the
subscription selects the item whose index is that value (counting from
zero).  Since the support for negative indices and slicing occurs in the
object's *note __getitem__(): 280. method, subclasses overriding this
method will need to explicitly add that support.

Une *note chaîne: 437. est une espèce particulière de séquence dont les
éléments sont des 'caractères'.  Un caractère n'est pas un type en tant
que tel, c'est une chaîne de longueur un.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Tranches,  Next: Appels,  Prev: sélection ou indiçage,  Up: Primaires

4.6.3.3 Tranches
................

Une tranche ('slicing' dans la grammaire formelle ci-dessous)
sélectionne un intervalle d'éléments d'un objet séquence (par exemple
une chaîne, un n-uplet ou une liste, respectivement les types 'string',
'tuple' et 'list').  Les tranches peuvent être utilisées comme des
expressions ou des cibles dans les affectations ou les instructions
*note del: 1762.  La syntaxe est la suivante :

     slicing      ::= *note primary: 2000. "[" *note slice_list: 200a. "]"
     slice_list   ::= *note slice_item: 200b. ("," *note slice_item: 200b.)* [","]
     slice_item   ::= *note expression: 1fef. | *note proper_slice: 200c.
     proper_slice ::= [*note lower_bound: 200d.] ":" [*note upper_bound: 200e.] [ ":" [*note stride: 200f.] ]
     lower_bound  ::= *note expression: 1fef.
     upper_bound  ::= *note expression: 1fef.
     stride       ::= *note expression: 1fef.

Il existe une ambigüité dans la syntaxe formelle ci-dessus : tout ce qui
ressemble à une liste d'expressions ('expression_list' vue avant)
ressemble aussi à une liste de tranches ('slice_list' dans la grammaire
ci-dessus).  En conséquence, toute sélection ('subscription' dans la
grammaire) peut être interprétée comme une tranche.  Plutôt que de
compliquer encore la syntaxe, l'ambigüité est levée en disant que, dans
ce cas, l'interprétation en tant que sélection ('subscription') est
prioritaire sur l'interprétation en tant que tranche (c'est le cas si la
liste de tranches ('slice_list') ne contient aucune tranche en tant que
telle).

The semantics for a slicing are as follows.  The primary is indexed
(using the same *note __getitem__(): 280. method as normal subscription)
with a key that is constructed from the slice list, as follows.  If the
slice list contains at least one comma, the key is a tuple containing
the conversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the lone
slice item is the key.  The conversion of a slice item that is an
expression is that expression.  The conversion of a proper slice is a
slice object (see section *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2.)
whose *note start: 2010, *note stop: 2011. and *note step: 2012.
attributes are the values of the expressions given as lower bound, upper
bound and stride, respectively, substituting ‘None’ for missing
expressions.


File: python.info,  Node: Appels,  Prev: Tranches,  Up: Primaires

4.6.3.4 Appels
..............

Un appel ('call' dans la grammaire ci-dessous) appelle un objet
appelable (par exemple, une *note fonction: 2014.) avec, possiblement,
une liste d'*note arguments: 434. :

     call                 ::= *note primary: 2000. "(" [*note argument_list: 2015. [","] | *note comprehension: 1fe0.] ")"
     argument_list        ::= *note positional_arguments: 2016. ["," *note starred_and_keywords: 2017.]
                              ["," *note keywords_arguments: 2018.]
                              | *note starred_and_keywords: 2017. ["," *note keywords_arguments: 2018.]
                              | *note keywords_arguments: 2018.
     positional_arguments ::= positional_item ("," positional_item)*
     positional_item      ::= *note assignment_expression: 1f98. | "*" *note expression: 1fef.
     starred_and_keywords ::= ("*" *note expression: 1fef. | *note keyword_item: 201a.)
                              ("," "*" *note expression: 1fef. | "," *note keyword_item: 201a.)*
     keywords_arguments   ::= (*note keyword_item: 201a. | "**" *note expression: 1fef.)
                              ("," *note keyword_item: 201a. | "," "**" *note expression: 1fef.)*
     keyword_item         ::= *note identifier: 1e51. "=" *note expression: 1fef.

Une virgule finale (optionnelle) peut être présente, après les arguments
positionnels et nommés, mais elle n'affecte pas la sémantique.

The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions,
built-in functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods
of class instances, and all objects having a *note __call__(): 546.
method are callable).  All argument expressions are evaluated before the
call is attempted.  Please refer to section *note Définition de
fonctions: 1bf4. for the syntax of formal *note parameter: 1eba. lists.

Si des arguments par mots-clés sont présents, ils sont d'abord convertis
en arguments positionnels, comme suit.  Pour commencer, une liste de
'slots' vides est créée pour les paramètres formels.  S'il y a N
arguments positionnels, ils sont placés dans les N premiers 'slots'.
Ensuite, pour chaque argument nommé, l'identifiant est utilisé pour
déterminer le 'slot' correspondant (si l'identifiant est le même que le
nom du premier paramètre formel, le premier 'slot' est utilisé, et ainsi
de suite).  Si le 'slot' est déjà rempli, une exception *note TypeError:
525. est levée.  Sinon, l'argument est placé dans le 'slot', ce qui le
remplit (même si l'expression est ‘None’, cela remplit le 'slot').
Quand tous les arguments ont été traités, les 'slots' qui sont toujours
vides sont remplis avec la valeur par défaut correspondante dans la
définition de la fonction (les valeurs par défaut sont calculées, une
seule fois, lorsque la fonction est définie ; ainsi, un objet mutable
tel qu'une liste ou un dictionnaire utilisé en tant valeur par défaut
sera partagé entre tous les appels qui ne spécifient pas de valeur d
argument pour ce 'slot' ; on évite généralement de faire ça).  S'il
reste des 'slots' pour lesquels aucune valeur par défaut n'est définie,
une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée.  Sinon, la liste des
'slots' remplie est utilisée en tant que liste des arguments pour
l'appel.

Une implémentation peut fournir des fonctions natives dont les
paramètres positionnels n'ont pas de nom, même s'ils sont « nommés »
pour les besoins de la documentation.  Ils ne peuvent donc pas être
fournis comme arguments nommés.  En CPython, les fonctions implémentées
en C qui utilisent *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. pour analyser leurs
arguments en font partie.

S'il y a plus d'arguments positionnels que de 'slots' de paramètres
formels, une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée, à moins qu'un
paramètre formel n'utilise la syntaxe ‘*identifier’ ; dans ce cas, le
paramètre formel reçoit un 'n'-uplet contenant les arguments
positionnels en supplément (ou un 'n'-uplet vide s'il n'y avait pas
d'argument positionnel en trop).

Si un argument nommé ne correspond à aucun nom de paramètre formel, une
exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée, à moins qu'un paramètre
formel n'utilise la syntaxe ‘**identifier’ ; dans ce cas, le paramètre
formel reçoit un dictionnaire contenant les arguments nommés en trop (en
utilisant les mots-clés comme clés et les arguments comme valeurs pour
ce dictionnaire), ou un (nouveau) dictionnaire vide s'il n'y a pas
d'argument nommé en trop.

Si la syntaxe ‘*expression’ apparaît dans l'appel de la fonction,
‘expression’ doit pouvoir s'évaluer à un *note itérable: 1207.  Les
éléments de ces itérables sont traités comme s'ils étaient des arguments
positionnels supplémentaires.  Pour l'appel ‘f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4)’, si
'y' s'évalue comme une séquence 'y1' … 'yM', c'est équivalent à un appel
avec M+4 arguments positionnels 'x1', 'x2', 'y1' … 'yM', 'x3', 'x4'.

Une conséquence est que bien que la syntaxe ‘*expression’ puisse
apparaître 'après' les arguments par nommés explicites, ils sont traités
'avant' les arguments nommés (et avant tout argument ‘**expression’ -
voir ci-dessous).  Ainsi :

     >>> def f(a, b):
     ...     print(a, b)
     ...
     >>> f(b=1, *(2,))
     2 1
     >>> f(a=1, *(2,))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
     >>> f(1, *(2,))
     1 2

Il est inhabituel que les syntaxes d'arguments par mots-clés et
‘*expression’ soient utilisés simultanément dans un même appel, ce qui
fait que la confusion reste rare.

Si la syntaxe ‘**expression’ apparaît dans un appel de fonction,
‘expression’ doit pouvoir s'évaluer comme un *note tableau de
correspondances: 119b, dont le contenu est traité comme des arguments
par mots-clés supplémentaires.  Si un paramètre correspondant à une clé
a déjà été fourni (en tant qu'argument nommé explicite, en provenance
d'un autre dépaquetage), une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

Lorsque ‘**expression’ est utilisée, chaque clé de ce tableau de
correspondances doit être une chaîne.  Chaque valeur du tableau est
affectée au premier paramètre formel éligible à l'affectation par
mot-clé dont le nom est égal à la clé.  Une clé n'a pas besoin d'être un
identifiant Python (par exemple, ‘"max-temp °F"’ est acceptable, bien
qu'elle ne corresponde à aucun paramètre formel qui pourrait être
déclaré).  S'il n'y a pas de correspondance avec un paramètre formel, la
paire clé-valeur est collectée par le paramètre ‘**’, s'il y en a un.
S'il n'y a pas de paramètre ‘**’, une exception *note TypeError: 525.
est levée.

Les paramètres formels qui utilisent la syntaxe ‘*identifier’ ou
‘**identifier’ ne peuvent pas être utilisés comme arguments positionnels
ou comme noms d'arguments par mots-clés.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les appels de fonction acceptent n'importe
quel nombre de dépaquetages par ‘*’ ou ‘**’.  Des arguments positionnels
peuvent suivre les dépaquetages d'itérables (‘*’) et les arguments par
mots-clés peuvent suivre les dépaquetages de dictionnaires (‘**’).
Proposé pour la première fois par la PEP 448(1).

Un appel renvoie toujours une valeur, possiblement ‘None’, à moins qu'il
ne lève une exception.  La façon dont celle valeur est calculée dépend
du type de l'objet appelable.

Si c'est

une fonction définie par l'utilisateur :

     The code block for the function is executed, passing it the
     argument list.  The first thing the code block will do is bind the
     formal parameters to the arguments; this is described in section
     *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4.  When the code block executes
     a *note return: 9be. statement, this specifies the return value of
     the function call.  If execution reaches the end of the code block
     without executing a *note return: 9be. statement, the return value
     is ‘None’.

une fonction ou une méthode native :

     le résultat dépend de l'interpréteur ; lisez *note Fonctions
     natives: 123d. pour une description des fonctions et méthodes
     natives.

un objet classe :

     une nouvelle instance de cette classe est renvoyée.

une méthode d'instance de classe :

     la fonction correspondante définie par l'utilisateur est appelée,
     avec la liste d'arguments qui est plus grande d'un élément que la
     liste des arguments de l'appel : l'instance est placée en tête des
     arguments.

une instance de classe :

     The class must define a *note __call__(): 546. method; the effect
     is then the same as if that method was called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Expression await,  Next: L'opérateur puissance,  Prev: Primaires,  Up: Expressions

4.6.4 Expression ‘await’
------------------------

Suspend l'exécution de la *note coroutine: 47d. sur un objet *note
awaitable: 1ab.  Ne peut être utilisée qu'à l'intérieur d'une *note
coroutine function: d66.

     await_expr ::= "await" *note primary: 2000.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: L'opérateur puissance,  Next: Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits,  Prev: Expression await,  Up: Expressions

4.6.5 L'opérateur puissance
---------------------------

L'opérateur puissance est plus prioritaire que les opérateurs unaires
sur sa gauche ; il est moins prioritaire que les opérateurs unaires sur
sa droite.  La syntaxe est :

     power ::= (*note await_expr: 201c. | *note primary: 2000.) ["**" *note u_expr: 2020.]

Ainsi, dans une séquence sans parenthèse de puissance et d'opérateurs
unaires, les opérateurs sont évalués de droite à gauche (ceci ne
contraint pas l'ordre d'évaluation des opérandes) : ‘-1**2’ donne ‘-1’.

L'opérateur puissance possède la même sémantique que la fonction native
*note pow(): 9c2. lorsqu'elle est appelée avec deux arguments : il
produit son argument de gauche élevé à la puissance de son argument de
droite.  Les arguments numériques sont d'abord convertis vers un type
commun et le résultat est de ce type.

Pour les opérandes entiers, le résultat est du même type à moins que le
deuxième argument ne soit négatif ; dans ce cas, tous les arguments sont
convertis en nombres à virgule flottante et le résultat est un nombre à
virgule flottante.  Par exemple, ‘10**2’ renvoie ‘100’ mais ‘10**-2’
renvoie ‘0.01’.

Élever ‘0.0’ à une puissance négative entraîne une *note
ZeroDivisionError: 934.  Élever un nombre négatif à une puissance
fractionnaire renvoie un nombre *note complexe: 2ed. (dans les versions
antérieures, cela levait une *note ValueError: 1ff.).

This operation can be customized using the special *note __pow__(): 7bf.
and *note __rpow__(): 7c0. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits,  Next: Opérations arithmétiques binaires,  Prev: L'opérateur puissance,  Up: Expressions

4.6.6 Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits
----------------------------------------------------

Toute l'arithmétique unaire et les opérations sur les bits ont la même
priorité :

     u_expr ::= *note power: 201f. | "-" *note u_expr: 2020. | "+" *note u_expr: 2020. | "~" *note u_expr: 2020.

The unary ‘-’ (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric
argument; the operation can be overridden with the *note __neg__():
1f6e. special method.

The unary ‘+’ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged; the
operation can be overridden with the *note __pos__(): 1f6f. special
method.

The unary ‘~’ (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its
integer argument.  The bitwise inversion of ‘x’ is defined as ‘-(x+1)’.
It only applies to integral numbers or to custom objects that override
the *note __invert__(): 1f71. special method.

Dans ces trois cas, si l'argument n'est pas du bon type, une exception
*note TypeError: 525. est levée.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations arithmétiques binaires,  Next: Opérations de décalage,  Prev: Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits,  Up: Expressions

4.6.7 Opérations arithmétiques binaires
---------------------------------------

Les opérations arithmétiques binaires suivent les conventions pour les
priorités.  Notez que certaines de ces opérations s'appliquent aussi à
des types non numériques.  À part l'opérateur puissance, il n'y a que
deux niveaux, le premier pour les opérateurs multiplicatifs et le second
pour les opérateurs additifs :

     m_expr ::= *note u_expr: 2020. | *note m_expr: 2025. "*" *note u_expr: 2020. | *note m_expr: 2025. "@" *note m_expr: 2025. |
                *note m_expr: 2025. "//" *note u_expr: 2020. | *note m_expr: 2025. "/" *note u_expr: 2020. |
                *note m_expr: 2025. "%" *note u_expr: 2020.
     a_expr ::= *note m_expr: 2025. | *note a_expr: 2026. "+" *note m_expr: 2025. | *note a_expr: 2026. "-" *note m_expr: 2025.

L'opérateur ‘*’ (multiplication) produit le produit de ses arguments.
Les deux arguments doivent être des nombres ou alors le premier argument
doit être un entier et l'autre doit être une séquence.  Dans le premier
cas, les nombres sont convertis dans un type commun puis sont multipliés
entre eux.  Dans le dernier cas, la séquence est répétée ; une
répétition négative produit une séquence vide.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __mul__():
1f48. and *note __rmul__(): 1f49. methods.

L'opérateur ‘@’ (prononcé 'at' en anglais) a vocation à multiplier des
matrices.  Aucun type Python natif n'implémente cet opérateur.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __matmul__():
1f50. and *note __rmatmul__(): 1f59. methods.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Les opérateurs ‘/’ (division) et ‘//’ (division entière ou 'floor
division' en anglais) produisent le quotient de leurs arguments.  Les
arguments numériques sont d'abord convertis vers un type commun.  La
division d'entiers produit un nombre à virgule flottante alors que la
division entière d'entiers produit un entier ; le résultat est celui de
la division mathématique suivie de la fonction ‘floor’ appliquée au
résultat.  Une division par zéro lève une exception *note
ZeroDivisionError: 934.

The division operation can be customized using the special *note
__truediv__(): 14ab. and *note __rtruediv__(): 1f5a. methods.  The floor
division operation can be customized using the special *note
__floordiv__(): 14ac. and *note __rfloordiv__(): 1f5b. methods.

The ‘%’ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the
first argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first converted
to a common type.  A zero right argument raises the *note
ZeroDivisionError: 934. exception.  The arguments may be floating-point
numbers, e.g., ‘3.14%0.7’ equals ‘0.34’ (since ‘3.14’ equals ‘4*0.7 +
0.34’.)  The modulo operator always yields a result with the same sign
as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is
strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand (1).

Les opérateurs division entière et modulo sont liés par la relation
suivante : ‘x == (x//y)*y + (x%y)’.  La division entière et le module
sont aussi liés à la fonction native *note divmod(): 991. : ‘divmod(x,
y) == (x//y, x%y)’ (2).

En plus de calculer le modulo sur les nombres, l'opérateur ‘%’ est aussi
surchargé par les objets chaînes de caractères pour effectuer le
formatage de chaîne « à l'ancienne ».  La syntaxe pour le formatage de
chaînes est décrit dans la référence de la bibliothèque Python, dans la
section *note Formatage de chaines à la printf: 6b9.

The 'modulo' operation can be customized using the special *note
__mod__(): 1f51. and *note __rmod__(): 1f5c. methods.

The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the *note
divmod(): 991. function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead,
convert to a floating-point number using the *note abs(): 1c62. function
if appropriate.

L'opérateur ‘+’ (addition) produit la somme de ses arguments.  Les
arguments doivent être tous les deux des nombres ou des séquences du
même type.  Dans le premier cas, les nombres sont convertis vers un type
commun puis sont additionnés entre eux.  Dans le dernier cas, les
séquences sont concaténées.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __add__():
1f45. and *note __radd__(): 1f46. methods.

L'opérateur ‘-’ (soustraction) produit la différence entre ses
arguments.  Les arguments numériques sont d'abord convertis vers un type
commun.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __sub__():
1f4f. and *note __rsub__(): 1f58. methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Bien que ‘abs(x%y) < abs(y)’ soit vrai mathématiquement, ce n'est
pas toujours vrai pour les nombres à virgule flottante en raison des
arrondis.  Par exemple, en supposant que Python tourne sur une
plateforme où les 'float' sont des nombres à double précision IEEE 754,
afin que ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ soit du même signe que ‘1e100’, le résultat
calculé est ‘-1e-100 + 1e100’, qui vaut exactement ‘1e100’ dans ce
standard.  Or, la fonction *note math.fmod(): 2027. renvoie un résultat
dont le signe est le signe du premier argument, c'est-à-dire ‘-1e-100’
dans ce cas.  La meilleure approche dépend de l'application.

   (2) Si x est très proche d'un multiple entier de y, il est possible
que ‘x/y’ soit supérieur de un par rapport à ‘(x-x%y)//y’ en raison des
arrondis.  Dans de tels cas, Python renvoie le second résultat afin
d'avoir ‘divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y’ le plus proche de ‘x’.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations de décalage,  Next: Opérations binaires bit à bit,  Prev: Opérations arithmétiques binaires,  Up: Expressions

4.6.8 Opérations de décalage
----------------------------

Les opérations de décalage sont moins prioritaires que les opérations
arithmétiques :

     shift_expr ::= *note a_expr: 2026. | *note shift_expr: 202a. ("<<" | ">>") *note a_expr: 2026.

Ces opérateurs prennent des entiers comme arguments.  Ils décalent le
premier argument vers la gauche ou vers la droite du nombre de bits
donné par le deuxième argument.

The left shift operation can be customized using the special *note
__lshift__(): 1f53. and *note __rlshift__(): 1f5e. methods.  The right
shift operation can be customized using the special *note __rshift__():
1f54. and *note __rrshift__(): 1f5f. methods.

Un décalage à droite de 'n' bits est défini comme la division entière
par ‘pow(2,n)’.  Un décalage à gauche de 'n' bits est défini comme la
multiplication par ‘pow(2,n)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations binaires bit à bit,  Next: Comparaisons,  Prev: Opérations de décalage,  Up: Expressions

4.6.9 Opérations binaires bit à bit
-----------------------------------

Chacune des trois opérations binaires bit à bit possède une priorité
différente :

     and_expr ::= *note shift_expr: 202a. | *note and_expr: 202d. "&" *note shift_expr: 202a.
     xor_expr ::= *note and_expr: 202d. | *note xor_expr: 202e. "^" *note and_expr: 202d.
     or_expr  ::= *note xor_expr: 202e. | *note or_expr: 1e7e. "|" *note xor_expr: 202e.

The ‘&’ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding *note
__and__(): 1f55. or *note __rand__(): 1f60. special methods.

The ‘^’ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __xor__(): 1f56. or *note __rxor__(): 1f61. special methods.

The ‘|’ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __or__(): 1f57. or *note __ror__(): 1f62. special methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaisons,  Next: Opérations booléennes,  Prev: Opérations binaires bit à bit,  Up: Expressions

4.6.10 Comparaisons
-------------------

Au contraire du C, toutes les opérations de comparaison en Python
possèdent la même priorité, qui est plus faible que celle des opérations
arithmétiques, décalages ou binaires bit à bit.  Toujours contrairement
au C, les expressions telles que ‘a < b < c’ sont interprétées comme
elles le seraient conventionnellement en mathématiques :

     comparison    ::= *note or_expr: 1e7e. (*note comp_operator: 2032. *note or_expr: 1e7e.)*
     comp_operator ::= "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
                       | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"

Les comparaisons donnent des valeurs booléennes (‘True’ ou ‘False’).
Cependant, les 'méthodes de comparaison riche' définies par
l'utilisateur peuvent renvoyer des non-booléens.  Dans ce cas, le
résultat de la comparaison est converti en booléen avec *note bool():
453. dans les contextes qui attendent un booléen.

Les comparaisons peuvent être enchaînées arbitrairement, par exemple ‘x
< y <= z’ est équivalent à ‘x < y and y <= z’, sauf que ‘y’ est évalué
seulement une fois (mais dans les deux cas, ‘z’ n'est pas évalué du tout
si ‘x < y’ s'avère être faux).

Formellement, si 'a', 'b', 'c' … 'y', 'z' sont des expressions et 'op1',
'op2' … 'opN' sont des opérateurs de comparaison, alors ‘a op1 b op2 c …
y opN z’ est équivalent à ‘a op1 b and b op2 c and … y opN z’, sauf que
chaque expression est évaluée au maximum une fois.

Notez que ‘a op1 b op2 c’ n'implique aucune comparaison entre 'a' et
'c'.  Ainsi, par exemple, ‘x < y > z’ est parfaitement légal (mais
peut-être pas très élégant).

* Menu:

* Comparaisons de valeurs::
* Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble::
* Comparaisons d'identifiants::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaisons de valeurs,  Next: Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble,  Up: Comparaisons

4.6.10.1 Comparaisons de valeurs
................................

Les opérateurs ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘==’, ‘>=’, ‘<=’ et ‘!=’ comparent les valeurs
de deux objets.  Les objets n'ont pas besoin d'être du même type.

Le chapitre *note Objets, valeurs et types: 1e9f. indique que les objets
ont une valeur (en plus d'un type et d'un identifiant).  La valeur d'un
objet est une notion plutôt abstraite en Python : par exemple, il
n'existe pas de méthode canonique pour accéder à la valeur d'un objet.
De la même manière, il n'y a aucune obligation concernant la
construction de la valeur d'un objet, par exemple qu'elle prenne en
compte toutes les données de ses attributs.  Les opérateurs de
comparaison implémentent une notion particulière de ce qu'est la valeur
d'un objet.  Vous pouvez vous le représenter comme une définition
indirecte de la valeur d'un objet, 'via' l'implémentation de leur
comparaison.

Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of *note object:
a7c, they inherit the default comparison behavior from *note object:
a7c.  Types can customize their comparison behavior by implementing
'rich comparison methods' like *note __lt__(): 127f, described in *note
Personnalisation de base: 1f19.

Le comportement par défaut pour le test d'égalité (‘==’ et ‘!=’) se base
sur les identifiants des objets.  Ainsi, un test d'égalité entre deux
instances qui ont le même identifiant est vrai, un test d'égalité entre
deux instances qui ont des identifiants différents est faux.  La raison
de ce choix est que Python souhaite que tous les objets soient
réflexifs, c'est-à-dire que ‘x is y’ implique ‘x == y’.

La relation d'ordre (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’ et ‘>=’) n'est pas fournie par
défaut ; une tentative se solde par une *note TypeError: 525.  La raison
de ce choix est qu'il n'existe pas d'invariant similaire à celui de
l'égalité.

Le comportement du test d'égalité par défaut, à savoir que les instances
avec des identités différentes ne sont jamais égales, peut être en
contradiction avec les types qui définissent la « valeur » d'un objet et
se basent sur cette « valeur » pour l'égalité.  De tels types doivent
personnaliser leurs tests de comparaison et, en fait, c'est ce qu'ont
fait un certain nombre de types natifs.

La liste suivante décrit le comportement des tests d'égalité pour les
types natifs les plus importants.

   * Beaucoup de types numériques natifs (*note Types numériques — int,
     float, complex: 1bb6.) et de types de la bibliothèque standard
     *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. ainsi que ‘decimal.decimal’ peuvent
     être comparés, au sein de leur propre classe ou avec d'autres
     objets de classes différentes.  Une exception notable concerne les
     nombres complexes qui ne gèrent pas la relation d'ordre.  Dans les
     limites des types concernés, la comparaison mathématique équivaut à
     la comparaison algorithmique, sans perte de précision.

     Les valeurs non numériques ‘float('NaN')’ et
     ‘decimal.Decimal('NaN')’ sont spéciales : toute comparaison entre
     un nombre et une valeur non numérique est fausse.  Une implication
     contre-intuitive à cela est que les valeurs non numériques ne sont
     pas égales à elles-mêmes.  Par exemple, avec ‘x = float('NaN')’,
     les expressions ‘3 < x’, ‘x < 3’ et ‘x == x’ sont toutes fausses,
     mais l’expression ‘x != x’ est vraie.  Ce comportement est en
     accord avec IEEE 754.

   * ‘None’ and *note NotImplemented: 7be. are singletons.  PEP 8(1)
     advises that comparisons for singletons should always be done with
     ‘is’ or ‘is not’, never the equality operators.

   * Les séquences binaires (instances du type *note bytes: 1bd. ou
     *note bytearray: 52b.) peuvent être comparées au sein de la classe
     et entre classes.  La comparaison est lexicographique, en utilisant
     la valeur numérique des éléments.

   * Les chaînes de caractères (instances de *note str: 437.) respectent
     l'ordre lexicographique en utilisant la valeur Unicode (le résultat
     de la fonction native *note ord(): 1ead.) des caractères (2).

     Les chaînes de caractères et les séquences binaires ne peuvent pas
     être comparées directement.

   * Les séquences (instances de *note tuple: 366, *note list: 5fe. ou
     *note range: 932.) peuvent être comparées uniquement entre
     instances de même type, en sachant que les intervalles ('range') ne
     gèrent pas la relation d'ordre.  Le test d'égalité entre ces types
     renvoie faux et une comparaison entre instances de types différents
     lève une *note TypeError: 525.

     Les séquences se comparent lexicographiquement en comparant les
     éléments correspondants.  Les conteneurs natifs supposent
     généralement que les objets identiques sont égaux à eux-mêmes.
     Cela leur permet d'économiser les tests d’égalité pour des objets
     identiques afin d’améliorer les performances et de conserver leurs
     invariants internes.

     L'ordre lexicographique pour les collections natives fonctionne
     comme suit :

        - Deux collections sont égales si elles sont du même type, ont
          la même longueur et si les éléments correspondants de chaque
          paire sont égaux.  Par exemple, ‘[1,2] == (1,2)’ est faux car
          les types sont différents.

        - Les collections qui gèrent la relation d'ordre sont ordonnées
          comme leur premier élément différent (par exemple, ‘[1,2,x] <=
          [1,2,y]’ a la même valeur que ‘x <= y’).  Si un élément n'a
          pas de correspondant, la collection la plus courte est la plus
          petite (par exemple, ‘[1,2] < [1,2,3]’ est vrai).

   * Les tableaux de correspondances (instances de *note dict: 253.)
     sont égales si et seulement si toutes leurs paires ‘(clé, valeur)’
     sont égales.  L'égalité des clés et des valeurs met en œuvre la
     réflexivité.

     Les comparaisons (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’ et ‘>=’) lèvent *note TypeError:
     525.

   * Les ensembles (instances de *note set: 5c5. ou *note frozenset:
     5c6.) peuvent être comparés au sein de leur propre type et entre
     types différents.

     Les opérateurs d'inclusion et de sur-ensemble sont définis.  Ces
     relations ne sont pas des relations d'ordre total (par exemple, les
     deux ensembles ‘{1,2}’ et ‘{2,3}’ ne sont pas égaux, l'un n'est pas
     inclus dans l'autre, l'un n'est pas un sur-ensemble de l'autre).
     Ainsi, les ensembles ne sont pas des arguments appropriés pour les
     fonctions qui dépendent d'un ordre total (par exemple, les
     fonctions *note min(): ef5, *note max(): ef6. et *note sorted():
     bbe. produisent des résultats indéfinis si on leur donne des listes
     d'ensembles en entrée).

     La comparaison des ensembles met en œuvre la réflexivité des
     éléments.

   * La plupart des autres types natifs n'implémentent pas de méthodes
     de comparaisons, ils héritent donc du comportement par défaut.

Les classes définies par l'utilisateur qui particularisent les
opérations de comparaison doivent, si possible, respecter quelques
règles pour la cohérence :

   * Le test d'égalité doit être réflexif.  En d'autres termes, des
     objets identiques doivent être égaux :

          ‘x is y’ implique ‘x == y’

   * La comparaison doit être symétrique.  En d'autres termes, les
     expressions suivantes doivent donner le même résultat :

          ‘x == y’ et ‘y == x’

          ‘x != y’ et ‘y != x’

          ‘x < y’ et ‘y > x’

          ‘x <= y’ et ‘y >= x’

   * La comparaison doit être transitive.  Les exemples suivants (liste
     non exhaustive) illustrent ce concept :

          ‘x > y and y > z’ implique ‘x > z’

          ‘x < y and y <= z’ implique ‘x < z’

   * Si vous inversez la comparaison, cela doit en produire la négation
     booléenne.  En d'autres termes, les expressions suivantes doivent
     produire le même résultat :

          ‘x == y’ et ‘not x != y’

          ‘x < y’ et ‘not x >= y’ (pour une relation d'ordre total)

          ‘x > y’ et ‘not x <= y’ (pour une relation d'ordre total)

     Ces deux dernières expressions s'appliquent pour les collections
     totalement ordonnées (par exemple, les séquences mais pas les
     ensembles ou les tableaux de correspondances).  Regardez aussi le
     décorateur *note total_ordering(): f2f.

   * Le résultat de *note hash(): 5d7. doit être cohérent avec
     l'égalité.  Les objets qui sont égaux doivent avoir la même
     empreinte ou être marqués comme non-hachables.

Python ne vérifie pas ces règles de cohérence.  En fait, l'utilisation
de valeurs non numériques est un exemple de non-respect de ces règles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (2) Le standard Unicode distingue les 'points codes' ('code points'
en anglais, par exemple 'U+0041') et les 'caractères abstraits'
('abstract characters' en anglais, par exemple « LATIN CAPITAL LETTER
A »).  Bien que la plupart des caractères abstraits de l'Unicode ne sont
représentés que par un seul point code, il y a un certain nombre de
caractères abstraits qui peuvent être représentés par une séquence de
plus qu'un point code.  Par exemple, le caractère abstrait « LATIN
CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA » peut être représenté comme un unique
'caractère précomposé' au point code 'U+00C7', ou en tant que séquence
d'un 'caractère de base' à la position 'U+0043' (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C)
du code, suivi par un 'caractère combiné' à la position 'U+0327'
('COMBINING CEDILLA') du code.

Les opérateurs de comparaison des chaînes opèrent au niveau des points
codes Unicode.  Cela peut être déroutant pour des humains.  Par exemple,
‘"\u00C7" == "\u0043\u0327"’ renvoie ‘False’, bien que les deux chaînes
représentent le même caractère abstrait "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA".

Pour comparer des chaînes au niveau des caractères abstraits (afin
d'avoir quelque chose d'intuitif pour les humains), utilisez *note
unicodedata.normalize(): 6c1.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble,  Next: Comparaisons d'identifiants,  Prev: Comparaisons de valeurs,  Up: Comparaisons

4.6.10.2 Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble
.........................................................

Les opérateurs *note in: 2e9. et *note not in: 61c. testent
l’appartenance.  ‘x in s’ s’évalue à ‘True’ si 'x' appartient à 's' et à
‘False’ sinon.  ‘x not in s’ renvoie la négation de ‘x in s’.  Tous les
types séquences et ensembles natifs gèrent ces opérateurs, ainsi que les
dictionnaires pour lesquels ‘in’ teste si dictionnaire possède une clé
donnée.  Pour les types conteneurs tels que les listes, 'n'-uplets
('tuple'), ensembles ('set'), ensembles figés ('frozen set'),
dictionnaires ('dict') ou 'collections.deque', l’expression ‘x in y’ est
équivalente à ‘any(x is e or x == e for e in y)’.

Pour les chaînes de caractères et chaînes d'octets, ‘x in y’ vaut ‘True’
si et seulement si 'x' est une sous-chaîne de 'y'.  Un test équivalent
est ‘y.find(x) != -1’.  Une chaîne vide est considérée comme une
sous-chaîne de toute autre chaîne, ainsi ‘"" in "abc"’ renvoie ‘True’.

For user-defined classes which define the *note __contains__(): 1f17.
method, ‘x in y’ returns ‘True’ if ‘y.__contains__(x)’ returns a true
value, and ‘False’ otherwise.

For user-defined classes which do not define *note __contains__(): 1f17.
but do define *note __iter__(): 1f15, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if some value
‘z’, for which the expression ‘x is z or x == z’ is true, is produced
while iterating over ‘y’.  If an exception is raised during the
iteration, it is as if *note in: 2e9. raised that exception.

Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
*note __getitem__(): 280, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if there is a
non-negative integer index 'i' such that ‘x is y[i] or x == y[i]’, and
no lower integer index raises the *note IndexError: 14ec. exception.
(If any other exception is raised, it is as if *note in: 2e9. raised
that exception).

L'opérateur *note not in: 61c. est défini comme produisant le contraire
de *note in: 2e9.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaisons d'identifiants,  Prev: Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble,  Up: Comparaisons

4.6.10.3 Comparaisons d'identifiants
....................................

Les opérateurs *note is: 2ea. et *note is not: 2036. testent l'égalité
des identifiants des objets : ‘x is y’ est vrai si et seulement si 'x'
et 'y' sont le même objet.  L'identifiant d'un objet est déterminé en
utilisant la fonction *note id(): 13db.  ‘x is not y’ renvoie le
résultat contraire de l'égalité des identifiants (1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) En raison du ramasse-miettes automatique et de la nature
dynamique des descripteurs, vous pouvez être confronté à un comportement
semblant bizarre lors de certaines utilisations de l'opérateur *note is:
2ea, par exemple si cela implique des comparaisons entre des méthodes
d'instances ou des constantes.  Allez vérifier dans la documentation
pour plus d'informations.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations booléennes,  Next: Expressions d'affectation,  Prev: Comparaisons,  Up: Expressions

4.6.11 Opérations booléennes
----------------------------

     or_test  ::= *note and_test: 203a. | *note or_test: 1fe3. "or" *note and_test: 203a.
     and_test ::= *note not_test: 203b. | *note and_test: 203a. "and" *note not_test: 203b.
     not_test ::= *note comparison: 2031. | "not" *note not_test: 203b.

In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used
by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as
false: ‘False’, ‘None’, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and
containers (including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and
frozensets).  All other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined
objects can customize their truth value by providing a *note __bool__():
12b5. method.

L'opérateur *note not: 2039. produit ‘True’ si son argument est faux,
‘False’ sinon.

L'expression ‘x and y’ commence par évaluer 'x' ; si 'x' est faux, sa
valeur est renvoyée ; sinon, 'y' est évalué et la valeur résultante est
renvoyée.

L'expression ‘x or y’ commence par évaluer 'x' ; si 'x' est vrai, sa
valeur est renvoyée ; sinon, 'y' est évalué et la valeur résultante est
renvoyée.

Notez que ni *note and: 2e6. ni *note or: 2eb. ne restreignent la valeur
et le type qu'ils renvoient à ‘False’ et ‘True’ : ils renvoient le
dernier argument évalué.  Ceci peut être utile, par exemple : si une
chaîne ‘s’ doit être remplacée par une valeur par défaut si elle est
vide, l'expression ‘s or 'truc'’ produit la valeur voulue.  Comme *note
not: 2039. doit créer une nouvelle valeur, il renvoie une valeur
booléenne quel que soit le type de son argument (par exemple, ‘not
'truc'’ produit ‘False’ plutôt que ‘''’.


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions d'affectation,  Next: Expressions conditionnelles,  Prev: Opérations booléennes,  Up: Expressions

4.6.12 Expressions d'affectation
--------------------------------

     assignment_expression ::= [*note identifier: 1e51. ":="] *note expression: 1fef.

Une expression d'affectation (parfois aussi appelée « expression
nommée » ou « expression morse ») affecte l'*note expression: 1fef. à un
*note identifiant: 1e51. et renvoie la valeur de l'*note expression:
1fef.

Une utilisation classique concerne les correspondances d'expressions
rationnelles :

     if matching := pattern.search(data):
         do_something(matching)

Ou lorsqu'on traite le contenu d'un fichier par morceaux :

     while chunk := file.read(9000):
         process(chunk)

Assignment expressions must be surrounded by parentheses when used as
expression statements and when used as sub-expressions in slicing,
conditional, lambda, keyword-argument, and comprehension-if expressions
and in ‘assert’, ‘with’, and ‘assignment’ statements.  In all other
places where they can be used, parentheses are not required, including
in ‘if’ and ‘while’ statements.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Voir la PEP 572(1) pour plus de détails sur
les expressions d’affectation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions conditionnelles,  Next: Expressions lambda,  Prev: Expressions d'affectation,  Up: Expressions

4.6.13 Expressions conditionnelles
----------------------------------

     conditional_expression ::= *note or_test: 1fe3. ["if" *note or_test: 1fe3. "else" *note expression: 1fef.]
     expression             ::= *note conditional_expression: 1e7d. | *note lambda_expr: 2040.

Les expressions conditionnelles (parfois appelées « opérateur
ternaire ») sont les moins prioritaires de toutes les opérations Python.

L'expression ‘x if C else y’ commence par évaluer la condition 'C'. Si
'C' est vrai, alors 'x' est évalué et sa valeur est renvoyée ; sinon,
'y' est évalué et sa valeur est renvoyée.

Voir la PEP 308(1) pour plus de détails sur les expressions
conditionnelles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions lambda,  Next: Listes d'expressions,  Prev: Expressions conditionnelles,  Up: Expressions

4.6.14 Expressions lambda
-------------------------

     lambda_expr ::= "lambda" [*note parameter_list: 2043.] ":" *note expression: 1fef.

Les expressions lambda sont utilisées pour créer des fonctions anonymes.
L'expression ‘lambda parameters: expression’ produit un objet fonction.
Cet objet anonyme se comporte comme un objet fonction défini par :

     def <lambda>(parameters):
         return expression

Voir la section *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4. pour la syntaxe des
listes de paramètres.  Notez que les fonctions créées par des
expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ou
d'annotations.


File: python.info,  Node: Listes d'expressions,  Next: Ordre d'évaluation,  Prev: Expressions lambda,  Up: Expressions

4.6.15 Listes d'expressions
---------------------------

     starred_expression       ::= ["*"] *note or_expr: 1e7e.
     flexible_expression      ::= *note assignment_expression: 1f98. | *note starred_expression: 1fde.
     flexible_expression_list ::= *note flexible_expression: 2045. ("," *note flexible_expression: 2045.)* [","]
     starred_expression_list  ::= *note starred_expression: 1fde. ("," *note starred_expression: 1fde.)* [","]
     expression_list          ::= *note expression: 1fef. ("," *note expression: 1fef.)* [","]
     yield_list               ::= *note expression_list: 2047. | *note starred_expression: 1fde. "," [*note starred_expression_list: 2046.]

Sauf lorsqu'elle fait partie d'un agencement de liste ou d'ensemble, une
liste d'expressions qui contient au moins une virgule produit un
'n'-uplet.  La longueur du 'n'-uplet est le nombre d'expressions dans la
liste.  Les expressions sont évaluées de la gauche vers la droite.

Un astérisque ‘*’ indique 'dépaquetage d'itérable' ('iterable unpacking'
en anglais).  Son opérande doit être un *note iterable: 1207.
L'itérable est développé en une séquence d'éléments qui sont inclus dans
un nouvel objet 'n'-uplet, liste ou ensemble à l'emplacement du
dépaquetage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: dépaquetage d'itérables dans les listes
d'expressions, proposé à l'origine par la PEP 448(1).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Any item in an expression list may be
starred.  See PEP 646(2).

A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple, such as
‘1,’; it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
trailing comma doesn't create a tuple, but rather yields the value of
that expression.  (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of
parentheses: ‘()’.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Ordre d'évaluation,  Next: Priorités des opérateurs,  Prev: Listes d'expressions,  Up: Expressions

4.6.16 Ordre d'évaluation
-------------------------

Python évalue les expressions de la gauche vers la droite.  Remarquez
que lors de l'évaluation d'une affectation, la partie droite de
l'affectation est évaluée avant la partie gauche.

Dans les lignes qui suivent, les expressions sont évaluées suivant
l'ordre arithmétique de leurs suffixes :

     expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
     (expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
     {expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
     expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
     expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
     expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2


File: python.info,  Node: Priorités des opérateurs,  Prev: Ordre d'évaluation,  Up: Expressions

4.6.17 Priorités des opérateurs
-------------------------------

Le tableau suivant résume les priorités des opérateurs en Python, du
plus prioritaire (portée la plus courte) au moins prioritaire (portée la
plus grande).  Les opérateurs qui sont dans la même case ont la même
priorité.  À moins que la syntaxe ne soit explicitement indiquée, les
opérateurs sont binaires.  Les opérateurs dans la même case regroupent
de la gauche vers la droite (sauf pour la puissance et les expressions
conditionnelles qui regroupent de la droite vers la gauche).

Notez que les comparaisons, les tests d'appartenance et les tests
d'identifiants possèdent tous la même priorité et s'enchaînent de la
gauche vers la droite comme décrit dans la section *note Comparaisons:
202f.

Opérateur                                           Description
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘(expressions…)’,                                   Expression de liaison ou parenthèse,
                                                    affichage de liste, affichage de
‘[expressions…]’, ‘{key: value…}’,                  dictionnaire, affichage de 'set'
‘{expressions…}’                                    

‘x[indice]’, ‘x[indice:indice]’, ‘x(arguments…)’,   indiçage, tranches, appel, référence à
‘x.attribut’                                        un attribut
                                                    
                                                    
*note await x: 1b7.                                 Expression ‘await’
                                                    
                                                    
‘**’                                                Puissance (1)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+x’, ‘-x’, ‘~x’                                    NOT (positif, négatif, bit à bit)
                                                    
                                                    
‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’                            Multiplication, multiplication de
                                                    matrices, division, division entière,
                                                    reste (2)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+’, ‘-’                                            Addition et soustraction
                                                    
                                                    
‘<<’, ‘>>’                                          décalages
                                                    
                                                    
‘&’                                                 AND (bit à bit)
                                                    
                                                    
‘^’                                                 XOR (bit à bit)
                                                    
                                                    
‘|’                                                 OR (bit à bit)
                                                    
                                                    
*note in: 2e9, *note not in: 61c, *note is: 2ea,    Comparaisons, y compris les tests
*note is not: 2036, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘!=’,     d'appartenance et les tests
‘==’                                                d'identifiants
                                                    
                                                    
*note not x: 2039.                                  NOT (booléen)
                                                    
                                                    
*note and: 2e6.                                     AND (booléen)
                                                    
                                                    
*note or: 2eb.                                      OR (booléen)
                                                    
                                                    
*note if: 203f. - ‘else’                            Expressions conditionnelles
                                                    
                                                    
*note lambda: 127c.                                 Expression lambda
                                                    
                                                    
‘:=’                                                Expression d'affectation
                                                    

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) L'opérateur puissance ‘**’ est moins prioritaire qu'un opérateur
unaire arithmétique ou bit à bit sur sa droite.  Ainsi, ‘2**-1’ vaut
‘0.5’.

   (2) L'opérateur ‘%’ est aussi utilisé pour formater les chaînes de
caractères ; il y possède la même priorité.


File: python.info,  Node: Les instructions simples,  Next: Instructions composées,  Prev: Expressions,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.7 Les instructions simples
============================

Une instruction simple est contenue dans une seule ligne logique.
Plusieurs instructions simples peuvent être écrites sur une seule ligne,
séparées par des points-virgules.  La syntaxe d'une instruction simple
est :

     simple_stmt ::= *note expression_stmt: 2050.
                     | *note assert_stmt: 2051.
                     | *note assignment_stmt: 2052.
                     | *note augmented_assignment_stmt: 2053.
                     | *note annotated_assignment_stmt: 2054.
                     | *note pass_stmt: 2055.
                     | *note del_stmt: 2056.
                     | *note return_stmt: 2057.
                     | *note yield_stmt: 2058.
                     | *note raise_stmt: 2059.
                     | *note break_stmt: 205a.
                     | *note continue_stmt: 205b.
                     | *note import_stmt: 205c.
                     | *note future_stmt: 205d.
                     | *note global_stmt: 205e.
                     | *note nonlocal_stmt: 205f.
                     | *note type_stmt: 2060.

* Menu:

* Les expressions::
* Les assignations::
* L'instruction assert::
* L'instruction pass: L'instruction pass<2>.
* L'instruction del: L'instruction del<2>.
* L'instruction return::
* L'instruction yield::
* L'instruction raise::
* L'instruction break::
* L'instruction continue::
* L'instruction import::
* L'instruction global::
* L'instruction nonlocal::
* The type statement::


File: python.info,  Node: Les expressions,  Next: Les assignations,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.1 Les expressions
---------------------

Les expressions sont utilisées (généralement de manière interactive)
comme instructions pour calculer et écrire des valeurs, appeler une
procédure (une fonction dont le résultat renvoyé n'a pas d'importance ;
en Python, les procédures renvoient la valeur ‘None’).  D'autres
utilisations des expressions sont autorisées et parfois utiles.  La
syntaxe pour une expression en tant qu'instruction est :

     expression_stmt ::= *note starred_expression: 1fde.

Ce genre d'instruction évalue la liste d'expressions (qui peut se
limiter à une seule expression).

En mode interactif, si la valeur n'est pas ‘None’, elle est convertie en
chaîne en utilisant la fonction native *note repr(): 7e9. et la chaîne
résultante est écrite sur la sortie standard sur sa propre ligne.  Si le
résultat est ‘None’, rien n'est écrit ce qui est usuel pour les appels
de procédures.


File: python.info,  Node: Les assignations,  Next: L'instruction assert,  Prev: Les expressions,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.2 Les assignations
----------------------

Les assignations sont utilisées pour lier ou relier des noms à des
valeurs et modifier des attributs ou des éléments d'objets mutables :

     assignment_stmt ::= (*note target_list: 1fe2. "=")+ (*note starred_expression: 1fde. | *note yield_expression: 1e7f.)
     target_list     ::= *note target: 2064. ("," *note target: 2064.)* [","]
     target          ::= *note identifier: 1e51.
                         | "(" [*note target_list: 1fe2.] ")"
                         | "[" [*note target_list: 1fe2.] "]"
                         | *note attributeref: 2001.
                         | *note subscription: 2002.
                         | *note slicing: 2003.
                         | "*" *note target: 2064.

Voir la section *note Primaires: 1fff. pour la définition des syntaxes
de 'attributeref', 'subscription' et 'slicing'.

Une assignation évalue la liste d'expressions (gardez en mémoire que ce
peut être une simple expression ou une liste dont les éléments sont
séparés par des virgules, cette dernière produisant un 'n'-uplet) et
assigne l'unique objet résultant à chaque liste cible, de la gauche vers
la droite.

Une assignation est définie récursivement en fonction de la forme de la
cible (une liste).  Quand la cible est une partie d'un objet mutable
(une référence à un attribut, une sélection ou une tranche), l'objet
mutable doit effectuer l'assignation au final et décider de sa validité,
voire lever une exception si l'assignation n'est pas acceptable.  Les
règles suivies par les différents types et les exceptions levées sont
données dans les définitions des types d'objets (voir la section *note
Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2.).

L'assignation d'un objet à une liste cible, optionnellement entourée par
des parenthèses ou des crochets, est définie récursivement comme suit.

   * Si la liste cible est une cible unique sans virgule de fin,
     optionnellement entre parenthèses, l'objet est assigné à cette
     cible.

   * Sinon :

        * Si la liste cible contient une cible préfixée par un
          astérisque, appelée cible 'étoilée' ('starred target' en
          anglais) : l'objet doit être un itérable avec au moins autant
          d'éléments qu'il y a de cibles dans la liste cible, moins un.
          Les premiers éléments de l'itérable sont assignés, de la
          gauche vers la droite, aux cibles avant la cible étoilée.  Les
          éléments de queue de l'itérable sont assignés aux cibles après
          la cible étoilée.  Une liste des éléments restants dans
          l'itérable est alors assignée à la cible étoilée (cette liste
          peut être vide).

        * Sinon : l'objet doit être un itérable avec le même nombre
          d'éléments qu'il y a de cibles dans la liste cible ; les
          éléments sont assignés, de la gauche vers la droite, vers les
          cibles correspondantes.

L'assignation d'un objet vers une cible unique est définie récursivement
comme suit.

   * Si la cible est une variable (un nom) :

        * si le nom n'apparaît pas dans une instruction *note global:
          188. ou *note nonlocal: 1287. (respectivement) du bloc de code
          courant, le nom est lié à l'objet dans l'espace courant des
          noms locaux ;

        * sinon le nom est lié à l'objet dans l'espace des noms globaux
          ou dans un espace de nommage plus large déterminé par *note
          nonlocal: 1287, respectivement.

     Le lien du nom est modifié si le nom était déjà lié.  Ceci peut
     faire que le compteur de références de l'objet auquel le nom était
     précédemment lié tombe à zéro, entrainant la dé-allocation de
     l'objet et l'appel de son destructeur (s'il existe).

   * Si la cible est une référence à un attribut : l'expression primaire
     de la référence est évaluée.  Elle doit produire un objet avec des
     attributs que l'on peut assigner : si ce n'est pas le cas, une
     *note TypeError: 525. est levée.  Python demande alors à cet objet
     d'assigner l'attribut donné ; si ce n'est pas possible, une
     exception est levée (habituellement, mais pas nécessairement, *note
     AttributeError: 343.).  Note : si l'objet est une instance de
     classe et que la référence à l'attribut apparaît des deux côtés de
     l'opérateur d'assignation, l'expression « à droite », ‘a.x’ peut
     accéder soit à l'attribut d'instance ou (si cet attribut d'instance
     n'existe pas) à l'attribut de classe.  L'expression cible « à
     gauche » ‘a.x’ est toujours définie comme un attribut d'instance,
     en le créant si nécessaire.  Ainsi, les deux occurrences de ‘a.x’
     ne font pas nécessairement référence au même attribut : si
     l'expression « à droite » fait référence à un attribut de classe,
     l'expression « à gauche » crée un nouvel attribut d'instance comme
     cible de l'assignation :

          class Cls:
              x = 3             # class variable
          inst = Cls()
          inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3

     Cette description ne s'applique pas nécessairement aux attributs
     des descripteurs, telles que les propriétés créées avec *note
     property(): 192.

   * Si la cible est une sélection : l'expression primaire de la
     référence est évaluée.  Elle doit produire soit un objet séquence
     mutable (telle qu'une liste) ou un objet tableau de correspondances
     (tel qu'un dictionnaire).  Ensuite, l'expression de la sélection
     est évaluée.

     Si la primaire est un objet séquence mutable (telle qu'une liste),
     la sélection doit produire un entier.  S'il est négatif, la
     longueur de la séquence lui est ajoutée.  La valeur résultante doit
     être un entier positif ou nul, plus petit que la longueur de la
     séquence, et Python demande à la séquence d'assigner l'objet à
     l'élément se trouvant à cet indice.  Si l'indice est hors limites,
     une *note IndexError: 14ec. est levée (une assignation à une
     sélection dans une séquence ne peut pas ajouter de nouveaux
     éléments à une liste).

     Si la primaire est un objet tableau de correspondances (tel qu'un
     dictionnaire), la sélection doit être d'un type compatible avec le
     type des clés ; Python demande alors au tableau de correspondances
     de créer un couple clé-valeur qui associe la sélection à l'objet
     assigné.  Ceci peut remplacer une correspondance déjà existante
     pour une clé donnée ou insérer un nouveau couple clé-valeur.

     For user-defined objects, the *note __setitem__(): 12ab. method is
     called with appropriate arguments.

   * Si la cible est une tranche : l'expression primaire de la référence
     est évaluée.  Elle doit produire un objet séquence mutable (telle
     qu'une liste).  L'objet assigné doit être un objet séquence du même
     type.  Ensuite, les expressions de la borne inférieure et de la
     borne supérieure sont évaluées, dans la mesure où elles sont
     spécifiées (les valeurs par défaut sont zéro et la longueur de la
     séquence).  Les bornes doivent être des entiers.  Si une borne est
     négative, la longueur de la séquence lui est ajoutée.  Les bornes
     résultantes sont coupées pour être dans l'intervalle zéro -
     longueur de la séquence, inclus.  Finalement, Python demande à
     l'objet séquence de remplacer la tranche avec les éléments de la
     séquence à assigner.  La longueur de la tranche peut être
     différente de la longueur de la séquence à assigner, ce qui modifie
     alors la longueur de la séquence cible, si celle-ci le permet.

Dans l'implémentation actuelle, la syntaxe pour les cibles est similaire
à celle des expressions.  Toute syntaxe invalide est rejetée pendant la
phase de génération de code, ce qui produit des messages d'erreurs moins
détaillés.

Bien que la définition de l'assignation implique que le passage entre le
côté gauche et le côté droit soient « simultanés » (par exemple, ‘a, b =
b, a’ permute les deux variables), le passage 'à l'intérieur' des
collections de variables que l'on assigne intervient de la gauche vers
la droite, ce qui peut entraîner quelques confusions.  Par exemple, le
programme suivant affiche ‘[0, 2]’ :

     x = [0, 1]
     i = 0
     i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
     print(x)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3132(1) - dépaquetage étendu d'itérable

     Spécification de la fonctionnalité ‘*cible’.

* Menu:

* Les assignations augmentées::
* Les assignations annotées::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/


File: python.info,  Node: Les assignations augmentées,  Next: Les assignations annotées,  Up: Les assignations

4.7.2.1 Les assignations augmentées
...................................

Une assignation augmentée est la combinaison, dans une seule
instruction, d'une opération binaire et d'une assignation :

     augmented_assignment_stmt ::= *note augtarget: 2068. *note augop: 2069. (*note expression_list: 2047. | *note yield_expression: 1e7f.)
     augtarget                 ::= *note identifier: 1e51. | *note attributeref: 2001. | *note subscription: 2002. | *note slicing: 2003.
     augop                     ::= "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                                   | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

Voir la section *note Primaires: 1fff. pour la définition des syntaxes
des trois derniers symboles.

Une assignation augmentée évalue la cible (qui, au contraire des
assignations normales, ne peut pas être un dépaquetage) et la liste
d'expressions, effectue l'opération binaire (spécifique au type
d'assignation) sur les deux opérandes et assigne le résultat à la cible
originale.  La cible n'est évaluée qu'une seule fois.

An augmented assignment statement like ‘x += 1’ can be rewritten as ‘x =
x + 1’ to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect.  In the
augmented version, ‘x’ is only evaluated once.  Also, when possible, the
actual operation is performed 'in-place', meaning that rather than
creating a new object and assigning that to the target, the old object
is modified instead.

Au contraire des assignations normales, les assignations augmentées
évaluent la partie gauche 'avant' d'évaluer la partie droite.  Par
exemple, ‘a[i] += f(x)’ commence par s'intéresser à ‘a[i]’, puis Python
évalue ‘f(x)’, effectue l'addition et, enfin, écrit le résultat dans
‘a[i]’.

À l'exception de l'assignation de 'n'-uplets et de cibles multiples dans
une seule instruction, l'assignation effectuée par une assignation
augmentée est traitée de la même manière qu'une assignation normale.  De
même, à l'exception du comportement possible 'sur place', l'opération
binaire effectuée par assignation augmentée est la même que les
opérations binaires normales.

Pour les cibles qui sont des références à des attributs, la même *note
mise en garde sur les attributs de classe et d'instances: 2065.
s'applique que pour les assignations normales.


File: python.info,  Node: Les assignations annotées,  Prev: Les assignations augmentées,  Up: Les assignations

4.7.2.2 Les assignations annotées
.................................

Une assignation *note annotée: d45. est la combinaison, dans une seule
instruction, d'une annotation de variable ou d'attribut et d'une
assignation optionnelle :

     annotated_assignment_stmt ::= *note augtarget: 2068. ":" *note expression: 1fef.
                                   ["=" (*note starred_expression: 1fde. | *note yield_expression: 1e7f.)]

La différence avec une assignation normale (voir *note ci-dessus: 1f92.)
est qu'une seule cible est autorisée.

The assignment target is considered "simple" if it consists of a single
name that is not enclosed in parentheses.  For simple assignment
targets, if in class or module scope, the annotations are evaluated and
stored in a special class or module attribute ‘__annotations__’ that is
a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
evaluated annotations.  This attribute is writable and is automatically
created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
are found statically.

If the assignment target is not simple (an attribute, subscript node, or
parenthesized name), the annotation is evaluated if in class or module
scope, but not stored.

Si le nom est annoté dans la portée d'une fonction, alors ce nom est
local à cette portée.  Les annotations ne sont jamais évaluées et
stockées dans les portées des fonctions.

If the right hand side is present, an annotated assignment performs the
actual assignment before evaluating annotations (where applicable).  If
the right hand side is not present for an expression target, then the
interpreter evaluates the target except for the last *note
__setitem__(): 12ab. or *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. call.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 526(1) - Syntaxe pour les annotations de variables

     La proposition qui a ajouté la syntaxe pour annoter les types de
     variables (y compris les variables de classe et les variables
     d'instance), au lieu de les exprimer par le biais de commentaires.

PEP 484(2) - Indices de type

     La proposition qui a ajouté le module *note typing: 103. pour
     fournir une syntaxe standard pour les annotations de type qui
     peuvent être utilisées dans les outils d'analyse statique et les
     environnements de développement intégrés ('EDI').

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Dorénavant, côté droit des assignations
annotées, peuvent figurer les mêmes expressions que pour les
assignations normales.  Auparavant, certaines expressions (comme des
'n'-uplets sans parenthèse englobante) généraient des erreurs de
syntaxe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction assert,  Next: L'instruction pass<2>,  Prev: Les assignations,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.3 L'instruction ‘assert’
----------------------------

Les instructions ‘assert’ sont une manière pratique d'insérer des tests
de débogage au sein d'un programme :

     assert_stmt ::= "assert" *note expression: 1fef. ["," *note expression: 1fef.]

La forme la plus simple, ‘assert expression’, est équivalente à :

     if __debug__:
         if not expression: raise AssertionError

La forme étendue, ‘assert expression1, expression2’, est équivalente à :

     if __debug__:
         if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

These equivalences assume that *note __debug__: 7c6. and *note
AssertionError: 696. refer to the built-in variables with those names.
In the current implementation, the built-in variable ‘__debug__’ is
‘True’ under normal circumstances, ‘False’ when optimization is
requested (command line option *note -O: da4.).  The current code
generator emits no code for an *note assert: 957. statement when
optimization is requested at compile time.  Note that it is unnecessary
to include the source code for the expression that failed in the error
message; it will be displayed as part of the stack trace.

Assigner vers *note __debug__: 7c6. est illégal.  La valeur de cette
variable native est déterminée au moment où l'interpréteur démarre.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction pass<2>,  Next: L'instruction del<2>,  Prev: L'instruction assert,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.4 L'instruction ‘pass’
--------------------------

     pass_stmt ::= "pass"

*note pass: 1bd8. est une opération vide -- quand elle est exécutée,
rien ne se passe.  Elle est utile comme bouche-trou lorsqu'une
instruction est syntaxiquement requise mais qu'aucun code ne doit être
exécuté.  Par exemple :

     def f(arg): pass    # a function that does nothing (yet)

     class C: pass       # a class with no methods (yet)


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction del<2>,  Next: L'instruction return,  Prev: L'instruction pass<2>,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.5 L'instruction ‘del’
-------------------------

     del_stmt ::= "del" *note target_list: 1fe2.

La suppression est récursivement définie de la même manière que
l'assignation.  Plutôt que de détailler cela de manière approfondie,
voici quelques indices.

La suppression d'une liste cible ('target_list' dans la grammaire
ci-dessus) supprime récursivement chaque cible, de la gauche vers la
droite.

La suppression d'un nom détruit le lien entre ce nom dans l'espace des
noms locaux, ou l'espace des noms globaux si ce nom apparaît dans une
instruction *note global: 188. dans le même bloc de code.  Si le nom
n'est pas lié, une exception *note NameError: 42a. est levée.

La suppression d'une référence à un attribut, une sélection ou une
tranche est passée à l'objet primaire concerné : la suppression d'une
tranche est en général équivalente à l'assignation d'une tranche vide du
type adéquat (mais ceci est au final déterminé par l'objet que l'on
tranche).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Auparavant, il était illégal de supprimer
un nom dans l'espace des noms locaux si celui-ci apparaissait comme
variable libre dans un bloc imbriqué.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction return,  Next: L'instruction yield,  Prev: L'instruction del<2>,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.6 L'instruction ‘return’
----------------------------

     return_stmt ::= "return" [*note expression_list: 2047.]

*note return: 9be. ne peut être placée qu'à l'intérieur d'une définition
de fonction, pas à l'intérieur d'une définition de classe.

Si une liste d'expressions ('expression_list' dans la grammaire
ci-dessus) est présente, elle est évaluée, sinon ‘None’ est utilisée
comme valeur par défaut.

*note return: 9be. quitte l'appel à la fonction courante avec la liste
d'expressions (ou ‘None’) comme valeur de retour.

Quand *note return: 9be. fait sortir d'une instruction *note try: 6d5.
avec une clause *note finally: 9ba, cette clause ‘finally’ est exécutée
avant de réellement quitter la fonction.

Dans une fonction génératrice, l'instruction *note return: 9be. indique
que le générateur est terminé et provoque la levée d'une *note
StopIteration: bea.  La valeur de retour (s'il y en a une) est utilisée
comme argument pour construire l'exception *note StopIteration: bea. et
devient l'attribut *note StopIteration.value: 1f82.

Dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone, une instruction *note return:
9be. vide indique que le générateur asynchrone est terminé et provoque
la levée d'une *note StopAsyncIteration: 19eb.  Une instruction ‘return’
non vide est une erreur de syntaxe dans une fonction génératrice
asynchrone.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction yield,  Next: L'instruction raise,  Prev: L'instruction return,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.7 L'instruction ‘yield’
---------------------------

     yield_stmt ::= *note yield_expression: 1e7f.

A *note yield: 9bd. statement is semantically equivalent to a *note
yield expression: 1ff3.  The ‘yield’ statement can be used to omit the
parentheses that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield
expression statement.  For example, the yield statements

     yield <expr>
     yield from <expr>

sont équivalentes aux instructions expressions 'yield' :

     (yield <expr>)
     (yield from <expr>)

Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a *note
generator: 104c. function, and are only used in the body of the
generator function.  Using *note yield: 9bd. in a function definition is
sufficient to cause that definition to create a generator function
instead of a normal function.

Pour tous les détails sur la sémantique de *note yield: 9bd,
reportez-vous à la section *note Expressions yield: 1ff3.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction raise,  Next: L'instruction break,  Prev: L'instruction yield,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.8 L'instruction ‘raise’
---------------------------

     raise_stmt ::= "raise" [*note expression: 1fef. ["from" *note expression: 1fef.]]

Si aucune expression n'est présente, *note raise: 5d9. propage
l'exception en cours de traitement, aussi dénommée 'exception active'.
Si aucune exception n'est active, une exception *note RuntimeError: 193.
est levée, indiquant que c'est une erreur.

Sinon, *note raise: 5d9. évalue la première expression en tant qu'objet
exception.  Ce doit être une sous-classe ou une instance de *note
BaseException: 5a7.  Si c'est une classe, l'instance de l'exception est
obtenue en instanciant la classe sans argument (au moment voulu).

Le 'type' de l'exception est la classe de l'instance de l'exception, la
'value' est l'instance elle-même.

A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception
is raised and attached to it as the *note __traceback__: 12a6.
attribute.  You can create an exception and set your own traceback in
one step using the *note with_traceback(): 2072. exception method (which
returns the same exception instance, with its traceback set to its
argument), like so:

     raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

The ‘from’ clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second
'expression' must be another exception class or instance.  If the second
expression is an exception instance, it will be attached to the raised
exception as the *note __cause__: 12a8. attribute (which is writable).
If the expression is an exception class, the class will be instantiated
and the resulting exception instance will be attached to the raised
exception as the ‘__cause__’ attribute.  If the raised exception is not
handled, both exceptions will be printed:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except Exception as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

A similar mechanism works implicitly if a new exception is raised when
an exception is already being handled.  An exception may be handled when
an *note except: 189. or *note finally: 9ba. clause, or a *note with:
5be. statement, is used.  The previous exception is then attached as the
new exception's *note __context__: 12a7. attribute:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying *note
None: 662. in the ‘from’ clause:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Des informations complémentaires sur les exceptions sont disponibles
dans la section *note Exceptions: 1f9e. et sur la gestion des exceptions
dans la section *note L'instruction try: 6d5.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note None: 662. est dorénavant autorisée
en tant que ‘Y’ dans ‘raise X from Y’.

Added the *note __suppress_context__: 2073. attribute to suppress
automatic display of the exception context.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: si la trace d'appels de l'exception active
est modifiée dans une clause *note except: 189, une instruction ‘raise’
postérieure lève à nouveau l'exception avec la trace modifiée.
Auparavant, l'exception était levée à nouveau avec la trace qu'elle
avait au moment de son interception.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction break,  Next: L'instruction continue,  Prev: L'instruction raise,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.9 L'instruction ‘break’
---------------------------

     break_stmt ::= "break"

Une instruction *note break: a99. ne peut apparaître qu'à l'intérieur
d'une boucle *note for: 2e7. ou *note while: 1bc2, mais pas dans une
définition de fonction ou de classe à l'intérieur de cette boucle.

Elle termine la boucle la plus imbriquée, shuntant l'éventuelle clause
‘else’ de la boucle.

Si une boucle *note for: 2e7. est terminée par un *note break: a99, la
cible qui contrôle la boucle garde sa valeur.

Quand *note break: a99. passe le contrôle en dehors d'une instruction
*note try: 6d5. qui comporte une clause *note finally: 9ba, cette clause
‘finally’ est exécutée avant de quitter la boucle.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction continue,  Next: L'instruction import,  Prev: L'instruction break,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.10 L'instruction ‘continue’
-------------------------------

     continue_stmt ::= "continue"

L'instruction *note continue: 9b9. ne peut apparaître qu'à l'intérieur
d'une boucle *note for: 2e7. ou *note while: 1bc2, mais pas dans une
définition de fonction ou de classe à l'intérieur de cette boucle.  Elle
fait continuer le flot d'exécution au prochain cycle de la boucle la
plus imbriquée.

Quand *note continue: 9b9. passe le contrôle en dehors d'une instruction
*note try: 6d5. qui comporte une clause *note finally: 9ba, cette clause
‘finally’ est exécutée avant de commencer le cycle suivant de la boucle.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction import,  Next: L'instruction global,  Prev: L'instruction continue,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.11 L'instruction ‘import’
-----------------------------

     import_stmt     ::= "import" *note module: 2077. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.] ("," *note module: 2077. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.])*
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 2078. "import" *note identifier: 1e51. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.]
                         ("," *note identifier: 1e51. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.])*
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 2078. "import" "(" *note identifier: 1e51. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.]
                         ("," *note identifier: 1e51. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.])* [","] ")"
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 2078. "import" "*"
     module          ::= (*note identifier: 1e51. ".")* *note identifier: 1e51.
     relative_module ::= "."* *note module: 2077. | "."+

L'instruction de base 'import' (sans clause *note from: 128b.) est
exécutée en deux étapes :

  1. trouve un module, le charge et l'initialise si nécessaire

  2. définit un ou des noms ('name' dans la grammaire ci-dessus) dans
     l'espace des noms locaux de la portée où l'instruction *note
     import: 5ce. apparaît.

Quand l'instruction contient plusieurs clauses (séparées par des
virgules), les deux étapes sont menées séparément pour chaque clause,
comme si les clauses étaient séparées dans des instructions
d'importations individuelles.

Les détails de la première étape, de recherche et de chargement des
modules, sont décrits largement dans la section relative au *note
système d'importation: 1ecf, qui décrit également les différents types
de paquets et modules qui peuvent être importés, de même que les points
d'entrée pouvant être utilisés pour personnaliser le système
d'importation.  Notez que des erreurs dans cette étape peuvent indiquer
soit que le module n'a pas été trouvé, soit qu'une erreur s'est produite
lors de l'initialisation du module, ce qui comprend l'exécution du code
du module.

Si le module requis est bien récupéré, il est mis à disposition de
l'espace de nommage local suivant l'une des trois façons suivantes :

   * Si le nom du module est suivi par ‘as’, alors le nom suivant ‘as’
     est directement lié au module importé.

   * si aucun autre nom n'est spécifié et que le module en cours
     d'importation est un module de niveau le plus haut, le nom du
     module est lié dans l'espace des noms locaux au module importé ;

   * si le module en cours d'importation n'est 'pas' un module de plus
     haut niveau, alors le nom du paquet de plus haut niveau qui
     contient ce module est lié dans l'espace des noms locaux au paquet
     de plus haut niveau.  Vous pouvez accéder au module importé en
     utilisant son nom pleinement qualifié et non directement.

La forme *note from: 128b. utilise un processus un peu plus complexe :

  1. trouve le module spécifié dans la clause *note from: 128b, le
     charge et l'initialise si nécessaire ;

  2. pour chaque nom spécifié dans les clauses *note import: 5ce. :

       1. vérifie si le module importé possède un attribut avec ce nom ;

       2. si non, essaie d'importer un sous-module avec ce nom puis
          vérifie si le module importé possède lui-même cet attribut ;

       3. si l'attribut n'est pas trouvé, une *note ImportError: 40f.
          est levée.

       4. sinon, une référence à cette valeur est stockée dans l'espace
          des noms locaux, en utilisant le nom de la clause ‘as’ si elle
          est présente, sinon en utilisant le nom de l'attribut.

Exemples :

     import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz         # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as fbb
     from foo.bar import baz    # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as baz
     from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr

Si la liste des noms est remplacée par une étoile (‘'*'’), tous les noms
publics définis dans le module sont liés dans l'espace des noms locaux
de la portée où apparaît l'instruction *note import: 5ce.

Les 'noms publics' définis par un module sont déterminés en cherchant
dans l'espace de nommage du module une variable nommée ‘__all__’ ; Si
elle est définie, elle doit être une séquence de chaînes désignant les
noms définis ou importés par ce module.  Les noms donnés dans ‘__all__’
sont tous considérés publics et doivent exister.  Si ‘__all__’ n'est pas
définie, l'ensemble des noms publics contient tous les noms trouvés dans
l'espace des noms du module qui ne commencent pas par un caractère
souligné (‘_’).  ‘__all__’ doit contenir toute l'API publique.  Elle est
destinée à éviter l'exportation accidentelle d'éléments qui ne font pas
partie de l'API (tels que des modules de bibliothèques qui ont été
importés et utilisés à l'intérieur du module).

La forme d''import' avec astérisque -- ‘from module import *’ -- est
autorisée seulement au niveau du module.  Si vous essayez de l'utiliser
dans une définition de classe ou de fonction, cela lève une *note
SyntaxError: 18b.

Quand vous spécifiez les modules à importer, vous n'avez pas besoin de
spécifier les noms absolus des modules.  Quand un module ou un paquet
est contenu dans un autre paquet, il est possible d'effectuer une
importation relative à l'intérieur du même paquet de plus haut niveau
sans avoir à mentionner le nom du paquet.  En utilisant des points en
entête du module ou du paquet spécifié après *note from: 128b, vous
pouvez spécifier combien de niveaux vous souhaitez remonter dans la
hiérarchie du paquet courant sans spécifier de nom exact.  Un seul point
en tête signifie le paquet courant où se situe le module qui effectue
l'importation.  Deux points signifient de remonter d'un niveau.  Trois
points, remonter de deux niveaux et ainsi de suite.  Ainsi, si vous
exécutez ‘from . import mod’ dans un module du paquet ‘pkg’, vous
importez finalement ‘pkg.mod’.  Et si vous exécutez ‘from ..souspkg2
import mod’ depuis ‘pkg.souspkg1’, vous importez finalement
‘pkg.souspkg2.mod’.  La spécification des importations relatives se
situe dans la section *note Importations relatives au paquet: 1fc2.

*note importlib.import_module(): 504. est fournie pour gérer les
applications qui déterminent dynamiquement les modules à charger.

Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. avec les arguments ‘module’,
‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’, ‘sys.path_hooks’.

* Menu:

* L'instruction future::


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction future,  Up: L'instruction import

4.7.11.1 L'instruction future
.............................

Une 'instruction future' est une directive à l'attention du compilateur
afin qu'un module particulier soit compilé en utilisant une syntaxe ou
une sémantique qui sera disponible dans une future version de Python où
cette fonctionnalité est devenue un standard.

L'instruction 'future' a vocation à faciliter les migrations vers les
futures versions de Python qui introduisent des changements
incompatibles au langage.  Cela permet l'utilisation de nouvelles
fonctionnalités module par module avant qu'une version n'officialise
cette fonctionnalité comme un standard.

     future_stmt ::= "from" "__future__" "import" *note feature: 207a. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.]
                     ("," *note feature: 207a. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.])*
                     | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" *note feature: 207a. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.]
                     ("," *note feature: 207a. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.])* [","] ")"
     feature     ::= *note identifier: 1e51.

Une instruction 'future' doit apparaître en haut du module.  Les seules
lignes autorisées avant une instruction 'future' sont :

   * la chaîne de documentation du module (si elle existe),

   * des commentaires,

   * des lignes vides et

   * d'autres instructions 'future'.

La seule fonctionnalité qui nécessite l'utilisation de l'instruction
‘future’ est ‘annotations’ (voir la PEP 563(1)).

Toutes les fonctionnalités ('feature' dans la grammaire ci-dessus)
autorisées par l'instruction ‘future’ sont toujours reconnues par Python
3.  Cette liste comprend ‘absolute_import’, ‘division’, ‘generators’,
‘generator_stop’, ‘unicode_literals’, ‘print_function’, ‘nested_scopes’
et ‘with_statement’.  Elles sont toutes redondantes car elles sont de
toute manière activées ; elles ne sont conservées que par souci de
compatibilité descendante.

Une instruction 'future' est reconnue et traitée spécialement au moment
de la compilation : les modifications à la sémantique des constructions
de base sont souvent implémentées en générant un code différent.  Il
peut même arriver qu'une nouvelle fonctionnalité ait une syntaxe
incompatible (tel qu'un nouveau mot réservé) ; dans ce cas, le
compilateur a besoin d'analyser le module de manière différente.  De
telles décisions ne peuvent pas être différées au moment de l'exécution.

Pour une version donnée, le compilateur sait quelles fonctionnalités ont
été définies et lève une erreur à la compilation si une instruction
'future' contient une fonctionnalité qui lui est inconnue.

La sémantique à l'exécution est la même que pour toute autre instruction
d'importation : il existe un module standard *note __future__: 0, décrit
plus loin, qui est importé comme les autres au moment où l'instruction
'future' est exécutée.

La sémantique particulière à l'exécution dépend des fonctionnalités
apportées par l'instruction 'future'.

Notez que l'instruction suivante est tout à fait normale :

     import __future__ [as name]

Ce n'est pas une instruction 'future' ; c'est une instruction
d'importation ordinaire qui n'a aucune sémantique particulière ou
restriction de syntaxe.

Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions *note exec(): 17d. and
*note compile(): 190. that occur in a module ‘M’ containing a future
statement will, by default, use the new syntax or semantics associated
with the future statement.  This can be controlled by optional arguments
to *note compile(): 190. -- see the documentation of that function for
details.

Une instruction 'future' entrée à l'invite de l'interpréteur interactif
est effective pour le reste de la session de l'interpréteur.  Si
l'interpréteur est démarré avec l'option *note -i: 1493, qu'un nom de
script est passé pour être exécuté et que ce script contient une
instruction 'future', elle est effective pour la session interactive qui
démarre après l'exécution du script.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 236(2) — retour vers le ‘__future__’

     La proposition originale pour le mécanisme de ‘__future__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction global,  Next: L'instruction nonlocal,  Prev: L'instruction import,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.12 L'instruction ‘global’
-----------------------------

     global_stmt ::= "global" *note identifier: 1e51. ("," *note identifier: 1e51.)*

The *note global: 188. statement causes the listed identifiers to be
interpreted as globals.  It would be impossible to assign to a global
variable without ‘global’, although free variables may refer to globals
without being declared global.

The *note global: 188. statement applies to the entire scope of a
function or class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 18b. is raised if a
variable is used or assigned to prior to its global declaration in the
scope.

'Note pour les programmeurs :' *note global: 188. est une directive à
l'attention de l'analyseur syntaxique.  Elle s'applique uniquement au
code analysé en même temps que l'instruction ‘global’.  En particulier,
une instruction ‘global’ contenue dans une chaîne ou un objet code
fourni à la fonction native *note exec(): 17d. n'affecte pas le code
'contenant' cet appel et le code contenu dans un telle chaîne n'est pas
affecté par une instruction ‘global’ placée dans le code contenant
l'appel.  Il en est de même pour les fonctions *note eval(): 17e. et
*note compile(): 190.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction nonlocal,  Next: The type statement,  Prev: L'instruction global,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.13 L'instruction ‘nonlocal’
-------------------------------

     nonlocal_stmt ::= "nonlocal" *note identifier: 1e51. ("," *note identifier: 1e51.)*

When the definition of a function or class is nested (enclosed) within
the definitions of other functions, its nonlocal scopes are the local
scopes of the enclosing functions.  The *note nonlocal: 1287. statement
causes the listed identifiers to refer to names previously bound in
nonlocal scopes.  It allows encapsulated code to rebind such nonlocal
identifiers.  If a name is bound in more than one nonlocal scope, the
nearest binding is used.  If a name is not bound in any nonlocal scope,
or if there is no nonlocal scope, a *note SyntaxError: 18b. is raised.

The *note nonlocal: 1287. statement applies to the entire scope of a
function or class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 18b. is raised if a
variable is used or assigned to prior to its nonlocal declaration in the
scope.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3104(1) - Accès à des noms en dehors de la portée locale

     Les spécifications pour l'instruction *note nonlocal: 1287.

'Programmer's note:' *note nonlocal: 1287. is a directive to the parser
and applies only to code parsed along with it.  See the note for the
*note global: 188. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/


File: python.info,  Node: The type statement,  Prev: L'instruction nonlocal,  Up: Les instructions simples

4.7.14 The ‘type’ statement
---------------------------

     type_stmt ::= 'type' *note identifier: 1e51. [*note type_params: 207e.] "=" *note expression: 1fef.

The ‘type’ statement declares a type alias, which is an instance of
*note typing.TypeAliasType: 440.

For example, the following statement creates a type alias:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

This code is roughly equivalent to:

     annotation-def VALUE_OF_Point():
         return tuple[float, float]
     Point = typing.TypeAliasType("Point", VALUE_OF_Point())

‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 186, which behaves
mostly like a function, but with several small differences.

The value of the type alias is evaluated in the annotation scope.  It is
not evaluated when the type alias is created, but only when the value is
accessed through the type alias's ‘__value__’ attribute (see *note Lazy
evaluation: 442.).  This allows the type alias to refer to names that
are not yet defined.

Type aliases may be made generic by adding a *note type parameter list:
2b0. after the name.  See *note Generic type aliases: 441. for more.

‘type’ is a *note soft keyword: 7f8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 695(1) - Type Parameter Syntax

     Introduced the ‘type’ statement and syntax for generic classes and
     functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Instructions composées,  Next: Composants de plus haut niveau,  Prev: Les instructions simples,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.8 Instructions composées
==========================

Les instructions composées contiennent d'autres (groupes d’)
instructions ; elles affectent ou contrôlent l'exécution de ces autres
instructions d'une manière ou d'une autre.  En général, une instruction
composée couvre plusieurs lignes bien que, dans sa forme la plus simple,
une instruction composée peut tenir sur une seule ligne.

Les instructions *note if: 2e8, *note while: 1bc2. et *note for: 2e7.
implémentent les constructions classiques de contrôle de flux.  *note
try: 6d5. définit des gestionnaires d'exception et du code de nettoyage
pour un groupe d'instructions, tandis que l'instruction *note with: 5be.
permet l'exécution de code d'initialisation et de finalisation autour
d'un bloc de code.  Les définitions de fonctions et de classes sont
également, au sens syntaxique, des instructions composées.

Une instruction composée comporte une ou plusieurs « clauses ».  Une
clause se compose d'un en-tête et d'une « suite ».  Les en-têtes des
clauses d'une instruction composée particulière sont toutes placées au
même niveau d'indentation.  Chaque en-tête de clause commence par un
mot-clé spécifique et se termine par le caractère deux-points (‘:’) ;
une suite est un groupe d'instructions contrôlées par une clause ; une
suite se compose, après les deux points de l'en-tête, soit d'une ou
plusieurs instructions simples séparées par des points-virgules si elles
sont sur la même ligne que l'en-tête, soit d'une ou plusieurs
instructions en retrait sur les lignes suivantes.  Seule cette dernière
forme d'une suite peut contenir des instructions composées ; ce qui suit
n'est pas licite, principalement parce qu'il ne serait pas clair de
savoir à quelle clause *note if: 2e8. se rapporterait une clause *note
else: 18a. placée en fin de ligne :

     if test1: if test2: print(x)

Notez également que le point-virgule se lie plus étroitement que le
deux-points dans ce contexte, de sorte que dans l'exemple suivant, soit
tous les appels *note print(): f62. sont exécutés, soit aucun ne l'est :

     if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)

En résumé :

     compound_stmt ::= *note if_stmt: 2083.
                       | *note while_stmt: 2084.
                       | *note for_stmt: 2085.
                       | *note try_stmt: 2086.
                       | *note with_stmt: 2087.
                       | *note match_stmt: 2088.
                       | *note funcdef: 2089.
                       | *note classdef: 208a.
                       | *note async_with_stmt: 208b.
                       | *note async_for_stmt: 208c.
                       | *note async_funcdef: 208d.
     suite         ::= *note stmt_list: 208f. NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT *note statement: 2090.+ DEDENT
     statement     ::= *note stmt_list: 208f. NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 2082.
     stmt_list     ::= *note simple_stmt: 204f. (";" *note simple_stmt: 204f.)* [";"]

Notez que ces instructions se terminent toujours par un lexème ‘NEWLINE’
suivi éventuellement d'un ‘DEDENT’.  Notez également que les clauses
facultatives qui suivent commencent toujours par un mot-clé qui ne peut
pas commencer une instruction.  Ainsi, il n'y a pas d'ambiguïté (le
problème du *note else: 18a. dont on ne sait pas à quel ‘if’ il est
relié est résolu en Python en exigeant que des instructions *note if:
2e8. imbriquées soient indentées les unes par rapport aux autres).

L'agencement des règles de grammaire dans les sections qui suivent place
chaque clause sur une ligne séparée pour plus de clarté.
* Menu:

* L'instruction if: L'instruction if<2>.
* L'instruction while::
* L'instruction for: L'instruction for<2>.
* L'instruction try::
* L'instruction with::
* L'instruction match: L'instruction match<2>.
* Définition de fonctions::
* Définition de classes::
* Coroutines: Coroutines<2>.
* Type parameter lists::


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction if<2>,  Next: L'instruction while,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.1 L'instruction ‘if’
------------------------

L'instruction *note if: 2e8. est utilisée pour exécuter des instructions
en fonction d'une condition :

     if_stmt ::= "if" *note assignment_expression: 1f98. ":" *note suite: 208e.
                 ("elif" *note assignment_expression: 1f98. ":" *note suite: 208e.)*
                 ["else" ":" *note suite: 208e.]

Elle sélectionne exactement une des suites en évaluant les expressions
une par une jusqu'à ce qu'une soit vraie (voir la section *note
Opérations booléennes: 2037. pour la définition de vrai et faux) ;
ensuite cette suite est exécutée (et aucune autre partie de
l'instruction *note if: 2e8. n'est exécutée ou évaluée).  Si toutes les
expressions sont fausses, la suite de la clause *note else: 18a, si elle
existe, est exécutée.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction while,  Next: L'instruction for<2>,  Prev: L'instruction if<2>,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.2 L'instruction ‘while’
---------------------------

L'instruction *note while: 1bc2. est utilisée pour exécuter des
instructions de manière répétée tant qu'une expression est vraie :

     while_stmt ::= "while" *note assignment_expression: 1f98. ":" *note suite: 208e.
                    ["else" ":" *note suite: 208e.]

Python évalue l'expression de manière répétée et, tant qu'elle est
vraie, exécute la première suite ; si l'expression est fausse (ce qui
peut arriver même lors du premier test), la suite de la clause ‘else’,
si elle existe, est exécutée et la boucle se termine.

Une instruction *note break: a99. exécutée dans la première suite
termine la boucle sans exécuter la suite de la clause ‘else’.  Une
instruction *note continue: 9b9. exécutée dans la première suite saute
le reste de la suite et retourne au test de l'expression.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction for<2>,  Next: L'instruction try,  Prev: L'instruction while,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.3 L'instruction ‘for’
-------------------------

L'instruction *note for: 2e7. est utilisée pour itérer sur les éléments
d'une séquence (par exemple une chaîne, un 'n'-uplet ou une liste) ou un
autre objet itérable :

     for_stmt ::= "for" *note target_list: 1fe2. "in" starred_list ":" *note suite: 208e.
                  ["else" ":" *note suite: 208e.]

L'expression ‘starred_list’ n'est évaluée qu'une seule fois ; elle doit
produire un objet *note iterable: 1207.  Un *note iterator: 1aa. est
créé pour cet itérable.  Le premier élément produit par l'itérateur est
assigné à la liste cible ('target_list' dans la grammaire ci-dessus) en
utilisant les règles des affectations (voir *note Les assignations:
1f92.), puis la « suite » est exécutée.  Lorsque les éléments de
l'itérateur sont épuisés, la « suite » de la clause ‘else’, si elle
existe, est exécutée et la boucle se termine.

Une instruction *note break: a99. exécutée dans la première suite
termine la boucle sans exécuter la suite de la clause ‘else’.  Une
instruction *note continue: 9b9. exécutée dans la première suite saute
le reste de la suite et continue avec l'élément suivant, ou avec la
clause ‘else’ s'il n'y a pas d'élément suivant.

La boucle ‘for’ effectue des affectations aux variables de la liste
cible, ce qui écrase toutes les affectations antérieures de ces
variables, y compris celles effectuées dans la suite de la boucle
‘for’ :

     for i in range(10):
         print(i)
         i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
                           # because i will be overwritten with the next
                           # index in the range

Les noms dans la liste cible ne sont pas supprimés lorsque la boucle est
terminée mais, si la séquence est vide, ils n'auront pas du tout été
assignés par la boucle.  Petite astuce : le type natif *note range():
932. représente des suites arithmétiques immuables de nombres entiers ;
par exemple, itérer sur ‘range(3)’ renvoie successivement les entiers 0,
1 et 2.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: les éléments étoilés sont maintenant
autorisés dans l'expression liste.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction try,  Next: L'instruction with,  Prev: L'instruction for<2>,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.4 L'instruction ‘try’
-------------------------

L'instruction ‘try’ définit les gestionnaires d'exception ou le code de
nettoyage pour un groupe d'instructions :

     try_stmt  ::= *note try1_stmt: 2095. | *note try2_stmt: 2096. | *note try3_stmt: 2097.
     try1_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 208e.
                   ("except" [*note expression: 1fef. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.]] ":" *note suite: 208e.)+
                   ["else" ":" *note suite: 208e.]
                   ["finally" ":" *note suite: 208e.]
     try2_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 208e.
                   ("except" "*" *note expression: 1fef. ["as" *note identifier: 1e51.] ":" *note suite: 208e.)+
                   ["else" ":" *note suite: 208e.]
                   ["finally" ":" *note suite: 208e.]
     try3_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 208e.
                   "finally" ":" *note suite: 208e.

Vous trouvez des informations supplémentaires relatives aux exceptions
dans la section *note Exceptions: 1f9e. et, dans la section *note
L'instruction raise: 5d9, des informations relatives à l'utilisation de
l'instruction *note raise: 5d9. pour produire des exceptions.

* Menu:

* clause except::
* clause except*::
* clause else::
* clause finally::


File: python.info,  Node: clause except,  Next: clause except*,  Up: L'instruction try

4.8.4.1 clause ‘except’
.......................

The ‘except’ clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers.  When no
exception occurs in the *note try: 6d5. clause, no exception handler is
executed.  When an exception occurs in the ‘try’ suite, a search for an
exception handler is started.  This search inspects the ‘except’ clauses
in turn until one is found that matches the exception.  An
expression-less ‘except’ clause, if present, must be last; it matches
any exception.

For an ‘except’ clause with an expression, the expression must evaluate
to an exception type or a tuple of exception types.  The raised
exception matches an ‘except’ clause whose expression evaluates to the
class or a *note non-virtual base class: 1195. of the exception object,
or to a tuple that contains such a class.

Si aucune clause ‘except’ ne correspond à l'exception, la recherche d'un
gestionnaire d'exception se poursuit dans le code englobant et dans la
pile d'appels.  (1)

Si l'évaluation d'une expression dans l'en-tête d'une clause ‘except’
lève une exception, la recherche initiale d'un gestionnaire est annulée
et une recherche commence pour la nouvelle exception dans le code
englobant et dans la pile d'appels (c'est traité comme si l'instruction
*note try: 6d5. avait levé l'exception).

Lorsqu'une clause ‘except’ correspond, l'exception est affectée à la
cible précisée après le mot-clé ‘as’ dans cette clause ‘except’, si
cette cible existe, et la suite de clause ‘except’ est exécutée.  Toutes
les clauses ‘except’ doivent avoir un bloc exécutable.  Lorsque la fin
de ce bloc est atteinte, l'exécution continue normalement après
l'ensemble de l'instruction *note try: 6d5. (cela signifie que si deux
gestionnaires imbriqués existent pour la même exception, et que
l'exception se produit dans la clause ‘try’ du gestionnaire interne, le
gestionnaire externe ne gère pas l'exception).

Lorsqu'une exception a été affectée en utilisant ‘as cible’, elle est
effacée à la fin de la clause ‘except’.  C'est comme si :

     except E as N:
         foo

avait été traduit en :

     except E as N:
         try:
             foo
         finally:
             del N

Cela veut dire que l'exception doit être assignée à un nom différent
pour pouvoir s'y référer après la clause ‘except’.  Les exceptions sont
effacées parce qu'avec la trace de la pile d'appels qui leur est
attachée, elles créent un cycle dans les pointeurs de références (avec
le cadre de la pile), ce qui conduit à conserver tous les noms locaux de
ce cadre en mémoire jusqu'au passage du ramasse-miettes.

Avant qu'une suite de clauses ‘except’ ne soit exécutée, l'exception est
stockée dans le module *note sys: d8, où elle est accessible depuis le
corps de la clause ‘except’ en appelant *note sys.exception(): 678.
Lorsque vous quittez un gestionnaire d'exceptions, l'exception stockée
dans le module *note sys: d8. est réinitialisée à sa valeur précédente :

     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None
     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError
     ... except:
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     try:
     ...          raise ValueError
     ...     except:
     ...         print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...
     TypeError()
     ValueError()
     TypeError()
     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) L'exception est propagée à la pile d'appels à moins qu'il n'y ait
une clause *note finally: 9ba. qui lève une autre exception, ce qui
entraîne la perte de l'ancienne exception.  Cette nouvelle exception
entraîne la perte pure et simple de l'ancienne.


File: python.info,  Node: clause except*,  Next: clause else,  Prev: clause except,  Up: L'instruction try

4.8.4.2 clause ‘except*’
........................

Les clauses ‘except*’ sont utilisées pour gérer des *note
ExceptionGroup: 1b4.  Le type de l'exception pour la correspondance est
interprété de la même manière que dans le cas d'un *note except: 189.
mais, dans le cas d'un groupe d'exceptions, il est possible d'avoir une
correspondance partielle quand le type correspond à une ou plusieurs
exceptions dans le groupe.  Cela veut dire que plusieurs clauses
‘except*’ peuvent être exécutées, chacune gérant une partie du groupe
d'exceptions.  Chaque clause ne s'exécute (au maximum) qu'une fois et
gère un groupe d'exception constitué des exceptions qui correspondent.
Chaque exception du groupe est gérée par une clause ‘except*’ au plus,
la première à laquelle elle correspond.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
     ...         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
     ... except* TypeError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       | ExceptionGroup: eg
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ValueError: 1
         +------------------------------------

Any remaining exceptions that were not handled by any ‘except*’ clause
are re-raised at the end, along with all exceptions that were raised
from within the ‘except*’ clauses.  If this list contains more than one
exception to reraise, they are combined into an exception group.

Si l'exception levée n'est pas un groupe d'exceptions et que son type
correspond à l'une des clauses ‘except*’, elle est interceptée et
encapsulée par un groupe d'exceptions avec une chaîne de message vide. :

     >>> try:
     ...     raise BlockingIOError
     ... except* BlockingIOError as e:
     ...     print(repr(e))
     ...
     ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError()))

An ‘except*’ clause must have a matching expression; it cannot be
‘except*:’.  Furthermore, this expression cannot contain exception group
types, because that would have ambiguous semantics.

It is not possible to mix *note except: 189. and ‘except*’ in the same
*note try: 6d5.  *note break: a99, *note continue: 9b9. and *note
return: 9be. cannot appear in an ‘except*’ clause.


File: python.info,  Node: clause else,  Next: clause finally,  Prev: clause except*,  Up: L'instruction try

4.8.4.3 clause ‘else’
.....................

La clause optionnelle ‘else’ n'est exécutée que si l'exécution atteint
la fin de la clause *note try: 6d5, aucune exception n'a été levée, et
aucun *note return: 9be, *note continue: 9b9, ou *note break: a99. ont
étés exécutés.  Les exceptions dans la clause ‘else’ ne sont pas gérées
par les clauses *note except: 189. précédentes.


File: python.info,  Node: clause finally,  Prev: clause else,  Up: L'instruction try

4.8.4.4 clause ‘finally’
........................

Si ‘finally’ est présente, elle définit un gestionnaire de
« nettoyage ».  La clause *note try: 6d5. est exécutée, y compris les
clauses *note except: 189. et *note else: 18a.  Si une exception se
produit dans l'une des clauses et n'est pas traitée, l'exception est
temporairement sauvegardée.  La clause ‘finally’ est exécutée.  S'il y a
une exception sauvegardée, elle est levée à nouveau à la fin de la
clause ‘finally’.  Si la clause ‘finally’ lève une autre exception,
l'exception sauvegardée est définie comme le contexte de la nouvelle
exception.  Si la clause ‘finally’ exécute une instruction *note return:
9be, *note break: a99. ou *note continue: 9b9, l'exception sauvegardée
est jetée :

     >>> def f():
     ...     try:
     ...         1/0
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 42
     ...
     >>> f()
     42

L'information relative à l'exception n'est pas disponible pour le
programme pendant l'exécution de la clause ‘finally’.

Lorsqu'une instruction *note return: 9be, *note break: a99. ou *note
continue: 9b9. est exécutée dans la suite d'une instruction *note try:
6d5. d'une construction ‘try’…‘finally’, la clause ‘finally’ est aussi
exécutée « à la sortie ».

La valeur de retour d'une fonction est déterminée par la dernière
instruction *note return: 9be. exécutée.  Puisque la clause ‘finally’
s'exécute toujours, une instruction ‘return’ exécutée dans le ‘finally’
sera toujours la dernière clause exécutée :

     >>> def foo():
     ...     try:
     ...         return 'try'
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 'finally'
     ...
     >>> foo()
     'finally'

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Avant Python 3.8, une instruction *note
continue: 9b9. n'était pas licite dans une clause ‘finally’ en raison
d'un problème dans l'implémentation.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction with,  Next: L'instruction match<2>,  Prev: L'instruction try,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.5 L'instruction ‘with’
--------------------------

L'instruction *note with: 5be. est utilisée pour encapsuler l'exécution
d'un bloc avec des méthodes définies par un gestionnaire de contexte
(voir la section *note Gestionnaire de contexte With: 1f76.).  Cela
permet d'utiliser de manière simple le patron de conception classique
*note try: 6d5.…*note except: 189.…*note finally: 9ba.

     with_stmt          ::= "with" ( "(" *note with_stmt_contents: 209f. ","? ")" | *note with_stmt_contents: 209f. ) ":" *note suite: 208e.
     with_stmt_contents ::= *note with_item: 20a0. ("," *note with_item: 20a0.)*
     with_item          ::= *note expression: 1fef. ["as" *note target: 2064.]

L'exécution de l'instruction *note with: 5be. avec un seul « élément »
('item' dans la grammaire) se déroule comme suit :

  1. L'expression de contexte (l'expression donnée dans le *note
     with_item: 20a0.) est évaluée pour obtenir un gestionnaire de
     contexte.

  2. The context manager's *note __enter__(): 5b4. is loaded for later
     use.

  3. The context manager's *note __exit__(): 12e0. is loaded for later
     use.

  4. The context manager's *note __enter__(): 5b4. method is invoked.

  5. If a target was included in the *note with: 5be. statement, the
     return value from *note __enter__(): 5b4. is assigned to it.

          Note: The *note with: 5be. statement guarantees that if the
          *note __enter__(): 5b4. method returns without an error, then
          *note __exit__(): 12e0. will always be called.  Thus, if an
          error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it will
          be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite
          would be.  See step 7 below.

  6. La suite est exécutée.

  7. The context manager's *note __exit__(): 12e0. method is invoked.
     If an exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and
     traceback are passed as arguments to *note __exit__(): 12e0.
     Otherwise, three *note None: 662. arguments are supplied.

     If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value
     from the *note __exit__(): 12e0. method was false, the exception is
     reraised.  If the return value was true, the exception is
     suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following
     the *note with: 5be. statement.

     If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the
     return value from *note __exit__(): 12e0. is ignored, and execution
     proceeds at the normal location for the kind of exit that was
     taken.

Le code suivant :

     with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     enter = type(manager).__enter__
     exit = type(manager).__exit__
     value = enter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not exit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             exit(manager, None, None, None)

Avec plus d'un élément, les gestionnaires de contexte sont traités comme
si plusieurs instructions *note with: 5be. étaient imbriquées :

     with A() as a, B() as b:
         SUITE

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

     with A() as a:
         with B() as b:
             SUITE

Vous pouvez aussi écrire des gestionnaires de contexte sur plusieurs
lignes pour plus d'un élément si ceux-ci sont placés entre parenthèses.
Par exemple :

     with (
         A() as a,
         B() as b,
     ):
         SUITE

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Prise en charge de multiples expressions de
contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: prise en charge des parenthèses pour
pouvoir écrire l'instruction sur plusieurs lignes.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 343(1) — L'instruction « 'with' »

     La spécification, les motivations et des exemples de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. en Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction match<2>,  Next: Définition de fonctions,  Prev: L'instruction with,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.6 L'instruction ‘match’
---------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

L'instruction 'match' est utilisée pour le filtrage par motif.  Sa
syntaxe est :

     match_stmt   ::= 'match' *note subject_expr: 20a2. ":" NEWLINE INDENT *note case_block: 20a3.+ DEDENT
     subject_expr ::= star_named_expression "," star_named_expressions?
                      | named_expression
     case_block   ::= 'case' *note patterns: 20a4. [*note guard: 20a5.] ":" block

     Note: cette section utilise les guillemets simples pour désigner
     les *note mots-clés ad-hoc: 7f8.

Le filtrage par motif prend un motif en entrée (‘pattern’ après ‘case’)
et un champ de recherche (‘subject_expr’ après ‘match’).  Le motif du
filtre (qui peut contenir des sous-motifs de filtrage) est confronté au
contenu du champ de recherche.  La sortie est composée de :

   * un indicateur de réussite ou d'échec pour le filtrage (on peut
     aussi dire que le motif a réussi ou échoué) ;

   * la possibilité de lier les valeurs filtrées à un nom.  Les
     pré-requis sont indiqués plus bas.

Les mots-clés ‘match’ et ‘case’ sont des *note mots-clés ad-hoc: 7f8.

Voir aussi
..........

   * PEP 634(1) — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

   * PEP 636(2) — Tutoriel pour le filtrage par motif

* Menu:

* Aperçu::
* Gardes::
* Bloc case attrape-tout::
* Filtres::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Aperçu,  Next: Gardes,  Up: L'instruction match<2>

4.8.6.1 Aperçu
..............

Voici un aperçu du déroulement logique d'un filtrage par motif :

  1. L'expression confrontée aux filtres, ‘subject_expr’, est évaluée
     pour obtenir la valeur résultante.  Si l'expression contient une
     virgule, un 'n'-uplet est construit en utilisant les *note règles
     classiques: 20a7.

  2. Chaque filtre des blocs ‘case_block’ est confronté à la valeur
     résultante du champ de recherche.  Les règles particulières pour la
     réussite ou l'échec sont décrites plus bas.  La confrontation du
     filtre peut aussi conduire à lier un ou plusieurs noms présents
     dans le motif.  Les règles pour lier les noms des motifs dépendent
     du type de filtre et sont décrites plus bas.  'Le nommage effectué
     lors d'un filtrage par motif qui a réussi persiste à l'extérieur du
     bloc et le nom peut être utilisé après l'instruction' ‘match’.

          Note: en cas d'échec de la recherche, certains sous-filtres
          peuvent avoir réussi.  Ne vous fiez pas aux nommages faits
          lors d'un filtrage qui a échoué.  Inversement, ne vous fiez
          pas aux variables qui restent inchangées après un filtrage
          infructueux.  Le comportement exact dépend de l'implémentation
          et peut varier.  Il s'agit d'un choix intentionnel afin de
          permettre aux implémentations d'ajouter des optimisations.

  3. Si la recherche réussit, la garde correspondante (si elle existe)
     est évaluée.  Dans ce cas, on est sûr que les nommages ont bien eu
     lieu.

        * Si la garde s'évalue à vrai ou s'il n'y a pas de garde, le
          ‘block’ à l'intérieur du ‘case_block’ est exécuté.

        * Sinon, le ‘case_block’ est testé comme décrit ci-dessus.

        * S'il n'y a plus de bloc ‘case_block’, l'instruction est
          terminée.

     Note: l'utilisateur ne doit jamais faire confiance à un filtre en
     cours d'évaluation.  En fonction de l'implémentation,
     l'interpréteur peut mettre des valeurs en cache ou utiliser des
     optimisations qui évitent des réévaluations.

Voici un exemple d'instruction de filtrage par motif :

     >>> flag = False
     >>> match (100, 200):
     ...    case (100, 300):  # Mismatch: 200 != 300
     ...        print('Case 1')
     ...    case (100, 200) if flag:  # Successful match, but guard fails
     ...        print('Case 2')
     ...    case (100, y):  # Matches and binds y to 200
     ...        print(f'Case 3, y: {y}')
     ...    case _:  # Pattern not attempted
     ...        print('Case 4, I match anything!')
     ...
     Case 3, y: 200

Dans cet exemple, ‘if flag’ est une garde.  Plus de détails sont fournis
dans la prochaine section.


File: python.info,  Node: Gardes,  Next: Bloc case attrape-tout,  Prev: Aperçu,  Up: L'instruction match<2>

4.8.6.2 Gardes
..............

     guard ::= "if" named_expression

Une garde (‘guard’ qui fait partie du ‘case’) doit s'évaluer à vrai pour
que le code à l'intérieur du bloc ‘case’ soit exécuté.  Elle s'écrit
sous la forme du mot-clé *note if: 2e8. suivi d'une expression.

Le déroulement logique d'un bloc ‘case’ qui comprend une garde est le
suivant :

  1. Vérification que le filtrage dans le bloc ‘case’ est fructueux.  Si
     le filtrage échoue, la garde n'est pas évaluée et on passe au bloc
     ‘case’ suivant.

  2. Si le filtrage est fructueux, évaluation de la garde.

        * Si la garde s'évalue à 'vrai', le bloc est sélectionné.

        * Si la garde s'évalue à 'faux', le bloc n'est pas sélectionné.

        * Si une exception est levée lors de l'évaluation de la garde,
          cette exception est propagée.

Les gardes étant des expressions, il est possible qu'elles aient des
effets secondaires.  L'ordre d'évaluation des gardes est du premier au
dernier bloc ‘case’, un à la fois, en sautant les blocs ‘case’ dont la
recherche de motif échouent.  L'évaluation des gardes s'arrête dès qu'un
bloc ‘case’ est sélectionné.


File: python.info,  Node: Bloc case attrape-tout,  Next: Filtres,  Prev: Gardes,  Up: L'instruction match<2>

4.8.6.3 Bloc ‘case’ attrape-tout
................................

Un bloc ‘case’ attrape-tout est un bloc qui réussit toujours.  Une
instruction ‘match’ ne peut avoir qu'un seul bloc attrape-tout, et ce
doit être le dernier.

Un bloc ‘case’ est considéré attrape-tout s'il n'y a pas de garde et que
le motif est attrape-tout.  Un motif est attrape-tout si l'on peut
déterminer, simplement à partir de sa syntaxe, qu'il correspond
toujours.  Seuls les motifs suivants sont attrape-tout :

   * Les *note Filtres AS: 20ab. pour lesquels la partie gauche est
     attrape-tout

   * Les *note Filtres OU: 20ac. contenant au moins un filtre
     attrape-tout

   * Les *note Filtres de capture: 20ad.

   * Les *note Filtres attrape-tout: 7fa.

   * les filtres attrape-tout entre parenthèses


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres,  Prev: Bloc case attrape-tout,  Up: L'instruction match<2>

4.8.6.4 Filtres
...............

     Note: Cette section utilise des notations grammaticales qui ne font
     pas partie du standard EBNF :

        * la notation ‘SEP.REGLE+’ désigne ‘REGLE (SEP REGLE)*’

        * la notation ‘!REGLE’ désigne la négation logique de
          l'assertion ‘REGLE’

La syntaxe générale pour les filtres ‘patterns’ est :

     patterns       ::= *note open_sequence_pattern: 20af. | *note pattern: 20b0.
     pattern        ::= *note as_pattern: 20b1. | *note or_pattern: 20b2.
     closed_pattern ::= | *note literal_pattern: 20b4.
                        | *note capture_pattern: 20b5.
                        | *note wildcard_pattern: 20b6.
                        | *note value_pattern: 20b7.
                        | *note group_pattern: 20b8.
                        | *note sequence_pattern: 20b9.
                        | *note mapping_pattern: 20ba.
                        | *note class_pattern: 20bb.

Les explications ci-dessous décrivent « en termes simples » ce qu'un
modèle fait (merci à Raymond Hettinger pour son document qui a inspiré
la plupart des descriptions).  Notez que ces descriptions sont purement
à fin d'illustration et peuvent ne 'pas' être strictement conformes à
l'implémentation sous-jacente.  De plus, nous ne couvrons pas toutes les
formes valides.

* Menu:

* Filtres OU::
* Filtres AS::
* Filtres littéraux::
* Filtres de capture::
* Filtres attrape-tout::
* Filtres par valeurs::
* Filtres de groupes::
* Filtres de séquences::
* Filtres associatifs::
* Filtres de classes::


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres OU,  Next: Filtres AS,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.5 Filtres OU
..................

Un filtre OU est composé de deux filtres ou plus séparés par des barres
verticales ‘|’.  La syntaxe est :

     or_pattern ::= "|".*note closed_pattern: 20b3.+

Seul le dernier sous-filtre peut être *note attrape-tout: 20a9. et
chaque sous-filtre doit être lié au même ensemble de noms pour éviter
toute ambigüité.

Un filtre OU confronte chacun des sous-filtres à tour de rôle à la
valeur du champ de recherche, jusqu'à ce que l'un d'eux réussisse.  Le
filtre OU réussit si l'un des sous-filtres a réussi, sinon il échoue.

En termes plus simples, ‘M1 | M2 | ...’ teste le filtre par motif ‘M1’,
s'il échoue il teste le filtre par motif ‘M2’, réussit immédiatement si
l'un d'eux réussit, échoue dans le cas contraire.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres AS,  Next: Filtres littéraux,  Prev: Filtres OU,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.6 Filtres AS
..................

Un filtre AS confronte un filtre OU sur la gauche du mot-clé *note as:
209d. au champ de recherche.  La syntaxe est la suivante :

     as_pattern ::= *note or_pattern: 20b2. "as" *note capture_pattern: 20b5.

Si le filtre OU échoue, le filtre AS échoue.  Sinon, le filtre AS lie le
champ de recherche au nom sur la droite du mot-clé ‘as’ et réussit.
‘capture_pattern’ ne peut pas être un ‘_’.

En termes simples, ‘M as NOM’ filtre avec le motif ‘M’ et, s'il réussit,
définit ‘NOM = <subject>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres littéraux,  Next: Filtres de capture,  Prev: Filtres AS,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.7 Filtres littéraux
.........................

Un filtre littéral effectue une correspondance avec la plupart des *note
littéraux: 1e5d. en Python.  La syntaxe est la suivante :

     literal_pattern ::= *note signed_number: 20c0.
                         | *note signed_number: 20c0. "+" NUMBER
                         | *note signed_number: 20c0. "-" NUMBER
                         | strings
                         | "None"
                         | "True"
                         | "False"
     signed_number   ::= ["-"] NUMBER

La règle ‘strings’ et le lexème ‘NUMBER’ sont définis dans *note la
grammaire de Python standard: 20c1.  Les chaînes avec triples guillemets
sont gérées.  Les chaînes brutes et les chaînes d'octets sont gérées.
Les *note f-strings: 999. ne sont pas gérées.

Les formes ‘signed_number '+' NUMBER’ et ‘signed_number '-' NUMBER’
permettent d'exprimer des *note nombres complexes: 1e96. ; vous devez
indiquer un nombre réel sur la gauche et un nombre imaginaire sur la
droite.  Par exemple, ‘3 + 4j’.

En termes simples, ‘LITERAL’ réussit seulement si ‘<subject> ==
LITERAL’.  Pour les singletons ‘None’, ‘True’ et ‘False’, l'opérateur
*note is: 2ea. est utilisé.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres de capture,  Next: Filtres attrape-tout,  Prev: Filtres littéraux,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.8 Filtres de capture
..........................

Un filtre de capture lie la valeur du champ de recherche à un nom.  La
syntaxe est la suivante :

     capture_pattern ::= !'_' NAME

Un simple caractère souligné ‘_’ n'est pas un filtre de capture (c'est
ce que ‘!'_'’ veut dire).  C'est le motif pour désigner un filtre
attrape-tout (lexème ‘wilcard_pattern’, voir plus bas).

Dans un filtre donné, un nom ne peut être lié qu'une seule fois.  Par
exemple, ‘case x, x: ...’ est invalide mais ‘case [x] | x: ...’ est
autorisé.

Les filtres de capture réussissent toujours.  La portée du lien est
conforme aux règles définies pour l'opérateur d'affectation indiquées
dans la PEP 572(1) ; le nom devient une variable locale dans la fonction
la plus intérieure à moins qu'il n'y ait une instruction *note global:
188. ou *note nonlocal: 1287. qui s'applique.

En termes simples, ‘NAME’ réussit toujours et définit ‘NAME =
<subject>’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres attrape-tout,  Next: Filtres par valeurs,  Prev: Filtres de capture,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.9 Filtres attrape-tout
............................

Un filtre attrape-tout réussit toujours (quel que soit le champ de
recherche) et ne lie aucun nom.  La syntaxe est la suivante :

     wildcard_pattern ::= '_'

‘_’ est un *note mot-clé ad-hoc: 7f8. dans un filtre par motif, mais
seulement dans un filtre.  Ailleurs, c'est un identifiant, comme
d'habitude, même à l'intérieur d'une expression champ de recherche de
‘match’, d'une garde ou d'un bloc ‘case’.

En termes simples, ‘_’ réussit toujours.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres par valeurs,  Next: Filtres de groupes,  Prev: Filtres attrape-tout,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.10 Filtres par valeurs
............................

Un filtre par valeur représente une valeur nommée de Python.  Sa syntaxe
est la suivante :

     value_pattern ::= *note attr: 20c6.
     attr          ::= *note name_or_attr: 20c7. "." NAME
     name_or_attr  ::= *note attr: 20c6. | NAME

Le nom qualifié dans le filtre est recherché en utilisant la *note
méthode de résolution des noms: 1f95. standard de Python.  Le filtrage
réussit si la valeur trouvée vérifie l'égalité avec la valeur du champ
de recherche (en utilisant l'opérateur d'égalité ‘==’).

En termes plus simples, ‘NOM1.NOM2’ réussit seulement si ‘<subject> ==
NOM1.NOM2’

     Note: si la même valeur apparaît plusieurs fois dans la même
     instruction ‘match’, l'interpréteur peut mettre en cache la
     première valeur trouvée et la réutiliser plutôt que de refaire une
     recherche.  Ce cache est strictement limité à l'exécution de
     l'instruction ‘match’ donnée.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres de groupes,  Next: Filtres de séquences,  Prev: Filtres par valeurs,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.11 Filtres de groupes
...........................

Un filtre de groupe permet au programmeur de souligner l’intention de
regrouper des motifs en plaçant ceux-ci entre parenthèses.  À part ça,
il n’introduit aucune syntaxe supplémentaire.  Sa syntaxe est la
suivante :

     group_pattern ::= "(" *note pattern: 20b0. ")"

En termes plus simples, ‘(P)’ équivaut à ‘P’.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres de séquences,  Next: Filtres associatifs,  Prev: Filtres de groupes,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.12 Filtres de séquences
.............................

Un filtre de séquence contient des sous-filtres par motif dont chacun
doit correspondre à un élément d’une séquence.  La syntaxe est similaire
au déballage d’une liste ou d’un 'n'-uplet.

     sequence_pattern       ::= "[" [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 20cc.] "]"
                                | "(" [*note open_sequence_pattern: 20af.] ")"
     open_sequence_pattern  ::= *note maybe_star_pattern: 20cd. "," [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 20cc.]
     maybe_sequence_pattern ::= ",".*note maybe_star_pattern: 20cd.+ ","?
     maybe_star_pattern     ::= *note star_pattern: 20ce. | *note pattern: 20b0.
     star_pattern           ::= "*" (*note capture_pattern: 20b5. | *note wildcard_pattern: 20b6.)

Vous pouvez utiliser indifféremment des parenthèses ‘(...)’ ou des
crochets ‘[...]’ pour encadrer les filtres à regrouper.

     Note: un filtre seul entre parenthèses qui ne se termine pas par
     une virgule (par exemple ‘(3 | 4)’) est un *note filtre de groupe:
     20c8.  En revanche, un filtre seul entre crochets (par exemple ‘[3
     | 4]’) reste un filtre de séquence.

Il peut y avoir au plus un sous-filtre étoilé (lexème ‘star_pattern’)
dans un filtre de séquence.  Le filtre étoilé peut se trouver à
n’importe quelle position.  S’il n’y en a pas, le filtre de séquence est
un filtre de séquence à longueur fixe, sinon c’est un filtre de séquence
à longueur variable.

Voici le déroulement logique d’un filtrage par motif de séquence sur une
valeur du champ de recherche :

  1. Si la valeur du champ de recherche n’est pas une séquence (1), le
     filtre de séquence échoue.

  2. Si la valeur du champ de recherche est une instance de ‘str’,
     ‘bytes’ ou ‘bytearray’, le filtre de séquence échoue.

  3. Les étapes suivantes dépendent de la longueur fixe ou non du filtre
     de séquence.

     Si le filtre de séquence est de longueur fixe :

       1. Si la longueur de la séquence champ de recherche n’est pas
          égale au nombre de sous-filtres, le filtre de séquence échoue.

       2. Les sous-filtres de la séquence sont confrontés aux éléments
          correspondants dans la séquence champ de recherche, de la
          gauche vers la droite.  La recherche de correspondance
          s’arrête dès qu’un sous-filtre échoue.  Si tous les
          sous-filtres réussissent la confrontation à l’élément du champ
          de recherche correspondant, le filtre de séquence réussit.

     Sinon, si le filtre de séquence est de longueur variable :

       1. Si la longueur de la séquence champ de recherche est plus
          petite que le nombre de sous-filtres sans étoile, le filtre de
          séquence échoue.

       2. Les sous-filtres sans étoile du début sont confrontés aux
          éléments correspondants comme pour un filtre de séquences de
          longueur fixe.

       3. Si les étapes précédentes ont réussi, le sous-filtre étoilé
          correspond à une liste formée des éléments restants du champ
          de recherche, en excluant les éléments restants qui
          correspondent à des sous-filtres sans étoile qui suivent le
          sous-filtre étoilé.

       4. Les sous-filtres sans étoile qui restent sont confrontés aux
          éléments restants du champ de recherche, comme pour un filtre
          de séquences de longueur fixe.

          Note: la longueur de la séquence champ de recherche est
          obtenue par *note len(): 61b. (c.-à-d.  avec le protocole
          ‘__len__()’).  Cette longueur peut être mise en cache par
          l’interpréteur de la même manière que pour les *note filtres
          par valeur: 20c5.

En termes plus simples, ‘[M1, M2, M3,’ … ‘, M<N>]’ réussit seulement si
tout ce qui suit a lieu :

   * vérification que ‘<subject>’ est une séquence,

   * ‘len(subject) == <N>’,

   * ‘M1’ correspond à ‘<subject>[0]’ (notez que cette correspondance
     peut lier des noms),

   * ‘M2’ correspond à ‘<subject>[1]’ (notez que cette correspondance
     peut lier des noms),

   * et ainsi de suite pour chaque filtre par motif / élément.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Dans le filtrage par motif, une séquence est définie comme suit :

   * une classe qui hérite de *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3.

   * une classe Python qui a été enregistrée en tant que *note
     collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3.

   * une classe native dont le bit (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE:
     1861. est à 1

   * une classe qui hérite d'une classe citée ci-dessus

Les classes suivantes de la bibliothèque standard sont des séquences :

   * *note array.array: 19e.

   * *note collections.deque: 5c8.

   * *note list: 5fe.

   * *note memoryview: 454.

   * *note range: 932.

   * *note tuple: 366.

     Note: Les champs de recherche du type ‘str’, ‘bytes’ et ‘bytearray’
     ne correspondent pas avec des filtres de séquence.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres associatifs,  Next: Filtres de classes,  Prev: Filtres de séquences,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.13 Filtres associatifs
............................

Un filtre associatif contient un ou plusieurs motifs clé-valeur.  La
syntaxe est similaire à la construction d’un dictionnaire :

     mapping_pattern     ::= "{" [*note items_pattern: 20d1.] "}"
     items_pattern       ::= ",".*note key_value_pattern: 20d2.+ ","?
     key_value_pattern   ::= (*note literal_pattern: 20b4. | *note value_pattern: 20b7.) ":" *note pattern: 20b0.
                             | *note double_star_pattern: 20d3.
     double_star_pattern ::= "**" *note capture_pattern: 20b5.

Un seul sous-filtre doublement étoilé peut être présent dans le filtre
associatif.  Le filtre doublement étoilé doit être le dernier
sous-filtre du filtre associatif.

Il est interdit d’avoir des clés en double dans les filtres associatifs.
Une clé en double sous forme littérale lève une ‘Syntax Error’.  Deux
clés qui ont la même valeur lèvent une *note ValueError: 1ff. à
l’exécution.

Voici le déroulement d’un filtrage associatif sur la valeur du champ de
recherche :

  1. Si la valeur du champ de recherche n'est pas un tableau associatif
     (1), le filtre associatif échoue.

  2. Si chaque clé donnée dans le filtre associatif est présente dans le
     tableau associatif du champ de recherche, et que le filtre pour
     chaque clé correspond aux éléments du tableau associatif champ de
     recherche, le filtre associatif réussit.

  3. Si des clés identiques sont détectées dans le filtre par motif, le
     filtre est déclaré invalide.  Une *note SyntaxError: 18b. est levée
     pour les valeurs littérales dupliquées ou une *note ValueError:
     1ff. pour des clés s'évaluant à la même valeur.

     Note: Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form of
     the mapping subject's ‘get()’ method.  Matched key-value pairs must
     already be present in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via
     ‘__missing__()’ or *note __getitem__(): 280.

En termes simples, ‘{CLÉ1: M1, CLÉ2: M2, ... }’ réussit seulement si
tout ce qui suit a lieu :

   * vérification que ‘<subject>’ est un tableau associatif,

   * ‘CLÉ1 in <subject>’,

   * ‘M1’ correspond à ‘<subject>[CLÉ1]’,

   * et ainsi de suite pour chaque paire CLÉ/Motif.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Dans le filtrage par motif, un tableau associatif est défini
comme suit :

   * une classe qui hérite de *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9.

   * une classe Python qui a été enregistrée en tant que *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9.

   * une classe native dont le bit (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     1860. est à 1

   * une classe qui hérite d'une classe citée ci-dessus

Les classes *note dict: 253. et *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. de la
bibliothèque standard sont des tableaux associatifs.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres de classes,  Prev: Filtres associatifs,  Up: Filtres

4.8.6.14 Filtres de classes
...........................

Un filtre de classe représente une classe et ses arguments positionnels
et par mots-clés (s'il y en a).  La syntaxe est la suivante :

     class_pattern       ::= *note name_or_attr: 20c7. "(" [*note pattern_arguments: 20d6. ","?] ")"
     pattern_arguments   ::= *note positional_patterns: 20d7. ["," *note keyword_patterns: 20d8.]
                             | *note keyword_patterns: 20d8.
     positional_patterns ::= ",".*note pattern: 20b0.+
     keyword_patterns    ::= ",".*note keyword_pattern: 20d9.+
     keyword_pattern     ::= NAME "=" *note pattern: 20b0.

Le même mot-clé ne doit pas être répété dans les filtres de classes.

Voici le déroulement d’un filtrage de classe sur la valeur du champ de
recherche :

  1. Si ‘name_or_attr’ n'est pas une instance de la classe native *note
     type: d38, lève une *note TypeError: 525.

  2. Si la valeur du champ de recherche n'est pas une instance de
     ‘name_or_attr’ (testé 'via' *note isinstance(): 42d.), le filtre de
     classe échoue.

  3. S'il n'y a pas d'argument au filtre, le filtre réussit.  Sinon, les
     étapes suivantes dépendent de la présence ou non de motifs pour les
     arguments positionnels ou par mot-clé.

     Pour un certain nombre de types natifs (indiqués ci-dessous), un
     motif positionnel seul est accepté, qui est confronté au champ de
     recherche en entier ; pour ces types, les motifs par mots-clés
     fonctionnent comme les autres types.

     S'il n'y a que des motifs par mot-clé (NdT : dans le sens
     « argument par mot-clé »), ils sont évalués comme ceci, un par un :

     I. Le mot-clé est recherché en tant qu'attribut du champ de
     recherche.

             * Si cela lève une exception autre que *note
               AttributeError: 343, l'exception est propagée vers le
               haut.

             * Si cela lève l'exception *note AttributeError: 343, le
               filtre échoue.

             * Sinon, le motif associé au mot-clé est confronté à la
               valeur de l'attribut du champ de recherche.  Si cela
               échoue, le filtre de classe échoue ; si cela réussit, le
               filtre passe au mot-clé suivant.

     II. Si tous les motifs par mot-clé ont réussi, le filtre de classe
     réussit.

     Si des motifs positionnels sont présents, ils sont convertis en
     motifs par mot-clé en utilisant l'attribut *note __match_args__:
     187c. de la classe ‘name_or_attr’ avant le filtrage :

     I. L'équivalent de ‘getattr(cls, "__match_args__", ())’ est appelé.

             * Si cela lève une exception, elle est propagée vers le
               haut.

             * Si la valeur de retour n'est pas un 'n'-uplet, la
               conversion échoue et une *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

             * S'il y a plus de motifs positionnels que
               ‘len(cls.__match_args__)’, une *note TypeError: 525. est
               levée.

             * Sinon, le motif positionnel ‘i’ est converti en motif par
               mot-clé (le mot-clé sera ‘__match_args__[i]’).
               ‘__match_args__[i]’ doit être une chaîne, sinon une *note
               TypeError: 525. est levée.

             * Si un mot-clé est dupliqué, une *note TypeError: 525. est
               levée.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          *note Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur
          les classes: 1f79.

     II. Une fois que tous les motifs positionnels ont été convertis en motifs par mot-clé,

          le filtre se déroule comme si tous les motifs étaient des
          motifs par mots-clés.

     Pour les types natifs suivants, le traitement des motifs
     positionnels est différent :

        * *note bool: 453.

        * *note bytearray: 52b.

        * *note bytes: 1bd.

        * *note dict: 253.

        * *note float: 2ec.

        * *note frozenset: 5c6.

        * *note int: 254.

        * *note list: 5fe.

        * *note set: 5c5.

        * *note str: 437.

        * *note tuple: 366.

     Ces classes acceptent un argument positionnel seul et le filtre
     s'applique alors sur l'ensemble de l'objet plutôt que sur un simple
     attribut.  Par exemple, ‘int(0|1)’ réussit lorsqu'il est confronté
     à la valeur ‘0’, mais pas lorsque c'est la valeur ‘0.0’.

En termes simples, ‘CLS(P1, attr=P2)’ réussit seulement si la séquence
suivante est déroulée :

   * ‘isinstance(<subject>, CLS)’

   * convertit ‘P1’ vers un motif par mot-clé en utilisant
     ‘CLS.__match_args__’

   * Pour chaque argument par mot-clé ‘attr=P2’ :

        * ‘hasattr(<subject>, "attr")’

        * ‘P2’ correspond à ‘<subject>.attr’

   * … et ainsi de suite pour les paires motif/argument par mot-clé.

Voir aussi
..........

   * PEP 634(1) — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

   * PEP 636(2) — Tutoriel pour le filtrage par motif

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Définition de fonctions,  Next: Définition de classes,  Prev: L'instruction match<2>,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.7 Définition de fonctions
-----------------------------

Une définition de fonction définit un objet fonction défini par
l'utilisateur (voir la section *note Hiérarchie des types standards:
1ea2.) :

     funcdef                   ::= [*note decorators: 20db.] "def" *note funcname: 20dc. [*note type_params: 207e.] "(" [*note parameter_list: 2043.] ")"
                                   ["->" *note expression: 1fef.] ":" *note suite: 208e.
     decorators                ::= *note decorator: 20dd.+
     decorator                 ::= "@" *note assignment_expression: 1f98. NEWLINE
     parameter_list            ::= *note defparameter: 20de. ("," *note defparameter: 20de.)* "," "/" ["," [*note parameter_list_no_posonly: 20df.]]
                                   | *note parameter_list_no_posonly: 20df.
     parameter_list_no_posonly ::= *note defparameter: 20de. ("," *note defparameter: 20de.)* ["," [*note parameter_list_starargs: 20e0.]]
                                   | *note parameter_list_starargs: 20e0.
     parameter_list_starargs   ::= "*" [*note star_parameter: 20e1.] ("," *note defparameter: 20de.)* ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 20e2.]]
                                   | "*" ("," *note defparameter: 20de.)+ ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 20e2.]]
                                   | *note parameter_star_kwargs: 20e2.
     parameter_star_kwargs     ::= "**" *note parameter: 20e3. [","]
     parameter                 ::= *note identifier: 1e51. [":" *note expression: 1fef.]
     star_parameter            ::= *note identifier: 1e51. [":" ["*"] *note expression: 1fef.]
     defparameter              ::= *note parameter: 20e3. ["=" *note expression: 1fef.]
     funcname                  ::= *note identifier: 1e51.

Une définition de fonction est une instruction qui est exécutée.  Son
exécution lie le nom de la fonction, dans l'espace de nommage local
courant, à un objet fonction (un objet qui encapsule le code exécutable
de la fonction).  Cet objet fonction contient une référence à l'espace
des noms globaux courant comme espace des noms globaux à utiliser
lorsque la fonction est appelée.

La définition de la fonction n'exécute pas le corps de la fonction ;
elle n'est exécutée que lorsque la fonction est appelée.  (1)

Une définition de fonction peut être encapsulée dans une ou plusieurs
expressions *note decorator: 71d. ; les décorateurs sont évalués lorsque
la fonction est définie, dans la portée qui contient la définition de
fonction ; le résultat doit être un appelable, qui est invoqué avec
l'objet fonction comme seul argument ; la valeur renvoyée est liée au
nom de la fonction en lieu et place de l'objet fonction.  Lorsqu'il y a
plusieurs décorateurs, ils sont appliqués par imbrication ; par exemple,
le code suivant :

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     def func(): pass

est à peu près équivalent à :

     def func(): pass
     func = f1(arg)(f2(func))

sauf que la fonction originale n'est pas temporairement liée au nom
‘func’.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les fonctions peuvent être décorées par
toute *note expression d'affectation: 1f98. valide.  Auparavant, la
grammaire était beaucoup plus restrictive ; voir la PEP 614(2) pour
obtenir les détails.

A list of *note type parameters: 2b0. may be given in square brackets
between the function's name and the opening parenthesis for its
parameter list.  This indicates to static type checkers that the
function is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved
from the function's *note __type_params__: 1ebb. attribute.  See *note
Generic functions: 43e. for more.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type parameter lists are new in Python
3.12.

Lorsqu'un ou plusieurs *note paramètres: 1eba. sont de la forme
'parameter' ‘=’ 'expression', on dit que la fonction a des « valeurs de
paramètres par défaut ».  Pour un paramètre avec une valeur par défaut,
l’*note argument: 434. correspondant peut être omis lors de l'appel, la
valeur par défaut du paramètre est alors utilisée.  Si un paramètre a
une valeur par défaut, tous les paramètres suivants jusqu'à "‘*’"
doivent aussi avoir une valeur par défaut — ceci est une restriction
syntaxique qui n'est pas exprimée dans la grammaire.

'Les valeurs par défaut des paramètres sont évaluées de la gauche vers
la droite quand la définition de la fonction est exécutée'.  Cela
signifie que l'expression est évaluée une fois, lorsque la fonction est
définie, et que c'est la même valeur « pré-calculée » qui est utilisée à
chaque appel.  C'est particulièrement important à comprendre lorsque la
valeur d'un paramètre par défaut est un objet mutable (cas d'une liste
ou un dictionnaire par exemple) : si la fonction modifie l'objet (par
exemple en ajoutant un élément à une liste), la valeur par défaut est
modifiée.  En général, ce n'est pas l'effet voulu.  Une façon d'éviter
cet écueil est d'utiliser ‘None’ par défaut et de tester explicitement
la valeur dans le corps de la fonction.  Par exemple :

     def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
         if penguin is None:
             penguin = []
         penguin.append("property of the zoo")
         return penguin

La sémantique de l'appel de fonction est décrite plus en détail dans la
section *note Appels: d6c.  Un appel de fonction assigne toujours des
valeurs à tous les paramètres mentionnés dans la liste des paramètres,
soit à partir d'arguments positionnels, d'arguments par mots-clés ou de
valeurs par défaut.  S'il y a un paramètre de la forme ‘*identifier’, il
est initialisé à un 'n'-uplet recevant les paramètres positionnels en
surplus, la valeur par défaut étant le 'n'-uplet vide.  S'il y a un
paramètre de la forme ‘**identifier’, il est initialisé à un nouveau
tableau associatif ordonné qui récupère tous les arguments par mot-clé
en surplus, la valeur par défaut étant un tableau associatif vide du
même type.  Les paramètres après ‘*’ ou ‘*identifier’ sont forcément des
paramètres par mot-clé et ne peuvent être passés qu'en utilisant des
arguments par mot-clé.  Au contraire, ceux avant ‘/’ ne peuvent être
passés qu'avec des arguments positionnels.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de la syntaxe avec ‘/’ pour indiquer
les paramètre exclusivement positionnels (voir la PEP 570(3)).

Parameters may have an *note annotation: 1bf5. of the form "‘:
expression’" following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an
annotation, even those of the form ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’.  (As
a special case, parameters of the form ‘*identifier’ may have an
annotation "‘: *expression’".)  Functions may have "return" annotation
of the form "‘-> expression’" after the parameter list.  These
annotations can be any valid Python expression.  The presence of
annotations does not change the semantics of a function.  The annotation
values are available as values of a dictionary keyed by the parameters'
names in the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of the function object.  If the
‘annotations’ import from *note __future__: 0. is used, annotations are
preserved as strings at runtime which enables postponed evaluation.
Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function definition is executed.
In this case annotations may be evaluated in a different order than they
appear in the source code.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Parameters of the form "‘*identifier’" may
have an annotation "‘: *expression’".  See PEP 646(4).

Il est aussi possible de créer des fonctions anonymes (fonctions non
liées à un nom), pour une utilisation immédiate dans des expressions.
Utilisez alors des expressions lambda, décrites dans la section *note
Expressions lambda: 127c.  Notez qu'une expression lambda est simplement
un raccourci pour définir une fonction simple ; une fonction définie par
une instruction "*note def: 1410." peut être passée (en argument) ou
assignée à un autre nom, tout comme une fonction définie par une
expression lambda.  La forme "‘def’" est en fait plus puissante
puisqu'elle permet l'exécution de plusieurs instructions et les
annotations.

'Note pour les programmeurs :' les fonctions sont des objets de première
classe.  Une instruction "‘def’" exécutée à l'intérieur d'une définition
de fonction définit une fonction locale qui peut être renvoyée ou passée
en tant qu'argument.  Les variables libres utilisées dans la fonction
imbriquée ont accès aux variables locales de la fonction contenant le
"‘def’".  Voir la section *note Noms et liaisons: 1eb5. pour plus de
détails.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3107(5) — Annotations de fonctions

     La spécification originale pour les annotations de fonctions.

PEP 484(6) — Indications de types

     Définition de la signification standard pour les annotations :
     indications de types.

PEP 526(7) — Syntaxe pour les annotations de variables

     Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
     variables and instance variables.

PEP 563(8) — Évaluation différée des annotations

     Gestion des références postérieures à l'intérieur des annotations
     en préservant les annotations sous forme de chaînes à l'exécution
     au lieu d'une évaluation directe.

PEP 318(9) - Decorators for Functions and Methods

     Function and method decorators were introduced.  Class decorators
     were introduced in PEP 3129(10).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function
body is transformed into the function's *note __doc__: 11b8. attribute
and therefore the function's *note docstring: 20e4.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: Définition de classes,  Next: Coroutines<2>,  Prev: Définition de fonctions,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.8 Définition de classes
---------------------------

Une définition de classe définit un objet classe (voir la section *note
Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2.) :

     classdef    ::= [*note decorators: 20db.] "class" *note classname: 20e6. [*note type_params: 207e.] [*note inheritance: 20e7.] ":" *note suite: 208e.
     inheritance ::= "(" [*note argument_list: 2015.] ")"
     classname   ::= *note identifier: 1e51.

Une définition de classe est une instruction qui est exécutée.  La liste
d'héritage ('inheritance' entre crochets dans la grammaire ci-dessus)
donne habituellement une liste de classes mères (voir *note Métaclasses:
1f2c. pour des utilisations plus avancées).  Donc chaque élément de la
liste doit pouvoir être évalué comme un objet classe qui autorise les
sous-classes.  Les classes sans liste d'héritage héritent, par défaut,
de la classe mère *note object: a7c. ; d'où :

     class Foo:
         pass

est équivalente à :

     class Foo(object):
         pass

La suite de la classe est ensuite exécutée dans un nouveau cadre
d'exécution (voir *note Noms et liaisons: 1eb5.), en utilisant un espace
de nommage local nouvellement créé et l'espace de nommage global
d'origine (habituellement, la suite contient principalement des
définitions de fonctions).  Lorsque la suite de la classe termine son
exécution, son cadre d'exécution est abandonné mais son espace des noms
locaux est sauvegardé (1).  Un objet classe est alors créé en utilisant
la liste d'héritage pour les classes mères et l'espace de nommage
sauvegardé comme dictionnaire des attributs.  Le nom de classe est lié à
l'objet classe dans l'espace de nommage local original.

The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
in the new class's *note __dict__: c4d.  Note that this is reliable only
right after the class is created and only for classes that were defined
using the definition syntax.

La création de classes peut être fortement personnalisée en utilisant
les *note métaclasses: 1f2c.

Les classes peuvent aussi être décorées.  Comme pour les décorateurs de
fonctions :

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     class Foo: pass

est à peu près équivalent à :

     class Foo: pass
     Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))

Les règles d'évaluation pour les expressions de décorateurs sont les
mêmes que pour les décorateurs de fonctions.  Le résultat est alors lié
au nom de la classe.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les classes peuvent être décorées par toute
*note expression d'affectation: 1f98. valide.  Auparavant, la grammaire
était beaucoup plus restrictive ; voir la PEP 614(2) pour obtenir les
détails.

A list of *note type parameters: 2b0. may be given in square brackets
immediately after the class's name.  This indicates to static type
checkers that the class is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can
be retrieved from the class's *note __type_params__: 1ee4. attribute.
See *note Generic classes: 43d. for more.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type parameter lists are new in Python
3.12.

'Note pour les programmeurs :' les variables définies dans la définition
de classe sont des attributs de classe ; elles sont partagées par les
instances.  Les attributs d'instance peuvent être définis dans une
méthode en utilisant ‘self.name = value’.  Les attributs de classe et
d'instance sont accessibles par la notation "‘self.name’", et un
attribut d'instance masque un attribut de classe de même nom lorsqu'on y
accède de cette façon.  Les attributs de classe peuvent être utilisés
comme valeurs par défaut pour les attributs d'instances, mais
l'utilisation de valeurs mutables peut conduire à des résultats
inattendus.  Les *note descripteurs: c3f. peuvent être utilisés pour
créer des variables d'instances avec des détails d'implémentation
différents.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3115(3) — Métaclasses dans Python 3000

     La proposition qui a modifié la déclaration de métaclasses à la
     syntaxe actuelle, et la sémantique pour la façon dont les classes
     avec métaclasses sont construites.

PEP 3129(4) — Décorateurs de classes

     La proposition qui a ajouté des décorateurs de classe.  Les
     décorateurs de fonction et de méthode ont été introduits dans PEP
     318(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class
body is transformed into the namespace's *note __doc__: 1c6a. item and
therefore the class's *note docstring: 20e4.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines<2>,  Next: Type parameter lists,  Prev: Définition de classes,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.9 Coroutines
----------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

* Menu:

* Définition de fonctions coroutines::
* L'instruction async for::
* L'instruction async with::


File: python.info,  Node: Définition de fonctions coroutines,  Next: L'instruction async for,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.1 Définition de fonctions coroutines
..........................................

     async_funcdef ::= [*note decorators: 20db.] "async" "def" *note funcname: 20dc. "(" [*note parameter_list: 2043.] ")"
                       ["->" *note expression: 1fef.] ":" *note suite: 208e.

L'exécution de coroutines Python peut être suspendue et reprise à
plusieurs endroits (voir *note coroutine: 47d.).  Les expressions *note
await: 1b7, *note async for: a9b. et *note async with: 5c1. ne peuvent
être utilisées que dans les corps de coroutines.

Les fonctions définies avec la syntaxe ‘async def’ sont toujours des
fonctions coroutines, même si elles ne contiennent aucun mot-clé ‘await’
ou ‘async’.

C'est une *note SyntaxError: 18b. d'utiliser une expression ‘yield from’
dans une coroutine.

Un exemple de fonction coroutine :

     async def func(param1, param2):
         do_stuff()
         await some_coroutine()

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ‘await’ et ‘async’ sont dorénavant des
mots-clés ; auparavant, ils n'étaient traités comme tels que dans le
corps d'une fonction coroutine.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction async for,  Next: L'instruction async with,  Prev: Définition de fonctions coroutines,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.2 L'instruction ‘async for’
.................................

     async_for_stmt ::= "async" *note for_stmt: 2085.

Un *note itérable asynchrone: d67. fournit une méthode ‘__aiter__’ qui
renvoie directement un *note itérateur asynchrone: 1a9, celui-ci pouvant
appeler du code asynchrone dans sa méthode ‘__anext__’.

L'instruction ‘async for’ permet d'itérer facilement sur des itérables
asynchrones.

Le code suivant :

     async for TARGET in ITER:
         SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

     iter = (ITER)
     iter = type(iter).__aiter__(iter)
     running = True

     while running:
         try:
             TARGET = await type(iter).__anext__(iter)
         except StopAsyncIteration:
             running = False
         else:
             SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

Voir aussi *note __aiter__(): beb. et *note __anext__(): 152d. pour plus
de détails.

C'est une *note SyntaxError: 18b. d'utiliser une instruction ‘async for’
en dehors d'une fonction coroutine.


File: python.info,  Node: L'instruction async with,  Prev: L'instruction async for,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.3 L'instruction ‘async with’
..................................

     async_with_stmt ::= "async" *note with_stmt: 2087.

Un *note gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone: 5c3. est un *note
gestionnaire de contexte: 5c0. qui est capable de suspendre l'exécution
dans ses méthodes 'enter' et 'exit'.

Le code suivant :

     async with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     aenter = type(manager).__aenter__
     aexit = type(manager).__aexit__
     value = await aenter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not await aexit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             await aexit(manager, None, None, None)

Voir aussi *note __aenter__(): 1f89. et *note __aexit__(): 15e5. pour
plus de détails.

C'est une *note SyntaxError: 18b. d'utiliser l'instruction ‘async with’
en dehors d'une fonction coroutine.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 492(1) — Coroutines avec les syntaxes 'async' et 'await'

     La proposition qui a fait que les coroutines soient un concept
     propre en Python, et a ajouté la syntaxe de prise en charge de
     celles-ci.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameter lists,  Prev: Coroutines<2>,  Up: Instructions composées

4.8.10 Type parameter lists
---------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added (see
PEP 696(1)).

     type_params  ::= "[" *note type_param: 20ed. ("," *note type_param: 20ed.)* "]"
     type_param   ::= *note typevar: 20ee. | *note typevartuple: 20ef. | *note paramspec: 20f0.
     typevar      ::= *note identifier: 1e51. (":" *note expression: 1fef.)? ("=" *note expression: 1fef.)?
     typevartuple ::= "*" *note identifier: 1e51. ("=" *note expression: 1fef.)?
     paramspec    ::= "**" *note identifier: 1e51. ("=" *note expression: 1fef.)?

*note Functions: 1410. (including *note coroutines: 5bd.), *note
classes: 12b7. and *note type aliases: 423. may contain a type parameter
list:

     def max[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     async def amax[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class Bag[T]:
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]:
             ...

         def add(self, arg: T) -> None:
             ...

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Semantically, this indicates that the function, class, or type alias is
generic over a type variable.  This information is primarily used by
static type checkers, and at runtime, generic objects behave much like
their non-generic counterparts.

Type parameters are declared in square brackets (‘[]’) immediately after
the name of the function, class, or type alias.  The type parameters are
accessible within the scope of the generic object, but not elsewhere.
Thus, after a declaration ‘def func[T](): pass’, the name ‘T’ is not
available in the module scope.  Below, the semantics of generic objects
are described with more precision.  The scope of type parameters is
modeled with a special function (technically, an *note annotation scope:
186.) that wraps the creation of the generic object.

Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a *note
__type_params__: 20f1. attribute listing their type parameters.

Type parameters come in three kinds:

   * *note typing.TypeVar: 15c, introduced by a plain name (e.g., ‘T’).
     Semantically, this represents a single type to a type checker.

   * *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e, introduced by a name prefixed with
     a single asterisk (e.g., ‘*Ts’).  Semantically, this stands for a
     tuple of any number of types.

   * *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d, introduced by a name prefixed with two
     asterisks (e.g., ‘**P’).  Semantically, this stands for the
     parameters of a callable.

*note typing.TypeVar: 15c. declarations can define 'bounds' and
'constraints' with a colon (‘:’) followed by an expression.  A single
expression after the colon indicates a bound (e.g.  ‘T: int’).
Semantically, this means that the ‘typing.TypeVar’ can only represent
types that are a subtype of this bound.  A parenthesized tuple of
expressions after the colon indicates a set of constraints (e.g.  ‘T:
(str, bytes)’).  Each member of the tuple should be a type (again, this
is not enforced at runtime).  Constrained type variables can only take
on one of the types in the list of constraints.

For ‘typing.TypeVar’s declared using the type parameter list syntax, the
bound and constraints are not evaluated when the generic object is
created, but only when the value is explicitly accessed through the
attributes ‘__bound__’ and ‘__constraints__’.  To accomplish this, the
bounds or constraints are evaluated in a separate *note annotation
scope: 186.

*note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e.s and *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d.s
cannot have bounds or constraints.

All three flavors of type parameters can also have a 'default value',
which is used when the type parameter is not explicitly provided.  This
is added by appending a single equals sign (‘=’) followed by an
expression.  Like the bounds and constraints of type variables, the
default value is not evaluated when the object is created, but only when
the type parameter's ‘__default__’ attribute is accessed.  To this end,
the default value is evaluated in a separate *note annotation scope:
186.  If no default value is specified for a type parameter, the
‘__default__’ attribute is set to the special sentinel object *note
typing.NoDefault: 25f.

The following example indicates the full set of allowed type parameter
declarations:

     def overly_generic[
        SimpleTypeVar,
        TypeVarWithDefault = int,
        TypeVarWithBound: int,
        TypeVarWithConstraints: (str, bytes),
        *SimpleTypeVarTuple = (int, float),
        **SimpleParamSpec = (str, bytearray),
     ](
        a: SimpleTypeVar,
        b: TypeVarWithDefault,
        c: TypeVarWithBound,
        d: Callable[SimpleParamSpec, TypeVarWithConstraints],
        *e: SimpleTypeVarTuple,
     ): ...

* Menu:

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic functions,  Next: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.1 Generic functions
..........................

Generic functions are declared as follows:

     def func[T](arg: T): ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         def func(arg: T): ...
         func.__type_params__ = (T,)
         return func
     func = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func()

Here ‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 186, which is
not actually bound to any name at runtime.  (One other liberty is taken
in the translation: the syntax does not go through attribute access on
the *note typing: 103. module, but creates an instance of *note
typing.TypeVar: 15c. directly.)

The annotations of generic functions are evaluated within the annotation
scope used for declaring the type parameters, but the function's
defaults and decorators are not.

The following example illustrates the scoping rules for these cases, as
well as for additional flavors of type parameters:

     @decorator
     def func[T: int, *Ts, **P](*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = some_default):
         ...

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 442. of the *note TypeVar: 15c.
bound, this is equivalent to:

     DEFAULT_OF_arg = some_default

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():

         annotation-def BOUND_OF_T():
             return int
         # In reality, BOUND_OF_T() is evaluated only on demand.
         T = typing.TypeVar("T", bound=BOUND_OF_T())

         Ts = typing.TypeVarTuple("Ts")
         P = typing.ParamSpec("P")

         def func(*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = DEFAULT_OF_arg):
             ...

         func.__type_params__ = (T, Ts, P)
         return func
     func = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func())

The capitalized names like ‘DEFAULT_OF_arg’ are not actually bound at
runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Generic classes,  Next: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic functions,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.2 Generic classes
........................

Generic classes are declared as follows:

     class Bag[T]: ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(typing.Generic[T]):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag()

Here again ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 186, and the name ‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag’ is not actually
bound at runtime.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note typing.Generic: 15d4.  The
base classes and keyword arguments of generic classes are evaluated
within the type scope for the type parameters, and decorators are
evaluated outside that scope.  This is illustrated by this example:

     @decorator
     class Bag(Base[T], arg=T): ...

This is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(Base[T], typing.Generic[T], arg=T):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag())


File: python.info,  Node: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.3 Generic type aliases
.............................

The *note type: 423. statement can also be used to create a generic type
alias:

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 442. of the value, this is
equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")

         annotation-def VALUE_OF_ListOrSet():
             return list[T] | set[T]
         # In reality, the value is lazily evaluated
         return typing.TypeAliasType("ListOrSet", VALUE_OF_ListOrSet(), type_params=(T,))
     ListOrSet = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet()

Here, ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 186.  The capitalized names like
‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet’ are not actually bound at runtime.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Composants de plus haut niveau,  Next: Spécification complète de la grammaire,  Prev: Instructions composées,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.9 Composants de plus haut niveau
==================================

L'entrée de l'interpréteur Python peut provenir d'un certain nombre de
sources : d'un script passé en entrée standard ou en argument de
programme, tapée de manière interactive, à partir d'un fichier source de
module, etc.  Ce chapitre donne la syntaxe utilisée dans ces différents
cas.

* Menu:

* Programmes Python complets::
* Fichier d'entrée::
* Entrée interactive::
* Entrée d'expression::


File: python.info,  Node: Programmes Python complets,  Next: Fichier d'entrée,  Up: Composants de plus haut niveau

4.9.1 Programmes Python complets
--------------------------------

Bien que les spécifications d'un langage n'ont pas à préciser comment
l'interpréteur du langage est invoqué, il est utile d'avoir des notions
sur ce qu'est un programme Python complet.  Un programme Python complet
est exécuté dans un environnement dont l'initialisation est minimale :
tous les modules intégrés et standard sont disponibles mais aucun n'a
été initialisé, à l'exception de *note sys: d8. (divers services
système), *note builtins: 12. (fonctions natives, exceptions et ‘None’)
et *note __main__: 1.  Ce dernier est utilisé pour avoir des espaces de
nommage locaux et globaux pour l'exécution du programme complet.

La syntaxe d'un programme Python complet est celle d'un fichier
d'entrée, dont la description est donnée dans la section suivante.

L'interpréteur peut également être invoqué en mode interactif ; dans ce
cas, il ne lit et n'exécute pas un programme complet mais lit et exécute
une seule instruction (éventuellement composée) à la fois.
L'environnement initial est identique à celui d'un programme complet ;
chaque instruction est exécutée dans l'espace de nommage de *note
__main__: 1.

Un programme complet peut être transmis à l'interpréteur sous trois
formes : avec l'option *note -c: 5cc. 'chaîne' en ligne de commande,
avec un fichier passé comme premier argument de ligne de commande ou
comme entrée standard.  Si le fichier ou l'entrée standard est un
périphérique tty, l'interpréteur entre en mode interactif ; sinon, il
exécute le fichier comme un programme complet.


File: python.info,  Node: Fichier d'entrée,  Next: Entrée interactive,  Prev: Programmes Python complets,  Up: Composants de plus haut niveau

4.9.2 Fichier d'entrée
----------------------

Toutes les entrées lues à partir de fichiers non interactifs sont de la
même forme :

     file_input ::= (NEWLINE | *note statement: 2090.)*

Cette syntaxe est utilisée dans les situations suivantes :

   * lors de l'analyse d'un programme Python complet (à partir d'un
     fichier ou d'une chaîne de caractères) ;

   * lors de l'analyse d'un module ;

   * lors de l'analyse d'une chaîne de caractères passée à la fonction
     *note exec(): 17d.


File: python.info,  Node: Entrée interactive,  Next: Entrée d'expression,  Prev: Fichier d'entrée,  Up: Composants de plus haut niveau

4.9.3 Entrée interactive
------------------------

L'entrée en mode interactif est analysée à l'aide de la grammaire
suivante :

     interactive_input ::= [*note stmt_list: 208f.] NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 2082. NEWLINE

Notez qu'une instruction composée (de niveau supérieur) doit être suivie
d'une ligne blanche en mode interactif ; c'est nécessaire pour aider
l'analyseur à détecter la fin de l'entrée.


File: python.info,  Node: Entrée d'expression,  Prev: Entrée interactive,  Up: Composants de plus haut niveau

4.9.4 Entrée d'expression
-------------------------

*note eval(): 17e. est utilisée pour évaluer les expressions entrées.
Elle ignore les espaces en tête.  L'argument de *note eval(): 17e, de
type chaîne de caractères, doit être de la forme suivante :

     eval_input ::= *note expression_list: 2047. NEWLINE*


File: python.info,  Node: Spécification complète de la grammaire,  Prev: Composants de plus haut niveau,  Up: La référence du langage Python

4.10 Spécification complète de la grammaire
===========================================

Ceci est la grammaire complète de Python, issue directement de la
grammaire utilisée pour générer l'analyseur syntaxique CPython (voir
Grammar/python.gram(1)).  La version ci-dessous ne comprend pas les
détails relatifs à la génération de code et la reprise sur erreur.

The notation is a mixture of EBNF(2) and PEG(3). In particular, ‘&’
followed by a symbol, token or parenthesized group indicates a positive
lookahead (i.e., is required to match but not consumed), while ‘!’
indicates a negative lookahead (i.e., is required 'not' to match).  We
use the ‘|’ separator to mean PEG's "ordered choice" (written as ‘/’ in
traditional PEG grammars).  See PEP 617(4) for more details on the
grammar's syntax.

     # PEG grammar for Python

     @trailer '''
     void *
     _PyPegen_parse(Parser *p)
     {
         // Initialize keywords
         p->keywords = reserved_keywords;
         p->n_keyword_lists = n_keyword_lists;
         p->soft_keywords = soft_keywords;

         // Run parser
         void *result = NULL;
         if (p->start_rule == Py_file_input) {
             result = file_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_single_input) {
             result = interactive_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_eval_input) {
             result = eval_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_func_type_input) {
             result = func_type_rule(p);
         }

         return result;
     }
     '''

     # ========================= START OF THE GRAMMAR =========================

     # General grammatical elements and rules:
     #
     # * Strings with double quotes (") denote SOFT KEYWORDS
     # * Strings with single quotes (') denote KEYWORDS
     # * Upper case names (NAME) denote tokens in the Grammar/Tokens file
     # * Rule names starting with "invalid_" are used for specialized syntax errors
     #     - These rules are NOT used in the first pass of the parser.
     #     - Only if the first pass fails to parse, a second pass including the invalid
     #       rules will be executed.
     #     - If the parser fails in the second phase with a generic syntax error, the
     #       location of the generic failure of the first pass will be used (this avoids
     #       reporting incorrect locations due to the invalid rules).
     #     - The order of the alternatives involving invalid rules matter
     #       (like any rule in PEG).
     #
     # Grammar Syntax (see PEP 617 for more information):
     #
     # rule_name: expression
     #   Optionally, a type can be included right after the rule name, which
     #   specifies the return type of the C or Python function corresponding to the
     #   rule:
     # rule_name[return_type]: expression
     #   If the return type is omitted, then a void * is returned in C and an Any in
     #   Python.
     # e1 e2
     #   Match e1, then match e2.
     # e1 | e2
     #   Match e1 or e2.
     #   The first alternative can also appear on the line after the rule name for
     #   formatting purposes. In that case, a | must be used before the first
     #   alternative, like so:
     #       rule_name[return_type]:
     #            | first_alt
     #            | second_alt
     # ( e )
     #   Match e (allows also to use other operators in the group like '(e)*')
     # [ e ] or e?
     #   Optionally match e.
     # e*
     #   Match zero or more occurrences of e.
     # e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e.
     # s.e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e, separated by s. The generated parse tree
     #   does not include the separator. This is otherwise identical to (e (s e)*).
     # &e
     #   Succeed if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # !e
     #   Fail if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # ~
     #   Commit to the current alternative, even if it fails to parse.
     # &&e
     #   Eager parse e. The parser will not backtrack and will immediately
     #   fail with SyntaxError if e cannot be parsed.
     #

     # STARTING RULES
     # ==============

     file[mod_ty]: a=[statements] ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_make_module(p, a) }
     interactive[mod_ty]: a=statement_newline { _PyAST_Interactive(a, p->arena) }
     eval[mod_ty]: a=expressions NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_Expression(a, p->arena) }
     func_type[mod_ty]: '(' a=[type_expressions] ')' '->' b=expression NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_FunctionType(a, b, p->arena) }

     # GENERAL STATEMENTS
     # ==================

     statements[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=statement+ { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_flatten(p, a) }

     statement[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=compound_stmt { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=simple_stmts { a }

     statement_newline[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=compound_stmt NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | simple_stmts
         | NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(stmt_ty, _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA))) }
         | ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_interactive_exit(p) }

     simple_stmts[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=simple_stmt !';' NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } # Not needed, there for speedup
         | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=';'.simple_stmt+ [';'] NEWLINE { a }

     # NOTE: assignment MUST precede expression, else parsing a simple assignment
     # will throw a SyntaxError.
     simple_stmt[stmt_ty] (memo):
         | assignment
         | &"type" type_alias
         | e=star_expressions { _PyAST_Expr(e, EXTRA) }
         | &'return' return_stmt
         | &('import' | 'from') import_stmt
         | &'raise' raise_stmt
         | 'pass' { _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA) }
         | &'del' del_stmt
         | &'yield' yield_stmt
         | &'assert' assert_stmt
         | 'break' { _PyAST_Break(EXTRA) }
         | 'continue' { _PyAST_Continue(EXTRA) }
         | &'global' global_stmt
         | &'nonlocal' nonlocal_stmt

     compound_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | &('def' | '@' | 'async') function_def
         | &'if' if_stmt
         | &('class' | '@') class_def
         | &('with' | 'async') with_stmt
         | &('for' | 'async') for_stmt
         | &'try' try_stmt
         | &'while' while_stmt
         | match_stmt

     # SIMPLE STATEMENTS
     # =================

     # NOTE: annotated_rhs may start with 'yield'; yield_expr must start with 'yield'
     assignment[stmt_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 6,
                 "Variable annotation syntax is",
                 _PyAST_AnnAssign(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, c, 1, EXTRA)
             ) }
         | a=('(' b=single_target ')' { b }
              | single_subscript_attribute_target) ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 6, "Variable annotations syntax is", _PyAST_AnnAssign(a, b, c, 0, EXTRA)) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(z=star_targets '=' { z })+ b=(yield_expr | star_expressions) !'=' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] {
              _PyAST_Assign(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | a=single_target b=augassign ~ c=(yield_expr | star_expressions) {
              _PyAST_AugAssign(a, b->kind, c, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_assignment

     annotated_rhs[expr_ty]: yield_expr | star_expressions

     augassign[AugOperator*]:
         | '+=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Add) }
         | '-=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Sub) }
         | '*=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mult) }
         | '@=' { CHECK_VERSION(AugOperator*, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyPegen_augoperator(p, MatMult)) }
         | '/=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Div) }
         | '%=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mod) }
         | '&=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitAnd) }
         | '|=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitOr) }
         | '^=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitXor) }
         | '<<=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, LShift) }
         | '>>=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, RShift) }
         | '**=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Pow) }
         | '//=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, FloorDiv) }

     return_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'return' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Return(a, EXTRA) }

     raise_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'raise' a=expression b=['from' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Raise(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'raise' { _PyAST_Raise(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     global_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'global' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Global(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     nonlocal_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'nonlocal' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Nonlocal(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     del_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'del' a=del_targets &(';' | NEWLINE) { _PyAST_Delete(a, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_del_stmt

     yield_stmt[stmt_ty]: y=yield_expr { _PyAST_Expr(y, EXTRA) }

     assert_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'assert' a=expression b=[',' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Assert(a, b, EXTRA) }

     import_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_import
         | import_name
         | import_from

     # Import statements
     # -----------------

     import_name[stmt_ty]: 'import' a=dotted_as_names { _PyAST_Import(a, EXTRA) }
     # note below: the ('.' | '...') is necessary because '...' is tokenized as ELLIPSIS
     import_from[stmt_ty]:
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')* b=dotted_name 'import' c=import_from_targets {
             _PyPegen_checked_future_import(p, b->v.Name.id, c, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')+ 'import' b=import_from_targets {
             _PyAST_ImportFrom(NULL, b, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
     import_from_targets[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | '(' a=import_from_as_names [','] ')' { a }
         | import_from_as_names !','
         | '*' { (asdl_alias_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(alias_ty, _PyPegen_alias_for_star(p, EXTRA))) }
         | invalid_import_from_targets
     import_from_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.import_from_as_name+ { a }
     import_from_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=NAME b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                    (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                    EXTRA) }
     dotted_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.dotted_as_name+ { a }
     dotted_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                           (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                           EXTRA) }
     dotted_name[expr_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name '.' b=NAME { _PyPegen_join_names_with_dot(p, a, b) }
         | NAME

     # COMPOUND STATEMENTS
     # ===================

     # Common elements
     # ---------------

     block[asdl_stmt_seq*] (memo):
         | NEWLINE INDENT a=statements DEDENT { a }
         | simple_stmts
         | invalid_block

     decorators[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=('@' f=named_expression NEWLINE { f })+ { a }

     # Class definitions
     # -----------------

     class_def[stmt_ty]:
         | a=decorators b=class_def_raw { _PyPegen_class_def_decorators(p, a, b) }
         | class_def_raw

     class_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_class_def_raw
         | 'class' a=NAME t=[type_params] b=['(' z=[arguments] ')' { z }] ':' c=block {
             _PyAST_ClassDef(a->v.Name.id,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                          c, NULL, t, EXTRA) }

     # Function definitions
     # --------------------

     function_def[stmt_ty]:
         | d=decorators f=function_def_raw { _PyPegen_function_def_decorators(p, d, f) }
         | function_def_raw

     function_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_def_raw
         | 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] '(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] ':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             _PyAST_FunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                             (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                             b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] '(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] ':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 5,
                 "Async functions are",
                 _PyAST_AsyncFunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                                 (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                                 b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA)
             ) }

     # Function parameters
     # -------------------

     params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_parameters
         | parameters

     parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default* c=param_with_default* d=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=slash_with_default b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=param_with_default+ b=[star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     # Some duplication here because we can't write (',' | &')'),
     # which is because we don't support empty alternatives (yet).

     slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' &')' { a }
     slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' &')' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_star_etc
         | '*' a=param_no_default b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' a=param_no_default_star_annotation b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=param_maybe_default+ c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_kwds
         | '**' a=param_no_default { a }

     # One parameter.  This *includes* a following comma and type comment.
     #
     # There are three styles:
     # - No default
     # - With default
     # - Maybe with default
     #
     # There are two alternative forms of each, to deal with type comments:
     # - Ends in a comma followed by an optional type comment
     # - No comma, optional type comment, must be followed by close paren
     # The latter form is for a final parameter without trailing comma.
     #

     param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=param ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_no_default_star_annotation[arg_ty]:
         | a=param_star_annotation ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param_star_annotation tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default? ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default? tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=annotation? { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     param_star_annotation[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=star_annotation { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=expression { a }
     star_annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=star_expression { a }
     default[expr_ty]: '=' a=expression { a } | invalid_default

     # If statement
     # ------------

     if_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_if_stmt
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     elif_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_elif_stmt
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     else_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_else_stmt
         | 'else' &&':' b=block { b }

     # While statement
     # ---------------

     while_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_while_stmt
         | 'while' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_While(a, b, c, EXTRA) }

     # For statement
     # -------------

     for_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_for_stmt
         | 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             _PyAST_For(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async for loops are", _PyAST_AsyncFor(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_for_target

     # With statement
     # --------------

     with_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_with_stmt_indent
         | 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NULL, EXTRA)) }
         | 'async' 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_with_stmt

     with_item[withitem_ty]:
         | e=expression 'as' t=star_target &(',' | ')' | ':') { _PyAST_withitem(e, t, p->arena) }
         | invalid_with_item
         | e=expression { _PyAST_withitem(e, NULL, p->arena) }

     # Try statement
     # -------------

     try_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_try_stmt
         | 'try' &&':' b=block f=finally_block { _PyAST_Try(b, NULL, NULL, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] { _PyAST_Try(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_star_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 11, "Exception groups are",
                           _PyAST_TryStar(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA)) }


     # Except statement
     # ----------------

     except_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_stmt_indent
         | 'except' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' ':' b=block { _PyAST_ExceptHandler(NULL, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     except_star_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_star_stmt_indent
         | 'except' '*' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     finally_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_finally_stmt
         | 'finally' &&':' a=block { a }

     # Match statement
     # ---------------

     match_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | "match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE INDENT cases[asdl_match_case_seq*]=case_block+ DEDENT {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 10, "Pattern matching is", _PyAST_Match(subject, cases, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_match_stmt

     subject_expr[expr_ty]:
         | value=star_named_expression ',' values=star_named_expressions? {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, value, values)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     case_block[match_case_ty]:
         | invalid_case_block
         | "case" pattern=patterns guard=guard? ':' body=block {
             _PyAST_match_case(pattern, guard, body, p->arena) }

     guard[expr_ty]: 'if' guard=named_expression { guard }

     patterns[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]=open_sequence_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | pattern

     pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | as_pattern
         | or_pattern

     as_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | pattern=or_pattern 'as' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchAs(pattern, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_as_pattern

     or_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]='|'.closed_pattern+ {
             asdl_seq_LEN(patterns) == 1 ? asdl_seq_GET(patterns, 0) : _PyAST_MatchOr(patterns, EXTRA) }

     closed_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | literal_pattern
         | capture_pattern
         | wildcard_pattern
         | value_pattern
         | group_pattern
         | sequence_pattern
         | mapping_pattern
         | class_pattern

     # Literal patterns are used for equality and identity constraints
     literal_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | value=signed_number !('+' | '-') { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=complex_number { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=strings { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_None, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_True, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_False, EXTRA) }

     # Literal expressions are used to restrict permitted mapping pattern keys
     literal_expr[expr_ty]:
         | signed_number !('+' | '-')
         | complex_number
         | strings
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }

     complex_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=signed_real_number '+' imag=imaginary_number {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Add, imag, EXTRA) }
         | real=signed_real_number '-' imag=imaginary_number  {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Sub, imag, EXTRA) }

     signed_number[expr_ty]:
         | NUMBER
         | '-' number=NUMBER { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, number, EXTRA) }

     signed_real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real_number
         | '-' real=real_number { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, real, EXTRA) }

     real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_real(p, real) }

     imaginary_number[expr_ty]:
         | imag=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_imaginary(p, imag) }

     capture_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | target=pattern_capture_target { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     pattern_capture_target[expr_ty]:
         | !"_" name=NAME !('.' | '(' | '=') {
             _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, name, Store) }

     wildcard_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | "_" { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     value_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | attr=attr !('.' | '(' | '=') { _PyAST_MatchValue(attr, EXTRA) }

     attr[expr_ty]:
         | value=name_or_attr '.' attr=NAME {
             _PyAST_Attribute(value, attr->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }

     name_or_attr[expr_ty]:
         | attr
         | NAME

     group_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '(' pattern=pattern ')' { pattern }

     sequence_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '[' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? ']' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | '(' patterns=open_sequence_pattern? ')' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }

     open_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | pattern=maybe_star_pattern ',' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? {
             _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, pattern, patterns) }

     maybe_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | patterns=','.maybe_star_pattern+ ','? { patterns }

     maybe_star_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | star_pattern
         | pattern

     star_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | '*' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '*' wildcard_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(NULL, EXTRA) }

     mapping_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '{' '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | '{' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, rest->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ',' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 rest->v.Name.id,
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 NULL,
                 EXTRA) }

     items_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.key_value_pattern+

     key_value_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | key=(literal_expr | attr) ':' pattern=pattern {
             _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, key, pattern) }

     double_star_pattern[expr_ty]:
         | '**' target=pattern_capture_target { target }

     class_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, patterns, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls, NULL,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ',' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls,
                 patterns,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | invalid_class_pattern

     positional_patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | args[asdl_pattern_seq*]=','.pattern+ { args }

     keyword_patterns[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.keyword_pattern+

     keyword_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | arg=NAME '=' value=pattern { _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, arg, value) }

     # Type statement
     # ---------------

     type_alias[stmt_ty]:
         | "type" n=NAME t=[type_params] '=' b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 12, "Type statement is",
             _PyAST_TypeAlias(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, n, Store)), t, b, EXTRA)) }

     # Type parameter declaration
     # --------------------------

     type_params[asdl_type_param_seq*]:
         | invalid_type_params
         | '[' t=type_param_seq ']' {
             CHECK_VERSION(asdl_type_param_seq *, 12, "Type parameter lists are", t) }

     type_param_seq[asdl_type_param_seq*]: a[asdl_type_param_seq*]=','.type_param+ [','] { a }

     type_param[type_param_ty] (memo):
         | a=NAME b=[type_param_bound] c=[type_param_default] { _PyAST_TypeVar(a->v.Name.id, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | '*' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with TypeVarTuple"
                     : "cannot use bound with TypeVarTuple")
             }
         | '*' a=NAME b=[type_param_starred_default] { _PyAST_TypeVarTuple(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | '**' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with ParamSpec"
                     : "cannot use bound with ParamSpec")
             }
         | '**' a=NAME b=[type_param_default] { _PyAST_ParamSpec(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }

     type_param_bound[expr_ty]: ':' e=expression { e }
     type_param_default[expr_ty]: '=' e=expression {
         CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 13, "Type parameter defaults are", e) }
     type_param_starred_default[expr_ty]: '=' e=star_expression {
         CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 13, "Type parameter defaults are", e) }

     # EXPRESSIONS
     # -----------

     expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=expression b=(',' c=expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | invalid_expression
         | invalid_legacy_expression
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef

     yield_expr[expr_ty]:
         | 'yield' 'from' a=expression { _PyAST_YieldFrom(a, EXTRA) }
         | 'yield' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Yield(a, EXTRA) }

     star_expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_expression b=(',' c=star_expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=star_expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | star_expression

     star_expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     star_named_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_named_expression+ [','] { a }

     star_named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     assignment_expression[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':=' ~ b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 8, "Assignment expressions are",
             _PyAST_NamedExpr(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, EXTRA)) }

     named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | assignment_expression
         | invalid_named_expression
         | expression !':='

     disjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=conjunction b=('or' c=conjunction { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             Or,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | conjunction

     conjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=inversion b=('and' c=inversion { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             And,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | inversion

     inversion[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'not' a=inversion { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Not, a, EXTRA) }
         | comparison

     # Comparison operators
     # --------------------

     comparison[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or b=compare_op_bitwise_or_pair+ {
             _PyAST_Compare(
                 a,
                 CHECK(asdl_int_seq*, _PyPegen_get_cmpops(p, b)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_exprs(p, b)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_or

     compare_op_bitwise_or_pair[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | eq_bitwise_or
         | noteq_bitwise_or
         | lte_bitwise_or
         | lt_bitwise_or
         | gte_bitwise_or
         | gt_bitwise_or
         | notin_bitwise_or
         | in_bitwise_or
         | isnot_bitwise_or
         | is_bitwise_or

     eq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '==' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Eq, a) }
     noteq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | (tok='!=' { _PyPegen_check_barry_as_flufl(p, tok) ? NULL : tok}) a=bitwise_or {_PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotEq, a) }
     lte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, LtE, a) }
     lt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Lt, a) }
     gte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, GtE, a) }
     gt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Gt, a) }
     notin_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'not' 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotIn, a) }
     in_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, In, a) }
     isnot_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' 'not' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, IsNot, a) }
     is_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Is, a) }

     # Bitwise operators
     # -----------------

     bitwise_or[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or '|' b=bitwise_xor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitOr, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_xor

     bitwise_xor[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_xor '^' b=bitwise_and { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitXor, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_and

     bitwise_and[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_and '&' b=shift_expr { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitAnd, b, EXTRA) }
         | shift_expr

     shift_expr[expr_ty]:
         | a=shift_expr '<<' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, LShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=shift_expr '>>' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, RShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_arithmetic
         | sum

     # Arithmetic operators
     # --------------------

     sum[expr_ty]:
         | a=sum '+' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Add, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=sum '-' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Sub, b, EXTRA) }
         | term

     term[expr_ty]:
         | a=term '*' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mult, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '/' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Div, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '//' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, FloorDiv, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '%' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mod, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '@' b=factor { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyAST_BinOp(a, MatMult, b, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_factor
         | factor

     factor[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '+' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(UAdd, a, EXTRA) }
         | '-' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, a, EXTRA) }
         | '~' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Invert, a, EXTRA) }
         | power

     power[expr_ty]:
         | a=await_primary '**' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Pow, b, EXTRA) }
         | await_primary

     # Primary elements
     # ----------------

     # Primary elements are things like "obj.something.something", "obj[something]", "obj(something)", "obj" ...

     await_primary[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'await' a=primary { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "Await expressions are", _PyAST_Await(a, EXTRA)) }
         | primary

     primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=primary '.' b=NAME { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary b=genexp { _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '[' b=slices ']' { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | atom

     slices[expr_ty]:
         | a=slice !',' { a }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(slice | starred_expression)+ [','] { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     slice[expr_ty]:
         | a=[expression] ':' b=[expression] c=[':' d=[expression] { d }] { _PyAST_Slice(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | a=named_expression { a }

     atom[expr_ty]:
         | NAME
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | &(STRING|FSTRING_START) strings
         | NUMBER
         | &'(' (tuple | group | genexp)
         | &'[' (list | listcomp)
         | &'{' (dict | set | dictcomp | setcomp)
         | '...' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_Ellipsis, NULL, EXTRA) }

     group[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=(yield_expr | named_expression) ')' { a }
         | invalid_group

     # Lambda functions
     # ----------------

     lambdef[expr_ty]:
         | 'lambda' a=[lambda_params] ':' b=expression {
             _PyAST_Lambda((a) ? a : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)), b, EXTRA) }

     lambda_params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_parameters
         | lambda_parameters

     # lambda_parameters etc. duplicates parameters but without annotations
     # or type comments, and if there's no comma after a parameter, we expect
     # a colon, not a close parenthesis.  (For more, see parameters above.)
     #
     lambda_parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=lambda_slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default* c=lambda_param_with_default* d=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_param_with_default+ b=[lambda_star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=lambda_star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' &':' { a }

     lambda_slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' &':' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     lambda_star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_lambda_star_etc
         | '*' a=lambda_param_no_default b=lambda_param_maybe_default* c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=lambda_param_maybe_default+ c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_kwds
         | '**' a=lambda_param_no_default { a }

     lambda_param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=lambda_param ',' { a }
         | a=lambda_param &':' { a }
     lambda_param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default? ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default? &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param[arg_ty]: a=NAME { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     # LITERALS
     # ========

     fstring_middle[expr_ty]:
         | fstring_replacement_field
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_constant_from_token(p, t) }
     fstring_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=annotated_rhs debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[fstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_formatted_value(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_replacement_field
     fstring_conversion[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | conv_token="!" conv=NAME { _PyPegen_check_fstring_conversion(p, conv_token, conv) }
     fstring_full_format_spec[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | colon=':' spec=fstring_format_spec* { _PyPegen_setup_full_format_spec(p, colon, (asdl_expr_seq *) spec, EXTRA) }
     fstring_format_spec[expr_ty]:
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token(p, t) }
         | fstring_replacement_field
     fstring[expr_ty]:
         | a=FSTRING_START b=fstring_middle* c=FSTRING_END { _PyPegen_joined_str(p, a, (asdl_expr_seq*)b, c) }

     string[expr_ty]: s[Token*]=STRING { _PyPegen_constant_from_string(p, s) }
     strings[expr_ty] (memo): a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(fstring|string)+ { _PyPegen_concatenate_strings(p, a, EXTRA) }

     list[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=[star_named_expressions] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     tuple[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=[y=star_named_expression ',' z=[star_named_expressions] { _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, y, z) } ] ')' {
             _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     set[expr_ty]: '{' a=star_named_expressions '}' { _PyAST_Set(a, EXTRA) }

     # Dicts
     # -----

     dict[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=[double_starred_kvpairs] '}' {
             _PyAST_Dict(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_keys(p, a)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_values(p, a)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' invalid_double_starred_kvpairs '}'

     double_starred_kvpairs[asdl_seq*]: a=','.double_starred_kvpair+ [','] { a }

     double_starred_kvpair[KeyValuePair*]:
         | '**' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, NULL, a) }
         | kvpair

     kvpair[KeyValuePair*]: a=expression ':' b=expression { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, a, b) }

     # Comprehensions & Generators
     # ---------------------------

     for_if_clauses[asdl_comprehension_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_comprehension_seq*]=for_if_clause+ { a }

     for_if_clause[comprehension_ty]:
         | 'async' 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             CHECK_VERSION(comprehension_ty, 6, "Async comprehensions are", _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 1, p->arena)) }
         | 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 0, p->arena) }
         | 'async'? 'for' (bitwise_or (',' bitwise_or)* [',']) !'in' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("'in' expected after for-loop variables") }
         | invalid_for_target

     listcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses ']' { _PyAST_ListComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     setcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_SetComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     genexp[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=( assignment_expression | expression !':=') b=for_if_clauses ')' { _PyAST_GeneratorExp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     dictcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=kvpair b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_DictComp(a->key, a->value, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_dict_comprehension

     # FUNCTION CALL ARGUMENTS
     # =======================

     arguments[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=args [','] &')' { a }
         | invalid_arguments

     args[expr_ty]:
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ b=[',' k=kwargs {k}] {
             _PyPegen_collect_call_seqs(p, a, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=kwargs { _PyAST_Call(_PyPegen_dummy_name(p),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_extract_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_keyword_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_delete_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               EXTRA) }

     kwargs[asdl_seq*]:
         | a=','.kwarg_or_starred+ ',' b=','.kwarg_or_double_starred+ { _PyPegen_join_sequences(p, a, b) }
         | ','.kwarg_or_starred+
         | ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+

     starred_expression[expr_ty]:
         | invalid_starred_expression
         | '*' a=expression { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | '*' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Invalid star expression") }

     kwarg_or_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | a=starred_expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, a, 0) }

     kwarg_or_double_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | '**' a=expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(NULL, a, EXTRA)), 1) }

     # ASSIGNMENT TARGETS
     # ==================

     # Generic targets
     # ---------------

     # NOTE: star_targets may contain *bitwise_or, targets may not.
     star_targets[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_target !',' { a }
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })* [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Store, EXTRA) }

     star_targets_list_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_target+ [','] { a }

     star_targets_tuple_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })+ [','] { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b) }
         | a=star_target ',' { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }

     star_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=(!'*' star_target) {
             _PyAST_Starred(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), Store, EXTRA) }
         | target_with_star_atom

     target_with_star_atom[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }
         | star_atom

     star_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=target_with_star_atom ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=[star_targets_tuple_seq] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Store, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[star_targets_list_seq] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Store, EXTRA) }

     single_target[expr_ty]:
         | single_subscript_attribute_target
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=single_target ')' { a }

     single_subscript_attribute_target[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }

     t_primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary b=genexp &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=atom &t_lookahead { a }

     t_lookahead: '(' | '[' | '.'

     # Targets for del statements
     # --------------------------

     del_targets[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.del_target+ [','] { a }

     del_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Del, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Del, EXTRA) }
         | del_t_atom

     del_t_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=del_target ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=[del_targets] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Del, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[del_targets] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Del, EXTRA) }

     # TYPING ELEMENTS
     # ---------------

     # type_expressions allow */** but ignore them
     type_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression ',' '**' c=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b)),
                 c) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '**' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | '*' a=expression ',' '**' b=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)),
                 b) }
         | '*' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | '**' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.expression+ {a}

     func_type_comment[Token*]:
         | NEWLINE t=TYPE_COMMENT &(NEWLINE INDENT) { t }  # Must be followed by indented block
         | invalid_double_type_comments
         | TYPE_COMMENT

     # ========================= END OF THE GRAMMAR ===========================



     # ========================= START OF INVALID RULES =======================

     # From here on, there are rules for invalid syntax with specialised error messages
     invalid_arguments:
         | ((','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ ',' kwargs) | kwargs) a=',' ','.(starred_expression !'=')+ {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "iterable argument unpacking follows keyword argument unpacking") }
         | a=expression b=for_if_clauses ',' [args | expression for_if_clauses] {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | (args ',')? a=NAME b='=' &(',' | ')') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected argument value expression")}
         | a=args b=for_if_clauses { _PyPegen_nonparen_genexp_in_call(p, a, b) }
         | args ',' a=expression b=for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=args ',' args { _PyPegen_arguments_parsing_error(p, a) }
     invalid_kwarg:
         | a[Token*]=('True'|'False'|'None') b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to %s", PyBytes_AS_STRING(a->bytes)) }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | !(NAME '=') a=expression b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b, "expression cannot contain assignment, perhaps you meant \"==\"?") }
         | a='**' expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to keyword argument unpacking") }

     # IMPORTANT: Note that the "_without_invalid" suffix causes the rule to not call invalid rules under it
     expression_without_invalid[expr_ty]:
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef
     invalid_legacy_expression:
         | a=NAME !'(' b=star_expressions {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b,
                 "Missing parentheses in call to '%U'. Did you mean %U(...)?", a->v.Name.id, a->v.Name.id) : NULL}

     invalid_expression:
         # !(NAME STRING) is not matched so we don't show this error with some invalid string prefixes like: kf"dsfsdf"
         # Soft keywords need to also be ignored because they can be parsed as NAME NAME
        | !(NAME STRING | SOFT_KEYWORD) a=disjunction b=expression_without_invalid {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? NULL : p->tokens[p->mark-1]->level == 0 ? NULL :
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?") }
        | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction !('else'|':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected 'else' after 'if' expression") }
        | a='lambda' [lambda_params] b=':' &FSTRING_MIDDLE  {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "f-string: lambda expressions are not allowed without parentheses") }

     invalid_named_expression(memo):
         | a=expression ':=' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use assignment expressions with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | a=NAME '=' b=bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?") }
         | !(list|tuple|genexp|'True'|'None'|'False') a=bitwise_or b='=' bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                                               _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }

     invalid_assignment:
         | a=invalid_ann_assign_target ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "only single target (not %s) can be annotated",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
         | a=star_named_expression ',' star_named_expressions* ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "only single target (not tuple) can be annotated") }
         | a=expression ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "illegal target for annotation") }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=star_expressions '=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=yield_expr '=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "assignment to yield expression not possible") }
         | a=star_expressions augassign annotated_rhs {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "'%s' is an illegal expression for augmented assignment",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
     invalid_ann_assign_target[expr_ty]:
         | list
         | tuple
         | '(' a=invalid_ann_assign_target ')' { a }
     invalid_del_stmt:
         | 'del' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(DEL_TARGETS, a) }
     invalid_block:
         | NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block") }
     invalid_comprehension:
         | ('[' | '(' | '{') a=starred_expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "iterable unpacking cannot be used in comprehension") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression ',' b=star_named_expressions for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, PyPegen_last_item(b, expr_ty),
             "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression b=',' for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
     invalid_dict_comprehension:
         | '{' a='**' bitwise_or for_if_clauses '}' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "dict unpacking cannot be used in dict comprehension") }
     invalid_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | slash_no_default? param_no_default* invalid_parameters_helper a=param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | param_no_default* a='(' param_no_default+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Function parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default)? param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | param_no_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_default:
         | a='=' &(')'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected default value expression") }
     invalid_star_etc:
         | a='*' (')' | ',' (')' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' ',' TYPE_COMMENT { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("bare * has associated type comment") }
         | '*' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (param_no_default | ',') param_maybe_default* a='*' (param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_kwds:
         | '**' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' param ',' a=param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_parameters_helper: # This is only there to avoid type errors
         | a=slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | lambda_slash_no_default? lambda_param_no_default* invalid_lambda_parameters_helper a=lambda_param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | lambda_param_no_default* a='(' ','.lambda_param+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Lambda expression parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default)? lambda_param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | lambda_param_no_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | lambda_param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_lambda_parameters_helper:
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | lambda_param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_star_etc:
         | '*' (':' | ',' (':' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') lambda_param_maybe_default* a='*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_lambda_kwds:
         | '**' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a=lambda_param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_double_type_comments:
         | TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE INDENT {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Cannot have two type comments on def") }
     invalid_with_item:
         | expression 'as' a=expression &(',' | ')' | ':') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_for_target:
         | 'async'? 'for' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(FOR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_group:
         | '(' a=starred_expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use starred expression here") }
         | '(' a='**' expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use double starred expression here") }
     invalid_import:
         | a='import' ','.dotted_name+ 'from' dotted_name {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?") }
         | 'import' token=NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(token, "Expected one or more names after 'import'") }

     invalid_import_from_targets:
         | import_from_as_names ',' NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("trailing comma not allowed without surrounding parentheses") }
         | token=NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(token, "Expected one or more names after 'import'") }

     invalid_with_stmt:
         | ['async'] 'with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | ['async'] 'with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
     invalid_with_stmt_indent:
         | ['async'] a='with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | ['async'] a='with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_try_stmt:
         | a='try' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'try' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | 'try' ':' block !('except' | 'finally') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected 'except' or 'finally' block") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_block+ a='except' b='*' expression ['as' NAME] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_star_block+ a='except' [expression ['as' NAME]] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
     invalid_except_stmt:
         | 'except' '*'? a=expression ',' expressions ['as' NAME ] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "multiple exception types must be parenthesized") }
         | a='except' '*'? expression ['as' NAME ] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' '*' (NEWLINE | ':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected one or more exception types") }
     invalid_finally_stmt:
         | a='finally' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'finally' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | a='except' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_star_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' '*' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except*' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_match_stmt:
         | "match" subject_expr NEWLINE { CHECK_VERSION(void*, 10, "Pattern matching is", RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") ) }
         | a="match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'match' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_case_block:
         | "case" patterns guard? NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a="case" patterns guard? ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'case' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_as_pattern:
         | or_pattern 'as' a="_" { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use '_' as a target") }
         | or_pattern 'as' !NAME a=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "invalid pattern target") }
     invalid_class_pattern:
         | name_or_attr '(' a=invalid_class_argument_pattern  { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
             PyPegen_first_item(a, pattern_ty),
             PyPegen_last_item(a, pattern_ty),
             "positional patterns follow keyword patterns") }
     invalid_class_argument_pattern[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | [positional_patterns ','] keyword_patterns ',' a=positional_patterns { a }
     invalid_if_stmt:
         | 'if' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='if' a=named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'if' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_elif_stmt:
         | 'elif' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='elif' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'elif' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_else_stmt:
         | a='else' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'else' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_while_stmt:
         | 'while' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='while' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'while' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_for_stmt:
         | ['async'] 'for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | ['async'] a='for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_def_raw:
         | ['async'] a='def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after function definition on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | ['async'] 'def' NAME [type_params] &&'(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] &&':' [func_type_comment] block
     invalid_class_def_raw:
         | 'class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after class definition on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_double_starred_kvpairs:
         | ','.double_starred_kvpair+ ',' invalid_kvpair
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_kvpair:
         | a=expression !(':') {
             RAISE_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(p, PyExc_SyntaxError, a->lineno, a->end_col_offset - 1, a->end_lineno, -1, "':' expected after dictionary key") }
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') {RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_starred_expression:
         | a='*' expression '=' b=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to iterable argument unpacking") }

     invalid_replacement_field:
         | '{' a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '='") }
         | '{' a='!' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '!'") }
         | '{' a=':' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before ':'") }
         | '{' a='}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '}'") }
         | '{' !annotated_rhs { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting a valid expression after '{'")}
         | '{' annotated_rhs !('=' | '!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '=', or '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '=' !('!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? invalid_conversion_character
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !(':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting ':' or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] ':' fstring_format_spec* !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}', or format specs") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}'") }

     invalid_conversion_character:
         | '!' &(':' | '}') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: missing conversion character") }
         | '!' !NAME { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: invalid conversion character") }

     invalid_arithmetic:
         | sum ('+'|'-'|'*'|'/'|'%'|'//'|'@') a='not' b=inversion { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "'not' after an operator must be parenthesized") }
     invalid_factor:
         | ('+' | '-' | '~') a='not' b=factor { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "'not' after an operator must be parenthesized") }

     invalid_type_params:
         | '[' token=']' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(
                 token,
                 "Type parameter list cannot be empty")}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Grammar/python.gram

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/


File: python.info,  Node: La bibliothèque standard,  Next: Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python,  Prev: La référence du langage Python,  Up: Top

5 La bibliothèque standard
**************************

Alors que *note La référence du langage Python: 144. décrit exactement
la syntaxe et la sémantique du langage Python, ce manuel de référence de
la Bibliothèque décrit la bibliothèque standard distribuée avec Python.
Il décrit aussi certains composants optionnels typiquement inclus dans
les distributions de Python.

La bibliothèque standard de Python est très grande, elle offre un large
éventail d'outils comme le montre la longueur de la table des matières
ci-dessous.  La bibliothèque contient des modules natifs (écrits en C)
exposant les fonctionnalités du système telles que les interactions avec
les fichiers qui autrement ne seraient pas accessibles aux développeurs
Python, ainsi que des modules écrits en Python exposant des solutions
standardisées à de nombreux problèmes du quotidien du développeur.
Certains de ces modules sont définis explicitement pour encourager et
améliorer la portabilité des programmes Python en abstrayant des
spécificités sous-jacentes en API neutres.

Les installateurs de Python pour Windows incluent généralement la
bibliothèque standard en entier, et y ajoutent souvent d'autres
composants.  Pour les systèmes d'exploitation Unix, Python est
typiquement fourni sous forme d'une collection de paquets, il peut donc
être nécessaire d'utiliser le gestionnaire de paquets fourni par le
système d'exploitation pour obtenir certains composants optionnels.

Au delà de la bibliothèque standard, il existe une collection
grandissante de plusieurs centaine de milliers de composants (des
programmes, des modules, ou des 'frameworks'), disponibles dans le
Python Package Index(1).

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<6>.
* Fonctions natives: Fonctions natives<2>.
* Constantes natives::
* Types natifs::
* Exceptions natives::
* Services de Manipulation de Texte::
* Services autour des Données Binaires::
* Types de données::
* Modules numériques et mathématiques::
* Modules de programmation fonctionnelle::
* Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers::
* Persistance des données::
* Compression de donnée et archivage::
* Formats de fichiers::
* Service de cryptographie::
* Services génériques du système d'exploitation::
* Command Line Interface Libraries::
* Exécution concourante::
* Réseau et communication entre processus::
* Traitement des données provenant d'Internet::
* Outils de traitement de balises structurées::
* Gestion des protocoles internet::
* Services multimédia::
* Internationalisation::
* Cadriciels d'applications::
* Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk::
* Outils de développement::
* Débogueur et instrumentation::
* Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels::
* Environnement d'exécution Python::
* Interpréteurs Python personnalisés::
* Importer des modules::
* Services du Langage Python::
* Services spécifiques à MS Windows::
* Services spécifiques à Unix::
* Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI.
* Modules remplacés::
* Removed Modules::
* Considérations de sécurité: Considérations de sécurité<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<6>,  Next: Fonctions natives<2>,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.1 Introduction
================

La « Bibliothèque Python » contient divers composants dans différentes
catégories.

Elle contient des types de données qui seraient normalement considérés
comme « fondamentaux » au langage, tel que les nombres et les listes.
Pour ces types, le cœur du langage en définit les écritures littérales
et impose quelques contraintes sémantiques, sans les définir
exhaustivement.  (Cependant le cœur du langage impose quelques
propriétés comme l'orthographe des attributs ou les caractéristiques des
opérateurs.)

La bibliothèque contient aussi des fonctions et des exceptions natives,
pouvant être utilisées par tout code Python sans *note import: 5ce.
Certaines sont définies par le noyau de Python, bien qu'elles ne soient
pas toutes essentielles.

La grande majorité de la bibliothèque consiste cependant en une
collection de modules.  Cette collection peut être parcourue de
différentes manières.  Certains modules sont rédigés en C et inclus dans
l'interpréteur Python, d'autres sont écrits en Python et leur source est
importée.  Certains modules fournissent des interfaces extrêmement
spécifiques à Python, tel que l'affichage d'une pile d'appels, d'autres
fournissent des interfaces spécifiques à un système d'exploitation,
comme l'accès à du matériel spécifique.  D'autres fournissent des
interfaces spécifiques à un domaine d'application, comme le 'World Wide
Web'.  Certains modules sont disponibles dans toutes les versions et
implémentations de Python, d'autres ne sont disponibles que si le
système sous-jacent les gère ou en a besoin.  Enfin, d'autres ne sont
disponibles que si Python à été compilé avec une certaine option.

Cette documentation organise les modules « de l'intérieur vers
l'extérieur », documentant en premier les fonctions natives, les types
de données et exceptions, puis les modules, groupés par chapitre, par
thématiques.

Ça signifie que si vous commencez à lire cette documentation du début,
et sautez au chapitre suivant lorsqu'elle vous ennuie, vous aurez un
aperçu global des modules et domaines couverts par cette bibliothèque.
Bien sûr vous n'avez pas à la lire comme un roman, vous pouvez
simplement survoler la table des matières (au début), ou chercher une
fonction, un module, ou un mot dans l'index (à la fin).  Et si vous
appréciez apprendre sur des sujets au hasard, choisissez une page au
hasard (avec le module *note random: b7.) et lisez un chapitre ou deux.
Peu importe l'ordre que vous adopterez, commencez par le chapitre *note
Fonctions natives: 123d, car les autres chapitres présument que vous en
avez une bonne connaissance.

Que le spectacle commence !

* Menu:

* Notes sur la disponibilité::


File: python.info,  Node: Notes sur la disponibilité,  Up: Introduction<6>

5.1.1 Notes sur la disponibilité
--------------------------------

   * Une note « Disponibilité : Unix » signifie que cette fonction est
     communément implémentée dans les systèmes Unix.  Une telle note ne
     prétend pas l'existence de la fonction sur un système
     d'exploitation particulier.

   * If not separately noted, all functions that claim "Availability:
     Unix" are supported on macOS, iOS and Android, all of which build
     on a Unix core.

   * Si une note de disponibilité contient à la fois une version
     minimale du noyau et une version minimale de la 'libc', les deux
     conditions doivent être remplies.  Par exemple, une fonctionnalité
     avec la note 'Disponibilité : Linux >= 3.17 avec glibc >= 2.27'
     nécessite à la fois Linux 3.17 ou plus récent et glibc 2.27 ou plus
     récent.

* Menu:

* Plateformes WebAssembly::
* Mobile platforms::


File: python.info,  Node: Plateformes WebAssembly,  Next: Mobile platforms,  Up: Notes sur la disponibilité

5.1.1.1 Plateformes WebAssembly
...............................

Les plates-formes WebAssembly(1) ‘wasm32-emscripten’ (Emscripten(2)) et
‘wasm32-wasi’ (WASI(3)) fournissent un sous-ensemble des API POSIX. Les
environnements d'exécution WebAssembly et les navigateurs sont dans des
bacs à sable et ont un accès limité à l'hôte et aux ressources externes.
Tout module de bibliothèque standard Python qui utilise des processus,
des threads, le réseau, des signaux ou d'autres formes de communication
inter-processus (IPC) n'est pas disponible ou peut ne pas fonctionner
comme sur d'autres systèmes de type Unix.  Les entrées-sorties de
fichiers, le système de fichiers et les fonctions liées aux
autorisations Unix sont également restreintes.  'Emscripten' ne permet
pas d'effectuer des entrées-sorties bloquantes.  D'autres opérations
bloquantes comme *note sleep(): 68a. bloquent la boucle d'événements du
navigateur.

Les propriétés et le comportement de Python sur les plates-formes
WebAssembly dépendent de la version du SDK Emscripten(4) ou WASI(5), des
programmes exécutables WASM (navigateur, NodeJS, wasmtime(6)) et de la
configuration de compilation de Python.  WebAssembly, Emscripten et WASI
sont des normes en évolution ; certaines fonctionnalités telles que la
gestion du réseau pourraient être prises en charge à l'avenir.

Pour exécuter du Python dans le navigateur, les utilisateurs doivent
envisager Pyodide(7) ou PyScript(8).  'PyScript' est construit sur
'Pyodide', qui est lui-même construit sur CPython et 'Emscripten'.
'Pyodide' donne accès aux API JavaScript et DOM des navigateurs ainsi
qu'à des capacités réseau limitées avec les API ‘XMLHttpRequest’ et
‘Fetch’ de JavaScript.

   * Les API liées aux processus ne sont pas disponibles ou échouent
     toujours avec une erreur.  Cela inclut les API qui génèrent de
     nouveaux processus (*note fork(): 195, *note execve(): 10db.),
     attendent des processus (*note waitpid(): d89.), envoient des
     signaux (*note kill(): 1340.), ou interagissent d'une autre manière
     avec les processus.  Le module *note subprocess: d5. peut être
     importé mais ne fonctionne pas.

   * Le module *note socket: cb. est disponible, mais est limité et n'a
     pas le même comportement que sur les autres plates-formes.  Sur
     'Emscripten', les connecteurs réseau sont toujours non bloquants et
     nécessitent du code JavaScript et du code supplémentaire sur le
     serveur pour faire mandataire TCP via 'WebSockets' ; voir
     Emscripten Networking(9) pour plus d'informations.  La pré-version
     1 de 'WASI' n'autorise que les connecteurs réseau utilisant un
     descripteur de fichier déjà existant.

   * Certaines fonctions sont des émulations embryonnaires qui ne font
     rien et renvoient toujours des valeurs codées en dur.

   * Les fonctions liées aux descripteurs de fichiers, aux autorisations
     de fichiers, aux propriétaires des fichiers et aux liens sont
     limitées et ne prennent pas en charge certaines opérations.  Par
     exemple, WASI n'autorise pas les liens symboliques avec des noms de
     fichiers absolus.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://webassembly.org/

   (2) https://emscripten.org/

   (3) https://wasi.dev/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://wasmtime.dev/

   (7) https://pyodide.org/

   (8) https://pyscript.net/

   (9) https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/networking.html


File: python.info,  Node: Mobile platforms,  Prev: Plateformes WebAssembly,  Up: Notes sur la disponibilité

5.1.1.2 Mobile platforms
........................

Android and iOS are, in most respects, POSIX operating systems.  File
I/O, socket handling, and threading all behave as they would on any
POSIX operating system.  However, there are several major differences:

   * Mobile platforms can only use Python in "embedded" mode.  There is
     no Python REPL, and no ability to use separate executables such as
     ‘python’ or ‘pip’.  To add Python code to your mobile app, you must
     use the *note Python embedding API: 1e11.  For more details, see
     *note Using Python on Android: 1e0f. and *note Using Python on iOS:
     1e15.

   * Subprocesses:

        * On Android, creating subprocesses is possible but officially
          unsupported(1).  In particular, Android does not support any
          part of the System V IPC API, so *note multiprocessing: 93. is
          not available.

        * An iOS app cannot use any form of subprocessing,
          multiprocessing, or inter-process communication.  If an iOS
          app attempts to create a subprocess, the process creating the
          subprocess will either lock up, or crash.  An iOS app has no
          visibility of other applications that are running, nor any
          ability to communicate with other running applications,
          outside of the iOS-specific APIs that exist for this purpose.

   * Mobile apps have limited access to modify system resources (such as
     the system clock).  These resources will often be 'readable', but
     attempts to modify those resources will usually fail.

   * Console input and output:

        * On Android, the native ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ are not connected
          to anything, so Python installs its own streams which redirect
          messages to the system log.  These can be seen under the tags
          ‘python.stdout’ and ‘python.stderr’ respectively.

        * iOS apps have a limited concept of console output.  ‘stdout’
          and ‘stderr’ 'exist', and content written to ‘stdout’ and
          ‘stderr’ will be visible in logs when running in Xcode, but
          this content 'won't' be recorded in the system log.  If a user
          who has installed your app provides their app logs as a
          diagnostic aid, they will not include any detail written to
          ‘stdout’ or ‘stderr’.

        * Mobile apps have no usable ‘stdin’ at all.  While apps can
          display an on-screen keyboard, this is a software feature, not
          something that is attached to ‘stdin’.

          As a result, Python modules that involve console manipulation
          (such as *note curses: 2b. and *note readline: b9.) are not
          available on mobile platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/128554619#comment4


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions natives<2>,  Next: Constantes natives,  Prev: Introduction<6>,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.2 Fonctions natives
=====================

L'interpréteur Python propose quelques fonctions et types natifs qui
sont toujours disponibles.  Ils sont listés ici par ordre alphabétique.

Fonctions natives

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     'A'                           'E'                         'L'                         'R'
     *note abs(): 1c62.            *note enumerate(): 1435.     *note len(): 61b.          *note range(): 2114.
     *note aiter(): 7c1.           *note eval(): 17e.          *note list(): 2112.         *note repr(): 7e9.
     *note all(): 13da.            *note exec(): 17d.          *note locals(): 140.        *note reversed(): 852.
     *note anext(): 7c2.                                                                   *note round(): 12ba.
     *note any(): 13d9.            'F'                         'M'                         
     *note ascii(): 139f.          *note filter(): 851.        *note map(): 850.           'S'
                                   *note float(): 2ec.         *note max(): ef6.           *note set(): 2115.
     'B'                           *note format(): 60c.        *note memoryview(): 2113.     *note setattr(): 2116.
     *note bin(): 1288.            *note frozenset(): 2111.     *note min(): ef5.          *note slice(): 455.
     *note bool(): 453.                                                                    *note sorted(): bbe.
     *note breakpoint(): 231.      'G'                         'N'                         *note staticmethod(): 40c.
     *note bytearray(): 1a78.      *note getattr(): bc1.       *note next(): 7c4.          *note str(): 2117.
     *note bytes(): 1a77.          *note globals(): 1824.                                  *note sum(): 456.
                                                               'O'                         *note super(): 4c8.
     'C'                           'H'                         *note object(): a7c.        
     *note callable(): 11a5.       *note hasattr(): 4be.       *note oct(): 12ae.          'T'
     *note chr(): 162d.            *note hash(): 5d7.          *note open(): 508.          *note tuple(): 2118.
     *note classmethod(): 165.     *note help(): 8c6.          *note ord(): 1ead.          *note type(): d38.
     *note compile(): 190.         *note hex(): 12af.                                      
     *note complex(): 2ed.                                     'P'                         'V'
                                   'I'                         *note pow(): 9c2.           *note vars(): 1a00.
     'D'                           *note id(): 13db.           *note print(): f62.         
     *note delattr(): 210f.        *note input(): 12b8.        *note property(): 192.      'Z'
     *note dict(): 2110.           *note int(): 254.                                       *note zip(): 7bc.
     *note dir(): 61f.             *note isinstance(): 42d.                                
     *note divmod(): 991.          *note issubclass(): 7ad.                                '_'
                                   *note iter(): 7c3.                                      *note __import__(): 8c3.
                                                                                      

 -- Fonction: abs (x)

     Renvoie la valeur absolue d'un nombre.  L'argument peut être un
     nombre entier, un nombre à virgule flottante, ou tout objet
     définissant *note __abs__(): 1f70.  Si l'argument est un nombre
     complexe, son module est renvoyé.

 -- Fonction: aiter (async_iterable)

     Renvoie un *note itérateur asynchrone: 1a9. pour l'*note itérable
     asynchrone: d67. donné.  Équivaut à appeler ‘x.__aiter__()’.

     Remarque : contrairement à *note iter(): 7c3, *note aiter(): 7c1.
     n'a pas de variante à 2 arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: all (iterable)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les éléments de 'iterable' sont vrais (ou
     s'il est vide).  Équivaut à :

          def all(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if not element:
                      return False
              return True

 -- Fonction: awaitable anext (async_iterator)

 -- Fonction: awaitable anext (async_iterator, default)

     Lorsqu'il est attendu, renvoie l'élément suivant à partir de
     l'*note itérateur asynchrone: 1a9. donné, ou 'default' s'il est
     fourni et que l'itérateur est épuisé.

     Il s'agit de la variante asynchrone de la fonction native *note
     next(): 7c4. et elle se comporte de la même manière.

     Renvoie un *note attendable: 1ab. en appelant la méthode *note
     __anext__(): 152d. de 'async_iterator'.  L'attente renvoie la
     prochaine valeur de l'itérateur.  Si 'default' est fourni, il est
     renvoyé si l'itérateur est épuisé, sinon *note StopAsyncIteration:
     19eb. est levée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: any (iterable)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si au moins un élément de 'iterable' est vrai.
     ‘False’ est renvoyé dans le cas où 'iterable' est vide.  Équivaut
     à :

          def any(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if element:
                      return True
              return False

 -- Fonction: ascii (object)

     Renvoie, tout comme *note repr(): 7e9, une chaîne contenant une
     représentation d'un objet destinée à l'affichage, mais en
     transformant les caractères non ASCII renvoyés par *note repr():
     7e9. par l'utilisation de séquences d'échappement ‘\x’, ‘\u’ ou
     ‘\U’.  Cela génère une chaîne similaire à ce que renvoie *note
     repr(): 7e9. dans Python 2.

 -- Fonction: bin (x)

     Convertit un nombre entier en binaire dans une chaîne avec le
     préfixe "0b".  Le résultat est une expression Python valide.  Si
     'x' n'est pas un *note int: 254, il doit définir une méthode
     ‘__index__()’ donnant un nombre entier.  Voici quelques exemples :

          >>> bin(3)
          '0b11'
          >>> bin(-10)
          '-0b1010'

     Vous pouvez contrôler l'affichage du préfixe ‘"0b"’ à l'aide d'un
     des moyens suivants.

          >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
          ('0b1110', '1110')
          >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
          ('0b1110', '1110')

     Voir aussi *note format(): 60c. pour plus d'informations.

 -- Classe: bool (object=False, /)

     Renvoie une valeur booléenne, c'est-à-dire soit ‘True’, soit
     ‘False’.  L'argument est converti en utilisant la *note procédure
     standard d'évaluation de valeur de vérité: 2119.  Si l'argument est
     faux, ou omis, elle renvoie ‘False’, sinon, elle renvoie ‘True’.
     La classe *note bool: 453. hérite de la classe *note int: 254.
     (voir *note Types numériques — int, float, complex: 1bb6.).  Il
     n'est pas possible d'en hériter.  Ses seules instances sont ‘False’
     et ‘True’ (voir *note Boolean Type - bool: 211a.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le paramètre est désormais un argument
     exclusivement positionnel.

 -- Fonction: breakpoint (*args, **kws)

     Cette fonction vous place dans le débogueur lorsqu'elle est
     appelée.  Plus précisément, elle appelle *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): aca, en lui passant les arguments ‘args’ et
     ‘kws’.  Par défaut, ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ appelle *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 232. qui n'attend aucun argument.  Dans ce cas,
     c'est purement une fonction de commodité donc vous n'avez pas à
     importer explicitement *note pdb: a4. ou à taper plus de code pour
     entrer dans le débogueur.  Cependant, il est possible d'affecter
     une autre fonction à *note sys.breakpointhook(): aca, que *note
     breakpoint(): 231. appellera automatiquement, vous permettant ainsi
     de basculer dans le débogueur de votre choix.  Si *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): aca. n'est pas accessible, cette fonction
     lève *note RuntimeError: 193.

     Par défaut, le comportement de la fonction *note breakpoint(): 231.
     peut être changé par la variable d'environnement *note
     PYTHONBREAKPOINT: acb.  Voir *note sys.breakpointhook(): aca. pour
     plus de détails.

     Notez que ceci n'est plus garanti si la fonction *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): aca. a été remplacée.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘builtins.breakpoint’ avec
     l'argument ‘breakpointhook’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Classe: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- Classe: bytearray (source, encoding)

 -- Classe: bytearray (source, encoding, errors)

     Renvoie un nouveau tableau d'octets.  La classe *note bytearray:
     52b. est une séquence mutable de nombres entiers dans l'intervalle
     0 ≤ x < 256.  Il possède la plupart des méthodes des séquences
     variables, décrites dans *note Types de séquences mutables: 211b,
     ainsi que la plupart des méthodes de la classe *note bytes: 1bd,
     voir *note Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray: 211c.

     Le paramètre optionnel 'source' peut être utilisé pour initialiser
     le tableau de plusieurs façons :

        * si c'est une 'chaîne', vous devez aussi donner le paramètre
          'encoding' pour l'encodage (et éventuellement 'errors').  La
          fonction *note bytearray(): 52b. convertit ensuite la chaîne
          en octets 'via' la méthode *note str.encode(): 8c4. ;

        * si c'est un 'entier', le tableau a cette taille et est
          initialisé d'octets 'null' ;

        * si c'est un objet conforme à *note l'interface tampon: 38e, un
          tampon en lecture seule de l'objet est utilisé pour
          initialiser le tableau ;

        * si c'est un 'itérable', il doit itérer sur des nombres entier
          dans l'intervalle ‘0 <= x < 256’, qui sont utilisés pour
          initialiser le contenu du tableau.

     Sans argument, un tableau vide est créé.

     Voir *note Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire:
     211d. et *note Objets bytearray: 211e.

 -- Classe: bytes (source=b'')

 -- Classe: bytes (source, encoding)

 -- Classe: bytes (source, encoding, errors)

     Renvoie un nouvel objet 'bytes', qui est une séquence immuable de
     nombres entiers dans l'intervalle ‘0 <= x < 256’.  Un *note bytes:
     1bd. est une version immuable de *note bytearray: 52b. — avec les
     mêmes méthodes d'accès, et le même comportement lors de
     l'indexation ou du découpage.

     En conséquence, les arguments du constructeur sont les mêmes que
     pour *note bytearray(): 52b.

     Les objets 'bytes' peuvent aussi être créés à partir de littéraux,
     voir *note Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites
     d'octets: 1e5f.

     Voir aussi *note Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue
     mémoire: 211d, *note Objets bytes: 211f, et *note Opérations sur
     les bytes et bytearray: 211c.

 -- Fonction: callable (object)

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument 'object' semble être
     appelable, sinon *note False: b27.  Lorsqu'elle renvoie ‘True’, il
     est toujours possible qu'un appel échoue.  Cependant, lorsqu'elle
     renvoie ‘False’, il n'est jamais possible d'appeler 'object'.
     Notez qu'une classe est toujours appelable (appeler une classe
     donne une nouvelle instance) ; une instance n'est appelable que si
     sa classe définit une méthode *note __call__(): 546.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2: cette fonction a d'abord été supprimée
     avec Python 3.0 puis elle a été remise dans Python 3.2.

 -- Fonction: chr (i)

     Renvoie la chaîne représentant un caractère dont le code de
     caractère Unicode est le nombre entier 'i'.  Par exemple, ‘chr(97)’
     renvoie la chaîne de caractères ‘'a'’, tandis que ‘chr(8364)’
     renvoie ‘'€'’.  Il s'agit de la réciproque de *note ord(): 1ead.

     L'intervalle valide pour cet argument est de ‘0’ à ‘1114111’
     (‘0x10FFFF’ en base 16).  Une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est
     levée si 'i' est en dehors de l'intervalle.

 -- Fonction: @classmethod

     Transforme une méthode en méthode de classe.

     Une méthode de classe reçoit implicitement la classe en premier
     argument, tout comme une méthode d'instance reçoit l'instance.
     Voici comment déclarer une méthode de classe :

          class C:
              @classmethod
              def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

     La forme ‘@classmethod’ est un *note décorateur: 71d. de fonction —
     consultez *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4. pour plus de
     détails.

     Elle peut être appelée soit sur la classe (comme ‘C.f()’) ou sur
     une instance (comme ‘C().f()’).  L'instance est ignorée, sauf pour
     déterminer sa classe.  Si la méthode est appelée sur une instance
     de classe fille, c'est la classe fille qui sera donnée en premier
     argument implicite.

     Les méthodes de classe sont différentes des méthodes statiques du
     C++ ou du Java.  Si ce sont elles dont vous avez besoin, regardez
     du côté de *note staticmethod(): 40c. dans cette section.  Voir
     aussi *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: les méthodes de classe peuvent
     encapsuler d'autres *note descripteurs: 152c. comme *note
     property(): 192.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: les méthodes de classe héritent
     dorénavant des attributs des méthodes (*note __module__: 1eb9,
     *note __name__: 12b4, *note __qualname__: 1eb8, *note __doc__:
     11b8. et *note __annotations__: 11b7.) et ont un nouvel attribut
     ‘__wrapped__’.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13: les
     méthodes de classe ne peuvent plus encapsuler d'autres *note
     descripteurs: 152c. comme *note property(): 192.

 -- Fonction: compile (source, filename, mode, flags=0,
          dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1)

     Compile 'source' en un objet code ou objet AST. Les objets code
     peuvent être exécutés par *note exec(): 17d. ou *note eval(): 17e.
     'source' peut être une chaîne, une chaîne d'octets, ou un objet
     AST.  Consultez la documentation du module *note ast: 8. pour des
     informations sur la manipulation d'objets AST.

     L'argument 'filename' doit désigner le fichier depuis lequel le
     code a été lu.  Donnez quelque chose de reconnaissable lorsqu'il
     n'a pas été lu depuis un fichier (typiquement ‘"<string>"’).

     L'argument 'mode' indique quel type de code doit être compilé :
     ‘'exec'’ si 'source' est une suite d'instructions, ‘'eval'’ pour
     une seule expression, ou ‘'single'’ s'il ne contient qu'une
     instruction interactive (dans ce dernier cas, les résultats
     d'expressions donnant autre chose que ‘None’ sont affichés).

     Les arguments optionnels 'flags' et 'dont_inherit' contrôlent
     quelles *note options de compilation: 2120. seront activées et
     quelles *note instructions future: 187. seront autorisées.  Si
     aucun des deux n'est présent (ou que les deux sont à 0), le code
     est compilé avec les mêmes paramètres que le code appelant *note
     compile(): 190.  Si l'argument 'flags' est fourni alors que
     'dont_inherit' ne l'est pas (ou vaut 0), les options de compilation
     et les instructions 'futures' utilisées sont celles définies par
     'flags' en plus de celles qui auraient été utilisées.  Si
     'dont_inherit' est un entier différent de zéro, 'flags' est utilisé
     tel quel — les 'flags' (instructions futures et options de
     compilation) valables pour le code encadrant 'compile' sont
     ignorés.

     Les instructions 'future' sont contrôlées par des bits, il est
     ainsi possible d'en activer plusieurs en les combinant avec un 'OU'
     binaire.  Les bits requis pour demander une certaine fonctionnalité
     se trouvent dans l'attribut *note compiler_flag: 1f02. de la classe
     ‘Feature’ du module *note __future__: 0.  Les *note options du
     compilateur: 2120. se trouvent dans le module *note ast: 8, avec le
     préfixe ‘PyCF_’.

     L'argument 'optimize' indique le niveau d'optimisation du
     compilateur.  La valeur par défaut est ‘-1’ qui prend le niveau
     d'optimisation de l'interpréteur tel que reçu via l'option *note
     -O: da4.  Les niveaux explicites sont : ‘0’ (pas d'optimisation,
     ‘__debug__’ est ‘True’), ‘1’ (les ‘assert’ sont supprimés,
     ‘__debug__’ est ‘False’) ou ‘2’ (les chaines de documentation sont
     également supprimées).

     Cette fonction lève une *note SyntaxError: 18b. si la source n'est
     pas valide, et *note ValueError: 1ff. si la source contient des
     octets 'null'.

     Si vous voulez transformer du code Python en sa représentation AST,
     voyez *note ast.parse(): 1a6.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘compile’ avec les arguments
     ‘source’ et ‘filename’.  Cet événement peut également être levé par
     une compilation implicite.

          Note: lors de la compilation d'une chaîne de plusieurs lignes
          de code avec les modes ‘'single'’ ou ‘'eval'’, celles-ci
          doivent être terminées par au moins un retour à la ligne.
          Cela permet de faciliter la distinction entre les instructions
          complètes et incomplètes dans le module *note code: 1a.

          Avertissement: il est possible de faire planter l'interpréteur
          Python avec des chaînes suffisamment grandes ou complexes lors
          de la compilation d'un objet AST. Ceci est dû à limitation de
          la profondeur de la pile d'appels.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: autorise l'utilisation de retours à la
     ligne Mac et Windows.  Par ailleurs, la chaîne donnée à ‘'exec'’
     n'a plus besoin de terminer par un retour à la ligne.  Ajout du
     paramètre 'optimize'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: précédemment, l'exception *note
     TypeError: 525. était levée quand un caractère nul était rencontré
     dans 'source'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8: ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ peut
     maintenant être passée à 'flags' pour permettre une gestion haut
     niveau de ‘await’, ‘async for’ et ‘async with’.

 -- Classe: complex (number=0, /)

 -- Classe: complex (string, /)

 -- Classe: complex (real=0, imag=0)

     Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a
     complex number from real and imaginary parts.

     Exemples :

          >>> complex('+1.23')
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex('-4.5j')
          -4.5j
          >>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
          (-inf+nanj)
          >>> complex(1.23)
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex(imag=-4.5)
          -4.5j
          >>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
          (-1.23+4.5j)

     If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in
     the same format as for *note float(): 2ec.) or an imaginary part
     (in the same format but with a ‘'j'’ or ‘'J'’ suffix), or both real
     and imaginary parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in
     this case).  The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces
     and the round parentheses ‘'('’ and ‘')'’, which are ignored.  The
     string must not contain whitespace between ‘'+'’, ‘'-'’, the ‘'j'’
     or ‘'J'’ suffix, and the decimal number.  For example,
     ‘complex('1+2j')’ is fine, but ‘complex('1 + 2j')’ raises *note
     ValueError: 1ff.  More precisely, the input must conform to the
     *note complexvalue: 2121. production rule in the following grammar,
     after parentheses and leading and trailing whitespace characters
     are removed:

          complexvalue ::= *note floatvalue: 2122. |
                           *note floatvalue: 2122. ("j" | "J") |
                           *note floatvalue: 2122. *note sign: 2123. *note absfloatvalue: 2124. ("j" | "J")

     Si l'argument est un nombre, le constructeur le convertit, comme le
     font les classes *note int: 254. et *note float: 2ec.  Pour les
     autres objets ‘x’, ‘complex(x)’ délègue à ‘x.__complex__()’.  Si
     *note __complex__(): 5d3. n'est pas définie, elle délègue à *note
     __float__(): 9bc.  Si ‘__float__()’ n'est pas défini, alors elle
     délègue à *note __index__(): 709.

     If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each
     argument may be any numeric type (including complex).  If both
     arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real
     component 'real' and the imaginary component 'imag'.  If both
     arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the
     real component ‘real.real-imag.imag’ and the imaginary component
     ‘real.imag+imag.real’.  If one of arguments is a real number, only
     its real component is used in the above expressions.

     If all arguments are omitted, returns ‘0j’.

     Le type complexe est décrit dans *note Types numériques — int,
     float, complex: 1bb6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: les chiffres peuvent être groupés avec
     des tirets bas comme dans les expressions littérales.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: délègue à *note __index__(): 709. si
     *note __complex__(): 5d3. et *note __float__(): 9bc. ne sont pas
     définies.

 -- Fonction: delattr (object, name)

     C'est une cousine de *note setattr(): 2116.  Les arguments sont un
     objet et une chaîne.  La chaîne doit être le nom de l'un des
     attributs de l'objet.  La fonction supprime l'attribut nommé, si
     l'objet l'y autorise.  Par exemple ‘delattr(x, 'foobar')’ est
     l'équivalent de ‘del x.foobar’.  'name' n'a pas besoin d'être un
     identifiant Python (voir *note setattr(): 2116.).

 -- Classe: dict (**kwarg)

 -- Classe: dict (mapping, **kwarg)

 -- Classe: dict (iterable, **kwarg)

     Crée un nouveau dictionnaire.  L'objet *note dict: 253. est la
     classe du dictionnaire.  Voir *note dict: 253. et *note Les types
     de correspondances — dict: ab6. pour vous documenter sur cette
     classe.

     Pour les autres conteneurs, voir les classes natives *note list:
     5fe, *note set: 5c5, et *note tuple: 366, ainsi que le module *note
     collections: 1d.

 -- Fonction: dir ()

 -- Fonction: dir (object)

     Sans argument, elle donne la liste des noms dans l'espace de
     nommage local.  Avec un argument, elle essaye de donner une liste
     d'attributs valides pour cet objet.

     Si l'objet a une méthode *note __dir__(): 1f20, elle est appelée et
     doit donner une liste d'attributs.  Cela permet aux objets
     implémentant *note __getattr__(): 4bf. ou *note __getattribute__():
     bc2. de personnaliser ce que renvoie *note dir(): 61f.

     Si l'objet ne fournit pas de méthode *note __dir__(): 1f20, la
     fonction fait de son mieux en rassemblant les informations de
     l'attribut *note __dict__: 549. de l'objet, s'il est défini, et
     depuis son type.  La liste résultante n'est pas nécessairement
     complète, et peut être erronée quand l'objet a une *note
     __getattr__(): 4bf. personnalisée.

     Le mécanisme par défaut de *note dir(): 61f. se comporte
     différemment avec différents types d'objets, car elle préfère
     donner une information pertinente plutôt qu'exhaustive :

        * si l'objet est un module, la liste contiendra les noms des
          attributs du module ;

        * si l'objet est un type ou une classe, la liste contiendra les
          noms de ses attributs et, récursivement, des attributs de ses
          parents ;

        * autrement, la liste contient les noms des attributs de
          l'objet, le nom des attributs de la classe, et récursivement
          des attributs des parents de la classe.

     La liste donnée est triée par ordre alphabétique, par exemple :

          >>> import struct
          >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
          ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
          >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
          ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
           '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
           '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
           'unpack', 'unpack_from']
          >>> class Shape:
          ...     def __dir__(self):
          ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
          ...
          >>> s = Shape()
          >>> dir(s)
          ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

          Note: étant donné que *note dir(): 61f. est d'abord fournie
          pour son côté pratique en mode interactif, elle a tendance à
          fournir un ensemble de noms pertinents plutôt qu'un ensemble
          exhaustif et rigoureusement défini, son comportement peut
          aussi changer d'une version à l'autre.  Par exemple, les
          attributs de méta-classes ne sont pas donnés lorsque
          l'argument est une classe.

 -- Fonction: divmod (a, b)

     Prend deux nombres (qui ne sont pas des nombres complexes) et
     renvoie leur quotient et reste de leur division entière sous forme
     d'une paire de nombres.  Avec des opérandes de types différents,
     les règles des opérateurs binaires s'appliquent.  Pour deux entiers
     le résultat est le même que ‘(a // b, a % b)’.  Pour des nombres à
     virgule flottante le résultat est ‘(q, a % b)’, où 'q' est
     généralement ‘math.floor(a / b)’ mais peut valoir 1 de moins.  Dans
     tous les cas ‘q * b + a % b’ est très proche de 'a'.  Si ‘a % b’
     est différent de zéro, il a le même signe que 'b' et ‘0 <= abs(a %
     b) < abs(b)’.

 -- Fonction: enumerate (iterable, start=0)

     Renvoie un objet énumérant.  'iterable' doit être une séquence, un
     *note itérateur: 1aa, ou tout autre objet prenant en charge
     l'itération.  La méthode *note __next__(): 12ad. de l'itérateur
     donné par *note enumerate(): 1435. renvoie un 'n'-uplet contenant
     un compte (démarrant à 'start', 0 par défaut) et les valeurs
     obtenues de l'itération sur 'iterable'.

          >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
          [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
          [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

     Équivalent à :

          def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
              n = start
              for elem in iterable:
                  yield n, elem
                  n += 1

 -- Fonction: eval (source, /, globals=None, locals=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘source’ (*note str: 437. | *note code object: 1cd.) - A
          Python expression.

        * ‘globals’ (*note dict: 253. | ‘None’) - The global namespace
          (default: ‘None’).

        * ‘locals’ (*note mapping: 119b. | ‘None’) - The local namespace
          (default: ‘None’).


     Renvoie: The result of the evaluated expression.


     Raises: Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.

          Avertissement: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling
          it with user-supplied input may lead to security
          vulnerabilities.

     The 'expression' argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python
     expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the
     'globals' and 'locals' mappings as global and local namespace.  If
     the 'globals' dictionary is present and does not contain a value
     for the key ‘__builtins__’, a reference to the dictionary of the
     built-in module *note builtins: 12. is inserted under that key
     before 'expression' is parsed.  That way you can control what
     builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
     ‘__builtins__’ dictionary into 'globals' before passing it to *note
     eval(): 17e.  If the 'locals' mapping is omitted it defaults to the
     'globals' dictionary.  If both mappings are omitted, the expression
     is executed with the 'globals' and 'locals' in the environment
     where *note eval(): 17e. is called.  Note, 'eval()' will only have
     access to the *note nested scopes: 1efa. (non-locals) in the
     enclosing environment if they are already referenced in the scope
     that is calling *note eval(): 17e. (e.g.  via a *note nonlocal:
     1287. statement).

     Example:

          >>> x = 1
          >>> eval('x+1')
          2

     Cette fonction peut aussi être utilisée pour exécuter n'importe
     quel objet code (tels que ceux créés par *note compile(): 190.).
     Dans ce cas, donnez un objet code plutôt qu'une chaîne.  Si l'objet
     code a été compilé avec l'argument 'mode' à ‘'exec'’, *note eval():
     17e. renvoie ‘None’.

     Conseils : l'exécution dynamique d'instructions est gérée par la
     fonction *note exec(): 17d.  Les fonctions *note globals(): 1824.
     et *note locals(): 140. renvoient respectivement les dictionnaires
     globaux et locaux, qui peuvent être utiles lors de l'usage de *note
     eval(): 17e. et *note exec(): 17d.

     Si la source donnée est une chaîne, les espaces de début et de fin
     et les tabulations sont supprimées.

     Utilisez *note ast.literal_eval(): c08. si vous avez besoin d'une
     fonction qui peut évaluer en toute sécurité des chaînes avec des
     expressions ne contenant que des valeurs littérales.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘exec’ avec l'objet de code
     comme argument.  Les événements de compilation de code peuvent
     également être levés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'globals' and 'locals' arguments
     can now be passed as keywords.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The semantics of the default 'locals'
     namespace have been adjusted as described for the *note locals():
     140. builtin.

 -- Fonction: exec (source, /, globals=None, locals=None, *,
          closure=None)

          Avertissement: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling
          it with user-supplied input may lead to security
          vulnerabilities.

     This function supports dynamic execution of Python code.  'source'
     must be either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the
     string is parsed as a suite of Python statements which is then
     executed (unless a syntax error occurs).  (1)  If it is a code
     object, it is simply executed.  In all cases, the code that's
     executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section
     *note Fichier d'entrée: 20f9. in the Reference Manual).  Be aware
     that the *note nonlocal: 1287, *note yield: 9bd, and *note return:
     9be. statements may not be used outside of function definitions
     even within the context of code passed to the *note exec(): 17d.
     function.  The return value is ‘None’.

     In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is
     executed in the current scope.  If only 'globals' is provided, it
     must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will
     be used for both the global and the local variables.  If 'globals'
     and 'locals' are given, they are used for the global and local
     variables, respectively.  If provided, 'locals' can be any mapping
     object.  Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are
     the same dictionary.

          Note: When ‘exec’ gets two separate objects as 'globals' and
          'locals', the code will be executed as if it were embedded in
          a class definition.  This means functions and classes defined
          in the executed code will not be able to access variables
          assigned at the top level (as the "top level" variables are
          treated as class variables in a class definition).

     Si le dictionnaire 'globals' ne contient pas de valeur pour la clé
     ‘__builtins__’, une référence au dictionnaire du module *note
     builtins: 12. y est inséré.  Cela vous permet de contrôler quelles
     fonctions natives sont exposées au code exécuté en insérant votre
     propre dictionnaire ‘__builtins__’ dans 'globals' avant de le
     donner à *note exec(): 17d.

     The 'closure' argument specifies a closure-a tuple of cellvars.
     It's only valid when the 'object' is a code object containing *note
     free (closure) variables: 1efb.  The length of the tuple must
     exactly match the length of the code object's *note co_freevars:
     1eb6. attribute.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘exec’ avec l'objet de code
     comme argument.  Les événements de compilation de code peuvent
     également être levés.

          Note: The built-in functions *note globals(): 1824. and *note
          locals(): 140. return the current global and local namespace,
          respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use as
          the second and third argument to *note exec(): 17d.

          Note: The default 'locals' act as described for function *note
          locals(): 140. below.  Pass an explicit 'locals' dictionary if
          you need to see effects of the code on 'locals' after function
          *note exec(): 17d. returns.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'closure'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'globals' and 'locals' arguments
     can now be passed as keywords.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The semantics of the default 'locals'
     namespace have been adjusted as described for the *note locals():
     140. builtin.

 -- Fonction: filter (function, iterable)

     Construit un itérateur depuis les éléments d''iterable' pour
     lesquels 'function' renvoie ‘True’.  'iterable' peut aussi bien
     être une séquence, un conteneur qui prend en charge l'itération, ou
     un itérateur.  Si 'function' est ‘None’, la fonction identité est
     prise, c'est-à-dire que tous les éléments faux d''iterable' sont
     supprimés.

     Notez que ‘filter(function, iterable)’ est l'équivalent du
     générateur ‘(item for item in iterable if function(item))’ si
     'function' n'est pas ‘None’, et de ‘(item for item in iterable if
     item)’ si 'function' est ‘None’.

     Voir *note itertools.filterfalse(): 2126. pour la fonction
     complémentaire qui donne les éléments d''iterable' pour lesquels
     'function' renvoie ‘False’.

 -- Classe: float (number=0.0, /)

 -- Classe: float (string, /)

     Return a floating-point number constructed from a number or a
     string.

     Exemples :

          >>> float('+1.23')
          1.23
          >>> float('   -12345\n')
          -12345.0
          >>> float('1e-003')
          0.001
          >>> float('+1E6')
          1000000.0
          >>> float('-Infinity')
          -inf

     If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number,
     optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in
     whitespace.  The optional sign may be ‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’; a ‘'+'’ sign
     has no effect on the value produced.  The argument may also be a
     string representing a NaN (not-a-number), or positive or negative
     infinity.  More precisely, the input must conform to the *note
     floatvalue: 2122. production rule in the following grammar, after
     leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:

          sign          ::= "+" | "-"
          infinity      ::= "Infinity" | "inf"
          nan           ::= "nan"
          digit         ::= <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
          digitpart     ::= *note digit: 2129. (["_"] *note digit: 2129.)*
          number        ::= [*note digitpart: 212a.] "." *note digitpart: 212a. | *note digitpart: 212a. ["."]
          exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") [*note sign: 2123.] *note digitpart: 212a.
          floatnumber   ::= *note number: 212b. [*note exponent: 212c.]
          absfloatvalue ::= *note floatnumber: 212d. | *note infinity: 2127. | *note nan: 2128.
          floatvalue    ::= [*note sign: 2123.] *note absfloatvalue: 2124.

     Case is not significant, so, for example, "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY",
     and "iNfINity" are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

     Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating-point
     number, a floating-point number with the same value (within
     Python's floating-point precision) is returned.  If the argument is
     outside the range of a Python float, an *note OverflowError: 86f.
     will be raised.

     Pour un objet Python général ‘x’, ‘float(x)’ est délégué à
     ‘x.__float__()’.  Si *note __float__(): 9bc. n'est pas défini alors
     il est délégué à *note __index__(): 709.

     Sans argument, ‘0.0’ est renvoyé.

     Le type 'float' est décrit dans *note Types numériques — int,
     float, complex: 1bb6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: les chiffres peuvent être groupés avec
     des tirets bas comme dans les expressions littérales.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le paramètre est désormais un argument
     exclusivement positionnel.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: délègue à *note __index__(): 709. si
     *note __float__(): 9bc. n'est pas définie.

 -- Fonction: format (value, format_spec='')

     Convertit une valeur en sa représentation « formatée », contrôlée
     par 'format_spec'.  L'interprétation de 'format_spec' dépend du
     type de la valeur.  Cependant, il existe une syntaxe standard
     utilisée par la plupart des types natifs : *note Mini-langage de
     spécification de format: 1e5.

     Par défaut, 'format_spec' est une chaîne vide.  Dans ce cas,
     appeler cette fonction a généralement le même effet qu'appeler
     *note str(value): 437.

     A call to ‘format(value, format_spec)’ is translated to
     ‘type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)’ which bypasses the
     instance dictionary when searching for the value's *note
     __format__(): 60b. method.  A *note TypeError: 525. exception is
     raised if the method search reaches *note object: a7c. and the
     'format_spec' is non-empty, or if either the 'format_spec' or the
     return value are not strings.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: ‘object().__format__(format_spec)’
     lève *note TypeError: 525. si 'format_spec' n'est pas une chaîne
     vide.

 -- Classe: frozenset (iterable=set())

     Renvoie un nouveau *note frozenset: 5c6, dont les objets sont
     éventuellement tirés d''iterable'.  ‘frozenset’ est une classe
     native.  Voir *note frozenset: 5c6. et *note Types d'ensembles —
     set, frozenset: 212e. pour la documentation sur cette classe.

     Pour d'autres conteneurs, voyez les classes natives *note set: 5c5,
     *note list: 5fe, *note tuple: 366, et *note dict: 253, ainsi que le
     module *note collections: 1d.

 -- Fonction: getattr (object, name)

 -- Fonction: getattr (object, name, default)

     Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut nommé 'name' de l'objet 'object'.
     'name' doit être une chaîne.  Si la chaîne est le nom d'un des
     attributs de l'objet, le résultat est la valeur de cet attribut.
     Par exemple, ‘getattr(x, 'foobar')’ est équivalent à ‘x.foobar’.
     Si l'attribut n'existe pas, mais que 'default' est fourni, celui-ci
     est renvoyé.  Sinon l'exception *note AttributeError: 343. est
     levée.  'name' n'a pas besoin d'être un identifiant Python (voir
     *note setattr(): 2116.).

          Note: étant donné que la *note transformation des noms privés:
          1c78. se produit au moment de la compilation, il faut modifier
          manuellement le nom d'un attribut privé (attributs avec deux
          traits de soulignement en tête) afin de le récupérer avec
          *note getattr(): bc1.

 -- Fonction: globals ()

     Renvoie le dictionnaire implémentant l'espace de nommage du module
     actuel.  Pour le code dans les fonctions, il est défini lorsque la
     fonction est définie et reste le même quel que soit le moment où la
     fonction est appelée.

 -- Fonction: hasattr (object, name)

     Les arguments sont : un objet et une chaîne de caractères.  Le
     résultat est ‘True’ si la chaîne est le nom d'un des attributs de
     l'objet, sinon ‘False’ (l'implémentation appelle ‘getattr(object,
     name)’ et regarde si une exception *note AttributeError: 343. a été
     levée).

 -- Fonction: hash (object)

     Renvoie la valeur de hachage d'un objet (s'il en a une).  Les
     valeurs de hachage sont des entiers.  Elles sont utilisées pour
     comparer rapidement des clés de dictionnaire lors de leur
     recherche.  Les valeurs numériques égales ont la même valeur de
     hachage (même si leurs types sont différents, comme pour ‘1’ et
     ‘1.0’).

          Note: For objects with custom *note __hash__(): aeb. methods,
          note that *note hash(): 5d7. truncates the return value based
          on the bit width of the host machine.

 -- Fonction: help ()

 -- Fonction: help (request)

     Invoque le système d'aide natif (cette fonction est destinée à
     l'usage en mode interactif).  Si aucun argument n'est fourni, le
     système d'aide démarre dans l'interpréteur.  Si l'argument est une
     chaîne, celle-ci est recherchée comme le nom d'un module, d'une
     fonction, d'une classe, d'une méthode, d'un mot clé, ou d'un sujet
     de documentation, et une page d'aide est affichée sur la console.
     Si l'argument est d'un autre type, une page d'aide sur cet objet
     est générée.

     Notez que si une barre oblique (/) apparaît dans la liste des
     paramètres d'une fonction lorsque vous appelez *note help(): 8c6,
     cela signifie que les paramètres placés avant la barre oblique sont
     strictement positionnels.  Pour plus d'informations, voir *note La
     FAQ sur les arguments positionnels: 212f.

     Cette fonction est ajoutée à l'espace de nommage natif par le
     module *note site: c6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: les changements aux modules *note
     pydoc: b4. et *note inspect: 7d. rendent les signatures des
     appelables plus compréhensibles et cohérentes.

 -- Fonction: hex (x)

     Convertit un entier en chaîne hexadécimale préfixée de "0x".  Si
     'x' n'est pas un *note int: 254, il doit définir une méthode *note
     __index__(): 709. qui renvoie un entier.  Quelques exemples :

          >>> hex(255)
          '0xff'
          >>> hex(-42)
          '-0x2a'

     Si vous voulez convertir un nombre entier en chaîne hexadécimale,
     en majuscule ou non, préfixée ou non, vous pouvez utiliser l'une
     des méthodes suivantes :

          >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

     Voir aussi *note format(): 60c. pour plus d'informations.

     Voir aussi *note int(): 254. pour convertir une chaîne hexadécimale
     en un entier (en affectant 16 à l'argument 'base').

          Note: pour obtenir une représentation hexadécimale sous forme
          de chaîne d'un nombre à virgule flottante, utilisez la méthode
          *note float.hex(): 1cd0.

 -- Fonction: id (object)

     Renvoie l'« identité » d'un objet.  C'est un nombre entier garanti
     unique et constant pour cet objet durant sa durée de vie.  Deux
     objets dont les durées de vie ne se chevauchent pas peuvent
     partager le même *note id(): 13db.

     c'est l'adresse de l'objet en mémoire.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘builtins.id’ avec
     l'argument ‘id’.

 -- Fonction: input ()

 -- Fonction: input (prompt)

     Si l'argument 'prompt' est donné, il est écrit sur la sortie
     standard sans le retour à la ligne final.  La fonction lit ensuite
     une ligne sur l'entrée standard et la convertit en chaîne
     (supprimant le retour à la ligne final) qu'elle renvoie.  Lorsque
     EOF est lu, *note EOFError: 12b9. est levée.  Exemple :

          >>> s = input('--> ')
          --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
          >>> s
          "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

     Si le module *note readline: b9. est chargé, *note input(): 12b8.
     l'utilisera pour fournir des fonctionnalités d'édition et
     d'historique élaborées.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘builtins.input’ avec
     l'argument ‘prompt’ avant de lire l'entrée.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘builtins.input/result’ avec
     le résultat après avoir lu avec succès l'entrée.

 -- Classe: int (number=0, /)

 -- Classe: int (string, /, base=10)

     Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or
     return ‘0’ if no arguments are given.

     Exemples :

          >>> int(123.45)
          123
          >>> int('123')
          123
          >>> int('   -12_345\n')
          -12345
          >>> int('FACE', 16)
          64206
          >>> int('0xface', 0)
          64206
          >>> int('01110011', base=2)
          115

     If the argument defines *note __int__(): 708, ‘int(x)’ returns
     ‘x.__int__()’.  If the argument defines *note __index__(): 709, it
     returns ‘x.__index__()’.  If the argument defines *note
     __trunc__(): 707, it returns ‘x.__trunc__()’.  For floating-point
     numbers, this truncates towards zero.

     If the argument is not a number or if 'base' is given, then it must
     be a string, *note bytes: 1bd, or *note bytearray: 52b. instance
     representing an integer in radix 'base'.  Optionally, the string
     can be preceded by ‘+’ or ‘-’ (with no space in between), have
     leading zeros, be surrounded by whitespace, and have single
     underscores interspersed between digits.

     Une chaine représentant un entier en base 'n' contient des
     chiffres, chacun représentant une valeur de 0 à n-1.  Les valeurs 0
     à 9 peuvent être représentées par n'importe lequel des chiffres
     décimaux Unicode.  Les valeurs de 10 à 35 peuvent être représentées
     par ‘a’ jusqu'à ‘z’ (ou ‘A’ à ‘Z’).  La 'base' par défaut est 10.
     Les valeurs autorisées pour 'base' sont 0 et 2 à 36.  Les littéraux
     en base 2, 8, et 16 peuvent être préfixés avec ‘0b’/‘0B’,
     ‘0o’/‘0O’, ou ‘0x’/‘0X’ tout comme les littéraux dans le code.
     Fournir 0 comme 'base' demande d'interpréter exactement comme un
     *note entier littéral dans du code: 1e83. Python, donc la base sera
     2, 8, 10, ou 16 en fonction du préfixe.  Indiquer 0 comme base
     interdit les zéros en tête, ainsi ‘int('010', 0)’ n'est pas légal,
     alors que ‘int('010')’ l'est tout comme ‘int('010', 8)’.

     Le type des entiers est décrit dans *note Types numériques — int,
     float, complex: 1bb6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: si 'base' n'est pas une instance
     d'*note int: 254. et que 'base' a une méthode *note base.__index__:
     709, cette méthode est appelée pour obtenir un entier pour cette
     base.  Les versions précédentes utilisaient *note base.__int__:
     708. au lieu de *note base.__index__: 709.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: les chiffres peuvent être groupés avec
     des tirets bas comme dans les expressions littérales.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The first parameter is now
     positional-only.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Revient à *note __index__(): 709. si
     *note __int__(): 708. n'est pas définie.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: le repli vers *note __trunc__(): 707.
     est obsolète.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note int: 254. string inputs and
     string representations can be limited to help avoid denial of
     service attacks.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised when the limit
     is exceeded while converting a string to an *note int: 254. or when
     converting an *note int: 254. into a string would exceed the limit.
     See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1.
     documentation.

 -- Fonction: isinstance (object, classinfo)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'object' est une instance de 'classinfo', ou
     d'une de ses classes filles, directe, indirecte, ou *note
     abstraite: 1195.  Si 'object' n'est pas un objet du type donné, la
     fonction renvoie toujours ‘False’.  Si 'classinfo' est un 'n'-uplet
     de types (ou récursivement, d'autres 'n'-uplets) ou une *note union
     de types: 7ae. différents, renvoie ‘True’ si 'object' est une
     instance de n'importe quel de ces types.  Si 'classinfo' n'est ni
     un type ni un 'n'-uplet de types (et récursivement), une exception
     *note TypeError: 525. est levée.  *note TypeError: 525. ne peut pas
     être levée pour un type invalide si une des vérifications
     précédentes réussit.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: 'classinfo' peut être une *note union
     de types: 7ae.

 -- Fonction: issubclass (class, classinfo)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'class' est une classe fille (directe, indirecte
     ou *note abstraite: 1195.) de 'classinfo'.  Une classe est
     considérée sous-classe d'elle-même.  'classinfo' peut être un
     'n'-uplet de classes (ou récursivement, d'autres 'n'-uplets) ou une
     *note union de types: 7ae, dans ce cas elle renvoie ‘True’ si
     'class' est une sous-classe d'une partie de 'classinfo'.  Dans tous
     les autres cas, une *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: 'classinfo' peut être une *note union
     de types: 7ae.

 -- Fonction: iter (object)

 -- Fonction: iter (object, sentinel)

     Return an *note iterator: 1aa. object.  The first argument is
     interpreted very differently depending on the presence of the
     second argument.  Without a second argument, 'object' must be a
     collection object which supports the *note iterable: 1207. protocol
     (the *note __iter__(): 1f15. method), or it must support the
     sequence protocol (the *note __getitem__(): 280. method with
     integer arguments starting at ‘0’).  If it does not support either
     of those protocols, *note TypeError: 525. is raised.  If the second
     argument, 'sentinel', is given, then 'object' must be a callable
     object.  The iterator created in this case will call 'object' with
     no arguments for each call to its *note __next__(): 12ad. method;
     if the value returned is equal to 'sentinel', *note StopIteration:
     bea. will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.

     Voir aussi *note Les types itérateurs: 2130.

     Une autre application utile de la deuxième forme de *note iter():
     7c3. est de construire un lecteur par blocs.  Par exemple, lire des
     blocs de taille fixe d'une base de donnée binaire jusqu'à ce que la
     fin soit atteinte :

          from functools import partial
          with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
              for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
                  process_block(block)

 -- Fonction: len (s)

     Renvoie la longueur (nombre d'éléments) d'un objet.  L'argument
     peut être une séquence (telle qu'une chaîne de caractères ou
     d'octets, un 'n'-uplet, une liste ou un intervalle) ou une
     collection (telle qu'un dictionnaire, un ensemble ou un ensemble
     figé).

     ‘len’ lève une *note OverflowError: 86f. sur des longueurs
     supérieures à *note sys.maxsize: 11a4, par exemple pour *note
     range(2 ** 100): 932.

 -- Classe: list

 -- Classe: list (iterable)

     Contrairement aux apparences, *note list: 5fe. n'est pas une
     fonction mais un type séquentiel mutable, comme décrit dans *note
     Listes: 2131. et *note Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range:
     1c07.

 -- Fonction: locals ()

          Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol
          table, with variable names as the keys, and their currently
          bound references as the values.

          At module scope, as well as when using *note exec(): 17d. or
          *note eval(): 17e. with a single namespace, this function
          returns the same namespace as *note globals(): 1824.

          At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed
          to the metaclass constructor.

          When using ‘exec()’ or ‘eval()’ with separate local and global
          arguments, it returns the local namespace passed in to the
          function call.

          In all of the above cases, each call to ‘locals()’ in a given
          frame of execution will return the 'same' mapping object.
          Changes made through the mapping object returned from
          ‘locals()’ will be visible as assigned, reassigned, or deleted
          local variables, and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local
          variables will immediately affect the contents of the returned
          mapping object.

          In an *note optimized scope: 17c. (including functions,
          generators, and coroutines), each call to ‘locals()’ instead
          returns a fresh dictionary containing the current bindings of
          the function's local variables and any nonlocal cell
          references.  In this case, name binding changes made via the
          returned dict are 'not' written back to the corresponding
          local variables or nonlocal cell references, and assigning,
          reassigning, or deleting local variables and nonlocal cell
          references does 'not' affect the contents of previously
          returned dictionaries.

          Calling ‘locals()’ as part of a comprehension in a function,
          generator, or coroutine is equivalent to calling it in the
          containing scope, except that the comprehension's initialised
          iteration variables will be included.  In other scopes, it
          behaves as if the comprehension were running as a nested
          function.

          Calling ‘locals()’ as part of a generator expression is
          equivalent to calling it in a nested generator function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The behaviour of ‘locals()’ in a
     comprehension has been updated as described in PEP 709(2).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: As part of PEP 667(3), the semantics
     of mutating the mapping objects returned from this function are now
     defined.  The behavior in *note optimized scopes: 17c. is now as
     described above.  Aside from being defined, the behaviour in other
     scopes remains unchanged from previous versions.

 -- Fonction: map (function, iterable, *iterables)

     Renvoie un itérateur appliquant 'function' à chaque élément de
     'iterable', et donnant ses résultats au fur et à mesure avec
     ‘yield’.  Si d'autres 'iterables' sont fournis, 'function' doit
     prendre autant d'arguments, et est appelée avec les éléments de
     tous les itérables en parallèle.  Avec plusieurs itérables,
     l'itération s'arrête avec l'itérable le plus court.  Pour les cas
     où les arguments sont déjà rangés sous forme de 'n'-uplets, voir
     *note itertools.starmap(): 10c7.

 -- Fonction: max (iterable, *, key=None)

 -- Fonction: max (iterable, *, default, key=None)

 -- Fonction: max (arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)

     Renvoie le plus grand élément d'un itérable, ou l'argument le plus
     grand parmi au moins deux arguments.

     Si un seul argument positionnel est fourni, il doit être *note
     itérable: 1207.  Le plus grand élément de l'itérable est renvoyé.
     Si au moins deux arguments positionnels sont fournis, l'argument le
     plus grand sera renvoyé.

     Elle accepte deux arguments nommés optionnels.  L'argument 'key'
     spécifie une fonction à un argument permettant de trier comme pour
     *note list.sort(): bbf.  L'argument 'default' fournit quant à lui
     un objet à donner si l'itérable fourni est vide.  Si l'itérable est
     vide et que 'default' n'est pas fourni, *note ValueError: 1ff. est
     levée.

     Si plusieurs éléments représentent la plus grande valeur, le
     premier rencontré est renvoyé.  C'est cohérent avec d'autres outils
     préservant une stabilité lors du tri, tels que ‘sorted(iterable,
     key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0]’ et ‘heapq.nlargest(1, iterable,
     key=keyfunc)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'default' keyword-only
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: l'argument 'key' peut être ‘None’.

 -- Classe: memoryview (object)

     Renvoie une « vue mémoire » ('memory view') créée depuis
     l'argument.  Voir *note Vues mémoire: 2132. pour plus
     d'informations.

 -- Fonction: min (iterable, *, key=None)

 -- Fonction: min (iterable, *, default, key=None)

 -- Fonction: min (arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)

     Renvoie le plus petit élément d'un itérable ou le plus petit d'au
     moins deux arguments.

     Si un seul argument est fourni, il doit être *note itérable: 1207.
     Le plus petit élément de l'itérable est renvoyé.  Si au moins deux
     arguments positionnels sont fournis, le plus petit argument
     positionnel est renvoyé.

     Elle accepte deux arguments nommés optionnels.  L'argument 'key'
     spécifie une fonction à un argument permettant de trier comme pour
     *note list.sort(): bbf.  L'argument 'default' fournit quant à lui
     un objet à donner si l'itérable fourni est vide.  Si l'itérable est
     vide et que 'default' n'est pas fourni, *note ValueError: 1ff. est
     levée.

     Si plusieurs éléments sont minimaux, la fonction renvoie le premier
     rencontré.  C'est cohérent avec d'autres outils préservant une
     stabilité lors du tri, tels que ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]’
     et ‘heapq.nsmallest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'default' keyword-only
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: l'argument 'key' peut être ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: next (iterator)

 -- Fonction: next (iterator, default)

     Donne l'élément suivant de l'*note itérateur: 1aa. en appelant sa
     méthode *note __next__(): 12ad.  Si 'default' est fourni, il est
     renvoyé quand l'itérateur est épuisé, sinon une *note
     StopIteration: bea. est levée.

 -- Classe: object

     This is the ultimate base class of all other classes.  It has
     methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  When
     the constructor is called, it returns a new featureless object.
     The constructor does not accept any arguments.

          Note: *note object: a7c. instances do 'not' have *note
          __dict__: 549. attributes, so you can't assign arbitrary
          attributes to an instance of *note object: a7c.

 -- Fonction: oct (x)

     Convertit un entier en sa représentation octale dans une chaîne
     préfixée de "0o".  Le résultat est une expression Python valide.
     Si 'x' n'est pas un objet *note int: 254, il doit définir une
     méthode *note __index__(): 709. qui donne un entier, par exemple :

          >>> oct(8)
          '0o10'
          >>> oct(-56)
          '-0o70'

     Si vous voulez convertir un nombre entier en une chaîne octale,
     avec ou sans le préfixe ‘0o’, vous pouvez utiliser l'une des
     méthodes suivantes.

          >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
          ('0o12', '12')

     Voir aussi *note format(): 60c. pour plus d'informations.

 -- Fonction: open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     Ouvre 'file' et donne un *note objet fichier: 11a2. correspondant.
     Si le fichier ne peut pas être ouvert, une *note OSError: 40d. est
     levée.  Voir *note Lecture et écriture de fichiers: 1c3d. pour plus
     d'exemples d'utilisation de cette fonction.

     'file' est un *note objet simili-chemin: 29d. donnant le chemin
     (absolu ou relatif au répertoire courant) du fichier à ouvrir ou un
     nombre entier représentant le descripteur de fichier à envelopper
     (si un descripteur de fichier est donné, il sera fermé en même
     temps que l'objet d'entrée-sortie renvoyé, sauf si 'closefd' est
     mis à ‘False’).

     'mode' is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the
     file is opened.  It defaults to ‘'r'’ which means open for reading
     in text mode.  Other common values are ‘'w'’ for writing
     (truncating the file if it already exists), ‘'x'’ for exclusive
     creation, and ‘'a'’ for appending (which on 'some' Unix systems,
     means that 'all' writes append to the end of the file regardless of
     the current seek position).  In text mode, if 'encoding' is not
     specified the encoding used is platform-dependent: *note
     locale.getencoding(): 2db. is called to get the current locale
     encoding.  (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and
     leave 'encoding' unspecified.)  The available modes are:

     Caractère     Signification
                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'r'’         ouvre en lecture (par défaut)
                   
                   
     ‘'w'’         ouvre en écriture, en effaçant le contenu du fichier
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         ouvre pour une création exclusive, échouant si le fichier existe
                   déjà
                   
                   
     ‘'a'’         ouvre en écriture, ajoutant à la fin du fichier s'il existe
                   
                   
     ‘'b'’         mode binaire
                   
                   
     ‘'t'’         mode texte (par défaut)
                   
                   
     ‘'+'’         ouvre en modification (lecture et écriture)
                   

     Le mode par défaut est ‘'r'’ (ouverture pour lire du texte, un
     synonyme pour ‘'rt'’).  Les modes ‘'w+'’ et ‘'w+b'’ ouvrent et
     vident le fichier.  Les modes ‘'r+'’ et ‘'r+b'’ ouvrent le fichier
     sans le vider.

     Comme mentionné dans *note Aperçu: 2134, Python fait la différence
     entre les entrées-sorties binaires et textes.  Les fichiers ouverts
     en mode binaire (avec ‘'b'’ dans 'mode') donnent leur contenu sous
     forme de *note bytes: 1bd. sans décodage.  En mode texte (par
     défaut, ou lorsque ‘'t'’ est dans le 'mode'), le contenu du fichier
     est donné sous forme de *note str: 437, les octets ayant été
     décodés au préalable en utilisant un encodage déduit de
     l'environnement ou 'encoding' s'il est donné.

          Note: Python ne dépend pas de la représentation du fichier
          texte du système sous-jacent.  Tout le traitement est effectué
          par Python lui-même, et est ainsi indépendant de la
          plate-forme.

     'buffering' is an optional integer used to set the buffering
     policy.  Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary
     mode), 1 to select line buffering (only usable when writing in text
     mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size in bytes of a
     fixed-size chunk buffer.  Note that specifying a buffer size this
     way applies for binary buffered I/O, but ‘TextIOWrapper’ (i.e.,
     files opened with ‘mode='r+'’) would have another buffering.  To
     disable buffering in ‘TextIOWrapper’, consider using the
     ‘write_through’ flag for *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): b39.
     When no 'buffering' argument is given, the default buffering policy
     works as follows:

        * les fichiers binaires sont mis dans un tampon de taille fixe,
          dont la taille est choisie par une heuristique essayant de
          déterminer la taille des blocs du système sous-jacent, ou en
          utilisant par défaut *note io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1682.  Sur
          de nombreux systèmes, le tampon est de 4096 ou 8192 octets ;

        * les fichiers texte « interactifs » (fichiers pour lesquels
          *note io.IOBase.isatty(): 1c40. renvoie ‘True’) utilisent un
          tampon ligne par ligne.  Les autres fichiers textes sont
          traités comme les fichiers binaires.

     'encoding' est le nom de l'encodage utilisé pour encoder ou décoder
     le fichier.  Il doit seulement être utilisé en mode texte.
     L'encodage par défaut dépend de la plateforme (ce que renvoie *note
     locale.getencoding(): 2db.), mais n'importe quel *note encodage de
     texte: 2135. pris en charge par Python peut être utilisé.  Voir
     *note codecs: 1b. pour une liste des encodages pris en charge.

     'errors' est une chaîne facultative spécifiant comment les erreurs
     d'encodage et de décodage sont gérées, ce n'est pas utilisable en
     mode binaire.  De nombreux gestionnaires d'erreurs standards sont
     disponibles (listés sous *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2.),
     aussi, tout nom de gestionnaire d'erreur enregistré avec *note
     codecs.register_error(): 144f. est aussi un argument valide.  Les
     noms standards sont :

        * ‘'strict'’ pour lever une *note ValueError: 1ff. si une erreur
          d'encodage est rencontrée.  La valeur par défaut, ‘None’, a le
          même effet.

        * ‘'ignore'’ ignore les erreurs.  Notez qu'ignorer les erreurs
          d'encodage peut mener à des pertes de données.

        * ‘'replace'’ insère un marqueur de substitution (tel que ‘'?'’)
          en place des données mal formées.

        * ‘'surrogateescape'’ représentera tous les octets incorrects
          comme des points de code de substitution de l'intervalle bas
          U+DC80 à U+DCFF. Ces points de code de substitution sont
          ensuite retransformés dans les mêmes octets lorsque le
          gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘surrogateescape’ est utilisé pour
          l'écriture des données.  C'est utile pour traiter des fichiers
          d'un encodage inconnu.

        * ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ is only supported when writing to a
          file.  Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced
          with the appropriate XML character reference ‘&#NNN;’.

        * ‘'backslashreplace'’ remplace les données mal formées par des
          séquences d'échappement Python (utilisant des barres obliques
          inverses).

        * ‘'namereplace'’ (aussi supporté lors de l'écriture) remplace
          les caractères non gérés par des séquences d'échappement
          ‘\N{...}’.

     'newline' contrôle comment interpréter les retours à la ligne.  Il
     peut être ‘None’, ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, et ‘'\r\n'’.  Il fonctionne
     comme suit :

        * Lors de la lecture, si 'newline' est ‘None’, le mode
          'universal newlines' est activé.  Les lignes lues peuvent se
          terminer par ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, ou ‘'\r\n'’, et sont remplacées
          par ‘'\n'’, avant d'être renvoyées à l'appelant.  S'il vaut
          ‘''’, le mode 'universal newline' est activé mais les fins de
          ligne ne sont pas remplacées.  S'il a n'importe quelle autre
          valeur autorisée, les lignes sont seulement terminées par la
          chaîne donnée, qui est rendue telle quelle.

        * Lors de l'écriture, si 'newline' est ‘None’, chaque ‘'\n'’ est
          remplacé par le séparateur de lignes par défaut du système
          *note os.linesep: 2136.  Si 'newline' est ‘''’ ou ‘'\n'’ aucun
          remplacement n'est effectué.  Si 'newline' est un autre
          caractère valide, chaque ‘'\n'’ sera remplacé par la chaîne
          donnée.

     Si 'closefd' est ‘False’ et qu'un descripteur de fichier est fourni
     plutôt qu'un nom de fichier, le descripteur de fichier sera laissé
     ouvert lorsque le fichier sera fermé.  Si un nom de fichier est
     donné, 'closefd' doit rester ‘True’ (la valeur par défaut) ; sinon,
     une erreur est levée.

     Un 'opener' personnalisé peut être utilisé en fournissant un
     appelable comme 'opener'.  Le descripteur de fichier de cet objet
     fichier sera alors obtenu en appelant 'opener' avec ('file',
     'flags').  'opener' doit renvoyer un descripteur de fichier ouvert
     (fournir *note os.open: d81. en tant qu''opener' aura le même effet
     que donner ‘None’).

     Il n'est *note pas possible d'hériter du descripteur de fichier:
     ee6. nouvellement créé.

     L'exemple suivant utilise le paramètre *note dir_fd: 10cd. de la
     fonction *note os.open(): d81. pour ouvrir un fichier relatif au
     dossier courant :

          >>> import os
          >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
          >>> def opener(path, flags):
          ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
          ...
          >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
          ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
          ...
          >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

     Le type d'*note objet fichier: 11a2. renvoyé par la fonction *note
     open(): 508. dépend du mode.  Lorsque *note open(): 508. est
     utilisé pour ouvrir un fichier en mode texte (‘w’, ‘r’, ‘wt’, ‘rt’,
     etc.), il renvoie une classe fille de *note io.TextIOBase: 682.
     (spécifiquement : *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.).  Lors de
     l'ouverture d'un fichier en mode binaire avec tampon, la classe
     renvoyée sera une fille de *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681.  La classe
     exacte varie : en lecture en mode binaire elle renvoie une *note
     io.BufferedReader: 11ed, en écriture et ajout en mode binaire c'est
     une *note io.BufferedWriter: 2137, et en lecture-écriture, c'est
     une *note io.BufferedRandom: 2138.  Lorsque le tampon est
     désactivé, le flux brut, une classe fille de *note io.RawIOBase:
     10b4, *note io.FileIO: 12f0. est renvoyée.

     Consultez aussi les modules de gestion de fichiers tels que *note
     fileinput: 5a, *note io: 7e. (où *note open(): 508. est déclarée),
     *note os: a0, *note os.path: a1, *note tempfile: df, et *note
     shutil: c4.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘open’ with arguments ‘path’,
     ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     Les arguments ‘mode’ et ‘flags’ peuvent avoir été modifiés ou
     déduits de l'appel original.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3:

        * ajout du paramètre 'opener'.

        * ajout du mode ‘'x'’.

        * *note IOError: 103d. était normalement levée, elle est
          maintenant un alias de *note OSError: 40d.

        * *note FileExistsError: 100b. est maintenant levée si le
          fichier ouvert en mode création exclusive (‘'x'’) existe déjà.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4:

        * Il n'est plus possible d'hériter de 'file'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5:

        * Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de
          signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel
          système au lieu de lever une *note InterruptedError: d77.
          (voir la PEP 475(4) pour la justification).

        * ajout du gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘'namereplace'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6:

        * prise en charge des objets implémentant *note os.PathLike:
          c41.

        * Sous Windows, ouvrir un 'buffer' du terminal peut renvoyer une
          sous-classe de *note io.RawIOBase: 10b4. autre que *note
          io.FileIO: 12f0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: le mode ‘'U`’ a été enlevé.

 -- Fonction: ord (c)

     Renvoie le nombre entier représentant le code Unicode du caractère
     représenté par la chaîne donnée.  Par exemple, ‘ord('a')’ renvoie
     le nombre entier ‘97’ et ‘ord('€')’ (symbole euro) renvoie ‘8364’.
     Il s'agit de la réciproque de *note chr(): 162d.

 -- Fonction: pow (base, exp, mod=None)

     Renvoie 'base' puissance 'exp' et, si 'mod' est présent, donne
     'base' puissance 'exp' modulo 'mod' (calculé de manière plus
     efficiente que ‘pow(base, exp) % mod’).  La forme à deux arguments
     ‘pow(base, exp)’ est équivalente à l'opérateur puissance :
     ‘base**exp’.

     The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types,
     the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
     *note int: 254. operands, the result has the same type as the
     operands (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative;
     in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(10, 2)’ returns ‘100’, but
     ‘pow(10, -2)’ returns ‘0.01’.  For a negative base of type *note
     int: 254. or *note float: 2ec. and a non-integral exponent, a
     complex result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 0.5)’ returns a
     value close to ‘3j’.  Whereas, for a negative base of type *note
     int: 254. or *note float: 2ec. with an integral exponent, a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 2.0)’ returns ‘81.0’.

     Pour des opérandes 'base' et 'exp' de type *note int: 254, si 'mod'
     est présent, 'mod' doit également être de type entier et 'mod' doit
     être non nul.  Si 'mod' est présent et que 'exp' est négatif,
     'base' et 'mod' doivent être premiers entre eux.  Dans ce cas,
     ‘pow(inv_base, -exp, mod)’ est renvoyé, où 'inv_base' est un
     inverse de 'base' modulo 'mod'.

     Voici un exemple de calcul d'un inverse de ‘38’ modulo ‘97’ :

          >>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)
          23
          >>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1
          True

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: pour les opérandes *note int: 254, la
     forme à trois arguments de ‘pow’ permet maintenant au deuxième
     argument d'être négatif, permettant le calcul des inverses
     modulaires.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: autorise les arguments nommés.
     Auparavant, seuls les arguments positionnels étaient autorisés.

 -- Fonction: print (*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None,
          flush=False)

     Écrit 'objects' dans le flux texte 'file', séparés par 'sep' et
     suivis de 'end'.  Les arguments 'sep', 'end', 'file', et 'flush',
     s'ils sont présents, doivent être passés en arguments nommés.

     Tous les arguments positionnels sont convertis en chaîne comme le
     fait *note str(): 437, puis écrits sur le flux, séparés par 'sep'
     et terminés par 'end'.  'sep' et 'end' doivent être des chaînes, ou
     ‘None’, indiquant de prendre les valeurs par défaut.  Si aucun
     'objects' n'est donné *note print(): f62. écrit seulement 'end'.

     L'argument 'file' doit être un objet avec une méthode
     ‘write(string)’ ; s'il n'est pas fourni, ou vaut ‘None’, *note
     sys.stdout: ac6. est utilisé.  Puisque les arguments affichés sont
     convertis en chaîne, *note print(): f62. ne peut pas être utilisée
     avec des fichiers ouverts en mode binaire.  Pour ceux-ci utilisez
     plutôt ‘file.write(...)’.

     Que la sortie utilise un tampon ou non est souvent décidé par
     'file'.  Cependant, si l'argument 'flush' est vrai, le tampon du
     flux est vidé explicitement.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout de l'argument nommé 'flush'.

 -- Classe: property (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

     Renvoie un attribut propriété.

     'fget' est une fonction permettant d'obtenir la valeur d'un
     attribut.  'fset' est une fonction pour en définir la valeur.
     'fdel' quant à elle permet de supprimer la valeur d'un attribut, et
     'doc' crée une chaîne de documentation ('docstring') pour
     l'attribut.

     Une utilisation courante est de définir un attribut managé ‘x’ :

          class C:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._x = None

              def getx(self):
                  return self._x

              def setx(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              def delx(self):
                  del self._x

              x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

     Si 'c' est une instance de 'C', ‘c.x’ appelle l'accesseur ('getter'
     en anglais), ‘c.x = value’ invoque le mutateur ('setter'), et ‘del
     x’ le destructeur ('deleter').

     Si elle est fournie, 'doc' est la chaîne de documentation de
     l'attribut.  Autrement la propriété copie celle de 'fget' (si elle
     existe).  Cela rend possible la création de propriétés en lecture
     seule en utilisant simplement *note property(): 192. comme *note
     décorateur: 71d. :

          class Parrot:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._voltage = 100000

              @property
              def voltage(self):
                  """Get the current voltage."""
                  return self._voltage

     The ‘@property’ decorator turns the ‘voltage()’ method into a
     "getter" for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets
     the docstring for 'voltage' to "Get the current voltage."

      -- Fonction: @getter

      -- Fonction: @setter

      -- Fonction: @deleter

          A property object has ‘getter’, ‘setter’, and ‘deleter’
          methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the
          property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
          decorated function.  This is best explained with an example:

               class C:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self._x = None

                   @property
                   def x(self):
                       """I'm the 'x' property."""
                       return self._x

                   @x.setter
                   def x(self, value):
                       self._x = value

                   @x.deleter
                   def x(self):
                       del self._x

          Ce code est l'exact équivalent du premier exemple.  Soyez
          attentifs à bien donner aux fonctions additionnelles le même
          nom que la propriété (‘x’ dans ce cas).

          L'objet propriété renvoyé possède aussi les attributs ‘fget’,
          ‘fset’ et ‘fdel’ correspondants aux arguments du constructeur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: les chaînes de documentation des
     objets 'property' sont maintenant en lecture-écriture.

      -- Attribut: __name__

          Attribute holding the name of the property.  The name of the
          property can be changed at runtime.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Classe: range (stop)

 -- Classe: range (start, stop, step=1)

     Contrairement aux apparences, *note range: 932. n'est pas une
     fonction mais un type de séquence immuable, comme décrit dans *note
     Ranges: 2139. et *note Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range:
     1c07.

 -- Fonction: repr (object)

     Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.
     For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string
     that would yield an object with the same value when passed to *note
     eval(): 17e.; otherwise, the representation is a string enclosed in
     angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object
     together with additional information often including the name and
     address of the object.  A class can control what this function
     returns for its instances by defining a *note __repr__(): 609.
     method.  If *note sys.displayhook(): 14d7. is not accessible, this
     function will raise *note RuntimeError: 193.

     This class has a custom representation that can be evaluated:

          class Person:
             def __init__(self, name, age):
                self.name = name
                self.age = age

             def __repr__(self):
                return f"Person('{self.name}', {self.age})"

 -- Fonction: reversed (seq)

     Return a reverse *note iterator: 1aa.  'seq' must be an object
     which has a *note __reversed__(): 1f16. method or supports the
     sequence protocol (the *note __len__(): 1f1c. method and the *note
     __getitem__(): 280. method with integer arguments starting at ‘0’).

 -- Fonction: round (number, ndigits=None)

     Renvoie 'number' arrondi avec une précision de 'ndigits' chiffres
     après la virgule.  Si 'ndigits' est omis (ou est ‘None’), l'entier
     le plus proche est renvoyé.

     Pour les types natifs prenant en charge *note round(): 12ba, les
     valeurs sont arrondies au multiple de 10 puissance moins 'ndigits',
     si deux multiples sont équidistants, l'arrondi se fait vers la
     valeur paire (par exemple ‘round(0.5)’ et ‘round(-0.5)’ valent tous
     les deux ‘0’, et ‘round(1.5)’ vaut ‘2’).  'ndigits' accepte tout
     nombre entier (positif, zéro, ou négatif).  La valeur renvoyée est
     un entier si 'ndigits' n'est pas donné (ou est ‘None’).  Sinon elle
     est du même type que 'number'.

     Pour tout autre objet Python ‘number’, ‘round’ délègue à
     ‘number.__round__’.

          Note: le comportement de *note round(): 12ba. avec les nombres
          à virgule flottante peut être surprenant.  Par exemple
          ‘round(2.675, 2)’ donne ‘2.67’ au lieu de ‘2.68’.  Ce n'est
          pas un bogue, mais dû au fait que la plupart des fractions de
          décimaux ne peuvent pas être représentés exactement en nombre
          a virgule flottante.  Voir *note Floating-Point Arithmetic;
          Issues and Limitations: 1cce. pour plus d'information.

 -- Classe: set

 -- Classe: set (iterable)

     Renvoie un nouvel *note ensemble: 5c5, dont les éléments sont
     extraits d''iterable' s'il est fourni.  ‘set’ est une classe
     native.  Voir *note set: 5c5. et *note Types d'ensembles — set,
     frozenset: 212e. pour la documentation de cette classe.

     D'autres conteneurs existent, comme : *note frozenset: 5c6, *note
     list: 5fe, *note tuple: 366, et *note dict: 253, ainsi que le
     module *note collections: 1d.

 -- Fonction: setattr (object, name, value)

     C'est le complément de *note getattr(): bc1.  Les arguments sont :
     un objet, une chaîne et une valeur de type arbitraire.  La chaîne
     'name' peut désigner un attribut existant ou un nouvel attribut.
     La fonction assigne la valeur à l'attribut, si l'objet l'autorise.
     Par exemple, ‘setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)’ équivaut à ‘x.foobar =
     123’.

     'name' n'a pas besoin d'être un identifiant Python tel que défini
     dans *note Identifiants et mots-clés: 1e4f. sauf si l'objet choisit
     de l'imposer, par exemple en personnalisant *note
     __getattribute__(): bc2. ou 'via' *note __slots__: 14a2.  Un
     attribut dont le nom n'est pas un identifiant ne sera pas
     accessible en utilisant la notation pointée, mais est accessible
     'via' *note getattr(): bc1. etc.

          Note: étant donné que la *note transformation des noms privés:
          1c78. se produit au moment de la compilation, il faut modifier
          manuellement le nom d'un attribut privé (attributs avec deux
          traits de soulignement en tête) afin de le définir avec *note
          setattr(): 2116.

 -- Classe: slice (stop)

 -- Classe: slice (start, stop, step=None)

     Return a *note slice: 213a. object representing the set of indices
     specified by ‘range(start, stop, step)’.  The 'start' and 'step'
     arguments default to ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: start

      -- Attribut: stop

      -- Attribut: step

          Slice objects have read-only data attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’,
          and ‘step’ which merely return the argument values (or their
          default).  They have no other explicit functionality; however,
          they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.

     Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is
     used.  For example: ‘a[start:stop:step]’ or ‘a[start:stop, i]’.
     See *note itertools.islice(): b3c. for an alternate version that
     returns an *note iterator: 1aa.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Slice objects are now *note hashable:
     5fd. (provided *note start: 2010, *note stop: 2011, and *note step:
     2012. are hashable).

 -- Fonction: sorted (iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

     Renvoie une nouvelle liste triée depuis les éléments d''iterable'.

     Possède deux arguments optionnels qui doivent être spécifiés par
     arguments nommés.

     'key' spécifie une fonction à un argument utilisée pour extraire
     une clé de comparaison de chaque élément de l'itérable (par
     exemple, ‘key=str.lower’).  La valeur par défaut est ‘None’
     (compare les éléments directement).

     'reverse' est une valeur booléenne.  Si elle est ‘True’, la liste
     d'éléments est triée comme si toutes les comparaisons étaient
     inversées.

     Utilisez *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 11b9. pour convertir
     l'ancienne notation 'cmp' en une fonction 'key'.

     La fonction native *note sorted(): bbe. est garantie stable.  Un
     tri est stable s'il garantit de ne pas changer l'ordre relatif des
     éléments égaux entre eux.  C'est utile pour trier en plusieurs
     passes (par exemple par direction puis par salaire).

     L'algorithme de tri utilise uniquement l'opérateur ‘<’ pour
     comparer les éléments.  Alors que la définition d'une méthode *note
     __lt__(): 127f. est suffisante pour trier, la PEP 8(5) recommande
     que les six *note comparaisons riches: 202f. soient implémentées.
     Cela contribue à éviter les bogues lors de l'utilisation des mêmes
     données avec d'autres outils de tri (tels que *note max(): ef6.)
     qui reposent sur une méthode sous-jacente différente.
     L'implémentation des six comparaisons permet également d'éviter
     toute confusion lors de comparaisons de types mixtes qui peuvent
     appeler la méthode *note __gt__(): 12ec.

     Pour des exemples de tris et un bref tutoriel, consultez *note
     Sorting Techniques: 213b.

 -- Fonction: @staticmethod

     Transforme une méthode en méthode statique.

     Une méthode statique ne reçoit pas de premier argument
     implicitement.  Voici comment déclarer une méthode statique :

          class C:
              @staticmethod
              def f(arg1, arg2, argN): ...

     La forme ‘@staticmethod’ est un *note décorateur: 71d. de fonction.
     Consultez *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4. pour plus de
     détails.

     A static method can be called either on the class (such as ‘C.f()’)
     or on an instance (such as ‘C().f()’).  Moreover, the static method
     *note descriptor: 152c. is also callable, so it can be used in the
     class definition (such as ‘f()’).

     Les méthodes statiques en Python sont similaires à celles que l'on
     trouve en Java ou en C++.  Consultez *note classmethod(): 165. pour
     une variante utile permettant de créer des constructeurs
     alternatifs.

     Comme pour tous les décorateurs, il est possible d'appeler
     ‘staticmethod’ comme une simple fonction, et faire quelque chose de
     son résultat.  Ça peut être nécessaire dans le cas où vous
     souhaitez une référence à la fonction depuis le corps d'une classe,
     et voulez éviter sa transformation en méthode d'instance.  Dans ce
     cas, faites comme suit :

          def regular_function():
              ...

          class C:
              method = staticmethod(regular_function)

     Pour plus d'informations sur les méthodes statiques, consultez
     *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Static methods now inherit the method
     attributes (*note __module__: 1eb9, *note __name__: 12b4, *note
     __qualname__: 1eb8, *note __doc__: 11b8. and *note __annotations__:
     11b7.), have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute, and are now callable as
     regular functions.

 -- Classe: str (object='')

 -- Classe: str (object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Renvoie une version d''object' sous forme de *note str: 437.  Voir
     *note str(): 437. pour plus de détails.

     ‘str’ est la *note classe: 18ef. native des chaînes de caractères.
     Pour des informations générales à propos des chaînes, consultez
     *note Type Séquence de Texte — str: 1bba.

 -- Fonction: sum (iterable, /, start=0)

     Additionne 'start' et les éléments d'un 'iterable' de gauche à
     droite et en donne le total.  Les éléments de l''iterable' sont
     normalement des nombres, et la valeur de 'start' ne peut pas être
     une chaîne de caractères.

     For some use cases, there are good alternatives to *note sum():
     456.  The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings
     is by calling ‘''.join(sequence)’.  To add floating-point values
     with extended precision, see *note math.fsum(): 138d.  To
     concatenate a series of iterables, consider using *note
     itertools.chain(): 213c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre 'start' peut être passé
     comme un argument nommé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Summation of floats switched to an
     algorithm that gives higher accuracy and better commutativity on
     most builds.

 -- Classe: super

 -- Classe: super (type, object_or_type=None)

     Renvoie un objet mandataire ('proxy object' en anglais) déléguant
     les appels de méthode à une classe parente ou sœur de 'type'.
     C'est utile pour accéder aux méthodes héritées qui ont été
     remplacées dans une classe.

     'object_or_type' détermine quel *note ordre de résolution des
     méthodes: 213d. est utilisé pour la recherche.  La recherche
     commence à partir de la classe qui suit immédiatement le 'type'.

     For example, if *note __mro__: 1ee5. of 'object_or_type' is ‘D -> B
     -> C -> A -> object’ and the value of 'type' is ‘B’, then *note
     super(): 4c8. searches ‘C -> A -> object’.

     The *note __mro__: 1ee5. attribute of the class corresponding to
     'object_or_type' lists the method resolution search order used by
     both *note getattr(): bc1. and *note super(): 4c8.  The attribute
     is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
     updated.

     Si le second argument est omis, l'objet 'super' obtenu n'est pas
     lié.  Si le second argument est un objet, ‘isinstance(obj, type)’
     doit être vrai.  Si le second argument est un type,
     ‘issubclass(type2, type)’ doit être vrai (c'est utile pour les
     méthodes de classe).

     When called directly within an ordinary method of a class, both
     arguments may be omitted ("zero-argument ‘super()’").  In this
     case, 'type' will be the enclosing class, and 'obj' will be the
     first argument of the immediately enclosing function (typically
     ‘self’).  (This means that zero-argument ‘super()’ will not work as
     expected within nested functions, including generator expressions,
     which implicitly create nested functions.)

     Il existe deux autres cas d'usage typiques pour 'super'.  Dans une
     hiérarchie de classes à héritage simple, 'super' peut être utilisée
     pour obtenir la classe parente sans avoir à la nommer
     explicitement, rendant le code plus maintenable.  Cet usage se
     rapproche de l'usage de 'super' dans d'autres langages de
     programmation.

     Le second est la gestion d'héritage multiple coopératif dans un
     environnement d'exécution dynamique.  Cet usage est unique à
     Python, il ne se retrouve ni dans les langages compilés
     statiquement, ni dans les langages ne gérant que l'héritage simple.
     Cela rend possible d'implémenter un héritage en diamant dans lequel
     plusieurs classes parentes implémentent la même méthode.  Une bonne
     conception implique que ces implémentations doivent avoir la même
     signature lors de leur appel dans tous les cas (parce que l'ordre
     des appels est déterminée à l'exécution, parce que l'ordre s'adapte
     aux changements dans la hiérarchie, et parce que l'ordre peut
     inclure des classes sœurs inconnues avant l'exécution).

     Dans tous les cas, un appel typique à une classe parente ressemble
     à :

          class C(B):
              def method(self, arg):
                  super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                         # super(C, self).method(arg)

     En plus de la recherche de méthodes, *note super(): 4c8. fonctionne
     également pour la recherche d'attributs.  Un cas d'utilisation
     possible est l'appel d'un *note descripteur: 152c. d'une classe
     parente ou sœur.

     Note that *note super(): 4c8. is implemented as part of the binding
     process for explicit dotted attribute lookups such as
     ‘super().__getitem__(name)’.  It does so by implementing its own
     *note __getattribute__(): bc2. method for searching classes in a
     predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
     Accordingly, *note super(): 4c8. is undefined for implicit lookups
     using statements or operators such as ‘super()[name]’.

     Notez aussi que, en dehors de sa forme sans argument, *note
     super(): 4c8. peut être utilisée en dehors des méthodes.  La forme
     à deux arguments est précise et contient tous les arguments
     nécessaires, donnant les références appropriées.  La forme sans
     argument fonctionne seulement à l'intérieur d'une définition de
     classe, puisque c'est le compilateur qui donne les détails
     nécessaires à propos de la classe en cours de définition, ainsi
     qu'accéder à l'instance courante pour les méthodes ordinaires.

     Pour des suggestions pratiques sur la conception de classes
     coopératives utilisant *note super(): 4c8, consultez guide to using
     super()(6).

 -- Classe: tuple

 -- Classe: tuple (iterable)

     Ce n'est pas une fonction, *note tuple: 366. est en fait un type de
     séquence immuable, comme documenté dans *note N-uplets: 20a7. et
     *note Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range: 1c07.

 -- Classe: type (object)

 -- Classe: type (name, bases, dict, **kwds)

     With one argument, return the type of an 'object'.  The return
     value is a type object and generally the same object as returned by
     *note object.__class__: 1463.

     La fonction native *note isinstance(): 42d. est recommandée pour
     tester le type d'un objet, car elle prend en compte l'héritage.

     With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is
     essentially a dynamic form of the *note class: 12b7. statement.
     The 'name' string is the class name and becomes the *note __name__:
     1461. attribute.  The 'bases' tuple contains the base classes and
     becomes the *note __bases__: 1462. attribute; if empty, *note
     object: a7c, the ultimate base of all classes, is added.  The
     'dict' dictionary contains attribute and method definitions for the
     class body; it may be copied or wrapped before becoming the *note
     __dict__: c4d. attribute.  The following two statements create
     identical ‘type’ objects:

          >>> class X:
          ...     a = 1
          ...
          >>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

     See also:

        * *note Documentation on attributes and methods on classes:
          1edf.

        * *note Objets type: 213e.

     Les arguments nommés fournis à la forme à trois arguments sont
     passés au mécanisme de métaclasse approprié (généralement *note
     __init_subclass__(): 61e.) de la même manière que les arguments
     nommés dans une définition de classe (en plus de 'metaclass').

     Voir aussi *note Personnalisation de la création de classes: c3b.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Subclasses of ‘type’ which don't
     override ‘type.__new__’ may no longer use the one-argument form to
     get the type of an object.

 -- Fonction: vars ()

 -- Fonction: vars (object)

     Return the *note __dict__: 549. attribute for a module, class,
     instance, or any other object with a ‘__dict__’ attribute.

     Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable *note
     __dict__: 549. attribute; however, other objects may have write
     restrictions on their ‘__dict__’ attributes (for example, classes
     use a *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. to prevent direct
     dictionary updates).

     Without an argument, *note vars(): 1a00. acts like *note locals():
     140.

     Une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée si un objet est
     spécifié mais qu'il n'a pas d'attribut *note __dict__: 549. (par
     exemple, si sa classe définit l'attribut *note __slots__: 14a2.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The result of calling this function
     without an argument has been updated as described for the *note
     locals(): 140. builtin.

 -- Fonction: zip (*iterables, strict=False)

     Itère sur plusieurs itérables en parallèle, produisant des
     'n'-uplets avec un élément provenant de chacun.

     Exemple :

          >>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):
          ...     print(item)
          ...
          (1, 'sugar')
          (2, 'spice')
          (3, 'everything nice')

     Plus formellement : *note zip(): 7bc. renvoie un itérateur de
     'n'-uplets, où le 'i'^e 'n'-uplet contient le 'i'^e élément de
     chacun des itérables passés en arguments.

     Une autre façon de voir *note zip(): 7bc. est qu'elle transforme
     les lignes en colonnes et les colonnes en lignes, fournissant la
     matrice transposée(7).

     *note zip(): 7bc. est paresseuse : les éléments ne sont traités
     qu'au moment où l'on itère, par exemple avec une boucle ‘for’ ou en
     les plaçant dans une *note liste: 5fe.

     Il faut savoir que les itérables passés à *note zip(): 7bc. peuvent
     avoir des longueurs différentes ; parfois par conception, parfois à
     cause d'un bogue dans le code qui a préparé ces itérables.  Python
     propose trois approches différentes pour traiter ce problème :

        * par défaut, *note zip(): 7bc. s'arrête lorsque l'itérable le
          plus court est épuisé.  Elle ignore les éléments restants dans
          les itérables plus longs, coupant le résultat à la longueur de
          l'itérable le plus court :

               >>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))
               [(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

        * *note zip(): 7bc. est souvent utilisée dans les cas où les
          itérables sont supposés être de même longueur.  Dans ce cas,
          il est recommandé d'utiliser l'option ‘strict=True’.  Cela
          produit la même chose que la *note zip(): 7bc. habituelle :

               >>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))
               [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

          Mais, contrairement au comportement par défaut, elle lève une
          *note ValueError: 1ff. si un itérable est épuisé avant les
          autres :

               >>> for item in zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True):
               ...     print(item)
               ...
               (0, 'fee')
               (1, 'fi')
               (2, 'fo')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

          Sans l'argument ‘strict=True’, tout bogue entraînant des
          itérables de longueurs différentes est réduit au silence, se
          manifestant éventuellement comme un bogue difficile à trouver
          dans une autre partie du programme.

        * les itérables plus courts peuvent être remplis avec une valeur
          constante pour que tous les itérables aient la même longueur.
          C'est le cas pour *note itertools.zip_longest(): 127d.

     Cas extrêmes : avec un seul argument itérable, *note zip(): 7bc.
     renvoie un itérateur de « 1-uplet ».  Sans argument, elle renvoie
     un itérateur vide.

     Trucs et astuces :

        * il est garanti que les itérables sont évalués de gauche à
          droite.  Cela rend possible de grouper une séquence de données
          en groupes de taille 'n' via ‘zip(*[iter(s)]*n, strict=True)’.
          Cela duplique le 'même' itérateur ‘n’ fois ; par conséquent le
          'n'-uplet obtenu contient le résultat de ‘n’ appels à
          l'itérateur.  Cela a pour effet de diviser la séquence en
          morceaux de taille 'n'.

        * *note zip(): 7bc. peut être utilisée conjointement avec
          l'opérateur ‘*’ pour dézipper une liste :

               >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
               >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
               >>> list(zip(x, y))
               [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
               >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
               >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
               True

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout de l'argument ‘strict’.

 -- Fonction: __import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(),
          level=0)

          Note: c'est une fonction avancée qui n'est pas fréquemment
          nécessaire, contrairement à *note importlib.import_module():
          504.

     Cette fonction est invoquée via l'instruction *note import: 5ce.
     Elle peut être remplacée (en important le module *note builtins:
     12. et en y remplaçant ‘builtins.__import__’) afin de changer la
     sémantique de l'instruction ‘import’, mais c'est extrêmement
     déconseillé, car il est plus simple d'utiliser des points d'entrée
     pour les importations ('import hooks', voir la PEP 302(8)) pour le
     même résultat sans perturber du code s'attendant à trouver
     l'implémentation par défaut.  L'usage direct de *note __import__():
     8c3. est aussi déconseillé en faveur de *note
     importlib.import_module(): 504.

     La fonction importe le module 'name', utilisant potentiellement
     'globals' et 'locals' pour déterminer comment interpréter le nom
     dans le contexte d'un paquet.  'fromlist' donne le nom des objets
     ou sous-modules qui devraient être importés du module 'name'.
     L'implémentation standard n'utilise pas l'argument 'locals' et
     n'utilise 'globals' que pour déterminer le contexte du paquet de
     l'instruction *note import: 5ce.

     'level' permet de choisir entre importation absolue ou relative.
     ‘0’ (par défaut) force à effectuer uniquement des importations
     absolues.  Une valeur positive indique le nombre de dossiers
     parents relativement au dossier du module appelant *note
     __import__(): 8c3. (voir la PEP 328(9)).

     Lorsque la variable 'name' est de la forme ‘package.module’,
     normalement, le paquet de plus haut niveau (le nom jusqu'au premier
     point) est renvoyé, et 'pas' le module nommé par 'name'.
     Cependant, lorsqu'un argument 'fromlist' est fourni, le module
     nommé par 'name' est renvoyé.

     Par exemple, l'instruction ‘import spam’ renvoie un code
     intermédiaire ('bytecode' en anglais) ressemblant au code suivant :

          spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     L'instruction ‘import spam.ham’ appelle :

          spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     Notez comment *note __import__(): 8c3. renvoie ici le module de
     plus haut niveau parce que c'est l'objet lié à un nom par
     l'instruction *note import: 5ce.

     En revanche, l'instruction ‘from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
     saus’ donne

          _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
          eggs = _temp.eggs
          saus = _temp.sausage

     Ici le module ‘spam.ham’ est renvoyé par *note __import__(): 8c3.
     De cet objet, les noms à importer sont récupérés et assignés à
     leurs noms respectifs.

     Si vous voulez simplement importer un module (potentiellement dans
     un paquet) par son nom, utilisez *note importlib.import_module():
     504.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: les valeurs négatives pour 'level' ne
     sont plus prises en charge (et sa valeur par défaut est 0).

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Quand les options *note -E: 94c. ou
     *note -I: 94d. sont précisées dans la ligne de commande, la
     variable d'environnement *note PYTHONCASEOK: 94b. est ignorée.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Notez que l'analyseur n'accepte que des fin de lignes de style
Unix.  Si vous lisez le code depuis un fichier, assurez-vous d'utiliser
la conversion de retours à la ligne pour convertir les fin de lignes
Windows et Mac.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) 
http://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/

   (7) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrice_transpos%C3%A9e

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes natives,  Next: Types natifs,  Prev: Fonctions natives<2>,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.3 Constantes natives
======================

Un petit nombre de constantes existent dans le 'namespace' natif.  Elles
sont :

 -- Données: False

     La valeur fausse du type *note bool: 453.  Les assignations à
     ‘False’ ne sont pas autorisées et lèvent une *note SyntaxError:
     18b.

 -- Données: True

     La valeur vraie du type *note bool: 453.  Les assignations à ‘True’
     ne sont pas autorisées et lèvent une *note SyntaxError: 18b.

 -- Données: None

     An object frequently used to represent the absence of a value, as
     when default arguments are not passed to a function.  Assignments
     to ‘None’ are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 18b.  ‘None’
     is the sole instance of the *note NoneType: 83e. type.

 -- Données: NotImplemented

     A special value which should be returned by the binary special
     methods (e.g.  *note __eq__(): aea, *note __lt__(): 127f, *note
     __add__(): 1f45, *note __rsub__(): 1f58, etc.)  to indicate that
     the operation is not implemented with respect to the other type;
     may be returned by the in-place binary special methods (e.g.  *note
     __imul__(): 1f4a, *note __iand__(): 1f6a, etc.)  for the same
     purpose.  It should not be evaluated in a boolean context.
     ‘NotImplemented’ is the sole instance of the *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 83f. type.

          Note: When a binary (or in-place) method returns
          ‘NotImplemented’ the interpreter will try the reflected
          operation on the other type (or some other fallback, depending
          on the operator).  If all attempts return ‘NotImplemented’,
          the interpreter will raise an appropriate exception.
          Incorrectly returning ‘NotImplemented’ will result in a
          misleading error message or the ‘NotImplemented’ value being
          returned to Python code.

          Voir *note Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques: 1ea5.
          pour des exemples.

          Prudence: ‘NotImplemented’ and ‘NotImplementedError’ are not
          interchangeable.  This constant should only be used as
          described above; see *note NotImplementedError: 225. for
          details on correct usage of the exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Evaluating ‘NotImplemented’ in a
     boolean context is deprecated.  While it currently evaluates as
     true, it will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  It will raise
     a *note TypeError: 525. in a future version of Python.

 -- Données: Ellipsis

     Identique au littéral 'points de suspension' ("‘...’").  Valeur
     spéciale utilisée principalement de manière conjointe avec la
     syntaxe de découpage ('slicing') étendu pour les conteneurs
     personnalisés.  ‘Ellipsis’ est la seule instance de *note
     types.EllipsisType: 83d.

 -- Données: __debug__

     Cette constante est vraie si Python n'a pas été démarré avec une
     option *note -O: da4.  Voir aussi l'expression *note assert: 957.

     Note: Les noms *note None: 662, *note False: b27, *note True: bfd.
     et *note __debug__: 7c6. ne peuvent pas être réassignés (des
     assignations à ces noms, ou aux noms de leurs attributs, lèvent une
     *note SyntaxError: 18b.), donc ils peuvent être considérés comme
     des "vraies" constantes.

* Menu:

* Constantes ajoutées par le module site::


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes ajoutées par le module site,  Up: Constantes natives

5.3.1 Constantes ajoutées par le module ‘site’
----------------------------------------------

Le module *note site: c6. (qui est importé automatiquement au démarrage,
sauf si l'option de ligne de commande *note -S: 1188. est donnée ajoute
un certain nombre de constantes au 'namespace' natif.  Elles sont utiles
pour l'interpréteur interactif et ne devraient pas être utilisées par
des programmes.

 -- Données: quit (code=None)
 -- Données: exit (code=None)

     Objets qui, lorsqu'ils sont représentés, affichent un message comme
     '"Use quit() or Ctrl-D (i.e.  EOF) to exit"', et lorsqu'ils sont
     appelés, lèvent un *note SystemExit: d30. avec le code de retour
     spécifié.

 -- Données: help

     Object that when printed, prints the message "Type help() for
     interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.", and when
     called, acts as described *note elsewhere: 8c6.

 -- Données: copyright
 -- Données: credits

     Objets qui, lorsqu'ils sont affichés ou appelés, affichent le
     copyright ou les crédits, respectivement.

 -- Données: license

     Objet qui, lorsqu'il est affiché, affiche un message comme '"Type
     license() to see the full license text"', et lorsqu'il est appelé,
     affiche le texte complet de la licence dans un style paginé (un
     écran à la fois).


File: python.info,  Node: Types natifs,  Next: Exceptions natives,  Prev: Constantes natives,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.4 Types natifs
================

Les sections suivantes décrivent les types standards intégrés à
l'interpréteur.

Les principaux types natifs sont les numériques, les séquences, les
dictionnaires, les classes, les instances et les exceptions.

Certaines classes de collection sont mutables.  Les méthodes qui
ajoutent, retirent, ou réorganisent leurs éléments sur place, et qui ne
renvoient pas un élément spécifique, ne renvoient jamais l'instance de
la collection elle-même, mais ‘None’.

Certaines opérations sont prises en charge par plusieurs types
d'objets ; en particulier, pratiquement tous les objets peuvent être
comparés en égalité, testés en véridicité (valeur booléenne) et
convertis en une chaîne de caractères (avec la fonction *note repr():
7e9. ou la fonction légèrement différente *note str(): 437.).  Cette
dernière est implicitement utilisée quand un objet est affiché par la
fonction *note print(): f62.

* Menu:

* Valeurs booléennes::
* Opérations booléennes — and, or, not: Opérations booléennes — and or not.
* Comparaisons: Comparaisons<2>.
* Types numériques — int, float, complex: Types numériques — int float complex.
* Boolean Type - bool::
* Les types itérateurs::
* Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range: Types séquentiels — list tuple range.
* Type Séquence de Texte — str::
* Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire.
* Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset: Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
* Les types de correspondances — dict::
* Le type gestionnaire de contexte::
* Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union.
* Autres types natifs::
* Attributs spéciaux::
* Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier::


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs booléennes,  Next: Opérations booléennes — and or not,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.1 Valeurs booléennes
------------------------

Tout objet peut être comparé à une valeur booléenne, typiquement dans
une condition *note if: 2e8. ou *note while: 1bc2. ou comme opérande des
opérations booléennes ci-dessous.

Par défaut, tout objet est considéré vrai à moins que sa classe
définisse soit une méthode *note __bool__(): 12b5. renvoyant ‘False’
soit une méthode *note __len__(): 1f1c. renvoyant zéro lorsqu'elle est
appelée avec l'objet.  (1)  Voici la majorité des objets natifs
considérés comme étant faux :

   * les constantes définies comme étant fausses : ‘None’ et ‘False’ ;

   * zéro de tout type numérique : ‘0’, ‘0.0’, ‘0j’, ‘Decimal(0)’,
     ‘Fraction(0, 1)’

   * les chaînes et collections vides : ‘''’, ‘()’, ‘[]’, ‘{}’, ‘set()’,
     ‘range(0)’

Les opérations et fonctions natives dont le résultat est booléen
renvoient toujours ‘0’ ou ‘False’ pour faux et ‘1’ ou ‘True’ pour vrai,
sauf indication contraire (exception importante : les opérations
booléennes ‘or’ et ‘and’ renvoient toujours l'une de leurs opérandes).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Plus d'informations sur ces méthodes spéciales peuvent être
trouvées dans le 'Python Reference Manual' (*note Personnalisation de
base: 1f19.).


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations booléennes — and or not,  Next: Comparaisons<2>,  Prev: Valeurs booléennes,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.2 Opérations booléennes — ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’
------------------------------------------------

Ce sont les opérations booléennes, classées par priorité ascendante :

Opération         Résultat                              Notes
                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘x or y’          si 'x' est vrai, alors 'x', sinon     (1)
                  'y'                                   
                  
                                                        
‘x and y’         si 'x' est faux, alors 'x', sinon     (2)
                  'y'                                   
                  
                                                        
‘not x’           si 'x' est faux, alors ‘True’,        (3)
                  sinon ‘False’                         
                  

Notes :

  1. C'est un opérateur court-circuit : il n'évalue le deuxième argument
     que si le premier est faux.

  2. C'est un opérateur court-circuit : il n'évalue le deuxième argument
     que si le premier est vrai.

  3. ‘not’ a une priorité inférieure à celle des opérateurs
     non-booléens, donc ‘not a == b’ est interprété comme ‘not (a == b)’
     et ‘a == not b’ est une erreur de syntaxe.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaisons<2>,  Next: Types numériques — int float complex,  Prev: Opérations booléennes — and or not,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.3 Comparaisons
------------------

Il y a huit opérations de comparaison en Python.  Elles ont toutes la
même priorité (qui est supérieure à celle des opérations booléennes).
Les comparaisons peuvent être enchaînées arbitrairement ; par exemple,
‘x < y <= z’ est équivalent à ‘x < y and y <= z’, sauf que 'y' n'est
évalué qu'une seule fois (mais dans les deux cas 'z' n'est pas évalué du
tout quand ‘x < y’ est faux).

Ce tableau résume les opérations de comparaison :

Opération        Signification
                 
-----------------------------------------------
                 
‘<’              strictement inférieur
                 
                 
‘<=’             inférieur ou égal
                 
                 
‘>’              strictement supérieur
                 
                 
‘>=’             supérieur ou égal
                 
                 
‘==’             égal
                 
                 
‘!=’             différent
                 
                 
‘is’             identité d'objet
                 
                 
‘is not’         contraire de l'identité
                 d'objet
                 

Vous ne pouvez pas tester l'égalité d'objets de types différents, à
l'exception des types numériques entre eux.  L'opérateur ‘==’ est
toujours défini mais pour certains types d'objets (par exemple, les
objets de type classe), il est équivalent à *note is: 2ea.  Les
opérateurs ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ et ‘>=’ sont définis seulement quand ils ont
un sens.  Par exemple, ils lèvent une exception *note TypeError: 525.
lorsque l'un des arguments est un nombre complexe.

Des instances différentes d'une classe sont normalement considérées
différentes à moins que la classe ne définisse la méthode *note
__eq__(): aea.

Les instances d'une classe ne peuvent pas être ordonnées par rapport à
d'autres instances de la même classe, ou d'autres types d'objets, à
moins que la classe ne définisse suffisamment de méthodes parmi *note
__lt__(): 127f, *note __le__(): 12eb, *note __gt__(): 12ec. et *note
__ge__(): 12ed. (en général, ‘__lt__()’ et ‘__eq__()’ sont suffisantes,
si vous voulez les significations classiques des opérateurs de
comparaison).

Le comportement des opérateurs *note is: 2ea. et *note is not: 2036. ne
peut pas être personnalisé ; aussi ils peuvent être appliqués à deux
objets quelconques et ne lèvent jamais d'exception.

Deux autres opérations avec la même priorité syntaxique, *note in: 2e9.
et *note not in: 61c, sont pris en charge par les types *note iterable:
1207. ou qui implémentent la méthode *note __contains__(): 1f17.


File: python.info,  Node: Types numériques — int float complex,  Next: Boolean Type - bool,  Prev: Comparaisons<2>,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.4 Types numériques — ‘int’, ‘float’, ‘complex’
--------------------------------------------------

Il existe trois types numériques distincts : les entiers ('integers'),
les nombres flottants ('floating point numbers') et les nombres
complexes ('complex numbers').  En outre, les booléens sont un sous-type
des entiers.  Les entiers ont une précision illimitée.  Les nombres à
virgule flottante sont généralement implémentés en utilisant des double
en C ; des informations sur la précision et la représentation interne
des nombres à virgule flottante pour la machine sur laquelle le
programme est en cours d'exécution sont disponibles dans *note
sys.float_info: 19a9.  Les nombres complexes ont une partie réelle et
une partie imaginaire, qui sont chacune des nombres à virgule flottante.
Pour extraire ces parties d'un nombre complexe 'z', utilisez ‘z.real’ et
‘z.imag’.  (La bibliothèque standard comprend les types numériques
additionnels *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. pour les rationnels et *note
decimal.Decimal: 29a. pour les nombres à virgule flottante avec une
précision définissable par l'utilisateur.)

Les nombres sont créés par des littéraux numériques ou sont le résultat
de fonctions natives ou d'opérateurs.  Les entiers littéraux basiques (y
compris leur forme hexadécimale, octale et binaire) donnent des entiers.
Les nombres littéraux contenant un point décimal (NdT : notation
anglo-saxonne de la virgule) ou un exposant donnent des nombres à
virgule flottante.  Suffixer ‘'j'’ ou ‘'J'’ à un nombre littéral donne
un nombre imaginaire (un nombre complexe avec une partie réelle nulle)
que vous pouvez ajouter à un nombre (entier ou à virgule flottante) pour
obtenir un nombre complexe avec une partie réelle et une partie
imaginaire.

Python gère pleinement l'arithmétique de types numériques mixtes :
lorsqu'un opérateur arithmétique binaire possède des opérandes de types
numériques différents, l'opérande de type le plus « étroit » est élargi
à celui de l'autre.  Dans ce système, l'entier est plus « étroit » que
la virgule flottante, qui est plus « étroite » que le complexe.  Une
comparaison entre des nombres de types différents se comporte comme si
les valeurs exactes de ces nombres étaient comparées (1).

Les constructeurs *note int(): 254, *note float(): 2ec. et *note
complex(): 2ed. peuvent être utilisés pour produire des nombres d'un
type numérique spécifique.

Tous les types numériques (sauf complexe) gèrent les opérations
suivantes (pour les priorités des opérations, voir *note Priorités des
opérateurs: 204b.) :

Opération                 Résultat                              Notes         Documentation complète
                                                                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                              
‘x + y’                   somme de 'x' et 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x - y’                   différence de 'x' et 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x * y’                   produit de 'x' et 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x / y’                   quotient de 'x' et 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x // y’                  quotient entier de 'x' et 'y'         (1)(2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘x % y’                   reste de ‘x / y’                      (2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘-x’                      négatif de 'x'
                          
                                                                              
‘+x’                      'x' inchangé
                          
                                                                              
‘abs(x)’                  valeur absolue de 'x'                               *note abs(): 1c62.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘int(x)’                  'x' converti en nombre entier         (3)(6)        *note int(): 254.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘float(x)’                'x' converti en nombre à virgule      (4)(6)        *note float(): 2ec.
                          flottante                                           
                          
                                                                              
‘complex(re, im)’         un nombre complexe avec 're' pour     (6)           *note complex(): 2ed.
                          partie réelle et 'im' pour partie                   
                          imaginaire.  'im' vaut zéro par
                          défaut.
                          
                                                                              
‘c.conjugate()’           conjugué du nombre complexe 'c'
                          
                                                                              
‘divmod(x, y)’            la paire ‘(x // y, x % y)’            (2)           *note divmod(): 991.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘pow(x, y)’               'x' à la puissance 'y'                (5)           *note pow(): 9c2.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘x ** y’                  'x' à la puissance 'y'                (5)
                                                                

Notes :

  1. Également appelé division entière.  Pour les opérandes de type
     *note int: 254, la valeur résultante est de type *note int: 254.
     Pour les opérandes de type *note float: 2ec,la valeur résultante
     est de type *note float: 2ec.  En général, la valeur résultante est
     strictement entière, bien que le type du résultat ne soit pas
     nécessairement 'int'.  Le résultat est toujours arrondi vers moins
     l'infini : ‘1//2’ vaut ‘0’, ‘(-1)//2’ vaut ‘-1’, ‘1//(-2)’ vaut
     ‘-1’, et ‘(-1)//(-2)’ vaut ‘0’.

  2. Pas pour les nombres complexes.  Convertissez-les plutôt en nombres
     flottants à l'aide de *note abs(): 1c62. si c'est approprié.

  3. 
     La conversion de *note float: 2ec. en *note int: 254. tronque la
     partie fractionnaire.  Voir les fonctions *note math.floor(): 137a.
     et *note math.ceil(): 137b. pour d'autres conversions.

  4. 'float' accepte aussi les chaînes 'nan' et 'inf' avec un préfixe
     optionnel ‘+’ ou ‘-’ pour 'Not a Number' ('NaN') et les infinis
     positif ou négatif.

  5. Python définit ‘pow(0, 0)’ et ‘0 ** 0’ valant ‘1’, puisque c'est
     courant pour les langages de programmation, et logique.

  6. Les littéraux numériques acceptés comprennent les chiffres ‘0’ à
     ‘9’ ou tout équivalent Unicode (caractères avec la propriété ‘Nd’).

     See the Unicode Standard(2) for a complete list of code points with
     the ‘Nd’ property.

Tous types *note numbers.Real: 2153. (*note int: 254. et *note float:
2ec.) comprennent également les opérations suivantes :

Opération                Résultat
                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
*note math.trunc(x): 137c.'x' tronqué à l'*note Integral: 1f75.
                         
                         
*note round(x[, n]): 12ba.'x' arrondi à 'n' chiffres, arrondissant la
                         moitié au pair.  Si 'n' est omis, la valeur par
                         défaut est 0.
                         
                         
*note math.floor(x): 137a.le plus grand *note Integral: 1f75. ≤ 'x'
                         
                         
*note math.ceil(x): 137b.le plus petit *note Integral: 1f75. ≥ 'x'
                         

Pour d'autres opérations numériques voir les modules *note math: 8d. et
*note cmath: 18.

* Menu:

* Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers::
* Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers::
* Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante::
* Hachage des types numériques::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Par conséquent, la liste ‘[1, 2]’ est considérée égale à ‘[1.0,
2.0]’.  Idem avec des 'n'-uplets.

   (2) 
https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers,  Next: Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers,  Up: Types numériques — int float complex

5.4.4.1 Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers
...................................................

Les opérations bit à bit n'ont de sens que pour les entiers relatifs.
Le résultat d'une opération bit à bit est calculé comme si elle était
effectuée en complément à deux avec un nombre infini de bits de signe.

Les priorités de toutes les opérations bit à bit à deux opérandes sont
inférieures à celles des opérations numériques et plus élevées que les
comparaisons ; l'opération unaire ‘~’ a la même priorité que les autres
opérations numériques unaires (‘+’ et ‘-’).

Ce tableau répertorie les opérations binaires triées par priorité
ascendante :

Opération        Résultat                             Notes
                                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘x | y’          'OU' bit à bit de 'x' et 'y'         (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x ^ y’          'OU exclusif' bit à bit de 'x' et    (4)
                 'y'                                  
                 
                                                      
‘x & y’          'ET' bit à bit de 'x' et 'y'         (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x << n’         'x' décalé vers la gauche de 'n'     (1)(2)
                 bits                                 
                 
                                                      
‘x >> n’         'x' décalé vers la droite de 'n'     (1)(3)
                 bits                                 
                 
                                                      
‘~x’             les bits de 'x', inversés
                 

Notes :

  1. Des valeurs de décalage négatives sont illégales et provoquent une
     exception *note ValueError: 1ff.

  2. Un décalage à gauche de 'n' bits est équivalent à la multiplication
     par ‘pow(2, n)’.

  3. Un décalage à droite de 'n' les bits est équivalent à la division
     par ‘pow(2, n)’.

  4. Effectuer ces calculs avec au moins un bit d'extension de signe
     supplémentaire dans une représentation finie du complément à deux
     éléments (une largeur de bit fonctionnelle de ‘1 +
     max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length()’ ou plus) est suffisante pour
     obtenir le même résultat que s'il y avait un nombre infini de bits
     de signe.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers,  Next: Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante,  Prev: Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers,  Up: Types numériques — int float complex

5.4.4.2 Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers
................................................

Le type 'int' implémente la *note classe mère abstraite: 1195. *note
numbers.Integral: 1f75.  Il fournit aussi quelques autres méthodes :

 -- Méthode: int.bit_length ()

     Renvoie le nombre de bits nécessaires pour représenter un nombre
     entier en binaire, à l'exclusion du signe et des zéros non
     significatifs :

          >>> n = -37
          >>> bin(n)
          '-0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6

     Plus précisément, si ‘x’ est différent de zéro, ‘x.bit_length()’
     est le nombre entier positif unique, ‘k’ tel que ‘2**(k-1) <=
     abs(x) < 2**k’.  Équivalemment, quand ‘abs(x)’ est assez petit pour
     avoir un logarithme correctement arrondi, ‘k = 1 + int(log(abs(x),
     2))’.  Si ‘x’ est nul, alors ‘x.bit_length()’ donne ‘0’.

     Équivalent à :

          def bit_length(self):
              s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
              s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
              return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Méthode: int.bit_count ()

     Renvoie le nombre de 1 dans la représentation binaire de la valeur
     absolue de l'entier.  On la connait également sous le nom de
     dénombrement de la population.  Par exemple :

          >>> n = 19
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b10011'
          >>> n.bit_count()
          3
          >>> (-n).bit_count()
          3

     Équivalent à :

          def bit_count(self):
              return bin(self).count("1")

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Méthode: int.to_bytes (length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

     Renvoie un tableau d'octets représentant un nombre entier.

          >>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
          b'\x04\x00'
          >>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
          b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
          >>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
          b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
          >>> x = 1000
          >>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
          b'\xe8\x03'

     L'entier est représenté en utilisant 'length' octets, dont la
     valeur par défaut est 1.  Une exception *note OverflowError: 86f.
     est levée s'il n'est pas possible de représenter l'entier avec le
     nombre donné d'octets.

     L'argument 'byteorder' détermine l'ordre des octets utilisé pour
     représenter le nombre entier, la valeur par défaut étant ‘"big"’.
     Si 'byteorder' est ‘"big"’, l'octet le plus significatif est au
     début du tableau d'octets.  Si 'byteorder' est ‘"little"’, l'octet
     le plus significatif est à la fin du tableau d'octets.

     L'argument 'signed' détermine si le complément à deux est utilisé
     pour représenter le nombre entier.  Si 'signed' est ‘False’ et
     qu'un entier négatif est donné, une exception *note OverflowError:
     86f. est levée.  La valeur par défaut pour 'signed' est ‘False’.

     Les valeurs par défaut peuvent être utilisées pour transformer
     facilement un entier en un objet à un seul octet :

          >>> (65).to_bytes()
          b'A'

     Cependant, lorsque vous utilisez les arguments par défaut,
     n'essayez pas de convertir une valeur supérieure à 255 ou vous
     lèverez une *note OverflowError: 86f. :

     Équivalent à :

          def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  order = range(length)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  order = reversed(range(length))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              return bytes((n >> i*8) & 0xff for i in order)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout de valeurs par défaut pour les
     arguments ‘length’ et ‘byteorder’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod int.from_bytes (bytes, byteorder='big', *,
          signed=False)

     Renvoie le nombre entier représenté par le tableau d'octets fourni.

          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
          16
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
          4096
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
          -1024
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
          64512
          >>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
          16711680

     L'argument 'bytes' doit être soit un *note objet octet-compatible:
     d1d, soit un itérable produisant des 'bytes'.

     L'argument 'byteorder' détermine l'ordre des octets utilisé pour
     représenter le nombre entier, la valeur par défaut étant ‘"big"’.
     Si 'byteorder' est ‘"big"’, l'octet le plus significatif est au
     début du tableau d'octets.  Si 'byteorder' est ‘"little"’, l'octet
     le plus significatif est à la fin du tableau d'octets.  Pour
     demander l'ordre natif des octets du système hôte, donnez *note
     sys.byteorder: 2158. comme 'byteorder'.

     L'argument 'signed' indique si le complément à deux est utilisé
     pour représenter le nombre entier.

     Équivalent à :

          def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  little_ordered = list(bytes)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              n = sum(b << i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
              if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] & 0x80):
                  n -= 1 << 8*len(little_ordered)

              return n

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout de la valeur par défaut pour
     l'argument ‘byteorder’.

 -- Méthode: int.as_integer_ratio ()

     Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original
     integer and has a positive denominator.  The integer ratio of
     integers (whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and
     ‘1’ as the denominator.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Méthode: int.is_integer ()

     Returns ‘True’.  Exists for duck type compatibility with *note
     float.is_integer(): 2159.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante,  Next: Hachage des types numériques,  Prev: Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers,  Up: Types numériques — int float complex

5.4.4.3 Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante
....................................................................

Le type 'float' implémente la *note classe mère abstraite: 1195. *note
numbers.Real: 2153. et a également les méthodes suivantes.

 -- Méthode: float.as_integer_ratio ()

     Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the
     original float.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive
     denominator.  Raises *note OverflowError: 86f. on infinities and a
     *note ValueError: 1ff. on NaNs.

 -- Méthode: float.is_integer ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'instance de 'float' est finie avec une valeur
     entière, et ‘False’ autrement :

          >>> (-2.0).is_integer()
          True
          >>> (3.2).is_integer()
          False

Deux méthodes prennent en charge la conversion vers et à partir de
chaînes hexadécimales.  Étant donné que les 'float' de Python sont
stockés en interne sous forme de nombres binaires, la conversion d'un
'float' depuis ou vers une chaine décimale implique généralement une
petite erreur d'arrondi.  En revanche, les chaînes hexadécimales
permettent de représenter exactement les nombres à virgule flottante.
Cela peut être utile lors du débogage, et dans un travail numérique.

 -- Méthode: float.hex ()

     Renvoie une représentation d'un nombre à virgule flottante sous
     forme de chaîne hexadécimale.  Pour les nombres à virgule flottante
     finis, cette représentation comprendra toujours un préfixe ‘0x’, un
     suffixe ‘p’ et un exposant.

 -- Méthode: classmethod float.fromhex (s)

     Méthode de classe pour obtenir le 'float' représenté par une chaîne
     de caractères hexadécimale 's'.  La chaîne 's' peut contenir des
     espaces avant et après le nombre.

Notez que *note float.hex(): 1cd0. est une méthode d'instance, alors que
*note float.fromhex(): 215b. est une méthode de classe.

Une chaîne hexadécimale prend la forme :

     [sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]

où ‘sign’ peut être soit ‘+’ soit ‘-’, ‘integer’ et ‘fraction’ sont des
chaînes de chiffres hexadécimaux, et ‘exponent’ est un entier décimal
facultativement signé.  La casse n'est pas significative, et il doit y
avoir au moins un chiffre hexadécimal soit dans le nombre entier soit
dans la fraction.  Cette syntaxe est similaire à la syntaxe spécifiée
dans la section 6.4.4.2 de la norme C99, et est aussi la syntaxe
utilisée à partir de Java 1.5.  En particulier, la sortie de *note
float.hex(): 1cd0. est utilisable comme valeur hexadécimale à virgule
flottante littérale en C ou Java, et des chaînes hexadécimales produites
en C via un format ‘%a’ ou Java via ‘Double.toHexString’ sont acceptées
par *note float.fromhex(): 215b.

Notez que l'exposant est écrit en décimal plutôt qu'en hexadécimal, et
qu'il donne la puissance de 2 par lequel multiplier le coefficient.  Par
exemple, la chaîne hexadécimale ‘0x3.a7p10’ représente le nombre à
virgule flottante ‘(3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) *2.0**10’, ou ‘3740.0’ :

     >>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
     3740.0

L'application de la conversion inverse à ‘3740.0’ donne une chaîne
hexadécimale différente représentant le même nombre :

     >>> float.hex(3740.0)
     '0x1.d380000000000p+11'


File: python.info,  Node: Hachage des types numériques,  Prev: Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante,  Up: Types numériques — int float complex

5.4.4.4 Hachage des types numériques
....................................

For numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’, possibly of different types, it's a requirement
that ‘hash(x) == hash(y)’ whenever ‘x == y’ (see the *note __hash__():
aeb. method documentation for more details).  For ease of implementation
and efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including *note int:
254, *note float: 2ec, *note decimal.Decimal: 29a. and *note
fractions.Fraction: 1e4.) Python's hash for numeric types is based on a
single mathematical function that's defined for any rational number, and
hence applies to all instances of *note int: 254. and *note
fractions.Fraction: 1e4, and all finite instances of *note float: 2ec.
and *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.  Essentially, this function is given by
reduction modulo ‘P’ for a fixed prime ‘P’.  The value of ‘P’ is made
available to Python as the *note modulus: 215e. attribute of *note
sys.hash_info: fea.

actuellement, le premier utilisé est ‘P = 2 ** 31 - 1’ sur des machines
dont les 'longs' en C sont de 32 bits ‘P = 2 ** 61 - 1’ sur des machines
dont les 'longs' en C font 64 bits.

Voici les règles en détail :

   - Si ‘x = m / n’ est un nombre rationnel non négatif et ‘n’ n'est pas
     divisible par ‘P’, définir ‘hash(x)’ comme ‘m * invmod(n, P) % P’,
     où ‘invmod(n, P)’ donne l'inverse de ‘n’ modulo ‘P’.

   - Si ‘x = m / n’ est un nombre rationnel non négatif et ‘n’ est
     divisible par ‘P’ (mais ‘m’ ne l'est pas), alors ‘n’ n'a pas de
     modulo inverse ‘P’ et la règle ci-dessus n'est pas applicable ;
     dans ce cas définir ‘hash(x)’ comme étant la valeur de la constante
     ‘sys.hash_info.inf’.

   - Si ‘x = m / n’ est un nombre rationnel négatif définir ‘hash(x)’
     comme ‘-hash(-x)’.  Si le résultat est ‘-1’, le remplacer par ‘-2’.

   - Les valeurs particulières ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ et
     ‘-sys.hash_info.inf’ sont utilisées comme valeurs de hachage pour
     l'infini positif et l'infini négatif (respectivement).

   - Pour un nombre *note complexe: 2ed. ‘z’, les valeurs de hachage des
     parties réelles et imaginaires sont combinées en calculant
     ‘hash(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)’, réduit au
     modulo ‘2**sys.hash_info.width’ de sorte qu'il se trouve dans
     ‘range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
     1))’.  Encore une fois, si le résultat est ‘-1’, il est remplacé
     par ‘-2’.

Afin de clarifier les règles ci-dessus, voici quelques exemples de code
Python, équivalent à la fonction de hachage native, pour calculer le
hachage d'un nombre rationnel, d'un *note float: 2ec, ou d'un *note
complex: 2ed. :

     import sys, math

     def hash_fraction(m, n):
         """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

         Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
         Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

         """
         P = sys.hash_info.modulus
         # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
         while m % P == n % P == 0:
             m, n = m // P, n // P

         if n % P == 0:
             hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
             # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
             hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
         if m < 0:
             hash_value = -hash_value
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value

     def hash_float(x):
         """Compute the hash of a float x."""

         if math.isnan(x):
             return object.__hash__(x)
         elif math.isinf(x):
             return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

     def hash_complex(z):
         """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""

         hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
         # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
         M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
         hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean Type - bool,  Next: Les types itérateurs,  Prev: Types numériques — int float complex,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.5 Boolean Type - ‘bool’
---------------------------

Booleans represent truth values.  The *note bool: 453. type has exactly
two constant instances: ‘True’ and ‘False’.

The built-in function *note bool(): 453. converts any value to a
boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section
*note Valeurs booléennes: 2119. above).

For logical operations, use the *note boolean operators: 214e. ‘and’,
‘or’ and ‘not’.  When applying the bitwise operators ‘&’, ‘|’, ‘^’ to
two booleans, they return a bool equivalent to the logical operations
"and", "or", "xor".  However, the logical operators ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘!=’
should be preferred over ‘&’, ‘|’ and ‘^’.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: The use of the bitwise inversion
operator ‘~’ is deprecated and will raise an error in Python 3.16.

*note bool: 453. is a subclass of *note int: 254. (see *note Types
numériques — int, float, complex: 1bb6.).  In many numeric contexts,
‘False’ and ‘True’ behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.
However, relying on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using *note
int(): 254. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Les types itérateurs,  Next: Types séquentiels — list tuple range,  Prev: Boolean Type - bool,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.6 Les types itérateurs
--------------------------

Python gère un concept d'itération sur les conteneurs.  Il l'implémente
en utilisant deux méthodes distinctes qui permettent aux classes
définies par l'utilisateur de devenir itérables.  Les séquences,
décrites plus bas en détail, savent toujours gérer les méthodes
d'itération.

Une méthode doit être définie afin que les objets conteneurs prennent en
charge *note l’itération: 1207. :

 -- Méthode: container.__iter__ ()

     Renvoie un objet *note itérateur: 1aa.  L'objet doit implémenter le
     protocole d'itération décrit ci-dessous.  Si un conteneur prend en
     charge différents types d'itération, d'autres méthodes peuvent être
     fournies pour obtenir spécifiquement les itérateurs pour ces types
     d'itération.  (Exemple d'un objet gérant plusieurs formes
     d'itération : une structure d'arbre pouvant être parcourue en
     largeur ou en profondeur.)  Cette méthode correspond à l'attribut
     *note tp_iter: 14a6. de la structure du type des objets Python dans
     l'API Python/C.

Les itérateurs eux-mêmes doivent implémenter les deux méthodes
suivantes, qui forment ensemble le 'protocole d'itération' :

 -- Méthode: iterator.__iter__ ()

     Renvoie *note l’objet itérateur: 1aa. lui-même.  C'est nécessaire
     pour permettre à la fois à des conteneurs et des itérateurs d'être
     utilisés avec les instructions *note for: 2e7. et *note in: 2e9.
     Cette méthode correspond à l'attribut *note tp_iter: 14a6. de la
     structure des types des objets Python dans l'API Python/C.

 -- Méthode: iterator.__next__ ()

     Renvoie l'élément suivant de l’*note itérateur: 1aa.  S'il n'y a
     pas d'autres éléments, une exception *note StopIteration: bea. est
     levée.  Cette méthode correspond à l'attribut *note tp_iternext:
     14a7. de la structure du type des objets Python dans l'API
     Python/C.

Python définit plusieurs objets itérateurs pour itérer sur les types
standards ou spécifiques de séquence, de dictionnaires et d'autres
formes plus spécialisées.  Les types spécifiques ne sont pas importants
au-delà de leur implémentation du protocole d'itération.

Dès que la méthode *note __next__(): 12ad. lève une exception *note
StopIteration: bea, elle doit continuer à le faire lors des appels
ultérieurs.  Les implémentations qui ne respectent pas cette propriété
sont considérées cassées.

* Menu:

* Types générateurs::


File: python.info,  Node: Types générateurs,  Up: Les types itérateurs

5.4.6.1 Types générateurs
.........................

Python's *note generator: 104c.s provide a convenient way to implement
the iterator protocol.  If a container object's *note __iter__(): 1f15.
method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an
iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the *note
__iter__(): 1c81. and *note __next__(): 1c82. methods.  More information
about generators can be found in *note the documentation for the yield
expression: 1ff3.


File: python.info,  Node: Types séquentiels — list tuple range,  Next: Type Séquence de Texte — str,  Prev: Les types itérateurs,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.7 Types séquentiels — ‘list’, ‘tuple’, ‘range’
--------------------------------------------------

Il existe trois types séquentiels élémentaires : les listes (objets
'list'), 'n'-uplets (objets 'tuple') et les intervalles (objets
'range').  D'autres types séquentiels spécifiques au traitement de *note
données binaires: 211d. et *note chaînes de caractères: 1bba. sont
décrits dans des sections dédiées.

* Menu:

* Opérations communes sur les séquences::
* Types de séquences immuables::
* Types de séquences mutables::
* Listes: Listes<2>.
* N-uplets::
* Ranges::


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations communes sur les séquences,  Next: Types de séquences immuables,  Up: Types séquentiels — list tuple range

5.4.7.1 Opérations communes sur les séquences
.............................................

Les opérations dans le tableau ci-dessous sont prises en charge par la
plupart des types séquentiels, variables et immuables.  La classe mère
abstraite *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3. est fournie pour aider à
implémenter correctement ces opérations sur les types séquentiels
personnalisés.

Ce tableau répertorie les opérations sur les séquences triées par
priorité ascendante.  Dans le tableau, 's' et 't' sont des séquences du
même type, 'n', 'i', 'j' et 'k' sont des nombres entiers et 'x' est un
objet arbitraire qui répond à toutes les restrictions de type et de
valeur imposée par 's'.

Les opérations ‘in’ et ‘not in’ ont les mêmes priorités que les
opérations de comparaison.  Les opérations ‘+’ (concaténation) et ‘*’
(répétition) ont la même priorité que les opérations numériques
correspondantes (1).

Opération                      Résultat                             Notes
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘x in s’                       ‘True’ si un élément de 's' est      (1)
                               égal à 'x', sinon ‘False’            
                               
                                                                    
‘x not in s’                   ‘False’ si un élément de 's' est     (1)
                               égal à 'x', sinon ‘True’             
                               
                                                                    
‘s + t’                        la concaténation de 's' et 't'       (6)(7)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s * n’ ou ‘n * s’             équivalent à ajouter 's' 'n' fois    (2)(7)
                               à lui-même                           
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i]’                         'i'^e élément de 's' en commençant   (3)
                               par 0                                
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i:j]’                       tranche ('slice') de 's' de 'i' à    (3)(4)
                               'j'                                  
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i:j:k]’                     tranche ('slice') de 's' de 'i' à    (3)(5)
                               'j' avec un pas de 'k'               
                               
                                                                    
‘len(s)’                       longueur de 's'
                               
                                                                    
‘min(s)’                       plus petit élément de 's'
                               
                                                                    
‘max(s)’                       plus grand élément de 's'
                               
                                                                    
‘s.index(x[, i[, j]])’         indice de la première occurrence     (8)
                               de 'x' dans 's' (à ou après          
                               l'indice 'i' et avant l'indice
                               'j')
                               
                                                                    
‘s.count(x)’                   nombre total d'occurrences de 'x'
                               dans 's'
                               

Les séquences du même type gèrent également la comparaison.  En
particulier, les 'n'-uplets et les listes sont comparés
lexicographiquement en comparant les éléments correspondants.  Cela
signifie que, pour que deux séquences soit égales, les éléments les
constituant doivent être égaux deux à deux et les deux séquences doivent
être du même type et de la même longueur.  (Pour plus de détails voir
*note Comparaisons: 202f. dans la référence du langage.)

Les itérateurs avant et arrière sur des séquences modifiables accèdent
aux valeurs à l'aide d'un indice.  Cet indice continue à avancer (ou à
reculer) même si la séquence sous-jacente est modifiée.  L'itérateur ne
se termine que lorsqu'une *note IndexError: 14ec. ou une *note
StopIteration: bea. est rencontrée (ou lorsque l'indice tombe en dessous
de zéro).

Notes :

  1. Bien que les opérations ‘in’ et ‘not in’ ne soient généralement
     utilisées que pour les tests d'appartenance simple, certaines
     séquences spécialisées (telles que *note str: 437, *note bytes:
     1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b.) les utilisent aussi pour tester
     l'existence de sous-séquences :

          >>> "gg" in "eggs"
          True

  2. Les valeurs de 'n' plus petites que ‘0’ sont traitées comme ‘0’ (ce
     qui donne une séquence vide du même type que 's').  Notez que les
     éléments de 's' ne sont pas copiés ; ils sont référencés plusieurs
     fois.  Cela hante souvent de nouveaux développeurs Python,
     typiquement :

          >>> lists = [[]] * 3
          >>> lists
          [[], [], []]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [3], [3]]

     Ce qui est arrivé est que ‘[[]]’ est une liste à un élément
     contenant une liste vide, de sorte que les trois éléments de ‘[[]]
     * 3’ sont des références à cette seule liste vide.  Modifier l'un
     des éléments de ‘lists’ modifie cette liste unique.  Vous pouvez
     créer une liste des différentes listes de cette façon :

          >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists[1].append(5)
          >>> lists[2].append(7)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [5], [7]]

     De plus amples explications sont disponibles dans la FAQ à la
     question *note Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?:
     2167.

  3. Si 'i' ou 'j' sont négatifs, l'indice est relatif à la fin de la
     séquence 's' : ‘len(s) + i’ ou ‘len(s) + j’ est substitué.  Mais
     notez que ‘-0’ est toujours ‘0’.

  4. La tranche de 's' de 'i' à 'j' est définie comme la séquence
     d'éléments d'indices 'k' tels que ‘i <= k < j’.  Si 'i' ou 'j' est
     supérieur à ‘len(s)’, ‘len(s)’ est utilisé.  Si 'i' est omis ou
     ‘None’, ‘0’ est utilisé.  Si 'j' est omis ou ‘None’, ‘len(s)’ est
     utilisé.  Si 'i' est supérieur ou égal à 'j', la tranche est vide.

  5. La tranche de 's' de 'i' à 'j' avec un pas de 'k' est définie comme
     la séquence d'éléments d'indices ‘x = i + n*k’ tels que ‘0 <= n <
     (j-i)/k’.  En d'autres termes, les indices sont ‘i’, ‘i+k’,
     ‘i+2*k’, ‘i+3*k’ et ainsi de suite, en arrêtant lorsque 'j' est
     atteint (mais jamais inclus).  Si 'k' est positif, 'i' et 'j' sont
     réduits, s'ils sont plus grands, à ‘len(s)’.  Si 'k' est négatif,
     'i' et 'j' sont réduits à ‘len(s) - 1’ s'ils sont plus grands.  Si
     'i' ou 'j' sont omis ou sont ‘None’, ils deviennent des valeurs
     « limites » (la limite haute ou basse dépend du signe de 'k').
     Notez que 'k' ne peut pas valoir zéro.  Si 'k' est ‘None’, il est
     traité comme ‘1’.

  6. Concaténer des séquences immuables donne toujours un nouvel objet.
     Cela signifie que la construction d'une séquence par concaténations
     répétées aura une durée d'exécution quadratique par rapport à la
     longueur de la séquence totale.  Pour obtenir un temps d'exécution
     linéaire, vous devez utiliser l'une des alternatives suivantes :

        * si vous concaténez des *note str: 437, vous pouvez construire
          une liste puis utiliser *note str.join(): 2168. à la fin, ou
          bien écrire dans une instance de *note io.StringIO: f14. et
          récupérer sa valeur lorsque vous avez terminé ;

        * si vous concaténez des *note bytes: 1bd, vous pouvez aussi
          utiliser *note bytes.join(): 2169. ou *note io.BytesIO: e8f,
          ou vous pouvez faire les concaténations sur place avec un
          objet *note bytearray: 52b.  Les objets *note bytearray: 52b.
          sont mutables et ont un mécanisme de sur-allocation efficace ;

        * si vous concaténez des *note n-uplets: 366, utilisez plutôt
          'extend' sur une *note list: 5fe. ;

        * pour les autres types, cherchez dans la documentation de la
          classe concernée.

  7. Certains types séquentiels (tels que *note range: 932.) ne gèrent
     que des séquences qui suivent des modèles spécifiques, et donc ne
     prennent pas en charge la concaténation ou la répétition.

  8. ‘index’ lève une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. quand 'x' ne se
     trouve pas dans 's'.  Toutes les implémentations ne gèrent pas les
     deux paramètres supplémentaires 'i' et 'j'.  Ces deux arguments
     permettent de chercher efficacement dans une sous-séquence de la
     séquence.  Donner ces arguments est plus ou moins équivalent à
     ‘s[i:j].index(x)’, sans copier les données ; l'indice renvoyé est
     relatif au début de la séquence et non au début de la tranche.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Nécessairement, puisque l'analyseur ne peut pas discerner le type
des opérandes.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de séquences immuables,  Next: Types de séquences mutables,  Prev: Opérations communes sur les séquences,  Up: Types séquentiels — list tuple range

5.4.7.2 Types de séquences immuables
....................................

La seule opération que les types de séquences immuables implémentent et
qui n'est pas implémentée par les types de séquences mutables est la
fonction native *note hash(): 5d7.

Cette implémentation permet d'utiliser des séquences immuables, comme
les instances de *note n-uplets: 366, en tant que clés de *note dict:
253. et stockées dans les instances de *note set: 5c5. et *note
frozenset: 5c6.

Essayer de hacher une séquence immuable qui contient des valeurs non
hachables lève une *note TypeError: 525.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de séquences mutables,  Next: Listes<2>,  Prev: Types de séquences immuables,  Up: Types séquentiels — list tuple range

5.4.7.3 Types de séquences mutables
...................................

Les opérations dans le tableau ci-dessous sont définies sur les types de
séquences mutables.  La classe mère abstraite *note
collections.abc.MutableSequence: 19f. est prévue pour faciliter
l'implémentation correcte de ces opérations sur les types de séquences
personnalisées.

Dans le tableau ci-dessosus, 's' est une instance d'un type de séquence
mutable, 't' est un objet itérable et 'x' est un objet arbitraire qui
répond à toutes les restrictions de type et de valeur imposées par 's'
(par exemple, *note bytearray: 52b. accepte uniquement des nombres
entiers qui répondent à la restriction de la valeur ‘0 <= x <= 255’).

Opération                          Résultat                             Notes
                                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                        
‘s[i] = x’                         l'élément 'i' de 's' est remplacé
                                   par 'x'
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j] = t’                       la tranche de 's' de 'i' à 'j' est
                                   remplacée par le contenu de
                                   l'itérable 't'
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j]’                       identique à ‘s[i:j] = []’
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j:k] = t’                     les éléments de ‘s[i:j:k]’ sont      (1)
                                   remplacés par ceux de 't'            
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j:k]’                     supprime les éléments de
                                   ‘s[i:j:k]’ de la liste
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.append(x)’                      ajoute 'x' à la fin de la séquence
                                   (identique à ‘s[len(s):len(s)] =
                                   [x]’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.clear()’                        supprime tous les éléments de 's'    (5)
                                   (identique à ‘del s[:]’)             
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.copy()’                         crée une copie superficielle de      (5)
                                   's' (identique à ‘s[:]’)             
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.extend(t)’ ou ‘s += t’          étend 's' avec le contenu de 't'
                                   (proche de ‘s[len(s):len(s)] = t’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s *= n’                           met à jour 's' avec son contenu      (6)
                                   répété 'n' fois                      
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.insert(i, x)’                   insère 'x' dans 's' à l'indice
                                   donné par 'i' (identique à ‘s[i:i]
                                   = [x]’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.pop()’ ou ‘s.pop(i)’            récupère l'élément à la position     (2)
                                   'i' et le supprime de 's'            
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.remove(x)’                      removes the first item from 's'      (3)
                                   where ‘s[i]’ is equal to 'x'         
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.reverse()’                      inverse sur place les éléments de    (4)
                                   's'                                  
                                   

Notes :

  1. If 'k' is not equal to ‘1’, 't' must have the same length as the
     slice it is replacing.

  2. L'argument optionnel 'i' vaut ‘-1’ par défaut, afin que, par
     défaut, le dernier élément soit retiré et renvoyé.

  3. ‘remove()’ lève une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. si 'x' ne se
     trouve pas dans 's'.

  4. La méthode ‘reverse()’ modifie la séquence sur place pour
     économiser de l'espace lors du traitement de grandes séquences.
     Pour rappeler aux utilisateurs qu'elle a un effet de bord, elle ne
     renvoie pas la séquence inversée.

  5. ‘clear()’ et ‘copy()’ sont incluses pour la compatibilité avec les
     interfaces des conteneurs mutables qui ne gèrent pas les opérations
     de découpage (comme *note dict: 253. et *note set: 5c5.).  ‘copy()’
     ne fait pas partie des classes mères abstraites ('ABC') de *note
     collections.abc.MutableSequence: 19f, mais la plupart des classes
     implémentées gérant des séquences la proposent.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3: méthodes ‘clear()’ et ‘copy()’.

  6. La valeur 'n' est un entier, ou un objet implémentant *note
     __index__(): 709.  Zéro et les valeurs négatives de 'n' permettent
     d'effacer la séquence.  Les éléments dans la séquence ne sont pas
     copiés ; ils sont référencés plusieurs fois, comme expliqué pour ‘s
     * n’ dans *note Opérations communes sur les séquences: 2166.


File: python.info,  Node: Listes<2>,  Next: N-uplets,  Prev: Types de séquences mutables,  Up: Types séquentiels — list tuple range

5.4.7.4 Listes
..............

Les listes sont des séquences mutables, généralement utilisées pour
stocker des collections d'éléments homogènes (le degré de similitude
varie selon l'usage).

 -- Classe: list ([iterable])

     Les listes peuvent être construites de différentes manières :

        * en utilisant une paire de crochets pour indiquer une liste
          vide : ‘[]’ ;

        * au moyen de crochets, en séparant les éléments par des
          virgules : ‘[a]’, ‘[a, b, c]’ ;

        * en utilisant une liste en compréhension : ‘[x for x in
          iterable]’ ;

        * en utilisant le constructeur du type : ‘list()’ ou
          ‘list(iterable)’.

     Le constructeur crée une liste dont les éléments sont les mêmes et
     dans le même ordre que les éléments d''iterable'.  'iterable' peut
     être une séquence, un conteneur qui prend en charge l'itération, ou
     un itérateur.  Si 'iterable' est déjà une liste, une copie est
     faite et renvoyée, comme avec ‘iterable[:]’.  Par exemple,
     ‘list('abc')’ renvoie ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’ et ‘list( (1, 2, 3) )’
     renvoie ‘[1, 2, 3]’.  Si aucun argument est donné, le constructeur
     crée une nouvelle liste vide, ‘[]’.

     De nombreuses autres opérations produisent des listes, comme la
     fonction native *note sorted(): bbe.

     Les listes gèrent toutes les opérations des séquences *note
     communes: 2166. et *note mutables: 211b.  Les listes fournissent
     également la méthode supplémentaire suivante :

      -- Méthode: sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

          Cette méthode trie la liste sur place, en utilisant uniquement
          des comparaisons ‘<’ entre les éléments.  Les exceptions ne
          sont pas supprimées : si n'importe quelle opération de
          comparaison échoue, le tri échoue (et la liste sera
          probablement laissée dans un état partiellement modifié).

          *note sort(): bbf. accepte deux arguments qui ne peuvent être
          fournis que nommés (voir *note arguments nommés: 2a2.) :

          'key' spécifie une fonction d'un argument utilisée pour
          extraire une clé de comparaison de chaque élément de la liste
          (par exemple, ‘key=str.lower’).  La clé correspondant à chaque
          élément de la liste n'est calculée qu'une seule fois, puis
          utilisée durant tout le processus.  La valeur par défaut,
          ‘None’, signifie que les éléments sont triés directement sans
          calculer de « valeur clé » séparée.

          La fonction utilitaire *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 11b9. est
          disponible pour convertir une fonction 'cmp' du style 2.x à
          une fonction 'key'.

          'reverse', une valeur booléenne.  Si elle est ‘True’, la liste
          d'éléments est triée comme si toutes les comparaisons étaient
          inversées.

          Cette méthode modifie la séquence sur place pour économiser de
          l'espace lors du tri de grandes séquences.  Pour rappeler aux
          utilisateurs cet effet de bord, elle ne renvoie pas la
          séquence triée (utilisez *note sorted(): bbe. pour demander
          explicitement une nouvelle instance de liste triée).

          La méthode *note sort(): bbf. est garantie stable.  Un tri est
          stable s'il garantit de ne pas changer l'ordre relatif des
          éléments égaux — cela est utile pour trier en plusieurs passes
          (par exemple, trier par service, puis par niveau de salaire).

          Pour des exemples de tris et un bref tutoriel, consultez *note
          Sorting Techniques: 213b.

          l'effet de tenter de modifier, ou même inspecter la liste
          pendant qu'on la trie est indéfini.  L'implémentation C de
          Python fait apparaître la liste comme vide pour la durée du
          traitement, et lève *note ValueError: 1ff. si elle détecte que
          la liste a été modifiée au cours du tri.


File: python.info,  Node: N-uplets,  Next: Ranges,  Prev: Listes<2>,  Up: Types séquentiels — list tuple range

5.4.7.5 'N'-uplets
..................

Les 'n'-uplets ('tuples' en anglais) sont des séquences immuables,
généralement utilisées pour stocker des collections de données
hétérogènes (telles que les paires produites par la fonction native
*note enumerate(): 1435.).  Les 'n'-uplets sont également utilisés dans
des cas où une séquence homogène et immuable de données est nécessaire
(pour, par exemple, les stocker dans un *note ensemble: 5c5. ou un *note
dictionnaire: 253.).

 -- Classe: tuple ([iterable])

     Les 'n'-uplets peuvent être construits de différentes façons :

        * en utilisant une paire de parenthèses pour désigner le
          'n'-uplet vide : ‘()’ ;

        * en utilisant une virgule, pour créer un 'n'-uplet d'un
          élément : ‘a,’ ou ‘(a,)’ ;

        * en séparant les éléments avec des virgules : ‘a, b, c’ ou ‘(a,
          b, c)’ ;

        * en utilisant la fonction native *note tuple(): 366. :
          ‘tuple()’ ou ‘tuple(iterable)’.

     Le constructeur construit un 'n'-uplet dont les éléments sont les
     mêmes et dans le même ordre que les éléments de 'iterable'.
     'iterable' peut être une séquence, un conteneur qui prend en charge
     l'itération ou un itérateur.  Si 'iterable' est déjà un 'n'-uplet,
     il est renvoyé inchangé.  Par exemple, ‘tuple('abc')’ renvoie
     ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’ et ‘tuple( [1, 2, 3] )’ renvoie ‘(1, 2, 3)’.  Si
     aucun argument n'est donné, le constructeur crée un nouveau
     'n'-uplet vide, ‘()’.

     Notez que c'est en fait la virgule qui fait un 'n'-uplet et non les
     parenthèses.  Les parenthèses sont facultatives, sauf dans le cas
     du 'n'-uplet vide, ou lorsqu'elles sont nécessaires pour éviter
     l'ambiguïté syntaxique.  Par exemple, ‘f(a, b, c)’ est un appel de
     fonction avec trois arguments, alors que ‘f((a, b, c))’ est un
     appel de fonction avec un triplet comme unique argument.

     Les 'n'-uplets implémentent toutes les opérations *note communes:
     2166. des séquences.

Pour les collections hétérogènes de données où l'accès par nom est plus
clair que l'accès par indice, *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5. peut
être un choix plus approprié qu'un simple 'n'-uplet.


File: python.info,  Node: Ranges,  Prev: N-uplets,  Up: Types séquentiels — list tuple range

5.4.7.6 'Ranges'
................

Le type *note range: 932. représente une séquence immuable de nombres et
est couramment utilisé pour itérer un certain nombre de fois dans les
boucles *note for: 2e7.

 -- Classe: range (stop)

 -- Classe: range (start, stop[, step])

     Les arguments du constructeur de 'range' doivent être des entiers
     (des *note int: 254. ou tout autre objet qui implémente la méthode
     spéciale *note __index__(): 709.).  La valeur par défaut de
     l'argument 'step' est ‘1’.  La valeur par défaut de l'argument
     'start' est ‘0’.  Si 'step' est égal à zéro, une exception *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

     Pour un 'step' positif, le contenu d'un 'range' ‘r’ est déterminé
     par la formule ‘r[i] = start + step*i’ où ‘i >= 0’ et ‘r[i] <
     stop’.

     Pour un 'step' négatif, le contenu du 'range' est toujours
     déterminé par la formule ‘r[i] = start + step*i’, mais les
     contraintes sont ‘i >= 0’ et ‘r[i] > stop’.

     Un objet 'range' sera vide si ‘r[0]’ ne répond pas à la contrainte
     de valeur.  Les 'range' prennent en charge les indices négatifs,
     mais ceux-ci sont interprétées comme un indice à partir de la fin
     de la séquence déterminée par les indices positifs.

     Les 'range' contenant des valeurs absolues plus grandes que *note
     sys.maxsize: 11a4. sont permises, mais certaines fonctionnalités
     (comme *note len(): 61b.) peuvent lever *note OverflowError: 86f.

     Exemples avec 'range' :

          >>> list(range(10))
          [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> list(range(1, 11))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
          >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
          [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
          >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
          [0, 3, 6, 9]
          >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
          >>> list(range(0))
          []
          >>> list(range(1, 0))
          []

     'range' implémente toutes les opérations *note communes: 2166. des
     séquences sauf la concaténation et la répétition (en raison du fait
     que les 'range' ne peuvent représenter que des séquences qui
     respectent un motif strict et que la répétition et la concaténation
     les feraient dévier de ce motif).

      -- Attribut: start

          Valeur du paramètre 'start' (ou ‘0’ si le paramètre n'a pas
          été fourni)

      -- Attribut: stop

          Valeur du paramètre 'stop'

      -- Attribut: step

          Valeur du paramètre 'step' (ou ‘1’ si le paramètre n'a pas été
          fourni)

L'avantage du type *note range: 932. sur une *note liste: 5fe. classique
ou un *note n-uplet: 366. est qu'un objet *note range: 932. occupe
toujours la même (petite) quantité de mémoire, peu importe la taille de
l'intervalle qu'il représente (car il ne stocke que les valeurs ‘start’,
‘stop’, ‘step’, le calcul des éléments individuels et les
sous-intervalles au besoin).

Les 'range' implémentent la classe mère abstraite *note
collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3. et offrent des fonctionnalités telles
que les tests d'appartenance (avec 'in'), de recherche par indice, les
tranches et ils gèrent les indices négatifs (voir *note Types
séquentiels — list, tuple, range: 1c07.) :

     >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> r
     range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> 11 in r
     False
     >>> 10 in r
     True
     >>> r.index(10)
     5
     >>> r[5]
     10
     >>> r[:5]
     range(0, 10, 2)
     >>> r[-1]
     18

Comparer des 'range' avec ‘==’ et ‘!=’ les compare comme des séquences.
C'est-à-dire que deux objets 'range' sont considérés comme égaux s'ils
représentent la même séquence de valeurs.  (Notez que deux objets
'range' dits égaux pourraient avoir leurs attributs *note start: 2170,
*note stop: 2171. et *note step: 2172. différents, par exemple ‘range(0)
== range(2, 1, 3)’ ou ‘range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)’.)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: implémente la classe mère abstraite
'Sequence'.  prend en charge les tranches ('slicing') et les indices
négatifs.  Teste l'appartenance d'un *note int: 254. en temps constant
au lieu d'itérer sur tous les éléments.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ‘==’ et ‘!=’ comparent des 'range' en
fonction de la séquence de valeurs qu'ils définissent (au lieu d'une
comparaison fondée sur l'identité de l'objet).

Added the *note start: 2170, *note stop: 2171. and *note step: 2172.
attributes.

Voir aussi
..........

   * The linspace recipe(1) shows how to implement a lazy version of
     range suitable for floating-point applications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/


File: python.info,  Node: Type Séquence de Texte — str,  Next: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire,  Prev: Types séquentiels — list tuple range,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.8 Type Séquence de Texte — ‘str’
------------------------------------

Les données textuelles en Python sont manipulées avec des objets *note
str: 437. ou 'strings'.  Les chaînes sont des *note séquences: 1c07.
immuables de points de code Unicode.  Les chaînes littérales peuvent
être écrites de différentes manières :

   * entre guillemets simples : ‘'cela autorise les "guillemets
     anglais"'’ ;

   * entre guillemets (anglais) : ‘"cela autorise les guillemets
     'simples'"’ ;

   * entre guillemets triples : ‘'''Trois guillemets simples'''’,
     ‘"""Trois guillemets anglais"""’.

Les chaînes entre guillemets triples peuvent couvrir plusieurs lignes,
tous les espaces associées sont alors incluses dans la chaîne littérale.

Les chaînes littérales qui font partie d'une seule expression et ont
seulement des espaces entre elles sont implicitement converties en une
seule chaîne littérale.  Autrement dit, ‘("spam " "eggs") == "spam
eggs"’.

See *note Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets:
1e5f. for more about the various forms of string literal, including
supported *note escape sequences: 445, and the ‘r’ ("raw") prefix that
disables most escape sequence processing.

Les chaînes peuvent également être créées à partir d'autres objets à
l'aide du constructeur *note str: 437.

Comme il n'y a pas de type « caractère » propre, un indice d'une chaîne
produit une chaîne de longueur 1.  Autrement dit, pour une chaîne non
vide 's', ‘s[0] == s[0:1]’.

Il n'y a aucun type de chaîne mutable, mais *note str.join(): 2168. ou
*note io.StringIO: f14. peuvent être utilisées pour construire
efficacement des chaînes à partir de plusieurs fragments.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: pour une compatibilité ascendante avec la
série Python 2, le préfixe ‘u’ est à nouveau autorisé sur les chaînes
littérales.  Il n'a aucun effet sur le sens des chaînes littérales et ne
peut pas être combiné avec le préfixe ‘r’.

 -- Classe: str (object='')

 -- Classe: str (object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Renvoie une représentation en *note chaîne de caractères: 1bba. de
     'object'.  Si 'object' n'est pas fourni, renvoie une chaîne vide.
     Sinon, le comportement de ‘str()’ dépend des valeurs données pour
     'encoding' et 'errors', comme indiqué ci-dessous.

     If neither 'encoding' nor 'errors' is given, ‘str(object)’ returns
     *note type(object).__str__(object): 60a, which is the "informal" or
     nicely printable string representation of 'object'.  For string
     objects, this is the string itself.  If 'object' does not have a
     *note __str__(): 60a. method, then *note str(): 437. falls back to
     returning *note repr(object): 7e9.

     Si au moins un des deux arguments 'encoding' ou 'errors' est donné,
     'object' doit être un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. (par
     exemple, *note bytes: 1bd. ou *note bytearray: 52b.).  Dans ce cas,
     si 'object' est un objet *note bytes: 1bd. (ou *note bytearray:
     52b.), alors ‘str(bytes, encoding, errors)’ est équivalent à *note
     bytes.decode(encoding, errors): 8c5.  Sinon, l'objet 'bytes'
     sous-jacent au tampon est obtenu avant d'appeler *note
     bytes.decode(): 8c5.  Voir *note Séquences Binaires — bytes,
     bytearray, vue mémoire: 211d. et *note Protocole tampon: 38e. pour
     plus d'informations sur les tampons.

     Donner un objet *note bytes: 1bd. à *note str(): 437. sans argument
     'encoding' ni argument 'errors' relève du premier cas, où la
     représentation informelle de la chaîne est renvoyée (voir aussi
     l'option *note -b: 5cf. de Python).  Par exemple :

          >>> str(b'Zoot!')
          "b'Zoot!'"

     Pour plus d'informations sur la classe ‘str’ et ses méthodes, voir
     les sections *note Type Séquence de Texte — str: 1bba. et *note
     Méthodes de chaînes de caractères: 1bbb.  Pour formater des chaînes
     de caractères, voir les sections *note f-strings: 999. et *note
     Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369.  La section *note Services de
     Manipulation de Texte: 2174. contient aussi des informations.

* Menu:

* Méthodes de chaînes de caractères: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
* Formatted String Literals (f-strings): Formatted String Literals f-strings.
* Formatage de chaines à la printf::


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>,  Next: Formatted String Literals f-strings,  Up: Type Séquence de Texte — str

5.4.8.1 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères
.........................................

Les chaînes implémentent toutes les opérations *note communes des
séquences: 2166, ainsi que les autres méthodes décrites ci-dessous.

Les chaînes gèrent aussi deux styles de mise en forme, l'un fournissant
une grande flexibilité et de personnalisation (voir *note str.format():
60e, *note Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369. et *note Formatage
personnalisé de chaîne: 2176.) et l'autre basée sur le style de
formatage de ‘printf’ du C qui gère une gamme plus étroite de types et
est légèrement plus difficile à utiliser correctement, mais qui est
souvent plus rapide pour les cas pris en charge (*note Formatage de
chaines à la printf: 6b9.).

La section *note Services de Manipulation de Texte: 2177. de la
bibliothèque standard couvre un certain nombre d'autres modules qui
fournissent différents services relatifs au texte (y compris les
expressions rationnelles dans le module *note re: b8.).

 -- Méthode: str.capitalize ()

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne avec son premier caractère en
     majuscule et le reste en minuscule.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: le premier caractère est maintenant
     mis en 'titlecase' plutôt qu'en majuscule.  Cela veut dire que les
     caractères comme les digrammes auront seulement leur première
     lettre en majuscule, au lieu du caractère en entier.

 -- Méthode: str.casefold ()

     Renvoie une copie 'casefolded' de la chaîne.  Les chaînes
     'casefolded' peuvent être utilisées dans des comparaisons
     insensibles à la casse.

     Le 'casefolding' est une technique agressive de mise en minuscule,
     car il vise à éliminer toutes les distinctions de casse dans une
     chaîne.  Par exemple, la lettre minuscule ‘'ß'’ de l'allemand
     équivaut à ‘"ss"’.  Comme il est déjà minuscule, *note lower():
     17a9. ne fait rien à ‘'ß'’ ; *note casefold(): dc5. le convertit en
     ‘"ss"’.

     The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 'Default
     Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(1).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: str.center (width[, fillchar])

     Renvoie la chaîne au centre d'une chaîne de longueur 'width'.  Le
     remplissage est fait en utilisant l'argument 'fillchar' (qui par
     défaut est une espace ASCII). La chaîne d'origine est renvoyée si
     'width' est inférieure ou égale à ‘len(s)’.

 -- Méthode: str.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie le nombre d'occurrences de 'sub' ne se chevauchant pas dans
     l'intervalle ['start', 'end'].  Les arguments facultatifs 'start'
     et 'end' sont interprétés comme dans la notation des tranches
     ('slices' en anglais).

     Si 'sub' est vide, renvoie le nombre de chaînes vides entre les
     caractères de début et de fin, ce qui correspond à la longueur de
     la chaîne plus un.

 -- Méthode: str.encode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Renvoie la chaine encodée dans une instance de *note bytes: 1bd.

     'encoding' vaut par défaut ‘utf-8’ ; pour une liste des encodages
     possibles, voir la section *note Standard Encodings: da8.

     'errors' détermine la manière dont les erreurs sont traitées.  La
     valeur par défaut est ‘'strict'’, ce qui signifie que les erreurs
     d'encodage lèvent une *note UnicodeError: 1283.  Les autres valeurs
     possibles sont ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’,
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ et tout autre nom enregistré 'via' *note
     codecs.register_error(): 144f.  Voir la section *note Gestionnaires
     d'erreurs: 17a2. pour plus de détails.

     Pour des raisons de performances, la valeur de 'errors' n'est pas
     vérifiée à moins qu'une erreur d'encodage ne se produise
     réellement, que le *note mode développeur: 1f5. ne soit activé ou
     que Python ait été compilé en *note mode débogage: 1f6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: gère les arguments nommés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: les valeurs de 'errors' sont
     maintenant vérifiées en *note mode de développement: 1f5. et en
     *note mode de débogage: 1f6.

 -- Méthode: str.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la chaîne se termine par 'suffix', sinon ‘False’.
     'suffix' peut aussi être un 'n'-uplet de suffixes à rechercher.  Si
     l'argument optionnel 'start' est donné, le test se fait à partir de
     cette position.  Si l'argument optionnel 'end' est fourni, la
     comparaison s'arrête à cette position.

 -- Méthode: str.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne où toutes les tabulations sont
     remplacées par une ou plusieurs espaces, en fonction de la colonne
     courante et de la taille de tabulation donnée.  Les positions des
     tabulations se trouvent tous les 'tabsize' caractères (8 par
     défaut, ce qui donne les positions de tabulations aux colonnes 0,
     8, 16 et ainsi de suite).  Pour travailler sur la chaîne, la
     colonne en cours est mise à zéro et la chaîne est examinée
     caractère par caractère.  Si le caractère est une tabulation
     (‘\t’), un ou plusieurs caractères d'espacement sont insérés dans
     le résultat jusqu'à ce que la colonne courante soit égale à la
     position de tabulation suivante (le caractère tabulation lui-même
     n'est pas copié).  Si le caractère est un saut de ligne (‘\n’) ou
     un retour chariot (‘\r’), il est copié et la colonne en cours est
     remise à zéro.  Tout autre caractère est copié inchangé et la
     colonne en cours est incrémentée de un indépendamment de la façon
     dont le caractère est représenté lors de l'affichage.

          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          '01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          '01  012 0123    01234'

 -- Méthode: str.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie l'indice de la première position dans la chaîne où 'sub'
     est trouvé dans le découpage ‘s[start:end]’.  Les arguments
     facultatifs 'start' et 'end' sont interprétés comme dans la
     notation des découpages ('slice' en anglais).  Renvoie ‘-1’ si
     'sub' n'est pas trouvé.

          Note: la méthode *note find(): e93. ne doit être utilisée que
          si vous avez besoin de connaître la position de 'sub'.  Pour
          vérifier si 'sub' est une sous chaine ou non, utilisez
          l'opérateur *note in: 2e9. :

               >>> 'Py' in 'Python'
               True

 -- Méthode: str.format (*args, **kwargs)

     Formate une chaîne.  La chaîne sur laquelle cette méthode est
     appelée peut contenir du texte littéral ou des emplacements de
     remplacement délimités par des accolades ‘{}’.  Chaque champ de
     remplacement contient soit l'indice numérique d'un argument
     positionnel, soit le nom d'un argument nommé.  Renvoie une copie de
     la chaîne où chaque champ de remplacement est remplacé par la
     valeur de chaîne de l'argument correspondant.

          >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
          'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'

     Voir *note Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369. pour une
     description des options de formatage qui peuvent être spécifiées
     dans les chaînes de format.

          Note: lors du formatage avec le format ‘n’ (comme
          ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’) d'un nombre (*note int: 254, *note
          float: 2ec, *note complex: 2ed, *note decimal.Decimal: 29a. et
          classes dérivées), la fonction met temporairement la variable
          ‘LC_CTYPE’ à la valeur de ‘LC_NUMERIC’ pour décoder
          correctement les attributs ‘decimal_point’ et ‘thousands_sep’
          de ‘localeconv()’, s'ils ne sont pas en ASCII ou font plus
          d'un octet et que ‘LC_NUMERIC’ est différent de ‘LC_CTYPE’.
          Ce changement temporaire affecte les autres fils d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: lors du formatage d'un nombre avec le
     format ‘n’, la fonction change temporairement ‘LC_CTYPE’ par la
     valeur de ‘LC_NUMERIC’ dans certains cas.

 -- Méthode: str.format_map (mapping, /)

     Semblable à ‘str.format(**mapping)’, sauf que ‘mapping’ est utilisé
     directement et non copié dans un *note dict: 253.  C'est utile si,
     par exemple, ‘mapping’ est une sous-classe de ‘dict’ :

          >>> class Default(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return key
          ...
          >>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
          'Guido was born in country'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Méthode: str.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Comme *note find(): e93, mais lève une *note ValueError: 1ff.
     lorsque la chaîne est introuvable.

 -- Méthode: str.isalnum ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont
     alphanumériques et qu'il y a au moins un caractère, sinon ‘False’.
     Un caractère ‘c’ est alphanumérique si l'un des tests suivants
     renvoie ‘True’ : ‘c.isalpha()’, ‘c.isdecimal()’, ‘c.isdigit()’ ou
     ‘c.isnumeric()’.

 -- Méthode: str.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphabetic and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic
     characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
     database as "Letter", i.e., those with general category property
     being one of "Lm", "Lt", "Lu", "Ll", or "Lo".  Note that this is
     different from the Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10
     'Letters, Alphabetic, and Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard(2).

 -- Méthode: str.isascii ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la chaîne est vide ou ne contient que des
     caractères ASCII, ‘False’ sinon.  Les caractères ASCII ont un code
     dans l'intervalle ‘"U+0000"’–‘"U+007F"’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: str.isdecimal ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont des
     caractères décimaux et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère,
     sinon ‘False’.  Les caractères décimaux sont ceux pouvant être
     utilisés pour former des nombres en base 10, tels que U+0660,
     ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO. Formellement, un caractère décimal est un
     caractère dans la catégorie Unicode générale "Nd".

 -- Méthode: str.isdigit ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont des
     chiffres et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère, ‘False’ sinon.
     Les chiffres incluent des caractères décimaux et des chiffres qui
     nécessitent une manipulation particulière, tels que les
     'compatibility superscript digits'.  Ça couvre les chiffres qui ne
     peuvent pas être utilisés pour construire des nombres en base 10,
     tels que les nombres de Kharosthi.  Formellement, un chiffre est un
     caractère dont la valeur de la propriété 'Numeric_Type' est 'Digit'
     ou 'Decimal'.

 -- Méthode: str.isidentifier ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la chaîne est un identifiant valide selon la
     définition du langage, section *note Identifiants et mots-clés:
     1e4f.

     *note keyword.iskeyword(): 217e. can be used to test whether string
     ‘s’ is a reserved identifier, such as *note def: 1410. and *note
     class: 12b7.

     Par exemple :

          >>> from keyword import iskeyword

          >>> 'hello'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('hello')
          (True, False)
          >>> 'def'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('def')
          (True, True)

 -- Méthode: str.islower ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères capitalisables (3) de la
     chaîne sont en minuscules et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère
     capitalisable.  Renvoie ‘False’ dans le cas contraire.

 -- Méthode: str.isnumeric ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont des
     caractères numériques et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère,
     sinon ‘False’.  Les caractères numériques comprennent les chiffres
     et tous les caractères qui ont la propriété Unicode 'numeric
     value', par exemple U+2155, 'VULGAR FRACTION OF FIFTH'.
     Formellement, les caractères numériques sont ceux avec les
     propriétés 'Numeric_Type=Digit', 'Numeric_Type=Decimal' ou
     'Numeric_Type=Numeric'.

 -- Méthode: str.isprintable ()

     Return true if all characters in the string are printable, false if
     it contains at least one non-printable character.

     Here "printable" means the character is suitable for *note repr():
     7e9. to use in its output; "non-printable" means that *note repr():
     7e9. on built-in types will hex-escape the character.  It has no
     bearing on the handling of strings written to *note sys.stdout:
     ac6. or *note sys.stderr: 928.

     The printable characters are those which in the Unicode character
     database (see *note unicodedata: 104.) have a general category in
     group Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, or Symbol (L, M, N, P, or
     S); plus the ASCII space 0x20.  Nonprintable characters are those
     in group Separator or Other (Z or C), except the ASCII space.

 -- Méthode: str.isspace ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ s'il n'y a que des caractères d'espacement dans la
     chaîne et qu'elle comporte au moins un caractère.  Renvoie ‘False’
     dans le cas contraire.

     Un caractère est considéré comme un caractère d'espacement
     ('whitespace' en anglais) si, dans la base de données caractères
     Unicode (voir *note unicodedata: 104.), sa catégorie générale est
     ‘Zs’ (« séparateur, espace »), ou sa classe bidirectionnelle est
     une de ‘WS’, ‘B’, ou ‘S’.

 -- Méthode: str.istitle ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la chaîne est une chaîne 'titlecased' et qu'elle
     contient au moins un caractère, par exemple les caractères
     majuscules ne peuvent suivre les caractères non capitalisables et
     les caractères minuscules ne peuvent suivre que des caractères
     capitalisables.  Renvoie ‘False’ dans le cas contraire.

 -- Méthode: str.isupper ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères différentiables sur la
     casse (4) de la chaîne sont en majuscules et s'il y a au moins un
     caractère différentiable sur la casse, sinon ‘False’.

          >>> 'BANANA'.isupper()
          True
          >>> 'banana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> 'baNana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> ' '.isupper()
          False

 -- Méthode: str.join (iterable)

     Renvoie une chaîne qui est la concaténation des chaînes contenues
     dans 'iterable'.  Une *note TypeError: 525. est levée si une valeur
     d''iterable' n'est pas une chaîne, y compris pour les objets *note
     bytes: 1bd.  Le séparateur entre les éléments est la chaîne
     fournissant cette méthode.

 -- Méthode: str.ljust (width[, fillchar])

     Renvoie la chaîne justifiée à gauche dans une chaîne de longueur
     'width'.  Le bourrage est fait en utilisant 'fillchar' (qui par
     défaut est une espace ASCII). La chaîne d'origine est renvoyée si
     'width' est inférieure ou égale à ‘len(s)’.

 -- Méthode: str.lower ()

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne avec tous les caractères
     différentiables sur la casse (5) convertis en minuscules.

     L'algorithme de mise en minuscules utilisé est décrit dans la
     section 3.13 ’Default Case Folding’ de la norme Unicode(6).

 -- Méthode: str.lstrip ([chars])

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne avec des caractères supprimés au
     début.  L'argument 'chars' est une chaîne spécifiant le jeu de
     caractères à supprimer.  En cas d'omission ou ‘None’, la valeur par
     défaut de 'chars' permet de supprimer des caractères d'espacement.
     L'argument 'chars' n'est pas un préfixe, toutes les combinaisons de
     ses valeurs sont supprimées :

          >>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
          'spacious   '
          >>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
          'example.com'

     Voir *note str.removeprefix(): 8be. pour une méthode qui supprime
     une seule chaîne de préfixe plutôt que la totalité d'un ensemble de
     caractères.  Par exemple :

          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.lstrip('Arthur: ')
          'ee!'
          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix('Arthur: ')
          'three!'

 -- Méthode: static str.maketrans (x[, y[, z]])

     Cette méthode statique renvoie une table de traduction utilisable
     pour *note str.translate(): 2185.

     Si un seul argument est fourni, ce soit être un dictionnaire
     faisant correspondre des points de code Unicode (nombres entiers)
     ou des caractères (chaînes de longueur 1) à des points de code
     Unicode.

     Si deux arguments sont fournis, ce doit être deux chaînes de
     caractères de même longueur.  Le dictionnaire renvoyé fera
     correspondre pour chaque caractère de x un caractère de y pris à la
     même place.  Si un troisième argument est fourni, ce doit être une
     chaîne dont chaque caractère correspondra à ‘None’ dans le
     résultat.

 -- Méthode: str.partition (sep)

     Divise la chaîne à la première occurrence de 'sep', et renvoie un
     triplet contenant la partie avant le séparateur, le séparateur
     lui-même, et la partie après le séparateur.  Si le séparateur n'est
     pas trouvé, le triplet contient la chaîne elle-même, suivie de deux
     chaînes vides.

 -- Méthode: str.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     Si la chaîne de caractères commence par la chaîne 'prefix', renvoie
     ‘string[len(prefix):]’.  Sinon, renvoie une copie de la chaîne
     originale :

          >>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
          'Hook'
          >>> 'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix('Test')
          'BaseTestCase'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Méthode: str.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     Si la chaîne de caractères se termine par la chaîne 'suffix' et que
     'suffix' n'est pas vide, renvoie ‘string[:-len(suffix)]’.  Sinon,
     renvoie une copie de la chaîne originale :

          >>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'Misc'
          >>> 'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'TmpDirMixin'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Méthode: str.replace (old, new, count=-1)

     Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring 'old'
     replaced by 'new'.  If 'count' is given, only the first 'count'
     occurrences are replaced.  If 'count' is not specified or ‘-1’,
     then all occurrences are replaced.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'count' is now supported as a keyword
     argument.

 -- Méthode: str.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie l'indice le plus élevé dans la chaîne où la sous-chaîne
     'sub' se trouve, de telle sorte que 'sub' soit contenue dans
     ‘s[start:end]’.  Les arguments facultatifs 'start' et 'end' sont
     interprétés comme dans la notation des découpages.  Renvoie ‘-1’ en
     cas d'échec.

 -- Méthode: str.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Comme *note rfind(): e94. mais lève une exception *note ValueError:
     1ff. lorsque la sous-chaîne 'sub' est introuvable.

 -- Méthode: str.rjust (width[, fillchar])

     Renvoie la chaîne justifiée à droite dans une chaîne de longueur
     'width'.  Le bourrage est fait en utilisant le caractère spécifié
     par 'fillchar' (par défaut une espace ASCII). La chaîne d'origine
     est renvoyée si 'width' est inférieure ou égale à ‘len(s)’.

 -- Méthode: str.rpartition (sep)

     Divise la chaîne à la dernière occurrence de 'sep', et renvoie un
     triplet contenant la partie avant le séparateur, le séparateur
     lui-même, et la partie après le séparateur.  Si le séparateur n'est
     pas trouvé, le triplet contient deux chaînes vides, puis la chaîne
     elle-même.

 -- Méthode: str.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Renvoie une liste des mots de la chaîne, en utilisant 'sep' comme
     séparateur.  Si 'maxsplit' est donné, c'est le nombre maximum de
     divisions qui pourront être faites, celles « les plus à droite ».
     Si 'sep' est pas spécifié ou est ‘None’, tout caractère
     d'espacement est un séparateur.  En dehors du fait qu'il découpe
     par la droite, *note rsplit(): 1236. se comporte comme *note
     split(): e95. qui est décrit en détail ci-dessous.

 -- Méthode: str.rstrip ([chars])

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne avec des caractères finaux
     supprimés.  L'argument 'chars' est une chaîne spécifiant le jeu de
     caractères à supprimer.  En cas d'omission ou ‘None’, les
     caractères d'espacement sont supprimés.  L'argument 'chars' n'est
     pas un suffixe : toutes les combinaisons de ses valeurs sont
     retirées :

          >>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
          '   spacious'
          >>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
          'mississ'

     Voir *note str.removesuffix(): 8bf. pour une méthode qui supprime
     une seule chaîne de suffixe plutôt que la totalité d'un ensemble de
     caractères.  Par exemple :

          >>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
          'M'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
          'Monty'

 -- Méthode: str.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Renvoie une liste des mots de la chaîne, en utilisant 'sep' comme
     séparateur de mots.  Si 'maxsplit' est donné, c'est le nombre
     maximum de divisions qui pourront être effectuées (donnant ainsi
     une liste de longueur ‘maxsplit+1’).  Si 'maxsplit' n'est pas
     fourni, ou vaut ‘-1’, le nombre de découpes n'est pas limité
     (toutes les découpes possibles sont faites).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example,
     ‘'1,,2'.split(',')’ returns ‘['1', '', '2']’).  The 'sep' argument
     may consist of multiple characters as a single delimiter (to split
     with multiple delimiters, use *note re.split(): 29f.).  Splitting
     an empty string with a specified separator returns ‘['']’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2,3']
          >>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '', '3', '']
          >>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
          ['1', '2', '3<4']

     Si 'sep' n'est pas spécifié ou est ‘None’, un autre algorithme de
     découpage est appliqué : les caractères d'espacement consécutifs
     sont considérés comme un seul séparateur, et le résultat ne
     contient pas les chaînes vides de début ou de la fin si la chaîne
     est préfixée ou suffixé de caractères d'espacement.  Par
     conséquent, diviser une chaîne vide ou une chaîne composée
     d'espaces avec un séparateur ‘None’ renvoie ‘[]’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> '1 2 3'.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2 3']
          >>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']

 -- Méthode: str.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Renvoie les lignes de la chaîne sous forme de liste, la découpe se
     faisant au niveau des limites des lignes.  Les sauts de ligne ne
     sont pas inclus dans la liste des résultats, sauf si 'keepends' est
     donné et est vrai.

     Cette méthode découpe sur les limites de ligne suivantes.  Ces
     limites sont un sur-ensemble de *note universal newlines: d2a.

     Représentation              Description
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     ‘\n’                        Saut de ligne
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r’                        Retour chariot
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r\n’                      Retour chariot + saut de ligne
                                 
                                 
     ‘\v’ or ‘\x0b’              Tabulation verticale
                                 
                                 
     ‘\f’ or ‘\x0c’              Saut de page
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1c’                      Séparateur de fichiers
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1d’                      Séparateur de groupes
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1e’                      Séparateur d'enregistrements
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x85’                      Ligne suivante (code de
                                 contrôle 'C1')
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2028’                    Séparateur de ligne
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2029’                    Séparateur de paragraphe
                                 

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: ‘\v’ et ‘\f’ ajoutés à la liste des
     limites de lignes.

     Par exemple :

          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          ['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          ['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']

     Contrairement à *note split(): e95. lorsque 'sep' est fourni, cette
     méthode renvoie une liste vide pour la chaîne vide, et un saut de
     ligne à la fin ne se traduit pas par une ligne supplémentaire :

          >>> "".splitlines()
          []
          >>> "One line\n".splitlines()
          ['One line']

     À titre de comparaison, ‘split('\n')’ donne :

          >>> ''.split('\n')
          ['']
          >>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
          ['Two lines', '']

 -- Méthode: str.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la chaîne commence par 'prefix', sinon ‘False’.
     'prefix' peut aussi être un 'n'-uplet de préfixes à rechercher.
     Lorsque 'start' est donné, la comparaison commence à cette position
     et, lorsque 'end' est donné, la comparaison s'arrête à celle-ci.

 -- Méthode: str.strip ([chars])

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne dont des caractères initiaux et
     finaux sont supprimés.  L'argument 'chars' est une chaîne
     spécifiant le jeu de caractères à supprimer.  En cas d'omission ou
     ‘None’, les caractères d'espacement sont supprimés.  L'argument
     'chars' est pas un préfixe ni un suffixe, toutes les combinaisons
     de ses valeurs sont supprimées :

          >>> '   spacious   '.strip()
          'spacious'
          >>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
          'example'

     Les caractères de 'char' sont retirés du début et de la fin de la
     chaîne.  Les caractères sont retirés de la gauche jusqu'à atteindre
     un caractère ne figurant pas dans le jeu de caractères dans
     'chars'.  La même opération a lieu par la droite.  Par exemple :

          >>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
          >>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
          'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'

 -- Méthode: str.swapcase ()

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne dont les caractères majuscules sont
     convertis en minuscules et vice versa.  Notez qu'il est pas
     nécessairement vrai que ‘s.swapcase().swapcase() == s’.

 -- Méthode: str.title ()

     Renvoie une version de la chaîne où les mots commencent par une
     capitale et les caractères restants sont en minuscules.

     Par exemple :

          >>> 'Hello world'.title()
          'Hello World'

     Pour l'algorithme, la notion de mot est définie simplement et
     indépendamment de la langue comme un groupe de lettres
     consécutives.  La définition fonctionne dans de nombreux contextes,
     mais cela signifie que les apostrophes (typiquement de la forme
     possessive en Anglais) forment les limites de mot, ce qui n'est pas
     toujours le résultat souhaité :

          >>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          "They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     La fonction *note string.capwords(): 2188. n'a pas ce problème, car
     elle sépare les mots uniquement sur les espaces.

     Sinon, une solution pour contourner le problème des apostrophes est
     d'utiliser des expressions rationnelles :

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
          "They're Bill's Friends."

 -- Méthode: str.translate (table)

     Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped
     through the given translation table.  The table must be an object
     that implements indexing via *note __getitem__(): 280, typically a
     *note mapping: 119b. or *note sequence: 4de.  When indexed by a
     Unicode ordinal (an integer), the table object can do any of the
     following: return a Unicode ordinal or a string, to map the
     character to one or more other characters; return ‘None’, to delete
     the character from the return string; or raise a *note LookupError:
     2189. exception, to map the character to itself.

     Vous pouvez utiliser *note str.maketrans(): dc8. pour créer une
     table de correspondances de caractères dans différents formats.

     Voir aussi le module *note codecs: 1b. pour une approche plus
     souple de changements de caractères par correspondance.

 -- Méthode: str.upper ()

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne où tous les caractères
     capitalisables (7) ont été convertis en capitales.  Notez que
     ‘s.upper().isupper()’ peut être ‘False’ si ‘s’ contient des
     caractères non capitalisables ou si la catégorie Unicode d'un
     caractère du résultat n'est pas "Lu" ('Letter', 'uppercase'), mais
     par exemple "Lt" ('Letter', 'titlecase').

     L'algorithme de capitalisation utilisé est décrit dans la section
     3.13 ’Default Case Folding’ de la norme Unicode(8).

 -- Méthode: str.zfill (width)

     Renvoie une copie de la chaîne remplie par la gauche du chiffre (le
     caractère ASCII) ‘'0'’ pour faire une chaîne de longueur 'width'.
     Un préfixe (‘'+'’ / ‘'-'’) est permis par l'insertion du caractère
     de bourrage 'après' le caractère désigné plutôt qu'avant.  La
     chaîne d'origine est renvoyée si 'width' est inférieure ou égale à
     ‘len(s)’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> "42".zfill(5)
          '00042'
          >>> "-42".zfill(5)
          '-0042'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch04.pdf

   (3) Les caractères capitalisables sont ceux dont la propriété Unicode
'general category' est soit "Lu" (pour 'Letter', 'uppercase'), soit "Ll"
(pour 'Letter', 'lowercase'), soit "Lt" (pour 'Letter', 'titlecase').

   (4) Les caractères capitalisables sont ceux dont la propriété Unicode
'general category' est soit "Lu" (pour 'Letter', 'uppercase'), soit "Ll"
(pour 'Letter', 'lowercase'), soit "Lt" (pour 'Letter', 'titlecase').

   (5) Les caractères capitalisables sont ceux dont la propriété Unicode
'general category' est soit "Lu" (pour 'Letter', 'uppercase'), soit "Ll"
(pour 'Letter', 'lowercase'), soit "Lt" (pour 'Letter', 'titlecase').

   (6) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf

   (7) Les caractères capitalisables sont ceux dont la propriété Unicode
'general category' est soit "Lu" (pour 'Letter', 'uppercase'), soit "Ll"
(pour 'Letter', 'lowercase'), soit "Lt" (pour 'Letter', 'titlecase').

   (8) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Formatted String Literals f-strings,  Next: Formatage de chaines à la printf,  Prev: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>,  Up: Type Séquence de Texte — str

5.4.8.2 Formatted String Literals (f-strings)
.............................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The *note await: 1b7. and *note async for:
a9b. can be used in expressions within f-strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the debugging operator (‘=’)

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Many restrictions on expressions within
f-strings have been removed.  Notably, nested strings, comments, and
backslashes are now permitted.

An 'f-string' (formally a 'formatted string literal') is a string
literal that is prefixed with ‘f’ or ‘F’.  This type of string literal
allows embedding arbitrary Python expressions within 'replacement
fields', which are delimited by curly brackets (‘{}’).  These
expressions are evaluated at runtime, similarly to *note str.format():
60e, and are converted into regular *note str: 437. objects.  For
example:

     >>> who = 'nobody'
     >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
     >>> f'{who.title()} expects the {nationality} Inquisition!'
     'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'

It is also possible to use a multi line f-string:

     >>> f'''This is a string
     ... on two lines'''
     'This is a string\non two lines'

A single opening curly bracket, ‘'{'’, marks a 'replacement field' that
can contain any Python expression:

     >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
     >>> f'The {nationality} Inquisition!'
     'The Spanish Inquisition!'

To include a literal ‘{’ or ‘}’, use a double bracket:

     >>> x = 42
     >>> f'{{x}} is {x}'
     '{x} is 42'

Functions can also be used, and *note format specifiers: 1369.:

     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> f'√2 \N{ALMOST EQUAL TO} {sqrt(2):.5f}'
     '√2 ≈ 1.41421'

Any non-string expression is converted using *note str(): 437, by
default:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)}'
     '1/3'

To use an explicit conversion, use the ‘!’ (exclamation mark) operator,
followed by any of the valid formats, which are:

Conversion     Signification
               
----------------------------------
               
‘!a’           *note ascii(): 139f.
               
               
‘!r’           *note repr(): 7e9.
               
               
‘!s’           *note str(): 437.
               

For example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)!s}'
     '1/3'
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)!r}'
     'Fraction(1, 3)'
     >>> question = '¿Dónde está el Presidente?'
     >>> print(f'{question!a}')
     '\xbfD\xf3nde est\xe1 el Presidente?'

While debugging it may be helpful to see both the expression and its
value, by using the equals sign (‘=’) after the expression.  This
preserves spaces within the brackets, and can be used with a converter.
By default, the debugging operator uses the *note repr(): 7e9. (‘!r’)
conversion.  For example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> calculation = Fraction(1, 3)
     >>> f'{calculation=}'
     'calculation=Fraction(1, 3)'
     >>> f'{calculation = }'
     'calculation = Fraction(1, 3)'
     >>> f'{calculation = !s}'
     'calculation = 1/3'

Once the output has been evaluated, it can be formatted using a *note
format specifier: 1369. following a colon (‘':'’).  After the expression
has been evaluated, and possibly converted to a string, the
‘__format__()’ method of the result is called with the format specifier,
or the empty string if no format specifier is given.  The formatted
result is then used as the final value for the replacement field.  For
example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 7):.6f}'
     '0.142857'
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 7):_^+10}'
     '___+1/7___'


File: python.info,  Node: Formatage de chaines à la printf,  Prev: Formatted String Literals f-strings,  Up: Type Séquence de Texte — str

5.4.8.3 Formatage de chaines à la ‘printf’
..........................................

     Note: ces opérations de mise en forme contiennent des bizarreries
     menant à de nombreuses erreurs classiques (telles que ne pas
     réussir à afficher des 'n'-uplets ou des dictionnaires
     correctement).  Utiliser les *note formatted string literals: 999,
     la méthode *note str.format(): 60e. ou les *note template strings:
     218d. aide à éviter ces erreurs.  Chacune de ces alternatives
     apporte son lot d'avantages et inconvénients en matière de
     simplicité, de flexibilité et/ou de généralisation possible.

String objects have one unique built-in operation: the ‘%’ operator
(modulo).  This is also known as the string 'formatting' or
'interpolation' operator.  Given ‘format % values’ (where 'format' is a
string), ‘%’ conversion specifications in 'format' are replaced with
zero or more elements of 'values'.  The effect is similar to using the
‘sprintf()’ function in the C language.  For example:

     >>> print('%s has %d quote types.' % ('Python', 2))
     Python has 2 quote types.

Si 'format' ne nécessite qu'un seul argument, 'values' peut être un
objet unique (1).  Si 'values' est un 'n'-uplet, il doit contenir
exactement le nombre d'éléments spécifiés par la chaîne de format, ou un
seul objet tableau de correspondances ('mapping object', par exemple, un
dictionnaire).

Un indicateur de conversion contient deux ou plusieurs caractères et
comporte les éléments suivants, qui doivent apparaître dans cet ordre :

  1. le caractère ‘'%'’, qui marque le début du marqueur ;

  2. la clé de correspondance (facultative), composée d'une suite de
     caractères entre parenthèses (par exemple, ‘(somename)’) ;

  3. des indications de conversion, facultatives, qui affectent le
     résultat de certains types de conversion ;

  4. largeur minimum (facultative).  Si elle vaut ‘'*'’ (astérisque), la
     largeur est lue de l'élément suivant du 'n'-uplet 'values', et
     l'objet à convertir vient après la largeur de champ minimale et la
     précision facultative ;

  5. précision (facultatif), donnée sous la forme d'un ‘'.'’ (point)
     suivi de la précision.  Si la précision est ‘'*'’ (un astérisque),
     la précision est lue à partir de l'élément suivant du 'n'-uplet
     'values' et la valeur à convertir vient ensuite ;

  6. modificateur de longueur (facultatif) ;

  7. type de conversion.

Lorsque l'argument de droite est un dictionnaire (ou un autre type de
tableau de correspondances), les marqueurs dans la chaîne 'doivent'
inclure une clé présente dans le dictionnaire, écrite entre parenthèses,
immédiatement après le caractère ‘'%'’.  La clé indique quelle valeur du
dictionnaire doit être formatée.  Par exemple :

     >>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
     Python has 002 quote types.

Dans ce cas, aucune ‘*’ ne peut se trouver dans le format (car ces ‘*’
nécessitent une liste (accès séquentiel) de paramètres).

Les caractères indicateurs de conversion sont :

Option        Signification
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         La conversion utilise la « forme alternative » (définie ci-dessous).
              
              
‘'0'’         Les valeurs numériques converties sont complétées de zéros.
              
              
‘'-'’         La valeur convertie est ajustée à gauche (remplace la conversion ‘'0'’
              si les deux sont données).
              
              
‘' '’         (une espace) Une espace doit être laissée avant un nombre positif (ou
              chaîne vide) produite par la conversion d'une valeur signée.
              
              
‘'+'’         Un caractère de signe (‘'+'’ ou ‘'-'’) précède la valeur convertie
              (remplace le marqueur « espace »).
              

Un modificateur de longueur (‘h’, ‘l’ ou ‘L’) peut être présent, mais
est ignoré car il est pas nécessaire pour Python, donc par exemple ‘%ld’
est identique à ‘%d’.

Les types utilisables dans les conversions sont :

Conversion       Signification                                             Notes
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Entier décimal signé.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Entier décimal signé.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Valeur octale signée.                                     (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Type obsolète — identique à ‘'d'’.                        (6)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Hexadécimal signé (en minuscules).                        (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Hexadécimal signé (capitales).                            (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Un seul caractère (accepte des entiers ou une chaîne
                 d'un seul caractère).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            String (convertit n'importe quel objet Python avec        (5)
                 *note repr(): 7e9.).                                      
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            String (convertit n'importe quel objet Python avec        (5)
                 *note str(): 437.).                                       
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            String (convertit n'importe quel objet Python en          (5)
                 utilisant *note ascii(): 139f.).                          
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            Aucun argument n'est converti, donne un caractère de
                 ‘'%'’ dans le résultat.
                 

Notes :

  1. La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe octal
     (‘'0o'’) avant le premier chiffre.

  2. La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe ‘'0x'’ ou
     ‘'0X'’ (respectivement pour les formats ‘'x'’ et ‘'X'’) avant le
     premier chiffre.

  3. La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal, même
     si aucun chiffre ne le suit.

     La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres après la virgule, 6
     par défaut.

  4. La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal et les
     zéros non significatifs sont conservés (ils ne le seraient pas
     autrement).

     La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres significatifs avant et
     après la virgule.  6 par défaut.

  5. Si la précision est ‘N’, la sortie est tronquée à ‘N’ caractères.

  6. Voir la PEP 237(2).

Puisque les chaînes Python ont une longueur explicite, les conversions
‘%s’ ne considèrent pas ‘'\0'’ comme la fin de la chaîne.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: les conversions ‘%f’ des nombres dont la
valeur absolue est supérieure à ‘1e50’ ne sont plus remplacées par des
conversions ‘%g’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Pour insérer un 'n'-uplet, vous devez donc donner un 'n'-uplet
d'un seul élément, contenant le 'n'-uplet à insérer.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire,  Next: Types d'ensembles — set frozenset,  Prev: Type Séquence de Texte — str,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.9 Séquences Binaires — ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, ‘vue mémoire’
--------------------------------------------------------------

Les principaux types natifs pour manipuler des données binaires sont
*note bytes: 1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b.  Ils sont gérés par les *note
vues mémoire: 454. qui utilisent le *note protocole tampon: 38e. pour
accéder à la mémoire d'autres objets binaires sans avoir besoin d'en
faire une copie.

Le module *note array: 7. permet le stockage efficace de types basiques
comme les entiers de 32 bits et les 'float' double précision IEEE754.

* Menu:

* Objets bytes::
* Objets bytearray::
* Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray::
* Formatage de bytes a la printf::
* Vues mémoire::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets bytes,  Next: Objets bytearray,  Up: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire

5.4.9.1 Objets 'bytes'
......................

Les 'bytes' sont des séquences immuables d'octets.  Comme beaucoup de
protocoles binaires utilisent l'ASCII, les objets 'bytes' offrent
plusieurs méthodes qui ne sont valables que lors de la manipulation de
données ASCII et sont étroitement liés aux objets 'str' dans bien
d'autres aspects.

 -- Classe: bytes ([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

     Tout d'abord, la syntaxe des 'bytes' littéraux est en grande partie
     la même que pour les chaînes littérales, en dehors du préfixe ‘b’ :

        * entre guillemets simples : ‘b'cela autorise les guillemets
          "doubles"'’ ;

        * entre guillemets (anglais) : ‘b"cela permet aussi les
          guillemets 'simples'"’ ;

        * entre guillemets triples : ‘b'''3 single quotes'''’, ‘b"""3
          double quotes"""’.

     Seuls les caractères ASCII sont autorisés dans les littéraux de
     'bytes' (quel que soit l'encodage du code source déclaré).  Toutes
     les valeurs au-delà de 127 doivent être écrites en utilisant une
     séquence d'échappement appropriée.

     Comme avec les chaînes littérales, les 'bytes' littéraux peuvent
     également utiliser un préfixe ‘r’ pour désactiver le traitement des
     séquences d'échappement.  Voir *note Littéraux de chaînes de
     caractères et de suites d'octets: 1e5f. pour plus d'informations
     sur les différentes formes littérales de 'bytes', y compris les
     séquences d'échappement gérées.

     Bien que les 'bytes' littéraux, et leur représentation, soient
     basés sur du texte ASCII, les 'bytes' se comportent en fait comme
     des séquences immuables de nombres entiers, dont les valeurs sont
     restreintes dans l'intervalle ‘0 <= x < 256’ (ne pas respecter
     cette restriction lève une *note ValueError: 1ff.).  C'est délibéré
     afin de souligner que, bien que de nombreux encodages binaires
     soient compatibles avec l'ASCII, et peuvent être manipulés avec des
     algorithmes orientés texte, ce n'est généralement pas le cas pour
     les données binaires arbitraires (appliquer aveuglément des
     algorithmes de texte sur des données binaires qui ne sont pas
     compatibles ASCII conduit généralement à leur corruption).

     En plus des formes littérales, des objets 'bytes' peuvent être
     créés par de nombreux moyens :

        * un objet 'bytes' rempli de zéros d'une longueur spécifiée :
          ‘bytes(10)’ ;

        * un itérable d'entiers : ‘bytes(range(20))’ ;

        * la copie de données binaires existantes via le protocole
          tampon : ‘bytes(obj)’.

     Voir aussi la fonction native *note bytes: 1a77.

     Puisque 2 chiffres hexadécimaux correspondent précisément à un seul
     octet, les nombres hexadécimaux sont un format couramment utilisé
     pour décrire les données binaires.  Par conséquent, le type 'bytes'
     a une méthode de classe pour lire des données dans ce format :

      -- Méthode: classmethod fromhex (string)

          Cette méthode de la classe *note bytes: 1bd. renvoie un objet
          'bytes', décodant la chaîne donnée.  La chaîne doit contenir
          deux chiffres hexadécimaux par octet, les espaces ASCII sont
          ignorés.

               >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note bytes.fromhex(): adf. saute
          maintenant dans la chaîne tous les caractères ASCII
          d'espacement, pas seulement les espaces.

     Une fonction de conversion inverse existe pour transformer un objet
     'bytes' en sa représentation hexadécimale.

      -- Méthode: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Renvoie une chaîne contenant deux chiffres hexadécimaux pour
          chaque octet de l'instance.

               >>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          Si vous voulez obtenir une chaîne hexadécimale plus facile à
          lire, vous pouvez spécifier le paramètre 'sep' comme
          « caractère de séparation », à inclure dans la sortie.  Par
          défaut, ce caractère est inséré entre chaque octet.  Un second
          paramètre optionnel 'bytes_per_sep' contrôle l'espacement.
          Les valeurs positives calculent la position du séparateur en
          partant de la droite, les valeurs négatives de la gauche.

               >>> value = b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'
               >>> value.hex('-')
               'f0-f1-f2'
               >>> value.hex('_', 2)
               'f0_f1f2'
               >>> b'UUDDLRLRAB'.hex(' ', -4)
               '55554444 4c524c52 4142'

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note bytes.hex(): d58. prend
          désormais en charge les paramètres optionnels 'sep' et
          'bytes_per_sep' pour insérer des séparateurs entre les octets
          dans la sortie hexadécimale.

Comme les objets 'bytes' sont des séquences d'entiers (semblables à un
'n'-uplet), pour une instance de 'bytes' 'b', ‘b[0]’ est un entier,
tandis que ‘b[0:1]’ est un objet 'bytes' de longueur 1.  (Cela contraste
avec les chaînes, où un indice et le découpage donnent une chaîne de
longueur 1.)

La représentation des 'bytes' utilise le format littéral (‘b'...'’) car
il est souvent plus utile que par exemple ‘bytes([46, 46, 46])’.  Vous
pouvez toujours convertir un 'bytes' en liste d'entiers en utilisant
‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets bytearray,  Next: Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray,  Prev: Objets bytes,  Up: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire

5.4.9.2 Objets 'bytearray'
..........................

Les objets *note bytearray: 52b. sont l'équivalent mutable des objets
*note bytes: 1bd.

 -- Classe: bytearray ([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

     Il n'y a pas de syntaxe littérale dédiée aux 'bytearray', ils sont
     toujours créés en appelant le constructeur :

        * créer une instance vide : ‘bytearray()’ ;

        * crée une instance remplie de zéros d'une longueur donnée :
          ‘bytearray(10)’ ;

        * à partir d'un itérable d'entiers : ‘bytearray(range(20))’ ;

        * copie des données binaires existantes via le protocole
          tampon : ‘bytearray(b'Hi!')’.

     Comme les 'bytearray' sont mutables, ils prennent en charge les
     opérations de séquences *note mutables: 211b. en plus des
     opérations communes de 'bytes' et 'bytearray' décrites dans *note
     Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray: 211c.

     Voir aussi la fonction native *note bytearray: 1a78.

     Puisque 2 chiffres hexadécimaux correspondent précisément à un
     octet, les nombres hexadécimaux sont un format couramment utilisé
     pour décrire les données binaires.  Par conséquent, le type
     'bytearray' a une méthode de classe pour lire les données dans ce
     format :

      -- Méthode: classmethod fromhex (string)

          Cette méthode de la classe *note bytearray: 52b. renvoie un
          objet 'bytearray', décodant la chaîne donnée.  La chaîne doit
          contenir deux chiffres hexadécimaux par octet, les caractères
          d'espacement ASCII sont ignorés.

               >>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note bytearray.fromhex(): ae0.
          saute maintenant tous les caractères d'espacement ASCII dans
          la chaîne, pas seulement les espaces.

     Une fonction de conversion inverse existe pour transformer un objet
     'bytearray' en sa représentation hexadécimale.

      -- Méthode: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Renvoie une chaîne contenant deux chiffres hexadécimaux pour
          chaque octet de l'instance.

               >>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: similaire à *note bytes.hex():
          d58, *note bytearray.hex(): d59. prend désormais en charge les
          paramètres optionnels 'sep' et 'bytes_per_sep' pour insérer
          des séparateurs entre les octets dans la sortie hexadécimale.

Comme les 'bytearray' sont des séquences d'entiers (semblables à une
liste), pour un objet 'bytearray' 'b', ‘b[0]’ est un entier, tandis que
‘b[0:1]’ est un objet 'bytearray' de longueur 1.  (Ceci contraste avec
les chaînes de texte, où l'indice et le découpage produisent une chaîne
de longueur 1)

La représentation des objets 'bytearray' utilise le format littéral des
'bytes' (‘bytearray(b'...')’) car il est souvent plus utile que par
exemple ‘bytearray([46, 46, 46])’.  Vous pouvez toujours convertir un
objet 'bytearray' en une liste de nombres entiers en utilisant
‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray,  Next: Formatage de bytes a la printf,  Prev: Objets bytearray,  Up: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire

5.4.9.3 Opérations sur les 'bytes' et 'bytearray'
.................................................

'bytes' et 'bytearray' prennent en charge les opérations *note communes:
2166. des séquences.  Ils interagissent non seulement avec des opérandes
de même type, mais aussi avec les *note objets octet-compatibles: d1d.
En raison de cette flexibilité, ils peuvent être mélangés librement dans
des opérations sans provoquer d'erreurs.  Cependant, le type du résultat
peut dépendre de l'ordre des opérandes.

     Note: les méthodes sur les 'bytes' et les 'bytearray' n'acceptent
     pas les chaînes comme arguments, tout comme les méthodes sur les
     chaînes n'acceptent pas les 'bytes' comme arguments.  Par exemple,
     vous devez écrire :

          a = "abc"
          b = a.replace("a", "f")

     et :

          a = b"abc"
          b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")

Quelques opérations de 'bytes' et 'bytesarray' supposent l'utilisation
de formats binaires compatibles ASCII, et donc doivent être évités
lorsque vous travaillez avec des données binaires arbitraires.  Ces
restrictions sont couvertes ci-dessous.

     Note: utiliser ces opérations basées sur l'ASCII pour manipuler des
     données binaires qui ne sont pas au format ASCII peut les
     corrompre.

Les méthodes suivantes sur les 'bytes' et 'bytearray' peuvent être
utilisées avec des données binaires arbitraires.

 -- Méthode: bytes.count (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie le nombre d'occurrences qui ne se chevauchent pas de la
     sous-séquence 'sub' dans l'intervalle ['start', 'end'].  Les
     arguments facultatifs 'start' et 'end' sont interprétés comme dans
     la notation des découpages.

     La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d. ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

     Si 'sub' est vide, renvoie le nombre de tranches vides entre les
     caractères de début et de fin, ce qui correspond à la longueur de
     l'objet bytes plus un.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris
     entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

 -- Méthode: bytes.removeprefix (prefix, /)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     Si les données binaires commencent par la chaîne 'prefix', renvoie
     ‘bytes[len(prefix):]’.  Sinon, renvoie une copie des données
     binaires d'origine :

          >>> b'TestHook'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'Hook'
          >>> b'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'BaseTestCase'

     Le 'prefix' peut être n'importe quel *note objet octet-compatible:
     d1d.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Méthode: bytes.removesuffix (suffix, /)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     Si les données binaires terminent par la chaîne 'suffix', renvoie
     ‘bytes[:-len(suffix)]’.  Sinon, renvoie une copie des données
     binaires d'origine :

          >>> b'MiscTests'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'Misc'
          >>> b'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'TmpDirMixin'

     Le 'suffix' peut être n'importe quel *note objet octet-compatible:
     d1d.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Méthode: bytes.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
 -- Méthode: bytearray.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Renvoie la chaine d'octets décodée en instance de *note str: 437.

     'encoding' vaut par défaut ‘utf-8’ ; pour une liste des encodages
     possibles, voir la section *note Standard Encodings: da8.

     'errors' détermine la manière dont sont traitées les erreurs.  Sa
     valeur par défaut est ‘'strict'’, ce qui signifie que les erreurs
     d'encodage lèvent une *note UnicodeError: 1283.  Les autres valeurs
     possibles sont ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’ et tout autre nom enregistré
     'via' *note codecs.register_error(): 144f, voir la section *note
     Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2. pour les détails.

     Pour des raisons de performances, la valeur de 'errors' n'est pas
     vérifiée à moins qu'une erreur de décodage ne se produise
     réellement, que le *note mode développeur: 1f5. ne soit activé ou
     que Python ait été compilé en *note mode débogage: 1f6.

          Note: passer l'argument 'encoding' à *note str: 437. permet de
          décoder tout *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. directement,
          sans avoir besoin d'utiliser un ‘bytes’ ou ‘bytearray’
          temporaire.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: gère les arguments nommés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: les valeurs de 'errors' sont
     maintenant vérifiées en *note mode de développement: 1f5. et en
     *note mode de débogage: 1f6.

 -- Méthode: bytes.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie ‘True’ si les octets se terminent par 'suffix', sinon
     ‘False’.  'suffix' peut aussi être un 'n'-uplet de suffixes à
     rechercher.  Avec l'argument optionnel 'start', la recherche se
     fait à partir de cette position.  Avec l'argument optionnel 'end',
     la comparaison s'arrête à cette position.

     Les suffixes à rechercher peuvent être n'importe quel *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d.

 -- Méthode: bytes.find (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie la première position où le 'sub' se trouve dans les
     données, de telle sorte que 'sub' soit contenue dans
     ‘s[start:end]’.  Les arguments facultatifs 'start' et 'end' sont
     interprétés comme dans la notation des découpages.  Renvoie ‘-1’ si
     'sub' n'est pas trouvé.

     La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d. ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

          Note: la méthode *note find(): 17fa. ne doit être utilisée que
          si vous avez besoin de connaître la position de 'sub'.  Pour
          vérifier si 'sub' est présent ou non, utilisez l'opérateur
          *note in: 2e9. :

               >>> b'Py' in b'Python'
               True

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris
     entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

 -- Méthode: bytes.index (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Comme *note find(): 17fa, mais lève une *note ValueError: 1ff.
     lorsque la séquence est introuvable.

     La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d. ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris
     entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

 -- Méthode: bytes.join (iterable)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.join (iterable)

     Renvoie un 'bytes' ou 'bytearray' qui est la concaténation des
     séquences de données binaires dans 'iterable'.  Une exception *note
     TypeError: 525. est levée si une valeur d''iterable' n'est pas un
     *note objet octet-compatible: d1d, y compris pour des *note str:
     437.  Le séparateur entre les éléments est le contenu du 'bytes' ou
     du 'bytearray' depuis lequel cette méthode est appelée.

 -- Méthode: static bytes.maketrans (from, to)
 -- Méthode: static bytearray.maketrans (from, to)

     Cette méthode statique renvoie une table de traduction utilisable
     par *note bytes.translate(): 219f. qui permettra de changer chaque
     caractère de 'from' par un caractère à la même position dans 'to' ;
     'from' et 'to' doivent tous deux être des *note objets
     octet-compatibles: d1d. et avoir la même longueur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Méthode: bytes.partition (sep)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.partition (sep)

     Divise la séquence à la première occurrence de 'sep', et renvoie un
     triplet contenant la partie précédant le séparateur, le séparateur
     lui-même (ou sa copie en 'byterray'), et la partie suivant le
     séparateur.  Si le séparateur n'est pas trouvé, le triplet renvoyé
     contient une copie de la séquence d'origine, suivi de deux 'bytes'
     ou 'bytearray' vides.

     Le séparateur à rechercher peut être tout *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d.

 -- Méthode: bytes.replace (old, new[, count])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.replace (old, new[, count])

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont toutes les occurrences de la
     sous-séquence 'old' sont remplacées par 'new'.  Si l'argument
     optionnel 'count' est donné, seules les 'count' premières
     occurrences sont remplacées.

     La sous-séquence à rechercher et son remplacement peuvent être
     n'importe quel *note objet octet-compatible: d1d.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie la plus grande position de 'sub' dans la séquence, de telle
     sorte que 'sub' soit dans ‘s[start:end]’.  Les arguments
     facultatifs 'start' et 'end' sont interprétés comme dans la
     notation des découpages.  Renvoie ‘-1’ si 'sub' n'est pas
     trouvable.

     La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d. ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris
     entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

 -- Méthode: bytes.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Semblable à *note rfind(): 17fb. mais lève une *note ValueError:
     1ff. lorsque 'sub' est introuvable.

     La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d. ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris
     entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

 -- Méthode: bytes.rpartition (sep)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.rpartition (sep)

     Coupe la séquence à la dernière occurrence de 'sep', et renvoie un
     triplet de trois éléments contenant la partie précédant le
     séparateur, le séparateur lui-même (ou sa copie, un 'bytearray'),
     et la partie suivant le séparateur.  Si le séparateur n'est pas
     trouvé, le triplet contient deux 'bytes' ou 'bytesarray' vides
     suivi d’une copie de la séquence d'origine.

     Le séparateur à rechercher peut être tout *note objet
     octet-compatible: d1d.

 -- Méthode: bytes.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Renvoie ‘True’ si les données binaires commencent par le 'prefix'
     spécifié, sinon ‘False’.  'prefix' peut aussi être un 'n'-uplet de
     préfixes à rechercher.  Avec l'argument 'start' la recherche
     commence à cette position.  Avec l'argument 'end' option, la
     recherche s'arrête à cette position.

     Les préfixes à rechercher peuvent être n'importe quels *note objets
     octet-compatibles: d1d.

 -- Méthode: bytes.translate (table, /, delete=b'')
 -- Méthode: bytearray.translate (table, /, delete=b'')

     Renvoie une copie du 'bytes' ou 'bytearray' dont tous les octets de
     'delete' sont supprimés, et les octets restants changés par la
     table de correspondance donnée, qui doit être un objet 'bytes'
     d'une longueur de 256.

     Vous pouvez utiliser la méthode *note bytes.maketrans(): 1255. pour
     créer une table de correspondance.

     Donnez ‘None’ comme 'table' pour seulement supprimer des
     caractères :

          >>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
          b'rd ths shrt txt'

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'delete' est maintenant accepté comme
     argument nommé.

Les méthodes suivantes sur les 'bytes' et 'bytearray' supposent par
défaut que les données traitées sont compatibles ASCII, mais peuvent
toujours être utilisées avec des données binaires, arbitraires, en
passant des arguments appropriés.  Notez que toutes les méthodes de
'bytearray' de cette section ne travaillent jamais sur l'objet lui-même,
mais renvoient un nouvel objet.

 -- Méthode: bytes.center (width[, fillbyte])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.center (width[, fillbyte])

     Renvoie une copie de l'objet centrée dans une séquence de longueur
     'width'.  Le remplissage est fait en utilisant 'fillbyte' (qui par
     défaut est une espace ASCII). Pour les objets *note bytes: 1bd, la
     séquence initiale est renvoyée si 'width' est inférieure ou égale à
     ‘len(s)’.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.ljust (width[, fillbyte])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.ljust (width[, fillbyte])

     Renvoie une copie de l'objet aligné à gauche dans une séquence de
     longueur 'width'.  Le remplissage est fait en utilisant 'fillbyte'
     (par défaut un espace ASCII). Pour les objets *note bytes: 1bd, la
     séquence initiale est renvoyée si 'width' est inférieure ou égale à
     ‘len(s)’.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.lstrip ([chars])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.lstrip ([chars])

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont certains préfixes ont été
     supprimés.  L’argument 'chars' est une séquence binaire spécifiant
     le jeu d'octets à supprimer.  Ce nom se réfère au fait de cette
     méthode est généralement utilisée avec des caractères ASCII. En cas
     d’omission ou ‘None’, la valeur par défaut de 'chars' permet de
     supprimer des espaces ASCII. L’argument 'chars' n’est pas un
     préfixe, toutes les combinaisons de ses valeurs sont supprimées :

          >>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
          b'spacious   '
          >>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example.com'

     Les octets à retirer peuvent être n'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d.  Voir *note removeprefix(): 2194. pour une méthode qui
     supprime, au début de la séquence, la chaîne de caractères en tant
     que telle plutôt que l'ensemble des caractères passés en paramètre.
     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.lstrip(b'Arthur: ')
          b'ee!'
          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix(b'Arthur: ')
          b'three!'

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.rjust (width[, fillbyte])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.rjust (width[, fillbyte])

     Renvoie une copie de l'objet justifié à droite dans une séquence de
     longueur 'width'.  Le remplissage est fait en utilisant le
     caractère 'fillbyte' (par défaut est un espace ASCII). Pour les
     objets *note bytes: 1bd, la séquence d'origine est renvoyée si
     'width' est inférieure ou égale à ‘len(s)’.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Divise la séquence d'octets en sous-séquences du même type, en
     utilisant 'sep' comme séparateur.  Si 'maxsplit' est donné, c'est
     le nombre maximum de divisions qui pourront être faites, celles "à
     droite".  Si 'sep' est pas spécifié ou est ‘None’, toute
     sous-séquence composée uniquement d'espaces ASCII est un
     séparateur.  En dehors du fait qu'il découpe par la droite, *note
     rsplit(): 21b4. se comporte comme *note split(): 21b5. qui est
     décrit en détail ci-dessous.

 -- Méthode: bytes.rstrip ([chars])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.rstrip ([chars])

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont des octets finaux sont
     supprimés.  L'argument 'chars' est une séquence d'octets spécifiant
     le jeu de caractères à supprimer.  En cas d'omission ou ‘None’, les
     espaces ASCII sont supprimées.  L'argument 'chars' n'est pas un
     suffixe : toutes les combinaisons de ses valeurs sont retirées :

          >>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
          b'   spacious'
          >>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
          b'mississ'

     Les octets à retirer peuvent être n'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d.  Voir *note removesuffix(): 2196. pour une méthode qui
     supprime, à la fin de la séquence, la chaîne de caractères en tant
     que telle plutôt que l'ensemble des caractères passés en paramètre.
     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Monty Python'.rstrip(b' Python')
          b'M'
          >>> b'Monty Python'.removesuffix(b' Python')
          b'Monty'

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Divise la séquence en sous-séquences du même type, en utilisant
     'sep' comme séparateur.  Si 'maxsplit' est donné, c'est le nombre
     maximum de divisions qui pourront être faites (la liste aura donc
     au plus ‘maxsplit+1’ éléments), Si 'maxsplit' n'est pas spécifié ou
     faut ‘-1’, il n'y a aucune limite au nombre de découpes (elles sont
     toutes effectuées).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example,
     ‘b'1,,2'.split(b',')’ returns ‘[b'1', b'', b'2']’).  The 'sep'
     argument may consist of a multibyte sequence as a single delimiter.
     Splitting an empty sequence with a specified separator returns
     ‘[b'']’ or ‘[bytearray(b'')]’ depending on the type of object being
     split.  The 'sep' argument may be any *note bytes-like object: d1d.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2,3']
          >>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
          >>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3<4']

     Si 'sep' n'est pas spécifié ou est ‘None’, un autre algorithme de
     découpe est appliqué : les espaces ASCII consécutifs sont
     considérés comme un seul séparateur, et le résultat ne contiendra
     pas les chaînes vides de début ou de la fin si la chaîne est
     préfixée ou suffixé d'espaces.  Par conséquent, diviser une
     séquence vide ou une séquence composée d'espaces ASCII avec un
     séparateur ‘None’ renvoie ‘[]’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'1 2 3'.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2 3']
          >>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']

 -- Méthode: bytes.strip ([chars])
 -- Méthode: bytearray.strip ([chars])

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont des caractères initiaux et
     finaux sont supprimés.  L'argument 'chars' est une séquence
     spécifiant le jeu d'octets à supprimer, le nom se réfère au fait de
     cette méthode est généralement utilisée avec des caractères ASCII.
     En cas d'omission ou ‘None’, les espaces ASCII sont supprimés.
     L'argument 'chars' n'est ni un préfixe ni un suffixe, toutes les
     combinaisons de ses valeurs sont supprimées :

          >>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
          b'spacious'
          >>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example'

     Les octets à retirer peuvent être tout *note bytes-like object:
     d1d.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

Les méthodes suivantes sur les 'bytes' et 'bytearray' supposent
l'utilisation d'un format binaire compatible ASCII, et donc doivent être
évités lorsque vous travaillez avec des données binaires arbitraires.
Notez que toutes les méthodes de 'bytearray' de cette section 'ne
modifient pas' les octets, ils produisent de nouveaux objets.

 -- Méthode: bytes.capitalize ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.capitalize ()

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont chaque octet est interprété
     comme un caractère ASCII, le premier octet en capitale et le reste
     en minuscules.  Les octets non ASCII ne sont pas modifiés.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.expandtabs (tabsize=8)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence où toutes les tabulations ASCII
     sont remplacées par un ou plusieurs espaces ASCII, en fonction de
     la colonne courante et de la taille de tabulation donnée.  Les
     positions des tabulations se trouvent tous les 'tabsize' caractères
     (8 par défaut, ce qui donne les positions de tabulations aux
     colonnes 0, 8, 16 et ainsi de suite).  Pour travailler sur la
     séquence, la colonne en cours est mise à zéro et la séquence est
     examinée octets par octets.  Si l'octet est une tabulation ASCII
     (‘b'\t'’), un ou plusieurs espaces sont insérés au résultat jusqu’à
     ce que la colonne courante soit égale à la position de tabulation
     suivante.  (Le caractère tabulation lui-même n’est pas copié.)  Si
     l'octet courant est un saut de ligne ASCII (‘b'\n'’) ou un retour
     chariot (‘b'\r'’), il est copié et la colonne en cours est remise à
     zéro.  Tout autre octet est copié inchangé et la colonne en cours
     est incrémentée de un indépendamment de la façon dont l'octet est
     représenté lors de l’affichage :

          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          b'01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          b'01  012 0123    01234'

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.isalnum ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.isalnum ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont des
     caractères ASCII alphabétiques ou chiffres et que la séquence n'est
     pas vide, sinon ‘False’.  Les caractères ASCII alphabétiques sont
     les suivants dans la séquence d'octets
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ et les
     chiffres : ‘b'0123456789'’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
          True
          >>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
          False

 -- Méthode: bytes.isalpha ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.isalpha ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les octets dans la séquence sont des
     caractères alphabétiques ASCII et que la séquence n'est pas vide,
     sinon ‘False’.  Les caractères ASCII alphabétiques sont :
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
          True
          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
          False

 -- Méthode: bytes.isascii ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.isascii ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la séquence est vide, ou si tous ses octets sont
     des octets ASCII, renvoie ‘False’ dans le cas contraire.  Les
     octets ASCII dans l'intervalle ‘0’–‘0x7F’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: bytes.isdigit ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.isdigit ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les octets de la séquence sont des chiffres
     ASCII et que la séquence n'est pas vide, sinon ‘False’.  Les
     chiffres ASCII sont ceux dans la séquence d'octets ‘b'0123456789'’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'1234'.isdigit()
          True
          >>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
          False

 -- Méthode: bytes.islower ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.islower ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ s'il y a au moins un caractère ASCII minuscule dans
     la séquence et aucune capitale, sinon ‘False’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'hello world'.islower()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.islower()
          False

     Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Les capitales ASCII sont
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- Méthode: bytes.isspace ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.isspace ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les octets de la séquence sont des espaces
     ASCII et que la séquence n'est pas vide, sinon ‘False’.  Les
     espèces ASCII sont ‘b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'’ (espace, tabulation, saut de
     ligne, retour chariot, tabulation verticale, saut de page).

 -- Méthode: bytes.istitle ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.istitle ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la séquence ASCII est 'titlecased', et qu'elle
     n'est pas vide, sinon ‘False’.  Voir *note bytes.title(): 21cd.
     pour plus de détails sur la définition de 'titlecase'.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
          False

 -- Méthode: bytes.isupper ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.isupper ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ s'il y a au moins un caractère alphabétique
     majuscule ASCII dans la séquence et aucun caractère ASCII
     minuscule, sinon ‘False’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
          False

     Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Les capitales ASCII sont
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- Méthode: bytes.lower ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.lower ()

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont tous les caractères ASCII en
     majuscules sont convertis en leur équivalent en minuscules.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Hello World'.lower()
          b'hello world'

     Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Les capitales ASCII sont
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.splitlines (keepends=False)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Renvoie une liste des lignes de la séquence d'octets, découpant au
     niveau des fin de lignes ASCII. Cette méthode utilise l'approche
     *note universal newlines: d2a. pour découper les lignes.  Les fins
     de ligne ne sont pas inclus dans la liste des résultats, sauf si
     'keepends' est donné et vrai.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          [b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          [b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']

     Contrairement à *note split(): 21b8. lorsque le délimiteur 'sep'
     est fourni, cette méthode renvoie une liste vide pour la chaîne
     vide, et un saut de ligne à la fin ne se traduit pas par une ligne
     supplémentaire :

          >>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
          ([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
          >>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
          ([], [b'One line'])

 -- Méthode: bytes.swapcase ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.swapcase ()

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont tous les caractères ASCII
     minuscules sont convertis en majuscules et vice-versa.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
          b'hELLO wORLD'

     Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Les capitales ASCII sont
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Unlike *note str.swapcase(): 2186, it is always the case that
     ‘bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin’ for the binary versions.  Case
     conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not
     generally true for arbitrary Unicode code points.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.title ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.title ()

     Renvoie une version 'titlecased' de la séquence d'octets où les
     mots commencent par un caractère ASCII majuscule et les caractères
     restants sont en minuscules.  Les octets non capitalisables ne sont
     pas modifiés.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Hello world'.title()
          b'Hello World'

     Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Les caractères ASCII majuscules
     sont ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  Aucun autre octet n'est
     capitalisable.

     Pour l'algorithme, la notion de mot est définie simplement et
     indépendamment de la langue comme un groupe de lettres
     consécutives.  La définition fonctionne dans de nombreux contextes,
     mais cela signifie que les apostrophes (typiquement de la forme
     possessive en Anglais) forment les limites de mot, ce qui n'est pas
     toujours le résultat souhaité :

          >>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     Une solution pour contourner le problème des apostrophes peut être
     obtenue en utilisant des expressions rationnelles :

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
          ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
          b"They're Bill's Friends."

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.upper ()
 -- Méthode: bytearray.upper ()

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont tous les caractères ASCII
     minuscules sont convertis en leur équivalent majuscule.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b'Hello World'.upper()
          b'HELLO WORLD'

     Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Les capitales ASCII sont
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

 -- Méthode: bytes.zfill (width)
 -- Méthode: bytearray.zfill (width)

     Renvoie une copie de la séquence remplie par la gauche du chiffre
     ‘b'0'’ pour en faire une séquence de longueur 'width'.  Un préfixe
     (‘b'+'’ / ‘b'-'’) est permis par l'insertion du caractère de
     remplissage 'après' le caractère de signe plutôt qu'avant.  Pour
     les objets *note bytes: 1bd. la séquence d'origine est renvoyée si
     'width' est inférieur ou égale à ‘len(seq)’.

     Par exemple :

          >>> b"42".zfill(5)
          b'00042'
          >>> b"-42".zfill(5)
          b'-0042'

          Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas'
          les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si
          aucune modification n'a été effectuée.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatage de bytes a la printf,  Next: Vues mémoire,  Prev: Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray,  Up: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire

5.4.9.4 Formatage de 'bytes' a la ‘printf’
..........................................

     Note: Les opérations de formatage décrites ici présentent une
     variété de bizarreries qui conduisent à un certain nombre d’erreurs
     classiques (typiquement, échouer à afficher des 'n'-uplets ou des
     dictionnaires correctement).  Si la valeur à afficher peut être un
     'n'-uplet ou un dictionnaire, mettez-le à l'intérieur d'un autre
     'n'-uplet.

Les objets 'bytes' (‘bytes’ et ‘bytearray’) ont un unique opérateur :
l'opérateur ‘%’ (modulo).  Il est aussi connu sous le nom d'opérateur de
mise en forme.  Avec ‘format % values’ (où 'format' est un objet
'bytes'), les marqueurs de conversion ‘%’ dans 'format' sont remplacés
par zéro ou plus de 'values'.  L'effet est similaire à la fonction
‘sprintf()’ du langage C.

Si 'format' ne nécessite qu'un seul argument, 'values' peut être un
objet unique.  (1)  Si 'values' est un 'n'-uplet, il doit contenir
exactement le nombre d'éléments spécifiés dans le format en 'bytes', ou
un seul objet de correspondances ('mapping object', par exemple, un
dictionnaire).

Un indicateur de conversion contient deux ou plusieurs caractères et
comporte les éléments suivants, qui doivent apparaître dans cet ordre :

  1. le caractère ‘'%'’, qui marque le début du marqueur ;

  2. la clé de correspondance (facultative), composée d'une suite de
     caractères entre parenthèses (par exemple, ‘(somename)’) ;

  3. des indications de conversion, facultatives, qui affectent le
     résultat de certains types de conversion ;

  4. largeur minimum (facultative).  Si elle vaut ‘'*'’ (astérisque), la
     largeur est lue de l'élément suivant du 'n'-uplet 'values', et
     l'objet à convertir vient après la largeur de champ minimale et la
     précision facultative ;

  5. précision (facultatif), donnée sous la forme d'un ‘'.'’ (point)
     suivi de la précision.  Si la précision est ‘'*'’ (un astérisque),
     la précision est lue à partir de l'élément suivant du 'n'-uplet
     'values' et la valeur à convertir vient ensuite ;

  6. modificateur de longueur (facultatif) ;

  7. type de conversion.

Lorsque l'argument de droite est un dictionnaire (ou un autre type de
'mapping'), les marqueurs dans le 'bytes' 'doivent' inclure une clé
présente dans le dictionnaire, écrite entre parenthèses, immédiatement
après le caractère ‘'%'’.  La clé indique quelle valeur du dictionnaire
doit être formatée.  Par exemple :

     >>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
     b'Python has 002 quote types.'

Dans ce cas, aucune ‘*’ ne peut se trouver dans le format (car ces ‘*’
nécessitent une liste (accès séquentiel) de paramètres).

Les caractères indicateurs de conversion sont :

Option        Signification
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         La conversion utilise la « forme alternative » (définie ci-dessous).
              
              
‘'0'’         Les valeurs numériques converties sont complétées de zéros.
              
              
‘'-'’         La valeur convertie est ajustée à gauche (remplace la conversion ‘'0'’
              si les deux sont données).
              
              
‘' '’         (une espace) Une espace doit être laissée avant un nombre positif (ou
              chaîne vide) produite par la conversion d'une valeur signée.
              
              
‘'+'’         Un caractère de signe (‘'+'’ ou ‘'-'’) précède la valeur convertie
              (remplace le marqueur « espace »).
              

Un modificateur de longueur (‘h’, ‘l’ ou ‘L’) peut être présent, mais
est ignoré car il est pas nécessaire pour Python, donc par exemple ‘%ld’
est identique à ‘%d’.

Les types utilisables dans les conversions sont :

Conversion       Signification                                             Notes
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Entier décimal signé.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Entier décimal signé.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Valeur octale signée.                                     (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Type obsolète — identique à ‘'d'’.                        (8)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Hexadécimal signé (en minuscules).                        (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Hexadécimal signé (capitales).                            (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Octet simple (Accepte un nombre entier ou un seul objet
                 'byte').
                 
                                                                           
‘'b'’            Bytes (any object that follows the                        (5)
                 *note buffer protocol: 38e. or has                        
                 *note __bytes__(): 5d4.).
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            ‘'s'’ est un alias de ‘'b'’ et ne devrait être utilisé    (6)
                 que pour du code Python2/3.                               
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            'Bytes' (convertit n'importe quel objet Python en         (5)
                 utilisant ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii',                      
                 'backslashreplace)’).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            ‘'r'’ est un alias de ‘'a'’ et ne devrait être utilise    (7)
                 que dans du code Python2/3.                               
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            Aucun argument n'est converti, donne un caractère de
                 ‘'%'’ dans le résultat.
                 

Notes :

  1. La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe octal
     (‘'0o'’) avant le premier chiffre.

  2. La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe ‘'0x'’ ou
     ‘'0X'’ (respectivement pour les formats ‘'x'’ et ‘'X'’) avant le
     premier chiffre.

  3. La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal, même
     si aucun chiffre ne le suit.

     La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres après la virgule, 6
     par défaut.

  4. La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal et les
     zéros non significatifs sont conservés (ils ne le seraient pas
     autrement).

     La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres significatifs avant et
     après la virgule.  6 par défaut.

  5. Si la précision est ‘N’, la sortie est tronquée à ‘N’ caractères.

  6. ‘b'%s'’ est obsolète, mais ne sera pas retiré des version 3.x.

  7. ‘b'%r'’ est obsolète mais ne sera pas retiré dans Python 3.x.

  8. Voir la PEP 237(2).

     Note: la version 'bytearray' de cette méthode 'ne modifie pas' les
     octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune
     modification n'a été effectuée.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 461(3) - Ajout du formatage via % aux 'bytes' et 'bytesarray'

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Pour insérer un 'n'-uplet, vous devez donc donner un 'n'-uplet
d'un seul élément, contenant le 'n'-uplet à insérer.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: Vues mémoire,  Prev: Formatage de bytes a la printf,  Up: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire

5.4.9.5 Vues mémoire
....................

Les *note vues mémoire: 454. permettent à du code Python d'accéder sans
copie aux données internes d'un objet prenant en charge le *note
protocole tampon: 38e.

 -- Classe: memoryview (object)

     Crée une *note vue mémoire: 454. faisant référence à 'object'.
     'object' doit savoir gérer le protocole tampon.  *note bytes: 1bd.
     et *note bytearray: 52b. sont des classes natives prenant en charge
     le protocole tampon.

     Une *note vue mémoire: 454. a la notion d''élement', qui est
     l'unité de mémoire atomique gérée par l'objet 'object' d'origine.
     Pour de nombreux types simples comme *note bytes: 1bd. et *note
     bytearray: 52b, l'élément est l'octet, mais pour d'autres types
     tels que *note array.array: 19e. les éléments peuvent être plus
     grands.

     ‘len(view)’ is equal to the length of *note tolist: 21dd, which is
     the nested list representation of the view.  If ‘view.ndim = 1’,
     this is equal to the number of elements in the view.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: If ‘view.ndim == 0’, ‘len(view)’ now
     raises *note TypeError: 525. instead of returning 1.

     The *note itemsize: 21de. attribute will give you the number of
     bytes in a single element.

     Une *note vue mémoire: 454. autorise le découpage et l'indiçage de
     ses données.  Découper sur une dimension donne une sous-vue :

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> v[1]
          98
          >>> v[-1]
          103
          >>> v[1:4]
          <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
          >>> bytes(v[1:4])
          b'bce'

     Si le *note format: 21df. est un des formats natif du module *note
     struct: d4, indexer avec un nombre entier ou un 'n'-uplet de
     nombres entiers est aussi autorisé et renvoie un seul 'element' du
     bon type.  Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles peuvent être
     indexées avec un nombre entier ou un 'n'-uplet d'un entier.  Les
     'memoryview' multi-dimensionnelles peuvent être indexées avec des
     'ndim'-uplets où 'ndim' est le nombre de dimensions.  Les
     'memoryviews' à zéro dimension peuvent être indexées avec un
     'n'-uplet vide.

     Voici un exemple avec un autre format que 'byte' :

          >>> import array
          >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
          >>> m = memoryview(a)
          >>> m[0]
          -11111111
          >>> m[-1]
          44444444
          >>> m[::2].tolist()
          [-11111111, -33333333]

     Si l'objet sous-jacent est accessible en écriture, la vue mémoire
     prend en charge les assignations de tranches unidimensionnelles.
     Redimensionner n'est cependant pas autorisé :

          >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
          >>> v = memoryview(data)
          >>> v.readonly
          False
          >>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'zbcefg')
          >>> v[1:4] = b'123'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z123fg')
          >>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
          >>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z1spam')

     Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles de *note hachables: 5fd.
     (lecture seule) avec les formats 'B', 'b', ou 'c' sont aussi
     hachables.  La fonction de hachage est définie telle que ‘hash(m)
     == hash(m.tobytes())’ :

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
          True
          >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
          True
          >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
          True

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles
     peuvent aussi être découpées.  Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles
     avec les formats 'B', 'b' ou 'c' sont maintenant *note hachables:
     5fd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: 'memoryview' est maintenant
     enregistrée automatiquement avec *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     11a3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: les vues mémoire peuvent maintenant
     être indicées par un 'n'-uplet d'entiers.

     La classe *note vue mémoire: 454. dispose de plusieurs méthodes :

      -- Méthode: __eq__ (exporter)

          Une vue mémoire et un 'exporter' de la PEP 3118(1) sont égaux
          si leurs formes sont équivalentes et si toutes les valeurs
          correspondantes sont égales, les formats respectifs des
          opérandes étant interprétés en utilisant la syntaxe de *note
          struct: d4.

          Pour le sous-ensemble des formats de *note struct: d4. pris en
          charge par *note tolist(): 21dd, ‘v’ et ‘w’ sont égaux si
          ‘v.tolist() ==w.tolist()’ :

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
               >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
               >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> y = memoryview(b)
               >>> x == a == y == b
               True
               >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
               True
               >>> z = y[::-2]
               >>> z == c
               True
               >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
               True

          Si l'un des formats n'est pas géré par le module de *note
          struct: d4, les objets sont toujours considérés différents
          (même si les formats et les valeurs contenues sont
          identiques) :

               >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
               >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
               ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
               ...
               >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
               >>> a = memoryview(point)
               >>> b = memoryview(point)
               >>> a == point
               False
               >>> a == b
               False

          Note that, as with floating-point numbers, ‘v is w’ does 'not'
          imply ‘v == w’ for memoryview objects.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: les versions précédentes
          comparaient la mémoire brute sans tenir compte du format de
          l'objet ni de sa structure logique.

      -- Méthode: tobytes (order='C')

          Renvoie les données de la vue mémoire sous forme de 'bytes'.
          Cela équivaut à appeler le constructeur *note bytes: 1bd. sur
          la vue mémoire.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.tobytes()
               b'abc'
               >>> bytes(m)
               b'abc'

          Pour les tableaux non contigus le résultat est égal à la
          représentation en liste aplatie dont tous les éléments sont
          convertis en octets.  *note tobytes(): 21e1. prend en charge
          toutes les chaînes de format, y compris celles qui ne sont pas
          connues du module *note struct: d4.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8: 'order' peut être ‘'C'’, ‘'F'’ ou
          ‘'A'’.  Lorsque 'order' est ‘'C'’ ou ‘'F'’, les données du
          tableau original sont converties en ordre C ou Fortran.  Pour
          les vues contiguës, ‘'A'’ renvoie une copie exacte de la
          mémoire physique.  En particulier, l'ordre Fortran en mémoire
          est conservé.  Pour les vues non contiguës, les données sont
          d'abord converties en C. ‘order=None’ est identique à
          ‘order='C'’.

      -- Méthode: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Renvoie une chaîne contenant deux chiffres hexadécimaux pour
          chaque octet de la mémoire.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.hex()
               '616263'

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: similaire à *note bytes.hex():
          d58, *note memoryview.hex(): d5a. prend désormais en charge
          les paramètres optionnels 'sep' et 'bytes_per_sep' pour
          insérer des séparateurs entre les octets dans la sortie
          hexadécimale.

      -- Méthode: tolist ()

          Renvoie les données de la mémoire sous la forme d'une liste
          d'éléments.

               >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> m.tolist()
               [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note tolist(): 21dd. prend
          désormais en charge tous les formats d'un caractère du module
          *note struct: d4. ainsi que des représentations
          multidimensionnelles.

      -- Méthode: toreadonly ()

          Renvoie une version en lecture seule de l'objet 'memoryview'.
          L'objet original 'memoryview' est inchangé.

               >>> m = memoryview(bytearray(b'abc'))
               >>> mm = m.toreadonly()
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> mm[0] = 42
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
               >>> m[0] = 43
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [43, 98, 99]

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Libère le tampon sous-jacent exposé par l'objet 'memoryview'.
          Beaucoup d'objets ont des comportements spécifiques lorsqu'ils
          sont liés à une vue (par exemple, un *note bytearray: 52b.
          refusera temporairement de se faire redimensionner).  Par
          conséquent, appeler 'release()' peut être pratique pour lever
          ces restrictions (et libérer des ressources liées) aussi tôt
          que possible.

          Après le premier appel de cette méthode, toute nouvelle
          opération sur la vue mémoire lève une *note ValueError: 1ff.
          (sauf *note release(): 119d. elle-même qui peut être appelée
          plusieurs fois) :

               >>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
               >>> m.release()
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          Le protocole de gestion de contexte peut être utilisé pour
          obtenir un effet similaire, via l'instruction ‘with’ :

               >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
               ...     m[0]
               ...
               97
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: cast (format[, shape])

          Change le format ou la forme d'une vue mémoire.  Par défaut
          'shape' vaut ‘[byte_length//new_itemsize]’, ce qui signifie
          que la vue résultante n'a qu'une dimension.  La valeur
          renvoyée est une nouvelle vue mémoire, mais le tampon
          sous-jacent lui-même n'est pas copié.  Les changements de
          format pris en charge sont « une dimension vers C-*note
          contiguous: 21e4. » et « 'C-contiguous' vers une dimension ».

          The destination format is restricted to a single element
          native format in *note struct: d4. syntax.  One of the formats
          must be a byte format ('B', 'b' or 'c').  The byte length of
          the result must be the same as the original length.  Note that
          all byte lengths may depend on the operating system.

          Transformer un '1D/long' en '1D/unsigned bytes' :

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> x.format
               'l'
               >>> x.itemsize
               8
               >>> len(x)
               3
               >>> x.nbytes
               24
               >>> y = x.cast('B')
               >>> y.format
               'B'
               >>> y.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(y)
               24
               >>> y.nbytes
               24

          Transformer un '1D/unsigned bytes' en '1D/char' :

               >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
               >>> x = memoryview(b)
               >>> x[0] = b'a'
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format 'B'
               >>> y = x.cast('c')
               >>> y[0] = b'a'
               >>> b
               bytearray(b'ayz')

          Transformer un '1D/bytes' en '3D/ints' en '1D/signed char' :

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
               >>> y.format
               'i'
               >>> y.itemsize
               4
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> z = y.cast('b')
               >>> z.format
               'b'
               >>> z.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(z)
               48
               >>> z.nbytes
               48

          Transformer un '1D/unsigned char' en '2D/unsigned long' :

               >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: le format de la source n'est plus
          restreint lors de la transformation vers une vue d'octets.

     Plusieurs attributs en lecture seule sont également disponibles :

      -- Attribut: obj

          L'objet sous-jacent de la vue mémoire :

               >>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
               >>> m = memoryview(b)
               >>> m.obj is b
               True

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: nbytes

          ‘nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())’.
          C'est l'espace que la liste occuperait en octets, dans une
          représentation contiguë.  Ce n'est pas nécessairement égal à
          ‘len(m)’ :

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> len(m)
               5
               >>> m.nbytes
               20
               >>> y = m[::2]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               12
               >>> len(y.tobytes())
               12

          Tableaux multidimensionnels :

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               96

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: readonly

          Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est en lecture seule.

      -- Attribut: format

          Chaîne contenant le format (dans le style de *note struct:
          d4.) pour chaque élément de la vue.  Une vue mémoire peut être
          créée depuis des exportateurs de formats arbitraires, mais
          certaines méthodes (comme *note tolist(): 21dd.) sont limitées
          aux formats natifs à un seul élément.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: le format ‘'B'’ est maintenant
          traité selon la syntaxe du module 'struct'.  Cela signifie que
          ‘memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97’.

      -- Attribut: itemsize

          Taille en octets de chaque élément de la vue mémoire :

               >>> import array, struct
               >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
               >>> m.itemsize
               2
               >>> m[0]
               32000
               >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
               True

      -- Attribut: ndim

          Nombre de dimensions du tableau multi-dimensionnel pointé par
          la vue mémoire.

      -- Attribut: shape

          *note ndim: 21e8.-uplet d'entiers donnant la forme du tableau
          à N dimensions pointé par la vue mémoire.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: le 'n'-uplet est vide au lieu de
          ‘None’ lorsque 'ndim' = 0.

      -- Attribut: strides

          *note ndim: 21e8.-uplet d'entiers donnant la taille en octets
          permettant d'accéder à chaque élément pour chaque dimension du
          tableau.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: le 'n'-uplet est vide au lieu de
          ‘None’ lorsque 'ndim' = 0.

      -- Attribut: suboffsets

          Détail de l'implémentation des 'PIL-style arrays'.  La valeur
          n'est donnée qu'à titre d'information.

      -- Attribut: c_contiguous

          Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est C-*note contiguë: 21e4.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: f_contiguous

          Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est Fortran-*note contiguë:
          21e4.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: contiguous

          Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est *note contiguë: 21e4.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Types d'ensembles — set frozenset,  Next: Les types de correspondances — dict,  Prev: Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.10 Types d'ensembles — ‘set’, ‘frozenset’
---------------------------------------------

Un ensemble (objet 'set') est une collection non triée d'objets *note
hachables: 5fd. distincts.  Les utilisations classiques sont le test
d'appartenance, la déduplication d'une séquence, ou le calcul
d'opérations mathématiques telles que l'intersection, l'union, la
différence, ou la différence symétrique.  (Pour les autres conteneurs,
voir les classes natives *note dict: 253, *note liste: 5fe, et *note
n-uplet: 366, ainsi que le module *note collections: 1d.)

Comme pour les autres collections, les ensembles gèrent ‘x in set’,
‘len(set)’, et ‘for x in set’.  En tant que collection non triée, les
ensembles n'enregistrent pas la position des éléments ou leur ordre
d'insertion.  En conséquence, les ensembles n'autorisent ni
l'indexation, ni le découpage, ou tout autre comportement de séquence.

Il existe actuellement deux types natifs pour les ensembles, *note set:
5c5. et *note frozenset: 5c6.  Le type *note set: 5c5. est mutable — son
contenu peut changer en utilisant des méthodes comme ‘add()’ et
‘remove()’.  Puisqu'il est mutable, il n'a pas de valeur de hachage et
ne peut donc pas être utilisé ni comme clé de dictionnaire ni comme
élément d'un autre ensemble.  Le type *note frozenset: 5c6. est immuable
et *note hachable: 5fd. — son contenu ne peut être modifié après sa
création, il peut ainsi être utilisé comme clé de dictionnaire ou
élément d'un autre ensemble.

Des 'sets' (mais pas des 'frozensets') peuvent être créés par une liste
d'éléments séparés par des virgules et entre accolades, par exemple
‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’, en plus du constructeur de la classe *note set:
5c5.

Les constructeurs des deux classes fonctionnent de la même manière :

 -- Classe: set ([iterable])
 -- Classe: frozenset ([iterable])

     Renvoie un nouvel ensemble ('set' ou 'frozenset') dont les éléments
     viennent d''iterable'.  Les éléments d'un 'set' doivent être *note
     hachables: 5fd.  Pour représenter des ensembles d'ensembles, les
     ensembles intérieurs doivent être des *note frozenset: 5c6.  Si
     'iterable' n'est pas spécifié, un nouvel ensemble vide est renvoyé.

     Les ensembles peuvent être construits de différentes manières :

        * en utilisant une liste d'éléments séparés par des virgules
          entre accolades : ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’ ;

        * en utilisant un ensemble en compréhension : ‘{c for c in
          'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}’ ;

        * en utilisant le constructeur du type : ‘set()’,
          ‘set('foobar')’, ‘set(['a', 'b', 'foo'])’.

     Les instances de *note set: 5c5. et *note frozenset: 5c6.
     fournissent les opérations suivantes :

      -- Describe: len(s)

          Renvoie le nombre d'éléments dans l'ensemble 's' (cardinalité
          de 's').

      -- Describe: x in s

          Test d'appartenance de 'x' dans 's'.

      -- Describe: x not in s

          Test de non-appartenance de 'x' dans 's'.

      -- Méthode: isdisjoint (other)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'ensemble n'a aucun élément en commun avec
          'other'.  Les ensembles sont disjoints si et seulement si leur
          intersection est un ensemble vide.

      -- Méthode: issubset (other)

      -- Méthode: set <= other

          Teste si tous les éléments de l'ensemble sont dans 'other'.

      -- Méthode: set < other

          Teste si l'ensemble est un sous-ensemble propre de 'other',
          c'est-à-dire ‘set <= other and set != other’.

      -- Méthode: issuperset (other)

      -- Méthode: set >= other

          Teste si tous les éléments de 'other' sont dans l'ensemble.

      -- Méthode: set > other

          Teste si l'ensemble est un sur-ensemble propre de 'other',
          c'est-à-dire, ‘set >= other and set != other’.

      -- Méthode: union (*others)

      -- Méthode: set | other | ...

          Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments viennent de
          l'ensemble et de tous les autres ('others').

      -- Méthode: intersection (*others)

      -- Méthode: set & other & ...

          Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments sont communs à
          l'ensemble et à tous les autres ('others').

      -- Méthode: difference (*others)

      -- Méthode: set - other - ...

          Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments sont dans
          l'ensemble mais ne sont dans aucun des autres.

      -- Méthode: symmetric_difference (other)

      -- Méthode: set ^ other

          Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments sont soit dans
          l'ensemble, soit dans 'other', mais pas dans les deux.

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Renvoie une copie superficielle du dictionnaire.

     Remarque : les méthodes *note union(): 1437, *note intersection():
     1438, *note difference(): 21f3, *note symmetric_difference(): 21f4,
     *note issubset(): 21f1. et *note issuperset(): 21f2. acceptent
     n'importe quel itérable comme argument, contrairement aux
     opérateurs équivalents qui n'acceptent que des ensembles.  Il est
     donc préférable d'éviter les constructions comme ‘set('abc') &
     'cbs'’, sources typiques d'erreurs, en faveur d'une construction
     plus lisible : ‘set('abc').intersection('cbs')’.

     Les classes *note set: 5c5. et *note frozenset: 5c6. gèrent les
     comparaisons d'ensemble à ensemble.  Deux ensembles sont égaux si
     et seulement si chaque élément de chaque ensemble est contenu dans
     l'autre (autrement dit que chaque ensemble est un sous-ensemble de
     l'autre).  Un ensemble est plus petit qu'un autre ensemble si et
     seulement si le premier est un sous-ensemble propre du second (un
     sous-ensemble, mais pas égal).  Un ensemble est plus grand qu'un
     autre ensemble si et seulement si le premier est un sur-ensemble
     propre du second (est un sur-ensemble mais n'est pas égal).

     Les instances de *note set: 5c5. se comparent aux instances de
     *note frozenset: 5c6. en fonction de leurs membres.  Par exemple,
     ‘set('abc') == frozenset('abc')’ envoie ‘True’, ainsi que
     ‘set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')])’.

     Les tests de sous-ensemble et d'égalité ne se généralisent pas pour
     former une fonction donnant un ordre total.  Par exemple, deux
     ensembles disjoints non vides ne sont ni égaux et ni des
     sous-ensembles l'un de l'autre, donc toutes ces comparaisons
     donnent ‘False’ : ‘a<b’, ‘a==b’ et ‘a>b’.

     Puisque les ensembles ne définissent qu'un ordre partiel (par leurs
     relations de sous-ensembles), la sortie de la méthode *note
     list.sort(): bbf. n'est pas définie pour des listes d'ensembles.

     Les éléments des ensembles, comme les clés de dictionnaires,
     doivent être *note hachables: 5fd.

     Les opérations binaires mélangeant des instances de *note set: 5c5.
     et *note frozenset: 5c6. renvoient le type de la première opérande.
     Par exemple, ‘frozenset('ab') | set('bc')’ renvoie une instance de
     *note frozenset: 5c6.

     La table suivante liste les opérations disponibles pour les *note
     set: 5c5. mais qui ne s'appliquent pas aux instances de *note
     frozenset: 5c6. :

      -- Méthode: update (*others)

      -- Méthode: set |= other | ...

          Met à jour l'ensemble, ajoutant les éléments de tous les
          autres ('others').

      -- Méthode: intersection_update (*others)

      -- Méthode: set &= other & ...

          Met à jour l'ensemble, ne gardant que les éléments trouvés
          dans tous les autres.

      -- Méthode: difference_update (*others)

      -- Méthode: set -= other | ...

          Met à jour l'ensemble, retirant les éléments trouvés dans les
          autres.

      -- Méthode: symmetric_difference_update (other)

      -- Méthode: set ^= other

          Met à jour l'ensemble, ne gardant que les éléments trouvés
          dans un des deux ensembles mais pas dans les deux.

      -- Méthode: add (elem)

          Ajoute l'élément 'elem' à l'ensemble.

      -- Méthode: remove (elem)

          Retire l'élément 'elem' de l'ensemble.  Lève une exception
          *note KeyError: 33a. si 'elem' n'est pas dans l'ensemble.

      -- Méthode: discard (elem)

          Retire l'élément 'elem' de l'ensemble s'il y est.

      -- Méthode: pop ()

          Retire et renvoie un élément arbitraire de l'ensemble.  Lève
          une exception *note KeyError: 33a. si l'ensemble est vide.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Supprime tous les éléments de l'ensemble.

     Notez que les versions n'utilisant pas la syntaxe d'opérateur des
     méthodes *note update(): 21f6, *note intersection_update(): 1439,
     *note difference_update(): 21f7, et *note
     symmetric_difference_update(): 143a. acceptent n'importe quel
     itérable comme argument.

     Note, the 'elem' argument to the *note __contains__(): 1f17, *note
     remove(): 21f9, and *note discard(): 21fa. methods may be a set.
     To support searching for an equivalent frozenset, a temporary one
     is created from 'elem'.


File: python.info,  Node: Les types de correspondances — dict,  Next: Le type gestionnaire de contexte,  Prev: Types d'ensembles — set frozenset,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.11 Les types de correspondances — ‘dict’
--------------------------------------------

Un objet *note tableau de correspondances: 119b. ('mapping') fait
correspondre des valeurs *note hachables: 5fd. à des objets arbitraires.
Les tableaux de correspondances sont des objets mutables.  Il n'existe
pour le moment qu'un type de tableau de correspondances standard, le
'dictionary'.  (Pour les autres conteneurs, voir les types natifs *note
liste: 5fe, *note ensemble: 5c5. et *note n-uplet: 366, ainsi que le
module *note collections: 1d.)

Les clés d'un dictionnaire sont 'presque' des données arbitraires.  Les
valeurs qui ne sont pas *note hachables: 5fd, c'est-à-dire les valeurs
contenant des listes, dictionnaires ou autres types mutables (qui sont
comparés à l'aide de leurs valeurs plutôt que par l'identité de l'objet)
ne peuvent pas être utilisées comme clés.  Des valeurs qui sont
considérées égales lors d'une comparaison (comme ‘1’, ‘1.0’ et ‘True’)
peuvent être utilisées pour obtenir la même entrée d'un dictionnaire.

 -- Classe: dict (**kwargs)

 -- Classe: dict (mapping, **kwargs)

 -- Classe: dict (iterable, **kwargs)

     Renvoie un nouveau dictionnaire initialisé à partir d'un argument
     positionnel optionnel, et un ensemble (vide ou non) d'arguments
     nommés.

     Les dictionnaires peuvent être construits de différentes manières :

        * en utilisant une liste de paires ‘clé: valeur’ séparées par
          des virgules entre accolades : ‘{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd':
          4127}’ ou ‘{4098: 'jack', 4127: 'sjoerd'}’ ;

        * en utilisant un dictionnaire en compréhension : ‘{}’, ‘{x: x
          ** 2 for x in range(10)}’ ;

        * en utilisant le constructeur du type : ‘dict()’,
          ‘dict([('foo', 100), ('bar', 200)])’, ‘dict(foo=100,
          bar=200)’.

     If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
     If a positional argument is given and it defines a ‘keys()’ method,
     a dictionary is created by calling *note __getitem__(): 280. on the
     argument with each returned key from the method.  Otherwise, the
     positional argument must be an *note iterable: 1207. object.  Each
     item in the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two
     elements.  The first element of each item becomes a key in the new
     dictionary, and the second element the corresponding value.  If a
     key occurs more than once, the last value for that key becomes the
     corresponding value in the new dictionary.

     Si des arguments nommés sont donnés, ils sont ajoutés au
     dictionnaire créé depuis l'argument positionnel.  Si une clé est
     déjà présente, la valeur de l'argument nommé remplace la valeur
     reçue par l'argument positionnel.

     Typiquement, les exemples suivants renvoient tous un dictionnaire
     valant ‘{"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}’ :

          >>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
          >>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
          >>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
          >>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
          >>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
          >>> f = dict({'one': 1, 'three': 3}, two=2)
          >>> a == b == c == d == e == f
          True

     Fournir les arguments nommés comme dans le premier exemple ne
     fonctionne que pour des clés qui sont des identifiants valides en
     Python.  Dans les autres cas, toutes les clés valides sont
     utilisables.

     Voici les opérations gérées par les dictionnaires (par conséquent,
     d'autres types de tableaux de correspondances devraient les gérer
     aussi) :

      -- Describe: list(d)

          Renvoie une liste de toutes les clés utilisées dans le
          dictionnaire 'd'.

      -- Describe: len(d)

          Renvoie le nombre d'éléments dans le dictionnaire 'd'.

      -- Describe: d[key]

          Renvoie l'élément de 'd' dont la clé est 'key'.  Lève une
          exception *note KeyError: 33a. si 'key' n'est pas dans le
          dictionnaire.

          Si une sous-classe de 'dict' définit une méthode
          ‘__missing__()’ et que 'key' manque, l'opération ‘d[key]’
          appelle cette méthode avec la clé 'key' en argument.
          L'opération ‘d[key]’ renvoie la valeur, ou lève l'exception
          renvoyée ou levée par l'appel à ‘__missing__(key)’.  Aucune
          autre opération ni méthode n'appelle ‘__missing__()’.  Si
          ‘__missing__()’ n'est pas définie, une exception *note
          KeyError: 33a. est levée.  ‘__missing__()’ doit être une
          méthode ; ça ne peut pas être une variable d'instance :

               >>> class Counter(dict):
               ...     def __missing__(self, key):
               ...         return 0
               ...
               >>> c = Counter()
               >>> c['red']
               0
               >>> c['red'] += 1
               >>> c['red']
               1

          L'exemple ci-dessus montre une partie de l'implémentation de
          *note collections.Counter: 107d.  *note
          collections.defaultdict: 119c. implémente aussi ‘__missing__’.

      -- Describe: d[key] = value

          Assigne ‘d[key]’ à 'value'.

      -- Describe: del d[key]

          Supprime ‘d[key]’ de 'd'.  Lève une exception *note KeyError:
          33a. si 'key' n'est pas dans le dictionnaire.

      -- Describe: key in d

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'd' a la clé 'key', sinon ‘False’.

      -- Describe: key not in d

          Équivalent à ‘not key in d’.

      -- Describe: iter(d)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les clés du dictionnaire.  C'est un
          raccourci pour ‘iter(d.keys())’.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Supprime tous les éléments du dictionnaire.

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Renvoie une copie superficielle du dictionnaire.

      -- Méthode: classmethod fromkeys (iterable, value=None, /)

          Crée un nouveau dictionnaire avec les clés de 'iterable' et
          les valeurs à 'value'.

          *note fromkeys(): 21ff. est une méthode de classe qui renvoie
          un nouveau dictionnaire.  'value' vaut par défaut ‘None’.
          Toutes les valeurs se réfèrent à une seule instance, donc il
          n'est généralement pas logique que 'value' soit un objet
          mutable comme une liste vide.  Pour avoir des valeurs
          distinctes, utilisez plutôt une *note compréhension de
          dictionnaire: d6e.

      -- Méthode: get (key, default=None, /)

          Renvoie la valeur de 'key' si 'key' est dans le dictionnaire,
          sinon 'default'.  Si 'default' n'est pas donné, il vaut ‘None’
          par défaut, de manière à ce que cette méthode ne lève jamais
          *note KeyError: 33a.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          Renvoie une nouvelle vue des éléments du dictionnaire (paires
          de ‘(key, value)’).  Voir la *note documentation des vues:
          2201.

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Renvoie une nouvelle vue des clés du dictionnaire.  Voir la
          *note documentation des vues: 2201.

      -- Méthode: pop (key[, default])

          Si 'key' est dans le dictionnaire elle est supprimée et sa
          valeur est renvoyée, sinon renvoie 'default'.  Si 'default'
          n'est pas donné et que 'key' n'est pas dans le dictionnaire,
          une *note KeyError: 33a. est levée.

      -- Méthode: popitem ()

          Supprime et renvoie une paire ‘(key, value)’ du dictionnaire.
          Les paires sont renvoyées dans un ordre LIFO (Last In - First
          Out c.-à-d.  dernier entré, premier sorti).

          *note popitem(): 14de. est pratique pour itérer un
          dictionnaire de manière destructive, comme souvent dans les
          algorithmes sur les ensembles.  Si le dictionnaire est vide,
          appeler *note popitem(): 14de. lève une *note KeyError: 33a.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'ordre « dernier entré, premier
          sorti » (LIFO) est désormais assuré.  Dans les versions
          précédentes, *note popitem(): 14de. renvoyait une paire
          clé-valeur arbitraire.

      -- Describe: reversed(d)

          Renvoie un itérateur inversé sur les clés du dictionnaire.
          C'est un raccourci pour ‘reversed(d.keys())’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: setdefault (key, default=None, /)

          Si 'key' est dans le dictionnaire, sa valeur est renvoyée.
          Sinon, insère 'key' avec comme valeur 'default' et renvoie
          'default'.  'default' vaut ‘None’ par défaut.

      -- Méthode: update ([other])

          Met à jour le dictionnaire avec les paires de clé-valeur
          d''other', écrasant les clés existantes.  Renvoie ‘None’.

          *note update(): 141b. accepts either another object with a
          ‘keys()’ method (in which case *note __getitem__(): 280. is
          called with every key returned from the method) or an iterable
          of key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length
          two).  If keyword arguments are specified, the dictionary is
          then updated with those key/value pairs: ‘d.update(red=1,
          blue=2)’.

      -- Méthode: values ()

          Renvoie une nouvelle vue des valeurs du dictionnaire.  Voir la
          *note documentation des vues: 2201.

          Une comparaison d'égalité entre une vue de ‘dict.values()’ et
          une autre renvoie toujours ‘False’.  Cela s'applique aussi
          lorsque l'on compare ‘dict.values()’ à lui-même :

               >>> d = {'a': 1}
               >>> d.values() == d.values()
               False

      -- Describe: d | other

          Crée un nouveau dictionnaire avec les clés et les valeurs
          fusionnées de 'd' et 'other', qui doivent tous deux être des
          dictionnaires.  Les valeurs de 'other' sont prioritaires
          lorsque 'd' et 'other' partagent des clés.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

      -- Describe: d |= other

          Met à jour le dictionnaire 'd' avec les clés et les valeurs de
          'other', qui peut être soit un *note tableau de
          correspondances: 119b. soit un *note itérable: 1207. de paires
          clé-valeur.  Les valeurs de 'other' sont prioritaires lorsque
          'd' et 'other' partagent des clés.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Deux dictionnaires sont égaux si et seulement s'ils ont les mêmes
     paires de clé-valeur (‘(key, value)’, peu importe leur ordre).  Les
     comparaisons d'ordre (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) lèvent une *note
     TypeError: 525.

     Les dictionnaires préservent l'ordre des insertions.  Notez que
     modifier une clé n'affecte pas l'ordre.  Les clés ajoutées après un
     effacement sont insérées à la fin.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(d)
          ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
          >>> list(d.values())
          [1, 2, 3, 4]
          >>> d["one"] = 42
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> del d["two"]
          >>> d["two"] = None
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'ordre d'un dictionnaire est toujours
     l'ordre des insertions.  Ce comportement était un détail
     d'implémentation de CPython depuis la version 3.6.

     Les dictionnaires et les vues de dictionnaires sont réversibles.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(reversed(d))
          ['four', 'three', 'two', 'one']
          >>> list(reversed(d.values()))
          [4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> list(reversed(d.items()))
          [('four', 4), ('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les dictionnaires sont maintenant
     réversibles.

Voir aussi
..........

*note types.MappingProxyType: 459. peut être utilisé pour créer une vue
en lecture seule d'un *note dict: 253.

* Menu:

* Les vues de dictionnaires::


File: python.info,  Node: Les vues de dictionnaires,  Up: Les types de correspondances — dict

5.4.11.1 Les vues de dictionnaires
..................................

Les objets renvoyés par *note dict.keys(): 7b9, *note dict.values():
7ba. et *note dict.items(): 7bb. sont des 'vues'.  Ils fournissent une
vue dynamique des éléments du dictionnaire, ce qui signifie que si le
dictionnaire change, la vue reflète ces changements.

Les vues de dictionnaires peuvent être itérées et ainsi renvoyer les
données du dictionnaire ; elles gèrent aussi les tests d'appartenance :

 -- Describe: len(dictview)

     Renvoie le nombre d'entrées du dictionnaire.

 -- Describe: iter(dictview)

     Renvoie un itérateur sur les clés, les valeurs ou les éléments
     (représentés par des paires ‘(clé, valeur)’) du dictionnaire.

     Les clés et les valeurs sont itérées dans l'ordre de leur
     insertion.  Ceci permet la création de paires de ‘(key, value)’ en
     utilisant *note zip(): 7bc. : ‘pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())’.
     Un autre moyen de construire la même liste est ‘pairs = [(v, k) for
     (k, v) in d.items()]’.

     Parcourir des vues tout en ajoutant ou supprimant des entrées dans
     un dictionnaire peut lever une *note RuntimeError: 193. ou ne pas
     fournir toutes les entrées.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'ordre d'un dictionnaire est toujours
     l'ordre des insertions.

 -- Describe: x in dictview

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est dans les clés, les valeurs ou les
     éléments du dictionnaire sous-jacent (dans le dernier cas, 'x' doit
     être une paire ‘(key, value)’).

 -- Describe: reversed(dictview)

     Renvoie un itérateur inversé sur les clés, les valeurs ou les
     éléments du dictionnaire.  La vue est itérée dans l'ordre inverse
     d'insertion.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les vues de dictionnaires sont
     dorénavant réversibles.

 -- Describe: dictview.mapping

     Renvoie une *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. qui encapsule le
     dictionnaire original auquel la vue se réfère.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and *note
hashable: 5fd.  Items views also have set-like operations since the
(key, value) pairs are unique and the keys are hashable.  If all values
in an items view are hashable as well, then the items view can
interoperate with other sets.  (Values views are not treated as set-like
since the entries are generally not unique.)  For set-like views, all of
the operations defined for the abstract base class *note
collections.abc.Set: 2203. are available (for example, ‘==’, ‘<’, or
‘^’).  While using set operators, set-like views accept any iterable as
the other operand, unlike sets which only accept sets as the input.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation de vue de dictionnaire :

     >>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
     >>> keys = dishes.keys()
     >>> values = dishes.values()

     >>> # iteration
     >>> n = 0
     >>> for val in values:
     ...     n += val
     ...
     >>> print(n)
     504

     >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
     >>> list(keys)
     ['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
     >>> list(values)
     [2, 1, 1, 500]

     >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
     >>> del dishes['eggs']
     >>> del dishes['sausage']
     >>> list(keys)
     ['bacon', 'spam']

     >>> # set operations
     >>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
     {'bacon'}
     >>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'} == {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
     True
     >>> keys | ['juice', 'juice', 'juice'] == {'bacon', 'spam', 'juice'}
     True

     >>> # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
     >>> values.mapping
     mappingproxy({'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500})
     >>> values.mapping['spam']
     500


File: python.info,  Node: Le type gestionnaire de contexte,  Next: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union,  Prev: Les types de correspondances — dict,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.12 Le type gestionnaire de contexte
---------------------------------------

L'instruction Python *note with: 5be. permet de créer des contextes
d'exécution à l'aide de gestionnaires de contextes.  L'implémentation
est réalisée via deux méthodes permettant aux classes définies par
l'utilisateur de définir un contexte d'exécution, dans lequel on entre
avant l'exécution du corps de l'instruction et que l'on quitte lorsque
l'instruction se termine :

 -- Méthode: contextmanager.__enter__ ()

     Entre dans le contexte d'exécution, soit se renvoyant lui-même,
     soit en renvoyant un autre objet en lien avec ce contexte.  La
     valeur renvoyée par cette méthode est liée à l'identifiant donné au
     ‘as’ de l'instruction *note with: 5be. utilisant ce gestionnaire de
     contexte.

     Un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte se renvoyant lui-même est
     l'*note objet fichier: 11a2.  Les objets fichiers se renvoient
     eux-mêmes depuis ‘__enter__()’ pour ainsi permettre à *note open():
     508. d'être utilisée comme expression dans une instruction *note
     with: 5be.

     Un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte renvoyant un objet connexe
     est celui renvoyé par *note decimal.localcontext(): 17c0.  Ces
     gestionnaires remplacent le contexte décimal courant par une copie
     de l'original, copie qui est renvoyée.  Ça permet de changer le
     contexte courant dans le corps du *note with: 5be. sans affecter le
     code en dehors de l'instruction ‘with’.

 -- Méthode: contextmanager.__exit__ (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

     Sort du contexte et renvoie un booléen indiquant si une exception
     est survenue et doit être supprimée.  Si une exception est survenue
     lors de l'exécution du corps de l'instruction *note with: 5be, les
     arguments contiennent le type de l'exception, sa valeur et la trace
     de la pile ('traceback').  Sinon les trois arguments valent ‘None’.

     L'instruction *note with: 5be. inhibe l'exception si cette méthode
     renvoie la valeur vraie, l'exécution continuant ainsi à
     l'instruction suivant immédiatement l'instruction ‘with’.  Sinon,
     l'exception continue de se propager après la fin de cette méthode.
     Les exceptions se produisant pendant l'exécution de cette méthode
     remplacent toute exception qui s'est produite dans le corps du
     ‘with’.

     L'exception reçue ne doit jamais être relancée explicitement, cette
     méthode devrait plutôt renvoyer une valeur fausse pour indiquer que
     son exécution s'est terminée avec succès et qu'elle ne veut pas
     supprimer l'exception.  Ceci permet au code de gestion du contexte
     de comprendre si une méthode *note __exit__(): 12e0. a échoué.

Python définit plusieurs gestionnaires de contexte pour faciliter la
synchronisation des fils d'exécution, la fermeture des fichiers ou
d'autres objets, et la configuration du contexte arithmétique décimal.
Ces types spécifiques ne sont pas traités différemment, ils respectent
simplement le protocole de gestion du contexte.  Voir les exemples dans
la documentation du module *note contextlib: 23.

Les *note générateurs: 104c. Python et le décorateur *note
contextlib.contextmanager: 11e1. permettent d'implémenter simplement ces
protocoles.  Si un générateur est décoré avec ‘contextlib.
contextmanager’, il renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte implémentant les
méthodes *note __enter__(): 2205. et *note __exit__(): 2206, plutôt que
l'itérateur produit par un générateur non décoré.

Notez qu'il n'y a pas d'emplacement spécifique pour ces méthodes dans la
structure de type pour les objets Python dans l'API Python/C. Les types
souhaitant définir ces méthodes doivent les fournir comme une méthode
accessible en Python.  Comparé au coût de la mise en place du contexte
d'exécution, le coût d'un accès au dictionnaire d'une classe unique est
négligeable.


File: python.info,  Node: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union,  Next: Autres types natifs,  Prev: Le type gestionnaire de contexte,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.13 Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union
----------------------------------------------------------

Les principaux types natifs pour l'*note annotation de types: 443. sont
l'*note Alias générique: 69f. et l'*note Union: 7ae.

* Menu:

* Type Alias générique::
* Type Union::


File: python.info,  Node: Type Alias générique,  Next: Type Union,  Up: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union

5.4.13.1 Type Alias générique
.............................

Les objets ‘GenericAlias’ sont généralement créés en *note indiçant:
1f3d. une classe.  Ils sont le plus souvent utilisés avec des *note
classes conteneurs: 1f43, telles que *note list: 5fe. ou *note dict:
253.  Par exemple, ‘list[int]’ est un objet GenericAlias créé en
indiçant la classe ‘list’ avec l'argument *note int: 254.  Les objets
‘GenericAlias’ sont principalement destinés à être utilisés en tant
qu'*note annotations de types: 443.

     Note: il n'est généralement possible d'indicer une classe que si la
     classe implémente la méthode spéciale *note __class_getitem__():
     727.

Un objet ‘GenericAlias’ agit comme un mandataire pour un *note type
générique: 424, en implémentant des 'types génériques pouvant recevoir
des paramètres'.

Pour une classe conteneur, les arguments fournis comme *note indices:
1f3d. de la classe indiquent les types des éléments que l'objet peut
contenir.  Par exemple, ‘set[bytes]’ peut être utilisé dans les
annotations de type pour signifier un *note ensemble: 5c5. dans lequel
tous les éléments sont de type *note bytes: 1bd.

Pour une classe qui définit *note __class_getitem__(): 727. mais n'est
pas un conteneur, les arguments fournis comme indices de la classe
indiquent souvent les types de retour d'une ou plusieurs méthodes
définies sur un objet.  Par exemple, *note re: b8. (expressions
rationnelles) peut être utilisé à la fois sur le type de données *note
str: 437. et sur le type de données *note bytes: 1bd. :

   * si ‘x = re.search('foo', 'foo')’, ‘x’ est un objet *note re.Match:
     f74. où les valeurs de retour de ‘x.group(0)’ et ‘x[0]’ sont toutes
     les deux de type *note str: 437.  Nous pouvons représenter ce type
     d'objet dans des annotations de type avec le ‘GenericAlias’
     ‘re.Match[str]’ ;

   * si ‘y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar')’, (notez le ‘b’ pour *note bytes:
     1bd.), ‘y’ est également une instance de ‘re.Match’, mais les
     valeurs de retour de ‘y.group(0)’ et ‘y[0]’ sont toutes les deux de
     type *note bytes: 1bd.  Dans les annotations de type, nous
     représenterons cette variété d'objets *note re.Match: f74. par
     ‘re.Match[bytes]’.

Les objets ‘GenericAlias’ sont des instances de la classe *note
types.GenericAlias: 7d7, qui peut également être utilisée pour créer
directement des objets ‘GenericAlias’.

 -- Describe: T[X, Y, ...]

     Crée un ‘GenericAlias’ représentant un type ‘T’ paramétré par les
     types 'X', 'Y' et plus selon le ‘T’ utilisé.  Par exemple, pour une
     fonction attendant une *note list: 5fe. contenant des éléments
     *note float: 2ec. :

          def average(values: list[float]) -> float:
              return sum(values) / len(values)

     Un autre exemple peut être un objet *note tableau de
     correspondances: 119b, utilisant un *note dict: 253, qui est un
     type générique attendant deux paramètres de type représentant le
     type clé et le type valeur.  Dans cet exemple, la fonction attend
     un ‘dict’ avec des clés de type *note str: 437. et des valeurs de
     type *note int: 254. :

          def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -> None:
              ...

Les fonctions natives *note isinstance(): 42d. et *note issubclass():
7ad. n'acceptent pas les types ‘GenericAlias’ pour leur second
argument :

     >>> isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Lors de l'exécution, Python ne regarde pas les *note annotations de
type: 443.  Cela vaut pour les types génériques et les types qu'on leur
passe en paramètres.  Lors de la création d'un objet conteneur à partir
d'un ‘GenericAlias’, les types des éléments du conteneur ne sont pas
vérifiés.  Par exemple, le code suivant est déconseillé, mais s'exécute
sans erreur :

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> t([1, 2, 3])
     [1, 2, 3]

De plus, les types génériques pouvant recevoir des paramètres effacent
les paramètres de type lors de la création d'objet :

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> type(t)
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

     >>> l = t()
     >>> type(l)
     <class 'list'>

Appeler *note repr(): 7e9. ou *note str(): 437. sur un type générique
affiche le type pouvant recevoir des paramètres :

     >>> repr(list[int])
     'list[int]'

     >>> str(list[int])
     'list[int]'

La méthode *note __getitem__(): 280. des conteneurs génériques lève une
exception pour interdire les erreurs telles que ‘dict[str][str]’ :

     >>> dict[str][str]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class

Cependant, de telles expressions sont valides lorsque *note des
variables de type: 1f38. sont utilisées.  L'indice doit avoir autant
d'éléments qu'il y a d'éléments variables de type dans l'objet
‘GenericAlias’ *note __args__: 2209.

     >>> from typing import TypeVar
     >>> Y = TypeVar('Y')
     >>> dict[str, Y][int]
     dict[str, int]

* Menu:

* Classes génériques standards::
* Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques::


File: python.info,  Node: Classes génériques standards,  Next: Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques,  Up: Type Alias générique

5.4.13.2 Classes génériques standards
.....................................

Les classes suivantes de la bibliothèque standard prennent en charge les
types génériques pouvant accepter des paramètres.  Cette liste est non
exhaustive.

   * *note tuple: 366.

   * *note list: 5fe.

   * *note dict: 253.

   * *note set: 5c5.

   * *note frozenset: 5c6.

   * *note type: d38.

   * *note asyncio.Future: bbd.

   * *note asyncio.Task: 4c5.

   * *note collections.deque: 5c8.

   * *note collections.defaultdict: 119c.

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.

   * *note collections.Counter: 107d.

   * *note collections.ChainMap: c0c.

   * *note collections.abc.Awaitable: dcb.

   * *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dcc.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: dce.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dcd.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c7a.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterable: 220b.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterator: 220c.

   * *note collections.abc.Generator: dca.

   * *note collections.abc.Reversible: c79.

   * *note collections.abc.Container: 220d.

   * *note collections.abc.Collection: c78.

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6.

   * *note collections.abc.Set: 2203.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 220e.

   * *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1092.

   * *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 19f.

   * *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2c0.

   * *note collections.abc.MappingView: 220f.

   * *note collections.abc.KeysView: 2210.

   * *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 2211.

   * *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 2212.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c7d.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b1b.

   * *note dataclasses.Field: 2213.

   * *note functools.cached_property: 52f.

   * *note functools.partialmethod: a6b.

   * *note os.PathLike: c41.

   * *note queue.LifoQueue: 2214.

   * *note queue.Queue: 1367.

   * *note queue.PriorityQueue: 2215.

   * *note queue.SimpleQueue: b5a.

   * *note re.Pattern: f73.

   * *note re.Match: f74.

   * *note shelve.BsdDbShelf: 2216.

   * *note shelve.DbfilenameShelf: 2217.

   * *note shelve.Shelf: f87.

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 459.

   * *note weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 192c.

   * *note weakref.WeakMethod: fda.

   * *note weakref.WeakSet: 5c9.

   * *note weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 192b.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques,  Prev: Classes génériques standards,  Up: Type Alias générique

5.4.13.3 Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques
................................................

Tous les types génériques pouvant accepter des paramètres implémentent
des attributs spéciaux en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: genericalias.__origin__

     Cet attribut pointe vers la classe générique sans paramètres :

          >>> list[int].__origin__
          <class 'list'>

 -- Attribut: genericalias.__args__

     Cet attribut est un *note n-uplet: 366. (éventuellement de longueur
     1) de types génériques passés à la *note __class_getitem__(): 727.
     d'origine de la classe générique :

          >>> dict[str, list[int]].__args__
          (<class 'str'>, list[int])

 -- Attribut: genericalias.__parameters__

     Cet attribut est un 'n'-uplet calculé paresseusement
     (éventuellement vide) de variables de type (chaque type n'est
     mentionné qu'une seule fois) trouvées dans ‘__args__’ :

          >>> from typing import TypeVar

          >>> T = TypeVar('T')
          >>> list[T].__parameters__
          (~T,)

          Note: un objet ‘GenericAlias’ avec des paramètres *note
          typing.ParamSpec: 15d. peut ne pas avoir de ‘__parameters__’
          corrects après substitution car *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d.
          est principalement destiné à la vérification de type statique.

 -- Attribut: genericalias.__unpacked__

     Booléen qui est vrai si l'alias a été décompressé à l'aide de
     l'opérateur ‘*’ (voir *note TypeVarTuple: 15e.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 484(1) - Indications des types (page en anglais)

     Présentation du cadre Python pour les annotations de type.

PEP 585(2) – Types génériques d'indication de type dans les conteneurs standard (page en anglais)

     Présentation de la possibilité de paramétrer nativement les classes
     de la bibliothèque standard, à condition qu'elles implémentent la
     méthode de classe spéciale *note __class_getitem__(): 727.

*note Génériques: 1f38, *note génériques personnalisés: 4bb. et *note typing.Generic: 15d4.

     Documentation sur la façon d'implémenter des classes génériques qui
     peuvent être paramétrées à l'exécution et comprises par les
     vérificateurs de type statiques.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Type Union,  Prev: Type Alias générique,  Up: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union

5.4.13.4 Type Union
...................

Un objet 'union' contient la valeur de l'opération ‘|’ (OU bit à bit)
sur plusieurs *note objets types: 213e.  Ces types sont principalement
destinés aux *note annotations de types: 443.  L'expression d'union de
types permet une syntaxe plus claire pour les indications de type par
rapport à *note typing.Union: 628.

 -- Describe: X | Y | ...

     Définit un objet 'union' qui contient les types 'X', 'Y', etc.  ‘X
     | Y’ signifie X ou Y. Cela équivaut à ‘typing.Union[X, Y]’.  Par
     exemple, la fonction suivante attend un argument de type *note int:
     254. ou *note float: 2ec. :

          def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
              return number ** 2

          Note: The ‘|’ operand cannot be used at runtime to define
          unions where one or more members is a forward reference.  For
          example, ‘int | "Foo"’, where ‘"Foo"’ is a reference to a
          class not yet defined, will fail at runtime.  For unions which
          include forward references, present the whole expression as a
          string, e.g.  ‘"int | Foo"’.

 -- Describe: union_object == other

     Les objets 'union' peuvent être testés pour savoir s'ils sont égaux
     à d'autres objets 'union'.  Plus en détails :

        * Les unions d'unions sont aplaties :

               (int | str) | float == int | str | float

        * Les types redondants sont supprimés :

               int | str | int == int | str

        * Lors de la comparaison d'unions, l'ordre est ignoré :

               int | str == str | int

        * Il est compatible avec *note typing.Union: 628. :

               int | str == typing.Union[int, str]

        * Les types optionnels peuvent être orthographiés comme une
          union avec ‘None’ :

               str | None == typing.Optional[str]

 -- Describe: isinstance(obj, union_object)

 -- Describe: issubclass(obj, union_object)

     Les appels à *note isinstance(): 42d. et *note issubclass(): 7ad.
     sont également pris en charge avec un objet 'union' :

          >>> isinstance("", int | str)
          True

     However, *note parameterized generics: 69f. in union objects cannot
     be checked:

          >>> isinstance(1, int | list[int])  # short-circuit evaluation
          True
          >>> isinstance([1], int | list[int])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Le type indiqué à l'utilisateur pour l'objet 'union' est accessible par
*note types.UnionType: 627. et utilisé pour les vérifications *note
isinstance(): 42d.  Un objet ne peut pas être instancié à partir du
type :

     >>> import types
     >>> isinstance(int | str, types.UnionType)
     True
     >>> types.UnionType()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot create 'types.UnionType' instances

     Note: The ‘__or__()’ method for type objects was added to support
     the syntax ‘X | Y’.  If a metaclass implements ‘__or__()’, the
     Union may override it:

          >>> class M(type):
          ...     def __or__(self, other):
          ...         return "Hello"
          ...
          >>> class C(metaclass=M):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> C | int
          'Hello'
          >>> int | C
          int | C

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 604(1) – PEP proposant la syntaxe ‘X | Y’ et le type 'Union'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Autres types natifs,  Next: Attributs spéciaux,  Prev: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.14 Autres types natifs
--------------------------

L'interpréteur gère aussi d'autres types d'objets, la plupart ne gèrent
cependant qu'une ou deux opérations.

* Menu:

* Modules: Modules<4>.
* Les classes et instances de classes::
* Fonctions::
* Méthodes::
* Objets code::
* Objets type::
* L'objet Null::
* L'objet points de suspension (ou ellipse): L'objet points de suspension ou ellipse.
* L'objet NotImplemented::
* Objets internes::


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<4>,  Next: Les classes et instances de classes,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.1 Modules
................

La seule opération spéciale sur un module est l'accès à ses attributs :
‘m.name’, où 'm' est un module et 'name' donne accès un nom défini dans
la table des symboles de 'm'.  Il est possible d'assigner un attribut de
module.  (Notez que l'instruction *note import: 5ce. n'est pas
strictement une opération sur un objet module.  ‘import foo’ ne
nécessite pas qu'un objet module nommé 'foo' existe, il nécessite
cependant une 'définition' (externe) d'un module nommé 'foo' quelque
part.)

Un attribut spécial à chaque module est *note __dict__: 549.  C'est le
dictionnaire contenant la table des symboles du module.  Modifier ce
dictionnaire change la table des symboles du module, mais assigner
directement *note __dict__: 549. n'est pas possible (vous pouvez écrire
‘m.__dict__['a'] = 1’, qui donne ‘1’ comme valeur pour ‘m.a’, mais vous
ne pouvez pas écrire ‘m.__dict__ = {}’).  Modifier *note __dict__: 549.
directement n'est pas recommandé.

Les modules natifs de l'interpréteur sont affichés comme ‘<module 'sys'
(built-in)>’.  S'ils sont chargés depuis un fichier, ils sont affichés
sous la forme ‘<module 'os' from '/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Les classes et instances de classes,  Next: Fonctions,  Prev: Modules<4>,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.2 Les classes et instances de classes
............................................

Voir *note Objets, valeurs et types: 1e9f. et *note Définition de
classes: 12b7.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions,  Next: Méthodes,  Prev: Les classes et instances de classes,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.3 Fonctions
..................

Les objets fonctions sont créés par les définitions de fonctions.  La
seule opération applicable à un objet fonction est de l'appeler :
‘func(argument-list)’.

Il existe en fait deux catégories d'objets fonctions : les fonctions
natives et les fonctions définies par l'utilisateur.  Les deux gèrent
les mêmes opérations (l'appel à la fonction), mais leur implémentation
est différente, d'où les deux types distincts.

Voir *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4. pour plus d'information.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes,  Next: Objets code,  Prev: Fonctions,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.4 Méthodes
.................

Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation.
There are two flavors: *note built-in methods: 1ec9. (such as ‘append()’
on lists) and *note class instance method: 1ebe.  Built-in methods are
described with the types that support them.

If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through
an instance, you get a special object: a 'bound method' (also called
*note instance method: 1ebe.) object.  When called, it will add the
‘self’ argument to the argument list.  Bound methods have two special
read-only attributes: *note m.__self__: 1381. is the object on which the
method operates, and *note m.__func__: 12dc. is the function
implementing the method.  Calling ‘m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)’ is
completely equivalent to calling ‘m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2,
..., arg-n)’.

Like *note function objects: 296, bound method objects support getting
arbitrary attributes.  However, since method attributes are actually
stored on the underlying function object (*note method.__func__: 12dc.),
setting method attributes on bound methods is disallowed.  Attempting to
set an attribute on a method results in an *note AttributeError: 343.
being raised.  In order to set a method attribute, you need to
explicitly set it on the underlying function object:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # can't set on the method
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
     >>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
     >>> c.method.whoami
     'my name is method'

Voir *note Méthodes d'instances: 1ebe. pour plus d'information.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets code,  Next: Objets type,  Prev: Méthodes,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.5 Objets code
....................

Code objects are used by the implementation to represent
"pseudo-compiled" executable Python code such as a function body.  They
differ from function objects because they don't contain a reference to
their global execution environment.  Code objects are returned by the
built-in *note compile(): 190. function and can be extracted from
function objects through their *note __code__: 297. attribute.  See also
the *note code: 1a. module.

L'accès à *note __code__: 297. déclenche un *note événement d'audit:
1877. ‘object.__getattr__’ avec les arguments ‘obj’ et ‘"__code__"’.

Les objets code peuvent être exécutés ou évalués en les passant (au lieu
d'une chaîne contenant du code) aux fonctions natives *note exec(): 17d.
ou *note eval(): 17e.

Voir *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2. pour plus
d'information.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets type,  Next: L'objet Null,  Prev: Objets code,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.6 Objets type
....................

Les objets types représentent les différents types d'objets.  Le type
d'un objet est obtenu via la fonction native *note type(): d38.  Il
n'existe aucune opération spéciale sur les types.  Le module standard
*note types: 102. définit les noms de tous les types natifs.

Les types sont affichés comme suit : ‘<class 'int'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: L'objet Null,  Next: L'objet points de suspension ou ellipse,  Prev: Objets type,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.7 L'objet Null
.....................

Cet objet est renvoyé par les fonctions ne renvoyant pas explicitement
une valeur.  Il ne gère aucune opération spéciale.  Il existe exactement
un seul objet 'null' nommé ‘None’ (c'est un nom natif).  ‘type(None)()’
produit ce singleton.

Il s'écrit ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: L'objet points de suspension ou ellipse,  Next: L'objet NotImplemented,  Prev: L'objet Null,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.8 L'objet points de suspension (ou ellipse)
..................................................

Cet objet est utilisé classiquement lors des découpes (voir *note
Tranches: 2009.).  Il ne gère aucune opération spéciale.  Il n'y a qu'un
seul objet 'points de suspension', nommé *note Ellipsis: 2142. (un nom
natif).  ‘type(Ellipsis)()’ produit le 'singleton' *note Ellipsis: 2142.

Il s'écrit ‘Ellipsis’ ou ‘...’.


File: python.info,  Node: L'objet NotImplemented,  Next: Objets internes,  Prev: L'objet points de suspension ou ellipse,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.9 L'objet 'NotImplemented'
.................................

Cet objet est renvoyé depuis des comparaisons ou des opérations binaires
effectuées sur des types qu'elles ne gèrent pas.  Voir *note
Comparaisons: 202f. pour plus d'informations.  Il n'y a qu'un seul objet
*note NotImplemented: 7be.  ‘type(NotImplemented)()’ renvoie cette
instance de singleton.

Il s'écrit ‘NotImplemented’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets internes,  Prev: L'objet NotImplemented,  Up: Autres types natifs

5.4.14.10 Objets internes
.........................

See *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2. for this information.
It describes *note stack frame objects: 6cc, *note traceback objects:
ae4, and slice objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributs spéciaux,  Next: Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier,  Prev: Autres types natifs,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.15 Attributs spéciaux
-------------------------

L'implémentation ajoute quelques attributs spéciaux en lecture seule à
certains types, lorsque ça a du sens.  Certains ne sont pas listés par
la fonction native *note dir(): 61f.

 -- Attribut: definition.__name__

     Nom de la classe, fonction, méthode, descripteur ou instance du
     générateur.

 -- Attribut: definition.__qualname__

     *note Nom qualifié: 18fe. de la classe, fonction, méthode,
     descripteur ou instance du générateur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Attribut: definition.__module__

     The name of the module in which a class or function was defined.

 -- Attribut: definition.__doc__

     The documentation string of a class or function, or ‘None’ if
     undefined.

 -- Attribut: definition.__type_params__

     The *note type parameters: 2b0. of generic classes, functions, and
     *note type aliases: 43f.  For classes and functions that are not
     generic, this will be an empty tuple.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier,  Prev: Attributs spéciaux,  Up: Types natifs

5.4.16 Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier
--------------------------------------------------------------------

CPython a une limite globale pour la conversion entre *note int: 254. et
*note str: 437. pour atténuer les attaques par déni de service.  Cette
limite s'applique 'uniquement' aux décimaux ou autres bases de nombres
qui ne sont pas des puissances de deux.  Les conversions hexadécimales,
octales et binaires sont illimitées.  La limite peut être configurée.

Le type *note int: 254. dans CPython stocke un nombre de longueur
arbitraire sous forme binaire (communément appelé « 'bignum' »).  Il
n'existe aucun algorithme capable de convertir une chaîne en un entier
binaire ou un entier binaire en une chaîne en temps linéaire, sauf si la
base est une puissance de 2.  Même les meilleurs algorithmes connus pour
la base 10 ont une complexité sous-quadratique.  La conversion d'une
grande valeur telle que ‘int('1' * 500_000)’ peut prendre plus d'une
seconde sur un CPU rapide.

Limiter la taille de la conversion offre un moyen pratique d'éviter la
vulnérabilité CVE 2020-10735(1).

La limite est appliquée au nombre de caractères numériques dans la
chaîne d'entrée ou de sortie lorsqu'un algorithme de conversion non
linéaire doit être appliqué.  Les traits de soulignement et le signe ne
sont pas comptés dans la limite.

Si une opération va dépasser la limite, une *note ValueError: 1ff. est
levée :

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300)  # Illustrative, this is the default.
     >>> _ = int('2' * 5432)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> i = int('2' * 4300)
     >>> len(str(i))
     4300
     >>> i_squared = i*i
     >>> len(str(i_squared))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> len(hex(i_squared))
     7144
     >>> assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i  # Hexadecimal is unlimited.

La limite par défaut est de 4 300 chiffres comme indiqué dans *note
sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1273.  La limite la plus basse
pouvant être configurée est de 640 chiffres, comme indiqué dans *note
sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1273.

Vérification :

     >>> import sys
     >>> assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
     >>> assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
     >>> msg = int('578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564'
     ...           '9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600'
     ...           '571186405732').to_bytes(53, 'big')
     ...

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

* Menu:

* API concernées::
* Configuration de la limite::
* Configuration recommandée::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: API concernées,  Next: Configuration de la limite,  Up: Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

5.4.16.1 API concernées
.......................

La limitation s'applique uniquement aux conversions potentiellement
lentes entre *note int: 254. et *note str: 437. ou *note bytes: 1bd. :

   * ‘int(string)’ en base 10 (par défaut).

   * ‘int(string, base)’ pour toutes les bases qui ne sont pas des
     puissances de 2.

   * ‘str(integer)’.

   * ‘repr(integer)’.

   * toute autre conversion de chaîne en base 10, par exemple
     ‘f"{integer}"’, ‘"{}".format(integer)’ ou ‘b"%d" % integer’.

Les limitations ne s'appliquent pas aux fonctions avec un algorithme
linéaire :

   * ‘int(chaîne, base)’ en base 2, 4, 8, 16 ou 32.

   * *note int.from_bytes(): 180c. et *note int.to_bytes(): 184c.

   * *note hex(): 12af, *note oct(): 12ae, *note bin(): 1288.

   * *note Mini-langage de spécification de format: 1e5. pour les
     nombres hexadécimaux, octaux et binaires.

   * *note str: 437. vers *note float: 2ec.

   * *note str: 437. vers *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration de la limite,  Next: Configuration recommandée,  Prev: API concernées,  Up: Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

5.4.16.2 Configuration de la limite
...................................

Avant le démarrage de Python, vous pouvez utiliser une variable
d'environnement ou une option de ligne de commande d'interpréteur pour
configurer la limite :

   * *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1779, par exemple
     ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640 python3’ pour fixer la limite à 640
     chiffres ou ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0 python3’ pour désactiver la
     limitation.

   * *note -X int_max_str_digits: 175, par exemple ‘python3 -X
     int_max_str_digits=640’

   * *note sys.flags.int_max_str_digits: 2238. contient la valeur de
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1779. ou *note -X int_max_str_digits:
     175.  Si la variable d'environnement et l'option ‘-X’ sont définies
     toutes les deux, l'option ‘-X’ est prioritaire.  Une valeur de '-1'
     indique que les deux n'étaient pas définies, donc qu'une valeur de
     *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2239. a été utilisée
     lors de l'initialisation.

Depuis le code, vous pouvez inspecter la limite actuelle et en définir
une nouvelle à l'aide de ces API *note sys: d8. :

   * *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 223a. et *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 177a. sont un accesseur et un
     mutateur pour la limite relative à l'interpréteur.  Les
     sous-interprètes possèdent leur propre limite.

Des informations sur la valeur par défaut et le minimum peuvent être
trouvées dans *note sys.int_info: 1273. :

   * *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1273. est la limite par
     défaut pour la compilation.

   * *note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1273. est la valeur
     la plus basse acceptée pour la limite (autre que 0 qui la
     désactive).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Prudence: fixer une limite basse 'peut' entraîner des problèmes.
     Bien que rare, du code contenant des constantes entières en décimal
     dans la source qui dépasse le seuil minimum peut exister.  Une
     conséquence de la définition de la limite est que le code source
     Python contenant des littéraux entiers décimaux plus longs que la
     limite lèvera une erreur lors de l'analyse, généralement au
     démarrage ou à l'importation ou même au moment de l'installation –
     dès qu'un ‘.pyc’ à jour n'existe pas déjà pour le code.  Une
     solution de contournement pour les sources qui contiennent de si
     grandes constantes consiste à les convertir au format hexadécimal
     ‘0x’ car il n'y a pas de limite.

     Testez soigneusement votre application si vous utilisez une limite
     basse.  Assurez-vous que vos tests s'exécutent avec la limite
     définie au début 'via' l'environnement ou l'option de ligne de
     commande afin qu'elle s'applique au démarrage et même lors de toute
     étape d'installation pouvant invoquer Python pour compiler les
     sources ‘.py’ en fichiers ‘.pyc’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration recommandée,  Prev: Configuration de la limite,  Up: Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

5.4.16.3 Configuration recommandée
..................................

La valeur par défaut *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2239.
devrait être raisonnable pour la plupart des applications.  Si votre
application nécessite une limite différente, définissez-la à partir de
votre point d'entrée principal à l'aide d'un code indépendant de la
version Python, car ces API ont été ajoutées dans des correctifs de
sécurité des versions antérieures à 3.12.

Par exemple :

     >>> import sys
     >>> if hasattr(sys, "set_int_max_str_digits"):
     ...     upper_bound = 68000
     ...     lower_bound = 4004
     ...     current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
     ...     if current_limit == 0 or current_limit > upper_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
     ...     elif current_limit < lower_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)

Pour la désactiver entièrement, réglez-la à ‘0’.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions natives,  Next: Services de Manipulation de Texte,  Prev: Types natifs,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.5 Exceptions natives
======================

En python, une exception est une instance d'une classe héritée de *note
BaseException: 5a7.  Dans un bloc *note try: 6d5, la clause *note
except: 189. traite non seulement la classe d'exception qu'elle
mentionne, mais aussi toutes les classes dérivées de cette classe
(contrairement à ses classes mères).  Deux classes qui ne sont pas liées
par héritage ne sont jamais équivalentes, même si elles ont le même nom.

The built-in exceptions listed in this chapter can be generated by the
interpreter or built-in functions.  Except where mentioned, they have an
"associated value" indicating the detailed cause of the error.  This may
be a string or a tuple of several items of information (e.g., an error
code and a string explaining the code).  The associated value is usually
passed as arguments to the exception class's constructor.

Du code utilisateur peut lever des exceptions natives.  Cela peut être
utilisé pour tester un gestionnaire d'exception ou pour rapporter une
condition d'erreur "comme si" c'était l'interpréteur qui levait cette
exception ; mais attention car rien n'empêche du code utilisateur de
lever une erreur inappropriée.

Les classes d'exception natives peuvent être héritées pour définir de
nouvelles exceptions ; les programmeurs sont encouragés à faire dériver
les nouvelles exceptions de la classe *note Exception: 9c9. ou d'une de
ses sous-classes, et non de *note BaseException: 5a7.  Plus
d'informations sur la définition des exceptions sont disponibles dans le
Tutoriel Python au chapitre *note Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur:
1c52.

* Menu:

* Contexte des exceptions::
* Hériter des exceptions natives::
* Classes mères::
* Exceptions concrètes::
* Avertissements::
* Exception groups::
* Hiérarchie des exceptions::


File: python.info,  Node: Contexte des exceptions,  Next: Hériter des exceptions natives,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.1 Contexte des exceptions
-----------------------------

Three attributes on exception objects provide information about the
context in which the exception was raised:

 -- Attribut: BaseException.__context__
 -- Attribut: BaseException.__cause__
 -- Attribut: BaseException.__suppress_context__

     When raising a new exception while another exception is already
     being handled, the new exception's ‘__context__’ attribute is
     automatically set to the handled exception.  An exception may be
     handled when an *note except: 189. or *note finally: 9ba. clause,
     or a *note with: 5be. statement, is used.

     Ce contexte implicite d'exception peut être complété par une cause
     explicite en utilisant ‘from’ avec *note raise: 5d9. :

          raise new_exc from original_exc

     The expression following *note from: 5d9. must be an exception or
     ‘None’.  It will be set as ‘__cause__’ on the raised exception.
     Setting ‘__cause__’ also implicitly sets the ‘__suppress_context__’
     attribute to ‘True’, so that using ‘raise new_exc from None’
     effectively replaces the old exception with the new one for display
     purposes (e.g.  converting *note KeyError: 33a. to *note
     AttributeError: 343.), while leaving the old exception available in
     ‘__context__’ for introspection when debugging.

     The default traceback display code shows these chained exceptions
     in addition to the traceback for the exception itself.  An
     explicitly chained exception in ‘__cause__’ is always shown when
     present.  An implicitly chained exception in ‘__context__’ is shown
     only if ‘__cause__’ is *note None: 662. and ‘__suppress_context__’
     is false.

     Dans les deux cas, l'exception elle-même est toujours affichée
     après toutes les exceptions enchaînées, de sorte que la dernière
     ligne de la trace d'appels montre toujours la dernière exception
     qui a été levée.


File: python.info,  Node: Hériter des exceptions natives,  Next: Classes mères,  Prev: Contexte des exceptions,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.2 Hériter des exceptions natives
------------------------------------

Le code de l'utilisateur peut créer des sous-classes qui dérivent d'un
type d'exception.  Il est recommandé de ne dériver que d'un seul type
d'exception à la fois pour éviter des conflits possibles dans la façon
dont les classes mères traitent l'argument ‘args’ ainsi que des
incompatibilités potentielles avec l'utilisation de la mémoire.

La majorité des exceptions natives sont implémentées en C pour des
raisons d'efficacité, voir Objects/exceptions.c(1).  L'architecture
interne de certaines est telle que cela rend impossible la création de
sous-classes qui dérivent de plusieurs types d'exceptions.  L'agencement
de la mémoire est un détail d'implémentation qui est sujet à changement
d'une version de Python à l'autre, ce qui peut poser conflit dans le
futur.  Il est donc déconseillé de dériver de plusieurs types
d'exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/exceptions.c


File: python.info,  Node: Classes mères,  Next: Exceptions concrètes,  Prev: Hériter des exceptions natives,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.3 Classes mères
-------------------

Les exceptions suivantes sont utilisées principalement en tant que
classes mères pour d'autres exceptions.

 -- Exception: BaseException

     La classe mère pour toutes les exceptions natives.  Elle n'est pas
     vouée à être héritée directement par des classes utilisateur (pour
     cela, utilisez *note Exception: 9c9.).  Si *note str(): 437. est
     appelée sur une instance de cette classe, la représentation du ou
     des argument(s) de l'instance est retournée, ou la chaîne vide s'il
     n'y avait pas d'arguments.

      -- Attribut: args

          Le 'n'-uplet d'arguments donné au constructeur d'exception.
          Certaines exceptions natives (comme *note OSError: 40d.)
          attendent un certain nombre d'arguments et attribuent une
          signification spéciale aux éléments de ce 'n'-uplet, alors que
          d'autres ne sont généralement appelées qu'avec une seule
          chaîne de caractères rendant un message d'erreur.

      -- Méthode: with_traceback (tb)

          Cette méthode affecte 'tb' comme la nouvelle trace d'appels de
          l'exception et renvoie l'objet exception.  Elle était utilisée
          de façon plus courante avant que la fonctionnalité de chaînage
          des exceptions de la PEP 3134(1) devienne disponible.
          L'exemple suivant démontre comment convertir une instance de
          ‘SomeException’ en une instance de ‘OtherException’ tout en
          préservant la pile d'appels.  Une fois l'exception levée, le
          cadre courant est empilé sur la trace d'appels de
          ‘OtherException’, comme cela se serait produit pour la trace
          d'appels de ‘SomeException’ si on l'avait laissée se propager
          jusqu'à l'appelant

               try:
                   ...
               except SomeException:
                   tb = sys.exception().__traceback__
                   raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)

      -- Attribut: __traceback__

          A writable field that holds the *note traceback object: ae4.
          associated with this exception.  See also: *note L'instruction
          raise: 5d9.

      -- Méthode: add_note (note)

          Add the string ‘note’ to the exception's notes which appear in
          the standard traceback after the exception string.  A *note
          TypeError: 525. is raised if ‘note’ is not a string.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Attribut: __notes__

          A list of the notes of this exception, which were added with
          *note add_note(): 5a6.  This attribute is created when *note
          add_note(): 5a6. is called.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Exception: Exception

     Toutes les exceptions natives, qui n'entraînent pas une sortie du
     système dérivent de cette classe.  Toutes les exceptions définies
     par l'utilisateur devraient également être dérivées de cette
     classe.

 -- Exception: ArithmeticError

     La classe mère pour les exceptions natives qui sont levées pour
     diverses erreurs arithmétiques : *note OverflowError: 86f, *note
     ZeroDivisionError: 934, *note FloatingPointError: 2243.

 -- Exception: BufferError

     Levée lorsqu'une opération liée à un *note tampon: 38e. ne peut pas
     être exécutée.

 -- Exception: LookupError

     La classe mère pour les exceptions qui sont levées lorsqu'une clé
     ou un index utilisé sur un tableau de correspondances ou une
     séquence est invalide : *note IndexError: 14ec, *note KeyError:
     33a.  Peut être levée directement par *note codecs.lookup(): 952.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions concrètes,  Next: Avertissements,  Prev: Classes mères,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.4 Exceptions concrètes
--------------------------

Les exceptions suivantes sont celles qui sont habituellement levées.

 -- Exception: AssertionError

     Levée lorsqu'une instruction *note assert: 957. échoue.

 -- Exception: AttributeError

     Levée lorsqu'une référence ou une assignation d'attribut (voir
     *note Références à des attributs: 2005.) échoue.  (Lorsqu'un objet
     ne supporte pas du tout la référence ou l'assignation d'attribut,
     *note TypeError: 525. est levé.)

     Les attributs ‘name’ et ‘obj’ peuvent être définis uniquement à
     l'aide d'arguments nommés passés au constructeur.  Lorsqu'ils sont
     définis, ils représentent respectivement le nom de l'attribut pour
     lequel il y a eu une tentative d'accès et l'objet qui a été accédé
     pour cet attribut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout des attributs ‘name’ et ‘obj’.

 -- Exception: EOFError

     Levée lorsque la fonction *note input(): 12b8. atteint une
     condition de fin de fichier (EOF) sans lire aucune donnée.  (N.B. :
     les méthodes ‘io.IOBase.read()’ et *note io.IOBase.readline():
     1309. retournent une chaîne vide lorsqu'elles atteignent EOF.)

 -- Exception: FloatingPointError

     N’est pas utilisé pour le moment.

 -- Exception: GeneratorExit

     Levée lorsqu'un *note generator: 104c. ou une *note coroutine: 47d.
     est fermé, voir *note generator.close(): 16ae. et *note
     coroutine.close(): 1f86.  Elle hérite directement de *note
     BaseException: 5a7. au lieu de *note Exception: 9c9. puisqu'il ne
     s'agit pas techniquement d'une erreur.

 -- Exception: ImportError

     Levée lorsque l'instruction *note import: 5ce. a des problèmes pour
     essayer de charger un module.  Également levée lorsque Python ne
     trouve pas un nom dans ‘from ... import’.

     The optional 'name' and 'path' keyword-only arguments set the
     corresponding attributes:

      -- Attribut: name

          The name of the module that was attempted to be imported.

      -- Attribut: path

          The path to any file which triggered the exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout des attributs *note name: 2245.
     et *note path: 2246.

 -- Exception: ModuleNotFoundError

     Une sous-classe de *note ImportError: 40f. qui est levée par *note
     import: 5ce. lorsqu'un module n'a pas pu être localisé.  Elle est
     généralement levée quand ‘None’ est trouvé dans *note sys.modules:
     1929.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Exception: IndexError

     Levée lorsqu'un indice de séquence est hors de la plage.  (Les
     indices de tranches ('slices') sont tronqués silencieusement pour
     tomber dans la plage autorisée ; si un indice n'est pas un entier,
     *note TypeError: 525. est levée.)

 -- Exception: KeyError

     Levée lorsqu'une clef (de dictionnaire) n'est pas trouvée dans
     l'ensemble des clefs existantes.

 -- Exception: KeyboardInterrupt

     Levée lorsque l'utilisateur appuie sur la touche d'interruption
     (normalement ‘Control’-‘C’ or ‘Delete’).  Pendant l'exécution, un
     contrôle des interruptions est effectué régulièrement.  L'exception
     hérite de *note BaseException: 5a7. afin de ne pas être
     accidentellement interceptée par du code qui intercepte *note
     Exception: 9c9. et ainsi empêcher l'interpréteur de quitter.

          Note: Attraper une *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. demande une
          considération particulière.  Comme elle peut être levée à des
          moments imprévisibles, elle peut dans certains cas laisser le
          programme en cours d'exécution dans un état incohérent.  Il
          est généralement préférable de laisser *note
          KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. arrêter le programme aussi rapidement
          que possible ou d'éviter catégoriquement de la lever (voir
          *note Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions: 2247.).

 -- Exception: MemoryError

     Levée lorsqu'une opération est à court de mémoire mais que la
     situation peut encore être rattrapée (en supprimant certains
     objets).  La valeur associée est une chaîne de caractères indiquant
     quel type d'opération (interne) est à court de mémoire.  À noter
     qu'en raison de l'architecture interne de gestion de la mémoire (la
     fonction ‘malloc()’ du C), l'interpréteur peut ne pas toujours être
     capable de rattraper cette situation ; il lève néanmoins une
     exception pour qu'une pile d'appels puisse être affichée, dans le
     cas où un programme en cours d'exécution en était la cause.

 -- Exception: NameError

     Levée lorsqu'un nom local ou global n'est pas trouvé.  Ceci ne
     s'applique qu'aux noms non qualifiés.  La valeur associée est un
     message d'erreur qui inclut le nom qui n'a pas pu être trouvé.

     L'attribut ‘name’ doit être défini uniquement à l'aide d'un
     argument nommé passé au constructeur.  Lorsqu'il est défini, il
     représente le nom de la variable pour laquelle il y a eu une
     tentative d'accès.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout de l'attribut ‘name’.

 -- Exception: NotImplementedError

     Cette exception est dérivée de *note RuntimeError: 193.  Dans les
     classes mères définies par l'utilisateur, les méthodes abstraites
     devraient lever cette exception lorsqu'elles nécessitent des
     classes dérivées pour remplacer la méthode, ou lorsque la classe
     est en cours de développement pour indiquer que l'implémentation
     concrète doit encore être ajoutée.

          Note: Elle ne devrait pas être utilisée pour indiquer qu'un
          opérateur ou qu'une méthode n'est pas destiné à être pris en
          charge du tout – dans ce cas, évitez de définir l'opérateur ou
          la méthode, ou s'il s'agit d'une sous-classe, assignez-le à
          *note None: 662.

          Prudence: ‘NotImplementedError’ and ‘NotImplemented’ are not
          interchangeable.  This exception should only be used as
          described above; see *note NotImplemented: 7be. for details on
          correct usage of the built-in constant.

 -- Exception: OSError ([arg])

 -- Exception: OSError (errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[,
          filename2]]])

     Cette exception est levée lorsqu'une fonction système retourne une
     erreur liée au système, incluant les erreurs entrées-sorties telles
     que "fichier non trouvé" ou "disque plein" (pas pour les types
     d'arguments illégaux ou d'autres erreurs accidentelles).

     La deuxième forme du constructeur définit les attributs
     correspondants, décrits ci-dessous.  Les attributs par défaut sont
     *note None: 662. si non spécifiés.  Pour la rétrocompatibilité, si
     trois arguments sont passés, l'attribut *note args: 55a. contient
     seulement une paire avec les valeurs des deux premiers arguments du
     constructeur.

     Le constructeur retourne souvent une sous-classe d'*note OSError:
     40d, comme décrit dans *note OS exceptions: 2248. ci-dessous.  La
     sous-classe particulière dépend de la valeur finale d'*note errno:
     2249.  Ce comportement ne se produit que lors de la construction
     d'*note OSError: 40d. directement ou via un alias, et n'est pas
     hérité lors du sous-classement.

      -- Attribut: errno

          Code d'erreur numérique de la variable C ‘errno’.

      -- Attribut: winerror

          Sous Windows, cela donne le code d'erreur Windows natif.
          L'attribut *note errno: 2249. est alors une traduction
          approximative, en termes POSIX, de ce code d'erreur natif.

          Sous Windows, si l'argument du constructeur 'winerror' est un
          entier, l'attribut *note errno: 2249. est déterminé à partir
          du code d'erreur Windows, et l'argument 'errno' est ignoré.
          Sur d'autres plateformes, l'argument 'winerror' est ignoré, et
          l'attribut *note winerror: 224a. n'existe pas.

      -- Attribut: strerror

          Le message d'erreur correspondant, tel que fourni par le
          système d'exploitation.  Il est formaté par les fonctions C
          ‘perror()’ sous POSIX, et ‘FormatMessage()’ sous Windows.

      -- Attribut: filename
      -- Attribut: filename2

          Pour les exceptions qui font référence à un chemin d'accès au
          système de fichiers (comme *note open(): 508. ou *note
          os.unlink(): 10d8.), *note filename: 224c. est le nom du
          fichier transmis à la fonction.  Pour les fonctions qui font
          référence à deux chemins d'accès au système de fichiers (comme
          *note os.rename(): 10d4.), *note filename2: 224d. correspond
          au deuxième nom de fichier passé à la fonction.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note EnvironmentError: 103e, *note
     IOError: 103d, *note WindowsError: 103f, *note socket.error: 1040,
     *note select.error: 1041. et ‘mmap.error’ ont fusionnées en *note
     OSError: 40d, et le constructeur peut renvoyer une sous-classe.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: L'attribut *note filename: 224c. est
     maintenant le nom du fichier originel passé à la fonction, au lieu
     du nom encodé ou décodé à partir du *note gestionnaire d'encodage
     et d'erreur du système de fichiers: 528.  De plus, l'argument du
     constructeur et attribut 'filename2' a été ajouté.

 -- Exception: OverflowError

     Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to
     be represented.  This cannot occur for integers (which would rather
     raise *note MemoryError: 1530. than give up).  However, for
     historical reasons, OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers
     that are outside a required range.  Because of the lack of
     standardization of floating-point exception handling in C, most
     floating-point operations are not checked.

 -- Exception: PythonFinalizationError

     This exception is derived from *note RuntimeError: 193.  It is
     raised when an operation is blocked during interpreter shutdown
     also known as *note Python finalization: 14d.

     Examples of operations which can be blocked with a *note
     PythonFinalizationError: 14c. during the Python finalization:

        * Creating a new Python thread.

        * *note os.fork(): 195.

     See also the *note sys.is_finalizing(): a7f. function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13: Auparavant, une simple *note
     RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

 -- Exception: RecursionError

     Cette exception est dérivée de *note RuntimeError: 193.  Elle est
     levée lorsque l'interpréteur détecte que la profondeur de
     récursivité maximale (voir *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4b0.) est
     dépassée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Auparavant, une simple *note
     RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

 -- Exception: ReferenceError

     Cette exception est levée lorsqu'un pointeur faible d'un objet
     proxy, créé par la fonction *note weakref.proxy(): a42, est utilisé
     pour accéder à un attribut du référent après qu'il ait été récupéré
     par le ramasse-miettes.  Pour plus d'informations sur les pointeurs
     faibles, voir le module *note weakref: 113.

 -- Exception: RuntimeError

     Levée lorsqu'une erreur qui n'appartient à aucune des autres
     catégories est détectée.  La valeur associée est une chaîne de
     caractères indiquant précisément ce qui s'est mal passé.

 -- Exception: StopIteration

     Levée par la fonction native *note next(): 7c4. et la méthode *note
     __next__(): 12ad. d'un *note iterator: 1aa. (itérateur) pour
     signaler qu'il n'y a pas d'autres éléments produits par
     l'itérateur.

      -- Attribut: value

          The exception object has a single attribute ‘value’, which is
          given as an argument when constructing the exception, and
          defaults to *note None: 662.

     Lorsqu'une fonction de type *note generator: 104c. ou *note
     coroutine: 47d. retourne une valeur, une nouvelle instance de *note
     StopIteration: bea. est levée, et la valeur retournée par la
     fonction est passée au paramètre *note value: 1f82. du constructeur
     de l'exception.

     Si le code d'un générateur lève, directement ou indirectement, une
     *note StopIteration: bea, elle est convertie en *note RuntimeError:
     193. (en conservant *note StopIteration: bea. comme cause de la
     nouvelle exception).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'attribut ‘value’ et de la
     possibilité pour les fonctions de générateur de l'utiliser pour
     retourner une valeur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Introduit la transformation des
     erreurs ‘RuntimeError’ via ‘from __future__ import generator_stop’,
     cf.  PEP 479(1).

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Active PEP 479(2) pour tout le code
     par défaut : quand une erreur *note StopIteration: bea. est levée
     dans un générateur elle est transformée en une *note RuntimeError:
     193.

 -- Exception: StopAsyncIteration

     Must be raised by *note __anext__(): 152d. method of an *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1a9. object to stop the iteration.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Exception: SyntaxError (message, details)

     Levée lorsque l'analyseur syntaxique rencontre une erreur de
     syntaxe.  Cela peut se produire dans une instruction *note import:
     5ce, dans un appel aux fonctions natives *note compile(): 190,
     *note exec(): 17d. ou *note eval(): 17e, ou lors de la lecture du
     script initial ou de l'entrée standard (également de manière
     interactive).

     La conversion en chaîne avec *note str(): 437. de l'instance de
     l'exception ne renvoie que le message d'erreur.  L'argument
     ‘details’ est un 'n'-uplet dont les membres sont disponibles en
     tant qu'attributs séparés.

      -- Attribut: filename

          Le nom du fichier dans lequel l'erreur de syntaxe a été
          rencontrée.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          Le numéro de la ligne dans le fichier où l'erreur s'est
          produite.  L'indiçage commence à 1 : ‘lineno’ vaut 1 pour la
          première ligne du fichier.

      -- Attribut: offset

          La colonne dans la ligne où l'erreur s'est produite.
          L'indiçage commence à 1 : ‘offset’ vaut 1 pour le premier
          caractère de la ligne.

      -- Attribut: text

          Le texte du code source impliqué dans l'erreur.

      -- Attribut: end_lineno

          Le numéro de la dernière ligne produisant l'erreur.
          L'indiçage commence à 1 : ‘lineno’ vaut 1 pour la première
          ligne du fichier.

      -- Attribut: end_offset

          Le numéro de la dernière colonne (de la dernière ligne)
          produisant l'erreur.  L'indiçage commence à 1 : ‘offset’ vaut
          1 pour le premier caractère de la ligne.

     Pour les erreurs dans les chaînes de formatage 'f-strings', le
     message commence par « f-string: » et les champs 'offset' sont les
     décalages dans un texte construit à partir de l’expression de
     remplacement.  Par exemple, compiler ‘f'Bad {a b} field'’ produit
     cet attribut 'args' : ‘('f-string: ...', ('', 1, 2, '(a b)\n', 1,
     5)).’

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout des attributs *note end_lineno:
     2252. et *note end_offset: 2253.

 -- Exception: IndentationError

     Classe mère pour les erreurs de syntaxe liées à une indentation
     incorrecte.  C'est une sous-classe de *note SyntaxError: 18b.

 -- Exception: TabError

     Levée lorsqu'une indentation contient une utilisation incohérente
     des tabulations et des espaces.  C'est une sous-classe de *note
     IndentationError: 794.

 -- Exception: SystemError

     Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the
     situation does not look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope.
     The associated value is a string indicating what went wrong (in
     low-level terms).  In *note CPython: 6e2, this could be raised by
     incorrectly using Python's C API, such as returning a ‘NULL’ value
     without an exception set.

     If you're confident that this exception wasn't your fault, or the
     fault of a package you're using, you should report this to the
     author or maintainer of your Python interpreter.  Be sure to report
     the version of the Python interpreter (‘sys.version’; it is also
     printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact
     error message (the exception's associated value) and if possible
     the source of the program that triggered the error.

 -- Exception: SystemExit

     Cette exception est levée par la fonction *note sys.exit(): 1329.
     Elle hérite de *note BaseException: 5a7. au lieu d'*note Exception:
     9c9. pour ne pas qu'elle soit interceptée accidentellement par du
     code qui intercepte *note Exception: 9c9.  Cela permet à
     l'exception de se propager correctement et de faire quitter
     l'interpréteur.  Lorsqu'elle n'est pas gérée, l'interpréteur Python
     quitte ; aucune trace d'appels n'est affichée.  Le constructeur
     accepte le même argument optionnel passé à *note sys.exit(): 1329.
     Si la valeur est un entier, elle spécifie l'état de sortie du
     système (passé à la fonction C ‘exit()’) ; si elle est ‘None’,
     l'état de sortie est zéro ; si elle a un autre type (comme une
     chaîne de caractères), la valeur de l'objet est affichée et l'état
     de sortie est un.

     Un appel à *note sys.exit(): 1329. est traduit en une exception
     pour que les gestionnaires de nettoyage (les clauses *note finally:
     9ba. des instructions *note try: 6d5.) puissent être exécutés, et
     pour qu'un débogueur puisse exécuter un script sans courir le
     risque de perdre le contrôle.  La fonction *note os._exit(): 2254.
     peut être utilisée s'il est absolument nécessaire de sortir
     immédiatement (par exemple, dans le processus enfant après un appel
     à *note os.fork(): 195.).

      -- Attribut: code

          L'état de sortie ou le message d'erreur passé au constructeur.
          (‘None’ par défaut.)

 -- Exception: TypeError

     Levée lorsqu'une opération ou fonction est appliquée à un objet
     d'un type inapproprié.  La valeur associée est une chaîne de
     caractères donnant des détails sur le type d'inadéquation.

     Cette exception peut être levée par du code utilisateur pour
     indiquer qu'une tentative d'opération sur un objet n'est pas prise
     en charge, et n'est pas censée l'être.  Si un objet est destiné à
     prendre en charge une opération donnée mais n'a pas encore fourni
     une implémentation, lever *note NotImplementedError: 225. est plus
     approprié.

     Le passage d'arguments du mauvais type (e.g.  passer une *note
     list: 5fe. quand un *note int: 254. est attendu) devrait résulter
     en un *note TypeError: 525, mais le passage d'arguments avec la
     mauvaise valeur (e.g.  un nombre en dehors des limites attendues)
     devrait résulter en une *note ValueError: 1ff.

 -- Exception: UnboundLocalError

     Levée lorsqu'une référence est faite à une variable locale dans une
     fonction ou une méthode, mais qu'aucune valeur n'a été liée à cette
     variable.  C'est une sous-classe de *note NameError: 42a.

 -- Exception: UnicodeError

     Levée lorsqu'une erreur d'encodage ou de décodage liée à Unicode se
     produit.  C'est une sous-classe de *note ValueError: 1ff.

     *note UnicodeError: 1283. a des attributs qui décrivent l'erreur
     d'encodage ou de décodage.  Par exemple,
     ‘err.object[err.start:err.end]’ donne l'entrée particulière
     invalide sur laquelle le codec a échoué.

      -- Attribut: encoding

          Le nom de l'encodage qui a provoqué l'erreur.

      -- Attribut: reason

          Une chaîne de caractères décrivant l'erreur de codec
          spécifique.

      -- Attribut: object

          L'objet que le codec essayait d'encoder ou de décoder.

      -- Attribut: start

          Le premier index des données invalides dans *note object: a7c.

      -- Attribut: end

          L'index après la dernière donnée invalide dans *note object:
          a7c.

 -- Exception: UnicodeEncodeError

     Levée lorsqu'une erreur liée à Unicode se produit durant
     l'encodage.  C'est une sous-classe d'*note UnicodeError: 1283.

 -- Exception: UnicodeDecodeError

     Levée lorsqu'une erreur liée à Unicode se produit durant le
     décodage.  C'est une sous-classe d'*note UnicodeError: 1283.

 -- Exception: UnicodeTranslateError

     Levée lorsqu'une erreur liée à Unicode se produit durant la
     traduction.  C'est une sous-classe d'*note UnicodeError: 1283.

 -- Exception: ValueError

     Levée lorsqu'une opération ou fonction native reçoit un argument
     qui possède le bon type mais une valeur inappropriée, et que la
     situation n'est pas décrite par une exception plus précise telle
     que *note IndexError: 14ec.

 -- Exception: ZeroDivisionError

     Levée lorsque le second argument d'une opération de division ou
     d'un modulo est zéro.  La valeur associée est une chaîne indiquant
     le type des opérandes et de l'opération.

Les exceptions suivantes sont conservées pour la compatibilité avec les
anciennes versions ; depuis Python 3.3, ce sont des alias d'*note
OSError: 40d.

 -- Exception: EnvironmentError

 -- Exception: IOError

 -- Exception: WindowsError

     Seulement disponible sous Windows.

* Menu:

* Exceptions système::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions système,  Up: Exceptions concrètes

5.5.4.1 Exceptions système
..........................

Les exceptions suivantes sont des sous-classes d'*note OSError: 40d,
elles sont levées en fonction du code d'erreur système.

 -- Exception: BlockingIOError

     Raised when an operation would block on an object (e.g.  socket)
     set for non-blocking operation.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note
     EAGAIN: 225a, *note EALREADY: 225b, *note EWOULDBLOCK: 225c. and
     *note EINPROGRESS: 225d.

     En plus de ceux de *note OSError: 40d, *note BlockingIOError: 1042.
     peut avoir un attribut de plus :

      -- Attribut: characters_written

          Un nombre entier contenant le nombre de caractères écrits dans
          le flux avant qu'il ne soit bloqué.  Cet attribut est
          disponible lors de l'utilisation des classes tampon
          entrées-sorties du module *note io: 7e.

 -- Exception: ChildProcessError

     Raised when an operation on a child process failed.  Corresponds to
     ‘errno’ *note ECHILD: 225f.

 -- Exception: ConnectionError

     Classe mère pour les problèmes de connexion.

     Les sous-classes sont *note BrokenPipeError: 1047, *note
     ConnectionAbortedError: 1048, *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1049.
     et *note ConnectionResetError: 104a.

 -- Exception: BrokenPipeError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: df9, raised when trying to
     write on a pipe while the other end has been closed, or trying to
     write on a socket which has been shutdown for writing.  Corresponds
     to ‘errno’ *note EPIPE: 2260. and *note ESHUTDOWN: 2261.

 -- Exception: ConnectionAbortedError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: df9, raised when a connection
     attempt is aborted by the peer.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note
     ECONNABORTED: 2262.

 -- Exception: ConnectionRefusedError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: df9, raised when a connection
     attempt is refused by the peer.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note
     ECONNREFUSED: 2263.

 -- Exception: ConnectionResetError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: df9, raised when a connection
     is reset by the peer.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ECONNRESET:
     2264.

 -- Exception: FileExistsError

     Raised when trying to create a file or directory which already
     exists.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note EEXIST: 2265.

 -- Exception: FileNotFoundError

     Raised when a file or directory is requested but doesn't exist.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ENOENT: 2266.

 -- Exception: InterruptedError

     Raised when a system call is interrupted by an incoming signal.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note EINTR: d76.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Python relance maintenant les appels
     système lorsqu'ils sont interrompus par un signal, sauf si le
     gestionnaire de signal lève une exception (voir PEP 475(1) pour les
     raisons), au lieu de lever *note InterruptedError: d77.

 -- Exception: IsADirectoryError

     Raised when a file operation (such as *note os.remove(): 10d3.) is
     requested on a directory.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note EISDIR:
     2267.

 -- Exception: NotADirectoryError

     Raised when a directory operation (such as *note os.listdir():
     10dc.) is requested on something which is not a directory.  On most
     POSIX platforms, it may also be raised if an operation attempts to
     open or traverse a non-directory file as if it were a directory.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ENOTDIR: 2268.

 -- Exception: PermissionError

     Raised when trying to run an operation without the adequate access
     rights - for example filesystem permissions.  Corresponds to
     ‘errno’ *note EACCES: 2269, *note EPERM: 1788, and *note
     ENOTCAPABLE: 177b.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11.1: WASI's *note ENOTCAPABLE: 177b. is
     now mapped to *note PermissionError: d32.

 -- Exception: ProcessLookupError

     Raised when a given process doesn't exist.  Corresponds to ‘errno’
     *note ESRCH: 226a.

 -- Exception: TimeoutError

     Raised when a system function timed out at the system level.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ETIMEDOUT: 226b.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Toutes les sous-classes d'*note OSError:
40d. ci-dessus ont été ajoutées.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3151(2) - Refonte de la hiérarchie des exceptions système et IO

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Avertissements,  Next: Exception groups,  Prev: Exceptions concrètes,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.5 Avertissements
--------------------

Les exceptions suivantes sont utilisées comme catégories
d'avertissement ; voir ‘warning-categories’ pour plus d'informations.

 -- Exception: Warning

     Classe mère pour les catégories d'avertissement.

 -- Exception: UserWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements générés par du code
     utilisateur.

 -- Exception: DeprecationWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements sur les fonctionnalités
     obsolètes, lorsque ces avertissements sont destinés aux autres
     développeurs Python.

     Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut, sauf dans le
     module ‘__main__’ ( PEP 565(1)).  Activer le *note mode de
     développement de Python: 1f5. affiche cet avertissement.

     La politique relative à l'obsolescence est décrite dans la PEP
     387(2).

 -- Exception: PendingDeprecationWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements d'obsolescence programmée.  Ils
     indiquent que la fonctionnalité peut encore être utilisée
     actuellement, mais qu'elle sera supprimée dans le futur.

     Cette classe est rarement utilisée car émettre un avertissement à
     propos d’une obsolescence à venir est inhabituel, et *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. est préféré pour les obsolescences
     actuelles.

     Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut.  Activer le
     *note mode de développement de Python: 1f5. affiche cet
     avertissement.

     La politique relative à l'obsolescence est décrite dans la PEP
     387(3).

 -- Exception: SyntaxWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements sur de la syntaxe douteuse.

 -- Exception: RuntimeWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements sur les comportements
     d'exécution douteux.

 -- Exception: FutureWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements à propos de fonctionnalités qui
     seront obsolètes dans le futur quand ces avertissements destinés
     aux utilisateurs finaux des applications écrites en Python.

 -- Exception: ImportWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements sur des erreurs probables dans
     les importations de modules.

     Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut.  Activer le
     *note mode de développement de Python: 1f5. affiche cet
     avertissement.

 -- Exception: UnicodeWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à l'Unicode.

 -- Exception: EncodingWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à l'encodage des chaînes.

     Voir *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d12. pour plus d'informations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Exception: BytesWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à *note bytes: 1bd. et
     *note bytearray: 52b.

 -- Exception: ResourceWarning

     Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à l'utilisation des
     ressources.

     Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut.  Activer le
     *note mode de développement de Python: 1f5. affiche cet
     avertissement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception groups,  Next: Hiérarchie des exceptions,  Prev: Avertissements,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.6 Exception groups
----------------------

The following are used when it is necessary to raise multiple unrelated
exceptions.  They are part of the exception hierarchy so they can be
handled with *note except: 189. like all other exceptions.  In addition,
they are recognised by *note except*: 5a4, which matches their subgroups
based on the types of the contained exceptions.

 -- Exception: ExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

 -- Exception: BaseExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

     Both of these exception types wrap the exceptions in the sequence
     ‘excs’.  The ‘msg’ parameter must be a string.  The difference
     between the two classes is that *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.
     extends *note BaseException: 5a7. and it can wrap any exception,
     while *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. extends *note Exception: 9c9. and
     it can only wrap subclasses of *note Exception: 9c9.  This design
     is so that ‘except Exception’ catches an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.
     but not *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.

     The *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c. constructor returns an *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b4. rather than a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.
     if all contained exceptions are *note Exception: 9c9. instances, so
     it can be used to make the selection automatic.  The *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b4. constructor, on the other hand, raises a *note
     TypeError: 525. if any contained exception is not an *note
     Exception: 9c9. subclass.

      -- Attribut: message

          The ‘msg’ argument to the constructor.  This is a read-only
          attribute.

      -- Attribut: exceptions

          A tuple of the exceptions in the ‘excs’ sequence given to the
          constructor.  This is a read-only attribute.

      -- Méthode: subgroup (condition)

          Returns an exception group that contains only the exceptions
          from the current group that match 'condition', or ‘None’ if
          the result is empty.

          The condition can be an exception type or tuple of exception
          types, in which case each exception is checked for a match
          using the same check that is used in an ‘except’ clause.  The
          condition can also be a callable (other than a type object)
          that accepts an exception as its single argument and returns
          true for the exceptions that should be in the subgroup.

          The nesting structure of the current exception is preserved in
          the result, as are the values of its *note message: 2272,
          *note __traceback__: 12a6, *note __cause__: 12a8, *note
          __context__: 12a7. and *note __notes__: 2241. fields.  Empty
          nested groups are omitted from the result.

          The condition is checked for all exceptions in the nested
          exception group, including the top-level and any nested
          exception groups.  If the condition is true for such an
          exception group, it is included in the result in full.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13: ‘condition’ can be any callable
          which is not a type object.

      -- Méthode: split (condition)

          Like *note subgroup(): 167c, but returns the pair ‘(match,
          rest)’ where ‘match’ is ‘subgroup(condition)’ and ‘rest’ is
          the remaining non-matching part.

      -- Méthode: derive (excs)

          Returns an exception group with the same *note message: 2272,
          but which wraps the exceptions in ‘excs’.

          This method is used by *note subgroup(): 167c. and *note
          split(): 1543, which are used in various contexts to break up
          an exception group.  A subclass needs to override it in order
          to make *note subgroup(): 167c. and *note split(): 1543.
          return instances of the subclass rather than *note
          ExceptionGroup: 1b4.

          *note subgroup(): 167c. and *note split(): 1543. copy the
          *note __traceback__: 12a6, *note __cause__: 12a8, *note
          __context__: 12a7. and *note __notes__: 2241. fields from the
          original exception group to the one returned by *note
          derive(): 167b, so these fields do not need to be updated by
          *note derive(): 167b.

               >>> class MyGroup(ExceptionGroup):
               ...     def derive(self, excs):
               ...         return MyGroup(self.message, excs)
               ...
               >>> e = MyGroup("eg", [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)])
               >>> e.add_note("a note")
               >>> e.__context__ = Exception("context")
               >>> e.__cause__ = Exception("cause")
               >>> try:
               ...    raise e
               ... except Exception as e:
               ...    exc = e
               ...
               >>> match, rest = exc.split(ValueError)
               >>> exc, exc.__context__, exc.__cause__, exc.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> match, match.__context__, match.__cause__, match.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> rest, rest.__context__, rest.__cause__, rest.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> exc.__traceback__ is match.__traceback__ is rest.__traceback__
               True

     Note that *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c. defines *note __new__():
     56e, so subclasses that need a different constructor signature need
     to override that rather than *note __init__(): 69d.  For example,
     the following defines an exception group subclass which accepts an
     exit_code and and constructs the group's message from it.

          class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
             def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
                self = super().__new__(Errors, f"exit code: {exit_code}", errors)
                self.exit_code = exit_code
                return self

             def derive(self, excs):
                return Errors(excs, self.exit_code)

     Like *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4, any subclass of *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 25c. which is also a subclass of *note
     Exception: 9c9. can only wrap instances of *note Exception: 9c9.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Hiérarchie des exceptions,  Prev: Exception groups,  Up: Exceptions natives

5.5.7 Hiérarchie des exceptions
-------------------------------

La hiérarchie de classes pour les exceptions natives est la suivante :

     BaseException
      ├── BaseExceptionGroup
      ├── GeneratorExit
      ├── KeyboardInterrupt
      ├── SystemExit
      └── Exception
           ├── ArithmeticError
           │    ├── FloatingPointError
           │    ├── OverflowError
           │    └── ZeroDivisionError
           ├── AssertionError
           ├── AttributeError
           ├── BufferError
           ├── EOFError
           ├── ExceptionGroup [BaseExceptionGroup]
           ├── ImportError
           │    └── ModuleNotFoundError
           ├── LookupError
           │    ├── IndexError
           │    └── KeyError
           ├── MemoryError
           ├── NameError
           │    └── UnboundLocalError
           ├── OSError
           │    ├── BlockingIOError
           │    ├── ChildProcessError
           │    ├── ConnectionError
           │    │    ├── BrokenPipeError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionAbortedError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionRefusedError
           │    │    └── ConnectionResetError
           │    ├── FileExistsError
           │    ├── FileNotFoundError
           │    ├── InterruptedError
           │    ├── IsADirectoryError
           │    ├── NotADirectoryError
           │    ├── PermissionError
           │    ├── ProcessLookupError
           │    └── TimeoutError
           ├── ReferenceError
           ├── RuntimeError
           │    ├── NotImplementedError
           │    ├── PythonFinalizationError
           │    └── RecursionError
           ├── StopAsyncIteration
           ├── StopIteration
           ├── SyntaxError
           │    └── IndentationError
           │         └── TabError
           ├── SystemError
           ├── TypeError
           ├── ValueError
           │    └── UnicodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeDecodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeEncodeError
           │         └── UnicodeTranslateError
           └── Warning
                ├── BytesWarning
                ├── DeprecationWarning
                ├── EncodingWarning
                ├── FutureWarning
                ├── ImportWarning
                ├── PendingDeprecationWarning
                ├── ResourceWarning
                ├── RuntimeWarning
                ├── SyntaxWarning
                ├── UnicodeWarning
                └── UserWarning


File: python.info,  Node: Services de Manipulation de Texte,  Next: Services autour des Données Binaires,  Prev: Exceptions natives,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.6 Services de Manipulation de Texte
=====================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent un large ensemble
d'opérations de manipulation sur les chaînes de caractères et le texte
en général.

Le module *note codecs: 1b. documenté dans *note Services autour des
Données Binaires: 2277. est aussi très pertinent pour la manipulation de
texte.  Consultez aussi la documentation du type 'str' natif Python dans
*note Type Séquence de Texte — str: 1bba.

* Menu:

* string: string --- Common string operations. Common string operations
* re: re --- Regular expression operations. Regular expression operations
* difflib: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas. Helpers for computing deltas
* textwrap: textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling. Text wrapping and filling
* unicodedata: unicodedata --- Unicode Database. Unicode Database
* stringprep: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation. Internet String Preparation
* readline: readline --- GNU readline interface. GNU readline interface
* rlcompleter: rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline. Completion function for GNU readline


File: python.info,  Node: string --- Common string operations,  Next: re --- Regular expression operations,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.1 ‘string’ -- Common string operations
------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/string.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Voir aussi
..........

*note Type Séquence de Texte — str: 1bba.

*note Méthodes de chaînes de caractères: 1bbb.

* Menu:

* Chaînes constantes::
* Formatage personnalisé de chaîne::
* Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne::
* Chaînes modèles::
* Fonctions d'assistance::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/string.py


File: python.info,  Node: Chaînes constantes,  Next: Formatage personnalisé de chaîne,  Up: string --- Common string operations

5.6.1.1 Chaînes constantes
..........................

Les constantes définies dans ce module sont :

 -- Données: string.ascii_letters

     La concaténation des constantes *note ascii_lowercase: 227b. et
     *note ascii_uppercase: 227c. décrites ci-dessous.  Cette valeur
     n'est pas dépendante de la configuration de la localisation.

 -- Données: string.ascii_lowercase

     Les lettres minuscules ‘'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Cette
     valeur ne dépend pas de la configuration de localisation et ne
     changera pas.

 -- Données: string.ascii_uppercase

     Les lettres majuscules ‘'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  Cette
     valeur ne dépend pas de la configuration de la localisation et ne
     changera pas.

 -- Données: string.digits

     La chaîne ‘'0123456789'’.

 -- Données: string.hexdigits

     La chaîne ‘'0123456789abcdefABCDEF'’.

 -- Données: string.octdigits

     La chaîne ‘'01234567’.

 -- Données: string.punctuation

     Chaîne de caractères ASCII considérés comme ponctuation dans la
     configuration de localisation ‘C’ :
     ‘!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~’.

 -- Données: string.printable

     String of ASCII characters which are considered printable by
     Python.  This is a combination of *note digits: 227d, *note
     ascii_letters: 12a3, *note punctuation: 2280, and *note whitespace:
     2281.

          Note: By design, *note string.printable.isprintable(): dc7.
          returns *note False: b27.  In particular, ‘string.printable’
          is not printable in the POSIX sense (see ‘LC_CTYPE(1)’).

 -- Données: string.whitespace

     Une chaîne comprenant tous les caractères ASCII considérés comme
     espaces.  Sont inclus les caractères espace, tabulations, saut de
     ligne, retour du chariot, saut de page, et tabulation verticale.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/locale(5)


File: python.info,  Node: Formatage personnalisé de chaîne,  Next: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne,  Prev: Chaînes constantes,  Up: string --- Common string operations

5.6.1.2 Formatage personnalisé de chaîne
........................................

La classe primitive ‘str’ fournit la possibilité de faire des
substitutions de variables complexes et du formatage de valeurs via la
méthode *note format(): 60e. décrite par PEP 3101(1).  La classe *note
Formatter: ea7. dans le module *note string: d2. permet de créer et
personnaliser vos propres comportements de formatage de chaînes en
utilisant la même implémentation que la méthode primitive *note
format(): 60e.

 -- Classe: string.Formatter

     La classe *note Formatter: ea7. a les méthodes publiques
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: format (format_string, /, *args, **kwargs)

          La méthode principale de l'API. Elle prend une chaîne de
          format et un ensemble arbitraire d'arguments positions et
          mot-clefs.  C'est uniquement un conteneur qui appelle *note
          vformat(): 2283.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: L'argument 'format_string' est
          maintenant *note obligatoirement un paramètre positionnel:
          a75.

      -- Méthode: vformat (format_string, args, kwargs)

          Cette fonction fait le travail effectif du formatage.  Elle
          existe comme méthode séparée au cas où vous voudriez passer un
          dictionnaire d'arguments prédéfini plutôt que décompresser et
          recompresser le dictionnaire en arguments individuels en
          utilisant la syntaxe ‘*args’ et ‘**kwargs’.  *note vformat():
          2283. s'occupe de découper la chaîne de format en données de
          caractères et champs de remplacement.  Elle appelle les
          différentes méthodes décrites ci-dessous.

     De plus, la classe *note Formatter: ea7. définit un certain nombre
     de méthodes qui ont pour vocation d'être remplacées par des
     sous-classes :

      -- Méthode: parse (format_string)

          Boucle sur la chaîne de format et renvoie un itérable de
          quadruplets ('literal_text', 'field_name', 'format_spec',
          'conversion').  Ceci est utilisé par *note vformat(): 2283.
          pour découper la chaîne de format en littéraux ou en champs de
          remplacement.

          Les valeurs dans le 'n'-uplet représentent conceptuellement un
          ensemble de littéraux suivis d'un unique champ de
          remplacement.  S'il n'y a pas de littéral, (ce qui peut
          arriver si deux champs de remplacement sont placés côte à
          côte), alors 'literal_text' est une chaîne vide.  S'il n'y a
          pas de champ de remplacement, les valeurs 'field_name',
          'format_spec' et 'conversion' sont mises à ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: get_field (field_name, args, kwargs)

          Récupère le champ 'field_name' du 'n'-uplet renvoyé par *note
          parse(): 2284. (voir ci-dessus), le convertit en un objet à
          formater.  Renvoie une paire ('obj', 'used_key').  La version
          par défaut prend une chaîne de la forme définie par PEP
          3101(2), telle que ‘"0[name]"’ ou ‘"label.title"’.  'args' et
          'kwargs' sont tels que ceux passés à *note vformat(): 2283.
          La valeur renvoyée 'used_key' a le même sens que le paramètre
          'key' de *note get_value(): 2286.

      -- Méthode: get_value (key, args, kwargs)

          Récupère la valeur d'un champ donné.  L'argument 'key' est
          soit un entier, soit une chaîne.  Si c'est un entier, il
          représente l'indice de l'argument dans 'args'.  Si c'est une
          chaîne de caractères, elle représente le nom de l'argument
          dans 'kwargs'.

          Le paramètre 'args' est défini par la liste des arguments
          positionnels de *note vformat(): 2283, et le paramètre
          'kwargs' est défini par le dictionnaire des arguments
          mot-clefs.

          Pour les noms de champs composés, ces fonctions sont
          uniquement appelées sur la première composante du nom.  Les
          composantes suivantes sont manipulées au travers des attributs
          normaux et des opérations sur les indices.

          Donc par exemple, le champ-expression ‘0.name’ amènerait *note
          get_value(): 2286. à être appelée avec un argument 'key'
          valant 0.  L'attribut ‘name’ sera recherché après l'appel
          *note get_value(): 2286. en faisant appel à la primitive *note
          getattr(): bc1.

          Si l'indice ou le mot-clef fait référence à un objet qui
          n'existe pas, alors une exception *note IndexError: 14ec. ou
          *note KeyError: 33a. doit être levée.

      -- Méthode: check_unused_args (used_args, args, kwargs)

          Implémente une vérification pour les arguments non utilisés si
          désiré.  L'argument de cette fonction est l'ensemble des clefs
          qui ont été effectivement référencées dans la chaîne de format
          (des entiers pour les indices et des chaînes de caractères
          pour les arguments nommés), et une référence vers les
          arguments 'args' et 'kwargs' qui ont été passés à ‘vformat’.
          L'ensemble des arguments non utilisés peut être calculé sur
          base de ces paramètres.  *note check_unused_args(): 2287. est
          censée lever une exception si la vérification échoue.

      -- Méthode: format_field (value, format_spec)

          La méthode *note format_field(): 2288. fait simplement appel à
          la primitive globale *note format(): 60c.  Cette méthode est
          fournie afin que les sous-classes puissent la redéfinir.

      -- Méthode: convert_field (value, conversion)

          Convertit la valeur (renvoyée par *note get_field(): 2285.)
          selon un type de conversion donné (comme dans le 'n'-uplet
          renvoyé par la méthode *note parse(): 2284.).  La version par
          défaut comprend 's' (‘str’), 'r' (‘repr’) et 'a' (ASCII) comme
          types de conversion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne,  Next: Chaînes modèles,  Prev: Formatage personnalisé de chaîne,  Up: string --- Common string operations

5.6.1.3 Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne
......................................

La méthode *note str.format(): 60e. et la classe *note Formatter: ea7.
partagent la même syntaxe pour les chaînes de formatage (bien que dans
le cas de *note Formatter: ea7. les sous-classes puissent définir leur
propre syntaxe).  La syntaxe est liée à celle des *note chaînes de
formatage littérales: 999, mais elle est moins sophistiquée, et surtout
ne permet pas d'inclure des expressions arbitraires.

Les chaînes de formatage contiennent des "champs de remplacement"
entourés d'accolades ‘{}’.  Tout ce qui n'est pas placé entre deux
accolades est considéré comme littéral, qui est copié tel quel dans le
résultat.  Si vous avez besoin d'inclure une accolade en littéral, elles
peuvent être échappées en les doublant : ‘{{’ et ‘}}’.

La grammaire pour un champ de remplacement est définie comme suit :

     replacement_field ::= "{" [*note field_name: 228c.] ["!" *note conversion: 228d.] [":" *note format_spec: 228e.] "}"
     field_name        ::= *note arg_name: 228f. ("." *note attribute_name: 2290. | "[" *note element_index: 2291. "]")*
     arg_name          ::= [*note identifier: 1e51. | *note digit: 1e8a.+]
     attribute_name    ::= *note identifier: 1e51.
     element_index     ::= *note digit: 1e8a.+ | *note index_string: 2292.
     index_string      ::= <any source character except "]"> +
     conversion        ::= "r" | "s" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= *note format-spec;format_spec: 2293.

En termes moins formels, un champ de remplacement peut débuter par un
'field_name' qui spécifie l'objet dont la valeur va être formatée et
insérée dans le résultat à l'endroit du champ de remplacement Le
'field_name' peut éventuellement être suivi d'un champ 'conversion' qui
est précédé d'un point d'exclamation ‘'!'’, et d'un 'format_spec' qui
est précédé par deux-points ‘':'’.  Cela définit un format personnalisé
pour le remplacement d'une valeur.

Voir également la section *note Mini-langage de spécification de format:
1e5.

The 'field_name' itself begins with an 'arg_name' that is either a
number or a keyword.  If it's a number, it refers to a positional
argument, and if it's a keyword, it refers to a named keyword argument.
An 'arg_name' is treated as a number if a call to *note str.isdecimal():
217c. on the string would return true.  If the numerical arg_names in a
format string are 0, 1, 2, ...  in sequence, they can all be omitted
(not just some) and the numbers 0, 1, 2, ...  will be automatically
inserted in that order.  Because 'arg_name' is not quote-delimited, it
is not possible to specify arbitrary dictionary keys (e.g., the strings
‘'10'’ or ‘':-]'’) within a format string.  The 'arg_name' can be
followed by any number of index or attribute expressions.  An expression
of the form ‘'.name'’ selects the named attribute using *note getattr():
bc1, while an expression of the form ‘'[index]'’ does an index lookup
using *note __getitem__(): 280.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Les spécificateurs de position d'argument
peuvent être omis dans les appels à *note str.format(): 60e.  Donc ‘'{}
{}'.format(a, b)’ est équivalent à ‘'{0} {1}'.format(a, b)’.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les spécificateurs de position d'argument
peuvent être omis pour *note Formatter: ea7.

Quelques exemples simples de formatage de chaînes :

     "First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # References first positional argument
     "Bring me a {}"                   # Implicitly references the first positional argument
     "From {} to {}"                   # Same as "From {0} to {1}"
     "My quest is {name}"              # References keyword argument 'name'
     "Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
     "Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # First element of keyword argument 'players'.

The 'conversion' field causes a type coercion before formatting.
Normally, the job of formatting a value is done by the *note
__format__(): 60b. method of the value itself.  However, in some cases
it is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string, overriding
its own definition of formatting.  By converting the value to a string
before calling *note __format__(): 60b, the normal formatting logic is
bypassed.

Actuellement, trois indicateurs sont gérés : ‘'!s'’ qui appelle la
fonction *note str(): 437. sur la valeur, ‘'!r'’ qui appelle la fonction
*note repr(): 7e9. et ‘!a’ qui appelle la fonction *note ascii(): 139f.

Quelques exemples :

     "Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # Calls str() on the argument first
     "Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # Calls repr() on the argument first
     "More {!a}"                      # Calls ascii() on the argument first

Le champ 'format_spec' contient une spécification sur la manière selon
laquelle la valeur devrait être représentée : des informations telles
que la longueur du champ, l'alignement, le remplissage, la précision
décimale, etc.  Chaque type peut définir son propre "mini-langage de
formatage" ou sa propre interprétation de 'format_spec'.

La plupart des types natifs gèrent un mini-langage de formatage usuel
qui est décrit dans la section suivante.

Un champ 'format_spec' peut contenir un champ de remplacement imbriqué.
Ces champs de remplacement imbriqués peuvent contenir un nom de champ,
un indicateur de conversion, mais une imbrication récursive plus
profonde n'est pas permise.  Les champs de remplacement au sein de
'format_spec' sont substitués avant que la chaîne 'format_spec' ne soit
interprétée.  Cela permet que le formatage d'une valeur soit
dynamiquement spécifié.

Voir la section *note Exemples de formats: 2294. pour des exemples.

* Menu:

* Mini-langage de spécification de format::
* Exemples de formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Mini-langage de spécification de format,  Next: Exemples de formats,  Up: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne

5.6.1.4 Mini-langage de spécification de format
...............................................

Les "Spécifications de format" sont utilisées avec les champs de
remplacement contenus dans les chaînes de formatage, pour définir
comment les valeurs doivent être représentées (voir *note Syntaxe de
formatage de chaîne: 1369. et *note f-strings: 999.).  Elles peuvent
aussi être passées directement à la fonction native *note format(): 60c.
Chaque type 'formatable' peut définir comment les spécifications sur les
valeurs de ce type doivent être interprétées.

La plupart des primitives implémentent les options suivantes, même si
certaines options de formatage ne sont prises en charge que pour les
types numériques.

Une convention généralement admise est qu'une chaîne vide produit le
même résultat que si vous aviez appelé *note str(): 437. sur la valeur.
Une chaîne de format non vide modifie habituellement le résultat.

La forme générale d'un 'spécificateur de format standard' est :

     format_spec ::= [*note options: 2296.][*note width: 2297.][*note grouping: 2298.]["." *note precision: 2299.][*note type: 229a.]
     options     ::= [[*note fill: 229b.]*note align: 229c.][*note sign: 229d.]["z"]["#"]["0"]
     fill        ::= <any character>
     align       ::= "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
     sign        ::= "+" | "-" | " "
     width       ::= *note digit: 1e8a.+
     grouping    ::= "," | "_"
     precision   ::= *note digit: 1e8a.+
     type        ::= "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g"
                     | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"

Si une valeur valide est spécifiée pour 'align', elle peut être précédée
par un caractère 'fill', qui peut être n'importe quel caractère (espace
par défaut si la valeur est omise).  Il n'est pas possible d'utiliser
une accolade littérale ("‘{’" ou "‘}’") comme caractère 'fill' dans une
*note chaîne de formatage littérale: 999. ou avec la méthode *note
str.format(): 60e.  Cependant, il est possible d'insérer une accolade à
l'aide d'un champ de remplacement imbriqué.  Cette limitation n'affecte
pas la fonction *note format(): 60c.

Le sens des différentes options d'alignement est donné comme suit :

Option        Signification
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'<'’         Force le champ à être aligné à gauche dans l'espace
              disponible (c'est le spécificateur par défaut pour la
              plupart des objets).
              
              
‘'>'’         Force le champ à être aligné à droite dans l'espace
              disponible (c'est le spécificateur par défaut pour les
              nombres).
              
              
‘'='’         Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) but
              before the digits.  This is used for printing fields in the
              form '+000000120'.  This alignment option is only valid for
              numeric types, excluding *note complex: 2ed.  It becomes the
              default for numbers when '0' immediately precedes the field
              width.
              
              
‘'^'’         Force le champ à être centré dans l'espace disponible.
              

Notons que la longueur du champ est toujours égale à la taille
nécessaire pour remplir le champ avec l'objet à moins que la valeur
minimum ne soit précisée.  Ainsi, si aucune valeur n'est précisée,
l'option d'alignement n'a aucun sens.

L'option 'sign' est uniquement valide pour les types numériques, et peut
valoir :

Option        Signification
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'+'’         Indicates that a sign should be used for both positive as
              well as negative numbers.
              
              
‘'-'’         Indicates that a sign should be used only for negative
              numbers (this is the default behavior).
              
              
espace        Indicates that a leading space should be used on positive
              numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.
              

The ‘'z'’ option coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive
zero after rounding to the format precision.  This option is only valid
for floating-point presentation types.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the ‘'z'’ option (see also PEP
682(1)).

L'option ‘'#'’ impose l'utilisation de la "forme alternative" pour la
conversion.  La forme alternative est définie différemment pour
différent types.  Cette option est uniquement valide pour les types
entiers, flottants et complexes.  Pour les entiers, quand l'affichage
binaire, octal ou hexadécimal est utilisé, cette option ajoute le
préfixe ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, ‘'0x'’ ou ‘'0X'’ à la valeur affichée.  Pour les
flottants et les complexes, la forme alternative impose que le résultat
de la conversion contienne toujours une virgule, même si aucun chiffre
ne vient après.  Normalement, une virgule apparaît dans le résultat de
ces conversions seulement si un chiffre le suit.  De plus, pour les
conversions ‘'g'’ et ‘'G'’, les zéros finaux ne sont pas retirés du
résultat.

The 'width' is a decimal integer defining the minimum total field width,
including any prefixes, separators, and other formatting characters.  If
not specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.

When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the 'width' field by a
zero (‘'0'’) character enables sign-aware zero-padding for numeric
types, excluding *note complex: 2ed.  This is equivalent to a 'fill'
character of ‘'0'’ with an 'alignment' type of ‘'='’.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Preceding the 'width' field by ‘'0'’ no
longer affects the default alignment for strings.

The 'grouping' option after the 'width' field specifies a digit group
separator for the integral part of a number.  It can be one of the
following:

Option        Signification
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘','’         Inserts a comma every 3 digits for integer presentation type
              ‘'d'’ and floating-point presentation types, excluding
              ‘'n'’.  For other presentation types, this option is not
              supported.
              
              
‘'_'’         Inserts an underscore every 3 digits for integer
              presentation type ‘'d'’ and floating-point presentation
              types, excluding ‘'n'’.  For integer presentation types
              ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’, ‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores are inserted
              every 4 digits.  For other presentation types, this option
              is not supported.
              

For a locale aware separator, use the ‘'n'’ presentation type instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de l'option ‘','’ (voir PEP 378(2)).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de l'option ‘'_'’ (voir aussi PEP
515(3)).

The 'precision' is a decimal integer indicating how many digits should
be displayed after the decimal point for presentation types ‘'f'’ and
‘'F'’, or before and after the decimal point for presentation types
‘'g'’ or ‘'G'’.  For string presentation types the field indicates the
maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be used
from the field content.  The 'precision' is not allowed for integer
presentation types.

Finalement, le spécificateur 'type' détermine comment la donnée doit
être représentée.

Les types disponibles de représentation de chaîne sont :

     Type          Signification
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'s'’         Format de chaîne.  C'est le type par défaut pour les chaînes
                   de caractères et peut être omis.
                   
                   
     ‘None’        Pareil que ‘'s'’.
                   

Les types disponibles de représentation d'entier sont :

     Type          Signification
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'b'’         Format binaire.  Affiche le nombre en base 2.
                   
                   
     ‘'c'’         Caractère.  Convertit l'entier en caractère Unicode associé
                   avant de l'afficher.
                   
                   
     ‘'d'’         Entier décimal.  Affiche le nombre en base 10.
                   
                   
     ‘'o'’         Format octal.  Affiche le nombre en base 8.
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         Format hexadécimal.  Affiche le nombre en base 16 en
                   utilisant les lettres minuscules pour les chiffres au-dessus
                   de 9.
                   
                   
     ‘'X'’         Format hexadécimal.  Affiche le nombre en base 16 en
                   utilisant les lettres majuscules pour les chiffres au-dessus
                   de 9.  Si ‘'#'’ est présent, le préfixe ‘'0x'’ est également
                   passé en majuscules pour devenir ‘'0X'’.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'d'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group
                   separators.
                   
                   
     ‘None’        Pareil que ‘'d'’.
                   

In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
with the floating-point presentation types listed below (except ‘'n'’
and ‘None’).  When doing so, *note float(): 2ec. is used to convert the
integer to a floating-point number before formatting.

Les représentations possibles pour les *note float: 2ec. et les *note
Decimal: 29a. sont :

     Type          Signification
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'e'’         Scientific notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats the
                   number in scientific notation with the letter 'e' separating
                   the coefficient from the exponent.  The coefficient has one
                   digit before and ‘p’ digits after the decimal point, for a
                   total of ‘p + 1’ significant digits.  With no precision
                   given, uses a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal
                   point for *note float: 2ec, and shows all coefficient digits
                   for *note Decimal: 29a.  If ‘p=0’, the decimal point is
                   omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'E'’         Notation scientifique.  Pareil que ‘'e'’ sauf que Python
                   utilise la lettre majuscule 'E' comme séparateur.
                   
                   
     ‘'f'’         Fixed-point notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats
                   the number as a decimal number with exactly ‘p’ digits
                   following the decimal point.  With no precision given, uses
                   a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal point for
                   *note float: 2ec, and uses a precision large enough to show
                   all coefficient digits for *note Decimal: 29a.  If ‘p=0’,
                   the decimal point is omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'F'’         Virgule fixe.  Pareil que ‘'f'’ à part ‘nan’ qui devient
                   ‘NAN’ et ‘inf’ qui devient ‘INF’.
                   
                   
     ‘'g'’         Format général.  Pour une précision donnée ‘p >= 1’, Python
                   arrondit le nombre à ‘p’ chiffres significatifs et puis
                   formate le résultat soit en virgule fixe soit en notation
                   scientifique, en fonction de la magnitude.  Une précision de
                   ‘0’ est considérée équivalente à une précision de ‘1’.
                   
                   Les règles précises sont les suivantes : supposons que le
                   résultat formaté avec le type de représentation ‘'e'’ et une
                   précision ‘p-1’ ait un exposant ‘exp’.  Alors, si ‘m <= exp
                   <= p’ où ‘m’ vaut ‘–4’ pour les nombres à virgule flottante
                   et ‘–6’ pour les *note Decimals: 29a, le nombre est formaté
                   avec le type de représentation ‘'f'’ et une précision
                   ‘p-1-exp’.  Sinon, le nombre est formaté avec le type de
                   représentation ‘'e'’ et une précision ‘p-1’.  Dans les deux
                   cas, les zéros finaux et non significatifs sont retirés, et
                   la virgule est également retirée s'il n'y a aucun chiffre la
                   suivant, sauf si l'option ‘'#'’ est utilisée.
                   
                   Si la précision n'est pas donnée, utilise une précision de
                   ‘6’ chiffres significatifs pour les *note float: 2ec.  Pour
                   les *note Decimal: 29a, la mantisse du résultat dépend de la
                   valeur : la notation scientifique est utilisée pour les
                   valeurs inférieures à ‘1e-6’ en valeur absolue et pour
                   celles dont le dernier chiffre significatif a une position
                   supérieure à 1 ; dans les autres cas, la notation en virgule
                   fixe est utilisée.
                   
                   Les valeurs suivantes : infini négatif, infini positif, zéro
                   positif, zéro négatif, 'not a number' sont formatées
                   respectivement par ‘inf’, ‘-inf’, ‘0’, ‘-0’ et ‘nan’, peu
                   importe la précision.
                   
                   
     ‘'G'’         Format général.  Pareil que ‘'G'’ si ce n'est que ‘'E'’ est
                   utilisé si le nombre est trop grand.  La représentation des
                   infinis et de 'NaN' sont en majuscules également.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'g'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group
                   separators for the integral part of a number.
                   
                   
     ‘'%'’         Pourcentage.  Multiplie le nombre par 100 et l'affiche en
                   virgule fixe (‘'f'’), suivi d'un symbole pourcent ‘'%'’.
                   
                   
     ‘None’        For *note float: 2ec. this is like the ‘'g'’ type, except
                   that when fixed-point notation is used to format the result,
                   it always includes at least one digit past the decimal
                   point, and switches to the scientific notation when ‘exp >=
                   p - 1’.  When the precision is not specified, the latter
                   will be as large as needed to represent the given value
                   faithfully.
                   
                   Pour les *note Decimal: 29a, c'est identique à ‘'g'’ ou
                   ‘'G'’ en fonction de la valeur de ‘context.capitals’ du
                   contexte décimal courant.
                   
                   L'effet visé est de coller à la valeur renvoyée par
                   *note str(): 437. telle que modifiée par les autres
                   modificateurs de format.
                   

The result should be correctly rounded to a given precision ‘p’ of
digits after the decimal point.  The rounding mode for *note float: 2ec.
matches that of the *note round(): 12ba. builtin.  For *note Decimal:
29a, the rounding mode of the current *note context: 229e. will be used.

The available presentation types for *note complex: 2ed. are the same as
those for *note float: 2ec. (‘'%'’ is not allowed).  Both the real and
imaginary components of a complex number are formatted as floating-point
numbers, according to the specified presentation type.  They are
separated by the mandatory sign of the imaginary part, the latter being
terminated by a ‘j’ suffix.  If the presentation type is missing, the
result will match the output of *note str(): 437. (complex numbers with
a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly
altered by other format modifiers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples de formats,  Prev: Mini-langage de spécification de format,  Up: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne

5.6.1.5 Exemples de formats
...........................

Cette section contient des exemples de la syntaxe de *note str.format():
60e. et des comparaisons avec l'ancien formatage par ‘%’.

Dans la plupart des cas, la syntaxe est similaire à l'ancien formatage
par ‘%’, avec l'ajout de ‘{}’ et avec ‘:’ au lieu de ‘%’.  Par exemple :
‘'%03.2f'’ peut être changé en ‘'{03.2f}'’.

La nouvelle syntaxe de formatage gère également de nouvelles options et
des options différentes, montrées dans les exemples qui suivent.

Accéder à un argument par sa position :

     >>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ only
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # unpacking argument sequence
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # arguments' indices can be repeated
     'abracadabra'

Accéder à un argument par son nom :

     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
     >>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'

Accéder aux attributs d'un argument :

     >>> c = 3-5j
     >>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
     ...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
     'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
     >>> class Point:
     ...     def __init__(self, x, y):
     ...         self.x, self.y = x, y
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
     ...
     >>> str(Point(4, 2))
     'Point(4, 2)'

Accéder aux éléments d'un argument :

     >>> coord = (3, 5)
     >>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
     'X: 3;  Y: 5'

Remplacer ‘%s’ et ‘%r’ :

     >>> "repr() shows quotes: {!r}; str() doesn't: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
     "repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"

Aligner le texte et spécifier une longueur minimale :

     >>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
     'left aligned                  '
     >>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
     '                 right aligned'
     >>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
     '           centered           '
     >>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # use '*' as a fill char
     '***********centered***********'

Remplacer ‘%+f’, ‘%-f’, et ‘%f’ et spécifier un signe :

     >>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show it always
     '+3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show a space for positive numbers
     ' 3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show only the minus -- same as '{:f}; {:f}'
     '3.140000; -3.140000'

Remplacer ‘%x’ et ‘%o’ et convertir la valeur dans différentes bases :

     >>> # format also supports binary numbers
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
     >>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'

Using the comma or the underscore as a digit group separator:

     >>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
     '1,234,567,890'
     >>> '{:_}'.format(1234567890)
     '1_234_567_890'
     >>> '{:_b}'.format(1234567890)
     '100_1001_1001_0110_0000_0010_1101_0010'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(1234567890)
     '4996_02d2'

Exprimer un pourcentage :

     >>> points = 19
     >>> total = 22
     >>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
     'Correct answers: 86.36%'

Utiliser un formatage propre au type :

     >>> import datetime
     >>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
     >>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
     '2010-07-04 12:15:58'

Arguments imbriqués et des exemples plus complexes :

     >>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
     ...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
     ...
     'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
     '^^^^^center^^^^^'
     '>>>>>>>>>>>right'
     >>>
     >>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
     >>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
     'C0A80001'
     >>> int(_, 16)
     3232235521
     >>>
     >>> width = 5
     >>> for num in range(5,12):
     ...     for base in 'dXob':
     ...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
     ...     print()
     ...
         5     5     5   101
         6     6     6   110
         7     7     7   111
         8     8    10  1000
         9     9    11  1001
        10     A    12  1010
        11     B    13  1011


File: python.info,  Node: Chaînes modèles,  Next: Fonctions d'assistance,  Prev: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne,  Up: string --- Common string operations

5.6.1.6 Chaînes modèles
.......................

Template strings provide simpler string substitutions as described in
PEP 292(1).  A primary use case for template strings is for
internationalization (i18n) since in that context, the simpler syntax
and functionality makes it easier to translate than other built-in
string formatting facilities in Python.  As an example of a library
built on template strings for i18n, see the flufl.i18n(2) package.

Les chaînes modèles prennent en charge les substitutions basées sur ‘$’
en utilisant les règles suivantes :

   * ‘$$’ est un échappement ; il est remplacé par un simple ‘$’.

   * ‘$identifier’ dénomme un substituant lié à la clef ‘"identifier"’.
     Par défaut, ‘"identifier"’ est restreint à toute chaîne de
     caractères ASCII alphanumériques sensibles à la casse (avec les
     'underscores') commençant avec un 'underscore' ou un caractère
     alphanumérique.  Le premier caractère n'étant pas un identifieur
     après le ‘$’ termine la spécification du substituant.

   * ‘${identifier}’ est équivalent à ‘$identifier’.  Cette notation est
     requise quand un caractère valide pour une clef de substituant suit
     directement le substituant mais ne fait pas partie du substituant,
     comme ‘"${noun}ification"’.

Tout autre présence du symbole ‘$’ dans une chaîne résultera en la levée
d'une *note ValueError: 1ff.

Le module *note string: d2. fournit une classe *note Template: 674. qui
implémente ces règles.  Les méthodes de *note Template: 674. sont :

 -- Classe: string.Template (template)

     Le constructeur prend un seul argument qui est la chaîne du
     'template'.

      -- Méthode: substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          Applique les substitutions du 'template', et la renvoie dans
          une nouvelle chaîne.  'mapping' est un objet
          dictionnaire-compatible qui lie les substituants dans le
          'template'.  De même, vous pouvez fournir des arguments
          mot-clefs tels que les mot-clefs sont les substituants.  Quand
          à la fois 'mapping' et 'kwds' sont donnés et qu'il y a des
          doublons, les substituants de 'kwds' sont prioritaires.

      -- Méthode: safe_substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          Comme *note substitute(): 1ca7, si ce n'est qu'au lieu de
          lever une *note KeyError: 33a. si un substituant n'est ni dans
          'mapping', ni dans 'kwds', c'est le nom du substituant
          inchangé qui apparaît dans la chaîne finale.  Également, à
          l'inverse de *note substitute(): 1ca7, toute autre apparition
          de ‘$’ renverra simplement ‘$’ au lieu de lever une exception
          *note ValueError: 1ff.

          Bien que d'autres exceptions peuvent toujours être levées,
          cette méthode est dite sûre car elle tente de toujours
          renvoyer une chaîne utilisable au lieu de lever une exception.
          Ceci dit, *note safe_substitute(): 1ca8. est tout sauf sûre
          car elle ignore silencieusement toute malformation dans le
          'template' qui contient des délimiteurs fantômes, des
          accolades non fermées, ou des substituants qui ne sont pas des
          identificateurs Python valides.

      -- Méthode: is_valid ()

          Returns false if the template has invalid placeholders that
          will cause *note substitute(): 1ca7. to raise *note
          ValueError: 1ff.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: get_identifiers ()

          Returns a list of the valid identifiers in the template, in
          the order they first appear, ignoring any invalid identifiers.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Les instances de la classe *note Template: 674. fournissent
     également un attribut public :

      -- Attribut: template

          C'est l'objet 'template' passé comme argument au constructeur.
          En général, vous ne devriez pas le changer, mais un accès en
          lecture-seule n'est pas possible à fournir.

Voici un exemple de comment utiliser un 'Template' :

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
     >>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
     'tim likes kung pao'
     >>> d = dict(who='tim')
     >>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     KeyError: 'what'
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
     'tim likes $what'

Usage avancé : vous pouvez faire dériver vos sous-classes de *note
Template: 674. pour personnaliser la syntaxe des substituants, les
caractères délimiteurs, ou l'entièreté de l'expression rationnelle
utilisée pour analyser les chaînes 'templates'.  Pour faire cela, vous
pouvez redéfinir les attributs suivants :

   * 'delimiter' — La chaîne littérale décrivant le délimiteur pour
     introduire un substituant.  Sa valeur par défaut est ‘$’.  Notez
     qu'elle ne doit 'pas' être une expression rationnelle, puisque
     l'implémentation appelle *note re.escape(): bf9. sur cette chaîne
     si nécessaire.  Notez aussi que le délimiteur ne peut pas être
     changé après la création de la classe.

   * 'idpattern' — L'expression rationnelle décrivant le motif pour les
     substituants non entourés d'accolades.  La valeur par défaut de
     cette expression rationnelle est ‘(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)’.  Si
     'idpattern' est donné et 'braceidpattern' est ‘None’, ce motif est
     aussi utilisé pour les marqueurs entre accolades.

          Note: Puisque par défaut 'flags' vaut ‘re.IGNORECASE’, des
          caractères 'non-ASCII' peuvent correspondre au motif ‘[a-z]’.
          C'est pourquoi on utilise une option locale ‘a’ ici.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: 'braceidpattern' peut être utilisé
     pour définir des motifs des motifs différents suivant qu’ils sont à
     l’intérieur ou à l’extérieur des accolades.

   * 'braceidpattern' — Similaire à 'idpattern' mais décrit le motif
     quand il est placé entre accolades.  La valeur par défaut est
     ‘None’ ce qui signifie que seul 'idpattern' est pris en compte (le
     motif est le même, qu’il soit à l’intérieur d’accolades ou non).
     S’il est donné, cela vous permet de définir des motifs entre
     accolades différents des motifs sans accolades.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

   * 'flags' — L'indicateur d'expression rationnelle qui sera appliqué
     lors de la compilation de l'expression rationnelle pour reconnaître
     les substitutions.  La valeur par défaut est ‘re.IGNORECASE’.
     Notez que ‘re.VERBOSE’ sera toujours ajouté à l'indicateur.  Donc,
     un 'idpattern' personnalisé doit suivre les conventions des
     expressions rationnelles 'verbose'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Également, vous pouvez fournir le motif d'expression rationnelle en
entier en redéfinissant l'attribut 'pattern'.  Si vous faites cela, la
valeur doit être un objet 'expression rationnelle' avec quatre groupes
de capture de noms.  Les groupes de capture correspondent aux règles
données au-dessus, ainsi qu'à la règle du substituant invalide :

   * 'escaped' — Ce groupe lie les séquences échappées (par exemple
     ‘$$’) dans le motif par défaut.

   * 'named' — Ce groupe lie les substituants non entourés d'accolades ;
     il ne devrait pas inclure le délimiteur dans le groupe de capture.

   * 'braced' — Ce groupe lie le nom entouré d'accolades ; il ne devrait
     inclure ni le délimiteur, ni les accolades dans le groupe de
     capture.

   * 'invalid' — Ce groupe lie tout autre motif de délimitation
     (habituellement, un seul délimiteur) et il devrait apparaître en
     dernier dans l'expression rationnelle.

The methods on this class will raise *note ValueError: 1ff. if the
pattern matches the template without one of these named groups matching.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/

   (2) https://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions d'assistance,  Prev: Chaînes modèles,  Up: string --- Common string operations

5.6.1.7 Fonctions d'assistance
..............................

 -- Fonction: string.capwords (s, sep=None)

     Divise l'argument en mots en utilisant *note str.split(): e95,
     capitalise chaque mot en utilisant *note str.capitalize(): 2178. et
     assemble les mots capitalisés en utilisant *note str.join(): 2168.
     Si le second argument optionnel 'sep' est absent ou vaut ‘None’,
     les séquences de caractères blancs sont remplacées par un seul
     espace et les espaces débutant et finissant la chaîne sont retirés.
     Sinon, 'sep' et utilisé pour séparer et ré-assembler les mots.


File: python.info,  Node: re --- Regular expression operations,  Next: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas,  Prev: string --- Common string operations,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.2 ‘re’ -- Regular expression operations
-------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/re/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des opérations sur les expressions rationnelles
similaires à celles que l'on trouve dans Perl.

Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (*note
str: 437.) as well as 8-bit strings (*note bytes: 1bd.).  However,
Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed: that is, you cannot
match a Unicode string with a bytes pattern or vice-versa; similarly,
when asking for a substitution, the replacement string must be of the
same type as both the pattern and the search string.

Regular expressions use the backslash character (‘'\'’) to indicate
special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
their special meaning.  This collides with Python's usage of the same
character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
a literal backslash, one might have to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the pattern
string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each backslash
must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string literal.  Also,
please note that any invalid escape sequences in Python's usage of the
backslash in string literals now generate a *note SyntaxWarning: 451.
and in the future this will become a *note SyntaxError: 18b.  This
behaviour will happen even if it is a valid escape sequence for a
regular expression.

La solution est d'utiliser la notation des chaînes brutes en Python pour
les expressions rationnelles ; Les 'backslashs' ne provoquent aucun
traitement spécifique dans les chaînes littérales préfixées par ‘'r'’.
Ainsi, ‘r"\n"’ est une chaîne de deux caractères contenant ‘'\'’ et
‘'n'’, tandis que ‘"\n"’ est une chaîne contenant un unique caractère :
un saut de ligne.  Généralement, les motifs seront exprimés en Python à
l'aide de chaînes brutes.

Il est important de noter que la plupart des opérations sur les
expressions rationnelles sont disponibles comme fonctions au niveau du
module et comme méthodes des *note expressions rationnelles compilées:
f73.  Les fonctions sont des raccourcis qui ne vous obligent pas à
d'abord compiler un objet 'regex', mais auxquelles manquent certains
paramètres de configuration fine.

Voir aussi
..........

The third-party regex(2) module, which has an API compatible with the
standard library *note re: b8. module, but offers additional
functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.

* Menu:

* Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles::
* Contenu du module::
* Objets d'expressions rationnelles::
* Objets de correspondance::
* Exemples d'expressions rationnelles::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/re/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/regex/


File: python.info,  Node: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles,  Next: Contenu du module,  Up: re --- Regular expression operations

5.6.2.1 Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles
............................................

Une expression rationnelle ('regular expression' ou 'RE') spécifie un
ensemble de chaînes de caractères qui lui correspondent ; les fonctions
de ce module vous permettent de vérifier si une chaîne particulière
correspond à une expression rationnelle donnée (ou si un expression
rationnelle donnée correspond à une chaîne particulière, ce qui revient
à la même chose).

Les expressions rationnelles peuvent être concaténées pour former de
nouvelles expressions : si 'A' et 'B' sont deux expressions
rationnelles, alors 'AB' est aussi une expression rationnelle.  En
général, si une chaîne 'p' valide 'A' et qu'une autre chaîne 'q' valide
'B', la chaîne 'pq' validera AB. Cela est vrai tant que 'A' et 'B' ne
contiennent pas d'opérations de priorité ; de conditions de frontière
entre 'A' et 'B' ; ou de références vers des groupes numérotés.  Ainsi,
des expressions complexes peuvent facilement être construites depuis de
plus simples expressions primitives comme celles décrites ici.  Pour
plus de détails sur la théorie et l'implémentation des expressions
rationnelles, consultez le livre de Friedl *note [Frie09]: 22a6, ou à
peu près n'importe quel livre dédié à la construction de compilateurs.

Une brève explication sur le format des expressions rationnelles suit.
Pour de plus amples informations et une présentation plus simple,
référez-vous au *note Guide des expressions régulières: 22a7.

Les expressions rationnelles peuvent contenir à la fois des caractères
spéciaux et ordinaires.  Les plus ordinaires, comme ‘'A'’, ‘'a'’ ou
‘'0'’ sont les expressions rationnelles les plus simples : elles
correspondent simplement à elles-mêmes.  Vous pouvez concaténer des
caractères ordinaires, ainsi ‘last’ correspond à la chaîne ‘'last'’.
(Dans la suite de cette section, nous écrirons les expressions
rationnelles dans ‘ce style spécifique’, généralement sans guillemets,
et les chaînes à tester ‘'entourées de simples guillemets'’.)

Certains caractères, comme ‘'|'’ ou ‘'('’, sont spéciaux.  Des
caractères spéciaux peuvent aussi exister pour les classes de caractères
ordinaires, ou affecter comment les expressions rationnelles autour
d'eux seront interprétées.

Les caractères de répétition ou quantificateurs (‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, ‘{m,n}’,
etc.)  ne peuvent être directement imbriqués.  Cela empêche l'ambiguïté
avec le suffixe modificateur non gourmand ‘?’ et avec les autres
modificateurs dans d'autres implémentations.  Pour appliquer une seconde
répétition à une première, des parenthèses peuvent être utilisées.  Par
exemple, l'expression ‘(?:a{6})*’ valide toutes les chaînes composées
d'un nombre de caractères ‘'a'’ multiple de six.

Les caractères spéciaux sont :

‘.’

     (Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a
     newline.  If the *note DOTALL: 22a8. flag has been specified, this
     matches any character including a newline.  ‘(?s:.)’ matches any
     character regardless of flags.

‘^’

     (Accent circonflexe.)  Valide le début d'une chaîne de caractères,
     ainsi que ce qui suit chaque saut de ligne en mode *note MULTILINE:
     22a9.

‘$’

     Valide la fin d'une chaîne de caractères, ou juste avant le saut de
     ligne à la fin de la chaîne, ainsi qu'avant chaque saut de ligne en
     mode *note MULTILINE: 22a9.  ‘foo’ valide à la fois 'foo' et
     'foobar', tandis que l'expression rationnelle ‘foo$’ ne correspond
     qu'à ‘'foo'’.  Plus intéressant, chercher ‘foo.$’ dans
     ‘'foo1\nfoo2\n'’ trouve normalement ‘'foo2'’, mais ‘'foo1'’ en mode
     *note MULTILINE: 22a9. ; chercher un simple ‘$’ dans ‘'foo\n'’
     trouvera deux correspondances (vides) : une juste avant le saut de
     ligne, et une à la fin de la chaîne.

‘*’

     Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante 0 répétition
     ou plus de l'expression qui précède, avec autant de répétitions que
     possible.  ‘ab*’ validera 'a', 'ab' ou 'a' suivi de n'importe quel
     nombre de 'b'.

‘+’

     Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante 1 répétition
     ou plus de l'expression qui précède.  ‘ab+’ validera 'a' suivi de
     n'importe quel nombre non nul de 'b' ; cela ne validera pas la
     chaîne 'a'.

‘?’

     Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante 0 ou 1
     répétition de l'expression qui précède.  ‘ab?’ correspondra à 'a'
     ou 'ab'.

‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’

     Les quantificateurs ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’ et ‘'?'’ sont tous 'greedy'
     (gourmands) ; ils valident autant de texte que possible.  Parfois
     ce comportement n'est pas désiré ; si l'expression rationnelle
     ‘<.*>’ est testée avec la chaîne ‘'<a> b <c>'’, cela correspondra à
     la chaîne entière, et non juste à ‘'<a>'’.  Ajouter ‘?’ derrière le
     quantificateur lui fait réaliser l'opération de façon 'non-greedy'
     (ou 'minimal') ; le 'moins' de caractères possibles seront validés.
     Utiliser l'expression rationnelle ‘<.*?>’ validera uniquement
     ‘'<a>'’.

‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’

     Like the ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers, those where ‘'+'’ is
     appended also match as many times as possible.  However, unlike the
     true greedy quantifiers, these do not allow back-tracking when the
     expression following it fails to match.  These are known as
     'possessive' quantifiers.  For example, ‘a*a’ will match ‘'aaaa'’
     because the ‘a*’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’s, but, when the final ‘'a'’
     is encountered, the expression is backtracked so that in the end
     the ‘a*’ ends up matching 3 ‘'a'’s total, and the fourth ‘'a'’ is
     matched by the final ‘'a'’.  However, when ‘a*+a’ is used to match
     ‘'aaaa'’, the ‘a*+’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’, but when the final
     ‘'a'’ fails to find any more characters to match, the expression
     cannot be backtracked and will thus fail to match.  ‘x*+’, ‘x++’
     and ‘x?+’ are equivalent to ‘(?>x*)’, ‘(?>x+)’ and ‘(?>x?)’
     correspondingly.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

‘{m}’

     Spécifie qu'exactement 'm' copies de l'expression rationnelle qui
     précède devront être validées ; un nombre plus faible de
     correspondances empêche l'expression entière de correspondre.  Par
     exemple, ‘a{6}’ correspondra exactement à six caractères ‘'a'’,
     mais pas à cinq.

‘{m,n}’

     Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante entre 'm' et
     'n' répétitions de l'expression qui précède, cherchant à en valider
     le plus possible.  Par exemple, ‘a{3,5}’ validera entre 3 et 5
     caractères ‘'a'’.  Omettre 'm' revient à spécifier 0 comme borne
     inférieure, et omettre 'n' à avoir une borne supérieure infinie.
     Par exemple, ‘a{4,}b’ correspondra à ‘'aaaab'’ ou à un millier de
     caractères ‘'a'’ suivis d'un ‘'b'’, mais pas à ‘'aaab'’.  La
     virgule ne doit pas être omise, auquel cas le modificateur serait
     confondu avec la forme décrite précédemment.

‘{m,n}?’

     Fait valider l'expression rationnelle résultante entre 'm' et 'n'
     répétitions de l'expression qui précède, cherchant à en valider le
     moins possible.  Il s'agit de la version non gourmande du précédent
     quantificateur.  Par exemple, dans la chaîne de 6 caractères
     ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}’ trouvera 5 caractères ‘'a'’, alors que
     ‘a{3,5}?’ n'en trouvera que 3.

‘{m,n}+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible
     'without' establishing any backtracking points.  This is the
     possessive version of the quantifier above.  For example, on the
     6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}+aa’ attempt to match 5 ‘'a'’
     characters, then, requiring 2 more ‘'a'’s, will need more
     characters than available and thus fail, while ‘a{3,5}aa’ will
     match with ‘a{3,5}’ capturing 5, then 4 ‘'a'’s by backtracking and
     then the final 2 ‘'a'’s are matched by the final ‘aa’ in the
     pattern.  ‘x{m,n}+’ is equivalent to ‘(?>x{m,n})’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

‘\’

     Échappe les caractères spéciaux (permettant d’identifier des
     caractères comme ‘'*'’, ‘'?'’ et autres) ou signale une séquence
     spéciale ; les séquences spéciales sont décrites ci-dessous.

     Si vous n'utilisez pas de chaînes brutes pour exprimer le motif,
     souvenez-vous que Python utilise aussi le 'backslash' comme une
     séquence d'échappement dans les chaînes littérales ; si la séquence
     d'échappement n'est pas reconnue par l'interpréteur Python, le
     'backslash' et les caractères qui le suivent sont inclus dans la
     chaîne renvoyée.  Cependant, si Python reconnait la séquence, le
     'backslash' doit être doublé (pour ne plus être reconnu).  C'est
     assez compliqué et difficile à comprendre, c'est pourquoi il est
     hautement recommandé d'utiliser des chaînes brutes pour tout sauf
     les expressions les plus simples.

‘[]’

     Utilisé pour indiquer un ensemble de caractères.  Dans un
     ensemble :

        * Les caractères peuvent être listés individuellement, e.g.
          ‘[amk]’ correspondra à ‘'a'’, ‘'m'’ ou ‘'k'’.

        * Des intervalles de caractères peuvent être indiqués en donnant
          deux caractères et les séparant par un ‘'-'’, par exemple
          ‘[a-z]’ correspondra à toute lettre minuscule 'ASCII',
          ‘[0-5][0-9]’ à tous nombres de deux chiffres entre ‘00’ et
          ‘59’, et ‘[0-9A-Fa-f]’ correspondra à n'importe quel chiffre
          hexadécimal.  Si ‘'-'’ est échappé (‘[a\-z]’) ou s'il est
          placé comme premier ou dernier caractère (e.g.  ‘[-a]’ ou
          ‘[a-]’), il correspondra à un ‘'-'’ littéral.

        * Special characters except backslash lose their special meaning
          inside sets.  For example, ‘[(+*)]’ will match any of the
          literal characters ‘'('’, ‘'+'’, ‘'*'’, or ‘')'’.

        * Backslash either escapes characters which have special meaning
          in a set such as ‘'-'’, ‘']'’, ‘'^'’ and ‘'\\'’ itself or
          signals a special sequence which represents a single character
          such as ‘\xa0’ or ‘\n’ or a character class such as ‘\w’ or
          ‘\S’ (defined below).  Note that ‘\b’ represents a single
          "backspace" character, not a word boundary as outside a set,
          and numeric escapes such as ‘\1’ are always octal escapes, not
          group references.  Special sequences which do not match a
          single character such as ‘\A’ and ‘\Z’ are not allowed.

        * Les caractères qui ne sont pas dans un intervalle peuvent être
          trouvés avec l'ensemble complémentaire ('complementing').  Si
          le premier caractère de l'ensemble est ‘'^'’, tous les
          caractères qui 'ne sont pas' dans l'ensemble seront validés.
          Par exemple, ‘[^5]’ correspondra à tout caractère autre que
          ‘'5'’ et ‘[^^]’ validera n'importe quel caractère excepté
          ‘'^'’.  ‘^’ n'a pas de sens particulier s'il n'est pas le
          premier caractère de l'ensemble.

        * To match a literal ‘']'’ inside a set, precede it with a
          backslash, or place it at the beginning of the set.  For
          example, both ‘[()[\]{}]’ and ‘[]()[{}]’ will match a right
          bracket, as well as left bracket, braces, and parentheses.

        * La gestion des ensembles inclus l'un dans l'autre et les
          opérations d'ensemble comme dans Unicode Technical Standard
          #18(1) pourrait être ajoutée par la suite.  Ceci changerait la
          syntaxe, donc pour faciliter ce changement, une exception
          *note FutureWarning: 40b. sera levée dans les cas ambigus pour
          le moment.  Ceci inclut les ensembles commençant avec le
          caractère ‘'['’ ou contenant les séquences de caractères
          ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’ et ‘'||'’.  Pour éviter un message
          d'avertissement, échapper les séquences avec le caractère
          antislash (‘"\"’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: L'exception *note FutureWarning: 40b.
     est levée si un ensemble de caractères contient une construction
     dont la sémantique changera dans le futur.

‘|’

     ‘A|B’, où 'A' et 'B' peuvent être deux expressions rationnelles
     arbitraires, crée une expression rationnelle qui validera soit 'A'
     soit 'B'. Un nombre arbitraire d'expressions peuvent être séparées
     de cette façon par des ‘'|'’.  Cela peut aussi être utilisé au sein
     de groupes (voir ci-dessous).  Quand une chaîne cible est analysée,
     les expressions séparées par ‘'|'’ sont essayées de la gauche vers
     la droite.  Quand un motif correspond complètement, cette branche
     est acceptée.  Cela signifie qu'une fois que 'A' correspond, 'B' ne
     sera pas testée plus loin, même si elle pourrait provoquer une plus
     ample correspondance.  En d'autres termes, l'opérateur ‘'|'’ n'est
     jamais gourmand.  Pour valider un ‘'|'’ littéral, utilisez ‘\|’, ou
     enveloppez-le dans une classe de caractères, comme ‘[|]’.

‘(...)’

     Valide n'importe quelle expression rationnelle comprise entre les
     parenthèses, et indique le début et la fin d'un groupe ; le contenu
     d'un groupe peut être récupéré après qu'une analyse a été effectuée
     et peut être réutilisé plus loin dans la chaîne avec une séquence
     spéciale ‘\number’, décrite ci-dessous.  Pour écrire des ‘'('’ ou
     ‘')'’ littéraux, utilisez ‘\(’ ou ‘\)’, ou enveloppez-les dans une
     classe de caractères : ‘[(]’, ‘[)]’.

‘(?...)’

     Il s'agit d'une notation pour les extensions (un ‘'?'’ suivant une
     ‘'('’ n'a pas de sens autrement).  Le premier caractère après le
     ‘'?'’ détermine quel sens donner à l'expression.  Les extensions ne
     créent généralement pas de nouveaux groupes ; ‘(?P<name>...)’ est
     la seule exception à la règle.  Retrouvez ci-dessous la liste des
     extensions actuellement supportées.

‘(?aiLmsux)’

     (One or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’.)  The group matches the empty string; the
     letters set the corresponding flags for the entire regular
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 22aa. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 22ab. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 22ac. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 22ad. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 22ae. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 22af. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 22b0. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note Contenu du module: 22b1.)  This
     is useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the regular
     expression, instead of passing a 'flag' argument to the *note
     re.compile(): bc3. function.  Flags should be used first in the
     expression string.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Cette construction ne peut être
     utilisée qu'au début d'une chaîne de caractères.

‘(?:...)’

     Une version sans capture des parenthèses habituelles.  Valide
     n'importe quelle expression rationnelle à l'intérieur des
     parenthèses, mais la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe 'ne peut
     pas' être récupérée après l'analyse ou être référencée plus loin
     dans le motif.

‘(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)’

     (Zero or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’, optionally followed by ‘'-'’ followed by one
     or more letters from the ‘'i'’, ‘'m'’, ‘'s'’, ‘'x'’.)  The letters
     set or remove the corresponding flags for the part of the
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 22aa. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 22ab. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 22ac. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 22ad. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 22ae. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 22af. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 22b0. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note Contenu du module: 22b1.)

     The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ are mutually exclusive when used
     as inline flags, so they can't be combined or follow ‘'-'’.
     Instead, when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides
     the matching mode in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns
     ‘(?a:...)’ switches to ASCII-only matching, and ‘(?u:...)’ switches
     to Unicode matching (default).  In bytes patterns ‘(?L:...)’
     switches to locale dependent matching, and ‘(?a:...)’ switches to
     ASCII-only matching (default).  This override is only in effect for
     the narrow inline group, and the original matching mode is restored
     outside of the group.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les lettres ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ et ‘'u'’
     peuvent aussi être utilisées dans un groupe.

‘(?>...)’

     Attempts to match ‘...’ as if it was a separate regular expression,
     and if successful, continues to match the rest of the pattern
     following it.  If the subsequent pattern fails to match, the stack
     can only be unwound to a point 'before' the ‘(?>...)’ because once
     exited, the expression, known as an 'atomic group', has thrown away
     all stack points within itself.  Thus, ‘(?>.*).’ would never match
     anything because first the ‘.*’ would match all characters
     possible, then, having nothing left to match, the final ‘.’ would
     fail to match.  Since there are no stack points saved in the Atomic
     Group, and there is no stack point before it, the entire expression
     would thus fail to match.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

‘(?P<name>...)’

     Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the
     group is accessible via the symbolic group name 'name'.  Group
     names must be valid Python identifiers, and in *note bytes: 1bd.
     patterns they can only contain bytes in the ASCII range.  Each
     group name must be defined only once within a regular expression.
     A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group
     were not named.

     Les groupes nommés peuvent être référencés dans trois contextes.
     Si le motif est ‘(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote)’ (c.-à-d.
     correspondant à une chaîne entourée de guillemets simples ou
     doubles) :

     Contexte de référence au groupe 'quote'     Manières de le référencer
                                                 
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     lui-même dans le même motif                    * ‘(?P=quote)’ (comme vu)
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 
                                                 
     en analysant l'objet résultat 'm'              * ‘m.group('quote')’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘m.end('quote')’ (etc.)
                                                 
                                                 
     dans une chaîne passée à l'argument            * ‘\g<quote>’
     'repl' de ‘re.sub()’                        
                                                    * ‘\g<1>’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: In *note bytes: 1bd. patterns, group
     'name' can only contain bytes in the ASCII range
     (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

‘(?P=name)’

     Une référence arrière à un groupe nommé ; elle correspond à
     n'importe quel texte validé plus tôt par le groupe nommé 'name'.

‘(?#...)’

     Un commentaire ; le contenu des parenthèses est simplement ignoré.

‘(?=...)’

     Valide si ‘...’ valide la suite, mais ne consomme rien de la
     chaîne.  On appelle cela une assertion 'lookahead'.  Par exemple,
     ‘Isaac (?=Asimov)’ correspondra à la chaîne ‘'Isaac '’ seulement si
     elle est suivie par ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?!...)’

     Valide si ‘...’ ne valide pas la suite.  C'est une assertion
     'negative lookahead'.  Par exemple, ‘Isaac (?!Asimov)’ correspondra
     à la chaîne ‘'Isaac '’ seulement si elle 'n'est pas' suivie par
     ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?<=...)’

     Valide si la position courante dans la chaîne est précédée par une
     correspondance sur ‘...’ qui se termine à la position courante.  On
     appelle cela une 'positive lookbehind assertion'.  ‘(?<=abc)def’
     cherchera une correspondance dans ‘'abcdef'’, puisque le
     'lookbehind*' mettra de côté 3 caractères et vérifiera que le motif
     contenu correspond.  Le motif ne devra correspondre qu'à des
     chaînes de taille fixe, cela veut dire que ‘abc’ ou ‘a|b’ sont
     autorisées, mais pas ‘a*’ ou ‘a{3,4}’.  Notez que les motifs qui
     commencent par des assertions 'lookbehind' positives ne peuvent pas
     correspondre au début de la chaîne analysée ; vous préférerez
     sûrement utiliser la fonction *note search(): 120c. plutôt que la
     fonction *note match(): 120d. :

          >>> import re
          >>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'def'

     Cet exemple recherche un mot suivi d'un trait d'union :

          >>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'egg'

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du support des références aux
     groupes de taille fixe.

‘(?<!...)’

     Valide si la position courante dans la chaîne n'est pas précédée
     par une correspondance sur ‘...’.  On appelle cela une 'negative
     lookbehind assertion'.  À la manière des assertions 'lookbehind'
     positives, le motif contenu ne peut que correspondre à des chaînes
     de taille fixe.  Les motifs débutant par une assertion 'lookbehind'
     négative peuvent correspondre au début de la chaîne analysée.

‘(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)’

     Essaiera de faire la correspondance avec ‘yes-pattern’ si le groupe
     indiqué par 'id' ou 'name' existe, et avec ‘no-pattern’ s'il
     n'existe pas.  ‘no-pattern’ est optionnel et peut être omis.  Par
     exemple, ‘(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)’ est un motif simpliste
     pour identifier une adresse courriel, qui validera
     ‘'<user@host.com>'’ ainsi que ‘'user@host.com'’ mais pas
     ‘'<user@host.com'’ ni ‘'user@host.com>'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII
     digits.  In *note bytes: 1bd. patterns, group 'name' can only
     contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

Les séquences spéciales sont composées de ‘'\'’ et d'un caractère de la
liste qui suit.  Si le caractère ordinaire n'est pas un chiffre 'ASCII'
ou une lettre 'ASCII', alors l'expression rationnelle résultante
validera le second caractère de la séquence.  Par exemple, ‘\$’
correspond au caractère ‘'$'’.

‘\number’

     Correspond au contenu du groupe du même nombre.  Les groupes sont
     numérotés à partir de 1.  Par exemple, ‘(.+) \1’ correspond à ‘'the
     the'’ ou ‘'55 55'’, mais pas à ‘'thethe'’ (notez l'espace après le
     groupe).  Cette séquence spéciale ne peut être utilisée que pour
     faire référence aux 99 premiers groupes.  Si le premier chiffre de
     'number' est 0, ou si 'number' est un nombre octal de 3 chiffres,
     il ne sera pas interprété comme une référence à un groupe, mais
     comme le caractère à la valeur octale 'number'.  À l'intérieur des
     ‘'['’ et ‘']'’ d'une classe de caractères, tous les échappements
     numériques sont traités comme des caractères.

‘\A’

     Correspond uniquement au début d'une chaîne de caractères.

‘\b’

     Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a
     word.  A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note
     that formally, ‘\b’ is defined as the boundary between a ‘\w’ and a
     ‘\W’ character (or vice versa), or between ‘\w’ and the beginning
     or end of the string.  This means that ‘r'\bat\b'’ matches ‘'at'’,
     ‘'at.'’, ‘'(at)'’, and ‘'as at ay'’ but not ‘'attempt'’ or
     ‘'atlas'’.

     The default word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode
     alphanumerics and the underscore, but this can be changed by using
     the *note ASCII: 619. flag.  Word boundaries are determined by the
     current locale if the *note LOCALE: b5c. flag is used.

          Note: Inside a character range, ‘\b’ represents the backspace
          character, for compatibility with Python's string literals.

‘\B’

     Matches the empty string, but only when it is 'not' at the
     beginning or end of a word.  This means that ‘r'at\B'’ matches
     ‘'athens'’, ‘'atom'’, ‘'attorney'’, but not ‘'at'’, ‘'at.'’, or
     ‘'at!'’.  ‘\B’ is the opposite of ‘\b’, so word characters in
     Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore,
     although this can be changed by using the *note ASCII: 619. flag.
     Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the *note
     LOCALE: b5c. flag is used.

          Note: Note that ‘\B’ does not match an empty string, which
          differs from RE implementations in other programming languages
          such as Perl.  This behavior is kept for compatibility
          reasons.

‘\d’

     Pour les motifs Unicode ('str') :

          Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
          Unicode character category [Nd](2)).  This includes ‘[0-9]’,
          and also many other digit characters.

          Matches ‘[0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used.

     Pour les motifs 8-bits ('bytes') :

          Matches any decimal digit in the ASCII character set; this is
          equivalent to ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any character which is not a decimal digit.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\d’.

     Matches ‘[^0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used.

‘\s’

     Pour les motifs Unicode ('str') :

          Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by *note
          str.isspace(): 2181.).  This includes ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’, and
          also many other characters, for example the non-breaking
          spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.

          Matches ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used.

     Pour les motifs 8-bits ('bytes') :

          Valide les caractères considérés comme des espacements dans la
          table ASCII ; équivalent à ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any character which is not a whitespace character.  This is
     the opposite of ‘\s’.

     Matches ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used.

‘\w’

     Pour les motifs Unicode ('str') :

          Matches Unicode word characters; this includes all Unicode
          alphanumeric characters (as defined by *note str.isalnum():
          217a.), as well as the underscore (‘_’).

          Matches ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used.

     Pour les motifs 8-bits ('bytes') :

          Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the
          *note LOCALE: b5c. flag is used, matches characters considered
          alphanumeric in the current locale and the underscore.

‘\W’

     Matches any character which is not a word character.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\w’.  By default, matches non-underscore (‘_’)
     characters for which *note str.isalnum(): 217a. returns ‘False’.

     Matches ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used.

     If the *note LOCALE: b5c. flag is used, matches characters which
     are neither alphanumeric in the current locale nor the underscore.

‘\Z’

     Correspond uniquement à la fin d'une chaîne de caractères.

Most of the *note escape sequences: 445. supported by Python string
literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:

     \a      \b      \f      \n
     \N      \r      \t      \u
     \U      \v      \x      \\

(Notez que ‘\b’ est utilisé pour représenter les bornes d'un mot, et
signifie « 'retour arrière' » uniquement à l'intérieur d'une classe de
caractères)

‘'\u'’, ‘'\U'’, and ‘'\N'’ escape sequences are only recognized in
Unicode (str) patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown
escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and treated as
errors.

Les séquences octales d'échappement sont incluses dans une forme
limitée.  Si le premier chiffre est un 0, ou s'il y a trois chiffres
octaux, la séquence est considérée comme octale.  Autrement, il s'agit
d'une référence vers un groupe.  Comme pour les chaînes littérales, les
séquences octales ne font jamais plus de 3 caractères de long.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les séquences d'échappement ‘'\u'’ et
‘'\U'’ ont été ajoutées.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les séquences inconnues composées de ‘'\'’
et d'une lettre ASCII sont maintenant des erreurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The ‘'\N{NAME}'’ escape sequence has been
added.  As in string literals, it expands to the named Unicode character
(e.g.  ‘'\N{EM DASH}'’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf#G134153


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu du module,  Next: Objets d'expressions rationnelles,  Prev: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles,  Up: re --- Regular expression operations

5.6.2.2 Contenu du module
.........................

Le module définit plusieurs fonctions, constantes, et une exception.
Certaines fonctions sont des versions simplifiées des méthodes plus
complètes des expressions rationnelles compilées.  La plupart des
applications non triviales utilisent toujours la version compilée.

* Menu:

* Flags::
* Fonctions: Fonctions<2>.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Flags,  Next: Fonctions<2>,  Up: Contenu du module

5.6.2.3 Flags
.............

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les constantes d'options sont maintenant
des instances de *note RegexFlag: 61a, sous-classe de *note
enum.IntFlag: 22b5.

 -- Classe: re.RegexFlag

     An *note enum.IntFlag: 22b5. class containing the regex options
     listed below.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: - added to ‘__all__’

 -- Données: re.A
 -- Données: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\d’, ‘\D’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform
     ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
     meaningful for Unicode (str) patterns, and is ignored for bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?a)’.

          Note: The *note U: 22af. flag still exists for backward
          compatibility, but is redundant in Python 3 since matches are
          Unicode by default for ‘str’ patterns, and Unicode matching
          isn't allowed for bytes patterns.  *note UNICODE: b5d. and the
          inline flag ‘(?u)’ are similarly redundant.

 -- Données: re.DEBUG

     Display debug information about compiled expression.

     No corresponding inline flag.

 -- Données: re.I
 -- Données: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ‘[A-Z]’ will
     also match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as ‘Ü’
     matching ‘ü’) also works unless the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used
     to disable non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change
     the effect of this flag unless the *note LOCALE: b5c. flag is also
     used.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?i)’.

     Note that when the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’ are used in
     combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 16e1. flag, they will match
     the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: 'İ'
     (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131, Latin
     small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s)
     and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  If the *note ASCII: 619. flag is
     used, only letters 'a' to 'z' and 'A' to 'Z' are matched.

 -- Données: re.L
 -- Données: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?L)’.

          Avertissement: This flag is discouraged; consider Unicode
          matching instead.  The locale mechanism is very unreliable as
          it only handles one "culture" at a time and only works with
          8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is enabled by default for
          Unicode (str) patterns and it is able to handle different
          locales and languages.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note LOCALE: b5c. can be used only
     with bytes patterns and is not compatible with *note ASCII: 619.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Compiled regular expression objects
     with the *note LOCALE: b5c. flag no longer depend on the locale at
     compile time.  Only the locale at matching time affects the result
     of matching.

 -- Données: re.M
 -- Données: re.MULTILINE

     When specified, the pattern character ‘'^'’ matches at the
     beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line
     (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character
     ‘'$'’ matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line
     (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, ‘'^'’ matches
     only at the beginning of the string, and ‘'$'’ only at the end of
     the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end
     of the string.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?m)’.

 -- Données: re.NOFLAG

     Indicates no flag being applied, the value is ‘0’.  This flag may
     be used as a default value for a function keyword argument or as a
     base value that will be conditionally ORed with other flags.
     Example of use as a default value:

          def myfunc(text, flag=re.NOFLAG):
              return re.match(text, flag)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: re.S
 -- Données: re.DOTALL

     Make the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?s)’.

 -- Données: re.U
 -- Données: re.UNICODE

     In Python 3, Unicode characters are matched by default for ‘str’
     patterns.  This flag is therefore redundant with 'no effect' and is
     only kept for backward compatibility.

     See *note ASCII: 619. to restrict matching to ASCII characters
     instead.

 -- Données: re.X
 -- Données: re.VERBOSE

     Cette option vous autorise à écrire des expressions rationnelles
     qui présentent mieux et sont plus lisibles en vous permettant de
     séparer visuellement les sections logiques du motif et d'ajouter
     des commentaires.  Les caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur du
     motif sont ignorés, sauf à l'intérieur des classes de caractères ou
     quand ils sont précédés d'un 'backslash' non échappé, ou dans des
     séquences comme ‘*?’, ‘(?:’ ou ‘(?P<...>’.Par exemple, ‘(? :’ et ‘*
     ?’ ne sont pas autorisés.  Quand une ligne contient un ‘#’ qui
     n'est ni dans une classe de caractères, ni précédé d'un 'backslash'
     non échappé, tous les caractères depuis le ‘#’ le plus à gauche
     jusqu'à la fin de la ligne sont ignorés.

     Cela signifie que les deux expressions rationnelles suivantes qui
     valident un nombre décimal sont fonctionnellement égales :

          a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
                             \.    # the decimal point
                             \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
          b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")

     Correspond à l'option de groupe ‘(?x)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<2>,  Next: Exceptions<3>,  Prev: Flags,  Up: Contenu du module

5.6.2.4 Fonctions
.................

 -- Fonction: re.compile (pattern, flags=0)

     Compile un motif vers une *note expression rationnelle: f73.
     compilée, dont les méthodes *note match(): 22ba. et *note search():
     22bb, décrites ci-dessous, peuvent être utilisées pour analyser des
     textes.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     La séquence

          prog = re.compile(pattern)
          result = prog.match(string)

     est équivalente à

          result = re.match(pattern, string)

     mais utiliser *note re.compile(): bc3. et sauvegarder l'expression
     rationnelle renvoyée pour la réutiliser est plus efficace quand
     l'expression est amenée à être utilisée plusieurs fois dans un même
     programme.

          Note: Les versions compilées des motifs les plus récents
          passés à *note re.compile(): bc3. et autres fonctions
          d'analyse du module sont mises en cache, ainsi les programmes
          qui n'utilisent que quelques expressions rationnelles en même
          temps n'ont pas à s'inquiéter de la compilation de ces
          expressions.

 -- Fonction: re.search (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where the
     regular expression 'pattern' produces a match, and return a
     corresponding *note Match: cb8.  Return ‘None’ if no position in
     the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from
     finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Fonction: re.match (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If zero or more characters at the beginning of 'string' match the
     regular expression 'pattern', return a corresponding *note Match:
     cb8.  Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note
     that this is different from a zero-length match.

     Notez que même en mode *note MULTILINE: 22a9, *note re.match():
     120d. ne validera qu'au début de la chaîne et non au début de
     chaque ligne.

     Si vous voulez trouver une correspondance n'importe où dans
     'string', utilisez plutôt *note search(): 120c. (voir aussi *note
     Comparaison de search() et match(): 22bc.).

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Fonction: re.fullmatch (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If the whole 'string' matches the regular expression 'pattern',
     return a corresponding *note Match: cb8.  Return ‘None’ if the
     string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from
     a zero-length match.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: re.split (pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)

     Sépare 'string' selon les occurrences de 'pattern'.  Si des
     parenthèses de capture sont utilisées dans 'pattern', alors les
     textes des groupes du motif sont aussi renvoyés comme éléments de
     la liste résultante.  Si 'maxsplit' est différent de zéro, il ne
     pourra y avoir plus de 'maxsplit' séparations, et le reste de la
     chaîne sera renvoyé comme le dernier élément de la liste.

          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', maxsplit=1)
          ['Words', 'words, words.']
          >>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          ['0', '3', '9']

     S'il y a des groupes de capture dans le séparateur et qu'ils
     trouvent une correspondance au début de la chaîne, le résultat
     commencera par une chaîne vide.  La même chose se produit pour la
     fin de la chaîne :

          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
          ['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']

     De cette manière, les séparateurs sont toujours trouvés aux mêmes
     indices relatifs dans la liste résultante.

     Les correspondances vides pour le motif scindent la chaîne de
     caractères seulement lorsqu'ils ne sont pas adjacents à une
     correspondance vide précédente.

          >>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
          >>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
          ['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
          ['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: ajout de l'argument optionnel 'flags'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Gestion du découpage avec un motif qui
     pourrait correspondre à une chaine de caractère vide.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Passing 'maxsplit' and 'flags' as
     positional arguments is deprecated.  In future Python versions they
     will be *note keyword-only parameters: 2a2.

 -- Fonction: re.findall (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Renvoie toutes les correspondances, sans chevauchements, entre le
     motif 'pattern' et la chaîne 'string', comme une liste de chaînes
     ou de 'n'-uplets.  La chaîne 'string' est examinée de gauche à
     droite, et les correspondances sont données dans cet ordre.  Le
     résultat peut contenir des correspondances vides.

     Le type du résultat dépend du nombre de groupes capturants dans le
     motif.  S'il n'y en a pas, le résultat est une liste de
     sous-chaînes de caractères qui correspondent au motif.  S'il y a
     exactement un groupe, le résultat est une liste constituée des
     sous-chaînes qui correspondaient à ce groupe pour chaque
     correspondance entre le motif et la chaîne.  S'il y a plusieurs
     groupes, le résultat est formé de 'n'-uplets avec les sous-chaînes
     correspondant aux différents groupes.

          >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
          ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
          >>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
          [('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les correspondances non vides peuvent
     maintenant démarrer juste après une correspondance vide précédente.

 -- Fonction: re.finditer (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return an *note iterator: 1aa. yielding *note Match: cb8. objects
     over all non-overlapping matches for the RE 'pattern' in 'string'.
     The 'string' is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
     the order found.  Empty matches are included in the result.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les correspondances non vides peuvent
     maintenant démarrer juste après une correspondance vide précédente.

 -- Fonction: re.sub (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Renvoie la chaîne obtenue en remplaçant les occurrences (sans
     chevauchement) les plus à gauche de 'pattern' dans 'string' par le
     remplacement 'repl'.  Si le motif n'est pas trouvé, 'string' est
     renvoyée inchangée.  'repl' peut être une chaîne de caractères ou
     une fonction ; si c'est une chaîne, toutes les séquences
     d'échappement qu'elle contient sont traduites.  Ainsi, ‘\n’ est
     convertie en un simple saut de ligne, ‘\r’ en un retour chariot, et
     ainsi de suite.  Les échappements inconnus de lettres ASCII sont
     réservés pour une utilisation future et sont considérés comme des
     erreurs.  Les autres échappements tels que ‘\&’ sont laissés
     intacts.  Les références arrières, telles que ‘\6’, sont remplacées
     par la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe 6 dans le motif.  Par
     exemple :

          >>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
          ...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
          ...        'def myfunc():')
          'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'

     If 'repl' is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping
     occurrence of 'pattern'.  The function takes a single *note Match:
     cb8. argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example:

          >>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
          ...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
          ...     else: return '-'
          ...
          >>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
          'pro--gram files'
          >>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          'Baked Beans & Spam'

     The pattern may be a string or a *note Pattern: 1799.

     L'argument optionnel 'count' est le nombre maximum d'occurrences du
     motif à remplacer : 'count' ne doit pas être un nombre négatif.  Si
     omis ou nul, toutes les occurrences seront remplacées.  Les
     correspondances vides avec le motif sont remplacées uniquement
     quand elles ne sont pas adjacentes à une précédente correspondance,
     ainsi ‘sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’ renvoie ‘'-a-b--d-'’.

     Dans les arguments 'repl' de type 'string', en plus des séquences
     d'échappement et références arrières décrites au-dessus, ‘\g<name>’
     utilisera la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe nommé ‘name’,
     comme défini par la syntaxe ‘(?P<name>...)’.  ‘\g<number>’ utilise
     le groupe numéroté associé ; ‘\g<2>’ est ainsi équivalent à ‘\2’,
     mais n'est pas ambigu dans un remplacement tel que ‘\g<2>0’, ‘\20’
     serait interprété comme une référence au groupe 20, et non une
     référence au groupe 2 suivie par un caractère littéral ‘'0'’.  La
     référence arrière ‘\g<0>’ est remplacée par la sous-chaîne entière
     validée par l'expression rationnelle.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: ajout de l'argument optionnel 'flags'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les groupes sans correspondance sont
     remplacés par une chaîne vide.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les séquences d'échappement inconnues
     dans 'pattern' formées par ‘'\'’ et une lettre ASCII sont
     maintenant des erreurs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Unknown escapes in 'repl' consisting
     of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter now are errors.  Empty matches for the
     pattern are replaced when adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII
     digits.  In *note bytes: 1bd. replacement strings, group 'name' can
     only contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Passing 'count' and 'flags' as
     positional arguments is deprecated.  In future Python versions they
     will be *note keyword-only parameters: 2a2.

 -- Fonction: re.subn (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Réalise la même opération que *note sub(): 2a0, mais renvoie une
     paire ‘(nouvelle_chaîne, nombre_de_substitutions_réalisées)’.

     The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 22b4. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Fonction: re.escape (pattern)

     Échappe tous les caractères spéciaux de 'pattern'.  Cela est utile
     si vous voulez valider une quelconque chaîne littérale qui pourrait
     contenir des métacaractères d'expressions rationnelles.  Par
     exemple :

          >>> print(re.escape('https://www.python.org'))
          https://www\.python\.org

          >>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
          >>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
          [abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+

          >>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
          >>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
          /|\-|\+|\*\*|\*

     Cette fonction ne doit pas être utilisée pour la chaîne de
     remplacement dans *note sub(): 2a0. et *note subn(): 2a1, seuls les
     antislashs devraient être échappés.  Par exemple :

          >>> digits_re = r'\d+'
          >>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
          >>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
          /usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Le caractère ‘'_'’ n'est plus échappé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Seuls les caractères qui peuvent avoir
     une signification spéciale dans une expression rationnelle sont
     échappés.  De ce fait, ‘'!'’, ‘'"'’, ‘'%'’, ‘"'"’, ‘','’, ‘'/'’,
     ‘':'’, ‘';'’, ‘'<'’, ‘'='’, ‘'>'’, ‘'@'’, et ‘"`"’ ne sont plus
     échappés.

 -- Fonction: re.purge ()

     Vide le cache d'expressions rationnelles.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<3>,  Prev: Fonctions<2>,  Up: Contenu du module

5.6.2.5 Exceptions
..................

 -- Exception: re.PatternError (msg, pattern=None, pos=None)

     Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here
     is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain
     unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during
     compilation or matching.  It is never an error if a string contains
     no match for a pattern.  The ‘PatternError’ instance has the
     following additional attributes:

      -- Attribut: msg

          Le message d'erreur non formaté.

      -- Attribut: pattern

          Le motif d'expression rationnelle.

      -- Attribut: pos

          L'index dans 'pattern' où la compilation a échoué (peut valoir
          ‘None’).

      -- Attribut: lineno

          La ligne correspondant à 'pos' (peut valoir ‘None’).

      -- Attribut: colno

          La colonne correspondant à 'pos' (peut valoir ‘None’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des attributs additionnels.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘PatternError’ was originally named
     ‘error’; the latter is kept as an alias for backward compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets d'expressions rationnelles,  Next: Objets de correspondance,  Prev: Contenu du module,  Up: re --- Regular expression operations

5.6.2.6 Objets d'expressions rationnelles
.........................................

 -- Classe: re.Pattern

     Compiled regular expression object returned by *note re.compile():
     bc3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: *note re.Pattern: 1799. supports ‘[]’
     to indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern.  See *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Méthode: Pattern.search (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where this
     regular expression produces a match, and return a corresponding
     *note Match: cb8.  Return ‘None’ if no position in the string
     matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a
     zero-length match at some point in the string.

     Le second paramètre 'pos' (optionnel) donne l'index dans la chaîne
     où la recherche doit débuter ; il vaut ‘0’ par défaut.  Cela n'est
     pas complètement équivalent à un 'slicing' sur la chaîne ; le
     caractère de motif ‘'^'’ correspond au début réel de la chaîne et
     aux positions juste après un saut de ligne, mais pas nécessairement
     à l'index où la recherche commence.

     Le paramètre optionnel 'endpos' limite la longueur sur laquelle la
     chaîne sera analysée ; ce sera comme si la chaîne faisait 'endpos'
     caractères de long, donc uniquement les caractères de 'pos' à
     ‘endpos - 1’ seront analysés pour trouver une correspondance.  Si
     'endpos' est inférieur à 'pos', aucune correspondance ne sera
     trouvée ; dit autrement, avec 'rx' une expression rationnelle
     compilée, ‘rx.search(string, 0, 50)’ est équivalent à
     ‘rx.search(string[:50], 0)’.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("d")
          >>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
          >>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"

 -- Méthode: Pattern.match (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If zero or more characters at the 'beginning' of 'string' match
     this regular expression, return a corresponding *note Match: cb8.
     Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note that
     this is different from a zero-length match.

     Les paramètres optionnels 'pos' et 'endpos' ont le même sens que
     pour la méthode *note search(): 22bb.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o")
          >>> pattern.match("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.match("dog", 1)   # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>

     Si vous voulez une recherche n'importe où dans 'string', utilisez
     plutôt *note search(): 22bb. (voir aussi *note Comparaison de
     search() et match(): 22bc.).

 -- Méthode: Pattern.fullmatch (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If the whole 'string' matches this regular expression, return a
     corresponding *note Match: cb8.  Return ‘None’ if the string does
     not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
     zero-length match.

     Les paramètres optionnels 'pos' et 'endpos' ont le même sens que
     pour la méthode *note search(): 22bb.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: Pattern.split (string, maxsplit=0)

     Identique à la fonction *note split(): 29f, en utilisant le motif
     compilé.

 -- Méthode: Pattern.findall (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similaire à la fonction *note findall(): 1015, en utilisant le
     motif compilé, mais accepte aussi des paramètres 'pos' et 'endpos'
     optionnels qui limitent la région de recherche comme pour *note
     search(): 120c.

 -- Méthode: Pattern.finditer (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similaire à la fonction *note finditer(): 14b2, en utilisant le
     motif compilé, mais accepte aussi des paramètres 'pos' et 'endpos'
     optionnels qui limitent la région de recherche comme pour *note
     search(): 120c.

 -- Méthode: Pattern.sub (repl, string, count=0)

     Identique à la fonction *note sub(): 2a0, en utilisant le motif
     compilé.

 -- Méthode: Pattern.subn (repl, string, count=0)

     Identique à la fonction *note subn(): 2a1, en utilisant le motif
     compilé.

 -- Attribut: Pattern.flags

     The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given
     to *note compile(): bc3, any ‘(?...)’ inline flags in the pattern,
     and implicit flags such as *note UNICODE: b5d. if the pattern is a
     Unicode string.

 -- Attribut: Pattern.groups

     Le nombre de groupes de capture dans le motif.

 -- Attribut: Pattern.groupindex

     Un dictionnaire associant les noms de groupes symboliques définis
     par ‘(?P<id>)’ aux groupes numérotés.  Le dictionnaire est vide si
     aucun groupe symbolique n'est utilisé dans le motif.

 -- Attribut: Pattern.pattern

     La chaîne de motif depuis laquelle l'objet motif a été compilé.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du support des fonctions *note
copy.copy(): 520. et *note copy.deepcopy(): b5e.  Les expressions
régulières compilées sont considérées atomiques.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets de correspondance,  Next: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles,  Prev: Objets d'expressions rationnelles,  Up: re --- Regular expression operations

5.6.2.7 Objets de correspondance
................................

Les objets de correspondance ont toujours une valeur booléenne ‘True’.
Puisque *note match(): 22ba. et *note search(): 22bb. renvoient ‘None’
quand il n'y a pas de correspondance, vous pouvez tester s'il y a eu
correspondance avec une simple instruction ‘if’ :

     match = re.search(pattern, string)
     if match:
         process(match)

 -- Classe: re.Match

     Match object returned by successful ‘match’es and ‘search’es.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: *note re.Match: cb8. supports ‘[]’ to
     indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes match.  See *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Méthode: Match.expand (template)

     Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the
     template string 'template', as done by the *note sub(): 22c8.
     method.  Escapes such as ‘\n’ are converted to the appropriate
     characters, and numeric backreferences (‘\1’, ‘\2’) and named
     backreferences (‘\g<1>’, ‘\g<name>’) are replaced by the contents
     of the corresponding group.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’ will be
     replaced by the entire match.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les groupes sans correspondance sont
     remplacés par une chaîne vide.

 -- Méthode: Match.group ([group1, ...])

     Renvoie un ou plus sous-groupes de la correspondance.  Si un seul
     argument est donné, le résultat est une chaîne simple ; s'il y a
     plusieurs arguments, le résultat est un 'n'-uplet comprenant un
     élément par argument.  Sans arguments, 'group1' vaut par défaut
     zéro (la correspondance entière est renvoyée).  Si un argument
     'groupN' vaut zéro, l'élément associé sera la chaîne de
     correspondance entière ; s'il est dans l'intervalle fermé [1..99],
     c'est la correspondance avec le groupe de parenthèses associé.  Si
     un numéro de groupe est négatif ou supérieur au nombre de groupes
     définis dans le motif, une exception ‘indexError’ est levée.  Si un
     groupe est contenu dans une partie du motif qui n'a aucune
     correspondance, l'élément associé sera ‘None’.  Si un groupe est
     contenu dans une partie du motif qui a plusieurs correspondances,
     seule la dernière correspondance est renvoyée.

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'
          >>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
          ('Isaac', 'Newton')

     Si l'expression rationnelle utilise la syntaxe ‘(?P<name>...)’, les
     arguments 'groupN' peuvent alors aussi être des chaînes identifiant
     les groupes par leurs noms.  Si une chaîne donnée en argument n'est
     pas utilisée comme nom de groupe dans le motif, une exception *note
     IndexError: 14ec. est levée.

     Un exemple modérément compliqué :

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.group('first_name')
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group('last_name')
          'Reynolds'

     Les groupes nommés peuvent aussi être référencés par leur index :

          >>> m.group(1)
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group(2)
          'Reynolds'

     Si un groupe a plusieurs correspondances, seule la dernière est
     accessible :

          >>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
          >>> m.group(1)                        # Returns only the last match.
          'c3'

 -- Méthode: Match.__getitem__ (g)

     Cela est identique à ‘m.group(g)’.  Cela permet un accès plus
     facile à un groupe individuel depuis une correspondance :

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m[0]       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'

     Named groups are supported as well:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Isaac Newton")
          >>> m['first_name']
          'Isaac'
          >>> m['last_name']
          'Newton'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Méthode: Match.groups (default=None)

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet contenant tous les sous-groupes de la
     correspondance, de 1 jusqu'au nombre de groupes dans le motif.
     L'argument 'default' est utilisé pour les groupes sans
     correspondance ; il vaut ‘None’ par défaut.

     Par exemple :

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
          >>> m.groups()
          ('24', '1632')

     Si on rend la partie décimale et tout ce qui la suit optionnels,
     tous les groupes ne figureront pas dans la correspondance.  Ces
     groupes sans correspondance vaudront ‘None’ sauf si une autre
     valeur est donnée à l'argument 'default' :

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
          >>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
          ('24', None)
          >>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
          ('24', '0')

 -- Méthode: Match.groupdict (default=None)

     Renvoie un dictionnaire contenant tous les sous-groupes 'nommés' de
     la correspondance, accessibles par leurs noms.  L'argument
     'default' est utilisé pour les groupes qui ne figurent pas dans la
     correspondance ; il vaut ‘None’ par défaut.  Par exemple :

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.groupdict()
          {'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}

 -- Méthode: Match.start ([group])
 -- Méthode: Match.end ([group])

     Renvoie les indices de début et de fin de la sous-chaîne
     correspondant au groupe 'group' ; 'group' vaut par défaut zéro
     (pour récupérer les indices de la correspondance complète).
     Renvoie ‘-1’ si 'group' existe mais ne figure pas dans la
     correspondance.  Pour un objet de correspondance 'm', et un groupe
     'g' qui y figure, la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe 'g'
     (équivalente à ‘m.group(g)’) est

          m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]

     Notez que ‘m.start(group)’ sera égal à ‘m.end(group)’ si 'group'
     correspond à une chaîne vide.  Par exemple, après ‘m =
     re.search('b(c?)', 'cba')’, ‘m.start(0)’ vaut 1, ‘m.end(0)’ vaut 2,
     ‘m.start(1)’ et ‘m.end(1)’ valent tous deux 2, et ‘m.start(2)’ lève
     une exception *note IndexError: 14ec.

     Un exemple qui supprimera 'remove_this' d'une adresse mail :

          >>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
          >>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
          >>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
          'tony@tiger.net'

 -- Méthode: Match.span ([group])

     Pour un objet de correspondance 'm', renvoie la paire
     ‘(m.start(group), m.end(group))’.  Notez que si 'group' ne figure
     pas dans la correspondance, ‘(-1, -1)’ est renvoyé.  'group' vaut
     par défaut zéro, pour la correspondance entière.

 -- Attribut: Match.pos

     La valeur de 'pos' qui a été passée à la méthode *note search():
     22bb. ou *note match(): 22ba. d'un *note objet expression
     rationnelle: f73.  C'est l'index dans la chaîne à partir duquel le
     moteur d'expressions rationnelles recherche une correspondance.

 -- Attribut: Match.endpos

     La valeur de 'endpos' qui a été passée à la méthode *note search():
     22bb. ou *note match(): 22ba. d'un *note objet expression
     rationnelle: f73.  C'est l'index dans la chaîne que le moteur
     d'expressions rationnelles ne dépassera pas.

 -- Attribut: Match.lastindex

     L'index entier du dernier groupe de capture validé, ou ‘None’ si
     aucun groupe ne correspondait.  Par exemple, les expressions
     ‘(a)b’, ‘((a)(b))’ et ‘((ab))’ auront un ‘lastindex == 1’ si
     appliquées à la chaîne ‘'ab'’, alors que l'expression ‘(a)(b)’ aura
     un ‘lastindex == 2’ si appliquée à la même chaîne.

 -- Attribut: Match.lastgroup

     Le nom du dernier groupe capturant validé, ou ‘None’ si le groupe
     n'a pas de nom, ou si aucun groupe ne correspondait.

 -- Attribut: Match.re

     *note L'expression rationnelle: f73. dont la méthode *note match():
     22ba. ou *note search(): 22bb. a produit cet objet de
     correspondance.

 -- Attribut: Match.string

     La chaîne passée à *note match(): 22ba. ou *note search(): 22bb.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du support des fonctions *note
copy.copy(): 520. et *note copy.deepcopy(): b5e.  Les objets
correspondants sont considérés atomiques.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles,  Prev: Objets de correspondance,  Up: re --- Regular expression operations

5.6.2.8 Exemples d'expressions rationnelles
...........................................

* Menu:

* Rechercher une paire::
* Simuler scanf(): Simuler scanf.
* Comparaison de search() et match(): Comparaison de search et match.
* Construire un répertoire téléphonique::
* Mélanger les lettres des mots::
* Trouver tous les adverbes::
* Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions::
* Notation brute de chaînes::
* Écrire un analyseur lexical::


File: python.info,  Node: Rechercher une paire,  Next: Simuler scanf,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.9 Rechercher une paire
............................

Dans cet exemple, nous nous aidons de la fonction suivante pour afficher
de manière plus jolie les objets qui correspondent :

     def displaymatch(match):
         if match is None:
             return None
         return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())

Supposez que vous écriviez un jeu de poker où la main d'un joueur est
représentée par une chaîne de 5 caractères avec chaque caractère
représentant une carte, « a » pour l'as, « k » pour le roi ('king'),
« q » pour la reine ('queen'), « j » pour le valet ('jack'), « t » pour
10 ('ten'), et les caractères de « 2 » à « 9 » représentant les cartes
avec ces valeurs.

Pour vérifier qu'une chaîne donnée est une main valide, on pourrait
faire comme suit :

     >>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt"))    # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"

La dernière main, ‘"727ak"’, contenait une paire, deux cartes de la même
valeur.  Pour valider cela avec une expression rationnelle, on pourrait
utiliser des références arrière comme :

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
     "<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak"))     # No pairs.
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
     "<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"

Pour trouver de quelle carte est composée la paire, on pourrait utiliser
la méthode *note group(): 22d0. de l'objet de correspondance de la
manière suivante :

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
     '7'

     # Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
     >>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
         re.match(r".*(.).*\1", "718ak").group(1)
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'

     >>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
     'a'


File: python.info,  Node: Simuler scanf,  Next: Comparaison de search et match,  Prev: Rechercher une paire,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.10 Simuler 'scanf()'
..........................

Python does not currently have an equivalent to ‘scanf()’.  Regular
expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
‘scanf()’ format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
equivalent mappings between ‘scanf()’ format tokens and regular
expressions.

‘scanf()’ Token                      Expression rationnelle
                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘%c’                                 ‘.’
                                     
                                     
‘%5c’                                ‘.{5}’
                                     
                                     
‘%d’                                 ‘[-+]?\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%e’, ‘%E’, ‘%f’, ‘%g’               ‘[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?’
                                     
                                     
‘%i’                                 ‘[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)’
                                     
                                     
‘%o’                                 ‘[-+]?[0-7]+’
                                     
                                     
‘%s’                                 ‘\S+’
                                     
                                     
‘%u’                                 ‘\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%x’, ‘%X’                           ‘[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+’
                                     

Pour extraire le nom de fichier et les nombres depuis une chaîne comme

     /usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings

you would use a ‘scanf()’ format like

     %s - %d errors, %d warnings

L'expression rationnelle équivalente serait

     (\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison de search et match,  Next: Construire un répertoire téléphonique,  Prev: Simuler scanf,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.11 Comparaison de 'search()' et 'match()'
...............................................

Python offre différentes opérations primitives basées sur des
expressions régulières :

   + *note re.match(): 120d. cherche une correspondance uniquement au
     début de la chaîne de caractères

   + *note re.search(): 120c. cherche une correspondance n'importe où
     dans la chaîne de caractères (ce que fait Perl par défaut)

   + *note re.fullmatch(): f72. cherche une correspondance avec
     l'intégralité de la chaîne de caractères.

Par exemple :

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("c", "abcdef")   # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("p.*n", "python") # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='python'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("r.*n", "python") # No match

Les expressions rationnelles commençant par ‘'^'’ peuvent être utilisées
avec *note search(): 120c. pour restreindre la recherche au début de la
chaîne :

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")  # No match
     >>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>

Notez cependant qu'en mode *note MULTILINE: 22a9, *note match(): 120d.
ne recherche qu'au début de la chaîne, alors que *note search(): 120c.
avec une expression rationnelle commençant par ‘'^'’ recherchera au
début de chaque ligne.

     >>> re.match("X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # No match
     >>> re.search("^X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>


File: python.info,  Node: Construire un répertoire téléphonique,  Next: Mélanger les lettres des mots,  Prev: Comparaison de search et match,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.12 Construire un répertoire téléphonique
..............................................

*note split(): 29f. découpe une chaîne en une liste délimitée par le
motif donné.  La méthode est inestimable pour convertir des données
textuelles vers des structures de données qui peuvent être lues et
modifiées par Python comme démontré dans l'exemple suivant qui crée un
répertoire téléphonique.

Tout d'abord, voici l'entrée.  Elle provient normalement d'un fichier,
nous utilisons ici une chaîne à guillemets triples

     >>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
     ...
     ... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
     ... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
     ...
     ...
     ... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""

Les entrées sont séparées par un saut de ligne ou plus.  Nous
convertissons maintenant la chaîne en une liste où chaque ligne non vide
aura sa propre entrée :

     >>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
     >>> entries
     ['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
     'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
     'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
     'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']

Finalement, on sépare chaque entrée en une liste avec prénom, nom,
numéro de téléphone et adresse.  Nous utilisons le paramètre ‘maxsplit’
de *note split(): 29f. parce que l'adresse contient des espaces, qui
sont notre motif de séparation :

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=3) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]

Le motif ‘:?’ trouve les deux points derrière le nom de famille, pour
qu'ils n'apparaissent pas dans la liste résultante.  Avec un ‘maxsplit’
de ‘4’, nous pourrions séparer le numéro du nom de la rue :

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=4) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]


File: python.info,  Node: Mélanger les lettres des mots,  Next: Trouver tous les adverbes,  Prev: Construire un répertoire téléphonique,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.13 Mélanger les lettres des mots
......................................

*note sub(): 2a0. remplace toutes les occurrences d'un motif par une
chaîne ou le résultat d'une fonction.  Cet exemple le montre, en
utilisant *note sub(): 2a0. avec une fonction qui mélange aléatoirement
les caractères de chaque mot dans une phrase (à l'exception des premiers
et derniers caractères) :

     >>> def repl(m):
     ...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
     ...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
     ...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
     ...
     >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'


File: python.info,  Node: Trouver tous les adverbes,  Next: Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions,  Prev: Mélanger les lettres des mots,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.14 Trouver tous les adverbes
..................................

*note findall(): 1015. trouve 'toutes' les occurrences d'un motif, pas
juste la première comme le fait *note search(): 120c.  Par exemple, si
un écrivain voulait trouver tous les adverbes dans un texte, il devrait
utiliser *note findall(): 1015. de la manière suivante :

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly\b", text)
     ['carefully', 'quickly']


File: python.info,  Node: Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions,  Next: Notation brute de chaînes,  Prev: Trouver tous les adverbes,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.15 Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions
.....................................................

If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the
matched text, *note finditer(): 14b2. is useful as it provides *note
Match: cb8. objects instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous
example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs 'and their
positions' in some text, they would use *note finditer(): 14b2. in the
following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly\b", text):
     ...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
     07-16: carefully
     40-47: quickly


File: python.info,  Node: Notation brute de chaînes,  Next: Écrire un analyseur lexical,  Prev: Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.16 Notation brute de chaînes
..................................

La notation brute de chaînes (‘r"text"’) garde saines les expressions
rationnelles.  Sans elle, chaque 'backslash' (‘'\'’) dans une expression
rationnelle devrait être préfixé d'un autre 'backslash' pour l'échapper.
Par exemple, les deux lignes de code suivantes sont fonctionnellement
identiques :

     >>> re.match(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
     >>> re.match("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>

Pour rechercher un 'backslash' littéral, il faut l'échapper dans
l'expression rationnelle.  Avec la notation brute, cela signifie
‘r"\\"’.  Sans elle, il faudrait utiliser ‘"\\\\"’, faisant que les deux
lignes de code suivantes sont fonctionnellement identiques :

     >>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
     >>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>


File: python.info,  Node: Écrire un analyseur lexical,  Prev: Notation brute de chaînes,  Up: Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

5.6.2.17 Écrire un analyseur lexical
....................................

Un analyseur lexical ou scanner(1) analyse une chaîne pour catégoriser
les groupes de caractères.  C'est une première étape utile dans
l'écriture d'un compilateur ou d'un interpréteur.

Les catégories de texte sont spécifiées par des expressions
rationnelles.  La technique est de les combiner dans une unique
expression rationnelle maîtresse, et de boucler sur les correspondances
successives :

     from typing import NamedTuple
     import re

     class Token(NamedTuple):
         type: str
         value: str
         line: int
         column: int

     def tokenize(code):
         keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
         token_specification = [
             ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
             ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
             ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
             ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
             ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
             ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
             ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
             ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
         ]
         tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
         line_num = 1
         line_start = 0
         for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
             kind = mo.lastgroup
             value = mo.group()
             column = mo.start() - line_start
             if kind == 'NUMBER':
                 value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
             elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
                 kind = value
             elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
                 line_start = mo.end()
                 line_num += 1
                 continue
             elif kind == 'SKIP':
                 continue
             elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
                 raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
             yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)

     statements = '''
         IF quantity THEN
             total := total + price * quantity;
             tax := price * 0.05;
         ENDIF;
     '''

     for token in tokenize(statements):
         print(token)

L'analyseur produit la sortie suivante :

     Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
     Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
     Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
     Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
     Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
     Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)

(Frie09) 'Friedl, Jeffrey.  Mastering Regular Expressions.  3rd ed.,
O'Reilly Media, 2009'.  La troisième édition de ce livre ne couvre plus
du tout Python, mais la première version explique en détails comment
écrire de bonnes expressions rationnelles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis


File: python.info,  Node: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas,  Next: textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling,  Prev: re --- Regular expression operations,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.3 ‘difflib’ -- Helpers for computing deltas
-----------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/difflib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences.  It
can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce
information about file differences in various formats, including HTML
and context and unified diffs.  For comparing directories and files, see
also, the *note filecmp: 59. module.

 -- Classe: difflib.SequenceMatcher

     C'est une classe flexible permettant de comparer des séquences deux
     à deux de n'importe quel type, tant que les éléments des séquences
     sont *note hachables: 5fd.  L'algorithme de base est antérieur, et
     un peu plus sophistiqué, à un algorithme publié à la fin des années
     1980 par Ratcliff et Obershelp sous le nom hyperbolique de 'gestalt
     pattern matching'.  L'idée est de trouver la plus longue
     sous-séquence d'appariement contiguë qui ne contient pas d'éléments
     « indésirables » ; ces éléments « indésirables » sont ceux qui sont
     inintéressants dans un certain sens, comme les lignes blanches ou
     les espaces.  (Le traitement des éléments indésirables est une
     extension de l'algorithme de Ratcliff et Obershelp).  La même idée
     est ensuite appliquée récursivement aux morceaux des séquences à
     gauche et à droite de la sous-séquence correspondante.  Cela ne
     donne pas des séquences de montage minimales, mais tend à donner
     des correspondances qui « semblent correctes » pour les gens.

     'Compléxité temporelle :' l'algorithme de base de
     Ratcliff-Obershelp est de complexité cubique dans le pire cas et de
     complexité quadratique dans le cas attendu.  *note SequenceMatcher:
     1004. est de complexité quadratique pour le pire cas et son
     comportement dans le cas attendu dépend de façon complexe du nombre
     d'éléments que les séquences ont en commun ; le temps dans le
     meilleur cas est linéaire.

     'Heuristique automatique des indésirables:' *note SequenceMatcher:
     1004. utilise une heuristique qui traite automatiquement certains
     éléments de la séquence comme indésirables.  L'heuristique compte
     combien de fois chaque élément individuel apparaît dans la
     séquence.  Si les doublons d'un élément (après le premier)
     représentent plus de 1 % de la séquence et que la séquence compte
     au moins 200 éléments, cet élément est marqué comme « populaire »
     et est traité comme indésirable aux fins de la comparaison des
     séquences.  Cette heuristique peut être désactivée en réglant
     l'argument ‘autojunk’ sur ‘False’ lors de la création de la classe
     *note SequenceMatcher: 1004.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'autojunk' parameter.

 -- Classe: difflib.Differ

     Il s'agit d'une classe permettant de comparer des séquences de
     lignes de texte et de produire des différences ou deltas
     humainement lisibles.  'Differ' utilise *note SequenceMatcher:
     1004. à la fois pour comparer des séquences de lignes, et pour
     comparer des séquences de caractères dans des lignes similaires
     (quasi-correspondantes).

     Chaque ligne d'un delta *note Differ: 22e9. commence par un code de
     deux lettres :

     Code           Signification
                    
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘'- '’         ligne n'appartenant qu'à la séquence 1
                    
                    
     ‘'+ '’         ligne n'appartenant qu'à la séquence 2
                    
                    
     ‘' '’          ligne commune aux deux séquences
                    
                    
     ‘'? '’         ligne non présente dans l'une ou l'autre des
                    séquences d'entrée
                    

     Lines beginning with '‘?’' attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input sequence.  These
     lines can be confusing if the sequences contain whitespace
     characters, such as spaces, tabs or line breaks.

 -- Classe: difflib.HtmlDiff

     Cette classe peut être utilisée pour créer un tableau HTML (ou un
     fichier HTML complet contenant le tableau) montrant une comparaison
     côte à côte, ligne par ligne, du texte avec les changements
     inter-lignes et intralignes.  Le tableau peut être généré en mode
     de différence complet ou contextuel.

     Le constructeur pour cette classe est :

      -- Méthode: __init__ (tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None,
               charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

          Initialise l'instance de *note HtmlDiff: 1517.

          'tabsize' est argument nommé optionnel pour spécifier
          l'espacement des tabulations et sa valeur par défaut est ‘8’.

          'wrapcolumn' est un argument nommé optionnel pour spécifier le
          numéro de la colonne où les lignes sont coupées pour être
          ré-agencées, la valeur par défaut est ‘None’ lorsque les
          lignes ne sont pas ré-agencées.

          'linejunk' et 'charjunk' sont des arguments nommés optionnels
          passés dans *note ndiff(): 22eb. (utilisés par *note HtmlDiff:
          1517. pour générer les différences HTML côte à côte).  Voir la
          documentation de *note ndiff(): 22eb. pour les valeurs par
          défaut des arguments et les descriptions.

     Les méthodes suivantes sont publiques :

      -- Méthode: make_file (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')

          Compare 'fromlines' et 'tolines' (listes de chaînes de
          caractères) et renvoie une chaîne de caractères qui est un
          fichier HTML complet contenant un tableau montrant les
          différences ligne par ligne avec les changements inter-lignes
          et intralignes mis en évidence.

          'fromdesc' et 'todesc' sont des arguments nommés optionnels
          pour spécifier les chaînes d'en-tête des colonnes 'from/to' du
          fichier (les deux sont des chaînes vides par défaut).

          'context' et 'numlines' sont tous deux des arguments nommés
          facultatifs.  Mettre 'context' à ‘True’ lorsque les
          différences contextuelles doivent être affichées, sinon la
          valeur par défaut est ‘False’ pour afficher les fichiers
          complets.  Les 'numlines' ont pour valeur par défaut ‘5’.
          Lorsque 'context' est ‘True’, 'numlines' contrôle le nombre de
          lignes de contexte qui entourent les différences mise en
          évidence.  Lorsque 'context' est ‘False’, 'numlines' contrôle
          le nombre de lignes qui sont affichées avant un surlignage de
          différence lors de l'utilisation des hyperliens « suivants »
          (un réglage à zéro ferait en sorte que les hyperliens
          « suivants » placeraient le surlignage de différence suivant
          en haut du navigateur sans aucun contexte introductif).

               Note: 'fromdesc' et 'todesc' sont interprétés comme du
               HTML non échappé et doivent être correctement échappés
               lors de la réception de données provenant de sources non
               fiables.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: l'argument nommé 'charset' a été
          ajouté.  Le jeu de caractères par défaut du document HTML est
          passé de ‘'ISO-8859-1'’ à ‘'utf-8'’.

      -- Méthode: make_table (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='',
               todesc='', context=False, numlines=5)

          Compare 'fromlines' et 'tolines' (listes de chaînes) et
          renvoie une chaîne qui est un tableau HTML complet montrant
          les différences ligne par ligne avec les changements
          inter-lignes et intralignes mis en évidence.

          Les arguments pour cette méthode sont les mêmes que ceux de la
          méthode *note make_file(): dde.

 -- Fonction: difflib.context_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' et 'b' (listes de chaînes de caractères) ; renvoie un
     delta (un *note generateur: 104c. générant les lignes delta) dans
     un format de différence de contexte.

     Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in a
     before/after style.  The number of context lines is set by 'n'
     which defaults to three.

     Par défaut, les lignes de contrôle de la différence (celles avec
     ‘***’ ou ‘---’) sont créées avec un saut de ligne à la fin.  Ceci
     est utile pour que les entrées créées à partir de *note
     io.IOBase.readlines(): 22ee. résultent en des différences qui
     peuvent être utilisées avec *note io.IOBase.writelines(): 22ef.
     puisque les entrées et les sorties ont des nouvelles lignes de fin.

     Pour les entrées qui n'ont pas de retour à la ligne, mettre
     l'argument 'lineterm' à ‘""’ afin que la sortie soit uniformément
     sans retour à la ligne.

     Le format de contexte de différence comporte normalement un en-tête
     pour les noms de fichiers et les heures de modification.  Tout ou
     partie de ces éléments peuvent être spécifiés en utilisant les
     chaînes de caractères 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate' et
     'tofiledate'.  Les heures de modification sont normalement
     exprimées dans le format ISO 8601.  Si elles ne sont pas
     spécifiées, les chaînes de caractères sont par défaut vierges.

          >>> import sys
          >>> from difflib import *
          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py',
          ...                        tofile='after.py'))
          *** before.py
          --- after.py
          ***************
          *** 1,4 ****
          ! bacon
          ! eggs
          ! ham
            guido
          --- 1,4 ----
          ! python
          ! eggy
          ! hamster
            guido

     Voir *note une interface de ligne de commandes pour difflib: 22f0.
     pour un exemple plus détaillé.

 -- Fonction: difflib.get_close_matches (word, possibilities, n=3,
          cutoff=0.6)

     Return a list of the best "good enough" matches.  'word' is a
     sequence for which close matches are desired (typically a string),
     and 'possibilities' is a list of sequences against which to match
     'word' (typically a list of strings).

     Optional argument 'n' (default ‘3’) is the maximum number of close
     matches to return; 'n' must be greater than ‘0’.

     Optional argument 'cutoff' (default ‘0.6’) is a float in the range
     [0, 1].  Possibilities that don't score at least that similar to
     'word' are ignored.

     The best (no more than 'n') matches among the possibilities are
     returned in a list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.

          >>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
          ['apple', 'ape']
          >>> import keyword
          >>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
          ['while']
          >>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
          []
          >>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
          ['except']

 -- Fonction: difflib.ndiff (a, b, linejunk=None,
          charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a *note Differ:
     22e9.-style delta (a *note generator: 104c. generating the delta
     lines).

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are filtering
     functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk, or false if not.  The default
     is ‘None’.  There is also a module-level function *note
     IS_LINE_JUNK(): 22f2, which filters out lines without visible
     characters, except for at most one pound character (‘'#'’) -
     however the underlying *note SequenceMatcher: 1004. class does a
     dynamic analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute
     noise, and this usually works better than using this function.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a character (a string of length
     1), and returns if the character is junk, or false if not.  The
     default is module-level function *note IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(): 22f3,
     which filters out whitespace characters (a blank or tab; it's a bad
     idea to include newline in this!).

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
          - one
          ?  ^
          + ore
          ?  ^
          - two
          - three
          ?  -
          + tree
          + emu

 -- Fonction: difflib.restore (sequence, which)

     Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.

     Given a 'sequence' produced by *note Differ.compare(): 22f5. or
     *note ndiff(): 22eb, extract lines originating from file 1 or 2
     (parameter 'which'), stripping off line prefixes.

     Exemple :

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
          one
          two
          three
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
          ore
          tree
          emu

 -- Fonction: difflib.unified_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: 104c. generating the delta lines) in unified diff
     format.

     Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in an
     inline style (instead of separate before/after blocks).  The number
     of context lines is set by 'n' which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘---’, ‘+++’, or
     ‘@@’) are created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that
     inputs created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 22ee. result in
     diffs that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines():
     22ef. since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     Pour les entrées qui n'ont pas de retour à la ligne, mettre
     l'argument 'lineterm' à ‘""’ afin que la sortie soit uniformément
     sans retour à la ligne.

     The unified diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
          --- before.py
          +++ after.py
          @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
          -bacon
          -eggs
          -ham
          +python
          +eggy
          +hamster
           guido

     Voir *note une interface de ligne de commandes pour difflib: 22f0.
     pour un exemple plus détaillé.

 -- Fonction: difflib.diff_bytes (dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'', tofile=b'',
          fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3, lineterm=b'\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of bytes objects) using 'dfunc'; yield a
     sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by
     'dfunc'.  'dfunc' must be a callable, typically either *note
     unified_diff(): 22f6. or *note context_diff(): 22ed.

     Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding.
     All inputs except 'n' must be bytes objects, not str.  Works by
     losslessly converting all inputs (except 'n') to str, and calling
     ‘dfunc(a, b, fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n,
     lineterm)’.  The output of 'dfunc' is then converted back to bytes,
     so the delta lines that you receive have the same
     unknown/inconsistent encodings as 'a' and 'b'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK (line)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable lines.  The line 'line' is ignorable if
     'line' is blank or contains a single ‘'#'’, otherwise it is not
     ignorable.  Used as a default for parameter 'linejunk' in *note
     ndiff(): 22eb. in older versions.

 -- Fonction: difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK (ch)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable characters.  The character 'ch' is
     ignorable if 'ch' is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable.
     Used as a default for parameter 'charjunk' in *note ndiff(): 22eb.

Voir aussi
..........

Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach(2)

     Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E.
     Metzener.  This was published in Dr.  Dobb's Journal(3) in July,
     1988.

* Menu:

* SequenceMatcher Objects::
* SequenceMatcher Examples::
* Differ Objects::
* Differ Example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/difflib.py

   (2) 
https://www.drdobbs.com/database/pattern-matching-the-gestalt-approach/184407970

   (3) https://www.drdobbs.com/


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher Objects,  Next: SequenceMatcher Examples,  Up: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.1 SequenceMatcher Objects
...............................

The *note SequenceMatcher: 1004. class has this constructor:

 -- Classe: difflib.SequenceMatcher (isjunk=None, a='', b='',
          autojunk=True)

     Optional argument 'isjunk' must be ‘None’ (the default) or a
     one-argument function that takes a sequence element and returns
     true if and only if the element is "junk" and should be ignored.
     Passing ‘None’ for 'isjunk' is equivalent to passing ‘lambda x:
     False’; in other words, no elements are ignored.  For example,
     pass:

          lambda x: x in " \t"

     if you're comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don't
     want to synch up on blanks or hard tabs.

     The optional arguments 'a' and 'b' are sequences to be compared;
     both default to empty strings.  The elements of both sequences must
     be *note hashable: 5fd.

     The optional argument 'autojunk' can be used to disable the
     automatic junk heuristic.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'autojunk' parameter.

     SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: 'bjunk' is the
     set of elements of 'b' for which 'isjunk' is ‘True’; 'bpopular' is
     the set of non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic
     (if it is not disabled); 'b2j' is a dict mapping the remaining
     elements of 'b' to a list of positions where they occur.  All three
     are reset whenever 'b' is reset with *note set_seqs(): 22f9. or
     *note set_seq2(): 22fa.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2: The 'bjunk' and 'bpopular' attributes.

     *note SequenceMatcher: 1004. objects have the following methods:

      -- Méthode: set_seqs (a, b)

          Set the two sequences to be compared.

     *note SequenceMatcher: 1004. computes and caches detailed
     information about the second sequence, so if you want to compare
     one sequence against many sequences, use *note set_seq2(): 22fa. to
     set the commonly used sequence once and call *note set_seq1():
     22fb. repeatedly, once for each of the other sequences.

      -- Méthode: set_seq1 (a)

          Set the first sequence to be compared.  The second sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- Méthode: set_seq2 (b)

          Set the second sequence to be compared.  The first sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- Méthode: find_longest_match (alo=0, ahi=None, blo=0, bhi=None)

          Find longest matching block in ‘a[alo:ahi]’ and ‘b[blo:bhi]’.

          If 'isjunk' was omitted or ‘None’, *note find_longest_match():
          191c. returns ‘(i, j, k)’ such that ‘a[i:i+k]’ is equal to
          ‘b[j:j+k]’, where ‘alo <= i <= i+k <= ahi’ and ‘blo <= j <=
          j+k <= bhi’.  For all ‘(i', j', k')’ meeting those conditions,
          the additional conditions ‘k >= k'’, ‘i <= i'’, and if ‘i ==
          i'’, ‘j <= j'’ are also met.  In other words, of all maximal
          matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in 'a', and
          of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in
          'a', return the one that starts earliest in 'b'.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)

          If 'isjunk' was provided, first the longest matching block is
          determined as above, but with the additional restriction that
          no junk element appears in the block.  Then that block is
          extended as far as possible by matching (only) junk elements
          on both sides.  So the resulting block never matches on junk
          except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an
          interesting match.

          Here's the same example as before, but considering blanks to
          be junk.  That prevents ‘' abcd'’ from matching the ‘' abcd'’
          at the tail end of the second sequence directly.  Instead only
          the ‘'abcd'’ can match, and matches the leftmost ‘'abcd'’ in
          the second sequence:

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)

          If no blocks match, this returns ‘(alo, blo, 0)’.

          This method returns a *note named tuple: 63b. ‘Match(a, b,
          size)’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added default arguments.

      -- Méthode: get_matching_blocks ()

          Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching
          subsequences.  Each triple is of the form ‘(i, j, n)’, and
          means that ‘a[i:i+n] == b[j:j+n]’.  The triples are
          monotonically increasing in 'i' and 'j'.

          The last triple is a dummy, and has the value ‘(len(a),
          len(b), 0)’.  It is the only triple with ‘n == 0’.  If ‘(i, j,
          n)’ and ‘(i', j', n')’ are adjacent triples in the list, and
          the second is not the last triple in the list, then ‘i+n < i'’
          or ‘j+n < j'’; in other words, adjacent triples always
          describe non-adjacent equal blocks.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
               >>> s.get_matching_blocks()
               [Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]

      -- Méthode: get_opcodes ()

          Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn 'a' into 'b'.
          Each tuple is of the form ‘(tag, i1, i2, j1, j2)’.  The first
          tuple has ‘i1 == j1 == 0’, and remaining tuples have 'i1'
          equal to the 'i2' from the preceding tuple, and, likewise,
          'j1' equal to the previous 'j2'.

          The 'tag' values are strings, with these meanings:

          Valeur              Signification
                              
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
          ‘'replace'’         ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be replaced by ‘b[j1:j2]’.
                              
                              
          ‘'delete'’          ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be deleted.  Note that ‘j1 ==
                              j2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'insert'’          ‘b[j1:j2]’ should be inserted at ‘a[i1:i1]’.
                              Note that ‘i1 == i2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'equal'’           ‘a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2]’ (the sub-sequences are
                              equal).
                              

          Par exemple :

               >>> a = "qabxcd"
               >>> b = "abycdf"
               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
               >>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
               ...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
               ...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
               delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
               equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
               replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
               equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
               insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'

      -- Méthode: get_grouped_opcodes (n=3)

          Return a *note generator: 104c. of groups with up to 'n' lines
          of context.

          Starting with the groups returned by *note get_opcodes():
          22fd, this method splits out smaller change clusters and
          eliminates intervening ranges which have no changes.

          The groups are returned in the same format as *note
          get_opcodes(): 22fd.

      -- Méthode: ratio ()

          Return a measure of the sequences' similarity as a float in
          the range [0, 1].

          Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and
          M is the number of matches, this is 2.0*M / T. Note that this
          is ‘1.0’ if the sequences are identical, and ‘0.0’ if they
          have nothing in common.

          This is expensive to compute if *note get_matching_blocks():
          22fc. or *note get_opcodes(): 22fd. hasn't already been
          called, in which case you may want to try *note quick_ratio():
          2300. or *note real_quick_ratio(): 2301. first to get an upper
          bound.

               Note: Caution: The result of a *note ratio(): 22ff. call
               may depend on the order of the arguments.  For instance:

                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
                    0.25
                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
                    0.5

      -- Méthode: quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 22ff. relatively
          quickly.

      -- Méthode: real_quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 22ff. very quickly.

The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters
can give different results due to differing levels of approximation,
although *note quick_ratio(): 2300. and *note real_quick_ratio(): 2301.
are always at least as large as *note ratio(): 22ff.:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
     >>> s.ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.quick_ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.real_quick_ratio()
     1.0


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher Examples,  Next: Differ Objects,  Prev: SequenceMatcher Objects,  Up: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.2 SequenceMatcher Examples
................................

This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be "junk":

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
     ...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
     ...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")

*note ratio(): 22ff. returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity
of the sequences.  As a rule of thumb, a *note ratio(): 22ff. value over
0.6 means the sequences are close matches:

     >>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
     0.866

If you're only interested in where the sequences match, *note
get_matching_blocks(): 22fc. is handy:

     >>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
     ...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
     a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
     a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
     a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements

Note that the last tuple returned by *note get_matching_blocks(): 22fc.
is always a dummy, ‘(len(a), len(b), 0)’, and this is the only case in
which the last tuple element (number of elements matched) is ‘0’.

If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second,
use *note get_opcodes(): 22fd.:

     >>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
     ...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
      equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
     insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
      equal a[8:29] b[17:38]

Voir aussi
..........

   * The *note get_close_matches(): 22f1. function in this module which
     shows how simple code building on *note SequenceMatcher: 1004. can
     be used to do useful work.

   * Simple version control recipe(1) for a small application built with
     *note SequenceMatcher: 1004.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729-simple-version-control/


File: python.info,  Node: Differ Objects,  Next: Differ Example,  Prev: SequenceMatcher Examples,  Up: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.3 Differ Objects
......................

Note that *note Differ: 22e9.-generated deltas make no claim to be
'minimal' diffs.  To the contrary, minimal diffs are often
counter-intuitive, because they synch up anywhere possible, sometimes
accidental matches 100 pages apart.  Restricting synch points to
contiguous matches preserves some notion of locality, at the occasional
cost of producing a longer diff.

The *note Differ: 22e9. class has this constructor:

 -- Classe: difflib.Differ (linejunk=None, charjunk=None)

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are for
     filter functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk.  The default is ‘None’, meaning
     that no line is considered junk.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a single character argument (a
     string of length 1), and returns true if the character is junk.
     The default is ‘None’, meaning that no character is considered
     junk.

     These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
     differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
     be ignored.  Read the description of the *note
     find_longest_match(): 191c. method's 'isjunk' parameter for an
     explanation.

     *note Differ: 22e9. objects are used (deltas generated) via a
     single method:

      -- Méthode: compare (a, b)

          Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a
          sequence of lines).

          Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings
          ending with newlines.  Such sequences can be obtained from the
          *note readlines(): 22ee. method of file-like objects.  The
          delta generated also consists of newline-terminated strings,
          ready to be printed as-is via the *note writelines(): 22ef.
          method of a file-like object.


File: python.info,  Node: Differ Example,  Next: A command-line interface to difflib,  Prev: Differ Objects,  Up: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.4 Differ Example
......................

This example compares two texts.  First we set up the texts, sequences
of individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences
can also be obtained from the *note readlines(): 22ee. method of
file-like objects):

     >>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     ...   3. Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
     >>> len(text1)
     4
     >>> text1[0][-1]
     '\n'
     >>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ...   5. Flat is better than nested.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)

Next we instantiate a Differ object:

     >>> d = Differ()

Note that when instantiating a *note Differ: 22e9. object we may pass
functions to filter out line and character "junk."  See the *note
Differ(): 22e9. constructor for details.

Finally, we compare the two:

     >>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))

‘result’ is a list of strings, so let's pretty-print it:

     >>> from pprint import pprint
     >>> pprint(result)
     ['    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
      '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
      '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '?     ++\n',
      '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
      '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
      '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
      '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
      '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n']

As a single multi-line string it looks like this:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
         1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     -   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     -   3. Simple is better than complex.
     +   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ?     ++
     -   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ?            ^                     ---- ^
     +   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ?           ++++ ^                      ^
     +   5. Flat is better than nested.


File: python.info,  Node: A command-line interface to difflib,  Next: ndiff example,  Prev: Differ Example,  Up: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.5 A command-line interface to difflib
...........................................

This example shows how to use difflib to create a ‘diff’-like utility.

     """ Command line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:

     * ndiff:    lists every line and highlights interline changes.
     * context:  highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.
     * unified:  highlights clusters of changes in an inline format.
     * html:     generates side by side comparison with change highlights.

     """

     import sys, os, difflib, argparse
     from datetime import datetime, timezone

     def file_mtime(path):
         t = datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
                                    timezone.utc)
         return t.astimezone().isoformat()

     def main():

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-c', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a context format diff (default)')
         parser.add_argument('-u', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a unified format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-m', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce HTML side by side diff '
                                  '(can use -c and -l in conjunction)')
         parser.add_argument('-n', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a ndiff format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=3,
                             help='Set number of context lines (default 3)')
         parser.add_argument('fromfile')
         parser.add_argument('tofile')
         options = parser.parse_args()

         n = options.lines
         fromfile = options.fromfile
         tofile = options.tofile

         fromdate = file_mtime(fromfile)
         todate = file_mtime(tofile)
         with open(fromfile) as ff:
             fromlines = ff.readlines()
         with open(tofile) as tf:
             tolines = tf.readlines()

         if options.u:
             diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)
         elif options.n:
             diff = difflib.ndiff(fromlines, tolines)
         elif options.m:
             diff = difflib.HtmlDiff().make_file(fromlines,tolines,fromfile,tofile,context=options.c,numlines=n)
         else:
             diff = difflib.context_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)

         sys.stdout.writelines(diff)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: ndiff example,  Prev: A command-line interface to difflib,  Up: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.6 ndiff example
.....................

This example shows how to use *note difflib.ndiff(): 22eb.

     """ndiff [-q] file1 file2
         or
     ndiff (-r1 | -r2) < ndiff_output > file1_or_file2

     Print a human-friendly file difference report to stdout.  Both inter-
     and intra-line differences are noted.  In the second form, recreate file1
     (-r1) or file2 (-r2) on stdout, from an ndiff report on stdin.

     In the first form, if -q ("quiet") is not specified, the first two lines
     of output are

     -: file1
     +: file2

     Each remaining line begins with a two-letter code:

         "- "    line unique to file1
         "+ "    line unique to file2
         "  "    line common to both files
         "? "    line not present in either input file

     Lines beginning with "? " attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input file.  These lines can be
     confusing if the source files contain tab characters.

     The first file can be recovered by retaining only lines that begin with
     "  " or "- ", and deleting those 2-character prefixes; use ndiff with -r1.

     The second file can be recovered similarly, but by retaining only "  " and
     "+ " lines; use ndiff with -r2; or, on Unix, the second file can be
     recovered by piping the output through

         sed -n '/^[+ ] /s/^..//p'
     """

     __version__ = 1, 7, 0

     import difflib, sys

     def fail(msg):
         out = sys.stderr.write
         out(msg + "\n\n")
         out(__doc__)
         return 0

     # open a file & return the file object; gripe and return 0 if it
     # couldn't be opened
     def fopen(fname):
         try:
             return open(fname)
         except IOError as detail:
             return fail("couldn't open " + fname + ": " + str(detail))

     # open two files & spray the diff to stdout; return false iff a problem
     def fcompare(f1name, f2name):
         f1 = fopen(f1name)
         f2 = fopen(f2name)
         if not f1 or not f2:
             return 0

         a = f1.readlines(); f1.close()
         b = f2.readlines(); f2.close()
         for line in difflib.ndiff(a, b):
             print(line, end=' ')

         return 1

     # crack args (sys.argv[1:] is normal) & compare;
     # return false iff a problem

     def main(args):
         import getopt
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(args, "qr:")
         except getopt.error as detail:
             return fail(str(detail))
         noisy = 1
         qseen = rseen = 0
         for opt, val in opts:
             if opt == "-q":
                 qseen = 1
                 noisy = 0
             elif opt == "-r":
                 rseen = 1
                 whichfile = val
         if qseen and rseen:
             return fail("can't specify both -q and -r")
         if rseen:
             if args:
                 return fail("no args allowed with -r option")
             if whichfile in ("1", "2"):
                 restore(whichfile)
                 return 1
             return fail("-r value must be 1 or 2")
         if len(args) != 2:
             return fail("need 2 filename args")
         f1name, f2name = args
         if noisy:
             print('-:', f1name)
             print('+:', f2name)
         return fcompare(f1name, f2name)

     # read ndiff output from stdin, and print file1 (which=='1') or
     # file2 (which=='2') to stdout

     def restore(which):
         restored = difflib.restore(sys.stdin.readlines(), which)
         sys.stdout.writelines(restored)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main(sys.argv[1:])


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling,  Next: unicodedata --- Unicode Database,  Prev: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.4 ‘textwrap’ -- Text wrapping and filling
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/textwrap.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note textwrap: eb. fournit quelques fonctions pratiques,
comme *note TextWrapper: fba, la classe qui fait tout le travail.  Si
vous ne faites que formater ou ajuster une ou deux chaînes de texte, les
fonctions de commodité devraient être assez bonnes ; sinon, nous vous
conseillons d'utiliser une instance de *note TextWrapper: fba. pour une
meilleure efficacité.

 -- Fonction: textwrap.wrap (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Reformate le paragraphe simple dans 'text' (une chaîne de
     caractères) de sorte que chaque ligne ait au maximum 'largeur'
     caractères.  Renvoie une liste de lignes de sortie, sans ligne vide
     ou caractère de fin de ligne à la fin.

     Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
     *note TextWrapper: fba, documented below.

     Consultez la méthode *note TextWrapper.wrap(): 230c. pour plus de
     détails sur le comportement de *note wrap(): 147d.

 -- Fonction: textwrap.fill (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Formate le paragraphe unique dans 'text' et renvoie une seule
     chaîne dont le contenu est le paragraphe formaté.  *note fill():
     147c. est un raccourci pour

          "\n".join(wrap(text, ...))

     En particulier, *note fill(): 147c. accepte exactement les mêmes
     arguments nommés que *note wrap(): 147d.

 -- Fonction: textwrap.shorten (text, width, *,
          fix_sentence_endings=False, break_long_words=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, placeholder=' [...]')

     Réduit et tronque le 'text' donné pour l'adapter à la 'largeur'
     donnée.

     First the whitespace in 'text' is collapsed (all whitespace is
     replaced by single spaces).  If the result fits in the 'width', it
     is returned.  Otherwise, enough words are dropped from the end so
     that the remaining words plus the 'placeholder' fit within 'width':

          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
          'Hello world!'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
          'Hello [...]'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
          'Hello...'

     Les arguments nommés optionnels correspondent aux attributs
     d'instance de *note TextWrapper: fba, documentés ci-dessous.  Notez
     que l'espace blanc est réduit avant que le texte ne soit passé à la
     fonction *note fill(): 147c. de *note TextWrapper: fba, donc
     changer la valeur de *note tabsize: 230d, *note expand_tabs: 230e,
     *note drop_whitespace: 230f, et *note replace_whitespace: 2310. est
     sans effet.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: textwrap.dedent (text)

     Supprime toutes les espaces en de tête de chaque ligne dans 'text'.

     Ceci peut être utilisé pour aligner les chaînes à trois guillemets
     avec le bord gauche de l'affichage, tout en les présentant sous
     forme indentée dans le code source.

     Notez que les tabulations et les espaces sont traitées comme des
     espaces, mais qu'elles ne sont pas égales : les lignes ‘" hello"’
     et ‘"\thello"’ sont considérées comme n'ayant pas d'espaces de tête
     communes.

     Les lignes contenant uniquement des espaces sont ignorées en entrée
     et réduites à un seul caractère de saut de ligne en sortie.

     Par exemple :

          def test():
              # end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!
              s = '''\
              hello
                world
              '''
              print(repr(s))          # prints '    hello\n      world\n    '
              print(repr(dedent(s)))  # prints 'hello\n  world\n'

 -- Fonction: textwrap.indent (text, prefix, predicate=None)

     Ajoute 'prefix' au début des lignes sélectionnées dans 'text'.

     Les lignes sont séparées en appelant ‘text.splitlines(True)’.

     Par défaut, 'prefix' est ajouté à toutes les lignes qui ne sont pas
     constituées uniquement d'espaces (y compris les fins de ligne).

     Par exemple :

          >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
          >>> indent(s, '  ')
          '  hello\n\n \n  world'

     L'argument optionnel 'predicate' peut être utilisé pour contrôler
     quelles lignes sont en retrait.  Par exemple, il est facile
     d'ajouter 'prefix' aux lignes vides et aux lignes blanches
     seulement :

          >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
          + hello
          +
          +
          + world

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

*note wrap(): 147d, *note fill(): 147c. et *note shorten(): fbd.
travaillent en créant une instance *note TextWrapper: fba. et en
appelant une méthode unique sur celle-ci.  Cette instance n'est pas
réutilisée, donc pour les applications qui traitent plusieurs chaînes de
texte en utilisant *note wrap(): 147d. et/ou *note fill(): 147c, il peut
être plus efficace de créer votre propre objet *note TextWrapper: fba.

Le formatage du texte s'effectue en priorité sur les espaces puis juste
après les traits d'union dans des mots séparés par des traits d'union ;
ce n'est qu'alors que les mots longs seront cassés si nécessaire, à
moins que *note TextWrapper.break_long_words: 2312. soit défini sur
'False'.

 -- Classe: textwrap.TextWrapper (**kwargs)

     Le constructeur *note TextWrapper: fba. accepte un certain nombre
     d'arguments nommés optionnels.  Chaque argument nommé correspond à
     un attribut d'instance, donc par exemple

          wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")

     est identique à

          wrapper = TextWrapper()
          wrapper.initial_indent = "* "

     You can reuse the same *note TextWrapper: fba. object many times,
     and you can change any of its options through direct assignment to
     instance attributes between uses.

     Les attributs d'instance de la classe *note TextWrapper: fba. (et
     les arguments nommés au constructeur) sont les suivants :

      -- Attribut: width

          (par défaut : ‘70’) Longueur maximale des lignes reformatées.
          Tant qu'il n'y a pas de mots individuels dans le texte
          d'entrée plus longs que *note width: 2313, *note TextWrapper:
          fba. garantit qu'aucune ligne de sortie n'est plus longue que
          *note width: 2313. caractères.

      -- Attribut: expand_tabs

          (default: ‘True’) If true, then all tab characters in 'text'
          will be expanded to spaces using the *note expandtabs(): 2179.
          method of 'text'.

      -- Attribut: tabsize

          (par défaut : ‘8’) Si *note expand_tabs: 230e. est vrai, alors
          tous les caractères de tabulation dans 'text' sont transformés
          en zéro ou plus d'espaces, selon la colonne courante et la
          taille de tabulation donnée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: replace_whitespace

          (par défaut : ‘True’) Si vrai, après l'expansion des
          tabulations mais avant le formatage, la méthode *note wrap():
          147d. remplace chaque 'blanc' par une espace unique.  Les
          'blancs' remplacés sont les suivants : tabulation, nouvelle
          ligne, tabulation verticale, saut de page et retour chariot
          (‘'\t\n\v\f\r'’).

               Note: Si *note expand_tabs: 230e. est 'False' et *note
               replace_whitespace: 2310. est vrai, chaque caractère de
               tabulation est remplacé par une espace unique, ce qui
               'n'est pas' la même chose que l'extension des
               tabulations.

               Note: Si *note replace_whitespace: 2310. est faux, de
               nouvelles lignes peuvent apparaître au milieu d'une ligne
               et provoquer une sortie étrange.  Pour cette raison, le
               texte doit être divisé en paragraphes (en utilisant *note
               str.splitlines(): 1237. ou similaire) qui sont formatés
               séparément.

      -- Attribut: drop_whitespace

          (par défaut : ‘True’) Si 'True', l'espace au début et à la fin
          de chaque ligne (après le formatage mais avant l'indentation)
          est supprimée.  L'espace au début du paragraphe n'est
          cependant pas supprimée si elle n'est pas suivie par une
          espace.  Si les espaces en cours de suppression occupent une
          ligne entière, la ligne entière est supprimée.

      -- Attribut: initial_indent

          (par défaut : ‘''’) Chaîne qui est ajoutée à la première ligne
          de la sortie formatée.  Elle compte pour le calcul de la
          longueur de la première ligne.  La chaîne vide n'est pas
          indentée.

      -- Attribut: subsequent_indent

          (par défaut : ‘''’) Chaîne qui préfixe toutes les lignes de la
          sortie formatée sauf la première.  Elle compte pour le calcul
          de la longueur de chaque ligne à l'exception de la première.

      -- Attribut: fix_sentence_endings

          (default: ‘False’) If true, *note TextWrapper: fba. attempts
          to detect sentence endings and ensure that sentences are
          always separated by exactly two spaces.  This is generally
          desired for text in a monospaced font.  However, the sentence
          detection algorithm is imperfect: it assumes that a sentence
          ending consists of a lowercase letter followed by one of
          ‘'.'’, ‘'!'’, or ‘'?'’, possibly followed by one of ‘'"'’ or
          ‘"'"’, followed by a space.  One problem with this algorithm
          is that it is unable to detect the difference between "Dr."
          in

               [...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]

          et "Spot."  dans

               [...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]

          *note fix_sentence_endings: 2316. est 'False' par défaut.

          Étant donné que l'algorithme de détection de phrases repose
          sur ‘string.lowercase’ pour la définition de « lettres
          minuscules » et sur une convention consistant à utiliser deux
          espaces après un point pour séparer les phrases sur la même
          ligne, ceci est spécifique aux textes de langue anglaise.

      -- Attribut: break_long_words

          (par défaut : ‘True’) Si 'True', alors les mots plus longs que
          *note width: 2313. sont cassés afin de s'assurer qu'aucune
          ligne ne soit plus longue que *note width: 2313.  Si c'est
          'False', les mots longs ne sont pas cassés et certaines lignes
          peuvent être plus longues que *note width: 2313. (les mots
          longs seront mis sur une ligne qui leur est propre, afin de
          minimiser le dépassement de *note width: 2313.).

      -- Attribut: break_on_hyphens

          (par défaut : ‘True’) Si c'est vrai, le formatage se fait de
          préférence sur les espaces et juste après sur les traits
          d'union des mots composés, comme il est d'usage en anglais.
          Si 'False', seuls les espaces sont considérées comme de bons
          endroits pour les sauts de ligne, mais vous devez définir
          *note break_long_words: 2312. à 'False' si vous voulez des
          mots vraiment insécables.  Le comportement par défaut dans les
          versions précédentes était de toujours permettre de couper les
          mots avec trait d'union.

      -- Attribut: max_lines

          (par défaut : ‘None’) Si ce n'est pas ‘None’, alors la sortie
          contient au maximum 'max_lines' lignes, avec 'placeholder' à
          la fin de la sortie.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Attribut: placeholder

          (par défaut : ‘'' [...]'’) Chaîne qui apparaît à la fin du
          texte de sortie s'il a été tronqué.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     *note TextWrapper: fba. fournit également quelques méthodes
     publiques, analogues aux fonctions de commodité au niveau du
     module :

      -- Méthode: wrap (text)

          Formate le paragraphe unique dans 'text' (une chaîne de
          caractères) de sorte que chaque ligne ait au maximum *note
          width: 2313. caractères.  Toutes les options de formatage sont
          tirées des attributs d'instance de l'instance de classe *note
          TextWrapper: fba.  Renvoie une liste de lignes de sortie, sans
          nouvelles lignes finales.  Si la sortie formatée n'a pas de
          contenu, la liste vide est renvoyée.

      -- Méthode: fill (text)

          Formate le paragraphe unique de 'text' et renvoie une seule
          chaîne contenant le paragraphe formaté.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/textwrap.py


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata --- Unicode Database,  Next: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation,  Prev: textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.5 ‘unicodedata’ -- Unicode Database
---------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD)
which defines character properties for all Unicode characters.  The data
contained in this database is compiled from the UCD version 15.1.0(1).

The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode
Standard Annex #44, "Unicode Character Database"(2).  It defines the
following functions:

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.lookup (name)

     Retrouver un caractère par nom.  Si un caractère avec le nom donné
     est trouvé, renvoyer le caractère correspondant.  S'il n'est pas
     trouvé, *note KeyError: 33a. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: La gestion des alias (3) et des
     séquences nommées (4) a été ajouté.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.name (chr[, default])

     Renvoie le nom assigné au caractère 'chr' comme une chaîne de
     caractères.  Si aucun nom n'est défini, 'default' est renvoyé, ou,
     si ce dernier n'est pas renseigné *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.decimal (chr[, default])

     Renvoie la valeur décimale assignée au caractère 'chr' comme un
     entier.  Si aucune valeur de ce type n'est définie, 'default' est
     renvoyé, ou, si ce dernier n'est pas renseigné, *note ValueError:
     1ff. est levée.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.digit (chr[, default])

     Renvoie le chiffre assigné au caractère 'chr' comme un entier.  Si
     aucune valeur de ce type n'est définie, 'default' est renvoyé, ou,
     si ce dernier n'est pas renseigné, *note ValueError: 1ff. est
     levée.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.numeric (chr[, default])

     Renvoie la valeur numérique assignée au caractère 'chr' comme un
     entier.  Si aucune valeur de ce type n'est définie, 'default' est
     renvoyé, ou, si ce dernier n'est pas renseigné, *note ValueError:
     1ff. est levée.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.category (chr)

     Renvoie la catégorie générale assignée au caractère 'chr' comme une
     chaîne de caractères.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.bidirectional (chr)

     Renvoie la classe bidirectionnelle assignée au caractère 'chr'
     comme une chaîne de caractères.  Si aucune valeur de ce type n'est
     définie, une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.combining (chr)

     Renvoie la classe de combinaison canonique assignée au caractère
     'chr' comme un entier.  Envoie ‘0’ si aucune classe de combinaison
     n'est définie.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.east_asian_width (chr)

     Renvoie la largeur est-asiatique assignée à un caractère 'chr'
     comme une chaîne de caractères.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.mirrored (chr)

     Renvoie la propriété miroir assignée au caractère 'chr' comme un
     entier.  Renvoie ‘1’ si le caractère a été identifié comme un
     caractère "réfléchi" dans du texte bidirectionnel, sinon ‘0’.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.decomposition (chr)

     Renvoie le tableau associatif de décomposition de caractère assigné
     au caractère 'chr' comme une chaîne de caractères.  Une chaîne de
     caractère vide est renvoyée dans le cas où aucun tableau associatif
     de ce type n'est défini.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.normalize (form, unistr)

     Renvoie la forme normale 'form' de la chaîne de caractère Unicode
     'unistr'.  Les valeurs valides de 'form' sont 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD',
     et 'NFKD'.

     Le standard Unicode définit les différentes variantes de
     normalisation d'une chaîne de caractères Unicode en se basant sur
     les définitions d'équivalence canonique et d'équivalence de
     compatibilité.  En Unicode, plusieurs caractères peuvent être
     exprimés de différentes façons.  Par exemple, le caractère 'U+00C7'
     ('LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA') peut aussi être exprimé
     comme la séquence 'U+0043' ('LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C') 'U+0327'
     ('COMBINING CEDILLA').

     Pour chaque caractère, il existe deux formes normales: la forme
     normale C et la forme normale D. La forme normale D (NFD) est aussi
     appelée décomposition canonique, et traduit chaque caractère dans
     sa forme décomposée.  La forme normale C (NFC) applique d'abord la
     décomposition canonique, puis compose à nouveau les caractères
     pré-combinés.

     En plus de ces deux formes, il existe deux formes nominales basées
     sur l'équivalence de compatibilité.  En Unicode, certains
     caractères sont gérés alors qu'ils sont normalement unifiés avec
     d'autres caractères.  Par exemple, U+2160 (ROMAN NUMERAL ONE) est
     vraiment la même chose que U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I).
     Cependant, ce caractère est supporté par souci de compatibilité
     avec les jeux de caractères existants (par exemple 'gb2312').

     La forme normale KD (NFKD) applique la décomposition de
     compatibilité, c'est-à-dire remplacer les caractères de
     compatibilités avec leurs équivalents.  La forme normale KC (NFKC)
     applique d'abord la décomposition de compatibilité, puis applique
     la composition canonique.

     Même si deux chaînes de caractères Unicode sont normalisées et ont
     la même apparence pour un lecteur humain , si un a des caractères
     combinés et l'autre n'en a pas, elles peuvent ne pas être égales
     lors d'une comparaison.

 -- Fonction: unicodedata.is_normalized (form, unistr)

     Return whether the Unicode string 'unistr' is in the normal form
     'form'.  Valid values for 'form' are 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD', and
     'NFKD'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

De plus, ce module expose la constante suivante :

 -- Données: unicodedata.unidata_version

     La version de la base de données Unicode utilisée dans ce module.

 -- Données: unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

     Ceci est un objet qui a les mêmes méthodes que le module, mais qui
     utilise la version 3.2 de la base de données Unicode, pour les
     applications qui nécessitent cette version spécifique de la base de
     données Unicode (comme l'IDNA).

Exemples :

     >>> import unicodedata
     >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
     '{'
     >>> unicodedata.name('/')
     'SOLIDUS'
     >>> unicodedata.decimal('9')
     9
     >>> unicodedata.decimal('a')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: not a decimal
     >>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
     'Lu'
     >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\u0660') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
     'AN'

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/

   (3) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’

   (4) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation,  Next: readline --- GNU readline interface,  Prev: unicodedata --- Unicode Database,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.6 ‘stringprep’ -- Internet String Preparation
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/stringprep.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Nommer les différentes choses d'internet (comme les hôtes) amène souvent
au besoin de comparer ces identifiants, ce qui nécessite un critère
d'« égalité ».  La manière dont cette comparaison est effectuée dépend
du domaine d'application, c'est-à-dire si elle doit être sensible à la
casse ou non.  Il peut être aussi nécessaire de restreindre les
identifiants possibles, pour permettre uniquement les identifiants
composés de caractères « imprimables ».

La RFC 3454(2) définit une procédure pour "préparer" des chaines de
caractères Unicode dans les protocoles internet.  Avant de passer des
chaines de caractères sur le câble, elles sont traitées avec la
procédure de préparation, après laquelle ils obtiennent une certaines
forme normalisée.  Les RFC définissent un lot de tables, qui peuvent
être combinées en profils.  Chaque profil doit définir quelles tables il
utilise et quelles autres parties optionnelles de la procédure
'stringprep' font partie du profil.  Un exemple de profil 'stringprep'
est 'nameprep', qui est utilisé pour les noms de domaine
internationalisés.

The module *note stringprep: d3. only exposes the tables from RFC
3454(3).  As these tables would be very large to represent as
dictionaries or lists, the module uses the Unicode character database
internally.  The module source code itself was generated using the
‘mkstringprep.py’ utility.

En conséquence, ces tables sont exposées en tant que fonctions et non en
structures de données.  Il y a deux types de tables dans la RFC : les
ensemble et les mises en correspondance.  Pour un ensemble, *note
stringprep: d3. fournit la "fonction caractéristique", c'est-à-dire une
fonction qui renvoie ‘True’ si le paramètre fait partie de l'ensemble.
Pour les mises en correspondance, il fournit la fonction de mise en
correspondance : ayant obtenu la clé, il renvoie la valeur associée.
Ci-dessous se trouve une liste de toutes les fonctions disponibles dans
le module.

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_a1 (code)

     Détermine si le code est en table A.1 (points de code non-assigné
     dans Unicode 3.2).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_b1 (code)

     Détermine si le code est en table B.1 (habituellement mis en
     correspondance avec rien).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.map_table_b2 (code)

     Renvoie la valeur correspondante à 'code' selon la table B.2 (mise
     en correspondance pour la gestion de la casse utilisée avec
     'NFKC').

 -- Fonction: stringprep.map_table_b3 (code)

     Renvoie la valeur correspondante à 'code' dans la table B.3 (mise
     en correspondance pour la gestion de la casse utilisée sans
     normalisation).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c11 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.1.1 (caractères
     d'espacement ASCII).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c12 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.1.2 (caractères
     d'espacement non ASCII).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c11_c12 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.1 (caractères
     d'espacement, union de C.1.1 et C.1.2).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c21 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.2.1 (caractères de
     contrôle ASCII).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c22 (code)

     Détermine si le code est en table C.2.2 (caractères de contrôle non
     ASCII).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c21_c22 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.2 (caractères de contrôle,
     union de C.2.1 et C.2.2).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c3 (code)

     Détermine si le code est en table C.3 (usage privé).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c4 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.4 (points de code
     non-caractère).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c5 (code)

     Détermine si le code est en table C.5 (codes substituts).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c6 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.6 (Inapproprié pour texte
     brut).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c7 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.7 (inapproprié pour les
     représentations 'canonics1').

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c8 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.8 (change de propriétés
     d'affichage ou sont obsolètes).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_c9 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table C.9 (caractères de
     marquage).

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_d1 (code)

     Détermine si le code est en table D.1 (caractères avec propriété
     bidirectionnelle "R" ou "AL").

 -- Fonction: stringprep.in_table_d2 (code)

     Détermine si le code est dans la table D.2 (caractères avec
     propriété bidirectionnelle "L").

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/stringprep.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html


File: python.info,  Node: readline --- GNU readline interface,  Next: rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline,  Prev: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.7 ‘readline’ -- GNU readline interface
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note readline: b9. définit des fonctions pour faciliter la
complétion et la lecture/écriture des fichiers d'historique depuis
l'interpréteur Python.  Ce module peut être utilisé directement, ou
depuis le module *note rlcompleter: bc, qui gère la complétion des mots
clefs dans l'invite de commande interactive.  Les paramétrages faits en
utilisant ce module affectent à la fois le comportement de l'invite de
commande interactive et l'invite de commande fournie par la fonction
native *note input(): 12b8.

Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file,
typically ‘.inputrc’ in your home directory.  See Readline Init File(1)
in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the Readline
library in general.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

     Note: The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by the
     ‘editline’ (‘libedit’) library instead of GNU readline.  On macOS
     the *note readline: b9. module detects which library is being used
     at run time.

     The configuration file for ‘editline’ is different from that of GNU
     readline.  If you programmatically load configuration strings you
     can use *note backend: 166a. to determine which library is being
     used.

     If you use ‘editline’/‘libedit’ readline emulation on macOS, the
     initialization file located in your home directory is named
     ‘.editrc’.  For example, the following content in ‘~/.editrc’ will
     turn ON 'vi' keybindings and TAB completion:

          python:bind -v
          python:bind ^I rl_complete

     Also note that different libraries may use different history file
     formats.  When switching the underlying library, existing history
     files may become unusable.

 -- Données: readline.backend

     The name of the underlying Readline library being used, either
     ‘"readline"’ or ‘"editline"’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Fichier d'initialisation::
* Tampon de ligne::
* Fichier d'historique::
* Liste d'historique::
* Fonctions de rappel au démarrage::
* Complétion::
* Exemple::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#Readline-Init-File


File: python.info,  Node: Fichier d'initialisation,  Next: Tampon de ligne,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.1 Fichier d'initialisation
................................

Les fonctions suivantes se rapportent au fichier d'initialisation et à
la configuration utilisateur :

 -- Fonction: readline.parse_and_bind (string)

     Execute the init line provided in the 'string' argument.  This
     calls ‘rl_parse_and_bind()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Fonction: readline.read_init_file ([filename])

     Execute a readline initialization file.  The default filename is
     the last filename used.  This calls ‘rl_read_init_file()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: Tampon de ligne,  Next: Fichier d'historique,  Prev: Fichier d'initialisation,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.2 Tampon de ligne
.......................

Les fonctions suivantes opèrent sur le tampon de ligne :

 -- Fonction: readline.get_line_buffer ()

     Return the current contents of the line buffer (‘rl_line_buffer’ in
     the underlying library).

 -- Fonction: readline.insert_text (string)

     Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position.  This
     calls ‘rl_insert_text()’ in the underlying library, but ignores the
     return value.

 -- Fonction: readline.redisplay ()

     Change what's displayed on the screen to reflect the current
     contents of the line buffer.  This calls ‘rl_redisplay()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: Fichier d'historique,  Next: Liste d'historique,  Prev: Tampon de ligne,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.3 Fichier d'historique
............................

les fonctions suivantes opèrent sur un fichier d'historique :

 -- Fonction: readline.read_history_file ([filename])

     Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
     The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls ‘read_history()’
     in the underlying library.

 -- Fonction: readline.write_history_file ([filename])

     Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
     existing file.  The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls
     ‘write_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Fonction: readline.append_history_file (nelements[, filename])

     Append the last 'nelements' items of history to a file.  The
     default filename is ‘~/.history’.  The file must already exist.
     This calls ‘append_history()’ in the underlying library.  This
     function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the
     library that supports it.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: readline.get_history_length ()
 -- Fonction: readline.set_history_length (length)

     Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history
     file.  The *note write_history_file(): 2344. function uses this
     value to truncate the history file, by calling
     ‘history_truncate_file()’ in the underlying library.  Negative
     values imply unlimited history file size.


File: python.info,  Node: Liste d'historique,  Next: Fonctions de rappel au démarrage,  Prev: Fichier d'historique,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.4 Liste d'historique
..........................

Les fonctions suivantes opèrent sur une liste d'historique globale :

 -- Fonction: readline.clear_history ()

     Clear the current history.  This calls ‘clear_history()’ in the
     underlying library.  The Python function only exists if Python was
     compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

 -- Fonction: readline.get_current_history_length ()

     Renvoie le nombre d'objets actuellement dans l'historique.  (C'est
     différent de *note get_history_length(): 2345, qui renvoie le
     nombre maximum de lignes qui vont être écrites dans un fichier
     d'historique.)

 -- Fonction: readline.get_history_item (index)

     Return the current contents of history item at 'index'.  The item
     index is one-based.  This calls ‘history_get()’ in the underlying
     library.

 -- Fonction: readline.remove_history_item (pos)

     Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
     The position is zero-based.  This calls ‘remove_history()’ in the
     underlying library.

 -- Fonction: readline.replace_history_item (pos, line)

     Replace history item specified by its position with 'line'.  The
     position is zero-based.  This calls ‘replace_history_entry()’ in
     the underlying library.

 -- Fonction: readline.add_history (line)

     Append 'line' to the history buffer, as if it was the last line
     typed.  This calls ‘add_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Fonction: readline.set_auto_history (enabled)

     Enable or disable automatic calls to ‘add_history()’ when reading
     input via readline.  The 'enabled' argument should be a Boolean
     value that when true, enables auto history, and that when false,
     disables auto history.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' Auto history is
     enabled by default, and changes to this do not persist across
     multiple sessions.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de rappel au démarrage,  Next: Complétion,  Prev: Liste d'historique,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.5 Fonctions de rappel au démarrage
........................................

 -- Fonction: readline.set_startup_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_startup_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.

 -- Fonction: readline.set_pre_input_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_pre_input_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before
     readline starts reading input characters.  This function only
     exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that
     supports it.


File: python.info,  Node: Complétion,  Next: Exemple,  Prev: Fonctions de rappel au démarrage,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.6 Complétion
..................

Les fonctions suivantes relatent comment implémenter une fonction de
complétion d'un mot spécifique.  C'est typiquement déclenché par la
touche Tab, et peut suggérer et automatiquement compléter un mot en
cours de saisie.  Par défaut, Readline est configuré pour être utilisé
par *note rlcompleter: bc. pour compléter les mots clefs de Python pour
l'interpréteur interactif.  Si le module *note readline: b9. doit être
utilisé avec une complétion spécifique, un ensemble de mots délimiteurs
doivent être définis.

 -- Fonction: readline.set_completer ([function])

     Définit ou supprime la fonction de complétion.  Si 'function' est
     spécifié, il sera utilisé en tant que nouvelle fonction de
     complétion; si omis ou ‘None’, toute fonction de complétion déjà
     installé est supprimé.  La fonction de complétion est appelée telle
     que ‘function(text, state)’, pour 'state' valant ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘2’,
     ..., jusqu'à ce qu'elle renvoie une valeur qui n'est pas une chaîne
     de caractères.  Elle doit renvoyer les prochaines complétions
     possibles commençant par 'text'.

     The installed completer function is invoked by the 'entry_func'
     callback passed to ‘rl_completion_matches()’ in the underlying
     library.  The 'text' string comes from the first parameter to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.

 -- Fonction: readline.get_completer ()

     Récupère la fonction de complétion, ou ‘None’ si aucune fonction de
     complétion n'a été définie.

 -- Fonction: readline.get_completion_type ()

     Get the type of completion being attempted.  This returns the
     ‘rl_completion_type’ variable in the underlying library as an
     integer.

 -- Fonction: readline.get_begidx ()
 -- Fonction: readline.get_endidx ()

     Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.  These
     indexes are the 'start' and 'end' arguments passed to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.  The values may be different in the same input editing
     scenario based on the underlying C readline implementation.  Ex:
     libedit is known to behave differently than libreadline.

 -- Fonction: readline.set_completer_delims (string)
 -- Fonction: readline.get_completer_delims ()

     Set or get the word delimiters for completion.  These determine the
     start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion
     scope).  These functions access the
     ‘rl_completer_word_break_characters’ variable in the underlying
     library.

 -- Fonction: readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the completion display function.  If 'function' is
     specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
     if omitted or ‘None’, any completion display function already
     installed is removed.  This sets or clears the
     ‘rl_completion_display_matches_hook’ callback in the underlying
     library.  The completion display function is called as
     ‘function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)’ once each
     time matches need to be displayed.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple,  Prev: Complétion,  Up: readline --- GNU readline interface

5.6.7.7 Exemple
...............

L'exemple suivant démontre comment utiliser les fonctions de lecture et
d'écriture de l'historique du module *note readline: b9. pour charger ou
sauvegarder automatiquement un fichier d'historique nommé
‘.python_history’ depuis le répertoire d’accueil de l’utilisateur.  Le
code ci-dessous doit normalement être exécuté automatiquement durant une
session interactive depuis le fichier de l'utilisateur *note
PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline

     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         # default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
     except FileNotFoundError:
         pass

     atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)

Ce code est en réalité automatiquement exécuté lorsque Python tourne en
*note mode interactif: fb3. (voir *note Readline configuration: fb6.).

L'exemple suivant atteint le même objectif mais gère des sessions
interactives concurrentes, en ajoutant seulement le nouvel historique.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline
     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")

     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         open(histfile, 'wb').close()
         h_len = 0

     def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
         new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
         readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
     atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)

L'exemple suivant étend la classe *note code.InteractiveConsole: 2357.
pour gérer la sauvegarde/restauration de l'historique.

     import atexit
     import code
     import os
     import readline

     class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
         def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
                      histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
             code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
             self.init_history(histfile)

         def init_history(self, histfile):
             readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
             if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
                 try:
                     readline.read_history_file(histfile)
                 except FileNotFoundError:
                     pass
                 atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)

         def save_history(self, histfile):
             readline.set_history_length(1000)
             readline.write_history_file(histfile)


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline,  Prev: readline --- GNU readline interface,  Up: Services de Manipulation de Texte

5.6.8 ‘rlcompleter’ -- Completion function for GNU readline
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/rlcompleter.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘rlcompleter’ module defines a completion function suitable to be
passed to *note set_completer(): 2350. in the *note readline: b9.
module.

When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the *note readline:
b9. module available, an instance of the *note Completer: 1901. class is
automatically created and its *note complete(): 235a. method is set as
the *note readline completer: 234f.  The method provides completion of
valid Python *note identifiers and keywords: 1e4f.

Exemple :

     >>> import rlcompleter
     >>> import readline
     >>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
     >>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
     readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
     readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
     readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
     >>> readline.

The ‘rlcompleter’ module is designed for use with Python's *note
interactive mode: fb3.  Unless Python is run with the *note -S: 1188.
option, the module is automatically imported and configured (see *note
Readline configuration: fb6.).

Sur les plate-formes sans *note readline: b9, la classe *note Completer:
1901. définie par ce module peut quand même être utilisée pour des fins
personnalisées.

 -- Classe: rlcompleter.Completer

     Les objets pour la complétion ('Completer objects' en anglais)
     disposent de la méthode suivante :

      -- Méthode: complete (text, state)

          Return the next possible completion for 'text'.

          When called by the *note readline: b9. module, this method is
          called successively with ‘state == 0, 1, 2, ...’ until the
          method returns ‘None’.

          Si 'text' ne contient pas un caractère point (‘'.'’), il puise
          dans les noms actuellement définis dans *note __main__: 1,
          *note builtins: 12. ainsi que les mots-clés (ainsi que définis
          par le module *note keyword: 83.)

          If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything
          without obvious side-effects (functions will not be evaluated,
          but it can generate calls to *note __getattr__(): 4bf.) up to
          the last part, and find matches for the rest via the *note
          dir(): 61f. function.  Any exception raised during the
          evaluation of the expression is caught, silenced and *note
          None: 662. is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/rlcompleter.py


File: python.info,  Node: Services autour des Données Binaires,  Next: Types de données,  Prev: Services de Manipulation de Texte,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.7 Services autour des Données Binaires
========================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent des services
élémentaires pour manipuler des données binaires.  Les autres
manipulations sur les données binaires, particulièrement celles en
relation avec les formats de fichier et les protocoles réseaux sont
décrits dans leurs propres chapitres.

Certaines bibliothèques décrites dans *note Services de Manipulation de
Texte: 2177. fonctionnent aussi avec soit des formats binaires
compatibles ASCII (comme le module *note re: b8.) soit toutes les
données binaires (comme le module *note difflib: 37.).

En complément, consultez la documentation des types natifs binaires dans
*note Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire: 211d.

* Menu:

* struct: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data. Interpret bytes as packed binary data
* codecs: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes. Codec registry and base classes


File: python.info,  Node: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data,  Next: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes,  Up: Services autour des Données Binaires

5.7.1 ‘struct’ -- Interpret bytes as packed binary data
-------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/struct.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module converts between Python values and C structs represented as
Python *note bytes: 1bd. objects.  Compact *note format strings: 2360.
describe the intended conversions to/from Python values.  The module's
functions and objects can be used for two largely distinct applications,
data exchange with external sources (files or network connections), or
data transfer between the Python application and the C layer.

     Note: When no prefix character is given, native mode is the
     default.  It packs or unpacks data based on the platform and
     compiler on which the Python interpreter was built.  The result of
     packing a given C struct includes pad bytes which maintain proper
     alignment for the C types involved; similarly, alignment is taken
     into account when unpacking.  In contrast, when communicating data
     between external sources, the programmer is responsible for
     defining byte ordering and padding between elements.  See *note
     Boutisme, taille et alignement: 2361. for details.

Plusieurs fonctions de *note struct: d4. (et méthodes de *note Struct:
166c.) prennent un argument 'buffer'.  Cet argument fait référence à des
objets qui implémentent *note le protocole tampon: 38e. et qui proposent
un tampon soit en lecture seule, soit en lecture-écriture.  Les types
les plus courants qui utilisent cette fonctionnalité sont *note bytes:
1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b, mais beaucoup d'autres types qui peuvent
être considérés comme des tableaux d'octets implémentent le protocole
tampon ; ils peuvent ainsi être lus ou remplis depuis un objet *note
bytes: 1bd. sans faire de copie.

* Menu:

* Fonctions et exceptions::
* Chaînes de spécification du format::
* Applications::
* Classes: Classes<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/struct.py


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions et exceptions,  Next: Chaînes de spécification du format,  Up: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.1 Fonctions et exceptions
...............................

Le module définit les exceptions et fonctions suivantes :

 -- Exception: struct.error

     Exception levée à plusieurs occasions ; l'argument est une chaîne
     qui décrit ce qui ne va pas.

 -- Fonction: struct.pack (format, v1, v2, ...)

     Renvoie un objet 'bytes' contenant les valeurs 'v1', 'v2'… agrégées
     conformément à la chaîne de format 'format'.  Les arguments doivent
     correspondre exactement aux valeurs requises par le format.

 -- Fonction: struct.pack_into (format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

     Agrège les valeurs 'v1', 'v2'… conformément à la chaîne de format
     'format' et écrit les octets agrégés dans le tampon 'buffer', en
     commençant à la position 'offset'.  Notez que 'offset' est un
     argument obligatoire.

 -- Fonction: struct.unpack (format, buffer)

     Dissocie depuis le tampon 'buffer' (en supposant que celui-ci a été
     agrégé avec ‘pack(format, …)’) à l'aide de la chaîne de format
     'format'.  Le résultat est un 'n'-uplet, qui peut éventuellement ne
     contenir qu'un seul élément.  La taille de 'buffer' en octets doit
     correspondre à la taille requise par le format, telle que calculée
     par *note calcsize(): 1982.

 -- Fonction: struct.unpack_from (format, /, buffer, offset=0)

     Dissocie les éléments du tampon 'buffer', en commençant à la
     position 'offset', conformément à la chaîne de format 'format'.  Le
     résultat est un n-uplet, qui peut éventuellement ne contenir qu'un
     seul élément.  La taille du tampon en octets, en commençant à la
     position 'offset', doit être au moins égale à la taille requise par
     le format, telle que calculée par *note calcsize(): 1982.

 -- Fonction: struct.iter_unpack (format, buffer)

     Iteratively unpack from the buffer 'buffer' according to the format
     string 'format'.  This function returns an iterator which will read
     equally sized chunks from the buffer until all its contents have
     been consumed.  The buffer's size in bytes must be a multiple of
     the size required by the format, as reflected by *note calcsize():
     1982.

     Chaque itération produit un 'n'-uplet tel que spécifié par la
     chaîne de format.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: struct.calcsize (format)

     Renvoie la taille de la structure (et donc celle de l'objet 'bytes'
     produit par ‘pack(format, ...)’) correspondant à la chaîne de
     format 'format'.


File: python.info,  Node: Chaînes de spécification du format,  Next: Applications,  Prev: Fonctions et exceptions,  Up: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.2 Chaînes de spécification du format
..........................................

Format strings describe the data layout when packing and unpacking data.
They are built up from *note format characters: 2366, which specify the
type of data being packed/unpacked.  In addition, special characters
control the *note byte order, size and alignment: 2361.  Each format
string consists of an optional prefix character which describes the
overall properties of the data and one or more format characters which
describe the actual data values and padding.

* Menu:

* Boutisme, taille et alignement: Boutisme taille et alignement.
* Caractères de format::
* Exemples: Exemples<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Boutisme taille et alignement,  Next: Caractères de format,  Up: Chaînes de spécification du format

5.7.1.3 Boutisme, taille et alignement
......................................

By default, C types are represented in the machine's native format and
byte order, and properly aligned by skipping pad bytes if necessary
(according to the rules used by the C compiler).  This behavior is
chosen so that the bytes of a packed struct correspond exactly to the
memory layout of the corresponding C struct.  Whether to use native byte
ordering and padding or standard formats depends on the application.

Cependant, le premier caractère de la chaîne de format peut être utilisé
pour indiquer le boutisme, la taille et l'alignement des données
agrégées, conformément à la table suivante :

Caractère       Boutisme                     Taille         Alignement
                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
‘@’             natif                        natif          natif
                                                            
                                                            
‘=’             natif                        standard       aucun
                                                            
                                                            
‘<’             petit-boutiste               standard       aucun
                                                            
                                                            
‘>’             gros-boutiste                standard       aucun
                                                            
                                                            
‘!’             réseau (= gros-boutiste)     standard       aucun
                                                            

Si le premier caractère n'est pas dans cette liste, le module se
comporte comme si ‘'@'’ avait été indiqué.

     Note: The number 1023 (‘0x3ff’ in hexadecimal) has the following
     byte representations:

        * ‘03 ff’ in big-endian (‘>’)

        * ‘ff 03’ in little-endian (‘<’)

     Python example:

          >>> import struct
          >>> struct.pack('>h', 1023)
          b'\x03\xff'
          >>> struct.pack('<h', 1023)
          b'\xff\x03'

Native byte order is big-endian or little-endian, depending on the host
system.  For example, Intel x86, AMD64 (x86-64), and Apple M1 are
little-endian; IBM z and many legacy architectures are big-endian.  Use
*note sys.byteorder: 2158. to check the endianness of your system.

La taille et l'alignement natifs sont déterminés en utilisant
l'expression ‘sizeof’ du compilateur C. Leur valeur est toujours
combinée au boutisme natif.

La taille standard dépend seulement du caractère du format ;
référez-vous au tableau dans la section *note Caractères de format:
2366.

Notez la différence entre ‘'@'’ et ‘'='’ : les deux utilisent le
boutisme natif mais la taille et l'alignement du dernier sont standards.

The form ‘'!'’ represents the network byte order which is always
big-endian as defined in IETF RFC 1700(1).

Il n'y a pas de moyen de spécifier le boutisme contraire au boutisme
natif (c'est-à-dire forcer la permutation des octets) ; utilisez le bon
caractère entre ‘'<'’ et ‘'>'’.

Notes :

  1. Le bourrage ('padding' en anglais) n'est automatiquement ajouté
     qu'entre les membres successifs de la structure.  Il n'y a pas de
     bourrage au début ou à la fin de la structure agrégée.

  2. Il n'y a pas d'ajout de bourrage lorsque vous utilisez une taille
     et un alignement non-natifs, par exemple avec ‘'<'’, ‘'>'’, ‘'='’
     ou ‘'!'’.

  3. Pour aligner la fin d'une structure à l'alignement requis par un
     type particulier, terminez le format avec le code du type voulu et
     une valeur de répétition à zéro.  Référez-vous à *note Exemples:
     2368.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1700


File: python.info,  Node: Caractères de format,  Next: Exemples<2>,  Prev: Boutisme taille et alignement,  Up: Chaînes de spécification du format

5.7.1.4 Caractères de format
............................

Les caractères de format possèdent les significations suivantes ; la
conversion entre les valeurs C et Python doit être évidente compte tenu
des types concernés.  La colonne « taille standard » fait référence à la
taille en octets de la valeur agrégée avec l'utilisation de la taille
standard (c'est-à-dire lorsque la chaîne de format commence par l'un des
caractères suivants : ‘'<'’, ‘'>'’, ‘'!'’ ou ‘'='’).  Si vous utilisez
la taille native, la taille de la valeur agrégée dépend de la
plateforme.

Format       Type C                         Type Python              Taille standard      Notes
                                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘x’          octet de bourrage              pas de valeur                                 (7)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘c’          char                           'bytes' (suite           1
                                            d'octets) de taille 1    
                                            
                                                                                          
‘b’          signed char                    'int' (entier)           1                    (1), (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘B’          unsigned char                  'int' (entier)           1                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘?’          _Bool                          'bool' (booléen)         1                    (1)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘h’          short                          'int' (entier)           2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘H’          unsigned short                 'int' (entier)           2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘i’          int                            'int' (entier)           4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘I’          unsigned int                   'int' (entier)           4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘l’          long                           'int' (entier)           4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘L’          unsigned long                  'int' (entier)           4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘q’          long long                      'int' (entier)           8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Q’          unsigned long long             'int' (entier)           8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘n’          ‘ssize_t’                      'int' (entier)                                (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘N’          ‘size_t’                       'int' (entier)                                (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘e’          (6)                            'float' (nombre à        2                    (4)
                                            virgule flottante)                            
                                            
                                                                                          
‘f’          float                          'float' (nombre à        4                    (4)
                                            virgule flottante)                            
                                            
                                                                                          
‘d’          double                         'float' (nombre à        8                    (4)
                                            virgule flottante)                            
                                            
                                                                                          
‘s’          char[]                         'bytes' (séquence                             (9)
                                            d'octets)                                     
                                            
                                                                                          
‘p’          char[]                         'bytes' (séquence                             (8)
                                            d'octets)                                     
                                            
                                                                                          
‘P’          void*                          'int' (entier)                                (5)
                                                                                          

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajouté la gestion des formats ‘'n'’ et
‘'N'’.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajouté la gestion du format ‘'e'’.

Notes :

  1. 
     The ‘'?'’ conversion code corresponds to the _Bool type defined by
     C standards since C99.  In standard mode, it is represented by one
     byte.

  2. When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer
     conversion codes, if the non-integer has a *note __index__(): 709.
     method then that method is called to convert the argument to an
     integer before packing.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added use of the *note __index__():
     709. method for non-integers.

  3. Les codes de conversion ‘'n'’ et ‘'N'’ ne sont disponibles que pour
     la taille native (choisie par défaut ou à l'aide du caractère de
     boutisme ‘'@'’).  Pour la taille standard, vous pouvez utiliser
     n'importe quel format d'entier qui convient à votre application.

  4. Pour les codes de conversion ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ et ‘'e'’, la
     représentation agrégée utilise respectivement le format IEEE 754
     'binaire32', 'binaire64' ou 'binaire16' (pour ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ ou ‘'e'’
     respectivement), quel que soit le format des nombres à virgule
     flottante de la plateforme.

  5. Le caractère de format ‘'P'’ n'est disponible que pour le boutisme
     natif (choisi par défaut ou à l'aide du caractère ‘'@'’ de
     boutisme).  Le caractère de boutisme ‘'='’ choisit d'utiliser un
     petit ou un gros en fonction du système hôte.  Le module 'struct'
     ne l'interprète pas comme un boutisme natif, donc le format ‘'P'’
     n'est pas disponible.

  6. Le type IEEE 754 'binaire16' « demie-précision » a été introduit en
     2008 par la révision du standard IEEE 754(1).  Il comprend un bit
     de signe, un exposant sur 5 bits et une précision de 11 bits (dont
     10 bits sont explicitement stockés) ; il peut représenter les
     nombres entre environ ‘6.1e-05’ et ‘6.5e+04’ avec une précision
     maximale.  Ce type est rarement pris en charge par les compilateurs
     C : sur une machine courante, un 'unsigned short' (entier court non
     signé) peut être utilisé pour le stockage mais pas pour les
     opérations mathématiques.  Lisez la page Wikipédia (NdT : non
     traduite en français) half-precision floating-point format(2) pour
     davantage d'informations.

  7. When packing, ‘'x'’ inserts one NUL byte.

  8. Le caractère de format ‘'p'’ sert à encoder une « chaîne Pascal »,
     c'est-à-dire une courte chaîne de longueur variable, stockée dans
     un 'nombre défini d'octets' dont la valeur est définie par la
     répétition.  Le premier octet stocké est la longueur de la chaîne
     (dans la limite maximum de 255).  Les octets composant la chaîne
     suivent.  Si la chaîne passée à *note pack(): 1257. est trop longue
     (supérieure à la valeur de la répétition moins 1), seuls les
     ‘count-1’ premiers octets de la chaîne sont stockés.  Si la chaîne
     est plus courte que ‘count-1’, des octets de bourrage nuls sont
     insérés de manière à avoir exactement 'count' octets au final.
     Notez que pour *note unpack(): 1782, le caractère de format ‘'p'’
     consomme ‘count’ octets mais que la chaîne renvoyée ne peut pas
     excéder 255 octets.

  9. For the ‘'s'’ format character, the count is interpreted as the
     length of the bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format
     characters; for example, ‘'10s'’ means a single 10-byte string
     mapping to or from a single Python byte string, while ‘'10c'’ means
     10 separate one byte character elements (e.g., ‘cccccccccc’)
     mapping to or from ten different Python byte objects.  (See *note
     Exemples: 2368. for a concrete demonstration of the difference.)
     If a count is not given, it defaults to 1.  For packing, the string
     is truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it
     fit.  For unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly
     the specified number of bytes.  As a special case, ‘'0s'’ means a
     single, empty string (while ‘'0c'’ means 0 characters).

Un caractère de format peut être précédé par un entier indiquant le
nombre de répétitions.  Par exemple, la chaîne de format ‘'4h'’ a
exactement la même signification que ‘'hhhh'’.

Les caractères d'espacement entre les indications de format sont
ignorés ; cependant, le nombre de répétitions et le format associé ne
doivent pas être séparés par des caractères d'espacement.

Lors de l'agrégation d'une valeur ‘x’ en utilisant l'un des formats pour
les entiers (‘'b'’, ‘'B'’, ‘'h'’, ‘'H'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'I'’, ‘'l'’, ‘'L'’,
‘'q'’, ‘'Q'’), si ‘x’ est en dehors de l'intervalle du format spécifié,
une *note struct.error: 1303. est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Previously, some of the integer formats
wrapped out-of-range values and raised *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
instead of *note struct.error: 1303.

Pour le caractère de format ‘'?'’, la valeur renvoyée est *note True:
bfd. ou *note False: b27.  Lors de l'agrégation, la valeur de vérité de
l'objet argument est utilisée.  La valeur agrégée est 0 ou 1 dans la
représentation native ou standard et, lors de la dissociation, n'importe
quelle valeur différente de zéro est renvoyée ‘True’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<2>,  Prev: Caractères de format,  Up: Chaînes de spécification du format

5.7.1.5 Exemples
................

     Note: Native byte order examples (designated by the ‘'@'’ format
     prefix or lack of any prefix character) may not match what the
     reader's machine produces as that depends on the platform and
     compiler.

Pack and unpack integers of three different sizes, using big endian
ordering:

     >>> from struct import *
     >>> pack(">bhl", 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
     >>> unpack('>bhl', b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> calcsize('>bhl')
     7

Attempt to pack an integer which is too large for the defined field:

     >>> pack(">h", 99999)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     struct.error: 'h' format requires -32768 <= number <= 32767

Demonstrate the difference between ‘'s'’ and ‘'c'’ format characters:

     >>> pack("@ccc", b'1', b'2', b'3')
     b'123'
     >>> pack("@3s", b'123')
     b'123'

Les champs dissociés peuvent être nommés en leur assignant des variables
ou en encapsulant le résultat dans un 'n'-uplet nommé :

     >>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
     >>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
     >>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
     Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)

The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size in native
mode since padding is implicit.  In standard mode, the user is
responsible for inserting any desired padding.  Note in the first ‘pack’
call below that three NUL bytes were added after the packed ‘'#'’ to
align the following integer on a four-byte boundary.  In this example,
the output was produced on a little endian machine:

     >>> pack('@ci', b'#', 0x12131415)
     b'#\x00\x00\x00\x15\x14\x13\x12'
     >>> pack('@ic', 0x12131415, b'#')
     b'\x15\x14\x13\x12#'
     >>> calcsize('@ci')
     8
     >>> calcsize('@ic')
     5

The following format ‘'llh0l'’ results in two pad bytes being added at
the end, assuming the platform's longs are aligned on 4-byte boundaries:

     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note array: 7.

     Stockage agrégé binaire de données homogènes.

Module *note json: 81.

     JSON encoder and decoder.

Module *note pickle: a5.

     Python object serialization.


File: python.info,  Node: Applications,  Next: Classes<3>,  Prev: Chaînes de spécification du format,  Up: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.6 Applications
....................

Two main applications for the *note struct: d4. module exist, data
interchange between Python and C code within an application or another
application compiled using the same compiler (*note native formats:
236d.), and data interchange between applications using agreed upon data
layout (*note standard formats: 236e.).  Generally speaking, the format
strings constructed for these two domains are distinct.

* Menu:

* Native Formats::
* Standard Formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Native Formats,  Next: Standard Formats,  Up: Applications

5.7.1.7 Native Formats
......................

When constructing format strings which mimic native layouts, the
compiler and machine architecture determine byte ordering and padding.
In such cases, the ‘@’ format character should be used to specify native
byte ordering and data sizes.  Internal pad bytes are normally inserted
automatically.  It is possible that a zero-repeat format code will be
needed at the end of a format string to round up to the correct byte
boundary for proper alignment of consecutive chunks of data.

Consider these two simple examples (on a 64-bit, little-endian machine):

     >>> calcsize('@lhl')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18

Data is not padded to an 8-byte boundary at the end of the second format
string without the use of extra padding.  A zero-repeat format code
solves that problem:

     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24

The ‘'x'’ format code can be used to specify the repeat, but for native
formats it is better to use a zero-repeat format like ‘'0l'’.

By default, native byte ordering and alignment is used, but it is better
to be explicit and use the ‘'@'’ prefix character.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Formats,  Prev: Native Formats,  Up: Applications

5.7.1.8 Standard Formats
........................

When exchanging data beyond your process such as networking or storage,
be precise.  Specify the exact byte order, size, and alignment.  Do not
assume they match the native order of a particular machine.  For
example, network byte order is big-endian, while many popular CPUs are
little-endian.  By defining this explicitly, the user need not care
about the specifics of the platform their code is running on.  The first
character should typically be ‘<’ or ‘>’ (or ‘!’).  Padding is the
responsibility of the programmer.  The zero-repeat format character
won't work.  Instead, the user must explicitly add ‘'x'’ pad bytes where
needed.  Revisiting the examples from the previous section, we have:

     >>> calcsize('<qh6xq')
     24
     >>> pack('<qh6xq', 1, 2, 3) == pack('@lhl', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18
     >>> pack('@llh', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     True

The above results (executed on a 64-bit machine) aren't guaranteed to
match when executed on different machines.  For example, the examples
below were executed on a 32-bit machine:

     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     12
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<3>,  Prev: Applications,  Up: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.9 Classes
...............

Le module *note struct: d4. définit aussi le type suivant :

 -- Classe: struct.Struct (format)

     Return a new Struct object which writes and reads binary data
     according to the format string 'format'.  Creating a ‘Struct’
     object once and calling its methods is more efficient than calling
     module-level functions with the same format since the format string
     is only compiled once.

          Note: The compiled versions of the most recent format strings
          passed to the module-level functions are cached, so programs
          that use only a few format strings needn't worry about reusing
          a single *note Struct: 166c. instance.

     Les objets ‘Struct’ compilés gèrent les méthodes et attributs
     suivants :

      -- Méthode: pack (v1, v2, ...)

          Identique à la fonction *note pack(): 1257, en utilisant le
          format compilé (‘len(result)’ vaut *note size: 2374.).

      -- Méthode: pack_into (buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

          Identique à la fonction *note pack_into(): 2363, en utilisant
          le format compilé.

      -- Méthode: unpack (buffer)

          Identique à la fonction *note unpack(): 1782, en utilisant le
          format compilé.  La taille du tampon 'buffer' en octets doit
          valoir *note size: 2374.

      -- Méthode: unpack_from (buffer, offset=0)

          Identique à la fonction *note unpack_from(): 2364, en
          utilisant le format compilé.  La taille du tampon 'buffer' en
          octets, en commençant à la position 'offset', doit valoir au
          moins *note size: 2374.

      -- Méthode: iter_unpack (buffer)

          Identique à la fonction *note iter_unpack(): fab, en utilisant
          le format compilé.  La taille du tampon 'buffer' en octets
          doit être un multiple de *note size: 2374.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Attribut: format

          La chaîne de format utilisée pour construire l'objet ‘Struct’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: la chaîne de format est
          maintenant de type *note str: 437. au lieu de *note bytes:
          1bd.

      -- Attribut: size

          La taille calculée de la structure agrégée (et donc de l'objet
          ‘bytes’ produit par la méthode *note pack(): 1257.)
          correspondante à *note format: 60c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'repr()' of structs has changed.
     It is now:

          >>> Struct('i')
          Struct('i')


File: python.info,  Node: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes,  Prev: struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data,  Up: Services autour des Données Binaires

5.7.2 ‘codecs’ -- Codec registry and base classes
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/codecs.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders
and decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry,
which manages the codec and error handling lookup process.  Most
standard codecs are *note text encodings: 2135, which encode text to
bytes (and decode bytes to text), but there are also codecs provided
that encode text to text, and bytes to bytes.  Custom codecs may encode
and decode between arbitrary types, but some module features are
restricted to be used specifically with *note text encodings: 2135. or
with codecs that encode to *note bytes: 1bd.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes pour encoder et décoder à
l'aide de n'importe quel codec :

 -- Fonction: codecs.encode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Encode 'obj' en utilisant le codec enregistré pour 'encoding'.

     Vous pouvez spécifier 'errors' pour définir la façon de gérer les
     erreurs.  Le gestionnaire d'erreurs par défaut est ‘'strict'’, ce
     qui veut dire qu'une erreur lors de l'encodage lève *note
     ValueError: 1ff. (ou une sous-classe spécifique du codec, telle que
     *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664.).  Référez-vous aux *note classes de
     base des codecs: 237a. pour plus d'informations sur la gestion des
     erreurs par les codecs.

 -- Fonction: codecs.decode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Décode 'obj' en utilisant le codec enregistré pour 'encoding'.

     Vous pouvez spécifier 'errors' pour définir la façon de gérer les
     erreurs.  Le gestionnaire d'erreurs par défaut est ‘'strict'’, ce
     qui veut dire qu'une erreur lors du décodage lève *note ValueError:
     1ff. (ou une sous-classe spécifique du codec, telle que *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a03.).  Référez-vous aux *note classes de base
     des codecs: 237a. pour plus d'informations sur la gestion des
     erreurs par les codecs.

Les détails complets de chaque codec peuvent être examinés directement :

 -- Fonction: codecs.lookup (encoding)

     Recherche les informations relatives au codec dans le registre des
     codecs de Python et renvoie l'objet *note CodecInfo: 16b5. tel que
     défini ci-dessous.

     Les encodeurs sont recherchés en priorité dans le cache du
     registre.  S'ils n'y sont pas, la liste des fonctions de recherche
     enregistrées est passée en revue.  Si aucun objet *note CodecInfo:
     16b5. n'est trouvé, une *note LookupError: 2189. est levée.  Sinon,
     l'objet *note CodecInfo: 16b5. est mis en cache et renvoyé vers
     l'appelant.

 -- Classe: codecs.CodecInfo (encode, decode, streamreader=None,
          streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None,
          incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)

     Les détails d'un codec trouvé dans le registre des codecs.  Les
     arguments du constructeur sont stockés dans les attributs
     éponymes :

      -- Attribut: name

          Le nom de l'encodeur.

      -- Attribut: encode
      -- Attribut: decode

          Les fonctions d'encodage et de décodage.  Ces fonctions ou
          méthodes doivent avoir la même interface que les méthodes
          *note encode(): 237e. et *note decode(): 237f. des instances
          de Codec (voir *note Interface des codecs: 2380.).  Les
          fonctions et méthodes sont censées fonctionner sans état
          interne.

      -- Attribut: incrementalencoder
      -- Attribut: incrementaldecoder

          Classes d'encodeurs et de décodeurs incrémentaux ou fonctions
          usines.  Elles doivent avoir respectivement les mêmes
          interfaces que celles définies par les classes de base *note
          IncrementalEncoder: 2383. et *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384.
          Les codecs incrémentaux peuvent conserver des états internes.

      -- Attribut: streamwriter
      -- Attribut: streamreader

          Classes d'écriture et de lecture de flux ou fonctions usines.
          Elles doivent avoir les mêmes interfaces que celles définies
          par les classes de base *note StreamWriter: 2387. et *note
          StreamReader: 2388, respectivement.  Les codecs de flux
          peuvent conserver un état interne.

Pour simplifier l'accès aux différents composants du codec, le module
fournit les fonctions supplémentaires suivantes qui utilisent *note
lookup(): 952. pour la recherche du codec :

 -- Fonction: codecs.getencoder (encoding)

     Recherche le codec pour l'encodage 'encoding' et renvoie sa
     fonction d'encodage.

     Lève une *note LookupError: 2189. si l'encodage 'encoding' n'est
     pas trouvé.

 -- Fonction: codecs.getdecoder (encoding)

     Recherche le codec pour l'encodage 'encoding' et renvoie sa
     fonction de décodage.

     Lève une *note LookupError: 2189. si l'encodage 'encoding' n'est
     pas trouvé.

 -- Fonction: codecs.getincrementalencoder (encoding)

     Recherche le codec pour l'encodage 'encoding' et renvoie sa classe
     d'encodage incrémental ou la fonction usine.

     Lève une *note LookupError: 2189. si l'encodage 'encoding' n'est
     pas trouvé ou si le codec ne gère pas l'encodage incrémental.

 -- Fonction: codecs.getincrementaldecoder (encoding)

     Recherche le codec pour l'encodage 'encoding' et renvoie sa classe
     de décodage incrémental ou la fonction usine.

     Lève une *note LookupError: 2189. si l'encodage 'encoding' n'est
     pas trouvé ou si le codec ne gère pas le décodage incrémental.

 -- Fonction: codecs.getreader (encoding)

     Recherche le codec pour l'encodage 'encoding' et renvoie sa classe
     *note StreamReader: 2388. ou la fonction usine.

     Lève une *note LookupError: 2189. si l'encodage 'encoding' n'est
     pas trouvé.

 -- Fonction: codecs.getwriter (encoding)

     Recherche le codec pour l'encodage 'encoding' et renvoie sa classe
     *note StreamWriter: 2387. ou la fonction usine.

     Lève une *note LookupError: 2189. si l'encodage 'encoding' n'est
     pas trouvé.

Les codecs personnalisés sont mis à disposition en enregistrant une
fonction de recherche de codecs adaptée :

 -- Fonction: codecs.register (search_function)

     Register a codec search function.  Search functions are expected to
     take one argument, being the encoding name in all lower case
     letters with hyphens and spaces converted to underscores, and
     return a *note CodecInfo: 16b5. object.  In case a search function
     cannot find a given encoding, it should return ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Hyphens and spaces are converted to
     underscore.

 -- Fonction: codecs.unregister (search_function)

     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry's cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Alors qu'il est recommandé d'utiliser la fonction native *note open():
508. et le module associé *note io: 7e. pour travailler avec des
fichiers texte encodés, le présent module fournit des fonctions et
classes utilitaires supplémentaires qui permettent l'utilisation d'une
plus large gamme de codecs si vous travaillez avec des fichiers
binaires :

 -- Fonction: codecs.open (filename, mode='r', encoding=None,
          errors='strict', buffering=-1)

     Ouvre un fichier encodé en utilisant le 'mode' donné et renvoie une
     instance de *note StreamReaderWriter: 2390, permettant un
     encodage-décodage transparent.  Le mode de fichier par défaut est
     ‘'r'’, ce qui signifie que le fichier est ouvert en lecture.

          Note: If 'encoding' is not ‘None’, then the underlying encoded
          files are always opened in binary mode.  No automatic
          conversion of ‘'\n'’ is done on reading and writing.  The
          'mode' argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the
          built-in *note open(): 508. function; the ‘'b'’ is
          automatically added.

     'encoding' spécifie l'encodage à utiliser pour le fichier.  Tout
     encodage qui encode et décode des octets (type 'bytes') est
     autorisé et les types de données pris en charge par les méthodes
     relatives aux fichiers dépendent du codec utilisé.

     'errors' peut être spécifié pour définir la gestion des erreurs.
     La valeur par défaut est ‘'strict'’, ce qui lève une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. en cas d'erreur lors du codage.

     'buffering' a la même signification que pour la fonction native
     *note open(): 508.  Il vaut ‘-1’ par défaut, ce qui signifie que la
     taille par défaut du tampon est utilisée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: le mode ‘'U`’ a été enlevé.

 -- Fonction: codecs.EncodedFile (file, data_encoding,
          file_encoding=None, errors='strict')

     Renvoie une instance de *note StreamRecoder: 19af, version
     encapsulée de 'file' qui fournit un transcodage transparent.  Le
     fichier original est fermé quand la version encapsulée est fermée.

     Les données écrites dans un fichier encapsulant sont décodées en
     fonction du 'data_encoding' spécifié puis écrites vers le fichier
     original en tant que 'bytes' en utilisant 'file_encoding'.  Les
     octets lus dans le fichier original sont décodés conformément à
     'file_encoding' et le résultat est encodé en utilisant
     'data_encoding'.

     Si 'file_encoding' n'est pas spécifié, la valeur par défaut est
     'data_encoding'.

     'errors' peut être spécifié pour définir la gestion des erreurs.
     La valeur par défaut est ‘'strict'’, ce qui lève une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. en cas d'erreur lors du codage.

 -- Fonction: codecs.iterencode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Utilise un encodeur incrémental pour encoder de manière itérative
     l'entrée fournie par 'iterator'.  Cette fonction est un *note
     générateur: 104c.  L'argument 'errors' (ainsi que tout autre
     argument passé par son nom) est transmis à l'encodeur incrémental.

     Cette fonction nécessite que le codec accepte les objets texte
     (classe *note str: 437.) en entrée.  Par conséquent, il ne prend
     pas en charge les encodeurs 'bytes' vers 'bytes' tels que
     ‘base64_codec’.

 -- Fonction: codecs.iterdecode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Utilise un décodeur incrémental pour décoder de manière itérative
     l'entrée fournie par 'iterator'.  Cette fonction est un *note
     générateur: 104c.  L'argument 'errors' (ainsi que tout autre
     argument passé par son nom) est transmis au décodeur incrémental.

     Cette fonction requiert que le codec accepte les objets *note
     bytes: 1bd. en entrée.  Par conséquent, elle ne prend pas en charge
     les encodeurs de texte vers texte tels que ‘rot_13’, bien que
     ‘rot_13’ puisse être utilisé de manière équivalente avec *note
     iterencode(): 2392.

Le module fournit également les constantes suivantes qui sont utiles
pour lire et écrire les fichiers dépendants de la plateforme :

 -- Données: codecs.BOM
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_BE
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_LE
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF8
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF16
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF32
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE
 -- Données: codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

     Ces constantes définissent diverses séquences d'octets, les marques
     d'ordre d'octets (BOM pour 'byte order mark' en anglais) Unicode
     pour plusieurs encodages.  Elles sont utilisées dans les flux de
     données UTF-16 et UTF-32 pour indiquer l'ordre des octets utilisé,
     et dans UTF-8 comme signature Unicode.  *note BOM_UTF16: 2398. vaut
     soit *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 2399, soit *note BOM_UTF16_LE: 239a. selon
     le boutisme natif de la plateforme, *note BOM: 2394. est un alias
     pour *note BOM_UTF16: 2398, *note BOM_LE: 2396. pour *note
     BOM_UTF16_LE: 239a. et *note BOM_BE: 2395. pour *note BOM_UTF16_BE:
     2399.  Les autres sont les marques BOM dans les encodages UTF-8 et
     UTF-32.

* Menu:

* Classes de base de codecs::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings.idna: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
* encodings.mbcs: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/codecs.py


File: python.info,  Node: Classes de base de codecs,  Next: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.1 Classes de base de codecs
.................................

Le module *note codecs: 1b. définit un ensemble de classes de base qui
spécifient les interfaces pour travailler avec des objets codecs et qui
peuvent également être utilisées comme base pour des implémentations de
codecs personnalisés.

Chaque codec doit définir quatre interfaces pour être utilisable comme
codec en Python : codeur sans état, décodeur sans état, lecteur de flux
et écrivain de flux.  Le lecteur et l'écrivain de flux réutilisent
généralement l'encodeur-décodeur sans état pour implémenter les
protocoles de fichiers.  Les auteurs de codecs doivent également définir
comment le codec gère les erreurs d'encodage et de décodage.
* Menu:

* Gestionnaires d'erreurs::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires d'erreurs,  Next: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Classes de base de codecs

5.7.2.2 Gestionnaires d'erreurs
...............................

To simplify and standardize error handling, codecs may implement
different error handling schemes by accepting the 'errors' string
argument:

     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='backslashreplace')
     b'German \\xdf, \\u266c'
     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'German &#223;, &#9836;'

The following error handlers can be used with all Python *note Standard
Encodings: da8. codecs:

Valeur                        Signification
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'strict'’                    Raise *note UnicodeError: 1283. (or a subclass),
                              this is the default.  Implemented in
                              *note strict_errors(): 23a1.
                              
                              
‘'ignore'’                    Ignore les données incorrectement formatées et
                              continue sans rien signaler.  Implémenté dans
                              *note ignore_errors(): 23a2.
                              
                              
‘'replace'’                   Replace with a replacement marker.  On encoding,
                              use ‘?’ (ASCII character).  On decoding, use ‘�’
                              (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER).
                              Implemented in *note replace_errors(): 23a3.
                              
                              
‘'backslashreplace'’          Replace with backslashed escape sequences.  On
                              encoding, use hexadecimal form of Unicode code
                              point with formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.
                              On decoding, use hexadecimal form of byte value
                              with format ‘\xHH’.  Implemented in
                              *note backslashreplace_errors(): 23a4.
                              
                              
‘'surrogateescape'’           Lors du décodage, remplace un octet par un code
                              de substitution individuel allant de ‘U+DC80’ à
                              ‘U+DCFF’.  Ce code est reconverti vers l'octet de
                              départ quand le gestionnaire d'erreurs
                              ‘'surrogateescape'’ est utilisé pour l'encodage
                              des données (voir la PEP 383(1) pour plus de
                              détails).
                              

The following error handlers are only applicable to encoding (within
*note text encodings: 2135.):

Valeur                        Signification
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’         Replace with XML/HTML numeric character
                              reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
                              code point with format ‘&#NUM;’.  Implemented in
                              *note xmlcharrefreplace_errors(): 23a5.
                              
                              
‘'namereplace'’               Replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences, what
                              appears in the braces is the Name property from
                              Unicode Character Database.  Implemented in
                              *note namereplace_errors(): 23a6.
                              

En plus, le gestionnaire d'erreurs suivant est spécifique aux codecs
suivants :

Valeur                  Codecs                       Signification
                                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
‘'surrogatepass'’       utf-8, utf-16, utf-32,       Allow encoding and decoding surrogate code
                        utf-16-be, utf-16-le,        point (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) as normal code
                        utf-32-be, utf-32-le         point.  Otherwise these codecs treat the
                                                     presence of surrogate code point in
                                                     *note str: 437. as an error.
                                                     

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: les gestionnaires d'erreurs
‘'surrogateescape'’ et ‘'surrogatepass'’.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The ‘'surrogatepass'’ error handler now
works with utf-16* and utf-32* codecs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: le gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘'namereplace'’.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler now
works with decoding and translating.

L'ensemble des valeurs autorisées peut être étendu en enregistrant un
nouveau gestionnaire d'erreurs nommé :

 -- Fonction: codecs.register_error (name, error_handler)

     Register the error handling function 'error_handler' under the name
     'name'.  The 'error_handler' argument will be called during
     encoding and decoding in case of an error, when 'name' is specified
     as the errors parameter.

     For encoding, 'error_handler' will be called with a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 664. instance, which contains information about
     the location of the error.  The error handler must either raise
     this or a different exception, or return a tuple with a replacement
     for the unencodable part of the input and a position where encoding
     should continue.  The replacement may be either *note str: 437. or
     *note bytes: 1bd.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will
     simply copy them into the output buffer.  If the replacement is a
     string, the encoder will encode the replacement.  Encoding
     continues on original input at the specified position.  Negative
     position values will be treated as being relative to the end of the
     input string.  If the resulting position is out of bound an *note
     IndexError: 14ec. will be raised.

     Decoding and translating works similarly, except *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a03. or *note UnicodeTranslateError: 2259. will
     be passed to the handler and that the replacement from the error
     handler will be put into the output directly.

Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error
handlers) can be looked up by name:

 -- Fonction: codecs.lookup_error (name)

     Return the error handler previously registered under the name
     'name'.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 2189. in case the handler cannot be
     found.

The following standard error handlers are also made available as module
level functions:

 -- Fonction: codecs.strict_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'strict'’ error handling.

     Each encoding or decoding error raises a *note UnicodeError: 1283.

 -- Fonction: codecs.ignore_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'ignore'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is ignored; encoding or decoding is continued
     without further notice.

 -- Fonction: codecs.replace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'replace'’ error handling.

     Substitutes ‘?’ (ASCII character) for encoding errors or ‘�’
     (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) for decoding errors.

 -- Fonction: codecs.backslashreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.  On
     encoding, use the hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with
     formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.  On decoding, use the
     hexadecimal form of byte value with format ‘\xHH’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Works with decoding and translating.

 -- Fonction: codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ error handling (for encoding
     within *note text encoding: 2135. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML/HTML
     numeric character reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
     code point with format ‘&#NUM;’ .

 -- Fonction: codecs.namereplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'namereplace'’ error handling (for encoding within
     *note text encoding: 2135. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by a ‘\N{...}’ escape
     sequence.  The set of characters that appear in the braces is the
     Name property from Unicode Character Database.  For example, the
     German lowercase letter ‘'ß'’ will be converted to byte sequence
     ‘\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S}’ .

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Gestionnaires d'erreurs,  Up: Classes de base de codecs

5.7.2.3 Stateless Encoding and Decoding
.......................................

The base *note Codec: 23a8. class defines these methods which also
define the function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:

 -- Classe: codecs.Codec

      -- Méthode: encode (input, errors='strict')

          Encodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, *note text encoding: 2135.
          converts a string object to a bytes object using a particular
          character set encoding (e.g., ‘cp1252’ or ‘iso-8859-1’).

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the *note Codec: 23a8.
          instance.  Use *note StreamWriter: 2387. for codecs which have
          to keep state in order to make encoding efficient.

          The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.

      -- Méthode: decode (input, errors='strict')

          Decodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, for a *note text encoding:
          2135, decoding converts a bytes object encoded using a
          particular character set encoding to a string object.

          For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs, 'input' must be
          a bytes object or one which provides the read-only buffer
          interface - for example, buffer objects and memory mapped
          files.

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the *note Codec: 23a8.
          instance.  Use *note StreamReader: 2388. for codecs which have
          to keep state in order to make decoding efficient.

          The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Classes de base de codecs

5.7.2.4 Incremental Encoding and Decoding
.........................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 2383. and *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384.
classes provide the basic interface for incremental encoding and
decoding.  Encoding/decoding the input isn't done with one call to the
stateless encoder/decoder function, but with multiple calls to the *note
encode(): 23aa./*note decode(): 23ab. method of the incremental
encoder/decoder.  The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of the
encoding/decoding process during method calls.

The joined output of calls to the *note encode(): 23aa./*note decode():
23ab. method is the same as if all the single inputs were joined into
one, and this input was encoded/decoded with the stateless
encoder/decoder.

* Menu:

* IncrementalEncoder Objects::
* IncrementalDecoder Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalEncoder Objects,  Next: IncrementalDecoder Objects,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.5 IncrementalEncoder Objects
..................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 2383. class is used for encoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental encoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- Classe: codecs.IncrementalEncoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an *note IncrementalEncoder: 2383. instance.

     All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The *note IncrementalEncoder: 2383. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note IncrementalEncoder: 2383. object.

      -- Méthode: encode (object, final=False)

          Encodes 'object' (taking the current state of the encoder into
          account) and returns the resulting encoded object.  If this is
          the last call to *note encode(): eee. 'final' must be true
          (the default is false).

      -- Méthode: reset ()

          Reset the encoder to the initial state.  The output is
          discarded: call ‘.encode(object, final=True)’, passing an
          empty byte or text string if necessary, to reset the encoder
          and to get the output.

      -- Méthode: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the encoder which must be an
          integer.  The implementation should make sure that ‘0’ is the
          most common state.  (States that are more complicated than
          integers can be converted into an integer by
          marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes of the
          resulting string into an integer.)

      -- Méthode: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the encoder to 'state'.  'state' must be an
          encoder state returned by *note getstate(): 23af.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalDecoder Objects,  Prev: IncrementalEncoder Objects,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.6 IncrementalDecoder Objects
..................................

The *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384. class is used for decoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental decoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- Classe: codecs.IncrementalDecoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384. instance.

     All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384. object.

      -- Méthode: decode (object, final=False)

          Decodes 'object' (taking the current state of the decoder into
          account) and returns the resulting decoded object.  If this is
          the last call to *note decode(): eef. 'final' must be true
          (the default is false).  If 'final' is true the decoder must
          decode the input completely and must flush all buffers.  If
          this isn't possible (e.g.  because of incomplete byte
          sequences at the end of the input) it must initiate error
          handling just like in the stateless case (which might raise an
          exception).

      -- Méthode: reset ()

          Reset the decoder to the initial state.

      -- Méthode: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the decoder.  This must be a tuple
          with two items, the first must be the buffer containing the
          still undecoded input.  The second must be an integer and can
          be additional state info.  (The implementation should make
          sure that ‘0’ is the most common additional state info.)  If
          this additional state info is ‘0’ it must be possible to set
          the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and ‘0’
          as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
          buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state
          without producing any output.  (Additional state info that is
          more complicated than integers can be converted into an
          integer by marshaling/pickling the info and encoding the bytes
          of the resulting string into an integer.)

      -- Méthode: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the decoder to 'state'.  'state' must be a
          decoder state returned by *note getstate(): 23b4.


File: python.info,  Node: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Classes de base de codecs

5.7.2.7 Stream Encoding and Decoding
....................................

The *note StreamWriter: 2387. and *note StreamReader: 2388. classes
provide generic working interfaces which can be used to implement new
encoding submodules very easily.  See ‘encodings.utf_8’ for an example
of how this is done.

* Menu:

* StreamWriter Objects::
* StreamReader Objects::
* StreamReaderWriter Objects::
* StreamRecoder Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter Objects,  Next: StreamReader Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.8 StreamWriter Objects
............................

The *note StreamWriter: 2387. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 23a8.
and defines the following methods which every stream writer must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- Classe: codecs.StreamWriter (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a *note StreamWriter: 2387. instance.

     All stream writers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for writing
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The *note StreamWriter: 2387. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2. for the standard error
     handlers the underlying stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note StreamWriter: 2387. object.

      -- Méthode: write (object)

          Writes the object's contents encoded to the stream.

      -- Méthode: writelines (list)

          Writes the concatenated iterable of strings to the stream
          (possibly by reusing the *note write(): 23b9. method).
          Infinite or very large iterables are not supported.  The
          standard bytes-to-bytes codecs do not support this method.

      -- Méthode: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output
          is put into a clean state that allows appending of new fresh
          data without having to rescan the whole stream to recover
          state.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamWriter: 2387. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader Objects,  Next: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Prev: StreamWriter Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.9 StreamReader Objects
............................

The *note StreamReader: 2388. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 23a8.
and defines the following methods which every stream reader must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- Classe: codecs.StreamReader (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a *note StreamReader: 2388. instance.

     All stream readers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for reading
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The *note StreamReader: 2388. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2. for the standard error
     handlers the underlying stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note StreamReader: 2388. object.

     The set of allowed values for the 'errors' argument can be extended
     with *note register_error(): 144f.

      -- Méthode: read (size=-1, chars=-1, firstline=False)

          Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.

          The 'chars' argument indicates the number of decoded code
          points or bytes to return.  The *note read(): 23be. method
          will never return more data than requested, but it might
          return less, if there is not enough available.

          The 'size' argument indicates the approximate maximum number
          of encoded bytes or code points to read for decoding.  The
          decoder can modify this setting as appropriate.  The default
          value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as possible.
          This parameter is intended to prevent having to decode huge
          files in one step.

          The 'firstline' flag indicates that it would be sufficient to
          only return the first line, if there are decoding errors on
          later lines.

          The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it
          should read as much data as is allowed within the definition
          of the encoding and the given size, e.g.  if optional encoding
          endings or state markers are available on the stream, these
          should be read too.

      -- Méthode: readline (size=None, keepends=True)

          Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded
          data.

          'size', if given, is passed as size argument to the stream's
          *note read(): 23be. method.

          If 'keepends' is false line-endings will be stripped from the
          lines returned.

      -- Méthode: readlines (sizehint=None, keepends=True)

          Read all lines available on the input stream and return them
          as a list of lines.

          Line-endings are implemented using the codec's *note decode():
          eef. method and are included in the list entries if 'keepends'
          is true.

          'sizehint', if given, is passed as the 'size' argument to the
          stream's *note read(): 23be. method.

      -- Méthode: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This
          method is primarily intended to be able to recover from
          decoding errors.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamReader: 2388. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Next: StreamRecoder Objects,  Prev: StreamReader Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.10 StreamReaderWriter Objects
...................................

The *note StreamReaderWriter: 2390. is a convenience class that allows
wrapping streams which work in both read and write modes.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): 952. function to construct the instance.

 -- Classe: codecs.StreamReaderWriter (stream, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     Creates a *note StreamReaderWriter: 2390. instance.  'stream' must
     be a file-like object.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory
     functions or classes providing the *note StreamReader: 2388. and
     *note StreamWriter: 2387. interface resp.  Error handling is done
     in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.

*note StreamReaderWriter: 2390. instances define the combined interfaces
of *note StreamReader: 2388. and *note StreamWriter: 2387. classes.
They inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamRecoder Objects,  Prev: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.11 StreamRecoder Objects
..............................

The *note StreamRecoder: 19af. translates data from one encoding to
another, which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding
environments.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): 952. function to construct the instance.

 -- Classe: codecs.StreamRecoder (stream, encode, decode, Reader,
          Writer, errors='strict')

     Creates a *note StreamRecoder: 19af. instance which implements a
     two-way conversion: 'encode' and 'decode' work on the frontend —
     the data visible to code calling *note read(): 23be. and *note
     write(): 23b9, while 'Reader' and 'Writer' work on the backend —
     the data in 'stream'.

     You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings, e.g.,
     from Latin-1 to UTF-8 and back.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object.

     The 'encode' and 'decode' arguments must adhere to the *note Codec:
     23a8. interface.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory functions
     or classes providing objects of the *note StreamReader: 2388. and
     *note StreamWriter: 2387. interface respectively.

     Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream
     readers and writers.

*note StreamRecoder: 19af. instances define the combined interfaces of
*note StreamReader: 2388. and *note StreamWriter: 2387. classes.  They
inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings and Unicode,  Next: Standard Encodings,  Prev: Classes de base de codecs,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.12 Encodings and Unicode
..............................

Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in range
‘U+0000’-‘U+10FFFF’.  (See PEP 393(1) for more details about the
implementation.)  Once a string object is used outside of CPU and
memory, endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an
issue.  As with other codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of
bytes is known as 'encoding', and recreating the string from the
sequence of bytes is known as 'decoding'.  There are a variety of
different text serialisation codecs, which are collectivity referred to
as *note text encodings: 2135.

The simplest text encoding (called ‘'latin-1'’ or ‘'iso-8859-1'’) maps
the code points 0-255 to the bytes ‘0x0’-‘0xff’, which means that a
string object that contains code points above ‘U+00FF’ can't be encoded
with this codec.  Doing so will raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664.
that looks like the following (although the details of the error message
may differ): ‘UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character
'\u1234' in position 3: ordinal not in range(256)’.

There's another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings)
that choose a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these
code points are mapped to the bytes ‘0x0’-‘0xff’.  To see how this is
done simply open e.g.  ‘encodings/cp1252.py’ (which is an encoding that
is used primarily on Windows).  There's a string constant with 256
characters that shows you which character is mapped to which byte value.

All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points
defined in Unicode.  A simple and straightforward way that can store
each Unicode code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive
bytes.  There are two possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in
little endian order.  These two encodings are called ‘UTF-32-BE’ and
‘UTF-32-LE’ respectively.  Their disadvantage is that if e.g.  you use
‘UTF-32-BE’ on a little endian machine you will always have to swap
bytes on encoding and decoding.  ‘UTF-32’ avoids this problem: bytes
will always be in natural endianness.  When these bytes are read by a
CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have to be swapped though.
To be able to detect the endianness of a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte
sequence, there's the so called BOM ("Byte Order Mark").  This is the
Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’.  This character can be prepended to every
‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte sequence.  The byte swapped version of this
character (‘0xFFFE’) is an illegal character that may not appear in a
Unicode text.  So when the first character in a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’
byte sequence appears to be a ‘U+FFFE’ the bytes have to be swapped on
decoding.  Unfortunately the character ‘U+FEFF’ had a second purpose as
a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’: a character that has no width and doesn't
allow a word to be split.  It can e.g.  be used to give hints to a
ligature algorithm.  With Unicode 4.0 using ‘U+FEFF’ as a ‘ZERO WIDTH
NO-BREAK SPACE’ has been deprecated (with ‘U+2060’ (‘WORD JOINER’)
assuming this role).  Nevertheless Unicode software still must be able
to handle ‘U+FEFF’ in both roles: as a BOM it's a device to determine
the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes once the byte
sequence has been decoded into a string; as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK
SPACE’ it's a normal character that will be decoded like any other.

There's another encoding that is able to encode the full range of
Unicode characters: UTF-8.  UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means
there are no issues with byte order in UTF-8.  Each byte in a UTF-8 byte
sequence consists of two parts: marker bits (the most significant bits)
and payload bits.  The marker bits are a sequence of zero to four ‘1’
bits followed by a ‘0’ bit.  Unicode characters are encoded like this
(with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the Unicode
character):

'Range'                                 Encoding
                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
‘U-00000000’ ...  ‘U-0000007F’          0xxxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000080’ ...  ‘U-000007FF’          110xxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000800’ ...  ‘U-0000FFFF’          1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00010000’ ...  ‘U-0010FFFF’          11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        

The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x
bit.

As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any ‘U+FEFF’
character in the decoded string (even if it's the first character) is
treated as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’.

Without external information it's impossible to reliably determine which
encoding was used for encoding a string.  Each charmap encoding can
decode any random byte sequence.  However that's not possible with
UTF-8, as UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn't allow
arbitrary byte sequences.  To increase the reliability with which a
UTF-8 encoding can be detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8
(that Python calls ‘"utf-8-sig"’) for its Notepad program: Before any of
the Unicode characters is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM
(which looks like this as a byte sequence: ‘0xef’, ‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’) is
written.  As it's rather improbable that any charmap encoded file starts
with these byte values (which would e.g.  map to

          LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS
          RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK
          INVERTED QUESTION MARK

in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a ‘utf-8-sig’
encoding can be correctly guessed from the byte sequence.  So here the
BOM is not used to be able to determine the byte order used for
generating the byte sequence, but as a signature that helps in guessing
the encoding.  On encoding the utf-8-sig codec will write ‘0xef’,
‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’ as the first three bytes to the file.  On decoding
‘utf-8-sig’ will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first
three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged
and should generally be avoided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Encodings,  Next: Python Specific Encodings,  Prev: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.13 Standard Encodings
...........................

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C
functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables.  The following table
lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the
languages for which the encoding is likely used.  Neither the list of
aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive.  Notice
that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen
instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore, e.g.
‘'utf-8'’ is a valid alias for the ‘'utf_8'’ codec.

'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' Some common encodings can
bypass the codecs lookup machinery to improve performance.  These
optimization opportunities are only recognized by CPython for a limited
set of (case insensitive) aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1,
iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, mbcs (Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16,
utf16, utf-32, utf32, and the same using underscores instead of dashes.
Using alternative aliases for these encodings may result in slower
execution.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Optimization opportunity recognized for
us-ascii.

Many of the character sets support the same languages.  They vary in
individual characters (e.g.  whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not),
and in the assignment of characters to code positions.  For the European
languages in particular, the following variants typically exist:

   * an ISO 8859 codeset

   * a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an
     8859 codeset, but replaces control characters with additional
     graphic characters

   * an IBM EBCDIC code page

   * an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible

Codec                 Aliases                              Languages
                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
'ascii'               '646', 'us-ascii'                    Anglais
                                                           
                                                           
'big5'                'big5-tw', 'csbig5'                  Chinois Traditionnel
                                                           
                                                           
'big5hkscs'           'big5-hkscs', 'hkscs'                Chinois Traditionnel
                                                           
                                                           
'cp037'               'IBM037', 'IBM039'                   Anglais
                                                           
                                                           
'cp273'               '273', 'IBM273', 'csIBM273'          Allemand
                                                           
                                                           Ajouté dans la version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
'cp424'               'EBCDIC-CP-HE', 'IBM424'             Hébreux
                                                           
                                                           
'cp437'               '437', 'IBM437'                      Anglais
                                                           
                                                           
'cp500'               'EBCDIC-CP-BE', 'EBCDIC-CP-CH',      Europe de l'ouest
                      'IBM500'                             
                      
                                                           
'cp720'                                                    Arabe
                                                           
                                                           
'cp737'                                                    Grec
                                                           
                                                           
'cp775'               'IBM775'                             Langues Baltiques
                                                           
                                                           
'cp850'               '850', 'IBM850'                      Europe de l'ouest
                                                           
                                                           
'cp852'               '852', 'IBM852'                      Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est
                                                           
                                                           
'cp855'               '855', 'IBM855'                      Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
'cp856'                                                    Hébreux
                                                           
                                                           
'cp857'               '857', 'IBM857'                      Turc
                                                           
                                                           
'cp858'               '858', 'IBM858'                      Europe de l'ouest
                                                           
                                                           
'cp860'               '860', 'IBM860'                      Portugais
                                                           
                                                           
'cp861'               '861', 'CP-IS', 'IBM861'             Islandais
                                                           
                                                           
'cp862'               '862', 'IBM862'                      Hébreux
                                                           
                                                           
'cp863'               '863', 'IBM863'                      Canadien
                                                           
                                                           
'cp864'               'IBM864'                             Arabe
                                                           
                                                           
'cp865'               '865', 'IBM865'                      Danish, Norwegian
                                                           
                                                           
'cp866'               '866', 'IBM866'                      Russe
                                                           
                                                           
'cp869'               '869', 'CP-GR', 'IBM869'             Grec
                                                           
                                                           
'cp874'                                                    Thai
                                                           
                                                           
'cp875'                                                    Grec
                                                           
                                                           
'cp932'               932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji,       Japanese
                      windows-31j                          
                      
                                                           
'cp949'               '949', 'ms949', 'uhc'                Korean
                                                           
                                                           
'cp950'               '950', 'ms950'                       Chinois Traditionnel
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1006'                                                   Urdu
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1026'              'ibm1026'                            Turc
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1125'              '1125', 'ibm1125', 'cp866u',         Ukrainian
                      'ruscii'                             
                                                           Ajouté dans la version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1140'              'ibm1140'                            Europe de l'ouest
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1250'              'windows-1250'                       Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1251'              'windows-1251'                       Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1252'              'windows-1252'                       Europe de l'ouest
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1253'              'windows-1253'                       Grec
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1254'              'windows-1254'                       Turc
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1255'              'windows-1255'                       Hébreux
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1256'              'windows-1256'                       Arabe
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1257'              'windows-1257'                       Langues Baltiques
                                                           
                                                           
'cp1258'              'windows-1258'                       Vietnamese
                                                           
                                                           
'euc_jp'              'eucjp', 'ujis', 'u-jis'             Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
'euc_jis_2004'        'jisx0213', 'eucjis2004'             Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
'euc_jisx0213'        'eucjisx0213'                        Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
'euc_kr'              'euckr', 'korean', 'ksc5601',        Korean
                      'ks_c-5601', 'ks_c-5601-1987',       
                      'ksx1001', 'ks_x-1001'
                      
                                                           
'gb2312'              'chinese', 'csiso58gb231280',        Simplified Chinese
                      'euc-cn', 'euccn', 'eucgb2312-cn',   
                      'gb2312-1980', 'gb2312-80',
                      'iso-ir-58'
                      
                                                           
'gbk'                 '936', 'cp936', 'ms936'              Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
'gb18030'             'gb18030-2000'                       Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
'hz'                  'hzgb', 'hz-gb', 'hz-gb-2312'        Simplified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
'iso2022_jp'          'csiso2022jp', 'iso2022jp',          Japanese
                      'iso-2022-jp'                        
                      
                                                           
'iso2022_jp_1'        'iso2022jp-1', 'iso-2022-jp-1'       Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
'iso2022_jp_2'        'iso2022jp-2', 'iso-2022-jp-2'       Japanese, Korean, Simplified
                                                           Chinese, Western Europe, Greek
                                                           
                                                           
'iso2022_jp_2004'     'iso2022jp-2004',                    Japanese
                      'iso-2022-jp-2004'                   
                      
                                                           
'iso2022_jp_3'        'iso2022jp-3', 'iso-2022-jp-3'       Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
'iso2022_jp_ext'      'iso2022jp-ext', 'iso-2022-jp-ext'   Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
'iso2022_kr'          'csiso2022kr', 'iso2022kr',          Korean
                      'iso-2022-kr'                        
                      
                                                           
'latin_1'             'iso-8859-1', 'iso8859-1', '8859',   Europe de l'ouest
                      'cp819', 'latin', 'latin1', 'L1'     
                      
                                                           
'iso8859_2'           'iso-8859-2', 'latin2', 'L2'         Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_3'           'iso-8859-3', 'latin3', 'L3'         Esperanto, Maltese
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_4'           'iso-8859-4', 'latin4', 'L4'         Langues Baltiques
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_5'           'iso-8859-5', 'cyrillic'             Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_6'           'iso-8859-6', 'arabic'               Arabe
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_7'           'iso-8859-7', 'greek', 'greek8'      Grec
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_8'           'iso-8859-8', 'hebrew'               Hébreux
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_9'           'iso-8859-9', 'latin5', 'L5'         Turc
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_10'          'iso-8859-10', 'latin6', 'L6'        Nordic languages
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_11'          'iso-8859-11', 'thai'                Thai languages
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_13'          'iso-8859-13', 'latin7', 'L7'        Langues Baltiques
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_14'          'iso-8859-14', 'latin8', 'L8'        Celtic languages
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_15'          'iso-8859-15', 'latin9', 'L9'        Europe de l'ouest
                                                           
                                                           
'iso8859_16'          'iso-8859-16', 'latin10', 'L10'      South-Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
'johab'               'cp1361', 'ms1361'                   Korean
                                                           
                                                           
'koi8_r'                                                   Russe
                                                           
                                                           
'koi8_t'                                                   'Tajik'
                                                           
                                                           Ajouté dans la version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
'koi8_u'                                                   Ukrainian
                                                           
                                                           
'kz1048'              'kz_1048', 'strk1048_2002',          Kazakh
                      'rk1048'                             
                                                           Ajouté dans la version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
'mac_cyrillic'        'maccyrillic'                        Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
'mac_greek'           'macgreek'                           Grec
                                                           
                                                           
'mac_iceland'         'maciceland'                         Islandais
                                                           
                                                           
'mac_latin2'          maclatin2, maccentraleurope,         Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est
                      mac_centeuro                         
                      
                                                           
'mac_roman'           'macroman', 'macintosh'              Europe de l'ouest
                                                           
                                                           
'mac_turkish'         'macturkish'                         Turc
                                                           
                                                           
'ptcp154'             'csptcp154', 'pt154', 'cp154',       Kazakh
                      'cyrillic-asian'                     
                      
                                                           
'shift_jis'           'csshiftjis', 'shiftjis', 'sjis',    Japanese
                      's_jis'                              
                      
                                                           
'shift_jis_2004'      'shiftjis2004', 'sjis_2004',         Japanese
                      'sjis2004'                           
                      
                                                           
'shift_jisx0213'      'shiftjisx0213', 'sjisx0213',        Japanese
                      's_jisx0213'                         
                      
                                                           
'utf_32'              'U32', 'utf32'                       all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_32_be'           'UTF-32BE'                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_32_le'           'UTF-32LE'                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_16'              'U16', 'utf16'                       all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_16_be'           'UTF-16BE'                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_16_le'           'UTF-16LE'                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_7'               'U7', 'unicode-1-1-utf-7'            all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_8'               U8, UTF, utf8, cp65001               all languages
                                                           
                                                           
'utf_8_sig'                                                all languages
                                                           

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The utf-16* and utf-32* encoders no longer
allow surrogate code points (‘U+D800’-‘U+DFFF’) to be encoded.  The
utf-32* decoders no longer decode byte sequences that correspond to
surrogate code points.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ‘cp65001’ is now an alias to ‘utf_8’.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Specific Encodings,  Next: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Prev: Standard Encodings,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.14 Python Specific Encodings
..................................

A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec
names have no meaning outside Python.  These are listed in the tables
below based on the expected input and output types (note that while text
encodings are the most common use case for codecs, the underlying codec
infrastructure supports arbitrary data transforms rather than just text
encodings).  For asymmetric codecs, the stated meaning describes the
encoding direction.

* Menu:

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Text Transforms::


File: python.info,  Node: Text Encodings,  Next: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.15 Text Encodings
.......................

The following codecs provide *note str: 437. to *note bytes: 1bd.
encoding and *note bytes-like object: d1d. to *note str: 437. decoding,
similar to the Unicode text encodings.

Codec                    Aliases       Signification
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
idna                                   Implement RFC 3490(1), see
                                       also
                                       *note encodings.idna: 51.
                                       Only ‘errors='strict'’ is
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
mbcs                     ansi, dbcs    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the ANSI
                                       codepage (CP_ACP).
                                       
                                       
oem                                    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the OEM
                                       codepage (CP_OEMCP).
                                       
                                       Ajouté dans la version 3.6.
                                       
                                       
palmos                                 Encoding of PalmOS 3.5.
                                       
                                       
punycode                               Implement RFC 3492(2).
                                       Stateful codecs are not
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
raw_unicode_escape                     Latin-1 encoding with
                                       ‘\uXXXX’ and ‘\UXXXXXXXX’ for
                                       other code points.  Existing
                                       backslashes are not escaped
                                       in any way.  It is used in
                                       the Python pickle protocol.
                                       
                                       
undefined                              Raise an exception for all
                                       conversions, even empty
                                       strings.  The error handler
                                       is ignored.
                                       
                                       
unicode_escape                         Encoding suitable as the
                                       contents of a Unicode literal
                                       in ASCII-encoded Python
                                       source code, except that
                                       quotes are not escaped.
                                       Decode from Latin-1 source
                                       code.  Beware that Python
                                       source code actually uses
                                       UTF-8 by default.
                                       

Modifié dans la version 3.8: "unicode_internal" codec is removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Transforms,  Next: Text Transforms,  Prev: Text Encodings,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.16 Binary Transforms
..........................

The following codecs provide binary transforms: *note bytes-like object:
d1d. to *note bytes: 1bd. mappings.  They are not supported by *note
bytes.decode(): 8c5. (which only produces *note str: 437. output).

Codec                      Aliases                Signification                      Encoder / decoder
                                                                                     
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
base64_codec (1)           base64, base_64        Convert the operand to multiline   *note base64.encodebytes(): 942.
                                                  MIME base64 (the result always     /
                                                  includes a trailing ‘'\n'’).       *note base64.decodebytes(): 943.
                                                                                     
                                                  Modifié dans la version 3.4:
                                                  accepts any
                                                  *note bytes-like object: d1d. as
                                                  input for encoding and decoding
                                                  
                                                                                     
bz2_codec                  bz2                    Compress the operand using bz2.    *note bz2.compress(): 23cc. /
                                                                                     *note bz2.decompress(): 107a.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
hex_codec                  hex                    Convert the operand to             *note binascii.b2a_hex(): 23cd.
                                                  hexadecimal representation, with   /
                                                  two digits per byte.               *note binascii.a2b_hex(): 23ce.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
quopri_codec               quopri,                Convert the operand to MIME        *note quopri.encode(): 23cf.
                           quotedprintable,       quoted printable.                  with ‘quotetabs=True’ /
                           quoted_printable                                          *note quopri.decode(): 23d0.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
uu_codec                   uu                     Convert the operand using
                                                  uuencode.
                                                  
                                                                                     
zlib_codec                 zip, zlib              Compress the operand using gzip.   *note zlib.compress(): 62c. /
                                                                                     *note zlib.decompress(): cfd.
                                                                                     

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Restoration of the binary transforms.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Restoration of the aliases for the binary
transforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In addition to *note bytes-like objects: d1d, ‘'base64_codec'’
also accepts ASCII-only instances of *note str: 437. for decoding


File: python.info,  Node: Text Transforms,  Prev: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.17 Text Transforms
........................

The following codec provides a text transform: a *note str: 437. to
*note str: 437. mapping.  It is not supported by *note str.encode():
8c4. (which only produces *note bytes: 1bd. output).

Codec                    Aliases       Signification
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
rot_13                   rot13         Return the Caesar-cypher
                                       encryption of the operand.
                                       

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Restoration of the ‘rot_13’ text transform.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Restoration of the ‘rot13’ alias.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Next: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage,  Prev: Python Specific Encodings,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.18 ‘encodings.idna’ -- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
...........................................................................

This module implements RFC 3490(1) (Internationalized Domain Names in
Applications) and RFC 3492(2) (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ‘punycode’
encoding and *note stringprep: d3.

If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from RFC 5891(3) and RFC 5895(4), use
the third-party idna(5) module.

These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in
domain names.  A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as
‘www.Alliancefrançaise.nu’) is converted into an ASCII-compatible
encoding (ACE, such as ‘www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu’).  The ACE form
of the domain name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters
are not allowed by the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP ‘Host’
fields, and so on.  This conversion is carried out in the application;
if possible invisible to the user: The application should transparently
convert Unicode domain labels to IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE
labels to Unicode before presenting them to the user.

Python supports this conversion in several ways: the ‘idna’ codec
performs conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string
into labels based on the separator characters defined in section 3.1 of
RFC 3490(6) and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely
separating an input byte string into labels based on the ‘.’ separator
and converting any ACE labels found into unicode.  Furthermore, the
*note socket: cb. module transparently converts Unicode host names to
ACE, so that applications need not be concerned about converting host
names themselves when they pass them to the socket module.  On top of
that, modules that have host names as function parameters, such as *note
http.client: 6e. and *note ftplib: 5d, accept Unicode host names (*note
http.client: 6e. then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the
‘Host’ field if it sends that field at all).

When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name
lookup), no automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: applications
wishing to present such host names to the user should decode them to
Unicode.

The module *note encodings.idna: 51. also implements the nameprep
procedure, which performs certain normalizations on host names, to
achieve case-insensitivity of international domain names, and to unify
similar characters.  The nameprep functions can be used directly if
desired.

 -- Fonction: encodings.idna.nameprep (label)

     Return the nameprepped version of 'label'.  The implementation
     currently assumes query strings, so ‘AllowUnassigned’ is true.

 -- Fonction: encodings.idna.ToASCII (label)

     Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in RFC 3490(7).
     ‘UseSTD3ASCIIRules’ is assumed to be false.

 -- Fonction: encodings.idna.ToUnicode (label)

     Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in RFC 3490(8).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5891.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5895.html

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/idna/

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html


File: python.info,  Node: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage,  Next: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.19 ‘encodings.mbcs’ -- Windows ANSI codepage
..................................................

This module implements the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

*note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Before 3.2, the 'errors' argument was
ignored; ‘'replace'’ was always used to encode, and ‘'ignore'’ to
decode.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Support any error handler.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage,  Up: codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.20 ‘encodings.utf_8_sig’ -- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
................................................................

This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec.  On encoding, a
UTF-8 encoded BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes.  For the
stateful encoder this is only done once (on the first write to the byte
stream).  On decoding, an optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the
data will be skipped.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données,  Next: Modules numériques et mathématiques,  Prev: Services autour des Données Binaires,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.8 Types de données
====================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent une gamme de types
de données spécialisés tel que les dates et les heures, les listes à
type prédéfini, les 'heap queue', les queues synchronisées et les
énumérations.

Python fournit aussi quelques types natifs, typiquement *note dict: 253,
*note list: 5fe, *note set: 5c5, *note frozenset: 5c6, et *note tuple:
366.  La classe *note str: 437. est utilisée pour stocker des chaînes
Unicode, et les classes *note bytes: 1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b. des
données binaires.

Les modules suivants sont documentés dans ce chapitre :

* Menu:

* datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure::
* zoneinfo: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support. IANA time zone support
* calendar: calendar --- General calendar-related functions. General calendar-related functions
* collections: collections --- Container datatypes. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers. Abstract Base Classes for Containers
* heapq: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm. Heap queue algorithm
* bisect: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm. Array bisection algorithm
* array: array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values. Efficient arrays of numeric values
* weakref: weakref --- Weak references. Weak references
* types: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types. Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
* copy: copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations. Shallow and deep copy operations
* pprint — L’affichage élégant de données::
* reprlib: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation. Alternate repr() implementation
* enum: enum --- Support for enumerations. Support for enumerations
* graphlib: graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures


File: python.info,  Node: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure,  Next: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support,  Up: Types de données

5.8.1 ‘datetime’ — Types de base pour la date et l'heure
--------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/datetime.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module ‘datetime’ fournit des classes permettant de manipuler les
dates et les heures.

Bien que les calculs de date et d'heure sont gérés, l'attention lors de
l'implémentation s'est essentiellement portée sur l'efficacité de
l'extraction des attributs en vue de leur manipulation et formatage pour
l'affichage.

     Astuce: Skip to *note the format codes: 23dd.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note calendar: 14.

     Fonctions génériques associées au calendrier.

Module *note time: ed.

     Accès aux données d'horaires et aux conversions associées.

Module *note zoneinfo: 133.

     Fuseaux horaires concrets représentant la base de données IANA.

Paquet dateutil(2)

     Bibliothèque tierce avec prise en charge complète du fuseau horaire
     et de l'analyse de dates sous forme textuelle.

Package DateType(3)

     Bibliothèque tierce qui introduit des types statiques distincts
     pour, par ex.  permettre aux *note vérificateurs statiques de
     typage: 26a. de faire la différence entre les dates et horaires
     naïfs et avisés.

* Menu:

* Objets avisés et naïfs::
* Constantes::
* Types disponibles::
* Objets timedelta::
* Objets date::
* Objets datetime::
* Objets time::
* Objets tzinfo::
* Objets timezone::
* strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/datetime.py

   (2) https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/DateType/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets avisés et naïfs,  Next: Constantes,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.1 Objets avisés et naïfs
..............................

Les objets 'date' et 'time' peuvent être classés comme « avisés » ou
« naïfs » selon qu'ils contiennent ou non des informations sur le fuseau
horaire.

Un objet 'avisé' possède suffisamment de connaissance des règles à
appliquer et des politiques d'ajustement de l'heure comme les
informations sur les fuseaux horaires et l'heure d'été pour se situer de
façon relative par rapport à d'autres objets avisés.  Un objet avisé est
utilisé pour représenter un instant précis qui n'est pas ouvert à
l'interprétation (1).

Un objet 'naïf' ne comporte pas assez d'informations pour se situer sans
ambiguïté par rapport à d'autres objets 'date/time'.  Le fait qu'un
objet naïf représente un Temps universel coordonné (UTC), une heure
locale ou une heure dans un autre fuseau horaire dépend complètement du
programme, tout comme un nombre peut représenter une longueur, un poids
ou une distance pour le programme.  Les objets naïfs sont simples à
comprendre et il est aisé de travailler avec, au prix de négliger
certains aspects de la réalité.

Pour les applications nécessitant des objets avisés, les objets *note
datetime: 1c7. et *note time: 1c9. ont un attribut facultatif
renseignant le fuseau horaire, ‘tzinfo’, qui peut être une instance
d'une sous-classe de la classe abstraite *note tzinfo: 5ca.  Ces objets
*note tzinfo: 5ca. regroupent des informations sur le décalage par
rapport à l'heure UTC, le nom du fuseau horaire, et si l'heure d'été est
en vigueur.

Notez qu'une seule classe concrète *note tzinfo: 5ca, la classe *note
timezone: 10a3, est proposée par le module ‘datetime’.  La classe
‘timezone’ peut représenter des fuseaux horaires simples avec un
décalage fixe par rapport à UTC, comme UTC lui-même ou les fuseaux EST
et EDT d'Amérique du Nord.  Gérer des fuseaux horaires d'un niveau de
détails plus avancé est à la charge de l'application.  Les règles
d'ajustement du temps à travers le monde sont plus politiques que
rationnelles, changent fréquemment, et il n'y a pas de standard qui
vaille pour toute application, en dehors d'UTC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Si on ignore les effets de la Relativité


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes,  Next: Types disponibles,  Prev: Objets avisés et naïfs,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.2 Constantes
..................

Le module ‘datetime’ exporte les constantes suivantes :

 -- Données: datetime.MINYEAR

     Le numéro d'année le plus petit autorisé dans un objet *note date:
     1c8. ou *note datetime: 1c7.  *note MINYEAR: 23e1. vaut 1.

 -- Données: datetime.MAXYEAR

     Le numéro d'année le plus grand autorisé dans un objet *note date:
     1c8. ou *note datetime: 1c7.  *note MAXYEAR: 23e2. vaut 9999.

 -- Données: datetime.UTC

     Alias du singleton de fuseau horaire UTC *note
     datetime.timezone.utc: 601.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Types disponibles,  Next: Objets timedelta,  Prev: Constantes,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.3 Types disponibles
.........................

 -- Classe: datetime.date

     Une date naïve idéalisée, en supposant que le calendrier Grégorien
     actuel a toujours existé et qu'il existera toujours.  Attributs :
     *note year: 23e4, *note month: 23e5. et *note day: 23e6.

 -- Classe: datetime.time

     Un temps idéalisé, indépendant d'une date particulière, en
     supposant qu'une journée est composée d'exactement 24*60*60
     secondes (il n'y a pas ici de notion de « seconde intercalaire »).
     Attributs : *note hour: 23e7, *note minute: 23e8, *note second:
     23e9, *note microsecond: 23ea. et *note tzinfo: 23eb.

 -- Classe: datetime.datetime

     Une combinaison d'une date et d'une heure.  Attributs : *note year:
     23ec, *note month: 23ed, *note day: 23ee, *note hour: 23ef, *note
     minute: 23f0, *note second: 23f1, *note microsecond: 23f2, et *note
     tzinfo: 23f3.

 -- Classe: datetime.timedelta

     Une durée qui exprime la différence entre deux instances de *note
     datetime: 1c7. ou *note date: 1c8. en microsecondes.

 -- Classe: datetime.tzinfo

     Une classe mère abstraite pour les objets portants des informations
     sur les fuseaux horaires.  Ceux-ci sont utilisés par les classes
     *note datetime: 1c7. et *note time: 1c9. pour donner une notion
     personnalisable d'ajustement d'horaire (par exemple la prise en
     compte d'un fuseau horaire et/ou de l'heure d'été).

 -- Classe: datetime.timezone

     Une classe qui implémente la classe mère abstraite *note tzinfo:
     5ca. en tant que décalage fixe par rapport au temps UTC.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les objets issus de ces types sont immuables.

Relations entre les sous-classes :

     object
         timedelta
         tzinfo
             timezone
         time
         date
             datetime

* Menu:

* Propriétés communes::
* Catégorisation d'un objet en « avisé » ou « naïf »::


File: python.info,  Node: Propriétés communes,  Next: Catégorisation d'un objet en « avisé » ou « naïf »,  Up: Types disponibles

5.8.1.4 Propriétés communes
...........................

Les types *note date: 1c8, *note datetime: 1c7, *note time: 1c9, et
*note timezone: 10a3. partagent les caractéristiques suivantes :

   - Les objets issus de ces types sont immuables.

   - Les objets de ces types sont *note hachable: 5fd, ce qui signifie
     qu'ils peuvent être utilisés comme clés de dictionnaire.

   - Les objets de ces types peuvent être sérialisés efficacement par le
     module *note pickle: a5.


File: python.info,  Node: Catégorisation d'un objet en « avisé » ou « naïf »,  Prev: Propriétés communes,  Up: Types disponibles

5.8.1.5 Catégorisation d'un objet en « avisé » ou « naïf »
..........................................................

Les objets de type *note date: 1c8. sont toujours naïfs.

Un objet du type *note time: 1c9. ou *note datetime: 1c7. peut être
avisé ou naïf.

Un objet *note datetime: 1c7. ‘d’ est avisé si les deux conditions
suivantes vérifient :

  1. ‘d.tzinfo’ ne vaut pas ‘None’

  2. ‘d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)’ ne renvoie pas ‘None’

Autrement, ‘d’ est naïf.

Un objet *note time: 1c9. ‘t’ est avisé si les deux conditions suivantes
vérifient :

  1. ‘t.tzinfo’ ne vaut pas ‘None’

  2. ‘t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’ ne renvoie pas ‘None’.

Autrement, ‘t’ est naïf.

La distinction entre avisé et naïf ne s'applique pas aux objets de type
*note timedelta: 9bf.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets timedelta,  Next: Objets date,  Prev: Types disponibles,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.6 Objets ‘timedelta’
..........................

Un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. représente une durée, c'est-à-dire la
différence entre deux instances de *note datetime: 1c7. ou *note date:
1c8.

 -- Classe: datetime.timedelta (days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0,
          milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

     Tous les arguments sont optionnels et ont 0 comme valeur par
     défaut.  Les arguments peuvent être des entiers ou des flottants et
     ils peuvent être positifs ou négatifs.

     Seuls les 'jours', les 'secondes' et les 'microsecondes' sont
     stockés en interne.  Les arguments sont convertis dans ces unités :

        * Une milliseconde est convertie en 1000 microsecondes.

        * Une minute est convertie en 60 secondes.

        * Une heure est convertie en 3600 secondes.

        * Une semaine est convertie en 7 jours.

     et ensuite les jours, secondes et microsecondes sont normalisés
     pour que la représentation soit unique avec

        * ‘0 <= microseconds < 1000000’

        * ‘0 <= secondes < 3600*24’ (le nombre de secondes dans une
          journée)

        * ‘-999999999 <= days <= 999999999’

     L'exemple suivant illustre comment tous les arguments autres que
     'days', 'seconds' et 'microseconds' sont « fusionnés » et
     normalisés dans ces trois attributs résultants :

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> delta = timedelta(
          ...     days=50,
          ...     seconds=27,
          ...     microseconds=10,
          ...     milliseconds=29000,
          ...     minutes=5,
          ...     hours=8,
          ...     weeks=2
          ... )
          >>> # Only days, seconds, and microseconds remain
          >>> delta
          datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)

     Si l'un des arguments est un flottant et qu'il y a des
     microsecondes décimales, les microsecondes décimales laissées par
     les arguments sont combinées et leur somme est arrondie à la
     microseconde la plus proche en arrondissant les demis vers le
     nombre pair.  Si aucun argument n'est flottant, les processus de
     conversion et de normalisation seront exacts (pas d'informations
     perdues).

     Si la valeur normalisée des jours déborde de l'intervalle indiqué,
     une *note OverflowError: 86f. est levée.

     Notez que la normalisation de valeurs négatives peut être
     surprenante au premier abord.  Par exemple :

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> d = timedelta(microseconds=-1)
          >>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
          (-1, 86399, 999999)

Attributs de la classe :

 -- Attribut: timedelta.min

     L'objet *note timedelta: 9bf. le plus négatif,
     ‘timedelta(-999999999)’.

 -- Attribut: timedelta.max

     L'objet *note timedelta: 9bf. le plus positif,
     ‘timedelta(days=999999999, hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59,
     microseconds=999999)’.

 -- Attribut: timedelta.resolution

     La plus petite différence entre des objets *note timedelta: 9bf.
     non égaux, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Il est à noter, du fait de la normalisation, que ‘timedelta.max’ est
plus grand que ‘-timedelta.min’.  ‘-timedelta.max’ n'est pas
représentable sous la forme d'un objet *note timedelta: 9bf.

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

 -- Attribut: timedelta.days

     Entre -999999999 et 999999999 inclus

 -- Attribut: timedelta.seconds

     Entre 0 et 86399 inclus.

          Prudence: It is a somewhat common bug for code to
          unintentionally use this attribute when it is actually
          intended to get a *note total_seconds(): 12e6. value instead:

               >>> from datetime import timedelta
               >>> duration = timedelta(seconds=11235813)
               >>> duration.days, duration.seconds
               (130, 3813)
               >>> duration.total_seconds()
               11235813.0

 -- Attribut: timedelta.microseconds

     Entre 0 et 999999 inclus.

Opérations gérées :

Opération                            Résultat
                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘t1 = t2 + t3’                       Somme de ‘t2’ et ‘t3’.  Ensuite ‘t1 - t2 == t3’
                                     et ‘t1 - t3 == t2’ sont des expressions vraies.
                                     (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 - t3’                       Différence entre ‘t2’ et ‘t3’.  Ensuite ‘t1 == t2
                                     - t3’ et ‘t2 == t1 + t3’ sont des expressions
                                     vraies.  (1)(6)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * i or t1 = i * t2’         Delta multiplié par un entier.  Ensuite ‘t1 // i
                                     == t2’ est vrai, en admettant que ‘i != 0’.
                                     
                                     
                                     De manière générale, ‘t1 * i == t1 * (i-1) + t1’
                                     est vrai.  (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * f or t1 = f * t2’         Delta multiplié par un flottant.  Le résultat est
                                     arrondi au multiple le plus proche de
                                     ‘timedelta.resolution’ en utilisant la règle de
                                     l'arrondi au pair le plus proche.
                                     
                                     
‘f = t2 / t3’                        Division (3) de la durée totale ‘t2’ par l'unité
                                     d'intervalle ‘t3’.  Renvoie un objet
                                     *note float: 2ec.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 / f or t1 = t2 / i’         Delta divisé par un flottant ou un entier.  Le
                                     résultat est arrondi au multiple le plus proche
                                     de ‘timedelta.resolution’ en utilisant la règle
                                     de l'arrondi au pair le plus proche.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 // i’ or ‘t1 = t2 // t3’    Le quotient est calculé et le reste (s'il y en a
                                     un) est ignoré.  Dans le second cas, un entier
                                     est renvoyé.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 % t3’                       Le reste est calculé comme un objet de type
                                     *note timedelta: 9bf.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘q, r = divmod(t1, t2)’              Calcule le quotient et le reste : ‘q = t1 // t2’
                                     (3) et ‘r = t1 % t2’.  ‘q’ est un entier et ‘r’
                                     est un objet *note timedelta: 9bf.
                                     
                                     
‘+t1’                                Renvoie un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. avec la
                                     même valeur.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘-t1’                                Équivalent à ‘timedelta(-t1.days, -t1.seconds,
                                     -t1.microseconds)’, et à ‘t1 * -1’.  (1)(4)
                                     
                                     
‘abs(t)’                             Équivalent à ‘+t’ quand ‘t.days >= 0’, et à ‘-t’
                                     quand ‘t.days < 0’.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘str(t)’                             Renvoie une chaîne de la forme ‘[D day[s],
                                     ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]’, où D est négatif pour ‘t’
                                     négatif.  (5)
                                     
                                     
‘repr(t)’                            Renvoie une chaîne de la forme objet
                                     *note timedelta: 9bf. comme un appel construit
                                     avec des valeurs d'attributs canoniques.
                                     

Notes :

  1. Ceci est exact, mais peut provoquer un débordement.

  2. Ceci est exact, et ne peut pas provoquer un débordement.

  3. Une division par zéro lève une *note ZeroDivisionError: 934.

  4. ‘-timedelta.max’ n'est pas représentable avec un objet *note
     timedelta: 9bf.

  5. La représentation en chaîne des objets *note timedelta: 9bf. est
     normalisée similairement à leur représentation interne.  Cela amène
     à des résultats inhabituels pour des 'timedeltas' négatifs.  Par
     exemple :

          >>> timedelta(hours=-5)
          datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
          >>> print(_)
          -1 day, 19:00:00

  6. L'expression ‘t2 - t3’ est toujours égale à l'expression ‘t2 +
     (-t3)’ sauf si ‘t3’ vaut ‘timedelta.max’ ; dans ce cas, la première
     expression produit une valeur alors que la seconde produit un
     débordement.

En plus des opérations listées ci-dessus, les objets *note timedelta:
9bf. implémentent certaines additions et soustractions avec des objets
*note date: 1c8. et *note datetime: 1c7. (voir ci-dessous).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: La division entière et la vraie division
d'un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. par un autre *note timedelta: 9bf. sont
maintenant gérées, comme le sont les opérations de reste euclidien et la
fonction *note divmod(): 991.  La vraie division et la multiplication
d'un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. par un *note float: 2ec. sont
maintenant implémentées.

Les objets *note timedelta: 9bf. supportent les comparaisons d'égalité
et d'ordre.

Dans les contextes booléens, un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. est
considéré comme vrai si et seulement s'il n'est pas égal à
‘timedelta(0)’.

Méthodes de l'instance :

 -- Méthode: timedelta.total_seconds ()

     Renvoie le nombre total de secondes contenues dans la durée.
     Équivalent à ‘td / timedelta(seconds=1)’.  Pour un intervalle dont
     l'unité n'est pas la seconde, utilisez directement la division (par
     exemple, ‘td / timedelta(microseconds=1)’).

     Notez que pour des intervalles de temps très larges (supérieurs à
     270 ans sur la plupart des plateformes), cette méthode perdra la
     précision des microsecondes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Exemples d'utilisation de la classe timedelta ;: Exemples d'utilisation de la classe timedelta.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'utilisation de la classe timedelta,  Up: Objets timedelta

5.8.1.7 Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ‘timedelta’ :
.........................................................

Un exemple supplémentaire de normalisation :

     >>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> another_year = timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
     ...                          minutes=50, seconds=600)
     >>> year == another_year
     True
     >>> year.total_seconds()
     31536000.0

Exemples d'arithmétique avec la classe *note timedelta: 9bf. :

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> ten_years = 10 * year
     >>> ten_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
     >>> ten_years.days // 365
     10
     >>> nine_years = ten_years - year
     >>> nine_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3285)
     >>> three_years = nine_years // 3
     >>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
     (datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)


File: python.info,  Node: Objets date,  Next: Objets datetime,  Prev: Objets timedelta,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.8 Objets ‘date’
.....................

Un objet *note date: 1c8. représente une date (année, mois et jour) dans
un calendrier idéal, le calendrier grégorien actuel étant indéfiniment
étendu dans les deux sens.

Le 1 ^er janvier de l'année 1 est appelé jour numéro 1, le 2 janvier de
l'année 1 est appelé jour numéro 2, et ainsi de suite.  (1)

 -- Classe: datetime.date (year, month, day)

     Tous les arguments sont requis.  Les arguments peuvent être des
     entiers, dans les intervalles suivants :

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’

        * ‘1 <= day <= nombre de jours dans le mois et l'année donnés’

     Si un argument est donné en dehors de ces intervalles, une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

Autres constructeurs, méthodes de classe :

 -- Méthode: classmethod date.today ()

     Renvoie la date locale courante.

     Cela est équivalent à ‘date.fromtimestamp(time.time())’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod date.fromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Renvoie la date locale correspondant à l'horodatage POSIX, telle
     que renvoyée par *note time.time(): 251.

     Elle peut lever une *note OverflowError: 86f, si l'horodatage est
     en dehors des bornes gérées par la fonction C ‘localtime()’ de la
     plateforme, et une exception *note OSError: 40d. en cas d'échec de
     ‘localtime()’.  Il est commun d'être restreint aux années entre
     1970 et 2038.  Notez que sur les systèmes non 'POSIX' qui incluent
     les secondes intercalaires dans leur notion d'horodatage, ces
     secondes sont ignorées par *note fromtimestamp(): 15c5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Lève une *note OverflowError: 86f.
     plutôt qu'une *note ValueError: 1ff. si l'horodatage ('timestamp'
     en anglais) est en dehors des bornes gérées par la fonction C
     ‘localtime()’ de la plateforme.  Lève une *note OSError: 40d.
     plutôt qu'une *note ValueError: 1ff. en cas d'échec de
     ‘localtime()’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod date.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Renvoie la date correspondant à l'ordinal grégorien proleptique, où
     le 1er janvier de l'an 1 a l'ordinal 1.

     *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée à moins que ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     date.max.toordinal()’.  Pour toute date ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod date.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Renvoie une *note date: 1c8. correspondant à 'date_string' dans un
     format ISO 8601 valide, avec les exceptions suivantes :

       1. Les dates à précision réduite ne sont actuellement pas gérées
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       2. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       3. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     Exemples :

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('20191204')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
          datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Auparavant, cette méthode prenait en
     charge seulement le format ‘YYYY-MM-DD’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod date.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Renvoie une *note date: 1c8. correspondant à la date du calendrier
     ISO définie par l'année, la semaine et le jour.  C'est la
     réciproque de la fonction *note date.isocalendar(): 8e4.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Attributs de la classe :

 -- Attribut: date.min

     La plus vieille date représentable, ‘date(MINYEAR, 1, 1)’.

 -- Attribut: date.max

     La dernière date représentable, ‘date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31)’.

 -- Attribut: date.resolution

     La plus petite différence possible entre deux objets dates
     non-égaux, ‘timedelta(days=1)’.

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

 -- Attribut: date.year

     Entre *note MINYEAR: 23e1. et *note MAXYEAR: 23e2. inclus.

 -- Attribut: date.month

     Entre 1 et 12 inclus.

 -- Attribut: date.day

     Entre 1 et le nombre de jours du mois donné de l'année donnée.

Opérations gérées :

Opération                           Résultat
                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘date2 = date1 + timedelta’         ‘date2’ will be ‘timedelta.days’ days after
                                    ‘date1’.  (1)
                                    
                                    
‘date2 = date1 - timedelta’         Computes ‘date2’ such that ‘date2 + timedelta ==
                                    date1’.  (2)
                                    
                                    
‘timedelta = date1 - date2’         (3)
                                    
                                    
     ‘date1 == date2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘date1 != date2’               

     ‘date1 < date2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘date1 > date2’                
     ‘date1 <= date2’
     ‘date1 >= date2’

Notes :

  1. ‘date2’ est déplacée en avant dans le temps si ‘timedelta.days >
     0’, ou en arrière si ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  Après quoi ‘date2 -
     date1 == timedelta.days’.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ et
     ‘timedelta.microseconds’ sont ignorés.  Une *note OverflowError:
     86f. est levée si ‘date2.year’ devait être inférieure à *note
     MINYEAR: 23e1. ou supérieure à *note MAXYEAR: 23e2.

  2. ‘timedelta.seconds’ et ‘timedelta.microseconds’ sont ignorés.

  3. This is exact, and cannot overflow.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and
     ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are 0, and ‘date2 + timedelta == date1’
     after.

  4. *note date: 1c8. objects are equal if they represent the same date.

     ‘date’ objects that are not also *note datetime: 1c7. instances are
     never equal to ‘datetime’ objects, even if they represent the same
     date.

  5. 'date1' is considered less than 'date2' when 'date1' precedes
     'date2' in time.  In other words, ‘date1 < date2’ if and only if
     ‘date1.toordinal() < date2.toordinal()’.

     Order comparison between a ‘date’ object that is not also a *note
     datetime: 1c7. instance and a ‘datetime’ object raises *note
     TypeError: 525.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Comparison between *note datetime: 1c7.
object and an instance of the *note date: 1c8. subclass that is not a
‘datetime’ subclass no longer converts the latter to ‘date’, ignoring
the time part and the time zone.  The default behavior can be changed by
overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

Dans des contextes booléens, tous les objets *note date: 1c8. sont
considérés comme vrai.

Méthodes de l'instance :

 -- Méthode: date.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day)

     Return a new *note date: 1c8. object with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.

     Exemple :

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> d = date(2002, 12, 31)
          >>> d.replace(day=26)
          datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)

     The generic function *note copy.replace(): 150. also supports *note
     date: 1c8. objects.

 -- Méthode: date.timetuple ()

     Renvoie une *note time.struct_time: cda. telle que renvoyée par
     *note time.localtime(): 14b1.

     Les heures, minutes et secondes sont égales à 0 et le drapeau DST
     vaut -1.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ est équivalent à :

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0, d.weekday(), yday, -1))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.

 -- Méthode: date.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1
     of year 1 has ordinal 1.  For any *note date: 1c8. object ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- Méthode: date.weekday ()

     Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 0
     et dimanche vaut 6.  Par exemple, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).weekday() ==
     2’, un mercredi.  Voir aussi *note isoweekday(): 2408.

 -- Méthode: date.isoweekday ()

     Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 1
     et dimanche vaut 7.  Par exemple, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday()
     == 3’, un mercredi.  Voir aussi *note weekday(): 2407, *note
     isocalendar(): 8e4.

 -- Méthode: date.isocalendar ()

     Renvoie un objet *note named tuple: 63b. avec trois composants :
     ‘year’, ‘week’ et ‘weekday’.

     Le calendrier ISO est une variante largement utilisée du calendrier
     grégorien.  (2)

     Une année ISO est composée de 52 ou 53 semaines pleines, où chaque
     semaine débute un lundi et se termine un dimanche.  La première
     semaine d'une année ISO est la première semaine calendaire
     (grégorienne) de l'année comportant un jeudi.  Elle est appelée la
     semaine numéro 1, et l'année ISO de ce jeudi est la même que son
     année Grégorienne.

     Par exemple, l'année 2004 débute un jeudi, donc la première semaine
     de l'année ISO 2004 débute le lundi 29 décembre 2003 et se termine
     le dimanche 4 janvier 2004 :

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
          >>> date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le résultat a changé d'un 'n'-uplet à
     un *note named tuple: 63b.

 -- Méthode: date.isoformat ()

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date au format ISO 8601,
     ‘YYYY-MM-DD’ :

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
          '2002-12-04'

 -- Méthode: date.__str__ ()

     For a date ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to ‘d.isoformat()’.

 -- Méthode: date.ctime ()

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date :

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 00:00:00 2002'

     ‘d.ctime()’ est équivalent à :

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     sur les plateformes où la fonction C native ‘ctime()’ (que *note
     time.ctime(): 240c. invoque, mais pas *note date.ctime(): 240b.)
     est conforme au standard C.

 -- Méthode: date.strftime (format)

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date, contrôlée par une chaîne
     de formatage explicite.  Les codes de formatage se référant aux
     heures, minutes ou secondes auront pour valeur 0.  Voir *note
     strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 1785. et *note
     date.isoformat(): 2409.

 -- Méthode: date.__format__ (format)

     Identique à *note date.strftime(): c81.  Cela permet de spécifier
     une chaîne de formatage pour un objet *note date: 1c8. dans une
     *note chaîne de formatage littérale: 999. et à l'utilisation de
     *note str.format(): 60e.  Voir *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 1785. et *note date.isoformat(): 2409.

* Menu:

* Exemple d'utilisation de la classe date ;: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe date.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Cela correspond à la définition du calendrier « grégorien
proleptique » dans le livre 'Calendrical Calculations' de Dershowitz et
Reingold, où il est la base de tous les calculs.  Référez-vous au livre
pour les algorithmes de conversion entre calendriers grégorien
proleptique et les autres systèmes.

   (2) Voir R. H. van Gent guide des mathématiques du calendrier ISO
8601
(https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm)
pour une bonne explication.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe date,  Up: Objets date

5.8.1.9 Exemple d'utilisation de la classe ‘date’ :
...................................................

Exemple de décompte des jours avant un évènement :

     >>> import time
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> today = date.today()
     >>> today
     datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
     >>> today == date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
     True
     >>> my_birthday = date(today.year, 6, 24)
     >>> if my_birthday < today:
     ...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
     ...
     >>> my_birthday
     datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
     >>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
     >>> time_to_birthday.days
     202

Plus d'exemples avec la classe *note date: 1c8. :

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> d = date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
     >>> d
     datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)

     >>> # Methods related to formatting string output
     >>> d.isoformat()
     '2002-03-11'
     >>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
     '11/03/02'
     >>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
     'Monday 11. March 2002'
     >>> d.ctime()
     'Mon Mar 11 00:00:00 2002'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
     'The day is 11, the month is March.'

     >>> # Methods for to extracting 'components' under different calendars
     >>> t = d.timetuple()
     >>> for i in t:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # year
     3                   # month
     11                  # day
     0
     0
     0
     0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
     70                  # 70th day in the year
     -1
     >>> ic = d.isocalendar()
     >>> for i in ic:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # ISO year
     11                  # ISO week number
     1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )

     >>> # A date object is immutable; all operations produce a new object
     >>> d.replace(year=2005)
     datetime.date(2005, 3, 11)


File: python.info,  Node: Objets datetime,  Next: Objets time,  Prev: Objets date,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.10 Objets ‘datetime’
..........................

Un objet *note datetime: 1c7. est un seul et même objet contenant toute
l'information d'un objet *note date: 1c8. et d'un objet *note time: 1c9.

Comme un objet *note date: 1c8, un objet *note datetime: 1c7. utilise le
calendrier Grégorien actuel étendu vers le passé et le futur ; comme un
objet *note time: 1c9, un objet *note datetime: 1c7. suppose qu'il y a
exactement 3600*24 secondes chaque jour.

Constructeur :

 -- Classe: datetime.datetime (year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0,
          second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     Les arguments 'year', 'month' et 'day' sont requis.  'tzinfo' peut
     être ‘None’ ou une instance d'une sous-classe de *note tzinfo: 5ca.
     Les arguments restant doivent être des nombres, dans les
     intervalles suivants :

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’,

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’,

        * ‘1 <= day <= nombre de jours dans le mois donné de l'année
          donnée’,

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     Si un argument est donné en dehors de ces intervalles, une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'fold' parameter.

Autres constructeurs, méthodes de classe :

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.today ()

     Return the current local date and time, with *note tzinfo: 23f3.
     ‘None’.

     Équivalent à :

          datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())

     Voir aussi *note now(): 4d9, *note fromtimestamp(): 4da.

     Cette méthode est fonctionnellement équivalente à *note now(): 4d9,
     mais sans le paramètre ‘tz’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.now (tz=None)

     Renvoie la date et l'heure locale actuelle.

     Si l'argument optionnel 'tz' est ‘None’ ou n'est pas spécifié, la
     méthode est similaire à *note today(): 2411, mais, si possible,
     apporte plus de précisions que ce qui peut être trouvé à travers un
     horodatage *note time.time(): 251. (par exemple, cela peut être
     possible sur des plateformes fournissant la fonction C
     ‘gettimeofday()’).

     Si 'tz' n'est pas ‘None’, il doit être une instance d'une
     sous-classe *note tzinfo: 5ca, et la date et l'heure courantes sont
     converties vers le fuseau horaire 'tz'.

     Cette fonction est préférée à *note today(): 2411. et *note
     utcnow(): 2f1.

          Note: Subsequent calls to ‘datetime.now()’ may return the same
          instant depending on the precision of the underlying clock.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.utcnow ()

     Renvoie la date et l'heure UTC actuelle, avec *note tzinfo: 23f3.
     ‘None’.

     C'est semblable à *note now(): 4d9, mais renvoie la date et l'heure
     UTC courantes, comme un objet *note datetime: 1c7. naïf.  Un
     ‘datetime’ UTC courant avisé peut être obtenu en appelant
     ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.  Voir aussi *note now(): 4d9.

          Avertissement: Parce que les objets naïfs ‘datetime’ sont
          traités par de nombreuses méthodes ‘datetime’ comme des heures
          locales, il est préférable d'utiliser les dates connues pour
          représenter les heures en UTC. En tant que tel, le moyen
          recommandé pour créer un objet représentant l'heure actuelle
          en UTC est d'appeler ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note datetime.now(): 4d9.
     with *note UTC: 4db. instead.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.fromtimestamp (timestamp, tz=None)

     Renvoie la date et l'heure locales correspondant à l'horodatage
     ('timestamp' en anglais) 'POSIX', comme renvoyé par *note
     time.time(): 251.  Si l'argument optionnel 'tz' est ‘None’ ou n'est
     pas spécifié, l'horodatage est converti vers la date et l'heure
     locales de la plateforme, et l'objet *note datetime: 1c7. renvoyé
     est naïf.

     Si 'tz' n'est pas ‘None’, il doit être une instance d'une
     sous-classe *note tzinfo: 5ca, et l'horodatage ('timestamp' en
     anglais) est converti vers le fuseau horaire 'tz'.

     *note fromtimestamp(): 4da. peut lever une *note OverflowError:
     86f, si l'horodatage est en dehors de l'intervalle de valeurs
     gérées par les fonctions C ‘localtime()’ ou ‘gmtime()’ de la
     plateforme, et une *note OSError: 40d. en cas d'échec de
     ‘localtime()’ ou ‘gmtime()’.  Il est courant d'être restreint aux
     années de 1970 à 2038.  Notez que sur les systèmes non 'POSIX' qui
     incluent les secondes intercalaires dans leur notion d'horodatage,
     les secondes intercalaires sont ignorées par *note fromtimestamp():
     4da, et il est alors possible d'avoir deux horodatages différant
     d'une seconde produisant un objet *note datetime: 1c7. identique.
     Cette méthode est préférée à *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Lève une *note OverflowError: 86f.
     plutôt qu'une *note ValueError: 1ff. si l'horodatage est en dehors
     de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par les fonctions C ‘localtime()’
     ou ‘gmtime()’ de la plateforme.  Lève une *note OSError: 40d.
     plutôt qu'une *note ValueError: 1ff. en cas d'échec de
     ‘localtime()’ ou ‘gmtime()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note fromtimestamp(): 4da. peut
     renvoyer des instances avec l'attribut *note fold: c47. à 1.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.utcfromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Renvoie la classe UTC *note datetime: 1c7. correspondant à
     l'horodatage POSIX, avec *note tzinfo: 23f3. ‘None’ (l'objet
     résultant est naïf).

     Cela peut lever une *note OverflowError: 86f, si l'horodatage est
     en dehors de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par la fonction C
     ‘gmtime()’ de la plateforme, et une *note OSError: 40d. en cas
     d'échec de ‘gmtime()’.  Il est courant d'être restreint aux années
     de 1970 à 2038.

     Pour obtenir un objet *note datetime: 1c7. avisé, appelez *note
     fromtimestamp(): 4da. :

          datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)

     Sur les plateformes respectant 'POSIX', cela est équivalent à
     l'expression suivante :

          datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)

     excepté que la dernière formule gère l'intervalle complet des
     années entre *note MINYEAR: 23e1. et *note MAXYEAR: 23e2. incluses.

          Avertissement: Parce que les objets naïfs ‘datetime’ sont
          traités par de nombreuses méthodes ‘datetime’ comme des heures
          locales, il est préférable d'utiliser les dates connues pour
          représenter les heures en UTC. En tant que tel, le moyen
          recommandé pour créer un objet représentant un horodatage
          spécifique en UTC est d'appeler
          ‘datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=timezone.utc)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Lève une *note OverflowError: 86f.
     plutôt qu'une *note ValueError: 1ff. si l'horodatage est en dehors
     de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par la fonction C ‘gmtime()’ de
     la plateforme.  Lève une *note OSError: 40d. plutôt qu'une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. en cas d'échec de ‘gmtime()’.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note
     datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4da. with *note UTC: 4db. instead.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Renvoie le *note datetime: 1c7. correspondant à l'ordinal du
     calendrier grégorien proleptique, où le 1er janvier de l'an 1 a
     l'ordinal 1.  Une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée à moins que ‘1
     <= ordinal <= datetime.max.toordinal()’.  Les heures, minutes,
     secondes et microsecondes du résultat valent toutes 0, et *note
     tzinfo: 23f3. est ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.combine (date, time,
          tzinfo=time.tzinfo)

     Return a new *note datetime: 1c7. object whose date components are
     equal to the given *note date: 1c8. object's, and whose time
     components are equal to the given *note time: 1c9. object's.  If
     the 'tzinfo' argument is provided, its value is used to set the
     *note tzinfo: 23f3. attribute of the result, otherwise the *note
     tzinfo: 23eb. attribute of the 'time' argument is used.  If the
     'date' argument is a *note datetime: 1c7. object, its time
     components and *note tzinfo: 23f3. attributes are ignored.

     For any *note datetime: 1c7. object ‘d’, ‘d ==
     datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de l'argument 'tzinfo'.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Renvoie une classe *note datetime: 1c7. correspondant à
     'date_string' dans un format ISO 8601 valide, avec les exceptions
     suivantes :

       1. Les décalages de fuseaux horaires peuvent comporter des
          fractions de secondes.

       2. Le séparateur ‘T’ peut être remplacé par n'importe quel
          caractère Unicode.

       3. Les fractions d'heures et de minutes ne sont pas gérées.

       4. Les dates à précision réduite ne sont actuellement pas gérées
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       5. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       6. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     Exemples :

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
              tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this method only
     supported formats that could be emitted by *note date.isoformat():
     2409. or *note datetime.isoformat(): b20.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Renvoie une classe *note datetime: 1c7. correspondant à la date du
     calendrier ISO spécifiée par année, semaine et jour.  Les
     composantes ne relevant pas de la date de 'datetime' sont
     renseignées avec leurs valeurs par défaut normales.  C'est la
     réciproque de la fonction *note datetime.isocalendar(): 8e5.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Méthode: classmethod datetime.strptime (date_string, format)

     Renvoie une classe *note datetime: 1c7. correspondant à
     'date_string', analysée selon 'format'.

     If 'format' does not contain microseconds or time zone information,
     this is equivalent to:

          datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

     Une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée si 'date_string' et 'format'
     ne peuvent être analysés par *note time.strptime(): 13e5. ou si
     elle renvoie une valeur qui n'est pas un 'n'-uplet de temps.  Voir
     *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 1785. et *note
     datetime.fromisoformat(): 604.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: If 'format' specifies a day of month
     without a year a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is now emitted.
     This is to avoid a quadrennial leap year bug in code seeking to
     parse only a month and day as the default year used in absence of
     one in the format is not a leap year.  Such 'format' values may
     raise an error as of Python 3.15.  The workaround is to always
     include a year in your 'format'.  If parsing 'date_string' values
     that do not have a year, explicitly add a year that is a leap year
     before parsing:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> date_string = "02/29"
          >>> when = datetime.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # Avoids leap year bug.
          >>> when.strftime("%B %d")
          'February 29'

Attributs de la classe :

 -- Attribut: datetime.min

     Le plus ancien *note datetime: 1c7. représentable,
     ‘datetime(MINYEAR, 1, 1, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- Attribut: datetime.max

     Le dernier *note datetime: 1c7. représentable, ‘datetime(MAXYEAR,
     12, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- Attribut: datetime.resolution

     La plus petite différence possible entre deux objets *note
     datetime: 1c7. non-égaux, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

 -- Attribut: datetime.year

     Entre *note MINYEAR: 23e1. et *note MAXYEAR: 23e2. inclus.

 -- Attribut: datetime.month

     Entre 1 et 12 inclus.

 -- Attribut: datetime.day

     Entre 1 et le nombre de jours du mois donné de l'année donnée.

 -- Attribut: datetime.hour

     Dans ‘range(24)’.

 -- Attribut: datetime.minute

     Dans ‘range(60)’.

 -- Attribut: datetime.second

     Dans ‘range(60)’.

 -- Attribut: datetime.microsecond

     Dans ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- Attribut: datetime.tzinfo

     L'objet passé en tant que paramètre 'tzinfo' du constructeur de la
     classe *note datetime: 1c7. ou ‘None’ si aucun n'a été donné.

 -- Attribut: datetime.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Opérations gérées :

Opération                                   Résultat
                                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta’         (1)
                                            
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta’         (2)
                                            
                                            
‘timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2’         (3)
                                            
                                            
     ‘datetime1 == datetime2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘datetime1 != datetime2’               

     ‘datetime1 < datetime2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘datetime1 > datetime2’                
     ‘datetime1 <= datetime2’
     ‘datetime1 >= datetime2’

  1. ‘datetime2’ is a duration of ‘timedelta’ removed from ‘datetime1’,
     moving forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or backward if
     ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  The result has the same *note tzinfo: 23f3.
     attribute as the input datetime, and ‘datetime2 - datetime1 ==
     timedelta’ after.  *note OverflowError: 86f. is raised if
     ‘datetime2.year’ would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 23e1. or
     larger than *note MAXYEAR: 23e2.  Note that no time zone
     adjustments are done even if the input is an aware object.

  2. Computes the ‘datetime2’ such that ‘datetime2 + timedelta ==
     datetime1’.  As for addition, the result has the same *note tzinfo:
     23f3. attribute as the input datetime, and no time zone adjustments
     are done even if the input is aware.

  3. La soustraction d'un *note datetime: 1c7. à un autre *note
     datetime: 1c7. n'est définie que si les deux opérandes sont naïfs,
     ou s'ils sont les deux avisés.  Si l'un est avisé et que l'autre
     est naïf, une *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

     If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same *note
     tzinfo: 23f3. attribute, the *note tzinfo: 23f3. attributes are
     ignored, and the result is a *note timedelta: 9bf. object ‘t’ such
     that ‘datetime2 + t == datetime1’.  No time zone adjustments are
     done in this case.

     If both are aware and have different *note tzinfo: 23f3.
     attributes, ‘a-b’ acts as if ‘a’ and ‘b’ were first converted to
     naive UTC datetimes.  The result is ‘(a.replace(tzinfo=None) -
     a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None) - b.utcoffset())’ except
     that the implementation never overflows.

  4. *note datetime: 1c7. objects are equal if they represent the same
     date and time, taking into account the time zone.

     Naive and aware ‘datetime’ objects are never equal.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: c47. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 23f3. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.  ‘datetime’ instances in a repeated
     interval are never equal to ‘datetime’ instances in other time
     zone.

  5. 'datetime1' is considered less than 'datetime2' when 'datetime1'
     precedes 'datetime2' in time, taking into account the time zone.

     Order comparison between naive and aware *note datetime: 1c7.
     objects raises *note TypeError: 525.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: c47. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 23f3. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les comparaisons d'égalité entre des
instances *note datetime: 1c7. naïves et avisées ne lèvent pas
d'exception *note TypeError: 525.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Comparison between *note datetime: 1c7.
object and an instance of the *note date: 1c8. subclass that is not a
‘datetime’ subclass no longer converts the latter to ‘date’, ignoring
the time part and the time zone.  The default behavior can be changed by
overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

Méthodes de l'instance :

 -- Méthode: datetime.date ()

     Renvoie un objet *note date: 1c8. avec les mêmes année, mois et
     jour.

 -- Méthode: datetime.time ()

     Renvoie un objet *note time: 1c9. avec les mêmes heures, minutes,
     secondes, microsecondes et 'fold'.  *note tzinfo: 23f3. est ‘None’.
     Voir aussi la méthode *note timetz(): 2417.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: La valeur 'fold' est copiée vers
     l'objet *note time: 1c9. renvoyé.

 -- Méthode: datetime.timetz ()

     Renvoie un objet *note time: 1c9. avec les mêmes attributs heure,
     minute, seconde, microseconde, 'fold' et 'tzinfo'.  Voir aussi la
     méthode *note time(): ed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: La valeur 'fold' est copiée vers
     l'objet *note time: 1c9. renvoyé.

 -- Méthode: datetime.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day, hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note datetime: 30. object with the same attributes,
     but with specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can
     be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware datetime with
     no conversion of date and time data.

     *note datetime: 1c7. objects are also supported by generic function
     *note copy.replace(): 150.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- Méthode: datetime.astimezone (tz=None)

     Renvoie un objet *note datetime: 1c7. avec un nouvel attribut *note
     tzinfo: 23f3. valant 'tz', ajustant la date et l'heure pour que le
     résultat soit le même temps UTC que 'self', mais dans le temps
     local au fuseau 'tz'.

     If provided, 'tz' must be an instance of a *note tzinfo: 5ca.
     subclass, and its *note utcoffset(): 2418. and *note dst(): 2419.
     methods must not return ‘None’.  If 'self' is naive, it is presumed
     to represent time in the system time zone.

     If called without arguments (or with ‘tz=None’) the system local
     time zone is assumed for the target time zone.  The ‘.tzinfo’
     attribute of the converted datetime instance will be set to an
     instance of *note timezone: 10a3. with the zone name and offset
     obtained from the OS.

     If ‘self.tzinfo’ is 'tz', ‘self.astimezone(tz)’ is equal to 'self':
     no adjustment of date or time data is performed.  Else the result
     is local time in the time zone 'tz', representing the same UTC time
     as 'self': after ‘astz = dt.astimezone(tz)’, ‘astz -
     astz.utcoffset()’ will have the same date and time data as ‘dt -
     dt.utcoffset()’.

     If you merely want to attach a *note timezone: 10a3. object 'tz' to
     a datetime 'dt' without adjustment of date and time data, use
     ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)’.  If you merely want to remove the
     ‘timezone’ object from an aware datetime 'dt' without conversion of
     date and time data, use ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=None)’.

     Notez que la méthode par défaut *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 241a. peut
     être redéfinie dans une sous-classe *note tzinfo: 5ca. pour
     affecter le résultat renvoyé par *note astimezone(): 9c0.  En
     ignorant les cas d'erreurs, *note astimezone(): 9c0. se comporte
     comme :

          def astimezone(self, tz):
              if self.tzinfo is tz:
                  return self
              # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
              utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
              # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
              return tz.fromutc(utc)

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'tz' peut maintenant être omis.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: La méthode *note astimezone(): 9c0.
     peut maintenant être appelée sur des instances naïves qui sont
     supposées représenter un temps local au système.

 -- Méthode: datetime.utcoffset ()

     Si *note tzinfo: 23f3. est ‘None’, renvoie ‘None’, sinon renvoie
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)’, et lève une exception si
     l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas ‘None’ ou un objet *note
     timedelta: 9bf. d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre
     chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

 -- Méthode: datetime.dst ()

     Si *note tzinfo: 23f3. est ‘None’, renvoie ‘None’, sinon renvoie
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(self)’, et lève une exception si l'expression
     précédente ne renvoie pas ‘None’ ou un objet *note timedelta: 9bf.
     d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage DST n'est pas restreint à
     des minutes entières.

 -- Méthode: datetime.tzname ()

     Si *note tzinfo: 23f3. est ‘None’, renvoie ‘None’, sinon renvoie
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(self)’, lève une exception si l'expression
     précédente ne renvoie pas ‘None’ ou une chaîne de caractères,

 -- Méthode: datetime.timetuple ()

     Renvoie une *note time.struct_time: cda. telle que renvoyée par
     *note time.localtime(): 14b1.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ est équivalent à :

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
                            d.hour, d.minute, d.second,
                            d.weekday(), yday, dst))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.  The *note tm_isdst: 241d. flag of the result is set
     according to the *note dst(): 2419. method: *note tzinfo: 23f3. is
     ‘None’ or *note dst(): 2419. returns ‘None’, ‘tm_isdst’ is set to
     ‘-1’; else if *note dst(): 2419. returns a non-zero value,
     ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 1; else ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 0.

 -- Méthode: datetime.utctimetuple ()

     If *note datetime: 1c7. instance ‘d’ is naive, this is the same as
     ‘d.timetuple()’ except that *note tm_isdst: 241d. is forced to 0
     regardless of what ‘d.dst()’ returns.  DST is never in effect for a
     UTC time.

     If ‘d’ is aware, ‘d’ is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
     ‘d.utcoffset()’, and a *note time.struct_time: cda. for the
     normalized time is returned.  ‘tm_isdst’ is forced to 0.  Note that
     an *note OverflowError: 86f. may be raised if ‘d.year’ was
     ‘MINYEAR’ or ‘MAXYEAR’ and UTC adjustment spills over a year
     boundary.

          Avertissement: Comme les objets ‘datetime’ naïfs sont traités
          par de nombreuses méthodes ‘datetime’ comme des heures
          locales, il est préférable d'utiliser les ‘datetime’ avisés
          pour représenter les heures en UTC ; par conséquent,
          l'utilisation de ‘datetime.utcfromtimetuple()’ peut donner des
          résultats trompeurs.  Si vous disposez d'une ‘datetime’ naïve
          représentant l'heure UTC, utilisez
          ‘datetime.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)’ pour la rendre avisée,
          puis vous pouvez utiliser *note datetime.timetuple(): 241c.

 -- Méthode: datetime.toordinal ()

     Renvoie l'ordinal du calendrier grégorien proleptique de cette
     date.  Identique à ‘self.date().toordinal()’.

 -- Méthode: datetime.timestamp ()

     Renvoie l'horodatage 'POSIX' correspondant à l'instance *note
     datetime: 1c7.  La valeur renvoyée est un *note float: 2ec.
     similaire à ceux renvoyés par *note time.time(): 251.

     Naive *note datetime: 1c7. instances are assumed to represent local
     time and this method relies on the platform C ‘mktime()’ function
     to perform the conversion.  Since *note datetime: 1c7. supports
     wider range of values than ‘mktime()’ on many platforms, this
     method may raise *note OverflowError: 86f. or *note OSError: 40d.
     for times far in the past or far in the future.

     Pour les instances *note datetime: 1c7. avisées, la valeur renvoyée
     est calculée comme suit :

          (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: La méthode *note timestamp(): 1085.
     utilise l'attribut *note fold: c47. pour désambiguïser le temps
     dans un intervalle répété.

          Note: There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp
          directly from a naive *note datetime: 1c7. instance
          representing UTC time.  If your application uses this
          convention and your system time zone is not set to UTC, you
          can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
          ‘tzinfo=timezone.utc’:

               timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()

          ou en calculant l'horodatage ('timestamp' en anglais)
          directement :

               timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)

 -- Méthode: datetime.weekday ()

     Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 0
     et dimanche vaut 6.  Identique à ‘self.date().weekday()’.  Voir
     aussi *note isoweekday(): 2421.

 -- Méthode: datetime.isoweekday ()

     Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 1
     et dimanche vaut 7.  Identique à ‘self.date().isoweekday()’.  Voir
     aussi *note weekday(): 2420, *note isocalendar(): 8e5.

 -- Méthode: datetime.isocalendar ()

     Renvoie un *note n-uplet nommé: 63b. de 3 éléments : ‘year’, ‘week’
     et ‘weekday’.  Identique à ‘self.date().isocalendar()’.

 -- Méthode: datetime.isoformat (sep='T', timespec='auto')

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date et l'heure au format ISO
     8601 :

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff’, si *note microsecond: 23f2. ne
          vaut pas 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS’, si *note microsecond: 23f2. vaut 0

     Si *note utcoffset(): 2418. ne renvoie pas ‘None’, une chaîne est
     ajoutée, donnant le décalage UTC :

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, si *note
          microsecond: 23f2. ne vaut pas 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, si *note
          microsecond: 23f2. vaut 0

     Exemples :

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=timezone.utc).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'

     L'argument optionnel 'sep' (par défaut ‘'T'’) est un séparateur
     d'un caractère, placé entre les portions du résultat correspondant
     à la date et à l'heure.  Par exemple :

          >>> from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
          >>> class TZ(tzinfo):
          ...     """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
          ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
          ...         return timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
          ...
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
          '2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
          >>> datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
          '2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'

     L'argument optionnel 'timespec' spécifie le nombre de composants
     additionnels de temps à inclure (par défaut ‘'auto'’).  Il peut
     valoir l'une des valeurs suivantes :

        - ‘'auto'’ : Identique à ‘'seconds'’ si *note microsecond: 23f2.
          vaut 0, à ‘'microseconds'’ sinon.

        - ‘'hours'’ : Inclut *note hour: 23ef. au format à deux chiffres
          ‘HH’.

        - ‘'minutes'’ : Inclut *note hour: 23ef. et *note minute: 23f0.
          au format ‘HH:MM’.

        - ‘'seconds'’ : Inclut *note hour: 23ef, *note minute: 23f0. et
          *note second: 23f1. au format ‘HH:MM:SS’.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’ : Inclut le temps complet, mais tronque la
          partie fractionnaire des millisecondes, au format
          ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’.

        - ‘'microseconds'’ : Inclut le temps complet, au format
          ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’.

          Note: Les composants de temps exclus sont tronqués et non
          arrondis.

     Une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée en cas d'argument 'timespec'
     invalide :

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '2002-12-25T00:00'
          >>> dt = datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- Méthode: datetime.__str__ ()

     For a *note datetime: 1c7. instance ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to
     ‘d.isoformat(' ')’.

 -- Méthode: datetime.ctime ()

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date et l'heure :

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'

     La chaîne de caractères en sortie n'inclura 'pas' d'informations
     sur le fuseau horaire, que l'entrée soit avisée ou naïve.

     ‘d.ctime()’ est équivalent à :

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     sur les plateformes où la fonction C native ‘ctime()’ (que *note
     time.ctime(): 240c. invoque, mais pas *note datetime.ctime():
     2423.) est conforme au standard C.

 -- Méthode: datetime.strftime (format)

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date et l'heure, contrôlée par
     une chaîne de format explicite.  Voir *note strftime() and
     strptime() Behavior: 1785. et *note datetime.isoformat(): b20.

 -- Méthode: datetime.__format__ (format)

     Identique à *note datetime.strftime(): c80.  Cela permet de
     spécifier une chaîne de format pour un objet *note datetime: 1c7.
     dans une *note chaîne de formatage littérale: 999. et en utilisant
     *note str.format(): 60e.  Voir *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 1785. et *note datetime.isoformat(): b20.

* Menu:

* Exemple d'utilisation de la classe datetime ;: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe datetime.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe datetime,  Up: Objets datetime

5.8.1.11 Exemple d'utilisation de la classe ‘datetime’ :
........................................................

Examples of working with *note datetime: 1c7. objects:

     >>> from datetime import datetime, date, time, timezone

     >>> # Using datetime.combine()
     >>> d = date(2005, 7, 14)
     >>> t = time(12, 30)
     >>> datetime.combine(d, t)
     datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.now()
     >>> datetime.now()
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
     >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     >>> # Using datetime.strptime()
     >>> dt = datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
     >>> dt
     datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
     >>> tt = dt.timetuple()
     >>> for it in tt:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # year
     11      # month
     21      # day
     16      # hour
     30      # minute
     0       # second
     1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
     325     # number of days since 1st January
     -1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None

     >>> # Date in ISO format
     >>> ic = dt.isocalendar()
     >>> for it in ic:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # ISO year
     47      # ISO week
     2       # ISO weekday

     >>> # Formatting a datetime
     >>> dt.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
     'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(dt, "day", "month", "time")
     'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'

L'exemple ci-dessous définit une sous-classe *note tzinfo: 5ca. qui
regroupe des informations sur les fuseaux horaires pour Kaboul, en
Afghanistan, qui a utilisé +4 UTC jusqu'en 1945, puis +4:30 UTC par la
suite :

     from datetime import timedelta, datetime, tzinfo, timezone

     class KabulTz(tzinfo):
         # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
         UTC_MOVE_DATE = datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if dt.year < 1945:
                 return timedelta(hours=4)
             elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= dt.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
                 # An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
                 # a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
                 # If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
                 # to resolve. See PEP495.
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if dt.fold else 0))
             else:
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
             if not isinstance(dt, datetime):
                 raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
             if dt.tzinfo is not self:
                 raise ValueError("dt.tzinfo is not self")

             # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
             # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
             # but with a tzinfo set to self.
             # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
             if dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
             else:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4)

         def dst(self, dt):
             # Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
             return timedelta(0)

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if dt >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return "+04:30"
             return "+04"

Utilisation de ‘KabulTz’ cité plus haut :

     >>> tz1 = KabulTz()

     >>> # Datetime before the change
     >>> dt1 = datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
     4:00:00

     >>> # Datetime after the change
     >>> dt2 = datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
     4:30:00

     >>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
     >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(timezone.utc)
     >>> dt3
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
     >>> dt2
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
     >>> dt2 == dt3
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Objets time,  Next: Objets tzinfo,  Prev: Objets datetime,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.12 Objets ‘time’
......................

A *note time: 1c9. object represents a (local) time of day, independent
of any particular day, and subject to adjustment via a *note tzinfo:
5ca. object.

 -- Classe: datetime.time (hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0,
          tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     Tous les arguments sont optionnels.  'tzinfo' peut être ‘None’ ou
     une instance d'une sous-classe *note tzinfo: 5ca.  Les autres
     arguments doivent être des nombres entiers, dans les intervalles
     suivants :

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     1ff. is raised.  All default to 0 except 'tzinfo', which defaults
     to ‘None’.

Attributs de la classe :

 -- Attribut: time.min

     Le plus petit objet *note time: 1c9. représentable, ‘time(0, 0, 0,
     0)’.

 -- Attribut: time.max

     Le plus grand objet *note time: 1c9. représentable, ‘time(23, 59,
     59, 999999)’.

 -- Attribut: time.resolution

     La plus petite différence possible entre deux objets *note time:
     1c9. non-égaux, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’, notez cependant que
     les objets *note time: 1c9. n'implémentent pas d'opérations
     arithmétiques.

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

 -- Attribut: time.hour

     Dans ‘range(24)’.

 -- Attribut: time.minute

     Dans ‘range(60)’.

 -- Attribut: time.second

     Dans ‘range(60)’.

 -- Attribut: time.microsecond

     Dans ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- Attribut: time.tzinfo

     L'objet passé comme argument 'tzinfo' au constructeur de *note
     time: 1c9, ou ‘None’ si aucune valeur n'a été passée.

 -- Attribut: time.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

*note time: 1c9. objects support equality and order comparisons, where
‘a’ is considered less than ‘b’ when ‘a’ precedes ‘b’ in time.

Naive and aware ‘time’ objects are never equal.  Order comparison
between naive and aware ‘time’ objects raises *note TypeError: 525.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same *note tzinfo: 23eb.
attribute, the ‘tzinfo’ and ‘fold’ attributes are ignored and the base
times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different
‘tzinfo’ attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting
their UTC offsets (obtained from ‘self.utcoffset()’).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Equality comparisons between aware and
naive *note time: 1c9. instances don't raise *note TypeError: 525.

Dans un contexte booléen, un objet *note time: 1c9. est toujours
considéré comme vrai.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Avant Python 3.5, un objet *note time: 1c9.
était considéré comme faux s'il représentait minuit en UTC. Ce
comportement était considéré comme obscur et propice aux erreurs, il a
été supprimé en Python 3.5.  Voir bpo-13936(1) pour les détails
complets.

Autre constructeur :

 -- Méthode: classmethod time.fromisoformat (time_string)

     Renvoie une *note time: 1c9. correspondant à 'time_string' dans un
     format ISO 8601 valide, avec les exceptions suivantes :

       1. Les décalages de fuseaux horaires peuvent comporter des
          fractions de secondes.

       2. Le ‘T’ initial, normalement requis dans les cas où il peut y
          avoir une ambiguïté entre une date et une heure, n'est pas
          nécessaire.

       3. Les fractions de secondes peuvent avoir un nombre quelconque
          de décimales (tout ce qui dépasse 6 décimales sera tronqué).

       4. Les fractions d'heures et de minutes ne sont pas gérées.

     Examples:

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T042301')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this method only
     supported formats that could be emitted by *note time.isoformat():
     242c.

Méthodes de l'instance :

 -- Méthode: time.replace (hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note time: 1c9. with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can be
     specified to create a naive *note time: 1c9. from an aware *note
     time: 1c9, without conversion of the time data.

     *note time: 1c9. objects are also supported by generic function
     *note copy.replace(): 150.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- Méthode: time.isoformat (timespec='auto')

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date au format ISO 8601 :

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’, si *note microsecond: 23ea. ne vaut pas 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS’, si *note microsecond: 23ea. vaut 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, si *note utcoffset():
          242d. ne renvoie pas ‘None’

        - ‘HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, si *note microsecond: 23ea.
          vaut 0 et *note utcoffset(): 242d. ne renvoie pas ‘None’

     L'argument optionnel 'timespec' spécifie le nombre de composants
     additionnels de temps à inclure (par défaut ‘'auto'’).  Il peut
     valoir l'une des valeurs suivantes :

        - ‘'auto'’ : Identique à ‘'seconds'’ si *note microsecond: 23ea.
          vaut 0, à ‘'microseconds'’ sinon.

        - ‘'hours'’ : Inclut *note hour: 23e7. au format à deux chiffres
          ‘HH’.

        - ‘'minutes'’ : Inclut *note hour: 23e7. et *note minute: 23e8.
          au format ‘HH:MM’.

        - ‘'seconds'’ : Inclut *note hour: 23e7, *note minute: 23e8. et
          *note second: 23e9. au format ‘HH:MM:SS’.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’ : Inclut le temps complet, mais tronque la
          partie fractionnaire des millisecondes, au format
          ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’.

        - ‘'microseconds'’ : Inclut le temps complet, au format
          ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’.

          Note: Les composants de temps exclus sont tronqués et non
          arrondis.

     Une *note ValueError: 1ff. sera levée en cas d'argument 'timespec'
     invalide.

     Exemple :

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '12:34'
          >>> dt = time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '12:34:56.000000'
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='auto')
          '12:34:56'

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- Méthode: time.__str__ ()

     For a time ‘t’, ‘str(t)’ is equivalent to ‘t.isoformat()’.

 -- Méthode: time.strftime (format)

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant l'heure, contrôlée par une chaîne
     de formatage explicite.  Voir *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 1785. et *note time.isoformat(): 242c.

 -- Méthode: time.__format__ (format)

     Identique à *note time.strftime(): 173f.  Cela permet de spécifier
     une chaîne de formatage pour un objet *note time: 1c9. dans une
     *note chaîne de formatage littérale: 999. et à l'utilisation de
     *note str.format(): 60e.  Voir *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 1785. et *note time.isoformat(): 242c.

 -- Méthode: time.utcoffset ()

     Si *note tzinfo: 23eb. est ‘None’, renvoie ‘None’, sinon renvoie
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’, et lève une exception si
     l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas ‘None’ ou un objet *note
     timedelta: 9bf. d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre
     chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

 -- Méthode: time.dst ()

     Si *note tzinfo: 23eb. est ‘None’, renvoie ‘None’, sinon renvoie
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(None)’, et lève une exception si l'expression
     précédente ne renvoie pas ‘None’ ou un objet *note timedelta: 9bf.
     d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage DST n'est pas restreint à
     des minutes entières.

 -- Méthode: time.tzname ()

     Si *note tzinfo: 23eb. est ‘None’, renvoie ‘None’, sinon renvoie
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(None)’, et lève une exception si l'expression
     précédente ne renvoie pas ‘None’ ou une chaîne de caractères.

* Menu:

* Exemples d'utilisation de time::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'utilisation de time,  Up: Objets time

5.8.1.13 Exemples d'utilisation de ‘time’
.........................................

Exemples d'utilisation de l'objet *note time: 1c9. :

     >>> from datetime import time, tzinfo, timedelta
     >>> class TZ1(tzinfo):
     ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(hours=1)
     ...     def dst(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(0)
     ...     def tzname(self,dt):
     ...         return "+01:00"
     ...     def  __repr__(self):
     ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
     ...
     >>> t = time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t
     datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t.isoformat()
     '12:10:30+01:00'
     >>> t.dst()
     datetime.timedelta(0)
     >>> t.tzname()
     '+01:00'
     >>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
     '12:10:30 +01:00'
     >>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
     'The time is 12:10.'


File: python.info,  Node: Objets tzinfo,  Next: Objets timezone,  Prev: Objets time,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.14 Objets ‘tzinfo’
........................

 -- Classe: datetime.tzinfo

     Il s'agit d'une classe mère abstraite, ce qui signifie que cette
     classe ne doit pas être instanciée directement.  Définissez une
     sous-classe de *note tzinfo: 5ca. pour capturer des informations
     sur un fuseau horaire particulier.

     Une instance (d'une sous-classe concrète) de *note tzinfo: 5ca.
     peut être passée aux constructeurs des objets *note datetime: 1c7.
     et *note time: 1c9.  Les objets en question voient leurs attributs
     comme étant en temps local, et l'objet *note tzinfo: 5ca. contient
     des méthodes pour obtenir le décalage du temps local par rapport à
     UTC, le nom du fuseau horaire, le décalage d'heure d'été, tous
     relatifs à un objet de date ou d'heure qui leur est passé.

     You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least) supply
     implementations of the standard *note tzinfo: 5ca. methods needed
     by the *note datetime: 1c7. methods you use.  The ‘datetime’ module
     provides *note timezone: 10a3, a simple concrete subclass of *note
     tzinfo: 5ca. which can represent time zones with fixed offset from
     UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and EDT.

     Special requirement for pickling: A *note tzinfo: 5ca. subclass
     must have an *note __init__(): 69d. method that can be called with
     no arguments, otherwise it can be pickled but possibly not
     unpickled again.  This is a technical requirement that may be
     relaxed in the future.

     A concrete subclass of *note tzinfo: 5ca. may need to implement the
     following methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the
     uses made of aware ‘datetime’ objects.  If in doubt, simply
     implement all of them.

 -- Méthode: tzinfo.utcoffset (dt)

     Renvoie le décalage de l'heure locale par rapport à UTC, sous la
     forme d'un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. qui est positif à l'est de
     UTC. Si l'heure locale est à l'ouest de UTC, il doit être négatif.

     Cela représente le décalage 'total' par rapport à UTC ; par
     exemple, si un objet *note tzinfo: 5ca. représente à la fois un
     fuseau horaire et son ajustement à l'heure d'été, *note
     utcoffset(): 2435. devrait renvoyer leur somme.  Si le décalage UTC
     n'est pas connu, elle renvoie ‘None’.  Sinon, la valeur renvoyée
     doit être un objet *note timedelta: 9bf. compris strictement entre
     ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ et ‘timedelta(hours=24)’ (l'amplitude du
     décalage doit être inférieure à un jour).  La plupart des
     implémentations de *note utcoffset(): 2435. ressembleront
     probablement à l'une des deux suivantes :

          return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
          return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class

     Si *note utcoffset(): 2435. ne renvoie pas ‘None’, *note dst():
     2436. ne doit pas non plus renvoyer ‘None’.

     L'implémentation par défaut de *note utcoffset(): 2435. lève une
     *note NotImplementedError: 225.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre
     chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

 -- Méthode: tzinfo.dst (dt)

     Renvoie le réglage de l'heure d'été (DST), sous la forme d'un objet
     *note timedelta: 9bf. ou ‘None’ si l'information DST n'est pas
     connue.

     Return ‘timedelta(0)’ if DST is not in effect.  If DST is in
     effect, return the offset as a *note timedelta: 9bf. object (see
     *note utcoffset(): 2435. for details).  Note that DST offset, if
     applicable, has already been added to the UTC offset returned by
     *note utcoffset(): 2435, so there's no need to consult *note dst():
     2436. unless you're interested in obtaining DST info separately.
     For example, *note datetime.timetuple(): 241c. calls its *note
     tzinfo: 23f3. attribute's *note dst(): 2436. method to determine
     how the *note tm_isdst: 241d. flag should be set, and *note
     tzinfo.fromutc(): 241a. calls *note dst(): 2436. to account for DST
     changes when crossing time zones.

     Une instance 'tz' d'une sous-classe *note tzinfo: 5ca. convenant à
     la fois pour une heure standard et une heure d'été doit être
     cohérente :

     ‘tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)’

     must return the same result for every *note datetime: 1c7. 'dt'
     with ‘dt.tzinfo == tz’.  For sane *note tzinfo: 5ca. subclasses,
     this expression yields the time zone's "standard offset", which
     should not depend on the date or the time, but only on geographic
     location.  The implementation of *note datetime.astimezone(): 9c0.
     relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it's the programmer's
     responsibility to ensure it.  If a *note tzinfo: 5ca. subclass
     cannot guarantee this, it may be able to override the default
     implementation of *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 241a. to work correctly
     with *note astimezone(): 9c0. regardless.

     La plupart des implémentations de *note dst(): 2436. ressembleront
     probablement à l'une des deux suivantes :

          def dst(self, dt):
              # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
              return timedelta(0)

     ou :

          def dst(self, dt):
              # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
              # transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed
              # in standard local time.

              if dston <= dt.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
                  return timedelta(hours=1)
              else:
                  return timedelta(0)

     L'implémentation par défaut de *note dst(): 2436. lève une *note
     NotImplementedError: 225.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage DST n'est pas restreint à
     des minutes entières.

 -- Méthode: tzinfo.tzname (dt)

     Return the time zone name corresponding to the *note datetime: 1c7.
     object 'dt', as a string.  Nothing about string names is defined by
     the ‘datetime’ module, and there's no requirement that it mean
     anything in particular.  For example, ‘"GMT"’, ‘"UTC"’, ‘"-500"’,
     ‘"-5:00"’, ‘"EDT"’, ‘"US/Eastern"’, ‘"America/New York"’ are all
     valid replies.  Return ‘None’ if a string name isn't known.  Note
     that this is a method rather than a fixed string primarily because
     some *note tzinfo: 5ca. subclasses will wish to return different
     names depending on the specific value of 'dt' passed, especially if
     the *note tzinfo: 5ca. class is accounting for daylight time.

     L'implémentation par défaut de *note tzname(): 2437. lève une *note
     NotImplementedError: 225.

Ces méthodes sont appelées par les objets *note datetime: 1c7. et *note
time: 1c9, en réponse à leurs méthodes de mêmes noms.  Un objet *note
datetime: 1c7. se passe lui-même en tant qu'argument, et un objet *note
time: 1c9. passe ‘None’.  Les méthodes des sous-classes *note tzinfo:
5ca. doivent alors être prêtes à recevoir un argument ‘None’ pour 'dt',
ou une instance de *note datetime: 1c7.

Quand ‘None’ est passé, il est de la responsabilité du 'designer' de la
classe de choisir la meilleure réponse.  Par exemple, renvoyer ‘None’
est approprié si la classe souhaite signaler que les objets de temps ne
participent pas au protocole *note tzinfo: 5ca.  Il peut être plus utile
pour ‘utcoffset(None)’ de renvoyer le décalage UTC standard, comme il
n'existe aucune autre convention pour obtenir ce décalage.

When a *note datetime: 1c7. object is passed in response to a *note
datetime: 1c7. method, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is the same object as 'self'.  *note
tzinfo: 5ca. methods can rely on this, unless user code calls *note
tzinfo: 5ca. methods directly.  The intent is that the *note tzinfo:
5ca. methods interpret 'dt' as being in local time, and not need worry
about objects in other time zones.

Il y a une dernière méthode de *note tzinfo: 5ca. que les sous-classes
peuvent vouloir redéfinir :

 -- Méthode: tzinfo.fromutc (dt)

     This is called from the default *note datetime.astimezone(): 9c0.
     implementation.  When called from that, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is 'self', and
     'dt"s date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC time.
     The purpose of *note fromutc(): 241a. is to adjust the date and
     time data, returning an equivalent datetime in 'self"s local time.

     Most *note tzinfo: 5ca. subclasses should be able to inherit the
     default *note fromutc(): 241a. implementation without problems.
     It's strong enough to handle fixed-offset time zones, and time
     zones accounting for both standard and daylight time, and the
     latter even if the DST transition times differ in different years.
     An example of a time zone the default *note fromutc(): 241a.
     implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where
     the standard offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and
     time passed, which can happen for political reasons.  The default
     implementations of *note astimezone(): 9c0. and *note fromutc():
     241a. may not produce the result you want if the result is one of
     the hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.

     En omettant le code des cas d'erreurs, l'implémentation par défaut
     de *note fromutc(): 241a. se comporte comme suit :

          def fromutc(self, dt):
              # raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self
              dtoff = dt.utcoffset()
              dtdst = dt.dst()
              # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
              delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
              if delta:
                  dt += delta   # convert to standard local time
                  dtdst = dt.dst()
                  # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
              if dtdst:
                  return dt + dtdst
              else:
                  return dt

Dans le fichier ‘tzinfo_examples.py’ il y a des exemples de *note
tzinfo: 5ca. classes :

     from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime

     ZERO = timedelta(0)
     HOUR = timedelta(hours=1)
     SECOND = timedelta(seconds=1)

     # A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
     # (May result in wrong values on historical times in
     #  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
     #  changed in the past.)
     import time as _time

     STDOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.timezone)
     if _time.daylight:
         DSTOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.altzone)
     else:
         DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET

     DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET

     class LocalTimezone(tzinfo):

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             stamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
             args = _time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
             dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
             # Detect fold
             fold = (args == _time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
             return datetime(*args, microsecond=dt.microsecond,
                             tzinfo=self, fold=fold)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTOFFSET
             else:
                 return STDOFFSET

         def dst(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTDIFF
             else:
                 return ZERO

         def tzname(self, dt):
             return _time.tzname[self._isdst(dt)]

         def _isdst(self, dt):
             tt = (dt.year, dt.month, dt.day,
                   dt.hour, dt.minute, dt.second,
                   dt.weekday(), 0, 0)
             stamp = _time.mktime(tt)
             tt = _time.localtime(stamp)
             return tt.tm_isdst > 0

     Local = LocalTimezone()


     # A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.

     def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
         days_to_go = 6 - dt.weekday()
         if days_to_go:
             dt += timedelta(days_to_go)
         return dt


     # US DST Rules
     #
     # This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
     # DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
     # and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
     # http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
     # https://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
     #
     # In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
     # Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
     DSTSTART_2007 = datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
     # and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
     DSTEND_2007 = datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
     # From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
     # Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
     # Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
     DSTEND_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
     # From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
     # Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
     # on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
     # on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1967_1986 = datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
     DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006

     def us_dst_range(year):
         # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
         # start = end for no DST.
         if 2006 < year:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
         elif 1986 < year < 2007:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
         elif 1966 < year < 1987:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
         else:
             return (datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2

         start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
         end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
         return start, end


     class USTimeZone(tzinfo):

         def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
             self.stdoffset = timedelta(hours=hours)
             self.reprname = reprname
             self.stdname = stdname
             self.dstname = dstname

         def __repr__(self):
             return self.reprname

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if self.dst(dt):
                 return self.dstname
             else:
                 return self.stdname

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             return self.stdoffset + self.dst(dt)

         def dst(self, dt):
             if dt is None or dt.tzinfo is None:
                 # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
                 # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
                 # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
                 # implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.
                 return ZERO
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
             # dt first.
             dt = dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
             if start + HOUR <= dt < end - HOUR:
                 # DST is in effect.
                 return HOUR
             if end - HOUR <= dt < end:
                 # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.
                 return ZERO if dt.fold else HOUR
             if start <= dt < start + HOUR:
                 # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
                 return HOUR if dt.fold else ZERO
             # DST is off.
             return ZERO

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
             end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
             std_time = dt + self.stdoffset
             dst_time = std_time + HOUR
             if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
                 # Repeated hour
                 return std_time.replace(fold=1)
             if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
                 # Standard time
                 return std_time
             if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
                 # Daylight saving time
                 return dst_time


     Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
     Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
     Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
     Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")

Notez que, deux fois par an, on rencontre des subtilités inévitables
dans les sous-classes de *note tzinfo: 5ca. représentant à la fois des
heures standard et d'été, au passage de l'une à l'autre.  Concrètement,
considérez le fuseau de l'est des États-Unis (UTC -0500), où EDT (heure
d'été) débute à la minute qui suit 1:59 (EST) le second dimanche de
mars, et se termine à la minute qui suit 1:59 (EDT) le premier dimanche
de novembre :

       UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
       EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
       EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM

     start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM

       end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM

Quand l'heure d'été débute (la ligne « 'start' »), l'horloge locale
passe de 1:59 à 3:00.  Une heure de la forme 2:MM n'a pas vraiment de
sens ce jour là, donc ‘astimezone(Eastern)’ ne fournira pas de résultat
avec ‘hour == 2’ pour le jour où débute l'heure d'été.  Par exemple,
lors du changement d'heure du printemps 2016, nous obtenons :

     >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
     >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
     ...
     05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
     07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
     08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT

When DST ends (the "end" line), there's a potentially worse problem:
there's an hour that can't be spelled unambiguously in local wall time:
the last hour of daylight time.  In Eastern, that's times of the form
5:MM UTC on the day daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from
1:59 (daylight time) back to 1:00 (standard time) again.  Local times of
the form 1:MM are ambiguous.  *note astimezone(): 9c0. mimics the local
clock's behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC hours into the same local
hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the form 5:MM and 6:MM
both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times have the
*note fold: c47. attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to
1.  For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

Note that the *note datetime: 1c7. instances that differ only by the
value of the *note fold: c47. attribute are considered equal in
comparisons.

Applications that can't bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly
check the value of the *note fold: c47. attribute or avoid using hybrid
*note tzinfo: 5ca. subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using *note
timezone: 10a3, or any other fixed-offset *note tzinfo: 5ca. subclass
(such as a class representing only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only
EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).

Voir aussi
..........

     *note zoneinfo: 133.

          The ‘datetime’ module has a basic *note timezone: 10a3. class
          (for handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its *note
          timezone.utc: 601. attribute (a UTC ‘timezone’ instance).

          ‘zoneinfo’ brings the 'IANA time zone database' (also known as
          the Olson database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.

IANA time zone database(1)

     La 'Time Zone Database' (souvent appelée 'tz', 'tzdata' ou
     'zoneinfo') contient les codes et les données représentant
     l'historique du temps local pour un grand nombre d'emplacements
     représentatifs autour du globe.  Elle est mise à jour
     périodiquement, pour refléter les changements opérés par des
     politiques sur les bornes du fuseau, les décalages UTC, et les
     règles de passage à l'heure d'été.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/time-zones


File: python.info,  Node: Objets timezone,  Next: strftime and strptime Behavior,  Prev: Objets tzinfo,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.15 Objets ‘timezone’
..........................

The *note timezone: 10a3. class is a subclass of *note tzinfo: 5ca, each
instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from
UTC.

Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information
in the locations where different offsets are used in different days of
the year or where historical changes have been made to civil time.

 -- Classe: datetime.timezone (offset, name=None)

     L'argument 'offset' doit être spécifié comme un objet *note
     timedelta: 9bf. représentant la différence entre le temps local et
     UTC. Il doit être strictement compris entre ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’
     et ‘timedelta(hours=24)’, autrement une *note ValueError: 1ff. est
     levée.

     L'argument 'name' est optionnel.  S'il est spécifié, il doit être
     une chaîne qui sera utilisée comme valeur de retour de la méthode
     *note datetime.tzname(): 241b.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre
     chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

 -- Méthode: timezone.utcoffset (dt)

     Renvoie la valeur fixe spécifiée lorsque l'instance *note timezone:
     10a3. est construite.

     L'argument 'dt' est ignoré.  La valeur de retour est une instance
     *note timedelta: 9bf. égale à la différence entre le temps local et
     UTC.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre
     chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

 -- Méthode: timezone.tzname (dt)

     Renvoie la valeur fixe spécifiée lorsque l'instance *note timezone:
     10a3. est construite.

     Si 'name' n'est pas fourni au constructeur, le nom renvoyé par
     ‘tzname(dt)’ est généré comme suit à partir de la valeur de
     ‘offset’.  Si 'offset' vaut ‘timedelta(0)’, le nom sera « UTC »,
     autrement le nom sera une chaîne de la forme ‘UTC±HH:MM’, où ± est
     le signe d'‘offset’, et HH et MM sont respectivement les
     représentations à deux chiffres de ‘offset.hours’ et
     ‘offset.minutes’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le nom généré à partir de
     ‘offset=timedelta(0)’ est maintenant ‘'UTC'’ plutôt que
     ‘'UTC+00:00'’.

 -- Méthode: timezone.dst (dt)

     Renvoie toujours ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: timezone.fromutc (dt)

     Renvoie ‘dt + offset’.  L'argument 'dt' doit être une instance
     avisée de *note datetime: 1c7, avec ‘tzinfo’ valant ‘self’.

Attributs de la classe :

 -- Attribut: timezone.utc

     The UTC time zone, ‘timezone(timedelta(0))’.


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime Behavior,  Prev: Objets timezone,  Up: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

5.8.1.16 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ Behavior
...............................................

Les objets *note date: 1c8, *note datetime: 1c7. et *note time: 1c9.
comportent tous une méthode ‘strftime(format)’, pour créer une
représentation du temps sous forme d'une chaîne, contrôlée par une
chaîne de formatage explicite.

Inversement, la méthode de classe *note datetime.strptime(): 15c6. crée
un objet *note datetime: 1c7. à partir d'une chaîne représentant une
date et une heure, et une chaîne de format correspondante.

The table below provides a high-level comparison of *note strftime():
c80. versus *note strptime(): 15c6.:

                     ‘strftime’                                                   ‘strptime’
                                                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
Utilisation          Convertit un objet en une chaîne selon un format donné       Analyse une chaîne dans un objet *note datetime: 1c7. en fonction du format de
                                                                                  correspondance donné
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Type de méthode      Méthode d'instance                                           Méthode de classe
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Méthode de           *note date: 1c8. ; *note datetime: 1c7. ; *note time: 1c9.   *note datetime: 1c7.
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Signature            ‘strftime(format)’                                           ‘strptime(date_string, format)’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes.
* Détail technique::


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes,  Next: Détail technique,  Up: strftime and strptime Behavior

5.8.1.17 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ Format Codes
...................................................

Ces méthodes acceptent des codes de formatage qui peuvent être utilisés
pour analyser et formater les dates :

     >>> datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
     ...                   '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
     datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
     >>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
     'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'

Voici la liste de tous les codes de formatage requis par le C standard
1989, et ils fonctionnent sur toutes les plateformes possédant une
implémentation de C standard.

Directive       Signification                        Exemple                      Notes
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%a’            Jour de la semaine abrégé dans la         Sun, Mon, ..., Sat (en_US);(1)
                langue locale.                            Lu, Ma, ..., Di ('fr_FR')
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%A’            Jour de la semaine complet dans la        'Sunday', 'Monday', ..., 'Saturday' ('en_US');(1)
                langue locale.                            Lundi, Mardi, ..., Dimanche ('fr_FR')
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%w’            Jour de la semaine en chiffre,       0, 1, ..., 6
                avec 0 pour le dimanche et 6 pour    
                le samedi.
                
                                                                                  
‘%d’            Jour du mois sur deux chiffres.      01, 02, ..., 31              (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%b’            Nom du mois abrégé dans la langue         Jan, Feb, ..., Dec ('en_US');(1)
                locale.                                   janv., févr., ..., déc. ('fr_FR')
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%B’            Nom complet du mois dans la langue        'January', 'February', ..., 'December' ('en_US');(1)
                locale.                                   janvier, février, ..., décembre ('fr_FR')
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%m’            Numéro du mois sur deux chiffres.    01, 02, ..., 12              (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%y’            Année sur deux chiffres (sans le     00, 01, ..., 99              (9)
                siècle).                                                          
                
                                                                                  
‘%Y’            Année complète sur quatre            0001, 0002, ..., 2013,       (2)
                chiffres.                            2014, ..., 9998, 9999        
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%H’            Heure à deux chiffres de 00 à 23.    00, 01, ..., 23              (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%I’            Heure à deux chiffres pour les       01, 02, ..., 12              (9)
                horloges 12h (01 à 12).                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%p’            Équivalent local à AM/PM.                 AM, PM (en_US);         (1), (3)
                                                          am, pm (de_DE)          
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%M’            Minutes sur deux chiffres.           00, 01, ..., 59              (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%S’            Secondes sur deux chiffres.          00, 01, ..., 59              (4), (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%f’            Microsecondes sur 6 chiffres.        000000, 000001, ...,         (5)
                                                     999999                       
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%z’            Décalage horaire UTC sous la forme   (vide), +0000, -0400,        (6)
                ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’ (chaîne vide    +1030, +063415,              
                si l'instance est naïve).            -030712.345216
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%Z’            Nom du fuseau horaire (chaîne vide   (vide), UTC, GMT             (6)
                si l'instance est naïve).                                         
                
                                                                                  
‘%j’            Numéro du jour dans l'année sur      001, 002, ..., 366           (9)
                trois chiffres.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%U’            Numéro de la semaine à deux          00, 01, ..., 53              (7), (9)
                chiffres (où dimanche est                                         
                considéré comme le premier jour de
                la semaine).  Tous les jours de
                l'année précédent le premier
                dimanche sont considérés comme
                appartenant à la semaine 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%W’            Numéro de la semaine à deux          00, 01, ..., 53              (7), (9)
                chiffres (où lundi est considéré                                  
                comme le premier jour de la
                semaine).  Tous les jours de
                l'année précédent le premier lundi
                sont considérés comme appartenant
                à la semaine 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%c’            Représentation locale de la date          Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988 ('en_US');(1)
                et de l'heure.                            mar. 16 août 1988 21:30:00 ('fr_FR')
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%x’            Représentation locale de la date.         08/16/88 (None);        (1)
                                                          08/16/1988 ('en_US');   
                                                          16/08/1988 ('fr_FR')
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%X’            Représentation locale de l'heure.         21:30:00 ('en_US') ;    (1)
                                                          21:30:00 ('fr_FR')      
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%%’            Un caractère ‘'%'’ littéral.         %
                                                     

Plusieurs directives supplémentaires non requises par la norme C89 sont
incluses pour des raisons de commodité.  Ces paramètres correspondent
tous aux valeurs de date de la norme ISO 8601.

Directive       Signification                        Exemple                      Notes
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%G’            Année complète ISO 8601              0001, 0002, ..., 2013,       (8)
                représentant l'année contenant la    2014, ..., 9998, 9999        
                plus grande partie de la semaine     
                ISO (‘%V’).
                
                                                                                  
‘%u’            Jour de la semaine ISO 8601 où 1     1, 2, ..., 7
                correspond au lundi.                 
                
                                                                                  
‘%V’            Numéro de la semaine ISO 8601,       01, 02, ..., 53              (8), (9)
                avec lundi étant le premier jour                                  
                de la semaine.  La semaine 01 est
                la semaine contenant le 4 janvier.
                
                                                                                  
‘%:z’           UTC offset in the form               (empty), +00:00, -04:00,     (6)
                ‘±HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty        +10:30, +06:34:15,           
                string if the object is naive).      -03:07:12.345216
                                                     

These may not be available on all platforms when used with the *note
strftime(): c80. method.  The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives
are not interchangeable with the year and week number directives above.
Calling *note strptime(): 15c6. with incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601
directives will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.

The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because
Python calls the platform C library's ‘strftime()’ function, and
platform variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes
supported on your platform, consult the ‘strftime(3)(1)’ documentation.
There are also differences between platforms in handling of unsupported
format specifiers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: ‘%G’, ‘%u’ et ‘%V’ ont été ajoutés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: ‘%:z’ was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Détail technique,  Prev: strftime and strptime Format Codes,  Up: strftime and strptime Behavior

5.8.1.18 Détail technique
.........................

Broadly speaking, ‘d.strftime(fmt)’ acts like the *note time: ed.
module's ‘time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple())’ although not all objects
support a *note timetuple(): 2405. method.

For the *note datetime.strptime(): 15c6. class method, the default value
is ‘1900-01-01T00:00:00.000’: any components not specified in the format
string will be pulled from the default value.  (1)

L'utilisation de ‘datetime.strptime(date_string, format)’ équivaut à :

     datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone
offset information, which are supported in ‘datetime.strptime’ but are
discarded by ‘time.strptime’.

For *note time: 1c9. objects, the format codes for year, month, and day
should not be used, as ‘time’ objects have no such values.  If they're
used anyway, 1900 is substituted for the year, and 1 for the month and
day.

For *note date: 1c8. objects, the format codes for hours, minutes,
seconds, and microseconds should not be used, as *note date: 1c8.
objects have no such values.  If they're used anyway, 0 is substituted
for them.

Pour la même raison, la gestion des chaînes contenant des caractères (ou
points) Unicode qui ne peuvent pas être représentés dans la 'locale'
actuelle dépend aussi de la plateforme.  Sur certaines plateformes, ces
caractères sont conservés tels quels dans la sortie, alors que sur
d'autres plateformes ‘strftime’ lève une *note UnicodeError: 1283. ou
renvoie une chaîne vide.

Notes :

  1. Comme le format dépend de la locale courante, les assomptions sur
     la valeur de retour doivent être prises soigneusement.  L'ordre des
     champs variera (par exemple, « mois/jour/année » au lieu de
     « année/mois/jour »), et le résultat peut contenir des caractères
     non-ASCII.

  2. The *note strptime(): 15c6. method can parse years in the full [1,
     9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions, *note
     strftime(): c80. method was restricted to years >= 1900.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: In version 3.2, *note strftime(): c80.
     method was restricted to years >= 1000.

  3. When used with the *note strptime(): 15c6. method, the ‘%p’
     directive only affects the output hour field if the ‘%I’ directive
     is used to parse the hour.

  4. Unlike the *note time: ed. module, the ‘datetime’ module does not
     support leap seconds.

  5. When used with the *note strptime(): 15c6. method, the ‘%f’
     directive accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the
     right.  ‘%f’ is an extension to the set of format characters in the
     C standard (but implemented separately in datetime objects, and
     therefore always available).

  6. For a naive object, the ‘%z’, ‘%:z’ and ‘%Z’ format codes are
     replaced by empty strings.

     Pour un objet avisé :

     ‘%z’

          *note utcoffset(): 2418. is transformed into a string of the
          form ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’, where ‘HH’ is a 2-digit string
          giving the number of UTC offset hours, ‘MM’ is a 2-digit
          string giving the number of UTC offset minutes, ‘SS’ is a
          2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset seconds and
          ‘ffffff’ is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
          microseconds.  The ‘ffffff’ part is omitted when the offset is
          a whole number of seconds and both the ‘ffffff’ and the ‘SS’
          part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of minutes.
          For example, if *note utcoffset(): 2418. returns
          ‘timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30)’, ‘%z’ is replaced with the
          string ‘'-0330'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre
     chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to
     the *note strptime(): 15c6. method, the UTC offsets can have a
     colon as a separator between hours, minutes and seconds.  For
     example, ‘'+01:00:00'’ will be parsed as an offset of one hour.  In
     addition, providing ‘'Z'’ is identical to ‘'+00:00'’.

     ‘%:z’

          Behaves exactly as ‘%z’, but has a colon separator added
          between hours, minutes and seconds.

     ‘%Z’

          In *note strftime(): c80, ‘%Z’ is replaced by an empty string
          if *note tzname(): 241b. returns ‘None’; otherwise ‘%Z’ is
          replaced by the returned value, which must be a string.

          *note strptime(): 15c6. only accepts certain values for ‘%Z’:

            1. toute valeur dans ‘time.tzname’ pour votre machine locale

            2. les valeurs ‘UTC’ et ‘GMT’ codés en dur

          Ainsi, quelqu'un qui vit au Japon peut avoir comme valeurs
          valides ‘JST’, ‘UTC’ et ‘GMT’, mais probablement pas ‘EST’.
          Les valeurs invalides lèvent ‘ValueError’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to
     the *note strptime(): 15c6. method, an aware *note datetime: 1c7.
     object will be produced.  The ‘tzinfo’ of the result will be set to
     a *note timezone: 10a3. instance.

  7. When used with the *note strptime(): 15c6. method, ‘%U’ and ‘%W’
     are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the
     calendar year (‘%Y’) are specified.

  8. Similar to ‘%U’ and ‘%W’, ‘%V’ is only used in calculations when
     the day of the week and the ISO year (‘%G’) are specified in a
     *note strptime(): 15c6. format string.  Also note that ‘%G’ and
     ‘%Y’ are not interchangeable.

  9. When used with the *note strptime(): 15c6. method, the leading zero
     is optional for formats ‘%d’, ‘%m’, ‘%H’, ‘%I’, ‘%M’, ‘%S’, ‘%j’,
     ‘%U’, ‘%W’, and ‘%V’.  Format ‘%y’ does require a leading zero.

  10. When parsing a month and day using *note strptime(): 15c6, always
     include a year in the format.  If the value you need to parse lacks
     a year, append an explicit dummy leap year.  Otherwise your code
     will raise an exception when it encounters leap day because the
     default year used by the parser is not a leap year.  Users run into
     this bug every four years...

          >>> month_day = "02/29"
          >>> datetime.strptime(f"{month_day};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # No leap year bug.
          datetime.datetime(1984, 2, 29, 0, 0)

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note strptime(): 15c6. calls using a format string containing a
     day of month without a year now emit a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a3.  In 3.15 or later we may change this into an error or change
     the default year to a leap year.  See gh-70647(2).

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Passing ‘datetime.strptime('Feb 29', '%b %d')’ will fail since
1900 is not a leap year.

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support,  Next: calendar --- General calendar-related functions,  Prev: datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure,  Up: Types de données

5.8.2 ‘zoneinfo’ -- IANA time zone support
------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

'Code source :' Lib/zoneinfo(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note zoneinfo: 133. module provides a concrete time zone
implementation to support the IANA time zone database as originally
specified in PEP 615(2).  By default, *note zoneinfo: 133. uses the
system's time zone data if available; if no system time zone data is
available, the library will fall back to using the first-party tzdata(3)
package available on PyPI.

Voir aussi
..........

Module : *note datetime: 30.

     Fournit les types *note time: 1c9. et *note datetime: 1c7. attendus
     par *note ZoneInfo: 8ce.

Package tzdata(4)

     Paquet « quasi natif » maintenu par les développeurs de CPython
     pour fournir les données des fuseaux horaires via PyPI.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

* Menu:

* Utilisation de ZoneInfo::
* Sources de données::
* La classe ZoneInfo::
* Fonctions: Fonctions<3>.
* Variables globales::
* Exceptions et avertissements::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zoneinfo

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de ZoneInfo,  Next: Sources de données,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

5.8.2.1 Utilisation de ‘ZoneInfo’
.................................

*note ZoneInfo: 8ce. est une implémentation concrète de la classe de
base abstraite *note datetime.tzinfo: 5ca. et est destinée à être
rattachée à ‘tzinfo’, par le constructeur, par *note datetime.replace:
1483. ou par *note datetime.astimezone: 9c0. :

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00

     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

Les 'datetime' construits de cette manière sont compatibles avec
l'arithmétique 'datetime' et gèrent le passage à l'heure d'été sans
autre intervention :

     >>> dt_add = dt + timedelta(days=1)

     >>> print(dt_add)
     2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00

     >>> dt_add.tzname()
     'PST'

Ces fuseaux horaires prennent aussi en charge l'attribut ‘fold’
introduit dans la PEP 495(1).  Pendant les transitions des décalages
horaires qui induisent des temps ambigus (comme le passage de l'heure
d'été à l'heure normale), le décalage 'avant' la transition est utilisé
quand ‘fold=0’, et le décalage 'après' la transition est utilisé quand
‘fold=1’, par exemple :

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> print(dt.replace(fold=1))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

Lors de la conversion à partir d'un autre fuseau horaire, 'fold' est
réglé à la valeur correcte :

     >>> from datetime import timezone
     >>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
     >>> dt_utc = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

     >>> # Before the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print(dt_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> # After the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print((dt_utc + timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: Sources de données,  Next: La classe ZoneInfo,  Prev: Utilisation de ZoneInfo,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

5.8.2.2 Sources de données
..........................

The ‘zoneinfo’ module does not directly provide time zone data, and
instead pulls time zone information from the system time zone database
or the first-party PyPI package tzdata(1), if available.  Some systems,
including notably Windows systems, do not have an IANA database
available, and so for projects targeting cross-platform compatibility
that require time zone data, it is recommended to declare a dependency
on tzdata.  If neither system data nor tzdata are available, all calls
to *note ZoneInfo: 8ce. will raise *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 2445.

* Menu:

* Configurer les sources de données::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Configurer les sources de données,  Up: Sources de données

5.8.2.3 Configurer les sources de données
.........................................

Lorsque ‘ZoneInfo(key)’ est appelé, le constructeur recherche d'abord un
fichier nommé ‘key’ dans les répertoires spécifiés par *note TZPATH:
1d2f. et, en cas d'échec, recherche dans le paquet 'tzdata'.  Ce
comportement peut être configuré de trois manières :

  1. La valeur par défaut *note TZPATH: 1d2f, lorsqu'elle n'est pas
     spécifiée autrement, peut être configurée à *note la compilation:
     1d30.

  2. *note TZPATH: 1d2f. peut être configuré en utilisant *note une
     variable d'environnement: 2448.

  3. À *note l'exécution: 2449, le chemin de recherche peut être
     manipulé à l'aide de la fonction *note reset_tzpath(): 244a.

* Menu:

* Configuration à la compilation::
* Configuration par l'environnement::
* Configuration à l'exécution::


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration à la compilation,  Next: Configuration par l'environnement,  Up: Configurer les sources de données

5.8.2.4 Configuration à la compilation
......................................

Par défaut, *note TZPATH: 1d2f. indique plusieurs emplacements de
déploiement courants pour la base de données de fuseaux horaires (sauf
sous Windows, où il n'existe pas de consensus pour l'emplacement des
données de fuseaux horaires).  Sur les systèmes POSIX, les distributeurs
en aval ainsi que ceux qui construisent Python à partir des sources et
qui savent où sont déployées les données de fuseau horaire de leur
système peuvent modifier le chemin par défaut en spécifiant l'option de
compilation ‘TZPATH’ (ou, plus probablement, en utilisant l'option *note
-with-tzpath: 1d2e. du script ‘configure’), qui doit être une chaîne
délimitée par *note os.pathsep: 1d01.

Sur toutes les plates-formes, la valeur configurée est disponible en
tant que clé de ‘TZPATH’ dans *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1016.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration par l'environnement,  Next: Configuration à l'exécution,  Prev: Configuration à la compilation,  Up: Configurer les sources de données

5.8.2.5 Configuration par l'environnement
.........................................

Lors de l'initialisation de *note TZPATH: 1d2f. (soit au moment de
l'importation, soit lorsque *note reset_tzpath(): 244a. est appelé sans
argument), le module ‘zoneinfo’ utilise la variable d'environnement
‘PYTHONTZPATH’, si elle existe, pour définir le chemin de recherche.

 -- Variable d'environnement: PYTHONTZPATH

     Il s'agit d'une chaîne séparée par *note os.pathsep: 1d01.
     contenant le chemin de recherche du fuseau horaire à utiliser.
     Elle doit être constituée uniquement de chemins absolus et non de
     chemins relatifs.  Les composants relatifs spécifiés dans
     ‘PYTHONTZPATH’ ne sont pas utilisés, mais le comportement reste
     défini par l'implémentation lorsqu'un chemin relatif est spécifié.
     CPython lève *note InvalidTZPathWarning: 244e. dans ce cas.  Les
     autres implémentations sont libres d'ignorer silencieusement le
     composant erroné ou de lever une exception.

Pour que le système ignore les données système et utilise le paquet
'tzdata' à la place, définissez ‘PYTHONTZPATH=""’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration à l'exécution,  Prev: Configuration par l'environnement,  Up: Configurer les sources de données

5.8.2.6 Configuration à l'exécution
...................................

Le chemin de recherche 'TZ' peut également être configuré au moment de
l'exécution à l'aide de la fonction *note reset_tzpath(): 244a.  Cette
opération n'est généralement pas conseillée, bien qu'il soit raisonnable
de l'utiliser dans les fonctions de test qui nécessitent l'utilisation
d'un chemin de fuseau horaire spécifique (ou qui nécessitent de
désactiver l'accès aux fuseaux horaires du système).


File: python.info,  Node: La classe ZoneInfo,  Next: Fonctions<3>,  Prev: Sources de données,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

5.8.2.7 La classe ‘ZoneInfo’
............................

 -- Classe: zoneinfo.ZoneInfo (key)

     Une sous-classe concrète de *note datetime.tzinfo: 5ca. qui
     représente un fuseau horaire IANA spécifié par la chaîne ‘key’.
     Les appels au constructeur principal renvoient toujours des objets
     dont la comparaison est identique ; autrement dit, sauf
     invalidation du cache via *note ZoneInfo.clear_cache(): 2451, pour
     toutes les valeurs de ‘key’, l'assertion suivante est toujours
     vraie :

          a = ZoneInfo(key)
          b = ZoneInfo(key)
          assert a is b

     ‘key’ doit être sous la forme d'un chemin POSIX relatif et
     normalisé, sans références de niveau supérieur.  Le constructeur
     lève *note ValueError: 1ff. si une clé non conforme est passée.

     Si aucun fichier correspondant à ‘key’ n'est trouvé, le
     constructeur lève *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 2445.

La classe ‘ZoneInfo’ possède deux constructeurs alternatifs :

 -- Méthode: classmethod ZoneInfo.from_file (fobj, /, key=None)

     Construit un objet ‘ZoneInfo’ à partir d'un objet fichier renvoyant
     des octets (par exemple, un fichier ouvert en mode binaire ou un
     objet *note io.BytesIO: e8f.).  Contrairement au constructeur
     principal, il construit toujours un nouvel objet.

     Le paramètre ‘key’ définit le nom de la zone pour les besoins de
     *note __str__(): 60a. et *note __repr__(): 609.

     Les objets créés via ce constructeur ne peuvent pas être sérialisés
     (voir *note pickling: 2453.).

 -- Méthode: classmethod ZoneInfo.no_cache (key)

     Un constructeur alternatif qui contourne le cache du constructeur.
     Il est identique au constructeur principal, mais renvoie un nouvel
     objet à chaque appel.  Il est surtout utile à des fins de test ou
     de démonstration, mais il peut également être utilisé pour créer un
     système avec une stratégie d'invalidation du cache différente.

     Les objets créés via ce constructeur contournent également le cache
     d'un processus de 'désérialisation' lorsqu'ils sont désérialisés.

          Prudence: L'utilisation de ce constructeur peut modifier la
          sémantique de vos 'datetimes' de manière surprenante, ne
          l'utilisez que si vous en avez vraiment besoin.

Les méthodes de classe suivantes sont également disponibles :

 -- Méthode: classmethod ZoneInfo.clear_cache (*, only_keys=None)

     Une méthode pour invalider le cache de la classe ‘ZoneInfo’.  Si
     aucun argument n'est passé, tous les caches sont invalidés et le
     prochain appel au constructeur principal pour chaque clé renverra
     une nouvelle instance.

     Si un itérable de noms de clés est passé au paramètre ‘only_keys’,
     seules les clés spécifiées sont retirées du cache.  Les clés
     passées à ‘only_keys’ mais non trouvées dans le cache sont
     ignorées.

          Avertissement: Invoking this function may change the semantics
          of datetimes using ‘ZoneInfo’ in surprising ways; this
          modifies module state and thus may have wide-ranging effects.
          Only use it if you know that you need to.

La classe a un attribut :

 -- Attribut: ZoneInfo.key

     Il s'agit d'un *note attribut: 2456. en lecture seule qui renvoie
     la valeur de ‘key’ passée au constructeur, qui doit être une clé de
     recherche dans la base de données des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA
     (par exemple, ‘America/New_York’, ‘Europe/Paris’ ou ‘Asia/Tokyo’).

     Pour les zones construites à partir d'un fichier sans spécifier de
     paramètre ‘key’, cette valeur sera fixée à ‘None’.

          Note: Bien qu'il soit assez courant de les exposer aux
          utilisateurs finaux, ces valeurs sont conçues pour être des
          clés primaires permettant de représenter les zones concernées
          et pas nécessairement des éléments destinés à l'utilisateur.
          Des projets comme 'CLDR' ('Unicode Common Locale Data
          Repository') peuvent être utilisés pour obtenir des chaînes de
          caractères plus conviviales à partir de ces clés.

* Menu:

* Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères::
* Sérialisation Pickle::


File: python.info,  Node: Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères,  Next: Sérialisation Pickle,  Up: La classe ZoneInfo

5.8.2.8 Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères
.........................................................

La représentation sous forme de chaîne renvoyée lors de l’appel de *note
str: 437. sur un objet *note ZoneInfo: 8ce. utilise par défaut
l’attribut *note ZoneInfo.key: 2455. (voir la note sur l’utilisation
dans la documentation de l’attribut) :

     >>> zone = ZoneInfo("Pacific/Kwajalein")
     >>> str(zone)
     'Pacific/Kwajalein'

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
     >>> f"{dt.isoformat()} [{dt.tzinfo}]"
     '2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'

Pour les objets construits à partir d’un fichier sans spécifier de
paramètre ‘key’, ‘str’ revient à appeler *note repr(): 7e9.  Le ‘repr’
de ‘ZoneInfo’ est défini par l’implémentation et n’est pas
nécessairement stable entre les versions, mais il est garanti qu’il ne
fournit pas un paramètre 'key' ‘ZoneInfo’ valide.


File: python.info,  Node: Sérialisation Pickle,  Prev: Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères,  Up: La classe ZoneInfo

5.8.2.9 Sérialisation Pickle
............................

Plutôt que de sérialiser toutes les données de transition, les objets
‘ZoneInfo’ sont sérialisés à partir de l'attribut 'key' et les objets
‘ZoneInfo’ construits à partir de fichiers (même ceux avec une valeur
pour ‘key’ spécifiée) ne peuvent pas être sérialisés.

Le comportement d’un fichier ‘ZoneInfo’ dépend de la façon dont il a été
construit :

  1. ‘ZoneInfo(key)’ : lorsqu’il est construit avec le constructeur
     primaire, un objet ‘ZoneInfo’ est sérialisé en utilisant l'attribut
     'key' et, lorsqu’il est désérialisé, le processus de
     désérialisation utilise le constructeur primaire et donc on
     s’attend à ce qu’il soit le même objet que d’autres références au
     même fuseau horaire.  Par exemple, si ‘europe_berlin_pkl’ est une
     chaîne contenant un objet sérialisé construit à partir de
     ‘ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")’, on s’attend au comportement suivant :

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl)
          >>> a is b
          True

  2. ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)’ : lorsqu’il est construit à partir du
     constructeur de contournement de cache, l’objet ‘ZoneInfo’ est
     également sérialisé en utilisant l'attribut 'key' mais, lorsqu’il
     est désérialisé, le processus de désérialisation utilise le
     constructeur de contournement de cache.  Si ‘europe_berlin_pkl_nc’
     est une chaîne contenant un objet sérialisé construit à partir de
     ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache("Europe/Berlin")’, le comportement suivant est
     attendu :

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl_nc)
          >>> a is b
          False

  3. ‘ZoneInfo.from_file(fobj, /, key=None)’ : lorsqu’il est construit à
     partir d’un fichier, l’objet ‘ZoneInfo’ lève une exception lors de
     la sérialisation.  Si un utilisateur souhaite récupérer une
     ‘ZoneInfo’ construite à partir d’un fichier, il est recommandé
     d’encapsuler les données dans un autre type ou d’utiliser une
     fonction de sérialisation personnalisée : soit en sérialisant en
     utilisant l'attribut 'key', soit en stockant le contenu de l’objet
     fichier et en sérialisant cet objet.

Cette méthode de sérialisation nécessite que les données de fuseau
horaire relatives à l'attribut 'key' soient disponibles à la fois du
côté de la sérialisation et de la désérialisation, de la même manière
que les références aux classes et aux fonctions sont censées exister
dans les environnements de sérialisation et de désérialisation.  Cela
signifie également qu’aucune garantie n’est donnée quant à la cohérence
des résultats lors de la désérialisation d’un ‘ZoneInfo’ sérialisé dans
un environnement avec une version différente des données de fuseau
horaire.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<3>,  Next: Variables globales,  Prev: La classe ZoneInfo,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

5.8.2.10 Fonctions
..................

 -- Fonction: zoneinfo.available_timezones ()

     Fournit un ensemble contenant toutes les clés valides pour les
     fuseaux horaires IANA disponibles n’importe où sur 'TZPATH'. Il est
     recalculé à chaque appel à la fonction.

     Cette fonction n’inclut que les noms de zone canoniques et n’inclut
     pas les zones « spéciales » telles que celles sous les répertoires
     ‘posix/’ et ‘right/’, ou la zone ‘posixrules’.

          Prudence: cette fonction peut ouvrir un grand nombre de
          fichiers, car la meilleure façon de déterminer si un fichier
          sur le chemin du fuseau horaire est un fuseau horaire valide
          est de lire la « chaîne magique » au début.

          Note: ces valeurs n’ont pas vocation à être montrées aux
          utilisateurs ; pour les éléments destinés à l’utilisateur, les
          applications doivent utiliser quelque chose comme 'CLDR' (le
          référentiel de données 'Unicode Common Locale') afin d’obtenir
          des chaînes plus conviviales.  Voir aussi la note
          d’avertissement sur *note ZoneInfo.key: 2455.

 -- Fonction: zoneinfo.reset_tzpath (to=None)

     Définit ou réinitialise le chemin de recherche des fuseaux horaires
     (*note TZPATH: 1d2f.) pour le module.  Lorsqu’il est appelé sans
     arguments, *note TZPATH: 1d2f. est défini sur la valeur par défaut.

     Appeler ‘reset_tzpath’ n’invalide pas le cache *note ZoneInfo: 8ce,
     donc les appels au constructeur primaire ‘ZoneInfo’ n’utiliseront
     le nouveau ‘TZPATH’ qu’en cas d’échec du cache.

     Le paramètre ‘to’ doit être une *note séquence: 4de. de chaînes ou
     *note os.PathLike: c41. et non une chaîne, qui doivent toutes être
     des chemins absolus.  *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée si autre
     chose qu’un chemin absolu est passé.


File: python.info,  Node: Variables globales,  Next: Exceptions et avertissements,  Prev: Fonctions<3>,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

5.8.2.11 Variables globales
...........................

 -- Données: zoneinfo.TZPATH

     Séquence en lecture seule représentant le chemin de recherche des
     fuseaux horaires – lors de la construction d’un ‘ZoneInfo’ à partir
     de l'attribut 'key', la clé est jointe à chaque entrée dans le
     ‘TZPATH’ et le premier fichier trouvé est utilisé.

     ‘TZPATH’ ne peut contenir que des chemins absolus, jamais des
     chemins relatifs, quelle que soit sa configuration.

     L’objet vers lequel ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ pointe peut changer suite à
     un appel à *note reset_tzpath(): 244a, il est donc recommandé
     d’utiliser ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ plutôt que d’importer ‘TZPATH’ de
     ‘zoneinfo’ ou en assignant une variable de longue durée à
     ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’.

     Pour plus d’informations sur la configuration du chemin de
     recherche des fuseaux horaires, consultez *note Configurer les
     sources de données: 2447.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions et avertissements,  Prev: Variables globales,  Up: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

5.8.2.12 Exceptions et avertissements
.....................................

 -- Exception: zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError

     Levée lorsque la construction d’un objet *note ZoneInfo: 8ce.
     échoue parce que la clé spécifiée est introuvable sur le système.
     C’est une sous-classe de *note KeyError: 33a.

 -- Exception: zoneinfo.InvalidTZPathWarning

     Levée lorsque *note PYTHONTZPATH: 244d. contient un composant non
     valide qui ne sera pas retenu, tel qu’un chemin relatif.


File: python.info,  Node: calendar --- General calendar-related functions,  Next: collections --- Container datatypes,  Prev: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support,  Up: Types de données

5.8.3 ‘calendar’ -- General calendar-related functions
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/calendar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module permet d'afficher un calendrier comme le fait le programme
Unix ‘cal’, et il fournit des fonctions utiles relatives au calendrier.
Par défaut, ces calendriers ont le lundi comme premier jour de la
semaine et le dimanche comme dernier jour.  Utilisez *note
setfirstweekday(): 245e. pour définir le premier jour de la semaine à
dimanche (6) ou à tout autre jour de la semaine.  Les paramètres pour
spécifier les dates sont donnés sous forme de nombres entiers.  Voir
aussi les modules *note datetime: 30. et *note time: ed.

Les fonctions et les classes définies dans ce module utilisent un
calendrier idéalisé, le calendrier grégorien actuel s'étendant
indéfiniment dans les deux sens.  Cela correspond à la définition du
calendrier grégorien proleptique dans le livre de Dershowitz et Reingold
« 'Calendrical Calculations' », œuvre dans lequel il est le calendrier
de référence de tous les calculs.  Les années zéros et les années
négatives sont interprétées comme prescrit par la norme ISO 8601.
L'année 0 est 1 avant JC, l'année ‘-1’ est 2 avant JC et ainsi de suite.

 -- Classe: calendar.Calendar (firstweekday=0)

     Crée un objet *note Calendar: 245f.  'firstweekday' est un entier
     spécifiant le premier jour de la semaine, valant par défaut ‘0’
     (soit *note MONDAY: 2460. pour lundi), pouvant aller jusqu'à ‘6’
     (soit *note SUNDAY: 2461. pour dimanche).

     L'objet *note Calendar: 245f. fournit plusieurs méthodes pouvant
     être utilisées pour préparer les données du calendrier pour le
     formatage.  Cette classe ne fait pas de formatage elle-même.  Il
     s'agit du travail des sous-classes.

     *note Calendar: 245f. instances have the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- Attribut: firstweekday

          The first weekday as an integer (0-6).

          This property can also be set and read using *note
          setfirstweekday(): 2463. and *note getfirstweekday(): 2464.
          respectively.

      -- Méthode: getfirstweekday ()

          Return an *note int: 254. for the current first weekday (0-6).

          Identical to reading the *note firstweekday: 2462. property.

      -- Méthode: setfirstweekday (firstweekday)

          Set the first weekday to 'firstweekday', passed as an *note
          int: 254. (0-6)

          Identical to setting the *note firstweekday: 2462. property.

      -- Méthode: iterweekdays ()

          Return an iterator for the week day numbers that will be used
          for one week.  The first value from the iterator will be the
          same as the value of the *note firstweekday: 2462. property.

      -- Méthode: itermonthdates (year, month)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois 'month' (1 à 12) de
          l'année 'year'.  Cet itérateur renvoie tous les jours du mois
          (sous forme d'instances de *note datetime.date: 1c8.) ainsi
          que tous les jours avant le début du mois et après la fin du
          mois nécessaires pour obtenir des semaines complètes.

      -- Méthode: itermonthdays (year, month)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois 'month' de l'année
          'year', comme *note itermonthdates(): c09, sans être limité
          par l'intervalle de *note datetime.date: 1c8.  Les jours
          renvoyés sont simplement les numéros des jours du mois.  Pour
          les jours en dehors du mois spécifié, le numéro du jour est
          ‘0’.

      -- Méthode: itermonthdays2 (year, month)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois 'month' de l'année
          'year' comme *note itermonthdates(): c09, sans être limité par
          la plage *note datetime.date: 1c8.  Les jours renvoyés sont
          des paires composées du numéro du jour dans le mois et du
          numéro du jour dans la semaine.

      -- Méthode: itermonthdays3 (year, month)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du 'month' de l'année
          'year', comme *note itermonthdates(): c09, sans être limité
          par l'intervalle de *note datetime.date: 1c8.  Les jours sont
          renvoyés sous forme de triplets composés du numéro de l'année,
          du mois et du jour dans le mois.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: itermonthdays4 (year, month)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois 'month' de l'année
          'year', comme *note itermonthdates(): c09, sans être limité
          par l'intervalle de *note datetime.date: 1c8.  Le jours sont
          renvoyés sous forme de quadruplets contenant le numéro de
          l'année, du mois, du jour du mois et du jour de la semaine.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: monthdatescalendar (year, month)

          Renvoie la liste des semaines complètes du mois 'month' de
          l'année 'year'.  Les semaines sont des listes de sept objets
          *note datetime.date: 1c8.

      -- Méthode: monthdays2calendar (year, month)

          Renvoie la liste des semaines complètes du mois 'month' de
          l'année 'year'.  Les semaines sont des listes de sept paires
          contenant le numéro du jour dans le mois et du numéro du jour
          dans la semaine.

      -- Méthode: monthdayscalendar (year, month)

          Renvoie la liste des semaines complètes du mois 'month' de
          l'année 'year'.  Les semaines sont une liste de sept numéros
          de jours.

      -- Méthode: yeardatescalendar (year, width=3)

          Renvoie ce qu'il faut pour afficher correctement une année.
          La valeur renvoyée est une liste de lignes de mois.  Chaque
          ligne mensuelle contient jusqu'à 'width' mois (avec une valeur
          par défaut à 3).  Chaque mois contient de 4 à 6 semaines et
          chaque semaine 1 à 7 jours.  Les jours sont des objets *note
          datetime.date: 1c8.

      -- Méthode: yeardays2calendar (year, width=3)

          Renvoie ce qu'il faut pour afficher correctement une année,
          (similaire à *note yeardatescalendar(): 246b.).  Les listes
          des semaines contiennent des paires contenant le numéro du
          jour du mois et le numéro du jour de la semaine.  Les numéro
          des jours en dehors de ce mois sont à zéro.

      -- Méthode: yeardayscalendar (year, width=3)

          Renvoie ce qu'il faut pour afficher correctement une année,
          (similaire à *note yeardatescalendar(): 246b.).  Les listes de
          semaines contiennent des numéros de jours.  Les numéros de
          jours en dehors de ce mois sont de zéro.

 -- Classe: calendar.TextCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     Cette classe peut être utilisée pour générer des calendriers en
     texte brut.

     Les instances *note TextCalendar: 246e. exposent les méthodes
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: formatday (theday, weekday, width)

          Return a string representing a single day formatted with the
          given 'width'.  If 'theday' is ‘0’, return a string of spaces
          of the specified width, representing an empty day.  The
          'weekday' parameter is unused.

      -- Méthode: formatweek (theweek, w=0)

          Return a single week in a string with no newline.  If 'w' is
          provided, it specifies the width of the date columns, which
          are centered.  Depends on the first weekday as specified in
          the constructor or set by the *note setfirstweekday(): 245e.
          method.

      -- Méthode: formatweekday (weekday, width)

          Return a string representing the name of a single weekday
          formatted to the specified 'width'.  The 'weekday' parameter
          is an integer representing the day of the week, where ‘0’ is
          Monday and ‘6’ is Sunday.

      -- Méthode: formatweekheader (width)

          Return a string containing the header row of weekday names,
          formatted with the given 'width' for each column.  The names
          depend on the locale settings and are padded to the specified
          width.

      -- Méthode: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          Donne le calendrier d'un mois dans une chaîne multi-ligne.  Si
          'w' est fourni, il spécifie la largeur des colonnes de date,
          qui sont centrées.  Si 'l' est donné, il spécifie le nombre de
          lignes que chaque semaine utilisera.  Le résultat varie en
          fonction du premier jour de la semaine spécifié dans le
          constructeur ou défini par la méthode *note setfirstweekday():
          245e.

      -- Méthode: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, width=0,
               withyear=True)

          Return a string representing the month's name centered within
          the specified 'width'.  If 'withyear' is ‘True’, include the
          year in the output.  The 'theyear' and 'themonth' parameters
          specify the year and month for the name to be formatted
          respectively.

      -- Méthode: prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          Affiche le calendrier d'un mois tel que renvoyé par *note
          formatmonth(): 2473.

      -- Méthode: formatyear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          Renvoie un calendrier de 'm' colonnes pour une année entière
          sous forme de chaîne multi-ligne.  Les paramètres facultatifs
          'w', 'l' et 'c' correspondent respectivement à la largeur de
          la colonne date, les lignes par semaines, le nombre d'espace
          entre les colonnes de mois.  Le résultat varie en fonction du
          premier jour de la semaine spécifié dans le constructeur ou
          défini par la méthode *note setfirstweekday(): 245e.  La
          première année pour laquelle un calendrier peut être généré,
          dépend de la plateforme.

      -- Méthode: pryear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          Affiche le calendrier pour une année entière comme renvoyé par
          *note formatyear(): 2476.

 -- Classe: calendar.HTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     Cette classe peut être utilisée pour générer des calendriers HTML.

     Les instances de ‘HTMLCalendar’ utilisent les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          Renvoie le calendrier d'un mois sous la forme d'une table
          HTML.  Si 'withyear' est vrai l'année sera inclue dans
          l'en-tête, sinon seul le nom du mois sera utilisé.

      -- Méthode: formatyear (theyear, width=3)

          Renvoie le calendrier d'une année sous la forme d'une table
          HTML. 'width' (par défaut à 3) spécifie le nombre de mois par
          ligne.

      -- Méthode: formatyearpage (theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css',
               encoding=None)

          Renvoie le calendrier d'une année sous la forme d'une page
          HTML complète.  'width' (par défaut à 3) spécifie le nombre de
          mois par ligne.  'css' est le nom de la feuille de style en
          cascade à utiliser.  *note None: 662. peut être passé si
          aucune feuille de style ne doit être utilisée.  'encoding'
          spécifie l'encodage à utiliser pour les données de sortie (par
          défaut l'encodage par défaut du système).

      -- Méthode: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          Return a month name as an HTML table row.  If 'withyear' is
          true the year will be included in the row, otherwise just the
          month name will be used.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ possède les attributs suivants que vous pouvez
     surcharger pour personnaliser les classes CSS utilisées par le
     calendrier :

      -- Attribut: cssclasses

          Une liste de classes CSS utilisées pour chaque jour de la
          semaine.  La liste par défaut de la classe est :

               cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]

          davantage de styles peuvent être ajoutés pour chaque jour :

               cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]

          Notez que la longueur de cette liste doit être de sept
          éléments.

      -- Attribut: cssclass_noday

          La classe CSS pour le jour de la semaine apparaissant dans le
          mois précédent ou à venir.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: cssclasses_weekday_head

          Une liste de classes CSS utilisées pour les noms des jours de
          la semaine dans la ligne d'en-tête.  Par défaut les mêmes que
          *note cssclasses: 247c.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: cssclass_month_head

          La classe CSS du mois en en-tête (utilisé par *note
          formatmonthname(): 247b.).  La valeur par défaut est
          ‘"month"’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: cssclass_month

          La classe CSS pour la table du mois entière (utilisé par *note
          formatmonth(): 2478.).  La valeur par défaut est ‘"month"’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: cssclass_year

          La classe CSS pour la table entière des tables de l'année
          (utilisé par *note formatyear(): 2479.).  La valeur par défaut
          est ‘"year"’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: cssclass_year_head

          La classe CSS pour l'en-tête de la table pour l'année entière
          (utilisé par *note formatyear(): 2479.).  La valeur par défaut
          est ‘"year"’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Notez que même si le nommage ci-dessus des attributs de classe est
     au singulier (p.  ex.  ‘cssclass_month’ ‘cssclass_noday’), on peut
     remplacer la seule classe CSS par une liste de classes CSS séparées
     par une espace, par exemple :

          "text-bold text-red"

     Voici un exemple de comment peut être personnalisée
     ‘HTMLCalendar’ :

          class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
              cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
                            calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
              cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
              cssclass_month = "text-center month"
              cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"

 -- Classe: calendar.LocaleTextCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     Il est possible de passer un nom de locale au constructeur de la
     sous-classe de *note TextCalendar: 246e.  Elle renvoie les noms des
     mois et des jours de la semaine dans la locale précisée.

 -- Classe: calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     Il est possible de passer un nom de locale au constructeur de la
     sous-classe de *note HTMLCalendar: b13.  Elle renvoie les noms des
     mois et des jours de la semaine dans la locale précisée.

     Note: The constructor, ‘formatweekday()’ and ‘formatmonthname()’
     methods of these two classes temporarily change the ‘LC_TIME’
     locale to the given 'locale'.  Because the current locale is a
     process-wide setting, they are not thread-safe.

Pour les calendriers texte simples ce module fournit les fonctions
suivantes.

 -- Fonction: calendar.setfirstweekday (weekday)

     Fixe le jour de la semaine (‘0’ pour lundi, ‘6’ pour dimanche) qui
     débute chaque semaine.  Les valeurs *note MONDAY: 2460, *note
     TUESDAY: 2483, *note WEDNESDAY: 2484, *note THURSDAY: 2485, *note
     FRIDAY: 2486, *note SATURDAY: 2487, et *note SUNDAY: 2461. sont
     fournies par commodité.  Par exemple, pour fixer le premier jour de
     la semaine à dimanche :

          import calendar
          calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)

 -- Fonction: calendar.firstweekday ()

     Renvoie le réglage courant pour le jour de la semaine débutant
     chaque semaine.

 -- Fonction: calendar.isleap (year)

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. si 'year' est une année bissextile, sinon
     *note False: b27.

 -- Fonction: calendar.leapdays (y1, y2)

     Renvoie le nombre d'années bissextiles dans la période de 'y1' à
     'y2' (non inclus), où 'y1' et 'y2' sont des années.

     Cette fonction marche pour les périodes couvrant un changement de
     siècle.

 -- Fonction: calendar.weekday (year, month, day)

     Renvoie le jour de la semaine (‘0’ pour lundi) pour 'year' (‘1970’-
     …), 'month' (‘1’-‘12’), 'day' (‘1’-‘31’).

 -- Fonction: calendar.weekheader (n)

     Renvoie un en-tête contenant les jours de la semaine en abrégé.
     'n' spécifie la largeur en caractères pour un jour de la semaine.

 -- Fonction: calendar.monthrange (year, month)

     Renvoie le jour de la semaine correspondant au premier jour du mois
     et le nombre de jours dans le mois, pour l'année 'year' et le mois
     'month' spécifiés.

 -- Fonction: calendar.monthcalendar (year, month)

     Renvoie une matrice représentant le calendrier d'un mois.  Chaque
     ligne représente une semaine ; les jours en dehors du mois sont
     représentés par des zéros.  Chaque semaine débute avec le lundi à
     moins de l'avoir modifié avec *note setfirstweekday(): 245e.

 -- Fonction: calendar.prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     Affiche le calendrier d'un mois tel que renvoyé par *note month():
     1559.

 -- Fonction: calendar.month (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     Returns a month's calendar in a multi-line string using the *note
     formatmonth(): 2473. of the *note TextCalendar: 246e. class.

 -- Fonction: calendar.prcal (year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)

     Affiche le calendrier pour une année entière tel que renvoyé par
     *note calendar(): 14.

 -- Fonction: calendar.calendar (year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

     Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line
     string using the *note formatyear(): 2476. of the *note
     TextCalendar: 246e. class.

 -- Fonction: calendar.timegm (tuple)

     Une fonction sans rapport mais pratique, qui prend un 'n'-uplet
     temporel tel que celui renvoyé par la fonction *note gmtime():
     119f. dans le module *note time: ed, et renvoie la valeur
     d'horodatage Unix ('timestamp' en anglais) correspondante, en
     supposant une époque de 1970, et l'encodage POSIX. En fait, *note
     time.gmtime(): 119f. et *note timegm(): 2492. sont l'inverse l'un
     de l'autre.

Le module *note calendar: 14. exporte les attributs suivants :

 -- Données: calendar.day_name

     A sequence that represents the days of the week in the current
     locale, where Monday is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_name)
          ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']

 -- Données: calendar.day_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the
     current locale, where Mon is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
          ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']

 -- Données: calendar.MONDAY
 -- Données: calendar.TUESDAY
 -- Données: calendar.WEDNESDAY
 -- Données: calendar.THURSDAY
 -- Données: calendar.FRIDAY
 -- Données: calendar.SATURDAY
 -- Données: calendar.SUNDAY

     Aliases for the days of the week, where ‘MONDAY’ is ‘0’ and
     ‘SUNDAY’ is ‘6’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: calendar.Day

     Enumeration defining days of the week as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note MONDAY: 2460. through *note SUNDAY: 2461.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: calendar.month_name

     A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current
     locale.  This follows normal convention of January being month
     number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_name[0]’ is the empty
     string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_name)
          ['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']

 -- Données: calendar.month_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in
     the current locale.  This follows normal convention of January
     being month number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_abbr[0]’
     is the empty string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
          ['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']

 -- Données: calendar.JANUARY
 -- Données: calendar.FEBRUARY
 -- Données: calendar.MARCH
 -- Données: calendar.APRIL
 -- Données: calendar.MAY
 -- Données: calendar.JUNE
 -- Données: calendar.JULY
 -- Données: calendar.AUGUST
 -- Données: calendar.SEPTEMBER
 -- Données: calendar.OCTOBER
 -- Données: calendar.NOVEMBER
 -- Données: calendar.DECEMBER

     Aliases for the months of the year, where ‘JANUARY’ is ‘1’ and
     ‘DECEMBER’ is ‘12’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: calendar.Month

     Enumeration defining months of the year as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note JANUARY: 2ee. through *note DECEMBER: 24a0.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The *note calendar: 14. module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Exception: calendar.IllegalMonthError (month)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 1ff, raised when the given month
     number is outside of the range 1-12 (inclusive).

      -- Attribut: month

          The invalid month number.

 -- Exception: calendar.IllegalWeekdayError (weekday)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 1ff, raised when the given weekday
     number is outside of the range 0-6 (inclusive).

      -- Attribut: weekday

          The invalid weekday number.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note datetime: 30.

     Interface orientée objet pour les dates et les heures avec des
     fonctionnalités similaires au module *note time: ed.

Module *note time: ed.

     Fonctions bas niveau relatives au temps.

* Menu:

* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/calendar.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande,  Up: calendar --- General calendar-related functions

5.8.3.1 Utilisation en ligne de commande.
.........................................

Ajouté dans la version 2.5.

The *note calendar: 14. module can be executed as a script from the
command line to interactively print a calendar.

     python -m calendar [-h] [-L LOCALE] [-e ENCODING] [-t {text,html}]
                        [-w WIDTH] [-l LINES] [-s SPACING] [-m MONTHS] [-c CSS]
                        [-f FIRST_WEEKDAY] [year] [month]

For example, to print a calendar for the year 2000:

     $ python -m calendar 2000
                                       2000

           January                   February                   March
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6             1  2  3  4  5
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       6  7  8  9 10 11 12
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      13 14 15 16 17 18 19
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      20 21 22 23 24 25 26
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29                     27 28 29 30 31
     31

            April                      May                       June
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2       1  2  3  4  5  6  7                1  2  3  4
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       8  9 10 11 12 13 14       5  6  7  8  9 10 11
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      15 16 17 18 19 20 21      12 13 14 15 16 17 18
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      22 23 24 25 26 27 28      19 20 21 22 23 24 25
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      29 30 31                  26 27 28 29 30

             July                     August                  September
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6                   1  2  3
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29 30 31               25 26 27 28 29 30
     31

           October                   November                  December
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                        1             1  2  3  4  5                   1  2  3
      2  3  4  5  6  7  8       6  7  8  9 10 11 12       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
      9 10 11 12 13 14 15      13 14 15 16 17 18 19      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     16 17 18 19 20 21 22      20 21 22 23 24 25 26      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     23 24 25 26 27 28 29      27 28 29 30               25 26 27 28 29 30 31
     30 31

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

 -- Option: --help, -h

     Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

 -- Option: --locale LOCALE, -L LOCALE

     The locale to use for month and weekday names.  Defaults to
     English.

 -- Option: --encoding ENCODING, -e ENCODING

     The encoding to use for output.  *note -encoding: 24aa. is required
     if *note -locale: 24a8. is set.

 -- Option: --type {text,html}, -t {text,html}

     Print the calendar to the terminal as text, or as an HTML document.

 -- Option: --first-weekday FIRST_WEEKDAY, -f FIRST_WEEKDAY

     The weekday to start each week.  Must be a number between 0
     (Monday) and 6 (Sunday).  Defaults to 0.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Option: year

     The year to print the calendar for.  Defaults to the current year.

 -- Option: month

     The month of the specified *note year: 24b0. to print the calendar
     for.  Must be a number between 1 and 12, and may only be used in
     text mode.  Defaults to printing a calendar for the full year.

'Text-mode options:'

 -- Option: --width WIDTH, -w WIDTH

     The width of the date column in terminal columns.  The date is
     printed centred in the column.  Any value lower than 2 is ignored.
     Defaults to 2.

 -- Option: --lines LINES, -l LINES

     The number of lines for each week in terminal rows.  The date is
     printed top-aligned.  Any value lower than 1 is ignored.  Defaults
     to 1.

 -- Option: --spacing SPACING, -s SPACING

     The space between months in columns.  Any value lower than 2 is
     ignored.  Defaults to 6.

 -- Option: --months MONTHS, -m MONTHS

     The number of months printed per row.  Defaults to 3.

'HTML-mode options:'

 -- Option: --css CSS, -c CSS

     The path of a CSS stylesheet to use for the calendar.  This must
     either be relative to the generated HTML, or an absolute HTTP or
     ‘file:///’ URL.


File: python.info,  Node: collections --- Container datatypes,  Next: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers,  Prev: calendar --- General calendar-related functions,  Up: Types de données

5.8.4 ‘collections’ -- Container datatypes
------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/collections/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module implémente des types de données de conteneurs spécialisés qui
apportent des alternatives aux conteneurs natifs de Python plus généraux
*note dict: 253, *note list: 5fe, *note set: 5c5. et *note tuple: 366.

*note namedtuple(): 1c5.  fonction permettant de créer des sous-classes de ‘tuple’ avec des
                          champs nommés
                          
                          
*note deque: 5c8.         conteneur se comportant comme une liste avec des ajouts et retraits
                          rapides à chaque extrémité
                          
                          
*note ChainMap: c0c.      classe semblable aux dictionnaires qui crée une unique vue à partir de
                          plusieurs dictionnaires
                          
                          
*note Counter: 107d.      dict subclass for counting *note hashable: 5fd. objects
                          
                          
*note OrderedDict: 5c7.   sous-classe de ‘dict’ qui garde en mémoire l'ordre dans lequel les
                          entrées ont été ajoutées
                          
                          
*note defaultdict: 119c.  sous-classe de ‘dict’ qui appelle une fonction de fabrication en cas
                          de valeur manquante
                          
                          
*note UserDict: 1952.     surcouche autour des objets dictionnaires pour faciliter l'héritage de
                          ‘dict’
                          
                          
*note UserList: 149b.     surcouche autour des objets listes pour faciliter l'héritage de ‘list’
                          
                          
*note UserString: dc4.    surcouche autour des objets chaînes de caractères pour faciliter
                          l'héritage de ‘str’
                          

* Menu:

* Objets ChainMap::
* Objets Counter::
* Objets deque::
* Objets defaultdict::
* namedtuple() ; fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés: namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
* Objets OrderedDict::
* Objets UserDict::
* Objets UserList::
* Objets UserString::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/collections/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ChainMap,  Next: Objets Counter,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.1 Objets ‘ChainMap’
.........................

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le module fournit une classe *note ChainMap: c0c. afin de réunir
rapidement plusieurs dictionnaires en une unique entité.  Cela est
souvent plus rapide que de créer un nouveau dictionnaire et d'effectuer
plusieurs appels de *note update(): 141b.

Cette classe peut être utilisée pour simuler des portées imbriquées,
elle est aussi utile pour le 'templating'.

 -- Classe: collections.ChainMap (*maps)

     Un objet *note ChainMap: c0c. regroupe plusieurs dictionnaires (ou
     autres tableaux de correspondance) en une vue que l'on peut mettre
     à jour.  Si le paramètre 'maps' est vide, un dictionnaire vide est
     fourni de telle manière qu'une nouvelle chaîne possède toujours au
     moins un dictionnaire.

     Les dictionnaires sous-jacents sont stockés dans une liste.
     Celle-ci est publique et peut être consultée ou mise à jour via
     l'attribut 'maps'.  Il n'y a pas d'autre état.

     Les recherches s'effectuent successivement dans chaque dictionnaire
     jusqu'à la première clé correspondante.  En revanche, les
     écritures, mises à jour et suppressions n'affectent que le premier
     dictionnaire.

     Un objet *note ChainMap: c0c. incorpore les dictionnaires
     sous-jacents par leur référence.  Ainsi, si l'un d'eux est modifié,
     les changements affectent également la *note ChainMap: c0c.

     Toutes les méthodes usuelles des dictionnaires sont gérées.  De
     plus, cette classe fournit un attribut 'maps', une méthode pour
     créer de nouveaux sous-contextes et une propriété pour accéder à
     tous les dictionnaires sous-jacents excepté le premier :

      -- Attribut: maps

          Liste de dictionnaires éditable par l'utilisateur et classée
          selon l'ordre de recherche.  Il s'agit de l'unique état stocké
          et elle peut être modifiée pour changer l'ordre de recherche.
          La liste doit toujours contenir au moins un dictionnaire.

      -- Méthode: new_child (m=None, **kwargs)

          Renvoie un nouvel objet *note ChainMap: c0c. contenant un
          nouveau dictionnaire suivi par tous les autres de l'instance
          actuelle.  Si ‘m’ est spécifié, il devient le nouveau
          dictionnaire au début de la liste ; sinon, un dictionnaire
          vide est utilisé, de telle manière qu'appeler ‘d.new_child()’
          équivaut à appeler ‘ChainMap({}, *d.maps)’.  Si des arguments
          sont passés par mot-clé, ils sont insérés comme de nouvelles
          entrées du dictionnaire ajouté.  Cette méthode est utile pour
          créer des sous-contextes qui peuvent être mis à jour sans
          altérer les valeurs dans les dictionnaires parents.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout du paramètre optionnel ‘m’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: prise en charge des arguments
          par mot-clé.

      -- Attribut: parents

          Propriété qui renvoie un nouvel objet *note ChainMap: c0c.
          contenant tous les dictionnaires de l'instance actuelle hormis
          le premier.  Cette propriété est utile pour ignorer le premier
          dictionnaire dans les recherches ; son utilisation rappelle le
          mot-clé *note nonlocal: 1287. (utilisé pour les *note portées
          imbriquées: 1efa.), ou bien la fonction native *note super():
          4c8.  Une référence à ‘d.parents’ est équivalente à :
          ‘ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])’.

     Note, the iteration order of a *note ChainMap: c0c. is determined
     by scanning the mappings last to first:

          >>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
          >>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
          >>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     Cela produit le même ordre qu'une suite d'appels à *note
     dict.update(): 141b. en commençant par le dernier tableau de
     correspondances :

          >>> combined = baseline.copy()
          >>> combined.update(adjustments)
          >>> list(combined)
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajout de la gestion des opérateurs ‘|’
     et ‘|=’ tels que définis dans PEP 584(1).

Voir aussi
..........

   * La classe MultiContext(2) dans le package CodeTools(3) d'Enthought
     possède des options pour gérer l'écriture dans n'importe quel
     dictionnaire de la chaîne.

   * La classe de contexte de Django(4) pour la création de modèles est
     une chaîne de dictionnaires en lecture seule.  Elle comporte
     également des fonctionnalités d'ajouts et de retraits de contextes
     similaires à la méthode *note new_child(): f10. et à la propriété
     *note parents: 24c0.

   * The Nested Contexts recipe(5) has options to control whether writes
     and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to any
     mapping in the chain.

   * Une version grandement simplifiée de Chainmap en lecture seule(6).

* Menu:

* Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) 
https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py

   (3) https://github.com/enthought/codetools

   (4) 
https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/template/context.py

   (5) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434-nested-contexts-a-chain-of-mapping-objects/

   (6) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap,  Up: Objets ChainMap

5.8.4.2 Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ‘ChainMap’
......................................................

Cette partie montre diverses approches afin de travailler avec les
dictionnaires chaînés.

Exemple 1 : simulation de la chaîne de recherche interne de Python :

     import builtins
     pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))

Exemple 2 : spécification d'une hiérarchie pour les options : ligne de
commande, variable d'environnement, valeurs par défaut :

     import os, argparse

     defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
     namespace = parser.parse_args()
     command_line_args = {k: v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v is not None}

     combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
     print(combined['color'])
     print(combined['user'])

Exemple 3 : modèles pour simuler des contextes imbriqués avec la classe
*note ChainMap: c0c. :

     c = ChainMap()        # Create root context
     d = c.new_child()     # Create nested child context
     e = c.new_child()     # Child of c, independent from d
     e.maps[0]             # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals()
     e.maps[-1]            # Root context -- like Python's globals()
     e.parents             # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals

     d['x'] = 1            # Set value in current context
     d['x']                # Get first key in the chain of contexts
     del d['x']            # Delete from current context
     list(d)               # All nested values
     k in d                # Check all nested values
     len(d)                # Number of nested values
     d.items()             # All nested items
     dict(d)               # Flatten into a regular dictionary

La classe *note ChainMap: c0c. ne met à jour (écriture et suppression)
que le premier dictionnaire de la chaîne, alors qu'une recherche
inspecte toute la chaîne.  Cependant, si l'on veut effectuer des
écritures ou suppressions en profondeur, on peut facilement faire une
sous-classe qui met à jour les clés trouvées de la chaîne en
profondeur :

     class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
         'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     mapping[key] = value
                     return
             self.maps[0][key] = value

         def __delitem__(self, key):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     del mapping[key]
                     return
             raise KeyError(key)

     >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
     >>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # update an existing key two levels down
     >>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # new keys get added to the topmost dict
     >>> del d['elephant']            # remove an existing key one level down
     >>> d                            # display result
     DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Counter,  Next: Objets deque,  Prev: Objets ChainMap,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.3 Objets ‘Counter’
........................

Ce module fournit un outil pour effectuer rapidement et facilement des
dénombrements.  Par exemple :

     >>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
     >>> cnt = Counter()
     >>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
     ...     cnt[word] += 1
     ...
     >>> cnt
     Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     >>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
     >>> import re
     >>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
     >>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
     [('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
      ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]

 -- Classe: collections.Counter ([iterable-or-mapping])

     A *note Counter: 107d. is a *note dict: 253. subclass for counting
     *note hashable: 5fd. objects.  It is a collection where elements
     are stored as dictionary keys and their counts are stored as
     dictionary values.  Counts are allowed to be any integer value
     including zero or negative counts.  The *note Counter: 107d. class
     is similar to bags or multisets in other languages.

     Les éléments sont comptés à partir d'un itérable ou initialisés à
     partir d'un autre dictionnaire (ou compteur) :

          >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
          >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
          >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
          >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

     Les objets Counter ont une interface de dictionnaire, à l'exception
     près qu'ils renvoient zéro au lieu de lever une exception *note
     KeyError: 33a. pour des éléments manquants :

          >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
          >>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
          0

     Mettre un comptage à zéro pour un élément ne le retire pas de
     l'objet Counter.  Il faut utiliser ‘del’ pour le supprimer
     complètement :

          >>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
          >>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: As a *note dict: 253. subclass, *note
     Counter: 107d. inherited the capability to remember insertion
     order.  Math operations on 'Counter' objects also preserve order.
     Results are ordered according to when an element is first
     encountered in the left operand and then by the order encountered
     in the right operand.

     Counter objects support additional methods beyond those available
     for all dictionaries:

      -- Méthode: elements ()

          Renvoie un itérateur sur chaque élément en le répétant autant
          de fois que la valeur du compteur associé.  Les éléments sont
          renvoyés dans l'ordre selon lequel ils sont rencontrés pour la
          première fois.  Si le comptage d'un élément est strictement
          inférieur à 1, alors *note elements(): 12e4. l'ignore.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> sorted(c.elements())
               ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']

      -- Méthode: most_common ([n])

          Renvoie une liste des 'n' éléments les plus nombreux et leur
          valeur respective dans l'ordre décroissant.  Si 'n' n'est pas
          fourni ou vaut ‘None’, *note most_common(): 12e3. renvoie
          'tous' les éléments du compteur.  Les éléments qui ont le même
          nombre d'occurrences sont ordonnés par l'ordre selon lequel
          ils ont été rencontrés pour la première fois :

               >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
               [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]

      -- Méthode: subtract ([iterable-or-mapping])

          Les éléments sont soustraits à partir d'un itérable ou d'un
          autre dictionnaire (ou compteur).  Cette méthode se comporte
          comme *note dict.update(): 141b. mais soustrait les nombres
          d'occurrences au lieu de les remplacer.  Les entrées et
          sorties peuvent être négatives ou nulles.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
               >>> c.subtract(d)
               >>> c
               Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: total ()

          Calcule la somme totale des nombres d'occurrences.

               >>> c = Counter(a=10, b=5, c=0)
               >>> c.total()
               15

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Les méthodes usuelles des dictionnaires sont disponibles pour les
     objets *note Counter: 107d. à l'exception de deux méthodes qui
     fonctionnent différemment pour les compteurs.

      -- Méthode: fromkeys (iterable)

          Cette méthode de classe n'est pas implémentée pour les objets
          *note Counter: 107d.

      -- Méthode: update ([iterable-or-mapping])

          Les éléments sont comptés à partir d'un itérable ou ajoutés
          d'un autre dictionnaire (ou compteur).  Cette méthode se
          comporte comme *note dict.update(): 141b. mais additionne les
          nombres d'occurrences au lieu de les remplacer.  De plus,
          l'itérable doit être une séquence d'éléments et non une
          séquence de paires ‘(clé, valeur)’.

Les compteurs prennent en charge les comparaisons riches pour les tests
d'égalité ainsi que d'inclusion du membre gauche dans le membre droite
et réciproquement, avec les opérateurs ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ et
‘>=’.  Les éléments dont le nombre d'occurrences est à zéro sont
ignorés.  Par exemple, on a ‘Counter(a=1) == Counter(a=1, b=0)’.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout des comparaisons riches.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: les éléments dont le nombre d'occurrences
est à zéro sont désormais ignorés dans les tests d'égalité.  On avait
auparavant ‘Counter(a=3) != Counter(a=3, b=0)’.

Opérations usuelles sur les objets *note Counter: 107d. :

     c.total()                       # total of all counts
     c.clear()                       # reset all counts
     list(c)                         # list unique elements
     set(c)                          # convert to a set
     dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
     c.items()                       # access the (elem, cnt) pairs
     Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
     c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
     +c                              # remove zero and negative counts

Several mathematical operations are provided for combining *note
Counter: 107d. objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts
greater than zero).  Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding
or subtracting the counts of corresponding elements.  Intersection and
union return the minimum and maximum of corresponding counts.  Equality
and inclusion compare corresponding counts.  Each operation can accept
inputs with signed counts, but the output will exclude results with
counts of zero or less.

     >>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
     >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
     >>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
     Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
     >>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
     >>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
     >>> c == d                      # equality:  c[x] == d[x]
     False
     >>> c <= d                      # inclusion:  c[x] <= d[x]
     False

L'addition et la soustraction unaires (avec un seul terme) sont des
raccourcis pour respectivement additionner un compteur avec un compteur
vide ou et pour retrancher un compteur d'un compteur vide.

     >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
     >>> +c
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> -c
     Counter({'b': 4})

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la gestion des additions et
soustractions unaires, et des remplacements dans les multiensembles.

     Note: Les compteurs ont été conçus essentiellement pour fonctionner
     avec des entiers naturels pour représenter les dénombrements en
     cours ; cependant, les cas d'utilisation nécessitant d'autres types
     ou des valeurs négatives n'ont pas été écartés.  Pour vous aider
     dans ces cas particuliers, cette section documente la plage
     minimale et les restrictions de type.

        * La classe *note Counter: 107d. est elle-même une sous-classe
          de dictionnaire sans restriction particulière sur ces clés ou
          valeurs.  Les valeurs ont vocation à être des nombres
          représentants des comptages, mais il est 'possible' de stocker
          n'importe quel type de valeur.

        * La méthode *note most_common(): 12e3. exige uniquement que les
          valeurs soient ordonnables.

        * Les opérations de remplacement telles que ‘c[key] += 1’
          exigent une valeur dont le type gère l'addition et la
          soustraction.  Cela inclut donc les fractions, les flottants
          et les décimaux, y compris négatifs.  Il en va de même pour
          *note update(): 24c5. et ‘substract()’ qui acceptent des
          valeurs négatives ou nulles dans les entrées et sorties.

        * Les méthodes de multiensembles sont uniquement conçues pour
          les cas d'utilisation avec des valeurs positives.  Les entrées
          peuvent contenir des valeurs négatives ou nulles, mais seules
          les sorties avec des valeurs positives sont créées.  Il n'y a
          pas de restriction de type, mais les types des valeurs doivent
          gérer l'addition, la soustraction et la comparaison.

        * La méthode *note elements(): 12e4. exige des valeurs entières
          et ignore les valeurs négatives ou nulles.

Voir aussi
..........

   * Bag class(1) dans Smalltalk.

   * L'article Wikipédia sur les multiensembles(2) sur Wikipédia (ou
     l'article en anglais(3)).

   * Des guides et exemples à propos des multiensembles en C++(4).

   * Pour les opérations mathématiques sur les multiensembles et leurs
     applications, voir 'Knuth, Donald.  The Art of Computer Programming
     Volume II, Section 4.6.3, Exercise 19'.

   * Pour lister tous les multiensembles distincts de même taille parmi
     un ensemble donné d'éléments, voir *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1261. :

          map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiensemble

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset

   (4) 
http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Objets deque,  Next: Objets defaultdict,  Prev: Objets Counter,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.4 Objets ‘deque’
......................

 -- Classe: collections.deque ([iterable[, maxlen]])

     Renvoie un nouvel objet 'deque' initialisé de gauche à droite (en
     utilisant *note append(): 24c7.) avec les données d''iterable'.  Si
     'iterable' n'est pas spécifié, alors la nouvelle 'deque' est vide.

     Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is
     pronounced "deck" and is short for "double-ended queue").  Deques
     support thread-safe, memory efficient appends and pops from either
     side of the deque with approximately the same 'O'(1) performance in
     either direction.

     Though *note list: 5fe. objects support similar operations, they
     are optimized for fast fixed-length operations and incur 'O'('n')
     memory movement costs for ‘pop(0)’ and ‘insert(0, v)’ operations
     which change both the size and position of the underlying data
     representation.

     Si 'maxlen' n'est pas spécifié ou vaut 'None', les 'deques' peuvent
     atteindre une taille arbitraire.  Sinon, la 'deque' est limitée par
     cette taille maximale.  Une fois que celle-ci est atteinte, un
     ajout d'un ou plusieurs éléments engendre la suppression du nombre
     correspondant d'éléments à l'autre extrémité de la 'deque'.  Les
     'deques' à longueur limitée apportent des fonctionnalités
     similaires au filtre ‘tail’ d'Unix.  Elles sont aussi utiles pour
     le suivi de transactions et autres lots de données où seule
     l'activité récente est intéressante.

     Les objets 'deques' gèrent les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: append (x)

          Ajoute 'x' à l'extrémité droite de la 'deque'.

      -- Méthode: appendleft (x)

          Ajoute 'x' à l'extrémité gauche de la 'deque'.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Supprime tous les éléments de la 'deque' et la laisse avec une
          longueur de 0.

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Crée une copie superficielle de la 'deque'.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: count (x)

          Compte le nombre d'éléments de la 'deque' égaux à 'x'.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: extend (iterable)

          Étend la 'deque' en ajoutant les éléments de l'itérable en
          argument à son extrémité droite.

      -- Méthode: extendleft (iterable)

          Étend la 'deque' en ajoutant les éléments d''iterable' à son
          extrémité gauche.  Dans ce cas, notez que la série d'ajouts
          inverse l'ordre des éléments de l'argument itérable.

      -- Méthode: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          Renvoie la position de 'x' dans la 'deque' (à partir de
          'start' inclus et jusqu'à 'stop' exclus).  Renvoie la première
          correspondance ou lève *note ValueError: 1ff. si aucune n'est
          trouvée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: insert (i, x)

          Insère 'x' dans la 'deque' à la position 'i'.

          Si une insertion provoque un dépassement de la taille limitée
          d'une 'deque', alors elle lève une exception *note IndexError:
          14ec.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: pop ()

          Retire et renvoie un élément de l'extrémité droite de la
          'deque'.  S'il n'y a aucun élément, lève une exception *note
          IndexError: 14ec.

      -- Méthode: popleft ()

          Retire et renvoie un élément de l'extrémité gauche de la
          'deque'.  S'il n'y a aucun élément, lève une exception *note
          IndexError: 14ec.

      -- Méthode: remove (value)

          Supprime la première occurrence de 'value'.  Si aucune
          occurrence n'est trouvée, lève une exception *note ValueError:
          1ff.

      -- Méthode: reverse ()

          Inverse le sens des éléments de la 'deque' sans créer de copie
          et renvoie ‘None’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: rotate (n=1)

          Décale les éléments de la 'deque' de 'n' places vers la droite
          (le dernier élément revient au début).  Si 'n' est négatif,
          décale vers la gauche.

          Quand la 'deque' n'est pas vide, un décalage d'une place vers
          la droite équivaut à ‘d.appendleft(d.pop())’ et un décalage
          d'une place vers la gauche est équivalent à
          ‘d.append(d.popleft())’.

     Les objets 'deques' fournissent également un attribut en lecture
     seule :

      -- Attribut: maxlen

          La taille maximale d'une 'deque', ou ‘None’ si illimitée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, ‘len(d)’,
‘reversed(d)’, ‘copy.copy(d)’, ‘copy.deepcopy(d)’, membership testing
with the *note in: 2e9. operator, and subscript references such as
‘d[0]’ to access the first element.  Indexed access is 'O'(1) at both
ends but slows to 'O'('n') in the middle.  For fast random access, use
lists instead.

Depuis la version 3.5, les 'deques' gèrent ‘__add__()’, ‘__mul__()’ et
‘__imul__()’.

Exemple :

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
     >>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
     ...     print(elem.upper())
     G
     H
     I

     >>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
     >>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
     >>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
     deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

     >>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
     'j'
     >>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
     'f'
     >>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
     ['g', 'h', 'i']
     >>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
     'g'
     >>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
     'i'

     >>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
     ['i', 'h', 'g']
     >>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
     True
     >>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
     >>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
     >>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

     >>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
     deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
     >>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
     >>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
             d.pop()
     IndexError: pop from an empty deque

     >>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
     >>> d
     deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

* Menu:

* Cas pratiques utilisant deque::


File: python.info,  Node: Cas pratiques utilisant deque,  Up: Objets deque

5.8.4.5 Cas pratiques utilisant ‘deque’
.......................................

Cette partie montre diverses approches afin de travailler avec les
'deques'.

Les 'deques' à taille limitée apportent une fonctionnalité similaire au
filtre ‘tail’ d'Unix :

     def tail(filename, n=10):
         'Return the last n lines of a file'
         with open(filename) as f:
             return deque(f, n)

Une autre approche d'utilisation des 'deques' est de maintenir une
séquence d'éléments récemment ajoutés en les ajoutant à droite et en
retirant les anciens par la gauche :

     def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
         # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
         # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
         it = iter(iterable)
         d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
         d.appendleft(0)
         s = sum(d)
         for elem in it:
             s += elem - d.popleft()
             d.append(elem)
             yield s / n

Un ordonnancement en round-robin(1) peut être implémenté avec des
entrées itérateurs stockées dans une *note deque: 5c8.  Les valeurs sont
produites par l'itérateur actif en position zéro.  Si cet itérateur est
épuisé, il peut être retiré avec la méthode *note popleft(): 24cd. ; ou
bien il peut être remis à la fin avec la méthode ‘rotate()’ :

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
         iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
         while iterators:
             try:
                 while True:
                     yield next(iterators[0])
                     iterators.rotate(-1)
             except StopIteration:
                 # Remove an exhausted iterator.
                 iterators.popleft()

La méthode *note rotate(): 1893. apporte une façon d'implémenter la
sélection d'intervalle ('slicing') et les suppressions pour les
‘deques’.  Par exemple, une implémentation de ‘del d[n]’ en Python pur
utilise la méthode ‘rotate()’ pour mettre en position les éléments à
éjecter :

     def delete_nth(d, n):
         d.rotate(-n)
         d.popleft()
         d.rotate(n)

Pour implémenter le 'slicing' pour les *note deques: 5c8, il est
possible d'utiliser une approche similaire en appliquant *note rotate():
1893. afin d'apporter un élément cible à l'extrémité gauche de la
'deque'.  On éjecte les anciennes entrées avec *note popleft(): 24cd. et
on ajoute les nouvelles avec *note extend(): 24ca, puis on inverse la
rotation.  Il est aisé d'implémenter les manipulations des piles
inspirées du Forth telles que ‘dup’, ‘drop’, ‘swap’, ‘over’, ‘pick’,
‘rot’ et ‘roll’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_(informatique)


File: python.info,  Node: Objets defaultdict,  Next: namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés,  Prev: Objets deque,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.6 Objets ‘defaultdict’
............................

 -- Classe: collections.defaultdict (default_factory=None, /[, ...])

     Renvoie un nouvel objet qui se comporte comme un dictionnaire.
     *note defaultdict: 119c. est une sous-classe de la classe native
     *note dict: 253.  Elle surcharge une méthode et ajoute une variable
     d'instance modifiable.  Les autres fonctionnalités sont les mêmes
     que celles des objets *note dict: 253. et ne sont pas documentées
     ici.

     Le premier argument fournit la valeur initiale de l'attribut *note
     default_factory: 24d0. qui doit être un objet appelable sans
     paramètre ou ‘None’, sa valeur par défaut.  Tous les autres
     arguments sont traités comme si on les passait au constructeur de
     *note dict: 253, y compris les arguments nommés.

     En plus des opérations usuelles de *note dict: 253, les objets
     *note defaultdict: 119c. gèrent les méthodes supplémentaires
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: __missing__ (key)

          Si l'attribut *note default_factory: 24d0. est ‘None’, lève
          une exception *note KeyError: 33a. avec 'key' comme argument.

          Si ‘default_fatory’ ne vaut pas ‘None’, cet attribut est
          appelé sans argument pour fournir une valeur par défaut pour
          la 'key' demandée.  Cette valeur est insérée dans le
          dictionnaire avec pour clé 'key' et est renvoyée.

          Si appeler *note default_factory: 24d0. lève une exception,
          celle-ci est transmise inchangée.

          This method is called by the *note __getitem__(): 280. method
          of the *note dict: 253. class when the requested key is not
          found; whatever it returns or raises is then returned or
          raised by *note __getitem__(): 280.

          Note that *note __missing__(): 24d1. is 'not' called for any
          operations besides *note __getitem__(): 280.  This means that
          *note get(): 2200. will, like normal dictionaries, return
          ‘None’ as a default rather than using *note default_factory:
          24d0.

     Les objets *note defaultdict: 119c. gèrent la variable d'instance :

      -- Attribut: default_factory

          Cet attribut est utilisé par la méthode *note __missing__():
          24d1. ; il est initialisé par le premier argument passé au
          constructeur, s'il est spécifié, sinon par ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des opérateurs fusion (‘|’) et
     mise-à-jour (‘|=’) tels que définis dans PEP 584(1).

* Menu:

* Exemples utilisant defaultdict::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples utilisant defaultdict,  Up: Objets defaultdict

5.8.4.7 Exemples utilisant ‘defaultdict’
........................................

Utiliser *note list: 5fe. comme *note default_factory: 24d0. facilite le
regroupement d'une séquence de paires clé-valeur en un dictionnaire de
listes :

     >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(list)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in
the mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the *note
default_factory: 24d0. function which returns an empty *note list: 5fe.
The ‘list.append()’ operation then attaches the value to the new list.
When keys are encountered again, the look-up proceeds normally
(returning the list for that key) and the ‘list.append()’ operation adds
another value to the list.  This technique is simpler and faster than an
equivalent technique using *note dict.setdefault(): 1064.:

     >>> d = {}
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

Utiliser *note int: 254. comme *note default_factory: 24d0. rend la
classe *note defaultdict: 119c. pratique pour le comptage (comme un sac
ou multi-ensemble dans d'autres langages) :

     >>> s = 'mississippi'
     >>> d = defaultdict(int)
     >>> for k in s:
     ...     d[k] += 1
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]

Quand une lettre est rencontrée pour la première fois, elle n'est pas
dans le dictionnaire, donc la fonction *note default_factory: 24d0.
appelle *note int(): 254. pour mettre un nouveau compteur à zéro.
L'incrémentation augmente ensuite le comptage pour chaque lettre.

La fonction *note int(): 254. qui retourne toujours zéro est simplement
une fonction constante particulière.  Un moyen plus flexible et rapide
de créer une fonction constante est d'utiliser une fonction lambda qui
peut fournir n'importe quelle valeur constante (pas seulement zéro) :

     >>> def constant_factory(value):
     ...     return lambda: value
     ...
     >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
     >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
     >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
     'John ran to <missing>'

Utiliser *note set: 5c5. comme *note default_factory: 24d0. rend la
classe *note defaultdict: 119c. pratique pour créer un dictionnaire
d'ensembles :

     >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(set)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].add(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]


File: python.info,  Node: namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés,  Next: Objets OrderedDict,  Prev: Objets defaultdict,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.8 ‘namedtuple()’ : fonction de construction pour 'n'-uplets avec des champs nommés
........................................................................................

Les 'n'-uplets nommés assignent une signification à chacun de leur
élément, ce qui rend le code plus lisible et explicite.  Ils peuvent
être utilisés partout où les 'n'-uplets natifs sont utilisés, et ils
ajoutent la possibilité d'accéder à leurs champs grâce à leur nom au
lieu de leur index de position.

 -- Fonction: collections.namedtuple (typename, field_names, *,
          rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)

     Returns a new tuple subclass named 'typename'.  The new subclass is
     used to create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by
     attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable.
     Instances of the subclass also have a helpful docstring (with
     'typename' and 'field_names') and a helpful *note __repr__(): 609.
     method which lists the tuple contents in a ‘name=value’ format.

     'field_names' peut être une séquence de chaînes de caractères telle
     que ‘['x', 'y']’ ou bien une unique chaîne de caractères où les
     noms de champs sont séparés par un espace et/ou une virgule, par
     exemple ‘'x y'’ ou ‘'x, y'’.

     N'importe quel identifiant Python peut être utilisé pour un nom de
     champ hormis ceux commençant par un tiret bas.  Les identifiants
     valides peuvent contenir des lettres, des chiffres (sauf en
     première position) et des tirets bas (sauf en première position).
     Un identifiant ne peut pas être un *note keyword: 83. tel que
     ‘class’, ‘for’, ‘return’, ‘global’, ‘pass’ ou ‘raise’.

     Si 'rename' vaut ‘True’, alors les noms de champs invalides sont
     automatiquement renommés en noms positionnels.  Par exemple,
     ‘['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']’ est converti en ‘['abc, '_1', 'ghi',
     '_3']’ afin d'éliminer le mot-clé ‘def’ et le doublon de ‘abc’.

     'defaults' peut être ‘None’ ou un *note iterable: 1207. de valeurs
     par défaut.  Comme les champs avec une valeur par défaut doivent
     être définis après les champs sans valeur par défaut, les
     'defaults' sont appliqués aux paramètres les plus à droite.  Par
     exemple, si les noms des champs sont ‘['x', 'y', 'z']’ et les
     valeurs par défaut ‘(1, 2)’, alors ‘x’ est un argument obligatoire
     tandis que ‘y’ et ‘y’ valent par défaut ‘1’ et ‘2’.

     If 'module' is defined, the *note __module__: 36a. attribute of the
     named tuple is set to that value.

     Les instances de 'n'-uplets nommés n'ont pas de dictionnaires
     propres, elles sont donc légères et ne requièrent pas plus de
     mémoire que les 'n'-uplets natifs.

     Pour permettre la sérialisation, la classe de 'n'-uplet nommée doit
     être assignée à une variable qui correspond à 'typename'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Gestion de 'rename'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les paramètres 'verbose' et 'rename'
     deviennent des *note arguments obligatoirement nommés: 2a2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre 'module'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Removed the 'verbose' parameter and
     the ‘_source’ attribute.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the 'defaults' parameter and the
     *note _field_defaults: 24d4. attribute.

     >>> # Basic example
     >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     >>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
     >>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
     33
     >>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
     >>> x, y
     (11, 22)
     >>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
     33
     >>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Les 'n'-uplets nommés sont particulièrement utiles pour associer des
noms de champs à des 'n'-uplets renvoyés par les modules *note csv: 29.
ou *note sqlite3: ce. :

     EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

     import csv
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

     import sqlite3
     conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
     cursor = conn.cursor()
     cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

En plus des méthodes héritées de ‘tuple’, les 'n'-uplets nommés
implémentent trois méthodes et deux attributs supplémentaires.  Pour
éviter les conflits avec noms de champs, leurs noms commencent par un
tiret bas.

 -- Méthode: classmethod somenamedtuple._make (iterable)

     Méthode de classe qui construit une nouvelle instance à partir
     d'une séquence ou d'un itérable existant.

          >>> t = [11, 22]
          >>> Point._make(t)
          Point(x=11, y=22)

 -- Méthode: somenamedtuple._asdict ()

     Renvoie un nouveau *note dict: 253. qui associe chaque nom de champ
     à sa valeur correspondante :

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._asdict()
          {'x': 11, 'y': 22}

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Renvoie un *note OrderedDict: 5c7. au
     lieu d'un *note dict: 253. natif.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: renvoie un *note dict: 253. natif
     plutôt qu'un *note OrderedDict: 5c7.  À partir de Python 3.7, les
     dictionnaires natifs garantissent la préservation de l'ordre.  Si
     les autres fonctionnalités d'*note OrderedDict: 5c7. sont
     nécessaires, la solution préconisée est de convertir le résultat
     vers le type souhaité : ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.

 -- Méthode: somenamedtuple._replace (**kwargs)

     Renvoie une nouvelle instance du 'n'-uplet nommé en remplaçant les
     champs spécifiés par leurs nouvelles valeurs :

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._replace(x=33)
          Point(x=33, y=22)

          >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
          ...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())

     Named tuples are also supported by generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 150.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raise *note TypeError: 525. instead
     of *note ValueError: 1ff. for invalid keyword arguments.

 -- Attribut: somenamedtuple._fields

     Tuple de chaînes de caractères listant les noms de champs.
     Pratique pour l'introspection et pour créer de nouveaux types de
     'n'-uplets nommés à partir d'existants.

          >>> p._fields            # view the field names
          ('x', 'y')

          >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
          >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
          >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
          Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

 -- Attribut: somenamedtuple._field_defaults

     Dictionnaire qui assigne les valeurs par défaut aux noms des
     champs.

          >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
          >>> Account._field_defaults
          {'balance': 0}
          >>> Account('premium')
          Account(type='premium', balance=0)

Pour récupérer un champ dont le nom est une chaîne de caractères,
utilisez la fonction *note getattr(): bc1. :

     >>> getattr(p, 'x')
     11

Pour convertir un dictionnaire en 'n'-uplet nommé, utilisez l'opérateur
double-étoile (comme expliqué dans *note Séparation des listes
d'arguments: 1bed.) :

     >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
     >>> Point(**d)
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Il est aisé d'ajouter ou de modifier les fonctionnalités des 'n'-uplets
nommés grâce à l'héritage puisqu'il s'agit de simples classes.  Voici
comment ajouter un champ calculé avec une longueur fixe d'affichage :

     >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
     ...     __slots__ = ()
     ...     @property
     ...     def hypot(self):
     ...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)

     >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
     ...     print(p)
     Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
     Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

La sous-classe ci-dessus définit ‘__slots__’ comme un 'n'-uplet vide.
Cela permet de garder une emprunte mémoire faible en empêchant la
création de dictionnaire d'instance.

L'héritage n'est pas pertinent pour ajouter de nouveaux champs.  Il est
préférable de simplement créer un nouveau type de 'n'-uplet nommé avec
l'attribut *note _fields: 24d7. :

     >>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

Les 'docstrings' peuvent être personnalisées en modifiant directement
l'attribut ‘__doc__’ :

     >>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
     >>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
     >>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
     >>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
     >>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La propriété devient éditable.

Voir aussi
..........

   * Voir *note typing.NamedTuple(): 2ad. pour un moyen d'ajouter des
     indications de type pour les 'n'-uplets nommés.  Cela propose aussi
     une notation élégante utilisant le mot-clé *note class: 12b7. :

          class Component(NamedTuple):
              part_number: int
              weight: float
              description: Optional[str] = None

   * Voir *note types.SimpleNamespace(): 1cc. pour un espace de nommage
     mutable basé sur un dictionnaire sous-jacent à la place d'un
     'n'-uplet.

   * Le module *note dataclasses: 2f. fournit un décorateur et des
     fonctions pour ajouter automatiquement des méthodes spéciales
     générées aux classes définies par l’utilisateur.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets OrderedDict,  Next: Objets UserDict,  Prev: namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.9 Objets ‘OrderedDict’
............................

Les dictionnaires ordonnés sont des dictionnaires comme les autres mais
possèdent des capacités supplémentaires pour s'ordonner.  Ils sont
maintenant moins importants puisque la classe native *note dict: 253.
sait se souvenir de l'ordre d'insertion (cette fonctionnalité a été
garantie par Python 3.7).

Quelques différences persistent vis-à-vis de *note dict: 253. :

   * Les *note dict: 253. classiques ont été conçus pour être
     performants dans les opérations de correspondance.  Garder une
     trace de l'ordre d'insertion était secondaire.

   * Les *note OrderedDict: 5c7. ont été conçus pour être performants
     dans les opérations de ré-arrangement.  L'occupation mémoire, la
     vitesse de parcours et les performances de mise à jour étaient
     secondaires.

   * The *note OrderedDict: 5c7. algorithm can handle frequent
     reordering operations better than *note dict: 253.  As shown in the
     recipes below, this makes it suitable for implementing various
     kinds of LRU caches.

   * Le test d'égalité de *note OrderedDict: 5c7. vérifie si l'ordre
     correspond.

     A regular *note dict: 253. can emulate the order sensitive equality
     test with ‘p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1, k2 in zip(p, q))’.

   * The *note popitem(): 12cd. method of *note OrderedDict: 5c7. has a
     different signature.  It accepts an optional argument to specify
     which item is popped.

     A regular *note dict: 253. can emulate OrderedDict's
     ‘od.popitem(last=True)’ with ‘d.popitem()’ which is guaranteed to
     pop the rightmost (last) item.

     A regular *note dict: 253. can emulate OrderedDict's
     ‘od.popitem(last=False)’ with ‘(k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k))’
     which will return and remove the leftmost (first) item if it
     exists.

   * *note OrderedDict: 5c7. has a *note move_to_end(): 11be. method to
     efficiently reposition an element to an endpoint.

     A regular *note dict: 253. can emulate OrderedDict's
     ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=True)’ with ‘d[k] = d.pop(k)’ which will
     move the key and its associated value to the rightmost (last)
     position.

     A regular *note dict: 253. does not have an efficient equivalent
     for OrderedDict's ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=False)’ which moves the
     key and its associated value to the leftmost (first) position.

   * Until Python 3.8, *note dict: 253. lacked a *note __reversed__():
     1f16. method.

 -- Classe: collections.OrderedDict ([items])

     Renvoie une instance d'une sous-classe de *note dict: 253. qui
     possède des méthodes spécialisées pour redéfinir l'ordre du
     dictionnaire.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: popitem (last=True)

          La méthode *note popitem(): 12cd. pour les dictionnaires
          ordonnés retire et renvoie une paire ‘(clé, valeur)’.  Les
          paires sont renvoyées comme pour une pile, c'est-à-dire
          dernier entré, premier sorti (en anglais LIFO) si 'last' vaut
          ‘True’.  Si 'last' vaut ‘False’, alors les paires sont
          renvoyées comme pour une file, c'est-à-dire premier entré,
          premier sorti (en anglais FIFO (first-in, first-out)).

      -- Méthode: move_to_end (key, last=True)

          Move an existing 'key' to either end of an ordered dictionary.
          The item is moved to the right end if 'last' is true (the
          default) or to the beginning if 'last' is false.  Raises *note
          KeyError: 33a. if the 'key' does not exist:

               >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
               >>> d.move_to_end('b')
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'acdeb'
               >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'bacde'

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

En plus des méthodes usuelles des dictionnaires, les dictionnaires
ordonnés gèrent l'itération en sens inverse grâce à *note reversed():
852.  Equality tests between *note OrderedDict: 5c7. objects are
order-sensitive and are roughly equivalent to
‘list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())’.

Equality tests between *note OrderedDict: 5c7. objects and other *note
Mapping: 8b9. objects are order-insensitive like regular dictionaries.
This allows *note OrderedDict: 5c7. objects to be substituted anywhere a
regular dictionary is used.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les *note vues: 24d9. d'éléments, de clés
et de valeurs de *note OrderedDict: 5c7. gèrent maintenant l'itération
en sens inverse en utilisant *note reversed(): 852.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: With the acceptance of PEP 468(1), order is
retained for keyword arguments passed to the *note OrderedDict: 5c7.
constructor and its *note update(): 141b. method.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des opérateurs fusion (‘|’) et
mise-à-jour (‘|=’) tels que définis dans PEP 584(2).

* Menu:

* Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict,  Up: Objets OrderedDict

5.8.4.10 Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ‘OrderDict’
........................................................

Il est facile de créer une variante de dictionnaire ordonné qui retient
l'ordre dans lequel les clés ont été insérées 'en dernier'.  Si une
nouvelle entrée écrase une existante, la position d'insertion d'origine
est modifiée et déplacée à la fin :

     class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
         'Store items in the order the keys were last added'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             super().__setitem__(key, value)
             self.move_to_end(key)

Un *note OrderedDict: 5c7. peut aussi être utile pour implémenter des
variantes de *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. :

     from collections import OrderedDict
     from time import time

     class TimeBoundedLRU:
         "LRU Cache that invalidates and refreshes old entries."

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxage=30):
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { args : (timestamp, result)}
             self.func = func
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.maxage = maxage

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
                 if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
                     return result
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.cache[args] = time(), result
             if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                 self.cache.popitem(last=False)
             return result

     class MultiHitLRUCache:
         """ LRU cache that defers caching a result until
             it has been requested multiple times.

             To avoid flushing the LRU cache with one-time requests,
             we don't cache until a request has been made more than once.

         """

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxrequests=4096, cache_after=1):
             self.requests = OrderedDict()   # { uncached_key : request_count }
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { cached_key : function_result }
             self.func = func
             self.maxrequests = maxrequests  # max number of uncached requests
             self.maxsize = maxsize          # max number of stored return values
             self.cache_after = cache_after

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 return self.cache[args]
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.requests[args] = self.requests.get(args, 0) + 1
             if self.requests[args] <= self.cache_after:
                 self.requests.move_to_end(args)
                 if len(self.requests) > self.maxrequests:
                     self.requests.popitem(last=False)
             else:
                 self.requests.pop(args, None)
                 self.cache[args] = result
                 if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                     self.cache.popitem(last=False)
             return result


File: python.info,  Node: Objets UserDict,  Next: Objets UserList,  Prev: Objets OrderedDict,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.11 Objets ‘UserDict’
..........................

La classe *note UserDict: 1952. se comporte comme une surcouche autour
des dictionnaires.  L'utilité de cette classe est réduite, car on peut
maintenant hériter directement de *note dict: 253.  Cependant, il peut
être plus facile de travailler avec celle-ci, car le dictionnaire
sous-jacent est accessible comme attribut.

 -- Classe: collections.UserDict ([initialdata])

     Classe simulant un dictionnaire.  Les instances de *note UserDict:
     1952. possèdent un attribut *note data: 24dc. où est stocké leur
     contenu sous forme de dictionnaire natif.  Si 'initialdata' est
     spécifié, alors *note data: 24dc. est initialisé avec son contenu.
     Remarquez qu'une référence vers 'initialdata' n'est pas conservée,
     ce qui permet de l'utiliser pour d'autres tâches.

     En plus de gérer les méthodes et opérations des dictionnaires, les
     instances de *note UserDict: 1952. fournissent l'attribut suivant :

      -- Attribut: data

          Un dictionnaire natif où est stocké le contenu de la classe
          *note UserDict: 1952.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets UserList,  Next: Objets UserString,  Prev: Objets UserDict,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.12 Objets ‘UserList’
..........................

Cette classe agit comme une surcouche autour des objets ‘list’.  C'est
une classe mère utile pour vos classes listes-compatibles qui peuvent en
hériter et surcharger les méthodes existantes ou en ajouter de
nouvelles.  Ainsi, on peut ajouter de nouveaux comportements aux listes.

L'utilité de cette classe a été partiellement réduite par la possibilité
d'hériter directement de *note list: 5fe.  Cependant, il peut être plus
facile de travailler avec cette classe, car la liste sous-jacente est
accessible via un attribut.

 -- Classe: collections.UserList ([list])

     Classe simulant une liste.  Les instances de *note UserList: 149b.
     possèdent un attribut *note UserList: 149b. où est stocké leur
     contenu sous forme de liste native.  Il est initialement une copie
     de 'list', ou ‘[]’ par défaut.  'list' peut être un itérable, par
     exemple une liste native ou un objet *note UserList: 149b.

     En plus de gérer les méthodes et opérations des séquences mutables,
     les instances de *note UserList: 149b. possèdent l'attribut
     suivant :

      -- Attribut: data

          Un objet *note list: 5fe. natif utilisé pour stocker le
          contenu de la classe *note UserList: 149b.

'Prérequis pour l'héritage :' Les sous-classes de *note UserList: 149b.
doivent implémenter un constructeur qui peut être appelé avec zéro ou un
argument.  Les opérations sur les listes qui renvoient une nouvelle
séquence essayent de créer une instance de la classe courante.  C'est
pour cela que le constructeur doit pouvoir être appelé avec un unique
paramètre, un objet séquence utilisé comme source de données.

Si une classe fille ne remplit pas cette condition, toutes les méthodes
spéciales gérées par cette classe devront être implémentées à nouveau.
Merci de consulter les sources pour obtenir des informations sur les
méthodes qui doivent être fournies dans ce cas.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets UserString,  Prev: Objets UserList,  Up: collections --- Container datatypes

5.8.4.13 Objets ‘UserString’
............................

La classe *note UserString: dc4. agit comme une surcouche autour des
objets ‘str’.  L'utilité de cette classe a été partiellement réduite par
la possibilité d'hériter directement de *note str: 437.  Cependant, il
peut être plus facile de travailler avec cette classe, car la chaîne de
caractère sous-jacente est accessible via un attribut.

 -- Classe: collections.UserString (seq)

     Classe simulant une chaîne de caractères.  Les instances de *note
     UserString: dc4. possèdent un attribut *note data: 24e0. où est
     stocké leur contenu sous forme de chaîne de caractères native.  Le
     contenu de l'instance est initialement une copie de 'seq', qui peut
     être n'importe quel objet convertible en chaîne de caractère avec
     la fonction native *note str(): 437.

     En plus de gérer les méthodes et opérations sur les chaînes de
     caractères, les instances de *note UserString: dc4. possèdent
     l'attribut suivant :

      -- Attribut: data

          Un objet *note str: 437. natif utilisé pour stocker le contenu
          de la classe *note UserString: dc4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Nouvelles méthodes ‘__getnewargs__’,
     ‘__rmod__’, ‘casefold’, ‘format_map’, ‘isprintable’ et ‘maketrans’.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers,  Next: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm,  Prev: collections --- Container datatypes,  Up: Types de données

5.8.5 ‘collections.abc’ -- Abstract Base Classes for Containers
---------------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Auparavant, ce module faisait partie du
module *note collections: 1d.

'Code source :' Lib/_collections_abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides *note abstract base classes: 1195. that can be used
to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for example,
whether it is *note hashable: 5fd. or whether it is a *note mapping:
119b.

An *note issubclass(): 7ad. or *note isinstance(): 42d. test for an
interface works in one of three ways.

  1. A newly written class can inherit directly from one of the abstract
     base classes.  The class must supply the required abstract methods.
     The remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be
     overridden if desired.  Other methods may be added as needed:

          class C(Sequence):                      # Direct inheritance
              def __init__(self): ...             # Extra method not required by the ABC
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...  # Required abstract method
              def __len__(self):  ...             # Required abstract method
              def count(self, value): ...         # Optionally override a mixin method

          >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
          True

  2. Existing classes and built-in classes can be registered as "virtual
     subclasses" of the ABCs.  Those classes should define the full API
     including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods.
     This lets users rely on *note issubclass(): 7ad. or *note
     isinstance(): 42d. tests to determine whether the full interface is
     supported.  The exception to this rule is for methods that are
     automatically inferred from the rest of the API:

          class D:                                 # No inheritance
              def __init__(self): ...              # Extra method not required by the ABC
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...   # Abstract method
              def __len__(self):  ...              # Abstract method
              def count(self, value): ...          # Mixin method
              def index(self, value): ...          # Mixin method

          Sequence.register(D)                     # Register instead of inherit

          >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
          True

     In this example, class ‘D’ does not need to define ‘__contains__’,
     ‘__iter__’, and ‘__reversed__’ because the *note in-operator: 202f,
     the *note iteration: 1207. logic, and the *note reversed(): 852.
     function automatically fall back to using ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__len__’.

  3. Some simple interfaces are directly recognizable by the presence of
     the required methods (unless those methods have been set to *note
     None: 662.):

          class E:
              def __iter__(self): ...
              def __next__(self): ...

          >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
          True
          >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
          True

     Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an
     interface is more than just the presence of method names.
     Interfaces specify semantics and relationships between methods that
     cannot be inferred solely from the presence of specific method
     names.  For example, knowing that a class supplies ‘__getitem__’,
     ‘__len__’, and ‘__iter__’ is insufficient for distinguishing a
     *note Sequence: 11a3. from a *note Mapping: 8b9.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: These abstract classes now support ‘[]’.
See *note Type Alias générique: 69f. and PEP 585(2).

* Menu:

* Classes de base abstraites de collections::
* Collections Abstract Base Classes: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions. Detailed Descriptions
* Exemples et recettes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/_collections_abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Classes de base abstraites de collections,  Next: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions,  Up: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

5.8.5.1 Classes de base abstraites de collections
.................................................

Le module collections apporte les *note ABC: 1195. suivantes :

ABC                                Hérite de                  Méthodes abstraites         Méthodes 'mixin'
                                                                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note Container: 220d. (1)                                    ‘__contains__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Hashable: 4e2. (2)                                      ‘__hash__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterable: 220b. (3) (4)                                 ‘__iter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterator: 220c. (5)          *note Iterable: 220b.      ‘__next__’                  ‘__iter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Reversible: c79. (6)         *note Iterable: 220b.      ‘__reversed__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Generator: dca. (7)          *note Iterator: 220c.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Sized: 4e3. (8)                                         ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Callable: 7d6. (9)                                      ‘__call__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Collection: c78. (10)        *note Sized: 4e3,          ‘__contains__’,
                                   *note Iterable: 220b,      ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                   *note Container: 220d.     
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Sequence: 11a3.              *note Reversible: c79,     ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’, ‘index’ et
                                   *note Collection: c78.                                 ‘count’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSequence: 19f.        *note Sequence: 11a3.      ‘__getitem__’,              Inherited *note Sequence: 11a3. methods and ‘append’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘clear’, ‘reverse’, ‘extend’, ‘pop’, ‘remove’, and
                                                              ‘__delitem__’, ‘__len__’,   ‘__iadd__’
                                                              ‘insert’                    
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note ByteString: 2c0.             *note Sequence: 11a3.      ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    Méthodes héritées de *note Sequence: 11a3.
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Set: 2203.                   *note Collection: c78.     ‘__contains__’,             ‘__le__’, ‘__lt__’, ‘__eq__’, ‘__ne__’, ‘__gt__’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__ge__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__or__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__rsub__’,
                                                                                          ‘__xor__’, ‘__rxor__’ and ‘isdisjoint’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSet: 220e.            *note Set: 2203.           ‘__contains__’,             Méthodes héritées de *note Set: 2203, et ‘clear’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’,      ‘pop’, ‘remove’, ‘__ior__’, ‘__iand__’, ‘__ixor__’ et
                                                              ‘add’, ‘discard’            ‘__isub__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Mapping: 8b9.                *note Collection: c78.     ‘__getitem__’,              ‘__contains__’, ‘keys’, ‘items’, ‘values’, ‘get’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__eq__’ et ‘__ne__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableMapping: 1092.        *note Mapping: 8b9.        ‘__getitem__’,              Méthodes héritées de *note Mapping: 8b9, et ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘popitem’, ‘clear’, ‘update’ et ‘setdefault’
                                                              ‘__delitem__’,              
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note MappingView: 220f.           *note Sized: 4e3.                                      ‘__init__’, ‘__len__’ and ‘__repr__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note ItemsView: 2211.             *note MappingView: 220f,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 2203.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note KeysView: 2210.              *note MappingView: 220f,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 2203.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note ValuesView: 2212.            *note MappingView: 220f,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Collection: c78.                                 
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Awaitable: dcb. (11)                                    ‘__await__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Coroutine: dcc. (12)         *note Awaitable: dcb.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterable: dce. (13)                                ‘__aiter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterator: dcd. (14)     *note AsyncIterable: dce.  ‘__anext__’                 ‘__aiter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncGenerator: c7a. (15)    *note AsyncIterator: dcd.  ‘asend’, ‘athrow’           ‘aclose’, ‘__aiter__’, ‘__anext__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Buffer: 2c1. (16)                                       ‘__buffer__’
                                                              

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (2) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (3) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (4) Checking ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ detects classes that are
registered as *note Iterable: 220b. or that have an *note __iter__():
1c7e. method, but it does not detect classes that iterate with the *note
__getitem__(): 280. method.  The only reliable way to determine whether
an object is *note iterable: 1207. is to call ‘iter(obj)’.

   (5) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (6) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (7) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (8) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (9) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (10) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (11) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (12) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (13) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (14) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (15) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (16) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 662.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.


File: python.info,  Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions,  Next: Exemples et recettes,  Prev: Classes de base abstraites de collections,  Up: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

5.8.5.2 Collections Abstract Base Classes - Detailed Descriptions
.................................................................

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Container

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __contains__(): 1f17.
     method.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Hashable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __hash__(): aeb. method.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Sized

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __len__(): 1f1c. method.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Callable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __call__(): 546. method.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 24e6. for details on how to
     use ‘Callable’ in type annotations.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Iterable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __iter__(): 1c7e. method.

     Checking ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ detects classes that are
     registered as *note Iterable: 220b. or that have an *note
     __iter__(): 1c7e. method, but it does not detect classes that
     iterate with the *note __getitem__(): 280. method.  The only
     reliable way to determine whether an object is *note iterable:
     1207. is to call ‘iter(obj)’.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Collection

     ABC pour les classes de conteneurs itérables et 'sized'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Iterator

     ABC pour les classes qui définissent les méthodes *note __iter__():
     1c81. et *note __next__(): 12ad.  Voir aussi la définition d'*note
     itérateur: 1aa.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Reversible

     ABC for iterable classes that also provide the *note
     __reversed__(): 1f16. method.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Generator

     ABC for *note generator: 104c. classes that implement the protocol
     defined in PEP 342(1) that extends *note iterators: 1aa. with the
     *note send(): 1f85, *note throw(): 4e5. and *note close(): 16ae.
     methods.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 24e7. for details
     on using ‘Generator’ in type annotations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Sequence
 -- Classe: collections.abc.MutableSequence
 -- Classe: collections.abc.ByteString

     ABC pour les *note séquences: 4de. immuables et mutables.

     Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as *note
     __iter__(): 1c7e, *note __reversed__(): 1f16. and ‘index()’, make
     repeated calls to the underlying *note __getitem__(): 280. method.
     Consequently, if *note __getitem__(): 280. is implemented with
     constant access speed, the mixin methods will have linear
     performance; however, if the underlying method is linear (as it
     would be with a linked list), the mixins will have quadratic
     performance and will likely need to be overridden.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La méthode index() a ajouté le support
     des arguments 'start' et 'stop'.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     *note ByteString: 2c0. ABC has been deprecated.  For use in typing,
     prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1.  For use as an ABC, prefer *note
     Sequence: 11a3. or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Set
 -- Classe: collections.abc.MutableSet

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note sets: 212e.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Mapping
 -- Classe: collections.abc.MutableMapping

     ABC pour les *note tables de correspondances: 119b. immuables et
     mutables.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.MappingView
 -- Classe: collections.abc.ItemsView
 -- Classe: collections.abc.KeysView
 -- Classe: collections.abc.ValuesView

     ABC pour les *note vues: 24d9. de 'mappings' (tableaux de
     correspondances), d'éléments, de clés et de valeurs.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Awaitable

     ABC for *note awaitable: 1ab. objects, which can be used in *note
     await: 1b7. expressions.  Custom implementations must provide the
     *note __await__(): 1f80. method.

     Les objets *note coroutines: 47d. et les instances de l'ABC *note
     Coroutine: dcc. sont tous des instances de cette ABC.

          Note: In CPython, generator-based coroutines (*note
          generators: 104c. decorated with *note @types.coroutine: e75.)
          are 'awaitables', even though they do not have an *note
          __await__(): 1f80. method.  Using ‘isinstance(gencoro,
          Awaitable)’ for them will return ‘False’.  Use *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): e06. to detect them.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Coroutine

     ABC for *note coroutine: 47d. compatible classes.  These implement
     the following methods, defined in *note Objets coroutines: 1ec5.:
     *note send(): 1f84, *note throw(): 4e4, and *note close(): 1f86.
     Custom implementations must also implement *note __await__(): 1f80.
     All *note Coroutine: dcc. instances are also instances of *note
     Awaitable: dcb.

          Note: In CPython, generator-based coroutines (*note
          generators: 104c. decorated with *note @types.coroutine: e75.)
          are 'awaitables', even though they do not have an *note
          __await__(): 1f80. method.  Using ‘isinstance(gencoro,
          Coroutine)’ for them will return ‘False’.  Use *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): e06. to detect them.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 24e7. for details
     on using ‘Coroutine’ in type annotations.  The variance and order
     of type parameters correspond to those of *note Generator: dca.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.AsyncIterable

     ABC for classes that provide an ‘__aiter__’ method.  See also the
     definition of *note asynchronous iterable: d67.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.AsyncIterator

     ABC pour les classes qui définissent les méthodes ‘__aiter__’ et
     ‘__anext__’.  Voir aussi la définition d'*note itérateur
     asynchrone: 1a9.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

     ABC for *note asynchronous generator: 1ff6. classes that implement
     the protocol defined in PEP 525(2) and PEP 492(3).

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 24e7. for details
     on using ‘AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: collections.abc.Buffer

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __buffer__(): 44a. method,
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 38e.  See PEP 688(4).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples et recettes,  Prev: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions,  Up: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

5.8.5.3 Exemples et recettes
............................

ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide particular
functionality, for example:

     size = None
     if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
         size = len(myvar)

Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to
develop classes supporting container APIs.  For example, to write a
class supporting the full *note Set: 2203. API, it is only necessary to
supply the three underlying abstract methods: *note __contains__():
1f17, *note __iter__(): 1c7e, and *note __len__(): 1f1c.  The ABC
supplies the remaining methods such as ‘__and__()’ and *note
isdisjoint(): 21f0.:

     class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
         ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
             and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.elements = lst = []
             for value in iterable:
                 if value not in lst:
                     lst.append(value)

         def __iter__(self):
             return iter(self.elements)

         def __contains__(self, value):
             return value in self.elements

         def __len__(self):
             return len(self.elements)

     s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
     s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
     overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically

Notes à propos de l'utilisation de *note Set: 2203. et *note MutableSet:
220e. comme 'mixin' :

  1. Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin
     methods need a way to create new instances from an *note iterable:
     1207.  The class constructor is assumed to have a signature in the
     form ‘ClassName(iterable)’.  That assumption is factored-out to an
     internal *note classmethod: 165. called ‘_from_iterable()’ which
     calls ‘cls(iterable)’ to produce a new set.  If the *note Set:
     2203. mixin is being used in a class with a different constructor
     signature, you will need to override ‘_from_iterable()’ with a
     classmethod or regular method that can construct new instances from
     an iterable argument.

  2. To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the semantics
     are fixed), redefine *note __le__(): 12eb. and *note __ge__():
     12ed, then the other operations will automatically follow suit.

  3. The *note Set: 2203. mixin provides a ‘_hash()’ method to compute a
     hash value for the set; however, *note __hash__(): aeb. is not
     defined because not all sets are *note hashable: 5fd. or immutable.
     To add set hashability using mixins, inherit from both *note Set():
     2203. and *note Hashable(): 4e2, then define ‘__hash__ =
     Set._hash’.

Voir aussi
..........

   * OrderedSet recipe(1) pour un exemple construit sur *note
     MutableSet: 220e.

   * Pour plus d'informations à propos des ABC, voir le module *note
     abc: 4. et la PEP 3119(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm,  Next: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm,  Prev: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers,  Up: Types de données

5.8.6 ‘heapq’ -- Heap queue algorithm
-------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/heapq.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module expose une implémentation de l'algorithme de file de priorité,
basée sur un tas.

Heaps are binary trees for which every parent node has a value less than
or equal to any of its children.  We refer to this condition as the heap
invariant.

This implementation uses arrays for which ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and
‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’ for all 'k', counting elements from zero.  For
the sake of comparison, non-existing elements are considered to be
infinite.  The interesting property of a heap is that its smallest
element is always the root, ‘heap[0]’.

L'API ci-dessous diffère de la file de priorité classique par deux
aspects : (a) l'indiçage commence à zéro.  Cela complexifie légèrement
la relation entre l'indice d'un nœud et les indices de ses fils mais est
alignée avec l'indiçage commençant à zéro que Python utilise.  (b) La
méthode 'pop' renvoie le plus petit élément et non le plus grand (appelé
« tas-min » dans les manuels scolaires ; le « tas-max » étant
généralement plus courant dans la littérature car il permet le
classement sans tampon).

Ces deux points permettent d'aborder le tas comme une liste Python
standard sans surprise : ‘heap[0]’ est le plus petit élément et
‘heap.sort()’ conserve l'invariant du tas !

Pour créer un tas, utilisez une liste initialisée à ‘[]’ ou bien
utilisez une liste existante et transformez la en tas à l'aide de la
fonction *note heapify(): 24eb.

Les fonctions suivantes sont fournies :

 -- Fonction: heapq.heappush (heap, item)

     Introduit la valeur 'item' dans le tas 'heap', en conservant
     l'invariance du tas.

 -- Fonction: heapq.heappop (heap)

     Extraie le plus petit élément de 'heap' en préservant l'invariant
     du tas.  Si le tas est vide, une exception *note IndexError: 14ec.
     est levée.  Pour accéder au plus petit élément sans le retirer,
     utilisez ‘heap[0]’.

 -- Fonction: heapq.heappushpop (heap, item)

     Introduit l'élément 'item' dans le tas, puis extraie le plus petit
     élément de 'heap'.  Cette action combinée est plus efficace que
     *note heappush(): 1472. suivie par un appel séparé à *note
     heappop(): 1473.

 -- Fonction: heapq.heapify (x)

     Transforme une liste 'x' en un tas, sans utiliser de tampon et en
     temps linéaire.

 -- Fonction: heapq.heapreplace (heap, item)

     Extraie le plus petit élément de 'heap' et introduit le nouvel
     élément 'item'.  La taille du tas ne change pas.  Si le tas est
     vide, une exception *note IndexError: 14ec. est levée.

     Cette opération en une étape est plus efficace qu'un appel à *note
     heappop(): 1473. suivi d'un appel à *note heappush(): 1472. et est
     plus appropriée lorsque le tas est de taille fixe.  La combinaison
     'pop'/'push' renvoie toujours un élément du tas et le remplace par
     'item'.

     La valeur renvoyée peut être plus grande que l'élément 'item'
     ajouté.  Si cela n'est pas souhaitable, utilisez plutôt *note
     heappushpop(): 24ec. à la place.  Sa combinaison 'push'/'pop'
     renvoie le plus petit élément des deux valeurs et laisse la plus
     grande sur le tas.

Ce module contient également trois fonctions génériques utilisant les
tas.

 -- Fonction: heapq.merge (*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)

     Fusionne plusieurs entrées ordonnées en une unique sortie ordonnée
     (par exemple, fusionne des entrées datées provenant de multiples
     journaux applicatifs).  Renvoie un *note iterator: 1aa. sur les
     valeurs ordonnées.

     Similaire à ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))’ mais renvoie un
     itérable, ne stocke pas toutes les données en mémoire en une fois
     et suppose que chaque flux d'entrée est déjà classé (en ordre
     croissant).

     A deux arguments optionnels qui doivent être fournis par mot clef.

     'key' spécifie une *note key function: df4. d'un argument utilisée
     pour extraire une clef de comparaison de chaque élément de la
     liste.  La valeur par défaut est ‘None’ (compare les éléments
     directement).

     'reverse' est une valeur booléenne.  Si elle est ‘True’, la liste
     d'éléments est fusionnée comme si toutes les comparaisons étaient
     inversées.  Pour obtenir un comportement similaire à
     ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables), reverse=True)’, tous les
     itérables doivent être classés par ordre décroissant.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des paramètres optionnels 'key'
     et 'reverse'.

 -- Fonction: heapq.nlargest (n, iterable, key=None)

     Renvoie une liste contenant les 'n' plus grands éléments du jeu de
     données défini par 'iterable'.  Si l'option 'key' est fournie,
     celle-ci spécifie une fonction à un argument qui est utilisée pour
     extraire la clé de comparaison de chaque élément dans 'iterable'
     (par exemple, ‘key=str.lower’).  Équivalent à : ‘sorted(iterable,
     key=key, reverse=True)[:n]’.

 -- Fonction: heapq.nsmallest (n, iterable, key=None)

     Renvoie une liste contenant les 'n' plus petits éléments du jeu de
     données défini par 'iterable'.  Si l'option 'key' est fournie,
     celle-ci spécifie une fonction à un argument qui est utilisée pour
     extraire la clé de comparaison de chaque élément dans 'iterable'
     (par exemple, ‘key=str.lower’).  Équivalent à : ‘sorted(iterable,
     key=key)[:n]’.

Les deux fonctions précédentes sont les plus efficaces pour des petites
valeurs de 'n'.  Pour de grandes valeurs, il est préférable d'utiliser
la fonction *note sorted(): bbe.  En outre, lorsque ‘n==1’, il est plus
efficace d'utiliser les fonctions natives *note min(): ef5. et *note
max(): ef6.  Si vous devez utiliser ces fonctions de façon répétée, il
est préférable de transformer l'itérable en tas.

* Menu:

* Exemples simples::
* Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité::
* Théorie::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/heapq.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples simples,  Next: Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité,  Up: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

5.8.6.1 Exemples simples
........................

Un tri par tas(1) peut être implémenté en introduisant toutes les
valeurs dans un tas puis en effectuant l'extraction des éléments un par
un :

     >>> def heapsort(iterable):
     ...     h = []
     ...     for value in iterable:
     ...         heappush(h, value)
     ...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
     ...
     >>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Ceci est similaire à ‘sorted(iterable)’ mais, contrairement à *note
sorted(): bbe, cette implémentation n'est pas stable.

Les éléments d'un tas peuvent être des 'n'-uplets.  C'est pratique pour
assigner des valeurs de comparaison (par exemple, des priorités de
tâches) en plus de l'élément qui est suivi :

     >>> h = []
     >>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
     >>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
     >>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
     >>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
     >>> heappop(h)
     (1, 'write spec')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_par_tas


File: python.info,  Node: Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité,  Next: Théorie,  Prev: Exemples simples,  Up: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

5.8.6.2 Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité
.....................................................

Une file de priorité(1) est une application courante des tas et présente
plusieurs défis d'implémentation :

   * Stabilité du classement : comment s'assurer que deux tâches avec la
     même priorité sont renvoyées dans l'ordre de leur ajout ?

   * La comparaison des couples (priorité, tâche) échoue si les
     priorités sont identiques et que les tâches n'ont pas de relation
     d'ordre par défaut.

   * Si la priorité d'une tâche change, comment la déplacer à sa
     nouvelle position dans le tas ?

   * Si une tâche en attente doit être supprimée, comment la trouver et
     la supprimer de la file ?

Une solution aux deux premiers problèmes consiste à stocker les entrées
sous forme de liste à 3 éléments incluant la priorité, le numéro d'ajout
et la tâche.  Le numéro d'ajout sert à briser les égalités de telle
sorte que deux tâches avec la même priorité sont renvoyées dans l'ordre
de leur insertion.  Puisque deux tâches ne peuvent jamais avoir le même
numéro d'ajout, la comparaison des triplets ne va jamais chercher à
comparer des tâches entre elles.

Une autre solution au fait que les tâches ne possèdent pas de relation
d'ordre est de créer une classe d'encapsulation qui ignore l'élément
tâche et ne compare que le champ priorité :

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     from typing import Any

     @dataclass(order=True)
     class PrioritizedItem:
         priority: int
         item: Any=field(compare=False)

Le problème restant consiste à trouver une tâche en attente et modifier
sa priorité ou la supprimer.  Trouver une tâche peut être réalisé à
l'aide d'un dictionnaire pointant vers une entrée dans la file.

Supprimer une entrée ou changer sa priorité est plus difficile puisque
cela romprait l'invariant de la structure de tas.  Une solution possible
est de marquer l'entrée comme supprimée et d'ajouter une nouvelle entrée
avec sa priorité modifiée :

     pq = []                         # list of entries arranged in a heap
     entry_finder = {}               # mapping of tasks to entries
     REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # placeholder for a removed task
     counter = itertools.count()     # unique sequence count

     def add_task(task, priority=0):
         'Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task'
         if task in entry_finder:
             remove_task(task)
         count = next(counter)
         entry = [priority, count, task]
         entry_finder[task] = entry
         heappush(pq, entry)

     def remove_task(task):
         'Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.'
         entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
         entry[-1] = REMOVED

     def pop_task():
         'Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.'
         while pq:
             priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
             if task is not REMOVED:
                 del entry_finder[task]
                 return task
         raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_de_priorit%C3%A9


File: python.info,  Node: Théorie,  Prev: Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité,  Up: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

5.8.6.3 Théorie
...............

Les tas sont des tableaux pour lesquels ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+1]’ et ‘a[k] <=
a[2*k+2]’ pour tout 'k' en comptant les éléments à partir de 0.  Pour
simplifier la comparaison, les éléments inexistants sont considérés
comme étant infinis.  L'intérêt des tas est que ‘a[0]’ est toujours leur
plus petit élément.

L'invariant étrange ci-dessus est une représentation efficace en mémoire
d'un tournoi.  Les nombres ci-dessous sont 'k' et non ‘a[k]’ :

                                    0

                   1                                 2

           3               4                5               6

       7       8       9       10      11      12      13      14

     15 16   17 18   19 20   21 22   23 24   25 26   27 28   29 30

Dans l'arbre ci-dessus, chaque nœud 'k' a pour enfants ‘2*k+1’ et
‘2*k+2’.  Dans les tournois binaires habituels dans les compétitions
sportives, chaque nœud est le vainqueur des deux nœuds inférieurs et
nous pouvons tracer le chemin du vainqueur le long de l'arbre afin de
voir qui étaient ses adversaires.  Cependant, dans de nombreuses
applications informatiques de ces tournois, nous n'avons pas besoin de
produire l'historique du vainqueur.  Afin d'occuper moins de mémoire, on
remplace le vainqueur lors de sa promotion par un autre élément à un
plus bas niveau.  La règle devient alors qu'un nœud et les deux nœuds
qu'il chapeaute contiennent trois éléments différents, mais le nœud
supérieur « gagne » contre les deux nœuds inférieurs.

If this heap invariant is protected at all time, index 0 is clearly the
overall winner.  The simplest algorithmic way to remove it and find the
"next" winner is to move some loser (let's say cell 30 in the diagram
above) into the 0 position, and then percolate this new 0 down the tree,
exchanging values, until the invariant is re-established.  This is
clearly logarithmic on the total number of items in the tree.  By
iterating over all items, you get an 'O'('n' log 'n') sort.

Une propriété agréable de cet algorithme est qu'il est possible
d'insérer efficacement de nouveaux éléments en cours de classement, du
moment que les éléments insérés ne sont pas « meilleurs » que le dernier
élément qui a été extrait.  Ceci s'avère très utile dans des simulations
où l'arbre contient la liste des événements arrivants et que la
condition de « victoire » est le plus petit temps d'exécution planifié.
Lorsqu'un événement programme l'exécution d'autres événements, ceux-ci
sont planifiés pour le futur et peuvent donc rejoindre le tas.  Ainsi,
le tas est une bonne structure pour implémenter un ordonnanceur (et
c'est ce que j'ai utilisé pour mon séquenceur MIDI ☺).

Plusieurs structures ont été étudiées en détail pour implémenter des
ordonnanceurs et les tas sont bien adaptés : ils sont raisonnablement
rapides, leur vitesse est presque constante et le pire cas ne diffère
pas trop du cas moyen.  S'il existe des représentations qui sont plus
efficaces en général, les pires cas peuvent être terriblement mauvais.

Les tas sont également très utiles pour ordonner les données sur de gros
disques.  Vous savez probablement qu'un gros tri implique la production
de séquences pré-classées (dont la taille est généralement liée à la
quantité de mémoire CPU disponible), suivie par une passe de fusion qui
est généralement organisée de façon très intelligente (1).  Il est très
important que le classement initial produise des séquences les plus
longues possibles.  Les tournois sont une bonne façon d'arriver à ce
résultat.  Si, en utilisant toute la mémoire disponible pour stocker un
tournoi, vous remplacez et faites percoler les éléments qui s'avèrent
acceptables pour la séquence courante, vous produirez des séquences
d'une taille égale au double de la mémoire pour une entrée aléatoire et
bien mieux pour une entrée approximativement triée.

Qui plus est, si vous écrivez l'élément 0 sur le disque et que vous
recevez en entrée un élément qui n'est pas adapté au tournoi actuel
(parce que sa valeur « gagne » par rapport à la dernière valeur de
sortie), alors il ne peut pas être stocké dans le tas donc la taille de
ce dernier diminue.  La mémoire libérée peut être réutilisée
immédiatement pour progressivement construire un deuxième tas, qui croit
à la même vitesse que le premier décroît.  Lorsque le premier tas a
complètement disparu, vous échangez les tas et démarrez une nouvelle
séquence.  Malin et plutôt efficace !

Pour résumer, les tas sont des structures de données qu'il est bon de
connaître.  Je les utilise dans quelques applications et je pense qu'il
est bon de garder le module 'heap' sous le coude.  ☺

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Les algorithmes de répartition de charge pour les disques,
courants de nos jours, sont plus embêtants qu'utiles, en raison de la
capacité des disques à réaliser des accès aléatoires.  Sur les
périphériques qui ne peuvent faire que de la lecture séquentielle, comme
les gros lecteurs à bandes, le besoin était différent et il fallait être
malin pour s'assurer (bien à l'avance) que chaque mouvement de bande
serait le plus efficace possible (c'est-à-dire participerait au mieux à
l'« avancée » de la fusion).  Certaines cassettes pouvaient même lire à
l'envers et cela était aussi utilisé pour éviter de remonter dans le
temps.  Croyez-moi, les bons tris sur bandes étaient spectaculaires à
regarder !  Depuis la nuit des temps, trier a toujours été le Grand
Art !  ☺


File: python.info,  Node: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm,  Next: array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Prev: heapq --- Heap queue algorithm,  Up: Types de données

5.8.7 ‘bisect’ -- Array bisection algorithm
-------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/bisect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for maintaining a list in sorted order
without having to sort the list after each insertion.  For long lists of
items with expensive comparison operations, this can be an improvement
over linear searches or frequent resorting.

The module is called *note bisect: 11. because it uses a basic bisection
algorithm to do its work.  Unlike other bisection tools that search for
a specific value, the functions in this module are designed to locate an
insertion point.  Accordingly, the functions never call an *note
__eq__(): aea. method to determine whether a value has been found.
Instead, the functions only call the *note __lt__(): 127f. method and
will return an insertion point between values in an array.  Les
fonctions suivantes sont fournies :

 -- Fonction: bisect.bisect_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Trouve le point d'insertion de 'x' dans 'a' permettant de conserver
     l'ordre.  Les paramètres 'lo' et 'hi' permettent de limiter les
     emplacements à vérifier dans la liste, par défaut toute la liste
     est utilisée.  Si 'x' est déjà présent dans 'a', le point
     d'insertion proposé sera avant (à gauche) de l'entrée existante.
     Si 'a' est déjà triée, la valeur renvoyée peut directement être
     utilisée comme premier paramètre de ‘list.insert()’.

     The returned insertion point 'ip' partitions the array 'a' into two
     slices such that ‘all(elem < x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ is true for
     the left slice and ‘all(elem >= x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ is true
     for the right slice.

     'key' specifies a *note key function: df4. of one argument that is
     used to extract a comparison key from each element in the array.
     To support searching complex records, the key function is not
     applied to the 'x' value.

     If 'key' is ‘None’, the elements are compared directly and no key
     function is called.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'key'.

 -- Fonction: bisect.bisect_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- Fonction: bisect.bisect (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Similar to *note bisect_left(): 24f6, but returns an insertion
     point which comes after (to the right of) any existing entries of
     'x' in 'a'.

     The returned insertion point 'ip' partitions the array 'a' into two
     slices such that ‘all(elem <= x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ is true
     for the left slice and ‘all(elem > x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ is
     true for the right slice.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'key'.

 -- Fonction: bisect.insort_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Insère 'x' dans 'a' en préservant l'ordre.

     This function first runs *note bisect_left(): 24f6. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the ‘insert()’ method on 'a' to
     insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'key'.

 -- Fonction: bisect.insort_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- Fonction: bisect.insort (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Similar to *note insort_left(): 24f9, but inserting 'x' in 'a'
     after any existing entries of 'x'.

     This function first runs *note bisect_right(): 24f7. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the ‘insert()’ method on 'a' to
     insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'key'.

* Menu:

* Notes sur la performance::
* Chercher dans des listes triées::
* Exemples: Exemples<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bisect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Notes sur la performance,  Next: Chercher dans des listes triées,  Up: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.1 Notes sur la performance
................................

Pour écrire du code sensible à la performance utilisant ‘bisect()’ et
‘insort()’, prenez en compte ces quelques considérations :

   * La bissection est une bonne idée pour rechercher une plage de
     valeurs.  Pour une seule valeur, mieux vaut un dictionnaire.

   * The 'insort()' functions are 'O'('n') because the logarithmic
     search step is dominated by the linear time insertion step.

   * The search functions are stateless and discard key function results
     after they are used.  Consequently, if the search functions are
     used in a loop, the key function may be called again and again on
     the same array elements.  If the key function isn't fast, consider
     wrapping it with *note functools.cache(): 24fd. to avoid duplicate
     computations.  Alternatively, consider searching an array of
     precomputed keys to locate the insertion point (as shown in the
     examples section below).

Voir aussi
..........

   * Sorted Collections(1) is a high performance module that uses
     'bisect' to managed sorted collections of data.

   * SortedCollection recipe(2) utilise le module 'bisect' pour
     construire une classe collection exposant des méthodes de
     recherches naturelles et gérant une fonction clef.  Les clefs sont
     pré-calculées pour économiser des appels inutiles à la fonction
     clef durant les recherches.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://grantjenks.com/docs/sortedcollections/

   (2) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/


File: python.info,  Node: Chercher dans des listes triées,  Next: Exemples<3>,  Prev: Notes sur la performance,  Up: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.2 Chercher dans des listes triées
.......................................

The above *note bisect functions: 24f5. are useful for finding insertion
points but can be tricky or awkward to use for common searching tasks.
The following five functions show how to transform them into the
standard lookups for sorted lists:

     def index(a, x):
         'Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
             return i
         raise ValueError

     def find_lt(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_le(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_gt(a, x):
         'Find leftmost value greater than x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError

     def find_ge(a, x):
         'Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<3>,  Prev: Chercher dans des listes triées,  Up: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.3 Exemples
................

The *note bisect(): 24f8. function can be useful for numeric table
lookups.  This example uses *note bisect(): 24f8. to look up a letter
grade for an exam score (say) based on a set of ordered numeric
breakpoints: 90 and up is an 'A', 80 to 89 is a 'B', and so on:

     >>> def grade(score, breakpoints=[60, 70, 80, 90], grades='FDCBA'):
     ...     i = bisect(breakpoints, score)
     ...     return grades[i]
     ...
     >>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
     ['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']

The *note bisect(): 24f8. and *note insort(): 24fb. functions also work
with lists of tuples.  The 'key' argument can serve to extract the field
used for ordering records in a table:

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> from operator import attrgetter
     >>> from bisect import bisect, insort
     >>> from pprint import pprint

     >>> Movie = namedtuple('Movie', ('name', 'released', 'director'))

     >>> movies = [
     ...     Movie('Jaws', 1975, 'Spielberg'),
     ...     Movie('Titanic', 1997, 'Cameron'),
     ...     Movie('The Birds', 1963, 'Hitchcock'),
     ...     Movie('Aliens', 1986, 'Cameron')
     ... ]

     >>> # Find the first movie released after 1960
     >>> by_year = attrgetter('released')
     >>> movies.sort(key=by_year)
     >>> movies[bisect(movies, 1960, key=by_year)]
     Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock')

     >>> # Insert a movie while maintaining sort order
     >>> romance = Movie('Love Story', 1970, 'Hiller')
     >>> insort(movies, romance, key=by_year)
     >>> pprint(movies)
     [Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock'),
      Movie(name='Love Story', released=1970, director='Hiller'),
      Movie(name='Jaws', released=1975, director='Spielberg'),
      Movie(name='Aliens', released=1986, director='Cameron'),
      Movie(name='Titanic', released=1997, director='Cameron')]

If the key function is expensive, it is possible to avoid repeated
function calls by searching a list of precomputed keys to find the index
of a record:

     >>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
     >>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])       # Or use operator.itemgetter(1).
     >>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # Precompute a list of keys.
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
     ('black', 0)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
     ('blue', 1)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
     ('red', 5)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
     ('yellow', 8)


File: python.info,  Node: array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Next: weakref --- Weak references,  Prev: bisect --- Array bisection algorithm,  Up: Types de données

5.8.8 ‘array’ -- Efficient arrays of numeric values
---------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an
array of basic values: characters, integers, floating-point numbers.
Arrays are sequence types and behave very much like lists, except that
the type of objects stored in them is constrained.  The type is
specified at object creation time by using a 'type code', which is a
single character.  The following type codes are defined:

Code            Type C                   Type Python             Taille minimum en octets    Notes
d'indication                                                                                 
du type

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             
‘'b'’           ‘signed char’            'int'                   1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'B'’           ‘unsigned char’          'int'                   1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'u'’           wchar_t                  Caractère Unicode       2                           (1)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'w'’           Py_UCS4                  Caractère Unicode       4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'h'’           ‘signed short’           'int'                   2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'H'’           ‘unsigned short’         'int'                   2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'i'’           ‘signed int’             'int'                   2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'I'’           ‘unsigned int’           'int'                   2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'l'’           ‘signed long’            'int'                   4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'L'’           ‘unsigned long’          'int'                   4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'q'’           ‘signed long long’       'int'                   8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'Q'’           ‘unsigned long long’     'int'                   8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'f'’           'float'                  'float'                 4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'d'’           double                   'float'                 8
                                                                 

Notes :

  1. It can be 16 bits or 32 bits depending on the platform.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C
     type instead of deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’.  This change doesn't
     affect its behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is alias of ‘wchar_t’
     since Python 3.3.

     Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 3.16:
     Please migrate to ‘'w'’ typecode.

The actual representation of values is determined by the machine
architecture (strictly speaking, by the C implementation).  The actual
size can be accessed through the *note array.itemsize: 2503. attribute.

The module defines the following item:

 -- Données: array.typecodes

     Une chaîne avec tous les codes de types disponibles.

Le module définit le type suivant :

 -- Classe: array.array (typecode[, initializer])

     A new array whose items are restricted by 'typecode', and
     initialized from the optional 'initializer' value, which must be a
     *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b. object, a Unicode
     string, or iterable over elements of the appropriate type.

     If given a *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b. object, the
     initializer is passed to the new array's *note frombytes(): 1252.
     method; if given a Unicode string, the initializer is passed to the
     *note fromunicode(): 2505. method; otherwise, the initializer's
     iterator is passed to the *note extend(): 2506. method to add
     initial items to the array.

     Les objets de tableau supportent les opérations classiques de
     séquence : indiçage, découpage, concaténation et multiplication.
     Lors de l'utilisation de tranche, la valeur assignée doit être un
     tableau du même type ; dans tous les autres cas, l'exception *note
     TypeError: 525. est levée.  Les objets de tableau implémentent
     également l'interface tampon, et peuvent être utilisés partout où
     *note bytes-like objects: d1d. sont supportés.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘array.__new__’ avec les
     arguments ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’.

      -- Attribut: typecode

          Le code (de type Python caractère) utilisé pour spécifier le
          type des éléments du tableau.

      -- Attribut: itemsize

          La longueur en octets d'un élément du tableau dans la
          représentation interne.

      -- Méthode: append (x)

          Ajoute un nouvel élément avec la valeur 'x' à la fin du
          tableau.

      -- Méthode: buffer_info ()

          Return a tuple ‘(address, length)’ giving the current memory
          address and the length in elements of the buffer used to hold
          array's contents.  The size of the memory buffer in bytes can
          be computed as ‘array.buffer_info()[1] * array.itemsize’.
          This is occasionally useful when working with low-level (and
          inherently unsafe) I/O interfaces that require memory
          addresses, such as certain ‘ioctl()’ operations.  The returned
          numbers are valid as long as the array exists and no
          length-changing operations are applied to it.

               Note: Lors de l'utilisation d'objets tableaux provenant
               de codes écrits en C ou C++ (le seul moyen d'utiliser
               efficacement ces informations), il est plus logique
               d'utiliser l'interface tampon supportée par les objets
               tableaux.  Cette méthode est maintenue pour des raisons
               de rétrocompatibilité et devrait être évitée dans un
               nouveau code.  L'interface tampon est documentée dans
               *note Protocole tampon: 38e.

      -- Méthode: byteswap ()

          Boutisme de tous les éléments du tableau.  Ceci n'est pris en
          charge que pour les valeurs de 1, 2, 4 ou 8 octets ; pour les
          autres types de valeur, *note RuntimeError: 193. est levée.
          Il est utile lors de la lecture de données à partir d'un
          fichier écrit sur une machine avec un ordre d'octets
          différent.

      -- Méthode: count (x)

          Renvoi le nombre d'occurrences de 'x' dans le tableau.

      -- Méthode: extend (iterable)

          Ajoute les éléments de 'iterable' à la fin du tableau.  Si
          'iterable' est un autre tableau, il doit le même code
          d'indication du type ; dans le cas contraire, *note TypeError:
          525. sera levée.  Si 'iterable' n'est pas un tableau, il doit
          être itérable et ces éléments doivent être du bon type pour
          être ajoutés dans le tableau.

      -- Méthode: frombytes (buffer)

          Appends items from the *note bytes-like object: d1d,
          interpreting its content as an array of machine values (as if
          it had been read from a file using the *note fromfile(): 12a0.
          method).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2: ‘fromstring()’ is renamed to *note
          frombytes(): 1252. for clarity.

      -- Méthode: fromfile (f, n)

          Read 'n' items (as machine values) from the *note file object:
          11a2. 'f' and append them to the end of the array.  If less
          than 'n' items are available, *note EOFError: 12b9. is raised,
          but the items that were available are still inserted into the
          array.

      -- Méthode: fromlist (list)

          Ajoute les éléments de la liste.  C'est l'équivalent de ‘for x
          in list: a.append(x)’ sauf que s'il y a une erreur de type, le
          tableau est inchangé.

      -- Méthode: fromunicode (s)

          Extends this array with data from the given Unicode string.
          The array must have type code ‘'u'’ or ‘'w'’; otherwise a
          *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.  Use
          ‘array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))’ to append Unicode
          data to an array of some other type.

      -- Méthode: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          Return the smallest 'i' such that 'i' is the index of the
          first occurrence of 'x' in the array.  The optional arguments
          'start' and 'stop' can be specified to search for 'x' within a
          subsection of the array.  Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. if 'x'
          is not found.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added optional 'start' and
          'stop' parameters.

      -- Méthode: insert (i, x)

          Ajoute un nouvel élément avec la valeur 'x' dans le tableau
          avant la position 'i'.  Les valeurs négatives sont traitées
          relativement à la fin du tableau.

      -- Méthode: pop ([i])

          Supprime l'élément du tableau avec l'index 'i' et le renvoie.
          L'argument optionnel par défaut est à ‘-1’, de sorte que par
          défaut le dernier élément est supprimé et renvoyé.

      -- Méthode: remove (x)

          Supprime la première occurrence de 'x' du tableau.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Remove all elements from the array.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: reverse ()

          Inverse l'ordre des éléments du tableau.

      -- Méthode: tobytes ()

          Convertit le tableau en un tableau de valeurs machine et
          renvoie la représentation en octets (la même séquence d'octets
          qui serait écrite par la méthode *note tofile(): 12a1.).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2: ‘tostring()’ is renamed to *note
          tobytes(): 1251. for clarity.

      -- Méthode: tofile (f)

          Écrit tous les éléments (en tant que valeurs machine) du *note
          file object: 11a2. 'f'.

      -- Méthode: tolist ()

          Convertit le tableau en une liste ordinaire avec les mêmes
          éléments.

      -- Méthode: tounicode ()

          Convert the array to a Unicode string.  The array must have a
          type ‘'u'’ or ‘'w'’; otherwise a *note ValueError: 1ff. is
          raised.  Use ‘array.tobytes().decode(enc)’ to obtain a Unicode
          string from an array of some other type.

The string representation of array objects has the form ‘array(typecode,
initializer)’.  The 'initializer' is omitted if the array is empty,
otherwise it is a Unicode string if the 'typecode' is ‘'u'’ or ‘'w'’,
otherwise it is a list of numbers.  The string representation is
guaranteed to be able to be converted back to an array with the same
type and value using *note eval(): 17e, so long as the *note array: 19e.
class has been imported using ‘from array import array’.  Variables
‘inf’ and ‘nan’ must also be defined if it contains corresponding
floating-point values.  Examples:

     array('l')
     array('w', 'hello \u2641')
     array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
     array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14, -inf, nan])

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note struct: d4.

     Empaquetage et dépaquetage de données binaires hétérogènes.

NumPy(1)

     The NumPy package defines another array type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: weakref --- Weak references,  Next: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types,  Prev: array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Up: Types de données

5.8.9 ‘weakref’ -- Weak references
----------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/weakref.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note weakref: 113. module allows the Python programmer to create
'weak references' to objects.

In the following, the term 'referent' means the object which is referred
to by a weak reference.

A weak reference to an object is not enough to keep the object alive:
when the only remaining references to a referent are weak references,
*note garbage collection: 18d6. is free to destroy the referent and
reuse its memory for something else.  However, until the object is
actually destroyed the weak reference may return the object even if
there are no strong references to it.

A primary use for weak references is to implement caches or mappings
holding large objects, where it's desired that a large object not be
kept alive solely because it appears in a cache or mapping.

For example, if you have a number of large binary image objects, you may
wish to associate a name with each.  If you used a Python dictionary to
map names to images, or images to names, the image objects would remain
alive just because they appeared as values or keys in the dictionaries.
The *note WeakKeyDictionary: 192c. and *note WeakValueDictionary: 192b.
classes supplied by the *note weakref: 113. module are an alternative,
using weak references to construct mappings that don't keep objects
alive solely because they appear in the mapping objects.  If, for
example, an image object is a value in a *note WeakValueDictionary:
192b, then when the last remaining references to that image object are
the weak references held by weak mappings, garbage collection can
reclaim the object, and its corresponding entries in weak mappings are
simply deleted.

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 192c. and *note WeakValueDictionary: 192b. use
weak references in their implementation, setting up callback functions
on the weak references that notify the weak dictionaries when a key or
value has been reclaimed by garbage collection.  *note WeakSet: 5c9.
implements the *note set: 5c5. interface, but keeps weak references to
its elements, just like a *note WeakKeyDictionary: 192c. does.

*note finalize: a6c. provides a straight forward way to register a
cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.  This
is simpler to use than setting up a callback function on a raw weak
reference, since the module automatically ensures that the finalizer
remains alive until the object is collected.

Most programs should find that using one of these weak container types
or *note finalize: a6c. is all they need - it's not usually necessary to
create your own weak references directly.  The low-level machinery is
exposed by the *note weakref: 113. module for the benefit of advanced
uses.

Not all objects can be weakly referenced.  Objects which support weak
references include class instances, functions written in Python (but not
in C), instance methods, sets, frozensets, some *note file objects:
11a2, *note generators: 104c, type objects, sockets, arrays, deques,
regular expression pattern objects, and code objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added support for thread.lock,
threading.Lock, and code objects.

Several built-in types such as *note list: 5fe. and *note dict: 253. do
not directly support weak references but can add support through
subclassing:

     class Dict(dict):
         pass

     obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # this object is weak referenceable

'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' Other built-in types such
as *note tuple: 366. and *note int: 254. do not support weak references
even when subclassed.

Extension types can easily be made to support weak references; see *note
Prise en charge de la référence faible: 2515.

When ‘__slots__’ are defined for a given type, weak reference support is
disabled unless a ‘'__weakref__'’ string is also present in the sequence
of strings in the ‘__slots__’ declaration.  See *note __slots__
documentation: 1eec. for details.

 -- Classe: weakref.ref (object[, callback])

     Return a weak reference to 'object'.  The original object can be
     retrieved by calling the reference object if the referent is still
     alive; if the referent is no longer alive, calling the reference
     object will cause *note None: 662. to be returned.  If 'callback'
     is provided and not *note None: 662, and the returned weakref
     object is still alive, the callback will be called when the object
     is about to be finalized; the weak reference object will be passed
     as the only parameter to the callback; the referent will no longer
     be available.

     It is allowable for many weak references to be constructed for the
     same object.  Callbacks registered for each weak reference will be
     called from the most recently registered callback to the oldest
     registered callback.

     Exceptions raised by the callback will be noted on the standard
     error output, but cannot be propagated; they are handled in exactly
     the same way as exceptions raised from an object's *note __del__():
     1f1a. method.

     Weak references are *note hashable: 5fd. if the 'object' is
     hashable.  They will maintain their hash value even after the
     'object' was deleted.  If *note hash(): 5d7. is called the first
     time only after the 'object' was deleted, the call will raise *note
     TypeError: 525.

     Weak references support tests for equality, but not ordering.  If
     the referents are still alive, two references have the same
     equality relationship as their referents (regardless of the
     'callback').  If either referent has been deleted, the references
     are equal only if the reference objects are the same object.

     This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.

      -- Attribut: __callback__

          This read-only attribute returns the callback currently
          associated to the weakref.  If there is no callback or if the
          referent of the weakref is no longer alive then this attribute
          will have value ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the *note __callback__: fdc.
     attribute.

 -- Fonction: weakref.proxy (object[, callback])

     Return a proxy to 'object' which uses a weak reference.  This
     supports use of the proxy in most contexts instead of requiring the
     explicit dereferencing used with weak reference objects.  The
     returned object will have a type of either ‘ProxyType’ or
     ‘CallableProxyType’, depending on whether 'object' is callable.
     Proxy objects are not *note hashable: 5fd. regardless of the
     referent; this avoids a number of problems related to their
     fundamentally mutable nature, and prevents their use as dictionary
     keys.  'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to
     the *note ref(): fdb. function.

     Accessing an attribute of the proxy object after the referent is
     garbage collected raises *note ReferenceError: 14c6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Extended the operator support on proxy
     objects to include the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and
     ‘@=’.

 -- Fonction: weakref.getweakrefcount (object)

     Return the number of weak references and proxies which refer to
     'object'.

 -- Fonction: weakref.getweakrefs (object)

     Return a list of all weak reference and proxy objects which refer
     to 'object'.

 -- Classe: weakref.WeakKeyDictionary ([dict])

     Mapping class that references keys weakly.  Entries in the
     dictionary will be discarded when there is no longer a strong
     reference to the key.  This can be used to associate additional
     data with an object owned by other parts of an application without
     adding attributes to those objects.  This can be especially useful
     with objects that override attribute accesses.

     Note that when a key with equal value to an existing key (but not
     equal identity) is inserted into the dictionary, it replaces the
     value but does not replace the existing key.  Due to this, when the
     reference to the original key is deleted, it also deletes the entry
     in the dictionary:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k1: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {}

     A workaround would be to remove the key prior to reassignment:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> del d[k1]
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k2: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {k2: 2}

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’
     operators, as specified in PEP 584(2).

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 192c. objects have an additional method that
exposes the internal references directly.  The references are not
guaranteed to be "live" at the time they are used, so the result of
calling the references needs to be checked before being used.  This can
be used to avoid creating references that will cause the garbage
collector to keep the keys around longer than needed.

 -- Méthode: WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs ()

     Return an iterable of the weak references to the keys.

 -- Classe: weakref.WeakValueDictionary ([dict])

     Mapping class that references values weakly.  Entries in the
     dictionary will be discarded when no strong reference to the value
     exists any more.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’
     operators, as specified in PEP 584(3).

*note WeakValueDictionary: 192b. objects have an additional method that
has the same issues as the *note WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs(): 2518.
method.

 -- Méthode: WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs ()

     Return an iterable of the weak references to the values.

 -- Classe: weakref.WeakSet ([elements])

     Set class that keeps weak references to its elements.  An element
     will be discarded when no strong reference to it exists any more.

 -- Classe: weakref.WeakMethod (method[, callback])

     A custom *note ref: fdb. subclass which simulates a weak reference
     to a bound method (i.e., a method defined on a class and looked up
     on an instance).  Since a bound method is ephemeral, a standard
     weak reference cannot keep hold of it.  *note WeakMethod: fda. has
     special code to recreate the bound method until either the object
     or the original function dies:

          >>> class C:
          ...     def method(self):
          ...         print("method called!")
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
          >>> r()
          >>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
          >>> r()
          <bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
          >>> r()()
          method called!
          >>> del c
          >>> gc.collect()
          0
          >>> r()
          >>>

     'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to the
     *note ref(): fdb. function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Classe: weakref.finalize (obj, func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return a callable finalizer object which will be called when 'obj'
     is garbage collected.  Unlike an ordinary weak reference, a
     finalizer will always survive until the reference object is
     collected, greatly simplifying lifecycle management.

     A finalizer is considered 'alive' until it is called (either
     explicitly or at garbage collection), and after that it is 'dead'.
     Calling a live finalizer returns the result of evaluating
     ‘func(*arg, **kwargs)’, whereas calling a dead finalizer returns
     *note None: 662.

     Exceptions raised by finalizer callbacks during garbage collection
     will be shown on the standard error output, but cannot be
     propagated.  They are handled in the same way as exceptions raised
     from an object's *note __del__(): 1f1a. method or a weak
     reference's callback.

     When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called
     unless its *note atexit: c. attribute has been set to false.  They
     are called in reverse order of creation.

     A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of
     the *note interpreter shutdown: 14d. when module globals are liable
     to have been replaced by *note None: 662.

      -- Méthode: __call__ ()

          If 'self' is alive then mark it as dead and return the result
          of calling ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then
          return *note None: 662.

      -- Méthode: detach ()

          If 'self' is alive then mark it as dead and return the tuple
          ‘(obj, func, args, kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then return
          *note None: 662.

      -- Méthode: peek ()

          If 'self' is alive then return the tuple ‘(obj, func, args,
          kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then return *note None: 662.

      -- Attribut: alive

          Property which is true if the finalizer is alive, false
          otherwise.

      -- Attribut: atexit

          A writable boolean property which by default is true.  When
          the program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for
          which *note atexit: 251e. is true.  They are called in reverse
          order of creation.

          Note: It is important to ensure that 'func', 'args' and
          'kwargs' do not own any references to 'obj', either directly
          or indirectly, since otherwise 'obj' will never be garbage
          collected.  In particular, 'func' should not be a bound method
          of 'obj'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: weakref.ReferenceType

     The type object for weak references objects.

 -- Données: weakref.ProxyType

     The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.

 -- Données: weakref.CallableProxyType

     The type object for proxies of callable objects.

 -- Données: weakref.ProxyTypes

     Sequence containing all the type objects for proxies.  This can
     make it simpler to test if an object is a proxy without being
     dependent on naming both proxy types.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 205(4) - Weak References

     The proposal and rationale for this feature, including links to
     earlier implementations and information about similar features in
     other languages.

* Menu:

* Objets à références faibles::
* Exemple: Exemple<2>.
* Finalizer Objects::
* Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/weakref.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets à références faibles,  Next: Exemple<2>,  Up: weakref --- Weak references

5.8.9.1 Objets à références faibles
...................................

Weak reference objects have no methods and no attributes besides *note
ref.__callback__: fdc.  A weak reference object allows the referent to
be obtained, if it still exists, by calling it:

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> o = Object()
     >>> r = weakref.ref(o)
     >>> o2 = r()
     >>> o is o2
     True

If the referent no longer exists, calling the reference object returns
*note None: 662.:

     >>> del o, o2
     >>> print(r())
     None

Testing that a weak reference object is still live should be done using
the expression ‘ref() is not None’.  Normally, application code that
needs to use a reference object should follow this pattern:

     # r is a weak reference object
     o = r()
     if o is None:
         # referent has been garbage collected
         print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
     else:
         print("Object is still live!")
         o.do_something_useful()

Using a separate test for "liveness" creates race conditions in threaded
applications; another thread can cause a weak reference to become
invalidated before the weak reference is called; the idiom shown above
is safe in threaded applications as well as single-threaded
applications.

Specialized versions of *note ref: fdb. objects can be created through
subclassing.  This is used in the implementation of the *note
WeakValueDictionary: 192b. to reduce the memory overhead for each entry
in the mapping.  This may be most useful to associate additional
information with a reference, but could also be used to insert
additional processing on calls to retrieve the referent.

This example shows how a subclass of *note ref: fdb. can be used to
store additional information about an object and affect the value that's
returned when the referent is accessed:

     import weakref

     class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
         def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, /, **annotations):
             super().__init__(ob, callback)
             self.__counter = 0
             for k, v in annotations.items():
                 setattr(self, k, v)

         def __call__(self):
             """Return a pair containing the referent and the number of
             times the reference has been called.
             """
             ob = super().__call__()
             if ob is not None:
                 self.__counter += 1
                 ob = (ob, self.__counter)
             return ob


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<2>,  Next: Finalizer Objects,  Prev: Objets à références faibles,  Up: weakref --- Weak references

5.8.9.2 Exemple
...............

This simple example shows how an application can use object IDs to
retrieve objects that it has seen before.  The IDs of the objects can
then be used in other data structures without forcing the objects to
remain alive, but the objects can still be retrieved by ID if they do.

     import weakref

     _id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()

     def remember(obj):
         oid = id(obj)
         _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
         return oid

     def id2obj(oid):
         return _id2obj_dict[oid]


File: python.info,  Node: Finalizer Objects,  Next: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods,  Prev: Exemple<2>,  Up: weakref --- Weak references

5.8.9.3 Finalizer Objects
.........................

The main benefit of using *note finalize: a6c. is that it makes it
simple to register a callback without needing to preserve the returned
finalizer object.  For instance

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> kenny = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> del kenny
     You killed Kenny!

The finalizer can be called directly as well.  However the finalizer
will invoke the callback at most once.

     >>> def callback(x, y, z):
     ...     print("CALLBACK")
     ...     return x + y + z
     ...
     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> assert f.alive
     >>> assert f() == 6
     CALLBACK
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
     >>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead

You can unregister a finalizer using its *note detach(): 251b. method.
This kills the finalizer and returns the arguments passed to the
constructor when it was created.

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> f.detach()
     (<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
     >>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> assert newobj is obj
     >>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
     CALLBACK

Unless you set the *note atexit: 251e. attribute to *note False: b27, a
finalizer will be called when the program exits if it is still alive.
For instance

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> exit()
     obj dead or exiting


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods,  Prev: Finalizer Objects,  Up: weakref --- Weak references

5.8.9.4 Comparing finalizers with ‘__del__()’ methods
.....................................................

Suppose we want to create a class whose instances represent temporary
directories.  The directories should be deleted with their contents when
the first of the following events occurs:

   * the object is garbage collected,

   * the object's ‘remove()’ method is called, or

   * the program exits.

We might try to implement the class using a *note __del__(): 1f1a.
method as follows:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()

         def remove(self):
             if self.name is not None:
                 shutil.rmtree(self.name)
                 self.name = None

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return self.name is None

         def __del__(self):
             self.remove()

Starting with Python 3.4, *note __del__(): 1f1a. methods no longer
prevent reference cycles from being garbage collected, and module
globals are no longer forced to *note None: 662. during *note
interpreter shutdown: 14d.  So this code should work without any issues
on CPython.

However, handling of *note __del__(): 1f1a. methods is notoriously
implementation specific, since it depends on internal details of the
interpreter's garbage collector implementation.

A more robust alternative can be to define a finalizer which only
references the specific functions and objects that it needs, rather than
having access to the full state of the object:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
             self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)

         def remove(self):
             self._finalizer()

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return not self._finalizer.alive

Defined like this, our finalizer only receives a reference to the
details it needs to clean up the directory appropriately.  If the object
never gets garbage collected the finalizer will still be called at exit.

The other advantage of weakref based finalizers is that they can be used
to register finalizers for classes where the definition is controlled by
a third party, such as running code when a module is unloaded:

     import weakref, sys
     def unloading_module():
         # implicit reference to the module globals from the function body
     weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)

     Note: If you create a finalizer object in a daemonic thread just as
     the program exits then there is the possibility that the finalizer
     does not get called at exit.  However, in a daemonic thread *note
     atexit.register(): 86b, ‘try: ... finally: ...’ and ‘with: ...’ do
     not guarantee that cleanup occurs either.


File: python.info,  Node: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types,  Next: copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations,  Prev: weakref --- Weak references,  Up: Types de données

5.8.10 ‘types’ -- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
--------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/types.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of
new types.

It also defines names for some object types that are used by the
standard Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like *note int:
254. or *note str: 437. are.

Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and
functions that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.

* Menu:

* Dynamic Type Creation::
* Standard Interpreter Types::
* Additional Utility Classes and Functions::
* Coroutine Utility Functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/types.py


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic Type Creation,  Next: Standard Interpreter Types,  Up: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.1 Dynamic Type Creation
..............................

 -- Fonction: types.new_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None,
          exec_body=None)

     Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.

     The first three arguments are the components that make up a class
     definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the
     keyword arguments (such as ‘metaclass’).

     The 'exec_body' argument is a callback that is used to populate the
     freshly created class namespace.  It should accept the class
     namespace as its sole argument and update the namespace directly
     with the class contents.  If no callback is provided, it has the
     same effect as passing in ‘lambda ns: None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: types.prepare_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None)

     Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class
     namespace.

     The arguments are the components that make up a class definition
     header: the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword
     arguments (such as ‘metaclass’).

     The return value is a 3-tuple: ‘metaclass, namespace, kwds’

     'metaclass' is the appropriate metaclass, 'namespace' is the
     prepared class namespace and 'kwds' is an updated copy of the
     passed in 'kwds' argument with any ‘'metaclass'’ entry removed.  If
     no 'kwds' argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The default value for the ‘namespace’
     element of the returned tuple has changed.  Now an
     insertion-order-preserving mapping is used when the metaclass does
     not have a ‘__prepare__’ method.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Métaclasses: 1f2c.

     Full details of the class creation process supported by these
     functions

PEP 3115(1) — Méta-classes dans Python 3000

     introduction de la fonction automatique ‘__prepare__’ de l'espace
     de nommage

 -- Fonction: types.resolve_bases (bases)

     Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by PEP 560(2).

     This function looks for items in 'bases' that are not instances of
     *note type: d38, and returns a tuple where each such object that
     has an *note __mro_entries__(): 1f2e. method is replaced with an
     unpacked result of calling this method.  If a 'bases' item is an
     instance of *note type: d38, or it doesn't have an
     ‘__mro_entries__()’ method, then it is included in the return tuple
     unchanged.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: types.get_original_bases (cls, /)

     Return the tuple of objects originally given as the bases of 'cls'
     before the *note __mro_entries__(): 1f2e. method has been called on
     any bases (following the mechanisms laid out in PEP 560(3)).  This
     is useful for introspecting *note Generics: 4bb.

     For classes that have an ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, this function
     returns the value of ‘cls.__orig_bases__’.  For classes without the
     ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, *note cls.__bases__: 1462. is returned.

     Exemples :

          from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

          T = TypeVar("T")
          class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
          class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
          class Baz(list[str]): ...
          Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
          Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

          assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
          assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

          assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
          assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

          assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
          assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

          assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
          assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

          assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
          assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 560(4) — Gestion de base pour les types modules et les types
génériques

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Interpreter Types,  Next: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Prev: Dynamic Type Creation,  Up: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.2 Standard Interpreter Types
...................................

This module provides names for many of the types that are required to
implement a Python interpreter.  It deliberately avoids including some
of the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the
‘listiterator’ type.

Typical use of these names is for *note isinstance(): 42d. or *note
issubclass(): 7ad. checks.

If you instantiate any of these types, note that signatures may vary
between Python versions.

Standard names are defined for the following types:

 -- Données: types.NoneType

     The type of *note None: 662.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: types.FunctionType
 -- Données: types.LambdaType

     The type of user-defined functions and functions created by *note
     lambda: 127c. expressions.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘function.__new__’ with
     argument ‘code’.

     The audit event only occurs for direct instantiation of function
     objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.

 -- Données: types.GeneratorType

     The type of *note generator: 104c.-iterator objects, created by
     generator functions.

 -- Données: types.CoroutineType

     The type of *note coroutine: 47d. objects, created by *note async
     def: 5bd. functions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: types.AsyncGeneratorType

     The type of *note asynchronous generator: 1ff6.-iterator objects,
     created by asynchronous generator functions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: types.CodeType (**kwargs)

     The type of *note code objects: 1cd. such as returned by *note
     compile(): 190.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘code.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’, ‘posonlyargcount’,
     ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’, ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’.

     Note that the audited arguments may not match the names or
     positions required by the initializer.  The audit event only occurs
     for direct instantiation of code objects, and is not raised for
     normal compilation.

 -- Données: types.CellType

     The type for cell objects: such objects are used as containers for
     a function's *note closure variables: 1efb.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: types.MethodType

     The type of methods of user-defined class instances.

 -- Données: types.BuiltinFunctionType
 -- Données: types.BuiltinMethodType

     The type of built-in functions like *note len(): 61b. or *note
     sys.exit(): 1329, and methods of built-in classes.  (Here, the term
     "built-in" means "written in C".)

 -- Données: types.WrapperDescriptorType

     The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes
     such as *note object.__init__(): 69d. or *note object.__lt__():
     127f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: types.MethodWrapperType

     The type of 'bound' methods of some built-in data types and base
     classes.  For example it is the type of ‘object().__str__’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: types.NotImplementedType

     The type of *note NotImplemented: 7be.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: types.MethodDescriptorType

     The type of methods of some built-in data types such as *note
     str.join(): 2168.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

     The type of 'unbound' class methods of some built-in data types
     such as ‘dict.__dict__['fromkeys']’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Classe: types.ModuleType (name, doc=None)

     The type of *note modules: 161a.  The constructor takes the name of
     the module to be created and optionally its *note docstring: 20e4.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note Documentation on module objects: 1ecd.

          Provides details on the special attributes that can be found
          on instances of ‘ModuleType’.

     *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e01.

          Modules created using the ‘ModuleType’ constructor are created
          with many of their special attributes unset or set to default
          values.  ‘module_from_spec()’ provides a more robust way of
          creating ‘ModuleType’ instances which ensures the various
          attributes are set appropriately.

 -- Données: types.EllipsisType

     The type of *note Ellipsis: 2142.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: types.GenericAlias (t_origin, t_args)

     The type of *note parameterized generics: 69f. such as ‘list[int]’.

     ‘t_origin’ should be a non-parameterized generic class, such as
     ‘list’, ‘tuple’ or ‘dict’.  ‘t_args’ should be a *note tuple: 366.
     (possibly of length 1) of types which parameterize ‘t_origin’:

          >>> from types import GenericAlias

          >>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
          True
          >>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9.2: This type can now be subclassed.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note Types alias génériques: 69f.

          In-depth documentation on instances of ‘types.GenericAlias’

     PEP 585(1) – Types génériques d'indication de type dans les conteneurs standard (page en anglais)

          Introducing the ‘types.GenericAlias’ class

 -- Classe: types.UnionType

     The type of *note union type expressions: 7ae.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: types.TracebackType (tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

     The type of traceback objects such as found in
     ‘sys.exception().__traceback__’.

     See *note the language reference: ae4. for details of the available
     attributes and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks
     dynamically.

 -- Données: types.FrameType

     The type of *note frame objects: 6cc. such as found in *note
     tb.tb_frame: 1f0e. if ‘tb’ is a traceback object.

 -- Données: types.GetSetDescriptorType

     The type of objects defined in extension modules with
     ‘PyGetSetDef’, such as *note FrameType.f_locals: 180. or
     ‘array.array.typecode’.  This type is used as descriptor for object
     attributes; it has the same purpose as the *note property: 192.
     type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

 -- Données: types.MemberDescriptorType

     The type of objects defined in extension modules with
     ‘PyMemberDef’, such as ‘datetime.timedelta.days’.  This type is
     used as descriptor for simple C data members which use standard
     conversion functions; it has the same purpose as the *note
     property: 192. type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

     In addition, when a class is defined with a *note __slots__: 14a2.
     attribute, then for each slot, an instance of
     ‘MemberDescriptorType’ will be added as an attribute on the class.
     This allows the slot to appear in the class's *note __dict__: c4d.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' In other
     implementations of Python, this type may be identical to
     ‘GetSetDescriptorType’.

 -- Classe: types.MappingProxyType (mapping)

     Read-only proxy of a mapping.  It provides a dynamic view on the
     mapping's entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the
     view reflects these changes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Updated to support the new union (‘|’)
     operator from PEP 584(2), which simply delegates to the underlying
     mapping.

      -- Describe: key in proxy

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying mapping has a key 'key', else
          ‘False’.

      -- Describe: proxy[key]

          Return the item of the underlying mapping with key 'key'.
          Raises a *note KeyError: 33a. if 'key' is not in the
          underlying mapping.

      -- Describe: iter(proxy)

          Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.
          This is a shortcut for ‘iter(proxy.keys())’.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.

      -- Méthode: get (key[, default])

          Return the value for 'key' if 'key' is in the underlying
          mapping, else 'default'.  If 'default' is not given, it
          defaults to ‘None’, so that this method never raises a *note
          KeyError: 33a.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping's items (‘(key,
          value)’ pairs).

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping's keys.

      -- Méthode: values ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping's values.

      -- Describe: reversed(proxy)

          Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the underlying
          mapping.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

      -- Describe: hash(proxy)

          Return a hash of the underlying mapping.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: types.CapsuleType

     The type of *note capsule objects: 2538.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Next: Coroutine Utility Functions,  Prev: Standard Interpreter Types,  Up: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.3 Additional Utility Classes and Functions
.................................................

 -- Classe: types.SimpleNamespace

     A simple *note object: a7c. subclass that provides attribute access
     to its namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.

     Unlike *note object: a7c, with ‘SimpleNamespace’ you can add and
     remove attributes.

     *note SimpleNamespace: 1cc. objects may be initialized in the same
     way as *note dict: 253.: either with keyword arguments, with a
     single positional argument, or with both.  When initialized with
     keyword arguments, those are directly added to the underlying
     namespace.  Alternatively, when initialized with a positional
     argument, the underlying namespace will be updated with key-value
     pairs from that argument (either a mapping object or an *note
     iterable: 1207. object producing key-value pairs).  All such keys
     must be strings.

     The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:

          class SimpleNamespace:
              def __init__(self, mapping_or_iterable=(), /, **kwargs):
                  self.__dict__.update(mapping_or_iterable)
                  self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

              def __repr__(self):
                  items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
                  return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
                     return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
                  return NotImplemented

     ‘SimpleNamespace’ may be useful as a replacement for ‘class NS:
     pass’.  However, for a structured record type use *note
     namedtuple(): 1c5. instead.

     ‘SimpleNamespace’ objects are supported by *note copy.replace():
     150.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Attribute order in the repr changed
     from alphabetical to insertion (like ‘dict’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for an optional
     positional argument.

 -- Fonction: types.DynamicClassAttribute (fget=None, fset=None,
          fdel=None, doc=None)

     Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.

     This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act
     differently when accessed through an instance and through a class.
     Instance access remains normal, but access to an attribute through
     a class will be routed to the class's __getattr__ method; this is
     done by raising AttributeError.

     This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have
     virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see *note
     enum.Enum: 61d. for an example).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Utility Functions,  Prev: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Up: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.4 Coroutine Utility Functions
....................................

 -- Fonction: types.coroutine (gen_func)

     This function transforms a *note generator: 104c. function into a
     *note coroutine function: d66. which returns a generator-based
     coroutine.  The generator-based coroutine is still a *note
     generator iterator: bce, but is also considered to be a *note
     coroutine: 47d. object and is *note awaitable: 1ab.  However, it
     may not necessarily implement the *note __await__(): 1f80. method.

     If 'gen_func' is a generator function, it will be modified
     in-place.

     If 'gen_func' is not a generator function, it will be wrapped.  If
     it returns an instance of *note collections.abc.Generator: dca, the
     instance will be wrapped in an 'awaitable' proxy object.  All other
     types of objects will be returned as is.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations,  Next: pprint — L’affichage élégant de données,  Prev: types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types,  Up: Types de données

5.8.11 ‘copy’ -- Shallow and deep copy operations
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/copy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les instructions d'affectation en Python ne copient pas les objets,
elles créent des liens entre la cible et l'objet.  Concernant les
collections qui sont mutables ou contiennent des éléments mutables, une
copie est parfois nécessaire, pour pouvoir modifier une copie sans
modifier l'autre.  Ce module met à disposition des opérations de copie
génériques superficielle et récursive (comme expliqué ci-dessous).

Résumé de l'interface :

 -- Fonction: copy.copy (obj)

     Return a shallow copy of 'obj'.

 -- Fonction: copy.deepcopy (obj[, memo])

     Return a deep copy of 'obj'.

 -- Fonction: copy.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Exception: copy.Error

     Levée pour les erreurs spécifiques au module.
La différence entre copie superficielle et récursive n'est pertinente
que pour les objets composés (objets contenant d'autres objets, comme
des listes ou des instances de classe) :

   * Une 'copie superficielle' construit un nouvel objet composé puis
     (dans la mesure du possible) insère dans l'objet composé des
     'références' aux objets trouvés dans l'original.

   * Une 'copie récursive (ou profonde)' construit un nouvel objet
     composé puis, récursivement, insère dans l'objet composé des
     'copies' des objets trouvés dans l'objet original.

On rencontre souvent deux problèmes avec les opérations de copie
récursive qui n'existent pas avec les opérations de copie
superficielle :

   * Les objets récursifs (objets composés qui, directement ou
     indirectement, contiennent une référence à eux-mêmes) peuvent
     causer une boucle récursive.

   * Comme une copie récursive copie tout, elle peut en copier trop, par
     exemple des données qui sont destinées à être partagées entre
     différentes copies.

La fonction *note deepcopy(): b5e. évite ces problèmes en :

   * gardant en mémoire dans un dictionnaire ‘memo’ les objets déjà
     copiés durant la phase de copie actuelle ; et

   * laissant les classes créées par l'utilisateur écraser l'opération
     de copie ou l'ensemble de composants copiés.

This module does not copy types like module, method, stack trace, stack
frame, file, socket, window, or any similar types.  It does "copy"
functions and classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original
object unchanged; this is compatible with the way these are treated by
the *note pickle: a5. module.

Les copies superficielles de dictionnaires peuvent être faites en
utilisant *note dict.copy(): bc0, et de listes en affectant un ‘slice’
de la liste, par exemple, ‘copied_list = original_list[:]’.

Les classes peuvent utiliser les mêmes interfaces de contrôle que celles
utilisées pour la sérialisation.  Voir la description du module *note
pickle: a5. pour plus d'informations sur ces méthodes.  En effet, le
module *note copy: 25. utilise les fonctions de sérialisation
enregistrées à partir du module *note copyreg: 26.

In order for a class to define its own copy implementation, it can
define special methods *note __copy__(): 253e. and *note __deepcopy__():
253f.

 -- Méthode: object.__copy__ (self)

     Called to implement the shallow copy operation; no additional
     arguments are passed.

 -- Méthode: object.__deepcopy__ (self, memo)

     Called to implement the deep copy operation; it is passed one
     argument, the 'memo' dictionary.  If the ‘__deepcopy__’
     implementation needs to make a deep copy of a component, it should
     call the *note deepcopy(): b5e. function with the component as
     first argument and the 'memo' dictionary as second argument.  The
     'memo' dictionary should be treated as an opaque object.

Function ‘copy.replace()’ is more limited than *note copy(): 520. and
*note deepcopy(): b5e, and only supports named tuples created by *note
namedtuple(): 1c5, *note dataclasses: 2f, and other classes which define
method *note __replace__(): 151.

 -- Méthode: object.__replace__ (self, /, **changes)

     This method should create a new object of the same type, replacing
     fields with values from 'changes'.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note pickle: a5.

     Discussion sur les méthodes spéciales utilisées pour gérer la
     récupération et la restauration de l'état d'un objet.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/copy.py


File: python.info,  Node: pprint — L’affichage élégant de données,  Next: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation,  Prev: copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations,  Up: Types de données

5.8.12 ‘pprint’ — L’affichage élégant de données
------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pprint.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note pprint: ad. permet « d’afficher élégamment » des
structures de données Python arbitraires sous une forme qui peut être
utilisée ensuite comme une entrée dans l’interpréteur.  Si les
structures formatées incluent des objets qui ne sont pas des types
Python fondamentaux, leurs représentations peuvent ne pas être
acceptables en tant que telles par l’interpréteur.  Cela peut être le
cas si des objets tels que des fichiers, des interfaces de connexion
('sockets' en anglais) ou des classes sont inclus, c’est aussi valable
pour beaucoup d’autres types d’objets qui ne peuvent être représentés
sous forme littérale en Python.

L’affichage formaté affiche, tant que possible, les objets sur une seule
ligne et les sépare sur plusieurs lignes s’ils dépassent la largeur
autorisée par l’interpréteur.  Cette largeur est ajustable par le
paramètre 'width' qui est par défaut de 80 caractères.

Les dictionnaires sont classés par clés avant que l’affichage ne soit
calculé.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Prise en charge de l’affichage élégant de
*note types.SimpleNamespace: 1cc.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Prise en charge de l’affichage élégant de
*note dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6.

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<4>.
* Les Objets PrettyPrinter::
* Exemple: Exemple<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pprint.py


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<4>,  Next: Les Objets PrettyPrinter,  Up: pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

5.8.12.1 Fonctions
..................

 -- Fonction: pprint.pp (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=False,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Affiche la représentation formatée de 'object', suivie d’un retour
     à la ligne.  Cette fonction peut être utilisée dans l’interpréteur
     interactif au lieu de la fonction *note print(): f62. pour
     inspecter les valeurs.  Astuce : vous pouvez réassigner ‘print =
     pprint.pp’ pour l’utiliser dans une portée.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘object’ - L’objet à afficher.

        * ‘stream’ (*note file-like object: 2544. | None) - Un objet
          fichier-compatible sur lequel la sortie sera écrite en
          appelant sa méthode ‘write()’.  Si la valeur est ‘None’ (la
          valeur par défaut), *note sys.stdout: ac6. est utilisé.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 254.) - La quantité d’indentation ajoutée
          pour chaque niveau d’imbrication.

        * ‘width’ (*note int: 254.) - Le nombre maximal de caractères
          souhaités par ligne dans la sortie.  Si une structure ne peut
          pas être formatée dans la largeur limite donnée, un effort
          maximal sera fait.

        * ‘depth’ (*note int: 254.‘ | ’‘None’) - Le nombre de niveaux
          d’imbrication qui peuvent être affichés.  Si la structure de
          données à afficher est trop profonde, le niveau suivant est
          remplacé par ‘...’.  Si la valeur est ‘None’ (la valeur par
          défaut), il n’y a pas de contrainte sur la profondeur des
          objets formatés.

        * ‘compact’ (*note bool: 453.) - Contrôle la façon dont les
          longues *note sequences: 4de. sont formatées.  Si la valeur
          est ‘False’ (la valeur par défaut), chaque élément d’une
          séquence sera formaté sur une ligne séparée, sinon autant
          d’éléments que possible qui peuvent tenir dans la 'width' (la
          largeur) seront formatés sur chaque ligne de sortie.

        * ‘sort_dicts’ (*note bool: 453.) - Si la valeur est ‘True’, les
          dictionnaires seront formatés avec leurs clés triées, sinon
          ils seront affichés dans l'ordre d'insertion (la valeur par
          défaut).

        * ‘underscore_numbers’ (*note bool: 453.) - Si la valeur est
          ‘True’, les entiers seront formatés avec le caractère ‘_’
          comme séparateur de milliers, sinon les underscores ne sont
          pas affichés (le comportement par défaut).

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
          >>> pprint.pp(stuff)
          [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
           'spam',
           'eggs',
           'lumberjack',
           'knights',
           'ni']

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: pprint.pprint (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Alias pour *note pp(): a13. avec 'sort_dicts' initialisé à ‘True’
     par défaut (ce qui trie automatiquement les clés des
     dictionnaires), vous pourriez préférer utiliser *note pp(): a13. à
     la place où 'sort_dicts' est initialisé à ‘False’ par défaut.

 -- Fonction: pprint.pformat (object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *,
          compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

     Renvoie une représentation formatée de 'object' sous forme de
     chaîne de caractères.  'indent', 'width', 'depth', 'compact',
     'sort_dicts' et 'underscore_numbers' sont passés au constructeur de
     *note PrettyPrinter: f6c. comme paramètres de formatage et leurs
     significations sont telles que décrites dans la documentation
     ci-dessus.

 -- Fonction: pprint.isreadable (object)

     Détermine si la représentation formatée de 'object' est
     « lisible », ou s’il peut être utilisé pour recomposer sa valeur en
     utilisant la fonction *note eval(): 17e.  Cela renvoie toujours
     ‘False’ pour les objets récursifs.

          >>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
          False

 -- Fonction: pprint.isrecursive (object)

     Détermine si 'object' nécessite une représentation récursive.
     Cette fonction est soumise aux mêmes limitations que celles notées
     dans *note saferepr(): 2547. ci-dessous et peut lever une exception
     *note RecursionError: d5b. si elle échoue à détecter un objet
     récursif.

 -- Fonction: pprint.saferepr (object)

     Renvoie une représentation de 'object', protégée contre la
     récursivité dans certaines structures de données courantes, à
     savoir que les instances de *note dict: 253, *note list: 5fe. et
     *note tuple: 366. ou les sous-classes dont la méthode ‘__repr__’
     n’ont pas été surchargées.  Si la représentation de 'object'
     présente une entrée récursive, celle-ci sera représentée telle que
     ‘<Recursion on typename with id=number>’.  Par ailleurs, la
     représentation de l’objet n’est pas formatée.

          >>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
          "[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"


File: python.info,  Node: Les Objets PrettyPrinter,  Next: Exemple<3>,  Prev: Fonctions<4>,  Up: pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

5.8.12.2 Les Objets PrettyPrinter
.................................

 -- Classe: pprint.PrettyPrinter (indent=1, width=80, depth=None,
          stream=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Crée une instance de *note PrettyPrinter: f6c.

     Les arguments ont la même signification que pour *note pp(): a13.
     Notez qu’ils sont dans un ordre différent, et que 'sort_dicts' est
     initialisé à ‘True’ par défaut.

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [   ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
              'spam',
              'eggs',
              'lumberjack',
              'knights',
              'ni']
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
            'knights', 'ni'],
           'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
           'ni']
          >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
          ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
          >>> pp.pprint(tup)
          ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre 'compact'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre 'sort_dicts'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout du paramètre
     'underscore_numbers'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: N'essaie plus d’écrire sur
     ‘sys.stdout’ lorsqu'il vaut ‘None’.

Les instances de la classe *note PrettyPrinter: f6c. ont les méthodes
suivantes :

 -- Méthode: PrettyPrinter.pformat (object)

     Renvoie la représentation formatée de 'object'.  Cela prend en
     compte les options passées au constructeur de la classe *note
     PrettyPrinter: f6c.

 -- Méthode: PrettyPrinter.pprint (object)

     Affiche sur le flux configuré la représentation formatée de
     'object', suivie d’une fin de ligne.

Les méthodes suivantes fournissent les implémentations pour les
fonctions correspondantes de mêmes noms.  L’utilisation de ces méthodes
sur une instance est légèrement plus efficace, car les nouveaux objets
*note PrettyPrinter: f6c. n’ont pas besoin d’être créés.

 -- Méthode: PrettyPrinter.isreadable (object)

     Détermine si la représentation formatée de 'object' est
     « lisible », ou si elle peut être utilisée pour recomposer sa
     valeur en utilisant la fonction *note eval(): 17e.  Cela renvoie
     toujours ‘False’ pour les objets récursifs.  Si le paramètre
     'depth' de la classe *note PrettyPrinter: f6c. est initialisé et
     que l’objet est plus « profond » que permis, cela renvoie ‘False’.

 -- Méthode: PrettyPrinter.isrecursive (object)

     Détermine si l’objet nécessite une représentation récursive.

Cette méthode est fournie sous forme de point d’entrée ou méthode (à
déclenchement) automatique ('hook' en anglais) pour permettre aux
sous-classes de modifier la façon dont les objets sont convertis en
chaînes.  L’implémentation par défaut est celle de la fonction *note
saferepr(): 2547.

 -- Méthode: PrettyPrinter.format (object, context, maxlevels, level)

     Renvoie trois valeurs : la version formatée de 'object' sous forme
     de chaîne de caractères, une option indiquant si le résultat est
     « lisible », et une option indiquant si une récursion a été
     détectée.  Le premier argument est l’objet à représenter.  Le
     deuxième est un dictionnaire qui contient l'*note id(): 13db. des
     objets (conteneurs directs ou indirects de 'objet' qui affectent sa
     représentation) qui font partie du contexte de représentation
     courant tel que les clés; si un objet doit être représenté, mais
     l’a déjà été dans ce contexte, le troisième argument renvoie
     ‘True’.  Des appels récursifs à la méthode *note format(): 18db.
     doivent ajouter des entrés additionnelles aux conteneurs de ce
     dictionnaire.  Le troisième argument 'maxlevels', donne la limite
     maximale de récursivité; la valeur par défaut est ‘0’.  Cet
     argument doit être passé non modifié pour des appels non récursifs.
     Le quatrième argument, 'level', donne le niveau de récursivité
     courant; les appels récursifs doivent être passés à une valeur
     inférieure à celle de l’appel courant.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<3>,  Prev: Les Objets PrettyPrinter,  Up: pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

5.8.12.3 Exemple
................

Pour illustrer quelques cas pratiques de l’utilisation de la fonction
*note pp(): a13. et de ses paramètres, allons chercher des informations
sur un projet PyPI(1) :

     >>> import json
     >>> import pprint
     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/1.2.0/json') as resp:
     ...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']

Dans sa forme basique, la fonction *note pp(): a13. affiche
l’intégralité de l’objet :

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
                      'Intended Audience :: Developers',
                      'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
                      'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools'],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN',
                       'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

Le résultat peut être limité à une certaine profondeur en initialisant
'depth'.  ( ‘…’ est utilisé pour des contenus plus « profonds ») :

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

De plus, une valeur maximale de caractères sur une ligne peut être
définie en initialisant le paramètre 'width'.  Si un long objet ne peut
être scindé, la valeur donnée à 'width' sera outrepassée :

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the '
                     'project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be '
                     'written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project '
                     'webpage on PyPI, and should be written '
                     'for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would '
                     'include an overview of the project, '
                     'basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including '
                     'the project changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s '
                     'New" section for the most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation,  Next: enum --- Support for enumerations,  Prev: pprint — L’affichage élégant de données,  Up: Types de données

5.8.13 ‘reprlib’ -- Alternate ‘repr()’ implementation
-----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/reprlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘reprlib’ module provides a means for producing object
representations with limits on the size of the resulting strings.  This
is used in the Python debugger and may be useful in other contexts as
well.

This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:

 -- Classe: reprlib.Repr (*, maxlevel=6, maxtuple=6, maxlist=6,
          maxarray=5, maxdict=4, maxset=6, maxfrozenset=6, maxdeque=6,
          maxstring=30, maxlong=40, maxother=30, fillvalue='...',
          indent=None)

     Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing
     functions similar to the built-in *note repr(): 7e9.; size limits
     for different object types are added to avoid the generation of
     representations which are excessively long.

     The keyword arguments of the constructor can be used as a shortcut
     to set the attributes of the *note Repr: 2552. instance.  Which
     means that the following initialization:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr(maxlevel=3)

     est équivalent à :

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          aRepr.maxlevel = 3

     See section *note Repr Objects: 2553. for more information about
     *note Repr: 2552. attributes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Allow attributes to be set via
     keyword arguments.

 -- Données: reprlib.aRepr

     This is an instance of *note Repr: 2552. which is used to provide
     the *note repr(): 2555. function described below.  Changing the
     attributes of this object will affect the size limits used by *note
     repr(): 2555. and the Python debugger.

 -- Fonction: reprlib.repr (obj)

     This is the *note repr(): 2556. method of ‘aRepr’.  It returns a
     string similar to that returned by the built-in function of the
     same name, but with limits on most sizes.

In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator
for detecting recursive calls to *note __repr__(): 609. and substituting
a placeholder string instead.

 -- Fonction: @reprlib.recursive_repr (fillvalue='...')

     Decorator for *note __repr__(): 609. methods to detect recursive
     calls within the same thread.  If a recursive call is made, the
     'fillvalue' is returned, otherwise, the usual ‘__repr__()’ call is
     made.  For example:

          >>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
          >>> class MyList(list):
          ...     @recursive_repr()
          ...     def __repr__(self):
          ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
          ...
          >>> m = MyList('abc')
          >>> m.append(m)
          >>> m.append('x')
          >>> print(m)
          <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Repr Objects::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/reprlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Repr Objects,  Next: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation

5.8.13.1 Repr Objects
.....................

*note Repr: 2552. instances provide several attributes which can be used
to provide size limits for the representations of different object
types, and methods which format specific object types.

 -- Attribut: Repr.fillvalue

     This string is displayed for recursive references.  It defaults to
     ‘...’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Attribut: Repr.maxlevel

     Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations.  The
     default is ‘6’.

 -- Attribut: Repr.maxdict
 -- Attribut: Repr.maxlist
 -- Attribut: Repr.maxtuple
 -- Attribut: Repr.maxset
 -- Attribut: Repr.maxfrozenset
 -- Attribut: Repr.maxdeque
 -- Attribut: Repr.maxarray

     Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object
     type.  The default is ‘4’ for *note maxdict: 255a, ‘5’ for *note
     maxarray: 2560, and ‘6’ for the others.

 -- Attribut: Repr.maxlong

     Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer.
     Digits are dropped from the middle.  The default is ‘40’.

 -- Attribut: Repr.maxstring

     Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the
     string.  Note that the "normal" representation of the string is
     used as the character source: if escape sequences are needed in the
     representation, these may be mangled when the representation is
     shortened.  The default is ‘30’.

 -- Attribut: Repr.maxother

     This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no
     specific formatting method is available on the *note Repr: 2552.
     object.  It is applied in a similar manner as *note maxstring:
     2562.  The default is ‘20’.

 -- Attribut: Repr.indent

     If this attribute is set to ‘None’ (the default), the output is
     formatted with no line breaks or indentation, like the standard
     *note repr(): 7e9.  For example:

          >>> example = [
          ...     1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']
          >>> import reprlib
          >>> aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']

     If *note indent: 2564. is set to a string, each recursion level is
     placed on its own line, indented by that string:

          >>> aRepr.indent = '-->'
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
          -->1,
          -->'spam',
          -->{
          -->-->'a': 2,
          -->-->'b': 'spam eggs',
          -->-->'c': {
          -->-->-->3: 4.5,
          -->-->-->6: [],
          -->-->},
          -->},
          -->'ham',
          ]

     Setting *note indent: 2564. to a positive integer value behaves as
     if it was set to a string with that number of spaces:

          >>> aRepr.indent = 4
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
              1,
              'spam',
              {
                  'a': 2,
                  'b': 'spam eggs',
                  'c': {
                      3: 4.5,
                      6: [],
                  },
              },
              'ham',
          ]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Méthode: Repr.repr (obj)

     The equivalent to the built-in *note repr(): 7e9. that uses the
     formatting imposed by the instance.

 -- Méthode: Repr.repr1 (obj, level)

     Recursive implementation used by *note repr(): 2556.  This uses the
     type of 'obj' to determine which formatting method to call, passing
     it 'obj' and 'level'.  The type-specific methods should call *note
     repr1(): 2565. to perform recursive formatting, with ‘level - 1’
     for the value of 'level' in the recursive call.

 -- Méthode: Repr.repr_TYPE (obj, level)

     Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods
     with a name based on the type name.  In the method name, 'TYPE' is
     replaced by ‘'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())’.  Dispatch to
     these methods is handled by *note repr1(): 2565.  Type-specific
     methods which need to recursively format a value should call
     ‘self.repr1(subobj, level - 1)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Prev: Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation

5.8.13.2 Subclassing Repr Objects
.................................

The use of dynamic dispatching by *note Repr.repr1(): 2565. allows
subclasses of *note Repr: 2552. to add support for additional built-in
object types or to modify the handling of types already supported.  This
example shows how special support for file objects could be added:

     import reprlib
     import sys

     class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):

         def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
             if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
                 return obj.name
             return repr(obj)

     aRepr = MyRepr()
     print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # prints '<stdin>'

     <stdin>


File: python.info,  Node: enum --- Support for enumerations,  Next: graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures,  Prev: reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation,  Up: Types de données

5.8.14 ‘enum’ -- Support for enumerations
-----------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

'Code source :' Lib/enum.py(1)

Important
.........

Cette page contient les informations de référence de l'API. Pour des
informations sur le didacticiel et une discussion sur des sujets plus
avancés, reportez-vous à

   * *note Tutoriel de base: 256a.

   * *note Tutoriel avancé: 256b.

   * *note Recettes pour les énumérations: 256c.

__________________________________________________________________

Une énumération :

   * est un ensemble de noms symboliques (appelés membres) liés à des
     valeurs uniques,

   * can be iterated over to return its canonical (i.e.  non-alias)
     members in definition order

   * utilise la syntaxe 'd'appel' pour renvoyer les valeurs de ses
     membres,

   * utilise la syntaxe 'd'indiçage' pour renvoyer les noms de ses
     membres.

Les énumérations sont créées soit en utilisant la syntaxe *note class:
12b7, soit en utilisant la syntaxe d'appel de fonction :

     >>> from enum import Enum

     >>> # class syntax
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

     >>> # functional syntax
     >>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])

Même si on peut utiliser la syntaxe *note class: 12b7. pour créer des
énumérations, les 'Enums' ne sont pas des vraies classes Python.  Lisez
*note En quoi les énumérations sont-elles différentes ?: 256d. pour plus
de détails.

     Note: Nomenclature

        - The class ‘Color’ is an 'enumeration' (or 'enum')

        - The attributes ‘Color.RED’, ‘Color.GREEN’, etc., are
          'enumeration members' (or 'members') and are functionally
          constants.

        - The enum members have 'names' and 'values' (the name of
          ‘Color.RED’ is ‘RED’, the value of ‘Color.BLUE’ is ‘3’, etc.)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<2>.
* Types de données: Types de données<2>.
* Utilitaires et décorateurs::
* Notes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/enum.py


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu du module<2>,  Next: Types de données<2>,  Up: enum --- Support for enumerations

5.8.14.1 Contenu du module
..........................

     *note EnumType: 1e2.

          Le ‘type’ d''Enum' et de ses sous-classes.

     *note Enum: 61d.

          Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes.

     *note IntEnum: ccf.

          Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes qui sont
          également des sous-classes de *note int: 254. (*note notes:
          256f.).

     *note StrEnum: 607.

          Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes qui sont
          également des sous-classes de *note str: 437. (*note notes:
          256f.).

     *note Flag: 610.

          Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes pouvant
          être combinées avec des opérateurs de comparaison bit-à-bit,
          sans perdre leur qualité de *note Flag: 610.

     *note IntFlag: 22b5.

          Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes pouvant
          être combinées avec des opérateurs de comparaison bit-à-bit,
          sans perdre leur qualité de *note IntFlag: 22b5.  Les membres
          de *note IntFlag: 22b5. sont aussi des sous-classes de *note
          int: 254. (*note notes: 256f.).

     *note ReprEnum: 608.

          Used by *note IntEnum: ccf, *note StrEnum: 607, and *note
          IntFlag: 22b5. to keep the *note str(): 437. of the mixed-in
          type.

     *note EnumCheck: 613.

          Énumération avec les valeurs ‘CONTINUOUS’, ‘NAMED_FLAGS’ et
          ‘UNIQUE’, à utiliser avec *note verify(): 612. pour s'assurer
          que diverses contraintes sont satisfaites par une énumération
          donnée.

     *note FlagBoundary: 611.

          Énumération avec les valeurs ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’ et
          ‘KEEP’ qui permet un contrôle plus précis sur la façon dont
          les valeurs invalides sont traitées dans une énumération.

     *note EnumDict: 1e1.

          A subclass of *note dict: 253. for use when subclassing *note
          EnumType: 1e2.

     *note auto: c8c.

          Les instances sont remplacées par une valeur appropriée pour
          les membres de l'énumération.  *note StrEnum: 607. utilise par
          défaut la version minuscule du nom du membre, tandis que les
          autres énumérations utilisent 1 par défaut et puis augmentent.

     *note property(): 616.

          Allows *note Enum: 61d. members to have attributes without
          conflicting with member names.  The ‘value’ and ‘name’
          attributes are implemented this way.

     *note unique(): 2570.

          Décorateur de classe qui garantit qu'une valeur ne puisse être
          associée qu'à un seul nom.

     *note verify(): 612.

          Décorateur de classe qui vérifie des contraintes
          personnalisées pour une énumération.

     *note member(): 614.

          Fait de ‘obj’ un membre.  Peut être utilisé comme décorateur.

     *note nonmember(): 615.

          Fait que ‘obj’ n'est pas un membre.  Peut être utilisé comme
          décorateur.

     *note global_enum(): 618.

          Modify the *note str(): 437. and *note repr(): 7e9. of an enum
          to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its
          class, and export the enum members to the global namespace.

     *note show_flag_values(): 2571.

          Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a
          flag.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: ‘Flag’, ‘IntFlag’, ‘auto’

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: ‘StrEnum’, ‘EnumCheck’, ‘ReprEnum’,
‘FlagBoundary’, ‘property’, ‘member’, ‘nonmember’, ‘global_enum’,
‘show_flag_values’

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: ‘EnumDict’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données<2>,  Next: Utilitaires et décorateurs,  Prev: Contenu du module<2>,  Up: enum --- Support for enumerations

5.8.14.2 Types de données
.........................

 -- Classe: enum.EnumType

     'EnumType' est la *note métaclasse: 1f3f. pour les énumérations.
     Il est possible de sous-classer 'EnumType' ­— voir *note
     Sous-classer EnumType: 2573. pour plus de détails.

     ‘EnumType’ is responsible for setting the correct ‘__repr__()’,
     ‘__str__()’, ‘__format__()’, and ‘__reduce__()’ methods on the
     final 'enum', as well as creating the enum members, properly
     handling duplicates, providing iteration over the enum class, etc.

      -- Méthode: __call__ (cls, value, names=None, *, module=None,
               qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)

          Cette méthode peut être appelée de deux manières différentes :

             * pour chercher un membre existant :


                    cls: Classe de l'énumération concernée.


                    value: Valeur à chercher.

             * to use the ‘cls’ enum to create a new enum (only if the
               existing enum does not have any members):


                    cls: Classe de l'énumération concernée.


                    value: Nom de la nouvelle énumération à créer.


                    names: Couples nom-valeur des membres de la nouvelle
                    énumération.


                    module: Nom du module dans lequel la classe 'Enum'
                    se trouve.


                    qualname: Position dans le module où la classe
                    'Enum' se trouve.


                    type: Type à mélanger pour la nouvelle énumération.


                    start: The first integer value for the Enum (used by
                    *note auto: c8c.).


                    boundary: How to handle out-of-range values from bit
                    operations (*note Flag: 610. only).

      -- Méthode: __contains__ (cls, member)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le membre appartient à ‘cls’ :

               >>> some_var = Color.RED
               >>> some_var in Color
               True
               >>> Color.RED.value in Color
               True

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Before Python 3.12, a ‘TypeError’ is
     raised if a non-Enum-member is used in a containment check.

      -- Méthode: __dir__ (cls)

          Renvoie ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__members__',
          '__module__']’ et les noms des membres de 'cls' :

               >>> dir(Color)
               ['BLUE', 'GREEN', 'RED', '__class__', '__contains__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__members__', '__module__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

      -- Méthode: __getitem__ (cls, name)

          Returns the Enum member in 'cls' matching 'name', or raises a
          *note KeyError: 33a.:

               >>> Color['BLUE']
               <Color.BLUE: 3>

      -- Méthode: __iter__ (cls)

          Renvoie chaque membre de 'cls' dans l'ordre de définition :

               >>> list(Color)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 3>]

      -- Méthode: __len__ (cls)

          Renvoie le nombre de membres de 'cls' :

               >>> len(Color)
               3

      -- Attribut: __members__

          Returns a mapping of every enum name to its member, including
          aliases

      -- Méthode: __reversed__ (cls)

          Renvoie chaque membre de 'cls' dans l'ordre inverse de
          définition :

               >>> list(reversed(Color))
               [<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]

      -- Méthode: _add_alias_ ()

          Adds a new name as an alias to an existing member.  Raises a
          *note NameError: 42a. if the name is already assigned to a
          different member.

      -- Méthode: _add_value_alias_ ()

          Adds a new value as an alias to an existing member.  Raises a
          *note ValueError: 1ff. if the value is already linked with a
          different member.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Before 3.11 ‘EnumType’ was called
     ‘EnumMeta’, which is still available as an alias.

 -- Classe: enum.Enum

     'Enum' est la classe mère de toutes les énumérations.

      -- Attribut: name

          Le nom utilisé pour définir le membre de l'‘Enum’ :

               >>> Color.BLUE.name
               'BLUE'

      -- Attribut: value

          La valeur attribuée au membre de l'‘Enum’ :

               >>> Color.RED.value
               1

          Value of the member, can be set in *note __new__(): 2580.

               Note: Valeurs des membres d'une 'Enum'

               Member values can be anything: *note int: 254, *note str:
               437, etc.  If the exact value is unimportant you may use
               *note auto: c8c. instances and an appropriate value will
               be chosen for you.  See *note auto: c8c. for the details.

               While mutable/unhashable values, such as *note dict: 253,
               *note list: 5fe. or a mutable *note dataclass: 1c6, can
               be used, they will have a quadratic performance impact
               during creation relative to the total number of
               mutable/unhashable values in the enum.

      -- Attribut: _name_

          Name of the member.

      -- Attribut: _value_

          Value of the member, can be set in *note __new__(): 2580.

      -- Attribut: _order_

          No longer used, kept for backward compatibility.  (class
          attribute, removed during class creation).

      -- Attribut: _ignore_

          ‘_ignore_’ n'est utilisé que lors de la création et est
          supprimé de l'énumération une fois la création terminée.

          ‘_ignore_’ est une liste de noms qui ne deviendront pas
          membres et qui seront également supprimés de l'énumération
          terminée.  Voir *note Intervalle de temps: 2585. pour un
          exemple.

      -- Méthode: __dir__ (self)

          Renvoie ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name',
          'value']’ et toutes les méthodes publiques définies pour
          'self.__class__' :

               >>> from datetime import date
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1
               ...     TUESDAY = 2
               ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
               ...     THURSDAY = 4
               ...     FRIDAY = 5
               ...     SATURDAY = 6
               ...     SUNDAY = 7
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def today(cls):
               ...         print('today is %s' % cls(date.today().isoweekday()).name)
               ...
               >>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
               ['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']

      -- Méthode: _generate_next_value_ (name, start, count,
               last_values)


               name: Nom du membre en cours de définition (par ex.
               ‘RED’).


               start: Valeur de départ pour l'énumération ; 1 par
               défaut.


               count: Nombre de membres actuellement définis, le membre
               actuel n'étant pas inclus.


               last_values: Liste des valeurs précédentes.

          Méthode statique utilisée pour déterminer la prochaine valeur
          à renvoyer par *note auto: c8c. :

               >>> from enum import auto
               >>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
               ...     @staticmethod
               ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
               ...         return 3 ** (count + 1)
               ...     FIRST = auto()
               ...     SECOND = auto()
               ...
               >>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
               9

      -- Méthode: __init__ (self, *args, **kwds)

          By default, does nothing.  If multiple values are given in the
          member assignment, those values become separate arguments to
          ‘__init__’; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1, 'Mon'

          ‘Weekday.__init__()’ would be called as
          ‘Weekday.__init__(self, 1, 'Mon')’

      -- Méthode: __init_subclass__ (cls, **kwds)

          Méthode de classe utilisée pour personnaliser davantage les
          sous-classes à venir.  Ne fait rien par défaut.

      -- Méthode: _missing_ (cls, value)

          Méthode de classe pour chercher des valeurs non trouvées dans
          'cls'.  Ne fait rien par défaut mais peut être surchargée pour
          implémenter un comportement personnalisé de recherche :

               >>> from enum import StrEnum
               >>> class Build(StrEnum):
               ...     DEBUG = auto()
               ...     OPTIMIZED = auto()
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def _missing_(cls, value):
               ...         value = value.lower()
               ...         for member in cls:
               ...             if member.value == value:
               ...                 return member
               ...         return None
               ...
               >>> Build.DEBUG.value
               'debug'
               >>> Build('deBUG')
               <Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>

      -- Méthode: __new__ (cls, *args, **kwds)

          By default, doesn't exist.  If specified, either in the enum
          class definition or in a mixin class (such as ‘int’), all
          values given in the member assignment will be passed; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
               ...     TWENTYSIX = '1a', 16

          results in the call ‘int('1a', 16)’ and a value of ‘26’ for
          the member.

               Note: When writing a custom ‘__new__’, do not use
               ‘super().__new__’ - call the appropriate ‘__new__’
               instead.

      -- Méthode: __repr__ (self)

          Renvoie la chaîne utilisée pour les appels à 'repr()'.  Par
          défaut, renvoie le nom de l'énumération, le nom du membre et
          sa valeur, mais peut être surchargée :

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __repr__(self):
               ...         cls_name = self.__class__.__name__
               ...         return f'{cls_name}.{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE')

      -- Méthode: __str__ (self)

          Renvoie la chaîne utilisée pour les appels à 'str()'.  Par
          défaut, renvoie le nom 'Enum' et le nom du membre, mais peut
          être remplacé :

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __str__(self):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

      -- Méthode: __format__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'format()' and 'f-string' calls.
          By default, returns *note __str__(): 60f. return value, but
          can be overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __format__(self, spec):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

          Note: L'utilisation de *note auto: c8c. avec *note Enum: 61d.
          donne des nombres entiers de valeur croissante, en commençant
          par ‘1’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added *note Dataclass support: 1740.

 -- Classe: enum.IntEnum

     'IntEnum' is the same as *note Enum: 61d, but its members are also
     integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.  If
     any integer operation is performed with an 'IntEnum' member, the
     resulting value loses its enumeration status.

          >>> from enum import IntEnum
          >>> class Number(IntEnum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...
          >>> Number.THREE
          <Number.THREE: 3>
          >>> Number.ONE + Number.TWO
          3
          >>> Number.THREE + 5
          8
          >>> Number.THREE == 3
          True

          Note: L'utilisation de *note auto: c8c. avec *note IntEnum:
          ccf. donne des entiers de valeur croissante, en commençant par
          ‘1’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note __str__(): 60a. is now
     ‘int.__str__()’ to better support the 'replacement of existing
     constants' use-case.  *note __format__(): 60b. was already
     ‘int.__format__()’ for that same reason.

 -- Classe: enum.StrEnum

     ‘StrEnum’ is the same as *note Enum: 61d, but its members are also
     strings and can be used in most of the same places that a string
     can be used.  The result of any string operation performed on or
     with a 'StrEnum' member is not part of the enumeration.

          Note: There are places in the stdlib that check for an exact
          *note str: 437. instead of a *note str: 437. subclass (i.e.
          ‘type(unknown) == str’ instead of ‘isinstance(unknown, str)’),
          and in those locations you will need to use
          ‘str(StrEnum.member)’.

          Note: L'utilisation de *note auto: c8c. avec *note StrEnum:
          607. donne le nom du membre en minuscule comme valeur.

          Note: *note __str__(): 60a. is ‘str.__str__()’ to better
          support the 'replacement of existing constants' use-case.
          *note __format__(): 60b. is likewise ‘str.__format__()’ for
          that same reason.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: enum.Flag

     ‘Flag’ is the same as *note Enum: 61d, but its members support the
     bitwise operators ‘&’ ('AND'), ‘|’ ('OR'), ‘^’ ('XOR'), and ‘~’
     ('INVERT'); the results of those operations are (aliases of)
     members of the enumeration.

      -- Méthode: __contains__ (self, value)

          Renvoie 'True' si la valeur est dans 'self' :

               >>> from enum import Flag, auto
               >>> class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
               >>> white = Color.RED | Color.GREEN | Color.BLUE
               >>> Color.GREEN in purple
               False
               >>> Color.GREEN in white
               True
               >>> purple in white
               True
               >>> white in purple
               False

      -- Méthode: __iter__(self):

          Returns all contained non-alias members:

               >>> list(Color.RED)
               [<Color.RED: 1>]
               >>> list(purple)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: __len__(self):

          Renvoie le nombre de membres de 'Flag' :

               >>> len(Color.GREEN)
               1
               >>> len(white)
               3

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: __bool__(self):

          Renvoie 'True' s'il y a un membre dans les bits de 'Flag',
          'False' sinon :

               >>> bool(Color.GREEN)
               True
               >>> bool(white)
               True
               >>> black = Color(0)
               >>> bool(black)
               False

      -- Méthode: __or__ (self, other)

          Renvoie le 'OU' logique entre le membre et 'other' :

               >>> Color.RED | Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

      -- Méthode: __and__ (self, other)

          Renvoie le 'ET' logique entre le membre et 'other' :

               >>> purple & white
               <Color.RED|BLUE: 5>
               >>> purple & Color.GREEN
               <Color: 0>

      -- Méthode: __xor__ (self, other)

          Renvoie le 'OU Exclusif' logique entre le membre et 'other' :

               >>> purple ^ white
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

      -- Méthode: __invert__(self):

          Returns all the flags in 'type(self)' that are not in 'self':

               >>> ~white
               <Color: 0>
               >>> ~purple
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> ~Color.RED
               <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

      -- Méthode: _numeric_repr_ ()

          Fonction utilisée pour formater toutes les valeurs numériques
          sans nom restantes.  La valeur par défaut est la
          représentation de la valeur ; les choix courants sont *note
          hex(): 12af. et *note oct(): 12ae.

          Note: L'utilisation de *note auto: c8c. avec *note Flag: 610.
          donne des entiers qui sont des puissances de deux, en
          commençant par ‘1’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: La 'repr()' des membres de valeur
     zéro a changé.  C'est maintenant :

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

 -- Classe: enum.IntFlag

     ‘IntFlag’ is the same as *note Flag: 610, but its members are also
     integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.

          >>> from enum import IntFlag, auto
          >>> class Color(IntFlag):
          ...     RED = auto()
          ...     GREEN = auto()
          ...     BLUE = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED & 2
          <Color: 0>
          >>> Color.RED | 2
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

     Si une opération sur un entier est effectuée avec un membre d'un
     'IntFlag', le résultat n'est pas un 'IntFlag' :

          >>> Color.RED + 2
          3

     If a *note Flag: 610. operation is performed with an 'IntFlag'
     member and:

        * le résultat est un 'IntFlag' valide : un 'IntFlag' est
          renvoyé ;

        * the result is not a valid 'IntFlag': the result depends on the
          *note FlagBoundary: 611. setting

     The *note repr(): 7e9. of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed.
     It is now:

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

          Note: L'utilisation de *note auto: c8c. avec *note IntFlag:
          22b5. donne des entiers qui sont des puissances de deux, en
          commençant par ‘1’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note __str__(): 60a. is now
     ‘int.__str__()’ to better support the 'replacement of existing
     constants' use-case.  *note __format__(): 60b. was already
     ‘int.__format__()’ for that same reason.

     Inversion of an ‘IntFlag’ now returns a positive value that is the
     union of all flags not in the given flag, rather than a negative
     value.  This matches the existing *note Flag: 610. behavior.

 -- Classe: enum.ReprEnum

     ‘ReprEnum’ uses the *note repr(): 1741. of *note Enum: 61d, but the
     *note str(): 437. of the mixed-in data type:

        * ‘int.__str__()’ for *note IntEnum: ccf. and *note IntFlag:
          22b5.

        * ‘str.__str__()’ for *note StrEnum: 607.

     Inherit from ‘ReprEnum’ to keep the *note str(): 437. / *note
     format(): 60c. of the mixed-in data type instead of using the *note
     Enum: 61d.-default *note str(): 60f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: enum.EnumCheck

     'EnumCheck' contient les options utilisées par le décorateur *note
     verify(): 612. pour assurer diverses contraintes ; si une
     contrainte n'est pas validée, une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

      -- Attribut: UNIQUE

          Assure que chaque valeur n'a qu'un seul nom :

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, UNIQUE
               >>> @verify(UNIQUE)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 3
               ...     CRIMSON = 1
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: aliases found in <enum 'Color'>: CRIMSON -> RED

      -- Attribut: CONTINUOUS

          Assure qu'il n'y a pas de valeurs manquantes entre le membre
          ayant la valeur la plus faible et le membre ayant la valeur la
          plus élevée :

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, CONTINUOUS
               >>> @verify(CONTINUOUS)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 5
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid enum 'Color': missing values 3, 4

      -- Attribut: NAMED_FLAGS

          Ensure that any flag groups/masks contain only named flags -
          useful when values are specified instead of being generated by
          *note auto(): c8c.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, verify, NAMED_FLAGS
               >>> @verify(NAMED_FLAGS)
               ... class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 4
               ...     WHITE = 15
               ...     NEON = 31
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid Flag 'Color': aliases WHITE and NEON are missing combined values of 0x18 [use enum.show_flag_values(value) for details]

          Note: CONTINUOUS et NAMED_FLAGS sont conçus pour fonctionner
          avec des membres à valeur entière.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: enum.FlagBoundary

     ‘FlagBoundary’ controls how out-of-range values are handled in
     *note Flag: 610. and its subclasses.

      -- Attribut: STRICT

          Out-of-range values cause a *note ValueError: 1ff. to be
          raised.  This is the default for *note Flag: 610.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, STRICT, auto
               >>> class StrictFlag(Flag, boundary=STRICT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> StrictFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: <flag 'StrictFlag'> invalid value 20
                   given 0b0 10100
                 allowed 0b0 00111

      -- Attribut: CONFORM

          Out-of-range values have invalid values removed, leaving a
          valid *note Flag: 610. value:

               >>> from enum import Flag, CONFORM, auto
               >>> class ConformFlag(Flag, boundary=CONFORM):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> ConformFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <ConformFlag.BLUE: 4>

      -- Attribut: EJECT

          Out-of-range values lose their *note Flag: 610. membership and
          revert to *note int: 254.

               >>> from enum import Flag, EJECT, auto
               >>> class EjectFlag(Flag, boundary=EJECT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> EjectFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               20

      -- Attribut: KEEP

          Out-of-range values are kept, and the *note Flag: 610.
          membership is kept.  This is the default for *note IntFlag:
          22b5.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, KEEP, auto
               >>> class KeepFlag(Flag, boundary=KEEP):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: enum.EnumDict

     'EnumDict' is a subclass of *note dict: 253. that is used as the
     namespace for defining enum classes (see *note Préparation de
     l'espace de nommage de la classe: c4e.).  It is exposed to allow
     subclasses of *note EnumType: 1e2. with advanced behavior like
     having multiple values per member.  It should be called with the
     name of the enum class being created, otherwise private names and
     internal classes will not be handled correctly.

     Note that only the *note MutableMapping: 1092. interface (*note
     __setitem__(): 12ab. and *note update(): 141b.) is overridden.  It
     may be possible to bypass the checks using other ‘dict’ operations
     like *note |=: 1f6c.

      -- Attribut: member_names

          A list of member names.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles::
* Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles::


File: python.info,  Node: Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles,  Next: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles,  Up: Types de données<2>

5.8.14.3 Noms de la forme ‘__dunder__’ disponibles
..................................................

*note __members__: 257a. is a read-only ordered mapping of
‘member_name’:‘member’ items.  It is only available on the class.

*note __new__(): 2580, if specified, must create and return the enum
members; it is also a very good idea to set the member's ‘_value_’
appropriately.  Once all the members are created it is no longer used.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles,  Prev: Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles,  Up: Types de données<2>

5.8.14.4 Noms de la forme ‘_sunder_’ disponibles
................................................

   - *note _add_alias_(): 257c. - adds a new name as an alias to an
     existing member.

   - *note _add_value_alias_(): 257d. - adds a new value as an alias to
     an existing member.

   - *note _name_: 2581. - name of the member

   - *note _value_: 2582. - value of the member; can be set in ‘__new__’

   - *note _missing_(): 2589. - a lookup function used when a value is
     not found; may be overridden

   - *note _ignore_: 2584. - a list of names, either as a *note list:
     5fe. or a *note str: 437, that will not be transformed into
     members, and will be removed from the final class

   - *note _order_: 2583. - no longer used, kept for backward
     compatibility (class attribute, removed during class creation)

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 2586. - used to get an appropriate
     value for an enum member; may be overridden

          Note: For standard *note Enum: 61d. classes the next value
          chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one.

          For *note Flag: 610. classes the next value chosen will be the
          next highest power-of-two.

   - While ‘_sunder_’ names are generally reserved for the further
     development of the *note Enum: 61d. class and can not be used, some
     are explicitly allowed:

        - ‘_repr_*’ (e.g.  ‘_repr_html_’), as used in IPython's rich
          display(1)

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’,
‘_generate_next_value_’

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: ‘_add_alias_’, ‘_add_value_alias_’,
‘_repr_*’

__________________________________________________________________

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/config/integrating.html#rich-display


File: python.info,  Node: Utilitaires et décorateurs,  Next: Notes,  Prev: Types de données<2>,  Up: enum --- Support for enumerations

5.8.14.5 Utilitaires et décorateurs
...................................

 -- Classe: enum.auto

     'auto' can be used in place of a value.  If used, the 'Enum'
     machinery will call an *note Enum: 61d.'s *note
     _generate_next_value_(): 2586. to get an appropriate value.  For
     *note Enum: 61d. and *note IntEnum: ccf. that appropriate value
     will be the last value plus one; for *note Flag: 610. and *note
     IntFlag: 22b5. it will be the first power-of-two greater than the
     highest value; for *note StrEnum: 607. it will be the lower-cased
     version of the member's name.  Care must be taken if mixing
     'auto()' with manually specified values.

     'auto' instances are only resolved when at the top level of an
     assignment:

        * ‘FIRST = auto()’ will work (auto() is replaced with ‘1’);

        * ‘SECOND = auto(), -2’ will work (auto is replaced with ‘2’, so
          ‘2, -2’ is used to create the ‘SECOND’ enum member;

        * ‘THREE = [auto(), -3]’ will 'not' work (‘<auto instance>, -3’
          is used to create the ‘THREE’ enum member)

     Modifié dans la version 3.11.1: In prior versions, ‘auto()’ had to
     be the only thing on the assignment line to work properly.

     ‘_generate_next_value_’ peut être surchargée pour personnaliser les
     valeurs produites par 'auto'.

          Note: in 3.13 the default ‘_generate_next_value_’ will always
          return the highest member value incremented by 1, and will
          fail if any member is an incompatible type.

 -- Fonction: @enum.property

     Décorateur similaire au 'property' natif, mais spécifique aux
     énumérations.  Il permet aux attributs de membre d'avoir les mêmes
     noms que les membres eux-mêmes.

          Note: 'property' et le membre doivent être définis dans des
          classes distinctes ; par exemple, les attributs 'value' et
          'name' sont définis dans la classe 'Enum', et les sous-classes
          d''Enum' peuvent définir des membres avec les noms ‘value’ et
          ‘name’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @enum.unique

     A *note class: 12b7. decorator specifically for enumerations.  It
     searches an enumeration's *note __members__: 257a, gathering any
     aliases it finds; if any are found *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised
     with the details:

          >>> from enum import Enum, unique
          >>> @unique
          ... class Mistake(Enum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...     FOUR = 3
          ...
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

 -- Fonction: @enum.verify

     Décorateur de *note classe: 12b7. spécifique aux énumérations.
     Utilisé pour spécifier quelles contraintes doivent être vérifiées
     par les membres de l'*note EnumCheck: 613. décorée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @enum.member

     Décorateur à utiliser dans les énumérations : sa cible devient un
     membre.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @enum.nonmember

     Décorateur à utiliser dans les énumérations : sa cible ne devient
     pas un membre.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @enum.global_enum

     A decorator to change the *note str(): 437. and *note repr(): 7e9.
     of an enum to show its members as belonging to the module instead
     of its class.  Should only be used when the enum members are
     exported to the module global namespace (see *note re.RegexFlag:
     61a. for an example).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: enum.show_flag_values (value)

     Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag
     'value'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Notes,  Prev: Utilitaires et décorateurs,  Up: enum --- Support for enumerations

5.8.14.6 Notes
..............

*note IntEnum: ccf, *note StrEnum: 607. et *note IntFlag: 22b5.

     Ces trois types d'énumération sont conçus pour remplacer
     directement les valeurs existantes basées sur des entiers et des
     chaînes ; en tant que tels, ils ont des limitations
     supplémentaires :

        - ‘__str__’ utilise la valeur et pas le nom du membre de
          l'énumération

        - ‘__format__’, parce qu'elle fait appel à ‘__str__’, utilise
          également la valeur du membre de l'énumération au lieu de son
          nom

     Si ces limitations ne vous conviennent pas, vous pouvez créer votre
     propre classe mère en mélangeant vous-même le type ‘int’ ou ‘str’ :

          >>> from enum import Enum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
          ...     pass

     ou vous pouvez réassigner la *note str(): 437. appropriée, etc.,
     dans votre énumération :

          >>> from enum import Enum, IntEnum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(IntEnum):
          ...     __str__ = Enum.__str__


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures,  Prev: enum --- Support for enumerations,  Up: Types de données

5.8.15 ‘graphlib’ -- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/graphlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Classe: graphlib.TopologicalSorter (graph=None)

     Provides functionality to topologically sort a graph of *note
     hashable: 5fd. nodes.

     L'ordre topologique est un ordre linéaire des sommets d'un graphe
     afin que pour chaque arête u → v d'un sommet u à un sommet v, cet
     ordre va placer le sommet u avant le sommet v.  Par exemple, les
     sommets d'un graphe peuvent représenter une tâche à faire et une
     arête peut représenter la contrainte comme quoi telle tâche doit
     être réalisée avant telle autre.  Dans cet exemple, un ordre
     topologique est simplement une séquence valide pour ces tâches.
     Cet ordre n'est possible que si le graphe n'a pas de circuit,
     c'est-à-dire si c'est un graphe orienté acyclique.

     Si l'argument optionnel 'graph' est fourni, cela doit être un
     dictionnaire représentant un graphe acyclique avec comme clés les
     nœuds et comme valeurs des itérables sur les prédécesseurs de ces
     nœuds dans le graphe (les nœuds qui ont des arêtes qui pointent
     vers la valeur de la clé).  Les nœuds s'ajoutent en utilisant la
     méthode *note add(): 259d.

     De manière générale, les étapes nécessaires pour trier un graphe
     donné sont les suivantes :

        * créer une instance de la classe *note TopologicalSorter: 8d0.
          avec éventuellement un graphe initial ;

        * ajouter d'autres nœuds au graphe ;

        * appeler *note prepare(): 259e. sur le graphe ;

        * tant que *note is_active(): 259f. est à ‘True’, itérer sur les
          nœuds renvoyés par *note get_ready(): 25a0. pour les traiter.
          Appeler *note done(): 25a1. sur chaque nœud une fois le
          traitement terminé.

     Si vous souhaitez simplement trier des nœuds du graphe sans
     parallélisme, la méthode *note TopologicalSorter.static_order():
     25a2. peut être utilisée directement :

          >>> graph = {"D": {"B", "C"}, "C": {"A"}, "B": {"A"}}
          >>> ts = TopologicalSorter(graph)
          >>> tuple(ts.static_order())
          ('A', 'C', 'B', 'D')

     La classe est conçue pour prendre facilement en charge le
     traitement en parallèle des nœuds quand ils deviennent disponibles.
     Par exemple :

          topological_sorter = TopologicalSorter()

          # Add nodes to 'topological_sorter'...

          topological_sorter.prepare()
          while topological_sorter.is_active():
              for node in topological_sorter.get_ready():
                  # Worker threads or processes take nodes to work on off the
                  # 'task_queue' queue.
                  task_queue.put(node)

              # When the work for a node is done, workers put the node in
              # 'finalized_tasks_queue' so we can get more nodes to work on.
              # The definition of 'is_active()' guarantees that, at this point, at
              # least one node has been placed on 'task_queue' that hasn't yet
              # been passed to 'done()', so this blocking 'get()' must (eventually)
              # succeed.  After calling 'done()', we loop back to call 'get_ready()'
              # again, so put newly freed nodes on 'task_queue' as soon as
              # logically possible.
              node = finalized_tasks_queue.get()
              topological_sorter.done(node)

      -- Méthode: add (node, *predecessors)

          Add a new node and its predecessors to the graph.  Both the
          'node' and all elements in 'predecessors' must be *note
          hashable: 5fd.

          S'il est appelé plusieurs fois avec le même nœud en tant
          qu'argument, l'ensemble des dépendances sera l'union de toutes
          les dépendances qui auront été transmises.

          Il est possible d'ajouter un nœud sans dépendance
          ('predecessors' n'est pas fourni) ou de fournir une dépendance
          deux fois.  Si un nœud qui n'a jamais été fourni auparavant
          est inclus dans 'predecessors' il sera automatiquement ajouté
          au graphe sans prédécesseur lui-même.

          Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si appelée après *note
          prepare(): 259e.

      -- Méthode: prepare ()

          Indique que le graphe est terminé et vérifie les circuits du
          graphe.  Si un circuit est détecté, une *note CycleError:
          25a3. est levée mais *note get_ready(): 25a0. peut encore être
          utilisée pour obtenir autant de nœuds que possible avant que
          les circuits ne bloquent la progression.  Après un appel de
          cette fonction, le graphe ne peut pas être modifié, et donc
          aucun nœud ne peut être ajouté avec *note add(): 259d.

      -- Méthode: is_active ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si une progression peut être faite et ‘False’
          dans le cas contraire.  La progression est possible si des
          circuits ne bloquent pas la résolution ou qu'il reste des
          nœuds prêts qui n'ont pas encore été renvoyés par *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25a0. ou que le nombre de nœuds
          marqués *note TopologicalSorter.done(): 25a1. est inférieur au
          nombre qui a été renvoyé par *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25a0.

          The *note __bool__(): 12b5. method of this class defers to
          this function, so instead of:

               if ts.is_active():
                   ...

          il est plus simple de faire :

               if ts:
                   ...

          Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si l'appel à *note prepare():
          259e. n'a pas été fait au préalable.

      -- Méthode: done (*nodes)

          Marque un ensemble de nœuds renvoyé par *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25a0. comme traités, permettant
          aux successeurs de chaque nœud de 'nodes' d'être renvoyés lors
          d'un prochain appel à *note get_ready(): 25a0.

          Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si n'importe quel nœud dans
          'nodes' a déjà été marqué comme traité par un précédent appel
          à cette méthode ou si un nœud n'a pas été ajouté au graphe en
          utilisant *note TopologicalSorter.add(): 259d, si l'appel est
          fait sans appel à *note prepare(): 259e. ou si le nœud n'a pas
          encore été renvoyé par *note get_ready(): 25a0.

      -- Méthode: get_ready ()

          Renvoie un 'n'-uplet avec tous les nœuds prêts.  Renvoie
          d'abord tous les nœuds sans prédécesseurs, et une fois marqués
          comme traités avec un appel de *note TopologicalSorter.done():
          25a1, les autres appels renvoient tous les nouveaux nœuds dont
          tous les prédécesseurs sont traités.  Une fois que la
          progression n'est plus possible, des tuples vides sont
          renvoyés.

          Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si l'appel à *note prepare():
          259e. n'a pas été fait au préalable.

      -- Méthode: static_order ()

          Returns an iterator object which will iterate over nodes in a
          topological order.  When using this method, *note prepare():
          259e. and *note done(): 25a1. should not be called.  This
          method is equivalent to:

               def static_order(self):
                   self.prepare()
                   while self.is_active():
                       node_group = self.get_ready()
                       yield from node_group
                       self.done(*node_group)

          Le tri obtenu peut dépendre de l'ordre dans lequel les
          éléments ont été ajoutés dans le graphe.  Par exemple :

               >>> ts = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> ts.add(1, 0)
               >>> print([*ts.static_order()])
               [2, 0, 1, 3]

               >>> ts2 = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts2.add(1, 0)
               >>> ts2.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> print([*ts2.static_order()])
               [0, 2, 1, 3]

          Ceci est dû au fait que "0" et "2" sont au même niveau dans le
          graphe (ils auraient été renvoyés dans le même appel à *note
          get_ready(): 25a0.) et l'ordre entre eux est déterminé par
          l'ordre lors de l'insertion.

          Si un circuit est détecté alors une *note CycleError: 25a3.
          est levée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/graphlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<4>,  Up: graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

5.8.15.1 Exceptions
...................

Le module *note graphlib: 64. définit les classes d'exceptions
suivantes :

 -- Exception: graphlib.CycleError

     Une classe héritant de *note ValueError: 1ff. levée par *note
     TopologicalSorter.prepare(): 259e. si un circuit existe dans le
     graphe courant.  Si plusieurs circuits existent, un seul est inclus
     dans l'exception.

     The detected cycle can be accessed via the second element in the
     *note args: 55a. attribute of the exception instance and consists
     in a list of nodes, such that each node is, in the graph, an
     immediate predecessor of the next node in the list.  In the
     reported list, the first and the last node will be the same, to
     make it clear that it is cyclic.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules numériques et mathématiques,  Next: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle,  Prev: Types de données,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.9 Modules numériques et mathématiques
=======================================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent des fonctions et des
types autour des nombres et des mathématiques.  Le module *note numbers:
9d. définit une hiérarchie abstraite des types numériques.  Les modules
*note math: 8d. et *note cmath: 18. contiennent des fonctions
mathématiques pour les nombres à virgule flottante ou les nombres
complexes.  Le module *note decimal: 36. permet de représenter des
nombres décimaux de manière exacte, et utilise une arithmétique de
précision arbitraire.

Les modules suivants sont documentés dans ce chapitre :

* Menu:

* numbers: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes. Numeric abstract base classes
* math: math --- Mathematical functions. Mathematical functions
* cmath: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers. Mathematical functions for complex numbers
* decimal: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic. Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
* fractions: fractions --- Rational numbers. Rational numbers
* random: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers. Generate pseudo-random numbers
* statistics: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions. Mathematical statistics functions


File: python.info,  Node: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes,  Next: math --- Mathematical functions,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.1 ‘numbers’ -- Numeric abstract base classes
------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/numbers.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘numbers’ module ( PEP 3141(2)) defines a hierarchy of numeric *note
abstract base classes: 1195. which progressively define more operations.
None of the types defined in this module are intended to be
instantiated.

 -- Classe: numbers.Number

     La base de la hiérarchie numérique.  Si vous voulez juste vérifier
     qu'un argument 'x' est un nombre, peu importe le type, utilisez
     ‘isinstance(x, Number)’.

* Menu:

* La tour numérique::
* Notes for type implementers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/numbers.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/


File: python.info,  Node: La tour numérique,  Next: Notes for type implementers,  Up: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes

5.9.1.1 La tour numérique
.........................

 -- Classe: numbers.Complex

     Subclasses of this type describe complex numbers and include the
     operations that work on the built-in *note complex: 2ed. type.
     These are: conversions to *note complex: 2ed. and *note bool: 453,
     *note real: 25ad, *note imag: 25ae, ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘/’, ‘**’, *note
     abs(): 1c62, *note conjugate(): 25af, ‘==’, and ‘!=’.  All except
     ‘-’ and ‘!=’ are abstract.

      -- Attribut: real

          Abstrait.  Récupère la partie réelle de ce nombre.

      -- Attribut: imag

          Abstrait.  Retrouve la partie imaginaire de ce nombre.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod conjugate ()

          Abstrait.  Renvoie le complexe conjugué.  Par exemple,
          ‘(1+3j).conjugate() == (1-3j)’.

 -- Classe: numbers.Real

     To *note Complex: 25ac, ‘Real’ adds the operations that work on
     real numbers.

     En bref, celles-ci sont : une conversion vers *note float: 2ec,
     *note math.trunc(): 137c, *note round(): 12ba, *note math.floor():
     137a, *note math.ceil(): 137b, *note divmod(): 991, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘<’,
     ‘<=’, ‘>’ et ‘>=’.

     'Real' fournit également des valeurs par défaut pour *note
     complex(): 2ed, *note real: 25ad, *note imag: 25ae. et *note
     conjugate(): 25af.

 -- Classe: numbers.Rational

     Subtypes *note Real: 2153. and adds *note numerator: 25b0. and
     *note denominator: 25b1. properties.  It also provides a default
     for *note float(): 2ec.

     The *note numerator: 25b0. and *note denominator: 25b1. values
     should be instances of *note Integral: 1f75. and should be in
     lowest terms with *note denominator: 25b1. positive.

      -- Attribut: numerator

          Abstrait.

      -- Attribut: denominator

          Abstrait.

 -- Classe: numbers.Integral

     Subtypes *note Rational: 129e. and adds a conversion to *note int:
     254.  Provides defaults for *note float(): 2ec, *note numerator:
     25b0, and *note denominator: 25b1.  Adds abstract methods for *note
     pow(): 9c2. with modulus and bit-string operations: ‘<<’, ‘>>’,
     ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’, ‘~’.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes for type implementers,  Prev: La tour numérique,  Up: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes

5.9.1.2 Notes for type implementers
...................................

Implementers should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash them
to the same values.  This may be subtle if there are two different
extensions of the real numbers.  For example, *note fractions.Fraction:
1e4. implements *note hash(): 5d7. as follows:

     def __hash__(self):
         if self.denominator == 1:
             # Get integers right.
             return hash(self.numerator)
         # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
         if self == float(self):
             return hash(float(self))
         else:
             # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
             # simple fractions.
             return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))

* Menu:

* Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques::
* Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques::


File: python.info,  Node: Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques,  Next: Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques,  Up: Notes for type implementers

5.9.1.3 Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques
.....................................

Il est bien entendu possible de créer davantage d’ABC pour les nombres
et cette hiérarchie serait médiocre si elle excluait la possibilité d'en
ajouter.  Vous pouvez ajouter ‘MyFoo’ entre *note Complex: 25ac. et
*note Real: 2153. ainsi :

     class MyFoo(Complex): ...
     MyFoo.register(Real)


File: python.info,  Node: Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques,  Prev: Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques,  Up: Notes for type implementers

5.9.1.4 Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques
...................................................

We want to implement the arithmetic operations so that mixed-mode
operations either call an implementation whose author knew about the
types of both arguments, or convert both to the nearest built in type
and do the operation there.  For subtypes of *note Integral: 1f75, this
means that *note __add__(): 1f45. and *note __radd__(): 1f46. should be
defined as:

     class MyIntegral(Integral):

         def __add__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

         def __radd__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, Integral):
                 return int(other) + int(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Real):
                 return float(other) + float(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Complex):
                 return complex(other) + complex(self)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

Il existe 5 cas différents pour une opération de type mixte sur des
sous-classes de *note Complex: 25ac.  Nous nous référerons à tout le
code ci-dessus qui ne se réfère pas à ‘MyIntegral’ et
‘OtherTypeIKnowAbout’ comme "expression générique".  ‘a’ est une
instance de ‘A’, qui est un sous-type de *note Complex: 25ac. (‘a : A <:
Complex’) et ‘b : B <: Complex’.  Considérons ‘a + b’ :

  1. If ‘A’ defines an *note __add__(): 1f45. which accepts ‘b’, all is
     well.

  2. If ‘A’ falls back to the boilerplate code, and it were to return a
     value from *note __add__(): 1f45, we'd miss the possibility that
     ‘B’ defines a more intelligent *note __radd__(): 1f46, so the
     boilerplate should return *note NotImplemented: 7be. from
     ‘__add__()’.  (Or ‘A’ may not implement ‘__add__()’ at all.)

  3. Then ‘B’'s *note __radd__(): 1f46. gets a chance.  If it accepts
     ‘a’, all is well.

  4. Si elle fait appel au code générique, il n'y a plus de méthode
     possible à essayer, c'est donc ici que l'implémentation par défaut
     intervient.

  5. Si ‘B < : A’, Python essaie ‘B.__radd__’ avant ‘A.__add__’.  C'est
     valable parce qu'elle est implémentée avec la connaissance de ‘A’,
     donc elle peut gérer ces instances avant de déléguer à *note
     Complex: 25ac.

If ‘A <: Complex’ and ‘B <: Real’ without sharing any other knowledge,
then the appropriate shared operation is the one involving the built in
*note complex: 2ed, and both *note __radd__(): 1f46. s land there, so
‘a+b == b+a’.

Comme la plupart des opérations sur un type donné seront très
similaires, il peut être utile de définir une fonction accessoire qui
génère les instances résultantes et inverses d'un opérateur donné.  Par
exemple, *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. utilise :

     def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
         def forward(a, b):
             if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(b, float):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
             elif isinstance(b, complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         def reverse(b, a):
             if isinstance(a, Rational):
                 # Includes ints.
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(a, Real):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
             elif isinstance(a, Complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         return forward, reverse

     def _add(a, b):
         """a + b"""
         return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
                         b.numerator * a.denominator,
                         a.denominator * b.denominator)

     __add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)

     # ...


File: python.info,  Node: math --- Mathematical functions,  Next: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Prev: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.2 ‘math’ -- Mathematical functions
--------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit l'accès aux fonctions mathématiques définies par la
norme C.

Ces fonctions ne peuvent pas être utilisées avec les nombres complexes ;
si vous avez besoin de la prise en charge des nombres complexes,
utilisez les fonctions du même nom du module *note cmath: 18.  La
séparation entre les fonctions qui gèrent les nombres complexes et les
autres vient du constat que tous les utilisateurs ne souhaitent pas
acquérir le niveau mathématique nécessaire à la compréhension des
nombres complexes.  Recevoir une exception plutôt qu'un nombre complexe
en retour d'une fonction permet au programmeur de déterminer
immédiatement comment et pourquoi ce nombre a été généré, avant que
celui-ci ne soit passé involontairement en paramètre d'une autre
fonction.

Les fonctions suivantes sont fournies dans ce module.  Sauf mention
contraire explicite, toutes les valeurs de retour sont des flottants.

'Number-theoretic functions'

*note comb(n, k): 6bc.                                   Number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items without repetition and without order
                                                         
                                                         
*note factorial(n): 936.                                 'n' factorial
                                                         
                                                         
*note gcd(*integers): 8ff.                               Greatest common divisor of the integer arguments
                                                         
                                                         
*note isqrt(n): 9f5.                                     Integer square root of a nonnegative integer 'n'
                                                         
                                                         
*note lcm(*integers): 900.                               Least common multiple of the integer arguments
                                                         
                                                         
*note perm(n, k): 6bd.                                   Number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items without repetition and with order
                                                         
                                                         
'Floating point arithmetic'

*note ceil(x): 137b.                                     Ceiling of 'x', the smallest integer greater than or equal to 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note fabs(x): 25b7.                                     Absolute value of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note floor(x): 137a.                                    Floor of 'x', the largest integer less than or equal to 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note fma(x, y, z): 202.                                 Fused multiply-add operation: ‘(x * y) + z’
                                                         
                                                         
*note fmod(x, y): 2027.                                  Remainder of division ‘x / y’
                                                         
                                                         
*note modf(x): 25b8.                                     Fractional and integer parts of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note remainder(x, y): b43.                              Remainder of 'x' with respect to 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note trunc(x): 137c.                                    Integer part of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Floating point manipulation functions'

*note copysign(x, y): 138c.                              Magnitude (absolute value) of 'x' with the sign of 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note frexp(x): 25b9.                                    Mantissa and exponent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, rel_tol, abs_tol): d9f.              Check if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other
                                                         
                                                         
*note isfinite(x): 11ca.                                 Check if 'x' is neither an infinity nor a NaN
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(x): 138a.                                    Check if 'x' is a positive or negative infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(x): 138b.                                    Check if 'x' is a NaN (not a number)
                                                         
                                                         
*note ldexp(x, i): 25ba.                                 ‘x * (2**i)’, inverse of function *note frexp(): 25b9.
                                                         
                                                         
*note nextafter(x, y, steps): 484.                       Floating-point value 'steps' steps after 'x' towards 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note ulp(x): 901.                                       Value of the least significant bit of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Power, exponential and logarithmic functions'

*note cbrt(x): 64e.                                      Cube root of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note exp(x): 12f4.                                      'e' raised to the power 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note exp2(x): 64d.                                      '2' raised to the power 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note expm1(x): 11cb.                                    'e' raised to the power 'x', minus 1
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(x, base): 1476.                                Logarithm of 'x' to the given base ('e' by default)
                                                         
                                                         
*note log1p(x): 1391.                                    Natural logarithm of '1+x' (base 'e')
                                                         
                                                         
*note log2(x): 10bf.                                     Base-2 logarithm of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(x): 25bb.                                    Base-10 logarithm of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note pow(x, y): 64f.                                    'x' raised to the power 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(x): 9f6.                                      Square root of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Summation and product functions'

*note dist(p, q): 9f2.                                   Euclidean distance between two points 'p' and 'q' given as an iterable of coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note fsum(iterable): 138d.                              Sum of values in the input 'iterable'
                                                         
                                                         
*note hypot(*coordinates): 9f3.                          Euclidean norm of an iterable of coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note prod(iterable, start): 9f4.                        Product of elements in the input 'iterable' with a 'start' value
                                                         
                                                         
*note sumprod(p, q): 483.                                Sum of products from two iterables 'p' and 'q'
                                                         
                                                         
'Angular conversion'

*note degrees(x): 25bc.                                  Convert angle 'x' from radians to degrees
                                                         
                                                         
*note radians(x): 25bd.                                  Convert angle 'x' from degrees to radians
                                                         
                                                         
'Trigonometric functions'

*note acos(x): 25be.                                     Arc cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(x): 25bf.                                     Arc sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(x): 25c0.                                     Arc tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan2(y, x): 25c1.                                 ‘atan(y / x)’
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(x): 1475.                                      Cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(x): 1474.                                      Sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(x): 25c2.                                      Tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Hyperbolic functions'

*note acosh(x): 138e.                                    Inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(x): 138f.                                    Inverse hyperbolic sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(x): 1390.                                    Inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(x): 25c3.                                     Hyperbolic cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(x): 25c4.                                     Hyperbolic sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(x): 25c5.                                     Hyperbolic tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Special functions'

*note erf(x): bc8.                                       Error function(1) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note erfc(x): bc9.                                      Complementary error function(2) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note gamma(x): 11cc.                                    Gamma function(3) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note lgamma(x): 11cd.                                   Natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma function(4) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Constants'

*note pi: 25c6.                                          'π' = 3.141592...
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 25c7.                                           'e' = 2.718281...
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: 25c8.                                         'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185...
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: c74.                                          Positive infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: 650.                                          "Not a number" (NaN)
                                                         

* Menu:

* Number-theoretic functions::
* Floating point arithmetic::
* Floating point manipulation functions::
* Power, exponential and logarithmic functions: Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
* Summation and product functions::
* Conversion angulaire::
* Fonctions trigonométriques::
* Fonctions hyperboliques::
* Fonctions spéciales::
* Constantes: Constantes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: Number-theoretic functions,  Next: Floating point arithmetic,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.1 Number-theoretic functions
..................................

 -- Fonction: math.comb (n, k)

     Renvoie le nombre de façons de choisir 'k' éléments parmi 'n' de
     manière non-ordonnée et sans répétition.

     Vaut ‘n! / (k! * (n - k)!)’ quand ‘k <= n’ et zéro quand ‘k > n’.

     Also called the binomial coefficient because it is equivalent to
     the coefficient of k-th term in polynomial expansion of ‘(1 + x)ⁿ’.

     Lève une *note TypeError: 525. si un des paramètres n'est pas un
     entier.  Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si un des paramètres est
     négatif.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: math.factorial (n)

     Return 'n' factorial as an integer.  Raises *note ValueError: 1ff.
     if 'n' is not integral or is negative.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Floats with integral values (like
     ‘5.0’) are no longer accepted.

 -- Fonction: math.gcd (*integers)

     Return the greatest common divisor of the specified integer
     arguments.  If any of the arguments is nonzero, then the returned
     value is the largest positive integer that is a divisor of all
     arguments.  If all arguments are zero, then the returned value is
     ‘0’.  ‘gcd()’ without arguments returns ‘0’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added support for an arbitrary number
     of arguments.  Formerly, only two arguments were supported.

 -- Fonction: math.isqrt (n)

     Renvoie la racine carrée entière du nombre positif 'n'.  C'est la
     partie entière de la valeur exacte de la racine carrée de 'n' ou,
     de manière équivalente, le plus grand entier 'a' tel que a*² ≤ 'n'.

     Pour certaines applications, il est plus pratique d'avoir le plus
     petit entier 'a' tel que 'n' ≤ 'a'² ou, en d'autres termes, la
     partie entière de la valeur exacte de la racine carrée de 'n'.
     Pour 'n' positif, on peut le calculer avec ‘a = 1 + isqrt(n - 1)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: math.lcm (*integers)

     Return the least common multiple of the specified integer
     arguments.  If all arguments are nonzero, then the returned value
     is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of all
     arguments.  If any of the arguments is zero, then the returned
     value is ‘0’.  ‘lcm()’ without arguments returns ‘1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: math.perm (n, k=None)

     Renvoie le nombre de façons de choisir 'k' éléments parmi 'n' de
     manière ordonnée sans répétition.

     Vaut ‘n! / (n - k)!’ quand ‘k <= n’ et vaut zéro quand ‘k > n’.

     If 'k' is not specified or is ‘None’, then 'k' defaults to 'n' and
     the function returns ‘n!’.

     Lève une *note TypeError: 525. si un des paramètres n'est pas un
     entier.  Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si un des paramètres est
     négatif.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating point arithmetic,  Next: Floating point manipulation functions,  Prev: Number-theoretic functions,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.2 Floating point arithmetic
.................................

 -- Fonction: math.ceil (x)

     Return the ceiling of 'x', the smallest integer greater than or
     equal to 'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note
     x.__ceil__: 1f74, which should return an *note Integral: 1f75.
     value.

 -- Fonction: math.fabs (x)

     Renvoie la valeur absolue de 'x'.

 -- Fonction: math.floor (x)

     Return the floor of 'x', the largest integer less than or equal to
     'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note x.__floor__: 1f73,
     which should return an *note Integral: 1f75. value.

 -- Fonction: math.fma (x, y, z)

     Fused multiply-add operation.  Return ‘(x * y) + z’, computed as
     though with infinite precision and range followed by a single round
     to the ‘float’ format.  This operation often provides better
     accuracy than the direct expression ‘(x * y) + z’.

     This function follows the specification of the fusedMultiplyAdd
     operation described in the IEEE 754 standard.  The standard leaves
     one case implementation-defined, namely the result of ‘fma(0, inf,
     nan)’ and ‘fma(inf, 0, nan)’.  In these cases, ‘math.fma’ returns a
     NaN, and does not raise any exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: math.fmod (x, y)

     Return the floating-point remainder of ‘x / y’, as defined by the
     platform C library function ‘fmod(x, y)’.  Note that the Python
     expression ‘x % y’ may not return the same result.  The intent of
     the C standard is that ‘fmod(x, y)’ be exactly (mathematically; to
     infinite precision) equal to ‘x - n*y’ for some integer 'n' such
     that the result has the same sign as 'x' and magnitude less than
     ‘abs(y)’.  Python's ‘x % y’ returns a result with the sign of 'y'
     instead, and may not be exactly computable for float arguments.
     For example, ‘fmod(-1e-100, 1e100)’ is ‘-1e-100’, but the result of
     Python's ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ is ‘1e100-1e-100’, which cannot be
     represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising
     ‘1e100’.  For this reason, function *note fmod(): 2027. is
     generally preferred when working with floats, while Python's ‘x %
     y’ is preferred when working with integers.

 -- Fonction: math.modf (x)

     Renvoie les parties entière et fractionnelle de 'x'.  Les deux
     résultats ont le signe de 'x' et sont flottants.

     Note that *note modf(): 25b8. has a different call/return pattern
     than its C equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a
     pair of values, rather than returning its second return value
     through an 'output parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).

 -- Fonction: math.remainder (x, y)

     Renvoie le reste selon la norme IEEE 754 de 'x' par rapport à 'y'.
     Pour 'x' fini et 'y' fini non nul, il s'agit de la différence ‘x -
     n*y’, où ‘n’ est l'entier le plus proche de la valeur exacte du
     quotient ‘x / y’.  Si ‘x / y’ est exactement à mi-chemin de deux
     entiers consécutifs, le plus proche entier 'pair' est utilisé pour
     ‘n’.  Ainsi, le reste ‘r = remainder(x, y)’ vérifie toujours
     ‘abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y)’.

     Les cas spéciaux suivent la norme IEEE 754 : en particulier,
     ‘remainder(x, math.inf)’ vaut 'x' pour tout 'x' fini, et
     ‘remainder(x, 0)’ et ‘remainder(math.inf, x)’ lèvent *note
     ValueError: 1ff. pour tout 'x' 'non-NaN'. Si le résultat de
     l'opération 'remainder' est zéro, alors ce zéro aura le même signe
     que 'x'.

     On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating point, the result of
     this operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error
     is introduced.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: math.trunc (x)

     Return 'x' with the fractional part removed, leaving the integer
     part.  This rounds toward 0: ‘trunc()’ is equivalent to *note
     floor(): 137a. for positive 'x', and equivalent to *note ceil():
     137b. for negative 'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note
     x.__trunc__: 707, which should return an *note Integral: 1f75.
     value.

Pour les fonctions *note ceil(): 137b, *note floor(): 137a, et *note
modf(): 25b8, notez que 'tous' les nombres flottants de magnitude
suffisamment grande sont des entiers exacts.  Les flottants de Python
n'ont généralement pas plus de 53 'bits' de précision (tels que le type
C ‘double’ de la plate-forme), en quel cas tout flottant 'x' tel que
‘abs(x) >= 2**52’ n'a aucun 'bit' fractionnel.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating point manipulation functions,  Next: Power exponential and logarithmic functions,  Prev: Floating point arithmetic,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.3 Floating point manipulation functions
.............................................

 -- Fonction: math.copysign (x, y)

     Renvoie un flottant contenant la magnitude (valeur absolue) de 'x'
     mais avec le signe de 'y'.  Sur les plates-formes prenant en charge
     les zéros signés, ‘copysign(1.0, -0.0)’ renvoie ‘-1.0’.

 -- Fonction: math.frexp (x)

     Renvoie la mantisse et l'exposant de 'x' dans un couple ‘(m, e)’.
     'm' est un flottant et 'e' est un entier tels que ‘x == m * 2**e’
     exactement.  Si 'x' vaut zéro, renvoie ‘(0, 0)’, sinon ‘0.5 <=
     abs(m) < 1’.  Ceci est utilisé pour « extraire » la représentation
     interne d'un flottant de manière portable.

     Note that *note frexp(): 25b9. has a different call/return pattern
     than its C equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a
     pair of values, rather than returning its second return value
     through an 'output parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).

 -- Fonction: math.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si les valeurs 'a' et 'b' sont proches l'une de
     l'autre, et ‘False’ sinon.

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance - it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any nonzero ‘x’ and 'rel_tol' less than ‘1.0’.  So add an
     appropriate positive 'abs_tol' argument to the call.

     Les valeurs spécifiques suivantes : ‘NaN’, ‘inf’, et ‘-inf’
     définies dans la norme IEEE 754 seront manipulées selon les règles
     du standard IEEE. En particulier, ‘NaN’ n'est considéré proche
     d'aucune autre valeur, ‘NaN’ inclus.  ‘inf’ et ‘-inf’ ne sont
     considérées proches que d'elles-mêmes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 485(1) — Une fonction pour tester des quasi-égalités

 -- Fonction: math.isfinite (x)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'n' n'est ni infini, ni NaN, et ‘False’ sinon.
     (Notez que ‘0.0’ 'est' considéré comme fini.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: math.isinf (x)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' vaut l'infini positif ou négatif, et ‘False’
     sinon.

 -- Fonction: math.isnan (x)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est NaN ('Not a Number', ou 'Pas un Nombre'
     en français), et ‘False’ sinon.

 -- Fonction: math.ldexp (x, i)

     Renvoie ‘x * (2**i)’.  C'est essentiellement l'inverse de la
     fonction *note frexp(): 25b9.

 -- Fonction: math.nextafter (x, y, steps=1)

     Return the floating-point value 'steps' steps after 'x' towards
     'y'.

     If 'x' is equal to 'y', return 'y', unless 'steps' is zero.

     Exemples :

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.inf)’ augmente de valeur : vers
          l'infini positif.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, -math.inf)’ baisse de valeur : vers
          l'infini négatif.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, 0.0)’ augmente ou baisse de valeur, vers
          zéro.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.copysign(math.inf, x))’ augmente ou
          baisse de valeur, en s'éloignant de zéro.

     Voir aussi : *note math.ulp(): 901.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'steps' argument.

 -- Fonction: math.ulp (x)

     Return the value of the least significant bit of the float 'x':

        * If 'x' is a NaN (not a number), return 'x'.

        * If 'x' is negative, return ‘ulp(-x)’.

        * If 'x' is a positive infinity, return 'x'.

        * If 'x' is equal to zero, return the smallest positive
          'denormalized' representable float (smaller than the minimum
          positive 'normalized' float, *note sys.float_info.min: 19a9.).

        * If 'x' is equal to the largest positive representable float,
          return the value of the least significant bit of 'x', such
          that the first float smaller than 'x' is ‘x - ulp(x)’.

        * Otherwise ('x' is a positive finite number), return the value
          of the least significant bit of 'x', such that the first float
          bigger than 'x' is ‘x + ulp(x)’.

     ULP stands for "Unit in the Last Place".

     See also *note math.nextafter(): 484. and *note
     sys.float_info.epsilon: 19a9.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Power exponential and logarithmic functions,  Next: Summation and product functions,  Prev: Floating point manipulation functions,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.4 Power, exponential and logarithmic functions
....................................................

 -- Fonction: math.cbrt (x)

     Return the cube root of 'x'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: math.exp (x)

     Renvoie 'e' à la puissance 'x', où 'e' = 2.718281… est la base des
     logarithmes naturels.  Cela est en général plus précis que ‘math.e
     ** x’ ou ‘pow(math.e, x)’.

 -- Fonction: math.exp2 (x)

     Return '2' raised to the power 'x'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: math.expm1 (x)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'x', minus 1.  Here 'e' is the base
     of natural logarithms.  For small floats 'x', the subtraction in
     ‘exp(x) - 1’ can result in a significant loss of precision(1); the
     *note expm1(): 11cb. function provides a way to compute this
     quantity to full precision:

          >>> from math import exp, expm1
          >>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
          1.0000050000069649e-05
          >>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
          1.0000050000166668e-05

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: math.log (x[, base])

     Avec un argument, renvoie le logarithme naturel de 'x' (en base
     'e').

     Avec deux arguments, renvoie le logarithme de 'x' en la 'base'
     donnée, calculé par ‘log(x)/log(base)’.

 -- Fonction: math.log1p (x)

     Renvoie le logarithme naturel de '1+x' (en base 'e').  Le résultat
     est calculé par un moyen qui reste exact pour 'x' proche de zéro.

 -- Fonction: math.log2 (x)

     Renvoie le logarithme en base 2 de 'x'.  C'est en général plus
     précis que ‘log(x, 2)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note int.bit_length(): 2157. renvoie le nombre de bits nécessaires
     pour représenter un entier en binaire, en excluant le signe et les
     zéros de début.

 -- Fonction: math.log10 (x)

     Renvoie le logarithme de 'x' en base 10.  C'est habituellement plus
     exact que ‘log(x, 10)’.

 -- Fonction: math.pow (x, y)

     Return 'x' raised to the power 'y'.  Exceptional cases follow the
     IEEE 754 standard as far as possible.  In particular, ‘pow(1.0, x)’
     and ‘pow(x, 0.0)’ always return ‘1.0’, even when 'x' is a zero or a
     NaN. If both 'x' and 'y' are finite, 'x' is negative, and 'y' is
     not an integer then ‘pow(x, y)’ is undefined, and raises *note
     ValueError: 1ff.

     À l'inverse de l'opérateur interne ‘**’, la fonction *note
     math.pow(): 64f. convertit ses deux arguments en *note float: 2ec.
     Utilisez ‘**’ ou la primitive *note pow(): 9c2. pour calculer des
     puissances exactes d'entiers.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The special cases ‘pow(0.0, -inf)’
     and ‘pow(-0.0, -inf)’ were changed to return ‘inf’ instead of
     raising *note ValueError: 1ff, for consistency with IEEE 754.

 -- Fonction: math.sqrt (x)

     Renvoie la racine carrée de 'x'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance


File: python.info,  Node: Summation and product functions,  Next: Conversion angulaire,  Prev: Power exponential and logarithmic functions,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.5 Summation and product functions
.......................................

 -- Fonction: math.dist (p, q)

     Renvoie la distance Euclienne entre deux points 'p' et 'q', passés
     comme des séquences (ou des itérables) de coordonnées.  Les deux
     points doivent avoir la même dimension.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          sqrt(sum((px - qx) ** 2.0 for px, qx in zip(p, q)))

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: math.fsum (iterable)

     Return an accurate floating-point sum of values in the iterable.
     Avoids loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial
     sums.

     La précision de cet algorithme dépend des garanties arithmétiques
     de IEEE-754 et des cas standards où le mode d'arrondi est
     'half-even'.  Sur certaines versions non Windows, la bibliothèque C
     sous-jacente utilise une addition par précision étendue et peut
     occasionnellement effectuer un double-arrondi sur une somme
     intermédiaire causant la prise d'une mauvaise valeur du bit de
     poids faible.

     For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the ASPN
     cookbook recipes for accurate floating-point summation(1).

 -- Fonction: math.hypot (*coordinates)

     Renvoie la norme Euclidienne, ‘sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in
     coordinates))’.  C'est la norme du vecteur entre l'origine et le
     point donné par les coordonnées.

     Pour un point bi-dimensionnel ‘(x, y)’, c'est équivalent à calculer
     la valeur de l’hypoténuse d'un triangle rectangle en utilisant le
     théorème de Pythagore, ‘sqrt(x*x + y*y)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de la gestion des points à
     n-dimensions.  Auparavant seuls les points bi-dimensionnels étaient
     gérés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Improved the algorithm's accuracy so
     that the maximum error is under 1 ulp (unit in the last place).
     More typically, the result is almost always correctly rounded to
     within 1/2 ulp.

 -- Fonction: math.prod (iterable, *, start=1)

     Calcule le produit de tous les éléments passés dans l'entrée
     'iterable'.  La valeur de 'départ' par défaut du produit vaut ‘1’.

     Quand l'itérable est vide, renvoie la valeur de départ.  Cette
     fonction ne doit être utilisée qu'avec des valeurs numériques et
     peut rejeter les types non-numériques.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: math.sumprod (p, q)

     Return the sum of products of values from two iterables 'p' and
     'q'.

     Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if the inputs do not have the same
     length.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          sum(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, zip(p, q, strict=True)))

     For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products and
     sums are computed with extended precision.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion angulaire,  Next: Fonctions trigonométriques,  Prev: Summation and product functions,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.6 Conversion angulaire
............................

 -- Fonction: math.degrees (x)

     Convertit l'angle 'x' de radians en degrés.

 -- Fonction: math.radians (x)

     Convertit l'ange 'x' de degrés en radians.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions trigonométriques,  Next: Fonctions hyperboliques,  Prev: Conversion angulaire,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.7 Fonctions trigonométriques
..................................

 -- Fonction: math.acos (x)

     Return the arc cosine of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘0’ and ‘pi’.

 -- Fonction: math.asin (x)

     Return the arc sine of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘-pi/2’ and ‘pi/2’.

 -- Fonction: math.atan (x)

     Return the arc tangent of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘-pi/2’ and ‘pi/2’.

 -- Fonction: math.atan2 (y, x)

     Renvoie ‘atan(y / x)’, en radians.  Le résultat est entre ‘-pi’ et
     ‘pi’.  Le vecteur du plan allant de l'origine vers le point ‘(x,
     y)’ forme cet angle avec l'axe X positif.  L'intérêt de *note
     atan2(): 25c1. est que le signe des deux entrées est connu.  Donc
     elle peut calculer le bon quadrant pour l'angle.  par exemple
     ‘atan(1)’ et ‘atan2(1, 1)’ donnent tous deux ‘pi/4’, mais
     ‘atan2(-1, -1)’ donne ‘-3*pi/4’.

 -- Fonction: math.cos (x)

     Renvoie le cosinus de 'x' radians.

 -- Fonction: math.sin (x)

     Renvoie le sinus de 'x' radians.

 -- Fonction: math.tan (x)

     Renvoie la tangente de 'x' radians.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions hyperboliques,  Next: Fonctions spéciales,  Prev: Fonctions trigonométriques,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.8 Fonctions hyperboliques
...............................

Hyperbolic functions(1) are analogs of trigonometric functions that are
based on hyperbolas instead of circles.

 -- Fonction: math.acosh (x)

     Renvoie l'arc cosinus hyperbolique de 'x'.

 -- Fonction: math.asinh (x)

     Renvoie l'arc sinus hyperbolique de 'x'.

 -- Fonction: math.atanh (x)

     Renvoie l'arc tangente hyperbolique de 'x'.

 -- Fonction: math.cosh (x)

     Renvoie le cosinus hyperbolique de 'x'.

 -- Fonction: math.sinh (x)

     Renvoie le sinus hyperbolique de 'x'.

 -- Fonction: math.tanh (x)

     Renvoie la tangente hyperbolique de 'x'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions spéciales,  Next: Constantes<2>,  Prev: Fonctions hyperboliques,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.9 Fonctions spéciales
...........................

 -- Fonction: math.erf (x)

     Renvoie la fonction d'erreur(1) en 'x'.

     The *note erf(): bc8. function can be used to compute traditional
     statistical functions such as the cumulative standard normal
     distribution(2):

          def phi(x):
              'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
              return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: math.erfc (x)

     Renvoie la fonction d'erreur complémentaire en 'x'.  La fonction
     d'erreur complémentaire(3) est définie par ‘1.0 - erf(x)’.  Elle
     est utilisée pour les grandes valeurs de 'x', où la soustraction en
     partant de 1,0 entraînerait une perte de précision(4).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: math.gamma (x)

     Renvoie la fonction Gamma(5) en 'x'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: math.lgamma (x)

     Renvoie le logarithme naturel de la valeur absolue de la fonction
     gamma en 'x'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (3) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonction_d'erreur

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance

   (5) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonction_gamma


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<2>,  Prev: Fonctions spéciales,  Up: math --- Mathematical functions

5.9.2.10 Constantes
...................

 -- Données: math.pi

     La constante mathématique 'π' = 3.141592…, à la précision
     disponible.

 -- Données: math.e

     La constante mathématique 'e' = 2.718281…, à la précision
     disponible.

 -- Données: math.tau

     La constante mathématique 'τ' = 6.283185…, à la précision
     disponible.  Tau est une constante du cercle égale à 2 *π*, le
     rapport de la circonférence d'un cercle à son rayon.  Pour en
     apprendre plus sur Tau, regardez la vidéo de Vi Hart, Pi is (still)
     Wrong(1), et profitez-en pour célébrer le Jour de Tau(2) en
     bavardant comme deux pies !

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: math.inf

     Un flottant positif infini.  (Pour un infini négatif, utilisez
     ‘-math.inf’.)  Équivalent au résultat de ‘float('inf')’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: math.nan

     A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the
     output of ‘float('nan')’.  Due to the requirements of the IEEE-754
     standard(3), ‘math.nan’ and ‘float('nan')’ are not considered to
     equal to any other numeric value, including themselves.  To check
     whether a number is a NaN, use the *note isnan(): 138b. function to
     test for NaNs instead of ‘is’ or ‘==’.  Example:

          >>> import math
          >>> math.nan == math.nan
          False
          >>> float('nan') == float('nan')
          False
          >>> math.isnan(math.nan)
          True
          >>> math.isnan(float('nan'))
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: It is now always available.

Le module *note math: 8d. consiste majoritairement en un conteneur pour
les fonctions mathématiques de la bibliothèque C de la plate-forme.  Le
comportement dans les cas spéciaux suit l'annexe 'F' du standard C99
quand c'est approprié.  L'implémentation actuelle lève une *note
ValueError: 1ff. pour les opérations invalides telles que ‘sqrt(-1.0)’
ou ‘log(0.0)’ (où le standard C99 recommande de signaler que l'opération
est invalide ou qu'il y a division par zéro), et une *note
OverflowError: 86f. pour les résultats qui débordent (par exemple
‘exp(1000.0)’).  'NaN' ne sera renvoyé pour aucune des fonctions
ci-dessus, sauf si au moins un des arguments de la fonction vaut 'NaN'.
Dans ce cas, la plupart des fonctions renvoient 'NaN', mais (à nouveau,
selon l'annexe 'F' du standard C99) il y a quelques exceptions à cette
règle, par exemple ‘pow(float('nan'), 0.0)’ ou ‘hypot(float('nan'),
float('inf'))’.

Notez que Python ne fait aucun effort pour distinguer les NaNs
signalétiques des NaNs silencieux, et le comportement de signalement des
NaNs reste non-spécifié.  Le comportement standard est de traiter tous
les NaNs comme s'ils étaient silencieux.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note cmath: 18.

     Version complexe de beaucoup de ces fonctions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jG7vhMMXagQ

   (2) https://tauday.com/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754


File: python.info,  Node: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Next: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Prev: math --- Mathematical functions,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.3 ‘cmath’ -- Mathematical functions for complex numbers
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to mathematical functions for complex
numbers.  The functions in this module accept integers, floating-point
numbers or complex numbers as arguments.  They will also accept any
Python object that has either a *note __complex__(): 5d3. or a *note
__float__(): 9bc. method: these methods are used to convert the object
to a complex or floating-point number, respectively, and the function is
then applied to the result of the conversion.

     Note: For functions involving branch cuts, we have the problem of
     deciding how to define those functions on the cut itself.
     Following Kahan's "Branch cuts for complex elementary functions"
     paper, as well as Annex G of C99 and later C standards, we use the
     sign of zero to distinguish one side of the branch cut from the
     other: for a branch cut along (a portion of) the real axis we look
     at the sign of the imaginary part, while for a branch cut along the
     imaginary axis we look at the sign of the real part.

     For example, the *note cmath.sqrt(): 25d5. function has a branch
     cut along the negative real axis.  An argument of ‘complex(-2.0,
     -0.0)’ is treated as though it lies 'below' the branch cut, and so
     gives a result on the negative imaginary axis:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, -0.0))
          -1.4142135623730951j

     But an argument of ‘complex(-2.0, 0.0)’ is treated as though it
     lies above the branch cut:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, 0.0))
          1.4142135623730951j

'Conversions to and from polar coordinates'

*note phase(z): 25d6.                                    Return the phase of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note polar(z): 25d7.                                    Return the representation of 'z' in polar coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note rect(r, phi): 25d8.                                Return the complex number 'z' with polar coordinates 'r' and 'phi'
                                                         
                                                         
'Power and logarithmic functions'

*note exp(z): 25d9.                                      Return 'e' raised to the power 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(z[, base]): 25da.                              Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base' ('e' by default)
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(z): 25db.                                    Return the base-10 logarithm of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(z): 25d5.                                     Return the square root of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Trigonometric functions'

*note acos(z): 25dc.                                     Return the arc cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(z): 25dd.                                     Return the arc sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(z): 25de.                                     Return the arc tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(z): 25df.                                      Return the cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(z): 25e0.                                      Return the sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(z): 25e1.                                      Return the tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Hyperbolic functions'

*note acosh(z): 25e2.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(z): 25e3.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(z): 25e4.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(z): 25e5.                                     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(z): 25e6.                                     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(z): 25e7.                                     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Classification functions'

*note isfinite(z): 25e8.                                 Check if all components of 'z' are finite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(z): 25e9.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is infinite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(z): 25ea.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is a NaN
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol, abs_tol): da0.           Check if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other
                                                         
                                                         
'Constants'

*note pi: 25eb.                                          'π' = 3.141592...
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 25ec.                                           'e' = 2.718281...
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: c71.                                          'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185...
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: c72.                                          Positive infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note infj: c75.                                         Pure imaginary infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: c73.                                          "Not a number" (NaN)
                                                         
                                                         
*note nanj: c76.                                         Pure imaginary NaN
                                                         

* Menu:

* Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires::
* Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle::
* Fonctions trigonométriques: Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
* Fonctions hyperboliques: Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
* Fonctions de classifications::
* Constantes: Constantes<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires,  Next: Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle,  Up: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.1 Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires
...........................................................

A Python complex number ‘z’ is stored internally using 'rectangular' or
'Cartesian' coordinates.  It is completely determined by its 'real part'
‘z.real’ and its 'imaginary part' ‘z.imag’.

Les 'coordonnées polaires' donnent une manière alternative de
représenter un nombre complexe.  En coordonnées polaires, un nombre
complexe 'z' est défini par son module 'r' et par son argument ('angle
de phase') 'phi'.  Le module 'r' est la distance entre 'z' et l'origine,
alors que l'argument 'phi' est l'angle (dans le sens inverse des
aiguilles d'une montre, ou sens trigonométrique), mesuré en radians, à
partir de l'axe X positif, et vers le segment de droite joignant 'z' à
l'origine.

Les fonctions suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour convertir à partir
des coordonnées rectangulaires natives vers les coordonnées polaires, et
vice-versa.

 -- Fonction: cmath.phase (z)

     Return the phase of 'z' (also known as the 'argument' of 'z'), as a
     float.  ‘phase(z)’ is equivalent to ‘math.atan2(z.imag, z.real)’.
     The result lies in the range [-'π', 'π'], and the branch cut for
     this operation lies along the negative real axis.  The sign of the
     result is the same as the sign of ‘z.imag’, even when ‘z.imag’ is
     zero:

          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, 0.0))
          3.141592653589793
          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, -0.0))
          -3.141592653589793

     Note: The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number 'z' can be
     computed using the built-in *note abs(): 1c62. function.  There is
     no separate *note cmath: 18. module function for this operation.

 -- Fonction: cmath.polar (z)

     Return the representation of 'z' in polar coordinates.  Returns a
     pair ‘(r, phi)’ where 'r' is the modulus of 'z' and 'phi' is the
     phase of 'z'.  ‘polar(z)’ is equivalent to ‘(abs(z), phase(z))’.

 -- Fonction: cmath.rect (r, phi)

     Return the complex number 'z' with polar coordinates 'r' and 'phi'.
     Equivalent to ‘complex(r * math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi))’.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle,  Next: Fonctions trigonométriques<2>,  Prev: Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires,  Up: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.2 Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle
.............................................

 -- Fonction: cmath.exp (z)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'z', where 'e' is the base of
     natural logarithms.

 -- Fonction: cmath.log (z[, base])

     Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base'.  If the 'base' is
     not specified, returns the natural logarithm of 'z'.  There is one
     branch cut, from 0 along the negative real axis to -∞.

 -- Fonction: cmath.log10 (z)

     Return the base-10 logarithm of 'z'.  This has the same branch cut
     as *note log(): 25da.

 -- Fonction: cmath.sqrt (z)

     Return the square root of 'z'.  This has the same branch cut as
     *note log(): 25da.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions trigonométriques<2>,  Next: Fonctions hyperboliques<2>,  Prev: Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle,  Up: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.3 Fonctions trigonométriques
..................................

 -- Fonction: cmath.acos (z)

     Return the arc cosine of 'z'.  There are two branch cuts: One
     extends right from 1 along the real axis to ∞.  The other extends
     left from -1 along the real axis to -∞.

 -- Fonction: cmath.asin (z)

     Return the arc sine of 'z'.  This has the same branch cuts as *note
     acos(): 25dc.

 -- Fonction: cmath.atan (z)

     Return the arc tangent of 'z'.  There are two branch cuts: One
     extends from ‘1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘∞j’.  The other
     extends from ‘-1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘-∞j’.

 -- Fonction: cmath.cos (z)

     Return the cosine of 'z'.

 -- Fonction: cmath.sin (z)

     Return the sine of 'z'.

 -- Fonction: cmath.tan (z)

     Return the tangent of 'z'.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions hyperboliques<2>,  Next: Fonctions de classifications,  Prev: Fonctions trigonométriques<2>,  Up: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.4 Fonctions hyperboliques
...............................

 -- Fonction: cmath.acosh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'z'.  There is one branch
     cut, extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞.

 -- Fonction: cmath.asinh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'z'.  There are two branch
     cuts: One extends from ‘1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘∞j’.  The
     other extends from ‘-1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘-∞j’.

 -- Fonction: cmath.atanh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'z'.  There are two branch
     cuts: One extends from ‘1’ along the real axis to ‘∞’.  The other
     extends from ‘-1’ along the real axis to ‘-∞’.

 -- Fonction: cmath.cosh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'z'.

 -- Fonction: cmath.sinh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'z'.

 -- Fonction: cmath.tanh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'z'.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de classifications,  Next: Constantes<3>,  Prev: Fonctions hyperboliques<2>,  Up: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.5 Fonctions de classifications
....................................

 -- Fonction: cmath.isfinite (z)

     Return ‘True’ if both the real and imaginary parts of 'z' are
     finite, and ‘False’ otherwise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: cmath.isinf (z)

     Return ‘True’ if either the real or the imaginary part of 'z' is an
     infinity, and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: cmath.isnan (z)

     Return ‘True’ if either the real or the imaginary part of 'z' is a
     NaN, and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: cmath.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si les valeurs 'a' et 'b' sont proches l'une de
     l'autre, et ‘False’ sinon.

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance - it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any ‘x’ and rel_tol less than ‘1.0’.  So add an appropriate
     positive abs_tol argument to the call.

     Les valeurs spécifiques suivantes : ‘NaN’, ‘inf’, et ‘-inf’
     définies dans la norme IEEE 754 seront manipulées selon les règles
     du standard IEEE. En particulier, ‘NaN’ n'est considéré proche
     d'aucune autre valeur, ‘NaN’ inclus.  ‘inf’ et ‘-inf’ ne sont
     considérés proches que d'eux-mêmes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 485(1) - Une fonction pour tester des égalités approximées

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<3>,  Prev: Fonctions de classifications,  Up: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.6 Constantes
..................

 -- Données: cmath.pi

     La constante mathématique 'π', en tant que flottant.

 -- Données: cmath.e

     La constante mathématique 'e', en tant que flottant.

 -- Données: cmath.tau

     La constante mathématique 'τ', sous forme de flottant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: cmath.inf

     Nombre à virgule flottante positif infini.  Équivaut à
     ‘float('inf')’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: cmath.infj

     Nombre complexe dont la partie réelle vaut zéro et la partie
     imaginaire un infini positif.  Équivalent à ‘complex(0.0,
     float('inf'))’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: cmath.nan

     Un nombre à virgule flottante 'NaN' ('Not a number').  Équivalent à
     ‘float('nan')’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: cmath.nanj

     Nombre complexe dont la partie réelle vaut zéro et la partie
     imaginaire vaut un 'NaN'. Équivalent à ‘complex(0.0,
     float('nan'))’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Notez que la sélection de fonctions est similaire, mais pas identique, à
celles du module *note math: 8d.  La raison d'avoir deux modules est que
certains utilisateurs ne sont pas intéressés par les nombres complexes,
et peut-être ne savent même pas ce qu'ils sont.  Ils préféreraient alors
que ‘math.sqrt(-1)’ lève une exception au lieu de renvoyer un nombre
complexe.  Également, notez que les fonctions définies dans *note cmath:
18. renvoient toujours un nombre complexe, même si le résultat peut être
exprimé à l'aide d'un nombre réel (en quel cas la partie imaginaire du
complexe vaut zéro).

Une note sur les 'coupures' : ce sont des courbes sur lesquelles la
fonction n'est pas continue.  Ce sont des caractéristiques nécessaires
de beaucoup de fonctions complexes.  Il est supposé que si vous avez
besoin d'utiliser des fonctions complexes, vous comprendrez ce que sont
les coupures.  Consultez n'importe quel livre (pas trop élémentaire) sur
les variables complexes pour plus d'informations.  Pour des informations
sur les choix des coupures à des fins numériques, voici une bonne
référence :

Voir aussi
..........

Kahan, W: Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado
about nothing's sign bit.  In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The
state of the art in numerical analysis.  Clarendon Press (1987)
pp165-211.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Next: fractions --- Rational numbers,  Prev: cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.4 ‘decimal’ -- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
--------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/decimal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note decimal: 36. module provides support for fast correctly
rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic.  It offers several advantages
over the *note float: 2ec. datatype:

   * Le module ‘decimal’ « est basé sur un modèle en virgule flottante
     conçu pour les humains, qui suit ce principe directeur :
     l'ordinateur doit fournir un modèle de calcul qui fonctionne de la
     même manière que le calcul qu'on apprend à l'école » – extrait
     (traduit) de la spécification de l'arithmétique décimale.

   * Les nombres décimaux peuvent être représentés exactement en base
     décimale flottante.  En revanche, des nombres tels que ‘1.1’ ou
     ‘1.2’ n'ont pas de représentation exacte en base binaire flottante.
     L'utilisateur final ne s'attend typiquement pas à obtenir
     ‘3.3000000000000003’ lorsqu'il saisit ‘1.1 + 2.2’, ce qui se passe
     en arithmétique binaire à virgule flottante.

   * Ces inexactitudes ont des conséquences en arithmétique.  En base
     décimale à virgule flottante, ‘0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3’ est
     exactement égal à zéro.  En virgule flottante binaire, l'ordinateur
     l'évalue à ‘5.5511151231257827e-017’.  Bien que très proche de
     zéro, cette différence induit des erreurs lors des tests d'égalité,
     erreurs qui peuvent s'accumuler.  Pour ces raisons ‘decimal’ est le
     module utilisé pour des applications comptables ayant des
     contraintes strictes de fiabilité.

   * Le module ‘decimal’ incorpore la notion de chiffres significatifs,
     de façon à ce que ‘1.30 + 1.20’ égale ‘2.50’.  Le dernier zéro est
     conservé pour respecter le nombre de chiffres significatifs.  C'est
     l'affichage préféré pour représenter des sommes d'argent.  Pour la
     multiplication, l'approche « scolaire » utilise tous les chiffres
     présents dans les facteurs.  Par exemple, ‘1.3 * 1.2’ donne ‘1.56’
     tandis que ‘1.30 * 1.20’ donne ‘1.5600’.

   * Contrairement à l'arithmétique en virgule flottante binaire, le
     module ‘decimal’ possède un paramètre de précision ajustable (par
     défaut à 28 chiffres significatifs) qui peut être aussi élevée que
     nécessaire pour un problème donné :

          >>> from decimal import *
          >>> getcontext().prec = 6
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.142857')
          >>> getcontext().prec = 28
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')

   * L'arithmétique binaire et décimale en virgule flottante sont
     implémentées selon des standards publiés.  Alors que le type
     ‘float’ n'expose qu'une faible portion de ses capacités, le module
     ‘decimal’ expose tous les composants nécessaires du standard.
     Lorsque nécessaire, le développeur a un contrôle total de la
     gestion des signaux et de l'arrondi.  Cela inclut la possibilité de
     forcer une arithmétique exacte en utilisant des exceptions pour
     bloquer toute opération inexacte.

   * Le module ‘decimal’ a été conçu pour gérer « sans préjugé, à la
     fois une arithmétique décimale non-arrondie (aussi appelée
     arithmétique en virgule fixe) et à la fois une arithmétique en
     virgule flottante » (extrait traduit de la spécification de
     l'arithmétique décimale).

Le module est conçu autour de trois concepts : le nombre décimal, le
contexte arithmétique et les signaux.

Un ‘Decimal’ est immuable.  Il a un signe, un coefficient et un
exposant.  Pour préserver le nombre de chiffres significatifs, les zéros
en fin de chaîne ne sont pas tronqués.  Les décimaux incluent aussi des
valeurs spéciales telles que ‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’ et ‘NaN’.  Le
standard fait également la différence entre ‘-0’ et ‘+0’.

Le contexte de l'arithmétique est un environnement qui permet de
configurer une précision, une règle pour l'arrondi, des limites sur
l'exposant, des options indiquant le résultat des opérations et si les
signaux (remontés lors d'opérations illégales) sont traités comme des
exceptions Python.  Les options d'arrondi incluent *note ROUND_CEILING:
25f5, *note ROUND_DOWN: 25f6, *note ROUND_FLOOR: 25f7, *note
ROUND_HALF_DOWN: 25f8, *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 25f9, *note ROUND_HALF_UP:
25fa, *note ROUND_UP: 25fb. et *note ROUND_05UP: 25fc.

Les signaux sont des groupes de conditions exceptionnelles qui
surviennent durant le calcul.  Selon les besoins de l'application, les
signaux peuvent être ignorés, considérés comme de l'information, ou bien
traités comme des exceptions.  Les signaux dans le module ‘decimal’
sont : *note Clamped: 25fd, *note InvalidOperation: 108e, *note
DivisionByZero: 25fe, *note Inexact: 25ff, *note Rounded: 2600, *note
Subnormal: 2601, *note Overflow: 2602, *note Underflow: 2603. et *note
FloatOperation: 1088.

Chaque signal est configurable indépendamment, à travers un drapeau (ou
option) et un activateur de déroutement.  Quand une opération illégale
survient, le drapeau du signal est mis à ‘1’ puis, si l'activateur est
configuré, une exception est levée.  La mise à ‘1’ du drapeau est
persistante, l'utilisateur doit donc remettre les drapeaux à zéro avant
de commencer un calcul qu'il souhaite surveiller.

Voir aussi
..........

   * Spécification d'IBM sur l'arithmétique décimale : The General
     Decimal Arithmetic Specification(2) (article en anglais).

* Menu:

* Introduction pratique::
* Les objets Decimal::
* Objets de contexte::
* Constantes: Constantes<4>.
* Modes d'arrondi::
* Signaux::
* Floating-Point Notes::
* Working with threads::
* Cas pratiques::
* FAQ decimal::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/decimal.py

   (2) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction pratique,  Next: Les objets Decimal,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.1 Introduction pratique
.............................

Commençons par importer le module, regarder le contexte actuel avec
*note getcontext(): 158f. et, si nécessaire, configurer la précision,
l'arrondi et la gestion des signaux :

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
             InvalidOperation])

     >>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision

Les instances de ‘Decimal’ peuvent être construites avec des entiers,
des chaînes de caractères, des ‘floats’ ou des 'n'-uplets.  La
construction depuis un entier ou un ‘float’ effectue la conversion
exacte de cet entier ou de ce ‘float’.  Les nombres décimaux incluent
des valeurs spéciales telles que ‘NaN’ qui signifie en anglais « 'Not a
number' », en français « pas un nombre », des ‘Infinity’ positifs ou
négatifs et ‘-0’ :

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(10)
     Decimal('10')
     >>> Decimal('3.14')
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
     >>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
     Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
     >>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal('NaN')
     Decimal('NaN')
     >>> Decimal('-Infinity')
     Decimal('-Infinity')

Si le signal *note FloatOperation: 1088. est activé pour déroutement, un
mélange accidentel d'objets ‘Decimal’ et de ‘float’ dans les
constructeurs ou des opérations de comparaison lève une exception :

     >>> c = getcontext()
     >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
     True

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le nombre de chiffres significatifs d'un nouvel objet ‘Decimal’ est
déterminé entièrement par le nombre de chiffres saisis.  La précision et
les règles d'arrondis n'interviennent que lors d'opérations
arithmétiques.

     >>> getcontext().prec = 6
     >>> Decimal('3.0')
     Decimal('3.0')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85987')
     >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85988')

Si les limites internes de la version en C sont dépassées, la
construction d'un objet décimal lève l'exception *note InvalidOperation:
108e. :

     >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

Modifié dans la version 3.3.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small
decimal floating-point flying circus:

     >>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
     >>> max(data)
     Decimal('9.25')
     >>> min(data)
     Decimal('0.03')
     >>> sorted(data)
     [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
      Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
     >>> sum(data)
     Decimal('19.29')
     >>> a,b,c = data[:3]
     >>> str(a)
     '1.34'
     >>> float(a)
     1.34
     >>> round(a, 1)
     Decimal('1.3')
     >>> int(a)
     1
     >>> a * 5
     Decimal('6.70')
     >>> a * b
     Decimal('2.5058')
     >>> c % a
     Decimal('0.77')

Et certaines fonctions mathématiques sont également disponibles sur des
instances de ‘Decimal’ :

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal(1).exp()
     Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
     >>> Decimal('10').ln()
     Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
     >>> Decimal('10').log10()
     Decimal('1')

La méthode *note quantize(): 1094. arrondit un nombre à un exposant
déterminé.  Cette méthode est utile pour des applications monétaires qui
arrondissent souvent un résultat à un nombre déterminé de chiffres après
la virgule :

     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
     Decimal('7.32')
     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
     Decimal('8')

Comme montré plus haut, la fonction *note getcontext(): 158f. accède au
contexte actuel et permet de modifier les paramètres.  Cette approche
répond aux besoins de la plupart des applications.

Pour un travail plus avancé, il peut être utile de créer des contextes
alternatifs en utilisant le constructeur de ‘Context’.  Pour activer cet
objet ‘Context’, utilisez la fonction *note setcontext(): 2606.

En accord avec le standard, le module *note decimal: 36. fournit des
objets 'Context' standards, *note BasicContext: 108c. et *note
ExtendedContext: 108d.  Le premier est particulièrement utile pour le
débogage car beaucoup des signaux ont leur déroutement activé :

     >>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
     >>> setcontext(myothercontext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

     >>> ExtendedContext
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857143')
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')

     >>> setcontext(BasicContext)
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Les objets ‘Context’ ont aussi des options pour détecter des opérations
illégales lors des calculs.  Ces options restent activées jusqu'à ce
qu'elles soit remises à zéro de manière explicite.  Il convient donc de
remettre à zéro ces options avant chaque inspection de chaque calcul,
avec la méthode *note clear_flags(): 2607.

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> getcontext().clear_flags()
     >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
     Decimal('3.14159292')
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

Les options montrent que l'approximation de π par une fraction a été
arrondie (les chiffres au-delà de la précision spécifiée par l'objet
'Context' ont été tronqués) et que le résultat est différent (certains
des chiffres tronqués étaient différents de zéro).

L'activation du déroutement se fait en utilisant un dictionnaire dans
l'attribut ‘traps’ du contexte :

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')
     >>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

La plupart des applications n'ajustent l'objet ‘Context’ qu'une seule
fois, au démarrage.  Et, dans beaucoup d'applications, les données sont
converties une fois pour toutes en *note Decimal: 29a.  Une fois le
‘Context’ initialisé et les objets ‘Decimal’ créés, la majeure partie du
programme manipule les données de la même manière qu'avec d'autres types
numériques Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets Decimal,  Next: Objets de contexte,  Prev: Introduction pratique,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.2 Les objets 'Decimal'
............................

 -- Classe: decimal.Decimal (value='0', context=None)

     Construit un nouvel objet *note Decimal: 29a. à partir de 'value'.

     'value' peut être un entier, une chaîne de caractères, un
     'n'-uplet, un *note float: 2ec. ou une autre instance de *note
     Decimal: 29a.  Si 'value' n'est pas fourni, le constructeur renvoie
     ‘Decimal('0')’.  Si 'value' est une chaîne de caractères, elle doit
     correspondre à la syntaxe décimale en dehors des espaces de début
     et de fin, ou des tirets bas, qui sont enlevés :

          sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
          digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
          indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
          digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
          decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
          exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
          infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
          nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
          numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
          numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

     Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where ‘digit’
     appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
     alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
     with the fullwidth digits ‘'\uff10'’ through ‘'\uff19'’.  Case is
     not significant, so, for example, ‘inf’, ‘Inf’, ‘INFINITY’, and
     ‘iNfINity’ are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

     Si 'value' est un *note n-uplet: 366, il doit avoir trois éléments,
     le signe (‘0’ pour positif ou ‘1’ pour négatif), un *note n-uplet:
     366. de chiffres et un entier représentant l'exposant.  Par
     exemple, ‘Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4), -3))’ construit l'objet
     ‘Decimal('1.414')’.

     If 'value' is a *note float: 2ec, the binary floating-point value
     is losslessly converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This
     conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision.  For
     example, ‘Decimal(float('1.1'))’ converts to
     ‘Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')’.

     La précision spécifiée dans le contexte n'affecte pas le nombre de
     chiffres stockés.  Cette valeur est déterminée exclusivement par le
     nombre de chiffres dans 'value'.  Par exemple, ‘Decimal('3.00000')’
     enregistre les 5 zéros même si la précision du contexte est de 3.

     L'objectif de l'argument 'context' est de déterminer ce que Python
     doit faire si 'value' est une chaîne avec un mauvais format.  Si le
     déroutement est activé pour *note InvalidOperation: 108e, une
     exception est levée, sinon le constructeur renvoie un objet
     ‘Decimal’ de valeur ‘NaN’.

     Une fois construit, un objet *note Decimal: 29a. est immuable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: l'argument du constructeur peut
     désormais être un objet *note float: 2ec.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: un argument *note float: 2ec. lève une
     exception si le déroutement est activé pour *note FloatOperation:
     1088.  Par défaut le déroutement n'est pas activé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: les tirets bas sont autorisés pour
     regrouper, tout comme pour l'arithmétique en virgule fixe et
     flottante.

     Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other
     built-in numeric types such as *note float: 2ec. and *note int:
     254.  All of the usual math operations and special methods apply.
     Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as
     dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and
     coerced to another type (such as *note float: 2ec. or *note int:
     254.).

     Il existe quelques différences mineures entre l'arithmétique entre
     les objets décimaux et l'arithmétique avec les entiers et les
     ‘float’.  Quand l'opérateur modulo ‘%’ est appliqué sur des objets
     décimaux, le signe du résultat est le signe du 'dividende' plutôt
     que le signe du diviseur :

          >>> (-7) % 4
          1
          >>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-3')

     L'opérateur division entière (‘//’) se comporte de la même manière,
     renvoyant la partie entière du quotient plutôt que son arrondi, de
     manière à préserver l'identité d'Euclide ‘x == (x // y) * y + x %
     y’ :

          >>> -7 // 4
          -2
          >>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-1')

     Les opérateurs ‘//’ et ‘%’ implémentent la division entière et le
     reste (ou modulo), respectivement, tels que décrits dans la
     spécification.

     Les objets ‘Decimal’ ne peuvent généralement pas être combinés avec
     des ‘float’ ou des objets *note fractions.Fraction: 1e4. lors
     d'opérations arithmétiques : toute addition entre un *note Decimal:
     29a. et un *note float: 2ec, par exemple, lève une exception *note
     TypeError: 525.  Cependant, il est possible d'utiliser les
     opérateurs de comparaison entre instances de *note Decimal: 29a. et
     les autres types numériques.  Cela évite d'avoir des résultats
     absurdes lors des tests d'égalité entre différents types.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: les comparaisons inter-types entre
     *note Decimal: 29a. et les autres types numériques sont désormais
     intégralement gérées.

     In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal
     floating-point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

      -- Méthode: adjusted ()

          Renvoie l'exposant ajusté après avoir décalé les chiffres les
          plus à droite du coefficient jusqu'à ce qu'il ne reste que le
          premier chiffre : ‘Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()’ renvoie sept.
          Utilisée pour déterminer la position du chiffre le plus
          significatif par rapport à la virgule.

      -- Méthode: as_integer_ratio ()

          Renvoie un couple d'entiers ‘(n, d)’ qui représentent
          l'instance *note Decimal: 29a. donnée sous la forme d'une
          fraction, avec les termes les plus petits possibles et avec un
          dénominateur positif :

               >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
               (-157, 50)

          La conversion est exacte.  Lève une ‘OverflowError’ sur
          l'infini et ‘ValueError’ sur les 'Nan'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: as_tuple ()

          Renvoie une représentation sous la forme d'un *note n-uplet
          nommé: 63b. du nombre ‘DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exposant)’.

      -- Méthode: canonical ()

          Renvoie la forme canonique de l'argument.  Actuellement, la
          forme d'une instance *note Decimal: 29a. est toujours
          canonique, donc cette opération renvoie son argument inchangé.

      -- Méthode: compare (other, context=None)

          Compare les valeurs de deux instances 'Decimal'.  *note
          compare(): 260d. renvoie une instance 'Decimal' et, si l'un
          des opérandes est un 'NaN', alors le résultat est un 'NaN' :

               a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
               a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
               a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
               a > b            ==> Decimal('1')

      -- Méthode: compare_signal (other, context=None)

          Cette opération est identique à la méthode *note compare():
          260d, sauf que tous les 'NaN' activent un déroutement.
          Autrement dit, si aucun des opérandes n'est un 'NaN' de
          signalisation, alors tout opérande 'NaN' silencieux est traité
          comme s'il s'agissait d'un 'NaN' de signalisation.

      -- Méthode: compare_total (other, context=None)

          Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation
          abstraite plutôt que leur valeur numérique.  Similaire à la
          méthode *note compare(): 260d, mais le résultat donne un ordre
          total sur les instances *note Decimal: 29a.  Deux instances de
          *note Decimal: 29a. avec la même valeur numérique mais des
          représentations différentes se comparent de manière inégale
          dans cet ordre :

               >>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
               Decimal('-1')

          Les 'NaN' silencieux et de signalisation sont également inclus
          dans l'ordre total.  Le résultat de cette fonction est
          ‘Decimal('0')’ si les deux opérandes ont la même
          représentation, ‘Decimal('-1')’ si le premier opérande est
          inférieur au second, et ‘Decimal('1')’ si le premier opérande
          est supérieur au deuxième opérande.  Voir les spécifications
          pour les détails de l'ordre total.

          Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse :
          aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est
          effectué.  Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une
          'InvalidOperation' si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être
          converti exactement.

      -- Méthode: compare_total_mag (other, context=None)

          Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation
          abstraite plutôt que leur valeur comme dans *note
          compare_total(): 260f, mais en ignorant le signe de chaque
          opérande.  ‘x.compare_total_mag(y)’ est équivalent à
          ‘x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())’.

          Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse :
          aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est
          effectué.  Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une
          'InvalidOperation' si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être
          converti exactement.

      -- Méthode: conjugate ()

          Ne fait que renvoyer self ; cette méthode existe uniquement
          pour se conformer à la spécification.

      -- Méthode: copy_abs ()

          Renvoie la valeur absolue de l'argument.  Cette opération ne
          dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun drapeau
          n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué.

      -- Méthode: copy_negate ()

          Renvoie la négation de l'argument.  Cette opération ne dépend
          pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun drapeau n'est
          modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué.

      -- Méthode: copy_sign (other, context=None)

          Renvoie une copie du premier opérande mais avec le même signe
          que celui du deuxième opérande.  Par exemple :

               >>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
               Decimal('-2.3')

          Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse :
          aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est
          effectué.  Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une
          'InvalidOperation' si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être
          converti exactement.

      -- Méthode: exp (context=None)

          Renvoie la valeur ‘e**x’ (fonction exponentielle) du nombre
          donné.  Le résultat est correctement arrondi en utilisant le
          mode d'arrondi *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 25f9.

               >>> Decimal(1).exp()
               Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
               >>> Decimal(321).exp()
               Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_float (f)

          Constructeur alternatif qui n'accepte que les instances de
          *note float: 2ec. ou *note int: 254.

          Remarquez que ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ est différent de
          ‘Decimal('0.1')’.  Puisque 0.1 n'est pas exactement
          représentable en virgule flottante binaire, la valeur est
          stockée comme la valeur représentable la plus proche qui est
          ‘0x1.999999999999ap-4’.  La valeur équivalente en décimal est
          ‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’.

               Note: depuis Python 3.2, une instance *note Decimal: 29a.
               peut également être construite directement à partir d'un
               *note float: 2ec.

               >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
               Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
               Decimal('NaN')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
               Decimal('Infinity')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
               Decimal('-Infinity')

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: fma (other, third, context=None)

          Multiplier-ajouter fusionné.  Renvoie ‘self*other+third’ sans
          arrondir le produit intermédiaire ‘self*other’.

               >>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
               Decimal('11')

      -- Méthode: is_canonical ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est sous forme
          canonique et *note False: b27. sinon.  Actuellement, une
          instance *note Decimal: 29a. est toujours canonique, donc
          cette opération renvoie toujours *note True: bfd.

      -- Méthode: is_finite ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un nombre fini et
          *note False: b27. si l'argument est un infini ou un 'NaN'.

      -- Méthode: is_infinite ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un infini positif
          ou négatif, *note False: b27. sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_nan ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un 'NaN'
          (signalétique ou silencieux), *note False: b27. sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_normal (context=None)

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un nombre fini
          'normal'.  Renvoie *note False: b27. si l'argument est zéro,
          infini, résultat d'un dépassement par valeur inférieure ou un
          'NaN'.

      -- Méthode: is_qnan ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un 'NaN'
          silencieux, *note False: b27. sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_signed ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est négatif, *note
          False: b27. sinon.  Remarquez que les zéros et les 'NaN'
          peuvent être signés.

      -- Méthode: is_snan ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un 'NaN'
          signalétique, *note False: b27. sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_subnormal (context=None)

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est le résultat d'un
          dépassement par valeur inférieure, *note False: b27. sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_zero ()

          Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'argument est un zéro (positif ou
          négatif), *note False: b27. sinon.

      -- Méthode: ln (context=None)

          Renvoie le logarithme naturel (base e) de l'opérande.  Le
          résultat est arrondi avec le mode *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 25f9.

      -- Méthode: log10 (context=None)

          Renvoie le logarithme en base 10 de l'opérande.  Le résultat
          est arrondi avec le mode *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 25f9.

      -- Méthode: logb (context=None)

          Pour un nombre non nul, renvoie l'exposant ajusté de son
          opérande en tant qu'instance *note Decimal: 29a.  Si
          l'opérande est un zéro alors ‘Decimal('-Infinity')’ est
          renvoyé et le drapeau *note DivisionByZero: 25fe. est levé.
          Si l'opérande est un infini alors ‘Decimal('Infinity')’ est
          renvoyé.

      -- Méthode: logical_and (other, context=None)

          *note logical_and(): 2622. est une opération logique qui prend
          deux 'opérandes logiques' (voir *note Opérandes logiques:
          2623.).  Le résultat est le 'ET' des chiffres des deux
          opérandes.

      -- Méthode: logical_invert (context=None)

          *note logical_invert(): 2624. est une opération logique.  Le
          résultat est l'inversion de chacun des chiffres de l'opérande.

      -- Méthode: logical_or (other, context=None)

          *note logical_or(): 2625. est une opération logique qui prend
          deux 'opérandes logiques' (voir *note Opérandes logiques:
          2623.).  Le résultat est le 'OU' des chiffres des deux
          opérandes.

      -- Méthode: logical_xor (other, context=None)

          *note logical_xor(): 2626. est une opération logique qui prend
          deux 'opérandes logiques' (voir *note Opérandes logiques:
          2623.).  Le résultat est le 'OU EXCLUSIF' des chiffres des
          deux opérandes.

      -- Méthode: max (other, context=None)

          Comme ‘max(self, other)’ sauf que la règle d'arrondi de
          'context' est appliquée avant le retour et que les valeurs
          ‘NaN’ sont signalées ou ignorées (selon le contexte et si
          elles sont signalétiques ou silencieuses).

      -- Méthode: max_mag (other, context=None)

          Semblable à la méthode *note max(): 2627, mais la comparaison
          est effectuée en utilisant les valeurs absolues des opérandes.

      -- Méthode: min (other, context=None)

          Comme ‘min(self, other)’ sauf que la règle d'arrondi de
          'context' est appliquée avant le retour et que les valeurs
          ‘NaN’ sont signalées ou ignorées (selon le contexte et si
          elles sont signalétiques ou silencieuses).

      -- Méthode: min_mag (other, context=None)

          Semblable à la méthode *note min(): 2629, mais la comparaison
          est effectuée en utilisant les valeurs absolues des opérandes.

      -- Méthode: next_minus (context=None)

          Renvoie le plus grand nombre représentable dans le 'context'
          donné (ou dans le contexte du fil d'exécution actuel si aucun
          contexte n'est donné) qui est plus petit que l'opérande donné.

      -- Méthode: next_plus (context=None)

          Renvoie le plus petit nombre représentable dans le 'context'
          donné (ou dans le contexte du fil d'exécution actuel si aucun
          contexte n'est donné) qui est supérieur à l'opérande donné.

      -- Méthode: next_toward (other, context=None)

          Si les deux opérandes ne sont pas égaux, renvoie le nombre le
          plus proche du premier opérande dans la direction du deuxième
          opérande.  Si les deux opérandes sont numériquement égaux,
          renvoie une copie du premier opérande avec le signe défini
          comme étant le même que le signe du second opérande.

      -- Méthode: normalize (context=None)

          Utilisé pour produire des valeurs canoniques d'une classe
          d'équivalence dans le contexte actuel ou dans le contexte
          spécifié.

          C'est la même sémantique que l'opération unaire plus, sauf que
          si le résultat final est fini, il est réduit à sa forme la
          plus simple, avec tous les zéros à droite supprimés et son
          signe conservé.  Autrement dit, tant que la mantisse est
          différente de zéro et est un multiple de dix, elle est divisée
          par dix et l'exposant est incrémenté de 1.  Sinon (la mantisse
          est nulle), l'exposant est mis à 0.  Dans tous les cas, le
          signe est inchangé.

          Par exemple, ‘Decimal('32.100')’ et ‘Decimal('0.321000e+2')’
          se normalisent tous deux à la valeur équivalente
          ‘Decimal('32.1')’.

          Notez que l'arrondi est appliqué 'avant' la réduction à la
          forme la plus simple.

          Dans les dernières versions de la spécification, cette
          opération est également connue sous le nom de ‘reduce’.

      -- Méthode: number_class (context=None)

          Renvoie une chaîne décrivant la 'classe' de l'opérande.  La
          valeur renvoyée est l'une des dix chaînes suivantes.

             * ‘"-Infinity"’, indiquant que l'opérande est l'infini
               négatif ;

             * ‘"-Normal"’, indiquant que l'opérande est un nombre
               négatif normal ;

             * ‘"-Subnormal"’, indiquant que l'opérande est négatif et
               qu'il est le résultat d'un dépassement par valeur
               inférieure ;

             * ‘"-Zero"’, indiquant que l'opérande est un zéro négatif ;

             * ‘"+Zero"’, indiquant que l'opérande est un zéro positif ;

             * ‘"+Subnormal"’, indiquant que l'opérande est positif et
               qu'il est le résultat un dépassement par valeur
               inférieure ;

             * ‘"+Normal"’, indiquant que l'opérande est un nombre
               positif normal ;

             * ‘"+Infinity"’, indiquant que l'opérande est l'infini
               positif ;

             * ‘"NaN"’, indiquant que l'opérande est un 'NaN' ('Not a
               Number', pas un nombre) silencieux ;

             * ‘"sNaN"’, indiquant que l'opérande est un 'NaN' ('Not a
               Number', pas un nombre) signalétique.

      -- Méthode: quantize (exp, rounding=None, context=None)

          Renvoie une valeur égale au premier opérande après arrondi et
          ayant l'exposant du second opérande.

               >>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
               Decimal('1.414')

          Contrairement aux autres opérations, si la longueur du
          coefficient après l'opération de quantification est supérieure
          à la précision, alors une *note InvalidOperation: 108e. est
          signalée.  Ceci garantit que, sauf condition d'erreur,
          l'exposant quantifié est toujours égal à celui de l'opérande
          de droite.

          Contrairement aux autres opérations, la quantification ne
          signale jamais de dépassement par valeur inférieure, même si
          le résultat est inférieur à la valeur minimale représentable
          et inexact.

          Si l'exposant du deuxième opérande est supérieur à celui du
          premier, un arrondi peut être nécessaire.  Dans ce cas, le
          mode d'arrondi est déterminé par l'argument ‘rounding’ s'il
          est donné, sinon par l'argument ‘context’ donné ; si aucun
          argument n'est donné, le mode d'arrondi du contexte du fil
          d'exécution courant est utilisé.

          Une erreur est renvoyée chaque fois que l'exposant résultant
          est supérieur à ‘Emax’ ou inférieur à *note Etiny(): 2630.

      -- Méthode: radix ()

          Renvoie ‘Decimal(10)’, la base (base) dans laquelle la classe
          *note Decimal: 29a. fait toute son arithmétique.  Inclus pour
          la compatibilité avec la spécification.

      -- Méthode: remainder_near (other, context=None)

          Renvoie le reste de la division de 'self' par 'other'.  La
          différence avec ‘self % other’ réside dans le signe du reste,
          qui est choisi de manière à minimiser sa valeur absolue.  Plus
          précisément, la valeur de retour est ‘self - n * other’ où ‘n’
          est l'entier le plus proche de la valeur exacte de ‘self /
          other’ et, si deux entiers sont également proches, alors
          l'entier pair est choisi.

          Si le résultat est zéro, alors son signe est le signe de
          'self'.

               >>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-2')
               >>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('5')
               >>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-5')

      -- Méthode: rotate (other, context=None)

          Renvoie le résultat de la rotation des chiffres du premier
          opérande d'une quantité spécifiée par le deuxième opérande.
          Le deuxième opérande doit être un entier compris dans la plage
          -précision à précision.  La valeur absolue du deuxième
          opérande donne le nombre de rotations unitaires à faire.  Si
          le deuxième opérande est positif alors la rotation se fait
          vers la gauche ; sinon la rotation se fait vers la droite.  Le
          coefficient du premier opérande est complété à gauche avec des
          zéros à la précision de la longueur si nécessaire.  Le signe
          et l'exposant du premier opérande sont inchangés.

      -- Méthode: same_quantum (other, context=None)

          Teste si 'self' et 'other' ont le même exposant ou si les deux
          sont ‘NaN’.

          Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse :
          aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est
          effectué.  Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une
          'InvalidOperation' si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être
          converti exactement.

      -- Méthode: scaleb (other, context=None)

          Renvoie le premier opérande avec l'exposant ajusté par le
          second.  De manière équivalente, renvoie le premier opérande
          multiplié par ‘10**other’.  Le deuxième opérande doit être
          entier.

      -- Méthode: shift (other, context=None)

          Renvoie le résultat du décalage des chiffres du premier
          opérande d'une quantité spécifiée par le deuxième opérande.
          Le deuxième opérande doit être un entier compris dans la plage
          -précision à précision.  La valeur absolue du deuxième
          opérande donne le nombre de décalages unitaires à effectuer.
          Si le deuxième opérande est positif alors le décalage est vers
          la gauche ; sinon le décalage est vers la droite.  Les
          chiffres insérés dans le nombre par le décalage sont des
          zéros.  Le signe et l'exposant du premier opérande sont
          inchangés.

      -- Méthode: sqrt (context=None)

          Renvoie la racine carrée de l'argument avec une précision
          maximale.

      -- Méthode: to_eng_string (context=None)

          Convertir en chaîne, en utilisant la notation ingénieur si un
          exposant est nécessaire.

          La notation ingénieur possède un exposant qui est un multiple
          de 3.  Cela peut laisser jusqu'à 3 chiffres à gauche de la
          décimale et peut nécessiter l'ajout d'un ou de deux zéros à la
          fin.

          Par exemple, ‘Decimal('123E+1')’ est converti en
          ‘Decimal('1.23E+3')’.

      -- Méthode: to_integral (rounding=None, context=None)

          Identique à la méthode *note to_integral_value(): 263a.  Le
          nom ‘to_integral’ a été conservé pour la compatibilité avec
          les anciennes versions.

      -- Méthode: to_integral_exact (rounding=None, context=None)

          Arrondit à l'entier le plus proche, en signalant *note
          Inexact: 25ff. ou *note Rounded: 2600. selon le cas si
          l'arrondi se produit.  Le mode d'arrondi est déterminé par le
          paramètre ‘rounding’ s'il est donné, sinon par le ‘context’
          donné.  Si aucun paramètre n'est donné, le mode d'arrondi du
          contexte courant est utilisé.

      -- Méthode: to_integral_value (rounding=None, context=None)

          Arrondit à l'entier le plus proche sans signaler *note
          Inexact: 25ff. ou *note Rounded: 2600.  Si donné, applique
          'rounding' ; sinon, utilise la méthode d'arrondi dans le
          'context' fourni ou dans le contexte actuel.

     Decimal numbers can be rounded using the *note round(): 12ba.
     function:

      -- Describe: round(number)

      -- Describe: round(number, ndigits)

          If 'ndigits' is not given or ‘None’, returns the nearest *note
          int: 254. to 'number', rounding ties to even, and ignoring the
          rounding mode of the *note Decimal: 29a. context.  Raises
          *note OverflowError: 86f. if 'number' is an infinity or *note
          ValueError: 1ff. if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.

          If 'ndigits' is an *note int: 254, the context's rounding mode
          is respected and a *note Decimal: 29a. representing 'number'
          rounded to the nearest multiple of ‘Decimal('1E-ndigits')’ is
          returned; in this case, ‘round(number, ndigits)’ is equivalent
          to ‘self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits'))’.  Returns
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’ if 'number' is a quiet NaN. Raises *note
          InvalidOperation: 108e. if 'number' is an infinity, a
          signaling NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after the
          quantize operation would be greater than the current context's
          precision.  In other words, for the non-corner cases:

             * if 'ndigits' is positive, return 'number' rounded to
               'ndigits' decimal places;

             * if 'ndigits' is zero, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest integer;

             * if 'ndigits' is negative, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest multiple of ‘10**abs(ndigits)’.

          Par exemple :

               >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
               >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'))     # context rounding ignored
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.5'))      # round-ties-to-even
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0)  # uses the context rounding
               Decimal('3')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
               Decimal('3.7')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
               Decimal('0E+1')

* Menu:

* Opérandes logiques::


File: python.info,  Node: Opérandes logiques,  Up: Les objets Decimal

5.9.4.3 Opérandes logiques
..........................

Les méthodes *note logical_and(): 2622, *note logical_invert(): 2624,
*note logical_or(): 2625. et *note logical_xor(): 2626. s'attendent à ce
que leurs arguments soient des 'opérandes logiques'.  Un 'opérande
logique' est une instance *note Decimal: 29a. dont l'exposant et le
signe sont tous les deux zéro et dont les chiffres sont tous ‘0’ ou ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets de contexte,  Next: Constantes<4>,  Prev: Les objets Decimal,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.4 Objets de contexte
..........................

Les contextes sont des environnements pour les opérations arithmétiques.
Ils régissent la précision, établissent des règles d'arrondi,
déterminent quels signaux sont traités comme des exceptions et limitent
la plage des exposants.

Chaque fil d'exécution a son propre contexte actuel qui est accessible
ou modifié à l'aide des fonctions *note getcontext(): 158f. et *note
setcontext(): 2606. :

 -- Fonction: decimal.getcontext ()

     Renvoie le contexte actuel du fil d'exécution courant.

 -- Fonction: decimal.setcontext (c)

     Définit le contexte du fil d'exécution courant à 'c'.

Vous pouvez également utiliser l'instruction *note with: 5be. et la
fonction *note localcontext(): 17c0. pour modifier temporairement le
contexte actif.

 -- Fonction: decimal.localcontext (ctx=None, **kwargs)

     Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte qui définira le contexte actuel
     du fil d'exécution actif sur une copie de 'ctx' à l'entrée de
     l'instruction 'with' et restaurera le contexte précédent lors de la
     sortie de l'instruction 'with'.  Si aucun contexte n'est spécifié,
     une copie du contexte actuel est utilisée.  L'argument 'kwargs' est
     utilisé pour définir les attributs du nouveau contexte.

     Par exemple, le code suivant définit la précision décimale actuelle
     à 42 chiffres, effectue un calcul, puis restaure automatiquement le
     contexte précédent :

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext() as ctx:
              ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision

     En utilisant des arguments nommés, le code serait le suivant :

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext(prec=42) as ctx:
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s

     Lève *note TypeError: 525. si 'kwargs' fournit un attribut que
     *note Context: 1093. ne prend pas en charge.  Lève soit *note
     TypeError: 525. ou *note ValueError: 1ff. si 'kwargs' fournit une
     valeur invalide pour un attribut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note localcontext(): 17c0. prend
     désormais en charge la définition des attributs de contexte grâce à
     l'utilisation d'arguments nommés.

De nouveaux contextes peuvent également être créés à l'aide du
constructeur *note Context: 1093. décrit ci-dessous.  De plus, le module
fournit trois contextes prédéfinis :

 -- Données: decimal.BasicContext

     Il s'agit d'un contexte standard défini par la 'General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification'.  La précision est fixée à neuf.
     L'arrondi est défini sur *note ROUND_HALF_UP: 25fa.  Tous les
     drapeaux sont effacés.  Tous les déroutements sont activés (ils
     lèvent des exceptions) sauf *note Inexact: 25ff, *note Rounded:
     2600. et *note Subnormal: 2601.

     Étant donné que de nombreuses options de déroutement sont activées,
     ce contexte est utile pour le débogage.

 -- Données: decimal.ExtendedContext

     Il s'agit d'un contexte standard défini par la 'General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification'.  La précision est fixée à neuf.
     L'arrondi est défini sur *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 25f9.  Toutes les
     options de déroutement sont désactivées (afin que les exceptions ne
     soient pas levées pendant les calculs).

     Comme les interruptions sont désactivées, ce contexte est utile
     pour les applications qui préfèrent avoir une valeur de résultat
     ‘NaN’ ou ‘Infinity’ au lieu de lever des exceptions.  Cela permet à
     une application de terminer une exécution en présence de conditions
     qui, autrement, arrêteraient le programme.

 -- Données: decimal.DefaultContext

     Ce contexte est utilisé par le constructeur *note Context: 1093.
     comme prototype pour de nouveaux contextes.  Changer un champ (par
     exemple la précision) a pour effet de changer la valeur par défaut
     pour les nouveaux contextes créés par le constructeur *note
     Context: 1093.

     Ce contexte est particulièrement utile dans les environnements à
     plusieurs fils d'exécution.  La modification de l'un des champs
     avant le démarrage des fils a pour effet de définir des valeurs par
     défaut à l'échelle du système.  La modification des champs après le
     démarrage des fils d'exécution n'est pas recommandée car cela
     nécessiterait une synchronisation des fils d'exécution pour éviter
     des conditions de concurrence.

     Dans les environnements à fil d'exécution unique, il est préférable
     de ne pas utiliser ce contexte du tout.  Créez plutôt simplement
     des contextes explicitement comme décrit ci-dessous.

     Les valeurs par défaut sont ‘Context.prec’=‘28’,
     ‘Context.rounding’=*note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 25f9. et les
     interruptions sont activées pour *note Overflow: 2602, *note
     InvalidOperation: 108e. et *note DivisionByZero: 25fe.

En plus des trois contextes fournis, de nouveaux contextes peuvent être
créés avec le constructeur *note Context: 1093.

 -- Classe: decimal.Context (prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None,
          Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)

     Crée un nouveau contexte.  Si un champ n'est pas spécifié ou est
     *note None: 662, les valeurs par défaut sont copiées à partir du
     *note DefaultContext: 108b.  Si le champ 'flags' n'est pas spécifié
     ou est *note None: 662, tous les indicateurs sont effacés.

     'prec' est un entier compris dans la plage [‘1’, *note MAX_PREC:
     263e.] qui définit la précision des opérations arithmétiques dans
     le contexte.

     L'option 'rounding' est l'une des constantes répertoriées dans la
     section *note Modes d'arrondi: 263f.

     Les champs 'traps' et 'flags' répertorient tous les signaux à
     définir.  En général, les nouveaux contextes ne doivent qu'activer
     des surveillances et laisser les drapeaux baissés.

     Les champs 'Emin' et 'Emax' sont des entiers spécifiant les valeurs
     limites autorisées pour les exposants.  'Emin' doit être dans
     [*note MIN_EMIN: 2640, ‘0’], 'Emax' dans la plage [‘0’, *note
     MAX_EMAX: 2641.].

     Le champ 'capitals' est soit ‘0’ soit ‘1’ (la valeur par défaut).
     S'il est défini à ‘1’, les exposants sont imprimés avec un ‘E’
     majuscule ; sinon, un ‘e’ minuscule est utilisé :
     ‘Decimal('6.02e+23')’.

     Le champ 'clamp' est soit ‘0’ (la valeur par défaut), soit ‘1’.
     S'il est défini à ‘1’, l'exposant ‘e’ d'une instance *note Decimal:
     29a. représentable dans ce contexte est strictement limité à la
     plage ‘Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1’.  Si 'clamp' est
     ‘0’ alors une condition plus faible est vraie : l'exposant ajusté
     de l'instance *note Decimal: 29a. est au plus ‘Emax’.  Lorsque
     'clamp' vaut ‘1’, un grand nombre normal voit, si possible, son
     exposant réduit et un nombre correspondant de zéros ajouté à sa
     mantisse, afin de s'adapter aux contraintes d'exposant ; cela
     préserve la valeur du nombre mais perd des informations sur les
     zéros significatifs.  Par exemple :

          >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
          Decimal('1.23000E+999')

     Une valeur 'clamp' de ‘1’ permet la compatibilité avec les formats
     d'échange décimaux à largeur fixe spécifiés dans la norme IEEE 754.

     La classe *note Context: 1093. définit plusieurs méthodes à usage
     général ainsi qu'un grand nombre de méthodes permettant de faire de
     l'arithmétique directement dans un contexte donné.  De plus, pour
     chacune des méthodes *note Decimal: 29a. décrites ci-dessus (à
     l'exception des méthodes *note adjusted(): 260a. et *note
     as_tuple(): 260b.), il existe une méthode *note Context: 1093.
     correspondante.  Par exemple, pour une instance *note Context:
     1093. ‘C’ et une instance *note Decimal: 29a. ‘x’, ‘C.exp(x)’ est
     équivalent à ‘x.exp(context=C)’.  Chaque méthode *note Context:
     1093. accepte un entier Python (une instance de *note int: 254.)
     partout où une instance Decimal est acceptée.

      -- Méthode: clear_flags ()

          Réinitialise tous les drapeaux à ‘0’.

      -- Méthode: clear_traps ()

          Réinitialise toutes les surveillances à ‘0’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Renvoie une copie du contexte.

      -- Méthode: copy_decimal (num)

          Renvoie une copie de l'instance ‘Decimal’ 'num'.

      -- Méthode: create_decimal (num)

          Crée une nouvelle instance Decimal à partir de 'num' mais en
          utilisant 'self' comme contexte.  Contrairement au
          constructeur *note Decimal: 29a, la précision du contexte, la
          méthode d'arrondi, les indicateurs et les surveillances sont
          appliqués à la conversion.

          C'est utile car les constantes sont souvent données avec une
          précision supérieure à celle requise par l'application.  Un
          autre avantage est que l’arrondi élimine immédiatement les
          effets involontaires des chiffres au-delà de la précision
          actuelle.  Dans l'exemple suivant, l'utilisation d'entrées non
          arrondies signifie que l'ajout de zéro à une somme peut
          modifier le résultat :

               >>> getcontext().prec = 3
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.45')
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.44')

          Cette méthode implémente l'opération 'to-number' de la
          spécification IBM. Si l’argument est une chaîne, aucun espace
          ou trait de soulignement de début ou de fin n’est autorisé.

      -- Méthode: create_decimal_from_float (f)

          Crée une nouvelle instance Decimal à partir d'un 'float' 'f'
          mais en arrondissant en utilisant 'self' comme contexte.
          Contrairement à la méthode de classe *note
          Decimal.from_float(): 11e3, la précision du contexte, la
          méthode d'arrondi, les indicateurs et les surveillances sont
          appliqués à la conversion.

               >>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Decimal('3.1415')
               >>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                   ...
               decimal.Inexact: None

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: Etiny ()

          Renvoie une valeur égale à ‘Emin - prec + 1’ qui est la valeur
          minimale de l'exposant pour les résultats avec dépassement
          inférieur.  Lorsqu'un dépassement inférieur se produit,
          l'exposant est défini sur *note Etiny: 2630.

      -- Méthode: Etop ()

          Renvoie une valeur égale à ‘Emax - prec + 1’.

     L'approche habituelle pour travailler avec des décimaux consiste à
     créer des instances *note Decimal: 29a, puis à appliquer des
     opérations arithmétiques qui ont lieu dans le contexte actuel du
     fil d'exécution actif.  Une approche alternative consiste à
     utiliser des méthodes contextuelles pour calculer dans un contexte
     spécifique.  Les méthodes sont similaires à celles de la classe
     *note Decimal: 29a. et ne sont décrites que brièvement ici.

      -- Méthode: abs (x)

          Renvoie la valeur absolue de 'x'.

      -- Méthode: add (x, y)

          Renvoie la somme de 'x' et 'y'.

      -- Méthode: canonical (x)

          Renvoie l'objet Decimal 'x' lui-même.

      -- Méthode: compare (x, y)

          Compare 'x' et 'y' numériquement.

      -- Méthode: compare_signal (x, y)

          Compare numériquement les valeurs des deux opérandes.

      -- Méthode: compare_total (x, y)

          Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation
          abstraite.

      -- Méthode: compare_total_mag (x, y)

          Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation
          abstraite, en ignorant le signe.

      -- Méthode: copy_abs (x)

          Renvoie une copie de 'x' avec le signe à 0 (c.-à-d.  positif).

      -- Méthode: copy_negate (x)

          Renvoie une copie de 'x' mais de signe opposé.

      -- Méthode: copy_sign (x, y)

          Copie le signe de 'y' vers 'x'.

      -- Méthode: divide (x, y)

          Renvoie 'x' divisé par 'y'.

      -- Méthode: divide_int (x, y)

          Renvoie 'x' divisé par 'y', tronqué comme entier.

      -- Méthode: divmod (x, y)

          Renvoie la partie entière de la division entre deux nombres.

      -- Méthode: exp (x)

          Renvoie ‘e ** x’.

      -- Méthode: fma (x, y, z)

          Renvoie 'x' multiplié par 'y', plus 'z'.

      -- Méthode: is_canonical (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est canonique ; ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_finite (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est fini ; ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_infinite (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est infini et ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_nan (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est un 'NaN' (silencieux ou
          signalétique), ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_normal (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est un nombre normal ; ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_qnan (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est un 'NaN' silencieux, ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_signed (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est négatif et ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_snan (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est un 'NaN' signalétique, ‘False’
          sinon.

      -- Méthode: is_subnormal (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est est inférieur à la valeur minimale
          représentable ; sinon, renvoie ‘False’.

      -- Méthode: is_zero (x)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'x' est un zéro et ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: ln (x)

          Renvoie le logarithme naturel (en base e) de 'x'.

      -- Méthode: log10 (x)

          Renvoie le logarithme en base 10 de 'x'.

      -- Méthode: logb (x)

          Renvoie l'exposant correspondant du chiffre de poids fort de
          la mantisse de l'opérande.

      -- Méthode: logical_and (x, y)

          Applique l'opération logique 'ET' entre les chiffres de chaque
          opérande.

      -- Méthode: logical_invert (x)

          Inverse tous les chiffres de 'x'.

      -- Méthode: logical_or (x, y)

          Applique l'opération logique 'OU' entre les chiffres de chaque
          opérande.

      -- Méthode: logical_xor (x, y)

          Applique l'opération logique 'OU EXCLUSIF' entre les chiffres
          de chaque opérande.

      -- Méthode: max (x, y)

          Renvoie le maximum entre les deux valeurs numériques.

      -- Méthode: max_mag (x, y)

          Compare les valeurs numériquement en ignorant leur signe.

      -- Méthode: min (x, y)

          Compare numériquement deux valeurs et renvoie le minimum.

      -- Méthode: min_mag (x, y)

          Compare les valeurs numériquement en ignorant leur signe.

      -- Méthode: minus (x)

          Correspond à l’opérateur unaire préfixé « moins » en Python.

      -- Méthode: multiply (x, y)

          Renvoie la multiplication de 'x' avec 'y'.

      -- Méthode: next_minus (x)

          Renvoie le plus grand nombre représentable inférieur à 'x'.

      -- Méthode: next_plus (x)

          Renvoie le plus petit nombre représentable supérieur à 'x'.

      -- Méthode: next_toward (x, y)

          Renvoie le nombre le plus proche de 'x', en direction de 'y'.

      -- Méthode: normalize (x)

          Réduit 'x' à sa forme la plus simple.

      -- Méthode: number_class (x)

          Renvoie une indication de la classe de 'x'.

      -- Méthode: plus (x)

          Correspond à l'opérateur unaire préfixé « plus » en Python.
          Cette opération applique la précision du contexte et
          l'arrondi, ce n'est donc 'pas' une opération d'identité.

      -- Méthode: power (x, y, modulo=None)

          Renvoie ‘x’ à la puissance ‘y’, réduit modulo ‘modulo’ si
          celui-ci est donné.

          Avec deux arguments, calcule ‘x**y’.  Si ‘x’ est négatif alors
          ‘y’ doit être entier.  Le résultat est inexact à moins que ‘y’
          soit entier et que le résultat soit fini et puisse être
          exprimé exactement en ‘precision’ chiffres.  Le mode d'arrondi
          du contexte est utilisé.  Les résultats sont toujours
          correctement arrondis à la manière de Python.

          ‘Decimal(0) ** Decimal(0)’ donne ‘InvalidOperation’ et, si
          ‘InvalidOperation’ n'est pas surveillé, cela donne
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: le module C calcule *note
          power(): 2671. en termes de fonctions *note exp(): 2653. et
          *note ln(): 265e. correctement arrondies.  Le résultat est
          bien défini mais seulement « presque toujours correctement
          arrondi ».

          Avec trois arguments, calcule ‘(x**y) % modulo’.  Pour la
          forme à trois arguments, les restrictions suivantes sur les
          arguments s'appliquent :

             - les trois arguments doivent être entiers ;

             - ‘y’ ne doit pas être négatif ;

             - au moins l'un de ‘x’ ou ‘y’ doit être différent de zéro ;

             - ‘modulo’ doit être différent de zéro et avoir au plus
               ‘precision’ chiffres.

          La valeur résultant de ‘Context.power(x, y, modulo)’ est égale
          à la valeur qui serait obtenue en calculant ‘(x**y) % modulo’
          avec une précision illimitée, mais est calculée plus
          efficacement.  L'exposant du résultat est zéro, quels que
          soient les exposants de ‘x’, ‘y’ et ‘modulo’.  Le résultat est
          toujours exact.

      -- Méthode: quantize (x, y)

          Renvoie une valeur égale à 'x' (arrondie), ayant l'exposant de
          'y'.

      -- Méthode: radix ()

          Renvoie 10 car c'est 'Decimal', :)

      -- Méthode: remainder (x, y)

          Renvoie le reste de la division entière.

          Le signe du résultat, s'il est différent de zéro, est le même
          que celui du dividende initial.

      -- Méthode: remainder_near (x, y)

          Renvoie ‘x - y * n’, où 'n' est l'entier le plus proche de la
          valeur exacte de ‘x / y’ (si le résultat est 0 alors son signe
          est le signe de 'x').

      -- Méthode: rotate (x, y)

          Renvoie une copie pivotée de 'x', 'y' fois.

      -- Méthode: same_quantum (x, y)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si les deux opérandes ont le même exposant.

      -- Méthode: scaleb (x, y)

          Renvoie le premier opérande après avoir ajouté la deuxième
          valeur à son 'exp'.

      -- Méthode: shift (x, y)

          Renvoie une copie décalée de 'x', 'y' fois.

      -- Méthode: sqrt (x)

          Renvoie la racine carrée d'un nombre non négatif avec la
          précision donnée par le contexte.

      -- Méthode: subtract (x, y)

          Renvoie la différence entre 'x' et 'y'.

      -- Méthode: to_eng_string (x)

          Convertir en chaîne, en utilisant la notation ingénieur si un
          exposant est nécessaire.

          La notation ingénieur possède un exposant qui est un multiple
          de 3.  Cela peut laisser jusqu'à 3 chiffres à gauche de la
          décimale et peut nécessiter l'ajout d'un ou de deux zéros à la
          fin.

      -- Méthode: to_integral_exact (x)

          Arrondit à un entier.

      -- Méthode: to_sci_string (x)

          Convertit un nombre en chaîne en utilisant la notation
          scientifique.


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<4>,  Next: Modes d'arrondi,  Prev: Objets de contexte,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.5 Constantes
..................

Les constantes de cette section ne sont pertinentes que pour le module
C.  Elles sont aussi incluses pour la compatibilité dans la version en
Python pur.

                          32-bit                    64-bit
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
 -- Données:              ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_PREC                          

 -- Données:              ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_EMAX                          

 -- Données:              ‘-425000000’              ‘-999999999999999999’
          decimal.MIN_EMIN                          

 -- Données:              ‘-849999999’              ‘-1999999999999999997’
          decimal.MIN_ETINY                         

 -- Données: decimal.HAVE_THREADS

     La valeur est ‘True’.  Déprécié, parce que maintenant Python
     possède toujours des fils d'exécution.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9.

 -- Données: decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR

     The default value is ‘True’.  If Python is *note configured using
     the -without-decimal-contextvar option: 1d31, the C version uses a
     thread-local rather than a coroutine-local context and the value is
     ‘False’.  This is slightly faster in some nested context scenarios.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Modes d'arrondi,  Next: Signaux,  Prev: Constantes<4>,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.6 Modes d'arrondi
.......................

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_CEILING

     Round towards ‘Infinity’.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_DOWN

     Round towards zero.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_FLOOR

     Round towards ‘-Infinity’.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN

     Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN

     Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP

     Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_UP

     Round away from zero.

 -- Données: decimal.ROUND_05UP

     Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero
     would have been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Signaux,  Next: Floating-Point Notes,  Prev: Modes d'arrondi,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.7 Signaux
...............

Signals represent conditions that arise during computation.  Each
corresponds to one context flag and one context trap enabler.

The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered.  After
the computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for
instance, to determine whether a computation was exact).  After checking
the flags, be sure to clear all flags before starting the next
computation.

If the context's trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition
causes a Python exception to be raised.  For example, if the *note
DivisionByZero: 25fe. trap is set, then a *note DivisionByZero: 25fe.
exception is raised upon encountering the condition.

 -- Classe: decimal.Clamped

     Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.

     Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the
     context's ‘Emin’ and ‘Emax’ limits.  If possible, the exponent is
     reduced to fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.

 -- Classe: decimal.DecimalException

     Base class for other signals and a subclass of *note
     ArithmeticError: 2242.

 -- Classe: decimal.DivisionByZero

     Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.

     Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number
     to a negative power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns
     ‘Infinity’ or ‘-Infinity’ with the sign determined by the inputs to
     the calculation.

 -- Classe: decimal.Inexact

     Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.

     Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding.  The
     rounded result is returned.  The signal flag or trap is used to
     detect when results are inexact.

 -- Classe: decimal.InvalidOperation

     An invalid operation was performed.

     Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense.
     If not trapped, returns ‘NaN’.  Possible causes include:

          Infinity - Infinity
          0 * Infinity
          Infinity / Infinity
          x % 0
          Infinity % x
          sqrt(-x) and x > 0
          0 ** 0
          x ** (non-integer)
          x ** Infinity

 -- Classe: decimal.Overflow

     Débordement numérique.

     Indicates the exponent is larger than ‘Context.Emax’ after rounding
     has occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding
     mode, either pulling inward to the largest representable finite
     number or rounding outward to ‘Infinity’.  In either case, *note
     Inexact: 25ff. and *note Rounded: 2600. are also signaled.

 -- Classe: decimal.Rounded

     Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.

     Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits
     are zero (such as rounding ‘5.00’ to ‘5.0’).  If not trapped,
     returns the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss
     of significant digits.

 -- Classe: decimal.Subnormal

     Exponent was lower than ‘Emin’ prior to rounding.

     Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too
     small).  If not trapped, returns the result unchanged.

 -- Classe: decimal.Underflow

     Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.

     Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding.
     *note Inexact: 25ff. and *note Subnormal: 2601. are also signaled.

 -- Classe: decimal.FloatOperation

     Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

     If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals
     is permitted in the *note Decimal: 29a. constructor, *note
     create_decimal(): 108f. and all comparison operators.  Both
     conversion and comparisons are exact.  Any occurrence of a mixed
     operation is silently recorded by setting *note FloatOperation:
     1088. in the context flags.  Explicit conversions with *note
     from_float(): 11e3. or *note create_decimal_from_float(): 2645. do
     not set the flag.

     Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and
     explicit conversions are silent.  All other mixed operations raise
     *note FloatOperation: 1088.

The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:

     exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
         DecimalException
             Clamped
             DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
             Inexact
                 Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
                 Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
             InvalidOperation
             Rounded
             Subnormal
             FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Notes,  Next: Working with threads,  Prev: Signaux,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.8 Floating-Point Notes
............................

* Menu:

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* Special values::


File: python.info,  Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Next: Special values,  Up: Floating-Point Notes

5.9.4.9 Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
...........................................................

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation
error (making it possible to represent ‘0.1’ exactly); however, some
operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed
the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or
subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of
significance.  Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded
floating-point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the
breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

     # Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
     >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
     >>> getcontext().prec = 8

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.5111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('10')

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.01')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')

The *note decimal: 36. module makes it possible to restore the
identities by expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of
significance:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 20
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>>
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')


File: python.info,  Node: Special values,  Prev: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Up: Floating-Point Notes

5.9.4.10 Special values
.......................

The number system for the *note decimal: 36. module provides special
values including ‘NaN’, ‘sNaN’, ‘-Infinity’, ‘Infinity’, and two zeros,
‘+0’ and ‘-0’.

Infinities can be constructed directly with: ‘Decimal('Infinity')’.
Also, they can arise from dividing by zero when the *note
DivisionByZero: 25fe. signal is not trapped.  Likewise, when the *note
Overflow: 2602. signal is not trapped, infinity can result from rounding
beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic
operations where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers.
For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite
result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return ‘NaN’, or if the *note
InvalidOperation: 108e. signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For
example, ‘0/0’ returns ‘NaN’ which means "not a number".  This variety
of ‘NaN’ is quiet and, once created, will flow through other
computations always resulting in another ‘NaN’.  This behavior can be
useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing
inputs -- it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific
results as invalid.

A variant is ‘sNaN’ which signals rather than remaining quiet after
every operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result
needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python's comparison operators can be a little surprising
where a ‘NaN’ is involved.  A test for equality where one of the
operands is a quiet or signaling ‘NaN’ always returns *note False: b27.
(even when doing ‘Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')’), while a test for
inequality always returns *note True: bfd.  An attempt to compare two
Decimals using any of the ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ or ‘>=’ operators will raise
the *note InvalidOperation: 108e. signal if either operand is a ‘NaN’,
and return *note False: b27. if this signal is not trapped.  Note that
the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the
behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a
‘NaN’ were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section
5.7).  To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the *note compare():
260d. and *note compare_signal(): 260e. methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow.  They keep
the sign that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried
out to greater precision.  Since their magnitude is zero, both positive
and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there
are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet
equivalent in value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye
accustomed to normalized floating-point representations, it is not
immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal
to zero:

     >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
     Decimal('0E-1000026')


File: python.info,  Node: Working with threads,  Next: Cas pratiques,  Prev: Floating-Point Notes,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.11 Working with threads
.............................

The *note getcontext(): 158f. function accesses a different *note
Context: 1093. object for each thread.  Having separate thread contexts
means that threads may make changes (such as ‘getcontext().prec=10’)
without interfering with other threads.

Likewise, the *note setcontext(): 2606. function automatically assigns
its target to the current thread.

If *note setcontext(): 2606. has not been called before *note
getcontext(): 158f, then *note getcontext(): 158f. will automatically
create a new context for use in the current thread.

The new context is copied from a prototype context called
'DefaultContext'.  To control the defaults so that each thread will use
the same values throughout the application, directly modify the
'DefaultContext' object.  This should be done 'before' any threads are
started so that there won't be a race condition between threads calling
*note getcontext(): 158f.  For example:

     # Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
     DefaultContext.prec = 12
     DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
     DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
     DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
     setcontext(DefaultContext)

     # Afterwards, the threads can be started
     t1.start()
     t2.start()
     t3.start()
      . . .


File: python.info,  Node: Cas pratiques,  Next: FAQ decimal,  Prev: Working with threads,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.12 Cas pratiques
......................

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that
demonstrate ways to work with the *note Decimal: 29a. class:

     def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
                  pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
         """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

         places:  required number of places after the decimal point
         curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
         sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
         dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
                  only specify as blank when places is zero
         pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
         neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
         trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

         >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
         '-$1,234,567.89'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
         '1.234.568-'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
         '($1,234,567.89)'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
         '123 456 789.00'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
         '<0.02>'

         """
         q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
         sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
         result = []
         digits = list(map(str, digits))
         build, next = result.append, digits.pop
         if sign:
             build(trailneg)
         for i in range(places):
             build(next() if digits else '0')
         if places:
             build(dp)
         if not digits:
             build('0')
         i = 0
         while digits:
             build(next())
             i += 1
             if i == 3 and digits:
                 i = 0
                 build(sep)
         build(curr)
         build(neg if sign else pos)
         return ''.join(reversed(result))

     def pi():
         """Compute Pi to the current precision.

         >>> print(pi())
         3.141592653589793238462643383

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
         three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
         lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             n, na = n+na, na+8
             d, da = d+da, da+32
             t = (t * n) / d
             s += t
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

     def exp(x):
         """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.

         >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
         2.718281828459045235360287471
         >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
         7.389056098930650227230427461
         >>> print(exp(2.0))
         7.38905609893
         >>> print(exp(2+0j))
         (7.38905609893+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 1
             fact *= i
             num *= x
             s += num / fact
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def cos(x):
         """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.8775825618903727161162815826
         >>> print(cos(0.5))
         0.87758256189
         >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
         (0.87758256189+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def sin(x):
         """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.4794255386042030002732879352
         >>> print(sin(0.5))
         0.479425538604
         >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
         (0.479425538604+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ decimal,  Prev: Cas pratiques,  Up: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.13 FAQ 'decimal'
......................

Q. C'est fastidieux de taper ‘decimal.Decimal('1234.5')’.  Y a-t-il un
moyen de réduire la frappe quand on utilise l'interpréteur interactif ?

R. Certains utilisateurs abrègent le constructeur en une seule lettre :

     >>> D = decimal.Decimal
     >>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
     Decimal('4.68')

Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs
have many places and need to be rounded.  Others are not supposed to
have excess digits and need to be validated.  What methods should be
used?

A. The *note quantize(): 1094. method rounds to a fixed number of
decimal places.  If the *note Inexact: 25ff. trap is set, it is also
useful for validation:

     >>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')

     >>> # Round to two places
     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
     >>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     Inexact: None

Q. Une fois que mes entrées sont à deux décimales valides, comment
maintenir cet invariant dans l'application ?

R. Certaines opérations comme l'addition, la soustraction et la
multiplication par un entier préservent automatiquement la virgule fixe.
D'autres opérations, comme la division et la multiplication par des
non-entiers, changent le nombre de décimales et doivent être suivies
d'une étape *note quantize(): 1094. :

     >>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
     >>> b = Decimal('3.17')
     >>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
     Decimal('105.89')
     >>> a - b
     Decimal('99.55')
     >>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
     Decimal('4314.24')
     >>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
     Decimal('0.03')

Lors du développement d'applications en virgule fixe, il est pratique de
définir des fonctions pour gérer cette étape de quantification par *note
quantize(): 1094. :

     >>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
     ...
     >>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)

     >>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> div(b, a)
     Decimal('0.03')

Q. There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers ‘200’,
‘200.000’, ‘2E2’, and ‘.02E+4’ all have the same value at various
precisions.  Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
canonical value?

A. The *note normalize(): 262e. method maps all equivalent values to a
single representative:

     >>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
     >>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
     [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q. When does rounding occur in a computation?

A. It occurs 'after' the computation.  The philosophy of the decimal
specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created
independent of the current context.  They can even have greater
precision than current context.  Computations process with those exact
inputs and then rounding (or other context operations) is applied to the
'result' of the computation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 5
     >>> pi = Decimal('3.1415926535')   # More than 5 digits
     >>> pi                             # All digits are retained
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> pi + 0                         # Rounded after an addition
     Decimal('3.1416')
     >>> pi - Decimal('0.00005')        # Subtract unrounded numbers, then round
     Decimal('3.1415')
     >>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005').   # Intermediate values are rounded
     Decimal('3.1416')

Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation.  Is there
a way to get a non-exponential representation?

A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the
number of significant places in the coefficient.  For example,
expressing ‘5.0E+3’ as ‘5000’ keeps the value constant but cannot show
the original's two-place significance.

If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy
to remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but
keeping the value unchanged:

     >>> def remove_exponent(d):
     ...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

     >>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
     Decimal('5000')

Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a *note Decimal: 29a.?

A. Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a
Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than
intuition would suggest:

     >>> Decimal(math.pi)
     Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven't
gotten a spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding
anomalies.

A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results.  A best practice is
to re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding
modes.  Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision,
rounding mode issues, ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable
algorithm.

Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of
operations but not to the inputs.  Is there anything to watch out for
when mixing values of different precisions?

A. Yes.  The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and
so is the arithmetic on those values.  Only the results are rounded.
The advantage for inputs is that "what you type is what you get".  A
disadvantage is that the results can look odd if you forget that the
inputs haven't been rounded:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.21')
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.20')

The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of
inputs using the unary plus operation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
     Decimal('1.23')

Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the *note
Context.create_decimal(): 108f. method:

     >>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
     Decimal('1.2345')

Q. Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?

A. Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions
of the decimal module integrate the high speed libmpdec(1) library for
arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic
(2).  ‘libmpdec’ uses Karatsuba multiplication(3) for medium-sized
numbers and the Number Theoretic Transform(4) for very large numbers.

The context must be adapted for exact arbitrary precision arithmetic.
‘Emin’ and ‘Emax’ should always be set to the maximum values, ‘clamp’
should always be 0 (the default).  Setting ‘prec’ requires some care.

The easiest approach for trying out bignum arithmetic is to use the
maximum value for ‘prec’ as well (5):

     >>> setcontext(Context(prec=MAX_PREC, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN))
     >>> x = Decimal(2) ** 256
     >>> x / 128
     Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')

For inexact results, *note MAX_PREC: 263e. is far too large on 64-bit
platforms and the available memory will be insufficient:

     >>> Decimal(1) / 3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     MemoryError

On systems with overallocation (e.g.  Linux), a more sophisticated
approach is to adjust ‘prec’ to the amount of available RAM. Suppose
that you have 8GB of RAM and expect 10 simultaneous operands using a
maximum of 500MB each:

     >>> import sys
     >>>
     >>> # Maximum number of digits for a single operand using 500MB in 8-byte words
     >>> # with 19 digits per word (4-byte and 9 digits for the 32-bit build):
     >>> maxdigits = 19 * ((500 * 1024**2) // 8)
     >>>
     >>> # Check that this works:
     >>> c = Context(prec=maxdigits, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN)
     >>> c.traps[Inexact] = True
     >>> setcontext(c)
     >>>
     >>> # Fill the available precision with nines:
     >>> x = Decimal(0).logical_invert() * 9
     >>> sys.getsizeof(x)
     524288112
     >>> x + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       decimal.Inexact: [<class 'decimal.Inexact'>]

In general (and especially on systems without overallocation), it is
recommended to estimate even tighter bounds and set the *note Inexact:
25ff. trap if all calculations are expected to be exact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html

   (2) 
Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform

   (5) 
Modifié dans la version 3.9: This approach now works for all exact
results except for non-integer powers.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions --- Rational numbers,  Next: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers,  Prev: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.5 ‘fractions’ -- Rational numbers
-------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/fractions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note fractions: 5c. fournit un support de l'arithmétique des
nombres rationnels.

Une instance de 'Fraction' peut être construite depuis une paire
d'entiers, depuis un autre nombre rationnel, ou depuis une chaîne de
caractères.

 -- Classe: fractions.Fraction (numerator=0, denominator=1)

 -- Classe: fractions.Fraction (other_fraction)

 -- Classe: fractions.Fraction (float)

 -- Classe: fractions.Fraction (decimal)

 -- Classe: fractions.Fraction (string)

     The first version requires that 'numerator' and 'denominator' are
     instances of *note numbers.Rational: 129e. and returns a new *note
     Fraction: 1e4. instance with value ‘numerator/denominator’.  If
     'denominator' is ‘0’, it raises a *note ZeroDivisionError: 934.
     The second version requires that 'other_fraction' is an instance of
     *note numbers.Rational: 129e. and returns a *note Fraction: 1e4.
     instance with the same value.  The next two versions accept either
     a *note float: 2ec. or a *note decimal.Decimal: 29a. instance, and
     return a *note Fraction: 1e4. instance with exactly the same value.
     Note that due to the usual issues with binary floating point (see
     *note Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: 1cce.),
     the argument to ‘Fraction(1.1)’ is not exactly equal to 11/10, and
     so ‘Fraction(1.1)’ does 'not' return ‘Fraction(11, 10)’ as one
     might expect.  (But see the documentation for the *note
     limit_denominator(): 2691. method below.)  The last version of the
     constructor expects a string or unicode instance.  The usual form
     for this instance is:

          [sign] numerator ['/' denominator]

     where the optional ‘sign’ may be either '+' or '-' and ‘numerator’
     and ‘denominator’ (if present) are strings of decimal digits
     (underscores may be used to delimit digits as with integral
     literals in code).  In addition, any string that represents a
     finite value and is accepted by the *note float: 2ec. constructor
     is also accepted by the *note Fraction: 1e4. constructor.  In
     either form the input string may also have leading and/or trailing
     whitespace.  Here are some examples:

          >>> from fractions import Fraction
          >>> Fraction(16, -10)
          Fraction(-8, 5)
          >>> Fraction(123)
          Fraction(123, 1)
          >>> Fraction()
          Fraction(0, 1)
          >>> Fraction('3/7')
          Fraction(3, 7)
          >>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
          Fraction(-3, 7)
          >>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
          Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction('-.125')
          Fraction(-1, 8)
          >>> Fraction('7e-6')
          Fraction(7, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction(2.25)
          Fraction(9, 4)
          >>> Fraction(1.1)
          Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
          >>> from decimal import Decimal
          >>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
          Fraction(11, 10)

     The *note Fraction: 1e4. class inherits from the abstract base
     class *note numbers.Rational: 129e, and implements all of the
     methods and operations from that class.  *note Fraction: 1e4.
     instances are *note hashable: 5fd, and should be treated as
     immutable.  In addition, *note Fraction: 1e4. has the following
     properties and methods:

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le constructeur de *note Fraction:
     1e4. accepte maintenant des instances de *note float: 2ec. et *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The *note math.gcd(): 8ff. function is
     now used to normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note
     math.gcd(): 8ff. always returns an *note int: 254. type.
     Previously, the GCD type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Underscores are now permitted when
     creating a *note Fraction: 1e4. instance from a string, following
     PEP 515(2) rules.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note Fraction: 1e4. implements
     ‘__int__’ now to satisfy ‘typing.SupportsInt’ instance checks.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Space is allowed around the slash for
     string inputs: ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note Fraction: 1e4. instances now
     support float-style formatting, with presentation types ‘"e"’,
     ‘"E"’, ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%""’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Formatting of *note Fraction: 1e4.
     instances without a presentation type now supports fill, alignment,
     sign handling, minimum width and grouping.

      -- Attribut: numerator

          Numérateur de la fraction irréductible.

      -- Attribut: denominator

          Dénominateur de la fraction irréductible.

      -- Méthode: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a tuple of two integers, whose ratio is equal to the
          original Fraction.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a
          positive denominator.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: is_integer ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Fraction is an integer.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_float (flt)

          Ce constructeur alternatif accepte (uniquement) des nombres à
          virgule flottante, de classe *note float: 2ec, ou plus
          généralement des instances de *note numbers.Integral: 1f75.
          Attention, ‘Fraction.from_float(0.3)’ est différent de
          ‘Fraction(3, 10)’.

               Note: Depuis Python 3.2, vous pouvez aussi construire une
               instance de *note Fraction: 1e4. directement depuis un
               *note float: 2ec.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_decimal (dec)

          Ce constructeur alternatif accepte (uniquement) les instances
          de *note decimal.Decimal: 29a. ou *note numbers.Integral:
          1f75.

               Note: Depuis Python 3.2, vous pouvez aussi construire une
               instance de *note Fraction: 1e4. directement depuis une
               instance de *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.

      -- Méthode: limit_denominator (max_denominator=1000000)

          Trouve et renvoie la *note Fraction: 1e4. la plus proche de
          ‘self’ qui a au plus 'max_denominator' comme dénominateur.
          Cette méthode est utile pour trouver des approximations
          rationnelles de nombres flottants donnés :

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
               Fraction(355, 113)

          ou pour retrouver un nombre rationnel représenté par un
          flottant :

               >>> from math import pi, cos
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
               Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(1, 2)
               >>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(11, 10)

      -- Méthode: __floor__ ()

          Renvoie le plus grand *note int: 254. ‘<= self’.  Cette
          méthode peut aussi être utilisée à travers la fonction *note
          math.floor(): 137a. :

               >>> from math import floor
               >>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
               3

      -- Méthode: __ceil__ ()

          Renvoie le plus petit *note int: 254. ‘>= self’.  Cette
          méthode peut aussi être utilisée à travers la fonction *note
          math.ceil(): 137b.

      -- Méthode: __round__ ()

      -- Méthode: __round__ (ndigits)

          La première version renvoie l'*note int: 254. le plus proche
          de ‘self’, arrondissant les demis au nombre pair le plus
          proche.  La seconde version arrondit ‘self’ au plus proche
          multiple de ‘Fraction(1, 10**ndigits)’ (logiquement, si
          ‘ndigits’ est négatif), arrondissant toujours les demis au
          nombre pair le plus proche.  Cette méthode peut aussi être
          utilisée à via la fonction *note round(): 12ba.

      -- Méthode: __format__ (format_spec, /)

          Provides support for formatting of *note Fraction: 1e4.
          instances via the *note str.format(): 60e. method, the *note
          format(): 60c. built-in function, or *note Formatted string
          literals: 999.

          If the ‘format_spec’ format specification string does not end
          with one of the presentation types ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’,
          ‘'g'’, ‘'G'’ or ‘'%'’ then formatting follows the general
          rules for fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width, and
          grouping as described in the *note format specification
          mini-language: 1e5.  The "alternate form" flag ‘'#'’ is
          supported: if present, it forces the output string to always
          include an explicit denominator, even when the value being
          formatted is an exact integer.  The zero-fill flag ‘'0'’ is
          not supported.

          If the ‘format_spec’ format specification string ends with one
          of the presentation types ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’,
          ‘'G'’ or ‘'%'’ then formatting follows the rules outlined for
          the *note float: 2ec. type in the *note Mini-langage de
          spécification de format: 1e5. section.

          Voici quelques exemples :

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> format(Fraction(103993, 33102), '_')
               '103_993/33_102'
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.^+10')
               '...+1/7...'
               >>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '')
               '3'
               >>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '#')
               '3/1'
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.40g')
               '0.1428571428571428571428571428571428571429'
               >>> format(Fraction('1234567.855'), '_.2f')
               '1_234_567.86'
               >>> f"{Fraction(355, 113):*>20.6e}"
               '********3.141593e+00'
               >>> old_price, new_price = 499, 672
               >>> "{:.2%} price increase".format(Fraction(new_price, old_price) - 1)
               '34.67% price increase'

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note numbers: 9d.

     Les classes abstraites représentant la hiérarchie des nombres.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/fractions.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers,  Next: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions,  Prev: fractions --- Rational numbers,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.6 ‘random’ -- Generate pseudo-random numbers
------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/random.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module implémente des générateurs de nombres pseudo-aléatoires pour
différentes distributions.

Pour les entiers, il existe une sélection uniforme à partir d'une plage.
Pour les séquences, il existe une sélection uniforme d'un élément
aléatoire, une fonction pour générer une permutation aléatoire d'une
liste sur place et une fonction pour un échantillonnage aléatoire sans
remplacement.

Pour l'ensemble des réels, il y a des fonctions pour calculer des
distributions uniformes, normales (gaussiennes), log-normales,
exponentielles négatives, gamma et bêta.  Pour générer des distributions
d'angles, la distribution de 'von Mises' est disponible.

Almost all module functions depend on the basic function *note random():
734, which generates a random float uniformly in the half-open range
‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’.  Python uses the Mersenne Twister as the core
generator.  It produces 53-bit precision floats and has a period of
2**19937-1.  The underlying implementation in C is both fast and
threadsafe.  The Mersenne Twister is one of the most extensively tested
random number generators in existence.  However, being completely
deterministic, it is not suitable for all purposes, and is completely
unsuitable for cryptographic purposes.

Les fonctions fournies par ce module dépendent en réalité de méthodes
d’une instance cachée de la classe *note random.Random: 1864.  Vous
pouvez créer vos propres instances de *note Random: 1864. pour obtenir
des générateurs sans états partagés.

Class *note Random: 1864. can also be subclassed if you want to use a
different basic generator of your own devising: see the documentation on
that class for more details.

Le module *note random: b7. fournit également la classe *note
SystemRandom: 2699. qui utilise la fonction système *note os.urandom():
50f. pour générer des nombres aléatoires à partir de sources fournies
par le système d'exploitation.

     Avertissement: Les générateurs pseudo-aléatoires de ce module ne
     doivent pas être utilisés à des fins de sécurité.  Pour des
     utilisations de sécurité ou cryptographiques, voir le module *note
     secrets: bf.

Voir aussi
..........

'M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, "Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator", ACM Transactions
on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol.  8, No.  1,' Janvier pp.3-30
1998.

Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe(2) for a compatible alternative
random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple
update operations.

     Note: The global random number generator and instances of *note
     Random: 1864. are thread-safe.  However, in the free-threaded
     build, concurrent calls to the global generator or to the same
     instance of *note Random: 1864. may encounter contention and poor
     performance.  Consider using separate instances of *note Random:
     1864. per thread instead.

* Menu:

* Fonctions de gestion d'état::
* Fonctions pour les octets::
* Fonctions pour les entiers::
* Fonctions pour les séquences::
* Discrete distributions::
* Distributions pour les nombres réels::
* Générateur alternatif::
* Remarques sur la reproductibilité::
* Exemples: Exemples<4>.
* Cas pratiques: Cas pratiques<2>.
* Command-line usage::
* Command-line example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/random.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707-long-period-random-number-generator/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de gestion d'état,  Next: Fonctions pour les octets,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.1 Fonctions de gestion d'état
...................................

 -- Fonction: random.seed (a=None, version=2)

     Initialise le générateur de nombres aléatoires.

     Si 'a' est omis ou ‘None’, l'heure système actuelle est utilisée.
     Si des sources aléatoires sont fournies par le système
     d'exploitation, elles sont utilisées à la place de l'heure système
     (voir la fonction *note os.urandom(): 50f. pour les détails sur la
     disponibilité).

     Si 'a' est un entier, il est utilisé directement.

     Avec la version 2 (par défaut), un objet *note str: 437, *note
     bytes: 1bd. ou *note bytearray: 52b. est converti en *note int:
     254. et tous ses bits sont utilisés.

     Avec la version 1 (fournie pour reproduire des séquences aléatoires
     produites par d'anciennes versions de Python), l'algorithme pour
     *note str: 437. et *note bytes: 1bd. génère une gamme plus étroite
     de graines.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Passée à la version 2 du schéma qui
     utilise tous les bits d'une graine de chaîne de caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'seed' must be one of the
     following types: ‘None’, *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note
     str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd, or *note bytearray: 52b.

 -- Fonction: random.getstate ()

     Renvoie un objet capturant l'état interne actuel du générateur.
     Cet objet peut être passé à *note setstate(): 269c. pour restaurer
     cet état.

 -- Fonction: random.setstate (state)

     Il convient que 'state' ait été obtenu à partir d'un appel
     précédent à *note getstate(): 269b, et *note setstate(): 269c.
     restaure l'état interne du générateur à ce qu'il était au moment où
     *note getstate(): 269b. a été appelé.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions pour les octets,  Next: Fonctions pour les entiers,  Prev: Fonctions de gestion d'état,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.2 Fonctions pour les octets
.................................

 -- Fonction: random.randbytes (n)

     Génère 'n' octets aléatoires.

     Cette méthode ne doit pas être utilisée pour générer des jetons de
     sécurité.  Utiliser *note secrets.token_bytes(): 269e. à la place.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions pour les entiers,  Next: Fonctions pour les séquences,  Prev: Fonctions pour les octets,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.3 Fonctions pour les entiers
..................................

 -- Fonction: random.randrange (stop)

 -- Fonction: random.randrange (start, stop[, step])

     Return a randomly selected element from ‘range(start, stop, step)’.

     This is roughly equivalent to ‘choice(range(start, stop, step))’
     but supports arbitrarily large ranges and is optimized for common
     cases.

     The positional argument pattern matches the *note range(): 932.
     function.

     Keyword arguments should not be used because they can be
     interpreted in unexpected ways.  For example ‘randrange(start=100)’
     is interpreted as ‘randrange(0, 100, 1)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: *note randrange(): 858. est plus
     sophistiquée dans la production de valeurs uniformément
     distribuées.  Auparavant, elle utilisait un style comme
     ‘int(random()*n)’ qui pouvait produire des distributions légèrement
     inégales.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Automatic conversion of non-integer
     types is no longer supported.  Calls such as ‘randrange(10.0)’ and
     ‘randrange(Fraction(10, 1))’ now raise a *note TypeError: 525.

 -- Fonction: random.randint (a, b)

     Renvoie un entier aléatoire 'N' tel que ‘a <= N <= b’.  Alias pour
     ‘randrange(a, b+1)’.

 -- Fonction: random.getrandbits (k)

     Returns a non-negative Python integer with 'k' random bits.  This
     method is supplied with the Mersenne Twister generator and some
     other generators may also provide it as an optional part of the
     API.  When available, *note getrandbits(): ff8. enables *note
     randrange(): 858. to handle arbitrarily large ranges.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Cette méthode accepte désormais zéro
     pour 'k'.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions pour les séquences,  Next: Discrete distributions,  Prev: Fonctions pour les entiers,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.4 Fonctions pour les séquences
....................................

 -- Fonction: random.choice (seq)

     Renvoie un élément aléatoire de la séquence non vide 'seq'.  Si
     'seq' est vide, lève *note IndexError: 14ec.

 -- Fonction: random.choices (population, weights=None, *,
          cum_weights=None, k=1)

     Renvoie une liste de taille 'k' d'éléments choisis dans la
     'population' avec remise.  Si la 'population' est vide, lève *note
     IndexError: 14ec.

     Si une séquence de 'poids' est spécifiée, les tirages sont
     effectués en fonction des poids relatifs.  Alternativement, si une
     séquence 'cum_weights' est donnée, les tirages sont faits en
     fonction des poids cumulés (peut-être calculés en utilisant *note
     itertools.accumulate(): 9ed.).  Par exemple, les poids relatifs
     ‘[10, 5, 30, 5]’ sont équivalents aux poids cumulatifs ‘[10, 15,
     45, 50]’.  En interne, les poids relatifs sont convertis en poids
     cumulatifs avant d'effectuer les tirages, ce qui vous permet
     d'économiser du travail en fournissant des pondérations
     cumulatives.

     Si ni 'weights' ni 'cum_weights' ne sont spécifiés, les tirages
     sont effectués avec une probabilité uniforme.  Si une séquence de
     poids est fournie, elle doit être de la même longueur que la
     séquence 'population'.  Spécifier à la fois 'weights' et
     'cum_weights' lève une *note TypeError: 525.

     Les 'weights' ou 'cum_weights' peuvent utiliser n'importe quel type
     numérique interopérable avec les valeurs *note float: 2ec.
     renvoyées par *note random(): b7. (qui inclut les entiers, les
     flottants et les fractions mais exclut les décimaux).  Les poids
     sont présumés être non négatifs et finis.  Une exception *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée si tous les poids sont à zéro.

     For a given seed, the *note choices(): cb6. function with equal
     weighting typically produces a different sequence than repeated
     calls to *note choice(): 1210.  The algorithm used by *note
     choices(): cb6. uses floating-point arithmetic for internal
     consistency and speed.  The algorithm used by *note choice(): 1210.
     defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections to avoid
     small biases from round-off error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si
     tous les poids sont à zéro.

 -- Fonction: random.shuffle (x)

     Mélange la séquence 'x' sans créer de nouvelle instance (« sur
     place »).

     Pour mélanger une séquence immuable et renvoyer une nouvelle liste
     mélangée, utilisez ‘sample(x, k=len(x))’ à la place.

     Notez que même pour les petits ‘len(x)’, le nombre total de
     permutations de 'x' peut rapidement devenir plus grand que la
     période de la plupart des générateurs de nombres aléatoires.  Cela
     implique que la plupart des permutations d'une longue séquence ne
     peuvent jamais être générées.  Par exemple, une séquence de
     longueur 2080 est la plus grande qui puisse tenir dans la période
     du générateur de nombres aléatoires Mersenne Twister.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Removed the optional parameter
     'random'.

 -- Fonction: random.sample (population, k, *, counts=None)

     Return a 'k' length list of unique elements chosen from the
     population sequence.  Used for random sampling without replacement.

     Renvoie une nouvelle liste contenant des éléments de la population
     tout en laissant la population originale inchangée.  La liste
     résultante est classée par ordre de sélection de sorte que toutes
     les sous-tranches soient également des échantillons aléatoires
     valides.  Cela permet aux gagnants du tirage (l'échantillon) d'être
     divisés en gagnants du grand prix et en gagnants de la deuxième
     place (les sous-tranches).

     Les membres de la population n'ont pas besoin d'être *note
     hachables: 5fd. ou uniques.  Si la population contient des
     répétitions, alors chaque occurrence est un tirage possible dans
     l'échantillon.

     Les éléments répétés peuvent être spécifiés un à la fois ou avec le
     paramètre optionnel uniquement nommé 'counts'.  Par exemple,
     ‘sample([‘red’, ‘blue’], counts=[4, 2], k=5)’ est équivalent à
     ‘sample([‘red’, ‘red’, ‘red’, ‘red’, ‘blue’, ‘blue’], k=5)’.

     Pour choisir un échantillon parmi un intervalle d'entiers, utilisez
     un objet *note range(): 932. comme argument.  Ceci est
     particulièrement rapide et économe en mémoire pour un tirage dans
     une grande population : ‘échantillon(range(10000000), k=60)’.

     Si la taille de l'échantillon est supérieure à la taille de la
     population, une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajoute le paramètre 'counts'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'population' must be a sequence.
     Automatic conversion of sets to lists is no longer supported.


File: python.info,  Node: Discrete distributions,  Next: Distributions pour les nombres réels,  Prev: Fonctions pour les séquences,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.5 Discrete distributions
..............................

The following function generates a discrete distribution.

 -- Fonction: random.binomialvariate (n=1, p=0.5)

     Binomial distribution(1).  Return the number of successes for 'n'
     independent trials with the probability of success in each trial
     being 'p':

     Mathematically equivalent to:

          sum(random() < p for i in range(n))

     The number of trials 'n' should be a non-negative integer.  The
     probability of success 'p' should be between ‘0.0 <= p <= 1.0’.
     The result is an integer in the range ‘0 <= X <= n’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Distributions pour les nombres réels,  Next: Générateur alternatif,  Prev: Discrete distributions,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.6 Distributions pour les nombres réels
............................................

Les fonctions suivantes génèrent des distributions spécifiques en nombre
réels.  Les paramètres de fonction sont nommés d'après les variables
correspondantes de l'équation de la distribution, telles qu'elles sont
utilisées dans la pratique mathématique courante ; la plupart de ces
équations peuvent être trouvées dans tout document traitant de
statistiques.

 -- Fonction: random.random ()

     Return the next random floating-point number in the range ‘0.0 <= X
     < 1.0’

 -- Fonction: random.uniform (a, b)

     Return a random floating-point number 'N' such that ‘a <= N <= b’
     for ‘a <= b’ and ‘b <= N <= a’ for ‘b < a’.

     The end-point value ‘b’ may or may not be included in the range
     depending on floating-point rounding in the expression ‘a + (b-a) *
     random()’.

 -- Fonction: random.triangular (low, high, mode)

     Return a random floating-point number 'N' such that ‘low <= N <=
     high’ and with the specified 'mode' between those bounds.  The
     'low' and 'high' bounds default to zero and one.  The 'mode'
     argument defaults to the midpoint between the bounds, giving a
     symmetric distribution.

 -- Fonction: random.betavariate (alpha, beta)

     Distribution bêta.  Les conditions sur les paramètres sont ‘alpha >
     0’ et ‘beta > 0’.  Les valeurs renvoyées varient entre 0 et 1.

 -- Fonction: random.expovariate (lambd=1.0)

     Distribution exponentielle.  'lambd' est 1,0 divisé par la moyenne
     désirée.  Ce ne doit pas être zéro.  (Le paramètre aurait dû
     s'appeler "lambda", mais c'est un mot réservé en Python.)  Les
     valeurs renvoyées vont de 0 à plus l'infini positif si 'lambd' est
     positif, et de moins l'infini à 0 si 'lambd' est négatif.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the default value for ‘lambd’.

 -- Fonction: random.gammavariate (alpha, beta)

     Gamma distribution.  ('Not' the gamma function!)  The shape and
     scale parameters, 'alpha' and 'beta', must have positive values.
     (Calling conventions vary and some sources define 'beta' as the
     inverse of the scale).

     La fonction de distribution de probabilité est :

                    x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
          pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
                      math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha

 -- Fonction: random.gauss (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution.  'mu'
     is the mean, and 'sigma' is the standard deviation.  This is
     slightly faster than the *note normalvariate(): 17ff. function
     defined below.

     Note sur les fils d’exécution multiples ('Multithreading') : quand
     deux fils d’exécution appellent cette fonction simultanément, il
     est possible qu’ils reçoivent la même valeur de retour.  On peut
     l’éviter de 3 façons.  1) Avoir chaque fil utilisant une instance
     différente du générateur de nombres aléatoires.  2) Mettre des
     verrous autour de tous les appels.  3) Utiliser la fonction plus
     lente, mais compatible avec les programmes à fils d’exécution
     multiples, *note normalvariate(): 17ff. à la place.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'mu' and 'sigma' now have default
     arguments.

 -- Fonction: random.lognormvariate (mu, sigma)

     Logarithme de la distribution normale.  Si vous prenez le
     logarithme naturel de cette distribution, vous obtiendrez une
     distribution normale avec 'mu' moyen et écart-type 'sigma'.  'mu'
     peut avoir n'importe quelle valeur et 'sigma' doit être supérieur à
     zéro.

 -- Fonction: random.normalvariate (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Distribution normale.  'mu' est la moyenne et 'sigma' est l'écart
     type.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'mu' and 'sigma' now have default
     arguments.

 -- Fonction: random.vonmisesvariate (mu, kappa)

     'mu' est l'angle moyen, exprimé en radians entre 0 et 2*'pi', et
     'kappa' est le paramètre de concentration, qui doit être supérieur
     ou égal à zéro.  Si 'kappa' est égal à zéro, cette distribution se
     réduit à un angle aléatoire uniforme sur la plage de 0 à 2*'pi'.

 -- Fonction: random.paretovariate (alpha)

     Distribution de Pareto.  'alpha' est le paramètre de forme.

 -- Fonction: random.weibullvariate (alpha, beta)

     Distribution de Weibull.  'alpha' est le paramètre de l'échelle et
     'beta' est le paramètre de forme.


File: python.info,  Node: Générateur alternatif,  Next: Remarques sur la reproductibilité,  Prev: Distributions pour les nombres réels,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.7 Générateur alternatif
.............................

 -- Classe: random.Random ([seed])

     Classe qui implémente le générateur de nombres pseudo-aléatoires
     par défaut utilisé par le module *note random: b7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Formerly the 'seed' could be any
     hashable object.  Now it is limited to: ‘None’, *note int: 254,
     *note float: 2ec, *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd, or *note
     bytearray: 52b.

     Subclasses of ‘Random’ should override the following methods if
     they wish to make use of a different basic generator:

      -- Méthode: seed (a=None, version=2)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          seed(): 1254. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- Méthode: getstate ()

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          getstate(): 269b. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- Méthode: setstate (state)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          setstate(): 269c. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- Méthode: random ()

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          random(): 734. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

     Optionally, a custom generator subclass can also supply the
     following method:

      -- Méthode: getrandbits (k)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          getrandbits(): ff8. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

 -- Classe: random.SystemRandom ([seed])

     Classe qui utilise la fonction *note os.urandom(): 50f. pour
     générer des nombres aléatoires à partir de sources fournies par le
     système d'exploitation.  Non disponible sur tous les systèmes.  Ne
     repose pas sur un état purement logiciel et les séquences ne sont
     pas reproductibles.  Par conséquent, la méthode *note seed(): 1254.
     n'a aucun effet et est ignorée.  Les méthodes *note getstate():
     269b. et *note setstate(): 269c. lèvent *note NotImplementedError:
     225. si vous les appelez.


File: python.info,  Node: Remarques sur la reproductibilité,  Next: Exemples<4>,  Prev: Générateur alternatif,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.8 Remarques sur la reproductibilité
.........................................

Sometimes it is useful to be able to reproduce the sequences given by a
pseudo-random number generator.  By reusing a seed value, the same
sequence should be reproducible from run to run as long as multiple
threads are not running.

La plupart des algorithmes et des fonctions de génération de graine du
module aléatoire sont susceptibles d'être modifiés d'une version à
l'autre de Python, mais deux aspects sont garantis de ne pas changer :

   * Si une nouvelle méthode de génération de graine est ajoutée, une
     fonction rétro-compatible sera offerte.

   * La méthode *note random(): 26af. du générateur continuera à
     produire la même séquence lorsque la fonction de génération de
     graine compatible recevra la même semence.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<4>,  Next: Cas pratiques<2>,  Prev: Remarques sur la reproductibilité,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.9 Exemples
................

Exemples de base :

     >>> random()                          # Random float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
     0.37444887175646646

     >>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                # Random float:  2.5 <= x <= 10.0
     3.1800146073117523

     >>> expovariate(1 / 5)                # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds
     5.148957571865031

     >>> randrange(10)                     # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive
     7

     >>> randrange(0, 101, 2)              # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive
     26

     >>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])   # Single random element from a sequence
     'draw'

     >>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
     >>> shuffle(deck)                     # Shuffle a list
     >>> deck
     ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']

     >>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4) # Four samples without replacement
     [40, 10, 50, 30]

Simulations :

     >>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)
     >>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
     ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']

     >>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck
     >>> # of 52 playing cards, and determine the proportion of cards
     >>> # with a ten-value:  ten, jack, queen, or king.
     >>> deal = sample(['tens', 'low cards'], counts=[16, 36], k=20)
     >>> deal.count('tens') / 20
     0.15

     >>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins
     >>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.
     >>> sum(binomialvariate(n=7, p=0.6) >= 5 for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.4169

     >>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles
     >>> def trial():
     ...     return 2_500 <= sorted(choices(range(10_000), k=5))[2] < 7_500
     ...
     >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.7958

Exemple de *bootstrapping* statistique(1) utilisant le
ré-échantillonnage avec remise pour estimer un intervalle de confiance
pour la moyenne d'un échantillon :

     # https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import choices

     data = [41, 50, 29, 37, 81, 30, 73, 63, 20, 35, 68, 22, 60, 31, 95]
     means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=len(data))) for i in range(100))
     print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
           f'interval from {means[5]:.1f} to {means[94]:.1f}')

Exemple d'un *resampling permutation test*(2) pour déterminer la
signification statistique ou valeur p(3) d'une différence observée entre
les effets d'un médicament et ceux d'un placebo :

     # Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import shuffle

     drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
     placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
     observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)

     n = 10_000
     count = 0
     combined = drug + placebo
     for i in range(n):
         shuffle(combined)
         new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
         count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)

     print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
     print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
     print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
     print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')

Simulation des heures d'arrivée et des livraisons de services pour une
file d'attente de serveurs :

     from heapq import heapify, heapreplace
     from random import expovariate, gauss
     from statistics import mean, quantiles

     average_arrival_interval = 5.6
     average_service_time = 15.0
     stdev_service_time = 3.5
     num_servers = 3

     waits = []
     arrival_time = 0.0
     servers = [0.0] * num_servers  # time when each server becomes available
     heapify(servers)
     for i in range(1_000_000):
         arrival_time += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
         next_server_available = servers[0]
         wait = max(0.0, next_server_available - arrival_time)
         waits.append(wait)
         service_duration = max(0.0, gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time))
         service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration
         heapreplace(servers, service_completed)

     print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}   Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}')
     print('Quartiles:', [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(waits)])

Voir aussi
..........

Statistics for Hackers(4) un tutoriel vidéo par Jake Vanderplas(5) sur
l'analyse statistique en utilisant seulement quelques concepts
fondamentaux dont la simulation, l'échantillonnage, le brassage et la
validation croisée.

Economics Simulation(6) a simulation of a marketplace by Peter Norvig(7)
that shows effective use of many of the tools and distributions provided
by this module (gauss, uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular,
and randrange).

A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python)(8) a tutorial by
Peter Norvig(9) covering the basics of probability theory, how to write
simulations, and how to perform data analysis using Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrap_(statistiques)

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests

   (3) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeur_p

   (4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA

   (5) https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/

   (6) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb

   (7) https://norvig.com/bio.html

   (8) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb

   (9) https://norvig.com/bio.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cas pratiques<2>,  Next: Command-line usage,  Prev: Exemples<4>,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.10 Cas pratiques
......................

These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections from the
combinatoric iterators in the *note itertools: 80. module:

     def random_product(*args, repeat=1):
         "Random selection from itertools.product(*args, **kwds)"
         pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
         return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))

     def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
         "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         r = len(pool) if r is None else r
         return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))

     def random_combination(iterable, r):
         "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
         "Choose r elements with replacement.  Order the result to match the iterable."
         # Result will be in set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)).
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

Par défaut *note random(): 734. renvoie des multiples de 2⁻⁵³ dans la
plage '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0'.  Tous ces nombres sont uniformément répartis et
sont représentés exactement en tant que nombre à virgule flottante
Python.  Cependant, de nombreux autres nombres à virgule flottante dans
cette plage, et représentables en Python, ne sont pas sélectionnables.
Par exemple ‘0.05954861408025609’ n’est pas un multiple de 2⁻⁵³.

La recette suivante utilise une approche différente.  Tous les nombres à
virgule flottante de l’intervalle sont sélectionnables.  La mantisse
provient d’une distribution uniforme d’entiers dans la plage '2⁵² ≤
mantisse < 2⁵³'.  L’exposant provient d’une distribution géométrique où
les exposants plus petits que '-53' apparaissent moitié moins souvent
que l’exposant suivant juste plus grand.

     from random import Random
     from math import ldexp

     class FullRandom(Random):

         def random(self):
             mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 | self.getrandbits(52)
             exponent = -53
             x = 0
             while not x:
                 x = self.getrandbits(32)
                 exponent += x.bit_length() - 32
             return ldexp(mantissa, exponent)

Toutes les *note real valued distributions: 26a3. dans la classe seront
utilisées dans la nouvelle méthode :

     >>> fr = FullRandom()
     >>> fr.random()
     0.05954861408025609
     >>> fr.expovariate(0.25)
     8.87925541791544

La recette est conceptuellement équivalente à un algorithme qui choisit
parmi tous les multiples de 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ dans la plage '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0'.  Tous
ces nombres sont uniformément répartis, mais la plupart doivent être
arrondis au nombre à virgule Python inférieur.  (La valeur 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ est le
plus petit nombre à virgule flottante positif et est égal à
‘math.ulp(0.0)’.)

Voir aussi
..........

Generating Pseudo-random Floating-Point Values(1) une publication par
'Allen B. Downey' décrivant des manières de générer des nombres à
virgule flottante plus fins que normalement générés par *note random():
734.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://allendowney.com/research/rand/downey07randfloat.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage,  Next: Command-line example,  Prev: Cas pratiques<2>,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.11 Command-line usage
...........................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The ‘random’ module can be executed from the command line.

     python -m random [-h] [-c CHOICE [CHOICE ...] | -i N | -f N] [input ...]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

 -- Option: -c CHOICE [CHOICE ...]
 -- Option: --choice CHOICE [CHOICE ...]

     Print a random choice, using *note choice(): 1210.

 -- Option: -i <N>
 -- Option: --integer <N>

     Print a random integer between 1 and N inclusive, using *note
     randint(): 120f.

 -- Option: -f <N>
 -- Option: --float <N>

     Print a random floating-point number between 0 and N inclusive,
     using *note uniform(): 26a4.

If no options are given, the output depends on the input:

   * String or multiple: same as *note -choice: 26b8.

   * Integer: same as *note -integer: 26ba.

   * Float: same as *note -float: 26bc.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line example,  Prev: Command-line usage,  Up: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.12 Command-line example
.............................

Here are some examples of the ‘random’ command-line interface:

     $ # Choose one at random
     $ python -m random egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
     Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce

     $ # Random integer
     $ python -m random 6
     6

     $ # Random floating-point number
     $ python -m random 1.8
     1.7080016272295635

     $ # With explicit arguments
     $ python  -m random --choice egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
     egg

     $ python -m random --integer 6
     3

     $ python -m random --float 1.8
     1.5666339105010318

     $ python -m random --integer 6
     5

     $ python -m random --float 6
     3.1942323316565915


File: python.info,  Node: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions,  Prev: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers,  Up: Modules numériques et mathématiques

5.9.7 ‘statistics’ -- Mathematical statistics functions
-------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

'Code source :' Lib/statistics.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des fonctions pour le calcul de valeurs statistiques
sur des données numériques (valeurs réelles de la classe *note Real:
2153.).

The module is not intended to be a competitor to third-party libraries
such as NumPy(2), SciPy(3), or proprietary full-featured statistics
packages aimed at professional statisticians such as Minitab, SAS and
Matlab.  It is aimed at the level of graphing and scientific
calculators.

À moins que cela ne soit précisé différemment, ces fonctions gèrent les
objets *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note Decimal: 29a. et *note
Fraction: 1e4.  Leur bon comportement avec d'autres types (numériques ou
non) n'est pas garanti.  Le comportement de ces fonctions sur des
collections mixtes de différents types est indéfini et dépend de
l'implémentation.  Si vos données comportement un mélange de plusieurs
types, vous pouvez utiliser *note map(): 850. pour vous assurer que le
résultat est cohérent, par exemple : ‘map(float, input_data)’.

Some datasets use ‘NaN’ (not a number) values to represent missing data.
Since NaNs have unusual comparison semantics, they cause surprising or
undefined behaviors in the statistics functions that sort data or that
count occurrences.  The functions affected are ‘median()’,
‘median_low()’, ‘median_high()’, ‘median_grouped()’, ‘mode()’,
‘multimode()’, and ‘quantiles()’.  The ‘NaN’ values should be stripped
before calling these functions:

     >>> from statistics import median
     >>> from math import isnan
     >>> from itertools import filterfalse

     >>> data = [20.7, float('NaN'),19.2, 18.3, float('NaN'), 14.4]
     >>> sorted(data)  # This has surprising behavior
     [20.7, nan, 14.4, 18.3, 19.2, nan]
     >>> median(data)  # This result is unexpected
     16.35

     >>> sum(map(isnan, data))    # Number of missing values
     2
     >>> clean = list(filterfalse(isnan, data))  # Strip NaN values
     >>> clean
     [20.7, 19.2, 18.3, 14.4]
     >>> sorted(clean)  # Sorting now works as expected
     [14.4, 18.3, 19.2, 20.7]
     >>> median(clean)       # This result is now well defined
     18.75

* Menu:

* Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale::
* Mesures de la dispersion::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* Détails des fonctions::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<5>.
* Objets NormalDist::
* Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/statistics.py

   (2) https://numpy.org

   (3) https://scipy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale,  Next: Mesures de la dispersion,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.1 Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale
...................................................

Ces fonctions calculent une moyenne ou une valeur typique à partir d'une
population ou d'un échantillon.

*note mean(): 6be.          Moyenne arithmétique des données.
                            
                            
*note fmean(): a24.         Fast, floating-point arithmetic mean, with optional weighting.
                            
                            
*note geometric_mean(): a25.Moyenne géométrique des données.
                            
                            
*note harmonic_mean(): cd1. Moyenne harmonique des données.
                            
                            
*note kde(): 247.           Estimate the probability density distribution of the data.
                            
                            
*note kde_random(): 248.    Random sampling from the PDF generated by kde().
                            
                            
*note median(): 26c2.       Médiane (valeur centrale) des données.
                            
                            
*note median_low(): 26c3.   Médiane basse des données.
                            
                            
*note median_high(): 26c4.  Médiane haute des données.
                            
                            
*note median_grouped(): 26c5.Median (50th percentile) of grouped data.
                            
                            
*note mode(): a82.          Mode principal (la valeur la plus représentée) de données
                            discrètes ou nominales.
                            
                            
*note multimode(): a26.     Liste des modes (les valeurs les plus représentées) de données
                            discrètes ou nominales.
                            
                            
*note quantiles(): a27.     Divise les données en intervalles de même probabilité.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Mesures de la dispersion,  Next: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Prev: Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.2 Mesures de la dispersion
................................

Ces fonctions mesurent la tendance de la population ou d'un échantillon
à dévier des valeurs typiques ou des valeurs moyennes.

*note pstdev(): 26c7.       Écart-type de la population.
                            
                            
*note pvariance(): 26c8.    Variance de la population.
                            
                            
*note stdev(): 6c0.         Écart-type d'un échantillon.
                            
                            
*note variance(): 6bf.      Variance d'un échantillon.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Next: Détails des fonctions,  Prev: Mesures de la dispersion,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.3 Statistics for relations between two inputs
...................................................

These functions calculate statistics regarding relations between two
inputs.

*note covariance(): 81c.      Covariance d'un échantillon pour deux variables.
                              
                              
*note correlation(): 4a8.     Pearson and Spearman's correlation coefficients.
                              
                              
*note linear_regression(): 81d.Slope and intercept for simple linear regression.
                              


File: python.info,  Node: Détails des fonctions,  Next: Exceptions<5>,  Prev: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.4 Détails des fonctions
.............................

Note : les fonctions ne requièrent pas que les données soient ordonnées.
Toutefois, pour en faciliter la lecture, les exemples utiliseront des
séquences croissantes.

 -- Fonction: statistics.mean (data)

     Renvoie la moyenne arithmétique de l'échantillon 'data' qui peut
     être une séquence ou un itérable.

     La moyenne arithmétique est la somme des valeurs divisée par le
     nombre d'observations.  Il s'agit de la valeur couramment désignée
     comme la « moyenne » bien qu'il existe de multiples façons de
     définir mathématiquement la moyenne.  C'est une mesure de la
     tendance centrale des données.

     Une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. est levée si 'data' est
     vide.

     Exemples d'utilisation :

          >>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
          2.8
          >>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
          2.625

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
          Fraction(13, 21)

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
          Decimal('0.5625')

          Note: La moyenne arithmétique est fortement impactée par la
          présence de valeurs aberrantes(1) et n'est pas un estimateur
          robuste de la tendance centrale : la moyenne n'est pas
          nécessairement un exemple représentatif de l'échantillon.
          Voir *note median(): 26c2. pour des mesures plus robustes de
          la tendance centrale(2).

          La moyenne de l'échantillon est une estimation non biaisée de
          la moyenne de la véritable population.  Ainsi, en calculant la
          moyenne sur tous les échantillons possibles, ‘mean(sample)’
          converge vers la moyenne réelle de la population entière.  Si
          'data' est une population entière plutôt qu'un échantillon,
          alors ‘mean(data)’ équivaut à calculer la véritable moyenne μ.

 -- Fonction: statistics.fmean (data, weights=None)

     Convertit 'data' en nombres à virgule flottante et calcule la
     moyenne arithmétique.

     Cette fonction est plus rapide que *note mean(): 6be. et renvoie
     toujours un *note float: 2ec.  'data' peut être une séquence ou un
     itérable.  Si les données d'entrée sont vides, la fonction lève une
     erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb.

          >>> fmean([3.5, 4.0, 5.25])
          4.25

     Optional weighting is supported.  For example, a professor assigns
     a grade for a course by weighting quizzes at 20%, homework at 20%,
     a midterm exam at 30%, and a final exam at 30%:

          >>> grades = [85, 92, 83, 91]
          >>> weights = [0.20, 0.20, 0.30, 0.30]
          >>> fmean(grades, weights)
          87.6

     If 'weights' is supplied, it must be the same length as the 'data'
     or a *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- Fonction: statistics.geometric_mean (data)

     Convertit 'data' en nombres à virgule flottante et calcule la
     moyenne géométrique.

     La moyenne géométrique mesure la tendance centrale ou la valeur
     typique de 'data' en utilisant le produit des valeurs (par
     opposition à la moyenne arithmétique qui utilise la somme).

     Lève une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si les données sont
     vides, si elles contiennent un zéro ou une valeur négative.  'data'
     peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

     Aucune mesure particulière n'est prise pour garantir que le
     résultat est parfaitement exact (cela peut toutefois changer dans
     une version future).

          >>> round(geometric_mean([54, 24, 36]), 1)
          36.0

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: statistics.harmonic_mean (data, weights=None)

     Return the harmonic mean of 'data', a sequence or iterable of
     real-valued numbers.  If 'weights' is omitted or ‘None’, then equal
     weighting is assumed.

     The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic *note mean():
     6be. of the reciprocals of the data.  For example, the harmonic
     mean of three values 'a', 'b' and 'c' will be equivalent to ‘3/(1/a
     + 1/b + 1/c)’.  If one of the values is zero, the result will be
     zero.

     The harmonic mean is a type of average, a measure of the central
     location of the data.  It is often appropriate when averaging
     ratios or rates, for example speeds.

     Supposons qu'une voiture parcoure 10 km à 40 km/h puis 10 km à
     60 km/h.  Quelle a été sa vitesse moyenne ?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60])
          48.0

     Suppose a car travels 40 km/hr for 5 km, and when traffic clears,
     speeds-up to 60 km/hr for the remaining 30 km of the journey.  What
     is the average speed?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60], weights=[5, 30])
          56.0

     *note StatisticsError: 26cb. is raised if 'data' is empty, any
     element is less than zero, or if the weighted sum isn't positive.

     L'algorithme actuellement implémenté s'arrête prématurément lors de
     la rencontre d'un zéro dans le parcours de l'entrée.  Cela signifie
     que la validité des valeurs suivantes n'est pas testée (ce
     comportement est susceptible de changer dans une version future).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- Fonction: statistics.kde (data, h, kernel='normal', *,
          cumulative=False)

     Kernel Density Estimation (KDE)(3): Create a continuous probability
     density function or cumulative distribution function from discrete
     samples.

     The basic idea is to smooth the data using a kernel function(4).
     to help draw inferences about a population from a sample.

     The degree of smoothing is controlled by the scaling parameter 'h'
     which is called the bandwidth.  Smaller values emphasize local
     features while larger values give smoother results.

     The 'kernel' determines the relative weights of the sample data
     points.  Generally, the choice of kernel shape does not matter as
     much as the more influential bandwidth smoothing parameter.

     Kernels that give some weight to every sample point include
     'normal' ('gauss'), 'logistic', and 'sigmoid'.

     Kernels that only give weight to sample points within the bandwidth
     include 'rectangular' ('uniform'), 'triangular', 'parabolic'
     ('epanechnikov'), 'quartic' ('biweight'), 'triweight', and
     'cosine'.

     If 'cumulative' is true, will return a cumulative distribution
     function.

     A *note StatisticsError: 26cb. will be raised if the 'data'
     sequence is empty.

     Wikipedia has an example(5) where we can use *note kde(): 247. to
     generate and plot a probability density function estimated from a
     small sample:

          >>> sample = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
          >>> f_hat = kde(sample, h=1.5)
          >>> xarr = [i/100 for i in range(-750, 1100)]
          >>> yarr = [f_hat(x) for x in xarr]

     The points in ‘xarr’ and ‘yarr’ can be used to make a PDF plot:

[image src="python-figures/kde_example.png" alt="Scatter plot of the estimated probability density function."]


     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: statistics.kde_random (data, h, kernel='normal', *,
          seed=None)

     Return a function that makes a random selection from the estimated
     probability density function produced by ‘kde(data, h, kernel)’.

     Providing a 'seed' allows reproducible selections.  In the future,
     the values may change slightly as more accurate kernel inverse CDF
     estimates are implemented.  The seed may be an integer, float, str,
     or bytes.

     A *note StatisticsError: 26cb. will be raised if the 'data'
     sequence is empty.

     Continuing the example for *note kde(): 247, we can use *note
     kde_random(): 248. to generate new random selections from an
     estimated probability density function:

          >>> data = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
          >>> rand = kde_random(data, h=1.5, seed=8675309)
          >>> new_selections = [rand() for i in range(10)]
          >>> [round(x, 1) for x in new_selections]
          [0.7, 6.2, 1.2, 6.9, 7.0, 1.8, 2.5, -0.5, -1.8, 5.6]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: statistics.median (data)

     Renvoie la médiane (la valeur centrale) de données numériques en
     utilisant la méthode classique « moyenne des deux du milieu ».
     Lève une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' est vide.
     'data' peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

     La médiane est une mesure robuste de la tendance centrale et est
     moins sensible à la présence de valeurs aberrantes que la moyenne.
     Lorsque le nombre d'observations est impair, la valeur du milieu
     est renvoyée :

          >>> median([1, 3, 5])
          3

     Lorsque le nombre d'observations est pair, la médiane est
     interpolée en calculant la moyenne des deux valeurs du milieu :

          >>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
          4.0

     Cette approche est adaptée à des données discrètes à condition que
     vous acceptiez que la médiane ne fasse pas nécessairement partie
     des observations.

     Si les données sont ordinales (elles peuvent être ordonnées) mais
     pas numériques (elles ne peuvent être additionnées), utilisez *note
     median_low(): 26c3. ou *note median_high(): 26c4. à la place.

 -- Fonction: statistics.median_low (data)

     Renvoie la médiane basse de données numériques.  Lève une erreur
     *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' est vide.  'data' peut être
     une séquence ou un itérable.

     La médiane basse est toujours une valeur représentée dans les
     données.  Lorsque le nombre d'observations est impair, la valeur du
     milieu est renvoyée.  Sinon, la plus petite des deux valeurs du
     milieu est renvoyée.

          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
          3

     Utilisez la médiane basse lorsque vos données sont discrètes et que
     vous préférez que la médiane soit une valeur représentée dans vos
     observations plutôt que le résultat d'une interpolation.

 -- Fonction: statistics.median_high (data)

     Renvoie la médiane haute des données.  Lève une erreur *note
     StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' est vide.  'data' peut être une
     séquence ou un itérable.

     La médiane haute est toujours une valeur représentée dans les
     données.  Lorsque le nombre d'observations est impair, la valeur du
     milieu est renvoyée.  Sinon, la plus grande des deux valeurs du
     milieu est renvoyée.

          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
          5

     Utilisez la médiane haute lorsque vos données sont discrètes et que
     vous préférez que la médiane soit une valeur représentée dans vos
     observations plutôt que le résultat d'une interpolation.

 -- Fonction: statistics.median_grouped (data, interval=1.0)

     Estimates the median for numeric data that has been grouped or
     binned(6) around the midpoints of consecutive, fixed-width
     intervals.

     The 'data' can be any iterable of numeric data with each value
     being exactly the midpoint of a bin.  At least one value must be
     present.

     The 'interval' is the width of each bin.

     For example, demographic information may have been summarized into
     consecutive ten-year age groups with each group being represented
     by the 5-year midpoints of the intervals:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> demographics = Counter({
          ...    25: 172,   # 20 to 30 years old
          ...    35: 484,   # 30 to 40 years old
          ...    45: 387,   # 40 to 50 years old
          ...    55:  22,   # 50 to 60 years old
          ...    65:   6,   # 60 to 70 years old
          ... })
          ...

     The 50th percentile (median) is the 536th person out of the 1071
     member cohort.  That person is in the 30 to 40 year old age group.

     The regular *note median(): 26c2. function would assume that
     everyone in the tricenarian age group was exactly 35 years old.  A
     more tenable assumption is that the 484 members of that age group
     are evenly distributed between 30 and 40.  For that, we use *note
     median_grouped(): 26c5.:

          >>> data = list(demographics.elements())
          >>> median(data)
          35
          >>> round(median_grouped(data, interval=10), 1)
          37.5

     The caller is responsible for making sure the data points are
     separated by exact multiples of 'interval'.  This is essential for
     getting a correct result.  The function does not check this
     precondition.

     Inputs may be any numeric type that can be coerced to a float
     during the interpolation step.

 -- Fonction: statistics.mode (data)

     Renvoie la valeur la plus représentée dans la collection 'data'
     (discrète ou nominale).  Ce mode, lorsqu'il existe, est la valeur
     la plus représentative des données et est une mesure de la tendance
     centrale.

     S'il existe plusieurs modes avec la même fréquence, cette fonction
     renvoie le premier qui a été rencontré dans 'data'.  Utilisez
     ‘min(multimode(data))’ ou ‘max(multimode(data))’ si vous désirez le
     plus petit mode ou le plus grand mode.  Lève une erreur *note
     StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' est vide.

     ‘mode’ suppose que les données sont discrètes et renvoie une seule
     valeur.  Il s'agit de la définition usuelle du mode telle
     qu'enseignée dans à l'école :

          >>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
          3

     Le mode a la particularité d'être la seule statistique de ce module
     à pouvoir être calculée sur des données nominales (non
     numériques) :

          >>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
          'red'

     Only hashable inputs are supported.  To handle type *note set: 5c5,
     consider casting to *note frozenset: 5c6.  To handle type *note
     list: 5fe, consider casting to *note tuple: 366.  For mixed or
     nested inputs, consider using this slower quadratic algorithm that
     only depends on equality tests: ‘max(data, key=data.count)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Gère désormais des jeux de données
     avec plusieurs modes en renvoyant le premier mode rencontré.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. était levée
     si plusieurs modes étaient trouvés.

 -- Fonction: statistics.multimode (data)

     Renvoie une liste des valeurs les plus fréquentes en suivant leur
     ordre d'apparition dans 'data'.  Renvoie plusieurs résultats s'il y
     a plusieurs modes ou une liste vide si 'data' est vide :

          >>> multimode('aabbbbccddddeeffffgg')
          ['b', 'd', 'f']
          >>> multimode('')
          []

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: statistics.pstdev (data, mu=None)

     Renvoie l'écart-type de la population (racine carrée de la variance
     de la population).  Voir *note pvariance(): 26c8. pour les
     arguments et d'autres précisions.

          >>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          0.986893273527251

 -- Fonction: statistics.pvariance (data, mu=None)

     Renvoie la variance de la population 'data', une séquence non-vide
     ou un itérable de valeurs réelles.  La variance, ou moment de
     second ordre, est une mesure de la variabilité (ou dispersion) des
     données.  Une variance élevée indique une large dispersion des
     valeurs ; une faible variance indique que les valeurs sont
     resserrées autour de la moyenne.

     If the optional second argument 'mu' is given, it should be the
     'population' mean of the 'data'.  It can also be used to compute
     the second moment around a point that is not the mean.  If it is
     missing or ‘None’ (the default), the arithmetic mean is
     automatically calculated.

     Utilisez cette fonction pour calculer la variance sur une
     population complète.  Pour estimer la variance à partir d'un
     échantillon, utilisez plutôt *note variance(): 6bf. à la place.

     Lève une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' est vide.

     Exemples :

          >>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
          >>> pvariance(data)
          1.25

     Si vous connaissez la moyenne de vos données, il est possible de la
     passer comme argument optionnel 'mu' lors de l'appel de fonction
     pour éviter de la calculer une nouvelle fois :

          >>> mu = mean(data)
          >>> pvariance(data, mu)
          1.25

     La fonction gère les nombres décimaux et les fractions :

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('24.815')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
          Fraction(13, 72)

          Note: Cette fonction renvoie la variance de la population σ²
          lorsqu'elle est appliquée sur la population entière.  Si elle
          est appliquée seulement sur un échantillon, le résultat est
          alors la variance de l'échantillon s² ou variance à N degrés
          de liberté.

          Si vous connaissez d'avance la vraie moyenne de la population
          μ, vous pouvez utiliser cette fonction pour calculer la
          variance de l'échantillon sachant la moyenne de la population
          en la passante comme second argument.  En supposant que les
          observations sont issues d'un tirage aléatoire uniforme dans
          la population, le résultat sera une estimation non biaisée de
          la variance de la population.

 -- Fonction: statistics.stdev (data, xbar=None)

     Renvoie l'écart-type de l'échantillon (racine carrée de la variance
     de l'échantillon).  Voir *note variance(): 6bf. pour les arguments
     et plus de détails.

          >>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          1.0810874155219827

 -- Fonction: statistics.variance (data, xbar=None)

     Renvoie la variance de l'échantillon 'data', un itérable d'au moins
     deux valeurs réelles.  La variance, ou moment de second ordre, est
     une mesure de la variabilité (ou dispersion) des données.  Une
     variance élevée indique que les données sont très dispersées ; une
     variance faible indique que les valeurs sont resserrées autour de
     la moyenne.

     If the optional second argument 'xbar' is given, it should be the
     'sample' mean of 'data'.  If it is missing or ‘None’ (the default),
     the mean is automatically calculated.

     Utilisez cette fonction lorsque vos données forment un échantillon
     d'une population plus grande.  Pour calculer la variance d'une
     population complète, utilisez *note pvariance(): 26c8.

     Lève une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' contient
     moins de deux éléments.

     Exemples :

          >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
          >>> variance(data)
          1.3720238095238095

     If you have already calculated the sample mean of your data, you
     can pass it as the optional second argument 'xbar' to avoid
     recalculation:

          >>> m = mean(data)
          >>> variance(data, m)
          1.3720238095238095

     Cette fonction ne vérifie pas que la valeur passée dans l'argument
     'xbar' correspond bien à la moyenne.  Utiliser des valeurs
     arbitraires pour 'xbar' produit des résultats impossibles ou
     incorrects.

     La fonction gère les nombres décimaux et les fractions :

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('31.01875')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
          Fraction(67, 108)

          Note: Cela correspond à la variance s² de l'échantillon avec
          correction de Bessel (ou variance à N-1 degrés de liberté).
          En supposant que les observations sont représentatives de la
          population (c'est-à-dire indépendantes et identiquement
          distribuées), alors le résultat est une estimation non biaisée
          de la variance.

          Si vous connaissez d'avance la vraie moyenne μ de la
          population, vous devriez la passer à *note pvariance(): 26c8.
          comme paramètre 'mu' pour obtenir la variance de
          l'échantillon.

 -- Fonction: statistics.quantiles (data, *, n=4, method='exclusive')

     Divise 'data' en 'n' intervalles réels de même probabilité. Renvoie
     une liste de ‘n - 1’ valeurs délimitant les intervalles (les
     quantiles).

     Utilisez ‘n = 4’ pour obtenir les quartiles (le défaut), ‘n = 10’
     pour obtenir les déciles et ‘n = 100’ pour obtenir les centiles (ce
     qui produit 99 valeurs qui séparent 'data' en 100 groupes de même
     taille).  Lève une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'n' est
     strictement inférieur à 1.

     The 'data' can be any iterable containing sample data.  For
     meaningful results, the number of data points in 'data' should be
     larger than 'n'.  Raises *note StatisticsError: 26cb. if there is
     not at least one data point.

     Les quantiles sont linéairement interpolées à partir des deux
     valeurs les plus proches dans l'échantillon.  Par exemple, si un
     quantile se situe à un tiers de la distance entre les deux valeurs
     de l'échantillon ‘100’ et ‘112’, le quantile vaudra ‘104’.

     L'argument 'method' indique la méthode à utiliser pour calculer les
     quantiles et peut être modifié pour spécifier s'il faut inclure ou
     exclure les valeurs basses et hautes de 'data' de la population.

     La valeur par défaut pour 'method' est ‘"exclusive"’ et est
     applicable pour des données échantillonnées dans une population
     dont une des valeurs extrêmes peut être plus grande (respectivement
     plus petite) que le maximum (respectivement le minimum) des valeurs
     de l'échantillon.  La proportion de la population se situant
     en-dessous du i^e de 'm' valeurs ordonnées est calculée par la
     formule ‘i / (m + 1)’.  Par exemple, en supposant 9 valeurs dans
     l'échantillon, cette méthode les ordonne et leur associe les
     quantiles suivants : 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%.

     En utilisant ‘"inclusive"’ comme valeur du paramètre 'method', on
     suppose que 'data' correspond soit à une population entière, soit
     que les valeurs extrêmes de la population sont représentées dans
     l'échantillon.  Le minimum de 'data' est alors considéré comme 0^e
     centile et le maximum comme 100^e centile.  La proportion de la
     population se situant sous la i^e valeur de 'm' valeurs ordonnées
     est calculée par la formule ‘(i - 1)/(m - 1)’.  En supposant que
     l'on a 11 valeurs dans l'échantillon, cette méthode les ordonne et
     leur associe les quantiles suivants : 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%,
     60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%.

          # Decile cut points for empirically sampled data
          >>> data = [105, 129, 87, 86, 111, 111, 89, 81, 108, 92, 110,
          ...         100, 75, 105, 103, 109, 76, 119, 99, 91, 103, 129,
          ...         106, 101, 84, 111, 74, 87, 86, 103, 103, 106, 86,
          ...         111, 75, 87, 102, 121, 111, 88, 89, 101, 106, 95,
          ...         103, 107, 101, 81, 109, 104]
          >>> [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(data, n=10)]
          [81.0, 86.2, 89.0, 99.4, 102.5, 103.6, 106.0, 109.8, 111.0]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: No longer raises an exception for an
     input with only a single data point.  This allows quantile
     estimates to be built up one sample point at a time becoming
     gradually more refined with each new data point.

 -- Fonction: statistics.covariance (x, y, /)

     Return the sample covariance of two inputs 'x' and 'y'.  Covariance
     is a measure of the joint variability of two inputs.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two),
     otherwise *note StatisticsError: 26cb. is raised.

     Exemples :

          >>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
          >>> covariance(x, y)
          0.75
          >>> z = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> covariance(x, z)
          -7.5
          >>> covariance(z, x)
          -7.5

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: statistics.correlation (x, y, /, *, method='linear')

     Return the Pearson's correlation coefficient(7) for two inputs.
     Pearson's correlation coefficient 'r' takes values between -1 and
     +1.  It measures the strength and direction of a linear
     relationship.

     If 'method' is "ranked", computes Spearman's rank correlation
     coefficient(8) for two inputs.  The data is replaced by ranks.
     Ties are averaged so that equal values receive the same rank.  The
     resulting coefficient measures the strength of a monotonic
     relationship.

     Spearman's correlation coefficient is appropriate for ordinal data
     or for continuous data that doesn't meet the linear proportion
     requirement for Pearson's correlation coefficient.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and need
     not to be constant, otherwise *note StatisticsError: 26cb. is
     raised.

     Example with Kepler's laws of planetary motion(9):

          >>> # Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and  Neptune
          >>> orbital_period = [88, 225, 365, 687, 4331, 10_756, 30_687, 60_190]    # days
          >>> dist_from_sun = [58, 108, 150, 228, 778, 1_400, 2_900, 4_500] # million km

          >>> # Show that a perfect monotonic relationship exists
          >>> correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun, method='ranked')
          1.0

          >>> # Observe that a linear relationship is imperfect
          >>> round(correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun), 4)
          0.9882

          >>> # Demonstrate Kepler's third law: There is a linear correlation
          >>> # between the square of the orbital period and the cube of the
          >>> # distance from the sun.
          >>> period_squared = [p * p for p in orbital_period]
          >>> dist_cubed = [d * d * d for d in dist_from_sun]
          >>> round(correlation(period_squared, dist_cubed), 4)
          1.0

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for Spearman's rank
     correlation coefficient.

 -- Fonction: statistics.linear_regression (x, y, /, *,
          proportional=False)

     Return the slope and intercept of simple linear regression(10)
     parameters estimated using ordinary least squares.  Simple linear
     regression describes the relationship between an independent
     variable 'x' and a dependent variable 'y' in terms of this linear
     function:

          'y = slope * x + intercept + noise'

     where ‘slope’ and ‘intercept’ are the regression parameters that
     are estimated, and ‘noise’ represents the variability of the data
     that was not explained by the linear regression (it is equal to the
     difference between predicted and actual values of the dependent
     variable).

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and the
     independent variable 'x' cannot be constant; otherwise a *note
     StatisticsError: 26cb. is raised.

     For example, we can use the release dates of the Monty Python
     films(11) to predict the cumulative number of Monty Python films
     that would have been produced by 2019 assuming that they had kept
     the pace.

          >>> year = [1971, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1983]
          >>> films_total = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
          >>> slope, intercept = linear_regression(year, films_total)
          >>> round(slope * 2019 + intercept)
          16

     If 'proportional' is true, the independent variable 'x' and the
     dependent variable 'y' are assumed to be directly proportional.
     The data is fit to a line passing through the origin.  Since the
     'intercept' will always be 0.0, the underlying linear function
     simplifies to:

          'y = slope * x + noise'

     Continuing the example from *note correlation(): 4a8, we look to
     see how well a model based on major planets can predict the orbital
     distances for dwarf planets:

          >>> model = linear_regression(period_squared, dist_cubed, proportional=True)
          >>> slope = model.slope

          >>> # Dwarf planets:   Pluto,  Eris,    Makemake, Haumea, Ceres
          >>> orbital_periods = [90_560, 204_199, 111_845, 103_410, 1_680]  # days
          >>> predicted_dist = [math.cbrt(slope * (p * p)) for p in orbital_periods]
          >>> list(map(round, predicted_dist))
          [5912, 10166, 6806, 6459, 414]

          >>> [5_906, 10_152, 6_796, 6_450, 414]  # actual distance in million km
          [5906, 10152, 6796, 6450, 414]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for 'proportional'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_aberrante

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicateur_de_tendance_centrale

   (3) 
https://www.itm-conferences.org/articles/itmconf/pdf/2018/08/itmconf_sam2018_00037.pdf

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(statistics)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_density_estimation#Example

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_binning

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient

   (8) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python#Films


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<5>,  Next: Objets NormalDist,  Prev: Détails des fonctions,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.5 Exceptions
..................

Une seule exception est définie :

 -- Exception: statistics.StatisticsError

     Sous-classe de *note ValueError: 1ff. pour les exceptions liées aux
     statistiques.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets NormalDist,  Next: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Exceptions<5>,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.6 Objets ‘NormalDist’
...........................

*note NormalDist: a28. est un outil permettant de créer et manipuler des
lois normales de variables aléatoires(1).  Cette classe gère la moyenne
et l'écart-type d'un ensemble d'observations comme une seule entité.

Les lois normales apparaissent dans de très nombreuses applications des
statistiques.  Leur ubiquité découle du théorème central limite(2).

 -- Classe: statistics.NormalDist (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Renvoie un nouvel objet 'NormalDist' où 'mu' représente la moyenne
     arithmétique(3) et 'sigma' l'écart-type(4).

     Lève une erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'sigma' est
     négatif.

      -- Attribut: mean

          Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à la moyenne
          arithmétique(5) d'une loi normale.

      -- Attribut: median

          Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à la médiane(6) d'une
          loi normale.

      -- Attribut: mode

          Attribut en lecture seule correspondant au mode(7) d'une loi
          normale.

      -- Attribut: stdev

          Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à l'écart-type(8)
          d'une loi normale.

      -- Attribut: variance

          Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à la variance(9) d'une
          loi normale.  La variance est égale au carré de l'écart-type.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_samples (data)

          Crée une instance de loi normale de paramètres 'mu' et 'sigma'
          estimés à partir de 'data' en utilisant *note fmean(): a24. et
          *note stdev(): 6c0.

          'data' peut être n'importe quel *note iterable: 1207. de
          valeurs pouvant être converties en *note float: 2ec.  Lève une
          erreur *note StatisticsError: 26cb. si 'data' ne contient pas
          au moins deux éléments car il faut au moins un point pour
          estimer la moyenne et deux points pour estimer la variance.

      -- Méthode: samples (n, *, seed=None)

          Génère 'n' valeurs aléatoires suivant une loi normale de
          moyenne et écart-type connus.  Renvoie une *note list: 5fe. de
          *note float: 2ec.

          Si 'seed' est spécifié, sa valeur est utilisée pour
          initialiser une nouvelle instance du générateur de nombres
          aléatoires.  Cela permet de produire des résultats
          reproductibles même dans un contexte de parallélisme par fils
          d'exécution.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13.

          Switched to a faster algorithm.  To reproduce samples from
          previous versions, use *note random.seed(): 1254. and *note
          random.gauss(): 17fe.

      -- Méthode: pdf (x)

          Calcule la vraisemblance qu'une variable aléatoire 'X' soit
          proche de la valeur 'x' à partir de la fonction de
          densité(10).  Mathématiquement, cela correspond à la limite de
          la fraction ‘P(x <= X < x + dx) / dx’ lorsque ‘dx’ tend vers
          zéro.

          The relative likelihood is computed as the probability of a
          sample occurring in a narrow range divided by the width of the
          range (hence the word "density").  Since the likelihood is
          relative to other points, its value can be greater than ‘1.0’.

      -- Méthode: cdf (x)

          Calcule la probabilité qu'une variable aléatoire 'X' soit
          inférieure ou égale à 'x' à partir de la fonction de
          répartition(11).  Mathématiquement, cela correspond à ‘P(X <=
          x)’.

      -- Méthode: inv_cdf (p)

          Compute the inverse cumulative distribution function, also
          known as the quantile function(12) or the percent-point(13)
          function.  Mathematically, it is written ‘x : P(X <= x) = p’.

          Détermine la valeur 'x' de la variable aléatoire 'X' telle que
          la probabilité que la variable soit inférieure ou égale à
          cette valeur 'x' est égale à 'p'.

      -- Méthode: overlap (other)

          Mesure le recouvrement entre deux lois normales.  Renvoie une
          valeur réelle entre 0 et 1 indiquant l'aire du recouvrement de
          deux densités de probabilité(14).

      -- Méthode: quantiles (n=4)

          Divise la loi normale entre 'n' intervalles réels
          équiprobables.  Renvoie une liste de ‘(n - 1)’ quantiles
          séparant les intervalles.

          Utilisez ‘n = 4’ pour obtenir les quartiles (le défaut), ‘n =
          10’ pour obtenir les déciles et ‘n = 100’ pour obtenir les
          centiles (ce qui produit 99 valeurs qui séparent 'data' en 100
          groupes de même taille).

      -- Méthode: zscore (x)

          Compute the Standard Score(15) describing 'x' in terms of the
          number of standard deviations above or below the mean of the
          normal distribution: ‘(x - mean) / stdev’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Les instances de la classe *note NormalDist: a28. gèrent
     l'addition, la soustraction, la multiplication et la division par
     une constante.  Ces opérations peuvent être utilisées pour la
     translation ou la mise à l'échelle, par exemple :

          >>> temperature_february = NormalDist(5, 2.5)             # Celsius
          >>> temperature_february * (9/5) + 32                     # Fahrenheit
          NormalDist(mu=41.0, sigma=4.5)

     Diviser une constante par une instance de *note NormalDist: a28.
     n'est pas pris en charge car le résultat ne serait pas une loi
     normale.

     Étant donné que les lois normales sont issues des propriétés
     additives de variables indépendantes, il est possible d'ajouter ou
     de soustraite deux variables normales indépendantes(16)
     représentées par des instances de *note NormalDist: a28.  Par
     exemple :

          >>> birth_weights = NormalDist.from_samples([2.5, 3.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 3.5])
          >>> drug_effects = NormalDist(0.4, 0.15)
          >>> combined = birth_weights + drug_effects
          >>> round(combined.mean, 1)
          3.1
          >>> round(combined.stdev, 1)
          0.5

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_al%C3%A9atoire

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_central_limite

   (3) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyenne_arithm%C3%A9tique

   (4) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cart_type

   (5) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyenne_arithm%C3%A9tique

   (6) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9diane_(statistiques)

   (7) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistiques)

   (8) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cart_type

   (9) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

   (10) 
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_al%C3%A9atoire_%C3%A0_densit%C3%A9

   (11) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonction_de_r%C3%A9partition

   (12) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantile_function

   (13) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20190203145224/https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/inverse-distribution-function/

   (14) https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt101r.htm

   (15) 
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/z-score/

   (16) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Objets NormalDist,  Up: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.7 Examples and Recipes
............................

* Menu:

* Classic probability problems::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::


File: python.info,  Node: Classic probability problems,  Next: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.9.7.8 Classic probability problems
....................................

*note NormalDist: a28. permet de résoudre aisément des problèmes
probabilistes classiques.

Par exemple, sachant que les scores aux examens SAT(1) suivent une loi
normale de moyenne 1060 et d'écart-type 195, déterminer le pourcentage
d'étudiants dont les scores se situent entre 1100 et 1200, arrondi à
l'entier le plus proche :

     >>> sat = NormalDist(1060, 195)
     >>> fraction = sat.cdf(1200 + 0.5) - sat.cdf(1100 - 0.5)
     >>> round(fraction * 100.0, 1)
     18.4

Déterminer les quartiles(2) et les déciles(3) des scores SAT :

     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles()))
     [928, 1060, 1192]
     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles(n=10)))
     [810, 896, 958, 1011, 1060, 1109, 1162, 1224, 1310]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_226.40.asp

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile

   (3) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decile


File: python.info,  Node: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Next: Approximating binomial distributions,  Prev: Classic probability problems,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.9.7.9 Monte Carlo inputs for simulations
..........................................

To estimate the distribution for a model that isn't easy to solve
analytically, *note NormalDist: a28. can generate input samples for a
Monte Carlo simulation(1):

     >>> def model(x, y, z):
     ...     return (3*x + 7*x*y - 5*y) / (11 * z)
     ...
     >>> n = 100_000
     >>> X = NormalDist(10, 2.5).samples(n, seed=3652260728)
     >>> Y = NormalDist(15, 1.75).samples(n, seed=4582495471)
     >>> Z = NormalDist(50, 1.25).samples(n, seed=6582483453)
     >>> quantiles(map(model, X, Y, Z))
     [1.4591308524824727, 1.8035946855390597, 2.175091447274739]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating binomial distributions,  Next: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.9.7.10 Approximating binomial distributions
.............................................

Normal distributions can be used to approximate Binomial
distributions(1) when the sample size is large and when the probability
of a successful trial is near 50%.

Par exemple, 750 personnes assistent à une conférence sur le logiciel
libre. Il y a deux salles pouvant chacune accueillir 500 personnes.
Dans la première salle a lieu une présentation sur Python, dans l'autre
une présentation à propos de Ruby.  Lors des conférences passées, 65%
des personnes ont préféré écouter les présentations sur Python.  En
supposant que les préférences de la population n'ont pas changé, quelle
est la probabilité que la salle Python reste en-dessous de sa capacité
d'accueil ?

     >>> n = 750             # Sample size
     >>> p = 0.65            # Preference for Python
     >>> q = 1.0 - p         # Preference for Ruby
     >>> k = 500             # Room capacity

     >>> # Approximation using the cumulative normal distribution
     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> round(NormalDist(mu=n*p, sigma=sqrt(n*p*q)).cdf(k + 0.5), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Exact solution using the cumulative binomial distribution
     >>> from math import comb, fsum
     >>> round(fsum(comb(n, r) * p**r * q**(n-r) for r in range(k+1)), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Approximation using a simulation
     >>> from random import seed, binomialvariate
     >>> seed(8675309)
     >>> mean(binomialvariate(n, p) <= k for i in range(10_000))
     0.8406

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Approximating binomial distributions,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.9.7.11 Naive bayesian classifier
..................................

Les lois normales interviennent souvent en apprentissage automatique.

Wikipedia has a nice example of a Naive Bayesian Classifier(1).  The
challenge is to predict a person's gender from measurements of normally
distributed features including height, weight, and foot size.

Nous avons à notre disposition un jeu de données d'apprentissage
contenant les mesures de huit personnes.  On suppose que ces mesures
suivent une loi normale.  Nous pouvons donc synthétiser les données à
l'aide de *note NormalDist: a28. :

     >>> height_male = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 5.92, 5.58, 5.92])
     >>> height_female = NormalDist.from_samples([5, 5.5, 5.42, 5.75])
     >>> weight_male = NormalDist.from_samples([180, 190, 170, 165])
     >>> weight_female = NormalDist.from_samples([100, 150, 130, 150])
     >>> foot_size_male = NormalDist.from_samples([12, 11, 12, 10])
     >>> foot_size_female = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 8, 7, 9])

Ensuite, nous rencontrons un nouvel individu dont nous connaissons les
proportions mais pas le sexe :

     >>> ht = 6.0        # height
     >>> wt = 130        # weight
     >>> fs = 8          # foot size

En partant d'une probabilité a priori(2) de 50% d'être un homme ou une
femme, nous calculons la probabilité a posteriori comme le produit de la
probabilité antérieure et de la vraisemblance des différentes mesures
étant donné le sexe :

     >>> prior_male = 0.5
     >>> prior_female = 0.5
     >>> posterior_male = (prior_male * height_male.pdf(ht) *
     ...                   weight_male.pdf(wt) * foot_size_male.pdf(fs))

     >>> posterior_female = (prior_female * height_female.pdf(ht) *
     ...                     weight_female.pdf(wt) * foot_size_female.pdf(fs))

La prédiction finale est celle qui a la plus grande probabilité a
posteriori.  Cette approche est appelée maximum a posteriori(3) ou MAP :

     >>> 'male' if posterior_male > posterior_female else 'female'
     'female'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier#Person_classification

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_de_Bayes

   (3) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori


File: python.info,  Node: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle,  Next: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers,  Prev: Modules numériques et mathématiques,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.10 Modules de programmation fonctionnelle
===========================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent des fonctions et des
classes permettant d'adopter un style fonctionnel, ainsi que des
manipulations sur des appelables.

Les modules suivants sont documentés dans ce chapitre :

* Menu:

* itertools: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
* functools: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects
* operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions::


File: python.info,  Node: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Next: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Up: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

5.10.1 ‘itertools’ -- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
------------------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module implémente de nombreuses briques *note d'itérateurs: 1aa.
inspirées par des éléments de APL, Haskell et SML. Toutes ont été
retravaillées dans un format adapté à Python.

Ce module standardise un ensemble de base d'outils rapides et efficaces
en mémoire qui peuvent être utilisés individuellement ou en les
combinant.  Ensemble, ils forment une « algèbre d'itérateurs » rendant
possible la construction rapide et efficace d'outils spécialisés en
Python.

Par exemple, SML fournit un outil de tabulation ‘tabulate(f)’ qui
produit une séquence ‘f(0), f(1), ...’.  Le même résultat peut être
obtenu en Python en combinant *note map(): 850. et *note count(): 1263.
pour former ‘map(f, count())’.

'Itérateurs infinis :'

Itérateur              Arguments             Résultats                                             Exemple
                                                                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                   
*note count(): 1263.   ‘[start[, step]]’     ‘start, start+step, start+2*step, ...’                ‘count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note cycle(): 26e4.   p                     p0, p1, ...  plast, p0, p1, ...                       ‘cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note repeat(): 26e5.  elem [,n]             'elem', 'elem', 'elem', ...  à l'infini ou jusqu'à    ‘repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10’
                                             n fois                                                
                                             

'Itérateurs se terminant par la séquence d'entrée la plus courte :'

Itérateur                        Arguments                        Résultats                                             Exemple
                                                                                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                        
*note accumulate(): 9ed.         p [,func]                        p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ...                              ‘accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note batched(): 1fe.            p, n                             (p0, p1, ..., p_n-1), ...                             ‘batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain(): 213c.             p, q, ...                        p0, p1, ...  plast, q0, q1, ...                       ‘chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain.from_iterable(): 26e6.itérable                        p0, p1, ...  plast, q0, q1, ...                       ‘chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note compress(): 1262.          data, selectors                  (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ...                   ‘compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note dropwhile(): 26e7.         ‘predicate, seq’                 seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails       ‘dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note filterfalse(): 2126.       ‘predicate, seq’                 elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails           ‘filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note groupby(): 26e8.           iterable[, key]                  sous-itérateurs groupés par la valeur de 'key(v)'     ‘groupby(['A','B','DEF'], len) → (1, A B) (3, DEF)’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note islice(): b3c.             seq, [start,] stop [, step]      éléments de ‘seq[start:stop:step]’                    ‘islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note pairwise(): 801.           itérable                         (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                            ‘pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note starmap(): 10c7.           func, seq                        func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), ...                     ‘starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note takewhile(): 26e9.         ‘predicate, seq’                 seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails                 ‘takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note tee(): 26ea.               it, n                            'it1', 'it2', ...  'itn' sépare un itérateur en 'n'
                                                                  
                                                                                                                        
*note zip_longest(): 127d.       p, q, ...                        (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), ...                       ‘zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-’
                                                                                                                        

'Itérateurs combinatoires :'

Itérateur                                          Arguments                Résultats
                                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
*note product(): 12f3.                             p, q, ...  [repeat=1]    produit cartésien, équivalent à une boucle 'for' imbriquée
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note permutations(): 18d7.                        p[, r]                   'n'-uplets de longueur r, tous les ré-arrangements possibles,
                                                                            sans répétition d'éléments
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations(): 12f2.                        p, r                     'n'-uplets de longueur r, ordonnés, sans répétition d'éléments
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations_with_replacement(): 1261.       p, r                     'n'-uplets de longueur r, ordonnés, avec répétition d'éléments
                                                                            

Exemples                                           Résultats
                                                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
‘product('ABCD', repeat=2)’                        ‘AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘permutations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BC BD CD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)’         ‘AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD’
                                                   

* Menu:

* Itertool Functions::
* Recettes itertools::


File: python.info,  Node: Itertool Functions,  Next: Recettes itertools,  Up: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.10.1.1 Itertool Functions
...........................

The following functions all construct and return iterators.  Some
provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by
functions or loops that truncate the stream.

 -- Fonction: itertools.accumulate (iterable[, function, *,
          initial=None])

     Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated
     results from other binary functions.

     The 'function' defaults to addition.  The 'function' should accept
     two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the
     'iterable'.

     If an 'initial' value is provided, the accumulation will start with
     that value and the output will have one more element than the input
     iterable.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
              'Return running totals'
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              total = initial
              if initial is None:
                  try:
                      total = next(iterator)
                  except StopIteration:
                      return

              yield total
              for element in iterator:
                  total = function(total, element)
                  yield total

     To compute a running minimum, set 'function' to *note min(): ef5.
     For a running maximum, set 'function' to *note max(): ef6.  Or for
     a running product, set 'function' to *note operator.mul(): 26ed.
     To build an amortization table(1), accumulate the interest and
     apply payments:

          >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
          [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
          [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

          # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
          >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
          >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
          [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

     Voir *note functools.reduce(): 12bc. pour une fonction similaire
     qui ne renvoie que la valeur accumulée finale.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the optional 'function'
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre optionnel
     'initial'.

 -- Fonction: itertools.batched (iterable, n, *, strict=False)

     Batch data from the 'iterable' into tuples of length 'n'.  The last
     batch may be shorter than 'n'.

     If 'strict' is true, will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the
     final batch is shorter than 'n'.

     Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up
     to size 'n'.  The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a
     batch.  The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when
     the input iterable is exhausted:

          >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
          >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
          >>> unflattened
          [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def batched(iterable, n, *, strict=False):
              # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
              if n < 1:
                  raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
                  if strict and len(batch) != n:
                      raise ValueError('batched(): incomplete batch')
                  yield batch

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'strict' option.

 -- Fonction: itertools.chain (*iterables)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable
     until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until
     all of the iterables are exhausted.  This combines multiple data
     sources into a single iterator.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def chain(*iterables):
              # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- Méthode: classmethod chain.from_iterable (iterable)

     Constructeur alternatif pour *note chain(): 213c.  Récupère des
     entrées chaînées depuis un unique itérable passé en argument, qui
     est évalué de manière paresseuse.  À peu près équivalent à :

          def from_iterable(iterables):
              # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- Fonction: itertools.combinations (iterable, r)

     Renvoie les combinaisons de longueur 'r' de 'iterable'.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 12f3. keeping only
     entries that are subsequences of the 'iterable'.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.comb(): 6bc. which computes ‘n! / r!
     / (n - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within each combination.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def combinations(iterable, r):
              # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
              # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if r > n:
                  return
              indices = list(range(r))

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i] += 1
                  for j in range(i+1, r):
                      indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

 -- Fonction: itertools.combinations_with_replacement (iterable, r)

     Renvoyer les sous-séquences de longueur 'r' des éléments de
     l'itérable 'iterable' d'entrée, permettant aux éléments individuels
     d'être répétés plus d'une fois.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 12f3. that keeps
     only entries that are subsequences (with possible repeated
     elements) of the 'iterable'.  The number of subsequence returned is
     ‘(n + r - 1)! / r! / (n - 1)!’ when ‘n > 0’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  if the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, the generated
     combinations will also be unique.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
              # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if not n and r:
                  return
              indices = [0] * r

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != n - 1:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: itertools.compress (data, selectors)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from 'data' where the
     corresponding element in 'selectors' is true.  Stops when either
     the 'data' or 'selectors' iterables have been exhausted.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def compress(data, selectors):
              # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
              return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: itertools.count (start=0, step=1)

     Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with
     'start'.  Can be used with *note map(): 850. to generate
     consecutive data points or with *note zip(): 7bc. to add sequence
     numbers.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def count(start=0, step=1):
              # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
              # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
              n = start
              while True:
                  yield n
                  n += step

     When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can
     sometimes be achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as:
     ‘(start + step * i for i in count())’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de l'argument 'step' et ajout du
     support pour les arguments non-entiers.

 -- Fonction: itertools.cycle (iterable)

     Make an iterator returning elements from the 'iterable' and saving
     a copy of each.  When the iterable is exhausted, return elements
     from the saved copy.  Repeats indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def cycle(iterable):
              # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...

              saved = []
              for element in iterable:
                  yield element
                  saved.append(element)

              while saved:
                  for element in saved:
                      yield element

     This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
     on the length of the iterable).

 -- Fonction: itertools.dropwhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that drops elements from the 'iterable' while the
     'predicate' is true and afterwards returns every element.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
              # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              for x in iterator:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x
                      break

              for x in iterator:
                  yield x

     Note this does not produce 'any' output until the predicate first
     becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.

 -- Fonction: itertools.filterfalse (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that filters elements from the 'iterable'
     returning only those for which the 'predicate' returns a false
     value.  If 'predicate' is ‘None’, returns the items that are false.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
              # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8

              if predicate is None:
                  predicate = bool

              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x

 -- Fonction: itertools.groupby (iterable, key=None)

     Crée un itérateur qui renvoie les clés et les groupes de l'itérable
     'iterable'.  La clé 'key' est une fonction qui génère une clé pour
     chaque élément.  Si 'key' n'est pas spécifiée ou est ‘None’, elle
     vaut par défaut une fonction d'identité qui renvoie l'élément sans
     le modifier.  Généralement, l'itérable a besoin d'avoir ses
     éléments déjà classés selon cette même fonction de clé.

     L'opération de *note groupby(): 26e8. est similaire au filtre
     ‘uniq’ dans Unix.  Elle génère un nouveau groupe à chaque fois que
     la valeur de la fonction 'key' change (ce pourquoi il est souvent
     nécessaire d'avoir trié les données selon la même fonction de clé).
     Ce comportement est différent de celui de GROUP BY de SQL qui
     agrège les éléments sans prendre compte de leur ordre d'entrée.

     Le groupe renvoyé est lui-même un itérateur qui partage l'itérable
     sous-jacent avec *note groupby(): 26e8.  Puisque que la source est
     partagée, quand l'objet *note groupby(): 26e8. est avancé, le
     groupe précédent n'est plus visible.  Ainsi, si cette donnée doit
     être utilisée plus tard, elle doit être stockée comme une liste :

          groups = []
          uniquekeys = []
          data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
          for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
              groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
              uniquekeys.append(k)

     *note groupby(): 26e8. est à peu près équivalente à :

          def groupby(iterable, key=None):
              # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
              # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

              keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              exhausted = False

              def _grouper(target_key):
                  nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
                  yield curr_value
                  for curr_value in iterator:
                      curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
                      if curr_key != target_key:
                          return
                      yield curr_value
                  exhausted = True

              try:
                  curr_value = next(iterator)
              except StopIteration:
                  return
              curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

              while not exhausted:
                  target_key = curr_key
                  curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
                  yield curr_key, curr_group
                  if curr_key == target_key:
                      for _ in curr_group:
                          pass

 -- Fonction: itertools.islice (iterable, stop)

 -- Fonction: itertools.islice (iterable, start, stop[, step])

     Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
     Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values
     for 'start', 'stop', or 'step'.

     If 'start' is zero or ‘None’, iteration starts at zero.  Otherwise,
     elements from the iterable are skipped until 'start' is reached.

     If 'stop' is ‘None’, iteration continues until the input is
     exhausted, if at all.  Otherwise, it stops at the specified
     position.

     If 'step' is ‘None’, the step defaults to one.  Elements are
     returned consecutively unless 'step' is set higher than one which
     results in items being skipped.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def islice(iterable, *args):
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

              s = slice(*args)
              start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
              stop = s.stop
              step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
              if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
                  raise ValueError

              indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
              next_i = start
              for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
                  if i == next_i:
                      yield element
                      next_i += step

     If the input is an iterator, then fully consuming the 'islice'
     advances the input iterator by ‘max(start, stop)’ steps regardless
     of the 'step' value.

 -- Fonction: itertools.pairwise (iterable)

     Renvoie des paires successives d'éléments consécutifs de
     'iterable'.

     En toute logique, il y a une paire de moins que d'éléments dans
     l'itérable.  Aucune paire n'est renvoyée si l'itérable a zéro ou
     une valeur.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def pairwise(iterable):
              # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              a = next(iterator, None)

              for b in iterator:
                  yield a, b
                  a = b

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: itertools.permutations (iterable, r=None)

     Return successive 'r' length permutations of elements(2) from the
     'iterable'.

     Si 'r' n'est pas spécifié ou vaut ‘None’, alors 'r' a pour valeur
     la longueur de 'iterable' et toutes les permutations de longueur
     'r' possibles sont générées.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 12f3. where entries
     with repeated elements have been filtered out.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.perm(): 6bd. which computes ‘n! / (n
     - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within a permutation.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def permutations(iterable, r=None):
              # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
              # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              r = n if r is None else r
              if r > n:
                  return

              indices = list(range(n))
              cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

              while n:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      cycles[i] -= 1
                      if cycles[i] == 0:
                          indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                          cycles[i] = n - i
                      else:
                          j = cycles[i]
                          indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                          break
                  else:
                      return

 -- Fonction: itertools.product (*iterables, repeat=1)

     Cartesian product(3) of the input iterables.

     À peu près équivalent à des boucles 'for' imbriquées dans une
     expression de générateur.  Par exemple ‘product(A, B)’ renvoie la
     même chose que ‘((x, y) for x in A for y in B)’.

     Les boucles imbriquées tournent comme un compteur kilométrique avec
     l'élément le plus à droite avançant à chaque itération.  Ce motif
     défini un ordre lexicographique afin que, si les éléments des
     itérables en l'entrée sont ordonnés, les 'n'-uplets produits le
     sont aussi.

     Pour générer le produit d'un itérable avec lui-même, spécifiez le
     nombre de répétitions avec le paramètre nommé optionnel 'repeat'.
     Par exemple, ‘product(A, repeat=4)’ est équivalent à ‘product(A, A,
     A, A)’.

     Cette fonction est à peu près équivalente au code suivant, à la
     différence près que la vraie implémentation ne crée pas de
     résultats intermédiaires en mémoire :

          def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
              # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
              # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

              if repeat < 0:
                  raise ValueError('repeat argument cannot be negative')
              pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

              result = [[]]
              for pool in pools:
                  result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

              for prod in result:
                  yield tuple(prod)

     *note product(): 12f3. commence par consommer totalement les
     itérables qui lui sont passés et les conserve en mémoire pour
     générer les produits.  Par conséquent, cette fonction ne sert que
     sur des itérables finis.

 -- Fonction: itertools.repeat (object[, times])

     Crée un itérateur qui renvoie 'object' à l'infini.  S'exécute
     indéfiniment sauf si l'argument 'times' est spécifié.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def repeat(object, times=None):
              # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
              if times is None:
                  while True:
                      yield object
              else:
                  for i in range(times):
                      yield object

     Une utilisation courante de 'repeat' est de fournir un flux
     constant de valeurs à 'map' ou 'zip' :

          >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
          [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

 -- Fonction: itertools.starmap (function, iterable)

     Make an iterator that computes the 'function' using arguments
     obtained from the 'iterable'.  Used instead of *note map(): 850.
     when argument parameters have already been "pre-zipped" into
     tuples.

     The difference between *note map(): 850. and *note starmap(): 10c7.
     parallels the distinction between ‘function(a,b)’ and
     ‘function(*c)’.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def starmap(function, iterable):
              # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
              for args in iterable:
                  yield function(*args)

 -- Fonction: itertools.takewhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the 'iterable' as long
     as the 'predicate' is true.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
              # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      break
                  yield x

     Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
     consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
     This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume
     the input iterator after 'takewhile' has been run to exhaustion.
     To work around this problem, consider using more-itertools
     before_and_after()(4) instead.

 -- Fonction: itertools.tee (iterable, n=2)

     Renvoie 'n' itérateurs indépendants depuis un unique itérable.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def tee(iterable, n=2):
              if n < 0:
                  raise ValueError
              if n == 0:
                  return ()
              iterator = _tee(iterable)
              result = [iterator]
              for _ in range(n - 1):
                  result.append(_tee(iterator))
              return tuple(result)

          class _tee:

              def __init__(self, iterable):
                  it = iter(iterable)
                  if isinstance(it, _tee):
                      self.iterator = it.iterator
                      self.link = it.link
                  else:
                      self.iterator = it
                      self.link = [None, None]

              def __iter__(self):
                  return self

              def __next__(self):
                  link = self.link
                  if link[1] is None:
                      link[0] = next(self.iterator)
                      link[1] = [None, None]
                  value, self.link = link
                  return value

     When the input 'iterable' is already a tee iterator object, all
     members of the return tuple are constructed as if they had been
     produced by the upstream *note tee(): 26ea. call.  This "flattening
     step" allows nested *note tee(): 26ea. calls to share the same
     underlying data chain and to have a single update step rather than
     a chain of calls.

     The flattening property makes tee iterators efficiently peekable:

          def lookahead(tee_iterator):
               "Return the next value without moving the input forward"
               [forked_iterator] = tee(tee_iterator, 1)
               return next(forked_iterator)

          >>> iterator = iter('abcdef')
          >>> [iterator] = tee(iterator, 1)   # Make the input peekable
          >>> next(iterator)                  # Move the iterator forward
          'a'
          >>> lookahead(iterator)             # Check next value
          'b'
          >>> next(iterator)                  # Continue moving forward
          'b'

     ‘tee’ iterators are not threadsafe.  A *note RuntimeError: 193. may
     be raised when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same
     *note tee(): 26ea. call, even if the original 'iterable' is
     threadsafe.

     Cet outil peut avoir besoin d'un stockage auxiliaire important (en
     fonction de la taille des données temporaires nécessaires).  En
     général, si un itérateur utilise la majorité ou toute la donnée
     avant qu'un autre itérateur ne commence, il est plus rapide
     d'utiliser *note list(): 5fe. à la place de *note tee(): 26ea.

 -- Fonction: itertools.zip_longest (*iterables, fillvalue=None)

     Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
     'iterables'.

     If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in
     with 'fillvalue'.  If not specified, 'fillvalue' defaults to
     ‘None’.

     Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
              # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

              iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
              num_active = len(iterators)
              if not num_active:
                  return

              while True:
                  values = []
                  for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
                      try:
                          value = next(iterator)
                      except StopIteration:
                          num_active -= 1
                          if not num_active:
                              return
                          iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                          value = fillvalue
                      values.append(value)
                  yield tuple(values)

     If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the *note
     zip_longest(): 127d. function should be wrapped with something that
     limits the number of calls (for example *note islice(): b3c. or
     *note takewhile(): 26e9.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule

   (2) https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product

   (4) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after


File: python.info,  Node: Recettes itertools,  Prev: Itertool Functions,  Up: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.10.1.2 Recettes 'itertools'
.............................

Cette section présente des recettes pour créer une vaste boîte à outils
en se servant des 'itertools' existants comme des briques.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational.  The
recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for
example, that ‘chain.from_iterable’ is related to the concept of
flattening.  The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can
be combined — for example, how ‘starmap()’ and ‘repeat()’ can work
together.  The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the
*note operator: 9e. and *note collections: 1d. modules as well as with
the built-in itertools such as ‘map()’, ‘filter()’, ‘reversed()’, and
‘enumerate()’.

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator.  The
‘accumulate()’, ‘compress()’, and ‘pairwise()’ itertools started out as
recipes.  Currently, the ‘sliding_window()’, ‘iter_index()’, and
‘sieve()’ recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their
worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be
installed from the more-itertools(1) project found on the Python Package
Index:

     python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying
toolset.  Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one
at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at
once.  Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a
functional style(2).  High speed is retained by preferring "vectorized"
building blocks over the use of for-loops and *note generators: 104c.
which incur interpreter overhead.

     from collections import Counter, deque
     from contextlib import suppress
     from functools import reduce
     from math import comb, prod, sumprod, isqrt
     from operator import itemgetter, getitem, mul, neg

     def take(n, iterable):
         "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
         return list(islice(iterable, n))

     def prepend(value, iterable):
         "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
         # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
         return chain([value], iterable)

     def tabulate(function, start=0):
         "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
         return map(function, count(start))

     def repeatfunc(function, times=None, *args):
         "Repeat calls to a function with specified arguments."
         if times is None:
             return starmap(function, repeat(args))
         return starmap(function, repeat(args, times))

     def flatten(list_of_lists):
         "Flatten one level of nesting."
         return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

     def ncycles(iterable, n):
         "Returns the sequence elements n times."
         return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

     def loops(n):
         "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
         # for _ in loops(100): ...
         return repeat(None, n)

     def tail(n, iterable):
         "Return an iterator over the last n items."
         # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
         return iter(deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

     def consume(iterator, n=None):
         "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
         # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
         if n is None:
             deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
         else:
             next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

     def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
         "Returns the nth item or a default value."
         return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

     def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
         "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
         return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

     def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
         "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
         # first_true([a,b,c], x) → a or b or c or x
         # first_true([a,b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
         return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

     def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
         "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
         # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
         return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

     def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
         # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
         # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
         if key is None:
             return map(itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
         return map(next, map(itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

     def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
         # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
         # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
         seen = set()
         if key is None:
             for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
                 seen.add(element)
                 yield element
         else:
             for element in iterable:
                 k = key(element)
                 if k not in seen:
                     seen.add(k)
                     yield element

     def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
        "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
        # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
        sequenced = sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse)
        return unique_justseen(sequenced, key=key)

     def sliding_window(iterable, n):
         "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
         iterator = iter(iterable)
         window = deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
         for x in iterator:
             window.append(x)
             yield tuple(window)

     def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
         "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x') → ABC DEF Gxx
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
         iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
         match incomplete:
             case 'fill':
                 return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
             case 'strict':
                 return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
             case 'ignore':
                 return zip(*iterators)
             case _:
                 raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
         # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
         # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
         iterators = map(iter, iterables)
         for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
             iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
             yield from map(next, iterators)

     def subslices(seq):
         "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
         # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
         slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
         return map(getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

     def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
         "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
         # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
         seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
         if seq_index is None:
             iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
             for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
                 if element is value or element == value:
                     yield i
         else:
             stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
             i = start
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 while True:
                     yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                     i += 1

     def iter_except(function, exception, first=None):
         "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
         # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
         with suppress(exception):
             if first is not None:
                 yield first()
             while True:
                 yield function()

The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:

     def multinomial(*counts):
         "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
         # Counter('abracadabra').values() → 5 2 2 1 1
         # multinomial(5, 2, 2, 1, 1) → 83160
         return prod(map(comb, accumulate(counts), counts))

     def powerset(iterable):
         "Subsequences of the iterable from shortest to longest."
         # powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)
         s = list(iterable)
         return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

     def sum_of_squares(iterable):
         "Add up the squares of the input values."
         # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
         return sumprod(*tee(iterable))

     def reshape(matrix, columns):
         "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
         # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
         return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), columns, strict=True)

     def transpose(matrix):
         "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
         # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
         return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

     def matmul(m1, m2):
         "Multiply two matrices."
         # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
         n = len(m2[0])
         return batched(starmap(sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

     def convolve(signal, kernel):
         """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
         Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

         Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
         evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
         infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

         Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
         Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
         """
         # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
         # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
         # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
         # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
         kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
         n = len(kernel)
         padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
         windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
         return map(sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

     def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
         """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

            (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
         """
         # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
         factors = zip(repeat(1), map(neg, roots))
         return list(reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

     def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
         """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

         Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
         """
         # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
         # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
         n = len(coefficients)
         if not n:
             return type(x)(0)
         powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
         return sumprod(coefficients, powers)

     def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
         """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

            f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
            f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
         """
         # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
         n = len(coefficients)
         powers = reversed(range(1, n))
         return list(map(mul, coefficients, powers))

     def sieve(n):
         "Primes less than n."
         # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
         if n > 2:
             yield 2
         data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
         for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=isqrt(n) + 1):
             data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
         yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

     def factor(n):
         "Prime factors of n."
         # factor(99) → 3 3 11
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
         for prime in sieve(isqrt(n) + 1):
             while not n % prime:
                 yield prime
                 n //= prime
                 if n == 1:
                     return
         if n > 1:
             yield n

     def is_prime(n):
         "Return True if n is prime."
         # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
         return n > 1 and next(factor(n)) == n

     def totient(n):
         "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
         # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
         # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
         for prime in set(factor(n)):
             n -= n // prime
         return n

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/

   (2) https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Next: operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions,  Prev: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Up: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

5.10.2 ‘functools’ -- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/functools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note functools: 5e. concerne les fonctions d'ordre supérieur
: des fonctions qui agissent sur, ou renvoient, d'autres fonctions.  En
général, tout objet appelable peut être considéré comme une fonction
dans la description de ce module.

Le module *note functools: 5e. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: @functools.cache (user_function)

     Fonction de cache très simple et sans limite de taille.  Cette
     technique est parfois appelée « mémoïsation »(2).

     Returns the same as ‘lru_cache(maxsize=None)’, creating a thin
     wrapper around a dictionary lookup for the function arguments.
     Because it never needs to evict old values, this is smaller and
     faster than *note lru_cache(): 9df. with a size limit.

     Par exemple :

          @cache
          def factorial(n):
              return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1

          >>> factorial(10)      # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
          3628800
          >>> factorial(5)       # just looks up cached value result
          120
          >>> factorial(12)      # makes two new recursive calls, the other 10 are cached
          479001600

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: @functools.cached_property (func)

     Transform a method of a class into a property whose value is
     computed once and then cached as a normal attribute for the life of
     the instance.  Similar to *note property(): 192, with the addition
     of caching.  Useful for expensive computed properties of instances
     that are otherwise effectively immutable.

     Exemple :

          class DataSet:

              def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
                  self._data = tuple(sequence_of_numbers)

              @cached_property
              def stdev(self):
                  return statistics.stdev(self._data)

     The mechanics of *note cached_property(): 52f. are somewhat
     different from *note property(): 192.  A regular property blocks
     attribute writes unless a setter is defined.  In contrast, a
     'cached_property' allows writes.

     The 'cached_property' decorator only runs on lookups and only when
     an attribute of the same name doesn't exist.  When it does run, the
     'cached_property' writes to the attribute with the same name.
     Subsequent attribute reads and writes take precedence over the
     'cached_property' method and it works like a normal attribute.

     The cached value can be cleared by deleting the attribute.  This
     allows the 'cached_property' method to run again.

     The 'cached_property' does not prevent a possible race condition in
     multi-threaded usage.  The getter function could run more than once
     on the same instance, with the latest run setting the cached value.
     If the cached property is idempotent or otherwise not harmful to
     run more than once on an instance, this is fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement the necessary locking inside
     the decorated getter function or around the cached property access.

     Note, this decorator interferes with the operation of PEP 412(3)
     key-sharing dictionaries.  This means that instance dictionaries
     can take more space than usual.

     Also, this decorator requires that the ‘__dict__’ attribute on each
     instance be a mutable mapping.  This means it will not work with
     some types, such as metaclasses (since the ‘__dict__’ attributes on
     type instances are read-only proxies for the class namespace), and
     those that specify ‘__slots__’ without including ‘__dict__’ as one
     of the defined slots (as such classes don't provide a ‘__dict__’
     attribute at all).

     If a mutable mapping is not available or if space-efficient key
     sharing is desired, an effect similar to *note cached_property():
     52f. can also be achieved by stacking *note property(): 192. on top
     of *note lru_cache(): 9df.  See *note Comment mettre en cache le
     résultat d'une méthode ?: 26f1. for more details on how this
     differs from *note cached_property(): 52f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Prior to Python 3.12,
     ‘cached_property’ included an undocumented lock to ensure that in
     multi-threaded usage the getter function was guaranteed to run only
     once per instance.  However, the lock was per-property, not
     per-instance, which could result in unacceptably high lock
     contention.  In Python 3.12+ this locking is removed.

 -- Fonction: functools.cmp_to_key (func)

     Transforme une fonction de comparaison à l'ancienne en une *note
     fonction clé: df4.  Utilisé avec des outils qui acceptent des
     fonctions clef (comme *note sorted(): bbe, *note min(): ef5, *note
     max(): ef6, *note heapq.nlargest(): 24ee, *note heapq.nsmallest():
     24ef, *note itertools.groupby(): 26e8.).  Cette fonction est
     destinée au portage de fonctions python 2 utilisant des fonctions
     de comparaison vers Python 3.

     A comparison function is any callable that accepts two arguments,
     compares them, and returns a negative number for less-than, zero
     for equality, or a positive number for greater-than.  A key
     function is a callable that accepts one argument and returns
     another value to be used as the sort key.

     Exemple :

          sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

     Pour des exemples de tris et un bref tutoriel, consultez *note
     Sorting Techniques: 213b.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: @functools.lru_cache (user_function)

 -- Fonction: @functools.lru_cache (maxsize=128, typed=False)

     Décorateur qui englobe une fonction avec un appelable mémoïsant qui
     enregistre jusqu'à 'maxsize' appels récents.  Cela peut gagner du
     temps quand une fonction coûteuse en ressources est souvent appelée
     avec les mêmes arguments.

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and
     keyword arguments to the function must be *note hashable: 5fd.

     Distinct argument patterns may be considered to be distinct calls
     with separate cache entries.  For example, ‘f(a=1, b=2)’ and
     ‘f(b=2, a=1)’ differ in their keyword argument order and may have
     two separate cache entries.

     Si 'user_function' est défini, ce doit être un appelable.  Ceci
     permet à 'lru_cache' d'être appliqué directement sur une fonction
     de l'utilisateur, sans préciser 'maxsize' (qui est alors défini à
     sa valeur par défaut, 128) :

          @lru_cache
          def count_vowels(sentence):
              return sum(sentence.count(vowel) for vowel in 'AEIOUaeiou')

     Si 'maxsize' est à ‘None’, la fonctionnalité LRU est désactivée et
     le cache peut grossir sans limite.

     If 'typed' is set to true, function arguments of different types
     will be cached separately.  If 'typed' is false, the implementation
     will usually regard them as equivalent calls and only cache a
     single result.  (Some types such as 'str' and 'int' may be cached
     separately even when 'typed' is false.)

     Note, type specificity applies only to the function's immediate
     arguments rather than their contents.  The scalar arguments,
     ‘Decimal(42)’ and ‘Fraction(42)’ are be treated as distinct calls
     with distinct results.  In contrast, the tuple arguments
     ‘('answer', Decimal(42))’ and ‘('answer', Fraction(42))’ are
     treated as equivalent.

     The wrapped function is instrumented with a ‘cache_parameters()’
     function that returns a new *note dict: 253. showing the values for
     'maxsize' and 'typed'.  This is for information purposes only.
     Mutating the values has no effect.

     To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the
     'maxsize' parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a
     ‘cache_info()’ function that returns a *note named tuple: 63b.
     showing 'hits', 'misses', 'maxsize' and 'currsize'.

     Le décorateur fournit également une fonction ‘cache_clear()’ pour
     vider ou invalider le cache.

     La fonction sous-jacente originale est accessible à travers
     l'attribut ‘__wrapped__’.  Ceci est utile pour l'introspection,
     pour outrepasser le cache, ou pour ré-englober la fonction avec un
     cache différent.

     The cache keeps references to the arguments and return values until
     they age out of the cache or until the cache is cleared.

     If a method is cached, the ‘self’ instance argument is included in
     the cache.  See *note Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une
     méthode ?: 26f1.

     An LRU (least recently used) cache(4) works best when the most
     recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for
     example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change
     each day).  The cache's size limit assures that the cache does not
     grow without bound on long-running processes such as web servers.

     In general, the LRU cache should only be used when you want to
     reuse previously computed values.  Accordingly, it doesn't make
     sense to cache functions with side-effects, functions that need to
     create distinct mutable objects on each call (such as generators
     and async functions), or impure functions such as time() or
     random().

     Exemple d'un cache LRU pour du contenu web statique :

          @lru_cache(maxsize=32)
          def get_pep(num):
              'Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal'
              resource = f'https://peps.python.org/pep-{num:04d}'
              try:
                  with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
                      return s.read()
              except urllib.error.HTTPError:
                  return 'Not Found'

          >>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
          ...     pep = get_pep(n)
          ...     print(n, len(pep))

          >>> get_pep.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)

     Exemple de calcul efficace de la suite de Fibonacci(5) en utilisant
     un cache pour implémenter la technique de programmation
     dynamique(6) :

          @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
          def fib(n):
              if n < 2:
                  return n
              return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

          >>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
          [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]

          >>> fib.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: L'option 'typed' a été ajoutée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'option 'user_function'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the function
     ‘cache_parameters()’

 -- Fonction: @functools.total_ordering

     A partir d'une classe définissant une ou plusieurs méthodes de
     comparaison riches, ce décorateur de classe fournit le reste.  Ceci
     simplifie l'effort à fournir dans la spécification de toutes les
     opérations de comparaison riche :

     La classe doit définir au moins une de ces méthodes ‘__lt__()’,
     ‘__le__()’, ‘__gt__()’, ou ‘__ge__()’.  De plus, la classe doit
     fournir une méthode ‘__eq__()’.

     Par exemple :

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
                  return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
                          hasattr(other, "firstname"))
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
              def __lt__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

          Note: Même si ce décorateur permet de créer des types
          ordonnables facilement, cela vient avec un 'coût' d'exécution
          et des traces d'exécution complexes pour les méthodes de
          comparaison dérivées.  Si des tests de performances le
          révèlent comme un goulot d'étranglement, l'implémentation
          manuelle des six méthodes de comparaison riches résoudra
          normalement vos problèmes de rapidité.

          Note: This decorator makes no attempt to override methods that
          have been declared in the class 'or its superclasses'.
          Meaning that if a superclass defines a comparison operator,
          'total_ordering' will not implement it again, even if the
          original method is abstract.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Returning ‘NotImplemented’ from the
     underlying comparison function for unrecognised types is now
     supported.

 -- Fonction: functools.partial (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     Retourne un nouvel *note objet partiel: 26f2. qui, quand il est
     appelé, fonctionne comme 'func' appelée avec les arguments
     positionnels 'args' et les arguments nommés 'keywords'.  Si plus
     d'arguments sont fournis à l'appel, ils sont ajoutés à 'args'.  Si
     plus d'arguments nommés sont fournis, ils étendent et surchargent
     'keywords'.  À peu près équivalent à :

          def partial(func, /, *args, **keywords):
              def newfunc(*fargs, **fkeywords):
                  newkeywords = {**keywords, **fkeywords}
                  return func(*args, *fargs, **newkeywords)
              newfunc.func = func
              newfunc.args = args
              newfunc.keywords = keywords
              return newfunc

     *note partial(): 40a. est utilisé pour une application de fonction
     partielle qui "gèle" une portion des arguments et/ou mots-clés
     d'une fonction donnant un nouvel objet avec une signature
     simplifiée.  Par exemple, *note partial(): 40a. peut être utilisé
     pour créer un appelable qui se comporte comme la fonction *note
     int(): 254. ou l'argument 'base' est deux par défaut :

          >>> from functools import partial
          >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
          >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
          >>> basetwo('10010')
          18

 -- Classe: functools.partialmethod (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     Retourne un nouveau descripteur *note partialmethod: a6b. qui se
     comporte comme *note partial: 40a. sauf qu'il est fait pour être
     utilisé comme une définition de méthode plutôt que d'être appelé
     directement.

     'func' doit être un *note descriptor: 152c. ou un appelable (les
     objets qui sont les deux, comme les fonction normales, sont gérés
     comme des descripteurs).

     Quand 'func' est un descripteur (comme une fonction Python normale,
     *note classmethod(): 165, *note staticmethod(): 40c,
     ‘abstractmethod()’ ou une autre instance de *note partialmethod:
     a6b.), les appels à ‘__get__’ sont délégués au descripteur
     sous-jacent, et un *note objet partiel: 26f2. approprié est renvoyé
     comme résultat.

     Quand 'func' est un appelable non-descripteur, une méthode liée
     appropriée est crée dynamiquement.  Elle se comporte comme une
     fonction Python normale quand elle est utilisée comme méthode :
     l'argument 'self' sera inséré comme premier argument positionnel,
     avant les 'args' et 'keywords' fournis au constructeur *note
     partialmethod: a6b.

     Exemple :

          >>> class Cell:
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self._alive = False
          ...     @property
          ...     def alive(self):
          ...         return self._alive
          ...     def set_state(self, state):
          ...         self._alive = bool(state)
          ...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
          ...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
          ...
          >>> c = Cell()
          >>> c.alive
          False
          >>> c.set_alive()
          >>> c.alive
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: functools.reduce (function, iterable[, initial], /)

     Apply 'function' of two arguments cumulatively to the items of
     'iterable', from left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a
     single value.  For example, ‘reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4,
     5])’ calculates ‘((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)’.  The left argument, 'x', is
     the accumulated value and the right argument, 'y', is the update
     value from the 'iterable'.  If the optional 'initial' is present,
     it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation,
     and serves as a default when the iterable is empty.  If 'initial'
     is not given and 'iterable' contains only one item, the first item
     is returned.

     À peu près équivalent à :

          initial_missing = object()

          def reduce(function, iterable, initial=initial_missing, /):
              it = iter(iterable)
              if initial is initial_missing:
                  value = next(it)
              else:
                  value = initial
              for element in it:
                  value = function(value, element)
              return value

     Voir *note itertools.accumulate(): 9ed. pour un itérateur qui
     génère toutes les valeurs intermédiaires.

 -- Fonction: @functools.singledispatch

     Transforme une fonction en une *note fonction générique: 9e1. *note
     single-dispatch: 9e2.

     To define a generic function, decorate it with the
     ‘@singledispatch’ decorator.  When defining a function using
     ‘@singledispatch’, note that the dispatch happens on the type of
     the first argument:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)

     To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the
     ‘register()’ attribute of the generic function, which can be used
     as a decorator.  For functions annotated with types, the decorator
     will infer the type of the first argument automatically:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

     *note types.UnionType: 627. and *note typing.Union: 628. can also
     be used:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     Pour le code qui n’utilise pas les indications de type, le type
     souhaité peut être passé explicitement en argument au décorateur :

          >>> @fun.register(complex)
          ... def _(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
          ...

     For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., ‘list’), but
     wants to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., ‘list[int]’),
     the dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator
     itself with the typehint going into the function definition:

          >>> @fun.register(list)
          ... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

          Note: At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance of
          a list regardless of the type contained within the list i.e.
          ‘[1,2,3]’ will be dispatched the same as ‘["foo", "bar",
          "baz"]’.  The annotation provided in this example is for
          static type checkers only and has no runtime impact.

     To enable registering *note lambdas: 26f3. and pre-existing
     functions, the ‘register()’ attribute can also be used in a
     functional form:

          >>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     print("Nothing.")
          ...
          >>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)

     The ‘register()’ attribute returns the undecorated function.  This
     enables decorator stacking, *note pickling: a5, and the creation of
     unit tests for each variant independently:

          >>> @fun.register(float)
          ... @fun.register(Decimal)
          ... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg / 2)
          ...
          >>> fun_num is fun
          False

     Quand elle est appelée, la fonction générique distribue sur le type
     du premier argument :

          >>> fun("Hello, world.")
          Hello, world.
          >>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
          Let me just say, test.
          >>> fun(42, verbose=True)
          Strength in numbers, eh? 42
          >>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
          Enumerate this:
          0 spam
          1 spam
          2 eggs
          3 spam
          >>> fun(None)
          Nothing.
          >>> fun(1.23)
          0.615

     Where there is no registered implementation for a specific type,
     its method resolution order is used to find a more generic
     implementation.  The original function decorated with
     ‘@singledispatch’ is registered for the base *note object: a7c.
     type, which means it is used if no better implementation is found.

     If an implementation is registered to an *note abstract base class:
     1195, virtual subclasses of the base class will be dispatched to
     that implementation:

          >>> from collections.abc import Mapping
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Mapping, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Keys & Values")
          ...     for key, value in arg.items():
          ...         print(key, "=>", value)
          ...
          >>> fun({"a": "b"})
          a => b

     To check which implementation the generic function will choose for
     a given type, use the ‘dispatch()’ attribute:

          >>> fun.dispatch(float)
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # note: default implementation
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     Pour accéder à toutes les implémentations enregistrées, utiliser
     l'attribut en lecture seule ‘registry’ :

          >>> fun.registry.keys()
          dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
                    <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
                    <class 'float'>])
          >>> fun.registry[float]
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.registry[object]
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The ‘register()’ attribute now
     supports using type annotations.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘register()’ attribute now
     supports *note types.UnionType: 627. and *note typing.Union: 628.
     as type annotations.

 -- Classe: functools.singledispatchmethod (func)

     Transforme une méthode en une *note fonction générique: 9e1. *note
     single-dispatch: 9e2.

     To define a generic method, decorate it with the
     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ decorator.  When defining a function using
     ‘@singledispatchmethod’, note that the dispatch happens on the type
     of the first non-'self' or non-'cls' argument:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              def neg(self, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ supports nesting with other decorators such
     as *note @classmethod: 165.  Note that to allow for
     ‘dispatcher.register’, ‘singledispatchmethod’ must be the 'outer
     most' decorator.  Here is the ‘Negator’ class with the ‘neg’
     methods bound to the class, rather than an instance of the class:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              @classmethod
              def neg(cls, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     The same pattern can be used for other similar decorators: *note
     @staticmethod: 40c, *note @abstractmethod: 1071, and others.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: functools.update_wrapper (wrapper, wrapped,
          assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     Update a 'wrapper' function to look like the 'wrapped' function.
     The optional arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of
     the original function are assigned directly to the matching
     attributes on the wrapper function and which attributes of the
     wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes from
     the original function.  The default values for these arguments are
     the module level constants ‘WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS’ (which assigns to
     the wrapper function's *note __module__: 1eb9, *note __name__:
     12b4, *note __qualname__: 1eb8, *note __annotations__: 11b7, *note
     __type_params__: 1ebb, and *note __doc__: 11b8, the documentation
     string) and ‘WRAPPER_UPDATES’ (which updates the wrapper function's
     *note __dict__: 12b2, i.e.  the instance dictionary).

     Pour autoriser l'accès à la fonction originale pour l'introspection
     ou à d'autres fins (par ex.  outrepasser l'accès à un décorateur de
     cache comme *note lru_cache(): 9df.), cette fonction ajoute
     automatiquement un attribut ‘__wrapped__’ qui référence la fonction
     englobée.

     La principale utilisation de cette fonction est dans les *note
     décorateurs: 71d. qui renvoient une nouvelle fonction.  Si la
     fonction crée n'est pas mise à jour, ses métadonnées refléteront sa
     définition dans le décorateur, au lieu de la définition originale,
     métadonnées souvent bien moins utiles.

     *note update_wrapper(): 100d. peut être utilisé avec des appelables
     autres que des fonctions.  Tout attribut défini dans 'assigned' ou
     'updated' qui ne sont pas l'objet englobé sont ignorés (cette
     fonction n'essaiera pas de les définir dans la fonction
     englobante).  *note AttributeError: 343. est toujours levée si le
     fonction englobante elle même a des attributs non existants dans
     'updated'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute is now
     automatically added.  The *note __annotations__: 11b7. attribute is
     now copied by default.  Missing attributes no longer trigger an
     *note AttributeError: 343.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: L'attribut ‘__wrapped__’ renvoie
     toujours la fonction englobée, même si cette fonction définit un
     attribut ‘__wrapped__’.  (voir bpo-17482(7))

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The *note __type_params__: 1ebb.
     attribute is now copied by default.

 -- Fonction: @functools.wraps (wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS,
          updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     Ceci est une fonction d'aide pour appeler *note update_wrapper():
     100d. comme décorateur de fonction lors de la définition d'une
     fonction englobante.  C'est équivalent à ‘partial(update_wrapper,
     wrapped=wrapped, assigned=assigned, updated=updated)’.  Par
     exemple :

          >>> from functools import wraps
          >>> def my_decorator(f):
          ...     @wraps(f)
          ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
          ...         print('Calling decorated function')
          ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
          ...     return wrapper
          ...
          >>> @my_decorator
          ... def example():
          ...     """Docstring"""
          ...     print('Called example function')
          ...
          >>> example()
          Calling decorated function
          Called example function
          >>> example.__name__
          'example'
          >>> example.__doc__
          'Docstring'

     Sans l'utilisation de cette usine à décorateur, le nom de la
     fonction d'exemple aurait été ‘'wrapper'’, et la chaîne de
     documentation de la fonction ‘example()’ originale aurait été
     perdue.

* Menu:

* Objets partial::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/functools.py

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9mo%C3%AFsation

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)

   (5) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_de_Fibonacci

   (6) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmation_dynamique

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17482


File: python.info,  Node: Objets partial,  Up: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

5.10.2.1 Objets ‘partial’
.........................

Les objets *note partial: 40a. sont des objets appelables créés par
*note partial(): 40a.  Ils ont trois attributs en lecture seule :

 -- Attribut: partial.func

     Un objet ou une fonction appelable.  Les appels à l'objet *note
     partial: 40a. seront transmis à *note func: 26f5. avec les nouveaux
     arguments et mots-clés.

 -- Attribut: partial.args

     Les arguments positionnels qui seront ajoutés avant les arguments
     fournis lors de l'appel d'un objet *note partial: 40a.

 -- Attribut: partial.keywords

     Les arguments nommés qui seront fournis quand l'objet *note
     partial: 40a. est appelé.

*note partial: 40a. objects are like *note function objects: 296. in
that they are callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes.
There are some important differences.  For instance, the *note __name__:
12b4. and *note function.__doc__: 11b8. attributes are not created
automatically.  Also, *note partial: 40a. objects defined in classes
behave like static methods and do not transform into bound methods
during instance attribute look-up.


File: python.info,  Node: operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions,  Prev: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Up: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

5.10.3 ‘operator’ — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/operator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note operator: 9e. fournit un ensemble de fonctions
correspondant aux opérateurs natifs de Python.  Par exemple,
‘operator.add(x, y)’ correspond à l'expression ‘x+y’.  Les noms de la
plupart de ces fonctions sont ceux utilisés par les méthodes spéciales,
sans les doubles tirets bas.  Pour assurer la rétrocompatibilité, la
plupart de ces noms ont une variante 'avec' les doubles tirets bas ; la
forme simple est cependant à privilégier pour des raisons de clarté.

Les fonctions sont divisées en différentes catégories selon l'opération
effectuée : comparaison entre objets, opérations logiques, opérations
mathématiques ou opérations sur séquences.

Les fonctions de comparaison s'appliquent à tous les objets, et leur nom
vient des opérateurs de comparaison qu'elles implémentent :

 -- Fonction: operator.lt (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.le (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.eq (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.ne (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.ge (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.gt (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__lt__ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__le__ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__eq__ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ne__ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ge__ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__gt__ (a, b)

     Effectue une « comparaison riche » entre 'a' et 'b'.  Plus
     précisément, ‘lt(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a < b’, ‘le(a, b)’ équivaut à
     ‘a <= b’, ‘eq(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a == b’, ‘ne(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a
     != b’, ‘gt(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a > b’ et ‘ge(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a >=
     b’.  Notez que ces fonctions peuvent renvoyer n'importe quelle
     valeur, convertible ou non en booléen.  Voir *note Comparaisons:
     202f. pour plus d'informations sur les méthodes de comparaison
     riches.

En général, les opérations logiques s'appliquent aussi à tous les objets
et implémentent les tests de vérité, d'identité et les opérations
booléennes :

 -- Fonction: operator.not_ (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.__not__ (obj)

     Renvoie le résultat de *note not: 2039. 'obj'.  (Notez qu'il
     n'existe pas de méthode ‘__not__()’ pour les instances d'objet;
     seul le cœur de l'interpréteur définit cette opération.  Le
     résultat dépend des méthodes *note __bool__(): 12b5. et *note
     __len__(): 1f1c.)

 -- Fonction: operator.truth (obj)

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. si 'obj' est vrai, et *note False: b27.
     dans le cas contraire.  Équivaut à utiliser le constructeur de
     *note bool: 453.

 -- Fonction: operator.is_ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a is b’.  Vérifie si les deux paramètres sont le même
     objet.

 -- Fonction: operator.is_not (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a is not b’.  Vérifie si les deux paramètres sont deux
     objets distincts.

Les opérations mathématiques ou bit à bit sont les plus nombreuses :

 -- Fonction: operator.abs (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.__abs__ (obj)

     Renvoie la valeur absolue de 'obj'.

 -- Fonction: operator.add (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__add__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a + b’ où 'a' et 'b' sont des nombres.

 -- Fonction: operator.and_ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__and__ (a, b)

     Renvoie le 'et' bit à bit de 'a' et 'b'.

 -- Fonction: operator.floordiv (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__floordiv__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a // b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.index (a)
 -- Fonction: operator.__index__ (a)

     Renvoie 'a' converti en entier.  Équivaut à ‘a.__index__()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Le résultat a toujours le type *note
     int: 254.  Précédemment, le résultat aurait pu être une instance
     d'une sous-classe de ‘int’.

 -- Fonction: operator.inv (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.invert (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.__inv__ (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.__invert__ (obj)

     Renvoie l'inverse bit à bit du nombre 'obj'.  Équivaut à ‘~obj’.

 -- Fonction: operator.lshift (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__lshift__ (a, b)

     Renvoie le décalage de 'b' bits vers la gauche de 'a'.

 -- Fonction: operator.mod (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__mod__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a % b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.mul (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__mul__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a * b’ où 'a' et 'b' sont des nombres.

 -- Fonction: operator.matmul (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__matmul__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a @ b’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: operator.neg (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.__neg__ (obj)

     Renvoie l'opposé de 'obj' (‘-obj’).

 -- Fonction: operator.or_ (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__or__ (a, b)

     Renvoie le 'ou' bit à bit de 'a' et 'b'.

 -- Fonction: operator.pos (obj)
 -- Fonction: operator.__pos__ (obj)

     Renvoie la valeur positive de 'obj' (‘+obj’).

 -- Fonction: operator.pow (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__pow__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a ** b’ où 'a' et 'b' sont des nombres.

 -- Fonction: operator.rshift (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__rshift__ (a, b)

     Renvoie le décalage de 'b' bits vers la droite de 'a'.

 -- Fonction: operator.sub (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__sub__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a - b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.truediv (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__truediv__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a / b’ où 2/3 est 0.66 et non 0.  Appelée aussi division
     « réelle ».

 -- Fonction: operator.xor (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__xor__ (a, b)

     Renvoie le ou exclusif bit à bit de 'a' et 'b'.

Les opérations sur séquences (et pour certaines, sur correspondances)
sont :

 -- Fonction: operator.concat (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__concat__ (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a + b’ où 'a' et 'b' sont des séquences.

 -- Fonction: operator.contains (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__contains__ (a, b)

     Renvoie le résultat du test ‘b in a’.  Notez que les opérandes sont
     inversées.

 -- Fonction: operator.countOf (a, b)

     Renvoie le nombre d’occurrences de 'b' dans 'a'.

 -- Fonction: operator.delitem (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__delitem__ (a, b)

     Renvoie la valeur de 'a' à l'indice 'b'.

 -- Fonction: operator.getitem (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__getitem__ (a, b)

     Renvoie la valeur de 'a' à l'indice 'b'.

 -- Fonction: operator.indexOf (a, b)

     Renvoie l'indice de la première occurrence de 'b' dans 'a'.

 -- Fonction: operator.setitem (a, b, c)
 -- Fonction: operator.__setitem__ (a, b, c)

     Affecte 'c' dans 'a' à l'indice 'b'.

 -- Fonction: operator.length_hint (obj, default=0)

     Renvoie une estimation de la taille de l'objet 'obj'.  Tente
     d'abord de renvoyer la taille réelle, puis une estimation en
     appelant *note object.__length_hint__(): ef8, ou sinon la valeur
     par défaut.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

L'opération suivante marche avec les objets appelables :

 -- Fonction: operator.call (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)
 -- Fonction: operator.__call__ (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return ‘obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Le module *note operator: 9e. définit aussi des fonctions pour la
recherche générique d'attributs ou d'objets.  Elles sont
particulièrement utiles pour construire rapidement des accesseurs
d'attributs à passer en paramètre à *note map(): 850, *note sorted():
bbe, *note itertools.groupby(): 26e8. ou à toute autre fonction prenant
une fonction en paramètre.

 -- Fonction: operator.attrgetter (attr)

 -- Fonction: operator.attrgetter (*attrs)

     Renvoie un objet appelable qui récupère 'attr' de son opérande.  Si
     plus d'un attribut est demandé, renvoie un 'n'-uplet d'attributs.
     Les noms des attributs peuvent aussi comporter des points.  Par
     exemple :

        * Avec ‘f = attrgetter('name')’, l'appel ‘f(b)’ renvoie
          ‘b.name’.

        * Avec ‘f = attrgetter('name', 'date')’, l'appel ‘f(b)’ renvoie
          ‘(b.name, b.date)’.

        * Après ‘f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last')’, l'appel
          ‘f(b)’ renvoie ‘(b.name.first, b.name.last)’.

     Équivalent à :

          def attrgetter(*items):
              if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
                  raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
              if len(items) == 1:
                  attr = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
              return g

          def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
              for name in attr.split("."):
                  obj = getattr(obj, name)
              return obj

 -- Fonction: operator.itemgetter (item)

 -- Fonction: operator.itemgetter (*items)

     Renvoie un objet appelable qui récupère 'item' de l'opérande en
     utilisant la méthode *note __getitem__(): 280.  Si plusieurs 'item'
     sont passés en paramètre, renvoie un 'n'-uplet des valeurs
     récupérées.  Par exemple :

        * Avec ‘f = itemgetter(2)’, ‘f(r)’ renvoie ‘r[2]’.

        * Avec ‘g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3)’, ‘g(r)’ renvoie ‘(r[2], r[5],
          r[3])’.

     Équivalent à :

          def itemgetter(*items):
              if len(items) == 1:
                  item = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return obj[item]
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
              return g

     Les 'items' en entrée peuvent être de n'importe quel type tant que
     celui-ci est géré par la méthode *note __getitem__(): 280. de
     l'opérande.  Les dictionnaires acceptent toute valeur *note
     hachable: 5fd.  Les listes, 'n'-uplets et chaînes de caractères
     acceptent un index ou une tranche :

          >>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
          'B'
          >>> itemgetter(1, 3, 5)('ABCDEFG')
          ('B', 'D', 'F')
          >>> itemgetter(slice(2, None))('ABCDEFG')
          'CDEFG'
          >>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
          >>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
          'captain'

     Exemple d'utilisation de *note itemgetter(): a52. pour récupérer
     des champs spécifiques d'un 'n'-uplet :

          >>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
          >>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
          >>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
          [3, 2, 5, 1]
          >>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
          [('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]

 -- Fonction: operator.methodcaller (name, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Renvoie un objet appelable qui appelle la méthode 'name' de son
     opérande.  Si des paramètres supplémentaires et/ou des paramètres
     nommés sont donnés, ils seront aussi passés à la méthode.  Par
     exemple :

        * Avec ‘f = methodcaller('name')’, ‘f(b)’ renvoie ‘b.name()’.

        * Avec ‘f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1)’, ‘f(b)’ renvoie
          ‘b.name('foo', bar=1)’.

     Équivalent à :

          def methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs):
              def caller(obj):
                  return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
              return caller

* Menu:

* Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions::
* Opérateurs en-place::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/operator.py


File: python.info,  Node: Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions,  Next: Opérateurs en-place,  Up: operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

5.10.3.1 Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions
......................................................

Le tableau montre la correspondance entre les symboles des opérateurs
Python et les fonctions du module *note operator: 9e.

Opération                   Syntaxe                       Fonction
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Addition                    ‘a + b’                       ‘add(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Concaténation               ‘seq1 + seq2’                 ‘concat(seq1, seq2)’
                                                          
                                                          
Test d'inclusion            ‘obj in seq’                  ‘contains(seq, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Division                    ‘a / b’                       ‘truediv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Division                    ‘a // b’                      ‘floordiv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
'Et' bit à bit              ‘a & b’                       ‘and_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
'Ou exclusif' bit à bit     ‘a ^ b’                       ‘xor(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Inversion bit à bit         ‘~ a’                         ‘invert(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
'Ou' bit à bit              ‘a | b’                       ‘or_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Exponentiation              ‘a ** b’                      ‘pow(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identité                    ‘a is b’                      ‘is_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identité                    ‘a is not b’                  ‘is_not(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Affectation par index       ‘obj[k] = v’                  ‘setitem(obj, k, v)’
                                                          
                                                          
Suppression par index       ‘del obj[k]’                  ‘delitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexation                  ‘obj[k]’                      ‘getitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
Décalage bit à bit gauche   ‘a << b’                      ‘lshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Modulo                      ‘a % b’                       ‘mod(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Multiplication              ‘a * b’                       ‘mul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Multiplication              ‘a @ b’                       ‘matmul(a, b)’
matricielle                                               

Opposé                      ‘- a’                         ‘neg(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Négation (logique)          ‘not a’                       ‘not_(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Valeur positive             ‘+ a’                         ‘pos(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Décalage bit à bit droite   ‘a >> b’                      ‘rshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Affectation par tranche     ‘seq[i:j] = values’           ‘setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)’
                                                          
                                                          
Suppression par tranche     ‘del seq[i:j]’                ‘delitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
Tranche                     ‘seq[i:j]’                    ‘getitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
Formatage de chaînes de     ‘s % obj’                     ‘mod(s, obj)’
caractères                                                

Soustraction                ‘a - b’                       ‘sub(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Test de véracité            ‘obj’                         ‘truth(obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordre                       ‘a < b’                       ‘lt(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordre                       ‘a <= b’                      ‘le(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Égalité                     ‘a == b’                      ‘eq(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Inégalité                   ‘a != b’                      ‘ne(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordre                       ‘a >= b’                      ‘ge(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordre                       ‘a > b’                       ‘gt(a, b)’
                                                          


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs en-place,  Prev: Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions,  Up: operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

5.10.3.2 Opérateurs en-place
............................

Beaucoup d'opérations ont une version travaillant « en-place ».  Les
fonctions listées ci-dessous fournissent un accès plus direct aux
opérateurs en-place que la syntaxe Python habituelle ; par exemple,
l'expression *note statement: 273b. ‘x += y’ équivaut à ‘x =
operator.iadd(x, y)’.  Autrement dit, l'expression ‘z = operator.iadd(x,
y)’ équivaut à l'expression composée ‘z = x; z += y’.

Dans ces exemples, notez que lorsqu'une méthode en-place est appelée, le
calcul et l'affectation sont effectués en deux étapes distinctes.  Les
fonctions en-place de la liste ci-dessous ne font que la première, en
appelant la méthode en-place.  La seconde étape, l'affectation, n'est
pas effectuée.

Pour des paramètres non-mutables comme les chaînes de caractères, les
nombres et les 'n'-uplets, la nouvelle valeur est calculée, mais pas
affectée à la variable d'entrée :

     >>> a = 'hello'
     >>> iadd(a, ' world')
     'hello world'
     >>> a
     'hello'

Pour des paramètres mutables comme les listes et les dictionnaires, la
méthode en-place modifiera la valeur, aucune affectation ultérieure
n'est nécessaire :

     >>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
     >>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
     >>> s
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']

 -- Fonction: operator.iadd (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__iadd__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iadd(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a += b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.iand (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__iand__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iand(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a &= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.iconcat (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__iconcat__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iconcat(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a += b’ où 'a' et 'b' sont des
     séquences.

 -- Fonction: operator.ifloordiv (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ifloordiv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ifloordiv(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a //= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.ilshift (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ilshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ilshift(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a <<= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.imod (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__imod__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imod(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a %= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.imul (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__imul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imul(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a *= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.imatmul (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__imatmul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imatmul(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a @= b’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: operator.ior (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ior__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ior(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a |= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.ipow (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ipow__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ipow(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a **= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.irshift (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__irshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = irshift(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a >>= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.isub (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__isub__ (a, b)

     ‘a = isub(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a -= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.itruediv (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__itruediv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = itruediv(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a /= b’.

 -- Fonction: operator.ixor (a, b)
 -- Fonction: operator.__ixor__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ixor(a, b)’ équivaut à ‘a ^= b’.


File: python.info,  Node: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers,  Next: Persistance des données,  Prev: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.11 Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers
=======================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre servent à accéder aux fichiers et
aux dossiers.  Des modules, par exemple, pour lire les propriétés des
fichiers, manipuler des chemins de manière portable, et créer des
fichiers temporaires.  La liste exhaustive des modules de ce chapitre
est :

* Menu:

* pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet::
* os.path: os path --- Common pathname manipulations. Common pathname manipulations
* stat: stat --- Interpreting stat results. Interpreting stat() results
* filecmp: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons. File and Directory Comparisons
* tempfile: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories. Generate temporary files and directories
* glob: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion. Unix style pathname pattern expansion
* fnmatch: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching. Unix filename pattern matching
* linecache: linecache --- Random access to text lines. Random access to text lines
* shutil: shutil --- High-level file operations. High-level file operations


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet,  Next: os path --- Common pathname manipulations,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.1 ‘pathlib’ — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet
----------------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

'Code source :' Lib/pathlib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module offre des classes représentant le système de fichiers avec la
sémantique appropriée pour différents systèmes d'exploitation.  Les
classes de chemins sont divisées en *note chemins purs: 275c, qui
fournissent uniquement des opérations de manipulation sans
entrées-sorties, et *note chemins concrets: 275d, qui héritent des
chemins purs et fournissent également les opérations d'entrées-sorties.

[image src="python-figures/pathlib-inheritance.png" alt="Inheritance diagram showing the classes available in pathlib. The most basic class is PurePath, which has three direct subclasses: PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath, and Path. Further to these four classes, there are two classes that use multiple inheritance: PosixPath subclasses PurePosixPath and Path, and WindowsPath subclasses PureWindowsPath and Path."]


Si vous n'avez jamais utilisé ce module précédemment, ou si vous n'êtes
pas sûr de quelle classe est faite pour votre tâche, *note Path: 226.
est très certainement ce dont vous avez besoin.  Elle instancie un *note
chemin concret: 275d. pour la plateforme sur laquelle s'exécute le code.

Les chemins purs sont utiles dans certains cas particuliers ; par
exemple :

  1. Si vous voulez manipuler des chemins Windows sur une machine Unix
     (ou vice versa).  Vous ne pouvez pas instancier un *note
     WindowsPath: 275e. quand vous êtes sous Unix, mais vous pouvez
     instancier *note PureWindowsPath: 16bf.

  2. Vous voulez être sûr que votre code manipule des chemins sans
     réellement accéder au système d'exploitation.  Dans ce cas,
     instancier une de ces classes pures peut être utile puisqu'elle ne
     possède tout simplement aucune opération permettant d'accéder au
     système d'exploitation.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 428(2) : le module 'pathlib' – implémentation orientée-objet des
chemins de systèmes de fichiers.

Voir aussi
..........

Pour de la manipulation de chemins bas-niveau avec des chaînes de
caractères, vous pouvez aussi utiliser le module *note os.path: a1.

* Menu:

* Utilisation basique::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<6>.
* Chemins purs::
* Chemins concrets::
* Pattern language::
* Comparaison avec les outils du module glob::
* Comparaison aux modules os et os.path: Comparaison aux modules os et os path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pathlib/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation basique,  Next: Exceptions<6>,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.1 Utilisation basique
............................

Importer la classe principale :

     >>> from pathlib import Path

Lister les sous-dossiers :

     >>> p = Path('.')
     >>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
     [PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
      PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]

Lister les fichiers source Python dans cette arborescence de dossiers :

     >>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
     [PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
      PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
      PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]

Naviguer à l'intérieur d'une arborescence de dossiers :

     >>> p = Path('/etc')
     >>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
     >>> q
     PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
     >>> q.resolve()
     PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')

Récupérer les propriétés de chemin :

     >>> q.exists()
     True
     >>> q.is_dir()
     False

Ouvrir un fichier :

     >>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
     ...
     '#!/bin/bash\n'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<6>,  Next: Chemins purs,  Prev: Utilisation basique,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.2 Exceptions
...................

 -- Exception: pathlib.UnsupportedOperation

     Une exception qui hérite de *note NotImplementedError: 225. levée
     quand une opération non prise en charge est appelée sur un objet
     'path'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Chemins purs,  Next: Chemins concrets,  Prev: Exceptions<6>,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.3 Chemins purs
.....................

Les objets chemins purs fournissent les opérations de gestion de chemin
qui n'accèdent pas réellement au système de fichiers.  Il y a trois
façons d'accéder à ces classes que nous appelons aussi 'familles' :

 -- Classe: pathlib.PurePath (*pathsegments)

     Une classe générique qui représente la famille de chemin du système
     (l'instancier crée soit un *note PurePosixPath: 2762. soit un *note
     PureWindowsPath: 16bf.) :

          >>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
          PurePosixPath('setup.py')

     Each element of 'pathsegments' can be either a string representing
     a path segment, or an object implementing the *note os.PathLike:
     c41. interface where the *note __fspath__(): c42. method returns a
     string, such as another path object:

          >>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
          >>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')

     Quand 'pathsegments' est vide, le dossier courant est utilisé :

          >>> PurePath()
          PurePosixPath('.')

     Si un segment est un chemin absolu, tous les segments précédents
     sont ignorés (comme *note os.path.join(): 15ee.) :

          >>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
          PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
          PureWindowsPath('d:bar')

     Sous Windows, le nom de lecteur est conservé quand un chemin
     relatif à la racine (par exemple ‘r'\foo'’) est rencontré :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

     Les points et slashs superflus sont supprimés, mais les doubles
     points (‘'..'’) et les double slashes (‘'//'’) en début de segment
     ne le sont pas, puisque cela changerait la signification du chemin
     pour différentes raisons (par exemple pour des liens symboliques ou
     des chemins UNC) :

          >>> PurePath('foo//bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('//foo/bar')
          PurePosixPath('//foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')

     (une analyse naïve considérerait ‘PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')’
     équivalent à ‘PurePosixPath('bar')’, ce qui est faux si ‘foo’ est
     un lien symbolique vers un autre dossier)

     Les objets chemins purs implémentent l'interface *note os.PathLike:
     c41, leur permettant d'être utilisés n'importe où l'interface est
     acceptée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout de la gestion de l'interface
     *note os.PathLike: c41.

 -- Classe: pathlib.PurePosixPath (*pathsegments)

     Sous-classe de *note PurePath: 492, cette famille de chemin
     représente les chemins de systèmes de fichiers en dehors des
     chemins Windows :

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' est spécifié de manière similaire à *note PurePath:
     492.

 -- Classe: pathlib.PureWindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     Sous-classe de *note PurePath: 492, cette famille de chemin
     représente les chemins de systèmes de fichiers Windows, y compris
     les chemins UNC (voir UNC paths(1)) :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
          PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')

     'pathsegments' est spécifié de manière similaire à *note PurePath:
     492.

Sans tenir compte du système sur lequel vous êtes, vous pouvez
instancier toutes ces classes, puisqu'elles ne fournissent aucune
opération qui appelle le système d'exploitation.

* Menu:

* Propriétés générales::
* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<2>.
* Accéder aux parties individuelles::
* Méthodes et propriétés::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)#UNC


File: python.info,  Node: Propriétés générales,  Next: Opérateurs<2>,  Up: Chemins purs

5.11.1.4 Propriétés générales
.............................

Paths are immutable and *note hashable: 5fd.  Paths of a same flavour
are comparable and orderable.  These properties respect the flavour's
case-folding semantics:

     >>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
     True

Les chemins de différentes familles ne sont pas égaux et ne peuvent être
ordonnés :

     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs<2>,  Next: Accéder aux parties individuelles,  Prev: Propriétés générales,  Up: Chemins purs

5.11.1.5 Opérateurs
...................

L'opérateur slash aide à créer les chemins enfants, de manière similaire
à *note os.path.join(): 15ee.  Si l'argument est un chemin absolu, le
chemin précédent est ignoré.  Sous Windows, le lecteur n'est pas effacé
quand l'argument est un chemin relatif enraciné (par exemple
‘r'\foo'’) :

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> p
     PurePosixPath('/etc')
     >>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
     PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
     >>> q = PurePath('bin')
     >>> '/usr' / q
     PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
     >>> p / '/an_absolute_path'
     PurePosixPath('/an_absolute_path')
     >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
     PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

Un objet chemin peut être utilisé n'importe où un objet implémentant
*note os.PathLike: c41. est accepté :

     >>> import os
     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> os.fspath(p)
     '/etc'

La représentation d'un chemin en chaîne de caractères est celle du
chemin brut du système de fichiers lui-même (dans sa forme native,
c.-à-d.  avec des antislashs sous Windows), telle que vous pouvez la
passer à n'importe quelle fonction prenant un chemin en tant que chaîne
de caractères :

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> str(p)
     '/etc'
     >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
     >>> str(p)
     'c:\\Program Files'

De manière similaire, appeler *note bytes: 1bd. sur un chemin donne le
chemin brut du système de fichiers en tant que bytes, tel qu'encodé par
*note os.fsencode(): c45. :

     >>> bytes(p)
     b'/etc'

     Note: Appeler *note bytes: 1bd. est seulement recommandé sous Unix.
     Sous Windows, la forme Unicode est la représentation canonique des
     chemins du système de fichiers.


File: python.info,  Node: Accéder aux parties individuelles,  Next: Méthodes et propriétés,  Prev: Opérateurs<2>,  Up: Chemins purs

5.11.1.6 Accéder aux parties individuelles
..........................................

Pour accéder aux parties individuelles (composantes) d'un chemin,
utilisez les propriétés suivantes :

 -- Attribut: PurePath.parts

     Un tuple donnant accès aux différentes composantes du chemin :

          >>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
          >>> p.parts
          ('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
          >>> p.parts
          ('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')

     (notez comme le lecteur et la racine locale sont regroupés en une
     seule partie)


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes et propriétés,  Prev: Accéder aux parties individuelles,  Up: Chemins purs

5.11.1.7 Méthodes et propriétés
...............................

Les chemins purs fournissent les méthodes et propriétés suivantes :

 -- Attribut: PurePath.parser

     The implementation of the *note os.path: a1. module used for
     low-level path parsing and joining: either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Attribut: PurePath.drive

     Une chaîne représentant la lettre du lecteur ou le nom, s'il y en a
     un :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
          'c:'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
          ''

     Les partages UNC sont aussi considérés comme des lecteurs :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
          '\\\\host\\share'

 -- Attribut: PurePath.root

     Une chaîne de caractères représentant la racine (locale ou
     globale), s'il y en a une :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
          '\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
          '/'

     Les partages UNC ont toujours une racine :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
          '\\'

     Si le chemin commence par plus de deux slashes successifs, *note
     PurePosixPath: 2762. n'en conserve qu'un :

          >>> PurePosixPath('//etc').root
          '//'
          >>> PurePosixPath('///etc').root
          '/'
          >>> PurePosixPath('////etc').root
          '/'

          Note: Ce comportement se conforme au paragraphe 4.11 Pathname
          Resolution(1) des 'Open Group Base Specifications' version 6 :

          '"A pathname that begins with two successive slashes may be
          interpreted in an implementation-defined manner, although more
          than two leading slashes shall be treated as a single slash."'

 -- Attribut: PurePath.anchor

     La concaténation du lecteur et de la racine :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
          'c:\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
          'c:'
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
          '/'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
          '\\\\host\\share\\'

 -- Attribut: PurePath.parents

     Une séquence immuable fournissant accès aux ancêtres logiques du
     chemin :

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
          >>> p.parents[0]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
          >>> p.parents[1]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
          >>> p.parents[2]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/')

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: La séquence de 'parents' prend
     désormais en charge les *note tranches: 213a. et les valeurs
     d’index négatives.

 -- Attribut: PurePath.parent

     Le parent logique du chemin :

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')

     Vous ne pouvez pas aller au-delà d'une ancre, ou d'un chemin vide :

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('.')

          Note: C'est une opération purement lexicale, d'où le
          comportement suivant :

               >>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
               >>> p.parent
               PurePosixPath('foo')

          Si vous voulez remonter un chemin arbitraire du système de
          fichiers, il est recommandé d'appeler d'abord *note
          Path.resolve(): 16b6. de manière à résoudre les liens
          symboliques et éliminer les composantes ‘".."’.

 -- Attribut: PurePath.name

     Une chaîne représentant la composante finale du chemin, en excluant
     le lecteur et la racine, si présent :

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'

     Les noms de lecteur UNC ne sont pas pris en compte :

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
          ''

 -- Attribut: PurePath.suffix

     The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
          '.py'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
          '.gz'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
          ''

     Ceci est communément appelé une extension de fichier.

 -- Attribut: PurePath.suffixes

     Une liste de suffixes du chemin concerné, souvent appelées
     extensions de fichier :

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gar']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gz']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
          []

 -- Attribut: PurePath.stem

     La composante finale du chemin, sans son suffixe :

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
          'library.tar'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
          'library'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
          'library'

 -- Méthode: PurePath.as_posix ()

     Renvoie une représentation en chaîne de caractères du chemin avec
     des slashs (‘/’) :

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
          >>> str(p)
          'c:\\windows'
          >>> p.as_posix()
          'c:/windows'

 -- Méthode: PurePath.is_absolute ()

     Renvoie si le chemin est absolu ou non.  Un chemin est considéré
     absolu s'il a une racine et un lecteur (si la famille le permet) :

          >>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
          False

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
          True

 -- Méthode: PurePath.is_relative_to (other)

     Renvoie si ce chemin est relatif ou non au chemin 'other'.

          >>> p = PurePath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/etc')
          True
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/usr')
          False

     This method is string-based; it neither accesses the filesystem nor
     treats "‘..’" segments specially.  The following code is
     equivalent:

          >>> u = PurePath('/usr')
          >>> u == p or u in p.parents
          False

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Passing additional arguments is deprecated; if supplied, they are
     joined with 'other'.

 -- Méthode: PurePath.is_reserved ()

     Avec *note PureWindowsPath: 16bf, renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin est
     considéré réservé sous Windows, ‘False’ sinon.  Avec *note
     PurePosixPath: 2762, ‘False’ est systématiquement renvoyé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Windows path names that contain a
     colon, or end with a dot or a space, are considered reserved.  UNC
     paths may be reserved.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     This method is deprecated; use *note os.path.isreserved(): 220. to
     detect reserved paths on Windows.

 -- Méthode: PurePath.joinpath (*pathsegments)

     Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each
     of the given 'pathsegments' in turn:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

 -- Méthode: PurePath.full_match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern.  Return
     ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’ otherwise.  For example:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('a/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('*.py')
          False
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('/a/**')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('**/*.py')
          True

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     documentation *note Pattern language: 2771.

     Comme pour les autres méthodes, la sensibilité à la casse est la
     sensibilité par défaut de la plate-forme :

          >>> PurePosixPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
          True

     La sensibilité à la casse peut être choisie en passant ‘True’ ou
     ‘False’ à l'argument 'case_sensitive'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: PurePath.match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided non-recursive glob-style
     pattern.  Return ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     This method is similar to *note full_match(): 228, but empty
     patterns aren't allowed (*note ValueError: 1ff. is raised), the
     recursive wildcard "‘**’" isn't supported (it acts like
     non-recursive "‘*’"), and if a relative pattern is provided, then
     matching is done from the right:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
          False

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Le paramètre 'pattern' accepte un
     *note path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre 'case_sensitive'

 -- Méthode: PurePath.relative_to (other, walk_up=False)

     Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by
     'other'.  If it's impossible, *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/')
          PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/etc')
          PurePosixPath('passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/usr')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

     When 'walk_up' is false (the default), the path must start with
     'other'.  When the argument is true, ‘..’ entries may be added to
     form the relative path.  In all other cases, such as the paths
     referencing different drives, *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.:

          >>> p.relative_to('/usr', walk_up=True)
          PurePosixPath('../etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('foo', walk_up=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not on the same drive as 'foo' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

          Avertissement: This function is part of *note PurePath: 492.
          and works with strings.  It does not check or access the
          underlying file structure.  This can impact the 'walk_up'
          option as it assumes that no symlinks are present in the path;
          call *note resolve(): 16b6. first if necessary to resolve
          symlinks.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The 'walk_up' parameter was added
     (old behavior is the same as ‘walk_up=False’).

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Passing additional positional arguments is deprecated; if supplied,
     they are joined with 'other'.

 -- Méthode: PurePath.with_name (name)

     Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec *note name: 276b. changé.  Si le
     chemin original n'a pas de nom, une ‘ValueError’ est levée :

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

 -- Méthode: PurePath.with_stem (stem)

     Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec *note stem: 276e. changé.  Si le
     chemin original n'a pas de nom, 'ValueError' est levée :

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/draft.txt')
          >>> p.with_stem('final')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/final.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_stem('lib')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/lib.gz')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_stem('')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 861, in with_stem
              return self.with_name(stem + self.suffix)
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 851, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Méthode: PurePath.with_suffix (suffix)

     Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec *note suffix: 276c. changé.  Si le
     chemin original n'a pas de suffixe, le nouveau 'suffix' est alors
     ajouté.  Si 'suffix' est une chaîne vide, le suffixe d'origine est
     retiré :

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
          PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p.with_suffix('')
          PureWindowsPath('README')

 -- Méthode: PurePath.with_segments (*pathsegments)

     Create a new path object of the same type by combining the given
     'pathsegments'.  This method is called whenever a derivative path
     is created, such as from *note parent: 16e8. and *note
     relative_to(): 2c8.  Subclasses may override this method to pass
     information to derivative paths, for example:

          from pathlib import PurePosixPath

          class MyPath(PurePosixPath):
              def __init__(self, *pathsegments, session_id):
                  super().__init__(*pathsegments)
                  self.session_id = session_id

              def with_segments(self, *pathsegments):
                  return type(self)(*pathsegments, session_id=self.session_id)

          etc = MyPath('/etc', session_id=42)
          hosts = etc / 'hosts'
          print(hosts.session_id)  # 42

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/basedefs/xbd_chap04.html#tag_04_11


File: python.info,  Node: Chemins concrets,  Next: Pattern language,  Prev: Chemins purs,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.8 Chemins concrets
.........................

Les chemins concrets sont des sous-classes des chemins purs.  En plus
des opérations fournies par ces derniers, ils fournissent aussi des
méthodes pour faire appel au système sur des objets chemin.  Il y a
trois façons d'instancier des chemins concrets :

 -- Classe: pathlib.Path (*pathsegments)

     Une sous-classe de *note PurePath: 492, cette classe représente les
     chemins concrets d'une famille de chemins de système de fichiers
     (l'instancier créé soit un *note PosixPath: 2773, soit un *note
     WindowsPath: 275e.) :

          >>> Path('setup.py')
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     'pathsegments' est spécifié de manière similaire à *note PurePath:
     492.

 -- Classe: pathlib.PosixPath (*pathsegments)

     Une sous-classe de *note Path: 226. et *note PurePosixPath: 2762,
     cette classe représente les chemins concrets de systèmes de
     fichiers non Windows :

          >>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' est spécifié de manière similaire à *note PurePath:
     492.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. on Windows.  In previous versions, *note NotImplementedError:
     225. was raised instead.

 -- Classe: pathlib.WindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     Une sous-classe de *note Path: 226. et *note PureWindowsPath: 16bf,
     cette classe représente les chemins concrets de systèmes de
     fichiers Windows :

          >>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')

     'pathsegments' est spécifié de manière similaire à *note PurePath:
     492.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. on non-Windows platforms.  In previous versions, *note
     NotImplementedError: 225. was raised instead.

Vous pouvez seulement instancier la classe de la famille qui correspond
à votre système (permettre des appels au système pour des familles de
chemins non compatibles pourrait mener à des bogues ou à des pannes de
votre application) :

     >>> import os
     >>> os.name
     'posix'
     >>> Path('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> PosixPath('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
         % (cls.__name__,))
     UnsupportedOperation: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system

Some concrete path methods can raise an *note OSError: 40d. if a system
call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).

* Menu:

* Analyse et génération des URI::
* Expansion et résolution de chemins::
* Requête sur type et statut du fichier::
* Lecture et écriture de fichiers: Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
* Lecture des dossiers::
* Création de fichiers et de dossiers::
* Renommage et suppression::
* Permissions et propriété::


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse et génération des URI,  Next: Expansion et résolution de chemins,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.9 Analyse et génération des URI
......................................

Concrete path objects can be created from, and represented as, 'file'
URIs conforming to RFC 8089(1).

     Note: File URIs are not portable across machines with different
     *note filesystem encodings: 2775.

 -- Méthode: classmethod Path.from_uri (uri)

     Return a new path object from parsing a 'file' URI. For example:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     On Windows, DOS device and UNC paths may be parsed from URIs:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///c:/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file://server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')

     Plusieurs variants du formulaire sont pris en charge :

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:////server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file://///server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:c:/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:/c|/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')

     *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if the URI does not start with
     ‘file:’, or the parsed path isn't absolute.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: Path.as_uri ()

     Represent the path as a 'file' URI. *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     raised if the path isn't absolute.

          >>> p = PosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///etc/passwd'
          >>> p = WindowsPath('c:/Windows')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///c:/Windows'

     For historical reasons, this method is also available from *note
     PurePath: 492. objects.  However, its use of *note os.fsencode():
     c45. makes it strictly impure.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8089.html


File: python.info,  Node: Expansion et résolution de chemins,  Next: Requête sur type et statut du fichier,  Prev: Analyse et génération des URI,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.10 Expansion et résolution de chemins
............................................

 -- Méthode: classmethod Path.home ()

     Renvoie un nouveau chemin représentant le dossier d’accueil de
     l'utilisateur (comme renvoyé par *note os.path.expanduser(): a04.
     avec la construction ‘~’).  Si le dossier d’accueil de
     l'utilisateur ne peut être résolu, *note RuntimeError: 193. est
     levée.

          >>> Path.home()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine')

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: Path.expanduser ()

     Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec les résolutions des constructions
     ‘~’ et ‘~user’, comme renvoyé par *note os.path.expanduser(): a04.
     Si le dossier d’accueil de l'utilisateur ne peut être résolu, *note
     RuntimeError: 193. est levée.

          >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
          >>> p.expanduser()
          PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: classmethod Path.cwd ()

     Renvoie un nouveau chemin représentant le dossier courant (comme
     renvoyé par *note os.getcwd(): 1555.) :

          >>> Path.cwd()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

 -- Méthode: Path.absolute ()

     Rend le chemin absolu, sans normaliser ou résoudre les liens
     symboliques.  Renvoie un nouveau :

          >>> p = Path('tests')
          >>> p
          PosixPath('tests')
          >>> p.absolute()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')

 -- Méthode: Path.resolve (strict=False)

     Rend le chemin absolu, résolvant les liens symboliques.  Un nouveau
     chemin est renvoyé :

          >>> p = Path()
          >>> p
          PosixPath('.')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

     Les composantes "‘..’" sont aussi éliminées (c'est la seule méthode
     pour le faire) :

          >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')

     If a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and
     'strict' is ‘True’, *note OSError: 40d. is raised.  If 'strict' is
     ‘False’, the path is resolved as far as possible and any remainder
     is appended without checking whether it exists.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The 'strict' parameter was added
     (pre-3.6 behavior is strict).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Symlink loops are treated like other
     errors: *note OSError: 40d. is raised in strict mode, and no
     exception is raised in non-strict mode.  In previous versions,
     *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised no matter the value of 'strict'.

 -- Méthode: Path.readlink ()

     Renvoie le chemin vers lequel le lien symbolique pointe (tel que
     renvoyé par *note os.readlink(): 90f.) :

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.readlink()
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. if *note os.readlink(): 90f. is not available.  In previous
     versions, *note NotImplementedError: 225. was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Requête sur type et statut du fichier,  Next: Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>,  Prev: Expansion et résolution de chemins,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.11 Requête sur type et statut du fichier
...............................................

Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note exists(): a06, *note is_dir(): 22d,
*note is_file(): 22c, *note is_mount(): a07, *note is_symlink(): a08,
*note is_block_device(): a09, *note is_char_device(): a0a, *note
is_fifo(): a0b, *note is_socket(): a0c. now return ‘False’ instead of
raising an exception for paths that contain characters unrepresentable
at the OS level.

 -- Méthode: Path.stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return an *note os.stat_result: 1477. object containing information
     about this path, like *note os.stat(): 48c.  The result is looked
     up at each call to this method.

     Cette méthode suit normalement les liens symboliques ; pour appeler
     ‘stat’ sur un lien symbolique lui-même, ajoutez l’argument
     ‘follow_symlinks=False’, ou utilisez *note lstat(): 2779.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.stat().st_mtime
          1327883547.852554

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.lstat ()

     Comme *note Path.stat(): 80f, mais, si le chemin pointe vers un
     lien symbolique, renvoie les informations du lien symbolique plutôt
     que celui de sa cible.

 -- Méthode: Path.exists (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe vers un fichier ou un dossier
     existant.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to check if a symlink
     exists, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

          >>> Path('.').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('setup.py').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('/etc').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
          False

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a regular file, ‘False’ if it
     points to another kind of file.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ou est un lien
     symbolique cassé.  D’autres erreurs (telles que les erreurs de
     permission) sont propagées.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks, add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a directory, ‘False’ if it
     points to another kind of file.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ou est un lien
     symbolique cassé.  D’autres erreurs (telles que les erreurs de
     permission) sont propagées.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks to
     directories, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_symlink ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe sur un lien symbolique, ‘False’
     sinon.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ; d'autres
     erreurs (telles que les erreurs de permission) sont propagées.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_junction ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a junction, and ‘False’ for any
     other type of file.  Currently only Windows supports junctions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_mount ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path is a 'mount point': a point in a file
     system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX,
     the function checks whether 'path"s parent, ‘path/..’, is on a
     different device than 'path', or whether ‘path/..’ and 'path' point
     to the same i-node on the same device -- this should detect mount
     points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  On Windows, a mount point
     is considered to be a drive letter root (e.g.  ‘c:\’), a UNC share
     (e.g.  ‘\\server\share’), or a mounted filesystem directory.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_socket ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe vers un connecteur Unix (ou un
     lien symbolique pointant vers un connecteur Unix), ‘False’ s'il
     pointe vers une autre sorte de fichier.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ou est un lien
     symbolique cassé.  D’autres erreurs (telles que les erreurs de
     permission) sont propagées.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_fifo ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe vers une 'FIFO' (ou un lien
     symbolique pointant vers une 'FIFO'), ‘False’ s'il pointe vers une
     autre sorte de fichier.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ou est un lien
     symbolique cassé.  D’autres erreurs (telles que les erreurs de
     permission) sont propagées.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_block_device ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe vers un périphérique (ou un lien
     symbolique pointant vers un périphérique), ‘False’ s'il pointe vers
     une autre sorte de fichier.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ou est un lien
     symbolique cassé.  D’autres erreurs (telles que les erreurs de
     permission) sont propagées.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_char_device ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe vers un périphérique à
     caractères (ou un lien symbolique pointant vers un périphérique à
     caractères), ‘False’ s'il pointe vers une autre sorte de fichier.

     ‘False’ est aussi renvoyé si le chemin n'existe pas ou est un lien
     symbolique cassé.  D’autres erreurs (telles que les erreurs de
     permission) sont propagées.

 -- Méthode: Path.samefile (other_path)

     Renvoie si ce chemin pointe vers le même fichier que 'other_path',
     qui peut être soit un chemin, soit une chaîne de caractères.  La
     sémantique est similaire à *note os.path.samefile(): f5e. et *note
     os.path.samestat(): f5d.

     *note OSError: 40d. peut être levée si l'un des fichiers ne peut
     être accédé pour quelque raison.

          >>> p = Path('spam')
          >>> q = Path('eggs')
          >>> p.samefile(q)
          False
          >>> p.samefile('spam')
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>,  Next: Lecture des dossiers,  Prev: Requête sur type et statut du fichier,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.12 Lecture et écriture de fichiers
.........................................

 -- Méthode: Path.open (mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     Ouvre le fichier pointé par le chemin, comme la fonction native
     *note open(): 508. le fait :

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> with p.open() as f:
          ...     f.readline()
          ...
          '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'

 -- Méthode: Path.read_text (encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Renvoie le contenu décodé du fichier pointé en tant que chaîne de
     caractères :

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     Le fichier est ouvert, puis fermé.  Les paramètres optionnels ont
     la même signification que dans *note open(): 508.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre 'newline'.

 -- Méthode: Path.read_bytes ()

     Renvoie le contenu binaire du fichier pointé en tant que chaîne
     d’octets :

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: Path.write_text (data, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Ouvre le fichier pointé en mode texte, écrit 'data' dedans, et
     ferme le fichier :

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     Le fichier du même nom, s'il existe, est écrasé.  Les paramètres
     optionnels ont la même signification que dans *note open(): 508.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'newline'.

 -- Méthode: Path.write_bytes (data)

     Ouvre le fichier pointé en mode binaire, écrit 'data' dedans, et
     ferme le fichier :

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     Le fichier du même nom, s'il existe, est écrasé.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Lecture des dossiers,  Next: Création de fichiers et de dossiers,  Prev: Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.13 Lecture des dossiers
..............................

 -- Méthode: Path.iterdir ()

     Quand le chemin pointe vers un dossier, donne par séquences les
     objets chemin du contenu du dossier :

          >>> p = Path('docs')
          >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
          ...
          PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
          PosixPath('docs/_templates')
          PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
          PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
          PosixPath('docs/_build')
          PosixPath('docs/_static')
          PosixPath('docs/Makefile')

     The children are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special
     entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed
     from or added to the directory after creating the iterator, it is
     unspecified whether a path object for that file is included.

     Si le chemin n'est pas un dossier ou n'est pas accessible, *note
     OSError: 40d. est levée.

 -- Méthode: Path.glob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None,
          recurse_symlinks=False)

     'Glob' de manière relative suivant le motif 'pattern' fourni dans
     le dossier représenté par ce chemin, donnant tous les fichiers
     correspondants (de n'importe quelle sorte) :

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
          [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     documentation *note Pattern language: 2771.

     By default, or when the 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘None’, this method matches paths using platform-specific
     casing rules: typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and
     case-insensitive on Windows.  Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to override this behaviour.

     By default, or when the 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘False’, this method follows symlinks except when expanding
     "‘**’" wildcards.  Set 'recurse_symlinks' to ‘True’ to always
     follow symlinks.

     Lève un *note évènement d’audit: 1877. ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ avec
     comme arguments ‘self’ et ‘pattern’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre 'case_sensitive'

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Ajout du paramètre
     'recurse_symlinks'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Le paramètre 'pattern' accepte un
     *note path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Any *note OSError: 40d. exceptions
     raised from scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  In previous
     versions, such exceptions are suppressed in many cases, but not
     all.

 -- Méthode: Path.rglob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None,
          recurse_symlinks=False)

     Glob the given relative 'pattern' recursively.  This is like
     calling *note Path.glob(): 22a. with "‘**/’" added in front of the
     'pattern'.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     Documentation pour *note Pattern language: 2771. et *note
     Path.glob(): 22a. .

     Lève un *note évènement d’audit: 1877. ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ avec
     comme arguments ‘self’ et ‘pattern’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre 'case_sensitive'

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Ajout du paramètre
     'recurse_symlinks'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Le paramètre 'pattern' accepte un
     *note path-like object: 29d.

 -- Méthode: Path.walk (top_down=True, on_error=None,
          follow_symlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.

     For each directory in the directory tree rooted at 'self'
     (including 'self' but excluding '.'  and '..'), the method yields a
     3-tuple of ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a *note Path: 226. to the directory currently being
     walked, 'dirnames' is a list of strings for the names of
     subdirectories in 'dirpath' (excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’), and
     'filenames' is a list of strings for the names of the non-directory
     files in 'dirpath'.  To get a full path (which begins with 'self')
     to a file or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘dirpath / name’.  Whether
     or not the lists are sorted is file system-dependent.

     If the optional argument 'top_down' is true (which is the default),
     the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any
     of its subdirectories (directories are walked top-down).  If
     'top_down' is false, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are walked
     bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'top_down', the list of
     subdirectories is retrieved before the triples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are walked.

     When 'top_down' is true, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (for example, using *note del: 1762. or slice assignment),
     and *note Path.walk(): 494. will only recurse into the
     subdirectories whose names remain in 'dirnames'.  This can be used
     to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting, or
     even to inform *note Path.walk(): 494. about directories the caller
     creates or renames before it resumes *note Path.walk(): 494. again.
     Modifying 'dirnames' when 'top_down' is false has no effect on the
     behavior of *note Path.walk(): 494. since the directories in
     'dirnames' have already been generated by the time 'dirnames' is
     yielded to the caller.

     By default, errors from *note os.scandir(): a4f. are ignored.  If
     the optional argument 'on_error' is specified, it should be a
     callable; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     40d. instance.  The callable can handle the error to continue the
     walk or re-raise it to stop the walk.  Note that the filename is
     available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, *note Path.walk(): 494. does not follow symbolic links,
     and instead adds them to the 'filenames' list.  Set
     'follow_symlinks' to true to resolve symlinks and place them in
     'dirnames' and 'filenames' as appropriate for their targets, and
     consequently visit directories pointed to by symlinks (where
     supported).

          Note: Be aware that setting 'follow_symlinks' to true can lead
          to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent directory
          of itself.  *note Path.walk(): 494. does not keep track of the
          directories it has already visited.

          Note: *note Path.walk(): 494. assumes the directories it walks
          are not modified during execution.  For example, if a
          directory from 'dirnames' has been replaced with a symlink and
          'follow_symlinks' is false, *note Path.walk(): 494. will still
          try to descend into it.  To prevent such behavior, remove
          directories from 'dirnames' as appropriate.

          Note: Unlike *note os.walk(): 495, *note Path.walk(): 494.
          lists symlinks to directories in 'filenames' if
          'follow_symlinks' is false.

     This example displays the number of bytes used by all files in each
     directory, while ignoring ‘__pycache__’ directories:

          from pathlib import Path
          for root, dirs, files in Path("cpython/Lib/concurrent").walk(on_error=print):
            print(
                root,
                "consumes",
                sum((root / file).stat().st_size for file in files),
                "bytes in",
                len(files),
                "non-directory files"
            )
            if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')

     This next example is a simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f6.  Walking the tree bottom-up is essential as
     *note rmdir(): 277d. doesn't allow deleting a directory before it
     is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory "top".
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous! For example, if top == Path('/'),
          # it could delete all of your files.
          for root, dirs, files in top.walk(top_down=False):
              for name in files:
                  (root / name).unlink()
              for name in dirs:
                  (root / name).rmdir()

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Création de fichiers et de dossiers,  Next: Renommage et suppression,  Prev: Lecture des dossiers,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.14 Création de fichiers et de dossiers
.............................................

 -- Méthode: Path.touch (mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)

     Create a file at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it is
     combined with the process's ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the file already exists, the function
     succeeds when 'exist_ok' is true (and its modification time is
     updated to the current time), otherwise *note FileExistsError:
     100b. is raised.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note open(): 277b, *note write_text(): e33. and *note
     write_bytes(): e35. methods are often used to create files.

 -- Méthode: Path.mkdir (mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)

     Create a new directory at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it
     is combined with the process's ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the path already exists, *note
     FileExistsError: 100b. is raised.

     Si 'parents' est vrai, chaque parent de ce chemin est créé si
     besoin ; ils sont créés avec les permissions par défaut sans
     prendre en compte 'mode' (reproduisant la commande POSIX ‘mkdir
     -p’).

     Si 'parents' est faux (valeur par défaut), un parent manquant lève
     *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.

     Si 'exist_ok' est faux (valeur par défaut), *note FileExistsError:
     100b. est levé si le dossier cible existe déjà.

     If 'exist_ok' is true, *note FileExistsError: 100b. will not be
     raised unless the given path already exists in the file system and
     is not a directory (same behavior as the POSIX ‘mkdir -p’ command).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout du paramètre 'exist_ok'.

 -- Méthode: Path.symlink_to (target, target_is_directory=False)

     Make this path a symbolic link pointing to 'target'.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is true or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.lstat().st_size
          8

          Note: L'ordre des arguments (lien, cible) est l'opposé de ceux
          de *note os.symlink(): 10d7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. if *note os.symlink(): 10d7. is not available.  In previous
     versions, *note NotImplementedError: 225. was raised.

 -- Méthode: Path.hardlink_to (target)

     Crée un lien physique pointant sur le même fichier que 'target'.

          Note: L'ordre des arguments (lien, cible) est l'opposé de
          celui de *note os.link(): 10d2.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. if *note os.link(): 10d2. is not available.  In previous
     versions, *note NotImplementedError: 225. was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Renommage et suppression,  Next: Permissions et propriété,  Prev: Création de fichiers et de dossiers,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.15 Renommage et suppression
..................................

 -- Méthode: Path.rename (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  On Unix, if 'target'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  On Windows, if 'target' exists, *note FileExistsError:
     100b. will be raised.  'target' can be either a string or another
     path object:

          >>> p = Path('foo')
          >>> p.open('w').write('some text')
          9
          >>> target = Path('bar')
          >>> p.rename(target)
          PosixPath('bar')
          >>> target.open().read()
          'some text'

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     Cette méthode est implémentée d'après *note os.rename(): 10d4. et
     fournit les mêmes garanties.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added return value, return the new
     ‘Path’ instance.

 -- Méthode: Path.replace (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  If 'target' points to an
     existing file or empty directory, it will be unconditionally
     replaced.

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added return value, return the new
     ‘Path’ instance.

 -- Méthode: Path.unlink (missing_ok=False)

     Supprime ce fichier ou lien symbolique.  Si le chemin pointe vers
     un dossier, utilisez *note Path.rmdir(): 277d. à la place.

     Si 'missing_ok' est faux (valeur par défaut), une *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. est levée si le chemin n'existe pas.

     Si 'missing_ok' est vrai, les exceptions *note FileNotFoundError:
     eb0. sont ignorées (même comportement que la commande POSIX ‘rm
     -f’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre 'missing_ok'.

 -- Méthode: Path.rmdir ()

     Supprime ce dossier.  Le dossier doit être vide.


File: python.info,  Node: Permissions et propriété,  Prev: Renommage et suppression,  Up: Chemins concrets

5.11.1.16 Permissions et propriété
..................................

 -- Méthode: Path.owner (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the name of the user owning the file.  *note KeyError: 33a.
     is raised if the file's user identifier (UID) isn't found in the
     system database.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to get the owner of the
     symlink, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. if the *note pwd: b1. module is not available.  In earlier
     versions, *note NotImplementedError: 225. was raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.group (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the name of the group owning the file.  *note KeyError: 33a.
     is raised if the file's group identifier (GID) isn't found in the
     system database.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to get the group of the
     symlink, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation:
     224. if the *note grp: 65. module is not available.  In earlier
     versions, *note NotImplementedError: 225. was raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.chmod (mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change le mode et les permissions du fichier, comme *note
     os.chmod(): 218.

     Cette méthode suit normalement les liens symboliques.  Certaines
     versions d’Unix prennent en charge la modification des permissions
     sur le lien symbolique lui-même ; sur ces plateformes, vous pouvez
     ajouter l’argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, ou utiliser *note
     lchmod(): 2784.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33277
          >>> p.chmod(0o444)
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33060

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre 'follow_symlinks'.

 -- Méthode: Path.lchmod (mode)

     Comme *note Path.chmod(): 810, mais, si le chemin pointe vers un
     lien symbolique, le mode du lien symbolique est changé plutôt que
     celui de sa cible.


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern language,  Next: Comparaison avec les outils du module glob,  Prev: Chemins concrets,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.17 Pattern language
..........................

The following wildcards are supported in patterns for *note
full_match(): 228, *note glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b.:

‘**’ (tout le segment)

     Matche un nombre quelconque de segments de fichiers ou dossiers,
     zéro inclus

‘*’ (tout le segment)

     Correspondance d'un segment de fichier ou de dossier

‘*’ (partie du segment)

     Matches any number of non-separator characters, including zero.

‘?’

     Matches one non-separator character.

‘[seq]’

     Correspondance d'un caractère dans 'seq'

‘[!seq]’

     Matches one character not in 'seq'.

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘"[?]"’ matches the character ‘"?"’.

The "‘**’" wildcard enables recursive globbing.  A few examples:

Motif                         Signification
                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
"‘**/*’"                      N'importe quel chemin avec au moins un segment
                              
                              
"‘**/*.py’"                   Any path with a final segment ending "‘.py’".
                              
                              
"‘assets/**’"                 Any path starting with "‘assets/’".
                              
                              
"‘assets/**/*’"               Any path starting with "‘assets/’", excluding "‘assets/’" itself.
                              

     Note: Globbing with the "‘**’" wildcard visits every directory in
     the tree.  Large directory trees may take a long time to search.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Globbing with a pattern that ends with
"‘**’" returns both files and directories.  In previous versions, only
directories were returned.

In *note Path.glob(): 22a. and *note rglob(): 22b, a trailing slash may
be added to the pattern to match only directories.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Globbing with a pattern that ends with a
pathname components separator (*note sep: 657. or *note altsep: 658.)
returns only directories.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison avec les outils du module glob,  Next: Comparaison aux modules os et os path,  Prev: Pattern language,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.18 Comparaison avec les outils du module ‘glob’
......................................................

The patterns accepted and results generated by *note Path.glob(): 22a.
and *note Path.rglob(): 22b. differ slightly from those by the *note
glob: 63. module:

  1. Files beginning with a dot are not special in pathlib.  This is
     like passing ‘include_hidden=True’ to *note glob.glob(): 29c.

  2. "‘**’" pattern components are always recursive in pathlib.  This is
     like passing ‘recursive=True’ to *note glob.glob(): 29c.

  3. "‘**’" pattern components do not follow symlinks by default in
     pathlib.  This behaviour has no equivalent in *note glob.glob():
     29c, but you can pass ‘recurse_symlinks=True’ to *note Path.glob():
     22a. for compatible behaviour.

  4. Like all *note PurePath: 492. and *note Path: 226. objects, the
     values returned from *note Path.glob(): 22a. and *note
     Path.rglob(): 22b. don't include trailing slashes.

  5. The values returned from pathlib's ‘path.glob()’ and ‘path.rglob()’
     include the 'path' as a prefix, unlike the results of
     ‘glob.glob(root_dir=path)’.

  6. The values returned from pathlib's ‘path.glob()’ and ‘path.rglob()’
     may include 'path' itself, for example when globbing "‘**’",
     whereas the results of ‘glob.glob(root_dir=path)’ never include an
     empty string that would correspond to 'path'.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison aux modules os et os path,  Prev: Comparaison avec les outils du module glob,  Up: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

5.11.1.19 Comparaison aux modules ‘os’ et ‘os.path’
...................................................

pathlib implements path operations using *note PurePath: 492. and *note
Path: 226. objects, and so it's said to be 'object-oriented'.  On the
other hand, the *note os: a0. and *note os.path: a1. modules supply
functions that work with low-level ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ objects, which is a
more 'procedural' approach.  Some users consider the object-oriented
style to be more readable.

Many functions in *note os: a0. and *note os.path: a1. support ‘bytes’
paths and *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 10cd.  These
features aren't available in pathlib.

Python's ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ types, and portions of the *note os: a0. and
*note os.path: a1. modules, are written in C and are very speedy.
pathlib is written in pure Python and is often slower, but rarely slow
enough to matter.

pathlib's path normalization is slightly more opinionated and consistent
than *note os.path: a1.  For example, whereas *note os.path.abspath():
12fb. eliminates "‘..’" segments from a path, which may change its
meaning if symlinks are involved, *note Path.absolute(): 1669. preserves
these segments for greater safety.

pathlib's path normalization may render it unsuitable for some
applications:

  1. pathlib normalizes ‘Path("my_folder/")’ to ‘Path("my_folder")’,
     which changes a path's meaning when supplied to various operating
     system APIs and command-line utilities.  Specifically, the absence
     of a trailing separator may allow the path to be resolved as either
     a file or directory, rather than a directory only.

  2. pathlib normalizes ‘Path("./my_program")’ to ‘Path("my_program")’,
     which changes a path's meaning when used as an executable search
     path, such as in a shell or when spawning a child process.
     Specifically, the absence of a separator in the path may force it
     to be looked up in ‘PATH’ rather than the current directory.

As a consequence of these differences, pathlib is not a drop-in
replacement for *note os.path: a1.

* Menu:

* Outils correspondants::


File: python.info,  Node: Outils correspondants,  Up: Comparaison aux modules os et os path

5.11.1.20 Outils correspondants
...............................

Ci-dessous se trouve un tableau associant diverses fonctions *note os:
a0. à leur équivalent *note PurePath: 492. / *note Path: 226.
correspondant.

*note os: a0. et *note os.path: a1.       *note pathlib: a3.
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
*note os.path.dirname(): 2789.            *note PurePath.parent: 16e8.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.basename(): 278a.           *note PurePath.name: 276b.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.splitext(): 278b.           *note PurePath.stem: 276e,
                                          *note PurePath.suffix: 276c.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.join(): 15ee.               *note PurePath.joinpath(): 2770.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isabs(): 221.               *note PurePath.is_absolute(): 16e7.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.relpath(): 496.             *note PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8. (1)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.expanduser(): a04.          *note Path.expanduser(): e31. (2)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.realpath(): 222.            *note Path.resolve(): 16b6.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.abspath(): 12fb.            *note Path.absolute(): 1669. (3)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.exists(): 9fe.              *note Path.exists(): a06.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isfile(): a01.              *note Path.is_file(): 22c.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isdir(): a00.               *note Path.is_dir(): 22d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.islink(): 9fc.              *note Path.is_symlink(): a08.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isjunction(): 48f.          *note Path.is_junction(): 497.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.ismount(): a02.             *note Path.is_mount(): a07.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.samefile(): f5e.            *note Path.samefile(): e2f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.getcwd(): 1555.                  *note Path.cwd(): 16e6.
                                          
                                          
*note os.stat(): 48c.                     *note Path.stat(): 80f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lstat(): 48d.                    *note Path.lstat(): 2779.
                                          
                                          
*note os.listdir(): 10dc.                 *note Path.iterdir(): 15ec.
                                          
                                          
*note os.walk(): 495.                     *note Path.walk(): 494. (4)
                                          
                                          
*note os.mkdir(): 21a,                    *note Path.mkdir(): e30.
*note os.makedirs(): 21b.                 

*note os.link(): 10d2.                    *note Path.hardlink_to(): 80d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.symlink(): 10d7.                 *note Path.symlink_to(): 80e.
                                          
                                          
*note os.readlink(): 90f.                 *note Path.readlink(): 90e.
                                          
                                          
*note os.rename(): 10d4.                  *note Path.rename(): 2781.
                                          
                                          
*note os.replace(): 10d5.                 *note Path.replace(): 2782.
                                          
                                          
*note os.remove(): 10d3,                  *note Path.unlink(): 19b0.
*note os.unlink(): 10d8.                  

*note os.rmdir(): 10d6.                   *note Path.rmdir(): 277d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.chmod(): 218.                    *note Path.chmod(): 810.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lchmod(): 217.                   *note Path.lchmod(): 2784.
                                          

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note os.path.relpath(): 496. calls *note abspath(): 12fb. to
make paths absolute and remove "‘..’" parts, whereas *note
PurePath.relative_to(): 2c8. is a lexical operation that raises *note
ValueError: 1ff. when its inputs' anchors differ (e.g.  if one path is
absolute and the other relative.)

   (2) *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. returns the path unchanged if
the home directory can't be resolved, whereas *note Path.expanduser():
e31. raises *note RuntimeError: 193.

   (3) *note os.path.abspath(): 12fb. removes "‘..’" components without
resolving symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas
*note Path.absolute(): 1669. leaves any "‘..’" components in the path.

   (4) *note os.walk(): 495. always follows symlinks when categorizing
paths into 'dirnames' and 'filenames', whereas *note Path.walk(): 494.
categorizes all symlinks into 'filenames' when 'follow_symlinks' is
false (the default.)


File: python.info,  Node: os path --- Common pathname manipulations,  Next: stat --- Interpreting stat results,  Prev: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.2 ‘os.path’ -- Common pathname manipulations
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/genericpath.py(1), Lib/posixpath.py(2) (for POSIX)
and Lib/ntpath.py(3) (for Windows).

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements some useful functions on pathnames.  To read or
write files see *note open(): 508, and for accessing the filesystem see
the *note os: a0. module.  The path parameters can be passed as strings,
or bytes, or any object implementing the *note os.PathLike: c41.
protocol.

Unlike a Unix shell, Python does not do any 'automatic' path expansions.
Functions such as *note expanduser(): a04. and *note expandvars(): 1392.
can be invoked explicitly when an application desires shell-like path
expansion.  (See also the *note glob: 63. module.)

Voir aussi
..........

Le module *note pathlib: a3. offre une représentation objet de haut
niveau des chemins.

     Note: Toutes ces fonctions n'acceptent que des chaînes d'octets ou
     des chaînes de caractères en tant que paramètres.  Le résultat est
     un objet du même type si un chemin ou un nom de fichier est
     renvoyé.

     Note: Comme les différents systèmes d'exploitation ont des
     conventions de noms de chemins différentes, il existe plusieurs
     versions de ce module dans la bibliothèque standard.  Le module
     *note os.path: a1. est toujours le module de chemin adapté au
     système d'exploitation sur lequel Python tourne, et donc adapté
     pour les chemins locaux.  Cependant, vous pouvez également importer
     et utiliser les modules individuels si vous voulez manipuler un
     chemin qui est 'toujours' dans l'un des différents formats.  Ils
     ont tous la même interface :

        * ‘posixpath’ pour les chemins de type UNIX

        * ‘ntpath’ pour les chemins Windows

Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note exists(): 9fe, *note lexists(): 9ff,
*note isdir(): a00, *note isfile(): a01, *note islink(): 9fc, and *note
ismount(): a02. now return ‘False’ instead of raising an exception for
paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.

 -- Fonction: os.path.abspath (path)

     Renvoie une version absolue et normalisée du chemin d'accès 'path'.
     Sur la plupart des plates-formes, cela équivaut à appeler la
     fonction *note normpath(): 12fa. comme suit :
     ‘normpath(join(os.getcwd(), chemin))’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.basename (path)

     Renvoie le nom de base du chemin d'accès 'path'.  C'est le second
     élément de la paire renvoyée en passant 'path' à la fonction *note
     split(): 278e.  Notez que le résultat de cette fonction est
     différent de celui du programme Unix ‘basename’ ; là où ‘basename’
     pour ‘'/foo/bar/'’ renvoie ‘'bar'’, la fonction *note basename():
     278a. renvoie une chaîne vide (‘''’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.commonpath (paths)

     Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the iterable
     'paths'.  Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. if 'paths' contain both
     absolute and relative pathnames, if 'paths' are on different
     drives, or if 'paths' is empty.  Unlike *note commonprefix(): e2d,
     this returns a valid path.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepts a sequence of *note path-like
     objects: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Any iterable can now be passed,
     rather than just sequences.

 -- Fonction: os.path.commonprefix (list)

     Return the longest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that
     is a prefix of all paths in 'list'.  If 'list' is empty, return the
     empty string (‘''’).

          Note: This function may return invalid paths because it works
          a character at a time.  To obtain a valid path, see *note
          commonpath(): e2c.

               >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr/l'

               >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr'

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.dirname (path)

     Return the directory name of pathname 'path'.  This is the first
     element of the pair returned by passing 'path' to the function
     *note split(): 278e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.exists (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an existing path or an open file
     descriptor.  Returns ‘False’ for broken symbolic links.  On some
     platforms, this function may return ‘False’ if permission is not
     granted to execute *note os.stat(): 48c. on the requested file,
     even if the 'path' physically exists.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'path' can now be an integer: ‘True’
     is returned if it is an open file descriptor, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.lexists (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an existing path, including
     broken symbolic links.  Equivalent to *note exists(): 9fe. on
     platforms lacking *note os.lstat(): 48d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.expanduser (path)

     On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component
     of ‘~’ or ‘~user’ replaced by that 'user"s home directory.

     On Unix, an initial ‘~’ is replaced by the environment variable
     ‘HOME’ if it is set; otherwise the current user's home directory is
     looked up in the password directory through the built-in module
     *note pwd: b1.  An initial ‘~user’ is looked up directly in the
     password directory.

     On Windows, ‘USERPROFILE’ will be used if set, otherwise a
     combination of ‘HOMEPATH’ and ‘HOMEDRIVE’ will be used.  An initial
     ‘~user’ is handled by checking that the last directory component of
     the current user's home directory matches ‘USERNAME’, and replacing
     it if so.

     If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde,
     the path is returned unchanged.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: No longer uses ‘HOME’ on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.path.expandvars (path)

     Return the argument with environment variables expanded.
     Substrings of the form ‘$name’ or ‘${name}’ are replaced by the
     value of environment variable 'name'.  Malformed variable names and
     references to non-existing variables are left unchanged.

     On Windows, ‘%name%’ expansions are supported in addition to
     ‘$name’ and ‘${name}’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.getatime (path)

     Return the time of last access of 'path'.  The return value is a
     floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the epoch
     (see the *note time: ed. module).  Raise *note OSError: 40d. if the
     file does not exist or is inaccessible.

 -- Fonction: os.path.getmtime (path)

     Return the time of last modification of 'path'.  The return value
     is a floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the
     epoch (see the *note time: ed. module).  Raise *note OSError: 40d.
     if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.getctime (path)

     Return the system's ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the
     time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is
     the creation time for 'path'.  The return value is a number giving
     the number of seconds since the epoch (see the *note time: ed.
     module).  Raise *note OSError: 40d. if the file does not exist or
     is inaccessible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.getsize (path)

     Return the size, in bytes, of 'path'.  Raise *note OSError: 40d. if
     the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.isabs (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an absolute pathname.  On Unix, that
     means it begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with two
     (back)slashes, or a drive letter, colon, and (back)slash together.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Windows, returns ‘False’ if the
     given path starts with exactly one (back)slash.

 -- Fonction: os.path.isfile (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an *note existing: 9fe. regular file.
     This follows symbolic links, so both *note islink(): 9fc. and *note
     isfile(): a01. can be true for the same path.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.isdir (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an *note existing: 9fe. directory.  This
     follows symbolic links, so both *note islink(): 9fc. and *note
     isdir(): a00. can be true for the same path.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.isjunction (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an *note existing: 9ff. directory
     entry that is a junction.  Always return ‘False’ if junctions are
     not supported on the current platform.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.path.islink (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an *note existing: 9fe. directory
     entry that is a symbolic link.  Always ‘False’ if symbolic links
     are not supported by the Python runtime.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.ismount (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is a 'mount point': a point in a
     file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On
     POSIX, the function checks whether 'path"s parent, ‘`path'/..’, is
     on a different device than 'path', or whether ‘`path'/..’ and
     'path' point to the same i-node on the same device -- this should
     detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  It is not
     able to reliably detect bind mounts on the same filesystem.  On
     Windows, a drive letter root and a share UNC are always mount
     points, and for any other path ‘GetVolumePathName’ is called to see
     if it is different from the input path.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added support for detecting non-root
     mount points on Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.isdevdrive (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is located on a Windows Dev Drive.
     A Dev Drive is optimized for developer scenarios, and offers faster
     performance for reading and writing files.  It is recommended for
     use for source code, temporary build directories, package caches,
     and other IO-intensive operations.

     May raise an error for an invalid path, for example, one without a
     recognizable drive, but returns ‘False’ on platforms that do not
     support Dev Drives.  See the Windows documentation(4) for
     information on enabling and creating Dev Drives.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The function is now available on all
     platforms, and will always return ‘False’ on those that have no
     support for Dev Drives

 -- Fonction: os.path.isreserved (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is a reserved pathname on the current
     system.

     On Windows, reserved filenames include those that end with a space
     or dot; those that contain colons (i.e.  file streams such as
     "name:stream"), wildcard characters (i.e.  ‘'*?"<>'’), pipe, or
     ASCII control characters; as well as DOS device names such as
     "NUL", "CON", "CONIN$", "CONOUT$", "AUX", "PRN", "COM1", and
     "LPT1".

          Note: This function approximates rules for reserved paths on
          most Windows systems.  These rules change over time in various
          Windows releases.  This function may be updated in future
          Python releases as changes to the rules become broadly
          available.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.path.join (path, *paths)

     Join one or more path segments intelligently.  The return value is
     the concatenation of 'path' and all members of '*paths', with
     exactly one directory separator following each non-empty part,
     except the last.  That is, the result will only end in a separator
     if the last part is either empty or ends in a separator.  If a
     segment is an absolute path (which on Windows requires both a drive
     and a root), then all previous segments are ignored and joining
     continues from the absolute path segment.

     On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted path segment
     (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’) is encountered.  If a segment is on a different
     drive or is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and
     the drive is reset.  Note that since there is a current directory
     for each drive, ‘os.path.join("c:", "foo")’ represents a path
     relative to the current directory on drive ‘C:’ (‘c:foo’), not
     ‘c:\foo’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 29d.
     for 'path' and 'paths'.

 -- Fonction: os.path.normcase (path)

     Normalize the case of a pathname.  On Windows, convert all
     characters in the pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward
     slashes to backward slashes.  On other operating systems, return
     the path unchanged.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.normpath (path)

     Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and
     up-level references so that ‘A//B’, ‘A/B/’, ‘A/./B’ and
     ‘A/foo/../B’ all become ‘A/B’.  This string manipulation may change
     the meaning of a path that contains symbolic links.  On Windows, it
     converts forward slashes to backward slashes.  To normalize case,
     use *note normcase(): 2793.

          Note: On POSIX systems, in accordance with IEEE Std 1003.1
          2013 Edition; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(5), if a pathname
          begins with exactly two slashes, the first component following
          the leading characters may be interpreted in an
          implementation-defined manner, although more than two leading
          characters shall be treated as a single character.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.realpath (path, *, strict=False)

     Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating
     any symbolic links encountered in the path (if they are supported
     by the operating system).  On Windows, this function will also
     resolve MS-DOS (also called 8.3) style names such as ‘C:\\PROGRA~1’
     to ‘C:\\Program Files’.

     If a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and
     'strict' is ‘True’, *note OSError: 40d. is raised.  If 'strict' is
     ‘False’ these errors are ignored, and so the result might be
     missing or otherwise inaccessible.

          Note: This function emulates the operating system's procedure
          for making a path canonical, which differs slightly between
          Windows and UNIX with respect to how links and subsequent path
          components interact.

          Operating system APIs make paths canonical as needed, so it's
          not normally necessary to call this function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Symbolic links and junctions are now
     resolved on Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'strict' parameter was added.

 -- Fonction: os.path.relpath (path, start=os.curdir)

     Return a relative filepath to 'path' either from the current
     directory or from an optional 'start' directory.  This is a path
     computation: the filesystem is not accessed to confirm the
     existence or nature of 'path' or 'start'.  On Windows, *note
     ValueError: 1ff. is raised when 'path' and 'start' are on different
     drives.

     'start' defaults to *note os.curdir: 2794.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.samefile (path1, path2)

     Return ‘True’ if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or
     directory.  This is determined by the device number and i-node
     number and raises an exception if an *note os.stat(): 48c. call on
     either pathname fails.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Windows now uses the same
     implementation as all other platforms.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.sameopenfile (fp1, fp2)

     Return ‘True’ if the file descriptors 'fp1' and 'fp2' refer to the
     same file.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.samestat (stat1, stat2)

     Return ‘True’ if the stat tuples 'stat1' and 'stat2' refer to the
     same file.  These structures may have been returned by *note
     os.fstat(): d7b, *note os.lstat(): 48d, or *note os.stat(): 48c.
     This function implements the underlying comparison used by *note
     samefile(): f5e. and *note sameopenfile(): 2795.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Prise en charge de Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.split (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair, ‘(head, tail)’ where 'tail'
     is the last pathname component and 'head' is everything leading up
     to that.  The 'tail' part will never contain a slash; if 'path'
     ends in a slash, 'tail' will be empty.  If there is no slash in
     'path', 'head' will be empty.  If 'path' is empty, both 'head' and
     'tail' are empty.  Trailing slashes are stripped from 'head' unless
     it is the root (one or more slashes only).  In all cases,
     ‘join(head, tail)’ returns a path to the same location as 'path'
     (but the strings may differ).  Also see the functions *note
     dirname(): 2789. and *note basename(): 278a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.splitdrive (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair ‘(drive, tail)’ where 'drive'
     is either a mount point or the empty string.  On systems which do
     not use drive specifications, 'drive' will always be the empty
     string.  In all cases, ‘drive + tail’ will be the same as 'path'.

     On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and
     relative path.

     If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything
     up to and including the colon:

          >>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
          ("c:", "/dir")

     If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name
     and share:

          >>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
          ("//host/computer", "/dir")

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.path.splitroot (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’
     where 'drive' is a device name or mount point, 'root' is a string
     of separators after the drive, and 'tail' is everything after the
     root.  Any of these items may be the empty string.  In all cases,
     ‘drive + root + tail’ will be the same as 'path'.

     On POSIX systems, 'drive' is always empty.  The 'root' may be empty
     (if 'path' is relative), a single forward slash (if 'path' is
     absolute), or two forward slashes (implementation-defined per IEEE
     Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(6).)  For example:

          >>> splitroot('/home/sam')
          ('', '/', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('//home/sam')
          ('', '//', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('///home/sam')
          ('', '/', '//home/sam')

     On Windows, 'drive' may be empty, a drive-letter name, a UNC share,
     or a device name.  The 'root' may be empty, a forward slash, or a
     backward slash.  For example:

          >>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
          ('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
          >>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
          ('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.path.splitext (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair ‘(root, ext)’ such that ‘root
     + ext == path’, and the extension, 'ext', is empty or begins with a
     period and contains at most one period.

     If the path contains no extension, 'ext' will be ‘''’:

          >>> splitext('bar')
          ('bar', '')

     If the path contains an extension, then 'ext' will be set to this
     extension, including the leading period.  Note that previous
     periods will be ignored:

          >>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
          ('foo.bar', '.exe')
          >>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
          ('/foo/bar', '.exe')

     Leading periods of the last component of the path are considered to
     be part of the root:

          >>> splitext('.cshrc')
          ('.cshrc', '')
          >>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
          ('/foo/....jpg', '')

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Données: os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

     ‘True’ if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names
     (within limitations imposed by the file system).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/genericpath.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/posixpath.py

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ntpath.py

   (4) https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/dev-drive/

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13

   (6) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13


File: python.info,  Node: stat --- Interpreting stat results,  Next: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons,  Prev: os path --- Common pathname manipulations,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.3 ‘stat’ -- Interpreting ‘stat()’ results
----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/stat.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note stat: d0. module defines constants and functions for
interpreting the results of *note os.stat(): 48c, *note os.fstat(): d7b.
and *note os.lstat(): 48d. (if they exist).  For complete details about
the ‘stat()’, ‘fstat()’ and ‘lstat()’ calls, consult the documentation
for your system.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le module 'stat' est implémenté en C.

Le module *note stat: d0. définit les fonctions suivantes pour tester
des types de fichiers spécifiques :

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISDIR (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est un mode d'un
     répertoire.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISCHR (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un fichier
     spécial caractère de périphérique.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISBLK (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un fichier
     spécial bloc.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISREG (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un fichier
     normal.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISFIFO (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'une FIFO
     (tube nommé)

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISLNK (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un lien
     symbolique.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISSOCK (mode)

     Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un
     'socket'.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISDOOR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISPORT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: stat.S_ISWHT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Deux autres fonctions sont définies pour permettre plus de manipulation
du mode du fichier :

 -- Fonction: stat.S_IMODE (mode)

     Return the portion of the file's mode that can be set by *note
     os.chmod(): 218.--that is, the file's permission bits, plus the
     sticky bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that
     support them).

 -- Fonction: stat.S_IFMT (mode)

     Return the portion of the file's mode that describes the file type
     (used by the ‘S_IS*()’ functions above).

Normally, you would use the ‘os.path.is*()’ functions for testing the
type of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing
multiple tests of the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the
‘stat()’ system call for each test.  These are also useful when checking
for information about a file that isn't handled by *note os.path: a1,
like the tests for block and character devices.

Exemple :

     import os, sys
     from stat import *

     def walktree(top, callback):
         '''recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,
            calling the callback function for each regular file'''

         for f in os.listdir(top):
             pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
             mode = os.lstat(pathname).st_mode
             if S_ISDIR(mode):
                 # It's a directory, recurse into it
                 walktree(pathname, callback)
             elif S_ISREG(mode):
                 # It's a file, call the callback function
                 callback(pathname)
             else:
                 # Unknown file type, print a message
                 print('Skipping %s' % pathname)

     def visitfile(file):
         print('visiting', file)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)

An additional utility function is provided to convert a file's mode in a
human readable string:

 -- Fonction: stat.filemode (mode)

     Convert a file's mode to a string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The function supports *note S_IFDOOR:
     fa7, *note S_IFPORT: fa8. and *note S_IFWHT: fa9.

All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple
returned by *note os.stat(): 48c, *note os.fstat(): d7b. or *note
os.lstat(): 48d.

 -- Données: stat.ST_MODE

     Mode de protection de l''inode'.

 -- Données: stat.ST_INO

     Numéro d''inode'.

 -- Données: stat.ST_DEV

     Device inode resides on.

 -- Données: stat.ST_NLINK

     Nombre de liens vers l''inode'.

 -- Données: stat.ST_UID

     Identifiant utilisateur du propriétaire.

 -- Données: stat.ST_GID

     Identifiant de groupe du propriétaire.

 -- Données: stat.ST_SIZE

     Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some
     special files.

 -- Données: stat.ST_ATIME

     L'heure du dernier accès.

 -- Données: stat.ST_MTIME

     L'heure de la dernière modification.

 -- Données: stat.ST_CTIME

     The "ctime" as reported by the operating system.  On some systems
     (like Unix) is the time of the last metadata change, and, on others
     (like Windows), is the creation time (see platform documentation
     for details).

The interpretation of "file size" changes according to the file type.
For plain files this is the size of the file in bytes.  For FIFOs and
sockets under most flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the
"size" is the number of bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call
to *note os.stat(): 48c, *note os.fstat(): d7b, or *note os.lstat():
48d.; this can sometimes be useful, especially for polling one of these
special files after a non-blocking open.  The meaning of the size field
for other character and block devices varies more, depending on the
implementation of the underlying system call.

The variables below define the flags used in the *note ST_MODE: fa6.
field.

Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of
flags:

 -- Données: stat.S_IFSOCK

     Socket.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFLNK

     Lien symbolique.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFREG

     Fichier normal.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFBLK

     Périphérique en mode bloc.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFDIR

     Dossier.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFCHR

     Périphérique en mode caractère.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFIFO

     FIFO.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFDOOR

     Door.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFPORT

     Event port.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: stat.S_IFWHT

     Whiteout.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Note: *note S_IFDOOR: fa7, *note S_IFPORT: fa8. or *note S_IFWHT:
     fa9. sont définies à 0 si la plateforme ne prend pas en charge les
     types de fichiers.

Les drapeaux suivant peuvent aussi être utilisé dans l'argument 'mode'
de *note os.chmod(): 218. :

 -- Données: stat.S_ISUID

     Définit le bit UID.

 -- Données: stat.S_ISGID

     Set-group-ID bit.  This bit has several special uses.  For a
     directory it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that
     directory: files created there inherit their group ID from the
     directory, not from the effective group ID of the creating process,
     and directories created there will also get the *note S_ISGID:
     27b2. bit set.  For a file that does not have the group execution
     bit (*note S_IXGRP: 27b3.) set, the set-group-ID bit indicates
     mandatory file/record locking (see also *note S_ENFMT: 27b4.).

 -- Données: stat.S_ISVTX

     Sticky bit.  When this bit is set on a directory it means that a
     file in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner
     of the file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged
     process.

 -- Données: stat.S_IRWXU

     Mask for file owner permissions.

 -- Données: stat.S_IRUSR

     Le propriétaire possède le droit de lecture.

 -- Données: stat.S_IWUSR

     Le propriétaire possède le droit d'écriture.

 -- Données: stat.S_IXUSR

     Le propriétaire possède le droit d'exécution.

 -- Données: stat.S_IRWXG

     Masque pour extraire les permissions du groupe.

 -- Données: stat.S_IRGRP

     Le groupe possède le droit de lecture.

 -- Données: stat.S_IWGRP

     Le groupe possède le droit d'écriture.

 -- Données: stat.S_IXGRP

     Le groupe possède le droit d'exécution.

 -- Données: stat.S_IRWXO

     Mask for permissions for others (not in group).

 -- Données: stat.S_IROTH

     Others have read permission.

 -- Données: stat.S_IWOTH

     Others have write permission.

 -- Données: stat.S_IXOTH

     Others have execute permission.

 -- Données: stat.S_ENFMT

     System V file locking enforcement.  This flag is shared with *note
     S_ISGID: 27b2.: file/record locking is enforced on files that do
     not have the group execution bit (*note S_IXGRP: 27b3.) set.

 -- Données: stat.S_IREAD

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IRUSR: 27b7.

 -- Données: stat.S_IWRITE

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IWUSR: 27b8.

 -- Données: stat.S_IEXEC

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IXUSR: 27b9.

The following flags can be used in the 'flags' argument of *note
os.chflags(): 10d0.:

 -- Données: stat.UF_SETTABLE

     All user settable flags.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.UF_NODUMP

     Do not dump the file.

 -- Données: stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

     Le fichier ne peut pas être modifié.

 -- Données: stat.UF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- Données: stat.UF_OPAQUE

     The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.

 -- Données: stat.UF_NOUNLINK

     Le fichier ne peut pas être renommé ou supprimé.

 -- Données: stat.UF_COMPRESSED

     The file is stored compressed (macOS 10.6+).

 -- Données: stat.UF_TRACKED

     Used for handling document IDs (macOS)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.UF_DATAVAULT

     The file needs an entitlement for reading or writing (macOS 10.13+)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.UF_HIDDEN

     Le fichier ne peut pas être affiché dans une GUI (macOS 10.5+).

 -- Données: stat.SF_SETTABLE

     All super-user changeable flags

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.SF_SUPPORTED

     All super-user supported flags

     *note Availability: 1d11.: macOS

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.SF_SYNTHETIC

     All super-user read-only synthetic flags

     *note Availability: 1d11.: macOS

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.SF_ARCHIVED

     Le fichier peut être archivé.

 -- Données: stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

     Le fichier ne peut pas être modifié.

 -- Données: stat.SF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- Données: stat.SF_RESTRICTED

     The file needs an entitlement to write to (macOS 10.13+)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.SF_NOUNLINK

     Le fichier ne peut pas être renommé ou supprimé.

 -- Données: stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

     The file is a snapshot file.

 -- Données: stat.SF_FIRMLINK

     The file is a firmlink (macOS 10.15+)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: stat.SF_DATALESS

     The file is a dataless object (macOS 10.15+)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

See the *BSD or macOS systems man page ‘chflags(2)(2)’ for more
information.

On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use
when testing bits in the ‘st_file_attributes’ member returned by *note
os.stat(): 48c.  See the Windows API documentation(3) for more detail on
the meaning of these constants.

 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY
 -- Données: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

On Windows, the following constants are available for comparing against
the ‘st_reparse_tag’ member returned by *note os.lstat(): 48d.  These
are well-known constants, but are not an exhaustive list.

 -- Données: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK
 -- Données: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT
 -- Données: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/stat.py

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/chflags(2)

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons,  Next: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories,  Prev: stat --- Interpreting stat results,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.4 ‘filecmp’ -- File and Directory Comparisons
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/filecmp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note filecmp: 59. définit les fonctions permettant de
comparer les fichiers et les répertoires, avec différents compromis
optionnels durée / exactitude.  Pour comparer des fichiers, voir aussi
le module *note difflib: 37.

Le module *note filecmp: 59. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: filecmp.cmp (f1, f2, shallow=True)

     Compare les fichiers nommés 'f1' et 'f2' , renvoie ‘True’ s’ils
     semblent égaux, ‘False’ sinon.

     If 'shallow' is true and the *note os.stat(): 48c. signatures (file
     type, size, and modification time) of both files are identical, the
     files are taken to be equal.

     Otherwise, the files are treated as different if their sizes or
     contents differ.

     Notez qu'aucun programme externe n'est appelé à partir de cette
     fonction, ce qui lui confère des qualités de portabilité et
     d'efficacité.

     Cette fonction utilise un cache pour les comparaisons antérieures
     et les résultats, les entrées du cache étant invalidées si les
     informations *note os.stat(): 48c. du fichier sont modifiées.  La
     totalité du cache peut être effacée avec *note clear_cache(): f2b.

 -- Fonction: filecmp.cmpfiles (dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)

     Compare les fichiers des deux répertoires 'dir1' et 'dir2' dont les
     noms sont donnés par 'common'.

     Renvoie trois listes de noms de fichiers : 'match' , 'mismatch',
     'errors'.  'match' contient la liste des fichiers qui
     correspondent, 'mismatch' contient les noms de ceux qui ne
     correspondent pas et 'errors' répertorie les noms des fichiers qui
     n'ont pas pu être comparés.  Les fichiers sont répertoriés dans
     'errors' s'ils n'existent pas dans l'un des répertoires, si
     l'utilisateur ne dispose pas de l'autorisation nécessaire pour les
     lire ou si la comparaison n'a pas pu être effectuée pour une autre
     raison.

     Le paramètre 'shallow' a la même signification et la même valeur
     par défaut que pour *note filecmp.cmp(): 1619.

     Par exemple, ‘cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e'])’ compare ‘a/c’ et
     ‘b/c’ et ‘a/d/e’ avec ‘b/d/e’.  ‘'c'’ et ‘'d/e'’ seront chacun dans
     l'une des trois listes renvoyées.

 -- Fonction: filecmp.clear_cache ()

     Efface le cache 'filecmp'.  Cela peut être utile si un fichier est
     comparé juste après avoir été modifié (dans un délai inférieur à la
     résolution 'mtime' du système de fichiers sous-jacent).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

* Menu:

* La classe dircmp::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/filecmp.py


File: python.info,  Node: La classe dircmp,  Up: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons

5.11.4.1 La classe ‘dircmp’
...........................

 -- Classe: filecmp.dircmp (a, b, ignore=None, hide=None, *,
          shallow=True)

     Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the
     directories 'a' and 'b'.  'ignore' is a list of names to ignore,
     and defaults to *note filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES: f2c.  'hide' is a
     list of names to hide, and defaults to ‘[os.curdir, os.pardir]’.

     The *note dircmp: f2d. class compares files by doing 'shallow'
     comparisons as described for *note filecmp.cmp(): 1619. by default
     using the 'shallow' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'shallow' parameter.

     La classe *note dircmp: f2d. fournit les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: report ()

          Affiche (sur *note sys.stdout: ac6.) une comparaison entre 'a'
          et 'b'.

      -- Méthode: report_partial_closure ()

          Affiche une comparaison entre 'a' et 'b' et les
          sous-répertoires immédiats communs.

      -- Méthode: report_full_closure ()

          Affiche une comparaison entre a et b et les sous-répertoires
          communs (récursivement).

     La classe *note dircmp: f2d. offre un certain nombre d'attributs
     intéressants qui peuvent être utilisés pour obtenir diverses
     informations sur les arborescences de répertoires comparées.

     Note that via *note __getattr__(): 4bf. hooks, all attributes are
     computed lazily, so there is no speed penalty if only those
     attributes which are lightweight to compute are used.

      -- Attribut: left

          Le répertoire 'a'.

      -- Attribut: right

          Le répertoire 'b'.

      -- Attribut: left_list

          Fichiers et sous-répertoires dans 'a' , filtrés par 'hide' et
          'ignore'.

      -- Attribut: right_list

          Fichiers et sous-répertoires dans 'b' , filtrés par 'hide' et
          'ignore'.

      -- Attribut: common

          Fichiers et sous-répertoires à la fois dans 'a' et 'b'.

      -- Attribut: left_only

          Fichiers et sous-répertoires uniquement dans 'a'.

      -- Attribut: right_only

          Fichiers et sous-répertoires uniquement dans 'b'.

      -- Attribut: common_dirs

          Sous-répertoires à la fois dans 'a' et 'b'.

      -- Attribut: common_files

          Fichiers à la fois dans 'a' et 'b'.

      -- Attribut: common_funny

          Noms dans 'a' et 'b' , tels que le type diffère entre les
          répertoires, ou noms pour lesquels *note os.stat(): 48c.
          signale une erreur.

      -- Attribut: same_files

          Fichiers identiques dans 'a' et 'b', en utilisant l'opérateur
          de comparaison de fichiers de la classe.

      -- Attribut: diff_files

          Fichiers figurant à la fois dans 'a' et dans 'b' , dont le
          contenu diffère en fonction de l'opérateur de comparaison de
          fichiers de la classe.

      -- Attribut: funny_files

          Fichiers à la fois dans 'a' et dans 'b' , mais ne pouvant pas
          être comparés.

      -- Attribut: subdirs

          A dictionary mapping names in *note common_dirs: 27fb. to
          *note dircmp: f2d. instances (or MyDirCmp instances if this
          instance is of type MyDirCmp, a subclass of *note dircmp:
          f2d.).

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: Previously entries were always
          *note dircmp: f2d. instances.  Now entries are the same type
          as 'self', if 'self' is a subclass of *note dircmp: f2d.

 -- Données: filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Liste des répertoires ignorés par défaut par *note dircmp: f2d.

Voici un exemple simplifié d'utilisation de l'attribut ‘subdirs’ pour
effectuer une recherche récursive dans deux répertoires afin d'afficher
des fichiers communs différents :

     >>> from filecmp import dircmp
     >>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
     ...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
     ...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
     ...               dcmp.right))
     ...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
     ...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
     ...
     >>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2')
     >>> print_diff_files(dcmp)


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories,  Next: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion,  Prev: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.5 ‘tempfile’ -- Generate temporary files and directories
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tempfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module creates temporary files and directories.  It works on all
supported platforms.  *note TemporaryFile: 2803, *note
NamedTemporaryFile: 4b2, *note TemporaryDirectory: 1214, and *note
SpooledTemporaryFile: 680. are high-level interfaces which provide
automatic cleanup and can be used as *note context managers: 5c0.  *note
mkstemp(): 2804. and *note mkdtemp(): 21c. are lower-level functions
which require manual cleanup.

Toutes les fonctions et constructeurs appelables par l'utilisateur ont
des arguments additionnels qui permettent de contrôler directement le
chemin et le nom des répertoires et fichiers.  Les noms de fichiers
utilisés par ce module incluent une chaîne de caractères aléatoires qui
leur permet d'être créés de manière sécurisée dans des répertoires
temporaires partagés.  Afin de maintenir la compatibilité descendante,
l'ordre des arguments est quelque peu étrange ; pour des questions de
clarté, il est recommandé d'utiliser les arguments nommés.

Le module définit les éléments suivants pouvant être appelés par
l'utilisateur :

 -- Fonction: tempfile.TemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, *, errors=None)

     Renvoie un *note objet fichier: 2544. qui peut être utilisé comme
     une zone de stockage temporaire.  Le fichier est créé de manière
     sécurisée, utilisant les mêmes règles que *note mkstemp(): 2804.
     Il sera détruit dès qu'il sera fermé (y compris lorsque le fichier
     est implicitement fermé quand il est collecté par le
     ramasse-miettes).  Sous Unix, soit l'entrée du répertoire n'est pas
     du tout créée, soit elle est supprimée immédiatement après la
     création du fichier.  Les autres plateformes ne gèrent pas cela,
     votre code ne doit pas compter sur un fichier temporaire créé en
     utilisant cette fonction ayant ou non un nom visible sur le système
     de fichiers.

     The resulting object can be used as a *note context manager: 5c0.
     (see *note Exemples: 2805.).  On completion of the context or
     destruction of the file object the temporary file will be removed
     from the filesystem.

     Le paramètre 'mode' vaut par défaut ‘'w+b'’ afin que le fichier
     créé puisse être lu et écrit sans être fermé.  Le mode binaire est
     utilisé afin que le comportement soit le même sur toutes les
     plateformes quelle que soit la donnée qui est stockée.
     'buffering', 'encoding', 'errors' et 'newline' sont interprétés de
     la même façon que pour *note open(): 508.

     Les paramètres 'dir', 'prefix' et 'suffix' ont la même
     signification et les mêmes valeurs par défaut que dans *note
     mkstemp(): 2804.

     L'objet renvoyé est un véritable fichier sur les plateformes POSIX.
     Sur les autres plateformes, c'est un objet fichier-compatible, dont
     l'attribut ‘file’ donne le véritable fichier.

     The *note os.O_TMPFILE: f60. flag is used if it is available and
     works (Linux-specific, requires Linux kernel 3.11 or later).

     Sur les plateformes qui ne sont pas POSIX ni Cygwin,
     ‘TemporaryFile’ est un alias de ‘NamedTemporaryFile’.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ avec
     comme argument ‘fullpath’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The *note os.O_TMPFILE: f60. flag is
     now used if available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre 'errors' a été ajouté.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, delete=True, *, errors=None, delete_on_close=True)

     This function operates exactly as *note TemporaryFile(): 2803.
     does, except the following differences:

        * This function returns a file that is guaranteed to have a
          visible name in the file system.

        * To manage the named file, it extends the parameters of *note
          TemporaryFile(): 2803. with 'delete' and 'delete_on_close'
          parameters that determine whether and how the named file
          should be automatically deleted.

     The returned object is always a *note file-like object: 2544. whose
     ‘file’ attribute is the underlying true file object.  This
     file-like object can be used in a *note with: 5be. statement, just
     like a normal file.  The name of the temporary file can be
     retrieved from the ‘name’ attribute of the returned file-like
     object.  On Unix, unlike with the *note TemporaryFile(): 2803, the
     directory entry does not get unlinked immediately after the file
     creation.

     If 'delete' is true (the default) and 'delete_on_close' is true
     (the default), the file is deleted as soon as it is closed.  If
     'delete' is true and 'delete_on_close' is false, the file is
     deleted on context manager exit only, or else when the *note
     file-like object: 2544. is finalized.  Deletion is not always
     guaranteed in this case (see *note object.__del__(): 1f1a.).  If
     'delete' is false, the value of 'delete_on_close' is ignored.

     Therefore to use the name of the temporary file to reopen the file
     after closing it, either make sure not to delete the file upon
     closure (set the 'delete' parameter to be false) or, in case the
     temporary file is created in a *note with: 5be. statement, set the
     'delete_on_close' parameter to be false.  The latter approach is
     recommended as it provides assistance in automatic cleaning of the
     temporary file upon the context manager exit.

     Opening the temporary file again by its name while it is still open
     works as follows:

        * On POSIX the file can always be opened again.

        * On Windows, make sure that at least one of the following
          conditions are fulfilled:

             * 'delete' is false

             * additional open shares delete access (e.g.  by calling
               *note os.open(): d81. with the flag ‘O_TEMPORARY’)

             * 'delete' is true but 'delete_on_close' is false.  Note,
               that in this case the additional opens that do not share
               delete access (e.g.  created via builtin *note open():
               508.) must be closed before exiting the context manager,
               else the *note os.unlink(): 10d8. call on context manager
               exit will fail with a *note PermissionError: d32.

     On Windows, if 'delete_on_close' is false, and the file is created
     in a directory for which the user lacks delete access, then the
     *note os.unlink(): 10d8. call on exit of the context manager will
     fail with a *note PermissionError: d32.  This cannot happen when
     'delete_on_close' is true because delete access is requested by the
     open, which fails immediately if the requested access is not
     granted.

     On POSIX (only), a process that is terminated abruptly with SIGKILL
     cannot automatically delete any NamedTemporaryFiles it created.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ avec
     comme argument ‘fullpath’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre 'errors' a été ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added 'delete_on_close' parameter.

 -- Classe: tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile (max_size=0, mode='w+b',
          buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None,
          prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

     This class operates exactly as *note TemporaryFile(): 2803. does,
     except that data is spooled in memory until the file size exceeds
     'max_size', or until the file's *note fileno(): 2806. method is
     called, at which point the contents are written to disk and
     operation proceeds as with *note TemporaryFile(): 2803.

      -- Méthode: rollover ()

          The resulting file has one additional method, ‘rollover()’,
          which causes the file to roll over to an on-disk file
          regardless of its size.

     The returned object is a file-like object whose ‘_file’ attribute
     is either an *note io.BytesIO: e8f. or *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.
     object (depending on whether binary or text 'mode' was specified)
     or a true file object, depending on whether *note rollover(): 2807.
     has been called.  This file-like object can be used in a *note
     with: 5be. statement, just like a normal file.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: the truncate method now accepts a
     'size' argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre 'errors' a été ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Fully implements the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 681. and *note io.TextIOBase: 682. abstract base
     classes (depending on whether binary or text 'mode' was specified).

 -- Classe: tempfile.TemporaryDirectory (suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, ignore_cleanup_errors=False, *, delete=True)

     This class securely creates a temporary directory using the same
     rules as *note mkdtemp(): 21c.  The resulting object can be used as
     a *note context manager: 5c0. (see *note Exemples: 2805.).  On
     completion of the context or destruction of the temporary directory
     object, the newly created temporary directory and all its contents
     are removed from the filesystem.

      -- Attribut: name

          The directory name can be retrieved from the ‘name’ attribute
          of the returned object.  When the returned object is used as a
          *note context manager: 5c0, the ‘name’ will be assigned to the
          target of the ‘as’ clause in the *note with: 5be. statement,
          if there is one.

      -- Méthode: cleanup ()

          The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the
          ‘cleanup()’ method.  If 'ignore_cleanup_errors' is true, any
          unhandled exceptions during explicit or implicit cleanup (such
          as a *note PermissionError: d32. removing open files on
          Windows) will be ignored, and the remaining removable items
          deleted on a "best-effort" basis.  Otherwise, errors will be
          raised in whatever context cleanup occurs (the ‘cleanup()’
          call, exiting the context manager, when the object is
          garbage-collected or during interpreter shutdown).

     The 'delete' parameter can be used to disable cleanup of the
     directory tree upon exiting the context.  While it may seem unusual
     for a context manager to disable the action taken when exiting the
     context, it can be useful during debugging or when you need your
     cleanup behavior to be conditional based on other logic.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ avec
     comme argument ‘fullpath’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre
     'ignore_cleanup_errors'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'delete' parameter.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.mkstemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None,
          text=False)

     Crée un fichier temporaire de la manière la plus sécurisée qui
     soit.  Il n'y a pas de problème d'accès concurrent ('race
     condition' en anglais) au moment de la création du fichier, en
     supposant que la plateforme implémente correctement l'option *note
     os.O_EXCL: 280a. pour *note os.open(): d81.  Le fichier est
     seulement accessible en lecture et écriture par l'ID de
     l'utilisateur créateur.  Si la plateforme utilise des bits de
     permissions pour indiquer si le fichier est exécutable, alors le
     fichier n'est exécutable par personne.  Le descripteur de fichier
     n'est pas hérité par les processus fils.

     À la différence de *note TemporaryFile(): 2803, l'utilisateur de
     *note mkstemp(): 2804. est responsable de la suppression du fichier
     temporaire quand il n'en a plus besoin.

     Si 'suffix' ne vaut pas ‘None’, le nom de fichier se terminera avec
     ce suffixe, sinon il n'y aura pas de suffixe.  *note mkstemp():
     2804. ne met pas de point entre le nom du fichier et le suffixe.
     Si vous en avez besoin, mettez le point au début de 'suffix'.

     Si 'prefix' ne vaut pas ‘None’, le nom de fichier commencera avec
     ce préfixe, sinon un préfixe par défaut est utilisé.  La valeur par
     défaut est la valeur retournée par *note gettempprefix(): 280b. ou
     *note gettempprefixb(): 280c.

     Si 'dir' ne vaut pas ‘None’, le fichier sera créé dans ce
     répertoire, autrement, un répertoire par défaut sera utilisé.  Le
     répertoire par défaut est choisi depuis une liste dépendante de la
     plateforme, mais l'utilisateur de l'application peut contrôler
     l'emplacement du répertoire en spécifiant les variables
     d'environnement 'TMPDIR', 'TEMP' ou 'TMP'. Il n'y a pas de garantie
     que le nom de fichier généré aura de bonnes propriétés telles que
     ne pas avoir besoin de le mettre entre guillemets lorsque celui-ci
     est passé à des commandes externes via ‘os.popen()’.

     Si l'un des paramètres 'suffix', 'prefix' et 'dir' n'est pas
     ‘None’, ils doivent être du même type.  S'ils sont de type ‘bytes’,
     le nom renvoyé est de type ‘bytes’ plutôt que de type ‘str’.  Si
     vous voulez forcer la valeur renvoyée en ‘bytes’, passez
     ‘suffix=b''’.

     Le fichier est ouvert en mode binaire, sauf si 'text' est mis à
     vrai, auquel cas il est ouvert en mode textuel.

     *note mkstemp(): 2804. renvoie une paire contenant un descripteur
     ('handle' en anglais) au niveau du système d'exploitation vers un
     fichier ouvert (le même que renvoie *note os.open(): d81.) et le
     chemin d'accès absolu de ce fichier, dans cet ordre.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ avec
     comme argument ‘fullpath’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: 'suffix', 'prefix', et 'dir' peuvent
     maintenant être spécifiés en ‘bytes’ pour obtenir un résultat en
     ‘bytes’.  Avant cela, le type ‘str’ était le seul autorisé.
     'suffix' et 'prefix' acceptent maintenant la valeur par défaut
     ‘None’ pour que la valeur par défaut appropriée soit utilisée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre 'dir' accepte un *note
     objet fichier-compatible: 29d.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.mkdtemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)

     Crée un répertoire temporaire de la manière la plus sécurisée qu'il
     soit.  Il n'y a pas de problème d'accès concurrent ('race
     condition' en anglais) au moment de la création du répertoire.  Le
     répertoire est accessible en lecture, en écriture, et son contenu
     lisible uniquement pour l'ID de l'utilisateur créateur.

     L'utilisateur de *note mkdtemp(): 21c. est responsable de la
     suppression du répertoire temporaire et de son contenu lorsqu'il
     n'en a plus besoin.

     Les arguments 'prefix', 'suffix', et 'dir' sont les mêmes que pour
     *note mkstemp(): 2804.

     *note mkdtemp(): 21c. renvoie le chemin absolu du nouveau
     répertoire.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ avec
     comme argument ‘fullpath’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: 'suffix', 'prefix', et 'dir' peuvent
     maintenant être spécifiés en ‘bytes’ pour obtenir un résultat en
     ‘bytes’.  Avant cela, le type ‘str’ était le seul autorisé.
     'suffix' et 'prefix' acceptent maintenant la valeur par défaut
     ‘None’ pour que la valeur par défaut appropriée soit utilisée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre 'dir' accepte un *note
     objet fichier-compatible: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note mkdtemp(): 21c. now always
     returns an absolute path, even if 'dir' is relative.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.gettempdir ()

     Renvoie le nom du répertoire utilisé pour les fichiers temporaires.
     C'est la valeur par défaut pour l'argument 'dir' de toutes les
     fonctions de ce module.

     Python cherche un répertoire parmi une liste standard de
     répertoires dans lequel l'utilisateur final peut créer des
     fichiers.  La liste est :

       1. Le répertoire correspondant à la variable d'environnement
          ‘TMPDIR’.

       2. Le répertoire correspondant à la variable d'environnement
          ‘TEMP’.

       3. Le répertoire correspondant à la variable d'environnement
          ‘TMP’.

       4. Un emplacement dépendant de la plateforme :

             * Sur Windows, les répertoires ‘C:\TEMP’, ‘C:\TMP’,
               ‘\TEMP’, et ‘\TMP’, dans cet ordre.

             * Sur toutes les autres plate-formes, les répertoires
               ‘/tmp’, ‘/var/tmp’, et ‘/usr/tmp’, dans cet ordre.

       5. En dernier ressort, le répertoire de travail courant.

     Le résultat de cette recherche est mis en cache, voir la
     description de *note tempdir: 1895. dessous.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Cette fonction renvoie désormais
     systématiquement une chaîne de caractères.  Auparavant, elle
     pouvait renvoyer la valeur de *note tempdir: 1895. quel que soit
     son type tant que ce n'était pas ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.gettempdirb ()

     Similaire à *note gettempdir(): 1896. mais la valeur retournée est
     en 'bytes'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.gettempprefix ()

     Renvoie le préfixe de nom de fichier utilisé pour créer les
     fichiers temporaires.  Cela ne contient pas le nom du répertoire.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.gettempprefixb ()

     Similaire à *note gettempprefix(): 280b. mais la valeur retournée
     est en 'bytes'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Le module utilise une variable globale pour stocker le nom du répertoire
utilisé pour les fichiers temporaires renvoyés par *note gettempdir():
1896.  Vous pouvez directement utiliser la variable globale pour
surcharger le processus de sélection, mais ceci est déconseillé.  Toutes
les fonctions de ce module prennent un argument 'dir' qui peut être
utilisé pour spécifier le répertoire.  Il s'agit de la méthode
recommandée car elle n'interfère pas avec le code extérieur en modifiant
le comportement global du module.

 -- Données: tempfile.tempdir

     Quand une valeur autre que ‘None’ est spécifiée, cette variable
     définit la valeur par défaut pour l'argument 'dir' des fonctions
     définies dans ce module, et en particulier son type (‘bytes’ ou
     ‘str’).  Les *note objets fichier-compatibles: 29d. ne sont pas
     acceptés.

     Si ‘tempdir’ vaut ‘None’ (par défaut) pour n'importe laquelle des
     fonctions ci-dessus, sauf *note gettempprefix(): 280b, la variable
     est initialisée suivant l'algorithme décrit dans *note
     gettempdir(): 1896.

          Note: Attention, le fait de mettre ‘tempdir’ à une valeur de
          type ‘bytes’ a l'effet pervers de changer globalement en
          ‘bytes’ le type de retour de *note mkstemp(): 2804. et *note
          mkdtemp(): 21c. lorsqu'elles sont appelées sans qu'aucun des
          paramètres 'prefix', 'suffix' et 'dir' ne soit de type ‘str’.
          Ce comportement par défaut surprenant est préservé par souci
          de compatibilité avec l'implémentation historique du module.
          Il est fortement recommandé de ne pas s'y fier.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<5>.
* Fonctions et variables obsolètes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tempfile.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<5>,  Next: Fonctions et variables obsolètes,  Up: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories

5.11.5.1 Exemples
.................

Voici quelques exemples classiques d'utilisation du module *note
tempfile: df. :

     >>> import tempfile

     # create a temporary file and write some data to it
     >>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
     >>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     # read data from file
     >>> fp.seek(0)
     >>> fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     # close the file, it will be removed
     >>> fp.close()

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.seek(0)
     ...     fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now closed and removed

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     # close the file, use the name to open the file again
     >>> with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete_on_close=False) as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.close()
     ... # the file is closed, but not removed
     ... # open the file again by using its name
     ...     with open(fp.name, mode='rb') as f:
     ...         f.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now removed

     # create a temporary directory using the context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
     ...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
     >>>
     # directory and contents have been removed


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions et variables obsolètes,  Prev: Exemples<5>,  Up: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories

5.11.5.2 Fonctions et variables obsolètes
.........................................

Historiquement, la méthode pour créer des fichiers temporaires
consistait à générer un nom de fichier avec la fonction *note mktemp():
184a. puis créer un fichier en utilisant ce nom.  Malheureusement, cette
méthode n'est pas fiable car un autre processus peut créer un fichier
avec ce nom entre l'appel à la fonction *note mktemp(): 184a. et la
tentative de création de fichier par le premier processus en cours.  La
solution est de combiner les deux étapes et de créer le fichier
immédiatement.  Cette approche est utilisée par *note mkstemp(): 2804.
et les autres fonctions décrites plus haut.

 -- Fonction: tempfile.mktemp (suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)

     Obsolète depuis la version 2.3: Utilisez *note mkstemp(): 2804. à
     la place.

     Renvoie le chemin absolu d'un fichier qui n'existe pas lorsque
     l'appel est fait.  Les arguments 'prefix', 'suffix', et 'dir' sont
     similaires à ceux de *note mkstemp(): 2804. mais les noms de
     fichiers en 'bytes', ‘sufix=None’ et ‘prefix=None’ ne sont pas
     implémentées.

          Avertissement: Utiliser cette fonction peut introduire une
          faille de sécurité dans votre programme.  Avant que vous
          n'ayez le temps de faire quoi que ce soit avec le nom de
          fichier renvoyé, quelqu'un peut l'utiliser.  L'utilisation de
          *note mktemp(): 184a. peut être remplacée facilement avec
          *note NamedTemporaryFile(): 4b2. en y passant le paramètre
          ‘delete=False’ :

               >>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
               >>> f.name
               '/tmp/tmptjujjt'
               >>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
               13
               >>> f.close()
               >>> os.unlink(f.name)
               >>> os.path.exists(f.name)
               False


File: python.info,  Node: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion,  Next: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching,  Prev: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.6 ‘glob’ -- Unix style pathname pattern expansion
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/glob.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note glob: 63. module finds all the pathnames matching a specified
pattern according to the rules used by the Unix shell, although results
are returned in arbitrary order.  No tilde expansion is done, but ‘*’,
‘?’, and character ranges expressed with ‘[]’ will be correctly matched.
This is done by using the *note os.scandir(): a4f. and *note
fnmatch.fnmatch(): 185c. functions in concert, and not by actually
invoking a subshell.

Note that files beginning with a dot (‘.’) can only be matched by
patterns that also start with a dot, unlike *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
185c. or *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a.  (For tilde and shell variable
expansion, use *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. and *note
os.path.expandvars(): 1392.)

Pour une correspondance littérale, il faut entourer le métacaractère par
des crochets.  Par exemple, ‘'[?]'’ reconnaît le caractère ‘'?'’.

The *note glob: 63. module defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: glob.glob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     Return a possibly empty list of path names that match 'pathname',
     which must be a string containing a path specification.  'pathname'
     can be either absolute (like ‘/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile’) or
     relative (like ‘../../Tools/*/*.gif’), and can contain shell-style
     wildcards.  Broken symlinks are included in the results (as in the
     shell).  Whether or not the results are sorted depends on the file
     system.  If a file that satisfies conditions is removed or added
     during the call of this function, whether a path name for that file
     will be included is unspecified.

     Si 'root_dir' n'est pas ‘None’, cela doit être un *note objet
     simili-chemin: 29d. spécifiant le dossier racine de la recherche.
     Cela a le même effet sur *note glob(): 63. que de changer le
     dossier courant avant l'appel de la fonction.  Si 'pathname' est
     relatif, les chemins du résultat seront relatifs au 'root_dir' .

     Cette fonction prend en charge les *note chemins relatifs aux
     descripteurs de dossier: 10cd. avec le paramètre 'dir_fd'.

     Si 'recursive' est vrai, le motif "‘**’" reconnaît tous les
     fichiers, aucun ou plusieurs répertoires, sous-répertoires et liens
     symboliques aux répertoires.  Si le motif est suivi par *note
     os.sep: 657. ou *note os.altsep: 658. alors les fichiers ne sont
     pas inclus dans le résultat.

     If 'include_hidden' is true, "‘**’" pattern will match hidden
     directories.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘glob.glob’ avec les
     arguments ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘glob.glob/2’ avec les
     arguments ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’.

          Note: Utiliser le motif "‘**’" dans de grandes arborescences
          de dossier peut consommer une quantité de temps démesurée.

          Note: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple "‘**’" patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge des chemins récursifs
     utilisant le motif "‘**’".

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Paramètres 'root_dir' et 'dir_fd'
     ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'include_hidden' parameter.

 -- Fonction: glob.iglob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     Renvoie un *note itérateur: 1aa. qui produit les mêmes valeurs que
     *note glob(): 63, sans toutes les charger en mémoire simultanément.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘glob.glob’ avec les
     arguments ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘glob.glob/2’ avec les
     arguments ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’.

          Note: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple "‘**’" patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge des chemins récursifs
     utilisant le motif "‘**’".

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Paramètres 'root_dir' et 'dir_fd'
     ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'include_hidden' parameter.

 -- Fonction: glob.escape (pathname)

     Échappe tous les caractères spéciaux (‘'?'’, ‘'*'’ et ‘'['’).  Cela
     est utile pour reconnaître une chaîne de caractère littérale
     arbitraire qui contiendrait ce type de caractères.  Les caractères
     spéciaux dans les disques et répertoires partagés (chemins UNC) ne
     sont pas échappés, e.g.  sous Windows ‘escape('//?/c:/Quo
     vadis?.txt')’ renvoie ‘'//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: glob.translate (pathname, *, recursive=False,
          include_hidden=False, seps=None)

     Convert the given path specification to a regular expression for
     use with *note re.match(): 120d.  The path specification can
     contain shell-style wildcards.

     Par exemple :

          >>> import glob, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = glob.translate('**/*.txt', recursive=True, include_hidden=True)
          >>> regex
          '(?s:(?:.+/)?[^/]*\\.txt)\\Z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.match('foo/bar/baz.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 15), match='foo/bar/baz.txt'>

     Path separators and segments are meaningful to this function,
     unlike *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a04.  By default wildcards do
     not match path separators, and ‘*’ pattern segments match precisely
     one path segment.

     If 'recursive' is true, the pattern segment "‘**’" will match any
     number of path segments.

     If 'include_hidden' is true, wildcards can match path segments that
     start with a dot (‘.’).

     A sequence of path separators may be supplied to the 'seps'
     argument.  If not given, *note os.sep: 657. and *note altsep: 658.
     (if available) are used.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note pathlib.PurePath.full_match(): 228. and *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22a. methods, which call this function to
     implement pattern matching and globbing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/glob.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<6>,  Up: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion

5.11.6.1 Exemples
.................

Consider a directory containing the following files: ‘1.gif’, ‘2.txt’,
‘card.gif’ and a subdirectory ‘sub’ which contains only the file
‘3.txt’.  *note glob(): 63. will produce the following results.  Notice
how any leading components of the path are preserved.

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
     ['./1.gif', './2.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['1.gif', 'card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('?.gif')
     ['1.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
     ['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
     ['./', './sub/']

Si le répertoire contient des fichiers commençant par ‘.’, ils ne sont
pas reconnus par défaut.  Par exemple, considérons un répertoire
contenant ‘card.gif’ et ‘.card.gif’ :

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('.c*')
     ['.card.gif']

Voir aussi
..........

The *note fnmatch: 5b. module offers shell-style filename (not path)
expansion.

Voir aussi
..........

Le module *note pathlib: a3. offre une représentation objet de haut
niveau des chemins.


File: python.info,  Node: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching,  Next: linecache --- Random access to text lines,  Prev: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.7 ‘fnmatch’ -- Unix filename pattern matching
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/fnmatch.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit la gestion des caractères de remplacement de style
shell Unix, qui ne sont 'pas' identiques à ceux utilisés dans les
expressions régulières (documentés dans le module *note re: b8.).  Les
caractères spéciaux utilisés comme caractères de remplacement de style
shell sont :

Motif            Signification
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘*’              reconnaît n'importe quoi
                 
                 
‘?’              reconnaît n'importe quel caractère
                 unique
                 
                 
‘[seq]’          reconnaît n'importe quel caractère
                 dans 'seq'
                 
                 
‘[!seq]’         reconnaît n'importe quel caractère qui
                 n'est pas dans 'seq'
                 

Pour une correspondance littérale, il faut entourer le métacaractère par
des crochets.  Par exemple, ‘'[?]'’ reconnaît le caractère ‘'?'’.

Notons que le séparateur de nom de fichiers (‘'/'’ sous Unix) n'est
'pas' traité de manière spéciale par ce module.  Voir le module *note
glob: 63. pour la recherche de chemins (*note glob: 63. utilise *note
filter(): 185e. pour reconnaître les composants d'un chemin).  De la
même manière, les noms de fichiers commençant par un point ne sont pas
traités de manière spéciale par ce module, et sont reconnus par les
motifs ‘*’ et ‘?’.

Unless stated otherwise, "filename string" and "pattern string" either
refer to *note str: 437. or ‘ISO-8859-1’ encoded *note bytes: 1bd.
objects.  Note that the functions documented below do not allow to mix a
‘bytes’ pattern with a ‘str’ filename, and vice-versa.

Finally, note that *note functools.lru_cache(): 9df. with a 'maxsize' of
32768 is used to cache the (typed) compiled regex patterns in the
following functions: *note fnmatch(): 5b, *note fnmatchcase(): 185d,
*note filter(): 185e.

 -- Fonction: fnmatch.fnmatch (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Both parameters are
     case-normalized using *note os.path.normcase(): 2793.  *note
     fnmatchcase(): 185d. can be used to perform a case-sensitive
     comparison, regardless of whether that's standard for the operating
     system.

     Cet exemple affiche tous les noms de fichiers du répertoire courant
     ayant pour extension ‘.txt’ :

          import fnmatch
          import os

          for file in os.listdir('.'):
              if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
                  print(file)

 -- Fonction: fnmatch.fnmatchcase (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’; the comparison is
     case-sensitive and does not apply *note os.path.normcase(): 2793.

 -- Fonction: fnmatch.filter (names, pat)

     Construct a list from those elements of the *note iterable: 1207.
     of filename strings 'names' that match the pattern string 'pat'.
     It is the same as ‘[n for n in names if fnmatch(n, pat)]’, but
     implemented more efficiently.

 -- Fonction: fnmatch.translate (pat)

     Return the shell-style pattern 'pat' converted to a regular
     expression for using with *note re.match(): 120d.  The pattern is
     expected to be a *note str: 437.

     Exemple :

          >>> import fnmatch, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
          >>> regex
          '(?s:.*\\.txt)\\Z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.match('foobar.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note glob: 63.

     Recherche de chemins de style shell Unix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/fnmatch.py


File: python.info,  Node: linecache --- Random access to text lines,  Next: shutil --- High-level file operations,  Prev: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.8 ‘linecache’ -- Random access to text lines
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/linecache.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note linecache: 84. permet d'obtenir n'importe quelle ligne
d'un fichier source Python.  Le cas classique où de nombreuses lignes
sont accédées est optimisé en utilisant un cache interne.  C'est utilisé
par le module *note traceback: fd. pour récupérer les lignes à afficher
dans les piles d'appels.

Les fichiers sont ouverts par la fonction *note tokenize.open(): 2817.
Cette fonction utilise *note tokenize.detect_encoding(): 2818. pour
obtenir l'encodage du fichier.  En l'absence d'un BOM et d'un cookie
d'encodage, c'est l'encodage UTF-8 qui sera utilisé.

Le module *note linecache: 84. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: linecache.getline (filename, lineno, module_globals=None)

     Récupère la ligne 'lineno' du fichier 'filename'.  Cette fonction
     ne lèvera jamais d'exception, elle préfèrera renvoyer ‘''’ en cas
     d'erreur (le caractère de retour à la ligne sera inclus pour les
     lignes existantes).

     Si le fichier 'filename' n'existe pas, cette fonction vérifie
     d'abord la présence d'un chargeur ‘__loader__’ dans
     'module_globals', comme le prescrit la PEP 302(2).  Si un chargeur
     est trouvé avec une méthode ‘get_source’, c'est cette méthode qui
     détermine les lignes sources (si ‘get_source()’ renvoie ‘None’,
     cette valeur est remplacée par la chaîne vide ‘''’).  Sinon, si le
     nom de fichier 'filename' est relatif, il est recherché dans les
     dossiers du chemin de recherche des modules, ‘sys.path’.

 -- Fonction: linecache.clearcache ()

     Nettoie le cache.  Utilisez cette fonction si vous n'avez plus
     besoin des lignes des fichiers précédemment lus via *note
     getline(): e12.

 -- Fonction: linecache.checkcache (filename=None)

     Vérifie la validité du cache.  Utilisez cette fonction si les
     fichiers du cache pourraient avoir changé sur le disque, et que
     vous en voudriez une version à jour.  Sans 'filename', toutes les
     entrées du cache seront vérifiées.

 -- Fonction: linecache.lazycache (filename, module_globals)

     Récupère suffisamment d'informations sur un module situé hors du
     système de fichiers pour récupérer ses lignes plus tard via *note
     getline(): e12, même si 'module_globals' devient ‘None’.  Cela
     évite de lire le fichier avant d'avoir besoin d'une ligne, tout en
     évitant de conserver les globales du module indéfiniment.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Exemple :

     >>> import linecache
     >>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
     'import sys\n'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/linecache.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: shutil --- High-level file operations,  Prev: linecache --- Random access to text lines,  Up: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

5.11.9 ‘shutil’ -- High-level file operations
---------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/shutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note shutil: c4. propose des opérations de haut niveau sur
les fichiers et ensembles de fichiers.  En particulier, des fonctions
pour copier et déplacer les fichiers sont proposées.  Pour les
opérations individuelles sur les fichiers, reportez-vous au module *note
os: a0.

     Avertissement: Même les fonctions de copie haut niveau (*note
     shutil.copy(): a4a, *note shutil.copy2(): a4b.) ne peuvent copier
     toutes les métadonnées des fichiers.

     Sur les plateformes POSIX, cela signifie que le propriétaire et le
     groupe du fichier sont perdus, ainsi que les 'ACLs'.  Sur Mac OS,
     le clonage de ressource et autres métadonnées ne sont pas utilisés.
     Cela signifie que les ressources seront perdues et que le type de
     fichier et les codes créateur ne seront pas corrects.  Sur Windows,
     les propriétaires des fichiers, 'ACLs' et flux de données
     alternatifs ne sont pas copiés.

* Menu:

* Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shutil.py


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers,  Next: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil --- High-level file operations

5.11.9.1 Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers
.......................................................

 -- Fonction: shutil.copyfileobj (fsrc, fdst[, length])

     Copy the contents of the *note file-like object: 11a2. 'fsrc' to
     the file-like object 'fdst'.  The integer 'length', if given, is
     the buffer size.  In particular, a negative 'length' value means to
     copy the data without looping over the source data in chunks; by
     default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory
     consumption.  Note that if the current file position of the 'fsrc'
     object is not 0, only the contents from the current file position
     to the end of the file will be copied.

 -- Fonction: shutil.copyfile (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named 'src' to a file
     named 'dst' and return 'dst' in the most efficient way possible.
     'src' and 'dst' are *note path-like objects: 29d. or path names
     given as strings.

     'dst' doit être le nom complet du fichier cible ; consultez *note
     copy(): a4a. pour une fonction de copie qui accepte un chemin de
     répertoire cible.  Si 'src' et 'dst' spécifient le même fichier,
     lève *note SameFileError: f8a.

     La cible doit être accessible en écriture, sinon l'exception *note
     OSError: 40d. est levée.  Si 'dst' existe déjà, il est remplacé.
     Les fichiers spéciaux comme les périphériques caractères ou bloc
     ainsi que les tubes ('pipes') ne peuvent pas être copiés avec cette
     fonction.

     Si 'follow_symlinks' est faux et 'src' est un lien symbolique, un
     nouveau lien symbolique est créé au lieu de copier le fichier
     pointé par 'src'.

     Lève un *note événement d’audit: 1877. ‘shutil.copyfile’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note IOError: 103d. était levée au
     lieu de *note OSError: 40d.  Ajout de l'argument 'follow_symlinks'.
     Maintenant renvoie 'dst'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Lève *note SameFileError: f8a. au lieu
     de *note Error: f89.  Puisque la première est une sous-classe de la
     seconde, le changement assure la rétrocompatibilité.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide
     spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin
     de copier le fichier plus efficacement.  Voir la section *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a4e.

 -- Exception: shutil.SameFileError

     Cette exception est levée si la source et la destination dans *note
     copyfile(): a49. sont le même fichier.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: shutil.copymode (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits from 'src' to 'dst'.  The file contents,
     owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are *note
     path-like objects: 29d. or path names given as strings.  If
     'follow_symlinks' is false, and both 'src' and 'dst' are symbolic
     links, *note copymode(): 1666. will attempt to modify the mode of
     'dst' itself (rather than the file it points to).  This
     functionality is not available on every platform; please see *note
     copystat(): 1110. for more information.  If *note copymode(): 1666.
     cannot modify symbolic links on the local platform, and it is asked
     to do so, it will do nothing and return.

     Lève un *note événement d’audit: 1877. ‘shutil.copymode’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: L'argument 'follow_symlinks' a été
     ajouté.

 -- Fonction: shutil.copystat (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time,
     and flags from 'src' to 'dst'.  On Linux, *note copystat(): 1110.
     also copies the "extended attributes" where possible.  The file
     contents, owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are
     *note path-like objects: 29d. or path names given as strings.

     Si 'follow_symlinks' est faux et 'src' et 'dst' représentent des
     liens symboliques, *note copystat(): 1110. agit sur les liens
     symboliques au lieu des fichiers cibles — elle lit les informations
     du lien symbolique de 'src' et les écrit vers la destination
     pointée par 'dst'.

          Note: Toutes les plateformes n'offrent pas la possibilité
          d'examiner et modifier les liens symboliques.  Python peut
          vous informer des fonctionnalités effectivement disponibles.

             * Si ‘os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ est ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): 1110. peut modifier les octets de
               droits d'accès du lien symbolique.

             * If ‘os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): 1110. can modify the last access and
               modification times of a symbolic link.

             * If ‘os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): 1110. can modify the flags of a
               symbolic link.  (‘os.chflags’ is not available on all
               platforms.)

          On platforms where some or all of this functionality is
          unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link, *note
          copystat(): 1110. will copy everything it can.  *note
          copystat(): 1110. never returns failure.

          Please see *note os.supports_follow_symlinks: 281e. for more
          information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.copystat’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument and
     support for Linux extended attributes.

 -- Fonction: shutil.copy (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copies the file 'src' to the file or directory 'dst'.  'src' and
     'dst' should be *note path-like objects: 29d. or strings.  If 'dst'
     specifies a directory, the file will be copied into 'dst' using the
     base filename from 'src'.  If 'dst' specifies a file that already
     exists, it will be replaced.  Returns the path to the newly created
     file.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst'
     will be created as a symbolic link.  If 'follow_symlinks' is true
     and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst' will be a copy of the file
     'src' refers to.

     *note copy(): a4a. copies the file data and the file's permission
     mode (see *note os.chmod(): 218.).  Other metadata, like the file's
     creation and modification times, is not preserved.  To preserve all
     file metadata from the original, use *note copy2(): a4b. instead.

     Lève un *note événement d’audit: 1877. ‘shutil.copyfile’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Lève un *note événement d’audit: 1877. ‘shutil.copymode’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.  Now
     returns path to the newly created file.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide
     spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin
     de copier le fichier plus efficacement.  Voir la section *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a4e.

 -- Fonction: shutil.copy2 (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Identical to *note copy(): a4a. except that *note copy2(): a4b.
     also attempts to preserve file metadata.

     When 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link,
     *note copy2(): a4b. attempts to copy all metadata from the 'src'
     symbolic link to the newly created 'dst' symbolic link.  However,
     this functionality is not available on all platforms.  On platforms
     where some or all of this functionality is unavailable, *note
     copy2(): a4b. will preserve all the metadata it can; *note copy2():
     a4b. never raises an exception because it cannot preserve file
     metadata.

     *note copy2(): a4b. uses *note copystat(): 1110. to copy the file
     metadata.  Please see *note copystat(): 1110. for more information
     about platform support for modifying symbolic link metadata.

     Lève un *note événement d’audit: 1877. ‘shutil.copyfile’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.copystat’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument, try
     to copy extended file system attributes too (currently Linux only).
     Now returns path to the newly created file.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide
     spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin
     de copier le fichier plus efficacement.  Voir la section *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a4e.

 -- Fonction: shutil.ignore_patterns (*patterns)

     This factory function creates a function that can be used as a
     callable for *note copytree(): a19.'s 'ignore' argument, ignoring
     files and directories that match one of the glob-style 'patterns'
     provided.  See the example below.

 -- Fonction: shutil.copytree (src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None,
          copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False,
          dirs_exist_ok=False)

     Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at 'src' to a
     directory named 'dst' and return the destination directory.  All
     intermediate directories needed to contain 'dst' will also be
     created by default.

     Permissions and times of directories are copied with *note
     copystat(): 1110, individual files are copied using *note copy2():
     a4b.

     If 'symlinks' is true, symbolic links in the source tree are
     represented as symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of
     the original links will be copied as far as the platform allows; if
     false or omitted, the contents and metadata of the linked files are
     copied to the new tree.

     When 'symlinks' is false, if the file pointed to by the symlink
     doesn't exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors
     raised in an *note Error: f89. exception at the end of the copy
     process.  You can set the optional 'ignore_dangling_symlinks' flag
     to true if you want to silence this exception.  Notice that this
     option has no effect on platforms that don't support *note
     os.symlink(): 10d7.

     If 'ignore' is given, it must be a callable that will receive as
     its arguments the directory being visited by *note copytree(): a19,
     and a list of its contents, as returned by *note os.listdir():
     10dc.  Since *note copytree(): a19. is called recursively, the
     'ignore' callable will be called once for each directory that is
     copied.  The callable must return a sequence of directory and file
     names relative to the current directory (i.e.  a subset of the
     items in its second argument); these names will then be ignored in
     the copy process.  *note ignore_patterns(): 281f. can be used to
     create such a callable that ignores names based on glob-style
     patterns.

     If exception(s) occur, an *note Error: f89. is raised with a list
     of reasons.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that will be
     used to copy each file.  It will be called with the source path and
     the destination path as arguments.  By default, *note copy2(): a4b.
     is used, but any function that supports the same signature (like
     *note copy(): a4a.) can be used.

     If 'dirs_exist_ok' is false (the default) and 'dst' already exists,
     a *note FileExistsError: 100b. is raised.  If 'dirs_exist_ok' is
     true, the copying operation will continue if it encounters existing
     directories, and files within the 'dst' tree will be overwritten by
     corresponding files from the 'src' tree.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.copytree’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'copy_function' argument to
     be able to provide a custom copy function.  Added the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument to silence dangling symlinks
     errors when 'symlinks' is false.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Copy metadata when 'symlinks' is
     false.  Now returns 'dst'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide
     spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin
     de copier le fichier plus efficacement.  Voir la section *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a4e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'dirs_exist_ok' parameter.

 -- Fonction: shutil.rmtree (path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None, *,
          onexc=None, dir_fd=None)

     Delete an entire directory tree; 'path' must point to a directory
     (but not a symbolic link to a directory).  If 'ignore_errors' is
     true, errors resulting from failed removals will be ignored; if
     false or omitted, such errors are handled by calling a handler
     specified by 'onexc' or 'onerror' or, if both are omitted,
     exceptions are propagated to the caller.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertories: 10cd.

          Note: On platforms that support the necessary fd-based
          functions a symlink attack resistant version of *note
          rmtree(): 2f6. is used by default.  On other platforms, the
          *note rmtree(): 2f6. implementation is susceptible to a
          symlink attack: given proper timing and circumstances,
          attackers can manipulate symlinks on the filesystem to delete
          files they wouldn't be able to access otherwise.  Applications
          can use the *note rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks: 2820.
          function attribute to determine which case applies.

     If 'onexc' is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three
     parameters: 'function', 'path', and 'excinfo'.

     The first parameter, 'function', is the function which raised the
     exception; it depends on the platform and implementation.  The
     second parameter, 'path', will be the path name passed to
     'function'.  The third parameter, 'excinfo', is the exception that
     was raised.  Exceptions raised by 'onexc' will not be caught.

     The deprecated 'onerror' is similar to 'onexc', except that the
     third parameter it receives is the tuple returned from *note
     sys.exc_info(): 677.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.rmtree’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added a symlink attack resistant
     version that is used automatically if platform supports fd-based
     functions.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, will no longer delete the
     contents of a directory junction before removing the junction.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'onexc' parameter,
     deprecated 'onerror'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘rmtree()’ now ignores *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. exceptions for all but the top-level path.
     Exceptions other than *note OSError: 40d. and subclasses of
     ‘OSError’ are now always propagated to the caller.

      -- Attribut: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks

          Indicates whether the current platform and implementation
          provides a symlink attack resistant version of *note rmtree():
          2f6.  Currently this is only true for platforms supporting
          fd-based directory access functions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: shutil.move (src, dst, copy_function=copy2)

     Recursively move a file or directory ('src') to another location
     and return the destination.

     If 'dst' is an existing directory or a symlink to a directory, then
     'src' is moved inside that directory.  The destination path in that
     directory must not already exist.

     If 'dst' already exists but is not a directory, it may be
     overwritten depending on *note os.rename(): 10d4. semantics.

     If the destination is on the current filesystem, then *note
     os.rename(): 10d4. is used.  Otherwise, 'src' is copied to the
     destination using 'copy_function' and then removed.  In case of
     symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of 'src' will be
     created as the destination and 'src' will be removed.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that takes two
     arguments, 'src' and the destination, and will be used to copy
     'src' to the destination if *note os.rename(): 10d4. cannot be
     used.  If the source is a directory, *note copytree(): a19. is
     called, passing it the 'copy_function'.  The default
     'copy_function' is *note copy2(): a4b.  Using *note copy(): a4a. as
     the 'copy_function' allows the move to succeed when it is not
     possible to also copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying
     any of the metadata.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.move’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added explicit symlink handling for
     foreign filesystems, thus adapting it to the behavior of GNU's
     ‘mv’.  Now returns 'dst'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the 'copy_function' keyword
     argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide
     spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin
     de copier le fichier plus efficacement.  Voir la section *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a4e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Accepts a *note path-like object: 29d.
     for both 'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Fonction: shutil.disk_usage (path)

     Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a *note named
     tuple: 63b. with the attributes 'total', 'used' and 'free', which
     are the amount of total, used and free space, in bytes.  'path' may
     be a file or a directory.

          Note: On Unix filesystems, 'path' must point to a path within
          a 'mounted' filesystem partition.  On those platforms, CPython
          doesn't attempt to retrieve disk usage information from
          non-mounted filesystems.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, 'path' can now be a file
     or directory.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Fonction: shutil.chown (path, user=None, group=None, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change owner 'user' and/or 'group' of the given 'path'.

     'user' can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to
     'group'.  At least one argument is required.

     See also *note os.chown(): 10d1, the underlying function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     parameters.

 -- Fonction: shutil.which (cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)

     Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given
     'cmd' was called.  If no 'cmd' would be called, return ‘None’.

     'mode' is a permission mask passed to *note os.access(): 10cf, by
     default determining if the file exists and is executable.

     'path' is a "‘PATH’ string" specifying the directories to look in,
     delimited by *note os.pathsep: 1d01.  When no 'path' is specified,
     the ‘PATH’ environment variable is read from *note os.environ:
     1199, falling back to *note os.defpath: 19c0. if it is not set.

     On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the 'path' if
     'mode' does not include ‘os.X_OK’.  When the 'mode' does include
     ‘os.X_OK’, the Windows API ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ will
     be consulted to determine if the current directory should be
     prepended to 'path'.  To avoid consulting the current working
     directory for executables: set the environment variable
     ‘NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath’.

     Also on Windows, the ‘PATHEXT’ environment variable is used to
     resolve commands that may not already include an extension.  For
     example, if you call ‘shutil.which("python")’, *note which(): 4a0.
     will search ‘PATHEXT’ to know that it should look for ‘python.exe’
     within the 'path' directories.  For example, on Windows:

          >>> shutil.which("python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     This is also applied when 'cmd' is a path that contains a directory
     component:

          >>> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The *note bytes: 1bd. type is now
     accepted.  If 'cmd' type is *note bytes: 1bd, the result type is
     also *note bytes: 1bd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: On Windows, the current directory is
     no longer prepended to the search path if 'mode' includes ‘os.X_OK’
     and WinAPI ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW(cmd)’ is false, else
     the current directory is prepended even if it is already in the
     search path; ‘PATHEXT’ is used now even when 'cmd' includes a
     directory component or ends with an extension that is in ‘PATHEXT’;
     and filenames that have no extension can now be found.

 -- Exception: shutil.Error

     This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a
     multi-file operation.  For *note copytree(): a19, the exception
     argument is a list of 3-tuples ('srcname', 'dstname', 'exception').

* Menu:

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree example::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Next: copytree example,  Up: Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

5.11.9.2 Platform-dependent efficient copy operations
.....................................................

Starting from Python 3.8, all functions involving a file copy (*note
copyfile(): a49, *note copy(): a4a, *note copy2(): a4b, *note
copytree(): a19, and *note move(): a4c.) may use platform-specific
"fast-copy" syscalls in order to copy the file more efficiently (see
bpo-33671(1)).  "fast-copy" means that the copying operation occurs
within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
"‘outfd.write(infd.read())’".

On macOS fcopyfile(2) is used to copy the file content (not metadata).

On Linux *note os.sendfile(): aff. is used.

On Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): a49. uses a bigger default buffer
size (1 MiB instead of 64 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 454.-based
variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a4d. is used.

If the fast-copy operation fails and no data was written in the
destination file then shutil will silently fallback on using less
efficient *note copyfileobj(): a4d. function internally.

Modifié dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (2) http://www.manpagez.com/man/3/copyfile/


File: python.info,  Node: copytree example,  Next: rmtree example,  Prev: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Up: Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

5.11.9.3 copytree example
.........................

An example that uses the *note ignore_patterns(): 281f. helper:

     from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))

This will copy everything except ‘.pyc’ files and files or directories
whose name starts with ‘tmp’.

Another example that uses the 'ignore' argument to add a logging call:

     from shutil import copytree
     import logging

     def _logpath(path, names):
         logging.info('Working in %s', path)
         return []   # nothing will be ignored

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)


File: python.info,  Node: rmtree example,  Prev: copytree example,  Up: Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

5.11.9.4 rmtree example
.......................

This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some
of the files have their read-only bit set.  It uses the onexc callback
to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove.  Any subsequent
failure will propagate.

     import os, stat
     import shutil

     def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
         "Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal"
         os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
         func(path)

     shutil.rmtree(directory, onexc=remove_readonly)


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving operations,  Next: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers,  Up: shutil --- High-level file operations

5.11.9.5 Archiving operations
.............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for the 'xztar' format.

High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files
are also provided.  They rely on the *note zipfile: 130. and *note
tarfile: dd. modules.

 -- Fonction: shutil.make_archive (base_name, format[, root_dir[,
          base_dir[, verbose[, dry_run[, owner[, group[, logger]]]]]]])

     Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.

     'base_name' is the name of the file to create, including the path,
     minus any format-specific extension.

     'format' is the archive format: one of "zip" (if the *note zlib:
     132. module is available), "tar", "gztar" (if the *note zlib: 132.
     module is available), "bztar" (if the *note bz2: 13. module is
     available), or "xztar" (if the *note lzma: 89. module is
     available).

     'root_dir' is a directory that will be the root directory of the
     archive, all paths in the archive will be relative to it; for
     example, we typically chdir into 'root_dir' before creating the
     archive.

     'base_dir' is the directory where we start archiving from; i.e.
     'base_dir' will be the common prefix of all files and directories
     in the archive.  'base_dir' must be given relative to 'root_dir'.
     See *note Archiving example with base_dir: 2827. for how to use
     'base_dir' and 'root_dir' together.

     'root_dir' and 'base_dir' both default to the current directory.

     If 'dry_run' is true, no archive is created, but the operations
     that would be executed are logged to 'logger'.

     'owner' and 'group' are used when creating a tar archive.  By
     default, uses the current owner and group.

     'logger' must be an object compatible with PEP 282(1), usually an
     instance of *note logging.Logger: b3f.

     The 'verbose' argument is unused and deprecated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.make_archive’ with
     arguments ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’.

          Note: This function is not thread-safe when custom archivers
          registered with *note register_archive_format(): 2828. do not
          support the 'root_dir' argument.  In this case it temporarily
          changes the current working directory of the process to
          'root_dir' to perform archiving.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format
     is now used instead of the legacy GNU format for archives created
     with ‘format="tar"’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10.6: This function is now made
     thread-safe during creation of standard ‘.zip’ and tar archives.

 -- Fonction: shutil.get_archive_formats ()

     Return a list of supported formats for archiving.  Each element of
     the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, description)’.

     By default *note shutil: c4. provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (if the *note zlib: 132. module is available).

        - 'tar': Uncompressed tar file.  Uses POSIX.1-2001 pax format
          for new archives.

        - 'gztar': gzip'ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 132. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2'ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 13. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz'ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 89. module is
          available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_archive_format(): 2828.

 -- Fonction: shutil.register_archive_format (name, function[,
          extra_args[, description]])

     Register an archiver for the format 'name'.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive the 'base_name' of the file to create,
     followed by the 'base_dir' (which defaults to *note os.curdir:
     2794.) to start archiving from.  Further arguments are passed as
     keyword arguments: 'owner', 'group', 'dry_run' and 'logger' (as
     passed in *note make_archive(): 49f.).

     If 'function' has the custom attribute ‘function.supports_root_dir’
     set to ‘True’, the 'root_dir' argument is passed as a keyword
     argument.  Otherwise the current working directory of the process
     is temporarily changed to 'root_dir' before calling 'function'.  In
     this case *note make_archive(): 49f. is not thread-safe.

     If given, 'extra_args' is a sequence of ‘(name, value)’ pairs that
     will be used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable
     is used.

     'description' is used by *note get_archive_formats(): 2829. which
     returns the list of archivers.  Defaults to an empty string.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for functions
     supporting the 'root_dir' argument.

 -- Fonction: shutil.unregister_archive_format (name)

     Remove the archive format 'name' from the list of supported
     formats.

 -- Fonction: shutil.unpack_archive (filename[, extract_dir[, format[,
          filter]]])

     Unpack an archive.  'filename' is the full path of the archive.

     'extract_dir' is the name of the target directory where the archive
     is unpacked.  If not provided, the current working directory is
     used.

     'format' is the archive format: one of "zip", "tar", "gztar",
     "bztar", or "xztar".  Or any other format registered with *note
     register_unpack_format(): 282b.  If not provided, *note
     unpack_archive(): 457. will use the archive file name extension and
     see if an unpacker was registered for that extension.  In case none
     is found, a *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

     The keyword-only 'filter' argument is passed to the underlying
     unpacking function.  For zip files, 'filter' is not accepted.  For
     tar files, it is recommended to set it to ‘'data'’, unless using
     features specific to tar and UNIX-like filesystems.  (See *note
     Extraction filters: 458. for details.)  The ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default for tar files in Python 3.14.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘shutil.unpack_archive’ with
     arguments ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’.

          Avertissement: Never extract archives from untrusted sources
          without prior inspection.  It is possible that files are
          created outside of the path specified in the 'extract_dir'
          argument, e.g.  members that have absolute filenames starting
          with "/" or filenames with two dots "..".

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Accepts a *note path-like object: 29d.
     for 'filename' and 'extract_dir'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'filter' argument.

 -- Fonction: shutil.register_unpack_format (name, extensions,
          function[, extra_args[, description]])

     Registers an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format and
     'extensions' is a list of extensions corresponding to the format,
     like ‘.zip’ for Zip files.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive:

        - the path of the archive, as a positional argument;

        - the directory the archive must be extracted to, as a
          positional argument;

        - possibly a 'filter' keyword argument, if it was given to *note
          unpack_archive(): 457.;

        - additional keyword arguments, specified by 'extra_args' as a
          sequence of ‘(name, value)’ tuples.

     'description' can be provided to describe the format, and will be
     returned by the *note get_unpack_formats(): 282c. function.

 -- Fonction: shutil.unregister_unpack_format (name)

     Unregister an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format.

 -- Fonction: shutil.get_unpack_formats ()

     Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking.  Each
     element of the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, extensions,
     description)’.

     By default *note shutil: c4. provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the
          corresponding module is available).

        - 'tar': uncompressed tar file.

        - 'gztar': gzip'ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 132. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2'ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 13. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz'ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 89. module is
          available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_unpack_format(): 282b.

* Menu:

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example,  Next: Archiving example with base_dir,  Up: Archiving operations

5.11.9.6 Archiving example
..........................

In this example, we create a gzip'ed tar-file archive containing all
files found in the ‘.ssh’ directory of the user:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
     >>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'

The resulting archive contains:

     $ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
     drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
     -rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
     -rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example with base_dir,  Prev: Archiving example,  Up: Archiving operations

5.11.9.7 Archiving example with 'base_dir'
..........................................

In this example, similar to the *note one above: 282f, we show how to
use *note make_archive(): 49f, but this time with the usage of
'base_dir'.  We now have the following directory structure:

     $ tree tmp
     tmp
     └── root
         └── structure
             ├── content
                 └── please_add.txt
             └── do_not_add.txt

In the final archive, ‘please_add.txt’ should be included, but
‘do_not_add.txt’ should not.  Therefore we use the following:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> make_archive(
     ...     archive_name,
     ...     'tar',
     ...     root_dir='tmp/root',
     ...     base_dir='structure/content',
     ... )
     '/Users/tarek/my_archive.tar'

Listing the files in the resulting archive gives us:

     $ python -m tarfile -l /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar
     structure/content/
     structure/content/please_add.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil --- High-level file operations

5.11.9.8 Querying the size of the output terminal
.................................................

 -- Fonction: shutil.get_terminal_size (fallback=(columns, lines))

     Get the size of the terminal window.

     For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, ‘COLUMNS’
     and ‘LINES’ respectively, is checked.  If the variable is defined
     and the value is a positive integer, it is used.

     When ‘COLUMNS’ or ‘LINES’ is not defined, which is the common case,
     the terminal connected to *note sys.__stdout__: 2832. is queried by
     invoking *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10e4.

     If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because
     the system doesn't support querying, or because we are not
     connected to a terminal, the value given in ‘fallback’ parameter is
     used.  ‘fallback’ defaults to ‘(80, 24)’ which is the default size
     used by many terminal emulators.

     The value returned is a named tuple of type *note os.terminal_size:
     2833.

     See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, Other
     Environment Variables(1).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘fallback’ values are also used
     if *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10e4. returns zeroes.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note os: a0.

     Interfaces du système d'exploitation, incluant des fonctions pour
     travailler avec des fichiers dans un niveau plus bas que les *note
     objets fichiers: 11a2. de Python.

Module *note io: 7e.

     Bibliothèque d'entrées/sorties native de Python, incluant des
     classes abstraites et concrètes tel que les I/O sur les fichiers.

Fonction native *note open(): 508.

     Le moyen classique pour ouvrir des fichiers pour les lire ou y
     écrire avec Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003


File: python.info,  Node: Persistance des données,  Next: Compression de donnée et archivage,  Prev: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.12 Persistance des données
============================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre permettent de stocker des données
Python de manière persistante typiquement sur disque.  Les modules *note
pickle: a5. et *note marshal: 8c. peuvent transformer n'importe quel
type Python en une séquence d'octets, puis recréer les objets depuis ces
octets.  Les différents modules du paquet 'dbm' gèrent une catégorie de
formats de fichier basée sur des hach, stockant des correspondances
entre chaînes de caractères.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* pickle: pickle --- Python object serialization. Python object serialization
* copyreg: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions. Register pickle support functions
* shelve: shelve --- Python object persistence. Python object persistence
* marshal: marshal --- Internal Python object serialization. Internal Python object serialization
* dbm: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases". Interfaces to Unix "databases"
* sqlite3: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases. DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases


File: python.info,  Node: pickle --- Python object serialization,  Next: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions,  Up: Persistance des données

5.12.1 ‘pickle’ -- Python object serialization
----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pickle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note pickle: a5. implémente des protocoles binaires de
sérialisation et dé-sérialisation d'objets Python.  La sérialisation est
le procédé par lequel une hiérarchie d'objets Python est convertie en
flux d'octets.  La désérialisation est l'opération inverse, par laquelle
un flux d'octets (à partir d'un *note binary file: 1c45. ou *note
bytes-like object: d1d.) est converti en hiérarchie d'objets.
Sérialisation (et 'désérialisation') sont aussi connus sous les termes
de 'pickling', de "'marshalling'" (2) ou encore de "'flattening'".

     Avertissement: Le module ‘pickle’ 'n'est pas sécurisé'.  Ne
     désérialisez des objets qu'à partir de sources fiables.

     Il est possible de produire des données binaires qui 'exécutent du
     code arbitraire lors de leur désérialisation'.  Ne désérialisez
     jamais des données provenant d'une source non fiable, ou qui
     pourraient avoir été modifiées.

     Pensez au module *note hmac: 69. pour signer des données afin de
     s'assurer qu'elles n'ont pas été modifiées.

     Des formats de sérialisation plus sûrs, comme *note json: 81,
     peuvent se révéler plus adaptés si vous travaillez sur des données
     qui ne sont pas fiables.  Voir *note Comparaison avec json: 2839.

* Menu:

* Relations aux autres modules Python::
* Format du flux de données::
* Interface du module::
* Quels objets sont sérialisables ?::
* Sérialisation des instances d'une classe::
* Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets: Réduction personnalisée pour les types fonctions et autres objets.
* Tampons hors-bande::
* Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global::
* Performances: Performances<2>.
* Exemples: Exemples<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pickle.py

   (2) À ne pas confondre avec ce que fait le module *note marshal: 8c.


File: python.info,  Node: Relations aux autres modules Python,  Next: Format du flux de données,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.1 Relations aux autres modules Python
............................................

* Menu:

* Comparaison avec marshal::
* Comparaison avec json::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison avec marshal,  Next: Comparaison avec json,  Up: Relations aux autres modules Python

5.12.1.2 Comparaison avec ‘marshal’
...................................

Python possède un module de bas niveau en sérialisation appelé *note
marshal: 8c, mais en général il est préférable d'utiliser *note pickle:
a5. pour sérialiser des objets Python.  *note marshal: 8c. existe
principalement pour gérer les fichiers Python en ‘.pyc’.

Le module *note pickle: a5. diffère du module *note marshal: 8c. sur
plusieurs aspects :

   * Le module *note pickle: a5. garde la trace des objets qu'il a déjà
     sérialisés, pour faire en sorte que les prochaines références à cet
     objet ne soient pas sérialisées à nouveau.  *note marshal: 8c. ne
     le fait pas.

     Ça a des implications sur les objets partagés et les objets
     récursifs.  Les objets récursifs sont des objets qui contiennent
     des références à eux-mêmes.  Ceux-ci ne sont pas gérées par
     marshal : lui donner un objet récursif va le faire planter.  Un
     objet est partagé lorsque que plusieurs références pointent dessus,
     depuis différents endroits dans la hiérarchie sérialisée.  Le
     module *note pickle: a5. repère ces partages et ne stocke ces
     objets qu'une seule fois.  Les objets partagés restent ainsi
     partagés, ce qui peut être très important pour les objets mutables.

   * *note marshal: 8c. ne peut être utilisé pour la sérialisation et
     l'instanciation de classes définies par les utilisateurs.  *note
     pickle: a5. peut sauvegarder et restaurer les instances de classes
     de manière transparente.  Cependant la définition de classe doit
     être importable et lancée dans le même module et de la même manière
     que lors de son importation.

   * Aucune garantie n'est offerte sur la portabilité du format *note
     marshal: 8c. entre différentes versions de Python.  Sa fonction
     première étant la gestion des fichiers ‘.pyc’, les développeurs se
     réservent le droit de changer le format de sérialisation de manière
     non-rétrocompatible si besoin était.  Il est garanti que le format
     *note pickle: a5. restera compatible avec les versions futures de
     Python, pourvu que vous choisissiez un protocole de sérialisation
     adapté.  De plus, il masque les différences entre les types Python
     2 et Python 3, pour le cas où il s'agit de désérialiser en Python 3
     des données sérialisées en Python 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison avec json,  Prev: Comparaison avec marshal,  Up: Relations aux autres modules Python

5.12.1.3 Comparaison avec ‘json’
................................

There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)(1):

   * 'pickle' est un format binaire, tandis que JSON est un format
     textuel (constitué de caractères Unicode et généralement encodé en
     UTF-8) ;

   * JSON peut être lu par une personne, contrairement à 'pickle' ;

   * JSON offre l'interopérabilité avec de nombreux outils en dehors de
     l'écosystème Python, alors que 'pickle' est propre à Python ;

   * Par défaut, JSON n'est capable de sérialiser qu'un nombre limité de
     types natifs Python, et ne prend pas en charge les classes définies
     par l'utilisateur.  Le format 'pickle' peut représenter une
     multitude de types d'objets, dont beaucoup automatiquement, grâce à
     une utilisation fine des possibilités d'introspection de Python ;
     on peut traiter les cas les plus complexes en implémentant des
     *note méthodes de sérialisation propres à une classe: 283d. ;

   * Contrairement à 'pickle', la désérialisation de données JSON
     n'ouvre pas en soi une vulnérabilité à l'exécution de code
     arbitraire.

Voir aussi
..........

Le module *note json: 81. de la bibliothèque standard permet la
sérialisation et désérialisation au format JSON.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Format du flux de données,  Next: Interface du module,  Prev: Relations aux autres modules Python,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.4 Format du flux de données
..................................

The data format used by *note pickle: a5. is Python-specific.  This has
the advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external
standards such as JSON (which can't represent pointer sharing); however
it means that non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct pickled
Python objects.

Le format binaire *note pickle: a5. est, par défaut, une représentation
assez compacte des objets.  Il est possible de *note compresser: 283f.
efficacement les données sérialisées.

Le module *note pickletools: a6. contient des outils servant à analyser
les flux de données générés par *note pickle: a5.  Le code source de
*note pickletools: a6. contient des commentaires détaillés sur les
'opcodes' employés par les protocoles 'pickle'.

Il existe actuellement 6 protocoles différents pour la sérialisation.
Les protocoles portant les numéros les plus grands sont les derniers
ajoutés, et nécessitent en conséquence des versions de Python plus
récentes.

   * Le protocole 0 est le format originel, humainement lisible.  Il est
     rétrocompatible avec les versions les plus anciennes de Python.

   * Le protocole 1 est un ancien format binaire, aussi compatible avec
     les versions anciennes.

   * Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3.  It provides much
     more efficient pickling of *note new-style classes: 2840.  Refer to
     PEP 307(1) for information about improvements brought by protocol
     2.

   * Le protocole 3 a été introduit en Python 3.0.  Il gère les objets
     *note bytes: 1bd, et ne permet pas la désérialisation par Python
     2.x.  Il fut le protocole par défaut de Python 3.0 à Python 3.7.

   * Le protocole 4 est apparu en Python 3.4.  Il prend en charge les
     objets de très grande taille ainsi que la sérialisation d'une plus
     grande variété d'objets, et optimise le format.  Il est le
     protocole par défaut depuis Python 3.8.  Voir la PEP 3154(2) pour
     plus d'informations sur les améliorations apportées par le
     protocole 4.

   * Le protocole 5 a été ajouté en Python 3.8 afin de permettre le
     transfert des données en marge de la sérialisation elle-même.  Il a
     également accéléré les opérations sur les données à sérialiser.
     Reportez-vous à la PEP 574(3) pour les détails relatifs aux
     améliorations apportées par le protocole 5.

     Note: La sérialisation est un problème plus simple que la
     persistance des données en général.  Le module *note pickle: a5.
     lit et écrit des objets fichiers-compatibles, mais ne s'occupe pas
     du problème de donner un nom à des objets persistants, ni de gérer
     l'accès par différents processus en parallèle à ces objets.  *note
     pickle: a5. se contente de transformer des objets complexes en flux
     d'octets, et lire ces flux d'octets par la suite pour reconstruire
     des objets avec la même structure.  Si l'on peut bien sûr écrire
     les flux d'octets dans un fichier, rien n'empêche de les transférer
     à travers un réseau, ou bien de les stocker dans une base de
     données.  Voir le module *note shelve: c2. pour une interface
     simple qui sérialise et désérialise les objets dans des bases de
     données de style DBM.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Interface du module,  Next: Quels objets sont sérialisables ?,  Prev: Format du flux de données,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.5 Interface du module
............................

Pour sérialiser un objet, contenant éventuellement d'autres objets,
appelez tout simplement la fonction *note dumps(): 1458.  La fonction
*note loads(): d01, quant à elle, désérialise un flux de données.  Pour
un contrôle plus fin des opérations de sérialisation ou désérialisation,
créez un objet *note Pickler: a0e. ou *note Unpickler: 1662.

Le module *note pickle: a5. définit les constantes suivantes :

 -- Données: pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL

     Entier qui donne la version du *note protocole: cb1. le plus récent
     qui soit disponible.  Ce nombre peut être passé comme paramètre
     'protocol' aux fonctions *note dump(): 2842. et *note dumps():
     1458. ainsi qu'au constructeur de la classe *note Pickler: a0e.

 -- Données: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL

     Entier qui donne la version du *note protocole: cb1. employé par
     défaut pour la sérialisation.  Il peut être moindre que *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1459.  La valeur actuelle est 4, sachant que le
     protocole correspondant a été introduit en Python 3.4 et n'est pas
     compatible avec les versions antérieures.

     Modifié dans la version 3.0: Le protocole par défaut est devenu le
     protocole 3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le protocole par défaut est devenu le
     protocole 4.

Le module *note pickle: a5. contient quelques fonctions pour faciliter
la sérialisation :

 -- Fonction: pickle.dump (obj, file, protocol=None, *,
          fix_imports=True, buffer_callback=None)

     Écrit la représentation sérialisée de l'objet 'obj' dans l'*note
     objet fichier-compatible: 11a2. 'file', qui doit être ouvert.  Ceci
     est l'équivalent de ‘Pickle(file, protocol).dump(obj)’.

     Les arguments 'file', 'protocol', 'fix_imports' et
     'buffer_callback' sont identiques à ceux du constructeur de la
     classe *note Pickler: a0e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de l'argument 'buffer_callback'.

 -- Fonction: pickle.dumps (obj, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Renvoie la représentation sérialisée de 'obj' sous forme de *note
     bytes: 1bd, au lieu de l'écrire dans un fichier.

     Les arguments 'protocol', 'fix_imports' et 'buffer_callback' sont
     identiques à ceux du constructeur de la classe *note Pickler: a0e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de l'argument 'buffer_callback'.

 -- Fonction: pickle.load (file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Charge la représentation sérialisée d'un objet depuis l'*note objet
     fichier-compatible: 11a2. ouvert 'file', et renvoie l'objet
     reconstitué obtenu.  Ceci est l'équivalent de
     ‘Unpickler(file).load()’.

     La version du protocole utilisée pour la sérialisation est détectée
     automatiquement, d'où l'absence d'un argument.  Les octets situés
     après la représentation sérialisée de l'objet sont ignorés.

     Les arguments 'file', 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict'
     et 'buffers' sont identiques à ceux du constructeur de la classe
     *note Unpickler: 1662.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'argument 'buffers'.

 -- Fonction: pickle.loads (data, /, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Renvoie l'objet reconstitué à partir de la représentation
     sérialisée 'data', qui doit être fournie sous la forme d'un *note
     bytes-like object: d1d.

     La version du protocole utilisée pour la sérialisation est détectée
     automatiquement, d'où l'absence d'un argument.  Les octets situés
     après la représentation sérialisée de l'objet sont ignorés.

     Arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 1662.
     constructor.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'argument 'buffers'.

Le module *note pickle: a5. définit trois types d'exceptions :

 -- Exception: pickle.PickleError

     Common base class for the other pickling exceptions.  It inherits
     from *note Exception: 9c9.

 -- Exception: pickle.PicklingError

     Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by *note
     Pickler: a0e.  It inherits from *note PickleError: 2843.

     Lisez *note Quels objets sont sérialisables ?: 2845. pour en savoir
     plus sur les types d'objets qui peuvent être sérialisés.

 -- Exception: pickle.UnpicklingError

     Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as
     a data corruption or a security violation.  It inherits from *note
     PickleError: 2843.

     Veuillez noter que d'autres exceptions peuvent être levées durant
     la désérialisation, comme ‘AttributeError’, ‘EOFError’,
     ‘ImportError’ et ‘IndexError’ (liste non-exhaustive).

Le module *note pickle: a5. exporte trois classes : *note Pickler: a0e,
*note Unpickler: 1662. et *note PickleBuffer: 17b4. :

 -- Classe: pickle.Pickler (file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Classe d'objets qui implémentent la sérialisation vers un flux
     binaire.

     L'argument optionnel 'protocol' détermine la version du protocole
     de sérialisation à employer, entre 0 et *note HIGHEST_PROTOCOL:
     1459.  La valeur par défaut est celle de *note DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     81a.  Avec un nombre strictement négatif, c'est *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1459. qui est utilisé.

     L'argument 'file' peut être un fichier sur disque ouvert en mode
     binaire pour l'écriture, une instance de la classe *note
     io.BytesIO: e8f, ou plus généralement un objet quelconque qui
     possède une méthode ‘write()’ acceptant d'être appelée sur un
     argument unique de type ‘bytes’.

     Si 'fix_imports' est vrai et 'protocol' est inférieur ou égal à 2,
     les noms des modules sont reliés par 'pickle' aux anciens noms qui
     avaient cours en Python 2, afin que le flux sérialisé soit lisible
     aussi bien par Python 2 que Python 3.

     If 'buffer_callback' is ‘None’ (the default), buffer views are
     serialized into 'file' as part of the pickle stream.

     If 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’, then it can be called any
     number of times with a buffer view.  If the callback returns a
     false value (such as ‘None’), the given buffer is *note
     out-of-band: 2847.; otherwise the buffer is serialized in-band,
     i.e.  inside the pickle stream.

     It is an error if 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’ and 'protocol' is
     ‘None’ or smaller than 5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de l'argument 'buffer_callback'.

      -- Méthode: dump (obj)

          Écrit la représentation sérialisée de l'objet 'obj' dans le
          fichier ouvert passé au constructeur.

      -- Méthode: persistent_id (obj)

          Ne fait rien par défaut.  Cette méthode est destinée à être
          implémentée par une classe fille.

          Si *note persistent_id(): 155a. renvoie ‘None’, 'obj' est
          sérialisé normalement.  Toute autre valeur est reprise par le
          *note Pickler: a0e. comme ID persistant pour 'obj'.  Le sens
          de cet ID persistant doit être défini par *note
          Unpickler.persistent_load(): 1562.  Veuillez noter que la
          valeur renvoyée par *note persistent_id(): 155a. ne peut pas
          porter elle-même d'ID persistant.

          La section *note Persistance d'objets externes: 2848. donne
          des détails et exemples.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add the default implementation
          of this method in the C implementation of ‘Pickler’.

      -- Attribut: dispatch_table

          A pickler object's dispatch table is a registry of 'reduction
          functions' of the kind which can be declared using *note
          copyreg.pickle(): 2849.  It is a mapping whose keys are
          classes and whose values are reduction functions.  A reduction
          function takes a single argument of the associated class and
          should conform to the same interface as a *note __reduce__():
          9c3. method.

          Lorsqu'un sérialiseur ne possède pas l'attribut *note
          dispatch_table: 1104, comme c'est le cas par défaut, il
          utilise le tableau global du module *note copyreg: 26.  Afin
          de personnaliser l'opération de sérialisation pour un
          sérialiseur particulier, on peut affecter à son attribut *note
          dispatch_table: 1104. un objet compatible avec les
          dictionnaires.  Une autre possibilité est de définir
          l'attribut *note dispatch_table: 1104. dans une classe fille
          de *note Pickler: a0e.  Sa valeur sera alors utilisée pour
          toutes les instances de cette classe fille.

          Voir *note Tables de distribution: 284a. pour des exemples
          d'utilisation.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: reducer_override (obj)

          Special reducer that can be defined in *note Pickler: a0e.
          subclasses.  This method has priority over any reducer in the
          *note dispatch_table: 1104.  It should conform to the same
          interface as a *note __reduce__(): 9c3. method, and can
          optionally return *note NotImplemented: 7be. to fallback on
          *note dispatch_table: 1104.-registered reducers to pickle
          ‘obj’.

          Voir *note Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions
          et autres objets: 284b. pour un exemple détaillé.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Attribut: fast

          Cet attribut est obsolète.  Une valeur vraie (« mode rapide »)
          désactive la mémorisation des objets au fur et à mesure de
          leur sérialisation, qui permet habituellement de représenter
          les doublons par une unique référence.  Cette option accélère
          la sérialisation en évitant des 'opcodes' PUT superflus.  Elle
          ne doit pas être utilisée sur un objet contenant une référence
          à lui-même, car le *note Pickler: a0e. entre alors dans une
          récursion infinie.

          Utilisez plutôt *note pickletools.optimize(): 284d. pour
          obtenir des données sérialisées plus compactes.

 -- Classe: pickle.Unpickler (file, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Les objets de cette classe sont des désérialiseurs, qui lisent un
     flux de données pour le convertir en objet.

     Il n'y a nul besoin d'argument 'protocol'.  La version du protocole
     avec lequel sont encodées les données est déterminée
     automatiquement.

     L'argument 'file' doit posséder trois méthodes qui proviennent de
     l'interface de *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681.  Ce sont : ‘read()’,
     prenant un entier, ‘readinto()’, prenant un tampon, et
     ‘readline()’, sans arguments.  'file' peut donc être aussi bien un
     fichier sur disque ouvert en mode lecture binaire qu'un objet *note
     io.BytesIO: e8f, ou un objet quelconque vérifiant ces critères.

     Les paramètres facultatifs 'fix_imports', 'encoding' et 'errors'
     sont dédiés à la compatibilité de la désérialisation avec les flux
     binaires générés par Python 2.  Si 'fix_imports' est vrai, 'pickle'
     tente de modifier les anciens noms des modules que l'on trouve en
     Python 2, pour les remplacer par ceux en usage en Python 3.  Les
     paramètres 'encoding' et 'errors' contrôlent la façon de décoder
     les chaînes de caractères 8 bits.  Leurs valeurs par défaut
     respectives sont ‘'ASCII'’ et ‘'strict'’.  'encoding' peut être mis
     à ‘'bytes'’ pour lire des chaînes d'octets en tant que 'bytes'.  Il
     doit être mis à ‘'latin1'’ pour désérialiser des tableaux NumPy ou
     des instances de *note datetime: 1c7, *note date: 1c8. et *note
     time: 1c9. sérialisées par Python 2.

     If 'buffers' is ‘None’ (the default), then all data necessary for
     deserialization must be contained in the pickle stream.  This means
     that the 'buffer_callback' argument was ‘None’ when a *note
     Pickler: a0e. was instantiated (or when *note dump(): 2842. or
     *note dumps(): 1458. was called).

     If 'buffers' is not ‘None’, it should be an iterable of
     buffer-enabled objects that is consumed each time the pickle stream
     references an *note out-of-band: 2847. buffer view.  Such buffers
     have been given in order to the 'buffer_callback' of a Pickler
     object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'argument 'buffers'.

      -- Méthode: load ()

          Lit la représentation sérialisée d'un objet depuis le fichier
          ouvert passé au constructeur, et reconstitue l'objet qui y est
          stocké, avec tous les objets qu'il contient.  Les octets
          situés au-delà de la fin de la représentation binaire sont
          ignorés.

      -- Méthode: persistent_load (pid)

          Par défaut, cette méthode lève une exception *note
          UnpicklingError: 2846.

          Si elle est définie autrement dans une sous-classe, *note
          persistent_load(): 1562. doit renvoyer l'objet correspondant à
          l'ID persistant 'pid'.  Si celui-ci est invalide, elle doit
          lever une exception *note UnpicklingError: 2846.

          La section *note Persistance d'objets externes: 2848. donne
          des détails et exemples.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add the default implementation
          of this method in the C implementation of ‘Unpickler’.

      -- Méthode: find_class (module, name)

          Importe 'module' si besoin, et renvoie l'objet du nom 'name'
          qu'il contient.  'module' et 'name' sont des chaînes de
          caractères (classe *note str: 437.).  Contrairement à ce que
          son nom laisse penser, *note find_class(): 284f. est également
          appelée pour trouver les fonctions.

          Les classes filles peuvent redéfinir cette méthode pour
          restreindre la désérialisation à certains types d'objets ou à
          d'autres conditions, notamment en vue de réduire les risques
          de sécurité.  Voir *note Restriction des noms dans l'espace de
          nommage global: 2850. pour plus de détails.

          Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘pickle.find_class’
          avec les arguments ‘module’ et ‘name’.

 -- Classe: pickle.PickleBuffer (buffer)

     Encapsule un objet tampon contenant des données sérialisables.
     'buffer' doit être un objet prenant en charge le *note protocole
     tampon: 38e, comme un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou un
     tableau n-dimensionnel.

     Les objets *note PickleBuffer: 17b4. savent gérer le protocole
     tampon.  Il est donc possible de les passer à d'autres API qui
     attendent un tampon, comme *note memoryview: 454.

     Les objets *note PickleBuffer: 17b4. ne peuvent être sérialisés
     qu'avec le protocole 5 ou supérieur.  Ils sont susceptibles d'être
     sérialisés *note hors-bande: 2847.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: raw ()

          Renvoie une *note memoryview: 454. de l'espace mémoire
          sous-jacent à ce tampon.  La 'memoryview' renvoyée est
          unidimensionnelle et C-contiguë.  Elle a le format ‘B’ (octets
          sans signe).  *note BufferError: 17e1. est levée si le tampon
          n'est ni C-contigu, ni Fortran-contigu.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Release the underlying buffer exposed by the PickleBuffer
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: Quels objets sont sérialisables ?,  Next: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe,  Prev: Interface du module,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.6 Quels objets sont sérialisables ?
..........................................

Les objets des types suivants peuvent être sérialisés :

   * built-in constants (‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’, ‘Ellipsis’, and *note
     NotImplemented: 7be.);

   * integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers;

   * strings, bytes, bytearrays;

   * tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable
     objects;

   * functions (built-in and user-defined) accessible from the top level
     of a module (using *note def: 1410, not *note lambda: 127c.);

   * classes accessible from the top level of a module;

   * instances of such classes whose the result of calling *note
     __getstate__(): 5c4. is picklable (see section *note Sérialisation
     des instances d'une classe: 283d. for details).

Si vous essayez de sérialiser un objet qui ne peut pas l'être, une
exception de type *note PicklingError: 2844. est levée.  Lorsque cela se
produit, il est possible qu'un certain nombre d'octets aient déjà été
écrits dans le fichier ou flux.  La sérialisation d'une structure de
donnée avec de nombreux niveaux d'imbrication peut lever une exception
*note RecursionError: d5b.  Pour augmenter la limite (avec précaution),
voir *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4af.

Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by fully
*note qualified name: 18fe, not by value.  (1)  This means that only the
function name is pickled, along with the name of the containing module
and classes.  Neither the function's code, nor any of its function
attributes are pickled.  Thus the defining module must be importable in
the unpickling environment, and the module must contain the named
object, otherwise an exception will be raised.  (2)

Similarly, classes are pickled by fully qualified name, so the same
restrictions in the unpickling environment apply.  Note that none of the
class's code or data is pickled, so in the following example the class
attribute ‘attr’ is not restored in the unpickling environment:

     class Foo:
         attr = 'A class attribute'

     picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)

These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be
defined at the top level of a module.

Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class's code and data
are not pickled along with them.  Only the instance data are pickled.
This is done on purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods
to the class and still load objects that were created with an earlier
version of the class.  If you plan to have long-lived objects that will
see many versions of a class, it may be worthwhile to put a version
number in the objects so that suitable conversions can be made by the
class's *note __setstate__(): 145a. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) C'est la raison pour laquelle les fonctions *note lambda: 127c.
ne peuvent pas être sérialisées : elles partagent toutes le même nom, à
savoir ‘<lambda>’.

   (2) L'exception levée est généralement de type *note ImportError:
40f. ou *note AttributeError: 343, mais ce n'est pas systématique.


File: python.info,  Node: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe,  Next: Réduction personnalisée pour les types fonctions et autres objets,  Prev: Quels objets sont sérialisables ?,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.7 Sérialisation des instances d'une classe
.................................................

Dans cette section sont décrits les mécanismes généraux qui s'offrent à
vous pour définir, personnaliser et contrôler la manière dont les
instances d'une classe sont sérialisées et désérialisées.

In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable.
By default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an
instance via introspection.  When a class instance is unpickled, its
*note __init__(): 69d. method is usually 'not' invoked.  The default
behaviour first creates an uninitialized instance and then restores the
saved attributes.  The following code shows an implementation of this
behaviour:

     def save(obj):
         return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)

     def restore(cls, attributes):
         obj = cls.__new__(cls)
         obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
         return obj

Les classes peuvent personnaliser le comportement par défaut en
définissant des méthodes spéciales :

 -- Méthode: object.__getnewargs_ex__ ()

     Dans les protocoles 2 et suivants, les classes peuvent
     personnaliser les valeurs passées à la méthode *note __new__():
     56e. lors de la désérialisation.  Elles le font en définissant une
     méthode *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2855. qui renvoie un couple
     ‘(args, kwargs)’, où 'args' est un 'n'-uplet des arguments
     positionnels et 'kwargs' un dictionnaire des arguments nommés qui
     seront passés à *note __new__(): 56e. — autrement dit, l'appel sera
     ‘classe.__new__(*args, **kwargs)’.

     Définissez cette méthode seulement si la méthode *note __new__():
     56e. de votre classe demande des arguments nommés.  Dans le cas
     contraire, mieux vaut définir *note __getnewargs__(): 145b. pour
     préserver la compatibilité avec les protocoles anciens.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2855. est
     désormais appelée dans les protocoles 2 et 3.

 -- Méthode: object.__getnewargs__ ()

     Comme *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2855, mais ne permet que les
     arguments positionnels.  Cette méthode doit renvoyer le 'n'-uplet
     ‘args’ des arguments passés à *note __new__(): 56e. lors de la
     désérialisation : l'appel sera ‘classe.__new__(*args)’.

     Si *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2855. est définie, elle prend la
     priorité et *note __getnewargs__(): 145b. n'est jamais appelée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Auparavant, *note __getnewargs__():
     145b. était appelée au lieu de *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2855.
     dans les protocoles 2 et 3.

 -- Méthode: object.__getstate__ ()

     Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled by
     overriding the method *note __getstate__(): 5c4.  It is called and
     the returned object is pickled as the contents for the instance,
     instead of a default state.  There are several cases:

        * For a class that has no instance *note __dict__: 549. and no
          *note __slots__: 14a2, the default state is ‘None’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 549. and no
          *note __slots__: 14a2, the default state is ‘self.__dict__’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 549. and
          *note __slots__: 14a2, the default state is a tuple consisting
          of two dictionaries: ‘self.__dict__’, and a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values.  Only slots that have a value are
          included in the latter.

        * For a class that has *note __slots__: 14a2. and no instance
          *note __dict__: 549, the default state is a tuple whose first
          item is ‘None’ and whose second item is a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values described in the previous bullet.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the default implementation of
     the ‘__getstate__()’ method in the *note object: a7c. class.

 -- Méthode: object.__setstate__ (state)

     Lors de la désérialisation, l'état de l'instance est passé à la
     méthode *note __setstate__(): 145a, si elle est définie (l'objet
     'state' n'a pas besoin d'être un dictionnaire).  Si elle ne l'est
     pas, les attributs de l'objet sont tirés de l'état, qui dans ce cas
     doit être obligatoirement un dictionnaire.

          Note: If *note __reduce__(): 9c3. returns a state with value
          ‘None’ at pickling, the *note __setstate__(): 145a. method
          will not be called upon unpickling.

Refer to the section *note Traitement des objets à état: 2856. for more
information about how to use the methods *note __getstate__(): 5c4. and
*note __setstate__(): 145a.

     Note: At unpickling time, some methods like *note __getattr__():
     4bf, *note __getattribute__(): bc2, or *note __setattr__(): 1ee9.
     may be called upon the instance.  In case those methods rely on
     some internal invariant being true, the type should implement *note
     __new__(): 56e. to establish such an invariant, as *note
     __init__(): 69d. is not called when unpickling an instance.

As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described
above.  In fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which
implements the *note __reduce__(): 9c3. special method.  The copy
protocol provides a unified interface for retrieving the data necessary
for pickling and copying objects.  (1)

Although powerful, implementing *note __reduce__(): 9c3. directly in
your classes is error prone.  For this reason, class designers should
use the high-level interface (i.e., *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2855,
*note __getstate__(): 5c4. and *note __setstate__(): 145a.) whenever
possible.  We will show, however, cases where using ‘__reduce__()’ is
the only option or leads to more efficient pickling or both.

 -- Méthode: object.__reduce__ ()

     Voici l'interface de la méthode *note __reduce__(): 9c3.  Elle ne
     prend aucun argument et renvoie soit une chaîne de caractères, soit
     (c'est conseillé) un 'n'-uplet.  On appelle souvent l'objet renvoyé
     « valeur de réduction ».

     If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the
     name of a global variable.  It should be the object's local name
     relative to its module; the pickle module searches the module
     namespace to determine the object's module.  This behaviour is
     typically useful for singletons.

     Si c'est un 'n'-uplet qui est renvoyé, ses éléments sont
     interprétés dans l'ordre comme suit.  Les deux premiers éléments
     sont obligatoires, les quatre suivants sont facultatifs et peuvent
     être simplement omis, ou bien mis à ‘None’.  Les éléments sont,
     dans l'ordre :

        * Un objet appelable qui sera appelé pour créer l'objet initial.

        * Un 'n'-uplet d'arguments passés à cet objet appelable.  Donnez
          un 'n'-uplet vide si l'objet appelable n'accepte pas
          d'arguments.

        * L'état de l'objet, qui sera passé à la méthode *note
          __setstate__(): 145a. comme vu précédemment.  Si la méthode
          n'existe pas, cet élément doit être un dictionnaire, et ses
          éléments compléteront l'attribut *note __dict__: 549.

        * Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding
          successive items.  These items will be appended to the object
          either using ‘obj.append(item)’ or, in batch, using
          ‘obj.extend(list_of_items)’.  This is primarily used for list
          subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they
          have *note append and extend methods: 2166. with the
          appropriate signature.  (Whether ‘append()’ or ‘extend()’ is
          used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well
          as the number of items to append, so both must be supported.)

        * Un itérateur (non pas une séquence).  Les éléments qu'il
          fournit doivent être des couples ‘(clé, valeur)’.  Ils sont
          ajoutés dans l'objet par affectation aux clés : ‘objet[clé] =
          valeur’.  Ceci est principalement utile aux classes héritant
          de ‘dict’, mais peut servir à d'autres classes à la seule
          condition qu'elles implémentent la méthode *note
          __setitem__(): 12ab.

        * Un objet appelable qui puisse recevoir en arguments l'objet et
          son état.  Ceci permet de redéfinir le processus de
          reconstruction des attributs pour un objet en particulier,
          outrepassant la méthode *note __setstate__(): 145a.  Si cet
          objet appelable est fourni, *note __setstate__(): 145a. n'est
          pas appelée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8: ajout du sixième élément.

 -- Méthode: object.__reduce_ex__ (protocol)

     Il est également possible de définir une méthode *note
     __reduce_ex__(): 1574.  La seule différence est qu'elle prend la
     version du protocole en argument.  Si elle est définie, elle prend
     le pas sur *note __reduce__(): 9c3.  De plus, *note __reduce__():
     9c3. devient automatiquement un alias pour sa version étendue.
     Cette méthode est principalement destinée à renvoyer des valeurs de
     réduction compatibles avec les versions anciennes de Python.

* Menu:

* Persistance d'objets externes::
* Tables de distribution::
* Traitement des objets à état::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Le module *note copy: 25. fait appel à ce protocole pour les
opérations de copie superficielle comme récursive.


File: python.info,  Node: Persistance d'objets externes,  Next: Tables de distribution,  Up: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

5.12.1.8 Persistance d'objets externes
......................................

Pour les besoins de la persistance, *note pickle: a5. permet des
références à des objets en dehors du flux sérialisé.  Ils sont
identifiés par un ID persistant.  Le protocole 0 requiert que cet ID
soit une chaîne de caractères alphanumériques (1).  Les suivants
autorisent un objet quelconque.

*note pickle: a5. délègue la résolution des ID à des méthodes définies
par l'utilisateur sur les objets sérialiseurs et désérialiseurs, à
savoir *note persistent_id(): 155a. et *note persistent_load(): 1562.

Pour affecter à des objets leurs ID persistants provenant d'une source
externe, le sérialiseur doit posséder une méthode *note persistent_id():
155a. qui prend un objet et renvoie soit ‘None’, soit son ID. Si cette
méthode renvoie ‘None’, l'objet est sérialisé de la manière habituelle.
Si un ID est renvoyé, sous forme de chaîne de caractères, c'est cette
chaîne qui est sérialisée et elle est marquée de manière spéciale pour
être reconnue comme un ID persistant.

Pour désérialiser des objets identifiés par un ID externe, un
désérialiseur doit posséder une méthode *note persistent_load(): 1562.
qui prend un ID et renvoie l'objet qu'il désigne.

Voici un exemple complet qui montre comment sérialiser des objets
externes en leur affectant des ID persistants.

     # Simple example presenting how persistent ID can be used to pickle
     # external objects by reference.

     import pickle
     import sqlite3
     from collections import namedtuple

     # Simple class representing a record in our database.
     MemoRecord = namedtuple("MemoRecord", "key, task")

     class DBPickler(pickle.Pickler):

         def persistent_id(self, obj):
             # Instead of pickling MemoRecord as a regular class instance, we emit a
             # persistent ID.
             if isinstance(obj, MemoRecord):
                 # Here, our persistent ID is simply a tuple, containing a tag and a
                 # key, which refers to a specific record in the database.
                 return ("MemoRecord", obj.key)
             else:
                 # If obj does not have a persistent ID, return None. This means obj
                 # needs to be pickled as usual.
                 return None


     class DBUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def __init__(self, file, connection):
             super().__init__(file)
             self.connection = connection

         def persistent_load(self, pid):
             # This method is invoked whenever a persistent ID is encountered.
             # Here, pid is the tuple returned by DBPickler.
             cursor = self.connection.cursor()
             type_tag, key_id = pid
             if type_tag == "MemoRecord":
                 # Fetch the referenced record from the database and return it.
                 cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?", (str(key_id),))
                 key, task = cursor.fetchone()
                 return MemoRecord(key, task)
             else:
                 # Always raises an error if you cannot return the correct object.
                 # Otherwise, the unpickler will think None is the object referenced
                 # by the persistent ID.
                 raise pickle.UnpicklingError("unsupported persistent object")


     def main():
         import io
         import pprint

         # Initialize and populate our database.
         conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
         cursor = conn.cursor()
         cursor.execute("CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)")
         tasks = (
             'give food to fish',
             'prepare group meeting',
             'fight with a zebra',
             )
         for task in tasks:
             cursor.execute("INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)", (task,))

         # Fetch the records to be pickled.
         cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos")
         memos = [MemoRecord(key, task) for key, task in cursor]
         # Save the records using our custom DBPickler.
         file = io.BytesIO()
         DBPickler(file).dump(memos)

         print("Pickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)

         # Update a record, just for good measure.
         cursor.execute("UPDATE memos SET task='learn italian' WHERE key=1")

         # Load the records from the pickle data stream.
         file.seek(0)
         memos = DBUnpickler(file, conn).load()

         print("Unpickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact that
persistent IDs in protocol 0 are delimited by the newline character.
Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in persistent IDs,
the resulting pickled data will become unreadable.


File: python.info,  Node: Tables de distribution,  Next: Traitement des objets à état,  Prev: Persistance d'objets externes,  Up: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

5.12.1.9 Tables de distribution
...............................

Pour personnaliser la sérialisation d'une classe à un endroit
particulier sans affecter le reste du code, on peut créer un sérialiseur
avec une table de distribution spécifique.

The global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 26. module is
available as ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’.  Therefore, one may choose to use
a modified copy of ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’ as a private dispatch table.

Par exemple, le code

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)
     p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
     p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass

crée une instance de la classe *note pickle.Pickler: a0e. avec une table
de distribution propre qui traite la classe ‘SomeClass’ de manière
spécifique.  Le code

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
         dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)

does the same but all instances of ‘MyPickler’ will by default share the
private dispatch table.  On the other hand, the code

     copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)

modifies the global dispatch table shared by all users of the *note
copyreg: 26. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Traitement des objets à état,  Prev: Tables de distribution,  Up: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

5.12.1.10 Traitement des objets à état
......................................

Here's an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a
class.  The ‘TextReader’ class below opens a text file, and returns the
line number and line contents each time its ‘readline()’ method is
called.  If a ‘TextReader’ instance is pickled, all attributes 'except'
the file object member are saved.  When the instance is unpickled, the
file is reopened, and reading resumes from the last location.  The
‘__setstate__()’ and ‘__getstate__()’ methods are used to implement this
behavior.

     class TextReader:
         """Print and number lines in a text file."""

         def __init__(self, filename):
             self.filename = filename
             self.file = open(filename)
             self.lineno = 0

         def readline(self):
             self.lineno += 1
             line = self.file.readline()
             if not line:
                 return None
             if line.endswith('\n'):
                 line = line[:-1]
             return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)

         def __getstate__(self):
             # Copy the object's state from self.__dict__ which contains
             # all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()
             # method to avoid modifying the original state.
             state = self.__dict__.copy()
             # Remove the unpicklable entries.
             del state['file']
             return state

         def __setstate__(self, state):
             # Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).
             self.__dict__.update(state)
             # Restore the previously opened file's state. To do so, we need to
             # reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.
             file = open(self.filename)
             for _ in range(self.lineno):
                 file.readline()
             # Finally, save the file.
             self.file = file

Voici un exemple d'utilisation :

     >>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
     >>> reader.readline()
     '1: Hello world!'
     >>> reader.readline()
     '2: I am line number two.'
     >>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
     >>> new_reader.readline()
     '3: Goodbye!'


File: python.info,  Node: Réduction personnalisée pour les types fonctions et autres objets,  Next: Tampons hors-bande,  Prev: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.11 Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets
............................................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Parfois, la simple utilisation de *note dispatch_table: 1104. n'offre
pas assez de flexibilité.  On peut vouloir changer la méthode de
sérialisation selon d'autres critères que le type de l'objet, ou bien
personnaliser la sérialisation des fonctions et des classes.

For those cases, it is possible to subclass from the *note Pickler: a0e.
class and implement a *note reducer_override(): a0f. method.  This
method can return an arbitrary reduction tuple (see *note __reduce__():
9c3.).  It can alternatively return *note NotImplemented: 7be. to
fallback to the traditional behavior.

Si *note dispatch_table: 1104. et *note reducer_override(): a0f. sont
tous les deux définis, *note reducer_override(): a0f. a la priorité.

     Note: Pour des raisons de performance, la méthode *note
     reducer_override(): a0f. n'est jamais appelée sur ‘None’, ‘True’,
     ‘False’, ainsi que les instances exactes (pas dérivées) de *note
     int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note bytes: 1bd, *note str: 437, *note
     dict: 253, *note set: 5c5, *note frozenset: 5c6, *note list: 5fe.
     et *note tuple: 366.

Voici un exemple simple qui implémente la sérialisation d'une classe :

     import io
     import pickle

     class MyClass:
         my_attribute = 1

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         def reducer_override(self, obj):
             """Custom reducer for MyClass."""
             if getattr(obj, "__name__", None) == "MyClass":
                 return type, (obj.__name__, obj.__bases__,
                               {'my_attribute': obj.my_attribute})
             else:
                 # For any other object, fallback to usual reduction
                 return NotImplemented

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)
     p.dump(MyClass)

     del MyClass

     unpickled_class = pickle.loads(f.getvalue())

     assert isinstance(unpickled_class, type)
     assert unpickled_class.__name__ == "MyClass"
     assert unpickled_class.my_attribute == 1


File: python.info,  Node: Tampons hors-bande,  Next: Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global,  Prev: Réduction personnalisée pour les types fonctions et autres objets,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.12 Tampons hors-bande
............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Le module *note pickle: a5. est parfois utilisé pour transférer des
quantités énormes de données.  Il peut devenir important de réduire les
copies de mémoire au minimum pour préserver la performance et diminuer
l'usage des ressources matérielles.  Cependant, dans son contexte
courant d'utilisation, le module *note pickle: a5. effectue des copies
depuis et vers le flux de données pour les besoins de la conversion de
structures d'objets semblables à des graphes en flux séquentiels
d'octets.

Cette contrainte peut être levée si le 'producteur' (qui implémente les
types d'objets à transférer) et le 'consommateur' (qui implémente le
système de communication) emploient les possibilités de transfert
hors-bande offertes par les protocoles 5 et suivants.

* Menu:

* API des producteurs::
* API des consommateurs::
* Exemple: Exemple<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: API des producteurs,  Next: API des consommateurs,  Up: Tampons hors-bande

5.12.1.13 API des producteurs
.............................

The large data objects to be pickled must implement a *note
__reduce_ex__(): 1574. method specialized for protocol 5 and higher,
which returns a *note PickleBuffer: 17b4. instance (instead of e.g.  a
*note bytes: 1bd. object) for any large data.

Les objets *note PickleBuffer: 17b4. ne font que signaler que leur
tampon permet le transfert hors-bande.  Ils demeurent compatibles avec
l'utilisation classique du module *note pickle: a5.  Cependant, les
consommateurs peuvent aussi choisir d'indiquer à *note pickle: a5.
qu'ils gèrent eux-mêmes ces tampons.


File: python.info,  Node: API des consommateurs,  Next: Exemple<4>,  Prev: API des producteurs,  Up: Tampons hors-bande

5.12.1.14 API des consommateurs
...............................

Un système de communication peut gérer de manière spécifique les objets
*note PickleBuffer: 17b4. générés lors de la sérialisation d'un réseau
d'objets.

Du côté de l'expéditeur, il faut passer le paramètre 'buffer_callback' à
*note Pickler: a0e. (ou à *note dump(): 2842. ou *note dumps(): 1458.).
Le 'buffer_callback' sera appelé avec chaque *note PickleBuffer: 17b4.
généré lors de la sérialisation du réseau d'objets.  Les tampons
accumulés par le 'buffer_callback' ne verront pas leurs données copiées
dans le flux sérialisé.  Il leur sera substitué un marqueur léger.

Du côté du receveur, il faut passer l'argument 'buffers' à *note
Unpickler: 1662. (ou *note load(): d00. ou bien *note loads(): d01.).
'buffers' est un itérable des tampons passés à 'buffer_callback'.  Il
doit fournir les tampons dans le même ordre que celui dans lequel ils
ont été passés à 'buffer_callback'.  Les tampons fournis constituent la
source des données qu'attendent les reconstructeurs des objets dont la
sérialisation a abouti aux objets *note PickleBuffer: 17b4.

Entre expéditeur et receveur, le système de communication peut
implémenter son propre mécanisme de transfert pour les tampons
hors-bande.  Parmi les optimisations possibles se trouvent l'utilisation
de mémoire partagée et la compression spécifique au type de données.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<4>,  Prev: API des consommateurs,  Up: Tampons hors-bande

5.12.1.15 Exemple
.................

Voici un exemple trivial où est implémentée une classe fille de *note
bytearray: 52b. capable de sérialisation hors-bande :

     class ZeroCopyByteArray(bytearray):

         def __reduce_ex__(self, protocol):
             if protocol >= 5:
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (PickleBuffer(self),), None
             else:
                 # PickleBuffer is forbidden with pickle protocols <= 4.
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (bytearray(self),)

         @classmethod
         def _reconstruct(cls, obj):
             with memoryview(obj) as m:
                 # Get a handle over the original buffer object
                 obj = m.obj
                 if type(obj) is cls:
                     # Original buffer object is a ZeroCopyByteArray, return it
                     # as-is.
                     return obj
                 else:
                     return cls(obj)

Lorsqu'il rencontre le bon type, le reconstructeur (la méthode de classe
‘_reconstruct’) renvoie directement le tampon original.  Il s'agit d'une
manière simple de simuler l'absence de copie dans cet exemple simpliste.

En tant que consommateur des objets, on peut les sérialiser de la
manière classique.  La désérialisation conduit alors à une copie :

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # False: a copy was made

Mais en passant un 'buffer_callback' et en donnant les tampons accumulés
au désérialiseur, il n'y a plus de copie :

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     buffers = []
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5, buffer_callback=buffers.append)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data, buffers=buffers)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # True: no copy was made

Cet exemple est limité par le fait que *note bytearray: 52b. effectue sa
propre allocation de mémoire.  Il n'est pas possible de créer un *note
bytearray: 52b. sur la mémoire d'un autre objet.  Cependant, certains
types de données que l'on trouve dans des bibliothèques externes, comme
les tableaux NumPy, n'ont pas cette limitation.  Le passage hors-bande
permet alors de n'effectuer aucune copie (ou bien de minimiser le nombre
de copies) lors du transfert de données d'un système à l'autre ou d'un
processus à l'autre.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 574(1) — Protocole 'pickle' 5 avec données hors-bande

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global,  Next: Performances<2>,  Prev: Tampons hors-bande,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.16 Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global
..............................................................

Par défaut, la désérialisation importe toutes les classes ou fonctions
que demande le flux de données.  Dans bien des cas, ce comportement est
inacceptable, puisqu'il permet de faire exécuter du code arbitraire dans
l'environnement de désérialisation.  Observez le résultat de ce flux de
données fait-main lorsqu'il est lu :

     >>> import pickle
     >>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     hello world
     0

Dans cet exemple, le désérialiseur importe la fonction *note
os.system(): 1413. et l'applique à la chaîne de caractères ‘"echo hello
world"’.  C'est inoffensif, mais il n'est pas difficile d'imaginer des
variantes qui endommageraient le système.

C'est pour cette raison qu'il s'avère parfois nécessaire de contrôler ce
qui peut être désérialisé.  Cela est possible en redéfinissant la
méthode *note Unpickler.find_class(): 284f.  Contrairement à ce que son
nom laisse penser, *note Unpickler.find_class(): 284f. est appelée pour
tous les noms à chercher dans l'espace de nommage global, ce qui inclut
les classes mais aussi les fonctions.  Par ce biais, il est possible
d'interdire complètement la résolution des noms globaux ou de la
restreindre à un sous-ensemble que l'on considère sûr.

Voici un exemple de désérialiseur qui permet seulement la
désérialisation d'un petit nombre de classes sûres du module *note
builtins: 12. :

     import builtins
     import io
     import pickle

     safe_builtins = {
         'range',
         'complex',
         'set',
         'frozenset',
         'slice',
     }

     class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def find_class(self, module, name):
             # Only allow safe classes from builtins.
             if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
                 return getattr(builtins, name)
             # Forbid everything else.
             raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
                                          (module, name))

     def restricted_loads(s):
         """Helper function analogous to pickle.loads()."""
         return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()

A sample usage of our unpickler working as intended:

     >>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
     [1, 2, range(0, 15)]
     >>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
     >>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
     ...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
     ...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden

Comme le montre l'exemple, il faut faire attention aux objets que l'on
autorise à être désérialisés.  Si la sécurité est une priorité, il peut
être sage de se tourner vers des alternatives comme l'API du module
*note xmlrpc.client: 12d, ou des bibliothèques tierces.


File: python.info,  Node: Performances<2>,  Next: Exemples<7>,  Prev: Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.17 Performances
......................

Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards)
feature efficient binary encodings for several common features and
built-in types.  Also, the *note pickle: a5. module has a transparent
optimizer written in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<7>,  Prev: Performances<2>,  Up: pickle --- Python object serialization

5.12.1.18 Exemples
..................

Dans les cas les plus simples, utilisez les fonctions *note dump():
2842. et *note load(): d00.

     import pickle

     # An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.
     data = {
         'a': [1, 2.0, 3+4j],
         'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
         'c': {None, True, False}
     }

     with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
         # Pickle the 'data' dictionary using the highest protocol available.
         pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)

Le code suivant lit les données qui viennent d'être sérialisées

     import pickle

     with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
         # The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not
         # have to specify it.
         data = pickle.load(f)

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note copyreg: 26.

     Enregistre les fonctions de sérialisation pour les types définis
     par l'utilisateur.

Module *note pickletools: a6.

     Outils pour travailler sur les données sérialisées et les analyser.

Module *note shelve: c2.

     Bases de données indexées (module fondé sur *note pickle: a5.).

Module *note copy: 25.

     Copie superficielle ou récursive d'objets.

Module *note marshal: 8c.

     Sérialisation haute-performance des types natifs.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions,  Next: shelve --- Python object persistence,  Prev: pickle --- Python object serialization,  Up: Persistance des données

5.12.2 ‘copyreg’ -- Register ‘pickle’ support functions
-------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/copyreg.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note copyreg: 26. permet de définir des fonctions utilisées
durant la sérialisation avec 'pickle' de certains objets.  Les modules
*note pickle: a5. et *note copy: 25. utilisent ces fonctions lors d'une
sérialisation ou d'une copie de ces objets.  Le module propose alors des
informations de configuration à propos de constructeurs d'objets qui ne
sont pas des classes.  De tels constructeurs peuvent être des instances
de classes ou des fonctions.

 -- Fonction: copyreg.constructor (object)

     Déclare 'object' comme étant un constructeur valide.  Si 'object'
     n'est pas appelable (et n'est donc pas un constructeur valide),
     l'erreur *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

 -- Fonction: copyreg.pickle (type, function, constructor_ob=None)

     Declares that 'function' should be used as a "reduction" function
     for objects of type 'type'.  'function' must return either a string
     or a tuple containing between two and six elements.  See the *note
     dispatch_table: 1104. for more details on the interface of
     'function'.

     The 'constructor_ob' parameter is a legacy feature and is now
     ignored, but if passed it must be a callable.

     Note that the *note dispatch_table: 1104. attribute of a pickler
     object or subclass of *note pickle.Pickler: a0e. can also be used
     for declaring reduction functions.

* Menu:

* Exemple: Exemple<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/copyreg.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<5>,  Up: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions

5.12.2.1 Exemple
................

L'exemple si-dessous essaye de démontrer comment enregistrer une
fonction 'pickle' et comment elle sera utilisée :

     >>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, a):
     ...         self.a = a
     ...
     >>> def pickle_c(c):
     ...     print("pickling a C instance...")
     ...     return C, (c.a,)
     ...
     >>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
     >>> c = C(1)
     >>> d = copy.copy(c)
     pickling a C instance...
     >>> p = pickle.dumps(c)
     pickling a C instance...


File: python.info,  Node: shelve --- Python object persistence,  Next: marshal --- Internal Python object serialization,  Prev: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions,  Up: Persistance des données

5.12.3 ‘shelve’ -- Python object persistence
--------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/shelve.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Une étagère ('shelf' en anglais) est un objet persistant similaire à un
dictionnaire.  La différence avec les bases de données 'dbm' est que les
valeurs (pas les clés !)  dans une étagère peuvent être des objets
Python arbitraires — n'importe quoi que le module *note pickle: a5. peut
gérer.  Cela inclut la plupart des instances de classe, des types de
données récursives, et les objets contenant beaucoup de sous-objets
partagés.  Les clés sont des chaînes de caractères ordinaires.

 -- Fonction: shelve.open (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     Ouvre un dictionnaire persistant.  Le nom de fichier spécifié est
     le nom de fichier sans (son) extension pour la base de données
     sous-jacente.  Comme effet de bord, une extension peut être ajoutée
     au nom de fichier et plus d'un fichier peut être créé.  Par défaut,
     le fichier de base de données sous-jacente est ouvert en lecture et
     en écriture.  Le paramètre optionnel 'flag' possède la même
     interprétation que le paramètre 'flag' de *note dbm.open(): f17.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     81a. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.

     À cause de la sémantique de Python, une étagère ne peut pas savoir
     lorsqu'une entrée mutable de dictionnaire persistant est modifiée.
     Par défaut les objets modifiés sont écrits 'seulement' lorsqu'ils
     sont assignés à une étagère (voir *note Exemple: 2869.).  Si le
     paramètre optionnel 'writeback' est mis à ‘True’, toutes les
     entrées déjà accédées sont aussi mises en cache en mémoire, et
     ré-écrites sur *note sync(): 286a. et *note close(): 286b. ; cela
     peut faciliter la modification des entrées modifiables dans le
     dictionnaire persistant, mais, si vous accédez à beaucoup
     d'entrées, cela peut consommer beaucoup de mémoire cache, et cela
     peut rendre l'opération de fermeture très lente puisque toutes les
     entrées déjà accédées sont ré-écrites (il n'y a aucun moyen de
     savoir quelles entrées déjà accédées sont mutables, ni lesquelles
     ont été vraiment modifiées).

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 81a.
     is now used as the default pickle protocol.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Accepts *note path-like object: 29d.
     for filename.

          Note: Ne pas se fier à la fermeture automatique de l’étagère ;
          appelez toujours *note close(): 286b. explicitement quand vous
          n'en avez plus besoin, ou utilisez *note shelve.open(): 16bb.
          comme un gestionnaire de contexte :

               with shelve.open('spam') as db:
                   db['eggs'] = 'eggs'
     Avertissement: Puisque le module *note shelve: c2. utilise en
     arrière plan *note pickle: a5, il n'est pas sûr de charger une
     étagère depuis une source non fiable.  Comme avec 'pickle', charger
     une étagère peut exécuter du code arbitraire.

Les objets d’étagère gèrent la plupart des méthodes et opérations des
dictionnaires (à l’exception de la copie, des constructeurs et des
opérateurs ‘|’ et ‘|=’).  Cela facilite la transition depuis les scripts
utilisant des dictionnaires vers ceux nécessitant un stockage
persistant.

Deux méthodes supplémentaires sont autorisées :

 -- Méthode: Shelf.sync ()

     Réécrit toutes les entrées dans le cache si l’étagère a été ouverte
     avec 'writeback' passé à *note True: bfd.  Vide le cache et
     synchronise le dictionnaire persistant sur le disque, si faisable.
     Elle est appelée automatiquement quand l’étagère est fermée avec
     *note close(): 286b.

 -- Méthode: Shelf.close ()

     Synchronise et ferme l'objet 'dict' persistant.  Les opérations sur
     une étagère fermée échouent avec une *note ValueError: 1ff.

Voir aussi
..........

Persistent dictionary recipe(2) with widely supported storage formats
and having the speed of native dictionaries.

* Menu:

* Limites::
* Exemple: Exemple<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shelve.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642-persistent-dict-with-multiple-standard-file-format/


File: python.info,  Node: Limites,  Next: Exemple<6>,  Up: shelve --- Python object persistence

5.12.3.1 Limites
................

   * Le choix du paquet de base de données à utiliser (comme *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. ou *note dbm.gnu: 33.) dépend de l'interface
     disponible.  Donc c'est risqué d'ouvrir la base de données
     directement en utilisant *note dbm: 31.  La base de données est
     également (malheureusement) sujette à des limitations de *note dbm:
     31, si c'est utilisé — cela signifie que (la représentation
     sérialisée de) l'objet stocké dans la base de données doit être
     assez petit et, dans de rares cas, des collisions de clés peuvent
     entraîner le refus de mises à jour de la base de données.

   * Le module *note shelve: c2. ne gère pas l'accès 'concurrent' en
     lecture/écriture sur les objets stockés (les accès simultanés en
     lecture sont sûrs).  Lorsqu'un programme a une étagère ouverte en
     écriture, aucun autre programme ne doit l'avoir ouverte en écriture
     ou lecture.  Le verrouillage des fichiers Unix peut être utilisé
     pour résoudre ce problème, mais cela dépend de la version Unix et
     nécessite des connaissances à propos de l'implémentation de la base
     de données utilisée.

   * On macOS *note dbm.ndbm: 34. can silently corrupt the database file
     on updates, which can cause hard crashes when trying to read from
     the database.

 -- Classe: shelve.Shelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     Sous-classe de *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1092. qui
     stocke les valeurs sérialisées dans l'objet 'dict'.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     81a. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.  See the
     *note pickle: a5. documentation for a discussion of the pickle
     protocols.

     Si le paramètre 'writeback' est ‘True’, l'objet garde en cache
     toutes les entrées accédées et les écrit dans le 'dict' aux moments
     de synchronisation et de fermeture.  Cela permet des opérations
     naturelles sur les entrées mutables, mais peut consommer beaucoup
     plus de mémoire et rendre les temps de synchronisation et de
     fermeture très longs.

     Le paramètre 'keyencoding' est l'encodage utilisé pour encoder les
     clés avant qu'elles soient utilisées avec le dictionnaire
     sous-jacent.

     Un objet *note Shelf: f87. peut également être utilisé comme un
     gestionnaire de contexte ; il est automatiquement fermé lorsque le
     bloc *note with: 5be. se termine.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre 'keyencoding' ;
     précédemment, les clés étaient toujours encodées en UTF-8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion des gestionnaires
     de contexte.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 81a.
     is now used as the default pickle protocol.

 -- Classe: shelve.BsdDbShelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     A subclass of *note Shelf: f87. which exposes ‘first()’, ‘next()’,
     ‘previous()’, ‘last()’ and ‘set_location()’ methods.  These are
     available in the third-party ‘bsddb’ module from pybsddb(1) but not
     in other database modules.  The 'dict' object passed to the
     constructor must support those methods.  This is generally
     accomplished by calling one of ‘bsddb.hashopen()’, ‘bsddb.btopen()’
     or ‘bsddb.rnopen()’.  The optional 'protocol', 'writeback', and
     'keyencoding' parameters have the same interpretation as for the
     *note Shelf: f87. class.

 -- Classe: shelve.DbfilenameShelf (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     Sous-classe de *note Shelf: f87. qui accepte un 'filename' au lieu
     d'un objet dictionnaire-compatible.  Le fichier sous-jacent est
     ouvert avec *note dbm.open(): f17.  Par défaut le fichier est créé
     en lecture et en écriture.  Le paramètre optionnel 'flag' peut être
     interprété de la même manière que pour la fonction *note open():
     16bb.  Les paramètres optionnels 'protocol' et 'writeback'
     s'interprètent de la même manière que pour la classe *note Shelf:
     f87.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<6>,  Prev: Limites,  Up: shelve --- Python object persistence

5.12.3.2 Exemple
................

Pour résumer l'interface (‘key’ est une chaîne de caractère, ‘data’ est
un objet arbitraire) :

     import shelve

     d = shelve.open(filename)  # open -- file may get suffix added by low-level
                                # library

     d[key] = data              # store data at key (overwrites old data if
                                # using an existing key)
     data = d[key]              # retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError
                                # if no such key)
     del d[key]                 # delete data stored at key (raises KeyError
                                # if no such key)

     flag = key in d            # true if the key exists
     klist = list(d.keys())     # a list of all existing keys (slow!)

     # as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
     d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # this works as expected, but...
     d['xx'].append(3)          # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!

     # having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
     temp = d['xx']             # extracts the copy
     temp.append(5)             # mutates the copy
     d['xx'] = temp             # stores the copy right back, to persist it

     # or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code
     # d['xx'].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also
     # consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.

     d.close()                  # close it

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note dbm: 31.

     Interface générique de base de données dans le style de ‘dbm’.

Module *note pickle: a5.

     Sérialisation d'objet utilisé par *note shelve: c2.


File: python.info,  Node: marshal --- Internal Python object serialization,  Next: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases",  Prev: shelve --- Python object persistence,  Up: Persistance des données

5.12.4 ‘marshal’ -- Internal Python object serialization
--------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in
a binary format.  The format is specific to Python, but independent of
machine architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a
file on a PC, transport the file to a Mac, and read it back there).
Details of the format are undocumented on purpose; it may change between
Python versions (although it rarely does).  (1)

This is not a general "persistence" module.  For general persistence and
transfer of Python objects through RPC calls, see the modules *note
pickle: a5. and *note shelve: c2.  The *note marshal: 8c. module exists
mainly to support reading and writing the "pseudo-compiled" code for
Python modules of ‘.pyc’ files.  Therefore, the Python maintainers
reserve the right to modify the marshal format in backward incompatible
ways should the need arise.  The format of code objects is not
compatible between Python versions, even if the version of the format is
the same.  De-serializing a code object in the incorrect Python version
has undefined behavior.  If you're serializing and de-serializing Python
objects, use the *note pickle: a5. module instead - the performance is
comparable, version independence is guaranteed, and pickle supports a
substantially wider range of objects than marshal.

     Avertissement: N'utilisez pas le module *note marshal: 8c. pour
     lire des données erronées ou malveillantes.  Ne démantelez jamais
     des données reçues d'une source non fiable ou non authentifiée.

Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects
whose value is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be
written and read by this module.  The following types are supported:
booleans, integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers, strings,
bytes, bytearrays, tuples, lists, sets, frozensets, dictionaries, and
code objects (if 'allow_code' is true), where it should be understood
that tuples, lists, sets, frozensets and dictionaries are only supported
as long as the values contained therein are themselves supported.  The
singletons *note None: 662, *note Ellipsis: 2142. and *note
StopIteration: bea. can also be marshalled and unmarshalled.  For format
'version' lower than 3, recursive lists, sets and dictionaries cannot be
written (see below).

Il existe des fonctions de lecture-écriture de fichiers ainsi que des
fonctions opérant sur des objets octet.

Le module définit ces fonctions :

 -- Fonction: marshal.dump (value, file, version=version, /, *,
          allow_code=True)

     Écrit la valeur sur le fichier ouvert.  La valeur doit être un type
     pris en charge.  Le fichier doit être un *note fichier binaire:
     1c45. ouvert en écriture.

     If the value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported
     type, a *note ValueError: 1ff. exception is raised -- but garbage
     data will also be written to the file.  The object will not be
     properly read back by *note load(): 19d1.  *note Code objects: 1cd.
     are only supported if 'allow_code' is true.

     L'argument 'version' indique le format de données que le ‘dump’
     doit utiliser (voir ci-dessous).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- Fonction: marshal.load (file, /, *, allow_code=True)

     Read one value from the open file and return it.  If no valid value
     is read (e.g.  because the data has a different Python version's
     incompatible marshal format), raise *note EOFError: 12b9, *note
     ValueError: 1ff. or *note TypeError: 525.  *note Code objects: 1cd.
     are only supported if 'allow_code' is true.  The file must be a
     readable *note binary file: 1c45.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘marshal.load’ with no
     arguments.

          Note: Si un objet contenant un type non pris en charge a été
          dé-compilé avec *note dump(): 2871, *note load(): 19d1.
          remplacera le type non « dé-compilable » par ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This call used to raise a
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event for each code object.  Now it raises a
     single ‘marshal.load’ event for the entire load operation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- Fonction: marshal.dumps (value, version=version, /, *,
          allow_code=True)

     Return the bytes object that would be written to a file by
     ‘dump(value, file)’.  The value must be a supported type.  Raise a
     *note ValueError: 1ff. exception if value has (or contains an
     object that has) an unsupported type.  *note Code objects: 1cd. are
     only supported if 'allow_code' is true.

     L'argument 'version' indique le format de données que ‘dumps’
     doivent utiliser (voir ci-dessous).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- Fonction: marshal.loads (bytes, /, *, allow_code=True)

     Convert the *note bytes-like object: d1d. to a value.  If no valid
     value is found, raise *note EOFError: 12b9, *note ValueError: 1ff.
     or *note TypeError: 525.  *note Code objects: 1cd. are only
     supported if 'allow_code' is true.  Extra bytes in the input are
     ignored.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘marshal.loads’ with argument
     ‘bytes’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This call used to raise a
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event for each code object.  Now it raises a
     single ‘marshal.loads’ event for the entire load operation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

De plus, les constantes suivantes sont définies :

 -- Données: marshal.version

     Indicates the format that the module uses.  Version 0 is the
     historical format, version 1 shares interned strings and version 2
     uses a binary format for floating-point numbers.  Version 3 adds
     support for object instancing and recursion.  The current version
     is 4.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Le nom de ce module provient d'un peu de terminologie utilisée
par les concepteurs de Modula-3 (entre autres), qui utilisent le terme
'marshalling' pour l'envoi de données sous une forme autonome.  À
proprement parler, 'to marshal' signifie convertir certaines données
d'une forme interne à une forme externe (dans une mémoire tampon RPC par
exemple) et 'unmarshalling' désigne le processus inverse.


File: python.info,  Node: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases",  Next: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: marshal --- Internal Python object serialization,  Up: Persistance des données

5.12.5 ‘dbm’ -- Interfaces to Unix "databases"
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dbm: 31. is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database:

   * *note dbm.sqlite3: 35.

   * *note dbm.gnu: 33.

   * *note dbm.ndbm: 34.

If none of these modules are installed, the slow-but-simple
implementation in module *note dbm.dumb: 32. will be used.  There is a
third party interface(2) to the Oracle Berkeley DB.

 -- Exception: dbm.error

     A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the
     supported modules, with a unique exception also named *note
     dbm.error: 2876. as the first item -- the latter is used when *note
     dbm.error: 2876. is raised.

 -- Fonction: dbm.whichdb (filename)

     This function attempts to guess which of the several simple
     database modules available -- *note dbm.sqlite3: 35, *note dbm.gnu:
     33, *note dbm.ndbm: 34, or *note dbm.dumb: 32. -- should be used to
     open a given file.

     Return one of the following values:

        * ‘None’ if the file can't be opened because it's unreadable or
          doesn't exist

        * the empty string (‘''’) if the file's format can't be guessed

        * a string containing the required module name, such as
          ‘'dbm.ndbm'’ or ‘'dbm.gnu'’

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 29d.

 -- Fonction: dbm.open (file, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open a database and return the corresponding database object.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘file’ (*note path-like object: 29d.) - The database file to
          open.

          If the database file already exists, the *note whichdb():
          2877. function is used to determine its type and the
          appropriate module is used; if it does not exist, the first
          submodule listed above that can be imported is used.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 437.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 254.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'file' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 29d.

The object returned by *note open(): f17. supports the same basic
functionality as a *note dict: 253.; keys and their corresponding values
can be stored, retrieved, and deleted, and the *note in: 2e9. operator
and the ‘keys()’ method are available, as well as ‘get()’ and
‘setdefault()’ methods.

Key and values are always stored as *note bytes: 1bd.  This means that
when strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default
encoding before being stored.

These objects also support being used in a *note with: 5be. statement,
which will automatically close them when done.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods are now
available for all *note dbm: 31. backends.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added native support for the context
management protocol to the objects returned by *note open(): f17.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Deleting a key from a read-only database
raises a database module specific exception instead of *note KeyError:
33a.

The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title,
and then prints out the contents of the database:

     import dbm

     # Open database, creating it if necessary.
     with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:

         # Record some values
         db[b'hello'] = b'there'
         db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
         db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'

         # Note that the keys are considered bytes now.
         assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
         # Notice how the value is now in bytes.
         assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'

         # Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.
         print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))

         # Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most
         # likely a TypeError).
         db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4

     # db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note shelve: c2.

     Persistence module which stores non-string data.

The individual submodules are described in the following sections.

* Menu:

* dbm.sqlite3: dbm sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm. SQLite backend for dbm
* dbm.gnu: dbm gnu --- GNU database manager. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager. New Database Manager
* dbm.dumb: dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation. Portable DBM implementation

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: dbm sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm,  Next: dbm gnu --- GNU database manager,  Up: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

5.12.5.1 ‘dbm.sqlite3’ -- SQLite backend for dbm
................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module uses the standard library *note sqlite3: ce. module to
provide an SQLite backend for the *note dbm: 31. module.  The files
created by *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. can thus be opened by *note sqlite3:
ce, or any other SQLite browser, including the SQLite CLI.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

 -- Fonction: dbm.sqlite3.open (filename, /, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open an SQLite database.  The returned object behaves like a *note
     mapping: 119b, implements a ‘close()’ method, and supports a
     "closing" context manager via the *note with: 5be. keyword.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 29d.) - The path to the
          database to be opened.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 437.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ - The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal
          ‘0o666’), used only when the database has to be created.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm gnu --- GNU database manager,  Next: dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager,  Prev: dbm sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm,  Up: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

5.12.5.2 ‘dbm.gnu’ -- GNU database manager
..........................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/gnu.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.gnu: 33. module provides an interface to the GDBM (GNU
dbm) library, similar to the *note dbm.ndbm: 34. module, but with
additional functionality like crash tolerance.

     Note: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 33. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

 -- Exception: dbm.gnu.error

     Raised on *note dbm.gnu: 33.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 33a. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- Fonction: dbm.gnu.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open a GDBM database and return a ‘gdbm’ object.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 29d.) - The database file
          to open.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 437.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

          The following additional characters may be appended to control
          how the database is opened:

             * ‘'f'’: Open the database in fast mode.  Writes to the
               database will not be synchronized.

             * ‘'s'’: Synchronized mode.  Changes to the database will
               be written immediately to the file.

             * ‘'u'’: Do not lock database.

          Not all flags are valid for all versions of GDBM. See the
          *note open_flags: 287b. member for a list of supported flag
          characters.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 254.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.


     Lève: *note error: a8a. - If an invalid 'flag' argument is passed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 29d.

      -- Données: dbm.gnu.open_flags

          A string of characters the 'flag' parameter of *note open():
          19fd. supports.

     ‘gdbm’ objects behave similar to *note mappings: 119b, but
     ‘items()’ and ‘values()’ methods are not supported.  The following
     methods are also provided:

      -- Méthode: gdbm.firstkey ()

          It's possible to loop over every key in the database using
          this method and the *note nextkey(): 287d. method.  The
          traversal is ordered by GDBM's internal hash values, and won't
          be sorted by the key values.  This method returns the starting
          key.

      -- Méthode: gdbm.nextkey (key)

          Returns the key that follows 'key' in the traversal.  The
          following code prints every key in the database ‘db’, without
          having to create a list in memory that contains them all:

               k = db.firstkey()
               while k is not None:
                   print(k)
                   k = db.nextkey(k)

      -- Méthode: gdbm.reorganize ()

          If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to
          shrink the space used by the GDBM file, this routine will
          reorganize the database.  ‘gdbm’ objects will not shorten the
          length of a database file except by using this reorganization;
          otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new
          (key, value) pairs are added.

      -- Méthode: gdbm.sync ()

          When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method
          forces any unwritten data to be written to the disk.

      -- Méthode: gdbm.close ()

          Close the GDBM database.

      -- Méthode: gdbm.clear ()

          Remove all items from the GDBM database.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/gnu.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager,  Next: dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation,  Prev: dbm gnu --- GNU database manager,  Up: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

5.12.5.3 ‘dbm.ndbm’ -- New Database Manager
...........................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/ndbm.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.ndbm: 34. module provides an interface to the NDBM (New
Database Manager) library.  This module can be used with the "classic"
NDBM interface or the GDBM compatibility interface.

     Note: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 33. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

     Avertissement: The NDBM library shipped as part of macOS has an
     undocumented limitation on the size of values, which can result in
     corrupted database files when storing values larger than this
     limit.  Reading such corrupted files can result in a hard crash
     (segmentation fault).

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

 -- Exception: dbm.ndbm.error

     Raised on *note dbm.ndbm: 34.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 33a. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- Données: dbm.ndbm.library

     Name of the NDBM implementation library used.

 -- Fonction: dbm.ndbm.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open an NDBM database and return an ‘ndbm’ object.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 29d.) - The basename of
          the database file (without the ‘.dir’ or ‘.pag’ extensions).

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 437.) -

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 254.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     ‘ndbm’ objects behave similar to *note mappings: 119b, but
     ‘items()’ and ‘values()’ methods are not supported.  The following
     methods are also provided:

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Accepts *note path-like object: 29d.
     for filename.

      -- Méthode: ndbm.close ()

          Close the NDBM database.

      -- Méthode: ndbm.clear ()

          Remove all items from the NDBM database.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation,  Prev: dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager,  Up: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

5.12.5.4 ‘dbm.dumb’ -- Portable DBM implementation
..................................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/dumb.py(1)

     Note: The *note dbm.dumb: 32. module is intended as a last resort
     fallback for the *note dbm: 31. module when a more robust module is
     not available.  The *note dbm.dumb: 32. module is not written for
     speed and is not nearly as heavily used as the other database
     modules.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.dumb: 32. module provides a persistent *note dict:
253.-like interface which is written entirely in Python.  Unlike other
*note dbm: 31. backends, such as *note dbm.gnu: 33, no external library
is required.

The ‘dbm.dumb’ module defines the following:

 -- Exception: dbm.dumb.error

     Raised on *note dbm.dumb: 32.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 33a. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- Fonction: dbm.dumb.open (filename, flag='c', mode=0o666)

     Open a ‘dbm.dumb’ database.  The returned database object behaves
     similar to a *note mapping: 119b, in addition to providing *note
     sync(): 2885. and *note close(): 2886. methods.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘filename’ - The basename of the database file (without
          extensions).  A new database creates the following files:

             - ‘`filename'.dat’

             - ‘`filename'.dir’

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 437.) -

             * ‘'r'’: Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’ (default): Open database for reading and writing,
               creating it if it doesn't exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 254.) - The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

          Avertissement: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter
          when loading a database with a sufficiently large/complex
          entry due to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: *note open(): a86. always creates a
     new database when 'flag' is ‘'n'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: A database opened read-only if 'flag'
     is ‘'r'’.  A database is not created if it does not exist if 'flag'
     is ‘'r'’ or ‘'w'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 29d.

     In addition to the methods provided by the *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1092. class, the following methods
     are provided:

      -- Méthode: dumbdbm.sync ()

          Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files.  This method
          is called by the *note shelve.Shelf.sync(): 286a. method.

      -- Méthode: dumbdbm.close ()

          Close the database.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/dumb.py


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases",  Up: Persistance des données

5.12.6 ‘sqlite3’ -- DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/sqlite3/(1)

SQLite est une bibliothèque C qui fournit une base de données légère sur
disque ne nécessitant pas de processus serveur et qui utilise une
variante (non standard) du langage de requête SQL pour accéder aux
données.  Certaines applications peuvent utiliser SQLite pour le
stockage de données internes.  Il est également possible de créer une
application prototype utilisant SQLite, puis de modifier le code pour
utiliser une base de données plus robuste telle que PostgreSQL ou
Oracle.

The ‘sqlite3’ module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides an SQL
interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP
249(2), and requires SQLite 3.15.2 or newer.

Ce document inclus 4 sections principales :

   * *note tutoriel sqlite3: 288a. explique comment utiliser le module
     ‘sqlite3’.

   * *note référence sqlite3: 288b. décrit les classes et les fonctions
     que ce module définit.

   * *note guide sqlite3: 288c. détaille comment gérer des tâches
     spécifiques.

   * *note explications sqlite3: 288d. propose un contexte détaillé du
     contrôle de transaction.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     Dans la page Web de SQLite, la documentation décrit la syntaxe et
     les types de données disponibles qui sont pris en charge par cette
     variante SQL.

‘https://www.w3schools.com/sql/’

     Tutoriel, référence et exemples pour apprendre la syntaxe SQL.

PEP 249(3) — Spécifications de l'API 2.0 pour la base de données

     PEP écrite par Marc-André Lemburg.

* Menu:

* Tutoriel::
* Références: Références<2>.
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sqlite3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel,  Next: Références<2>,  Up: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.1 Tutoriel
.................

Dans ce tutoriel, vous allez créer une base de données des films des
Monty Python en utilisant les fonctionnalités de base de ‘sqlite3’.
Cela nécessite une compréhension élémentaire des concepts des bases de
données, notamment les curseurs(1) et les transactions(2).

Tout d’abord, nous devons créer une nouvelle base de données et ouvrir
une connexion à la base de données pour permettre à ‘sqlite3’ de
travailler avec elle.  Appelez *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a5. pour créer
une connexion à la base de données ‘tutorial.db’ dans le répertoire de
travail actuel, en la créant implicitement si elle n’existe pas :

     import sqlite3
     con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")

L’objet *note Connection: 242. renvoyé — ‘con’ — représente la connexion
à la base de données sur disque.

Afin d’exécuter les instructions SQL et de récupérer les résultats des
requêtes SQL, nous devrons utiliser un curseur de base de données.
Appelez *note con.cursor(): 288f. pour créer la *note Cursor: 2890. :

     cur = con.cursor()

Maintenant que nous avons une connexion à la base de données et un
curseur, nous pouvons créer une table ‘movie’ avec des colonnes pour le
titre, l’année de sortie et la note de la critique.  Pour plus de
simplicité, nous pouvons simplement utiliser les noms des colonnes dans
la déclaration de la table — grâce à la fonctionnalité de typage
flexible(3) de SQLite, spécifier les types de données est facultatif.
Exécutez l’instruction ‘CREATE TABLE’ en appelant *note cur.execute(…):
2cf. :

     cur.execute("CREATE TABLE movie(title, year, score)")

Nous pouvons vérifier que la nouvelle table a été créée en interrogeant
la table ‘sqlite_master’ intégrée à SQLite, qui devrait maintenant
contenir une entrée pour la définition de la table ‘movie’ (voir le
schéma Table(4) pour plus de détails).  Exécutez cette requête en
appelant *note cur.execute(…): 2cf, affectez le résultat à ‘res’, et
appelez *note res.fetchone(): 2891. pour récupérer la ligne résultante :

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master")
     >>> res.fetchone()
     ('movie',)

We can see that the table has been created, as the query returns a *note
tuple: 366. containing the table's name.  If we query ‘sqlite_master’
for a non-existent table ‘spam’, ‘res.fetchone()’ will return ‘None’:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name='spam'")
     >>> res.fetchone() is None
     True

Maintenant, ajoutez deux lignes de données en tant que littéraux SQL en
exécutant une instruction ‘INSERT’, une fois encore en appelant *note
cur.execute(…): 2cf. :

     cur.execute("""
         INSERT INTO movie VALUES
             ('Monty Python and the Holy Grail', 1975, 8.2),
             ('And Now for Something Completely Different', 1971, 7.5)
     """)

L’instruction ‘INSERT’ ouvre implicitement une transaction, qui doit
être validée avant que les modifications ne soient enregistrées dans la
base de données (voir *note contrôle des transactions SQL: 2892. pour
plus de détails).  Appelez *note con.commit(): 2893. sur l’objet de
connexion pour valider la transaction :

     con.commit()

Nous pouvons vérifier que les données ont été insérées correctement en
exécutant une requête ‘SELECT’.  Utilisez la désormais familière *note
cur.execute(…): 2cf. pour affecter le résultat à ‘res’, et appelez *note
res.fetchall(): 2894. pour retourner toutes les lignes résultantes :

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT score FROM movie")
     >>> res.fetchall()
     [(8.2,), (7.5,)]

Le résultat est une *note liste: 5fe. de deux ‘tuple’s, une par ligne,
chacun contenant la valeur ‘score’ de cette ligne.

Maintenant, insérez trois lignes supplémentaires en appelant *note
cur.executemany(…): 2d0. :

     data = [
         ("Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl", 1982, 7.9),
         ("Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", 1983, 7.5),
         ("Monty Python's Life of Brian", 1979, 8.0),
     ]
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO movie VALUES(?, ?, ?)", data)
     con.commit()  # Remember to commit the transaction after executing INSERT.

Remarquez que les marqueurs ‘?’ sont utilisés pour lier les ‘data’ à la
requête.  Utilisez toujours les marqueurs au lieu d’*note expressions
formatées: 1c31. pour lier les valeurs Python aux instructions SQL, afin
d’éviter les injections SQL(5) (voir *note placeholder SQL: 2d1. pour
plus de détails).

Nous pouvons vérifier que les nouvelles lignes ont été insérées en
exécutant une requête ‘SELECT’, cette fois-ci en itérant sur les
résultats de la requête :

     >>> for row in cur.execute("SELECT year, title FROM movie ORDER BY year"):
     ...     print(row)
     (1971, 'And Now for Something Completely Different')
     (1975, 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail')
     (1979, "Monty Python's Life of Brian")
     (1982, 'Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl')
     (1983, "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")

Chaque ligne est un *note tuple: 366. de deux éléments ‘(année, titre)’,
correspondant aux colonnes sélectionnées dans la requête.

Enfin, vérifiez que la base de données a été écrite sur le disque en
appelant *note con.close(): 243. pour fermer la connexion existante, en
ouvrir une nouvelle, créer un nouveau curseur, puis interroger la base
de données :

     >>> con.close()
     >>> new_con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")
     >>> new_cur = new_con.cursor()
     >>> res = new_cur.execute("SELECT title, year FROM movie ORDER BY score DESC")
     >>> title, year = res.fetchone()
     >>> print(f'The highest scoring Monty Python movie is {title!r}, released in {year}')
     The highest scoring Monty Python movie is 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', released in 1975
     >>> new_con.close()

Vous avez maintenant créé une base de données SQLite à l’aide du module
‘sqlite3’, inséré des données et récupéré des valeurs de plusieurs
façons.

Voir aussi
..........

   * *note guide sqlite3: 288c. pour une lecture plus poussée :

        * *note placeholders sqlite3: 2d1.

        * *note adaptateurs sqlite3: 2895.

        * *note convertisseurs sqlite3: 2896.

        * *note gestionnaire de contexte de connexion sqlite3: 179f.

        * *note guide de fabrique de ligne sqlite3: 2897.

   * *note explications sqlite3: 288d. pour un contexte détaillé du
     contrôle de transaction.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/schematab.html

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Références<2>,  Next: How-to guides,  Prev: Tutoriel,  Up: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.2 Références
...................

* Menu:

* Fonctions du module::
* Fonctions et constantes du module::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<7>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface::


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions du module,  Next: Fonctions et constantes du module,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.3 Fonctions du module
............................

 -- Fonction: sqlite3.connect (database, timeout=5.0, detect_types=0,
          isolation_level='DEFERRED', check_same_thread=True,
          factory=sqlite3.Connection, cached_statements=128, uri=False,
          *, autocommit=sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL)

     Ouvrez une connexion à une base de données SQLite.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘database’ (*note path-like object: 29d.) - Le chemin d’accès
          au fichier de la base de données à ouvrir.  Passez ‘":memory
          :"’ pour créer une base de données SQLite existant uniquement
          en mémoire(1), et ouvrir une connexion à celle-ci.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ec.) - Le temps (en secondes) que la
          connexion doit attendre avant de lever une *note
          OperationalError: 185a, si la table est verrouillée.  Si une
          autre connexion ouvre une transaction pour modifier la table,
          celle-ci sera verrouillée jusqu’à ce que cette transaction
          soit validée.  Par défaut, cinq secondes.

        * ‘detect_types’ (*note int: 254.) - Control whether and how
          data types not *note natively supported by SQLite: 289c. are
          looked up to be converted to Python types, using the
          converters registered with *note register_converter(): 289d.
          Set it to any combination (using ‘|’, bitwise or) of *note
          PARSE_DECLTYPES: 289e. and *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 289f. to
          enable this.  Column names takes precedence over declared
          types if both flags are set.  By default (‘0’), type detection
          is disabled.

        * ‘isolation_level’ (*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - Control
          legacy transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.isolation_level: 28a0. and *note Transaction
          control via the isolation_level attribute: 28a1. for more
          information.  Can be ‘"DEFERRED"’ (default), ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’ or
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’; or ‘None’ to disable opening transactions
          implicitly.  Has no effect unless *note Connection.autocommit:
          4a2. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2. (the
          default).

        * ‘check_same_thread’ (*note bool: 453.) - Si ‘True’ (par
          défaut), *note ProgrammingError: 4df. sera levée si la
          connexion à la base de données est utilisée par un thread
          autre que celui qui l’a créée.  Si ‘False’, la connexion peut
          être utilisée par plusieurs threads ; les opérations
          d’écriture devront peut-être être sérialisées par
          l’utilisateur pour éviter la corruption des données.  Voir
          *note sécurité des threads: 669. pour plus d’informations.

        * ‘factory’ (*note Connection: 242.) - Une sous-classe
          personnalisée de *note Connection: 242. pour créer la
          connexion, si ce n’est pas la classe par défaut *note
          Connection: 242.

        * ‘cached_statements’ (*note int: 254.) - Le nombre
          d’instructions que ‘sqlite3’ doit mettre en cache en interne
          pour cette connexion, afin d’éviter les surcharges d’analyse.
          Par défaut, 128 instructions.

        * ‘uri’ (*note bool: 453.) - Si elle a pour valeur ‘True’, la
          base de données est interprétée comme un URI (Uniform Resource
          Identifier) avec un chemin d’accès au fichier et une chaîne de
          requête facultative.  La partie schéma 'doit' être ‘"file:"’,
          et le chemin peut être relatif ou absolu.  La chaîne
          d’interrogation permet de passer des paramètres à SQLite, ce
          qui permet d’activer diverses *note astuces d’URI sqlite3:
          28a3.

        * ‘autocommit’ (*note bool: 453.) - Control PEP 249(2)
          transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.autocommit: 4a2. and *note Transaction control via
          the autocommit attribute: 4a3. for more information.
          'autocommit' currently defaults to *note
          LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2.  The default will change to
          ‘False’ in a future Python release.


     Type renvoyé: *note Connection: 242.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘sqlite3.connect’ with
     argument ‘database’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ with
     argument ‘connection_handle’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'uri' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: 'database' peut maintenant aussi être
     un *note objet de type chemin: 29d, et pas seulement une chaîne de
     caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’
     auditing event.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'autocommit' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Positional use of the parameters
     'timeout', 'detect_types', 'isolation_level', 'check_same_thread',
     'factory', 'cached_statements', and 'uri' is deprecated.  They will
     become keyword-only parameters in Python 3.15.

 -- Fonction: sqlite3.complete_statement (statement)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la déclaration de la chaîne semble contenir une
     ou plusieurs déclarations SQL complètes.  Aucune vérification
     syntaxique ou analyse syntaxique d’aucune sorte n’est effectuée, si
     ce n’est la vérification qu’il n’y a pas de chaîne littérale non
     fermée et que l’instruction se termine par un point-virgule.

     Exemple :

          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo FROM bar;")
          True
          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo")
          False

     Cette fonction peut être utile pendant la saisie en ligne de
     commande pour déterminer si le texte saisi semble former une
     instruction SQL complète, ou si une saisie supplémentaire est
     nécessaire avant d’appeler *note execute(): 2cf.

     See ‘runsource()’ in Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py(3) for real-world use.

 -- Fonction: sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks (flag, /)

     Activer ou désactiver les traces des fonctions de rappel.  Par
     défaut, vous n’obtiendrez pas de traces de pile d’appels dans les
     fonctions définies par l’utilisateur, les agrégats, les
     convertisseurs, les fonctions de rappel des mécanismes
     d’autorisation, etc.  Si vous voulez les déboguer, vous pouvez
     appeler cette fonction avec 'flag' à ‘True’.  Ensuite, vous
     obtiendrez les traces des fonctions de rappel sur *note sys.stderr:
     928.  Utilisez ‘False’ pour désactiver à nouveau cette
     fonctionnalité.

          Note: Errors in user-defined function callbacks are logged as
          unraisable exceptions.  Use an *note unraisable hook handler:
          1f4. for introspection of the failed callback.

 -- Fonction: sqlite3.register_adapter (type, adapter, /)

     Enregistre un 'adaptateur' *note callable: 28a7. pour adapter le
     type Python 'type' en un type SQLite.  L'adaptateur est appelé avec
     un objet Python de type 'type' comme seul argument, et doit
     retourner une valeur d'un *note type que SQLite comprend
     nativement: 289c.

 -- Fonction: sqlite3.register_converter (typename, converter, /)

     Enregistrer le 'convertisseur' *note callable: 28a7. pour convertir
     les objets SQLite de type 'typename' en un objet Python d'un type
     spécifique.  Le convertisseur est invoqué pour toutes les valeurs
     SQLite de type 'typename' ; on lui passe un objet *note bytes: 1bd.
     et il doit retourner un objet du type Python désiré.  Consultez le
     paramètre 'detect_types' de *note connect(): 2a5. pour plus
     d'informations sur le fonctionnement de la détection de type.

     Remarque : 'typename' et le nom du type dans votre requête sont
     comparés sans tenir compte de la casse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/inmemorydb.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions et constantes du module,  Next: Connection objects,  Prev: Fonctions du module,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.4 Fonctions et constantes du module
..........................................

 -- Données: sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL

     Set *note autocommit: 4a2. to this constant to select old style
     (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour.  See *note
     Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 28a1. for
     more information.

 -- Données: sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 2a5. to look up a converter function using the declared
     types for each column.  The types are declared when the database
     table is created.  ‘sqlite3’ will look up a converter function
     using the first word of the declared type as the converter
     dictionary key.  For example:

          CREATE TABLE test(
             i integer primary key,  ! will look up a converter named "integer"
             p point,                ! will look up a converter named "point"
             n number(10)            ! will look up a converter named "number"
           )

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 289f. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

          Note: Generated fields (for example ‘MAX(p)’) are returned as
          *note str: 437.  Use ‘PARSE_COLNAMES’ to enforce types for
          such queries.

 -- Données: sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 2a5. to look up a converter function by using the type
     name, parsed from the query column name, as the converter
     dictionary key.  The query column name must be wrapped in double
     quotes (‘"’) and the type name must be wrapped in square brackets
     (‘[]’).

          SELECT MAX(p) as "p [point]" FROM test;  ! will look up converter "point"

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 289e. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_OK
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DENY
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_IGNORE

     Flags that should be returned by the 'authorizer_callback' *note
     callable: 28a7. passed to *note Connection.set_authorizer(): 2a8,
     to indicate whether:

        * Access is allowed (‘SQLITE_OK’),

        * The SQL statement should be aborted with an error
          (‘SQLITE_DENY’)

        * The column should be treated as a ‘NULL’ value
          (‘SQLITE_IGNORE’)

 -- Données: sqlite3.apilevel

     String constant stating the supported DB-API level.  Required by
     the DB-API. Hard-coded to ‘"2.0"’.

 -- Données: sqlite3.paramstyle

     String constant stating the type of parameter marker formatting
     expected by the ‘sqlite3’ module.  Required by the DB-API.
     Hard-coded to ‘"qmark"’.

          Note: The ‘named’ DB-API parameter style is also supported.

 -- Données: sqlite3.sqlite_version

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note string:
     437.

 -- Données: sqlite3.sqlite_version_info

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note tuple: 366.
     of *note integers: 254.

 -- Données: sqlite3.threadsafety

     Integer constant required by the DB-API 2.0, stating the level of
     thread safety the ‘sqlite3’ module supports.  This attribute is set
     based on the default threading mode(1) the underlying SQLite
     library is compiled with.  The SQLite threading modes are:

       1. 'Single-thread': In this mode, all mutexes are disabled and
          SQLite is unsafe to use in more than a single thread at once.

       2. 'Multi-thread': In this mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads provided that no single database connection
          is used simultaneously in two or more threads.

       3. 'Serialized': In serialized mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads with no restriction.

     The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety
     levels are as follows:

     SQLite threading       threadsafety(2)            SQLITE_THREADSAFE(3)       DB-API 2.0 meaning
     mode                                                                         

     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     single-thread          0                          0                          Threads may not share the module
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     multi-thread           1                          2                          Threads may share the module, but
                                                                                  not connections
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     serialized             3                          1                          Threads may share the module,
                                                                                  connections and cursors
                                                                                  

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Set 'threadsafety' dynamically
     instead of hard-coding it to ‘1’.

 -- Données: sqlite3.version

     Version number of this module as a *note string: 437.  This is not
     the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- Données: sqlite3.version_info

     Version number of this module as a *note tuple: 366. of *note
     integers: 254.  This is not the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA
 -- Données: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA

     These constants are used for the *note Connection.setconfig(): 4a6.
     and *note getconfig(): 4a5. methods.

     The availability of these constants varies depending on the version
     of SQLite Python was compiled with.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     ‘https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html’

          SQLite docs: Database Connection Configuration Options

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/threadsafe.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety

   (3) https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe


File: python.info,  Node: Connection objects,  Next: Cursor objects,  Prev: Fonctions et constantes du module,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.5 Connection objects
...........................

 -- Classe: sqlite3.Connection

     Each open SQLite database is represented by a ‘Connection’ object,
     which is created using *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a5.  Their main
     purpose is creating *note Cursor: 2890. objects, and *note
     Transaction control: 2892.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

        * *note How to use connection shortcut methods: 28c4.

        * *note gestionnaire de contexte de connexion sqlite3: 179f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: A *note ResourceWarning: 241. is
     emitted if *note close(): 243. is not called before a ‘Connection’
     object is deleted.

     An SQLite database connection has the following attributes and
     methods:

      -- Méthode: cursor (factory=Cursor)

          Create and return a *note Cursor: 2890. object.  The cursor
          method accepts a single optional parameter 'factory'.  If
          supplied, this must be a *note callable: 28a7. returning an
          instance of *note Cursor: 2890. or its subclasses.

      -- Méthode: blobopen (table, column, row, /, *, readonly=False,
               name='main')

          Open a *note Blob: 66f. handle to an existing BLOB (Binary
          Large OBject).


          Paramètres:

             * ‘table’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the table where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘column’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the column where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘row’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the row where the
               blob is located.

             * ‘readonly’ (*note bool: 453.) - Set to ‘True’ if the blob
               should be opened without write permissions.  Defaults to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the database where
               the blob is located.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Lève: *note OperationalError: 185a. - When trying to open a
          blob in a ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ table.


          Type renvoyé: *note Blob: 66f.

               Note: The blob size cannot be changed using the *note
               Blob: 66f. class.  Use the SQL function ‘zeroblob’ to
               create a blob with a fixed size.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: commit ()

          Commit any pending transaction to the database.  If *note
          autocommit: 4a2. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          committed by this method.

      -- Méthode: rollback ()

          Roll back to the start of any pending transaction.  If *note
          autocommit: 4a2. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          rolled back by this method.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Close the database connection.  If *note autocommit: 4a2. is
          ‘False’, any pending transaction is implicitly rolled back.
          If ‘autocommit’ is ‘True’ or *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          28a2, no implicit transaction control is executed.  Make sure
          to *note commit(): 2893. before closing to avoid losing
          pending changes.

      -- Méthode: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2890. object and call *note
          execute(): 2cf. on it with the given 'sql' and 'parameters'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- Méthode: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2890. object and call *note
          executemany(): 2d0. on it with the given 'sql' and
          'parameters'.  Return the new cursor object.

      -- Méthode: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2890. object and call *note
          executescript(): 28c9. on it with the given 'sql_script'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- Méthode: create_function (name, narg, func, *,
               deterministic=False)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL function.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the SQL function.

             * ‘narg’ (*note int: 254.) - The number of arguments the
               SQL function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take any number
               of arguments.

             * ‘func’ (*note callback: 28ca. | None) - A *note callable:
               28a7. that is called when the SQL function is invoked.
               The callable must return *note a type natively supported
               by SQLite: 289c.  Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL
               function.

             * ‘deterministic’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘True’, the
               created SQL function is marked as deterministic(1), which
               allows SQLite to perform additional optimizations.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'deterministic'
          parameter.

          Exemple :

               >>> import hashlib
               >>> def md5sum(t):
               ...     return hashlib.md5(t).hexdigest()
               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> con.create_function("md5", 1, md5sum)
               >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT md5(?)", (b"foo",)):
               ...     print(row)
               ('acbd18db4cc2f85cedef654fccc4a4d8',)
               >>> con.close()

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing 'name', 'narg', and
          'func' as keyword arguments is deprecated.  These parameters
          will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- Méthode: create_aggregate (name, n_arg, aggregate_class)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL aggregate function.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the SQL aggregate
               function.

             * ‘n_arg’ (*note int: 254.) - The number of arguments the
               SQL aggregate function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take
               any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 18ef. | None) - A class
               must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the aggregate.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 289c.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ method must
               accept is controlled by 'n_arg'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate
               function.

          Exemple :

               class MySum:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       self.count += value

                   def finalize(self):
                       return self.count

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_aggregate("mysum", 1, MySum)
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(i)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(1)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(2)")
               cur.execute("SELECT mysum(i) FROM test")
               print(cur.fetchone()[0])

               con.close()

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing 'name', 'n_arg', and
          'aggregate_class' as keyword arguments is deprecated.  These
          parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- Méthode: create_window_function (name, num_params,
               aggregate_class, /)

          Create or remove a user-defined aggregate window function.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the SQL aggregate
               window function to create or remove.

             * ‘num_params’ (*note int: 254.) - The number of arguments
               the SQL aggregate window function can accept.  If ‘-1’,
               it may take any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 18ef. | None) - A class
               that must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the current window.

                  * ‘value()’: Return the current value of the
                    aggregate.

                  * ‘inverse()’: Remove a row from the current window.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 289c.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ and ‘value()’
               methods must accept is controlled by 'num_params'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate window
               function.


          Lève: *note NotSupportedError: 28cb. - If used with a version
          of SQLite older than 3.25.0, which does not support aggregate
          window functions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

          Exemple :

               # Example taken from https://www.sqlite.org/windowfunctions.html#udfwinfunc
               class WindowSumInt:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       """Add a row to the current window."""
                       self.count += value

                   def value(self):
                       """Return the current value of the aggregate."""
                       return self.count

                   def inverse(self, value):
                       """Remove a row from the current window."""
                       self.count -= value

                   def finalize(self):
                       """Return the final value of the aggregate.

                       Any clean-up actions should be placed here.
                       """
                       return self.count


               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x, y)")
               values = [
                   ("a", 4),
                   ("b", 5),
                   ("c", 3),
                   ("d", 8),
                   ("e", 1),
               ]
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test VALUES(?, ?)", values)
               con.create_window_function("sumint", 1, WindowSumInt)
               cur.execute("""
                   SELECT x, sumint(y) OVER (
                       ORDER BY x ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING
                   ) AS sum_y
                   FROM test ORDER BY x
               """)
               print(cur.fetchall())
               con.close()

      -- Méthode: create_collation (name, callable, /)

          Create a collation named 'name' using the collating function
          'callable'.  'callable' is passed two *note string: 437.
          arguments, and it should return an *note integer: 254.:

             * ‘1’ if the first is ordered higher than the second

             * ‘-1’ if the first is ordered lower than the second

             * ‘0’ if they are ordered equal

          The following example shows a reverse sorting collation:

               def collate_reverse(string1, string2):
                   if string1 == string2:
                       return 0
                   elif string1 < string2:
                       return 1
                   else:
                       return -1

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_collation("reverse", collate_reverse)

               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x)")
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test(x) VALUES(?)", [("a",), ("b",)])
               cur.execute("SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY x COLLATE reverse")
               for row in cur:
                   print(row)
               con.close()

          Remove a collation function by setting 'callable' to ‘None’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: The collation name can contain
          any Unicode character.  Earlier, only ASCII characters were
          allowed.

      -- Méthode: interrupt ()

          Call this method from a different thread to abort any queries
          that might be executing on the connection.  Aborted queries
          will raise an *note OperationalError: 185a.

      -- Méthode: set_authorizer (authorizer_callback)

          Register *note callable: 28a7. 'authorizer_callback' to be
          invoked for each attempt to access a column of a table in the
          database.  The callback should return one of *note SQLITE_OK:
          28aa, *note SQLITE_DENY: 28ab, or *note SQLITE_IGNORE: 28ac.
          to signal how access to the column should be handled by the
          underlying SQLite library.

          The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of
          operation is to be authorized.  The second and third argument
          will be arguments or ‘None’ depending on the first argument.
          The 4th argument is the name of the database ("main", "temp",
          etc.)  if applicable.  The 5th argument is the name of the
          inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access
          attempt or ‘None’ if this access attempt is directly from
          input SQL code.

          Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible
          values for the first argument and the meaning of the second
          and third argument depending on the first one.  All necessary
          constants are available in the ‘sqlite3’ module.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'authorizer_callback' will disable the
          authorizer.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for disabling the
          authorizer using ‘None’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing 'authorizer_callback' as
          a keyword argument is deprecated.  The parameter will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- Méthode: set_progress_handler (progress_handler, n)

          Register *note callable: 28a7. 'progress_handler' to be
          invoked for every 'n' instructions of the SQLite virtual
          machine.  This is useful if you want to get called from SQLite
          during long-running operations, for example to update a GUI.

          If you want to clear any previously installed progress
          handler, call the method with ‘None’ for 'progress_handler'.

          Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will
          terminate the currently executing query and cause it to raise
          a *note DatabaseError: 28cd. exception.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing 'progress_handler' as a
          keyword argument is deprecated.  The parameter will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- Méthode: set_trace_callback (trace_callback)

          Register *note callable: 28a7. 'trace_callback' to be invoked
          for each SQL statement that is actually executed by the SQLite
          backend.

          The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as
          *note str: 437.) that is being executed.  The return value of
          the callback is ignored.  Note that the backend does not only
          run statements passed to the *note Cursor.execute(): 2cf.
          methods.  Other sources include the *note transaction
          management: 2892. of the ‘sqlite3’ module and the execution of
          triggers defined in the current database.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'trace_callback' will disable the trace
          callback.

               Note: Exceptions raised in the trace callback are not
               propagated.  As a development and debugging aid, use
               *note enable_callback_tracebacks(): 28a5. to enable
               printing tracebacks from exceptions raised in the trace
               callback.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing 'trace_callback' as a
          keyword argument is deprecated.  The parameter will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- Méthode: enable_load_extension (enabled, /)

          Enable the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions from shared
          libraries if 'enabled' is ‘True’; else, disallow loading
          SQLite extensions.  SQLite extensions can define new
          functions, aggregates or whole new virtual table
          implementations.  One well-known extension is the
          fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

               Note: The ‘sqlite3’ module is not built with loadable
               extension support by default, because some platforms
               (notably macOS) have SQLite libraries which are compiled
               without this feature.  To get loadable extension support,
               you must pass the *note
               -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: 1d2b. option to
               ‘configure’.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ with arguments ‘connection’,
          ‘enabled’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ auditing event.

               con.enable_load_extension(True)

               # Load the fulltext search extension
               con.execute("select load_extension('./fts3.so')")

               # alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:
               # con.load_extension("./fts3.so")

               # disable extension loading again
               con.enable_load_extension(False)

               # example from SQLite wiki
               con.execute("CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE recipe USING fts3(name, ingredients)")
               con.executescript("""
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli stew', 'broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin stew', 'pumpkin onions garlic celery');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli pie', 'broccoli cheese onions flour');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin pie', 'pumpkin sugar flour butter');
                   """)
               for row in con.execute("SELECT rowid, name, ingredients FROM recipe WHERE name MATCH 'pie'"):
                   print(row)

      -- Méthode: load_extension (path, /, *, entrypoint=None)

          Load an SQLite extension from a shared library.  Enable
          extension loading with *note enable_load_extension(): 82a.
          before calling this method.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘path’ (*note str: 437.) - The path to the SQLite
               extension.

             * ‘entrypoint’ (*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - Entry point
               name.  If ‘None’ (the default), SQLite will come up with
               an entry point name of its own; see the SQLite docs
               Loading an Extension(2) for details.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          with arguments ‘connection’, ‘path’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the
          ‘sqlite3.load_extension’ auditing event.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'entrypoint'
          parameter.

      -- Méthode: iterdump (*, filter=None)

          Return an *note iterator: 1aa. to dump the database as SQL
          source code.  Useful when saving an in-memory database for
          later restoration.  Similar to the ‘.dump’ command in the
          ‘sqlite3’ shell.


          Paramètres: ‘filter’ (*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - An
          optional ‘LIKE’ pattern for database objects to dump, e.g.
          ‘prefix_%’.  If ‘None’ (the default), all database objects
          will be included.

          Exemple :

               # Convert file example.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
               con = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
                   for line in con.iterdump():
                       f.write('%s\n' % line)
               con.close()

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 28ce.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Ajout du paramètre 'filter'.

      -- Méthode: backup (target, *, pages=-1, progress=None,
               name='main', sleep=0.250)

          Create a backup of an SQLite database.

          Works even if the database is being accessed by other clients
          or concurrently by the same connection.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘target’ (*note Connection: 242.) - The database
               connection to save the backup to.

             * ‘pages’ (*note int: 254.) - The number of pages to copy
               at a time.  If equal to or less than ‘0’, the entire
               database is copied in a single step.  Defaults to ‘-1’.

             * ‘progress’ (*note callback: 28ca. | None) - If set to a
               *note callable: 28a7, it is invoked with three integer
               arguments for every backup iteration: the 'status' of the
               last iteration, the 'remaining' number of pages still to
               be copied, and the 'total' number of pages.  Defaults to
               ‘None’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the database to
               back up.  Either ‘"main"’ (the default) for the main
               database, ‘"temp"’ for the temporary database, or the
               name of a custom database as attached using the ‘ATTACH
               DATABASE’ SQL statement.

             * ‘sleep’ (*note float: 2ec.) - The number of seconds to
               sleep between successive attempts to back up remaining
               pages.

          Example 1, copy an existing database into another:

               def progress(status, remaining, total):
                   print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
               with dst:
                   src.backup(dst, pages=1, progress=progress)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
               src.backup(dst)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 28ce.

      -- Méthode: getlimit (category, /)

          Get a connection runtime limit.


          Paramètres: ‘category’ (*note int: 254.) - The SQLite limit
          category(3) to be queried.


          Type renvoyé: *note int: 254.


          Lève: *note ProgrammingError: 4df. - If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, query the maximum length of an SQL statement for
          *note Connection: 242. ‘con’ (the default is 1000000000):

               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH)
               1000000000

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: setlimit (category, limit, /)

          Set a connection runtime limit.  Attempts to increase a limit
          above its hard upper bound are silently truncated to the hard
          upper bound.  Regardless of whether or not the limit was
          changed, the prior value of the limit is returned.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘category’ (*note int: 254.) - The SQLite limit
               category(4) to be set.

             * ‘limit’ (*note int: 254.) - The value of the new limit.
               If negative, the current limit is unchanged.


          Type renvoyé: *note int: 254.


          Lève: *note ProgrammingError: 4df. - If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, limit the number of attached databases to 1 for *note
          Connection: 242. ‘con’ (the default limit is 10):

               >>> con.setlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED, 1)
               10
               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED)
               1

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: getconfig (op, /)

          Query a boolean connection configuration option.


          Paramètres: ‘op’ (*note int: 254.) - A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG
          code: 28b1.


          Type renvoyé: *note bool: 453.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: setconfig (op, enable=True, /)

          Set a boolean connection configuration option.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘op’ (*note int: 254.) - A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG code:
               28b1.

             * ‘enable’ (*note bool: 453.) - ‘True’ if the configuration
               option should be enabled (default); ‘False’ if it should
               be disabled.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: serialize (*, name='main')

          Serialize a database into a *note bytes: 1bd. object.  For an
          ordinary on-disk database file, the serialization is just a
          copy of the disk file.  For an in-memory database or a "temp"
          database, the serialization is the same sequence of bytes
          which would be written to disk if that database were backed up
          to disk.


          Paramètres: ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The database name to be
          serialized.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Type renvoyé: *note bytes: 1bd.

               Note: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the serialize API.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: deserialize (data, /, *, name='main')

          Deserialize a *note serialized: 66b. database into a *note
          Connection: 242.  This method causes the database connection
          to disconnect from database 'name', and reopen 'name' as an
          in-memory database based on the serialization contained in
          'data'.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘data’ (*note bytes: 1bd.) - A serialized database.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The database name to
               deserialize into.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Lève:

             * *note OperationalError: 185a. - If the database
               connection is currently involved in a read transaction or
               a backup operation.

             * *note DatabaseError: 28cd. - If 'data' does not contain a
               valid SQLite database.

             * *note OverflowError: 86f. - If *note len(data): 61b. is
               larger than ‘2**63 - 1’.

               Note: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the deserialize API.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Attribut: autocommit

          This attribute controls PEP 249(5)-compliant transaction
          behaviour.  ‘autocommit’ has three allowed values:

             * ‘False’: Select PEP 249(6)-compliant transaction
               behaviour, implying that ‘sqlite3’ ensures a transaction
               is always open.  Use *note commit(): 2893. and *note
               rollback(): 28c5. to close transactions.

               This is the recommended value of ‘autocommit’.

             * ‘True’: Use SQLite's autocommit mode(7).  *note commit():
               2893. and *note rollback(): 28c5. have no effect in this
               mode.

             * *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2.: Pre-Python 3.12
               (non- PEP 249(8)-compliant) transaction control.  See
               *note isolation_level: 28a0. for more details.

               This is currently the default value of ‘autocommit’.

          Changing ‘autocommit’ to ‘False’ will open a new transaction,
          and changing it to ‘True’ will commit any pending transaction.

          See *note Transaction control via the autocommit attribute:
          4a3. for more details.

               Note: The *note isolation_level: 28a0. attribute has no
               effect unless *note autocommit: 4a2. is *note
               LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Attribut: in_transaction

          This read-only attribute corresponds to the low-level SQLite
          autocommit mode(9).

          ‘True’ if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted
          changes), ‘False’ otherwise.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Attribut: isolation_level

          Controls the *note legacy transaction handling mode: 28a1. of
          ‘sqlite3’.  If set to ‘None’, transactions are never
          implicitly opened.  If set to one of ‘"DEFERRED"’,
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’, or ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’, corresponding to the
          underlying SQLite transaction behaviour(10), *note implicit
          transaction management: 28a1. is performed.

          If not overridden by the 'isolation_level' parameter of *note
          connect(): 2a5, the default is ‘""’, which is an alias for
          ‘"DEFERRED"’.

               Note: Using *note autocommit: 4a2. to control transaction
               handling is recommended over using ‘isolation_level’.
               ‘isolation_level’ has no effect unless *note autocommit:
               4a2. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2.
               (the default).

      -- Attribut: row_factory

          The initial *note row_factory: 28d0. for *note Cursor: 2890.
          objects created from this connection.  Assigning to this
          attribute does not affect the ‘row_factory’ of existing
          cursors belonging to this connection, only new ones.  Is
          ‘None’ by default, meaning each row is returned as a *note
          tuple: 366.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 2897. for more
          details.

      -- Attribut: text_factory

          A *note callable: 28a7. that accepts a *note bytes: 1bd.
          parameter and returns a text representation of it.  The
          callable is invoked for SQLite values with the ‘TEXT’ data
          type.  By default, this attribute is set to *note str: 437.

          See *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 28ce. for
          more details.

      -- Attribut: total_changes

          Return the total number of database rows that have been
          modified, inserted, or deleted since the database connection
          was opened.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/deterministic.html

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/loadext.html#loading_an_extension

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (7) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (9) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (10) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Cursor objects,  Next: Row objects,  Prev: Connection objects,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.6 Cursor objects
.......................

     A ‘Cursor’ object represents a database cursor(1) which is used to
     execute SQL statements, and manage the context of a fetch
     operation.  Cursors are created using *note Connection.cursor():
     288f, or by using any of the *note connection shortcut methods:
     28c4.

     Cursor objects are *note iterators: 1aa, meaning that if you *note
     execute(): 2cf. a ‘SELECT’ query, you can simply iterate over the
     cursor to fetch the resulting rows:

          for row in cur.execute("SELECT t FROM data"):
              print(row)

 -- Classe: sqlite3.Cursor

     A *note Cursor: 2890. instance has the following attributes and
     methods.

      -- Méthode: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Execute a single SQL statement, optionally binding Python
          values using *note placeholders: 2d1.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 437.) - A single SQL statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note dict: 253. | *note sequence: 4de.) -
               Python values to bind to placeholders in 'sql'.  A ‘dict’
               if named placeholders are used.  A sequence if unnamed
               placeholders are used.  See *note How to use placeholders
               to bind values in SQL queries: 2d1.


          Lève: *note ProgrammingError: 4df. - If 'sql' contains more
          than one SQL statement.

          If *note autocommit: 4a2. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          28a2, *note isolation_level: 28a0. is not ‘None’, 'sql' is an
          ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or ‘REPLACE’ statement, and
          there is no open transaction, a transaction is implicitly
          opened before executing 'sql'.

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 2d1. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence
          instead of a *note dict: 253.  Starting with Python 3.14,
          *note ProgrammingError: 4df. will be raised instead.

          Use *note executescript(): 28c9. to execute multiple SQL
          statements.

      -- Méthode: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          For every item in 'parameters', repeatedly execute the *note
          parameterized: 2d1. DML (Data Manipulation Language) SQL
          statement 'sql'.

          Uses the same implicit transaction handling as *note
          execute(): 2cf.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 437.) - A single SQL DML statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note iterable: 1207.) - An iterable of
               parameters to bind with the placeholders in 'sql'.  See
               *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL
               queries: 2d1.


          Lève: *note ProgrammingError: 4df. - If 'sql' contains more
          than one SQL statement, or is not a DML statement.

          Exemple :

               rows = [
                   ("row1",),
                   ("row2",),
               ]
               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO data VALUES(?)", rows)

               Note: Any resulting rows are discarded, including DML
               statements with RETURNING clauses(2).

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 2d1. are used and the items in 'parameters' are
          sequences instead of *note dict: 253.s.  Starting with Python
          3.14, *note ProgrammingError: 4df. will be raised instead.

      -- Méthode: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Execute the SQL statements in 'sql_script'.  If the *note
          autocommit: 4a2. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2.
          and there is a pending transaction, an implicit ‘COMMIT’
          statement is executed first.  No other implicit transaction
          control is performed; any transaction control must be added to
          'sql_script'.

          'sql_script' must be a *note string: 437.

          Exemple :

               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executescript("""
                   BEGIN;
                   CREATE TABLE person(firstname, lastname, age);
                   CREATE TABLE book(title, author, published);
                   CREATE TABLE publisher(name, address);
                   COMMIT;
               """)

      -- Méthode: fetchone ()

          If *note row_factory: 28d0. is ‘None’, return the next row
          query result set as a *note tuple: 366.  Else, pass it to the
          row factory and return its result.  Return ‘None’ if no more
          data is available.

      -- Méthode: fetchmany (size=cursor.arraysize)

          Return the next set of rows of a query result as a *note list:
          5fe.  Return an empty list if no more rows are available.

          The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the
          'size' parameter.  If 'size' is not given, *note arraysize:
          28d6. determines the number of rows to be fetched.  If fewer
          than 'size' rows are available, as many rows as are available
          are returned.

          Note there are performance considerations involved with the
          'size' parameter.  For optimal performance, it is usually best
          to use the arraysize attribute.  If the 'size' parameter is
          used, then it is best for it to retain the same value from one
          *note fetchmany(): 28d5. call to the next.

      -- Méthode: fetchall ()

          Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a *note list:
          5fe.  Return an empty list if no rows are available.  Note
          that the *note arraysize: 28d6. attribute can affect the
          performance of this operation.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Close the cursor now (rather than whenever ‘__del__’ is
          called).

          The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a *note
          ProgrammingError: 4df. exception will be raised if any
          operation is attempted with the cursor.

      -- Méthode: setinputsizes (sizes, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- Méthode: setoutputsize (size, column=None, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- Attribut: arraysize

          Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned
          by *note fetchmany(): 28d5.  The default value is 1 which
          means a single row would be fetched per call.

      -- Attribut: connection

          Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database *note
          Connection: 242. belonging to the cursor.  A *note Cursor:
          2890. object created by calling *note con.cursor(): 288f. will
          have a *note connection: 28da. attribute that refers to 'con':

               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> cur = con.cursor()
               >>> cur.connection == con
               True
               >>> con.close()

      -- Attribut: description

          Read-only attribute that provides the column names of the last
          query.  To remain compatible with the Python DB API, it
          returns a 7-tuple for each column where the last six items of
          each tuple are ‘None’.

          It is set for ‘SELECT’ statements without any matching rows as
          well.

      -- Attribut: lastrowid

          Read-only attribute that provides the row id of the last
          inserted row.  It is only updated after successful ‘INSERT’ or
          ‘REPLACE’ statements using the *note execute(): 2cf. method.
          For other statements, after *note executemany(): 2d0. or *note
          executescript(): 28c9, or if the insertion failed, the value
          of ‘lastrowid’ is left unchanged.  The initial value of
          ‘lastrowid’ is ‘None’.

               Note: Inserts into ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ tables are not
               recorded.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support for the ‘REPLACE’
          statement.

      -- Attribut: rowcount

          Read-only attribute that provides the number of modified rows
          for ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, and ‘REPLACE’ statements; is
          ‘-1’ for other statements, including CTE (Common Table
          Expression) queries.  It is only updated by the *note
          execute(): 2cf. and *note executemany(): 2d0. methods, after
          the statement has run to completion.  This means that any
          resulting rows must be fetched in order for ‘rowcount’ to be
          updated.

      -- Attribut: row_factory

          Control how a row fetched from this ‘Cursor’ is represented.
          If ‘None’, a row is represented as a *note tuple: 366.  Can be
          set to the included *note sqlite3.Row: e5c.; or a *note
          callable: 28a7. that accepts two arguments, a *note Cursor:
          2890. object and the ‘tuple’ of row values, and returns a
          custom object representing an SQLite row.

          Defaults to what *note Connection.row_factory: 15e9. was set
          to when the ‘Cursor’ was created.  Assigning to this attribute
          does not affect *note Connection.row_factory: 15e9. of the
          parent connection.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 2897. for more
          details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/lang_returning.html


File: python.info,  Node: Row objects,  Next: Blob objects,  Prev: Cursor objects,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.7 Row objects
....................

 -- Classe: sqlite3.Row

     A ‘Row’ instance serves as a highly optimized *note row_factory:
     15e9. for *note Connection: 242. objects.  It supports iteration,
     equality testing, *note len(): 61b, and *note mapping: 119b. access
     by column name and index.

     Two ‘Row’ objects compare equal if they have identical column names
     and values.

     See *note How to create and use row factories: 2897. for more
     details.

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Return a *note list: 5fe. of column names as *note strings:
          437.  Immediately after a query, it is the first member of
          each tuple in *note Cursor.description: 151c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support of slicing.


File: python.info,  Node: Blob objects,  Next: PrepareProtocol objects,  Prev: Row objects,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.8 Blob objects
.....................

 -- Classe: sqlite3.Blob

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     A *note Blob: 66f. instance is a *note file-like object: 2544. that
     can read and write data in an SQLite BLOB.  Call *note len(blob):
     61b. to get the size (number of bytes) of the blob.  Use indices
     and *note slices: 213a. for direct access to the blob data.

     Use the *note Blob: 66f. as a *note context manager: 5c0. to ensure
     that the blob handle is closed after use.

          con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
          con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(blob_col blob)")
          con.execute("INSERT INTO test(blob_col) VALUES(zeroblob(13))")

          # Write to our blob, using two write operations:
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              blob.write(b"hello, ")
              blob.write(b"world.")
              # Modify the first and last bytes of our blob
              blob[0] = ord("H")
              blob[-1] = ord("!")

          # Read the contents of our blob
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              greeting = blob.read()

          print(greeting)  # outputs "b'Hello, world!'"
          con.close()

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Close the blob.

          The blob will be unusable from this point onward.  An *note
          Error: 183d. (or subclass) exception will be raised if any
          further operation is attempted with the blob.

      -- Méthode: read (length=-1, /)

          Read 'length' bytes of data from the blob at the current
          offset position.  If the end of the blob is reached, the data
          up to EOF (End of File) will be returned.  When 'length' is
          not specified, or is negative, *note read(): 28e2. will read
          until the end of the blob.

      -- Méthode: write (data, /)

          Write 'data' to the blob at the current offset.  This function
          cannot change the blob length.  Writing beyond the end of the
          blob will raise *note ValueError: 1ff.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Return the current access position of the blob.

      -- Méthode: seek (offset, origin=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the current access position of the blob to 'offset'.  The
          'origin' argument defaults to *note os.SEEK_SET: 126d.
          (absolute blob positioning).  Other values for 'origin' are
          *note os.SEEK_CUR: 126e. (seek relative to the current
          position) and *note os.SEEK_END: 126f. (seek relative to the
          blob’s end).


File: python.info,  Node: PrepareProtocol objects,  Next: Exceptions<7>,  Prev: Blob objects,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.9 PrepareProtocol objects
................................

 -- Classe: sqlite3.PrepareProtocol

     The PrepareProtocol type's single purpose is to act as a PEP 246(1)
     style adaption protocol for objects that can *note adapt
     themselves: 28e7. to *note native SQLite types: 289c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<7>,  Next: SQLite and Python types,  Prev: PrepareProtocol objects,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.10 Exceptions
....................

The exception hierarchy is defined by the DB-API 2.0 ( PEP 249(1)).

 -- Exception: sqlite3.Warning

     This exception is not currently raised by the ‘sqlite3’ module, but
     may be raised by applications using ‘sqlite3’, for example if a
     user-defined function truncates data while inserting.  ‘Warning’ is
     a subclass of *note Exception: 9c9.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.Error

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  Use this to
     catch all errors with one single *note except: 189. statement.
     ‘Error’ is a subclass of *note Exception: 9c9.

     If the exception originated from within the SQLite library, the
     following two attributes are added to the exception:

      -- Attribut: sqlite_errorcode

          The numeric error code from the SQLite API(2)

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Attribut: sqlite_errorname

          The symbolic name of the numeric error code from the SQLite
          API(3)

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.InterfaceError

     Exception raised for misuse of the low-level SQLite C API. In other
     words, if this exception is raised, it probably indicates a bug in
     the ‘sqlite3’ module.  ‘InterfaceError’ is a subclass of *note
     Error: 183d.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.DatabaseError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.  This
     serves as the base exception for several types of database errors.
     It is only raised implicitly through the specialised subclasses.
     ‘DatabaseError’ is a subclass of *note Error: 183d.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.DataError

     Exception raised for errors caused by problems with the processed
     data, like numeric values out of range, and strings which are too
     long.  ‘DataError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 28cd.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.OperationalError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database's
     operation, and not necessarily under the control of the programmer.
     For example, the database path is not found, or a transaction could
     not be processed.  ‘OperationalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 28cd.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.IntegrityError

     Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is
     affected, e.g.  a foreign key check fails.  It is a subclass of
     *note DatabaseError: 28cd.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.InternalError

     Exception raised when SQLite encounters an internal error.  If this
     is raised, it may indicate that there is a problem with the runtime
     SQLite library.  ‘InternalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 28cd.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.ProgrammingError

     Exception raised for ‘sqlite3’ API programming errors, for example
     supplying the wrong number of bindings to a query, or trying to
     operate on a closed *note Connection: 242.  ‘ProgrammingError’ is a
     subclass of *note DatabaseError: 28cd.

 -- Exception: sqlite3.NotSupportedError

     Exception raised in case a method or database API is not supported
     by the underlying SQLite library.  For example, setting
     'deterministic' to ‘True’ in *note create_function(): 2a6, if the
     underlying SQLite library does not support deterministic functions.
     ‘NotSupportedError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 28cd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html

   (3) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html


File: python.info,  Node: SQLite and Python types,  Next: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Prev: Exceptions<7>,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.11 SQLite and Python types
.................................

SQLite natively supports the following types: ‘NULL’, ‘INTEGER’, ‘REAL’,
‘TEXT’, ‘BLOB’.

The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any
problem:

Type Python                         SQLite type
                                    
------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘None’                              ‘NULL’
                                    
                                    
*note int: 254.                     ‘INTEGER’
                                    
                                    
*note float: 2ec.                   ‘REAL’
                                    
                                    
*note str: 437.                     ‘TEXT’
                                    
                                    
*note bytes: 1bd.                   ‘BLOB’
                                    

This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:

SQLite type       Type Python
                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                  
‘NULL’            ‘None’
                  
                  
‘INTEGER’         *note int: 254.
                  
                  
‘REAL’            *note float: 2ec.
                  
                  
‘TEXT’            depends on *note text_factory: 28d1,
                  *note str: 437. by default
                  
                  
‘BLOB’            *note bytes: 1bd.
                  

The type system of the ‘sqlite3’ module is extensible in two ways: you
can store additional Python types in an SQLite database via *note object
adapters: 2895, and you can let the ‘sqlite3’ module convert SQLite
types to Python types via *note converters: 2896.


File: python.info,  Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Next: Command-line interface,  Prev: SQLite and Python types,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.12 Default adapters and converters (deprecated)
......................................................

     Note: The default adapters and converters are deprecated as of
     Python 3.12.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter recipes:
     4dd. and tailor them to your needs.

The deprecated default adapters and converters consist of:

   * An adapter for *note datetime.date: 1c8. objects to *note strings:
     437. in ISO 8601(1) format.

   * An adapter for *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. objects to strings in
     ISO 8601 format.

   * A converter for *note declared: 2896. "date" types to *note
     datetime.date: 1c8. objects.

   * A converter for declared "timestamp" types to *note
     datetime.datetime: 1c7. objects.  Fractional parts will be
     truncated to 6 digits (microsecond precision).

     Note: The default "timestamp" converter ignores UTC offsets in the
     database and always returns a naive *note datetime.datetime: 1c7.
     object.  To preserve UTC offsets in timestamps, either leave
     converters disabled, or register an offset-aware converter with
     *note register_converter(): 289d.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface,  Prev: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Up: Références<2>

5.12.6.13 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘sqlite3’ module can be invoked as a script, using the interpreter's
*note -m: 5cd. switch, in order to provide a simple SQLite shell.  The
argument signature is as follows:

     python -m sqlite3 [-h] [-v] [filename] [sql]

Type ‘.quit’ or CTRL-D to exit the shell.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print CLI help.

 -- Option: -v, --version

     Print underlying SQLite library version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: How-to guides,  Next: Explanation,  Prev: Références<2>,  Up: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.14 How-to guides
.......................

* Menu:

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Next: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.15 How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries
...............................................................

SQL operations usually need to use values from Python variables.
However, beware of using Python's string operations to assemble queries,
as they are vulnerable to SQL injection attacks(1).  For example, an
attacker can simply close the single quote and inject ‘OR TRUE’ to
select all rows:

     >>> # Never do this -- insecure!
     >>> symbol = input()
     ' OR TRUE; --
     >>> sql = "SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol
     >>> print(sql)
     SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '' OR TRUE; --'
     >>> cur.execute(sql)

Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution.  To insert a variable
into a query string, use a placeholder in the string, and substitute the
actual values into the query by providing them as a *note tuple: 366. of
values to the second argument of the cursor's *note execute(): 2cf.
method.

An SQL statement may use one of two kinds of placeholders: question
marks (qmark style) or named placeholders (named style).  For the qmark
style, 'parameters' must be a *note sequence: 4de. whose length must
match the number of placeholders, or a *note ProgrammingError: 4df. is
raised.  For the named style, 'parameters' must be an instance of a
*note dict: 253. (or a subclass), which must contain keys for all named
parameters; any extra items are ignored.  Here's an example of both
styles:

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")

     # This is the named style used with executemany():
     data = (
         {"name": "C", "year": 1972},
         {"name": "Fortran", "year": 1957},
         {"name": "Python", "year": 1991},
         {"name": "Go", "year": 2009},
     )
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO lang VALUES(:name, :year)", data)

     # This is the qmark style used in a SELECT query:
     params = (1972,)
     cur.execute("SELECT * FROM lang WHERE first_appeared = ?", params)
     print(cur.fetchall())
     con.close()

     Note: PEP 249(2) numeric placeholders are 'not' supported.  If
     used, they will be interpreted as named placeholders.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Next: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Prev: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.16 How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values
...........................................................

SQLite supports only a limited set of data types natively.  To store
custom Python types in SQLite databases, 'adapt' them to one of the
*note Python types SQLite natively understands: 289c.

There are two ways to adapt Python objects to SQLite types: letting your
object adapt itself, or using an 'adapter callable'.  The latter will
take precedence above the former.  For a library that exports a custom
type, it may make sense to enable that type to adapt itself.  As an
application developer, it may make more sense to take direct control by
registering custom adapter functions.

* Menu:

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::


File: python.info,  Node: How to write adaptable objects,  Next: How to register adapter callables,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.17 How to write adaptable objects
........................................

Suppose we have a ‘Point’ class that represents a pair of coordinates,
‘x’ and ‘y’, in a Cartesian coordinate system.  The coordinate pair will
be stored as a text string in the database, using a semicolon to
separate the coordinates.  This can be implemented by adding a
‘__conform__(self, protocol)’ method which returns the adapted value.
The object passed to 'protocol' will be of type *note PrepareProtocol:
179e.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __conform__(self, protocol):
             if protocol is sqlite3.PrepareProtocol:
                 return f"{self.x};{self.y}"

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(4.0, -3.2),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to register adapter callables,  Prev: How to write adaptable objects,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.18 How to register adapter callables
...........................................

The other possibility is to create a function that converts the Python
object to an SQLite-compatible type.  This function can then be
registered using *note register_adapter(): 28a6.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(1.0, 2.5),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Next: Adapter and converter recipes,  Prev: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.19 How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types
.............................................................

Writing an adapter lets you convert 'from' custom Python types 'to'
SQLite values.  To be able to convert 'from' SQLite values 'to' custom
Python types, we use 'converters'.

Let's go back to the ‘Point’ class.  We stored the x and y coordinates
separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.

First, we'll define a converter function that accepts the string as a
parameter and constructs a ‘Point’ object from it.

     Note: Converter functions are 'always' passed a *note bytes: 1bd.
     object, no matter the underlying SQLite data type.

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
         return Point(x, y)

We now need to tell ‘sqlite3’ when it should convert a given SQLite
value.  This is done when connecting to a database, using the
'detect_types' parameter of *note connect(): 2a5.  There are three
options:

   * Implicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 289e.

   * Explicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 289f.

   * Both: set 'detect_types' to ‘sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES |
     sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES’.  Column names take precedence over
     declared types.

The following example illustrates the implicit and explicit approaches:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __repr__(self):
             return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = list(map(float, s.split(b";")))
         return Point(x, y)

     # Register the adapter and converter
     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)
     sqlite3.register_converter("point", convert_point)

     # 1) Parse using declared types
     p = Point(4.0, -3.2)
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p point)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute("SELECT p FROM test")
     print("with declared types:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()

     # 2) Parse using column names
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute('SELECT p AS "p [point]" FROM test')
     print("with column names:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Adapter and converter recipes,  Next: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Prev: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.20 Adapter and converter recipes
.......................................

This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.

     import datetime
     import sqlite3

     def adapt_date_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.date to ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
         return int(val.timestamp())

     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.date, adapt_date_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)

     def convert_date(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
         return datetime.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_datetime(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_timestamp(val):
         """Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))

     sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
     sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
     sqlite3.register_converter("timestamp", convert_timestamp)


File: python.info,  Node: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Next: How to use the connection context manager,  Prev: Adapter and converter recipes,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.21 How to use connection shortcut methods
................................................

Using the *note execute(): 28c6, *note executemany(): 28c7, and *note
executescript(): 28c8. methods of the *note Connection: 242. class, your
code can be written more concisely because you don't have to create the
(often superfluous) *note Cursor: 2890. objects explicitly.  Instead,
the *note Cursor: 2890. objects are created implicitly and these
shortcut methods return the cursor objects.  This way, you can execute a
‘SELECT’ statement and iterate over it directly using only a single call
on the *note Connection: 242. object.

     # Create and fill the table.
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")
     data = [
         ("C++", 1985),
         ("Objective-C", 1984),
     ]
     con.executemany("INSERT INTO lang(name, first_appeared) VALUES(?, ?)", data)

     # Print the table contents
     for row in con.execute("SELECT name, first_appeared FROM lang"):
         print(row)

     print("I just deleted", con.execute("DELETE FROM lang").rowcount, "rows")

     # close() is not a shortcut method and it's not called automatically;
     # the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to use the connection context manager,  Next: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Prev: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.22 How to use the connection context manager
...................................................

A *note Connection: 242. object can be used as a context manager that
automatically commits or rolls back open transactions when leaving the
body of the context manager.  If the body of the *note with: 5be.
statement finishes without exceptions, the transaction is committed.  If
this commit fails, or if the body of the ‘with’ statement raises an
uncaught exception, the transaction is rolled back.  If *note
autocommit: 4a2. is ‘False’, a new transaction is implicitly opened
after committing or rolling back.

If there is no open transaction upon leaving the body of the ‘with’
statement, or if *note autocommit: 4a2. is ‘True’, the context manager
does nothing.

     Note: The context manager neither implicitly opens a new
     transaction nor closes the connection.  If you need a closing
     context manager, consider using *note contextlib.closing(): 28fc.

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR UNIQUE)")

     # Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards
     with con:
         con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))

     # con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception,
     # the exception is still raised and must be caught
     try:
         with con:
             con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))
     except sqlite3.IntegrityError:
         print("couldn't add Python twice")

     # Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,
     # so the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Next: How to create and use row factories,  Prev: How to use the connection context manager,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.23 How to work with SQLite URIs
......................................

Some useful URI tricks include:

   * Open a database in read-only mode:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:tutorial.db?mode=ro", uri=True)
     >>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
     >>> con.close()

   * Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already
     exist; will raise *note OperationalError: 185a. if unable to create
     a new file:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:nosuchdb.db?mode=rw", uri=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: unable to open database file

   * Create a shared named in-memory database:

     db = "file:mem1?mode=memory&cache=shared"
     con1 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     con2 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     with con1:
         con1.execute("CREATE TABLE shared(data)")
         con1.execute("INSERT INTO shared VALUES(28)")
     res = con2.execute("SELECT data FROM shared")
     assert res.fetchone() == (28,)

     con1.close()
     con2.close()

More information about this feature, including a list of parameters, can
be found in the SQLite URI documentation(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to create and use row factories,  Next: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.24 How to create and use row factories
.............................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ represents each row as a *note tuple: 366.  If a
‘tuple’ does not suit your needs, you can use the *note sqlite3.Row:
e5c. class or a custom *note row_factory: 28d0.

While ‘row_factory’ exists as an attribute both on the *note Cursor:
2890. and the *note Connection: 242, it is recommended to set *note
Connection.row_factory: 15e9, so all cursors created from the connection
will use the same row factory.

‘Row’ provides indexed and case-insensitive named access to columns,
with minimal memory overhead and performance impact over a ‘tuple’.  To
use ‘Row’ as a row factory, assign it to the ‘row_factory’ attribute:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = sqlite3.Row

Queries now return ‘Row’ objects:

     >>> res = con.execute("SELECT 'Earth' AS name, 6378 AS radius")
     >>> row = res.fetchone()
     >>> row.keys()
     ['name', 'radius']
     >>> row[0]         # Access by index.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["name"]    # Access by name.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["RADIUS"]  # Column names are case-insensitive.
     6378
     >>> con.close()

     Note: The ‘FROM’ clause can be omitted in the ‘SELECT’ statement,
     as in the above example.  In such cases, SQLite returns a single
     row with columns defined by expressions, e.g.  literals, with the
     given aliases ‘expr AS alias’.

You can create a custom *note row_factory: 28d0. that returns each row
as a *note dict: 253, with column names mapped to values:

     def dict_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         return {key: value for key, value in zip(fields, row)}

Using it, queries now return a ‘dict’ instead of a ‘tuple’:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = dict_factory
     >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b"):
     ...     print(row)
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> con.close()

The following row factory returns a *note named tuple: 63b.:

     from collections import namedtuple

     def namedtuple_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         cls = namedtuple("Row", fields)
         return cls._make(row)

‘namedtuple_factory()’ can be used as follows:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = namedtuple_factory
     >>> cur = con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b")
     >>> row = cur.fetchone()
     >>> row
     Row(a=1, b=2)
     >>> row[0]  # Indexed access.
     1
     >>> row.b   # Attribute access.
     2
     >>> con.close()

With some adjustments, the above recipe can be adapted to use a *note
dataclass: 1c6, or any other custom class, instead of a *note
namedtuple: 1c5.


File: python.info,  Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to create and use row factories,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.25 How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings
................................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ uses *note str: 437. to adapt SQLite values with
the ‘TEXT’ data type.  This works well for UTF-8 encoded text, but it
might fail for other encodings and invalid UTF-8.  You can use a custom
*note text_factory: 28d1. to handle such cases.

Because of SQLite's flexible typing(1), it is not uncommon to encounter
table columns with the ‘TEXT’ data type containing non-UTF-8 encodings,
or even arbitrary data.  To demonstrate, let's assume we have a database
with ISO-8859-2 (Latin-2) encoded text, for example a table of
Czech-English dictionary entries.  Assuming we now have a *note
Connection: 242. instance ‘con’ connected to this database, we can
decode the Latin-2 encoded text using this *note text_factory: 28d1.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, encoding="latin2")

For invalid UTF-8 or arbitrary data in stored in ‘TEXT’ table columns,
you can use the following technique, borrowed from the *note Guide
Unicode: 1284.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, errors="surrogateescape")

     Note: The ‘sqlite3’ module API does not support strings containing
     surrogates.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Guide Unicode: 1284.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation,  Prev: How-to guides,  Up: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.26 Explanation
.....................

* Menu:

* Transaction control::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control,  Up: Explanation

5.12.6.27 Transaction control
.............................

‘sqlite3’ offers multiple methods of controlling whether, when and how
database transactions are opened and closed.  *note Transaction control
via the autocommit attribute: 4a3. is recommended, while *note
Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 28a1. retains the
pre-Python 3.12 behaviour.

* Menu:

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Next: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.28 Transaction control via the ‘autocommit’ attribute
............................................................

The recommended way of controlling transaction behaviour is through the
*note Connection.autocommit: 4a2. attribute, which should preferably be
set using the 'autocommit' parameter of *note connect(): 2a5.

It is suggested to set 'autocommit' to ‘False’, which implies PEP
249(1)-compliant transaction control.  This means:

   * ‘sqlite3’ ensures that a transaction is always open, so *note
     connect(): 2a5, *note Connection.commit(): 2893, and *note
     Connection.rollback(): 28c5. will implicitly open a new transaction
     (immediately after closing the pending one, for the latter two).
     ‘sqlite3’ uses ‘BEGIN DEFERRED’ statements when opening
     transactions.

   * Transactions should be committed explicitly using ‘commit()’.

   * Transactions should be rolled back explicitly using ‘rollback()’.

   * An implicit rollback is performed if the database is *note close():
     243.-ed with pending changes.

Set 'autocommit' to ‘True’ to enable SQLite's autocommit mode(2).  In
this mode, *note Connection.commit(): 2893. and *note
Connection.rollback(): 28c5. have no effect.  Note that SQLite's
autocommit mode is distinct from the PEP 249(3)-compliant *note
Connection.autocommit: 4a2. attribute; use *note
Connection.in_transaction: 28cf. to query the low-level SQLite
autocommit mode.

Set 'autocommit' to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2. to leave
transaction control behaviour to the *note Connection.isolation_level:
28a0. attribute.  See *note Transaction control via the isolation_level
attribute: 28a1. for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Prev: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.29 Transaction control via the ‘isolation_level’ attribute
.................................................................

     Note: The recommended way of controlling transactions is via the
     *note autocommit: 4a2. attribute.  See *note Transaction control
     via the autocommit attribute: 4a3.

If *note Connection.autocommit: 4a2. is set to *note
LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28a2. (the default), transaction behaviour
is controlled using the *note Connection.isolation_level: 28a0.
attribute.  Otherwise, ‘isolation_level’ has no effect.

If the connection attribute *note isolation_level: 28a0. is not ‘None’,
new transactions are implicitly opened before *note execute(): 2cf. and
*note executemany(): 2d0. executes ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or
‘REPLACE’ statements; for other statements, no implicit transaction
handling is performed.  Use the *note commit(): 2893. and *note
rollback(): 28c5. methods to respectively commit and roll back pending
transactions.  You can choose the underlying SQLite transaction
behaviour(1) — that is, whether and what type of ‘BEGIN’ statements
‘sqlite3’ implicitly executes – via the *note isolation_level: 28a0.
attribute.

If *note isolation_level: 28a0. is set to ‘None’, no transactions are
implicitly opened at all.  This leaves the underlying SQLite library in
autocommit mode(2), but also allows the user to perform their own
transaction handling using explicit SQL statements.  The underlying
SQLite library autocommit mode can be queried using the *note
in_transaction: 28cf. attribute.

The *note executescript(): 28c9. method implicitly commits any pending
transaction before execution of the given SQL script, regardless of the
value of *note isolation_level: 28a0.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ‘sqlite3’ used to implicitly commit an open
transaction before DDL statements.  This is no longer the case.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The recommended way of controlling
transactions is now via the *note autocommit: 4a2. attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Compression de donnée et archivage,  Next: Formats de fichiers,  Prev: Persistance des données,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.13 Compression de donnée et archivage
=======================================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre implémentent les algorithmes de
compression 'zlib', 'gzip', 'bzip2' et 'lzma', ainsi que la création
d'archives 'ZIP' et 'tar'.  Voir aussi *note Archiving operations: 11f8.
fourni par le module *note shutil: c4.

* Menu:

* zlib: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip. Compression compatible with gzip
* gzip: gzip --- Support for gzip files. Support for gzip files
* bz2: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression. Support for bzip2 compression
* lzma: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm. Compression using the LZMA algorithm
* zipfile: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives. Work with ZIP archives
* tarfile: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files. Read and write tar archive files


File: python.info,  Node: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip,  Next: gzip --- Support for gzip files,  Up: Compression de donnée et archivage

5.13.1 ‘zlib’ -- Compression compatible with ‘gzip’
---------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Pour des applications nécessitant de compresser des données, les
fonctions de ce module permettent la compression et la décompression via
la bibliothèque 'zlib'.  La bibliothèque 'zlib' a sa propre page web sur
‘https://www.zlib.net’.  Il existe des incompatibilités connues entre le
module Python et les versions de la bibliothèque 'zlib' plus anciennes
que la 1.1.3 ; 1.1.3 contient une faille de sécurité(1) et nous
recommandons d'utiliser plutôt la version 1.1.4 ou plus récente.

Les fonctions 'zlib' recèlent de nombreuses options et il est nécessaire
de suivre un ordre précis.  Cette documentation n'a pas pour but de
couvrir la globalité des possibilités.  Aussi, veuillez consulter le
manuel 'zlib' en ligne sur ‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’ pour
compléter davantage son utilisation.

Pour lire ou écrire des fichiers ‘.gz’ veuillez consulter le module
*note gzip: 66.

Les exceptions et fonctions disponibles dans ce module sont :

 -- Exception: zlib.error

     Exception levée lors d'erreurs de compression et de décompression.

 -- Fonction: zlib.adler32 (data[, value])

     Calcule une somme de contrôle Adler-32 de 'data' (une somme de
     contrôle Adler-32 est aussi fiable qu'un CRC32 mais peut être
     calculée bien plus rapidement).  Le résultat produit est un entier
     non signé de 32-bit.  Si 'value' est défini, il devient la valeur
     initiale de la somme de contrôle ; sinon une valeur par défaut de 1
     est utilisée.  Définir 'value' permet de calculer une somme de
     contrôle continue pendant la concaténation de plusieurs entrées.
     Cet algorithme n'a aucune garantie cryptographique puissante, et ne
     doit pas être utilisé ni pour l'authentification, ni pour des
     signatures numériques.  Conçu comme un algorithme de somme de
     contrôle, il n'est pas adapté pour une utilisation sous forme de
     clé de hachage générique.

     Modifié dans la version 3.0: Renvoie une valeur non-signée.

 -- Fonction: zlib.compress (data, /, level=-1, wbits=MAX_WBITS)

     Compresses the bytes in 'data', returning a bytes object containing
     compressed data.  'level' is an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’ or ‘-1’
     controlling the level of compression; ‘1’ (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest
     and produces the least compression, ‘9’ (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) is
     slowest and produces the most.  ‘0’ (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no
     compression.  The default value is ‘-1’ (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).
     Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default compromise between speed
     and compression (currently equivalent to level 6).  L'argument
     'wbits' contrôle la taille du tampon d'historique ("'window size'")
     utilisé lors de la compression, et si un en-tête et un bloc final
     seront inclus.  Il accepte plusieurs intervalles de valeurs, et
     vaut ‘15’ (MAX_WBITS) par défaut :

        * De +9 à +15 : le logarithme binaire de la taille du tampon,
          par conséquent compris entre 512 et 32 768.  Des valeurs plus
          grandes produisent de meilleures compressions aux dépens d'une
          utilisation mémoire plus grande.  Le résultat final inclus des
          en-têtes et des blocs spécifiques à 'zlib'.

        * De ‘-9’ à ‘-15’ : utilise la valeur absolue de 'wbits' comme
          logarithme binaire de la taille du tampon, et ne produit pas
          d'entêtes ni de bloc final.

        * De +25 à +31 = 16 + (9 à 15) : utilise les 4 bits de poids
          faible comme logarithme binaire de la taille du tampon, tout
          en incluant un entête ‘gzip’ et une somme de contrôle finale.

     Raises the *note error: 2909. exception if any error occurs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'level' peut maintenant être passé par
     son nom.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'wbits' parameter is now
     available to set window bits and compression type.

 -- Fonction: zlib.compressobj (level=-1, method=DEFLATED,
          wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL,
          strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])

     Renvoie un objet "compresseur", à utiliser pour compresser des flux
     de données qui ne peuvent pas être stockés entièrement en mémoire.

     'level' est le taux de compression - un entier compris entre ‘0’ et
     ‘9’ ou ‘-1’.  La valeur ‘1’ est la plus rapide avec taux de
     compression minimal, tandis que la valeur ‘9’ est la plus lente
     mais produit une compression maximale.  ‘0’ ne produit aucune
     compression.  La valeur par défaut est ‘-1’
     ('Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION').  La constante 'Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION'
     équivaut à un bon compromis par défaut entre rapidité et bonne
     compression (valeur équivalente au niveau 6).

     'method' définit l'algorithme de compression.  Pour le moment, la
     seule valeur acceptée est ‘DEFLATED’.

     The 'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     the "window size"), and what header and trailer format will be
     used.  It has the same meaning as *note described for compress():
     290a.

     L'argument 'memLevel' permet d'ajuster la quantité de mémoire
     utilisée pour stocker l'état interne de la compression.  Les
     valeurs valides sont comprises entre ‘1’ et ‘9’.  Des valeurs plus
     élevées occupent davantage de mémoire, mais sont plus rapides et
     produisent des sorties plus compressées.

     'strategy' permet d'ajuster l'algorithme de compression.  Les
     valeurs possibles sont ‘Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY’, ‘Z_FILTERED’, et
     ‘Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY’, ‘Z_RLE’ ('zlib' 1.2.0.1) et ‘Z_FIXED’ ('zlib'
     1.2.2.2).

     'zdict' est un dictionnaire de compression prédéfini.  C'est une
     séquence d'octets (tel qu'un objet *note bytes: 1bd.) contenant des
     sous-séquences attendues régulièrement dans les données à
     compresser.  Les sous-séquences les plus fréquentes sont à placer à
     la fin du dictionnaire.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout du paramètre 'zdict'.

 -- Fonction: zlib.crc32 (data[, value])

     Calcule la somme de contrôle CRC ('Cyclic Redundancy Check' en
     anglais) de l'argument 'data'.  Il renvoie un entier non signé de
     32 bits.  Si l'argument 'value' est présent, il permet de définir
     la valeur de départ de la somme de contrôle.  Sinon, la valeur par
     défaut est 0.  L'argument 'value' permet de calculer la somme de
     contrôle glissante d'une concaténation de données.  L'algorithme
     n'est pas fort d'un point de vue cryptographique, et ne doit pas
     être utilisé pour l'authentification ou des signatures numériques.
     Cet algorithme a été conçu pour être exploité comme un algorithme
     de somme de contrôle, ce n'est pas un algorithme de hachage
     générique.

     Modifié dans la version 3.0: Renvoie une valeur non-signée.

 -- Fonction: zlib.decompress (data, /, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)

     Décompresse les octets de 'data', renvoyant un objet 'bytes'
     contenant les données décompressées.  Le paramètre 'wbits' dépend
     du format des données compressées, et est abordé plus loin.  Si
     l'argument 'bufsize' est défini, il est utilisé comme taille
     initiale du tampon de sortie.  En cas d'erreur, l'exception *note
     error: 2909. est levée.  L'argument 'wbits' contrôle la taille du
     tampon d'historique ("'window size'") utilisé lors de la
     compression, et si un en-tête et un bloc final sont attendus.
     Similaire au paramètre de *note compressobj(): 290b, mais accepte
     une gamme plus large de valeurs :

        * De +8 à +15 : logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon.
          L'entrée doit contenir un en-tête et un bloc 'zlib'.

        * 0 : détermine automatiquement la taille du tampon à partir de
          l'en-tête 'zlib'.  Géré uniquement depuis 'zlib' 1.2.3.5.

        * De ‘-8’ à ‘-15’ : utilise la valeur absolue de 'wbits' comme
          logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon.  L'entrée doit
          être un flux brut, sans en-tête ni bloc final.

        * De +24 à +31 = 16 + (8 à 15) : utilise les 4 de poids faible
          comme logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon.  L'entrée
          doit contenir un en-tête 'gzip' et son bloc final.

        * De +40 à +47 = 32 + (8 à 15) : utilise les 4 bits de poids
          faible comme logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon, et
          accepte automatiquement les formats 'zlib' ou 'gzip'.

     Lors de la décompression d'un flux, la taille du tampon ne doit pas
     être inférieure à la taille initialement utilisée pour compresser
     le flux.  L'utilisation d'une valeur trop petite peut déclencher
     une exception *note error: 2909.  La valeur par défaut 'wbits'
     correspond à une taille élevée du tampon et nécessite d'y adjoindre
     un en-tête 'zlib' et son bloc final.

     L'argument 'bufsize' correspond à la taille initiale du tampon
     utilisé pour contenir les données décompressées.  Si plus d'espace
     est nécessaire, la taille du tampon sera augmentée au besoin, donc
     vous n'avez pas besoin de deviner la valeur exacte.  Un réglage
     précis n'économisera que quelques appels à ‘malloc()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'wbits' et 'bufsize' peuvent être
     utilisés comme arguments nommés.

 -- Fonction: zlib.decompressobj (wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])

     Renvoie un objet "décompresseur", à utiliser pour décompresser des
     flux de données qui ne rentrent pas entièrement en mémoire.

     Le paramètre 'wbits' contrôle la taille du tampon, et détermine
     quel format d'en-tête et de bloc sont prévus.  Il a la même
     signification que décrit pour *note decompress(): 290c.

     Le paramètre 'zdict' définit un dictionnaire de compression
     prédéfini.  S'il est fourni, il doit être identique au dictionnaire
     utilisé par le compresseur, à l'origine des données à décompresser.

          Note: Si 'zdict' est un objet modifiable (tel qu'un *note
          bytearray: 52b, par exemple), vous ne devez pas modifier son
          contenu entre l'appel à la fonction *note decompressobj():
          290d. et le premier appel à la méthode ‘decompress()’ du
          décompresseur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout du paramètre 'zdict'.

Les objets de compression gèrent les méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: Compress.compress (data)

     Compresse 'data' et renvoie au moins une partie des données
     compressées sous forme d'objet 'bytes'.  Ces données doivent être
     concaténées à la suite des appels précédant à *note compress():
     62c.  Certaines entrées peuvent être conservées dans des tampons
     internes pour un traitement ultérieur.

 -- Méthode: Compress.flush ([mode])

     Toutes les entrées mises en attente sont traitées et un objet
     'bytes' contenant la sortie des données compressées restantes est
     renvoyé.  L'argument 'mode' accepte l'une des constantes
     suivantes : ‘Z_NO_FLUSH’, ‘Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH’, ‘Z_SYNC_FLUSH’,
     ‘Z_FULL_FLUSH’, ‘Z_BLOCK’ ('zlib' 1.2.3.4), et ‘Z_FINISH’, par
     défaut ‘Z_FINISH’.  Sauf ‘Z_FINISH’, toutes les constantes
     permettent de compresser d'autres chaînes d'octets, tandis que
     ‘Z_FINISH’ finalise le flux compressé et bloque toute autre
     tentative de compression.  Suite à l'appel de la méthode *note
     flush(): 290f. avec l'argument 'mode' défini à ‘Z_FINISH’, la
     méthode *note compress(): 62c. ne peut plus être rappelée.  Il ne
     reste plus qu'à supprimer l'objet.

 -- Méthode: Compress.copy ()

     Renvoie une copie de l'objet "compresseur".  Utile pour compresser
     efficacement un ensemble de données qui partagent un préfixe
     initial commun.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les objets compresseurs gère maintenant
*note copy.copy(): 520. et *note copy.deepcopy(): b5e.

Les objets décompresseurs prennent en charge les méthodes et attributs
suivants :

 -- Attribut: Decompress.unused_data

     Un objet 'bytes' contenant tous les octets restants après les
     données compressées.  Il vaut donc ‘b""’ tant que des données
     compressées sont disponibles.  Si toute la chaîne d'octets ne
     contient que des données compressées, il vaut toujours ‘b""’, un
     objet 'bytes' vide.

 -- Attribut: Decompress.unconsumed_tail

     Un objet 'bytes' contenant toutes les données non-traitées par le
     dernier appel à la méthode *note decompress(): cfd, à cause d'un
     dépassement de la limite du tampon de données décompressées.  Ces
     données n'ont pas encore été traitées par la bibliothèque 'zlib',
     vous devez donc les envoyer (potentiellement en y concaténant
     encore des données) par un appel à la méthode *note decompress():
     cfd. pour obtenir une sortie correcte.

 -- Attribut: Decompress.eof

     Booléen qui signale si la fin du flux compressé est atteint.

     This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly formed
     compressed stream, and an incomplete or truncated one.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: Decompress.decompress (data, max_length=0)

     Décompresse 'data', renvoie un objet 'bytes', contenant au moins
     une partie des données décompressées.  Ce résultat doit être
     concaténé aux résultats des appels précédents à *note decompress():
     cfd.  Des données d'entrée peuvent être conservées dans les tampons
     internes pour un traitement ultérieur.

     Si le paramètre optionnel 'max_length' est différent de zéro alors
     la valeur renvoyée n'est pas plus grande que 'max_length'.  Cela
     peut amener à une décompression partielle.  Les données non-encore
     décompressées sont stockées dans l'attribut *note unconsumed_tail:
     2912.  Cette chaîne d'octets doit être transmise à un appel
     ultérieur à *note decompress(): cfd.  Si 'max_length' vaut zéro, la
     totalité de l'entrée est décompressée, et l'attribut *note
     unconsumed_tail: 2912. reste vide.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'max_length' peut être utilisé comme
     un argument nommé.

 -- Méthode: Decompress.flush ([length])

     Toutes les entrées en attente sont traitées, et un objet 'bytes'
     est renvoyé, contenant le reste des données à décompresser.  Après
     l'appel à *note flush(): 2914, la méthode *note decompress(): cfd.
     ne peut pas être rappelée.  Il ne reste qu'à détruire l'objet.

     Le paramètre optionnel 'length' définit la taille initiale du
     tampon de sortie.

 -- Méthode: Decompress.copy ()

     Renvoie une copie du décompresseur.  Vous pouvez l'utiliser pour
     sauvegarder l'état de la décompression en cours, afin de pouvoir
     revenir rapidement à cet endroit plus tard.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de *note copy.copy():
520. et de *note copy.deepcopy():
b5e. au support de décompression d'objets.

Des informations relatives à la version de la bibliothèque 'zlib'
utilisée sont disponibles via les constantes suivantes :

 -- Données: zlib.ZLIB_VERSION

     Version de la bibliothèque 'zlib' utilisée lors de la compilation
     du module.  Elle peut être différente de la bibliothèque 'zlib'
     actuellement utilisée par le système, qui est consultable par *note
     ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1150.

 -- Données: zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION

     Chaîne contenant la version de la bibliothèque 'zlib' actuellement
     utilisée par l'interpréteur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note gzip: 66.

     Lire et écrire des fichiers au format ‘gzip’.

‘http://www.zlib.net’

     Page officielle de la bibliothèque 'zlib'.

‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’

     La documentation de 'zlib' explique le sens et l'utilisation des
     nombreuses fonctions fournies par la bibliothèque.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal(2) package
speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://zlib.net/zlib_faq.html#faq33

   (2) https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal


File: python.info,  Node: gzip --- Support for gzip files,  Next: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression,  Prev: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip,  Up: Compression de donnée et archivage

5.13.2 ‘gzip’ -- Support for ‘gzip’ files
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/gzip.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une interface simple pour compresser et décompresser
des fichiers tout comme le font les programmes GNU ‘gzip’ et ‘gunzip’.

La compression de données est fournie par le module *note zlib: 132.

Le module *note gzip: 66. fournit la classe *note GzipFile: 410. ainsi
que les fonctions pratiques *note open(): 2919, *note compress(): 62b.
et *note decompress(): 11ec.  La classe *note GzipFile: 410. lit et
écrit des fichiers au format ‘gzip’, compressant et décompressant
automatiquement les données pour qu'elles aient l'apparence d'un objet
*note file object: 11a2. ordinaire.

Notez que les formats de fichier supplémentaires qui peuvent être
décompressés par les programmes ‘gzip’ et ‘gunzip’, comme ceux produits
par le programmes ‘compress’ et ‘pack’, ne sont pas gérés par ce module.

Le module définit les éléments suivants :

 -- Fonction: gzip.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Ouvre un fichier compressé en 'gzip' en mode binaire ou texte,
     renvoie un objet *note file object: 11a2.

     L'argument 'filename' peut être un nom de fichier (un objet *note
     str: 437. ou *note bytes: 1bd.) ou un objet fichier existant que
     l'on peut lire, ou où l'on peut écrire.

     L'argument 'mode' peut-être ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’, ‘'w'’,
     ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ ou ‘'xb'’ pour le mode binaire ou ‘'rt'’, ‘'at'’,
     ‘'wt'’, ou ‘'xt'’ pour le mode texte.  Le mode par défaut est
     ‘'rb'’.

     L'argument 'compresslevel' est un entier de 0 à 9, comme pour le
     constructeur de la classe *note GzipFile: 410.

     En mode binaire, cette fonction est équivalente au constructeur de
     la classe *note GzipFile: 410. : ‘GzipFile(filename, mode,
     compresslevel)’.  Dans ce cas, les arguments 'encoding', 'errors'
     et 'newline' ne doivent pas être fournis.

     En mode texte, un objet *note GzipFile: 410. est créé et empaqueté
     dans une instance de *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. avec l'encodage,
     la gestion d'erreur et les fins de ligne spécifiés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la prise en charge de
     'filename' en tant qu'objet 'file', du mode texte et des arguments
     'encoding', 'errors' et 'newline'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la prise en charge des modes
     ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’ et ‘'xt'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Exception: gzip.BadGzipFile

     An exception raised for invalid gzip files.  It inherits from *note
     OSError: 40d.  *note EOFError: 12b9. and *note zlib.error: 2909.
     can also be raised for invalid gzip files.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Classe: gzip.GzipFile (filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9,
          fileobj=None, mtime=None)

     Constructor for the *note GzipFile: 410. class, which simulates
     most of the methods of a *note file object: 11a2, with the
     exception of the *note truncate(): 12f1. method.  At least one of
     'fileobj' and 'filename' must be given a non-trivial value.

     La nouvelle instance de classe est basée sur 'fileobj' qui peut
     être un fichier usuel, un objet *note io.BytesIO: e8f. ou tout
     autre objet qui simule un fichier.  'fileobj' est par défaut à
     'None', dans ce cas 'filename' est ouvert afin de fournir un objet
     fichier.

     Quand 'fileobj' n'est pas à ‘None’, l'argument 'filename' est
     uniquement utilisé pour être inclus dans l'entête du fichier
     ‘gzip’, qui peut inclure le nom original du fichier décompressé.
     Il est par défaut défini avec le nom de fichier de 'fileobj' s'il
     est discernable, sinon il est par défaut défini à une chaîne de
     caractères vide et dans ce cas le nom du fichier orignal n'est pas
     inclus dans l'entête.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’, or ‘'xb'’, depending on whether the file will
     be read or written.  The default is the mode of 'fileobj' if
     discernible; otherwise, the default is ‘'rb'’.  In future Python
     releases the mode of 'fileobj' will not be used.  It is better to
     always specify 'mode' for writing.

     Notez que le fichier est toujours ouvert en mode binaire.  Pour
     ouvrir un fichier compressé en mode texte, utilisez la fonction
     *note open(): 2919. (ou empaquetez votre classe *note GzipFile:
     410. avec un *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.).

     L'argument 'compresslevel' est un entier de ‘0’ à ‘9’ contrôlant le
     niveau de compression, ‘1’ est le plus rapide et produit la
     compression la plus faible et ‘9’ est le plus rapide et produit la
     compression la plus élevée.  ‘0’ désactive la compression.  Par
     défaut à ‘9’.

     The optional 'mtime' argument is the timestamp requested by gzip.
     The time is in Unix format, i.e., seconds since 00:00:00 UTC,
     January 1, 1970.  If 'mtime' is omitted or ‘None’, the current time
     is used.  Use 'mtime' = 0 to generate a compressed stream that does
     not depend on creation time.

     See below for the *note mtime: 291a. attribute that is set when
     decompressing.

     Calling a *note GzipFile: 410. object's ‘close()’ method does not
     close 'fileobj', since you might wish to append more material after
     the compressed data.  This also allows you to pass an *note
     io.BytesIO: e8f. object opened for writing as 'fileobj', and
     retrieve the resulting memory buffer using the *note io.BytesIO:
     e8f. object's *note getvalue(): 291b. method.

     *note GzipFile: 410. supports the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681.
     interface, including iteration and the *note with: 5be. statement.
     Only the *note truncate(): 12f1. method isn't implemented.

     La classe *note GzipFile: 410. fournit aussi la méthode et
     l'attribut suivant :

      -- Méthode: peek (n)

          Read 'n' uncompressed bytes without advancing the file
          position.  The number of bytes returned may be more or less
          than requested.

               Note: Bien que l'appel à *note peek(): 11eb. ne change
               pas la position dans le fichier de l'objet *note
               GzipFile: 410, il peut changer la position de l'objet de
               fichier sous-jacent (par exemple, si l'instance de *note
               GzipFile: 410. a été construite avec le paramètre
               'fileobj').

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Attribut: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: In previous versions it was an
          integer ‘1’ or ‘2’.

      -- Attribut: mtime

          When decompressing, this attribute is set to the last
          timestamp in the most recently read header.  It is an integer,
          holding the number of seconds since the Unix epoch (00:00:00
          UTC, January 1, 1970).  The initial value before reading any
          headers is ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: name

          The path to the gzip file on disk, as a *note str: 437. or
          *note bytes: 1bd.  Equivalent to the output of *note
          os.fspath(): c43. on the original input path, with no other
          normalization, resolution or expansion.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de la prise en charge du
     mot-clef *note with: 5be, ainsi que de l'argument 'mtime' du
     constructeur et de l'attribut *note mtime: 291a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la prise en charge des
     fichiers non navigables ou commençant par des octets nuls.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode *note
     io.BufferedIOBase.read1(): 291d. est désormais implémentée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la prise en charge des modes
     ‘'x'’ et ‘'xb'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la prise en charge de
     l'écriture d'objets *note bytes-like objects: d1d. arbitraires.  La
     méthode *note read(): 1308. accepte désormais un argument de valeur
     ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Opening *note GzipFile: 410. for
     writing without specifying the 'mode' argument is deprecated.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute, use
     the *note name: 4f9. attribute instead.

 -- Fonction: gzip.compress (data, compresslevel=9, *, mtime=None)

     Compress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 1bd. object
     containing the compressed data.  'compresslevel' and 'mtime' have
     the same meaning as in the *note GzipFile: 410. constructor above.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'mtime' parameter for
     reproducible output.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Speed is improved by compressing all
     data at once instead of in a streamed fashion.  Calls with 'mtime'
     set to ‘0’ are delegated to *note zlib.compress(): 62c. for better
     speed.  In this situation the output may contain a gzip header "OS"
     byte value other than 255 "unknown" as supplied by the underlying
     zlib implementation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The gzip header OS byte is guaranteed
     to be set to 255 when this function is used as was the case in 3.10
     and earlier.

 -- Fonction: gzip.decompress (data)

     Decompress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 1bd. object
     containing the uncompressed data.  This function is capable of
     decompressing multi-member gzip data (multiple gzip blocks
     concatenated together).  When the data is certain to contain only
     one member the *note zlib.decompress(): cfd. function with 'wbits'
     set to 31 is faster.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Speed is improved by decompressing
     members at once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

* Menu:

* Exemples d'utilisation::
* Interface en ligne de commande::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/gzip.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'utilisation,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande,  Up: gzip --- Support for gzip files

5.13.2.1 Exemples d'utilisation
...............................

Exemple montrant comment lire un fichier compressé :

     import gzip
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Exemple montrant comment créer un fichier GZIP :

     import gzip
     content = b"Lots of content here"
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(content)

Exemple montrant comment compresser dans un GZIP un fichier existant :

     import gzip
     import shutil
     with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
         with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
             shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)

Exemple montrant comment compresser dans un GZIP un binaire dans une
chaîne :

     import gzip
     s_in = b"Lots of content here"
     s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note zlib: 132.

     Le module de compression de données de base nécessaire pour gérer
     le format de fichier ‘gzip’.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal(1) package
speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande,  Prev: Exemples d'utilisation,  Up: gzip --- Support for gzip files

5.13.2.2 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

The *note gzip: 66. module provides a simple command line interface to
compress or decompress files.

Once executed the *note gzip: 66. module keeps the input file(s).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Add a new command line interface with a
usage.  By default, when you will execute the CLI, the default
compression level is 6.

* Menu:

* Options de la ligne de commande::


File: python.info,  Node: Options de la ligne de commande,  Up: Interface en ligne de commande

5.13.2.3 Options de la ligne de commande
........................................

 -- Option: file

     If 'file' is not specified, read from *note sys.stdin: 52a.

 -- Option: --fast

     Indicates the fastest compression method (less compression).

 -- Option: --best

     Indicates the slowest compression method (best compression).

 -- Option: -d, --decompress

     Decompress the given file.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Affiche le message d'aide.


File: python.info,  Node: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression,  Next: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Prev: gzip --- Support for gzip files,  Up: Compression de donnée et archivage

5.13.3 ‘bz2’ -- Support for ‘bzip2’ compression
-----------------------------------------------

'Code Source :' Lib/bz2.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une interface complète pour compresser et décompresser
les données en utilisant l'algorithme de compression 'bzip2'.

Le module *note bz2: 13. contient :

   * La fonction *note open(): 1079. et la classe *note BZ2File: 853.
     pour lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.

   * Les classes *note BZ2Compressor: 1719. et *note BZ2Decompressor:
     1717. pour la (dé)compression incrémentielle.

   * Les fonctions *note compress(): 23cc. et *note decompress(): 107a.
     pour la (dé)compression en une seule fois.

* Menu:

* (Dé)compression de fichiers: Dé compression de fichiers.
* (Dé)compression incrémentielle: Dé compression incrémentielle.
* (Dé)compression en une fois: Dé compression en une fois.
* Exemples d'utilisation: Exemples d'utilisation<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bz2.py


File: python.info,  Node: Dé compression de fichiers,  Next: Dé compression incrémentielle,  Up: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.1 (Dé)compression de fichiers
....................................

 -- Fonction: bz2.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Ouvre un fichier compressé par 'bzip2' en mode binaire ou texte, le
     renvoyant en *note file object: 11a2.

     Tout comme avec le constructeur pour la classe *note BZ2File: 853,
     l'argument 'filename' peut être un nom de fichier réel (un objet
     *note str: 437. ou *note bytes: 1bd.), ou un objet fichier existant
     à lire ou à écrire.

     L'argument 'mode' peut valoir ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’,
     ‘'xb'’, ‘'a'’ ou ‘'ab'’ pour le mode binaire, ou ‘'rt'’, ‘'wt'’,
     ‘'xt'’ ou ‘'at'’ pour le mode texte.  Il vaut par défaut ‘'rb'’.

     L'argument 'compresslevel' est un entier de 1 à 9, comme pour le
     constructeur *note BZ2File: 853.

     Pour le mode binaire, cette fonction est équivalente au
     constructeur *note BZ2File: 853. : ‘BZ2File(filename, mode,
     compresslevel=compresslevel)’.  Dans ce cas, les arguments
     'encoding', 'errors' et 'newline' arguments ne doivent pas être
     fournis.

     Pour le mode texte, un objet *note BZ2File: 853. est créé et
     encapsulé dans une instance *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. avec
     l'encodage spécifié, le comportement de gestion des erreurs et les
     fins de ligne.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le mode ‘'x'’ (création exclusive) est
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Classe: bz2.BZ2File (filename, mode='r', *, compresslevel=9)

     Ouvre un fichier 'bzip2' en mode binaire.

     Si 'filename' est un objet *note str: 437. ou *note bytes: 1bd,
     ouvre le nom de fichier directement.  Autrement, 'filename' doit
     être un *note file object: 11a2, qui est utilisé pour lire ou
     écrire les données compressées.

     L'argument 'mode' peut être soit ‘'r'’ pour lire (par défaut),
     ‘'w'’ pour écraser, ‘'x'’ pour créer exclusivement, ou ‘'a'’ pour
     ajouter.  Ils peuvent également être écrits respectivement comme
     ‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'xb'’ et ‘'ab'’.

     Si 'filename' est un objet fichier (plutôt que le nom de fichier
     réel), le mode ‘'w'’ ne tronque pas le fichier, mais équivaut à
     ‘'a'’.

     Si 'mode' est ‘'w'’ ou ‘'a'’, 'compresslevel' peut être un entier
     entre ‘1’ et ‘9’ spécifiant le niveau de compression : ‘1’ utilise
     la compression la moins forte, et ‘9’ (par défaut) la compression
     la plus forte.

     Si 'mode' est ‘'r'’, le fichier d'entrée peut être la concaténation
     de plusieurs flux compressés.

     *note BZ2File: 853. provides all of the members specified by the
     *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681, except for *note detach(): 292d. and
     *note truncate(): 12f1.  Iteration and the *note with: 5be.
     statement are supported.

     *note BZ2File: 853. also provides the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- Méthode: peek ([n])

          Renvoie des données en mémoire tampon sans avancer la position
          du fichier.  Au moins un octet de donnée (sauf l'EOF) est
          renvoyé.  Le nombre exact d'octets renvoyés n'est pas
          spécifié.

               Note: Bien que l'appel à la méthode *note peek(): 292e.
               ne change pas la position du fichier de la classe *note
               BZ2File: 853, il peut changer la position de l'objet
               fichier sous-jacent (e.g. si la classe *note BZ2File:
               853. a été construite en passant un objet fichier à
               'filename').

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor for the underlying file.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: readable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for reading.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: writable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for writing.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: read1 (size=-1)

          Read up to 'size' uncompressed bytes, while trying to avoid
          making multiple reads from the underlying stream.  Reads up to
          a buffer's worth of data if size is negative.

          Returns ‘b''’ if the file is at EOF.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: readinto (b)

          Read bytes into 'b'.

          Returns the number of bytes read (0 for EOF).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: name

          The bzip2 file name.  Equivalent to the *note name: 2937.
          attribute of the underlying *note file object: 11a2.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: La prise en charge de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. a été ajoutée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: La gestion de 'filename' comme *note
     file object: 11a2. au lieu d'un nom de fichier réel a été ajoutée.

     Le mode ‘'a'’ (ajout) a été ajouté, avec la prise en charge de la
     lecture des fichiers 'multiflux'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le mode ‘'x'’ (création exclusive) est
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La méthode *note read(): 1308. accepte
     maintenant un argument ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le paramètre 'buffering' a été
     supprimé.  Il était ignoré et obsolète depuis Python 3.0.  Passez
     un objet fichier déjà ouvert si vous voulez contrôler la façon dont
     le fichier est ouvert.

     Le paramètre 'compresslevel' est devenu un paramètre exclusivement
     nommé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Cette classe n'est plus protégée d'un
     accès concurrent malheureux par plusieurs lecteurs ou compresseurs.
     C'était déjà le cas depuis toujours des classes analogues dans les
     modules *note gzip: 66. et *note lzma: 89.


File: python.info,  Node: Dé compression incrémentielle,  Next: Dé compression en une fois,  Prev: Dé compression de fichiers,  Up: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.2 (Dé)compression incrémentielle
.......................................

 -- Classe: bz2.BZ2Compressor (compresslevel=9)

     Crée un nouvel objet compresseur.  Cet objet peut être utilisé pour
     compresser les données de manière incrémentielle.  Pour une
     compression en une seule fois, utilisez à la place la fonction
     *note compress(): 23cc.

     'compresslevel', s'il est fourni, doit être un entier entre ‘1’ et
     ‘9’.  Sa valeur par défaut est ‘9’.

      -- Méthode: compress (data)

          Fournit la donnée à l'objet compresseur.  Renvoie un bloc de
          données compressées si possible, ou autrement une chaîne
          d'octet vide.

          Quand vous avez fini de fournir des données au compresseur,
          appelez la méthode *note flush(): 293a. pour finir le
          processus de compression.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Finit le processus de compression.  Renvoie la donnée
          compressée restante dans les tampons internes.

          L'objet compresseur ne peut pas être utilisé après que cette
          méthode a été appelée.

 -- Classe: bz2.BZ2Decompressor

     Crée un nouvel objet décompresseur.  Cet objet peut être utilisé
     pour décompresser les données de manière incrémentielle.  Pour une
     compression en une seule fois, utilisez à la place la fonction
     *note decompress(): 107a.

          Note: Cette classe ne gère pas de manière transparente les
          entrées contenant plusieurs flux compressés, à la différence
          de *note decompress(): 107a. et *note BZ2File: 853.  Si vous
          avez besoin de décompresser une entrée 'multiflux' avec la
          classe *note BZ2Decompressor: 1717, vous devez utiliser un
          nouveau décompresseur pour chaque flux.

      -- Méthode: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Décompresse 'data' (un *note bytes-like object: d1d.),
          renvoyant une donnée non compressée en tant que chaîne
          d'octets.  Certaines de ces 'data' peuvent être mises en
          interne en tampon, pour un usage lors d'appels ultérieurs par
          la méthode *note decompress(): 107a.  La donnée renvoyée doit
          être concaténée avec la sortie des appels précédents à la
          méthode *note decompress(): 107a.

          Si 'max_length' est positif, renvoie au plus 'max_length'
          octets de données compressées.  Si la limite est atteinte et
          que d'autres sorties peuvent être produites, l'attribut *note
          needs_input: 293b. est positionné sur ‘False’.  Dans ce cas,
          lors de l'appel suivant à la méthode *note decompress(): dbb,
          vous pouvez fournir ‘b''’ dans 'data' afin d'obtenir la suite
          de la sortie.

          Si toutes les données entrées ont été décompressées et
          renvoyées (soit parce qu'il y avait moins de 'max_length'
          octets, ou parce que 'max_length' était négatif), l'attribut
          *note needs_input: 293b. sera configuré sur ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 12b9.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 293c. attribute.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre 'max_length'.

      -- Attribut: eof

          ‘True’ si le marqueur de fin de flux a été atteint.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: unused_data

          Donnée trouvée après la fin du flux compressé.

          Si l'attribut est accédé avant que la fin du flux ait été
          atteint, sa valeur sera ‘b''’.

      -- Attribut: needs_input

          ‘False’ si la méthode *note decompress(): dbb. peut fournir
          plus de données décompressées avant l'acquisition d'une
          nouvelle entrée non compressée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Dé compression en une fois,  Next: Exemples d'utilisation<2>,  Prev: Dé compression incrémentielle,  Up: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.3 (Dé)compression en une fois
....................................

 -- Fonction: bz2.compress (data, compresslevel=9)

     Compresse 'data', un *note bytes-like object: d1d.

     'compresslevel', s'il est fourni, doit être un entier entre ‘1’ et
     ‘9’.  Sa valeur par défaut est ‘9’.

     Pour la compression incrémentielle, utilisez à la place la classe
     *note BZ2Compressor: 1719.

 -- Fonction: bz2.decompress (data)

     Décompresse 'data', un *note bytes-like object: d1d.

     Si 'data' est la concaténation de multiples flux compressés,
     décompresse tous les flux.

     Pour une décompression incrémentielle, utilisez à la place la
     classe *note BZ2Decompressor: 1717.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge des entrées
     'multiflux'.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'utilisation<2>,  Prev: Dé compression en une fois,  Up: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.4 Exemples d'utilisation
...............................

Ci-dessous, nous présentons quelques exemples typiques de l'utilisation
du module *note bz2: 13.

Utilise les fonctions *note compress(): 23cc. et *note decompress():
107a. pour démontrer une compression aller-retour :

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> c = bz2.compress(data)
     >>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
     1.513595166163142
     >>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
     >>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True

Utilise la classe *note BZ2Compressor: 1719. pour une compression
incrémentielle :

     >>> import bz2
     >>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
     ...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
     ...     for _ in range(chunks):
     ...         yield b"z" * chunksize
     ...
     >>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
     >>> out = b""
     >>> for chunk in gen_data():
     ...     # Provide data to the compressor object
     ...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
     ...
     >>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
     >>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
     >>> out = out + comp.flush()

The example above uses a very "nonrandom" stream of data (a stream of
‘b"z"’ chunks).  Random data tends to compress poorly, while ordered,
repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.

Écriture et lecture en mode binaire d'un fichier compressé avec
'bzip2' :

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
     ...     # Write compressed data to file
     ...     unused = f.write(data)
     ...
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
     ...     # Decompress data from file
     ...     content = f.read()
     ...
     >>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True


File: python.info,  Node: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Next: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives,  Prev: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression,  Up: Compression de donnée et archivage

5.13.4 ‘lzma’ -- Compression using the LZMA algorithm
-----------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

'Code source :' Lib/lzma.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des classes et des fonctions utiles pour compresser et
décompresser des données en utilisant l'algorithme de compression LZMA.
Ce module inclut aussi aussi une interface prenant en charge les
fichiers ‘.xz’ et son format originel ‘.lzma’ utilisés par l'utilitaire
‘xz’, ainsi que les flux bruts compressés.

The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the
*note bz2: 13. module.  Note that *note LZMAFile: ff7. and *note
bz2.BZ2File: 853. are 'not' thread-safe, so if you need to use a single
*note LZMAFile: ff7. instance from multiple threads, it is necessary to
protect it with a lock.

 -- Exception: lzma.LZMAError

     Cette exception est levée dès lors qu'une erreur survient pendant
     la compression ou la décompression, ou pendant l'initialisation de
     l'état de la compression/décompression.

* Menu:

* Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés::
* Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire::
* Divers: Divers<2>.
* Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées::
* Exemples: Exemples<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/lzma.py


File: python.info,  Node: Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés,  Next: Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire,  Up: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.1 Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés
...............................................

 -- Fonction: lzma.open (filename, mode='rb', *, format=None, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 11a2.

     L'argument 'nom de fichier' peut être soit le nom d'un fichier à
     créer (donné pour *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. ou un objet
     *note path-like: 29d.), dont le fichier nommé reste ouvert, ou soit
     un objet fichier existant à lire ou à écrire.

     L'argument 'mode' peut être n'importe quel argument suivant :
     ‘"r"’, ‘"rb"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"wb"’, ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’, ‘"a"’ ou ‘"ab"’ pour
     le mode binaire, ou ‘"rt"’, ‘"wt"’, ‘"xt"’, ou ‘"at"’ pour le mode
     texte.  La valeur par défaut est ‘"rb"’.

     Quand un fichier est ouvert pour le lire, les arguments 'format' et
     'filters' ont les mêmes significations que pour la *note
     LZMADecompressor: 1716.  Par conséquent, les arguments 'check' et
     'preset' ne devront pas être sollicités.

     Dès ouverture d'un fichier pour l'écriture, les arguments 'format',
     'check', 'preset' et 'filters' ont le même sens que dans la *note
     LZMACompressor: 1718.

     Pour le mode binaire, cette fonction équivaut au constructeur de la
     *note LZMAFile: ff7. : ‘LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)’.  Dans ce
     cas précis, les arguments 'encoding', 'errors' et 'newline' ne sont
     pas accessibles.

     For text mode, a *note LZMAFile: ff7. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Support ajouté pour les modes ‘"x"’,
     ‘"xb"’ et ‘"xt"’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Classe: lzma.LZMAFile (filename=None, mode='r', *, format=None,
          check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

     Ouvre un fichier LZMA compressé en mode binaire.

     An *note LZMAFile: ff7. can wrap an already-open *note file object:
     11a2, or operate directly on a named file.  The 'filename' argument
     specifies either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file
     to open (as a *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. or *note path-like:
     29d. object).  When wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped
     file will not be closed when the *note LZMAFile: ff7. is closed.

     L'argument 'mode' peut être soit ‘"r"’ pour la lecture (défaut),
     ‘"w"’ pour la ré-écriture, ‘"x"’ pour la création exclusive, ou
     ‘"a"’ pour l'insertion.  Elles peuvent aussi être écrites de la
     façon suivante : ‘"rb"’, ‘"wb"’, ‘"xb"’ et ‘"ab"’ respectivement.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘"w"’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘"a"’.

     Dès l'ouverture d'un fichier pour être lu, le fichier d'entrée peut
     être le résultat d'une concaténation de plusieurs flux distincts et
     compressés.  Ceux-ci sont décodés de manière transparente en un
     seul flux logique.

     Quand un fichier est ouvert pour le lire, les arguments 'format' et
     'filters' ont les mêmes significations que pour la *note
     LZMADecompressor: 1716.  Par conséquent, les arguments 'check' et
     'preset' ne devront pas être sollicités.

     Dès ouverture d'un fichier pour l'écriture, les arguments 'format',
     'check', 'preset' et 'filters' ont le même sens que dans la *note
     LZMACompressor: 1718.

     *note LZMAFile: ff7. supports all the members specified by *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 681, except for *note detach(): 292d. and *note
     truncate(): 12f1.  Iteration and the *note with: 5be. statement are
     supported.

     The following method and attributes are also provided:

      -- Méthode: peek (size=-1)

          Renvoie la donnée en mémoire-tampon sans progression de la
          position du fichier.  Au moins un octet de donnée sera
          renvoyé, jusqu'à ce que l'EOF soit atteinte.  Le nombre exact
          d'octets renvoyés demeure indéterminé (l'argument 'taille' est
          ignoré).

               Note: While calling *note peek(): 2946. does not change
               the file position of the *note LZMAFile: ff7, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note LZMAFile: ff7. was constructed by passing a
               file object for 'filename').

      -- Attribut: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: name

          The lzma file name.  Equivalent to the *note name: 2937.
          attribute of the underlying *note file object: 11a2.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added support for the ‘"x"’ and ‘"xb"’
     modes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La méthode *note read(): 1308. accepte
     maintenant un argument ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.


File: python.info,  Node: Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire,  Next: Divers<2>,  Prev: Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés,  Up: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.2 Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire
.........................................................

 -- Classe: lzma.LZMACompressor (format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None)

     Créé un objet compresseur, qui peut être utilisé pour compresser
     incrémentalement une donnée.

     Pour une façon plus adaptée de compresser un seul extrait de
     donnée, voir *note compress(): 294a.

     L'argument 'format' définit quel format de conteneur sera mis en
     œuvre.  Les valeurs possibles sont :

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_XZ’: Le format du conteneur ‘.xz’.

               C'est le format par défaut.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_ALONE’: L'ancien format du conteneur ‘.lzma’.

               Ce format est davantage limité que ‘.xz’ -il ne supporte
               pas les vérifications d'intégrité ou les filtres
               multiples.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’: Un flux de données brut, n'utilisant aucun format de conteneur.

               Ce format spécifique ne prend pas en charge les
               vérifications d'intégrité et exige systématiquement la
               définition d'une chaîne de filtrage personnalisée (à la
               fois pour la compression et la décompression).  Par
               ailleurs, les données compressées par ce biais ne peuvent
               pas être décompressées par l'usage de ‘FORMAT_AUTO’ (voir
               : *note LZMADecompressor: 1716.).

     L'argument 'check' détermine le type de vérification d'intégrité à
     exploiter avec la donnée compressée.  Cette vérification est
     déclenchée lors de la décompression, pour garantir que la donnée
     n'a pas été corrompue.  Les valeurs possibles sont :

        * ‘CHECK_NONE’: Pas de vérification d'intégrité.  C'est la
          valeur par défaut (et la seule valeur acceptable) pour
          ‘FORMAT_ALONE’ et ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC32’: Vérification par Redondance Cyclique 32-bit
          ('Cyclic Redundancy Check').

        * ‘CHECK_CRC64’: Vérification par Redondance Cyclique 64-bit
          ('Cyclic Redundancy Check').  Valeur par défaut pour
          ‘FORMAT_XZ’.

        * ‘CHECK_SHA256’: Algorithme de Hachage Sécurisé 256-bit
          ('Secure Hash Algorithm').

     Si le type de vérification n'est pas supporté par le système, une
     erreur de type *note LZMAError: 2943. est levée.

     Les réglages de compression peuvent être définis soit comme un
     pré-réglage de niveau de compression (avec l'argument 'preset') ;
     soit de façon détaillée comme une chaîne particulière de filtres
     (avec l'argument 'filters').

     L'argument 'preset' (s'il est fourni) doit être un entier compris
     entre ‘0’ et ‘9’ (inclus), éventuellement relié à OR avec la
     constante ‘PRESET_EXTREME’.  Si aucun 'preset' ni 'filters' ne ont
     définis, le comportement par défaut consiste à utiliser la
     ‘PRESET_DEFAULT’ (niveau par défaut : ‘6’).  Des pré-réglages plus
     élevés entraîne une sortie plus petite, mais rend le processus de
     compression plus lent.

          Note: En plus d'être plus gourmande en CPU, la compression
          avec des préréglages plus élevés nécessite beaucoup plus de
          mémoire (et produit des résultats qui nécessitent plus de
          mémoire pour décompresser).  Par exemple, avec le préréglage
          ‘9’, l'objet d'une *note LZMACompressor: 1718. peut dépasser
          largement les 800 Mo.  Pour cette raison, il est généralement
          préférable de respecter le préréglage par défaut.

     L'argument 'filters' (s'il est défini) doit être un critère de la
     chaîne de filtrage.  Voir *note Préciser des chaînes de filtre
     personnalisées: 294b. pour plus de précisions.

      -- Méthode: compress (data)

          Une 'data' compressée (un objet *note bytes: 1bd.), renvoie un
          objet *note bytes: 1bd. contenant une donnée compressée pour
          au moins une partie de l'entrée.  Certaine 'data' peuvent être
          mise en tampon, pour être utiliser lors de prochains appels
          par *note compress(): 294a. et *note flush(): 294d.  La donnée
          renvoyée pourra être concaténée avec la sortie d'appels
          précédents vers la méthode *note compress(): 294a.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Conclut l'opération de compression, en renvoyant l'objet *note
          bytes: 1bd. constitué de toutes les données stockées dans les
          tampons interne du compresseur.

          The compressor cannot be used after this method has been
          called.

 -- Classe: lzma.LZMADecompressor (format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Créé un objet de décompression, pour décompresser de façon
     incrémentale une donnée.

     Pour un moyen plus pratique de décompresser un flux compressé
     complet en une seule fois, voir *note decompress(): 294e.

     L'argument 'format' spécifie le format du conteneur à utiliser.  La
     valeur par défaut est ‘FORMAT_AUTO’ pouvant à la fois décompresser
     les fichiers ‘.xz’ et ‘.lzma’.  D'autres valeurs sont possibles
     comme ‘FORMAT_XZ’, ‘FORMAT_ALONE’, et ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

     L'argument 'memlimit' spécifie une limite (en octets) sur la
     quantité de mémoire que le décompresseur peut utiliser.  Lorsque
     cet argument est utilisé, la décompression échouera avec une *note
     LZMAError: 2943. s'il n'est pas possible de décompresser l'entrée
     dans la limite mémoire disponible.

     L'argument 'filters' spécifie la chaîne de filtrage utilisée pour
     créer le flux décompressé.  Cet argument est requis si 'format' est
     ‘FORMAT_RAW’, mais ne doit pas être utilisé pour d'autres formats.
     Voir *note Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées: 294b.
     pour plus d'informations sur les chaînes de filtrage.

          Note: Cette classe ne gère pas de manière transparente les
          entrées contenant plusieurs flux compressés, contrairement à
          *note decompress(): 294e. et *note LZMAFile: ff7.  Pour
          décompresser une entrée multi-flux avec *note
          LZMADecompressor: 1716, vous devez créer un nouveau
          décompresseur à chaque flux.

      -- Méthode: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Décompresse 'data' (un *note bytes-like object: d1d.),
          renvoyant une donnée non compressée en tant que chaîne
          d'octets.  Certaines de ces 'data' peuvent être mises en
          interne en tampon, pour un usage lors d'appels ultérieurs par
          la méthode *note decompress(): 294e.  La donnée renvoyée doit
          être concaténée avec la sortie des appels précédents à la
          méthode *note decompress(): 294e.

          Si 'max_length' est positif, renvoie au plus 'max_length'
          octets de données compressées.  Si la limite est atteinte et
          que d'autres sorties peuvent être produites, l'attribut *note
          needs_input: 294f. est positionné sur ‘False’.  Dans ce cas,
          lors de l'appel suivant à la méthode *note decompress(): e1d,
          vous pouvez fournir ‘b''’ dans 'data' afin d'obtenir la suite
          de la sortie.

          Si toutes les données entrées ont été décompressées et
          renvoyées (soit parce qu'il y avait moins de 'max_length'
          octets, ou parce que 'max_length' était négatif), l'attribut
          *note needs_input: 294f. sera configuré sur ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 12b9.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 2950. attribute.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre 'max_length'.

      -- Attribut: check

          L'ID de la vérification d'intégrité exploité par le flux
          entrant.  Il s'agit de ‘CHECK_UNKNOWN’ tant que ce flux a été
          décodé pour déterminer quel type de vérification d'intégrité à
          été utilisé.

      -- Attribut: eof

          ‘True’ si le marqueur de fin de flux a été atteint.

      -- Attribut: unused_data

          Donnée trouvée après la fin du flux compressé.

          Avant d'atteindre la fin du flux, ce sera ‘b""’.

      -- Attribut: needs_input

          ‘False’ si la méthode *note decompress(): e1d. peut fournir
          plus de données décompressées avant l'acquisition d'une
          nouvelle entrée non compressée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: lzma.compress (data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None)

     'data' compressée (un objet *note bytes: 1bd.), renvoyant une
     donnée compressée comme un objet *note bytes: 1bd.

     Voir *note LZMACompressor: 1718. ci-dessus pour une description des
     arguments 'format', 'check', 'preset' et 'filters'.

 -- Fonction: lzma.decompress (data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Décompresse 'data' (un objet *note bytes: 1bd. ), et retourne la
     donnée décompressée sous la forme d'un objet *note bytes: 1bd.

     Si 'data' est le résultat de la concaténation de plusieurs flux
     compressés et distincts , il les décompresse tous, et retourne les
     résultats concaténés.

     Voir *note LZMADecompressor: 1716. ci-dessus pour une description
     des arguments 'format', 'memlimit' et 'filters'.


File: python.info,  Node: Divers<2>,  Next: Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées,  Prev: Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire,  Up: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.3 Divers
...............

 -- Fonction: lzma.is_check_supported (check)

     Return ‘True’ if the given integrity check is supported on this
     system.

     ‘CHECK_NONE’ et ‘CHECK_CRC32’ sont toujours pris en charge.
     ‘CHECK_CRC64’ et ‘CHECK_SHA256’ peuvent être indisponibles si vous
     utilisez une version de ‘liblzma’ compilée avec des possibilités
     restreintes.


File: python.info,  Node: Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées,  Next: Exemples<8>,  Prev: Divers<2>,  Up: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.4 Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées
......................................................

Une chaîne de filtres est une séquence de dictionnaires, où chaque
dictionnaire contient l'ID et les options pour chaque filtre.  Le
moindre dictionnaire contient la clé ‘"id"’ et peut aussi contenir
d'autres clés pour préciser chaque options relative au filtre déclaré.
Les ID valides des filtres sont définies comme suit :

   * Filtres de compression :

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA1’ (à utiliser avec ‘FORMAT_ALONE’)

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA2’ (à utiliser avec ‘FORMAT_XZ’ et ‘FORMAT_RAW’)

   * Filtre Delta :

        * ‘FILTER_DELTA’

   * Filtres Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) :

        * ‘FILTER_X86’

        * ‘FILTER_IA64’

        * ‘FILTER_ARM’

        * ‘FILTER_ARMTHUMB’

        * ‘FILTER_POWERPC’

        * ‘FILTER_SPARC’

Une chaîne de filtres peut contenir jusqu'à 4 filtres, et ne peut pas
être vide.  Le dernier filtre de cette chaîne devra être un filtre de
compression, et tous les autres doivent être des filtres delta ou BCJ.

Les filtres de compression contiennent les options suivantes (définies
comme entrées additionnelles dans le dictionnaire qui représente le
filtre) :

   * ‘preset’: Un pré-réglage à exploiter comme une source de valeurs
     par défaut pour les options qui ne sont pas explicitement définies.

   * ‘dict_size’: La taille du dictionnaire en octets.  Comprise entre 4
     Ko et 1.5 Go (inclus).

   * ‘lc’: Nombre de bits dans le contexte littéral.

   * ‘lp’: Nombre de bits dans la position littérale.  La somme ‘lc +
     lp’ devra être au moins 4.

   * ‘pb’: Nombre de bits à cette position ; au moins 4.

   * ‘mode’: ‘MODE_FAST’ ou ‘MODE_NORMAL’.

   * ‘nice_len’: Ce qui devra être pris en compte comme "longueur
     appréciable" pour une recherche.  Il devra être 273 ou moins.

   * ‘mf’: Quel type d'index de recherche à utiliser - ‘MF_HC3’,
     ‘MF_HC4’, ‘MF_BT2’, ‘MF_BT3’, ou ‘MF_BT4’.

   * ‘depth’: Profondeur maximum de la recherche, utilisée par l'index
     de recherche.  0 (défaut) signifie une sélection automatique basée
     sur des options de filtres différents.

Le filtre delta stocke les différences entre octets, induisant davantage
d'entrées répétitives pour le compresseur, selon les circonstances.  Il
support une option, ‘dist’.  Ce paramètre définit la distance entre les
octets à soustraire.  Par défaut : 1, soit la différence entre des
octets adjacents.

Les filtres BCJ sont conçus pour être appliqués sur du langage machine.
Ils convertissent les branches relatives, les appels et les sauts dans
le code à des fins d'adressage strict, dans le but d'augmenter la
redondance mise en jeu par le compresseur.  Ils ne supportent qu'une
seule option : ‘start_offset’, pour définir l'adresse où sera déclenché
le début de la donnée d'entrée.  Par défaut : 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<8>,  Prev: Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées,  Up: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.5 Exemples
.................

Lire un fichier compressé :

     import lzma
     with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Créer un fichier compressé :

     import lzma
     data = b"Insert Data Here"
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
         f.write(data)

Compresser des données en mémoire :

     import lzma
     data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
     data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)

Compression incrémentale :

     import lzma
     lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
     out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
     out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
     out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
     out4 = lzc.flush()
     # Concatenate all the partial results:
     result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Écrire des données compressées dans un fichier préalablement ouvert :

     import lzma
     with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
         f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
         with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
             lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
         f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Créer un fichier compressé en utilisant une chaîne de filtre
personnalisée :

     import lzma
     my_filters = [
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
     ]
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
         f.write(b"blah blah blah")


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives,  Next: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files,  Prev: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Up: Compression de donnée et archivage

5.13.5 ‘zipfile’ -- Work with ZIP archives
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/zipfile/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le format de fichier ZIP est une archive et un standard de compression
couramment utilisés.  Ce module fournit des outils pour créer, écrire,
ajouter des données à et lister un fichier ZIP. L'utilisation avancée de
ce module requiert une certaine compréhension du format, comme défini
dans PKZIP Application Note(2).

Ce module ne gère pas pour l'instant les fichiers ZIP multi-disque.  Il
gère les fichiers ZIP qui utilisent les extensions ZIP64 (c'est-à-dire
des fichiers d'une taille supérieure à 4 Go).  Il gère le chiffrement
d'archives ZIP chiffrées, mais il ne peut pas pour l'instant créer de
fichier chiffré.  Le déchiffrement est extrêmement lent car il est
implémenté uniquement en Python plutôt qu'en C.

Le module définit les éléments suivants :

 -- Exception: zipfile.BadZipFile

     Erreur levée en cas de fichier ZIP non valide.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Exception: zipfile.BadZipfile

     Alias de *note BadZipFile: 179a, pour la compatibilité avec les
     versions de Python précédentes.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.2.

 -- Exception: zipfile.LargeZipFile

     Erreur levée quand un fichier ZIP nécessite la fonctionnalité ZIP64
     mais qu'elle n'a pas été activée.

 -- Classe: zipfile.ZipFile

     Classe pour lire et écrire des fichiers ZIP. Voir la section *note
     Objets ZipFile: 295b. pour les détails du constructeur.

 -- Classe: zipfile.Path

     Class that implements a subset of the interface provided by *note
     pathlib.Path: 226, including the full *note
     importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0. interface.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Classe: zipfile.PyZipFile

     Classe pour créer des archives ZIP contenant des bibliothèques
     Python.

 -- Classe: zipfile.ZipInfo (filename='NoName', date_time=(1980, 1, 1,
          0, 0, 0))

     Classe utilisée pour représenter les informations d'un membre d'une
     archive.  Les instances de cette classe sont retournées par les
     méthodes *note getinfo(): 295c. et *note infolist(): 295d. des
     objets *note ZipFile: 6b1.  La plupart des utilisateurs du module
     *note zipfile: 130. n'ont pas besoin de créer ces instances mais
     d'utiliser celles créées par ce module.  'filename' doit être le
     nom complet du membre de l'archive et 'date_time' doit être un
     sextuplet décrivant la date de dernière modification du fichier ;
     les champs sont décrits dans la section *note Objets ZipInfo: 295e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: A public ‘compress_level’ attribute
     has been added to expose the formerly protected ‘_compresslevel’.
     The older protected name continues to work as a property for
     backwards compatibility.

 -- Fonction: zipfile.is_zipfile (filename)

     Retourne ‘True’ si 'filename' est un fichier ZIP valide basé sur
     son nombre magique, sinon retourne ‘False’.  'filename' peut aussi
     être un fichier ou un objet fichier-compatible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Gestion des objets fichier et
     fichier-compatibles.

 -- Données: zipfile.ZIP_STORED

     Constante numérique pour un membre d'une archive décompressée.

 -- Données: zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED

     Constante numérique pour la méthode habituelle de compression de
     ZIP. Nécessite le module *note zlib: 132.

 -- Données: zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2

     Constante numérique pour la méthode de compressions BZIP2.
     Nécessite le module *note bz2: 13.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: zipfile.ZIP_LZMA

     Constante numérique pour la méthode de compressions LZMA. Nécessite
     le module *note lzma: 89.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

          Note: La spécification du format de fichier ZIP inclut la
          gestion de la compression BZIP2 depuis 2001 et LZMA depuis
          2006.  Néanmoins, certains outils (comme certaines versions de
          Python) ne gèrent pas ces méthodes de compression et peuvent
          soit totalement refuser de traiter le fichier ZIP soit ne pas
          extraire certains fichiers.

Voir aussi
..........

PKZIP Application Note(3)

     Documentation sur le format de fichier ZIP par Phil Katz, créateur
     du format et des algorithmes utilisés.

Info-ZIP Home Page(4)

     Informations sur les programmes et les bibliothèques de
     développement d'archivage ZIP du projet Info-ZIP.

* Menu:

* Objets ZipFile::
* Objets Path::
* Objets PyZipFile::
* Objets ZipInfo::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<2>.
* Problèmes de décompression::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipfile/

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (4) https://infozip.sourceforge.net/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ZipFile,  Next: Objets Path,  Up: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.1 Objets ZipFile
.......................

 -- Classe: zipfile.ZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, compresslevel=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True, metadata_encoding=None)

     Ouvre un fichier ZIP, où 'file' peut être un chemin vers un fichier
     (une chaîne de caractères), un objet fichier-compatible ou un objet
     chemin-compatible *note path-like object: 29d.

     Le paramètre 'mode' doit être ‘r’ pour lire un fichier existant,
     ‘w’ pour tronquer et écrire un nouveau fichier, ‘a’ pour ajouter
     des données à la fin d'un fichier existant ou ‘x’ pour créer et
     écrire exclusivement un nouveau fichier.  Si 'mode' est à ‘x’ et
     'file' fait référence à un fichier existant, une exception *note
     FileExistsError: 100b. est levée.  Si 'mode' est à ‘a’ et 'file'
     fait référence à un fichier ZIP existant, alors des fichiers
     supplémentaires y seront ajoutés.  Si 'file' ne fait pas référence
     à un fichier ZIP, alors une nouvelle archive ZIP est ajoutée au
     fichier, afin de prévoir le cas d'ajouter une archive ZIP à un
     autre fichier (comme par exemple ‘python.exe’).  Si 'mode' est à
     ‘r’ ou ‘a’, le fichier doit être navigable.

     Le paramètre 'compression' est la méthode de compression ZIP à
     utiliser lors de l'écriture de l'archive et doit être défini à
     *note ZIP_STORED: 295f, *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 2960, *note ZIP_BZIP2:
     2961. ou *note ZIP_LZMA: 2962. ; les valeurs non reconnues lèveront
     une exception *note NotImplementedError: 225.  Si *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 2960, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 2961. ou *note ZIP_LZMA: 2962.
     est spécifié mais le module correspondant (*note zlib: 132, *note
     bz2: 13. ou *note lzma: 89.) n'est pas disponible, une exception
     *note RuntimeError: 193. est levée.  Est défini par défaut à *note
     ZIP_STORED: 295f.

     Si 'allowZip64' est à ‘True’ (par défaut), 'zipfile' crée des
     fichiers ZIP utilisant les extensions ZIP64 quand le fichier ZIP
     est plus grand que 4 Go.  S'il est à ‘False’, *note zipfile: 130.
     lève une exception quand le fichier ZIP nécessiterait les
     extensions ZIP64.

     Le paramètre 'compresslevel' contrôle le niveau de compression à
     utiliser lors de l'écriture des fichiers dans l'archive.  Avec
     *note ZIP_STORED: 295f. ou *note ZIP_LZMA: 2962, cela est sans
     effet.  Avec *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 2960. les entiers de ‘0’ à ‘9’
     sont acceptés (voir *note zlib: 290b. pour plus d'informations).
     Avec *note ZIP_BZIP2: 2961. les entiers de ‘1’ à ‘9’ sont acceptés
     (voir *note bz2: 853. pour plus d'informations).

     Les fichiers ZIP plus anciens que le 1er janvier 1980 sont
     autorisés lorsque l'argument 'strict_timestamps' vaut ‘False’,
     moyennant de les voir datés du 1er janvier 1980.  De même pour les
     fichiers datés d'après le 31 décembre 2107 qui voient leur
     horodatage fixé au 31 décembre 2107.

     When mode is ‘'r'’, 'metadata_encoding' may be set to the name of a
     codec, which will be used to decode metadata such as the names of
     members and ZIP comments.

     Si le fichier est créé avec le mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ ou ‘'a'’ et
     ensuite *note fermé: 2964. sans ajouter de fichiers à l'archive, la
     structure appropriée pour un fichier archive ZIP vide sera écrite
     dans le fichier.

     'ZipFile' est aussi un gestionnaire de contexte et gère ainsi la
     déclaration *note with: 5be.  Dans l'exemple, 'myzip' est fermé à
     la fin de la déclaration ‘with’ -- même si une exception est
     levée :

          with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
              myzip.write('eggs.txt')

          Note: 'metadata_encoding' is an instance-wide setting for the
          ZipFile.  It is not currently possible to set this on a
          per-member basis.

          This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations
          which produce archives with names in the current locale
          encoding or code page (mostly on Windows).  According to the
          .ZIP standard, the encoding of metadata may be specified to be
          either IBM code page (default) or UTF-8 by a flag in the
          archive header.  That flag takes precedence over
          'metadata_encoding', which is a Python-specific extension.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la possibilité d'utiliser
     *note ZipFile: 6b1. comme un gestionnaire de contexte.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la gestion de la compression
     *note bzip2: 13. et *note lzma: 89.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les extensions ZIP64 sont activées par
     défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la gestion de l'écriture dans
     des flux non navigables.  Ajout de la gestion du mode ‘x’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Auparavant, une simple exception *note
     RuntimeError: 193. était levée pour des valeurs de compression non
     reconnues.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre 'file' accepte un objet
     fichier-compatible *note path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre 'compresslevel'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The 'strict_timestamps' keyword-only
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for specifying member
     name encoding for reading metadata in the zipfile's directory and
     file headers.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.close ()

     Ferme l'archive.  Vous devez appeler *note close(): 2964. avant de
     terminer votre programme ou des informations essentielles n'y
     seront pas enregistrées.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.getinfo (name)

     Retourne un objet *note ZipInfo: cfa. avec les informations du
     membre 'name' de l'archive.  Appeler *note getinfo(): 295c. pour un
     nom non contenu dans l'archive lève une exception *note KeyError:
     33a.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.infolist ()

     Retourne une liste contenant un objet *note ZipInfo: cfa. pour
     chaque membre de l'archive.  Les objets ont le même ordre que leurs
     entrées dans le fichier ZIP présent sur disque s'il s'agissait
     d'une archive préexistante.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.namelist ()

     Retourne une liste des membres de l'archive indexés par leur nom.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.open (name, mode='r', pwd=None, *,
          force_zip64=False)

     Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object.
     'name' can be either the name of a file within the archive or a
     *note ZipInfo: cfa. object.  The 'mode' parameter, if included,
     must be ‘'r'’ (the default) or ‘'w'’.  'pwd' is the password used
     to decrypt encrypted ZIP files as a *note bytes: 1bd. object.

     *note open(): 411. est aussi un gestionnaire de contexte et gère
     ainsi la déclaration *note with: 5be. :

          with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
              with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
                  print(myfile.read())

     With 'mode' ‘'r'’ the file-like object (‘ZipExtFile’) is read-only
     and provides the following methods: *note read(): 1308, *note
     readline(): 1309, *note readlines(): 22ee, *note seek(): 126c,
     *note tell(): 2966, *note __iter__(): 1c7e, *note __next__(): 12ad.
     These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.

     Avec ‘mode='w'’ un descripteur de fichier en écriture est retourné,
     gérant la méthode *note write(): ccb.  Quand le descripteur d'un
     fichier inscriptible est ouvert, tenter de lire ou écrire d'autres
     fichiers dans le fichier ZIP lève une exception *note ValueError:
     1ff.

     In both cases the file-like object has also attributes ‘name’,
     which is equivalent to the name of a file within the archive, and
     ‘mode’, which is ‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’ depending on the input mode.

     Lors de l'écriture d'un fichier, si la taille du fichier n'est pas
     connue mais peut être supérieure à 2 GiO, spécifiez
     ‘force_zip64=True’ afin de vous assurer que le format d'en-tête est
     capable de supporter des fichiers volumineux.  Si la taille du
     fichier est connue à l'avance, instanciez un objet *note ZipInfo:
     cfa. avec l'attribut *note file_size: 2967. défini et utilisez-le
     en tant que paramètre 'name'.

          Note: Les méthodes *note open(): 411, *note read(): 2968. et
          *note extract(): 2969. peuvent prendre un nom de fichier ou un
          objet *note ZipInfo: cfa.  Cela est appréciable lorsqu'on
          essaie de lire un fichier ZIP qui contient des membres avec
          des noms en double.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Suppression de la gestion de
     ‘mode='U'’.  Utilisez *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. pour lire des
     fichiers texte compressés en mode *note universal newlines: d2a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note ZipFile.open(): 411. can now be
     used to write files into the archive with the ‘mode='w'’ option.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note open(): 411. sur un
     fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added attributes ‘name’ and ‘mode’
     for the writeable file-like object.  The value of the ‘mode’
     attribute for the readable file-like object was changed from ‘'r'’
     to ‘'rb'’.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.extract (member, path=None, pwd=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory;
     'member' must be its full name or a *note ZipInfo: cfa. object.
     Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible.
     'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.  'member' can
     be a filename or a *note ZipInfo: cfa. object.  'pwd' is the
     password used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 1bd. object.

     Retourne le chemin normalisé créé (un dossier ou un nouveau
     fichier).

          Note: Si le nom de fichier d'un membre est un chemin absolu,
          le disque/partage UNC et les (anti)slashes de départ seront
          supprimés, par exemple ‘///foo/bar’ devient ‘foo/bar’ sous
          Unix et ‘C:\foo\bar’ devient ‘foo\bar’ sous Windows.  Et tous
          les composants ‘".."’ dans le nom de fichier d'un membre
          seront supprimés, par exemple ‘../../foo../../ba..r’ devient
          ‘foo../ba..r’.  Sous Windows les caractères illégaux (‘:’,
          ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘|’, ‘"’, ‘?’ et ‘*’) sont remplacés par un
          'underscore' (‘_’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note extract(): 2969. sur un
     fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre 'path' accepte un objet
     chemin-compatible *note path-like object: 29d.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.extractall (path=None, members=None, pwd=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory.  'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.
     'members' is optional and must be a subset of the list returned by
     *note namelist(): 2965.  'pwd' is the password used for encrypted
     files as a *note bytes: 1bd. object.

          Avertissement: N'extrayez jamais d'archives depuis des sources
          non fiables sans inspection préalable.  Il est possible que
          des fichiers soient créés en dehors de 'path', par exemple des
          membres qui ont des chemins de fichier absolus commençant par
          ‘"/"’ ou des noms de fichier avec deux points ‘".."’.  Ce
          module essaie de prévenir ceci.  Voir la note de *note
          extract(): 2969.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note extractall(): 296a. sur
     un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre 'path' accepte un objet
     chemin-compatible *note path-like object: 29d.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.printdir ()

     Affiche la liste des contenus de l'archive sur ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.setpassword (pwd)

     Set 'pwd' (a *note bytes: 1bd. object) as default password to
     extract encrypted files.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.read (name, pwd=None)

     Return the bytes of the file 'name' in the archive.  'name' is the
     name of the file in the archive, or a *note ZipInfo: cfa. object.
     The archive must be open for read or append.  'pwd' is the password
     used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 1bd. object and, if
     specified, overrides the default password set with *note
     setpassword(): 296c.  Calling *note read(): 2968. on a ZipFile that
     uses a compression method other than *note ZIP_STORED: 295f, *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 2960, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 2961. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2962.
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 225.  An error will also be
     raised if the corresponding compression module is not available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note read(): 2968. sur un
     fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.testzip ()

     Lit tous les fichiers de l'archive et vérifie leurs sommes CRC et
     leurs en-têtes.  Retourne le nom du premier fichier mauvais ou
     retourne ‘None’ sinon.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note testzip(): 296d. sur un
     fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.write (filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None,
          compresslevel=None)

     Écrit le fichier nommé 'filename' dans l'archive, lui donnant
     'arcname' comme nom dans l'archive (par défaut, 'arcname' prend la
     même valeur que 'filename' mais sans lettre de disque et séparateur
     de chemin en première position).  Si donné, 'compress_type' écrase
     la valeur donnée pour le paramètre 'compression' au constructeur
     pour la nouvelle entrée.  De la même manière, 'compression' écrase
     le constructeur si donné.  L'archive doit être ouverte avec le mode
     ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ ou ‘'a'’.

          Note: The ZIP file standard historically did not specify a
          metadata encoding, but strongly recommended CP437 (the
          original IBM PC encoding) for interoperability.  Recent
          versions allow use of UTF-8 (only).  In this module, UTF-8
          will automatically be used to write the member names if they
          contain any non-ASCII characters.  It is not possible to write
          member names in any encoding other than ASCII or UTF-8.

          Note: Les noms d'archive doivent être relatifs à la racine de
          l'archive, c'est-à-dire qu'ils ne doivent pas commencer par un
          séparateur de chemin.

          Note: Si ‘arcname’ (ou ‘filename’ si ‘arcname’ n'est pas
          donné) contient un octet nul, le nom du fichier dans l'archive
          sera tronqué à l'octet nul.

          Note: A leading slash in the filename may lead to the archive
          being impossible to open in some zip programs on Windows
          systems.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note write(): d3c. sur un
     fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.writestr (zinfo_or_arcname, data,
          compress_type=None, compresslevel=None)

     Écrit un fichier dans l'archive.  Le contenu est 'data', qui peut
     être soit une instance de *note str: 437. ou une instance de *note
     bytes: 1bd. ; s'il s'agit d'une *note str: 437, il est encodé en
     UTF-8 au préalable.  'zinfo_or_arcname' est soit le nom de fichier
     qu'il sera donné dans l'archive, soit une instance de *note
     ZipInfo: cfa.  Si c'est une instance, au moins le nom de fichier,
     la date et l'heure doivent être donnés.  S'il s'agit d'un nom, la
     date et l'heure sont définies sur la date et l'heure actuelles.
     L'archive doit être ouverte avec le mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ ou ‘'a'’.

     Si donné, 'compress_type' écrase la valeur donnée pour le paramètre
     'compression' au constructeur de la nouvelle entrée ou dans le
     paramètre 'zinfo_or_arcname' (si c'est une instance de *note
     ZipInfo: cfa.).  De la même manière, 'compresslevel' le
     constructeur si donné.

          Note: Lorsque l'on passe une instance de *note ZipInfo: cfa.
          dans le paramètre 'zinfo_or_arcname', la méthode de
          compression utilisée sera celle spécifiée dans le membre
          'compress_type' de l'instance *note ZipInfo: cfa. donnée.  Par
          défaut, le constructeur de la classe *note ZipInfo: cfa.
          définit ce membre à *note ZIP_STORED: 295f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: L'argument 'compress_type'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler *note writestr(): 130b. sur un
     fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur *note ValueError: 1ff.
     Précédemment, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. était levée.

 -- Méthode: ZipFile.mkdir (zinfo_or_directory, mode=511)

     Create a directory inside the archive.  If 'zinfo_or_directory' is
     a string, a directory is created inside the archive with the mode
     that is specified in the 'mode' argument.  If, however,
     'zinfo_or_directory' is a *note ZipInfo: cfa. instance then the
     'mode' argument is ignored.

     The archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Les attributs suivants sont aussi disponibles :

 -- Attribut: ZipFile.filename

     Nom du fichier ZIP.

 -- Attribut: ZipFile.debug

     Le niveau d'affichage de 'debug' à utiliser.  Peut être défini de
     ‘0’ (par défaut, pas d'affichage) à ‘3’ (affichage le plus bavard).
     Les informations de débogage sont affichées sur ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- Attribut: ZipFile.comment

     Le commentaire associé au fichier ZIP en tant qu'objet *note bytes:
     1bd.  Si vous affectez un commentaire à une instance de *note
     ZipFile: 6b1. créée avec le mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ ou ‘'a'’, il ne doit
     pas dépasser 65535 octets.  Les commentaires plus longs que cette
     taille seront tronqués.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Path,  Next: Objets PyZipFile,  Prev: Objets ZipFile,  Up: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.2 Objets 'Path'
......................

 -- Classe: zipfile.Path (root, at='')

     Construit un objet 'Path' depuis le fichier ZIP 'root' (qui peut
     être une instance de *note ZipFile: 6b1. ou tout ce qui sera
     accepté par le paramètre 'file' du constructeur de *note ZipFile:
     6b1.).

     ‘at’ indique la position de ce 'Path' dans l'archive ZIP, par
     exemple ‘"dir/file.txt"’, ‘"dir/"’, ou ‘""’.  Par défaut c'est une
     chaine vide, indiquant la racine de l'archive.

          Note: The *note Path: 6b6. class does not sanitize filenames
          within the ZIP archive.  Unlike the *note ZipFile.extract():
          2969. and *note ZipFile.extractall(): 296a. methods, it is the
          caller's responsibility to validate or sanitize filenames to
          prevent path traversal vulnerabilities (e.g., filenames
          containing ".."  or absolute paths).  When handling untrusted
          archives, consider resolving filenames using *note
          os.path.abspath(): 12fb. and checking against the target
          directory with *note os.path.commonpath(): e2c.

Les objets ‘Path’ de ‘zipfile’ exposent les fonctionnalités suivantes
des objets de *note pathlib.Path: 226. :

Path objects are traversable using the ‘/’ operator or ‘joinpath’.

 -- Attribut: Path.name

     Le dernier segment du chemin.

 -- Méthode: Path.open (mode='r', *, pwd, **)

     Appelle *note ZipFile.open(): 411. sur ce chemin.  Il est possible
     d'ouvrir en lecture ou en écriture, au format texte ou binaire, via
     les modes ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'rb'’ et ‘'wb'’.  Les arguments
     positionnels et nommés sont passés à la classe *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. lors d'une ouverture au format texte, ils
     sont ignorés autrement.  ‘pwd’ est le paramètre ‘pwd’ de *note
     ZipFile.open(): 411.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: prise en charge des modes texte et
     binaire pour ‘open’.  Le mode texte est maintenant le mode par
     défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11.2: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be
     supplied as a positional argument without causing a *note
     TypeError: 525.  As it could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible
     with unpatched 3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- Méthode: Path.iterdir ()

     Énumère le contenu du dossier actuel.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_dir ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si ce chemin pointe sur un dossier.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_file ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si ce chemin pointe sur un fichier.

 -- Méthode: Path.is_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a symbolic link.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Previously, ‘is_symlink’ would
     unconditionally return ‘False’.

 -- Méthode: Path.exists ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le chemin pointe sur un fichier ou un dossier de
     l'archive ZIP

 -- Données: Path.suffix

     The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any.
     This is commonly called the file extension.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added *note Path.suffix: 6b4.
     property.

 -- Données: Path.stem

     The final path component, without its suffix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added *note Path.stem: 6b3. property.

 -- Données: Path.suffixes

     A list of the path’s suffixes, commonly called file extensions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added *note Path.suffixes: 6b5.
     property.

 -- Méthode: Path.read_text (*, **)

     Lit le fichier au format texte.  Les arguments positionnels et
     nommés sont passés à *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. (sauf ‘buffer’,
     qui est imposé par le contexte)

     Modifié dans la version 3.11.2: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be
     supplied as a positional argument without causing a *note
     TypeError: 525.  As it could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible
     with unpatched 3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- Méthode: Path.read_bytes ()

     Lit le fichier en mode binaire, renvoyant un objet 'bytes'.

 -- Méthode: Path.joinpath (*other)

     Return a new Path object with each of the 'other' arguments joined.
     The following are equivalent:

          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child').joinpath('grandchild')
          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child', 'grandchild')
          >>> Path(...) / 'child' / 'grandchild'

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Prior to 3.10, ‘joinpath’ was
     undocumented and accepted exactly one parameter.

The zipp(1) project provides backports of the latest path object
functionality to older Pythons.  Use ‘zipp.Path’ in place of
‘zipfile.Path’ for early access to changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/zipp/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets PyZipFile,  Next: Objets ZipInfo,  Prev: Objets Path,  Up: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.3 Objets 'PyZipFile'
...........................

Le constructeur de *note PyZipFile: fe5. prend les mêmes paramètres que
le constructeur de *note ZipFile: 6b1. avec un paramètre additionnel
'optimize'.

 -- Classe: zipfile.PyZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, optimize=-1)

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'optimize' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les extensions ZIP64 sont activées par
     défaut.

     Les instances ont une méthode supplémentaire par rapport aux objets
     *note ZipFile: 6b1. :

      -- Méthode: writepy (pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)

          Cherche les fichiers ‘*.py’ et ajoute le fichier correspondant
          à l'archive.

          Si le paramètre 'optimize' du constructeur de *note PyZipFile:
          fe5. n'a pas été donné ou est à ‘-1’, le fichier correspondant
          est un fichier ‘*.pyc’, à compiler si nécessaire.

          Si le paramètre 'optimize' du constructeur de *note PyZipFile:
          fe5. est à ‘0’, ‘1’ ou ‘2’, ne sont ajoutés dans l'archive que
          les fichiers avec ce niveau d'optimisation (voir *note
          compile(): 190.), à compiler si nécessaire.

          Si 'pathname' est un fichier, le chemin de fichier doit
          terminer par ‘.py’ et uniquement le fichier (‘*.pyc’
          correspondant) est ajouté au niveau le plus haut (sans
          information de chemin).  Si 'pathname' est un fichier ne
          terminant pas par ‘.py’, une exception *note RuntimeError:
          193. est levée.  Si c'est un répertoire et que le répertoire
          n'est pas un répertoire de paquet, alors tous les fichiers
          ‘*.pyc’ sont ajoutés à la racine.  Si le répertoire est un
          répertoire de paquet, alors tous les ‘*.pyc’ sont ajoutés sous
          le nom du paquet en tant que chemin, et s'il y a des
          sous-répertoires qui sont des répertoires de paquet, ils sont
          tous ajoutés récursivement dans un ordre trié.

          'basename' n'est sensé être utilisé qu'en interne.

          'filterfunc', si donné, doit être une fonction prenant une
          seule chaîne de caractères en argument.  Il lui sera passé
          chaque chemin (incluant chaque chemin de fichier complet
          individuel) avant d'être ajouté à l'archive.  Si 'filterfunc'
          retourne une valeur fausse, le chemin n'est pas ajouté et si
          c'est un répertoire son contenu est ignoré.  Par exemple, si
          nos fichiers de test sont tous soit dans des répertoires
          ‘test’ ou commencent par ‘test_’, nous pouvons utiliser une
          fonction 'filterfunc' pour les exclure :

               >>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
               >>> def notests(s):
               ...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
               ...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
               ...
               >>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)

          La méthode *note writepy(): fe4. crée des archives avec des
          noms de fichier comme suit :

               string.pyc                   # Top level name
               test/__init__.pyc            # Package directory
               test/testall.pyc             # Module test.testall
               test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # Subpackage directory
               test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # Submodule test.bogus.myfile

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'filterfunc' parameter.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre 'pathname' accepte
          un objet chemin-compatible *note path-like object: 29d.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: La récursion trie les entrées de
          dossier.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ZipInfo,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<2>,  Prev: Objets PyZipFile,  Up: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.4 Objets 'ZipInfo'
.........................

Des instances de la classe *note ZipInfo: cfa. sont retournées par les
méthodes *note getinfo(): 295c. et *note infolist(): 295d. des objets
*note ZipFile: 6b1.  Chaque objet stocke des informations sur un seul
membre de l'archive ZIP.

Il y a une méthode de classe pour créer une instance de *note ZipInfo:
cfa. pour un fichier du système de fichiers :

 -- Méthode: classmethod ZipInfo.from_file (filename, arcname=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True)

     Construit une instance de *note ZipInfo: cfa. pour le fichier du
     système de fichiers, en préparation de l'ajouter à un fichier ZIP.

     'filename' doit être un chemin vers un fichier ou un répertoire
     dans le système de fichiers.

     Si 'arcname' est spécifié, il est utilisé en tant que nom dans
     l'archive.  Si 'arcname' n'est pas spécifié, le nom sera le même
     que 'filename' mais sans lettre de disque et sans séparateur de
     chemin en première position.

     Les fichiers ZIP plus anciens que le 1er janvier 1980 sont
     autorisés lorsque l'argument 'strict_timestamps' vaut ‘False’,
     moyennant de les voir datés du 1er janvier 1980.  De même pour les
     fichiers datés d'après le 31 décembre 2107 qui voient leur
     horodatage fixé au 31 décembre 2107.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre 'filename' accepte un
     objet chemin-compatible *note path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'strict_timestamps'
     keyword-only parameter.

Les instances ont les méthodes et attributs suivants :

 -- Méthode: ZipInfo.is_dir ()

     Retourne ‘True’ si le membre d'archive est un répertoire.

     Utilise le nom de l'entrée : les répertoires doivent toujours se
     terminer par ‘/’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.filename

     Nom du fichier dans l'archive.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.date_time

     Date et heure de dernière modification pour le membre de l'archive.
     'Tuple' de six valeurs :

     Index       Valeur
                 
     -------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         Année (>= 1980)
                 
                 
     ‘1’         Mois (indexé à partir de 1)
                 
                 
     ‘2’         Jour du mois (indexé à
                 partir de 1)
                 
                 
     ‘3’         Heures (indexées à partir de
                 0)
                 
                 
     ‘4’         Minutes (indexées à partir
                 de 0)
                 
                 
     ‘5’         Secondes (indexées à partir
                 de 0)
                 

          Note: Le format de fichier ZIP ne gère pas les horodatages
          avant 1980.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.compress_type

     Type de compression du membre d'archive.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.comment

     Commentaire pour le membre d'archive individuel en tant qu'objet
     *note bytes: 1bd.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.extra

     Données du champ d'extension.  La documentation PKZIP Application
     Note(1) contient quelques commentaires sur la structure interne des
     données contenues dans cet objet *note bytes: 1bd.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.create_system

     Système ayant créé l'archive ZIP.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.create_version

     Version de PKZIP ayant créé l'archive ZIP.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.extract_version

     Version de PKZIP nécessaire à l'extraction de l'archive ZIP.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.reserved

     Doit être à zéro.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.flag_bits

     Bits d'options ZIP.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.volume

     Numéro de volume de l'entête du fichier.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.internal_attr

     Attributs internes.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.external_attr

     Attributs de fichier externes.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.header_offset

     Longueur de l'entête du fichier en octets.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.CRC

     CRC-32 du fichier décompressé.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.compress_size

     Taille des données décompressées.

 -- Attribut: ZipInfo.file_size

     Taille du fichier décompressé.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<2>,  Next: Problèmes de décompression,  Prev: Objets ZipInfo,  Up: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.5 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

Le module *note zipfile: 130. fournit une interface en ligne de commande
simple pour interagir avec des archives ZIP.

Si vous voulez créer une nouvelle archive ZIP, spécifiez son nom après
l'option *note -c: 2990. et listez ensuite le(s) nom(s) de fichier à
inclure :

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt

Passer un répertoire est aussi possible :

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/

Si vous voulez extraire une archive ZIP dans un répertoire donné,
utilisez l'option *note -e: 2991. :

     $ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/

Pour une liste des fichiers dans une archive ZIP, utilisez l'option
*note -l: 2992. :

     $ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip

* Menu:

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de la ligne de commande<2>,  Up: Interface en ligne de commande<2>

5.13.5.6 Options de la ligne de commande
........................................

 -- Option: -l <zipfile>
 -- Option: --list <zipfile>

     Liste les fichiers dans un fichier ZIP 'zipfile'.

 -- Option: -c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Crée un fichier ZIP 'zipfile' à partir des fichiers 'source'.

 -- Option: -e <zipfile> <output_dir>
 -- Option: --extract <zipfile> <output_dir>

     Extrait le fichier ZIP 'zipfile' vers le répertoire cible
     'output_dir'.

 -- Option: -t <zipfile>
 -- Option: --test <zipfile>

     Teste si le fichier zip est valide.

 -- Option: --metadata-encoding <encoding>

     Specify encoding of member names for *note -l: 2992, *note -e:
     2991. and *note -t: 2997.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Problèmes de décompression,  Prev: Interface en ligne de commande<2>,  Up: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.7 Problèmes de décompression
...................................

L'extraction d'une archive ZIP par le module 'zipfile' peut échouer pour
les raisons listées ci-dessous.

* Menu:

* À cause du fichier lui-même::
* Limitations du système de fichiers::
* Ressources limitées::
* Interruption::
* Comportements par défaut de l'extraction::


File: python.info,  Node: À cause du fichier lui-même,  Next: Limitations du système de fichiers,  Up: Problèmes de décompression

5.13.5.8 À cause du fichier lui-même
....................................

La décompression peut échouer à cause d'un mot de passe ou d'une somme
de contrôle CRC incorrectes.  Elle peut aussi échouer si le format, la
méthode de compression, ou de chiffrement n'est pas implémenté.


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations du système de fichiers,  Next: Ressources limitées,  Prev: À cause du fichier lui-même,  Up: Problèmes de décompression

5.13.5.9 Limitations du système de fichiers
...........................................

Dépasser les limites du système de fichiers peut faire échouer la
décompression.  Ces limites peuvent concerner les caractères licites
pour un nom de fichier, la longueur du nom du fichier ou du chemin, la
taille d'un fichier, le nombre de fichiers, etc.


File: python.info,  Node: Ressources limitées,  Next: Interruption,  Prev: Limitations du système de fichiers,  Up: Problèmes de décompression

5.13.5.10 Ressources limitées
.............................

Le manque de mémoire ou d'espace disque peut mener à un échec de
décompression.  Par exemple, une bombe de décompression (ZIP bomb(1)),
décompressés avec 'zifile' peut remplir l'espace disque.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb


File: python.info,  Node: Interruption,  Next: Comportements par défaut de l'extraction,  Prev: Ressources limitées,  Up: Problèmes de décompression

5.13.5.11 Interruption
......................

Une interruption durant la décompression, en utilisant 'control-C' ou en
tuant le processus, peut mener à une décompression partielle de
l'archive.


File: python.info,  Node: Comportements par défaut de l'extraction,  Prev: Interruption,  Up: Problèmes de décompression

5.13.5.12 Comportements par défaut de l'extraction
..................................................

Ne pas connaître le comportement d'extraction par défaut peut causer des
résultats inattendus.  Par exemple, lors de l'extraction d'une même
archive deux fois, les fichiers sont écrasés sans prévenir.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files,  Prev: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives,  Up: Compression de donnée et archivage

5.13.6 ‘tarfile’ -- Read and write tar archive files
----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tarfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tarfile: dd. rend possible la lecture et l'écriture des
archives 'tar', incluant celles utilisant la compression 'gzip', 'bz2'
et 'lzma'.  Utilisez le module *note zipfile: 130. pour lire ou écrire
des fichiers ‘zip’, ou les fonctions de niveau supérieur dans *note
shutil: 11f8.

Quelques faits et chiffres :

   * lit et écrit des archives compressées avec *note gzip: 66, *note
     bz2: 13. ou *note lzma: 89. si les modules respectifs sont
     disponibles.

   * prise en charge de la lecture/écriture pour le format
     'POSIX.1-1988' ('ustar').

   * prise en charge de la lecture/écriture pour le format GNU 'tar'
     incluant les extensions 'longname' et 'longlink', prise en charge
     de la lecture seule de toutes les variantes de l'extension 'sparse'
     incluant la restauration des fichiers discontinus.

   * prise en charge de la lecture/écriture pour le format
     'POSIX.1-2001' ('pax').

   * gère les répertoires, les fichiers normaux, les liens directs
     ('hard links' en anglais), les liens symboliques, les tubes nommés
     ('FIFO' en anglais), les périphériques de caractère et les
     périphériques de bloc et est en mesure d'acquérir et de restaurer
     les informations du fichier comme l'horodatage, les autorisations
     d'accès et le propriétaire.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: prise en charge de la compression *note
lzma: 89.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Archives are extracted using a *note
filter: 458, which makes it possible to either limit
surprising/dangerous features, or to acknowledge that they are expected
and the archive is fully trusted.  By default, archives are fully
trusted, but this default is deprecated and slated to change in Python
3.14.

 -- Fonction: tarfile.open (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          bufsize=10240, **kwargs)

     Renvoie un objet *note TarFile: 11ef. pour le nom de chemin 'name'.
     Pour plus d'informations sur les objets *note TarFile: 11ef. et les
     mot-clefs arguments permis, voir *note Les objets TarFile: 29a3.

     Le 'mode' doit être une chaîne de caractères de la forme
     ‘'filemode[:compression]'’, par défaut à ‘'r'’.  Voici une liste
     complète des combinaisons de mode :

     mode                   action
                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
     ‘'r' ou 'r:*'’         Ouvre en lecture avec compression transparente
                            (recommandé).
                            
                            
     ‘'r:'’                 Ouvre en lecture, sans compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:gz'’               Ouvre en lecture avec la compression 'gzip'.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:bz2'’              Ouvre en lecture avec la compression 'bzip2'.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:xz'’               Ouvre en lecture avec la compression 'lzma'.
                            
                            
     ‘'x'’ ou ‘'x:'’        Create a tarfile exclusively without
                            compression.  Raise a
                            *note FileExistsError: 100b. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:gz'’               Create a tarfile with gzip compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: 100b. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:bz2'’              Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: 100b. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:xz'’               Create a tarfile with lzma compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: 100b. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'a' ou 'a:'’          Ouvre pour ajouter à la fin, sans compression.
                            Le fichier est créé s'il n'existe pas.
                            
                            
     ‘'w' ou 'w:'’          Ouvre en écriture, sans compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:gz'’               Ouvre en écriture avec compression 'gzip'.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:bz2'’              Ouvre en écriture avec compression 'bzip2'.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:xz'’               Ouvre en écriture avec la compression 'lzma'.
                            

     Notez que les combinaisons ‘'a:gz'’, ‘'a:bz2'’ ou ‘'a:xz'’ ne sont
     pas possibles.  Si le mode n'est pas adapté pour ouvrir un certain
     fichier (compressé) pour la lecture, une exception *note ReadError:
     1857. est levée.  Utilisez le mode ‘'r'’ pour éviter cela.  Si une
     méthode de compression n'est pas prise en charge, *note
     CompressionError: 29a4. est levée.

     Si 'fileobj' est spécifié, il est utilisé comme une alternative au
     *note file object: 11a2. ouvert en mode binaire pour 'name'.  Il
     est censé être à la position 0.

     For modes ‘'w:gz'’, ‘'x:gz'’, ‘'w|gz'’, ‘'w:bz2'’, ‘'x:bz2'’,
     ‘'w|bz2'’, *note tarfile.open(): e62. accepts the keyword argument
     'compresslevel' (default ‘9’) to specify the compression level of
     the file.

     Pour les modes ‘'w:xz'’ et ‘'x:xz'’, *note tarfile.open(): e62.
     accepte l'argument nommé 'preset' pour spécifier le niveau de
     compression du fichier.

     For special purposes, there is a second format for 'mode':
     ‘'filemode|[compression]'’.  *note tarfile.open(): e62. will return
     a *note TarFile: 11ef. object that processes its data as a stream
     of blocks.  No random seeking will be done on the file.  If given,
     'fileobj' may be any object that has a *note read(): e0b. or *note
     write(): 29a5. method (depending on the 'mode') that works with
     bytes.  'bufsize' specifies the blocksize and defaults to ‘20 *
     512’ bytes.  Use this variant in combination with e.g.
     ‘sys.stdin.buffer’, a socket *note file object: 11a2. or a tape
     device.  However, such a *note TarFile: 11ef. object is limited in
     that it does not allow random access, see *note Exemples: 29a6.
     The currently possible modes:

     Mode              Action
                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
     ‘'r|*'’           Ouvre un 'flux' des blocs de 'tar' en lecture
                       avec une compression transparente.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|'’            Ouvre un 'flux' de blocs 'tar' non compressés
                       en lecture.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|gz'’          Ouvre un flux compressé avec 'gzip' en
                       lecture.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|bz2'’         Ouvre un 'flux' compressé avec 'bzip2' en
                       lecture.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|xz'’          Ouvre un 'flux' compressé avec 'lzma' en
                       lecture.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|'’            Ouvre un 'flux' non compressé en écriture.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|gz'’          Ouvre un 'flux' compressé avec 'gzip' en
                       écriture.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|bz2'’         Ouvre un 'flux' compressé avec 'bzip2' en
                       écriture.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|xz'’          Ouvre un 'flux' compressé avec 'lzma' en
                       écriture.
                       

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: le mode ‘'x'’ (création exclusive) a
     été ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre 'name' accepte un *note
     path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The 'compresslevel' keyword argument
     also works for streams.

 -- Classe: tarfile.TarFile

     Classe pour la lecture et l'écriture d'archives 'tar'.  N'utilisez
     pas cette classe directement, préférez *note tarfile.open(): e62.
     Voir *note Les objets TarFile: 29a3.

 -- Fonction: tarfile.is_tarfile (name)

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. si 'name' est un fichier d'archive 'tar',
     que le module *note tarfile: dd. peut lire.  'name' peut être une
     *note str: 437, un ficher ou un objet fichier-compatible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Prise en charge des fichiers et des
     objets fichier-compatibles.

Le module *note tarfile: dd. définit les exceptions suivantes :

 -- Exception: tarfile.TarError

     Classe de base pour toutes les exceptions du module *note tarfile:
     dd.

 -- Exception: tarfile.ReadError

     Est levée lors de l'ouverture d'une archive 'tar', qui ne peut pas
     être gérée par le module *note tarfile: dd. ou est invalide.

 -- Exception: tarfile.CompressionError

     Est levée lorsqu'une méthode de compression n'est pas prise en
     charge ou lorsque les données ne peuvent pas être décodées
     correctement.

 -- Exception: tarfile.StreamError

     Est levée pour les limitations typiques des objets de type flux
     *note TarFile: 11ef.

 -- Exception: tarfile.ExtractError

     Est levée pour des erreurs 'non-fatales' lors de l'utilisation de
     *note TarFile.extract(): e64, mais uniquement si *note
     TarFile.errorlevel: 29aa.‘== 2’.

 -- Exception: tarfile.HeaderError

     Est levée par *note TarInfo.frombuf(): 29ac. si le tampon qu'il
     obtient n'est pas valide.

 -- Exception: tarfile.FilterError

     Base class for members *note refused: 29ae. by filters.

      -- Attribut: tarinfo

          Information about the member that the filter refused to
          extract, as *note TarInfo: 29b0.

 -- Exception: tarfile.AbsolutePathError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member with an absolute path.

 -- Exception: tarfile.OutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member outside the destination
     directory.

 -- Exception: tarfile.SpecialFileError

     Raised to refuse extracting a special file (e.g.  a device or
     pipe).

 -- Exception: tarfile.AbsoluteLinkError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link with an absolute path.

 -- Exception: tarfile.LinkOutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the
     destination directory.

Les constantes suivantes sont disponibles au niveau du module :

 -- Données: tarfile.ENCODING

     L'encodage des caractères par défaut est ‘'utf-8'’ sous Windows,
     sinon la valeur renvoyée par *note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     c49.

 -- Données: tarfile.REGTYPE
 -- Données: tarfile.AREGTYPE

     A regular file *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.LNKTYPE

     A link (inside tarfile) *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.SYMTYPE

     A symbolic link *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.CHRTYPE

     A character special device *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.BLKTYPE

     A block special device *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.DIRTYPE

     A directory *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.FIFOTYPE

     A FIFO special device *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.CONTTYPE

     A contiguous file *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGNAME

     A GNU tar longname *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGLINK

     A GNU tar longlink *note type: 29b9.

 -- Données: tarfile.GNUTYPE_SPARSE

     A GNU tar sparse file *note type: 29b9.

Chacune des constantes suivantes définit un format d'archive 'tar' que
le module *note tarfile: dd. est capable de créer.  Voir la section
*note Formats tar pris en charge: 29c4. pour plus de détails.

 -- Données: tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT

     Le format 'POSIX.1-1988' ('ustar').

 -- Données: tarfile.GNU_FORMAT

     Le format GNU 'tar'.

 -- Données: tarfile.PAX_FORMAT

     Le format 'POSIX.1-2001' ('pax').

 -- Données: tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT

     Format par défaut pour la création d'archives.  C'est actuellement
     *note PAX_FORMAT: 29c7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le format par défaut des nouvelles
     archives a été changé de *note GNU_FORMAT: 29c6. en *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 29c7.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note zipfile: 130.

     Documentation du module standard *note zipfile: 130.

*note Archiving operations: 11f8.

     Documentation des outils d'archivage de haut niveau fournis par le
     module standard *note shutil: c4.

Manuel GNU *tar*, format *tar* basique (en anglais)(2)

     Documentation pour les fichiers d'archive 'tar', y compris les
     extensions 'tar' GNU.

* Menu:

* Les objets TarFile::
* Les objets TarInfo::
* Extraction filters::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<3>.
* Exemples: Exemples<9>.
* Formats tar pris en charge::
* Problèmes unicode::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tarfile.py

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets TarFile,  Next: Les objets TarInfo,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.1 Les objets 'TarFile'
.............................

L'objet *note TarFile: 11ef. fournit une interface vers une archive
'tar'.  Une archive 'tar' est une séquence de blocs.  Un membre
d'archive (un fichier stocké) est composé d'un bloc d'en-tête suivi des
blocs de données.  Il est possible de stocker plusieurs fois un fichier
dans une archive 'tar'.  Chaque membre d'archive est représenté par un
objet *note TarInfo: 11f0, voir *note Les objets TarInfo: 29b0. pour
plus de détails.

Un objet *note TarFile: 11ef. peut être utilisé comme gestionnaire de
contexte dans une instruction *note with: 5be.  Il sera automatiquement
fermé une fois le bloc terminé.  Veuillez noter qu'en cas d'exception,
une archive ouverte en écriture ne sera pas finalisée ; seul l'objet
fichier utilisé en interne sera fermé.  Voir la section *note Exemples:
29a6. pour un cas d'utilisation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la prise en charge du protocole de
gestion de contexte.

 -- Classe: tarfile.TarFile (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False,
          ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0,
          errorlevel=1, stream=False)

     Tous les arguments suivants sont facultatifs et sont également
     accessibles en tant qu'instance d'attributs.

     'name' is the pathname of the archive.  'name' may be a *note
     path-like object: 29d.  It can be omitted if 'fileobj' is given.
     In this case, the file object's ‘name’ attribute is used if it
     exists.

     Le 'mode' est soit ‘'r'’ pour lire à partir d'une archive
     existante, ‘'a'’ pour ajouter des données à un fichier existant,
     ‘'w'’ pour créer un nouveau fichier en écrasant un existant, ou
     ‘'x'’ pour créer un nouveau fichier uniquement s'il n'existe pas
     déjà.

     Si 'fileobj' est fourni, il est utilisé pour lire ou écrire des
     données.  S'il peut être déterminé, le 'mode' est remplacé par le
     mode de 'fileobj'.  'fileobj' sera utilisé à partir de la position
     0.

          Note: 'fileobj' n'est pas fermé, lorsque *note TarFile: 11ef.
          est fermé.

     Le 'format' contrôle le format d'archive en écriture.  Il doit
     s'agir de l'une des constantes *note USTAR_FORMAT: 29c5, *note
     GNU_FORMAT: 29c6. ou *note PAX_FORMAT: 29c7. définies au niveau du
     module.  Lors de la lecture, le format sera automatiquement
     détecté, même si différents formats sont présents dans une même
     archive.

     L'argument 'tarinfo' peut être utilisé pour remplacer la classe par
     défaut *note TarInfo: 11f0. par une autre.

     Si 'dereference' est *note False: b27, ajoute des liens symboliques
     et physiques à l'archive.  Si c'est *note True: bfd, ajoute le
     contenu des fichiers cibles à l'archive.  Cela n'a aucun effet sur
     les systèmes qui ne prennent pas en charge les liens symboliques.

     Si 'ignore_zeros' est *note False: b27, traite un bloc vide comme
     la fin de l'archive.  Si c'est le cas *note True: bfd, saute les
     blocs vides (et invalides) et essaye d'obtenir autant de membres
     que possible.  Ceci n'est utile que pour lire des archives
     concaténées ou endommagées.

     'debug' peut être défini de ‘0’ (aucun message de débogage) à ‘3’
     (tous les messages de débogage).  Les messages sont écrits dans
     ‘sys.stderr’.

     'errorlevel' controls how extraction errors are handled, see *note
     the corresponding attribute: 29aa.

     Les arguments 'encoding' et 'errors' définissent l'encodage de
     caractères à utiliser pour lire ou écrire l'archive et comment les
     erreurs de conversion vont être traitées.  Les paramètres par
     défaut fonctionneront pour la plupart des utilisateurs.  Voir la
     section *note Problèmes unicode: 29ca. pour des informations
     détaillées.

     L'argument 'pax_headers' est un dictionnaire facultatif de chaînes
     de caractères qui sera ajouté en tant qu'en-tête global 'pax' si le
     'format' est *note PAX_FORMAT: 29c7.

     If 'stream' is set to *note True: bfd. then while reading the
     archive info about files in the archive are not cached, saving
     memory.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utilise ‘'surrogateescape'’ comme
     valeur par défaut pour l'argument 'errors'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: le mode ‘'x'’ (création exclusive) a
     été ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre 'name' accepte un *note
     path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add the 'stream' parameter.

 -- Méthode: classmethod TarFile.open (...)

     Constructeur alternatif.  La fonction *note tarfile.open(): e62.
     est en fait un raccourci vers cette méthode de classe.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.getmember (name)

     Renvoie un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. pour le membre 'name'.  Si
     'name' est introuvable dans l'archive, *note KeyError: 33a. est
     levée.

          Note: Si un membre apparaît plus d'une fois dans l'archive, sa
          dernière occurrence est supposée être la version la plus
          récente.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.getmembers ()

     Renvoie les membres de l'archive sous la forme d'une liste d'objets
     *note TarInfo: 11f0.  La liste a le même ordre que les membres de
     l'archive.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.getnames ()

     Renvoie les membres comme une liste de leurs noms.  Il a le même
     ordre que la liste renvoyée par *note getmembers(): e66.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.list (verbose=True, *, members=None)

     Imprime une table des matières dans ‘sys.stdout’.  Si 'verbose' est
     *note False: b27, seuls les noms des membres sont imprimés.  Si
     c'est *note True: bfd, une sortie similaire à celle de ‘ls -l’ est
     produite.  Si des 'membres' facultatifs sont fournis, il doit
     s'agir d'un sous-ensemble de la liste renvoyée par *note
     getmembers(): e66.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre 'members'.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.next ()

     Renvoie le membre suivant de l'archive en tant qu'objet *note
     TarInfo: 11f0, lorsque la classe *note TarFile: 11ef. est ouverte
     en lecture.  Renvoie *note None: 662. s'il n'y a pas.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.extractall (path='.', members=None, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extrait tous les membres de l'archive vers le répertoire de travail
     actuel ou le répertoire 'chemin'.  Si des 'membres' facultatifs
     sont fournis, il doit s'agir d'un sous-ensemble de la liste
     renvoyée par *note getmembers(): e66.  Les informations d'annuaire
     telles que le propriétaire, l'heure de modification et les
     autorisations sont définies une fois tous les membres extraits.
     Cela est fait pour contourner deux problèmes : l'heure de
     modification d'un répertoire est réinitialisée chaque fois qu'un
     fichier y est créé.  Et, si les autorisations d'un répertoire ne
     permettent pas l'écriture, l'extraction de fichiers échoue.

     Si 'numeric_owner' est *note True: bfd, les numéros 'uid' et 'gid'
     du fichier 'tar' sont utilisés pour définir le propriétaire et le
     groupe des fichiers extraits.  Sinon, les valeurs nommées du
     fichier 'tar' sont utilisées.

     The 'filter' argument specifies how ‘members’ are modified or
     rejected before extraction.  See *note Extraction filters: 458. for
     details.  It is recommended to set this explicitly depending on
     which 'tar' features you need to support.

          Avertissement: Ne jamais extraire des archives de sources non
          fiables sans inspection préalable.  Il est possible que des
          fichiers soient créés en dehors de 'chemin', par exemple : les
          membres qui ont des noms de fichiers absolus commençant par
          ‘"/"’ ou des noms de fichiers avec deux points ‘".."’.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 458. section
          for details.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre 'numeric_owner'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre 'path' accepte un *note
     path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Ajout du paramètre 'filter'.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.extract (member, path='', set_attrs=True, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extrait un membre de l'archive vers le répertoire de travail
     actuel, en utilisant son nom complet.  Les informations de son
     fichier sont extraites aussi précisément que possible.  Le membre
     peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0.  Vous
     pouvez spécifier un répertoire différent en utilisant 'path'.
     'path' peut être un *note path-like object: 29d.  Les attributs de
     fichier (propriétaire, 'mtime', mode) sont définis sauf si
     'set_attrs' est faux.

     The 'numeric_owner' and 'filter' arguments are the same as for
     *note extractall(): e63.

          Note: La méthode *note extract(): e64. ne prend pas en charge
          plusieurs problèmes d'extraction.  Dans la plupart des cas,
          vous devriez envisager d'utiliser la méthode *note
          extractall(): e63.

          Avertissement: Voir l'avertissement pour *note extractall():
          e63.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 458. section
          for details.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre 'set_attrs'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre 'numeric_owner'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre 'path' accepte un *note
     path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Ajout du paramètre 'filter'.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.extractfile (member)

     Extrait un membre de l'archive en tant qu'objet fichier.  'member'
     peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0.  Si
     'member' est un fichier normal ou un lien, un objet *note
     io.BufferedReader: 11ed. est renvoyé.  Sinon, *note None: 662. est
     renvoyé.  Lève une exception *note KeyError: 33a. si 'member' n'est
     pas présent dans l'archive.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Renvoie un objet *note
     io.BufferedReader: 11ed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The returned *note io.BufferedReader:
     11ed. object has the ‘mode’ attribute which is always equal to
     ‘'rb'’.

 -- Attribut: TarFile.errorlevel: *note int: 254.

     If 'errorlevel' is ‘0’, errors are ignored when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): e64. and *note TarFile.extractall(): e63.
     Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output
     when 'debug' is greater than 0.  If ‘1’ (the default), all 'fatal'
     errors are raised as *note OSError: 40d. or *note FilterError:
     29ad. exceptions.  If ‘2’, all 'non-fatal' errors are raised as
     *note TarError: 29a7. exceptions as well.

     Some exceptions, e.g.  ones caused by wrong argument types or data
     corruption, are always raised.

     Custom *note extraction filters: 458. should raise *note
     FilterError: 29ad. for 'fatal' errors and *note ExtractError: 29a9.
     for 'non-fatal' ones.

     Note that when an exception is raised, the archive may be partially
     extracted.  It is the user’s responsibility to clean up.

 -- Attribut: TarFile.extraction_filter

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     The *note extraction filter: 458. used as a default for the
     'filter' argument of *note extract(): e64. and *note extractall():
     e63.

     The attribute may be ‘None’ or a callable.  String names are not
     allowed for this attribute, unlike the 'filter' argument to *note
     extract(): e64.

     If ‘extraction_filter’ is ‘None’ (the default), calling an
     extraction method without a 'filter' argument will raise a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’, and fall back to the *note fully_trusted:
     29cf. filter, whose dangerous behavior matches previous versions of
     Python.

     In Python 3.14+, leaving ‘extraction_filter=None’ will cause
     extraction methods to use the *note data: 16b7. filter by default.

     The attribute may be set on instances or overridden in subclasses.
     It also is possible to set it on the ‘TarFile’ class itself to set
     a global default, although, since it affects all uses of 'tarfile',
     it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or
     *note site configuration: c6.  To set a global default this way, a
     filter function needs to be wrapped in *note staticmethod(): 40c.
     to prevent injection of a ‘self’ argument.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.add (name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *,
          filter=None)

     Ajoute le fichier 'name' à l'archive.  'name' peut être n'importe
     quel type de fichier (répertoire, 'fifo', lien symbolique, etc.).
     S'il est donné, 'arcname' spécifie un autre nom pour le fichier
     dans l'archive.  Les répertoires sont ajoutés récursivement par
     défaut.  Cela peut être évité en définissant 'recursive' sur *note
     False: b27.  La récursivité ajoute des entrées dans l'ordre trié.
     Si 'filter' est donné, il convient que ce soit une fonction qui
     prend un argument d'objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. et renvoie l'objet
     changé *note TarInfo: 11f0.  S'il renvoie à la place *note None:
     662, l'objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. sera exclu de l'archive.  Voir
     *note Exemples: 29a6. pour un exemple.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre 'filter'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: La récursivité ajoute les entrées dans
     un ordre trié.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.addfile (tarinfo, fileobj=None)

     Add the *note TarInfo: 11f0. object 'tarinfo' to the archive.  If
     'tarinfo' represents a non zero-size regular file, the 'fileobj'
     argument should be a *note binary file: 1c45, and ‘tarinfo.size’
     bytes are read from it and added to the archive.  You can create
     *note TarInfo: 11f0. objects directly, or by using *note
     gettarinfo(): 29d0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'fileobj' must be given for
     non-zero-sized regular files.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.gettarinfo (name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)

     Crée un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. à partir du résultat de *note
     os.stat(): 48c. ou équivalent sur un fichier existant.  Le fichier
     est soit nommé par 'name', soit spécifié comme *note file object:
     11a2. 'fileobj' avec un descripteur de fichier.  'name' peut être
     un *note objet: 29d1. semblable à un chemin.  S'il est donné,
     'arcname' spécifie un autre nom pour le fichier dans l'archive,
     sinon, le nom est tiré de l'attribut 'fileobj' *note name: 2937, ou
     de l'argument 'name'.  Le nom doit être une chaîne de texte.

     Vous pouvez modifier certains des attributs de *note TarInfo: 11f0.
     avant de les ajouter en utilisant *note addfile(): 15eb.  Si
     l'objet fichier n'est pas un objet fichier ordinaire positionné au
     début du fichier, des attributs tels que *note size: 29d2. peuvent
     nécessiter une modification.  C'est le cas pour des objets tels que
     *note GzipFile: 410.  Le *note name: 29d3. peut également être
     modifié, auquel cas 'arcname' pourrait être une chaîne factice.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre 'name' accepte un *note
     path-like object: 29d.

 -- Méthode: TarFile.close ()

     Ferme le *note TarFile: 11ef.  En mode écriture, deux blocs de
     finition à zéro sont ajoutés à l'archive.

 -- Attribut: TarFile.pax_headers: *note dict: 253.

     Un dictionnaire contenant des paires clé-valeur d'en-têtes globaux
     'pax'.


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets TarInfo,  Next: Extraction filters,  Prev: Les objets TarFile,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.2 Les objets 'TarInfo'
.............................

Un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. représente un membre dans un *note
TarFile: 11ef.  En plus de stocker tous les attributs requis d'un
fichier (comme le type de fichier, la taille, l'heure, les
autorisations, le propriétaire, etc.), il fournit quelques méthodes
utiles pour déterminer son type.  Il ne contient pas les données du
fichier lui-même.

*note TarInfo: 11f0. objects are returned by *note TarFile: 11ef.'s
methods *note getmember(): 1810, *note getmembers(): e66. and *note
gettarinfo(): 29d0.

Modifying the objects returned by *note getmember(): 1810. or *note
getmembers(): e66. will affect all subsequent operations on the archive.
For cases where this is unwanted, you can use *note copy.copy(): 25. or
call the *note replace(): 29d7. method to create a modified copy in one
step.

Several attributes can be set to ‘None’ to indicate that a piece of
metadata is unused or unknown.  Different *note TarInfo: 11f0. methods
handle ‘None’ differently:

   - The *note extract(): e64. or *note extractall(): e63. methods will
     ignore the corresponding metadata, leaving it set to a default.

   - *note addfile(): 15eb. will fail.

   - *note list(): e65. will print a placeholder string.

 -- Classe: tarfile.TarInfo (name='')

     Crée un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0.

 -- Méthode: classmethod TarInfo.frombuf (buf, encoding, errors)

     Crée et renvoie un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. à partir de la chaîne
     tampon 'buf'.

     Lève *note HeaderError: 29ab. si le tampon n'est pas valide.

 -- Méthode: classmethod TarInfo.fromtarfile (tarfile)

     Lit le membre suivant dans l'objet *note TarFile: 11ef. 'tarfile'
     et le renvoie comme un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.tobuf (format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape')

     Crée un tampon de chaîne de caractères à partir d'un objet *note
     TarInfo: 11f0.  Pour plus d'informations sur les arguments, voir le
     constructeur de la classe *note TarFile: 11ef.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utilise ‘'surrogateescape'’ comme
     valeur par défaut pour l'argument 'errors'.

Un objet ‘TarInfo’ a les attributs de données publics suivants :

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.name: *note str: 437.

     Nom du membre de l'archive.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.size: *note int: 254.

     La taille en octets.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.mtime: *note int: 254. | *note float: 2ec.

     Time of last modification in seconds since the *note epoch: 29db,
     as in *note os.stat_result.st_mtime: 29dc.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note
     extract(): e64. and *note extractall(): e63, causing extraction to
     skip applying this attribute.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.mode: *note int: 254.

     Permission bits, as for *note os.chmod(): 218.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note
     extract(): e64. and *note extractall(): e63, causing extraction to
     skip applying this attribute.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.type

     Type de fichier.  'type' est généralement l'une des constantes
     suivantes : *note REGTYPE: 29b7, *note AREGTYPE: 29b8, *note
     LNKTYPE: 29ba, *note SYMTYPE: 29bb, *note DIRTYPE: 29be, *note
     FIFOTYPE: 29bf, *note CONTTYPE: 29c0, *note CHRTYPE: 29bc, *note
     BLKTYPE: 29bd, *note GNUTYPE_SPARSE: 29c3.  Pour déterminer plus
     facilement le type d'un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0, utilisez les
     méthodes ‘is*()’ ci-dessous.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.linkname: *note str: 437.

     Nom du fichier cible, qui n'est présent que dans les objets *note
     TarInfo: 11f0. de type *note LNKTYPE: 29ba. et *note SYMTYPE: 29bb.

     For symbolic links (‘SYMTYPE’), the 'linkname' is relative to the
     directory that contains the link.  For hard links (‘LNKTYPE’), the
     'linkname' is relative to the root of the archive.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.uid: *note int: 254.

     ID de l'utilisateur qui a initialement stocké ce membre.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note
     extract(): e64. and *note extractall(): e63, causing extraction to
     skip applying this attribute.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.gid: *note int: 254.

     ID de groupe de l'utilisateur qui a initialement stocké ce membre.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note
     extract(): e64. and *note extractall(): e63, causing extraction to
     skip applying this attribute.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.uname: *note str: 437.

     Nom d'utilisateur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note
     extract(): e64. and *note extractall(): e63, causing extraction to
     skip applying this attribute.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.gname: *note str: 437.

     Nom de groupe.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note
     extract(): e64. and *note extractall(): e63, causing extraction to
     skip applying this attribute.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.chksum: *note int: 254.

     Header checksum.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.devmajor: *note int: 254.

     Device major number.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.devminor: *note int: 254.

     Device minor number.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.offset: *note int: 254.

     The tar header starts here.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.offset_data: *note int: 254.

     The file's data starts here.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.sparse

     Sparse member information.

 -- Attribut: TarInfo.pax_headers: *note dict: 253.

     Un dictionnaire contenant des paires clé-valeur d'un en-tête étendu
     'pax' associé.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.replace (name=..., mtime=..., mode=...,
          linkname=..., uid=..., gid=..., uname=..., gname=...,
          deep=True)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Return a 'new' copy of the ‘TarInfo’ object with the given
     attributes changed.  For example, to return a ‘TarInfo’ with the
     group name set to ‘'staff'’, use:

          new_tarinfo = old_tarinfo.replace(gname='staff')

     By default, a deep copy is made.  If 'deep' is false, the copy is
     shallow, i.e.  ‘pax_headers’ and any custom attributes are shared
     with the original ‘TarInfo’ object.

Un objet *note TarInfo: 11f0. fournit également des méthodes de requête
pratiques :

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.isfile ()

     Return *note True: bfd. if the *note TarInfo: 11f0. object is a
     regular file.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.isreg ()

     Identique à *note isfile(): 29ea.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.isdir ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. si c'est un dossier.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.issym ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. s'il s'agit d'un lien symbolique.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.islnk ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. s'il s'agit d'un lien physique.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.ischr ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. s'il s'agit d'un périphérique de
     caractères.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.isblk ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. s'il s'agit d'un périphérique de bloc.

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.isfifo ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. s'il s'agit d'un tube nommé ('FIFO').

 -- Méthode: TarInfo.isdev ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. s'il s'agit d'un périphérique de
     caractères, d'un périphérique de bloc ou d'un tube nommé.


File: python.info,  Node: Extraction filters,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<3>,  Prev: Les objets TarInfo,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.3 Extraction filters
...........................

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The 'tar' format is designed to capture all details of a UNIX-like
filesystem, which makes it very powerful.  Unfortunately, the features
make it easy to create tar files that have unintended - and possibly
malicious - effects when extracted.  For example, extracting a tar file
can overwrite arbitrary files in various ways (e.g.  by using absolute
paths, ‘..’ path components, or symlinks that affect later members).

In most cases, the full functionality is not needed.  Therefore,
'tarfile' supports extraction filters: a mechanism to limit
functionality, and thus mitigate some of the security issues.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 706(1)

     Contains further motivation and rationale behind the design.

The 'filter' argument to *note TarFile.extract(): e64. or *note
extractall(): e63. can be:

   * the string ‘'fully_trusted'’: Honor all metadata as specified in
     the archive.  Should be used if the user trusts the archive
     completely, or implements their own complex verification.

   * the string ‘'tar'’: Honor most 'tar'-specific features (i.e.
     features of UNIX-like filesystems), but block features that are
     very likely to be surprising or malicious.  See *note tar_filter():
     29f4. for details.

   * the string ‘'data'’: Ignore or block most features specific to
     UNIX-like filesystems.  Intended for extracting cross-platform data
     archives.  See *note data_filter(): 16b7. for details.

   * ‘None’ (default): Use *note TarFile.extraction_filter: 29ce.

     If that is also ‘None’ (the default), raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’,
     and fall back to the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter, whose dangerous
     behavior matches previous versions of Python.

     In Python 3.14, the ‘'data'’ filter will become the default
     instead.  It's possible to switch earlier; see *note
     TarFile.extraction_filter: 29ce.

   * A callable which will be called for each extracted member with a
     *note TarInfo: 29b0. describing the member and the destination path
     to where the archive is extracted (i.e.  the same path is used for
     all members):

          filter(member: TarInfo, path: str, /) -> TarInfo | None

     The callable is called just before each member is extracted, so it
     can take the current state of the disk into account.  It can:

        - return a *note TarInfo: 11f0. object which will be used
          instead of the metadata in the archive, or

        - return ‘None’, in which case the member will be skipped, or

        - raise an exception to abort the operation or skip the member,
          depending on *note errorlevel: 29aa.  Note that when
          extraction is aborted, *note extractall(): e63. may leave the
          archive partially extracted.  It does not attempt to clean up.

* Menu:

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Default named filters,  Next: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.4 Default named filters
..............................

The pre-defined, named filters are available as functions, so they can
be reused in custom filters:

 -- Fonction: tarfile.fully_trusted_filter (member, path)

     Return 'member' unchanged.

     This implements the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter.

 -- Fonction: tarfile.tar_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'tar'’ filter.

        - Strip leading slashes (‘/’ and *note os.sep: 657.) from
          filenames.

        - *note Refuse: 29ae. to extract files with absolute paths (in
          case the name is absolute even after stripping slashes, e.g.
          ‘C:/foo’ on Windows).  This raises *note AbsolutePathError:
          29b1.

        - *note Refuse: 29ae. to extract files whose absolute path
          (after following symlinks) would end up outside the
          destination.  This raises *note OutsideDestinationError: 29b2.

        - Clear high mode bits (setuid, setgid, sticky) and group/other
          write bits (*note S_IWGRP: 27bc. | *note S_IWOTH: 27bf.).

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

 -- Fonction: tarfile.data_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'data'’ filter.  In addition to what ‘tar_filter’
     does:

        - *note Refuse: 29ae. to extract links (hard or soft) that link
          to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.

          This raises *note AbsoluteLinkError: 29b4. or *note
          LinkOutsideDestinationError: 29b5.

          Note that such files are refused even on platforms that do not
          support symbolic links.

        - *note Refuse: 29ae. to extract device files (including pipes).
          This raises *note SpecialFileError: 29b3.

        - For regular files, including hard links:

             - Set the owner read and write permissions (*note S_IRUSR:
               27b7. | *note S_IWUSR: 27b8.).

             - Remove the group & other executable permission (*note
               S_IXGRP: 27b3. | *note S_IXOTH: 27c0.) if the owner
               doesn’t have it (*note S_IXUSR: 27b9.).

        - For other files (directories), set ‘mode’ to ‘None’, so that
          extraction methods skip applying permission bits.

        - Set user and group info (‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘uname’, ‘gname’) to
          ‘None’, so that extraction methods skip setting it.

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter errors,  Next: Hints for further verification,  Prev: Default named filters,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.5 Filter errors
......................

When a filter refuses to extract a file, it will raise an appropriate
exception, a subclass of *note FilterError: 29ad.  This will abort the
extraction if *note TarFile.errorlevel: 29aa. is 1 or more.  With
‘errorlevel=0’ the error will be logged and the member will be skipped,
but extraction will continue.


File: python.info,  Node: Hints for further verification,  Next: Supporting older Python versions,  Prev: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.6 Hints for further verification
.......................................

Even with ‘filter='data'’, 'tarfile' is not suited for extracting
untrusted files without prior inspection.  Among other issues, the
pre-defined filters do not prevent denial-of-service attacks.  Users
should do additional checks.

Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:

   * Extract to a *note new temporary directory: 21c. to prevent e.g.
     exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to clean up
     after a failed extraction.

   * When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g.  OS-level)
     limits on disk, memory and CPU usage.

   * Check filenames against an allow-list of characters (to filter out
     control characters, confusables, foreign path separators, etc.).

   * Check that filenames have expected extensions (discouraging files
     that execute when you “click on them”, or extension-less files like
     Windows special device names).

   * Limit the number of extracted files, total size of extracted data,
     filename length (including symlink length), and size of individual
     files.

   * Check for files that would be shadowed on case-insensitive
     filesystems.

Also note that:

   * Tar files may contain multiple versions of the same file.  Later
     ones are expected to overwrite any earlier ones.  This feature is
     crucial to allow updating tape archives, but can be abused
     maliciously.

   * 'tarfile' does not protect against issues with “live” data, e.g.
     an attacker tinkering with the destination (or source) directory
     while extraction (or archiving) is in progress.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting older Python versions,  Next: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Hints for further verification,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.7 Supporting older Python versions
.........................................

Extraction filters were added to Python 3.12, but may be backported to
older versions as security updates.  To check whether the feature is
available, use e.g.  ‘hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter')’ rather than
checking the Python version.

The following examples show how to support Python versions with and
without the feature.  Note that setting ‘extraction_filter’ will affect
any subsequent operations.

   * Fully trusted archive:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = (lambda member, path: member)
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter if available, but revert to Python 3.11
     behavior (‘'fully_trusted'’) if this feature is not available:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = getattr(tarfile, 'data_filter',
                                                 (lambda member, path: member))
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'fail' if it is not available:

          my_tarfile.extractall(filter=tarfile.data_filter)

     ou :

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = tarfile.data_filter
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'warn' if it is not available:

          if hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter'):
              my_tarfile.extractall(filter='data')
          else:
              # remove this when no longer needed
              warn_the_user('Extracting may be unsafe; consider updating Python')
              my_tarfile.extractall()


File: python.info,  Node: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Supporting older Python versions,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.8 Stateful extraction filter example
...........................................

While 'tarfile"s extraction methods take a simple 'filter' callable,
custom filters may be more complex objects with an internal state.  It
may be useful to write these as context managers, to be used like this:

     with StatefulFilter() as filter_func:
         tar.extractall(path, filter=filter_func)

Such a filter can be written as, for example:

     class StatefulFilter:
         def __init__(self):
             self.file_count = 0

         def __enter__(self):
             return self

         def __call__(self, member, path):
             self.file_count += 1
             return member

         def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
             print(f'{self.file_count} files extracted')


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<3>,  Next: Exemples<9>,  Prev: Extraction filters,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.9 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Le module *note tarfile: dd. fournit une interface de ligne de commande
simple pour interagir avec les archives 'tar'.

Si vous souhaitez créer une nouvelle archive 'tar', spécifiez son nom
après l'option *note -c: 29fb, puis répertorie-le ou les noms de
fichiers à inclure :

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt

Passer un répertoire est aussi possible :

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/

Si vous souhaitez extraire une archive 'tar' dans le répertoire courant,
utilisez l'option *note -e: 29fc. :

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar

Vous pouvez également extraire une archive 'tar' dans un autre
répertoire en passant le nom du répertoire :

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/

Pour une liste des fichiers dans une archive 'tar', utilisez l'option
*note -l: 29fd. :

     $ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar

* Menu:

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de la ligne de commande<3>,  Up: Interface en ligne de commande<3>

5.13.6.10 Options de la ligne de commande
.........................................

 -- Option: -l <tarfile>
 -- Option: --list <tarfile>

     Liste les fichiers dans une archive 'tar'.

 -- Option: -c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Crée une archive 'tar' à partir des fichiers sources.

 -- Option: -e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
 -- Option: --extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

     Extrait l'archive 'tar' dans le répertoire courant si 'output_dir'
     n'est pas spécifié.

 -- Option: -t <tarfile>
 -- Option: --test <tarfile>

     Teste si l'archive 'tar' est valide ou non.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Sortie verbeuse.

 -- Option: --filter <filtername>

     Specifies the 'filter' for ‘--extract’.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 458. for details.  Only string names are accepted (that
     is, ‘fully_trusted’, ‘tar’, and ‘data’).


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<9>,  Next: Formats tar pris en charge,  Prev: Interface en ligne de commande<3>,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.11 Exemples
..................

Comment extraire une archive 'tar' dans le dossier de travail courant :

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(filter='data')
     tar.close()

Comment extraire un sous-ensemble d'une archive 'tar' avec *note
TarFile.extractall(): e63. en utilisant une fonction de générateur au
lieu d'une liste :

     import os
     import tarfile

     def py_files(members):
         for tarinfo in members:
             if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
                 yield tarinfo

     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
     tar.close()

Comment créer une archive 'tar' non compressée à partir d'une liste de
noms de fichiers :

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
     for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
         tar.add(name)
     tar.close()

Le même exemple en utilisant l'instruction *note with: 5be. :

     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

Comment lire une archive 'tar' compressée avec 'gzip' et afficher des
informations des membres :

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
     for tarinfo in tar:
         print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
         if tarinfo.isreg():
             print("a regular file.")
         elif tarinfo.isdir():
             print("a directory.")
         else:
             print("something else.")
     tar.close()

Comment créer une archive et réinitialiser les informations de
l'utilisateur en utilisant le paramètre 'filter' dans *note
TarFile.add(): be3. :

     import tarfile
     def reset(tarinfo):
         tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
         tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
         return tarinfo
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
     tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Formats tar pris en charge,  Next: Problèmes unicode,  Prev: Exemples<9>,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.12 Formats 'tar' pris en charge
......................................

Il existe trois formats 'tar' qui peuvent être créés avec le module
*note tarfile: dd. :

   * Le format 'POSIX.1-1988' 'ustar' (‘ustar_FORMAT’).  Il prend en
     charge les noms de fichiers jusqu'à une longueur maximale de 256
     caractères et les noms de liens jusqu'à 100 caractères.  La taille
     maximale du fichier est de 8 Go.  Il s'agit d'un format ancien et
     limité mais largement pris en charge.

   * Le format GNU 'tar' (*note GNU_FORMAT: 29c6.).  Il prend en charge
     les noms de fichiers longs et les noms de liens, les fichiers
     supérieurs à 8 Go et les fichiers discontinus.  C'est la norme de
     facto des systèmes GNU / Linux.  *note tarfile: dd. prend
     entièrement en charge les extensions GNU 'tar' pour les noms longs,
     la prise en charge des fichiers discontinus est en lecture seule.

   * The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (*note PAX_FORMAT: 29c7.).  It is the
     most flexible format with virtually no limits.  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, large files and stores pathnames in a
     portable way.  Modern tar implementations, including GNU tar,
     bsdtar/libarchive and star, fully support extended 'pax' features;
     some old or unmaintained libraries may not, but should treat 'pax'
     archives as if they were in the universally supported 'ustar'
     format.  It is the current default format for new archives.

     Il étend le format 'ustar' existant avec des en-têtes
     supplémentaires pour les informations qui ne peuvent pas être
     stockées autrement.  Il existe deux types d'en-têtes 'pax' : les
     en-têtes étendus n'affectent que l'en-tête de fichier suivant, les
     en-têtes globaux sont valides pour l'archive complète et affectent
     tous les fichiers suivants.  Toutes les données d'un en-tête 'pax'
     sont encodées en 'UTF-8' pour des raisons de portabilité.

Il existe d'autres variantes du format 'tar' qui peuvent être lues, mais
pas créées :

   * L'ancien format 'V7'.  Il s'agit du premier format 'tar' d''Unix
     Seventh Edition', ne stockant que des fichiers et répertoires
     normaux.  Les noms ne doivent pas dépasser 100 caractères, il n'y a
     aucune information de nom d'utilisateur / groupe.  Certaines
     archives ont des sommes de contrôle d'en-tête mal calculées dans le
     cas de champs avec des caractères non ASCII.

   * Format étendu 'SunOS' 'tar'.  Ce format est une variante du format
     'POSIX.1-2001' 'pax', mais n'est pas compatible.


File: python.info,  Node: Problèmes unicode,  Prev: Formats tar pris en charge,  Up: tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.13 Problèmes 'unicode'
.............................

Le format 'tar' a été initialement conçu pour effectuer des sauvegardes
sur des lecteurs de bande en mettant principalement l'accent sur la
préservation des informations du système de fichiers.  De nos jours, les
archives 'tar' sont couramment utilisées pour la distribution de
fichiers et l'échange d'archives sur des réseaux.  Un problème du format
d'origine (qui est la base de tous les autres formats) est qu'il
n'existe aucun concept de prise en charge d'encodages de caractères
différents.  Par exemple, une archive 'tar' ordinaire créée sur un
système 'UTF-8' ne peut pas être lue correctement sur un système
'Latin-1' si elle contient des caractères non 'ASCII'. Les métadonnées
textuelles (comme les noms de fichiers, les noms de liens, les noms
d'utilisateurs / de groupes) sembleront endommagées.  Malheureusement,
il n'y a aucun moyen de détecter automatiquement l'encodage d'une
archive.  Le format 'pax' a été conçu pour résoudre ce problème.  Il
stocke les métadonnées non ASCII en utilisant l'encodage universel des
caractères 'UTF-8'.

Les détails de la conversion des caractères dans *note tarfile: dd. sont
contrôlés par les arguments nommés 'encoding' et 'errors' de la classe
*note TarFile: 11ef.

'encoding' définit l'encodage de caractères à utiliser pour les
métadonnées de l'archive.  La valeur par défaut est *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. ou ‘'ascii'’ comme solution de
rechange.  Selon que l'archive est lue ou écrite, les métadonnées
doivent être décodées ou encodées.  Si l'encodage n'est pas défini
correctement, cette conversion peut échouer.

L'argument 'errors' définit le traitement des caractères qui ne peuvent
pas être convertis.  Les valeurs possibles sont répertoriées dans la
section *note Gestionnaires d'erreurs: 17a2.  Le schéma par défaut est
‘'surrogateescape'’ que Python utilise également pour ses appels de
système de fichiers, voir *note Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de
commande, et variables d'environnement: 2a0a.

Pour les archives *note PAX_FORMAT: 29c7. (par défaut), l'encodage n'est
généralement pas nécessaire car toutes les métadonnées sont stockées à
l'aide de 'UTF-8'.  L'encodage n'est utilisé que dans les rares cas où
les en-têtes 'pax' binaires sont décodés ou lorsque les chaînes avec des
caractères de substitution sont stockées.


File: python.info,  Node: Formats de fichiers,  Next: Service de cryptographie,  Prev: Compression de donnée et archivage,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.14 Formats de fichiers
========================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre lisent divers formats de fichier
qui ne sont ni des langages balisés ni relatifs aux e-mails.

* Menu:

* csv: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing. CSV File Reading and Writing
* configparser: configparser --- Configuration file parser. Configuration file parser
* tomllib: tomllib --- Parse TOML files. Parse TOML files
* netrc: netrc --- netrc file processing. netrc file processing
* plistlib: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files. Generate and parse Apple .plist files


File: python.info,  Node: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing,  Next: configparser --- Configuration file parser,  Up: Formats de fichiers

5.14.1 ‘csv’ -- CSV File Reading and Writing
--------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/csv.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le format CSV ('Comma Separated Values', valeurs séparées par des
virgules) est le format le plus commun dans l'importation et
l'exportation de feuilles de calculs et de bases de données.  Le format
fut utilisé pendant des années avant qu'aient lieu des tentatives de
standardisation avec la RFC 4180(2).  L'absence de format bien défini
signifie que des différences subtiles existent dans la production et la
consommation de données par différentes applications.  Ces différences
peuvent gêner lors du traitement de fichiers CSV depuis des sources
multiples.  Cependant, bien que les séparateurs et délimiteurs varient,
le format global est suffisamment similaire pour qu'un module unique
puisse manipuler efficacement ces données, masquant au programmeur les
détails de lecture/écriture des données.

Le module *note csv: 29. implémente des classes pour lire et écrire des
données tabulaires au format CSV. Il vous permet de dire « écris ces
données dans le format préféré par Excel » ou « lis les données de ce
fichier généré par Excel », sans connaître les détails précis du format
CSV utilisé par Excel.  Vous pouvez aussi décrire les formats CSV
utilisés par d'autres applications ou définir vos propres
spécialisations.

Les objets *note reader: 472. et *note writer: 473. du module *note csv:
29. lisent et écrivent des séquences.  Vous pouvez aussi lire/écrire les
données dans un dictionnaire en utilisant les classes *note DictReader:
9d5. et *note DictWriter: 11dd.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 305(3) ­— Interface des fichiers CSV

     La proposition d'amélioration de Python (PEP) qui a proposé cet
     ajout au langage.

* Menu:

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<3>.
* Dialectes et paramètres de formatage::
* Objets lecteurs::
* Objets transcripteurs::
* Exemples: Exemples<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/csv.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu du module<3>,  Next: Dialectes et paramètres de formatage,  Up: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.1 Contenu du module
..........................

Le module *note csv: 29. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: csv.reader (csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     Return a *note reader object: 2a12. that will process lines from
     the given 'csvfile'.  A csvfile must be an iterable of strings,
     each in the reader's defined csv format.  A csvfile is most
     commonly a file-like object or list.  If 'csvfile' is a file
     object, it should be opened with ‘newline=''’.  (1)  An optional
     'dialect' parameter can be given which is used to define a set of
     parameters specific to a particular CSV dialect.  It may be an
     instance of a subclass of the *note Dialect: 1636. class or one of
     the strings returned by the *note list_dialects(): 17c5. function.
     The other optional 'fmtparams' keyword arguments can be given to
     override individual formatting parameters in the current dialect.
     For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see
     section *note Dialectes et paramètres de formatage: 2a13.

     Chaque ligne lue depuis le fichier CSV est renvoyée comme une liste
     de chaînes de caractères.  Aucune conversion automatique de type
     des données n'est effectuée à moins que l'option de formatage
     ‘QUOTE_NONNUMERIC’ soit spécifiée (dans ce cas, les champs sans
     guillemets sont transformés en nombres flottants).

     Un court exemple d'utilisation :

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
          ...     for row in spamreader:
          ...         print(', '.join(row))
          Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
          Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam

 -- Fonction: csv.writer (csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     Return a writer object responsible for converting the user's data
     into delimited strings on the given file-like object.  'csvfile'
     can be any object with a *note write(): 1c32. method.  If 'csvfile'
     is a file object, it should be opened with ‘newline=''’ (2).  An
     optional 'dialect' parameter can be given which is used to define a
     set of parameters specific to a particular CSV dialect.  It may be
     an instance of a subclass of the *note Dialect: 1636. class or one
     of the strings returned by the *note list_dialects(): 17c5.
     function.  The other optional 'fmtparams' keyword arguments can be
     given to override individual formatting parameters in the current
     dialect.  For full details about dialects and formatting
     parameters, see the *note Dialectes et paramètres de formatage:
     2a13. section.  To make it as easy as possible to interface with
     modules which implement the DB API, the value *note None: 662. is
     written as the empty string.  While this isn't a reversible
     transformation, it makes it easier to dump SQL NULL data values to
     CSV files without preprocessing the data returned from a
     ‘cursor.fetch*’ call.  All other non-string data are stringified
     with *note str(): 437. before being written.

     Un court exemple d'utilisation :

          import csv
          with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
                                      quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])

 -- Fonction: csv.register_dialect (name[, dialect[, **fmtparams]])

     Associe 'dialect' avec 'name'.  'name' doit être une chaîne de
     caractères.  Le dialecte peut être spécifié en passant une instance
     d'une sous-classe de *note Dialect: 1636, des arguments nommés
     'fmtparams', ou les deux, avec les arguments nommés redéfinissant
     les paramètres du dialecte.  Pour tous les détails sur les
     dialectes et paramètres de formatage, voir la section *note
     Dialectes et paramètres de formatage: 2a13.

 -- Fonction: csv.unregister_dialect (name)

     Supprime le dialecte associé à 'name' depuis le registre des
     dialectes.  Une *note Error: 2a15. est levée si 'name' n'est pas un
     nom de dialecte enregistré.

 -- Fonction: csv.get_dialect (name)

     Renvoie le dialecte associé à 'name'.  Une *note Error: 2a15. est
     levée si 'name' n'est pas un nom de dialecte enregistré.  Cette
     fonction renvoie un objet *note Dialect: 1636. immuable.

 -- Fonction: csv.list_dialects ()

     Renvoie les noms de tous les dialectes enregistrés.

 -- Fonction: csv.field_size_limit ([new_limit])

     Renvoie la taille de champ maximale actuelle autorisée par
     l'analyseur.  Si 'new_limit' est donnée, elle devient la nouvelle
     limite.

Le module *note csv: 29. définit les classes suivantes :

 -- Classe: csv.DictReader (f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None,
          restval=None, dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     Crée un objet qui opère comme un lecteur ordinaire mais assemble
     les informations de chaque ligne dans un *note dict: 253. dont les
     clés sont données par le paramètre optionnel 'fieldnames'.

     The 'fieldnames' parameter is a *note sequence: 4de.  If
     'fieldnames' is omitted, the values in the first row of file 'f'
     will be used as the fieldnames and will be omitted from the
     results.  If 'fieldnames' is provided, they will be used and the
     first row will be included in the results.  Regardless of how the
     fieldnames are determined, the dictionary preserves their original
     ordering.

     Si une ligne a plus de champs que 'fieldnames', les données
     excédentaires sont mises dans une liste stockée dans le champ
     spécifié par 'restkey' (‘None’ par défaut).  Si une ligne non-vide
     a moins de champs que 'fieldnames', les valeurs manquantes sont
     remplacées par la valeur de 'restval' (‘None’ par défaut).

     Tous les autres arguments optionnels ou nommés sont passés à
     l'instance *note reader: 472. sous-jacente.

     If the argument passed to 'fieldnames' is an iterator, it will be
     coerced to a *note list: 5fe.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les lignes renvoyées sont maintenant
     de type ‘OrderedDict’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les lignes renvoyées sont maintenant
     de type *note dict: 253.

     Un court exemple d'utilisation :

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
          ...     for row in reader:
          ...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
          ...
          Eric Idle
          John Cleese

          >>> print(row)
          {'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}

 -- Classe: csv.DictWriter (f, fieldnames, restval='',
          extrasaction='raise', dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     Create an object which operates like a regular writer but maps
     dictionaries onto output rows.  The 'fieldnames' parameter is a
     *note sequence: 1e. of keys that identify the order in which values
     in the dictionary passed to the *note writerow(): dd9. method are
     written to file 'f'.  The optional 'restval' parameter specifies
     the value to be written if the dictionary is missing a key in
     'fieldnames'.  If the dictionary passed to the *note writerow():
     dd9. method contains a key not found in 'fieldnames', the optional
     'extrasaction' parameter indicates what action to take.  If it is
     set to ‘'raise'’, the default value, a *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     raised.  If it is set to ‘'ignore'’, extra values in the dictionary
     are ignored.  Any other optional or keyword arguments are passed to
     the underlying *note writer: 473. instance.

     Notez que contrairement à la classe *note DictReader: 9d5, le
     paramètre 'fieldnames' de *note DictWriter: 11dd. n'est pas
     optionnel.

     If the argument passed to 'fieldnames' is an iterator, it will be
     coerced to a *note list: 5fe.

     Un court exemple d'utilisation :

          import csv

          with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
              writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)

              writer.writeheader()
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})

 -- Classe: csv.Dialect

     La classe *note Dialect: 1636. est une classe dont les attributs
     contiennent des informations sur la façon de gérer les guillemets,
     les espaces, les délimiteurs, etc.  En raison de l’absence d’une
     spécification CSV stricte, différentes applications produisent des
     données CSV subtilement différentes.  Les instances *note Dialect:
     1636. définissent le comportement des instances *note reader: 472.
     et *note writer: 473.

     Tous les noms disponibles de *note Dialect: 1636. sont renvoyés par
     *note list_dialects(): 17c5, et ils peuvent être enregistrés avec
     des classes *note reader: 472. et *note writer: 473. spécifiques en
     passant par leur fonction d’initialisation (‘__init__’) comme ici :

          import csv

          with open('students.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              writer = csv.writer(csvfile, dialect='unix')

 -- Classe: csv.excel

     La classe *note excel: 2a16. définit les propriétés usuelles d'un
     fichier CSV généré par Excel.  Elle est enregistrée avec le nom de
     dialecte ‘'excel'’.

 -- Classe: csv.excel_tab

     La classe *note excel_tab: 2a17. définit les propriétés usuelles
     d'un fichier CSV généré par Excel avec des tabulations comme
     séparateurs.  Elle est enregistrée avec le nom de dialecte
     ‘'excel-tab'’.

 -- Classe: csv.unix_dialect

     La classe *note unix_dialect: 11dc. définit les propriétés usuelles
     d'un fichier CSV généré sur un système Unix, c'est-à-dire utilisant
     ‘'\n'’ comme marqueur de fin de ligne et délimitant tous les champs
     par des guillemets.  Elle est enregistrée avec le nom de dialecte
     ‘'unix'’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: csv.Sniffer

     La classe *note Sniffer: 2a18. est utilisée pour déduire le format
     d'un fichier CSV.

     La classe *note Sniffer: 2a18. fournit deux méthodes :

      -- Méthode: sniff (sample, delimiters=None)

          Analyse l'extrait donné ('sample') et renvoie une sous-classe
          *note Dialect: 1636. reflétant les paramètres trouvés.  Si le
          paramètre optionnel 'delimiters' est donné, il est interprété
          comme une chaîne contenant tous les caractères valides de
          séparation possibles.

      -- Méthode: has_header (sample)

          Analyse l'extrait de texte (présumé être au format CSV) et
          renvoie *note True: bfd. si la première ligne semble être une
          série d'en-têtes de colonnes.  En inspectant chaque colonne,
          l’un des deux critères clés sera pris en compte pour estimer
          si l’échantillon contient un en-tête :

             - les deuxième à n-ième lignes contiennent des valeurs
               numériques

             - les deuxième à n-ième lignes contiennent des chaînes dont
               la longueur d’au moins une valeur diffère de celle de
               l’en-tête putatif de cette colonne.

          L'échantillon est composé des vingt lignes après la première
          ligne ; si plus de la moitié des colonnes + lignes répondent
          aux critères, *note True: bfd. est renvoyé.

          Note: Cette méthode est une heuristique discutable et peut
          produire tant des faux-positifs que des faux-négatifs.

Un exemple d'utilisation de *note Sniffer: 2a18. :

     with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
         dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
         csvfile.seek(0)
         reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
         # ... process CSV file contents here ...
Le module *note csv: 29. définit les constantes suivantes :

 -- Données: csv.QUOTE_ALL

     Indique aux objets *note writer: 473. de délimiter tous les champs
     par des guillemets.

 -- Données: csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL

     Indique aux objets *note writer: 473. de ne délimiter ainsi que les
     champs contenant un caractère spécial comme 'delimiter',
     'quotechar' ou n'importe quel caractère de 'lineterminator'.

 -- Données: csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC

     Indique aux objets *note writer: 473. de délimiter ainsi tous les
     champs non-numériques.

     Instructs *note reader: 472. objects to convert all non-quoted
     fields to type 'float'.

 -- Données: csv.QUOTE_NONE

     Indique aux objets *note writer: 473. de ne jamais délimiter les
     champs par des guillemets.  Quand le 'delimiter' utilisé apparaît
     dans les données, il est précédé sur la sortie par un caractère
     'escapechar'.  Si 'escapechar' n'est pas précisé, le transcripteur
     lèvera une *note Error: 2a15. si un caractère nécessitant un
     échappement est rencontré.

     Instructs *note reader: 472. objects to perform no special
     processing of quote characters.

 -- Données: csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL

     Instructs *note writer: 473. objects to quote all fields which are
     not ‘None’.  This is similar to *note QUOTE_ALL: 2a1b, except that
     if a field value is ‘None’ an empty (unquoted) string is written.

     Instructs *note reader: 472. objects to interpret an empty
     (unquoted) field as ‘None’ and to otherwise behave as *note
     QUOTE_ALL: 2a1b.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: csv.QUOTE_STRINGS

     Instructs *note writer: 473. objects to always place quotes around
     fields which are strings.  This is similar to *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15a7, except that if a field value is ‘None’ an
     empty (unquoted) string is written.

     Instructs *note reader: 472. objects to interpret an empty
     (unquoted) string as ‘None’ and to otherwise behave as *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15a7.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Le module *note csv: 29. définit les exceptions suivantes :

 -- Exception: csv.Error

     Levée par les fonctions du module quand une erreur détectée.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Si ‘newline=''’ n'est pas précisé, les caractères de fin de ligne
embarqués dans des champs délimités par des guillemets ne seront pas
interprétés correctement, et sur les plateformes qui utilisent ‘\r\n’
comme marqueur de fin de ligne, un ‘\r’ sera ajouté.  Il devrait
toujours être sûr de préciser ‘newline=''’, puisque le module 'csv' gère
lui-même les fins de lignes (*note universelles: d2a.).

   (2) Si ‘newline=''’ n'est pas précisé, les caractères de fin de ligne
embarqués dans des champs délimités par des guillemets ne seront pas
interprétés correctement, et sur les plateformes qui utilisent ‘\r\n’
comme marqueur de fin de ligne, un ‘\r’ sera ajouté.  Il devrait
toujours être sûr de préciser ‘newline=''’, puisque le module 'csv' gère
lui-même les fins de lignes (*note universelles: d2a.).


File: python.info,  Node: Dialectes et paramètres de formatage,  Next: Objets lecteurs,  Prev: Contenu du module<3>,  Up: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.2 Dialectes et paramètres de formatage
.............................................

To make it easier to specify the format of input and output records,
specific formatting parameters are grouped together into dialects.  A
dialect is a subclass of the *note Dialect: 1636. class containing
various attributes describing the format of the CSV file.  When creating
*note reader: 472. or *note writer: 473. objects, the programmer can
specify a string or a subclass of the *note Dialect: 1636. class as the
dialect parameter.  In addition to, or instead of, the 'dialect'
parameter, the programmer can also specify individual formatting
parameters, which have the same names as the attributes defined below
for the *note Dialect: 1636. class.

Les dialectes supportent les attributs suivants :

 -- Attribut: Dialect.delimiter

     Une chaîne d'un seul caractère utilisée pour séparer les champs.
     Elle vaut ‘','’ par défaut.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.doublequote

     Contrôle comment les caractères 'quotechar' dans le champ doivent
     être retranscrits.  Quand ce paramètre vaut *note True: bfd, le
     caractère est doublé.  Quand il vaut *note False: b27, le caractère
     'escapechar' est utilisé comme préfixe à 'quotechar'.  Il vaut
     *note True: bfd. par défaut.

     En écriture, si 'doublequote' vaut *note False: b27. et qu'aucun
     'escapechar' n'est précisé, une *note Error: 2a15. est levée si un
     'quotechar' est trouvé dans le champ.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.escapechar

     Une chaîne d'un seul caractère utilisée par le transcripteur pour
     échapper 'delimiter' si 'quoting' vaut *note QUOTE_NONE: 2a1d, et
     pour échapper 'quotechar' si 'doublequote' vaut *note False: b27.
     À la lecture, 'escapechar' retire toute signification spéciale au
     caractère qui le suit.  Elle vaut par défaut *note None: 662, ce
     qui désactive l'échappement.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Un ‘escapechar’ vide n'est pas
     autorisé.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.lineterminator

     La chaîne utilisée pour terminer les lignes produites par un *note
     writer: 473.  Elle vaut par défaut ‘'\r\n'’.

          Note: La classe *note reader: 472. est codée en dur pour
          reconnaître ‘'\r'’ et ‘'\n'’ comme marqueurs de fin de ligne,
          et ignorer 'lineterminator'.  Ce comportement pourrait changer
          dans le futur.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.quotechar

     Une chaîne d'un seul caractère utilisée pour délimiter les champs
     contenant des caractères spéciaux, comme 'delimiter' ou
     'quotechar', ou contenant un caractère de fin de ligne.  Elle vaut
     ‘'"'’ par défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Un ‘quotechar’ vide n'est pas
     autorisé.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.quoting

     Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and
     recognised by the reader.  It can take on any of the *note QUOTE_*
     constants: 2a1a. and defaults to *note QUOTE_MINIMAL: 2a1c.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.skipinitialspace

     Quand il vaut *note True: bfd, les espaces suivant directement
     'delimiter' sont ignorés.  Il vaut *note False: b27. par défaut.

 -- Attribut: Dialect.strict

     Quand il vaut ‘True’, une exception *note Error: 2a15. est levée
     lors de mauvaises entrées CSV. Il vaut ‘False’ par défaut.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets lecteurs,  Next: Objets transcripteurs,  Prev: Dialectes et paramètres de formatage,  Up: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.3 Objets lecteurs
........................

Les objets lecteurs (instances de *note DictReader: 9d5. ou objets
renvoyés par la fonction *note reader(): 472.) ont les méthodes
publiques suivantes :

 -- Méthode: csvreader.__next__ ()

     Renvoie la ligne suivante de l'objet itérable du lecteur en tant
     que liste (si l'objet est renvoyé depuis *note reader(): 472.) ou
     dictionnaire (si l'objet est un *note DictReader: 9d5.), analysé
     suivant la classe *note Dialect: 1636. utilisée.  Généralement,
     vous devez appeler la méthode à l'aide de ‘next(reader)’.

Les objets lecteurs ont les attributs publics suivants :

 -- Attribut: csvreader.dialect

     Une description en lecture seule du dialecte utilisé par
     l'analyseur.

 -- Attribut: csvreader.line_num

     Le nombre de lignes lues depuis l'itérateur source.  Ce n'est pas
     équivalent au nombre d'enregistrements renvoyés, puisque certains
     enregistrements peuvent s'étendre sur plusieurs lignes.

Les objets 'DictReader' ont les attributs publics suivants :

 -- Attribut: DictReader.fieldnames

     S'il n'est pas passé comme paramètre à la création de l'objet, cet
     attribut est initialisé lors du premier accès ou quand le premier
     enregistrement est lu depuis le fichier.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets transcripteurs,  Next: Exemples<10>,  Prev: Objets lecteurs,  Up: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.4 Objets transcripteurs
..............................

*note writer: 473. objects (*note DictWriter: 11dd. instances and
objects returned by the *note writer(): 473. function) have the
following public methods.  A 'row' must be an iterable of strings or
numbers for *note writer: 473. objects and a dictionary mapping
fieldnames to strings or numbers (by passing them through *note str():
437. first) for *note DictWriter: 11dd. objects.  Note that complex
numbers are written out surrounded by parens.  This may cause some
problems for other programs which read CSV files (assuming they support
complex numbers at all).

 -- Méthode: csvwriter.writerow (row)

     Écrit le paramètre 'row' vers l’objet fichier du transcripteur,
     formaté selon la classe *note Dialect: 1636. utilisée.  Renvoie la
     valeur de retour de l'appel à la méthode 'write' de l'objet fichier
     sous-jacent.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du support d'itérables
     arbitraires.

 -- Méthode: csvwriter.writerows (rows)

     Écrit tous les éléments de 'rows' (itérable d'objets 'row' comme
     décrits précédemment) vers le fichier associé au transcripteur,
     formatés selon le dialecte utilisé.

Les objets transcripteurs ont l’attribut public suivant :

 -- Attribut: csvwriter.dialect

     Une description en lecture seule du dialecte utilisé par le
     transcripteur.

Les objets 'DictWriter' ont la méthode publique suivante :

 -- Méthode: DictWriter.writeheader ()

     Écrit une ligne avec le nom des en-têtes (comme définies dans le
     constructeur) dans l'objet fichier associé au transcripteur,
     formatée selon le dialecte utilisé.  Renvoie la valeur de retour de
     l'appel *note csvwriter.writerow(): dd9. utilisé en interne.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note writeheader(): 11de. renvoie
     maintenant aussi la valeur renvoyée par la méthode *note
     csvwriter.writerow(): dd9. qu'il utilise en interne.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<10>,  Prev: Objets transcripteurs,  Up: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.5 Exemples
.................

Le plus simple exemple de lecture d'un fichier CSV :

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Lire un fichier avec un format alternatif :

     import csv
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Le plus simple exemple d'écriture correspondant est :

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
         writer = csv.writer(f)
         writer.writerows(someiterable)

Puisque *note open(): 508. est utilisée pour ouvrir un fichier CSV en
lecture, le fichier sera par défaut décodé vers Unicode en utilisant
l'encodage par défaut (voir *note locale.getencoding(): 2db.).  Pour
décoder un fichier utilisant un encodage différent, utilisez l'argument
‘encoding’ de 'open' :

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Cela s’applique également lors de l'écriture dans un autre encodage que
celui par défaut du système : spécifiez l'encodage en argument lors de
l'ouverture du fichier de sortie.

Enregistrer un nouveau dialecte :

     import csv
     csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')

Un exemple d'utilisation un peu plus avancé du lecteur -- attrapant et
notifiant les erreurs :

     import csv, sys
     filename = 'some.csv'
     with open(filename, newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         try:
             for row in reader:
                 print(row)
         except csv.Error as e:
             sys.exit('file {}, line {}: {}'.format(filename, reader.line_num, e))

Et bien que le module ne permette pas d'analyser directement des
chaînes, cela peut être fait facilement :

     import csv
     for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
         print(row)

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: configparser --- Configuration file parser,  Next: tomllib --- Parse TOML files,  Prev: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing,  Up: Formats de fichiers

5.14.2 ‘configparser’ -- Configuration file parser
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/configparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit la classe *note ConfigParser: 1c3.  Cette classe
implémente un langage de configuration basique, proche de ce que l'on
peut trouver dans les fichiers 'INI' de Microsoft Windows.  Vous pouvez
utiliser ce module pour écrire des programmes Python qui sont facilement
configurables par l'utilisateur final.

     Note: Ce module 'n'implémente pas' la version étendue de la syntaxe
     'INI' qui permet de lire ou d'écrire des valeurs dans la base de
     registre Windows en utilisant divers préfixes.

Voir aussi
..........

Module ‘tomlib’

     TOML est un format bien spécifié pour les fichiers de configuration
     d'application.  Il est spécifiquement conçu pour être une version
     améliorée d'INI.

Module *note shlex: c3.

     Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can also
     be used for application configuration files.

Module *note json: 81.

     The ‘json’ module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which is
     sometimes used for configuration, but does not support comments.

* Menu:

* Premiers pas::
* Types de données prises en charge::
* Valeurs de substitution::
* Structure des fichiers INI prise en change::
* Unnamed Sections::
* Interpolation des valeurs::
* Protocole d'accès associatif::
* Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser Objects::
* RawConfigParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/configparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Premiers pas,  Next: Types de données prises en charge,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.1 Premiers pas
.....................

Prenons pour exemple un fichier de configuration très simple ressemblant
à ceci :

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = 45
     Compression = yes
     CompressionLevel = 9
     ForwardX11 = yes

     [forge.example]
     User = hg

     [topsecret.server.example]
     Port = 50022
     ForwardX11 = no

La structure des fichiers 'INI' est décrite dans la *note section
suivante: 2a34.  En bref, chaque fichier est constitué de sections,
chacune des sections comprenant des clés associées à des valeurs.  Les
classes du module *note configparser: 22. peuvent écrire et lire de tels
fichiers.  Commençons par le code qui permet de générer le fichier
ci-dessus.

     >>> import configparser
     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
     ...                      'Compression': 'yes',
     ...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
     >>> config['forge.example'] = {}
     >>> config['forge.example']['User'] = 'hg'
     >>> config['topsecret.server.example'] = {}
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # mutates the parser
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # same here
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
     >>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...   config.write(configfile)
     ...

Comme vous pouvez le voir, nous pouvons manipuler l'instance renvoyée
par l'analyse du fichier de configuration comme s'il s'agissait d'un
dictionnaire.  Il y a des différences, comme *note explicité ci-dessous:
2a35, mais le comportement de l'instance est très proche de ce que vous
pourriez attendre d'un dictionnaire.

Nous venons de créer et sauvegarder un fichier de configuration.  Voyons
maintenant comment nous pouvons le lire et accéder aux données qu'il
contient.

     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config.sections()
     []
     >>> config.read('example.ini')
     ['example.ini']
     >>> config.sections()
     ['forge.example', 'topsecret.server.example']
     >>> 'forge.example' in config
     True
     >>> 'python.org' in config
     False
     >>> config['forge.example']['User']
     'hg'
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
     'yes'
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
     'no'
     >>> topsecret['Port']
     '50022'
     >>> for key in config['forge.example']:
     ...     print(key)
     user
     compressionlevel
     serveraliveinterval
     compression
     forwardx11
     >>> config['forge.example']['ForwardX11']
     'yes'

Comme vous le voyez, l'API est assez simple à utiliser.  La seule partie
un peu magique concerne la section ‘DEFAULT’, qui fournit les valeurs
par défaut pour toutes les autres sections (1).  Notez également que les
clés à l’intérieur des sections ne sont pas sensibles à la casse et
qu'elles sont stockées en minuscules.  (2).

Il est possible de lire plusieurs configurations dans un seul objet
*note ConfigParser: 1c3, où la configuration ajoutée la plus récemment a
la priorité la plus élevée.  Toutes les clés en conflit sont prises de
la configuration la plus récente tandis que les anciennes clés déjà
existantes sont mises de côté.  L'exemple suivant lit un fichier
‘override.ini’ qui prendra le dessus sur toutes les clés en conflit avec
le fichier ‘exemple.ini’.

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = -1

     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
     >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...     config_override.write(configfile)
     ...
     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
     ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
     >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
     -1

Ce comportement est équivalent à un appel à *note ConfigParser.read():
141e. avec plusieurs fichiers passés dans le paramètre 'filenames'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données prises en charge,  Next: Valeurs de substitution,  Prev: Premiers pas,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.2 Types de données prises en charge
..........................................

Les lecteurs de configuration n'essayent jamais de deviner le type des
valeurs présentes dans les fichiers de configuration, et elles sont
toujours stockées en tant que chaînes de caractères.  Ainsi, si vous
avez besoin d'un type différent, vous devez effectuer la conversion
vous-même :

     >>> int(topsecret['Port'])
     50022
     >>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
     9.0

Puisque que cette tâche doit être fréquemment accomplie, les lecteurs de
configurations fournissent un ensemble d'accesseurs permettant de gérer
les entiers, les flottants et les booléens plus facilement.  Le cas des
booléens est le plus pertinent.  En effet, vous ne pouvez pas vous
contenter d'utiliser la fonction ‘bool()’ directement puisque
‘bool('False')’ renvoie ‘True’.  C'est pourquoi les lecteurs fournissent
également la méthode *note getboolean(): 2a38.  Cette méthode n'est pas
sensible à la casse et interprète correctement les valeurs booléennes
associées aux chaînes de caractères comme ‘'yes'’-‘'no'’,
‘'on'’-‘'off'’, ‘'true'’-‘'false'’ et ‘'1'’-‘'0'’ (1).  Par exemple :

     >>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
     False
     >>> config['forge.example'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
     True
     >>> config.getboolean('forge.example', 'Compression')
     True

En plus de *note getboolean(): 2a38, les lecteurs de configurations
fournissent également des méthodes similaires comme *note getint():
2a39. et *note getfloat(): 2a3a.  Vous pouvez enregistrer vos propres
convertisseurs et personnaliser ceux déjà fournis.  (2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs de substitution,  Next: Structure des fichiers INI prise en change,  Prev: Types de données prises en charge,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.3 Valeurs de substitution
................................

As with a dictionary, you can use a section's *note get(): 124c. method
to provide fallback values:

     >>> topsecret.get('Port')
     '50022'
     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
     '9'
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
     '3des-cbc'

Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values.
For instance, in our example the ‘'CompressionLevel'’ key was specified
only in the ‘'DEFAULT'’ section.  If we try to get it from the section
‘'topsecret.server.example'’, we will always get the default, even if we
specify a fallback:

     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
     '9'

One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level *note get():
124c. method provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for
backwards compatibility.  When using this method, a fallback value can
be provided via the ‘fallback’ keyword-only argument:

     >>> config.get('forge.example', 'monster',
     ...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
     'No such things as monsters'

L'argument ‘fallback’ peut être utilisé de la même façon avec les
méthodes *note getint(): 2a39, *note getfloat(): 2a3a. et *note
getboolean(): 2a38.  Par exemple :

     >>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
     False
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     True
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Structure des fichiers INI prise en change,  Next: Unnamed Sections,  Prev: Valeurs de substitution,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.4 Structure des fichiers 'INI' prise en change
.....................................................

A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a ‘[section]’
header, followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string
(‘=’ or ‘:’ by default (1)).  By default, section names are case
sensitive but keys are not (2).  Leading and trailing whitespace is
removed from keys and values.  Values can be omitted if the parser is
configured to allow it (3), in which case the key/value delimiter may
also be left out.  Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they
are indented deeper than the first line of the value.  Depending on the
parser's mode, blank lines may be treated as parts of multiline values
or ignored.

Par défaut, un nom de section valide peut-être n'importe quelle chaîne
de caractères ne contenant pas le caractère ‘'\\n'’.  Pour modifier
cela, voir *note ConfigParser.SECTCRE: 2a3c.

The first section name may be omitted if the parser is configured to
allow an unnamed top level section with ‘allow_unnamed_section=True’.
In this case, the keys/values may be retrieved by *note UNNAMED_SECTION:
2a3d. as in ‘config[UNNAMED_SECTION]’.

Les fichiers de configuration peuvent contenir des commentaires,
préfixés par des caractères spécifiques (‘#’ et ‘;’ par défaut (4)).
Les commentaires peuvent apparaître à l'emplacement d'une ligne vide, et
peuvent aussi être indentés.  (5)

Par exemple :

     [Simple Values]
     key=value
     spaces in keys=allowed
     spaces in values=allowed as well
     spaces around the delimiter = obviously
     you can also use : to delimit keys from values

     [All Values Are Strings]
     values like this: 1000000
     or this: 3.14159265359
     are they treated as numbers? : no
     integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
     can use the API to get converted values directly: true

     [Multiline Values]
     chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
         I sleep all night and I work all day

     [No Values]
     key_without_value
     empty string value here =

     [You can use comments]
     # like this
     ; or this

     # By default only in an empty line.
     # Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users
     # from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.
     # That being said, this can be customized.

         [Sections Can Be Indented]
             can_values_be_as_well = True
             does_that_mean_anything_special = False
             purpose = formatting for readability
             multiline_values = are
                 handled just fine as
                 long as they are indented
                 deeper than the first line
                 of a value
             # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.

   (3) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.

   (4) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.

   (5) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Unnamed Sections,  Next: Interpolation des valeurs,  Prev: Structure des fichiers INI prise en change,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.5 Unnamed Sections
.........................

The name of the first section (or unique) may be omitted and values
retrieved by the *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 2a3d. attribute.

     >>> config = """
     ... option = value
     ...
     ... [  Section 2  ]
     ... another = val
     ... """
     >>> unnamed = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_unnamed_section=True)
     >>> unnamed.read_string(config)
     >>> unnamed.get(configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION, 'option')
     'value'


File: python.info,  Node: Interpolation des valeurs,  Next: Protocole d'accès associatif,  Prev: Unnamed Sections,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.6 Interpolation des valeurs
..................................

La classe *note ConfigParser: 1c3. prend en charge l’interpolation, en
plus des fonctionnalités de base.  Cela signifie que les valeurs peuvent
être traitées avant d'être renvoyées par les appels aux méthodes
‘get()’.

 -- Classe: configparser.BasicInterpolation

     Implémentation par défaut utilisée par la classe *note
     ConfigParser: 1c3.  Celle-ci permet aux valeurs de contenir des
     chaînes de formatage se référant à d'autres valeurs dans la même
     section, ou bien à des valeurs dans la section spéciale par défaut
     (1).  D'autres valeurs par défaut peuvent être fournies au moment
     de l'initialisation de cette classe.

     Par exemple :

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
          my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a %% to escape the % sign (% is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          gain: 80%%

     Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, une classe ‘Configparser’ dont l'attribut
     'interpolation' vaut ‘BasicInterpolation()’ interprète la chaîne de
     caractères ‘%(home_dir)s’ en utilisant la valeur de la clé
     ‘home_dir’ (‘/Users’ dans ce cas).  ‘%(my_dir)s’ est interprétée
     comme ‘/Users/lumberjack’.  Les interpolations sont effectuées à la
     volée.  Ainsi, les clés utilisées comme référence à l’intérieur des
     chaînes de formatage peuvent être définies dans le fichier de
     configuration dans n'importe quel ordre.

     Si l'attribut ‘interpolation’ vaut ‘None’, le lecteur renvoie
     ‘%(my_dir)s/Pictures’ comme valeur pour ‘my_pictures’ et
     ‘%(home_dir)s/lumberjack’ comme valeur pour ‘my_dir’.

 -- Classe: configparser.ExtendedInterpolation

     Autre façon de gérer l'interpolation en utilisant une syntaxe plus
     avancée, utilisée par exemple par ‘zc.buildout’.  Cette syntaxe
     étendue utilise la chaîne de formatage ‘{section:option}}’ pour
     désigner une valeur appartenant à une autre section.
     L'interpolation peut s'étendre sur plusieurs niveaux.  Par
     commodité, si la partie ‘{section}’ est absente, l'interpolation
     utilise la section courante par défaut (et, le cas échéant, les
     valeurs de la section par défaut spéciale).

     Voici comment transformer la configuration ci-dessus avec la
     syntaxe d'interpolation étendue :

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a $$ to escape the $ sign ($ is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          cost: $$80

     Vous pouvez également récupérer des valeurs appartenant aux autres
     sections :

          [Common]
          home_dir: /Users
          library_dir: /Library
          system_dir: /System
          macports_dir: /opt/local

          [Frameworks]
          Python: 3.2
          path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/

          [Arthur]
          nickname: Two Sheds
          last_name: Jackson
          my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
          python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole d'accès associatif,  Next: Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur,  Prev: Interpolation des valeurs,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.7 Protocole d'accès associatif
.....................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Le terme « protocole d'accès associatif » est utilisé pour décrire la
fonctionnalité qui permet d'utiliser des objets personnalisés comme s'il
s'agissait de dictionnaires.  Dans le cas du module *note configparser:
22, l’implémentation du protocole utilise la notation
‘parser['section']['option']’.

En particulier, ‘parser['section']’ renvoie un mandataire vers les
données de la section correspondantes dans l'analyseur.  Cela signifie
que les valeurs ne sont pas copiées, mais prélevées depuis l'analyseur
initial à la demande.  Plus important encore, lorsque les valeurs sont
changées dans un mandataire pour une section, elles sont en réalité
changées dans l'analyseur initial.

Les objets du module *note configparser: 22. se comportent le plus
possible comme des vrais dictionnaires.  L'interface est complète et
suit les définitions fournies par la classe abstraite *note
MutableMapping: 1092.  Cependant, il faut prendre en compte un certain
nombre de différences :

   * Par défaut, toutes les clés des sections sont accessibles sans
     respect de la casse (1).  Par exemple, ‘for option in
     parser["section"]’ renvoie uniquement les clés telles que
     transformées par la méthode ‘optionxform’, c'est-à-dire des clés
     transformées en minuscules.  De même, pour une section contenant la
     clé ‘a’, les deux expressions suivantes renvoient ‘True’ :

          "a" in parser["section"]
          "A" in parser["section"]

   * Toutes les sections incluent en plus les valeurs de la section
     ‘DEFAULTSECT’.  Cela signifie qu'appeler ‘clear()’ sur une section
     ne la fera pas forcément apparaître vide.  En effet, les valeurs
     par défaut ne peuvent pas être supprimées de la section (car,
     techniquement, elles n'y sont pas présentes).  Si vous détruisez
     une valeur par défaut qui a été écrasée dans une section, alors la
     valeur par défaut sera de nouveau visible.  Essayer de détruire une
     valeur par défaut lève l'exception *note KeyError: 33a.

   * La section ‘DEFAULTSECT’ ne peut pas être supprimée :

        * l'exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée si on essaye de
          la supprimer ;

        * appeler ‘parser.clear()’ la laisse intacte ;

        * appeler ‘parser.popitem()’ ne la renvoie jamais.

   * Le deuxième argument de ‘parser.get(section, option, **kwargs)’
     n'est 'pas' une valeur de substitution.  Notez cependant que les
     méthodes ‘get()’ fournies par les sections sont compatibles à la
     fois avec le protocole associatif et avec l'API classique de
     'configparser'.

   * La méthode ‘parser.items()’ est compatible avec le protocole
     d'accès associatif et renvoie une liste de paires 'section_name',
     'section_proxy', en incluant la section 'DEFAULTSECT'. Cependant,
     cette méthode peut aussi être appelée avec des arguments :
     ‘parser.items(section, raw, vars)’.  Dans ce cas, la méthode
     renvoie une liste de paires 'option', 'value' pour la section
     spécifiée, en interprétant les interpolations (à moins d'utiliser
     ‘raw=True’).

Le protocole d'accès est implémenté au-dessus de l'ancienne API. Ainsi,
les sous-classes qui écrasent des méthodes de l'interface originale se
comportent correctement du point de vue du protocole d'accès.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2a36. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur,  Next: Legacy API Examples,  Prev: Protocole d'accès associatif,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.8 Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur
........................................................

Il existe pratiquement autant de variations du format 'INI' que
d'applications qui l'utilisent.  Le module *note configparser: 22. fait
son possible pour gérer le plus grand nombre de variantes raisonnables
du style 'INI'. Le comportement par défaut est principalement contraint
par des raisons historiques.  De ce fait, il est très probable qu'il
soit nécessaire de personnaliser certaines des fonctionnalités de ce
module.

The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is
to use the ‘__init__()’ options:

   * 'defaults', valeur par défaut : ‘None’

     Cette option accepte un dictionnaire de paires clé—valeurs qui
     seront placées dans la section ‘DEFAULT’ initialement.  Ceci est
     une façon élégante de prendre en charge des fichiers de
     configuration qui n'ont pas besoin de spécifier de valeurs lorsque
     celles-ci sont identiques aux valeurs par défaut documentées.

     Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section,
     use *note read_dict(): 2a41. before you read the actual file.

   * 'dict_type', valeur par défaut : *note dict: 253.

     Cette option influe de manière importante sur la façon dont le
     protocole d'accès associatif se comporte et ce à quoi ressemblent
     les fichiers de configuration une fois écrits.  Avec un
     dictionnaire standard, les sections sont stockées dans l'ordre où
     elles ont été ajoutées à l'analyseur.  Ceci est également vrai pour
     les options à l'intérieur des sections.

     Si vous souhaitez classer les sections et les options lors de
     l'écriture par exemple, vous pouvez utiliser un type de
     dictionnaire différent.

     À noter : il est possible d'ajouter un ensemble de paires
     clés—valeurs en une seule opération.  L'ordre des clés est préservé
     si vous utilisez un dictionnaire standard pour cela.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
          ...                                'key2': 'value2',
          ...                                'key3': 'value3'},
          ...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
          ...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
          ...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
          ...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
          ...                                'bar': 'y',
          ...                                'baz': 'z'}
          ... })
          >>> parser.sections()
          ['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
          >>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
          ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

   * 'allow_no_value', valeur par défaut : ‘False’

     Certains fichiers de configurations sont connus pour contenir des
     options sans valeur associée, tout en se conformant à la syntaxe
     prise en charge par le module *note configparser: 22. par ailleurs.
     Pour indiquer que de telles valeurs sont acceptables, utilisez le
     paramètre 'allow_no_value' lors de la construction de l'instance :

          >>> import configparser

          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ...   user = mysql
          ...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ...   skip-external-locking
          ...   old_passwords = 1
          ...   skip-bdb
          ...   # we don't need ACID today
          ...   skip-innodb
          ... """
          >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.read_string(sample_config)

          >>> # Settings with values are treated as before:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
          'mysql'

          >>> # Settings without values provide None:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]

          >>> # Settings which aren't specified still raise an error:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          KeyError: 'does-not-exist'

   * 'delimiters', valeur par défaut : ‘('=', ':')’

     Chaînes de caractères qui séparent les clés des valeurs à
     l'intérieur d'une section.  La première occurrence d'une telle
     chaîne à l'intérieur d'une ligne est considérée comme un
     délimiteur.  Cela signifie que les valeurs peuvent contenir
     certains des délimiteurs (mais pas les clés).

     Voir aussi l'argument 'space_around_delimiters' de la méthode *note
     ConfigParser.write(): 2a42.

   * 'comment_prefixes' (préfixes de commentaire) — valeur par défaut :
     ‘('#', ';')’

   * 'inline_comment_prefixes' (préfixes de commentaire en ligne) —
     valeur par défaut : ‘('#', ';')’

     Les préfixes de commentaire indiquent le début d'un commentaire
     valide au sein d'un fichier de configuration.  Ils ne peuvent être
     utilisés qu'à l'emplacement d'une ligne vide (potentiellement
     indentée).  En revanche, les préfixes de commentaires en ligne
     peuvent être utilisés après n'importe quelle valeur valide (comme
     les noms des sections, les options et les lignes vides).  Par
     défaut, les commentaires en ligne sont désactivés et les préfixes
     utilisés pour les commentaires à l'emplacement d'une ligne vide
     sont ‘'#'’ et ‘';'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Les précédentes versions du module
     *note configparser: 22. se comportent comme en utilisant
     ‘comment_prefixes=('#',';')’ et ‘inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)’.

     Notez que les analyseurs ne prennent pas en charge l'échappement
     des préfixes de commentaires.  Ainsi, l'utilisation de
     'inline_comment_prefixes' peut empêcher les utilisateurs de
     spécifier des valeurs qui contiennent des caractères utilisés comme
     préfixe de commentaire.  Dans le doute, il est recommandé de ne pas
     utiliser 'inline_comment_prefixes'.  Dans tous les cas, la seule
     façon de stocker des préfixes de commentaires au début d'une valeur
     multi lignes est d'interpoler ceux-ci, par exemple :

          >>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
          >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
          >>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
          >>> parser.read_string("""
          ... [DEFAULT]
          ... hash = #
          ...
          ... [hashes]
          ... shebang =
          ...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
          ...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          ...
          ... extensions =
          ...   enabled_extension
          ...   another_extension
          ...   #disabled_by_comment
          ...   yet_another_extension
          ...
          ... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
          ... even in multiline values = line #1
          ...   line #2
          ...   line #3
          ... """)
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])

          #!/usr/bin/env python
          # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])

          enabled_extension
          another_extension
          yet_another_extension
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
          if # is not at line start
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
          line #1
          line #2
          line #3

   * 'scrict', valeur par défaut : ‘True’

     When set to ‘True’, the parser will not allow for any section or
     option duplicates while reading from a single source (using *note
     read_file(): 4f2, *note read_string(): 2a43. or *note read_dict():
     2a41.).  It is recommended to use strict parsers in new
     applications.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Les versions précédentes du module
     *note configparser: 22. se comportent comme en utilisant
     ‘strict=False’.

   * 'empty_lines_in_values', valeur par défaut : ‘True’

     Du point de vue des analyseurs, les valeurs peuvent s'étendre sur
     plusieurs lignes à partir du moment où elles sont plus indentées
     que la clé qui les contient.  Par défaut les analyseurs autorisent
     les lignes vides à faire partie de telles valeurs.  Dans le même
     temps, les clés elles-mêmes peuvent être indentées de façon à
     rendre le fichier plus lisible.  En conséquence, il est probable
     que l'utilisateur perde de vue la structure du fichier lorsque
     celui-ci devient long et complexe.  Prenez par exemple :

          [Section]
          key = multiline
            value with a gotcha

           this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'

     Ceci est particulièrement problématique si l'utilisateur a
     configuré son éditeur pour utiliser une police à chasse variable.
     C'est pourquoi il est conseillé de ne pas prendre en charge les
     valeurs avec des lignes vides, à moins que votre application en ait
     besoin.  Dans ce cas, les lignes vides sont toujours interprétées
     comme séparant des clés.  Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, cela produit
     deux clés : ‘key’ et ‘this’.

   * 'default_section', valeur par défaut : ‘configparser.DEFAULTSECT’
     (autrement dit : ‘"DEFAULT"’)

     La convention permettant d’autoriser une section spéciale de
     valeurs par défaut pour d’autres sections ou à des fins
     d’interpolation est un concept puissant de cette bibliothèque,
     permettant aux utilisateurs de créer des configurations
     déclaratives complexes.  Cette section est normalement appelée
     ‘"DEFAULT"’, mais elle peut être personnalisée pour pointer vers
     n’importe quel autre nom de section valide.  Certaines autres
     valeurs typiques incluent : ‘"general"’ ou ‘"common"’.  Le nom
     fourni est utilisé pour reconnaître les sections par défaut lors de
     la lecture à partir de n’importe quelle source, et est utilisée
     lors de la réécriture de la configuration dans un fichier.  Sa
     valeur actuelle peut être récupérée à l’aide de l’attribut
     ‘parser_instance.default_section’, et peut être modifiée au moment
     de l’exécution (c’est-à-dire pour convertir des fichiers d’un
     format à un autre).

   * 'interpolation', valeur par
     défaut : ‘configparser.BasicInterpolation’

     Le comportement d'interpolation peut être personnalisé en
     fournissant un gestionnaire personnalisé via l'argument
     'interpolation'.  ‘None’ peut être utilisé pour désactiver
     complètement l'interpolation.  ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’ fournit
     une variante plus avancée inspirée de ‘zc.buildout’.  Plus
     d'informations sur le sujet dans la section *note dédiée de la
     documentation: 2a40.  ‘RowConfigParser’ vaut ‘None’ par défaut.

   * 'converters', valeur par défaut : non défini

     Les analyseurs de configuration fournissent des fonctions de
     récupération de valeurs qui effectuent la conversion par type.  Par
     défaut, *note getint(): 2a39, *note getfloat(): 2a3a. et *note
     getboolean(): 2a38. sont implémentées.  Si vous désirez d’autres
     fonctions de récupération de valeurs, vous pouvez les définir dans
     une sous-classe ou transmettre un dictionnaire où chaque clé est le
     nom du convertisseur et chaque valeur est une fonction implémentant
     ladite conversion.  Par exemple, passer
     ‘{'decimal':decimal.Decimal}’ ajouterait ‘getdecimal()’ à la fois
     sur l’analyseur et sur tous les proxys de section.  En d’autres
     termes, il sera possible d’écrire à la fois
     ‘parser_instance.getdecimal('section', 'key', fallback=0)’ et
     ‘parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0)’.

     Si le convertisseur doit accéder à l'état de l'analyseur, il peut
     être implémenté en tant que méthode sur une sous-classe d'analyseur
     de configuration.  Si le nom de cette méthode commence par ‘get’,
     elle sera disponible sur tous les proxys de section, sous la forme
     compatible avec un dictionnaire (voir l'exemple ‘getdecimal()’
     ci-dessus).

Une personnalisation plus avancée peut être obtenue en remplaçant les
valeurs par défaut de ces attributs de l'analyseur.  Les valeurs par
défaut sont définies sur les classes, elles peuvent donc être remplacées
par des sous-classes ou par des attributs d'instance.

 -- Attribut: ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES

     Par défaut, la méthode *note getboolean(): 2a38. considère les
     valeurs suivantes comme vraies : ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’, ‘'on'’,
     et les valeurs suivantes comme fausses : ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’,
     ‘'off'’.  Vous pouvez changer ce comportement en spécifiant votre
     propre dictionnaire associant des chaînes de caractères à des
     valeurs booléennes.  Par exemple :

          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
          >>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          False

     Other typical Boolean pairs include ‘accept’/‘reject’ or
     ‘enabled’/‘disabled’.

 -- Méthode: ConfigParser.optionxform (option)

     This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set
     operation.  The default converts the name to lowercase.  This also
     means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be
     lowercase.  Override this method if that's unsuitable.  For
     example:

          >>> config = """
          ... [Section1]
          ... Key = Value
          ...
          ... [Section2]
          ... AnotherKey = Value
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
          ['key']
          >>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
          ['anotherkey']
          >>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
          >>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
          ['Key']
          >>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
          ['AnotherKey']

          Note: The optionxform function transforms option names to a
          canonical form.  This should be an idempotent function: if the
          name is already in canonical form, it should be returned
          unchanged.

 -- Attribut: ConfigParser.SECTCRE

     A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers.  The
     default matches ‘[section]’ to the name ‘"section"’.  Whitespace is
     considered part of the section name, thus ‘[ larch ]’ will be read
     as a section of name ‘" larch "’.  Override this attribute if
     that's unsuitable.  For example:

          >>> import re
          >>> config = """
          ... [Section 1]
          ... option = value
          ...
          ... [  Section 2  ]
          ... another = val
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> typical.sections()
          ['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> custom.sections()
          ['Section 1', 'Section 2']

          Note: While ConfigParser objects also use an ‘OPTCRE’
          attribute for recognizing option lines, it's not recommended
          to override it because that would interfere with constructor
          options 'allow_no_value' and 'delimiters'.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy API Examples,  Next: ConfigParser Objects,  Prev: Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.9 Legacy API Examples
............................

Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, *note configparser:
22. provides also a legacy API with explicit ‘get’/‘set’ methods.  While
there are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping
protocol access is preferred for new projects.  The legacy API is at
times more advanced, low-level and downright counterintuitive.

An example of writing to a configuration file:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()

     # Please note that using RawConfigParser's set functions, you can assign
     # non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when
     # attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting
     # values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser's set() does not allow
     # such assignments to take place.
     config.add_section('Section1')
     config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
     config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
     config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
     config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')

     # Writing our configuration file to 'example.cfg'
     with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
         config.write(configfile)

An example of reading the configuration file again:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
     config.read('example.cfg')

     # getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float
     # getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types
     a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
     an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
     print(a_float + an_int)

     # Notice that the next output does not interpolate '%(bar)s' or '%(baz)s'.
     # This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().
     if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
         print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))

To get interpolation, use *note ConfigParser: 1c3.:

     import configparser

     cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
     cfg.read('example.cfg')

     # Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable
     # interpolation in a single get operation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"

     # The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take
     # precedence in interpolation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
                                            'baz': 'evil'}))

     # The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
           # -> "No such things as monsters."

     # A bare print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) would raise NoOptionError
     # but we can also use:

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
           # -> None

Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers.  They are
used in interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere.

     import configparser

     # New instance with 'bar' and 'baz' defaulting to 'Life' and 'hard' each
     config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
     config.read('example.cfg')

     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"


File: python.info,  Node: ConfigParser Objects,  Next: RawConfigParser Objects,  Prev: Legacy API Examples,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.10 ConfigParser Objects
..............................

 -- Classe: configparser.ConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={},
          allow_unnamed_section=False)

     The main configuration parser.  When 'defaults' is given, it is
     initialized into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults.  When
     'dict_type' is given, it will be used to create the dictionary
     objects for the list of sections, for the options within a section,
     and for the default values.

     When 'delimiters' is given, it is used as the set of substrings
     that divide keys from values.  When 'comment_prefixes' is given, it
     will be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in
     otherwise empty lines.  Comments can be indented.  When
     'inline_comment_prefixes' is given, it will be used as the set of
     substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the parser won't allow for
     any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source
     (file, string or dictionary), raising *note DuplicateSectionError:
     124f. or *note DuplicateOptionError: 1250.  When
     'empty_lines_in_values' is ‘False’ (default: ‘True’), each empty
     line marks the end of an option.  Otherwise, internal empty lines
     of a multiline option are kept as part of the value.  When
     'allow_no_value' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), options without
     values are accepted; the value held for these is ‘None’ and they
     are serialized without the trailing delimiter.

     When 'default_section' is given, it specifies the name for the
     special section holding default values for other sections and
     interpolation purposes (normally named ‘"DEFAULT"’).  This value
     can be retrieved and changed at runtime using the ‘default_section’
     instance attribute.  This won't re-evaluate an already parsed
     config file, but will be used when writing parsed settings to a new
     config file.

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 2a40.

     All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the
     *note optionxform(): 2a48. method just like any other option name
     reference.  For example, using the default implementation of *note
     optionxform(): 2a48. (which converts option names to lower case),
     the values ‘foo %(bar)s’ and ‘foo %(BAR)s’ are equivalent.

     When 'converters' is given, it should be a dictionary where each
     key represents the name of a type converter and each value is a
     callable implementing the conversion from string to the desired
     datatype.  Every converter gets its own corresponding ‘get*()’
     method on the parser object and section proxies.

     When 'allow_unnamed_section' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), the
     first section name can be omitted.  See the *note "Unnamed
     Sections" section: 2a3f.

     Il est possible de lire plusieurs configurations dans un seul objet
     *note ConfigParser: 1c3, où la configuration ajoutée la plus
     récemment a la priorité la plus élevée.  Toutes les clés en conflit
     sont prises de la configuration la plus récente tandis que les
     anciennes clés déjà existantes sont mises de côté.  L'exemple
     suivant lit un fichier ‘override.ini’ qui prendra le dessus sur
     toutes les clés en conflit avec le fichier ‘exemple.ini’.

          [DEFAULT]
          ServerAliveInterval = -1

          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
          >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
          ...     config_override.write(configfile)
          ...
          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
          ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
          >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
          -1

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: The default 'dict_type' is *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' and 'interpolation' were added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'converters' argument was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'defaults' argument is read with
     *note read_dict(): 2a41, providing consistent behavior across the
     parser: non-string keys and values are implicitly converted to
     strings.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict:
     253, since it now preserves insertion order.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raise a *note
     MultilineContinuationError: 2a49. when 'allow_no_value' is ‘True’,
     and a key without a value is continued with an indented line.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'allow_unnamed_section' argument
     was added.

      -- Méthode: defaults ()

          Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.

      -- Méthode: sections ()

          Return a list of the sections available; the 'default section'
          is not included in the list.

      -- Méthode: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          124f. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.  The name of the section
          must be a string; if not, *note TypeError: 525. is raised.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Non-string section names raise
          *note TypeError: 525.

      -- Méthode: has_section (section)

          Indicates whether the named 'section' is present in the
          configuration.  The 'default section' is not acknowledged.

      -- Méthode: options (section)

          Return a list of options available in the specified 'section'.

      -- Méthode: has_option (section, option)

          If the given 'section' exists, and contains the given
          'option', return *note True: bfd.; otherwise return *note
          False: b27.  If the specified 'section' is *note None: 662. or
          an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.

      -- Méthode: read (filenames, encoding=None)

          Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning
          a list of filenames which were successfully parsed.

          If 'filenames' is a string, a *note bytes: 1bd. object or a
          *note path-like object: 29d, it is treated as a single
          filename.  If a file named in 'filenames' cannot be opened,
          that file will be ignored.  This is designed so that you can
          specify an iterable of potential configuration file locations
          (for example, the current directory, the user's home
          directory, and some system-wide directory), and all existing
          configuration files in the iterable will be read.

          If none of the named files exist, the *note ConfigParser: 1c3.
          instance will contain an empty dataset.  An application which
          requires initial values to be loaded from a file should load
          the required file or files using *note read_file(): 4f2.
          before calling *note read(): 141e. for any optional files:

               import configparser, os

               config = configparser.ConfigParser()
               config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
               config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
                           encoding='cp1250')

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'encoding' parameter.
          Previously, all files were read using the default encoding for
          *note open(): 508.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6.1: The 'filenames' parameter
          accepts a *note path-like object: 29d.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'filenames' parameter accepts
          a *note bytes: 1bd. object.

      -- Méthode: read_file (f, source=None)

          Read and parse configuration data from 'f' which must be an
          iterable yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in
          text mode).

          Optional argument 'source' specifies the name of the file
          being read.  If not given and 'f' has a ‘name’ attribute, that
          is used for 'source'; the default is ‘'<???>'’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Replaces ‘readfp()’.

      -- Méthode: read_string (string, source='<string>')

          Parse configuration data from a string.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the string passed.  If not given, ‘'<string>'’ is used.
          This should commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: read_dict (dictionary, source='<dict>')

          Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like
          ‘items()’ method.  Keys are section names, values are
          dictionaries with keys and values that should be present in
          the section.  If the used dictionary type preserves order,
          sections and their keys will be added in order.  Values are
          automatically converted to strings.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the dictionary passed.  If not given, ‘<dict>’ is used.

          This method can be used to copy state between parsers.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: get (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          Get an 'option' value for the named 'section'.  If 'vars' is
          provided, it must be a dictionary.  The 'option' is looked up
          in 'vars' (if provided), 'section', and in 'DEFAULTSECT' in
          that order.  If the key is not found and 'fallback' is
          provided, it is used as a fallback value.  ‘None’ can be
          provided as a 'fallback' value.

          All the ‘'%'’ interpolations are expanded in the return
          values, unless the 'raw' argument is true.  Values for
          interpolation keys are looked up in the same manner as the
          option.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Arguments 'raw', 'vars' and
          'fallback' are keyword only to protect users from trying to
          use the third argument as the 'fallback' fallback (especially
          when using the mapping protocol).

      -- Méthode: getint (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to an integer.  See *note get(): 124c. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Méthode: getfloat (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a floating-point number.  See *note
          get(): 124c. for explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Méthode: getboolean (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a Boolean value.  Note that the
          accepted values for the option are ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
          and ‘'on'’, which cause this method to return ‘True’, and
          ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’, and ‘'off'’, which cause it to
          return ‘False’.  These string values are checked in a
          case-insensitive manner.  Any other value will cause it to
          raise *note ValueError: 1ff.  See *note get(): 124c. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Méthode: items (raw=False, vars=None)

      -- Méthode: items (section, raw=False, vars=None)

          When 'section' is not given, return a list of 'section_name',
          'section_proxy' pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.

          Otherwise, return a list of 'name', 'value' pairs for the
          options in the given 'section'.  Optional arguments have the
          same meaning as for the *note get(): 124c. method.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: Items present in 'vars' no longer
          appear in the result.  The previous behaviour mixed actual
          parser options with variables provided for interpolation.

      -- Méthode: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 2a50.
          'option' and 'value' must be strings; if not, *note TypeError:
          525. is raised.

      -- Méthode: write (fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)

          Write a representation of the configuration to the specified
          *note file object: 11a2, which must be opened in text mode
          (accepting strings).  This representation can be parsed by a
          future *note read(): 141e. call.  If 'space_around_delimiters'
          is true, delimiters between keys and values are surrounded by
          spaces.

          Note: Comments in the original configuration file are not
          preserved when writing the configuration back.  What is
          considered a comment, depends on the given values for
          'comment_prefix' and 'inline_comment_prefix'.

      -- Méthode: remove_option (section, option)

          Remove the specified 'option' from the specified 'section'.
          If the section does not exist, raise *note NoSectionError:
          2a50.  If the option existed to be removed, return *note True:
          bfd.; otherwise return *note False: b27.

      -- Méthode: remove_section (section)

          Remove the specified 'section' from the configuration.  If the
          section in fact existed, return ‘True’.  Otherwise return
          ‘False’.

      -- Méthode: optionxform (option)

          Transforms the option name 'option' as found in an input file
          or as passed in by client code to the form that should be used
          in the internal structures.  The default implementation
          returns a lower-case version of 'option'; subclasses may
          override this or client code can set an attribute of this name
          on instances to affect this behavior.

          You don't need to subclass the parser to use this method, you
          can also set it on an instance, to a function that takes a
          string argument and returns a string.  Setting it to ‘str’,
          for example, would make option names case sensitive:

               cfgparser = ConfigParser()
               cfgparser.optionxform = str

          Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around
          the option names is stripped before *note optionxform(): 2a48.
          is called.

 -- Données: configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION

     A special object representing a section name used to reference the
     unnamed section (see *note Unnamed Sections: 2a3f.).

 -- Données: configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH

     The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for *note get():
     124c. when the 'raw' parameter is false.  This is relevant only
     when the default 'interpolation' is used.


File: python.info,  Node: RawConfigParser Objects,  Next: Exceptions<8>,  Prev: ConfigParser Objects,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.11 RawConfigParser Objects
.................................

 -- Classe: configparser.RawConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={},
          allow_unnamed_section=False)

     Legacy variant of the *note ConfigParser: 1c3.  It has
     interpolation disabled by default and allows for non-string section
     names, option names, and values via its unsafe ‘add_section’ and
     ‘set’ methods, as well as the legacy ‘defaults=’ keyword argument
     handling.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' and 'interpolation' were added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'converters' argument was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict:
     253, since it now preserves insertion order.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'allow_unnamed_section' argument
     was added.

          Note: Consider using *note ConfigParser: 1c3. instead which
          checks types of the values to be stored internally.  If you
          don't want interpolation, you can use
          ‘ConfigParser(interpolation=None)’.

      -- Méthode: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          124f. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

          Type of 'section' is not checked which lets users create
          non-string named sections.  This behaviour is unsupported and
          may cause internal errors.

      -- Méthode: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 2a50.
          While it is possible to use *note RawConfigParser: f51. (or
          *note ConfigParser: 1c3. with 'raw' parameters set to true)
          for 'internal' storage of non-string values, full
          functionality (including interpolation and output to files)
          can only be achieved using string values.

          This method lets users assign non-string values to keys
          internally.  This behaviour is unsupported and will cause
          errors when attempting to write to a file or get it in non-raw
          mode.  'Use the mapping protocol API' which does not allow
          such assignments to take place.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<8>,  Prev: RawConfigParser Objects,  Up: configparser --- Configuration file parser

5.14.2.12 Exceptions
....................

 -- Exception: configparser.Error

     Base class for all other *note configparser: 22. exceptions.

 -- Exception: configparser.NoSectionError

     Exception raised when a specified section is not found.

 -- Exception: configparser.DuplicateSectionError

     Exception raised if *note add_section(): 124e. is called with the
     name of a section that is already present or in strict parsers when
     a section if found more than once in a single input file, string or
     dictionary.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the optional 'source' and
     'lineno' attributes and parameters to ‘__init__()’.

 -- Exception: configparser.DuplicateOptionError

     Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice
     during reading from a single file, string or dictionary.  This
     catches misspellings and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g.  a
     dictionary may have two keys representing the same case-insensitive
     configuration key.

 -- Exception: configparser.NoOptionError

     Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the
     specified section.

 -- Exception: configparser.InterpolationError

     Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing
     string interpolation.

 -- Exception: configparser.InterpolationDepthError

     Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed
     because the number of iterations exceeds *note
     MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH: 2a53.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 2a5b.

 -- Exception: configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError

     Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not
     exist.  Subclass of *note InterpolationError: 2a5b.

 -- Exception: configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError

     Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are
     made does not conform to the required syntax.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 2a5b.

 -- Exception: configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError

     Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no
     section headers.

 -- Exception: configparser.ParsingError

     Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The ‘filename’ attribute and
     ‘__init__()’ constructor argument were removed.  They have been
     available using the name ‘source’ since 3.2.

 -- Exception: configparser.MultilineContinuationError

     Exception raised when a key without a corresponding value is
     continued with an indented line.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: tomllib --- Parse TOML files,  Next: netrc --- netrc file processing,  Prev: configparser --- Configuration file parser,  Up: Formats de fichiers

5.14.3 ‘tomllib’ -- Parse TOML files
------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

'Source code:' Lib/tomllib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for parsing TOML 1.0.0 (Tom's Obvious
Minimal Language, https://toml.io(2)).  This module does not support
writing TOML.

Voir aussi
..........

The Tomli-W package(3) is a TOML writer that can be used in conjunction
with this module, providing a write API familiar to users of the
standard library *note marshal: 8c. and *note pickle: a5. modules.

Voir aussi
..........

The TOML Kit package(4) is a style-preserving TOML library with both
read and write capability.  It is a recommended replacement for this
module for editing already existing TOML files.

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: tomllib.load (fp, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Read a TOML file.  The first argument should be a readable and
     binary file object.  Return a *note dict: 253.  Convert TOML types
     to Python using this *note conversion table: 2a63.

     'parse_float' will be called with the string of every TOML float to
     be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.
     This can be used to use another datatype or parser for TOML floats
     (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.).  The callable must not return
     a *note dict: 253. or a *note list: 5fe, else a *note ValueError:
     1ff. is raised.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 2a64. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

 -- Fonction: tomllib.loads (s, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Load TOML from a *note str: 437. object.  Return a *note dict: 253.
     Convert TOML types to Python using this *note conversion table:
     2a63.  The 'parse_float' argument has the same meaning as in *note
     load(): 2a62.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 2a64. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

The following exceptions are available:

 -- Exception: tomllib.TOMLDecodeError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 1ff.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<11>.
* Conversion Table::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tomllib

   (2) https://toml.io/en/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tomli-w/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tomlkit/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<11>,  Next: Conversion Table,  Up: tomllib --- Parse TOML files

5.14.3.1 Exemples
.................

Parsing a TOML file:

     import tomllib

     with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
         data = tomllib.load(f)

Parsing a TOML string:

     import tomllib

     toml_str = """
     python-version = "3.11.0"
     python-implementation = "CPython"
     """

     data = tomllib.loads(toml_str)


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion Table,  Prev: Exemples<11>,  Up: tomllib --- Parse TOML files

5.14.3.2 Conversion Table
.........................

TOML                   Python
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
TOML document          'dict'
                       
                       
'string'               'str'
                       
                       
'int' (entier)         'int'
                       
                       
'float' (nombre à      float (configurable with 'parse_float')
virgule flottante)     

'boolean'              'bool' (booléen)
                       
                       
offset date-time       datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to an instance of ‘datetime.timezone’)
                       
                       
local date-time        datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to ‘None’)
                       
                       
local date             datetime.date
                       
                       
local time             datetime.time
                       
                       
'array'                liste
                       
                       
table                  'dict'
                       
                       
inline table           'dict'
                       
                       
array of tables        list of dicts
                       


File: python.info,  Node: netrc --- netrc file processing,  Next: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files,  Prev: tomllib --- Parse TOML files,  Up: Formats de fichiers

5.14.4 ‘netrc’ -- netrc file processing
---------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/netrc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

La classe *note netrc: 9a. analyse et encapsule le format de fichier
'netrc' utilisé par le programme Unix ‘ftp’ et d'autres clients FTP.

 -- Classe: netrc.netrc ([file])

     Une instance de *note netrc: 187e. ou une instance de sous-classe
     encapsule les données à partir d'un fichier 'netrc'.  L'argument
     d'initialisation, s'il est présent, précise le fichier à analyser.
     Si aucun argument n'est donné, le fichier ‘.netrc’ dans le
     répertoire d’accueil de l'utilisateur - déterminé par *note
     os.path.expanduser(): a04. - est lu.  Sinon, l'exception *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. sera levée.  Les erreurs d'analyse lèveront
     *note NetrcParseError: 2a6a. avec les informations de diagnostic, y
     compris le nom de fichier, le numéro de ligne, et le lexème.  Si
     aucun argument n'est spécifié dans un système POSIX, la présence de
     mots de passe dans le fichier ‘.netrc’ lèvera *note
     NetrcParseError: 2a6a. si la propriété du fichier ou les
     permissions ne sont pas sécurisées (propriété d'un utilisateur
     autre que l'utilisateur exécutant le processus ou accessible en
     lecture ou en écriture par n'importe quel autre utilisateur).  Le
     niveau de sécurité offert est ainsi équivalent à celui de ftp et
     d'autres programmes utilisant ‘netrc’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la vérification
     d'autorisations POSIX.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. est
     utilisée pour trouver l'emplacement du fichier ‘netrc’ lorsque
     'file' n'est pas passé en tant qu'argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note netrc: 9a. try UTF-8 encoding
     before using locale specific encoding.  The entry in the netrc file
     no longer needs to contain all tokens.  The missing tokens' value
     default to an empty string.  All the tokens and their values now
     can contain arbitrary characters, like whitespace and non-ASCII
     characters.  If the login name is anonymous, it won't trigger the
     security check.

 -- Exception: netrc.NetrcParseError

     Exception raised by the *note netrc: 187e. class when syntactical
     errors are encountered in source text.  Instances of this exception
     provide three interesting attributes:

      -- Attribut: msg

          Textual explanation of the error.

      -- Attribut: filename

          The name of the source file.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number on which the error was found.

* Menu:

* Objets netrc::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/netrc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets netrc,  Up: netrc --- netrc file processing

5.14.4.1 Objets 'netrc'
.......................

Une instance *note netrc: 187e. a les méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: netrc.authenticators (host)

     Renvoie un triplet ‘(login, account, password)’ pour s'authentifier
     auprès de l'hôte 'host'.  Si le fichier 'netrc' ne contient pas
     d'entrée pour l'hôte donné, renvoie le triplet associé à l'entrée
     par défaut.  Si aucun hôte correspondant ni aucune entrée par
     défaut n'est disponible, renvoie ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: netrc.__repr__ ()

     Déverse les données de la classe sous forme de chaîne dans le
     format d'un fichier 'netrc'.  (Ceci ignore les commentaires et peut
     réorganiser les entrées).

Les instances de *note netrc: 187e. ont des variables d'instance
publiques :

 -- Attribut: netrc.hosts

     Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les noms d'hôtes dans des
     triplets ‘(login, account, password)’.  L'entrée par défaut, le cas
     échéant, est représentée en tant que pseudo-hôte par ce nom.

 -- Attribut: netrc.macros

     Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les noms de macro en listes de
     chaînes.


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files,  Prev: netrc --- netrc file processing,  Up: Formats de fichiers

5.14.5 ‘plistlib’ -- Generate and parse Apple ‘.plist’ files
------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/plistlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for reading and writing the "property
list" files used by Apple, primarily on macOS and iOS. This module
supports both binary and XML plist files.

The property list (‘.plist’) file format is a simple serialization
supporting basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and
strings.  Usually the top level object is a dictionary.

To write out and to parse a plist file, use the *note dump(): 940. and
*note load(): 93e. functions.

To work with plist data in bytes or string objects, use *note dumps():
941. and *note loads(): 93f.

Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists,
dictionaries (but only with string keys), *note bytes: 1bd, *note
bytearray: 52b. or *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: New API, old API deprecated.  Support for
binary format plists added.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Support added for reading and writing *note
UID: a11. tokens in binary plists as used by NSKeyedArchiver and
NSKeyedUnarchiver.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Old API removed.

Voir aussi
..........

PList manual page(2)

     Apple's documentation of the file format.

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: plistlib.load (fp, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict,
          aware_datetime=False)

     Read a plist file.  'fp' should be a readable and binary file
     object.  Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a
     dictionary).

     The 'fmt' is the format of the file and the following values are
     valid:

        * *note None: 662.: Autodetect the file format

        * *note FMT_XML: f66.: XML file format

        * *note FMT_BINARY: f67.: Binary plist format

     The 'dict_type' is the type used for dictionaries that are read
     from the plist file.

     When 'aware_datetime' is true, fields with type ‘datetime.datetime’
     will be created as *note aware object: 23df, with ‘tzinfo’ as *note
     datetime.UTC: 4db.

     XML data for the *note FMT_XML: f66. format is parsed using the
     Expat parser from *note xml.parsers.expat: 125. - see its
     documentation for possible exceptions on ill-formed XML. Unknown
     elements will simply be ignored by the plist parser.

     The parser raises *note InvalidFileException: 18ec. when the file
     cannot be parsed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The keyword-only parameter
     'aware_datetime' has been added.

 -- Fonction: plistlib.loads (data, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict,
          aware_datetime=False)

     Load a plist from a bytes or string object.  See *note load(): 93e.
     for an explanation of the keyword arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'data' can be a string when 'fmt'
     equals *note FMT_XML: f66.

 -- Fonction: plistlib.dump (value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

     Write 'value' to a plist file.  'fp' should be a writable, binary
     file object.

     The 'fmt' argument specifies the format of the plist file and can
     be one of the following values:

        * *note FMT_XML: f66.: XML formatted plist file

        * *note FMT_BINARY: f67.: Binary formatted plist file

     When 'sort_keys' is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries
     will be written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will
     be written in the iteration order of the dictionary.

     When 'skipkeys' is false (the default) the function raises *note
     TypeError: 525. when a key of a dictionary is not a string,
     otherwise such keys are skipped.

     When 'aware_datetime' is true and any field with type
     ‘datetime.datetime’ is set as an *note aware object: 23df, it will
     convert to UTC timezone before writing it.

     A *note TypeError: 525. will be raised if the object is of an
     unsupported type or a container that contains objects of
     unsupported types.

     An *note OverflowError: 86f. will be raised for integer values that
     cannot be represented in (binary) plist files.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The keyword-only parameter
     'aware_datetime' has been added.

 -- Fonction: plistlib.dumps (value, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

     Return 'value' as a plist-formatted bytes object.  See the
     documentation for *note dump(): 940. for an explanation of the
     keyword arguments of this function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

The following classes are available:

 -- Classe: plistlib.UID (data)

     Wraps an *note int: 254.  This is used when reading or writing
     NSKeyedArchiver encoded data, which contains UID (see PList
     manual).

      -- Attribut: data

          Int value of the UID. It must be in the range ‘0 <= data <
          2**64’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

The following constants are available:

 -- Données: plistlib.FMT_XML

     The XML format for plist files.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: plistlib.FMT_BINARY

     The binary format for plist files

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

The module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Exception: plistlib.InvalidFileException

     Raised when a file cannot be parsed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/plistlib.py

   (2) 
https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<12>,  Up: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files

5.14.5.1 Exemples
.................

Generating a plist:

     import datetime
     import plistlib

     pl = dict(
         aString = "Doodah",
         aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
         aFloat = 0.1,
         anInt = 728,
         aDict = dict(
             anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
             aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
             aTrueValue = True,
             aFalseValue = False,
         ),
         someData = b"<binary gunk>",
         someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
         aDate = datetime.datetime.now()
     )
     print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())

Parsing a plist:

     import plistlib

     plist = b"""<plist version="1.0">
     <dict>
         <key>foo</key>
         <string>bar</string>
     </dict>
     </plist>"""
     pl = plistlib.loads(plist)
     print(pl["foo"])


File: python.info,  Node: Service de cryptographie,  Next: Services génériques du système d'exploitation,  Prev: Formats de fichiers,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.15 Service de cryptographie
=============================

The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms of a
cryptographic nature.  They are available at the discretion of the
installation.  Here's an overview:

* Menu:

* hashlib: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages. Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de
                        messages
* hmac: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
* secrets: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages,  Next: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Up: Service de cryptographie

5.15.1 ‘hashlib’ -- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/hashlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a common interface to many different hash
algorithms.  Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA224,
SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in the FIPS 180-4 standard(2)), the
SHA-3 series (defined in the FIPS 202 standard(3)) as well as the legacy
algorithms SHA1 (formerly part of FIPS(4)) and the MD5 algorithm
(defined in internet RFC 1321(5)).

     Note: Si vous préférez utiliser les fonctions de hachage 'adler32'
     ou 'crc32', elles sont disponibles dans le module *note zlib: 132.

* Menu:

* Algorithmes de hachage::
* Utilisation::
* Constructeurs::
* Attributes::
* Objets de calcul d'empreinte::
* Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE::
* Calcul d'empreinte (ou hachage) de fichiers: Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers.
* Dérivation de clé::
* BLAKE2::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/hashlib.py

   (2) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final

   (3) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final

   (4) https://csrc.nist.gov/news/2023/decision-to-revise-fips-180-4

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1321.html


File: python.info,  Node: Algorithmes de hachage,  Next: Utilisation,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.1 Algorithmes de hachage
...............................

Il y a un constructeur nommé selon chaque type de calcul d'empreinte
('hash').  Tous renvoient un objet haché avec la même interface.  Par
exemple : utilisez *note sha256(): 151d. pour créer un objet de calcul
d'empreinte avec l'algorithme SHA-256.  Vous pouvez maintenant utiliser
cet objet avec des *note objets octets-compatibles: d1d. (normalement
des *note bytes: 1bd.) en utilisant la méthode *note update: 2a7f.  À
tout moment vous pouvez demander l'empreinte (aussi appelée le 'digest'
ou le condensat) de la concaténation des données fournies en utilisant
les méthodes *note digest(): 2a80. ou *note hexdigest(): 2a81.

pour de meilleures performances avec de multiples fils d'exécution, le
*note GIL: 158. Python est relâché pour des données dont la taille est
supérieure à 2047 octets lors de leur création ou leur mise à jour
(méthode *note .update: 2a7f.).

Les constructeurs pour les algorithmes de hachage qui sont toujours
présents dans ce module sont *note sha1(): 2a82, *note sha224(): 2a83,
*note sha256(): 151d, *note sha384(): 2a84, *note sha512(): 2a85, *note
sha3_224(): c92, *note sha3_256(): c93, *note sha3_384(): c94, *note
sha3_512(): c95, *note shake_128(): c96, *note shake_256(): c97, *note
blake2b(): 62f, et *note blake2s(): 630.  *note md5(): 2a86. est
normalement disponible aussi, mais il peut être manquant ou bloqué si
vous utilisez une forme rare de Python « conforme FIPS ».  Cette liste
correspond au résultat de la fonction *note algorithms_guaranteed: 134c.

Additional algorithms may also be available if your Python
distribution's *note hashlib: 67. was linked against a build of OpenSSL
that provides others.  Others 'are not guaranteed available' on all
installations and will only be accessible by name via *note new(): 1904.
See *note algorithms_available: 134d.

     Avertissement: Certains algorithmes ont des faiblesses connues
     relatives à la collision (MD5 et SHA1 inclus).  Se référer à
     Fonction de hachage cryptographique(1) et à la section *note Voir
     aussi: 2a87. à la fin du document.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: les constructeurs SHA3 (Keccak) et SHAKE
*note sha3_224(): c92, *note sha3_256(): c93, *note sha3_384(): c94,
*note sha3_512(): c95, *note shake_128(): c96, *note shake_256(): c97.
ont été ajoutés.  *note blake2b(): 62f. et *note blake2s(): 630. ont été
ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: tous les constructeurs de 'hashlib'
prennent un argument mot-clé uniquement 'usedforsecurity' avec la valeur
par défaut ‘True’.  Une valeur fausse permet l'utilisation d'algorithmes
de hachage non sécurisés et bloqués dans des environnements restreints.
‘False’ indique que l'algorithme de hachage ne sera pas utilisé dans un
contexte de sécurité, par exemple en tant que fonction de compression à
sens unique non cryptographique.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: 'Hashlib' utilise désormais SHA3 et SHAKE
d'OpenSSL s'il les fournit.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: For any of the MD5, SHA1, SHA2, or SHA3
algorithms that the linked OpenSSL does not provide we fall back to a
verified implementation from the HACL* project(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation,  Next: Constructeurs,  Prev: Algorithmes de hachage,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.2 Utilisation
....................

To obtain the digest of the byte string ‘b"Nobody inspects the spammish
repetition"’:

     >>> import hashlib
     >>> m = hashlib.sha256()
     >>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
     >>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
     >>> m.digest()
     b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

En plus condensé :

     >>> hashlib.sha256(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'


File: python.info,  Node: Constructeurs,  Next: Attributes,  Prev: Utilisation,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.3 Constructeurs
......................

 -- Fonction: hashlib.new (name[, data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

     Is a generic constructor that takes the string 'name' of the
     desired algorithm as its first parameter.  It also exists to allow
     access to the above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms
     that your OpenSSL library may offer.

Using *note new(): 1904. with an algorithm name:

     >>> h = hashlib.new('sha256')
     >>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

 -- Fonction: hashlib.md5 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha1 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha3_224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha3_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha3_384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.sha3_512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

Named constructors such as these are faster than passing an algorithm
name to *note new(): 1904.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes,  Next: Objets de calcul d'empreinte,  Prev: Constructeurs,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.4 Attributes
...................

'Hashlib' fournit les constantes de module suivantes :

 -- Données: hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed

     Ensemble contenant les noms des algorithmes de hachage garantis
     d'être implémentés par ce module sur toutes les plate-formes.
     Notez que 'md5' est dans cette liste bien que certains éditeurs
     diffusent une implémentation Python dont la bibliothèque
     « compatible FIPS » le bloque.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: hashlib.algorithms_available

     Ensemble contenant les noms des algorithmes de hachage disponibles
     dans l'interpréteur Python.  Ces noms sont reconnus lorsqu'ils sont
     passés à la fonction *note new(): 1904.  *note
     algorithms_guaranteed: 134c. est toujours un sous-ensemble.  Le
     même algorithme peut apparaître plusieurs fois dans cet ensemble
     sous un nom différent (grâce à OpenSSL).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets de calcul d'empreinte,  Next: Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE,  Prev: Attributes,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.5 Objets de calcul d'empreinte
.....................................

Les valeurs suivantes sont fournies en tant qu'attributs constants des
objets de calcul d'empreintes renvoyés par les constructeurs :

 -- Données: hash.digest_size

     La taille du 'hash' résultant en octets.

 -- Données: hash.block_size

     La taille interne d'un bloc de l'algorithme de hachage en octets.

L'objet de hachage possède les attributs suivants :

 -- Attribut: hash.name

     Le nom canonique de cette fonction de hachage, toujours en
     minuscule et que vous pouvez toujours transmettre à la fonction
     *note new(): 1904. pour créer un autre objet de calcul d'empreinte
     de ce type.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: l'attribut 'name' est présent dans
     CPython depuis sa création, mais n'était pas spécifié formellement
     jusqu'à Python 3.4, il peut ne pas exister sur certaines
     plate-formes.

L'objet de calcul d'empreinte possède les méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: hash.update (data)

     Met à jour l'objet de hachage avec *note bytes-like object: d1d.
     Les appels répétés sont équivalents à un simple appel avec la
     concaténation de tous les arguments : ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’
     est équivalent à ‘m.update(a+b)’.

 -- Méthode: hash.digest ()

     Renvoie l'empreinte (le 'hash') des données passées à la méthode
     *note update(): 2a7f.  C'est un objet de type 'bytes' de taille
     *note digest_size: 2a8d. qui contient des octets dans l'intervalle
     0 à 255.

 -- Méthode: hash.hexdigest ()

     Comme la méthode *note digest(): 2a80. sauf que l'empreinte
     renvoyée est une chaîne de caractères dont la longueur est double,
     contenant seulement des chiffres hexadécimaux.  Elle peut être
     utilisée pour échanger sans risque des valeurs dans les 'e-mails'
     ou dans les environnements non binaires.

 -- Méthode: hash.copy ()

     Renvoie une copie ("clone") de l'objet de calcul de hachage.  Cela
     peut être utilisé pour calculer efficacement des empreintes de
     données qui commencent par la même sous-chaine.


File: python.info,  Node: Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE,  Next: Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers,  Prev: Objets de calcul d'empreinte,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.6 Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE
........................................................

 -- Fonction: hashlib.shake_128 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.shake_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

Les algorithmes *note shake_128(): c96. et *note shake_256(): c97.
produisent des empreintes (ou condensats) de longueur variable avec des
‘longueurs_en_bits // 2’ jusqu'à 128 ou 256 bits.  Leurs méthodes de
calcul d'empreinte requièrent une longueur.  Les longueurs maximales ne
sont pas limitées par l'algorithme SHAKE.

 -- Méthode: shake.digest (length)

     Renvoie l'empreinte des données passées à la méthode *note
     update(): 2a7f.  C'est un objet de type 'bytes' de taille 'length'
     qui contient des octets dans l'intervalle 0 à 255.

 -- Méthode: shake.hexdigest (length)

     Comme la méthode *note digest(): 19f7. sauf que l'empreinte
     renvoyée est une chaîne de caractères dont la longueur est double,
     contenant seulement des chiffres hexadécimaux.  Elle peut être
     utilisée pour échanger sans risque des valeurs dans les 'e-mails'
     ou dans les environnements non binaires.

Exemple :

     >>> h = hashlib.shake_256(b'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition')
     >>> h.hexdigest(20)
     '44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7'


File: python.info,  Node: Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers,  Next: Dérivation de clé,  Prev: Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.7 Calcul d'empreinte (ou hachage) de fichiers
....................................................

Le module 'hashlib' fournit une fonction utilitaire pour calculer
efficacement l'empreinte (aussi appelée condensat) d'un fichier ou d'un
objet fichier-compatible.

 -- Fonction: hashlib.file_digest (fileobj, digest, /)

     Renvoie un objet de calcul d'empreinte qui a été mis à jour avec le
     contenu de 'fileobj'.

     'fileobj' must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary
     mode.  It accepts file objects from builtin *note open(): 508,
     *note BytesIO: e8f. instances, SocketIO objects from *note
     socket.socket.makefile(): 117f, and similar.  'fileobj' must be
     opened in blocking mode, otherwise a *note BlockingIOError: 1042.
     may be raised.

     The function may bypass Python's I/O and use the file descriptor
     from *note fileno(): 2806. directly.  'fileobj' must be assumed to
     be in an unknown state after this function returns or raises.  It
     is up to the caller to close 'fileobj'.

     'digest' doit être un nom d'algorithme de hachage fourni en tant
     que 'str', un constructeur de hachage ou un appelable qui renvoie
     un objet de hachage.

     Exemple :

          >>> import io, hashlib, hmac
          >>> with open(hashlib.__file__, "rb") as f:
          ...     digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
          ...
          >>> digest.hexdigest()
          '...'

          >>> buf = io.BytesIO(b"somedata")
          >>> mac1 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> digest = hashlib.file_digest(buf, lambda: mac1)

          >>> digest is mac1
          True
          >>> mac2 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", b"somedata", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> mac1.digest() == mac2.digest()
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13.3 (unreleased): Now raises a *note
     BlockingIOError: 1042. if the file is opened in blocking mode.
     Previously, spurious null bytes were added to the digest.


File: python.info,  Node: Dérivation de clé,  Next: BLAKE2,  Prev: Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.8 Dérivation de clé
..........................

Les algorithmes de dérivation de clés et d'étirement de clés sont conçus
pour le hachage sécurisé de mots de passe.  Des algorithmes naïfs comme
‘sha1(password)’ ne sont pas résistants aux attaques par force brute.
Une bonne fonction de hachage doit être paramétrable, lente et inclure
un salage(1).

 -- Fonction: hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac (hash_name, password, salt,
          iterations, dklen=None)

     La fonction fournit une fonction de dérivation conforme à PKCS#5
     ('Public Key Cryptographic Standards #5 v2.0').  Elle utilise HMAC
     comme fonction de génération d'un pseudo-aléa.

     La chaîne de caractères 'hash_name' est le nom de l'algorithme de
     hachage désiré pour le HMAC, par exemple ‘"sha1"’ ou ‘"sha256"’.
     'password' et 'salt' sont interprétés comme des tampons d'octets.
     Les applications et bibliothèques doivent limiter 'password' à une
     longueur raisonnable (comme ‘1024’).  'salt' doit être de 16 octets
     ou plus et provenir d'une source correcte, e.g.  *note
     os.urandom(): 50f.

     Le nombre d''itérations' doit être choisi en fonction de
     l'algorithme de hachage et de la puissance de calcul.  À partir de
     2022, des centaines de milliers d'itérations de SHA-256 sont
     suggérées.  Pour savoir pourquoi et comment choisir ce qui convient
     le mieux à votre application, lisez 'l'annexe A.2.2' du
     NIST-SP-800-132(2) (ressource en anglais).  Les réponses contenues
     dans la question sur le site 'stackexchange' nombre d'itérations
     recommandées lorsqu'on utilise pbkdf2(3) (page en anglais)
     expliquent tout en détail.

     'dklen' est la longueur de la clé dérivée.  Si 'dklen' vaut ‘None’
     alors Python utilise la taille du condensat produit par
     l'algorithme de hachage 'hash_name', par exemple 64 pour SHA-512.

          >>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
          >>> our_app_iters = 500_000  # Application specific, read above.
          >>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'bad salt' * 2, our_app_iters)
          >>> dk.hex()
          '15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9'

     Function only available when Python is compiled with OpenSSL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Function now only available when
     Python is built with OpenSSL. The slow pure Python implementation
     has been removed.

 -- Fonction: hashlib.scrypt (password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0,
          dklen=64)

     La fonction fournit la fonction de dérivation de clé 'scrypt' comme
     définie dans la RFC 7914(4).

     'password' et 'salt' doivent être des *note objets
     octets-compatibles: d1d.  Les applications et bibliothèques doivent
     limiter 'password' à une longueur raisonnable (par ex.  1024).
     'salt' doit être de 16 octets ou plus et provenir d'une source
     correcte, par ex.  *note os.urandom(): 50f.

     'n' est le facteur de coût CPU/Mémoire, 'r' la taille de bloc, 'p'
     le facteur de parallélisation et 'maxmem' limite l'utilisation de
     la mémoire (OpenSSL 1.1.0 limite à 32 Mio par défaut).  'dklen' est
     la longueur de la clé dérivée en octets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salage_(cryptographie)

   (2) 
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf

   (3) 
https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7914.html


File: python.info,  Node: BLAKE2,  Prev: Dérivation de clé,  Up: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

5.15.1.9 BLAKE2
...............

BLAKE2(1) est une fonction de hachage cryptographique définie dans la
RFC 7693(2) et disponible en deux versions :

   * 'BLAKE2b', optimisée pour les plates-formes 64 bits et produisant
     des condensats de toutes tailles entre 1 et 64 octets,

   * 'BLAKE2s', optimisée pour les plates-formes de 8 à 32 bits et
     produisant des empreintes de toutes tailles entre 1 et 32 octets.

BLAKE2 gère diverses fonctionnalités comme le 'keyed mode' (plus rapide
et plus simple que HMAC(3)), 'salted hashing', 'personalization' et le
'tree hashing'.

Les objets de calcul d'empreinte de ce module suivent l'API des objets
du module *note hashlib: 67. de la bibliothèque standard.

* Menu:

* Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte::
* Constantes: Constantes<5>.
* Exemples: Exemples<13>.
* Crédits::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7693.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code


File: python.info,  Node: Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte,  Next: Constantes<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.10 Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte
.................................................

Les nouveaux objets de calcul d'empreinte sont créés en appelant les
constructeurs :

 -- Fonction: hashlib.blake2b (data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Fonction: hashlib.blake2s (data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

Ces fonctions produisent l'objet de calcul d'empreinte correspondant aux
algorithmes BLAKE2b ou BLAKE2s.  Elles prennent ces paramètres
optionnels :

   * 'data' : morceau initial de données à hacher, qui doit être un
     *note objet octets-compatible: d1d.  Il ne peut être passé que
     comme argument positionnel.

   * 'digest_size' : taille en octets de l'empreinte produite.

   * 'key' : clé pour les codes d'authentification de message 'keyed
     hashing' (jusqu'à 64 octets pour BLAKE2b, jusqu'à 32 octets pour
     BLAKE2s).

   * 'salt' : sel pour le hachage randomisé 'randomized hashing'
     (jusqu'à 16 octets pour BLAKE2b, jusqu'à 8 octets pour BLAKE2s).

   * 'person' : chaîne de personnalisation (jusqu'à 16 octets pour
     BLAKE2b, jusqu'à 8 octets pour BLAKE2s).

Le tableau suivant présente les limites des paramètres généraux (en
octets) :

Hash        digest_size     len(key)     len(salt)     len(person)
                                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
BLAKE2b     64              64           16            16
                                                       
                                                       
BLAKE2s     32              32           8             8
                                                       

     Note: les spécifications de BLAKE2 définissent des longueurs
     constantes pour les sel et chaînes de personnalisation.  Toutefois,
     par commodité, cette implémentation accepte des chaînes d'octets de
     n'importe quelle taille jusqu'à la longueur spécifiée.  Si la
     longueur du paramètre est moindre par rapport à celle spécifiée, il
     est complété par des zéros.  Ainsi, par exemple, ‘b'salt'’ et
     ‘b'salt\x00'’ sont la même valeur (ce n'est pas le cas pour 'key').

Ces tailles sont disponibles en tant que *note constantes: 2a95. du
module et décrites ci-dessous.

Les fonctions constructeurs acceptent aussi les paramètres suivants pour
le calcul d'empreintes en mode arbre :

   * 'fanout' : 'étalement' (0 à 255, 0 si illimité, 1 correspond au
     mode séquentiel).

   * 'depth' : profondeur maximale de l'arbre (1 à 255, 255 si illimité,
     1 correspond au mode séquentiel).

   * 'leaf_size' : taille maximale en octets d'une feuille (0 à
     ‘2**32-1’, 0 si illimité ou en mode séquentiel).

   * 'node_offset' : décalage du nœud (0 à ‘2**64-1’ pour BLAKE2b, 0 à
     ‘2**48-1’ pour BLAKE2s, 0 pour la première feuille la plus à
     gauche, ou en mode séquentiel).

   * 'node_depth' : profondeur du nœud (0 à 255, 0 pour les feuilles, ou
     en mode séquentiel).

   * 'inner_size' : taille de l'empreinte interne (0 à 64 pour BLAKE2b,
     0 à 32 pour BLAKE2s, 0 en mode séquentiel).

   * 'last_node' : booléen indiquant si le nœud traité est le dernier
     (‘False’ pour le mode séquentiel).

[image src="python-figures/hashlib-blake2-tree.png" alt="Explication des paramètres du mode arbre."]


Figure
Voir la section 2.10 dans BLAKE2 specification(1) pour une approche
globale du hachage en mode arbre.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<5>,  Next: Exemples<13>,  Prev: Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.11 Constantes
....................

 -- Données: blake2b.SALT_SIZE

 -- Données: blake2s.SALT_SIZE

Longueur du sel (longueur maximale acceptée par les constructeurs).

 -- Données: blake2b.PERSON_SIZE

 -- Données: blake2s.PERSON_SIZE

Longueur de la chaîne de personnalisation (longueur maximale acceptée
par les constructeurs).

 -- Données: blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE

 -- Données: blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE

Taille maximale de clé.

 -- Données: blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

 -- Données: blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

Taille maximale du message que peut fournir la fonction de hachage.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<13>,  Next: Crédits,  Prev: Constantes<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.12 Exemples
..................

* Menu:

* Hachage simple::
* Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes::
* Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message::
* Hachage randomisé::
* Personnalisation: Personnalisation<2>.
* Mode Arbre::


File: python.info,  Node: Hachage simple,  Next: Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes,  Up: Exemples<13>

5.15.1.13 Hachage simple
........................

Pour calculer l'empreinte (ou 'hash') d'une quantité de données, vous
devez d'abord construire un objet de calcul d'empreinte en appelant la
fonction constructeur appropriée (*note blake2b(): 62f. or *note
blake2s(): 630.), ensuite le mettre à jour avec les données en appelant
la méthode *note update(): 2a7f. sur l'objet, et, pour finir, récupérer
l'empreinte du message en appelant la méthode *note digest(): 2a80. (ou
*note hexdigest(): 2a81. pour les chaînes hexadécimales).

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> h.update(b'Hello world')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

En plus court, vous pouvez passer directement au constructeur, comme
argument positionnel, le premier morceau du message pour le mettre
directement à jour :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

Vous pouvez appeler la méthode *note hash.update(): 2a7f. autant de fois
que nécessaire pour mettre à jour l'empreinte de manière itérative :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> for item in items:
     ...     h.update(item)
     ...
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'


File: python.info,  Node: Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes,  Next: Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message,  Prev: Hachage simple,  Up: Exemples<13>

5.15.1.14 Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes
........................................................

BLAKE2 permet de configurer la taille des empreintes jusqu'à 64 octets
pour BLAKE2b et jusqu'à 32 octets pour BLAKE2s.  Par exemple, pour
remplacer SHA-1 par BLAKE2b sans changer la taille de la sortie, nous
pouvons dire à BLAKE2b de produire une empreinte de 20 octets :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
     >>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
     >>> h.digest_size
     20
     >>> len(h.digest())
     20

Les objets de calcul d'empreinte initialisés avec des tailles
d'empreintes différentes ont des sorties complètement différentes (les
condensats courts 'ne sont pas' des préfixes de condensats plus longs) ;
BLAKE2b et BLAKE2s produisent des sorties différentes même si les
longueurs de sortie sont les mêmes :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'


File: python.info,  Node: Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message,  Next: Hachage randomisé,  Prev: Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes,  Up: Exemples<13>

5.15.1.15 Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message
...............................................................

Le hachage avec clé ('keyed hashing' en anglais) est une alternative
plus simple et plus rapide à un code d’authentification de message de
hachage à clé(1) (HMAC). BLAKE2 peut être utilisé de manière sécurisée
dans le mode préfixe MAC grâce à la propriété d'indifférentiabilité
héritée de BLAKE.

Cet exemple montre comment obtenir un code d'authentification de message
de 128 bits (en hexadécimal) pour un message ‘b'message data'’ avec la
clé ‘b'pseudorandom key'’ :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
     >>> h.update(b'message data')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'

Comme exemple pratique, une application web peut chiffrer symétriquement
les 'cookies' envoyés aux utilisateurs et les vérifier plus tard pour
être certaine qu'ils n'ont pas été altérés :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> from hmac import compare_digest
     >>>
     >>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
     >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
     >>>
     >>> def sign(cookie):
     ...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
     ...     h.update(cookie)
     ...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
     >>>
     >>> def verify(cookie, sig):
     ...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
     ...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
     >>>
     >>> cookie = b'user-alice'
     >>> sig = sign(cookie)
     >>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
     user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
     >>> verify(cookie, sig)
     True
     >>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
     False
     >>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
     False

Même s'il possède en natif la création de code d'authentification de
message (MAC), BLAKE2 peut, bien sûr, être utilisé pour construire un
HMAC en combinaison avec le module *note hmac: 69. :

     >>> import hmac, hashlib
     >>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
     >>> m.update(b'message')
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyed-hash_message_authentication_code


File: python.info,  Node: Hachage randomisé,  Next: Personnalisation<2>,  Prev: Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message,  Up: Exemples<13>

5.15.1.16 Hachage randomisé
...........................

En définissant le paramètre 'salt' les utilisateurs peuvent introduire
de l'aléatoire dans la fonction de hachage.  Le hachage randomisé est
utile pour se protéger des attaques par collisions sur les fonctions de
hachage utilisées dans les signatures numériques.

     Le hachage aléatoire est conçu pour les situations où une partie,
     le préparateur du message, génère tout ou partie d'un message à
     signer par une seconde partie, le signataire du message.  Si le
     préparateur du message est capable de trouver des collisions sur la
     fonction cryptographique de hachage (c.-à-d.  deux messages
     produisant la même valeur une fois hachés), alors il peut préparer
     plusieurs versions du message, ayant un sens, qui produiront les
     mêmes empreintes et même signature mais avec des résultats
     différents (par exemple transférer 1 000 000 $ sur un compte plutôt
     que 10 $).  Les fonctions cryptographiques de hachage ont été
     conçues avec comme but premier de résister aux collisions, mais la
     concentration actuelle d'attaques sur les fonctions de hachage peut
     avoir pour conséquence qu'une fonction de hachage donnée soit moins
     résistante qu'attendu.  Le hachage aléatoire offre au signataire
     une protection supplémentaire en réduisant la probabilité que le
     préparateur puisse générer deux messages ou plus qui renverront la
     même empreinte lors du processus de génération de la signature —
     même s'il existe un moyen pratique de trouver des collisions sur la
     fonction de hachage.  Toutefois, l'utilisation du hachage aléatoire
     peut réduire le niveau de sécurité fourni par une signature
     numérique si tous les morceaux du message sont préparés par le
     signataire.

     (NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures"(1),
     article en anglais)

Dans BLAKE2, le sel est passé une seule fois lors de l'initialisation de
la fonction de hachage, plutôt qu'à chaque appel de la fonction de
hachage.

     Avertissement: 'Salted hashing' (ou un hachage simple) avec BLAKE2
     ou toute autre fonction de hachage générique, comme SHA-256, ne
     convient pas pour obscurcir des mots de passe.  Voir la FAQ
     BLAKE2(2) (page en anglais) pour plus d'informations.

     >>> import os
     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> msg = b'some message'
     >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
     >>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
     >>> h1.update(msg)
     >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
     >>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
     >>> h2.update(msg)
     >>> # The digests are different.
     >>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final

   (2) https://blake2.net/#qa


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation<2>,  Next: Mode Arbre,  Prev: Hachage randomisé,  Up: Exemples<13>

5.15.1.17 Personnalisation
..........................

Parfois il est utile de forcer une fonction de hachage à produire
différentes empreintes de message d'une même entrée pour différentes
utilisations.  Pour citer les auteurs de la fonction de hachage Skein :

     Nous recommandons que tous les développeurs d'application
     considèrent sérieusement de faire cela ; nous avons vu de nombreux
     protocoles où une empreinte était calculée à un endroit du
     protocole pour être utilisée à un autre endroit car deux calculs
     d'empreintes étaient réalisés sur des données similaires ou liées,
     et qu'un attaquant peut forcer une application à prendre en entrée
     la même empreinte.  Personnaliser chaque fonction de hachage
     utilisée dans le protocole stoppe immédiatement ce genre d'attaque.

     (The Skein Hash Function Family(1), p.  21, article en anglais)

BLAKE2 peut être personnalisé en passant des 'bytes' à l'argument
'person' :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
     >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'

La personnalisation et le 'keyed mode' peuvent être utilisés ensemble
pour dériver différentes clés à partir d'une seule.

     >>> from hashlib import blake2s
     >>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
     >>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
     >>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
     >>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
     >>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
     rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
     >>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
     G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.schneier.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/skein.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Mode Arbre,  Prev: Personnalisation<2>,  Up: Exemples<13>

5.15.1.18 Mode Arbre
....................

L'exemple ci-dessous présente comment hacher un arbre minimal avec deux
nœuds terminaux :

       10
      /  \
     00  01

Cet exemple utilise en interne des empreintes de 64 octets, et produit
finalement des empreintes 32 octets :

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>>
     >>> FANOUT = 2
     >>> DEPTH = 2
     >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
     >>> INNER_SIZE = 64
     >>>
     >>> buf = bytearray(6000)
     >>>
     >>> # Left leaf
     ... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
     >>> # Right leaf
     ... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
     >>> # Root node
     ... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
     >>> h10.update(h00.digest())
     >>> h10.update(h01.digest())
     >>> h10.hexdigest()
     '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'


File: python.info,  Node: Crédits,  Prev: Exemples<13>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.19 Crédits
.................

BLAKE2(1) a été conçu par 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Samuel Neves',
'Zooko Wilcox-O'Hearn', et 'Christian Winnerlein'.  Il est basé la
version BLAKE(2) qui a participé à la finale de la compétition du NIST
SHA-3(3) créée par 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Luca Henzen', 'Willi
Meier', et 'Raphael C.-W. Phan'.

Il utilise le cœur de l'algorithme de chiffrement de ChaCha(4) conçu par
'Daniel J. Bernstein'.

L'implémentation dans la bibliothèque standard est basée sur le module
pyblake2(5).  Elle a été écrite par 'Dmitry Chestnykh' et est basée sur
l'implémentation C écrite par 'Samuel Neves'.  La documentation a été
copiée depuis pyblake2(6) et écrite par 'Dmitry Chestnykh'.

Le code C a été partiellement réécrit pour Python par 'Christian
Heimes'.

Le transfert dans le domaine public s'applique pour l'implémentation C
de la fonction de hachage, ses extensions et cette documentation :

     Tout en restant dans les limites de la loi, le(s) auteur(s) a (ont)
     donné tous les droits d’auteur et droits connexes et voisins de ce
     logiciel au domaine public dans le monde entier.  Ce logiciel est
     distribué sans aucune garantie.

     Vous devriez recevoir avec ce logiciel une copie de la licence 'CC0
     Public Domain Dedication'.  Sinon, voir
     ‘https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/’.

Les personnes suivantes ont aidé au développement ou contribué aux
modifications du projet et au domaine public selon la licence Creative
Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal :

   * 'Alexandr Sokolovskiy'

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note hmac: 69.

     Un module pour générer des codes d'authentification utilisant des
     'hash'.

Module *note base64: e.

     Un autre moyen d'encoder des 'hash' binaires dans des
     environnements non binaires.

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf’

     La publication FIPS 180-4 sur les algorithmes de hachage sécurisés.

‘https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final’

     La publication FIPS 202 sur le standard SHA-3.

‘https://www.blake2.net/’

     Site officiel de BLAKE2.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function’

     Article Wikipedia contenant les informations relatives aux
     algorithmes ayant des problèmes et leur interprétation au regard de
     leur utilisation.

‘https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt’

     PKCS #5 : Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.1

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf’

     Recommandations du NIST pour la dérivation de clé à partir de mot
     de passe (ressource en anglais).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200918190133/https://131002.net/blake/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms

   (4) https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html

   (5) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/

   (6) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/


File: python.info,  Node: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Next: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets,  Prev: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages,  Up: Service de cryptographie

5.15.2 ‘hmac’ -- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
---------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/hmac.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module implémente l'algorithme HMAC tel que décrit par la RFC
2104(2).

 -- Fonction: hmac.new (key, msg=None, digestmod)

     Renvoie un nouvel objet HMAC. 'key' est un objet 'byte' ou
     'bytearray' représentant la clé secrète.  Si 'msg' est présent, un
     appel à ‘update(msg)’ est effectué.  'digestmod' permet de choisir
     l’algorithme à utiliser par l’objet HMAC, il accepte un nom de
     fonction de hachage (peut être tout ce qui convient à *note
     hashlib.new(): 1904.), un constructeur de fonction de hachage ou un
     module implémentant la PEP 247.  Bien qu’il soit après 'msg',
     'digestmod' est un paramètre obligatoire.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre 'key' peut être un 'byte'
     ou un objet 'bytearray'.  Le paramètre 'msg' peut être de n'importe
     quel type pris en charge par *note hashlib: 67.  Le paramètre
     'digestmod' peut être le nom d'un algorithme de hachage.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The 'digestmod' argument is now
     required.  Pass it as a keyword argument to avoid awkwardness when
     you do not have an initial 'msg'.

 -- Fonction: hmac.digest (key, msg, digest)

     Renvoie le code d'authentification de 'msg', pour la clé secrète
     'key' et à l'algorithme 'digest' donné.  La fonction est
     équivalente à ‘HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest()’, mais elle utilise
     une implémentation optimisée en C ou 'inline', qui est plus rapide
     pour les messages dont la taille leur permet de tenir en mémoire
     vive.  Les paramètres 'key', 'msg' et 'digest' ont la même
     signification que pour *note new(): a8f.

     Détail d'implémentation CPython, l'implémentation C optimisée n'est
     utilisée que lorsque le 'digest' est une chaîne de caractères et le
     nom d'un algorithme de hachage implémenté dans OpenSSL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Un objet HMAC a les méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: HMAC.update (msg)

     Met à jour l'objet HMAC avec 'msg'.  Des appels répétés sont
     équivalents à un seul appel avec la concaténation de tous les
     arguments : ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ est équivalent à ‘m.update(a
     + b)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre 'msg' peut être de
     n'importe quel type géré par *note hashlib: 67.

 -- Méthode: HMAC.digest ()

     Renvoie le condensat des octets passés à la méthode *note update():
     f37. jusque là.  L'objet 'bytes' renvoyé sera de la même longueur
     que la 'digest_size' de la fonction de hachage donnée au
     constructeur.  Il peut contenir des octets qui ne sont pas dans la
     table ASCII, y compris des octets NUL.

          Avertissement: When comparing the output of *note digest():
          b2e. to an externally supplied digest during a verification
          routine, it is recommended to use the *note compare_digest():
          10ad. function instead of the ‘==’ operator to reduce the
          vulnerability to timing attacks.

 -- Méthode: HMAC.hexdigest ()

     Comme *note digest(): b2e. sauf que ce condensat est renvoyé en
     tant que chaîne de caractères de taille doublée contenant seulement
     des chiffres hexadécimaux.  Cela permet d’échanger le résultat sans
     problèmes par e-mail ou dans d'autres environnements ne gérant pas
     les données binaires.

          Avertissement: When comparing the output of *note hexdigest():
          2aa9. to an externally supplied digest during a verification
          routine, it is recommended to use the *note compare_digest():
          10ad. function instead of the ‘==’ operator to reduce the
          vulnerability to timing attacks.

 -- Méthode: HMAC.copy ()

     Renvoie une copie (un clone) de l'objet HMAC. C'est utile pour
     calculer de manière efficace les empreintes cryptographiques de
     chaînes de caractères qui ont en commun une sous-chaîne initiale.

Un objet 'code d'authentification de message' (HMAC) possède les
attributs suivants :

 -- Attribut: HMAC.digest_size

     La taille du code d'authentification (c.-à-d.  de l'empreinte
     cryptographique) en octets.

 -- Attribut: HMAC.block_size

     La taille interne d'un bloc de l'algorithme de hachage en octets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Attribut: HMAC.name

     Le nom canonique de ce HMAC, toujours en lettres minuscules, par
     exemple ‘hmac-md5’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Removed the undocumented attributes
‘HMAC.digest_cons’, ‘HMAC.inner’, and ‘HMAC.outer’.

Ce module fournit également la fonction utilitaire suivante :

 -- Fonction: hmac.compare_digest (a, b)

     Renvoie ‘a == b’.  Cette fonction a été conçue pour prévenir les
     attaques temporelles en évitant l'implémentation de courts-circuits
     basés sur le contenu, ce qui la rend appropriée pour de la
     cryptographie.  'a' et 'b' doivent être du même type : soit *note
     str: 437. (caractères ASCII seulement, comme retourné par *note
     HMAC.hexdigest(): 2aa9. par exemple), ou *note bytes-like object:
     d1d.

          Note: Si 'a' et 'b' sont de longueurs différentes ou si une
          erreur se produit, une attaque temporelle pourrait en théorie
          obtenir des informations sur les types et longueurs de 'a' et
          de 'b', mais pas sur leurs valeurs.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Cette fonction utilise la fonction
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ de OpenSSL quand celle-ci est disponible.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note hashlib: 67.

     Le module Python fournissant des fonctions de hachage sécurisé.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/hmac.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html


File: python.info,  Node: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets,  Prev: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Up: Service de cryptographie

5.15.3 ‘secrets’ -- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

'Code source :' Lib/secrets.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note secrets: bf. permet de générer des nombres aléatoires
forts au sens de la cryptographie, adaptés à la gestion des mots de
passe, à l'authentification des comptes, à la gestion des jetons de
sécurité et des secrets associés.

Il faut préférer *note secrets: bf. par rapport au générateur
pseudo-aléatoire du module *note random: b7, ce dernier étant conçu pour
la modélisation et la simulation, et non pour la sécurité ou la
cryptographie.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 506(2)

* Menu:

* Nombres aléatoires::
* Génération de jetons::
* Autres fonctions::
* Recettes et bonnes pratiques::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/secrets.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: Nombres aléatoires,  Next: Génération de jetons,  Up: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.1 Nombres aléatoires
...........................

Le module *note secrets: bf. fournit un accès à la source d'aléa la plus
sûre disponible sur votre système d'exploitation.

 -- Classe: secrets.SystemRandom

     Classe permettant de générer des nombres aléatoires à partir des
     sources d'aléa les plus sûres fournies par le système
     d'exploitation.  Se référer à *note random.SystemRandom: 2699. pour
     plus de détails.

 -- Fonction: secrets.choice (seq)

     Return a randomly chosen element from a non-empty sequence.

 -- Fonction: secrets.randbelow (exclusive_upper_bound)

     Return a random int in the range [0, 'exclusive_upper_bound').

 -- Fonction: secrets.randbits (k)

     Return a non-negative int with 'k' random bits.


File: python.info,  Node: Génération de jetons,  Next: Autres fonctions,  Prev: Nombres aléatoires,  Up: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.2 Génération de jetons
.............................

Le module *note secrets: bf. fournit des fonctions pour la génération
sécurisée de jetons adaptés à la réinitialisation de mots de passe, à la
production d'URLs difficiles à deviner, etc.

 -- Fonction: secrets.token_bytes ([nbytes=None])

     Renvoie une chaîne d'octets aléatoire contenant 'nbytes' octets.
     Si 'nbytes' est ‘None’ ou omis, une valeur par défaut raisonnable
     est utilisée.

          >>> token_bytes(16)
          b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'

 -- Fonction: secrets.token_hex ([nbytes=None])

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères aléatoire en hexadécimal.  La
     chaîne comporte 'nbytes' octets aléatoires, chaque octet étant
     écrit sous la forme de deux chiffres hexadécimaux.  Si 'nbytes' est
     ‘None’ ou omis, une valeur par défaut raisonnable est utilisée.

          >>> token_hex(16)
          'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'

 -- Fonction: secrets.token_urlsafe ([nbytes=None])

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères aléatoire adaptée au format URL,
     contenant 'nbytes' octets aléatoires.  Le texte est encodé en
     base64, chaque octet produisant en moyenne 1,3 caractères.  Si
     'nbytes' est ‘None’ ou omis, une valeur par défaut raisonnable est
     utilisée.

          >>> token_urlsafe(16)
          'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'

* Menu:

* Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?,  Up: Génération de jetons

5.15.3.3 Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?
.......................................................

Afin de se prémunir des attaques par force brute(1), les jetons doivent
être suffisamment aléatoires.  Malheureusement, l'augmentation de la
puissance de calcul des ordinateurs leur permet de réaliser plus de
tentatives dans le même laps de temps.  De ce fait, le nombre de bits
recommandé pour l'aléa augmente aussi.  En 2015, une longueur de 32
octets (256 bits) aléatoires est généralement considérée suffisante pour
les usages typiques du module *note secrets: bf.

Si vous souhaitez gérer la longueur des jetons par vous-même, vous
pouvez spécifier la quantité d'aléa à introduire dans les jetons en
passant un argument *note int: 254. aux différentes fonctions ‘token_*’.
Cet argument indique alors le nombre d'octets aléatoires utilisés pour
la création du jeton.

Sinon, si aucun argument n'est passé ou si celui-ci est ‘None’, les
fonctions ‘token_*’ utilisent une valeur par défaut raisonnable à la
place.

     Note: Cette valeur par défaut est susceptible de changer à
     n'importe quel moment, y compris lors des mises à jour de
     maintenance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attaque_par_force_brute


File: python.info,  Node: Autres fonctions,  Next: Recettes et bonnes pratiques,  Prev: Génération de jetons,  Up: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.4 Autres fonctions
.........................

 -- Fonction: secrets.compare_digest (a, b)

     Return ‘True’ if strings or *note bytes-like objects: d1d. 'a' and
     'b' are equal, otherwise ‘False’, using a "constant-time compare"
     to reduce the risk of timing attacks(1).  See *note
     hmac.compare_digest(): 10ad. for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/


File: python.info,  Node: Recettes et bonnes pratiques,  Prev: Autres fonctions,  Up: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.5 Recettes et bonnes pratiques
.....................................

Cette section expose les recettes et les bonnes pratiques d'utilisation
de *note secrets: bf. pour gérer un niveau minimal de sécurité.

Générer un mot de passe à huit caractères alphanumériques :

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))

     Note: Applications should not store passwords in a recoverable
     format(1), whether plain text or encrypted.  They should be salted
     and hashed using a cryptographically strong one-way (irreversible)
     hash function.

Générer un mot de passe alphanumérique à dix caractères contenant au
moins un caractère en minuscule, au moins un caractère en majuscule et
au moins trois chiffres :

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     while True:
         password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
         if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
                 and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
                 and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
             break

Générer une phrase de passe dans le style xkcd(2) :

     import secrets
     # On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.
     # Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.
     with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
         words = [word.strip() for word in f]
         password = ' '.join(secrets.choice(words) for i in range(4))

Générer une URL temporaire difficile à deviner contenant un jeton de
sécurité adapté à réinitialisation d'un mot de passe :

     import secrets
     url = 'https://example.com/reset=' + secrets.token_urlsafe()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html

   (2) https://xkcd.com/936/


File: python.info,  Node: Services génériques du système d'exploitation,  Next: Command Line Interface Libraries,  Prev: Service de cryptographie,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.16 Services génériques du système d'exploitation
==================================================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent des interfaces vers
des fonctionnalités communes à la grande majorité des systèmes
d'exploitation, telles que les fichiers et l'horloge.  Bien que ces
interfaces soient classiquement calquées sur les interfaces Unix ou C,
elles sont aussi disponibles sur la plupart des autres systèmes.  En
voici un aperçu :

* Menu:

* os: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
* io: io --- Core tools for working with streams. Core tools for working with streams
* time: time --- Time access and conversions. Time access and conversions
* logging: logging --- Logging facility for Python. Logging facility for Python
* logging.config: logging config --- Logging configuration. Logging configuration
* logging.handlers: logging handlers --- Logging handlers. Logging handlers
* platform: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data. Access to underlying platform's identifying data
* errno: errno --- Standard errno system symbols. Standard errno system symbols
* ctypes: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python. A foreign function library for Python


File: python.info,  Node: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Next: io --- Core tools for working with streams,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.1 ‘os’ -- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
--------------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/os.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une façon portable d'utiliser les fonctionnalités
dépendantes du système d'exploitation.  Si vous voulez simplement lire
ou écrire un fichier, voir *note open(): 508, si vous voulez manipuler
les chemins de fichiers, voir le module *note os.path: a1, et si vous
voulez lire toutes les lignes de tous les fichiers de la ligne de
commande, voir le module *note fileinput: 5a.  Pour la création de
fichiers et de répertoires temporaires, voir le module *note tempfile:
df, et pour la manipulation de fichiers et de répertoires de haut
niveau, voir le module *note shutil: c4.

Notes sur la disponibilité de ces fonctions :

   * La conception des modules natifs Python dépendants du système
     d'exploitation est qu'une même fonctionnalité utilise une même
     interface.  Par exemple, la fonction ‘os.stat(path)’ renvoie des
     informations sur les statistiques de 'path' dans le même format
     (qui est originaire de l'interface POSIX).

   * Les extensions propres à un certain système d'exploitation sont
     également disponible par le module *note os: a0, mais les utiliser
     est bien entendu une menace pour la portabilité.

   * Toutes les fonctions acceptant les chemins ou noms de fichiers
     acceptent aussi bien des 'bytes' que des 'string', et si un chemin
     ou un nom de fichier est renvoyé, il sera du même type.

   * On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawn*p* are not
     supported.

   * On WebAssembly platforms, Android and iOS, large parts of the *note
     os: a0. module are not available or behave differently.  APIs
     related to processes (e.g.  *note fork(): 195, *note execve():
     10db.) and resources (e.g.  *note nice(): 10e3.) are not available.
     Others like *note getuid(): 2abd. and *note getpid(): 2abe. are
     emulated or stubs.  WebAssembly platforms also lack support for
     signals (e.g.  *note kill(): 1340, *note wait(): d87.).

     Note: Toutes les fonctions de ce module lèvent une *note OSError:
     40d. (ou une de ses sous-classes) dans le cas d'un chemin ou nom de
     fichier invalide ou inaccessible, ou si d'autres arguments sont de
     type correct mais non géré par le système d'exploitation.

 -- Exception: os.error

     Un alias pour les exceptions natives *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Données: os.name

     Le nom du module importé dépendant du système d'exploitation.  Les
     noms suivants ont actuellement été enregistrés : ‘'posix'’, ‘'nt'’,
     ‘'java'’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note sys.platform: a7d. has a finer granularity.  *note
     os.uname(): 10f8. gives system-dependent version information.

     Le module *note platform: a9. fournit des vérifications détaillées
     pour l'identité du système.

* Menu:

* Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement: Noms de fichiers arguments en ligne de commande et variables d'environnement.
* Le mode UTF-8 de Python::
* Paramètres de processus::
* Création de fichiers objets::
* Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers::
* Fichiers et répertoires::
* Gestion des processus::
* Interface pour l'ordonnanceur::
* Diverses informations sur le système::
* Nombres aléatoires: Nombres aléatoires<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/os.py


File: python.info,  Node: Noms de fichiers arguments en ligne de commande et variables d'environnement,  Next: Le mode UTF-8 de Python,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.1 Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement
.......................................................................................

In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables
are represented using the string type.  On some systems, decoding these
strings to and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the
operating system.  Python uses the *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 528. to perform this conversion (see *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49.).

L'*note encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs
associé: 528. sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la fonction
*note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. : regardez *note filesystem_encoding: 3df.
et *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. dans les membres de *note PyConfig:
39d.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: On some systems, conversion using the file
system encoding may fail.  In this case, Python uses the *note
surrogateescape encoding error handler: 239f, which means that
undecodable bytes are replaced by a Unicode character U+DC'xx' on
decoding, and these are again translated to the original byte on
encoding.

The *note file system encoding: 528. must guarantee to successfully
decode all bytes below 128.  If the file system encoding fails to
provide this guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError:
1283.

Voir aussi *note encodage régional: 23f.


File: python.info,  Node: Le mode UTF-8 de Python,  Next: Paramètres de processus,  Prev: Noms de fichiers arguments en ligne de commande et variables d'environnement,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.2 Le mode UTF-8 de Python
................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Voir la PEP 540(1) pour plus d'informations.

Le mode UTF-8 de Python ignore *note l'encodage régional: 23f. et rend
obligatoire l'utilisation de l'encodage UTF-8:

   * Utiliser UTF-8 pour *note l'encodage du système de fichiers: 528.

   * *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. returns ‘'utf-8'’.

   * *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 527. returns ‘'utf-8'’ (the
     'do_setlocale' argument has no effect).

   * *note sys.stdin: 52a, *note sys.stdout: ac6. et *note sys.stderr:
     928. utilisent tous l'UTF-8 pour l'encodage du texte, avec le *note
     gestionnaire d'erreurs: 17a2. ‘surrogateescape’ activé pour *note
     sys.stdin: 52a. et *note sys.stdout: ac6. (*note sys.stderr: 928.
     continue d'utiliser ‘backslashreplace’ comme pour le mode par
     défaut où il prend en compte la configuration régionale).

   * Sur Unix, *note os.device_encoding(): 184e. renvoie ‘'utf-8'’ au
     lieu de l'encodage du périphérique.

Notez que la configuration des flux standards en mode UTF-8 peut être
surchargée par *note PYTHONIOENCODING: ff5. (de la même manière qu'elles
peuvent l'être dans le mode par défaut qui est configuré pour la région
locale).

En raison des changements apportés à ces API de bas-niveau, les API de
haut-niveau ont un comportement par défaut différent :

   * Les arguments en ligne de commande, les variables d'environnement
     et les noms de fichiers sont décodés en texte en utilisant l'UTF-8.

   * *note os.fsdecode(): c44. and *note os.fsencode(): c45. use the
     UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note open(): 508, *note io.open(): 509, and *note codecs.open():
     72c. use the UTF-8 encoding by default.  However, they still use
     the strict error handler by default so that attempting to open a
     binary file in text mode is likely to raise an exception rather
     than producing nonsense data.

The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. is enabled if the LC_CTYPE locale is
‘C’ or ‘POSIX’ at Python startup (see the *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c.
function).

It can be enabled or disabled using the *note -X utf8: 175. command line
option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: ac8. environment variable.

If the *note PYTHONUTF8: ac8. environment variable is not set at all,
then the interpreter defaults to using the current locale settings,
'unless' the current locale is identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale
(as described for *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ac5.), and locale coercion
is either disabled or fails.  In such legacy locales, the interpreter
will default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to
do so.

The Python UTF-8 Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.  Its
value can be read from *note sys.flags.utf8_mode: 679.

See also the *note UTF-8 mode on Windows: 1dde. and the *note filesystem
encoding and error handler: 528.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 686(2)

     *note Le mode UTF-8 de Python: 643. sera par mis par défaut sur
     Python 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres de processus,  Next: Création de fichiers objets,  Prev: Le mode UTF-8 de Python,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.3 Paramètres de processus
................................

Ces fonctions et valeurs fournissent des informations et agissent sur le
processus actuel et sur l'utilisateur.

 -- Fonction: os.ctermid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant de fichier correspondant au terminal
     contrôlant le processus.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.environ

     A *note mapping: 119b. object where keys and values are strings
     that represent the process environment.  For example,
     ‘environ['HOME']’ is the pathname of your home directory (on some
     platforms), and is equivalent to ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     This mapping is captured the first time the *note os: a0. module is
     imported, typically during Python startup as part of processing
     ‘site.py’.  Changes to the environment made after this time are not
     reflected in *note os.environ: 1199, except for changes made by
     modifying *note os.environ: 1199. directly.

     This mapping may be used to modify the environment as well as query
     the environment.  *note putenv(): 90b. will be called automatically
     when the mapping is modified.

     Sur Unix, les clefs et les valeurs utilisent *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. et le gestionnaire d'erreurs
     ‘surrogateescape’.  Utilisez *note environb: 11f6. si vous désirez
     utiliser un encodage différent.

     On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase.  This also applies
     when getting, setting, or deleting an item.  For example,
     ‘environ['monty'] = 'python'’ maps the key ‘'MONTY'’ to the value
     ‘'python'’.

          Note: Calling *note putenv(): 90b. directly does not change
          *note os.environ: 1199, so it's better to modify *note
          os.environ: 1199.

          Note: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment
     variables.  *note unsetenv(): 90a. will be called automatically
     when an item is deleted from *note os.environ: 1199, and when one
     of the ‘pop()’ or ‘clear()’ methods is called.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Mis à jour pour gérer les opérateurs
     'merge' (‘|’) et 'update' (‘|=’) de PEP 584(1).

 -- Données: os.environb

     Bytes version of *note environ: 1199.: a *note mapping: 119b.
     object where both keys and values are *note bytes: 1bd. objects
     representing the process environment.  *note environ: 1199. and
     *note environb: 11f6. are synchronized (modifying *note environb:
     11f6. updates *note environ: 1199, and vice versa).

     *note environb: 11f6. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 11f4. is ‘True’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Mis à jour pour gérer les opérateurs
     'merge' (‘|’) et 'update' (‘|=’) de PEP 584(2).

 -- Fonction: os.chdir (path)

 -- Fonction: os.fchdir (fd)

 -- Fonction: os.getcwd ()

     Ces fonctions sont décrites dans le chapitre *note Fichiers et
     répertoires: 2ac6.

 -- Fonction: os.fsencode (filename)

     Encode *note path-like: 29d. 'filename' to the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 528.; return *note bytes: 1bd.
     unchanged.

     *note fsdecode(): c44. est la fonction inverse.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de la prise en charge des objets
     implémentant l'interface *note os.PathLike: c41.

 -- Fonction: os.fsdecode (filename)

     Decode the *note path-like: 29d. 'filename' from the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.; return *note str: 437.
     unchanged.

     *note fsencode(): c45. est la fonction inverse.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de la prise en charge des objets
     implémentant l'interface *note os.PathLike: c41.

 -- Fonction: os.fspath (path)

     Renvoie une représentation du chemin utilisable par le système de
     fichiers.

     Si un objet *note str: 437. ou *note bytes: 1bd. est passé, il est
     renvoyé inchangé.  Autrement, *note __fspath__(): c42. est appelée
     et sa valeur renvoyée tant qu'elle est un objet *note str: 437. ou
     *note bytes: 1bd.  Dans tous les autres cas, une *note TypeError:
     525. est levée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: os.PathLike

     *note Classe mère abstraite: 1195. pour les objets représentant un
     chemin du système de fichiers, comme *note pathlib.PurePath: 492.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod __fspath__ ()

          Renvoie une représentation de l'objet utilisable par le
          système de fichiers.

          La méthode ne devrait renvoyer que des objets *note str: 437.
          ou *note bytes: 1bd, avec une préférence pour les *note str:
          437.

 -- Fonction: os.getenv (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as a string if
     it exists, or 'default' if it doesn't.  'key' is a string.  Note
     that since *note getenv(): 2ac7. uses *note os.environ: 1199, the
     mapping of *note getenv(): 2ac7. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     Sur Unix, les clefs et les valeurs sont décodées avec *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. et le gestionnaire d'erreurs
     ‘surrogateescape’.  Utilisez *note os.getenvb(): 11f5. si vous
     voulez utiliser un encodage différent.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.getenvb (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as bytes if it
     exists, or 'default' if it doesn't.  'key' must be bytes.  Note
     that since *note getenvb(): 11f5. uses *note os.environb: 11f6, the
     mapping of *note getenvb(): 11f5. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     *note getenvb(): 11f5. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 11f4. is ‘True’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.get_exec_path (env=None)

     Renvoie la liste des dossiers qui seront parcourus pour trouver un
     exécutable, similaire à un shell lorsque il lance un processus.
     'env', quand spécifié, doit être un dictionnaire de variable
     d'environnement afin d'y rechercher le PATH. Par défaut quand 'env'
     est ‘None’, *note environ: 1199. est utilisé.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.getegid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant du groupe effectif du processus actuel.  Ça
     correspond au bit "'set id'" du fichier qui s'exécute dans le
     processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.geteuid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant de l'utilisateur effectif du processus
     actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.getgid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant de groupe réel du processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

 -- Fonction: os.getgrouplist (user, group, /)

     Return list of group ids that 'user' belongs to.  If 'group' is not
     in the list, it is included; typically, 'group' is specified as the
     group ID field from the password record for 'user', because that
     group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.getgroups ()

     Renvoie une liste d'identifiants de groupes additionnels associés
     au processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

          Note: On macOS, *note getgroups(): 2acb. behavior differs
          somewhat from other Unix platforms.  If the Python interpreter
          was built with a deployment target of ‘10.5’ or earlier, *note
          getgroups(): 2acb. returns the list of effective group ids
          associated with the current user process; this list is limited
          to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16, and may
          be modified by calls to *note setgroups(): 2acc. if suitably
          privileged.  If built with a deployment target greater than
          ‘10.5’, *note getgroups(): 2acb. returns the current group
          access list for the user associated with the effective user id
          of the process; the group access list may change over the
          lifetime of the process, it is not affected by calls to *note
          setgroups(): 2acc, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
          deployment target value, ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’, can be
          obtained with *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1016.

 -- Fonction: os.getlogin ()

     Renvoie le nom de l'utilisateur connecté sur le terminal contrôlant
     le processus.  Dans la plupart des cas, il est plus utile
     d'utiliser *note getpass.getuser(): 40e. puisque cette fonction
     consulte les variables d'environnement ‘LOGNAME’ et ‘USERNAME’ pour
     savoir qui est l'utilisateur, et se replie finalement sur
     ‘pwd.getpwduid(os.getuid())[0]’ pour avoir le nom lié à
     l'identifiant de l'utilisateur courant.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.getpgid (pid)

     Renvoie l'identifiant de groupe de processus du processus de PID
     'pid'.  Si 'pid' vaut 0, l'identifiant de groupe de processus du
     processus actuel est renvoyé.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.getpgrp ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant du groupe de processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.getpid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant du processus actuel.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

 -- Fonction: os.getppid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant du processus parent.  Quand le processus
     parent est terminé, sur Unix, l'identifiant renvoyé est 1 pour le
     processus 'init', sur Windows, c'est toujours le même id, qui peut
     déjà avoir été réutilisé par un autre processus.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge sur Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.getpriority (which, who)

     Récupère la priorité d'ordonnancement des programmes.  La valeur
     'which' est une des constantes suivantes : *note PRIO_PROCESS:
     2ad0, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2ad1, ou *note PRIO_USER: 2ad2, et la valeur
     'who' est interprétée par rapport à 'which' (un id de processus
     pour *note PRIO_PROCESS: 2ad0, un id de groupe de processus pour
     *note PRIO_PGRP: 2ad1, et un id d'utilisateur pour *note PRIO_USER:
     2ad2.).  Une valeur nulle pour 'who' dénote (respectivement) le
     processus appelant, le groupe de processus du processus appelant,
     ou l'identifiant d'utilisateur réel du processus appelant.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.PRIO_PROCESS
 -- Données: os.PRIO_PGRP
 -- Données: os.PRIO_USER

     Paramètres pour les fonctions *note getpriority(): 10e1. et *note
     setpriority(): 10e2.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD
 -- Données: os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS
 -- Données: os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG
 -- Données: os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI

     Paramètres pour les fonctions *note getpriority(): 10e1. et *note
     setpriority(): 10e2.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: macOS

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.getresuid ()

     Renvoie un triplet ('ruid', 'euid', 'suid') dénotant les
     identifiants de l'utilisateur réel, effectif et sauvé du processus
     actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.getresgid ()

     Renvoie un triplet ('rgid', 'egid', 'sgid') dénotant les
     identifiants des groupes de processus réel effectif, et sauvé du
     processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.getuid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant réel du processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

 -- Fonction: os.initgroups (username, gid, /)

     Appelle la fonction système 'initgroups' pour initialiser la liste
     des groupes d'accès des groupes dont 'username' est membre, plus le
     groupe spécifié par 'gid'.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.putenv (key, value, /)

     Assigne la chaîne de caractères 'value' à la variable
     d'environnement 'key'.  De tels changements à l'environnement
     affectent les sous-processus lancés par *note os.system(): 1413,
     *note popen(): a77. ou *note fork(): 195. et *note execv(): 2ad7.

     Assignments to items in *note os.environ: 1199. are automatically
     translated into corresponding calls to *note putenv(): 90b.;
     however, calls to *note putenv(): 90b. don't update *note
     os.environ: 1199, so it is actually preferable to assign to items
     of *note os.environ: 1199.  This also applies to *note getenv():
     2ac7. and *note getenvb(): 11f5, which respectively use *note
     os.environ: 1199. and *note os.environb: 11f6. in their
     implementations.

          Note: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.putenv’ avec les
     arguments ‘key’, ‘value’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function is now always available.

 -- Fonction: os.setegid (egid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant du groupe de processus effectif du processus
     actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Fonction: os.seteuid (euid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant de l'utilisateur effectif du processus
     actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Fonction: os.setgid (gid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant du groupe de processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Fonction: os.setgroups (groups, /)

     Place 'groups' dans la liste d'identifiants de groupes additionnels
     associée.  'groups' doit être une séquence, et chaque élément doit
     être un nombre entier identifiant un groupe.  Cette opération est
     typiquement disponible uniquement pour le super utilisateur.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

          Note: On macOS, the length of 'groups' may not exceed the
          system-defined maximum number of effective group ids,
          typically 16.  See the documentation for *note getgroups():
          2acb. for cases where it may not return the same group list
          set by calling setgroups().

 -- Fonction: os.setns (fd, nstype=0)

     Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace.  See the
     ‘setns(2)(3)’ and ‘namespaces(7)(4)’ man pages for more details.

     If 'fd' refers to a ‘/proc/`pid'/ns/’ link, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread with the namespace associated with that link,
     and 'nstype' may be set to one of the *note CLONE_NEW* constants:
     2adb. to impose constraints on the operation (‘0’ means no
     constraints).

     Since Linux 5.8, 'fd' may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained
     from *note pidfd_open(): 466.  In this case, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread into one or more of the same namespaces as the
     thread referred to by 'fd'.  This is subject to any constraints
     imposed by 'nstype', which is a bit mask combining one or more of
     the *note CLONE_NEW* constants: 2adb, e.g.  ‘setns(fd,
     os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID)’.  The caller's memberships in
     unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.

     'fd' can be any object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method, or a
     raw file descriptor.

     This example reassociates the thread with the ‘init’ process's
     network namespace:

          fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
          os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
          os.close(fd)

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note unshare(): 177d. function.

 -- Fonction: os.setpgrp ()

     Call the system call ‘setpgrp()’ or ‘setpgrp(0, 0)’ depending on
     which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.setpgid (pid, pgrp, /)

     Call the system call ‘setpgid()’ to set the process group id of the
     process with id 'pid' to the process group with id 'pgrp'.  See the
     Unix manual for the semantics.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.setpriority (which, who, priority)

     Définit la priorité d'ordonnancement des programmes.  La valeur
     'which' est une des constantes suivantes : *note PRIO_PROCESS:
     2ad0, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2ad1, ou *note PRIO_USER: 2ad2, et 'who' est
     interprété en fonction de 'which' (un PID pour *note PRIO_PROCESS:
     2ad0, un identifiant de groupe de processus pour *note PRIO_PGRP:
     2ad1, et un identifiant d'utilisateur pour *note PRIO_USER: 2ad2.).
     Une valeur nulle pour 'who' dénote (respectivement) le processus
     appelant, le groupe de processus du processus appelant, ou
     l'identifiant de l'utilisateur réel du processus appelant.
     'priority' est une valeur comprise entre ‘-20’ et ‘19’.  La
     priorité par défaut est 0 ; les priorités plus faibles amènent à un
     ordonnancement plus favorable.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.setregid (rgid, egid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant des groupes réel et effectif du processus
     actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Fonction: os.setresgid (rgid, egid, sgid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant des groupes réel, effectif et sauvé du
     processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.setresuid (ruid, euid, suid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant des utilisateurs réel, effectif et sauvé du
     processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.setreuid (ruid, euid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant des utilisateurs réel et effectif du
     processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Fonction: os.getsid (pid, /)

     Call the system call ‘getsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.setsid ()

     Call the system call ‘setsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.setuid (uid, /)

     Définit l'identifiant de l'utilisateur du processus actuel.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Fonction: os.strerror (code, /)

     Return the error message corresponding to the error code in 'code'.
     On platforms where ‘strerror()’ returns ‘NULL’ when given an
     unknown error number, *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

 -- Données: os.supports_bytes_environ

     ‘True’ si le type natif de l'environnement du système
     d'exploitation est 'bytes' (par exemple : ‘False’ sur Windows).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: os.umask (mask, /)

     Définit le 'umask' actuel et renvoie la valeur précédente.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

 -- Fonction: os.uname ()

     Renvoie des informations identifiant le système d'exploitation
     actuel.  La valeur de retour est un objet à cinq attributs :

        * ‘sysname’ — nom du système d'exploitation

        * ‘nodename’ — nom de la machine sur le réseau (dépendant de
          l'implémentation)

        * ‘release’ — 'release' du système d'exploitation

        * ‘version’ — version du système d'exploitation

        * ‘machine’ — identifiant du matériel

     Pour la rétrocompatibilité, cet objet est également itérable, se
     comportant comme un quintuplet contenant ‘sysname’, ‘nodename’,
     ‘release’, ‘version’, et ‘machine’ dans cet ordre.

     Certains systèmes tronquent ‘nodename’ à 8 caractères ou à la
     composante dominante.  Un meilleur moyen de récupérer le nom de
     l'hôte est *note socket.gethostname(): 2ae4. ou encore
     ‘socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())’.

     On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the 'kernel' name and
     version (i.e., ‘'Darwin'’ on macOS and iOS; ‘'Linux'’ on Android).
     *note platform.uname(): 19f0. can be used to get the user-facing
     operating system name and version on iOS and Android.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Type de retour changé d'un quintuplet
     en un objet compatible avec le type 'n'-uplet, avec des attributs
     nommés.

 -- Fonction: os.unsetenv (key, /)

     Supprime la variable d'environnement appelée 'key'.  De tels
     changements à l'environnement affectent les sous-processus lancés
     avec *note os.system(): 1413, *note popen(): a77. ou *note fork():
     195. et *note execv(): 2ad7.

     Deletion of items in *note os.environ: 1199. is automatically
     translated into a corresponding call to *note unsetenv(): 90a.;
     however, calls to *note unsetenv(): 90a. don't update *note
     os.environ: 1199, so it is actually preferable to delete items of
     *note os.environ: 1199.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.unsetenv’ avec
     l’argument ‘key’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function is now always available
     and is also available on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.unshare (flags)

     Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them
     into a newly created namespace.  See the ‘unshare(2)(5)’ man page
     for more details.  The 'flags' argument is a bit mask, combining
     zero or more of the *note CLONE_* constants: 2adb, that specifies
     which parts of the execution context should be unshared from their
     existing associations and moved to a new namespace.  If the 'flags'
     argument is ‘0’, no changes are made to the calling process's
     execution context.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.16.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note setns(): 177c. function.

Flags to the *note unshare(): 177d. function, if the implementation
supports them.  See ‘unshare(2)(6)’ in the Linux manual for their exact
effect and availability.

 -- Données: os.CLONE_FILES
 -- Données: os.CLONE_FS
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWCGROUP
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWIPC
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWNET
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWNS
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWPID
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWTIME
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWUSER
 -- Données: os.CLONE_NEWUTS
 -- Données: os.CLONE_SIGHAND
 -- Données: os.CLONE_SYSVSEM
 -- Données: os.CLONE_THREAD
 -- Données: os.CLONE_VM

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/setns(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/namespaces(7)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Création de fichiers objets,  Next: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers,  Prev: Paramètres de processus,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.4 Création de fichiers objets
....................................

These functions create new *note file objects: 11a2.  (See also *note
open(): d81. for opening file descriptors.)

 -- Fonction: os.fdopen (fd, *args, **kwargs)

     Renvoie un fichier objet ouvert connecté au descripteur de fichier
     'fd'.  C'est un alias de la primitive *note open(): 508. et accepte
     les mêmes arguments.  La seule différence est que le premier
     argument de *note fdopen(): 1eee. doit toujours être un entier.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers,  Next: Fichiers et répertoires,  Prev: Création de fichiers objets,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.5 Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers
....................................................

Ces fonctions opèrent sur des flux d'entrées/sorties référencés par des
descripteurs de fichiers.

Les descripteurs de fichiers sont de petits entiers correspondant à un
fichier qui a été ouvert par le processus courant.  Par exemple,
l'entrée standard est habituellement le descripteur de fichier 0, la
sortie standard est 1, et le flux standard d'erreur est 2.  Les autres
fichiers ouverts par un processus vont se voir assigner 3, 4, 5, etc.
Le nom « descripteur de fichier » est légèrement trompeur : sur les
plate-formes Unix, les connecteurs ('socket' en anglais) et les tubes
('pipe' en anglais) sont également référencés par des descripteurs.

La méthode *note fileno(): 2806. peut être utilisée pour obtenir le
descripteur de fichier associé à un *note file object: 11a2. quand
nécessaire.  Notez qu'utiliser le descripteur directement outrepasse les
méthodes du fichier objet, ignorant donc des aspects tels que la mise en
tampon interne des données.

 -- Fonction: os.close (fd)

     Ferme le descripteur de fichier 'fd'.

          Note: Cette fonction est destinée aux opérations
          d'entrées/sorties de bas niveau et doit être appliquée à un
          descripteur de fichier comme ceux donnés par *note os.open():
          d81. ou *note pipe(): 1796.  Pour fermer un « fichier objet »
          renvoyé par la primitive *note open(): 508, *note popen():
          a77. ou *note fdopen(): 1eee, il faut utiliser sa méthode
          *note close(): 1f3.

 -- Fonction: os.closerange (fd_low, fd_high, /)

     Ferme tous les descripteurs de fichiers entre 'fd_low' (inclus)
     jusque 'fd_high' (exclus), en ignorant les erreurs.  Équivalent
     (mais beaucoup plus rapide) à :

          for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
              try:
                  os.close(fd)
              except OSError:
                  pass

 -- Fonction: os.copy_file_range (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from offset
     'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from
     the current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.

     In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by 'src' and
     'dst' must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an *note
     OSError: 40d. is raised with *note errno: 2249. set to *note
     errno.EXDEV: 2af9.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations,
     such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share
     pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file
     systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of
     NFS).

     The function copies bytes between two file descriptors.  Text
     options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.

     La valeur de retour est le nombre d'octets copiés.  Cela peut être
     moins que le nombre demandé.

          Note: On Linux, *note os.copy_file_range(): 2af8. should not
          be used for copying a range of a pseudo file from a special
          filesystem like procfs and sysfs.  It will always copy no
          bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty because of a known
          Linux kernel issue.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: os.device_encoding (fd)

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères décrivant l'encodage du
     périphérique associé à 'fd' s'il est connecté à un terminal, sinon
     renvoie *note None: 662.

     On Unix, if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. is enabled, return
     ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: On Unix, the function now implements
     the Python UTF-8 Mode.

 -- Fonction: os.dup (fd, /)

     Renvoie une copie du descripteur de fichier 'fd'.  Le nouveau
     descripteur de fichier est *note non-héritable: ee6.

     Sur Windows, quand un flux standard est dupliqué (0 : 'stdin', 1 :
     'stdout', 2 : 'stderr'), le nouveau descripteur de fichier est
     *note héritable: ee6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est
     maintenant non-héritable.

 -- Fonction: os.dup2 (fd, fd2, inheritable=True)

     Copie le descripteur de fichier 'fd' dans 'fd2', en fermant le
     second d'abord si nécessaire.  Renvoie 'fd2'.  Le nouveau
     descripteur de fichier est *note héritable: ee6. par défaut, ou
     non-héritable si 'inheritable' vaut ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre optionnel
     'inheritable'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Renvoie 'fd2' en cas de succès.
     Auparavant, ‘None’ était toujours renvoyé.

 -- Fonction: os.fchmod (fd, mode)

     Change le mode du fichier donné par 'fd' en la valeur numérique
     'mode'.  Voir la documentation de *note chmod(): 218. pour les
     valeurs possibles de 'mode'.  Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à
     ‘os.chmod(fd, mode)’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chmod’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.fchown (fd, uid, gid)

     Change le propriétaire et l'identifiant de groupe du fichier donné
     par 'fd' en les valeurs numériques 'uid' et 'gid'.  Pour laisser
     l'un des identifiants inchangés, mettez-le à ‘-1’.  Voir *note
     chown(): 10d1.  Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à ‘os.chown(fd,
     uid, gid)’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chown’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

 -- Fonction: os.fdatasync (fd)

     Force l'écriture du fichier ayant le descripteur 'fd' sur le
     disque.  Ne force pas la mise à jour des méta-données.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

          Note: Cette fonction n'est pas disponible sur MacOS.

 -- Fonction: os.fpathconf (fd, name, /)

     Renvoie les informations de la configuration du système pour un
     fichier ouvert.  'name' spécifie la valeur de la configuration à
     récupérer, ça peut être une chaîne de caractères avec le nom d'une
     valeur système définie ; ces valeurs sont spécifiées dans certains
     standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, et d'autres).  Certaines
     plate-formes définissent des noms additionnels également.  Les noms
     connus par le système d'exploitation sont donnés dans le
     dictionnaire ‘pathconf_names’.  Pour les variables de configuration
     qui ne sont pas inclues dans ce 'mapping', passer un entier pour
     'name' est également accepté.

     Si 'name' est une chaîne de caractères et n'est pas connu, une
     *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Si une valeur spécifique de
     'name' n'est pas gérée par le système hôte, même si elle est
     incluse dans ‘pathconf_names’, une *note OSError: 40d. est levée
     avec *note errno.EINVAL: 19ad. pour code d'erreur.

     Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à ‘os.pathconf(fd, name)’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.fstat (fd)

     Récupère le statut du descripteur de fichier 'fd'.  Renvoie un
     objet *note stat_result: 1477.

     Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à ‘os.stat(fd)’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     La fonction *note stat(): 48c.

 -- Fonction: os.fstatvfs (fd, /)

     Renvoie des informations sur le système de fichier contenant le
     fichier associé au descripteur 'fd', comme *note statvfs(): 10de.
     Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à ‘os.statvfs(fd)’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.fsync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  On Unix,
     this calls the native ‘fsync()’ function; on Windows, the MS
     ‘_commit()’ function.

     Si vous débutez avec un *note file object: 11a2. Python mis en
     tampon 'f', commencez par faire ‘f.flush()’ et seulement ensuite
     ‘os.fsync(f.fileno())’ pour être sûr que tous les tampons internes
     associés à 'f' soient écrits sur le disque.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.ftruncate (fd, length, /)

     Tronque le fichier correspondant au descripteur 'fd' pour qu'il
     soit maximum long de 'length' 'bytes'.  Depuis Python 3.3, c'est
     équivalent à ‘os.truncate(fd, length)’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.truncate’ avec les
     arguments ‘fd’, ‘length’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge de Windows

 -- Fonction: os.get_blocking (fd, /)

     Récupère le mode bloquant du descripteur de fichier : ‘False’ si
     l'indicateur *note O_NONBLOCK: e2a. est mis, et ‘True’ si
     l'indicateur est effacé.

     Voir également *note set_blocking(): e29. et *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 2afb.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.grantpt (fd, /)

     Grant access to the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with
     the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd'
     refers.  The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘grantpt()’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.isatty (fd, /)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le descripteur de fichier 'fd' est ouvert et
     connecté à un périphérique TTY (ou compatible), sinon ‘False’.

 -- Fonction: os.lockf (fd, cmd, len, /)

     Applique, teste, ou retire un verrou POSIX sur un descripteur de
     fichier ouvert.  'fd' est un descripteur de fichier ouvert.  'cmd'
     spécifie la commande à utiliser (une des valeurs suivantes : *note
     F_LOCK: 2afc, *note F_TLOCK: 2afd, *note F_ULOCK: 2afe, ou *note
     F_TEST: 2aff.).  'len' spécifie la section du fichier à
     verrouiller.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.lockf’ avec les
     arguments ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.F_LOCK
 -- Données: os.F_TLOCK
 -- Données: os.F_ULOCK
 -- Données: os.F_TEST

     Indicateurs spécifiant quelle action *note lockf(): 10f5. va
     prendre.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.login_tty (fd, /)

     Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login
     session.  Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty
     the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the
     calling process; close fd.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: os.lseek (fd, pos, whence, /)

     Set the current position of file descriptor 'fd' to position 'pos',
     modified by 'whence', and return the new position in bytes relative
     to the start of the file.  Valid values for 'whence' are:

        * *note SEEK_SET: 126d. or ‘0’ - set 'pos' relative to the
          beginning of the file

        * *note SEEK_CUR: 126e. or ‘1’ - set 'pos' relative to the
          current file position

        * *note SEEK_END: 126f. or ‘2’ - set 'pos' relative to the end
          of the file

        * *note SEEK_HOLE: 2b00. - set 'pos' to the next data location,
          relative to 'pos'

        * *note SEEK_DATA: 2b01. - set 'pos' to the next data hole,
          relative to 'pos'

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Add support for ‘SEEK_HOLE’ and
     ‘SEEK_DATA’.

 -- Données: os.SEEK_SET
 -- Données: os.SEEK_CUR
 -- Données: os.SEEK_END

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): 10f9. function and the *note
     seek(): 126c. method on *note file-like objects: 11a2, for whence
     to adjust the file position indicator.

     *note SEEK_SET: 126d.

          Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the
          file.

     *note SEEK_CUR: 126e.

          Adjust the file position relative to the current file
          position.

     *note SEEK_END: 126f.

          Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.

     Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.

 -- Données: os.SEEK_HOLE
 -- Données: os.SEEK_DATA

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): 10f9. function and the *note
     seek(): 126c. method on *note file-like objects: 11a2, for seeking
     file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.

     ‘SEEK_DATA’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data,
          relative to the seek position.

     ‘SEEK_HOLE’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole,
          relative to the seek position.  A hole is defined as a
          sequence of zeros.

          Note: These operations only make sense for filesystems that
          support them.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.open (path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Ouvre le fichier 'path' et met certains indicateurs selon 'flags'
     et éventuellement son mode selon 'mode'.  Lors de l'évaluation de
     'code', ce 'umask' actuel est d'abord masquée.  Renvoie le
     descripteur de fichier du fichier nouvellement ouvert.  Le nouveau
     descripteur de fichier est *note non-héritable: ee6.

     Pour une description des indicateurs et des valeurs des modes, voir
     la documentation de la bibliothèque standard du C. Les constantes
     d'indicateurs (telles que *note O_RDONLY: 2b02. et *note O_WRONLY:
     2b03.) sont définies dans le module *note os: a0.  En particulier,
     sur Windows, ajouter *note O_BINARY: 2b04. est nécessaire pour
     ouvrir des fichiers en binaire.

     Cette fonction prend en charge des *note chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd. avec le paramètre 'dir_fd'.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘open’ avec les arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est
     maintenant non-héritable.

          Note: Cette fonction est destinée aux E/S de bas-niveau.  Pour
          un usage normal, utilisez la primitive *note open(): 508. qui
          renvoie un *note file object: 11a2. avec les méthodes ‘read()’
          et ‘write()’ (et plein d'autres).  Pour envelopper un
          descripteur de fichier dans un fichier objet, utilisez *note
          fdopen(): 1eee.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(1) à propos du
     raisonnement).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

Les constantes suivantes sont optionnelles pour le paramètre 'flag' à la
fonction *note open(): d81.  Elles peuvent être combinées en utilisant
l'opérateur bit-à-bit OR ‘|’.  certains ne sont pas disponibles sur
toutes les plate-formes.  Pour une description sur leur disponibilité et
leur usage, consultez la page de manuel Unix ‘open(2)(2)’ ou la MSDN(3)
sur Windows.

 -- Données: os.O_RDONLY
 -- Données: os.O_WRONLY
 -- Données: os.O_RDWR
 -- Données: os.O_APPEND
 -- Données: os.O_CREAT
 -- Données: os.O_EXCL
 -- Données: os.O_TRUNC

     Les constantes ci-dessus sont disponibles sur Unix et Windows.

 -- Données: os.O_DSYNC
 -- Données: os.O_RSYNC
 -- Données: os.O_SYNC
 -- Données: os.O_NDELAY
 -- Données: os.O_NONBLOCK
 -- Données: os.O_NOCTTY
 -- Données: os.O_CLOEXEC

     Les constantes ci-dessus sont uniquement disponibles sur Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la constante ‘O_CLOCEXEC’.

 -- Données: os.O_BINARY
 -- Données: os.O_NOINHERIT
 -- Données: os.O_SHORT_LIVED
 -- Données: os.O_TEMPORARY
 -- Données: os.O_RANDOM
 -- Données: os.O_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Données: os.O_TEXT

     Les constantes ci-dessus sont uniquement disponibles sur Windows.

 -- Données: os.O_EVTONLY
 -- Données: os.O_FSYNC
 -- Données: os.O_SYMLINK
 -- Données: os.O_NOFOLLOW_ANY

     The above constants are only available on macOS.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Add *note O_EVTONLY: 806, *note
     O_FSYNC: 807, *note O_SYMLINK: 808. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 809.
     constants.

 -- Données: os.O_ASYNC
 -- Données: os.O_DIRECT
 -- Données: os.O_DIRECTORY
 -- Données: os.O_NOFOLLOW
 -- Données: os.O_NOATIME
 -- Données: os.O_PATH
 -- Données: os.O_TMPFILE
 -- Données: os.O_SHLOCK
 -- Données: os.O_EXLOCK

     Les constantes ci-dessus sont des extensions et ne sont pas
     présentes si elles ne sont pas définies par la bibliothèque C.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de *note O_PATH: f5f. sur les
     systèmes qui le gèrent.  Ajout de *note O_TMPFILE: f60, uniquement
     disponible sur Linux Kernel 3.11 ou plus récent.

 -- Fonction: os.openpty ()

     Ouvre une nouvelle paire pseudo-terminal.  Renvoie une paire de
     descripteurs de fichiers ‘(master, slave)’ pour le PTY et le TTY
     respectivement.  Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers sont *note
     non-héritables: ee6.  Pour une approche (légèrement) plus portable,
     utilisez le module *note pty: b0.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers
     sont maintenant non-héritables.

 -- Fonction: os.pipe ()

     Crée un 'pipe' (un tube).  Renvoie une paire de descripteurs de
     fichiers ‘(r, w)’ utilisables respectivement pour lire et pour
     écrire.  Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers sont *note
     non-héritables: ee6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers
     sont maintenant non-héritables.

 -- Fonction: os.pipe2 (flags, /)

     Crée un 'pipe' avec 'flags' mis atomiquement.  'flags' peut être
     construit en appliquant l'opérateur ‘|’ (OU) sur une ou plus de ces
     valeurs : *note O_NONBLOCK: e2a, *note O_CLOEXEC: 1067.  Renvoie
     une paire de descripteurs de fichiers ‘(r, w)’ utilisables
     respectivement pour lire et pour écrire.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.posix_fallocate (fd, offset, len, /)

     Assure que suffisamment d'espace sur le disque est alloué pour le
     fichier spécifié par 'fd' partant de 'offset' et continuant sur
     'len' bytes.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.posix_fadvise (fd, offset, len, advice, /)

     Annonce une intention d'accéder à des données selon un motif
     spécifique, et donc permettant au noyau de faire des optimisations.
     Le conseil 'advice' s'applique à la région spécifiée par 'fd',
     démarrant à 'offset' et continuant sur 'len' bytes.  'advice' est
     une des valeurs suivantes : *note POSIX_FADV_NORMAL: 2b1a, *note
     POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL: 2b1b, *note POSIX_FADV_RANDOM: 2b1c, *note
     POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE: 2b1d, *note POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED: 2b1e, ou *note
     POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED: 2b1f.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL
 -- Données: os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Données: os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM
 -- Données: os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE
 -- Données: os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED
 -- Données: os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED

     Indicateurs qui peuvent être utilisés dans 'advice' dans la
     fonction *note posix_fadvise(): d82. et qui spécifient le motif
     d'accès qui est censé être utilisé.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.pread (fd, n, offset, /)

     Lit au maximum 'n' octets depuis le descripteur de fichier 'fd' à
     la position 'offset' sans modifier cette position.

     Renvoie une chaîne d'octets contenant les octets lus, ou une chaîne
     d'octets vide si la fin du fichier pointé par 'fd' est atteinte.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.posix_openpt (oflag, /)

     Open and return a file descriptor for a master pseudo-terminal
     device.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘posix_openpt()’.  The
     'oflag' argument is used to set file status flags and file access
     modes as specified in the manual page of ‘posix_openpt()’ of your
     system.

     The returned file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ee6.  If the
     value *note O_CLOEXEC: 1067. is available on the system, it is
     added to 'oflag'.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.preadv (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Lit depuis un descripteur de fichier 'fd', à la position 'offset'
     dans des *note objets bytes-compatibles: d1d. mutables 'buffers',
     sans modifier la position dans le fichier.  Les données sont
     transférées dans chaque tampon, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit plein, tour à
     tour.

     L'argument 'flags' contient un OU logique bit-à-bit de zéro ou
     plusieurs des indicateurs suivants :

        - *note RWF_HIPRI: 2b20.

        - *note RWF_NOWAIT: 2b21.

     Renvoie le nombre total d'octets réellement lus, qui peut être
     inférieur à la capacité totale de tous les objets.

     Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur *note
     sysconf(): 1525. ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) sur le nombre de mémoires tampons
     pouvant être utilisées.

     Combine les fonctionnalités de *note os.readv(): b4e. et *note
     os.pread(): b4f.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD
     >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: os.RWF_NOWAIT

     Ne pas attendre pour des données qui ne sont pas immédiatement
     disponibles.  Si cette option est spécifiée, l'appel système
     retourne instantanément s'il doit lire les données du stockage
     sous-jacent ou attendre un verrou.

     If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of
     bytes read.  If no bytes were read, it will return ‘-1’ and set
     errno to *note errno.EAGAIN: 225a.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.14.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: os.RWF_HIPRI

     Lecture/écriture haute priorité.  Permet aux systèmes de fichiers
     de type bloc d'utiliser le 'polling' du périphérique, qui fournit
     une latence inférieure, mais peut utiliser des ressources
     supplémentaires.

     Actuellement, sous Linux, cette fonctionnalité est utilisable
     uniquement sur un descripteur de fichier ouvert à l'aide de
     l'option *note O_DIRECT: 2b15.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: os.ptsname (fd, /)

     Return the name of the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with
     the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd'
     refers.  The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the reentrant C standard library function ‘ptsname_r()’ if it
     is available; otherwise, the C standard library function
     ‘ptsname()’, which is not guaranteed to be thread-safe, is called.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.pwrite (fd, str, offset, /)

     Écrit la chaîne d'octets de 'str' dans le descripteur de fichier
     'fd' à la position 'offset' en laissant la position dans le fichier
     inchangée.

     Renvoie le nombre d'octets effectivement écrits.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.pwritev (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Write the 'buffers' contents to file descriptor 'fd' at an offset
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.  'buffers' must be a
     sequence of *note bytes-like objects: d1d.  Buffers are processed
     in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is written
     before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     L'argument 'flags' contient un OU logique bit-à-bit de zéro ou
     plusieurs des indicateurs suivants :

        - *note RWF_DSYNC: 2b22.

        - *note RWF_SYNC: 2b23.

        - *note RWF_APPEND: 1903.

     Renvoie le nombre total d'octets effectivement écrits.

     Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur *note
     sysconf(): 1525. ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) sur le nombre de mémoires tampons
     pouvant être utilisées.

     Combine les fonctionnalités de ‘os. writev()’ et ‘os. pwrite()’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD
     >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: os.RWF_DSYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_DSYNC: 2b09. *note
     os.open(): d81. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: os.RWF_SYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_SYNC: 2b0b. *note
     os.open(): d81. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: os.RWF_APPEND

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_APPEND: 2b06. *note
     os.open(): d81. flag.  This flag is meaningful only for *note
     os.pwritev(): b50, and its effect applies only to the data range
     written by the system call.  The 'offset' argument does not affect
     the write operation; the data is always appended to the end of the
     file.  However, if the 'offset' argument is ‘-1’, the current file
     'offset' is updated.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.16.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: os.read (fd, n, /)

     Lit au maximum 'n' octets du descripteur de fichier 'fd'.

     Renvoie une chaîne d'octets contenant les octets lus, ou une chaîne
     d'octets vide si la fin du fichier pointé par 'fd' est atteinte.

          Note: Cette fonction est destinée aux E/S bas niveau et doit
          être appliquée à un descripteur de fichier comme renvoyé par
          *note os.open(): d81. ou *note pipe(): 1796.  Pour lire dans
          un « fichier objet » renvoyé par la primitive *note open():
          508, *note popen(): a77. ou *note fdopen(): 1eee, ou par
          ‘stdin’, utilisez sa méthode ‘read()’ ou ‘readline()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(4) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Fonction: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count)

 -- Fonction: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(),
          trailers=(), flags=0)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'in_fd' to file descriptor
     'out_fd' starting at 'offset'.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     When EOF is reached return ‘0’.

     La première notation de fonction est prise en charge par toutes les
     plate-formes qui définissent *note sendfile(): aff.

     On Linux, if 'offset' is given as ‘None’, the bytes are read from
     the current position of 'in_fd' and the position of 'in_fd' is
     updated.

     The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where 'headers'
     and 'trailers' are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written
     before and after the data from 'in_fd' is written.  It returns the
     same as the first case.

     On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of ‘0’ for 'count' specifies to send
     until the end of 'in_fd' is reached.

     All platforms support sockets as 'out_fd' file descriptor, and some
     platforms allow other types (e.g.  regular file, pipe) as well.

     Les applications multiplateformes ne devraient pas utiliser les
     arguments 'headers', 'trailers', et 'flags'.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

          Note: Pour une interface de plus haut niveau de *note
          sendfile(): aff, voir ‘socket.socket.setfile()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Les paramètres 'out' et 'in' ont été
     renommés 'out_fd' et 'in_fd'.

 -- Données: os.SF_NODISKIO
 -- Données: os.SF_MNOWAIT
 -- Données: os.SF_SYNC

     Paramètres de la fonction *note sendfile(): aff, si
     l'implémentation les gère.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.SF_NOCACHE

     Parameter to the *note sendfile(): aff. function, if the
     implementation supports it.  The data won't be cached in the
     virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: os.set_blocking (fd, blocking, /)

     Définit le mode bloquant d'un descripteur de fichier spécifié.
     Assigne l'indicateur *note O_NONBLOCK: e2a. si 'blocking' vaut
     ‘False’, efface l'indicateur sinon.

     Voir aussi *note get_blocking(): e28. et
     ‘socket;socket.setblocking()’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.splice (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Transfer 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from
     offset 'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a
     pipe.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from the
     current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.  The offset
     associated to the file descriptor that refers to a pipe must be
     ‘None’.  The files pointed to by 'src' and 'dst' must reside in the
     same filesystem, otherwise an *note OSError: 40d. is raised with
     *note errno: 2249. set to *note errno.EXDEV: 2af9.

     Cette copie est faite sans le coût additionnel de transférer les
     données depuis le noyau vers l'espace utilisateur puis dans le sens
     inverse vers le noyau.  En outre, certains systèmes de fichiers
     peuvent implémenter des optimisations supplémentaires.  Cette copie
     est faite comme si les deux fichiers étaient ouverts en mode
     binaire.

     Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to
     or from the pipe.  A return value of 0 means end of input.  If
     'src' refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to
     transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no
     writers connected to the write end of the pipe.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: os.SPLICE_F_MOVE
 -- Données: os.SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK
 -- Données: os.SPLICE_F_MORE

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: os.readv (fd, buffers, /)

     Lit depuis un descripteur de fichier 'fd' dans une séquence d'*note
     objets bytes-compatibles: d1d. mutables : 'buffers'.  Les données
     sont transférées dans chaque tampon, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit plein,
     tour à tour.

     Renvoie le nombre total d'octets réellement lus, qui peut être
     inférieur à la capacité totale de tous les objets.

     Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur *note
     sysconf(): 1525. ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) sur le nombre de mémoires tampons
     pouvant être utilisées.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.tcgetpgrp (fd, /)

     Renvoie le groupe de processus associé au terminal donné par 'fd'
     (un descripteur de fichier ouvert comme renvoyé par *note
     os.open(): d81.).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.tcsetpgrp (fd, pg, /)

     Place 'pg' dans le groupe de processus associé au terminal donné
     par 'fd' (un descripteur de fichier ouvert comme renvoyé par *note
     os.open(): d81.).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.ttyname (fd, /)

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères spécifiant le périphérique
     terminal associé au descripteur de fichier 'fd'.  Si 'fd' n'est pas
     associé à un périphérique terminal, une exception est levée.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.unlockpt (fd, /)

     Unlock the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master
     pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd' refers.
     The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘unlockpt()’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.write (fd, str, /)

     Écrit la chaîne d'octets de 'str' vers le descripteur de fichier
     'fd'.

     Renvoie le nombre d'octets effectivement écrits.

          Note: Cette fonction est destinée aux entrées-sorties bas
          niveau et doit être appliquée à un descripteur de fichier
          comme renvoyé par *note os.open(): d81. ou *note pipe(): 1796.
          Pour écrire dans un « fichier objet » renvoyé par la primitive
          *note open(): 508, *note popen(): a77, ou par *note fdopen():
          1eee, ou par *note sys.stdout: ac6. ou *note sys.stderr: 928,
          utilisez sa méthode ‘write()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(5) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Fonction: os.writev (fd, buffers, /)

     Écrit le contenu de 'buffers' vers le descripteur de fichier 'fd'.
     'buffers' doit être une séquence d'*note objets bytes-compatibles:
     d1d.  Les tampons sont traités dans l'ordre du tableau.  Le contenu
     entier du premier tampon est écrit avant le traitement du second,
     etc.

     Renvoie le nombre total d'octets effectivement écrits.

     Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur *note
     sysconf(): 1525. ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) sur le nombre de mémoires tampons
     pouvant être utilisées.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Demander la taille d'un terminal::
* Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/open(2)

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Demander la taille d'un terminal,  Next: Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers,  Up: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers

5.16.1.6 Demander la taille d'un terminal
.........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.get_terminal_size (fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)

     Renvoie la taille du terminal comme un couple ‘(columns, lines)’ de
     type *note terminal_size: 2833.

     L'argument optionnel ‘fd’ (par défaut : ‘STDOUT_FILENO’, ou la
     sortie standard) spécifie le descripteur de fichier auquel la
     requête doit être envoyée.

     Si le descripteur de fichier n'est pas connecté à un terminal, une
     *note OSError: 40d. est levée.

     *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10e5. est la fonction haut-niveau
     qui devrait normalement être utilisée, ‘os.get_terminal_size’ en
     est l'implémentation bas-niveau.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Classe: os.terminal_size

     Une sous-classe de 'tuple', contenant ‘(columns, lines)’, la taille
     du terminal.

      -- Attribut: columns

          Longueur du terminal en caractères.

      -- Attribut: lines

          Hauteur du terminal en caractères.


File: python.info,  Node: Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers,  Prev: Demander la taille d'un terminal,  Up: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers

5.16.1.7 Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers
.............................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Un descripteur de fichier a un indicateur indiquant s'il peut être
hérité par les processus-fils.  Depuis Python 3.4, les descripteurs de
fichiers créés par Python ne sont pas héritable par défaut.

Sur UNIX, les descripteurs de fichiers non-héritables sont fermés dans
les processus-fils à l'exécution, les autres descripteurs sont hérités.

Sur Windows, les fichiers et identificateurs non-héritables sont fermés
dans les processus-fils, à part les flux standards (descripteurs 0, 1,
et 2 : 'stdin', 'stdout' et 'stderr') qui sont toujours hérités.  En
utilisant les fonctions *note spawn*: 16ed, tous les identificateurs
héritables et les descripteurs de fichiers héritables sont hérités.  En
utilisant le module *note subprocess: d5, tous les descripteurs de
fichiers (à part les flux standards) sont fermés, et les identificateurs
héritables sont hérités seulement si le paramètre 'close_fds' vaut
‘False’.

On WebAssembly platforms, the file descriptor cannot be modified.

 -- Fonction: os.get_inheritable (fd, /)

     Récupère le marqueur « héritable » (booléen) du descripteur de
     fichier spécifié.

 -- Fonction: os.set_inheritable (fd, inheritable, /)

     Définit le marqueur « héritable » du descripteur de fichier
     spécifié.

 -- Fonction: os.get_handle_inheritable (handle, /)

     Récupère le marqueur « héritable » (booléen) de l'identificateur
     spécifié.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.set_handle_inheritable (handle, inheritable, /)

     Définit le marqueur « héritable » de l'identificateur spécifié.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Fichiers et répertoires,  Next: Gestion des processus,  Prev: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.8 Fichiers et répertoires
................................

Sur certaines plate-formes Unix, beaucoup de ces fonctions gèrent une ou
plusieurs des fonctionnalités suivantes :

   * 'specifying a file descriptor:' Normally the 'path' argument
     provided to functions in the *note os: a0. module must be a string
     specifying a file path.  However, some functions now alternatively
     accept an open file descriptor for their 'path' argument.  The
     function will then operate on the file referred to by the
     descriptor.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of
     the function prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.  call ‘fchdir’ instead of
     ‘chdir’).)

     You can check whether or not 'path' can be specified as a file
     descriptor for a particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_fd: 10df.  If this functionality is unavailable, using
     it will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 225.

     If the function also supports 'dir_fd' or 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments, it's an error to specify one of those when supplying
     'path' as a file descriptor.

   * 'paths relative to directory descriptors:' If 'dir_fd' is not
     ‘None’, it should be a file descriptor referring to a directory,
     and the path to operate on should be relative; path will then be
     relative to that directory.  If the path is absolute, 'dir_fd' is
     ignored.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the
     function with an ‘at’ suffix and possibly prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.
     call ‘faccessat’ instead of ‘access’).

     You can check whether or not 'dir_fd' is supported for a particular
     function on your platform using *note os.supports_dir_fd: 10da.  If
     it's unavailable, using it will raise a *note NotImplementedError:
     225.

   * 'not following symlinks:' If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, and the
     last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link, the
     function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the
     file pointed to by the link.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call
     the ‘l...’ variant of the function.)

     You can check whether or not 'follow_symlinks' is supported for a
     particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_follow_symlinks: 281e.  If it's unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 225.

 -- Fonction: os.access (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None,
          effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True)

     Utilise l''uid'/'gid' réel pour tester l'accès à 'path'.  Notez que
     la plupart des opérations utiliseront l''uid'/'gid' effectif, dès
     lors cette méthode peut être utilisée dans un environnement
     'suid'/'sgid' pour tester si l'utilisateur invoquant a les droits
     d'accès pour accéder à 'path'.  'mode' devrait être *note F_OK:
     2b34. pour tester l'existence de 'path', ou il peut être le OR (OU
     inclusif) d'une ou plusieurs des constantes suivantes : *note R_OK:
     2b35, *note W_OK: 2b36, et *note X_OK: 2b37. pour tester les
     permissions.  Renvoie *note True: bfd. si l'accès est permis, et
     *note False: b27. s'il ne l'est pas.  Voir la page de manuel Unix
     ‘access(2)(1)’ pour plus d'informations.

     Cette fonction peut gérer la spécification de *note chemins
     relatifs vers des descripteurs de fichiers: 10cd. et *note le suivi
     des liens symboliques: 10ce.

     Si 'effective_id' vaut ‘True’, *note access(): 10cf. effectuera ses
     vérifications d'accès en utilisant l''uid'/'gid' effectif à la
     place de l''uid'/'gid' réel.  'effective_ids' peut ne pas être géré
     sur votre plate-forme, vous pouvez vérifier s'il est disponible en
     utilisant *note os.supports_effective_ids: 10e0.  S'il est
     indisponible, l'utiliser lèvera une *note NotImplementedError: 225.

          Note: Utiliser *note access(): 10cf. pour vérifier si un
          utilisateur est autorisé (par exemple) à ouvrir un fichier
          avant d'effectivement le faire en utilisant *note open(): 508.
          crée une faille de sécurité : l'utilisateur peut exploiter le
          court intervalle de temps entre la vérification et l'ouverture
          du fichier pour le manipuler.  Il est préférable d'utiliser
          les techniques *note EAFP: 2b38.  Par exemple :

               if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
                   with open("myfile") as fp:
                       return fp.read()
               return "some default data"

          est mieux écrit comme suit :

               try:
                   fp = open("myfile")
               except PermissionError:
                   return "some default data"
               else:
                   with fp:
                       return fp.read()

          Note: Les opérations d'entrées/sorties peuvent échouer même
          quand *note access(): 10cf. indique qu'elles devraient
          réussir, particulièrement pour les opérations sur les systèmes
          de fichiers réseaux qui peuvent avoir une sémantique de
          permissions au-delà du modèle de bits de permission usuel
          POSIX.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètres 'dir_fd', 'effective_ids',
     et 'follow_symlinks' ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Données: os.F_OK
 -- Données: os.R_OK
 -- Données: os.W_OK
 -- Données: os.X_OK

     Valeurs à passer au paramètre 'mode' de *note access(): 10cf. pour
     tester respectivement l'existence, les droits de lecture,
     d'écriture et d'exécution.

 -- Fonction: os.chdir (path)

     Change le répertoire de travail actuel par 'path'.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c.  Le descripteur doit référencer un
     répertoire ouvert, pas un fichier ouvert.

     Cette fonction peut lever *note OSError: 40d. et des sous-classes
     telles que *note FileNotFoundError: eb0, *note PermissionError:
     d32. et *note NotADirectoryError: 1045.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chdir’ avec l'argument
     ‘path’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge de la spécification de
     'path' par un descripteur de fichier sur certaines plate-formes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.chflags (path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Définit les marqueurs de 'path' par la valeur numérique 'flags'.
     'flags' peut prendre une combinaison (OU bit-à-bit) des valeurs
     suivantes (comme défini dans le module *note stat: d0.) :

        * *note stat.UF_NODUMP: 27c5.

        * *note stat.UF_IMMUTABLE: 27c6.

        * *note stat.UF_APPEND: 27c7.

        * *note stat.UF_OPAQUE: 27c8.

        * *note stat.UF_NOUNLINK: 27c9.

        * *note stat.UF_COMPRESSED: 27ca.

        * *note stat.UF_HIDDEN: 27cd.

        * *note stat.SF_ARCHIVED: 27d1.

        * *note stat.SF_IMMUTABLE: 27d2.

        * *note stat.SF_APPEND: 27d3.

        * *note stat.SF_NOUNLINK: 27d5.

        * *note stat.SF_SNAPSHOT: 27d6.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note le suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chflags’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘flags’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'follow_symlinks' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.chmod (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change le mode de 'path' par la valeur numérique 'mode'.  'mode'
     peut prendre une des valeurs suivantes (comme défini dans le module
     *note stat: d0.) ou une combinaison (OU bit-à-bit) de ces valeurs :

        * *note stat.S_ISUID: 27b1.

        * *note stat.S_ISGID: 27b2.

        * *note stat.S_ENFMT: 27b4.

        * *note stat.S_ISVTX: 27b5.

        * *note stat.S_IREAD: 27c1.

        * *note stat.S_IWRITE: 27c2.

        * *note stat.S_IEXEC: 27c3.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXU: 27b6.

        * *note stat.S_IRUSR: 27b7.

        * *note stat.S_IWUSR: 27b8.

        * *note stat.S_IXUSR: 27b9.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXG: 27ba.

        * *note stat.S_IRGRP: 27bb.

        * *note stat.S_IWGRP: 27bc.

        * *note stat.S_IXGRP: 27b3.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXO: 27bd.

        * *note stat.S_IROTH: 27be.

        * *note stat.S_IWOTH: 27bf.

        * *note stat.S_IXOTH: 27c0.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c, *note les chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd, et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

          Note: Although Windows supports *note chmod(): 218, you can
          only set the file's read-only flag with it (via the
          ‘stat.S_IWRITE’ and ‘stat.S_IREAD’ constants or a
          corresponding integer value).  All other bits are ignored.
          The default value of 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’ on Windows.

          The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes
          WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chmod’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge de la spécification de
     'path' par un répertoire ouvert et des arguments 'dir_fd' et
     'follow_symlinks' ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for a file descriptor
     and the 'follow_symlinks' argument on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.chown (path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change l'identifiant du propriétaire et du groupe de 'path' par les
     valeurs numériques 'uid' et 'gid'.  Pour laisser l'un de ces
     identifiants inchangé, le définir à ‘-1’.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c, *note les chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd, et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Voir *note shutil.chown(): 23d. pour une fonction de plus
     haut-niveau qui accepte des noms en plus des identifiants
     numériques.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chown’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge de la spécification de
     'path' par un répertoire ouvert et des arguments 'dir_fd' et
     'follow_symlinks' ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.chroot (path)

     Change le répertoire racine du processus actuel par 'path'.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.fchdir (fd)

     Change le répertoire de travail actuel par le répertoire représenté
     par le descripteur de fichier 'fd'.  Le descripteur doit référencer
     un répertoire ouvert, pas un fichier ouvert.  Depuis Python 3.3,
     c'est équivalent à ‘os.chdir(fd)’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chdir’ avec l'argument
     ‘path’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.getcwd ()

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères représentant le répertoire de
     travail actuel.

 -- Fonction: os.getcwdb ()

     Renvoie une chaîne de 'bytes' représentant le répertoire de travail
     actuel.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: La fonction utilise maintenant
     l'encodage UTF-8 sur Windows, plutôt que la 'page de code' ANSI :
     la PEP 529(2) explique la raison.  Cette fonction n'est plus
     obsolète sur Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.lchflags (path, flags)

     Définit les marqueurs de 'path' par la valeur numérique 'flags',
     comme *note chflags(): 10d0, mais ne suit pas les liens
     symboliques.  Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à
     ‘os.chflags(path, flags, follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chflags’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘flags’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.lchmod (path, mode)

     Change le mode de 'path' par la valeur numérique 'mode'.  Si 'path'
     est un lien symbolique, ça affecte le lien symbolique à la place de
     la cible.  Voir la documentation pour les valeurs possibles de
     'mode' pour *note chmod(): 218.  Depuis Python 3.3, c'est
     équivalent à ‘os.chmod(path, mode, follow_symlinks=False)’.

     ‘lchmod()’ is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have
     it if changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chmod’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not Linux, FreeBSD >=
     1.3, NetBSD >= 1.3, not OpenBSD

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.lchown (path, uid, gid)

     Change les identifiants du propriétaire et du groupe de 'path' par
     'uid' et 'gid'.  Cette fonction ne suivra pas les liens
     symboliques.  Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à ‘os.chown(path,
     uid, gid, follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.chown’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.link (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Crée un lien matériel appelé 'dst' pointant sur 'src'.

     Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification 'src_dir_fd' et/ou
     'dst_dir_fd' pour préciser *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd, et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.link’ avec les arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_ds’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'src_dir_fd', 'dst_dir_fd',
     and 'follow_symlinks' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'src' et 'dst'.

 -- Fonction: os.listdir (path='.')

     Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory
     given by 'path'.  The list is in arbitrary order, and does not
     include the special entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ even if they are
     present in the directory.  If a file is removed from or added to
     the directory during the call of this function, whether a name for
     that file be included is unspecified.

     'path' peut être un *note path-like object: 29d.  Si 'path' est de
     type ‘bytes’ (directement ou indirectement à travers une interface
     *note PathLike: c41.), les noms de fichiers renvoyés seront aussi
     de type ‘bytes’ ; dans toutes les autres circonstances, ils seront
     de type ‘str’.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note la spécification de
     descripteurs de fichiers: b4c.  Le descripteur doit référencer un
     répertoire.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.listdir’ avec l'argument
     ‘path’.

          Note: Pour encoder des noms de fichiers de type ‘str’ en
          ‘bytes’, utilisez la fonction ‘encode()’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     La fonction *note scandir(): a4f. renvoie les entrées du répertoire
     ainsi que leurs attributs , offrant une meilleure performance pour
     beaucoup de cas utilisés fréquemment.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'path' est devenu
     optionnel.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la possibilité de spécifier
     'path' comme descripteur de fichier ouvert.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.listdrives ()

     Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.

     A drive name typically looks like ‘'C:\\'’.  Not every drive name
     will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for
     a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity
     or missing media.  This function does not test for access.

     May raise *note OSError: 40d. if an error occurs collecting the
     drive names.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘os.listdrives’ with no
     arguments.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.listmounts (volume)

     Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows
     system.

     'volume' must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by
     *note os.listvolumes(): 48a.  Volumes may be mounted in multiple
     locations or not at all.  In the latter case, the list will be
     empty.  Mount points that are not associated with a volume will not
     be returned by this function.

     The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths,
     and may be longer than the drive name.

     Raises *note OSError: 40d. if the volume is not recognized or if an
     error occurs collecting the paths.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘os.listmounts’ with argument
     ‘volume’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.listvolumes ()

     Return a list containing the volumes in the system.

     Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like
     ‘\\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\’.  Files can
     usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing.
     However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the
     recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points using
     *note os.listmounts(): 48b.

     May raise *note OSError: 40d. if an error occurs collecting the
     volumes.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘os.listvolumes’ with no
     arguments.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.lstat (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Perform the equivalent of an ‘lstat()’ system call on the given
     path.  Similar to *note stat(): 48c, but does not follow symbolic
     links.  Return a *note stat_result: 1477. object.

     Sur les plate-formes qui ne gérant pas les liens symboliques, c'est
     un alias pour *note stat(): 48c.

     Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à ‘os.stat(path, dir_fd=dir_fd,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note des chemins relatifs à
     des descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     La fonction *note stat(): 48c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge des les liens
     symboliques sur Windows 6.0 (Vista).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, now opens reparse points
     that represent another path (name surrogates), including symbolic
     links and directory junctions.  Other kinds of reparse points are
     resolved by the operating system as for *note stat(): 48c.

 -- Fonction: os.mkdir (path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Crée un répertoire appelé 'path' avec pour mode, la valeur
     numérique 'mode'.

     If the directory already exists, *note FileExistsError: 100b. is
     raised.  If a parent directory in the path does not exist, *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. is raised.  Sous certains systèmes, 'mode'
     est ignoré.  Quand il est utilisé, il lui est premièrement appliqué
     le masque courant 'umask'.  Si des bits autres que les 9 derniers
     sont activés (c.-à-d.  les 3 derniers chiffres de la représentation
     octale de 'mode'), leur signification sera dépendante de la
     plate-forme.  Sous certaines plate-formes, ils seront ignorés et
     vous devrez appeler explicitement *note chmod(): 218. pour les
     modifier.

     On Windows, a 'mode' of ‘0o700’ is specifically handled to apply
     access control to the new directory such that only the current user
     and administrators have access.  Other values of 'mode' are
     ignored.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note des chemins relatifs à
     des descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd.

     Il est également possible de créer des répertoires temporaires,
     voir la fonction *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c. du module *note
     tempfile: df.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.mkdir’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Windows now handles a 'mode' of
     ‘0o700’.

 -- Fonction: os.makedirs (name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)

     Fonction de création récursive de répertoires.  Comme *note
     mkdir(): 21a. mais crée tous les répertoires de niveau
     intermédiaire nécessaires pour contenir le répertoire « feuille ».

     The 'mode' parameter is passed to *note mkdir(): 21a. for creating
     the leaf directory; see *note the mkdir() description: 2b3b. for
     how it is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any
     newly created parent directories you can set the umask before
     invoking *note makedirs(): 21b.  The file permission bits of
     existing parent directories are not changed.

     If 'exist_ok' is ‘False’ (the default), a *note FileExistsError:
     100b. is raised if the target directory already exists.

          Note: Un appel à *note makedirs(): 21b. est confus si les
          éléments du chemin à créer contiennent *note pardir: 2b3c.
          (par exemple, ‘".."’ sur les systèmes UNIX).

     Cette fonction gère les chemins UNC correctement.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.mkdir’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'exist_ok' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.1: Avant Python 3.4.1, si 'exist_ok'
     valait ‘True’ et le répertoire à créer existait, *note makedirs():
     21b. aurait levé une erreur si 'mode' n'était pas équivalent au
     mode du répertoire existant.  Puisque ce comportement n'était pas
     possible ) implémenter de manière sécurisée, il a été retiré pour
     Python 3.4.1.  Voir bpo-21082(3).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'mode' argument no longer affects
     the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.

 -- Fonction: os.mkfifo (path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)

     Crée un FIFO ('First In, First Out', ou un tube ('pipe' en anglais)
     nommé) appelé 'path' avec le mode numérique 'mode'.  La valeur
     actuelle de 'umask' est d'abord masquée du mode.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note des chemins relatifs à
     des descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd.

     Les FIFOs sont des tubes qui peuvent être accédés comme des
     fichiers normaux.  Les FIFOs existent jusqu'à ce qu'ils soient
     retirés (par exemple, à l'aide de *note os.unlink(): 10d8.).
     Généralement, les FIFOs sont utilisé comme communication entre des
     processus de type « client » et « serveur » : le serveur ouvre le
     FIFO pour le lire, et le client l'ouvre pour écrire dedans.  Notez
     que *note mkfifo(): d7f. n'ouvre pas le FIFO — il crée juste un
     point de rendez-vous.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.mknod (path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)

     Crée un nœud du système de fichiers (fichier, périphérique, fichier
     spécial, ou tuyau nommé) appelée 'path'.  'mode' spécifie à la fois
     les permissions à utiliser et le type de nœud à créer, en étant
     combiné (OR bit-à-bit) avec l'une des valeurs suivantes :
     ‘stat.S_IFREG’, ‘stat.S_IFCHR’, ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, et ‘stat.S_IFIFO’
     (ces constantes sont disponibles dans le module *note stat: d0.).
     Pour ‘stat.S_IFCHR’ et ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, 'device' définit le fichier
     spécial de périphérique tout juste créé (probablement en utilisant
     *note os.makedev(): 15d7.), sinon, cet argument est ignoré.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note des chemins relatifs à
     des descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.major (device, /)

     Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- Fonction: os.minor (device, /)

     Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- Fonction: os.makedev (major, minor, /)

     Compose un nombre de périphérique brut à partir des nombres de
     périphérique mineur et majeur.

 -- Fonction: os.pathconf (path, name)

     Renvoie des informations sur la configurations relatives à un
     fichier déterminé.  'name' spécifie la valeur de configuration à
     récupérer ; ce peut être une chaîne de caractères qui est le nom
     d'une valeur système particulière.  Ces noms sont spécifiés dans
     certains standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, etc).  Certaines
     plate-formes définissent des noms supplémentaires également.  Les
     noms connus du système d'exploitation hôte sont donnés dans le
     dictionnaire ‘pathconf_names’.  Pour les variables de configuration
     non incluses dans ce 'mapping', passer un entier pour 'name' est
     également accepté.

     Si 'name' est une chaîne de caractères et n'est pas connu, une
     *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Si une valeur spécifique de
     'name' n'est pas gérée par le système hôte, même si elle est
     incluse dans ‘pathconf_names’, une *note OSError: 40d. est levée
     avec *note errno.EINVAL: 19ad. pour code d'erreur.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Données: os.pathconf_names

     Dictionnaire liant les noms acceptés par les fonctions *note
     pathconf(): 10dd. et *note fpathconf(): 2afa. aux valeurs entières
     définies pour ces noms par le système d'exploitation hôte.  Cette
     variable peut être utilisée pour déterminer l'ensemble des noms
     connus du système d'exploitation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.readlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères représentant le chemin vers lequel
     le lien symbolique pointe.  Le résultat peut être soit un chemin
     relatif, soit un chemin absolu.  S'il est relatif, il peut être
     converti en chemin absolu en utilisant
     ‘os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)’.

     Si 'path' est une chaîne de caractères (directement ou
     indirectement à travers une interface *note PathLike: c41.), le
     résultat sera aussi une chaîne de caractères, et l'appel pourra
     lever une UnicodeDecodeError.  Si 'path' est une chaîne d'octets
     (directement ou indirectement), le résultat sera une chaîne
     d'octets.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note des chemins relatifs à
     des descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd.

     Lorsque vous essayez de résoudre un chemin qui peut contenir des
     liens, utilisez *note realpath(): 222. pour gérer correctement la
     récursion et les différences de plate-forme.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge des les liens
     symboliques sur Windows 6.0 (Vista).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. sur Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. et une chaine d’octets sous Windows.

     Added support for directory junctions, and changed to return the
     substitution path (which typically includes ‘\\?\’ prefix) rather
     than the optional "print name" field that was previously returned.

 -- Fonction: os.remove (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  If 'path' is a directory, an
     *note OSError: 40d. is raised.  Use *note rmdir(): 10d6. to remove
     directories.  If the file does not exist, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: eb0. is raised.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertories: 10cd.

     Sur Windows, tenter de retirer un fichier en cours d'utilisation
     cause la levée d'une exception, sur Unix, l'entrée du répertoire
     est supprimé mais l'espace de stockage alloué au fichier ne sera
     pas disponible avant que le fichier original ne soit plus utilisé.

     La fonction est sémantiquement identique à *note unlink(): 10d8.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.remove’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.removedirs (name)

     Supprime des répertoires récursivement.  Fonctionne comme *note
     rmdir(): 10d6. si ce n'est que si le répertoire feuille est retiré
     avec succès, *note removedirs(): 2b3e. essaye de supprimer
     successivement chaque répertoire parent mentionné dans 'path'
     jusqu'à ce qu'un erreur ne soit levée (ce qui est ignoré car la
     signification générale en est qu'un répertoire parent n'est pas
     vide).  Par exemple, ‘os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')’ supprimera
     d'abord le répertoire ‘'foo/bar/baz'’, et ensuite supprimera
     ‘'foo/bar'’ et puis ‘'foo'’ s'ils sont vides.  Lève une *note
     OSError: 40d. si le répertoire feuille n'a pas pu être supprimé
     avec succès.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.remove’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.rename (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Renomme le fichier ou le répertoire 'src' en 'dst'.  Si 'dst'
     existe, l'opération échoue avec une sous-classe *note OSError: 40d.
     dans un certain nombre de cas :

     On Windows, if 'dst' exists a *note FileExistsError: 100b. is
     always raised.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  Use *note shutil.move(): a4c. to support
     moves to a different filesystem.

     On Unix, if 'src' is a file and 'dst' is a directory or vice-versa,
     an *note IsADirectoryError: 1044. or a *note NotADirectoryError:
     1045. will be raised respectively.  If both are directories and
     'dst' is empty, 'dst' will be silently replaced.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, an *note OSError: 40d. is raised.  If both are
     files, 'dst' will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
     The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if 'src' and 'dst' are
     on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     Cette fonction prend en charge les spécifications 'src_dir_fd'
     et/ou 'dst_dir_fd' pour fournir *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de fichiers: 10cd.

     Si vous désirez un écrasement multiplateformes de la destination,
     utilisez la fonction *note replace(): 10d5.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.rename’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_ds’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'src_dir_fd' and
     'dst_dir_fd' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'src' et 'dst'.

 -- Fonction: os.renames (old, new)

     Fonction récursive de renommage de fichiers ou répertoires.
     Fonctionne comme *note rename(): 10d4, si ce n'est que la création
     d'un répertoire intermédiaire nécessaire pour rendre le nouveau
     chemin correct est essayé en premier.  Après le renommage, les
     répertoires correspondant aux segments de chemin les plus à droite
     de l'ancien nom seront élagués en utilisant *note removedirs():
     2b3e.

          Note: Cette fonction peut échouer avec la nouvelle structure
          de dictionnaire définie si vous n'avez pas les permissions
          nécessaires pour supprimer le répertoire ou fichier feuille.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.rename’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_ds’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'old' et 'new'.

 -- Fonction: os.replace (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, *note OSError: 40d. will be raised.  If 'dst'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     Cette fonction prend en charge les spécifications 'src_dir_fd'
     et/ou 'dst_dir_fd' pour fournir *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de fichiers: 10cd.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.rename’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_ds’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'src' et 'dst'.

 -- Fonction: os.rmdir (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the directory 'path'.  If the directory does not
     exist or is not empty, a *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. or an *note
     OSError: 40d. is raised respectively.  In order to remove whole
     directory trees, *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. can be used.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertories: 10cd.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.rmdir’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.scandir (path='.')

     Return an iterator of *note os.DirEntry: 487. objects corresponding
     to the entries in the directory given by 'path'.  The entries are
     yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries ‘'.'’ and
     ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed from or added to the
     directory after creating the iterator, whether an entry for that
     file be included is unspecified.

     Utiliser *note scandir(): a4f. plutôt que *note listdir(): 10dc.
     peut significativement améliorer les performances des codes qui
     nécessitent aussi l'accès aux types des fichiers ou à leurs
     attributs, puisque les objets *note os.DirEntry: 487. exposent ces
     informations si le système d'exploitation les fournit en scannant
     le répertoire.  Toutes les méthodes de *note os.DirEntry: 487.
     peuvent réaliser un appel système, mais *note is_dir(): 2b40. et
     *note is_file(): d73. n'en requièrent normalement un que pour les
     liens symboliques ; *note os.DirEntry.stat(): 16b4. nécessite
     toujours un appel système sous Unix, mais seulement pour les liens
     symboliques sous Windows.

     'path' peut être un *note path-like object: 29d.  Si 'path' est de
     type ‘bytes’ (directement ou indirectement à travers une interface
     *note PathLike: c41.), le type des attributs *note name: 2b41. et
     *note path: 1637. de chaque *note os.DirEntry: 487. sera ‘bytes’ ;
     dans toutes les autres circonstances, ils seront de type ‘str’.

     Cette fonction peut également gérer *note la spécification de
     descripteurs de fichiers: b4c.  Le descripteur doit référencer un
     répertoire.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.scandir’ avec l'argument
     ‘path’.

     L'itérateur *note scandir(): a4f. gère le protocole *note context
     manager: 5c0. et possède la méthode suivante :

      -- Méthode: scandir.close ()

          Ferme l'itérateur et libère les ressources acquises.

          Elle est appelée automatiquement quand l'itérateur est
          entièrement consommé ou collecté par le ramasse-miettes, ou
          quand une erreur survient durant l'itération.  Il est
          cependant conseillé de l'appeler explicitement ou d'utiliser
          l'instruction *note with: 5be.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     L'exemple suivant montre une utilisation simple de *note scandir():
     a4f. pour afficher tous les fichiers (à part les répertoires) dans
     le chemin donné par 'path' et ne débutant pas par ‘'.'’.  L'appel
     ‘entry.is_file()’ ne va généralement pas faire d'appel système
     supplémentaire :

          with os.scandir(path) as it:
              for entry in it:
                  if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
                      print(entry.name)

          Note: On Unix-based systems, *note scandir(): a4f. uses the
          system's opendir()(4) and readdir()(5) functions.  On Windows,
          it uses the Win32 FindFirstFileW(6) and FindNextFileW(7)
          functions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support for the *note context
     manager: 5c0. protocol and the *note close(): cac. method.  If a
     *note scandir(): a4f. iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly
     closed a *note ResourceWarning: 241. will be emitted in its
     destructor.

     La fonction accepte un *note path-like object: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de la gestion des *note
     descripteurs de fichiers: b4c. sur Unix.

 -- Classe: os.DirEntry

     Objet donné par *note scandir(): a4f. pour exposer le chemin du
     fichier et d'autres attributs de fichier d'une entrée du
     répertoire.

     *note scandir(): a4f. fournira autant d'informations que possible
     sans faire d'appels système additionnels.  Quand un appel système
     ‘stat()’ ou ‘lstat()’ est réalisé, l'objet ‘os.DirEntry’ mettra le
     résultat en cache.

     Les instances ‘os.DirEntry’ ne sont pas censées être stockées dans
     des structures de données à longue durée de vie ; si vous savez que
     les métadonnées du fichier ont changé ou si un certain temps s'est
     écoulé depuis l'appel à *note scandir(): a4f, appelez
     ‘os.stat(entry.path)’ pour mettre à jour ces informations.

     Puisque les méthodes de ‘os.DirEntry’ peuvent réaliser des appels
     système, elles peuvent aussi lever des *note OSError: 40d.  Si vous
     avez besoin d'un contrôle fin des erreurs, vous pouvez attraper les
     *note OSError: 40d. en appelant les méthodes de ‘os.DirEntry’ et
     les traiter comme il vous semble.

     Pour être directement utilisable comme un *note path-like object:
     29d, ‘os.DirEntry’ implémente l'interface *note PathLike: c41.

     Les attributs et méthodes des instances de ‘os.DirEntry’ sont les
     suivants :

      -- Attribut: name

          Le nom de fichier de base de l'entrée, relatif à l'argument
          'path' de *note scandir(): a4f.

          L'attribut *note name: 2ac0. sera de type ‘bytes’ si
          l'argument 'path' de *note scandir(): a4f. est de type
          ‘bytes’, sinon il sera de type ‘str’.  Utilisez *note
          fsdecode(): c44. pour décoder des noms de fichiers de types
          'byte'.

      -- Attribut: path

          Le nom entier de l'entrée : équivalent à
          ‘os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name)’ où 'scandir_path' est
          l'argument 'path' de *note scandir(): a4f.  Le chemin est
          absolu uniquement si l'argument 'path' de *note scandir():
          a4f. était absolu.  Si l'argument 'path' à la fonction *note
          scandir(): a4f. est un *note descripteur de fichier: b4c.
          l'attribut *note path: a1. sera égal à l'attribut *note name:
          2ac0.

          L'attribut *note path: a1. sera de type ‘bytes’ si l'argument
          'path' de la fonction *note scandir(): a4f. est de type
          ‘bytes’, sinon il sera de type ‘str’.  Utilisez *note
          fsdecode(): c44. pour décoder des noms de fichiers de type
          'bytes'.

      -- Méthode: inode ()

          Renvoie le numéro d''inode' de l'entrée.

          Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet ‘os.DirEntry’.
          Utilisez ‘os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino’
          pour obtenir l'information à jour.

          Au premier appel non mis en cache, un appel système est requis
          sur Windows, mais pas sur Unix.

      -- Méthode: is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si cette entrée est un répertoire ou un lien
          symbolique pointant vers un répertoire ; renvoie ‘False’ si
          l'entrée est (ou pointe vers) un autre type de fichier, ou
          s'il n'existe plus.

          Si 'follow_symlinks' vaut ‘False’, renvoie ‘True’ uniquement
          si l'entrée est un répertoire (sans suivre les liens
          symboliques) ; renvoie ‘False’ si l'entrée est n'importe quel
          autre type de fichier ou s'il n'existe plus.

          Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet ‘os.DirEntry’, avec
          un cache séparé pour les valeurs ‘True’ ou ‘False’ de
          'follow_symlinks'.  Appelez *note os.stat(): 48c. avec *note
          stat.S_ISDIR(): 2798. pour obtenir l'information à jour.

          Au premier appel non mis en cache, aucun appel système n'est
          requis dans la plupart du temps.  Spécifiquement, sans les
          liens symboliques, ni Windows, ni Unix ne requiert l'appel
          système, sauf sur certains systèmes de fichiers sur Unix,
          comme les système de fichiers de réseau qui renvoient
          ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’.  Si l'entrée est un lien
          symbolique, un appel système sera requis pour suivre le lien
          symbolique, à moins que 'follow_symlinks' vaille ‘False’.

          Cette méthode peut lever une *note OSError: 40d. tout comme
          une *note PermissionError: d32, mais *note FileNotFoundError:
          eb0. est interceptée et pas levée.

      -- Méthode: is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'entrée est un fichier ou un lien
          symbolique pointant vers un fichier, renvoie ‘False’ si
          l'entrée pointe est (ou pointe sur) sur un dossier ou sur un
          répertoire ou autre entrée non-fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

          Si 'follow_symlinks' vaut ‘False’, renvoie ‘True’ uniquement
          si cette entrée est un fichier (sans suivre les liens
          symboliques).  Renvoie ‘False’ si l'entrée est un répertoire
          ou une autre entrée non-fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

          Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet ‘os.DirEntry’.  La
          mise en cache, les appels système réalisés, et les exceptions
          levées sont les mêmes que pour *note is_dir(): 2b40.

      -- Méthode: is_symlink ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'entrée est un lien symbolique (même
          cassé).  Renvoie ‘False’ si l'entrée pinte vers un répertoire
          ou tout autre type de fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

          Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet ‘os.DirEntry’.
          Appelez *note os.path.islink(): 9fc. pour obtenir
          l'information à jour.

          Au premier appel non mis en cache, aucun appel système n'est
          requis.  Spécifiquement, ni Windows ni Unix ne requiert
          d'appel système, excepté sur certains systèmes de fichiers
          Unix qui renvoient ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’.

          Cette méthode peut lever une *note OSError: 40d. tout comme
          une *note PermissionError: d32, mais *note FileNotFoundError:
          eb0. est interceptée et pas levée.

      -- Méthode: is_junction ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a junction (even if broken);
          return ‘False’ if the entry points to a regular directory, any
          kind of file, a symlink, or if it doesn't exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.isjunction(): 48f. to fetch up-to-date information.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Renvoie un objet de type ‘stat.result’ pour cette entrée.
          Cette méthode suit les liens symboliques par défaut.  Pour
          avoir les statistiques sur un lien symbolique, ajouter
          l'argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

          On Unix, this method always requires a system call.  On
          Windows, it only requires a system call if 'follow_symlinks'
          is ‘True’ and the entry is a reparse point (for example, a
          symbolic link or directory junction).

          Sur Windows, les attributs ‘st_ino’, ‘st_dev’ et ‘st_nlink’ de
          la classe *note stat_result: 1477. sont toujours définis à 0.
          Appelez la fonction *note os.stat(): 48c. pour avoir ces
          attributs.

          Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet ‘os.DirEntry’, avec
          un cache séparé pour les valeurs ‘True’ ou ‘False’ de
          'follow_symlinks'.  Appelez *note os.stat(): 48c. pour obtenir
          l'information à jour.

     Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
     and methods of ‘os.DirEntry’ and of *note pathlib.Path: 226.  In
     particular, the ‘name’ attribute has the same meaning, as do the
     ‘is_dir()’, ‘is_file()’, ‘is_symlink()’, ‘is_junction()’, and
     ‘stat()’ methods.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Prise en charge de l'interface *note
     PathLike: c41.  Ajout du support des chemins *note bytes: 1bd. sous
     Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The ‘st_ctime’ attribute of a stat
     result is deprecated on Windows.  The file creation time is
     properly available as ‘st_birthtime’, and in the future ‘st_ctime’
     may be changed to return zero or the metadata change time, if
     available.

 -- Fonction: os.stat (path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Récupère le statut d'un fichier ou d'un descripteur de fichier.
     Réalise l'équivalent d'un appel système ‘stat()’ sur le chemin
     donné.  'path' peut être exprimé comme une chaîne de caractères ou
     d'octets - directement ou indirectement à travers une interface
     *note PathLike: c41. - ou comme un descripteur de fichier ouvert.
     Renvoie un objet *note stat_result: 1477.

     Cette fonction suit normalement les liens symboliques.  Pour
     récupérer les informations d'un lien symbolique, ajoutez l'argument
     ‘follow_symlinks=False’ ou utilisez la fonction *note lstat(): 48d.

     Cette fonction peut supporter la *note spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c. et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     On Windows, passing ‘follow_symlinks=False’ will disable following
     all name-surrogate reparse points, which includes symlinks and
     directory junctions.  Other types of reparse points that do not
     resemble links or that the operating system is unable to follow
     will be opened directly.  When following a chain of multiple links,
     this may result in the original link being returned instead of the
     non-link that prevented full traversal.  To obtain stat results for
     the final path in this case, use the *note os.path.realpath(): 222.
     function to resolve the path name as far as possible and call *note
     lstat(): 48d. on the result.  This does not apply to dangling
     symlinks or junction points, which will raise the usual exceptions.

     Exemple :

          >>> import os
          >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
          >>> statinfo
          os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
          st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
          st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
          >>> statinfo.st_size
          264

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     les fonctions *note fstat(): d7b. et *note lstat(): 48d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' and
     'follow_symlinks' parameters, specifying a file descriptor instead
     of a path.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, all reparse points that
     can be resolved by the operating system are now followed, and
     passing ‘follow_symlinks=False’ disables following all name
     surrogate reparse points.  If the operating system reaches a
     reparse point that it is not able to follow, 'stat' now returns the
     information for the original path as if ‘follow_symlinks=False’ had
     been specified instead of raising an error.

 -- Classe: os.stat_result

     Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
     ‘stat’ structure.  It is used for the result of *note os.stat():
     48c, *note os.fstat(): d7b. and *note os.lstat(): 48d.

     Attributs :

      -- Attribut: st_mode

          Mode du fichier : type du fichier et bits de mode du fichier
          (permissions).

      -- Attribut: st_ino

          Dépendant de la plateforme, mais lorsqu'il ne vaut pas zéro il
          identifie de manière unique le fichier pour une certaine
          valeur de ‘st_dev’.  Typiquement :

             * le numéro d''inode' sur Unix,

             * l’index de fichier(8) sur Windows

      -- Attribut: st_dev

          Identifiant du périphérique sur lequel ce fichier se trouve.

      -- Attribut: st_nlink

          Nombre de liens matériels.

      -- Attribut: st_uid

          Identifiant d'utilisateur du propriétaire du fichier.

      -- Attribut: st_gid

          Identifiant de groupe du propriétaire du fichier.

      -- Attribut: st_size

          Taille du fichier en 'bytes' si c'est un fichier normal ou un
          lien symbolique.  La taille d'un lien symbolique est la
          longueur du nom de chemin qu'il contient sans le byte nul
          final.

     Horodatages :

      -- Attribut: st_atime

          Moment de l'accès le plus récent, exprimé en secondes.

      -- Attribut: st_mtime

          Moment de la modification de contenu la plus récente, exprimé
          en secondes.

      -- Attribut: st_ctime

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated on
          Windows.  Use ‘st_birthtime’ for the file creation time.  In
          the future, ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most
          recent metadata change, as for other platforms.

      -- Attribut: st_atime_ns

          Moment de l'accès le plus récent, exprimé en nanosecondes, par
          un entier.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: st_mtime_ns

          Moment de la modification de contenu la plus récente, exprimé
          en nanosecondes, par un entier.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: st_ctime_ns

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds
          as an integer.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘st_ctime_ns’ is deprecated on
          Windows.  Use ‘st_birthtime_ns’ for the file creation time.
          In the future, ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most
          recent metadata change, as for other platforms.

      -- Attribut: st_birthtime

          Time of file creation expressed in seconds.  This attribute is
          not always available, and may raise *note AttributeError: 343.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘st_birthtime’ is now available
          on Windows.

      -- Attribut: st_birthtime_ns

          Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
          This attribute is not always available, and may raise *note
          AttributeError: 343.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

          Note: The exact meaning and resolution of the *note st_atime:
          2b4a, *note st_mtime: 29dc, *note st_ctime: 2b4b. and *note
          st_birthtime: 2b4f. attributes depend on the operating system
          and the file system.  For example, on Windows systems using
          the FAT32 file systems, *note st_mtime: 29dc. has 2-second
          resolution, and *note st_atime: 2b4a. has only 1-day
          resolution.  See your operating system documentation for
          details.

          Similarly, although *note st_atime_ns: 2b4c, *note
          st_mtime_ns: 2b4d, *note st_ctime_ns: 2b4e. and *note
          st_birthtime_ns: 2b50. are always expressed in nanoseconds,
          many systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems
          that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point
          object used to store *note st_atime: 2b4a, *note st_mtime:
          29dc, *note st_ctime: 2b4b. and *note st_birthtime: 2b4f.
          cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly
          inexact.  If you need the exact timestamps you should always
          use *note st_atime_ns: 2b4c, *note st_mtime_ns: 2b4d, *note
          st_ctime_ns: 2b4e. and *note st_birthtime_ns: 2b50.

     Sur certains systèmes Unix (tels que Linux), les attributs suivants
     peuvent également être disponibles :

      -- Attribut: st_blocks

          Nombre de blocs de 512 'bytes' alloués pour le fichier.  Cette
          valeur peut être inférieure à *note st_size: 2b49./512 quand
          le fichier a des trous.

      -- Attribut: st_blksize

          Taille de bloc « préférée » pour des entrées-sorties efficaces
          avec le système de fichiers.  Écrire dans un fichier avec des
          blocs plus petits peut causer des modifications
          (lecture-écriture-réécriture) inefficaces.

      -- Attribut: st_rdev

          Type de périphérique si l''inode' représente un périphérique.

      -- Attribut: st_flags

          Marqueurs définis par l'utilisateur pour le fichier.

     Sur d'autres systèmes Unix (tels que FreeBSD), les attributs
     suivants peuvent être disponibles (mais peuvent être complétés
     uniquement lorsque le super-utilisateur 'root' tente de les
     utiliser) :

      -- Attribut: st_gen

          Nombre de génération de fichier.

     Sur les systèmes Solaris et dérivés, les attributs suivants peuvent
     également être disponibles :

      -- Attribut: st_fstype

          Chaîne qui identifie de manière unique le type du système de
          fichiers qui contient le fichier.

     On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:

      -- Attribut: st_rsize

          Taillé réelle du fichier.

      -- Attribut: st_creator

          Créateur du fichier.

      -- Attribut: st_type

          Type du fichier.

     On Windows systems, the following attributes are also available:

      -- Attribut: st_file_attributes

          Windows file attributes: ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of the
          ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
          ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  See the ‘FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*
          <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE>’ constants in the *note stat:
          d0. module.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Attribut: st_reparse_tag

          When *note st_file_attributes: e27. has the *note
          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT: 27e5. set, this field contains
          the tag identifying the type of reparse point.  See the *note
          IO_REPARSE_TAG_*: 27ea. constants in the *note stat: d0.
          module.

     The standard module *note stat: d0. defines functions and constants
     that are useful for extracting information from a ‘stat’ structure.
     (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)

     For backward compatibility, a *note stat_result: 1477. instance is
     also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
     important (and portable) members of the ‘stat’ structure, in the
     order *note st_mode: 2b43, *note st_ino: 2b44, *note st_dev: 2b45,
     *note st_nlink: 2b46, *note st_uid: 2b47, *note st_gid: 2b48, *note
     st_size: 2b49, *note st_atime: 2b4a, *note st_mtime: 29dc, *note
     st_ctime: 2b4b.  More items may be added at the end by some
     implementations.  For compatibility with older Python versions,
     accessing *note stat_result: 1477. as a tuple always returns
     integers.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Windows renvoie maintenant l'index du
     fichier dans l'attribut *note st_ino: 2b44, lorsqu'il est
     disponible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'attribut *note st_fstype:
     b54. sur Solaris et dérivés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the *note st_reparse_tag: 2b59.
     member on Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, the *note st_mode: 2b43.
     member now identifies special files as ‘S_IFCHR’, ‘S_IFIFO’ or
     ‘S_IFBLK’ as appropriate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: On Windows, *note st_ctime: 2b4b. is
     deprecated.  Eventually, it will contain the last metadata change
     time, for consistency with other platforms, but for now still
     contains creation time.  Use *note st_birthtime: 2b4f. for the
     creation time.

     On Windows, *note st_ino: 2b44. may now be up to 128 bits,
     depending on the file system.  Previously it would not be above 64
     bits, and larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.

     On Windows, *note st_rdev: 2b53. no longer returns a value.
     Previously it would contain the same as *note st_dev: 2b45, which
     was incorrect.

     Added the *note st_birthtime: 2b4f. member on Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.statvfs (path)

     Perform a ‘statvfs()’ system call on the given path.  The return
     value is an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the
     given path, and correspond to the members of the ‘statvfs’
     structure, namely: ‘f_bsize’, ‘f_frsize’, ‘f_blocks’, ‘f_bfree’,
     ‘f_bavail’, ‘f_files’, ‘f_ffree’, ‘f_favail’, ‘f_flag’,
     ‘f_namemax’, ‘f_fsid’.

     Deux constantes de module sont définies pour le champ-de-bits de
     l'attribut ‘f_flag’ : si ‘SR_RDONLY’ est activé, le système de
     fichiers est monté en lecture-seule, et si ‘ST_NOSUID’ est activé,
     la sémantique des bits de 'setuid' / 'getuid' est désactivée ou non
     gérée.

     Des constantes de module supplémentaires sont définies pour les
     systèmes basés sur GNU/glibc.  Ces constantes sont ‘ST_NODEV’
     (interdit l'accès aux fichiers spéciaux du périphérique),
     ‘ST_NOEXEC’ (interdit l'exécution de programmes), ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’
     (les écritures sont synchronisées en une fois), ‘ST_MANDLOCK’
     (permet les verrous impératifs sur un système de fichiers),
     ‘ST_WRITE’ (écrit sur les fichiers/répertoires/liens symboliques),
     ‘ST_APPEND’ (fichiers en ajout-seul), ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’ (fichiers
     immuables), ‘ST_NOATIME’ (ne met pas à jour les moments d'accès),
     ‘ST_NODIRATIME’ (ne met pas à jour les moments d'accès aux
     répertoires), ‘ST_REALTIME’ (Met 'atime' à jour relativement à
     'mtime' / 'ctime').

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout des constantes ‘ST_RDONLY’ et
     ‘ST_NOSUID’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la possibilité de spécifier
     'path' comme descripteur de fichier ouvert.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout des constantes ‘ST_NODEV’,
     ‘ST_NOEXEC’, ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’, ‘ST_MANDLOCK’, ‘ST_WRITE’,
     ‘ST_APPEND’, ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’, ‘ST_NOATIME’, ‘ST_NODIRATIME’, et
     ‘ST_RELATIME’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the ‘f_fsid’ attribute.

 -- Données: os.supports_dir_fd

     A *note set: 5c5. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: a0. module accept an open file descriptor for their 'dir_fd'
     parameter.  Different platforms provide different features, and the
     underlying functionality Python uses to implement the 'dir_fd'
     parameter is not available on all platforms Python supports.  For
     consistency's sake, functions that may support 'dir_fd' always
     allow specifying the parameter, but will throw an exception if the
     functionality is used when it's not locally available.  (Specifying
     ‘None’ for 'dir_fd' is always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts an open file
     descriptor for its 'dir_fd' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_dir_fd’.  As an example, this expression evaluates to
     ‘True’ if *note os.stat(): 48c. accepts open file descriptors for
     'dir_fd' on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd

     Actuellement, le paramètre 'dir_fd' ne fonctionne que sur les
     plate-formes Unix.  Il ne fonctionne jamais sur Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.supports_effective_ids

     A *note set: 5c5. object indicating whether *note os.access():
     10cf. permits specifying ‘True’ for its 'effective_ids' parameter
     on the local platform.  (Specifying ‘False’ for 'effective_ids' is
     always supported on all platforms.)  If the local platform supports
     it, the collection will contain *note os.access(): 10cf.; otherwise
     it will be empty.

     This expression evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.access(): 10cf.
     supports ‘effective_ids=True’ on the local platform:

          os.access in os.supports_effective_ids

     Currently 'effective_ids' is only supported on Unix platforms; it
     does not work on Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.supports_fd

     A *note set: 5c5. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: a0. module permit specifying their 'path' parameter as an open
     file descriptor on the local platform.  Different platforms provide
     different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to
     accept open file descriptors as 'path' arguments is not available
     on all platforms Python supports.

     To determine whether a particular function permits specifying an
     open file descriptor for its 'path' parameter, use the ‘in’
     operator on ‘supports_fd’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.chdir(): 5fa. accepts open file
     descriptors for 'path' on your local platform:

          os.chdir in os.supports_fd

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.supports_follow_symlinks

     A *note set: 5c5. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: a0. module accept ‘False’ for their 'follow_symlinks' parameter
     on the local platform.  Different platforms provide different
     features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to implement
     'follow_symlinks' is not available on all platforms Python
     supports.  For consistency's sake, functions that may support
     'follow_symlinks' always allow specifying the parameter, but will
     throw an exception if the functionality is used when it's not
     locally available.  (Specifying ‘True’ for 'follow_symlinks' is
     always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts ‘False’ for its
     'follow_symlinks' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_follow_symlinks’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if you may specify ‘follow_symlinks=False’ when
     calling *note os.stat(): 48c. on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.symlink (src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *,
          dir_fd=None)

     Crée un lien symbolique pointant vers 'src' et appelé 'dst'.

     Sur Windows, un lien symbolique représente soit lien vers un
     fichier, soit lien vers un répertoire mais ne s'adapte pas
     dynamiquement au type de la cible.  Si la cible existe le lien sera
     crée du même type que sa cible.  Dans le cas où cible n'existe pas,
     si 'target_is_directory' vaut ‘True’ le lien symbolique sera créé
     comme un répertoire, sinon comme un fichier (par défaut).  Sur les
     autres plateformes, 'target_id_directory' est ignoré.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note des chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertories: 10cd.

          Note: On newer versions of Windows 10, unprivileged accounts
          can create symlinks if Developer Mode is enabled.  When
          Developer Mode is not available/enabled, the
          'SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege' privilege is required, or the
          process must be run as an administrator.

          *note OSError: 40d. est levée quand la fonction est appelée
          par un utilisateur sans privilèges.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.symlink’ avec les
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note Plateformes WebAssembly:
     179d. for more information.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge des les liens
     symboliques sur Windows 6.0 (Vista).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter, and now
     allow 'target_is_directory' on non-Windows platforms.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'src' et 'dst'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for unelevated symlinks
     on Windows with Developer Mode.

 -- Fonction: os.sync ()

     Force l'écriture de tout sur le disque.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: os.truncate (path, length)

     Tronque le fichier correspondant à 'path', afin qu'il soit au
     maximum long de 'length' bytes.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.truncate’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘length’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge de Windows

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.unlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Supprime (retire) le fichier 'path'.  Cette fonction est
     sémantiquement identique à *note remove(): 10d3.  Le nom ‘unlink’
     est un nom Unix traditionnel.  Veuillez voir la documentation de
     *note remove(): 10d3. pour plus d'informations.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.remove’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre 'dir_fd' ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.utime (path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Définit les derniers moments d'accès et de modification du fichier
     spécifiés par 'path'.

     La fonction *note utime(): 10d9. prend deux paramètres optionnels,
     'times' et 'ns'.  Ils spécifient le temps mis pour 'path' et est
     utilisé comme suit :

        - Si 'ns' est spécifié, ce doit être un couple de la forme
          ‘(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ où chaque membre est un entier qui
          exprime des nanosecondes.

        - Si 'times' ne vaut pas ‘None’, ce doit être un couple de la
          forme ‘(atime, mtime)’ où chaque membre est un entier ou une
          expression à virgule flottante.

        - Si 'times' vaut ‘None’, et 'ns' est non-spécifié.  C'est
          équivalent à spécifier ‘ns = (atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ où les deux
          moments sont le moment actuel.

     Il est erroné de spécifier des 'n'-uplets pour 'times' et 'ns' à la
     fois.

     Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a
     subsequent *note stat(): 48c. call, depending on the resolution
     with which your operating system records access and modification
     times; see *note stat(): 48c.  The best way to preserve exact times
     is to use the 'st_atime_ns' and 'st_mtime_ns' fields from the *note
     os.stat(): 48c. result object with the 'ns' parameter to *note
     utime(): 10d9.

     Cette fonction prend en charge *note la spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c, *note les chemins relatifs à des
     descripteurs de répertoires: 10cd, et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.utime’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajoute la prise en charge d'un
     descripteur de fichier pour 'path' et des paramètres 'dir_fd',
     'follow_symlinks' et 'ns'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.walk (top, topdown=True, onerror=None,
          followlinks=False)

     Génère les noms de fichier dans un arbre de répertoire en
     parcourant l'arbre soit de bas-en-haut, soit de haut-en-bas.  Pour
     chaque répertoire dans l'arbre enraciné en le répertoire 'rop'
     (incluant ledit répertoire 'top'), fournit un triplet ‘(dirpath,
     dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a string, the path to the directory.  'dirnames' is a
     list of the names of the subdirectories in 'dirpath' (including
     symlinks to directories, and excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’).
     'filenames' is a list of the names of the non-directory files in
     'dirpath'.  Note that the names in the lists contain no path
     components.  To get a full path (which begins with 'top') to a file
     or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘os.path.join(dirpath, name)’.
     Whether or not the lists are sorted depends on the file system.  If
     a file is removed from or added to the 'dirpath' directory during
     generating the lists, whether a name for that file be included is
     unspecified.

     Si l'argument optionnel 'topdown' vaut ‘True’ ou n'est pas
     spécifié, le triplet pour un répertoire est généré avant les
     triplets de tous ses sous-répertoires (les répertoires sont générés
     de haut-en-bas).  Si 'topdown' vaut ‘False’, le triplet pour un
     répertoire est généré après les triplets de tous ses
     sous-répertoires (les répertoires sont générés de bas-en-haut).
     Peu importe la valeur de 'topdown', la liste des sous-répertoires
     est récupérée avant que les 'n'-uplets pour le répertoires et ses
     sous-répertoires ne soient générés.

     Quand 'topdown' vaut ‘True’, l'appelant peut modifier la liste
     'dirnames' en place (par exemple en utilisant *note del: 1762. ou
     l'assignation par 'slicing' (par tranches)) et *note walk(): 495.
     ne fera sa récursion que dans les sous-répertoires dont le nom
     reste dans 'dirnames' ; cela peut être utilisé pour élaguer la
     recherche, imposer un ordre particulier de visite, ou encore pour
     informer *note walk(): 495. des répertoires créés par l'appelant ou
     renommés avant qu'il quitte *note walk(): 495. à nouveau.  Modifier
     'dirnames' quand 'topdown' vaut ‘False’ n'a aucun effet dur le
     comportement du parcours parce qu'en mode bas-en-haut, les
     répertoires dans 'dirnames' sont générés avant que 'dirpath' ne
     soit lui-même généré.

     Par défaut, les erreurs d'un appel à *note scandir(): a4f. sont
     ignorées.  Si l'argument optionnel 'onerror' est spécifié, il doit
     être une fonction qui sera appelée avec un seul argument, une
     instance de *note OSError: 40d.  Elle peut rapporter l'erreur et
     continuer le parcours, ou lever l'exception pour avorter le
     parcours.  Notez que le nom de fichier est disponible dans
     l'attribut ‘filename’ de l'objet exception.

     Par défaut, *note walk(): 495. ne parcourra pas les liens
     symboliques qui mènent à un répertoire.  Définissez 'followlinks'
     avec ‘True’ pour visiter les répertoires pointés par des liens
     symboliques sur les systèmes qui le gère.

          Note: Soyez au courant que définir 'followlinks' avec ‘True’
          peut mener à une récursion infinie si un lien pointe vers un
          répertoire parent de lui-même.  *note walk(): 495. ne garde
          pas de trace des répertoires qu'il a déjà visité.

          Note: Si vous passez un chemin relatif, ne changer pas le
          répertoire de travail actuel entre deux exécutions de *note
          walk(): 495.  *note walk(): 495. ne change jamais le
          répertoire actuel, et suppose que l'appelant ne le fait pas
          non plus.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn't look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          from os.path import join, getsize
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
              print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     Dans l'exemple suivant (simple implémentation d'un *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f6.), parcourir l'arbre de bas-en-haut est
     essentiel : *note rmdir(): 10d6. ne permet pas de supprimer un
     répertoire avant qu'un ne soit vide :

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
          os.rmdir(top)

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.walk’ avec les arguments
     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Cette fonction appelle maintenant
     *note os.scandir(): a4f. au lieu de *note os.listdir(): 10dc, ce
     qui la rend plus rapide en réduisant le nombre d'appels à *note
     os.stat(): 48c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.fwalk (top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *,
          follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)

     Se comporte exactement comme *note walk(): 495, si ce n'est qu'il
     fournit un quadruplet ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)’, et
     gère ‘dir_fd’.

     'dirpath', 'dirnames' et 'filenames' sont identiques à la sortie de
     *note walk(): 495. et 'dirfd' est un descripteur de fichier faisant
     référence au répertoire 'dirpath'.

     Cette fonction prend toujours en charge *note les chemins relatifs
     à des descripteurs de fichiers: 10cd. et *note le non-suivi des
     liens symboliques: 10ce.  Notez cependant qu'à l'inverse des autres
     fonctions, la valeur par défaut de 'follow_symlinks' pour *note
     walk(): 495. est ‘False’.

          Note: Puisque *note fwalk(): b4b. fournit des descripteurs de
          fichiers, ils ne sont valides que jusque la prochaine
          itération.  Donc vous devriez les dupliquer (par exemple avec
          *note dup(): 199b.) si vous désirez les garder plus longtemps.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn't look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end="")
              print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
                    end="")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     Dans le prochain exemple, parcourir l'arbre de bas-en-haut est
     essentiel : *note rmdir(): 10d6. ne permet pas de supprimer un
     répertoire avant qu'il ne soit vide :

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.fwalk’ avec les
     arguments ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de la gestion des chemins de
     type *note bytes: 1bd.

 -- Fonction: os.memfd_create (name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create an anonymous file and return a file descriptor that refers
     to it.  'flags' must be one of the ‘os.MFD_*’ constants available
     on the system (or a bitwise ORed combination of them).  By default,
     the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ee6.

     The name supplied in 'name' is used as a filename and will be
     displayed as the target of the corresponding symbolic link in the
     directory ‘/proc/self/fd/’.  The displayed name is always prefixed
     with ‘memfd:’ and serves only for debugging purposes.  Names do not
     affect the behavior of the file descriptor, and as such multiple
     files can have the same name without any side effects.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: os.MFD_CLOEXEC
 -- Données: os.MFD_ALLOW_SEALING
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGETLB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_SHIFT
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_MASK
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_64KB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_512KB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_1MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_2MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_8MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_16MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_32MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_256MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_512MB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_1GB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_2GB
 -- Données: os.MFD_HUGE_16GB

     These flags can be passed to *note memfd_create(): 9fb.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27

     The ‘MFD_HUGE*’ flags are only available since Linux 4.14.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: os.eventfd (initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create and return an event file descriptor.  The file descriptors
     supports raw *note read(): d84. and *note write(): d8a. with a
     buffer size of 8, *note select(): d8f, *note poll(): 2b6b. and
     similar.  See man page ‘eventfd(2)(9)’ for more information.  By
     default, the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ee6.

     'initval' is the initial value of the event counter.  The initial
     value must be a 32 bit unsigned integer.  Please note that the
     initial value is limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the
     event counter is an unsigned 64 bit integer with a maximum value of
     2^64-2.

     'flags' can be constructed from *note EFD_CLOEXEC: 178a, *note
     EFD_NONBLOCK: 178b, and *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 178c.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 178c. is specified and the event counter is
     non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 2b6c. returns 1 and decrements the
     counter by one.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 178c. is not specified and the event
     counter is non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 2b6c. returns the
     current event counter value and resets the counter to zero.

     If the event counter is zero and *note EFD_NONBLOCK: 178b. is not
     specified, *note eventfd_read(): 2b6c. blocks.

     *note eventfd_write(): 2b6d. increments the event counter.  Write
     blocks if the write operation would increment the counter to a
     value larger than 2^64-2.

     Exemple :

          import os

          # semaphore with start value '1'
          fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFC_CLOEXEC)
          try:
              # acquire semaphore
              v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
              try:
                  do_work()
              finally:
                  # release semaphore
                  os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
          finally:
              os.close(fd)

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: os.eventfd_read (fd)

     Read value from an *note eventfd(): 804. file descriptor and return
     a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that 'fd' is
     an *note eventfd(): 804.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: os.eventfd_write (fd, value)

     Add value to an *note eventfd(): 804. file descriptor.  'value'
     must be a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that
     'fd' is an *note eventfd(): 804.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: os.EFD_CLOEXEC

     Set close-on-exec flag for new *note eventfd(): 804. file
     descriptor.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: os.EFD_NONBLOCK

     Set *note O_NONBLOCK: e2a. status flag for new *note eventfd():
     804. file descriptor.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: os.EFD_SEMAPHORE

     Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an *note eventfd():
     804. file descriptor.  On read the internal counter is decremented
     by one.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.30

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

* Menu:

* Timer File Descriptors::
* Attributs étendus pour Linux::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/access(2)

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082

   (4) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx

   (8) https://msdn.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/aa363788

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/eventfd(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Timer File Descriptors,  Next: Attributs étendus pour Linux,  Up: Fichiers et répertoires

5.16.1.9 Timer File Descriptors
...............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

These functions provide support for Linux's 'timer file descriptor' API.
Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.

 -- Fonction: os.timerfd_create (clockid, /, *, flags=0)

     Create and return a timer file descriptor ('timerfd').

     The file descriptor returned by *note timerfd_create(): 20e.
     supports:

        - *note read(): d84.

        - *note select(): d8f.

        - *note poll(): 2b6b.

     The file descriptor's *note read(): d84. method can be called with
     a buffer size of 8.  If the timer has already expired one or more
     times, *note read(): d84. returns the number of expirations with
     the host's endianness, which may be converted to an *note int: 254.
     by ‘int.from_bytes(x, byteorder=sys.byteorder)’.

     *note select(): d8f. and *note poll(): 2b6b. can be used to wait
     until timer expires and the file descriptor is readable.

     'clockid' must be a valid *note clock ID: 2b6f, as defined in the
     *note time: ed. module:

        - *note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 687.

        - *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686.

        - *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b7e. (Since Linux 3.15 for
          timerfd_create)

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 687, a settable
     system-wide real-time clock is used.  If system clock is changed,
     timer setting need to be updated.  To cancel timer when system
     clock is changed, see *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 216.

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686, a non-settable
     monotonically increasing clock is used.  Even if the system clock
     is changed, the timer setting will not be affected.

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b7e, same as *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686. except it includes any time that the
     system is suspended.

     The file descriptor's behaviour can be modified by specifying a
     'flags' value.  Any of the following variables may used, combined
     using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        - *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 213.

        - *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 214.

     If *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 213. is not set as a flag, *note read():
     d84. blocks until the timer expires.  If it is set as a flag, *note
     read(): d84. doesn't block, but If there hasn't been an expiration
     since the last call to read, *note read(): d84. raises *note
     OSError: 40d. with ‘errno’ is set to *note errno.EAGAIN: 225a.

     *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 214. is always set by Python automatically.

     The file descriptor must be closed with *note os.close(): b64. when
     it is no longer needed, or else the file descriptor will be leaked.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The ‘timerfd_create(2)(1)’ man page.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.timerfd_settime (fd, /, *, flags=flags, initial=0.0,
          interval=0.0)

     Alter a timer file descriptor's internal timer.  This function
     operates the same interval timer as *note timerfd_settime_ns():
     210.

     'fd' must be a valid timer file descriptor.

     The timer's behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Any of the following variables may used, combined using
     bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        - *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 215.

        - *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 216.

     The timer is disabled by setting 'initial' to zero (‘0’).  If
     'initial' is equal to or greater than zero, the timer is enabled.
     If 'initial' is less than zero, it raises an *note OSError: 40d.
     exception with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.EINVAL: 19ad.

     By default the timer will fire when 'initial' seconds have elapsed.
     (If 'initial' is zero, timer will fire immediately.)

     However, if the *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 215. flag is set, the
     timer will fire when the timer's clock (set by 'clockid' in *note
     timerfd_create(): 20e.) reaches 'initial' seconds.

     The timer's interval is set by the 'interval' *note float: 2ec.  If
     'interval' is zero, the timer only fires once, on the initial
     expiration.  If 'interval' is greater than zero, the timer fires
     every time 'interval' seconds have elapsed since the previous
     expiration.  If 'interval' is less than zero, it raises *note
     OSError: 40d. with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.EINVAL: 19ad.

     If the *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 216. flag is set along with
     *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 215. and the clock for this timer is *note
     time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 687, the timer is marked as cancelable if the
     real-time clock is changed discontinuously.  Reading the descriptor
     is aborted with the error ECANCELED.

     Linux manages system clock as UTC. A daylight-savings time
     transition is done by changing time offset only and doesn't cause
     discontinuous system clock change.

     Discontinuous system clock change will be caused by the following
     events:

        - ‘settimeofday’

        - ‘clock_settime’

        - set the system date and time by ‘date’ command

     Return a two-item tuple of (‘next_expiration’, ‘interval’) from the
     previous timer state, before this function executed.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     ‘timerfd_create(2)(2)’, ‘timerfd_settime(2)(3)’,
     ‘settimeofday(2)(4)’, ‘clock_settime(2)(5)’, and ‘date(1)(6)’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.timerfd_settime_ns (fd, /, *, flags=0, initial=0,
          interval=0)

     Similar to *note timerfd_settime(): 20f, but use time as
     nanoseconds.  This function operates the same interval timer as
     *note timerfd_settime(): 20f.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.timerfd_gettime (fd, /)

     Return a two-item tuple of floats (‘next_expiration’, ‘interval’).

     ‘next_expiration’ denotes the relative time until next the timer
     next fires, regardless of if the *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 215. flag
     is set.

     ‘interval’ denotes the timer's interval.  If zero, the timer will
     only fire once, after ‘next_expiration’ seconds have elapsed.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     ‘timerfd_gettime(2)(7)’

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.timerfd_gettime_ns (fd, /)

     Similar to *note timerfd_gettime(): 211, but return time as
     nanoseconds.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: os.TFD_NONBLOCK

     A flag for the *note timerfd_create(): 20e. function, which sets
     the *note O_NONBLOCK: e2a. status flag for the new timer file
     descriptor.  If *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 213. is not set as a flag,
     *note read(): d84. blocks.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: os.TFD_CLOEXEC

     A flag for the *note timerfd_create(): 20e. function, If *note
     TFD_CLOEXEC: 214. is set as a flag, set close-on-exec flag for new
     file descriptor.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: os.TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME

     A flag for the *note timerfd_settime(): 20f. and *note
     timerfd_settime_ns(): 210. functions.  If this flag is set,
     'initial' is interpreted as an absolute value on the timer's clock
     (in UTC seconds or nanoseconds since the Unix Epoch).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: os.TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET

     A flag for the *note timerfd_settime(): 20f. and *note
     timerfd_settime_ns(): 210. functions along with *note
     TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 215.  The timer is cancelled when the time of
     the underlying clock changes discontinuously.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_settime(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/settimeofday(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/clock_settime(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/date(1)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_gettime(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Attributs étendus pour Linux,  Prev: Timer File Descriptors,  Up: Fichiers et répertoires

5.16.1.10 Attributs étendus pour Linux
......................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Toutes ces fonctions ne sont disponibles que sur Linux.

 -- Fonction: os.getxattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut étendu 'attribute' du système de
     fichiers pour le chemin 'path'.  'attribute' peut être une chaîne
     de caractères ou d'octets (directement ou indirectement à travers
     une interface *note PathLike: c41.).  Si c'est une chaîne de
     caractères, elle est encodée avec l'encodage du système de
     fichiers.

     Cette fonction peut supporter la *note spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c. et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.getxattr’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘attribute’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'path' et 'attribute'.

 -- Fonction: os.listxattr (path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Renvoie une liste d'attributs du système de fichiers étendu pour
     'path'.  Les attributs dans le liste sont représentés par des
     chaînes de caractères et sont décodés avec l'encodage du système de
     fichier.  Si 'path' vaut ‘None’, *note listxattr(): 10e7. examinera
     le répertoire actuel.

     Cette fonction peut supporter la *note spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c. et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.listxattr’ avec
     l'argument ‘path’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os.removexattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Removes the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' from 'path'.
     'attribute' should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through
     the *note PathLike: c41. interface).  If it is a string, it is
     encoded with the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

     Cette fonction peut supporter la *note spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c. et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.removexattr’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘attribute’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'path' et 'attribute'.

 -- Fonction: os.setxattr (path, attribute, value, flags=0, *,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' on 'path' to
     'value'.  'attribute' must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs
     (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: c41.
     interface).  If it is a str, it is encoded with the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.  'flags' may be *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 2b71. or *note XATTR_CREATE: 2b72.  If *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 2b71. is given and the attribute does not exist,
     ‘ENODATA’ will be raised.  If *note XATTR_CREATE: 2b72. is given
     and the attribute already exists, the attribute will not be created
     and ‘EEXISTS’ will be raised.

     Cette fonction peut supporter la *note spécification d'un
     descripteur de fichier: b4c. et *note le non-suivi des liens
     symboliques: 10ce.

          Note: Un bogue des versions inférieures à 2.6.39 du noyau
          Linux faisait que les marqueurs de 'flags' étaient ignorés sur
          certains systèmes.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.setxattr’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d. pour 'path' et 'attribute'.

 -- Données: os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX

     La taille maximum que peut faire la valeur d'un attribut étendu.
     Actuellement, c'est 64 KiB sur Lniux.

 -- Données: os.XATTR_CREATE

     C'est une valeur possible pour l'argument 'flags' de *note
     setxattr(): 10e9.  Elle indique que l'opération doit créer un
     attribut.

 -- Données: os.XATTR_REPLACE

     C'est une valeur possible pour l'argument 'flags' de *note
     setxattr(): 10e9.Elle indique que l'opération doit remplacer un
     attribut existant.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des processus,  Next: Interface pour l'ordonnanceur,  Prev: Fichiers et répertoires,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.11 Gestion des processus
...............................

Ces fonctions peuvent être utilisées pour créer et gérer des processus.

Les variantes des fonctions *note exec*: 2b76. prennent une liste
d'arguments pour le nouveau programme chargé dans le processus.  Dans
tous les cas, le premier de ces arguments est passé au nouveau programme
comme son propre nom plutôt que comme un argument qu'un utilisateur peut
avoir tapé en ligne de commande.  Pour les développeurs C, c'est
l'argument ‘argv[0]’ qui est passé à la fonction ‘main()’ du programme.
Par exemple, ‘os.execv('/bin/echo/', ['foo', 'bar'])’ affichera
uniquement ‘bar’ sur la sortie standard ; ‘foo’ semblera être ignoré.

 -- Fonction: os.abort ()

     Génère un signal ‘SIGABRT’ au processus actuel.  Sur Linux, le
     comportement par défaut est de produire un vidage système ('Core
     Dump') ; sur Windows, le processus renvoie immédiatement un code
     d'erreur ‘3’.  Attention : appeler cette fonction n'appellera pas
     le gestionnaire de signal Python enregistré par ‘SIGABRT’ à l'aide
     de *note signal.signal(): 1116.

 -- Fonction: os.add_dll_directory (path)

     Ajoute un chemin aux chemins de recherche de DLL.

     This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported
     extension modules (the module itself is resolved through *note
     sys.path: 3ab.), and also by *note ctypes: 2a.

     Remove the directory by calling 'close()' on the returned object or
     using it in a *note with: 5be. statement.

     See the Microsoft documentation(1) for more information about how
     DLLs are loaded.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.add_dll_directory’ avec
     l'argument ‘path’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Previous versions of CPython would
     resolve DLLs using the default behavior for the current process.
     This led to inconsistencies, such as only sometimes searching
     ‘PATH’ or the current working directory, and OS functions such as
     ‘AddDllDirectory’ having no effect.

     In 3.8, the two primary ways DLLs are loaded now explicitly
     override the process-wide behavior to ensure consistency.  See the
     *note porting notes: a8e. for information on updating libraries.

 -- Fonction: os.execl (path, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- Fonction: os.execle (path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- Fonction: os.execlp (file, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- Fonction: os.execlpe (file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- Fonction: os.execv (path, args)
 -- Fonction: os.execve (path, args, env)
 -- Fonction: os.execvp (file, args)
 -- Fonction: os.execvpe (file, args, env)

     Ces fonctions exécutent toutes un nouveau programme, remplaçant le
     processus actuel, elles ne renvoient pas.  Sur Unix, le nouvel
     exécutable est chargé dans le processus actuel, et aura le même
     identifiant de processus (PID) que l'appelant.  Les erreurs seront
     reportées par des exceptions *note OSError: 40d.

     Le processus actuel est remplacé immédiatement.  Les fichiers
     objets et descripteurs de fichiers ne sont pas purgés, donc s'il
     est possible que des données aient été mises en tampon pour ces
     fichiers, vous devriez les purger manuellement en utilisant
     ‘sys.stdout.flush()’ ou *note os.fsync(): d7d. avant d'appeler une
     fonction *note exec*: 2b76.

     The "l" and "v" variants of the *note exec*: 2b76. functions differ
     in how command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants are
     perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘execl*()’ functions.  The "v"
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process
     should start with the name of the command being run, but this is
     not enforced.

     The variants which include a "p" near the end (*note execlp():
     2b79, *note execlpe(): 2b7a, *note execvp(): 2b7b, and *note
     execvpe(): 2b7c.) will use the ‘PATH’ environment variable to
     locate the program 'file'.  When the environment is being replaced
     (using one of the *note exec*e: 2b76. variants, discussed in the
     next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of the
     ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, *note execl(): 2b76, *note
     execle(): 2b78, *note execv(): 2ad7, and *note execve(): 10db, will
     not use the ‘PATH’ variable to locate the executable; 'path' must
     contain an appropriate absolute or relative path.  Relative paths
     must include at least one slash, even on Windows, as plain names
     will not be resolved.

     Pour les fonctions *note execle(): 2b78, *note execlpe(): 2b7a,
     *note execve(): 10db, et *note execvpe(): 2b7c. (notez qu'elle
     finissent toutes par « e »), le paramètre 'env' doit être un
     'mapping' qui est utilisé pour définir les variables
     d'environnement du nouveau processus (celles-ci sont utilisées à la
     place de l'environnement du nouveau processus).  Les fonctions
     *note execl(): 2b76, *note execlp(): 2b79, *note execv(): 2ad7, et
     *note execvp(): 2b7b. causent toutes un héritage de l'environnement
     du processus actuel par le processus fils.

     Pour *note execve(): 10db, sur certaines plate-formes, 'path' peut
     également être spécifié par un descripteur de fichier ouvert.
     Cette fonctionnalité peut ne pas être gérée sur votre plate-forme.
     Vous pouvez vérifier si c'est disponible en utilisant
     ‘os._supports_fd’.  Si c'est indisponible, l'utiliser lèvera une
     *note NotImplementedError: 225.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.exec’ avec les arguments
     ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as
     an open file descriptor for *note execve(): 10db.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: os._exit (n)

     Quitte le processus avec le statut 'n', sans appeler les
     gestionnaires de nettoyage, sans purger les tampons des fichiers,
     etc.

          Note: The standard way to exit is *note sys.exit(n): 1329.
          ‘_exit()’ should normally only be used in the child process
          after a *note fork(): 195.

Les codes de sortie suivants sont définis et peuvent être utilisés avec
*note _exit(): 2254, mais ils ne sont pas nécessaires.  Ils sont
typiquement utilisés pour les programmes systèmes écrits en Python,
comme un programme de gestion de l'exécution des commandes d'un serveur
de mails.

     Note: Certaines de ces valeurs peuvent ne pas être disponibles sur
     toutes les plate-formes Unix étant donné qu'il en existe des
     variations.  Ces constantes sont définies là où elles sont définies
     par la plate-forme sous-jacente.

 -- Données: os.EX_OK

     Exit code that means no error occurred.  May be taken from the
     defined value of ‘EXIT_SUCCESS’ on some platforms.  Generally has a
     value of zero.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Données: os.EX_USAGE

     Code de sortie signifiant que les commandes n'ont pas été utilisées
     correctement, comme quand le mauvais nombre d'arguments a été
     donné.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_DATAERR

     Code de sortie signifiant que les données en entrées étaient
     incorrectes.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_NOINPUT

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un des fichiers d'entrée n'existe pas
     ou n'est pas lisible.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_NOUSER

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un utilisateur spécifié n'existe pas.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_NOHOST

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un hôte spécifié n'existe pas.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_UNAVAILABLE

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un service requis n'est pas
     disponible.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_SOFTWARE

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur interne d'un programme a
     été détectée.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_OSERR

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur du système d'exploitation a
     été détectée, comme l'incapacité à réaliser un 'fork' ou à créer un
     tuyau ('pipe').

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_OSFILE

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un fichier n'existe pas, n'a pas pu
     être ouvert, ou avait une autre erreur.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_CANTCREAT

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un fichier spécifié par l'utilisateur
     n'a pas pu être créé.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_IOERR

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur est apparue pendant une E/S
     sur un fichier.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_TEMPFAIL

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un échec temporaire est apparu.  Cela
     indique quelque chose qui pourrait ne pas être une erreur, comme
     une connexion au réseau qui n'a pas pu être établie pendant une
     opération réessayable.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_PROTOCOL

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'un protocole d'échange est illégal,
     invalide, ou non-compris.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_NOPERM

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'il manque certaines permissions pour
     réaliser une opération (mais n'est pas destiné au problèmes de
     système de fichiers).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_CONFIG

     Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur de configuration est
     apparue.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Données: os.EX_NOTFOUND

     Code de sortie signifiant quelque chose comme « une entrée n'a pas
     été trouvée ».

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.fork ()

     'Fork' un processus fils.  Renvoie ‘0’ dans le processus fils et le
     PID du processus fils dans le processus père.  Si une erreur
     apparaît, une *note OSError: 40d. est levée.

     Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have
     known issues when using ‘fork()’ from a thread.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘sys.fork’ sans argument.

          Avertissement: If you use TLS sockets in an application
          calling ‘fork()’, see the warning in the *note ssl: cf.
          documentation.

          Avertissement: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe
          when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that
          includes using *note urllib.request: 10a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Calling ‘fork()’ in a subinterpreter
     is no longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 193. is raised).

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your
     process has multiple threads, *note os.fork(): 195. now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

     We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better
     inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform
     specifically notes as not supported.  Even in code that 'appears'
     to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with *note
     os.fork(): 195. on POSIX platforms.  The CPython runtime itself has
     always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child
     process when threads existed in the parent (such as ‘malloc’ and
     ‘free’).

     Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other
     than those typically found in glibc to date are among those already
     more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.

     See this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads(2) for
     technical details of why we're surfacing this longstanding platform
     compatibility problem to developers.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.forkpty ()

     'Fork' un processus fils, en utilisant un nouveau pseudo-terminal
     comme terminal contrôlant le fils.  Renvoie une paire ‘(pid, fd)’
     où 'pid' vaut ‘0’ dans le fils et le PID du processus fils dans le
     parent, et 'fd' est le descripteur de fichier de la partie maître
     du pseudo-terminal.  Pour une approche plus portable, utilisez le
     module *note pty: b0.  Si une erreur apparaît, une *note OSError:
     40d. est levée.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘sys.forkpty’ sans argument.

          Avertissement: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe
          when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that
          includes using *note urllib.request: 10a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Calling ‘forkpty()’ in a
     subinterpreter is no longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 193. is
     raised).

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your
     process has multiple threads, this now raises a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  See the longer explanation on *note
     os.fork(): 195.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.kill (pid, sig, /)

     Envoie le signal 'sig' au processus 'pid'.  Les constantes pour les
     signaux spécifiques à la plate-forme hôte sont définies dans le
     module *note signal: c5.

     Windows: The *note signal.CTRL_C_EVENT: 1341. and *note
     signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1342. signals are special signals which
     can only be sent to console processes which share a common console
     window, e.g., some subprocesses.  Any other value for 'sig' will
     cause the process to be unconditionally killed by the
     TerminateProcess API, and the exit code will be set to 'sig'.

     Voir également *note signal.pthread_kill(): 1113.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.kill’ avec les arguments
     ‘pid’, ‘sig’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.killpg (pgid, sig, /)

     Envoie le signal 'sig' au groupe de processus 'pgid'.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.killpg’ avec les
     arguments ‘pgid’, ‘sig’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.nice (increment, /)

     Ajoute 'increment' à la priorité du processus.  Renvoie la nouvelle
     priorité.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Fonction: os.pidfd_open (pid, flags=0)

     Return a file descriptor referring to the process 'pid' with
     'flags' set.  This descriptor can be used to perform process
     management without races and signals.

     See the ‘pidfd_open(2)(3)’ man page for more details.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 5.3, Android >= *note
     build-time: b7a. API level 31

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

      -- Données: os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK

          This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be
          non-blocking.  If the process referred to by the file
          descriptor has not yet terminated, then an attempt to wait on
          the file descriptor using ‘waitid(2)(4)’ will immediately
          return the error *note EAGAIN: 225a. rather than blocking.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 5.10

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: os.plock (op, /)

     Verrouille les segments du programme en mémoire.  La valeur de 'op'
     (définie dans ‘<sys/lock.h>’) détermine quels segments sont
     verrouillés.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.popen (cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)

     Open a pipe to or from command 'cmd'.  The return value is an open
     file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written
     depending on whether 'mode' is ‘'r'’ (default) or ‘'w'’.  The
     'buffering' argument have the same meaning as the corresponding
     argument to the built-in *note open(): 508. function.  The returned
     file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.

     La méthode ‘close’ renvoie *note None: 662. si le sous-processus
     s'est terminé avec succès, ou le code de retour du sous-processus
     s'il y a eu une erreur.  Sur les systèmes POSIX, si le code de
     retour est positif, il représente la valeur de retour du processus
     décalée d'un byte sur la gauche.  Si le code de retour est négatif,
     le processus le processus s'est terminé avec le signal donné par la
     négation de la valeur de retour.  (Par exemple, la valeur de retour
     pourrait être ‘-signal.SIGKILL’ si le sous-processus a été tué).
     Sur les systèmes Windows, la valeur de retour contient le code de
     retour du processus fils dans un entier signé .

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to
     convert the ‘close’ method result (exit status) into an exit code
     if it is not ‘None’.  On Windows, the ‘close’ method result is
     directly the exit code (or ‘None’).

     Ceci est implémenté en utilisant *note subprocess.Popen: 197.
     Lisez la documentation de cette classe pour des méthodes plus
     puissantes pour gérer et communiquer avec des sous-processus.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

          Note: The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. affects encodings used
          for 'cmd' and pipe contents.

          *note popen(): a77. is a simple wrapper around *note
          subprocess.Popen: 197.  Use *note subprocess.Popen: 197. or
          *note subprocess.run(): b76. to control options like
          encodings.

 -- Fonction: os.posix_spawn (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawn()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Most users should use *note subprocess.run(): b76. instead of *note
     posix_spawn(): 21d.

     The positional-only arguments 'path', 'args', and 'env' are similar
     to *note execve(): 10db.  'env' is allowed to be ‘None’, in which
     case current process' environment is used.

     The 'path' parameter is the path to the executable file.  The
     'path' should contain a directory.  Use *note posix_spawnp(): 19ed.
     to pass an executable file without directory.

     The 'file_actions' argument may be a sequence of tuples describing
     actions to take on specific file descriptors in the child process
     between the C library implementation's ‘fork()’ and ‘exec()’ steps.
     The first item in each tuple must be one of the three type
     indicator listed below describing the remaining tuple elements:

      -- Données: os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN’, 'fd', 'path', 'flags', 'mode')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd)’.

      -- Données: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.close(fd)’.

      -- Données: os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2’, 'fd', 'new_fd')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(fd, new_fd)’.

      -- Données: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.closerange(fd, INF)’.

     These tuples correspond to the C library
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2()’, and
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’ API calls used to
     prepare for the ‘posix_spawn()’ call itself.

     The 'setpgroup' argument will set the process group of the child to
     the value specified.  If the value specified is 0, the child's
     process group ID will be made the same as its process ID. If the
     value of 'setpgroup' is not set, the child will inherit the
     parent's process group ID. This argument corresponds to the C
     library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP’ flag.

     If the 'resetids' argument is ‘True’ it will reset the effective
     UID and GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent
     process.  If the argument is ‘False’, then the child retains the
     effective UID and GID of the parent.  In either case, if the
     set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission bits are enabled on the
     executable file, their effect will override the setting of the
     effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS’ flag.

     If the 'setsid' argument is ‘True’, it will create a new session ID
     for ‘posix_spawn’.  'setsid' requires ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID’ or
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP’ flag.  Otherwise, *note
     NotImplementedError: 225. is raised.

     The 'setsigmask' argument will set the signal mask to the signal
     set specified.  If the parameter is not used, then the child
     inherits the parent's signal mask.  This argument corresponds to
     the C library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK’ flag.

     The 'sigdef' argument will reset the disposition of all signals in
     the set specified.  This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF’ flag.

     The 'scheduler' argument must be a tuple containing the (optional)
     scheduler policy and an instance of *note sched_param: 155d. with
     the scheduler parameters.  A value of ‘None’ in the place of the
     scheduler policy indicates that is not being provided.  This
     argument is a combination of the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM’ and ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER’ flags.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.posix_spawn’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'env' parameter accepts ‘None’.
     ‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM’ is available on platforms where
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’ exists.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.posix_spawnp (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawnp()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Similar to *note posix_spawn(): 21d. except that the system
     searches for the 'executable' file in the list of directories
     specified by the ‘PATH’ environment variable (in the same way as
     for ‘execvp(3)’).

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.posix_spawn’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     See *note posix_spawn(): 21d. documentation.

 -- Fonction: os.register_at_fork (*, before=None, after_in_parent=None,
          after_in_child=None)

     Enregistre des appelables ('callables') à exécuter quand un nouveau
     processus enfant est crée avec *note os.fork(): 195. ou des APIs
     similaires de clonage de processus.  Les paramètres sont optionnels
     et par mots-clé uniquement.  Chacun spécifie un point d'appel
     différent.

        * 'before' est une fonction appelée avant de 'forker' un
          processus enfant.

        * 'after_in_parent' est une fonction appelée depuis le processus
          parent après avoir 'forké' un processus enfant.

        * 'after_in_child' est une fonction appelée depuis le processus
          enfant.

     Ces appels ne sont effectués que si le contrôle est censé retourner
     à l'interpréteur Python.  Un lancement de *note subprocess: d5.
     typique ne les déclenchera pas, car l'enfant ne ré-entre pas dans
     l'interpréteur.

     Les fonctions enregistrées pour l'exécution avant le 'fork' sont
     appelées dans l'ordre inverse à leur enregistrement.  Les fonctions
     enregistrées pour l'exécution après le 'fork' (soit dans le parent
     ou dans l'enfant) sont appelées dans l'ordre de leur
     enregistrement.

     Notez que les appels à ‘fork()’ faits par du code C de modules
     tiers peuvent ne pas appeler ces fonctions, à moins que ce code
     appelle explicitement *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): baf, *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bb0. et *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1.

     Il n'y a aucun moyen d'annuler l'enregistrement d'une fonction.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: os.spawnl (mode, path, ...)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnle (mode, path, ..., env)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnlp (mode, file, ...)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnlpe (mode, file, ..., env)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnv (mode, path, args)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnve (mode, path, args, env)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnvp (mode, file, args)
 -- Fonction: os.spawnvpe (mode, file, args, env)

     Exécute le programme 'path' dans un nouveau processus.

     (Notez que le module *note subprocess: d5. fournit des outils plus
     puissants pour générer de nouveaux processus et récupérer leur
     valeur de retour.  Il est préférable d'utiliser ce module que ces
     fonctions.  Voyez surtout la section *note Remplacer les fonctions
     plus anciennes par le module subprocess: 116a.)

     Si 'mode' vaut *note P_NOWAIT: 2b99, cette fonction renvoie le PID
     du nouveau processus, et si 'mode' vaut *note P_WAIT: 2b9a, la
     fonction renvoie le code de sortie du processus s'il se termine
     normalement, ou ‘-signal’ où 'signal' est le signal qui a tué le
     processus.  Sur Windows, le PID du processus sera en fait
     l'identificateur du processus ('process handle') et peut donc être
     utilisé avec la fonction *note waitpid(): d89.

     Note on VxWorks, this function doesn't return ‘-signal’ when the
     new process is killed.  Instead it raises OSError exception.

     The "l" and "v" variants of the *note spawn*: 16ed. functions
     differ in how command-line arguments are passed.  The "l" variants
     are perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘spawnl*()’ functions.  The "v"
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
     start with the name of the command being run.

     Les variantes qui incluent un « p » vers la fin (*note spawnlp():
     2b93, *note spawnlpe(): 2b94, *note spawnvp(): 2b97, et *note
     spawnvpe(): 2b98.) utiliseront la variable d'environnement ‘PATH’
     pour localiser le programme 'file'.  Quand l'environnement est
     remplacé (en utilisant une des variantes *note spawn*e: 16ed,
     discutées dans le paragraphe suivant), le nouvel environnement est
     utilisé comme source de la variable d'environnement ‘PATH’.  Les
     autres variantes *note spawnl(): 16ed, *note spawnle(): 2b92, *note
     spawnv(): 2b95, et *note spawnve(): 2b96. n'utiliseront pas la
     variable d'environnement ‘PATH’ pour localiser l'exécutable.
     'path' doit contenir un chemin absolue ou relatif approprié.

     Pour les fonctions *note spawnle(): 2b92, *note spawnlpe(): 2b94,
     *note spawnve(): 2b96, et *note spawnvpe(): 2b98. (notez qu'elles
     finissent toutes par « e »), le paramètre 'env' doit être un
     'mapping' qui est utilisé pour définir les variables
     d'environnement du nouveau processus (celles-ci sont utilisées à la
     place de l'environnement du nouveau processus).  Les fonctions
     *note spawnl(): 16ed, *note spawnlp(): 2b93, *note spawnv(): 2b95,
     et *note spawnvp(): 2b97. causent toutes un héritage de
     l'environnement du processus actuel par le processus fils.  Notez
     que les clefs et les valeurs du dictionnaire 'env' doivent être des
     chaînes de caractères.  Des valeurs invalides pour les clefs ou les
     valeurs met la fonction en échec et renvoie ‘127’.

     Par exemple, les appels suivants à *note spawnlp(): 2b93. et *note
     spawnvpe(): 2b98. sont équivalents :

          import os
          os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')

          L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
          os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.spawn’ avec les
     arguments ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     *note spawnlp(): 2b93, *note spawnlpe(): 2b94, *note spawnvp():
     2b97, et *note spawnvpe(): 2b98. ne sont pas disponibles sur
     Windows.  *note spawnle(): 2b92. et *note spawnve(): 2b96. ne sont
     pas sécurisés pour les appels concurrents ('thread-safe') sur
     Windows, il est conseillé d'utiliser le module *note subprocess:
     d5. à la place.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Données: os.P_NOWAIT
 -- Données: os.P_NOWAITO

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 16ed.
     family of functions.  If either of these values is given, the *note
     spawn*: 16ed. functions will return as soon as the new process has
     been created, with the process id as the return value.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Données: os.P_WAIT

     Possible value for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 16ed.
     family of functions.  If this is given as 'mode', the *note spawn*:
     16ed. functions will not return until the new process has run to
     completion and will return the exit code of the process the run is
     successful, or ‘-signal’ if a signal kills the process.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Données: os.P_DETACH
 -- Données: os.P_OVERLAY

     Valeurs possibles pour le paramètre 'mode' de la famille de
     fonctions *note spawn*: 16ed.  Ces valeurs sont moins portables que
     celles listées plus haut.  *note P_DETACH: 2b9c. est similaire à
     *note P_NOWAIT: 2b99, mais le nouveau processus est détaché de la
     console du processus appelant.  Si *note P_OVERLAY: 2b9d. est
     utilisé, le processus actuel sera remplacé.  La fonction *note
     spawn*: 16ed. ne sort jamais.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.startfile (path[, operation][, arguments][, cwd][,
          show_cmd])

     Lance un fichier avec son application associée.

     When 'operation' is not specified, this acts like double-clicking
     the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an
     argument to the ‘start’ command from the interactive command shell:
     the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension
     is associated.

     When another 'operation' is given, it must be a "command verb" that
     specifies what should be done with the file.  Common verbs
     documented by Microsoft are ‘'open'’, ‘'print'’ and ‘'edit'’ (to be
     used on files) as well as ‘'explore'’ and ‘'find'’ (to be used on
     directories).

     When launching an application, specify 'arguments' to be passed as
     a single string.  This argument may have no effect when using this
     function to launch a document.

     The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden
     by the 'cwd' argument.  This should be an absolute path.  A
     relative 'path' will be resolved against this argument.

     Use 'show_cmd' to override the default window style.  Whether this
     has any effect will depend on the application being launched.
     Values are integers as supported by the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function.

     *note startfile(): 1888. returns as soon as the associated
     application is launched.  There is no option to wait for the
     application to close, and no way to retrieve the application's exit
     status.  The 'path' parameter is relative to the current directory
     or 'cwd'.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first
     character is not a slash (‘'/'’) Use *note pathlib: a3. or the
     *note os.path.normpath(): 12fa. function to ensure that paths are
     properly encoded for Win32.

     To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If
     the function cannot be resolved, *note NotImplementedError: 225.
     will be raised.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.startfile’ avec les
     arguments ‘path’, ‘operation’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘os.startfile/2’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the 'arguments', 'cwd' and
     'show_cmd' arguments, and the ‘os.startfile/2’ audit event.

 -- Fonction: os.system (command)

     Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented
     by calling the Standard C function ‘system()’, and has the same
     limitations.  Changes to *note sys.stdin: 52a, etc.  are not
     reflected in the environment of the executed command.  If 'command'
     generates any output, it will be sent to the interpreter standard
     output stream.  The C standard does not specify the meaning of the
     return value of the C function, so the return value of the Python
     function is system-dependent.

     On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded
     in the format specified for *note wait(): d87.

     Sur Windows, la valeur de retour est celle renvoyée par l'invite de
     commande système après avoir lancé 'command'.  L'invite de commande
     est donné par la variable d'environnement Windows ‘COMSPEC’.  Elle
     vaut habituellement ‘cmd.exe’, qui renvoie l'état de sortie de la
     commande lancée.  Sur les systèmes qui utilisent un invite de
     commande non-natif, consultez la documentation propre à l'invite.

     Le module *note subprocess: d5. fournit des outils plus puissants
     pour générer de nouveaux processus et pour récupérer leur résultat.
     Il est préférable d'utiliser ce module plutôt que d'utiliser cette
     fonction.  Voir la section *note Remplacer les fonctions plus
     anciennes par le module subprocess: 116a. de la documentation du
     module *note subprocess: d5. pour des informations plus précises et
     utiles.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to
     convert the result (exit status) into an exit code.  On Windows,
     the result is directly the exit code.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘os.system’ avec comme
     argument ‘command’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.times ()

     Renvoie les temps globaux actuels d'exécution du processus.  La
     valeur de retour est un objet avec cinq attributs :

        * ‘user’ - user time

        * ‘system’ - system time

        * ‘children_user’ - user time of all child processes

        * ‘children_system’ - system time of all child processes

        * ‘elapsed’ - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past

     For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a
     five-tuple containing ‘user’, ‘system’, ‘children_user’,
     ‘children_system’, and ‘elapsed’ in that order.

     See the Unix manual page ‘times(2)(5)’ and times(3)(6) manual page
     on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN(7) on Windows.  On Windows,
     only ‘user’ and ‘system’ are known; the other attributes are zero.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Type de retour changé d'un quintuplet
     en un objet compatible avec le type 'n'-uplet, avec des attributs
     nommés.

 -- Fonction: os.wait ()

     Attend qu'un processus fils soit complété, et renvoie une paire
     contenant son PID et son état de sortie : un nombre de 16 bits dont
     le 'byte' de poids faible est le nombre correspondant au signal qui
     a tué le processus, et dont le 'byte' de poids fort est le statut
     de sortie (si la signal vaut ‘0’).  Le bit de poids fort du 'byte'
     de poids faible est mis à 1 si un (fichier système) 'core file' a
     été produit.

     If there are no children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: 1043. is raised.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The other ‘wait*()’ functions documented below can be used to wait
     for the completion of a specific child process and have more
     options.  *note waitpid(): d89. is the only one also available on
     Windows.

 -- Fonction: os.waitid (idtype, id, options, /)

     Wait for the completion of a child process.

     'idtype' can be *note P_PID: 2b9e, *note P_PGID: 2b9f, *note P_ALL:
     2ba0, or (on Linux) *note P_PIDFD: 909.  The interpretation of 'id'
     depends on it; see their individual descriptions.

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  At least one of *note
     WEXITED: 2ba1, *note WSTOPPED: 2ba2. or *note WCONTINUED: 2ba3. is
     required; *note WNOHANG: 2ba4. and *note WNOWAIT: 2ba5. are
     additional optional flags.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure with the following attributes:

        * ‘si_pid’ (process ID)

        * ‘si_uid’ (real user ID of the child)

        * ‘si_signo’ (always *note SIGCHLD: 2ba6.)

        * ‘si_status’ (the exit status or signal number, depending on
          ‘si_code’)

        * ‘si_code’ (see *note CLD_EXITED: 2ba7. for possible values)

     If *note WNOHANG: 2ba4. is specified and there are no matching
     children in the requested state, ‘None’ is returned.  Otherwise, if
     there are no matching children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: 1043. is raised.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function is now available on
     macOS as well.

 -- Fonction: os.waitpid (pid, options, /)

     Les détails de cette fonction diffèrent sur Unix et Windows.

     Sur Unix : attend qu'un processus fils donné par son id de
     processus 'pid' soit terminé, et renvoie une paire contenant son
     PID et son statut de sortie (encodé comme pour *note wait(): d87.).
     La sémantique de cet appel est affecté par la valeur de l'argument
     entier 'options', qui devrait valoir ‘0’ pour les opérations
     normales.

     Si 'pid' est plus grand que ‘0’, *note waitpid(): d89. introduit
     une requête pour des informations sur le statut du processus
     spécifié.  Si 'pid' vaut ‘0’, la requête est pour le statut de tous
     les fils dans le groupe de processus du processus actuel.  Si 'pid'
     vaut ‘-1’, la requête concerne tous les processus fils du processus
     actuel.  Si 'pid' est inférieur à ‘-1’, une requête est faite pour
     le statut de chaque processus du groupe de processus donné par
     ‘-pid’ (la valeur absolue de 'pid').

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  If it contains *note
     WNOHANG: 2ba4. and there are no matching children in the requested
     state, ‘(0, 0)’ is returned.  Otherwise, if there are no matching
     children that could be waited for, *note ChildProcessError: 1043.
     is raised.  Other options that can be used are *note WUNTRACED:
     2ba8. and *note WCONTINUED: 2ba3.

     Sur Windows : attend que qu'un processus donné par l'identificateur
     de processus ('process handle') 'pid' soit complété, et renvoie une
     paire contenant 'pid' et son statut de sortie décalé de 8 bits vers
     la gauche (le décalage rend l'utilisation multiplateformes plus
     facile).  Un 'pid' inférieur ou égal à ‘0’ n'a aucune signification
     particulière en Windows, et lève une exception.  L'argument entier
     'options' n'a aucun effet.  'pid' peut faire référence à tout
     processus dont l'identifiant est connu et pas nécessairement à un
     processus fils.  Les fonctions *note spawn*: 16ed. appelées avec
     *note P_NOWAIT: 2b99. renvoient des identificateurs de processus
     appropriés.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(8) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Fonction: os.wait3 (options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): d89, except no process id argument is
     given and a 3-element tuple containing the child's process id, exit
     status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
     Refer to *note resource.getrusage(): 13e9. for details on resource
     usage information.  The 'options' argument is the same as that
     provided to *note waitpid(): d89. and *note wait4(): d86.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.wait4 (pid, options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): d89, except a 3-element tuple,
     containing the child's process id, exit status indication, and
     resource usage information is returned.  Refer to *note
     resource.getrusage(): 13e9. for details on resource usage
     information.  The arguments to *note wait4(): d86. are the same as
     those provided to *note waitpid(): d89.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Données: os.P_PID
 -- Données: os.P_PGID
 -- Données: os.P_ALL
 -- Données: os.P_PIDFD

     These are the possible values for 'idtype' in *note waitid(): d88.
     They affect how 'id' is interpreted:

        * ‘P_PID’ - wait for the child whose PID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_PGID’ - wait for any child whose progress group ID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_ALL’ - wait for any child; 'id' is ignored.

        * ‘P_PIDFD’ - wait for the child identified by the file
          descriptor 'id' (a process file descriptor created with *note
          pidfd_open(): 466.).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

          Note: ‘P_PIDFD’ is only available on Linux >= 5.4.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9: The ‘P_PIDFD’ constant.

 -- Données: os.WCONTINUED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): d89, *note wait3(): d85,
     *note wait4(): d86, and *note waitid(): d88. causes child processes
     to be reported if they have been continued from a job control stop
     since they were last reported.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Données: os.WEXITED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): d88. causes child processes
     that have terminated to be reported.

     The other ‘wait*’ functions always report children that have
     terminated, so this option is not available for them.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.WSTOPPED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): d88. causes child processes
     that have been stopped by the delivery of a signal to be reported.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: os.WUNTRACED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): d89, *note wait3(): d85,
     and *note wait4(): d86. causes child processes to also be reported
     if they have been stopped but their current state has not been
     reported since they were stopped.

     This option is not available for *note waitid(): d88.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Données: os.WNOHANG

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitpid(): d89, *note wait3():
     d85, *note wait4(): d86, and *note waitid(): d88. to return right
     away if no child process status is available immediately.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Données: os.WNOWAIT

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitid(): d88. to leave the child
     in a waitable state, so that a later ‘wait*()’ call can be used to
     retrieve the child status information again.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Données: os.CLD_EXITED
 -- Données: os.CLD_KILLED
 -- Données: os.CLD_DUMPED
 -- Données: os.CLD_TRAPPED
 -- Données: os.CLD_STOPPED
 -- Données: os.CLD_CONTINUED

     These are the possible values for ‘si_code’ in the result returned
     by *note waitid(): d88.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added *note CLD_KILLED: 907. and *note
     CLD_STOPPED: 908. values.

 -- Fonction: os.waitstatus_to_exitcode (status)

     Convert a wait status to an exit code.

     On Unix:

        * If the process exited normally (if ‘WIFEXITED(status)’ is
          true), return the process exit status (return
          ‘WEXITSTATUS(status)’): result greater than or equal to 0.

        * If the process was terminated by a signal (if
          ‘WIFSIGNALED(status)’ is true), return ‘-signum’ where
          'signum' is the number of the signal that caused the process
          to terminate (return ‘-WTERMSIG(status)’): result less than 0.

        * Otherwise, raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.

     On Windows, return 'status' shifted right by 8 bits.

     On Unix, if the process is being traced or if *note waitpid(): d89.
     was called with *note WUNTRACED: 2ba8. option, the caller must
     first check if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.  This function must
     not be called if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note WIFEXITED(): 2bac, *note WEXITSTATUS(): 2bad, *note
     WIFSIGNALED(): 2bae, *note WTERMSIG(): 2baf, *note WIFSTOPPED():
     2bb0, *note WSTOPSIG(): 2bb1. functions.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Les fonctions suivantes prennent un code de statu tel que renvoyé par
*note system(): 1413, *note wait(): d87, ou *note waitpid(): d89. en
paramètre.  Ils peuvent être utilisés pour déterminer la disposition
d'un processus.

 -- Fonction: os.WCOREDUMP (status, /)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si un vidage système ('core dump') a été généré pour
     le processus, sinon, renvoie ‘False’.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 2bae.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WIFCONTINUED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of
     *note SIGCONT: 2bb4. (if the process has been continued from a job
     control stop), otherwise return ‘False’.

     See *note WCONTINUED: 2ba3. option.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WIFSTOPPED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was stopped by delivery of a signal,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note WIFSTOPPED(): 2bb0. only returns ‘True’ if the *note
     waitpid(): d89. call was done using *note WUNTRACED: 2ba8. option
     or when the process is being traced (see ‘ptrace(2)(9)’).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WIFSIGNALED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WIFEXITED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process exited terminated normally, that is,
     by calling ‘exit()’ or ‘_exit()’, or by returning from ‘main()’;
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WEXITSTATUS (status)

     Return the process exit status.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFEXITED(): 2bac.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WSTOPSIG (status)

     Renvoie le signal qui a causé l'arrêt du processus.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSTOPPED(): 2bb0.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Fonction: os.WTERMSIG (status)

     Return the number of the signal that caused the process to
     terminate.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 2bae.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/t/33555

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_open(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/waitid(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/times(2)

   (6) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)

   (7) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/ptrace(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Interface pour l'ordonnanceur,  Next: Diverses informations sur le système,  Prev: Gestion des processus,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.12 Interface pour l'ordonnanceur
.......................................

Ces fonctions contrôlent un processus se voit allouer du temps de
processus par le système d'exploitation.  Elles ne sont disponibles que
sur certaines plate-formes Unix.  Pour des informations plus détaillées,
consultez les pages de manuels Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Les polices d'ordonnancement suivantes sont exposées si elles sont
gérées par le système d'exploitation.

 -- Données: os.SCHED_OTHER

     La police d'ordonnancement par défaut.

 -- Données: os.SCHED_BATCH

     Police d'ordonnancement pour les processus intensifs en utilisation
     du processeur.  Cette police essaye de préserver l'interactivité
     pour le reste de l'ordinateur.

 -- Données: os.SCHED_IDLE

     Police d'ordonnancement pour les tâches de fond avec une priorité
     extrêmement faible.

 -- Données: os.SCHED_SPORADIC

     Police d'ordonnancement pour des programmes serveurs sporadiques.

 -- Données: os.SCHED_FIFO

     Une police d'ordonnancement 'FIFO' (dernier arrivé, premier servi).

 -- Données: os.SCHED_RR

     Une police d'ordonnancement 'round-robin' (tourniquet).

 -- Données: os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK

     Cette option peut combiner différentes politiques d'ordonnancement
     avec un OU bit-à-bit.  Quand un processus avec cette option se
     dédouble, la politique d'ordonnancement et la priorité du processus
     fils sont remises aux valeurs par défaut.

 -- Classe: os.sched_param (sched_priority)

     Cette classe représente des paramètres d'ordonnancement réglables
     utilisés pour *note sched_setparam(): 10f1, *note
     sched_setscheduler(): 10f2, et *note sched_getparam(): 10ed.  Un
     objet de ce type est immuable.

     Pour le moment, il n'y a qu'un seul paramètre possible :

      -- Attribut: sched_priority

          La priorité d'ordonnancement pour une police d'ordonnancement.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_get_priority_min (policy)

     Récupère la valeur minimum pour une priorité pour la police
     'policy'.  'policy' est une des constantes de police définies
     ci-dessus.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_get_priority_max (policy)

     Récupère la valeur maximum pour une priorité pour la police
     'policy'.  'policy' est une des constantes de police définies
     ci-dessus.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_setscheduler (pid, policy, param, /)

     Définit la police d'ordonnancement pour le processus de PID 'pid'.
     Un 'pid' de ‘0’ signifie le processus appelant.  'policy' est une
     des constantes de police définies ci-dessus.  'param' est une
     instance de la classe *note sched_param: 155d.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_getscheduler (pid, /)

     Renvoie la police d'ordonnancement pour le processus de PID 'pid'.
     Un 'pid' de 0 signifie le processus appelant.  Le résultat est une
     des constantes de police définies ci-dessus.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_setparam (pid, param, /)

     Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  'param' is a *note
     sched_param: 155d. instance.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_getparam (pid, /)

     Renvoie les paramètres d'ordonnancement dans une de *note
     sched_param: 155d. pour le processus de PID 'pid'.  Un 'pid' de ‘0’
     signifie le processus appelant.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_rr_get_interval (pid, /)

     Renvoie le quantum de temps du 'round-robin' (en secondes) pour le
     processus de PID 'pid'.  Un 'pid' de ‘0’ signifie le processus
     appelant.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_yield ()

     Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See ‘sched_yield(2)(1)’ for
     details.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_setaffinity (pid, mask, /)

     Restreint le processus de PID 'pid' (ou le processus actuel si
     'pid' vaut ‘0’) à un ensemble de CPUs.  'mask' est un itérable
     d'entiers représentant l'ensemble de CPUs auquel le processus doit
     être restreint.

 -- Fonction: os.sched_getaffinity (pid, /)

     Return the set of CPUs the process with PID 'pid' is restricted to.

     If 'pid' is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the
     current process is restricted to.

     See also the *note process_cpu_count(): 1bf. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sched_yield(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Diverses informations sur le système,  Next: Nombres aléatoires<2>,  Prev: Interface pour l'ordonnanceur,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.13 Diverses informations sur le système
..............................................

 -- Fonction: os.confstr (name, /)

     Renvoie les valeurs de configuration en chaînes de caractères.
     'name' spécifie la valeur de configuration à récupérer.  Ce peut
     être une chaîne de caractères représentant le nom d'une valeur
     système définie dans un nombre de standards (POSIX, Unix 95, Unix
     98, et d'autres).  Certaines plate-formes définissent des noms
     supplémentaires également.  Les noms connus par le système
     d'exploitation hôte sont données dans les clefs du dictionnaire
     ‘confstr_names’.  Pour les variables de configuration qui ne sont
     pas incluses dans ce 'mapping', passer un entier pour 'name' est
     également accepté.

     Si la valeur de configuration spécifiée par 'name' n'est pas
     définie, ‘None’ est renvoyé.

     Si 'name' est une chaîne de caractères et n'est pas connue, une
     *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Si une valeur spécifique pour
     'name' n'est pas gérée par le système hôte, même si elle est
     incluse dans ‘confstr_names’, une *note OSError: 40d. est levée
     avec *note errno.EINVAL: 19ad. pour numéro d'erreur.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: os.confstr_names

     Dictionnaire liant les noms acceptés par *note confstr(): 1524. aux
     valeurs entières définies pour ces noms par le système
     d'exploitation hôte.  Cela peut être utilisé pour déterminer
     l'ensemble des noms connus du système.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of logical CPUs in the 'system'.  Returns ‘None’
     if undetermined.

     The *note process_cpu_count(): 1bf. function can be used to get the
     number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the 'current
     process'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: If *note -X cpu_count: 175. is given
     or *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 20d. is set, *note cpu_count(): 1c0.
     returns the overridden value 'n'.

 -- Fonction: os.getloadavg ()

     Renvoie le nombre de processus dans la file d'exécution du système
     en moyenne dans les dernières 1, 5, et 15 minutes, ou lève une
     *note OSError: 40d. si la charge moyenne est impossible à
     récupérer.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: os.process_cpu_count ()

     Get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the
     'current process'.  Returns ‘None’ if undetermined.  It can be less
     than *note cpu_count(): 1c0. depending on the CPU affinity.

     The *note cpu_count(): 1c0. function can be used to get the number
     of logical CPUs in the 'system'.

     If *note -X cpu_count: 175. is given or *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:
     20d. is set, *note process_cpu_count(): 1bf. returns the overridden
     value 'n'.

     See also the *note sched_getaffinity(): 10ec. function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: os.sysconf (name, /)

     Renvoie les valeurs de configuration en nombres entiers.  Si la
     valeur de configuration définie par 'name' n'est pas spécifiée,
     ‘-1’ est renvoyé.  Les commentaires concernant le paramètre 'name'
     de *note confstr(): 1524. s'appliquent également ici, le
     dictionnaire qui fournit les informations sur les noms connus est
     donné par ‘sysconf_names’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: os.sysconf_names

     Dictionnaire liant les noms acceptés par *note sysconf(): 1525. aux
     valeurs entières définies pour ces noms par le système
     d'exploitation hôte.  Cela peut être utilisé pour déterminer
     l'ensemble des noms connus du système.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Add ‘'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ'’ name.

Les valeurs suivantes sont utilisées pour gérer les opérations de
manipulations de chemins.  Elles sont définies pour toutes les
plate-formes.

Des opérations de plus haut niveau sur les chemins sont définies dans le
module *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.curdir

     La chaîne de caractère constante utilisée par le système
     d'exploitation pour référencer le répertoire actuel.  Ça vaut ‘'.'’
     pour Windows et POSIX. Également disponible par *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.pardir

     La chaîne de caractère constante utilisée par le système
     d'exploitation pour référencer le répertoire parent.  Ça vaut
     ‘'..'’ pour Windows et POSIX. Également disponible par *note
     os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.sep

     Le caractère utilisé par le système d'exploitation pour séparer les
     composantes des chemins.  C'est ‘'/'’ pour POSIX, et ‘'\\'’ pour
     Windows.  Notez que ce n'est pas suffisant pour pouvoir analyser ou
     concaténer correctement des chemins (utilisez alors *note
     os.path.split(): 278e. et *note os.path.join(): 15ee.), mais ça
     peut s'avérer utile occasionnellement.  Également disponible par
     *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.altsep

     Un caractère alternatif utilisé par le système d'exploitation pour
     séparer les composantes des chemins, ou ‘None’ si un seul
     séparateur existe.  Ça vaut ‘'/'’ sur Windows où ‘sep’ est un
     antislash ‘'\'’.  Également disponible par *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.extsep

     Le caractère qui sépare la base du nom d'un fichier et son
     extension.  Par exemple, le ‘'.'’ de ‘os.py’.  Également disponible
     par *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.pathsep

     Le caractère conventionnellement utilisé par le système
     d'exploitation pour séparer la recherche des composantes de chemin
     (comme dans la variable d'environnement ‘PATH’).  Cela vaut ‘':'’
     pour POSIX, ou ‘';'’ pour Windows.  Également disponible par *note
     os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.defpath

     Le chemin de recherche par défaut utilisé par *note exec*: 2b76. et
     *note spawn*: 16ed. si l'environnement n'a pas une clef ‘'PATH'’.
     Également disponible par *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.linesep

     La chaîne de caractères utilisée pour séparer (ou plutôt pour
     terminer) les lignes sur la plate-forme actuelle.  Ce peut être un
     caractère unique (comme ‘'\n'’ pour POSIX,) ou plusieurs caractères
     (comme ‘'\r\n'’ pour Windows).  N'utilisez pas 'os.linesep' comme
     terminateur de ligne quand vous écrivez dans un fichier ouvert en
     mode 'texte' (par défaut).  Utilisez un unique ‘'\n'’ à la place,
     sur toutes les plate-formes.

 -- Données: os.devnull

     Le chemin de fichier du périphérique 'null'.  Par exemple :
     ‘'/dev/null'’ pour POSIX, ‘'nul'’ pour Windows.  Également
     disponible par *note os.path: a1.

 -- Données: os.RTLD_LAZY
 -- Données: os.RTLD_NOW
 -- Données: os.RTLD_GLOBAL
 -- Données: os.RTLD_LOCAL
 -- Données: os.RTLD_NODELETE
 -- Données: os.RTLD_NOLOAD
 -- Données: os.RTLD_DEEPBIND

     Marqueurs à utiliser avec les fonctions *note setdlopenflags():
     1101. et *note getdlopenflags(): 14c7.  Voir les pages de manuel
     Unix ‘dlopen(3)(1)’ pour les différences de significations entre
     les marqueurs.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Nombres aléatoires<2>,  Prev: Diverses informations sur le système,  Up: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.14 Nombres aléatoires
............................

 -- Fonction: os.getrandom (size, flags=0)

     Obtient 'size' octets aléatoires.  La fonction renvoie
     éventuellement moins d'octets que demandé.

     Ces octets peuvent être utilisés pour initialiser un générateur de
     nombres aléatoires dans l'espace utilisateur ou pour des raisons
     cryptographiques.

     ‘getrandom()’ se base sur l'entropie rassemblée depuis les pilotes
     des périphériques et autres sources de bruits de l'environnement.
     La lecture de grosses quantités de données aura un impact négatif
     sur les autres utilisateurs des périphériques ‘/dev/random’ et
     ‘/dev/urandom’.

     The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of
     the following values ORed together: *note os.GRND_RANDOM: 2bc5. and
     *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2bc6.

     See also the Linux getrandom() manual page(1).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.17.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Fonction: os.urandom (size, /)

     Return a bytestring of 'size' random bytes suitable for
     cryptographic use.

     Cette fonction renvoie des octets aléatoires depuis un source
     spécifique à l'OS. Les données renvoyées sont censées être
     suffisamment imprévisibles pour les applications cryptographiques,
     bien que la qualité dépende de l'implémentation du système.

     Sous Linux, si l'appel système ‘getrandom()’ est disponible, il est
     utilisé en mode bloquant : il bloque jusqu'à ce que la réserve
     d'entropie d''urandom' soit initialisée (128 bits d'entropie sont
     collectés par le noyau).  Voir la PEP 524(2) pour plus
     d'explications.  Sous Linux, la fonction *note getrandom(): cad.
     peut être utilisée pour obtenir des octets aléatoires en mode
     non-bloquant (avec l'option *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2bc6.) ou attendre
     jusqu'à ce que la réserve d'entropie d''urandom' soit initialisée.

     Sur un système de type UNIX, les octets aléatoires sont lus depuis
     le périphérique ‘/dev/urandom’.  Si le périphérique ‘/dev/urandom’
     n'est pas disponible ou n'est pas lisible, l'exception *note
     NotImplementedError: 225. est levée.

     On Windows, it will use ‘BCryptGenRandom()’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     Le module *note secrets: bf. fournit des fonctions de plus haut
     niveau.  Pour une interface facile à utiliser du générateur de
     nombres aléatoires fourni par votre plate-forme, veuillez regarder
     *note random.SystemRandom: 2699.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Sur Linux 3.17 et plus récent, l'appel
     système ‘getrandom()’ est maintenant utilisé quand il est
     disponible.  Sur OpenBSD 5.6 et plus récent, la fonction C
     ‘getentropy()’ est utilisée.  Ces fonctions évitent l'utilisation
     interne d'un descripteur de fichier.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: Sous Linux, si l'appel système
     ‘getrandom()’ bloque (la réserve d'entropie d''urandom' n'est pas
     encore initialisée), réalise à la place une lecture de
     ‘/dev/urandom’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sous Linux, ‘getrandom()’ est
     maintenant utilisé en mode bloquant pour renforcer la sécurité.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: On Windows, ‘BCryptGenRandom()’ is
     used instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.

 -- Données: os.GRND_NONBLOCK

     Par défaut, quand elle lit depuis ‘/dev/random’, *note getrandom():
     cad. bloque si aucun octet aléatoire n'est disponible, et quand
     elle lit depuis ‘/dev/urandom’, elle bloque si la réserve
     d'entropie n'a pas encore été initialisée.

     Si l'option *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2bc6. est activée, *note
     getrandom(): cad. ne bloque pas dans ces cas, mais lève
     immédiatement une *note BlockingIOError: 1042.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: os.GRND_RANDOM

     Si ce bit est activé, les octets aléatoires sont puisés depuis
     ‘/dev/random’ plutôt que ‘/dev/urandom’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: io --- Core tools for working with streams,  Next: time --- Time access and conversions,  Prev: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.2 ‘io’ -- Core tools for working with streams
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/io.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Aperçu: Aperçu<2>.
* Encodage de texte::
* Interface de haut niveau du module::
* Class hierarchy::
* Performances: Performances<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/io.py


File: python.info,  Node: Aperçu<2>,  Next: Encodage de texte,  Up: io --- Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.1 Aperçu
...............

The *note io: 7e. module provides Python's main facilities for dealing
with various types of I/O. There are three main types of I/O: 'text
I/O', 'binary I/O' and 'raw I/O'. These are generic categories, and
various backing stores can be used for each of them.  A concrete object
belonging to any of these categories is called a *note file object:
11a2.  Other common terms are 'stream' and 'file-like object'.

Independent of its category, each concrete stream object will also have
various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write.
It can also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards
to any location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of
a socket or pipe).

All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them.  For
example giving a *note str: 437. object to the ‘write()’ method of a
binary stream will raise a *note TypeError: 525.  So will giving a *note
bytes: 1bd. object to the ‘write()’ method of a text stream.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Operations that used to raise *note
IOError: 103d. now raise *note OSError: 40d, since *note IOError: 103d.
is now an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

* Menu:

* Entrée/sortie de texte::
* Binary I/O::
* Raw I/O::


File: python.info,  Node: Entrée/sortie de texte,  Next: Binary I/O,  Up: Aperçu<2>

5.16.2.2 Entrée/sortie de texte
...............................

Text I/O expects and produces *note str: 437. objects.  This means that
whenever the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the
case of a file), encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as
well as optional translation of platform-specific newline characters.

The easiest way to create a text stream is with *note open(): 508,
optionally specifying an encoding:

     f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")

Les flux de texte en mémoire sont également disponible sous forme
d'objets *note StringIO: f14. :

     f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")

L'API de flux textuel est décrite en détail dans la documentation de la
classe *note TextIOBase: 682.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary I/O,  Next: Raw I/O,  Prev: Entrée/sortie de texte,  Up: Aperçu<2>

5.16.2.3 Binary I/O
...................

Binary I/O (also called 'buffered I/O') expects *note bytes-like
objects: d1d. and produces *note bytes: 1bd. objects.  No encoding,
decoding, or newline translation is performed.  This category of streams
can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when manual control
over the handling of text data is desired.

The easiest way to create a binary stream is with *note open(): 508.
with ‘'b'’ in the mode string:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")

Les flux de texte en mémoire sont également disponible sous forme
d'objets *note BytesIO: e8f. :

     f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")

L'API du flux binaire est décrite en détail dans la documentation de la
classe *note BufferedIOBase: 681.

D'autres bibliothèques peuvent fournir des moyens supplémentaires pour
créer des flux de texte ou flux binaire.  Voir la méthode *note
socket.socket.makefile(): 117f. par exemple.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw I/O,  Prev: Binary I/O,  Up: Aperçu<2>

5.16.2.4 Raw I/O
................

Raw I/O (also called 'unbuffered I/O') is generally used as a low-level
building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to
directly manipulate a raw stream from user code.  Nevertheless, you can
create a raw stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering
disabled:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)

The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of *note
RawIOBase: 10b4.


File: python.info,  Node: Encodage de texte,  Next: Interface de haut niveau du module,  Prev: Aperçu<2>,  Up: io --- Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.5 Encodage de texte
..........................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. and *note open(): 508.
is locale-specific (*note locale.getencoding(): 2db.).

However, many developers forget to specify the encoding when opening
text files encoded in UTF-8 (e.g.  JSON, TOML, Markdown, etc...)  since
most Unix platforms use UTF-8 locale by default.  This causes bugs
because the locale encoding is not UTF-8 for most Windows users.  For
example:

     # May not work on Windows when non-ASCII characters in the file.
     with open("README.md") as f:
         long_description = f.read()

Accordingly, it is highly recommended that you specify the encoding
explicitly when opening text files.  If you want to use UTF-8, pass
‘encoding="utf-8"’.  To use the current locale encoding,
‘encoding="locale"’ is supported since Python 3.10.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Le mode UTF-8 de Python: 643.

     Le mode UTF-8 de Python peut être utilisé pour changer l'encodage
     par défaut en UTF-8 à partir d'un encodage local spécifique.

PEP 686(1)

     *note Le mode UTF-8 de Python: 643. sera par mis par défaut sur
     Python 3.15.

* Menu:

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-in EncodingWarning,  Up: Encodage de texte

5.16.2.6 Opt-in EncodingWarning
...............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.10: See PEP 597(1) for more details.

To find where the default locale encoding is used, you can enable the
*note -X warn_default_encoding: 175. command line option or set the
*note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7a8. environment variable, which will
emit an *note EncodingWarning: 1cfa. when the default encoding is used.

If you are providing an API that uses *note open(): 508. or *note
TextIOWrapper: 7a7. and passes ‘encoding=None’ as a parameter, you can
use *note text_encoding(): 1681. so that callers of the API will emit an
*note EncodingWarning: 1cfa. if they don't pass an ‘encoding’.  However,
please consider using UTF-8 by default (i.e.  ‘encoding="utf-8"’) for
new APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: Interface de haut niveau du module,  Next: Class hierarchy,  Prev: Encodage de texte,  Up: io --- Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.7 Interface de haut niveau du module
...........................................

 -- Données: io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE

     An int containing the default buffer size used by the module's
     buffered I/O classes.  *note open(): 508. uses the file's blksize
     (as obtained by *note os.stat(): 48c.) if possible.

 -- Fonction: io.open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     This is an alias for the builtin *note open(): 508. function.

     This function raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘open’ with
     arguments 'path', 'mode' and 'flags'.  The 'mode' and 'flags'
     arguments may have been modified or inferred from the original
     call.

 -- Fonction: io.open_code (path)

     Opens the provided file with mode ‘'rb'’.  This function should be
     used when the intent is to treat the contents as executable code.

     'path' should be a *note str: 437. and an absolute path.

     The behavior of this function may be overridden by an earlier call
     to the *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 16e5.  However, assuming
     that 'path' is a *note str: 437. and an absolute path,
     ‘open_code(path)’ should always behave the same as ‘open(path,
     'rb')’.  Overriding the behavior is intended for additional
     validation or preprocessing of the file.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: io.text_encoding (encoding, stacklevel=2, /)

     This is a helper function for callables that use *note open(): 508.
     or *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. and have an ‘encoding=None’ parameter.

     This function returns 'encoding' if it is not ‘None’.  Otherwise,
     it returns ‘"locale"’ or ‘"utf-8"’ depending on *note UTF-8 Mode:
     643.

     This function emits an *note EncodingWarning: 1cfa. if *note
     sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 679. is true and 'encoding' is
     ‘None’.  'stacklevel' specifies where the warning is emitted.  For
     example:

          def read_text(path, encoding=None):
              encoding = io.text_encoding(encoding)  # stacklevel=2
              with open(path, encoding) as f:
                  return f.read()

     In this example, an *note EncodingWarning: 1cfa. is emitted for the
     caller of ‘read_text()’.

     Voir *note Encodage de texte: 7a9. pour plus d'informations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note text_encoding(): 1681. returns
     "utf-8" when UTF-8 mode is enabled and 'encoding' is ‘None’.

 -- Exception: io.BlockingIOError

     This is a compatibility alias for the builtin *note
     BlockingIOError: 1042. exception.

 -- Exception: io.UnsupportedOperation

     An exception inheriting *note OSError: 40d. and *note ValueError:
     1ff. that is raised when an unsupported operation is called on a
     stream.

Voir aussi
..........

*note sys: d8.

     contains the standard IO streams: *note sys.stdin: 52a, *note
     sys.stdout: ac6, and *note sys.stderr: 928.


File: python.info,  Node: Class hierarchy,  Next: Performances<3>,  Prev: Interface de haut niveau du module,  Up: io --- Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.8 Class hierarchy
........................

The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of
classes.  First *note abstract base classes: 1195. (ABCs), which are
used to specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes
providing the standard stream implementations.

     Note: The abstract base classes also provide default
     implementations of some methods in order to help implementation of
     concrete stream classes.  For example, *note BufferedIOBase: 681.
     provides unoptimized implementations of ‘readinto()’ and
     ‘readline()’.

At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class *note IOBase:
1f2.  It defines the basic interface to a stream.  Note, however, that
there is no separation between reading and writing to streams;
implementations are allowed to raise *note UnsupportedOperation: 1954.
if they do not support a given operation.

The *note RawIOBase: 10b4. ABC extends *note IOBase: 1f2.  It deals with
the reading and writing of bytes to a stream.  *note FileIO: 12f0.
subclasses *note RawIOBase: 10b4. to provide an interface to files in
the machine's file system.

The *note BufferedIOBase: 681. ABC extends *note IOBase: 1f2.  It deals
with buffering on a raw binary stream (*note RawIOBase: 10b4.).  Its
subclasses, *note BufferedWriter: 2137, *note BufferedReader: 11ed, and
*note BufferedRWPair: 2bd2. buffer raw binary streams that are writable,
readable, and both readable and writable, respectively.  *note
BufferedRandom: 2138. provides a buffered interface to seekable streams.
Another *note BufferedIOBase: 681. subclass, *note BytesIO: e8f, is a
stream of in-memory bytes.

The *note TextIOBase: 682. ABC extends *note IOBase: 1f2.  It deals with
streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to
and from strings.  *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7, which extends *note
TextIOBase: 682, is a buffered text interface to a buffered raw stream
(*note BufferedIOBase: 681.).  Finally, *note StringIO: f14. is an
in-memory stream for text.

Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments
of *note open(): 508. are intended to be used as keyword arguments.

The following table summarizes the ABCs provided by the *note io: 7e.
module:

ABC                           Inherits               Stub Methods                 Méthodes et propriétés de Mixin
                                                                                  
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
*note IOBase: 1f2.                                   ‘fileno’, ‘seek’, et         ‘close’, ‘closed’, ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘flush’,
                                                     ‘truncate’                   ‘isatty’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’, ‘readable’,
                                                                                  ‘readline’, ‘readlines’, ‘seekable’, ‘tell’,
                                                                                  ‘writable’, and ‘writelines’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note RawIOBase: 10b4.        *note IOBase: 1f2.     ‘readinto’ et ‘write’        Inherited *note IOBase: 1f2. methods, ‘read’, and
                                                                                  ‘readall’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note BufferedIOBase: 681.    *note IOBase: 1f2.     ‘detach’, ‘read’, ‘read1’,   Inherited *note IOBase: 1f2. methods, ‘readinto’,
                                                     et ‘write’                   and ‘readinto1’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note TextIOBase: 682.        *note IOBase: 1f2.     ‘detach’, ‘read’,            Inherited *note IOBase: 1f2. methods, ‘encoding’,
                                                     ‘readline’, et ‘write’       ‘errors’, and ‘newlines’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* I/O Base Classes::
* Raw File I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* Entrée/sortie de texte: Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O Base Classes,  Next: Raw File I/O,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.9 I/O Base Classes
.........................

 -- Classe: io.IOBase

     The abstract base class for all I/O classes.

     This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods
     that derived classes can override selectively; the default
     implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or
     seeked.

     Even though *note IOBase: 1f2. does not declare ‘read()’ or
     ‘write()’ because their signatures will vary, implementations and
     clients should consider those methods part of the interface.  Also,
     implementations may raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. (or *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 1954.) when operations they do not support
     are called.

     The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file
     is *note bytes: 1bd.  Other *note bytes-like objects: d1d. are
     accepted as method arguments too.  Text I/O classes work with *note
     str: 437. data.

     Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is
     undefined.  Implementations may raise *note ValueError: 1ff. in
     this case.

     *note IOBase: 1f2. (and its subclasses) supports the iterator
     protocol, meaning that an *note IOBase: 1f2. object can be iterated
     over yielding the lines in a stream.  Lines are defined slightly
     differently depending on whether the stream is a binary stream
     (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding character strings).
     See *note readline(): 1309. below.

     *note IOBase: 1f2. is also a context manager and therefore supports
     the *note with: 5be. statement.  In this example, 'file' is closed
     after the ‘with’ statement's suite is finished--even if an
     exception occurs:

          with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
              file.write('Spam and eggs!')

     *note IOBase: 1f2. provides these data attributes and methods:

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Flush and close this stream.  This method has no effect if the
          file is already closed.  Once the file is closed, any
          operation on the file (e.g.  reading or writing) will raise a
          *note ValueError: 1ff.

          As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than
          once; only the first call, however, will have an effect.

      -- Attribut: closed

          ‘True’ if the stream is closed.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the
          stream if it exists.  An *note OSError: 40d. is raised if the
          IO object does not use a file descriptor.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable.  This
          does nothing for read-only and non-blocking streams.

      -- Méthode: isatty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to
          a terminal/tty device).

      -- Méthode: readable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream can be read from.  If ‘False’,
          ‘read()’ will raise *note OSError: 40d.

      -- Méthode: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read and return one line from the stream.  If 'size' is
          specified, at most 'size' bytes will be read.

          The line terminator is always ‘b'\n'’ for binary files; for
          text files, the 'newline' argument to *note open(): 508. can
          be used to select the line terminator(s) recognized.

      -- Méthode: readlines (hint=-1, /)

          Read and return a list of lines from the stream.  'hint' can
          be specified to control the number of lines read: no more
          lines will be read if the total size (in bytes/characters) of
          all lines so far exceeds 'hint'.

          'hint' values of ‘0’ or less, as well as ‘None’, are treated
          as no hint.

          Note that it's already possible to iterate on file objects
          using ‘for line in file: ...’ without calling
          ‘file.readlines()’.

      -- Méthode: seek (offset, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given byte 'offset',
          interpreted relative to the position indicated by 'whence',
          and return the new absolute position.  Values for 'whence'
          are:

             * *note os.SEEK_SET: 126d. or ‘0’ - start of the stream
               (the default); 'offset' should be zero or positive

             * *note os.SEEK_CUR: 126e. or ‘1’ - current stream
               position; 'offset' may be negative

             * *note os.SEEK_END: 126f. or ‘2’ - end of the stream;
               'offset' is usually negative

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1: The ‘SEEK_*’ constants.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Some operating systems could
          support additional values, like *note os.SEEK_HOLE: 2b00. or
          *note os.SEEK_DATA: 2b01.  The valid values for a file could
          depend on it being open in text or binary mode.

      -- Méthode: seekable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream supports random access.  If
          ‘False’, *note seek(): 126c, *note tell(): 2966. and *note
          truncate(): 12f1. will raise *note OSError: 40d.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Return the current stream position.

      -- Méthode: truncate (size=None, /)

          Resize the stream to the given 'size' in bytes (or the current
          position if 'size' is not specified).  The current stream
          position isn't changed.  This resizing can extend or reduce
          the current file size.  In case of extension, the contents of
          the new file area depend on the platform (on most systems,
          additional bytes are zero-filled).  The new file size is
          returned.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Windows will now zero-fill files
          when extending.

      -- Méthode: writable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream supports writing.  If ‘False’,
          ‘write()’ and *note truncate(): 12f1. will raise *note
          OSError: 40d.

      -- Méthode: writelines (lines, /)

          Write a list of lines to the stream.  Line separators are not
          added, so it is usual for each of the lines provided to have a
          line separator at the end.

      -- Méthode: __del__ ()

          Prepare for object destruction.  *note IOBase: 1f2. provides a
          default implementation of this method that calls the
          instance's *note close(): 1f3. method.

 -- Classe: io.RawIOBase

     Base class for raw binary streams.  It inherits from *note IOBase:
     1f2.

     Raw binary streams typically provide low-level access to an
     underlying OS device or API, and do not try to encapsulate it in
     high-level primitives (this functionality is done at a higher-level
     in buffered binary streams and text streams, described later in
     this page).

     *note RawIOBase: 10b4. provides these methods in addition to those
     from *note IOBase: 1f2.:

      -- Méthode: read (size=-1, /)

          Read up to 'size' bytes from the object and return them.  As a
          convenience, if 'size' is unspecified or -1, all bytes until
          EOF are returned.  Otherwise, only one system call is ever
          made.  Fewer than 'size' bytes may be returned if the
          operating system call returns fewer than 'size' bytes.

          If 0 bytes are returned, and 'size' was not 0, this indicates
          end of file.  If the object is in non-blocking mode and no
          bytes are available, ‘None’ is returned.

          The default implementation defers to *note readall(): 2bd9.
          and *note readinto(): e0c.

      -- Méthode: readall ()

          Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using
          multiple calls to the stream if necessary.

      -- Méthode: readinto (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. 'b', and return the number of bytes read.  For
          example, 'b' might be a *note bytearray: 52b.  If the object
          is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, ‘None’ is
          returned.

      -- Méthode: write (b, /)

          Write the given *note bytes-like object: d1d, 'b', to the
          underlying raw stream, and return the number of bytes written.
          This can be less than the length of 'b' in bytes, depending on
          specifics of the underlying raw stream, and especially if it
          is in non-blocking mode.  ‘None’ is returned if the raw stream
          is set not to block and no single byte could be readily
          written to it.  The caller may release or mutate 'b' after
          this method returns, so the implementation should only access
          'b' during the method call.

 -- Classe: io.BufferedIOBase

     Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering.
     It inherits from *note IOBase: 1f2.

     The main difference with *note RawIOBase: 10b4. is that methods
     *note read(): 1308, *note readinto(): 2bda. and *note write(): ccb.
     will try (respectively) to read as much input as requested or to
     consume all given output, at the expense of making perhaps more
     than one system call.

     In addition, those methods can raise *note BlockingIOError: 1042.
     if the underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode and cannot
     take or give enough data; unlike their *note RawIOBase: 10b4.
     counterparts, they will never return ‘None’.

     Besides, the *note read(): 1308. method does not have a default
     implementation that defers to *note readinto(): 2bda.

     A typical *note BufferedIOBase: 681. implementation should not
     inherit from a *note RawIOBase: 10b4. implementation, but wrap one,
     like *note BufferedWriter: 2137. and *note BufferedReader: 11ed.
     do.

     *note BufferedIOBase: 681. provides or overrides these data
     attributes and methods in addition to those from *note IOBase:
     1f2.:

      -- Attribut: raw

          The underlying raw stream (a *note RawIOBase: 10b4. instance)
          that *note BufferedIOBase: 681. deals with.  This is not part
          of the *note BufferedIOBase: 681. API and may not exist on
          some implementations.

      -- Méthode: detach ()

          Sépare le flux brut sous-jacent du tampon et le renvoie.

          After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an
          unusable state.

          Some buffers, like *note BytesIO: e8f, do not have the concept
          of a single raw stream to return from this method.  They raise
          *note UnsupportedOperation: 1954.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes.  If the argument is
          omitted, ‘None’, or negative, data is read and returned until
          EOF is reached.  An empty *note bytes: 1bd. object is returned
          if the stream is already at EOF.

          If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is
          not interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy
          the byte count (unless EOF is reached first).  But for
          interactive raw streams, at most one raw read will be issued,
          and a short result does not imply that EOF is imminent.

          A *note BlockingIOError: 1042. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

      -- Méthode: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes, with at most one call to
          the underlying raw stream's *note read(): e0b. (or *note
          readinto(): e0c.) method.  This can be useful if you are
          implementing your own buffering on top of a *note
          BufferedIOBase: 681. object.

          If 'size' is ‘-1’ (the default), an arbitrary number of bytes
          are returned (more than zero unless EOF is reached).

      -- Méthode: readinto (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. 'b' and return the number of bytes read.  For
          example, 'b' might be a *note bytearray: 52b.

          Like *note read(): 1308, multiple reads may be issued to the
          underlying raw stream, unless the latter is interactive.

          A *note BlockingIOError: 1042. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

      -- Méthode: readinto1 (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. 'b', using at most one call to the underlying raw
          stream's *note read(): e0b. (or *note readinto(): e0c.)
          method.  Return the number of bytes read.

          A *note BlockingIOError: 1042. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: write (b, /)

          Write the given *note bytes-like object: d1d, 'b', and return
          the number of bytes written (always equal to the length of 'b'
          in bytes, since if the write fails an *note OSError: 40d. will
          be raised).  Depending on the actual implementation, these
          bytes may be readily written to the underlying stream, or held
          in a buffer for performance and latency reasons.

          When in non-blocking mode, a *note BlockingIOError: 1042. is
          raised if the data needed to be written to the raw stream but
          it couldn't accept all the data without blocking.

          The caller may release or mutate 'b' after this method
          returns, so the implementation should only access 'b' during
          the method call.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw File I/O,  Next: Buffered Streams,  Prev: I/O Base Classes,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.10 Raw File I/O
......................

 -- Classe: io.FileIO (name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)

     A raw binary stream representing an OS-level file containing bytes
     data.  It inherits from *note RawIOBase: 10b4.

     The 'name' can be one of two things:

        * a character string or *note bytes: 1bd. object representing
          the path to the file which will be opened.  In this case
          closefd must be ‘True’ (the default) otherwise an error will
          be raised.

        * an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level
          file descriptor to which the resulting *note FileIO: 12f0.
          object will give access.  When the FileIO object is closed
          this fd will be closed as well, unless 'closefd' is set to
          ‘False’.

     The 'mode' can be ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ for reading
     (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending.  The file will
     be created if it doesn't exist when opened for writing or
     appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing.  *note
     FileExistsError: 100b. will be raised if it already exists when
     opened for creating.  Opening a file for creating implies writing,
     so this mode behaves in a similar way to ‘'w'’.  Add a ‘'+'’ to the
     mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.

     The *note read(): e0b. (when called with a positive argument),
     *note readinto(): e0c. and *note write(): 29a5. methods on this
     class will only make one system call.

     Un 'opener' personnalisé peut être utilisé en fournissant un
     appelable à 'opener'.  Le descripteur de fichier de cet objet
     fichier sera alors obtenu en appelant 'opener' avec ('file',
     'flags').  'opener' doit donner un descripteur de fichier ouvert
     (fournir *note os.open: d81. en temps qu''opener' aura le même
     effet que donner ‘None’).

     Il n'est *note pas possible d'hériter du fichier: ee6. nouvellement
     créé.

     See the *note open(): 508. built-in function for examples on using
     the 'opener' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'opener' parameter was added.  The
     ‘'x'’ mode was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Il n'est plus possible d'hériter de
     'file'.

     *note FileIO: 12f0. provides these data attributes in addition to
     those from *note RawIOBase: 10b4. and *note IOBase: 1f2.:

      -- Attribut: mode

          The mode as given in the constructor.

      -- Attribut: name

          Le nom du fichier.  C'est le descripteur du fichier
          lorsqu'aucun nom n'est donné dans le constructeur.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streams,  Next: Entrée/sortie de texte<2>,  Prev: Raw File I/O,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.11 Buffered Streams
..........................

Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device
than raw I/O does.

 -- Classe: io.BytesIO (initial_bytes=b'')

     A binary stream using an in-memory bytes buffer.  It inherits from
     *note BufferedIOBase: 681.  The buffer is discarded when the *note
     close(): 1f3. method is called.

     The optional argument 'initial_bytes' is a *note bytes-like object:
     d1d. that contains initial data.

     *note BytesIO: e8f. provides or overrides these methods in addition
     to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 681. and *note IOBase: 1f2.:

      -- Méthode: getbuffer ()

          Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the
          buffer without copying them.  Also, mutating the view will
          transparently update the contents of the buffer:

               >>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
               >>> view = b.getbuffer()
               >>> view[2:4] = b"56"
               >>> b.getvalue()
               b'ab56ef'

               Note: As long as the view exists, the *note BytesIO: e8f.
               object cannot be resized or closed.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: getvalue ()

          Return *note bytes: 1bd. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.

      -- Méthode: read1 (size=-1, /)

          In *note BytesIO: e8f, this is the same as *note read(): 1308.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'size' argument is now
          optional.

      -- Méthode: readinto1 (b, /)

          In *note BytesIO: e8f, this is the same as *note readinto():
          2bda.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: io.BufferedReader (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     readable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: 10b4. raw binary stream.
     It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 681.

     When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
     requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal
     buffer.  The buffered data can then be returned directly on
     subsequent reads.

     The constructor creates a *note BufferedReader: 11ed. for the given
     readable 'raw' stream and 'buffer_size'.  If 'buffer_size' is
     omitted, *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1682. is used.

     *note BufferedReader: 11ed. provides or overrides these methods in
     addition to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 681. and *note IOBase:
     1f2.:

      -- Méthode: peek (size=0, /)

          Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.
          At most one single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy
          the call.  The number of bytes returned may be less or more
          than requested.

      -- Méthode: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return 'size' bytes, or if 'size' is not given or
          negative, until EOF or if the read call would block in
          non-blocking mode.

      -- Méthode: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes with only one call on the
          raw stream.  If at least one byte is buffered, only buffered
          bytes are returned.  Otherwise, one raw stream read call is
          made.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'size' argument is now
          optional.

 -- Classe: io.BufferedWriter (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     writeable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: 10b4. raw binary stream.
     It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 681.

     When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an
     internal buffer.  The buffer will be written out to the underlying
     *note RawIOBase: 10b4. object under various conditions, including:

        * when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;

        * when *note flush(): 2be4. is called;

        * when a *note seek(): 126c. is requested (for *note
          BufferedRandom: 2138. objects);

        * when the *note BufferedWriter: 2137. object is closed or
          destroyed.

     The constructor creates a *note BufferedWriter: 2137. for the given
     writeable 'raw' stream.  If the 'buffer_size' is not given, it
     defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1682.

     *note BufferedWriter: 2137. provides or overrides these methods in
     addition to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 681. and *note IOBase:
     1f2.:

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream.  A *note
          BlockingIOError: 1042. should be raised if the raw stream
          blocks.

      -- Méthode: write (b, /)

          Write the *note bytes-like object: d1d, 'b', and return the
          number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a *note
          BlockingIOError: 1042. is raised if the buffer needs to be
          written out but the raw stream blocks.

 -- Classe: io.BufferedRandom (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     seekable *note RawIOBase: 10b4. raw binary stream.  It inherits
     from *note BufferedReader: 11ed. and *note BufferedWriter: 2137.

     The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw
     stream, given in the first argument.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1682.

     *note BufferedRandom: 2138. is capable of anything *note
     BufferedReader: 11ed. or *note BufferedWriter: 2137. can do.  In
     addition, *note seek(): 126c. and *note tell(): 2966. are
     guaranteed to be implemented.

 -- Classe: io.BufferedRWPair (reader, writer,
          buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, /)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to two non
     seekable *note RawIOBase: 10b4. raw binary streams--one readable,
     the other writeable.  It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 681.

     'reader' and 'writer' are *note RawIOBase: 10b4. objects that are
     readable and writeable respectively.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1682.

     *note BufferedRWPair: 2bd2. implements all of *note BufferedIOBase:
     681.'s methods except for *note detach(): 292d, which raises *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 1954.

          Avertissement: *note BufferedRWPair: 2bd2. does not attempt to
          synchronize accesses to its underlying raw streams.  You
          should not pass it the same object as reader and writer; use
          *note BufferedRandom: 2138. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Entrée/sortie de texte<2>,  Prev: Buffered Streams,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.12 Entrée/sortie de texte
................................

 -- Classe: io.TextIOBase

     Base class for text streams.  This class provides a character and
     line based interface to stream I/O. It inherits from *note IOBase:
     1f2.

     *note TextIOBase: 682. provides or overrides these data attributes
     and methods in addition to those from *note IOBase: 1f2.:

      -- Attribut: encoding

          The name of the encoding used to decode the stream's bytes
          into strings, and to encode strings into bytes.

      -- Attribut: errors

          The error setting of the decoder or encoder.

      -- Attribut: newlines

          A string, a tuple of strings, or ‘None’, indicating the
          newlines translated so far.  Depending on the implementation
          and the initial constructor flags, this may not be available.

      -- Attribut: buffer

          The underlying binary buffer (a *note BufferedIOBase: 681.
          instance) that *note TextIOBase: 682. deals with.  This is not
          part of the *note TextIOBase: 682. API and may not exist in
          some implementations.

      -- Méthode: detach ()

          Separate the underlying binary buffer from the *note
          TextIOBase: 682. and return it.

          After the underlying buffer has been detached, the *note
          TextIOBase: 682. is in an unusable state.

          Some *note TextIOBase: 682. implementations, like *note
          StringIO: f14, may not have the concept of an underlying
          buffer and calling this method will raise *note
          UnsupportedOperation: 1954.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return at most 'size' characters from the stream as a
          single *note str: 437.  If 'size' is negative or ‘None’, reads
          until EOF.

      -- Méthode: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read until newline or EOF and return a single *note str: 437.
          If the stream is already at EOF, an empty string is returned.

          If 'size' is specified, at most 'size' characters will be
          read.

      -- Méthode: seek (offset, whence=SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given 'offset'.  Behaviour
          depends on the 'whence' parameter.  The default value for
          'whence' is ‘SEEK_SET’.

             * ‘SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’: seek from the start of the stream (the
               default); 'offset' must either be a number returned by
               *note TextIOBase.tell(): 2beb, or zero.  Any other
               'offset' value produces undefined behaviour.

             * ‘SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’: "seek" to the current position;
               'offset' must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other
               values are unsupported).

             * ‘SEEK_END’ or ‘2’: seek to the end of the stream;
               'offset' must be zero (all other values are unsupported).

          Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1: The ‘SEEK_*’ constants.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Return the current stream position as an opaque number.  The
          number does not usually represent a number of bytes in the
          underlying binary storage.

      -- Méthode: write (s, /)

          Write the string 's' to the stream and return the number of
          characters written.

 -- Classe: io.TextIOWrapper (buffer, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None, line_buffering=False, write_through=False)

     A buffered text stream providing higher-level access to a *note
     BufferedIOBase: 681. buffered binary stream.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: 682.

     'encoding' gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be
     decoded or encoded with.  It defaults to *note
     locale.getencoding(): 2db.  ‘encoding="locale"’ can be used to
     specify the current locale's encoding explicitly.  See *note
     Encodage de texte: 7a9. for more information.

     'errors' is an optional string that specifies how encoding and
     decoding errors are to be handled.  Pass ‘'strict'’ to raise a
     *note ValueError: 1ff. exception if there is an encoding error (the
     default of ‘None’ has the same effect), or pass ‘'ignore'’ to
     ignore errors.  (Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to
     data loss.)  ‘'replace'’ causes a replacement marker (such as
     ‘'?'’) to be inserted where there is malformed data.
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ causes malformed data to be replaced by a
     backslashed escape sequence.  When writing, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’
     (replace with the appropriate XML character reference) or
     ‘'namereplace'’ (replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences) can be
     used.  Any other error handling name that has been registered with
     *note codecs.register_error(): 144f. is also valid.

     'newline' controls how line endings are handled.  It can be ‘None’,
     ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, and ‘'\r\n'’.  It works as follows:

        * When reading input from the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’,
          *note universal newlines: d2a. mode is enabled.  Lines in the
          input can end in ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, or ‘'\r\n'’, and these are
          translated into ‘'\n'’ before being returned to the caller.
          If 'newline' is ‘''’, universal newlines mode is enabled, but
          line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If
          'newline' has any of the other legal values, input lines are
          only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is
          returned to the caller untranslated.

        * Lors de l'écriture, si 'newline' est ‘None’, chaque ‘'\n'’ est
          remplacé par le séparateur de lignes par défaut du système
          *note os.linesep: 2136.  Si 'newline' est ‘*’ ou ‘'\n'’ aucun
          remplacent n'est effectué.  Si 'newline' est un autre
          caractère valide, chaque ‘'\n'’ sera remplacé par la chaîne
          donnée.

     If 'line_buffering' is ‘True’, *note flush(): 2bd4. is implied when
     a call to write contains a newline character or a carriage return.

     If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls to *note write(): ccb. are
     guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the *note
     TextIOWrapper: 7a7. object is immediately handled to its underlying
     binary 'buffer'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Le paramètre 'write_through' a été
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The default 'encoding' is now
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ instead of
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  Don't change temporary the locale
     encoding using *note locale.setlocale(): 2da, use the current
     locale encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'encoding' argument now supports
     the ‘"locale"’ dummy encoding name.

     *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. provides these data attributes and
     methods in addition to those from *note TextIOBase: 682. and *note
     IOBase: 1f2.:

      -- Attribut: line_buffering

          Whether line buffering is enabled.

      -- Attribut: write_through

          Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary
          buffer.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: reconfigure (*, encoding=None, errors=None,
               newline=None, line_buffering=None, write_through=None)

          Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for
          'encoding', 'errors', 'newline', 'line_buffering' and
          'write_through'.

          Parameters not specified keep current settings, except
          ‘errors='strict'’ is used when 'encoding' is specified but
          'errors' is not specified.

          Il n'est pas possible de modifier l'encodage ou une nouvelle
          ligne si des données ont déjà été lues à partir du flux.  En
          revanche, il est possible de modifier l'encodage après
          l'écriture.

          Cette méthode effectue un nettoyage implicite du flux avant de
          définir les nouveaux paramètres.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: La méthode prend en charge
          l'option ‘encoding="locale"’.

      -- Méthode: seek (cookie, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the stream position.  Return the new stream position as an
          *note int: 254.

          Four operations are supported, given by the following argument
          combinations:

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_SET)’: Rewind to the start of the stream.

             * ‘seek(cookie, SEEK_SET)’: Restore a previous position;
               'cookie' 'must be' a number returned by *note tell():
               2bef.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_END)’: Fast-forward to the end of the
               stream.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_CUR)’: Leave the current stream position
               unchanged.

          Any other argument combinations are invalid, and may raise
          exceptions.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          *note os.SEEK_SET: 126d, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 126e, and *note
          os.SEEK_END: 126f.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Return the stream position as an opaque number.  The return
          value of ‘tell()’ can be given as input to *note seek(): 2bee,
          to restore a previous stream position.

 -- Classe: io.StringIO (initial_value='', newline='\n')

     A text stream using an in-memory text buffer.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: 682.

     The text buffer is discarded when the *note close(): 1f3. method is
     called.

     The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing
     'initial_value'.  If newline translation is enabled, newlines will
     be encoded as if by *note write(): 1c32.  The stream is positioned
     at the start of the buffer which emulates opening an existing file
     in a ‘w+’ mode, making it ready for an immediate write from the
     beginning or for a write that would overwrite the initial value.
     To emulate opening a file in an ‘a+’ mode ready for appending, use
     ‘f.seek(0, io.SEEK_END)’ to reposition the stream at the end of the
     buffer.

     The 'newline' argument works like that of *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7,
     except that when writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is
     ‘None’, newlines are written as ‘\n’ on all platforms.

     *note StringIO: f14. provides this method in addition to those from
     *note TextIOBase: 682. and *note IOBase: 1f2.:

      -- Méthode: getvalue ()

          Return a *note str: 437. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.  Newlines are decoded as if by *note read(): 1c43,
          although the stream position is not changed.

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          import io

          output = io.StringIO()
          output.write('First line.\n')
          print('Second line.', file=output)

          # Retrieve file contents -- this will be
          # 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
          contents = output.getvalue()

          # Close object and discard memory buffer --
          # .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
          output.close()

 -- Classe: io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder

     A helper codec that decodes newlines for *note universal newlines:
     d2a. mode.  It inherits from *note codecs.IncrementalDecoder: 2384.


File: python.info,  Node: Performances<3>,  Prev: Class hierarchy,  Up: io --- Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.13 Performances
......................

Cette section aborde les performances des implémentations concrètes
d'Entrée/Sortie fournies.

* Menu:

* Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>.
* Entrée/sortie de texte: Entrée/sortie de texte<3>.
* Fils d'exécution: Fils d'exécution<3>.
* Réentrance::


File: python.info,  Node: Binary I/O<2>,  Next: Entrée/sortie de texte<3>,  Up: Performances<3>

5.16.2.14 Binary I/O
....................

By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks
for a single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and
executing the operating system's unbuffered I/O routines.  The gain
depends on the OS and the kind of I/O which is performed.  For example,
on some modern OSes such as Linux, unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as
buffered I/O. The bottom line, however, is that buffered I/O offers
predictable performance regardless of the platform and the backing
device.  Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use buffered I/O
rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.


File: python.info,  Node: Entrée/sortie de texte<3>,  Next: Fils d'exécution<3>,  Prev: Binary I/O<2>,  Up: Performances<3>

5.16.2.15 Entrée/sortie de texte
................................

Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower
than binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions
between unicode and binary data using a character codec.  This can
become noticeable handling huge amounts of text data like large log
files.  Also, *note tell(): 2beb. and *note seek(): 2bea. are both quite
slow due to the reconstruction algorithm used.

*note StringIO: f14, however, is a native in-memory unicode container
and will exhibit similar speed to *note BytesIO: e8f.


File: python.info,  Node: Fils d'exécution<3>,  Next: Réentrance,  Prev: Entrée/sortie de texte<3>,  Up: Performances<3>

5.16.2.16 Fils d'exécution
..........................

*note FileIO: 12f0. objects are thread-safe to the extent that the
operating system calls (such as ‘read(2)(1)’ under Unix) they wrap are
thread-safe too.

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 11ed, *note
BufferedWriter: 2137, *note BufferedRandom: 2138. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 2bd2.) protect their internal structures using a lock;
it is therefore safe to call them from multiple threads at once.

les objets *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7. ne sont pas compatibles avec les
programmes à fils d'exécutions multiples.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/read(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Réentrance,  Prev: Fils d'exécution<3>,  Up: Performances<3>

5.16.2.17 Réentrance
....................

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 11ed, *note
BufferedWriter: 2137, *note BufferedRandom: 2138. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 2bd2.) are not reentrant.  While reentrant calls will
not happen in normal situations, they can arise from doing I/O in a
*note signal: c5. handler.  If a thread tries to re-enter a buffered
object which it is already accessing, a *note RuntimeError: 193. is
raised.  Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the
buffered object.

The above implicitly extends to text files, since the *note open(): 508.
function will wrap a buffered object inside a *note TextIOWrapper: 7a7.
This includes standard streams and therefore affects the built-in *note
print(): f62. function as well.


File: python.info,  Node: time --- Time access and conversions,  Next: logging --- Logging facility for Python,  Prev: io --- Core tools for working with streams,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.3 ‘time’ -- Time access and conversions
--------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit différentes fonctions liées au temps.  Pour les
fonctionnalités associées, voir aussi les modules *note datetime: 30. et
*note calendar: 14.

Bien que ce module soit toujours disponible, toutes les fonctions ne
sont pas disponibles sur toutes les plateformes.  La plupart des
fonctions définies dans ce module délèguent à des fonctions de même nom
de la bibliothèque C. Il peut parfois être utile de consulter la
documentation de la plate-forme, car la sémantique de ces fonctions peut
varier.

Vous trouvez ci-dessous, mises en ordre, quelques explications relative
à la terminologie et aux conventions.

   * L''epoch' est le point de départ du temps, le résultat de
     ‘time.gmtime(0)’ est le 1^er janvier 1970 à 00:00:00 (UTC) pour
     toutes les plateformes.

   * Le terme 'secondes depuis *epoch*' désigne le nombre total de
     secondes écoulées depuis 'epoch', souvent en excluant les secondes
     intercalaires (leap seconds(1)).  Les secondes intercalaires sont
     exclues de ce total sur toutes les plates-formes conformes POSIX.

   * Les fonctions de ce module peuvent ne pas gérer les dates et heures
     antérieures à *note epoch: 29db. ou dans un avenir lointain.  Le
     seuil du futur est déterminé par la bibliothèque C ; pour les
     systèmes 32 bits, il s’agit généralement de 2038.

   * La fonction *note strptime(): 13e5. peut analyser des années à 2
     chiffres lorsque le format ‘%y’ est spécifié.  Lorsque les années à
     deux chiffres sont analysées, elles sont converties conformément
     aux normes POSIX et ISO C : les valeurs 69—99 correspondent à
     1969—1999 et les valeurs 0—68 à 2000—2068.

   * UTC is Coordinated Universal Time(2) and superseded Greenwich Mean
     Time(3) or GMT as the basis of international timekeeping.  The
     acronym UTC is not a mistake but conforms to an earlier,
     language-agnostic naming scheme for time standards such as UT0,
     UT1, and UT2.

   * Le DST ('Daylight Saving Time') correspond à l’heure d’été, un
     ajustement du fuseau horaire d’une heure (généralement) pendant une
     partie de l’année.  Les règles de DST sont magiques (déterminées
     par la loi locale) et peuvent changer d’année en année.  La
     bibliothèque C possède une table contenant les règles locales
     (souvent, elle est lue dans un fichier système par souci de
     souplesse) et constitue la seule source fiable.

   * La précision des diverses fonctions en temps réel peut être
     inférieure à celle suggérée par les unités dans lesquelles leur
     valeur ou leur argument est exprimé.  Par exemple, sur la plupart
     des systèmes Unix, l’horloge ne « bat » que 50 ou 100 fois par
     seconde.

   * On the other hand, the precision of *note time(): 251. and *note
     sleep(): 68a. is better than their Unix equivalents: times are
     expressed as floating-point numbers, *note time(): 251. returns the
     most accurate time available (using Unix ‘gettimeofday()’ where
     available), and *note sleep(): 68a. will accept a time with a
     nonzero fraction (Unix ‘select()’ is used to implement this, where
     available).

   * La valeur temporelle renvoyée par *note gmtime(): 119f, *note
     localtime(): 14b1. et *note strptime(): 13e5, et acceptée par *note
     asctime(): 11c6, *note mktime(): 11c7. et *note strftime(): 11c8,
     est une séquence de 9 nombres entiers.  Les valeurs de retour de
     *note gmtime(): 119f, *note localtime(): 14b1. et *note strptime():
     13e5. proposent également des noms d’attributs pour des champs
     individuels.

     Voir *note struct_time: cda. pour une description de ces objets.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The *note struct_time: cda. type was
     extended to provide the *note tm_gmtoff: 2bf8. and *note tm_zone:
     2bf9. attributes when platform supports corresponding ‘struct tm’
     members.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The *note struct_time: cda. attributes
     *note tm_gmtoff: 2bf8. and *note tm_zone: 2bf9. are now available
     on all platforms.

   * Utilisez les fonctions suivantes pour convertir des représentations
     temporelles :

     De                            À                             Utilisez
                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 
     secondes depuis 'epoch'       *note struct_time: cda. en    *note gmtime(): 119f.
                                   UTC                           
                                   
                                                                 
     secondes depuis 'epoch'       *note struct_time: cda. en    *note localtime(): 14b1.
                                   heure locale                  
                                   
                                                                 
     *note struct_time: cda. en    secondes depuis 'epoch'       *note calendar.timegm(): 2492.
     UTC                                                         

     *note struct_time: cda. en    secondes depuis 'epoch'       *note mktime(): 11c7.
     heure locale                                                

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<5>.
* Constantes d’identification d’horloge::
* Constantes de fuseau horaire::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<5>,  Next: Constantes d’identification d’horloge,  Up: time --- Time access and conversions

5.16.3.1 Fonctions
..................

 -- Fonction: time.asctime ([t])

     Convertit un 'n'-uplet ou *note struct_time: cda. représentant une
     heure renvoyée par *note gmtime(): 119f. ou *note localtime():
     14b1. en une chaîne de la forme suivante : ‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05
     1993'’.  Le numéro du jour est un champ de deux caractères complété
     par une espace si celui-ci n'a qu'un seul chiffre, par exemple :
     ‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’.

     Si 't' n’est pas fourni, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par *note
     localtime(): 14b1. est utilisée.  Les informations sur les
     paramètres régionaux ne sont pas utilisées par *note asctime():
     11c6.

          Note: Contrairement à la fonction C du même nom, *note
          asctime(): 11c6. n’ajoute pas de caractère de fin de ligne.

 -- Fonction: time.pthread_getcpuclockid (thread_id)

     Renvoie le 'clk_id' de l'horloge du temps CPU spécifique au fil
     d'exécution pour le 'thread_id' spécifié.

     Utilisez *note threading.get_ident(): 113c. ou l'attribut *note
     ident: 2bfc. de *note threading.Thread: 93b. pour obtenir une
     valeur appropriée pour 'thread_id'.

          Avertissement: Passer un 'thread_id' invalide ou arrivé à
          expiration peut entraîner un comportement indéfini, tel qu’une
          erreur de segmentation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix

     Se reporter à la page de manuel ‘pthread_getcpuclockid(3)(1)’ pour
     plus d’informations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.clock_getres (clk_id)

     Renvoie la résolution (précision) de l’horloge 'clk_id'.
     Référez-vous à *note Constantes d’identification d’horloge: 2b6f.
     pour une liste des valeurs acceptées pour 'clk_id'.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: time.clock_gettime (clk_id) -> float

     Renvoie l’heure de l’horloge 'clk_id'.  Référez-vous à *note
     Constantes d’identification d’horloge: 2b6f. pour une liste des
     valeurs acceptées pour 'clk_id'.

     Use *note clock_gettime_ns(): ad2. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ec. type.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: time.clock_gettime_ns (clk_id) -> int

     Similaire à *note clock_gettime(): 1140. mais le temps renvoyé est
     exprimé en nanosecondes.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.clock_settime (clk_id, time: float)

     Définit l’heure de l’horloge 'clk_id'.  Actuellement, *note
     CLOCK_REALTIME: 687. est la seule valeur acceptée pour 'clk_id'.

     Use *note clock_settime_ns(): ad3. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ec. type.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: time.clock_settime_ns (clk_id, time: int)

     Similaire à *note clock_settime(): 1141. mais définit l’heure avec
     des nanosecondes.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.ctime ([secs])

     Convertit une heure exprimée en secondes depuis *note epoch: 29db.
     en une chaîne représentant l’heure locale sous la forme suivante :
     ‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'’.  Le numéro du jour est un champ de
     deux caractères complété par une espace si celui-ci n'a qu'un seul
     chiffre, par exemple : ‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’.

     Si 'secs' n’est pas fourni ou vaut *note None: 662, l’heure
     actuelle renvoyée par *note time(): 251. est utilisée.
     ‘ctime(secs)’ est équivalent à ‘asctime(localtime(secs))’.  Les
     informations sur les paramètres régionaux ne sont pas utilisées par
     *note ctime(): 240c.

 -- Fonction: time.get_clock_info (name)

     Renvoie des informations sur l’horloge spécifiée en tant qu’objet
     d’espace de nom.  Les noms d’horloge pris en charge et les
     fonctions correspondantes permettant de lire leur valeur sont les
     suivants :

        * ‘'monotonic'’ : *note time.monotonic(): 250.

        * ‘'perf_counter'’ : *note time.perf_counter(): a78.

        * ‘'process_time'’ : *note time.process_time(): a79.

        * ‘'thread_time'’ : *note time.thread_time(): 925.

        * ‘'time'’ : *note time.time(): 251.

     Le résultat a les attributs suivants :

        - 'adjustable' : ‘True’ si l’horloge peut être changée
          automatiquement (par exemple par un démon NTP) ou manuellement
          par l’administrateur système, ‘False’ autrement

        - 'implementation' : nom de la fonction C sous-jacente utilisée
          pour obtenir la valeur d’horloge.  Voir *note Constantes
          d’identification d’horloge: 2b6f. pour les valeurs possibles.

        - 'monotonic' : ‘True’ si l’horloge ne peut pas revenir en
          arrière, ‘False’ autrement

        - 'resolution' : La résolution de l’horloge en secondes (*note
          float: 2ec.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: time.gmtime ([secs])

     Convertit un temps exprimé en secondes depuis *note epoch: 29db. en
     un *note struct_time: cda. au format UTC dans lequel le drapeau
     'dst' est toujours égal à zéro.  Si 'secs' n’est pas fourni ou vaut
     *note None: 662, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par *note time(): 251.
     est utilisée.  Les fractions de seconde sont ignorées.  Voir
     ci-dessus pour une description de l’objet *note struct_time: cda.
     Voir *note calendar.timegm(): 2492. pour l’inverse de cette
     fonction.

 -- Fonction: time.localtime ([secs])

     Comme *note gmtime(): 119f. mais convertit le résultat en heure
     locale.  Si 'secs' n’est pas fourni ou vaut *note None: 662,
     l’heure actuelle renvoyée par *note time(): 251. est utilisée.  Le
     drapeau 'dst' est mis à ‘1’ lorsque l’heure d’été s’applique à
     l’heure indiquée.

     *note localtime(): 14b1. may raise *note OverflowError: 86f, if the
     timestamp is outside the range of values supported by the platform
     C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ functions, and *note OSError: 40d. on
     ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It's common for this to be
     restricted to years between 1970 and 2038.

 -- Fonction: time.mktime (t)

     This is the inverse function of *note localtime(): 14b1.  Its
     argument is the *note struct_time: cda. or full 9-tuple (since the
     dst flag is needed; use ‘-1’ as the dst flag if it is unknown)
     which expresses the time in 'local' time, not UTC. It returns a
     floating-point number, for compatibility with *note time(): 251.
     If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either
     *note OverflowError: 86f. or *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised
     (which depends on whether the invalid value is caught by Python or
     the underlying C libraries).  The earliest date for which it can
     generate a time is platform-dependent.

 -- Fonction: time.monotonic () -> float

     Renvoie la valeur (en quelques fractions de secondes) d’une horloge
     monotone, c’est-à-dire une horloge qui ne peut pas revenir en
     arrière.  L’horloge n’est pas affectée par les mises à jour de
     l’horloge système.  Le point de référence de la valeur renvoyée
     n’est pas défini, de sorte que seule la différence entre les
     résultats d’appels consécutifs est valide.

     Clock:

        * On Windows, call ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ and
          ‘QueryPerformanceFrequency()’.

        * On macOS, call ‘mach_absolute_time()’ and
          ‘mach_timebase_info()’.

        * On HP-UX, call ‘gethrtime()’.

        * Call ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_HIGHRES)’ if available.

        * Otherwise, call ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC)’.

     Use *note monotonic_ns(): ad4. to avoid the precision loss caused
     by the *note float: 2ec. type.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La fonction est maintenant toujours
     disponible et toujours à l’échelle du système.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Sur macOS, la fonction est maintenant
     toujours à l’échelle du système.

 -- Fonction: time.monotonic_ns () -> int

     Similaire à ‘monotonique()’, mais le temps de retour est exprimé en
     nanosecondes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.perf_counter () -> float

     Renvoie la valeur (en quelques fractions de secondes) d’un compteur
     de performance, c’est-à-dire une horloge avec la résolution
     disponible la plus élevée possible pour mesurer une courte durée.
     Cela inclut le temps écoulé pendant le sommeil et concerne
     l’ensemble du système.  Le point de référence de la valeur renvoyée
     n’est pas défini, de sorte que seule la différence entre les
     résultats d’appels consécutifs est valide.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' On CPython, use the
     same clock as *note time.monotonic(): 250. and is a monotonic
     clock, i.e.  a clock that cannot go backwards.

     Use *note perf_counter_ns(): ad5. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ec. type.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: On Windows, the function is now
     system-wide.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Use the same clock as *note
     time.monotonic(): 250.

 -- Fonction: time.perf_counter_ns () -> int

     Similaire à *note perf_counter(): a78, mais renvoie le temps en
     nanosecondes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.process_time () -> float

     Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system
     and user CPU time of the current process.  It does not include time
     elapsed during sleep.  It is process-wide by definition.  The
     reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only
     the difference between the results of two calls is valid.

     Use *note process_time_ns(): ad6. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ec. type.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: time.process_time_ns () -> int

     Similaire à *note process_time(): a79. mais renvoie le temps en
     nanosecondes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.sleep (secs)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of
     seconds.  The argument may be a floating-point number to indicate a
     more precise sleep time.

     If the sleep is interrupted by a signal and no exception is raised
     by the signal handler, the sleep is restarted with a recomputed
     timeout.

     The suspension time may be longer than requested by an arbitrary
     amount, because of the scheduling of other activity in the system.

     Windows implementation
     ......................

     On Windows, if 'secs' is zero, the thread relinquishes the
     remainder of its time slice to any other thread that is ready to
     run.  If there are no other threads ready to run, the function
     returns immediately, and the thread continues execution.  On
     Windows 8.1 and newer the implementation uses a high-resolution
     timer(2) which provides resolution of 100 nanoseconds.  If 'secs'
     is zero, ‘Sleep(0)’ is used.

     Unix implementation
     ...................

        * Use ‘clock_nanosleep()’ if available (resolution: 1
          nanosecond);

        * Or use ‘nanosleep()’ if available (resolution: 1 nanosecond);

        * Or use ‘select()’ (resolution: 1 microsecond).

          Note: To emulate a "no-op", use *note pass: 1bd8. instead of
          ‘time.sleep(0)’.

          To voluntarily relinquish the CPU, specify a real-time *note
          scheduling policy: 2bb6. and use *note os.sched_yield(): 10f3.
          instead.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘time.sleep’ with argument
     ‘secs’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La fonction dort maintenant au moins
     'secondes' même si le sommeil est interrompu par un signal, sauf si
     le gestionnaire de signaux lève une exception (voir PEP 475(3) pour
     la justification).

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: On Unix, the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ and
     ‘nanosleep()’ functions are now used if available.  On Windows, a
     waitable timer is now used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises an auditing event.

 -- Fonction: time.strftime (format[, t])

     Convertit un 'n'-uplet ou *note struct_time: cda. représentant une
     heure renvoyée par *note gmtime(): 119f. ou *note localtime():
     14b1. en une chaîne spécifiée par l’argument 'format'.  Si 't'
     n’est pas fourni, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par *note localtime():
     14b1. est utilisée.  'format' doit être une chaîne.  Si l’un des
     champs de 't' se situe en dehors de la plage autorisée, une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée .

     0 est un argument légal pour toute position dans le 'n'-uplet
     temporel ; s’il est normalement illégal, la valeur est forcée à une
     valeur correcte.

     Les directives suivantes peuvent être incorporées dans la chaîne
     'format'.  Ils sont affichés sans la spécification facultative de
     largeur de champ ni de précision, et sont remplacés par les
     caractères indiqués dans le résultat de *note strftime(): 11c8. :

     Directive       Signification                                        Notes
                                                                          
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     ‘%a’            Nom abrégé du jour de la semaine selon les
                     paramètres régionaux.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%A’            Le nom de semaine complet de la région.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%b’            Nom abrégé du mois de la région.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%B’            Nom complet du mois de la région.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%c’            Représentation appropriée de la date et de l’heure
                     selon les paramètres régionaux.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%d’            Jour du mois sous forme décimale [01,31].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%f’            Microseconds as a decimal number                     (1)
                                                                          
                          [000000,999999].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%H’            Heure (horloge sur 24 heures) sous forme de nombre
                     décimal [00,23].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%I’            Heure (horloge sur 12 heures) sous forme de nombre
                     décimal [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%j’            Jour de l’année sous forme de nombre décimal
                     [001,366].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%m’            Mois sous forme décimale [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%M’            Minutes sous forme décimale [00,59].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%p’            L’équivalent local de AM ou PM.                      (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%S’            Secondes sous forme de nombre décimal [00,61].       (3)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%U’            Numéro de semaine de l’année (dimanche en tant que   (4)
                     premier jour de la semaine) sous forme décimale      
                     [00,53].  Tous les jours d’une nouvelle année
                     précédant le premier dimanche sont considérés
                     comme appartenant à la semaine 0.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%u’            Day of the week (Monday is 1; Sunday is 7) as a
                     decimal number [1, 7].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%w’            Jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre décimal [0
                     (dimanche), 6].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%W’            Numéro de semaine de l’année (lundi comme premier    (4)
                     jour de la semaine) sous forme décimale [00,53].     
                     Tous les jours d’une nouvelle année précédant le
                     premier lundi sont considérés comme appartenant à
                     la semaine 0.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%x’            Représentation de la date appropriée par les
                     paramètres régionaux.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%X’            Représentation locale de l'heure.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%y’            Année sans siècle comme un nombre décimal [00,
                     99].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Y’            Année complète sur quatre chiffres.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%z’            Décalage de fuseau horaire indiquant une
                     différence de temps positive ou négative par
                     rapport à UTC / GMT de la forme '+HHMM' ou
                     '-HHMM', où H représente les chiffres des heures
                     décimales et M, les chiffres des minutes décimales
                     ['-23:59', '+23:59'] (4)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Z’            Nom du fuseau horaire (pas de caractères s’il n’y
                     a pas de fuseau horaire).  Obsolète.  (5)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%G’            ISO 8601 year (similar to ‘%Y’ but follows the
                     rules for the ISO 8601 calendar year).  The year
                     starts with the week that contains the first
                     Thursday of the calendar year.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%V’            ISO 8601 week number (as a decimal number
                     [01,53]).  The first week of the year is the one
                     that contains the first Thursday of the year.
                     Weeks start on Monday.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%%’            Un caractère ‘'%'’ littéral.
                     

     Notes :

       1. The ‘%f’ format directive only applies to *note strptime():
          13e5, not to *note strftime(): 11c8.  However, see also *note
          datetime.datetime.strptime(): 15c6. and *note
          datetime.datetime.strftime(): c80. where the ‘%f’ format
          directive *note applies to microseconds: 23dd.

       2. Lorsqu’elle est utilisée avec la fonction *note strptime():
          13e5, la directive ‘%p’ n’affecte le champ d’heure en sortie
          que si la directive ‘%I’ est utilisée pour analyser l’heure.

       3. La plage est en réalité de ‘0’ à ‘61’ ; la valeur ‘60’ est
          valide dans les 'timestamps' représentant des secondes
          intercalaires (leap seconds(6)) et la valeur ‘61’ est prise en
          charge pour des raisons historiques.

       4. Lorsqu’elles sont utilisées avec la fonction *note strptime():
          13e5, ‘%U’ et ‘%W’ ne sont utilisées que dans les calculs
          lorsque le jour de la semaine et l’année sont spécifiés.

     Voici un exemple de format de date compatible avec celui spécifié
     dans la norme de courrier électronique Internet suivante RFC
     2822(7).  (8)

          >>> from time import gmtime, strftime
          >>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
          'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'

     Des directives supplémentaires peuvent être prises en charge sur
     certaines plates-formes, mais seules celles énumérées ici ont une
     signification normalisée par ANSI C. Pour voir la liste complète
     des codes de format pris en charge sur votre plate-forme, consultez
     la documentation ‘strftime(3)(9)’.

     Sur certaines plates-formes, une spécification facultative de
     largeur et de précision de champ peut suivre immédiatement le ‘'%'’
     initial d’une directive dans l’ordre suivant ; ce n’est pas non
     plus portable.  La largeur du champ est normalement 2 sauf pour
     ‘%j’ où il est 3.

 -- Fonction: time.strptime (string[, format])

     Analyse une chaîne représentant une heure selon un format.  La
     valeur renvoyée est une *note struct_time: cda. tel que renvoyé par
     *note gmtime(): 119f. ou *note localtime(): 14b1.

     Le paramètre 'format' utilise les mêmes directives que celles
     utilisées par *note strftime(): 11c8. ; la valeur par défaut est
     ‘"%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"’ qui correspond à la mise en forme renvoyée
     par *note ctime(): 240c.  Si 'string' ne peut pas être analysé
     selon 'format', ou s’il contient trop de données après l’analyse,
     une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Les valeurs par
     défaut utilisées pour renseigner les données manquantes lorsque des
     valeurs plus précises ne peuvent pas être inférées sont ‘(1900, 1,
     1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, -1)’.  'string' et 'format' doivent être des
     chaînes.

     Par exemple :

          >>> import time
          >>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")
          time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
                           tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)

     La prise en charge de la directive ‘%Z’ est basée sur les valeurs
     contenues dans ‘tzname’ et sur le fait de savoir si ‘daylight’ est
     vrai.  Pour cette raison, il est spécifique à la plate-forme, à
     l’exception de la reconnaissance des heures UTC et GMT, qui sont
     toujours connues (et considérées comme des fuseaux horaires ne
     respectant pas l’heure d’été).

     Seules les directives spécifiées dans la documentation sont prises
     en charge.  Parce que ‘strftime()’ peut être implémenté
     différemment sur chaque plate-forme, il peut parfois offrir plus de
     directives que celles listées.  Mais ‘strptime()’ est indépendant
     de toute plate-forme et ne supporte donc pas nécessairement toutes
     les directives disponibles qui ne sont pas documentées comme
     gérées.

 -- Classe: time.struct_time

     Le type de la séquence de valeur temporelle renvoyé par *note
     gmtime(): 119f, *note localtime(): 14b1. et *note strptime(): 13e5.
     Semblable à un *note named tuple: 63b. : ses valeurs sont
     accessibles par index et par nom d’attribut.  Les valeurs suivantes
     sont présentes :

     Index                                 Attribut                              Valeurs
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     0                                      -- Attribut: tm_year                 (par exemple, 1993)
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     1                                      -- Attribut: tm_mon                  plage [1, 12]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     2                                      -- Attribut: tm_mday                 plage [1, 31]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     3                                      -- Attribut: tm_hour                 plage [0, 23]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     4                                      -- Attribut: tm_min                  plage [0, 59]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     5                                      -- Attribut: tm_sec                  range [0, 61]; see
                                                                                 *note Note (2): 2bfd. in
                                                                                 *note strftime(): 11c8.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     6                                      -- Attribut: tm_wday                 range [0, 6]; Monday is 0
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     7                                      -- Attribut: tm_yday                 plage [1, 366]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     8                                      -- Attribut: tm_isdst                ‘0’, ‘1’ or ‘-1’ ; voir en bas
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- Attribut: tm_zone                 abréviation du nom du fuseau
                                                                                 horaire
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- Attribut: tm_gmtoff               décalage à l’est de UTC en secondes
                                                                                 

     Notez que contrairement à la structure C, la valeur du mois est une
     plage de [1, 12], pas de [0, 11].

     Dans les appels à *note mktime(): 11c7, *note tm_isdst: 241d. peut
     être défini sur 1 lorsque l’heure d'été est en vigueur et sur 0
     lorsque ce n’est pas le cas.  Une valeur de ‘-1’ indique que cela
     n’est pas connu et entraînera généralement le remplissage de l’état
     correct.

     Lorsqu’un 'n'-uplet de longueur incorrecte est passé à une fonction
     acceptant une *note struct_time: cda, ou comportant des éléments de
     type incorrect, une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levé.

 -- Fonction: time.time () -> float

     Return the time in seconds since the *note epoch: 29db. as a
     floating-point number.  The handling of leap seconds(10) is
     platform dependent.  On Windows and most Unix systems, the leap
     seconds are not counted towards the time in seconds since the *note
     epoch: 29db.  This is commonly referred to as Unix time(11).

     Note that even though the time is always returned as a
     floating-point number, not all systems provide time with a better
     precision than 1 second.  While this function normally returns
     non-decreasing values, it can return a lower value than a previous
     call if the system clock has been set back between the two calls.

     Le nombre renvoyé par *note time(): 251. peut être converti en un
     format d’heure plus courant (année, mois, jour, heure, etc.)  en
     UTC en le transmettant à la fonction *note gmtime(): 119f. ou dans
     heure locale en le transmettant à la fonction *note localtime():
     14b1.  Dans les deux cas, un objet *note struct_time: cda. est
     renvoyé, à partir duquel les composants de la date du calendrier
     peuvent être consultés en tant qu’attributs.

     Clock:

        * On Windows, call ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’.

        * Call ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME)’ if available.

        * Otherwise, call ‘gettimeofday()’.

     Use *note time_ns(): ad7. to avoid the precision loss caused by the
     *note float: 2ec. type.

 -- Fonction: time.time_ns () -> int

     Similaire à *note time(): 251. mais renvoie le nombre de
     nanosecondes depuis *note epoch: 29db. sous la forme d'un entier.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.thread_time () -> float

     Renvoie la valeur (en quelques fractions de secondes) de la somme
     des temps processeur système et utilisateur du fil d'exécution en
     cours.  Il ne comprend pas le temps écoulé pendant le sommeil.  Il
     est spécifique au fil d'exécution par définition.  Le point de
     référence de la valeur renvoyée est indéfini, de sorte que seule la
     différence entre les résultats d’appels consécutifs dans le même
     fil d'exécution est valide.

     Use *note thread_time_ns(): b81. to avoid the precision loss caused
     by the *note float: 2ec. type.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux, Unix, Windows.

     Systèmes prenant en charge ‘CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.thread_time_ns () -> int

     Similaire à *note thread_time(): 925. mais renvoie le temps en
     nanosecondes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: time.tzset ()

     Réinitialise les règles de conversion de temps utilisées par les
     routines de la bibliothèque.  La variable d’environnement ‘TZ’
     spécifie comment cela est effectué.  La fonction définira également
     les variables ‘tzname’ (à partir de la variable d’environnement
     ‘TZ’), ‘timezone’ (secondes non DST à l’ouest de l’UTC), ‘altzone’
     (secondes DST à l’ouest de UTC) et ‘daylight’ (à 0 si ce fuseau
     horaire ne comporte aucune règle d’heure d’été, ou non nul s’il
     existe une heure, passée, présente ou future lorsque l’heure d’été
     est appliquée).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

          Note: Bien que dans de nombreux cas, la modification de la
          variable d’environnement ‘TZ’ puisse affecter la sortie de
          fonctions telles que *note localtime(): 14b1. sans appeler
          *note tzset(): 2c05, ce comportement n'est pas garanti.

          La variable d’environnement ‘TZ’ ne doit contenir aucun
          espace.

     Le format standard de la variable d’environnement ‘TZ’ est (espaces
     ajoutés pour plus de clarté) :

          std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

     Où les composants sont :

     ‘std’ et ‘dst’

          Trois alphanumériques ou plus donnant les abréviations du
          fuseau horaire.  Ceux-ci seront propagés dans 'time.tzname'

     ‘offset’

          Le décalage a la forme suivante : ‘± hh[:mm[:ss]]’.  Cela
          indique la valeur ajoutée à l’heure locale pour arriver à UTC.
          S'il est précédé d’un ‘'-'’, le fuseau horaire est à l’est du
          Premier Méridien ; sinon, c’est l’ouest.  Si aucun décalage ne
          suit 'dst', l’heure d’été est supposée être en avance d’une
          heure sur l’heure standard.

     ‘start[/time], end[/time]’

          Indique quand passer à DST et en revenir.  Le format des dates
          de début et de fin est l’un des suivants :

          ‘JN’

               Le jour Julien 'n' (1 <= 'n' <= 365).  Les jours
               bissextiles ne sont pas comptabilisés.  Par conséquent,
               le 28 février est le 59^e jour et le 1^er mars est le
               60^e jour de toutes les années.

          ‘N’

               Le jour Julien de base zéro (0 <= 'n' <= 365).  Les jours
               bissextiles sont comptés et il est possible de se référer
               au 29 février.

          ‘MM.N.D’

               Le 'd' jour (0 <= 'd' <= 6) de la semaine 'n' du mois 'm'
               de l’année (1 <= 'n' <= 5, 1 <= 'm' <= 12, où semaine 5
               signifie “le 'dernier' jour du mois 'm'” pouvant se
               produire au cours de la quatrième ou de la cinquième
               semaine).  La semaine 1 est la première semaine au cours
               de laquelle le 'jour' se produit.  Le jour zéro est un
               dimanche.

          ‘time’ a le même format que ‘offset’ sauf qu’aucun signe de
          direction (‘'-'’ ou ‘'+'’) n’est autorisé.  La valeur par
          défaut, si l’heure n’est pas spécifiée, est 02:00:00.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'

     Sur de nombreux systèmes Unix (y compris *BSD, Linux, Solaris et
     Darwin), il est plus pratique d’utiliser la base de données
     'zoneinfo' (‘tzfile (5)(12)’) du système pour spécifier les règles
     de fuseau horaire.  Pour ce faire, définissez la variable
     d’environnement ‘TZ’ sur le chemin du fichier de fuseau horaire
     requis, par rapport à la racine de la base de données du système
     'zoneinfo', généralement situé à ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo’.  Par
     exemple, ‘'US/Eastern'’, ‘'Australia/Melbourne'’, ‘'Egypt'’ ou
     ‘'Europe/Amsterdam'’.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EST', 'EDT')
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EET', 'EEST')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getcpuclockid(3)

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (4) L'utilisation de ‘%Z’ est maintenant obsolète, mais l'échappement
‘%z’ qui donne le décalage horaire jusqu'à la minute et dépendant des
paramètres régionaux n'est pas pris en charge par toutes les
bibliothèques C ANSI. En outre, une lecture stricte du standard RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) de 1982 milite pour
une année à deux chiffres (%y plutôt que %Y), mais la pratique a migré
vers des années à 4 chiffres de long avant l'année 2000.  Après cela, la
RFC 822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) est devenue
obsolète et l'année à 4 chiffres a été recommandée pour la première fois
par la RFC 1123 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html)
puis rendue obligatoire par la RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (5) L'utilisation de ‘%Z’ est maintenant obsolète, mais l'échappement
‘%z’ qui donne le décalage horaire jusqu'à la minute et dépendant des
paramètres régionaux n'est pas pris en charge par toutes les
bibliothèques C ANSI. En outre, une lecture stricte du standard RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) de 1982 milite pour
une année à deux chiffres (%y plutôt que %Y), mais la pratique a migré
vers des années à 4 chiffres de long avant l'année 2000.  Après cela, la
RFC 822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) est devenue
obsolète et l'année à 4 chiffres a été recommandée pour la première fois
par la RFC 1123 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html)
puis rendue obligatoire par la RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) L'utilisation de ‘%Z’ est maintenant obsolète, mais l'échappement
‘%z’ qui donne le décalage horaire jusqu'à la minute et dépendant des
paramètres régionaux n'est pas pris en charge par toutes les
bibliothèques C ANSI. En outre, une lecture stricte du standard RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) de 1982 milite pour
une année à deux chiffres (%y plutôt que %Y), mais la pratique a migré
vers des années à 4 chiffres de long avant l'année 2000.  Après cela, la
RFC 822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) est devenue
obsolète et l'année à 4 chiffres a été recommandée pour la première fois
par la RFC 1123 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html)
puis rendue obligatoire par la RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/tzfile (5)


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes d’identification d’horloge,  Next: Constantes de fuseau horaire,  Prev: Fonctions<5>,  Up: time --- Time access and conversions

5.16.3.2 Constantes d’identification d’horloge
..............................................

Ces constantes sont utilisées comme paramètres pour *note
clock_getres(): 113f. et *note clock_gettime(): 1140.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME

     Identique à *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686, sauf qu'elle inclut
     également toute suspension du système.

     Cela permet aux applications d’obtenir une horloge monotone tenant
     compte de la suspension sans avoir à gérer les complications de
     *note CLOCK_REALTIME: 687, qui peuvent présenter des discontinuités
     si l’heure est modifiée à l’aide de ‘settimeofday()’ ou similaire.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.39.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_HIGHRES

     Le système d’exploitation Solaris dispose d’une horloge
     ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ qui tente d’utiliser une source matérielle optimale
     et peut donner une résolution proche de la nanoseconde.
     ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ est l’horloge haute résolution non ajustable.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Solaris.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

     Horloge qui ne peut pas être réglée et représente l’heure monotone
     depuis un point de départ non spécifié.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW

     Similaire à *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 686, mais donne accès à une
     heure matérielle brute qui n’est pas soumise aux ajustements NTP.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.28, macOS >= 10.12.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX

     Similar to *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW: 2c08, but reads a value
     cached by the system at context switch and hence has less accuracy.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID

     Minuterie haute résolution par processus du CPU.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_PROF

     Minuterie haute résolution par processus du CPU.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD, NetBSD >= 7, OpenBSD.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_TAI

     Temps Atomique International(1) (article en anglais)

     Le système doit avoir un tableau des secondes intercalaires pour
     pouvoir donner une réponse correcte.  Les logiciels PTP ou NTP
     savent gérer un tableau des secondes intercalaires.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID

     Horloge de temps CPU spécifique au fil d'exécution.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_UPTIME

     Heure dont la valeur absolue correspond à l’heure à laquelle le
     système a été exécuté et non suspendu, fournissant une mesure
     précise du temps de disponibilité, à la fois absolue et à
     intervalle.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD, OpenBSD >= 5.5.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW

     Horloge qui s'incrémente de manière monotone, en suivant le temps
     écoulé depuis un point arbitraire, n'est pas affectée par les
     ajustements de fréquence ou de temps et n'est pas incrémentée
     lorsque le système est en veille.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX

     Like *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a33, but the value is cached by the
     system at context switches and therefore has less accuracy.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

La constante suivante est le seul paramètre pouvant être envoyé à *note
clock_settime(): 1141.

 -- Données: time.CLOCK_REALTIME

     Horloge en temps réel à l’échelle du système.  Le réglage de cette
     horloge nécessite des privilèges appropriés.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/nist-time-frequently-asked-questions-faq#tai


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes de fuseau horaire,  Prev: Constantes d’identification d’horloge,  Up: time --- Time access and conversions

5.16.3.3 Constantes de fuseau horaire
.....................................

 -- Données: time.altzone

     Décalage du fuseau horaire DST local, en secondes à l’ouest de UTC,
     s’il en est défini un.  Cela est négatif si le fuseau horaire DST
     local est à l’est de UTC (comme en Europe occidentale, y compris le
     Royaume-Uni).  Utilisez ceci uniquement si ‘daylight’ est différent
     de zéro.  Voir note ci-dessous.

 -- Données: time.daylight

     Non nul si un fuseau horaire DST est défini.  Voir note ci-dessous.

 -- Données: time.timezone

     Décalage du fuseau horaire local (hors heure d’été), en secondes à
     l’ouest de l’UTC (négatif dans la plupart des pays d’Europe
     occidentale, positif aux États-Unis, nul au Royaume-Uni).  Voir
     note ci-dessous.

 -- Données: time.tzname

     Une paire de chaînes : la première est le nom du fuseau horaire
     local autre que DST, la seconde est le nom du fuseau horaire DST
     local.  Si aucun fuseau horaire DST n’est défini, la deuxième
     chaîne ne doit pas être utilisée.  Voir note ci-dessous.

     Note: For the above Timezone constants (*note altzone: 2c0f, *note
     daylight: 2c10, *note timezone: 2c11, and *note tzname: 2c12.), the
     value is determined by the timezone rules in effect at module load
     time or the last time *note tzset(): 2c05. is called and may be
     incorrect for times in the past.  It is recommended to use the
     *note tm_gmtoff: 2bf8. and *note tm_zone: 2bf9. results from *note
     localtime(): 14b1. to obtain timezone information.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note datetime: 30.

     Interface plus orientée objet vers les dates et les heures.

Module *note locale: 85.

     Services d’internationalisation.  Les paramètres régionaux
     affectent l’interprétation de nombreux spécificateurs de format
     dans *note strftime(): 11c8. et *note strptime(): 13e5.

Module *note calendar: 14.

     Fonctions générales liées au calendrier.  *note timegm(): 2492. est
     l’inverse de *note gmtime(): 119f. à partir de ce module.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: logging --- Logging facility for Python,  Next: logging config --- Logging configuration,  Prev: time --- Time access and conversions,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.4 ‘logging’ -- Logging facility for Python
-----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/logging/__init__.py(1)

Important
.........

Cette page contient les informations de référence de l’API. Pour des
tutoriels et des discussions sur des sujets plus avancés, voir

   * *note Tutoriel de découverte: 11d4.

   * *note Tutoriel avancé: 11d5.

   * *note Recettes pour la journalisation: 11d6.

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module définit les fonctions et les classes qui mettent en œuvre un
système flexible d’enregistrement des événements pour les applications
et les bibliothèques.

L'intérêt principal d'utiliser une API de journalisation fournie par un
module de bibliothèque standard réside dans le fait que tous les modules
Python peuvent participer à la journalisation, de sorte que le journal
de votre application peut inclure vos propres messages et ceux de
modules tiers.

Here's a simple example of idiomatic usage:

     # myapp.py
     import logging
     import mylib
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
         logger.info('Started')
         mylib.do_something()
         logger.info('Finished')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

     # mylib.py
     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def do_something():
         logger.info('Doing something')

Si vous exécutez 'myapp.py', vous verrez ceci dans 'myapp.log' :

     INFO:__main__:Started
     INFO:mylib:Doing something
     INFO:__main__:Finished

The key feature of this idiomatic usage is that the majority of code is
simply creating a module level logger with ‘getLogger(__name__)’, and
using that logger to do any needed logging.  This is concise, while
allowing downstream code fine-grained control if needed.  Logged
messages to the module-level logger get forwarded to handlers of loggers
in higher-level modules, all the way up to the highest-level logger
known as the root logger; this approach is known as hierarchical
logging.

For logging to be useful, it needs to be configured: setting the levels
and destinations for each logger, potentially changing how specific
modules log, often based on command-line arguments or application
configuration.  In most cases, like the one above, only the root logger
needs to be so configured, since all the lower level loggers at module
level eventually forward their messages to its handlers.  *note
basicConfig(): 9f0. provides a quick way to configure the root logger
that handles many use cases.

Ce module offre de nombreuses fonctionnalités et une grande flexibilité.
Si vous n'êtes pas familier avec la journalisation, la meilleure façon
de l’appréhender est de consulter les tutoriels ('voir les liens
ci-dessus et à droite').

The basic classes defined by the module, together with their attributes
and methods, are listed in the sections below.

   * les enregistreurs ('loggers' en anglais) exposent l'interface que
     le code de l'application utilise directement ;

   * les gestionnaires ('handlers') envoient les entrées de journal
     (créées par les 'loggers') vers les destinations voulues ;

   * les filtres ('filters') fournissent un moyen de choisir plus
     finement quelles entrées de journal doivent être sorties ;

   * les formateurs ('formatters') définissent la structure de l'entrée
     de journal dans la sortie finale.

* Menu:

* Enregistreurs::
* Niveaux de journalisation::
* Gestionnaires::
* Formateurs::
* Filtres: Filtres<2>.
* Objets LogRecord::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter Objects::
* Thread Safety::
* Fonctions de niveau module::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/logging/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Enregistreurs,  Next: Niveaux de journalisation,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.1 Enregistreurs
......................

Les enregistreurs ont les attributs et les méthodes suivants.  Notez que
les enregistreurs ne doivent 'JAMAIS' être instanciés directement, mais
toujours par la fonction au niveau du module ‘logging.getLogger(nom)’.
Les appels à *note getLogger(): 94f. avec le même nom renvoient toujours
une référence au même objet enregistreur.

The ‘name’ is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
‘foo.bar.baz’ (though it could also be just plain ‘foo’, for example).
Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of
loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a logger with a name
of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’
are all descendants of ‘foo’.  In addition, all loggers are descendants
of the root logger.  The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the
Python package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your
loggers on a per-module basis using the recommended construction
‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’.  That's because in a module, ‘__name__’
is the module's name in the Python package namespace.

 -- Classe: logging.Logger

      -- Attribut: name

          This is the logger's name, and is the value that was passed to
          *note getLogger(): 94f. to obtain the logger.

               Note: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- Attribut: level

          The threshold of this logger, as set by the *note setLevel():
          1447. method.

               Note: Do not set this attribute directly - always use
               *note setLevel(): 1447, which has checks for the level
               passed to it.

      -- Attribut: parent

          The parent logger of this logger.  It may change based on
          later instantiation of loggers which are higher up in the
          namespace hierarchy.

               Note: This value should be treated as read-only.

      -- Attribut: propagate

          Si cet attribut est évalué comme vrai, les événements
          enregistrés dans cet enregistreur seront transmis aux
          gestionnaires des enregistreurs de niveau supérieur (parents),
          en plus des gestionnaires attachés à l'enregistreur.  Les
          messages sont transmis directement aux gestionnaires des
          enregistreurs parents — ni le niveau ni les filtres des
          enregistreurs parentaux en question ne sont pris en compte.

          S’il s’évalue comme faux, les messages de journalisation ne
          sont pas transmis aux gestionnaires des enregistreurs parents.

          Spelling it out with an example: If the propagate attribute of
          the logger named ‘A.B.C’ evaluates to true, any event logged
          to ‘A.B.C’ via a method call such as
          ‘logging.getLogger('A.B.C').error(...)’ will [subject to
          passing that logger's level and filter settings] be passed in
          turn to any handlers attached to loggers named ‘A.B’, ‘A’ and
          the root logger, after first being passed to any handlers
          attached to ‘A.B.C’.  If any logger in the chain ‘A.B.C’,
          ‘A.B’, ‘A’ has its ‘propagate’ attribute set to false, then
          that is the last logger whose handlers are offered the event
          to handle, and propagation stops at that point.

          Le constructeur fixe cet attribut à ‘True’.

               Note: si vous associez un gestionnaire à un enregistreur
               'et' à un ou plusieurs de ses parents, il peut émettre le
               même enregistrement plusieurs fois.  En général, il est
               rare d'avoir besoin d'attacher un gestionnaire à plus
               d'un enregistreur — si vous l'attachez simplement à
               l'enregistreur approprié le plus haut possible dans la
               hiérarchie des enregistreurs, alors il voit tous les
               événements enregistrés par tous les enregistreurs
               descendants, à condition que leur paramètre de
               propagation soit laissé à ‘True’.  La pratique la plus
               courante est de n'attacher les gestionnaires qu'à
               l'enregistreur racine et à laisser la propagation
               s'occuper du reste.

      -- Attribut: handlers

          The list of handlers directly attached to this logger
          instance.

               Note: This attribute should be treated as read-only; it
               is normally changed via the *note addHandler(): 2c1b. and
               *note removeHandler(): 2c1c. methods, which use locks to
               ensure thread-safe operation.

      -- Attribut: disabled

          This attribute disables handling of any events.  It is set to
          ‘False’ in the initializer, and only changed by logging
          configuration code.

               Note: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- Méthode: setLevel (level)

          Fixe le seuil de l'enregistreur au niveau 'level'.  Les
          messages de journalisation qui sont moins graves que 'level'
          sont ignorés ; les messages qui ont une gravité égale à
          'level' ou plus élevée sont traités par le ou les
          gestionnaires de l'enregistreur, à moins que le niveau d'un
          gestionnaire n'ait été fixé à un niveau de gravité plus élevé
          que 'level'.

          Lorsqu'un enregistreur est créé, son niveau est fixé à *note
          NOTSET: 2c1e. (ce qui entraîne le traitement de tous les
          messages lorsque l'enregistreur est l'enregistreur racine, ou
          la délégation au parent lorsque l'enregistreur est un
          enregistreur non racine).  Notez que l'enregistreur racine est
          créé avec le niveau *note WARNING: 1cb1.

          Le terme « délégation au parent » signifie que si un
          enregistreur a un niveau de ‘NOTSET’, sa chaîne
          d’enregistreurs parents est parcourue jusqu'à ce qu'un parent
          ayant un niveau autre que ‘NOTSET’ soit trouvé, ou que la
          racine soit atteinte.

          Si un parent est trouvé avec un niveau autre que NOTSET, alors
          le niveau de ce parent est utilisé comme le niveau effectif de
          l'enregistreur d'où la recherche du parent a commencé.  Ce
          niveau est utilisé pour déterminer comment un événement
          d'enregistrement est traité.

          Si la racine est atteinte, et qu'elle a un niveau de NOTSET,
          alors tous les messages sont traités.  Sinon, le niveau de la
          racine est utilisé comme niveau effectif.

          Voir *note Niveaux de journalisation: 647. pour la liste des
          niveaux.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: le paramètre 'level' peut
          désormais être une chaîne de caractères représentant le niveau
          de gravité (comme ‘'INFO'’) en plus des constantes entières
          (comme *note INFO: 1cb0.).  Notez cependant que les niveaux
          sont stockés en interne sous forme d'entiers, et que des
          méthodes telles que *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2c1f. et *note
          isEnabledFor(): 12d6. renvoient et s'attendent à recevoir des
          entiers.

      -- Méthode: isEnabledFor (level)

          Indique si un message de gravité 'level' est traitable par cet
          enregistreur.  Cette méthode vérifie d'abord le niveau de
          gravité du module défini par ‘logging.disable(level)’ et
          ensuite le niveau effectif de l'enregistreur, déterminé par
          *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2c1f.

      -- Méthode: getEffectiveLevel ()

          Indique le niveau effectif de l'enregistreur.  Si une valeur
          autre que *note NOTSET: 2c1e. a été définie en utilisant *note
          setLevel(): 1447, elle est renvoyée.  Sinon, la hiérarchie est
          parcourue vers la racine jusqu'à ce qu'une valeur autre que
          *note NOTSET: 2c1e. soit trouvée, et cette valeur est
          renvoyée.  La valeur renvoyée est un entier, par exemple *note
          logging.DEBUG: 1caf, *note logging.INFO: 1cb0, etc.

      -- Méthode: getChild (suffix)

          Renvoie un enregistreur enfant de l'enregistreur, déterminé
          par 'suffix'.  Ainsi,
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')’ renvoie le même
          enregistreur que ‘logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')’.  C'est
          une méthode destinée à simplifier la vie du développeur.  Elle
          est très utile quand l’enregistreur parent est nommé en
          utilisant, par exemple, ‘__name__’ plutôt qu'une chaîne de
          caractères littérale.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: getChildren ()

          Returns a set of loggers which are immediate children of this
          logger.  So for example ‘logging.getLogger().getChildren()’
          might return a set containing loggers named ‘foo’ and ‘bar’,
          but a logger named ‘foo.bar’ wouldn't be included in the set.
          Likewise, ‘logging.getLogger('foo').getChildren()’ might
          return a set including a logger named ‘foo.bar’, but it
          wouldn't include one named ‘foo.bar.baz’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message de niveau *note DEBUG: 1caf. dans cet
          enregistreur.  'msg' est la chaîne du message qui sera
          formatée avec 'args' en utilisant l'opérateur de formatage.
          Cela signifie qu'il est possible de mettre des mots-clé dans
          la chaîne et de passer un dictionnaire en argument.  Si 'args'
          n'est pas fourni, aucun formatage « à la % » n'est appliqué.

          Quatre mots-clés de 'kwargs' sont analysés : 'exc_info',
          'stack_info', 'stacklevel' et 'extra'.

          Si la valeur booléenne de 'exc_info' est vraie, les
          informations des exceptions sont ajoutées au message.  Si
          'exc_info' est un 'n'-uplet d'exception (au format identique
          aux valeurs renvoyées par *note sys.exc_info(): 677.) ou une
          instance d'exception, sa valeur est utilisée.  Dans le cas
          contraire, les informations sur l'exception sont déterminées
          par un appel à *note sys.exc_info(): 677.

          Le deuxième argument par mot-clé optionnel est 'stack_info',
          valant ‘False’ par défaut.  S'il est vrai, les informations de
          la pile d'appels sont ajoutées à l'entrée de journal, en
          incluant aussi l'appel à la fonction de journalisation.  Ce ne
          sont pas les mêmes informations que celles affichées en
          définissant 'exc_info' : les premières représentent les appels
          de fonctions successifs, du bas de la pile jusqu'à l'appel de
          la fonction de journalisation dans le fil d'exécution actuel,
          alors que les secondes portent des informations sur les appels
          successifs déclenchés par la levée d'une exception et la
          recherche de gestionnaires pour cette exception.

          Il est possible de définir 'stack_info' indépendamment de
          'exc_info', p.  ex.  pour s'assurer que l'exécution a atteint
          un certain point dans le code, même si aucune exception n'a
          été levée.  La pile d'appels est alors affichée après la ligne
          d'en-tête suivante :

               Stack (most recent call last):

          Elle imite la ligne ‘Traceback (most recent call last):’
          affichée avec la pile d'appels d'une exception.

          Le troisième argument par mot-clé optionnel est 'stacklevel',
          valant ‘1’ par défaut.  S'il est supérieur à 1, il correspond
          au nombre d'entrées dans la pile qui sont ignorées en
          déterminant le numéro de ligne et le nom de la fonction dans
          la classe *note LogRecord: fd3. créée pour l'évènement de
          journalisation.  C'est utile pour les utilitaires de
          journalisation car cela permet d'ignorer les informations (nom
          de fonction, fichier source et ligne) de l'utilitaire et de ne
          traiter que celles de l'appelant.  Le nom de ce paramètre est
          le même que son équivalent dans le module *note warnings: 111.

          The fourth keyword argument is 'extra' which can be used to
          pass a dictionary which is used to populate the *note
          __dict__: 549. of the *note LogRecord: fd3. created for the
          logging event with user-defined attributes.  These custom
          attributes can then be used as you like.  For example, they
          could be incorporated into logged messages.  For example:

               FORMAT = '%(asctime)s %(clientip)-15s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
               logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
               d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
               logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
               logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)

          affiche

               2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset

          Les clés du dictionnaire passé dans 'extra' ne doivent pas
          être les mêmes que les clés utilisées par le système de
          journalisation.  Voir la documentation de la classe *note
          Formatter: 144b. pour plus de précisions sur les clés
          utilisées par le système de journalisation.

          Si vous choisissez d'utiliser des attributs dans les messages
          à journaliser, il faut être prudent.  Ainsi, dans l'exemple
          précédent, le *note Formatter: 144b. a été configuré avec une
          chaîne qui attend 'clientip' et 'user' dans le dictionnaire
          d'attributs du *note LogRecord: fd3.  S'ils sont manquants, le
          message n'est pas enregistré car une exception de formatage de
          chaîne est levée.  Il faut alors toujours passer un
          dictionnaire 'extra' avec ces clés.

          Même si elle peut sembler gênante, cette fonctionnalité est
          nécessaire dans certains cas, comme sur des serveurs à fils
          d'exécution multiples, où le même code s'exécute dans des
          contextes différents et où les évènements significatifs
          dépendent du contexte (comme l'adresse IP du client et le nom
          d'utilisateur dans l'exemple précédent).  Dans ces
          circonstances, il est clair que les classes *note Formatter:
          144b.s spécialisées doivent être utilisées avec des *note
          Handler: 144a.s particuliers.

          If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its
          ancestors, taking into account the relevant *note
          Logger.propagate: 1449. attributes), the message will be sent
          to the handler set on *note lastResort: 11d9.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout du paramètre 'stack_info'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre 'exc_info' peut être
          une instance d'exception.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre 'stacklevel'.

      -- Méthode: info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité *note INFO:
          1cb0.  Les arguments ont la même signification que pour *note
          debug(): 2c21.

      -- Méthode: warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité *note WARNING:
          1cb1.  Les arguments ont la même signification que pour *note
          debug(): 2c21.

               Note: Il existe une méthode obsolète ‘warn’ qui est
               identique à ‘warning’.  ‘warn’ n'est plus maintenue,
               prière de ne plus l'utiliser et de la remplacer par
               ‘warning’.

      -- Méthode: error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité *note ERROR:
          1cb2.  Les arguments ont la même signification que pour *note
          debug(): 2c21.

      -- Méthode: critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité *note
          CRITICAL: 1cb3.  Les arguments ont la même signification que
          pour *note debug(): 2c21.

      -- Méthode: log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité 'level'.  Les
          arguments ont la même signification que pour *note debug():
          2c21.

      -- Méthode: exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité *note ERROR:
          1cb2.  Les arguments ont la même signification que pour *note
          debug(): 2c21.  Des informations sur l'exception sont ajoutées
          au message.  Cette méthode doit être appelée depuis un
          gestionnaire d'exceptions.

      -- Méthode: addFilter (filter)

          Ajoute le filtre 'filter' à l'enregistreur.

      -- Méthode: removeFilter (filter)

          Retire le filtre 'filter' de cet enregistreur.

      -- Méthode: filter (record)

          Applique les filtres associés à l'enregistreur et renvoie
          ‘True’ si l'entrée doit être traitée.  Les filtres sont
          appliqués les uns après les autres, jusqu'à ce que l'un
          renvoie faux.  Si ce n'est pas le cas, le traitement de
          l'entrée se poursuit (elle est alors passée aux
          gestionnaires).  Si l'un d'entre eux renvoie faux, le
          traitement de l'entrée s'arrête.

      -- Méthode: addHandler (hdlr)

          Ajoute le gestionnaire 'hdlr' à l'enregistreur.

      -- Méthode: removeHandler (hdlr)

          Retire le gestionnaire 'hdlr' de l'enregistreur.

      -- Méthode: findCaller (stack_info=False, stacklevel=1)

          Détermine le fichier source et la ligne de l'appelant.
          Renvoie un quadruplet contenant le nom du fichier source, le
          numéro de ligne, le nom de la fonction et la pile d'appels.
          La pile vaut ‘None’ si 'stack_info' n'est pas ‘True’.

          Le paramètre 'stacklevel' est passé par le code appelant *note
          debug(): 2c21. (entre autres).  S'il est supérieur à 1, 'n'-1
          entrées de la pile sont supprimées avant de renvoyer la pile.
          C'est pratique quand on appelle des APIs de journalisation à
          travers du code d'encapsulation car cela permet de retirer les
          informations sur ce code de l'entrée, tout en conservant
          celles sur le code au-dessus du code d'encapsulation.

      -- Méthode: handle (record)

          Traite une entrée en la passant à tous les gestionnaires de
          l'enregistreur et à tous ses parents (jusqu'à ce qu'un
          'propagate' soit faux).  C'est pratique pour désérialiser les
          entrées reçues d'un connecteur et celles créées localement.
          Du filtrage au niveau de l'enregistreur est appliqué en
          appelant *note filter(): 2c25.

      -- Méthode: makeRecord (name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info,
               func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)

          Fabrique qui peut être redéfinie pour créer des instances de
          *note LogRecord: fd3.

      -- Méthode: hasHandlers ()

          Vérifie si l'enregistreur a des gestionnaires associés.  Elle
          recherche les gestionnaires de l'enregistreur et ceux de ses
          parents.  Renvoie ‘True’ si au moins un gestionnaire a été
          trouvé et ‘False’ sinon.  Cette méthode arrête de remonter la
          hiérarchie dès qu'un enregistreur avec l'attribut 'propagate'
          à faux est rencontré ­— cet enregistreur est alors le dernier
          dans lequel la méthode cherche des gestionnaires.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: les enregistreurs peuvent être
     sérialisés et désérialisés.


File: python.info,  Node: Niveaux de journalisation,  Next: Gestionnaires,  Prev: Enregistreurs,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.2 Niveaux de journalisation
..................................

Les valeurs numériques des niveaux de journalisation sont données dans
le tableau suivant.  Celles-ci n'ont d'intérêt que si vous voulez
définir vos propres niveaux, avec des valeurs spécifiques par rapport
aux niveaux prédéfinis.  Si vous définissez un niveau avec la même
valeur numérique, il écrase la valeur prédéfinie ; le nom prédéfini est
perdu.

Niveau                      Valeur numérique    What it means / When to use it
                                                
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
 -- Données:                0                   When set on a logger, indicates that
          logging.NOTSET                        ancestor loggers are to be consulted to
                                                determine the effective level.  If that
                                                still resolves to ‘NOTSET’, then all
                                                events are logged.  When set on a
                                                handler, all events are handled.
                                                
                                                
 -- Données:                10                  Detailed information, typically only of
          logging.DEBUG                         interest to a developer trying to
                                                diagnose a problem.
                                                
                                                
 -- Données: logging.INFO   20                  Confirmation que tout fonctionne comme
                                                prévu.
                                                
                                                
 -- Données:                30                  An indication that something unexpected
          logging.WARNING                       happened, or that a problem might occur
                                                in the near future (e.g.  'disk space
                                                low').  The software is still working
                                                as expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- Données:                40                  Du fait d'un problème plus sérieux, le
          logging.ERROR                         logiciel n'a pas été capable de
                                                réaliser une tâche.
                                                
                                                
 -- Données:                50                  Une erreur sérieuse, indiquant que le
          logging.CRITICAL                      programme lui-même pourrait être
                                                incapable de continuer à fonctionner.
                                                


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires,  Next: Formateurs,  Prev: Niveaux de journalisation,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.3 Gestionnaires
......................

Handlers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that *note
Handler: 144a. is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base
for more useful subclasses.  However, the ‘__init__()’ method in
subclasses needs to call *note Handler.__init__(): 2c2d.

 -- Classe: logging.Handler

      -- Méthode: __init__ (level=NOTSET)

          Initialise l'objet *note Handler: 144a. en définissant le
          niveau de gravité, en initialisant la liste des filtres avec
          une liste vide et en créant un verrou (avec *note
          createLock(): 2c2e.) pour sérialiser l'accès au mécanisme
          d'E-S.

      -- Méthode: createLock ()

          Instancie un verrou qui peut être utilisé pour sérialiser
          l'accès au système d'E-S sous-jacent (qui peut ne pas être à
          fil d'exécution sécurisé).

      -- Méthode: acquire ()

          Acquiert le verrou créé par *note createLock(): 2c2e.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Relâche le verrou acquis par *note acquire(): 2c2f.

      -- Méthode: setLevel (level)

          Ajuste le seuil déclenchement du gestionnaire au niveau
          'level'.  Les messages de gravité moindre que 'level' sont
          alors ignorés.  Ce seuil est fixé à *note NOTSET: 2c1e. lors
          de la création d'un gestionnaire (ce qui signifie que tous les
          messages seront traités).

          Voir *note Niveaux de journalisation: 647. pour la liste des
          niveaux.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: le paramètre 'level' peut être
          une chaîne de caractères, comme ‘'INFO'’, en plus d'une
          constante entière comme *note INFO: 1cb0.

      -- Méthode: setFormatter (fmt)

          Sets the formatter for this handler to 'fmt'.  The 'fmt'
          argument must be a *note Formatter: 144b. instance or ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: addFilter (filter)

          Ajoute le filtre 'filter' au gestionnaire.

      -- Méthode: removeFilter (filter)

          Retire le filtre 'filter' du gestionnaire.

      -- Méthode: filter (record)

          Applique les filtres du gestionnaire à 'record' et renvoie
          ‘True’ si l'entrée doit être traitée.  Les filtres sont
          appliqués l'un après l'autre, jusqu'à ce que l'un renvoie
          faux.  Si aucun d'entre eux ne renvoie faux, l'entrée est
          enregistrée, sinon le gestionnaire ne traitera pas l'entrée.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Oblige toutes les entrées à être traitées.  Cette fonction ne
          fait rien de spécial et doit être redéfinie par les
          sous-classes.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Tidy up any resources used by the handler.  This version does
          no output but removes the handler from an internal map of
          handlers, which is used for handler lookup by name.

          Subclasses should ensure that this gets called from overridden
          *note close(): 2c37. methods.

      -- Méthode: handle (record)

          Traite ou non 'record' selon les filtres ajoutés au
          gestionnaire.  Un verrou sur l'E-S. est mis en place durant
          l'écriture effective.

      -- Méthode: handleError (record)

          This method should be called from handlers when an exception
          is encountered during an *note emit(): 2c3a. call.  If the
          module-level attribute *note raiseExceptions: 11d8. is
          ‘False’, exceptions get silently ignored.  This is what is
          mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care
          about errors in the logging system, they are more interested
          in application errors.  You could, however, replace this with
          a custom handler if you wish.  The specified record is the one
          which was being processed when the exception occurred.  (The
          default value of *note raiseExceptions: 11d8. is ‘True’, as
          that is more useful during development).

      -- Méthode: format (record)

          Formate 'record' avec le formateur défini.  S'il n'y en a pas,
          le formateur par défaut du module est utilisé.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Journalise 'record' « pour de bon ».  Cette version doit être
          redéfinie par les sous-classes et lève donc une *note
          NotImplementedError: 225.

               Avertissement: This method is called after a
               handler-level lock is acquired, which is released after
               this method returns.  When you override this method, note
               that you should be careful when calling anything that
               invokes other parts of the logging API which might do
               locking, because that might result in a deadlock.
               Specifically:

                  * Logging configuration APIs acquire the module-level
                    lock, and then individual handler-level locks as
                    those handlers are configured.

                  * Many logging APIs lock the module-level lock.  If
                    such an API is called from this method, it could
                    cause a deadlock if a configuration call is made on
                    another thread, because that thread will try to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'before' the
                    handler-level lock, whereas this thread tries to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'after' the
                    handler-level lock (because in this method, the
                    handler-level lock has already been acquired).

Les gestionnaires de la bibliothèque standard sont répertoriés dans
*note logging.handlers: 88.


File: python.info,  Node: Formateurs,  Next: Filtres<2>,  Prev: Gestionnaires,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.4 Formateurs
...................

 -- Classe: logging.Formatter (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%',
          validate=True, *, defaults=None)

     Responsible for converting a *note LogRecord: fd3. to an output
     string to be interpreted by a human or external system.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fmt’ (*note str: 437.) - A format string in the given 'style'
          for the logged output as a whole.  The possible mapping keys
          are drawn from the *note LogRecord: fd3. object's *note
          LogRecord attributes: 2c3e.  If not specified, ‘'%(message)s'’
          is used, which is just the logged message.

        * ‘datefmt’ (*note str: 437.) - A format string in the given
          'style' for the date/time portion of the logged output.  If
          not specified, the default described in *note formatTime():
          2c3f. is used.

        * ‘style’ (*note str: 437.) - Can be one of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
          ‘'$'’ and determines how the format string will be merged with
          its data: using one of *note Formatage de chaines à la printf:
          6b9. (‘%’), *note str.format(): 60e. (‘{’) or *note
          string.Template: 674. (‘$’).  This only applies to 'fmt' and
          'datefmt' (e.g.  ‘'%(message)s'’ versus ‘'{message}'’), not to
          the actual log messages passed to the logging methods.
          However, there are *note other ways: 2c40. to use ‘{’- and
          ‘$’-formatting for log messages.

        * ‘validate’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘True’ (the default),
          incorrect or mismatched 'fmt' and 'style' will raise a *note
          ValueError: 1ff.; for example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s
          - %(message)s', style='{')’.

        * ‘defaults’ (*note dict: 253.‘[’*note str: 437.‘, ’‘Any’‘]’) -
          A dictionary with default values to use in custom fields.  For
          example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(ip)s %(message)s',
          defaults={"ip": None})’

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'style' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'validate' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the 'defaults' parameter.

      -- Méthode: format (record)

          The record's attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a
          string formatting operation.  Returns the resulting string.
          Before formatting the dictionary, a couple of preparatory
          steps are carried out.  The 'message' attribute of the record
          is computed using 'msg' % 'args'.  If the formatting string
          contains ‘'(asctime)'’, *note formatTime(): 2c3f. is called to
          format the event time.  If there is exception information, it
          is formatted using *note formatException(): 2c42. and appended
          to the message.  Note that the formatted exception information
          is cached in attribute 'exc_text'.  This is useful because the
          exception information can be pickled and sent across the wire,
          but you should be careful if you have more than one *note
          Formatter: 144b. subclass which customizes the formatting of
          exception information.  In this case, you will have to clear
          the cached value (by setting the 'exc_text' attribute to
          ‘None’) after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the
          next formatter to handle the event doesn't use the cached
          value, but recalculates it afresh.

          If stack information is available, it's appended after the
          exception information, using *note formatStack(): 2c43. to
          transform it if necessary.

      -- Méthode: formatTime (record, datefmt=None)

          This method should be called from *note format(): 60c. by a
          formatter which wants to make use of a formatted time.  This
          method can be overridden in formatters to provide for any
          specific requirement, but the basic behavior is as follows: if
          'datefmt' (a string) is specified, it is used with *note
          time.strftime(): 11c8. to format the creation time of the
          record.  Otherwise, the format '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu' is
          used, where the uuu part is a millisecond value and the other
          letters are as per the *note time.strftime(): 11c8.
          documentation.  An example time in this format is ‘2003-01-23
          00:29:50,411’.  The resulting string is returned.

          This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the
          creation time to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime():
          14b1. is used; to change this for a particular formatter
          instance, set the ‘converter’ attribute to a function with the
          same signature as *note time.localtime(): 14b1. or *note
          time.gmtime(): 119f.  To change it for all formatters, for
          example if you want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set
          the ‘converter’ attribute in the ‘Formatter’ class.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Previously, the default format
          was hard-coded as in this example: ‘2010-09-06 22:38:15,292’
          where the part before the comma is handled by a strptime
          format string (‘'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'’), and the part after the
          comma is a millisecond value.  Because strptime does not have
          a format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value
          is appended using another format string, ‘'%s,%03d'’ -- and
          both of these format strings have been hardcoded into this
          method.  With the change, these strings are defined as
          class-level attributes which can be overridden at the instance
          level when desired.  The names of the attributes are
          ‘default_time_format’ (for the strptime format string) and
          ‘default_msec_format’ (for appending the millisecond value).

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: The ‘default_msec_format’ can be
          ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: formatException (exc_info)

          Formats the specified exception information (a standard
          exception tuple as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 677.) as
          a string.  This default implementation just uses *note
          traceback.print_exception(): 83b.  The resulting string is
          returned.

      -- Méthode: formatStack (stack_info)

          Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned
          by *note traceback.print_stack(): e73, but with the last
          newline removed) as a string.  This default implementation
          just returns the input value.

 -- Classe: logging.BufferingFormatter (linefmt=None)

     A base formatter class suitable for subclassing when you want to
     format a number of records.  You can pass a *note Formatter: 144b.
     instance which you want to use to format each line (that
     corresponds to a single record).  If not specified, the default
     formatter (which just outputs the event message) is used as the
     line formatter.

      -- Méthode: formatHeader (records)

          Return a header for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records, a title or a separator line.

      -- Méthode: formatFooter (records)

          Return a footer for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records or a separator line.

      -- Méthode: format (records)

          Return formatted text for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string if there are no
          records; otherwise, it returns the concatenation of the
          header, each record formatted with the line formatter, and the
          footer.


File: python.info,  Node: Filtres<2>,  Next: Objets LogRecord,  Prev: Formateurs,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.5 Filtres
................

‘Filters’ can be used by ‘Handlers’ and ‘Loggers’ for more sophisticated
filtering than is provided by levels.  The base filter class only allows
events which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy.  For
example, a filter initialized with 'A.B' will allow events logged by
loggers 'A.B', 'A.B.C', 'A.B.C.D', 'A.B.D' etc.  but not 'A.BB', 'B.A.B'
etc.  If initialized with the empty string, all events are passed.

 -- Classe: logging.Filter (name='')

     Returns an instance of the *note Filter: 11da. class.  If 'name' is
     specified, it names a logger which, together with its children,
     will have its events allowed through the filter.  If 'name' is the
     empty string, allows every event.

      -- Méthode: filter (record)

          Is the specified record to be logged?  Returns false for no,
          true for yes.  Filters can either modify log records in-place
          or return a completely different record instance which will
          replace the original log record in any future processing of
          the event.

Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is
emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are
consulted whenever an event is logged (using *note debug(): 2c21, *note
info(): 2c4b, etc.), before sending an event to handlers.  This means
that events which have been generated by descendant loggers will not be
filtered by a logger's filter setting, unless the filter has also been
applied to those descendant loggers.

You don't actually need to subclass ‘Filter’: you can pass any instance
which has a ‘filter’ method with the same semantics.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: You don't need to create specialized
‘Filter’ classes, or use other classes with a ‘filter’ method: you can
use a function (or other callable) as a filter.  The filtering logic
will check to see if the filter object has a ‘filter’ attribute: if it
does, it's assumed to be a ‘Filter’ and its *note filter(): 2c4a. method
is called.  Otherwise, it's assumed to be a callable and called with the
record as the single parameter.  The returned value should conform to
that returned by *note filter(): 2c4a.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: You can now return a *note LogRecord: fd3.
instance from filters to replace the log record rather than modifying it
in place.  This allows filters attached to a *note Handler: 144a. to
modify the log record before it is emitted, without having side effects
on other handlers.

Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more
sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which
is processed by the handler or logger they're attached to: this can be
useful if you want to do things like counting how many records were
processed by a particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or
removing attributes in the *note LogRecord: fd3. being processed.
Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be done with some care, but it
does allow the injection of contextual information into logs (see *note
Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles:
2c4c.).


File: python.info,  Node: Objets LogRecord,  Next: LogRecord attributes,  Prev: Filtres<2>,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.6 Objets LogRecord
.........................

*note LogRecord: fd3. instances are created automatically by the *note
Logger: b3f. every time something is logged, and can be created manually
via *note makeLogRecord(): 2c4f. (for example, from a pickled event
received over the wire).

 -- Classe: logging.LogRecord (name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args,
          exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)

     Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.

     The primary information is passed in 'msg' and 'args', which are
     combined using ‘msg % args’ to create the ‘message’ attribute of
     the record.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.) - The name of the logger used to log
          the event represented by this ‘LogRecord’.  Note that the
          logger name in the ‘LogRecord’ will always have this value,
          even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to a
          different (ancestor) logger.

        * ‘level’ (*note int: 254.) - The *note numeric level: 647. of
          the logging event (such as ‘10’ for ‘DEBUG’, ‘20’ for ‘INFO’,
          etc).  Note that this is converted to 'two' attributes of the
          LogRecord: ‘levelno’ for the numeric value and ‘levelname’ for
          the corresponding level name.

        * ‘pathname’ (*note str: 437.) - The full string path of the
          source file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘lineno’ (*note int: 254.) - The line number in the source
          file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘msg’ (*note Any: 699.) - The event description message, which
          can be a %-format string with placeholders for variable data,
          or an arbitrary object (see *note Utilisation d'objets
          arbitraires comme messages: 2c50.).

        * ‘args’ (*note tuple: 366.‘ | ’*note dict: 253.‘[’*note str:
          437.‘, ’*note Any: 699.‘]’) - Variable data to merge into the
          'msg' argument to obtain the event description.

        * ‘exc_info’ (*note tuple: 366.‘[’*note type: d38.‘[’*note
          BaseException: 5a7.‘]’‘, ’*note BaseException: 5a7.‘, ’*note
          types.TracebackType: ae2.‘] ’‘| ’‘None’) - An exception tuple
          with the current exception information, as returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 677, or ‘None’ if no exception information is
          available.

        * ‘func’ (*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - The name of the function
          or method from which the logging call was invoked.

        * ‘sinfo’ (*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - A text string
          representing stack information from the base of the stack in
          the current thread, up to the logging call.

      -- Méthode: getMessage ()

          Returns the message for this *note LogRecord: fd3. instance
          after merging any user-supplied arguments with the message.
          If the user-supplied message argument to the logging call is
          not a string, *note str(): 437. is called on it to convert it
          to a string.  This allows use of user-defined classes as
          messages, whose ‘__str__’ method can return the actual format
          string to be used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The creation of a *note LogRecord:
     fd3. has been made more configurable by providing a factory which
     is used to create the record.  The factory can be set using *note
     getLogRecordFactory(): 2c52. and *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2c53.
     (see this for the factory's signature).

     This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a
     *note LogRecord: fd3. at creation time.  You can use the following
     pattern:

          old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

          def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
              record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
              record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
              return record

          logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

     With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long
     as they don't overwrite each other's attributes or unintentionally
     overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no
     surprises.


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord attributes,  Next: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Prev: Objets LogRecord,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.7 LogRecord attributes
.............................

The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from
the parameters to the constructor.  (Note that the names do not always
correspond exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the
LogRecord attributes.)  These attributes can be used to merge data from
the record into the format string.  The following table lists (in
alphabetical order) the attribute names, their meanings and the
corresponding placeholder in a %-style format string.

If you are using {}-formatting (*note str.format(): 60e.), you can use
‘{attrname}’ as the placeholder in the format string.  If you are using
$-formatting (*note string.Template: 674.), use the form ‘${attrname}’.
In both cases, of course, replace ‘attrname’ with the actual attribute
name you want to use.

In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by
placing them after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon.
For example: a placeholder of ‘{msecs:03.0f}’ would format a millisecond
value of ‘4’ as ‘004’.  Refer to the *note str.format(): 60e.
documentation for full details on the options available to you.

Attribute name       Format                        Description
                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
args                 You shouldn't need to         The tuple of arguments merged into ‘msg’ to
                     format this yourself.         produce ‘message’, or a dict whose values are
                                                   used for the merge (when there is only one
                                                   argument, and it is a dictionary).
                                                   
                                                   
asctime              ‘%(asctime)s’                 Human-readable time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: fd3. was created.  By default
                                                   this is of the form '2003-07-08 16:49:45,896'
                                                   (the numbers after the comma are millisecond
                                                   portion of the time).
                                                   
                                                   
created              ‘%(created)f’                 Time when the *note LogRecord: fd3. was created
                                                   (as returned by *note time.time_ns(): ad7. /
                                                   1e9).
                                                   
                                                   
exc_info             You shouldn't need to         Exception tuple (à la ‘sys.exc_info’) or, if no
                     format this yourself.         exception has occurred, ‘None’.
                                                   
                                                   
filename             ‘%(filename)s’                Filename portion of ‘pathname’.
                                                   
                                                   
funcName             ‘%(funcName)s’                Name of function containing the logging call.
                                                   
                                                   
levelname            ‘%(levelname)s’               Text logging level for the message (‘'DEBUG'’,
                                                   ‘'INFO'’, ‘'WARNING'’, ‘'ERROR'’, ‘'CRITICAL'’).
                                                   
                                                   
levelno              ‘%(levelno)s’                 Numeric logging level for the message
                                                   (*note DEBUG: 1caf, *note INFO: 1cb0,
                                                   *note WARNING: 1cb1, *note ERROR: 1cb2,
                                                   *note CRITICAL: 1cb3.).
                                                   
                                                   
lineno               ‘%(lineno)d’                  Source line number where the logging call was
                                                   issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
message              ‘%(message)s’                 The logged message, computed as ‘msg % args’.
                                                   This is set when *note Formatter.format(): 2c41.
                                                   is invoked.
                                                   
                                                   
module               ‘%(module)s’                  Module (name portion of ‘filename’).
                                                   
                                                   
msecs                ‘%(msecs)d’                   Millisecond portion of the time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: fd3. was created.
                                                   
                                                   
msg                  You shouldn't need to         The format string passed in the original logging
                     format this yourself.         call.  Merged with ‘args’ to produce ‘message’,
                                                   or an arbitrary object (see
                                                   *note Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages: 2c50.).
                                                   
                                                   
nom                  ‘%(name)s’                    Name of the logger used to log the call.
                                                   
                                                   
pathname             ‘%(pathname)s’                Full pathname of the source file where the
                                                   logging call was issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
process              ‘%(process)d’                 Process ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
processName          ‘%(processName)s’             Process name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
relativeCreated      ‘%(relativeCreated)d’         Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was
                                                   created, relative to the time the logging module
                                                   was loaded.
                                                   
                                                   
stack_info           You shouldn't need to         Stack frame information (where available) from
                     format this yourself.         the bottom of the stack in the current thread, up
                                                   to and including the stack frame of the logging
                                                   call which resulted in the creation of this
                                                   record.
                                                   
                                                   
thread               ‘%(thread)d’                  Thread ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
threadName           ‘%(threadName)s’              Thread name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
taskName             ‘%(taskName)s’                *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. name (if available).
                                                   

Modifié dans la version 3.1: 'processName' was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: 'taskName' was added.


File: python.info,  Node: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Next: Thread Safety,  Prev: LogRecord attributes,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.8 LoggerAdapter Objects
..............................

*note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. instances are used to conveniently pass
contextual information into logging calls.  For a usage example, see the
section on *note adding contextual information to your logging output:
2c57.

 -- Classe: logging.LoggerAdapter (logger, extra, merge_extra=False)

     Returns an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. initialized with
     an underlying *note Logger: b3f. instance, a dict-like object
     ('extra'), and a boolean ('merge_extra') indicating whether or not
     the 'extra' argument of individual log calls should be merged with
     the *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. extra.  The default behavior is to
     ignore the 'extra' argument of individual log calls and only use
     the one of the *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. instance

      -- Méthode: process (msg, kwargs)

          Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a
          logging call in order to insert contextual information.  This
          implementation takes the object passed as 'extra' to the
          constructor and adds it to 'kwargs' using key 'extra'.  The
          return value is a ('msg', 'kwargs') tuple which has the
          (possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.

      -- Attribut: manager

          Delegates to the underlying ‘manager’ on 'logger'.

      -- Attribut: _log

          Delegates to the underlying ‘_log()’ method on 'logger'.

     In addition to the above, *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. supports the
     following methods of *note Logger: b3f.: *note debug(): e19, *note
     info(): 2c20, *note warning(): 16be, *note error(): 2c22, *note
     exception(): e17, *note critical(): e18, *note log(): e16, *note
     isEnabledFor(): 12d6, *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2c1f, *note
     setLevel(): 1447. and *note hasHandlers(): 2c29.  These methods
     have the same signatures as their counterparts in *note Logger:
     b3f, so you can use the two types of instances interchangeably.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The *note isEnabledFor(): 12d6, *note
     getEffectiveLevel(): 2c1f, *note setLevel(): 1447. and *note
     hasHandlers(): 2c29. methods were added to *note LoggerAdapter:
     12d5.  These methods delegate to the underlying logger.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Attribute ‘manager’ and method
     ‘_log()’ were added, which delegate to the underlying logger and
     allow adapters to be nested.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'merge_extra' argument was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Safety,  Next: Fonctions de niveau module,  Prev: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.9 Thread Safety
......................

The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special
work needing to be done by its clients.  It achieves this though using
threading locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module's
shared data, and each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to
its underlying I/O.

If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the *note
signal: c5. module, you may not be able to use logging from within such
handlers.  This is because lock implementations in the *note threading:
ec. module are not always re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such
signal handlers.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de niveau module,  Next: Module-Level Attributes,  Prev: Thread Safety,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.10 Fonctions de niveau module
....................................

In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of
module-level functions.

 -- Fonction: logging.getLogger (name=None)

     Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ‘None’,
     return the root logger of the hierarchy.  If specified, the name is
     typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like ''a", ''a.b" or
     ''a.b.c.d".  Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer
     who is using logging, though it is recommended that ‘__name__’ be
     used unless you have a specific reason for not doing that, as
     mentioned in *note Enregistreurs: 2c15.

     All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger
     instance.  This means that logger instances never need to be passed
     between different parts of an application.

 -- Fonction: logging.getLoggerClass ()

     Return either the standard *note Logger: b3f. class, or the last
     class passed to *note setLoggerClass(): 2c5e.  This function may be
     called from within a new class definition, to ensure that
     installing a customized *note Logger: b3f. class will not undo
     customizations already applied by other code.  For example:

          class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
              # ... override behaviour here

 -- Fonction: logging.getLogRecordFactory ()

     Return a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: fd3.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2: This function has been provided, along
     with *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2c53, to allow developers more
     control over how the *note LogRecord: fd3. representing a logging
     event is constructed.

     See *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2c53. for more information about
     the how the factory is called.

 -- Fonction: logging.debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     This is a convenience function that calls *note Logger.debug():
     e19, on the root logger.  The handling of the arguments is in every
     way identical to what is described in that method.

     The only difference is that if the root logger has no handlers,
     then *note basicConfig(): 9f0. is called, prior to calling ‘debug’
     on the root logger.

     For very short scripts or quick demonstrations of ‘logging’
     facilities, ‘debug’ and the other module-level functions may be
     convenient.  However, most programs will want to carefully and
     explicitly control the logging configuration, and should therefore
     prefer creating a module-level logger and calling *note
     Logger.debug(): e19. (or other level-specific methods) on it, as
     described at the beginnning of this documentation.

 -- Fonction: logging.info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note INFO: 1cb0. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2c21.

 -- Fonction: logging.warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note WARNING: 1cb1. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2c21.

          Note: There is an obsolete function ‘warn’ which is
          functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is deprecated,
          please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

 -- Fonction: logging.error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1cb2. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2c21.

 -- Fonction: logging.critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 1cb3. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2c21.

 -- Fonction: logging.exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1cb2. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2c21.  Exception info is added to the logging message.
     This function should only be called from an exception handler.

 -- Fonction: logging.log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level 'level' on the root logger.  The
     arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note debug():
     2c21.

 -- Fonction: logging.disable (level=CRITICAL)

     Provides an overriding level 'level' for all loggers which takes
     precedence over the logger's own level.  When the need arises to
     temporarily throttle logging output down across the whole
     application, this function can be useful.  Its effect is to disable
     all logging calls of severity 'level' and below, so that if you
     call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would
     be discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be
     processed according to the logger's effective level.  If
     ‘logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)’ is called, it effectively removes
     this overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the
     effective levels of individual loggers.

     Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than
     ‘CRITICAL’ (this is not recommended), you won't be able to rely on
     the default value for the 'level' parameter, but will have to
     explicitly supply a suitable value.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'level' parameter was defaulted to
     level ‘CRITICAL’.  See bpo-28524(1) for more information about this
     change.

 -- Fonction: logging.addLevelName (level, levelName)

     Associates level 'level' with text 'levelName' in an internal
     dictionary, which is used to map numeric levels to a textual
     representation, for example when a *note Formatter: 144b. formats a
     message.  This function can also be used to define your own levels.
     The only constraints are that all levels used must be registered
     using this function, levels should be positive integers and they
     should increase in increasing order of severity.

          Note: If you are thinking of defining your own levels, please
          see the section on *note Niveaux personnalisés: 2c64.

 -- Fonction: logging.getLevelNamesMapping ()

     Returns a mapping from level names to their corresponding logging
     levels.  For example, the string "CRITICAL" maps to *note CRITICAL:
     1cb3.  The returned mapping is copied from an internal mapping on
     each call to this function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: logging.getLevelName (level)

     Returns the textual or numeric representation of logging level
     'level'.

     If 'level' is one of the predefined levels *note CRITICAL: 1cb3,
     *note ERROR: 1cb2, *note WARNING: 1cb1, *note INFO: 1cb0. or *note
     DEBUG: 1caf. then you get the corresponding string.  If you have
     associated levels with names using *note addLevelName(): 2c63. then
     the name you have associated with 'level' is returned.  If a
     numeric value corresponding to one of the defined levels is passed
     in, the corresponding string representation is returned.

     The 'level' parameter also accepts a string representation of the
     level such as 'INFO'. In such cases, this functions returns the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.

     If no matching numeric or string value is passed in, the string
     'Level %s' % level is returned.

          Note: Levels are internally integers (as they need to be
          compared in the logging logic).  This function is used to
          convert between an integer level and the level name displayed
          in the formatted log output by means of the ‘%(levelname)s’
          format specifier (see *note LogRecord attributes: 2c3e.), and
          vice versa.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: In Python versions earlier than 3.4,
     this function could also be passed a text level, and would return
     the corresponding numeric value of the level.  This undocumented
     behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in Python 3.4,
     but reinstated in 3.4.2 due to retain backward compatibility.

 -- Fonction: logging.getHandlerByName (name)

     Returns a handler with the specified 'name', or ‘None’ if there is
     no handler with that name.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: logging.getHandlerNames ()

     Returns an immutable set of all known handler names.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: logging.makeLogRecord (attrdict)

     Creates and returns a new *note LogRecord: fd3. instance whose
     attributes are defined by 'attrdict'.  This function is useful for
     taking a pickled *note LogRecord: fd3. attribute dictionary, sent
     over a socket, and reconstituting it as a *note LogRecord: fd3.
     instance at the receiving end.

 -- Fonction: logging.basicConfig (**kwargs)

     Does basic configuration for the logging system by creating a *note
     StreamHandler: 11d7. with a default *note Formatter: 144b. and
     adding it to the root logger.  The functions *note debug(): 2c21,
     *note info(): 2c4b, *note warning(): 2f4, *note error(): 2c5f. and
     *note critical(): 2c60. will call *note basicConfig(): 9f0.
     automatically if no handlers are defined for the root logger.

     This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers
     configured, unless the keyword argument 'force' is set to ‘True’.

          Note: This function should be called from the main thread
          before other threads are started.  In versions of Python prior
          to 2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple
          threads, it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler
          will be added to the root logger more than once, leading to
          unexpected results such as messages being duplicated in the
          log.

     The following keyword arguments are supported.

     Format             Description
                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     'filename'         Specifies that a *note FileHandler: 185b. be
                        created, using the specified filename, rather
                        than a *note StreamHandler: 11d7.
                        
                        
     'filemode'         If 'filename' is specified, open the file in
                        this *note mode: 2133.  Defaults to ‘'a'’.
                        
                        
     'format'           Use the specified format string for the
                        handler.  Defaults to attributes ‘levelname’,
                        ‘name’ and ‘message’ separated by colons.
                        
                        
     'datefmt'          Use the specified date/time format, as accepted
                        by *note time.strftime(): 11c8.
                        
                        
     'style'            If 'format' is specified, use this style for
                        the format string.  One of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
                        ‘'$'’ for *note printf-style: 6b9,
                        *note str.format(): 60e. or
                        *note string.Template: 674. respectively.
                        Defaults to ‘'%'’.
                        
                        
     'level'            Set the root logger level to the specified
                        *note level: 647.
                        
                        
     'stream'           Use the specified stream to initialize the
                        *note StreamHandler: 11d7.  Note that this
                        argument is incompatible with 'filename' - if
                        both are present, a ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'handlers'         If specified, this should be an iterable of
                        already created handlers to add to the root
                        logger.  Any handlers which don't already have
                        a formatter set will be assigned the default
                        formatter created in this function.  Note that
                        this argument is incompatible with 'filename'
                        or 'stream' - if both are present, a
                        ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'force'            If this keyword argument is specified as true,
                        any existing handlers attached to the root
                        logger are removed and closed, before carrying
                        out the configuration as specified by the other
                        arguments.
                        
                        
     'encoding'         If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 185b. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.
                        
                        
     'errors'           If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 185b. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.  If not
                        specified, the value 'backslashreplace' is
                        used.  Note that if ‘None’ is specified, it
                        will be passed as such to *note open(): 508,
                        which means that it will be treated the same as
                        passing 'errors'.
                        

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The 'style' argument was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'handlers' argument was added.
     Additional checks were added to catch situations where incompatible
     arguments are specified (e.g.  'handlers' together with 'stream' or
     'filename', or 'stream' together with 'filename').

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The 'force' argument was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments
     were added.

 -- Fonction: logging.shutdown ()

     Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by
     flushing and closing all handlers.  This should be called at
     application exit and no further use of the logging system should be
     made after this call.

     When the logging module is imported, it registers this function as
     an exit handler (see *note atexit: c.), so normally there's no need
     to do that manually.

 -- Fonction: logging.setLoggerClass (klass)

     Tells the logging system to use the class 'klass' when
     instantiating a logger.  The class should define ‘__init__()’ such
     that only a name argument is required, and the ‘__init__()’ should
     call ‘Logger.__init__()’.  This function is typically called before
     any loggers are instantiated by applications which need to use
     custom logger behavior.  After this call, as at any other time, do
     not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to
     use the *note logging.getLogger(): 94f. API to get your loggers.

 -- Fonction: logging.setLogRecordFactory (factory)

     Set a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: fd3.


     Paramètres: ‘factory’ - The factory callable to be used to
     instantiate a log record.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2: This function has been provided, along
     with *note getLogRecordFactory(): 2c52, to allow developers more
     control over how the *note LogRecord: fd3. representing a logging
     event is constructed.

     The factory has the following signature:

     ‘factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None,
     sinfo=None, **kwargs)’


          nom: The logger name.


          level: The logging level (numeric).


          fn: The full pathname of the file where the logging call was
          made.


          lno: The line number in the file where the logging call was
          made.


          msg: The logging message.


          args: The arguments for the logging message.


          exc_info: An exception tuple, or ‘None’.


          func: The name of the function or method which invoked the
          logging call.


          sinfo: A stack traceback such as is provided by *note
          traceback.print_stack(): e73, showing the call hierarchy.


          kwargs: Additional keyword arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28524


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Attributes,  Next: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Fonctions de niveau module,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.11 Module-Level Attributes
.................................

 -- Données: logging.lastResort

     A "handler of last resort" is available through this attribute.
     This is a *note StreamHandler: 11d7. writing to ‘sys.stderr’ with a
     level of ‘WARNING’, and is used to handle logging events in the
     absence of any logging configuration.  The end result is to just
     print the message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This replaces the earlier error
     message saying that "no handlers could be found for logger XYZ". If
     you need the earlier behaviour for some reason, ‘lastResort’ can be
     set to ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: logging.raiseExceptions

     Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.

     Default: ‘True’.

     If *note raiseExceptions: 11d8. is ‘False’, exceptions get silently
     ignored.  This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most
     users will not care about errors in the logging system, they are
     more interested in application errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Attributes,  Up: logging --- Logging facility for Python

5.16.4.12 Integration with the warnings module
..............................................

The *note captureWarnings(): 2c69. function can be used to integrate
*note logging: 86. with the *note warnings: 111. module.

 -- Fonction: logging.captureWarnings (capture)

     This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on
     and off.

     If 'capture' is ‘True’, warnings issued by the *note warnings: 111.
     module will be redirected to the logging system.  Specifically, a
     warning will be formatted using *note warnings.formatwarning():
     19d3. and the resulting string logged to a logger named
     ‘'py.warnings'’ with a severity of *note WARNING: 1cb1.

     If 'capture' is ‘False’, the redirection of warnings to the logging
     system will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original
     destinations (i.e.  those in effect before ‘captureWarnings(True)’
     was called).

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     API de configuration pour le module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

PEP 282(1) - A Logging System

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

Original Python logging package(2)

     This is the original source for the *note logging: 86. package.
     The version of the package available from this site is suitable for
     use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x and 2.2.x, which do not include the
     *note logging: 86. package in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://old.red-dove.com/python_logging.html


File: python.info,  Node: logging config --- Logging configuration,  Next: logging handlers --- Logging handlers,  Prev: logging --- Logging facility for Python,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.5 ‘logging.config’ -- Logging configuration
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/config.py(1)

Important
.........

Cette page contient uniquement des informations de référence.  Pour des
tutoriels, veuillez consulter

   * *note Tutoriel basique: 11d4.

   * *note Tutoriel avancé: 11d5.

   * *note Recettes pour la journalisation: 11d6.

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.

* Menu:

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/logging/config.py


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration functions,  Next: Security considerations,  Up: logging config --- Logging configuration

5.16.5.1 Configuration functions
................................

The following functions configure the logging module.  They are located
in the *note logging.config: 87. module.  Their use is optional -- you
can configure the logging module using these functions or by making
calls to the main API (defined in *note logging: 86. itself) and
defining handlers which are declared either in *note logging: 86. or
*note logging.handlers: 88.

 -- Fonction: logging.config.dictConfig (config)

     Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary.  The contents of
     this dictionary are described in *note Configuration dictionary
     schema: 2c6d. below.

     If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will
     raise a *note ValueError: 1ff, *note TypeError: 525, *note
     AttributeError: 343. or *note ImportError: 40f. with a suitably
     descriptive message.  The following is a (possibly incomplete) list
     of conditions which will raise an error:

        * A ‘level’ which is not a string or which is a string not
          corresponding to an actual logging level.

        * A ‘propagate’ value which is not a boolean.

        * An id which does not have a corresponding destination.

        * A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.

        * An invalid logger name.

        * Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.

     Parsing is performed by the ‘DictConfigurator’ class, whose
     constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and
     has a ‘configure()’ method.  The *note logging.config: 87. module
     has a callable attribute ‘dictConfigClass’ which is initially set
     to ‘DictConfigurator’.  You can replace the value of
     ‘dictConfigClass’ with a suitable implementation of your own.

     *note dictConfig(): 118f. calls ‘dictConfigClass’ passing the
     specified dictionary, and then calls the ‘configure()’ method on
     the returned object to put the configuration into effect:

          def dictConfig(config):
              dictConfigClass(config).configure()

     For example, a subclass of ‘DictConfigurator’ could call
     ‘DictConfigurator.__init__()’ in its own ‘__init__()’, then set up
     custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
     ‘configure()’ call.  ‘dictConfigClass’ would be bound to this new
     subclass, and then *note dictConfig(): 118f. could be called
     exactly as in the default, uncustomized state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: logging.config.fileConfig (fname, defaults=None,
          disable_existing_loggers=True, encoding=None)

     Reads the logging configuration from a *note configparser:
     22.-format file.  The format of the file should be as described in
     *note Configuration file format: 2c6e.  This function can be called
     several times from an application, allowing an end user to select
     from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer provides a
     mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen
     configuration).

     It will raise *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. if the file doesn't
     exist and *note RuntimeError: 193. if the file is invalid or empty.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fname’ - A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance
          derived from *note RawConfigParser: f51.  If a
          ‘RawConfigParser’-derived instance is passed, it is used as
          is.  Otherwise, a *note ConfigParser: 1c3. is instantiated,
          and the configuration read by it from the object passed in
          ‘fname’.  If that has a *note readline(): b9. method, it is
          assumed to be a file-like object and read using *note
          read_file(): 4f2.; otherwise, it is assumed to be a filename
          and passed to *note read(): 141e.

        * ‘defaults’ - Defaults to be passed to the ‘ConfigParser’ can
          be specified in this argument.

        * ‘disable_existing_loggers’ - If specified as ‘False’, loggers
          which exist when this call is made are left enabled.  The
          default is ‘True’ because this enables old behaviour in a
          backward-compatible way.  This behaviour is to disable any
          existing non-root loggers unless they or their ancestors are
          explicitly named in the logging configuration.

        * ‘encoding’ - The encoding used to open file when 'fname' is
          filename.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: An instance of a subclass of *note
     RawConfigParser: f51. is now accepted as a value for ‘fname’.  This
     facilitates:

             * Use of a configuration file where logging configuration
               is just part of the overall application configuration.

             * Use of a configuration read from a file, and then
               modified by the using application (e.g.  based on
               command-line parameters or other aspects of the runtime
               environment) before being passed to ‘fileConfig’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the 'encoding' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: An exception will be thrown if the
     provided file doesn't exist or is invalid or empty.

 -- Fonction: logging.config.listen (port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT,
          verify=None)

     Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for
     new configurations.  If no port is specified, the module's default
     ‘DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT’ is used.  Logging configurations will
     be sent as a file suitable for processing by *note dictConfig():
     118f. or *note fileConfig(): b41.  Returns a *note Thread: 93b.
     instance on which you can call *note start(): 2c6f. to start the
     server, and which you can *note join(): 11c3. when appropriate.  To
     stop the server, call *note stopListening(): 2c70.

     The ‘verify’ argument, if specified, should be a callable which
     should verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid
     and should be processed.  This could be done by encrypting and/or
     signing what is sent across the socket, such that the ‘verify’
     callable can perform signature verification and/or decryption.  The
     ‘verify’ callable is called with a single argument - the bytes
     received across the socket - and should return the bytes to be
     processed, or ‘None’ to indicate that the bytes should be
     discarded.  The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in
     bytes (e.g.  when only verification is done), or they could be
     completely different (perhaps if decryption were performed).

     To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration
     file and send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a
     four-byte length string packed in binary using ‘struct.pack('>L',
     n)’.
          Note: Because portions of the configuration are passed through
          *note eval(): 17e, use of this function may open its users to
          a security risk.  While the function only binds to a socket on
          ‘localhost’, and so does not accept connections from remote
          machines, there are scenarios where untrusted code could be
          run under the account of the process which calls *note
          listen(): f52.  Specifically, if the process calling *note
          listen(): f52. runs on a multi-user machine where users cannot
          trust each other, then a malicious user could arrange to run
          essentially arbitrary code in a victim user's process, simply
          by connecting to the victim's *note listen(): f52. socket and
          sending a configuration which runs whatever code the attacker
          wants to have executed in the victim's process.  This is
          especially easy to do if the default port is used, but not
          hard even if a different port is used.  To avoid the risk of
          this happening, use the ‘verify’ argument to *note listen():
          f52. to prevent unrecognised configurations from being
          applied.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The ‘verify’ argument was added.

          Note: If you want to send configurations to the listener which
          don't disable existing loggers, you will need to use a JSON
          format for the configuration, which will use *note
          dictConfig(): 118f. for configuration.  This method allows you
          to specify ‘disable_existing_loggers’ as ‘False’ in the
          configuration you send.

 -- Fonction: logging.config.stopListening ()

     Stops the listening server which was created with a call to *note
     listen(): f52.  This is typically called before calling ‘join()’ on
     the return value from *note listen(): f52.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations,  Next: Configuration dictionary schema,  Prev: Configuration functions,  Up: logging config --- Logging configuration

5.16.5.2 Security considerations
................................

The logging configuration functionality tries to offer convenience, and
in part this is done by offering the ability to convert text in
configuration files into Python objects used in logging configuration -
for example, as described in *note User-defined objects: 2c73.  However,
these same mechanisms (importing callables from user-defined modules and
calling them with parameters from the configuration) could be used to
invoke any code you like, and for this reason you should treat
configuration files from untrusted sources with 'extreme caution' and
satisfy yourself that nothing bad can happen if you load them, before
actually loading them.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration dictionary schema,  Next: Configuration file format,  Prev: Security considerations,  Up: logging config --- Logging configuration

5.16.5.3 Configuration dictionary schema
........................................

Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various objects
to create and the connections between them; for example, you may create
a handler named 'console' and then say that the logger named 'startup'
will send its messages to the 'console' handler.  These objects aren't
limited to those provided by the *note logging: 86. module because you
might write your own formatter or handler class.  The parameters to
these classes may also need to include external objects such as
‘sys.stderr’.  The syntax for describing these objects and connections
is defined in *note Object connections: 2c75. below.

* Menu:

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Schema Details,  Next: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.4 Dictionary Schema Details
..................................

The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 118f. must contain the
following keys:

   * 'version' - to be set to an integer value representing the schema
     version.  The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key
     allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards
     compatibility.

All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted as
described below.  In all cases below where a 'configuring dict' is
mentioned, it will be checked for the special ‘'()'’ key to see if a
custom instantiation is required.  If so, the mechanism described in
*note User-defined objects: 2c73. below is used to create an instance;
otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.

   * 'formatters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding *note Formatter: 144b. instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following optional keys
     which correspond to the arguments passed to create a *note
     Formatter: 144b. object:

        * ‘format’

        * ‘datefmt’

        * ‘style’

        * ‘validate’ (since version >=3.8)

        * ‘defaults’ (since version >=3.12)

     An optional ‘class’ key indicates the name of the formatter's class
     (as a dotted module and class name).  The instantiation arguments
     are as for *note Formatter: 144b, thus this key is most useful for
     instantiating a customised subclass of *note Formatter: 144b.  For
     example, the alternative class might present exception tracebacks
     in an expanded or condensed format.  If your formatter requires
     different or extra configuration keys, you should use *note
     User-defined objects: 2c73.

   * 'filters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Filter instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the key ‘name’ (defaulting to
     the empty string) and this is used to construct a *note
     logging.Filter: 11da. instance.

   * 'handlers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Handler instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘class’ (mandatory).  This is the fully qualified name of the
          handler class.

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the handler.

        * ‘formatter’ (optional).  The id of the formatter for this
          handler.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          handler.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘filters’ can take filter
          instances in addition to ids.

     All 'other' keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the
     handler's constructor.  For example, given the snippet:

          handlers:
            console:
              class : logging.StreamHandler
              formatter: brief
              level   : INFO
              filters: [allow_foo]
              stream  : ext://sys.stdout
            file:
              class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
              formatter: precise
              filename: logconfig.log
              maxBytes: 1024
              backupCount: 3

     the handler with id ‘console’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.StreamHandler: 11d7, using ‘sys.stdout’ as the underlying
     stream.  The handler with id ‘file’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1593. with the keyword
     arguments ‘filename='logconfig.log', maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3’.

   * 'loggers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Logger instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the logger.

        * ‘propagate’ (optional).  The propagation setting of the
          logger.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          logger.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘filters’ can take filter
          instances in addition to ids.

        * ‘handlers’ (optional).  A list of ids of the handlers for this
          logger.

     The specified loggers will be configured according to the level,
     propagation, filters and handlers specified.

   * 'root' - this will be the configuration for the root logger.
     Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except
     that the ‘propagate’ setting will not be applicable.

   * 'incremental' - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as
     incremental to the existing configuration.  This value defaults to
     ‘False’, which means that the specified configuration replaces the
     existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the
     existing *note fileConfig(): b41. API.

     If the specified value is ‘True’, the configuration is processed as
     described in the section on *note Incremental Configuration: 2c78.

   * 'disable_existing_loggers' - whether any existing non-root loggers
     are to be disabled.  This setting mirrors the parameter of the same
     name in *note fileConfig(): b41.  If absent, this parameter
     defaults to ‘True’.  This value is ignored if 'incremental' is
     ‘True’.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Configuration,  Next: Object connections,  Prev: Dictionary Schema Details,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.5 Incremental Configuration
..................................

It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental
configuration.  For example, because objects such as filters and
formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is not
possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a
configuration.

Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering the
object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at run-time, once
a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and handlers can be
controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of loggers,
propagation flags).  Changing the object graph arbitrarily in a safe way
is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not impossible,
the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the implementation.

Thus, when the ‘incremental’ key of a configuration dict is present and
is ‘True’, the system will completely ignore any ‘formatters’ and
‘filters’ entries, and process only the ‘level’ settings in the
‘handlers’ entries, and the ‘level’ and ‘propagate’ settings in the
‘loggers’ and ‘root’ entries.

Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent
over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener.  Thus, the logging
verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with no
need to stop and restart the application.


File: python.info,  Node: Object connections,  Next: User-defined objects,  Prev: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.6 Object connections
...........................

The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers, handlers,
formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in an object
graph.  Thus, the schema needs to represent connections between the
objects.  For example, say that, once configured, a particular logger
has attached to it a particular handler.  For the purposes of this
discussion, we can say that the logger represents the source, and the
handler the destination, of a connection between the two.  Of course in
the configured objects this is represented by the logger holding a
reference to the handler.  In the configuration dict, this is done by
giving each destination object an id which identifies it unambiguously,
and then using the id in the source object's configuration to indicate
that a connection exists between the source and the destination object
with that id.

So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:

     formatters:
       brief:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'brief' goes here
       precise:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'precise' goes here
     handlers:
       h1: #This is an id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h1' goes here
        formatter: brief
       h2: #This is another id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h2' goes here
        formatter: precise
     loggers:
       foo.bar.baz:
         # other configuration for logger 'foo.bar.baz'
         handlers: [h1, h2]

(Note: YAML used here because it's a little more readable than the
equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)

The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used
programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g.
‘foo.bar.baz’.  The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string
value (such as ‘brief’, ‘precise’ above) and they are transient, in that
they are only meaningful for processing the configuration dictionary and
used to determine connections between objects, and are not persisted
anywhere when the configuration call is complete.

The above snippet indicates that logger named ‘foo.bar.baz’ should have
two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler ids ‘h1’
and ‘h2’.  The formatter for ‘h1’ is that described by id ‘brief’, and
the formatter for ‘h2’ is that described by id ‘precise’.


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined objects,  Next: Handler configuration order,  Prev: Object connections,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.7 User-defined objects
.............................

The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and
formatters.  (Loggers do not need to have different types for different
instances, so there is no support in this configuration schema for
user-defined logger classes.)

Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries which detail
their configuration.  In some places, the logging system will be able to
infer from the context how an object is to be instantiated, but when a
user-defined object is to be instantiated, the system will not know how
to do this.  In order to provide complete flexibility for user-defined
object instantiation, the user needs to provide a 'factory' - a callable
which is called with a configuration dictionary and which returns the
instantiated object.  This is signalled by an absolute import path to
the factory being made available under the special key ‘'()'’.  Here's a
concrete example:

     formatters:
       brief:
         format: '%(message)s'
       default:
         format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
         datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
       custom:
           (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
           bar: baz
           spam: 99.9
           answer: 42

The above YAML snippet defines three formatters.  The first, with id
‘brief’, is a standard *note logging.Formatter: 144b. instance with the
specified format string.  The second, with id ‘default’, has a longer
format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will result in a
*note logging.Formatter: 144b. initialized with those two format
strings.  Shown in Python source form, the ‘brief’ and ‘default’
formatters have configuration sub-dictionaries:

     {
       'format' : '%(message)s'
     }

et :

     {
       'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
       'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
     }

respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key
‘'()'’, the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result,
standard *note logging.Formatter: 144b. instances are created.  The
configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id ‘custom’,
is:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42
     }

and this contains the special key ‘'()'’, which means that user-defined
instantiation is wanted.  In this case, the specified factory callable
will be used.  If it is an actual callable it will be used directly -
otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example) the actual
callable will be located using normal import mechanisms.  The callable
will be called with the 'remaining' items in the configuration
sub-dictionary as keyword arguments.  In the above example, the
formatter with id ‘custom’ will be assumed to be returned by the call:

     my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)

     Avertissement: The values for keys such as ‘bar’, ‘spam’ and
     ‘answer’ in the above example should not be configuration
     dictionaries or references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’,
     because they will not be processed by the configuration machinery,
     but passed to the callable as-is.

The key ‘'()'’ has been used as the special key because it is not a
valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of
the keyword arguments used in the call.  The ‘'()'’ also serves as a
mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘filters’ member of ‘handlers’ and
‘loggers’ can take filter instances in addition to ids.

You can also specify a special key ‘'.'’ whose value is a dictionary is
a mapping of attribute names to values.  If found, the specified
attributes will be set on the user-defined object before it is returned.
Thus, with the following configuration:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42,
       '.' {
         'foo': 'bar',
         'baz': 'bozz'
       }
     }

the returned formatter will have attribute ‘foo’ set to ‘'bar'’ and
attribute ‘baz’ set to ‘'bozz'’.

     Avertissement: The values for attributes such as ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ in
     the above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but set as
     attribute values as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Handler configuration order,  Next: Access to external objects,  Prev: User-defined objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.8 Handler configuration order
....................................

Handlers are configured in alphabetical order of their keys, and a
configured handler replaces the configuration dictionary in (a working
copy of) the ‘handlers’ dictionary in the schema.  If you use a
construct such as ‘cfg://handlers.foo’, then initially ‘handlers['foo']’
points to the configuration dictionary for the handler named ‘foo’, and
later (once that handler has been configured) it points to the
configured handler instance.  Thus, ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ could resolve
to either a dictionary or a handler instance.  In general, it is wise to
name handlers in a way such that dependent handlers are configured
_after_ any handlers they depend on; that allows something like
‘cfg://handlers.foo’ to be used in configuring a handler that depends on
handler ‘foo’.  If that dependent handler were named ‘bar’, problems
would result, because the configuration of ‘bar’ would be attempted
before that of ‘foo’, and ‘foo’ would not yet have been configured.
However, if the dependent handler were named ‘foobar’, it would be
configured after ‘foo’, with the result that ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ would
resolve to configured handler ‘foo’, and not its configuration
dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to external objects,  Next: Access to internal objects,  Prev: Handler configuration order,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.9 Access to external objects
...................................

There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects external
to the configuration, for example ‘sys.stderr’.  If the configuration
dict is constructed using Python code, this is straightforward, but a
problem arises when the configuration is provided via a text file (e.g.
JSON, YAML). In a text file, there is no standard way to distinguish
‘sys.stderr’ from the literal string ‘'sys.stderr'’.  To facilitate this
distinction, the configuration system looks for certain special prefixes
in string values and treat them specially.  For example, if the literal
string ‘'ext://sys.stderr'’ is provided as a value in the configuration,
then the ‘ext://’ will be stripped off and the remainder of the value
processed using normal import mechanisms.

The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol
handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which match
the regular expression ‘^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$’ whereby,
if the ‘prefix’ is recognised, the ‘suffix’ is processed in a
prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces the
string value.  If the prefix is not recognised, then the string value
will be left as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to internal objects,  Next: Import resolution and custom importers,  Prev: Access to external objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.10 Access to internal objects
....................................

As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer to
objects in the configuration.  This will be done implicitly by the
configuration system for things that it knows about.  For example, the
string value ‘'DEBUG'’ for a ‘level’ in a logger or handler will
automatically be converted to the value ‘logging.DEBUG’, and the
‘handlers’, ‘filters’ and ‘formatter’ entries will take an object id and
resolve to the appropriate destination object.

However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined objects
which are not known to the *note logging: 86. module.  For example,
consider *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2c82, which takes a
‘target’ argument which is another handler to delegate to.  Since the
system already knows about this class, then in the configuration, the
given ‘target’ just needs to be the object id of the relevant target
handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the id.  If,
however, a user defines a ‘my.package.MyHandler’ which has an
‘alternate’ handler, the configuration system would not know that the
‘alternate’ referred to a handler.  To cater for this, a generic
resolution system allows the user to specify:

     handlers:
       file:
         # configuration of file handler goes here

       custom:
         (): my.package.MyHandler
         alternate: cfg://handlers.file

The literal string ‘'cfg://handlers.file'’ will be resolved in an
analogous way to strings with the ‘ext://’ prefix, but looking in the
configuration itself rather than the import namespace.  The mechanism
allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to that provided by
‘str.format’.  Thus, given the following snippet:

     handlers:
       email:
         class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
         mailhost: localhost
         fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
         toaddrs:
           - support_team@domain.tld
           - dev_team@domain.tld
         subject: Houston, we have a problem.

in the configuration, the string ‘'cfg://handlers'’ would resolve to the
dict with key ‘handlers’, the string ‘'cfg://handlers.email’ would
resolve to the dict with key ‘email’ in the ‘handlers’ dict, and so on.
The string ‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]’ would resolve to
‘'dev_team@domain.tld'’ and the string
‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'’ would resolve to the value
‘'support_team@domain.tld'’.  The ‘subject’ value could be accessed
using either ‘'cfg://handlers.email.subject'’ or, equivalently,
‘'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'’.  The latter form only needs to be
used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.  Please
note that the characters ‘[’ and ‘]’ are not allowed in the keys.  If an
index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted
using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string value
if needed.

Given a string ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123’, this will resolve
to ‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’.  If the
string is specified as ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]’, the system
will attempt to retrieve the value from
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]’, and fall back to
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’ if that fails.


File: python.info,  Node: Import resolution and custom importers,  Next: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Access to internal objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.11 Import resolution and custom importers
................................................

Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin *note __import__(): 8c3.
function to do its importing.  You may want to replace this with your
own importing mechanism: if so, you can replace the ‘importer’ attribute
of the ‘DictConfigurator’ or its superclass, the ‘BaseConfigurator’
class.  However, you need to be careful because of the way functions are
accessed from classes via descriptors.  If you are using a Python
callable to do your imports, and you want to define it at class level
rather than instance level, you need to wrap it with *note
staticmethod(): 40c.  For example:

     from importlib import import_module
     from logging.config import BaseConfigurator

     BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)

You don't need to wrap with *note staticmethod(): 40c. if you're setting
the import callable on a configurator 'instance'.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Import resolution and custom importers,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.5.12 Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener
....................................................

If you want to configure a *note QueueHandler: 1793, noting that this is
normally used in conjunction with a *note QueueListener: e1b, you can
configure both together.  After the configuration, the ‘QueueListener’
instance will be available as the *note listener: 2c86. attribute of the
created handler, and that in turn will be available to you using *note
getHandlerByName(): 1794. and passing the name you have used for the
‘QueueHandler’ in your configuration.  The dictionary schema for
configuring the pair is shown in the example YAML snippet below.

     handlers:
       qhand:
         class: logging.handlers.QueueHandler
         queue: my.module.queue_factory
         listener: my.package.CustomListener
         handlers:
           - hand_name_1
           - hand_name_2
           ...

The ‘queue’ and ‘listener’ keys are optional.

If the ‘queue’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the
following:

   * An object implementing the *note Queue.put_nowait: 2c87. and *note
     Queue.get: 2c88. public API. For instance, this may be an actual
     instance of *note queue.Queue: 1367. or a subclass thereof, or a
     proxy obtained by *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue(): 2c89.

     This is of course only possible if you are constructing or
     modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no
     arguments, returns the queue instance to use.  That callable could
     be a *note queue.Queue: 1367. subclass or a function which returns
     a suitable queue instance, such as ‘my.module.queue_factory()’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 2c73.  The result of this
     construction should be a *note queue.Queue: 1367. instance.

If the ‘queue’ key is absent, a standard unbounded *note queue.Queue:
1367. instance is created and used.

If the ‘listener’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of
the following:

   * A subclass of *note logging.handlers.QueueListener: e1b.  This is
     of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the
     configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string which resolves to a class which is a subclass of
     ‘QueueListener’, such as ‘'my.package.CustomListener'’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 2c73.  The result of this
     construction should be a callable with the same signature as the
     ‘QueueListener’ initializer.

If the ‘listener’ key is absent, *note logging.handlers.QueueListener:
e1b. is used.

The values under the ‘handlers’ key are the names of other handlers in
the configuration (not shown in the above snippet) which will be passed
to the queue listener.

Any custom queue handler and listener classes will need to be defined
with the same initialization signatures as *note QueueHandler: 1793. and
*note QueueListener: e1b.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration file format,  Prev: Configuration dictionary schema,  Up: logging config --- Logging configuration

5.16.5.13 Configuration file format
...................................

The configuration file format understood by *note fileConfig(): b41. is
based on *note configparser: 22. functionality.  The file must contain
sections called ‘[loggers]’, ‘[handlers]’ and ‘[formatters]’ which
identify by name the entities of each type which are defined in the
file.  For each such entity, there is a separate section which
identifies how that entity is configured.  Thus, for a logger named
‘log01’ in the ‘[loggers]’ section, the relevant configuration details
are held in a section ‘[logger_log01]’.  Similarly, a handler called
‘hand01’ in the ‘[handlers]’ section will have its configuration held in
a section called ‘[handler_hand01]’, while a formatter called ‘form01’
in the ‘[formatters]’ section will have its configuration specified in a
section called ‘[formatter_form01]’.  The root logger configuration must
be specified in a section called ‘[logger_root]’.

     Note: The *note fileConfig(): b41. API is older than the *note
     dictConfig(): 118f. API and does not provide functionality to cover
     certain aspects of logging.  For example, you cannot configure
     *note Filter: 11da. objects, which provide for filtering of
     messages beyond simple integer levels, using *note fileConfig():
     b41.  If you need to have instances of *note Filter: 11da. in your
     logging configuration, you will need to use *note dictConfig():
     118f.  Note that future enhancements to configuration functionality
     will be added to *note dictConfig(): 118f, so it's worth
     considering transitioning to this newer API when it's convenient to
     do so.

Examples of these sections in the file are given below.

     [loggers]
     keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07

     [handlers]
     keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09

     [formatters]
     keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09

The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers.  An example
of a root logger section is given below.

     [logger_root]
     level=NOTSET
     handlers=hand01

The ‘level’ entry can be one of ‘DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL’
or ‘NOTSET’.  For the root logger only, ‘NOTSET’ means that all messages
will be logged.  Level values are *note evaluated: 2125. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package's namespace.

The ‘handlers’ entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which
must appear in the ‘[handlers]’ section.  These names must appear in the
‘[handlers]’ section and have corresponding sections in the
configuration file.

For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is
required.  This is illustrated by the following example.

     [logger_parser]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=hand01
     propagate=1
     qualname=compiler.parser

The ‘level’ and ‘handlers’ entries are interpreted as for the root
logger, except that if a non-root logger's level is specified as
‘NOTSET’, the system consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to
determine the effective level of the logger.  The ‘propagate’ entry is
set to 1 to indicate that messages must propagate to handlers higher up
the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to indicate that messages
are 'not' propagated to handlers up the hierarchy.  The ‘qualname’ entry
is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to say the name
used by the application to get the logger.

Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the
following.

     [handler_hand01]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form01
     args=(sys.stdout,)

The ‘class’ entry indicates the handler's class (as determined by *note
eval(): 17e. in the ‘logging’ package's namespace).  The ‘level’ is
interpreted as for loggers, and ‘NOTSET’ is taken to mean 'log
everything'.

The ‘formatter’ entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this
handler.  If blank, a default formatter (‘logging._defaultFormatter’) is
used.  If a name is specified, it must appear in the ‘[formatters]’
section and have a corresponding section in the configuration file.

The ‘args’ entry, when *note evaluated: 2125. in the context of the
‘logging’ package's namespace, is the list of arguments to the
constructor for the handler class.  Refer to the constructors for the
relevant handlers, or to the examples below, to see how typical entries
are constructed.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘()’.

The optional ‘kwargs’ entry, when *note evaluated: 2125. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package's namespace, is the keyword argument dict to
the constructor for the handler class.  If not provided, it defaults to
‘{}’.

     [handler_hand02]
     class=FileHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=form02
     args=('python.log', 'w')

     [handler_hand03]
     class=handlers.SocketHandler
     level=INFO
     formatter=form03
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand04]
     class=handlers.DatagramHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form04
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand05]
     class=handlers.SysLogHandler
     level=ERROR
     formatter=form05
     args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)

     [handler_hand06]
     class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
     level=CRITICAL
     formatter=form06
     args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')

     [handler_hand07]
     class=handlers.SMTPHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form07
     args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
     kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}

     [handler_hand08]
     class=handlers.MemoryHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form08
     target=
     args=(10, ERROR)

     [handler_hand09]
     class=handlers.HTTPHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form09
     args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
     kwargs={'secure': True}

Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the
following.

     [formatter_form01]
     format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s %(customfield)s
     datefmt=
     style=%
     validate=True
     defaults={'customfield': 'defaultvalue'}
     class=logging.Formatter

The arguments for the formatter configuration are the same as the keys
in the dictionary schema *note formatters section: 2c77.

The ‘defaults’ entry, when *note evaluated: 2125. in the context of the
‘logging’ package's namespace, is a dictionary of default values for
custom formatting fields.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘None’.

     Note: Due to the use of *note eval(): 17e. as described above,
     there are potential security risks which result from using the
     *note listen(): f52. to send and receive configurations via
     sockets.  The risks are limited to where multiple users with no
     mutual trust run code on the same machine; see the *note listen():
     f52. documentation for more information.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note logging: 86.

     Référence d'API pour le module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.


File: python.info,  Node: logging handlers --- Logging handlers,  Next: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data,  Prev: logging config --- Logging configuration,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.6 ‘logging.handlers’ -- Logging handlers
---------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/logging/handlers.py(1)

Important
.........

Cette page contient uniquement des informations de référence.  Pour des
tutoriels, veuillez consulter

   * *note Tutoriel basique: 11d4.

   * *note Tutoriel avancé: 11d5.

   * *note livre de recettes sur la journalisation: 11d6.

__________________________________________________________________

Les gestionnaires suivants, très utiles, sont fournis dans le paquet.
Notez que trois des gestionnaires (*note StreamHandler: 11d7, *note
FileHandler: 185b. et *note NullHandler: 1264.) sont en réalité définis
dans le module *note logging: 86. lui-même, mais qu’ils sont documentés
ici avec les autres gestionnaires.

* Menu:

* Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler::
* Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler::
* Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler::
* Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler::
* Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler::
* Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler::
* Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/logging/handlers.py


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler,  Next: Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.1 Gestionnaire à flux — 'StreamHandler'
..............................................

La classe *note StreamHandler: 11d7, du paquet *note logging: 86, envoie
les sorties de journalisation dans des flux tels que 'sys.stdout',
'sys.stderr' ou n’importe quel objet fichier-compatible (ou, plus
précisément, tout objet qui gère les méthodes ‘write()’ et ‘flush()’).

 -- Classe: logging.StreamHandler (stream=None)

     Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe *note StreamHandler:
     11d7.  Si 'stream' est spécifié, l’instance l’utilise pour les
     sorties de journalisation ; autrement elle utilise 'sys.stderr'.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Si un formateur est spécifié, il est utilisé pour formater
          l’enregistrement.  L’enregistrement est ensuite écrit dans le
          flux, suivi par *note terminator: 2c90.  Si une information
          d’exception est présente, elle est formatée en utilisant *note
          traceback.print_exception(): 83b. puis ajoutée aux flux.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Purge le flux en appelant sa méthode *note flush(): 2c91.
          Notez que la méthode ‘close()’ est héritée de *note Handler:
          144a. donc elle n'écrit rien.  Par conséquent, un appel
          explicite à *note flush(): 2c91. peut parfois s'avérer
          nécessaire.

      -- Méthode: setStream (stream)

          Définit le flux de l’instance à la valeur spécifiée, si elle
          est différente.  L’ancien flux est purgé avant que le nouveau
          flux ne soit établi.


          Paramètres: ‘stream’ - le flux que le gestionnaire doit
          utiliser.


          Renvoie: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or ‘None’
          if it wasn't.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: terminator

          Chaine de caractères utilisée comme marqueur de fin lors de
          l’écriture formatée d'un enregistrement dans un flux.  La
          valeur par défaut est ‘'\n'’.

          Si vous ne voulez pas marquer de fin de ligne, il faut définir
          l’attribut ‘terminator’ à la chaîne de caractères vide.

          Dans des versions antérieures, le marqueur de fin était codé
          en dur sous la forme ‘'\n'’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler,  Next: Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.2 Gestionnaire à fichier — 'FileHandler'
...............................................

La classe *note FileHandler: 185b, du paquet *note logging: 86, envoie
les sorties de journalisation dans un fichier.  Elle hérite des
fonctionnalités de sortie de *note StreamHandler: 11d7.

 -- Classe: logging.FileHandler (filename, mode='a', encoding=None,
          delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note FileHandler: 185b. class.  The
     specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging.  If
     'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding' is not
     ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If 'delay'
     is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
     *note emit(): 2c94.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.  If
     'errors' is specified, it's used to determine how encoding errors
     are handled.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument 'filename' accepte les
     objets *note Path: 226. aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre 'errors'.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme le fichier.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Écrit l’enregistrement dans le fichier.

          Note that if the file was closed due to logging shutdown at
          exit and the file mode is 'w', the record will not be emitted
          (see bpo-42378(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler,  Next: Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.3 Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — 'NullHandler'
.......................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

La classe *note NullHandler: 1264, située dans le paquet principal *note
logging: 86, ne produit aucun formatage ni sortie.  C’est
essentiellement un gestionnaire « fantôme » destiné aux développeurs de
bibliothèques.

 -- Classe: logging.NullHandler

     Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe *note NullHandler: 1264.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Cette méthode ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: handle (record)

          Cette méthode ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: createLock ()

          Cette méthode renvoie ‘None’ pour le verrou, étant donné qu’il
          n’y a aucun flux d'entrée-sortie sous-jacent dont l’accès doit
          être sérialisé.

Voir *note Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque:
2c9b. pour plus d’information sur l'utilisation de *note NullHandler:
1264.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler,  Next: Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.4 Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — 'WatchedFileHandler'
........................................................................

La classe *note WatchedFileHandler: 2c9e, du module *note
logging.handlers: 88, est une classe ‘FileHandler’ qui surveille le
fichier dans lequel elle écrit.  Si le fichier est modifié, il est fermé
et rouvert en utilisant le nom du fichier.

Le fichier peut être modifié par des programmes tels que 'newsyslog' ou
'logrotate' qui assurent le roulement des fichiers de journalisation.
Ce gestionnaire, destiné à une utilisation sous Unix-Linux, surveille le
fichier pour voir s’il a changé depuis la dernière écriture (un fichier
est considéré comme modifié si son nœud d’index ou le périphérique
auquel il est rattaché a changé).  Si le fichier a changé, l’ancien flux
vers ce fichier est fermé, et le fichier est ouvert pour établir un
nouveau flux.

Ce gestionnaire n’est pas approprié pour une utilisation sous 'Windows',
car sous 'Windows' les fichiers de journalisation ouverts ne peuvent
être ni déplacés, ni renommés — la journalisation ouvre les fichiers
avec des verrous exclusifs — de telle sorte qu’il n’y a pas besoin d’un
tel gestionnaire.  En outre, 'ST_INO' n’est pas géré par 'Windows' ;
*note stat(): 48c. renvoie toujours zéro pour cette valeur.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note WatchedFileHandler: 2c9e.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  If 'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding'
     is not ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If
     'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call
     to *note emit(): 2c9f.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
     If 'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument 'filename' accepte les
     objets *note Path: 226. aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre 'errors'.

      -- Méthode: reopenIfNeeded ()

          Vérifie si le fichier a changé.  Si c’est le cas, le flux
          existant est purgé et fermé et le fichier est rouvert,
          généralement avant d'effectuer l’écriture de l'enregistrement
          dans le fichier.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Écrit l’enregistrement dans le fichier, mais appelle d’abord
          *note reopenIfNeeded(): ca6. pour rouvrir le fichier s’il a
          changé.


File: python.info,  Node: Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler,  Next: Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.5 Base des gestionnaires à roulement — 'BaseRotatingHandler'
...................................................................

La classe *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2ca2, du module *note
logging.handlers: 88, est la classe de base pour les gestionnaires à
roulement, *note RotatingFileHandler: 1593. et *note
TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e.  Il ne faut pas créer des instances de
cette classe, mais surcharger ses attributs et méthodes.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler (filename, mode,
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     Les paramètres sont les mêmes que pour ‘FileHandler’.  Les
     attributs sont :

      -- Attribut: namer

          Si cet attribut est un qu’appelable, la méthode *note
          rotation_filename(): 2ca4. délègue sa logique à cet appelable.
          Les paramètres passés à l’appelable sont ceux passés à *note
          rotation_filename(): 2ca4.

               Note: la fonction 'namer' est appelée de nombreuses fois
               durant le roulement ; elle doit donc être aussi simple et
               rapide que possible.  Elle doit aussi renvoyer toujours
               la même sortie pour une entrée donnée, autrement le
               comportement du roulement pourrait être différent de
               celui attendu.

               It's also worth noting that care should be taken when
               using a namer to preserve certain attributes in the
               filename which are used during rotation.  For example,
               *note RotatingFileHandler: 1593. expects to have a set of
               log files whose names contain successive integers, so
               that rotation works as expected, and *note
               TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e. deletes old log files
               (based on the ‘backupCount’ parameter passed to the
               handler's initializer) by determining the oldest files to
               delete.  For this to happen, the filenames should be
               sortable using the date/time portion of the filename, and
               a namer needs to respect this.  (If a namer is wanted
               that doesn't respect this scheme, it will need to be used
               in a subclass of *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e.
               which overrides the *note getFilesToDelete(): 2ca5.
               method to fit in with the custom naming scheme.)

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: rotator

          Si cet attribut est un appelable, il se substitue à la méthode
          *note rotate(): 2ca7.  Les paramètres passés à l’appelable
          sont ceux passés à *note rotate(): 2ca7.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: rotation_filename (default_name)

          Modifie le nom du fichier d’un fichier de journalisation lors
          du roulement.

          Cette méthode sert à pouvoir produire un nom de fichier
          personnalisé.

          L’implémentation par défaut appelle l’attribut 'namer' du
          gestionnaire, si c’est un appelable, lui passant le nom par
          défaut.  Si l’attribut n’est pas un appelable (le défaut est
          ‘None’), le nom est renvoyé tel quel.


          Paramètres: ‘default_name’ - le nom par défaut du fichier de
          journalisation.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: rotate (source, dest)

          Lors du roulement, effectue le roulement du journal courant.

          L’implémentation par défaut appelle l’attribut 'rotator' du
          gestionnaire, si c’est un appelable, lui passant les arguments
          'source' et 'dest'.  Si l’attribut n’est pas un appelable (le
          défaut est ‘None’), le nom de la source est simplement renommé
          avec la destination.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘source’ - le nom du fichier source.  Il s’agit
               normalement du nom du fichier, par exemple ‘"test.log"’.

             * ‘dest’ - le nom du fichier de destination.  Il s’agit
               normalement du nom donné à la source après le roulement,
               par exemple ‘"test.log.1"’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

La raison d’être de ces attributs est de vous épargner la création d’une
sous-classe — vous pouvez utiliser les mêmes appels pour des instances
de *note RotatingFileHandler: 1593. et *note TimedRotatingFileHandler:
f4e.  Si l'appelable 'namer' ou 'rotator' lève une exception, elle est
gérée de la même manière que n’importe quelle exception levée lors d'un
appel à ‘emit()’, c'est-à-dire par la méthode ‘handleError()’ du
gestionnaire.

Si vous avez besoin de faire d’importantes modifications au processus de
roulement, surchargez les méthodes.

Pour un exemple, voir *note Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour
personnaliser la rotation des journaux: 2ca8.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler,  Next: Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Prev: Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.6 Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — 'RotatingFileHandler'
.....................................................................

La classe *note RotatingFileHandler: 1593, du module *note
logging.handlers: 88, gère le roulement des fichiers de journalisation
sur disque.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False,
          errors=None)

     Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe *note
     RotatingFileHandler: 1593.  Le fichier spécifié est ouvert et
     utilisé comme flux de sortie pour la journalisation.  Si 'mode'
     n’est pas spécifié, ‘'a'’ est utilisé.  Si 'encoding' n’est pas à
     ‘None’, il est utilisé pour ouvrir le fichier avec cet encodage.
     Si 'delay' est à 'true', alors l’ouverture du fichier est reportée
     au premier appel de *note emit(): 2cab.  Par défaut, le fichier
     croit indéfiniment.  Si 'errors' est spécifié, il détermine comment
     sont gérées les erreurs d’encodage.

     Utilisez les valeurs 'maxBytes' et 'backupCount' pour autoriser le
     roulement du fichier ('rollover') à une taille prédéterminée.
     Quand la taille limite est sur le point d’être dépassée, le fichier
     est fermé et un nouveau fichier est automatiquement ouvert pour le
     remplacer.  Un roulement se produit dès que le fichier de
     journalisation actuel atteint une taille proche de 'maxBytes' ; si
     'maxBytes' ou 'backupCount' est à 0, le roulement ne se produit
     jamais, donc en temps normal il convient de définir 'backupCount' à
     au moins 1, et avoir une valeur de 'maxBytes' non nulle.  Quand
     'backupCount' est non nul, le système sauvegarde les anciens
     fichiers de journalisation en ajoutant à leur nom les suffixes
     ‘".1"’, ‘".2"’ et ainsi de suite.  Par exemple, avec un
     'backupCount' de 5 et ‘app.log’ comme radical du fichier, on
     obtient ‘app.log’, ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, jusqu’à ‘app.log.5’.
     Le fichier dans lequel on écrit est toujours ‘app.log’.  Quand ce
     fichier est rempli, il est fermé et renommé en ‘app.log.1’, et si
     les fichiers ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, etc.  existent, alors ils
     sont renommés en ‘app.log.2’, ‘app.log.3’ etc.  respectivement.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument 'filename' accepte les
     objets *note Path: 226. aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre 'errors'.

      -- Méthode: doRollover ()

          Effectue un roulement, comme décrit ci-dessus.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Écrit l'enregistrement dans le fichier, effectuant un
          roulement au besoin comme décrit précédemment.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Next: Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.7 Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — 'TimedRotatingFileHandler'
.....................................................................................

La classe *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e. du module *note
logging.handlers: 88. gère le roulement des fichiers de journalisation
sur le disque selon un intervalle de temps spécifié.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler (filename,
          when='h', interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None,
          delay=False, utc=False, atTime=None, errors=None)

     Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe *note
     TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e.  Le fichier spécifié est ouvert et
     utilisé comme flux de sortie pour la journalisation.  Au moment du
     roulement, elle met également à jour le suffixe du nom du fichier.
     L'intervalle entre les roulements est déterminé par les valeurs de
     'when' et 'interval'.

     Utilisez 'when' pour spécifier le type de 'interval'.  Ses valeurs
     possibles sont décrites ci-dessous.  Notez qu'elles ne sont pas
     sensibles à la casse.

     Valeur               Type d’intervalle                Rôle de 'atTime'
                                                           
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
     ‘'S'’                Secondes                         Ignoré
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'M'’                Minutes                          Ignoré
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'H'’                Heures                           Ignoré
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'D'’                Jours                            Ignoré
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'W0'-'W6'’          Jour de la semaine (0 = lundi)   Utilisé pour calculer le
                                                           moment du roulement
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'midnight'’         Roulement du fichier à minuit,   Utilisé pour calculer le
                          si 'atTime' n’est pas            moment du roulement
                          spécifié, sinon à l’heure        
                          'atTime'
                          

     Pour un roulement selon les jours de la semaine, mettez la valeur
     'W0' pour lundi, 'W1' pour mardi, et ainsi de suite jusqu’à 'W6'
     pour dimanche.  Dans ce cas, la valeur indiquée pour 'interval'
     n’est pas utilisée.

     Le système sauvegarde les anciens fichiers de journalisation en
     ajoutant une extension au nom du fichier.  Les extensions sont
     basées sur la date et l’heure, au format 'strftime'
     ‘%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S’ ou le début de celui-ci, selon l’intervalle du
     roulement.

     Le premier calcul de la date du prochain roulement (quand le
     gestionnaire est créé) dépend de la dernière date de modification
     d’un fichier de journalisation existant, ou à défaut de la date
     actuelle.

     Si 'utc' est vrai, les temps sont UTC, sinon l'heure locale est
     utilisée.

     Si 'backupCount' est non nul, au plus 'backupCount' fichiers sont
     sauvegardés.  Si des fichiers supplémentaires devaient être créés
     par le jeu du roulement, les plus vieux seraient supprimés.  La
     logique de suppression détermine les fichiers à supprimer selon
     l'intervalle, donc changer cette valeur peut conduire à ce que
     certains fichiers anciens restent sur le disque.

     Si 'delay' est à 'true', alors l’ouverture du fichier est reportée
     au premier appel de *note emit(): 2caf.

     Si le roulement doit se produire « à minuit » ou « à un jour fixe
     de la semaine » et si 'atTime' n'est pas ‘None’, ce doit être une
     instance de ‘datetime.time’ qui définit l'heure de la journée à
     laquelle le roulement se produit.  Dans ce cas, la valeur de
     'atTime' ne sert qu'à déterminer la date du roulement 'initial', la
     date des roulements ultérieurs est déterminée par le calcul
     standard de l'intervalle.

     Si 'errors' est définit, il définit comment traiter les erreurs
     d'encodage.

          Note: la date du premier roulement est déterminée lors de
          l'initialisation du gestionnaire.  Ce n'est que lors d'un
          roulement que la date du roulement suivant n'est déterminée,
          et un roulement n'a lieu que si des entrées doivent être
          journalisées.  Gardez bien cela à l'esprit pour ne pas avoir
          de surprises.  Par exemple, un gestionnaire avec un intervalle
          « d'une minute » ne produira pas nécessairement des fichiers
          avec des dates (dans le nom desdits fichiers) séparées d'une
          minute.  Si une application génère des journaux plus
          fréquemment que toutes les minutes au cours de son exécution,
          alors 'dans ce cas' vous obtiendrez des fichiers avec des
          temps séparés d'une minute.  Si la même application ne produit
          une entrée de journal que toutes les cinq minutes, il y aura
          des sauts dans les dates des fichiers produits qui
          correspondront aux moments où rien n'a été produit (et donc où
          aucun roulement n'a eu lieu).

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout du paramètre 'atTime'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument 'filename' accepte les
     objets *note Path: 226. aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre 'errors'.

      -- Méthode: doRollover ()

          Effectue un roulement, comme décrit ci-dessus.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Écrit l'enregistrement dans le fichier, effectuant un
          roulement au besoin comme décrit précédemment.

      -- Méthode: getFilesToDelete ()

          Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of
          rollover.  These are the absolute paths of the oldest backup
          log files written by the handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler,  Next: DatagramHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.8 Gestionnaire à connecteur — 'SocketHandler'
....................................................

The *note SocketHandler: f4f. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, sends logging output to a network socket.
The base class uses a TCP socket.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.SocketHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SocketHandler: f4f. class
     intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is
     given by 'host' and 'port'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a
     Unix domain socket is created using the value in ‘host’ -
     otherwise, a TCP socket is created.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Closes the socket.

      -- Méthode: emit ()

          Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  If the connection was
          previously lost, re-establishes the connection.  To unpickle
          the record at the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: fd3,
          use the *note makeLogRecord(): 2c4f. function.

      -- Méthode: handleError ()

          Handles an error which has occurred during *note emit(): 2cb4.
          The most likely cause is a lost connection.  Closes the socket
          so that we can retry on the next event.

      -- Méthode: makeSocket ()

          This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the
          precise type of socket they want.  The default implementation
          creates a TCP socket (*note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.).

      -- Méthode: makePickle (record)

          Pickles the record's attribute dictionary in binary format
          with a length prefix, and returns it ready for transmission
          across the socket.  The details of this operation are
          equivalent to:

               data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
               datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
               return datalen + data

          Note that pickles aren't completely secure.  If you are
          concerned about security, you may want to override this method
          to implement a more secure mechanism.  For example, you can
          sign pickles using HMAC and then verify them on the receiving
          end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of global
          objects on the receiving end.

      -- Méthode: send (packet)

          Send a pickled byte-string 'packet' to the socket.  The format
          of the sent byte-string is as described in the documentation
          for *note makePickle(): 2cb7.

          This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when
          the network is busy.

      -- Méthode: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential
          back-off algorithm.  On initial failure, the handler will drop
          the message it was trying to send.  When subsequent messages
          are handled by the same instance, it will not try connecting
          until some time has passed.  The default parameters are such
          that the initial delay is one second, and if after that delay
          the connection still can't be made, the handler will double
          the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.

          This behaviour is controlled by the following handler
          attributes:

             * ‘retryStart’ (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).

             * ‘retryFactor’ (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).

             * ‘retryMax’ (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).

          This means that if the remote listener starts up 'after' the
          handler has been used, you could lose messages (since the
          handler won't even attempt a connection until the delay has
          elapsed, but just silently drop messages during the delay
          period).


File: python.info,  Node: DatagramHandler,  Next: SysLogHandler,  Prev: Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.9 DatagramHandler
........................

The *note DatagramHandler: f50. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, inherits from *note SocketHandler: f4f. to
support sending logging messages over UDP sockets.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.DatagramHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the *note DatagramHandler: f50. class
     intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is
     given by 'host' and 'port'.

          Note: As UDP is not a streaming protocol, there is no
          persistent connection between an instance of this handler and
          'host'.  For this reason, when using a network socket, a DNS
          lookup might have to be made each time an event is logged,
          which can introduce some latency into the system.  If this
          affects you, you can do a lookup yourself and initialize this
          handler using the looked-up IP address rather than the
          hostname.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a
     Unix domain socket is created using the value in ‘host’ -
     otherwise, a UDP socket is created.

      -- Méthode: emit ()

          Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  To unpickle the record at
          the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: fd3, use the *note
          makeLogRecord(): 2c4f. function.

      -- Méthode: makeSocket ()

          The factory method of *note SocketHandler: f4f. is here
          overridden to create a UDP socket (*note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
          12d2.).

      -- Méthode: send (s)

          Send a pickled byte-string to a socket.  The format of the
          sent byte-string is as described in the documentation for
          *note SocketHandler.makePickle(): 2cb7.


File: python.info,  Node: SysLogHandler,  Next: NTEventLogHandler,  Prev: DatagramHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.10 SysLogHandler
.......................

The *note SysLogHandler: 649. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a
remote or local Unix syslog.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.SysLogHandler (address=('localhost',
          SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER,
          socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SysLogHandler: 649. class
     intended to communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is
     given by 'address' in the form of a ‘(host, port)’ tuple.  If
     'address' is not specified, ‘('localhost', 514)’ is used.  The
     address is used to open a socket.  An alternative to providing a
     ‘(host, port)’ tuple is providing an address as a string, for
     example '/dev/log'.  In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to
     send the message to the syslog.  If 'facility' is not specified,
     ‘LOG_USER’ is used.  The type of socket opened depends on the
     'socktype' argument, which defaults to *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
     12d2. and thus opens a UDP socket.  To open a TCP socket (for use
     with the newer syslog daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.

     Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514, *note
     SysLogHandler: 649. may appear not to work.  In that case, check
     what address you should be using for a domain socket - it's system
     dependent.  For example, on Linux it's usually '/dev/log' but on
     OS/X it's '/var/run/syslog'.  You'll need to check your platform
     and use the appropriate address (you may need to do this check at
     runtime if your application needs to run on several platforms).  On
     Windows, you pretty much have to use the UDP option.

          Note: On macOS 12.x (Monterey), Apple has changed the
          behaviour of their syslog daemon - it no longer listens on a
          domain socket.  Therefore, you cannot expect *note
          SysLogHandler: 649. to work on this system.

          See gh-91070(1) for more information.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'socktype' was added.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Closes the socket to the remote host.

      -- Méthode: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket and, if it's not a datagram socket,
          connect it to the other end.  This method is called during
          handler initialization, but it's not regarded as an error if
          the other end isn't listening at this point - the method will
          be called again when emitting an event, if there is no socket
          at that point.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server.
          If exception information is present, it is 'not' sent to the
          server.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2.1: (See: bpo-12168(2).)  In
          earlier versions, the message sent to the syslog daemons was
          always terminated with a NUL byte, because early versions of
          these daemons expected a NUL terminated message - even though
          it's not in the relevant specification ( RFC 5424(3)).  More
          recent versions of these daemons don't expect the NUL byte but
          strip it off if it's there, and even more recent daemons
          (which adhere more closely to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on
          as part of the message.

          To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of
          all these differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the
          NUL byte has been made configurable, through the use of a
          class-level attribute, ‘append_nul’.  This defaults to ‘True’
          (preserving the existing behaviour) but can be set to ‘False’
          on a ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to
          'not' append the NUL terminator.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: (See: bpo-12419(4).)  In earlier
          versions, there was no facility for an "ident" or "tag" prefix
          to identify the source of the message.  This can now be
          specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to ‘""’ to
          preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on a
          ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to prepend
          the ident to every message handled.  Note that the provided
          ident must be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message
          exactly as is.

      -- Méthode: encodePriority (facility, priority)

          Encodes the facility and priority into an integer.  You can
          pass in strings or integers - if strings are passed, internal
          mapping dictionaries are used to convert them to integers.

          The symbolic ‘LOG_’ values are defined in *note SysLogHandler:
          649. and mirror the values defined in the ‘sys/syslog.h’
          header file.

          'Priorities'

          Name (string)                  Symbolic value
                                         
          ---------------------------------------------------
                                         
          ‘alert’                        LOG_ALERT
                                         
                                         
          ‘crit’ ou ‘critical’           LOG_CRIT
                                         
                                         
          ‘debug’                        LOG_DEBUG
                                         
                                         
          ‘emerg’ ou ‘panic’             LOG_EMERG
                                         
                                         
          ‘err’ ou ‘error’               LOG_ERR
                                         
                                         
          ‘info’                         LOG_INFO
                                         
                                         
          ‘notice’                       LOG_NOTICE
                                         
                                         
          ‘warn’ ou ‘warning’            LOG_WARNING
                                         

          'Facilities'

          Name (string)       Symbolic value
                              
          ----------------------------------------
                              
          ‘auth’              LOG_AUTH
                              
                              
          ‘authpriv’          LOG_AUTHPRIV
                              
                              
          ‘cron’              LOG_CRON
                              
                              
          ‘daemon’            LOG_DAEMON
                              
                              
          ‘ftp’               LOG_FTP
                              
                              
          ‘kern’              LOG_KERN
                              
                              
          ‘lpr’               LOG_LPR
                              
                              
          ‘mail’              LOG_MAIL
                              
                              
          ‘news’              LOG_NEWS
                              
                              
          ‘syslog’            LOG_SYSLOG
                              
                              
          ‘user’              LOG_USER
                              
                              
          ‘uucp’              LOG_UUCP
                              
                              
          ‘local0’            LOG_LOCAL0
                              
                              
          ‘local1’            LOG_LOCAL1
                              
                              
          ‘local2’            LOG_LOCAL2
                              
                              
          ‘local3’            LOG_LOCAL3
                              
                              
          ‘local4’            LOG_LOCAL4
                              
                              
          ‘local5’            LOG_LOCAL5
                              
                              
          ‘local6’            LOG_LOCAL6
                              
                              
          ‘local7’            LOG_LOCAL7
                              

      -- Méthode: mapPriority (levelname)

          Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name.  You may
          need to override this if you are using custom levels, or if
          the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs.  The
          default algorithm maps ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and
          ‘CRITICAL’ to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level
          names to 'warning'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12168

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12419


File: python.info,  Node: NTEventLogHandler,  Next: SMTPHandler,  Prev: SysLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.11 NTEventLogHandler
...........................

The *note NTEventLogHandler: 2cc6. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a
local Windows NT, Windows 2000 or Windows XP event log.  Before you can
use it, you need Mark Hammond's Win32 extensions for Python installed.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler (appname, dllname=None,
          logtype='Application')

     Returns a new instance of the *note NTEventLogHandler: 2cc6. class.
     The 'appname' is used to define the application name as it appears
     in the event log.  An appropriate registry entry is created using
     this name.  The 'dllname' should give the fully qualified pathname
     of a .dll or .exe which contains message definitions to hold in the
     log (if not specified, ‘'win32service.pyd'’ is used - this is
     installed with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic
     placeholder message definitions.  Note that use of these
     placeholders will make your event logs big, as the entire message
     source is held in the log.  If you want slimmer logs, you have to
     pass in the name of your own .dll or .exe which contains the
     message definitions you want to use in the event log).  The
     'logtype' is one of ‘'Application'’, ‘'System'’ or ‘'Security'’,
     and defaults to ‘'Application'’.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          At this point, you can remove the application name from the
          registry as a source of event log entries.  However, if you do
          this, you will not be able to see the events as you intended
          in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be able to access the
          registry to get the .dll name.  The current version does not
          do this.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and
          then logs the message in the NT event log.

      -- Méthode: getEventCategory (record)

          Returns the event category for the record.  Override this if
          you want to specify your own categories.  This version returns
          0.

      -- Méthode: getEventType (record)

          Returns the event type for the record.  Override this if you
          want to specify your own types.  This version does a mapping
          using the handler's typemap attribute, which is set up in
          ‘__init__()’ to a dictionary which contains mappings for
          ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and ‘CRITICAL’.  If you
          are using your own levels, you will either need to override
          this method or place a suitable dictionary in the handler's
          'typemap' attribute.

      -- Méthode: getMessageID (record)

          Returns the message ID for the record.  If you are using your
          own messages, you could do this by having the 'msg' passed to
          the logger being an ID rather than a format string.  Then, in
          here, you could use a dictionary lookup to get the message ID.
          This version returns 1, which is the base message ID in
          ‘win32service.pyd’.


File: python.info,  Node: SMTPHandler,  Next: MemoryHandler,  Prev: NTEventLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.12 SMTPHandler
.....................

The *note SMTPHandler: 1522. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to an
email address via SMTP.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler (mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs,
          subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SMTPHandler: 1522. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the from and to addresses and subject
     line of the email.  The 'toaddrs' should be a list of strings.  To
     specify a non-standard SMTP port, use the (host, port) tuple format
     for the 'mailhost' argument.  If you use a string, the standard
     SMTP port is used.  If your SMTP server requires authentication,
     you can specify a (username, password) tuple for the 'credentials'
     argument.

     To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to
     the 'secure' argument.  This will only be used when authentication
     credentials are supplied.  The tuple should be either an empty
     tuple, or a single-value tuple with the name of a keyfile, or a
     2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile and certificate file.
     (This tuple is passed to the *note smtplib.SMTP.starttls(): 111a.
     method.)

     A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server
     using the 'timeout' argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'timeout' parameter.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.

      -- Méthode: getSubject (record)

          If you want to specify a subject line which is
          record-dependent, override this method.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryHandler,  Next: HTTPHandler,  Prev: SMTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.13 MemoryHandler
.......................

The *note MemoryHandler: 2c82. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports buffering of logging records in
memory, periodically flushing them to a 'target' handler.  Flushing
occurs whenever the buffer is full, or when an event of a certain
severity or greater is seen.

*note MemoryHandler: 2c82. is a subclass of the more general *note
BufferingHandler: 2cd2, which is an abstract class.  This buffers
logging records in memory.  Whenever each record is added to the buffer,
a check is made by calling ‘shouldFlush()’ to see if the buffer should
be flushed.  If it should, then ‘flush()’ is expected to do the
flushing.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.BufferingHandler (capacity)

     Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity.
     Here, 'capacity' means the number of logging records buffered.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Append the record to the buffer.  If *note shouldFlush():
          2cd4. returns true, call *note flush(): 2cd5. to process the
          buffer.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          For a *note BufferingHandler: 2cd2. instance, flushing means
          that it sets the buffer to an empty list.  This method can be
          overwritten to implement more useful flushing behavior.

      -- Méthode: shouldFlush (record)

          Return ‘True’ if the buffer is up to capacity.  This method
          can be overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.MemoryHandler (capacity, flushLevel=ERROR,
          target=None, flushOnClose=True)

     Returns a new instance of the *note MemoryHandler: 2c82. class.
     The instance is initialized with a buffer size of 'capacity'
     (number of records buffered).  If 'flushLevel' is not specified,
     ‘ERROR’ is used.  If no 'target' is specified, the target will need
     to be set using *note setTarget(): 2cd6. before this handler does
     anything useful.  If 'flushOnClose' is specified as ‘False’, then
     the buffer is 'not' flushed when the handler is closed.  If not
     specified or specified as ‘True’, the previous behaviour of
     flushing the buffer will occur when the handler is closed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The 'flushOnClose' parameter was
     added.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Calls *note flush(): 2cd8, sets the target to ‘None’ and
          clears the buffer.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          For a *note MemoryHandler: 2c82. instance, flushing means just
          sending the buffered records to the target, if there is one.
          The buffer is also cleared when buffered records are sent to
          the target.  Override if you want different behavior.

      -- Méthode: setTarget (target)

          Sets the target handler for this handler.

      -- Méthode: shouldFlush (record)

          Checks for buffer full or a record at the 'flushLevel' or
          higher.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler,  Next: QueueHandler,  Prev: MemoryHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.14 HTTPHandler
.....................

The *note HTTPHandler: e1a. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a web
server, using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.HTTPHandler (host, url, method='GET',
          secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note HTTPHandler: e1a. class.  The
     'host' can be of the form ‘host:port’, should you need to use a
     specific port number.  If no 'method' is specified, ‘GET’ is used.
     If 'secure' is true, a HTTPS connection will be used.  The
     'context' parameter may be set to a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.
     instance to configure the SSL settings used for the HTTPS
     connection.  If 'credentials' is specified, it should be a 2-tuple
     consisting of userid and password, which will be placed in a HTTP
     'Authorization' header using Basic authentication.  If you specify
     credentials, you should also specify secure=True so that your
     userid and password are not passed in cleartext across the wire.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'context' parameter was added.

      -- Méthode: mapLogRecord (record)

          Provides a dictionary, based on ‘record’, which is to be
          URL-encoded and sent to the web server.  The default
          implementation just returns ‘record.__dict__’.  This method
          can be overridden if e.g.  only a subset of *note LogRecord:
          fd3. is to be sent to the web server, or if more specific
          customization of what's sent to the server is required.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Sends the record to the web server as a URL-encoded
          dictionary.  The *note mapLogRecord(): 2cdc. method is used to
          convert the record to the dictionary to be sent.

          Note: Since preparing a record for sending it to a web server
          is not the same as a generic formatting operation, using *note
          setFormatter(): 2c32. to specify a *note Formatter: 144b. for
          a *note HTTPHandler: e1a. has no effect.  Instead of calling
          *note format(): 2c3b, this handler calls *note mapLogRecord():
          2cdc. and then *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. to encode
          the dictionary in a form suitable for sending to a web server.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueHandler,  Next: QueueListener,  Prev: HTTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.15 QueueHandler
......................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

The *note QueueHandler: 1793. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a
queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b5. or *note
multiprocessing: 93. modules.

Along with the *note QueueListener: e1b. class, *note QueueHandler:
1793. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread
from the one which does the logging.  This is important in web
applications and also other service applications where threads servicing
clients need to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially
slow operations (such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 1522.)
are done on a separate thread.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.QueueHandler (queue)

     Returns a new instance of the *note QueueHandler: 1793. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to.  The
     'queue' can be any queue-like object; it's used as-is by the *note
     enqueue(): 2ce0. method, which needs to know how to send messages
     to it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task tracking API,
     which means that you can use *note SimpleQueue: b5a. instances for
     'queue'.

          Note: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 93, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: b5a. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 17b8.

      -- Méthode: emit (record)

          Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord.  Should an
          exception occur (e.g.  because a bounded queue has filled up),
          the *note handleError(): 2c39. method is called to handle the
          error.  This can result in the record silently being dropped
          (if *note logging.raiseExceptions: 11d8. is ‘False’) or a
          message printed to ‘sys.stderr’ (if *note
          logging.raiseExceptions: 11d8. is ‘True’).

      -- Méthode: prepare (record)

          Prepares a record for queuing.  The object returned by this
          method is enqueued.

          The base implementation formats the record to merge the
          message, arguments, exception and stack information, if
          present.  It also removes unpickleable items from the record
          in-place.  Specifically, it overwrites the record's ‘msg’ and
          ‘message’ attributes with the merged message (obtained by
          calling the handler's *note format(): 60c. method), and sets
          the ‘args’, ‘exc_info’ and ‘exc_text’ attributes to ‘None’.

          You might want to override this method if you want to convert
          the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy
          of the record while leaving the original intact.

               Note: The base implementation formats the message with
               arguments, sets the ‘message’ and ‘msg’ attributes to the
               formatted message and sets the ‘args’ and ‘exc_text’
               attributes to ‘None’ to allow pickling and to prevent
               further attempts at formatting.  This means that a
               handler on the *note QueueListener: e1b. side won't have
               the information to do custom formatting, e.g.  of
               exceptions.  You may wish to subclass ‘QueueHandler’ and
               override this method to e.g.  avoid setting ‘exc_text’ to
               ‘None’.  Note that the ‘message’ / ‘msg’ / ‘args’ changes
               are related to ensuring the record is pickleable, and you
               might or might not be able to avoid doing that depending
               on whether your ‘args’ are pickleable.  (Note that you
               may have to consider not only your own code but also code
               in any libraries that you use.)

      -- Méthode: enqueue (record)

          Enqueues the record on the queue using ‘put_nowait()’; you may
          want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour,
          or a timeout, or a customized queue implementation.

      -- Attribut: listener

          When created via configuration using *note dictConfig(): 118f,
          this attribute will contain a *note QueueListener: e1b.
          instance for use with this handler.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueListener,  Prev: QueueHandler,  Up: logging handlers --- Logging handlers

5.16.6.16 QueueListener
.......................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

The *note QueueListener: e1b. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports receiving logging messages from a
queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b5. or *note
multiprocessing: 93. modules.  The messages are received from a queue in
an internal thread and passed, on the same thread, to one or more
handlers for processing.  While *note QueueListener: e1b. is not itself
a handler, it is documented here because it works hand-in-hand with
*note QueueHandler: 1793.

Along with the *note QueueHandler: 1793. class, *note QueueListener:
e1b. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from
the one which does the logging.  This is important in web applications
and also other service applications where threads servicing clients need
to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially slow operations
(such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 1522.) are done on a
separate thread.

 -- Classe: logging.handlers.QueueListener (queue, *handlers,
          respect_handler_level=False)

     Returns a new instance of the *note QueueListener: e1b. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to and a
     list of handlers which will handle entries placed on the queue.
     The queue can be any queue-like object; it's passed as-is to the
     *note dequeue(): 2ce5. method, which needs to know how to get
     messages from it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task
     tracking API (though it's used if available), which means that you
     can use *note SimpleQueue: b5a. instances for 'queue'.

          Note: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 93, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: b5a. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 17b8.

     If ‘respect_handler_level’ is ‘True’, a handler's level is
     respected (compared with the level for the message) when deciding
     whether to pass messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour
     is as in previous Python versions - to always pass each message to
     each handler.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The ‘respect_handler_level’ argument
     was added.

      -- Méthode: dequeue (block)

          Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.

          The base implementation uses ‘get()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

      -- Méthode: prepare (record)

          Prepare a record for handling.

          This implementation just returns the passed-in record.  You
          may want to override this method if you need to do any custom
          marshalling or manipulation of the record before passing it to
          the handlers.

      -- Méthode: handle (record)

          Handle a record.

          This just loops through the handlers offering them the record
          to handle.  The actual object passed to the handlers is that
          which is returned from *note prepare(): 2ce6.

      -- Méthode: start ()

          Starts the listener.

          This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
          LogRecords to process.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13.3 (unreleased): Raises *note
          RuntimeError: 193. if called and the listener is already
          running.

      -- Méthode: stop ()

          Stops the listener.

          This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do
          so.  Note that if you don't call this before your application
          exits, there may be some records still left on the queue,
          which won't be processed.

      -- Méthode: enqueue_sentinel ()

          Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit.
          This implementation uses ‘put_nowait()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note logging: 86.

     Référence d'API pour le module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     API de configuration pour le module de journalisation.


File: python.info,  Node: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data,  Next: errno --- Standard errno system symbols,  Prev: logging handlers --- Logging handlers,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.7 ‘platform’ -- Access to underlying platform's identifying data
---------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/platform.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Note: Les spécificités des plateformes sont regroupées dans des
     sections triées par ordre alphabétique.  Linux est inclus dans la
     section Unix.

* Menu:

* Multiplateformes::
* Plateforme Java::
* Plateforme Windows::
* macOS Platform::
* iOS Platform::
* Plateformes Unix::
* Linux Platforms::
* Android Platform::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/platform.py


File: python.info,  Node: Multiplateformes,  Next: Plateforme Java,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.1 Multiplateformes
.........................

 -- Fonction: platform.architecture (executable=sys.executable, bits='',
          linkage='')

     Interroge l'exécutable fourni (par défaut l'interpréteur Python)
     sur les informations de l'architecture.

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet de ‘(bits, linkage)’ qui contient de
     l'information sur l'architecture binaire et le format de lien.  Les
     deux valeurs sont des chaînes de caractères.

     Lorsqu'une valeur ne peut être déterminée, la valeur passée en
     paramètre est utilisée.  Si la valeur passée à 'bits' est ‘''’, la
     valeur de ‘sizeof(pointer)’ (ou ‘sizeof(long)’ sur les versions
     Python antérieures à 1.5.2) est utilisée comme indicateur de la
     taille de pointeur prise en charge.

     La fonction dépend de la commande ‘file’ du système pour accomplir
     la tâche.  ‘file’ est disponible sur quasiment toutes les
     plateformes Unix ainsi que sur certaines plateformes hors de la
     famille Unix et l'exécutable doit pointer vers l'interpréteur
     Python.  Des valeurs par défaut raisonnables sont utilisées lorsque
     les conditions précédentes ne sont pas atteintes.

          Note: On macOS (and perhaps other platforms), executable files
          may be universal files containing multiple architectures.

          To get at the "64-bitness" of the current interpreter, it is
          more reliable to query the *note sys.maxsize: 11a4. attribute:

               is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32

 -- Fonction: platform.machine ()

     Returns the machine type, e.g.  ‘'AMD64'’.  An empty string is
     returned if the value cannot be determined.

 -- Fonction: platform.node ()

     Renvoie le nom de l'ordinateur sur le réseau (pas forcément
     pleinement qualifié).  Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée
     s'il ne peut pas être déterminé.

 -- Fonction: platform.platform (aliased=False, terse=False)

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractère identifiant la plateforme avec le
     plus d'informations possible.

     La valeur renvoyée est destinée à la 'lecture humaine' plutôt que
     l'interprétation machine.  Il est possible qu'elle soit différente
     selon la plateforme et c'est voulu.

     Si 'aliased' est vrai, la fonction utilisera des alias pour
     certaines plateformes qui utilisent des noms de système qui
     diffèrent de leurs noms communs.  Par exemple, SunOS sera reconnu
     comme Solaris.  La fonction *note system_alias(): 2cef. est
     utilisée pour l'implémentation.

     Si 'terse' est vrai, la fonction ne renverra que l'information
     nécessaire à l'identification de la plateforme.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Sur MacOS, la fonction essaie
     maintenant d'utiliser la fonction *note mac_ver(): 19f2. pour
     obtenir la version de MacOS plutôt que la version de Darwin : le
     résultat de ‘mac_ver’ est utilisé si ce n'est pas une chaîne vide.

 -- Fonction: platform.processor ()

     Renvoie le (vrai) nom du processeur.  Par exemple : ‘'amdk6'’.

     Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée si la valeur ne peut
     être déterminée.  Prenez note que plusieurs plateformes ne
     fournissent pas cette information ou renvoient la même valeur que
     la fonction *note machine(): 2ced.  NetBSD agit ainsi.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_build ()

     Renvoie une paire ‘(buildno, builddate)’ de chaîne de caractères
     identifiant la version et la date de compilation de Python.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_compiler ()

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères identifiant le compilateur utilisé
     pour compiler Python.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_branch ()

     Renvoie la chaîne de caractères identifiant la branche du
     gestionnaire de versions de l'implémentation Python.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_implementation ()

     Renvoie une chaîne de caractères identifiant l'implémentation de
     Python.  Des valeurs possibles sont : ‘CPython’, ‘IronPython’,
     ‘Jython’, ‘Pypy’.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_revision ()

     Renvoie la chaîne de caractères identifiant la révision du
     gestionnaire de versions de l'implémentation Python.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_version ()

     Renvoie la version de Python comme une chaîne de caractères
     ‘'major.minor.patchlevel'’.

     Prenez note que la valeur renvoyée inclut toujours le 'patchlevel'
     (valeur par défaut de 0) à la différence de ‘sys.version’.

 -- Fonction: platform.python_version_tuple ()

     Renvoie la version de Python comme un triplet de chaînes de
     caractères ‘(major, minor, patchlevel)’.

     Prenez note que la valeur renvoyée inclut toujours le 'patchlevel'
     (valeur par défaut de ‘'0'’) à la différence de ‘sys.version’.

 -- Fonction: platform.release ()

     Returns the system's release, e.g.  ‘'2.2.0'’ or ‘'NT'’.  An empty
     string is returned if the value cannot be determined.

 -- Fonction: platform.system ()

     Renvoie le nom du système d'exploitation, tel que ‘'Linux'’,
     ‘'Darwin'’, ‘'Java'’, ‘'Windows'’.  Une chaîne de caractères vide
     est renvoyée si le nom ne peut être déterminé.

     On iOS and Android, this returns the user-facing OS name (i.e,
     ‘'iOS’, ‘'iPadOS'’ or ‘'Android'’).  To obtain the kernel name
     (‘'Darwin'’ or ‘'Linux'’), use *note os.uname(): 10f8.

 -- Fonction: platform.system_alias (system, release, version)

     Renvoie ‘(system, release, version)’ avec des alias pour les noms
     communs de certains systèmes.  Modifie aussi l'ordre de
     l'information pour éviter la confusion.

 -- Fonction: platform.version ()

     Renvoie la version de déploiement du système.  Par exemple, ‘'#3 on
     degas'’.  Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée si aucune
     valeur ne peut être déterminée.

     On iOS and Android, this is the user-facing OS version.  To obtain
     the Darwin or Linux kernel version, use *note os.uname(): 10f8.

 -- Fonction: platform.uname ()

     Interface de 'uname' relativement portable.  Renvoie un *note
     namedtuple(): 1c5. contenant six attributs : *note system: 1e1b,
     *note node: 2cee, *note release: 2cf8, *note version: 2cf9, *note
     machine: 2ced. et *note processor: 2cf0.

     *note processor: 2cf0. is resolved late, on demand.

     Note: the first two attribute names differ from the names presented
     by *note os.uname(): 10f8, where they are named ‘sysname’ and
     ‘nodename’.

     Les entrées qui ne peuvent pas être identifiées ont la valeur ‘''’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Result changed from a tuple to a *note
     namedtuple(): 1c5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: *note processor: 2cf0. is resolved
     late instead of immediately.


File: python.info,  Node: Plateforme Java,  Next: Plateforme Windows,  Prev: Multiplateformes,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.2 Plateforme Java
........................

 -- Fonction: platform.java_ver (release='', vendor='', vminfo=('', '',
          ''), osinfo=('', '', ''))

     Version de l'interface pour Jython.

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet ‘(release, vendor, vminfo, osinfo)’.  'vminfo'
     est un triplet de valeur ‘(vm_name, vm_release, vm_vendor)’ et
     'osinfo' est un triplet de valeur ‘(os_name, os_version, os_arch)’.
     Les valeurs indéterminables ont la valeur des paramètres par défaut
     (valeur de ‘''’ par défaut).

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: It
     was largely untested, had a confusing API, and was only useful for
     Jython support.


File: python.info,  Node: Plateforme Windows,  Next: macOS Platform,  Prev: Plateforme Java,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.3 Plateforme Windows
...........................

 -- Fonction: platform.win32_ver (release='', version='', csd='',
          ptype='')

     Get additional version information from the Windows Registry and
     return a tuple ‘(release, version, csd, ptype)’ referring to OS
     release, version number, CSD level (service pack) and OS type
     (multi/single processor).  Values which cannot be determined are
     set to the defaults given as parameters (which all default to an
     empty string).

     As a hint: 'ptype' is ‘'Uniprocessor Free'’ on single processor NT
     machines and ‘'Multiprocessor Free'’ on multi processor machines.
     The ‘'Free'’ refers to the OS version being free of debugging code.
     It could also state ‘'Checked'’ which means the OS version uses
     debugging code, i.e.  code that checks arguments, ranges, etc.

 -- Fonction: platform.win32_edition ()

     Returns a string representing the current Windows edition, or
     ‘None’ if the value cannot be determined.  Possible values include
     but are not limited to ‘'Enterprise'’, ‘'IoTUAP'’,
     ‘'ServerStandard'’, and ‘'nanoserver'’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: platform.win32_is_iot ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'édition de Windows renvoyée par la fonction
     *note win32_edition(): 2cfc. est reconnue comme une édition IoT.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS Platform,  Next: iOS Platform,  Prev: Plateforme Windows,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.4 macOS Platform
.......................

 -- Fonction: platform.mac_ver (release='', versioninfo=('', '', ''),
          machine='')

     Get macOS version information and return it as tuple ‘(release,
     versioninfo, machine)’ with 'versioninfo' being a tuple ‘(version,
     dev_stage, non_release_version)’.

     Les entrées qui ne peuvent pas être identifiées auront la valeur
     ‘''’.  Les membres du 'n'-uplet sont tous des chaînes de
     caractères.


File: python.info,  Node: iOS Platform,  Next: Plateformes Unix,  Prev: macOS Platform,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.5 iOS Platform
.....................

 -- Fonction: platform.ios_ver (system='', release='', model='',
          is_simulator=False)

     Get iOS version information and return it as a *note namedtuple():
     1c5. with the following attributes:

        * ‘system’ is the OS name; either ‘'iOS'’ or ‘'iPadOS'’.

        * ‘release’ is the iOS version number as a string (e.g.,
          ‘'17.2'’).

        * ‘model’ is the device model identifier; this will be a string
          like ‘'iPhone13,2'’ for a physical device, or ‘'iPhone'’ on a
          simulator.

        * ‘is_simulator’ is a boolean describing if the app is running
          on a simulator or a physical device.

     Entries which cannot be determined are set to the defaults given as
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Plateformes Unix,  Next: Linux Platforms,  Prev: iOS Platform,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.6 Plateformes Unix
.........................

 -- Fonction: platform.libc_ver (executable=sys.executable, lib='',
          version='', chunksize=16384)

     Tente d'identifier la version de la bibliothèque standard C à
     laquelle le fichier exécutable (par défaut l'interpréteur Python)
     est lié.  Renvoie une paire de chaînes de caractères ‘(lib,
     version)’.  Les valeurs passées en paramètre seront retournées si
     la recherche échoue.

     Prenez note que cette fonction a une connaissance profonde des
     méthodes utilisées par les versions de la bibliothèque standard C
     pour ajouter des symboles au fichier exécutable.  Elle n'est
     probablement utilisable qu'avec des exécutables compilés avec
     ‘gcc’.

     Le fichier est lu en blocs de 'chunksize' octets.


File: python.info,  Node: Linux Platforms,  Next: Android Platform,  Prev: Plateformes Unix,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.7 Linux Platforms
........................

 -- Fonction: platform.freedesktop_os_release ()

     Get operating system identification from ‘os-release’ file and
     return it as a dict.  The ‘os-release’ file is a freedesktop.org
     standard(1) and is available in most Linux distributions.  A
     noticeable exception is Android and Android-based distributions.

     Raises *note OSError: 40d. or subclass when neither
     ‘/etc/os-release’ nor ‘/usr/lib/os-release’ can be read.

     On success, the function returns a dictionary where keys and values
     are strings.  Values have their special characters like ‘"’ and ‘$’
     unquoted.  The fields ‘NAME’, ‘ID’, and ‘PRETTY_NAME’ are always
     defined according to the standard.  All other fields are optional.
     Vendors may include additional fields.

     Note that fields like ‘NAME’, ‘VERSION’, and ‘VARIANT’ are strings
     suitable for presentation to users.  Programs should use fields
     like ‘ID’, ‘ID_LIKE’, ‘VERSION_ID’, or ‘VARIANT_ID’ to identify
     Linux distributions.

     Exemple :

          def get_like_distro():
              info = platform.freedesktop_os_release()
              ids = [info["ID"]]
              if "ID_LIKE" in info:
                  # ids are space separated and ordered by precedence
                  ids.extend(info["ID_LIKE"].split())
              return ids

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html


File: python.info,  Node: Android Platform,  Prev: Linux Platforms,  Up: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

5.16.7.8 Android Platform
.........................

 -- Fonction: platform.android_ver (release='', api_level=0,
          manufacturer='', model='', device='', is_emulator=False)

     Get Android device information.  Returns a *note namedtuple(): 1c5.
     with the following attributes.  Values which cannot be determined
     are set to the defaults given as parameters.

        * ‘release’ - Android version, as a string (e.g.  ‘"14"’).

        * ‘api_level’ - API level of the running device, as an integer
          (e.g.  ‘34’ for Android 14).  To get the API level which
          Python was built against, see *note sys.getandroidapilevel():
          b7a.

        * ‘manufacturer’ - Manufacturer name(1).

        * ‘model’ - Model name(2) – typically the marketing name or
          model number.

        * ‘device’ - Device name(3) – typically the model number or a
          codename.

        * ‘is_emulator’ - ‘True’ if the device is an emulator; ‘False’
          if it's a physical device.

     Google maintains a list of known model and device names(4).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MANUFACTURER

   (2) https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MODEL

   (3) https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#DEVICE

   (4) https://storage.googleapis.com/play_public/supported_devices.html


File: python.info,  Node: errno --- Standard errno system symbols,  Next: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.8 ‘errno’ -- Standard errno system symbols
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module makes available standard ‘errno’ system symbols.  The value
of each symbol is the corresponding integer value.  The names and
descriptions are borrowed from ‘linux/include/errno.h’, which should be
all-inclusive.

 -- Données: errno.errorcode

     Dictionnaire associant la valeur 'errno' au nom de chaîne dans le
     système sous-jacent.  Par exemple, ‘errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]’
     correspond à ‘'EPERM'’.

Pour traduire un code d'erreur en message d'erreur, utilisez *note
os.strerror(): 2ae2.

De la liste suivante, les symboles qui ne sont pas utilisés dans la
plateforme actuelle ne sont pas définis par le module.  La liste
spécifique des symboles définis est disponible comme
‘errno.errorcode.keys()’.  Les symboles disponibles font partie de cette
liste :

 -- Données: errno.EPERM

     Operation not permitted.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: d32.

 -- Données: errno.ENOENT

     No such file or directory.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.

 -- Données: errno.ESRCH

     No such process.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ProcessLookupError: 1046.

 -- Données: errno.EINTR

     Interrupted system call.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note InterruptedError: d77.

 -- Données: errno.EIO

     Erreur d'entrée-sortie

 -- Données: errno.ENXIO

     Dispositif ou adresse inexistant

 -- Données: errno.E2BIG

     Liste d'arguments trop longue

 -- Données: errno.ENOEXEC

     Erreur de format d'exécution

 -- Données: errno.EBADF

     Mauvais descripteur de fichier

 -- Données: errno.ECHILD

     No child processes.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ChildProcessError: 1043.

 -- Données: errno.EAGAIN

     Try again.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: 1042.

 -- Données: errno.ENOMEM

     Mémoire insuffisante

 -- Données: errno.EACCES

     Permission denied.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     PermissionError: d32.

 -- Données: errno.EFAULT

     Mauvaise adresse

 -- Données: errno.ENOTBLK

     Dispositif de bloc requis

 -- Données: errno.EBUSY

     Dispositif ou ressource occupé

 -- Données: errno.EEXIST

     File exists.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     FileExistsError: 100b.

 -- Données: errno.EXDEV

     Lien inapproprié

 -- Données: errno.ENODEV

     Dispositif inexistant

 -- Données: errno.ENOTDIR

     Not a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     NotADirectoryError: 1045.

 -- Données: errno.EISDIR

     Is a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     IsADirectoryError: 1044.

 -- Données: errno.EINVAL

     Argument invalide

 -- Données: errno.ENFILE

     Plus de descripteur de fichier disponible

 -- Données: errno.EMFILE

     Trop de fichiers ouverts

 -- Données: errno.ENOTTY

     Opération de contrôle d'entrée-sortie invalide

 -- Données: errno.ETXTBSY

     Fichier texte occupé

 -- Données: errno.EFBIG

     Fichier trop grand

 -- Données: errno.ENOSPC

     Plus de place sur le dispositif

 -- Données: errno.ESPIPE

     Recherche invalide

 -- Données: errno.EROFS

     Système de fichiers en lecture seule

 -- Données: errno.EMLINK

     Trop de liens symboliques

 -- Données: errno.EPIPE

     Broken pipe.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1047.

 -- Données: errno.EDOM

     Argument mathématique hors du domaine de définition de la fonction

 -- Données: errno.ERANGE

     Résultat mathématique non représentable

 -- Données: errno.EDEADLK

     Un interblocage se produirait sur cette ressource

 -- Données: errno.ENAMETOOLONG

     Nom de fichier trop long

 -- Données: errno.ENOLCK

     Plus de verrou de fichier disponible

 -- Données: errno.ENOSYS

     Fonction non implémentée

 -- Données: errno.ENOTEMPTY

     Dossier non vide

 -- Données: errno.ELOOP

     Trop de liens symboliques trouvés

 -- Données: errno.EWOULDBLOCK

     Operation would block.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: 1042.

 -- Données: errno.ENOMSG

     Pas de message du type voulu

 -- Données: errno.EIDRM

     Identifiant supprimé

 -- Données: errno.ECHRNG

     Le numéro de canal est hors des limites

 -- Données: errno.EL2NSYNC

     Le niveau 2 n'est pas synchronisé

 -- Données: errno.EL3HLT

     Niveau 3 stoppé

 -- Données: errno.EL3RST

     Niveau 3 réinitialisé

 -- Données: errno.ELNRNG

     Le numéro du lien est hors des limites

 -- Données: errno.EUNATCH

     Le pilote de protocole n'est pas attaché

 -- Données: errno.ENOCSI

     Pas de structure 'CSI' disponible

 -- Données: errno.EL2HLT

     Niveau 2 stoppé

 -- Données: errno.EBADE

     Échange invalide

 -- Données: errno.EBADR

     Descripteur de requête invalide

 -- Données: errno.EXFULL

     Échange complet

 -- Données: errno.ENOANO

     Pas de 'anode'

 -- Données: errno.EBADRQC

     Code de requête invalide

 -- Données: errno.EBADSLT

     'Slot' invalide

 -- Données: errno.EDEADLOCK

     Interblocage lors du verrouillage de fichier

 -- Données: errno.EBFONT

     Mauvais format de fichier de police

 -- Données: errno.ENOSTR

     Le périphérique n'est pas un flux

 -- Données: errno.ENODATA

     Pas de donnée disponible

 -- Données: errno.ETIME

     Délai maximal atteint

 -- Données: errno.ENOSR

     Pas assez de ressources de type flux

 -- Données: errno.ENONET

     Machine hors réseau

 -- Données: errno.ENOPKG

     Paquet non installé

 -- Données: errno.EREMOTE

     L'objet est distant

 -- Données: errno.ENOLINK

     Lien coupé

 -- Données: errno.EADV

     Erreur d'annonce

 -- Données: errno.ESRMNT

     Erreur 'Srmount'

 -- Données: errno.ECOMM

     Erreur de communication lors de l'envoi

 -- Données: errno.EPROTO

     Erreur de protocole

 -- Données: errno.EMULTIHOP

     Transfert à sauts multiples essayé

 -- Données: errno.EDOTDOT

     erreur spécifique 'RFS'

 -- Données: errno.EBADMSG

     Pas un message de données

 -- Données: errno.EOVERFLOW

     Valeur trop grande pour être stockée dans ce type de donnée

 -- Données: errno.ENOTUNIQ

     Nom non-unique dans le réseau

 -- Données: errno.EBADFD

     Descripteur de fichier en mauvais état

 -- Données: errno.EREMCHG

     Adresse distante changée

 -- Données: errno.ELIBACC

     Accès impossible à une bibliothèque partagée nécessaire

 -- Données: errno.ELIBBAD

     Accès à une bibliothèque partagée corrompue

 -- Données: errno.ELIBSCN

     Section '.lib' de 'a.out' corrompue

 -- Données: errno.ELIBMAX

     Tentative de liaison entre trop de bibliothèques partagées

 -- Données: errno.ELIBEXEC

     Impossible d'exécuter directement une bibliothèque partagée

 -- Données: errno.EILSEQ

     Séquence de 'bytes' illégale

 -- Données: errno.ERESTART

     Appel système interrompu qui devrait être relancé

 -- Données: errno.ESTRPIPE

     Erreur d’enchaînement de flux

 -- Données: errno.EUSERS

     Trop d'utilisateurs

 -- Données: errno.ENOTSOCK

     Opération d'interface de connexion alors que ce n'est pas une
     interface de connexion

 -- Données: errno.EDESTADDRREQ

     Adresse de destination obligatoire

 -- Données: errno.EMSGSIZE

     Message trop long

 -- Données: errno.EPROTOTYPE

     Mauvais type de protocole pour ce connecteur

 -- Données: errno.ENOPROTOOPT

     Protocole pas disponible

 -- Données: errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT

     Protocole non géré

 -- Données: errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT

     Type de connecteur non géré

 -- Données: errno.EOPNOTSUPP

     Opération non gérée par cette fin de lien

 -- Données: errno.ENOTSUP

     Operation not supported

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EPFNOSUPPORT

     Famille de protocole non gérée

 -- Données: errno.EAFNOSUPPORT

     Famille d'adresses non gérée par ce protocole

 -- Données: errno.EADDRINUSE

     Adresse déjà utilisée

 -- Données: errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL

     Impossible d'assigner l'adresse demandée

 -- Données: errno.ENETDOWN

     Le réseau est désactivé

 -- Données: errno.ENETUNREACH

     Réseau inaccessible

 -- Données: errno.ENETRESET

     Connexion annulée par le réseau

 -- Données: errno.ECONNABORTED

     Software caused connection abort.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1048.

 -- Données: errno.ECONNRESET

     Connection reset by peer.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note ConnectionResetError: 104a.

 -- Données: errno.ENOBUFS

     Plus d'espace tampon disponible

 -- Données: errno.EISCONN

     L'interface de connexion est déjà connectée

 -- Données: errno.ENOTCONN

     L'interface de connexion n'est pas connectée

 -- Données: errno.ESHUTDOWN

     Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown.  This error is
     mapped to the exception *note BrokenPipeError: 1047.

 -- Données: errno.ETOOMANYREFS

     Trop de descripteurs : impossible d'effectuer la liaison

 -- Données: errno.ETIMEDOUT

     Connection timed out.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     TimeoutError: 821.

 -- Données: errno.ECONNREFUSED

     Connection refused.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ConnectionRefusedError: 1049.

 -- Données: errno.EHOSTDOWN

     Hôte éteint

 -- Données: errno.EHOSTUNREACH

     Pas de route vers l'hôte

 -- Données: errno.EALREADY

     Operation already in progress.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note BlockingIOError: 1042.

 -- Données: errno.EINPROGRESS

     Operation now in progress.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note BlockingIOError: 1042.

 -- Données: errno.ESTALE

     Descripteur de fichier NFS corrompu

 -- Données: errno.EUCLEAN

     La structure a besoin d'être nettoyée

 -- Données: errno.ENOTNAM

     N'est pas un fichier nommé du type 'XENIX'

 -- Données: errno.ENAVAIL

     Pas de sémaphore 'XENIX' disponible

 -- Données: errno.EISNAM

     Est un fichier nommé

 -- Données: errno.EREMOTEIO

     Erreur d'entrées-sorties distante

 -- Données: errno.EDQUOT

     Quota dépassé

 -- Données: errno.EQFULL

     Interface output queue is full

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: errno.ENOMEDIUM

     No medium found

 -- Données: errno.EMEDIUMTYPE

     Wrong medium type

 -- Données: errno.ENOKEY

     Required key not available

 -- Données: errno.EKEYEXPIRED

     Key has expired

 -- Données: errno.EKEYREVOKED

     Key has been revoked

 -- Données: errno.EKEYREJECTED

     Key was rejected by service

 -- Données: errno.ERFKILL

     Operation not possible due to RF-kill

 -- Données: errno.ELOCKUNMAPPED

     Locked lock was unmapped

 -- Données: errno.ENOTACTIVE

     Facility is not active

 -- Données: errno.EAUTH

     Authentication error

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EBADARCH

     Bad CPU type in executable

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EBADEXEC

     Bad executable (or shared library)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EBADMACHO

     Malformed Mach-o file

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EDEVERR

     Device error

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EFTYPE

     Inappropriate file type or format

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ENEEDAUTH

     Need authenticator

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ENOATTR

     Attribute not found

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ENOPOLICY

     Policy not found

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EPROCLIM

     Too many processes

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EPROCUNAVAIL

     Bad procedure for program

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EPROGMISMATCH

     Program version wrong

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EPROGUNAVAIL

     RPC prog.  not avail

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EPWROFF

     Device power is off

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EBADRPC

     RPC struct is bad

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ERPCMISMATCH

     RPC version wrong

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ESHLIBVERS

     Shared library version mismatch

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ENOTCAPABLE

     Capabilities insufficient.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: d32.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: WASI, FreeBSD

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.1.

 -- Données: errno.ECANCELED

     Operation canceled

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.EOWNERDEAD

     Owner died

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: errno.ENOTRECOVERABLE

     State not recoverable

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: errno --- Standard errno system symbols,  Up: Services génériques du système d'exploitation

5.16.9 ‘ctypes’ -- A foreign function library for Python
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ctypes(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ctypes: 2a. est une bibliothèque d'appel à des fonctions externes
en python.  Elle fournit des types de données compatibles avec le
langage C et permet d'appeler des fonctions depuis des DLL ou des
bibliothèques partagées, rendant ainsi possible l'interfaçage de ces
bibliothèques avec du pur code Python.

* Menu:

* Didacticiel de ctypes::
* Référence du module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ctypes


File: python.info,  Node: Didacticiel de ctypes,  Next: Référence du module,  Up: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python

5.16.9.1 Didacticiel de 'ctypes'
................................

Remarque : les exemples de code de ce didacticiel utilisent *note
doctest: 3a. pour s'assurer de leur propre bon fonctionnement.  Vu que
certains de ces exemples ont un comportement différent en Linux, Windows
ou macOS, ils contiennent des directives 'doctest' dans les
commentaires.

Remarque : le type *note c_int: 2d8a. du module apparaît dans certains
de ces exemples.  Sur les plates-formes où ‘sizeof(long) ==
sizeof(int)’, ce type est un alias de *note c_long: 2d8b.  Ne soyez donc
pas surpris si *note c_long: 2d8b. s'affiche là où vous vous attendiez à
*note c_int: 2d8a. — il s'agit bien du même type.

* Menu:

* Chargement des DLL::
* Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées::
* Appel de fonctions::
* Types de données de base::
* Appel de fonctions, suite: Appel de fonctions suite.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés::
* Définition du type des arguments nécessaires (prototypes de fonction): Définition du type des arguments nécessaires prototypes de fonction.
* Types de sortie::
* Passage de pointeurs (passage de paramètres par référence): Passage de pointeurs passage de paramètres par référence.
* Structures et unions::
* Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions::
* Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions::
* Tableaux::
* Pointeurs::
* Conversions de type::
* Types incomplets::
* Fonctions de rappel::
* Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL::
* Pièges::
* Types de données à taille flottante::


File: python.info,  Node: Chargement des DLL,  Next: Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.2 Chargement des DLL
...........................

*note ctypes: 2a. fournit l'objet 'cdll' pour charger des bibliothèques
à liens dynamiques (et les objets 'windll' et 'oledll' en Windows).

You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects.
'cdll' loads libraries which export functions using the standard ‘cdecl’
calling convention, while 'windll' libraries call functions using the
‘stdcall’ calling convention.  'oledll' also uses the ‘stdcall’ calling
convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows ‘HRESULT’ error
code.  The error code is used to automatically raise an *note OSError:
40d. exception when the function call fails.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: En Windows, les erreurs levaient auparavant
une *note WindowsError: 103f, qui est maintenant un alias de *note
OSError: 40d.

Here are some examples for Windows.  Note that ‘msvcrt’ is the MS
standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the
‘cdecl’ calling convention:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> print(windll.kernel32)
     <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
     >>> print(cdll.msvcrt)
     <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = cdll.msvcrt
     >>>

Windows ajoute le suffixe habituel ‘.dll’ automatiquement.

     Note: Accéder à la bibliothèque standard C par ‘cdll.msvcrt’
     utilise une version obsolète de la bibliothèque qui peut avoir des
     problèmes de compatibilité avec celle que Python utilise.  Si
     possible, mieux vaut utiliser la fonctionnalité native de Python,
     ou bien importer et utiliser le module ‘msvcrt’.

On Linux, it is required to specify the filename 'including' the
extension to load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load
libraries.  Either the *note LoadLibrary(): 2d8e. method of the dll
loaders should be used, or you should load the library by creating an
instance of CDLL by calling the constructor:

     >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")
     >>> libc
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées,  Next: Appel de fonctions,  Prev: Chargement des DLL,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.3 Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées
.............................................

Les fonctions sont alors des attributs des objets DLL :

     >>> libc.printf
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
     >>>

Note that win32 system dlls like ‘kernel32’ and ‘user32’ often export
ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function.  The UNICODE version is
exported with a ‘W’ appended to the name, while the ANSI version is
exported with an ‘A’ appended to the name.  The win32 ‘GetModuleHandle’
function, which returns a 'module handle' for a given module name, has
the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as
‘GetModuleHandle’ depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not:

     /* ANSI version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
     /* UNICODE version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);

'windll' n'en choisit pas une par magie, il faut accéder à la bonne en
écrivant explicitement ‘GetModuleHandleA’ ou ‘GetModuleHandleW’ et en
les appelant ensuite avec des objets octets ou avec des chaînes de
caractères, respectivement.

Les DLL exportent parfois des fonctions dont les noms ne sont pas des
identifiants Python valides, comme ‘"??2@YAPAXI@Z"’.  Dans ce cas, il
faut utiliser *note getattr(): bc1. pour accéder à la fonction :

     >>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>>

Sous Windows, certaines DLL exportent des fonctions à travers un indice
plutôt qu'à travers un nom.  On accède à une fonction en indiçant
l'objet DLL avec son index :

     >>> cdll.kernel32[1]
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> cdll.kernel32[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Appel de fonctions,  Next: Types de données de base,  Prev: Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.4 Appel de fonctions
...........................

You can call these functions like any other Python callable.  This
example uses the ‘rand()’ function, which takes no arguments and returns
a pseudo-random integer:

     >>> print(libc.rand())
     1804289383

On Windows, you can call the ‘GetModuleHandleA()’ function, which
returns a win32 module handle (passing ‘None’ as single argument to call
it with a ‘NULL’ pointer):

     >>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))
     0x1d000000
     >>>

Une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée quand on appelle une fonction
‘stdcall’ avec la convention d'appel ‘cdecl’ et vice-versa :

     >>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
     >>>

     >>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
     >>>

Pour déterminer la convention d'appel, il faut consulter l'en-tête C ou
la documentation de la fonction à appeler.

En Windows, *note ctypes: 2a. tire profit de la gestion structurée des
exceptions ('structured exception handling') 'win32' pour empêcher les
plantages dus à des interruptions, afin de préserver la protection
globale ('general protection faults') du système, lorsque des fonctions
sont appelées avec un nombre incorrect d'arguments :

     >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
     >>>

Cependant, il y a suffisamment de façons de faire planter Python avec
*note ctypes: 2a, donc il faut être prudent dans tous les cas.  Le
module *note faulthandler: 57. est pratique pour déboguer les plantages
(p. ex.  dus à des erreurs de segmentation produites par des appels
erronés à la bibliothèque C).

‘None’, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only
native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these
function calls.  ‘None’ is passed as a C ‘NULL’ pointer, bytes objects
and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains
their data (char* or wchar_t*).  Python integers are passed as the
platform's default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C
type.

Avant de poursuivre sur l'appel de fonctions avec d'autres types de
paramètres, apprenons-en un peu plus sur les types de données de *note
ctypes: 2a.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données de base,  Next: Appel de fonctions suite,  Prev: Appel de fonctions,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.5 Types de données de base
.................................

*note ctypes: 2a. définit plusieurs types de donnée de base compatibles
avec le C :

Types de 'ctypes'          Type C                                         Type Python
                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
*note c_bool: 2d95.        _Bool                                          'bool' (1)
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char: 2d96.        char                                           objet octet ('bytes') de 1
                                                                          caractère
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar: 2d97.       ‘wchar_t’                                      chaîne de caractères
                                                                          ('string') de longueur 1
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_byte: 172c.        char                                           'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ubyte: 172d.       unsigned char                                  'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_short: 2d98.       short                                          'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ushort: 2d99.      unsigned short                                 'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int: 2d8a.         int                                            'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint: 2d9a.        unsigned int                                   'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_long: 2d8b.        long                                           'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulong: 2d9b.       unsigned long                                  'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longlong: 2d9c.    __int64 or long long                           'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulonglong: 2d9d.   unsigned __int64 or unsigned long long         'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_size_t: 2d9e.      ‘size_t’                                       'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ssize_t: 121c.     ‘ssize_t’ or *note Py_ssize_t: a50.            'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_time_t: 1795.      ‘time_t’                                       'int'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_float: 2d9f.       float                                          'float'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_double: 18b7.      double                                         'float'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longdouble: 18b8.  long double                                    'float'
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char_p: 16a1.      char* (NUL terminated)                         objet octet ('bytes') ou
                                                                          ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar_p: 16a2.     wchar_t* (NUL terminated)                      chaîne de caractères
                                                                          ('string') ou ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_void_p: 16a3.      void*                                          'int' ou ‘None’
                                                                          

  1. Le constructeur accepte n'importe quel objet convertible en
     booléen.

Il est possible de créer chacun de ces types en les appelant avec une
valeur d'initialisation du bon type et avec une valeur cohérente :

     >>> c_int()
     c_long(0)
     >>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
     c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
     >>> c_ushort(-3)
     c_ushort(65533)
     >>>

Ces types étant des mutables, leur valeur peut aussi être modifiée après
coup :

     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(42)
     >>> print(i.value)
     42
     >>> i.value = -99
     >>> print(i.value)
     -99
     >>>

Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types *note c_char_p:
16a1, *note c_wchar_p: 16a2, and *note c_void_p: 16a3. changes the
'memory location' they point to, 'not the contents' of the memory block
(of course not, because Python string objects are immutable):

     >>> s = "Hello, World"
     >>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
     >>> print(c_s)
     c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hello World
     >>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
     >>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
     c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hi, there
     >>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
     Hello, World
     >>>

Cependant, prenez garde à ne pas en passer à des fonctions qui prennent
en paramètre des pointeurs sur de la mémoire modifiable.  S'il vous faut
de la mémoire modifiable, 'ctypes' fournit la fonction *note
create_string_buffer(): 2da0. qui en crée de plusieurs façons.
L'attribut ‘raw’ permet d'accéder à (ou de modifier) un bloc mémoire ;
l'attribut ‘value’ permet d'y accéder comme à une chaîne de caractères
terminée par NUL :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     6 b'Hello\x00'
     >>> print(repr(p.value))
     b'Hello'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p.value = b"Hi"
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>>

The *note create_string_buffer(): 2da0. function replaces the old
‘c_buffer()’ function (which is still available as an alias).  To create
a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type
‘wchar_t’, use the *note create_unicode_buffer(): 198d. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Appel de fonctions suite,  Next: Calling variadic functions,  Prev: Types de données de base,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.6 Appel de fonctions, suite
..................................

'printf' utilise la vraie sortie standard, et non *note sys.stdout:
ac6. ; les exemples suivants ne fonctionnent donc que dans une invite de
commande et non depuis 'IDLE' or 'PythonWin' :

     >>> printf = libc.printf
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
     >>>

Comme mentionné plus haut, tous les types Python (les entiers, les
chaînes de caractères et les objets octet exceptés) doivent être
encapsulés dans leur type *note ctypes: 2a. correspondant pour pouvoir
être convertis dans le type C requis :

     >>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
     An int 1234, a double 3.140000
     31
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling variadic functions,  Next: Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés,  Prev: Appel de fonctions suite,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.7 Calling variadic functions
...................................

On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is
exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters.
On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the
calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for
regular functions.

On those platforms it is required to specify the *note argtypes: 2da5.
attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:

     libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]

Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is
advised to always specify *note argtypes: 2da5. for all variadic
functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés,  Next: Définition du type des arguments nécessaires prototypes de fonction,  Prev: Calling variadic functions,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.8 Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés
...................................................................

You can also customize *note ctypes: 2a. argument conversion to allow
instances of your own classes be used as function arguments.  *note
ctypes: 2a. looks for an ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute and uses this as the
function argument.  The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a
*note ctypes: 2a. instance, or an object with an ‘_as_parameter_’
attribute:

     >>> class Bottles:
     ...     def __init__(self, number):
     ...         self._as_parameter_ = number
     ...
     >>> bottles = Bottles(42)
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>>

If you don't want to store the instance's data in the ‘_as_parameter_’
instance variable, you could define a *note property: 192. which makes
the attribute available on request.


File: python.info,  Node: Définition du type des arguments nécessaires prototypes de fonction,  Next: Types de sortie,  Prev: Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.9 Définition du type des arguments nécessaires (prototypes de fonction)
..............................................................................

It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions
exported from DLLs by setting the *note argtypes: 2da5. attribute.

*note argtypes: 2da5. must be a sequence of C data types (the ‘printf()’
function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a
variable number and different types of parameters depending on the
format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with
this feature):

     >>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
     >>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
     String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
     37
     >>>

Définir un format empêche de passer des arguments de type incompatible
(comme le fait le prototype d'une fonction C) et tente de convertir les
arguments en des types valides :

     >>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: 'int' object cannot be interpreted as ctypes.c_char_p
     >>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
     X 2 3.000000
     13
     >>>

If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls,
you have to implement a *note from_param(): 2daa. class method for them
to be able to use them in the *note argtypes: 2da5. sequence.  The *note
from_param(): 2daa. class method receives the Python object passed to
the function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to
make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself,
its ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C
function argument in this case.  Again, the result should be an integer,
string, bytes, a *note ctypes: 2a. instance, or an object with an
‘_as_parameter_’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de sortie,  Next: Passage de pointeurs passage de paramètres par référence,  Prev: Définition du type des arguments nécessaires prototypes de fonction,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.10 Types de sortie
.........................

By default functions are assumed to return the C int type.  Other return
types can be specified by setting the *note restype: 2dad. attribute of
the function object.

The C prototype of ‘time()’ is ‘time_t time(time_t *)’.  Because
‘time_t’ might be of a different type than the default return type int,
you should specify the ‘restype’ attribute:

     >>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t

The argument types can be specified using *note argtypes: 2da5.:

     >>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)

To call the function with a ‘NULL’ pointer as first argument, use
‘None’:

     >>> print(libc.time(None))
     1150640792

Here is a more advanced example, it uses the ‘strchr()’ function, which
expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:

     >>> strchr = libc.strchr
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     8059983
     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     b'def'
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
     None
     >>>

If you want to avoid the *note ord("x"): 1ead. calls above, you can set
the *note argtypes: 2da5. attribute, and the second argument will be
converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char:

     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
     >>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
     None
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>>

You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for
example) as the *note restype: 2dad. attribute, if the foreign function
returns an integer.  The callable will be called with the 'integer' the
C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the
result of your function call.  This is useful to check for error return
values and automatically raise an exception:

     >>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA
     >>> def ValidHandle(value):
     ...     if value == 0:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return value
     ...
     >>>
     >>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle
     >>> GetModuleHandle(None)
     486539264
     >>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
     OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
     >>>

‘WinError’ appelle l'API Windows ‘FormatMessage()’ pour obtenir une
représentation de la chaîne de caractères qui correspond au code
d'erreur, et 'renvoie' une exception.  ‘WinError’ prend en paramètre —
optionnel — le code d'erreur.  Si celui-ci n'est pas passé, elle appelle
*note GetLastError(): 2dae. pour le récupérer.

Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is
available through the *note errcheck: 2daf. attribute; see the reference
manual for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Passage de pointeurs passage de paramètres par référence,  Next: Structures et unions,  Prev: Types de sortie,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.11 Passage de pointeurs (passage de paramètres par référence)
....................................................................

Il arrive qu'une fonction C du code à interfacer requière un 'pointeur'
vers un certain type de donnée en paramètre, typiquement pour écrire à
l'endroit correspondant ou si la donnée est trop grande pour pouvoir
être passée par valeur.  Ce mécanisme est appelé 'passage de paramètres
par référence'.

*note ctypes: 2a. contient la fonction *note byref(): 2db2. qui permet
de passer des paramètres par référence.  La fonction *note pointer():
169f. a la même utilité, mais fait plus de travail car *note pointer():
169f. construit un véritable objet pointeur.  Ainsi, si vous n'avez pas
besoin de cet objet dans votre code Python, utiliser *note byref():
2db2. est plus performant :

     >>> i = c_int()
     >>> f = c_float()
     >>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     0 0.0 b''
     >>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
     ...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
     3
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Structures et unions,  Next: Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions,  Prev: Passage de pointeurs passage de paramètres par référence,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.12 Structures et unions
..............................

Structures and unions must derive from the *note Structure: 1cf. and
*note Union: 163c. base classes which are defined in the *note ctypes:
2a. module.  Each subclass must define a *note _fields_: 2db5.
attribute.  ‘_fields_’ must be a list of '2-tuples', containing a 'field
name' and a 'field type'.

Le type de champ doit être un type *note ctypes: 2a. comme *note c_int:
2d8a. ou un type *note ctypes: 2a. dérivé : structure, union, tableau ou
pointeur.

Voici un exemple simple : une structure POINT qui contient deux entiers
'x' et 'y' et qui montre également comment instancier une structure avec
le constructeur :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
     ...                 ("y", c_int)]
     ...
     >>> point = POINT(10, 20)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     10 20
     >>> point = POINT(y=5)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     0 5
     >>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: too many initializers
     >>>

Il est bien entendu possible de créer des structures plus complexes.
Une structure peut elle-même contenir d'autres structures en prenant une
structure comme type de champ.

Voici une structure RECT qui contient deux POINTs 'upperleft' et
'lowerright' :

     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
     ...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
     ...
     >>> rc = RECT(point)
     >>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
     0 5
     >>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
     0 0
     >>>

Une structure encapsulée peut être instanciée par un constructeur de
plusieurs façons :

     >>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
     >>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))

Il est possible de récupérer les *note descripteurs: 152c. des champs
depuis la 'classe'.  Ils sont importants pour déboguer car ils
contiennent des informations utiles :

     >>> print(POINT.x)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0, size=4>
     >>> print(POINT.y)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=4, size=4>
     >>>
     Avertissement: *note ctypes: 2a. ne prend pas en charge le passage
     par valeur des unions ou des structures avec des champs de bits.
     Bien que cela puisse fonctionner sur des architectures 32 bits avec
     un jeu d'instructions x86, ce n'est pas garanti par la bibliothèque
     en général.  Les unions et les structures avec des champs de bits
     doivent toujours être passées par pointeur.


File: python.info,  Node: Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions,  Next: Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions,  Prev: Structures et unions,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.13 Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions
.............................................................

By default, Structure and Union fields are aligned in the same way the C
compiler does it.  It is possible to override this behavior by
specifying a *note _pack_: 2db8. class attribute in the subclass
definition.  This must be set to a positive integer and specifies the
maximum alignment for the fields.  This is what ‘#pragma pack(n)’ also
does in MSVC. It is also possible to set a minimum alignment for how the
subclass itself is packed in the same way ‘#pragma align(n)’ works in
MSVC. This can be achieved by specifying a *note _align_: 1d0. class
attribute in the subclass definition.

*note ctypes: 2a. suit le boutisme natif pour les 'Structure' et les
'Union'.  Pour construire des structures avec un boutisme différent,
utilisez les classes de base *note BigEndianStructure: 2db9, *note
LittleEndianStructure: 2dba, *note BigEndianUnion: 17e3. ou *note
LittleEndianUnion: 17e4.  Ces classes ne peuvent pas avoir de champ
pointeur.


File: python.info,  Node: Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions,  Next: Tableaux,  Prev: Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.14 Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions
..........................................................

It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields.
Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is
specified as the third item in the *note _fields_: 2db5. tuples:

     >>> class Int(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
     ...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
     ...
     >>> print(Int.first_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:0, bits=16>
     >>> print(Int.second_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:16, bits=16>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Tableaux,  Next: Pointeurs,  Prev: Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.15 Tableaux
..................

Les tableaux sont des séquences qui contiennent un nombre fixe
d'instances du même type.

La meilleure façon de créer des tableaux consiste à multiplier le type
de donnée par un entier positif :

     TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10

Voici un exemple — un peu artificiel — d'une structure contenant, entre
autres, 4 POINTs :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class MyStruct(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
     ...                 ("b", c_float),
     ...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
     >>>
     >>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
     4
     >>>

Comme d'habitude, on crée les instances en appelant la classe :

     arr = TenPointsArrayType()
     for pt in arr:
         print(pt.x, pt.y)

Le code précédent affiche une suite de ‘0 0’ car le contenu du tableau
est initialisé avec des zéros.

Des valeurs d'initialisation du bon type peuvent être passées :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
     >>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
     >>> print(ii)
     <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
     >>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Pointeurs,  Next: Conversions de type,  Prev: Tableaux,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.16 Pointeurs
...................

On crée une instance de pointeur en appelant la fonction *note
pointer(): 169f. sur un type *note ctypes: 2a. :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> pi = pointer(i)
     >>>

Les instances de pointeurs ont un attribut *note contents: 2dc1. qui
renvoie l'objet pointé (l'objet ‘i’ ci-dessus) :

     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(42)
     >>>

Attention, *note ctypes: 2a. ne fait pas de ROI (retour de l'objet
initial).  Il crée un nouvel objet à chaque fois qu'on accède à un
attribut :

     >>> pi.contents is i
     False
     >>> pi.contents is pi.contents
     False
     >>>

Affecter une autre instance de *note c_int: 2d8a. à l'attribut
'contents' du pointeur fait pointer le pointeur vers l'adresse mémoire
de cette nouvelle instance :

     >>> i = c_int(99)
     >>> pi.contents = i
     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(99)
     >>>

Il est possible d'indexer les pointeurs par des entiers :

     >>> pi[0]
     99
     >>>

Affecter à travers un indice change la valeur pointée :

     >>> print(i)
     c_long(99)
     >>> pi[0] = 22
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(22)
     >>>

Si vous êtes sûr de vous, vous pouvez utiliser d'autres valeurs que 0,
comme en C : il est ainsi possible de modifier une zone mémoire de votre
choix.  De manière générale cette fonctionnalité ne s'utilise que sur un
pointeur renvoyé par une fonction C, pointeur que vous 'savez' pointer
vers un tableau et non sur un seul élément.

Sous le capot, la fonction *note pointer(): 169f. fait plus que
simplement créer une instance de pointeur ; elle doit d'abord créer un
type « pointeur sur… ».  Cela s'effectue avec la fonction *note
POINTER(): 16a0, qui prend en paramètre n'importe quel type *note
ctypes: 2a. et renvoie un nouveau type :

     >>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
     >>> PI
     <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
     >>> PI(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
     >>> PI(c_int(42))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
     >>>

Appeler le pointeur sur type sans arguments crée un pointeur ‘NULL’.
Les pointeurs ‘NULL’ s'évaluent à ‘False’ :

     >>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
     >>> print(bool(null_ptr))
     False
     >>>

*note ctypes: 2a. vérifie que le pointeur n'est pas ‘NULL’ quand il en
déréférence un (mais déréférencer des pointeurs non ‘NULL’ invalides
fait planter Python) :

     >>> null_ptr[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>

     >>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Conversions de type,  Next: Types incomplets,  Prev: Pointeurs,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.17 Conversions de type
.............................

Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
‘POINTER(c_int)’ in the *note argtypes: 2da5. list of a function or as
the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of
exactly the same type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this
rule, where ctypes accepts other objects.  For example, you can pass
compatible array instances instead of pointer types.  So, for
‘POINTER(c_int)’, ctypes accepts an array of c_int:

     >>> class Bar(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
     ...
     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
     >>> bar.count = 3
     >>> for i in range(bar.count):
     ...     print(bar.values[i])
     ...
     1
     2
     3
     >>>

In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a
pointer type (such as ‘POINTER(c_int)’) in *note argtypes: 2da5, an
object of the pointed type (‘c_int’ in this case) can be passed to the
function.  ctypes will apply the required *note byref(): 2db2.
conversion in this case automatically.

Pour mettre un champ de type 'POINTER' à ‘NULL’, il faut lui affecter
‘None’ :

     >>> bar.values = None
     >>>

Parfois il faut gérer des incompatibilités entre les types.  En C, il
est possible de convertir un type en un autre.  *note ctypes: 2a.
fournit la fonction *note cast(): 2dc4. qui permet la même chose.  La
structure ‘Bar’ ci-dessus accepte des pointeurs ‘POINTER(c_int)’ ou des
tableaux de *note c_int: 2d8a. comme valeur pour le champ ‘values’, mais
pas des instances d'autres types :

     >>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
     >>>

C'est là que la fonction *note cast(): 2dc4. intervient.

La fonction *note cast(): 2dc4. permet de convertir une instance de
'ctypes' en un pointeur vers un type de données 'ctypes' différent.
*note cast(): 2dc4. prend deux paramètres : un objet 'ctypes' qui est,
ou qui peut être converti en, un certain pointeur et un type pointeur de
'ctypes'.  Elle renvoie une instance du second argument, qui pointe sur
le même bloc mémoire que le premier argument :

     >>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
     >>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
     >>>

Ainsi, la fonction *note cast(): 2dc4. permet de remplir le champ
‘values’ de la structure ‘Bar’ :

     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
     >>> print(bar.values[0])
     0
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Types incomplets,  Next: Fonctions de rappel,  Prev: Conversions de type,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.18 Types incomplets
..........................

Un 'type incomplet' est une structure, une union ou un tableau dont les
membres ne sont pas encore définis.  C'est l'équivalent d'une
déclaration avancée en C, où la définition est fournie plus tard :

     struct cell; /* forward declaration */

     struct cell {
         char *name;
         struct cell *next;
     };

Une traduction naïve, mais invalide, en code 'ctypes' ressemblerait à
ça :

     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
     NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
     >>>

because the new ‘class cell’ is not available in the class statement
itself.  In *note ctypes: 2a, we can define the ‘cell’ class and set the
*note _fields_: 2db5. attribute later, after the class statement:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     >>>

Essayons.  Nous créons deux instances de ‘cell’, les faisons pointer
l'une sur l'autre et enfin nous suivons quelques maillons de la chaîne
de pointeurs :

     >>> c1 = cell()
     >>> c1.name = b"foo"
     >>> c2 = cell()
     >>> c2.name = b"bar"
     >>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
     >>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
     >>> p = c1
     >>> for i in range(8):
     ...     print(p.name, end=" ")
     ...     p = p.next[0]
     ...
     foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de rappel,  Next: Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL,  Prev: Types incomplets,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.19 Fonctions de rappel
.............................

*note ctypes: 2a. permet de créer des pointeurs de fonctions appelables
par des appelables Python.  On les appelle parfois 'fonctions de
rappel'.

Tout d'abord, il faut créer une classe pour la fonction de rappel.  La
classe connaît la convention d'appel, le type de retour ainsi que le
nombre et le type de paramètres que la fonction accepte.

La fabrique *note CFUNCTYPE(): 2dc9. crée un type pour les fonctions de
rappel qui suivent la convention d'appel ‘cdecl’.  En Windows, c'est la
fabrique *note WINFUNCTYPE(): 2dca. qui crée un type pour les fonctions
de rappel qui suivent la convention d'appel ‘stdcall’.

Le premier paramètre de ces deux fonctions est le type de retour, et les
suivants sont les types des arguments qu'attend la fonction de rappel.

I will present an example here which uses the standard C library's
‘qsort()’ function, that is used to sort items with the help of a
callback function.  ‘qsort()’ will be used to sort an array of integers:

     >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
     >>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
     >>> qsort = libc.qsort
     >>> qsort.restype = None
     >>>

‘qsort()’ must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number
of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the
comparison function, the callback.  The callback will then be called
with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the
first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a
positive integer otherwise.

Ainsi notre fonction de rappel reçoit des pointeurs vers des entiers et
doit renvoyer un entier.  Créons d'abord le ‘type’ pour la fonction de
rappel :

     >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     >>>

Pour commencer, voici une fonction de rappel simple qui affiche les
valeurs qu'on lui passe :

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return 0
     ...
     >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
     >>>

Résultat :

     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     >>>

À présent, comparons pour de vrai les deux entiers et renvoyons un
résultat utile :

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>>
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func))
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

Et comme il est facile de le voir, notre tableau est désormais classé :

     >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 5 7 33 99
     >>>

Ces fonctions peuvent aussi être utilisées comme des décorateurs ; il
est donc possible d'écrire :

     >>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     ... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

     Note: Prenez garde à bien conserver une référence à un objet *note
     CFUNCTYPE(): 2dc9. tant que celui-ci est utilisé par le code C.
     *note ctypes: 2a. ne le fait pas tout seul et, si vous ne le faites
     pas, le ramasse-miette pourrait les libérer, ce qui fera planter
     votre programme quand un appel sera fait.

     Notez aussi que si la fonction de rappel est appelée dans un fil
     d'exécution créé hors de Python (p.  ex.  par du code externe qui
     appelle la fonction de rappel), 'ctypes' crée un nouveau fil Python
     « creux » à chaque fois.  Ce comportement est acceptable pour la
     plupart des cas d'utilisation, mais cela implique que les valeurs
     stockées avec *note threading.local: 1727. ne seront 'pas'
     persistantes d'un appel à l'autre, même si les appels proviennent
     du même fil d'exécution C.


File: python.info,  Node: Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL,  Next: Pièges,  Prev: Fonctions de rappel,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.20 Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL
......................................................

Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export
variables.  An example in the Python library itself is the *note
Py_Version: 742, Python runtime version number encoded in a single
constant integer.

*note ctypes: 2a. can access values like this with the *note in_dll():
2dcd. class methods of the type.  'pythonapi' is a predefined symbol
giving access to the Python C api:

     >>> version = ctypes.c_int.in_dll(ctypes.pythonapi, "Py_Version")
     >>> print(hex(version.value))
     0x30c00a0

Le pointeur *note PyImport_FrozenModules: 2dce. exposé par Python est un
autre exemple complet de l'utilisation de pointeurs.

Citons la documentation :

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     761. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

Donc manipuler ce pointeur peut même se révéler utile.  Pour limiter la
taille de l'exemple, nous nous bornons à montrer comment lire ce tableau
avec *note ctypes: 2a. :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>>
     >>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
     ...                 ("size", c_int),
     ...                 ("get_code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),  # Function pointer
     ...                ]
     ...
     >>>

We have defined the *note _frozen: 761. data type, so we can get the
pointer to the table:

     >>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
     >>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap")
     >>>

Puisque ‘table’ est un ‘pointer’ vers un tableau d'entrées de
‘struct_frozen’, il est possible d'itérer dessus, mais il faut être
certain que la boucle se termine, car les pointeurs n'ont pas de taille.
Tôt ou tard, il planterait probablement avec une erreur de segmentation
ou autre, donc mieux vaut sortir de la boucle quand on lit l'entrée
‘NULL’ :

     >>> for item in table:
     ...     if item.name is None:
     ...         break
     ...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
     ...
     _frozen_importlib 31764
     _frozen_importlib_external 41499
     zipimport 12345
     >>>

Le fait que le standard Python possède un module et un paquet figés
(indiqués par la valeur négative du membre 'size') est peu connu, cela
ne sert qu'aux tests.  Essayez avec ‘import __hello__’ par exemple.


File: python.info,  Node: Pièges,  Next: Types de données à taille flottante,  Prev: Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.21 Pièges
................

Il y a quelques cas tordus dans *note ctypes: 2a. où on peut s'attendre
à un résultat différent de la réalité.

Examinons l'exemple suivant :

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
     ...
     >>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
     >>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
     >>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     1 2 3 4
     >>> # now swap the two points
     >>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     3 4 3 4
     >>>

Diantre.  On s'attendait certainement à ce que le dernier résultat
affiche ‘3 4 1 2’.  Que s'est-il passé ?  Les étapes de la ligne ‘rc.a,
rc.b = rc.b, rc.a’ ci-dessus sont les suivantes :

     >>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> rc.a = temp0
     >>> rc.b = temp1
     >>>

Les objets ‘temp0’ et ‘temp1’ utilisent encore le tampon interne de
l'objet ‘rc’ ci-dessus.  Donc exécuter ‘rc.a = temp0’ copie le contenu
du tampon de ‘temp0’ dans celui de ‘rc’.  Ce qui, par ricochet, modifie
le contenu de ‘temp1’.  Et donc, la dernière affectation, ‘rc.b =
temp1’, n'a pas l'effet escompté.

Gardez en tête qu'accéder au sous-objet depuis une 'Structure', une
'Union' ou un 'Array' ne copie 'pas' le sous-objet, mais crée un objet
interface qui accède au tampon sous-jacent de l'objet initial.

Un autre exemple de comportement 'a priori' inattendu est le suivant :

     >>> s = c_char_p()
     >>> s.value = b"abc def ghi"
     >>> s.value
     b'abc def ghi'
     >>> s.value is s.value
     False
     >>>

     Note: La valeur d'une instance de *note c_char_p: 16a1. ne peut
     être initialisée qu'avec un octet ou un entier.

Pourquoi cela affiche-t'il ‘False’ ?  Les instances 'ctypes' sont des
objets qui contiennent un bloc mémoire et des *note descriptor: 152c.
qui donnent accès au contenu du ce bloc.  Stocker un objet Python dans
le bloc mémoire ne stocke pas l'objet même ; seuls ses ‘contents’ le
sont.  Accéder au ‘contents’ crée un nouvel objet Python à chaque fois !


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données à taille flottante,  Prev: Pièges,  Up: Didacticiel de ctypes

5.16.9.22 Types de données à taille flottante
.............................................

*note ctypes: 2a. assure la prise en charge des tableaux et des
structures à taille flottante.

La fonction *note resize(): 2dd3. permet de redimensionner la taille du
tampon mémoire d'un objet 'ctypes' existant.  Cette fonction prend
l'objet comme premier argument et la taille en octets désirée comme
second.  La taille du tampon mémoire ne peut pas être inférieure à celle
occupée par un objet unitaire du type considéré.  Une *note ValueError:
1ff. est levée si c'est le cas :

     >>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
     >>> print(sizeof(short_array))
     8
     >>> resize(short_array, 4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: minimum size is 8
     >>> resize(short_array, 32)
     >>> sizeof(short_array)
     32
     >>> sizeof(type(short_array))
     8
     >>>

Cela dit, comment accéder aux éléments supplémentaires contenus dans le
tableau ?  Vu que le type ne connaît que 4 éléments, on obtient une
erreur si l'on accède aux suivants :

     >>> short_array[:]
     [0, 0, 0, 0]
     >>> short_array[7]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     IndexError: invalid index
     >>>

Une autre approche pour utiliser des types de donnée à taille flottante
avec *note ctypes: 2a. consiste à tirer profit de la nature
intrinsèquement dynamique de Python et de (re)définir le type de donnée
une fois que la taille demandée est connue, au cas-par-cas.


File: python.info,  Node: Référence du module,  Prev: Didacticiel de ctypes,  Up: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python

5.16.9.23 Référence du module
.............................

* Menu:

* Recherche de bibliothèques partagées::
* Chargement des bibliothèques partagées::
* Fonctions externes::
* Prototypes de fonction::
* Fonctions utilitaires::
* Types de données: Types de données<3>.
* Types de données de base: Types de données de base<2>.
* Types de données dérivés de Structure::
* Tableaux et pointeurs::


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche de bibliothèques partagées,  Next: Chargement des bibliothèques partagées,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.24 Recherche de bibliothèques partagées
..............................................

Les langages compilés ont besoin d'accéder aux bibliothèques partagées
au moment de la compilation, de l'édition de liens et pendant
l'exécution du programme.

The purpose of the *note find_library(): d39. function is to locate a
library in a way similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on
platforms with several versions of a shared library the most recent
should be loaded), while the ctypes library loaders act like when a
program is run, and call the runtime loader directly.

The ‘ctypes.util’ module provides a function which can help to determine
the library to load.

 -- Données: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Tente de trouver une bibliothèque et en renvoie le chemin.  'name'
     est le nom de la bibliothèque sans préfixe — comme 'lib' — ni
     suffixe — comme ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ ou un numéro de version (c.-à-d.
     la même forme que l'option POSIX de l'éditeur de lien ‘-l’).  Si la
     fonction ne parvient pas à trouver de bibliothèque, elle renvoie
     ‘None’.

Le mode opératoire exact dépend du système.

On Linux, *note find_library(): d39. tries to run external programs
(‘/sbin/ldconfig’, ‘gcc’, ‘objdump’ and ‘ld’) to find the library file.
It returns the filename of the library file.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sous Linux, si les autres moyens échouent,
la fonction utilise la variable d'environnement ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ pour
trouver la bibliothèque.

Voici quelques exemples :

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("m")
     'libm.so.6'
     >>> find_library("c")
     'libc.so.6'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     'libbz2.so.1.0'
     >>>

On macOS and Android, *note find_library(): d39. uses the system's
standard naming schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a
full pathname if successful:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("c")
     '/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
     >>> find_library("m")
     '/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
     >>> find_library("AGL")
     '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
     >>>

On Windows, *note find_library(): d39. searches along the system search
path, and returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined
naming scheme a call like ‘find_library("c")’ will fail and return
‘None’.

If wrapping a shared library with *note ctypes: 2a, it 'may' be better
to determine the shared library name at development time, and hardcode
that into the wrapper module instead of using *note find_library(): d39.
to locate the library at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Chargement des bibliothèques partagées,  Next: Fonctions externes,  Prev: Recherche de bibliothèques partagées,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.25 Chargement des bibliothèques partagées
................................................

Il y a plusieurs moyens de charger une bibliothèque partagée dans un
processus Python.  L'un d'entre eux consiste à instancier une des
classes suivantes :

 -- Classe: ctypes.CDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries.
     Functions in these libraries use the standard C calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int.

     En Windows, créer une instance de *note CDLL: 9d9. peut échouer,
     même si une DLL du bon nom existe.  Quand une des dépendances de la
     DLL à charger ne peut pas être trouvée, une *note OSError: 40d. est
     levée avec le message '"[WinError 126] The specified module could
     not be found".'  Ce message d'erreur ne contient pas le nom de la
     DLL manquante car l'API Windows ne fournit pas cette information.
     Cela rend l'erreur délicate à analyser ; pour la résoudre, il faut
     lister toutes les dépendances de la DLL et trouver celle qui manque
     en utilisant des outils de débogage et de traçage Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The 'name' parameter can now be a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

Voir aussi
..........

DUMPBIN(1) — un utilitaire Microsoft pour lister les dépendances d'une
DLL.

 -- Classe: ctypes.OleDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
     functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return the windows specific *note HRESULT: 2dda.
     code.  *note HRESULT: 2dda. values contain information specifying
     whether the function call failed or succeeded, together with
     additional error code.  If the return value signals a failure, an
     *note OSError: 40d. is automatically raised.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note WindowsError: 103f. used to be
     raised, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The 'name' parameter can now be a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

 -- Classe: ctypes.WinDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
     functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int by default.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The 'name' parameter can now be a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

Le *note verrou global de l'interpréteur: 147. Python est relâché avant
chaque appel d'une fonction exposée par ces bibliothèques et ré-activé
après.

 -- Classe: ctypes.PyDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None)

     Cette classe est identique à *note CDLL: 9d9, à ceci près que le
     GIL n'est 'pas' relâché pendant l'appel de la fonction, et, qu'au
     terme de l'appel, le drapeau d'erreur Python est vérifié.  Si
     celui-ci est activé, une exception Python est levée.

     Donc, cette classe ne sert qu'à appeler les fonctions de l'API C de
     Python.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The 'name' parameter can now be a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

All these classes can be instantiated by calling them with at least one
argument, the pathname of the shared library.  If you have an existing
handle to an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the
‘handle’ named parameter, otherwise the underlying platform's ‘dlopen()’
or ‘LoadLibrary()’ function is used to load the library into the
process, and to get a handle to it.

Le mode de chargement de la bibliothèque est défini par le paramètre
'mode'.  Pour plus de détails, référez-vous à l'entrée ‘dlopen(3)(2)’ du
manuel.  En Windows, 'mode' est ignoré.  Sur les systèmes POSIX,
RTLD_NOW y est toujours ajouté.  Ceci n'est pas configurable.

The 'use_errno' parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism
that allows accessing the system *note errno: 56. error number in a safe
way.  *note ctypes: 2a. maintains a thread-local copy of the system's
*note errno: 56. variable; if you call foreign functions created with
‘use_errno=True’ then the *note errno: 56. value before the function
call is swapped with the ctypes private copy, the same happens
immediately after the function call.

La fonction *note ctypes.get_errno(): 2ddb. renvoie la valeur de la
copie privée de 'ctypes'.  La fonction *note ctypes.set_errno(): 2ddc.
affecte une nouvelle valeur à la copie privée et renvoie l'ancienne
valeur.

The 'use_last_error' parameter, when set to true, enables the same
mechanism for the Windows error code which is managed by the *note
GetLastError(): 2dae. and ‘SetLastError()’ Windows API functions; *note
ctypes.get_last_error(): 2ddd. and *note ctypes.set_last_error(): 2dde.
are used to request and change the ctypes private copy of the windows
error code.

The 'winmode' parameter is used on Windows to specify how the library is
loaded (since 'mode' is ignored).  It takes any value that is valid for
the Win32 API ‘LoadLibraryEx’ flags parameter.  When omitted, the
default is to use the flags that result in the most secure DLL load,
which avoids issues such as DLL hijacking.  Passing the full path to the
DLL is the safest way to ensure the correct library and dependencies are
loaded.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre 'winmode'.

 -- Données: ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL

     Valeur possible pour le paramètre 'mode'.  Vaut zéro sur les
     plates-formes où ce drapeau n'est pas disponible.

 -- Données: ctypes.RTLD_LOCAL

     Valeur possible pour le paramètre 'mode'.  Vaut 'RTLD_GLOBAL' sur
     les plates-formes où ce drapeau n'est pas disponible.

 -- Données: ctypes.DEFAULT_MODE

     Mode de chargement par défaut des bibliothèques partagées.  Vaut
     'RTLD_GLOBAL' sur OSX 10.3 et 'RTLD_LOCAL' sur les autres systèmes
     d'exploitation.

Les instances de ces classes n'ont pas de méthodes publiques ; on accède
aux fonctions de la bibliothèque partagée par attribut ou par indiçage.
Notez que les résultats des accès par attribut sont mis en cache, et
donc des accès consécutifs renvoient à chaque fois le même objet.
Accéder à une fonction par indice renvoie cependant chaque fois un
nouvel objet :

     >>> from ctypes import CDLL
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # On Linux
     >>> libc.time == libc.time
     True
     >>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
     False

Les attributs publics suivants sont disponibles, leur nom commence par
un tiret bas pour éviter les conflits avec les noms des fonctions
exportées :

 -- Attribut: PyDLL._handle

     Le lien système d'accès à la bibliothèque.

 -- Attribut: PyDLL._name

     Nom de la bibliothèque donné au constructeur.

Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated
objects, which are instances of the *note LibraryLoader: 2de1. class,
either by calling the *note LoadLibrary(): 2d8e. method, or by
retrieving the library as attribute of the loader instance.

 -- Classe: ctypes.LibraryLoader (dlltype)

     Classe pour charger une bibliothèque partagée.  'dlltype' doit être
     de type *note CDLL: 9d9, *note PyDLL: 1730, *note WinDLL: 172f. ou
     *note OleDLL: 172e.

     ‘__getattr__()’ has special behavior: It allows loading a shared
     library by accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.
     The result is cached, so repeated attribute accesses return the
     same library each time.

      -- Méthode: LoadLibrary (name)

          Charge une bibliothèque partagée dans le processus et la
          renvoie.  Cette méthode renvoie toujours une nouvelle instance
          de la bibliothèque.

Plusieurs chargeurs sont fournis :

 -- Données: ctypes.cdll

     Pour créer des instances de *note CDLL: 9d9.

 -- Données: ctypes.windll

     Creates *note WinDLL: 172f. instances.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Données: ctypes.oledll

     Creates *note OleDLL: 172e. instances.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Données: ctypes.pydll

     Pour créer des instances de *note PyDLL: 1730.

Il existe un moyen rapide d'accéder directement à l'API C Python :

 -- Données: ctypes.pythonapi

     An instance of *note PyDLL: 1730. that exposes Python C API
     functions as attributes.  Note that all these functions are assumed
     to return C int, which is of course not always the truth, so you
     have to assign the correct ‘restype’ attribute to use these
     functions.

Charger une bibliothèque à l'aide d'un de ces objets avec en argument
‘name’, le nom de la bibliothèque (une chaîne de caractères), lève un
*note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘ctypes.dlopen’.

Accéder à une fonction d'une bibliothèque lève un évènement d'audit
‘ctypes.dlsym’ avec ‘library’ (l'objet bibliothèque) et ‘name’ (le nom
du symbole — une chaîne de caractères ou un entier) comme arguments.

Si seul le lien sur la bibliothèque, et non l'objet, est disponible,
accéder à une fonction lève l'évènement d'audit ‘ctypes.dlsym/handle’
avec ‘handle’ (le lien vers la bibliothèque) et ‘name’ comme arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.microsoft.com/cpp/build/reference/dependents

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions externes,  Next: Prototypes de fonction,  Prev: Chargement des bibliothèques partagées,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.26 Fonctions externes
............................

As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed
as attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created
in this way by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes
data instances as arguments, and return the default result type
specified by the library loader.

They are instances of a private local class ‘_FuncPtr’ (not exposed in
‘ctypes’) which inherits from the private *note _CFuncPtr: 2de4. class:

     >>> import ctypes
     >>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
     >>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
     True
     >>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
     False

 -- Classe: ctypes._CFuncPtr

     Classe de base pour les fonctions externes C.

     Une instance de fonction externe est également un type de donnée
     compatible avec le C ; elle représente un pointeur vers une
     fonction.

     Son comportement peut-être personnalisé en réaffectant les
     attributs spécifiques de l'objet représentant la fonction externe.

      -- Attribut: restype

          Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign
          function.  Use ‘None’ for void, a function not returning
          anything.

          It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not
          a ctypes type, in this case the function is assumed to return
          a C int, and the callable will be called with this integer,
          allowing further processing or error checking.  Using this is
          deprecated, for more flexible post processing or error
          checking use a ctypes data type as ‘restype’ and assign a
          callable to the *note errcheck: 2daf. attribute.

      -- Attribut: argtypes

          Fait correspondre le type des arguments que la fonction
          accepte avec un 'n'-uplet de types 'ctypes'.  Les fonctions
          qui utilisent la convention d'appel ‘stdcall’ ne peuvent être
          appelées qu'avec le même nombre d'arguments que la taille du
          'n'-uplet mais les fonctions qui utilisent la convention
          d'appel C acceptent aussi des arguments additionnels
          non-définis.

          When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is
          passed to the *note from_param(): 2daa. class method of the
          items in the *note argtypes: 2da5. tuple, this method allows
          adapting the actual argument to an object that the foreign
          function accepts.  For example, a *note c_char_p: 16a1. item
          in the *note argtypes: 2da5. tuple will convert a string
          passed as argument into a bytes object using ctypes conversion
          rules.

          New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not
          ctypes types, but each item must have a *note from_param():
          2daa. method which returns a value usable as argument
          (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows defining
          adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.

      -- Attribut: errcheck

          Définit une fonction Python ou tout autre appelable qui sera
          appelé avec trois arguments ou plus :

           -- Fonction: callable (result, func, arguments)

               'result' is what the foreign function returns, as
               specified by the ‘restype’ attribute.

               'func' est l'objet représentant la fonction externe
               elle-même.  Cet accesseur permet de réutiliser le même
               appelable pour vérifier le résultat de plusieurs
               fonctions ou de faire des actions supplémentaires après
               leur exécution.

               'arguments' est le 'n'-uplet qui contient les paramètres
               initiaux passés à la fonction, ceci permet de spécialiser
               le comportement des arguments utilisés.

          L'objet renvoyé par cette fonction est celui renvoyé par
          l'appel de la fonction externe, mais il peut aussi vérifier la
          valeur du résultat et lever une exception si l'appel a échoué.

 -- Exception: ctypes.ArgumentError

     Exception levée quand un appel à la fonction externe ne peut pas
     convertir un des arguments qu'elle a reçus.

On Windows, when a foreign function call raises a system exception (for
example, due to an access violation), it will be captured and replaced
with a suitable Python exception.  Further, an auditing event
‘ctypes.set_exception’ with argument ‘code’ will be raised, allowing an
audit hook to replace the exception with its own.

Certaines manières d'appeler des fonction externes peuvent lever des
évènements d'audit ‘ctypes.call_function’ avec ‘function pointer’ et
‘arguments’ comme arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Prototypes de fonction,  Next: Fonctions utilitaires,  Prev: Fonctions externes,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.27 Prototypes de fonction
................................

Il est aussi possible de créer des fonctions externes en instanciant des
prototypes de fonction.  Les prototypes de fonction ressemblent beaucoup
aux prototypes de fonctions en C ; ils décrivent une fonction (type de
retour, type des arguments, convention d'appel) sans préciser son
implémentation.  Les fabriques de fonctions prennent en entrée le type
de retour et le type des arguments de la fonction, et peuvent être
utilisées comme des décorateurs-fabrique et ainsi s'appliquer à des
fonctions avec la syntaxe ‘@décorateur’.  Ceci est illustré dans la
section *note Fonctions de rappel: 2dc8.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.CFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     Renvoie un prototype de fonction qui crée des fonctions qui suivent
     la convention d'appel standard C. Les fonctions libèreront le GIL
     lors de leur exécution.  Si 'use_errno' est vrai, la copie privée
     'ctypes' de la variable système *note errno: 56. est échangée avec
     la vraie valeur de *note errno: 56. avant et après l'appel ;
     'use_last_error' a le même effet sous Windows.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     ‘stdcall’ calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  'use_errno' and 'use_last_error' have the same
     meaning as above.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Fonction: ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes)

     Renvoie un prototype de fonction qui crée des fonctions qui suivent
     la convention d'appel Python.  Les fonctions ne libèreront 'pas' le
     GIL lors de leur exécution.

Il y a plusieurs façons d'instancier les prototypes de fonction créés
par ces fabriques, selon le type et le nombre de paramètres de l'appel :

 -- Fonction: prototype (address)

     Renvoie une fonction externe sur l'adresse donnée sous la forme
     d'un entier.

 -- Fonction: prototype (callable)

     Crée une fonction appelable depuis du code C (une fonction de
     rappel) d'un appelable Python donné en paramètre.

 -- Fonction: prototype (func_spec[, paramflags])

     Renvoie une fonction externe exposée par une bibliothèque partagée.
     'func_spec' est un couple ‘(nom_ou_indice, bibliothèque)’.  Le
     premier élément est le nom de la fonction à passer comme une chaîne
     ou bien son indice (dans la table des symboles) à passer comme un
     entier.  Le second élément est l'instance de la bibliothèque
     partagée.

 -- Fonction: prototype (vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])

     Renvoie une fonction qui appelle une méthode COM. 'vtbl_index' est
     l'indice de la fonction dans la table virtuelle, un petit entier
     positif.  'name' est le nom de la méthode COM. 'iid' est un
     pointeur optionnel vers l'identificateur de plateforme, qui est
     utilisé dans la remontée d'erreurs étendue.

     COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a
     pointer to the COM interface as first argument, in addition to
     those parameters that are specified in the ‘argtypes’ tuple.

Le paramètre optionnel 'paramflags' crée une fabrique de fonction
externes avec des fonctionnalités supplémentaires par rapport à celles
décrites ci-dessus.

'paramflags' must be a tuple of the same length as *note argtypes: 2da5.

Chaque élément de ce 'n'-uplet contient des informations supplémentaires
sur le paramètre correspondant.  Ce doit être aussi un 'n'-uplet, avec
un, deux ou trois éléments.

Le premier élément est un entier qui contient une combinaison de
drapeaux qui précisent le sens des paramètres (entrée ou sortie) :

     1

          Paramètre d'entrée.

     2

          Paramètre de sortie.  La fonction externe va modifier cette
          valeur.

     4

          Paramètre d'entrée, valant 0 par défaut.

Le deuxième élément (optionnel) est une chaîne de caractères
représentant le nom du paramètre.  Si cet élément est donné, la fonction
externe pourra être appelée avec des paramètres nommés.

Le troisième élément (optionnel) est la valeur par défaut du paramètre.

The following example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows ‘MessageBoxW’
function so that it supports default parameters and named arguments.
The C declaration from the windows header file is this:

     WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
     MessageBoxW(
         HWND hWnd,
         LPCWSTR lpText,
         LPCWSTR lpCaption,
         UINT uType);

L'encapsulation *note ctypes: 2a. correspondante est alors :

     >>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
     >>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)

La fonction ‘MessageBox’ peut désormais être appelée des manières
suivantes :

     >>> MessageBox()
     >>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
     >>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")

L'exemple qui suit traite des paramètres en sortie.  La fonction win32
‘GetWindowRect’ donne les dimensions d'une fenêtre en les copiant dans
une structure ‘RECT’ que l'appelant doit fournir.  Sa déclaration en C
est :

     WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
     GetWindowRect(
          HWND hWnd,
          LPRECT lpRect);

L'encapsulation *note ctypes: 2a. correspondante est alors :

     >>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
     >>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
     >>>

Les fonctions avec des paramètres en sortie renvoient automatiquement la
valeur du paramètre de sortie s'il n'y en a qu'un seul, ou un 'n'-uplet
avec les valeurs de sortie de chaque paramètre s'il y en a plusieurs.
Ici, la fonction 'GetWindowRect' renvoie donc une instance de 'RECT'
quand elle est appelée.

Output parameters can be combined with the *note errcheck: 2daf.
protocol to do further output processing and error checking.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ api function returns a ‘BOOL’ to signal success or
failure, so this function could do the error checking, and raises an
exception when the api call failed:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return args
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>

If the *note errcheck: 2daf. function returns the argument tuple it
receives unchanged, *note ctypes: 2a. continues the normal processing it
does on the output parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window
coordinates instead of a ‘RECT’ instance, you can retrieve the fields in
the function and return them instead, the normal processing will no
longer take place:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     rc = args[1]
     ...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions utilitaires,  Next: Types de données<3>,  Prev: Prototypes de fonction,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.28 Fonctions utilitaires
...............................

 -- Fonction: ctypes.addressof (obj)

     Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer.  'obj' must be
     an instance of a ctypes type.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.addressof’ with
     argument ‘obj’.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.alignment (obj_or_type)

     Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type.  'obj_or_type'
     must be a ctypes type or instance.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.byref (obj[, offset])

     Returns a light-weight pointer to 'obj', which must be an instance
     of a ctypes type.  'offset' defaults to zero, and must be an
     integer that will be added to the internal pointer value.

     ‘byref(obj, offset)’ corresponds to this C code:

          (((char *)&obj) + offset)

     The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call
     parameter.  It behaves similar to ‘pointer(obj)’, but the
     construction is a lot faster.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.cast (obj, type)

     This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a
     new instance of 'type' which points to the same memory block as
     'obj'.  'type' must be a pointer type, and 'obj' must be an object
     that can be interpreted as a pointer.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.create_string_buffer (init_or_size, size=None)

     This function creates a mutable character buffer.  The returned
     object is a ctypes array of *note c_char: 2d96.

     'init_or_size' must be an integer which specifies the size of the
     array, or a bytes object which will be used to initialize the array
     items.

     If a bytes object is specified as first argument, the buffer is
     made one item larger than its length so that the last element in
     the array is a NUL termination character.  An integer can be passed
     as second argument which allows specifying the size of the array if
     the length of the bytes should not be used.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.create_string_buffer’
     with arguments ‘init’, ‘size’.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (init_or_size, size=None)

     This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer.  The
     returned object is a ctypes array of *note c_wchar: 2d97.

     'init_or_size' must be an integer which specifies the size of the
     array, or a string which will be used to initialize the array
     items.

     If a string is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one
     item larger than the length of the string so that the last element
     in the array is a NUL termination character.  An integer can be
     passed as second argument which allows specifying the size of the
     array if the length of the string should not be used.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘ctypes.create_unicode_buffer’ with arguments ‘init’, ‘size’.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow
     function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Fonction: ctypes.DllGetClassObject ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllGetClassObject
     function that the ‘_ctypes’ extension dll exports.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Fonction: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Try to find a library and return a pathname.  'name' is the library
     name without any prefix like ‘lib’, suffix like ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ or
     version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option
     ‘-l’).  If no library can be found, returns ‘None’.

     Le mode opératoire exact dépend du système.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.util.find_msvcrt ()

     Returns the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python, and
     by the extension modules.  If the name of the library cannot be
     determined, ‘None’ is returned.

     If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension
     module with a call to the ‘free(void *)’, it is important that you
     use the function in the same library that allocated the memory.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Fonction: ctypes.FormatError ([code])

     Returns a textual description of the error code 'code'.  If no
     error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the
     Windows api function GetLastError.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Fonction: ctypes.GetLastError ()

     Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
     This function calls the Windows ‘GetLastError()’ function directly,
     it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Fonction: ctypes.get_errno ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 56. variable in the calling thread.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.get_errno’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.get_last_error ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.get_last_error’ with
     no arguments.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.memmove (dst, src, count)

     Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies 'count'
     bytes from 'src' to 'dst'.  'dst' and 'src' must be integers or
     ctypes instances that can be converted to pointers.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.memset (dst, c, count)

     Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory
     block at address 'dst' with 'count' bytes of value 'c'.  'dst' must
     be an integer specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.POINTER (type, /)

     Create and return a new ctypes pointer type.  Pointer types are
     cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly
     is cheap.  'type' must be a ctypes type.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.pointer (obj, /)

     Create a new pointer instance, pointing to 'obj'.  The returned
     object is of the type ‘POINTER(type(obj))’.

     Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign
     function call, you should use ‘byref(obj)’ which is much faster.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.resize (obj, size)

     This function resizes the internal memory buffer of 'obj', which
     must be an instance of a ctypes type.  It is not possible to make
     the buffer smaller than the native size of the objects type, as
     given by ‘sizeof(type(obj))’, but it is possible to enlarge the
     buffer.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.set_errno (value)

     Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 56. variable in the calling thread to 'value' and
     return the previous value.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.set_errno’ with
     argument ‘errno’.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.set_last_error (value)

     Sets the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread to 'value' and return
     the previous value.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.set_last_error’ with
     argument ‘error’.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.sizeof (obj_or_type)

     Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory
     buffer.  Does the same as the C ‘sizeof’ operator.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.string_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the byte string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is specified, it
     is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed to be
     zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.string_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.WinError (code=None, descr=None)

     This function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes.  It
     creates an instance of *note OSError: 40d.  If 'code' is not
     specified, ‘GetLastError’ is called to determine the error code.
     If 'descr' is not specified, *note FormatError(): 2df0. is called
     to get a textual description of the error.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: An instance of *note WindowsError:
     103f. used to be created, which is now an alias of *note OSError:
     40d.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.wstring_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the wide-character string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is
     specified, it is used as the number of characters of the string,
     otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.wstring_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données<3>,  Next: Types de données de base<2>,  Prev: Fonctions utilitaires,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.29 Types de données
..........................

 -- Classe: ctypes._CData

     This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data
     types.  Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a
     memory block that hold C compatible data; the address of the memory
     block is returned by the *note addressof(): 2deb. helper function.
     Another instance variable is exposed as *note _objects: 2dfa.; this
     contains other Python objects that need to be kept alive in case
     the memory block contains pointers.

     Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods
     (to be exact, they are methods of the *note metaclass: 1f3f.):

      -- Méthode: from_buffer (source[, offset])

          This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer
          of the 'source' object.  The 'source' object must support the
          writeable buffer interface.  The optional 'offset' parameter
          specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the
          default is zero.  If the source buffer is not large enough a
          *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’
          with arguments ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’.

      -- Méthode: from_buffer_copy (source[, offset])

          This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from
          the 'source' object buffer which must be readable.  The
          optional 'offset' parameter specifies an offset into the
          source buffer in bytes; the default is zero.  If the source
          buffer is not large enough a *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’
          with arguments ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’.

      -- Méthode: from_address (address)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory
          specified by 'address' which must be an integer.

          This method, and others that indirectly call this method,
          raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ctypes.cdata’ with
          argument ‘address’.

      -- Méthode: from_param (obj)

          This method adapts 'obj' to a ctypes type.  It is called with
          the actual object used in a foreign function call when the
          type is present in the foreign function's *note argtypes:
          2da5. tuple; it must return an object that can be used as a
          function call parameter.

          All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this
          classmethod that normally returns 'obj' if that is an instance
          of the type.  Some types accept other objects as well.

      -- Méthode: in_dll (library, name)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a
          shared library.  'name' is the name of the symbol that exports
          the data, 'library' is the loaded shared library.

     Common instance variables of ctypes data types:

      -- Attribut: _b_base_

          Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block
          they contain, instead they share part of the memory block of a
          base object.  The *note _b_base_: 2dfe. read-only member is
          the root ctypes object that owns the memory block.

      -- Attribut: _b_needsfree_

          This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance
          has allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.

      -- Attribut: _objects

          This member is either ‘None’ or a dictionary containing Python
          objects that need to be kept alive so that the memory block
          contents is kept valid.  This object is only exposed for
          debugging; never modify the contents of this dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données de base<2>,  Next: Types de données dérivés de Structure,  Prev: Types de données<3>,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.30 Types de données de base
..................................

 -- Classe: ctypes._SimpleCData

     This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes
     data types.  It is mentioned here because it contains the common
     attributes of the fundamental ctypes data types.  *note
     _SimpleCData: 2e02. is a subclass of *note _CData: 2df9, so it
     inherits their methods and attributes.  ctypes data types that are
     not and do not contain pointers can now be pickled.

     Instances have a single attribute:

      -- Attribut: value

          This attribute contains the actual value of the instance.  For
          integer and pointer types, it is an integer, for character
          types, it is a single character bytes object or string, for
          character pointer types it is a Python bytes object or string.

          When the ‘value’ attribute is retrieved from a ctypes
          instance, usually a new object is returned each time.  *note
          ctypes: 2a. does 'not' implement original object return,
          always a new object is constructed.  The same is true for all
          other ctypes object instances.

Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results,
or, for example, by retrieving structure field members or array items,
are transparently converted to native Python types.  In other words, if
a foreign function has a *note restype: 2dad. of *note c_char_p: 16a1,
you will always receive a Python bytes object, 'not' a *note c_char_p:
16a1. instance.

Subclasses of fundamental data types do 'not' inherit this behavior.
So, if a foreign functions ‘restype’ is a subclass of *note c_void_p:
16a3, you will receive an instance of this subclass from the function
call.  Of course, you can get the value of the pointer by accessing the
‘value’ attribute.

These are the fundamental ctypes data types:

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_byte

     Represents the C signed char datatype, and interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_char

     Represents the C char datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character.  The constructor accepts an optional string
     initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one
     character.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_char_p

     Represents the C char* datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
     string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to
     binary data, ‘POINTER(c_char)’ must be used.  The constructor
     accepts an integer address, or a bytes object.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_double

     Represents the C double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_longdouble

     Represents the C long double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long
     double) == sizeof(double)’ it is an alias to *note c_double: 18b7.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_float

     Represents the C float datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_int

     Represents the C signed int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias to
     *note c_long: 2d8b.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_int8

     Represents the C 8-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_byte: 172c.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_int16

     Represents the C 16-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_short: 2d98.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_int32

     Represents the C 32-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_int: 2d8a.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_int64

     Represents the C 64-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_longlong: 2d9c.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_long

     Represents the C signed long datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_longlong

     Represents the C signed long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_short

     Represents the C signed short datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_size_t

     Represents the C ‘size_t’ datatype.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_ssize_t

     Represents the C ‘ssize_t’ datatype.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_time_t

     Represents the C ‘time_t’ datatype.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_ubyte

     Represents the C unsigned char datatype, it interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_uint

     Represents the C unsigned int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias for
     *note c_ulong: 2d9b.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_uint8

     Represents the C 8-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_ubyte: 172d.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_uint16

     Represents the C 16-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ushort: 2d99.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_uint32

     Represents the C 32-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_uint: 2d9a.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_uint64

     Represents the C 64-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ulonglong: 2d9d.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_ulong

     Represents the C unsigned long datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_ulonglong

     Represents the C unsigned long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_ushort

     Represents the C unsigned short datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_void_p

     Represents the C void* type.  The value is represented as integer.
     The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_wchar

     Represents the C ‘wchar_t’ datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character unicode string.  The constructor accepts an
     optional string initializer, the length of the string must be
     exactly one character.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_wchar_p

     Represents the C wchar_t* datatype, which must be a pointer to a
     zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an
     integer address, or a string.

 -- Classe: ctypes.c_bool

     Represent the C bool datatype (more accurately, _Bool from C99).
     Its value can be ‘True’ or ‘False’, and the constructor accepts any
     object that has a truth value.

 -- Classe: ctypes.HRESULT

     Represents a ‘HRESULT’ value, which contains success or error
     information for a function or method call.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows

 -- Classe: ctypes.py_object

     Represents the C *note PyObject: 32f.* datatype.  Calling this
     without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ *note PyObject: 32f.* pointer.

The ‘ctypes.wintypes’ module provides quite some other Windows specific
data types, for example ‘HWND’, ‘WPARAM’, or ‘DWORD’.  Some useful
structures like ‘MSG’ or ‘RECT’ are also defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données dérivés de Structure,  Next: Tableaux et pointeurs,  Prev: Types de données de base<2>,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.31 Types de données dérivés de Structure
...............................................

 -- Classe: ctypes.Union (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.

 -- Classe: ctypes.BigEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'big endian' byte order.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: ctypes.LittleEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'little endian' byte order.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: ctypes.BigEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'big endian' byte order.

 -- Classe: ctypes.LittleEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'little endian' byte order.

Structures and unions with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer
type fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.

 -- Classe: ctypes.Structure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'native' byte order.

     Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing
     one of these types, and at least define a *note _fields_: 2db5.
     class variable.  *note ctypes: 2a. will create *note descriptor:
     152c.s which allow reading and writing the fields by direct
     attribute accesses.  These are the

      -- Attribut: _fields_

          A sequence defining the structure fields.  The items must be
          2-tuples or 3-tuples.  The first item is the name of the
          field, the second item specifies the type of the field; it can
          be any ctypes data type.

          For integer type fields like *note c_int: 2d8a, a third
          optional item can be given.  It must be a small positive
          integer defining the bit width of the field.

          Field names must be unique within one structure or union.
          This is not checked, only one field can be accessed when names
          are repeated.

          It is possible to define the *note _fields_: 2db5. class
          variable 'after' the class statement that defines the
          Structure subclass, this allows creating data types that
          directly or indirectly reference themselves:

               class List(Structure):
                   pass
               List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
                                ...
                               ]

          The *note _fields_: 2db5. class variable must, however, be
          defined before the type is first used (an instance is created,
          *note sizeof(): 2df3. is called on it, and so on).  Later
          assignments to the *note _fields_: 2db5. class variable will
          raise an AttributeError.

          It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structure types,
          they inherit the fields of the base class plus the *note
          _fields_: 2db5. defined in the sub-subclass, if any.

      -- Attribut: _pack_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of structure fields in the instance.  *note _pack_: 2db8. must
          already be defined when *note _fields_: 2db5. is assigned,
          otherwise it will have no effect.  Setting this attribute to 0
          is the same as not setting it at all.

      -- Attribut: _align_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of the structure when being packed or unpacked to/from memory.
          Setting this attribute to 0 is the same as not setting it at
          all.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: _anonymous_

          An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed
          (anonymous) fields.  *note _anonymous_: 2e0e. must be already
          defined when *note _fields_: 2db5. is assigned, otherwise it
          will have no effect.

          The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union
          type fields.  *note ctypes: 2a. will create descriptors in the
          structure type that allows accessing the nested fields
          directly, without the need to create the structure or union
          field.

          Here is an example type (Windows):

               class _U(Union):
                   _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
                               ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
                               ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]

               class TYPEDESC(Structure):
                   _anonymous_ = ("u",)
                   _fields_ = [("u", _U),
                               ("vt", VARTYPE)]

          The ‘TYPEDESC’ structure describes a COM data type, the ‘vt’
          field specifies which one of the union fields is valid.  Since
          the ‘u’ field is defined as anonymous field, it is now
          possible to access the members directly off the TYPEDESC
          instance.  ‘td.lptdesc’ and ‘td.u.lptdesc’ are equivalent, but
          the former is faster since it does not need to create a
          temporary union instance:

               td = TYPEDESC()
               td.vt = VT_PTR
               td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
               td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)

     It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit
     the fields of the base class.  If the subclass definition has a
     separate *note _fields_: 2db5. variable, the fields specified in
     this are appended to the fields of the base class.

     Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword
     arguments.  Positional arguments are used to initialize member
     fields in the same order as they are appear in *note _fields_:
     2db5.  Keyword arguments in the constructor are interpreted as
     attribute assignments, so they will initialize *note _fields_:
     2db5. with the same name, or create new attributes for names not
     present in *note _fields_: 2db5.


File: python.info,  Node: Tableaux et pointeurs,  Prev: Types de données dérivés de Structure,  Up: Référence du module

5.16.9.32 Tableaux et pointeurs
...............................

 -- Classe: ctypes.Array (*args)

     Classe de base abstraite pour les 'arrays'.

     The recommended way to create concrete array types is by
     multiplying any *note ctypes: 2a. data type with a non-negative
     integer.  Alternatively, you can subclass this type and define
     *note _length_: 2e11. and *note _type_: 2e12. class variables.
     Array elements can be read and written using standard subscript and
     slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is 'not'
     itself an *note Array: 19e8.

      -- Attribut: _length_

          A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the
          array.  Out-of-range subscripts result in an *note IndexError:
          14ec.  Will be returned by *note len(): 61b.

      -- Attribut: _type_

          Spécifie le type de chaque élément de l''array'.

     Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
     initialize the elements in order.

 -- Fonction: ctypes.ARRAY (type, length)

     Create an array.  Equivalent to ‘type * length’, where 'type' is a
     *note ctypes: 2a. data type and 'length' an integer.

     This function is *note soft deprecated: 206. in favor of
     multiplication.  There are no plans to remove it.

 -- Classe: ctypes._Pointer

     Private, abstract base class for pointers.

     Concrete pointer types are created by calling *note POINTER():
     16a0. with the type that will be pointed to; this is done
     automatically by *note pointer(): 169f.

     If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and
     written using standard subscript and slice accesses.  Pointer
     objects have no size, so *note len(): 61b. will raise *note
     TypeError: 525.  Negative subscripts will read from the memory
     'before' the pointer (as in C), and out-of-range subscripts will
     probably crash with an access violation (if you're lucky).

      -- Attribut: _type_

          Specifies the type pointed to.

      -- Attribut: contents

          Returns the object to which to pointer points.  Assigning to
          this attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Interface Libraries,  Next: Exécution concourante,  Prev: Services génériques du système d'exploitation,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.17 Command Line Interface Libraries
=====================================

The modules described in this chapter assist with implementing command
line and terminal interfaces for applications.

Here's an overview:

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands. Parser for command-line options, arguments and
                        subcommands
* optparse: optparse --- Parser for command line options. Parser for command line options
* getpass: getpass --- Portable password input. Portable password input
* fileinput: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
* curses: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays. Terminal handling for character-cell displays
* curses.textpad: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs. Text input widget for curses programs
* curses.ascii: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters. Utilities for ASCII characters
* curses.panel: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses. A panel stack extension for curses


File: python.info,  Node: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Next: optparse --- Parser for command line options,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.1 ‘argparse’ -- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

'Code source:' Lib/argparse.py(1)

     Note: While *note argparse: 6. is the default recommended standard
     library module for implementing basic command line applications,
     authors with more exacting requirements for exactly how their
     command line applications behave may find it doesn't provide the
     necessary level of control.  Refer to *note Choosing an argument
     parsing library: 2e1a. for alternatives to consider when ‘argparse’
     doesn't support behaviors that the application requires (such as
     entirely disabling support for interspersed options and positional
     arguments, or accepting option parameter values that start with ‘-’
     even when they correspond to another defined option).

__________________________________________________________________

Tutoriel
........

Cette page est la référence de l'API. Pour une introduction plus en
douceur à l'analyse des arguments de la ligne de commande, regardez
*note le tutoriel argparse: 2e1b.

The ‘argparse’ module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  The program defines what arguments it requires, and
‘argparse’ will figure out how to parse those out of *note sys.argv:
1245.  The ‘argparse’ module also automatically generates help and usage
messages.  The module will also issue errors when users give the program
invalid arguments.

The ‘argparse’ module's support for command-line interfaces is built
around an instance of *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 526.  It is a
container for argument specifications and has options that apply to the
parser as whole:

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                         prog='ProgramName',
                         description='What the program does',
                         epilog='Text at the bottom of help')

La méthode *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19c. permet de définir
les arguments de l'analyseur.  Ceux-ci peuvent être des arguments
positionnels, des arguments optionnels ou des drapeaux (qui sont alors
traduits en valeurs booléennes).  Les arguments ont la possibilité
d'être complétés par des valeurs :

     parser.add_argument('filename')           # positional argument
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--count')      # option that takes a value
     parser.add_argument('-v', '--verbose',
                         action='store_true')  # on/off flag

La méthode *note ArgumentParser.parse_args(): 2e1c. lance l'analyseur et
stocke les résultats dans un objet *note argparse.Namespace: 2e1d. :

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)

     Note: If you're looking for a guide about how to upgrade *note
     optparse: 9f. code to ‘argparse’, see *note Upgrading Optparse
     Code: 118d.

* Menu:

* Objets ArgumentParser::
* La méthode add_argument(): La méthode add_argument.
* La méthode parse_args(): La méthode parse_args.
* Autres outils::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/argparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ArgumentParser,  Next: La méthode add_argument,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.1 Objets ‘ArgumentParser’
................................

 -- Classe: argparse.ArgumentParser (prog=None, usage=None,
          description=None, epilog=None, parents=[],
          formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, prefix_chars='-',
          fromfile_prefix_chars=None, argument_default=None,
          conflict_handler='error', add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True,
          exit_on_error=True)

     Crée un nouvel objet *note ArgumentParser: 526.  Tous les
     paramètres doivent être passés en arguments nommés.  Chaque
     paramètre a sa propre description détaillée ci-dessous, mais en
     résumé ils sont :

        * *note prog: 2e1f. – Nom du programme (par défaut :
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’) ;

        * *note usage: 2e20. – Chaîne décrivant l'utilisation du
          programme (par défaut : générée à partir des arguments ajoutés
          à l'analyseur) ;

        * *note description: 2e21. – Texte à afficher au dessus de
          l'aide pour les arguments (vide par défaut) ;

        * *note epilog: 2e22. – Texte à afficher après l'aide des
          arguments (vide par défaut) ;

        * *note parents: 2e23. – Liste d'objets *note ArgumentParser:
          526. contenant des arguments qui devraient aussi être inclus ;

        * *note formatter_class: 2e24. – Classe pour personnaliser la
          sortie du message d'aide ;

        * *note prefix_chars: 2e25. – Jeu de caractères qui précède les
          arguments optionnels (par défaut : ‘'-'’) ;

        * *note fromfile_prefix_chars: 2e26. – Jeu de caractères qui
          précède les fichiers d'où des arguments additionnels doivent
          être lus (par défaut : ‘None’) ;

        * *note argument_default: 2e27. – Valeur globale par défaut pour
          les arguments (par défaut : ‘None’) ;

        * *note conflict_handler: 2e28. – Stratégie pour résoudre les
          conflits entre les arguments optionnels (non-nécessaire en
          général) ;

        * *note add_help: 2e29. – Ajoute une option d'aide ‘-h/--help’ à
          l'analyseur (par défaut : ‘True’) ;

        * *note allow_abbrev: daf. – Permet l'acceptation d'abréviations
          non-ambigües pour les options longues (par défaut : ‘True’) ;

        * *note exit_on_error: 2e2a. - Determines whether or not
          ‘ArgumentParser’ exits with error info when an error occurs.
          (default: ‘True’)

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre 'allow_abbrev' est
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Dans les versions précédentes,
     'allow_abbrev' désactivait aussi le regroupement de plusieurs
     options courtes telles que ‘-vv’ pour signifier ‘-v -v’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le paramètre 'exit_on_error' est
     ajouté.

Les sections suivantes décrivent comment chacune de ces options sont
utilisées.

* Menu:

* Le paramètre prog::
* Le paramètre usage::
* Le paramètre description::
* Le paramètre epilog::
* Le paramètre parents::
* Le paramètre formatter_class::
* Le paramètre prefix_chars::
* Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars::
* Le paramètre argument_default::
* Le paramètre allow_abbrev::
* Le paramètre conflict_handler::
* Le paramètre add_help::
* Le paramètre exit_on_error::


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre prog,  Next: Le paramètre usage,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.2 Le paramètre 'prog'
............................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 526. calculates the name of the
program to display in help messages depending on the way the Python
interpreter was run:

   * The *note base name: 278a. of ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a file was passed as
     argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a
     directory or a zipfile was passed as argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘-m’ followed by the module
     or package name if the *note -m: 5cd. option was used.

This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help
messages match the string that was used to invoke the program on the
command line.  However, to change this default behavior, another value
can be supplied using the ‘prog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser:
526.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Prenez note que le nom du programme, peu importe s'il provient de
‘sys.argv[0]’ ou de l'argument ‘prog=’, est accessible aux messages
d'aide grâce au spécificateur de formatage ‘%(prog)s’.

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre usage,  Next: Le paramètre description,  Prev: Le paramètre prog,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.3 Le paramètre 'usage'
.............................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 526. calculates the usage message from
the arguments it contains.  The default message can be overridden with
the ‘usage=’ keyword argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [options]

     positional arguments:
      bar          bar help

     options:
      -h, --help   show this help message and exit
      --foo [FOO]  foo help

Le spécificateur de formatage ‘%(prog)s’ est disponible pour insérer le
nom du programme dans vos messages d'utilisation.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre description,  Next: Le paramètre epilog,  Prev: Le paramètre usage,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.4 Le paramètre 'description'
...................................

Most calls to the *note ArgumentParser: 526. constructor will use the
‘description=’ keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief
description of what the program does and how it works.  In help
messages, the description is displayed between the command-line usage
string and the help messages for the various arguments.

Par défaut, la description est sujette au retour à la ligne automatique
pour se conformer à l'espace disponible.  Pour changer ce comportement,
voyez l'argument *note formatter_class: 2e24.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre epilog,  Next: Le paramètre parents,  Prev: Le paramètre description,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.5 Le paramètre 'epilog'
..............................

Certains programmes aiment afficher un texte supplémentaire après la
description des arguments.  Un tel texte peut être spécifié grâce à
l'argument ‘epilog=’ du constructeur d'*note ArgumentParser: 526. :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     description='A foo that bars',
     ...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: argparse.py [-h]

     A foo that bars

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     And that's how you'd foo a bar

De même que pour l'argument *note description: 2e21, le texte passé à
‘epilog=’ est sujet au retour à la ligne automatique.  Ce comportement
peut être ajusté grâce à l'argument *note formatter_class: 2e24. du
constructeur d'*note ArgumentParser: 526.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre parents,  Next: Le paramètre formatter_class,  Prev: Le paramètre epilog,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.6 Le paramètre 'parents'
...............................

Parfois, plusieurs analyseurs partagent un jeu commun d'arguments.
Plutôt que de répéter les définitions de ces arguments, un analyseur
commun qui contient tous les arguments partagés peut être utilisé, puis
passé à l'argument ‘parents=’ du constructeur d'*note ArgumentParser:
526.  L'argument ‘parents=’ accepte une liste d'objets *note
ArgumentParser: 526, accumule toutes les actions positionnelles et
optionnelles de ces objets, puis les ajoute à l'instance d'*note
ArgumentParser: 526. en cours de création :

     >>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
     >>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)

     >>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
     >>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
     Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)

     >>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
     >>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
     Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)

Prenez note que la majorité des analyseurs parents doivent définir
‘add_help=False’.  Autrement, le constructeur d'*note ArgumentParser:
526. va voir plus d'une option ‘-h/--help’ (une pour le parent et une
pour l'instance en cours de création) et va lever une erreur.

     Note: Vous devez initialiser complètement les analyseurs avant de
     les passer à ‘parents=’.  Si vous changez les analyseurs parents
     après la création de l'analyseur enfant, ces changements ne sont
     pas répercutés sur l'enfant.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre formatter_class,  Next: Le paramètre prefix_chars,  Prev: Le paramètre parents,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.7 Le paramètre 'formatter_class'
.......................................

Les objets *note ArgumentParser: 526. permettent la personnalisation de
la mise en page des messages d'aide en spécifiant une classe de
formatage alternative.  Il y a actuellement quatre classes de
formatage :

 -- Classe: argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
 -- Classe: argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter
 -- Classe: argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
 -- Classe: argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter

*note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 2e2e. et *note RawTextHelpFormatter:
2e2f. vous donnent plus de contrôle sur comment les descriptions
textuelles sont affichées.  Par défaut, les contenus de *note
description: 2e21. et *note epilog: 2e22. des objets *note
ArgumentParser: 526. font l'objet du retour à la ligne automatique dans
les messages d'aide :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     description='''this description
     ...         was indented weird
     ...             but that is okay''',
     ...     epilog='''
     ...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
     ...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
     ...         across a couple lines''')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     this description was indented weird but that is okay

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
     will be wrapped across a couple lines

Passer *note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 2e2e. à ‘formatter_class=’
indique que les textes de *note description: 2e21. et d'*note epilog:
2e22. ont déjà été formatés correctement et qu'ils ne doivent pas faire
l'objet d'un retour à la ligne automatique :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
     ...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
     ...         Please do not mess up this text!
     ...         --------------------------------
     ...             I have indented it
     ...             exactly the way
     ...             I want it
     ...         '''))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     Please do not mess up this text!
     --------------------------------
        I have indented it
        exactly the way
        I want it

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

*note RawTextHelpFormatter: 2e2f. maintains whitespace for all sorts of
help text, including argument descriptions.  However, multiple newlines
are replaced with one.  If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines,
add spaces between the newlines.

*note ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 1858. ajoute automatiquement
l'information sur les valeurs par défaut aux messages d'aide de tous les
arguments :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar ...]

     positional arguments:
      bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)

*note MetavarTypeHelpFormatter: 2e30. utilise le nom du *note type:
2e31. de l'argument pour chacun des arguments comme nom d'affichage pour
leurs valeurs (contrairement au formateur standard qui utilise *note
dest: 2e32.) :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float

     positional arguments:
       float

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --foo int


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre prefix_chars,  Next: Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars,  Prev: Le paramètre formatter_class,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.8 Le paramètre 'prefix_chars'
....................................

Most command-line options will use ‘-’ as the prefix, e.g.  ‘-f/--foo’.
Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix characters,
e.g.  for options like ‘+f’ or ‘/foo’, may specify them using the
‘prefix_chars=’ argument to the *note ArgumentParser: 526. constructor:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('+f')
     >>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')

La valeur par défaut de ‘prefix_chars=’ est ‘'-'’.  Passer un jeu de
caractères qui n'inclut pas ‘-’ provoquera le refus des options comme
‘-f/--foo’.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars,  Next: Le paramètre argument_default,  Prev: Le paramètre prefix_chars,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.9 Le paramètre 'fromfile_prefix_chars'
.............................................

Parfois, par exemple quand on traite une liste d'arguments
particulièrement longue, il est logique de stocker la liste d'arguments
dans un fichier plutôt que de la saisir sur la ligne de commande.  Si un
jeu de caractères est passé à l'argument ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ du
constructeur de *note ArgumentParser: 526, alors les arguments qui
commencent par l'un des caractères spécifiés sont traités comme des
fichiers et sont remplacés par les arguments contenus dans ces fichiers.
Par exemple :

     >>> with open('args.txt', 'w', encoding=sys.getfilesystemencoding()) as fp:
     ...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
     Namespace(f='bar')

Par défaut, les arguments lus à partir d'un fichier doivent être chacun
sur une nouvelle ligne (voir aussi *note convert_arg_line_to_args():
2e33.) et ils sont traités comme s'ils étaient au même emplacement que
le fichier original référençant les arguments de la ligne de commande.
Ainsi dans l'exemple ci-dessus, l'expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'@args.txt']’ est équivalente à l'expression ‘['-f', 'foo', '-f',
'bar']’.

*note ArgumentParser: 526. uses *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 528. to read the file containing arguments.

Par défaut, l'argument ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ est ‘None’, ce qui
signifie que les arguments ne sont pas traités en tant que références à
des fichiers.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note ArgumentParser: 526. changed
encoding and errors to read arguments files from default (e.g.  *note
locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 527. and ‘"strict"’) to the *note
filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.  Arguments file should be
encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre argument_default,  Next: Le paramètre allow_abbrev,  Prev: Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.10 Le paramètre 'argument_default'
.........................................

Généralement, les valeurs par défaut des arguments sont définies soit en
passant la valeur désirée à *note add_argument(): 19c. soit par un appel
à la méthode *note set_defaults(): 2e34.  Cette méthode accepte un
ensemble de paires nom-valeur.  Il est parfois pertinent de configurer
une valeur par défaut pour tous les arguments d'un analyseur.  On peut
activer ce comportement en passant la valeur désirée à l'argument nommé
‘argument_default=’ du constructeur de *note ArgumentParser: 526.  Par
exemple, pour supprimer globalement la création d'attributs pendant
l'appel de *note parse_args(): 2e1c, on fournit
‘argument_default=SUPPRESS’ :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre allow_abbrev,  Next: Le paramètre conflict_handler,  Prev: Le paramètre argument_default,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.11 Le paramètre 'allow_abbrev'
.....................................

En temps normal, lorsque vous passez une liste d'arguments à la méthode
*note parse_args(): 2e1c. d'*note ArgumentParser: 526. *note elle
accepte les abréviations: dae. des options longues.

Cette fonctionnalité peut être désactivée en passant ‘False’ à
‘allow_abbrev’ :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre conflict_handler,  Next: Le paramètre add_help,  Prev: Le paramètre allow_abbrev,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.12 Le paramètre 'conflict_handler'
.........................................

Les objets *note ArgumentParser: 526. ne peuvent pas avoir plus d'une
option avec la même chaîne d'option.  Par défaut, les objets *note
ArgumentParser: 526. lèvent une exception si on essaie de créer un
argument avec une chaîne d'option qui est déjà utilisée :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ..
     ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo

Parfois, par exemple si on utilise des analyseurs *note parents: 2e23,
il est souhaitable de surcharger les anciens arguments qui partagent la
même chaîne d'option.  Pour obtenir ce comportement, vous devez passer
‘'resolve'’ à l'argument ‘conflict_handler=’ du constructeur d'*note
ArgumentParser: 526. :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      -f FOO      old foo help
      --foo FOO   new foo help

Prenez note que les objets *note ArgumentParser: 526. n'enlèvent une
action que si toutes ses chaînes d'options sont surchargées.  Ainsi dans
l'exemple ci-dessus, l'action ‘-f/--foo’ du parent est conservée comme
l'action ‘-f’ puisque ‘--foo’ est la seule chaîne d'options qui a été
surchargée.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre add_help,  Next: Le paramètre exit_on_error,  Prev: Le paramètre conflict_handler,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.13 Le paramètre 'add_help'
.................................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 526. objects add an option which
simply displays the parser's help message.  If ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ is
supplied at the command line, the ‘ArgumentParser’ help will be printed.

Il est parfois utile de désactiver l'ajout de cette option d'aide.  Pour
ce faire, vous devez passer ‘False’ à l'argument ‘add_help=’ du
constructeur d'*note ArgumentParser: 526. :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [--foo FOO]

     options:
      --foo FOO  foo help

En général, l'option d'aide est ‘-h/--help’.  L'exception à cette règle
est quand une valeur est passée à ‘prefix_chars=’ et qu'elle n'inclue
pas ‘-’, auquel cas, ‘-h’ et ‘--help’ ne sont pas des options valides.
Dans ce cas, le premier caractère de ‘prefix_chars’ est utilisé comme
préfixe des options d'aide :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [+h]

     options:
       +h, ++help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre exit_on_error,  Prev: Le paramètre add_help,  Up: Objets ArgumentParser

5.17.1.14 Le paramètre 'exit_on_error'
......................................

Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the *note
parse_args(): 2e1c. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 526, it will
print a 'message' to *note sys.stderr: 928. and exit with a status code
of 2.

Si vous souhaitez intercepter les erreurs manuellement, la
fonctionnalité peut être activée en assignant ‘False’ à
‘exit_on_error’ :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(exit_on_error=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--integers', type=int)
     _StoreAction(option_strings=['--integers'], dest='integers', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=<class 'int'>, choices=None, help=None, metavar=None)
     >>> try:
     ...     parser.parse_args('--integers a'.split())
     ... except argparse.ArgumentError:
     ...     print('Catching an argumentError')
     ...
     Catching an argumentError

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: La méthode add_argument,  Next: La méthode parse_args,  Prev: Objets ArgumentParser,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.15 La méthode 'add_argument()'
.....................................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.add_argument (name or flags..., *[,
          action][, nargs][, const][, default][, type][, choices][,
          required][, help][, metavar][, dest][, deprecated])

     Définie comment une option de ligne de commande doit être analysée.
     Chacun des paramètres est décrit plus en détails ci-bas, mais en
     résumé ils sont :

        * *note name or flags: 2e37. - Either a name or a list of option
          strings, e.g.  ‘'foo'’ or ‘'-f', '--foo'’.

        * *note action: 2e38. – Type élémentaire de l'action à
          entreprendre quand cet argument est reconnu sur la ligne de
          commande ;

        * *note nargs: 1567. – Nombre d'arguments de la ligne de
          commande à capturer ;

        * *note const: 2e39. – Valeur constante requise par certains
          choix d'*note action: 2e38. et de *note nargs: 1567. ;

        * *note default: 2e3a. – Valeur produite si l'argument est
          absent de la ligne de commande et absent de l'objet
          ‘namespace’ ;

        * *note type: 2e31. – Type vers lequel l'argument sur la ligne
          de commande doit être converti ;

        * *note choices: 1564. – La séquence de valeurs autorisées pour
          cet argument ;

        * *note required: 2e3b. – ‘True’ si l'option sur la ligne de
          commande est obligatoire (ne s'applique qu'aux arguments
          optionnels) ;

        * *note help: 2e3c. – Brève description de ce que fait
          l'argument ;

        * *note metavar: 2e3d. – Nom de l'argument dans les messages
          d'utilisations ;

        * *note dest: 2e32. – Nom de l'attribut qui est ajouté à l'objet
          retourné par *note parse_args(): 2e1c.

        * *note deprecated: 2e3e. - Whether or not use of the argument
          is deprecated.

Les sections suivantes décrivent comment chacune de ces options sont
utilisées.

* Menu:

* Le paramètre name_or_flags::
* Le paramètre action::
* Le paramètre nargs::
* Le paramètre const::
* Le paramètre default::
* Le paramètre type::
* Le paramètre choices::
* Le paramètre required::
* Le paramètre help::
* Le paramètre metavar::
* Le paramètre dest::
* deprecated::
* Classes Action::


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre name_or_flags,  Next: Le paramètre action,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.16 Le paramètre 'name_or_flags'
......................................

La méthode *note add_argument(): 19c. doit savoir s'il s'agit d'un
argument optionnel (tel que ‘-f’ ou ‘--foo’) ou d'un argument
positionnel (tel qu'une liste de noms de fichiers) qui est attendu.  Le
premier argument passé à *note add_argument(): 19c. doit donc être soit
une série de drapeaux, soit le nom de l'argument.

Par exemple, un argument optionnel est créé comme suit :

     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')

alors qu'un argument positionnel est créé comme suit :

     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')

Lors le l'appel de *note parse_args(): 2e1c, les arguments qui
commencent par le préfixe ‘-’ sont présumés optionnels et tous les
autres sont présumés positionnels :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
     PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre action,  Next: Le paramètre nargs,  Prev: Le paramètre name_or_flags,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.17 Le paramètre 'action'
...............................

Les objets *note ArgumentParser: 526. associent les arguments de la
ligne de commande avec des actions.  Ces actions peuvent soumettre les
arguments de la ligne de commande auxquels elles sont associées à un
traitement arbitraire, mais la majorité des actions se contentent
d'ajouter un attribut à l'objet renvoyé par *note parse_args(): 2e1c.
L'argument nommé ‘action’ indique comment l'argument de la ligne de
commande est traité.  Les actions natives sont :

   * ‘'store'’ - This just stores the argument's value.  This is the
     default action.

   * ‘'store_const'’ – Stocke la valeur passée à l'argument nommé *note
     const: 2e39.  La valeur par défaut de *note const: 2e39. est
     ‘None’.  L'action ‘'store_const'’ est généralement utilisée avec
     des arguments optionnels représentant un drapeau ou une condition
     similaire.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(foo=42)

   * ‘'store_true'’ and ‘'store_false'’ - These are special cases of
     ‘'store_const'’ used for storing the values ‘True’ and ‘False’
     respectively.  In addition, they create default values of ‘False’
     and ‘True’ respectively:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
          Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)

   * ‘'append'’ – Stocke une liste et ajoute la valeur de son argument à
     cette liste.  Il est donc généralement utile d'accepter la
     répétition de cet argument.  Si une valeur par défaut est précisée,
     alors cette valeur est également présente dans la liste et précède
     les valeurs passées sur la ligne de commande :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
          Namespace(foo=['1', '2'])

   * ‘'append_const'’ – Stocke une liste et ajoute la valeur de son
     argument *note const: 2e39. à cette liste.  Notez que la valeur par
     défaut de l'argument *note const: 2e39. est ‘None’.  L'action
     ‘'append_const'’ est pratique quand plusieurs arguments ont besoin
     de stocker des constantes dans une seule liste.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
          >>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
          >>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
          Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])

   * ‘'extend'’ - This stores a list and appends each item from the
     multi-value argument list to it.  The ‘'extend'’ action is
     typically used with the *note nargs: 1567. keyword argument value
     ‘'+'’ or ‘'*'’.  Note that when *note nargs: 1567. is ‘None’ (the
     default) or ‘'?'’, each character of the argument string will be
     appended to the list.  Example usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
          >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
          Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   * ‘'count'’ – Compte le nombre d'occurrences de l'argument nommé.
     Ceci est pratique, par exemple, pour augmenter le niveau de
     verbosité :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count', default=0)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
          Namespace(verbose=3)

     Prenez note que la valeur de 'default' est ‘None’ à moins qu'elle
     soit explicitement définie à ‘0’.

   * ‘'help'’ – Affiche le message d'aide complet pour toutes les
     options de l'analyseur puis termine l'exécution.  Une action ‘help’
     est automatiquement ajoutée à l'analyseur par défaut.  Consultez
     *note ArgumentParser: 526. pour les détails de la création du
     contenu de l'aide.

   * ‘'version'’ – Affiche la version du programme puis termine
     l'exécution.  Cette action requiert l'argument nommé ‘version=’
     dans l'appel à *note add_argument(): 19c. :

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
          PROG 2.0

Only actions that consume command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘'store'’,
‘'append'’ or ‘'extend'’) can be used with positional arguments.

 -- Classe: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction

     You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an *note
     Action: 17bb. subclass or other object that implements the same
     interface.  The ‘BooleanOptionalAction’ is available in ‘argparse’
     and adds support for boolean actions such as ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
          Namespace(foo=False)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend *note Action:
17bb, overriding the ‘__call__()’ method and optionally the ‘__init__()’
and ‘format_usage()’ methods.  You can also register custom actions
using the *note register(): 2e41. method and reference them by their
registered name.

Un exemple d'action personnalisée :

     >>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
     ...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
     ...         if nargs is not None:
     ...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
     ...         super().__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
     ...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
     ...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
     ...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
     >>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
     Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
     Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
     >>> args
     Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')

Pour plus d'information, voir *note Action: 17bb.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre nargs,  Next: Le paramètre const,  Prev: Le paramètre action,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.18 Le paramètre 'nargs'
..............................

*note ArgumentParser: 526. objects usually associate a single
command-line argument with a single action to be taken.  The ‘nargs’
keyword argument associates a different number of command-line arguments
with a single action.  See also *note Specifying ambiguous arguments:
2e43.  The supported values are:

   * ‘N’ (un entier).  ‘N’ arguments de la ligne de commande sont
     capturés ensemble et stockés dans une liste.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
          >>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])

     Prenez note que ‘nargs=1’ produit une liste avec un seul élément.
     Ceci est différent du comportement par défaut qui produit l'élément
     directement (comme un scalaire).

   * ‘'?'’.  Un argument de la ligne de commande est capturé et produit
     directement.  Si aucun argument n'est présent sur la ligne de
     commande, la valeur de *note default: 2e3a. est produite.  Prenez
     note que pour les arguments optionnels, il est aussi possible que
     la chaîne d'option soit présente mais qu'elle ne soit pas suivie
     d'un argument.  Dans ce cas, la valeur de *note const: 2e39. est
     produite.  Voici quelques exemples pour illustrer ceci :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')

     ‘nargs='?'’ est fréquemment utilisé pour accepter des fichiers
     d'entrée et de sortie optionnels :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('r'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdin)
          >>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('w'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdout)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='input.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='output.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>)
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

   * ‘'*'’.  Tous les arguments présents sur la ligne de commande sont
     capturés dans une liste.  Prenez note qu'il n'est pas logique
     d'avoir plus d'un argument positionnel avec ‘nargs='*'’, mais il
     est par contre possible d'avoir plusieurs arguments optionnels qui
     spécifient ‘nargs='*'’.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])

   * ‘'+'’.  Comme pour ‘'*'’, tous les arguments présents sur la ligne
     de commande sont capturés dans une liste.  De plus, un message
     d'erreur est produit s'il n'y a pas au moins un argument présent
     sur la ligne de commande.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
          Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
          PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo

If the ‘nargs’ keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments
consumed is determined by the *note action: 2e38.  Generally this means
a single command-line argument will be consumed and a single item (not a
list) will be produced.  Actions that do not consume command-line
arguments (e.g.  ‘'store_const'’) set ‘nargs=0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre const,  Next: Le paramètre default,  Prev: Le paramètre nargs,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.19 Le paramètre 'const'
..............................

L'argument ‘const’ d'*note add_argument(): 19c. est utilisé pour stocker
une constante qui n'est pas lue depuis la ligne de commande mais qui est
requise par certaines actions d'*note ArgumentParser: 526.  Les deux
utilisations les plus communes sont :

   * quand *note add_argument(): 19c. est appelée avec
     ‘action='store_const'’ ou ‘action='append_const'’, ces actions
     ajoutent la valeur de ‘const’ à l'un des attributs de l'objet
     renvoyé par *note parse_args(): 2e1c.  Consultez la description
     d'*note action: 2e38. pour voir quelques exemples.  La valeur de
     ‘const’ est ‘None’ par défaut pour *note add_argument(): 19c. ;

   * appeler la méthode *note add_argument(): 19c. avec des chaînes
     d'options (telles ‘-f’, ‘--foo’ ou avec ‘nargs='?'’) crée un
     argument optionnel auquel peut être attribué une valeur.  Si
     celle-ci est omise, l'analyseur prend ‘None’ comme la valeur de
     ‘const’.  La description de *note nargs: 1567. offre quelques
     exemples.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘const=None’ par défaut, y compris avec
‘action='append_const'’ ou ‘action='store_const'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre default,  Next: Le paramètre type,  Prev: Le paramètre const,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.20 Le paramètre 'default'
................................

Tous les arguments optionnels et certains arguments positionnels peuvent
être omis à la ligne de commande.  L'argument nommé ‘default’ de la
méthode *note add_argument(): 19c. (qui vaut ‘None’ par défaut), indique
quelle valeur est utilisée si l'argument est absent de la ligne de
commande.  Pour les arguments optionnels, la valeur de ‘default’ est
utilisée si la chaîne d'option n'est pas présente sur la ligne de
commande :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
     Namespace(foo='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action
'default' will not overwrite it:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args([], namespace=argparse.Namespace(foo=101))
     Namespace(foo=101)

Si la valeur de ‘default’ est une chaîne, l'analyseur analyse cette
valeur comme si c'était un argument de la ligne de commande.  En
particulier, l'analyseur applique la conversion définie par l'argument
*note type: 2e31. (si elle est fournie) avant d'affecter l'attribut à
l'objet *note Namespace: 2e1d. renvoyé.  Autrement, l'analyseur utilise
la valeur telle qu'elle :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
     >>> parser.parse_args()
     Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)

Pour les arguments positionnels pour lesquels *note nargs: 1567. est ‘?’
ou ‘*’, la valeur de ‘default’ est utilisée quand l'argument est absent
de la ligne de commande :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
     Namespace(foo='a')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

For *note required: 2e3b. arguments, the ‘default’ value is ignored.
For example, this applies to positional arguments with *note nargs:
1567. values other than ‘?’ or ‘*’, or optional arguments marked as
‘required=True’.

Si vous passez ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’, aucun attribut n'est ajouté
à l'objet ‘Namespace’ quand l'argument est absent de la ligne de
commande :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
     Namespace(foo='1')


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre type,  Next: Le paramètre choices,  Prev: Le paramètre default,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.21 Le paramètre 'type'
.............................

Par défaut, l'analyseur capture les arguments de la ligne de commande
comme des chaînes.  Très souvent par contre, on désire interpréter les
chaînes de la ligne de commande comme un autre type, tel que *note
float: 2ec. ou *note int: 254.  L'argument nommé ‘type’ d'*note
add_argument(): 19c. nous permet de faire les vérifications et les
conversions de type nécessaires.

Si l'argument nommé *note type: 2e31. est utilisé en conjonction avec
l'argument nommé *note default: 2e3a, le convertisseur de type n'est
appliqué que si la valeur par défaut est une chaîne.

The argument to ‘type’ can be a callable that accepts a single string or
the name of a registered type (see *note register(): 2e41.) If the
function raises *note ArgumentTypeError: 2e47, *note TypeError: 525, or
*note ValueError: 1ff, the exception is caught and a nicely formatted
error message is displayed.  Other exception types are not handled.

Les types et les fonctions natives peuvent être utilisés comme
convertisseurs de types :

     import argparse
     import pathlib

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('count', type=int)
     parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
     parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
     parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
     parser.add_argument('dest_file', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='latin-1'))
     parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)

Des fonctions définies par l'utilisateur peuvent aussi être utilisées :

     >>> def hyphenated(string):
     ...     return '-'.join([word[:4] for word in string.casefold().split()])
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> _ = parser.add_argument('short_title', type=hyphenated)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['"The Tale of Two Cities"'])
     Namespace(short_title='"the-tale-of-two-citi')

La fonction *note bool(): 453. est déconseillée comme convertisseur de
type.  Son comportement se limite à convertir les chaînes vides à
‘False’ et les chaînes non-vides à ‘True’.  Ce n'est généralement pas le
résultat désiré.

En général, l'argument nommé ‘type’ est un raccourci qui ne devrait être
utilisé que pour les conversions simples qui ne peuvent lever qu'une des
trois exceptions gérées.  Les conversions qui demandent un traitement
d'erreurs plus intéressant ou une gestion de ressources devraient être
effectuées plus tard dans l’exécution suivant l'analyse des arguments.

Par exemple, les conversions de documents 'JSON' ou 'YAML' ont des cas
d'erreurs complexes qui requièrent un meilleur signalement que ce qui
est fourni par l'argument nommé ‘type’.  Une exception *note
JSONDecodeError: e0f. ne serait pas adéquatement formatée et une
exception *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. ne serait pas du tout traitée.

Even *note FileType: f08. has its limitations for use with the ‘type’
keyword.  If one argument uses *note FileType: f08. and then a
subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not
automatically closed.  In this case, it would be better to wait until
after the parser has run and then use the *note with: 5be.-statement to
manage the files.

Pour les vérificateurs de types qui ne font que tester l'appartenance à
un ensemble de valeurs, pensez plutôt à utiliser l'argument nommé *note
choices: 1564.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre choices,  Next: Le paramètre required,  Prev: Le paramètre type,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.22 Le paramètre 'choices'
................................

Certains arguments de la ligne de commande doivent être choisis parmi un
ensemble prédéfini de valeurs.  Celles-ci doivent être déclarées dans la
séquence passée à l'argument 'choices' de la méthode *note
add_argument(): 19c.  Un message d'erreur est alors affiché si
l'utilisateur passe un argument qui n'est pas parmi les valeurs
acceptables :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
     Namespace(move='rock')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
     usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
     game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
     'paper', 'scissors')

Note that inclusion in the 'choices' sequence is checked after any *note
type: 2e31. conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects
in the 'choices' sequence should match the *note type: 2e31. specified.

N'importe quel séquence peut être utilisée comme valeur de 'choices',
dont les objets de type *note list: 5fe, *note set: 5c5. ou des
conteneurs personnalisés.

L'utilisation d'*note enum.Enum: 61d. est déconseillée, car il est
difficile de contrôler son apparence dans les messages d'usage, d'aide
et d'erreur.

Les choix formatés écrasent la valeur par défaut de 'metavar' qui est
normalement dérivée de 'dest'.  C'est en général le comportement
recherché car l'utilisateur ne voit jamais le paramètre 'dest'.  Si cet
affichage n'est pas souhaité (comme lorsque les choix sont trop
nombreux) spécifiez simplement *note metavar: 2e3d. de façon explicite.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre required,  Next: Le paramètre help,  Prev: Le paramètre choices,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.23 Le paramètre 'required'
.................................

In general, the ‘argparse’ module assumes that flags like ‘-f’ and
‘--bar’ indicate 'optional' arguments, which can always be omitted at
the command line.  To make an option 'required', ‘True’ can be specified
for the ‘required=’ keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 19c.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(foo='BAR')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     usage: [-h] --foo FOO
     : error: the following arguments are required: --foo

Tel qu'illustré dans l'exemple, quand l'option est marquée comme
‘required’, *note parse_args(): 2e1c. mentionne une erreur si l'option
est absente de la ligne de commande.

     Note: En général, les options obligatoires manifestent un style
     boiteux, car les utilisateurs s'attendent à ce que les 'options'
     soient 'optionnelles'.  Elles devraient donc être évitées si
     possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre help,  Next: Le paramètre metavar,  Prev: Le paramètre required,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.24 Le paramètre 'help'
.............................

The ‘help’ value is a string containing a brief description of the
argument.  When a user requests help (usually by using ‘-h’ or ‘--help’
at the command line), these ‘help’ descriptions will be displayed with
each argument.

La chaîne ‘help’ peut contenir des définitions de formatage permettant
d'éviter la répétition de contenu tel que le nom du programme et la
valeur par défaut de l'argument (voir *note default: 2e3a.).  Les
définitions disponibles comprennent entre autres le nom du programme,
‘%(prog)s’, et la plupart des arguments nommés d'*note add_argument():
19c, tels que ‘%(default)s’, ‘%(type)s’, etc :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
     ...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h] [bar]

     positional arguments:
      bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Comme la chaîne d'aide utilise le caractère ‘%’ pour le formatage, si
vous désirez afficher un ‘%’ littéral dans la chaîne d'aide, vous devez
en faire l’échappement avec ‘%%’.

‘argparse’ supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
setting the ‘help’ value to ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre metavar,  Next: Le paramètre dest,  Prev: Le paramètre help,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.25 Le paramètre 'metavar'
................................

When *note ArgumentParser: 526. generates help messages, it needs some
way to refer to each expected argument.  By default, ‘ArgumentParser’
objects use the *note dest: 2e32. value as the "name" of each object.
By default, for positional argument actions, the *note dest: 2e32. value
is used directly, and for optional argument actions, the *note dest:
2e32. value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
‘dest='bar'’ will be referred to as ‘bar’.  A single optional argument
‘--foo’ that should be followed by a single command-line argument will
be referred to as ‘FOO’.  An example:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar

     positional arguments:
      bar

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO

Un nom alternatif peut être fourni à ‘metavar’ :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX

     positional arguments:
      XXX

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo YYY

Prenez note que ‘metavar’ ne change que le nom 'affiché'.  Le nom de
l'attribut ajouté à l'objet renvoyé par *note parse_args(): 2e1c. est
toujours déterminé par la valeur de *note dest: 2e32.

Certaines valeurs de ‘nargs’ peuvent provoquer l'affichage de ‘metavar’
plus d'une fois.  Passer un 'n-uplet' à ‘metavar’ indique les différents
noms à afficher pour chacun des arguments :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]

     options:
      -h, --help     show this help message and exit
      -x X X
      --foo bar baz


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre dest,  Next: deprecated,  Prev: Le paramètre metavar,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.26 Le paramètre 'dest'
.............................

La plupart des actions d'*note ArgumentParser: 526. ajoutent une valeur
dans un attribut de l'objet renvoyé par *note parse_args(): 2e1c.  Le
nom de l'attribut est déterminé par l'argument nommé ‘dest’ d'*note
add_argument(): 19c.  Pour les arguments positionnels, ‘dest’ est
généralement le premier argument d'*note add_argument(): 19c. :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
     Namespace(bar='XXX')

Pour les actions d'arguments optionnels, la valeur de ‘dest’ est
généralement inférée des chaînes d'options.  *note ArgumentParser: 526.
génère la valeur de ‘dest’ en retirant le préfixe ‘--’ de la première
chaîne d'options longues.  Si aucune n'est fournie, ‘dest’ est alors
dérivée de la première chaîne d'options courtes sans le préfixe ‘-’.
Tous les ‘-’ suivants sont convertis en ‘_’ pour s'assurer que la chaîne
est un nom d'attribut valide.  Les exemples suivants illustrent ce
comportement :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -x 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -y 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')

‘dest’ vous permet de fournir un nom d'attribut personnalisé :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
     Namespace(bar='XXX')


File: python.info,  Node: deprecated,  Next: Classes Action,  Prev: Le paramètre dest,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.27 deprecated
....................

During a project's lifetime, some arguments may need to be removed from
the command line.  Before removing them, you should inform your users
that the arguments are deprecated and will be removed.  The ‘deprecated’
keyword argument of *note add_argument(): 19c, which defaults to
‘False’, specifies if the argument is deprecated and will be removed in
the future.  For arguments, if ‘deprecated’ is ‘True’, then a warning
will be printed to *note sys.stderr: 928. when the argument is used:

     >>> import argparse
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='snake.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--legs', default=0, type=int, deprecated=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(legs=0)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--legs', '4'])
     snake.py: warning: option '--legs' is deprecated
     Namespace(legs=4)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes Action,  Prev: deprecated,  Up: La méthode add_argument

5.17.1.28 Classes Action
........................

‘Action’ classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a
callable which processes arguments from the command-line.  Any object
which follows this API may be passed as the ‘action’ parameter to *note
add_argument(): 19c.

 -- Classe: argparse.Action (option_strings, dest, nargs=None,
          const=None, default=None, type=None, choices=None,
          required=False, help=None, metavar=None)

     ‘Action’ objects are used by an *note ArgumentParser: 526. to
     represent the information needed to parse a single argument from
     one or more strings from the command line.  The ‘Action’ class must
     accept the two positional arguments plus any keyword arguments
     passed to *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19c. except for the
     ‘action’ itself.

     Instances of ‘Action’ (or return value of any callable to the
     ‘action’ parameter) should have attributes ‘dest’,
     ‘option_strings’, ‘default’, ‘type’, ‘required’, ‘help’, etc.
     defined.  The easiest way to ensure these attributes are defined is
     to call ‘Action.__init__()’.

      -- Méthode: __call__ (parser, namespace, values,
               option_string=None)

          ‘Action’ instances should be callable, so subclasses must
          override the ‘__call__()’ method, which should accept four
          parameters:

             * 'parser' - The *note ArgumentParser: 526. object which
               contains this action.

             * 'namespace' - The *note Namespace: 2e1d. object that will
               be returned by *note parse_args(): 2e1c.  Most actions
               add an attribute to this object using *note setattr():
               2116.

             * 'values' - The associated command-line arguments, with
               any type conversions applied.  Type conversions are
               specified with the *note type: 2e31. keyword argument to
               *note add_argument(): 19c.

             * 'option_string' - The option string that was used to
               invoke this action.  The ‘option_string’ argument is
               optional, and will be absent if the action is associated
               with a positional argument.

          The ‘__call__()’ method may perform arbitrary actions, but
          will typically set attributes on the ‘namespace’ based on
          ‘dest’ and ‘values’.

      -- Méthode: format_usage ()

          ‘Action’ subclasses can define a ‘format_usage()’ method that
          takes no argument and return a string which will be used when
          printing the usage of the program.  If such method is not
          provided, a sensible default will be used.


File: python.info,  Node: La méthode parse_args,  Next: Autres outils,  Prev: La méthode add_argument,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.29 La méthode 'parse_args()'
...................................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.parse_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Convertie les chaînes d'arguments en objets et les assigne comme
     attributs de l'espace de nommage ‘namespace’.  Renvoie un objet
     ‘namespace’ rempli.

     Previous calls to *note add_argument(): 19c. determine exactly what
     objects are created and how they are assigned.  See the
     documentation for ‘add_argument()’ for details.

        * *note args: 2e52. – Liste de chaînes à analyser.  La valeur
          par défaut est récupérée dans *note sys.argv: 1245.

        * *note namespace: 2e53. – Un objet pour recevoir les attributs.
          Par défaut, une nouvelle instance (vide) de *note Namespace:
          2e1d.

* Menu:

* Syntaxe de la valeur des options::
* Arguments invalides::
* Arguments contenant -::
* Arguments abrégés (par comparaison de leurs préfixes): Arguments abrégés par comparaison de leurs préfixes.
* Au-delà de sys.argv: Au-delà de sys argv.
* L'objet Namespace::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntaxe de la valeur des options,  Next: Arguments invalides,  Up: La méthode parse_args

5.17.1.30 Syntaxe de la valeur des options
..........................................

La méthode *note parse_args(): 2e1c. offre plusieurs façons d'indiquer
la valeur d'une option si elle en prend une.  Dans le cas le plus
simple, l'option et sa valeur sont passées en tant que deux arguments
distincts :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

Pour les options longues (les options qui ont un nom de plus d'un
caractère), l'option et sa valeur peuvent être passées comme un seul
argument de la ligne de commande en utilisant ‘=’ comme séparateur :

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

Pour les options courtes (un seul caractère), l'option et sa valeur
peuvent être concaténées :

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')

Plusieurs options courtes peuvent être groupées ensemble après un seul
préfixe ‘-’ pour autant que seule la dernière, au maximum, ne nécessite
une valeur :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-z')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
     Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments invalides,  Next: Arguments contenant -,  Prev: Syntaxe de la valeur des options,  Up: La méthode parse_args

5.17.1.31 Arguments invalides
.............................

Quand elle fait l'analyse de la ligne de commande, la méthode *note
parse_args(): 2e1c. vérifie plusieurs erreurs possibles : entre
autres, options ambigües, types invalides, options invalides, nombre
incorrect d'arguments positionnels, etc.  Quand une erreur est
rencontrée, elle affiche l'erreur accompagnée du message d'aide puis
termine l'exécution :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')

     >>> # invalid type
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'

     >>> # invalid option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: no such option: --bar

     >>> # wrong number of arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments contenant -,  Next: Arguments abrégés par comparaison de leurs préfixes,  Prev: Arguments invalides,  Up: La méthode parse_args

5.17.1.32 Arguments contenant ‘-’
.................................

La méthode *note parse_args(): 2e1c. tente de signaler une erreur quand
l'utilisateur s'est clairement trompé.  Par contre, certaines situations
sont intrinsèquement ambigües.  Par exemple, l'argument de la ligne de
commande ‘-1’ peut aussi bien être une tentative de spécifier une option
qu'une tentative de passer un argument positionnel.  La méthode *note
parse_args(): 2e1c. est prudente : les arguments positionnels ne peuvent
commencer par ‘-’ que s'ils ont l'apparence d'un nombre négatif et que
l'analyseur ne contient aucune option qui a l'apparence d'un nombre
négatif :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
     Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, one='X')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: no such option: -2

     >>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument

Si l'utilisateur a des arguments positionnels qui commencent par ‘-’ et
qui n'ont pas l'apparence d'un nombre négatif, il peut insérer le
pseudo-argument ‘'--'’ qui indique à *note parse_args(): 2e1c. de
traiter tout ce qui suit comme un argument positionnel :

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)

See also *note the argparse howto on ambiguous arguments: 2e43. for more
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments abrégés par comparaison de leurs préfixes,  Next: Au-delà de sys argv,  Prev: Arguments contenant -,  Up: La méthode parse_args

5.17.1.33 Arguments abrégés (par comparaison de leurs préfixes)
...............................................................

Par défaut, la méthode *note parse_args(): 2e1c. accepte que les options
longues soient *note abrégées: daf. par un préfixe pour autant que
l’abréviation soit non-ambigüe, c'est-à-dire qu'elle ne corresponde à
aucune autre option :

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
     Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
     Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
     usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
     PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon

Une erreur est générée pour les arguments qui peuvent produire plus
d'une option.  Ce comportement peut être désactivé en passant ‘False’ à
*note Le paramètre allow_abbrev: daf.


File: python.info,  Node: Au-delà de sys argv,  Next: L'objet Namespace,  Prev: Arguments abrégés par comparaison de leurs préfixes,  Up: La méthode parse_args

5.17.1.34 Au-delà de ‘sys.argv’
...............................

Sometimes it may be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 526. parse
arguments other than those of *note sys.argv: 1245.  This can be
accomplished by passing a list of strings to *note parse_args(): 2e1c.
This is useful for testing at the interactive prompt:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
     ...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
     ...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])


File: python.info,  Node: L'objet Namespace,  Prev: Au-delà de sys argv,  Up: La méthode parse_args

5.17.1.35 L'objet ‘Namespace’
.............................

 -- Classe: argparse.Namespace

     Classe rudimentaire utilisée par défaut par *note parse_args():
     2e1c. pour créer un objet qui stocke les attributs.  Cet objet est
     renvoyé par ‘ArgumentParser.parse_args’.

     Cette classe est délibérément rudimentaire : une sous-classe
     d'*note object: a7c. avec une représentation textuelle
     intelligible.  Si vous préférez une vue 'dict-compatible', vous
     devez utiliser *note vars(): 1a00. (un idiome Python classique) :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
          >>> vars(args)
          {'foo': 'BAR'}

     Il est parfois utile de demander à *note ArgumentParser: 526. de
     faire l'affectation des attributs sur un objet existant plutôt que
     de faire la création d'un nouvel objet *note Namespace: 2e1d.  Ceci
     peut être réalisé avec l'argument nommé ‘namespace=’ :

          >>> class C:
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
          >>> c.foo
          'BAR'


File: python.info,  Node: Autres outils,  Next: Exceptions<9>,  Prev: La méthode parse_args,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.36 Autres outils
.......................

* Menu:

* Sous commandes::
* Objets FileType::
* Groupes d'arguments::
* Exclusion mutuelle::
* Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur::
* Afficher l'aide::
* Analyse partielle::
* Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers::
* Méthodes d'interruptions::
* Analyse entremêlée::
* Registering custom types or actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Sous commandes,  Next: Objets FileType,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.37 Sous commandes
........................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers (*[, title][, description][,
          prog][, parser_class][, action][, dest][, required][, help][,
          metavar])

     Many programs split up their functionality into a number of
     subcommands, for example, the ‘svn’ program can invoke subcommands
     like ‘svn checkout’, ‘svn update’, and ‘svn commit’.  Splitting up
     functionality this way can be a particularly good idea when a
     program performs several different functions which require
     different kinds of command-line arguments.  *note ArgumentParser:
     526. supports the creation of such subcommands with the
     ‘add_subparsers()’ method.  The ‘add_subparsers()’ method is
     normally called with no arguments and returns a special action
     object.  This object has a single method, ‘add_parser()’, which
     takes a command name and any ‘ArgumentParser’ constructor
     arguments, and returns an ‘ArgumentParser’ object that can be
     modified as usual.

     Description des paramètres :

        * 'title' - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by
          default "subcommands" if description is provided, otherwise
          uses title for positional arguments

        * 'description' - description for the sub-parser group in help
          output, by default ‘None’

        * 'prog' - usage information that will be displayed with
          sub-command help, by default the name of the program and any
          positional arguments before the subparser argument

        * 'parser_class' - class which will be used to create sub-parser
          instances, by default the class of the current parser (e.g.
          *note ArgumentParser: 526.)

        * *note action: 2e38. – action à entreprendre quand cet argument
          est reconnu sur la ligne de commande ;

        * *note dest: 2e32. – nom de l'attribut sous lequel la
          sous-commande est stockée ; par défaut : ‘None’ et aucune
          valeur n'est stockée ;

        * *note required: 2e3b. – ‘True’ si la sous-commande est
          obligatoire ; par défaut : ‘False’ (ajouté dans 3.7) ;

        * *note help: 2e3c. – message d'aide pour le groupe du
          sous-analyseur dans la sortie d'aide ; par défaut : ‘None’ ;

        * *note metavar: 2e3d. - string presenting available subcommands
          in help; by default it is ‘None’ and presents subcommands in
          form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}

     Quelques exemples d'utilisation :

          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "a" command
          >>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
          >>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "b" command
          >>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
          >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
          >>>
          >>> # parse some argument lists
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
          Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
          Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)

     Prenez note que l'objet renvoyé par *note parse_args(): 2e1c. ne
     contient que les attributs reconnus par l'analyseur principal et le
     sous-analyseur sélectionné par la ligne de commande.  Les autres
     sous-analyseurs n'ont pas d'influence sur l'objet renvoyé.  Ainsi
     dans l'exemple précédent, quand la commande ‘a’ est donnée, seuls
     les attributs ‘foo’ et ‘bar’ sont présents alors que la commande
     ‘b’ présente les attributs ‘foo’ et ‘baz’.

     Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only
     the help for that particular parser will be printed.  The help
     message will not include parent parser or sibling parser messages.
     (A help message for each subparser command, however, can be given
     by supplying the ‘help=’ argument to ‘add_parser()’ as above.)

          >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...

          positional arguments:
            {a,b}   subcommand help
              a     a help
              b     b help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit
            --foo   foo help

          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
          usage: PROG a [-h] bar

          positional arguments:
            bar     bar help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          >>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
          usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]

          options:
            -h, --help     show this help message and exit
            --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help

     La méthode *note add_subparsers(): c07. accepte les arguments
     nommés ‘title’ et ‘description’.  Quand au moins l'un des deux est
     présent, les commandes du sous-analyseur sont affichées dans leur
     propre groupe dans la sortie d'aide.  Par exemple :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
          ...                                    description='valid subcommands',
          ...                                    help='additional help')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
          usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          subcommands:
            valid subcommands

            {foo,bar}   additional help

     Furthermore, ‘add_parser()’ supports an additional 'aliases'
     argument, which allows multiple strings to refer to the same
     subparser.  This example, like ‘svn’, aliases ‘co’ as a shorthand
     for ‘checkout’:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
          >>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
          Namespace(foo='bar')

     ‘add_parser()’ supports also an additional 'deprecated' argument,
     which allows to deprecate the subparser.

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='chicken.py')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> run = subparsers.add_parser('run')
          >>> fly = subparsers.add_parser('fly', deprecated=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['fly'])
          chicken.py: warning: command 'fly' is deprecated
          Namespace()

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     One particularly effective way of handling subcommands is to
     combine the use of the *note add_subparsers(): c07. method with
     calls to *note set_defaults(): 2e34. so that each subparser knows
     which Python function it should execute.  For example:

          >>> # subcommand functions
          >>> def foo(args):
          ...     print(args.x * args.y)
          ...
          >>> def bar(args):
          ...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
          ...
          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(required=True)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
          >>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
          >>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
          >>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
          >>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          2.0
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          ((XYZYX))

     Ainsi, vous pouvez laisser à *note parse_args(): 2e1c. la
     responsabilité de faire appel à la bonne fonction après avoir
     analysé les arguments.  Associer fonctions et actions est en
     général la façon la plus facile de gérer des actions différentes
     pour chacun de vos sous-analyseurs.  Par contre, si vous avez
     besoin de consulter le nom du sous-analyseur qui a été invoqué,
     vous pouvez utiliser l'argument nommé ‘dest’ d'*note
     add_subparsers(): c07. :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
          >>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
          >>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
          >>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
          >>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
          Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: New 'required' keyword-only parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets FileType,  Next: Groupes d'arguments,  Prev: Sous commandes,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.38 Objets ‘FileType’
...........................

 -- Classe: argparse.FileType (mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Le type fabrique *note FileType: f08. crée des objets qui peuvent
     être passés à l'argument ‘type’ d'*note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19c.  Les arguments qui ont comme
     ‘type’ un objet *note FileType: f08. ouvrent les arguments de la
     ligne de commande en tant que fichiers avec les options
     spécifiées : mode, taille du tampon, encodage et gestion des
     erreurs (voir la fonction *note open(): 508. pour plus de
     détails) :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
          >>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
          Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)

     Les objets ‘FileType’ reconnaissent le pseudo-argument ‘'-'’ et le
     convertissent automatiquement vers *note sys.stdin: 52a. pour les
     objets *note FileType: f08. ouverts en lecture, et vers *note
     sys.stdout: ac6. pour les objets *note FileType: f08. ouverts en
     écriture :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'encodings' and 'errors'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Groupes d'arguments,  Next: Exclusion mutuelle,  Prev: Objets FileType,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.39 Groupes d'arguments
.............................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group (title=None,
          description=None, *[, argument_default][, conflict_handler])

     By default, *note ArgumentParser: 526. groups command-line
     arguments into "positional arguments" and "options" when displaying
     help messages.  When there is a better conceptual grouping of
     arguments than this default one, appropriate groups can be created
     using the ‘add_argument_group()’ method:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar

          group:
            bar    bar help
            --foo FOO  foo help

     The *note add_argument_group(): 2e5e. method returns an argument
     group object which has an *note add_argument(): 19c. method just
     like a regular *note ArgumentParser: 526.  When an argument is
     added to the group, the parser treats it just like a normal
     argument, but displays the argument in a separate group for help
     messages.  The ‘add_argument_group()’ method accepts 'title' and
     'description' arguments which can be used to customize this
     display:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
          >>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
          >>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo

          group1:
            group1 description

            foo    foo help

          group2:
            group2 description

            --bar BAR  bar help

     The optional, keyword-only parameters *note argument_default: 2e27.
     and *note conflict_handler: 2e28. allow for finer-grained control
     of the behavior of the argument group.  These parameters have the
     same meaning as in the *note ArgumentParser: 526. constructor, but
     apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire
     parser.

     Prenez note que tout argument qui n'est pas dans l'un de vos
     groupes est affiché dans l'une des sections usuelles 'positional
     arguments' et 'optional arguments'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Appeler *note add_argument_group():
     2e5e. sur un groupe d'arguments est obsolète.  Cet emploi n'a
     jamais été pris en charge et ne fonctionne pas dans tous les cas.
     La présence de cette fonction dans l'API est purement accidentelle
     et celle-ci disparaîtra.


File: python.info,  Node: Exclusion mutuelle,  Next: Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur,  Prev: Groupes d'arguments,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.40 Exclusion mutuelle
............................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group
          (required=False)

     Create a mutually exclusive group.  ‘argparse’ will make sure that
     only one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was
     present on the command line:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
          Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
          PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo

     La méthode *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2e60. accepte
     aussi l'argument ‘required’ pour indiquer qu'au moins un des
     arguments mutuellement exclusifs est nécessaire :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
          PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required

     Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not
     support the 'title' and 'description' arguments of *note
     add_argument_group(): 2e5e.  However, a mutually exclusive group
     can be added to an argument group that has a title and description.
     For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('Group title', 'Group description')
          >>> exclusive_group = group.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo FOO | --bar BAR)

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          Group title:
            Group description

            --foo FOO   foo help
            --bar BAR   bar help

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Appeler *note add_argument_group():
     2e5e. ou *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2e60. sur un groupe
     mutuellement exclusif est obsolète.  Cet emploi n'a jamais été pris
     en charge et ne fonctionne pas dans tous les cas.  La présence de
     cette fonction dans l'API est purement accidentelle et celle-ci
     disparaîtra.


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur,  Next: Afficher l'aide,  Prev: Exclusion mutuelle,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.41 Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur
...........................................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.set_defaults (**kwargs)

     Dans la majorité des cas, les attributs de l'objet renvoyé par
     *note parse_args(): 2e1c. sont entièrement définis par l'inspection
     des arguments de la ligne de commande et par les actions des
     arguments.  La méthode *note set_defaults(): 2e34. permet l'ajout
     d'attributs additionnels qui sont définis sans nécessiter
     l'inspection de la ligne de commande :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
          >>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
          Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)

     Prenez note que les valeurs par défaut au niveau de l'analyseur ont
     précédence sur les valeurs par défaut au niveau de l'argument :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
          >>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(foo='spam')

     Les valeurs par défaut au niveau de l'analyseur sont
     particulièrement utiles quand on travaille avec plusieurs
     analyseurs.  Voir la méthode *note add_subparsers(): c07. pour un
     exemple de cette utilisation.

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.get_default (dest)

     Renvoie la valeur par défaut d'un attribut de l'objet ‘Namespace’
     tel qu'il a été défini soit par *note add_argument(): 19c. ou par
     *note set_defaults(): 2e34. :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
          >>> parser.get_default('foo')
          'badger'


File: python.info,  Node: Afficher l'aide,  Next: Analyse partielle,  Prev: Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.42 Afficher l'aide
.........................

Pour la majorité des applications, *note parse_args(): 2e1c. se charge
du formatage et de l'affichage des messages d'erreur et d'utilisation.
Plusieurs méthodes de formatage sont toutefois disponibles :

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Affiche une brève description sur la façon d'invoquer l'*note
     ArgumentParser: 526. depuis la ligne de commande.  Si ‘file’ est
     ‘None’, utilise *note sys.stdout: ac6.

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.print_help (file=None)

     Affiche un message d'aide qui inclut l'utilisation du programme et
     l'information sur les arguments répertoriés dans l'*note
     ArgumentParser: 526.  Si ‘file’ est ‘None’, utilise *note
     sys.stdout: ac6.

Des variantes de ces méthodes sont fournies pour renvoyer la chaîne
plutôt que de l'afficher :

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.format_usage ()

     Renvoie une chaîne contenant une brève description sur la façon
     d'invoquer l'*note ArgumentParser: 526. depuis la ligne de
     commande.

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.format_help ()

     Renvoie une chaîne représentant un message d'aide qui inclut des
     informations sur l'utilisation du programme et sur les arguments
     définis dans l'*note ArgumentParser: 526.


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse partielle,  Next: Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers,  Prev: Afficher l'aide,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.43 Analyse partielle
...........................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Parfois, un script n'analyse que quelques-uns des arguments de la
     ligne de commande avant de passer les arguments non-traités à un
     autre script ou programme.  La méthode *note parse_known_args():
     2e68. est utile dans ces cas.  Elle fonctionne similairement à
     *note parse_args(): 2e1c, mais elle ne lève pas d'erreur quand des
     arguments non-reconnus sont présents.  Au lieu, elle renvoie une
     paire de valeurs : l'objet ‘Namespace’ rempli et la liste des
     arguments non-traités.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
          (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])

     Avertissement: Les règles d'*note acceptation des abréviations:
     dae. sont applicables à *note parse_known_args(): 2e68.
     L'analyseur peut ainsi capturer une option même si elle n'est que
     le préfixe d'une option reconnue plutôt que de la laisser dans la
     liste des arguments non-traités.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers,  Next: Méthodes d'interruptions,  Prev: Analyse partielle,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.44 Personnaliser le 'parsing' de fichiers
................................................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args (arg_line)

     Les arguments qui proviennent d'un fichier sont lus un par ligne.
     La méthode *note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 2e33. peut être
     surchargée pour accomplir un traitement plus élaboré.  Voir aussi
     l'argument nommé ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ du constructeur d'*note
     ArgumentParser: 526.

     La méthode ‘convert_arg_line_to_args’ accepte un seul argument,
     ‘arg_line’, qui est une chaîne lue dans le fichier d'arguments.
     Elle renvoie une liste d'arguments analysés dans cette chaîne.  La
     méthode est appelée une fois pour chaque ligne lue du fichier
     d'arguments.  L'ordre est préservé.

     Une surcharge utile de cette méthode est de permettre à chaque mot
     délimité par des espaces d'être traité comme un argument.
     L'exemple suivant illustre comment réaliser ceci :

          class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
                  return arg_line.split()


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes d'interruptions,  Next: Analyse entremêlée,  Prev: Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.45 Méthodes d'interruptions
..................................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.exit (status=0, message=None)

     This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified
     'status' and, if given, it prints a 'message' to *note sys.stderr:
     928. before that.  The user can override this method to handle
     these steps differently:

          class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
                  if status:
                      raise Exception(f'Exiting because of an error: {message}')
                  exit(status)

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.error (message)

     This method prints a usage message, including the 'message', to
     *note sys.stderr: 928. and terminates the program with a status
     code of 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse entremêlée,  Next: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: Méthodes d'interruptions,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.46 Analyse entremêlée
............................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

     De nombreuses commandes Unix permettent à l'utilisateur
     d'entremêler les arguments optionnels et les arguments
     positionnels.  Les méthodes *note parse_intermixed_args(): af0. et
     *note parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2e6e. permettent ce style
     d'analyse.

     These parsers do not support all the ‘argparse’ features, and will
     raise exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular,
     subparsers, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
     optionals and positionals are not supported.

     L'exemple suivant illustre la différence entre *note
     parse_known_args(): 2e68. et *note parse_intermixed_args(): af0. :
     le premier renvoie ‘['2', '3']’ comme arguments non-traités alors
     que le second capture tous les arguments positionnels dans ‘rest’

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
          >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
          >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
          >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])

     *note parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2e6e. renvoie une paire de
     valeurs : l'objet ‘Namespace’ rempli et une liste de chaînes
     d'arguments non-traités.  *note parse_intermixed_args(): af0. lève
     une erreur s'il reste des chaînes d'arguments non-traités.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: Analyse entremêlée,  Up: Autres outils

5.17.1.47 Registering custom types or actions
.............................................

 -- Méthode: ArgumentParser.register (registry_name, value, object)

     Sometimes it's desirable to use a custom string in error messages
     to provide more user-friendly output.  In these cases, ‘register()’
     can be used to register custom actions or types with a parser and
     allow you to reference the type by their registered name instead of
     their callable name.

     The ‘register()’ method accepts three arguments - a
     'registry_name', specifying the internal registry where the object
     will be stored (e.g., ‘action’, ‘type’), 'value', which is the key
     under which the object will be registered, and object, the callable
     to be registered.

     The following example shows how to register a custom type with a
     parser:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.register('type', 'hexadecimal integer', lambda s: int(s, 16))
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type='hexadecimal integer')
          _StoreAction(option_strings=['--foo'], dest='foo', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type='hexadecimal integer', choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None, deprecated=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '0xFA'])
          Namespace(foo=250)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1.2'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO]
          PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid 'hexadecimal integer' value: '1.2'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<9>,  Prev: Autres outils,  Up: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.48 Exceptions
....................

 -- Exception: argparse.ArgumentError

     An error from creating or using an argument (optional or
     positional).

     The string value of this exception is the message, augmented with
     information about the argument that caused it.

 -- Exception: argparse.ArgumentTypeError

     Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string
     to a type.

Guides et tutoriels
...................

* Menu:

* Tutoriel argparse::
* Migrating optparse code to argparse::


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel argparse,  Next: Migrating optparse code to argparse,  Up: Exceptions<9>

5.17.1.49 Tutoriel 'argparse'
.............................


auteur: Tshepang Mbambo

Ce tutoriel est destiné à être une introduction en douceur à *note
argparse: 6, le module d'analyse de ligne de commande recommandé dans la
bibliothèque standard de Python.

     Note: The standard library includes two other libraries directly
     related to command-line parameter processing: the lower level *note
     optparse: 9f. module (which may require more code to configure for
     a given application, but also allows an application to request
     behaviors that ‘argparse’ doesn't support), and the very low level
     *note getopt: 60. (which specifically serves as an equivalent to
     the ‘getopt()’ family of functions available to C programmers).
     While neither of those modules is covered directly in this guide,
     many of the core concepts in ‘argparse’ first originated in
     ‘optparse’, so some aspects of this tutorial will also be relevant
     to ‘optparse’ users.

* Menu:

* Concepts::
* Les bases::
* Introduction aux arguments positionnels::
* Introduction aux arguments optionnels::
* Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels::
* Aller un peu plus loin::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* Conclusion::


File: python.info,  Node: Concepts,  Next: Les bases,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.50 Concepts
..................

Commençons par l'utilisation de la commande ‘ls’ pour voir le type de
fonctionnalité que nous allons étudier dans ce tutoriel d'introduction :

     $ ls
     cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls pypy
     ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
     $ ls -l
     total 20
     drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
     drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
     -rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
     drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
     -rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls --help
     Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
     List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
     Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
     ...

Quelques concepts que l'on peut apprendre avec les quatre commandes :

   * La commande ‘ls’ est utile quand elle est exécutée sans aucun
     paramètre.  Elle affiche par défaut le contenu du dossier courant.

   * Si l'on veut plus que ce qui est proposé par défaut, il faut
     l'indiquer.  Dans le cas présent, on veut afficher un dossier
     différent : ‘pypy’.  Ce que l'on a fait c'est spécifier un argument
     positionnel.  C'est appelé ainsi car cela permet au programme de
     savoir quoi faire avec la valeur en se basant seulement sur sa
     position dans la ligne de commande.  Ce concept est plus pertinent
     pour une commande comme ‘cp’ dont l'usage de base est ‘cp SRC
     DEST’.  Le premier argument est 'ce que vous voulez copier' et le
     second est 'où vous voulez le copier'.

   * Maintenant, supposons que l'on veuille changer la façon dont le
     programme agit.  Dans notre exemple, on affiche plus d'information
     pour chaque ficher que simplement leur nom.  Dans ce cas, ‘-l’ est
     un argument facultatif.

   * C'est un fragment du texte d'aide.  Cela peut être très utile quand
     on tombe sur un programme que l'on à jamais utilisé auparavant car
     on peut comprendre son fonctionnement simplement en lisant l'aide
     associée.


File: python.info,  Node: Les bases,  Next: Introduction aux arguments positionnels,  Prev: Concepts,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.51 Les bases
...................

Commençons par un exemple très simple qui ne fait (quasiment) rien :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.parse_args()

Ce qui suit est le résultat de l'exécution du code :

     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py --verbose
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
     $ python prog.py foo
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

   * Exécuter le script sans aucun paramètre a pour effet de ne rien
     afficher sur la sortie d'erreur.  Ce n'est pas très utile.

   * Le deuxième commence à montrer l'intérêt du module *note argparse:
     6.  On n'a quasiment rien fait mais on a déjà un beau message
     d'aide.

   * L'option ‘--help’, que l'on peut aussi raccourcir en ‘-h’, est la
     seule option que l'on a gratuitement (pas besoin de la préciser).
     Préciser quoi que ce soit d'autre entraîne une erreur.  Mais même
     dans ce cas, on reçoit aussi un message utile, toujours
     gratuitement.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction aux arguments positionnels,  Next: Introduction aux arguments optionnels,  Prev: Les bases,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.52 Introduction aux arguments positionnels
.................................................

Un exemple :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

On exécute le code :

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py foo
     foo

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

   * We've added the *note add_argument(): 19c. method, which is what we
     use to specify which command-line options the program is willing to
     accept.  In this case, I've named it ‘echo’ so that it's in line
     with its function.

   * Utiliser le programme nécessite maintenant que l'on précise un
     paramètre.

   * The *note parse_args(): 2e1c. method actually returns some data
     from the options specified, in this case, ‘echo’.

   * La variable est comme une forme de 'magie' que *note argparse: 6.
     effectue gratuitement (c.-à-d.  pas besoin de préciser dans quelle
     variable la valeur est stockée).  Vous aurez aussi remarqué que le
     nom est le même que l'argument en chaîne de caractères donné à la
     méthode : ‘echo’.

Notez cependant que, même si l'affichage d'aide paraît bien , il n'est
pas aussi utile qu'il pourrait l'être.  Par exemple, on peut lire que
‘echo’ est un argument positionnel mais on ne peut pas savoir ce que
cela fait autrement qu'en le devinant ou en lisant le code source.
Donc, rendons-le un peu plus utile :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

Et on obtient :

     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo        echo the string you use here

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit

À présent, que diriez-vous de faire quelque chose d'encore plus utile :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

Ce qui suit est le résultat de l'exécution du code :

     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
         print(args.square**2)
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'

Cela n'a pas très bien fonctionné.  C'est parce que *note argparse: 6.
traite les paramètres que l'on donne comme des chaînes de caractères à
moins qu'on ne lui indique de faire autrement.  Donc, disons à *note
argparse: 6. de traiter cette entrée comme un entier :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
                         type=int)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

Ce qui suit est le résultat de l'exécution du code :

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py four
     usage: prog.py [-h] square
     prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'

Cela a bien fonctionné.  Maintenant le programme va même s'arrêter si
l'entrée n'est pas légale avant de procéder à l'exécution.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction aux arguments optionnels,  Next: Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels,  Prev: Introduction aux arguments positionnels,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.53 Introduction aux arguments optionnels
...............................................

Jusqu'à maintenant, on a joué avec les arguments positionnels.
Regardons comment ajouter des paramètres optionnels :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbosity:
         print("verbosity turned on")

Et le résultat :

     $ python prog.py --verbosity 1
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --verbosity VERBOSITY
                             increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py --verbosity
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
     prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

   * Le programme est écrit de sorte qu'il n'affiche rien sauf si
     l'option ‘--verbosity’ est précisée.

   * To show that the option is actually optional, there is no error
     when running the program without it.  Note that by default, if an
     optional argument isn't used, the relevant variable, in this case
     ‘args.verbosity’, is given ‘None’ as a value, which is the reason
     it fails the truth test of the *note if: 2e8. statement.

   * Le message d'aide est quelque peu différent.

   * Quand on utilise l'option ‘--verbosity’ on doit aussi préciser une
     valeur, n'importe laquelle.

L'exemple ci-dessus accepte des valeurs entières arbitraires pour
‘--verbosity’ mais pour notre programme simple seule deux valeurs sont
réellement utiles : ‘True’ et ‘False’.  Modifions le code en accord avec
cela :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

Et le résultat :

     $ python prog.py --verbose
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --verbose 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --verbose   increase output verbosity

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

   * The option is now more of a flag than something that requires a
     value.  We even changed the name of the option to match that idea.
     Note that we now specify a new keyword, ‘action’, and give it the
     value ‘"store_true"’.  This means that, if the option is specified,
     assign the value ‘True’ to ‘args.verbose’.  Not specifying it
     implies ‘False’.

   * Dans l'esprit de ce que sont vraiment les options, pas des
     paramètres, il se plaint quand vous tentez de préciser une valeur.

   * Notez que l'aide est différente.

* Menu:

* Les paramètres raccourcis::


File: python.info,  Node: Les paramètres raccourcis,  Up: Introduction aux arguments optionnels

5.17.1.54 Les paramètres raccourcis
...................................

Si vous êtes familier avec l'utilisation de la ligne de commande, vous
avez dû remarquer que je n'ai pour l'instant rien dit au sujet des
versions raccourcies des paramètres.  C'est très simple :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

Et voilà :

     $ python prog.py -v
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity

Notez que la nouvelle option est aussi indiquée dans l'aide.


File: python.info,  Node: Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels,  Next: Aller un peu plus loin,  Prev: Introduction aux arguments optionnels,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.55 Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels
............................................................

Notre programme continue de croître en complexité :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbose:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Et voilà le résultat :

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbose
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py --verbose 4
     the square of 4 equals 16

   * Nous avons ajouté un argument nommé, d'où le message d'erreur.

   * Notez que l'ordre importe peu.

Qu'en est-il si nous donnons à ce programme la possibilité d'avoir
plusieurs niveaux de verbosité, et que celui-ci les prend en compte :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Et le résultat :

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 2
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     16

Tout semble bon sauf le dernier, qui montre que notre programme contient
un bogue.  Corrigeons cela en restreignant les valeurs que ‘--verbosity’
accepte :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Et le résultat :

     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square

     positional arguments:
       square                display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity {0,1,2}
                             increase output verbosity

Notez que ce changement est pris en compte à la fois dans le message
d'erreur et dans le texte d'aide.

Essayons maintenant une approche différente pour jouer sur la verbosité,
ce qui arrive fréquemment.  Cela correspond également à comment le
programme CPython gère ses propres paramètres de verbosité (jetez un œil
sur la sortie de la commande ‘python --help’) :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display the square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Nous avons introduit une autre action, ‘"count"’, pour compter le nombre
d’occurrences d'une option en particulier :

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square

     positional arguments:
       square           display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     16

   * Oui, c'est maintenant d'avantage une option (similaire à
     ‘action="store_true"’) de la version précédente de notre script.
     Cela devrait expliquer le message d'erreur.

   * Cela se comporte de la même manière que l'action ‘"store_true"’.

   * Maintenant voici une démonstration de ce que l'action ‘"count"’
     fait.  Vous avez sûrement vu ce genre d'utilisation auparavant.

   * Et si vous ne spécifiez pas l'option ‘-v’, cette option prendra la
     valeur ‘None’.

   * Comme on s'y attend, en spécifiant l'option dans sa forme longue,
     on devrait obtenir la même sortie.

   * Malheureusement, notre sortie d'aide n'est pas très informative à
     propos des nouvelles possibilités de notre programme, mais cela
     peut toujours être corrigé en améliorant sa documentation (en
     utilisant l'argument ‘help’).

   * La dernière sortie du programme montre que celui-ci contient un
     bogue.

Corrigeons :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2

     # bugfix: replace == with >=
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Et c'est ce que ça donne :

     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
         if args.verbosity >= 2:
     TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'

   * Les premières exécutions du programme sont correctes, et le bogue
     que nous avons eu est corrigé.  Cela dit, nous voulons que
     n'importe quelle valeur >= 2 rende le programme aussi verbeux que
     possible.

   * La troisième sortie de programme n'est pas si bien que ça.

Corrigeons ce bogue :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Nous venons juste d'introduire un nouveau mot clef, ‘default’.  Nous
l'avons définit à ‘0’ pour le rendre comparable aux autres valeurs.
Rappelez-vous que par défaut, si un argument optionnel n'est pas
spécifié, il sera définit à ‘None’, et ne pourra pas être comparé à une
valeur de type entier (une erreur *note TypeError: 525. serait alors
levée).

Et :

     $ python prog.py 4
     16

Vous pouvez aller assez loin seulement avec ce que nous avons appris
jusqu'à maintenant, et nous n'avons qu’aperçu la surface.  Le module
*note argparse: 6. est très puissant, et nous allons l'explorer un peu
plus avant la fin de ce tutoriel.


File: python.info,  Node: Aller un peu plus loin,  Next: How to translate the argparse output,  Prev: Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.56 Aller un peu plus loin
................................

Qu'en est-il si nous souhaitons étendre notre mini programme pour le
rendre capable de calculer d'autres puissances, et pas seulement des
carrés :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Sortie :

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y

     positional arguments:
       x                the base
       y                the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16

Il est à noter que jusqu'à présent nous avons utilisé le niveau de
verbosité pour 'changer' le texte qui est affiché.  L'exemple suivant au
contraire utilise le niveau de verbosité pour afficher 'plus' de texte à
la place :

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"Running '{__file__}'")
     if args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == ", end="")
     print(answer)

Sortie :

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vv
     Running 'prog.py'
     4^2 == 16

* Menu:

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* Paramètres en conflit::


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Next: Paramètres en conflit,  Up: Aller un peu plus loin

5.17.1.57 Specifying ambiguous arguments
........................................

When there is ambiguity in deciding whether an argument is positional or
for an argument, ‘--’ can be used to tell *note parse_args(): 2e1c. that
everything after that is a positional argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-n', nargs='+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs='*')

     >>> # ambiguous, so parse_args assumes it's an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-n N [N ...]] [args ...]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -f

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(args=['-f'], n=None)

     >>> # ambiguous, so the -n option greedily accepts arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=[], n=['1', '2', '3'])

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '--', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=['2', '3'], n=['1'])


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres en conflit,  Prev: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Up: Aller un peu plus loin

5.17.1.58 Paramètres en conflit
...............................

So far, we have been working with two methods of an *note
argparse.ArgumentParser: 526. instance.  Let's introduce a third one,
*note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2e60.  It allows for us to specify
options that conflict with each other.  Let's also change the rest of
the program so that the new functionality makes more sense: we'll
introduce the ‘--quiet’ option, which will be the opposite of the
‘--verbose’ one:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Notre programme est maintenant plus simple, et nous avons perdu des
fonctionnalités pour faire cette démonstration.  Peu importe, voici la
sortie du programme :

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -q
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4 to the power 2 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vq
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose

Cela devrait être facile à suivre.  J'ai ajouté cette dernière sortie
pour que vous puissiez voir le genre de flexibilité que vous pouvez
avoir, par exemple pour faire un mélange entre des paramètres courts et
longs.

Avant d'en finir, vous voudrez certainement dire à vos utilisateurs quel
est le but principal de votre programme, juste dans le cas ou ils ne le
sauraient pas :

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Notez cette nuance dans le texte d'utilisation.  Les options ‘[-v | -q]’
nous disent que nous pouvons utiliser au choix ‘-v’ ou ‘-q’, mais pas
les deux ensemble :

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet


File: python.info,  Node: How to translate the argparse output,  Next: Custom type converters,  Prev: Aller un peu plus loin,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.59 How to translate the argparse output
..............................................

The output of the *note argparse: 6. module such as its help text and
error messages are all made translatable using the *note gettext: 62.
module.  This allows applications to easily localize messages produced
by *note argparse: 6.  See also *note Internationaliser vos programmes
et modules: 2e7e.

For instance, in this *note argparse: 6. output:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet

The strings ‘usage:’, ‘positional arguments:’, ‘options:’ and ‘show this
help message and exit’ are all translatable.

In order to translate these strings, they must first be extracted into a
‘.po’ file.  For example, using Babel(1), run this command:

     $ pybabel extract -o messages.po /usr/lib/python3.12/argparse.py

This command will extract all translatable strings from the *note
argparse: 6. module and output them into a file named ‘messages.po’.
This command assumes that your Python installation is in ‘/usr/lib’.

You can find out the location of the *note argparse: 6. module on your
system using this script:

     import argparse
     print(argparse.__file__)

Once the messages in the ‘.po’ file are translated and the translations
are installed using *note gettext: 62, *note argparse: 6. will be able
to display the translated messages.

To translate your own strings in the *note argparse: 6. output, use
*note gettext: 62.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom type converters,  Next: Conclusion,  Prev: How to translate the argparse output,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.60 Custom type converters
................................

The *note argparse: 6. module allows you to specify custom type
converters for your command-line arguments.  This allows you to modify
user input before it's stored in the *note argparse.Namespace: 2e1d.
This can be useful when you need to pre-process the input before it is
used in your program.

When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes
a single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted
value.  However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can
use a custom action class with the 'action' parameter instead.

For example, let's say you want to handle arguments with different
prefixes and process them accordingly:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')

     parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('-', x))
     parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('+', x))

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

Sortie :

     $ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
     Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])

In this example, we:

   * Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the
     ‘prefix_chars’ parameter.

   * Defined two arguments, ‘-a’ and ‘+a’, which used the ‘type’
     parameter to create custom type converters to store the value in a
     tuple with the prefix.

Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the
‘-a’ and ‘+a’ as the same argument, which would have been undesirable.
By using custom type converters, we were able to differentiate between
the two arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Conclusion,  Prev: Custom type converters,  Up: Tutoriel argparse

5.17.1.61 Conclusion
....................

Le module *note argparse: 6. offre bien plus que ce qui est montré ici.
Sa documentation est assez détaillée, complète et pleine d'exemples.  En
ayant accompli ce tutoriel, vous pourrez facilement comprendre cette
documentation sans vous sentir dépassé.


File: python.info,  Node: Migrating optparse code to argparse,  Prev: Tutoriel argparse,  Up: Exceptions<9>

5.17.1.62 Migrating ‘optparse’ code to ‘argparse’
.................................................

The *note argparse: 6. module offers several higher level features not
natively provided by the *note optparse: 9f. module, including:

   * gère les arguments positionnels ;

   * Supporting subcommands.

   * permet d'utiliser les alternatives ‘+’ ou ‘/’ comme préfixes
     d'option ;

   * prend en charge la répétition de valeurs (zéro ou plus, un ou
     plus) ;

   * fournit des messages d'aide plus complets ;

   * fournit une interface plus simple pour les types et les actions
     personnalisés.

Originally, the *note argparse: 6. module attempted to maintain
compatibility with *note optparse: 9f.  However, the fundamental design
differences between supporting declarative command line option
processing (while leaving positional argument processing to application
code), and supporting both named options and positional arguments in the
declarative interface mean that the API has diverged from that of
‘optparse’ over time.

As described in *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e1a,
applications that are currently using *note optparse: 9f. and are happy
with the way it works can just continue to use ‘optparse’.

Application developers that are considering migrating should also review
the list of intrinsic behavioural differences described in that section
before deciding whether or not migration is desirable.

For applications that do choose to migrate from *note optparse: 9f. to
*note argparse: 6, the following suggestions should be helpful:

   * remplacer tous les appels à *note
     optparse.OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84. par des appels à *note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19c. ;

   * remplacer ‘(options, args) = parser.parse_args()’ par ‘args =
     parser.parse_args()’ et ajouter des appels à *note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19c. pour les arguments
     positionnels.  Prenez note que les valeurs précédemment appelées
     ‘options’ sont appelées ‘args’ dans le contexte d'*note argparse:
     6. ;

   * remplacer *note optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args():
     2e85. en appelant *note parse_intermixed_args(): af0. plutôt que
     *note parse_args(): 2e1c. ;

   * remplacer les actions de rappel ('callback actions' en anglais) et
     les arguments nommés ‘callback_*’ par des arguments ‘type’ et
     ‘actions’ ;

   * remplacer les chaînes représentant le nom des types pour l'argument
     nommé ‘type’ par les objets types correspondants (par exemple :
     ‘int’, ‘float’, ‘complex’, etc) ;

   * remplacer *note optparse.Values: 2e86. par *note Namespace: 2e1d. ;
     et *note optparse.OptionError: 2e87. et *note
     optparse.OptionValueError: 2e88. par *note ArgumentError: 2e71. ;

   * remplacer les chaînes avec des arguments de formatage implicite
     (tels que ‘%default’ ou ‘%prog’) par la syntaxe standard de Python
     pour l'interpolation d'un dictionnaire dans les chaînes de
     formatage (c'est-à-dire ‘%(default)s’ et ‘%(prog)s’) ;

   * remplacer l'argument ‘version’ du constructeur d'‘OptionParser’ par
     un appel à ‘parser.add_argument('--version', action='version',
     version='<la version>')’.


File: python.info,  Node: optparse --- Parser for command line options,  Next: getpass --- Portable password input,  Prev: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.2 ‘optparse’ -- Parser for command line options
----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/optparse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Choosing an argument parsing library::
* Introduction: Introduction<7>.
* Background::
* Tutoriel: Tutoriel<2>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/optparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: Choosing an argument parsing library,  Next: Introduction<7>,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.1 Choosing an argument parsing library
.............................................

The standard library includes three argument parsing libraries:

   * *note getopt: 60.: a module that closely mirrors the procedural C
     ‘getopt’ API. Included in the standard library since before the
     initial Python 1.0 release.

   * *note optparse: 9f.: a declarative replacement for ‘getopt’ that
     provides equivalent functionality without requiring each
     application to implement its own procedural option parsing logic.
     Included in the standard library since the Python 2.3 release.

   * *note argparse: 6.: a more opinionated alternative to ‘optparse’
     that provides more functionality by default, at the expense of
     reduced application flexibility in controlling exactly how
     arguments are processed.  Included in the standard library since
     the Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 releases.

In the absence of more specific argument parsing design constraints,
*note argparse: 6. is the recommended choice for implementing command
line applications, as it offers the highest level of baseline
functionality with the least application level code.

*note getopt: 60. is retained almost entirely for backwards
compatibility reasons.  However, it also serves a niche use case as a
tool for prototyping and testing command line argument handling in
‘getopt’-based C applications.

*note optparse: 9f. should be considered as an alternative to *note
argparse: 6. in the following cases:

   * an application is already using *note optparse: 9f. and doesn't
     want to risk the subtle behavioural changes that may arise when
     migrating to *note argparse: 6.

   * the application requires additional control over the way options
     and positional parameters are interleaved on the command line
     (including the ability to disable the interleaving feature
     completely)

   * the application requires additional control over the incremental
     parsing of command line elements (while ‘argparse’ does support
     this, the exact way it works in practice is undesirable for some
     use cases)

   * the application requires additional control over the handling of
     options which accept parameter values that may start with ‘-’ (such
     as delegated options to be passed to invoked subprocesses)

   * the application requires some other command line parameter
     processing behavior which ‘argparse’ does not support, but which
     can be implemented in terms of the lower level interface offered by
     ‘optparse’

These considerations also mean that *note optparse: 9f. is likely to
provide a better foundation for library authors writing third party
command line argument processing libraries.

As a concrete example, consider the following two command line argument
parsing configurations, the first using ‘optparse’, and the second using
‘argparse’:

     import optparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = optparse.OptionParser()
         parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         opts, args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

The most obvious difference is that in the ‘optparse’ version, the
non-option arguments are processed separately by the application after
the option processing is complete.  In the ‘argparse’ version,
positional arguments are declared and processed in the same way as the
named options.

However, the ‘argparse’ version will also handle some parameter
combination differently from the way the ‘optparse’ version would handle
them.  For example (amongst other differences):

   * supplying ‘-o -v’ gives ‘output="-v"’ and ‘verbose=False’ when
     using ‘optparse’, but a usage error with ‘argparse’ (complaining
     that no value has been supplied for ‘-o/--output’, since ‘-v’ is
     interpreted as meaning the verbosity flag)

   * similarly, supplying ‘-o --’ gives ‘output="--"’ and ‘args=()’ when
     using ‘optparse’, but a usage error with ‘argparse’ (also
     complaining that no value has been supplied for ‘-o/--output’,
     since ‘--’ is interpreted as terminating the option processing and
     treating all remaining values as positional arguments)

   * supplying ‘-o=foo’ gives ‘output="=foo"’ when using ‘optparse’, but
     gives ‘output="foo"’ with ‘argparse’ (since ‘=’ is special cased as
     an alternative separator for option parameter values)

Whether these differing behaviors in the ‘argparse’ version are
considered desirable or a problem will depend on the specific command
line application use case.

Voir aussi
..........

click(1) is a third party argument processing library (originally based
on ‘optparse’), which allows command line applications to be developed
as a set of decorated command implementation functions.

Other third party libraries, such as typer(2) or msgspec-click(3), allow
command line interfaces to be specified in ways that more effectively
integrate with static checking of Python type annotations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/click/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typer/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/msgspec-click/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<7>,  Next: Background,  Prev: Choosing an argument parsing library,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.2 Introduction
.....................

*note optparse: 9f. is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library
for parsing command-line options than the minimalist *note getopt: 60.
module.  *note optparse: 9f. uses a more declarative style of
command-line parsing: you create an instance of *note OptionParser:
1485, populate it with options, and parse the command line.  *note
optparse: 9f. allows users to specify options in the conventional
GNU/POSIX syntax, and additionally generates usage and help messages for
you.

Here's an example of using *note optparse: 9f. in a simple script:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()
     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                       help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="don't print status messages to stdout")

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the "usual
thing" on the command-line, for example:

     <yourscript> --file=outfile -q

As it parses the command line, *note optparse: 9f. sets attributes of
the ‘options’ object returned by *note parse_args(): 1486. based on
user-supplied command-line values.  When *note parse_args(): 1486.
returns from parsing this command line, ‘options.filename’ will be
‘"outfile"’ and ‘options.verbose’ will be ‘False’.  *note optparse: 9f.
supports both long and short options, allows short options to be merged
together, and allows options to be associated with their arguments in a
variety of ways.  Thus, the following command lines are all equivalent
to the above example:

     <yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
     <yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
     <yourscript> -q -foutfile
     <yourscript> -qfoutfile

Additionally, users can run one of the following

     <yourscript> -h
     <yourscript> --help

and *note optparse: 9f. will print out a brief summary of your script's
options:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options]

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
       -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout

where the value of 'yourscript' is determined at runtime (normally from
‘sys.argv[0]’).


File: python.info,  Node: Background,  Next: Tutoriel<2>,  Prev: Introduction<7>,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.3 Background
...................

*note optparse: 9f. was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of
programs with straightforward command-line interfaces that follow the
conventions established by the ‘getopt()’ family of functions available
to C developers.  To that end, it supports only the most common
command-line syntax and semantics conventionally used under Unix.  If
you are unfamiliar with these conventions, reading this section will
allow you to acquaint yourself with them.

* Menu:

* Terminology::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminology,  Next: What are options for?,  Up: Background

5.17.2.4 Terminology
....................

argument

     a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to
     ‘execl()’ or ‘execv()’.  In Python, arguments are elements of
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’ (‘sys.argv[0]’ is the name of the program being
     executed).  Unix shells also use the term "word".

     It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other
     than ‘sys.argv[1:]’, so you should read "argument" as "an element
     of ‘sys.argv[1:]’, or of some other list provided as a substitute
     for ‘sys.argv[1:]’".

option

     an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize
     the execution of a program.  There are many different syntaxes for
     options; the traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen ("-") followed by
     a single letter, e.g.  ‘-x’ or ‘-F’.  Also, traditional Unix syntax
     allows multiple options to be merged into a single argument, e.g.
     ‘-x -F’ is equivalent to ‘-xF’.  The GNU project introduced ‘--’
     followed by a series of hyphen-separated words, e.g.  ‘--file’ or
     ‘--dry-run’.  These are the only two option syntaxes provided by
     *note optparse: 9f.

     Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:

        * a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g.  ‘-pf’ (this is 'not'
          the same as multiple options merged into a single argument)

        * a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g.  ‘-file’ (this is
          technically equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren't
          usually seen in the same program)

        * a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or
          a word, e.g.  ‘+f’, ‘+rgb’

        * a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word,
          e.g.  ‘/f’, ‘/file’

     These option syntaxes are not supported by *note optparse: 9f, and
     they never will be.  This is deliberate: the first three are
     non-standard on any environment, and the last only makes sense if
     you're exclusively targeting Windows or certain legacy platforms
     (e.g.  VMS, MS-DOS).

option argument

     an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that
     option, and is consumed from the argument list when that option is.
     With *note optparse: 9f, option arguments may either be in a
     separate argument from their option:

          -f foo
          --file foo

     or included in the same argument:

          -ffoo
          --file=foo

     Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn't.
     Lots of people want an "optional option arguments" feature, meaning
     that some options will take an argument if they see it, and won't
     if they don't.  This is somewhat controversial, because it makes
     parsing ambiguous: if ‘-a’ takes an optional argument and ‘-b’ is
     another option entirely, how do we interpret ‘-ab’?  Because of
     this ambiguity, *note optparse: 9f. does not support this feature.

argument positionnel

     something leftover in the argument list after options have been
     parsed, i.e.  after options and their arguments have been parsed
     and removed from the argument list.

required option

     an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the
     phrase "required option" is self-contradictory in English.  *note
     optparse: 9f. doesn't prevent you from implementing required
     options, but doesn't give you much help at it either.

For example, consider this hypothetical command-line:

     prog -v --report report.txt foo bar

‘-v’ and ‘--report’ are both options.  Assuming that ‘--report’ takes
one argument, ‘report.txt’ is an option argument.  ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ are
positional arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: What are options for?,  Next: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: Terminology,  Up: Background

5.17.2.5 What are options for?
..............................

Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the
execution of a program.  In case it wasn't clear, options are usually
'optional'.  A program should be able to run just fine with no options
whatsoever.  (Pick a random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets.  Can
it run without any options at all and still make sense?  The main
exceptions are ‘find’, ‘tar’, and ‘dd’--all of which are mutant oddballs
that have been rightly criticized for their non-standard syntax and
confusing interfaces.)

Lots of people want their programs to have "required options".  Think
about it.  If it's required, then it's 'not optional'!  If there is a
piece of information that your program absolutely requires in order to
run successfully, that's what positional arguments are for.

As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble
‘cp’ utility, for copying files.  It doesn't make much sense to try to
copy files without supplying a destination and at least one source.
Hence, ‘cp’ fails if you run it with no arguments.  However, it has a
flexible, useful syntax that does not require any options at all:

     cp SOURCE DEST
     cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR

You can get pretty far with just that.  Most ‘cp’ implementations
provide a bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied:
you can preserve mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks,
ask before clobbering existing files, etc.  But none of this distracts
from the core mission of ‘cp’, which is to copy either one file to
another, or several files to another directory.


File: python.info,  Node: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: What are options for?,  Up: Background

5.17.2.6 What are positional arguments for?
...........................................

Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your
program absolutely, positively requires to run.

A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as
possible.  If your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in
order to run successfully, it doesn't much matter 'how' you get that
information from the user--most people will give up and walk away before
they successfully run the program.  This applies whether the user
interface is a command-line, a configuration file, or a GUI: if you make
that many demands on your users, most of them will simply give up.

In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are
absolutely required to supply--use sensible defaults whenever possible.
Of course, you also want to make your programs reasonably flexible.
That's what options are for.  Again, it doesn't matter if they are
entries in a config file, widgets in the "Preferences" dialog of a GUI,
or command-line options--the more options you implement, the more
flexible your program is, and the more complicated its implementation
becomes.  Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course; too
many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to
maintain.


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel<2>,  Next: Reference Guide,  Prev: Background,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.7 Tutoriel
.................

While *note optparse: 9f. is quite flexible and powerful, it's also
straightforward to use in most cases.  This section covers the code
patterns that are common to any *note optparse: 9f.-based program.

First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the
main program, create an OptionParser instance:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()

Then you can start defining options.  The basic syntax is:

     parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
                       attr=value, ...)

Each option has one or more option strings, such as ‘-f’ or ‘--file’,
and several option attributes that tell *note optparse: 9f. what to
expect and what to do when it encounters that option on the command
line.

Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long
option string, e.g.:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)

You're free to define as many short option strings and as many long
option strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at
least one option string overall.

The option strings passed to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84. are
effectively labels for the option defined by that call.  For brevity, we
will frequently refer to 'encountering an option' on the command line;
in reality, *note optparse: 9f. encounters 'option strings' and looks up
options from them.

Once all of your options are defined, instruct *note optparse: 9f. to
parse your program's command line:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to *note parse_args():
1486, but that's rarely necessary: by default it uses ‘sys.argv[1:]’.)

*note parse_args(): 1486. returns two values:

   * ‘options’, an object containing values for all of your
     options--e.g.  if ‘--file’ takes a single string argument, then
     ‘options.file’ will be the filename supplied by the user, or ‘None’
     if the user did not supply that option

   * ‘args’, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing
     options

This tutorial section only covers the four most important option
attributes: *note action: 2e97, *note type: 2e98, *note dest: 2e99.
(destination), and *note help: 2e9a.  Of these, *note action: 2e97. is
the most fundamental.

* Menu:

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Valeurs par défaut::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding option actions,  Next: The store action,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.8 Understanding option actions
.....................................

Actions tell *note optparse: 9f. what to do when it encounters an option
on the command line.  There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into
*note optparse: 9f.; adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in
section *note Extending optparse: 2e9d.  Most actions tell *note
optparse: 9f. to store a value in some variable--for example, take a
string from the command line and store it in an attribute of ‘options’.

If you don't specify an option action, *note optparse: 9f. defaults to
‘store’.


File: python.info,  Node: The store action,  Next: Handling boolean flag options,  Prev: Understanding option actions,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.9 The store action
.........................

The most common option action is ‘store’, which tells *note optparse:
9f. to take the next argument (or the remainder of the current
argument), ensure that it is of the correct type, and store it to your
chosen destination.

Par exemple :

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
                       action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

Now let's make up a fake command line and ask *note optparse: 9f. to
parse it:

     args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)

When *note optparse: 9f. sees the option string ‘-f’, it consumes the
next argument, ‘foo.txt’, and stores it in ‘options.filename’.  So,
after this call to *note parse_args(): 1486, ‘options.filename’ is
‘"foo.txt"’.

Some other option types supported by *note optparse: 9f. are ‘int’ and
‘float’.  Here's an option that expects an integer argument:

     parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")

Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly
acceptable.  Also, there's no explicit action, since the default is
‘store’.

Let's parse another fake command-line.  This time, we'll jam the option
argument right up against the option: since ‘-n42’ (one argument) is
equivalent to ‘-n 42’ (two arguments), the code

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
     print(options.num)

affichera ‘42’.

If you don't specify a type, *note optparse: 9f. assumes ‘string’.
Combined with the fact that the default action is ‘store’, that means
our first example can be a lot shorter:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")

If you don't supply a destination, *note optparse: 9f. figures out a
sensible default from the option strings: if the first long option
string is ‘--foo-bar’, then the default destination is ‘foo_bar’.  If
there are no long option strings, *note optparse: 9f. looks at the first
short option string: the default destination for ‘-f’ is ‘f’.

*note optparse: 9f. also includes the built-in ‘complex’ type.  Adding
types is covered in section *note Extending optparse: 2e9d.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling boolean flag options,  Next: Other actions,  Prev: The store action,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.10 Handling boolean (flag) options
.........................................

Flag options--set a variable to true or false when a particular option
is seen--are quite common.  *note optparse: 9f. supports them with two
separate actions, ‘store_true’ and ‘store_false’.  For example, you
might have a ‘verbose’ flag that is turned on with ‘-v’ and off with
‘-q’:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is
perfectly OK. (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting
default values--see below.)

When *note optparse: 9f. encounters ‘-v’ on the command line, it sets
‘options.verbose’ to ‘True’; when it encounters ‘-q’, ‘options.verbose’
is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Other actions,  Next: Valeurs par défaut,  Prev: Handling boolean flag options,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.11 Other actions
.......................

Some other actions supported by *note optparse: 9f. are:

‘"store_const"’

     store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 2ea4.

‘"append"’

     append this option's argument to a list

‘"count"’

     increment a counter by one

‘"callback"’

     call a specified function

These are covered in section *note Reference Guide: 2ea5, and section
*note Option Callbacks: 2ea6.


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs par défaut,  Next: Generating help,  Prev: Other actions,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.12 Valeurs par défaut
............................

All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the
"destination") when certain command-line options are seen.  What happens
if those options are never seen?  Since we didn't supply any defaults,
they are all set to ‘None’.  This is usually fine, but sometimes you
want more control.  *note optparse: 9f. lets you supply a default value
for each destination, which is assigned before the command line is
parsed.

First, consider the verbose/quiet example.  If we want *note optparse:
9f. to set ‘verbose’ to ‘True’ unless ‘-q’ is seen, then we can do this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Since default values apply to the 'destination' rather than to any
particular option, and these two options happen to have the same
destination, this is exactly equivalent:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Consider this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Again, the default value for ‘verbose’ will be ‘True’: the last default
value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.

A clearer way to specify default values is the ‘set_defaults()’ method
of OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling *note
parse_args(): 1486.:

     parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
     parser.add_option(...)
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is
the one that counts.  For clarity, try to use one method or the other of
setting default values, not both.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating help,  Next: Printing a version string,  Prev: Valeurs par défaut,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.13 Generating help
.........................

*note optparse: 9f.'s ability to generate help and usage text
automatically is useful for creating user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  All you have to do is supply a *note help: 2e9a. value for
each option, and optionally a short usage message for your whole
program.  Here's an OptionParser populated with user-friendly
(documented) options:

     usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
     parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
     parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                       action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="make lots of noise [default]")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose",
                       help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
     parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
                       metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
     parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
                       default="intermediate",
                       help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
                            "or expert [default: %default]")

If *note optparse: 9f. encounters either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the
command-line, or if you just call ‘parser.print_help()’, it prints the
following to standard output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

(If the help output is triggered by a help option, *note optparse: 9f.
exits after printing the help text.)

There's a lot going on here to help *note optparse: 9f. generate the
best possible help message:

   * the script defines its own usage message:

          usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"

     *note optparse: 9f. expands ‘%prog’ in the usage string to the name
     of the current program, i.e.  ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.  The
     expanded string is then printed before the detailed option help.

     If you don't supply a usage string, *note optparse: 9f. uses a
     bland but sensible default: ‘"Usage: %prog [options]"’, which is
     fine if your script doesn't take any positional arguments.

   * every option defines a help string, and doesn't worry about
     line-wrapping--*note optparse: 9f. takes care of wrapping lines and
     making the help output look good.

   * options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically
     generated help message, e.g.  for the "mode" option:

          -m MODE, --mode=MODE

     Here, "MODE" is called the meta-variable: it stands for the
     argument that the user is expected to supply to ‘-m’/‘--mode’.  By
     default, *note optparse: 9f. converts the destination variable name
     to uppercase and uses that for the meta-variable.  Sometimes,
     that's not what you want--for example, the ‘--filename’ option
     explicitly sets ‘metavar="FILE"’, resulting in this automatically
     generated option description:

          -f FILE, --filename=FILE

     This is important for more than just saving space, though: the
     manually written help text uses the meta-variable ‘FILE’ to clue
     the user in that there's a connection between the semi-formal
     syntax ‘-f FILE’ and the informal semantic description "write
     output to FILE". This is a simple but effective way to make your
     help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.

   * options that have a default value can include ‘%default’ in the
     help string--*note optparse: 9f. will replace it with *note str():
     437. of the option's default value.  If an option has no default
     value (or the default value is ‘None’), ‘%default’ expands to
     ‘none’.

* Menu:

* Grouping Options::


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping Options,  Up: Generating help

5.17.2.14 Grouping Options
..........................

When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options
for better help output.  An *note OptionParser: 1485. can contain
several option groups, each of which can contain several options.

An option group is obtained using the class *note OptionGroup: 2eac.:

 -- Classe: optparse.OptionGroup (parser, title, description=None)

     where

        * parser is the *note OptionParser: 1485. instance the group
          will be inserted in to

        * title is the group title

        * description, optional, is a long description of the group

*note OptionGroup: 2eac. inherits from ‘OptionContainer’ (like *note
OptionParser: 1485.) and so the ‘add_option()’ method can be used to add
an option to the group.

Once all the options are declared, using the *note OptionParser: 1485.
method ‘add_option_group()’ the group is added to the previously defined
parser.

Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an
*note OptionGroup: 2eac. to a parser is easy:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

This would result in the following help output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group:
still extending the previous example:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
     group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
                      help="Print debug information")
     group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
                      help="Print all SQL statements executed")
     group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

that results in the following output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
                             [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

       Debug Options:
         -d, --debug         Print debug information
         -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
         -e                  Print every action done

Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically
with option groups is:

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.get_option_group (opt_str)

     Return the *note OptionGroup: 2eac. to which the short or long
     option string 'opt_str' (e.g.  ‘'-o'’ or ‘'--option'’) belongs.  If
     there's no such *note OptionGroup: 2eac, return ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Printing a version string,  Next: How optparse handles errors,  Prev: Generating help,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.15 Printing a version string
...................................

Similar to the brief usage string, *note optparse: 9f. can also print a
version string for your program.  You have to supply the string as the
‘version’ argument to OptionParser:

     parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")

‘%prog’ is expanded just like it is in ‘usage’.  Apart from that,
‘version’ can contain anything you like.  When you supply it, *note
optparse: 9f. automatically adds a ‘--version’ option to your parser.
If it encounters this option on the command line, it expands your
‘version’ string (by replacing ‘%prog’), prints it to stdout, and exits.

For example, if your script is called ‘/usr/bin/foo’:

     $ /usr/bin/foo --version
     foo 1.0

The following two methods can be used to print and get the ‘version’
string:

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.print_version (file=None)

     Print the version message for the current program (‘self.version’)
     to 'file' (default stdout).  As with *note print_usage(): 2eb1, any
     occurrence of ‘%prog’ in ‘self.version’ is replaced with the name
     of the current program.  Does nothing if ‘self.version’ is empty or
     undefined.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.get_version ()

     Same as *note print_version(): 2eb0. but returns the version string
     instead of printing it.


File: python.info,  Node: How optparse handles errors,  Next: Putting it all together,  Prev: Printing a version string,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.16 How ‘optparse’ handles errors
.......................................

There are two broad classes of errors that *note optparse: 9f. has to
worry about: programmer errors and user errors.  Programmer errors are
usually erroneous calls to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84, e.g.
invalid option strings, unknown option attributes, missing option
attributes, etc.  These are dealt with in the usual way: raise an
exception (either *note optparse.OptionError: 2e87. or *note TypeError:
525.) and let the program crash.

Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed
to happen no matter how stable your code is.  *note optparse: 9f. can
automatically detect some user errors, such as bad option arguments
(passing ‘-n 4x’ where ‘-n’ takes an integer argument), missing
arguments (‘-n’ at the end of the command line, where ‘-n’ takes an
argument of any type).  Also, you can call ‘OptionParser.error()’ to
signal an application-defined error condition:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
     ...
     if options.a and options.b:
         parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")

In either case, *note optparse: 9f. handles the error the same way: it
prints the program's usage message and an error message to standard
error and exits with error status 2.

Consider the first example above, where the user passes ‘4x’ to an
option that takes an integer:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'

Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: -n option requires an argument

*note optparse: 9f.-generated error messages take care always to mention
the option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling
‘OptionParser.error()’ from your application code.

If *note optparse: 9f.'s default error-handling behaviour does not suit
your needs, you'll need to subclass OptionParser and override its
‘exit()’ and/or ‘error()’ methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Putting it all together,  Prev: How optparse handles errors,  Up: Tutoriel<2>

5.17.2.17 Putting it all together
.................................

Here's what *note optparse: 9f.-based scripts usually look like:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     def main():
         usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
         parser = OptionParser(usage)
         parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                           help="read data from FILENAME")
         parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                           action="store_true", dest="verbose")
         parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                           action="store_false", dest="verbose")
         ...
         (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
         if len(args) != 1:
             parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
         if options.verbose:
             print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Guide,  Next: Option Callbacks,  Prev: Tutoriel<2>,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.18 Reference Guide
.........................

* Menu:

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* Analyse des arguments::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Nettoyage::
* Other methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating the parser,  Next: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.19 Creating the parser
.............................

The first step in using *note optparse: 9f. is to create an OptionParser
instance.

 -- Classe: optparse.OptionParser (...)

     The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a
     number of optional keyword arguments.  You should always pass them
     as keyword arguments, i.e.  do not rely on the order in which the
     arguments are declared.

     ‘usage’ (default: ‘"%prog [options]"’)

          The usage summary to print when your program is run
          incorrectly or with a help option.  When *note optparse: 9f.
          prints the usage string, it expands ‘%prog’ to
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’ (or to ‘prog’ if you passed
          that keyword argument).  To suppress a usage message, pass the
          special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’.

     ‘option_list’ (default: ‘[]’)

          A list of Option objects to populate the parser with.  The
          options in ‘option_list’ are added after any options in
          ‘standard_option_list’ (a class attribute that may be set by
          OptionParser subclasses), but before any version or help
          options.  Deprecated; use *note add_option(): 2e84. after
          creating the parser instead.

     ‘option_class’ (default: optparse.Option)

          Class to use when adding options to the parser in *note
          add_option(): 2e84.

     ‘version’ (default: ‘None’)

          A version string to print when the user supplies a version
          option.  If you supply a true value for ‘version’, *note
          optparse: 9f. automatically adds a version option with the
          single option string ‘--version’.  The substring ‘%prog’ is
          expanded the same as for ‘usage’.

     ‘conflict_handler’ (default: ‘"error"’)

          Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option
          strings are added to the parser; see section *note Conflicts
          between options: 2eba.

     ‘description’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program.
          *note optparse: 9f. reformats this paragraph to fit the
          current terminal width and prints it when the user requests
          help (after ‘usage’, but before the list of options).

     ‘formatter’ (default: a new ‘IndentedHelpFormatter’)

          An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for
          printing help text.  *note optparse: 9f. provides two concrete
          classes for this purpose: IndentedHelpFormatter and
          TitledHelpFormatter.

     ‘add_help_option’ (default: ‘True’)

          If true, *note optparse: 9f. will add a help option (with
          option strings ‘-h’ and ‘--help’) to the parser.

     ‘prog’

          The string to use when expanding ‘%prog’ in ‘usage’ and
          ‘version’ instead of ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.

     ‘epilog’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.


File: python.info,  Node: Populating the parser,  Next: Defining options,  Prev: Creating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.20 Populating the parser
...............................

There are several ways to populate the parser with options.  The
preferred way is by using *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84, as
shown in section *note Tutoriel: 2e95.  ‘add_option()’ can be called in
one of two ways:

   * pass it an Option instance (as returned by ‘make_option()’)

   * pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that
     are acceptable to ‘make_option()’ (i.e., to the Option
     constructor), and it will create the Option instance for you

The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option
instances to the OptionParser constructor, as in:

     option_list = [
         make_option("-f", "--filename",
                     action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
         make_option("-q", "--quiet",
                     action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
         ]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

(‘make_option()’ is a factory function for creating Option instances;
currently it is an alias for the Option constructor.  A future version
of *note optparse: 9f. may split Option into several classes, and
‘make_option()’ will pick the right class to instantiate.  Do not
instantiate Option directly.)


File: python.info,  Node: Defining options,  Next: Option attributes,  Prev: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.21 Defining options
..........................

Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option
strings, e.g.  ‘-f’ and ‘--file’.  You can specify any number of short
or long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option
string.

The canonical way to create an *note Option: 2ebf. instance is with the
‘add_option()’ method of *note OptionParser: 1485.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.add_option (option)

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.add_option (*opt_str, attr=value, ...)

     To define an option with only a short option string:

          parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)

     And to define an option with only a long option string:

          parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)

     The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object.
     The most important option attribute is *note action: 2e97, and it
     largely determines which other attributes are relevant or required.
     If you pass irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required
     ones, *note optparse: 9f. raises an *note OptionError: 2e87.
     exception explaining your mistake.

     An option's 'action' determines what *note optparse: 9f. does when
     it encounters this option on the command-line.  The standard option
     actions hard-coded into *note optparse: 9f. are:

     ‘"store"’

          store this option's argument (default)

     ‘"store_const"’

          store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 2ea4.

     ‘"store_true"’

          store ‘True’

     ‘"store_false"’

          store ‘False’

     ‘"append"’

          append this option's argument to a list

     ‘"append_const"’

          append a constant value to a list, pre-set via *note
          Option.const: 2ea4.

     ‘"count"’

          increment a counter by one

     ‘"callback"’

          call a specified function

     ‘"help"’

          print a usage message including all options and the
          documentation for them

     (If you don't supply an action, the default is ‘"store"’.  For this
     action, you may also supply *note type: 2e98. and *note dest: 2e99.
     option attributes; see *note Standard option actions: 2ec0.)

As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value
somewhere.  *note optparse: 9f. always creates a special object for
this, conventionally called ‘options’, which is an instance of *note
optparse.Values: 2e86.

 -- Classe: optparse.Values

     An object holding parsed argument names and values as attributes.
     Normally created by calling when calling *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1486, and can be overridden by a custom
     subclass passed to the 'values' argument of *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1486. (as described in *note Analyse des
     arguments: 2ec1.).

Option arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of
this object, according to the *note dest: 2e99. (destination) option
attribute.

For example, when you call

     parser.parse_args()

one of the first things *note optparse: 9f. does is create the ‘options’
object:

     options = Values()

If one of the options in this parser is defined with

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following:

     -ffoo
     -f foo
     --file=foo
     --file foo

then *note optparse: 9f, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent
of

     options.filename = "foo"

The *note type: 2e98. and *note dest: 2e99. option attributes are almost
as important as *note action: 2e97, but *note action: 2e97. is the only
one that makes sense for 'all' options.


File: python.info,  Node: Option attributes,  Next: Standard option actions,  Prev: Defining options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.22 Option attributes
...........................

 -- Classe: optparse.Option

     A single command line argument, with various attributes passed by
     keyword to the constructor.  Normally created with *note
     OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84. rather than directly, and can be
     overridden by a custom class via the 'option_class' argument to
     *note OptionParser: 1485.

The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84.  If you pass an option attribute
that is not relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required
option attribute, *note optparse: 9f. raises *note OptionError: 2e87.

 -- Attribut: Option.action

     (default: ‘"store"’)

     Determines *note optparse: 9f.'s behaviour when this option is seen
     on the command line; the available options are documented *note
     here: 2ec0.

 -- Attribut: Option.type

     (default: ‘"string"’)

     The argument type expected by this option (e.g., ‘"string"’ or
     ‘"int"’); the available option types are documented *note here:
     2ec4.

 -- Attribut: Option.dest

     (default: derived from option strings)

     If the option's action implies writing or modifying a value
     somewhere, this tells *note optparse: 9f. where to write it: *note
     dest: 2e99. names an attribute of the ‘options’ object that *note
     optparse: 9f. builds as it parses the command line.

 -- Attribut: Option.default

     The value to use for this option's destination if the option is not
     seen on the command line.  See also *note
     OptionParser.set_defaults(): 2ec6.

 -- Attribut: Option.nargs

     (default: 1)

     How many arguments of type *note type: 2e98. should be consumed
     when this option is seen.  If > 1, *note optparse: 9f. will store a
     tuple of values to *note dest: 2e99.

 -- Attribut: Option.const

     For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to
     store.

 -- Attribut: Option.choices

     For options of type ‘"choice"’, the list of strings the user may
     choose from.

 -- Attribut: Option.callback

     For options with action ‘"callback"’, the callable to call when
     this option is seen.  See section *note Option Callbacks: 2ea6. for
     detail on the arguments passed to the callable.

 -- Attribut: Option.callback_args
 -- Attribut: Option.callback_kwargs

     Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to ‘callback’
     after the four standard callback arguments.

 -- Attribut: Option.help

     Help text to print for this option when listing all available
     options after the user supplies a *note help: 2e9a. option (such as
     ‘--help’).  If no help text is supplied, the option will be listed
     without help text.  To hide this option, use the special value
     ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

 -- Attribut: Option.metavar

     (default: derived from option strings)

     Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text.
     See section *note Tutoriel: 2e95. for an example.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option actions,  Next: Standard option types,  Prev: Option attributes,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.23 Standard option actions
.................................

The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and
effects.  Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you
may specify to guide *note optparse: 9f.'s behaviour; a few have
required attributes, which you must specify for any option using that
action.

   * ‘"store"’ [relevant: *note type: 2e98, *note dest: 2e99, *note
     nargs: 2ec7, *note choices: 2ec8.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a
     value according to *note type: 2e98. and stored in *note dest:
     2e99.  If *note nargs: 2ec7. > 1, multiple arguments will be
     consumed from the command line; all will be converted according to
     *note type: 2e98. and stored to *note dest: 2e99. as a tuple.  See
     the *note Standard option types: 2ec4. section.

     If *note choices: 2ec8. is supplied (a list or tuple of strings),
     the type defaults to ‘"choice"’.

     If *note type: 2e98. is not supplied, it defaults to ‘"string"’.

     If *note dest: 2e99. is not supplied, *note optparse: 9f. derives a
     destination from the first long option string (e.g., ‘--foo-bar’
     implies ‘foo_bar’).  If there are no long option strings, *note
     optparse: 9f. derives a destination from the first short option
     string (e.g., ‘-f’ implies ‘f’).

     Exemple :

          parser.add_option("-f")
          parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")

     As it parses the command line

          -f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt

     *note optparse: 9f. will set

          options.f = "foo.txt"
          options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
          options.f = "bar.txt"

   * ‘"store_const"’ [required: *note const: 2ea4.; relevant: *note
     dest: 2e99.]

     The value *note const: 2ea4. is stored in *note dest: 2e99.

     Exemple :

          parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                            action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                            action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("--noisy",
                            action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")

     If ‘--noisy’ is seen, *note optparse: 9f. will set

          options.verbose = 2

   * ‘"store_true"’ [relevant: *note dest: 2e99.]

     A special case of ‘"store_const"’ that stores ‘True’ to *note dest:
     2e99.

   * ‘"store_false"’ [relevant: *note dest: 2e99.]

     Like ‘"store_true"’, but stores ‘False’.

     Exemple :

          parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
          parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")

   * ‘"append"’ [relevant: *note type: 2e98, *note dest: 2e99, *note
     nargs: 2ec7, *note choices: 2ec8.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to
     the list in *note dest: 2e99.  If no default value for *note dest:
     2e99. is supplied, an empty list is automatically created when
     *note optparse: 9f. first encounters this option on the
     command-line.  If *note nargs: 2ec7. > 1, multiple arguments are
     consumed, and a tuple of length *note nargs: 2ec7. is appended to
     *note dest: 2e99.

     The defaults for *note type: 2e98. and *note dest: 2e99. are the
     same as for the ‘"store"’ action.

     Exemple :

          parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")

     If ‘-t3’ is seen on the command-line, *note optparse: 9f. does the
     equivalent of:

          options.tracks = []
          options.tracks.append(int("3"))

     If, a little later on, ‘--tracks=4’ is seen, it does:

          options.tracks.append(int("4"))

     The ‘append’ action calls the ‘append’ method on the current value
     of the option.  This means that any default value specified must
     have an ‘append’ method.  It also means that if the default value
     is non-empty, the default elements will be present in the parsed
     value for the option, with any values from the command line
     appended after those default values:

          >>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
          >>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
          >>> opts.files
          ['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']

   * ‘"append_const"’ [required: *note const: 2ea4.; relevant: *note
     dest: 2e99.]

     Like ‘"store_const"’, but the value *note const: 2ea4. is appended
     to *note dest: 2e99.; as with ‘"append"’, *note dest: 2e99.
     defaults to ‘None’, and an empty list is automatically created the
     first time the option is encountered.

   * ‘"count"’ [relevant: *note dest: 2e99.]

     Increment the integer stored at *note dest: 2e99.  If no default
     value is supplied, *note dest: 2e99. is set to zero before being
     incremented the first time.

     Exemple :

          parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")

     The first time ‘-v’ is seen on the command line, *note optparse:
     9f. does the equivalent of:

          options.verbosity = 0
          options.verbosity += 1

     Every subsequent occurrence of ‘-v’ results in

          options.verbosity += 1

   * ‘"callback"’ [required: *note callback: 2ec9.; relevant: *note
     type: 2e98, *note nargs: 2ec7, *note callback_args: 2eca, *note
     callback_kwargs: 2ecb.]

     Call the function specified by *note callback: 2ec9, which is
     called as

          func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

     See section *note Option Callbacks: 2ea6. for more detail.

   * ‘"help"’

     Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current
     option parser.  The help message is constructed from the ‘usage’
     string passed to OptionParser's constructor and the *note help:
     2e9a. string passed to every option.

     If no *note help: 2e9a. string is supplied for an option, it will
     still be listed in the help message.  To omit an option entirely,
     use the special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

     *note optparse: 9f. automatically adds a *note help: 2e9a. option
     to all OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.

     Exemple :

          from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP

          # usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can
          # be suppressed using the add_help_option argument
          parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)

          parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
          parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
                            help="Be moderately verbose")
          parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
                            help="Input file to read data from")
          parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)

     If *note optparse: 9f. sees either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the command
     line, it will print something like the following help message to
     stdout (assuming ‘sys.argv[0]’ is ‘"foo.py"’):

          Usage: foo.py [options]

          Options:
            -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
            -v                Be moderately verbose
            --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from

     After printing the help message, *note optparse: 9f. terminates
     your process with ‘sys.exit(0)’.

   * ‘"version"’

     Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout
     and exits.  The version number is actually formatted and printed by
     the ‘print_version()’ method of OptionParser.  Generally only
     relevant if the ‘version’ argument is supplied to the OptionParser
     constructor.  As with *note help: 2e9a. options, you will rarely
     create ‘version’ options, since *note optparse: 9f. automatically
     adds them when needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option types,  Next: Analyse des arguments,  Prev: Standard option actions,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.24 Standard option types
...............................

*note optparse: 9f. has five built-in option types: ‘"string"’, ‘"int"’,
‘"choice"’, ‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’.  If you need to add new option
types, see section *note Extending optparse: 2e9d.

Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the
text on the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the
callback) as-is.

Integer arguments (type ‘"int"’) are parsed as follows:

   * if the number starts with ‘0x’, it is parsed as a hexadecimal
     number

   * if the number starts with ‘0’, it is parsed as an octal number

   * if the number starts with ‘0b’, it is parsed as a binary number

   * otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number

The conversion is done by calling *note int(): 254. with the appropriate
base (2, 8, 10, or 16).  If this fails, so will *note optparse: 9f,
although with a more useful error message.

‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’ option arguments are converted directly with
*note float(): 2ec. and *note complex(): 2ed, with similar
error-handling.

‘"choice"’ options are a subtype of ‘"string"’ options.  The *note
choices: 2ec8. option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the set
of allowed option arguments.  ‘optparse.check_choice()’ compares
user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises *note
OptionValueError: 2e88. if an invalid string is given.


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse des arguments,  Next: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Prev: Standard option types,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.25 Analyse des arguments
...............................

The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call
its *note parse_args(): 1486. method.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.parse_args (args=None, values=None)

     Parse the command-line options found in 'args'.

     The input parameters are

     ‘args’

          the list of arguments to process (default: ‘sys.argv[1:]’)

     ‘values’

          a *note Values: 2e86. object to store option arguments in
          (default: a new instance of *note Values: 2e86.) - if you give
          an existing object, the option defaults will not be
          initialized on it

     and the return value is a pair ‘(options, args)’ where

     ‘options’

          the same object that was passed in as 'values', or the
          ‘optparse.Values’ instance created by *note optparse: 9f.

     ‘args’

          the leftover positional arguments after all options have been
          processed

The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument.  If you
supply ‘values’, it will be modified with repeated *note setattr():
2116. calls (roughly one for every option argument stored to an option
destination) and returned by *note parse_args(): 1486.

If *note parse_args(): 1486. encounters any errors in the argument list,
it calls the OptionParser's ‘error()’ method with an appropriate
end-user error message.  This ultimately terminates your process with an
exit status of 2 (the traditional Unix exit status for command-line
errors).


File: python.info,  Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Next: Conflicts between options,  Prev: Analyse des arguments,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.26 Querying and manipulating your option parser
......................................................

The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly,
and you can also poke around your option parser and see what's there.
OptionParser provides several methods to help you out:

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to stop on the first non-option.  For example, if ‘-a’
     and ‘-b’ are both simple options that take no arguments, *note
     optparse: 9f. normally accepts this syntax:

          prog -a arg1 -b arg2

     and treats it as equivalent to

          prog -a -b arg1 arg2

     To disable this feature, call *note disable_interspersed_args():
     2e85.  This restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing
     stops with the first non-option argument.

     Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command
     which has options of its own and you want to make sure these
     options don't get confused.  For example, each command might have a
     different set of options.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing
     interspersing switches with command arguments.  This is the default
     behavior.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.get_option (opt_str)

     Returns the Option instance with the option string 'opt_str', or
     ‘None’ if no options have that option string.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.has_option (opt_str)

     Return ‘True’ if the OptionParser has an option with option string
     'opt_str' (e.g., ‘-q’ or ‘--verbose’).

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.remove_option (opt_str)

     If the *note OptionParser: 1485. has an option corresponding to
     'opt_str', that option is removed.  If that option provided any
     other option strings, all of those option strings become invalid.
     If 'opt_str' does not occur in any option belonging to this *note
     OptionParser: 1485, raises *note ValueError: 1ff.


File: python.info,  Node: Conflicts between options,  Next: Nettoyage,  Prev: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.27 Conflicts between options
...................................

If you're not careful, it's easy to define options with conflicting
option strings:

     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)

(This is particularly true if you've defined your own OptionParser
subclass with some standard options.)

Every time you add an option, *note optparse: 9f. checks for conflicts
with existing options.  If it finds any, it invokes the current
conflict-handling mechanism.  You can set the conflict-handling
mechanism either in the constructor:

     parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)

or with a separate call:

     parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)

The available conflict handlers are:

     ‘"error"’ (default)

          assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise
          *note OptionConflictError: 2ed7.

     ‘"resolve"’

          resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)

As an example, let's define an *note OptionParser: 1485. that resolves
conflicts intelligently and add conflicting options to it:

     parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")

At this point, *note optparse: 9f. detects that a previously added
option is already using the ‘-n’ option string.  Since
‘conflict_handler’ is ‘"resolve"’, it resolves the situation by removing
‘-n’ from the earlier option's list of option strings.  Now ‘--dry-run’
is the only way for the user to activate that option.  If the user asks
for help, the help message will reflect that:

     Options:
       --dry-run     do no harm
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy

It's possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously added
option until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking
that option from the command-line.  In that case, *note optparse: 9f.
removes that option completely, so it doesn't show up in help text or
anywhere else.  Carrying on with our existing OptionParser:

     parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")

At this point, the original ‘-n’/‘--dry-run’ option is no longer
accessible, so *note optparse: 9f. removes it, leaving this help text:

     Options:
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy
       --dry-run     new dry-run option


File: python.info,  Node: Nettoyage,  Next: Other methods,  Prev: Conflicts between options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.28 Nettoyage
...................

OptionParser instances have several cyclic references.  This should not
be a problem for Python's garbage collector, but you may wish to break
the cyclic references explicitly by calling ‘destroy()’ on your
OptionParser once you are done with it.  This is particularly useful in
long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from
your OptionParser.


File: python.info,  Node: Other methods,  Prev: Nettoyage,  Up: Reference Guide

5.17.2.29 Other methods
.......................

OptionParser supports several other public methods:

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.set_usage (usage)

     Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the
     ‘usage’ constructor keyword argument.  Passing ‘None’ sets the
     default usage string; use ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’ to suppress a
     usage message.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print the usage message for the current program (‘self.usage’) to
     'file' (default stdout).  Any occurrence of the string ‘%prog’ in
     ‘self.usage’ is replaced with the name of the current program.
     Does nothing if ‘self.usage’ is empty or not defined.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.get_usage ()

     Same as *note print_usage(): 2eb1. but returns the usage string
     instead of printing it.

 -- Méthode: OptionParser.set_defaults (dest=value, ...)

     Set default values for several option destinations at once.  Using
     *note set_defaults(): 2ec6. is the preferred way to set default
     values for options, since multiple options can share the same
     destination.  For example, if several "mode" options all set the
     same destination, any one of them can set the default, and the last
     one wins:

          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced",
                            default="novice")    # overridden below
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice",
                            default="advanced")  # overrides above setting

     To avoid this confusion, use *note set_defaults(): 2ec6.:

          parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice")


File: python.info,  Node: Option Callbacks,  Next: Extending optparse,  Prev: Reference Guide,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.30 Option Callbacks
..........................

When *note optparse: 9f.'s built-in actions and types aren't quite
enough for your needs, you have two choices: extend *note optparse: 9f.
or define a callback option.  Extending *note optparse: 9f. is more
general, but overkill for a lot of simple cases.  Quite often a simple
callback is all you need.

There are two steps to defining a callback option:

   * define the option itself using the ‘"callback"’ action

   * write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at
     least four arguments, as described below

* Menu:

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining a callback option,  Next: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.31 Defining a callback option
....................................

As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2e84. method.  Apart from *note action:
2e97, the only option attribute you must specify is ‘callback’, the
function to call:

     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)

‘callback’ is a function (or other callable object), so you must have
already defined ‘my_callback()’ when you create this callback option.
In this simple case, *note optparse: 9f. doesn't even know if ‘-c’ takes
any arguments, which usually means that the option takes no
arguments--the mere presence of ‘-c’ on the command-line is all it needs
to know.  In some circumstances, though, you might want your callback to
consume an arbitrary number of command-line arguments.  This is where
writing callbacks gets tricky; it's covered later in this section.

*note optparse: 9f. always passes four particular arguments to your
callback, and it will only pass additional arguments if you specify them
via *note callback_args: 2eca. and *note callback_kwargs: 2ecb.  Thus,
the minimal callback function signature is:

     def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):

The four arguments to a callback are described below.

There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you
define a callback option:

*note type: 2e98.

     has its usual meaning: as with the ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’ actions,
     it instructs *note optparse: 9f. to consume one argument and
     convert it to *note type: 2e98.  Rather than storing the converted
     value(s) anywhere, though, *note optparse: 9f. passes it to your
     callback function.

*note nargs: 2ec7.

     also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and > 1, *note
     optparse: 9f. will consume *note nargs: 2ec7. arguments, each of
     which must be convertible to *note type: 2e98.  It then passes a
     tuple of converted values to your callback.

*note callback_args: 2eca.

     a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback

*note callback_kwargs: 2ecb.

     a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback


File: python.info,  Node: How callbacks are called,  Next: Raising errors in a callback,  Prev: Defining a callback option,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.32 How callbacks are called
..................................

All callbacks are called as follows:

     func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

where

‘option’

     is the Option instance that's calling the callback

‘opt_str’

     is the option string seen on the command-line that's triggering the
     callback.  (If an abbreviated long option was used, ‘opt_str’ will
     be the full, canonical option string--e.g.  if the user puts
     ‘--foo’ on the command-line as an abbreviation for ‘--foobar’, then
     ‘opt_str’ will be ‘"--foobar"’.)

‘value’

     is the argument to this option seen on the command-line.  *note
     optparse: 9f. will only expect an argument if *note type: 2e98. is
     set; the type of ‘value’ will be the type implied by the option's
     type.  If *note type: 2e98. for this option is ‘None’ (no argument
     expected), then ‘value’ will be ‘None’.  If *note nargs: 2ec7. > 1,
     ‘value’ will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.

‘parser’

     is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful
     because you can access some other interesting data through its
     instance attributes:

     ‘parser.largs’

          the current list of leftover arguments, ie.  arguments that
          have been consumed but are neither options nor option
          arguments.  Feel free to modify ‘parser.largs’, e.g.  by
          adding more arguments to it.  (This list will become ‘args’,
          the second return value of *note parse_args(): 1486.)

     ‘parser.rargs’

          the current list of remaining arguments, ie.  with ‘opt_str’
          and ‘value’ (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments
          following them still there.  Feel free to modify
          ‘parser.rargs’, e.g.  by consuming more arguments.

     ‘parser.values’

          the object where option values are by default stored (an
          instance of optparse.OptionValues).  This lets callbacks use
          the same mechanism as the rest of *note optparse: 9f. for
          storing option values; you don't need to mess around with
          globals or closures.  You can also access or modify the
          value(s) of any options already encountered on the
          command-line.

‘args’

     is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the *note
     callback_args: 2eca. option attribute.

‘kwargs’

     is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via *note
     callback_kwargs: 2ecb.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising errors in a callback,  Next: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Prev: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.33 Raising errors in a callback
......................................

The callback function should raise *note OptionValueError: 2e88. if
there are any problems with the option or its argument(s).  *note
optparse: 9f. catches this and terminates the program, printing the
error message you supply to stderr.  Your message should be clear,
concise, accurate, and mention the option at fault.  Otherwise, the user
will have a hard time figuring out what they did wrong.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Next: Callback example 2 check option order,  Prev: Raising errors in a callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.34 Callback example 1: trivial callback
..............................................

Here's an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and
simply records that the option was seen:

     def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         parser.values.saw_foo = True

     parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)

Of course, you could do that with the ‘"store_true"’ action.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 2 check option order,  Next: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Prev: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.35 Callback example 2: check option order
................................................

Here's a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that ‘-a’ is
seen, but blow up if it comes after ‘-b’ in the command-line.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
         parser.values.a = 1
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Next: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Prev: Callback example 2 check option order,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.36 Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
..............................................................

If you want to reuse this callback for several similar options (set a
flag, but blow up if ‘-b’ has already been seen), it needs a bit of
work: the error message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Next: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Prev: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.37 Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
.......................................................

Of course, you could put any condition in there--you're not limited to
checking the values of already-defined options.  For example, if you
have options that should not be called when the moon is full, all you
have to do is this:

     def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if is_moon_full():
             raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
                                    % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")

(The definition of ‘is_moon_full()’ is left as an exercise for the
reader.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Next: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.38 Callback example 5: fixed arguments
.............................................

Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options
that take a fixed number of arguments.  Specifying that a callback
option takes arguments is similar to defining a ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’
option: if you define *note type: 2e98, then the option takes one
argument that must be convertible to that type; if you further define
*note nargs: 2ec7, then the option takes *note nargs: 2ec7. arguments.

Here's an example that just emulates the standard ‘"store"’ action:

     def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=store_value,
                       type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")

Note that *note optparse: 9f. takes care of consuming 3 arguments and
converting them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them.
(Or whatever; obviously you don't need a callback for this example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.17.2.39 Callback example 6: variable arguments
................................................

Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of
arguments.  For this case, you must write a callback, as *note optparse:
9f. doesn't provide any built-in capabilities for it.  And you have to
deal with certain intricacies of conventional Unix command-line parsing
that *note optparse: 9f. normally handles for you.  In particular,
callbacks should implement the conventional rules for bare ‘--’ and ‘-’
arguments:

   * either ‘--’ or ‘-’ can be option arguments

   * bare ‘--’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing and discard the ‘--’

   * bare ‘-’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing but keep the ‘-’ (append it to ‘parser.largs’)

If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there
are several subtle, tricky issues to worry about.  The exact
implementation you choose will be based on which trade-offs you're
willing to make for your application (which is why *note optparse: 9f.
doesn't support this sort of thing directly).

Nevertheless, here's a stab at a callback for an option with variable
arguments:

     def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         assert value is None
         value = []

         def floatable(str):
             try:
                 float(str)
                 return True
             except ValueError:
                 return False

         for arg in parser.rargs:
             # stop on --foo like options
             if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
                 break
             # stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0
             if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
                 break
             value.append(arg)

         del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)

     ...
     parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
                       action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending optparse,  Next: Exceptions<10>,  Prev: Option Callbacks,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.40 Extending ‘optparse’
..............................

Since the two major controlling factors in how *note optparse: 9f.
interprets command-line options are the action and type of each option,
the most likely direction of extension is to add new actions and new
types.

* Menu:

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new types,  Next: Adding new actions,  Up: Extending optparse

5.17.2.41 Adding new types
..........................

To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of *note
optparse: 9f.'s *note Option: 2ebf. class.  This class has a couple of
attributes that define *note optparse: 9f.'s types: *note TYPES: 2ef4.
and *note TYPE_CHECKER: 2ef5.

 -- Attribut: Option.TYPES

     A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple
     *note TYPES: 2ef4. that builds on the standard one.

 -- Attribut: Option.TYPE_CHECKER

     A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions.  A
     type-checking function has the following signature:

          def check_mytype(option, opt, value)

     where ‘option’ is an *note Option: 2ebf. instance, ‘opt’ is an
     option string (e.g., ‘-f’), and ‘value’ is the string from the
     command line that must be checked and converted to your desired
     type.  ‘check_mytype()’ should return an object of the hypothetical
     type ‘mytype’.  The value returned by a type-checking function will
     wind up in the OptionValues instance returned by *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1486, or be passed to a callback as the
     ‘value’ parameter.

     Your type-checking function should raise *note OptionValueError:
     2e88. if it encounters any problems.  *note OptionValueError: 2e88.
     takes a single string argument, which is passed as-is to *note
     OptionParser: 1485.'s ‘error()’ method, which in turn prepends the
     program name and the string ‘"error:"’ and prints everything to
     stderr before terminating the process.

Here's a silly example that demonstrates adding a ‘"complex"’ option
type to parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line.  (This
is even sillier than it used to be, because *note optparse: 9f. 1.3
added built-in support for complex numbers, but never mind.)

First, the necessary imports:

     from copy import copy
     from optparse import Option, OptionValueError

You need to define your type-checker first, since it's referred to later
(in the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 2ef5. class attribute of your Option
subclass):

     def check_complex(option, opt, value):
         try:
             return complex(value)
         except ValueError:
             raise OptionValueError(
                 "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))

Finally, the Option subclass:

     class MyOption (Option):
         TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
         TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
         TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex

(If we didn't make a *note copy(): 25. of *note Option.TYPE_CHECKER:
2ef5, we would end up modifying the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 2ef5. attribute
of *note optparse: 9f.'s Option class.  This being Python, nothing stops
you from doing that except good manners and common sense.)

That's it!  Now you can write a script that uses the new option type
just like any other *note optparse: 9f.-based script, except you have to
instruct your OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option:

     parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
     parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")

Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to
OptionParser; if you don't use ‘add_option()’ in the above way, you
don't need to tell OptionParser which option class to use:

     option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new actions,  Prev: Adding new types,  Up: Extending optparse

5.17.2.42 Adding new actions
............................

Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand
that *note optparse: 9f. has a couple of classifications for actions:

"store" actions

     actions that result in *note optparse: 9f. storing a value to an
     attribute of the current OptionValues instance; these options
     require a *note dest: 2e99. attribute to be supplied to the Option
     constructor.

"typed" actions

     actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be
     of a certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a
     certain type.  These options require a *note type: 2e98. attribute
     to the Option constructor.

These are overlapping sets: some default "store" actions are ‘"store"’,
‘"store_const"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, while the default "typed"
actions are ‘"store"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"callback"’.

When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at
least one of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of
strings):

 -- Attribut: Option.ACTIONS

     All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.

 -- Attribut: Option.STORE_ACTIONS

     "store" actions are additionally listed here.

 -- Attribut: Option.TYPED_ACTIONS

     "typed" actions are additionally listed here.

 -- Attribut: Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS

     Actions that always take a type (i.e.  whose options always take a
     value) are additionally listed here.  The only effect of this is
     that *note optparse: 9f. assigns the default type, ‘"string"’, to
     options with no explicit type whose action is listed in *note
     ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 2efb.

In order to actually implement your new action, you must override
Option's ‘take_action()’ method and add a case that recognizes your
action.

For example, let's add an ‘"extend"’ action.  This is similar to the
standard ‘"append"’ action, but instead of taking a single value from
the command-line and appending it to an existing list, ‘"extend"’ will
take multiple values in a single comma-delimited string, and extend an
existing list with them.  That is, if ‘--names’ is an ‘"extend"’ option
of type ‘"string"’, the command line

     --names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong

would result in a list

     ["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]

Again we define a subclass of Option:

     class MyOption(Option):

         ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)

         def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
             if action == "extend":
                 lvalue = value.split(",")
                 values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
             else:
                 Option.take_action(
                     self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)

Features of note:

   * ‘"extend"’ both expects a value on the command-line and stores that
     value somewhere, so it goes in both *note STORE_ACTIONS: 2ef9. and
     *note TYPED_ACTIONS: 2efa.

   * to ensure that *note optparse: 9f. assigns the default type of
     ‘"string"’ to ‘"extend"’ actions, we put the ‘"extend"’ action in
     *note ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 2efb. as well.

   * ‘MyOption.take_action()’ implements just this one new action, and
     passes control back to ‘Option.take_action()’ for the standard
     *note optparse: 9f. actions.

   * ‘values’ is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which
     provides the very useful ‘ensure_value()’ method.  ‘ensure_value()’
     is essentially *note getattr(): bc1. with a safety valve; it is
     called as

          values.ensure_value(attr, value)

     If the ‘attr’ attribute of ‘values’ doesn't exist or is ‘None’,
     then ensure_value() first sets it to ‘value’, and then returns
     ‘value’.  This is very handy for actions like ‘"extend"’,
     ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, all of which accumulate data in a
     variable and expect that variable to be of a certain type (a list
     for the first two, an integer for the latter).  Using
     ‘ensure_value()’ means that scripts using your action don't have to
     worry about setting a default value for the option destinations in
     question; they can just leave the default as ‘None’ and
     ‘ensure_value()’ will take care of getting it right when it's
     needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<10>,  Prev: Extending optparse,  Up: optparse --- Parser for command line options

5.17.2.43 Exceptions
....................

 -- Exception: optparse.OptionError

     Raised if an *note Option: 2ebf. instance is created with invalid
     or inconsistent arguments.

 -- Exception: optparse.OptionConflictError

     Raised if conflicting options are added to an *note OptionParser:
     1485.

 -- Exception: optparse.OptionValueError

     Raised if an invalid option value is encountered on the command
     line.

 -- Exception: optparse.BadOptionError

     Raised if an invalid option is passed on the command line.

 -- Exception: optparse.AmbiguousOptionError

     Raised if an ambiguous option is passed on the command line.


File: python.info,  Node: getpass --- Portable password input,  Next: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Prev: optparse --- Parser for command line options,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.3 ‘getpass’ -- Portable password input
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/getpass.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Le module *note getpass: 61. fournit 2 fonctions :

 -- Fonction: getpass.getpass (prompt='Password: ', stream=None)

     Affiche une demande de mot de passe sans renvoyer d'écho.
     L'utilisateur est invité en utilisant la string 'prompt', avec en
     valeur par défaut ‘'Password: '’.  Avec Unix, l'invite est écrite
     dans l'objet fichier 'stream' en utilisant si besoin le 'replace
     error handler'.  'stream' sera par défaut le terminal de contrôle
     (‘/dev/tty’), ou si celui ci n'est pas disponible ce sera
     ‘sys.stderr’ (cet argument sera ignoré sur Windows).

     Si aucune saisie en mode sans affichage n'est disponible,
     ‘getpass()’ se résoudra à afficher un message d'avertissement vers
     'stream', puis lire l'entrée depuis ‘sys.stdin’, en levant une
     *note GetPassWarning: 2f02.

          Note: Si vous appelez 'getpass' depuis IDLE, la saisie peut
          être faite dans le terminal depuis lequel IDLE a été lancé,
          plutôt que dans la fenêtre d'IDLE.

 -- Exception: getpass.GetPassWarning

     Une sous classe d'exception *note UserWarning: 226f. est levée
     quand le mot de passe saisi pourrait être affiché.

 -- Fonction: getpass.getuser ()

     Renvoie le 'login name' de l'utilisateur.

     This function checks the environment variables ‘LOGNAME’, ‘USER’,
     ‘LNAME’ and ‘USERNAME’, in order, and returns the value of the
     first one which is set to a non-empty string.  If none are set, the
     login name from the password database is returned on systems which
     support the *note pwd: b1. module, otherwise, an *note OSError:
     40d. is raised.

     In general, this function should be preferred over *note
     os.getlogin(): 2acd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Previously, various exceptions beyond
     just *note OSError: 40d. were raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/getpass.py


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Next: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Prev: getpass --- Portable password input,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.4 ‘fileinput’ -- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
--------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/fileinput.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module offre une classe auxiliaire et des fonctions pour lire
facilement l'entrée standard ou bien les fichiers d'une liste.  Si vous
n'avez besoin de lire ou écrire qu'un seul fichier, il suffit de *note
open(): 508.

Ce module s'utilise le plus couramment comme ceci :

     import fileinput
     for line in fileinput.input(encoding="utf-8"):
         process(line)

Ce code traite une à une les lignes des fichiers de ‘sys.argv[1:]’.  Si
cette liste est vide (pas d'argument en ligne de commande), il lit
l'entrée standard.  Le nom de fichier ‘'-'’ est équivalent à l'entrée
standard (les arguments facultatifs 'mode' et 'openhook' sont ignorés
dans ce cas).  On peut aussi passer la liste des fichiers comme argument
à *note input(): 7eb, voire un nom de fichier unique.

Par défaut, tous les fichiers sont ouverts en mode texte.  On peut
changer ce comportement à l'aide du paramètre 'mode' de la fonction
*note input(): 7eb. ou du constructeur de *note FileInput: 723.  Si une
erreur d'entrée-sortie se produit durant l'ouverture ou la lecture d'un
fichier, l'exception *note OSError: 40d. est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note IOError: 103d. était levée
auparavant, elle est devenue un alias de *note OSError: 40d.

Si ‘sys.stdin’ apparaît plus d'une fois dans la liste, toutes les lignes
sont consommées dès la première fois, sauf éventuellement en cas d'usage
interactif ou si le flux d'entrée standard a été modifié dans
l'intervalle (par exemple avec ‘sys.stdin.seek(0)’).

Les fichiers vides sont ouverts et refermés immédiatement.  Ils ne sont
pas détectables dans la liste des fichiers, sauf éventuellement dans le
cas où le dernier fichier est vide.

Les caractères de saut de ligne sont préservés, donc toutes les lignes
se terminent par un saut de ligne, sauf éventuellement la dernière ligne
d'un fichier.

You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via
the 'openhook' parameter to *note fileinput.input(): 7eb. or *note
FileInput(): 723.  The hook must be a function that takes two arguments,
'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened file-like
object.  If 'encoding' and/or 'errors' are specified, they will be
passed to the hook as additional keyword arguments.  This module
provides a *note hook_compressed(): 7ec. to support compressed files.

La fonction suivante constitue l'interface principale du module :

 -- Fonction: fileinput.input (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Crée une instance de *note FileInput: 723, qui devient l'état
     global pour toutes les fonctions du module.  Elle est également
     renvoyée afin que l'utilisateur puisse la parcourir comme un objet
     itérable.  Tous les paramètres de cette fonction sont transmis au
     constructeur de *note FileInput: 723.

     Les instances de *note FileInput: 723. peuvent s'utiliser comme
     gestionnaires de contexte, avec l'instruction *note with: 5be.
     Dans le code suivant, 'input' est fermé lorsque le bloc ‘with’ se
     termine, y compris si une exception l'a interrompu :

          with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt'), encoding="utf-8") as f:
              for line in f:
                  process(line)

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: prise en charge du protocole de
     gestionnaire de contexte.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les paramètres 'mode' et 'openhook'
     doivent être nommés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding'
     and 'errors' are added.

Toutes les fonctions suivantes font appel à l'état global du module mis
en place par *note fileinput.input(): 7eb.  L'absence de cet état
déclenche l'exception *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.filename ()

     Renvoie le nom du fichier en train d'être lu, ou ‘None’ avant la
     lecture de la toute première ligne.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.fileno ()

     Renvoie le descripteur de fichier (sous forme d'entier) utilisé
     pour lire le fichier courant.  Si aucun fichier n'est ouvert (avant
     la première ligne et entre les fichiers), le résultat est ‘-1’.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.lineno ()

     Renvoie le numéro de la ligne qui vient d'être lue, en commençant
     par la première ligne du premier fichier.  Avant cette toute
     première ligne, renvoie ‘0’.  Après la dernière ligne du dernier
     fichier, renvoie le numéro de cette ligne.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.filelineno ()

     Renvoie le numéro de ligne relatif au fichier courant.  Avant la
     toute première ligne, renvoie ‘0’.  Après la toute dernière ligne,
     renvoie le numéro de cette ligne par rapport à son fichier source.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.isfirstline ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ ou ‘False’ selon que la ligne qui vient d'être lue
     est la première du fichier.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.isstdin ()

     ‘True’ ou ‘False’ selon que la dernière ligne lue provenait de
     ‘sys.stdin’ ou non.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.nextfile ()

     Ferme le fichier courant et laisse la lecture se poursuivre au
     début du suivant (ou se terminer si c'était le dernier fichier ;
     dans ce cas cette fonction ne fait rien).  Les lignes
     court-circuitées ne comptent pas dans les numéros des lignes des
     fichiers suivants.  Le nom du fichier courant n'est pas modifié
     immédiatement, mais seulement après que la première ligne du
     fichier suivant a été lue.  Cette fonction n'a pas d'effet avant la
     lecture de la première ligne (elle ne peut pas sauter le premier
     fichier).

 -- Fonction: fileinput.close ()

     Ferme le fichier courant et termine la lecture en sautant les
     fichiers suivants.

La classe qui implémente ce comportement du module est publique.  On
peut en créer des classes filles :

 -- Classe: fileinput.FileInput (files=None, inplace=False, backup='',
          *, mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Class *note FileInput: 723. is the implementation; its methods
     *note filename(): 2f05, *note fileno(): 13e6, *note lineno(): 2f06,
     *note filelineno(): 2f07, *note isfirstline(): 2f08, *note
     isstdin(): 2f09, *note nextfile(): 2f0a. and *note close(): 2f0b.
     correspond to the functions of the same name in the module.  In
     addition it is *note iterable: 1207. and has a *note readline():
     1c7b. method which returns the next input line.  The sequence must
     be accessed in strictly sequential order; random access and *note
     readline(): 1c7b. cannot be mixed.

     With 'mode' you can specify which file mode will be passed to *note
     open(): 508.  It must be one of ‘'r'’ and ‘'rb'’.

     S'il est fourni, l'argument 'openhook' est une fonction.  Elle est
     appelée avec les paramètres 'filename' et 'mode', et renvoie un
     objet fichier-compatible ouvert selon 'mode'.  Notez que 'openhook'
     et 'inplace' sont mutuellement exclusifs.

     You can specify 'encoding' and 'errors' that is passed to *note
     open(): 508. or 'openhook'.

     Les objets *note FileInput: 723. peuvent aussi fonctionner comme
     gestionnaires de contexte dans un bloc *note with: 5be.  Dans
     l'exemple suivant, 'input' est fermé à la fin du bloc ‘with’, même
     arrêté par une exception :

          with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
              process(input)

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: prise en charge du protocole de
     gestionnaire de contexte.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les paramètres 'mode' et 'openhook'
     doivent impérativement être nommés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding'
     and 'errors' are added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘'rU'’ and ‘'U'’ modes and the
     ‘__getitem__()’ method have been removed.

'Filtrage sur place optionnel :' si ‘inplace=True’ est passé à *note
fileinput.input(): 7eb. ou au constructeur de *note FileInput: 723,
chaque fichier d'entrée est déplacé vers une sauvegarde et la sortie
standard est redirigée vers le fichier lui-même, ce qui permet d'écrire
des filtres qui modifient directement les fichiers existants.  Si le
paramètre 'backup' est fourni, il donne l'extension des fichiers de
sauvegarde.  Dans ce cas, la sauvegarde est conservée après l'opération.
Par défaut, les fichiers de sauvegarde ont l'extension ‘'.bak'’ et sont
supprimés dès que le fichier de sortie est fermé.  Si un fichier existe
avec le même nom que la sauvegarde, il est écrasé.  Le filtrage sur
place ne fait rien pour l'entrée standard.

Les deux fonctions suivantes fournissent des valeurs prédéfinies pour
'openhook' :

 -- Fonction: fileinput.hook_compressed (filename, mode, *,
          encoding=None, errors=None)

     Ouvre de façon transparente les fichiers compressés avec gzip ou
     bzip2, à l'aide des modules *note gzip: 66. et *note bz2: 13.  Les
     fichiers compressés sont reconnus aux extensions ‘'.gz'’ et
     ‘'.bz2'’.  Tous les fichiers qui n'ont pas l'une de ces deux
     extensions sont ouverts normalement (avec *note open(): 508, sans
     décompression).

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' values are passed to *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. for compressed files and open for normal
     files.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed,
     encoding="utf-8")’

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding'
     and 'errors' are added.

 -- Fonction: fileinput.hook_encoded (encoding, errors=None)

     Renvoie une fonction qui ouvre les fichiers en passant à *note
     open(): 508. les arguments 'encoding' et 'errors'.  Le résultat
     peut être exploité à travers le point d'entrée automatique
     'openhook'.

     Exemple d'utilisation : ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8",
     "surrogateescape"))’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre facultatif
     'errors'.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: This function is deprecated since
     *note fileinput.input(): 7eb. and *note FileInput: 723. now have
     'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/fileinput.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Next: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs,  Prev: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.5 ‘curses’ -- Terminal handling for character-cell displays
----------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/curses(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note curses: 2b. module provides an interface to the curses
library, the de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.

While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are
available for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well.  This
extension module is designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source
curses library hosted on Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

     Note: Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character' it can be
     specified as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a
     one-byte byte string.

     Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character string' it can be
     specified as a Unicode string or a byte string.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note curses.ascii: 2c.

     Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your
     locale settings.

Module *note curses.panel: 2d.

     A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.

Module *note curses.textpad: 2e.

     Editable text widget for curses supporting ‘Emacs’-like bindings.

*note Programmation Curses avec Python: 2f0e.

     Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling
     and Eric Raymond.

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<6>.
* Window Objects::
* Constantes: Constantes<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/curses


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<6>,  Next: Window Objects,  Up: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.17.5.1 Fonctions
..................

The module *note curses: 2b. defines the following exception:

 -- Exception: curses.error

     Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.

     Note: Whenever 'x' or 'y' arguments to a function or a method are
     optional, they default to the current cursor location.  Whenever
     'attr' is optional, it defaults to *note A_NORMAL: 2f12.

The module *note curses: 2b. defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: curses.baudrate ()

     Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second.  On
     software terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value.
     Included for historical reasons; in former times, it was used to
     write output loops for time delays and occasionally to change
     interfaces depending on the line speed.

 -- Fonction: curses.beep ()

     Emit a short attention sound.

 -- Fonction: curses.can_change_color ()

     Return ‘True’ or ‘False’, depending on whether the programmer can
     change the colors displayed by the terminal.

 -- Fonction: curses.cbreak ()

     Enter cbreak mode.  In cbreak mode (sometimes called "rare" mode)
     normal tty line buffering is turned off and characters are
     available to be read one by one.  However, unlike raw mode, special
     characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control) retain
     their effects on the tty driver and calling program.  Calling first
     *note raw(): 2f17. then *note cbreak(): 2f16. leaves the terminal
     in cbreak mode.

 -- Fonction: curses.color_content (color_number)

     Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components
     in the color 'color_number', which must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS
     - 1’.  Return a 3-tuple, containing the R,G,B values for the given
     color, which will be between ‘0’ (no component) and ‘1000’ (maximum
     amount of component).

 -- Fonction: curses.color_pair (pair_number)

     Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified
     color pair.  Only the first 256 color pairs are supported.  This
     attribute value can be combined with *note A_STANDOUT: 2f19, *note
     A_REVERSE: 2f1a, and the other ‘A_*’ attributes.  *note
     pair_number(): 2f1b. is the counterpart to this function.

 -- Fonction: curses.curs_set (visibility)

     Set the cursor state.  'visibility' can be set to ‘0’, ‘1’, or ‘2’,
     for invisible, normal, or very visible.  If the terminal supports
     the visibility requested, return the previous cursor state;
     otherwise raise an exception.  On many terminals, the "visible"
     mode is an underline cursor and the "very visible" mode is a block
     cursor.

 -- Fonction: curses.def_prog_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the "program" mode, the mode when
     the running program is using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     "shell" mode, for when the program is not in curses.)  Subsequent
     calls to *note reset_prog_mode(): 2f1e. will restore this mode.

 -- Fonction: curses.def_shell_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the "shell" mode, the mode when
     the running program is not using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     "program" mode, when the program is using curses capabilities.)
     Subsequent calls to *note reset_shell_mode(): 2f20. will restore
     this mode.

 -- Fonction: curses.delay_output (ms)

     Insert an 'ms' millisecond pause in output.

 -- Fonction: curses.doupdate ()

     Update the physical screen.  The curses library keeps two data
     structures, one representing the current physical screen contents
     and a virtual screen representing the desired next state.  The
     *note doupdate(): 2f22. ground updates the physical screen to match
     the virtual screen.

     The virtual screen may be updated by a *note noutrefresh(): 2f23.
     call after write operations such as *note addstr(): 2f24. have been
     performed on a window.  The normal *note refresh(): 2f25. call is
     simply ‘noutrefresh()’ followed by ‘doupdate()’; if you have to
     update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps
     reduce screen flicker by issuing ‘noutrefresh()’ calls on all
     windows, followed by a single ‘doupdate()’.

 -- Fonction: curses.echo ()

     Enter echo mode.  In echo mode, each character input is echoed to
     the screen as it is entered.

 -- Fonction: curses.endwin ()

     De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.

 -- Fonction: curses.erasechar ()

     Return the user's current erase character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- Fonction: curses.filter ()

     The *note filter(): 2f29. routine, if used, must be called before
     *note initscr(): 155c. is called.  The effect is that, during those
     calls, ‘LINES’ is set to ‘1’; the capabilities ‘clear’, ‘cup’,
     ‘cud’, ‘cud1’, ‘cuu1’, ‘cuu’, ‘vpa’ are disabled; and the ‘home’
     string is set to the value of ‘cr’.  The effect is that the cursor
     is confined to the current line, and so are screen updates.  This
     may be used for enabling character-at-a-time line editing without
     touching the rest of the screen.

 -- Fonction: curses.flash ()

     Flash the screen.  That is, change it to reverse-video and then
     change it back in a short interval.  Some people prefer such as
     'visible bell' to the audible attention signal produced by *note
     beep(): 2f14.

 -- Fonction: curses.flushinp ()

     Flush all input buffers.  This throws away any typeahead that has
     been typed by the user and has not yet been processed by the
     program.

 -- Fonction: curses.getmouse ()

     After *note getch(): 2f2d. returns *note KEY_MOUSE: 2f2e. to signal
     a mouse event, this method should be called to retrieve the queued
     mouse event, represented as a 5-tuple ‘(id, x, y, z, bstate)’.
     'id' is an ID value used to distinguish multiple devices, and 'x',
     'y', 'z' are the event's coordinates.  ('z' is currently unused.)
     'bstate' is an integer value whose bits will be set to indicate the
     type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the
     following constants, where 'n' is the button number from 1 to 5:
     *note BUTTONn_PRESSED: 2f2f, *note BUTTONn_RELEASED: 2f30, *note
     BUTTONn_CLICKED: 2f31, *note BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED: 2f32, *note
     BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED: 2f33, *note BUTTON_SHIFT: 2f34, *note
     BUTTON_CTRL: 2f35, *note BUTTON_ALT: 2f36.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now
     exposed if they are provided by the underlying curses library.

 -- Fonction: curses.getsyx ()

     Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a
     tuple ‘(y, x)’.  If *note leaveok: 2f38. is currently ‘True’, then
     return ‘(-1, -1)’.

 -- Fonction: curses.getwin (file)

     Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier *note
     window.putwin(): 2f3a. call.  The routine then creates and
     initializes a new window using that data, returning the new window
     object.

 -- Fonction: curses.has_colors ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return
     ‘False’.

 -- Fonction: curses.has_extended_color_support ()

     Return ‘True’ if the module supports extended colors; otherwise,
     return ‘False’.  Extended color support allows more than 256 color
     pairs for terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g.
     xterm-256color).

     Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: curses.has_ic ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-character
     capabilities.  This function is included for historical reasons
     only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such
     capabilities.

 -- Fonction: curses.has_il ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-line
     capabilities, or can simulate them using scrolling regions.  This
     function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern
     software terminal emulators have such capabilities.

 -- Fonction: curses.has_key (ch)

     Take a key value 'ch', and return ‘True’ if the current terminal
     type recognizes a key with that value.

 -- Fonction: curses.halfdelay (tenths)

     Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that
     characters typed by the user are immediately available to the
     program.  However, after blocking for 'tenths' tenths of seconds,
     raise an exception if nothing has been typed.  The value of
     'tenths' must be a number between ‘1’ and ‘255’.  Use *note
     nocbreak(): 2f40. to leave half-delay mode.

 -- Fonction: curses.init_color (color_number, r, g, b)

     Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to
     be changed followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red,
     green, and blue components).  The value of 'color_number' must be
     between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS - 1’.  Each of 'r', 'g', 'b', must be a
     value between ‘0’ and ‘1000’.  When *note init_color(): 7de. is
     used, all occurrences of that color on the screen immediately
     change to the new definition.  This function is a no-op on most
     terminals; it is active only if *note can_change_color(): 2f15.
     returns ‘True’.

 -- Fonction: curses.init_pair (pair_number, fg, bg)

     Change the definition of a color-pair.  It takes three arguments:
     the number of the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color
     number, and the background color number.  The value of
     'pair_number' must be between ‘1’ and ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’ (the ‘0’
     color pair is wired to white on black and cannot be changed).  The
     value of 'fg' and 'bg' arguments must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS -
     1’, or, after calling *note use_default_colors(): 2f41, ‘-1’.  If
     the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is refreshed
     and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the new
     definition.

 -- Fonction: curses.initscr ()

     Initialize the library.  Return a *note window: 2f42. object which
     represents the whole screen.

          Note: If there is an error opening the terminal, the
          underlying curses library may cause the interpreter to exit.

 -- Fonction: curses.is_term_resized (nlines, ncols)

     Return ‘True’ if *note resize_term(): 1566. would modify the window
     structure, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: curses.isendwin ()

     Return ‘True’ if *note endwin(): 2f27. has been called (that is,
     the curses library has been deinitialized).

 -- Fonction: curses.keyname (k)

     Return the name of the key numbered 'k' as a bytes object.  The
     name of a key generating printable ASCII character is the key's
     character.  The name of a control-key combination is a two-byte
     bytes object consisting of a caret (‘b'^'’) followed by the
     corresponding printable ASCII character.  The name of an alt-key
     combination (128-255) is a bytes object consisting of the prefix
     ‘b'M-'’ followed by the name of the corresponding ASCII character.

 -- Fonction: curses.killchar ()

     Return the user's current line kill character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- Fonction: curses.longname ()

     Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field
     describing the current terminal.  The maximum length of a verbose
     description is 128 characters.  It is defined only after the call
     to *note initscr(): 155c.

 -- Fonction: curses.meta (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, allow 8-bit characters to be input.  If 'flag'
     is ‘False’, allow only 7-bit chars.

 -- Fonction: curses.mouseinterval (interval)

     Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press
     and release events in order for them to be recognized as a click,
     and return the previous interval value.  The default value is 200
     milliseconds, or one fifth of a second.

 -- Fonction: curses.mousemask (mousemask)

     Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple
     ‘(availmask, oldmask)’.  'availmask' indicates which of the
     specified mouse events can be reported; on complete failure it
     returns ‘0’.  'oldmask' is the previous value of the given window's
     mouse event mask.  If this function is never called, no mouse
     events are ever reported.

 -- Fonction: curses.napms (ms)

     Sleep for 'ms' milliseconds.

 -- Fonction: curses.newpad (nlines, ncols)

     Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the
     given number of lines and columns.  Return a pad as a window
     object.

     A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the
     screen size, and is not necessarily associated with a particular
     part of the screen.  Pads can be used when a large window is
     needed, and only a part of the window will be on the screen at one
     time.  Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or
     echoing of input) do not occur.  The *note refresh(): 2f25. and
     *note noutrefresh(): 2f23. methods of a pad require 6 arguments to
     specify the part of the pad to be displayed and the location on the
     screen to be used for the display.  The arguments are 'pminrow',
     'pmincol', 'sminrow', 'smincol', 'smaxrow', 'smaxcol'; the 'p'
     arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be
     displayed and the 's' arguments define a clipping box on the screen
     within which the pad region is to be displayed.

 -- Fonction: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols)

 -- Fonction: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a new *note window: 2f42, whose left-upper corner is at
     ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’, and whose height/width is 'nlines'/'ncols'.

     By default, the window will extend from the specified position to
     the lower right corner of the screen.

 -- Fonction: curses.nl ()

     Enter newline mode.  This mode translates the return key into
     newline on input, and translates newline into return and line-feed
     on output.  Newline mode is initially on.

 -- Fonction: curses.nocbreak ()

     Leave cbreak mode.  Return to normal "cooked" mode with line
     buffering.

 -- Fonction: curses.noecho ()

     Leave echo mode.  Echoing of input characters is turned off.

 -- Fonction: curses.nonl ()

     Leave newline mode.  Disable translation of return into newline on
     input, and disable low-level translation of newline into
     newline/return on output (but this does not change the behavior of
     ‘addch('\n')’, which always does the equivalent of return and line
     feed on the virtual screen).  With translation off, curses can
     sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be able
     to detect the return key on input.

 -- Fonction: curses.noqiflush ()

     When the ‘noqiflush()’ routine is used, normal flush of input and
     output queues associated with the ‘INTR’, ‘QUIT’ and ‘SUSP’
     characters will not be done.  You may want to call ‘noqiflush()’ in
     a signal handler if you want output to continue as though the
     interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.

 -- Fonction: curses.noraw ()

     Leave raw mode.  Return to normal "cooked" mode with line
     buffering.

 -- Fonction: curses.pair_content (pair_number)

     Return a tuple ‘(fg, bg)’ containing the colors for the requested
     color pair.  The value of 'pair_number' must be between ‘0’ and
     ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’.

 -- Fonction: curses.pair_number (attr)

     Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value
     'attr'.  *note color_pair(): 2f18. is the counterpart to this
     function.

 -- Fonction: curses.putp (str)

     Equivalent to ‘tputs(str, 1, putchar)’; emit the value of a
     specified terminfo capability for the current terminal.  Note that
     the output of *note putp(): 2f52. always goes to standard output.

 -- Fonction: curses.qiflush ([flag])

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, the effect is the same as calling *note
     noqiflush(): 2f50.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, or no argument is
     provided, the queues will be flushed when these control characters
     are read.

 -- Fonction: curses.raw ()

     Enter raw mode.  In raw mode, normal line buffering and processing
     of interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off;
     characters are presented to curses input functions one by one.

 -- Fonction: curses.reset_prog_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to "program" mode, as previously saved by
     *note def_prog_mode(): 2f1d.

 -- Fonction: curses.reset_shell_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to "shell" mode, as previously saved by *note
     def_shell_mode(): 2f1f.

 -- Fonction: curses.resetty ()

     Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last
     call to *note savetty(): 2f55.

 -- Fonction: curses.resize_term (nlines, ncols)

     Backend function used by *note resizeterm(): 1565, performing most
     of the work; when resizing the windows, *note resize_term(): 1566.
     blank-fills the areas that are extended.  The calling application
     should fill in these areas with appropriate data.  The
     ‘resize_term()’ function attempts to resize all windows.  However,
     due to the calling convention of pads, it is not possible to resize
     these without additional interaction with the application.

 -- Fonction: curses.resizeterm (nlines, ncols)

     Resize the standard and current windows to the specified
     dimensions, and adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses
     library that record the window dimensions (in particular the
     SIGWINCH handler).

 -- Fonction: curses.savetty ()

     Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by
     *note resetty(): 2f54.

 -- Fonction: curses.get_escdelay ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_escdelay(): 8e0.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: curses.set_escdelay (ms)

     Sets the number of milliseconds to wait after reading an escape
     character, to distinguish between an individual escape character
     entered on the keyboard from escape sequences sent by cursor and
     function keys.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: curses.get_tabsize ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_tabsize(): 8e2.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: curses.set_tabsize (size)

     Sets the number of columns used by the curses library when
     converting a tab character to spaces as it adds the tab to a
     window.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: curses.setsyx (y, x)

     Set the virtual screen cursor to 'y', 'x'.  If 'y' and 'x' are both
     ‘-1’, then *note leaveok: 2f38. is set ‘True’.

 -- Fonction: curses.setupterm (term=None, fd=-1)

     Initialize the terminal.  'term' is a string giving the terminal
     name, or ‘None’; if omitted or ‘None’, the value of the ‘TERM’
     environment variable will be used.  'fd' is the file descriptor to
     which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not supplied or
     ‘-1’, the file descriptor for ‘sys.stdout’ will be used.

 -- Fonction: curses.start_color ()

     Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before
     any other color manipulation routine is called.  It is good
     practice to call this routine right after *note initscr(): 155c.

     *note start_color(): 2f58. initializes eight basic colors (black,
     red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global
     variables in the *note curses: 2b. module, *note COLORS: 2f59. and
     *note COLOR_PAIRS: 2f5a, containing the maximum number of colors
     and color-pairs the terminal can support.  It also restores the
     colors on the terminal to the values they had when the terminal was
     just turned on.

 -- Fonction: curses.termattrs ()

     Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the
     terminal.  This information is useful when a curses program needs
     complete control over the appearance of the screen.

 -- Fonction: curses.termname ()

     Return the value of the environment variable ‘TERM’, as a bytes
     object, truncated to 14 characters.

 -- Fonction: curses.tigetflag (capname)

     Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-1’ if 'capname' is not a Boolean capability, or ‘0’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Fonction: curses.tigetnum (capname)

     Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-2’ if 'capname' is not a numeric capability, or ‘-1’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Fonction: curses.tigetstr (capname)

     Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as a bytes object.  Return
     ‘None’ if 'capname' is not a terminfo "string capability", or is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Fonction: curses.tparm (str[, ...])

     Instantiate the bytes object 'str' with the supplied parameters,
     where 'str' should be a parameterized string obtained from the
     terminfo database.  E.g.  ‘tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)’ could
     result in ‘b'\033[6;4H'’, the exact result depending on terminal
     type.

 -- Fonction: curses.typeahead (fd)

     Specify that the file descriptor 'fd' be used for typeahead
     checking.  If 'fd' is ‘-1’, then no typeahead checking is done.

     The curses library does "line-breakout optimization" by looking for
     typeahead periodically while updating the screen.  If input is
     found, and it is coming from a tty, the current update is postponed
     until refresh or doupdate is called again, allowing faster response
     to commands typed in advance.  This function allows specifying a
     different file descriptor for typeahead checking.

 -- Fonction: curses.unctrl (ch)

     Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the
     character 'ch'.  Control characters are represented as a caret
     followed by the character, for example as ‘b'^C'’.  Printing
     characters are left as they are.

 -- Fonction: curses.ungetch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note getch(): 2f2d. will return it.

          Note: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘getch()’ is called.

 -- Fonction: curses.update_lines_cols ()

     Update the *note LINES: 16c6. and *note COLS: 16c7. module
     variables.  Useful for detecting manual screen resize.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: curses.unget_wch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note get_wch(): 1082. will return it.

          Note: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘get_wch()’ is
          called.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: curses.ungetmouse (id, x, y, z, bstate)

     Push a *note KEY_MOUSE: 2f2e. event onto the input queue,
     associating the given state data with it.

 -- Fonction: curses.use_env (flag)

     If used, this function should be called before *note initscr():
     155c. or newterm are called.  When 'flag' is ‘False’, the values of
     lines and columns specified in the terminfo database will be used,
     even if environment variables ‘LINES’ and ‘COLUMNS’ (used by
     default) are set, or if curses is running in a window (in which
     case default behavior would be to use the window size if ‘LINES’
     and ‘COLUMNS’ are not set).

 -- Fonction: curses.use_default_colors ()

     Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this
     feature.  Use this to support transparency in your application.
     The default color is assigned to the color number ‘-1’.  After
     calling this function, ‘init_pair(x, curses.COLOR_RED, -1)’
     initializes, for instance, color pair 'x' to a red foreground color
     on the default background.

 -- Fonction: curses.wrapper (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Initialize curses and call another callable object, 'func', which
     should be the rest of your curses-using application.  If the
     application raises an exception, this function will restore the
     terminal to a sane state before re-raising the exception and
     generating a traceback.  The callable object 'func' is then passed
     the main window 'stdscr' as its first argument, followed by any
     other arguments passed to ‘wrapper()’.  Before calling 'func',
     ‘wrapper()’ turns on cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the
     terminal keypad, and initializes colors if the terminal has color
     support.  On exit (whether normally or by exception) it restores
     cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.


File: python.info,  Node: Window Objects,  Next: Constantes<6>,  Prev: Fonctions<6>,  Up: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.17.5.2 Window Objects
.......................

Window objects, as returned by *note initscr(): 155c. and *note
newwin(): 2f4c. above, have the following methods and attributes:

 -- Méthode: window.addch (ch[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.addch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr',
     overwriting any character previously painted at that location.  By
     default, the character position and attributes are the current
     settings for the window object.

          Note: Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a
          *note curses.error: 2f11.  Attempting to write to the lower
          right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will cause an
          exception to be raised after the character is printed.

 -- Méthode: window.addnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.addnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Paint at most 'n' characters of the character string 'str' at ‘(y,
     x)’ with attributes 'attr', overwriting anything previously on the
     display.

 -- Méthode: window.addstr (str[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.addstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Paint the character string 'str' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes
     'attr', overwriting anything previously on the display.

          Note: 
             * Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises
               *note curses.error: 2f11.  Attempting to write to the
               lower right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will
               cause an exception to be raised after the string is
               printed.

             * A bug in ncurses(1), the backend for this Python module,
               can cause SegFaults when resizing windows.  This is fixed
               in ncurses-6.1-20190511.  If you are stuck with an
               earlier ncurses, you can avoid triggering this if you do
               not call *note addstr(): 2f24. with a 'str' that has
               embedded newlines.  Instead, call *note addstr(): 2f24.
               separately for each line.

 -- Méthode: window.attroff (attr)

     Remove attribute 'attr' from the "background" set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- Méthode: window.attron (attr)

     Add attribute 'attr' from the "background" set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- Méthode: window.attrset (attr)

     Set the "background" set of attributes to 'attr'.  This set is
     initially ‘0’ (no attributes).

 -- Méthode: window.bkgd (ch[, attr])

     Set the background property of the window to the character 'ch',
     with attributes 'attr'.  The change is then applied to every
     character position in that window:

        * The attribute of every character in the window is changed to
          the new background attribute.

        * Wherever the former background character appears, it is
          changed to the new background character.

 -- Méthode: window.bkgdset (ch[, attr])

     Set the window's background.  A window's background consists of a
     character and any combination of attributes.  The attribute part of
     the background is combined (OR'ed) with all non-blank characters
     that are written into the window.  Both the character and attribute
     parts of the background are combined with the blank characters.
     The background becomes a property of the character and moves with
     the character through any scrolling and insert/delete
     line/character operations.

 -- Méthode: window.border ([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[,
          br]]]]]]]])

     Draw a border around the edges of the window.  Each parameter
     specifies the character to use for a specific part of the border;
     see the table below for more details.

          Note: A ‘0’ value for any parameter will cause the default
          character to be used for that parameter.  Keyword parameters
          can 'not' be used.  The defaults are listed in this table:

     Paramètre       Description               Valeur par défaut
                                               
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
     'ls'            Left side                 *note ACS_VLINE: 2f6f.
                                               
                                               
     'rs'            Right side                *note ACS_VLINE: 2f6f.
                                               
                                               
     'ts'            Top                       *note ACS_HLINE: 2f70.
                                               
                                               
     'bs'            Bottom                    *note ACS_HLINE: 2f70.
                                               
                                               
     'tl'            Upper-left corner         *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2f71.
                                               
                                               
     'tr'            Upper-right corner        *note ACS_URCORNER: 2f72.
                                               
                                               
     'bl'            Bottom-left corner        *note ACS_LLCORNER: 2f73.
                                               
                                               
     'br'            Bottom-right corner       *note ACS_LRCORNER: 2f74.
                                               

 -- Méthode: window.box ([vertch, horch])

     Similar to *note border(): 2f6e, but both 'ls' and 'rs' are
     'vertch' and both 'ts' and 'bs' are 'horch'.  The default corner
     characters are always used by this function.

 -- Méthode: window.chgat (attr)

 -- Méthode: window.chgat (num, attr)

 -- Méthode: window.chgat (y, x, attr)

 -- Méthode: window.chgat (y, x, num, attr)

     Set the attributes of 'num' characters at the current cursor
     position, or at position ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  If 'num' is not
     given or is ‘-1’, the attribute will be set on all the characters
     to the end of the line.  This function moves cursor to position
     ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  The changed line will be touched using the
     *note touchline(): 2f77. method so that the contents will be
     redisplayed by the next window refresh.

 -- Méthode: window.clear ()

     Like *note erase(): 2f79, but also cause the whole window to be
     repainted upon next call to *note refresh(): 2f25.

 -- Méthode: window.clearok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, the next call to *note refresh(): 2f25. will
     clear the window completely.

 -- Méthode: window.clrtobot ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the
     cursor are deleted, and then the equivalent of *note clrtoeol():
     2f7c. is performed.

 -- Méthode: window.clrtoeol ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the line.

 -- Méthode: window.cursyncup ()

     Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the
     window to reflect the current cursor position of the window.

 -- Méthode: window.delch ([y, x])

     Delete any character at ‘(y, x)’.

 -- Méthode: window.deleteln ()

     Delete the line under the cursor.  All following lines are moved up
     by one line.

 -- Méthode: window.derwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Méthode: window.derwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     An abbreviation for "derive window", *note derwin(): 2f80. is the
     same as calling *note subwin(): 2f81, except that 'begin_y' and
     'begin_x' are relative to the origin of the window, rather than
     relative to the entire screen.  Return a window object for the
     derived window.

 -- Méthode: window.echochar (ch[, attr])

     Add character 'ch' with attribute 'attr', and immediately call
     *note refresh(): 2f25. on the window.

 -- Méthode: window.enclose (y, x)

     Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell
     coordinates are enclosed by the given window, returning ‘True’ or
     ‘False’.  It is useful for determining what subset of the screen
     windows enclose the location of a mouse event.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Previously it returned ‘1’ or ‘0’
     instead of ‘True’ or ‘False’.

 -- Attribut: window.encoding

     Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and
     characters).  The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent
     window when a subwindow is created, for example with *note
     window.subwin(): 2f81.  By default, current locale encoding is used
     (see *note locale.getencoding(): 2db.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: window.erase ()

     Clear the window.

 -- Méthode: window.getbegyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of coordinates of upper-left corner.

 -- Méthode: window.getbkgd ()

     Return the given window's current background character/attribute
     pair.

 -- Méthode: window.getch ([y, x])

     Get a character.  Note that the integer returned does 'not' have to
     be in ASCII range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are
     represented by numbers higher than 255.  In no-delay mode, return
     ‘-1’ if there is no input, otherwise wait until a key is pressed.

 -- Méthode: window.get_wch ([y, x])

     Get a wide character.  Return a character for most keys, or an
     integer for function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: window.getkey ([y, x])

     Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as *note
     getch(): 2f2d. does.  Function keys, keypad keys and other special
     keys return a multibyte string containing the key name.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

 -- Méthode: window.getmaxyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of the height and width of the window.

 -- Méthode: window.getparyx ()

     Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its
     parent window as a tuple ‘(y, x)’.  Return ‘(-1, -1)’ if this
     window has no parent.

 -- Méthode: window.getstr ()

 -- Méthode: window.getstr (n)

 -- Méthode: window.getstr (y, x)

 -- Méthode: window.getstr (y, x, n)

     Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing
     capacity.

 -- Méthode: window.getyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of current cursor position relative to the
     window's upper-left corner.

 -- Méthode: window.hline (ch, n)

 -- Méthode: window.hline (y, x, ch, n)

     Display a horizontal line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch'.

 -- Méthode: window.idcok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, curses no longer considers using the hardware
     insert/delete character feature of the terminal; if 'flag' is
     ‘True’, use of character insertion and deletion is enabled.  When
     curses is first initialized, use of character insert/delete is
     enabled by default.

 -- Méthode: window.idlok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note curses: 2b. will try and use hardware
     line editing facilities.  Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are
     disabled.

 -- Méthode: window.immedok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, any change in the window image automatically
     causes the window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call *note
     refresh(): 2f25. yourself.  However, it may degrade performance
     considerably, due to repeated calls to wrefresh.  This option is
     disabled by default.

 -- Méthode: window.inch ([y, x])

     Return the character at the given position in the window.  The
     bottom 8 bits are the character proper, and upper bits are the
     attributes.

 -- Méthode: window.insch (ch[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.insch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr', moving the
     line from position 'x' right by one character.

 -- Méthode: window.insdelln (nlines)

     Insert 'nlines' lines into the specified window above the current
     line.  The 'nlines' bottom lines are lost.  For negative 'nlines',
     delete 'nlines' lines starting with the one under the cursor, and
     move the remaining lines up.  The bottom 'nlines' lines are
     cleared.  The current cursor position remains the same.

 -- Méthode: window.insertln ()

     Insert a blank line under the cursor.  All following lines are
     moved down by one line.

 -- Méthode: window.insnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.insnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor, up to 'n' characters.
     If 'n' is zero or negative, the entire string is inserted.  All
     characters to the right of the cursor are shifted right, with the
     rightmost characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position
     does not change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- Méthode: window.insstr (str[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.insstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor.  All characters to the
     right of the cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost
     characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position does not
     change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- Méthode: window.instr ([n])

 -- Méthode: window.instr (y, x[, n])

     Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window
     starting at the current cursor position, or at 'y', 'x' if
     specified.  Attributes are stripped from the characters.  If 'n' is
     specified, *note instr(): 2f94. returns a string at most 'n'
     characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL).

 -- Méthode: window.is_linetouched (line)

     Return ‘True’ if the specified line was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 2f25.; otherwise return ‘False’.  Raise a
     *note curses.error: 2f11. exception if 'line' is not valid for the
     given window.

 -- Méthode: window.is_wintouched ()

     Return ‘True’ if the specified window was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 2f25.; otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- Méthode: window.keypad (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences generated by some keys
     (keypad, function keys) will be interpreted by *note curses: 2b.
     If 'flag' is ‘False’, escape sequences will be left as is in the
     input stream.

 -- Méthode: window.leaveok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, cursor is left where it is on update, instead
     of being at "cursor position."  This reduces cursor movement where
     possible.  If possible the cursor will be made invisible.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, cursor will always be at "cursor position"
     after an update.

 -- Méthode: window.move (new_y, new_x)

     Move cursor to ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- Méthode: window.mvderwin (y, x)

     Move the window inside its parent window.  The screen-relative
     parameters of the window are not changed.  This routine is used to
     display different parts of the parent window at the same physical
     position on the screen.

 -- Méthode: window.mvwin (new_y, new_x)

     Move the window so its upper-left corner is at ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- Méthode: window.nodelay (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note getch(): 2f2d. will be non-blocking.

 -- Méthode: window.notimeout (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences will not be timed out.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence
     will not be interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as
     is.

 -- Méthode: window.noutrefresh ()

     Mark for refresh but wait.  This function updates the data
     structure representing the desired state of the window, but does
     not force an update of the physical screen.  To accomplish that,
     call *note doupdate(): 2f22.

 -- Méthode: window.overlay (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overlay the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, only the overlapping region is copied.  This copy is
     non-destructive, which means that the current background character
     does not overwrite the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of *note overlay(): 2f9d. can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol' are
     the upper-left coordinates of the source window, and the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- Méthode: window.overwrite (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overwrite the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, in which case only the overlapping region is copied.
     This copy is destructive, which means that the current background
     character overwrites the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of *note overwrite(): 2f9e. can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol'
     are the upper-left coordinates of the source window, the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- Méthode: window.putwin (file)

     Write all data associated with the window into the provided file
     object.  This information can be later retrieved using the *note
     getwin(): 2f39. function.

 -- Méthode: window.redrawln (beg, num)

     Indicate that the 'num' screen lines, starting at line 'beg', are
     corrupted and should be completely redrawn on the next *note
     refresh(): 2f25. call.

 -- Méthode: window.redrawwin ()

     Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the
     next *note refresh(): 2f25. call.

 -- Méthode: window.refresh ([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol,
          smaxrow, smaxcol])

     Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
     drawing/deleting methods).

     The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a
     pad created with *note newpad(): 2f4b.  The additional parameters
     are needed to indicate what part of the pad and screen are
     involved.  'pminrow' and 'pmincol' specify the upper left-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad.  'sminrow',
     'smincol', 'smaxrow', and 'smaxcol' specify the edges of the
     rectangle to be displayed on the screen.  The lower right-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad is calculated
     from the screen coordinates, since the rectangles must be the same
     size.  Both rectangles must be entirely contained within their
     respective structures.  Negative values of 'pminrow', 'pmincol',
     'sminrow', or 'smincol' are treated as if they were zero.

 -- Méthode: window.resize (nlines, ncols)

     Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to
     the specified values.  If either dimension is larger than the
     current values, the window's data is filled with blanks that have
     the current background rendition (as set by *note bkgdset(): 2f6d.)
     merged into them.

 -- Méthode: window.scroll ([lines=1])

     Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by 'lines' lines.

 -- Méthode: window.scrollok (flag)

     Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the
     edge of the window or scrolling region, either as a result of a
     newline action on the bottom line, or typing the last character of
     the last line.  If 'flag' is ‘False’, the cursor is left on the
     bottom line.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, the window is scrolled up one
     line.  Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on
     the terminal, it is also necessary to call *note idlok(): 2f8c.

 -- Méthode: window.setscrreg (top, bottom)

     Set the scrolling region from line 'top' to line 'bottom'.  All
     scrolling actions will take place in this region.

 -- Méthode: window.standend ()

     Turn off the standout attribute.  On some terminals this has the
     side effect of turning off all attributes.

 -- Méthode: window.standout ()

     Turn on attribute 'A_STANDOUT'.

 -- Méthode: window.subpad (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Méthode: window.subpad (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

 -- Méthode: window.subwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Méthode: window.subwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

     By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position
     to the lower right corner of the window.

 -- Méthode: window.syncdown ()

     Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of
     its ancestor windows.  This routine is called by *note refresh():
     2f25, so it should almost never be necessary to call it manually.

 -- Méthode: window.syncok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, then *note syncup(): 2faa. is called
     automatically whenever there is a change in the window.

 -- Méthode: window.syncup ()

     Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been
     changed in the window.

 -- Méthode: window.timeout (delay)

     Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window.  If
     'delay' is negative, blocking read is used (which will wait
     indefinitely for input).  If 'delay' is zero, then non-blocking
     read is used, and *note getch(): 2f2d. will return ‘-1’ if no input
     is waiting.  If 'delay' is positive, then *note getch(): 2f2d. will
     block for 'delay' milliseconds, and return ‘-1’ if there is still
     no input at the end of that time.

 -- Méthode: window.touchline (start, count[, changed])

     Pretend 'count' lines have been changed, starting with line
     'start'.  If 'changed' is supplied, it specifies whether the
     affected lines are marked as having been changed ('changed'‘=True’)
     or unchanged ('changed'‘=False’).

 -- Méthode: window.touchwin ()

     Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing
     optimizations.

 -- Méthode: window.untouchwin ()

     Mark all lines in the window as unchanged since the last call to
     *note refresh(): 2f25.

 -- Méthode: window.vline (ch, n[, attr])

 -- Méthode: window.vline (y, x, ch, n[, attr])

     Display a vertical line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch' with attributes 'attr'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue35924


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<6>,  Prev: Window Objects,  Up: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.17.5.3 Constantes
...................

The *note curses: 2b. module defines the following data members:

 -- Données: curses.ERR

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note getch():
     2f2d, return *note ERR: 2faf. upon failure.

 -- Données: curses.OK

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note napms():
     155b, return *note OK: 2fb0. upon success.

 -- Données: curses.version

 -- Données: curses.__version__

     A bytes object representing the current version of the module.

 -- Données: curses.ncurses_version

     A named tuple containing the three components of the ncurses
     library version: 'major', 'minor', and 'patch'.  All values are
     integers.  The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘curses.ncurses_version[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘curses.ncurses_version.major’ and so on.

     Availability: if the ncurses library is used.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: curses.COLORS

     The maximum number of colors the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2f58.

 -- Données: curses.COLOR_PAIRS

     The maximum number of color pairs the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2f58.

 -- Données: curses.COLS

     The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note initscr(): 155c.  Updated by
     *note update_lines_cols(): ddb, *note resizeterm(): 1565. and *note
     resize_term(): 1566.

 -- Données: curses.LINES

     The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines.  It is defined
     only after the call to *note initscr(): 155c.  Updated by *note
     update_lines_cols(): ddb, *note resizeterm(): 1565. and *note
     resize_term(): 1566.

Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes.  The
exact constants available are system dependent.

Attribut                     Signification
                             
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- Données:                 Alternate character set mode
          curses.A_ALTCHARSET

 -- Données:                 Blink mode
          curses.A_BLINK     

 -- Données: curses.A_BOLD   Bold mode
                             
                             
 -- Données: curses.A_DIM    Dim mode
                             
                             
 -- Données:                 Invisible or blank mode
          curses.A_INVIS     

 -- Données:                 Italic mode
          curses.A_ITALIC    

 -- Données:                 Attribut normal
          curses.A_NORMAL    

 -- Données:                 Protected mode
          curses.A_PROTECT   

 -- Données:                 Reverse background and foreground
          curses.A_REVERSE   colors
                             
                             
 -- Données:                 Standout mode
          curses.A_STANDOUT  

 -- Données:                 Underline mode
          curses.A_UNDERLINE 

 -- Données:                 Horizontal highlight
          curses.A_HORIZONTAL

 -- Données: curses.A_LEFT   Left highlight
                             
                             
 -- Données: curses.A_LOW    Low highlight
                             
                             
 -- Données:                 Right highlight
          curses.A_RIGHT     

 -- Données: curses.A_TOP    Top highlight
                             
                             
 -- Données:                 Vertical highlight
          curses.A_VERTICAL  

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: ‘A_ITALIC’ was added.

Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes
returned by some methods.

Bit-mask                      Signification
                              
------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Données:                  Bit-mask to extract attributes
          curses.A_ATTRIBUTES 

 -- Données:                  Bit-mask to extract a character
          curses.A_CHARTEXT   

 -- Données: curses.A_COLOR   Bit-mask to extract color-pair
                              field information
                              

Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with
‘KEY_’.  The exact keycaps available are system dependent.

Key constant                  Clé
                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_MIN   Minimum key value
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Break key (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BREAK    

 -- Données:                  Down-arrow
          curses.KEY_DOWN     

 -- Données: curses.KEY_UP    Up-arrow
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Left-arrow
          curses.KEY_LEFT     

 -- Données:                  Right-arrow
          curses.KEY_RIGHT    

 -- Données:                  Home key (upward+left arrow)
          curses.KEY_HOME     

 -- Données:                  Backspace (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BACKSPACE

 -- Données: curses.KEY_F0    Function keys.  Up to 64 function keys are
                              supported.
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_Fn    Value of function key 'n'
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_DL    Delete line
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_IL    Insert line
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_DC    Delete character
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_IC    Insert char or enter insert mode
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_EIC   Exit insert char mode
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Clear screen
          curses.KEY_CLEAR    

 -- Données: curses.KEY_EOS   Clear to end of screen
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_EOL   Clear to end of line
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_SF    Scroll 1 line forward
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_SR    Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Next page
          curses.KEY_NPAGE    

 -- Données:                  Previous page
          curses.KEY_PPAGE    

 -- Données:                  Set tab
          curses.KEY_STAB     

 -- Données:                  Clear tab
          curses.KEY_CTAB     

 -- Données:                  Clear all tabs
          curses.KEY_CATAB    

 -- Données:                  Enter or send (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_ENTER    

 -- Données:                  Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_SRESET   

 -- Données:                  Reset or hard reset (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_RESET    

 -- Données:                  Print
          curses.KEY_PRINT    

 -- Données: curses.KEY_LL    Home down or bottom (lower left)
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_A1    Upper left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_A3    Upper right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_B2    Center of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_C1    Lower left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_C3    Lower right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Back tab
          curses.KEY_BTAB     

 -- Données: curses.KEY_BEG   Beg (beginning)
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Cancel
          curses.KEY_CANCEL   

 -- Données:                  'Close'
          curses.KEY_CLOSE    

 -- Données:                  Cmd (command)
          curses.KEY_COMMAND  

 -- Données:                  'Copy'
          curses.KEY_COPY     

 -- Données:                  Create
          curses.KEY_CREATE   

 -- Données: curses.KEY_END   End
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  'Exit'
          curses.KEY_EXIT     

 -- Données:                  Find
          curses.KEY_FIND     

 -- Données:                  Help
          curses.KEY_HELP     

 -- Données:                  Mark
          curses.KEY_MARK     

 -- Données:                  Message
          curses.KEY_MESSAGE  

 -- Données:                  Move
          curses.KEY_MOVE     

 -- Données:                  Next
          curses.KEY_NEXT     

 -- Données:                  Open
          curses.KEY_OPEN     

 -- Données:                  Options
          curses.KEY_OPTIONS  

 -- Données:                  Prev (previous)
          curses.KEY_PREVIOUS 

 -- Données:                  'Redo'
          curses.KEY_REDO     

 -- Données:                  Ref (reference)
          curses.KEY_REFERENCE

 -- Données:                  Refresh
          curses.KEY_REFRESH  

 -- Données:                  Replace
          curses.KEY_REPLACE  

 -- Données:                  Restart
          curses.KEY_RESTART  

 -- Données:                  Resume
          curses.KEY_RESUME   

 -- Données:                  'Save'
          curses.KEY_SAVE     

 -- Données:                  Shifted Beg (beginning)
          curses.KEY_SBEG     

 -- Données:                  Shifted Cancel
          curses.KEY_SCANCEL  

 -- Données:                  Shifted Command
          curses.KEY_SCOMMAND 

 -- Données:                  Shifted Copy
          curses.KEY_SCOPY    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Create
          curses.KEY_SCREATE  

 -- Données: curses.KEY_SDC   Shifted Delete char
                              
                              
 -- Données: curses.KEY_SDL   Shifted Delete line
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Select
          curses.KEY_SELECT   

 -- Données:                  Shifted End
          curses.KEY_SEND     

 -- Données:                  Shifted Clear line
          curses.KEY_SEOL     

 -- Données:                  Shifted Exit
          curses.KEY_SEXIT    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Find
          curses.KEY_SFIND    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Help
          curses.KEY_SHELP    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Home
          curses.KEY_SHOME    

 -- Données: curses.KEY_SIC   Shifted Input
                              
                              
 -- Données:                  Shifted Left arrow
          curses.KEY_SLEFT    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Message
          curses.KEY_SMESSAGE 

 -- Données:                  Shifted Move
          curses.KEY_SMOVE    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Next
          curses.KEY_SNEXT    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Options
          curses.KEY_SOPTIONS 

 -- Données:                  Shifted Prev
          curses.KEY_SPREVIOUS

 -- Données:                  Shifted Print
          curses.KEY_SPRINT   

 -- Données:                  Shifted Redo
          curses.KEY_SREDO    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Replace
          curses.KEY_SREPLACE 

 -- Données:                  Shifted Right arrow
          curses.KEY_SRIGHT   

 -- Données:                  Shifted Resume
          curses.KEY_SRSUME   

 -- Données:                  Shifted Save
          curses.KEY_SSAVE    

 -- Données:                  Shifted Suspend
          curses.KEY_SSUSPEND 

 -- Données:                  Shifted Undo
          curses.KEY_SUNDO    

 -- Données:                  Suspend
          curses.KEY_SUSPEND  

 -- Données:                  'Undo'
          curses.KEY_UNDO     

 -- Données:                  Mouse event has occurred
          curses.KEY_MOUSE    

 -- Données:                  Terminal resize event
          curses.KEY_RESIZE   

 -- Données: curses.KEY_MAX   Maximum key value
                              

On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators,
there are normally at least four function keys (*note KEY_F1: 2fcd,
*note KEY_F2: 2fcd, *note KEY_F3: 2fcd, *note KEY_F4: 2fcd.) available,
and the arrow keys mapped to *note KEY_UP: 2fc7, *note KEY_DOWN: 2fc6,
*note KEY_LEFT: 2fc8. and *note KEY_RIGHT: 2fc9. in the obvious way.  If
your machine has a PC keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow keys and
twelve function keys (older PC keyboards may have only ten function
keys); also, the following keypad mappings are standard:

Keycap                 Constante
                       
---------------------------------------
                       
‘Insert’               KEY_IC
                       
                       
‘Delete’               KEY_DC
                       
                       
‘Home’                 KEY_HOME
                       
                       
‘End’                  KEY_END
                       
                       
‘Page Up’              KEY_PPAGE
                       
                       
‘Page Down’            KEY_NPAGE
                       

The following table lists characters from the alternate character set.
These are inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be
available on software emulations such as X terminals.  When there is no
graphic available, curses falls back on a crude printable ASCII
approximation.

     Note: These are available only after *note initscr(): 155c. has
     been called.

ACS code                     Signification
                             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- Données:                 alternate name for upper right corner
          curses.ACS_BBSS    

 -- Données:                 solid square block
          curses.ACS_BLOCK   

 -- Données:                 board of squares
          curses.ACS_BOARD   

 -- Données:                 alternate name for horizontal line
          curses.ACS_BSBS    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for upper left corner
          curses.ACS_BSSB    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for top tee
          curses.ACS_BSSS    

 -- Données:                 bottom tee
          curses.ACS_BTEE    

 -- Données:                 bullet
          curses.ACS_BULLET  

 -- Données:                 checker board (stipple)
          curses.ACS_CKBOARD 

 -- Données:                 arrow pointing down
          curses.ACS_DARROW  

 -- Données:                 degree symbol
          curses.ACS_DEGREE  

 -- Données:                 diamond
          curses.ACS_DIAMOND 

 -- Données:                 greater-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_GEQUAL  

 -- Données:                 horizontal line
          curses.ACS_HLINE   

 -- Données:                 lantern symbol
          curses.ACS_LANTERN 

 -- Données:                 left arrow
          curses.ACS_LARROW  

 -- Données:                 less-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_LEQUAL  

 -- Données:                 lower left-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LLCORNER

 -- Données:                 lower right-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LRCORNER

 -- Données:                 left tee
          curses.ACS_LTEE    

 -- Données:                 not-equal sign
          curses.ACS_NEQUAL  

 -- Données: curses.ACS_PI   letter pi
                             
                             
 -- Données:                 plus-or-minus sign
          curses.ACS_PLMINUS 

 -- Données:                 big plus sign
          curses.ACS_PLUS    

 -- Données:                 right arrow
          curses.ACS_RARROW  

 -- Données:                 right tee
          curses.ACS_RTEE    

 -- Données: curses.ACS_S1   scan line 1
                             
                             
 -- Données: curses.ACS_S3   scan line 3
                             
                             
 -- Données: curses.ACS_S7   scan line 7
                             
                             
 -- Données: curses.ACS_S9   scan line 9
                             
                             
 -- Données:                 alternate name for lower right corner
          curses.ACS_SBBS    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for vertical line
          curses.ACS_SBSB    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for right tee
          curses.ACS_SBSS    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for lower left corner
          curses.ACS_SSBB    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for bottom tee
          curses.ACS_SSBS    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for left tee
          curses.ACS_SSSB    

 -- Données:                 alternate name for crossover or big plus
          curses.ACS_SSSS    

 -- Données:                 pound sterling
          curses.ACS_STERLING

 -- Données:                 top tee
          curses.ACS_TTEE    

 -- Données:                 up arrow
          curses.ACS_UARROW  

 -- Données:                 upper left corner
          curses.ACS_ULCORNER

 -- Données:                 upper right corner
          curses.ACS_URCORNER

 -- Données:                 vertical line
          curses.ACS_VLINE   

The following table lists mouse button constants used by *note
getmouse(): 2f2c.:

Mouse button constant                  Signification
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
 -- Données: curses.BUTTONn_PRESSED    Mouse button 'n' pressed
                                       
                                       
 -- Données: curses.BUTTONn_RELEASED   Mouse button 'n' released
                                       
                                       
 -- Données: curses.BUTTONn_CLICKED    Mouse button 'n' clicked
                                       
                                       
 -- Données:                           Mouse button 'n' double clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED

 -- Données:                           Mouse button 'n' triple clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED

 -- Données: curses.BUTTON_SHIFT       Shift was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- Données: curses.BUTTON_CTRL        Control was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- Données: curses.BUTTON_ALT         Control was down during button state change
                                       

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed
if they are provided by the underlying curses library.

The following table lists the predefined colors:

Constante                     Color
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Données:                  Black
          curses.COLOR_BLACK  

 -- Données:                  Blue
          curses.COLOR_BLUE   

 -- Données:                  Cyan (light greenish blue)
          curses.COLOR_CYAN   

 -- Données:                  Green
          curses.COLOR_GREEN  

 -- Données:                  Magenta (purplish red)
          curses.COLOR_MAGENTA

 -- Données:                  Red
          curses.COLOR_RED    

 -- Données:                  White
          curses.COLOR_WHITE  

 -- Données:                  Yellow
          curses.COLOR_YELLOW 


File: python.info,  Node: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs,  Next: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters,  Prev: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.6 ‘curses.textpad’ -- Text input widget for curses programs
----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note curses.textpad: 2e. module provides a *note Textbox: 3050.
class that handles elementary text editing in a curses window,
supporting a set of keybindings resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of
Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x, FrameMaker, and many other programs).
The module also provides a rectangle-drawing function useful for framing
text boxes or for other purposes.

The module *note curses.textpad: 2e. defines the following function:

 -- Fonction: curses.textpad.rectangle (win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)

     Draw a rectangle.  The first argument must be a window object; the
     remaining arguments are coordinates relative to that window.  The
     second and third arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper
     left hand corner of the rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth
     arguments are the y and x coordinates of the lower right hand
     corner.  The rectangle will be drawn using VT100/IBM PC forms
     characters on terminals that make this possible (including xterm
     and most other software terminal emulators).  Otherwise it will be
     drawn with ASCII dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.

* Menu:

* Textbox objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Textbox objects,  Up: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs

5.17.6.1 Textbox objects
........................

You can instantiate a *note Textbox: 3050. object as follows:

 -- Classe: curses.textpad.Textbox (win)

     Return a textbox widget object.  The 'win' argument should be a
     curses *note window: 2f42. object in which the textbox is to be
     contained.  The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at
     the upper left hand corner of the containing window, with
     coordinates ‘(0, 0)’.  The instance's *note stripspaces: 3054. flag
     is initially on.

     *note Textbox: 3050. objects have the following methods:

      -- Méthode: edit ([validator])

          This is the entry point you will normally use.  It accepts
          editing keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is
          entered.  If 'validator' is supplied, it must be a function.
          It will be called for each keystroke entered with the
          keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch is done on the
          result.  This method returns the window contents as a string;
          whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
          *note stripspaces: 3054. attribute.

      -- Méthode: do_command (ch)

          Process a single command keystroke.  Here are the supported
          special keystrokes:

          Keystroke              Action
                                 
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘A’          Go to left edge of window.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘B’          Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘D’          Delete character under cursor.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘E’          Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end of
                                 line (stripspaces on).
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘F’          Cursor right, wrapping to next line when
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘G’          Terminate, returning the window contents.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘H’          Delete character backward.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘J’          Terminate if the window is 1 line, otherwise
                                 insert newline.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘K’          If line is blank, delete it, otherwise clear
                                 to end of line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘L’          Refresh screen.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘N’          Cursor down; move down one line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘O’          Insert a blank line at cursor location.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘P’          Cursor up; move up one line.
                                 

          Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where
          the movement is not possible.  The following synonyms are
          supported where possible:

          Constante                            Keystroke
                                               
          ------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
          *note KEY_LEFT: 2fc8.                ‘Control’-‘B’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_RIGHT: 2fc9.               ‘Control’-‘F’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_UP: 2fc7.                  ‘Control’-‘P’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_DOWN: 2fc6.                ‘Control’-‘N’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_BACKSPACE: 2fcb.           ‘Control’-‘h’
                                               

          All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the
          given character and move right (with line wrapping).

      -- Méthode: gather ()

          Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the
          window are included is affected by the *note stripspaces:
          3054. member.

      -- Attribut: stripspaces

          This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of
          blanks in the window.  When it is on, trailing blanks on each
          line are ignored; any cursor motion that would land the cursor
          on a trailing blank goes to the end of that line instead, and
          trailing blanks are stripped when the window contents are
          gathered.


File: python.info,  Node: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters,  Next: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses,  Prev: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.7 ‘curses.ascii’ -- Utilities for ASCII characters
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/curses/ascii.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note curses.ascii: 2c. module supplies name constants for ASCII
characters and functions to test membership in various ASCII character
classes.  The constants supplied are names for control characters as
follows:

Nom                 Signification
                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
 -- Données:
          curses.ascii.NUL

 -- Données:        Start of heading, console interrupt
          curses.ascii.SOH

 -- Données:        Start of text
          curses.ascii.STX

 -- Données:        End of text
          curses.ascii.ETX

 -- Données:        End of transmission
          curses.ascii.EOT

 -- Données:        Enquiry, goes with *note ACK: 3060. flow control
          curses.ascii.ENQ

 -- Données:        Acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.ACK

 -- Données:        Bell
          curses.ascii.BEL

 -- Données:        Backspace
          curses.ascii.BS

 -- Données:        Tab
          curses.ascii.TAB

 -- Données:        Alias for *note TAB: 3063.: "Horizontal tab"
          curses.ascii.HT

 -- Données:        Line feed
          curses.ascii.LF

 -- Données:        Alias for *note LF: 3065.: "New line"
          curses.ascii.NL

 -- Données:        Vertical tab
          curses.ascii.VT

 -- Données:        Form feed
          curses.ascii.FF

 -- Données:        Retour chariot
          curses.ascii.CR

 -- Données:        Shift-out, begin alternate character set
          curses.ascii.SO

 -- Données:        Shift-in, resume default character set
          curses.ascii.SI

 -- Données:        Data-link escape
          curses.ascii.DLE

 -- Données:        XON, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC1

 -- Données:        Device control 2, block-mode flow control
          curses.ascii.DC2

 -- Données:        XOFF, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC3

 -- Données:        Device control 4
          curses.ascii.DC4

 -- Données:        Negative acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.NAK

 -- Données:        Synchronous idle
          curses.ascii.SYN

 -- Données:        End transmission block
          curses.ascii.ETB

 -- Données:        Cancel
          curses.ascii.CAN

 -- Données:        End of medium
          curses.ascii.EM

 -- Données:        Substitute
          curses.ascii.SUB

 -- Données:        Escape
          curses.ascii.ESC

 -- Données:        Séparateur de fichiers
          curses.ascii.FS

 -- Données:        Séparateur de groupe
          curses.ascii.GS

 -- Données:        Record separator, block-mode terminator
          curses.ascii.RS

 -- Données:        Unit separator
          curses.ascii.US

 -- Données:        Space
          curses.ascii.SP

 -- Données:        Delete
          curses.ascii.DEL

Note that many of these have little practical significance in modern
usage.  The mnemonics derive from teleprinter conventions that predate
digital computers.

The module supplies the following functions, patterned on those in the
standard C library:

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isalnum (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphanumeric character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isalpha(c) or isdigit(c)’.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isalpha (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphabetic character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isupper(c) or islower(c)’.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isascii (c)

     Checks for a character value that fits in the 7-bit ASCII set.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isblank (c)

     Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.iscntrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (in the range 0x00 to 0x1f or
     0x7f).

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII decimal digit, ‘'0'’ through ‘'9'’.  This is
     equivalent to ‘c in string.digits’.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isgraph (c)

     Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.islower (c)

     Checks for an ASCII lower-case character.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isprint (c)

     Checks for any ASCII printable character including space.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.ispunct (c)

     Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an
     alphanumeric character.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isspace (c)

     Checks for ASCII white-space characters; space, line feed, carriage
     return, form feed, horizontal tab, vertical tab.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isupper (c)

     Checks for an ASCII uppercase letter.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isxdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII hexadecimal digit.  This is equivalent to ‘c in
     string.hexdigits’.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.isctrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.ismeta (c)

     Checks for a non-ASCII character (ordinal values 0x80 and above).

These functions accept either integers or single-character strings; when
the argument is a string, it is first converted using the built-in
function *note ord(): 1ead.

Note that all these functions check ordinal bit values derived from the
character of the string you pass in; they do not actually know anything
about the host machine's character encoding.

The following two functions take either a single-character string or
integer byte value; they return a value of the same type.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.ascii (c)

     Return the ASCII value corresponding to the low 7 bits of 'c'.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.ctrl (c)

     Return the control character corresponding to the given character
     (the character bit value is bitwise-anded with 0x1f).

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.alt (c)

     Return the 8-bit character corresponding to the given ASCII
     character (the character bit value is bitwise-ored with 0x80).

The following function takes either a single-character string or integer
value; it returns a string.

 -- Fonction: curses.ascii.unctrl (c)

     Return a string representation of the ASCII character 'c'.  If 'c'
     is printable, this string is the character itself.  If the
     character is a control character (0x00-0x1f) the string consists of
     a caret (‘'^'’) followed by the corresponding uppercase letter.  If
     the character is an ASCII delete (0x7f) the string is ‘'^?'’.  If
     the character has its meta bit (0x80) set, the meta bit is
     stripped, the preceding rules applied, and ‘'!'’ prepended to the
     result.

 -- Données: curses.ascii.controlnames

     A 33-element string array that contains the ASCII mnemonics for the
     thirty-two ASCII control characters from 0 (NUL) to 0x1f (US), in
     order, plus the mnemonic ‘SP’ for the space character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/curses/ascii.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses,  Prev: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters,  Up: Command Line Interface Libraries

5.17.8 ‘curses.panel’ -- A panel stack extension for curses
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be
stacked on top of each other, and only the visible portions of each
window will be displayed.  Panels can be added, moved up or down in the
stack, and removed.

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<7>.
* Panel Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<7>,  Next: Panel Objects,  Up: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses

5.17.8.1 Fonctions
..................

The module *note curses.panel: 2d. defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: curses.panel.bottom_panel ()

     Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.

 -- Fonction: curses.panel.new_panel (win)

     Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window 'win'.
     Be aware that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced
     explicitly.  If you don't, the panel object is garbage collected
     and removed from the panel stack.

 -- Fonction: curses.panel.top_panel ()

     Returns the top panel in the panel stack.

 -- Fonction: curses.panel.update_panels ()

     Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack.  This
     does not call *note curses.doupdate(): 2f22, so you'll have to do
     this yourself.


File: python.info,  Node: Panel Objects,  Prev: Fonctions<7>,  Up: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses

5.17.8.2 Panel Objects
......................

Panel objects, as returned by *note new_panel(): 3097. above, are
windows with a stacking order.  There's always a window associated with
a panel which determines the content, while the panel methods are
responsible for the window's depth in the panel stack.

Panel objects have the following methods:

 -- Méthode: Panel.above ()

     Returns the panel above the current panel.

 -- Méthode: Panel.below ()

     Returns the panel below the current panel.

 -- Méthode: Panel.bottom ()

     Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.

 -- Méthode: Panel.hidden ()

     Returns ‘True’ if the panel is hidden (not visible), ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Méthode: Panel.hide ()

     Hide the panel.  This does not delete the object, it just makes the
     window on screen invisible.

 -- Méthode: Panel.move (y, x)

     Move the panel to the screen coordinates ‘(y, x)’.

 -- Méthode: Panel.replace (win)

     Change the window associated with the panel to the window 'win'.

 -- Méthode: Panel.set_userptr (obj)

     Set the panel's user pointer to 'obj'.  This is used to associate
     an arbitrary piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python
     object.

 -- Méthode: Panel.show ()

     Display the panel (which might have been hidden).

 -- Méthode: Panel.top ()

     Push panel to the top of the stack.

 -- Méthode: Panel.userptr ()

     Returns the user pointer for the panel.  This might be any Python
     object.

 -- Méthode: Panel.window ()

     Returns the window object associated with the panel.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution concourante,  Next: Réseau et communication entre processus,  Prev: Command Line Interface Libraries,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.18 Exécution concourante
==========================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent des outils
d'exécution concourante de code.  Le choix de l'outil approprié dépend
de la tâche à exécuter (limitée par le CPU ('CPU bound'), ou limitée la
vitesse des entrées-sorties ('IO bound')) et du style de développement
désiré (coopération gérée par des évènements ou multitâche préemptif).
En voici un survol :

* Menu:

* threading: threading --- Thread-based parallelism. Thread-based parallelism
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism. Process-based parallelism
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes. Shared memory for direct access across
                                 processes
* The concurrent package::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks. Launching parallel tasks
* subprocess: subprocess --- Subprocess management. Subprocess management
* sched: sched --- Event scheduler. Event scheduler
* queue: queue --- A synchronized queue class. A synchronized queue class
* contextvars: contextvars --- Context Variables. Context Variables
* _thread: _thread --- Low-level threading API. Low-level threading API


File: python.info,  Node: threading --- Thread-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.1 ‘threading’ -- Thread-based parallelism
----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/threading.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the
lower level *note _thread: 2. module.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ce module était auparavant optionnel, il
est maintenant toujours disponible.

Voir aussi
..........

*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background thread without blocking
execution of the calling thread, while still being able to retrieve
their results when needed.

*note queue: b5. provides a thread-safe interface for exchanging data
between running threads.

*note asyncio: a. offers an alternative approach to achieving task level
concurrency without requiring the use of multiple operating system
threads.

     Note: In the Python 2.x series, this module contained ‘camelCase’
     names for some methods and functions.  These are deprecated as of
     Python 3.10, but they are still supported for compatibility with
     Python 2.5 and lower.

'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' In CPython, due to the
*note Global Interpreter Lock: 147, only one thread can execute Python
code at once (even though certain performance-oriented libraries might
overcome this limitation).  If you want your application to make better
use of the computational resources of multi-core machines, you are
advised to use *note multiprocessing: 93. or *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.  However, threading is
still an appropriate model if you want to run multiple I/O-bound tasks
simultaneously.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: threading.active_count ()

     Renvoie le nombre d'objets *note Thread: 93b. actuellement vivants.
     Le compte renvoyé est égal à la longueur de la liste renvoyée par
     *note enumerate(): 1862.

     The function ‘activeCount’ is a deprecated alias for this function.

 -- Fonction: threading.current_thread ()

     Renvoie l'objet *note Thread: 93b. courant, correspondant au fil de
     contrôle de l'appelant.  Si le fil de contrôle de l'appelant n'a
     pas été créé via le module ‘Thread’, un objet 'thread' factice aux
     fonctionnalités limitées est renvoyé.

     The function ‘currentThread’ is a deprecated alias for this
     function.

 -- Fonction: threading.excepthook (args, /)

     Gère les exceptions non-attrapées levées par *note Thread.run():
     a2d.

     L'argument 'arg' a les attributs suivants :

        * 'exc_type' : le type de l'exception ;

        * 'exc_value': la valeur de l'exception, peut être ‘None’ ;

        * 'exc_traceback' : la pile d'appels pour cette exception, peut
          être ‘None’ ;

        * 'thread': le fil d'exécution ayant levé l'exception, peut être
          ‘None’.

     Si 'exc_type' est *note SystemExit: d30, l'exception est ignorée
     silencieusement.  Toutes les autres sont affichées sur *note
     sys.stderr: 928.

     Si cette fonction lève une exception, *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7.
     est appelée pour la gérer.

     La fonction *note threading.excepthook(): 837. peut être surchargée
     afin de contrôler comment les exceptions non-attrapées levées par
     *note Thread.run(): a2d. sont gérées.

     Stocker 'exc_value' en utilisant une fonction de rappel
     personnalisée peut créer un cycle de références.  'exc_value' doit
     être nettoyée explicitement pour casser ce cycle lorsque
     l'exception n'est plus nécessaire.

     Stocker 'thread' en utilisant une fonction de rappel personnalisée
     peut le ressusciter, si c'est un objet en cours de finalisation.
     Évitez de stocker 'thread' après la fin de la fonction de rappel,
     pour éviter de ressusciter des objets.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note sys.excepthook(): 7f7. gère les exceptions qui n'ont pas été
     attrapées.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: threading.__excepthook__

     Holds the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 837.  It
     is saved so that the original value can be restored in case they
     happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: threading.get_ident ()

     Renvoie l'« identifiant de fil » du fil d'exécution courant.  C'est
     un entier non nul.  Sa valeur n'a pas de signification directe ; il
     est destiné à être utilisé comme valeur magique opaque, par exemple
     comme clef de dictionnaire de données pour chaque fil.  Les
     identificateurs de fils peuvent être recyclés lorsqu'un fil se
     termine et qu'un autre fil est créé.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: threading.get_native_id ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant natif complet assigné par le noyau du fil
     d'exécution actuel.  C'est un entier non négatif.  Sa valeur peut
     uniquement être utilisée pour identifier ce fil d'exécution à
     l'échelle du système (jusqu'à ce que le fil d'exécution se termine,
     après quoi la valeur peut être recyclée par le système
     d'exploitation).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

 -- Fonction: threading.enumerate ()

     Return a list of all *note Thread: 93b. objects currently active.
     The list includes daemonic threads and dummy thread objects created
     by *note current_thread(): 2fe.  It excludes terminated threads and
     threads that have not yet been started.  However, the main thread
     is always part of the result, even when terminated.

 -- Fonction: threading.main_thread ()

     Renvoie l'objet fil d'exécution *note Thread: 93b. principal.  Dans
     des conditions normales, le fil principal est le fil à partir
     duquel l'interpréteur Python a été lancé.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: threading.settrace (func)

     Attache une fonction de traçage pour tous les fils d'exécution
     démarrés depuis le module ‘Thread’.  La fonction 'func' est passée
     à *note sys.settrace(): 14b7. pour chaque fil, avant que sa méthode
     *note run(): a2d. soit appelée.

 -- Fonction: threading.settrace_all_threads (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: ec. module and all Python threads that are currently
     executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.settrace(): 14b7. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): a2d. method is called.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: threading.gettrace ()

     Renvoie la fonction de traçage tel que définie par *note
     settrace(): 834.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: threading.setprofile (func)

     Attache une fonction de profilage pour tous les fils d'exécution
     démarrés depuis le module ‘Threading’.  La fonction 'func' est
     passée à *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6. pour chaque fil, avant que
     sa méthode *note run(): a2d. soit appelée.

 -- Fonction: threading.setprofile_all_threads (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: ec. module and all Python threads that are currently
     executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): a2d. method is called.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: threading.getprofile ()

     Renvoie la fonction de profilage tel que défini par *note
     setprofile(): 835.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: threading.stack_size ([size])

     Renvoie la taille de la pile d'exécution utilisée lors de la
     création de nouveaux fils d'exécution.  L'argument optionnel 'size'
     spécifie la taille de pile à utiliser pour les fils créés
     ultérieurement, et doit être 0 (pour utiliser la taille de la
     plate-forme ou la valeur configurée par défaut) ou un entier
     positif supérieur ou égal à 32 768 (32 Kio).  Si 'size' n'est pas
     spécifié, 0 est utilisé.  Si la modification de la taille de la
     pile de fils n'est pas prise en charge, une *note RuntimeError:
     193. est levée.  Si la taille de pile spécifiée n'est pas valide,
     une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée et la taille de pile n'est pas
     modifiée.  32 Kio est actuellement la valeur minimale de taille de
     pile prise en charge pour garantir un espace de pile suffisant pour
     l'interpréteur lui-même.  Notez que certaines plates-formes peuvent
     avoir des restrictions particulières sur les valeurs de taille de
     la pile, telles que l'exigence d'une taille de pile minimale >
     32 Kio ou d'une allocation en multiples de la taille de page de la
     mémoire du système – la documentation de la plate-forme devrait
     être consultée pour plus d'informations (4 Kio sont courantes ; en
     l'absence de renseignements plus spécifiques, l'approche proposée
     est l'utilisation de multiples de 4 096 pour la taille de la pile).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

Ce module définit également la constante suivante :

 -- Données: threading.TIMEOUT_MAX

     La valeur maximale autorisée pour le paramètre 'timeout' des
     fonctions bloquantes (*note Lock.acquire(): 685, *note
     RLock.acquire(): e68, *note Condition.wait(): 186e, etc.).
     Spécifier un délai d'attente supérieur à cette valeur lève une
     *note OverflowError: 86f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Ce module définit un certain nombre de classes, qui sont détaillées dans
les sections ci-dessous.

La conception de ce module est librement basée sur le modèle des fils
d'exécution de Java.  Cependant, là où Java fait des verrous et des
variables de condition le comportement de base de chaque objet, ils sont
des objets séparés en Python.  La classe Python *note Thread: 93b. prend
en charge un sous-ensemble du comportement de la classe 'Thread' de Java
; actuellement, il n'y a aucune priorité, aucun groupe de fils
d'exécution, et les fils ne peuvent être détruits, arrêtés, suspendus,
repris ni interrompus.  Les méthodes statiques de la classe 'Thread' de
Java, lorsqu'elles sont implémentées, correspondent à des fonctions au
niveau du module.

Toutes les méthodes décrites ci-dessous sont exécutées de manière
atomique.

* Menu:

* Données locales au fil d'exécution::
* Objets Threads::
* Verrous::
* RLock Objects::
* Condition Objects::
* Semaphore Objects::
* Event Objects::
* Timer Objects::
* Barrier Objects::
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/threading.py


File: python.info,  Node: Données locales au fil d'exécution,  Next: Objets Threads,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.1 Données locales au fil d'exécution
...........................................

Les données locales au fil d'exécution ('thread-local data') sont des
données dont les valeurs sont propres à chaque fil.  Pour gérer les
données locales au fil, il suffit de créer une instance de *note local:
1727. (ou une sous-classe) et d'y stocker des données :

     mydata = threading.local()
     mydata.x = 1

Les valeurs dans l'instance sont différentes pour des 'threads'
différents.

 -- Classe: threading.local

     Classe qui représente les données locales au fil d'exécution.

     For more details and extensive examples, see the documentation
     string of the ‘_threading_local’ module:
     Lib/_threading_local.py(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/_threading_local.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Threads,  Next: Verrous,  Prev: Données locales au fil d'exécution,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.2 Objets 'Threads'
.........................

The *note Thread: 93b. class represents an activity that is run in a
separate thread of control.  There are two ways to specify the activity:
by passing a callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the
*note run(): a2d. method in a subclass.  No other methods (except for
the constructor) should be overridden in a subclass.  In other words,
'only' override the ‘__init__()’ and *note run(): a2d. methods of this
class.

Une fois qu'un objet fil d'exécution est créé, son activité doit être
lancée en appelant la méthode *note start(): 2c6f. du fil.  Ceci invoque
la méthode *note run(): a2d. dans un fil d'exécution séparé.

Une fois que l'activité du fil d'exécution est lancée, le fil est
considéré comme « vivant ».  Il cesse d'être vivant lorsque sa méthode
*note run(): a2d. se termine – soit normalement, soit en levant une
exception non gérée.  La méthode *note is_alive(): 93c. teste si le fil
est vivant.

D'autres fils d'exécution peuvent appeler la méthode *note join(): 11c3.
d'un fil.  Ceci bloque le fil appelant jusqu'à ce que le fil dont la
méthode *note join(): 11c3. est appelée soit terminé.

Un fil d'exécution a un nom.  Le nom peut être passé au constructeur, et
lu ou modifié via l'attribut *note name: 2fd.

Si la méthode *note run(): a2d. lève une exception, *note
threading.excepthook(): 837. est appelée pour s'en occuper.  Par défaut,
*note threading.excepthook(): 837. ignore silencieusement *note
SystemExit: d30.

Un fil d'exécution peut être marqué comme « fil démon ».  Un programme
Python se termine quand il ne reste plus que des fils démons.  La valeur
initiale est héritée du fil d'exécution qui l'a créé.  Cette option peut
être définie par la propriété *note daemon: 2fb. ou par l'argument
'daemon' du constructeur.

     Note: Les fils d'exécution démons sont brusquement terminés à
     l'arrêt du programme Python.  Leurs ressources (fichiers ouverts,
     transactions de base de données, etc.)  peuvent ne pas être
     libérées correctement.  Si vous voulez que vos fils s'arrêtent
     proprement, faites en sorte qu'ils ne soient pas démoniques et
     utilisez un mécanisme de signalisation approprié tel qu'un objet
     évènement *note Event: 113a.

Il y a un objet "fil principal", qui correspond au fil de contrôle
initial dans le programme Python.  Ce n'est pas un fil démon.

There is the possibility that "dummy thread objects" are created.  These
are thread objects corresponding to "alien threads", which are threads
of control started outside the threading module, such as directly from C
code.  Dummy thread objects have limited functionality; they are always
considered alive and daemonic, and cannot be *note joined: 30b2.  They
are never deleted, since it is impossible to detect the termination of
alien threads.

 -- Classe: threading.Thread (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     Ce constructeur doit toujours être appelé avec des arguments
     nommés.  Les arguments sont :

     'group' should be ‘None’; reserved for future extension when a
     ‘ThreadGroup’ class is implemented.

     'target' est l'objet appelable qui doit être invoqué par la méthode
     *note run(): a2d.  La valeur par défaut est ‘None’, ce qui signifie
     que rien n'est appelé.

     'name' is the thread name.  By default, a unique name is
     constructed of the form "Thread-'N'" where 'N' is a small decimal
     number, or "Thread-'N' (target)" where "target" is
     ‘target.__name__’ if the 'target' argument is specified.

     'args' is a list or tuple of arguments for the target invocation.
     Defaults to ‘()’.

     'kwargs' est un dictionnaire d'arguments nommés pour l'invocation
     de l'objet appelable.  La valeur par défaut est ‘{}’.

     S'il ne vaut pas ‘None’, 'daemon' définit explicitement si le fil
     d'exécution est démonique ou pas.  S'il vaut ‘None’ (par défaut),
     la valeur est héritée du fil courant.

     Si la sous-classe réimplémente le constructeur, elle doit s'assurer
     d'appeler le constructeur de la classe de base
     (‘Thread.__init__()’) avant de faire autre chose au fil
     d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Use the 'target' name if 'name'
     argument is omitted.

      -- Méthode: start ()

          Lance l'activité du fil d'exécution.

          Elle ne doit être appelée qu'une fois par objet de fil.  Elle
          fait en sorte que la méthode *note run(): a2d. de l'objet soit
          invoquée dans un fil d'exécution.

          Cette méthode lève une *note RuntimeError: 193. si elle est
          appelée plus d'une fois sur le même objet fil d'exécution.

      -- Méthode: run ()

          Méthode représentant l'activité du fil d'exécution.

          Vous pouvez remplacer cette méthode dans une sous-classe.  La
          méthode standard *note run(): a2d. invoque l'objet appelable
          passé au constructeur de l'objet en tant qu'argument 'target',
          le cas échéant, avec des arguments positionnels et des
          arguments nommés tirés respectivement des arguments 'args' et
          'kwargs'.

          Using list or tuple as the 'args' argument which passed to the
          *note Thread: 93b. could achieve the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from threading import Thread
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> t.run()
               1
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> t.run()
               1

      -- Méthode: join (timeout=None)

          Attend que le fil d'exécution se termine.  Ceci bloque le fil
          appelant jusqu'à ce que le fil dont la méthode *note join():
          11c3. est appelée se termine – soit normalement, soit par une
          exception non gérée – ou jusqu'à ce que le délai optionnel
          'timeout' soit atteint.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).  As *note join():
          11c3. always returns ‘None’, you must call *note is_alive():
          93c. after *note join(): 11c3. to decide whether a timeout
          happened - if the thread is still alive, the *note join():
          11c3. call timed out.

          Lorsque l'argument 'timeout' n'est pas présent ou vaut ‘None’,
          l'opération se bloque jusqu'à ce que le fil d'exécution se
          termine.

          A thread can be joined many times.

          *note join(): 11c3. lève une *note RuntimeError: 193. si une
          tentative est faite pour attendre le fil d'exécution courant
          car cela conduirait à un interblocage ('deadlock' en anglais).
          Attendre via *note join(): 11c3. un fil d'exécution avant son
          lancement est aussi une erreur et, si vous tentez de le faire,
          lève la même exception.

      -- Attribut: name

          Une chaîne de caractères utilisée à des fins d'identification
          seulement.  Elle n'a pas de sémantique.  Plusieurs fils
          d'exécution peuvent porter le même nom.  Le nom initial est
          défini par le constructeur.

      -- Méthode: getName ()
      -- Méthode: setName ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note name: 2fd.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.10.

      -- Attribut: ident

          « L'identificateur de fil d'exécution » de ce fil ou ‘None’ si
          le fil n'a pas été lancé.  C'est un entier non nul.  Voyez
          également la fonction *note get_ident(): 113c.  Les
          identificateurs de fils peuvent être recyclés lorsqu'un fil se
          termine et qu'un autre fil est créé.  L'identifiant est
          disponible même après que le fil ait terminé.

      -- Attribut: native_id

          The Thread ID (‘TID’) of this thread, as assigned by the OS
          (kernel).  This is a non-negative integer, or ‘None’ if the
          thread has not been started.  See the *note get_native_id():
          a2e. function.  This value may be used to uniquely identify
          this particular thread system-wide (until the thread
          terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the OS).

               Note: Tout comme pour les 'Process IDs', les 'Thread IDs'
               ne sont valides (garantis uniques sur le système)
               uniquement du démarrage du fil à sa fin.

          *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS,
          OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: is_alive ()

          Renvoie si le fil d'exécution est vivant ou pas.

          Cette méthode renvoie ‘True’ depuis juste avant le démarrage
          de la méthode *note run(): a2d. et jusqu'à juste après la
          terminaison de la méthode *note run(): a2d.  La fonction *note
          enumerate(): 1862. du module renvoie une liste de tous les
          fils d'exécution vivants.

      -- Attribut: daemon

          A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon
          thread (‘True’) or not (‘False’).  This must be set before
          *note start(): 2c6f. is called, otherwise *note RuntimeError:
          193. is raised.  Its initial value is inherited from the
          creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and
          therefore all threads created in the main thread default to
          *note daemon: 2fb. = ‘False’.

          Le programme Python se termine lorsqu'il ne reste plus de fils
          d'exécution non-démons vivants.

      -- Méthode: isDaemon ()
      -- Méthode: setDaemon ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note daemon: 2fb.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Verrous,  Next: RLock Objects,  Prev: Objets Threads,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.3 Verrous
................

Un verrou primitif n'appartient pas à un fil d'exécution lorsqu'il est
verrouillé.  En Python, c'est actuellement la méthode de synchronisation
la plus bas-niveau qui soit disponible, implémentée directement par le
module d'extension *note _thread: 2.

Un verrou primitif est soit « verrouillé » soit « déverrouillé ».  Il
est créé dans un état déverrouillé.  Il a deux méthodes, *note
acquire(): 685. et *note release(): 12a2.  Lorsque l'état est
déverrouillé, *note acquire(): 685. verrouille et se termine
immédiatement.  Lorsque l'état est verrouillé, *note acquire(): 685.
bloque jusqu'à ce qu'un appel à *note release(): 12a2. provenant d'un
autre fil d'exécution le déverrouille.  À ce moment *note acquire():
685. le verrouille à nouveau et rend la main.  La méthode *note
release(): 12a2. ne doit être appelée que si le verrou est verrouillé,
elle le déverrouille alors et se termine immédiatement.  Déverrouiller
un verrou qui n'est pas verrouillé provoque une *note RuntimeError: 193.

Locks also support the *note context management protocol: 30b7.

When more than one thread is blocked in *note acquire(): 685. waiting
for the state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a *note
release(): 12a2. call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the
waiting threads proceeds is not defined, and may vary across
implementations.

All methods are executed atomically.

 -- Classe: threading.Lock

     The class implementing primitive lock objects.  Once a thread has
     acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it
     is released; any thread may release it.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘Lock’ is now a class.  In earlier
     Pythons, ‘Lock’ was a factory function which returned an instance
     of the underlying private lock type.

      -- Méthode: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default), block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’, do
          not block.  If a call with 'blocking' set to ‘True’ would
          block, return ‘False’ immediately; otherwise, set the lock to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the floating-point 'timeout' argument set to
          a positive value, block for at most the number of seconds
          specified by 'timeout' and as long as the lock cannot be
          acquired.  A 'timeout' argument of ‘-1’ specifies an unbounded
          wait.  It is forbidden to specify a 'timeout' when 'blocking'
          is ‘False’.

          The return value is ‘True’ if the lock is acquired
          successfully, ‘False’ if not (for example if the 'timeout'
          expired).

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'timeout' est
          nouveau.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Lock acquisition can now be
          interrupted by signals on POSIX if the underlying threading
          implementation supports it.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any thread, not only
          the thread which has acquired the lock.

          When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return.  If
          any other threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become
          unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.

          Lorsqu'elle est invoquée sur un verrou déverrouillé, une *note
          RuntimeError: 193. est levée.

          Il n'y a pas de valeur de retour.

      -- Méthode: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the lock is acquired.


File: python.info,  Node: RLock Objects,  Next: Condition Objects,  Prev: Verrous,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.4 RLock Objects
......................

A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired
multiple times by the same thread.  Internally, it uses the concepts of
"owning thread" and "recursion level" in addition to the locked/unlocked
state used by primitive locks.  In the locked state, some thread owns
the lock; in the unlocked state, no thread owns it.

Threads call a lock's *note acquire(): e68. method to lock it, and its
*note release(): 12a2. method to unlock it.

     Note: Reentrant locks support the *note context management
     protocol: 30b7, so it is recommended to use *note with: 5be.
     instead of manually calling *note acquire(): e68. and *note
     release(): 30bb. to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a
     block of code.

RLock's *note acquire(): e68./*note release(): 30bb. call pairs may be
nested, unlike Lock's *note acquire(): 685./*note release(): 12a2.  Only
the final *note release(): 30bb. (the *note release(): 12a2. of the
outermost pair) resets the lock to an unlocked state and allows another
thread blocked in *note acquire(): e68. to proceed.

*note acquire(): e68./*note release(): 30bb. must be used in pairs: each
acquire must have a release in the thread that has acquired the lock.
Failing to call release as many times the lock has been acquired can
lead to deadlock.

 -- Classe: threading.RLock

     This class implements reentrant lock objects.  A reentrant lock
     must be released by the thread that acquired it.  Once a thread has
     acquired a reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it
     has acquired it.

     Note that ‘RLock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class
     that is supported by the platform.

      -- Méthode: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          *note Using RLock as a context manager: 30b7.

               Recommended over manual ‘acquire()’ and *note release():
               30bb. calls whenever practical.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default):

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, block until we are
                    able to acquire lock, or 'timeout', if set to a
                    positive float value.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again, and return immediately.  This is the
                    difference between *note Lock: 1632. and ‘RLock’;
                    *note Lock: 1632. handles this case the same as the
                    previous, blocking until the lock can be acquired.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’:

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again and return immediately.

          In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock,
          return ‘True’.  If the thread was unable to acquire the lock
          (i.e.  if not blocking or the timeout was reached) return
          ‘False’.

          If called multiple times, failing to call *note release():
          30bb. as many times may lead to deadlock.  Consider using
          ‘RLock’ as a context manager rather than calling
          acquire/release directly.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'timeout' est
          nouveau.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement it is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not
          owned by any thread), and if any other threads are blocked
          waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of
          them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level
          is still nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the
          calling thread.

          Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock.
          A *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised if this method is called
          when the lock is not acquired.

          Il n'y a pas de valeur de retour.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition Objects,  Next: Semaphore Objects,  Prev: RLock Objects,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.5 Condition Objects
..........................

A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this
can be passed in or one will be created by default.  Passing one in is
useful when several condition variables must share the same lock.  The
lock is part of the condition object: you don't have to track it
separately.

A condition variable obeys the *note context management protocol: 30b7.:
using the ‘with’ statement acquires the associated lock for the duration
of the enclosed block.  The *note acquire(): 30be. and *note release():
30bf. methods also call the corresponding methods of the associated
lock.

Other methods must be called with the associated lock held.  The *note
wait(): 186e. method releases the lock, and then blocks until another
thread awakens it by calling *note notify(): 1798. or *note
notify_all(): 2f8.  Once awakened, *note wait(): 186e. re-acquires the
lock and returns.  It is also possible to specify a timeout.

The *note notify(): 1798. method wakes up one of the threads waiting for
the condition variable, if any are waiting.  The *note notify_all():
2f8. method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.

Note: the *note notify(): 1798. and *note notify_all(): 2f8. methods
don't release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened
will not return from their *note wait(): 186e. call immediately, but
only when the thread that called *note notify(): 1798. or *note
notify_all(): 2f8. finally relinquishes ownership of the lock.

The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to
synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in
a particular change of state call *note wait(): 186e. repeatedly until
they see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call
*note notify(): 1798. or *note notify_all(): 2f8. when they change the
state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one of
the waiters.  For example, the following code is a generic
producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity:

     # Consume one item
     with cv:
         while not an_item_is_available():
             cv.wait()
         get_an_available_item()

     # Produce one item
     with cv:
         make_an_item_available()
         cv.notify()

The ‘while’ loop checking for the application's condition is necessary
because *note wait(): 186e. can return after an arbitrary long time, and
the condition which prompted the *note notify(): 1798. call may no
longer hold true.  This is inherent to multi-threaded programming.  The
*note wait_for(): 30c0. method can be used to automate the condition
checking, and eases the computation of timeouts:

     # Consume an item
     with cv:
         cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
         get_an_available_item()

To choose between *note notify(): 1798. and *note notify_all(): 2f8,
consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or
several waiting threads.  E.g.  in a typical producer-consumer
situation, adding one item to the buffer only needs to wake up one
consumer thread.

 -- Classe: threading.Condition (lock=None)

     This class implements condition variable objects.  A condition
     variable allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified
     by another thread.

     If the 'lock' argument is given and not ‘None’, it must be a *note
     Lock: 1632. or *note RLock: 2dd. object, and it is used as the
     underlying lock.  Otherwise, a new *note RLock: 2dd. object is
     created and used as the underlying lock.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a
     class.

      -- Méthode: acquire (*args)

          Acquire the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; the return value
          is whatever that method returns.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Release the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; there is no
          return value.

      -- Méthode: wait (timeout=None)

          Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs.  If the calling
          thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
          *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised.

          This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks
          until it is awakened by a *note notify(): 1798. or *note
          notify_all(): 2f8. call for the same condition variable in
          another thread, or until the optional timeout occurs.  Once
          awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).

          When the underlying lock is an *note RLock: 2dd, it is not
          released using its *note release(): 30bf. method, since this
          may not actually unlock the lock when it was acquired multiple
          times recursively.  Instead, an internal interface of the
          *note RLock: 2dd. class is used, which really unlocks it even
          when it has been recursively acquired several times.  Another
          internal interface is then used to restore the recursion level
          when the lock is reacquired.

          The return value is ‘True’ unless a given 'timeout' expired,
          in which case it is ‘False’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Previously, the method always
          returned ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: wait_for (predicate, timeout=None)

          Wait until a condition evaluates to true.  'predicate' should
          be a callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean
          value.  A 'timeout' may be provided giving the maximum time to
          wait.

          This utility method may call *note wait(): 186e. repeatedly
          until the predicate is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs.
          The return value is the last return value of the predicate and
          will evaluate to ‘False’ if the method timed out.

          Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly
          equivalent to writing:

               while not predicate():
                   cv.wait()

          Therefore, the same rules apply as with *note wait(): 186e.:
          The lock must be held when called and is re-acquired on
          return.  The predicate is evaluated with the lock held.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: notify (n=1)

          By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if
          any.  If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when
          this method is called, a *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised.

          This method wakes up at most 'n' of the threads waiting for
          the condition variable; it is a no-op if no threads are
          waiting.

          The current implementation wakes up exactly 'n' threads, if at
          least 'n' threads are waiting.  However, it's not safe to rely
          on this behavior.  A future, optimized implementation may
          occasionally wake up more than 'n' threads.

          Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its
          *note wait(): 186e. call until it can reacquire the lock.
          Since *note notify(): 1798. does not release the lock, its
          caller should.

      -- Méthode: notify_all ()

          Wake up all threads waiting on this condition.  This method
          acts like *note notify(): 1798, but wakes up all waiting
          threads instead of one.  If the calling thread has not
          acquired the lock when this method is called, a *note
          RuntimeError: 193. is raised.

          The method ‘notifyAll’ is a deprecated alias for this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore Objects,  Next: Event Objects,  Prev: Condition Objects,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.6 Semaphore Objects
..........................

This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of
computer science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger
W. Dijkstra (he used the names ‘P()’ and ‘V()’ instead of *note
acquire(): 1234. and *note release(): 30c3.).

A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
*note acquire(): 1234. call and incremented by each *note release():
30c3. call.  The counter can never go below zero; when *note acquire():
1234. finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread
calls *note release(): 30c3.

Semaphores also support the *note context management protocol: 30b7.

 -- Classe: threading.Semaphore (value=1)

     This class implements semaphore objects.  A semaphore manages an
     atomic counter representing the number of *note release(): 30c3.
     calls minus the number of *note acquire(): 1234. calls, plus an
     initial value.  The *note acquire(): 1234. method blocks if
     necessary until it can return without making the counter negative.
     If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     The optional argument gives the initial 'value' for the internal
     counter; it defaults to ‘1’.  If the 'value' given is less than 0,
     *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a
     class.

      -- Méthode: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=None)

          Acquiert un sémaphore.

          When invoked without arguments:

             * If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry,
               decrement it by one and return ‘True’ immediately.

             * If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until
               awoken by a call to *note release(): 30c3.  Once awoken
               (and the counter is greater than 0), decrement the
               counter by 1 and return ‘True’.  Exactly one thread will
               be awoken by each call to *note release(): 30c3.  The
               order in which threads are awoken should not be relied
               on.

          When invoked with 'blocking' set to ‘False’, do not block.  If
          a call without an argument would block, return ‘False’
          immediately; otherwise, do the same thing as when called
          without arguments, and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with a 'timeout' other than ‘None’, it will block
          for at most 'timeout' seconds.  If acquire does not complete
          successfully in that interval, return ‘False’.  Return ‘True’
          otherwise.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'timeout' est
          nouveau.

      -- Méthode: release (n=1)

          Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by 'n'.
          When it was zero on entry and other threads are waiting for it
          to become larger than zero again, wake up 'n' of those
          threads.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the 'n' parameter to
          release multiple waiting threads at once.

 -- Classe: threading.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     Class implementing bounded semaphore objects.  A bounded semaphore
     checks to make sure its current value doesn't exceed its initial
     value.  If it does, *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.  In most
     situations semaphores are used to guard resources with limited
     capacity.  If the semaphore is released too many times it's a sign
     of a bug.  If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a
     class.

* Menu:

* Semaphore Example::


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore Example,  Up: Semaphore Objects

5.18.1.7 ‘Semaphore’ Example
............................

Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for
example, a database server.  In any situation where the size of the
resource is fixed, you should use a bounded semaphore.  Before spawning
any worker threads, your main thread would initialize the semaphore:

     maxconnections = 5
     # ...
     pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)

Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore's acquire and release
methods when they need to connect to the server:

     with pool_sema:
         conn = connectdb()
         try:
             # ... use connection ...
         finally:
             conn.close()

The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming
error which causes the semaphore to be released more than it's acquired
will go undetected.


File: python.info,  Node: Event Objects,  Next: Timer Objects,  Prev: Semaphore Objects,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.8 Event Objects
......................

This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between
threads: one thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.

An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with
the *note set(): 30c8. method and reset to false with the *note clear():
30c9. method.  The *note wait(): 1306. method blocks until the flag is
true.

 -- Classe: threading.Event

     Class implementing event objects.  An event manages a flag that can
     be set to true with the *note set(): 30c8. method and reset to
     false with the *note clear(): 30c9. method.  The *note wait():
     1306. method blocks until the flag is true.  The flag is initially
     false.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a
     class.

      -- Méthode: is_set ()

          Return ‘True’ if and only if the internal flag is true.

          The method ‘isSet’ is a deprecated alias for this method.

      -- Méthode: set ()

          Set the internal flag to true.  All threads waiting for it to
          become true are awakened.  Threads that call *note wait():
          1306. once the flag is true will not block at all.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Reset the internal flag to false.  Subsequently, threads
          calling *note wait(): 1306. will block until *note set():
          30c8. is called to set the internal flag to true again.

      -- Méthode: wait (timeout=None)

          Block as long as the internal flag is false and the timeout,
          if given, has not expired.  The return value represents the
          reason that this blocking method returned; ‘True’ if returning
          because the internal flag is set to true, or ‘False’ if a
          timeout is given and the internal flag did not become true
          within the given wait time.

          When the timeout argument is present and not ‘None’, it should
          be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds, or fractions thereof.

          Modifié dans la version 3.1: Previously, the method always
          returned ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Timer Objects,  Next: Barrier Objects,  Prev: Event Objects,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.9 Timer Objects
......................

This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain
amount of time has passed -- a timer.  *note Timer: 113b. is a subclass
of *note Thread: 93b. and as such also functions as an example of
creating custom threads.

Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their *note Timer.start:
2c6f. method.  The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by
calling the *note cancel(): 30cc. method.  The interval the timer will
wait before executing its action may not be exactly the same as the
interval specified by the user.

Par exemple :

     def hello():
         print("hello, world")

     t = Timer(30.0, hello)
     t.start()  # after 30 seconds, "hello, world" will be printed

 -- Classe: threading.Timer (interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)

     Create a timer that will run 'function' with arguments 'args' and
     keyword arguments 'kwargs', after 'interval' seconds have passed.
     If 'args' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty list will be used.
     If 'kwargs' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty dict will be
     used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a
     class.

      -- Méthode: cancel ()

          Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer's
          action.  This will only work if the timer is still in its
          waiting stage.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier Objects,  Next: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: Timer Objects,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.10 Barrier Objects
.........................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a
fixed number of threads that need to wait for each other.  Each of the
threads tries to pass the barrier by calling the *note wait(): 30ce.
method and will block until all of the threads have made their *note
wait(): 30ce. calls.  At this point, the threads are released
simultaneously.

The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of
threads.

As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server
thread:

     b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)

     def server():
         start_server()
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = accept_connection()
             process_server_connection(connection)

     def client():
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = make_connection()
             process_client_connection(connection)

 -- Classe: threading.Barrier (parties, action=None, timeout=None)

     Create a barrier object for 'parties' number of threads.  An
     'action', when provided, is a callable to be called by one of the
     threads when they are released.  'timeout' is the default timeout
     value if none is specified for the *note wait(): 30ce. method.

      -- Méthode: wait (timeout=None)

          Pass the barrier.  When all the threads party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all released
          simultaneously.  If a 'timeout' is provided, it is used in
          preference to any that was supplied to the class constructor.

          The return value is an integer in the range 0 to 'parties' -
          1, different for each thread.  This can be used to select a
          thread to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               i = barrier.wait()
               if i == 0:
                   # Only one thread needs to print this
                   print("passed the barrier")

          If an 'action' was provided to the constructor, one of the
          threads will have called it prior to being released.  Should
          this call raise an error, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 11c4.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a thread is
          waiting.

      -- Méthode: reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any threads
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 11c4.
          exception.

          Note that using this function may require some external
          synchronization if there are other threads whose state is
          unknown.  If a barrier is broken it may be better to just
          leave it and create a new one.

      -- Méthode: abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 30ce. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 11c4.  Use this for example if one of the
          threads needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the application.

          It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a
          sensible 'timeout' value to automatically guard against one of
          the threads going awry.

      -- Attribut: parties

          The number of threads required to pass the barrier.

      -- Attribut: n_waiting

          The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.

      -- Attribut: broken

          Booléen qui vaut ‘True’ si la barrière est rompue.

 -- Exception: threading.BrokenBarrierError

     Cette exception, une sous-classe de *note RuntimeError: 193, est
     déclenchée lorsque l'objet *note Barrier: 11c2. est réinitialisé ou
     cassé.


File: python.info,  Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: Barrier Objects,  Up: threading --- Thread-based parallelism

5.18.1.11 Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the ‘with’ statement
.........................................................................

All of the objects provided by this module that have ‘acquire’ and
‘release’ methods can be used as context managers for a *note with: 5be.
statement.  The ‘acquire’ method will be called when the block is
entered, and ‘release’ will be called when the block is exited.  Hence,
the following snippet:

     with some_lock:
         # do something...

est équivalente à :

     some_lock.acquire()
     try:
         # do something...
     finally:
         some_lock.release()

Currently, *note Lock: 1632, *note RLock: 2dd, *note Condition: 1137,
*note Semaphore: 1138, and *note BoundedSemaphore: 1139. objects may be
used as *note with: 5be. statement context managers.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Prev: threading --- Thread-based parallelism,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.2 ‘multiprocessing’ -- Process-based parallelism
-----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/multiprocessing/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<8>.
* Référence::
* Lignes directrices de programmation::
* Exemples: Exemples<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/multiprocessing/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<8>,  Next: Référence,  Up: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.1 Introduction
.....................

*note multiprocessing: 93. is a package that supports spawning processes
using an API similar to the *note threading: ec. module.  The *note
multiprocessing: 93. package offers both local and remote concurrency,
effectively side-stepping the *note Global Interpreter Lock: 147. by
using subprocesses instead of threads.  Due to this, the *note
multiprocessing: 93. module allows the programmer to fully leverage
multiple processors on a given machine.  It runs on both POSIX and
Windows.

Le module *note multiprocessing: 93. introduit aussi des API sans
analogues dans le module *note threading: ec.  Un exemple est l'objet
*note Pool: f58. qui offre un moyen simple de paralléliser l'exécution
d'une fonction sur plusieurs valeurs d'entrée, en distribuant ces
valeurs entre les processus (parallélisme de données).  L'exemple
suivant présente la manière classique de définir une telle fonction dans
un module afin que les processus fils puissent importer ce module avec
succès.  Cet exemple basique de parallélisme de données, utilisant *note
Pool: f58,

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(5) as p:
             print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

affiche sur la sortie standard

     [1, 4, 9]

Voir aussi
..........

*note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background process without blocking
execution of the calling process.  Compared to using the *note Pool:
f58. interface directly, the *note concurrent.futures: 21. API more
readily allows the submission of work to the underlying process pool to
be separated from waiting for the results.

* Menu:

* La classe Process::
* Contextes et méthodes de démarrage::
* Échange d'objets entre les processus::
* Synchronisation entre processus::
* Partager un état entre les processus::
* Utiliser un pool de workers::


File: python.info,  Node: La classe Process,  Next: Contextes et méthodes de démarrage,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.18.2.2 La classe ‘Process’
............................

Dans le module *note multiprocessing: 93, les processus sont instanciés
en créant un objet *note Process: b49. et en appelant sa méthode *note
start(): 30d9.  La classe *note Process: b49. suit la même API que *note
threading.Thread: 93b.  Un exemple trivial d'un programme
multi-processus est

     from multiprocessing import Process

     def f(name):
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

Voici un exemple plus étoffé qui affiche les identifiants des processus
créés :

     from multiprocessing import Process
     import os

     def info(title):
         print(title)
         print('module name:', __name__)
         print('parent process:', os.getppid())
         print('process id:', os.getpid())

     def f(name):
         info('function f')
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         info('main line')
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

La nécessité de la ligne ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ est expliquée dans
la section *note Lignes directrices de programmation: 30da.


File: python.info,  Node: Contextes et méthodes de démarrage,  Next: Échange d'objets entre les processus,  Prev: La classe Process,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.18.2.3 Contextes et méthodes de démarrage
...........................................

Selon la plateforme, *note multiprocessing: 93. gère trois manières de
démarrer un processus.  Ces 'méthodes de démarrage' sont

     'spawn'

          The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process.
          The child process will only inherit those resources necessary
          to run the process object's *note run(): 30dc. method.  In
          particular, unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the
          parent process will not be inherited.  Starting a process
          using this method is rather slow compared to using 'fork' or
          'forkserver'.

          Available on POSIX and Windows platforms.  The default on
          Windows and macOS.

     'fork'

          Le processus parent utilise *note os.fork(): 195. pour
          'forker' l'interpréteur Python.  Le processus fils, quand il
          démarre, est effectivement identique au processus parent.
          Toutes les ressources du parent sont héritées par le fils.
          Notez qu'il est problématique de 'forker' sans danger un
          processus 'multi-threadé'.

          Available on POSIX systems.  Currently the default on POSIX
          except macOS.

               Note: The default start method will change away from
               'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' should
               explicitly specify that via *note get_context(): 2c4. or
               *note set_start_method(): 2c5.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: If Python is able to detect that
          your process has multiple threads, the *note os.fork(): 195.
          function that this start method calls internally will raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Use a different start method.
          See the *note os.fork(): 195. documentation for further
          explanation.

     'forkserver'

          When the program starts and selects the 'forkserver' start
          method, a server process is spawned.  From then on, whenever a
          new process is needed, the parent process connects to the
          server and requests that it fork a new process.  The fork
          server process is single threaded unless system libraries or
          preloaded imports spawn threads as a side-effect so it is
          generally safe for it to use *note os.fork(): 195.  No
          unnecessary resources are inherited.

          Available on POSIX platforms which support passing file
          descriptors over Unix pipes such as Linux.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: 'spawn' added on all POSIX platforms, and
'forkserver' added for some POSIX platforms.  Child processes no longer
inherit all of the parents inheritable handles on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now
the default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe as it
can lead to crashes of the subprocess as macOS system libraries may
start threads.  See bpo-33725(1).

On POSIX using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods will also start
a 'resource tracker' process which tracks the unlinked named system
resources (such as named semaphores or *note SharedMemory: 1614.
objects) created by processes of the program.  When all processes have
exited the resource tracker unlinks any remaining tracked object.
Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
there may be some "leaked" resources.  (Neither leaked semaphores nor
shared memory segments will be automatically unlinked until the next
reboot.  This is problematic for both objects because the system allows
only a limited number of named semaphores, and shared memory segments
occupy some space in the main memory.)

Pour sélectionner une méthode de démarrage, utilisez la fonction *note
set_start_method(): 2c5. dans la clause ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ du
module principal.  Par exemple :

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         mp.set_start_method('spawn')
         q = mp.Queue()
         p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

*note set_start_method(): 2c5. ne doit pas être utilisée plus d'une fois
dans le programme.

Alternativement, vous pouvez utiliser *note get_context(): 2c4. pour
obtenir un contexte.  Les contextes ont la même API que le module
'multiprocessing', et permettent l'utilisation de plusieurs méthodes de
démarrage dans un même programme.

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
         q = ctx.Queue()
         p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

Notez que les objets relatifs à un contexte ne sont pas forcément
compatibles avec les processus d'un contexte différent.  En particulier,
les verrous créés avec le contexte 'fork' ne peuvent pas être passés aux
processus lancés avec les méthodes 'spawn' ou 'forkserver'.

Une bibliothèque qui veut utiliser une méthode de démarrage particulière
devrait probablement faire appel à *note get_context(): 2c4. pour éviter
d'interférer avec le choix de l'utilisateur de la bibliothèque.

     Avertissement: The ‘'spawn'’ and ‘'forkserver'’ start methods
     generally cannot be used with "frozen" executables (i.e., binaries
     produced by packages like 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze') on POSIX
     systems.  The ‘'fork'’ start method may work if code does not use
     threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Échange d'objets entre les processus,  Next: Synchronisation entre processus,  Prev: Contextes et méthodes de démarrage,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.18.2.4 Échange d'objets entre les processus
.............................................

*note multiprocessing: 93. gère deux types de canaux de communication
entre les processus :

'Files' ('queues')

     La classe *note Queue: 17b8. est un clone assez proche de *note
     queue.Queue: 1367.  Par exemple :

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              q = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
              p.start()
              print(q.get())    # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     Queues are thread and process safe.  Any object put into a *note
     multiprocessing: 93. queue will be serialized.

'Tubes' ('pipes')

     La fonction *note Pipe(): 30de. renvoie une paire d'objets de
     connexion connectés à un tube qui est par défaut duplex (à double
     sens).  Par exemple :

          from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

          def f(conn):
              conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
              conn.close()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
              p.start()
              print(parent_conn.recv())   # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     Les deux objets de connexion renvoyés par *note Pipe(): 30de.
     représentent les deux extrémités d'un tube.  Chaque objet de
     connexion possède (entre autres) des méthodes ‘send()’ et ‘recv()’.
     Notez que les données d'un tube peuvent être corrompues si deux
     processus (ou fils d'exécution) essaient de lire ou d'écrire sur la
     même extrémité du tube en même temps.  Bien évidemment, deux
     processus peuvent utiliser les deux extrémités différentes en même
     temps sans risque de corruption.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object and ‘recv()’ re-creates
     the object.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronisation entre processus,  Next: Partager un état entre les processus,  Prev: Échange d'objets entre les processus,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.18.2.5 Synchronisation entre processus
........................................

*note multiprocessing: 93. contient des équivalents à toutes les
primitives de synchronisation de *note threading: ec.  Par exemple il
est possible d'utiliser un verrou pour s'assurer qu'un seul processus à
la fois écrit sur la sortie standard :

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

     def f(l, i):
         l.acquire()
         try:
             print('hello world', i)
         finally:
             l.release()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         for num in range(10):
             Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

Sans le verrou, les sorties des différents processus risquent d'être
mélangées.


File: python.info,  Node: Partager un état entre les processus,  Next: Utiliser un pool de workers,  Prev: Synchronisation entre processus,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.18.2.6 Partager un état entre les processus
.............................................

Comme mentionné plus haut, il est généralement préférable d'éviter
autant que possible d'utiliser des états partagés en programmation
concurrente.  C'est particulièrement vrai quand plusieurs processus sont
utilisés.

Cependant, si vous devez réellement partager des données, *note
multiprocessing: 93. permet de le faire de deux manières.

'Mémoire partagée'

     Les données peuvent être stockées dans une mémoire partagée en
     utilisant des *note Value: 30e1. ou des *note Array: 30e2.  Par
     exemple, le code suivant

          from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

          def f(n, a):
              n.value = 3.1415927
              for i in range(len(a)):
                  a[i] = -a[i]

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              num = Value('d', 0.0)
              arr = Array('i', range(10))

              p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
              p.start()
              p.join()

              print(num.value)
              print(arr[:])

     affiche

          3.1415927
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

     Les arguments ‘'d'’ et ‘'i'’ utilisés à la création des ‘num’ et
     ‘arr’ sont des codes de types identiques à ceux du module *note
     array: 7. : ‘'d'’ indique un flottant double-précision et ‘'i'’
     indique un entier signé.  Ces objets peuvent être partagés sans
     problème entre processus ou fils d’exécution.

     Pour plus de flexibilité dans l'utilisation de mémoire partagée,
     vous pouvez utiliser le module *note multiprocessing.sharedctypes:
     99. qui permet la création d'objets arbitraires 'ctypes' alloués
     depuis la mémoire partagée.

'Processus serveur'

     Un objet gestionnaire renvoyé par *note Manager(): caa. contrôle un
     processus serveur qui détient les objets Python et autorise les
     autres processus à les manipuler à l'aide de mandataires.

     Un gestionnaire renvoyé par *note Manager(): caa. prend en charge
     les types *note list: 5fe, *note dict: 253, *note Namespace: 30e3,
     *note Lock: 1556, *note RLock: 1557, *note Semaphore: 30e4, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: 30e5, *note Condition: 30e6, *note Event: 1820,
     *note Barrier: 30e7, *note Queue: 17b8, *note Value: 30e1. et *note
     Array: 30e2.  Par exemple,

          from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

          def f(d, l):
              d[1] = '1'
              d['2'] = 2
              d[0.25] = None
              l.reverse()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              with Manager() as manager:
                  d = manager.dict()
                  l = manager.list(range(10))

                  p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l))
                  p.start()
                  p.join()

                  print(d)
                  print(l)

     affiche

          {0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
          [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

     Les processus serveurs de gestionnaires sont plus flexibles que les
     mémoires partagées parce qu'ils peuvent gérer des types d'objets
     arbitraires.  Aussi, un gestionnaire unique peut être partagé par
     les processus sur différentes machines à travers le réseau.
     Cependant, ils sont plus lents que les mémoires partagées.


File: python.info,  Node: Utiliser un pool de workers,  Prev: Partager un état entre les processus,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.18.2.7 Utiliser un pool de 'workers'
......................................

La classe *note Pool: f58. représente un pool de processus de travail.
Elle possède des méthodes qui permettent aux tâches d'être déchargées
vers les processus de travail de différentes manières.

Par exemple :

     from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
     import time
     import os

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # start 4 worker processes
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

             # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))

             # print same numbers in arbitrary order
             for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
                 print(i)

             # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"

             # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process

             # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
             multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
             print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])

             # make a single worker sleep for 10 seconds
             res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             try:
                 print(res.get(timeout=1))
             except TimeoutError:
                 print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")

             print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")

         # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
         print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")

Notez que les méthodes d'un pool ne doivent être utilisées que par le
processus qui l'a créée.

     Note: Functionality within this package requires that the
     ‘__main__’ module be importable by the children.  This is covered
     in *note Lignes directrices de programmation: 30da. however it is
     worth pointing out here.  This means that some examples, such as
     the *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool: f58. examples will not work in
     the interactive interpreter.  For example:

          >>> from multiprocessing import Pool
          >>> p = Pool(5)
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     return x*x
          ...
          >>> with p:
          ...     p.map(f, [1,2,3])
          Process PoolWorker-1:
          Process PoolWorker-2:
          Process PoolWorker-3:
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>

     Si vous essayez ce code, il affichera trois traces d'appels
     complètes entrelacées de manière semi-aléatoire, et vous devrez
     vous débrouiller pour arrêter le processus maître.


File: python.info,  Node: Référence,  Next: Lignes directrices de programmation,  Prev: Introduction<8>,  Up: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.8 Référence
..................

Le paquet *note multiprocessing: 93. reproduit en grande partie l'API du
module *note threading: ec.

* Menu:

* Process et exceptions::
* Tubes (pipes) et files (queues): Tubes pipes et files queues.
* Divers: Divers<3>.
* Objets de connexions::
* Primitives de synchronisation::
* Objets ctypes partagés::
* Gestionnaires: Gestionnaires<2>.
* Objets mandataires::
* Pools de processus::
* Auditeurs et Clients::
* Clés d'authentification::
* Journalisation: Journalisation<2>.
* Le module multiprocessing.dummy: Le module multiprocessing dummy.


File: python.info,  Node: Process et exceptions,  Next: Tubes pipes et files queues,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.9 ‘Process’ et exceptions
................................

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Process (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     Les objets 'process' représentent une activité exécutée dans un
     processus séparé.  La classe *note Process: b49. a des équivalents
     à toutes les méthodes de *note threading.Thread: 93b.

     The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     'group' should always be ‘None’; it exists solely for compatibility
     with *note threading.Thread: 93b.  'target' is the callable object
     to be invoked by the *note run(): 30dc. method.  It defaults to
     ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.  'name' is the process name (see
     *note name: 30eb. for more details).  'args' is the argument tuple
     for the target invocation.  'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword
     arguments for the target invocation.  If provided, the keyword-only
     'daemon' argument sets the process *note daemon: 30ec. flag to
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.  If ‘None’ (the default), this flag will be
     inherited from the creating process.

     By default, no arguments are passed to 'target'.  The 'args'
     argument, which defaults to ‘()’, can be used to specify a list or
     tuple of the arguments to pass to 'target'.

     Si une sous-classe redéfinit le constructeur, elle doit s'assurer
     d'invoquer le constructeur de la classe de base
     (‘Process.__init__()’) avant de faire autre chose du processus.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

      -- Méthode: run ()

          Méthode représentant l'activité du processus.

          Vous pouvez redéfinir cette méthode dans une sous-classe.  La
          méthode standard *note run(): 30dc. invoque l'objet appelable
          passé au constructeur comme argument 'target', si fourni, avec
          les arguments séquentiels et nommés respectivement pris depuis
          les paramètres 'args' et 'kwargs'.

          Using a list or tuple as the 'args' argument passed to *note
          Process: b49. achieves the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from multiprocessing import Process
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> p.run()
               1
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> p.run()
               1

      -- Méthode: start ()

          Démarre l'activité du processus.

          Elle doit être appelée au plus une fois par objet processus.
          Elle s'arrange pour que la méthode *note run(): 30dc. de
          l'objet soit invoquée dans un processus séparé.

      -- Méthode: join ([timeout])

          Si l'argument optionnel 'timeout' est ‘None’ (par défaut), la
          méthode bloque jusqu'à ce que le processus dont la méthode
          *note join(): 30ed. a été appelée se termine.  Si 'timeout'
          est un nombre positif, elle bloque au maximum pendant
          'timeout' secondes.  Notez que la méthode renvoie ‘None’ si le
          processus se termine ou si le temps d'exécution expire.
          Vérifiez l'attribut *note exitcode: 30ee. du processus pour
          déterminer s'il s'est terminé.

          'join' peut être appelée plusieurs fois sur un même processus.

          Un processus ne peut pas s'attendre lui-même car cela
          causerait un interblocage.  C'est une erreur d'essayer
          d'attendre un processus avant qu'il ne soit démarré.

      -- Attribut: name

          Le nom du processus.  Le nom est une chaîne de caractères
          utilisée uniquement pour l'identification du processus.  Il
          n'a pas de sémantique.  Plusieurs processus peuvent avoir le
          même nom.

          Le nom initial est déterminé par le constructeur.  Si aucun
          nom explicite n'est fourni au constructeur, un nom de la forme
          « Process-N[1]:N[2]:...:N[k] » est construit, où chaque N[k]
          est le N^e fils de son parent.

      -- Méthode: is_alive ()

          Renvoie vrai si le processus est en vie, faux sinon.

          Grossièrement, un objet processus est en vie depuis le moment
          où la méthode *note start(): 30d9. finit de s'exécuter jusqu'à
          ce que le processus fils se termine.

      -- Attribut: daemon

          L'option 'daemon' du processus, une valeur booléenne.
          L'option doit être réglée avant que la méthode *note start():
          30d9. ne soit appelée.

          La valeur initiale est héritée par le processus créateur.

          Quand un processus se ferme, il tente de terminer tous ses
          processus fils 'daemon'.

          Notez qu'un processus 'daemon' n'est pas autorisé à créer des
          processus fils.  Sinon un processus 'daemon' laisserait ses
          fils orphelins lorsqu'il se termine par la fermeture de son
          parent.  De plus, ce 'ne sont pas' des 'daemons' ou services
          Unix, ce sont des processus normaux qui seront terminés (et
          non attendus) si un processus non 'daemon' se ferme.

     En plus de l'API *note threading.Thread: 93b, les objets *note
     Process: b49. supportent aussi les attributs et méthodes suivants :

      -- Attribut: pid

          Renvoie l'ID du processus.  Avant que le processus ne soit
          lancé, la valeur est ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: exitcode

          The child's exit code.  This will be ‘None’ if the process has
          not yet terminated.

          If the child's *note run(): 30dc. method returned normally,
          the exit code will be 0.  If it terminated via *note
          sys.exit(): 1329. with an integer argument 'N', the exit code
          will be 'N'.

          If the child terminated due to an exception not caught within
          *note run(): 30dc, the exit code will be 1.  If it was
          terminated by signal 'N', the exit code will be the negative
          value '-N'.

      -- Attribut: authkey

          La clé d'authentification du processus (une chaîne d'octets).

          Quand *note multiprocessing: 93. est initialisé, une chaîne
          aléatoire est assignée au processus principal, en utilisant
          *note os.urandom(): 50f.

          Quand un objet *note Process: b49. est créé, il hérité de la
          clé d'authentification de son parent, bien que cela puisse
          être changé à l'aide du paramètre *note authkey: 30f1. pour
          une autre chaîne d'octets.

          Voir *note Clés d'authentification: 30f2.

      -- Attribut: sentinel

          Un identifiant numérique de l'objet système qui devient
          « prêt » quand le processus se termine.

          You can use this value if you want to wait on several events
          at once using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10c3.
          Otherwise calling *note join(): 30ed. is simpler.

          On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the
          ‘WaitForSingleObject’ and ‘WaitForMultipleObjects’ family of
          API calls.  On POSIX, this is a file descriptor usable with
          primitives from the *note select: c0. module.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: terminate ()

          Terminate the process.  On POSIX this is done using the *note
          SIGTERM: 1398. signal; on Windows ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          used.  Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will
          not be executed.

          Notez que les descendants du processus ne sont 'pas' terminés
          – ils deviendront simplement orphelins.

               Avertissement: Si cette méthode est utilisée quand le
               processus associé utilise un tube ou une file, alors le
               tube ou la file sont susceptibles d'être corrompus et
               peuvent devenir inutilisables par les autres processus.
               De façon similaire, si le processus a acquis un verrou,
               un sémaphore ou autre, alors le terminer est susceptible
               de provoquer des blocages dans les autres processus.

      -- Méthode: kill ()

          Same as *note terminate(): 30f3. but using the ‘SIGKILL’
          signal on POSIX.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme l'objet *note Process: b49, libérant toutes les
          ressources qui lui sont associées.  Une *note ValueError: 1ff.
          est levée si le processus sous-jacent tourne toujours.  Une
          fois que *note close(): b47. se termine avec succès, la
          plupart des autres méthodes et attributs des objets *note
          Process: b49. lèveront une *note ValueError: 1ff.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Notez que les méthodes *note start(): 30d9, *note join(): 30ed,
     *note is_alive(): 30ef, *note terminate(): 30f3. et *note exitcode:
     30ee. ne doivent être appelées que par le processus ayant créé
     l'objet 'process'.

     Exemple d'utilisation de quelques méthodes de *note Process: b49. :

          >>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> p = mp_context.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... initial> False
          >>> p.start()
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... started> True
          >>> p.terminate()
          >>> time.sleep(0.1)
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... stopped exitcode=-SIGTERM> False
          >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
          True

 -- Exception: multiprocessing.ProcessError

     La classe de base de toutes les exceptions de *note
     multiprocessing: 93.

 -- Exception: multiprocessing.BufferTooShort

     Exception raised by ‘Connection.recv_bytes_into()’ when the
     supplied buffer object is too small for the message read.

     Si ‘e’ est une instance de *note BufferTooShort: 30f5. alors
     ‘e.args[0]’ donnera un message sous forme d'une chaîne d'octets.

 -- Exception: multiprocessing.AuthenticationError

     Levée quand il y a une erreur d'authentification.

 -- Exception: multiprocessing.TimeoutError

     Levée par les méthodes avec temps d'exécution limité, quand ce
     temps expire.


File: python.info,  Node: Tubes pipes et files queues,  Next: Divers<3>,  Prev: Process et exceptions,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.10 Tubes ('pipes') et files ('queues')
.............................................

Quand plusieurs processus travaillent ensemble, il est souvent
nécessaire de les faire communiquer entre eux pour éviter d'avoir à
utiliser des primitives de synchronisation comme les verrous.

Pour échanger des messages vous pouvez utiliser un *note Pipe(): 30de.
(pour une connexion entre deux processus) ou une file (qui autorise de
plusieurs producteurs et consommateurs).

Les types *note Queue: 17b8, *note SimpleQueue: 903. et *note
JoinableQueue: 30f9. sont des files FIFO multi-producteurs et
multi-consommateurs modelées sur la classe *note queue.Queue: 1367. de
la bibliothèque standard.  Elles diffèrent par l'absence dans *note
Queue: 17b8. des méthodes *note task_done(): 30fa. et *note join():
30fb. introduites dans la classe *note queue.Queue: 1367. par Python
2.5.

Si vous utilisez *note JoinableQueue: 30f9. alors vous 'devez' appeler
*note JoinableQueue.task_done(): 30fc. pour chaque tâche retirée de la
file, sans quoi le sémaphore utilisé pour compter le nombre de tâches
non accomplies pourra éventuellement déborder, levant une exception.

One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that *note
multiprocessing: 93. queues serializes all objects that are put into
them using *note pickle: a5.  The object return by the get method is a
re-created object that does not share memory with the original object.

Notez que vous pouvez aussi créer une file partagée en utilisant un
objet gestionnaire – voir *note Gestionnaires: 30fd.

     Note: *note multiprocessing: 93. utilise les exceptions habituelles
     *note queue.Empty: 30fe. et *note queue.Full: 30ff. pour signaler
     un dépassement du temps maximal autorisé.  Elles ne sont pas
     disponibles dans l'espace de nommage *note multiprocessing: 93.
     donc vous devez les importer depuis le module *note queue: b5.

     Note: Quand un objet est placé dans une file, l'objet est sérialisé
     par 'pickle' et un fil d'exécution en arrière-plan transmettra
     ensuite les données sérialisées sur un tube sous-jacent.  Cela a
     certaines conséquences qui peuvent être un peu surprenantes, mais
     ne devrait causer aucune difficulté pratique — si elles vous
     embêtent vraiment, alors vous pouvez à la place utiliser une file
     créée avec un *note manager: 30fd.

       1. Après avoir placé un objet dans une file vide il peut y avoir
          un délai infinitésimal avant que la méthode *note empty():
          15b6. de la file renvoie *note False: b27. et que *note
          get_nowait(): 3100. renvoie une valeur sans lever de *note
          queue.Empty: 30fe.

       2. Si plusieurs processus placent des objets dans la file, il est
          possible pour les objets d'être reçus de l'autre côté dans le
          désordre.  Cependant, les objets placés par un même processus
          seront toujours récupérés dans l'ordre d'insertion.

     Avertissement: Si un processus est tué à l'aide de *note
     Process.terminate(): 30f3. ou *note os.kill(): 1340. pendant qu'il
     tente d'utiliser une *note Queue: 17b8, alors les données de la
     file peuvent être corrompues.  Cela peut par la suite causer des
     levées d'exceptions dans les autres processus quand ils tenteront
     d'utiliser la file.

     Avertissement: Comme mentionné plus haut, si un processus fils a
     placé des éléments dans la file (et qu'il n'a pas utilisé *note
     JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread: 3101.), alors le processus ne se
     terminera pas tant que les éléments placés dans le tampon n'auront
     pas été transmis au tube.

     Cela signifie que si vous essayez d'attendre ce processus vous
     pouvez obtenir un interblocage, à moins que vous ne soyez sûr que
     tous les éléments placés dans la file ont été consommés.  De même,
     si le processus fils n'est pas un 'daemon' alors le processus
     parent pourrait bloquer à la fermeture quand il tentera d'attendre
     tous ses fils non 'daemons'.

     Notez que la file créée à l'aide d'un gestionnaire n'a pas ce
     problème.  Voir *note Lignes directrices de programmation: 30da.

Pour un exemple d'utilisation de files pour de la communication entre
les processus, voir *note Exemples: 3102.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.Pipe ([duplex])

     Renvoie une paire ‘(conn1, conn2)’ d'objets *note Connection: 1665.
     représentant les extrémités d'un tube.

     Si 'duplex' vaut ‘True’ (par défaut), alors le tube est
     bidirectionnel.  Si 'duplex' vaut ‘False’ il est unidirectionnel :
     ‘conn1’ ne peut être utilisé que pour recevoir des messages et
     ‘conn2’ que pour en envoyer.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object using *note pickle: a5.
     and the ‘recv()’ re-creates the object.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Queue ([maxsize])

     Renvoie une file partagée entre les processus utilisant un tube et
     quelques verrous / sémaphores.  Quand un processus place
     initialement un élément sur la file, un fil d'exécution 'chargeur'
     est démarré pour transférer les objets du tampon vers le tube.

     Les exceptions habituelles *note queue.Empty: 30fe. et *note
     queue.Full: 30ff. du module *note queue: b5. de la bibliothèque
     standard sont levées pour signaler les 'timeouts'.

     *note Queue: 17b8. implémente toutes les méthodes de *note
     queue.Queue: 1367. à l'exception de *note task_done(): 30fa. et
     *note join(): 30fb.

      -- Méthode: qsize ()

          Renvoie la taille approximative de la file.  Ce nombre n'est
          pas fiable en raison des problématiques de 'multithreading' et
          'multiprocessing'.

          Note that this may raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. on
          platforms like macOS where ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not
          implemented.

      -- Méthode: empty ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la file est vide, ‘False’ sinon.  Cette
          valeur n'est pas fiable en raison des problématiques de
          'multithreading' et 'multiprocessing'.

          May raise an *note OSError: 40d. on closed queues.  (not
          guaranteed)

      -- Méthode: full ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la file est pleine, ‘False’ sinon.  Cette
          valeur n'est pas fiable en raison des problématiques de
          'multithreading' et 'multiprocessing'.

      -- Méthode: put (obj[, block[, timeout]])

          Place 'obj' dans la file.  Si l'argument optionnel 'block'
          vaut ‘True’ (par défaut) est que 'timeout' est ‘None’ (par
          défaut), bloque jusqu'à ce qu'une place libre soit disponible.
          Si 'timeout' est un nombre positif, la méthode bloquera au
          maximum 'timeout' secondes et lève une exception *note
          queue.Full: 30ff. si aucune place libre n'a été trouvée dans
          le temps imparti.  Autrement ('block' vaut ‘False’), place un
          élément dans la file si une place libre est immédiatement
          disponible, ou lève une exception *note queue.Full: 30ff. dans
          le cas contraire ('timeout' est ignoré dans ce cas).

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: si la file a été marquée comme
          fermée, une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Auparavant, une
          *note AssertionError: 696. était levée.

      -- Méthode: put_nowait (obj)

          Équivalent à ‘put(obj, False)’.

      -- Méthode: get ([block[, timeout]])

          Retire et renvoie un élément de la file.  Si l'argument
          optionnel 'block' vaut ‘True’ (par défaut) et que 'timeout'
          est ‘None’ (par défaut), bloque jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit
          disponible.  Si 'timeout' (le délai maximal autorisé) est un
          nombre positif, la méthode bloque au maximum 'timeout'
          secondes et lève une exception *note queue.Empty: 30fe. si
          aucun élément n'est disponible dans le temps imparti.
          Autrement ('block' vaut ‘False’), renvoie un élément s'il est
          immédiatement disponible, ou lève une exception *note
          queue.Empty: 30fe. dans le cas contraire ('timeout' est ignoré
          dans ce cas).

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: si la file a été marquée comme
          terminée, une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Auparavant,
          une *note OSError: 40d.  était levée.

      -- Méthode: get_nowait ()

          Équivalent à ‘get(False)’.

     *note multiprocessing.Queue: 17b8. possède quelques méthodes
     additionnelles non présentes dans *note queue.Queue: 1367.  Ces
     méthodes ne sont habituellement pas nécessaires pour la plupart des
     codes :

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Indique que plus aucune donnée ne peut être placée sur la file
          par le processus courant.  Le fil d'exécution en arrière-plan
          se terminera quand il aura transféré toutes les données du
          tampon vers le tube.  Elle est appelée automatiquement quand
          la file est collectée par le ramasse-miettes.

      -- Méthode: join_thread ()

          Attend le fil d'exécution d'arrière-plan.  Elle peut seulement
          être utilisée une fois que *note close(): 17b9. a été appelée.
          Elle bloque jusqu'à ce que le fil d'arrière-plan se termine,
          assurant que toutes les données du tampon ont été transmises
          au tube.

          Par défaut si un processus n'est pas le créateur de la file
          alors à la fermeture elle essaie d'attendre le fil d'exécution
          d'arrière-plan de la file.  Le processus peut appeler *note
          cancel_join_thread(): 3101. pour que *note join_thread():
          3106. ne fasse rien.

      -- Méthode: cancel_join_thread ()

          Empêche *note join_thread(): 3106. de bloquer.  En
          particulier, cela empêche le fil d'arrière-plan d'être attendu
          automatiquement quand le processus se ferme – voir *note
          join_thread(): 3106.

          Un meilleur nom pour cette méthode pourrait être
          ‘allow_exit_without_flush()’.  Cela peut provoquer des pertes
          de données placées dans la file, et il est très rare d'avoir
          besoin de l'utiliser.  Elle n'est là que si vous souhaitez
          terminer immédiatement le processus sans transférer les
          données du tampon, et que vous êtes prêt à perdre des données.

          Note: Le fonctionnement de cette classe requiert une
          implémentation de sémaphore partagé sur le système
          d'exploitation hôte.  Sans cela, la fonctionnalité est
          désactivée et la tentative d'instancier une *note Queue: 17b8.
          lève une *note ImportError: 40f.  Voir bpo-3770(1) pour plus
          d'informations.  Cette remarque reste valable pour les autres
          types de files spécialisées définies par la suite.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.SimpleQueue

     Un type de *note Queue: 17b8. simplifié, très proche d'un *note
     Pipe: 30de. avec verrou.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme la file : libère les ressources internes.

          Une file ne doit plus être utilisée après sa fermeture.  Par
          exemple, les méthodes *note get(): 3107, *note put(): 3108. et
          *note empty(): 15b7. ne doivent plus être appelées.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

      -- Méthode: empty ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la file est vide, ‘False’ sinon.

          Always raises an *note OSError: 40d. if the SimpleQueue is
          closed.

      -- Méthode: get ()

          Supprime et renvoie un élément de la file.

      -- Méthode: put (item)

          Place 'item' dans la file.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.JoinableQueue ([maxsize])

     *note JoinableQueue: 30f9, une sous-classe de *note Queue: 17b8,
     est une file qui ajoute des méthodes *note task_done(): 30fc. et
     *note join(): 3109.

      -- Méthode: task_done ()

          Indique qu'une tâche précédemment placée dans la file est
          achevée.  Utilisée par les consommateurs de la file.  Pour
          chaque *note get(): 19fb. utilisée pour récupérer une tâche,
          un appel ultérieur à *note task_done(): 30fc. indique à la
          file que le traitement de la tâche est terminé.

          Si un *note join(): 30fb. est actuellement bloquant, il se
          débloquera quand tous les éléments auront été traités
          (signifiant qu'un appel à *note task_done(): 30fc. a été reçu
          pour chaque élément ayant été placé via *note put(): 19fa.
          dans la file).

          Lève une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. si appelée plus de
          fois qu'il y avait d'éléments dans la file.

      -- Méthode: join ()

          Bloque jusqu'à ce que tous les éléments de la file aient été
          récupérés et traités.

          Le compteur des tâches non accomplies augmente chaque fois
          qu'un élément est ajouté à la file.  Le compteur redescend
          chaque fois qu'un consommateur appelle *note task_done():
          30fc. pour indiquer qu'un élément a été récupéré et que tout
          le travail qui le concerne est complété.  Quand le compteur
          des tâches non accomplies atteint zéro, *note join(): 30fb.
          est débloquée.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Divers<3>,  Next: Objets de connexions,  Prev: Tubes pipes et files queues,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.11 Divers
................

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.active_children ()

     Renvoie la liste de tous les fils vivants du processus courant.

     Appeler cette méthode provoque l'effet de bord d'attendre tout
     processus qui n'a pas encore terminé.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.cpu_count ()

     Renvoie le nombre de CPUs sur le système.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current
     process can use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
     *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. (or
     ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’).

     Une *note NotImplementedError: 225. est levée quand il est
     impossible de déterminer ce nombre.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0. *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The return value can also be
     overridden using the *note -X cpu_count: 175. flag or *note
     PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 20d. as this is merely a wrapper around the *note
     os: a0. cpu count APIs.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.current_process ()

     Renvoie l'objet *note Process: b49. correspondant au processus
     courant.

     Un analogue à *note threading.current_thread(): 2fe.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.parent_process ()

     Renvoie l'objet *note Process: b49. correspondant au processus père
     de *note current_process(): 310c.  Pour le processus maître,
     ‘parent_process’ vaut ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.freeze_support ()

     Ajoute le support des programmes utilisant *note multiprocessing:
     93. qui ont été figés pour produire un exécutable Windows (testé
     avec 'py2exe', 'PyInstaller' et 'cx_Freeze').

     Cette fonction doit être appelée juste après la ligne ‘if __name__
     == '__main__'’ du module principal.  Par exemple :

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

          def f():
              print('hello world!')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              Process(target=f).start()

     Si la ligne ‘freeze_support()’ est omise, alors tenter de lancer
     l'exécutable figé lève une *note RuntimeError: 193.

     Appeler ‘freeze_support()’ n'a pas d'effet quand elle est invoquée
     sur un système d'exploitation autre que Windows.  De plus, si le
     module est lancé normalement par l'interpréteur Python sous Windows
     (le programme n'a pas été figé), alors ‘freeze_support()’ n'a pas
     d'effet.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods ()

     Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
     is the default.  The possible start methods are ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’
     and ‘'forkserver'’.  Not all platforms support all methods.  See
     *note Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.get_context (method=None)

     Renvoie un contexte ayant les mêmes attributs que le module *note
     multiprocessing: 93.

     If 'method' is ‘None’ then the default context is returned.
     Otherwise 'method' should be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’.
     *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if the specified start method is
     not available.  See *note Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.get_start_method (allow_none=False)

     Renvoie le nom de la méthode de démarrage utilisée pour démarrer le
     processus.

     Si le nom de la méthode n'a pas été fixé et que 'allow_none' est
     faux, alors la méthode de démarrage est réglée à celle par défaut
     et son nom est renvoyé.  Si la méthode n'a pas été fixée et que
     'allow_none' est vrai, ‘None’ est renvoyé.

     The return value can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’ or
     ‘None’.  See *note Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: sur macOS, la méthode de démarrage
     'spawn' est maintenant la méthode par défaut.  La méthode de
     démarrage 'fork' doit être considérée comme dangereuse car elle
     peut entraîner des plantages du sous-processus.  Voir bpo-33725(1).

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.set_executable (executable)

     Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child
     process.  (By default *note sys.executable: 3af. is used).
     Embedders will probably need to do some thing like

          set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

     avant de pouvoir créer des processus fils.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Now supported on POSIX when the
     ‘'spawn'’ start method is used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload (module_names)

     Set a list of module names for the forkserver main process to
     attempt to import so that their already imported state is inherited
     by forked processes.  Any *note ImportError: 40f. when doing so is
     silently ignored.  This can be used as a performance enhancement to
     avoid repeated work in every process.

     For this to work, it must be called before the forkserver process
     has been launched (before creating a ‘Pool’ or starting a *note
     Process: b49.).

     Only meaningful when using the ‘'forkserver'’ start method.  See
     *note Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.set_start_method (method, force=False)

     Set the method which should be used to start child processes.  The
     'method' argument can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’ or ‘'forkserver'’.
     Raises *note RuntimeError: 193. if the start method has already
     been set and 'force' is not ‘True’.  If 'method' is ‘None’ and
     'force' is ‘True’ then the start method is set to ‘None’.  If
     'method' is ‘None’ and 'force' is ‘False’ then the context is set
     to the default context.

     Notez que cette fonction ne devrait être appelée qu'une fois au
     plus, et l'appel devrait être protégé à l'intérieur d'une clause
     ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ dans le module principal.

     See *note Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Note: *note multiprocessing: 93. ne contient pas d'analogues à
     *note threading.active_count(): 2ff, *note threading.enumerate():
     1862, *note threading.settrace(): 834, *note
     threading.setprofile(): 835, *note threading.Timer: 113b, ou *note
     threading.local: 1727.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Objets de connexions,  Next: Primitives de synchronisation,  Prev: Divers<3>,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.12 Objets de connexions
..............................

Les objets de connexion autorisent l'envoi et la réception d'objets
sérialisables ou de chaînes de caractères.  Ils peuvent être vus comme
des interfaces de connexion ('sockets') connectées orientées messages.

Les objets de connexion sont habituellement créés via *note Pipe: 30de.
– voir aussi *note Auditeurs et Clients: 3110.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.connection.Connection

      -- Méthode: send (obj)

          Envoie un objet sur l'autre extrémité de la connexion, qui
          devra être lu avec *note recv(): 3112.

          L'objet doit être sérialisable.  Les 'pickles' très larges
          (approximativement 32 Mo+, bien que cela dépende de l'OS)
          pourront lever une exception *note ValueError: 1ff.

      -- Méthode: recv ()

          Renvoie un objet envoyé depuis l'autre extrémité de la
          connexion en utilisant *note send(): 3111.  Bloque jusqu'à ce
          que quelque chose soit reçu.  Lève une *note EOFError: 12b9.
          s'il n'y a plus rien à recevoir et que l'autre extrémité a été
          fermée.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          Renvoie le descripteur de fichier ou identifiant utilisé par
          la connexion.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme la connexion.

          Elle est appelée automatiquement quand la connexion est
          collectée par le ramasse-miettes.

      -- Méthode: poll ([timeout])

          Renvoie vrai ou faux selon si des données sont disponibles à
          la lecture.

          Si 'timeout' n'est pas spécifié la méthode renverra
          immédiatement.  Si 'timeout' est un nombre alors il spécifie
          le temps maximum de blocage en secondes.  Si 'timeout' est
          ‘None’, un temps d'attente infini est utilisé.

          Notez que plusieurs objets de connexions peuvent être attendus
          en même temps à l'aide de *note
          multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10c3.

      -- Méthode: send_bytes (buffer[, offset[, size]])

          Envoie des données binaires depuis un *note bytes-like object:
          d1d. comme un message complet.

          Si 'offset' est fourni, les données sont lues depuis cette
          position dans le tampon 'buffer'.  Si 'size' est fourni, il
          indique le nombre d'octets qui seront lus depuis 'buffer'.
          Les tampons très larges (approximativement 32 MiB+, bien que
          cela dépende de l'OS) pourront lever une exception *note
          ValueError: 1ff.

      -- Méthode: recv_bytes ([maxlength])

          Renvoie un message complet de données binaires envoyées depuis
          l'autre extrémité de la connexion comme une chaîne de
          caractères.  Bloque jusqu'à ce qu'il y ait quelque chose à
          recevoir.  Lève une *note EOFError: 12b9. s'il ne reste rien à
          recevoir et que l'autre côté de la connexion a été fermé.

          Si 'maxlength' est précisé que que le message est plus long
          que 'maxlength' alors une *note OSError: 40d. est levée et la
          connexion n'est plus lisible.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Cette fonction levait auparavant
          une *note IOError: 103d, qui est maintenant un alias pour
          *note OSError: 40d.

      -- Méthode: recv_bytes_into (buffer[, offset])

          Lit et stocke dans 'buffer' un message complet de données
          binaires envoyées depuis l'autre extrémité de la connexion et
          renvoie le nombre d'octets du message.  Bloque jusqu'à ce
          qu'il y ait quelque chose à recevoir.  Lève une *note
          EOFError: 12b9. s'il ne reste rien à recevoir et que l'autre
          côté de la connexion a été fermé.

          'buffer' doit être un *note bytes-like object: d1d. accessible
          en écriture.  Si 'offset' est donné, le message sera écrit
          dans le tampon à partir de cette position.  'offset' doit être
          un entier positif, inférieur à la taille de 'buffer' (en
          octets).

          Si le tampon est trop petit une exception ‘BufferTooShort’ est
          levée et le message complet est accessible via ‘e.args[0]’ où
          ‘e’ est l'instance de l'exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les objets de connexions eux-mêmes
     peuvent maintenant être transférés entre les processus en utilisant
     *note Connection.send(): 3111. et *note Connection.recv(): 3112.

     Connection objects also now support the context management protocol
     - see *note Le type gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78.  *note
     __enter__(): 2205. returns the connection object, and *note
     __exit__(): 2206. calls *note close(): 3114.

Par exemple :

     >>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
     >>> a, b = Pipe()
     >>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
     >>> b.recv()
     [1, 'hello', None]
     >>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
     >>> a.recv_bytes()
     b'thank you'
     >>> import array
     >>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
     >>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
     >>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
     >>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
     >>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
     >>> arr2
     array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
     Avertissement: La méthode *note Connection.recv(): 3112.
     désérialise automatiquement les données qu'elle reçoit, ce qui peut
     être un risque de sécurité à moins que vous ne fassiez réellement
     confiance au processus émetteur du message.

     Par conséquent, à moins que l'objet de connexion soit instancié par
     ‘Pipe()’, vous ne devriez uniquement utiliser les méthodes *note
     recv(): 3112. et *note send(): 3111. après avoir effectué une
     quelconque forme d'authentification.  Voir *note Clés
     d'authentification: 30f2.

     Avertissement: Si un processus est tué pendant qu'il essaye de lire
     ou écrire sur le tube, alors les données du tube ont des chances
     d'être corrompues, parce qu'il devient impossible d'être sûr d'où
     se trouvent les bornes du message.


File: python.info,  Node: Primitives de synchronisation,  Next: Objets ctypes partagés,  Prev: Objets de connexions,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.13 Primitives de synchronisation
.......................................

Généralement les primitives de synchronisation ne sont pas nécessaire
dans un programme multi-processus comme elles le sont dans un programme
multi-fils d'exécution.  Voir la documentation du module *note
threading: ec.

Notez que vous pouvez aussi créer des primitives de synchronisation en
utilisant un objet gestionnaire – voir *note Gestionnaires: 30fd.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

     Un objet barrière : un clone de *note threading.Barrier: 11c2.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore ([value])

     Un objet sémaphore lié : un analogue proche de *note
     threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1139.

     Une seule différence existe avec son proche analogue : le premier
     argument de sa méthode ‘acquire’ est appelé 'block', pour la
     cohérence avec *note Lock.acquire(): 311b.

          Note: Sur macOS, elle n'est pas distinguable de la classe
          *note Semaphore: 30e4. parce que ‘sem_getvalue()’ n'est pas
          implémentée sur cette plateforme.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Condition ([lock])

     Une variable conditionnelle : un alias pour *note
     threading.Condition: 1137.

     Si 'lock' est spécifié il doit être un objet *note Lock: 1556. ou
     *note RLock: 1557. du module *note multiprocessing: 93.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode *note wait_for(): 30c0. a
     été ajoutée.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Event

     Un clone de *note threading.Event: 113a.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Lock

     Un verrou non récursif : un analogue proche de *note
     threading.Lock: 1632.  Une fois que le processus ou le fil
     d'exécution a acquis un verrou, les tentatives suivantes
     d'acquisition depuis n'importe quel processus ou fil d'exécution
     bloqueront jusqu'à ce qu'il soit libéré ; n'importe quel processus
     ou fil peut le libérer.  Les concepts et comportements de *note
     threading.Lock: 1632. qui s'appliquent aux fils d'exécution sont
     répliqués ici dans *note multiprocessing.Lock: 1556. et
     s'appliquent aux processus et aux fils d'exécution, à l'exception
     de ce qui est indiqué.

     Notez que *note Lock: 1556. est en fait une fonction 'factory' qui
     renvoie une instance de ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock’
     initialisée avec un contexte par défaut.

     *note Lock: 1556. supporte le protocole *note context manager: 5c0.
     et peut ainsi être utilisé avec une instruction *note with: 5be.

      -- Méthode: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

          Avec l'argument 'block' à ‘True’ (par défaut), l'appel de
          méthode bloquera jusqu'à ce que le verrou soit dans
          déverrouillé, puis le verrouillera avant de renvoyer ‘True’.
          Notez que le nom de ce premier argument diffère de celui de
          *note threading.Lock.acquire(): 685.

          Avec l'argument 'block' à ‘False’, l'appel de méthode ne
          bloque pas.  Si le verrou est actuellement verrouillé, renvoie
          ‘False’ ; autrement verrouille le verrou et renvoie ‘True’.

          Quand invoqué avec un nombre flottant positif comme 'timeout',
          bloque au maximum pendant ce nombre spécifié de secondes, tant
          que le verrou ne peut être acquis.  Les invocations avec une
          valeur de 'timeout' négatives sont équivalents à zéro.  Les
          invocations avec un 'timeout' à ‘None’ (par défaut)
          correspondent à un délai d'attente infini.  Notez que le
          traitement des valeurs de 'timeout' négatives et ‘None’
          diffère du comportement implémenté dans *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): 685.  L'argument 'timeout' n'a pas
          d'implication pratique si l'argument 'block' est mis ) ‘False’
          et est alors ignoré.  Renvoie ‘True’ si le verrou a été acquis
          et ‘False’ si le temps de 'timeout' a expiré.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Libère un verrou.  Elle peut être appelée depuis n'importe
          quel processus ou fil d'exécution, pas uniquement le processus
          ou le fil qui a acquis le verrou à l'origine.

          Le comportement est le même que *note
          threading.Lock.release(): 12a2. excepté que lorsque la méthode
          est appelée sur un verrou déverrouillé, une *note ValueError:
          1ff. est levée.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.RLock

     Un objet verrou récursif : un analogue proche de *note
     threading.RLock: 2dd.  Un verrou récursif doit être libéré par le
     processus ou le fil d'exécution qui l'a acquis.  Quand un processus
     ou un fil acquiert un verrou récursif, le même processus/fil peut
     l'acquérir à nouveau sans bloquer ; le processus/fil doit le
     libérer autant de fois qu'il l'acquiert.

     Notez que *note RLock: 1557. est en fait une fonction 'factory' qui
     renvoie une instance de ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock’
     initialisée avec un contexte par défaut.

     *note RLock: 1557. supporte le protocole *note context manager:
     5c0. et peut ainsi être utilisée avec une instruction *note with:
     5be.

      -- Méthode: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

          Quand invoqué avec l'argument 'block' à ‘True’, bloque jusqu'à
          ce que le verrou soit déverrouillé (n'appartenant à aucun
          processus ou fil d'exécution) sauf s'il appartient déjà au
          processus ou fil d'exécution courant.  Le processus ou fil
          d'exécution courant prend la possession du verrou (s'il ne l'a
          pas déjà) et incrémente d'un le niveau de récursion du verrou,
          renvoyant ainsi ‘True’.  Notez qu'il y a plusieurs différences
          dans le comportement de ce premier argument comparé à
          l'implémentation de *note threading.RLock.acquire(): e68, à
          commencer par le nom de l'argument lui-même.

          Quand invoqué avec l'argument 'block' à ‘False’, ne bloque
          pas.  Si le verrou est déjà acquis (et possédé) par un autre
          processus ou fil d'exécution, le processus/fil courant n'en
          prend pas la possession et le niveau de récursion n'est pas
          incrémenté, résultant en une valeur de retour à ‘False’.  Si
          le verrou est déverrouillé, le processus/fil courant en prend
          possession et incrémente son niveau de récursion, renvoyant
          ‘True’.

          L'usage et les comportements de l'argument 'timeout' sont les
          mêmes que pour *note Lock.acquire(): 311b.  Notez que certains
          de ces comportements diffèrent par rapport à ceux implémentés
          par *note threading.RLock.acquire(): e68.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Libère un verrou, décrémentant son niveau de récursion.  Si
          après la décrémentation le niveau de récursion est zéro,
          réinitialise le verrou à un état déverrouillé (n'appartenant à
          aucun processus ou fil d'exécution) et si des processus/fils
          attendent que le verrou se déverrouillé, autorise un seul
          d'entre-eux à continuer.  Si après cette décrémentation le
          niveau de récursion est toujours strictement positif, le
          verrou reste verrouillé et propriété du processus/fil
          appelant.

          N'appelez cette méthode que si le processus ou fil d'exécution
          appelant est propriétaire du verrou.  Une *note
          AssertionError: 696. est levée si cette méthode est appelée
          par un processus/fil autre que le propriétaire ou si le verrou
          n'est pas verrouillé (possédé).  Notez que le type d'exception
          levé dans cette situation diffère du comportement de *note
          threading.RLock.release(): 30bb.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.Semaphore ([value])

     Un objet sémaphore, proche analogue de *note threading.Semaphore:
     1138.

     Une seule différence existe avec son proche analogue : le premier
     argument de sa méthode ‘acquire’ est appelé 'block', pour la
     cohérence avec *note Lock.acquire(): 311b.

     Note: Sous macOS, ‘sem_timedwait’ n'est pas pris en charge, donc
     appeler ‘acquire()’ avec un temps d'exécution limité émule le
     comportement de cette fonction en utilisant une boucle d'attente.

     Note: Certaines des fonctionnalités de ce paquet requièrent une
     implémentation fonctionnelle de sémaphores partagés sur le système
     hôte.  Sans cela, le module ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ sera
     désactivé, et les tentatives de l'importer lèveront une *note
     ImportError: 40f.  Voir bpo-3770(1) pour plus d'informations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ctypes partagés,  Next: Gestionnaires<2>,  Prev: Primitives de synchronisation,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.14 Objets ‘ctypes’ partagés
..................................

Il est possible de créer des objets partagés utilisant une mémoire
partagée pouvant être héritée par les processus fils.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.Value (typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)

     Renvoie un objet *note ctypes: 2a. alloué depuis la mémoire
     partagée.  Par défaut la valeur de retour est en fait un 'wrapper'
     synchronisé autour de l'objet.  L'objet en lui-même est accessible
     par l'attribut 'value' de l'une *note Value: 30e1.

     'typecode_or_type' détermine le type de l'objet renvoyé : il s'agit
     soit d'un type 'ctype' soit d'un caractère 'typecode' tel
     qu'utilisé par le module *note array: 7.  '*args' est passé au
     constructeur de ce type.

     Si 'lock' vaut ‘True’ (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou
     récursif est créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock'
     est un objet *note Lock: 1556. ou *note RLock: 1557. alors il sera
     utilisé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' vaut
     ‘False’, l'accès à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement
     protégé par un verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément
     « 'process-safe' ».

     Les opérations telles que ‘+=’ qui impliquent une lecture et une
     écriture ne sont pas atomiques.  Ainsi si vous souhaitez par
     exemple réaliser une incrémentation atomique sur une valeur
     partagée, vous ne pouvez pas simplement faire

          counter.value += 1

     En supposant que le verrou associé est récursif (ce qui est le cas
     par défaut), vous pouvez à la place faire

          with counter.get_lock():
              counter.value += 1

     Notez que 'lock' est un argument 'keyword-only'.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     Renvoie un tableau 'ctypes' alloué depuis la mémoire partagée.  Par
     défaut la valeur de retour est en fait un 'wrapper' synchronisé
     autour du tableau.

     'typecode_or_type' détermine le type des éléments du tableau
     renvoyé : il s'agit soit d'un type 'ctype' soit d'un caractère
     'typecode' tel qu'utilisé par le module *note array: 7.  Si
     'size_or_initialize' est un entier, alors il détermine la taille du
     tableau, et le tableau sera initialisé avec des zéros.  Autrement,
     'size*or_initializer' est une séquence qui sera utilisée pour
     initialiser le tableau et dont la taille détermine celle du
     tableau.

     Si 'lock' vaut ‘True’ (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou est
     créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' est un objet
     *note Lock: 1556. ou *note RLock: 1557. alors il sera utilisé pour
     synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' vaut ‘False’, l'accès
     à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un
     verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « 'process-safe' ».

     Notez que 'lock' est un argument 'keyword-only'.

     Notez qu'un tableau de *note ctypes.c_char: 2d96. a ses attributs
     'value' et 'raw' qui permettent de l'utiliser pour stocker et
     récupérer des chaînes de caractères.

* Menu:

* Le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes: Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.


File: python.info,  Node: Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes,  Up: Objets ctypes partagés

5.18.2.15 Le module ‘multiprocessing.sharedctypes’
..................................................

Le module *note multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 99. fournit des fonctions
pour allouer des objets *note ctypes: 2a. depuis la mémoire partagée,
qui peuvent être hérités par les processus fils.

     Note: Bien qu'il soit possible de stocker un pointeur en mémoire
     partagée, rappelez-vous qu'un pointer référence un emplacement dans
     l'espace d'adressage d'un processus particulier.  Ainsi, ce
     pointeur a de fortes chances d'être invalide dans le contexte d'un
     autre processus et déréférencer le pointeur depuis ce second
     processus peut causer un plantage.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer)

     Renvoie un tableau 'ctypes' alloué depuis la mémoire partagée.

     'typecode_or_type' détermine le type des éléments du tableau
     renvoyé : il s'agit soit d'un type 'ctype' soit d'un caractère
     codant le type des éléments du tableau ('typecode') tel qu'utilisé
     par le module *note array: 7.  Si 'size_or_initialize' est un
     entier, alors il détermine la taille du tableau, et le tableau sera
     initialisé avec des zéros.  Autrement, 'size_or_initializer' est
     une séquence qui sera utilisée pour initialiser le tableau et dont
     la taille détermine celle du tableau.

     Notez que définir ou récupérer un élément est potentiellement non
     atomique – utilisez plutôt *note Array(): 3122. pour vous assurer
     de synchroniser automatiquement avec un verrou.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue (typecode_or_type,
          *args)

     Renvoie un objet 'ctypes' alloué depuis la mémoire partagée.

     'typecode_or_type' détermine le type de l'objet renvoyé : il s'agit
     soit d'un type 'ctype' soit d'un caractère 'typecode' tel
     qu'utilisé par le module *note array: 7.  '*args' est passé au
     constructeur de ce type.

     Notez que définir ou récupérer un élément est potentiellement non
     atomique – utilisez plutôt *note Value(): 3124. pour vous assurer
     de synchroniser automatiquement avec un verrou.

     Notez qu'un tableau de *note ctypes.c_char: 2d96. a ses attributs
     'value' et 'raw' qui permettent de l'utiliser pour stocker et
     récupérer des chaînes de caractères – voir la documentation de
     *note ctypes: 2a.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     Identique à *note RawArray(): 3121. à l'exception que suivant la
     valeur de 'lock' un 'wrapper' de synchronisation 'process-safe'
     pourra être renvoyé à la place d'un tableau 'ctypes' brut.

     Si 'lock' vaut ‘True’ (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou est
     créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' est un objet
     *note Lock: 1556. ou *note RLock: 1557. alors il sera utilisé pour
     synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' vaut ‘False’, l'accès
     à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un
     verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « 'process-safe' ».

     Notez que 'lock' est un argument 'keyword-only'.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value (typecode_or_type,
          *args, lock=True)

     Identique à *note RawValue(): 3123. à l'exception que suivant la
     valeur de 'lock' un 'wrapper' de synchronisation 'process-safe'
     pourra être renvoyé à la place d'un objet 'ctypes' brut.

     Si 'lock' vaut ‘True’ (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou est
     créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' est un objet
     *note Lock: 1556. ou *note RLock: 1557. alors il sera utilisé pour
     synchroniser l'accès à la valeur.  Si 'lock' vaut ‘False’, l'accès
     à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un
     verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « 'process-safe' ».

     Notez que 'lock' est un argument 'keyword-only'.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy (obj)

     Renvoie un objet 'ctypes' alloué depuis la mémoire partagée, qui
     est une copie de l'objet 'ctypes' 'obj'.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized (obj[, lock])

     Renvoie un 'wrapper' 'process-safe' autour de l'objet 'ctypes' qui
     utilise 'lock' pour synchroniser l'accès.  Si 'lock' est ‘None’
     (par défaut), un objet *note multiprocessing.RLock: 1557. est créé
     automatiquement.

     Un 'wrapper' synchronisé aura deux méthodes en plus de celles de
     l'objet qu'il enveloppe : ‘get_obj()’ renvoie l'objet 'wrappé' et
     ‘get_lock()’ renvoie le verrou utilisé pour la synchronisation.

     Notez qu'accéder à l'objet 'ctypes' à travers le 'wrapper' peut
     s'avérer beaucoup plus lent qu'accéder directement à l'objet
     'ctypes' brut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les objets synchronisés supportent le
     protocole *note context manager: 5c0.

Le tableau ci-dessous compare la syntaxe de création des objets 'ctypes'
partagés depuis une mémoire partagée avec la syntaxe normale 'ctypes'.
(Dans le tableau, ‘MyStruct’ est une sous-classe quelconque de *note
ctypes.Structure: 1cf.)

ctypes                   'sharedctypes' utilisant un    'sharedctypes' utilisant un
                         type                           'typecode'
                                                        
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
c_double(2.4)            RawValue(c_double, 2.4)        RawValue('d', 2.4)
                                                        
                                                        
MyStruct(4, 6)           RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)
                         
                                                        
(c_short * 7)()          RawArray(c_short, 7)           RawArray('h', 7)
                                                        
                                                        
(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)     RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))     RawArray('i', (9, 2, 8))
                                                        

Ci-dessous un exemple où des objets 'ctypes' sont modifiés par un
processus fils :

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
     from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
     from ctypes import Structure, c_double

     class Point(Structure):
         _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

     def modify(n, x, s, A):
         n.value **= 2
         x.value **= 2
         s.value = s.value.upper()
         for a in A:
             a.x **= 2
             a.y **= 2

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         n = Value('i', 7)
         x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
         s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
         A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

         p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         print(n.value)
         print(x.value)
         print(s.value)
         print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])

Les résultats affichés sont

     49
     0.1111111111111111
     HELLO WORLD
     [(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires<2>,  Next: Objets mandataires,  Prev: Objets ctypes partagés,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.16 Gestionnaires
.......................

Les gestionnaires fournissent un moyen de créer des données qui peuvent
être partagées entre les différents processus, incluant le partage à
travers le réseau entre des processus tournant sur des machines
différentes.  Un objet gestionnaire contrôle un processus serveur qui
gère les 'shared objects'.  Les autres processus peuvent accéder aux
objets partagés à l'aide de mandataires.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.Manager ()

     Renvoie un objet *note SyncManager: 3127. démarré qui peut être
     utilisé pour partager des objets entre les processus.  L'objet
     gestionnaire renvoyé correspond à un processus fils instancié et
     possède des méthodes pour créer des objets partagés et renvoyer les
     mandataires correspondants.

Les processus gestionnaires seront arrêtés dès qu'ils seront collectés
par le ramasse-miettes ou que leur processus parent se terminera.  Les
classes gestionnaires sont définies dans le module *note
multiprocessing.managers: 96. :

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager (address=None,
          authkey=None, serializer='pickle', ctx=None, *,
          shutdown_timeout=1.0)

     Crée un objet 'BaseManager'.

     Une fois créé il faut appeler *note start(): 3129. ou
     ‘get_server().serve_forever()’ pour assurer que l'objet
     gestionnaire référence un processus gestionnaire démarré.

     'address' est l'adresse sur laquelle le processus gestionnaire
     écoute pour de nouvelles connexions.  Si 'address' est ‘None’, une
     adresse arbitraire est choisie.

     'authkey' est la clé d'authentification qui sera utilisée pour
     vérifier la validité des connexions entrantes sur le processus
     serveur.  Si 'authkey' est ‘None’ alors ‘current_process().authkey’
     est utilisée.  Autrement 'authkey' est utilisée et doit être une
     chaîne d'octets.

     'serializer' must be ‘'pickle'’ (use *note pickle: a5.
     serialization) or ‘'xmlrpclib'’ (use *note xmlrpc.client: 12d.
     serialization).

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).
     See the ‘get_context()’ function.

     'shutdown_timeout' is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the
     process used by the manager completes in the *note shutdown():
     312a. method.  If the shutdown times out, the process is
     terminated.  If terminating the process also times out, the process
     is killed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

      -- Méthode: start ([initializer[, initargs]])

          Démarre un sous-processus pour démarrer le gestionnaire.  Si
          'initializer' n'est pas ‘None’ alors le sous-processus
          appellera ‘initializer(*initargs)’ quand il démarrera.

      -- Méthode: get_server ()

          Renvoie un objet ‘Server’ qui représente le serveur sous le
          contrôle du gestionnaire.  L'objet ‘Server’ supporte la
          méthode ‘serve_forever()’ :

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> server = manager.get_server()
               >>> server.serve_forever()

          ‘Server’ possède en plus un attribut *note address: 312c.

      -- Méthode: connect ()

          Connecte un objet gestionnaire local au processus gestionnaire
          distant :

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> m.connect()

      -- Méthode: shutdown ()

          Stoppe le processus utilisé par le gestionnaire.  Cela est
          disponible uniquement si *note start(): 3129. a été utilisée
          pour démarrer le processus serveur.

          Cette méthode peut être appelée plusieurs fois.

      -- Méthode: register (typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[,
               method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])

          Une méthode de classe qui peut être utilisée pour enregistrer
          un type ou un appelable avec la classe gestionnaire.

          'typeif' est un « 'type identifier' » qui est utilisé pour
          identifier un type particulier d'objet partagé.  Cela doit
          être une chaîne de caractères.

          'callable' est un objet appelable utilisé pour créer les
          objets avec cet identifiant de type.  Si une instance de
          gestionnaire prévoit de se connecter au serveur en utilisant
          sa méthode *note connect(): 312d. ou si l'argument
          'create_method' vaut ‘False’ alors cet argument peut être
          laissé à ‘None’.

          'proxytype' est une sous-classe de *note BaseProxy: 312f.
          utilisée pour créer des mandataires autour des objets partagés
          avec ce 'typeid'.  S'il est ‘None’, une classe mandataire sera
          créée automatiquement.

          'exposed' est utilisé pour préciser une séquence de noms de
          méthodes dont les mandataires pour ce 'typeid' doivent être
          autorisés à accéder via *note BaseProxy._callmethod(): 3130.
          (Si 'exposed' est ‘None’ alors ‘proxytype._exposed_’ est
          utilisé à la place s'il existe.)  Dans le cas où aucune liste
          'exposed' n'est précisée, toutes les « méthodes publiques » de
          l'objet partagé seront accessibles.  (Ici une « méthode
          publique » signifie n'importe quel attribut qui possède une
          méthode *note __call__(): 546. et dont le nom ne commence pas
          par un ‘'_'’.)

          'method_to_typeid' est un tableau associatif utilisé pour
          préciser le type de retour de ces méthodes exposées qui
          doivent renvoyer un mandataire.  Il associé un nom de méthode
          à une chaîne de caractères 'typeid'.  (Si 'method_to_typeid'
          est ‘None’, ‘proxytype._method_to_typeid_’ est utilisé à la
          place s'il existe).  Si le nom d'une méthode n'est pas une clé
          de ce tableau associatif ou si la valeur associée est ‘None’,
          l'objet renvoyé par la méthode sera une copie de la valeur.

          'create_method' détermine si une méthode devrait être créée
          avec le nom 'typeid', qui peut être utilisée pour indiquer au
          processus serveur de créer un nouvel objet partagé et d'en
          renvoyer un mandataire.  a valeur par défaut est ‘True’.

     Les instances de *note BaseManager: 3128. ont aussi une propriété
     en lecture seule :

      -- Attribut: address

          L'adresse utilisée par le gestionnaire.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les objets gestionnaires supportent le
     protocole des gestionnaires de contexte – voir *note Le type
     gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78.  *note __enter__(): 2205. démarre
     le processus serveur (s'il n'a pas déjà été démarré) et renvoie
     l'objet gestionnaire.  *note __exit__(): 2206. appelle *note
     shutdown(): 312a.

     Dans les versions précédentes *note __enter__(): 2205. ne démarrait
     pas le processus serveur du gestionnaire s'il n'était pas déjà
     démarré.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager

     Une sous-classe de *note BaseManager: 3128. qui peut être utilisée
     pour la synchronisation entre processus.  Des objets de ce type
     sont renvoyés par *note multiprocessing.Manager(): caa.

     Ces méthodes créent et renvoient des *note Objets mandataires: ca9.
     pour un certain nombre de types de données communément utilisés
     pour être synchronisés entre les processus.  Elles incluent
     notamment des listes et dictionnaires partagés.

      -- Méthode: Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

          Crée un objet *note threading.Barrier: 11c2. partagé et
          renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: BoundedSemaphore ([value])

          Crée un objet *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1139. partagé
          et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Condition ([lock])

          Crée un objet *note threading.Condition: 1137. partagé et
          renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

          Si 'lock' est fourni alors il doit être un mandataire pour un
          objet *note threading.Lock: 1632. ou *note threading.RLock:
          2dd.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode *note wait_for():
          30c0. a été ajoutée.

      -- Méthode: Event ()

          Crée un objet *note threading.Event: 113a. partagé et renvoie
          un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Lock ()

          Crée un objet *note threading.Lock: 1632. partagé et renvoie
          un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Namespace ()

          Crée un objet *note Namespace: 30e3. partagé et renvoie un
          mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Queue ([maxsize])

          Crée un objet *note queue.Queue: 1367. partagé et renvoie un
          mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: RLock ()

          Crée un objet *note threading.RLock: 2dd. partagé et renvoie
          un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Semaphore ([value])

          Crée un objet *note threading.Semaphore: 1138. partagé et
          renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Array (typecode, sequence)

          Crée un tableau et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: Value (typecode, value)

          Crée un objet avec un attribut ‘value’ accessible en écriture
          et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: dict ()

      -- Méthode: dict (mapping)

      -- Méthode: dict (sequence)

          Crée un objet *note dict: 253. partagé et renvoie un
          mandataire pour cet objet.

      -- Méthode: list ()

      -- Méthode: list (sequence)

          Crée un objet *note list: 5fe. partagé et renvoie un
          mandataire pour cet objet.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les objets partagés peuvent être
     imbriqués.  Par exemple, un conteneur partagé tel qu'une liste
     partagée peu contenir d'autres objets partagés qui seront aussi
     gérés et synchronisés par le *note SyncManager: 3127.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.managers.Namespace

     Un type qui peut être enregistré avec *note SyncManager: 3127.

     Un espace de nommage n'a pas de méthodes publiques, mais possède
     des attributs accessibles en écriture.  Sa représentation montre
     les valeurs de ses attributs.

     Cependant, en utilisant un mandataire pour un espace de nommage, un
     attribut débutant par ‘'_'’ est un attribut du mandataire et non de
     l'objet cible :

          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
          >>> Global = manager.Namespace()
          >>> Global.x = 10
          >>> Global.y = 'hello'
          >>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
          >>> print(Global)
          Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

* Menu:

* Gestionnaires personnalisés::
* Utiliser un gestionnaire distant::


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires personnalisés,  Next: Utiliser un gestionnaire distant,  Up: Gestionnaires<2>

5.18.2.17 Gestionnaires personnalisés
.....................................

Pour créer son propre gestionnaire, il faut créer une sous-classe de
*note BaseManager: 3128. et utiliser la méthode de classe *note
register(): 312e. pour enregistrer de nouveaux types ou 'callables' au
gestionnaire.  Par exemple :

     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

     class MathsClass:
         def add(self, x, y):
             return x + y
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with MyManager() as manager:
             maths = manager.Maths()
             print(maths.add(4, 3))         # prints 7
             print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # prints 56


File: python.info,  Node: Utiliser un gestionnaire distant,  Prev: Gestionnaires personnalisés,  Up: Gestionnaires<2>

5.18.2.18 Utiliser un gestionnaire distant
..........................................

Il est possible de lancer un serveur gestionnaire sur une machine et
d'avoir des clients l'utilisant sur d'autres machines (en supposant que
les pare-feus impliqués l'autorisent).

Exécuter les commandes suivantes crée un serveur pour une file simple
partagée à laquelle des clients distants peuvent accéder :

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> from queue import Queue
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()

Un client peut accéder au serveur comme suit :

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.put('hello')

Un autre client peut aussi l'utiliser :

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.get()
     'hello'

Les processus locaux peuvent aussi accéder à cette file, utilisant le
code précédent sur le client pour y accéder à distance :

     >>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class Worker(Process):
     ...     def __init__(self, q):
     ...         self.q = q
     ...         super().__init__()
     ...     def run(self):
     ...         self.q.put('local hello')
     ...
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> w = Worker(queue)
     >>> w.start()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     ...
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: Objets mandataires,  Next: Pools de processus,  Prev: Gestionnaires<2>,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.19 Objets mandataires
............................

Un mandataire est un objet qui 'référence' un objet partagé appartenant
(supposément) à un processus différent.  L'objet partagé est appelé le
'référent' du mandataire.  Plusieurs mandataires peuvent avoir un même
référent.

Un mandataire possède des méthodes qui appellent les méthodes
correspondantes du référent (bien que toutes les méthodes du référent ne
soient pas nécessairement accessibles à travers le mandataire).  De
cette manière, un mandataire peut être utilisé comme le serait sont
référent :

     >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
     >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
     >>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
     >>> print(l)
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
     >>> print(repr(l))
     <ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
     >>> l[4]
     16
     >>> l[2:5]
     [4, 9, 16]

Notez qu'appliquer *note str(): 437. à un mandataire renvoie la
représentation du référent, alors que *note repr(): 7e9. renvoie celle
du mandataire.

Une fonctionnalité importantes des objets mandataires est qu'ils sont
sérialisables et peuvent donc être échangés entre les processus.  Ainsi,
un référent peut contenir des *note Objets mandataires: ca9.  Cela
permet d'imbriquer des listes et dictionnaires gérés ainsi que d'autres
*note Objets mandataires: ca9. :

     >>> a = manager.list()
     >>> b = manager.list()
     >>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
     >>> print(a, b)
     [<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
     >>> b.append('hello')
     >>> print(a[0], b)
     ['hello'] ['hello']

De même, les mandataires de listes et dictionnaires peuvent être
imbriqués dans d'autres :

     >>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
     >>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
     >>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
     >>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
     >>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
     >>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
     >>> print(l_outer[0])
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> print(l_outer[1])
     {'c': 3, 'z': 26}

Si des objets standards (non 'proxyfiés') *note list: 5fe. ou *note
dict: 253. sont contenus dans un référent, les modifications sur ces
valeurs mutables ne seront pas propagées à travers le gestionnaire parce
que le mandataire n'a aucun moyen de savoir quand les valeurs contenues
sont modifiées.  Cependant, stocker une valeur dans un conteneur
mandataire (qui déclenche un appel à ‘__setitem__’ sur le mandataire)
propage bien la modification à travers le gestionnaire et modifie
effectivement l'élément, il est ainsi possible de réassigner la valeur
modifiée au conteneur mandataire :

     # create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
     lproxy = manager.list()
     lproxy.append({})
     # now mutate the dictionary
     d = lproxy[0]
     d['a'] = 1
     d['b'] = 2
     # at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
     # updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
     lproxy[0] = d

Cette approche est peut-être moins pratique que d'utiliser des *note
Objets mandataires: ca9. imbriqués pour la majorité des cas
d'utilisation, mais démontre aussi un certain niveau de contrôle sur la
synchronisation.

     Note: Les types de mandataires de *note multiprocessing: 93.
     n'implémentent rien pour la comparaison par valeurs.  Par exemple,
     on a :

          >>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
          False

     Il faut à la place simplement utiliser une copie du référent pour
     faire les comparaisons.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy

     Les objets mandataires sont des instances de sous-classes de *note
     BaseProxy: 312f.

      -- Méthode: _callmethod (methodname[, args[, kwds]])

          Appelle et renvoie le résultat d'une méthode du référent du
          mandataire.

          Si ‘proxy’ est un mandataire sont le référent est ‘obj’, alors
          l'expression

               proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

          s'évalue comme

               getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

          dans le processus du gestionnaire.

          La valeur renvoyée sera une copie du résultat de l'appel ou un
          mandataire sur un nouvel objet partagé – voir l'a
          documentation de l'argument 'method_to_typeid' de *note
          BaseManager.register(): 312e.

          Si une exception est levée par l'appel, elle est relayée par
          *note _callmethod(): 3130.  Si une autre exception est levée
          par le processus du gestionnaire, elle est convertie en une
          ‘RemoteError’ et est levée par *note _callmethod(): 3130.

          Notez en particulier qu'une exception est levée si
          'methodname' n'est pas 'exposée'.

          Un exemple d'utilisation de *note _callmethod(): 3130. :

               >>> l = manager.list(range(10))
               >>> l._callmethod('__len__')
               10
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # equivalent to l[2:7]
               [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # equivalent to l[20]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               IndexError: list index out of range

      -- Méthode: _getvalue ()

          Renvoie une copie du référent.

          Si le référent n'est pas sérialisable, une exception est
          levée.

      -- Méthode: __repr__ ()

          Renvoie la représentation de l'objet mandataire.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          Renvoie la représentation du référent.

* Menu:

* Nettoyage: Nettoyage<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Nettoyage<2>,  Up: Objets mandataires

5.18.2.20 Nettoyage
...................

Un mandataire utilise un 'callback' sous une référence faible de façon à
ce que quand il est collecté par le ramasse-miettes, il se désenregistre
auprès du gestionnaire qui possède le référent.

Un objet partagé est supprimé par le processus gestionnaire quand plus
aucun mandataire ne le référence.


File: python.info,  Node: Pools de processus,  Next: Auditeurs et Clients,  Prev: Objets mandataires,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.21 Pools de processus
............................

On peut créer un pool de processus qui exécuteront les tâches qui lui
seront soumises avec la classe *note Pool: f58.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.pool.Pool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs[, maxtasksperchild[, context]]]]])

     Un objet 'process pool' qui contrôle un pool de processus 'workers'
     auquel sont soumises des tâches.  Il supporte les résultats
     asynchrones avec des 'timeouts' et des 'callbacks' et possède une
     implémentation parallèle de 'map'.

     'processes' is the number of worker processes to use.  If
     'processes' is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. is used.

     Si 'initializer' n'est pas ‘None’, chaque processus 'worker'
     appellera ‘initializer(*initargs)’ en démarrant.

     'maxtasksperchild' est le nombre de tâches qu'un processus 'worker'
     peut accomplir avant de se fermer et d'être remplacé par un
     'worker' frais, pour permettre aux ressources inutilisées d'être
     libérées.  Par défaut 'maxtasksperchild' est ‘None’, ce qui
     signifie que le 'worker' vit aussi longtemps que le pool.

     'context' peut être utilisé pour préciser le contexte utilisé pour
     démarrer les processus 'workers'.  Habituellement un pool est créé
     à l'aide de la fonction ‘multiprocessing.Pool()’ ou de la méthode
     *note Pool(): f58. d'un objet de contexte.  Dans les deux cas
     'context' est réglé de façon appropriée.

     Notez que les méthodes de l'objet 'pool' ne doivent être appelées
     que par le processus qui l'a créé.

          Avertissement: Les objets *note multiprocessing.pool: 97. ont
          des ressources internes qui doivent être correctement gérées
          (comme toute autre ressource) en utilisant le pool comme
          gestionnaire de contexte ou en appelant *note close(): 3145.
          et *note terminate(): 3146. manuellement.  Si cela n'est pas
          fait, le processus peut être bloqué à la finalisation.

          Notez qu'il n'est 'pas' correct de compter sur le
          ramasse-miette pour détruire le pool car CPython ne garantit
          pas que le 'finalizer' du pool est appelé (voir *note
          object.__del__(): 1f1a. pour plus d'informations).

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'maxtasksperchild'
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'context' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'processes' uses *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. by default, instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c0.

          Note: Les processus 'workers' à l'intérieur d'une *note Pool:
          f58. vivent par défaut aussi longtemps que la file de travail
          du pool.  Un modèle fréquent chez d'autres systèmes (tels
          qu'Apache, 'mod_wsgi', etc.)  pour libérer les ressources
          détenues par les 'workers' est d'autoriser un 'worker' dans le
          pool à accomplir seulement une certaine charge de travail
          avant de se fermer, se retrouvant nettoyé et remplacé par un
          nouveau processus fraîchement lancé.  L'argument
          'maxtasksperchild' de *note Pool: f58. expose cette
          fonctionnalité à l'utilisateur final.

      -- Méthode: apply (func[, args[, kwds]])

          Appelle 'func' avec les arguments 'args' et les arguments
          nommés 'kwds'.  Bloque jusqu'à ce que que le résultat soit
          prêt.  En raison de ce blocage, *note apply_async(): 3148. est
          préférable pour exécuter du travail en parallèle.  De plus,
          'func' est exécutée sur un seul des 'workers' du pool.

      -- Méthode: apply_async (func[, args[, kwds[, callback[,
               error_callback]]]])

          Une variante de la méthode *note apply(): 3147. qui renvoie un
          objet *note AsyncResult: 3149.

          Si 'callback' est précisé alors ce doit être un objet
          appelable qui accepte un seul argument.  Quand le résultat est
          prêt, 'callback' est appelé avec ce résultat, si l'appel
          n'échoue pas auquel cas 'error_callback' est appelé à la
          place.

          Si 'error_callback' est précisé alors ce doit être un objet
          appelable qui accepte un seul argument.  Si la fonction cible
          échoue, alors 'error_callback' est appelé avec l'instance de
          l'exception.

          Les 'callbacks' doivent se terminer immédiatement, autrement
          le fil d'exécution qui gère les résultats se retrouverait
          bloqué.

      -- Méthode: map (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Un équivalent parallèle de la fonction native *note map():
          850. (qui ne prend qu'un seul argument 'itérable' ; pour en
          passer plusieurs, référez-vous à *note starmap(): 10c5.).
          Elle bloque jusqu'à ce que le résultat soit prêt.

          La méthode découpe l'itérable en un nombre de morceaux qu'elle
          envoie au pool de processus comme des tâches séparées.  La
          taille (approximative) de ces morceaux peut être précisée en
          passant à 'chunksize' un entier positif.

          Notez que cela peut entraîner une grosse consommation de
          mémoire pour les itérables très longs.  Envisagez d'utiliser
          *note imap(): 314a. ou *note imap_unordered(): 314b. avec
          l'option 'chunksize' explicite pour une meilleure efficacité.

      -- Méthode: map_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          Une variante de la méthode *note map(): 10c8. qui renvoie un
          objet *note AsyncResult: 3149.

          Si 'callback' est précisé alors ce doit être un objet
          appelable qui accepte un seul argument.  Quand le résultat est
          prêt, 'callback' est appelé avec ce résultat, si l'appel
          n'échoue pas auquel cas 'error_callback' est appelé à la
          place.

          Si 'error_callback' est précisé alors ce doit être un objet
          appelable qui accepte un seul argument.  Si la fonction cible
          échoue, alors 'error_callback' est appelé avec l'instance de
          l'exception.

          Les 'callbacks' doivent se terminer immédiatement, autrement
          le fil d'exécution qui gère les résultats se retrouverait
          bloqué.

      -- Méthode: imap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Une version paresseuse de *note map(): 10c8.

          L'argument 'chunksize' est le même que celui utilisé par la
          méthode *note map(): 10c8.  Pour de très longs itérables,
          utiliser une grande valeur pour 'chunksize' peut faire
          s'exécuter la tâche 'beaucoup' plus rapidement qu'en utilisant
          la valeur par défaut de ‘1’.

          Aussi, si 'chucksize' vaut ‘1’ alors la méthode ‘next()’ de
          l'itérateur renvoyé par *note imap(): 314a. prend un paramètre
          optionnel 'timeout' : ‘next(timeout)’ lève une *note
          multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 30f7. si le résultat ne peut pas
          être renvoyé avant 'timeout' secondes.

      -- Méthode: imap_unordered (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Identique à *note imap(): 314a. si ce n'est que l'ordre des
          résultats de l'itérateur renvoyé doit être considéré comme
          arbitraire.  (L'ordre n'est garanti que quand il n'y a qu'un
          'worker'.)

      -- Méthode: starmap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Like *note map(): 10c8. except that the elements of the
          'iterable' are expected to be iterables that are unpacked as
          arguments.

          Par conséquent un 'iterable' ‘[(1,2), (3, 4)]’ donnera pour
          résultat ‘[func(1,2), func(3,4)]’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: starmap_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          Une combinaison de *note starmap(): 10c5. et *note
          map_async(): 10c9. qui itère sur 'iterable' (composé
          d'itérables) et appelle 'func' pour chaque itérable dépaqueté.
          Renvoie l'objet résultat.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Empêche de nouvelles tâches d'être envoyées à la 'pool'.  Les
          processus 'workers' se terminent une fois que toutes les
          tâches ont été complétées.

      -- Méthode: terminate ()

          Stoppe immédiatement les processus 'workers' sans finaliser
          les travaux courants.  Quand l'objet 'pool' est collecté par
          le ramasse-miettes, sa méthode *note terminate(): 3146. est
          appelée immédiatement.

      -- Méthode: join ()

          Attend que les processus 'workers' se terminent.  Il est
          nécessaire d'appeler *note close(): 3145. ou *note
          terminate(): 3146. avant d'utiliser *note join(): 314c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les pools de 'workers' supportent
     maintenant le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte – voir *note
     Le type gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78.  *note __enter__(): 2205.
     renvoie l'objet 'pool' et *note __exit__(): 2206. appelle *note
     terminate(): 3146.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult

     La classe des résultats renvoyés par *note Pool.apply_async():
     3148. et *note Pool.map_async(): 10c9.

      -- Méthode: get ([timeout])

          Renvoie le résultat quand il arrive.  Si 'timeout' n'est pas
          ‘None’ et que le résultat n'arrive pas avant 'timeout'
          secondes, une *note multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 30f7. est
          levée.  Si l'appel distance lève une exception, alors elle est
          relayée par *note get(): 314d.

      -- Méthode: wait ([timeout])

          Attend que le résultat soit disponible ou que 'timeout'
          secondes s'écoulent.

      -- Méthode: ready ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ ou ‘False’ suivant si la tâche est accomplie.

      -- Méthode: successful ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ ou ‘False’ suivant si la tâche est accomplie
          sans lever d'exception.  Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si le
          résultat n'est pas prêt.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: Si le résultat n'est pas prêt,
          une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée au lieu d'une *note
          AssertionError: 696. auparavant.

Les exemples suivants présentent l'utilisation d'un pool de 'workers' :

     from multiprocessing import Pool
     import time

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
             result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

             it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
             print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
             print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
             print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

             result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError


File: python.info,  Node: Auditeurs et Clients,  Next: Clés d'authentification,  Prev: Pools de processus,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.22 Auditeurs et Clients
..............................

Habituellement l'échange de messages entre processus est réalisé en
utilisant des files ou des objets *note Connection: 1665. renvoyés par
*note Pipe(): 30de.

Cependant, le module *note multiprocessing.connection: 94. permet un peu
plus de flexibilité.  Il fournit un message de plus haut-niveau orienté
API pour gérer des connecteurs ou des tubes nommés sous Windows.  Il
gère aussi l'authentification par condensat ('digest authentication' en
anglais) en utilisant le module *note hmac: 69, et pour interroger de
multiples connexions en même temps.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Envoie un message généré aléatoirement à l'autre extrémité de la
     connexion et attend une réponse.

     Si la réponse correspond au condensat du message avec la clé
     'authkey', alors un message de bienvenue est envoyé à l'autre
     extrémité de la connexion.  Autrement, une *note
     AuthenticationError: 30f6. est levée.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Reçoit un message, calcule le condensat du message en utilisant la
     clé 'authkey', et envoie le condensat en réponse.

     Si un message de bienvenue n'est pas reçu, une *note
     AuthenticationError: 30f6. est levée.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.connection.Client (address[, family[,
          authkey]])

     Essaie d'établir une connexion avec l'auditeur qui utilise
     l'adresse 'address', renvoie une *note Connection: 1665.

     Le type de la connexion est déterminé par l'argument 'family', mais
     il peut généralement être omis puisqu'il peut être inféré depuis le
     format d''address'.  (Voir *note Formats d'adresses: 3155.)

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 30f6. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Clés d'authentification: 30f2.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.connection.Listener ([address[, family[,
          backlog[, authkey]]]])

     Une enveloppe autour d'un connecteur lié ou un tube nommé sous
     Windows qui écoute pour des connexions.

     'address' est l'adresse à utiliser par le connecteur lié ou le tube
     nommé de l'objet auditeur.

          Note: Si une adresse '0.0.0.0' est utilisée, l'adresse ne sera
          pas un point d'accès connectable sous Windows.  Si vous avez
          besoin d'un point d'accès connectable, utilisez '127.0.0.1'.

     'family' est le type de connecteur (ou tube nommé) à utiliser.
     Cela peut être l'une des chaînes ‘'AF_INET'’ (pour un connecteur
     TCP), ‘'AF_UNIX'’ (pour un connecteur Unix) ou ‘'AF_PIPE'’ (pour un
     tube nommé sous Windows).  Seulement le premier d'entre eux est
     garanti d'être disponible.  Si 'family' est ‘None’, la famille est
     inférée depuis le format d''address'.  Si 'address' est aussi
     ‘None’, la famille par défaut est utilisée.  La famille par défaut
     est supposée être la plus rapide disponible.  Voir *note Formats
     d'adresses: 3155.  Notez que si la 'family' est ‘'AF_UNIX'’ et
     qu''address' est ‘None’, le connecteur est créé dans un répertoire
     temporaire privé créé avec *note tempfile.mkstemp(): 2804.

     Si l'objet auditeur utilise un connecteur alors 'backlog' (1 par
     défaut) est passé à la méthode *note listen(): e49. du connecteur
     une fois qu'il a été lié.

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 30f6. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Clés d'authentification: 30f2.

      -- Méthode: accept ()

          Accepte une connexion sur le connecteur lié ou le tube nommé
          de l'objet auditeur et renvoie un objet *note Connection:
          1665.  Si la tentative d'authentification échoue, une *note
          AuthenticationError: 30f6. est levée.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme le connecteur lié ou le tube nommé de l'objet auditeur.
          La méthode est appelée automatiquement quand l'auditeur est
          collecté par le ramasse-miettes.  Il est cependant conseillé
          de l'appeler explicitement.

     Les objets auditeurs ont aussi les propriétés en lecture seule
     suivantes :

      -- Attribut: address

          L'adresse utilisée par l'objet auditeur.

      -- Attribut: last_accepted

          L'adresse depuis laquelle a été établie la dernière connexion.
          ‘None’ si aucune n'est disponible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les objets auditeurs supportent
     maintenant le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte – voir *note
     Le type gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78.  *note __enter__(): 2205.
     renvoie l'objet auditeur, et *note __exit__(): 2206. appelle *note
     close(): 3156.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.connection.wait (object_list,
          timeout=None)

     Attend qu'un objet d''object_list' soit prêt.  Renvoie la liste de
     ces objets d''object_list' qui sont prêts.  Si 'timeout' est un
     nombre flottant, l'appel bloquera au maximum ce nombre de secondes.
     Si 'timeout' est ‘None’, l'appelle bloquera pour une durée non
     limitée.  Un 'timeout' négatif est équivalent à un 'timeout' nul.

     For both POSIX and Windows, an object can appear in 'object_list'
     if it is

        * un objet *note Connection: 1665. accessible en lecture ;

        * un objet *note socket.socket: d90. connecté et accessible en
          lecture ; ou

        * l'attribut *note sentinel: 10c4. d'un objet *note Process:
          b49.

     Une connexion ('socket' en anglais) est prête quand il y a des
     données disponibles en lecture dessus, ou que l'autre extrémité a
     été fermée.

     'POSIX': ‘wait(object_list, timeout)’ almost equivalent
     ‘select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)’.  The difference is
     that, if *note select.select(): d8f. is interrupted by a signal, it
     can raise *note OSError: 40d. with an error number of ‘EINTR’,
     whereas *note wait(): 10c3. will not.

     'Windows': An item in 'object_list' must either be an integer
     handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
     documentation of the Win32 function ‘WaitForMultipleObjects()’) or
     it can be an object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method which
     returns a socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles
     and socket handles are 'not' waitable handles.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

'Exemples'

Le code serveur suivant crée un auditeur qui utilise ‘'secret password'’
comme clé d'authentification.  Il attend ensuite une connexion et envoie
les données au client :

     from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

     with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
         with listener.accept() as conn:
             print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)

             conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

             conn.send_bytes(b'hello')

             conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

Le code suivant se connecte au serveur et en reçoit des données :

     from multiprocessing.connection import Client
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)

     with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
         print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

         print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'

         arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
         print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
         print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

Le code suivant utilise *note wait(): 10c3. pour attendre des messages
depuis plusieurs processus à la fois :

     from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
     from multiprocessing.connection import wait

     def foo(w):
         for i in range(10):
             w.send((i, current_process().name))
         w.close()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         readers = []

         for i in range(4):
             r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
             readers.append(r)
             p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
             p.start()
             # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
             # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
             # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
             # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
             w.close()

         while readers:
             for r in wait(readers):
                 try:
                     msg = r.recv()
                 except EOFError:
                     readers.remove(r)
                 else:
                     print(msg)

* Menu:

* Formats d'adresses::


File: python.info,  Node: Formats d'adresses,  Up: Auditeurs et Clients

5.18.2.23 Formats d'adresses
............................

   * une adresse ‘'AF_INET'’ est une paire de la forme ‘(hostname,
     port)’ où 'hostname' est une chaîne et 'port' un entier ;

   * une adresse ‘'AF_UNIX'’ est une chaîne représentant un nom de
     fichier sur le système de fichiers ;

   * An ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address is a string of the form
     ‘r'\\.\pipe\PIPENAME'’.  To use *note Client(): 3154. to connect to
     a named pipe on a remote computer called 'ServerName' one should
     use an address of the form ‘r'\\SERVERNAME\pipe\PIPENAME'’ instead.

Notez que toute chaîne commençant par deux antislashs est considérée par
défaut comme l'adresse d'un ‘'AF_PIPE'’ plutôt qu'une adresse
‘'AF_UNIX'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Clés d'authentification,  Next: Journalisation<2>,  Prev: Auditeurs et Clients,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.24 Clés d'authentification
.................................

Quand *note Connection.recv: 3112. est utilisée, les données reçues sont
automatiquement désérialisées par 'pickle'.  Malheureusement
désérialiser des données depuis une source non sûre constitue un risque
de sécurité.  Par conséquent *note Listener: 1664. et *note Client():
3154. utilisent le module *note hmac: 69. pour fournir une
authentification par condensat.

Une clé d'authentification est une chaîne d'octets qui peut être vue
comme un mot de passe : quand une connexion est établie, les deux
interlocuteurs vont demander à l'autre une preuve qu'il connaît la clé
d'authentification.  (Démontrer que les deux utilisent la même clé
n'implique 'pas' d'échanger la clé sur la connexion.)

Si l'authentification est requise et qu'aucune clé n'est spécifiée alors
la valeur de retour de ‘current_process().authkey’ est utilisée (voir
*note Process: b49.).  Celle valeur est automatiquement héritée par tout
objet *note Process: b49. créé par le processus courant.  Cela signifie
que (par défaut) tous les processus d'un programme multi-processus
partageront une clé d'authentification unique qui peut être utilisée
pour mettre en place des connexions entre-eux.

Des clés d'authentification adaptées peuvent aussi être générées par
*note os.urandom(): 50f.


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation<2>,  Next: Le module multiprocessing dummy,  Prev: Clés d'authentification,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.25 Journalisation
........................

Un certain support de la journalisation est disponible.  Notez cependant
que le le paquet *note logging: 86. n'utilise pas de verrous partagés
entre les processus et il est donc possible (dépendant du type de
gestionnaire) que les messages de différents processus soient mélangés.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.get_logger ()

     Renvoie le journaliseur utilisé par *note multiprocessing: 93.  Si
     nécessaire, un nouveau sera créé.

     When first created the logger has level *note logging.NOTSET: 2c1e.
     and no default handler.  Messages sent to this logger will not by
     default propagate to the root logger.

     Notez que sous Windows les processus fils n'hériteront que du
     niveau du journaliseur du processus parent – toute autre
     personnalisation du journaliseur ne sera pas héritée.

 -- Fonction: multiprocessing.log_to_stderr (level=None)

     This function performs a call to *note get_logger(): 315c. but in
     addition to returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a
     handler which sends output to *note sys.stderr: 928. using format
     ‘'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'’.  You can modify
     ‘levelname’ of the logger by passing a ‘level’ argument.

L'exemple ci-dessous présente une session avec la journalisation
activée :

     >>> import multiprocessing, logging
     >>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
     >>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     >>> logger.warning('doomed')
     [WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
     >>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
     >>> del m
     [INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

Pour un tableau complet des niveaux de journalisation, voir le module
*note logging: 86.


File: python.info,  Node: Le module multiprocessing dummy,  Prev: Journalisation<2>,  Up: Référence

5.18.2.26 Le module ‘multiprocessing.dummy’
...........................................

*note multiprocessing.dummy: 95. réplique toute l'API de *note
multiprocessing: 93. mais n'est rien de plus qu'une interface autour du
module *note threading: ec.

En particulier, la fonction ‘Pool’ du module *note
multiprocessing.dummy: 95. renvoie une instance de *note ThreadPool:
18cd, qui est une sous-classe de *note Pool: f58.  Elle a la même
interface, mais elle utilise un pool de fils d'exécution plutôt qu'un
pool de processus.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs]]])

     Un objet qui contrôle un pool de fils d'exécution auquel des tâches
     peuvent être envoyées.  L'interface des instances de *note
     ThreadPool: 18cd. est entièrement compatible avec celle des
     instances de *note Pool: f58, et leur ressources doivent être aussi
     correctement gérées, soit en utilisant le pool avec un contexte,
     soit en appelant explicitement *note close(): 3145. et *note
     terminate(): 3146.

     'processes' is the number of worker threads to use.  If 'processes'
     is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note os.process_cpu_count():
     1bf. is used.

     Si 'initializer' n'est pas ‘None’, chaque processus 'worker'
     appellera ‘initializer(*initargs)’ en démarrant.

     À la différence de *note Pool: f58, 'maxtasksperchild' et 'context'
     ne peuvent pas être passés en arguments.

          Note: La classe *note ThreadPool: 18cd. a la même interface
          que la classe *note Pool: f58, dont l'implémentation repose
          sur un pool de processus, et a été introduite avant le module
          *note concurrent.futures: 21.  Par conséquent elle implémente
          des opérations qui n'ont pas vraiment de sens pour un pool
          implémenté avec des fils d'exécution et possède son propre
          type pour représenter le statut de tâches asynchrones, *note
          AsyncResult: 3149, qui n'est pas géré par les autres modules.

          Il est souvent plus judicieux d'utiliser *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. qui a une
          interface plus simple, qui a été pensée dès l'origine pour les
          fils d'exécution et qui renvoie des instances de *note
          concurrent.futures.Future: 1191. qui sont compatibles avec de
          nombreux modules, dont *note asyncio: a.


File: python.info,  Node: Lignes directrices de programmation,  Next: Exemples<14>,  Prev: Référence,  Up: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.27 Lignes directrices de programmation
.............................................

Il y a certaines lignes directrices et idiomes à respecter pour utiliser
*note multiprocessing: 93.

* Menu:

* Toutes les méthodes de démarrage::
* Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver::


File: python.info,  Node: Toutes les méthodes de démarrage,  Next: Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver,  Up: Lignes directrices de programmation

5.18.2.28 Toutes les méthodes de démarrage
..........................................

Les règles suivantes s'appliquent aux méthodes de démarrage.

Éviter les états partagés

     Autant que possible, il faut éviter de transférer de gros volumes
     de données entre les processus.

     Il est souvent plus judicieux de se borner à utiliser des files et
     des tubes pour gérer la communication entre processus plutôt que
     d'utiliser des primitives de synchronisation plus bas-niveau.

Sérialisation

     Assurez-vous que les arguments passés aux méthodes des mandataires
     soient sérialisables ('pickables').

Sûreté des mandataires à travers les fils d'exécution

     N'utilisez pas d'objet mandataire depuis plus d'un fil d'exécution
     à moins que vous ne le protégiez avec un verrou.

     Il n'y a jamais de problème à avoir plusieurs processus qui
     utilisent un 'même' mandataire.

Attendre les processus zombies

     On POSIX when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes
     a zombie.  There should never be very many because each time a new
     process starts (or *note active_children(): 310b. is called) all
     completed processes which have not yet been joined will be joined.
     Also calling a finished process's *note Process.is_alive: 30ef.
     will join the process.  Even so it is probably good practice to
     explicitly join all the processes that you start.

Mieux vaut hériter que sérialiser - désérialiser

     Quand vous utilisez les méthodes de démarrage 'spawn' ou
     'forkserver', de nombreux types de *note multiprocessing: 93.
     nécessitent d'être sérialisés pour que les processus fils puissent
     les utiliser.  Cependant, il faut généralement éviter d'envoyer des
     objets partagés aux autres processus en utilisant des tubes ou des
     files.  Vous devez plutôt vous arranger pour qu'un processus qui
     nécessite l'accès à une ressource partagée créée autre part qu'il
     en hérite depuis un de ses processus ancêtres.

Éviter de terminer les processus

     Utiliser la méthode *note Process.terminate: 30f3. pour stopper un
     processus risque de casser ou de rendre indisponible aux autres
     processus des ressources partagées (comme des verrous, sémaphores,
     tubes et files) actuellement utilisées par le processus.

     Il est donc préférable de n'utiliser *note Process.terminate: 30f3.
     que sur les processus qui n'utilisent jamais de ressources
     partagées.

Attendre les processus qui utilisent des files

     Gardez à l'esprit qu'un processus qui a placé des éléments dans une
     file attend que tous les éléments mis en tampon soient consommés
     par le fil d'exécution « chargeur » du tube sous-jacent avant de se
     terminer (le processus fils peut appeler la méthode *note
     Queue.cancel_join_thread: 3101. de la queue pour éviter ce
     comportement).

     Cela signifie que chaque fois que vous utilisez une file, vous
     devez vous assurer que tous les éléments qui y ont été placés ont
     été effectivement supprimés avant que le processus ne soit attendu.
     Autrement vous ne pouvez pas être sûr que les processus qui ont
     placé des éléments dans la file se termineront.  Souvenez-vous
     aussi que tous les processus non 'daemons' sont attendus
     automatiquement.

     L'exemple suivant provoque un interblocage :

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put('X' * 1000000)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              queue = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
              p.start()
              p.join()                    # this deadlocks
              obj = queue.get()

     Une solution ici consiste à intervertir les deux dernières lignes
     (ou simplement à supprimer la ligne ‘p.join()’).

Passer explicitement les ressources aux processus fils

     On POSIX using the 'fork' start method, a child process can make
     use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a global
     resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an argument
     to the constructor for the child process.

     En plus de rendre le code (potentiellement) compatible avec Windows
     et les autres méthodes de démarrage, cela assure aussi que tant que
     le processus fils est en vie, l'objet ne sera pas collecté par le
     ramasse-miettes du processus parent.  Cela peut être important si
     certaines ressources sont libérées quand l'objet est collecté par
     le ramasse-miettes du processus parent.

     Donc par exemple

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f():
              ... do something using "lock" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f).start()

     devrait être réécrit comme

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f(l):
              ... do something using "l" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

Faire attention à remplacer *note sys.stdin: 52a. par un objet
simili-fichier

     À l'origine, *note multiprocessing: 93. appelait
     inconditionnellement :

          os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

     dans la méthode ‘multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap()’ — cela
     provoquait des problèmes avec les processus imbriqués.  Cela peut
     être changé en :

          sys.stdin.close()
          sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)

     Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each
     other resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a
     potential danger to applications which replace *note sys.stdin():
     52a. with a "file-like object" with output buffering.  This danger
     is that if multiple processes call *note close(): 1f3. on this
     file-like object, it could result in the same data being flushed to
     the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

     Si vous écrivez un objet simili-fichier et implémentez votre propre
     cache, vous pouvez le rendre sûr pour les 'forks' en stockant le
     'pid' chaque fois que vous ajoutez des données au cache, et annulez
     le cache quand le 'pid' change.  Par exemple :

          @property
          def cache(self):
              pid = os.getpid()
              if pid != self._pid:
                  self._pid = pid
                  self._cache = []
              return self._cache

     Pour plus d'informations, voir bpo-5155(1), bpo-5313(2) et
     bpo-5331(3)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5331


File: python.info,  Node: Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver,  Prev: Toutes les méthodes de démarrage,  Up: Lignes directrices de programmation

5.18.2.29 Les méthodes de démarrage 'spawn' et 'forkserver'
...........................................................

There are a few extra restrictions which don't apply to the 'fork' start
method.

Contraintes supplémentaires sur la sérialisation

     Assurez-vous que tous les argument de ‘Process.__init__()’ sont
     sérialisables avec 'pickle'.  Aussi, si vous héritez de *note
     Process: b49, assurez-vous que toutes les instances sont
     sérialisables quand la méthode *note Process.start: 30d9. est
     appelée.

Variables globales

     Gardez en tête que si le code exécuté dans un processus fils essaie
     d'accéder à une variable globale, alors la valeur qu'il voit (s'il
     y en a une) pourrait ne pas être la même que la valeur du processus
     parent au moment même où *note Process.start: 30d9. est appelée.

     Cependant, les variables globales qui sont juste des constantes de
     modules ne posent pas de problèmes.
Importation sécurisée du module principal

     Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new
     Python interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such as
     starting a new process).

     Par exemple, utiliser la méthode de démarrage 'spawn' ou
     'forkserver' pour lancer le module suivant échouerait avec une
     *note RuntimeError: 193. :

          from multiprocessing import Process

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          p = Process(target=foo)
          p.start()

     Vous devriez plutôt protéger le « point d'entrée » du programme en
     utilisant ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’ comme suit :

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              set_start_method('spawn')
              p = Process(target=foo)
              p.start()

     (La ligne ‘freeze_support()’ peut être omise si le programme est
     uniquement lancé normalement et pas figé.)

     Cela permet aux interpréteurs Python fraîchement instanciés
     d'importer en toute sécurité le module et d'exécution ensuite la
     fonction ‘foo()’.

     Des restrictions similaires s'appliquent si un pool ou un
     gestionnaire est créé dans le module principal.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<14>,  Prev: Lignes directrices de programmation,  Up: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.30 Exemples
..................

Démonstration de comment créer et utiliser des gestionnaires et
mandataires personnalisés :

     from multiprocessing import freeze_support
     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
     import operator

     ##

     class Foo:
         def f(self):
             print('you called Foo.f()')
         def g(self):
             print('you called Foo.g()')
         def _h(self):
             print('you called Foo._h()')

     # A simple generator function
     def baz():
         for i in range(10):
             yield i*i

     # Proxy type for generator objects
     class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
         _exposed_ = ['__next__']
         def __iter__(self):
             return self
         def __next__(self):
             return self._callmethod('__next__')

     # Function to return the operator module
     def get_operator_module():
         return operator

     ##

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     # register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

     # register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

     # register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies
     MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

     # register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

     ##

     def test():
         manager = MyManager()
         manager.start()

         print('-' * 20)

         f1 = manager.Foo1()
         f1.f()
         f1.g()
         assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
         assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

         print('-' * 20)

         f2 = manager.Foo2()
         f2.g()
         f2._h()
         assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
         assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

         print('-' * 20)

         it = manager.baz()
         for i in it:
             print('<%d>' % i, end=' ')
         print()

         print('-' * 20)

         op = manager.operator()
         print('op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45))
         print('op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94))
         print('op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_)

     ##

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()

En utilisant *note Pool: f58. :

     import multiprocessing
     import time
     import random
     import sys

     #
     # Functions used by test code
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
             multiprocessing.current_process().name,
             func.__name__, args, result
             )

     def calculatestar(args):
         return calculate(*args)

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a + b

     def f(x):
         return 1.0 / (x - 5.0)

     def pow3(x):
         return x ** 3

     def noop(x):
         pass

     #
     # Test code
     #

     def test():
         PROCESSES = 4
         print('Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES)

         with multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES) as pool:
             #
             # Tests
             #

             TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \
                     [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

             results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]
             imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

             print('Ordered results using pool.apply_async():')
             for r in results:
                 print('\t', r.get())
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.imap():')
             for x in imap_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():')
             for x in imap_unordered_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:')
             for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             #
             # Test error handling
             #

             print('Testing error handling:')

             try:
                 print(pool.apply(f, (5,)))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(pool.map(f, list(range(10))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(list(pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             it = pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))
             for i in range(10):
                 try:
                     x = next(it)
                 except ZeroDivisionError:
                     if i == 5:
                         pass
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 else:
                     if i == 5:
                         raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             assert i == 9
             print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()')
             print()

             #
             # Testing timeouts
             #

             print('Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:', end=' ')
             res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()

             print('Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:', end=' ')
             it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         multiprocessing.freeze_support()
         test()

Un exemple montrant comment utiliser des files pour alimenter en tâches
une collection de processus 'workers' et collecter les résultats :

     import time
     import random

     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

     #
     # Function run by worker processes
     #

     def worker(input, output):
         for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
             result = calculate(func, args)
             output.put(result)

     #
     # Function used to calculate result
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
             (current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

     #
     # Functions referenced by tasks
     #

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a + b

     #
     #
     #

     def test():
         NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
         TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
         TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

         # Create queues
         task_queue = Queue()
         done_queue = Queue()

         # Submit tasks
         for task in TASKS1:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Start worker processes
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

         # Get and print results
         print('Unordered results:')
         for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Add more tasks using `put()`
         for task in TASKS2:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Get and print some more results
         for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Tell child processes to stop
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             task_queue.put('STOP')


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Next: The concurrent package,  Prev: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.3 ‘multiprocessing.shared_memory’ -- Shared memory for direct access across processes
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py(1)

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a class, *note SharedMemory: 1614, for the
allocation and management of shared memory to be accessed by one or more
processes on a multicore or symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) machine.  To
assist with the life-cycle management of shared memory especially across
distinct processes, a *note BaseManager: 3128. subclass, *note
SharedMemoryManager: 3166, is also provided in the *note
multiprocessing.managers: 96. module.

In this module, shared memory refers to "POSIX style" shared memory
blocks (though is not necessarily implemented explicitly as such) and
does not refer to "distributed shared memory".  This style of shared
memory permits distinct processes to potentially read and write to a
common (or shared) region of volatile memory.  Processes are
conventionally limited to only have access to their own process memory
space but shared memory permits the sharing of data between processes,
avoiding the need to instead send messages between processes containing
that data.  Sharing data directly via memory can provide significant
performance benefits compared to sharing data via disk or socket or
other communications requiring the serialization/deserialization and
copying of data.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory (name=None,
          create=False, size=0, *, track=True)

     Create an instance of the ‘SharedMemory’ class for either creating
     a new shared memory block or attaching to an existing shared memory
     block.  Each shared memory block is assigned a unique name.  In
     this way, one process can create a shared memory block with a
     particular name and a different process can attach to that same
     shared memory block using that same name.

     As a resource for sharing data across processes, shared memory
     blocks may outlive the original process that created them.  When
     one process no longer needs access to a shared memory block that
     might still be needed by other processes, the *note close(): 3167.
     method should be called.  When a shared memory block is no longer
     needed by any process, the *note unlink(): 3168. method should be
     called to ensure proper cleanup.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - The unique name for the
          requested shared memory, specified as a string.  When creating
          a new shared memory block, if ‘None’ (the default) is supplied
          for the name, a novel name will be generated.

        * ‘create’ (*note bool: 453.) - Control whether a new shared
          memory block is created (‘True’) or an existing shared memory
          block is attached (‘False’).

        * ‘size’ (*note int: 254.) - The requested number of bytes when
          creating a new shared memory block.  Because some platforms
          choose to allocate chunks of memory based upon that platform's
          memory page size, the exact size of the shared memory block
          may be larger or equal to the size requested.  When attaching
          to an existing shared memory block, the 'size' parameter is
          ignored.

        * ‘track’ (*note bool: 453.) - When ‘True’, register the shared
          memory block with a resource tracker process on platforms
          where the OS does not do this automatically.  The resource
          tracker ensures proper cleanup of the shared memory even if
          all other processes with access to the memory exit without
          doing so.  Python processes created from a common ancestor
          using *note multiprocessing: 93. facilities share a single
          resource tracker process, and the lifetime of shared memory
          segments is handled automatically among these processes.
          Python processes created in any other way will receive their
          own resource tracker when accessing shared memory with 'track'
          enabled.  This will cause the shared memory to be deleted by
          the resource tracker of the first process that terminates.  To
          avoid this issue, users of *note subprocess: d5. or standalone
          Python processes should set 'track' to ‘False’ when there is
          already another process in place that does the bookkeeping.
          'track' is ignored on Windows, which has its own tracking and
          automatically deletes shared memory when all handles to it
          have been closed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'track' parameter.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Close the file descriptor/handle to the shared memory from
          this instance.  *note close(): 3167. should be called once
          access to the shared memory block from this instance is no
          longer needed.  Depending on operating system, the underlying
          memory may or may not be freed even if all handles to it have
          been closed.  To ensure proper cleanup, use the *note
          unlink(): 3168. method.

      -- Méthode: unlink ()

          Delete the underlying shared memory block.  This should be
          called only once per shared memory block regardless of the
          number of handles to it, even in other processes.  *note
          unlink(): 3168. and *note close(): 3167. can be called in any
          order, but trying to access data inside a shared memory block
          after *note unlink(): 3168. may result in memory access
          errors, depending on platform.

          This method has no effect on Windows, where the only way to
          delete a shared memory block is to close all handles.

      -- Attribut: buf

          Une 'memoryview' du contenu du bloc de mémoire partagée.

      -- Attribut: name

          Nom unique du bloc de mémoire partagée (lecture seule).

      -- Attribut: size

          Taille en octets du bloc de mémoire partagée (lecture seule).

L'exemple qui suit montre un exemple d'utilisation bas niveau
d'instances de *note SharedMemory: 1614. :

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm_a = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=10)
     >>> type(shm_a.buf)
     <class 'memoryview'>
     >>> buffer = shm_a.buf
     >>> len(buffer)
     10
     >>> buffer[:4] = bytearray([22, 33, 44, 55])  # Modify multiple at once
     >>> buffer[4] = 100                           # Modify single byte at a time
     >>> # Attach to an existing shared memory block
     >>> shm_b = shared_memory.SharedMemory(shm_a.name)
     >>> import array
     >>> array.array('b', shm_b.buf[:5])  # Copy the data into a new array.array
     array('b', [22, 33, 44, 55, 100])
     >>> shm_b.buf[:5] = b'howdy'  # Modify via shm_b using bytes
     >>> bytes(shm_a.buf[:5])      # Access via shm_a
     b'howdy'
     >>> shm_b.close()   # Close each SharedMemory instance
     >>> shm_a.close()
     >>> shm_a.unlink()  # Call unlink only once to release the shared memory

The following example demonstrates a practical use of the *note
SharedMemory: 1614. class with NumPy arrays(2), accessing the same
‘numpy.ndarray’ from two distinct Python shells:

     >>> # In the first Python interactive shell
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> a = np.array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])  # Start with an existing NumPy array
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=a.nbytes)
     >>> # Now create a NumPy array backed by shared memory
     >>> b = np.ndarray(a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, buffer=shm.buf)
     >>> b[:] = a[:]  # Copy the original data into shared memory
     >>> b
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> type(b)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> type(a)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> shm.name  # We did not specify a name so one was chosen for us
     'psm_21467_46075'

     >>> # In either the same shell or a new Python shell on the same machine
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> # Attach to the existing shared memory block
     >>> existing_shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(name='psm_21467_46075')
     >>> # Note that a.shape is (6,) and a.dtype is np.int64 in this example
     >>> c = np.ndarray((6,), dtype=np.int64, buffer=existing_shm.buf)
     >>> c
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> c[-1] = 888
     >>> c
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Back in the first Python interactive shell, b reflects this change
     >>> b
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Clean up from within the second Python shell
     >>> del c  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> existing_shm.close()

     >>> # Clean up from within the first Python shell
     >>> del b  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> shm.close()
     >>> shm.unlink()  # Free and release the shared memory block at the very end

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager ([address[,
          authkey]])

     A subclass of *note multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager: 3128.
     which can be used for the management of shared memory blocks across
     processes.

     A call to *note start(): 3129. on a ‘SharedMemoryManager’ instance
     causes a new process to be started.  This new process's sole
     purpose is to manage the life cycle of all shared memory blocks
     created through it.  To trigger the release of all shared memory
     blocks managed by that process, call *note shutdown(): 312a. on the
     instance.  This triggers a *note unlink(): 3168. call on all of the
     *note SharedMemory: 316c. objects managed by that process and then
     stops the process itself.  By creating ‘SharedMemory’ instances
     through a ‘SharedMemoryManager’, we avoid the need to manually
     track and trigger the freeing of shared memory resources.

     Cette classe fournit des méthodes pour créer et renvoyer des
     instances de *note SharedMemory: 316c. et pour créer des objets
     compatibles liste (*note ShareableList: 316d.) basés sur la mémoire
     partagée.

     Refer to *note BaseManager: 3128. for a description of the
     inherited 'address' and 'authkey' optional input arguments and how
     they may be used to connect to an existing ‘SharedMemoryManager’
     service from other processes.

      -- Méthode: SharedMemory (size)

          Create and return a new *note SharedMemory: 316c. object with
          the specified 'size' in bytes.

      -- Méthode: ShareableList (sequence)

          Create and return a new *note ShareableList: 316d. object,
          initialized by the values from the input 'sequence'.

The following example demonstrates the basic mechanisms of a *note
SharedMemoryManager: 3166.:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import SharedMemoryManager
     >>> smm = SharedMemoryManager()
     >>> smm.start()  # Start the process that manages the shared memory blocks
     >>> sl = smm.ShareableList(range(4))
     >>> sl
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3], name='psm_6572_7512')
     >>> raw_shm = smm.SharedMemory(size=128)
     >>> another_sl = smm.ShareableList('alpha')
     >>> another_sl
     ShareableList(['a', 'l', 'p', 'h', 'a'], name='psm_6572_12221')
     >>> smm.shutdown()  # Calls unlink() on sl, raw_shm, and another_sl

The following example depicts a potentially more convenient pattern for
using *note SharedMemoryManager: 3166. objects via the *note with: 5be.
statement to ensure that all shared memory blocks are released after
they are no longer needed:

     >>> with SharedMemoryManager() as smm:
     ...     sl = smm.ShareableList(range(2000))
     ...     # Divide the work among two processes, storing partial results in sl
     ...     p1 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 0, 1000))
     ...     p2 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 1000, 2000))
     ...     p1.start()
     ...     p2.start()  # A multiprocessing.Pool might be more efficient
     ...     p1.join()
     ...     p2.join()   # Wait for all work to complete in both processes
     ...     total_result = sum(sl)  # Consolidate the partial results now in sl

When using a *note SharedMemoryManager: 3166. in a *note with: 5be.
statement, the shared memory blocks created using that manager are all
released when the ‘with’ statement's code block finishes execution.

 -- Classe: multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList (sequence=None,
          *, name=None)

     Provide a mutable list-like object where all values stored within
     are stored in a shared memory block.  This constrains storable
     values to the following built-in data types:

        * *note int: 254. (signed 64-bit)

        * *note float: 2ec.

        * *note bool: 453.

        * *note str: 437. (less than 10M bytes each when encoded as
          UTF-8)

        * *note bytes: 1bd. (less than 10M bytes each)

        * ‘None’

     It also notably differs from the built-in *note list: 5fe. type in
     that these lists can not change their overall length (i.e.  no
     ‘append()’, ‘insert()’, etc.)  and do not support the dynamic
     creation of new ‘ShareableList’ instances via slicing.

     'sequence' is used in populating a new ‘ShareableList’ full of
     values.  Set to ‘None’ to instead attach to an already existing
     ‘ShareableList’ by its unique shared memory name.

     'name' is the unique name for the requested shared memory, as
     described in the definition for *note SharedMemory: 1614.  When
     attaching to an existing ‘ShareableList’, specify its shared memory
     block's unique name while leaving 'sequence' set to ‘None’.

          Note: A known issue exists for *note bytes: 1bd. and *note
          str: 437. values.  If they end with ‘\x00’ nul bytes or
          characters, those may be 'silently stripped' when fetching
          them by index from the ‘ShareableList’.  This
          ‘.rstrip(b'\x00')’ behavior is considered a bug and may go
          away in the future.  See gh-106939(3).

     For applications where rstripping of trailing nulls is a problem,
     work around it by always unconditionally appending an extra non-0
     byte to the end of such values when storing and unconditionally
     removing it when fetching:

          >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
          >>> nul_bug_demo = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'])
          >>> nul_bug_demo[0]
          '?'
          >>> nul_bug_demo[1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01'
          >>> nul_bug_demo.shm.unlink()
          >>> padded = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00\x07', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00\x07'])
          >>> padded[0][:-1]
          '?\x00'
          >>> padded[1][:-1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'
          >>> padded.shm.unlink()

      -- Méthode: count (value)

          Return the number of occurrences of 'value'.

      -- Méthode: index (value)

          Return first index position of 'value'.  Raise *note
          ValueError: 1ff. if 'value' is not present.

      -- Attribut: format

          Attribut en lecture seule contenant le format d’agrégation
          *note struct: d4. utilisé par les valeurs déjà stockées.

      -- Attribut: shm

          Instance de *note SharedMemory: 1614. dans laquelle les
          valeurs sont stockées.

L'exemple qui suit illustre un cas d'usage de base d'une instance de
*note ShareableList: 192d. :

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> a = shared_memory.ShareableList(['howdy', b'HoWdY', -273.154, 100, None, True, 42])
     >>> [ type(entry) for entry in a ]
     [<class 'str'>, <class 'bytes'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'NoneType'>, <class 'bool'>, <class 'int'>]
     >>> a[2]
     -273.154
     >>> a[2] = -78.5
     >>> a[2]
     -78.5
     >>> a[2] = 'dry ice'  # Changing data types is supported as well
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> a[2] = 'larger than previously allocated storage space'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: exceeds available storage for existing str
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> len(a)
     7
     >>> a.index(42)
     6
     >>> a.count(b'howdy')
     0
     >>> a.count(b'HoWdY')
     1
     >>> a.shm.close()
     >>> a.shm.unlink()
     >>> del a  # Use of a ShareableList after call to unlink() is unsupported

L'exemple ci-dessous montre comment un, deux ou un grand nombre de
processus peuvent accéder à une *note ShareableList: 192d. commune à
partir du nom du bloc mémoire partagé sous-jacent :

     >>> b = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(5))         # In a first process
     >>> c = shared_memory.ShareableList(name=b.shm.name)  # In a second process
     >>> c
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], name='...')
     >>> c[-1] = -999
     >>> b[-1]
     -999
     >>> b.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.unlink()

The following examples demonstrates that *note ShareableList: 192d. (and
underlying *note SharedMemory: 1614.) objects can be pickled and
unpickled if needed.  Note, that it will still be the same shared
object.  This happens, because the deserialized object has the same
unique name and is just attached to an existing object with the same
name (if the object is still alive):

     >>> import pickle
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> sl = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(10))
     >>> list(sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> deserialized_sl = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sl))
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl[0] = -1
     >>> deserialized_sl[1] = -2
     >>> list(sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl.shm.close()
     >>> sl.shm.unlink()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py

   (2) https://numpy.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106939


File: python.info,  Node: The concurrent package,  Next: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks,  Prev: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.4 The ‘concurrent’ package
-------------------------------

Il n'y a actuellement qu'un module dans ce paquet :

   * *note concurrent.futures: 21. - Lancer des tâches en parallèle


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks,  Next: subprocess --- Subprocess management,  Prev: The concurrent package,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.5 ‘concurrent.futures’ -- Launching parallel tasks
-------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py(1) and
Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note concurrent.futures: 21. module provides a high-level interface
for asynchronously executing callables.

The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using *note
ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e, or separate processes, using *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.  Both implement the same interface, which is
defined by the abstract *note Executor: 3176. class.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

* Menu:

* Executor Objects::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future Objects::
* Module Functions::
* Exception classes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py


File: python.info,  Node: Executor Objects,  Next: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks

5.18.5.1 Executor Objects
.........................

 -- Classe: concurrent.futures.Executor

     An abstract class that provides methods to execute calls
     asynchronously.  It should not be used directly, but through its
     concrete subclasses.

      -- Méthode: submit (fn, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Schedules the callable, 'fn', to be executed as ‘fn(*args,
          **kwargs)’ and returns a *note Future: 1191. object
          representing the execution of the callable.

               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
                   future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
                   print(future.result())

      -- Méthode: map (fn, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1)

          Similar to *note map(fn, *iterables): 850. except:

             * the 'iterables' are collected immediately rather than
               lazily;

             * 'fn' is executed asynchronously and several calls to 'fn'
               may be made concurrently.

          The returned iterator raises a *note TimeoutError: 821. if
          *note __next__(): 12ad. is called and the result isn't
          available after 'timeout' seconds from the original call to
          *note Executor.map(): dd3.  'timeout' can be an int or a
          float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there is no
          limit to the wait time.

          If a 'fn' call raises an exception, then that exception will
          be raised when its value is retrieved from the iterator.

          When using *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd, this method chops
          'iterables' into a number of chunks which it submits to the
          pool as separate tasks.  The (approximate) size of these
          chunks can be specified by setting 'chunksize' to a positive
          integer.  For very long iterables, using a large value for
          'chunksize' can significantly improve performance compared to
          the default size of 1.  With *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e,
          'chunksize' has no effect.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the 'chunksize' argument.

      -- Méthode: shutdown (wait=True, *, cancel_futures=False)

          Signal the executor that it should free any resources that it
          is using when the currently pending futures are done
          executing.  Calls to *note Executor.submit(): a72. and *note
          Executor.map(): dd3. made after shutdown will raise *note
          RuntimeError: 193.

          If 'wait' is ‘True’ then this method will not return until all
          the pending futures are done executing and the resources
          associated with the executor have been freed.  If 'wait' is
          ‘False’ then this method will return immediately and the
          resources associated with the executor will be freed when all
          pending futures are done executing.  Regardless of the value
          of 'wait', the entire Python program will not exit until all
          pending futures are done executing.

          If 'cancel_futures' is ‘True’, this method will cancel all
          pending futures that the executor has not started running.
          Any futures that are completed or running won't be cancelled,
          regardless of the value of 'cancel_futures'.

          If both 'cancel_futures' and 'wait' are ‘True’, all futures
          that the executor has started running will be completed prior
          to this method returning.  The remaining futures are
          cancelled.

          You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use
          the *note with: 5be. statement, which will shutdown the *note
          Executor: 3176. (waiting as if *note Executor.shutdown(): 8dc.
          were called with 'wait' set to ‘True’):

               import shutil
               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added 'cancel_futures'.


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Next: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Prev: Executor Objects,  Up: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks

5.18.5.2 ThreadPoolExecutor
...........................

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. is an *note Executor: 3176. subclass that
uses a pool of threads to execute calls asynchronously.

Deadlocks can occur when the callable associated with a *note Future:
1191. waits on the results of another *note Future: 1191.  For example:

     import time
     def wait_on_b():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(b.result())  # b will never complete because it is waiting on a.
         return 5

     def wait_on_a():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(a.result())  # a will never complete because it is waiting on b.
         return 6


     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
     a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
     b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)

Et :

     def wait_on_future():
         f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
         # This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and
         # it is executing this function.
         print(f.result())

     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
     executor.submit(wait_on_future)

 -- Classe: concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

     An *note Executor: 3176. subclass that uses a pool of at most
     'max_workers' threads to execute calls asynchronously.

     All threads enqueued to ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ will be joined before
     the interpreter can exit.  Note that the exit handler which does
     this is executed 'before' any exit handlers added using ‘atexit’.
     This means exceptions in the main thread must be caught and handled
     in order to signal threads to exit gracefully.  For this reason, it
     is recommended that ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ not be used for
     long-running tasks.

     'initializer' is an optional callable that is called at the start
     of each worker thread; 'initargs' is a tuple of arguments passed to
     the initializer.  Should 'initializer' raise an exception, all
     currently pending jobs will raise a *note BrokenThreadPool: 3179,
     as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: If 'max_workers' is ‘None’ or not
     given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine,
     multiplied by ‘5’, assuming that *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. is
     often used to overlap I/O instead of CPU work and the number of
     workers should be higher than the number of workers for *note
     ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'thread_name_prefix'
     parameter to allow users to control the *note threading.Thread:
     93b. names for worker threads created by the pool for easier
     debugging.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the 'initializer' and 'initargs'
     arguments.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Default value of 'max_workers' is
     changed to ‘min(32, os.cpu_count() + 4)’.  This default value
     preserves at least 5 workers for I/O bound tasks.  It utilizes at
     most 32 CPU cores for CPU bound tasks which release the GIL. And it
     avoids using very large resources implicitly on many-core machines.

     ThreadPoolExecutor now reuses idle worker threads before starting
     'max_workers' worker threads too.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Default value of 'max_workers' is
     changed to ‘min(32, (os.process_cpu_count() or 1) + 4)’.

* Menu:

* ThreadPoolExecutor Example::


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor Example,  Up: ThreadPoolExecutor

5.18.5.3 ThreadPoolExecutor Example
...................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import urllib.request

     URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
             'http://www.cnn.com/',
             'http://europe.wsj.com/',
             'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
             'http://nonexistent-subdomain.python.org/']

     # Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
     def load_url(url, timeout):
         with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
             return conn.read()

     # We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
         # Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL
         future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
         for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
             url = future_to_url[future]
             try:
                 data = future.result()
             except Exception as exc:
                 print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
             else:
                 print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Future Objects,  Prev: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks

5.18.5.4 ProcessPoolExecutor
............................

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. class is an *note Executor: 3176.
subclass that uses a pool of processes to execute calls asynchronously.
*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. uses the *note multiprocessing: 93.
module, which allows it to side-step the *note Global Interpreter Lock:
147. but also means that only picklable objects can be executed and
returned.

The ‘__main__’ module must be importable by worker subprocesses.  This
means that *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. will not work in the
interactive interpreter.

Calling *note Executor: 3176. or *note Future: 1191. methods from a
callable submitted to a *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. will result in
deadlock.

 -- Classe: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(),
          max_tasks_per_child=None)

     An *note Executor: 3176. subclass that executes calls
     asynchronously using a pool of at most 'max_workers' processes.  If
     'max_workers' is ‘None’ or not given, it will default to *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf.  If 'max_workers' is less than or
     equal to ‘0’, then a *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised.  On
     Windows, 'max_workers' must be less than or equal to ‘61’.  If it
     is not then *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised.  If
     'max_workers' is ‘None’, then the default chosen will be at most
     ‘61’, even if more processors are available.  'mp_context' can be a
     *note multiprocessing: 93. context or ‘None’.  It will be used to
     launch the workers.  If 'mp_context' is ‘None’ or not given, the
     default *note multiprocessing: 93. context is used.  See *note
     Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

     'initializer' is an optional callable that is called at the start
     of each worker process; 'initargs' is a tuple of arguments passed
     to the initializer.  Should 'initializer' raise an exception, all
     currently pending jobs will raise a *note BrokenProcessPool: 317c,
     as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

     'max_tasks_per_child' is an optional argument that specifies the
     maximum number of tasks a single process can execute before it will
     exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process.  By default
     'max_tasks_per_child' is ‘None’ which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.  When a max is specified, the "spawn"
     multiprocessing start method will be used by default in absence of
     a 'mp_context' parameter.  This feature is incompatible with the
     "fork" start method.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: When one of the worker processes
     terminates abruptly, a *note BrokenProcessPool: 317c. error is now
     raised.  Previously, behaviour was undefined but operations on the
     executor or its futures would often freeze or deadlock.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'mp_context' argument was added to
     allow users to control the start_method for worker processes
     created by the pool.

     Added the 'initializer' and 'initargs' arguments.

          Note: The default *note multiprocessing: 93. start method (see
          *note Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.) will change
          away from 'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' be
          used for their *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. should
          explicitly specify that by passing a
          ‘mp_context=multiprocessing.get_context("fork")’ parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'max_tasks_per_child' argument
     was added to allow users to control the lifetime of workers in the
     pool.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: On POSIX systems, if your application
     has multiple threads and the *note multiprocessing: 93. context
     uses the ‘"fork"’ start method: The *note os.fork(): 195. function
     called internally to spawn workers may raise a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3.  Pass a 'mp_context' configured to use a
     different start method.  See the *note os.fork(): 195.
     documentation for further explanation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'max_workers' uses *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf. by default, instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c0.

* Menu:

* ProcessPoolExecutor Example::


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor Example,  Up: ProcessPoolExecutor

5.18.5.5 ProcessPoolExecutor Example
....................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import math

     PRIMES = [
         112272535095293,
         112582705942171,
         112272535095293,
         115280095190773,
         115797848077099,
         1099726899285419]

     def is_prime(n):
         if n < 2:
             return False
         if n == 2:
             return True
         if n % 2 == 0:
             return False

         sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
         for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
             if n % i == 0:
                 return False
         return True

     def main():
         with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
             for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
                 print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Future Objects,  Next: Module Functions,  Prev: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks

5.18.5.6 Future Objects
.......................

The *note Future: 1191. class encapsulates the asynchronous execution of
a callable.  *note Future: 1191. instances are created by *note
Executor.submit(): a72.

 -- Classe: concurrent.futures.Future

     Encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.  *note
     Future: 1191. instances are created by *note Executor.submit():
     a72. and should not be created directly except for testing.

      -- Méthode: cancel ()

          Attempt to cancel the call.  If the call is currently being
          executed or finished running and cannot be cancelled then the
          method will return ‘False’, otherwise the call will be
          cancelled and the method will return ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call was successfully cancelled.

      -- Méthode: running ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call is currently being executed and
          cannot be cancelled.

      -- Méthode: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call was successfully cancelled or
          finished running.

      -- Méthode: result (timeout=None)

          Return the value returned by the call.  If the call hasn't yet
          completed then this method will wait up to 'timeout' seconds.
          If the call hasn't completed in 'timeout' seconds, then a
          *note TimeoutError: 821. will be raised.  'timeout' can be an
          int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there
          is no limit to the wait time.

          If the future is cancelled before completing then *note
          CancelledError: 9ca. will be raised.

          If the call raised an exception, this method will raise the
          same exception.

      -- Méthode: exception (timeout=None)

          Return the exception raised by the call.  If the call hasn't
          yet completed then this method will wait up to 'timeout'
          seconds.  If the call hasn't completed in 'timeout' seconds,
          then a *note TimeoutError: 821. will be raised.  'timeout' can
          be an int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’,
          there is no limit to the wait time.

          If the future is cancelled before completing then *note
          CancelledError: 9ca. will be raised.

          If the call completed without raising, ‘None’ is returned.

      -- Méthode: add_done_callback (fn)

          Attaches the callable 'fn' to the future.  'fn' will be
          called, with the future as its only argument, when the future
          is cancelled or finishes running.

          Added callables are called in the order that they were added
          and are always called in a thread belonging to the process
          that added them.  If the callable raises an *note Exception:
          9c9. subclass, it will be logged and ignored.  If the callable
          raises a *note BaseException: 5a7. subclass, the behavior is
          undefined.

          If the future has already completed or been cancelled, 'fn'
          will be called immediately.

     The following *note Future: 1191. methods are meant for use in unit
     tests and *note Executor: 3176. implementations.

      -- Méthode: set_running_or_notify_cancel ()

          This method should only be called by *note Executor: 3176.
          implementations before executing the work associated with the
          *note Future: 1191. and by unit tests.

          If the method returns ‘False’ then the *note Future: 1191. was
          cancelled, i.e.  *note Future.cancel(): 317f. was called and
          returned ‘True’.  Any threads waiting on the *note Future:
          1191. completing (i.e.  through *note as_completed(): 1608. or
          *note wait(): 181f.) will be woken up.

          If the method returns ‘True’ then the *note Future: 1191. was
          not cancelled and has been put in the running state, i.e.
          calls to *note Future.running(): 3181. will return ‘True’.

          This method can only be called once and cannot be called after
          *note Future.set_result(): 3187. or *note
          Future.set_exception(): 3188. have been called.

      -- Méthode: set_result (result)

          Sets the result of the work associated with the *note Future:
          1191. to 'result'.

          This method should only be used by *note Executor: 3176.
          implementations and unit tests.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: This method raises *note
          concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 15c7. if the *note
          Future: 1191. is already done.

      -- Méthode: set_exception (exception)

          Sets the result of the work associated with the *note Future:
          1191. to the *note Exception: 9c9. 'exception'.

          This method should only be used by *note Executor: 3176.
          implementations and unit tests.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: This method raises *note
          concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 15c7. if the *note
          Future: 1191. is already done.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Functions,  Next: Exception classes,  Prev: Future Objects,  Up: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks

5.18.5.7 Module Functions
.........................

 -- Fonction: concurrent.futures.wait (fs, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Wait for the *note Future: 1191. instances (possibly created by
     different *note Executor: 3176. instances) given by 'fs' to
     complete.  Duplicate futures given to 'fs' are removed and will be
     returned only once.  Returns a named 2-tuple of sets.  The first
     set, named ‘done’, contains the futures that completed (finished or
     cancelled futures) before the wait completed.  The second set,
     named ‘not_done’, contains the futures that did not complete
     (pending or running futures).

     'timeout' can be used to control the maximum number of seconds to
     wait before returning.  'timeout' can be an int or float.  If
     'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there is no limit to the wait
     time.

     'return_when' indique quand la fonction doit se terminer.  Il peut
     prendre les valeurs suivantes :

     Constante                                              Description
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- Données: concurrent.futures.FIRST_COMPLETED        La fonction se termine lorsque n'importe quel futur
                                                            se termine ou est annulé.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Données: concurrent.futures.FIRST_EXCEPTION        The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 318c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Données: concurrent.futures.ALL_COMPLETED          La fonction se termine lorsque les 'futurs' sont
                                                            tous finis ou annulés.
                                                            

 -- Fonction: concurrent.futures.as_completed (fs, timeout=None)

     Returns an iterator over the *note Future: 1191. instances
     (possibly created by different *note Executor: 3176. instances)
     given by 'fs' that yields futures as they complete (finished or
     cancelled futures).  Any futures given by 'fs' that are duplicated
     will be returned once.  Any futures that completed before *note
     as_completed(): 1608. is called will be yielded first.  The
     returned iterator raises a *note TimeoutError: 821. if *note
     __next__(): 12ad. is called and the result isn't available after
     'timeout' seconds from the original call to *note as_completed():
     1608.  'timeout' can be an int or float.  If 'timeout' is not
     specified or ‘None’, there is no limit to the wait time.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 3148(1) - futures - execute computations asynchronously

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception classes,  Prev: Module Functions,  Up: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks

5.18.5.8 Exception classes
..........................

 -- Exception: concurrent.futures.CancelledError

     Raised when a future is cancelled.

 -- Exception: concurrent.futures.TimeoutError

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 821, raised when a future
     operation exceeds the given timeout.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: cette classe est devenue un alias de
     *note TimeoutError: 821.

 -- Exception: concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor

     Derived from *note RuntimeError: 193, this exception class is
     raised when an executor is broken for some reason, and cannot be
     used to submit or execute new tasks.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Exception: concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError

     Raised when an operation is performed on a future that is not
     allowed in the current state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Exception: concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool

     Derived from *note BrokenExecutor: 318f, this exception class is
     raised when one of the workers of a *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.
     has failed initializing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Exception: concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool

     Derived from *note BrokenExecutor: 318f. (formerly *note
     RuntimeError: 193.), this exception class is raised when one of the
     workers of a *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. has terminated in a
     non-clean fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess --- Subprocess management,  Next: sched --- Event scheduler,  Prev: concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.6 ‘subprocess’ -- Subprocess management
--------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/subprocess.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note subprocess: d5. vous permet de lancer de nouveaux
processus, les connecter à des tubes d'entrée/sortie/erreur, et
d'obtenir leurs codes de retour.  Ce module a l'intention de remplacer
plusieurs anciens modules et fonctions :

     os.system
     os.spawn*

De plus amples informations sur comment le module *note subprocess: d5.
peut être utilisé pour remplacer ces modules et fonctions peuvent être
trouvées dans les sections suivantes.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 324(2) - PEP proposant le module 'subprocess'

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

* Menu:

* Utiliser le module subprocess::
* Considérations de sécurité::
* Objets Popen::
* Utilitaires Popen pour Windows::
* Ancienne interface (API) haut-niveau: Ancienne interface API haut-niveau.
* Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess::
* Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell::
* Notes: Notes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/subprocess.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: Utiliser le module subprocess,  Next: Considérations de sécurité,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.1 Utiliser le module ‘subprocess’
........................................

L'approche recommandée pour invoquer un sous-processus est d'utiliser la
fonction *note run(): b76. pour tous les cas d'utilisation qu'elle gère.
Pour les cas d'utilisation plus avancés, l'interface inhérente *note
Popen: 197. peut être utilisée directement.

 -- Fonction: subprocess.run (args, *, stdin=None, input=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, capture_output=False, shell=False,
          cwd=None, timeout=None, check=False, encoding=None,
          errors=None, text=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Lance la commande décrite par 'args'.  Attend que la commande se
     termine, puis renvoie une instance *note CompletedProcess: e5e.

     Les arguments présentés ci-dessus sont simplement les plus
     utilisés, décrits ci-dessous dans la section *note Arguments
     fréquemment utilisés: 3193. (d'où l'utilisation de la notation
     'keyword-only' dans la signature abrégée).  La signature complète
     de la fonction est sensiblement la même que celle du constructeur
     de *note Popen: 197, à l'exception de 'timeout', 'input', 'check'
     et 'capture_output', tous les arguments donnés à cette fonction
     passent à travers cette interface.

     If 'capture_output' is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
     When used, the internal *note Popen: 197. object is automatically
     created with 'stdout' and 'stderr' both set to *note PIPE: b77.
     The 'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments may not be supplied at the same
     time as 'capture_output'.  If you wish to capture and combine both
     streams into one, set 'stdout' to *note PIPE: b77. and 'stderr' to
     *note STDOUT: 3194, instead of using 'capture_output'.

     A 'timeout' may be specified in seconds, it is internally passed on
     to *note Popen.communicate(): 3195.  If the timeout expires, the
     child process will be killed and waited for.  The *note
     TimeoutExpired: 3196. exception will be re-raised after the child
     process has terminated.  The initial process creation itself cannot
     be interrupted on many platform APIs so you are not guaranteed to
     see a timeout exception until at least after however long process
     creation takes.

     The 'input' argument is passed to *note Popen.communicate(): 3195.
     and thus to the subprocess's stdin.  If used it must be a byte
     sequence, or a string if 'encoding' or 'errors' is specified or
     'text' is true.  When used, the internal *note Popen: 197. object
     is automatically created with 'stdin' set to *note PIPE: b77, and
     the 'stdin' argument may not be used as well.

     Si 'check' est vrai, et que le processus s'arrête avec un code de
     statut non nul, une exception *note CalledProcessError: 1304. est
     levée.  Les attributs de cette exception contiennent les arguments,
     le code de statut, et les sorties standard et d'erreur si elles ont
     été capturées.

     Si 'encoding' ou 'errors' sont spécifiés, ou 'text' est vrai, les
     fichiers pour les entrées et sorties sont ouverts en mode texte en
     utilisant les paramètres 'encoding' et 'errors' spécifiés, ou les
     valeurs par défaut de *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.  L'argument
     'universal_newlines' est équivalent à 'text' et est fourni pour la
     rétrocompatibilité.  Par défaut, les fichiers sont ouverts en mode
     binaire.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process'
     environment.  It is passed directly to *note Popen: 197.  This
     mapping can be str to str on any platform or bytes to bytes on
     POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 1199. or *note
     os.environb: 11f6.

     Exemples :

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

          >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
          stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout des paramètres 'encoding' et
     'errors'

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre 'text', qui agit
     comme un alias plus compréhensible de 'universal_newlines'.  Ajout
     du paramètre 'capture_output'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order
     for ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced
     with ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Classe: subprocess.CompletedProcess

     La valeur de retour de *note run(): b76, représentant un processus
     qui s'est terminé.

      -- Attribut: args

          Les arguments utilisés pour lancer le processus.  Cela peut
          être une liste ou une chaîne de caractères.

      -- Attribut: returncode

          Le code de statut du processus fils.  Typiquement, un code de
          statut de 0 indique qu'il s'est exécuté avec succès.

          Une valeur négative ‘-N’ indique que le processus enfant a été
          terminé par un signal ‘N’ (seulement sur les systèmes
          'POSIX').

      -- Attribut: stdout

          La sortie standard capturée du processus enfant.  Une séquence
          de 'bytes', ou une chaîne de caractères si *note run(): b76. a
          été appelée avec 'encoding', 'errors' ou 'text=True'.  Vaut
          ‘None’ si la sortie standard n'était pas capturée.

          Si vous avez lancé le processus avec
          ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’, les sorties standard et d'erreur
          seront combinées dans cet attribut, et *note stderr: 319a.
          sera mis à ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: stderr

          La sortie d'erreur capturée du processus enfant.  Une séquence
          de 'bytes', ou une chaîne de caractères si *note run(): b76. a
          été appelée avec 'encoding', 'errors' ou 'text=True'.  Vaut
          ‘None’ si la sortie d'erreur n'était pas capturée.

      -- Méthode: check_returncode ()

          Si *note returncode: 3198. n'est pas nul, lève une *note
          CalledProcessError: 1304.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: subprocess.DEVNULL

     Valeur spéciale qui peut être utilisée pour les arguments 'stdin',
     'stdout' ou 'stderr' de *note Popen: 197. et qui indique que le
     fichier spécial *note os.devnull: 19f1. sera utilisé.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: subprocess.PIPE

     Valeur spéciale qui peut être utilisée pour les arguments 'stdin',
     'stdout' ou 'stderr' de *note Popen: 197. et qui indique qu'un tube
     vers le flux standard doit être ouvert.  Surtout utile avec *note
     Popen.communicate(): 3195.

 -- Données: subprocess.STDOUT

     Valeur spéciale qui peut être utilisée pour l'argument 'stderr' de
     *note Popen: 197. et qui indique que la sortie d'erreur doit être
     redirigée vers le même descripteur que la sortie standard.

 -- Exception: subprocess.SubprocessError

     Classe de base à toutes les autres exceptions du module.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: subprocess.TimeoutExpired

     Sous-classe de *note SubprocessError: 319c, levée quand un
     'timeout' expire pendant l'attente d'un processus enfant.

      -- Attribut: cmd

          La commande utilisée pour instancier le processus fils.

      -- Attribut: timeout

          Le 'timeout' en secondes.

      -- Attribut: output

          Sortie du processus enfant si elle a été récupérée par *note
          run(): b76. ou *note check_output(): fae.  Sinon, ‘None’.  La
          sortie est toujours de type *note bytes: 1bd. quand elle est
          récupérée, que le paramètre ‘text’ soit mis à ‘True’ ou non.
          Si la sortie est vide, cette dernière peut être ‘None’ au lieu
          de ‘b''’.

      -- Attribut: stdout

          Alias pour 'output', afin d'avoir une symétrie avec *note
          stderr: 31a1.

      -- Attribut: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): b76.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This is always *note bytes:
          1bd. when stderr output was captured regardless of the
          ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’
          when no stderr output was observed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des attributs 'stdout' et
     'stderr'

 -- Exception: subprocess.CalledProcessError

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 319c, raised when a process run
     by *note check_call(): 31a2, *note check_output(): fae, or *note
     run(): b76. (with ‘check=True’) returns a non-zero exit status.

      -- Attribut: returncode

          Code de statut du processus fils.  Si le processus a été
          arrêté par un signal, le code sera négatif et correspondra à
          l'opposé du numéro de signal.

      -- Attribut: cmd

          La commande utilisée pour instancier le processus fils.

      -- Attribut: output

          La sortie du processus fils, si capturée par *note run(): b76.
          ou *note check_output(): fae.  Autrement, ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: stdout

          Alias pour 'output', afin d'avoir une symétrie avec *note
          stderr: 31a7.

      -- Attribut: stderr

          La sortie d'erreur du processus fils, si capturée par *note
          run(): b76.  Autrement, ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des attributs 'stdout' et
     'stderr'

* Menu:

* Arguments fréquemment utilisés::
* Constructeur de Popen::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments fréquemment utilisés,  Next: Constructeur de Popen,  Up: Utiliser le module subprocess

5.18.6.2 Arguments fréquemment utilisés
.......................................

Pour gérer un large ensemble de cas, le constructeur de *note Popen:
197. (et les fonctions de convenance) acceptent de nombreux arguments
optionnels.  Pour les cas d'utilisation les plus typiques, beaucoup de
ces arguments peuvent sans problème être laissés à leurs valeurs par
défaut.  Les arguments les plus communément nécessaires sont :

     'args' est requis pour tous les appels et doit être une chaîne de
     caractères ou une séquence d'arguments du programme.  Il est
     généralement préférable de fournir une séquence d'arguments,
     puisque cela permet au module de s'occuper des potentiels
     échappements ou guillemets autour des arguments (p. ex.  pour
     permettre des espaces dans des noms de fichiers).  Si l'argument
     est passé comme une simple chaîne, soit 'shell' doit valoir *note
     True: bfd. (voir ci-dessous) soit la chaîne doit simplement
     contenir le nom du programme à exécuter sans spécifier d'arguments
     supplémentaires.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program's
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: b77, *note
     DEVNULL: 1130, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer),
     and an existing *note file object: 11a2. with a valid file
     descriptor.  With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection
     will occur.  *note PIPE: b77. indicates that a new pipe to the
     child should be created.  *note DEVNULL: 1130. indicates that the
     special file *note os.devnull: 19f1. will be used.  Additionally,
     'stderr' can be *note STDOUT: 3194, which indicates that the stderr
     data from the child process should be captured into the same file
     handle as for 'stdout'.

     Si 'encoding' ou 'errors' sont spécifiés, ou si 'text' (aussi
     appelé 'universal_newlines') est vrai, les fichiers 'stdin',
     'stdout' et 'stderr' seront ouverts en mode texte en utilisant les
     'encoding' et 'errors' spécifiés à l'appel, ou les valeurs par
     défaut de *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.

     Pour 'stdin', les caractères de fin de ligne ‘'\n'’ de l'entrée
     seront convertis vers des séparateurs de ligne par défaut *note
     os.linesep: 2136.  Pour 'stdout' et 'stderr', toutes les fins de
     lignes des sorties seront converties vers ‘'\n'’.  Pour plus
     d'informations, voir la documentation de la classe *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. quand l'argument 'newline' du constructeur
     est ‘None’.

     Si le mode texte n'est pas utilisé, 'stdin', 'stdout' et 'stderr'
     seront ouverts comme des flux binaires.  Aucune conversion
     d'encodage ou de fins de ligne ne sera réalisée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre 'text' comme alias
     de 'universal_newlines'.

          Note: L'attribut 'newlines' des objets *note Popen.stdin:
          31a9, *note Popen.stdout: 31aa. et *note Popen.stderr: 31ab.
          ne sont pas mis à jour par la méthode *note
          Popen.communicate(): 3195.

     Si 'shell' vaut ‘True’, la commande spécifiée sera exécutée à
     travers un 'shell'.  Cela peut être utile si vous utilisez Python
     pour le contrôle de flot qu'il propose par rapport à beaucoup de
     'shells' système et voulez tout de même profiter des autres
     fonctionnalités des 'shells' telles que les tubes ('pipes'), les
     motifs de fichiers, l'expansion des variables d'environnement, et
     l'expansion du ‘~’ vers le répertoire d’accueil de l'utilisateur.
     Cependant, notez que Python lui-même propose l'implémentation de
     beaucoup de ces fonctionnalités (en particulier *note glob: 63,
     *note fnmatch: 5b, *note os.walk(): 495, *note
     os.path.expandvars(): 1392, *note os.path.expanduser(): a04. et
     *note shutil: c4.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Quand 'universal_newlines' vaut
     ‘True’, la classe utilise l'encodage *note
     locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 527. plutôt que
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  Voir la classe *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. pour plus d'informations sur ce changement.

          Note: Lire la section *note Security Considerations: 31ac.
          avant d'utiliser ‘shell=True’.

Ces options, ainsi que toutes les autres, sont décrites plus en détails
dans la documentation du constructeur de *note Popen: 197.


File: python.info,  Node: Constructeur de Popen,  Next: Exceptions<11>,  Prev: Arguments fréquemment utilisés,  Up: Utiliser le module subprocess

5.18.6.3 Constructeur de 'Popen'
................................

La création et la gestion sous-jacentes des processus est gérée par la
classe *note Popen: 197.  Elle offre beaucoup de flexibilité de façon à
ce que les développeurs soient capables de gérer les cas d'utilisation
les moins communs, non couverts par les fonctions de convenance.

 -- Classe: subprocess.Popen (args, bufsize=-1, executable=None,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None,
          close_fds=True, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None,
          universal_newlines=None, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0,
          restore_signals=True, start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *,
          group=None, extra_groups=None, user=None, umask=-1,
          encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, pipesize=-1,
          process_group=None)

     Execute a child program in a new process.  On POSIX, the class uses
     *note os.execvpe(): 2b7c.-like behavior to execute the child
     program.  On Windows, the class uses the Windows ‘CreateProcess()’
     function.  The arguments to *note Popen: 197. are as follows.

     'args' peut être une séquence d'arguments du programme, une chaîne
     seule ou un *note objet chemin: 29d.  Par défaut, le programme à
     exécuter est le premier élément de 'args' si 'args' est une
     séquence.  Si 'args' est une chaîne de caractères, l'interprétation
     dépend de la plateforme et est décrite plus bas.  Voir les
     arguments 'shell' et 'executable' pour d'autres différences avec le
     comportement par défaut.  Sans autre indication, il est recommandé
     de passer 'args' comme une séquence.

          Avertissement: For maximum reliability, use a fully qualified
          path for the executable.  To search for an unqualified name on
          ‘PATH’, use *note shutil.which(): 4a0.  On all platforms,
          passing *note sys.executable: 3af. is the recommended way to
          launch the current Python interpreter again, and use the ‘-m’
          command-line format to launch an installed module.

          Resolving the path of 'executable' (or the first item of
          'args') is platform dependent.  For POSIX, see *note
          os.execvpe(): 2b7c, and note that when resolving or searching
          for the executable path, 'cwd' overrides the current working
          directory and 'env' can override the ‘PATH’ environment
          variable.  For Windows, see the documentation of the
          ‘lpApplicationName’ and ‘lpCommandLine’ parameters of WinAPI
          ‘CreateProcess’, and note that when resolving or searching for
          the executable path with ‘shell=False’, 'cwd' does not
          override the current working directory and 'env' cannot
          override the ‘PATH’ environment variable.  Using a full path
          avoids all of these variations.

     Exemple de passage d'arguments, sous forme de séquence, à un autre
     programme:

          Popen(["/usr/bin/git", "commit", "-m", "Fixes a bug."])

     Sur les systèmes 'POSIX', si 'args' est une chaîne, elle est
     interprétée comme le nom ou le chemin du programme à exécuter.
     Cependant, cela ne peut être fait que si le programme est passé
     sans arguments.

          Note: Transformer une commande shell en une séquence de
          commandes peut ne pas être évident.  *note shlex.split(): 529.
          permet d'illustrer comment séquencer une commande correctement
          pour 'args':

               >>> import shlex, subprocess
               >>> command_line = input()
               /bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
               >>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
               >>> print(args)
               ['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
               >>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # Success!

          Notez en particulier que les options (comme '-input') et
          arguments (comme 'eggs.txt') qui sont séparés par des espaces
          dans le 'shell' iront dans des éléments séparés de la liste,
          alors que les arguments qui nécessitent des guillemets et
          échappements quand utilisés dans le 'shell' (comme les noms de
          fichiers contenant des espaces ou la commande 'echo' montrée
          plus haut) forment des éléments uniques.

     Sous Windows, si 'args' est une séquence, elle sera convertie vers
     une chaîne de caractères de la manière décrite dans *note Convertir
     une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous
     Windows: 31ae.  Cela fonctionne ainsi parce que la fonction
     ‘CreateProcess()’ opère sur des chaînes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre 'args' accepte un *note
     objet chemin: 29d. si 'shell' vaut ‘False’ et une séquence
     contenant des objets fichier sur POSIX.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre 'args' accepte un *note
     objet chemin: 29d. si 'shell' vaut ‘False’ et une séquence
     contenant des chaines d'octets et des objets chemins sur Windows.

     L'argument 'shell' (qui vaut ‘False’ par défaut) spécifie s'il faut
     utiliser un 'shell' comme programme à exécuter.  Si 'shell' vaut
     ‘True’, il est recommandé de passer 'args' comme une chaîne de
     caractères plutôt qu'une séquence.

     Sur les systèmes POSIX avec ‘shell=True’, le 'shell' par défaut est
     ‘/bin/sh’.  Si 'args' est une chaîne de caractères, la chaîne
     spécifie la commande à exécuter à travers le 'shell'.  Cela
     signifie que la chaîne doit être formatée exactement comme elle le
     serait si elle était tapée dans l'invite de commandes du 'shell'.
     Cela inclut, par exemple, les guillemets ou les 'backslashs'
     échappant les noms de fichiers contenant des espaces.  Si 'args'
     est une séquence, le premier élément spécifie la commande, et les
     éléments supplémentaires seront traités comme des arguments
     additionnels à passer au 'shell' lui-même.  Pour ainsi dire, *note
     Popen: 197. réalise l'équivalent de :

          Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])

     Sous Windows avec ‘shell=True’, la variable d'environnement
     ‘COMSPEC’ spécifie le 'shell' par défaut.  La seule raison pour
     laquelle vous devriez spécifier ‘shell=True’ sous Windows est quand
     la commande que vous souhaitez exécuter est une 'built-in' du
     'shell' (p.  ex.  ‘dir’ ou ‘copy’).  Vous n'avez pas besoin de
     ‘shell=True’ pour lancer un fichier batch ou un exécutable console.

          Note: Lire la section *note Security Considerations: 31ac.
          avant d'utiliser ‘shell=True’.

     'bufsize' sera fourni comme l'argument correspondant à la fonction
     *note open(): 508, lors de la création des objets de fichiers pour
     les tubes 'stdin'/'stdout'/'stderr' :

        - ‘0’ means unbuffered (read and write are one system call and
          can return short)

        - ‘1’ means line buffered (only usable if ‘text=True’ or
          ‘universal_newlines=True’)

        - toutes les autres valeurs positives indiquent d'utiliser un
          tampon d'approximativement cette taille ;

        - un 'bufsize' négatif (par défaut) indique au système
          d'utiliser la valeur par défaut 'io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3.1: 'bufsize' now defaults to -1 to
     enable buffering by default to match the behavior that most code
     expects.  In versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and 3.3.1 it
     incorrectly defaulted to ‘0’ which was unbuffered and allowed short
     reads.  This was unintentional and did not match the behavior of
     Python 2 as most code expected.

     L'argument 'executable' spécifie un programme de remplacement à
     exécuter.  Il est très rarement nécessaire.  Quand ‘shell=False’,
     'executable' remplace le programme à exécuter spécifié par 'args'.
     Cependant, les arguments originels d''args' sont toujours passés au
     programme.  La plupart des programmes traitent le programme
     spécifié par 'args' comme le nom de la commande, qui peut être
     différent du programme réellement exécuté.  Sur les systèmes POSIX,
     le nom tiré d''args' devient le nom affiché pour l'exécutable dans
     des utilitaires tels que ‘ps’.  Si ‘shell=True’, sur les systèmes
     POSIX, l'argument 'executable' précise le 'shell' à utiliser plutôt
     que ‘/bin/sh’ par défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre 'executable' accepte un
     *note objet chemin: 29d. sur les systèmes POSIX.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre 'executable' accepte un
     objet 'bytes' ou un *note objet chemin: 29d. sur Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order
     for ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced
     with ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program's
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: b77, *note
     DEVNULL: 1130, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer),
     and an existing *note file object: 11a2. with a valid file
     descriptor.  With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection
     will occur.  *note PIPE: b77. indicates that a new pipe to the
     child should be created.  *note DEVNULL: 1130. indicates that the
     special file *note os.devnull: 19f1. will be used.  Additionally,
     'stderr' can be *note STDOUT: 3194, which indicates that the stderr
     data from the applications should be captured into the same file
     handle as for 'stdout'.

     Si un objet appelable est passé à 'preexec_fn', cet objet sera
     appelé dans le processus enfant juste avant d'exécuter le
     programme.  (POSIX seulement)

          Avertissement: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is NOT SAFE to use
          in the presence of threads in your application.  The child
          process could deadlock before exec is called.

          Note: If you need to modify the environment for the child use
          the 'env' parameter rather than doing it in a 'preexec_fn'.
          The 'start_new_session' and 'process_group' parameters should
          take the place of code using 'preexec_fn' to call *note
          os.setsid(): 1993. or *note os.setpgid(): 2add. in the child.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre 'preexec_fn' n'est plus
     pris en charge dans les sous-interpréteurs.  L'utilisation de ce
     paramètre lève *note RuntimeError: 193.  Cette nouvelle restriction
     peut affecter les applications déployées avec 'mod_wsgi', 'uWSGI'
     et d'autres environnements qui peuvent embarquer Python.

     If 'close_fds' is true, all file descriptors except ‘0’, ‘1’ and
     ‘2’ will be closed before the child process is executed.  Otherwise
     when 'close_fds' is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable
     flag as described in *note Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers:
     ee6.

     Sur Windows, si 'close_fds' est vrai, alors aucun descripteur n'est
     hérité par le processus enfant à moins d'être explicitement passé
     dans l'élément ‘handle_list’ de *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList:
     bfe, ou par redirection des descripteurs standards.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: La valeur par défaut de 'close_fds'
     n'est plus *note False: b27, comme décrit ci-dessus.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Sur Windows, la valeur par défaut de
     'close_fds' a été changée de *note False: b27. à *note True: bfd.
     lors d'une redirection des descripteurs standards.  Il est
     maintenant possible de donner la valeur *note True: bfd. à
     'close_fds' lors d'une redirection de descripteurs standards.

     'pass_fds' est une séquence optionnelle de descripteurs de fichiers
     à garder ouverts entre le parent et l'enfant.  Fournir 'pass_fds'
     force 'close_fds' à valoir *note True: bfd.  (POSIX seulement)

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre 'pass_fds'.

     If 'cwd' is not ‘None’, the function changes the working directory
     to 'cwd' before executing the child.  'cwd' can be a string, bytes
     or *note path-like: 29d. object.  On POSIX, the function looks for
     'executable' (or for the first item in 'args') relative to 'cwd' if
     the executable path is a relative path.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre 'cwd' accepte un *note
     objet chemin: 29d. sur les systèmes POSIX.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre 'cwd' accepte un *note
     objet chemin: 29d. sur Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre 'cwd' accepte une
     séquence d'octets sur Windows

     Si 'restore_signals' est vrai (par défaut), tous les signaux que
     Python a mis à 'SIG_IGN' sont restaurés à 'SIG_DFL' dans le
     processus fils avant l'appel à 'exec'.  Actuellement, cela inclut
     les signaux 'SIGPIPE', 'SIGXFZ' et 'SIGXFSZ'. (POSIX seulement)

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de 'restore_signals'.

     If 'start_new_session' is true the ‘setsid()’ system call will be
     made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de 'start_new_session'.

     If 'process_group' is a non-negative integer, the ‘setpgid(0,
     value)’ system call will be made in the child process prior to the
     execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'process_group' was added.

     If 'group' is not ‘None’, the setregid() system call will be made
     in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If
     the provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     grp.getgrnam(): 31af. and the value in ‘gr_gid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     If 'extra_groups' is not ‘None’, the setgroups() system call will
     be made in the child process prior to the execution of the
     subprocess.  Strings provided in 'extra_groups' will be looked up
     via *note grp.getgrnam(): 31af. and the values in ‘gr_gid’ will be
     used.  Integer values will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     If 'user' is not ‘None’, the setreuid() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If the
     provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     pwd.getpwnam(): 31b0. and the value in ‘pw_uid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     If 'umask' is not negative, the umask() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: POSIX

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process'
     environment.  This mapping can be str to str on any platform or
     bytes to bytes on POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 1199.
     or *note os.environb: 11f6.

          Note: Si spécifié, 'env' doit fournir chaque variable requise
          pour l'exécution du programme.  Sous Windows, afin d'exécuter
          un side-by-side assembly(1), l'environnement 'env' spécifié
          'doit' contenir une variable ‘SystemRoot’ valide.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, the
     file objects 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' are opened in text mode
     with the specified 'encoding' and 'errors', as described above in
     *note Arguments fréquemment utilisés: 3193.  The
     'universal_newlines' argument is equivalent to 'text' and is
     provided for backwards compatibility.  By default, file objects are
     opened in binary mode.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Ajout d''encoding' et 'errors'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7: 'text' a été ajouté comme un alias plus
     lisible de 'universal_newlines'.

     If given, 'startupinfo' will be a *note STARTUPINFO: 31b1. object,
     which is passed to the underlying ‘CreateProcess’ function.

     If given, 'creationflags', can be one or more of the following
     flags:

        * *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 31b2.

        * *note CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP: 31b3.

        * *note ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 31b4.

        * *note BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 31b5.

        * *note HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS: 31b6.

        * *note IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS: 31b7.

        * *note NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 31b8.

        * *note REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS: 31b9.

        * *note CREATE_NO_WINDOW: 31ba.

        * *note DETACHED_PROCESS: 31bb.

        * *note CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE: 31bc.

        * *note CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB: 31bd.

     'pipesize' can be used to change the size of the pipe when *note
     PIPE: b77. is used for 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'.  The size of
     the pipe is only changed on platforms that support this (only Linux
     at this time of writing).  Other platforms will ignore this
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the 'pipesize' parameter.

     Les objets 'Popen' sont gérés comme gestionnaires de contexte avec
     l'instruction *note with: 5be. : à la sortie, les descripteurs de
     fichiers standards sont fermés, et le processus est attendu

          with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
              log.write(proc.stdout.read())

     'Popen' et les autres fonctions dans ce module qui l'utilisent
     lèvent un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘subprocess.Popen’ avec
     comme arguments ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’ et ‘env’.  La valeur
     pour ‘args’ peut être une simple chaîne de caractères ou une liste
     de chaînes, en fonction de la plateforme.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la gestion des gestionnaires
     de contexte.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le destructeur de 'Popen' émet
     maintenant un avertissement *note ResourceWarning: 241. si le
     processus fils est toujours en cours d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: 'Popen' peut utiliser *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 21d. dans certains cas pour de meilleures
     performances.  Sur le sous-système Linux de Windows et sur 'QEMU'
     en mode utilisateur, le constructeur de 'Popen' utilisant *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 21d. ne lève plus d'exception sur les erreurs
     comme programme manquant, mais le processus enfant échoue avec un
     *note returncode: 1966. différent de zéro.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<11>,  Prev: Constructeur de Popen,  Up: Utiliser le module subprocess

5.18.6.4 Exceptions
...................

Les exceptions levées dans le processus fils, avant que le nouveau
programme ait commencé à s'exécuter, seront ré-levées dans le parent.

The most common exception raised is *note OSError: 40d.  This occurs,
for example, when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications
should prepare for *note OSError: 40d. exceptions.  Note that, when
‘shell=True’, *note OSError: 40d. will be raised by the child only if
the selected shell itself was not found.  To determine if the shell
failed to find the requested application, it is necessary to check the
return code or output from the subprocess.

Une *note ValueError: 1ff. sera levée si *note Popen: 197. est appelé
avec des arguments invalides.

*note check_call(): 31a2. et *note check_output(): fae. lèveront une
*note CalledProcessError: 1304. si le processus appelé renvoie un code
de retour non nul.

All of the functions and methods that accept a 'timeout' parameter, such
as *note run(): b76. and *note Popen.communicate(): 3195. will raise
*note TimeoutExpired: 3196. if the timeout expires before the process
exits.

Toutes les exceptions définies dans ce module héritent de *note
SubprocessError: 319c.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la classe de base *note
SubprocessError: 319c.


File: python.info,  Node: Considérations de sécurité,  Next: Objets Popen,  Prev: Utiliser le module subprocess,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.5 Considérations de sécurité
...................................

Unlike some other popen functions, this library will not implicitly
choose to call a system shell.  This means that all characters,
including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes.
If the shell is invoked explicitly, via ‘shell=True’, it is the
application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid shell injection(1)
vulnerabilities.  On *note some platforms: 31c0, it is possible to use
*note shlex.quote(): 27a. for this escaping.

On Windows, batch files (‘*.bat’ or ‘*.cmd’) may be launched by the
operating system in a system shell regardless of the arguments passed to
this library.  This could result in arguments being parsed according to
shell rules, but without any escaping added by Python.  If you are
intentionally launching a batch file with arguments from untrusted
sources, consider passing ‘shell=True’ to allow Python to escape special
characters.  See gh-114539(2) for additional discussion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114539


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Popen,  Next: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows,  Prev: Considérations de sécurité,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.6 Objets 'Popen'
.......................

Les instances de la classe *note Popen: 197. possèdent les méthodes
suivantes :

 -- Méthode: Popen.poll ()

     Vérifie que le processus enfant s'est terminé.  Modifie et renvoie
     l'attribut *note returncode: 1966, sinon, renvoie ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: Popen.wait (timeout=None)

     Attend qu'un processus enfant se termine.  Modifie l'attribut *note
     returncode: 1966. et le renvoie.

     Si le processus ne se termine pas après le nombre de secondes
     spécifié par 'timeout', une exception *note TimeoutExpired: 3196.
     est levée.  Cela ne pose aucun problème d'attraper cette exception
     et de réessayer d'attendre.

          Note: Cela provoquera un blocage ('deadlock') lors de
          l'utilisation de ‘stdout=PIPE’ ou ‘stderr=PIPE’ si le
          processus fils génère tellement de données sur le tube qu'il
          le bloque, en attente que le système d'exploitation permette
          au tampon du tube d'accepter plus de données.  Utilisez *note
          Popen.communicate(): 3195. pour éviter ce problème lors de
          l'utilisation de tubes.

          Note: When the ‘timeout’ parameter is not ‘None’, then (on
          POSIX) the function is implemented using a busy loop
          (non-blocking call and short sleeps).  Use the *note asyncio:
          a. module for an asynchronous wait: see *note
          asyncio.create_subprocess_exec: a67.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de 'timeout'.

 -- Méthode: Popen.communicate (input=None, timeout=None)

     Interact with process: Send data to stdin.  Read data from stdout
     and stderr, until end-of-file is reached.  Wait for process to
     terminate and set the *note returncode: 1966. attribute.  The
     optional 'input' argument should be data to be sent to the child
     process, or ‘None’, if no data should be sent to the child.  If
     streams were opened in text mode, 'input' must be a string.
     Otherwise, it must be bytes.

     *note communicate(): 3195. renvoie une paire ‘(stdout_data,
     stderr_data)’.  Les données seront des chaînes de caractères si les
     flux sont ouverts en mode texte, et des objets 'bytes' dans le cas
     contraire.

     Notez que si vous souhaitez envoyer des données sur l'entrée
     standard du processus, vous devez créer l'objet 'Popen' avec
     ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similairement, pour obtenir autre chose que ‘None’
     dans le 'n'-uplet résultant, vous devez aussi préciser
     ‘stdout=PIPE’ et/ou ‘stderr=PIPE’.

     Si le processus ne se termine pas après 'timeout' secondes, une
     exception *note TimeoutExpired: 3196. est levée.  Attraper cette
     exception et retenter la communication ne fait perdre aucune donnée
     de sortie.

     Le processus enfant n'est pas tué si le 'timeout' expire, donc afin
     de nettoyer proprement le tout, une application polie devrait tuer
     le processus fils et terminer la communication :

          proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
          try:
              outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
          except TimeoutExpired:
              proc.kill()
              outs, errs = proc.communicate()

          Note: Les données lues sont mises en cache en mémoire, donc
          n'utilisez pas cette méthode si la taille des données est
          importante voire illimitée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de 'timeout'.

 -- Méthode: Popen.send_signal (signal)

     Envoie le signal 'signal' au fils.

     Do nothing if the process completed.

          Note: On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for *note terminate():
          1395.  CTRL_C_EVENT and CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to
          processes started with a 'creationflags' parameter which
          includes ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

 -- Méthode: Popen.terminate ()

     Stop the child.  On POSIX OSs the method sends *note SIGTERM: 1398.
     to the child.  On Windows the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the child.

 -- Méthode: Popen.kill ()

     Tue le processus fils.  Sur les systèmes POSIX, la fonction envoie
     un signal 'SIGKILL' au fils.  Sous Windows, *note kill(): 1396. est
     un alias pour *note terminate(): 1395.

The following attributes are also set by the class for you to access.
Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:

 -- Attribut: Popen.args

     L'argument 'args' tel que passé à *note Popen: 197. - une séquence
     d'arguments du programme ou une simple chaîne de caractères.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Attribut: Popen.stdin

     If the 'stdin' argument was *note PIPE: b77, this attribute is a
     writeable stream object as returned by *note open(): 508.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdin' argument was
     not *note PIPE: b77, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- Attribut: Popen.stdout

     If the 'stdout' argument was *note PIPE: b77, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 508.  Reading
     from the stream provides output from the child process.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdout' argument
     was not *note PIPE: b77, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- Attribut: Popen.stderr

     If the 'stderr' argument was *note PIPE: b77, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 508.  Reading
     from the stream provides error output from the child process.  If
     the 'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text'
     or 'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stderr' argument
     was not *note PIPE: b77, this attribute is ‘None’.

     Avertissement: Utilisez *note communicate(): 3195. plutôt que *note
     .stdin.write: 31a9, *note .stdout.read: 31aa. ou *note
     .stderr.read: 31ab. pour empêcher les 'deadlocks' dus au
     remplissage des tampons des tubes de l'OS et bloquant le processus
     enfant.

 -- Attribut: Popen.pid

     L'identifiant de processus du processus enfant.

     Notez que si vous passez l'argument 'shell' à ‘True’, il s'agit
     alors de l'identifiant du 'shell' instancié.

 -- Attribut: Popen.returncode

     The child return code.  Initially ‘None’, *note returncode: 1966.
     is set by a call to the *note poll(): 31c2, *note wait(): cd4, or
     *note communicate(): 3195. methods if they detect that the process
     has terminated.

     A ‘None’ value indicates that the process hadn't yet terminated at
     the time of the last method call.

     Une valeur négative ‘-N’ indique que le processus enfant a été
     terminé par un signal ‘N’ (seulement sur les systèmes 'POSIX').


File: python.info,  Node: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows,  Next: Ancienne interface API haut-niveau,  Prev: Objets Popen,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.7 Utilitaires 'Popen' pour Windows
.........................................

La classe *note STARTUPINFO: 31b1. et les constantes suivantes sont
seulement disponibles sous Windows.

 -- Classe: subprocess.STARTUPINFO (*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None,
          hStdOutput=None, hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0,
          lpAttributeList=None)

     Une gestion partielle de la structure STARTUPINFO(1) est utilisée
     lors de la création d'un objet *note Popen: 197.  Les attributs
     ci-dessous peuvent être passés en tant que paramètres
     'keyword-only'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de la gestion des paramètres
     'keyword-only'.

      -- Attribut: dwFlags

          Un champ de bits déterminant si certains attributs *note
          STARTUPINFO: 31b1. sont utilisés quand le processus crée une
          fenêtre

               si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
               si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

      -- Attribut: hStdInput

          Si *note dwFlags: 31c6. spécifie *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          31c8, cet attribut est le descripteur d'entrée standard du
          processus.  Si *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 31c8. n'est pas
          spécifié, l'entrée standard par défaut est le tampon du
          clavier.

      -- Attribut: hStdOutput

          Si *note dwFlags: 31c6. spécifie *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          31c8, cet attribut est le descripteur de sortie standard du
          processus.  Autrement, l'attribut est ignoré et la sortie
          standard par défaut est le tampon de la console.

      -- Attribut: hStdError

          Si *note dwFlags: 31c6. spécifie *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          31c8, cet attribut est le descripteur de sortie d'erreur du
          processus.  Autrement, l'attribut est ignoré et la sortie
          d'erreur par défaut est le tampon de la console.

      -- Attribut: wShowWindow

          Si *note dwFlags: 31c6. spécifie *note STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW:
          31cc, cet attribut peut-être n'importe quel attribut valide
          pour le paramètre ‘nCmdShow’ de la fonction ShowWindow(2), à
          l'exception de ‘SW_SHOWDEFAULT’.  Autrement, cet attribut est
          ignoré.

          *note SW_HIDE: 31cd. est fourni pour cet attribut.  Il est
          utilisé quand *note Popen: 197. est appelée avec ‘shell=True’.

      -- Attribut: lpAttributeList

          Dictionnaire des attributs supplémentaires pour la création
          d'un processus comme donnés dans ‘STARTUPINFOEX’, lisez
          UpdateProcThreadAttribute(3) (ressource en anglais).

          Attributs gérés :

          'handle_list'

               Séquence des descripteurs qui hérités du parent.
               'close_fds' doit être vrai si la séquence n'est pas vide.

               Les descripteurs doivent être temporairement héritables
               par *note os.set_handle_inheritable(): eea. quand ils
               sont passés au constructeur *note Popen: 197, sinon *note
               OSError: 40d. est levée avec l'erreur Windows
               ‘ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER’ (87).

                    Avertissement: Dans un processus avec plusieurs fils
                    d'exécution, faites très attention à éviter la fuite
                    de descripteurs qui sont marqués comme héritables
                    quand vous combinez ceci avec des appels concurrents
                    vers des fonctions de création d'autres processus
                    qui héritent de tous les descripteurs (telle que
                    *note os.system(): 1413.).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Constantes Windows::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx

   (2) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes Windows,  Up: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows

5.18.6.8 Constantes Windows
...........................

Le module *note subprocess: d5. expose les constantes suivantes.

 -- Données: subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE

     Le périphérique d'entrée standard.  Initialement, il s'agit du
     tampon de la console d'entrée, ‘CONIN$’.

 -- Données: subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE

     Le périphérique de sortie standard.  Initialement, il s'agit du
     tampon de l'écran de console actif, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- Données: subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE

     Le périphérique de sortie d'erreur.  Initialement, il s'agit du
     tampon de l'écran de console actif, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- Données: subprocess.SW_HIDE

     Cache la fenêtre.  Une autre fenêtre sera activée.

 -- Données: subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES

     Spécifie que les attributs *note STARTUPINFO.hStdInput: 31c7, *note
     STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput: 31c9. et *note STARTUPINFO.hStdError: 31ca.
     contiennent des informations additionnelles.

 -- Données: subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

     Spécifie que l'attribut *note STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow: 31cb.
     contient des informations additionnelles.

 -- Données: subprocess.STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK

     A *note STARTUPINFO.dwFlags: 31c6. parameter to specify that the
     'Working in Background' mouse cursor will be displayed while a
     process is launching.  This is the default behavior for GUI
     processes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: subprocess.STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK

     A *note STARTUPINFO.dwFlags: 31c6. parameter to specify that the
     mouse cursor will not be changed when launching a process.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

     Le nouveau processus instancie une nouvelle console, plutôt que
     d'hériter de celle de son père (par défaut).

 -- Données: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier si un
     nouveau groupe de processus doit être créé.  Cette option est
     nécessaire pour utiliser *note os.kill(): 1340. sur le
     sous-processus.

     L'option est ignorée si *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 31b2. est
     spécifié.

 -- Données: subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     processus aura une priorité au-dessus de la moyenne.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     processus aura une priorité au-dessous de la moyenne.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     processus aura une priorité haute.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     processus aura la priorité la plus basse (inactif ou 'idle').

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 197. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a normal priority.  (default)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu’un
     nouveau processus aura une priorité en temps réel.  Vous ne devriez
     presque JAMAIS utiliser ‘REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS’, car cela
     interrompt les fils d’exécution système qui gèrent les entrées de
     la souris, du clavier et 'flush' le cache de disque en
     arrière-plan.  Cette classe peut convenir aux applications qui
     « parlent » directement au matériel ou qui effectuent de brèves
     tâches nécessitant des interruptions limitées.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     processus ne créera pas une nouvelle fenêtre.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     nouveau processus n'héritera pas de la console du processus parent.
     Cette valeur ne peut pas être utilisée avec CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     nouveau processus n'hérite pas du mode de gestion des erreurs du
     processus appelant.  À la place, le nouveau processus acquiert le
     mode d'erreur par défaut.  Cette fonctionnalité est
     particulièrement utile pour les applications 'shell' avec de
     multiples fils d'exécution qui s'exécutent avec les erreurs
     irréversibles désactivées.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

     Paramètre ‘creationflags’ de *note Popen: 197. pour spécifier qu'un
     processus n'est pas associé au 'job'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Ancienne interface API haut-niveau,  Next: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess,  Prev: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.9 Ancienne interface ('API') haut-niveau
...............................................

Avant Python 3.5, ces trois fonctions représentaient l'API haut-niveau
de 'subprocess'.  Vous pouvez maintenant utiliser *note run(): b76. dans
de nombreux cas, mais beaucoup de codes existant font appel à ces trois
fonctions.

 -- Fonction: subprocess.call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Lance la commande décrite par 'args', attend qu'elle se termine, et
     renvoie son attribut *note returncode: 1966.

     Le code ayant besoin de capturer 'stdout' ou 'stderr' doit plutôt
     utiliser :*note run(): b76. :

          run(...).returncode

     Pour supprimer 'stdout' ou 'stderr', passez la valeur *note
     DEVNULL: 1130.

     Les arguments montrés plus haut sont sûrement les plus communs.  La
     signature complète de la fonction est en grande partie la même que
     le constructeur de *note Popen: 197. : cette fonction passe tous
     les arguments fournis autre que 'timeout' directement à travers
     cette interface.

          Note: N'utilisez pas ‘stdout=PIPE’ ou ‘stderr=PIPE’ avec cette
          fonction.  Le processus enfant bloquera s'il génère assez de
          données pour remplir le tampon du tube de l'OS, puisque les
          tubes ne seront jamais lus.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de 'timeout'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order
     for ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced
     with ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Fonction: subprocess.check_call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments.  Wait for command to complete.  If the
     return code was zero then return, otherwise raise *note
     CalledProcessError: 1304.  The *note CalledProcessError: 1304.
     object will have the return code in the *note returncode: 31a3.
     attribute.  If *note check_call(): 31a2. was unable to start the
     process it will propagate the exception that was raised.

     Le code ayant besoin de capturer 'stdout' ou 'stderr' doit plutôt
     utiliser :*note run(): b76. :

          run(..., check=True)

     Pour supprimer 'stdout' ou 'stderr', passez la valeur *note
     DEVNULL: 1130.

     Les arguments montrés plus haut sont sûrement les plus communs.  La
     signature complète de la fonction est en grande partie la même que
     le constructeur de *note Popen: 197. : cette fonction passe tous
     les arguments fournis autre que 'timeout' directement à travers
     cette interface.

          Note: N'utilisez pas ‘stdout=PIPE’ ou ‘stderr=PIPE’ avec cette
          fonction.  Le processus enfant bloquera s'il génère assez de
          données pour remplir le tampon du tube de l'OS, puisque les
          tubes ne seront jamais lus.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de 'timeout'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order
     for ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced
     with ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Fonction: subprocess.check_output (args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None,
          shell=False, cwd=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Lance la commande avec les arguments et renvoie sa sortie.

     Si le code de retour est non-nul, la fonction lève une *note
     CalledProcessError: 1304.  L'objet *note CalledProcessError: 1304.
     contiendra le code de retour dans son attribut *note returncode:
     31a3, et la sortie du programme dans son attribut *note output:
     31a5.

     C’est équivalent à :

          run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is largely the same as that of *note run(): b76.
     - most arguments are passed directly through to that interface.
     One API deviation from *note run(): b76. behavior exists: passing
     ‘input=None’ will behave the same as ‘input=b''’ (or ‘input=''’,
     depending on other arguments) rather than using the parent's
     standard input file handle.

     Par défaut, cette fonction renvoie les données encodées sous forme
     de 'bytes'.  Le réel encodage des données de sortie peut dépendre
     de la commande invoquée, donc le décodage du texte devra souvent
     être géré au niveau de l'application.

     Ce comportement peut être redéfini en mettant 'text', 'encoding',
     'errors', ou 'universal_newlines' à ‘True’ comme décrit dans *note
     Arguments fréquemment utilisés: 3193. et *note run(): b76.

     Pour capturer aussi la sortie d'erreur dans le résultat, utilisez
     ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’ :

          >>> subprocess.check_output(
          ...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
          ...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
          ...     shell=True)
          'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de 'timeout'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion de l'argument
     nommé 'input'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout d''encoding' et 'errors'.
     Consultez *note run(): b76. pour plus d'informations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7: 'text' a été ajouté comme un alias plus
     lisible de 'universal_newlines'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order
     for ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced
     with ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess,  Next: Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell,  Prev: Ancienne interface API haut-niveau,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.10 Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module ‘subprocess’
...........................................................................

Dans cette section, « a devient b » signifie que b peut être utilisée en
remplacement de a.

     Note: Toutes les fonctions « a » dans cette section échouent (plus
     ou moins) silencieusement si le programme à exécuter ne peut être
     trouvé ; les fonctions « b » de remplacement lèvent à la place une
     *note OSError: 40d.

     De plus, les remplacements utilisant *note check_output(): fae.
     échoueront avec une *note CalledProcessError: 1304. si l'opération
     requise produit un code de retour non-nul.  La sortie est toujours
     disponible par l'attribut *note output: 31a5. de l'exception levée.

Dans les exemples suivants, nous supposons que les fonctions utilisées
ont déjà été importées depuis le module *note subprocess: d5.

* Menu:

* Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh::
* Remplacer les pipes du shell::
* Remplacer os.system(): Remplacer os system.
* Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os.spawn: Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os spawn.
* Remplacer os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Remplacer os popen os popen2 os popen3.
* Replacing functions from the popen2 module::


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh,  Next: Remplacer les pipes du shell,  Up: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

5.18.6.11 Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal ‘/bin/sh’
............................................................................

     output=$(mycmd myarg)

devient :

     output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacer les pipes du shell,  Next: Remplacer os system,  Prev: Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh,  Up: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

5.18.6.12 Remplacer les 'pipes' du 'shell'
..........................................

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

devient :

     p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
     p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
     p1.stdout.close()  # Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.
     output = p2.communicate()[0]

L'appel à ‘p1.stdout.close()’ après le démarrage de 'p2' est important
pour que 'p1' reçoive un 'SIGPIPE' si 'p2' se termine avant lui.

Alternativement, pour des entrées fiables, la gestion des tubes du
'shell' peut directement être utilisé :

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

devient :

     output = check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacer os system,  Next: Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os spawn,  Prev: Remplacer les pipes du shell,  Up: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

5.18.6.13 Remplacer ‘os.system()’
.................................

     sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
     # becomes
     retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)

Notes :

   * Appeler le programme à travers un 'shell' n'est habituellement pas
     requis.

   * The *note call(): b78. return value is encoded differently to that
     of *note os.system(): 1413.

   * The *note os.system(): 1413. function ignores SIGINT and SIGQUIT
     signals while the command is running, but the caller must do this
     separately when using the *note subprocess: d5. module.

Un exemple plus réaliste ressemblerait à cela :

     try:
         retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
         if retcode < 0:
             print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
         else:
             print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
     except OSError as e:
         print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os spawn,  Next: Remplacer os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Prev: Remplacer os system,  Up: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

5.18.6.14 Remplacer les fonctions de la famille ‘os.spawn’
..........................................................

Exemple avec 'P_NOWAIT' :

     pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid

Exemple avec 'P_WAIT' :

     retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])

Exemple avec un tableau :

     os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
     ==>
     Popen([path] + args[1:])

Exemple en passant un environnement :

     os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
     ==>
     Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacer os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Next: Replacing functions from the popen2 module,  Prev: Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os spawn,  Up: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

5.18.6.15 Remplacer ‘os.popen()’, ‘os.popen2()’, ‘os.popen3()’
..............................................................

     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = os.popen2(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = os.popen3(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout, p.stderr)

     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = os.popen4(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=STDOUT, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

La gestion du code de retour se traduit comme suit :

     pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
     ...
     rc = pipe.close()
     if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
         print("There were some errors")
     ==>
     process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
     ...
     process.stdin.close()
     if process.wait() != 0:
         print("There were some errors")


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing functions from the popen2 module,  Prev: Remplacer os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Up: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess

5.18.6.16 Replacing functions from the ‘popen2’ module
......................................................

     Note: Si l'argument 'cmd' des fonctions de 'popen2' est une chaîne
     de caractères, la commande est exécutée à travers '/bin/sh'.  Si
     c'est une liste, la commande est directement exécutée.

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2("somestring", bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen("somestring", shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

‘popen2.Popen3’ et ‘popen2.Popen4’ fonctionnent basiquement comme *note
subprocess.Popen: 197, excepté que :

   * *note Popen: 197. lève une exception si l'exécution échoue.

   * L'argument 'capturestderr' est remplacé par 'stderr'.

   * ‘stdin=PIPE’ et ‘stdout=PIPE’ doivent être spécifiés.

   * 'popen2' ferme tous les descripteurs de fichiers par défaut, mais
     vous devez spécifier ‘close_fds=True’ avec *note Popen: 197. pour
     garantir ce comportement sur toutes les plateformes ou les
     anciennes versions de Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell,  Next: Notes<2>,  Prev: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.17 Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du 'shell'
.......................................................................

Ce module fournit aussi les fonctions suivantes héritées du module
‘commands’ de Python 2.x.  Ces opérations invoquent implicitement le
'shell' du système et n'apportent aucune des garanties décrites
ci-dessus par rapport à la sécurité ou la cohérence de la gestion des
exceptions.

 -- Fonction: subprocess.getstatusoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Renvoie les valeurs ‘(exitcode, output)’ de l'exécution de 'cmd'
     dans un 'shell'.

     Execute the string 'cmd' in a shell with ‘Popen.check_output()’ and
     return a 2-tuple ‘(exitcode, output)’.  'encoding' and 'errors' are
     used to decode output; see the notes on *note Arguments fréquemment
     utilisés: 3193. for more details.

     Si la sortie se termine par un caractère de fin de ligne, ce
     dernier est supprimé.  Le code de statut de la commande peut être
     interprété comme le code de retour de 'subprocess'.  Par exemple :

          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          (0, '/bin/ls')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
          (1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
          (127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
          (-15, '')

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

     La fonction renvoie maintenant ‘(exitcode, output)’ plutôt que
     ‘(status, output)’ comme dans les versions de Python 3.3.3 ou
     antérieures.  'exitcode' vaut la même valeur que *note returncode:
     1966.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

 -- Fonction: subprocess.getoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Renvoie la sortie (standard et d'erreur) de l'exécution de 'cmd'
     dans un 'shell'.

     Comme *note getstatusoutput(): faf, à l'exception que le code de
     statut est ignoré et que la valeur de retour est une chaîne
     contenant la sortie de la commande.  Exemple :

          >>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          '/bin/ls'

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes<2>,  Prev: Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell,  Up: subprocess --- Subprocess management

5.18.6.18 Notes
...............

* Menu:

* Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows::
* Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn.


File: python.info,  Node: Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows,  Next: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn,  Up: Notes<2>

5.18.6.19 Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows
.......................................................................................

Sous Windows, une séquence 'args' est convertie vers une chaîne qui peut
être analysée avec les règles suivantes (qui correspondent aux règles
utilisées par l'environnement 'MS C') :

  1. Les arguments sont délimités par des espacements, qui peuvent être
     des espaces ou des tabulations.

  2. Une chaîne entourée de double guillemets est interprétée comme un
     argument seul, qu'elle contienne ou non des espacements.  Une
     chaîne entre guillemets peut être intégrée dans un argument.

  3. Un guillemet double précédé d'un 'backslash' est interprété comme
     un guillemet double littéral.

  4. Les 'backslashs' sont interprétés littéralement, à moins qu'ils
     précèdent immédiatement un guillemet double.

  5. Si des 'backslashs' précèdent directement un guillemet double,
     toute paire de 'backslashs' est interprétée comme un 'backslash'
     littéral.  Si le nombre de 'backslashs' est impair, le dernier
     'backslash' échappe le prochain guillemet double comme décrit en
     règle 3.

Voir aussi
..........

*note shlex: c3.

     Module qui fournit des fonctions pour analyser et échapper les
     lignes de commandes.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn,  Prev: Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows,  Up: Notes<2>

5.18.6.20 Disabling use of ‘vfork()’ or ‘posix_spawn()’
.......................................................

On Linux, *note subprocess: d5. defaults to using the ‘vfork()’ system
call internally when it is safe to do so rather than ‘fork()’.  This
greatly improves performance.

If you ever encounter a presumed highly unusual situation where you need
to prevent ‘vfork()’ from being used by Python, you can set the
‘subprocess._USE_VFORK’ attribute to a false value.

     subprocess._USE_VFORK = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

Setting this has no impact on use of ‘posix_spawn()’ which could use
‘vfork()’ internally within its libc implementation.  There is a similar
‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ attribute if you need to prevent use of
that.

     subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

It is safe to set these to false on any Python version.  They will have
no effect on older versions when unsupported.  Do not assume the
attributes are available to read.  Despite their names, a true value
does not indicate that the corresponding function will be used, only
that it may be.

Please file issues any time you have to use these private knobs with a
way to reproduce the issue you were seeing.  Link to that issue from a
comment in your code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: ‘_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: ‘_USE_VFORK’


File: python.info,  Node: sched --- Event scheduler,  Next: queue --- A synchronized queue class,  Prev: subprocess --- Subprocess management,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.7 ‘sched’ -- Event scheduler
---------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/sched.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sched: be. module defines a class which implements a general
purpose event scheduler:

 -- Classe: sched.scheduler (timefunc=time.monotonic,
          delayfunc=time.sleep)

     The *note scheduler: 1109. class defines a generic interface to
     scheduling events.  It needs two functions to actually deal with
     the "outside world" -- 'timefunc' should be callable without
     arguments, and return a number (the "time", in any units
     whatsoever).  The 'delayfunc' function should be callable with one
     argument, compatible with the output of 'timefunc', and should
     delay that many time units.  'delayfunc' will also be called with
     the argument ‘0’ after each event is run to allow other threads an
     opportunity to run in multi-threaded applications.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'timefunc' and 'delayfunc' parameters
     are optional.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note scheduler: 1109. class can be
     safely used in multi-threaded environments.

Exemple :

     >>> import sched, time
     >>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
     >>> def print_time(a='default'):
     ...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
     ...
     >>> def print_some_times():
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
     ...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
     ...     # despite having higher priority, 'keyword' runs after 'positional' as enter() is relative
     ...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 10, print_time, argument=("first enterabs",))
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 5, print_time, argument=("second enterabs",))
     ...     s.run()
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...
     >>> print_some_times()
     1652342830.3640375
     From print_time 1652342830.3642538 second enterabs
     From print_time 1652342830.3643398 first enterabs
     From print_time 1652342835.3694863 positional
     From print_time 1652342835.3696074 keyword
     From print_time 1652342840.369612 default
     1652342840.3697174

* Menu:

* Scheduler Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sched.py


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduler Objects,  Up: sched --- Event scheduler

5.18.7.1 Scheduler Objects
..........................

*note scheduler: 1109. instances have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- Méthode: scheduler.enterabs (time, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     Schedule a new event.  The 'time' argument should be a numeric type
     compatible with the return value of the 'timefunc' function passed
     to the constructor.  Events scheduled for the same 'time' will be
     executed in the order of their 'priority'.  A lower number
     represents a higher priority.

     Executing the event means executing ‘action(*argument, **kwargs)’.
     'argument' is a sequence holding the positional arguments for
     'action'.  'kwargs' is a dictionary holding the keyword arguments
     for 'action'.

     Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation
     of the event (see *note cancel(): 18ed.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'argument' parameter is optional.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'kwargs' parameter was added.

 -- Méthode: scheduler.enter (delay, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     Schedule an event for 'delay' more time units.  Other than the
     relative time, the other arguments, the effect and the return value
     are the same as those for *note enterabs(): 110b.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'argument' parameter is optional.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'kwargs' parameter was added.

 -- Méthode: scheduler.cancel (event)

     Remove the event from the queue.  If 'event' is not an event
     currently in the queue, this method will raise a *note ValueError:
     1ff.

 -- Méthode: scheduler.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event queue is empty.

 -- Méthode: scheduler.run (blocking=True)

     Run all scheduled events.  This method will wait (using the
     'delayfunc' function passed to the constructor) for the next event,
     then execute it and so on until there are no more scheduled events.

     If 'blocking' is false executes the scheduled events due to expire
     soonest (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled
     call in the scheduler (if any).

     Either 'action' or 'delayfunc' can raise an exception.  In either
     case, the scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate
     the exception.  If an exception is raised by 'action', the event
     will not be attempted in future calls to *note run(): 1108.

     If a sequence of events takes longer to run than the time available
     before the next event, the scheduler will simply fall behind.  No
     events will be dropped; the calling code is responsible for
     canceling events which are no longer pertinent.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'blocking' parameter was added.

 -- Attribut: scheduler.queue

     Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the
     order they will be run.  Each event is shown as a *note named
     tuple: 63b. with the following fields: time, priority, action,
     argument, kwargs.


File: python.info,  Node: queue --- A synchronized queue class,  Next: contextvars --- Context Variables,  Prev: sched --- Event scheduler,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.8 ‘queue’ -- A synchronized queue class
--------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/queue.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note queue: b5. implémente des files multi-productrices et
multi-consommatrices.  C'est particulièrement utile en programmation
'multi-thread', lorsque les informations doivent être échangées sans
risques entre plusieurs 'threads'.  La classe *note Queue: 1367. de ce
module implémente tout le verrouillage nécessaire.

The module implements three types of queue, which differ only in the
order in which the entries are retrieved.  In a FIFO queue, the first
tasks added are the first retrieved.  In a LIFO queue, the most recently
added entry is the first retrieved (operating like a stack).  With a
priority queue, the entries are kept sorted (using the *note heapq: 68.
module) and the lowest valued entry is retrieved first.

En interne, ces trois types de files utilisent des verrous pour bloquer
temporairement des fils d'exécution concurrents.  Cependant, ils n'ont
pas été conçus pour être réentrants au sein d'un fil d'exécution.

Le module implémente aussi une FIFO basique, *note SimpleQueue: b5a,
dont l’implémentation spécialisée fournit plus de garanties au détriment
des fonctionnalités.

Le module *note queue: b5. définit les classes et les exceptions
suivantes :

 -- Classe: queue.Queue (maxsize=0)

     Constructeur pour une file FIFO.  'maxsize' est un entier
     définissant le nombre maximal d'éléments pouvant être mis dans la
     file.  L'insertion sera bloquée lorsque cette borne supérieure sera
     atteinte, jusqu'à ce que des éléments de la file soient consommés.
     Si 'maxsize' est inférieur ou égal à 0, la taille de la file sera
     infinie.

 -- Classe: queue.LifoQueue (maxsize=0)

     Constructeur pour une file LIFO.  'maxsize' est un entier
     définissant le nombre maximal d'éléments pouvant être mis dans la
     file.  L'insertion sera bloquée lorsque cette borne supérieure sera
     atteinte, jusqu'à ce que des éléments de la file soient consommés.
     Si 'maxsize' est inférieur ou égal à 0, la taille de la file sera
     infinie.

 -- Classe: queue.PriorityQueue (maxsize=0)

     Constructeur pour une file de priorité.  'maxsize' est un entier
     définissant le nombre maximal d'éléments pouvant être mis dans la
     file.  L'insertion sera bloquée lorsque cette borne supérieure sera
     atteinte, jusqu'à ce que des éléments soient consommés.  Si
     'maxsize' est inférieur ou égal à 0, la taille de la file sera
     infinie.

     The lowest valued entries are retrieved first (the lowest valued
     entry is the one that would be returned by ‘min(entries)’).  A
     typical pattern for entries is a tuple in the form:
     ‘(priority_number, data)’.

     Si les éléments de 'data' ne sont pas comparables, les données
     peuvent être enveloppées dans une classe qui ignore l'élément de
     données et ne compare que l'ordre de priorité :

          from dataclasses import dataclass, field
          from typing import Any

          @dataclass(order=True)
          class PrioritizedItem:
              priority: int
              item: Any=field(compare=False)

 -- Classe: queue.SimpleQueue

     Constructeur d'une file illimitée FIFO.  Les simples files
     d'attente ne possèdent pas de fonctionnalités avancées telles que
     le suivi des tâches.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Exception: queue.Empty

     Exception levée lorsque la méthode non bloquante *note get(): 2c88.
     (ou *note get_nowait(): 31eb.) est appelée sur l'objet *note Queue:
     1367. vide.

 -- Exception: queue.Full

     Exception levée lorsque la méthode non bloquante *note put(): 31ec.
     (ou *note put_nowait(): 2c87.) est appelée sur un objet *note
     Queue: 1367. plein.

 -- Exception: queue.ShutDown

     Exception raised when *note put(): 31ec. or *note get(): 2c88. is
     called on a *note Queue: 1367. object which has been shut down.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Objets Queue::
* Objets SimpleQueue::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/queue.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Queue,  Next: Objets SimpleQueue,  Up: queue --- A synchronized queue class

5.18.8.1 Objets ‘Queue’
.......................

Les objets 'Queue' (*note Queue: 1367, *note LifoQueue: 2214. ou *note
PriorityQueue: 2215.) fournissent les méthodes publiques décrites
ci-dessous.

 -- Méthode: Queue.qsize ()

     Renvoie la taille approximative de la file.  Notez que ‘qsize() >
     0’ ne garantit pas qu'un ‘get()’ ultérieur ne sera pas bloquant et
     que ‘qsize() < maxsize’ ne garantit pas non plus qu'un ‘put()’ ne
     sera pas bloquant.

 -- Méthode: Queue.empty ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la file est vide, ‘False’ sinon.  Si ‘empty()’
     renvoie ‘True’, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à
     ‘put()’ ne sera pas bloquant.  Similairement, si ‘empty()’ renvoie
     ‘False’, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à ‘get()’ ne
     sera pas bloquant.

 -- Méthode: Queue.full ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la file est pleine, ‘False’ sinon.  Si ‘full()’
     renvoie ‘True’, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à
     ‘get()’ ne sera pas bloquant.  Similairement, si ‘full()’ retourne
     ‘False’, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à ‘put()’ ne
     sera pas bloquant.

 -- Méthode: Queue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     Put 'item' into the queue.  If optional args 'block' is true and
     'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary until a free
     slot is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at
     most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Full: 30ff. exception
     if no free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise ('block'
     is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot is immediately
     available, else raise the *note Full: 30ff. exception ('timeout' is
     ignored in that case).

     Raises *note ShutDown: 238. if the queue has been shut down.

 -- Méthode: Queue.put_nowait (item)

     Equivalent to ‘put(item, block=False)’.

 -- Méthode: Queue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     Retire et renvoie un élément de la file.  Si les arguments
     optionnels 'block' et 'timeout' valent respectivement ‘True’ et
     ‘None’ (les valeurs par défaut), la méthode bloque si nécessaire
     jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit disponible.  Si 'timeout' est un
     entier positif, elle bloque au plus 'timeout' secondes et lève
     l'exception *note Empty: 30fe. s'il n'y avait pas d'élément
     disponible pendant cette période de temps.  Sinon ('block' vaut
     ‘False’), elle renvoie un élément s'il y en a un immédiatement
     disponible.  Si ce n'est pas le cas, elle lève l'exception *note
     Empty: 30fe. ('timeout' est ignoré dans ce cas).

     Prior to 3.0 on POSIX systems, and for all versions on Windows, if
     'block' is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’, this operation goes into
     an uninterruptible wait on an underlying lock.  This means that no
     exceptions can occur, and in particular a SIGINT will not trigger a
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.

     Raises *note ShutDown: 238. if the queue has been shut down and is
     empty, or if the queue has been shut down immediately.

 -- Méthode: Queue.get_nowait ()

     Équivalent à ‘get(False)’.

Deux méthodes sont proposées afin de savoir si les tâches mises dans la
file ont été entièrement traitées par les fils d'exécution consommateurs
du démon.

 -- Méthode: Queue.task_done ()

     Indique qu'une tâche précédemment mise dans la file est terminée.
     Utilisé par les fils d'exécution consommateurs de la file.  Pour
     chaque appel à *note get(): 2c88. effectué afin de récupérer une
     tâche, un appel ultérieur à *note task_done(): 30fa. informe la
     file que le traitement de la tâche est terminé.

     Si un *note join(): 30fb. est actuellement bloquant, on reprendra
     lorsque tous les éléments auront été traités (ce qui signifie qu'un
     appel à *note task_done(): 30fa. a été effectué pour chaque élément
     qui a été *note put(): 31ec. dans la file).

     ‘shutdown(immediate=True)’ calls *note task_done(): 30fa. for each
     remaining item in the queue.

     Lève une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. si appelée plus de fois
     qu'il y avait d'éléments dans la file.

 -- Méthode: Queue.join ()

     Bloque jusqu'à ce que tous les éléments de la file aient été
     obtenus et traités.

     The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to
     the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls
     *note task_done(): 30fa. to indicate that the item was retrieved
     and all work on it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks
     drops to zero, *note join(): 30fb. unblocks.

Exemple montrant comment attendre que les tâches mises dans la file
soient terminées :

     import threading
     import queue

     q = queue.Queue()

     def worker():
         while True:
             item = q.get()
             print(f'Working on {item}')
             print(f'Finished {item}')
             q.task_done()

     # Turn-on the worker thread.
     threading.Thread(target=worker, daemon=True).start()

     # Send thirty task requests to the worker.
     for item in range(30):
         q.put(item)

     # Block until all tasks are done.
     q.join()
     print('All work completed')

* Menu:

* Terminating queues::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating queues,  Up: Objets Queue

5.18.8.2 Terminating queues
...........................

*note Queue: 1367. objects can be made to prevent further interaction by
shutting them down.

 -- Méthode: Queue.shutdown (immediate=False)

     Shut down the queue, making *note get(): 2c88. and *note put():
     31ec. raise *note ShutDown: 238.

     By default, *note get(): 2c88. on a shut down queue will only raise
     once the queue is empty.  Set 'immediate' to true to make *note
     get(): 2c88. raise immediately instead.

     All blocked callers of *note put(): 31ec. and *note get(): 2c88.
     will be unblocked.  If 'immediate' is true, a task will be marked
     as done for each remaining item in the queue, which may unblock
     callers of *note join(): 30fb.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets SimpleQueue,  Prev: Objets Queue,  Up: queue --- A synchronized queue class

5.18.8.3 Objets ‘SimpleQueue’
.............................

Les objets *note SimpleQueue: b5a. fournissent les méthodes publiques
décrites ci-dessous.

 -- Méthode: SimpleQueue.qsize ()

     Renvoie la taille approximative de la file.  Notez que ‘qsize() >
     0’ ne garantit pas qu'un ‘get()’ ultérieur ne soit pas bloquant.

 -- Méthode: SimpleQueue.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  If empty()
     returns ‘False’ it doesn't guarantee that a subsequent call to
     get() will not block.

 -- Méthode: SimpleQueue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     Met 'item' dans la file.  La méthode ne bloque jamais et aboutit
     toujours (sauf en cas de potentielles erreurs de bas niveau, telles
     qu'un échec d'allocation de mémoire).  Les arguments optionnels
     'block' et 'timeout' sont ignorés et fournis uniquement pour la
     compatibilité avec *note Queue.put(): 31ec.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' This method has a C
     implementation which is reentrant.  That is, a ‘put()’ or ‘get()’
     call can be interrupted by another ‘put()’ call in the same thread
     without deadlocking or corrupting internal state inside the queue.
     This makes it appropriate for use in destructors such as ‘__del__’
     methods or *note weakref: 113. callbacks.

 -- Méthode: SimpleQueue.put_nowait (item)

     Equivalent to ‘put(item, block=False)’, provided for compatibility
     with *note Queue.put_nowait(): 2c87.

 -- Méthode: SimpleQueue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     Retire et renvoie un élément de la file.  Si les arguments
     optionnels 'block' et 'timeout' valent respectivement ‘True’ et
     ‘None’ (les valeurs par défaut), la méthode bloque si nécessaire
     jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit disponible.  Si 'timeout' est un
     entier positif, elle bloque au plus 'timeout' secondes et lève
     l'exception *note Empty: 30fe. s'il n'y avait pas d'élément
     disponible pendant cette période de temps.  Sinon ('block' vaut
     ‘False’), elle renvoie un élément s'il y en a un immédiatement
     disponible.  Si ce n'est pas le cas, elle lève l'exception *note
     Empty: 30fe. ('timeout' est ignoré dans ce cas).

 -- Méthode: SimpleQueue.get_nowait ()

     Équivalent à ‘get(False)’.

Voir aussi
..........

Classe *note multiprocessing.Queue: 17b8.

     Une file à utiliser dans un contexte multi-processus (plutôt que
     'multi-thread').

*note collections.deque: 5c8. est une implémentation alternative de file
non bornée avec des méthodes *note append(): 24c7. et *note popleft():
24cd. rapides et atomiques ne nécessitant pas de verrouillage et prenant
également en charge l'indexation.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars --- Context Variables,  Next: _thread --- Low-level threading API,  Prev: queue --- A synchronized queue class,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.9 ‘contextvars’ -- Context Variables
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des API pour gérer, stocker et accéder à l'état local
de contexte.  La classe *note ContextVar: 1516. est utilisée pour
déclarer et travailler avec les 'Variables de contexte'.  La fonction
*note copy_context(): 31fc. et la classe *note Context: 1563. doivent
être utilisées pour la gestion du contexte actuel dans les cadriciels
asynchrones.

Context managers that have state should use Context Variables instead of
*note threading.local(): 1727. to prevent their state from bleeding to
other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.

Voir aussi PEP 567(1) pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Variables de contexte::
* Gestion de contexte manuelle::
* Gestion avec asyncio::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Variables de contexte,  Next: Gestion de contexte manuelle,  Up: contextvars --- Context Variables

5.18.9.1 Variables de contexte
..............................

 -- Classe: contextvars.ContextVar (name[, *, default])

     Cette classe est utilisée pour déclarer une nouvelle variable de
     contexte, p. ex :

          var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)

     Le paramètre requis 'name' est utilisé à des fins d'introspection
     et de débogage.

     Le paramètre nommé 'default' est renvoyé par *note
     ContextVar.get(): 31fe. quand aucune valeur n'est trouvée dans le
     contexte actuel pour la variable.

     'Important :' les variables de contexte doivent être créées au plus
     haut niveau du module et jamais dans des fermetures ('closures').
     Les objets *note Context: 1563. maintiennent des références fortes
     aux variables de contexte ce qui empêche que les variables de
     contexte soient correctement nettoyées par le ramasse-miette.

      -- Attribut: name

          Nom de la variable.  Cette propriété est en lecture seule.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.1.

      -- Méthode: get ([default])

          Renvoie la valeur de la variable de contexte pour le contexte
          actuel.

          S'il n'y a pas de valeur pour la variable dans le contexte
          actuel, la méthode :

             * renvoie la valeur de l'argument 'default' passé à la
               méthode, s'il a été fourni ;

             * ou renvoie la valeur par défaut de la variable de
               contexte, si elle a été créée avec une valeur par
               défaut ;

             * ou lève une erreur *note LookupError: 2189.

      -- Méthode: set (value)

          Assigne une nouvelle valeur à la variable de contexte dans le
          contexte actuel.

          L'argument requis 'value' est la nouvelle valeur pour la
          variable de contexte.

          Renvoie un objet *note Token: 3201. qui peut être utilisé pour
          rétablir la variable à sa valeur précédente par la méthode
          *note ContextVar.reset(): 3202.

      -- Méthode: reset (token)

          Réinitialise la variable de contexte à la valeur qu'elle avait
          avant l'appel de *note ContextVar.set(): 3200. qui a créé le
          'token'.

          Par exemple :

               var = ContextVar('var')

               token = var.set('new value')
               # code that uses 'var'; var.get() returns 'new value'.
               var.reset(token)

               # After the reset call the var has no value again, so
               # var.get() would raise a LookupError.

 -- Classe: contextvars.Token

     Les objets 'Token' sont renvoyés par la méthode *note
     ContextVar.set(): 3200.  Ils peuvent être passés à la méthode *note
     ContextVar.reset(): 3202. pour réaffecter la valeur de la variable
     à ce qu'elle était avant le 'set' correspondant.

      -- Attribut: var

          Propriété en lecture seule.  Pointe vers l'objet *note
          ContextVar: 1516. qui a créé le token.

      -- Attribut: old_value

          A read-only property.  Set to the value the variable had
          before the *note ContextVar.set(): 3200. method call that
          created the token.  It points to *note Token.MISSING: 3205. if
          the variable was not set before the call.

      -- Attribut: MISSING

          Objet marqueur utilisé par *note Token.old_value: 3204.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion de contexte manuelle,  Next: Gestion avec asyncio,  Prev: Variables de contexte,  Up: contextvars --- Context Variables

5.18.9.2 Gestion de contexte manuelle
.....................................

 -- Fonction: contextvars.copy_context ()

     Renvoie une copie de l'objet *note Context: 1563. actuel.

     Le fragment de code qui suit obtient une copie du contexte actuel
     et affiche toutes les variables avec leurs valeurs définies dans ce
     contexte :

          ctx: Context = copy_context()
          print(list(ctx.items()))

     The function has an 'O'(1) complexity, i.e.  works equally fast for
     contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have a
     lot of them.

 -- Classe: contextvars.Context

     Tableau associatif entre *note ContextVars: 1516. et leurs valeurs.

     ‘Context()’ crée un contexte vide ne contenant aucune valeur.  Pour
     obtenir une copie du contexte actuel, utilisez la fonction *note
     copy_context(): 31fc.

     Each thread has its own effective stack of ‘Context’ objects.  The
     *note current context: 156c. is the ‘Context’ object at the top of
     the current thread's stack.  All ‘Context’ objects in the stacks
     are considered to be 'entered'.

     'Entering' a context, which can be done by calling its *note run():
     15c2. method, makes the context the current context by pushing it
     onto the top of the current thread's context stack.

     'Exiting' from the current context, which can be done by returning
     from the callback passed to the *note run(): 15c2. method, restores
     the current context to what it was before the context was entered
     by popping the context off the top of the context stack.

     Since each thread has its own context stack, *note ContextVar:
     1516. objects behave in a similar fashion to *note
     threading.local(): 1727. when values are assigned in different
     threads.

     Attempting to enter an already entered context, including contexts
     entered in other threads, raises a *note RuntimeError: 193.

     After exiting a context, it can later be re-entered (from any
     thread).

     Any changes to *note ContextVar: 1516. values via the *note
     ContextVar.set(): 3200. method are recorded in the current context.
     The *note ContextVar.get(): 31fe. method returns the value
     associated with the current context.  Exiting a context effectively
     reverts any changes made to context variables while the context was
     entered (if needed, the values can be restored by re-entering the
     context).

     'Context' implémente l'interface *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     8b9.

      -- Méthode: run (callable, *args, **kwargs)

          Enters the Context, executes ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’, then
          exits the Context.  Returns 'callable"s return value, or
          propagates an exception if one occurred.

          Example:

               import contextvars

               var = contextvars.ContextVar('var')
               var.set('spam')
               print(var.get())  # 'spam'

               ctx = contextvars.copy_context()

               def main():
                   # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
                   # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
                   print(var.get())  # 'spam'
                   print(ctx[var])  # 'spam'

                   var.set('ham')

                   # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
                   print(var.get())  # 'ham'
                   print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

               # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
               # will be contained in 'ctx'.
               ctx.run(main)

               # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
               # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
               print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

               # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
               print(var.get())  # 'spam'

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Renvoie une copie superficielle de l'objet de contexte.

      -- Describe: var in context

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le 'context' a une valeur pour 'var' ; sinon
          renvoie ‘False’.

      -- Describe: context[var]

          Renvoie la valeur de la variable *note ContextVar: 1516.
          'var'.  Si la variable n'est pas définie dans l'objet de
          contexte, une *note KeyError: 33a. est levée.

      -- Méthode: get (var[, default])

          Renvoie la valeur de 'var' si 'var' possède une valeur dans
          l'objet de contexte.  Renvoie 'default' sinon (ou ‘None’ si
          'default' n'est pas donné).

      -- Describe: iter(context)

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les variables stockées dans l'objet
          de contexte.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Renvoie le nombre de variables définies dans l'objet de
          contexte.

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Renvoie une liste de toutes les variables dans l'objet de
          contexte.

      -- Méthode: values ()

          Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs des variables dans
          l'objet de contexte.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          Renvoie une liste de paires contenant toutes les variables et
          leurs valeurs dans l'objet de contexte.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion avec asyncio,  Prev: Gestion de contexte manuelle,  Up: contextvars --- Context Variables

5.18.9.3 Gestion avec 'asyncio'
...............................

*note asyncio: a. gère nativement les variables de contexte et elles
sont prêtes à être utilisées sans configuration supplémentaire.  Par
exemple, voici un serveur 'echo' simple qui utilise une variable de
contexte pour que l’adresse d'un client distant soit disponible dans le
'Task' qui gère ce client :

     import asyncio
     import contextvars

     client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')

     def render_goodbye():
         # The address of the currently handled client can be accessed
         # without passing it explicitly to this function.

         client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
         return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()

     async def handle_request(reader, writer):
         addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
         client_addr_var.set(addr)

         # In any code that we call is now possible to get
         # client's address by calling 'client_addr_var.get()'.

         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             print(line)
             if not line.strip():
                 break

         writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n')  # status line
         writer.write(b'\r\n')  # headers
         writer.write(render_goodbye())  # body
         writer.close()

     async def main():
         srv = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)

         async with srv:
             await srv.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

     # To test it you can use telnet or curl:
     #     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
     #     curl 127.0.0.1:8081

Les modules suivants servent de fondation pour certains services cités
ci-dessus :


File: python.info,  Node: _thread --- Low-level threading API,  Prev: contextvars --- Context Variables,  Up: Exécution concourante

5.18.10 ‘_thread’ -- Low-level threading API
--------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit les primitives de bas niveau pour travailler avec de
multiples fils d'exécution (aussi appelés 'light-weight processes' ou
'tasks') — plusieurs fils d'exécution de contrôle partagent leur espace
de données global.  Pour la synchronisation, de simples verrous (aussi
appelés des 'mutexes' ou des 'binary semaphores') sont fournis.  Le
module *note threading: ec. fournit une API de fils d'exécution de haut
niveau, plus facile à utiliser et construite à partir de ce module.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ce module était optionnel, il est
maintenant toujours disponible.

Ce module définit les constantes et les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Exception: _thread.error

     Levée lors d'erreurs spécifiques aux fils d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ceci est à présent un synonyme de
     l'exception native *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Données: _thread.LockType

     C'est le type d'objets verrous.

 -- Fonction: _thread.start_new_thread (function, args[, kwargs])

     Démarre un nouveau fils d'exécution et renvoie son identifiant.  Ce
     fil d'exécution exécute la fonction 'function' avec la liste
     d'arguments 'args' (qui doit être un 'n'-uplet).  L'argument
     optionnel 'kwargs' spécifie un dictionnaire d'arguments nommés.

     Au renvoi de la fonction, le fil d'exécution quitte
     silencieusement.

     Lorsque la fonction se termine avec une exception non gérée, *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. est appelée pour gérer cette dernière.
     L'attribut 'object' de l'argument 'hook' est 'function'.  Par
     défaut, la trace d'appels est affichée puis le fil d'exécution se
     termine (mais les autres fils d'exécution continuent de
     s'exécuter).

     Lorsque la fonction lève l'exception *note SystemExit: d30, elle
     est ignorée silencieusement.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘_thread.start_new_thread’
     with arguments ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. est
     maintenant utilisée pour s'occuper des exceptions non gérées.

 -- Fonction: _thread.interrupt_main (signum=signal.SIGINT, /)

     Simule l'effet d'un signal arrivant au fil d'exécution principal.
     Un fil d'exécution peut utiliser cette fonction pour interrompre le
     fil d'exécution principal, bien qu'une interruption immédiate ne
     soit pas garantie.

     If given, 'signum' is the number of the signal to simulate.  If
     'signum' is not given, *note signal.SIGINT: 830. is simulated.

     If the given signal isn't handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 17dd. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 17dc.), this
     function does nothing.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout du paramètre 'signum' pour
     modifier le numéro du signal.

          Note: Cette fonction n'émet pas vraiment le signal, mais
          programme un appel du gestionnaire associé (à condition qu'il
          existe).  Pour émettre réellement le signal, utilisez *note
          signal.raise_signal(): 17be.

 -- Fonction: _thread.exit ()

     Lève une exception *note SystemExit: d30.  Quand elle n'est pas
     interceptée, le fil d'exécution se terminera silencieusement.

 -- Fonction: _thread.allocate_lock ()

     Renvoie un nouveau verrou.  Les méthodes des verrous sont décrites
     ci-dessous.  Le verrou est initialement déverrouillé.

 -- Fonction: _thread.get_ident ()

     Renvoie l'« identifiant de fil » du fil d'exécution courant.  C'est
     un entier non nul.  Sa valeur n'a pas de signification directe ; il
     est destiné à être utilisé comme 'cookie' magique, par exemple pour
     indexer un dictionnaire de données pour chaque fil.  Les
     identifiants de fils peuvent être recyclés lorsqu'un fil
     d'exécution se termine et qu'un autre fil est créé.

 -- Fonction: _thread.get_native_id ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant natif complet assigné par le noyau du fil
     d'exécution actuel.  C'est un entier non négatif.  Sa valeur peut
     uniquement être utilisée pour identifier ce fil d'exécution à
     l'échelle du système (jusqu'à ce que le fil d'exécution se termine,
     après quoi la valeur peut être recyclée par le système
     d'exploitation).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

 -- Fonction: _thread.stack_size ([size])

     Renvoie la taille de la pile d'exécution utilisée lors de la
     création de nouveaux fils d'exécution.  L'argument optionnel 'size'
     spécifie la taille de pile à utiliser pour les fils créés
     ultérieurement, et doit être à 0 (pour utiliser la taille de la
     plate-forme ou la valeur configurée par défaut) ou un entier
     positif supérieur ou égal à 32 768 (32 Kio).  Si 'size' n'est pas
     spécifié, 0 est utilisé.  Si la modification de la taille de la
     pile de fils n'est pas prise en charge, une exception *note
     RuntimeError: 193. est levée.  Si la taille de la pile spécifiée
     n'est pas valide, une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée et
     la taille de la pile n'est pas modifiée.  32 Kio est actuellement
     la valeur minimale de taille de la pile prise en charge pour
     garantir un espace de pile suffisant pour l'interpréteur lui-même.
     Notez que certaines plates-formes peuvent avoir des restrictions
     particulières sur les valeurs de taille de la pile, telles que
     l'exigence d'une taille de pile minimale > 32 Kio ou d'une
     allocation en multiples de la taille de page de la mémoire du
     système – la documentation de la plate-forme devrait être consultée
     pour plus d'informations (4 Kio sont courants ; en l'absence de
     renseignements plus spécifiques, l'approche suggérée est
     l'utilisation de multiples de 4 096 octets pour la taille de la
     pile).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

 -- Données: _thread.TIMEOUT_MAX

     The maximum value allowed for the 'timeout' parameter of *note
     Lock.acquire: 685.  Specifying a timeout greater than this value
     will raise an *note OverflowError: 86f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les verrous ont les méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: lock.acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

     Sans aucun argument optionnel, cette méthode acquiert le verrou
     inconditionnellement, et si nécessaire attend jusqu'à ce qu'il soit
     relâché par un autre fil d'exécution (un seul fil d'exécution à la
     fois peut acquérir le verrou — c'est leur raison d'être).

     If the 'blocking' argument is present, the action depends on its
     value: if it is false, the lock is only acquired if it can be
     acquired immediately without waiting, while if it is true, the lock
     is acquired unconditionally as above.

     If the floating-point 'timeout' argument is present and positive,
     it specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning.  A
     negative 'timeout' argument specifies an unbounded wait.  You
     cannot specify a 'timeout' if 'blocking' is false.

     La valeur renvoyée est ‘True’ si le verrou est acquis avec succès,
     sinon ‘False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'timeout' est nouveau.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le verrou acquis peut maintenant être
     interrompu par des signaux sur POSIX.

 -- Méthode: lock.release ()

     Relâche le verrou.  Le verrou doit avoir été acquis plus tôt, mais
     pas nécessairement par le même fil d'exécution.

 -- Méthode: lock.locked ()

     Renvoie le statut du verrou : ‘True’ s'il a été acquis par certains
     fils d'exécution, sinon ‘False’.

En plus de ces méthodes, les objets verrous peuvent aussi être utilisés
via l'instruction *note with: 5be, e.g :

     import _thread

     a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()

     with a_lock:
         print("a_lock is locked while this executes")

'Avertissements :'

   * Interrupts always go to the main thread (the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. exception will be received by that thread.)

   * Appeler la fonction *note sys.exit(): 1329. ou lever l'exception
     *note SystemExit: d30. est équivalent à appeler la fonction *note
     _thread.exit(): 3211.

   * It is platform-dependent whether the *note acquire(): 685. method
     on a lock can be interrupted (so that the *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     9c1. exception will happen immediately, rather than only after the
     lock has been acquired or the operation has timed out).  It can be
     interrupted on POSIX, but not on Windows.

   * Quand le fil d'exécution principal s'arrête, il est défini par le
     système si les autres fils d'exécution survivent.  Sur beaucoup de
     systèmes, ils sont tués sans l'exécution des clauses *note try:
     6d5.… *note finally: 9ba. ou l'exécution des destructeurs d'objets.


File: python.info,  Node: Réseau et communication entre processus,  Next: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet,  Prev: Exécution concourante,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.19 Réseau et communication entre processus
============================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent différents mécanismes
de mise en réseau et de communication entre processus.

Certains de ces modules ne fonctionnent que pour deux processus sur une
seule machine, comme les modules *note signal: c5. et *note mmap: 8f.
D'autres gèrent des protocoles réseaux que deux processus, ou plus,
peuvent utiliser pour communiquer entre différentes machines.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O. Asynchronous I/O
* socket: socket --- Low-level networking interface. Low-level networking interface
* ssl: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* select: select --- Waiting for I/O completion. Waiting for I/O completion
* selectors: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing. High-level I/O multiplexing
* signal: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events. Set handlers for asynchronous events
* mmap: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support. Memory-mapped file support


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O,  Next: socket --- Low-level networking interface,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.1 ‘asyncio’ -- Asynchronous I/O
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Hello World !
.............

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         print('Hello ...')
         await asyncio.sleep(1)
         print('... World!')

     asyncio.run(main())

‘asyncio’ est une bibliothèque permettant de faire de la programmation
asynchrone en utilisant la syntaxe 'async'/'await'.

‘asyncio’ constitue la base de nombreux cadriciels ('frameworks') Python
asynchrones qui fournissent des utilitaires réseau et des serveurs web
performants, des bibliothèques de connexion à des bases de données, des
files d'exécution distribuées, etc.

‘asyncio’ est souvent le bon choix pour écrire du code réseau de
haut-niveau et tributaire des entrées-sorties ('IO-bound').

‘asyncio’ fournit des interfaces de programmation 'haut-niveau' pour :

   * *note exécuter des coroutines Python: 321f. de manière concurrente
     et d'avoir le contrôle total sur leur exécution ;

   * effectuer *note des entrées/sorties réseau et de la communication
     inter-processus: 3220. ;

   * contrôler des *note sous-processus: 3221. ;

   * distribuer des tâches avec des *note queues: 3222. ;

   * *note synchroniser: 3223. du code s'exécutant de manière
     concurrente ;

En plus, il existe des bibliothèques de 'bas-niveau' pour que les
'développeurs de bibliothèques et de frameworks' puissent :

   * create and manage *note event loops: d68, which provide
     asynchronous APIs for *note networking: 3224, running *note
     subprocesses: 3225, handling *note OS signals: 3226, etc;

   * implémenter des protocoles efficaces à l'aide de *note transports:
     3227. ;

   * *note lier: 3228. des bibliothèques basées sur les fonctions de
     rappel et développer avec la syntaxe 'async'/'await'.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

asyncio REPL
............

You can experiment with an ‘asyncio’ concurrent context in the *note
REPL: 169.:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL ...
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     'hello'

Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ sans
argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.12.5: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and
3.8.20) Emits audit events.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case
*note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. is also executed.  Emits audit events.

Sommaire
........

* Menu:

* Exécuteurs (runners): Exécuteurs runners.
* Coroutines et tâches::
* Flux (streams): Flux streams.
* Primitives de synchronisation: Primitives de synchronisation<2>.
* Sous-processus::
* Files d'attente (queues): Files d'attente queues.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<13>.
* Boucle d'évènements::
* Futures::
* Transports et Protocoles::
* Politiques::
* Prise en charge de la plate-forme::
* Extension::
* Index de l'API de haut niveau::
* Index de l'API de bas niveau::
* Programmer avec asyncio::


File: python.info,  Node: Exécuteurs runners,  Next: Coroutines et tâches,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.1 Exécuteurs ('runners')
...............................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/runners.py(1)

Cette section décrit les primitives 'asyncio' de haut niveau pour
exécuter du code asynchrone.

Elles sont construites au-dessus d'une *note boucle d'événements: d68.
dans le but de simplifier l'utilisation du code asynchrone pour les
scénarios les plus courants.

* Menu:

* Exécution d'un programme asynchrone::
* Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur::
* Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/runners.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution d'un programme asynchrone,  Next: Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur,  Up: Exécuteurs runners

5.19.1.2 Exécution d'un programme asynchrone
............................................

 -- Fonction: asyncio.run (coro, *, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     Exécute la *note coroutine: 47d. 'coro' et renvoie le résultat.

     This function runs the passed coroutine, taking care of managing
     the asyncio event loop, 'finalizing asynchronous generators', and
     closing the executor.

     Cette fonction ne peut pas être appelée lorsqu'une autre boucle
     d'événement asynchrone est en cours d'exécution dans le même fil
     d'exécution.

     Si 'debug' vaut ‘True’, la boucle d'événements est exécutée en mode
     débogage.  ‘False’ désactive explicitement le mode débogage.
     ‘None’ est utilisée pour respecter les paramètres globaux définis
     par *note Mode débogage: 1d0c.

     If 'loop_factory' is not ‘None’, it is used to create a new event
     loop; otherwise *note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 322d. is used.  The
     loop is closed at the end.  This function should be used as a main
     entry point for asyncio programs, and should ideally only be called
     once.  It is recommended to use 'loop_factory' to configure the
     event loop instead of policies.  Passing *note asyncio.EventLoop:
     16b0. allows running asyncio without the policy system.

     The executor is given a timeout duration of 5 minutes to shutdown.
     If the executor hasn't finished within that duration, a warning is
     emitted and the executor is closed.

     Exemple :

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          asyncio.run(main())

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: mise à jour pour utiliser *note
     loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8d6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: 'debug' vaut ‘None’ par défaut pour
     respecter les paramètres du mode de débogage global.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added 'loop_factory' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur,  Next: Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier,  Prev: Exécution d'un programme asynchrone,  Up: Exécuteurs runners

5.19.1.3 Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur
................................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Runner (*, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     Gestionnaire de contexte englobant 'plusieurs' appels de fonctions
     asynchrones dans le même contexte.

     Parfois, plusieurs fonctions asynchrones de niveau supérieur
     doivent être appelées dans la même *note boucle d'événements: d68.
     et le même *note contextvars.Context: 1563.

     Si 'debug' vaut ‘True’, la boucle d'événements est exécutée en mode
     débogage.  ‘False’ désactive explicitement le mode débogage.
     ‘None’ est utilisée pour respecter les paramètres globaux définis
     par *note Mode débogage: 1d0c.

     'loop_factory' peut être utilisée pour remplacer la création de la
     boucle.  'loop_factory' a la responsabilité de définir la boucle
     créée comme boucle courante.  Par défaut *note
     asyncio.new_event_loop(): 322d. est utilisée et définie comme
     boucle d'événements actuelle avec *note asyncio.set_event_loop():
     1786. si 'loop_factory' vaut ‘None’.

     Basically, *note asyncio.run(): 468. example can be rewritten with
     the runner usage:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
              runner.run(main())

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: run (coro, *, context=None)

          Exécute la *note coroutine: 47d. 'coro' dans la boucle
          d'événements en cours.

          Renvoie le résultat de la coroutine ou lève les exceptions
          afférentes.

          L'argument (uniquement nommé) facultatif 'context' permet de
          spécifier un *note contextvars.Context: 1563. personnalisé
          pour la coroutine à exécuter.  Le contexte par défaut de
          l'exécuteur est utilisé si 'context' est ‘None’.

          Cette fonction ne peut pas être appelée lorsqu'une autre
          boucle d'événement asynchrone est en cours d'exécution dans le
          même fil d'exécution.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Termine l'exécuteur.

          Finalise les générateurs asynchrones, arrête l'exécuteur par
          défaut, ferme la boucle d'événements et libère le *note
          contextvars.Context: 1563. en cours.

      -- Méthode: get_loop ()

          Renvoie la boucle d'événements associée à l'instance de
          l'exécuteur.

          Note: *note Runner: 5ed. utilise la stratégie d'initialisation
          paresseuse, son constructeur n'initialise pas les structures
          de bas niveau sous-jacentes.

          La boucle d'événements 'loop' et le 'context' intégrés sont
          créés à l'entrée du corps de *note with: 5be. ou au premier
          appel de *note run(): 468. ou *note get_loop(): 3230.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier,  Prev: Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur,  Up: Exécuteurs runners

5.19.1.4 Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier
.................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Lorsque *note signal.SIGINT: 830. est déclenché par ‘Ctrl’-‘C’,
l'exception *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. est levée par défaut dans le
fils d'exécution principal.  Cependant, cela ne fonctionne pas avec
*note asyncio: a. car cela peut interrompre le fonctionnement interne de
'asyncio' et empêcher le programme de se terminer.

Pour contrer ce problème, *note asyncio: a. gère *note signal.SIGINT:
830. comme suit :

  1. *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 1668. installe un gestionnaire *note
     signal.SIGINT: 830. personnalisé avant l'exécution de tout code
     utilisateur et le supprime à la sortie de la fonction.

  2. Le *note Runner: 5ed. crée la tâche principale pour la coroutine
     transmise pour son exécution.

  3. Lorsque *note signal.SIGINT: 830. est déclenché par ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, le
     gestionnaire de signal personnalisé annule la tâche principale en
     appelant *note asyncio.Task.cancel(): 1b5. qui lève *note
     asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. à l'intérieur de la tâche principale.
     Cela entraîne la remontée dans la pile Python, les blocs
     ‘try/except’ et ‘try/finally’ peuvent être utilisés pour le
     nettoyage des ressources.  Une fois la tâche principale annulée,
     *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 1668. lève *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     9c1.

  4. Un utilisateur peut écrire une boucle tellement petite qu'elle ne
     peut pas être interrompue par *note asyncio.Task.cancel(): 1b5. ;
     dans ce cas la seconde suivante ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ lève immédiatement le
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. sans annuler la tâche principale.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines et tâches,  Next: Flux streams,  Prev: Exécuteurs runners,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.5 Coroutines et tâches
.............................

Cette section donne un aperçu des API de haut-niveau du module 'asyncio'
pour utiliser les coroutines et les tâches.

* Menu:

* Coroutines: Coroutines<3>.
* Attendables::
* Création de tâches::
* Annulation de tâche::
* Groupes de tâches::
* Attente::
* Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente::
* Eager Task Factory::
* Protection contre l'annulation::
* Délais d'attente::
* Primitives d'attente::
* Exécution dans des fils d'exécution (threads): Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads.
* Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution::
* Introspection::
* Objets Task::


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines<3>,  Next: Attendables,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.6 Coroutines
...................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les *note coroutines: 47d. déclarées avec la syntaxe 'async/await' sont
la manière privilégiée d’écrire des applications asynchrones.  Par
exemple, l’extrait de code suivant affiche « hello », attend une seconde
et affiche ensuite « world » :

     >>> import asyncio

     >>> async def main():
     ...     print('hello')
     ...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
     ...     print('world')

     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     hello
     world

Remarquez que simplement appeler une coroutine ne la planifie pas pour
exécution :

     >>> main()
     <coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>

Pour réellement exécuter une coroutine, 'asyncio' fournit les mécanismes
suivants :

   * La fonction *note asyncio.run(): 468. pour exécuter la fonction
     « main() », le point d'entrée de haut-niveau (voir l'exemple
     ci-dessus).

   * Attendre une coroutine.  Le morceau de code suivant attend une
     seconde, affiche « hello », attend 2 secondes 'supplémentaires',
     puis affiche enfin « world » :

          import asyncio
          import time

          async def say_after(delay, what):
              await asyncio.sleep(delay)
              print(what)

          async def main():
              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await say_after(1, 'hello')
              await say_after(2, 'world')

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          asyncio.run(main())

     Sortie attendue :

          started at 17:13:52
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:13:55

   * La fonction *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. pour exécuter de
     manière concurrente des coroutines en tant que *note tâches: 4c5.
     'asyncio'.

     Modifions l'exemple ci-dessus et lançons deux coroutines
     ‘say_after’ 'de manière concurrente' :

          async def main():
              task1 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(1, 'hello'))

              task2 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(2, 'world'))

              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
              # around 2 seconds.)
              await task1
              await task2

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     La sortie attendue montre à présent que ce code s'exécute une
     seconde plus rapidement que le précédent :

          started at 17:14:32
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:14:34

   * La classe *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. fournit une alternative
     plus moderne à *note create_task(): 5e9.  En utilisant cette API,
     le dernier exemple devient :

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
                  task1 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(1, 'hello'))

                  task2 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(2, 'world'))

                  print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # The await is implicit when the context manager exits.

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     Le temps d'exécution et la sortie doivent être les mêmes que pour
     la version précédente.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py


File: python.info,  Node: Attendables,  Next: Création de tâches,  Prev: Coroutines<3>,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.7 'Attendables'
......................

Un objet est dit 'attendable' ('awaitable' en anglais, c.-à-d.  qui peut
être attendu) s'il peut être utilisé dans une expression *note await:
1b7.  Beaucoup d'API d''asyncio' sont conçues pour accepter des
'attendables'.

Il existe trois types principaux d''attendables' : les 'coroutines', les
'tâches' et les 'futurs'.

Coroutines
..........

Les coroutines sont des 'awaitables' et peuvent donc être attendues par
d'autres coroutines :

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
         # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
         # so it *won't run at all*.
         nested()  # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".

         # Let's do it differently now and await it:
         print(await nested())  # will print "42".

     asyncio.run(main())

     Important: dans cette documentation, le terme « coroutine » est
     utilisé pour désigner deux concepts voisins :

        * une 'fonction coroutine' : une fonction *note async def:
          5bd. ;

        * un 'objet coroutine' : un objet renvoyé par une 'fonction
          coroutine'.

Tâches
......

Les 'tâches' servent à planifier des coroutines de façon à ce qu'elles
s'exécutent de manière concurrente.

Lorsqu'une coroutine est encapsulée dans une 'tâche' à l'aide de
fonctions comme *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9, la coroutine est
automatiquement planifiée pour s'exécuter prochainement :

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
         # with "main()".
         task = asyncio.create_task(nested())

         # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
         # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
         await task

     asyncio.run(main())

Futurs
......

Un *note Future: bbd. est un objet 'attendable' spécial de 'bas-niveau',
qui représente le 'résultat final' d'une opération asynchrone.

Quand un objet 'Future' est 'attendu', cela signifie que la coroutine
attendra que ce futur soit résolu à un autre endroit.

Les objets 'Future' d''asyncio' sont nécessaires pour permettre
l'exécution de code basé sur les fonctions de rappel avec la syntaxe
'async' / 'await'.

Il est normalement 'inutile' de créer des objets 'Future' dans la couche
applicative du code.

Les objets 'Future', parfois exposés par des bibliothèques et quelques
API d''asyncio', peuvent être attendus :

     async def main():
         await function_that_returns_a_future_object()

         # this is also valid:
         await asyncio.gather(
             function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
             some_python_coroutine()
         )

*note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8. est l'exemple typique d'une fonction
bas-niveau renvoyant un objet 'Future'.


File: python.info,  Node: Création de tâches,  Next: Annulation de tâche,  Prev: Attendables,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.8 Création de tâches
...........................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/tasks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Fonction: asyncio.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     Encapsule la *note coroutine: 321f. 'coro' dans une tâche et la
     planifie pour exécution.  Renvoie l'objet *note Task: 4c5.

     Si 'name' n’est pas ‘None’, il est défini comme le nom de la tâche
     en utilisant *note Task.set_name(): 9cd.

     L'argument (uniquement nommé) facultatif 'context' permet de
     spécifier un *note contextvars.Context: 1563. personnalisé pour la
     coroutine à exécuter.  La copie de contexte actuelle est créée
     lorsqu'aucun 'context' n'est fourni.

     La tâche est exécutée dans la boucle renvoyée par *note
     get_running_loop(): afb. ; *note RuntimeError: 193. est levée s'il
     n'y a pas de boucle en cours d'exécution dans le fil actuel.

          Note: *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1ba. is a new
          alternative leveraging structural concurrency; it allows for
          waiting for a group of related tasks with strong safety
          guarantees.

          Important: gardez une référence au résultat de cette fonction,
          pour éviter qu'une tâche ne disparaisse en cours d'exécution.
          La boucle d'événements ne conserve que les références faibles
          aux tâches.  Une tâche qui n'est pas référencée ailleurs peut
          être supprimée par le ramasse-miettes à tout moment, même
          avant qu'elle ne soit terminée.  Pour créer des tâches
          d'arrière-plan fiables de type « lance et oublie »,
          rassemblez-les dans une collection :

               background_tasks = set()

               for i in range(10):
                   task = asyncio.create_task(some_coro(param=i))

                   # Add task to the set. This creates a strong reference.
                   background_tasks.add(task)

                   # To prevent keeping references to finished tasks forever,
                   # make each task remove its own reference from the set after
                   # completion:
                   task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre 'name'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'context'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/tasks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Annulation de tâche,  Next: Groupes de tâches,  Prev: Création de tâches,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.9 Annulation de tâche
............................

Les tâches peuvent être annulées facilement et en toute sécurité.
Lorsqu'une tâche est annulée, *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. est
levée dans la tâche à la première occasion.

Il est recommandé que les coroutines utilisent des blocs ‘try/finally’
pour exécuter de manière robuste la logique de nettoyage.  Dans le cas
où *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. est explicitement interceptée,
elle devrait généralement être propagée lorsque le nettoyage est
terminé.  *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. sous-classe directement
*note BaseException: 5a7. donc la plupart du code n'a pas besoin d'en
être conscient.

Les composants 'asyncio' qui permettent la concurrence structurée, comme
*note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3. et *note asyncio.timeout(): 5eb, sont
implémentés en utilisant l'annulation en interne et peuvent mal se
comporter si une coroutine ne propage pas *note asyncio.CancelledError:
1b6.  De même, le code utilisateur ne doit généralement pas appeler
*note uncancel: 1b9.  Cependant, dans les cas où la suppression de *note
asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. est vraiment souhaitée, il est également
nécessaire d'appeler ‘uncancel()’ pour supprimer complètement l'état
d'annulation.


File: python.info,  Node: Groupes de tâches,  Next: Attente,  Prev: Annulation de tâche,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.10 Groupes de tâches
...........................

Les groupes de tâches combinent une API de création de tâches avec un
moyen pratique et fiable d'attendre la fin de toutes les tâches du
groupe.

 -- Classe: asyncio.TaskGroup

     *note Gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone: 5e8. responsable d’un
     groupe de tâches.  Des tâches peuvent être ajoutées au groupe en
     utilisant *note create_task(): 5e9.  Toutes les tâches sont
     attendues à la sortie du gestionnaire de contexte.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

          Create a task in this task group.  The signature matches that
          of *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9.  If the task group is
          inactive (e.g.  not yet entered, already finished, or in the
          process of shutting down), we will close the given ‘coro’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Close the given coroutine if the
          task group is not active.

Exemple :

     async def main():
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             task1 = tg.create_task(some_coro(...))
             task2 = tg.create_task(another_coro(...))
         print(f"Both tasks have completed now: {task1.result()}, {task2.result()}")

L'instruction ‘async with’ attend la fin de toutes les tâches du groupe.
Lors de l'attente, de nouvelles tâches peuvent encore être ajoutées au
groupe (par exemple, en passant ‘tg’ dans l'une des coroutines et en
appelant ‘tg.create_task()’ dans cette coroutine).  Une fois que la
dernière tâche est terminée et que le bloc ‘async with’ est quitté,
aucune nouvelle tâche ne peut être ajoutée au groupe.

La première fois que l'une des tâches appartenant au groupe échoue avec
une exception autre que *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6, les tâches
restantes du groupe sont annulées.  Aucune autre tâche ne peut alors
être ajoutée au groupe.  À ce stade, si le corps de l'instruction ‘async
with’ est toujours actif (par exemple, *note __aexit__(): 15e5. n'a pas
encore été appelé), la tâche contenant directement l'instruction ‘async
with’ est également annulée.  Le résultat *note asyncio.CancelledError:
1b6. interrompt un ‘await’, mais il ne sort pas de l'instruction ‘async
with’ englobante.

Une fois toutes les tâches terminées, si des tâches ont échoué avec une
exception autre que *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6, ces exceptions
sont combinées dans un *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. ou *note
BaseExceptionGroup: 25c. (selon le cas ; voir leur documentation) qui
est ensuite levé.

Deux exceptions de base sont traitées spécialement : si une tâche échoue
avec *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. ou *note SystemExit: d30, le groupe
de tâches annule toujours les tâches restantes et les attend, mais alors
la *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. ou la *note SystemExit: d30. initiale
est levée à nouveau au lieu de *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. ou *note
BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.

Si le corps de l'instruction ‘async with’ se termine avec une exception
(donc *note __aexit__(): 15e5. est appelé avec un ensemble
d'exceptions), cela est traité de la même manière que si l'une des
tâches échouait : les tâches restantes sont annulées puis attendues, et
les exceptions de non-annulation sont regroupées dans un groupe
d'exceptions et levées.  L'exception transmise à *note __aexit__():
15e5, à moins qu'il ne s'agisse de *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6,
est également incluse dans le groupe d'exceptions.  Le même cas spécial
concerne *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. et *note SystemExit: d30. comme
dans le paragraphe précédent.

Task groups are careful not to mix up the internal cancellation used to
"wake up" their *note __aexit__(): 15e5. with cancellation requests for
the task in which they are running made by other parties.  In
particular, when one task group is syntactically nested in another, and
both experience an exception in one of their child tasks simultaneously,
the inner task group will process its exceptions, and then the outer
task group will receive another cancellation and process its own
exceptions.

In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must
raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4, it will call the parent task's *note
cancel(): 1b5. method.  This ensures that a *note
asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. will be raised at the next *note await:
1b7, so the cancellation is not lost.

Task groups preserve the cancellation count reported by *note
asyncio.Task.cancelling(): 1b8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Improved handling of simultaneous internal
and external cancellations and correct preservation of cancellation
counts.

* Menu:

* Terminating a Task Group::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating a Task Group,  Up: Groupes de tâches

5.19.1.11 Terminating a Task Group
..................................

While terminating a task group is not natively supported by the standard
library, termination can be achieved by adding an exception-raising task
to the task group and ignoring the raised exception:

     import asyncio
     from asyncio import TaskGroup

     class TerminateTaskGroup(Exception):
         """Exception raised to terminate a task group."""

     async def force_terminate_task_group():
         """Used to force termination of a task group."""
         raise TerminateTaskGroup()

     async def job(task_id, sleep_time):
         print(f'Task {task_id}: start')
         await asyncio.sleep(sleep_time)
         print(f'Task {task_id}: done')

     async def main():
         try:
             async with TaskGroup() as group:
                 # spawn some tasks
                 group.create_task(job(1, 0.5))
                 group.create_task(job(2, 1.5))
                 # sleep for 1 second
                 await asyncio.sleep(1)
                 # add an exception-raising task to force the group to terminate
                 group.create_task(force_terminate_task_group())
         except* TerminateTaskGroup:
             pass

     asyncio.run(main())

Expected output:

     Task 1: start
     Task 2: start
     Task 1: done


File: python.info,  Node: Attente,  Next: Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente,  Prev: Groupes de tâches,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.12 Attente
.................

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.sleep (delay, result=None)

     Attend pendant 'delay' secondes.

     Si 'result' est spécifié, il est renvoyé à l'appelant quand la
     coroutine se termine.

     ‘sleep()’ suspend systématiquement la tâche courante, ce qui permet
     aux autres tâches de s'exécuter.

     Définir le délai sur 0 fournit un chemin optimisé pour permettre à
     d'autres tâches de s'exécuter.  Cela peut être utilisé par les
     fonctions de longue durée pour éviter de bloquer la boucle
     d'événements pendant toute la durée de l'appel de fonction.
     Exemple d'une coroutine affichant la date toutes les secondes
     pendant 5 secondes :

          import asyncio
          import datetime

          async def display_date():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
              end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
              while True:
                  print(datetime.datetime.now())
                  if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
                      break
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)

          asyncio.run(display_date())

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'loop' a été enlevé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     'delay' is *note nan: 650.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente,  Next: Eager Task Factory,  Prev: Attente,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.13 Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente
....................................................

 -- Fonction: awaitable asyncio.gather (*aws, return_exceptions=False)

     Exécute les objets *note awaitable: 3235. de la séquence 'aws', 'de
     manière concurrente'.

     Si un 'attendable' de 'aws' est une coroutine, celui-ci est
     automatiquement planifié comme une tâche 'Task'.

     Si tous les 'awaitables' s'achèvent avec succès, le résultat est la
     liste des valeurs renvoyées.  L'ordre de cette liste correspond à
     l'ordre des 'awaitables' dans 'aws'.

     Si 'return_exceptions' vaut ‘False’ (valeur par défaut), la
     première exception levée est immédiatement propagée vers la tâche
     en attente dans le ‘gather()’.  Les autres 'attendables' dans la
     séquence 'aws' 'ne sont pas annulés' et poursuivent leur exécution.

     Si 'return_exceptions' vaut ‘True’, les exceptions sont traitées de
     la même manière que les exécutions normales, et incluses dans la
     liste des résultats.

     Si ‘gather()’ est 'annulé', tous les 'awaitables' en cours (ceux
     qui n'ont pas encore fini de s'exécuter) sont également 'annulés'.

     Si n'importe quel 'Task' ou 'Future' de la séquence 'aws' est
     'annulé', il est traité comme s'il avait levé *note CancelledError:
     1b6. — l'appel à ‘gather()’ n'est alors 'pas' annulé.  Ceci permet
     d'empêcher que l'annulation d'une tâche ou d'un futur entraîne
     l'annulation des autres tâches ou futurs.

          Note: A new alternative to create and run tasks concurrently
          and wait for their completion is *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b3.
          'TaskGroup' provides stronger safety guarantees than 'gather'
          for scheduling a nesting of subtasks: if a task (or a subtask,
          a task scheduled by a task) raises an exception, 'TaskGroup'
          will, while 'gather' will not, cancel the remaining scheduled
          tasks).
     Exemple :

          import asyncio

          async def factorial(name, number):
              f = 1
              for i in range(2, number + 1):
                  print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({number}), currently i={i}...")
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)
                  f *= i
              print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
              return f

          async def main():
              # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
              L = await asyncio.gather(
                  factorial("A", 2),
                  factorial("B", 3),
                  factorial("C", 4),
              )
              print(L)

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     Task A: Compute factorial(2), currently i=2...
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=2...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=2...
          #     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=3...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=3...
          #     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=4...
          #     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
          #     [2, 6, 24]

          Note: If 'return_exceptions' is false, cancelling gather()
          after it has been marked done won't cancel any submitted
          awaitables.  For instance, gather can be marked done after
          propagating an exception to the caller, therefore, calling
          ‘gather.cancel()’ after catching an exception (raised by one
          of the awaitables) from gather won't cancel any other
          awaitables.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Si 'gather' est lui-même annulé,
     l'annulation est propagée indépendamment de 'return_exceptions'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'loop' a été enlevé.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un avertissement d'obsolescence
     est émis si aucun argument positionnel n'est fourni ou si tous les
     arguments positionnels ne sont pas des objets de type Future et
     qu'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événements en cours d'exécution.


File: python.info,  Node: Eager Task Factory,  Next: Protection contre l'annulation,  Prev: Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.14 Eager Task Factory
............................

 -- Fonction: asyncio.eager_task_factory (loop, coro, *, name=None,
          context=None)

     A task factory for eager task execution.

     When using this factory (via *note
     loop.set_task_factory(asyncio.eager_task_factory): db5.),
     coroutines begin execution synchronously during *note Task: 4c5.
     construction.  Tasks are only scheduled on the event loop if they
     block.  This can be a performance improvement as the overhead of
     loop scheduling is avoided for coroutines that complete
     synchronously.

     A common example where this is beneficial is coroutines which
     employ caching or memoization to avoid actual I/O when possible.

          Note: Immediate execution of the coroutine is a semantic
          change.  If the coroutine returns or raises, the task is never
          scheduled to the event loop.  If the coroutine execution
          blocks, the task is scheduled to the event loop.  This change
          may introduce behavior changes to existing applications.  For
          example, the application's task execution order is likely to
          change.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.create_eager_task_factory
          (custom_task_constructor)

     Create an eager task factory, similar to *note
     eager_task_factory(): 463, using the provided
     'custom_task_constructor' when creating a new task instead of the
     default *note Task: 4c5.

     'custom_task_constructor' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching the signature of *note Task.__init__: 4c5.  The callable
     must return a *note asyncio.Task: 4c5.-compatible object.

     This function returns a 'callable' intended to be used as a task
     factory of an event loop via *note loop.set_task_factory(factory):
     db5.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Protection contre l'annulation,  Next: Délais d'attente,  Prev: Eager Task Factory,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.15 Protection contre l'annulation
........................................

 -- Fonction: awaitable asyncio.shield (aw)

     Empêche qu'un objet *note awaitable: 3235. puisse être *note
     annulé: 1b5.

     Si 'aw' est une coroutine, elle est planifiée automatiquement comme
     une tâche.

     L'instruction :

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          res = await shield(task)

     est équivalente à :

          res = await something()

     'à la différence près' que, si la coroutine qui la contient est
     annulée, la tâche s'exécutant dans ‘something()’ n'est pas annulée.
     Du point de vue de ‘something()’, il n'y a pas eu d'annulation.
     Cependant, son appelant est bien annulé, donc l'expression 'await'
     lève bien une *note CancelledError: 1b6.

     Si ‘something()’ est annulée d'une autre façon (c.-à-d.  depuis
     elle-même) ceci annule également ‘shield()’.

     Pour ignorer complètement l'annulation (déconseillé), la fonction
     ‘shield()’ peut être combinée à une clause 'try' / 'except', comme
     dans le code ci-dessous :

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          try:
              res = await shield(task)
          except CancelledError:
              res = None

          Important: sauvegardez une référence aux tâches passées à
          cette fonction, pour éviter qu'une tâche ne disparaisse en
          cours d'exécution.  La boucle d'événements ne conserve que les
          références faibles aux tâches.  Une tâche qui n'est pas
          référencée ailleurs peut faire l'objet d'une suppression par
          le ramasse-miettes à tout moment, même avant qu'elle ne soit
          terminée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'loop' a été enlevé.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: un avertissement d'obsolescence
     est émis si 'aw' n'est pas un objet de type 'future' et qu'il n'y a
     pas de boucle d'événement en cours d'exécution.


File: python.info,  Node: Délais d'attente,  Next: Primitives d'attente,  Prev: Protection contre l'annulation,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.16 Délais d'attente
..........................

 -- Fonction: asyncio.timeout (delay)

     Return an *note asynchronous context manager: 5e8. that can be used
     to limit the amount of time spent waiting on something.

     'delay' peut-être soit ‘None’, soit le nombre de secondes (entier
     ou décimal) d'attente.  Si 'delay' vaut ‘None’, aucune limite n'est
     appliquée ; cela peut être utile lorsque le délai d'attente est
     inconnu au moment de la création du gestionnaire de contexte.

     Dans les deux cas, le gestionnaire de contexte peut être redéfini
     après sa création en utilisant *note Timeout.reschedule(): 3244.

     Exemple :

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                  await long_running_task()

     If ‘long_running_task’ takes more than 10 seconds to complete, the
     context manager will cancel the current task and handle the
     resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. internally,
     transforming it into a *note TimeoutError: 821. which can be caught
     and handled.

          Note: The *note asyncio.timeout(): 5eb. context manager is
          what transforms the *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6. into a
          *note TimeoutError: 821, which means the *note TimeoutError:
          821. can only be caught 'outside' of the context manager.

     Example of catching *note TimeoutError: 821.:

          async def main():
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     Le gestionnaire de contexte produit par *note asyncio.timeout():
     5eb. peut être reprogrammé à une échéance différente et inspecté.

      -- Classe: asyncio.Timeout (when)

          *note Gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone: 5e8. pour annuler
          les coroutines en retard.

          ‘when’ doit être un temps absolu au bout duquel le contexte
          doit expirer, tel que mesuré par l'horloge de la boucle
          d'événements :

             - Si ‘when’ vaut ‘None’, le délai maximal ne se déclenche
               jamais.

             - Si ‘when < loop.time()’, le délai maximal se déclenche à
               la prochaine itération de la boucle d'événement.

                -- Méthode: when () -> float | None

                    Renvoie la limite de temps d'exécution définie
                    actuellement, ou ‘None’ s'il n'y en a pas.

                -- Méthode: reschedule (when: float | None)

                    Reprogramme le délai d'attente.

                -- Méthode: expired () -> bool

                    Renvoie si le gestionnaire de contexte a dépassé son
                    délai (c.-à-d.  s'il a expiré).

     Exemple :

          async def main():
              try:
                  # We do not know the timeout when starting, so we pass ``None``.
                  async with asyncio.timeout(None) as cm:
                      # We know the timeout now, so we reschedule it.
                      new_deadline = get_running_loop().time() + 10
                      cm.reschedule(new_deadline)

                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  pass

              if cm.expired():
                  print("Looks like we haven't finished on time.")

     Les gestionnaires de contexte de délai maximal peuvent être
     imbriqués en toute sécurité.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.timeout_at (when)

     Semblable à *note asyncio.timeout(): 5eb, sauf que 'when' est le
     temps absolu pour arrêter d'attendre, ou ‘None’.

     Exemple :

          async def main():
              loop = get_running_loop()
              deadline = loop.time() + 20
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout_at(deadline):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.wait_for (aw, timeout)

     Attend la fin de l'*note awaitable: 3235. 'aw' avec délai
     d'attente.

     Si 'aw' est une coroutine, elle est planifiée automatiquement comme
     une tâche.

     'timeout' peut-être soit ‘None’, soit le nombre de secondes (entier
     ou décimal) d'attente.  Si 'timeout' vaut ‘None’, la fonction
     s'interrompt jusqu'à ce que le futur s'achève.

     Si le délai d'attente maximal est dépassé, la tâche est annulée et
     l'exception *note TimeoutError: 821. est levée.

     Pour empêcher *note l'annulation: 1b5. de la tâche, il est
     nécessaire de l'encapsuler dans une fonction *note shield(): a60.

     Cette fonction attend que le futur soit réellement annulé, donc le
     temps d'attente total peut être supérieur à 'timeout'.  Si une
     exception se produit lors de l'annulation, elle est propagée.

     Si l'attente est annulée, le futur 'aw' est également annulé.
     Exemple :

          async def eternity():
              # Sleep for one hour
              await asyncio.sleep(3600)
              print('yay!')

          async def main():
              # Wait for at most 1 second
              try:
                  await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
              except TimeoutError:
                  print('timeout!')

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     timeout!

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Si le dépassement du délai d'attente
     maximal provoque l'annulation de 'aw', ‘wait_for’ attend que 'aw'
     soit annulée.  Auparavant, l'exception *note TimeoutError: 821.
     était immédiatement levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'loop' a été enlevé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Raises *note TimeoutError: 821.
     instead of *note asyncio.TimeoutError: 16ff.


File: python.info,  Node: Primitives d'attente,  Next: Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads,  Prev: Délais d'attente,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.17 Primitives d'attente
..............................

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.wait (aws, *, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Exécute les instances *note Future: bbd. et *note Task: 4c5. de
     l'itérable 'aws' de manière concurrente, et s'interrompt jusqu'à ce
     que la condition décrite dans 'return_when' soit vraie.

     The 'aws' iterable must not be empty.

     Renvoie deux ensembles de 'Tasks' / 'Futures' : ‘(done, pending)’.

     Utilisation :

          done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)

     'timeout' (entier ou décimal), si précisé, peut-être utilisé pour
     contrôler le nombre maximal de secondes d'attente avant de se
     terminer.

     Cette fonction ne lève pas *note TimeoutError: 821.  Les futurs et
     les tâches qui ne sont pas finis quand le délai d'attente maximal
     est dépassé sont tout simplement renvoyés dans le second ensemble.

     'return_when' indique quand la fonction doit se terminer.  Il peut
     prendre les valeurs suivantes :

     Constante                                              Description
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- Données: asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED                   La fonction se termine lorsque n'importe quel futur
                                                            se termine ou est annulé.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Données: asyncio.FIRST_EXCEPTION                   The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 324b.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Données: asyncio.ALL_COMPLETED                     La fonction se termine lorsque les 'futurs' sont
                                                            tous finis ou annulés.
                                                            

     À la différence de *note wait_for(): 5ec, ‘wait()’ n'annule pas les
     futurs quand le délai d'attente est dépassé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'loop' a été enlevé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Passer directement des objets
     coroutines à ‘wait()’ est interdit.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for generators yielding
     tasks.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.as_completed (aws, *, timeout=None)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 3235. in the 'aws' iterable
     concurrently.  The returned object can be iterated to obtain the
     results of the awaitables as they finish.

     The object returned by ‘as_completed()’ can be iterated as an *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1a9. or a plain *note iterator: 1aa.  When
     asynchronous iteration is used, the originally-supplied awaitables
     are yielded if they are tasks or futures.  This makes it easy to
     correlate previously-scheduled tasks with their results.  Example:

          ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
          ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
          tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

          async for earliest_connect in as_completed(tasks):
              # earliest_connect is done. The result can be obtained by
              # awaiting it or calling earliest_connect.result()
              reader, writer = await earliest_connect

              if earliest_connect is ipv6_connect:
                  print("IPv6 connection established.")
              else:
                  print("IPv4 connection established.")

     During asynchronous iteration, implicitly-created tasks will be
     yielded for supplied awaitables that aren't tasks or futures.

     When used as a plain iterator, each iteration yields a new
     coroutine that returns the result or raises the exception of the
     next completed awaitable.  This pattern is compatible with Python
     versions older than 3.13:

          ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
          ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
          tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

          for next_connect in as_completed(tasks):
              # next_connect is not one of the original task objects. It must be
              # awaited to obtain the result value or raise the exception of the
              # awaitable that finishes next.
              reader, writer = await next_connect

     A *note TimeoutError: 821. is raised if the timeout occurs before
     all awaitables are done.  This is raised by the ‘async for’ loop
     during asynchronous iteration or by the coroutines yielded during
     plain iteration.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'loop' a été enlevé.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un avertissement d'obsolescence
     est émis si tous les objets en attente dans l'itérable 'aws' ne
     sont pas des objets de type 'Future' et qu'il n'y a pas de boucle
     d'événement en cours d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for generators yielding
     tasks.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The result can now be used as either
     an *note asynchronous iterator: 1a9. or as a plain *note iterator:
     1aa. (previously it was only a plain iterator).


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads,  Next: Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution,  Prev: Primitives d'attente,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.18 Exécution dans des fils d'exécution ('threads')
.........................................................

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.to_thread (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Exécute la fonction 'func' de manière asynchrone dans un fil
     d'exécution séparé.

     Tous les '*args' et '**kwargs' fournis à cette fonction sont
     directement passés à 'func'.  De plus, le *note
     contextvars.Context: 1563. actuel est propagé, ce qui permet
     d'accéder aux variables de contexte du fil de boucle d'événements
     dans le fil séparé.

     Renvoie une coroutine qui peut être attendue pour obtenir le
     résultat éventuel de 'func'.

     Cette fonction coroutine est principalement destinée à être
     utilisée pour exécuter des fonctions/méthodes faisant beaucoup
     d'entrées-sorties et qui bloqueraient autrement la boucle
     d'événements si elles étaient exécutées dans le fil d'exécution
     principal.  Par exemple :

          def blocking_io():
              print(f"start blocking_io at {time.strftime('%X')}")
              # Note that time.sleep() can be replaced with any blocking
              # IO-bound operation, such as file operations.
              time.sleep(1)
              print(f"blocking_io complete at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          async def main():
              print(f"started main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await asyncio.gather(
                  asyncio.to_thread(blocking_io),
                  asyncio.sleep(1))

              print(f"finished main at {time.strftime('%X')}")


          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          # started main at 19:50:53
          # start blocking_io at 19:50:53
          # blocking_io complete at 19:50:54
          # finished main at 19:50:54

     Appeler directement ‘blocking_io()’ dans n'importe quelle coroutine
     bloquerait la boucle d'événements pendant sa durée, ce qui
     entraînerait une seconde supplémentaire de temps d'exécution.  Au
     lieu de cela, en utilisant ‘asyncio.to_thread()’, nous pouvons
     l'exécuter dans un fil d'exécution séparé sans bloquer la boucle
     d'événements.

          Note: en raison du *note GIL: 158, ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ ne
          peut généralement être utilisée que pour rendre les fonctions
          faisant beaucoup d'entrées-sorties non bloquantes.  Cependant,
          pour les modules d'extension qui relâchent le GIL ou les
          implémentations Python alternatives qui n'en ont pas,
          ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ peut également être utilisée pour les
          fonctions qui sollicitent beaucoup le processeur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution,  Next: Introspection,  Prev: Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.19 Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution
........................................................

 -- Fonction: asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe (coro, loop)

     Enregistre une coroutine dans la boucle d'exécution actuelle.
     Cette opération est compatible avec les programmes à multiples fils
     d'exécution ('thread-safe').

     Renvoie un *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1191. pour attendre le
     résultat d'un autre fil d'exécution du système d'exploitation.

     Cette fonction est faite pour être appelée par un fil d'exécution
     distinct de celui dans laquelle la boucle d'événement s'exécute.
     Exemple :

          # Create a coroutine
          coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

          # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
          future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

          # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
          assert future.result(timeout) == 3

     Si une exception est levée dans une coroutine, le futur renvoyé en
     sera averti.  Elle peut également être utilisée pour annuler la
     tâche de la boucle d'événement :

          try:
              result = future.result(timeout)
          except TimeoutError:
              print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
              future.cancel()
          except Exception as exc:
              print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
          else:
              print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')

     Voir la section *note exécution concurrente et multi-fils
     d'exécution: 324e. de la documentation.

     À la différence des autres fonctions d''asyncio', cette fonction
     requiert que 'loop' soit passé de manière explicite.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.1.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection,  Next: Objets Task,  Prev: Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.20 Introspection
.......................

 -- Fonction: asyncio.current_task (loop=None)

     Renvoie l'instance de la *note Task: 4c5. en cours d'exécution, ou
     ‘None’ s'il n'y a pas de tâche en cours.

     Si 'loop' vaut ‘None’, *note get_running_loop(): afb. est appelée
     pour récupérer la boucle en cours d'exécution.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.all_tasks (loop=None)

     Renvoie l'ensemble des *note Task: 4c5. non terminés en cours
     d'exécution dans la boucle.

     Si 'loop' vaut ‘None’, *note get_running_loop(): afb. est appelée
     pour récupérer la boucle en cours d'exécution.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.iscoroutine (obj)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'obj' est un objet coroutine.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Task,  Prev: Introspection,  Up: Coroutines et tâches

5.19.1.21 Objets 'Task'
.......................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Task (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=False)

     Objet compatible avec *note Future: bbd. qui exécute une *note
     coroutine: 321f. Python.  Cet objet n'est pas utilisable dans des
     programmes à fils d'exécution multiples.

     Les tâches servent à exécuter des coroutines dans des boucles
     d'événements.  Si une coroutine attend un futur, la tâche
     interrompt son exécution et attend la fin de ce 'futur'.  Quand
     celui-ci est terminé, l'exécution de la coroutine encapsulée
     reprend.

     Les boucles d'événement fonctionnent de manière 'coopérative' : une
     boucle d'événement exécute une tâche à la fois.  Quand une tâche
     attend la fin d'un futur, la boucle d'événement exécute d'autres
     tâches, des fonctions de rappel, ou effectue des opérations
     d'entrées-sorties.

     La fonction de haut niveau *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. et les
     fonctions de bas-niveau *note loop.create_task(): 9cc. ou *note
     ensure_future(): c66. permettent de créer des tâches.  Il est
     déconseillé d'instancier manuellement des objets 'Task'.

     La méthode *note cancel(): 1b5. d'une tâche en cours d'exécution
     permet d'annuler celle-ci.  L'appel de cette méthode force la tâche
     à lever l'exception *note CancelledError: 1b6. dans la coroutine
     encapsulée.  Si la coroutine attendait un 'futur' au moment de
     l'annulation, celui-ci est annulé.

     La méthode *note cancelled(): 3251. permet de vérifier si la tâche
     a été annulée.  Elle renvoie ‘True’ si la coroutine encapsulée n'a
     pas ignoré l'exception *note CancelledError: 1b6. et a bien été
     annulée.

     *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. hérite de *note Future: bbd, de toute son
     API, à l'exception de *note Future.set_result(): 3252. et de *note
     Future.set_exception(): 3253.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 1563. for the 'coro' to run in.
     If no 'context' is provided, the Task copies the current context
     and later runs its coroutine in the copied context.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows eagerly
     starting the execution of the *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. at task
     creation time.  If set to ‘True’ and the event loop is running, the
     task will start executing the coroutine immediately, until the
     first time the coroutine blocks.  If the coroutine returns or
     raises without blocking, the task will be finished eagerly and will
     skip scheduling to the event loop.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du support du module *note
     contextvars: 24.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre 'name'.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: un avertissement d'obsolescence
     est émis si 'loop' n'est pas spécifié et qu'il n'y a pas de boucle
     d'événement en cours d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'context'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'eager_start' parameter.

      -- Méthode: done ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la tâche est 'achevée'.

          Une tâche est dite 'achevée' quand la coroutine encapsulée a
          soit renvoyé une valeur, soit levé une exception, ou que la
          tâche a été annulée.

      -- Méthode: result ()

          Renvoie le résultat de la tâche.

          Si la tâche est 'achevée', le résultat de la coroutine
          encapsulée est renvoyé (sinon, dans le cas où la coroutine a
          levé une exception, cette exception est de nouveau levée).

          Si la tâche a été 'annulée', cette méthode lève une exception
          *note CancelledError: 1b6.

          If the Task's result isn't yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 3256. exception.

      -- Méthode: exception ()

          Renvoie l'exception de la tâche.

          Si la coroutine encapsulée lève une exception, cette exception
          est renvoyée.  Si la coroutine s'est exécutée normalement,
          cette méthode renvoie ‘None’.

          Si la tâche a été 'annulée', cette méthode lève une exception
          *note CancelledError: 1b6.

          Si la tâche n'est pas encore 'achevée', cette méthode lève une
          exception *note InvalidStateError: 3256.

      -- Méthode: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Ajoute une fonction de rappel qui sera exécutée quand la tâche
          sera 'achevée'.

          Cette méthode ne doit être utilisée que dans du code basé sur
          les fonctions de rappel de bas-niveau.

          Se référer à la documentation de *note
          Future.add_done_callback(): af8. pour plus de détails.

      -- Méthode: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Retire 'callback' de la liste de fonctions de rappel.

          Cette méthode ne doit être utilisée que dans du code basé sur
          les fonctions de rappel de bas-niveau.

          Se référer à la documentation de *note
          Future.remove_done_callback(): 155f. pour plus de détails.

      -- Méthode: get_stack (*, limit=None)

          Renvoie une liste représentant la pile d'appels de la tâche.

          Si la coroutine encapsulée n'est pas terminée, cette fonction
          renvoie la pile d'appels à partir de l'endroit où celle-ci est
          interrompue.  Si la coroutine s'est terminée normalement ou a
          été annulée, cette fonction renvoie une liste vide.  Si la
          coroutine a été terminée par une exception, ceci renvoie la
          pile d'erreurs.

          La pile est toujours affichée de l'appelant à l'appelé.

          Une seule ligne est renvoyée si la coroutine est suspendue.

          L'argument facultatif 'limit' définit le nombre maximal
          d'appels à renvoyer ; par défaut, tous sont renvoyés.  L'ordre
          de la liste diffère selon la nature de celle-ci : les appels
          les plus récents d'une pile d'appels sont renvoyés, si la pile
          est une pile d'erreurs, ce sont les appels les plus anciens
          qui le sont (dans un souci de cohérence avec le module
          'traceback').

      -- Méthode: print_stack (*, limit=None, file=None)

          Affiche la pile d'appels ou d'erreurs de la tâche.

          Le format de sortie des appels produits par *note get_stack():
          325a. est similaire à celui du module 'traceback'.

          Le paramètre 'limit' est directement passé à *note
          get_stack(): 325a.

          Le paramètre 'file' est un flux d'entrées-sorties sur lequel
          le résultat est écrit ; par défaut, *note sys.stdout: ac6.

      -- Méthode: get_coro ()

          Renvoie l’objet 'coroutine' encapsulé par la *note Task: 4c5.

               Note: This will return ‘None’ for Tasks which have
               already completed eagerly.  See the *note Eager Task
               Factory: 3240.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: Newly added eager task execution
          means result may be ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 1563. object associated
          with the task.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: get_name ()

          Renvoie le nom de la tâche.

          Si aucun nom n’a été explicitement assigné à la tâche,
          l’implémentation par défaut d’une 'Task' 'asyncio' génère un
          nom par défaut durant l’instanciation.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: set_name (value)

          Définit le nom de la tâche.

          L’argument 'value' peut être n’importe quel objet qui sera
          ensuite converti en chaine de caractères.

          Dans l’implémentation par défaut de 'Task', le nom sera
          visible dans le résultat de *note repr(): 7e9. d’un objet
          'Task'.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: cancel (msg=None)

          Demande l'annulation d'une tâche.

          If the Task is already 'done' or 'cancelled', return ‘False’,
          otherwise, return ‘True’.

          The method arranges for a *note CancelledError: 1b6. exception
          to be thrown into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of
          the event loop.

          La coroutine peut alors faire le ménage ou même ignorer la
          requête en supprimant l'exception à l'aide d'un bloc *note
          try: 6d5. … … ‘except CancelledError’ … *note finally: 9ba.
          Par conséquent, contrairement à *note Future.cancel(): 17d6,
          *note Task.cancel(): 1b5. ne garantit pas que la tâche sera
          annulée, bien qu'ignorer totalement une annulation ne soit ni
          une pratique courante, ni encouragé.  Si la coroutine décide
          néanmoins de supprimer l'annulation, elle doit appeler *note
          Task.uncancel(): 1b9. en plus d'intercepter l'exception.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre 'msg'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: le paramètre ‘msg’ est propagé
          de la tâche annulée vers celle qui l'attend.

          L'exemple ci-dessous illustre comment une coroutine peut
          intercepter une requête d'annulation :

               async def cancel_me():
                   print('cancel_me(): before sleep')

                   try:
                       # Wait for 1 hour
                       await asyncio.sleep(3600)
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
                       raise
                   finally:
                       print('cancel_me(): after sleep')

               async def main():
                   # Create a "cancel_me" Task
                   task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())

                   # Wait for 1 second
                   await asyncio.sleep(1)

                   task.cancel()
                   try:
                       await task
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")

               asyncio.run(main())

               # Expected output:
               #
               #     cancel_me(): before sleep
               #     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
               #     cancel_me(): after sleep
               #     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now

      -- Méthode: cancelled ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la tâche est 'annulée'.

          La tâche est 'annulée' quand l'annulation a été demandée avec
          *note cancel(): 1b5. et la coroutine encapsulée a propagé
          l'exception *note CancelledError: 1b6. qui a été levée en son
          sein.

      -- Méthode: uncancel ()

          Décrémente le nombre de demandes d'annulation pour cette
          tâche.

          Renvoie le nombre restant de demandes d'annulation.

          Notez qu'une fois l'exécution d'une tâche annulée terminée,
          les appels ultérieurs à *note uncancel(): 1b9. ne font rien.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

          Cette méthode est utilisée par les composants internes
          d''asyncio' et elle ne devrait pas être utilisée par le code
          de l'utilisateur final.  En particulier, si une tâche est
          annulée avec succès, cela permet aux structures permettant le
          multi-fils tels que *note Groupes de tâches: 323a. et *note
          asyncio.timeout(): 5eb. de continuer à s'exécuter, isolant
          l'annulation au bloc concerné.  Par exemple :

               async def make_request_with_timeout():
                   try:
                       async with asyncio.timeout(1):
                           # Structured block affected by the timeout:
                           await make_request()
                           await make_another_request()
                   except TimeoutError:
                       log("There was a timeout")
                   # Outer code not affected by the timeout:
                   await unrelated_code()

          Alors que le bloc avec ‘make_request()’ et
          ‘make_another_request()’ peut être annulé en raison du délai
          d'attente, ‘unrelated_code()’ devrait continuer à s'exécuter
          même en cas d'atteinte du délai maximal.  Ceci est implémenté
          avec *note uncancel(): 1b9.  Les gestionnaires de contexte
          *note TaskGroup: 1b3. utilisent *note uncancel(): 1b9. de la
          même manière.

          If end-user code is, for some reason, suppressing cancellation
          by catching *note CancelledError: 1b6, it needs to call this
          method to remove the cancellation state.

          When this method decrements the cancellation count to zero,
          the method checks if a previous *note cancel(): 1b5. call had
          arranged for *note CancelledError: 1b6. to be thrown into the
          task.  If it hasn't been thrown yet, that arrangement will be
          rescinded (by resetting the internal ‘_must_cancel’ flag).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Changed to rescind pending
     cancellation requests upon reaching zero.

      -- Méthode: cancelling ()

          Renvoie le nombre de demandes d'annulation en attente à cette
          tâche, c'est-à-dire le nombre d'appels à *note cancel(): 1b5.
          moins le nombre d'appels à *note uncancel(): 1b9.

          Notez que si ce nombre est supérieur à zéro mais que la tâche
          est toujours en cours d'exécution, *note cancelled(): 3251.
          renvoie toujours ‘False’.  En effet, ce nombre peut être
          réduit en appelant *note uncancel(): 1b9, ce qui peut empêcher
          en fin de compte la tâche d'être annulée si les demandes
          d'annulation tombent à zéro.

          Cette méthode est utilisée par les composants internes
          d''asyncio' et ne devrait pas être utilisée par le code de
          l'utilisateur final.  Voir *note uncancel(): 1b9. pour plus de
          détails.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Flux streams,  Next: Primitives de synchronisation<2>,  Prev: Coroutines et tâches,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.22 Flux ('streams')
..........................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncore.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les flux sont des primitives de haut niveau compatibles avec
'async'/'await' pour utiliser les connexions réseau.  Les flux
permettent d'envoyer et de recevoir des données sans utiliser de
fonctions de rappel ou des protocoles de bas niveau.  Voici un exemple
de client « écho TCP » écrit en utilisant les flux 'asyncio' :

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

Voir également la section *note Exemples: 3260. ci-dessous.

Fonctions de flux
.................

Les fonctions 'asyncio' de haut niveau suivantes peuvent être utilisées
pour créer et utiliser des flux :

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.open_connection (host=None, port=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)

     Établit une connexion réseau et renvoie une paire d'objets
     ‘(lecteur, écrivain)’.

     Les objets 'lecteur' et 'écrivain' renvoyés sont des instances des
     classes *note StreamReader: 1882. et *note StreamWriter: 16ba.

     'limit' détermine la limite de taille de tampon utilisée par
     l'instance *note StreamReader: 1882. renvoyée.  Par défaut, 'limit'
     est fixée à 64 Kio.

     Le reste des arguments est passé directement à *note
     loop.create_connection(): 5f0.

          Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du connecteur
          réseau au *note StreamWriter: 16ba. créé.  Pour fermer le
          connecteur, appelez sa méthode *note close(): 3261.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_handshake_timeout'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and
     'interleave' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_shutdown_timeout'.

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.start_server (client_connected_cb,
          host=None, port=None, *, limit=None, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Démarre un serveur de connexions

     La fonction de rappel 'client_connected_cb' est appelée chaque fois
     qu'une nouvelle connexion client est établie.  Elle reçoit une
     paire d'arguments ‘(lecteur, écrivain)’, instances des classes
     *note StreamReader: 1882. et *note StreamWriter: 16ba.

     'client_connected_cb' peut être un simple appelable ou une fonction
     *note coroutine: 321f. ; s'il s'agit d'une fonction coroutine, elle
     sera automatiquement planifiée en tant que *note Task: 4c5.

     'limit' détermine la limite de taille de tampon utilisée par
     l'instance *note StreamReader: 1882. renvoyée.  Par défaut, 'limit'
     est fixée à 64 Kio.

     Le reste des arguments est passé directement à *note
     loop.create_server(): b03.

          Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du connecteur
          au serveur créé.  Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la
          méthode *note close(): 3262. du serveur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des paramètres
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' et 'start_serving'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_shutdown_timeout'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'keep_alive' parameter.

Connecteurs Unix ('sockets')
............................

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.open_unix_connection (path=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Ouvre un connecteur Unix et renvoie une paire de ‘(lecteur,
     écrivain)’.

     Similaire à *note open_connection(): b08. mais fonctionne sur les
     connecteurs Unix.

     Voir aussi la documentation de *note loop.create_unix_connection():
     3264.

          Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du connecteur
          réseau au *note StreamWriter: 16ba. créé.  Pour fermer le
          connecteur, appelez sa méthode *note close(): 3261.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_handshake_timeout'.  Le paramètre 'path' peut désormais être
     un *note objet simili-chemin: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_shutdown_timeout'.

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.start_unix_server (client_connected_cb,
          path=None, *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Démarre un connecteur Unix en mode serveur.

     Similaire à *note start_server(): b09. mais fonctionne avec les
     connecteurs Unix.

     Voir aussi la documentation de *note loop.create_unix_server():
     1ac.

          Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du connecteur
          au serveur créé.  Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la
          méthode *note close(): 3262. du serveur.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des paramètres
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' et 'start_serving'.  Le paramètre 'chemin'
     peut désormais être un *note simili-chemin: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_shutdown_timeout'.

* Menu:

* Flux lecteurs (StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
* Flux écrivains (StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
* Exemples: Exemples<15>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncore.py


File: python.info,  Node: Flux lecteurs StreamReader,  Next: Flux écrivains StreamWriter,  Up: Flux streams

5.19.1.23 Flux lecteurs ('StreamReader')
........................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.StreamReader

     Représente un objet lecteur qui fournit des API pour lire les
     données du flux d'entrée-sortie.  En tant que *note itérable
     asynchrone: d67, l'objet prend en charge l'instruction *note async
     for: a9b.

     Il n'est pas recommandé d'instancier directement les objets
     'StreamReader' ; utilisez *note open_connection(): b08. et *note
     start_server(): b09. à la place.

      -- Méthode: feed_eof ()

          Acknowledge the EOF.

      -- Méthode: async read (n=-1)

          Lit jusqu'à 'n' octets du flux.

          Si 'n' n'est pas fourni ou défini à ‘-1’, lit jusqu'à 'EOF',
          puis renvoie tous les *note bytes: 1bd. lus.  Si 'EOF' a été
          reçu et que le tampon interne est vide, renvoie un objet
          ‘bytes’ vide.

          Si 'n' vaut ‘0’, renvoie immédiatement un objet ‘bytes’ vide.

          Si 'n' est positif, renvoie au plus 'n' ‘bytes’ disponibles
          dès qu'au moins 1 octet est disponible dans le tampon interne.
          Si 'EOF' est reçu avant qu'aucun octet ne soit lu, renvoie un
          objet ‘bytes’ vide.

      -- Méthode: async readline ()

          Lit une ligne, où une « ligne » est une séquence d'octets se
          terminant par ‘\n’.

          Si 'EOF' est reçu et ‘\n’ n'a pas été trouvé, la méthode
          renvoie des données partiellement lues.

          Si 'EOF' est reçu et que le tampon interne est vide, renvoie
          un objet ‘bytes’ vide.

      -- Méthode: async readexactly (n)

          Lit exactement 'n' octets.

          Lève une *note IncompleteReadError: 18dc. si 'EOF' est atteint
          avant que 'n' octets ne puissent être lus.  Utilisez
          l'attribut *note IncompleteReadError.partial: 326a. pour
          obtenir les données partiellement lues.

      -- Méthode: async readuntil (separator=b'\n')

          Lit les données du flux jusqu'à ce que le 'separator' soit
          trouvé.

          En cas de succès, les données et le séparateur sont supprimés
          du tampon interne (consommés).  Les données renvoyées incluent
          le séparateur à la fin.

          Si la quantité de données lues dépasse la limite de flux
          configurée, une exception *note LimitOverrunError: 326b. est
          levée et les données sont laissées dans le tampon interne et
          peuvent être lues à nouveau.

          Si 'EOF' est atteint avant que le séparateur complet ne soit
          trouvé, une exception *note IncompleteReadError: 18dc. est
          levée et le tampon interne est réinitialisé.  L'attribut *note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 326a. peut contenir une partie du
          séparateur.

          The 'separator' may also be a tuple of separators.  In this
          case the return value will be the shortest possible that has
          any separator as the suffix.  For the purposes of *note
          LimitOverrunError: 326b, the shortest possible separator is
          considered to be the one that matched.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'separator' parameter may
          now be a *note tuple: 366. of separators.

      -- Méthode: at_eof ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le tampon est vide et que *note feed_eof():
          3267. a été appelée.


File: python.info,  Node: Flux écrivains StreamWriter,  Next: Exemples<15>,  Prev: Flux lecteurs StreamReader,  Up: Flux streams

5.19.1.24 Flux écrivains ('StreamWriter')
.........................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.StreamWriter

     Représente un objet écrivain qui fournit des API pour écrire des
     données dans le flux d'entrée-sortie.

     Il n'est pas recommandé d'instancier directement les objets
     'StreamWriter' ; utilisez *note open_connection(): b08. et *note
     start_server(): b09. à la place.

      -- Méthode: write (data)

          La méthode tente d'écrire immédiatement les 'data' dans le
          connecteur sous-jacent.  Si cela échoue, les données sont
          mises en file d'attente dans un tampon d'écriture interne
          jusqu'à ce qu'elles puissent être envoyées.

          La méthode doit être utilisée avec la méthode ‘drain()’ :

               stream.write(data)
               await stream.drain()

      -- Méthode: writelines (data)

          La méthode écrit immédiatement une liste (ou tout itérable)
          d'octets dans le connecteur sous-jacent.  Si cela échoue, les
          données sont mises en file d'attente dans un tampon d'écriture
          interne jusqu'à ce qu'elles puissent être envoyées.

          La méthode doit être utilisée avec la méthode ‘drain()’ :

               stream.writelines(lines)
               await stream.drain()

      -- Méthode: close ()

          La méthode ferme le flux et le connecteur sous-jacent.

          La méthode doit être utilisée, bien que ce ne soit pas
          obligatoire, avec la méthode ‘wait_closed()’ :

               stream.close()
               await stream.wait_closed()

      -- Méthode: can_write_eof ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le transport sous-jacent gère la méthode
          *note write_eof(): 3271, ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: write_eof ()

          Ferme le flux en écriture après le vidage des données
          d'écriture en mémoire tampon.

      -- Attribut: transport

          Renvoie le transport asynchrone sous-jacent.

      -- Méthode: get_extra_info (name, default=None)

          Donne accès aux informations de transport facultatives ; voir
          *note BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): a8c. pour plus de
          détails.

      -- Méthode: async drain ()

          Attend qu'il soit approprié de reprendre l'écriture dans le
          flux.  Par exemple :

               writer.write(data)
               await writer.drain()

          Il s'agit d'une méthode de contrôle de flux qui interagit avec
          le tampon d'écriture entrée-sortie sous-jacent.  Lorsque la
          taille du tampon atteint la limite haute, 'drain()' bloque
          jusqu'à ce que la taille du tampon soit drainée jusqu'à la
          limite basse et que l'écriture puisse reprendre.  Lorsqu'il
          n'y a rien à attendre, *note drain(): 176a. termine
          immédiatement.

      -- Méthode: async start_tls (sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None,
               ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

          Bascule la connexion basée sur le flux existant vers TLS.

          Paramètres :

             * 'sslcontext' : une instance configurée de *note
               SSLContext: 291.

             * 'server_hostname' : définit ou remplace le nom d'hôte
               auquel le certificat du serveur cible sera comparé.

             * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' est le temps en secondes à
               attendre pour que la poignée de main TLS se termine avant
               d'abandonner la connexion.  ‘60.0’ secondes si ‘None’
               (par défaut).

             * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for
               the SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre
          'ssl_shutdown_timeout'.

      -- Méthode: is_closing ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le flux est fermé ou en cours de fermeture.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: async wait_closed ()

          Attend que le flux soit fermé.

          Doit être appelée après *note close(): 3261. pour attendre que
          la connexion sous-jacente soit fermée, en s'assurant que
          toutes les données ont été vidées avant, par exemple, de
          quitter le programme.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<15>,  Prev: Flux écrivains StreamWriter,  Up: Flux streams

5.19.1.25 Exemples
..................

* Menu:

* Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux::
* Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux::
* Récupération des en-têtes HTTP::
* Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux::


File: python.info,  Node: Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux,  Next: Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux,  Up: Exemples<15>

5.19.1.26 Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux
..............................................

Client d'écho TCP utilisant la fonction *note asyncio.open_connection():
b08. :

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

Voir aussi
..........

L'exemple *note Client écho en TCP: 3276. utilise la méthode de bas
niveau *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0.


File: python.info,  Node: Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux,  Next: Récupération des en-têtes HTTP,  Prev: Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux,  Up: Exemples<15>

5.19.1.27 Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux
...............................................

Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant la fonction *note asyncio.start_server():
b09. :

     import asyncio

     async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
         data = await reader.read(100)
         message = data.decode()
         addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')

         print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")

         print(f"Send: {message!r}")
         writer.write(data)
         await writer.drain()

         print("Close the connection")
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     async def main():
         server = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         addrs = ', '.join(str(sock.getsockname()) for sock in server.sockets)
         print(f'Serving on {addrs}')

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi
..........

L'exemple de *note Serveur écho en TCP: 3279. utilise la méthode *note
loop.create_server(): b03.


File: python.info,  Node: Récupération des en-têtes HTTP,  Next: Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux,  Prev: Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux,  Up: Exemples<15>

5.19.1.28 Récupération des en-têtes HTTP
........................................

Exemple simple d'interrogation des en-têtes HTTP de l'URL transmise sur
la ligne de commande :

     import asyncio
     import urllib.parse
     import sys

     async def print_http_headers(url):
         url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
         if url.scheme == 'https':
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
         else:
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 80)

         query = (
             f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
             f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
             f"\r\n"
         )

         writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             if not line:
                 break

             line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
             if line:
                 print(f'HTTP header> {line}')

         # Ignore the body, close the socket
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     url = sys.argv[1]
     asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))

Utilisation :

     python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html

ou avec HTTPS :

     python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html


File: python.info,  Node: Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux,  Prev: Récupération des en-têtes HTTP,  Up: Exemples<15>

5.19.1.29 Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux
..............................................................................

Coroutine attendant qu'un connecteur reçoive des données en utilisant la
fonction *note open_connection(): b08. :

     import asyncio
     import socket

     async def wait_for_data():
         # Get a reference to the current event loop because
         # we want to access low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets.
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the open socket to wait for data.
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         # Wait for data
         data = await reader.read(100)

         # Got data, we are done: close the socket
         print("Received:", data.decode())
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

         # Close the second socket
         wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(wait_for_data())

Voir aussi
..........

L'exemple *note Connexion de connecteurs existants: 327d. utilise un
protocole de bas niveau et la méthode *note loop.create_connection():
5f0.

L'exemple *note Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un
descripteur de fichier: 327e. utilise la méthode de bas niveau *note
loop.add_reader(): 327f. pour surveiller un descripteur de fichier.


File: python.info,  Node: Primitives de synchronisation<2>,  Next: Sous-processus,  Prev: Flux streams,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.30 Primitives de synchronisation
.......................................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/locks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les primitives de synchronisation 'asyncio' sont conçues pour être
similaires à celles du module *note threading: ec. avec deux mises en
garde importantes :

   * les primitives 'asyncio' ne sont pas 'thread-safe', elles ne
     doivent donc pas être utilisées pour la synchronisation des fils
     d'exécution du système d'exploitation (utilisez *note threading:
     ec. pour cela) ;

   * les méthodes de ces primitives de synchronisation n'acceptent pas
     l'argument 'timeout' ; utilisez la fonction *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5ec. pour effectuer des opérations avec des
     délais d'attente.

'asyncio' possède les primitives de synchronisation de base suivantes :

   * *note Lock: a61.

   * *note Event: a62.

   * *note Condition: a63.

   * *note Semaphore: a64.

   * *note BoundedSemaphore: a65.

   * *note Barrier: 5ee.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Verrou (lock): Verrou lock.
* Événement (Event): Événement Event.
* Condition::
* Sémaphore::
* Sémaphore capé (BoundedSemaphore): Sémaphore capé BoundedSemaphore.
* Barrière (Barrier): Barrière Barrier.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/locks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Verrou lock,  Next: Événement Event,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<2>

5.19.1.31 Verrou ('lock')
.........................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Lock

     Implémente un verrou exclusif ('mutex') pour les tâches
     asynchrones.  Ce n'est pas compatible avec les programmes à fils
     d'exécution multiples.

     Un verrou 'asyncio' peut être utilisé pour garantir un accès
     exclusif à une ressource partagée.

     La meilleure façon d'utiliser un verrou est une instruction *note
     async with: 5c1.

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          async with lock:
              # access shared state

     ce qui équivaut à :

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          await lock.acquire()
          try:
              # access shared state
          finally:
              lock.release()

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

      -- Méthode: async acquire ()

          Verrouille (ou acquiert) le verrou.

          Cette méthode attend que le verrou soit déverrouillé
          ('unlocked'), le verrouille (positionné sur 'locked') et
          renvoie ‘True’.

          Lorsque plus d'une coroutine est bloquée dans *note acquire():
          3283. en attendant que le verrou soit déverrouillé, seule une
          coroutine continue finalement.

          L'acquisition d'un verrou est 'équitable' : la coroutine qui
          acquiert le verrou est celle qui était la première à attendre
          le verrou.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Libère le verrou.

          Lorsque le verrou est verrouillé, le déverrouille et termine.

          Si le verrou est déjà déverrouillé, une *note RuntimeError:
          193. est levée.

      -- Méthode: locked ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le verrou est verrouillé.


File: python.info,  Node: Événement Event,  Next: Condition,  Prev: Verrou lock,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<2>

5.19.1.32 Événement ('Event')
.............................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Event

     Objet événement.  Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs
     fils d'exécution.

     Un événement asynchrone peut être utilisé pour notifier plusieurs
     tâches asynchrones qu'un événement s'est produit.

     Un objet 'Event' gère un drapeau interne qui peut être activé (ou
     mis à 'vrai') avec la méthode *note set(): 3287. et désactivé (ou
     mis à 'faux') avec la méthode *note clear(): 3288.  La méthode
     *note wait(): 3289. se bloque jusqu'à ce que l'indicateur soit
     activé.  L'indicateur est initialement désactivé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Exemple :

          async def waiter(event):
              print('waiting for it ...')
              await event.wait()
              print('... got it!')

          async def main():
              # Create an Event object.
              event = asyncio.Event()

              # Spawn a Task to wait until 'event' is set.
              waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))

              # Sleep for 1 second and set the event.
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              event.set()

              # Wait until the waiter task is finished.
              await waiter_task

          asyncio.run(main())

      -- Méthode: async wait ()

          Attend que l'évènement soit activé.

          Si l'événement est activé ('vrai'), renvoie ‘True’
          immédiatement.  Sinon bloque jusqu'à ce qu'une autre tâche
          appelle *note set(): 3287.

      -- Méthode: set ()

          Active l'événement.

          Toutes les tâches en attente de l'événement sont immédiatement
          réveillées.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Efface (désactive) l'événement.

          Les tâches en attente sur *note wait(): 3289. seront désormais
          bloquées jusqu'à ce que la méthode *note set(): 3287. soit à
          nouveau appelée.

      -- Méthode: is_set ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'évènement est actif.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition,  Next: Sémaphore,  Prev: Événement Event,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<2>

5.19.1.33 Condition
...................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Condition (lock=None)

     Objet Condition.  Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs
     fils d'exécution.

     Une primitive de condition asynchrone peut être utilisée par une
     tâche pour attendre qu'un événement se produise, puis obtenir un
     accès exclusif à une ressource partagée.

     Essentiellement, un objet 'Condition' combine les fonctionnalités
     d'un *note Event: a62. et d'un *note Lock: a61.  Il est possible
     que plusieurs objets 'Condition' partagent un seul verrou, ce qui
     permet de coordonner l'accès exclusif à une ressource partagée
     entre différentes tâches intéressées par des états particuliers de
     cette ressource partagée.

     L'argument optionnel 'lock' doit être un objet *note Lock: a61. ou
     ‘None’.  Dans ce dernier cas, un nouvel objet 'Lock' est créé
     automatiquement.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     La meilleure façon d'utiliser une 'Condition' est une instruction
     *note async with: 5c1.

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          async with cond:
              await cond.wait()

     ce qui équivaut à :

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          await cond.acquire()
          try:
              await cond.wait()
          finally:
              cond.release()

      -- Méthode: async acquire ()

          Verrouille le verrou sous-jacent.

          Cette méthode attend que le verrou sous-jacent soit
          déverrouillé, le verrouille et renvoie ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: notify (n=1)

          Wake up 'n' tasks (1 by default) waiting on this condition.
          If fewer than 'n' tasks are waiting they are all awakened.

          Le verrou doit être verrouillé avant que cette méthode ne soit
          appelée et libéré peu de temps après.  S'il est appelé avec un
          verrou déverrouillé, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. est
          levée.

      -- Méthode: locked ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le verrou sous-jacent est verrouillé.

      -- Méthode: notify_all ()

          Réveille toutes les tâches en attente sur cette condition.

          Cette méthode agit comme *note notify(): 1635, mais réveille
          toutes les tâches en attente.

          Le verrou doit être verrouillé avant que cette méthode ne soit
          appelée et libéré peu de temps après.  S'il est appelé avec un
          verrou déverrouillé, une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193. est
          levée.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Libère le verrou sous-jacent.

          Lorsqu'elle est invoquée sur un verrou déverrouillé, une *note
          RuntimeError: 193. est levée.

      -- Méthode: async wait ()

          Attend d'être notifié.

          Si la tâche appelante n'a pas verrouillé le verrou lorsque
          cette méthode est appelée, une *note RuntimeError: 193. est
          levée.

          Cette méthode libère le verrou sous-jacent, puis se bloque
          jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit réveillée par un appel *note notify():
          1635. ou *note notify_all(): 328f.  Une fois réveillée, la
          'Condition' verrouille à nouveau son verrou et cette méthode
          renvoie ‘True’.

          Note that a task 'may' return from this call spuriously, which
          is why the caller should always re-check the state and be
          prepared to *note wait(): 1660. again.  For this reason, you
          may prefer to use *note wait_for(): 3291. instead.

      -- Méthode: async wait_for (predicate)

          Attend jusqu'à ce qu'un prédicat devienne vrai.

          The predicate must be a callable which result will be
          interpreted as a boolean value.  The method will repeatedly
          *note wait(): 1660. until the predicate evaluates to 'true'.
          The final value is the return value.


File: python.info,  Node: Sémaphore,  Next: Sémaphore capé BoundedSemaphore,  Prev: Condition,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<2>

5.19.1.34 Sémaphore
...................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Semaphore (value=1)

     Objet 'Sémaphore'.  Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs
     fils d'exécution.

     Un sémaphore gère un compteur interne qui est décrémenté à chaque
     appel *note acquire(): 1661. et incrémenté à chaque appel *note
     release(): 3293.  Le compteur ne peut jamais descendre en dessous
     de zéro ; quand *note acquire(): 1661. trouve qu'il est égal à
     zéro, il se bloque, en attendant qu'une tâche appelle *note
     release(): 3293.

     L'argument optionnel 'value' donne la valeur initiale du compteur
     interne (‘1’ par défaut).  Si la valeur donnée est inférieure à ‘0’
     une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     La meilleure façon d'utiliser un sémaphore est une instruction
     *note async with: 5c1.

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          async with sem:
              # work with shared resource

     ce qui équivaut à :

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          await sem.acquire()
          try:
              # work with shared resource
          finally:
              sem.release()

      -- Méthode: async acquire ()

          Acquiert un sémaphore.

          Si le compteur interne est supérieur à zéro, le décrémente
          d'une unité et renvoie ‘True’ immédiatement.  Si c'est zéro,
          attend que *note release(): 3293. soit appelée et renvoie
          ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: locked ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le sémaphore ne peut pas être acquis
          immédiatement.

      -- Méthode: release ()

          Relâche un sémaphore, incrémentant le compteur interne d'une
          unité.  Peut réveiller une tâche en attente d'acquisition du
          sémaphore.

          Contrairement à *note BoundedSemaphore: a65, *note Semaphore:
          a64. permet de faire plus d'appels ‘release()’ que d'appels
          ‘acquire()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sémaphore capé BoundedSemaphore,  Next: Barrière Barrier,  Prev: Sémaphore,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<2>

5.19.1.35 Sémaphore capé ('BoundedSemaphore')
.............................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     Objet sémaphore capé.  Non compatible avec les programmes à
     plusieurs fils d'exécution.

     'Bounded Semaphore' est une version de *note Semaphore: a64. qui
     lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. dans *note release(): 3293. s'il
     augmente le compteur interne au-dessus de la 'value' initiale.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrière Barrier,  Prev: Sémaphore capé BoundedSemaphore,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<2>

5.19.1.36 Barrière ('Barrier')
..............................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Barrier (parties)

     Objet barrière.  Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs
     fils d'exécution.

     Une barrière est une simple primitive de synchronisation qui permet
     de bloquer jusqu'à ce que 'parties' tâches l'attendent.  Les tâches
     attendent sur la méthode *note wait(): 3297. et sont bloquées
     jusqu'à ce que le nombre spécifié de tâches attendent sur *note
     wait(): 3297.  À ce stade, toutes les tâches en attente se
     débloquent simultanément.

     *note async with: 5c1. peut être utilisé comme alternative à
     l'attente sur *note wait(): 3297.

     La barrière peut être réutilisée un nombre illimité de fois.
     Exemple :

          async def example_barrier():
             # barrier with 3 parties
             b = asyncio.Barrier(3)

             # create 2 new waiting tasks
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

             # The third .wait() call passes the barrier
             await b.wait()
             print(b)
             print("barrier passed")

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

          asyncio.run(example_barrier())

     Le résultat de cet exemple est :

          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:2/3]>
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [draining, waiters:0/3]>
          barrier passed
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:0/3]>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: async wait ()

          Passe la barrière.  Lorsque toutes les tâches bloquées à la
          barrière ont appelé cette fonction, elles sont toutes
          débloquées simultanément.

          Lorsqu'une tâche en attente ou bloquée à la barrière est
          annulée, cette tâche sort de la barrière qui reste dans le
          même état.  Si la barrière est en cours de « remplissage », le
          nombre de tâche en attente diminue de 1.

          La valeur de retour est un entier compris entre 0 et
          ‘parties-1’, différent pour chaque tâche.  Cela peut être
          utilisé pour sélectionner une tâche qui fera du ménage, par
          exemple :

               ...
               async with barrier as position:
                  if position == 0:
                     # Only one task prints this
                     print('End of *draining phase*')

          Cette méthode peut lever une exception *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 5ef. si la barrière est brisée ou
          réinitialisée alors qu'une tâche est en attente.  Cela peut
          lever une *note CancelledError: 1b6. si une tâche est annulée.

      -- Méthode: async reset ()

          Ramène la barrière à l'état vide par défaut.  Toutes les
          tâches en attente reçoivent l'exception *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 5ef.

          Si une barrière est brisée, il peut être préférable de la
          quitter et d'en créer une nouvelle.

      -- Méthode: async abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 3297. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 5ef.  Use this for example if one of the
          tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite waiting tasks.

      -- Attribut: parties

          Le nombre de tâches nécessaires pour franchir la barrière.

      -- Attribut: n_waiting

          Le nombre de tâches actuellement en attente à la barrière
          pendant le remplissage.

      -- Attribut: broken

          Booléen qui vaut ‘True’ si la barrière est rompue.

 -- Exception: asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

     Cette exception, une sous-classe de *note RuntimeError: 193, est
     déclenchée lorsque l'objet *note Barrier: 5ee. est réinitialisé ou
     cassé.

__________________________________________________________________

Modifié dans la version 3.9: l'acquisition d'un verrou en utilisant
‘wait lock’ ou ‘yield from lock’ ou *note with: 5be. (‘with await lock’,
‘with (yield from lock)’) a été supprimée.  Utilisez ‘async with lock’ à
la place.


File: python.info,  Node: Sous-processus,  Next: Files d'attente queues,  Prev: Primitives de synchronisation<2>,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.37 Sous-processus
........................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

Cette section décrit des API de haut niveau de 'asyncio' pour créer et
gérer des sous-processus via ‘async’/‘await’.  Voici un exemple de
comment 'asyncio' peut lancer une commande shell et obtenir son
résultat :

     import asyncio

     async def run(cmd):
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
             cmd,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
             stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()

         print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
         if stdout:
             print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
         if stderr:
             print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')

     asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))

affiche :

     ['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
     [stderr]
     ls: /zzz: No such file or directory

Puisque toutes les fonctions à sous-processus d''asyncio' sont
synchrones et qu''asyncio' fournit de nombreux outils pour travailler
avec de telles fonctions, il est facile d'exécuter et de surveiller de
nombreux processus en parallèle.  Il est en effet trivial de modifier
l'exemple ci-dessus pour exécuter plusieurs commandes simultanément :

     async def main():
         await asyncio.gather(
             run('ls /zzz'),
             run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))

     asyncio.run(main())

Voir également la section *note Exemples: 32a1.

* Menu:

* Créer des sous-processus::
* Constantes: Constantes<7>.
* Interagir avec les sous-processus::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py


File: python.info,  Node: Créer des sous-processus,  Next: Constantes<7>,  Up: Sous-processus

5.19.1.38 Créer des sous-processus
..................................

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.create_subprocess_exec (program, *args,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Crée un sous-processus.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     1882. wrappers for *note stdout: 32a3. and *note stderr: 32a4. (if
     *note subprocess.PIPE: b77. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Renvoie une instance de *note Process: 32a5.

     Voir la documentation de *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6. pour
     d'autres paramètres.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

 -- Fonction: async asyncio.create_subprocess_shell (cmd, stdin=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Exécute la commande 'cmd' dans un 'shell'.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     1882. wrappers for *note stdout: 32a3. and *note stderr: 32a4. (if
     *note subprocess.PIPE: b77. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Renvoie une instance de *note Process: 32a5.

     Voir la documentation de *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7. pour
     d'autres paramètres.

          Important: Il est de la responsabilité de l'application de
          s'assurer que tous les espaces et les caractères spéciaux sont
          correctement mis entre guillemets pour éviter les
          vulnérabilités de type injection de code(1).  La fonction
          *note shlex.quote(): 27a. peut être utilisée pour
          l’échappement des espaces et caractères spéciaux dans les
          chaînes utilisées pour construire des commandes shell.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Note: les sous-processus sont disponibles pour Windows si un *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. est utilisé.  Voir *note Support des
     sous-processus sous Windows: 32a8. pour plus de précisions.

Voir aussi
..........

'asyncio' propose aussi les API de « bas niveau » suivantes pour
travailler avec les sous-processus : *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6,
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
32a9, *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 32aa, ainsi que les *note
Transports entre sous-processus: 32ab. et *note Protocoles liés aux
sous-processus: 32ac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<7>,  Next: Interagir avec les sous-processus,  Prev: Créer des sous-processus,  Up: Sous-processus

5.19.1.39 Constantes
....................

 -- Données: asyncio.subprocess.PIPE

     Peut être passé aux paramètres 'stdin', 'stdout' ou 'stderr'.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdin' argument, the *note Process.stdin:
     32af. attribute will point to a *note StreamWriter: 16ba. instance.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdout' or 'stderr' arguments, the *note
     Process.stdout: 32a3. and *note Process.stderr: 32a4. attributes
     will point to *note StreamReader: 1882. instances.

 -- Données: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT

     Une valeur spéciale qui peut être passée au paramètre 'stderr' et
     qui indique que la sortie d'erreur doit être redirigée vers la
     sortie standard.

 -- Données: asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL

     Une valeur spéciale qui peut être passée à l'argument 'stdin',
     'stdout' ou 'stderr' des fonctions créant des processus.  Elle
     implique l'utilisation du fichier *note os.devnull: 19f1. pour le
     flux correspondant du processus.


File: python.info,  Node: Interagir avec les sous-processus,  Prev: Constantes<7>,  Up: Sous-processus

5.19.1.40 Interagir avec les sous-processus
...........................................

Les fonctions *note create_subprocess_exec(): a67. et *note
create_subprocess_shell(): a68. renvoient des instances de la classe
'Process'.  'Process' est une enveloppe de haut niveau qui permet de
communiquer avec les sous-processus et de surveiller leur achèvement.

 -- Classe: asyncio.subprocess.Process

     An object that wraps OS processes created by the *note
     create_subprocess_exec(): a67. and *note create_subprocess_shell():
     a68. functions.

     Cette classe est conçue pour avoir une API similaire à la classe
     *note subprocess.Popen: 197, mais il existe quelques différences
     notables :

        * contrairement à 'Popen', les instances Process n'ont pas
          d'équivalent à la méthode *note poll(): 31c2. ;

        * les méthodes *note communicate(): 16ea. et *note wait(): 32b3.
          n'ont pas de paramètre 'timeout' : utilisez la fonction *note
          wait_for(): 5ec. ;

        * *note asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait(): 32b3. est asynchrone,
          tandis que la méthode *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): cd4. est
          implémentée comme une boucle bloquante ;

        * le paramètre 'universal_newlines' n'est pas pris en charge.

     Cette classe n'est *note pas conçue pour un contexte multi-fils:
     324e.

     Voir aussi la section *note sous-processus et fils d'exécution:
     32b4.

      -- Méthode: async wait ()

          Attend que le sous processus s'arrête.

          Définit et renvoie l'attribut *note returncode: 32b5.

               Note: cette méthode peut générer un interblocage quand
               ‘stdout=PIPE’ ou ‘stderr=PIPE’ est utilisé et que le
               sous-processus génère tellement de sorties qu'il se
               bloque, dans l'attente que le tampon du tube côté OS
               accepte des données supplémentaires.  Pour éviter cette
               situation, choisissez la méthode *note communicate():
               16ea. quand vous utilisez des tubes.

      -- Méthode: async communicate (input=None)

          Interagit avec le processus :

            1. envoie des données sur le 'stdin' (si 'input' n'est pas
               ‘None’) ;

            2. closes 'stdin';

            3. lit les données sur 'stdout' et 'stderr', jusqu'à ce que
               le EOF soit atteint ;

            4. attend que le processus s'arrête.

          Le paramètre optionnel 'input' (objet de type *note bytes:
          1bd.) représente les données transmises au sous-processus.

          Renvoie un 'n'-uplet ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

          Si l'une des exceptions *note BrokenPipeError: 1047. ou *note
          ConnectionResetError: 104a. est levée lors de l'écriture de
          'input' dans 'stdin', l'exception est ignorée.  Cette
          condition se produit lorsque le processus se termine avant que
          toutes les données ne soient écrites dans 'stdin'.

          Si vous souhaitez envoyer des données au processus 'stdin', le
          processus doit être créé avec ‘stdin=PIPE’.  De même, pour
          obtenir autre chose que ‘None’ dans le 'n'-uplet résultat, le
          processus doit être créé avec les arguments ‘stdout=PIPE’
          et/ou ‘stderr=PIPE’.

          Notez que les données lues sont mises en cache en mémoire,
          donc n'utilisez pas cette méthode si la taille des données est
          importante voire illimitée.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: 'stdin' gets closed when
          ‘input=None’ too.

      -- Méthode: send_signal (signal)

          Envoie le signal 'signal' au sous-processus.

               Note: On Windows, *note SIGTERM: 1398. is an alias for
               *note terminate(): 32b6.  ‘CTRL_C_EVENT’ and
               ‘CTRL_BREAK_EVENT’ can be sent to processes started with
               a 'creationflags' parameter which includes
               ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

      -- Méthode: terminate ()

          Arrête le sous-processus.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGTERM: 1398. to the
          child process.

          On Windows the Win32 API function ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          called to stop the child process.

      -- Méthode: kill ()

          Arrête le sous-processus.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGKILL: 32b8. to the
          child process.

          Sous Windows, cette méthode est un alias pour *note
          terminate(): 32b6.

      -- Attribut: stdin

          Standard input stream (*note StreamWriter: 16ba.) or ‘None’ if
          the process was created with ‘stdin=None’.

      -- Attribut: stdout

          Standard output stream (*note StreamReader: 1882.) or ‘None’
          if the process was created with ‘stdout=None’.

      -- Attribut: stderr

          Standard error stream (*note StreamReader: 1882.) or ‘None’ if
          the process was created with ‘stderr=None’.

          Avertissement: utilisez la méthode *note communicate(): 16ea.
          plutôt que *note process.stdin.write(): 32af, *note wait
          process.stdout.read(): 32a3. ou *note wait
          process.stderr.read(): 32a4.  Cela évite les interblocages dus
          aux flux qui interrompent la lecture ou l'écriture et bloquent
          le processus enfant.

      -- Attribut: pid

          Numéro d'identification du processus (PID, pour 'Process
          Identification Number' en anglais).

          Note that for processes created by the *note
          create_subprocess_shell(): a68. function, this attribute is
          the PID of the spawned shell.

      -- Attribut: returncode

          Code de retour du processus quand il se termine.

          Une valeur ‘None’ indique que le processus n'est pas encore
          terminé.

          Une valeur négative ‘-N’ indique que le sous-processus a été
          terminé par le signal ‘N’ (seulement sur les systèmes
          'POSIX').

* Menu:

* Sous-processus et fils d'exécution::
* Exemples: Exemples<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Sous-processus et fils d'exécution,  Next: Exemples<16>,  Up: Interagir avec les sous-processus

5.19.1.41 Sous-processus et fils d'exécution
............................................

La boucle d'événement asynchrone standard prend en charge l'exécution de
sous-processus à partir de différents fils d'exécution par défaut.

Sous Windows, les sous-processus sont fournis par *note
ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. uniquement (par défaut), *note
SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. ne prend pas en charge les sous-processus.

Sous UNIX, les 'observateurs d'enfants (child watchers)' sont utilisés
pour l'attente de fin de sous-processus, voir *note Observateurs de
processus: 32bb. pour plus d'informations.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: UNIX est passé à l'utilisation de *note
ThreadedChildWatcher: 467. pour générer des sous-processus à partir de
différents threads sans aucune limitation.

Instancier un sous-processus avec un observateur enfant actuel 'inactif'
lève l'exception *note RuntimeError: 193.

Notez que ces implémentations alternatives de la boucle d'événements
peuvent comporter leurs propres limitations.  Veuillez vous référer à
leur documentation.

Voir aussi
..........

la section *note Exécution concurrente et multi-fils d'exécution: 324e.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<16>,  Prev: Sous-processus et fils d'exécution,  Up: Interagir avec les sous-processus

5.19.1.42 Exemples
..................

Un exemple utilisant la classe *note Process: 32a5. pour contrôler un
sous-processus et la classe *note StreamReader: 1882. pour lire sa
sortie standard.  Le sous-processus est créé par la fonction *note
create_subprocess_exec(): a67. :

     import asyncio
     import sys

     async def get_date():
         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'

         # Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
         # into a pipe.
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         # Read one line of output.
         data = await proc.stdout.readline()
         line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

         # Wait for the subprocess exit.
         await proc.wait()
         return line

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

Voir également *note le même exemple: 32bd, écrit en utilisant des API
de bas niveau.


File: python.info,  Node: Files d'attente queues,  Next: Exceptions<13>,  Prev: Sous-processus,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.43 Files d'attente ('queues')
....................................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncore.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les files d'attente 'asyncio' sont conçues pour être similaires aux
classes du module *note queue: b5.  Bien que les files d'attente
'asyncio' ne soient pas compatibles avec les programmes à multiples fils
d'exécution, elles sont conçues pour être utilisées spécifiquement dans
le code 'async/await'.

Notez que les méthodes des files d'attente 'asyncio' n'ont pas de
paramètre 'timeout' ; utilisez la fonction *note asyncio.wait_for():
5ec. pour effectuer des opérations de file d'attente avec un délai
d'attente.

Voir également la section *note Exemples: 32c0. ci-dessous.

* Menu:

* File d'attente (queue): File d'attente queue.
* File avec priorité::
* Pile (LIFO): Pile LIFO.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<12>.
* Exemples: Exemples<17>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncore.py


File: python.info,  Node: File d'attente queue,  Next: File avec priorité,  Up: Files d'attente queues

5.19.1.44 File d'attente ('queue')
..................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Queue (maxsize=0)

     File d'attente premier entré, premier sorti (FIFO pour 'fist in,
     first out').

     Si 'maxsize' est inférieur ou égal à zéro, la taille de la file
     d'attente est infinie.  Si c'est un entier supérieur à ‘0’, alors
     ‘await put()’ se bloque lorsque la file d'attente atteint 'maxsize'
     jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit supprimé par *note get(): 32c2.

     Contrairement à la bibliothèque standard multi-fils *note queue:
     b5, la taille de la file d'attente est toujours connue et peut être
     renvoyée en appelant la méthode *note qsize(): 32c3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre 'loop'.

     Cette classe n'est *note pas compatible avec les fils d'exécution
     multiples: 324e.

      -- Attribut: maxsize

          Nombre d'éléments autorisés dans la file d'attente.

      -- Méthode: empty ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la file d'attente est vide, ‘False’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: full ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ s'il y a *note maxsize: 32c4. éléments dans la
          file d'attente.

          If the queue was initialized with ‘maxsize=0’ (the default),
          then *note full(): 32c6. never returns ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: async get ()

          Supprime et renvoie un élément de la file d'attente.  Si la
          file d'attente est vide, attend qu'un élément soit disponible.

          Raises *note QueueShutDown: 1af. if the queue has been shut
          down and is empty, or if the queue has been shut down
          immediately.

      -- Méthode: get_nowait ()

          Renvoie un élément s'il y en a un immédiatement disponible,
          sinon lève *note QueueEmpty: 32c8.

      -- Méthode: async join ()

          Bloque jusqu'à ce que tous les éléments de la file d'attente
          aient été récupérés et traités.

          Le nombre de tâches inachevées augmente chaque fois qu'un
          élément est ajouté à la file.  Ce nombre diminue chaque fois
          qu'un fil d'exécution consommateur appelle *note task_done():
          db8. pour indiquer que l'élément a été extrait et que tout le
          travail à effectuer dessus est terminé.  Lorsque le nombre de
          tâches non terminées devient nul, *note join(): db7. débloque.

      -- Méthode: async put (item)

          Met un élément dans la file d'attente.  Si la file d'attente
          est pleine, attend qu'un emplacement libre soit disponible
          avant d'ajouter l'élément.

          Raises *note QueueShutDown: 1af. if the queue has been shut
          down.

      -- Méthode: put_nowait (item)

          Ajoute un élément dans la file d'attente sans bloquer.

          Si aucun emplacement libre n'est immédiatement disponible,
          lève *note QueueFull: 32cb.

      -- Méthode: qsize ()

          Renvoie le nombre d'éléments dans la file d'attente.

      -- Méthode: shutdown (immediate=False)

          Shut down the queue, making *note get(): 32c2. and *note
          put(): 32c9. raise *note QueueShutDown: 1af.

          By default, *note get(): 32c2. on a shut down queue will only
          raise once the queue is empty.  Set 'immediate' to true to
          make *note get(): 32c2. raise immediately instead.

          All blocked callers of *note put(): 32c9. and *note get():
          32c2. will be unblocked.  If 'immediate' is true, a task will
          be marked as done for each remaining item in the queue, which
          may unblock callers of *note join(): db7.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: task_done ()

          Indicate that a formerly enqueued work item is complete.

          Used by queue consumers.  For each *note get(): 32c2. used to
          fetch a work item, a subsequent call to *note task_done():
          db8. tells the queue that the processing on the work item is
          complete.

          Si un *note join(): db7. est actuellement bloquant, on
          reprendra lorsque tous les éléments auront été traités (ce qui
          signifie qu'un appel à *note task_done(): db8. a été effectué
          pour chaque élément qui a été ‘put()’ dans la file).

          ‘shutdown(immediate=True)’ calls *note task_done(): db8. for
          each remaining item in the queue.

          Lève une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. si elle est appelée
          plus de fois qu'il n'y avait d'éléments dans la file.


File: python.info,  Node: File avec priorité,  Next: Pile LIFO,  Prev: File d'attente queue,  Up: Files d'attente queues

5.19.1.45 File avec priorité
............................

 -- Classe: asyncio.PriorityQueue

     Une variante de *note Queue: a66. ; récupère les entrées par ordre
     de priorité (la plus basse en premier).

     Les entrées sont généralement des 'n'-uplets de la forme
     ‘(priority_number, data)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pile LIFO,  Next: Exceptions<12>,  Prev: File avec priorité,  Up: Files d'attente queues

5.19.1.46 Pile (LIFO)
.....................

 -- Classe: asyncio.LifoQueue

     Une variante de *note Queue: a66. qui récupère en premier les
     entrées les plus récemment ajoutées (dernier entré, premier sorti).


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<12>,  Next: Exemples<17>,  Prev: Pile LIFO,  Up: Files d'attente queues

5.19.1.47 Exceptions
....................

 -- Exception: asyncio.QueueEmpty

     Cette exception est levée lorsque la méthode *note get_nowait():
     32c7. est appelée sur une file d'attente vide.

 -- Exception: asyncio.QueueFull

     Exception levée lorsque la méthode *note put_nowait(): 32ca. est
     appelée sur une file d'attente qui a atteint sa 'maxsize'.

 -- Exception: asyncio.QueueShutDown

     Exception raised when *note put(): 32c9. or *note get(): 32c2. is
     called on a queue which has been shut down.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<17>,  Prev: Exceptions<12>,  Up: Files d'attente queues

5.19.1.48 Exemples
..................

Les files d'attente peuvent être utilisées pour répartir la charge de
travail entre plusieurs tâches simultanées :

     import asyncio
     import random
     import time


     async def worker(name, queue):
         while True:
             # Get a "work item" out of the queue.
             sleep_for = await queue.get()

             # Sleep for the "sleep_for" seconds.
             await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)

             # Notify the queue that the "work item" has been processed.
             queue.task_done()

             print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')


     async def main():
         # Create a queue that we will use to store our "workload".
         queue = asyncio.Queue()

         # Generate random timings and put them into the queue.
         total_sleep_time = 0
         for _ in range(20):
             sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
             total_sleep_time += sleep_for
             queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)

         # Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.
         tasks = []
         for i in range(3):
             task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
             tasks.append(task)

         # Wait until the queue is fully processed.
         started_at = time.monotonic()
         await queue.join()
         total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at

         # Cancel our worker tasks.
         for task in tasks:
             task.cancel()
         # Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.
         await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

         print('====')
         print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
         print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<13>,  Next: Boucle d'évènements,  Prev: Files d'attente queues,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.49 Exceptions
....................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Exception: asyncio.TimeoutError

     Alias obsolète de *note TimeoutError: 821, levée lorsque
     l'opération a dépassé le délai donné.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: cette classe est devenue un alias de
     *note TimeoutError: 821.

 -- Exception: asyncio.CancelledError

     L'opération a été annulée.

     Cette exception peut être interceptée pour effectuer des opérations
     personnalisées lorsque des tâches asynchrones sont annulées.  Dans
     presque toutes les situations, l'exception doit être relancée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note CancelledError: 1b6. is now a
     subclass of *note BaseException: 5a7. rather than *note Exception:
     9c9.

 -- Exception: asyncio.InvalidStateError

     État interne non valide de *note Task: 4c5. ou *note Future: bbd.

     Peut être levée dans des situations telles que la définition d'une
     valeur de résultat pour un objet 'Future' qui a déjà une valeur de
     résultat définie.

 -- Exception: asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError

     L'appel système 'sendfile' n'est pas disponible pour le connecteur
     ou le type de fichier donné.

     Sous-classe de *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Exception: asyncio.IncompleteReadError

     L'opération de lecture demandée s'est terminée avant d'être
     complète.

     Levée par les API de *note flux asyncio: 3220.

     Cette exception est une sous-classe de *note EOFError: 12b9.

      -- Attribut: expected

          Nombre total (*note int: 254.) d'octets attendus.

      -- Attribut: partial

          Chaîne de *note bytes: 1bd. lue avant que la fin du flux ne
          soit atteinte.

 -- Exception: asyncio.LimitOverrunError

     La limite de taille de tampon a été atteinte lors de la recherche
     d'un séparateur.

     Levée par les API *note flux asyncio: 3220.

      -- Attribut: consumed

          Nombre total d'octets à consommer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py


File: python.info,  Node: Boucle d'évènements,  Next: Futures,  Prev: Exceptions<13>,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.50 Boucle d'évènements
.............................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/events.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

Préface
.......

La boucle d'événements est au cœur de chaque application 'asyncio'.  Les
boucles d'événements exécutent des tâches et des rappels asynchrones,
effectuent des opérations d'entrée-sorite réseau et exécutent des
sous-processus.

Les développeurs d'applications doivent généralement utiliser les
fonctions 'asyncio' de haut niveau, telles que *note asyncio.run(): 468,
et ne doivent que rarement référencer l'objet boucle ou appeler ses
méthodes.  Cette section est principalement destinée aux auteurs de
code, de bibliothèques et de cadriciels de bas niveau, qui ont besoin
d'un contrôle plus précis sur le comportement de la boucle d'événements.

Obtention d'une boucle d'évènements
...................................

Les fonctions de bas niveau suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour
obtenir, définir ou créer une boucle d'événements :

 -- Fonction: asyncio.get_running_loop ()

     Renvoie la boucle d'événements en cours d'exécution dans le fil
     actuel du système d'exploitation.

     Lève une *note RuntimeError: 193. s'il n'y a pas de boucle
     d'événements en cours d'exécution.

     Cette fonction ne peut être appelée qu'à partir d'une coroutine ou
     d'une fonction de rappel.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.get_event_loop ()

     Arrête l'exécution de la boucle d'évènements.

     Lorsqu'elle est appelée depuis une coroutine ou une fonction de
     rappel (par exemple planifiée avec 'call_soon' ou une API
     similaire), cette fonction renvoie toujours la boucle d'événement
     en cours.

     S'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événement en cours d'exécution, la
     fonction renvoie le résultat de l'appel
     ‘get_event_loop_policy().get_event_loop()’.

     Étant donné que cette fonction a un comportement plutôt complexe
     (en particulier lorsque des politiques de boucle d'événements
     personnalisées sont utilisées), l'utilisation de la fonction *note
     get_running_loop(): afb. est préférable à *note get_event_loop():
     2bf. dans les coroutines et les fonctions de rappel.

     Comme indiqué ci-dessus, envisagez d'utiliser la fonction de haut
     niveau *note asyncio.run(): 468, au lieu d'utiliser ces fonctions
     de bas niveau pour créer et fermer manuellement une boucle
     d'événements.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Deprecation warning is emitted if
     there is no current event loop.  In some future Python release this
     will become an error.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.set_event_loop (loop)

     Définit 'loop' comme boucle d'événements actuelle pour le fil
     d'exécution actuel du système d'exploitation.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.new_event_loop ()

     Crée et renvoie un nouvel objet de boucle d'événements.

Notez que le comportement des fonctions *note get_event_loop(): 2bf,
*note set_event_loop(): 1786. et *note new_event_loop(): 322d. peut être
modifié en *note définissant une politique de boucle d'événement
personnalisée: 32da.

Sommaire
........

Cette page de documentation contient les sections suivantes :

   * la section *note Event Loop Methods: 32db. est la documentation de
     référence des API de boucle d'événements ;

   * la section *note Callback Handles: 32dc. documente les instances
     *note Handle: 1a61. et *note TimerHandle: 1729. qui sont renvoyées
     par les méthodes de planification telles que *note
     loop.call_soon(): af4. et *note loop.call_later(): af6. ;

   * la section *note Server Objects: 32dd. documente les types renvoyés
     par les méthodes de boucle d'événements comme *note
     loop.create_server(): b03. ;

   * la section *note Event Loop Implementations: 32de. documente les
     classes *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. et *note ProactorEventLoop:
     5f6. ;

   * la section *note Exemples: 32df. montre comment travailler avec
     certaines API de boucle d'événements.

* Menu:

* Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements::
* Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs::
* Objets Serveur::
* Implémentations de boucle d'évènements::
* Exemples: Exemples<18>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements,  Next: Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs,  Up: Boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.51 Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements
............................................

Les boucles d'événements ont des API 'de bas niveau' pour les éléments
suivants :

* Menu:

* Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements::
* Planification des fonctions de rappel::
* Planification des rappels différés::
* Création de Futures et des tâches::
* Création de connexions::
* Création de serveurs::
* Transfert de fichiers::
* Passage du flux en TLS::
* Surveillance de descripteur de fichier::
* Travail direct avec des objets socket::
* DNS::
* Travail avec des tubes (pipes): Travail avec des tubes pipes.
* Signaux Unix::
* Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus::
* API de gestion d'erreur::
* Activation du mode débogage::
* Exécution de sous-processus::


File: python.info,  Node: Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements,  Next: Planification des fonctions de rappel,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.52 Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements
.....................................................

 -- Méthode: loop.run_until_complete (future)

     Lance la boucle jusqu'à ce que 'future' (une instance de *note
     Future: bbd.) soit terminée.

     Si l'argument est un objet *note coroutine: 321f, il est
     implicitement programmé pour s'exécuter en tant que *note
     asyncio.Task: 4c5.

     Renvoie le résultat du 'Future' ou lève son exception.

 -- Méthode: loop.run_forever ()

     Exécute la boucle d'événement jusqu'à ce que *note stop(): c6c.
     soit appelée.

     If *note stop(): c6c. is called before *note run_forever(): 32e2.
     is called, the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout
     of zero, run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and
     those that were already scheduled), and then exit.

     Si *note stop(): c6c. est appelée pendant que *note run_forever():
     32e2. est en cours d'exécution, la boucle exécute le lot actuel de
     rappels puis se termine.  Notez que les nouveaux rappels programmés
     par fonctions de rappel ne s'exécuteront pas dans ce cas ; à la
     place, ils s'exécuteront la prochaine fois que *note run_forever():
     32e2. ou *note run_until_complete(): c67. sera appelée.

 -- Méthode: loop.stop ()

     Arrête l'exécution de la boucle d'évènements.

 -- Méthode: loop.is_running ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la boucle d'évènements est démarrée.

 -- Méthode: loop.is_closed ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la boucle d'évènements est arrêtée.

 -- Méthode: loop.close ()

     Arrête la boucle d'évènements.

     La boucle ne doit pas être en cours d'exécution lorsque cette
     fonction est appelée.  Tous les rappels en attente seront ignorés.

     Cette méthode efface toutes les files d'attente et arrête
     l'exécuteur, mais n'attend pas que l'exécuteur se termine.

     Cette méthode est idempotente et irréversible.  Aucune autre
     méthode ne doit être appelée après la fermeture de la boucle
     d'événements.

 -- Méthode: async loop.shutdown_asyncgens ()

     Schedule all currently open *note asynchronous generator: 1ff6.
     objects to close with an *note aclose(): 8c7. call.  After calling
     this method, the event loop will issue a warning if a new
     asynchronous generator is iterated.  This should be used to
     reliably finalize all scheduled asynchronous generators.

     Notez qu'il n'est pas nécessaire d'appeler cette fonction lorsque
     *note asyncio.run(): 468. est utilisée.

     Exemple :

          try:
              loop.run_forever()
          finally:
              loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
              loop.close()

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Méthode: async loop.shutdown_default_executor (timeout=None)

     Planifie la fermeture de l'exécuteur par défaut et attend que tous
     les fils se rejoignent dans le *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.  Une
     fois cette méthode appelée, l'utilisation de l'exécuteur par défaut
     avec *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8. lève une *note
     RuntimeError: 193.

     The 'timeout' parameter specifies the amount of time (in *note
     float: 2ec. seconds) the executor will be given to finish joining.
     With the default, ‘None’, the executor is allowed an unlimited
     amount of time.

     If the 'timeout' is reached, a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. is
     emitted and the default executor is terminated without waiting for
     its threads to finish joining.

          Note: n'appelez pas cette méthode lorsque vous utilisez *note
          asyncio.run(): 468, car cette dernière gère automatiquement
          l'arrêt de l'exécuteur par défaut.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'timeout' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Planification des fonctions de rappel,  Next: Planification des rappels différés,  Prev: Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.53 Planification des fonctions de rappel
...............................................

 -- Méthode: loop.call_soon (callback, *args, context=None)

     Définit la *note fonction de rappel: 28ca. 'callback' à appeler
     avec les arguments 'args' à la prochaine itération de la boucle
     d'événements.

     Renvoie une instance de *note asyncio.Handle: 1a61, qui pourra être
     utilisée ultérieurement pour annuler le rappel.

     Les fonctions de rappels sont appelées dans l'ordre dans lequel
     elles sont enregistrées.  Chaque fonction de rappel sera appelée
     exactement une fois.

     L'argument facultatif nommé uniquement 'context' spécifie un *note
     contextvars.Context: 1563. personnalisé pour le 'callback' à
     exécuter.  Les rappels utilisent le contexte actuel lorsqu'aucun
     'context' n'est fourni.

     Contrairement à *note call_soon_threadsafe(): af5, cette méthode
     n'est pas compatible avec les programmes à fils d'exécution
     multiples.

 -- Méthode: loop.call_soon_threadsafe (callback, *args, context=None)

     Une variante compatible avec les programmes à fils d'exécution
     multiples de *note call_soon(): af4.  Lors de la planification de
     rappels à partir d'un autre fil d'exécution, cette fonction 'doit'
     être utilisée, puisque *note call_soon(): af4. n'est pas
     thread-safe.

     This function is safe to be called from a reentrant context or
     signal handler, however, it is not safe or fruitful to use the
     returned handle in such contexts.

     Lève *note RuntimeError: 193. si elle est appelée sur une boucle
     qui a été fermée.  Cela peut se produire sur un fil secondaire
     lorsque l'application principale se ferme.

     Voir la section *note exécution concurrente et multi-fils
     d'exécution: 324e. de la documentation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre nommé uniquement
     'context' a été ajouté.  Voir PEP 567(1) pour plus de détails.

     Note: la plupart des fonctions d'ordonnancement *note asyncio: a.
     n'autorisent pas le passage d'arguments nommés.  Pour le faire,
     utilisez *note functools.partial(): 40a.

          # will schedule "print("Hello", flush=True)"
          loop.call_soon(
              functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))

     L'utilisation d'objets partiels est généralement plus pratique que
     l'utilisation de lambdas, car 'asyncio' peut mieux rendre les
     objets partiels dans les messages de débogage et d'erreur.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Planification des rappels différés,  Next: Création de Futures et des tâches,  Prev: Planification des fonctions de rappel,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.54 Planification des rappels différés
............................................

La boucle d'événements fournit des mécanismes pour programmer les
fonctions de rappel à appeler à un moment donné dans le futur.  La
boucle d'événements utilise des horloges monotones pour suivre le temps.

 -- Méthode: loop.call_later (delay, callback, *args, context=None)

     Planifie le rappel 'callback' à appeler après 'delay' secondes
     (peut être un entier ou un flottant).

     Une instance de *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1729. est renvoyée et
     peut être utilisée pour annuler le rappel.

     'callback' sera appelé exactement une fois.  Si deux rappels sont
     programmés exactement à la même heure, l'ordre dans lequel ils sont
     appelés n'est pas défini.

     L'argument positionnel facultatif 'args' sera transmis au rappel
     lorsqu'il sera appelé.  Si vous voulez que le rappel soit appelé
     avec des arguments nommés, utilisez *note functools.partial(): 40a.

     Un argument facultatif 'context' nommé uniquement permet de
     spécifier un *note contextvars.Context: 1563. personnalisé pour le
     'callback' à exécuter.  Le contexte actuel est utilisé lorsqu'aucun
     'context' n'est fourni.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre nommé uniquement
     'context' a été ajouté.  Voir PEP 567(1) pour plus de détails.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: dans Python 3.7 et versions
     antérieures avec l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements par
     défaut, le 'delay' ne pouvait pas dépasser un jour.  Cela a été
     corrigé dans Python 3.8.

 -- Méthode: loop.call_at (when, callback, *args, context=None)

     Planifie l'appel de 'callback' à l'horodatage absolu donné 'when'
     (un 'int' ou un 'float'), en utilisant la même référence de temps
     que *note loop.time(): 32e9.

     Le comportement de cette méthode est le même que *note
     call_later(): af6.

     Une instance de *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1729. est renvoyée et
     peut être utilisée pour annuler le rappel.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre nommé uniquement
     'context' a été ajouté.  Voir PEP 567(2) pour plus de détails.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: dans Python 3.7 et versions
     antérieures avec l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements par
     défaut, la différence entre 'when' et l'heure actuelle ne pouvait
     pas dépasser un jour.  Cela a été corrigé dans Python 3.8.

 -- Méthode: loop.time ()

     Renvoie l'heure actuelle, sous la forme d'une valeur *note float:
     2ec, selon l'horloge monotone interne de la boucle d'événements.

     Note: 
     Modifié dans la version 3.8: dans Python 3.7 et les versions
     antérieures, les délais d'expiration (relatif 'delay' ou absolu
     'when') ne doivent pas dépasser un jour.  Cela a été corrigé dans
     Python 3.8.

Voir aussi
..........

la fonction *note asyncio.sleep(): a5f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Création de Futures et des tâches,  Next: Création de connexions,  Prev: Planification des rappels différés,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.55 Création de 'Futures' et des tâches
.............................................

 -- Méthode: loop.create_future ()

     Crée un objet *note asyncio.Future: bbd. attaché à la boucle
     d'événements.

     C'est la méthode préférée pour créer des 'Futures' avec 'asyncio'.
     Cela permet aux boucles d'événements tierces de fournir des
     implémentations alternatives de l'objet 'Future' (avec de
     meilleures performances ou instrumentation).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

 -- Méthode: loop.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     Planifie l'exécution de *note coroutine: 321f. 'coro'.  Renvoie un
     objet *note Task: 4c5.

     Les boucles d'événements tierces peuvent utiliser leur propre
     sous-classe de *note Task: 4c5. pour l'interopérabilité.  Dans ce
     cas, le type de résultat est une sous-classe de *note Task: 4c5.

     Si l'argument 'name' est fourni et non ‘None’, il est défini comme
     le nom de la tâche en utilisant *note Task.set_name(): 9cd.

     Argument facultatif 'context' nommé uniquement qui permet de
     spécifier un *note contextvars.Context: 1563. personnalisé pour la
     'coro' à exécuter.  La copie de contexte actuel est créée
     lorsqu'aucun 'context' n'est fourni.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre ‘name’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ‘context’.

 -- Méthode: loop.set_task_factory (factory)

     Définit une fabrique de tâches qui sera utilisée par *note
     loop.create_task(): 9cc.

     If 'factory' is ‘None’ the default task factory will be set.
     Otherwise, 'factory' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching ‘(loop, coro, **kwargs)’, where 'loop' is a reference to
     the active event loop, and 'coro' is a coroutine object.  The
     callable must pass on all 'kwargs', and return a *note
     asyncio.Task: 4c5.-compatible object.

 -- Méthode: loop.get_task_factory ()

     Renvoie une fabrique de tâches ou ‘None’ si celle par défaut est
     utilisée.


File: python.info,  Node: Création de connexions,  Next: Création de serveurs,  Prev: Création de Futures et des tâches,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.56 Création de connexions
................................

 -- Méthode: async loop.create_connection (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, all_errors=False)

     Ouvre un flux de transport connecté à l'adresse spécifiée par
     'host' et 'port'.

     The socket family can be either *note AF_INET: 17d9. or *note
     AF_INET6: 17da. depending on 'host' (or the 'family' argument, if
     provided).

     The socket type will be *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.

     'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable renvoyant un protocole
     gérant le *note protocole asyncio: 32ec.

     Cette méthode tente d'établir la connexion en arrière-plan.  En cas
     de succès, elle renvoie une paire ‘(transport, protocol)’.

     Le synopsis chronologique de l'opération sous-jacente est le
     suivant :

       1. La connexion est établie et un *note transport asyncio: 32ed.
          est créé pour cela.

       2. 'protocol_factory' est appelée sans arguments et doit renvoyer
          une instance de *note protocol asyncio: 32ec.

       3. L'instance de protocole est couplée au transport en appelant
          sa méthode *note connection_made(): 32ee.

       4. Un 'n'-uplet ‘(transport, protocol)’ est renvoyé en cas de
          succès.

     Le transport créé est un flux bidirectionnel dépendant de
     l'implémentation.

     Autres arguments :

        * 'ssl' : s'il est donné et non faux, un transport SSL/TLS est
          créé (par défaut un transport TCP simple est créé).  Si 'ssl'
          est un objet *note ssl.SSLContext: 291, ce contexte est
          utilisé pour créer le transport ; si 'ssl' est *note True:
          bfd, un contexte par défaut renvoyé par *note
          ssl.create_default_context(): 154. est utilisé.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          *note Considérations sur la sécurité SSL/TLS: 32ef.

        * 'server_hostname' définit ou remplace le nom d'hôte auquel le
          certificat du serveur cible sera comparé.  Ne doit être passé
          que si 'ssl' n'est pas ‘None’.  Par défaut, la valeur de
          l'argument 'host' est utilisée.  Si 'host' est vide, il n'y a
          pas de valeur par défaut et vous devez transmettre une valeur
          pour 'server_hostname'.  Si 'server_hostname' est une chaîne
          vide, la correspondance du nom d'hôte est désactivée (ce qui
          constitue un risque de sécurité sérieux, permettant des
          attaques potentielles de type « homme du milieu »).

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' sont facultatifs et sont la famille
          d'adresse, le protocole et les drapeaux à transmettre à
          'getaddrinfo()' pour la résolution de 'host'.  S'ils sont
          fournis, ils doivent tous être des entiers provenant des
          constantes du module *note socket: cb.

        * 'happy_eyeballs_delay', s'il est fourni, active Happy Eyeballs
          pour cette connexion.  Il doit s'agir d'un nombre à virgule
          flottante représentant le temps d'attente en secondes pour
          qu'une tentative de connexion se termine, avant de démarrer la
          prochaine tentative en parallèle.  Il s'agit du « délai de
          tentative de connexion » tel que défini dans la RFC 8305(1).
          Une valeur par défaut raisonnable recommandée par la RFC est
          ‘0.25’ (250 millisecondes).

        * 'interleave' contrôle la réorganisation des adresses lorsqu'un
          nom d'hôte se résout en plusieurs adresses IP. S'il vaut ‘0’
          ou n'est pas spécifié, aucune réorganisation n'est effectuée
          et les adresses sont essayées dans l'ordre renvoyé par *note
          getaddrinfo(): c04.  Si un entier positif est spécifié, les
          adresses sont entrelacées par famille d'adresses et l'entier
          donné est interprété comme "First Address Family Count" tel
          que défini dans la RFC 8305(2).  La valeur par défaut est ‘0’
          si 'happy_eyeballs_delay' n'est pas spécifié, et ‘1’ si c'est
          le cas.

        * 'sock', s'il est fourni, doit être un objet *note
          socket.socket: d90. existant et déjà connecté à utiliser par
          le transport.  Si 'sock' est donné, aucun des 'host', 'port',
          'family', 'proto', 'flags', 'happy_eyeballs_delay',
          'interleave' et 'local_addr' ne doit être spécifié.

               Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du
               connecteur au transport créé.  Pour fermer le connecteur,
               appelez la méthode *note close(): 32f0. du transport.

        * 'local_addr', s'il est fourni, est un 'n'-uplet ‘(local_host,
          local_port)’ utilisé pour lier le connecteur localement.
          'local_host' et 'local_port' sont recherchés en utilisant
          ‘getaddrinfo()’, de la même manière que 'host' et 'port'.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' est (pour une connexion TLS) le temps
          en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main TLS se termine
          avant d'abandonner la connexion.  ‘60.0’ secondes si ‘None’
          (par défaut).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' est le temps en secondes à attendre que
          l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion.
          ‘30.0’ secondes si ‘None’ (par défaut).

        * 'all_errors' determines what exceptions are raised when a
          connection cannot be created.  By default, only a single
          ‘Exception’ is raised: the first exception if there is only
          one or all errors have same message, or a single ‘OSError’
          with the error messages combined.  When ‘all_errors’ is
          ‘True’, an ‘ExceptionGroup’ will be raised containing all
          exceptions (even if there is only one).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la prise en charge de SSL/TLS
     dans *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The socket option *note
     socket.TCP_NODELAY: 32f1. is set by default for all TCP
     connections.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre 'ssl handshake
     timeout'

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout des paramètres
     'happy_eyeballs_delay' et 'interleave'.

     Algorithme Happy Eyeballs : « succès avec les hôtes à double
     pile ».  Lorsque le chemin et le protocole IPv4 d'un serveur
     fonctionnent, mais que le chemin et le protocole IPv6 du serveur ne
     fonctionnent pas, une application cliente à double pile subit un
     retard de connexion important par rapport à un client IPv4
     uniquement.  Ceci n'est pas souhaitable car cela entraîne une moins
     bonne expérience utilisateur pour le client à double pile.  Ce
     document spécifie les exigences pour les algorithmes qui réduisent
     ce délai visible par l'utilisateur et fournit un algorithme
     correspondant.

     For more information:
     ‘https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6555’

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'ssl shutdown
     timeout'

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: 'all_errors' was added.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     la fonction *note open_connection(): b08. est une API alternative
     de haut niveau.  Elle renvoie une paire de (*note StreamReader:
     1882, *note StreamWriter: 16ba.) qui peut être utilisée directement
     dans le code 'async/wait'.

 -- Méthode: async loop.create_datagram_endpoint (protocol_factory,
          local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, family=0, proto=0,
          flags=0, reuse_port=None, allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)

     Création d'une connexion par datagramme

     The socket family can be either *note AF_INET: 17d9, *note
     AF_INET6: 17da, or *note AF_UNIX: 17db, depending on 'host' (or the
     'family' argument, if provided).

     The socket type will be *note SOCK_DGRAM: 12d2.

     'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable gérant le *note protocole
     asyncio: 32ec.

     Un 'n'-uplet ‘(transport, protocol)’ est renvoyé en cas de succès.

     Autres arguments :

        * 'local_addr', s'il est fourni, est un 'n'-uplet ‘(local_host,
          local_port)’ utilisé pour lier le connecteur localement.  Le
          'local_host' et le 'local_port' sont recherchés en utilisant
          *note getaddrinfo(): c04.

        * 'remote_addr', s'il est fourni, est un 'n'-uplet
          ‘(remote_host, remote_port)’ utilisé pour se connecter à une
          adresse distante.  Le 'remote_host' et le 'remote_port' sont
          recherchés en utilisant *note getaddrinfo(): c04.

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' sont facultatifs et représentent la
          famille d'adresse, le protocole et les drapeaux à transmettre
          à *note getaddrinfo(): c04. pour la résolution 'host'.  S'ils
          sont fournis, ils doivent tous être des entiers provenant des
          constantes du module *note socket: cb.

        * 'reuse_port' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be
          bound to the same port as other existing endpoints are bound
          to, so long as they all set this flag when being created.
          This option is not supported on Windows and some Unixes.  If
          the *note socket.SO_REUSEPORT: 32f1. constant is not defined
          then this capability is unsupported.

        * 'allow_broadcast' indique au noyau d'autoriser ce point de
          terminaison à envoyer des messages à l'adresse de 'broadcast'.

        * 'sock' peut éventuellement être spécifié afin d'utiliser un
          objet *note socket.socket: d90. préexistant, déjà connecté, à
          utiliser par le transport.  Si spécifié, 'local_addr' et
          'remote_addr' doivent être omis (doit être *note None: 662.).

               Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du
               connecteur au transport créé.  Pour fermer le connecteur,
               appelez la méthode *note close(): 32f0. du transport.

     Voir les exemples *note Client écho en UDP: 32f2. et *note Serveur
     écho en UDP: 32f3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.4: les paramètres 'family', 'proto',
     'flags', 'reuse_address', 'reuse_port', 'allow_broadcast' et 'sock'
     ont été ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: prise en charge sur Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8.1: The 'reuse_address' parameter is no
     longer supported, as using *note socket.SO_REUSEADDR: 32f1. poses a
     significant security concern for UDP. Explicitly passing
     ‘reuse_address=True’ will raise an exception.

     Lorsque plusieurs processus avec des UID différents attribuent des
     connecteurs à une adresse de connecteur UDP identique avec
     ‘SO_REUSEADDR’, les paquets entrants peuvent être distribués de
     manière aléatoire entre les connecteurs.

     For supported platforms, 'reuse_port' can be used as a replacement
     for similar functionality.  With 'reuse_port', *note
     socket.SO_REUSEPORT: 32f1. is used instead, which specifically
     prevents processes with differing UIDs from assigning sockets to
     the same socket address.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'reuse_address' parameter,
     disabled since Python 3.8.1, 3.7.6 and 3.6.10, has been entirely
     removed.

 -- Méthode: async loop.create_unix_connection (protocol_factory,
          path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Crée une connexion Unix

     The socket family will be *note AF_UNIX: 17db.; socket type will be
     *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.

     Un 'n'-uplet ‘(transport, protocol)’ est renvoyé en cas de succès.

     'path' est le nom d'un connecteur de domaine Unix et est
     obligatoire, sauf si un paramètre 'sock' est spécifié.  Les
     connecteurs Unix abstraits, les chemins *note str: 437, *note
     bytes: 1bd. et *note Path: 226. sont pris en charge.

     Voir la documentation de la méthode *note loop.create_connection():
     5f0. pour plus d'informations sur les arguments de cette méthode.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre
     'ssl_handshake_timeout'.  Le paramètre 'chemin' peut désormais être
     un *note objet simili-chemin: 29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'ssl shutdown
     timeout'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html


File: python.info,  Node: Création de serveurs,  Next: Transfert de fichiers,  Prev: Création de connexions,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.57 Création de serveurs
..............................

 -- Méthode: async loop.create_server (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Create a TCP server (socket type *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.)
     listening on 'port' of the 'host' address.

     Renvoie un objet *note Server: b02.

     Arguments :

        * 'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable gérant le *note
          protocole asyncio: 32ec.

        * Le paramètre 'host' peut être défini sur plusieurs types qui
          déterminent où le serveur écoute :

             - Si 'host' est une chaîne, le serveur TCP est lié à une
               seule interface réseau spécifiée par 'host'.

             - Si 'host' est une séquence de chaînes, le serveur TCP est
               lié à toutes les interfaces réseau spécifiées par la
               séquence.

             - Si 'host' est une chaîne vide ou ‘None’, toutes les
               interfaces sont prises en compte et une liste de
               plusieurs connecteurs est renvoyée (probablement une pour
               IPv4 et une autre pour IPv6).

        * Le paramètre 'port' peut être défini pour spécifier sur quel
          port le serveur doit écouter.  Si ‘0’ ou ‘None’ (la valeur par
          défaut), un port inutilisé aléatoire est sélectionné (notez
          que si 'host' se résout en plusieurs interfaces réseau, un
          port aléatoire différent est sélectionné pour chaque
          interface).

        * 'family' can be set to either *note socket.AF_INET: 17d9. or
          *note AF_INET6: 17da. to force the socket to use IPv4 or IPv6.
          If not set, the 'family' will be determined from host name
          (defaults to *note AF_UNSPEC: 32f5.).

        * 'flags' est un masque de bits pour *note getaddrinfo(): c04.

        * 'sock' peut éventuellement être spécifié afin d'utiliser un
          objet connecteur préexistant.  S'il est spécifié, 'host' et
          'port' ne doivent pas être spécifiés.

               Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du
               connecteur au serveur créé.  Pour fermer le connecteur,
               appelez la méthode *note close(): 3262. du serveur.

        * 'backlog' est le nombre maximum de connexions en file
          d'attente passées à *note listen(): e49. (par défaut à 100).

        * 'ssl' peut être défini sur une instance *note SSLContext: 291.
          pour activer TLS sur les connexions acceptées.

        * 'reuse_address' indique au noyau de réutiliser un connecteur
          local dans l'état ‘TIME_WAIT’, sans attendre l'expiration de
          son délai d'attente naturel.  S'il n'est pas spécifié, il est
          automatiquement défini sur ‘True’ sous Unix.

        * 'reuse_port' indique au noyau d'autoriser ce point de
          terminaison à être lié au même port que les autres points de
          terminaison existants, tant qu'ils définissent tous cet
          indicateur lors de leur création.  Cette option n'est pas
          prise en charge sous Windows.

        * 'keep_alive' set to ‘True’ keeps connections active by
          enabling the periodic transmission of messages.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'keep_alive' parameter.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' est (pour un serveur TLS) le temps en
          secondes à attendre que la poignée de main TLS se termine
          avant d'abandonner la connexion.  ‘60.0’ secondes si ‘None’
          (par défaut).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' est le temps en secondes à attendre que
          l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion.
          ‘30.0’ secondes si ‘None’ (par défaut).

        * 'start_serving' défini à ‘True’ (valeur par défaut) fait que
          le serveur créé commence immédiatement à accepter les
          connexions.  Lorsqu'il est défini sur ‘False’, l'utilisateur
          doit attendre sur *note Server.start_serving(): b04. ou *note
          Server.serve_forever(): b05. pour que le serveur commence à
          accepter les connexions.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la prise en charge de SSL/TLS
     dans *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5.1: le paramètre 'host' peut être une
     séquence de chaînes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The socket option *note
     socket.TCP_NODELAY: 32f1. is set by default for all TCP
     connections.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'ssl shutdown
     timeout'

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     la fonction *note start_server(): b09. est une API alternative de
     niveau supérieur qui renvoie une paire de *note StreamReader: 1882.
     et *note StreamWriter: 16ba. qui peut être utilisée dans un code
     'async/wait'.

 -- Méthode: async loop.create_unix_server (protocol_factory, path=None,
          *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

     Similar to *note loop.create_server(): b03. but works with the
     *note AF_UNIX: 17db. socket family.

     'path' est le nom d'un connecteur de domaine Unix et est
     obligatoire, sauf si un argument 'sock' est fourni.  Les
     connecteurs Unix abstraits, les chemins *note str: 437, *note
     bytes: 1bd. et *note Path: 226. sont pris en charge.

     If 'cleanup_socket' is true then the Unix socket will automatically
     be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless
     the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

     Voir la documentation de la méthode *note loop.create_server():
     b03. pour plus d'informations sur les arguments de cette méthode.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des paramètres
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' et 'start_serving'.  Le paramètre 'path'
     peut maintenant être un objet *note Path: 226.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'ssl shutdown
     timeout'

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'cleanup_socket' parameter.

 -- Méthode: async loop.connect_accepted_socket (protocol_factory, sock,
          *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None,
          ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Enveloppe une connexion déjà acceptée dans une paire
     transport/protocole.

     Cette méthode peut être utilisée par les serveurs qui acceptent les
     connexions en dehors d''asyncio' mais qui utilisent 'asyncio' pour
     les gérer.

     Paramètres :

        * 'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable gérant le *note
          protocole asyncio: 32ec.

        * 'sock' est un objet connecteur préexistant renvoyé par *note
          socket.accept: d91.

               Note: l'argument 'sock' transfère la propriété du
               connecteur au transport créé.  Pour fermer le connecteur,
               appelez la méthode *note close(): 32f0. du transport.

        * 'ssl' peut être défini sur une *note SSLContext: 291. pour
          activer SSL sur les connexions acceptées.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' est (pour une connexion SSL) le temps
          en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main SSL se termine
          avant d'abandonner la connexion.  ‘60.0’ secondes si ‘None’
          (par défaut).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' est le temps en secondes à attendre que
          l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion.
          ‘30.0’ secondes si ‘None’ (par défaut).

     Renvoie une paire ‘(transport, protocole)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre 'ssl handshake
     timeout'

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'ssl shutdown
     timeout'


File: python.info,  Node: Transfert de fichiers,  Next: Passage du flux en TLS,  Prev: Création de serveurs,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.58 Transfert de fichiers
...............................

 -- Méthode: async loop.sendfile (transport, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     Envoie 'file' via 'transport'.  Renvoie le nombre total d'octets
     envoyés.

     La méthode utilise *note os.sendfile(): aff. (hautes performances)
     si elle est disponible.

     'file' doit être un objet fichier normal ouvert en mode binaire.

     'offset' indique où commencer la lecture du fichier.  Si spécifié,
     'count' est le nombre total d'octets à transmettre, par opposition
     à l'envoi du fichier jusqu'à ce que EOF soit atteint.  La position
     du fichier est toujours mise à jour, même lorsque cette méthode
     génère une erreur.  *note file.tell(): 2966. peut être utilisée
     pour obtenir le nombre d'octets réellement envoyés.

     'fallback' défini sur ‘True’ permet à 'asyncio' de lire et
     d'envoyer manuellement le fichier lorsque la plateforme ne prend
     pas en charge l'appel système 'sendfile' (par exemple, Windows ou
     connecteur SSL sous Unix).

     Lève *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 32d5. si le système ne prend
     pas en charge l'appel système 'sendfile' et que 'fallback' est
     ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Passage du flux en TLS,  Next: Surveillance de descripteur de fichier,  Prev: Transfert de fichiers,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.59 Passage du flux en TLS
................................

 -- Méthode: async loop.start_tls (transport, protocol, sslcontext, *,
          server_side=False, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Convertit une connexion existante en connexion TLS.

     Crée une instance de codeur-décodeur TLS et l'insère entre le
     'transport' et le 'protocol'.  Le codeur-décodeur implémente à la
     fois le protocole vers le 'transport' et le transport vers le
     'protocol'.

     Renvoie l'instance à deux interfaces créée.  Après 'await', le
     'protocol' doit cesser d'utiliser le 'transport' d'origine et
     communiquer avec l'objet renvoyé uniquement parce que le codeur met
     en cache les données côté 'protocol' et échange sporadiquement des
     paquets de session TLS supplémentaires avec 'transport'.

     In some situations (e.g.  when the passed transport is already
     closing) this may return ‘None’.

     Paramètres :

        * 'transport' et 'protocol' que des méthodes comme *note
          create_server(): b03. et *note create_connection(): 5f0.
          renvoient.

        * 'sslcontext' : une instance configurée de *note SSLContext:
          291.

        * 'server_side' passe à ‘True’ lorsqu'une connexion côté serveur
          est mise à jour (comme celle créée par *note create_server():
          b03.).

        * 'server_hostname' : définit ou remplace le nom d'hôte auquel
          le certificat du serveur cible est comparé.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' est (pour une connexion TLS) le temps
          en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main TLS se termine
          avant d'abandonner la connexion.  ‘60.0’ secondes si ‘None’
          (par défaut).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' est le temps en secondes à attendre que
          l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion.
          ‘30.0’ secondes si ‘None’ (par défaut).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre 'ssl shutdown
     timeout'


File: python.info,  Node: Surveillance de descripteur de fichier,  Next: Travail direct avec des objets socket,  Prev: Passage du flux en TLS,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.60 Surveillance de descripteur de fichier
................................................

 -- Méthode: loop.add_reader (fd, callback, *args)

     Commence à surveiller la disponibilité en lecture du descripteur de
     fichier 'fd' et appelle 'callback' avec les arguments spécifiés une
     fois que 'fd' est disponible en lecture.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

 -- Méthode: loop.remove_reader (fd)

     Arrête de surveiller le descripteur de fichier 'fd' pour la
     disponibilité en lecture.  Renvoie ‘True’ si 'fd' était
     précédemment surveillé pour les lectures.

 -- Méthode: loop.add_writer (fd, callback, *args)

     Commence à surveiller le descripteur de fichier 'fd' pour la
     disponibilité en écriture et appelle 'callback' avec les arguments
     spécifiés une fois que 'fd' est disponible en écriture.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

     Utilisez *note functools.partial(): 40a. pour *note passer des
     arguments nommés: 32e6. à 'callback'.

 -- Méthode: loop.remove_writer (fd)

     Arrête de surveiller le descripteur de fichier 'fd' pour la
     disponibilité en écriture.  Renvoie ‘True’ si 'fd' était
     précédemment surveillé pour les écritures.

Voir aussi la section *note Prise en charge de la plate-forme: 32fd.
pour certaines limitations de ces méthodes.


File: python.info,  Node: Travail direct avec des objets socket,  Next: DNS,  Prev: Surveillance de descripteur de fichier,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.61 Travail direct avec des objets 'socket'
.................................................

En général, les implémentations de protocole qui utilisent des API
basées sur le transport telles que *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0.
et *note loop.create_server(): b03. sont plus rapides que les
implémentations qui fonctionnent directement avec les 'sockets'.
Cependant, il existe des cas d'utilisation où les performances ne sont
pas critiques, et travailler directement avec les objets *note socket:
d90. est plus pratique.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_recv (sock, nbytes)

     Reçoit jusqu'à 'nbytes' de 'sock'.  Version asynchrone de *note
     socket.recv(): d93.

     Renvoie les données reçues sous la forme d'un objet bytes.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: même si cette méthode a toujours été
     documentée en tant que méthode coroutine, les versions antérieures
     à Python 3.7 renvoyaient un *note Future: bbd.  Depuis Python 3.7,
     il s'agit d'une méthode ‘async def’.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_recv_into (sock, buf)

     Reçoit les données de 'sock' dans le tampon 'buf'.  Basée sur le
     modèle de la méthode bloquante *note socket.recv_into(): 12fd.

     Renvoie le nombre d'octets écrits dans le tampon.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_recvfrom (sock, bufsize)

     Reçoit un datagramme jusqu'à 'bufsize' de 'sock'.  Version
     asynchrone de *note socket.recvfrom(): d94.

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet (données reçues, adresse distante).

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_recvfrom_into (sock, buf, nbytes=0)

     Reçoit un datagramme jusqu'à 'nbytes' de 'sock' vers 'buf'.
     Version asynchrone de *note socket.recvfrom_into(): 12fe.

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet (nombre d'octets reçus, adresse distante).

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_sendall (sock, data)

     Envoie les données 'data' au connecteur 'sock'.  Version asynchrone
     de *note socket.sendall(): d97.

     Cette méthode continue d'envoyer des données au connecteur jusqu'à
     ce que toutes les 'data' aient été envoyées ou qu'une erreur se
     produise.  ‘None’ est renvoyé en cas de succès.  En cas d'erreur,
     une exception est levée.  De plus, il n'existe aucun moyen de
     déterminer la quantité de données, le cas échéant, qui a été
     traitée avec succès par l'extrémité réceptrice de la connexion.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: même si la méthode a toujours été
     documentée en tant que méthode coroutine, avant Python 3.7, elle
     renvoyait un *note Future: bbd.  Depuis Python 3.7, il s'agit d'une
     méthode ‘async def’.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_sendto (sock, data, address)

     Envoie un datagramme de 'sock' à 'address'.  Version asynchrone de
     *note socket.sendto(): d98.

     Renvoie le nombre d'octets envoyés.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_connect (sock, address)

     Connecte 'sock' à un connecteur distant situé à 'address'.

     Version asynchrone de *note socket.connect(): d92.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: ‘address’ n'a plus besoin d'être
     résolu.  ‘sock_connect’ essaie de vérifier si 'address' est déjà
     résolue en appelant *note socket.inet_pton(): 951.  Sinon, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): c04. est utilisé pour résoudre 'address'.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0. et *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b08.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_accept (sock)

     Accepte une connexion.  Basée sur le modèle de la méthode bloquante
     *note socket.accept(): d91.

     Le connecteur doit être lié à une adresse et écouter les
     connexions.  La valeur de retour est une paire ‘(conn, adresse)’ où
     'conn' est un 'nouvel' objet socket utilisable pour envoyer et
     recevoir des données sur la connexion, et 'adresse' est l'adresse
     liée au connecteur de l'autre côté de la connexion.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: même si la méthode a toujours été
     documentée en tant que méthode coroutine, avant Python 3.7, elle
     renvoyait un *note Future: bbd.  Depuis Python 3.7, il s'agit d'une
     méthode ‘async def’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note loop.create_server(): b03. et *note start_server(): b09.

 -- Méthode: async loop.sock_sendfile (sock, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     Envoie le fichier en utilisant *note os.sendfile: aff. (haute
     performance) si possible.  Renvoie le nombre total d'octets
     envoyés.

     Version asynchrone de *note socket.sendfile(): e48.

     'sock' doit être un *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. *note socket:
     d90. non bloquant.

     'file' doit être un objet fichier normal ouvert en mode binaire.

     'offset' indique où commencer la lecture du fichier.  Si spécifié,
     'count' est le nombre total d'octets à transmettre, par opposition
     à l'envoi du fichier jusqu'à ce que EOF soit atteint.  La position
     du fichier est toujours mise à jour, même lorsque cette méthode
     génère une erreur.  *note file.tell(): 2966. peut être utilisée
     pour obtenir le nombre d'octets réellement envoyés.

     'fallback', lorsqu'il est défini à ‘True’, permet à 'asyncio' de
     lire et d'envoyer manuellement le fichier lorsque la plateforme ne
     prend pas en charge l'appel système 'sendfile' (par exemple,
     Windows ou connecteur SSL sous Unix).

     Lève une *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 32d5. si le système ne
     prend pas en charge l'appel système 'sendfile' et que 'fallback'
     est ‘False’.

     Le connecteur 'sock' ne doit pas être bloquant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: DNS,  Next: Travail avec des tubes pipes,  Prev: Travail direct avec des objets socket,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.62 DNS
.............

 -- Méthode: async loop.getaddrinfo (host, port, *, family=0, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     Version asynchrone de *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 170e.

 -- Méthode: async loop.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags=0)

     Version asynchrone de *note socket.getnameinfo(): 167e.

     Note: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' internally utilize their
     synchronous versions through the loop's default thread pool
     executor.  When this executor is saturated, these methods may
     experience delays, which higher-level networking libraries may
     report as increased timeouts.  To mitigate this, consider using a
     custom executor for other user tasks, or setting a default executor
     with a larger number of workers.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: les méthodes 'getaddrinfo' et 'getnameinfo'
ont toujours été documentées pour renvoyer une coroutine, mais avant
Python 3.7, elles renvoyaient en fait des objets *note asyncio.Future:
bbd.  À partir de Python 3.7, les deux méthodes sont des coroutines.


File: python.info,  Node: Travail avec des tubes pipes,  Next: Signaux Unix,  Prev: DNS,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.63 Travail avec des tubes ('pipes')
..........................................

 -- Méthode: async loop.connect_read_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     Branche l'extrémité en lecture du tube 'pipe' à la boucle
     d'évènements.

     'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable renvoyant un protocole
     gérant le *note protocole asyncio: 32ec.

     'pipe' est un *note simili-fichier: 11a2.

     Renvoie la paire ‘(transport, protocol)’, où 'transport' prend en
     charge l'interface *note ReadTransport: 3301. et 'protocol' est un
     objet instancié par 'protocol_factory'.

     Avec la boucle d'événements *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5, le 'pipe'
     est mis en mode non bloquant.

 -- Méthode: async loop.connect_write_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     Branche l'extrémité en écriture de 'pipe' à la boucle d'évènements.

     'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable renvoyant un protocole
     gérant le *note protocole asyncio: 32ec.

     'pipe' est un *note simili-fichier: 11a2.

     Renvoie la paire ‘(transport, protocol)’, où 'transport' prend en
     charge l'interface *note WriteTransport: 3302. et 'protocol' est un
     objet instancié par 'protocol_factory'.

     Avec la boucle d'événements *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5, le 'pipe'
     est mis en mode non bloquant.

     Note: *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. ne prend pas en charge les
     méthodes ci-dessus sous Windows.  Utilisez *note ProactorEventLoop:
     5f6. à la place pour Windows.

Voir aussi
..........

les méthodes *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6. et *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7.


File: python.info,  Node: Signaux Unix,  Next: Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus,  Prev: Travail avec des tubes pipes,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.64 Signaux Unix
......................

 -- Méthode: loop.add_signal_handler (signum, callback, *args)

     Définit 'callback' comme gestionnaire du signal 'signum'.

     La fonction de rappel sera appelée par 'loop', avec d'autres
     rappels en file d'attente et des coroutines exécutables de cette
     boucle d'événements.  Contrairement aux gestionnaires de signaux
     enregistrés à l'aide de *note signal.signal(): 1116, un rappel
     enregistré avec cette fonction est autorisé à interagir avec la
     boucle d'événements.

     Lève une *note ValueError: 1ff. si le numéro de signal est invalide
     ou non attrapable.  Lève une *note RuntimeError: 193. s'il y a un
     problème lors de la configuration du gestionnaire.

     Utilisez *note functools.partial(): 40a. pour *note passer des
     arguments nommés: 32e6. à 'callback'.

     Comme *note signal.signal(): 1116, cette fonction doit être
     invoquée dans le fil d'exécution principal.

 -- Méthode: loop.remove_signal_handler (sig)

     Supprime le gestionnaire du signal 'sig'.

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le gestionnaire de signal a été supprimé, ou
     ‘False’ si aucun gestionnaire n'a été défini pour le signal donné.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

Voir aussi
..........

le module *note signal: c5.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus,  Next: API de gestion d'erreur,  Prev: Signaux Unix,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.65 Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus
.....................................................................

 -- Méthode: awaitable loop.run_in_executor (executor, func, *args)

     Fait en sorte que 'func' soit appelée dans l'exécuteur spécifié.

     The 'executor' argument should be an *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor: 3176. instance.  The default executor
     is used if 'executor' is ‘None’.  The default executor can be set
     by *note loop.set_default_executor(): 72f, otherwise, a *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. will be
     lazy-initialized and used by *note run_in_executor(): 8d8. if
     needed.

     Exemple :

          import asyncio
          import concurrent.futures

          def blocking_io():
              # File operations (such as logging) can block the
              # event loop: run them in a thread pool.
              with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
                  return f.read(100)

          def cpu_bound():
              # CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:
              # in general it is preferable to run them in a
              # process pool.
              return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))

          async def main():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

              ## Options:

              # 1. Run in the default loop's executor:
              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                  None, blocking_io)
              print('default thread pool', result)

              # 2. Run in a custom thread pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, blocking_io)
                  print('custom thread pool', result)

              # 3. Run in a custom process pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, cpu_bound)
                  print('custom process pool', result)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              asyncio.run(main())

     Notez que la garde du point d'entrée (‘if __name__ == '__main__'’)
     est requis pour l'option 3 en raison des particularités de *note
     multiprocessing: 93, qui est utilisé par *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8dd.  Voir *note Importation sécurisée du module principal: 3162.

     Cette méthode renvoie un objet *note asyncio.Future: bbd.

     Utilisez *note functools.partial(): 40a. pour *note passer des
     arguments nommés: 32e6. à 'func'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5.3: *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8.
     ne configure plus le ‘max_workers’ de l'exécuteur de pool de
     threads qu'il crée, laissant à la place à l'exécuteur de pool de
     threads (*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.) le soin de définir le
     défaut.

 -- Méthode: loop.set_default_executor (executor)

     Définit 'executor' comme exécuteur par défaut utilisé par *note
     run_in_executor(): 8d8.  'executor' doit être une instance de *note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'executor' doit être une instance de
     *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.


File: python.info,  Node: API de gestion d'erreur,  Next: Activation du mode débogage,  Prev: Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.66 API de gestion d'erreur
.................................

Permet de personnaliser la façon dont les exceptions sont gérées dans la
boucle d'événements.

 -- Méthode: loop.set_exception_handler (handler)

     Définit 'handler' comme nouveau gestionnaire d'exceptions de boucle
     d'événements.

     Si 'handler' est ‘None’, le gestionnaire d'exceptions par défaut
     est activé.  Sinon, 'handler' doit être un appelable avec la
     signature correspondant à ‘(loop, context)’, où ‘loop’ est une
     référence à la boucle d'événements active et ‘context’ est un
     ‘dict’ contenant les détails de l'exception (voir la documentation
     *note call_exception_handler(): 3309. pour plus de détails sur le
     contexte).

     If the handler is called on behalf of a *note Task: 4c5. or *note
     Handle: 1a61, it is run in the *note contextvars.Context: 1563. of
     that task or callback handle.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The handler may be called in the
     *note Context: 1563. of the task or handle where the exception
     originated.

 -- Méthode: loop.get_exception_handler ()

     Renvoie le gestionnaire d'exceptions actuel ou ‘None’ si aucun
     gestionnaire d'exceptions personnalisé n'a été défini.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

 -- Méthode: loop.default_exception_handler (context)

     Gestionnaire d'exception par défaut.

     Appelée lorsqu'une exception se produit et qu'aucun gestionnaire
     d'exception n'est défini.  Elle peut être appelée par un
     gestionnaire d'exceptions personnalisé qui souhaite s'en remettre
     au comportement du gestionnaire par défaut.

     Le paramètre 'context' a la même signification que dans *note
     call_exception_handler(): 3309.

 -- Méthode: loop.call_exception_handler (context)

     Appelle le gestionnaire d'exception de la boucle d'évènements
     actuelle.

     'context' est un objet ‘dict’ contenant les clés suivantes (de
     nouvelles clés pourront être introduites dans les futures versions
     de Python) :

        * 'message' : message d'erreur ;

        * 'exception' (facultatif) : objet exception ;

        * 'future' (facultatif) : instance de *note asyncio.Future:
          bbd. ;

        * 'task' (facultatif) : instance de *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. ;

        * ''handle" (facultatif) : instance de *note asyncio.Handle:
          1a61. ;

        * ''protocol" (facultatif) : instance de *note protocole
          asyncio: 32ec. ;

        * 'transport' (facultatif) : instance de *note transport
          asyncio: 32ed. ;

        * 'socket' (facultatif) : instance de *note socket.socket:
          d90. ;

        * 'source_traceback' (optional): Traceback of the source;

        * 'handle_traceback' (optional): Traceback of the handle;

        * 
          ''asyncgen" (facultatif) : générateur asynchrone qui a causé

               l'exception

          Note: This method should not be overloaded in subclassed event
          loops.  For custom exception handling, use the *note
          set_exception_handler(): 3308. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Activation du mode débogage,  Next: Exécution de sous-processus,  Prev: API de gestion d'erreur,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.67 Activation du mode débogage
.....................................

 -- Méthode: loop.get_debug ()

     Obtient le mode de débogage (*note bool: 453.) de la boucle
     d'événements.

     La valeur par défaut est ‘True’ si la variable d'environnement
     *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1d0b. est définie sur une chaîne non
     vide, ‘False’ sinon.

 -- Méthode: loop.set_debug (enabled: bool)

     Active le mode débogage pour la boucle d'évènements.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: le nouveau *note mode de développement
     Python: 1f5. peut désormais également être utilisé pour activer le
     mode de débogage.

 -- Attribut: loop.slow_callback_duration

     This attribute can be used to set the minimum execution duration in
     seconds that is considered "slow".  When debug mode is enabled,
     "slow" callbacks are logged.

     Default value is 100 milliseconds.

Voir aussi
..........

le *note mode debogage d'asyncio: 1d0c.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution de sous-processus,  Prev: Activation du mode débogage,  Up: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.68 Exécution de sous-processus
.....................................

Les méthodes décrites dans ces sous-sections sont de bas niveau.  Dans
le code 'async/await' normal, pensez à utiliser les fonctions de
commodité de haut niveau *note asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a68.
et *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a67. à la place.

     Note: sous Windows, la boucle d'événements par défaut *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. prend en charge les sous-processus,
     contrairement à *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5.  Voir *note Prise en
     charge des sous-processus sous Windows: 32a8. pour plus de détails.

 -- Méthode: async loop.subprocess_exec (protocol_factory, *args,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     Crée un sous-processus à partir d'un ou plusieurs arguments de
     chaîne spécifiés par 'args'.

     'args' doit être une liste de chaînes représentée par :

        * *note str: 437. ;

        * ou *note bytes: 1bd, encodés selon l'*note encodage du système
          de fichiers: 2775.

     La première chaîne spécifie l'exécutable du programme et les
     chaînes restantes spécifient les arguments.  Ensemble, les
     arguments de chaîne forment le ‘argv’ du programme.

     C'est similaire à la classe standard de la bibliothèque *note
     subprocess.Popen: 197. appelée avec ‘shell=False’ et la liste des
     chaînes passées en premier argument ; cependant, où *note Popen:
     197. prend un seul argument qui est une liste de chaînes,
     'subprocess_exec' prend plusieurs arguments de chaînes.

     Le 'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable renvoyant une
     sous-classe de la classe *note asyncio.SubprocessProtocol: 330e.

     Autres paramètres :

        * 'stdin' peut être l'un de ces éléments :

             * a file-like object

             * an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for
               example those created with *note os.pipe(): 1796.

             * la constante *note subprocess.PIPE: b77. (par défaut) qui
               va créer un nouveau tube et le connecter,

             * la valeur ‘None’ qui fera que le sous-processus héritera
               du descripteur de fichier de ce processus,

             * la constante *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 1130. qui indique
               que le fichier spécial *note os.devnull: 19f1. sera
               utilisé.

        * 'stdout' peut être l'un de ces éléments :

             * a file-like object

             * la constante *note subprocess.PIPE: b77. (par défaut) qui
               va créer un nouveau tube et le connecter,

             * la valeur ‘None’ qui fera que le sous-processus héritera
               du descripteur de fichier de ce processus,

             * la constante *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 1130. qui indique
               que le fichier spécial *note os.devnull: 19f1. sera
               utilisé.

        * 'stderr' peut être l'un de ces éléments :

             * a file-like object

             * la constante *note subprocess.PIPE: b77. (par défaut) qui
               va créer un nouveau tube et le connecter,

             * la valeur ‘None’ qui fera que le sous-processus héritera
               du descripteur de fichier de ce processus,

             * la constante *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 1130. qui indique
               que le fichier spécial *note os.devnull: 19f1. sera
               utilisé.

             * la constante *note subprocess.STDOUT: 3194. qui
               connectera le flux d'erreur standard au flux de sortie
               standard du processus.

        * Tous les autres arguments nommés sont passés à *note
          subprocess.Popen: 197. sans interprétation, à l'exception de
          'bufsize', 'universal_newlines', 'shell', 'text', 'encoding'
          et 'errors', qui ne doivent pas être spécifiés du tout.

          L'API de sous-processus ‘asyncio’ ne prend pas en charge le
          décodage des flux sous forme de texte.  *note bytes.decode():
          8c5. peut être utilisée pour convertir les octets renvoyés par
          le flux en texte.

     If a file-like object passed as 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     represents a pipe, then the other side of this pipe should be
     registered with *note connect_write_pipe(): 32aa. or *note
     connect_read_pipe(): 32a9. for use with the event loop.

     Voir le constructeur de la classe *note subprocess.Popen: 197. pour
     la documentation sur les autres arguments.

     Renvoie une paire ‘(transport, protocol)’, où 'transport' est
     conforme à la classe de base *note asyncio.SubprocessTransport:
     330f. et 'protocol' est un objet instancié par 'protocol_factory'.

 -- Méthode: async loop.subprocess_shell (protocol_factory, cmd, *,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     Crée un sous-processus à partir de 'cmd', qui peut être une chaîne
     *note str: 437. ou une chaîne *note bytes: 1bd. encodée avec
     l'*note encodage du système de fichiers: 2775, en utilisant la
     syntaxe "shell" de la plate-forme.

     C'est similaire à la classe standard de la bibliothèque *note
     subprocess.Popen: 197. appelée avec ‘shell=True’.

     Le 'protocol_factory' doit être un appelable renvoyant une
     sous-classe de la classe *note SubprocessProtocol: 330e.

     Voir *note subprocess_exec(): 32a6. pour plus de détails sur les
     arguments restants.

     Renvoie une paire ‘(transport, protocol)’, où 'transport' est
     conforme à la classe de base *note SubprocessTransport: 330f. et
     'protocol' est un objet instancié par 'protocol_factory'.

     Note: il est de la responsabilité de l'application de s'assurer que
     tous les espaces blancs et les caractères spéciaux sont
     correctement échappés pour éviter les vulnérabilités d'injection de
     shell(1).  La fonction *note shlex.quote(): 27a. peut être utilisée
     pour échapper correctement les espaces blancs et les caractères
     spéciaux dans les chaînes qui seront utilisées pour construire des
     commandes shell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs,  Next: Objets Serveur,  Prev: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements,  Up: Boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.69 Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs
..................................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Handle

     Objet encapsulant une fonction de rappel renvoyé par *note
     loop.call_soon(): af4, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): af5.

      -- Méthode: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 1563. object associated
          with the handle.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: cancel ()

          Annule le rappel.  Si le rappel a déjà été annulé ou exécuté,
          cette méthode n'a aucun effet.

      -- Méthode: cancelled ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la fonction de rappel a été annulée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Classe: asyncio.TimerHandle

     Objet encapsulant la fonction de rappel renvoyé par *note
     loop.call_later(): af6. et *note loop.call_at(): af7.

     Cette classe est une sous-classe de *note Handle: 1a61.

      -- Méthode: when ()

          Renvoie une heure de rappel planifiée sous forme de *note
          float: 2ec. secondes.

          L'heure est un horodatage absolu, utilisant la même référence
          de temps que *note loop.time(): 32e9.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Serveur,  Next: Implémentations de boucle d'évènements,  Prev: Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs,  Up: Boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.70 Objets Serveur
........................

Les objets serveur sont créés par les fonctions *note
loop.create_server(): b03, *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac, *note
start_server(): b09. et *note start_unix_server(): 3265.

Do not instantiate the *note Server: b02. class directly.

 -- Classe: asyncio.Server

     Les objets 'Server' sont des gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones.
     Lorsqu'il est utilisé dans une instruction ‘async with’, il est
     garanti que l'objet Serveur est fermé et n'accepte pas de nouvelle
     connexion lorsque l'instruction ‘async with’ est terminée :

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'objet serveur est un gestionnaire de
     contexte asynchrone depuis Python 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: This class was exposed publicly as
     ‘asyncio.Server’ in Python 3.9.11, 3.10.3 and 3.11.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Arrête le serveur : ferme les connecteurs d'écoute et définit
          l'attribut *note sockets: c06. à ‘None’.

          Les connecteurs qui représentent les connexions client
          entrantes existantes restent ouvertes.

          The server is closed asynchronously; use the *note
          wait_closed(): 1684. coroutine to wait until the server is
          closed (and no more connections are active).

      -- Méthode: close_clients ()

          Close all existing incoming client connections.

          Calls *note close(): 32f0. on all associated transports.

          *note close(): 3262. should be called before *note
          close_clients(): 1b0. when closing the server to avoid races
          with new clients connecting.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: abort_clients ()

          Close all existing incoming client connections immediately,
          without waiting for pending operations to complete.

          Calls *note abort(): 3312. on all associated transports.

          *note close(): 3262. should be called before *note
          abort_clients(): 1b1. when closing the server to avoid races
          with new clients connecting.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: get_loop ()

          Renvoie la boucle d'événement associée à l'objet serveur.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: async start_serving ()

          Commence à accepter les connexions.

          Cette méthode est idempotente, elle peut donc être appelée
          lorsque le serveur est déjà en service.

          Le paramètre nommé 'start_serving' de *note
          loop.create_server(): b03. et *note asyncio.start_server():
          b09. permet de créer un objet 'Server' qui n'accepte pas les
          connexions initialement.  Dans ce cas,
          ‘Server.start_serving()’ ou *note Server.serve_forever(): b05.
          peut être utilisée pour que le serveur commence à accepter les
          connexions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: async serve_forever ()

          Commence à accepter les connexions jusqu'à ce que la coroutine
          soit annulée.  L'annulation de la tâche ‘serve_forever’
          provoque la fermeture du serveur.

          Cette méthode peut être appelée si le serveur accepte déjà les
          connexions.  Une seule tâche ‘serve_forever’ peut exister par
          objet 'Server'.

          Exemple :

               async def client_connected(reader, writer):
                   # Communicate with the client with
                   # reader/writer streams.  For example:
                   await reader.readline()

               async def main(host, port):
                   srv = await asyncio.start_server(
                       client_connected, host, port)
                   await srv.serve_forever()

               asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: is_serving ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le serveur accepte de nouvelles connexions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: async wait_closed ()

          Wait until the *note close(): 3262. method completes and all
          active connections have finished.

      -- Attribut: sockets

          List of socket-like objects, ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’,
          which the server is listening on.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: avant Python 3.7,
          ‘Server.sockets’ renvoyait directement une liste interne de
          sockets de serveur.  En 3.7, une copie de cette liste est
          renvoyée.


File: python.info,  Node: Implémentations de boucle d'évènements,  Next: Exemples<18>,  Prev: Objets Serveur,  Up: Boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.71 Implémentations de boucle d'évènements
................................................

'asyncio' est livré avec deux implémentations de boucles d'événements
différentes : *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. et *note ProactorEventLoop:
5f6.

By default asyncio is configured to use *note EventLoop: 16b0.

 -- Classe: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop

     A subclass of *note AbstractEventLoop: 94e. based on the *note
     selectors: c1. module.

     Utilise le 'sélecteur' le plus efficace disponible pour la
     plate-forme donnée.  Il est également possible de configurer
     manuellement l'implémentation exacte du sélecteur à utiliser :

          import asyncio
          import selectors

          class MyPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):
             def new_event_loop(self):
                selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
                return asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)

          asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyPolicy())

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Classe: asyncio.ProactorEventLoop

     A subclass of *note AbstractEventLoop: 94e. for Windows that uses
     "I/O Completion Ports" (IOCP).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports(1).

 -- Classe: asyncio.EventLoop

          An alias to the most efficient available subclass of *note
          AbstractEventLoop: 94e. for the given platform.

          It is an alias to *note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. on Unix and
          *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. on Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Classe: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop

     Classe mère abstraite pour les boucles d'événements conforme à
     'asyncio'.

     La section *note Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements: 32e0. liste
     toutes les méthodes qu'une implémentation alternative de
     ‘AbstractEventLoop’ doit définir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/fileio/i-o-completion-ports


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<18>,  Prev: Implémentations de boucle d'évènements,  Up: Boucle d'évènements

5.19.1.72 Exemples
..................

Notez que tous les exemples de cette section montrent 'à dessein'
comment utiliser les API de boucle d'événement de bas niveau, telles que
*note loop.run_forever(): 32e2. et *note loop.call_soon(): af4.  Les
applications 'asyncio' modernes ont rarement besoin d'être écrites de
cette façon ; pensez à utiliser les fonctions de haut niveau comme *note
asyncio.run(): 468.

* Menu:

* "Hello World" avec call_soon(): "Hello World" avec call_soon.
* Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later(): Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later.
* Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier::
* Gestion des signaux SIGINT et SIGTERM::


File: python.info,  Node: "Hello World" avec call_soon,  Next: Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later,  Up: Exemples<18>

5.19.1.73 "Hello World" avec ‘call_soon()’
..........................................

Un exemple utilisant la méthode *note loop.call_soon(): af4. pour
programmer un rappel.  Le rappel affiche ‘"Hello World"’ puis arrête la
boucle d'événements :

     import asyncio

     def hello_world(loop):
         """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
         print('Hello World')
         loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule a call to hello_world()
     loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

Voir aussi
..........

un exemple similaire de *note Hello World: 321f. créé avec une coroutine
et la fonction *note run(): 468.


File: python.info,  Node: Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later,  Next: Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier,  Prev: "Hello World" avec call_soon,  Up: Exemples<18>

5.19.1.74 Affichage de la date actuelle avec ‘call_later()’
...........................................................

Un exemple de rappel affichant la date actuelle toutes les secondes.  Le
rappel utilise la méthode *note loop.call_later(): af6. pour se
re-planifier après 5 secondes, puis arrête la boucle d'événements :

     import asyncio
     import datetime

     def display_date(end_time, loop):
         print(datetime.datetime.now())
         if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
             loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
         else:
             loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule the first call to display_date()
     end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
     loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

Voir aussi
..........

un exemple similaire de *note date actuelle: 323d. créé avec une
coroutine et la fonction *note run(): 468.


File: python.info,  Node: Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier,  Next: Gestion des signaux SIGINT et SIGTERM,  Prev: Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later,  Up: Exemples<18>

5.19.1.75 Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier
...............................................................................

Attend qu'un descripteur de fichier reçoive des données en utilisant la
méthode *note loop.add_reader(): 327f. puis ferme la boucle
d'événements :

     import asyncio
     from socket import socketpair

     # Create a pair of connected file descriptors
     rsock, wsock = socketpair()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     def reader():
         data = rsock.recv(100)
         print("Received:", data.decode())

         # We are done: unregister the file descriptor
         loop.remove_reader(rsock)

         # Stop the event loop
         loop.stop()

     # Register the file descriptor for read event
     loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)

     # Simulate the reception of data from the network
     loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

     try:
         # Run the event loop
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         # We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.
         rsock.close()
         wsock.close()
         loop.close()

Voir aussi
..........

   * un *note exemple: 327d. similaire utilisant les transports, les
     protocoles et la méthode *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0,

   * un autre *note exemple: 327b. utilisant la fonction et les flux de
     haut niveau *note asyncio.open_connection(): b08.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des signaux SIGINT et SIGTERM,  Prev: Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier,  Up: Exemples<18>

5.19.1.76 Gestion des signaux 'SIGINT' et 'SIGTERM'
...................................................

(Cet exemple ne fonctionne que sur Unix.)

Register handlers for signals *note SIGINT: 830. and *note SIGTERM:
1398. using the *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3304. method:

     import asyncio
     import functools
     import os
     import signal

     def ask_exit(signame, loop):
         print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
         loop.stop()

     async def main():
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
             loop.add_signal_handler(
                 getattr(signal, signame),
                 functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))

         await asyncio.sleep(3600)

     print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
     print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")

     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Futures,  Next: Transports et Protocoles,  Prev: Boucle d'évènements,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.77 Futures
.................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/futures.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

Les objets 'Future' sont utilisés comme passerelles entre du 'code bas
niveau basé sur des fonctions de rappel' et du code haut niveau
utilisant 'async' et 'await'.

* Menu:

* Fonctions pour Future::
* Objet Future::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/futures.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions pour Future,  Next: Objet Future,  Up: Futures

5.19.1.78 Fonctions pour 'Future'
.................................

 -- Fonction: asyncio.isfuture (obj)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'obj' est soit :

        * une instance de *note asyncio.Future: bbd. ;

        * une instance de *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. ;

        * un objet se comportant comme 'Future' et possédant un attribut
          ‘_asyncio_future_blocking’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.ensure_future (obj, *, loop=None)

     Renvoie :

        * l'objet 'obj' tel quel si c'est un objet *note Future: bbd,
          *note Task: 4c5. ou se comportant comme un 'Future'.  *note
          isfuture(): 331f. est utilisée pour le test ;

        * un objet *note Task: 4c5. encapsulant 'obj' si ce dernier est
          une coroutine (*note iscoroutine(): 46a. est utilisée pour le
          test).  Dans ce cas, l’exécution de la coroutine sera
          planifiée par ‘ensure_future()’ ;

        * un objet *note Task: 4c5. qui attendra ('await') 'obj' si ce
          dernier peut être attendu ('awaitable').  *note iscoroutine():
          46a. est utilisée pour le test.

     Si 'obj' ne correspond à aucun des critères ci-dessus, une
     exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

          Important: Voir aussi la fonction *note create_task(): 5e9.
          qui est la manière privilégiée pour créer des nouvelles
          tâches.

          Gardez une référence au résultat de cette fonction pour éviter
          de voir une tâche disparaitre au milieu de son exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5.1: La fonction accepte n'importe quel
     objet *note awaitable: 1ab.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un ‘DeprecationWarning’ est levé
     si 'obj' n'est pas un objet se comportant comme un 'Future', si
     'loop' n'est pas spécifié et s'il n'y a pas de boucle d'évènements
     en cours d'exécution.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.wrap_future (future, *, loop=None)

     Encapsule un objet *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1191. dans un
     objet *note asyncio.Future: bbd.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un ‘DeprecationWarning’ est levé
     si 'future' n'est pas un objet se comportant comme un 'Future', si
     'loop' n'est pas spécifié et s'il n'y a pas de boucle d'évènements
     en cours d'exécution.


File: python.info,  Node: Objet Future,  Prev: Fonctions pour Future,  Up: Futures

5.19.1.79 Objet 'Future'
........................

 -- Classe: asyncio.Future (*, loop=None)

     Un 'Future' représente le résultat final d'une opération
     asynchrone.  Il n'est pas conçu pour pouvoir être utilisé par
     plusieurs fils d'exécution.

     'Future' est un objet qui peut être attendu (*note awaitable:
     1ab.).  Les coroutines peuvent attendre les objets 'Future' jusqu'à
     ce qu'ils renvoient un résultat, ils lèvent une exception ou qu'ils
     soient annulés.  Un 'Future' peut être attendu plusieurs fois et le
     résultat est le même.

     Les 'Futures' sont habituellement utilisés pour permettre à du code
     bas niveau basé sur des fonctions de rappel (par exemple : les
     protocoles utilisant 'asyncio' *note transports: 3227.) d'interagir
     avec du code haut niveau utilisant 'async' et 'await'.

     Une bonne règle empirique est de ne jamais exposer des objets
     'Future' dans des 'API' destinées à l'utilisateur.  La façon
     privilégiée de créer des objets 'Future' est d'appeler la méthode
     *note loop.create_future(): c69.  Cela permet aux implémentations
     alternatives de la boucle d'évènements d'utiliser leur propre
     implémentation de l'objet 'Future'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du support du module *note
     contextvars: 24.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un ‘DeprecationWarning’ est levé
     si 'loop' n'est pas spécifié et s'il n'y a pas de boucle
     d'évènements en cours d'exécution.

      -- Méthode: result ()

          Renvoie le résultat du 'Future'.

          Si le 'Future' est « terminé » et a un résultat défini par la
          méthode *note set_result(): 3252, ce résultat est renvoyé.

          Si le 'Future' est « terminé » et a une exception définie par
          la méthode *note set_exception(): 3253, cette méthode lève
          l'exception.

          Si le 'Future' a été 'annulé', cette méthode lève une
          exception *note CancelledError: 1b6.

          If the Future's result isn't yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 3256. exception.

      -- Méthode: set_result (result)

          Marque le 'Future' comme « terminé » et définit son résultat.

          Raises an *note InvalidStateError: 3256. error if the Future
          is already 'done'.

      -- Méthode: set_exception (exception)

          Marque le 'Future' comme « terminé » et définit une exception.

          Raises an *note InvalidStateError: 3256. error if the Future
          is already 'done'.

      -- Méthode: done ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le 'Future' est « terminé ».

          Un 'Future' est « terminé » s'il a été « annulé » ou si un
          résultat ou une exception a été définie par les méthodes *note
          set_result(): 3252. ou *note set_exception(): 3253.

      -- Méthode: cancelled ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le 'Future' a été « annulé ».

          Cette méthode est habituellement utilisée pour vérifier qu'un
          'Future' n'est pas « annulé » avant de définir un résultat ou
          une exception pour celui-ci :

               if not fut.cancelled():
                   fut.set_result(42)

      -- Méthode: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Ajoute une fonction de rappel à exécuter lorsque le 'Future'
          est « terminé ».

          L'argument 'callback' est appelé avec l'objet 'Future' comme
          seul argument.

          Si le 'Future' est déjà « terminé » lorsque la méthode est
          appelée, l'exécution de la fonction de rappel est planifiée
          avec *note loop.call_soon(): af4.

          L'argument nommé optionnel 'context' permet de spécifier une
          classe *note contextvars.Context: 1563. personnalisée dans
          laquelle la fonction de rappel s’exécutera.  Le contexte
          actuel est utilisé si 'context' n'est pas fourni.

          *note functools.partial(): 40a. peut être utilisée pour passer
          des paramètres à la fonction de rappel :

               # Call 'print("Future:", fut)' when "fut" is done.
               fut.add_done_callback(
                   functools.partial(print, "Future:"))

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'argument nommé
          'context'.  Voir PEP 567(1) pour plus de détails.

      -- Méthode: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Retire 'callback' de la liste de fonctions de rappel.

          Renvoie le nombre de fonctions de rappel retiré.  La méthode
          renvoie généralement 1, à moins que la fonction ait été
          ajoutée plus d'une fois.

      -- Méthode: cancel (msg=None)

          Annule le 'Future' et planifie l'exécution des fonctions de
          rappel.

          Si le 'Future' est déjà « terminé » ou « annulé », renvoie
          ‘False’.  Autrement, change l'état du 'Future' à « annulé »,
          planifie l'exécution des fonctions de rappel et renvoie
          ‘True’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajout du paramètre 'msg'.

      -- Méthode: exception ()

          Renvoie l'exception définie pour ce 'Future'.

          L'exception, ou ‘None’ si aucune exception n'a été définie,
          est renvoyé seulement si le 'Future' est « terminé ».

          Si le 'Future' a été 'annulé', cette méthode lève une
          exception *note CancelledError: 1b6.

          Si le 'Future' n'est pas encore « terminé », cette méthode
          lève une exception *note InvalidStateError: 3256.

      -- Méthode: get_loop ()

          Renvoie la boucle d'évènements à laquelle le 'Future' est
          attaché.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Cet exemple crée un objet 'Future', puis crée et planifie l’exécution
d'une tâche asynchrone qui définira le résultat du 'Future' et attend
jusqu'à ce que le 'Future' ait un résultat :

     async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
         # Sleep for *delay* seconds.
         await asyncio.sleep(delay)

         # Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.
         fut.set_result(value)

     async def main():
         # Get the current event loop.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a new Future object.
         fut = loop.create_future()

         # Run "set_after()" coroutine in a parallel Task.
         # We are using the low-level "loop.create_task()" API here because
         # we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.
         # Otherwise we could have just used "asyncio.create_task()".
         loop.create_task(
             set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))

         print('hello ...')

         # Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.
         print(await fut)

     asyncio.run(main())

     Important: L'objet 'Future' est conçu pour imiter la classe *note
     concurrent.futures.Future: 1191.  Les principales différences
     sont :

        - contrairement au 'Future asyncio', les instances de *note
          concurrent.futures.Future: 1191. ne peuvent pas être
          attendues ;

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 3321. et *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 3324. n'acceptent pas d'argument
          'timeout' ;

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 3321. et *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 3324. lèvent une exception *note
          InvalidStateError: 3256. lorsque le 'Future' n'est pas
          « terminé » ;

        - les fonctions de rappel enregistrées à l'aide de *note
          asyncio.Future.add_done_callback(): af8. ne sont pas exécutées
          immédiatement mais planifiées avec *note loop.call_soon():
          af4. ;

        - les 'Future asyncio' ne sont pas compatibles avec les
          fonctions *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 181f. et *note
          concurrent.futures.as_completed(): 1608. ;

        - *note asyncio.Future.cancel(): 17d6. accepts an optional ‘msg’
          argument, but *note concurrent.futures.Future.cancel(): 317f.
          does not.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Transports et Protocoles,  Next: Politiques,  Prev: Futures,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.80 Transports et Protocoles
..................................

Préface
.......

Les transports et les protocoles sont utilisés par les API de boucle
d'événements 'de bas niveau' telles que *note loop.create_connection():
5f0.  Ils utilisent un style de programmation basé sur les fonctions de
rappel et permettent des implémentations hautes performances de
protocoles réseau (par exemple, HTTP) ou de communication
inter-processus ('IPC').

Avant tout, les transports et les protocoles ne doivent être utilisés
que dans des bibliothèques et des cadriciels et jamais dans des
applications asynchrones de haut niveau.

Cette page de documentation couvre à la fois *note Transports: 3328. et
*note Protocoles: 3329.

Introduction
............

Au plus haut niveau, le transport concerne 'comment' les octets sont
transmis, tandis que le protocole détermine 'quels' octets transmettre
(et dans une certaine mesure quand).

Pour l'écrire autrement : un transport est une abstraction pour un
connecteur ('socket' ou tout autre point de terminaison d'entrée-sortie)
tandis qu'un protocole est une abstraction pour une application, du
point de vue du transport.

Encore une autre vue est que les interfaces de transport et de protocole
définissent ensemble une interface abstraite pour utiliser les
entrées-sorties réseau et les entrées-sorties inter-processus.

Il existe toujours une relation 1:1 entre les objets de transport et de
protocole : le protocole appelle les méthodes de transport pour envoyer
des données, tandis que le transport appelle les méthodes de protocole
pour lui transmettre les données reçues.

La plupart des méthodes de boucles d'événements orientées connexion
(telles que *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0.) acceptent généralement
un argument 'protocol_factory' utilisé pour créer un objet 'Protocol'
pour une connexion acceptée, représentée par un objet 'Transport'.  De
telles méthodes renvoient généralement un 'n'-uplet ‘(transport,
protocol)’.

Sommaire
........

Cette page de documentation contient les sections suivantes :

   * La section *note Transports: 3328. documente les classes 'asyncio'
     *note BaseTransport: 332a, *note ReadTransport: 3301, *note
     WriteTransport: 3302, *note Transport: 332b, *note
     DatagramTransport: 1768. et *note SubprocessTransport: 330f.

   * La section *note Protocols: 3329. documente les classes 'asyncio'
     *note BaseProtocol: 332c, *note Protocol: 332d, *note
     BufferedProtocol: a8d, *note DatagramProtocol: 6bb. et *note
     SubprocessProtocol: 330e.

   * La section *note Examples: 332e. montre comment utiliser les
     transports, les protocoles et les API de boucle d'événements de bas
     niveau.

* Menu:

* Transports::
* Protocoles::
* Exemples: Exemples<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports,  Next: Protocoles,  Up: Transports et Protocoles

5.19.1.81 Transports
....................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/transports.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les transports sont des classes fournies par *note asyncio: a. afin
d'abstraire différents types de canaux de communication.

Les objets de transport sont toujours instanciés par une *note boucle
d'événements asyncio: d68.

'asyncio' implémente les transports pour TCP, UDP, SSL et les tubes de
sous-processus.  Les méthodes disponibles sur un transport dépendent du
type de transport.

Les classes de transport ne sont *note pas compatibles avec les fils
d'exécution multiples: 324e.

* Menu:

* Hiérarchie des transports::
* Classe de base des Transports::
* Transports en lecture seule::
* Transports en lecture-écriture::
* Transports par datagrammes::
* Transports entre sous-processus::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/transports.py


File: python.info,  Node: Hiérarchie des transports,  Next: Classe de base des Transports,  Up: Transports

5.19.1.82 Hiérarchie des transports
...................................

 -- Classe: asyncio.BaseTransport

     Classe de base pour tous les transports.  Contient des méthodes
     partagées par tous les transports 'asyncio'.

 -- Classe: asyncio.WriteTransport (BaseTransport)

     Transport de base pour les connexions en écriture seule.

     Les instances de la classe 'WriteTransport' sont renvoyées par la
     méthode de boucle d'événements *note loop.connect_write_pipe():
     32aa. et sont également utilisées par les méthodes liées aux
     sous-processus comme *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6.

 -- Classe: asyncio.ReadTransport (BaseTransport)

     Transport de base pour les connexions en lecture seule.

     Les instances de la classe 'ReadTransport' sont renvoyées par la
     méthode de boucle d'événements *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
     32a9. et sont également utilisées par les méthodes liées aux
     sous-processus comme *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6.

 -- Classe: asyncio.Transport (WriteTransport, ReadTransport)

     Interface représentant un transport bidirectionnel, comme une
     connexion TCP.

     L'utilisateur n'instancie pas un transport directement ; il appelle
     une fonction utilitaire, lui transmettant une fabrique de
     protocoles et d'autres informations nécessaires pour créer le
     transport et le protocole.

     Les instances de la classe 'Transport' sont renvoyées ou utilisées
     par des méthodes de boucle d'événements comme *note
     loop.create_connection(): 5f0, *note loop.create_unix_connection():
     3264, *note loop.create_server(): b03, *note loop.sendfile(): 32f7,
     etc.

 -- Classe: asyncio.DatagramTransport (BaseTransport)

     Transport pour les connexions par datagrammes (UDP).

     Les instances de la classe 'DatagramTransport' sont renvoyées par
     la méthode de boucle d'événements *note
     loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.

 -- Classe: asyncio.SubprocessTransport (BaseTransport)

     Abstraction pour représenter une connexion entre un parent et son
     processus enfant au niveau du système d'exploitation.

     Les instances de la classe 'SubprocessTransport' sont renvoyées par
     les méthodes de boucle d'événements *note loop.subprocess_shell():
     32a7. et *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6.


File: python.info,  Node: Classe de base des Transports,  Next: Transports en lecture seule,  Prev: Hiérarchie des transports,  Up: Transports

5.19.1.83 Classe de base des Transports
.......................................

 -- Méthode: BaseTransport.close ()

     Ferme le transport.

     Si le transport a une mémoire tampon pour les données sortantes,
     les données mises en mémoire tampon seront vidées de manière
     asynchrone.  Aucune autre donnée ne sera reçue.  Une fois que
     toutes les données mises en mémoire tampon ont été vidées, la
     méthode *note protocol.connection_lost(): 3331. sera appelée avec
     *note None: 662. comme argument.  Le transport ne doit pas être
     utilisé une fois qu'il est fermé.

 -- Méthode: BaseTransport.is_closing ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le transport se ferme ou est fermé.

 -- Méthode: BaseTransport.get_extra_info (name, default=None)

     Renvoie des informations sur le transport ou les ressources
     sous-jacentes qu'il utilise.

     'name' est une chaîne représentant l'information spécifique au
     transport à obtenir.

     'default' est la valeur à renvoyer si les informations ne sont pas
     disponibles ou si le transport ne prend pas en charge
     l'implémentation de boucle d'événements tierce donnée ou la
     plateforme actuelle.

     Par exemple, le code suivant tente d'obtenir l'objet 'socket'
     sous-jacent du transport :

          sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
          if sock is not None:
              print(sock.getsockopt(...))

     Catégories d'informations pouvant être interrogées sur certains
     transports :

        * 'socket' :

             - ‘'peername'’ : l'adresse distante à laquelle le 'socket'
               est connecté, résultat de *note
               socket.socket.getpeername(): 3332. (‘None’ en cas
               d'erreur)

             - ‘'socket'’ : Instance de *note socket.socket: d90.

             - ‘'sockname'’ : la propre adresse du connecteur, résultat
               de *note socket.socket.getsockname(): 3333.

        * Connecteur ('socket') SSL :

             - ‘'compression'’ : l'algorithme de compression utilisé
               (chaîne de caractères), ou ‘None’ si la connexion n'est
               pas compressée ; résultat de *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.compression(): 1127.

             - ‘'cipher'’ : un 'n'-uplet à trois valeurs contenant le
               nom du chiffrement utilisé, la version du protocole SSL
               qui définit son utilisation et le nombre de bits secrets
               utilisés ; résultat de *note ssl.SSLSocket.cipher():
               3334.

             - ‘'peercert'’ : certificat du pair ; résultat de *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4.

             - ‘sslcontext'’ : instance de *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.

             - ‘'ssl_object'’ : instance de *note ssl.SSLObject: b71. ou
               de *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9.

        * tube :

             - ‘'pipe'’ : objet 'pipe'

        * sous-processus :

             - ‘'sous-processus'’ : instance de *note subprocess.Popen:
               197.

 -- Méthode: BaseTransport.set_protocol (protocol)

     Change le protocole.

     La commutation de protocole ne doit être effectuée que lorsque les
     deux protocoles sont documentés pour prendre en charge la
     commutation.

 -- Méthode: BaseTransport.get_protocol ()

     Renvoie le protocole courant.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports en lecture seule,  Next: Transports en lecture-écriture,  Prev: Classe de base des Transports,  Up: Transports

5.19.1.84 Transports en lecture seule
.....................................

 -- Méthode: ReadTransport.is_reading ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le transport reçoit de nouvelles données.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: ReadTransport.pause_reading ()

     Met en pause l'extrémité de réception du transport.  Aucune donnée
     ne sera transmise à la méthode *note protocol.data_received():
     1749. du protocole jusqu'à ce que *note resume_reading(): b0d. soit
     appelée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: la méthode est idempotente,
     c'est-à-dire qu'elle peut être appelée lorsque le transport est
     déjà en pause ou fermé.

 -- Méthode: ReadTransport.resume_reading ()

     Reprend la réception.  La méthode *note protocol.data_received():
     1749. du protocole sera appelée à nouveau si certaines données sont
     disponibles pour la lecture.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: la méthode est idempotente,
     c'est-à-dire qu'elle peut être appelée alors que le transport est
     déjà en train de lire.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports en lecture-écriture,  Next: Transports par datagrammes,  Prev: Transports en lecture seule,  Up: Transports

5.19.1.85 Transports en lecture-écriture
........................................

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.abort ()

     Ferme le transport immédiatement, sans attendre la fin des
     opérations en attente.  Les données mises en mémoire tampon sont
     perdues.  Aucune autre donnée ne sera reçue.  La méthode *note
     protocol.connection_lost(): 3331. du protocole sera éventuellement
     appelée avec *note None: 662. comme argument.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.can_write_eof ()

     Renvoie *note True: bfd. si le transport gère *note write_eof():
     333a, *note False: b27. sinon.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size ()

     Renvoie la taille actuelle du tampon de sortie utilisé par le
     transport.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits ()

     Obtient les seuils 'high' et 'low' pour le contrôle du flux
     d'écriture.  Renvoie un 'n'-uplet ‘(low, high)’ où 'low' et 'high'
     sont des nombres positifs d'octets.

     Utilisez *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 333c. pour définir les
     limites.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.2.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits (high=None,
          low=None)

     Définit les seuils 'high' et 'low' pour le contrôle du flux
     d'écriture.

     Ces deux valeurs (mesurées en nombre d'octets) contrôlent quand les
     méthodes *note protocol.pause_writing(): 333d. et *note
     protocol.resume_writing(): 333e. du protocole sont appelées.  S'il
     est spécifié, le seuil bas doit être inférieur ou égal au seuil
     haut.  Ni 'high' ni 'low' ne peuvent être négatifs.

     *note pause_writing(): 333d. est appelée lorsque la taille du
     tampon devient supérieure ou égale à la valeur 'high'.  Si
     l'écriture a été interrompue, *note resume_writing(): 333e. est
     appelée lorsque la taille du tampon devient inférieure ou égale à
     la valeur 'low'.

     Les valeurs par défaut sont spécifiques à l'implémentation.  Si
     seul le seuil supérieur est donné, le seuil bas prend par défaut
     une valeur spécifique à l'implémentation inférieure ou égale au
     seuil supérieur.  Définir 'high' sur zéro force également 'low' sur
     zéro et provoque l'appel de *note pause_writing(): 333d. chaque
     fois que le tampon devient non vide.  Définir 'low' sur zéro
     entraîne l'appel de *note resume_writing(): 333e. uniquement une
     fois que le tampon est vide.  L'utilisation de zéro pour l'un ou
     l'autre seuil est généralement sous-optimal car cela réduit les
     possibilités d'effectuer des entrées-sorties et des calculs
     simultanément.

     Utilisez *note get_write_buffer_limits(): db4. pour obtenir les
     limites.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.write (data)

     Écrit des octets de 'data' sur le transport.

     Cette méthode ne bloque pas ; elle met les données en mémoire
     tampon et s'arrange pour qu'elles soient envoyées de manière
     asynchrone.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.writelines (list_of_data)

     Écrit une liste (ou tout itérable) d'octets de données dans le
     transport.  Ceci est fonctionnellement équivalent à appeler *note
     write(): 333f. sur chaque élément produit par l'itérable, mais peut
     être implémentée plus efficacement.

 -- Méthode: WriteTransport.write_eof ()

     Ferme l'extrémité d'écriture du transport après avoir vidé toutes
     les données mises en mémoire tampon.  Des données peuvent encore
     être reçues.

     Cette méthode peut lever *note NotImplementedError: 225. si le
     transport (par exemple SSL) ne prend pas en charge les connexions
     semi-fermées.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports par datagrammes,  Next: Transports entre sous-processus,  Prev: Transports en lecture-écriture,  Up: Transports

5.19.1.86 Transports par datagrammes
....................................

 -- Méthode: DatagramTransport.sendto (data, addr=None)

     Envoie les octets 'data' au pair distant indiqué par 'addr' (une
     adresse cible dépendante du transport).  Si 'addr' est *note None:
     662, les données sont envoyées à l'adresse cible indiquée lors de
     la création du transport.

     Cette méthode ne bloque pas ; elle met les données en mémoire
     tampon et s'arrange pour qu'elles soient envoyées de manière
     asynchrone.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This method can be called with an
     empty bytes object to send a zero-length datagram.  The buffer size
     calculation used for flow control is also updated to account for
     the datagram header.

 -- Méthode: DatagramTransport.abort ()

     Ferme le transport immédiatement, sans attendre la fin des
     opérations en attente.  Les données mises en mémoire tampon sont
     perdues.  Aucune autre donnée ne sera reçue.  La méthode *note
     protocol.connection_lost(): 3331. du protocole sera éventuellement
     appelée avec *note None: 662. comme argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports entre sous-processus,  Prev: Transports par datagrammes,  Up: Transports

5.19.1.87 Transports entre sous-processus
.........................................

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.get_pid ()

     Renvoie l'identifiant du sous processus sous la forme d'un nombre
     entier.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport (fd)

     Renvoie le transport pour le canal de communication correspondant
     au descripteur de fichier 'fd' donné sous forme d'un entier :

        * ‘0’ : transport de flux en lecture de l'entrée standard
          ('stdin'), ou *note None: 662. si le sous-processus n'a pas
          été créé avec ‘stdin=PIPE’

        * ‘1’ : transport de flux en écriture de la sortie standard
          ('stdout'), ou *note None: 662. si le sous-processus n'a pas
          été créé avec ‘stdout=PIPE’

        * ‘2’ : transport de flux en écriture de l'erreur standard
          ('stderr'), ou *note None: 662. si le sous-processus n'a pas
          été créé avec ‘stderr=PIPE’

        * autre 'fd' : *note None: 662.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.get_returncode ()

     Renvoie le code de retour du sous-processus sous la forme d'un
     entier ou *note None: 662. s'il n'a pas été renvoyé, ce qui est
     similaire à l'attribut *note subprocess.Popen.returncode: 1966.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.kill ()

     Tue le sous-processus.

     Sur les systèmes POSIX, la fonction envoie SIGKILL au
     sous-processus.  Sous Windows, cette méthode est un alias pour
     *note terminate(): 3347.

     Voir aussi *note subprocess.Popen.kill(): 1396.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.send_signal (signal)

     Envoie le numéro de 'signal' au sous-processus, comme dans *note
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 1397.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.terminate ()

     Termine le sous-processus.

     On POSIX systems, this method sends *note SIGTERM: 1398. to the
     subprocess.  On Windows, the Windows API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the subprocess.

     Voir aussi *note subprocess.Popen.terminate(): 1395.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessTransport.close ()

     Tue le sous-processus en appelant la méthode *note kill(): 3346.

     Si le sous-processus n'est pas encore terminé, ferme les transports
     des tubes 'stdin', 'stdout' et 'stderr'.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles,  Next: Exemples<19>,  Prev: Transports,  Up: Transports et Protocoles

5.19.1.88 Protocoles
....................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/protocols.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'asyncio' fournit un ensemble de classes mères abstraites qui doivent
être utilisées pour implémenter des protocoles réseau.  Ces classes sont
destinées à être utilisées avec les *note transports: 32ed.

Les sous-classes des classes mères abstraites de protocole peuvent
implémenter certaines ou toutes les méthodes.  Toutes ces méthodes sont
des rappels : elles sont appelées par des transports sur certains
événements, par exemple lors de la réception de certaines données.  Une
méthode de protocole de base doit être appelée par le transport
correspondant.

* Menu:

* Protocoles de base::
* Protocoles de base: Protocoles de base<2>.
* Protocoles connectés::
* Protocoles connectés avec tampon::
* Protocoles par datagrammes (non connectés): Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés.
* Protocoles liés aux sous-processus::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/protocols.py


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles de base,  Next: Protocoles de base<2>,  Up: Protocoles

5.19.1.89 Protocoles de base
............................

 -- Classe: asyncio.BaseProtocol

     Protocole de base avec des méthodes partagées par tous les
     protocoles.

 -- Classe: asyncio.Protocol (BaseProtocol)

     Classe mère pour l'implémentation des protocoles de streaming (TCP,
     sockets Unix, etc.).

 -- Classe: asyncio.BufferedProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     Classe mère pour implémenter des protocoles de streaming avec
     contrôle manuel du tampon de réception.

 -- Classe: asyncio.DatagramProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     Classe mère pour l'implémentation des protocoles par datagrammes
     (UDP).

 -- Classe: asyncio.SubprocessProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     Classe mère pour implémenter des protocoles communiquant avec des
     processus enfants (canaux unidirectionnels).


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles de base<2>,  Next: Protocoles connectés,  Prev: Protocoles de base,  Up: Protocoles

5.19.1.90 Protocoles de base
............................

Tous les protocoles asynchrones peuvent implémenter des rappels pour les
protocoles de base.

Rappels pour les connexions
...........................

Les méthodes de rappel pour les connexions concernent tous les
protocoles, exactement une fois par connexion réussie.  Tous les autres
rappels de protocole ne peuvent être appelés qu'entre ces deux méthodes.

 -- Méthode: BaseProtocol.connection_made (transport)

     Appelée lorsqu'une connexion est établie.

     L'argument 'transport' est le transport représentant la connexion.
     Le protocole est chargé de stocker la référence à son transport.

 -- Méthode: BaseProtocol.connection_lost (exc)

     Appelée lorsqu'une connexion est perdue ou fermée.

     L'argument est soit un objet exception soit *note None: 662.  Ce
     dernier signifie qu'un EOF régulier est reçu, ou que la connexion a
     été interrompue ou fermée par ce côté de la connexion.

Rappels pour le contrôle de flux
................................

Les méthodes de rappel pour le contrôle de flux concernent les
transports et sont utilisés pour suspendre ou reprendre l'écriture
effectuée par le protocole.

Voir la documentation de la méthode *note set_write_buffer_limits():
333c. pour plus de détails.

 -- Méthode: BaseProtocol.pause_writing ()

     Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport dépasse la limite
     supérieure.

 -- Méthode: BaseProtocol.resume_writing ()

     Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport passe sous le seuil
     bas.

Si la taille du tampon est égale au seuil haut, *note pause_writing():
333d. n'est pas appelée : la taille du tampon doit être strictement
supérieure.

Inversement, *note resume_writing(): 333e. est appelée lorsque la taille
du tampon est égale ou inférieure au seuil bas.  Ces conditions de fin
sont importantes pour s'assurer que les choses se déroulent comme prévu
lorsque l'un ou l'autre seuil est à zéro.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles connectés,  Next: Protocoles connectés avec tampon,  Prev: Protocoles de base<2>,  Up: Protocoles

5.19.1.91 Protocoles connectés
..............................

Les méthodes d'événement, telles que *note loop.create_server(): b03,
*note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac, *note loop.create_connection():
5f0, *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3264, *note
loop.connect_accepted_socket(): b0a, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
32a9. et *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 32aa. acceptent les fabriques
qui renvoient des protocoles connectés.

 -- Méthode: Protocol.data_received (data)

     Appelée lorsque certaines données sont reçues.  'data' est un objet
     bytes non vide contenant les données entrantes.

     Le fait que les données soient mises en mémoire tampon, fragmentées
     ou réassemblées dépend du transport.  En général, vous ne devez pas
     vous fier à une sémantique spécifique et plutôt rendre votre
     analyse générique et flexible.  Cependant, les données sont
     toujours reçues dans le bon ordre.

     La méthode peut être appelée un nombre arbitraire de fois
     lorsqu'une connexion est ouverte.

     Cependant, *note protocol.eof_received(): 334d. est appelée au plus
     une fois.  Une fois que ‘eof_received()’ est appelée,
     ‘data_received()’ n'est plus appelée.

 -- Méthode: Protocol.eof_received ()

     Appelée lorsque l'autre extrémité signale qu'il n'enverra plus de
     données (par exemple en appelant *note transport.write_eof(): 333a,
     si l'autre extrémité utilise également 'asyncio').

     Cette méthode peut renvoyer une valeur évaluée à faux (y compris
     ‘None’), auquel cas le transport se ferme de lui-même.  À
     l'inverse, si cette méthode renvoie une valeur évaluée à vrai, le
     protocole utilisé détermine s'il faut fermer le transport.  Puisque
     l'implémentation par défaut renvoie ‘None’, elle ferme
     implicitement la connexion.

     Certains transports, y compris SSL, ne prennent pas en charge les
     connexions semi-fermées, auquel cas renvoyer 'True' à partir de
     cette méthode entraîne la fermeture de la connexion.

Machine à états :

     start -> connection_made
         [-> data_received]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles connectés avec tampon,  Next: Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés,  Prev: Protocoles connectés,  Up: Protocoles

5.19.1.92 Protocoles connectés avec tampon
..........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Les protocoles avec mise en mémoire tampon peuvent être utilisés avec
n'importe quelle méthode de boucle d'événements prenant en charge les
*note protocoles connectés: 334c.

Les implémentations de ‘BufferedProtocol’ permettent une allocation et
un contrôle manuels explicites du tampon de réception.  Les boucles
d'événements peuvent alors utiliser le tampon fourni par le protocole
pour éviter les copies de données inutiles.  Cela peut entraîner une
amélioration notable des performances pour les protocoles qui reçoivent
de grandes quantités de données.  Des implémentations de protocole
sophistiquées peuvent réduire considérablement le nombre d'allocations
de mémoire tampon.

Les méthodes de rappel suivantes sont appelées sur les instances *note
BufferedProtocol: a8d. :

 -- Méthode: BufferedProtocol.get_buffer (sizehint)

     Appelée pour allouer un nouveau tampon de réception.

     'sizehint' est la taille minimale recommandée pour le tampon
     renvoyé.  Il est acceptable de renvoyer des tampons plus petits ou
     plus grands que ce que suggère 'sizehint'.  Lorsqu'il est défini à
     −1, la taille du tampon peut être arbitraire.  C'est une erreur de
     renvoyer un tampon de taille nulle.

     ‘get_buffer()’ doit renvoyer un objet implémentant le *note
     protocole tampon: 38e.

 -- Méthode: BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated (nbytes)

     Appelée lorsque le tampon a été mis à jour avec les données reçues.

     'nbytes' est le nombre total d'octets qui ont été écrits dans la
     mémoire tampon.

 -- Méthode: BufferedProtocol.eof_received ()

     Voir la documentation de la méthode *note protocol.eof_received():
     334d.

*note get_buffer(): 334f. peut être appelée un nombre arbitraire de fois
pendant une connexion.  Cependant, *note protocol.eof_received(): 334d.
est appelée au plus une fois et, si elle est appelée, *note
get_buffer(): 334f. et *note buffer_updated(): 3350. ne seront pas
appelées après.

Machine à états :

     start -> connection_made
         [-> get_buffer
             [-> buffer_updated]?
         ]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés,  Next: Protocoles liés aux sous-processus,  Prev: Protocoles connectés avec tampon,  Up: Protocoles

5.19.1.93 Protocoles par datagrammes (non connectés)
....................................................

Les instances du protocole par datagrammes doivent être construites par
des fabriques de protocole transmises à la méthode *note
loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.

 -- Méthode: DatagramProtocol.datagram_received (data, addr)

     Appelée lorsqu'un datagramme est reçu.  'data' est un objet bytes
     contenant les données entrantes.  'addr' est l'adresse du pair qui
     envoie les données ; le format exact dépend du transport.

 -- Méthode: DatagramProtocol.error_received (exc)

     Appelée lorsqu'une opération d'envoi ou de réception précédente
     lève une *note OSError: 40d.  'exc' est l'instance *note OSError:
     40d.

     Cette méthode est appelée dans de rares cas, lorsque le transport
     (par exemple UDP) détecte qu'un datagramme n'a pas pu être livré à
     son destinataire.  Cependant, il est courant que les datagrammes
     qui ne peuvent être acheminés soient supprimés silencieusement.

     Note: Sur les systèmes BSD (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.), le contrôle de
     flux n'est pas pris en charge pour les protocoles par datagrammes,
     car il n'existe aucun moyen fiable de détecter les échecs d'envoi
     causés par l'écriture d'un trop grand nombre de paquets.

     Le connecteur apparaît toujours « prêt » et les paquets en excès
     sont supprimés.  Une *note OSError: 40d. avec ‘errno’ définie sur
     *note errno.ENOBUFS: 17a4. peut être levée ou non ; si elle est
     levée, c'est communiqué à *note DatagramProtocol.error_received():
     3354. et ignoré dans le cas contraire.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles liés aux sous-processus,  Prev: Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés,  Up: Protocoles

5.19.1.94 Protocoles liés aux sous-processus
............................................

Les instances de protocole de sous-processus doivent être construites
par des fabriques de protocole transmises aux méthodes *note
loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6. et *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received (fd, data)

     Appelée lorsqu'un processus enfant écrit sur sa sortie d'erreur ou
     sa sortie standard.

     'fd' est l'entier représentant le descripteur de fichier du tube.

     'data' est un objet bytes non vide contenant les données reçues.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost (fd, exc)

     Appelé lorsqu'un des tubes de communication avec un sous-processus
     est fermé.

     'fd' est l'entier représentant le descripteur de fichier qui a été
     fermé.

 -- Méthode: SubprocessProtocol.process_exited ()

     Appelée lorsqu'un processus enfant se termine.

     It can be called before *note pipe_data_received(): 1780. and *note
     pipe_connection_lost(): 3356. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<19>,  Prev: Protocoles,  Up: Transports et Protocoles

5.19.1.95 Exemples
..................

* Menu:

* Serveur écho en TCP::
* Client écho en TCP::
* Serveur écho en UDP::
* Client écho en UDP::
* Connexion de connecteurs existants::
* loop.subprocess_exec() et SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec et SubprocessProtocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Serveur écho en TCP,  Next: Client écho en TCP,  Up: Exemples<19>

5.19.1.96 Serveur 'écho' en TCP
...............................

Crée un serveur d'écho TCP en utilisant la méthode *note
loop.create_server(): b03, renvoie les données reçues et ferme la
connexion :

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
             print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))

             print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
             self.transport.write(data)

             print('Close the client socket')
             self.transport.close()


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         server = await loop.create_server(
             EchoServerProtocol,
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()


     asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi
..........

L'exemple *note Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux: 3277. utilise la
fonction de haut niveau *note asyncio.start_server(): b09.


File: python.info,  Node: Client écho en TCP,  Next: Serveur écho en UDP,  Prev: Serveur écho en TCP,  Up: Exemples<19>

5.19.1.97 Client 'écho' en TCP
..............................

Client d'écho TCP utilisant la méthode *note loop.create_connection():
5f0. envoie des données et attend que la connexion soit fermée :

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             transport.write(self.message.encode())
             print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))

         def data_received(self, data):
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print('The server closed the connection')
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = 'Hello World!'

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         # Wait until the protocol signals that the connection
         # is lost and close the transport.
         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi
..........

L'exemple *note Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux: 3274. utilise la
fonction de haut niveau *note asyncio.open_connection(): b08.


File: python.info,  Node: Serveur écho en UDP,  Next: Client écho en UDP,  Prev: Client écho en TCP,  Up: Exemples<19>

5.19.1.98 Serveur 'écho' en UDP
...............................

Serveur d'écho UDP, utilisant la méthode *note
loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f, qui renvoie les données reçues :

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol:
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
             print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
             self.transport.sendto(data, addr)


     async def main():
         print("Starting UDP server")

         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # One protocol instance will be created to serve all
         # client requests.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             EchoServerProtocol,
             local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # Serve for 1 hour.
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Client écho en UDP,  Next: Connexion de connecteurs existants,  Prev: Serveur écho en UDP,  Up: Exemples<19>

5.19.1.99 Client 'écho' en UDP
..............................

Client d'écho UDP, utilisant la méthode *note
loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f, qui envoie des données et ferme le
transport lorsqu'il reçoit la réponse :

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol:
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
             self.transport = None

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport
             print('Send:', self.message)
             self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             print("Close the socket")
             self.transport.close()

         def error_received(self, exc):
             print('Error received:', exc)

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print("Connection closed")
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = "Hello World!"

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Connexion de connecteurs existants,  Next: loop subprocess_exec et SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: Client écho en UDP,  Up: Exemples<19>

5.19.1.100 Connexion de connecteurs existants
.............................................

Attend qu'un connecteur reçoive des données en utilisant la méthode
*note loop.create_connection(): 5f0. avec un protocole :

     import asyncio
     import socket


     class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):

         def __init__(self, on_con_lost):
             self.transport = None
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             # We are done: close the transport;
             # connection_lost() will be called automatically.
             self.transport.close()

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             # The socket has been closed
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the socket to wait for data.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: MyProtocol(on_con_lost), sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network.
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         try:
             await protocol.on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()
             wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi
..........

L'exemple *note Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un
descripteur de fichier: 327e. utilise la méthode de bas niveau *note
loop.add_reader(): 327f. pour enregistrer un descripteur de fichier.

L'exemple *note Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à
l'aide de flux: 327b. utilise des flux de haut niveau créés par la
fonction *note open_connection(): b08. dans une coroutine.


File: python.info,  Node: loop subprocess_exec et SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: Connexion de connecteurs existants,  Up: Exemples<19>

5.19.1.101 'loop.subprocess_exec()' et 'SubprocessProtocol'
...........................................................

Un exemple de protocole de sous-processus utilisé pour obtenir la sortie
d'un sous-processus et attendre la sortie du sous-processus.

Le sous-processus est créé par la méthode *note loop.subprocess_exec():
32a6. :

     import asyncio
     import sys

     class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
         def __init__(self, exit_future):
             self.exit_future = exit_future
             self.output = bytearray()
             self.pipe_closed = False
             self.exited = False

         def pipe_connection_lost(self, fd, exc):
             self.pipe_closed = True
             self.check_for_exit()

         def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
             self.output.extend(data)

         def process_exited(self):
             self.exited = True
             # process_exited() method can be called before
             # pipe_connection_lost() method: wait until both methods are
             # called.
             self.check_for_exit()

         def check_for_exit(self):
             if self.pipe_closed and self.exited:
                 self.exit_future.set_result(True)

     async def get_date():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
         exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)

         # Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
         # redirect the standard output into a pipe.
         transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
             lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdin=None, stderr=None)

         # Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()
         # method of the protocol.
         await exit_future

         # Close the stdout pipe.
         transport.close()

         # Read the output which was collected by the
         # pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.
         data = bytes(protocol.output)
         return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

Voir aussi le *note même exemple: 32bc. écrit à l'aide d'API de haut
niveau.


File: python.info,  Node: Politiques,  Next: Prise en charge de la plate-forme,  Prev: Transports et Protocoles,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.102 Politiques
.....................

Une politique de boucle d'événements est un objet global utilisé pour
obtenir et définir la *note boucle d'événements: d68. actuelle, ainsi
que créer de nouvelles boucles d'événements.  La politique par défaut
peut être *note remplacée: 335f. par des *note alternatives intégrées:
3360. afin d'utiliser d'autres implémentations de boucles d'événements,
ou remplacée par une *note politique personnalisée: 3361. qui peut
remplacer ces comportements.

Un *note objet politique: 3362. définit la notion de 'contexte' et gère
une boucle d'événement distincte par contexte.  Ceci est valable fil par
fil d'exécution par défaut, bien que les politiques personnalisées
puissent définir le 'contexte' différemment.

En utilisant une politique de boucle d'événement personnalisée, le
comportement des fonctions *note get_event_loop(): 2bf, *note
set_event_loop(): 1786. et *note new_event_loop(): 322d. peut être
personnalisé.

Les objets politiques doivent implémenter les API définies dans la
classe mère abstraite *note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 3363.

* Menu:

* Obtenir et définir la politique::
* Objets politiques::
* Observateurs de processus::
* Politiques personnalisées::


File: python.info,  Node: Obtenir et définir la politique,  Next: Objets politiques,  Up: Politiques

5.19.1.103 Obtenir et définir la politique
..........................................

Les fonctions suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour obtenir et définir
la politique du processus en cours :

 -- Fonction: asyncio.get_event_loop_policy ()

     Renvoie la politique actuelle à l'échelle du processus.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.set_event_loop_policy (policy)

     Définit la politique actuelle sur l'ensemble du processus sur
     'policy'.

     Si 'policy' est définie sur ‘None’, la politique par défaut est
     restaurée.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets politiques,  Next: Observateurs de processus,  Prev: Obtenir et définir la politique,  Up: Politiques

5.19.1.104 Objets politiques
............................

La classe mère abstraite de la politique de boucle d'événements est
définie comme suit :

 -- Classe: asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

     Une classe de base abstraite pour les politiques 'asyncio'.

      -- Méthode: get_event_loop ()

          Récupère la boucle d'évènements pour le contexte actuel.

          Renvoie un objet de boucle d'événements en implémentant
          l'interface *note AbstractEventLoop: 94e.

          Cette méthode ne devrait jamais renvoyer ‘None’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: set_event_loop (loop)

          Définit la boucle d'événements du contexte actuel sur 'loop'.

      -- Méthode: new_event_loop ()

          Crée et renvoie un nouvel objet de boucle d'événements.

          Cette méthode ne devrait jamais renvoyer ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: get_child_watcher ()

          Récupère un objet observateur du processus enfant.

          Renvoie un objet observateur implémentant l'interface *note
          AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9.

          Cette fonction est spécifique à Unix.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

      -- Méthode: set_child_watcher (watcher)

          Définit l'observateur du processus enfant actuel à 'watcher'.

          Cette fonction est spécifique à Unix.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

'asyncio' est livré avec les politiques intégrées suivantes :

 -- Classe: asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

     La politique 'asyncio' par défaut.  Utilise *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. sur les plates-formes Unix et *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. sur Windows.

     Il n'est pas nécessaire d'installer la politique par défaut
     manuellement.  'asyncio' est configuré pour utiliser
     automatiquement la politique par défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Sous Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop:
     5f6. est désormais utilisée par défaut.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: The *note get_event_loop(): 2bf.
     method of the default asyncio policy now emits a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. if there is no current event loop set and
     it decides to create one.  In some future Python release this will
     become an error.

 -- Classe: asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

     Politique de boucle d'événements alternative utilisant
     l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements *note ProactorEventLoop:
     5f6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- Classe: asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

     Politique de boucle d'événements alternative utilisant
     l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements *note ProactorEventLoop:
     5f6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Observateurs de processus,  Next: Politiques personnalisées,  Prev: Objets politiques,  Up: Politiques

5.19.1.105 Observateurs de processus
....................................

Un observateur de processus permet de personnaliser la manière dont une
boucle d'événements surveille les processus enfants sous Unix.  Plus
précisément, la boucle d'événements a besoin de savoir quand un
processus enfant s'est terminé.

Dans 'asyncio', les processus enfants sont créés avec les fonctions
*note create_subprocess_exec(): a67. et *note loop.subprocess_exec():
32a6.

'asyncio' définit la classe mère abstraite *note AbstractChildWatcher:
2b9, que les observateurs enfants doivent implémenter et possède quatre
implémentations différentes : *note ThreadedChildWatcher: 467.
(configurée pour être utilisé par défaut), *note MultiLoopChildWatcher:
2b7, *note SafeChildWatcher: 2ba. et *note FastChildWatcher: 2b8.

Voir aussi la section *note sous-processus et fils d'exécution: 32b4.

Les deux fonctions suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour personnaliser
l'implémentation de l'observateur de processus enfant utilisé par la
boucle d'événements 'asyncio' :

 -- Fonction: asyncio.get_child_watcher ()

     Renvoie l'observateur enfant actuel pour la politique actuelle.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: asyncio.set_child_watcher (watcher)

     Définit l'observateur enfant actuel à 'watcher' pour la politique
     actuelle.  'watcher' doit implémenter les méthodes définies dans la
     classe de base *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

     Note: Les implémentations de boucles d'événements tierces peuvent
     ne pas prendre en charge les observateurs enfants personnalisés.
     Pour ces boucles d'événements, utiliser *note set_child_watcher():
     2bb. pourrait être interdit ou n'avoir aucun effet.

 -- Classe: asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher

      -- Méthode: add_child_handler (pid, callback, *args)

          Enregistre un nouveau gestionnaire.

          Organise l'appel de ‘callback(pid, returncode, * args)’
          lorsqu'un processus dont le 'PID' est égal à 'pid' se termine.
          La spécification d'un autre rappel pour le même processus
          remplace le gestionnaire précédent.

          L'appelable 'callback' doit être compatible avec les
          programmes à fils d'exécution multiples.

      -- Méthode: remove_child_handler (pid)

          Supprime le gestionnaire de processus avec un PID égal à
          'pid'.

          La fonction renvoie ‘True’ si le gestionnaire a été supprimé
          avec succès, ‘False’ s'il n'y a rien à supprimer.

      -- Méthode: attach_loop (loop)

          Attache l'observateur à une boucle d'événement.

          Si l'observateur était précédemment attaché à une boucle
          d'événements, il est d'abord détaché avant d'être rattaché à
          la nouvelle boucle.

          Remarque : la boucle peut être ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: is_active ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'observateur est prêt à être utilisé.

          La création d'un sous-processus avec un observateur enfant
          actuel 'inactif' lève une *note RuntimeError: 193.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme l'observateur.

          Cette méthode doit être appelée pour s'assurer que les
          ressources sous-jacentes sont nettoyées.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher

     Cette implémentation démarre un nouveau fil d'exécution en attente
     pour chaque génération de sous-processus.

     Il fonctionne de manière fiable même lorsque la boucle d'événements
     'asyncio' est exécutée dans un fil d'exécution non principal.

     There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
     children ('O'(1) each time a child terminates), but starting a
     thread per process requires extra memory.

     Cet observateur est utilisé par défaut.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Classe: asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher

     Cette implémentation enregistre un gestionnaire de signal ‘SIGCHLD’
     lors de l'instanciation.  Cela peut casser le code tiers qui
     installe un gestionnaire personnalisé pour le signal ‘SIGCHLD’.

     L'observateur évite de perturber un autre code qui crée des
     processus en interrogeant explicitement chaque processus sur un
     signal ‘SIGCHLD’.

     Il n'y a aucune limitation pour l'exécution de sous-processus à
     partir de différents fils d'exécution une fois l'observateur
     installé.

     The solution is safe but it has a significant overhead when
     handling a big number of processes ('O'('n') each time a ‘SIGCHLD’
     is received).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: asyncio.SafeChildWatcher

     Cette implémentation utilise une boucle d'événements active du fil
     d'exécution principal pour gérer le signal ‘SIGCHLD’.  Si le fil
     d'exécution principal n'a pas de boucle d'événements en cours
     d'exécution, un autre fil ne pourra pas générer de sous-processus
     (une *note RuntimeError: 193. est levée).

     L'observateur évite de perturber un autre code qui crée des
     processus en interrogeant explicitement chaque processus sur un
     signal ‘SIGCHLD’.

     This solution is as safe as *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2b7. and
     has the same 'O'('n') complexity but requires a running event loop
     in the main thread to work.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: asyncio.FastChildWatcher

     Cette implémentation récupère tous les processus terminés en
     appelant directement ‘os.waitpid(-1)’, cassant éventuellement un
     autre code qui génère des processus et attend leur fin.

     There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
     children ('O'(1) each time a child terminates).

     Cette solution nécessite une boucle d'événements en cours
     d'exécution dans le fil d'exécution principal pour fonctionner,
     comme *note SafeChildWatcher: 2ba.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher

     Cette implémentation interroge les descripteurs de fichiers de
     processus ('pidfds') pour attendre la fin du processus enfant.  À
     certains égards, *note PidfdChildWatcher: 465. est une
     implémentation d'observateur d'enfants 'Goldilocks'.  Elle ne
     nécessite ni signaux ni threads, n'interfère avec aucun processus
     lancé en dehors de la boucle d'événements et évolue de manière
     linéaire avec le nombre de sous-processus lancés par la boucle
     d'événements.  Le principal inconvénient est que les 'pidfds' sont
     spécifiques à Linux et ne fonctionnent que sur les noyaux récents
     (5.3+).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Politiques personnalisées,  Prev: Observateurs de processus,  Up: Politiques

5.19.1.106 Politiques personnalisées
....................................

Pour implémenter une nouvelle politique de boucle d’événements, il est
recommandé de sous-classer *note DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 336b. et de
réimplémenter les méthodes pour lesquelles un comportement personnalisé
est souhaité, par exemple :

     class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):

         def get_event_loop(self):
             """Get the event loop.

             This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.
             """
             loop = super().get_event_loop()
             # Do something with loop ...
             return loop

     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de la plate-forme,  Next: Extension,  Prev: Politiques,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.107 Prise en charge de la plate-forme
............................................

Le module *note asyncio: a. est conçu pour être portable, mais certaines
plates-formes présentent des différences et des limitations subtiles en
raison de l'architecture et des capacités sous-jacentes des
plates-formes.

* Menu:

* Toutes plateformes::
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* macOS: macOS<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Toutes plateformes,  Next: Windows<76>,  Up: Prise en charge de la plate-forme

5.19.1.108 Toutes plateformes
.............................

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 327f. et *note loop.add_writer(): 32fb. ne
     peuvent pas être utilisées pour surveiller les entrées-sorties de
     fichiers.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<76>,  Next: macOS<49>,  Prev: Toutes plateformes,  Up: Prise en charge de la plate-forme

5.19.1.109 Windows
..................

'Code source :' Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py(2), Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py(3)

__________________________________________________________________

Modifié dans la version 3.8: sous Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6.
est désormais la boucle d'événements par défaut.

Aucune boucle d'événements sous Windows ne prend en charge les méthodes
suivantes :

   * *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3264. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac. are not supported.  The *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 17db. socket family is specific to Unix.

   * *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3304. et *note
     loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3305. ne sont pas prises en charge.

*note SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. a les limitations suivantes :

   * *note SelectSelector: 3378. est utilisée pour attendre les
     événements de connecteur ('sockets') : elle prend en charge les
     connecteurs et est limitée à 512 connecteurs.

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 327f. et *note loop.add_writer(): 32fb.
     n'acceptent que les descripteurs de connecteur (par exemple, les
     descripteurs de tube fichier ne sont pas pris en charge).

   * Les tubes ne sont pas pris en charge, donc les méthodes *note
     loop.connect_read_pipe(): 32a9. et *note loop.connect_write_pipe():
     32aa. ne sont pas implémentées.

   * Les *note sous-processus: 3221. ne sont pas pris en charge,
     c'est-à-dire que les méthodes *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6.
     et *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7. ne sont pas implémentées.

*note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. a les limitations suivantes :

   * Les méthodes *note loop.add_reader(): 327f. et *note
     loop.add_writer(): 32fb. ne sont pas prises en charge.

La résolution de l'horloge monotone sous Windows est généralement
d'environ 15,6 millisecondes.  La meilleure résolution est de 0,5
milliseconde.  La résolution dépend du matériel (disponibilité de
HPET(4)) et de la configuration de Windows.

* Menu:

* Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py

   (4) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows,  Up: Windows<76>

5.19.1.110 Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows
..........................................................

Sous Windows, la boucle d'événements par défaut *note ProactorEventLoop:
5f6. prend en charge les sous-processus, contrairement à *note
SelectorEventLoop: 5f5.

La fonction *note policy.set_child_watcher(): 2bd. n'est pas non plus
prise en charge, car *note ProactorEventLoop: 5f6. a un mécanisme
différent pour surveiller les processus enfants.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<49>,  Prev: Windows<76>,  Up: Prise en charge de la plate-forme

5.19.1.111 macOS
................

Les versions modernes de macOS sont entièrement prises en charge.

macOS ≤ 10.8
............

Sur macOS 10.6, 10.7 et 10.8, la boucle d'événements par défaut utilise
*note selectors.KqueueSelector: 337b, qui ne prend pas en charge les
périphériques de caractères sur ces versions.  La *note
SelectorEventLoop: 5f5. peut être configurée manuellement pour utiliser
*note SelectSelector: 3378. ou *note PollSelector: bc6. pour prendre en
charge les périphériques de caractères sur ces anciennes versions de
macOS. Par exemple :

     import asyncio
     import selectors

     selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
     loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)


File: python.info,  Node: Extension,  Next: Index de l'API de haut niveau,  Prev: Prise en charge de la plate-forme,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.112 Extension
....................

La direction principale pour l'extension d'*note asyncio: a. est
l'écriture de classes 'event loop' personnalisées.  'Asyncio' a des
assistants qui peuvent être utilisés pour simplifier cette tâche.

     Note: la réutilisation du code asynchrone existant doit se faire
     avec prudence, une nouvelle version de Python est libre de rompre
     la compatibilité descendante dans la partie 'interne' de l'API.

* Menu:

* Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée::
* Constructeurs privés Future et Task::
* Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches::


File: python.info,  Node: Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée,  Next: Constructeurs privés Future et Task,  Up: Extension

5.19.1.113 Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée
...........................................................

*note asyncio.AbstractEventLoop: 94e. déclare de très nombreuses
méthodes.  Les mettre en œuvre à partir de zéro est un travail
fastidieux.

Une boucle d'événements peut obtenir gratuitement l'implémentation de
nombreuses méthodes courantes en héritant de ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

Le successeur doit, pour ce qui le concerne, implémenter un ensemble de
méthodes 'privées' déclarées mais non implémentées dans
‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

Par exemple, ‘loop.create_connection()’ vérifie les arguments, résout
les adresses DNS et appelle ‘loop._make_socket_transport()’ qui doit
être implémentée par la classe héritée.  La méthode
‘_make_socket_transport()’ n'est pas documentée et est considérée comme
une API 'interne'.


File: python.info,  Node: Constructeurs privés Future et Task,  Next: Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches,  Prev: Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée,  Up: Extension

5.19.1.114 Constructeurs privés 'Future' et 'Task'
..................................................

*note asyncio.Future: bbd. et *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. ne doivent jamais
être créées directement, veuillez utiliser les correspondances *note
loop.create_future(): c69. et *note loop.create_task(): 9cc, ou les
fabriques *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9. à la place.

Cependant, les 'boucles d'événements' tierces peuvent 'réutiliser' les
implémentations de 'Future' et de 'Task' intégrées dans le but d'obtenir
gratuitement un code complexe et hautement optimisé.

À cette fin, les constructeurs 'privés' suivants sont répertoriés :

 -- Méthode: Future.__init__ (*, loop=None)

     Crée une instance de la 'future' native.

     'loop' est une instance de boucle d'événements facultative.

 -- Méthode: Task.__init__ (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None)

     Crée une instance de la 'Task' native.

     'loop' est une instance de boucle d'événements facultative.  Le
     reste des arguments est décrit dans la description de *note
     loop.create_task(): 9cc.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: l'argument 'contexte' a été ajouté.


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches,  Prev: Constructeurs privés Future et Task,  Up: Extension

5.19.1.115 Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches
........................................................

A third party task implementation should call the following functions to
keep a task visible by *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 945. and *note
asyncio.current_task(): 469.:

 -- Fonction: asyncio._register_task (task)

     Enregistre une nouvelle 'tâche' comme gérée par 'asyncio'.

     Appelez la fonction à partir d'un constructeur de tâche.

 -- Fonction: asyncio._unregister_task (task)

     Désinscrit une 'tâche' des structures internes 'asyncio'.

     La fonction doit être appelée lorsqu'une tâche est sur le point de
     se terminer.

 -- Fonction: asyncio._enter_task (loop, task)

     Bascule la tâche en cours vers l'argument 'task'.

     Appelez la fonction juste avant d'exécuter une partie de la
     'coroutine' intégrée (*note coroutine.send(): 1f84. ou *note
     coroutine.throw(): 4e4.).

 -- Fonction: asyncio._leave_task (loop, task)

     Rebascule la tâche en cours de 'task' à ‘None’.

     Appelez la fonction juste après l'exécution de *note
     coroutine.send(): 1f84. ou *note coroutine.throw(): 4e4.


File: python.info,  Node: Index de l'API de haut niveau,  Next: Index de l'API de bas niveau,  Prev: Extension,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.116 Index de l'API de haut niveau
........................................

Cette page répertorie toutes les API 'async/await' de haut niveau
disponibles dans l'API 'asyncio'.

* Menu:

* Tâches::
* Files d'attente::
* Sous-processus: Sous-processus<2>.
* Flux (streams): Flux streams<2>.
* Synchronisation::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tâches,  Next: Files d'attente,  Up: Index de l'API de haut niveau

5.19.1.117 Tâches
.................

Utilitaires pour exécuter des programmes asynchrones, créer des tâches
et attendre plusieurs choses avec des délais maximaux d'attente.

*note run(): 468.                                      Crée une boucle d'événements, exécute une coroutine,
                                                       ferme la boucle.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Runner: 5ed.                                     Gestionnaire de contexte qui simplifie plusieurs
                                                       appels de fonction asynchrones.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Task: 4c5.                                       Objet de tâche.
                                                       
                                                       
*note TaskGroup: 1b3.                                  Gestionnaire de contexte pour un groupe de tâches.
                                                       Fournit un moyen pratique et fiable d'attendre la
                                                       fin de toutes les tâches du groupe.
                                                       
                                                       
*note create_task(): 5e9.                              Démarre une tâche asynchrone, puis la renvoie.
                                                       
                                                       
*note current_task(): 469.                             Renvoie la tâche actuelle.
                                                       
                                                       
*note all_tasks(): 945.                                Renvoie toutes les tâches qui ne sont pas encore
                                                       terminées pour une boucle d'événements.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note sleep(): a5f.                            Dort quelques secondes.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note gather(): 5ea.                           Planifie et attend des choses concurrentes.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait_for(): 5ec.                         Exécute avec un délai d'attente.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note shield(): a60.                           Empêche l'annulation.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait(): 46b.                             Surveille l'achèvement.
                                                       
                                                       
*note timeout(): 5eb.                                  Exécute avec un délai d'attente.  Utile dans les cas
                                                       où ‘wait_for’ ne convient pas.
                                                       
                                                       
*note to_thread(): 8d7.                                Exécute de manière asynchrone une fonction dans un
                                                       fil d'exécution séparé.
                                                       
                                                       
*note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 870.                 Planifie une coroutine à partir d'un autre fil
                                                       d'exécution.
                                                       
                                                       
‘for in’ *note as_completed(): 1a8.                    Surveille l'achèvement avec une boucle ‘for’.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.gather() pour exécuter des choses en
     parallèle: 323f.

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.wait_for() pour appliquer un délai
     d'attente: 3247.

   * *note Annulation: 325c.

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.sleep(): 323d.

   * Voir aussi la page de *note documentation de Tasks: 321f.


File: python.info,  Node: Files d'attente,  Next: Sous-processus<2>,  Prev: Tâches,  Up: Index de l'API de haut niveau

5.19.1.118 Files d'attente
..........................

Les files d'attente doivent être utilisées pour répartir le travail
entre plusieurs tâches asynchrones, implémenter des pools de connexions
et des modèles 'pub'/'sub'.

*note Queue: a66.                                      File d'attente FIFO (premier entré, premier sorti).
                                                       
                                                       
*note PriorityQueue: 32cd.                             File d'attente avec gestion des priorités.
                                                       
                                                       
*note LifoQueue: 32cf.                                 Pile LIFO (dernier entré, premier sorti).
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.Queue pour répartir la charge de
     travail entre plusieurs tâches: 32d1.

   * Voir aussi la page de *note documentation des Queues: 3222.


File: python.info,  Node: Sous-processus<2>,  Next: Flux streams<2>,  Prev: Files d'attente,  Up: Index de l'API de haut niveau

5.19.1.119 Sous-processus
.........................

Utilitaires pour générer des sous-processus et exécuter des commandes
shell.

‘await’ *note create_subprocess_exec(): a67.           Crée un sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note create_subprocess_shell(): a68.          Exécute une commande shell.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Exécution d'une commande shell: 32a0.

   * Voir aussi la documentation des *note API subprocess: 3221.


File: python.info,  Node: Flux streams<2>,  Next: Synchronisation,  Prev: Sous-processus<2>,  Up: Index de l'API de haut niveau

5.19.1.120 Flux ('streams')
...........................

API de haut niveau pour travailler avec les entrées-sorties réseau.

‘await’ *note open_connection(): b08.                  Établit une connexion TCP.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note open_unix_connection(): 3263.            Établit une connexion sur un connecteur Unix.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_server(): b09.                     Démarre un serveur TCP.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_unix_server(): 3265.               Démarre un serveur de socket Unix.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamReader: 1882.                              Objet 'async/await' de haut niveau pour recevoir des
                                                       données réseau.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamWriter: 16ba.                              Objet 'async/await' de haut niveau pour envoyer des
                                                       données réseau.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Exemple de client TCP: 325f.

   * Voir aussi la documentation des *note API streams: 3220.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronisation,  Next: Exceptions<14>,  Prev: Flux streams<2>,  Up: Index de l'API de haut niveau

5.19.1.121 Synchronisation
..........................

Primitives de synchronisation de type thread qui peuvent être utilisées
dans les tâches.

*note Lock: a61.                                       Verrou mutex.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Event: a62.                                      Objet événement.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Condition: a63.                                  Objet condition.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Semaphore: a64.                                  Sémaphore.
                                                       
                                                       
*note BoundedSemaphore: a65.                           Sémaphore avec des bornes.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Barrier: 5ee.                                    Objet barrière.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.Event: 328a.

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.Barrier: 3298.

   * Voir aussi la documentation des *note primitives asyncio de
     synchronisation: 3223.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<14>,  Prev: Synchronisation,  Up: Index de l'API de haut niveau

5.19.1.122 Exceptions
.....................

*note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b6.                     Levée lorsqu'une tâche est annulée.  Voir aussi
                                                       *note Task.cancel(): 1b5.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.BrokenBarrierError: 5ef.                 Levée lorsqu'une barrière est brisée.  Voir aussi
                                                       *note Barrier.wait(): 3297.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Utilisation de CancelledError pour exécuter le code sur la
     demande d'annulation: 325c.

   * Voir aussi la liste complète des *note exceptions spécifiques
     asyncio: 32d3.


File: python.info,  Node: Index de l'API de bas niveau,  Next: Programmer avec asyncio,  Prev: Index de l'API de haut niveau,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.123 Index de l'API de bas niveau
.......................................

Cette page répertorie toutes les API asynchrones de bas niveau.

* Menu:

* Obtenir une boucle d'évènements::
* Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements<2>.
* Transports: Transports<2>.
* Protocoles: Protocoles<2>.
* Politiques de boucle d'événements::


File: python.info,  Node: Obtenir une boucle d'évènements,  Next: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements<2>,  Up: Index de l'API de bas niveau

5.19.1.124 Obtenir une boucle d'évènements
..........................................

*note asyncio.get_running_loop(): afb.                 La fonction 'préférée' pour obtenir la boucle
                                                       d'événements en cours d'exécution.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2bf.                   Renvoie une instance de boucle d'événements (en
                                                       cours d'exécution ou actuelle via la politique
                                                       actuelle).
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1786.                  Définit la boucle d'événements comme actuelle via la
                                                       politique actuelle.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 322d.                  Crée une nouvelle boucle d'événements.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.get_running_loop(): 3325.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements<2>,  Next: Transports<2>,  Prev: Obtenir une boucle d'évènements,  Up: Index de l'API de bas niveau

5.19.1.125 Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements
.............................................

Voir aussi la section principale de la documentation sur les *note
Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements: 32e0.

Cycle de vie
............

*note loop.run_until_complete(): c67.                  Exécute un Future/Task/awaitable jusqu'à ce qu'il
                                                       soit terminé.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.run_forever(): 32e2.                        Exécute la boucle d'événements pour toujours.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.stop(): c6c.                                Arrête l'exécution de la boucle d'évènements.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.close(): 32e4.                              Arrête la boucle d'évènements.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_running(): 32e3.                         Renvoie ‘True’ si la boucle d'événements est en
                                                       cours d'exécution.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_closed(): db3.                           Renvoie ‘True’ si la boucle d'évènements est
                                                       arrêtée.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): c6d.          Ferme les générateurs asynchrones.
                                                       

Débogage
........

*note loop.set_debug(): db1.                           Active ou désactive le mode débogage.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_debug(): db2.                           Renvoie le mode de débogage actuel.
                                                       

Planification des rappels
.........................

*note loop.call_soon(): af4.                           Invoque un rappel bientôt.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): af5.                Une variante compatible avec les programmes à fils
                                                       d'exécution multiples de
                                                       *note loop.call_soon(): af4.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_later(): af6.                          Invoque un rappel 'après' le temps imparti.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_at(): af7.                             Invoque un rappel 'à l'heure' indiquée.
                                                       

Pool de fils d'exécution ou processus
.....................................

‘await’ *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8.             Exécute une fonction utilisant beaucoup de CPU ou
                                                       une autre fonction bloquante dans un exécuteur
                                                       *note concurrent.futures: 21.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_default_executor(): 72f.                Définit l'exécuteur par défaut pour
                                                       *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8.
                                                       

Tâches et 'Futures'
...................

*note loop.create_future(): c69.                       Crée un objet *note Future: bbd.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.create_task(): 9cc.                         Planifie la coroutine en tant que *note Task: 4c5.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_task_factory(): db5.                    Définit une fabrique utilisée par
                                                       *note loop.create_task(): 9cc. pour créer des
                                                       *note Tasks: 4c5.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_task_factory(): db6.                    Récupère la fabrique que
                                                       *note loop.create_task(): 9cc. utilise pour créer
                                                       des *note Tasks: 4c5.
                                                       

DNS
...

‘await’ *note loop.getaddrinfo(): c04.                 Version asynchrone de
                                                       *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 170e.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.getnameinfo(): c05.                 Version asynchrone de
                                                       *note socket.getnameinfo(): 167e.
                                                       

Réseau et communication inter-processus
.......................................

‘await’ *note loop.create_connection(): 5f0.           Ouvre une connexion TCP.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_server(): b03.               Crée un serveur TCP.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3264.     Ouvre une connexion socket Unix.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ac.          Crée un serveur de socket Unix.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): b0a.     Enveloppe une *note socket: d90. dans une paire
                                                       ‘(transport, protocol)’.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f.    Ouvre une connexion par datagramme (UDP).
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sendfile(): 32f7.                   Envoie un fichier via un transport.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.start_tls(): af9.                   Bascule une connexion existante vers TLS.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 32a9.          Enveloppe une extrémité de lecture d'un tube dans
                                                       une paire ‘(transport, protocol)’.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 32aa.         Enveloppe une extrémité d'écriture d'un tube dans
                                                       une paire ‘(transport, protocol)’.
                                                       

Interfaces de connexion ('sockets')
...................................

‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv(): c01.                   Reçoit les données de *note socket: d90.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv_into(): afa.              Reçoit les données de *note socket: d90. dans un
                                                       tampon.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom(): 5f3.               Reçoit un datagramme de *note socket: d90.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom_into(): 5f4.          Reçoit un datagramme de *note socket: d90. dans un
                                                       tampon.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendall(): c02.                Envoie des données à *note socket: d90.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendto(): 5f2.                 Envoie un datagramme via *note socket: d90. à
                                                       l'adresse indiquée.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_connect(): db9.                Connecte la *note socket: d90.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_accept(): c03.                 Accepte une connexion *note socket: d90.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendfile(): afe.               Envoie un fichier via *note socket: d90.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_reader(): 327f.                         Commence à observer un descripteur de fichier pour
                                                       la disponibilité en lecture.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_reader(): 32fa.                      Arrête d'observer un descripteur de fichier pour la
                                                       disponibilité en lecture.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_writer(): 32fb.                         Commence à observer un descripteur de fichier pour
                                                       la disponibilité en écriture.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_writer(): 32fc.                      Arrête d'observer un descripteur de fichier pour la
                                                       disponibilité en écriture.
                                                       

Signaux Unix
............

*note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3304.                 Ajoute un gestionnaire pour le *note signal: c5.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3305.              Supprime un gestionnaire pour le *note signal: c5.
                                                       

Sous-processus
..............

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6.                    Crée un sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7.                   Crée un sous-processus à partir d'une commande
                                                       shell.
                                                       

Gestion des erreurs
...................

*note loop.call_exception_handler(): 3309.             Appelle le gestionnaire d'exceptions.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_exception_handler(): 3308.              Définit un nouveau gestionnaire d'exceptions.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_exception_handler(): c6a.               Renvoie le gestionnaire d'exceptions actuel.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.default_exception_handler(): 330a.          Implémentation du gestionnaire d'exceptions par
                                                       défaut.
                                                       

Exemples
........

   * *note Utilisation d'asyncio.new_event_loop() et de
     loop.run_forever(): 3315.

   * *note Utilisation de loop.call_later(): 3317.

   * Utilisation de ‘loop.create_connection()’ pour implémenter *note un
     client écho: 3276.

   * Utilisation de ‘loop.create_connection()’ pour *note connecter un
     socket: 327d.

   * *note Utilisation de add_reader() pour surveiller un descripteur de
     fichier pour les événements de lecture: 327e.

   * *note Utilisation de loop.add_signal_handler(): 331a.

   * *note Utilisation de loop.subprocess_exec(): 32bd.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports<2>,  Next: Protocoles<2>,  Prev: Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements<2>,  Up: Index de l'API de bas niveau

5.19.1.126 Transports
.....................

Tous les transports mettent en œuvre les méthodes suivantes :

*note transport.close(): 32f0.                         Ferme le transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.is_closing(): c68.                     Renvoie ‘True’ si le transport se ferme ou est
                                                       fermé.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_extra_info(): a8c.                 Demande d'informations sur le transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_protocol(): 3335.                  Change le protocole.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_protocol(): 3336.                  Renvoie le protocole courant.
                                                       

Transports pouvant recevoir des données (connexions TCP et Unix, pipes,
etc.).  Renvoyé par des méthodes telles que *note
loop.create_connection(): 5f0, *note loop.create_unix_connection():
3264, *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 32a9, etc :

Transports en lecture
.....................

*note transport.is_reading(): b0c.                     Renvoie ‘True’ si le transport est en cours de
                                                       réception.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.pause_reading(): b0e.                  Suspend la réception.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.resume_reading(): b0d.                 Reprend la réception.
                                                       

Transports pouvant envoyer des données (connexions TCP et Unix, pipes,
etc.).  Renvoyé par des méthodes telles que *note
loop.create_connection(): 5f0, *note loop.create_unix_connection():
3264, *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 32aa, etc :

Transports en écriture
......................

*note transport.write(): 333f.                         Écrit des données dans le transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.writelines(): 153a.                    Écrit des tampons dans le transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.can_write_eof(): 3339.                 Renvoie *note True: bfd. si le transport prend en
                                                       charge l'envoi d'EOF.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.write_eof(): 333a.                     Ferme et envoie EOF après avoir vidé les données
                                                       mises en mémoire tampon.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3312.                         Ferme immédiatement le transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_size(): 333b.         Return the current size of the output buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): db4.        Renvoie les seuils haut et bas pour le contrôle du
                                                       flux d'écriture.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_write_buffer_limits(): 333c.       Définit de nouvelles bornes hautes et basses pour le
                                                       contrôle du flux d'écriture.
                                                       

Transports renvoyés par *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 71f. :

Transports par datagrammes
..........................

*note transport.sendto(): 1ad.                         Envoie des données au pair distant.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3341.                         Ferme immédiatement le transport.
                                                       

Abstraction de transport de bas niveau sur les sous-processus.  Renvoyé
par *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 32a6. et *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 32a7. :

Transports vers des sous-processus
..................................

*note transport.get_pid(): 3343.                       Renvoie l'ID de processus du sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_pipe_transport(): 3344.            Renvoie le transport pour le tube de communication
                                                       demandé ('stdin', 'stdout' ou 'stderr').
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_returncode(): 3345.                Renvoie le code de retour du sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.kill(): 3346.                          Tue le sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.send_signal(): 3348.                   Envoie un signal au sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.terminate(): 3347.                     Termine le sous-processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.close(): 3349.                         Tue le sous-processus et ferme tous les tubes.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles<2>,  Next: Politiques de boucle d'événements,  Prev: Transports<2>,  Up: Index de l'API de bas niveau

5.19.1.127 Protocoles
.....................

Les classes de protocole peuvent implémenter les 'méthodes de rappel'
suivantes :

‘callback’ *note connection_made(): 32ee.              Appelée lorsqu'une connexion est établie.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note connection_lost(): 3331.              Appelé lorsqu'une connexion est perdue ou fermée.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pause_writing(): 333d.                Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport
                                                       dépasse le seuil haut.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note resume_writing(): 333e.               Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport passe
                                                       sous le seuil bas.
                                                       

Protocoles de flux (TCP, Unix Sockets, Pipes)
.............................................

‘callback’ *note data_received(): 1749.                Appelée lorsque certaines données sont reçues.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 334d.                 Appelée lorsqu'un EOF est reçu.
                                                       

Protocoles de flux tamponnés
............................

‘callback’ *note get_buffer(): 334f.                   Appelée pour allouer un nouveau tampon de réception.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note buffer_updated(): 3350.               Appelée lorsque le tampon a été mis à jour avec les
                                                       données reçues.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 3351.                 Appelée lorsqu'un EOF est reçu.
                                                       

Protocoles par datagrammes (non-connectés)
..........................................

‘callback’ *note datagram_received(): 3353.            Appelée lorsqu'un datagramme est reçu.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note error_received(): 3354.               Appelée lorsqu'une opération d'envoi ou de réception
                                                       précédente lève une *note OSError: 40d.
                                                       

Protocoles liés aux sous-processus
..................................

‘callback’ *note pipe_data_received(): 1780.           Appelée lorsqu'un processus enfant écrit sur sa
                                                       sortie d'erreur ou sa sortie standard.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pipe_connection_lost(): 3356.         Appelée lorsqu'un tube de communication avec un
                                                       sous-processus est fermée.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note process_exited(): 177f.               Called when the child process has exited.  It can be
                                                       called before *note pipe_data_received(): 1780. and
                                                       *note pipe_connection_lost(): 3356. methods.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Politiques de boucle d'événements,  Prev: Protocoles<2>,  Up: Index de l'API de bas niveau

5.19.1.128 Politiques de boucle d'événements
............................................

Les politiques sont un mécanisme de bas niveau pour modifier le
comportement de fonctions telles que *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
2bf.  Voir aussi la section principale *note Politiques: 32da. pour plus
de détails.

Accès aux politiques
....................

*note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 3365.           Renvoie la politique actuelle à l'échelle du
                                                       processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 3366.           Définit une nouvelle politique à l'échelle du
                                                       processus.
                                                       
                                                       
*note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 3363.                   Classe mère pour les objets de politique.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Programmer avec asyncio,  Prev: Index de l'API de bas niveau,  Up: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

5.19.1.129 Programmer avec 'asyncio'
....................................

La programmation asynchrone est différente de la programmation
« séquentielle » classique.

Cette page liste les pièges et erreurs communs que le développeur
pourrait rencontrer et décrit comment les éviter.

* Menu:

* Mode débogage::
* Programmation concurrente et multi-fils::
* Exécution de code bloquant::
* Journalisation: Journalisation<3>.
* Détection des coroutines jamais attendues::
* Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées::


File: python.info,  Node: Mode débogage,  Next: Programmation concurrente et multi-fils,  Up: Programmer avec asyncio

5.19.1.130 Mode débogage
........................

Par défaut, 'asyncio' s'exécute en mode production.  Pour faciliter le
développement, 'asyncio' possède un « mode débogage ».

Il existe plusieurs façons d'activer le mode débogage de 'asyncio' :

   * en réglant la variable d’environnement *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:
     1d0b. à ‘1’ ;

   * en utilisant le mode développement de Python (*note Python
     Development Mode: 1f5.) ;

   * en passant ‘debug=True’ à la fonction *note asyncio.run(): 468. ;

   * en appelant la méthode *note loop.set_debug(): db1.

En plus d'activer le mode débogage, vous pouvez également :

   * setting the log level of the *note asyncio logger: 3399. to *note
     logging.DEBUG: 1caf, for example the following snippet of code can
     be run at startup of the application:

          logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

   * configurer le module *note warnings: 111. afin d'afficher les
     avertissements de type *note ResourceWarning: 241. ; vous pouvez
     faire cela en utilisant l'option *note -W: 8b6. ‘default’ sur la
     ligne de commande.

Lorsque le mode débogage est activé :

   * 'asyncio' surveille les *note coroutines qui ne sont jamais
     attendues: 339a. et les journalise ; cela atténue le problème des
     « 'await' oubliés » ;

   * beaucoup d''API' 'asyncio' ne prenant pas en charge les fils
     d'exécution multiples (comme les méthodes *note loop.call_soon():
     af4. et *note loop.call_at(): af7.) lèvent une exception si elles
     sont appelées par le mauvais fil d’exécution ;

   * le temps d'exécution du sélecteur d'entrée-sortie est journalisé si
     une opération prend trop de temps à s'effectuer ;

   * les fonctions de rappel prenant plus de 100 ms sont journalisées ;
     l'attribut *note loop.slow_callback_duration: 330c. peut être
     utilisé pour changer la limite (en secondes) après laquelle une
     fonction de rappel est considérée comme « lente ».


File: python.info,  Node: Programmation concurrente et multi-fils,  Next: Exécution de code bloquant,  Prev: Mode débogage,  Up: Programmer avec asyncio

5.19.1.131 Programmation concurrente et multi-fils
..................................................

Une boucle d'évènements s'exécute dans un fil d’exécution (typiquement
dans le fil principal) et traite toutes les fonctions de rappel
('callbacks') ainsi que toutes les tâches dans ce même fil.  Lorsqu'une
tâche est en cours d'exécution dans la boucle d'évènements, aucune autre
tâche ne peut s'exécuter dans ce fil.  Quand une tâche traite une
expression ‘await’, elle se suspend et laisse la boucle d’évènements
traiter la tâche suivante.

Pour planifier un *note rappel: 28ca. depuis un autre fil d'exécution
système, utilisez la méthode *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): af5.
Par exemple :

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)

La plupart des objets 'asyncio' ne sont pas conçus pour être exécutés
dans un contexte multi-fils ('thread-safe') mais cela n'est en général
pas un problème à moins que l'objet ne fasse appel à du code se trouvant
en dehors d'une tâche ou d'une fonction de rappel.  Dans ce dernier cas,
si le code appelle les 'API' bas niveau de 'asyncio', utilisez la
méthode *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): af5.  Par exemple :

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)

Pour planifier un objet concurrent depuis un autre fil d'exécution
système, utilisez *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 870.  Cette fonction
renvoie un objet *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1191. pour accéder au
résultat :

     async def coro_func():
          return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)

     # Later in another OS thread:

     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
     # Wait for the result:
     result = future.result()

To handle signals the event loop must be run in the main thread.

La méthode *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8. peut être utilisée avec
*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e. pour exécuter du code
bloquant dans un autre fil d'exécution, afin de ne pas bloquer le fil où
la boucle d'évènements se trouve.

Il n'y a actuellement aucune façon de planifier des coroutines ou des
rappels directement depuis un autre processus (comme, par exemple, un
processus démarré avec *note multiprocessing: 93.).  La section *note
Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements: d68. liste les 'API' pouvant lire
les tubes ('pipes') et surveiller les descripteurs de fichiers sans
bloquer la boucle d'évènements.  De plus, les 'API' *note Subprocess:
3221. d''asyncio' fournissent un moyen de démarrer un processus et de
communiquer avec lui depuis la boucle d'évènements.  Enfin, la méthode
*note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8. susmentionnée peut également être
utilisée avec *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd. pour
exécuter du code dans un processus différent.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution de code bloquant,  Next: Journalisation<3>,  Prev: Programmation concurrente et multi-fils,  Up: Programmer avec asyncio

5.19.1.132 Exécution de code bloquant
.....................................

Du code bloquant sur des opérations de calcul ('CPU-bound') ne devrait
pas être appelé directement.  Par exemple, si une fonction effectue des
calculs utilisant le CPU intensivement pendant une seconde, toutes les
tâches 'asyncio' concurrentes et les opérations d'entrées-sorties seront
bloquées pour une seconde.

Un exécuteur peut être utilisé pour traiter une tâche dans un fil
d'exécution ou un processus différent, afin d'éviter de bloquer le fil
d'exécution système dans lequel se trouve la boucle d’évènements.  Voir
*note loop.run_in_executor(): 8d8. pour plus de détails.


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation<3>,  Next: Détection des coroutines jamais attendues,  Prev: Exécution de code bloquant,  Up: Programmer avec asyncio

5.19.1.133 Journalisation
.........................

'Asyncio' utilise le module *note logging: 86.  Toutes les opérations de
journalisation sont effectuées via l'enregistreur ('logger')
‘"asyncio"’.

The default log level is *note logging.INFO: 1cb0, which can be easily
adjusted:

     logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)

La journalisation réseau peut bloquer la boucle d'événements.  Il est
recommandé d'utiliser un fil d'exécution séparé pour gérer les journaux
ou d'utiliser des entrées-sorties non bloquantes.  Par exemple, voir
*note Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants: 339f.


File: python.info,  Node: Détection des coroutines jamais attendues,  Next: Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées,  Prev: Journalisation<3>,  Up: Programmer avec asyncio

5.19.1.134 Détection des coroutines jamais attendues
....................................................

Lorsqu'une fonction coroutine est appelée mais qu'elle n'est pas
attendue (p. ex.  ‘coro()’ au lieu de ‘await coro()’) ou si la coroutine
n'est pas planifiée avec *note asyncio.create_task(): 5e9, 'asyncio'
émet un *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. :

     import asyncio

     async def test():
         print("never scheduled")

     async def main():
         test()

     asyncio.run(main())

Sortie :

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
       test()

Affichage en mode débogage :

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
     Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

       < .. >

       File "../t.py", line 7, in main
         test()
       test()

La façon habituelle de régler ce problème est d'attendre ('await') la
coroutine ou bien d'appeler la fonction *note asyncio.create_task():
5e9. :

     async def main():
         await test()


File: python.info,  Node: Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées,  Prev: Détection des coroutines jamais attendues,  Up: Programmer avec asyncio

5.19.1.135 Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées
.....................................................

Si la méthode *note Future.set_exception(): 3253. est appelée mais que
l'objet 'Future' n'est pas attendu, l'exception n'est pas propagée au
code utilisateur.  Dans ce cas, 'asyncio' écrit un message dans le
journal lorsque l'objet 'Future' est récupéré par le ramasse-miette.

Exemple d'une exception non-gérée :

     import asyncio

     async def bug():
         raise Exception("not consumed")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(bug())

     asyncio.run(main())

Sortie :

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
       exception=Exception('not consumed')>

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "test.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

*note Activez le mode débogage: 1d0c. pour récupérer la trace d'appels
indiquant où la tâche a été créée :

     asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

Affichage en mode débogage :

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
         exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>

     source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

     < .. >

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

     Note: Le code source d'‘asyncio’ est disponible dans
     Lib/asyncio/(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/


File: python.info,  Node: socket --- Low-level networking interface,  Next: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Prev: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.2 ‘socket’ -- Low-level networking interface
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/secrets.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the BSD 'socket' interface.  It is
available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably
additional platforms.

     Note: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made
     to the operating system socket APIs.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix
system call and library interface for sockets to Python's
object-oriented style: the *note socket(): d90. function returns a
'socket object' whose methods implement the various socket system calls.
Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than in the C interface: as
with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’ operations on Python files, buffer
allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length is
implicit on send operations.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note socketserver: cc.

     Classes that simplify writing network servers.

Module *note ssl: cf.

     A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.

* Menu:

* Socket families::
* Module contents::
* Socket Objects::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* Exemple: Exemple<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/secrets.py


File: python.info,  Node: Socket families,  Next: Module contents,  Up: socket --- Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.1 Socket families
........................

Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families
are supported by this module.

The address format required by a particular socket object is
automatically selected based on the address family specified when the
socket object was created.  Socket addresses are represented as follows:

   - The address of an *note AF_UNIX: 17db. socket bound to a file
     system node is represented as a string, using the file system
     encoding and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler (see PEP
     383(1)).  An address in Linux's abstract namespace is returned as a
     *note bytes-like object: d1d. with an initial null byte; note that
     sockets in this namespace can communicate with normal file system
     sockets, so programs intended to run on Linux may need to deal with
     both types of address.  A string or bytes-like object can be used
     for either type of address when passing it as an argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Previously, *note AF_UNIX: 17db.
     socket paths were assumed to use UTF-8 encoding.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

   - A pair ‘(host, port)’ is used for the *note AF_INET: 17d9. address
     family, where 'host' is a string representing either a hostname in
     internet domain notation like ‘'daring.cwi.nl'’ or an IPv4 address
     like ‘'100.50.200.5'’, and 'port' is an integer.

        - For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of
          a host address: ‘''’ represents ‘INADDR_ANY’, which is used to
          bind to all interfaces, and the string ‘'<broadcast>'’
          represents ‘INADDR_BROADCAST’.  This behavior is not
          compatible with IPv6, therefore, you may want to avoid these
          if you intend to support IPv6 with your Python programs.

   - For *note AF_INET6: 17da. address family, a four-tuple ‘(host,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ is used, where 'flowinfo' and 'scope_id'
     represent the ‘sin6_flowinfo’ and ‘sin6_scope_id’ members in
     ‘struct sockaddr_in6’ in C. For *note socket: cb. module methods,
     'flowinfo' and 'scope_id' can be omitted just for backward
     compatibility.  Note, however, omission of 'scope_id' can cause
     problems in manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: For multicast addresses (with
     'scope_id' meaningful) 'address' may not contain ‘%scope_id’ (or
     ‘zone id’) part.  This information is superfluous and may be safely
     omitted (recommended).

   - ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets are represented as pairs ‘(pid, groups)’.

   - Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the ‘AF_TIPC’
     address family.  TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol
     designed for use in clustered computer environments.  Addresses are
     represented by a tuple, and the fields depend on the address type.
     The general tuple form is ‘(addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope])’,
     where:

        - 'addr_type' is one of ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’,
          or ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’.

        - 'scope' is one of ‘TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE’, ‘TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE’, and
          ‘TIPC_NODE_SCOPE’.

        - If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the port identifier, and 'v3' should be 0.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the lower port number, and 'v3' is the upper
          port number.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’, then 'v1' is the node, 'v2'
          is the reference, and 'v3' should be set to 0.

   - A tuple ‘(interface, )’ is used for the *note AF_CAN: 33a6. address
     family, where 'interface' is a string representing a network
     interface name like ‘'can0'’.  The network interface name ‘''’ can
     be used to receive packets from all network interfaces of this
     family.

        - *note CAN_ISOTP: 33a7. protocol require a tuple ‘(interface,
          rx_addr, tx_addr)’ where both additional parameters are
          unsigned long integer that represent a CAN identifier
          (standard or extended).

        - *note CAN_J1939: 921. protocol require a tuple ‘(interface,
          name, pgn, addr)’ where additional parameters are 64-bit
          unsigned integer representing the ECU name, a 32-bit unsigned
          integer representing the Parameter Group Number (PGN), and an
          8-bit integer representing the address.

   - A string or a tuple ‘(id, unit)’ is used for the ‘SYSPROTO_CONTROL’
     protocol of the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ family.  The string is the name of a
     kernel control using a dynamically assigned ID. The tuple can be
     used if ID and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a
     registered ID is used.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

   - ‘AF_BLUETOOTH’ supports the following protocols and address
     formats:

        - ‘BTPROTO_L2CAP’ accepts ‘(bdaddr, psm)’ where ‘bdaddr’ is the
          Bluetooth address as a string and ‘psm’ is an integer.

        - ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’ accepts ‘(bdaddr, channel)’ where ‘bdaddr’ is
          the Bluetooth address as a string and ‘channel’ is an integer.

        - ‘BTPROTO_HCI’ accepts a format that depends on your OS.

             - On Linux it accepts a tuple ‘(device_id,)’ where
               ‘device_id’ is an integer specifying the number of the
               Bluetooth device.

             - On FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD it accepts ‘bdaddr’
               where ‘bdaddr’ is the Bluetooth address as a string.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support
          added.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13.3: FreeBSD support added.

        - ‘BTPROTO_SCO’ accepts ‘bdaddr’ where ‘bdaddr’ is the Bluetooth
          address as a string or a *note bytes: 1bd. object.  (ex.
          ‘'12:23:34:45:56:67'’ or ‘b'12:23:34:45:56:67'’) This protocol
          is not supported under FreeBSD.

   - *note AF_ALG: cc7. is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel
     cryptography.  An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of
     two to four elements ‘(type, name [, feat [, mask]])’, where:

        - 'type' is the algorithm type as string, e.g.  ‘aead’, ‘hash’,
          ‘skcipher’ or ‘rng’.

        - 'name' is the algorithm name and operation mode as string,
          e.g.  ‘sha256’, ‘hmac(sha256)’, ‘cbc(aes)’ or
          ‘drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256’.

        - 'feat' and 'mask' are unsigned 32bit integers.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

   - *note AF_VSOCK: b65. allows communication between virtual machines
     and their hosts.  The sockets are represented as a ‘(CID, port)’
     tuple where the context ID or CID and port are integers.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.9

     See ‘vsock(7)(2)’

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

   - *note AF_PACKET: 33a8. is a low-level interface directly to network
     devices.  The addresses are represented by the tuple ‘(ifname,
     proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]])’ where:

        - 'ifname' - String specifying the device name.

        - 'proto' - The Ethernet protocol number.  May be *note
          ETH_P_ALL: 1764. to capture all protocols, one of the *note
          ETHERTYPE_* constants: 1765. or any other Ethernet protocol
          number.

        - 'pkttype' - Optional integer specifying the packet type:

             - ‘PACKET_HOST’ (the default) - Packet addressed to the
               local host.

             - ‘PACKET_BROADCAST’ - Physical-layer broadcast packet.

             - ‘PACKET_MULTICAST’ - Packet sent to a physical-layer
               multicast address.

             - ‘PACKET_OTHERHOST’ - Packet to some other host that has
               been caught by a device driver in promiscuous mode.

             - ‘PACKET_OUTGOING’ - Packet originating from the local
               host that is looped back to a packet socket.

        - 'hatype' - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware
          address type.

        - 'addr' - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware
          physical address, whose interpretation depends on the device.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.2.

   - *note AF_QIPCRTR: 33a9. is a Linux-only socket based interface for
     communicating with services running on co-processors in Qualcomm
     platforms.  The address family is represented as a ‘(node, port)’
     tuple where the 'node' and 'port' are non-negative integers.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   - ‘IPPROTO_UDPLITE’ is a variant of UDP which allows you to specify
     what portion of a packet is covered with the checksum.  It adds two
     socket options that you can change.
     ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV, length)’ will
     change what portion of outgoing packets are covered by the checksum
     and ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV, length)’
     will filter out packets which cover too little of their data.  In
     both cases ‘length’ should be in ‘range(8, 2**16, 8)’.

     Such a socket should be constructed with ‘socket(AF_INET,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv4 or ‘socket(AF_INET6,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.20, FreeBSD >= 10.1

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

   - *note AF_HYPERV: 33aa. is a Windows-only socket based interface for
     communicating with Hyper-V hosts and guests.  The address family is
     represented as a ‘(vm_id, service_id)’ tuple where the ‘vm_id’ and
     ‘service_id’ are UUID strings.

     The ‘vm_id’ is the virtual machine identifier or a set of known
     VMID values if the target is not a specific virtual machine.  Known
     VMID constants defined on ‘socket’ are:

        - ‘HV_GUID_ZERO’

        - ‘HV_GUID_BROADCAST’

        - ‘HV_GUID_WILDCARD’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connections from all partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_CHILDREN’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connection from child partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_LOOPBACK’ - Used as a target to itself.

        - ‘HV_GUID_PARENT’ - When used as a bind accepts connection from
          the parent partition.  When used as an address target it will
          connect to the parent partition.

     The ‘service_id’ is the service identifier of the registered
     service.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

If you use a hostname in the 'host' portion of IPv4/v6 socket address,
the program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the
first address returned from the DNS resolution.  The socket address will
be resolved differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the
results from DNS resolution and/or the host configuration.  For
deterministic behavior use a numeric address in 'host' portion.

All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument
types and out-of-memory conditions can be raised.  Errors related to
socket or address semantics raise *note OSError: 40d. or one of its
subclasses.

Non-blocking mode is supported through *note setblocking(): 2afb.  A
generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through *note
settimeout(): 33ab.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsock(7)


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents,  Next: Socket Objects,  Prev: Socket families,  Up: socket --- Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.2 Module contents
........................

The module *note socket: cb. exports the following elements.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<15>.
* Constantes: Constantes<8>.
* Fonctions: Fonctions<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<15>,  Next: Constantes<8>,  Up: Module contents

5.19.2.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Exception: socket.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was
     made an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Exception: socket.herror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 40d, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors, i.e.  for functions that use 'h_errno' in
     the POSIX C API, including *note gethostbyname_ex(): 188a. and
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 1889.  The accompanying value is a pair
     ‘(h_errno, string)’ representing an error returned by a library
     call.  'h_errno' is a numeric value, while 'string' represents the
     description of 'h_errno', as returned by the ‘hstrerror()’ C
     function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: This class was made a subclass of
     *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Exception: socket.gaierror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 40d, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors by *note getaddrinfo(): 170e. and *note
     getnameinfo(): 167e.  The accompanying value is a pair ‘(error,
     string)’ representing an error returned by a library call.
     'string' represents the description of 'error', as returned by the
     ‘gai_strerror()’ C function.  The numeric 'error' value will match
     one of the ‘EAI_*’ constants defined in this module.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: This class was made a subclass of
     *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Exception: socket.timeout

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 821.

     A subclass of *note OSError: 40d, this exception is raised when a
     timeout occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a
     prior call to *note settimeout(): 33ab. (or implicitly through
     *note setdefaulttimeout(): 33af.).  The accompanying value is a
     string whose value is currently always "timed out".

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: This class was made a subclass of
     *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: cette classe est devenue un alias de
     *note TimeoutError: 821.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<8>,  Next: Fonctions<8>,  Prev: Exceptions<15>,  Up: Module contents

5.19.2.4 Constantes
...................

     The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now ‘AddressFamily’ and
     ‘SocketKind’ *note IntEnum: ccf. collections.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: socket.AF_UNIX
 -- Données: socket.AF_INET
 -- Données: socket.AF_INET6

     These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used
     for the first argument to *note socket(): d90.  If the *note
     AF_UNIX: 17db. constant is not defined then this protocol is
     unsupported.  More constants may be available depending on the
     system.

 -- Données: socket.AF_UNSPEC

     *note AF_UNSPEC: 32f5. means that *note getaddrinfo(): 170e. should
     return socket addresses for any address family (either IPv4, IPv6,
     or any other) that can be used.

 -- Données: socket.SOCK_STREAM
 -- Données: socket.SOCK_DGRAM
 -- Données: socket.SOCK_RAW
 -- Données: socket.SOCK_RDM
 -- Données: socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET

     These constants represent the socket types, used for the second
     argument to *note socket(): d90.  More constants may be available
     depending on the system.  (Only *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. and *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 12d2. appear to be generally useful.)

 -- Données: socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC
 -- Données: socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK

     These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket
     types and allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding
     possible race conditions and the need for separate calls).

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     Secure File Descriptor Handling(1) for a more thorough explanation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.27.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: SO_*
 -- Données: socket.SOMAXCONN

 -- Données: MSG_*

 -- Données: SOL_*

 -- Données: SCM_*

 -- Données: IPPROTO_*

 -- Données: IPPORT_*

 -- Données: INADDR_*

 -- Données: IP_*

 -- Données: IPV6_*

 -- Données: EAI_*

 -- Données: AI_*

 -- Données: NI_*

 -- Données: TCP_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation
     on sockets and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket
     module.  They are generally used in arguments to the *note
     setsockopt(): cc6. and *note getsockopt(): cc5. methods of socket
     objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined in the
     Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values
     are provided.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’,
     ‘SO_PEERSEC’, ‘SO_PASSSEC’, ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’, ‘TCP_CONGESTION’
     were added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.5: On Windows, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN’,
     ‘TCP_KEEPCNT’ appear if run-time Windows supports.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ‘TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ was added.

     On Windows, ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’, ‘TCP_KEEPINTVL’ appear if run-time
     Windows supports.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘IP_RECVTOS’ was added.  Added
     ‘TCP_KEEPALIVE’.  On MacOS this constant can be used in the same
     way that ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’ is used on Linux.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’.  On
     MacOS this constant can be used in the same way that ‘TCP_INFO’ is
     used on Linux and BSD.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added ‘SO_RTABLE’ and
     ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’.  On OpenBSD and FreeBSD respectively those
     constants can be used in the same way that ‘SO_MARK’ is used on
     Linux.  Also added missing TCP socket options from Linux:
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG’, ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’, ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’,
     ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’, ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.  Added
     ‘IP_PKTINFO’, ‘IP_UNBLOCK_SOURCE’, ‘IP_BLOCK_SOURCE’,
     ‘IP_ADD_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’, ‘IP_DROP_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added ‘SO_BINDTOIFINDEX’.  On Linux
     this constant can be used in the same way that ‘SO_BINDTODEVICE’ is
     used, but with the index of a network interface instead of its
     name.

 -- Données: socket.AF_CAN
 -- Données: socket.PF_CAN

 -- Données: SOL_CAN_*

 -- Données: CAN_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.25, NetBSD >= 8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: NetBSD support was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13.3 (unreleased): Restored missing
     ‘CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ on Linux.

 -- Données: socket.CAN_BCM

 -- Données: CAN_BCM_*

     CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM)
     protocol.  Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

          Note: The ‘CAN_BCM_CAN_FD_FRAME’ flag is only available on
          Linux >= 4.8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES

     Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket.  This is disabled by
     default.  This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD
     frames; however, you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when
     reading from the socket.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: socket.CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS

     Joins the applied CAN filters such that only CAN frames that match
     all given CAN filters are passed to user space.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: socket.CAN_ISOTP

     CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2)
     protocol.  ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: socket.CAN_J1939

     CAN_J1939, in the CAN protocol family, is the SAE J1939 protocol.
     J1939 constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 5.4.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: socket.AF_DIVERT
 -- Données: socket.PF_DIVERT

     These two constants, documented in the FreeBSD divert(4) manual
     page, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD >= 14.0.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: socket.AF_PACKET
 -- Données: socket.PF_PACKET

 -- Données: PACKET_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.2.

 -- Données: socket.ETH_P_ALL

     ‘ETH_P_ALL’ can be used in the *note socket: d90. constructor as
     'proto' for the *note AF_PACKET: 33a8. family in order to capture
     every packet, regardless of protocol.

     For more information, see the ‘packet(7)(2)’ manpage.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: socket.AF_RDS
 -- Données: socket.PF_RDS
 -- Données: socket.SOL_RDS

 -- Données: RDS_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.30.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: socket.SIO_RCVALL
 -- Données: socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS
 -- Données: socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH

 -- Données: RCVALL_*

     Constants for Windows' WSAIoctl().  The constants are used as
     arguments to the *note ioctl(): cc3. method of socket objects.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’ was added.

 -- Données: TIPC_*

     TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket
     API. See the TIPC documentation for more information.

 -- Données: socket.AF_ALG
 -- Données: socket.SOL_ALG

 -- Données: ALG_*

     Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: socket.AF_VSOCK
 -- Données: socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID

 -- Données: VMADDR*

 -- Données: SO_VM*

     Constants for Linux host/guest communication.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: socket.AF_LINK

     *note Availability: 1d11.: BSD, macOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: socket.has_ipv6

     This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is
     supported on this platform.

 -- Données: socket.BDADDR_ANY
 -- Données: socket.BDADDR_LOCAL

     These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with
     special meanings.  For example, *note BDADDR_ANY: 33c0. can be used
     to indicate any address when specifying the binding socket with
     ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’.

 -- Données: socket.HCI_FILTER
 -- Données: socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP
 -- Données: socket.HCI_DATA_DIR

     For use with ‘BTPROTO_HCI’.  ‘HCI_FILTER’ is only available on
     Linux and FreeBSD. ‘HCI_TIME_STAMP’ and ‘HCI_DATA_DIR’ are only
     available on Linux.

 -- Données: socket.AF_QIPCRTR

     Constant for Qualcomm's IPC router protocol, used to communicate
     with service providing remote processors.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 4.7.

 -- Données: socket.SCM_CREDS2
 -- Données: socket.LOCAL_CREDS
 -- Données: socket.LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT

     LOCAL_CREDS and LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT can be used with SOCK_DGRAM,
     SOCK_STREAM sockets, equivalent to Linux/DragonFlyBSD SO_PASSCRED,
     while LOCAL_CREDS sends the credentials at first read,
     LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT sends for each read, SCM_CREDS2 must be then
     used for the latter for the message type.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD.

 -- Données: socket.SO_INCOMING_CPU

          Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction
          with ‘SO_REUSEPORT’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 3.9

 -- Données: socket.AF_HYPERV
 -- Données: socket.HV_PROTOCOL_RAW
 -- Données: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
 -- Données: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX
 -- Données: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND
 -- Données: socket.HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU
 -- Données: socket.HV_GUID_ZERO
 -- Données: socket.HV_GUID_WILDCARD
 -- Données: socket.HV_GUID_BROADCAST
 -- Données: socket.HV_GUID_CHILDREN
 -- Données: socket.HV_GUID_LOOPBACK
 -- Données: socket.HV_GUID_PARENT

     Constants for Windows Hyper-V sockets for host/guest
     communications.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: socket.ETHERTYPE_ARP
 -- Données: socket.ETHERTYPE_IP
 -- Données: socket.ETHERTYPE_IPV6
 -- Données: socket.ETHERTYPE_VLAN

     IEEE 802.3 protocol number(3).  constants.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux, FreeBSD, macOS.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: socket.SHUT_RD
 -- Données: socket.SHUT_WR
 -- Données: socket.SHUT_RDWR

     These constants are used by the *note shutdown(): 33db. method of
     socket objects.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/packet(7)

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ieee-802-numbers/ieee-802-numbers.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<8>,  Prev: Constantes<8>,  Up: Module contents

5.19.2.5 Fonctions
..................

* Menu:

* Creating sockets::
* Autres fonctions: Autres fonctions<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating sockets,  Next: Autres fonctions<2>,  Up: Fonctions<8>

5.19.2.6 Creating sockets
.........................

The following functions all create *note socket objects: 33de.

 -- Classe: socket.socket (family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0,
          fileno=None)

     Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and
     protocol number.  The address family should be *note AF_INET: 17d9.
     (the default), *note AF_INET6: 17da, *note AF_UNIX: 17db, *note
     AF_CAN: 33a6, *note AF_PACKET: 33a8, or *note AF_RDS: 33b8.  The
     socket type should be *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. (the default), *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 12d2, *note SOCK_RAW: 33b1. or perhaps one of the other
     ‘SOCK_’ constants.  The protocol number is usually zero and may be
     omitted or in the case where the address family is *note AF_CAN:
     33a6. the protocol should be one of ‘CAN_RAW’, *note CAN_BCM: f8f,
     *note CAN_ISOTP: 33a7. or *note CAN_J1939: 921.

     If 'fileno' is specified, the values for 'family', 'type', and
     'proto' are auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.
     Auto-detection can be overruled by calling the function with
     explicit 'family', 'type', or 'proto' arguments.  This only affects
     how Python represents e.g.  the return value of *note
     socket.getpeername(): 3332. but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
     *note socket.fromfd(): 33df, 'fileno' will return the same socket
     and not a duplicate.  This may help close a detached socket using
     *note socket.close(): b63.

     Il n'est *note pas possible d'hériter: ee6. du connecteur
     nouvellement créé.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.__new__’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The AF_CAN family was added.  The
     AF_RDS family was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The CAN_BCM protocol was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The returned socket is now
     non-inheritable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: When *note SOCK_NONBLOCK: bfa. or
     *note SOCK_CLOEXEC: bfb. bit flags are applied to 'type' they are
     cleared, and *note socket.type: bfc. will not reflect them.  They
     are still passed to the underlying system ‘socket()’ call.
     Therefore,

          sock = socket.socket(
              socket.AF_INET,
              socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)

     will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
     ‘SOCK_NONBLOCK’, but ‘sock.type’ will be set to
     ‘socket.SOCK_STREAM’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The CAN_J1939 protocol was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.

 -- Fonction: socket.socketpair ([family[, type[, proto]]])

     Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address
     family, socket type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket
     type, and protocol number are as for the *note socket(): d90.
     function above.  The default family is *note AF_UNIX: 17db. if
     defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is *note AF_INET:
     17d9.

     The newly created sockets are *note non-inheritable: ee6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The returned socket objects now
     support the whole socket API, rather than a subset.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The returned sockets are now
     non-inheritable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Windows support added.

 -- Fonction: socket.create_connection (address, timeout=GLOBAL_DEFAULT,
          source_address=None, *, all_errors=False)

     Connect to a TCP service listening on the internet 'address' (a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’), and return the socket object.  This is a
     higher-level function than *note socket.connect(): d92.: if 'host'
     is a non-numeric hostname, it will try to resolve it for both *note
     AF_INET: 17d9. and *note AF_INET6: 17da, and then try to connect to
     all possible addresses in turn until a connection succeeds.  This
     makes it easy to write clients that are compatible to both IPv4 and
     IPv6.

     Passing the optional 'timeout' parameter will set the timeout on
     the socket instance before attempting to connect.  If no 'timeout'
     is supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by *note
     getdefaulttimeout(): 33e0. is used.

     If supplied, 'source_address' must be a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for
     the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If
     host or port are '' or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will
     be used.

     When a connection cannot be created, an exception is raised.  By
     default, it is the exception from the last address in the list.  If
     'all_errors' is ‘True’, it is an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4.
     containing the errors of all attempts.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'source_address' a été
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'all_errors' was added.

 -- Fonction: socket.create_server (address, *, family=AF_INET,
          backlog=None, reuse_port=False, dualstack_ipv6=False)

     Convenience function which creates a TCP socket bound to 'address'
     (a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’) and returns the socket object.

     'family' should be either *note AF_INET: 17d9. or *note AF_INET6:
     17da.  'backlog' is the queue size passed to *note socket.listen():
     e49.; if not specified , a default reasonable value is chosen.
     'reuse_port' dictates whether to set the ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ socket
     option.

     If 'dualstack_ipv6' is true, 'family' is *note AF_INET6: 17da. and
     the platform supports it the socket will be able to accept both
     IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will raise *note ValueError:
     1ff.  Most POSIX platforms and Windows are supposed to support this
     functionality.  When this functionality is enabled the address
     returned by *note socket.getpeername(): 3332. when an IPv4
     connection occurs will be an IPv6 address represented as an
     IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  If 'dualstack_ipv6' is false it will
     explicitly disable this functionality on platforms that enable it
     by default (e.g.  Linux).  This parameter can be used in
     conjunction with *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): a1c.:

          import socket

          addr = ("", 8080)  # all interfaces, port 8080
          if socket.has_dualstack_ipv6():
              s = socket.create_server(addr, family=socket.AF_INET6, dualstack_ipv6=True)
          else:
              s = socket.create_server(addr)

          Note: On POSIX platforms the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ socket option is
          set in order to immediately reuse previous sockets which were
          bound on the same 'address' and remained in TIME_WAIT state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: socket.has_dualstack_ipv6 ()

     Return ‘True’ if the platform supports creating a TCP socket which
     can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 connections.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: socket.fromfd (fd, family, type, proto=0)

     Duplicate the file descriptor 'fd' (an integer as returned by a
     file object's *note fileno(): 2806. method) and build a socket
     object from the result.  Address family, socket type and protocol
     number are as for the *note socket(): d90. function above.  The
     file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked
     -- subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file
     descriptor is invalid.  This function is rarely needed, but can be
     used to get or set socket options on a socket passed to a program
     as standard input or output (such as a server started by the Unix
     inet daemon).  The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

     Il n'est *note pas possible d'hériter: ee6. du connecteur
     nouvellement créé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The returned socket is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Fonction: socket.fromshare (data)

     Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the *note
     socket.share(): bf8. method.  The socket is assumed to be in
     blocking mode.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: socket.SocketType

     This is a Python type object that represents the socket object
     type.  It is the same as ‘type(socket(...))’.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres fonctions<2>,  Prev: Creating sockets,  Up: Fonctions<8>

5.19.2.7 Autres fonctions
.........................

The *note socket: cb. module also offers various network-related
services:

 -- Fonction: socket.close (fd)

     Close a socket file descriptor.  This is like *note os.close():
     b64, but for sockets.  On some platforms (most noticeable Windows)
     *note os.close(): b64. does not work for socket file descriptors.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: socket.getaddrinfo (host, port, family=AF_UNSPEC, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     This function wraps the C function ‘getaddrinfo’ of the underlying
     system.

     Translate the 'host'/'port' argument into a sequence of 5-tuples
     that contain all the necessary arguments for creating a socket
     connected to that service.  'host' is a domain name, a string
     representation of an IPv4/v6 address or ‘None’.  'port' is a string
     service name such as ‘'http'’, a numeric port number or ‘None’.  By
     passing ‘None’ as the value of 'host' and 'port', you can pass
     ‘NULL’ to the underlying C API.

     The 'family', 'type' and 'proto' arguments can be optionally
     specified in order to provide options and limit the list of
     addresses returned.  Pass their default values (*note AF_UNSPEC:
     32f5, 0, and 0, respectively) to not limit the results.  See the
     note below for details.

     The 'flags' argument can be one or several of the ‘AI_*’ constants,
     and will influence how results are computed and returned.  For
     example, ‘AI_NUMERICHOST’ will disable domain name resolution and
     will raise an error if 'host' is a domain name.

     The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following
     structure:

     ‘(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)’

     In these tuples, 'family', 'type', 'proto' are all integers and are
     meant to be passed to the *note socket(): d90. function.
     'canonname' will be a string representing the canonical name of the
     'host' if ‘AI_CANONNAME’ is part of the 'flags' argument; else
     'canonname' will be empty.  'sockaddr' is a tuple describing a
     socket address, whose format depends on the returned 'family' (a
     ‘(address, port)’ 2-tuple for *note AF_INET: 17d9, a ‘(address,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ 4-tuple for *note AF_INET6: 17da.), and
     is meant to be passed to the *note socket.connect(): d92. method.

          Note: If you intend to use results from ‘getaddrinfo()’ to
          create a socket (rather than, for example, retrieve
          'canonname'), consider limiting the results by 'type' (e.g.
          *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. or *note SOCK_DGRAM: 12d2.) and/or
          'proto' (e.g.  ‘IPPROTO_TCP’ or ‘IPPROTO_UDP’) that your
          application can handle.

          The behavior with default values of 'family', 'type', 'proto'
          and 'flags' is system-specific.

          Many systems (for example, most Linux configurations) will
          return a sorted list of all matching addresses.  These
          addresses should generally be tried in order until a
          connection succeeds (possibly tried in parallel, for example,
          using a Happy Eyeballs(1) algorithm).  In these cases,
          limiting the 'type' and/or 'proto' can help eliminate
          unsuccessful or unusable connection attempts.

          Some systems will, however, only return a single address.
          (For example, this was reported on Solaris and AIX
          configurations.)  On these systems, limiting the 'type' and/or
          'proto' helps ensure that this address is usable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.getaddrinfo’ with
     arguments ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’.

     The following example fetches address information for a
     hypothetical TCP connection to ‘example.org’ on port 80 (results
     may differ on your system if IPv6 isn't enabled):

          >>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
          [(socket.AF_INET6, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
           (socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: parameters can now be passed using
     keyword arguments.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: for IPv6 multicast addresses, string
     representing an address will not contain ‘%scope_id’ part.

 -- Fonction: socket.getfqdn ([name])

     Return a fully qualified domain name for 'name'.  If 'name' is
     omitted or empty, it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the
     fully qualified name, the hostname returned by *note
     gethostbyaddr(): 1889. is checked, followed by aliases for the
     host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is
     selected.  In case no fully qualified domain name is available and
     'name' was provided, it is returned unchanged.  If 'name' was empty
     or equal to ‘'0.0.0.0'’, the hostname from *note gethostname():
     2ae4. is returned.

 -- Fonction: socket.gethostbyname (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format.  The IPv4 address is
     returned as a string, such as ‘'100.50.200.5'’.  If the host name
     is an IPv4 address itself it is returned unchanged.  See *note
     gethostbyname_ex(): 188a. for a more complete interface.  *note
     gethostbyname(): 33e3. does not support IPv6 name resolution, and
     *note getaddrinfo(): 170e. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
     stack support.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.gethostbyname’ with
     argument ‘hostname’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.gethostbyname_ex (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface.
     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the host's primary host name, 'aliaslist' is a
     (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same
     address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of IPv4 addresses for the same
     interface on the same host (often but not always a single address).
     *note gethostbyname_ex(): 188a. does not support IPv6 name
     resolution, and *note getaddrinfo(): 170e. should be used instead
     for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.gethostbyname’ with
     argument ‘hostname’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.gethostname ()

     Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where the
     Python interpreter is currently executing.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.gethostname’ with no
     arguments.

     Note: *note gethostname(): 2ae4. doesn't always return the fully
     qualified domain name; use *note getfqdn(): 1738. for that.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.gethostbyaddr (ip_address)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the primary host name responding to the given
     'ip_address', 'aliaslist' is a (possibly empty) list of alternative
     host names for the same address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of
     IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same host (most
     likely containing only a single address).  To find the fully
     qualified domain name, use the function *note getfqdn(): 1738.
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 1889. supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.gethostbyaddr’ with
     argument ‘ip_address’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags)

     Translate a socket address 'sockaddr' into a 2-tuple ‘(host,
     port)’.  Depending on the settings of 'flags', the result can
     contain a fully qualified domain name or numeric address
     representation in 'host'.  Similarly, 'port' can contain a string
     port name or a numeric port number.

     For IPv6 addresses, ‘%scope_id’ is appended to the host part if
     'sockaddr' contains meaningful 'scope_id'.  Usually this happens
     for multicast addresses.

     For more information about 'flags' you can consult
     ‘getnameinfo(3)(2)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.getnameinfo’ with
     argument ‘sockaddr’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.getprotobyname (protocolname)

     Translate an internet protocol name (for example, ‘'icmp'’) to a
     constant suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to
     the *note socket(): d90. function.  This is usually only needed for
     sockets opened in "raw" mode (*note SOCK_RAW: 33b1.); for the
     normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen automatically
     if the protocol is omitted or zero.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.getservbyname (servicename[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet service name and protocol name to a port
     number for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.getservbyname’ with
     arguments ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.getservbyport (port[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet port number and protocol name to a service
     name for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.getservbyport’ with
     arguments ‘port’, ‘protocolname’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Fonction: socket.ntohl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- Fonction: socket.ntohs (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Raises *note OverflowError: 86f. if
     'x' does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- Fonction: socket.htonl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- Fonction: socket.htons (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Raises *note OverflowError: 86f. if
     'x' does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- Fonction: socket.inet_aton (ip_string)

     Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for
     example, '123.45.67.89') to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes
     object four characters in length.  This is useful when conversing
     with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects
     of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary
     this function returns.

     *note inet_aton(): 950. also accepts strings with less than three
     dots; see the Unix manual page ‘inet(3)(3)’ for details.

     If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid,
     *note OSError: 40d. will be raised.  Note that exactly what is
     valid depends on the underlying C implementation of ‘inet_aton()’.

     *note inet_aton(): 950. does not support IPv6, and *note
     inet_pton(): 951. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack
     support.

 -- Fonction: socket.inet_ntoa (packed_ip)

     Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a *note bytes-like object:
     d1d. four bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string
     representation (for example, '123.45.67.89').  This is useful when
     conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and
     needs objects of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit
     packed binary data this function takes as an argument.

     If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes
     in length, *note OSError: 40d. will be raised.  *note inet_ntoa():
     33e9. does not support IPv6, and *note inet_ntop(): f91. should be
     used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

 -- Fonction: socket.inet_pton (address_family, ip_string)

     Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a
     packed, binary format.  *note inet_pton(): 951. is useful when a
     library or network protocol calls for an object of type ‘in_addr’
     (similar to *note inet_aton(): 950.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     17d9. and *note AF_INET6: 17da.  If the IP address string
     'ip_string' is invalid, *note OSError: 40d. will be raised.  Note
     that exactly what is valid depends on both the value of
     'address_family' and the underlying implementation of
     ‘inet_pton()’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

 -- Fonction: socket.inet_ntop (address_family, packed_ip)

     Convert a packed IP address (a *note bytes-like object: d1d. of
     some number of bytes) to its standard, family-specific string
     representation (for example, ‘'7.10.0.5'’ or ‘'5aef:2b::8'’).
     *note inet_ntop(): f91. is useful when a library or network
     protocol returns an object of type ‘in_addr’ (similar to *note
     inet_ntoa(): 33e9.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     17d9. and *note AF_INET6: 17da.  If the bytes object 'packed_ip' is
     not the correct length for the specified address family, *note
     ValueError: 1ff. will be raised.  *note OSError: 40d. is raised for
     errors from the call to *note inet_ntop(): f91.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

 -- Fonction: socket.CMSG_LEN (length)

     Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary
     data item with associated data of the given 'length'.  This value
     can often be used as the buffer size for *note recvmsg(): d95. to
     receive a single item of ancillary data, but RFC 3542(4) requires
     portable applications to use *note CMSG_SPACE(): 19f4. and thus
     include space for padding, even when the item will be the last in
     the buffer.  Raises *note OverflowError: 86f. if 'length' is
     outside the permissible range of values.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: socket.CMSG_SPACE (length)

     Return the buffer size needed for *note recvmsg(): d95. to receive
     an ancillary data item with associated data of the given 'length',
     along with any trailing padding.  The buffer space needed to
     receive multiple items is the sum of the *note CMSG_SPACE(): 19f4.
     values for their associated data lengths.  Raises *note
     OverflowError: 86f. if 'length' is outside the permissible range of
     values.

     Note that some systems might support ancillary data without
     providing this function.  Also note that setting the buffer size
     using the results of this function may not precisely limit the
     amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional
     data may be able to fit into the padding area.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     most Unix platforms.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: socket.getdefaulttimeout ()

     Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket
     objects.  A value of ‘None’ indicates that new socket objects have
     no timeout.  When the socket module is first imported, the default
     is ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: socket.setdefaulttimeout (timeout)

     Set the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects.
     When the socket module is first imported, the default is ‘None’.
     See *note settimeout(): 33ab. for possible values and their
     respective meanings.

 -- Fonction: socket.sethostname (name)

     Set the machine's hostname to 'name'.  This will raise an *note
     OSError: 40d. if you don't have enough rights.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.sethostname’ with
     argument ‘name’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not Android.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: socket.if_nameindex ()

     Return a list of network interface information (index int, name
     string) tuples.  *note OSError: 40d. if the system call fails.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Windows support was added.

          Note: On Windows network interfaces have different names in
          different contexts (all names are examples):

             * UUID: ‘{FB605B73-AAC2-49A6-9A2F-25416AEA0573}’

             * name: ‘ethernet_32770’

             * friendly name: ‘vEthernet (nat)’

             * description: ‘Hyper-V Virtual Ethernet Adapter’

          This function returns names of the second form from the list,
          ‘ethernet_32770’ in this example case.

 -- Fonction: socket.if_nametoindex (if_name)

     Return a network interface index number corresponding to an
     interface name.  *note OSError: 40d. if no interface with the given
     name exists.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Windows support was added.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     "Interface name" is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     a1d.

 -- Fonction: socket.if_indextoname (if_index)

     Return a network interface name corresponding to an interface index
     number.  *note OSError: 40d. if no interface with the given index
     exists.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Windows support was added.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     "Interface name" is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     a1d.

 -- Fonction: socket.send_fds (sock, buffers, fds[, flags[, address]])

     Send the list of file descriptors 'fds' over an *note AF_UNIX:
     17db. socket 'sock'.  The 'fds' parameter is a sequence of file
     descriptors.  Consult *note sendmsg(): 462. for the documentation
     of these parameters.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 462. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: socket.recv_fds (sock, bufsize, maxfds[, flags])

     Receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors from an *note AF_UNIX:
     17db. socket 'sock'.  Return ‘(msg, list(fds), flags, addr)’.
     Consult *note recvmsg(): d95. for the documentation of these
     parameters.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 462. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

          Note: Any truncated integers at the end of the list of file
          descriptors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getnameinfo(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/inet(3)

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html


File: python.info,  Node: Socket Objects,  Next: Notes on socket timeouts,  Prev: Module contents,  Up: socket --- Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.8 Socket Objects
.......................

Socket objects have the following methods.  Except for *note makefile():
117f, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Support for the *note context manager: 5c0.
protocol was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to
calling *note close(): b63.

 -- Méthode: socket.accept ()

     Accept a connection.  The socket must be bound to an address and
     listening for connections.  The return value is a pair ‘(conn,
     address)’ where 'conn' is a 'new' socket object usable to send and
     receive data on the connection, and 'address' is the address bound
     to the socket on the other end of the connection.

     Il n'est *note pas possible d'hériter: ee6. du connecteur
     nouvellement créé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(1) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.bind (address)

     Bind the socket to 'address'.  The socket must not already be
     bound.  (The format of 'address' depends on the address family --
     see above.)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.bind’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘address’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.close ()

     Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g.  a
     file descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from *note
     makefile(): 117f. are closed.  Once that happens, all future
     operations on the socket object will fail.  The remote end will
     receive no more data (after queued data is flushed).

     Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected,
     but it is recommended to *note close(): b63. them explicitly, or to
     use a *note with: 5be. statement around them.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note OSError: 40d. is now raised if
     an error occurs when the underlying ‘close()’ call is made.

          Note: *note close(): b63. releases the resource associated
          with a connection but does not necessarily close the
          connection immediately.  If you want to close the connection
          in a timely fashion, call *note shutdown(): 33db. before *note
          close(): b63.

 -- Méthode: socket.connect (address)

     Connect to a remote socket at 'address'.  (The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family -- see above.)

     If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits
     until the connection completes, or raise a *note TimeoutError: 821.
     on timeout, if the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and
     the socket is blocking or has a timeout.  For non-blocking sockets,
     the method raises an *note InterruptedError: d77. exception if the
     connection is interrupted by a signal (or the exception raised by
     the signal handler).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The method now waits until the
     connection completes instead of raising an *note InterruptedError:
     d77. exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal, the
     signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is
     blocking or has a timeout (see the PEP 475(2) for the rationale).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.connect_ex (address)

     Like ‘connect(address)’, but return an error indicator instead of
     raising an exception for errors returned by the C-level ‘connect()’
     call (other problems, such as "host not found," can still raise
     exceptions).  The error indicator is ‘0’ if the operation
     succeeded, otherwise the value of the ‘errno’ variable.  This is
     useful to support, for example, asynchronous connects.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.detach ()

     Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing
     the underlying file descriptor.  The file descriptor is returned,
     and can be reused for other purposes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Méthode: socket.dup ()

     Duplicate the socket.

     Il n'est *note pas possible d'hériter: ee6. du connecteur
     nouvellement créé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.fileno ()

     Return the socket's file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on
     failure.  This is useful with *note select.select(): d8f.

     Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be
     used where a file descriptor can be used (such as *note
     os.fdopen(): 1eee.).  Unix does not have this limitation.

 -- Méthode: socket.get_inheritable ()

     Get the *note inheritable flag: ee6. of the socket's file
     descriptor or socket's handle: ‘True’ if the socket can be
     inherited in child processes, ‘False’ if it cannot.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: socket.getpeername ()

     Return the remote address to which the socket is connected.  This
     is useful to find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket,
     for instance.  (The format of the address returned depends on the
     address family -- see above.)  On some systems this function is not
     supported.

 -- Méthode: socket.getsockname ()

     Return the socket's own address.  This is useful to find out the
     port number of an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance.  (The format of the
     address returned depends on the address family -- see above.)

 -- Méthode: socket.getsockopt (level, optname[, buflen])

     Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
     ‘getsockopt(2)(3)’).  The needed symbolic constants (*note SO_*
     etc.: 32f1.) are defined in this module.  If 'buflen' is absent, an
     integer option is assumed and its integer value is returned by the
     function.  If 'buflen' is present, it specifies the maximum length
     of the buffer used to receive the option in, and this buffer is
     returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
     contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module *note
     struct: d4. for a way to decode C structures encoded as byte
     strings).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.getblocking ()

     Return ‘True’ if socket is in blocking mode, ‘False’ if in
     non-blocking.

     This is equivalent to checking ‘socket.gettimeout() != 0’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: socket.gettimeout ()

     Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket
     operations, or ‘None’ if no timeout is set.  This reflects the last
     call to *note setblocking(): 2afb. or *note settimeout(): 33ab.

 -- Méthode: socket.ioctl (control, option)


     ‘platform’: Windows

     The *note ioctl(): cc3. method is a limited interface to the
     WSAIoctl system interface.  Please refer to the Win32
     documentation(4) for more information.

     On other platforms, the generic *note fcntl.fcntl(): 33ee. and
     *note fcntl.ioctl(): 1430. functions may be used; they accept a
     socket object as their first argument.

     Currently only the following control codes are supported:
     ‘SIO_RCVALL’, ‘SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS’, and ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’ was added.

 -- Méthode: socket.listen ([backlog])

     Enable a server to accept connections.  If 'backlog' is specified,
     it must be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it
     specifies the number of unaccepted connections that the system will
     allow before refusing new connections.  If not specified, a default
     reasonable value is chosen.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'backlog' parameter is now
     optional.

 -- Méthode: socket.makefile (mode='r', buffering=None, *,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Return a *note file object: 11a2. associated with the socket.  The
     exact returned type depends on the arguments given to *note
     makefile(): 117f.  These arguments are interpreted the same way as
     by the built-in *note open(): 508. function, except the only
     supported 'mode' values are ‘'r'’ (default), ‘'w'’, ‘'b'’, or a
     combination of those.

     The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the
     file object's internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state
     if a timeout occurs.

     Closing the file object returned by *note makefile(): 117f. won't
     close the original socket unless all other file objects have been
     closed and *note socket.close(): b63. has been called on the socket
     object.

          Note: On Windows, the file-like object created by *note
          makefile(): 117f. cannot be used where a file object with a
          file descriptor is expected, such as the stream arguments of
          *note subprocess.Popen(): 197.

 -- Méthode: socket.recv (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object
     representing the data received.  The maximum amount of data to be
     received at once is specified by 'bufsize'.  A returned empty bytes
     object indicates that the client has disconnected.  See the Unix
     manual page ‘recv(2)(5)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(6) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.recvfrom (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a pair ‘(bytes,
     address)’ where 'bytes' is a bytes object representing the data
     received and 'address' is the address of the socket sending the
     data.  See the Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(7)’ for the meaning of the
     optional argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  (The format of
     'address' depends on the address family -- see above.)

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(8) à propos du
     raisonnement).

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: For multicast IPv6 address, first item
     of 'address' does not contain ‘%scope_id’ part anymore.  In order
     to get full IPv6 address use *note getnameinfo(): 167e.

 -- Méthode: socket.recvmsg (bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data (up to 'bufsize' bytes) and ancillary data from
     the socket.  The 'ancbufsize' argument sets the size in bytes of
     the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
     to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received.  Appropriate
     buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using *note
     CMSG_SPACE(): 19f4. or *note CMSG_LEN(): 19f5, and items which do
     not fit into the buffer might be truncated or discarded.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): d93.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’.  The 'data' item is a *note bytes: 1bd. object holding
     the non-ancillary data received.  The 'ancdata' item is a list of
     zero or more tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’
     representing the ancillary data (control messages) received:
     'cmsg_level' and 'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol
     level and protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     *note bytes: 1bd. object holding the associated data.  The
     'msg_flags' item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating
     conditions on the received message; see your system documentation
     for details.  If the receiving socket is unconnected, 'address' is
     the address of the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its
     value is unspecified.

     On some systems, *note sendmsg(): 462. and *note recvmsg(): d95.
     can be used to pass file descriptors between processes over an
     *note AF_UNIX: 17db. socket.  When this facility is used (it is
     often restricted to *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. sockets), *note
     recvmsg(): d95. will return, in its ancillary data, items of the
     form ‘(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)’, where 'fds' is
     a *note bytes: 1bd. object representing the new file descriptors as
     a binary array of the native C int type.  If *note recvmsg(): d95.
     raises an exception after the system call returns, it will first
     attempt to close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.

     Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
     items which have been only partially received.  If an item appears
     to extend beyond the end of the buffer, *note recvmsg(): d95. will
     issue a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb, and will return the part of it
     which is inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated
     before the start of its associated data.

     On systems which support the ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism, the following
     function will receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors, returning
     the message data and a list containing the descriptors (while
     ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control messages
     being received).  See also *note sendmsg(): 462.

          import socket, array

          def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
              fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
              msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
              for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
                  if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
                      # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
                      fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
              return msg, list(fds)

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(9) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.recvmsg_into (buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
     *note recvmsg(): d95. would, but scatter the non-ancillary data
     into a series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object.
     The 'buffers' argument must be an iterable of objects that export
     writable buffers (e.g.  *note bytearray: 52b. objects); these will
     be filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
     has all been written or there are no more buffers.  The operating
     system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 1525. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’)
     on the number of buffers that can be used.  The 'ancbufsize' and
     'flags' arguments have the same meaning as for *note recvmsg():
     d95.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’, where 'nbytes' is the total number of bytes of
     non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and 'ancdata',
     'msg_flags' and 'address' are the same as for *note recvmsg(): d95.

     Exemple :

          >>> import socket
          >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
          >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
          >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
          >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
          >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
          22
          >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
          (22, [], 0, None)
          >>> [b1, b2, b3]
          [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: socket.recvfrom_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive data from the socket, writing it into 'buffer' instead of
     creating a new bytestring.  The return value is a pair ‘(nbytes,
     address)’ where 'nbytes' is the number of bytes received and
     'address' is the address of the socket sending the data.  See the
     Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(10)’ for the meaning of the optional
     argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  (The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family -- see above.)

 -- Méthode: socket.recv_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive up to 'nbytes' bytes from the socket, storing the data into
     a buffer rather than creating a new bytestring.  If 'nbytes' is not
     specified (or 0), receive up to the size available in the given
     buffer.  Returns the number of bytes received.  See the Unix manual
     page ‘recv(2)(11)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

 -- Méthode: socket.send (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): d93. above.  Returns the number of bytes sent.
     Applications are responsible for checking that all data has been
     sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the application
     needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data.  For further
     information on this topic, consult the *note Guide pratique ;
     programmation avec les sockets: 33ef.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(12) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.sendall (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): d93. above.  Unlike *note send(): d96, this method
     continues to send data from 'bytes' until either all data has been
     sent or an error occurs.  ‘None’ is returned on success.  On error,
     an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how much
     data, if any, was successfully sent.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset
     each time data is sent successfully.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to send all data.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(13) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.sendto (bytes, address)

 -- Méthode: socket.sendto (bytes, flags, address)

     Send data to the socket.  The socket should not be connected to a
     remote socket, since the destination socket is specified by
     'address'.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as
     for *note recv(): d93. above.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     (The format of 'address' depends on the address family -- see
     above.)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.sendto’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(14) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.sendmsg (buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])

     Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
     non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
     into a single message.  The 'buffers' argument specifies the
     non-ancillary data as an iterable of *note bytes-like objects: d1d.
     (e.g.  *note bytes: 1bd. objects); the operating system may set a
     limit (*note sysconf(): 1525. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’) on the number of
     buffers that can be used.  The 'ancdata' argument specifies the
     ancillary data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more
     tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’, where 'cmsg_level' and
     'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol level and
     protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     bytes-like object holding the associated data.  Note that some
     systems (in particular, systems without *note CMSG_SPACE(): 19f4.)
     might support sending only one control message per call.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note send(): d96.  If 'address' is supplied and not ‘None’, it
     sets a destination address for the message.  The return value is
     the number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.

     The following function sends the list of file descriptors 'fds'
     over an *note AF_UNIX: 17db. socket, on systems which support the
     ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism.  See also *note recvmsg(): d95.

          import socket, array

          def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
              return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘socket.sendmsg’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et
     que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction
     réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une *note
     InterruptedError: d77. (voir la PEP 475(15) à propos du
     raisonnement).

 -- Méthode: socket.sendmsg_afalg ([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[,
          flags]]])

     Specialized version of *note sendmsg(): 462. for *note AF_ALG: cc7.
     socket.  Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for
     *note AF_ALG: cc7. socket.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Méthode: socket.sendfile (file, offset=0, count=None)

     Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance *note
     os.sendfile: aff. and return the total number of bytes which were
     sent.  'file' must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.
     If *note os.sendfile: aff. is not available (e.g.  Windows) or
     'file' is not a regular file *note send(): d96. will be used
     instead.  'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If
     specified, 'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as
     opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is
     updated on return or also in case of error in which case *note
     file.tell(): 2966. can be used to figure out the number of bytes
     which were sent.  The socket must be of *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.
     type.  Non-blocking sockets are not supported.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: socket.set_inheritable (inheritable)

     Set the *note inheritable flag: ee6. of the socket's file
     descriptor or socket's handle.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: socket.setblocking (flag)

     Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if 'flag' is
     false, the socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.

     This method is a shorthand for certain *note settimeout(): 33ab.
     calls:

        * ‘sock.setblocking(True)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sock.settimeout(None)’

        * ‘sock.setblocking(False)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sock.settimeout(0.0)’

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method no longer applies *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: bfa. flag on *note socket.type: bfc.

 -- Méthode: socket.settimeout (value)

     Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The 'value' argument
     can be a nonnegative floating-point number expressing seconds, or
     ‘None’.  If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations
     will raise a *note timeout: 820. exception if the timeout period
     'value' has elapsed before the operation has completed.  If zero is
     given, the socket is put in non-blocking mode.  If ‘None’ is given,
     the socket is put in blocking mode.

     For further information, please consult the *note notes on socket
     timeouts: 33f0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method no longer toggles *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: bfa. flag on *note socket.type: bfc.

 -- Méthode: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: int)

 -- Méthode: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: buffer)

 -- Méthode: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, None, optlen: int)

     Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
     ‘setsockopt(2)(16)’).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in
     this module (SO_* etc.  <socket-unix-constants>).  The value can be
     an integer, ‘None’ or a *note bytes-like object: d1d. representing
     a buffer.  In the later case it is up to the caller to ensure that
     the bytestring contains the proper bits (see the optional built-in
     module *note struct: d4. for a way to encode C structures as
     bytestrings).  When 'value' is set to ‘None’, 'optlen' argument is
     required.  It's equivalent to call ‘setsockopt()’ C function with
     ‘optval=NULL’ and ‘optlen=optlen’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: setsockopt(level, optname, None,
     optlen: int) form added.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.shutdown (how)

     Shut down one or both halves of the connection.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RD: 33d8, further receives are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_WR: 33d9, further sends are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RDWR: 33da, further sends and receives are disallowed.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

 -- Méthode: socket.share (process_id)

     Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target
     process.  The target process must be provided with 'process_id'.
     The resulting bytes object can then be passed to the target process
     using some form of interprocess communication and the socket can be
     recreated there using *note fromshare(): bf7.  Once this method has
     been called, it is safe to close the socket since the operating
     system has already duplicated it for the target process.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Note that there are no methods ‘read()’ or ‘write()’; use *note recv():
d93. and *note send(): d96. without 'flags' argument instead.

Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to
the values given to the *note socket: d90. constructor.

 -- Attribut: socket.family

     The socket family.

 -- Attribut: socket.type

     The socket type.

 -- Attribut: socket.proto

     The socket protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/getsockopt(2)

   (4) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/setsockopt(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on socket timeouts,  Next: Exemple<7>,  Prev: Socket Objects,  Up: socket --- Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.9 Notes on socket timeouts
.................................

A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or
timeout.  Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but
this can be changed by calling *note setdefaulttimeout(): 33af.

   * In 'blocking mode', operations block until complete or the system
     returns an error (such as connection timed out).

   * In 'non-blocking mode', operations fail (with an error that is
     unfortunately system-dependent) if they cannot be completed
     immediately: functions from the *note select: c0. module can be
     used to know when and whether a socket is available for reading or
     writing.

   * In 'timeout mode', operations fail if they cannot be completed
     within the timeout specified for the socket (they raise a *note
     timeout: 820. exception) or if the system returns an error.

     Note: At the operating system level, sockets in 'timeout mode' are
     internally set in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and
     timeout modes are shared between file descriptors and socket
     objects that refer to the same network endpoint.  This
     implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g.  you
     decide to use the *note fileno(): 33ec. of a socket.

* Menu:

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the connect method,  Next: Timeouts and the accept method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.19.2.10 Timeouts and the ‘connect’ method
...........................................

The *note connect(): d92. operation is also subject to the timeout
setting, and in general it is recommended to call *note settimeout():
33ab. before calling *note connect(): d92. or pass a timeout parameter
to *note create_connection(): 65f.  However, the system network stack
may also return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any
Python socket timeout setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the accept method,  Prev: Timeouts and the connect method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.19.2.11 Timeouts and the ‘accept’ method
..........................................

If *note getdefaulttimeout(): 33e0. is not *note None: 662, sockets
returned by the *note accept(): d91. method inherit that timeout.
Otherwise, the behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:

   * if the listening socket is in 'blocking mode' or in 'timeout mode',
     the socket returned by *note accept(): d91. is in 'blocking mode';

   * if the listening socket is in 'non-blocking mode', whether the
     socket returned by *note accept(): d91. is in blocking or
     non-blocking mode is operating system-dependent.  If you want to
     ensure cross-platform behaviour, it is recommended you manually
     override this setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<7>,  Prev: Notes on socket timeouts,  Up: socket --- Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.12 Exemple
.................

Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a
server that echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one
client), and a client using it.  Note that a server must perform the
sequence *note socket(): d90, *note bind(): 14f1, *note listen(): e49,
*note accept(): d91. (possibly repeating the *note accept(): d91. to
service more than one client), while a client only needs the sequence
*note socket(): d90, *note connect(): d92.  Also note that the server
does not *note sendall(): d97./*note recv(): d93. on the socket it is
listening on but on the new socket returned by *note accept(): d91.

The first two examples support IPv4 only.

     # Echo server program
     import socket

     HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.bind((HOST, PORT))
         s.listen(1)
         conn, addr = s.accept()
         with conn:
             print('Connected by', addr)
             while True:
                 data = conn.recv(1024)
                 if not data: break
                 conn.sendall(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.connect((HOST, PORT))
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both
IPv4 and IPv6.  The server side will listen to the first address family
available (it should listen to both instead).  On most of IPv6-ready
systems, IPv6 will take precedence and the server may not accept IPv4
traffic.  The client side will try to connect to all the addresses
returned as a result of the name resolution, and sends traffic to the
first one connected successfully.

     # Echo server program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
                                   socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.bind(sa)
             s.listen(1)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     conn, addr = s.accept()
     with conn:
         print('Connected by', addr)
         while True:
             data = conn.recv(1024)
             if not data: break
             conn.send(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.connect(sa)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     with s:
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with
raw sockets on Windows.  The example requires administrator privileges
to modify the interface:

     import socket

     # the public network interface
     HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())

     # create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
     s.bind((HOST, 0))

     # Include IP headers
     s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)

     # receive all packets
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)

     # receive a packet
     print(s.recvfrom(65565))

     # disabled promiscuous mode
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)

The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to
a CAN network using the raw socket protocol.  To use CAN with the
broadcast manager protocol instead, open a socket with:

     socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)

After binding (‘CAN_RAW’) or connecting (*note CAN_BCM: f8f.) the
socket, you can use the *note socket.send(): d96. and *note
socket.recv(): d93. operations (and their counterparts) on the socket
object as usual.

This last example might require special privileges:

     import socket
     import struct


     # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)

     can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
     can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)

     def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
         can_dlc = len(data)
         data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
         return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)

     def dissect_can_frame(frame):
         can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
         return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])


     # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
     s.bind(('vcan0',))

     while True:
         cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)

         print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))

         try:
             s.send(cf)
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

         try:
             s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

Running an example several times with too small delay between
executions, could lead to this error:

     OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use

This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, and can't be immediately reused.

There is a *note socket: cb. flag to set, in order to prevent this,
‘socket.SO_REUSEADDR’:

     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
     s.bind((HOST, PORT))

the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.

Voir aussi
..........

For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following
papers:

   - 'An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by
     Stuart Sechrest

   - 'An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by Samuel
     J. Leffler et al,

both in the UNIX Programmer's Manual, Supplementary Documents 1
(sections PS1:7 and PS1:8).  The platform-specific reference material
for the various socket-related system calls are also a valuable source
of information on the details of socket semantics.  For Unix, refer to
the manual pages; for Windows, see the WinSock (or Winsock 2)
specification.  For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may want to refer to RFC
3493(1) titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3493.html


File: python.info,  Node: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Next: select --- Waiting for I/O completion,  Prev: socket --- Low-level networking interface,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.3 ‘ssl’ -- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/ssl.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as
"Secure Sockets Layer") encryption and peer authentication facilities
for network sockets, both client-side and server-side.  This module uses
the OpenSSL library.  It is available on all modern Unix systems,
Windows, macOS, and probably additional platforms, as long as OpenSSL is
installed on that platform.

     Note: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made
     to the operating system socket APIs.  The installed version of
     OpenSSL may also cause variations in behavior.  For example,
     TLSv1.3 comes with OpenSSL version 1.1.1.

     Avertissement: N’utilisez pas ce module sans lire *note Security
     considerations: 32ef.  Cela pourrait créer un faux sentiment de
     sécurité, car les paramètres par défaut du module 'ssl' ne sont pas
     nécessairement appropriés pour votre application.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Cette section documente les objets et les fonctions du module ‘ssl’.
Pour des informations plus générales sur TLS, SSL et les certificats, le
lecteur est prié de se référer aux documents de la section « Voir
Aussi » au bas de cette page.

This module provides a class, *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9, which is derived
from the *note socket.socket: d90. type, and provides a socket-like
wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket
with SSL. It supports additional methods such as ‘getpeercert()’, which
retrieves the certificate of the other side of the connection,
‘cipher()’, which retrieves the cipher being used for the secure
connection or ‘get_verified_chain()’, ‘get_unverified_chain()’ which
retrieves certificate chain.

Pour les applications plus sophistiquées, la classe *note
ssl.SSLContext: 291. facilite la gestion des paramètres et des
certificats, qui peuvent ensuite être hérités par les connecteurs SSL
créés via la méthode *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.3: Mise à jour pour prendre en charge la
liaison avec OpenSSL 1.1.0

Modifié dans la version 3.6: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 et 1.0.1 sont
obsolètes et ne sont plus prises en charge.  Dans l'avenir, le module
'ssl' nécessitera au minimum OpenSSL 1.0.2 ou 1.1.0.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: PEP 644(2) has been implemented.  The ssl
module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.

Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation
warnings.

* Menu:

* Fonctions, constantes et exceptions: Fonctions constantes et exceptions.
* SSL Sockets::
* SSL Contexts::
* Certificates::
* Exemples: Exemples<20>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>.
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ssl.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions constantes et exceptions,  Next: SSL Sockets,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.1 Fonctions, constantes et exceptions
............................................

* Menu:

* Création de connecteurs::
* Création de contexte::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<16>.
* Random generation::
* Certificate handling::
* Constantes: Constantes<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Création de connecteurs,  Next: Création de contexte,  Up: Fonctions constantes et exceptions

5.19.3.2 Création de connecteurs
................................

Instances of *note SSLSocket: 8d9. must be created using the *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511. method.  The helper function *note
create_default_context(): 154. returns a new context with secure default
settings.

Exemple de connecteur client avec contexte par défaut et double pile
IPv4/IPv6 :

     import socket
     import ssl

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     context = ssl.create_default_context()

     with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

Exemple de connecteur client avec contexte personnalisé et IPv4 :

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

Exemple de connecteur serveur à l'écoute sur IPv4 'localhost' :

     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
     context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
         sock.listen(5)
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
             conn, addr = ssock.accept()
             ...


File: python.info,  Node: Création de contexte,  Next: Exceptions<16>,  Prev: Création de connecteurs,  Up: Fonctions constantes et exceptions

5.19.3.3 Création de contexte
.............................

Une fonction utilitaire permettant de créer facilement des objets *note
SSLContext: 291. pour des usages classiques.

 -- Fonction: ssl.create_default_context (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH,
          cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

     Renvoie un nouvel objet *note SSLContext: 291.  Le paramètre
     'purpose' permet de choisir parmi un ensemble de paramètres par
     défaut en fonction de l'usage souhaité.  Les paramètres sont
     choisis par le module *note ssl: cf. et représentent généralement
     un niveau de sécurité supérieur à celui utilisé lorsque vous
     appelez directement le constructeur *note SSLContext: 291.

     'cafile', 'capath', 'cadata' représentent des certificats
     d'autorité de certification facultatifs approuvés pour la
     vérification de certificats, comme dans *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ed8.  Si les trois sont à *note
     None: 662, cette fonction peut choisir de faire confiance aux
     certificats d'autorité de certification par défaut du système.

     The settings are: *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. or *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 825, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 826. with high encryption cipher suites without RC4
     and without unauthenticated cipher suites.  Passing *note
     SERVER_AUTH: f9f. as 'purpose' sets *note verify_mode: 33fd. to
     *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe. and either loads CA certificates (when
     at least one of 'cafile', 'capath' or 'cadata' is given) or uses
     *note SSLContext.load_default_certs(): f9e. to load default CA
     certificates.

     Lorsque *note keylog_filename: 33ff. est pris en charge et que la
     variable d'environnement ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’ est définie, *note
     create_default_context(): 154. active la journalisation des clés.

     The default settings for this context include *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 155. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156.
     These make the underlying OpenSSL implementation behave more like a
     conforming implementation of RFC 5280(1), in exchange for a small
     amount of incompatibility with older X.509 certificates.

          Note: Le protocole, les options, l'algorithme de chiffrement
          et d'autres paramètres peuvent changer pour des valeurs plus
          restrictives à tout moment sans avertissement préalable.  Les
          valeurs représentent un juste équilibre entre compatibilité et
          sécurité.

          Si votre application nécessite des paramètres spécifiques,
          vous devez créer une classe *note SSLContext: 291. et
          appliquer les paramètres vous-même.

          Note: Si vous constatez que, lorsque certains clients ou
          serveurs plus anciens tentent de se connecter avec une classe
          *note SSLContext: 291. créée par cette fonction, une erreur
          indiquant « 'Protocol or cipher suite mismatch' » (« Non
          concordance de protocole ou d'algorithme de chiffrement ») est
          détectée, il se peut qu'ils ne prennent en charge que SSL 3.0
          que cette fonction exclut en utilisant *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 826.
          SSL3.0 est notoirement considéré comme totalement
          déficient(2).  Si vous souhaitez toujours continuer à utiliser
          cette fonction tout en autorisant les connexions SSL 3.0, vous
          pouvez les réactiver à l'aide de :

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
               ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

          Note: This context enables *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156. by
          default, which may reject pre- RFC 5280(3) or malformed
          certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation
          otherwise would accept.  While disabling this is not
          recommended, you can do so using:

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
               ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.4: RC4 a été supprimé de la liste des
     algorithmes de chiffrement par défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'ChaCha20'/'Poly1305' a été ajouté à
     la liste des algorithmes de chiffrement par défaut.

     '3DES' a été supprimé de la liste des algorithmes de chiffrement
     par défaut.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: La prise en charge de la
     journalisation des clés dans ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’ a été ajoutée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The context now uses *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860.
     protocol instead of generic *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The context now uses *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 155. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 156.
     in its default verify flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<16>,  Next: Random generation,  Prev: Création de contexte,  Up: Fonctions constantes et exceptions

5.19.3.4 Exceptions
...................

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLError

     Levée pour signaler une erreur de l'implémentation SSL sous-jacente
     (actuellement fournie par la bibliothèque OpenSSL). Cela signifie
     qu'un problème est apparu dans la couche d'authentification et de
     chiffrement de niveau supérieur qui s'appuie sur la connexion
     réseau sous-jacente.  Cette erreur est un sous-type de *note
     OSError: 40d.  Le code d'erreur et le message des instances de
     *note SSLError: 125a. sont fournis par la bibliothèque OpenSSL.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note SSLError: 125a. était un
     sous-type de *note socket.error: 1040.

      -- Attribut: library

          Une chaîne de caractères mnémonique désignant le sous-module
          OpenSSL dans lequel l'erreur s'est produite, telle que ‘SSL’,
          ‘PEM’ ou ‘X509’.  L'étendue des valeurs possibles dépend de la
          version d'OpenSSL.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: reason

          A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred,
          for example ‘CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  The range of
          possible values depends on the OpenSSL version.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLZeroReturnError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 125a. raised when trying to read or
     write and the SSL connection has been closed cleanly.  Note that
     this doesn't mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been
     closed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLWantReadError

     Sous-classe de *note SSLError: 125a. levée par un connecteur *note
     SSL non bloquant: 3403. lors d'une tentative de lecture ou
     d'écriture de données, alors que davantage de données doivent être
     reçues sur la couche TCP sous-jacente avant que la demande puisse
     être satisfaite.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLWantWriteError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 125a. raised by a *note non-blocking
     SSL socket: 3403. when trying to read or write data, but more data
     needs to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request
     can be fulfilled.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLSyscallError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 125a. raised when a system error was
     encountered while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket.
     Unfortunately, there is no easy way to inspect the original errno
     number.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLEOFError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 125a. raised when the SSL connection
     has been terminated abruptly.  Generally, you shouldn't try to
     reuse the underlying transport when this error is encountered.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: ssl.SSLCertVerificationError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 125a. raised when certificate
     validation has failed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: verify_code

          A numeric error number that denotes the verification error.

      -- Attribut: verify_message

          A human readable string of the verification error.

 -- Exception: ssl.CertificateError

     An alias for *note SSLCertVerificationError: b6c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The exception is now an alias for
     *note SSLCertVerificationError: b6c.


File: python.info,  Node: Random generation,  Next: Certificate handling,  Prev: Exceptions<16>,  Up: Fonctions constantes et exceptions

5.19.3.5 Random generation
..........................

 -- Fonction: ssl.RAND_bytes (num)

     Return 'num' cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes.  Raises
     an *note SSLError: 125a. if the PRNG has not been seeded with
     enough data or if the operation is not supported by the current
     RAND method.  *note RAND_status(): 1883. can be used to check the
     status of the PRNG and *note RAND_add(): 3409. can be used to seed
     the PRNG.

     For almost all applications *note os.urandom(): 50f. is preferable.

     Read the Wikipedia article, Cryptographically secure pseudorandom
     number generator (CSPRNG)(1), to get the requirements of a
     cryptographically strong generator.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: ssl.RAND_status ()

     Return ‘True’ if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been
     seeded with 'enough' randomness, and ‘False’ otherwise.  You can
     use ‘ssl.RAND_egd()’ and *note ssl.RAND_add(): 3409. to increase
     the randomness of the pseudo-random number generator.

 -- Fonction: ssl.RAND_add (bytes, entropy)

     Mix the given 'bytes' into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.
     The parameter 'entropy' (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy
     contained in string (so you can always use ‘0.0’).  See RFC 1750(2)
     for more information on sources of entropy.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
     object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1750.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate handling,  Next: Constantes<9>,  Prev: Random generation,  Up: Fonctions constantes et exceptions

5.19.3.6 Certificate handling
.............................

 -- Fonction: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds (cert_time)

     Return the time in seconds since the Epoch, given the ‘cert_time’
     string representing the "notBefore" or "notAfter" date from a
     certificate in ‘"%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z"’ strptime format (C locale).

     Here's an example:

          >>> import ssl
          >>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
          >>> timestamp
          1515144883
          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> print(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp))
          2018-01-05 09:34:43

     "notBefore" or "notAfter" dates must use GMT ( RFC 5280(1)).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Interpret the input time as a time in
     UTC as specified by 'GMT' timezone in the input string.  Local
     timezone was used previously.  Return an integer (no fractions of a
     second in the input format)

 -- Fonction: ssl.get_server_certificate (addr,
          ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, ca_certs=None[, timeout])

     Given the address ‘addr’ of an SSL-protected server, as a
     ('hostname', 'port-number') pair, fetches the server's certificate,
     and returns it as a PEM-encoded string.  If ‘ssl_version’ is
     specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to
     connect to the server.  If 'ca_certs' is specified, it should be a
     file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as
     used for the 'cafile' parameter in *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ed8.  The call will attempt to
     validate the server certificate against that set of root
     certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails.  A
     timeout can be specified with the ‘timeout’ parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: This function is now IPv6-compatible.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The default 'ssl_version' is changed
     from *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 340b. to *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400. for
     maximum compatibility with modern servers.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- Fonction: ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert (DER_cert_bytes)

     Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a
     PEM-encoded string version of the same certificate.

 -- Fonction: ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert (PEM_cert_string)

     Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded
     sequence of bytes for that same certificate.

 -- Fonction: ssl.get_default_verify_paths ()

     Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL's default cafile and
     capath.  The paths are the same as used by *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): f97.  The return value is a
     *note named tuple: 63b. ‘DefaultVerifyPaths’:

        * ‘cafile’ - resolved path to cafile or ‘None’ if the file
          doesn't exist,

        * ‘capath’ - resolved path to capath or ‘None’ if the directory
          doesn't exist,

        * ‘openssl_cafile_env’ - OpenSSL's environment key that points
          to a cafile,

        * ‘openssl_cafile’ - hard coded path to a cafile,

        * ‘openssl_capath_env’ - OpenSSL's environment key that points
          to a capath,

        * ‘openssl_capath’ - hard coded path to a capath directory

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: ssl.enum_certificates (store_name)

     Retrieve certificates from Windows' system cert store.
     'store_name' may be one of ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ or ‘MY’.  Windows may
     provide additional cert stores, too.

     The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust)
     tuples.  The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes.
     It is either ‘x509_asn’ for X.509 ASN.1 data or ‘pkcs_7_asn’ for
     PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.  Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate
     as a set of OIDS or exactly ‘True’ if the certificate is
     trustworthy for all purposes.

     Exemple :

          >>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
          [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
           (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: ssl.enum_crls (store_name)

     Retrieve CRLs from Windows' system cert store.  'store_name' may be
     one of ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ or ‘MY’.  Windows may provide additional cert
     stores, too.

     The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust)
     tuples.  The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes.
     It is either ‘x509_asn’ for X.509 ASN.1 data or ‘pkcs_7_asn’ for
     PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<9>,  Prev: Certificate handling,  Up: Fonctions constantes et exceptions

5.19.3.7 Constantes
...................

     All constants are now *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. or *note
     enum.IntFlag: 22b5. collections.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: ssl.CERT_NONE

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 33fd.  Except for
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f, it is the default mode.  With
     client-side sockets, just about any cert is accepted.  Validation
     errors, such as untrusted or expired cert, are ignored and do not
     abort the TLS/SSL handshake.

     In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the
     client does not send any for client cert authentication.

     See the discussion of *note Security considerations: 32ef. below.

 -- Données: ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 33fd.  In client
     mode, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3410. has the same meaning as *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe.  It is recommended to use *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     33fe. for client-side sockets instead.

     In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client.
     The client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in
     order perform TLS client cert authentication.  If the client
     chooses to send a certificate, it is verified.  Any verification
     error immediately aborts the TLS handshake.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ed8.

 -- Données: ssl.CERT_REQUIRED

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 33fd.  In this
     mode, certificates are required from the other side of the socket
     connection; an *note SSLError: 125a. will be raised if no
     certificate is provided, or if its validation fails.  This mode is
     'not' sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as it does
     not match hostnames.  *note check_hostname: 3411. must be enabled
     as well to verify the authenticity of a cert.  *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. uses *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe. and
     enables *note check_hostname: 3411. by default.

     With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert
     authentication.  A client certificate request is sent to the client
     and the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ed8.

 -- Classe: ssl.VerifyMode

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection of CERT_* constants.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a.  In this
     mode, certificate revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked.  By
     default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify CRLs.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a.  In this
     mode, only the peer cert is checked but none of the intermediate CA
     certificates.  The mode requires a valid CRL that is signed by the
     peer cert's issuer (its direct ancestor CA). If no proper CRL has
     been loaded with *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations: ed8,
     validation will fail.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a.  In this
     mode, CRLs of all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a. to disable
     workarounds for broken X.509 certificates.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a. to enables
     proxy certificate verification.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to prefer trusted certificates when building the
     trust chain to validate a certificate.  This flag is enabled by
     default.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.4.

 -- Données: ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to accept intermediate CAs in the trust store to
     be treated as trust-anchors, in the same way as the self-signed
     root CA certificates.  This makes it possible to trust certificates
     issued by an intermediate CA without having to trust its ancestor
     root CA.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ssl.VerifyFlags

     *note enum.IntFlag: 22b5. collection of VERIFY_* constants.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

     Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and
     server support.  Despite the name, this option can select both
     "SSL" and "TLS" protocols.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: TLS clients and servers require
     different default settings for secure communication.  The generic
     TLS protocol constant is deprecated in favor of *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context client-side
     connections.  The protocol enables *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe. and
     *note check_hostname: 3411. by default.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context server-side
     connections.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23

     Alias for *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.
     instead.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

     Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.

     This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
     ‘no-ssl3’ option.

          Avertissement: SSL version 3 is insecure.  Its use is highly
          discouraged.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.  Use the default protocol *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. with
     *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 85d. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 85e. instead.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

     Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

     Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.

 -- Données: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

     Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_ALL

     Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL
     implementations.  This option is set by default.  It does not
     necessarily set the same flags as OpenSSL's ‘SSL_OP_ALL’ constant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2

     Prevents an SSLv2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: SSLv2 is deprecated

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     Prevents an SSLv3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: SSLv3 is deprecated

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1

     Prevents a TLSv1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0, use the new *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 85d.
     and *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 85e. instead.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1

     Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.1 as the protocol version.  Available only with
     openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2

     Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.2 as the protocol version.  Available only with
     openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

     Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.3 as the protocol version.  TLS 1.3 is
     available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later.  When Python has been
     compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the flag defaults to
     '0'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.  It was added to 2.7.15 and 3.6.3 for backwards
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION

     Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier.  Do not send
     HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via
     ClientHello.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE

     Use the server's cipher ordering preference, rather than the
     client's.  This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2
     server sockets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
     improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
     This option only applies to server sockets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions.
     This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational
     resources.  This option only applies to server sockets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT

     Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake
     to make a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION

     Disable compression on the SSL channel.  This is useful if the
     application protocol supports its own compression scheme.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Classe: ssl.Options

     *note enum.IntFlag: 22b5. collection of OP_* constants.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_NO_TICKET

     Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF

     Ignore unexpected shutdown of TLS connections.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_ENABLE_KTLS

     Enable the use of the kernel TLS. To benefit from the feature,
     OpenSSL must have been compiled with support for it, and the
     negotiated cipher suites and extensions must be supported by it (a
     list of supported ones may vary by platform and kernel version).

     Note that with enabled kernel TLS some cryptographic operations are
     performed by the kernel directly and not via any available OpenSSL
     Providers.  This might be undesirable if, for example, the
     application requires all cryptographic operations to be performed
     by the FIPS provider.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

     Allow legacy insecure renegotiation between OpenSSL and unpatched
     servers only.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_ALPN

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the
     'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as described
     in RFC 7301(1).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking
     subject common name and *note
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: b6d. is writeable.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_ECDH

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic
     Curve-based Diffie-Hellman key exchange.  This should be true
     unless the feature was explicitly disabled by the distributor.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_SNI

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the 'Server
     Name Indication' extension (as defined in RFC 6066(2)).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_NPN

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the 'Next
     Protocol Negotiation' as described in the Application Layer
     Protocol Negotiation(3).  When true, you can use the *note
     SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2f7. method to advertise which
     protocols you want to support.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_SSLv2

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0
     protocol.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_SSLv3

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0
     protocol.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_TLSv1

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0
     protocol.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1
     protocol.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2
     protocol.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3
     protocol.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Données: ssl.HAS_PSK

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PSK.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES

     List of supported TLS channel binding types.  Strings in this list
     can be used as arguments to *note SSLSocket.get_channel_binding():
     1126.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION

     The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the
     interpreter:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
          'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO

     A tuple of five integers representing version information about the
     OpenSSL library:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
          (1, 0, 2, 11, 15)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER

     The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
          268443839
          >>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
          '0x100020bf'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE
 -- Données: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR

 -- Données: ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*

     Alert Descriptions from RFC 5246(4) and others.  The IANA TLS Alert
     Registry(5) contains this list and references to the RFCs where
     their meaning is defined.

     Used as the return value of the callback function in *note
     SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fa3.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Classe: ssl.AlertDescription

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*
     constants.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: Purpose.SERVER_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): 154. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): f9e.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web servers (therefore, it
     will be used to create client-side sockets).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): 154. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): f9e.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web clients (therefore, it
     will be used to create server-side sockets).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Classe: ssl.SSLErrorNumber

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: ssl.TLSVersion

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection of SSL and TLS versions for
     *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 85e. and *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 85d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED

     The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version.  These are
     magic constants.  Their values don't reflect the lowest and highest
     available TLS/SSL versions.

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.SSLv3

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.TLSv1

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.TLSv1_2

 -- Attribut: TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

     SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: All *note TLSVersion: 3430.
     members except *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 3436. and *note
     TLSVersion.TLSv1_3: 3437. are deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6


File: python.info,  Node: SSL Sockets,  Next: SSL Contexts,  Prev: Fonctions constantes et exceptions,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.8 SSL Sockets
....................

 -- Classe: ssl.SSLSocket (socket.socket)

     SSL sockets provide the following methods of *note Socket Objects:
     33de.:

        - *note accept(): d91.

        - *note bind(): 14f1.

        - *note close(): d33.

        - *note connect(): d92.

        - *note detach(): 11fc.

        - *note fileno(): 33ec.

        - *note getpeername(): 3332, *note getsockname(): 3333.

        - *note getsockopt(): cc5, *note setsockopt(): cc6.

        - *note gettimeout(): 33ed, *note settimeout(): 33ab, *note
          setblocking(): 2afb.

        - *note listen(): e49.

        - *note makefile(): 117f.

        - *note recv(): d93, *note recv_into(): 12fd. (but passing a
          non-zero ‘flags’ argument is not allowed)

        - *note send(): d96, *note sendall(): d97. (with the same
          limitation)

        - *note sendfile(): e48. (but *note os.sendfile: aff. will be
          used for plain-text sockets only, else *note send(): d96. will
          be used)

        - *note shutdown(): 33db.

     However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop
     of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects,
     diverge from the specification of normal, OS-level sockets.  See
     especially the *note notes on non-blocking sockets: 3403.

     Instances of *note SSLSocket: 8d9. must be created using the *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511. method.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The ‘sendfile()’ method was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The ‘shutdown()’ does not reset the
     socket timeout each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket
     timeout is now the maximum total duration of the shutdown.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: It is deprecated to create a *note
     SSLSocket: 8d9. instance directly, use *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511. to wrap a socket.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note SSLSocket: 8d9. instances must
     to created with *note wrap_socket(): 511.  In earlier versions, it
     was possible to create instances directly.  This was never
     documented or officially supported.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Python now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.read (len=1024, buffer=None)

     Read up to 'len' bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the
     result as a ‘bytes’ instance.  If 'buffer' is specified, then read
     into the buffer instead, and return the number of bytes read.

     Raise *note SSLWantReadError: e54. or *note SSLWantWriteError: e55.
     if the socket is *note non-blocking: 3403. and the read would
     block.

     As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to *note
     read(): e59. can also cause write operations.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset
     each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now
     the maximum total duration to read up to 'len' bytes.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use ‘recv()’ instead of *note
     read(): e59.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.write (buf)

     Write 'buf' to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes
     written.  The 'buf' argument must be an object supporting the
     buffer interface.

     Raise *note SSLWantReadError: e54. or *note SSLWantWriteError: e55.
     if the socket is *note non-blocking: 3403. and the write would
     block.

     As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to *note
     write(): e5a. can also cause read operations.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset
     each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now
     the maximum total duration to write 'buf'.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use ‘send()’ instead of *note
     write(): e5a.

     Note: The *note read(): e59. and *note write(): e5a. methods are
     the low-level methods that read and write unencrypted,
     application-level data and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted,
     wire-level data.  These methods require an active SSL connection,
     i.e.  the handshake was completed and *note SSLSocket.unwrap():
     3439. was not called.

     Normally you should use the socket API methods like *note recv():
     d93. and *note send(): d96. instead of these methods.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.do_handshake ()

     Perform the SSL setup handshake.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The handshake method also performs
     ‘match_hostname()’ when the *note check_hostname: 3411. attribute
     of the socket's *note context: 343a. is true.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset
     each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now
     the maximum total duration of the handshake.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Hostname or IP address is matched by
     OpenSSL during handshake.  The function ‘match_hostname()’ is no
     longer used.  In case OpenSSL refuses a hostname or IP address, the
     handshake is aborted early and a TLS alert message is sent to the
     peer.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.getpeercert (binary_form=False)

     If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the
     connection, return ‘None’.  If the SSL handshake hasn't been done
     yet, raise *note ValueError: 1ff.

     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: b27, and a
     certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a *note
     dict: 253. instance.  If the certificate was not validated, the
     dict is empty.  If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict
     with several keys, amongst them ‘subject’ (the principal for which
     the certificate was issued) and ‘issuer’ (the principal issuing the
     certificate).  If a certificate contains an instance of the
     'Subject Alternative Name' extension (see RFC 3280(1)), there will
     also be a ‘subjectAltName’ key in the dictionary.

     The ‘subject’ and ‘issuer’ fields are tuples containing the
     sequence of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the
     certificate's data structure for the respective fields, and each
     RDN is a sequence of name-value pairs.  Here is a real-world
     example:

          {'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
                      (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
                      (('organizationalUnitName',
                        'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
                      (('commonName',
                        'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
           'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
           'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
           'serialNumber': '95F0',
           'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
                       (('countryName', 'US'),),
                       (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
                       (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
                       (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
                       (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
                       (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
           'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
           'version': 3}

     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note True: bfd, and a
     certificate was provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form
     of the entire certificate as a sequence of bytes, or *note None:
     662. if the peer did not provide a certificate.  Whether the peer
     provides a certificate depends on the SSL socket's role:

        * for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a
          certificate, regardless of whether validation was required;

        * for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a
          certificate when requested by the server; therefore *note
          getpeercert(): fa4. will return *note None: 662. if you used
          *note CERT_NONE: 340f. (rather than *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3410.
          or *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe.).

     See also *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The returned dictionary includes
     additional items such as ‘issuer’ and ‘notBefore’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised when
     the handshake isn't done.  The returned dictionary includes
     additional X509v3 extension items such as ‘crlDistributionPoints’,
     ‘caIssuers’ and ‘OCSP’ URIs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: IPv6 address strings no longer have a
     trailing new line.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.get_verified_chain ()

     Returns verified certificate chain provided by the other end of the
     SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.  If certificate
     verification was disabled method acts the same as *note
     get_unverified_chain(): 1598.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain ()

     Returns raw certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL
     channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.cipher ()

     Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being
     used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the
     number of secret bits being used.  If no connection has been
     established, returns ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.shared_ciphers ()

     Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server.
     Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing
     the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that
     defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses.
     *note shared_ciphers(): e57. returns ‘None’ if no connection has
     been established or the socket is a client socket.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.compression ()

     Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or ‘None’
     if the connection isn't compressed.

     If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression
     mechanism, you can use *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 1128. to disable
     SSL-level compression.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding (cb_type='tls-unique')

     Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object.
     Returns ‘None’ if not connected or the handshake has not been
     completed.

     The 'cb_type' parameter allow selection of the desired channel
     binding type.  Valid channel binding types are listed in the *note
     CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES: 342b. list.  Currently only the 'tls-unique'
     channel binding, defined by RFC 5929(2), is supported.  *note
     ValueError: 1ff. will be raised if an unsupported channel binding
     type is requested.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol ()

     Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  If
     *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): e4f. was not called, if the
     other party does not support ALPN, if this socket does not support
     any of the client's proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not
     happened yet, ‘None’ is returned.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol ()

     Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the
     TLS/SSL handshake.  If *note SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2f7.
     was not called, or if the other party does not support NPN, or if
     the handshake has not yet happened, this will return ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.unwrap ()

     Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer
     from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket
     object.  This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a
     connection to unencrypted.  The returned socket should always be
     used for further communication with the other side of the
     connection, rather than the original socket.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake ()

     Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client.
     PHA can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a
     server-side socket, after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA
     enabled on both sides, see *note SSLContext.post_handshake_auth:
     a21.

     The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately.  The
     server-side sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event
     and expects the client to respond with a certificate on the next
     read event.

     If any precondition isn't met (e.g.  not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled),
     an *note SSLError: 125a. is raised.

          Note: Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled.
          Without TLS 1.3 support, the method raises *note
          NotImplementedError: 225.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.version ()

     Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
     as a string, or ‘None’ if no secure connection is established.  As
     of this writing, possible return values include ‘"SSLv2"’,
     ‘"SSLv3"’, ‘"TLSv1"’, ‘"TLSv1.1"’ and ‘"TLSv1.2"’.  Recent OpenSSL
     versions may define more return values.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: SSLSocket.pending ()

     Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read,
     pending on the connection.

 -- Attribut: SSLSocket.context

     The *note SSLContext: 291. object this SSL socket is tied to.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Attribut: SSLSocket.server_side

     A boolean which is ‘True’ for server-side sockets and ‘False’ for
     client-side sockets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Attribut: SSLSocket.server_hostname

     Hostname of the server: *note str: 437. type, or ‘None’ for
     server-side socket or if the hostname was not specified in the
     constructor.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The attribute is now always ASCII
     text.  When ‘server_hostname’ is an internationalized domain name
     (IDN), this attribute now stores the A-label form
     (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’), rather than the U-label form
     (‘"pythön.org"’).

 -- Attribut: SSLSocket.session

     The *note SSLSession: ccd. for this SSL connection.  The session is
     available for client and server side sockets after the TLS
     handshake has been performed.  For client sockets the session can
     be set before *note do_handshake(): e58. has been called to reuse a
     session.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Attribut: SSLSocket.session_reused

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3280.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5929.html


File: python.info,  Node: SSL Contexts,  Next: Certificates,  Prev: SSL Sockets,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.9 SSL Contexts
.....................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL
connections, such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and
private key(s).  It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side
sockets, in order to speed up repeated connections from the same
clients.

 -- Classe: ssl.SSLContext (protocol=None)

     Create a new SSL context.  You may pass 'protocol' which must be
     one of the ‘PROTOCOL_*’ constants defined in this module.  The
     parameter specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.
     Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and
     the client must adapt to the server's choice.  Most of the versions
     are not interoperable with the other versions.  If not specified,
     the default is *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.; it provides the most
     compatibility with other versions.

     Here's a table showing which versions in a client (down the side)
     can connect to which versions in a server (along the top):

     'client' / 'server'          'SSLv2'          'SSLv3'          'TLS' (1)         'TLSv1'       'TLSv1.1'       'TLSv1.2'
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv2'                      oui              non              no (2)            non           non             non
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv3'                      non              oui              no (3)            non           non             non
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLS' ('SSLv23') (4)         no (5)           no (6)           oui               oui           oui             oui
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1'                      non              non              oui               oui           non             non
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.1'                    non              non              oui               non           oui             non
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.2'                    non              non              oui               non           non             oui
                                                                                                                    

     Notes
     .....

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note create_default_context(): 154. lets the *note ssl: cf. module
     choose security settings for a given purpose.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The context is created with secure
     default values.  The options *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 1128, *note
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 112b, *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 341c,
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 341d, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 825, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 826. (except for *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 340b.) are set
     by default.  The initial cipher suite list contains only ‘HIGH’
     ciphers, no ‘NULL’ ciphers and no ‘MD5’ ciphers.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: *note SSLContext: 291. without
     protocol argument is deprecated.  The context class will either
     require *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. or *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860. protocol in the future.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The default cipher suites now include
     only secure AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and
     security level 2.  RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC
     keys with less than 224 bits are prohibited.  *note PROTOCOL_TLS:
     3400, *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f, and *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860. use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.

          Note: *note SSLContext: 291. only supports limited mutation
          once it has been used by a connection.  Adding new
          certificates to the internal trust store is allowed, but
          changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS certificates
          may result in surprising behavior.

          Note: *note SSLContext: 291. is designed to be shared and used
          by multiple connections.  Thus, it is thread-safe as long as
          it is not reconfigured after being used by a connection.

*note SSLContext: 291. objects have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.cert_store_stats ()

     Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count
     of X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate
     revocation lists as dictionary.

     Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert:

          >>> context.cert_store_stats()
          {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.load_cert_chain (certfile, keyfile=None,
          password=None)

     Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The
     'certfile' string must be the path to a single file in PEM format
     containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates
     needed to establish the certificate's authenticity.  The 'keyfile'
     string, if present, must point to a file containing the private
     key.  Otherwise the private key will be taken from 'certfile' as
     well.  See the discussion of *note Certificates: 343f. for more
     information on how the certificate is stored in the 'certfile'.

     The 'password' argument may be a function to call to get the
     password for decrypting the private key.  It will only be called if
     the private key is encrypted and a password is necessary.  It will
     be called with no arguments, and it should return a string, bytes,
     or bytearray.  If the return value is a string it will be encoded
     as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key.  Alternatively a
     string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly as the
     'password' argument.  It will be ignored if the private key is not
     encrypted and no password is needed.

     If the 'password' argument is not specified and a password is
     required, OpenSSL's built-in password prompting mechanism will be
     used to interactively prompt the user for a password.

     An *note SSLError: 125a. is raised if the private key doesn't match
     with the certificate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: New optional argument 'password'.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.load_default_certs (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)

     Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates
     from default locations.  On Windows it loads CA certs from the ‘CA’
     and ‘ROOT’ system stores.  On all systems it calls *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): f97.  In the future the
     method may load CA certificates from other locations, too.

     The 'purpose' flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are
     loaded.  The default settings *note Purpose.SERVER_AUTH: f9f. loads
     certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server
     authentication (client side sockets).  *note Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH:
     fa0. loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on
     the server side.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.load_verify_locations (cafile=None, capath=None,
          cadata=None)

     Load a set of "certification authority" (CA) certificates used to
     validate other peers' certificates when *note verify_mode: 33fd. is
     other than *note CERT_NONE: 340f.  At least one of 'cafile' or
     'capath' must be specified.

     This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in
     PEM or DER format.  In order to make use of CRLs, *note
     SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a. must be configured properly.

     The 'cafile' string, if present, is the path to a file of
     concatenated CA certificates in PEM format.  See the discussion of
     *note Certificates: 343f. for more information about how to arrange
     the certificates in this file.

     The 'capath' string, if present, is the path to a directory
     containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an
     OpenSSL specific layout(7).

     The 'cadata' object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one
     or more PEM-encoded certificates or a *note bytes-like object: d1d.
     of DER-encoded certificates.  Like with 'capath' extra lines around
     PEM-encoded certificates are ignored but at least one certificate
     must be present.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: New optional argument 'cadata'

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.get_ca_certs (binary_form=False)

     Get a list of loaded "certification authority" (CA) certificates.
     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: b27. each list entry
     is a dict like the output of *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4.
     Otherwise the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates.
     The returned list does not contain certificates from 'capath'
     unless a certificate was requested and loaded by a SSL connection.

          Note: Certificates in a capath directory aren't loaded unless
          they have been used at least once.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.get_ciphers ()

     Get a list of enabled ciphers.  The list is in order of cipher
     priority.  See *note SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 3440.

     Exemple :

          >>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
          >>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
          >>> ctx.get_ciphers()
          [{'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 256,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380848,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 256,
            'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
           {'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 128,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380847,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 128,
            'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths ()

     Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates
     from a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library.
     Unfortunately, there's no easy way to know whether this method
     succeeds: no error is returned if no certificates are to be found.
     When the OpenSSL library is provided as part of the operating
     system, though, it is likely to be configured properly.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_ciphers (ciphers)

     Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
     It should be a string in the OpenSSL cipher list format(8).  If no
     cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
     configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an *note
     SSLError: 125a. will be raised.

          Note: when connected, the *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 3334.
          method of SSL sockets will give the currently selected cipher.

          TLS 1.3 cipher suites cannot be disabled with *note
          set_ciphers(): 3440.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols (protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of ASCII strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to RFC 7301(9).  After a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e50. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if *note
     HAS_ALPN: e51. is ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols (protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation(10).  After
     a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): 861. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if *note
     HAS_NPN: 3424. is ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.sni_callback

     Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS
     Client Hello handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS
     server when the TLS client specifies a server name indication.  The
     server name indication mechanism is specified in RFC 6066(11)
     section 3 - Server Name Indication.

     Only one callback can be set per ‘SSLContext’.  If 'sni_callback'
     is set to ‘None’ then the callback is disabled.  Calling this
     function a subsequent time will disable the previously registered
     callback.

     The callback function will be called with three arguments; the
     first being the *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9, the second is a string
     that represents the server name that the client is intending to
     communicate (or *note None: 662. if the TLS Client Hello does not
     contain a server name) and the third argument is the original *note
     SSLContext: 291.  The server name argument is text.  For
     internationalized domain name, the server name is an IDN A-label
     (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’).

     A typical use of this callback is to change the *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 8d9.'s *note SSLSocket.context: 343a. attribute to a
     new object of type *note SSLContext: 291. representing a
     certificate chain that matches the server name.

     Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only
     limited methods and attributes are usable like *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e50. and *note
     SSLSocket.context: 343a.  The *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4,
     *note SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 1597, *note
     SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 1598. *note SSLSocket.cipher():
     3334. and *note SSLSocket.compression(): 1127. methods require that
     the TLS connection has progressed beyond the TLS Client Hello and
     therefore will not return meaningful values nor can they be called
     safely.

     The 'sni_callback' function must return ‘None’ to allow the TLS
     negotiation to continue.  If a TLS failure is required, a constant
     *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*: 342d. can be returned.  Other return
     values will result in a TLS fatal error with *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR: 342d.

     If an exception is raised from the 'sni_callback' function the TLS
     connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE: 342c.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if the
     OpenSSL library had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.set_servername_callback (server_name_callback)

     This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility.  When
     possible, you should use *note sni_callback: 1892. instead.  The
     given 'server_name_callback' is similar to 'sni_callback', except
     that when the server hostname is an IDN-encoded internationalized
     domain name, the 'server_name_callback' receives a decoded U-label
     (‘"pythön.org"’).

     If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection
     will terminate with an *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR:
     342d. fatal TLS alert message to the client.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.load_dh_params (dhfile)

     Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key
     exchange.  Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the
     expense of computational resources (both on the server and on the
     client).  The 'dhfile' parameter should be the path to a file
     containing DH parameters in PEM format.

     This setting doesn't apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 341c. option to further improve security.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve (curve_name)

     Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH)
     key exchange.  ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while
     arguably as secure.  The 'curve_name' parameter should be a string
     describing a well-known elliptic curve, for example ‘prime256v1’
     for a widely supported curve.

     This setting doesn't apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 341d. option to further improve security.

     This method is not available if *note HAS_ECDH: 3422. is ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy(12)

          Vincent Bernat.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.wrap_socket (sock, server_side=False,
          do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap an existing Python socket 'sock' and return an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 3441. (default *note SSLSocket:
     8d9.).  The returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its
     settings and certificates.  'sock' must be a *note SOCK_STREAM:
     12d3. socket; other socket types are unsupported.

     The parameter ‘server_side’ is a boolean which identifies whether
     server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.

     For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the
     underlying socket isn't connected yet, the context construction
     will be performed after ‘connect()’ is called on the socket.  For
     server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is
     assumed to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping
     is automatically performed on client connections accepted via the
     ‘accept()’ method.  The method may raise *note SSLError: 125a.

     On client connections, the optional parameter 'server_hostname'
     specifies the hostname of the service which we are connecting to.
     This allows a single server to host multiple SSL-based services
     with distinct certificates, quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts.
     Specifying 'server_hostname' will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     'server_side' is true.

     The parameter ‘do_handshake_on_connect’ specifies whether to do the
     SSL handshake automatically after doing a ‘socket.connect()’, or
     whether the application program will call it explicitly, by
     invoking the *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e58. method.  Calling
     *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e58. explicitly gives the program
     control over the blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in
     the handshake.

     The parameter ‘suppress_ragged_eofs’ specifies how the
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ method should signal unexpected EOF from the
     other end of the connection.  If specified as *note True: bfd. (the
     default), it returns a normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in
     response to unexpected EOF errors raised from the underlying
     socket; if *note False: b27, it will raise the exceptions back to
     the caller.

     'session', see *note session: 1568.

     To wrap an *note SSLSocket: 8d9. in another *note SSLSocket: 8d9,
     use *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b72.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Always allow a server_hostname to be
     passed, even if OpenSSL does not have SNI.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'session' argument was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method returns an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 3441. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLSocket: 8d9.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.sslsocket_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511, defaults to
     *note SSLSocket: 8d9.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of *note SSLSocket:
     8d9.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.wrap_bio (incoming, outgoing, server_side=False,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap the BIO objects 'incoming' and 'outgoing' and return an
     instance of *note SSLContext.sslobject_class: 3442. (default *note
     SSLObject: b71.).  The SSL routines will read input data from the
     incoming BIO and write data to the outgoing BIO.

     The 'server_side', 'server_hostname' and 'session' parameters have
     the same meaning as in *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'session' argument was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method returns an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslobject_class: 3442. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLObject: b71.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.sslobject_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b72, defaults to
     *note SSLObject: b71.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of *note SSLObject:
     b71.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.session_stats ()

     Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this
     context.  A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each
     piece of information(13) to their numeric values.  For example,
     here is the total number of hits and misses in the session cache
     since the context was created:

          >>> stats = context.session_stats()
          >>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
          (0, 0)

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.check_hostname

     Whether to match the peer cert's hostname in *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e58.  The context's *note verify_mode:
     33fd. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3410. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe, and you must pass 'server_hostname' to *note
     wrap_socket(): 511. in order to match the hostname.  Enabling
     hostname checking automatically sets *note verify_mode: 33fd. from
     *note CERT_NONE: 340f. to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe.  It cannot be
     set back to *note CERT_NONE: 340f. as long as hostname checking is
     enabled.  The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. protocol enables
     hostname checking by default.  With other protocols, hostname
     checking must be enabled explicitly.

     Exemple :

          import socket, ssl

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2)
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
          context.check_hostname = True
          context.load_default_certs()

          s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
          ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
          ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note verify_mode: 33fd. is now
     automatically changed to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe. when hostname
     checking is enabled and *note verify_mode: 33fd. is *note
     CERT_NONE: 340f.  Previously the same operation would have failed
     with a *note ValueError: 1ff.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.keylog_filename

     Write TLS keys to a keylog file, whenever key material is generated
     or received.  The keylog file is designed for debugging purposes
     only.  The file format is specified by NSS and used by many traffic
     analyzers such as Wireshark.  The log file is opened in append-only
     mode.  Writes are synchronized between threads, but not between
     processes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.maximum_version

     A *note TLSVersion: 3430. enum member representing the highest
     supported TLS version.  The value defaults to *note
     TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED: 3432.  The attribute is read-only for
     protocols other than *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400, *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860.

     The attributes *note maximum_version: 85e, *note minimum_version:
     85d. and *note SSLContext.options: 824. all affect the supported
     SSL and TLS versions of the context.  The implementation does not
     prevent invalid combination.  For example a context with *note
     OP_NO_TLSv1_2: 341a. in *note options: 824. and *note
     maximum_version: 85e. set to *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 3436. will
     not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.minimum_version

     Like *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 85e. except it is the lowest
     supported version or *note TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED: 3431.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.num_tickets

     Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860. context.  The setting has no impact on
     TLS 1.0 to 1.2 connections.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.options

     An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this
     context.  The default value is *note OP_ALL: 3417, but you can
     specify other options such as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 825. by ORing them
     together.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note SSLContext.options: 824. returns
     *note Options: 341f. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().options
          <Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: All ‘OP_NO_SSL*’ and ‘OP_NO_TLS*’
     options have been deprecated since Python 3.7.  Use *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 85d. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 85e. instead.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth

     Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication.
     Post-handshake auth is disabled by default and a server can only
     request a TLS client certificate during the initial handshake.
     When enabled, a server may request a TLS client certificate at any
     time after the handshake.

     When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server
     that it supports post-handshake authentication.

     When enabled on server-side sockets, *note SSLContext.verify_mode:
     33fd. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3410. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe, too.  The actual client cert exchange is
     delayed until *note SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a22.
     is called and some I/O is performed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.protocol

     The protocol version chosen when constructing the context.  This
     attribute is read-only.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name

     Whether *note check_hostname: 3411. falls back to verify the cert's
     subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name
     extension (default: true).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The flag had no effect with OpenSSL
     before version 1.1.1l.  Python 3.8.9, 3.9.3, and 3.10 include
     workarounds for previous versions.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.security_level

     An integer representing the security level(14) for the context.
     This attribute is read-only.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.verify_flags

     The flags for certificate verification operations.  You can set
     flags like *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: f9c. by ORing them
     together.  By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify
     certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note SSLContext.verify_flags: f9a.
     returns *note VerifyFlags: 3414. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags
          <VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>

 -- Attribut: SSLContext.verify_mode

     Whether to try to verify other peers' certificates and how to
     behave if verification fails.  This attribute must be one of *note
     CERT_NONE: 340f, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3410. or *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     33fe.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 33fd.
     returns *note VerifyMode: 3412. enum:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
          <VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_psk_client_callback (callback)

     Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a client-side
     connection.

     In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred
     over this method.

     The parameter ‘callback’ is a callable object with the signature:
     ‘def callback(hint: str | None) -> tuple[str | None, bytes]’.  The
     ‘hint’ parameter is an optional identity hint sent by the server.
     The return value is a tuple in the form (client-identity, psk).
     Client-identity is an optional string which may be used by the
     server to select a corresponding PSK for the client.  The string
     must be less than or equal to ‘256’ octets when UTF-8 encoded.  PSK
     is a *note bytes-like object: d1d. representing the pre-shared key.
     Return a zero length PSK to reject the connection.

     Setting ‘callback’ to *note None: 662. removes any existing
     callback.

          Note: When using TLS 1.3:

             - the ‘hint’ parameter is always *note None: 662.

             - client-identity must be a non-empty string.

     Example usage:

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
          context.check_hostname = False
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_NONE
          context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
          context.set_ciphers('PSK')

          # A simple lambda:
          psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
          context.set_psk_client_callback(lambda hint: (None, psk))

          # A table using the hint from the server:
          psk_table = { 'ServerId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
                        'ServerId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
          }
          def callback(hint):
              return 'ClientId_1', psk_table.get(hint, b'')
          context.set_psk_client_callback(callback)

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if *note
     HAS_PSK: 342a. is ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: SSLContext.set_psk_server_callback (callback,
          identity_hint=None)

     Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a server-side
     connection.

     In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred
     over this method.

     The parameter ‘callback’ is a callable object with the signature:
     ‘def callback(identity: str | None) -> bytes’.  The ‘identity’
     parameter is an optional identity sent by the client which can be
     used to select a corresponding PSK. The return value is a *note
     bytes-like object: d1d. representing the pre-shared key.  Return a
     zero length PSK to reject the connection.

     Setting ‘callback’ to *note None: 662. removes any existing
     callback.

     The parameter ‘identity_hint’ is an optional identity hint string
     sent to the client.  The string must be less than or equal to ‘256’
     octets when UTF-8 encoded.

          Note: When using TLS 1.3 the ‘identity_hint’ parameter is not
          sent to the client.

     Example usage:

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
          context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
          context.set_ciphers('PSK')

          # A simple lambda:
          psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
          context.set_psk_server_callback(lambda identity: psk)

          # A table using the identity of the client:
          psk_table = { 'ClientId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
                        'ClientId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
          }
          def callback(identity):
              return psk_table.get(identity, b'')
          context.set_psk_server_callback(callback, 'ServerId_1')

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if *note
     HAS_PSK: 342a. is ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (2) *note SSLContext: 291. disables SSLv2 with *note OP_NO_SSLv2:
825. by default.

   (3) *note SSLContext: 291. disables SSLv3 with *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
826. by default.

   (4) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3400.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (5) *note SSLContext: 291. disables SSLv2 with *note OP_NO_SSLv2:
825. by default.

   (6) *note SSLContext: 291. disables SSLv3 with *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
826. by default.

   (7) 
https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/

   (8) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (10) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (12) 
https://vincent.bernat.ch/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy

   (13) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/

   (14) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/


File: python.info,  Node: Certificates,  Next: Exemples<20>,  Prev: SSL Contexts,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.10 Certificates
......................

Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.
In this system, each 'principal', (which may be a machine, or a person,
or an organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.  One
part of the key is public, and is called the 'public key'; the other
part is kept secret, and is called the 'private key'.  The two parts are
related, in that if you encrypt a message with one of the parts, you can
decrypt it with the other part, and 'only' with the other part.

A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains
the name of a 'subject', and the subject's public key.  It also contains
a statement by a second principal, the 'issuer', that the subject is who
they claim to be, and that this is indeed the subject's public key.  The
issuer's statement is signed with the issuer's private key, which only
the issuer knows.  However, anyone can verify the issuer's statement by
finding the issuer's public key, decrypting the statement with it, and
comparing it to the other information in the certificate.  The
certificate also contains information about the time period over which
it is valid.  This is expressed as two fields, called "notBefore" and
"notAfter".

In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a
certificate to prove who they are.  The other side of a network
connection can also be required to produce a certificate, and that
certificate can be validated to the satisfaction of the client or server
that requires such validation.  The connection attempt can be set to
raise an exception if the validation fails.  Validation is done
automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the application need
not concern itself with its mechanics.  But the application does usually
need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take
place.

Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted as
"PEM" (see RFC 1422(1)), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a
header line and a footer line:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----

* Menu:

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate chains,  Next: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.19.3.11 Certificate chains
............................

The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of
certificates, sometimes called a 'certificate chain'.  This chain should
start with the specific certificate for the principal who "is" the
client or server, and then the certificate for the issuer of that
certificate, and then the certificate for the issuer of 'that'
certificate, and so on up the chain till you get to a certificate which
is 'self-signed', that is, a certificate which has the same subject and
issuer, sometimes called a 'root certificate'.  The certificates should
just be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For example,
suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate to
the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server
certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the
certification authority's certificate:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate for your server)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the certificate for the CA)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: CA certificates,  Next: Combined key and certificate,  Prev: Certificate chains,  Up: Certificates

5.19.3.12 CA certificates
.........................

If you are going to require validation of the other side of the
connection's certificate, you need to provide a "CA certs" file, filled
with the certificate chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.
Again, this file just contains these chains concatenated together.  For
validation, Python will use the first chain it finds in the file which
matches.  The platform's certificates file can be used by calling *note
SSLContext.load_default_certs(): f9e, this is done automatically with
*note create_default_context(): 154.


File: python.info,  Node: Combined key and certificate,  Next: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.19.3.13 Combined key and certificate
......................................

Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in
this case, only the ‘certfile’ parameter to *note
SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 292. needs to be passed.  If the private
key is stored with the certificate, it should come before the first
certificate in the certificate chain:

     -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     ... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
     -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: Combined key and certificate,  Up: Certificates

5.19.3.14 Self-signed certificates
..................................

If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted
connection services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that
service.  There are many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates,
such as buying one from a certification authority.  Another common
practice is to generate a self-signed certificate.  The simplest way to
do this is with the OpenSSL package, using something like the following:

     % openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
     Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
     .......++++++
     .............................++++++
     writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
     -----
     You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
     into your certificate request.
     What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
     There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
     For some fields there will be a default value,
     If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
     -----
     Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
     State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
     Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
     Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
     Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
     Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     %

The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root
certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and
trusted) root certificates.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<20>,  Next: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Prev: Certificates,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.15 Exemples
..................

* Menu:

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::


File: python.info,  Node: Testing for SSL support,  Next: Client-side operation,  Up: Exemples<20>

5.19.3.16 Testing for SSL support
.................................

To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user
code should use the following idiom:

     try:
         import ssl
     except ImportError:
         pass
     else:
         ...  # do something that requires SSL support


File: python.info,  Node: Client-side operation,  Next: Server-side operation,  Prev: Testing for SSL support,  Up: Exemples<20>

5.19.3.17 Client-side operation
...............................

This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security
settings for client sockets, including automatic certificate
verification:

     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()

If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create a
context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings
right):

     >>> context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")

(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA
certificates in ‘/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt’; if not, you'll get an
error and have to adjust the location)

The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. protocol configures the context for
cert validation and hostname verification.  *note verify_mode: 33fd. is
set to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe. and *note check_hostname: 3411. is set
to ‘True’.  All other protocols create SSL contexts with insecure
defaults.

When you use the context to connect to a server, *note CERT_REQUIRED:
33fe. and *note check_hostname: 3411. validate the server certificate:
it ensures that the server certificate was signed with one of the CA
certificates, checks the signature for correctness, and verifies other
properties like validity and identity of the hostname:

     >>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
     ...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
     >>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))

You may then fetch the certificate:

     >>> cert = conn.getpeercert()

Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired
service (that is, the HTTPS host ‘www.python.org’):

     >>> pprint.pprint(cert)
     {'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
      'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
      'crlDistributionPoints': ('http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
                                'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl'),
      'issuer': ((('countryName', 'US'),),
                 (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
                 (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
                 (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),)),
      'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
      'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
      'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
      'subject': ((('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
                  (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
                  (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
                  (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
                  (('countryName', 'US'),),
                  (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
                  (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro'),),
                  (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
                  (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),)),
      'subjectAltName': (('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'id.python.org')),
      'version': 3}

Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can
proceed to talk with the server:

     >>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
     >>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
     [b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
      b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
      b'Server: nginx',
      b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
      b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
      b'Content-Length: 45679',
      b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
      b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
      b'Age: 2188',
      b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
      b'X-Cache: HIT',
      b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
      b'Vary: Cookie',
      b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
      b'Connection: close',
      b'',
      b'']

See the discussion of *note Security considerations: 32ef. below.


File: python.info,  Node: Server-side operation,  Prev: Client-side operation,  Up: Exemples<20>

5.19.3.18 Server-side operation
...............................

For server operation, typically you'll need to have a server
certificate, and private key, each in a file.  You'll first create a
context holding the key and the certificate, so that clients can check
your authenticity.  Then you'll open a socket, bind it to a port, call
‘listen()’ on it, and start waiting for clients to connect:

     import socket, ssl

     context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
     context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")

     bindsocket = socket.socket()
     bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.example.com', 10023))
     bindsocket.listen(5)

When a client connects, you'll call ‘accept()’ on the socket to get the
new socket from the other end, and use the context's *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 511. method to create a server-side SSL socket
for the connection:

     while True:
         newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
         connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
         try:
             deal_with_client(connstream)
         finally:
             connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
             connstream.close()

Then you'll read data from the ‘connstream’ and do something with it
till you are finished with the client (or the client is finished with
you):

     def deal_with_client(connstream):
         data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # empty data means the client is finished with us
         while data:
             if not do_something(connstream, data):
                 # we'll assume do_something returns False
                 # when we're finished with client
                 break
             data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # finished with client

And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real
server would probably handle each client connection in a separate
thread, or put the sockets in *note non-blocking mode: 3403. and use an
event loop).


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Next: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Prev: Exemples<20>,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.19 Notes on non-blocking sockets
.......................................

SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in
non-blocking mode.  When working with non-blocking sockets, there are
thus several things you need to be aware of:

   - Most *note SSLSocket: 8d9. methods will raise either *note
     SSLWantWriteError: e55. or *note SSLWantReadError: e54. instead of
     *note BlockingIOError: 1042. if an I/O operation would block.
     *note SSLWantReadError: e54. will be raised if a read operation on
     the underlying socket is necessary, and *note SSLWantWriteError:
     e55. for a write operation on the underlying socket.  Note that
     attempts to 'write' to an SSL socket may require 'reading' from the
     underlying socket first, and attempts to 'read' from the SSL socket
     may require a prior 'write' to the underlying socket.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: In earlier Python versions, the
     ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method returned zero instead of raising *note
     SSLWantWriteError: e55. or *note SSLWantReadError: e54.

   - Calling *note select(): d8f. tells you that the OS-level socket can
     be read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there is
     sufficient data at the upper SSL layer.  For example, only part of
     an SSL frame might have arrived.  Therefore, you must be ready to
     handle ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ and ‘SSLSocket.send()’ failures, and
     retry after another call to *note select(): d8f.

   - Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket
     may still have data available for reading without *note select():
     d8f. being aware of it.  Therefore, you should first call
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ to drain any potentially available data, and
     then only block on a *note select(): d8f. call if still necessary.

     (of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives
     such as *note poll(): 2b6b, or those in the *note selectors: c1.
     module)

   - The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e58. method has to be retried until it
     returns successfully.  Here is a synopsis using *note select():
     d8f. to wait for the socket's readiness:

          while True:
              try:
                  sock.do_handshake()
                  break
              except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
                  select.select([sock], [], [])
              except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
                  select.select([], [sock], [])

Voir aussi
..........

The *note asyncio: a. module supports *note non-blocking SSL sockets:
3403. and provides a higher level *note Streams API: 3220.  It polls for
events using the *note selectors: c1. module and handles *note
SSLWantWriteError: e55, *note SSLWantReadError: e54. and *note
BlockingIOError: 1042. exceptions.  It runs the SSL handshake
asynchronously as well.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Next: SSL session,  Prev: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.20 Memory BIO Support
............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the *note
SSLSocket: 8d9. class has provided two related but distinct areas of
functionality:

   - SSL protocol handling

   - Network IO

The network IO API is identical to that provided by *note socket.socket:
d90, from which *note SSLSocket: 8d9. also inherits.  This allows an SSL
socket to be used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket, making
it very easy to add SSL support to an existing application.

Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but
there are some cases where it doesn't.  An example is async IO
frameworks that want to use a different IO multiplexing model than the
"select/poll on a file descriptor" (readiness based) model that is
assumed by *note socket.socket: d90. and by the internal OpenSSL socket
IO routines.  This is mostly relevant for platforms like Windows where
this model is not efficient.  For this purpose, a reduced scope variant
of *note SSLSocket: 8d9. called *note SSLObject: b71. is provided.

 -- Classe: ssl.SSLObject

     A reduced-scope variant of *note SSLSocket: 8d9. representing an
     SSL protocol instance that does not contain any network IO methods.
     This class is typically used by framework authors that want to
     implement asynchronous IO for SSL through memory buffers.

     This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object
     as implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL
     connection but does not provide any network IO itself.  IO needs to
     be performed through separate "BIO" objects which are OpenSSL's IO
     abstraction layer.

     This class has no public constructor.  An *note SSLObject: b71.
     instance must be created using the *note wrap_bio(): b72. method.
     This method will create the *note SSLObject: b71. instance and bind
     it to a pair of BIOs.  The 'incoming' BIO is used to pass data from
     Python to the SSL protocol instance, while the 'outgoing' BIO is
     used to pass data the other way around.

     The following methods are available:

        - *note context: 343a.

        - *note server_side: 343c.

        - *note server_hostname: b6f.

        - *note session: 1568.

        - *note session_reused: 343d.

        - *note read(): e59.

        - *note write(): e5a.

        - *note getpeercert(): fa4.

        - *note get_verified_chain(): 1597.

        - *note get_unverified_chain(): 1598.

        - *note selected_alpn_protocol(): e50.

        - *note selected_npn_protocol(): 861.

        - *note cipher(): 3334.

        - *note shared_ciphers(): e57.

        - *note compression(): 1127.

        - *note pending(): 343b.

        - *note do_handshake(): e58.

        - *note verify_client_post_handshake(): a22.

        - *note unwrap(): 3439.

        - *note get_channel_binding(): 1126.

        - *note version(): e53.

     When compared to *note SSLSocket: 8d9, this object lacks the
     following features:

        - Any form of network IO; ‘recv()’ and ‘send()’ read and write
          only to the underlying *note MemoryBIO: e4d. buffers.

        - There is no 'do_handshake_on_connect' machinery.  You must
          always manually call *note do_handshake(): e58. to start the
          handshake.

        - There is no handling of 'suppress_ragged_eofs'.  All
          end-of-file conditions that are in violation of the protocol
          are reported via the *note SSLEOFError: 1703. exception.

        - The method *note unwrap(): 3439. call does not return
          anything, unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the
          underlying socket.

        - The 'server_name_callback' callback passed to *note
          SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fa3. will get an *note
          SSLObject: b71. instance instead of a *note SSLSocket: 8d9.
          instance as its first parameter.

     Some notes related to the use of *note SSLObject: b71.:

        - All IO on an *note SSLObject: b71. is *note non-blocking:
          3403.  This means that for example *note read(): e59. will
          raise an *note SSLWantReadError: e54. if it needs more data
          than the incoming BIO has available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note SSLObject: b71. instances must
     be created with *note wrap_bio(): b72.  In earlier versions, it was
     possible to create instances directly.  This was never documented
     or officially supported.

An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers.
The class *note MemoryBIO: e4d. provides a memory buffer that can be
used for this purpose.  It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO)
object:

 -- Classe: ssl.MemoryBIO

     A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an
     SSL protocol instance.

      -- Attribut: pending

          Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.

      -- Attribut: eof

          A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the
          end-of-file position.

      -- Méthode: read (n=-1)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the memory buffer.  If 'n' is not
          specified or negative, all bytes are returned.

      -- Méthode: write (buf)

          Write the bytes from 'buf' to the memory BIO. The 'buf'
          argument must be an object supporting the buffer protocol.

          The return value is the number of bytes written, which is
          always equal to the length of 'buf'.

      -- Méthode: write_eof ()

          Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has
          been called, it is illegal to call *note write(): 3457.  The
          attribute *note eof: 3455. will become true after all data
          currently in the buffer has been read.


File: python.info,  Node: SSL session,  Next: Security considerations<2>,  Prev: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.21 SSL session
.....................

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: ssl.SSLSession

     Session object used by *note session: 1568.

      -- Attribut: id

      -- Attribut: time

      -- Attribut: timeout

      -- Attribut: ticket_lifetime_hint

      -- Attribut: has_ticket


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<2>,  Next: TLS 1 3,  Prev: SSL session,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.22 Security considerations
.................................

* Menu:

* Best defaults::
* Manual settings::
* Multi-processing::


File: python.info,  Node: Best defaults,  Next: Manual settings,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.19.3.23 Best defaults
.......................

For 'client use', if you don't have any special requirements for your
security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the *note
create_default_context(): 154. function to create your SSL context.  It
will load the system's trusted CA certificates, enable certificate
validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure
protocol and cipher settings.

For example, here is how you would use the *note smtplib.SMTP: 91c.
class to create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server:

     >>> import ssl, smtplib
     >>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
     >>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
     (220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')

If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added
with *note SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 292.

By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the *note
SSLContext: 291. constructor yourself, it will not have certificate
validation nor hostname checking enabled by default.  If you do so,
please read the paragraphs below to achieve a good security level.


File: python.info,  Node: Manual settings,  Next: Multi-processing,  Prev: Best defaults,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.19.3.24 Manual settings
.........................

* Menu:

* Verifying certificates::
* Protocol versions::
* Cipher selection::


File: python.info,  Node: Verifying certificates,  Next: Protocol versions,  Up: Manual settings

5.19.3.25 Verifying certificates
................................

When calling the *note SSLContext: 291. constructor directly, *note
CERT_NONE: 340f. is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the
other peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of
the time you would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you're
talking to.  Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to
use *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe.  However, it is in itself not sufficient;
you also have to check that the server certificate, which can be
obtained by calling *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fa4, matches the
desired service.  For many protocols and applications, the service can
be identified by the hostname.  This common check is automatically
performed when *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. is enabled.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Hostname matchings is now performed by
OpenSSL. Python no longer uses ‘match_hostname()’.

In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL
layer (rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism),
you'll also have to specify *note CERT_REQUIRED: 33fe. and similarly
check the client certificate.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocol versions,  Next: Cipher selection,  Prev: Verifying certificates,  Up: Manual settings

5.19.3.26 Protocol versions
...........................

SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous
to use.  If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers,
it is recommended to use *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. or *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 860. as the protocol version.  SSLv2 and SSLv3 are
disabled by default.

     >>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
     >>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if
supported by your system) connections to a server.  *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 85f. implies certificate validation and hostname
checks by default.  You have to load certificates into the context.


File: python.info,  Node: Cipher selection,  Prev: Protocol versions,  Up: Manual settings

5.19.3.27 Cipher selection
..........................

If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the *note
SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 3440. method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want to
further restrict the cipher choice.  Be sure to read OpenSSL's
documentation about the cipher list format(1).  If you want to check
which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use *note
SSLContext.get_ciphers(): cce. or the ‘openssl ciphers’ command on your
system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-processing,  Prev: Manual settings,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.19.3.28 Multi-processing
..........................

If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
for example the *note multiprocessing: 93. or *note concurrent.futures:
21. modules), be aware that OpenSSL's internal random number generator
does not properly handle forked processes.  Applications must change the
PRNG state of the parent process if they use any SSL feature with *note
os.fork(): 195.  Any successful call of *note RAND_add(): 3409. or *note
RAND_bytes(): 510. is sufficient.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 1 3,  Prev: Security considerations<2>,  Up: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.29 TLS 1.3
.................

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

The TLS 1.3 protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.

   - TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites.  All AES-GCM and
     ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default.  The method *note
     SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 3440. cannot enable or disable any TLS
     1.3 ciphers yet, but *note SSLContext.get_ciphers(): cce. returns
     them.

   - Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake
     and are handled differently.  *note SSLSocket.session: 1568. and
     *note SSLSession: ccd. are not compatible with TLS 1.3.

   - Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the
     initial handshake.  A server can request a certificate at any time.
     Clients process certificate requests while they send or receive
     application data from the server.

   - TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request,
     signature algorithm configuration, and rekeying are not supported
     yet.

Voir aussi
..........

Class *note socket.socket: d90.

     Documentation of underlying *note socket: cb. class

SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction(1)

     Intro from the Apache HTTP Server documentation

RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management(2)

     Steve Kent

RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security(3)

     Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller

RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile(4)

     D. Cooper

RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2(5)

     T. Dierks et.  al.

RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions(6)

     D. Eastlake

IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters(7)

     IANA

RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)(8)

     IETF

Mozilla's Server Side TLS recommendations(9)

     Mozilla

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4086.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (7) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7525.html

   (9) https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS


File: python.info,  Node: select --- Waiting for I/O completion,  Next: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing,  Prev: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.4 ‘select’ -- Waiting for I/O completion
---------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the ‘select()’ and ‘poll()’ functions
available in most operating systems, ‘devpoll()’ available on Solaris
and derivatives, ‘epoll()’ available on Linux 2.5+ and ‘kqueue()’
available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets;
on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in
particular, on Unix, it works on pipes).  It cannot be used on regular
files to determine whether a file has grown since it was last read.

     Note: The *note selectors: c1. module allows high-level and
     efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the *note select: c0. module
     primitives.  Users are encouraged to use the *note selectors: c1.
     module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
     primitives used.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Le module définit :

 -- Exception: select.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was
     made an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Fonction: select.devpoll ()

     (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.)  Returns a ‘/dev/poll’
     polling object; see section *note /dev/poll Polling Objects: 3469.
     below for the methods supported by devpoll objects.

     ‘devpoll()’ objects are linked to the number of file descriptors
     allowed at the time of instantiation.  If your program reduces this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ will fail.  If your program increases this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ may return an incomplete list of active file
     descriptors.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ee6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est
     maintenant non-héritable.

 -- Fonction: select.epoll (sizehint=-1, flags=0)

     (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.)  Return an edge polling
     object, which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for
     I/O events.

     'sizehint' informs epoll about the expected number of events to be
     registered.  It must be positive, or ‘-1’ to use the default.  It
     is only used on older systems where ‘epoll_create1()’ is not
     available; otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still
     checked).

     'flags' is deprecated and completely ignored.  However, when
     supplied, its value must be ‘0’ or ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’,
     otherwise ‘OSError’ is raised.

     See the *note Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: 346a.
     section below for the methods supported by epolling objects.

     ‘epoll’ objects support the context management protocol: when used
     in a *note with: 5be. statement, the new file descriptor is
     automatically closed at the end of the block.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ee6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'flags' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Support for the *note with: 5be.
     statement was added.  The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.4: The 'flags' parameter.
     ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’ is used by default now.  Use *note
     os.set_inheritable(): ee8. to make the file descriptor inheritable.

 -- Fonction: select.poll ()

     (Not supported by all operating systems.)  Returns a polling
     object, which supports registering and unregistering file
     descriptors, and then polling them for I/O events; see section
     *note Polling Objects: 346b. below for the methods supported by
     polling objects.

 -- Fonction: select.kqueue ()

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section
     *note Kqueue Objects: 346c. below for the methods supported by
     kqueue objects.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ee6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est
     maintenant non-héritable.

 -- Fonction: select.kevent (ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ,
          flags=KQ_EV_ADD, fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section
     *note Kevent Objects: 346e. below for the methods supported by
     kevent objects.

 -- Fonction: select.select (rlist, wlist, xlist[, timeout])

     This is a straightforward interface to the Unix ‘select()’ system
     call.  The first three arguments are iterables of 'waitable
     objects': either integers representing file descriptors or objects
     with a parameterless method named *note fileno(): 2806. returning
     such an integer:

        * 'rlist': wait until ready for reading

        * 'wlist': wait until ready for writing

        * 'xlist': wait for an "exceptional condition" (see the manual
          page for what your system considers such a condition)

     Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty
     iterables is platform-dependent.  (It is known to work on Unix but
     not on Windows.)  The optional 'timeout' argument specifies a
     time-out as a floating-point number in seconds.  When the 'timeout'
     argument is omitted the function blocks until at least one file
     descriptor is ready.  A time-out value of zero specifies a poll and
     never blocks.

     The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready:
     subsets of the first three arguments.  When the time-out is reached
     without a file descriptor becoming ready, three empty lists are
     returned.

     Among the acceptable object types in the iterables are Python *note
     file objects: 11a2. (e.g.  ‘sys.stdin’, or objects returned by
     *note open(): 508. or *note os.popen(): a77.), socket objects
     returned by *note socket.socket(): d90.  You may also define a
     'wrapper' class yourself, as long as it has an appropriate *note
     fileno(): 2806. method (that really returns a file descriptor, not
     just a random integer).

          Note: 
          File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are.
          On Windows, the underlying ‘select()’ function is provided by
          the WinSock library, and does not handle file descriptors that
          don't originate from WinSock.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(2) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d77.

 -- Données: select.PIPE_BUF

     The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking
     to a pipe when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by
     *note select(): d8f, ‘poll()’ or another interface in this module.
     This doesn't apply to other kind of file-like objects such as
     sockets.

     This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

* Menu:

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Next: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select --- Waiting for I/O completion

5.19.4.1 ‘/dev/poll’ Polling Objects
....................................

Solaris and derivatives have ‘/dev/poll’.  While ‘select()’ is
'O'('highest file descriptor') and ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors'), ‘/dev/poll’ is 'O'('active file descriptors').

‘/dev/poll’ behaviour is very close to the standard ‘poll()’ object.

 -- Méthode: devpoll.close ()

     Close the file descriptor of the polling object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Attribut: devpoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the polling object is closed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: devpoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: devpoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 2b6b. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for.  The constants are the same that with
     ‘poll()’ object.  The default value is a combination of the
     constants ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’.

          Avertissement: Registering a file descriptor that's already
          registered is not an error, but the result is undefined.  The
          appropriate action is to unregister or modify it first.  This
          is an important difference compared with ‘poll()’.

 -- Méthode: devpoll.modify (fd[, eventmask])

     This method does an *note unregister(): 3472. followed by a *note
     register(): 3470.  It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same
     explicitly.

 -- Méthode: devpoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 3470. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is
     safely ignored.

 -- Méthode: devpoll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor -- ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted, -1, or
     *note None: 662, the call will block until there is an event for
     this poll object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d77.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Next: Polling Objects,  Prev: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Up: select --- Waiting for I/O completion

5.19.4.2 Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
.......................................................

     ‘https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll’

     'eventmask'

     Constante                     Signification
                                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘EPOLLIN’                     Available for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLOUT’                    Available for write
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLPRI’                    Urgent data for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLERR’                    Error condition happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLHUP’                    Hang up happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLET’                     Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is Level
                                   Trigger behavior
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLONESHOT’                Set one-shot behavior.  After one event is pulled
                                   out, the fd is internally disabled
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’              Wake only one epoll object when the associated fd
                                   has an event.  The default (if this flag is not
                                   set) is to wake all epoll objects polling on a
                                   fd.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDHUP’                  Stream socket peer closed connection or shut down
                                   writing half of connection.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDNORM’                 Equivalent to ‘EPOLLIN’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDBAND’                 Priority data band can be read.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRNORM’                 Equivalent to ‘EPOLLOUT’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRBAND’                 Priority data may be written.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLMSG’                    Ignored.
                                   

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’ was added.  It's only
     supported by Linux Kernel 4.5 or later.

 -- Méthode: epoll.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.

 -- Attribut: epoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the epoll object is closed.

 -- Méthode: epoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- Méthode: epoll.fromfd (fd)

     Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.

 -- Méthode: epoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.

 -- Méthode: epoll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modify a registered file descriptor.

 -- Méthode: epoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The method no longer ignores the *note
     EBADF: 94a. error.

 -- Méthode: epoll.poll (timeout=None, maxevents=-1)

     Wait for events.  timeout in seconds (float)

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d77.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Polling Objects,  Next: Kqueue Objects,  Prev: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select --- Waiting for I/O completion

5.19.4.3 Polling Objects
........................

The ‘poll()’ system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides
better scalability for network servers that service many, many clients
at the same time.  ‘poll()’ scales better because the system call only
requires listing the file descriptors of interest, while ‘select()’
builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of interest, and then
afterward the whole bitmap has to be linearly scanned again.  ‘select()’
is 'O'('highest file descriptor'), while ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors').

 -- Méthode: poll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 2b6b. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for, and can be a combination of the constants
     ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’, described in the table below.
     If not specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types
     of events.

     Constante               Signification
                             
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
     ‘POLLIN’                There is data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLPRI’               There is urgent data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLOUT’               Ready for output: writing will not block
                             
                             
     ‘POLLERR’               Error condition of some sort
                             
                             
     ‘POLLHUP’               Hung up
                             
                             
     ‘POLLRDHUP’             Stream socket peer closed connection, or
                             shut down writing half of connection
                             
                             
     ‘POLLNVAL’              Invalid request: descriptor not open
                             

     Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an
     error, and has the same effect as registering the descriptor
     exactly once.

 -- Méthode: poll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modifies an already registered fd.  This has the same effect as
     ‘register(fd, eventmask)’.  Attempting to modify a file descriptor
     that was never registered causes an *note OSError: 40d. exception
     with errno ‘ENOENT’ to be raised.

 -- Méthode: poll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 347a. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered
     causes a *note KeyError: 33a. exception to be raised.

 -- Méthode: poll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor -- ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted,
     negative, or *note None: 662, the call will block until there is an
     event for this poll object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d77.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kqueue Objects,  Next: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Polling Objects,  Up: select --- Waiting for I/O completion

5.19.4.4 Kqueue Objects
.......................

 -- Méthode: kqueue.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.

 -- Attribut: kqueue.closed

     ‘True’ if the kqueue object is closed.

 -- Méthode: kqueue.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- Méthode: kqueue.fromfd (fd)

     Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.

 -- Méthode: kqueue.control (changelist, max_events[, timeout]) ->
          eventlist

     Low level interface to kevent

        - changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or ‘None’

        - max_events must be 0 or a positive integer

        - timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is ‘None’,
          to wait forever

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d77.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Kqueue Objects,  Up: select --- Waiting for I/O completion

5.19.4.5 Kevent Objects
.......................

‘https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2’

 -- Attribut: kevent.ident

     Value used to identify the event.  The interpretation depends on
     the filter but it's usually the file descriptor.  In the
     constructor ident can either be an int or an object with a *note
     fileno(): 2806. method.  kevent stores the integer internally.

 -- Attribut: kevent.filter

     Name of the kernel filter.

     Constante                       Signification
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’                Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to read
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’               Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to write
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_AIO’                 AIO requests
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’               Returns when one or more of the requested
                                     events watched in 'fflag' occurs
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’                Watch for events on a process id
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’              Watch for events on a network device [not
                                     available on macOS]
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL’              Returns whenever the watched signal is
                                     delivered to the process
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_TIMER’               Establishes an arbitrary timer
                                     

 -- Attribut: kevent.flags

     Filter action.

     Constante                       Signification
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ADD’                     Adds or modifies an event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DELETE’                  Removes an event from the queue
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ENABLE’                  Permitscontrol() to returns the event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DISABLE’                 Disablesevent
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ONESHOT’                 Removes event after first occurrence
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_CLEAR’                   Reset the state after an event is retrieved
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS’                internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_FLAG1’                   internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_EOF’                     Filter specific EOF condition
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ERROR’                   See return values
                                     

 -- Attribut: kevent.fflags

     Filter specific flags.

     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’ and ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’ filter flags:

     Constante                        Signification
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LOWAT’                  low water mark of a socket buffer
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’ filter flags:

     Constante                        Signification
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_DELETE’                 'unlink()' was called
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_WRITE’                  a write occurred
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXTEND’                 the file was extended
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB’                 an attribute was changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINK’                   the link count has changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_RENAME’                 the file was renamed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_REVOKE’                 access to the file was revoked
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ filter flags:

     Constante                        Signification
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’                   the process has exited
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_FORK’                   the process has called 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXEC’                   the process has executed a new process
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACK’                  follow a process across 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_CHILD’                  returned on the child process for 'NOTE_TRACK'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR’               unable to attach to a child
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’ filter flags (not available on macOS):

     Constante                        Signification
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKUP’                 link is up
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN’               link is down
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKINV’                link state is invalid
                                      

 -- Attribut: kevent.data

     Filter specific data.

 -- Attribut: kevent.udata

     User defined value.


File: python.info,  Node: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing,  Next: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Prev: select --- Waiting for I/O completion,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.5 ‘selectors’ -- High-level I/O multiplexing
-------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/selectors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<9>.
* Classes: Classes<4>.
* Exemples: Exemples<21>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/selectors.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<9>,  Next: Classes<4>,  Up: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

5.19.5.1 Introduction
.....................

This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c0. module primitives.  Users are encouraged to use
this module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
primitives used.

It defines a *note BaseSelector: 348c. abstract base class, along with
several concrete implementations (*note KqueueSelector: 337b, *note
EpollSelector: bc5...), that can be used to wait for I/O readiness
notification on multiple file objects.  In the following, "file object"
refers to any object with a *note fileno(): 2806. method, or a raw file
descriptor.  See *note file object: 11a2.

*note DefaultSelector: 348d. is an alias to the most efficient
implementation available on the current platform: this should be the
default choice for most users.

     Note: The type of file objects supported depends on the platform:
     on Windows, sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas on Unix,
     both are supported (some other types may be supported as well, such
     as fifos or special file devices).

Voir aussi
..........

*note select: c0.

     Low-level I/O multiplexing module.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<4>,  Next: Exemples<21>,  Prev: Introduction<9>,  Up: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

5.19.5.2 Classes
................

Classes hierarchy:

     BaseSelector
     +-- SelectSelector
     +-- PollSelector
     +-- EpollSelector
     +-- DevpollSelector
     +-- KqueueSelector

In the following, 'events' is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events
should be waited for on a given file object.  It can be a combination of
the modules constants below:

     Constante                   Signification
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
      -- Données:                Available for read
               selectors.EVENT_READ

      -- Données:                Available for write
               selectors.EVENT_WRITE

 -- Classe: selectors.SelectorKey

     A *note SelectorKey: 3491. is a *note namedtuple: 1c5. used to
     associate a file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected
     event mask and attached data.  It is returned by several *note
     BaseSelector: 348c. methods.

      -- Attribut: fileobj

          File object registered.

      -- Attribut: fd

          Underlying file descriptor.

      -- Attribut: events

          Events that must be waited for on this file object.

      -- Attribut: data

          Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for
          example, this could be used to store a per-client session ID.

 -- Classe: selectors.BaseSelector

     A *note BaseSelector: 348c. is used to wait for I/O event readiness
     on multiple file objects.  It supports file stream registration,
     unregistration, and a method to wait for I/O events on those
     streams, with an optional timeout.  It's an abstract base class, so
     cannot be instantiated.  Use *note DefaultSelector: 348d. instead,
     or one of *note SelectSelector: 3378, *note KqueueSelector: 337b.
     etc.  if you want to specifically use an implementation, and your
     platform supports it.  *note BaseSelector: 348c. and its concrete
     implementations support the *note context manager: 5c0. protocol.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod register (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O
          events.

          'fileobj' is the file object to monitor.  It may either be an
          integer file descriptor or an object with a ‘fileno()’ method.
          'events' is a bitwise mask of events to monitor.  'data' is an
          opaque object.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 3491. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 33a. if the file object
          is already registered.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod unregister (fileobj)

          Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from
          monitoring.  A file object shall be unregistered prior to
          being closed.

          'fileobj' must be a file object previously registered.

          This returns the associated *note SelectorKey: 3491. instance,
          or raises a *note KeyError: 33a. if 'fileobj' is not
          registered.  It will raise *note ValueError: 1ff. if 'fileobj'
          is invalid (e.g.  it has no ‘fileno()’ method or its
          ‘fileno()’ method has an invalid return value).

      -- Méthode: modify (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Change a registered file object's monitored events or attached
          data.

          This is equivalent to ‘BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)’
          followed by ‘BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data)’,
          except that it can be implemented more efficiently.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 3491. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 33a. if the file object
          is not registered.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod select (timeout=None)

          Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the
          timeout expires.

          If ‘timeout > 0’, this specifies the maximum wait time, in
          seconds.  If ‘timeout <= 0’, the call won't block, and will
          report the currently ready file objects.  If 'timeout' is
          ‘None’, the call will block until a monitored file object
          becomes ready.

          This returns a list of ‘(key, events)’ tuples, one for each
          ready file object.

          'key' is the *note SelectorKey: 3491. instance corresponding
          to a ready file object.  'events' is a bitmask of events ready
          on this file object.

               Note: This method can return before any file object
               becomes ready or the timeout has elapsed if the current
               process receives a signal: in this case, an empty list
               will be returned.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: The selector is now retried with
          a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal if the
          signal handler did not raise an exception (see PEP 475(1) for
          the rationale), instead of returning an empty list of events
          before the timeout.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Close the selector.

          This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource
          is freed.  The selector shall not be used once it has been
          closed.

      -- Méthode: get_key (fileobj)

          Return the key associated with a registered file object.

          This returns the *note SelectorKey: 3491. instance associated
          to this file object, or raises *note KeyError: 33a. if the
          file object is not registered.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod get_map ()

          Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.

          This returns a *note Mapping: 8b9. instance mapping registered
          file objects to their associated *note SelectorKey: 3491.
          instance.

 -- Classe: selectors.DefaultSelector

     The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation
     available on the current platform.  This should be the default
     choice for most users.

 -- Classe: selectors.SelectSelector

     *note select.select(): d8f.-based selector.

 -- Classe: selectors.PollSelector

     *note select.poll(): 2b6b.-based selector.

 -- Classe: selectors.EpollSelector

     *note select.epoll(): f80.-based selector.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.epoll(): f80. object.

 -- Classe: selectors.DevpollSelector

     *note select.devpoll(): f82.-based selector.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.devpoll(): f82. object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: selectors.KqueueSelector

     *note select.kqueue(): 1688.-based selector.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.kqueue(): 1688. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<21>,  Prev: Classes<4>,  Up: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

5.19.5.3 Exemples
.................

Here is a simple echo server implementation:

     import selectors
     import socket

     sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()

     def accept(sock, mask):
         conn, addr = sock.accept()  # Should be ready
         print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
         conn.setblocking(False)
         sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)

     def read(conn, mask):
         data = conn.recv(1000)  # Should be ready
         if data:
             print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
             conn.send(data)  # Hope it won't block
         else:
             print('closing', conn)
             sel.unregister(conn)
             conn.close()

     sock = socket.socket()
     sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
     sock.listen(100)
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)

     while True:
         events = sel.select()
         for key, mask in events:
             callback = key.data
             callback(key.fileobj, mask)


File: python.info,  Node: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Next: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support,  Prev: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.6 ‘signal’ -- Set handlers for asynchronous events
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/signal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.

* Menu:

* General rules::
* Module contents: Module contents<2>.
* Examples::
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/signal.py


File: python.info,  Node: General rules,  Next: Module contents<2>,  Up: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.19.6.1 General rules
......................

The *note signal.signal(): 1116. function allows defining custom
handlers to be executed when a signal is received.  A small number of
default handlers are installed: *note SIGPIPE: 34a3. is ignored (so
write errors on pipes and sockets can be reported as ordinary Python
exceptions) and *note SIGINT: 830. is translated into a *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. exception if the parent process has not changed
it.

A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it
is explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless
of the underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for
*note SIGCHLD: 2ba6, which follows the underlying implementation.

On WebAssembly platforms, signals are emulated and therefore behave
differently.  Several functions and signals are not available on these
platforms.

* Menu:

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::


File: python.info,  Node: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Next: Signals and threads,  Up: General rules

5.19.6.2 Execution of Python signal handlers
............................................

A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C)
signal handler.  Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which
tells the *note virtual machine: 34a5. to execute the corresponding
Python signal handler at a later point(for example at the next *note
bytecode: 185. instruction).  This has consequences:

   * It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like *note
     SIGFPE: 1d07. or *note SIGSEGV: 1d06. that are caused by an invalid
     operation in C code.  Python will return from the signal handler to
     the C code, which is likely to raise the same signal again, causing
     Python to apparently hang.  From Python 3.3 onwards, you can use
     the *note faulthandler: 57. module to report on synchronous errors.

   * A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular
     expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted
     for an arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals
     received.  The Python signal handlers will be called when the
     calculation finishes.

   * If the handler raises an exception, it will be raised "out of thin
     air" in the main thread.  See the *note note below: 2247. for a
     discussion.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals and threads,  Prev: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Up: General rules

5.19.6.3 Signals and threads
............................

Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread of
the main interpreter, even if the signal was received in another thread.
This means that signals can't be used as a means of inter-thread
communication.  You can use the synchronization primitives from the
*note threading: ec. module instead.

Besides, only the main thread of the main interpreter is allowed to set
a new signal handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<2>,  Next: Examples,  Prev: General rules,  Up: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.19.6.4 Module contents
........................

Modifié dans la version 3.5: signal (SIG*), handler (*note SIG_DFL:
17dd, *note SIG_IGN: 17dc.) and sigmask (*note SIG_BLOCK: 34a9, *note
SIG_UNBLOCK: 34aa, *note SIG_SETMASK: 34ab.) related constants listed
below were turned into *note enums: ccf. (*note Signals: 34ac, *note
Handlers: 34ad. and *note Sigmasks: 34ae. respectively).  *note
getsignal(): 1667, *note pthread_sigmask(): 1112, *note sigpending():
1114. and *note sigwait(): 1115. functions return human-readable *note
enums: ccf. as *note Signals: 34ac. objects.

The signal module defines three enums:

 -- Classe: signal.Signals

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection of SIG* constants and the
     CTRL_* constants.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: signal.Handlers

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection the constants *note SIG_DFL:
     17dd. and *note SIG_IGN: 17dc.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: signal.Sigmasks

     *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. collection the constants *note SIG_BLOCK:
     34a9, *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 34aa. and *note SIG_SETMASK: 34ab.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigprocmask(2)(1)’ and ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(2)’
     for further information.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The variables defined in the *note signal: c5. module are:

 -- Données: signal.SIG_DFL

     This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply
     perform the default function for the signal.  For example, on most
     systems the default action for ‘SIGQUIT’ is to dump core and exit,
     while the default action for *note SIGCHLD: 2ba6. is to simply
     ignore it.

 -- Données: signal.SIG_IGN

     This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore
     the given signal.

 -- Données: signal.SIGABRT

     Abort signal from ‘abort(3)(3)’.

 -- Données: signal.SIGALRM

     Timer signal from ‘alarm(2)(4)’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGBREAK

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + BREAK).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- Données: signal.SIGBUS

     Bus error (bad memory access).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGCHLD

     Child process stopped or terminated.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGCLD

     Alias to *note SIGCHLD: 2ba6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: not macOS.

 -- Données: signal.SIGCONT

     Continue the process if it is currently stopped

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGFPE

     Floating-point exception.  For example, division by zero.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note ZeroDivisionError: 934. is raised when the second argument of
     a division or modulo operation is zero.

 -- Données: signal.SIGHUP

     Hangup detected on controlling terminal or death of controlling
     process.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGILL

     Illegal instruction.

 -- Données: signal.SIGINT

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + C).

     Default action is to raise *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.

 -- Données: signal.SIGKILL

     Kill signal.

     It cannot be caught, blocked, or ignored.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGPIPE

     Broken pipe: write to pipe with no readers.

     Default action is to ignore the signal.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGSEGV

     Segmentation fault: invalid memory reference.

 -- Données: signal.SIGSTKFLT

          Stack fault on coprocessor.  The Linux kernel does not raise
          this signal: it can only be raised in user space.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux.

     On architectures where the signal is available.  See the man page
     ‘signal(7)(5)’ for further information.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: signal.SIGTERM

     Termination signal.

 -- Données: signal.SIGUSR1

     User-defined signal 1.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGUSR2

     User-defined signal 2.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: signal.SIGWINCH

     Window resize signal.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Données: SIG*

     All the signal numbers are defined symbolically.  For example, the
     hangup signal is defined as *note signal.SIGHUP: 34b2.; the
     variable names are identical to the names used in C programs, as
     found in ‘<signal.h>’.  The Unix man page for '‘signal()’' lists
     the existing signals (on some systems this is ‘signal(2)(6)’, on
     others the list is in ‘signal(7)(7)’).  Note that not all systems
     define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by
     the system are defined by this module.

 -- Données: signal.CTRL_C_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ keystroke event.  This
     signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 1340.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl’+‘Break’ keystroke event.
     This signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 1340.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: signal.NSIG

     One more than the number of the highest signal number.  Use *note
     valid_signals(): 34b6. to get valid signal numbers.

 -- Données: signal.ITIMER_REAL

     Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers *note SIGALRM:
     34af. upon expiration.

 -- Données: signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL

     Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and
     delivers SIGVTALRM upon expiration.

 -- Données: signal.ITIMER_PROF

     Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when
     the system is executing on behalf of the process.  Coupled with
     ITIMER_VIRTUAL, this timer is usually used to profile the time
     spent by the application in user and kernel space.  SIGPROF is
     delivered upon expiration.

 -- Données: signal.SIG_BLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): 1112. indicating that signals are to be blocked.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: signal.SIG_UNBLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): 1112. indicating that signals are to be
     unblocked.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: signal.SIG_SETMASK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): 1112. indicating that the signal mask is to be
     replaced.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The *note signal: c5. module defines one exception:

 -- Exception: signal.ItimerError

     Raised to signal an error from the underlying *note setitimer():
     34bb. or *note getitimer(): 34bc. implementation.  Expect this
     error if an invalid interval timer or a negative time is passed to
     *note setitimer(): 34bb.  This error is a subtype of *note OSError:
     40d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3: This error used to be a subtype of
     *note IOError: 103d, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

The *note signal: c5. module defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: signal.alarm (time)

     If 'time' is non-zero, this function requests that a *note SIGALRM:
     34af. signal be sent to the process in 'time' seconds.  Any
     previously scheduled alarm is canceled (only one alarm can be
     scheduled at any time).  The returned value is then the number of
     seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been delivered.
     If 'time' is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm
     is canceled.  If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently
     scheduled.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘alarm(2)(8)’ for further information.

 -- Fonction: signal.getsignal (signalnum)

     Return the current signal handler for the signal 'signalnum'.  The
     returned value may be a callable Python object, or one of the
     special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 17dc, *note signal.SIG_DFL:
     17dd. or *note None: 662.  Here, *note signal.SIG_IGN: 17dc. means
     that the signal was previously ignored, *note signal.SIG_DFL: 17dd.
     means that the default way of handling the signal was previously in
     use, and ‘None’ means that the previous signal handler was not
     installed from Python.

 -- Fonction: signal.strsignal (signalnum)

     Returns the description of signal 'signalnum', such as "Interrupt"
     for *note SIGINT: 830.  Returns *note None: 662. if 'signalnum' has
     no description.  Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if 'signalnum' is
     invalid.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: signal.valid_signals ()

     Return the set of valid signal numbers on this platform.  This can
     be less than ‘range(1, NSIG)’ if some signals are reserved by the
     system for internal use.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: signal.pause ()

     Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the
     appropriate handler will then be called.  Returns nothing.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘signal(2)(9)’ for further information.

     See also *note sigwait(): 1115, *note sigwaitinfo(): d9a, *note
     sigtimedwait(): d99. and *note sigpending(): 1114.

 -- Fonction: signal.raise_signal (signum)

     Sends a signal to the calling process.  Returns nothing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: signal.pidfd_send_signal (pidfd, sig, siginfo=None,
          flags=0)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process referred to by file descriptor
     'pidfd'.  Python does not currently support the 'siginfo'
     parameter; it must be ‘None’.  The 'flags' argument is provided for
     future extensions; no flag values are currently defined.

     See the ‘pidfd_send_signal(2)(10)’ man page for more information.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 5.1, Android >= *note
     build-time: b7a. API level 31

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: signal.pthread_kill (thread_id, signalnum)

     Send the signal 'signalnum' to the thread 'thread_id', another
     thread in the same process as the caller.  The target thread can be
     executing any code (Python or not).  However, if the target thread
     is executing the Python interpreter, the Python signal handlers
     will be *note executed by the main thread of the main interpreter:
     34a7.  Therefore, the only point of sending a signal to a
     particular Python thread would be to force a running system call to
     fail with *note InterruptedError: d77.

     Use *note threading.get_ident(): 113c. or the *note ident: 2bfc.
     attribute of *note threading.Thread: 93b. objects to get a suitable
     value for 'thread_id'.

     If 'signalnum' is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is
     still performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is
     still running.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘signal.pthread_kill’ with
     arguments ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘pthread_kill(3)(11)’ for further information.

     See also *note os.kill(): 1340.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: signal.pthread_sigmask (how, mask)

     Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread.  The
     signal mask is the set of signals whose delivery is currently
     blocked for the caller.  Return the old signal mask as a set of
     signals.

     The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of 'how', as
     follows.

        * *note SIG_BLOCK: 34a9.: The set of blocked signals is the
          union of the current set and the 'mask' argument.

        * *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 34aa.: The signals in 'mask' are removed
          from the current set of blocked signals.  It is permissible to
          attempt to unblock a signal which is not blocked.

        * *note SIG_SETMASK: 34ab.: The set of blocked signals is set to
          the 'mask' argument.

     'mask' is a set of signal numbers (e.g.  {*note signal.SIGINT: 830,
     *note signal.SIGTERM: 1398.}).  Use *note valid_signals(): 34b6.
     for a full mask including all signals.

     For example, ‘signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])’ reads
     the signal mask of the calling thread.

     *note SIGKILL: 32b8. and ‘SIGSTOP’ cannot be blocked.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigprocmask(2)(12)’ and ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(13)’
     for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 34be, *note sigpending(): 1114. and *note
     sigwait(): 1115.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: signal.setitimer (which, seconds, interval=0.0)

     Sets given interval timer (one of *note signal.ITIMER_REAL: 34b7,
     *note signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 34b8. or *note signal.ITIMER_PROF:
     34b9.) specified by 'which' to fire after 'seconds' (float is
     accepted, different from *note alarm(): 34bd.) and after that every
     'interval' seconds (if 'interval' is non-zero).  The interval timer
     specified by 'which' can be cleared by setting 'seconds' to zero.

     When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process.  The
     signal sent is dependent on the timer being used; *note
     signal.ITIMER_REAL: 34b7. will deliver *note SIGALRM: 34af, *note
     signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 34b8. sends ‘SIGVTALRM’, and *note
     signal.ITIMER_PROF: 34b9. will deliver ‘SIGPROF’.

     The old values are returned as a tuple: (delay, interval).

     Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an *note
     ItimerError: 34ba.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: signal.getitimer (which)

     Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by
     'which'.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: signal.set_wakeup_fd (fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)

     Set the wakeup file descriptor to 'fd'.  When a signal your program
     has registered a signal handler for is received, the signal number
     is written as a single byte into the fd.  If you haven't registered
     a signal handler for the signals you care about, then nothing will
     be written to the wakeup fd.  This can be used by a library to
     wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully
     processed.

     The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was
     not enabled).  If 'fd' is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
     If not -1, 'fd' must be non-blocking.  It is up to the library to
     remove any bytes from 'fd' before calling poll or select again.

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 34a7.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     exception to be raised.

     There are two common ways to use this function.  In both
     approaches, you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but
     then they differ in how they determine 'which' signal or signals
     have arrived.

     In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd's buffer, and
     the byte values give you the signal numbers.  This is simple, but
     in rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have
     a limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive
     too quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may
     be lost.  If you use this approach, then you should set
     ‘warn_on_full_buffer=True’, which will at least cause a warning to
     be printed to stderr when signals are lost.

     In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd 'only' for wakeups,
     and ignore the actual byte values.  In this case, all we care about
     is whether the fd's buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer
     doesn't indicate a problem at all.  If you use this approach, then
     you should set ‘warn_on_full_buffer=False’, so that your users are
     not confused by spurious warning messages.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: On Windows, the function now also
     supports socket handles.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added ‘warn_on_full_buffer’ parameter.

 -- Fonction: signal.siginterrupt (signalnum, flag)

     Change system call restart behaviour: if 'flag' is *note False:
     b27, system calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal
     'signalnum', otherwise system calls will be interrupted.  Returns
     nothing.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘siginterrupt(3)(14)’ for further information.

     Note that installing a signal handler with *note signal(): c5. will
     reset the restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling
     ‘siginterrupt()’ with a true 'flag' value for the given signal.

 -- Fonction: signal.signal (signalnum, handler)

     Set the handler for signal 'signalnum' to the function 'handler'.
     'handler' can be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see
     below), or one of the special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 17dc. or
     *note signal.SIG_DFL: 17dd.  The previous signal handler will be
     returned (see the description of *note getsignal(): 1667. above).
     (See the Unix man page ‘signal(2)(15)’ for further information.)

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 34a7.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     exception to be raised.

     The 'handler' is called with two arguments: the signal number and
     the current stack frame (‘None’ or a frame object; for a
     description of frame objects, see the *note description in the type
     hierarchy: 6cc. or see the attribute descriptions in the *note
     inspect: 7d. module).

     On Windows, *note signal(): c5. can only be called with *note
     SIGABRT: 1d08, *note SIGFPE: 1d07, *note SIGILL: 1d0a, *note
     SIGINT: 830, *note SIGSEGV: 1d06, *note SIGTERM: 1398, or *note
     SIGBREAK: 34b0.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised in any
     other case.  Note that not all systems define the same set of
     signal names; an *note AttributeError: 343. will be raised if a
     signal name is not defined as ‘SIG*’ module level constant.

 -- Fonction: signal.sigpending ()

     Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the
     calling thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while
     blocked).  Return the set of the pending signals.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigpending(2)(16)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 34be, *note pthread_sigmask(): 1112. and
     *note sigwait(): 1115.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: signal.sigwait (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal (removes it from the pending list of signals),
     and returns the signal number.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigwait(3)(17)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 34be, *note pthread_sigmask(): 1112, *note
     sigpending(): 1114, *note sigwaitinfo(): d9a. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): d99.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: signal.sigwaitinfo (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal and removes it from the pending list of signals.
     If one of the signals in 'sigset' is already pending for the
     calling thread, the function will return immediately with
     information about that signal.  The signal handler is not called
     for the delivered signal.  The function raises an *note
     InterruptedError: d77. if it is interrupted by a signal that is not
     in 'sigset'.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure, namely: ‘si_signo’, ‘si_code’,
     ‘si_errno’, ‘si_pid’, ‘si_uid’, ‘si_status’, ‘si_band’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigwaitinfo(2)(18)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 34be, *note sigwait(): 1115. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): d99.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried if
     interrupted by a signal not in 'sigset' and the signal handler does
     not raise an exception (see PEP 475(19) for the rationale).

 -- Fonction: signal.sigtimedwait (sigset, timeout)

     Like *note sigwaitinfo(): d9a, but takes an additional 'timeout'
     argument specifying a timeout.  If 'timeout' is specified as ‘0’, a
     poll is performed.  Returns *note None: 662. if a timeout occurs.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigtimedwait(2)(20)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 34be, *note sigwait(): 1115. and *note
     sigwaitinfo(): d9a.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with the
     recomputed 'timeout' if interrupted by a signal not in 'sigset' and
     the signal handler does not raise an exception (see PEP 475(21) for
     the rationale).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/abort(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (8) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_send_signal(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_kill(3)

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (13) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/siginterrupt(3)

   (15) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/sigpending(2)

   (17) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwait(3)

   (18) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwaitinfo(2)

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (20) https://manpages.debian.org/sigtimedwait(2)

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples,  Next: Note on SIGPIPE,  Prev: Module contents<2>,  Up: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.19.6.5 Examples
.................

Here is a minimal example program.  It uses the *note alarm(): 34bd.
function to limit the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful
if the file is for a serial device that may not be turned on, which
would normally cause the *note os.open(): d81. to hang indefinitely.
The solution is to set a 5-second alarm before opening the file; if the
operation takes too long, the alarm signal will be sent, and the handler
raises an exception.

     import signal, os

     def handler(signum, frame):
         signame = signal.Signals(signum).name
         print(f'Signal handler called with signal {signame} ({signum})')
         raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")

     # Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm
     signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
     signal.alarm(5)

     # This open() may hang indefinitely
     fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)

     signal.alarm(0)          # Disable the alarm


File: python.info,  Node: Note on SIGPIPE,  Next: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Examples,  Up: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.19.6.6 Note on SIGPIPE
........................

Piping output of your program to tools like ‘head(1)(1)’ will cause a
*note SIGPIPE: 34a3. signal to be sent to your process when the receiver
of its standard output closes early.  This results in an exception like
‘BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe’.  To handle this case, wrap
your entry point to catch this exception as follows:

     import os
     import sys

     def main():
         try:
             # simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)
             for x in range(10000):
                 print("y")
             # flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered
             # while inside this try block.
             sys.stdout.flush()
         except BrokenPipeError:
             # Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output
             # to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown
             devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
             os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
             sys.exit(1)  # Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Do not set *note SIGPIPE: 34a3.'s disposition to *note SIG_DFL: 17dd. in
order to avoid *note BrokenPipeError: 1047.  Doing that would cause your
program to exit unexpectedly whenever any socket connection is
interrupted while your program is still writing to it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/head(1)


File: python.info,  Node: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Note on SIGPIPE,  Up: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.19.6.7 Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions
...............................................

If a signal handler raises an exception, the exception will be
propagated to the main thread and may be raised after any *note
bytecode: 185. instruction.  Most notably, a *note KeyboardInterrupt:
9c1. may appear at any point during execution.  Most Python code,
including the standard library, cannot be made robust against this, and
so a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. (or any other exception resulting
from a signal handler) may on rare occasions put the program in an
unexpected state.

To illustrate this issue, consider the following code:

     class SpamContext:
         def __init__(self):
             self.lock = threading.Lock()

         def __enter__(self):
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, everything is fine
             self.lock.acquire()
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, __exit__ will not be called
             ...
             # KeyboardInterrupt could occur just before the function returns

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
             ...
             self.lock.release()

For many programs, especially those that merely want to exit on *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1, this is not a problem, but applications that are
complex or require high reliability should avoid raising exceptions from
signal handlers.  They should also avoid catching *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. as a means of gracefully shutting down.
Instead, they should install their own *note SIGINT: 830. handler.
Below is an example of an HTTP server that avoids *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.:

     import signal
     import socket
     from selectors import DefaultSelector, EVENT_READ
     from http.server import HTTPServer, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     interrupt_read, interrupt_write = socket.socketpair()

     def handler(signum, frame):
         print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
         interrupt_write.send(b'\0')
     signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, handler)

     def serve_forever(httpd):
         sel = DefaultSelector()
         sel.register(interrupt_read, EVENT_READ)
         sel.register(httpd, EVENT_READ)

         while True:
             for key, _ in sel.select():
                 if key.fileobj == interrupt_read:
                     interrupt_read.recv(1)
                     return
                 if key.fileobj == httpd:
                     httpd.handle_request()

     print("Serving on port 8000")
     httpd = HTTPServer(('', 8000), SimpleHTTPRequestHandler)
     serve_forever(httpd)
     print("Shutdown...")


File: python.info,  Node: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support,  Prev: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Up: Réseau et communication entre processus

5.19.7 ‘mmap’ -- Memory-mapped file support
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Memory-mapped file objects behave like both *note bytearray: 52b. and
like *note file objects: 11a2.  You can use mmap objects in most places
where *note bytearray: 52b. are expected; for example, you can use the
*note re: b8. module to search through a memory-mapped file.  You can
also change a single byte by doing ‘obj[index] = 97’, or change a
subsequence by assigning to a slice: ‘obj[i1:i2] = b'...'’.  You can
also read and write data starting at the current file position, and
‘seek()’ through the file to different positions.

A memory-mapped file is created by the *note mmap: 208. constructor,
which is different on Unix and on Windows.  In either case you must
provide a file descriptor for a file opened for update.  If you wish to
map an existing Python file object, use its *note fileno(): 2806. method
to obtain the correct value for the 'fileno' parameter.  Otherwise, you
can open the file using the *note os.open(): d81. function, which
returns a file descriptor directly (the file still needs to be closed
when done).

     Note: If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable,
     buffered file, you should *note flush(): 2bd4. the file first.
     This is necessary to ensure that local modifications to the buffers
     are actually available to the mapping.

For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, 'access' may
be specified as an optional keyword parameter.  'access' accepts one of
four values: ‘ACCESS_READ’, ‘ACCESS_WRITE’, or ‘ACCESS_COPY’ to specify
read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or
‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ to defer to 'prot'.  'access' can be used on both Unix
and Windows.  If 'access' is not specified, Windows mmap returns a
write-through mapping.  The initial memory values for all three access
types are taken from the specified file.  Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_READ’
memory map raises a *note TypeError: 525. exception.  Assignment to an
‘ACCESS_WRITE’ memory map affects both memory and the underlying file.
Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_COPY’ memory map affects memory but does not
update the underlying file.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added ‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with
the length.

 -- Classe: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, tagname=None,
          access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0)

     '(Windows version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by
     the file handle 'fileno', and creates a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is larger than the current size of the file, the file is extended
     to contain 'length' bytes.  If 'length' is ‘0’, the maximum length
     of the map is the current size of the file, except that if the file
     is empty Windows raises an exception (you cannot create an empty
     mapping on Windows).

     'tagname', if specified and not ‘None’, is a string giving a tag
     name for the mapping.  Windows allows you to have many different
     mappings against the same file.  If you specify the name of an
     existing tag, that tag is opened, otherwise a new tag of this name
     is created.  If this parameter is omitted or ‘None’, the mapping is
     created without a name.  Avoiding the use of the 'tagname'
     parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between Unix
     and Windows.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of the
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘mmap.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’.

 -- Classe: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED, prot=PROT_WRITE
          | PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0, *, trackfd=True)

     '(Unix version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by the
     file descriptor 'fileno', and returns a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is ‘0’, the maximum length of the map will be the current size of
     the file when *note mmap: 208. is called.

     'flags' specifies the nature of the mapping.  *note MAP_PRIVATE:
     34c5. creates a private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the
     contents of the mmap object will be private to this process, and
     *note MAP_SHARED: 34c6. creates a mapping that's shared with all
     other processes mapping the same areas of the file.  The default
     value is *note MAP_SHARED: 34c6.  Some systems have additional
     possible flags with the full list specified in *note MAP_*
     constants: 34c7.

     'prot', if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two
     most useful values are ‘PROT_READ’ and ‘PROT_WRITE’, to specify
     that the pages may be read or written.  'prot' defaults to
     ‘PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE’.

     'access' may be specified in lieu of 'flags' and 'prot' as an
     optional keyword parameter.  It is an error to specify both
     'flags', 'prot' and 'access'.  See the description of 'access'
     above for information on how to use this parameter.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’ which is equal to ‘PAGESIZE’ on Unix
     systems.

     If 'trackfd' is ‘False’, the file descriptor specified by 'fileno'
     will not be duplicated, and the resulting ‘mmap’ object will not be
     associated with the map's underlying file.  This means that the
     *note size(): 34c8. and *note resize(): 34c9. methods will fail.
     This mode is useful to limit the number of open file descriptors.

     To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified
     by the descriptor 'fileno' is internally automatically synchronized
     with the physical backing store on macOS.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'trackfd' parameter was added.

     This example shows a simple way of using *note mmap: 208.:

          import mmap

          # write a simple example file
          with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
              f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")

          with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
              # memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file
              mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
              # read content via standard file methods
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello Python!\n"
              # read content via slice notation
              print(mm[:5])  # prints b"Hello"
              # update content using slice notation;
              # note that new content must have same size
              mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
              # ... and read again using standard file methods
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello  world!\n"
              # close the map
              mm.close()

     *note mmap: 208. can also be used as a context manager in a *note
     with: 5be. statement:

          import mmap

          with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
              mm.write(b"Hello world!")

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Context manager support.

     The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and
     exchange data between the parent and child processes:

          import mmap
          import os

          mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
          mm.write(b"Hello world!")

          pid = os.fork()

          if pid == 0:  # In a child process
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())

              mm.close()

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘mmap.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’.

     Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Closes the mmap.  Subsequent calls to other methods of the
          object will result in a ValueError exception being raised.
          This will not close the open file.

      -- Attribut: closed

          ‘True’ if the file is closed.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: find (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

      -- Méthode: flush ([offset[, size]])

          Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to
          disk.  Without use of this call there is no guarantee that
          changes are written back before the object is destroyed.  If
          'offset' and 'size' are specified, only changes to the given
          range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the whole
          extent of the mapping is flushed.  'offset' must be a multiple
          of the ‘PAGESIZE’ or ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

          ‘None’ is returned to indicate success.  An exception is
          raised when the call failed.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: Previously, a nonzero value was
          returned on success; zero was returned on error under Windows.
          A zero value was returned on success; an exception was raised
          on error under Unix.

      -- Méthode: madvise (option[, start[, length]])

          Send advice 'option' to the kernel about the memory region
          beginning at 'start' and extending 'length' bytes.  'option'
          must be one of the *note MADV_* constants: 34cd. available on
          the system.  If 'start' and 'length' are omitted, the entire
          mapping is spanned.  On some systems (including Linux),
          'start' must be a multiple of the ‘PAGESIZE’.

          Availability: Systems with the ‘madvise()’ system call.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: move (dest, src, count)

          Copy the 'count' bytes starting at offset 'src' to the
          destination index 'dest'.  If the mmap was created with
          ‘ACCESS_READ’, then calls to move will raise a *note
          TypeError: 525. exception.

      -- Méthode: read ([n])

          Return a *note bytes: 1bd. containing up to 'n' bytes starting
          from the current file position.  If the argument is omitted,
          ‘None’ or negative, return all bytes from the current file
          position to the end of the mapping.  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were returned.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Argument can be omitted or
          ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: read_byte ()

          Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and
          advances the file position by 1.

      -- Méthode: readline ()

          Returns a single line, starting at the current file position
          and up to the next newline.  The file position is updated to
          point after the bytes that were returned.

      -- Méthode: resize (newsize)

          Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any.

          Resizing a map created with 'access' of ‘ACCESS_READ’ or
          ‘ACCESS_COPY’, will raise a *note TypeError: 525. exception.
          Resizing a map created with with 'trackfd' set to ‘False’,
          will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. exception.

          'On Windows': Resizing the map will raise an *note OSError:
          40d. if there are other maps against the same named file.
          Resizing an anonymous map (ie against the pagefile) will
          silently create a new map with the original data copied over
          up to the length of the new size.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: Correctly fails if attempting to
          resize when another map is held Allows resize against an
          anonymous map on Windows

      -- Méthode: rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

      -- Méthode: seek (pos[, whence])

          Set the file's current position.  'whence' argument is
          optional and defaults to ‘os.SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’ (absolute file
          positioning); other values are ‘os.SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’ (seek
          relative to the current position) and ‘os.SEEK_END’ or ‘2’
          (seek relative to the file's end).

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Return the new absolute position
          instead of ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking, and the return value
          is always ‘True’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: size ()

          Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the
          size of the memory-mapped area.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Returns the current position of the file pointer.

      -- Méthode: write (bytes)

          Write the bytes in 'bytes' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer and return the number of bytes written
          (never less than ‘len(bytes)’, since if the write fails, a
          *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised).  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were written.  If the
          mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it will
          raise a *note TypeError: 525. exception.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: The number of bytes written is
          now returned.

      -- Méthode: write_byte (byte)

          Write the integer 'byte' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by ‘1’.  If
          the mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it
          will raise a *note TypeError: 525. exception.

* Menu:

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* Constants::


File: python.info,  Node: MADV_* Constants,  Next: MAP_* Constants,  Up: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support

5.19.7.1 MADV_* Constants
.........................

 -- Données: mmap.MADV_NORMAL
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_RANDOM
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_WILLNEED
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_DONTNEED
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_REMOVE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_DONTFORK
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_DOFORK
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_HWPOISON
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_MERGEABLE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_UNMERGEABLE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_HUGEPAGE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_NOHUGEPAGE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_DONTDUMP
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_DODUMP
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_FREE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_NOSYNC
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_AUTOSYNC
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_NOCORE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_CORE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_PROTECT
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSABLE
 -- Données: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSE

     These options can be passed to *note mmap.madvise(): 9f8.  Not
     every option will be present on every system.

     Availability: Systems with the madvise() system call.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: MAP_* Constants,  Prev: MADV_* Constants,  Up: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support

5.19.7.2 MAP_* Constants
........................

 -- Données: mmap.MAP_SHARED
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_PRIVATE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_32BIT
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_ANON
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_ANONYMOUS
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_CONCEAL
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_DENYWRITE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_EXECUTABLE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_JIT
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_NOCACHE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_NORESERVE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_POPULATE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_STACK
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_TPRO
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE
 -- Données: mmap.MAP_UNIX03

     These are the various flags that can be passed to *note
     mmap.mmap(): 208.  *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1712. is only available
     at FreeBSD and *note MAP_CONCEAL: 1713. is only available at
     OpenBSD. Note that some options might not be present on some
     systems.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added *note MAP_POPULATE: 1905.
     constant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added *note MAP_STACK: 34f3. constant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12: Added *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1712.
     and *note MAP_CONCEAL: 1713. constants.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13: Added *note MAP_32BIT: 165c, *note
     MAP_HASSEMAPHORE: 1657, *note MAP_JIT: 1659, *note MAP_NOCACHE:
     1658, *note MAP_NOEXTEND: 1656, *note MAP_NORESERVE: 1655, *note
     MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN: 165a, *note MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA: 165b,
     *note MAP_TPRO: 165f, *note MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE: 165d, and
     *note MAP_UNIX03: 165e. constants.


File: python.info,  Node: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet,  Next: Outils de traitement de balises structurées,  Prev: Réseau et communication entre processus,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.20 Traitement des données provenant d'Internet
================================================

This chapter describes modules which support handling data formats
commonly used on the internet.

* Menu:

* email: email --- An email and MIME handling package. An email and MIME handling package
* json: json --- JSON encoder and decoder. JSON encoder and decoder
* mailbox: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mimetypes: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types. Map filenames to MIME types
* base64: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
* binascii: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII. Convert between binary and ASCII
* quopri: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data


File: python.info,  Node: email --- An email and MIME handling package,  Next: json --- JSON encoder and decoder,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.1 ‘email’ -- An email and MIME handling package
----------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/email/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note email: 3b. package is a library for managing email messages.
It is specifically 'not' designed to do any sending of email messages to
SMTP ( RFC 2821(2)), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of
modules such as *note smtplib: c9.  The *note email: 3b. package
attempts to be as RFC-compliant as possible, supporting RFC 5322(3) and
RFC 6532(4), as well as such MIME-related RFCs as RFC 2045(5), RFC
2046(6), RFC 2047(7), RFC 2183(8), and RFC 2231(9).

Ce paquet peut être divisé entre trois composants majeurs, et un
quatrième composant qui contrôle le comportement des trois autres.

Le composant central du paquet est un "modèle d'objet" qui représente
les messages.  Une application interagit avec le paquet, dans un premier
temps, à travers l'interface de modèle d'objet définie dans le
sous-module *note message: 44.  L'application peut utiliser cette API
pour poser des questions à propos d'un mail existant, pour créer un
nouvel e-mail, ou ajouter ou retirer des sous-composants d'e-mail qui
utilisent la même interface de modèle d'objet.  Suivant la nature des
messages et leurs sous-composants MIME, le modèle d'objet d'e-mail est
une structure arborescente d'objets qui fournit tout à l'API de *note
EmailMessage: 278.

Les deux autres composants majeurs de ce paquet sont l'analyseur (*note
parser: 4e.) et le générateur (*note generator: 40.).  L'analyseur prend
la version sérialisée d'un e-mail (un flux d'octets) et le convertit en
une arborescence d'objets *note EmailMessage: 278.  Le générateur prend
un objet *note EmailMessage: 278. et le retransforme en un flux d'octets
sérialisé (l'analyseur et le générateur gèrent aussi des suites de
caractères textuels, mais cette utilisation est déconseillée car il est
très facile de finir avec des messages invalides d'une manière ou d'une
autre).

Le composant de contrôle est le module *note policy: 4f.  Chaque *note
EmailMessage: 278, chaque *note generator: 40. et chaque *note parser:
4e. possède un objet associé *note policy: 4f. qui contrôle son
comportement.  Habituellement une application n'a besoin de spécifier la
politique que quand un *note EmailMessage: 278. est créé, soit en
instanciant directement un *note EmailMessage: 278. pour créer un nouvel
e-mail, soit lors de l'analyse d'un flux entrant en utilisant un *note
parser: 4e.  Mais la politique peut être changée quand le message est
sérialisé en utilisant un *note generator: 40.  Cela permet, par
exemple, d'analyser un message e-mail générique du disque, puis de le
sérialiser en utilisant une configuration SMTP standard quand on
l'envoie vers un serveur d'e-mail.

Le paquet 'email' fait son maximum pour cacher les détails des
différentes RFCs de référence à l'application.  Conceptuellement,
l'application doit être capable de traiter l'e-mail comme une
arborescence structurée de texte Unicode et de pièces jointes binaires,
sans avoir à se préoccuper de leur représentation sérialisée.  Dans la
pratique, cependant, il est souvent nécessaire d'être conscient d'au
moins quelques règles relatives aux messages MIME et à leur structure,
en particulier les noms et natures des "types de contenus" et comment
ils identifient les documents à plusieurs parties.  Pour la plupart,
cette connaissance devrait seulement être nécessaire pour des
applications plus complexes, et même là, il devrait être question des
structures de haut niveau et non des détails sur la manière dont elles
sont représentées.  Comme les types de contenus MIME sont couramment
utilisés dans les logiciels internet modernes (et non uniquement les
e-mails), les développeurs sont généralement familiers de ce concept.

La section suivante décrit les fonctionnalités du paquet *note email:
3b.  Nous commençons avec le modèle d'objet *note message: 44, qui est
la principale interface qu'une application utilise, et continuons avec
les composants *note parser: 4e. et *note generator: 40.  Ensuite, nous
couvrons les contrôles *note policy: 4f, qui complètent le traitement
des principaux composants de la bibliothèque.

Les trois prochaines sections couvrent les exceptions que le paquet peut
rencontrer et les imperfections (non-respect des RFCs) que le module
*note parser: 4e. peut détecter.  Ensuite nous couvrons les
sous-composants *note headerregistry: 42. et *note contentmanager: 3d,
qui fournissent des outils pour faire des manipulations plus détaillées
des en-têtes et du contenu, respectivement.  Les deux composants
contiennent des fonctionnalités adaptées pour traiter et produire des
messages qui sortent de l'ordinaire, et elles documentent aussi leurs
API pour pouvoir les étendre, ce qui ne manquera pas d'intéresser les
applications avancées.

Ci-dessous se trouve un ensemble d'exemples d'utilisations des éléments
fondamentaux des API couvertes dans les sections précédentes.

Ce que nous venons d'aborder constitue l'API moderne (compatible
Unicode) du paquet 'email'.  Les sections restantes, commençant par la
classe *note Message: 279, couvrent l'API héritée *note compat32: c89.
qui traite beaucoup plus directement des détails sur la manière dont les
e-mails sont représentés.  L'API *note compat32: c89. ne cache 'pas' les
détails des RFCs à l'application, mais pour les applications qui
requièrent d'opérer à ce niveau, elle peut être un outil pratique.
Cette documentation est aussi pertinente pour les applications qui
utilisent toujours l'API *note compat32: c89. pour des raisons de
rétrocompatibilité.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Documents réorganisés et réécrits pour
promouvoir la nouvelle API *note EmailMessage: 278./*note EmailPolicy:
109b.

Contenus de la documentation du paquet *note email: 3b. :

* Menu:

* email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message.
* email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages.
* email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors; Exception and Defect classes: email errors Exception and Defect classes.
* email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
* email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
* email; Exemples: email Exemples.
* email.message.Message ; représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
* email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
* email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers.
* email.charset; Representing character sets: email charset Representing character sets.
* email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders.
* email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
* email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/__init__.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email message Representing an email message,  Next: email parser Parsing email messages,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.1 ‘email.message’: Representing an email message
.......................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/message.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: (2)

La classe centrale du paquet *note email: 3b. est la classe *note
EmailMessage: 278, importée du module *note email.message: 44.  C'est la
classe mère du modèle d'objet *note email: 3b.  *note EmailMessage: 278.
fournit la fonctionnalité de base pour définir et interroger les champs
d'en-tête, pour accéder au corps des messages et pour créer ou modifier
des messages structurés.

Un message électronique se compose d'en-têtes ('headers') et d'une
'charge utile' ('payload' en anglais, également appelée 'contenu' –
'content' en anglais).  Les en-têtes sont des noms et valeurs de champ
de style RFC 5322(3) ou RFC 6532(4), où le nom et la valeur du champ
sont séparés par deux points.  Les deux-points ne font partie ni du nom
du champ ni de la valeur du champ.  La charge utile peut être un simple
message texte, un objet binaire ou une séquence structurée de
sous-messages chacun avec son propre ensemble d'en-têtes et sa propre
charge utile.  Ce dernier type de charge utile est indiqué par le
message ayant un type MIME tel que ‘multipart/*’ ou ‘message/rfc822’.

Le modèle conceptuel fourni par un objet *note EmailMessage: 278. est
celui d'un dictionnaire ordonné d'en-têtes couplé à une 'charge utile'
qui représente le corps RFC 5322(5) du message, qui peut être une liste
de sous-objets ‘EmailMessage’.  En plus des méthodes de dictionnaire
normales pour accéder aux noms et valeurs d'en-têtes, il existe des
méthodes pour accéder à des informations spécialisées à partir des
en-têtes (par exemple le type de contenu MIME), pour agir sur la charge
utile, pour générer une version sérialisée du message et pour parcourir
récursivement l'arborescence d'objets.

The *note EmailMessage: 278. dictionary-like interface is indexed by the
header names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary
are strings with some extra methods.  Headers are stored and returned in
case-preserving form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.
The keys are ordered, but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates.
Additional methods are provided for working with headers that have
duplicate keys.

La 'charge utile' est soit une chaîne ou un objet d'octets, dans le cas
d'objets de message simples, soit une liste d'objets *note EmailMessage:
278. pour les documents de conteneur MIME tels que ‘multipart/*’ et les
objets messages ‘message/rfc822’.

 -- Classe: email.message.EmailMessage (policy=default)

     Si 'policy' est spécifiée, Python utilise les règles qu'elle
     spécifie pour mettre à jour et sérialiser la représentation du
     message.  Si 'policy' n'est pas définie, Python utilise la
     politique *note default: 34fc, qui suit les règles des RFC de
     messagerie sauf pour les fins de ligne (au lieu de ‘\r\n’ indiqués
     par la RFC, il utilise les fins de ligne standard Python ‘\n’).
     Pour plus d'informations, consultez la documentation *note policy:
     4f.

      -- Méthode: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None,
               policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility with the base *note Message: 279. class
          'maxheaderlen' is accepted, but defaults to ‘None’, which
          means that by default the line length is controlled by the
          *note max_line_length: 34fe. of the policy.  The 'policy'
          argument may be used to override the default policy obtained
          from the message instance.  This can be used to control some
          of the formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the *note Generator: 11ad.

          L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements
          dans *note EmailMessage: 278. si les valeurs par défaut
          doivent être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en
          chaîne (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou
          modifiées).

          Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et
          n'est peut-être pas la méthode la plus utile pour sérialiser
          les messages dans votre application, en particulier si vous
          traitez plusieurs messages.  Voir *note
          email.generator.Generator: 11ad. pour une API plus flexible
          pour la sérialisation des messages.  Notez également que cette
          méthode est limitée à la production de messages sérialisés en
          « 7 bits propres » lorsque *note utf8: de7. est ‘False’, qui
          est la valeur par défaut.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: le comportement par défaut
          lorsque 'maxheaderlen' n'est pas spécifié est passé de la
          valeur par défaut à 0 à la valeur par défaut de
          'max_line_length' de la politique.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          Équivalent à ‘as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))’.
          Permet à ‘str(msg)’ de produire une chaîne contenant le
          message sérialisé dans un format lisible.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode a été modifiée pour
          utiliser ‘utf8=True’, produisant ainsi une représentation de
          message semblable à RFC 6531(6), au lieu d'être un alias
          direct pour *note as_string(): 34fd.

      -- Méthode: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Renvoie le message entier aplati en tant qu'objet bytes.
          Lorsque l'option 'unixfrom' est vraie, l'en-tête de
          l'enveloppe est inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée.  'unixfrom'
          par défaut est ‘False’.  L'argument 'policy' peut être utilisé
          pour remplacer la politique par défaut obtenue à partir de
          l'instance de message.  Cela peut être utilisé pour contrôler
          une partie du formatage produit par la méthode, puisque la
          'policy' spécifiée sera transmise à *note BytesGenerator:
          11ae.

          L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements
          dans *note EmailMessage: 278. si les valeurs par défaut
          doivent être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en
          chaîne (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou
          modifiées).

          Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et
          n'est peut-être pas la méthode la plus utile pour sérialiser
          les messages dans votre application, en particulier si vous
          traitez plusieurs messages.  Voir *note
          email.generator.BytesGenerator: 11ae. pour une API plus
          flexible pour la sérialisation des messages.

      -- Méthode: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): 3500.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the serialized message.

      -- Méthode: is_multipart ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la charge utile du message est une liste
          d'objets *note EmailMessage: 278, sinon renvoie ‘False’.
          Lorsque *note is_multipart(): 3502. renvoie ‘False’, la charge
          utile doit être un objet chaîne (qui peut être une charge
          utile binaire encodée CTE). Notez que *note is_multipart():
          3502. renvoyant ‘True’ ne signifie pas nécessairement que
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ renvoie ‘True’.
          Par exemple, ‘is_multipart’ renvoie ‘True’ lorsque le *note
          EmailMessage: 278. est de type ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Méthode: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Définit l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message sur 'unixfrom',
          qui doit être une chaîne (voir *note mboxMessage: 3504. pour
          une brève description de cet en-tête).

      -- Méthode: get_unixfrom ()

          Renvoie l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message.  La valeur par
          défaut est ‘None’ si l'en-tête de l'enveloppe n'a jamais été
          défini.

     Les méthodes suivantes implémentent l'interface de type
     correspondance pour accéder aux en-têtes du message.  Notez qu'il
     existe des différences sémantiques entre ces méthodes et une
     interface de correspondance normale (c'est-à-dire un dictionnaire).
     Par exemple, dans un dictionnaire, il n'y a pas de clés en double,
     mais ici, il peut y avoir des en-têtes de message en double.  De
     plus, dans les dictionnaires, il n'y a pas d'ordre garanti pour les
     clés renvoyées par *note keys(): 3506, mais dans un objet *note
     EmailMessage: 278, les en-têtes sont toujours renvoyés dans l'ordre
     dans lequel ils sont apparus dans le message d'origine, ou dans
     lequel ils ont été ajoutés au message plus tard.  Tout en-tête
     supprimé puis rajouté est toujours ajouté à la fin de la liste des
     en-têtes.

     Ces différences sémantiques sont intentionnelles et privilégient la
     commodité dans les cas d'utilisation les plus courants.

     Notez que dans tous les cas, tout en-tête d'enveloppe présent dans
     le message n'est pas inclus dans l'interface de correspondance.

      -- Méthode: __len__ ()

          Renvoie le nombre total d'en-têtes, y compris les doublons.

      -- Méthode: __contains__ (name)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet message a un champ nommé 'name'.  La
          correspondance est effectuée sans tenir compte de la casse et
          'name' n'inclut pas les deux-points de fin.  Utilisé pour
          l'opérateur ‘in’.  Par exemple :

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- Méthode: __getitem__ (name)

          Renvoie la valeur du champ d'en-tête nommé.  'name' n'inclut
          pas le séparateur de champ deux-points.  Si l'en-tête est
          manquant, ‘None’ est renvoyée ; *note KeyError: 33a. n'est
          jamais levée.

          Notez que si le champ nommé apparaît plus d'une fois dans les
          en-têtes du message, il n'est pas défini la valeur de quel
          champ est renvoyée.  Utilisez la méthode *note get_all():
          350a. pour obtenir les valeurs de tous les en-têtes existants
          nommés 'name'.

          En utilisant les politiques standard (non-‘compat32’), la
          valeur renvoyée est une instance d'une sous-classe de *note
          email.headerregistry.BaseHeader: 350b.

      -- Méthode: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Ajoute un en-tête au message avec le nom de champ 'name' et la
          valeur 'val'.  Le champ est ajouté à la fin des en-têtes
          existants du message.

          Notez que cela n'écrase 'pas' ou ne supprime aucun en-tête
          existant portant le même nom.  Si vous voulez vous assurer que
          le nouvel en-tête est le seul présent dans le message avec le
          nom de champ 'name', supprimez d'abord le champ, par exemple :

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

          If the *note policy: 4f. defines certain headers to be unique
          (as the standard policies do), this method may raise a *note
          ValueError: 1ff. when an attempt is made to assign a value to
          such a header when one already exists.  This behavior is
          intentional for consistency's sake, but do not depend on it as
          we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic
          deletion of the existing header in the future.

      -- Méthode: __delitem__ (name)

          Supprime toutes les occurrences du champ portant le nom 'name'
          des en-têtes du message.  Aucune exception n'est levée si le
          champ nommé n'est pas présent dans les en-têtes.

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Renvoie une liste de tous les noms de champs d'en-tête du
          message.

      -- Méthode: values ()

          Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs de champ du message.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          Renvoie une liste de couples contenant tous les en-têtes et
          valeurs de champ du message.

      -- Méthode: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 280. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing ('failobj' defaults to
          ‘None’).

     Voici quelques méthodes supplémentaires utiles liées aux en-têtes :

      -- Méthode: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Renvoie la liste de toutes les valeurs du champ nommé 'name'.
          S'il n'y a pas d'en-têtes nommés de ce type dans le message,
          'failobj' est renvoyé (la valeur par défaut est ‘None’).

      -- Méthode: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Étend les en-têtes.  Cette méthode est similaire à *note
          __setitem__(): 350c. sauf que des paramètres d'en-tête
          supplémentaires peuvent être fournis en tant qu'arguments
          nommés.  '_name' est le champ d'en-tête à ajouter et '_value'
          est la valeur 'primaire' de l'en-tête.

          Pour chaque élément du dictionnaire d'arguments nommés
          '_params', la clé est prise comme nom de paramètre, avec des
          traits de soulignement convertis en tirets (puisque les tirets
          sont illégaux dans les identifiants Python).  Normalement, le
          paramètre est ajouté en tant que ‘key="value"’ sauf si la
          valeur est ‘None’, auquel cas seule la clé est ajoutée.

          Si la valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, le jeu de
          caractères et la langue peuvent être explicitement contrôlés
          en spécifiant la valeur sous la forme d'un triplet au format
          ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’, où ‘CHARSET’ est une chaîne
          nommant le jeu de caractères à utiliser pour encoder la
          valeur, ‘LANGUAGE’ peut généralement être défini sur ‘None’ ou
          sur la chaîne vide (voir RFC 2231(7) pour d'autres
          possibilités) et ‘VALUE’ est la chaîne contenant les valeurs
          des points de code non-ASCII. Si un triplet n'est pas passé et
          que la valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, elle est
          automatiquement encodée au format RFC 2231(8) en utilisant
          ‘utf-8’ comme ‘CHARSET’ et ‘None’ comme ‘LANGUAGE’.

          Voici un exemple :

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          Cela ajoute un en-tête qui ressemble à :

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          Un exemple d'interface étendue avec des caractères non-ASCII :

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

      -- Méthode: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Remplace un en-tête.  Remplace le premier en-tête trouvé dans
          le message qui correspond à '_name', en conservant l'ordre des
          en-têtes et la casse du nom de champ de l'en-tête d'origine.
          Si aucun en-tête correspondant n'est trouvé, lève une *note
          KeyError: 33a.

      -- Méthode: get_content_type ()

          Renvoie le type de contenu du message, contraint en minuscules
          de la forme ‘maintype/subtype’.  S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ dans le message, renvoie la valeur renvoyée par
          *note get_default_type(): 3514.  Si l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’
          n'est pas valide, renvoie ‘text/plain’.

          (Selon la RFC 2045(9), les messages ont toujours un type par
          défaut, *note get_content_type(): 3513. renvoie toujours une
          valeur.  La RFC 2045(10) définit le type par défaut d'un
          message comme étant ‘text/plain’ à moins qu'il n'apparaisse
          dans un conteneur ‘multipart/digest’, auquel cas ce serait
          ‘message/rfc822’.  Si l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ a une
          spécification de type invalide, la RFC 2045(11) exige que le
          type par défaut soit ‘text/plain’.)

      -- Méthode: get_content_maintype ()

          Renvoie le type de contenu principal du message.  C'est la
          partie ‘maintype’ de la chaîne renvoyée par *note
          get_content_type(): 3513.

      -- Méthode: get_content_subtype ()

          Renvoie le type de sous-contenu du message.  C'est la partie
          ‘subtype’ de la chaîne renvoyée par *note get_content_type():
          3513.

      -- Méthode: get_default_type ()

          Renvoie le type de contenu par défaut.  La plupart des
          messages ont un type de contenu ‘text/plain’ par défaut, à
          l'exception des messages qui sont des sous-parties des
          conteneurs ‘multipart/digest’.  Ces sous-parties ont un type
          de contenu par défaut de ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Méthode: set_default_type (ctype)

          Définit le type de contenu par défaut.  'ctype' doit être
          ‘text/plain’ ou ‘message/rfc822’, bien que cela ne soit pas
          imposé.  Le type de contenu par défaut n'est pas stocké dans
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’, il n'affecte donc que la valeur de
          retour des méthodes ‘get_content_type’ lorsqu'aucun en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ n'est présent dans le message .

      -- Méthode: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Définit un paramètre dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.  Si le
          paramètre existe déjà dans l'en-tête, remplace sa valeur par
          'value'.  Lorsque 'header' est ‘Content-Type’ (la valeur par
          défaut) et que l'en-tête n'existe pas encore dans le message,
          l'ajoute, définit sa valeur sur ‘text/plain’ et ajoute la
          nouvelle valeur du paramètre.  'header' facultatif spécifie un
          en-tête alternatif à ‘Content-Type’.

          Si la valeur contient des caractères non ASCII, le jeu de
          caractères et la langue peuvent être explicitement spécifiés à
          l'aide des paramètres facultatifs 'charset' et 'language'.
          L'option 'language' spécifie la langue RFC 2231(12), par
          défaut la chaîne vide.  'charset' et 'language' doivent être
          des chaînes.  La valeur par défaut est ‘utf8’ pour 'charset'
          et ‘None’ pour 'language'.

          Si 'replace' est ‘False’ (valeur par défaut), l'en-tête est
          déplacé à la fin de la liste des en-têtes.  Si 'replace' est
          ‘True’, l'en-tête est mis à jour sur place.

          L'utilisation du paramètre 'requote' avec les objets *note
          EmailMessage: 278. est obsolète.

          Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed
          through the *note params: 3519. attribute of the header value
          (for example, ‘msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']’).

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: le paramètre nommé ‘replace’ a
          été ajouté.

      -- Méthode: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Supprime complètement le paramètre donné de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’.  L'en-tête est réécrit en place sans le
          paramètre ou sa valeur.  L'option 'header' spécifie une
          alternative à ‘Content-Type’.

          L'utilisation du paramètre 'requote' avec les objets *note
          EmailMessage: 278. est obsolète.

      -- Méthode: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Renvoie la valeur du paramètre ‘filename’ de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Disposition’ du message.  Si l'en-tête n'a pas de
          paramètre ‘filename’, cette méthode revient à rechercher le
          paramètre ‘name’ dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.  Si aucun
          n'est trouvé, ou si l'en-tête est manquant, alors 'failobj'
          est renvoyé.  La chaîne renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets
          selon *note email.utils.unquote(): 351c.

      -- Méthode: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Renvoie la valeur du paramètre ‘boundary’ de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ du message, ou 'failobj' si l'en-tête est
          manquant ou n'a pas de paramètre ‘boundary’.  La chaîne
          renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets selon *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 351c.

      -- Méthode: set_boundary (boundary)

          Définit le paramètre ‘boundary’ de l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’
          sur 'boundary'.  *note set_boundary(): 351e. entoure
          'boundary' de guillemets si nécessaire.  Une *note
          HeaderParseError: 351f. est levée si l'objet message n'a pas
          d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.

          Notez que l'utilisation de cette méthode est légèrement
          différente de la suppression de l'ancien en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ et de l'ajout d'un nouveau avec la nouvelle
          délimitation via *note add_header(): 3511, car *note
          set_boundary(): 351e. préserve l'ordre des en-têtes
          ‘Content-Type’ dans la liste des en-têtes.

      -- Méthode: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Renvoie le paramètre ‘charset’ de l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’,
          contraint en minuscules.  S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’, ou si cet en-tête n'a pas de paramètre
          ‘charset’, 'failobj' est renvoyé.

      -- Méthode: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Renvoie la liste des noms des jeux de caractères dans le
          message.  Si le message est un ‘multipart’, alors la liste
          contient un élément pour chaque sous-partie dans la charge
          utile, sinon c'est une liste de longueur 1.

          Chaque élément de la liste est une chaîne qui est la valeur du
          paramètre ‘charset’ dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ pour la
          sous-partie représentée.  Si la sous-partie n'a pas d'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’, pas de paramètre ‘charset’ ou n'est pas du
          type MIME principal ‘text’, alors cet élément est 'failobj'
          dans la liste renvoyée.

      -- Méthode: is_attachment ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ s'il y a un en-tête ‘Content-Disposition’ et
          que sa valeur (insensible à la casse) est ‘attachment’,
          ‘False’ sinon.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4.2: 'is_attachment' est maintenant
          une méthode au lieu d'une propriété, par souci de cohérence
          avec *note is_multipart(): 3523.

      -- Méthode: get_content_disposition ()

          Renvoie la valeur en minuscules (sans paramètres) de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Disposition’ du message s'il en a un, ou ‘None’.  Les
          valeurs possibles pour cette méthode sont 'inline',
          'attachment' ou ‘None’ si le message respecte la RFC 2183(13).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Les méthodes suivantes concernent l'interrogation et la
     manipulation du contenu (charge utile) du message.

      -- Méthode: walk ()

          La méthode *note walk(): 3525. est un générateur polyvalent
          qui peut être utilisé pour itérer sur toutes les parties et
          sous-parties d'un arbre d'objets de message, dans l'ordre de
          parcours en profondeur d'abord.  L'utilisation classique est
          d'itérer avec *note walk(): 3525. dans une boucle ‘for’ ;
          chaque itération renvoie la sous-partie suivante.

          Voici un exemple qui imprime le type MIME de chaque partie
          d'une structure de message en plusieurs parties :

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ itère sur les sous-parties de toute partie où *note
          is_multipart(): 3502. renvoie ‘True’, même si
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ peut renvoyer
          ‘False’.  Nous pouvons le voir dans notre exemple en utilisant
          la fonction d'aide au débogage ‘_structure’ :

               >>> from email.iterators import _structure
               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Ici, les parties ‘message’ ne sont pas des ‘multiparts’, mais
          elles contiennent des sous-parties.  ‘is_multipart()’ renvoie
          ‘True’ et ‘walk’ descend dans les sous-parties.

      -- Méthode: get_body (preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))

          Renvoie la partie MIME qui est la meilleure candidate pour
          être le corps du message.

          'preferencelist' doit être une séquence de chaînes de
          l'ensemble ‘related’, ‘html’ et ‘plain’, et indique l'ordre de
          préférence pour le type de contenu de la partie renvoyée.

          Elle commence par rechercher des correspondances candidates
          avec l'objet sur lequel la méthode ‘get_body’ est appelée.

          Si ‘related’ n'est pas inclus dans 'preferencelist', elle
          considère la partie racine (ou sous-partie de la partie
          racine) de tout lien rencontré comme candidat si la
          (sous-)partie correspond à une préférence.

          Lorsqu'elle rencontre un ‘multipart/related’, elle vérifie le
          paramètre ‘start’ et si une partie avec un ‘Content-ID’
          correspondant est trouvée, elle la considère uniquement lors
          de la recherche de correspondances candidates.  Sinon, elle ne
          considère que la première partie (racine par défaut) de
          ‘multipart/related’.

          Si une partie a un en-tête ‘Content-Disposition’, elle ne
          considère la partie comme une correspondance candidate que si
          la valeur de l'en-tête est ‘inline’.

          Si aucun des candidats ne correspond à aucune des préférences
          dans 'preferencelist', elle renvoie ‘None’.

          Remarques : (1) Pour la plupart des applications, les seules
          combinaisons 'preferencelist' qui ont vraiment un sens sont
          ‘('plain',)’, ‘('html', 'plain')’ et la valeur par défaut ‘(
          'related', 'html', 'plain')’.  (2) Parce que la correspondance
          commence avec l'objet sur lequel ‘get_body’ est appelée,
          appeler ‘get_body’ sur un ‘multipart/related’ renvoie l'objet
          lui-même à moins que 'preferencelist' n'ait une valeur autre
          que celle par défaut.  (3) Les messages (ou parties de
          message) qui ne spécifient pas un ‘Content-Type’ ou dont
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ est invalide sont traités comme s'ils
          étaient de type ‘text/plain’, ce qui peut occasionnellement
          amener ‘get_body’ à renvoyer des résultats inattendus.

      -- Méthode: iter_attachments ()

          Renvoie un itérateur sur toutes les sous-parties immédiates du
          message qui ne sont pas des parties de « corps » candidates.
          Autrement dit, elle ignore la première occurrence de chacun
          des éléments suivants : ‘text/plain’, ‘text/html’,
          ‘multipart/related’ ou ‘multipart/alternative’ (sauf s'ils
          sont explicitement marqués comme pièces jointes via
          ‘Content-Disposition: attachment’), et renvoie toutes les
          parties restantes.  Lorsqu'elle est appliquée directement à un
          ‘multipart/related’, renvoie un itérateur sur toutes les
          parties liées sauf la partie racine (c'est-à-dire la partie
          pointée par le paramètre ‘start’, ou la première partie s'il
          n'y a pas de paramètre ‘start’ ou si le paramètre ‘start’ ne
          correspond pas au ‘Content-ID’ de l'une des parties).
          Lorsqu'elle est appliquée directement à un
          ‘multipart/alternative’ ou à un non-‘multipart’, elle renvoie
          un itérateur vide.

      -- Méthode: iter_parts ()

          Renvoie un itérateur sur toutes les sous-parties immédiates du
          message, qui seront vides pour une non-‘multipart’ (voir aussi
          *note walk(): 3525.).

      -- Méthode: get_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Appelle la méthode *note get_content(): 352a. du
          'content_manager', en passant 'self' comme objet message et en
          passant tout autre argument ou mot-clé comme argument
          supplémentaire.  Si 'content_manager' n'est pas spécifié,
          utilise le ‘content_manager’ spécifié par la *note policy: 4f.
          actuelle.

      -- Méthode: set_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Appelle la méthode *note set_content(): 352b. du
          'content_manager', en passant 'self' comme objet message et en
          passant tout autre argument ou mot-clé comme argument
          supplémentaire.  Si 'content_manager' n'est pas spécifié,
          utilise le ‘content_manager’ spécifié par la *note policy: 4f.
          actuelle.

      -- Méthode: make_related (boundary=None)

          Convertit un message non-‘multipart’ en un message
          ‘multipart/related’, en déplaçant tous les en-têtes ‘Content-’
          existants et la charge utile dans une (nouvelle) première
          partie du ‘multipart’.  Si 'boundary' est spécifié, elle
          l'utilise comme chaîne de délimitation dans le 'multipart',
          sinon elle laisse la délimitation être créée automatiquement
          lorsque cela est nécessaire (par exemple, lorsque le message
          est sérialisé).

      -- Méthode: make_alternative (boundary=None)

          Convertit un non-‘multipart’ ou un ‘multipart/related’ en un
          ‘multipart/alternative’, en déplaçant tous les en-têtes
          ‘Content-’ existants et la charge utile dans une (nouvelle)
          première partie du ‘multipart’.  Si 'boundary' est spécifiée,
          l'utilise comme chaîne de délimitation dans le 'multipart',
          sinon laisse la délimitation être créée automatiquement
          lorsque cela est nécessaire (par exemple, lorsque le message
          est sérialisé).

      -- Méthode: make_mixed (boundary=None)

          Convertit un non-‘multipart’, un ‘multipart/related’ ou un
          ‘multipart-alternative’ en un ‘multipart/mixed’, en déplaçant
          tous les en-têtes ‘Content-’ existants et charge utile dans
          une (nouvelle) première partie du ‘multipart’.  Si 'boundary'
          est spécifiée, l'utilise comme chaîne de délimitation dans le
          'multipart', sinon elle laisse la délimitation être créée
          automatiquement lorsque cela est nécessaire (par exemple,
          lorsque le message est sérialisé).

      -- Méthode: add_related (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Si le message est un ‘multipart/related’, crée un nouvel objet
          message, passe tous les arguments à sa méthode *note
          set_content(): 1865. et le joint avec *note attach(): 3530. au
          ‘multipart’.  Si le message n'est pas en ‘multipart’, appelle
          *note make_related(): 352c. puis procède comme ci-dessus.  Si
          le message est un autre type de ‘multipart’, lève une *note
          TypeError: 525.  Si 'content_manager' n'est pas spécifié,
          utilise le ‘content_manager’ spécifié par la *note policy: 4f.
          actuelle.  Si la partie ajoutée n'a pas d'en-tête
          ‘Content-Disposition’, en ajoute un avec la valeur ‘inline’.

      -- Méthode: add_alternative (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Si le message est un ‘multipart/alternative’, crée un nouvel
          objet message, transmet tous les arguments à sa méthode *note
          set_content(): 1865. et le joint avec *note attach(): 3530. au
          ‘multipart’.  Si le message est non-‘multipart’ ou
          ‘multipart/related’, appelle *note make_alternative(): 352d.
          puis procède comme ci-dessus.  Si le message est un autre type
          de ‘multipart’, lève une *note TypeError: 525.  Si
          'content_manager' n'est pas spécifié, utilise le
          ‘content_manager’ spécifié par la *note policy: 4f. actuelle.

      -- Méthode: add_attachment (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Si le message est un ‘multipart/mixed’, crée un nouvel objet
          message, passe tous les arguments à sa méthode *note
          set_content(): 1865. et le joint avec *note attach(): 3530. au
          ‘multipart’.  Si le message n'est pas en ‘multipart’,
          ‘multipart/related’ ou ‘multipart/alternative’, appelle *note
          make_mixed(): 352e. puis procède comme ci-dessus.  Si
          'content_manager' n'est pas spécifié, utilise le
          ‘content_manager’ spécifié par la *note policy: 4f. actuelle.
          Si la partie ajoutée n'a pas d'en-tête ‘Content-Disposition’,
          en ajoute un avec la valeur ‘attachment’.  Cette méthode peut
          être utilisée à la fois pour les pièces jointes explicites
          (‘Content-Disposition:attachment’) et les pièces jointes
          ‘inline’ (‘Content-Disposition:inline’), en passant les
          options appropriées au ‘content_manager’.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Supprime la charge utile et tous les en-têtes.

      -- Méthode: clear_content ()

          Remove the payload and all of the ‘!Content-’ headers, leaving
          all other headers intact and in their original order.

     Les objets *note EmailMessage: 278. ont les attributs d'instance
     suivants :

      -- Attribut: preamble

          Le format d'un document MIME permet d'insérer du texte entre
          la ligne vide suivant les en-têtes et la première chaîne de
          délimitation en plusieurs parties.  Normalement, ce texte
          n'est jamais visible dans un lecteur de courrier compatible
          MIME car il ne fait pas partie de l'attirail MIME standard.
          Toutefois, lors de l'affichage du texte brut du message ou
          lors de l'affichage du message dans un lecteur non compatible
          MIME, ce texte peut devenir visible.

          L'attribut 'preamble' contient ce texte hors cadre de tête
          pour les documents MIME. Lorsque *note Parser: 117e. découvre
          du texte après les en-têtes mais avant la première chaîne de
          délimitation, il attribue ce texte à l'attribut 'preamble' du
          message.  Lorsque *note Generator: 11ad. écrit la
          représentation en texte brut d'un message MIME, et qu'il
          trouve que le message a un attribut 'preamble', il écrit ce
          texte dans la zone entre les en-têtes et la première limite.
          Voir *note email.parser: 4e. et *note email.generator: 40.
          pour plus de détails.

          Notez que si l'objet message n'a pas de préambule, l'attribut
          'preamble' est ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: epilogue

          L'attribut 'epilogue' agit de la même manière que l'attribut
          'preamble', sauf qu'il contient du texte qui apparaît entre la
          dernière limite et la fin du message.  Comme avec *note
          preamble: 3535, s'il n'y a pas de texte d'épilogue, cet
          attribut est ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: defects

          L'attribut 'defects' contient une liste de tous les problèmes
          rencontrés lors de l'analyse de ce message.  Voir *note
          email.errors: 3f. pour une description détaillée des défauts
          d'analyse possibles.

 -- Classe: email.message.MIMEPart (policy=default)

     Cette classe représente une sous-partie d'un message MIME. Elle est
     identique à *note EmailMessage: 278, sauf qu'aucun en-tête
     ‘MIME-Version’ n'est ajouté lorsque *note set_content(): 1865. est
     appelée, car les sous-parties n'ont pas besoin de leurs propres
     en-têtes ‘MIME-Version’.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/message.py

   (2) Ajouté à l'origine dans 3.4 en tant que *note module provisoire:
102c.  Les documents pour la classe de message héritée ont été déplacés
dans *note email.message.Message ; représentation d'un message
électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32: 34fb.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email parser Parsing email messages,  Next: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Prev: email message Representing an email message,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.2 ‘email.parser’: Parsing email messages
...............................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les instances de messages peuvent être créées de deux façons : elles
peuvent être créées de toutes pièces en créant un objet ‘EmailMessage’,
en ajoutant des en-têtes en utilisant l'interface de dictionnaire, et en
ajoutant un ou plusieurs corps de message en utilisant ‘set_content()’
et les méthodes associées, ou elles peuvent être créées en analysant une
représentation sérialisée de l'e-mail.

Le paquet *note email: 3b. fournit un analyseur standard qui comprend la
plupart des structures de documents de courrier électronique, y compris
les documents MIME. Vous pouvez passer à l'analyseur un objet 'bytes',
chaîne ou fichier, et l'analyseur vous renverra l'instance racine *note
EmailMessage: 278. de la structure de l'objet.  Pour les messages
simples non MIME, la charge utile de cet objet racine sera probablement
une chaîne contenant le texte du message.  Pour les messages MIME, la
méthode *note is_multipart(): 3502. de l'objet racine renvoie ‘True’, et
les sous-parties sont accessibles via les méthodes de manipulation de la
charge utile, telles que ‘get_body()’, *note iter_parts(): 3528. et
*note walk(): 3525.

Il existe en fait deux interfaces d'analyseur disponibles, l'API *note
Parser: 117e. et l'API incrémentale *note FeedParser: 353a.  L'API *note
Parser: 117e. est plus utile si vous avez le texte entier du message en
mémoire ou si le message entier réside dans un fichier sur le système de
fichiers.  *note FeedParser: 353a. est plus appropriée lorsque vous
lisez le message à partir d'un flux qui peut bloquer en attente d'une
entrée supplémentaire (comme la lecture d'un message électronique à
partir d'un connecteur réseau).  *note FeedParser: 353a. peut consommer
et analyser le message de manière incrémentielle et ne renvoie l'objet
racine que lorsque vous fermez l'analyseur.

Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you
can implement your own parser completely from scratch.  All of the logic
that connects the *note email: 3b. package's bundled parser and the
*note EmailMessage: 278. class is embodied in the *note Policy: 1097.
class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it
finds necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate
‘Policy’ methods.

* Menu:

* API FeedParser::
* API de Parser::
* Notes complémentaires::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: API FeedParser,  Next: API de Parser,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.20.1.3 API 'FeedParser'
.........................

*note BytesFeedParser: 11aa, importée du module ‘email.feedparser’,
fournit une API propice à l'analyse incrémentielle des messages
électroniques, adaptée à la lecture du texte d'un message électronique à
partir d'une source qui peut bloquer (comme un connecteur).  *note
BytesFeedParser: 11aa. peut bien sûr être utilisée pour analyser un
message électronique entièrement contenu dans un *note objet
octets-compatible: d1d, une chaîne ou un fichier, mais l'API *note
BytesParser: 11ab. peut être plus pratique dans ces utilisations.  La
sémantique et les résultats des deux API d'analyseurs sont identiques.

L'API de *note BytesFeedParser: 11aa. est simple ; vous créez une
instance, l'alimentez d'une suite d'octets jusqu'à ce qu'il n'y en ait
plus pour l'alimenter, puis fermez l'analyseur pour récupérer l'objet
message racine.  *note BytesFeedParser: 11aa. est extrêmement précise
lors de l'analyse des messages conformes aux normes, et elle fait un
très bon travail d'analyse des messages non conformes, fournissant des
informations sur ce qu'elle considère comme non approprié dans un
message.  Elle remplit l'attribut *note defects: 3537. d'un objet
message avec une liste de tous les problèmes trouvés dans un message.
Voir le module *note email.errors: 3f. pour la liste des défauts qu'elle
peut trouver.

Voici l’API de *note BytesFeedParser: 11aa. :

 -- Classe: email.parser.BytesFeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Crée une instance *note BytesFeedParser: 11aa.  '_factory' est un
     appelable facultatif sans argument ; s'il n'est pas spécifié, elle
     utilise la *note message_factory: c88. de la 'policy'.  Elle
     appelle '_factory' chaque fois qu'un nouvel objet de message est
     nécessaire.

     Si 'policy' est spécifiée, elle utilise les règles spécifiées pour
     mettre à jour la représentation du message.  Si 'policy' n'est pas
     définie, elle utilise la stratégie *note compat32: 1098, qui
     maintient la rétrocompatibilité avec la version Python 3.2 du
     paquet de messagerie et fournit *note Message: 279. comme usine par
     défaut.  Toutes les autres stratégies fournissent *note
     EmailMessage: 278. comme '_factory' par défaut.  Pour plus
     d'informations sur ce que 'policy' régit, consultez la
     documentation *note policy: 4f.

     Remarque : 'Le paramètre nommé « policy » doit toujours être
     spécifié' ; La valeur par défaut deviendra *note
     email.policy.default: 34fc. dans une future version de Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: '_factory' utilise par défaut la
     politique ‘message_factory’.

      -- Méthode: feed (data)

          Alimente l'analyseur avec plus de données.  'data' doit être
          un *note objet octets-compatible: d1d. contenant une ou
          plusieurs lignes.  Les lignes peuvent être partielles et
          l'analyseur assemble correctement ces lignes partielles.  Les
          lignes peuvent avoir l'une des trois fins de ligne courantes :
          retour chariot, nouvelle ligne ou retour chariot et nouvelle
          ligne (elles peuvent même être mélangées).

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Termine l'analyse de toutes les données précédemment
          alimentées et renvoie l'objet message racine.  Ce qui se passe
          si *note feed(): 353c. est appelée après l'appel de cette
          méthode n'est pas défini.

 -- Classe: email.parser.FeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Fonctionne comme *note BytesFeedParser: 11aa. sauf que l'entrée de
     la méthode *note feed(): 353c. doit être une chaîne.  Ceci est
     d'une utilité limitée, car la seule façon pour qu'un tel message
     soit valide est qu'il ne contienne que du texte ASCII ou, si ‘utf8’
     vaut ‘True’, aucun binaire en pièce jointe.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.


File: python.info,  Node: API de Parser,  Next: Notes complémentaires,  Prev: API FeedParser,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.20.1.4 API de 'Parser'
........................

La classe *note BytesParser: 11ab, importée du module *note
email.parser: 4e, fournit une API qui peut être utilisée pour analyser
un message lorsque le contenu complet du message est disponible dans un
*note objet octets-compatible: d1d. ou un fichier.  Le module *note
email.parser: 4e. fournit également *note Parser: 117e. pour l'analyse
des chaînes et des analyseurs d'en-tête uniquement, *note
BytesHeaderParser: 109f. et *note HeaderParser: 10a0, qui peuvent être
utilisés si vous ne vous intéressez qu'aux en-têtes du message.  *note
BytesHeaderParser: 109f. et *note HeaderParser: 10a0. peuvent être
beaucoup plus rapides dans ces situations, car ils n'essaient pas
d'analyser le corps du message.

 -- Classe: email.parser.BytesParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Crée une instance *note BytesParser: 11ab.  Les arguments '_class'
     et 'policy' ont la même signification et la même sémantique que les
     arguments '_factory' et 'policy' de *note BytesFeedParser: 11aa.

     Remarque : 'Le paramètre nommé « policy » doit toujours être
     spécifié' ; La valeur par défaut deviendra *note
     email.policy.default: 34fc. dans une future version de Python.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument 'strict' qui
     était obsolète dans 2.4.  Ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: '_class' utilise par défaut la
     politique ‘message_factory’.

      -- Méthode: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Lit toutes les données de l'objet de type fichier binaire
          'fp', analyse les octets résultants et renvoie l'objet
          message.  'fp' doit prendre en charge les méthodes *note
          readline(): 1309. et ‘read()’.

          Les octets contenus dans 'fp' doivent être formatés comme un
          bloc d'en-têtes de style conforme à la RFC 5322(1) (ou, si
          ‘utf8’ est ‘True’, à la RFC 6532(2)), éventuellement précédés
          d'un en-tête d'enveloppe.  Le bloc d'en-têtes se termine soit
          par la fin des données, soit par une ligne blanche.  Après le
          bloc d'en-têtes se trouve le corps du message (qui peut
          contenir des sous-parties codées MIME, y compris des
          sous-parties avec un ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ de ‘8bit’).

          'headersonly' est un indicateur facultatif spécifiant s'il
          faut arrêter l'analyse après avoir lu les en-têtes ou non.  La
          valeur par défaut est ‘False’, ce qui signifie qu'il analyse
          tout le contenu du fichier.

      -- Méthode: parsebytes (bytes, headersonly=False)

          Semblable à la méthode *note parse(): 353f, sauf qu'elle prend
          un *note objet octets-compatible: d1d. au lieu d'un objet de
          type fichier.  Appeler cette méthode sur un *note objet
          octets-compatible: d1d. équivaut à envelopper 'bytes' dans une
          instance *note BytesIO: e8f. d'abord et à appeler *note
          parse(): 353f.

          L'utilisation de l'option 'headersonly' est identique à son
          utilisation dans la méthode *note parse(): 353f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: email.parser.BytesHeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactement comme *note BytesParser: 11ab, sauf que 'headersonly'
     par défaut est ‘True’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Classe: email.parser.Parser (_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

     Cette classe est semblable à *note BytesParser: 11ab, mais elle
     accepte une chaîne en entrée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument 'strict'.
     Ajout de l'argument nommé 'policy'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: '_class' utilise par défaut la
     politique ‘message_factory’.

      -- Méthode: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Lit toutes les données de l'objet de type fichier en mode
          texte 'fp', analyse le texte résultant et renvoie l'objet
          message racine.  'fp' doit prendre en charge les méthodes
          *note readline(): 1c7b. et *note read(): 1c43. sur les objets
          de type fichier.

          Outre l'exigence du mode texte, cette méthode fonctionne comme
          *note BytesParser.parse(): 353f.

      -- Méthode: parsestr (text, headersonly=False)

          Similaire à la méthode *note parse(): 3541, sauf qu'elle prend
          un objet chaîne au lieu d'un objet de type fichier.  Appeler
          cette méthode sur une chaîne équivaut à envelopper 'text' dans
          une instance *note StringIO: f14. d'abord et à appeler *note
          parse(): 3541.

          L'utilisation de l'option 'headersonly' est identique à son
          utilisation dans la méthode *note parse(): 3541.

 -- Classe: email.parser.HeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactement comme *note Parser: 117e, sauf que 'headersonly' par
     défaut est ‘True’.

Étant donné que la création d'une structure d'objet message à partir
d'une chaîne ou d'un objet fichier est une tâche très courante, quatre
fonctions sont fournies par commodité.  Elles sont disponibles dans
l'espace de noms de paquet de niveau supérieur *note email: 3b.

 -- Fonction: email.message_from_bytes (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Renvoie une structure d'objet message à partir d'un *note objet
     octets-compatible: d1d.  C'est équivalent à
     ‘BytesParser().parsebytes(s)’.  '_class' et 'policy' (facultatifs)
     sont interprétés comme pour le constructeur de classe *note
     BytesParser: 11ab.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument 'strict'.
     Ajout de l'argument nommé 'policy'.

 -- Fonction: email.message_from_binary_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Renvoie une arborescence d'objets message à partir d'un *note objet
     fichier: 11a2. binaire ouvert.  C'est équivalent à
     ‘BytesParser().parse(fp)’.  '_class' et 'policy' sont interprétés
     comme pour le constructeur de classe *note BytesParser: 11ab.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument 'strict'.
     Ajout de l'argument nommé 'policy'.

 -- Fonction: email.message_from_string (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Renvoie une structure d'objet message à partir d'une chaîne.  C'est
     équivalent à ‘Parser().parsestr(s)’.  '_class' et 'policy' sont
     interprétés comme avec le constructeur de classe *note Parser:
     117e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument 'strict'.
     Ajout de l'argument nommé 'policy'.

 -- Fonction: email.message_from_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Renvoie une arborescence de structures d'objets messages à partir
     d'un *note objet fichier: 11a2. ouvert.  C'est équivalent à
     ‘Parser().parse(fp)’.  '_class' et 'policy' sont interprétés comme
     avec le constructeur de classe *note Parser: 117e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument 'strict'.
     Ajout de l'argument nommé 'policy'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: '_class' utilise par défaut la
     politique ‘message_factory’.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation *note message_from_bytes(): 11a8. dans
une invite Python interactive :

     >>> import email
     >>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html


File: python.info,  Node: Notes complémentaires,  Prev: API de Parser,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.20.1.5 Notes complémentaires
..............................

Voici des remarques sur la sémantique d'analyse :

   * La plupart des messages de type non-‘multipart’ sont analysés comme
     un seul objet de message avec une charge utile de type chaîne.  Ces
     objets renvoient ‘False’ pour *note is_multipart(): 3502. et *note
     iter_parts(): 3528. donne une liste vide.

   * Tous les messages de type ‘multipart’ sont analysés comme un objet
     de message conteneur avec une liste d'objets de sous-messages pour
     leur charge utile.  Le message du conteneur externe renvoie ‘True’
     pour *note is_multipart(): 3502. et *note iter_parts(): 3528. donne
     une liste de sous-parties.

   * La plupart des messages avec un type de contenu de ‘message/*’
     (tels que ‘message/delivery-status’ et ‘message/rfc822’) sont
     également analysés en tant qu'objet conteneur contenant une charge
     utile de type « liste de longueur 1 ».  Leur méthode *note
     is_multipart(): 3502. renvoie ‘True’.  L'élément unique généré par
     *note iter_parts(): 3528. est un objet sous-message.

   * Certains messages non conformes aux normes peuvent ne pas être
     cohérents en interne quant à ‘multipart’.  De tels messages peuvent
     avoir un en-tête ‘Content-Type’ de type ‘multipart’, mais leur
     méthode *note is_multipart(): 3502. peut renvoyer ‘False’.  Si de
     tels messages ont été analysés avec la *note FeedParser: 353a, ils
     auront une instance de la classe *note
     MultipartInvariantViolationDefect: 3546. dans leur liste
     d'attributs 'defects'.  Voir *note email.errors: 3f. pour plus de
     détails.


File: python.info,  Node: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Next: email policy Policy Objects,  Prev: email parser Parsing email messages,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.6 ‘email.generator’: Generating MIME documents
.....................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/igenerator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized)
version of the email message represented by a message object structure.
You will need to do this if you want to send your message via *note
smtplib.SMTP.sendmail(): e44, or print the message on the console.
Taking a message object structure and producing a serialized
representation is the job of the generator classes.

Comme avec le module *note email.parser: 4e, vous n'êtes pas limité aux
fonctionnalités du générateur fourni ; vous pourriez en écrire un à
partir de zéro vous-même.  Cependant, le générateur fourni sait comment
générer la plupart des e-mails d'une manière conforme aux normes, est
conçu pour gérer correctement les e-mails MIME et non MIME, et pour que
les opérations (sur des suites d'octets) d'analyse et de génération
soient inverses, en supposant que la même *note policy: 4f. est utilisée
pour les deux.  Autrement dit, l'analyse du flux d'octets sérialisé via
la classe *note BytesParser: 11ab. puis la régénération du flux d'octets
sérialisé à l'aide de *note BytesGenerator: 11ae. devrait produire une
sortie identique à l'entrée (2) (d'un autre côté, l'utilisation du
générateur sur un *note EmailMessage: 278. construit par programme peut
entraîner des modifications de l'objet *note EmailMessage: 278. car les
valeurs par défaut sont renseignées).

La classe *note Generator: 11ad. peut être utilisée pour aplatir un
message dans une représentation sérialisée textuelle (par opposition à
binaire), mais comme Unicode ne peut pas représenter directement des
données binaires, le message est nécessairement transformé en quelque
chose qui ne contient que des caractères ASCII, en utilisant les
techniques standard de codage de transfert de contenu RFC pour le codage
des messages électroniques pour le transport sur des canaux qui ne sont
pas « complétement 8 bits ».

Pour s'adapter au traitement reproductible des messages signés SMIME
*note Generator: 11ad. ne raccourcit pas les en-têtes pour les parties
de message de type ‘multipart/signed’ et toutes les sous-parties.

 -- Classe: email.generator.BytesGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Renvoie un objet *note BytesGenerator: 11ae. qui écrit tout message
     fourni à la méthode *note flatten(): 354a, ou tout texte encodé par
     'surrogateescape' fourni à la méthode *note write(): 354b, dans le
     *note objet simili-fichier: 2544. 'outfp'.  'outfp' doit disposer
     d'une méthode ‘write’ qui accepte les données binaires.

     Si l'option 'mangle_from_' est ‘True’, place un caractère ‘>’
     devant toute ligne du corps commençant par la chaîne exacte ‘"From
     "’, c'est-à-dire une ligne commençant par ‘From’ suivi par une
     espace.  'mangle_from_' prend par défaut la valeur du paramètre
     *note mangle_from_: de5. de la 'policy' (qui est ‘True’ pour la
     politique *note compat32: c89. et ‘False’ pour tous les autres).
     'mangle_from_' est destiné à être utilisé lorsque les messages sont
     stockés au format Unix 'mbox' (voir *note mailbox: 8a. et WHY THE
     CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD(3)).

     Si 'maxheaderlen' n'est pas ‘None’, raccourcit toutes les lignes
     d'en-tête qui sont plus longues que 'maxheaderlen', ou si ‘0’, ne
     raccourcit aucun en-tête.  Si 'manheaderlen' est ‘None’ (valeur par
     défaut), formate les en-têtes et autres lignes de message en
     fonction des paramètres de 'policy'.

     Si 'policy' est spécifiée, utilise cette politique pour contrôler
     la génération des messages.  Si 'policy' est ‘None’ (par défaut),
     utilise la politique associée à l'objet *note Message: 279. ou
     *note EmailMessage: 278. passée à ‘flatten’ pour contrôler la
     génération des messages.  Voir *note email.policy: 4f. pour plus de
     détails sur ce que 'policy' contrôle.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du mot-clé 'policy'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le comportement par défaut des
     paramètres 'mangle_from_' et 'maxheaderlen' est de suivre la
     politique.

      -- Méthode: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Affiche la représentation textuelle de la structure de l'objet
          message dont la racine est 'msg' dans le fichier de sortie
          spécifié lors de la création de l'instance *note
          BytesGenerator: 11ae.

          Si l'option *note cte_type: 354c. de *note policy: 4f. est
          ‘8bit’ (valeur par défaut), copie tous les en-têtes du message
          analysé d'origine qui n'ont pas été modifiés en sortie avec
          tous les octets dont le bit de poids fort identique à
          l'original, et conserve le ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          non-ASCII de toutes les parties du corps qui en ont.  Si
          ‘cte_type’ est ‘7bit’, convertit les octets avec le bit de
          poids fort défini selon les besoins en utilisant un
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ compatible ASCII. Autrement dit,
          transforme les parties non ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit’) en un
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ compatible ASCII, et encode les
          octets non ASCII non valides de la RFC dans les en-têtes
          utilisant le jeu de caractères MIME ‘unknown-8bit’, les
          rendant ainsi conformes à la RFC.

          Si 'unixfrom' est ‘True’, affiche le délimiteur d'en-tête
          d'enveloppe utilisé par le format de boîte aux lettres Unix
          (voir *note mailbox: 8a.) avant le premier des en-têtes RFC
          5322(4) de l'objet message racine.  Si l'objet racine n'a pas
          d'en-tête d'enveloppe, en crée un standard.  La valeur par
          défaut est ‘False’.  Notez que pour les sous-parties, aucun
          en-tête d'enveloppe n'est jamais imprimé.

          Si 'linesep' n'est pas ‘None’, l'utilise comme caractère de
          séparation entre toutes les lignes du message aplati.  Si
          'linesep' est ‘None’ (valeur par défaut), utilise la valeur
          spécifiée dans la 'policy'.

      -- Méthode: clone (fp)

          Renvoie un clone indépendant de cette instance *note
          BytesGenerator: 11ae. avec exactement les mêmes paramètres
          d'option, et 'fp' comme nouveau 'outfp'.

      -- Méthode: write (s)

          Encode 's' en utilisant le codec ‘ASCII’ et le gestionnaire
          d'erreurs ‘surrogateescape’, et le passe à la méthode 'write'
          du 'outfp' passé au constructeur de *note BytesGenerator:
          11ae.

Par commodité, *note EmailMessage: 278. fournit les méthodes *note
as_bytes(): 3500. et ‘bytes(aMessage)’ (alias ‘__bytes__()’), qui
simplifient la génération d'une représentation binaire sérialisée d'un
objet message.  Pour plus de détails, voir *note email.message: 44.

Comme les chaînes ne peuvent pas représenter des données binaires, la
classe *note Generator: 11ad. doit convertir toutes les données binaires
de tout message qu'elle aplatit en un format compatible ASCII, en les
convertissant en un ‘Content-Transfer_Encoding’ compatible ASCII. En
utilisant la terminologie des RFC des e-mails, vous pouvez considérer
cela comme un *note Generator: 11ad. sérialisant vers un flux
d'entrées-sorties qui n'est pas « complètement 8 bits ».  En d'autres
termes, la plupart des applications voudront utiliser *note
BytesGenerator: 11ae. et pas *note Generator: 11ad.

 -- Classe: email.generator.Generator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Renvoie un objet *note Generator: 11ad. qui écrit tout message
     fourni à la méthode *note flatten(): 354e, ou tout texte fourni à
     la méthode *note write(): 354f, dans l'*note objet simili-fichier:
     2544. 'outfp'.  'outfp' doit prendre en charge une méthode ‘write’
     qui accepte les données de type chaîne.

     Si l'option 'mangle_from_' est ‘True’, place un caractère ‘>’
     devant toute ligne du corps commençant par la chaîne exacte ‘"From
     "’, c'est-à-dire une ligne commençant par ‘From’ suivi par une
     espace.  'mangle_from_' prend par défaut la valeur du paramètre
     *note mangle_from_: de5. de la 'policy' (qui est ‘True’ pour la
     politique *note compat32: c89. et ‘False’ pour tous les autres).
     'mangle_from_' est destiné à être utilisé lorsque les messages sont
     stockés au format Unix 'mbox' (voir *note mailbox: 8a. et WHY THE
     CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD(5)).

     Si 'maxheaderlen' n'est pas ‘None’, raccourcit toutes les lignes
     d'en-tête qui sont plus longues que 'maxheaderlen', ou si ‘0’, ne
     raccourcit aucun en-tête.  Si 'manheaderlen' est ‘None’ (valeur par
     défaut), formate les en-têtes et autres lignes de message en
     fonction des paramètres de 'policy'.

     Si 'policy' est spécifiée, utilise cette politique pour contrôler
     la génération des messages.  Si 'policy' est ‘None’ (par défaut),
     utilise la politique associée à l'objet *note Message: 279. ou
     *note EmailMessage: 278. passée à ‘flatten’ pour contrôler la
     génération des messages.  Voir *note email.policy: 4f. pour plus de
     détails sur ce que 'policy' contrôle.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du mot-clé 'policy'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: le comportement par défaut des
     paramètres 'mangle_from_' et 'maxheaderlen' est de suivre la
     politique.

      -- Méthode: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Affiche la représentation textuelle de la structure de l'objet
          message dont la racine est 'msg' dans le fichier de sortie
          spécifié lors de la création de l'instance *note Generator:
          11ad.

          Si l'option *note policy: 4f. *note cte_type: 354c. est
          ‘8bit’, génère le message comme si l'option était définie sur
          ‘7bit’ (c'est nécessaire car les chaînes ne peuvent pas
          représenter des octets non ASCII). Convertit tous les octets
          avec le bit de poids fort défini selon les besoins à l'aide
          d'un ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ compatible ASCII. Autrement
          dit, transforme les parties non ASCII
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding:
          8bit’) en un ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ compatible ASCII, et
          encode les octets non ASCII non valides RFC dans les en-têtes
          utilisant le jeu de caractères MIME ‘unknown-8bit’, les
          rendant ainsi conformes à la RFC.

          Si 'unixfrom' est ‘True’, affiche le délimiteur d'en-tête
          d'enveloppe utilisé par le format de boîte aux lettres Unix
          (voir *note mailbox: 8a.) avant le premier des en-têtes RFC
          5322(6) de l'objet message racine.  Si l'objet racine n'a pas
          d'en-tête d'enveloppe, en crée un standard.  La valeur par
          défaut est ‘False’.  Notez que pour les sous-parties, aucun
          en-tête d'enveloppe n'est jamais imprimé.

          Si 'linesep' n'est pas ‘None’, l'utilise comme caractère de
          séparation entre toutes les lignes du message aplati.  Si
          'linesep' est ‘None’ (valeur par défaut), utilise la valeur
          spécifiée dans la 'policy'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout de la prise en charge du
          ré-encodage des corps de message ‘8bit’ et de l'argument
          'linesep'.

      -- Méthode: clone (fp)

          Renvoie un clone indépendant de cette instance *note
          Generator: 11ad. avec exactement les mêmes options, et avec
          'fp' comme nouveau 'outfp'.

      -- Méthode: write (s)

          Écrit 's' dans la méthode 'write' de 'outfp' passé au
          constructeur de *note Generator: 11ad.  Cela fournit une API
          ressemblant suffisamment au type fichier pour les instances de
          *note Generator: 11ad. utilisées dans la fonction *note
          print(): f62.

Par commodité, *note EmailMessage: 278. fournit les méthodes *note
as_string(): 34fd. et ‘str(aMessage)’ (alias ‘__str__()’), qui
simplifient la génération d'une représentation sous forme de chaîne
formatée d'un objet message.  Pour plus de détails, voir *note
email.message: 44.

Le module *note email.generator: 40. fournit également une classe
dérivée, *note DecodedGenerator: c87, qui ressemble à la classe de base
*note Generator: 11ad, sauf que les parties non-‘text’ ne sont pas
sérialisées, mais sont plutôt représentées dans le flux de sortie par
une chaîne dérivée d'un modèle rempli d'informations sur la partie
concernée.

 -- Classe: email.generator.DecodedGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *, policy=None)

     Agit comme *note Generator: 11ad, sauf que pour toute sous-partie
     du message transmise à *note Generator.flatten(): 354e, si la
     sous-partie est de type principal ‘text’, affiche la charge utile
     décodée de la sous-partie, et si le type principal n'est pas
     ‘text’, au lieu de l'afficher, remplit la chaîne 'fmt' en utilisant
     les informations de la partie et affiche la chaîne remplie
     résultante.

     Pour remplir 'fmt', exécute ‘fmt % part_info’, où ‘part_info’ est
     un dictionnaire composé des clés et valeurs suivantes :

        * ‘type’ – Type MIME complet de la partie non-‘text’

        * ‘maintype’ – Type MIME principal de la partie non-‘text’

        * ‘subtype’ – Sous-type MIME de la partie non-‘text’

        * ‘filename’ – Nom de fichier de la partie non-‘text’

        * ‘description’ – Description associée à la partie non-‘text’

        * ‘encoding’ – Encodage du contenu de la partie non-‘text’

     Si 'fmt' est ‘None’, utilise le 'fmt' par défaut suivant :

          "[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename
          %(filename)s]"

     '_mangle_from_' et 'maxheaderlen' sont optionnels et fonctionnent
     comme avec la classe mère *note Generator: 11ad.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/igenerator.py

   (2) This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for
‘unixfrom’, and that there are no *note email.policy: 4f. settings
calling for automatic adjustments (for example, *note refold_source:
3549. must be ‘none’, which is 'not' the default).  It is also not 100%
true, since if the message does not conform to the RFC standards
occasionally information about the exact original text is lost during
parsing error recovery.  It is a goal to fix these latter edge cases
when possible.

   (3) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email policy Policy Objects,  Next: email errors Exception and Defect classes,  Prev: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.7 ‘email.policy’: Policy Objects
.......................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

'Code source :' Lib/email/policy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le principal objectif du paquet *note email: 3b. est la gestion des
messages électroniques comme décrit par les diverses RFC de messagerie
et MIME. Cependant, le format général des messages électroniques (un
bloc de champs d'en-tête composés chacun d'un nom suivi de deux-points
suivi d'une valeur, le bloc entier suivi d'une ligne vide et d'un
« corps » arbitraire), est un format qui a trouvé son utilité en dehors
du domaine du courrier électronique.  Certaines de ces utilisations sont
assez conformes aux principales RFC de messagerie, d'autres non.  Même
lorsque vous travaillez avec des e-mails, il est parfois souhaitable de
ne pas respecter strictement les RFC, par exemple en générant des
e-mails qui interagissent avec des serveurs de messagerie qui ne
respectent pas eux-mêmes les normes ou qui implémentent des extensions
que vous souhaitez utiliser d'une manière qui enfreint les normes.

Les objets de définition de politique donnent au paquet de messagerie la
flexibilité nécessaire pour gérer tous ces cas d'utilisation disparates.

Un objet *note Policy: 1097. encapsule un ensemble d'attributs et de
méthodes qui contrôlent le comportement de divers composants du paquet
de messagerie lors de son utilisation.  Les instances *note Policy:
1097. peuvent être transmises à diverses classes et méthodes dans le
paquet de courrier électronique pour modifier le comportement par
défaut.  Les valeurs réglables et leurs valeurs par défaut sont décrites
ci-dessous.

Il existe une politique par défaut utilisée par toutes les classes dans
le paquet de messagerie.  Pour toutes les classes *note parser: 4e. et
les fonctions pratiques associées, et pour la classe *note Message: 279,
il s'agit de la politique *note Compat32: 1098, via son instance
correspondante prédéfinie *note compat32: c89.  Cette politique fournit
une rétrocompatibilité complète (dans certains cas, y compris la
compatibilité des bogues) avec la version pré-Python3.3 du paquet de
messagerie.

Cette valeur par défaut pour le paramètre nommé 'policy' de *note
EmailMessage: 278. est la politique *note EmailPolicy: 109b, via son
instance prédéfinie *note default: 34fc.

Lorsqu'un objet *note Message: 279. ou *note EmailMessage: 278. est
créé, il acquiert une politique.  Si le message est créé par un *note
parser: 4e, la politique transmise à l'analyseur est la politique
utilisée par le message qu'il crée.  Si le message est créé par le
programme, la stratégie peut être spécifiée lors de sa création.
Lorsqu'un message est passé à un *note generator: 40, le générateur
utilise la politique du message par défaut, mais vous pouvez également
passer une politique spécifique au générateur qui remplace celle stockée
sur l'objet message.

La valeur par défaut du paramètre nommé 'policy' pour les classes *note
email.parser: 4e. et les fonctions pratiques de l'analyseur 'va changer'
dans une future version de Python.  Par conséquent, vous devez 'toujours
spécifier explicitement la stratégie que vous souhaitez utiliser' lors
de l'appel de l'une des classes et fonctions décrites dans le module
*note parser: 4e.

La première partie de cette documentation couvre les fonctionnalités de
*note Policy: 1097, une *note classe mère abstraite: 1195. qui définit
les fonctionnalités communes à tous les objets de stratégie, y compris
*note compat32: c89.  Cela inclut certaines méthodes automatiques
('hooks' en anglais) appelées en interne par le paquet de messagerie,
qu'une stratégie personnalisée peut remplacer pour obtenir un
comportement différent.  La deuxième partie décrit les classes concrètes
*note EmailPolicy: 109b. et *note Compat32: 1098, qui implémentent les
points d'entrée automatiques qui fournissent respectivement le
comportement standard et le comportement et les fonctionnalités
rétrocompatibles.

Les instances *note Policy: 1097. sont immuables, mais elles peuvent
être clonées, en acceptant les mêmes arguments nommés que le
constructeur de classe et en renvoyant une nouvelle instance *note
Policy: 1097. qui est une copie de l'original mais avec les valeurs
d'attributs spécifiées modifiées.

Par exemple, le code suivant peut être utilisé pour lire un message
électronique à partir d'un fichier sur le disque et le transmettre au
programme système ‘sendmail’ sur un système Unix :

     >>> from email import message_from_binary_file
     >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
     >>> from email import policy
     >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
     ...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
     ...
     >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
     >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
     >>> g.flatten(msg)
     >>> p.stdin.close()
     >>> rc = p.wait()

Ici, nous disons à *note BytesGenerator: 11ae. d'utiliser les caractères
de séparation de ligne corrects de la RFC lors de la création de la
chaîne binaire à fournir à ‘stdin’ de ‘sendmail’, où la politique par
défaut utiliserait ‘\n’ comme séparateur de ligne.

Certaines méthodes du paquet de messagerie acceptent un argument nommé
'policy', permettant à la politique d'être remplacée pour cette méthode.
Par exemple, le code suivant utilise la méthode *note as_bytes(): f24.
de l'objet 'msg' de l'exemple précédent et écrit le message dans un
fichier en utilisant les séparateurs de ligne natifs de la plate-forme
sur laquelle il est en cours d'exécution :

     >>> import os
     >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
     ...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
     17

Les objets de stratégie peuvent également être combinés à l'aide de
l'opérateur d'addition, produisant un objet de stratégie dont les
paramètres sont une combinaison des objets additionnées (en ne prenant
en compte que les paramètres données explicitement) :

     >>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
     >>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
     >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict

Cette opération n'est pas commutative ; c'est-à-dire que l'ordre dans
lequel les objets sont ajoutés est important.  Pour illustrer :

     >>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
     >>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
     >>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     80
     >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     100

 -- Classe: email.policy.Policy (**kw)

     C'est la *note classe mère abstraite: 1195. pour toutes les classes
     de définition de politique.  Elle fournit des implémentations par
     défaut pour quelques méthodes triviales, ainsi que l'implémentation
     de la propriété d'immutabilité, la méthode *note clone(): 1099. et
     la sémantique du constructeur.

     Le constructeur d'une classe de définition de politique peut
     recevoir divers arguments nommés.  Les arguments qui peuvent être
     spécifiés sont toutes les propriétés qui ne sont pas des méthodes
     sur cette classe, plus toutes les propriétés qui ne sont pas des
     méthodes supplémentaires sur la classe concrète.  Une valeur
     spécifiée dans le constructeur remplace la valeur par défaut de
     l'attribut correspondant.

     Cette classe définit les propriétés suivantes, et ainsi les valeurs
     des éléments suivants peuvent être passées dans le constructeur de
     n'importe quelle classe de définition de politique :

      -- Attribut: max_line_length

          La longueur maximale de toute ligne dans la sortie sérialisée,
          sans compter le(s) caractère(s) de fin de ligne.  La valeur
          par défaut est 78, selon la RFC 5322(2).  Une valeur de ‘0’ ou
          *note None: 662. indique qu'aucun retour à la ligne ne doit
          être fait.

      -- Attribut: linesep

          La chaîne à utiliser pour terminer les lignes dans la sortie
          sérialisée.  La valeur par défaut est ‘\n’ car c'est la
          définition interne de fin de ligne utilisée par Python, bien
          que ‘\r\n’ soit requis par les RFC.

      -- Attribut: cte_type

          Contrôle le type d'encodage de contenu qui peut ou doit être
          utilisé.  Les valeurs possibles sont :

          ‘7bit’       toutes les données doivent être « complétement 7 bits » (ASCII
                       uniquement).  Cela signifie que si nécessaire, les données seront
                       encodées à l'aide de l'encodage 'quoted-printable' ou 'base64'.
                       
                       
          ‘8bit’       les données ne sont pas contraintes d'être uniquement sur 7 bits.
                       Les données dans les en-têtes doivent toujours être en ASCII
                       uniquement et seront donc encodées (voir
                       *note fold_binary(): 3554. et *note utf8: de7. ci-dessous pour
                       les exceptions), mais les parties du corps peuvent utiliser le
                       ‘8bit’ CTE.
                       

          Une valeur ‘cte_type’ de ‘8bit’ ne fonctionne qu'avec
          ‘BytesGenerator’, et pas avec ‘Generator’ car les chaînes ne
          peuvent pas contenir de données binaires.  Si un ‘Generator’
          fonctionne sous une politique qui spécifie ‘cte_type=8bit’, il
          agit comme si ‘cte_type’ était ‘7bit’.

      -- Attribut: raise_on_defect

          Si *note True: bfd, tous les défauts rencontrés sont signalés
          comme des erreurs.  Si *note False: b27. (la valeur par
          défaut), les défauts sont passés à la méthode *note
          register_defect(): 3556.

      -- Attribut: mangle_from_

          Si *note True: bfd, les lignes commençant par '"From "' dans
          le corps sont échappées en mettant un ‘>’ devant elles.  Ce
          paramètre est utilisé lorsque le message est sérialisé par un
          générateur.  Par défaut, vaut *note False: b27.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Attribut: message_factory

          Une fonction de fabrique pour construire un nouvel objet de
          message vide.  Utilisé par l'analyseur lors de la construction
          des messages.  La valeur par défaut est ‘None’, *note Message:
          279. est alors utilisé.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Attribut: verify_generated_headers

          If ‘True’ (the default), the generator will raise *note
          HeaderWriteError: 3557. instead of writing a header that is
          improperly folded or delimited, such that it would be parsed
          as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  Such
          headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs in
          the ‘email’ module.

          As it's a security feature, this defaults to ‘True’ even in
          the *note Compat32: 1098. policy.  For backwards compatible,
          but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to ‘False’ explicitly.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     La méthode *note Policy: 1097. suivante est destinée à être appelée
     par le code à l'aide de la bibliothèque de messagerie pour créer
     des instances de stratégie avec des paramètres personnalisés :

      -- Méthode: clone (**kw)

          Renvoie une nouvelle instance de *note Policy: 1097. dont les
          attributs ont les mêmes valeurs que l'instance actuelle, sauf
          si ces attributs reçoivent de nouvelles valeurs par les
          arguments nommés.

     Les méthodes *note Policy: 1097. restantes sont appelées par le
     code du paquet de messagerie et ne sont pas destinées à être
     appelées par une application utilisant le paquet de messagerie.
     Une stratégie personnalisée doit implémenter toutes ces méthodes.

      -- Méthode: handle_defect (obj, defect)

          Handle a 'defect' found on 'obj'.  When the email package
          calls this method, 'defect' will always be a subclass of *note
          MessageDefect: 3559.

          L'implémentation par défaut vérifie le drapeau *note
          raise_on_defect: 3555.  Si c'est ‘True’, 'defect' est levé
          comme une exception.  Si c'est ‘False’ (par défaut), 'obj' et
          'defect' sont passés à *note register_defect(): 3556.

      -- Méthode: register_defect (obj, defect)

          Register a 'defect' on 'obj'.  In the email package, 'defect'
          will always be a subclass of *note MessageDefect: 3559.

          L'implémentation par défaut appelle la méthode ‘append’ de
          l'attribut ‘defects’ de 'obj'.  Lorsque le paquet de courrier
          électronique appelle *note handle_defect: 3558, 'obj' a
          normalement un attribut ‘defects’ qui a une méthode ‘append’.
          Les types d'objets personnalisés utilisés avec le paquet de
          messagerie (par exemple, les objets ‘Message’ personnalisés)
          doivent également fournir un tel attribut, sinon les défauts
          dans les messages analysés généreront des erreurs inattendues.

      -- Méthode: header_max_count (name)

          Renvoie le nombre maximal autorisé d'en-têtes nommés 'name'.

          Appelé lorsqu'un en-tête est ajouté à un objet *note
          EmailMessage: 278. ou *note Message: 279.  Si la valeur
          renvoyée n'est pas ‘0’ ou ‘None’, et qu'il y a déjà un certain
          nombre d'en-têtes avec le nom 'name' supérieur ou égal à la
          valeur renvoyée, une *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

          Parce que le comportement par défaut de ‘Message.__setitem__’
          est d'ajouter la valeur à la liste des en-têtes, il est facile
          de créer des en-têtes en double sans s'en rendre compte.
          Cette méthode permet à certains en-têtes d'être limités dans
          le nombre d'instances de cet en-tête qui peuvent être ajoutées
          à un ‘Message’ par programme (la limite n'est pas respectée
          par l'analyseur, qui produit fidèlement autant d'en-têtes
          qu'il en existe dans le message analysé).

          L'implémentation par défaut renvoie ‘None’ pour tous les noms
          d'en-tête.

      -- Méthode: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec
          une liste de chaînes, chaque chaîne se terminant par les
          caractères de séparation de ligne trouvés dans la source
          analysée.  La première ligne comprend le nom de l'en-tête de
          champ et le séparateur.  Tous les espaces blancs dans la
          source sont préservés.  La méthode doit renvoyer le couple
          ‘(name, value)’ qui doit être stocké dans le ‘Message’ pour
          représenter l'en-tête analysé.

          Si une implémentation souhaite conserver la compatibilité avec
          les politiques de paquet de messagerie existantes, 'name' doit
          être le nom préservé de la casse (tous les caractères jusqu'au
          séparateur ‘:’), tandis que 'value' doit être la valeur
          dépliée (c.-à-d.  tous les caractères de séparation de ligne
          supprimés, mais les espaces blancs conservés intacts),
          dépouillés des espaces blancs de tête.

          'sourcelines' peut contenir des données binaires échappées de
          substitution.

          Il n'y a pas d'implémentation par défaut

      -- Méthode: header_store_parse (name, value)

          Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec
          le nom et la valeur fournis par le programme d'application
          lorsque le programme d'application modifie un ‘Message’ par
          programme (par opposition à un ‘Message’ créé par un
          analyseur).  La méthode doit renvoyer le couple ‘(name,
          value)’ qui doit être stocké dans le ‘Message’ pour
          représenter l'en-tête.

          Si une implémentation souhaite conserver la compatibilité avec
          les politiques existantes du paquet de messagerie, le 'name'
          et la 'value' doivent être des chaînes ou des sous-classes de
          chaînes qui ne modifient pas le contenu des arguments
          transmis.

          Il n'y a pas d'implémentation par défaut

      -- Méthode: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec
          le 'name' et la 'value' actuellement stockés dans le ‘Message’
          lorsque cet en-tête est demandé par le programme
          d'application, et tout ce que la méthode renvoie est ce qui
          est renvoyé à l'application comme valeur de l'en-tête
          récupéré.  Notez qu'il peut y avoir plus d'un en-tête avec le
          même nom stocké dans le ‘Message’ ; la méthode reçoit le nom
          et la valeur spécifiques de l'en-tête destiné à être renvoyé à
          l'application.

          'value' peut contenir des données binaires de substitution
          échappées.  Il ne doit pas y avoir de données binaires
          échappées de substitution dans la valeur renvoyée par la
          méthode.

          Il n'y a pas d'implémentation par défaut

      -- Méthode: fold (name, value)

          Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec
          le 'name' et la 'value' actuellement stockés dans le ‘Message’
          pour un en-tête donné.  La méthode doit renvoyer une chaîne
          qui représente correctement cet en-tête « plié » (selon les
          paramètres de la politique) en mettant en forme le couple
          'name' - 'value' et en insérant les caractères *note linesep:
          3553. aux endroits appropriés.  Voir RFC 5322(3) pour une
          discussion sur les règles de mise en forme (« pliage » ou
          'folding' en anglais) des en-têtes de courrier électronique.

          'value' peut contenir des données binaires de substitution
          échappées.  Il ne doit pas y avoir de données binaires
          échappées de substitution dans la chaîne renvoyée par la
          méthode.

      -- Méthode: fold_binary (name, value)

          Identique à *note fold(): 355e, sauf que la valeur renvoyée
          doit être un objet bytes plutôt qu'une chaîne.

          'value' peut contenir des données binaires de substitution
          échappées.  Celles-ci pourraient être reconverties en données
          binaires dans l'objet bytes renvoyé.

 -- Classe: email.policy.EmailPolicy (**kw)

     Cette *note Policy: 1097. concrète fournit un comportement destiné
     à être entièrement conforme aux RFC de messagerie actuelles.  Ce
     qui inclut (mais n'est pas limité à) la RFC 5322(4), la RFC 2047(5)
     et les RFC MIME actuelles.

     Cette politique ajoute de nouveaux algorithmes d'analyse d'en-tête
     et de mise en forme (« pliage »).  Au lieu de simples chaînes, les
     en-têtes sont des sous-classes ‘str’ avec des attributs qui
     dépendent du type du champ.  L'algorithme d'analyse et de pliage
     implémente entièrement la RFC 2047(6) et la RFC 5322(7).

     La valeur par défaut de l'attribut *note message_factory: c88. est
     *note EmailMessage: 278.

     Outre les attributs définissables répertoriés ci-dessus qui
     s'appliquent à toutes les règles, cette règle ajoute les attributs
     supplémentaires suivants :

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: (8)

      -- Attribut: utf8

          Si c'est ‘False’, suit la RFC 5322(9), en prenant en charge
          les caractères non-ASCII dans les en-têtes en les encodant
          comme des « mots encodés ».  Si c'est ‘True’, suit la RFC
          6532(10) et utilise l'encodage ‘utf-8’ pour les en-têtes.  Les
          messages formatés de cette manière peuvent être transmis aux
          serveurs SMTP qui gèrent l'extension ‘SMTPUTF8’ ( RFC
          6531(11)).

      -- Attribut: refold_source

          Si la valeur d'un en-tête dans l'objet ‘Message’ provient d'un
          *note parser: 4e. (au lieu d'être définie par un programme),
          cet attribut indique si un générateur doit ou non remettre en
          forme cette valeur lorsqu'il retransforme le message sous
          forme sérialisée.  Les valeurs possibles sont :

          ‘none’       toutes les valeurs sources utilisent la mise en forme ('folding'
                       en anglais) d'origine
                       
                       
          ‘long’       les valeurs sources dont une ligne est plus longue que
                       ‘max_line_length’ sont remises en forme
                       
                       
          ‘all’        toutes les valeurs sont remises en forme.
                       

          La valeur par défaut est ‘long’.

      -- Attribut: header_factory

          Appelable qui prend deux arguments, ‘name’ et ‘value’, où
          ‘name’ est un nom de champ d'en-tête et ‘value’ est une valeur
          de champ d'en-tête dépliée (c-à-d.  sans retours à la ligne de
          mise en forme), et renvoie une sous-classe de chaîne qui
          représente cet en-tête.  Un ‘header_factory’ par défaut (voir
          *note headerregistry: 42.) est fourni qui prend en charge
          l'analyse personnalisée pour les divers types de champs
          d'en-tête d'adresse et de date RFC 5322(12), et les principaux
          types de champs d'en-tête MIME. La prise en charge d'une
          analyse personnalisée supplémentaire sera ajoutée à l'avenir.

      -- Attribut: content_manager

          Objet avec au moins deux méthodes : 'get_content' et
          'set_content'.  Lorsque la méthode *note get_content(): 3529.
          ou *note set_content(): 1865. d'un objet *note EmailMessage:
          278. est appelée, elle appelle la méthode correspondante de
          cet objet, en lui transmettant l'objet message comme premier
          argument, et tous les arguments positionnels ou nommés qui lui
          ont été transmis comme arguments supplémentaires.  Par défaut,
          ‘content_manager’ est défini sur *note raw_data_manager: 3560.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     La classe fournit les implémentations concrètes suivantes des
     méthodes abstraites de *note Policy: 1097. :

      -- Méthode: header_max_count (name)

          Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut *note max_count: 3562. de la
          classe spécialisée utilisée pour représenter l'en-tête avec le
          nom donné.

      -- Méthode: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          Le nom est analysé comme le reste jusqu'au ‘:’ et renvoyé sans
          modification.  La valeur est déterminée en supprimant les
          espaces blancs de début du reste de la première ligne, en
          joignant toutes les lignes suivantes et en supprimant tous les
          caractères de retour chariot ou de saut de ligne de fin.

      -- Méthode: header_store_parse (name, value)

          Le nom est renvoyé tel quel.  Si la valeur d'entrée a un
          attribut ‘name’ et qu'elle correspond à 'name' sans tenir
          compte de la casse, la valeur est renvoyée inchangée.  Sinon,
          le 'name' et la 'value' sont passés à ‘header_factory’, et
          l'objet d'en-tête résultant est renvoyé comme valeur.  Dans ce
          cas, une ‘ValueError’ est levée si la valeur d'entrée contient
          des caractères CR ou LF.

      -- Méthode: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          Si la valeur a un attribut ‘name’, elle est renvoyée sans
          modification.  Sinon, le 'name' et la 'value' sans les
          caractères CR ou LF sont passés à ‘header_factory’, et l'objet
          d'en-tête résultant est renvoyé.  Tous les octets échappés de
          substitution sont transformés en glyphe Unicode de caractère
          inconnu.

      -- Méthode: fold (name, value)

          La mise en forme d'en-tête est contrôlée par le paramètre de
          politique *note refold_source: 3549.  Une valeur est
          considérée comme une « valeur source » si et seulement si elle
          n'a pas d'attribut ‘name’ (avoir un attribut ‘name’ signifie
          qu'il s'agit d'un objet d'en-tête quelconque).  Si une valeur
          source doit être mise en forme conformément à la politique,
          elle est convertie en un objet d'en-tête en passant le 'name'
          et la 'value' avec tous les caractères CR et LF supprimés à
          ‘header_factory’.  La mise en forme multi-lignes d'un objet
          d'en-tête (« pliage » ou 'folding' en anglais) se fait en
          appelant sa méthode ‘fold’ avec la politique actuelle.

          Les valeurs sources sont divisées en lignes en utilisant *note
          splitlines(): 1237.  Si la valeur ne doit pas être remise en
          forme, les lignes sont jointes en utilisant le caractère
          ‘linesep’ de la politique et renvoyées.  L'exception concerne
          les lignes contenant des données binaires non ASCII. Dans ce
          cas, la valeur est remise en forme quel que soit le paramètre
          ‘refold_source’, ce qui entraîne le codage CTE des données
          binaires à l'aide du jeu de caractères ‘unknown-8bit’.

      -- Méthode: fold_binary (name, value)

          Identique à *note fold(): 1630. si *note cte_type: 354c. vaut
          ‘7bit’, sauf que la valeur renvoyée est de type 'bytes'.

          Si *note cte_type: 354c. est ‘8bit’, les données binaires
          non-ASCII sont reconverties en octets.  Les en-têtes contenant
          des données binaires ne sont pas remises en forme, quel que
          soit le paramètre ‘refold_header’, puisqu'il n'y a aucun moyen
          de savoir si les données binaires sont constituées de
          caractères à un seul octet ou de caractères à plusieurs
          octets.

Les instances suivantes de *note EmailPolicy: 109b. fournissent des
valeurs par défaut adaptées à des domaines d'application spécifiques.
Notez qu'à l'avenir, le comportement de ces instances (en particulier
l'instance ‘HTTP’) pourra être ajusté pour se conformer encore plus
étroitement aux RFC relatives à leurs domaines.

 -- Données: email.policy.default

     Une instance de ‘EmailPolicy’ avec toutes les valeurs par défaut
     inchangées.  Cette politique utilise les fins de ligne standard
     Python ‘\n’ plutôt que le ‘\r\n’ conforme à la RFC.

 -- Données: email.policy.SMTP

     Convient pour la sérialisation des messages conformément aux RFC
     des e-mails.  Comme ‘default’, mais avec ‘linesep’ défini sur
     ‘\r\n’, ce qui est conforme à la RFC.

 -- Données: email.policy.SMTPUTF8

     Identique à ‘SMTP’ sauf que *note utf8: de7. vaut ‘True’.  Utile
     pour sérialiser des messages dans une banque de messages sans
     utiliser de mots encodés dans les en-têtes.  Ne doit être utilisée
     pour la transmission SMTP que si les adresses de l'expéditeur ou du
     destinataire contiennent des caractères non ASCII (la méthode *note
     smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): e45. gère cela automatiquement).

 -- Données: email.policy.HTTP

     Convient pour la sérialisation des en-têtes à utiliser dans le
     trafic HTTP. Comme ‘SMTP’ sauf que ‘max_line_length’ est défini sur
     ‘None’ (illimité).

 -- Données: email.policy.strict

     Exemple de commodité.  Identique à ‘default’ sauf que
     ‘raise_on_defect’ est défini sur ‘True’.  Cela permet de rendre
     stricte toute politique en écrivant :

          somepolicy + policy.strict

Avec toutes ces *note EmailPolicies: 109b, l'API effective du paquet de
messagerie est modifiée par rapport à l'API Python 3.2 de la manière
suivante :

   * Définir un en-tête sur un *note Message: 279. entraîne l'analyse de
     cet en-tête et la création d'un objet d'en-tête.

   * La récupération d'une valeur d'en-tête à partir d'un *note Message:
     279. entraîne l'analyse de cet en-tête ainsi que la création et le
     renvoi d'un objet d'en-tête.

   * Tout objet d'en-tête, ou tout en-tête qui est remis en forme en
     raison des paramètres de politique, est mis en forme à l'aide d'un
     algorithme qui implémente entièrement les algorithmes de pliage de
     la RFC, notamment en sachant où les mots encodés sont requis et
     autorisés.

Du point de vue de l'application, cela signifie que tout en-tête obtenu
via *note EmailMessage: 278. est un objet d'en-tête avec des attributs
supplémentaires, dont la valeur de chaîne est la valeur Unicode
entièrement décodée de l'en-tête.  De même, un en-tête peut se voir
attribuer une nouvelle valeur, ou un nouvel en-tête créé, à l'aide d'une
chaîne Unicode, et la politique se chargera de convertir la chaîne
Unicode dans la forme encodée RFC correcte.

Les objets d'en-tête et leurs attributs sont décrits dans *note
headerregistry: 42.

 -- Classe: email.policy.Compat32 (**kw)

     Cette *note Policy: 1097. concrète est la politique de
     rétrocompatibilité.  Elle reproduit le comportement du paquet de
     courrier électronique dans Python 3.2.  Le module *note policy: 4f.
     définit également une instance de cette classe, *note compat32:
     c89, qui est utilisée comme politique par défaut.  Ainsi, le
     comportement par défaut du paquet de messagerie est de maintenir la
     compatibilité avec Python 3.2.

     Les attributs suivants ont des valeurs différentes de la valeur par
     défaut de *note Policy: 1097. :

      -- Attribut: mangle_from_

          La valeur par défaut est ‘True’.

     La classe fournit les implémentations concrètes suivantes des
     méthodes abstraites de *note Policy: 1097. :

      -- Méthode: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          Le nom est analysé comme le reste jusqu'au ‘:’ et renvoyé sans
          modification.  La valeur est déterminée en supprimant les
          espaces blancs de début du reste de la première ligne, en
          joignant toutes les lignes suivantes et en supprimant tous les
          caractères de retour chariot ou de saut de ligne de fin.

      -- Méthode: header_store_parse (name, value)

          Le nom et la valeur sont renvoyés sans modification.

      -- Méthode: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          Si la valeur contient des données binaires, elle est convertie
          en un objet *note Header: 1866. en utilisant le jeu de
          caractères ‘unknown-8bit’.  Sinon, elle est renvoyée sans
          modification.

      -- Méthode: fold (name, value)

          Les en-têtes sont mis en forme à l'aide de l'algorithme de
          pliage *note Header: 1866, qui préserve les sauts de ligne
          existants dans la valeur et encapsule chaque ligne résultante
          dans la ‘max_line_length’.  Les données binaires non-ASCII
          sont codées en CTE à l'aide du jeu de caractères
          ‘unknown-8bit’.

      -- Méthode: fold_binary (name, value)

          Les en-têtes sont mis en forme à l'aide de l'algorithme de
          pliage *note Header: 1866, qui préserve les sauts de ligne
          existants dans la valeur et encapsule chaque ligne résultante
          dans la ‘max_line_length’.  Si ‘cte_type’ est ‘7bit’, les
          données binaires non-ASCII sont encodées en CTE en utilisant
          le jeu de caractères ‘unknown-8bit’.  Sinon, l'en-tête source
          d'origine est utilisé, avec ses sauts de ligne existants et
          toutes les données binaires (non conformes à la RFC) qu'il
          peut contenir.

 -- Données: email.policy.compat32

     Instance de *note Compat32: 1098, offrant une rétrocompatibilité
     avec le comportement du paquet de messagerie dans Python 3.2.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/policy.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (8) Initialement ajouté dans 3.3 en tant que *note paquet provisoire:
102c.

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email errors Exception and Defect classes,  Next: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Prev: email policy Policy Objects,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.8 ‘email.errors’: Exception and Defect classes
.....................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/errors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les classes d'exception suivantes sont définies dans le module *note
email.errors: 3f. :

 -- Exception: email.errors.MessageError

     Exception de base, dont héritent toutes les exceptions du paquet
     *note email: 3b.  Cette classe hérite de la classe native *note
     Exception: 9c9. et ne définit aucune méthode additionnelle.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MessageParseError

     Exception de base pour les exceptions levées par la classe *note
     Parser: 117e.  Elle hérite de *note MessageError: 3571.  Cette
     classe est aussi utilisée en interne par l'analyseur de *note
     headerregistry: 42.

 -- Exception: email.errors.HeaderParseError

     Cette exception, dérivée de *note MessageParseError: 3572, est
     levée sous différentes conditions lors de l'analyse des en-têtes
     RFC 5322(2) du message.  Lorsque la méthode *note set_boundary():
     351e. est invoquée, elle lève cette erreur si le type du contenu
     est inconnu.  La classe *note Header: 1866. lève cette exception
     pour certains types d'erreurs provenant du décodage base64.  Elle
     la lève aussi quand un en-tête est créé et qu'il semble contenir un
     en-tête imbriqué, c'est-à-dire que la ligne qui suit ressemble à un
     en-tête et ne commence pas par des caractères d'espacement.

 -- Exception: email.errors.BoundaryError

     Obsolète, n'est plus utilisé.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MultipartConversionError

     Raised if the *note attach(): 3530. method is called on an instance
     of a class derived from *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575. (e.g.  *note
     MIMEImage: 3576.).  *note MultipartConversionError: 3574. multiply
     inherits from *note MessageError: 3571. and the built-in *note
     TypeError: 525.

 -- Exception: email.errors.HeaderWriteError

     Raised when an error occurs when the *note generator: 40. outputs
     headers.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MessageDefect

     This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email
     messages.  It is derived from *note ValueError: 1ff.

 -- Exception: email.errors.HeaderDefect

     This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email
     headers.  It is derived from *note MessageDefect: 3559.

Voici la liste des anomalies que peut identifier *note FeedParser: 353a.
pendant l'analyse des messages.  Notez que les anomalies sont signalées
à l'endroit où elles sont détectées : par exemple, dans le cas d'une
malformation de l'en-tête d'un message imbriqué dans un message de type
‘multipart/alternative’, l'anomalie est signalée sur le message imbriqué
seulement.

Toutes les anomalies sont des sous-classes de *note
email.errors.MessageDefect: 3559.

 -- Exception: email.errors.NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect

     A message claimed to be a multipart, but had no ‘boundary’
     parameter.

 -- Exception: email.errors.StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     The start boundary claimed in the ‘Content-Type’ header was never
     found.

 -- Exception: email.errors.CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     A start boundary was found, but no corresponding close boundary was
     ever found.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: email.errors.FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect

     The message had a continuation line as its first header line.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect

     A "Unix From" header was found in the middle of a header block.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect

     A line was found while parsing headers that had no leading white
     space but contained no ':'.  Parsing continues assuming that the
     line represents the first line of the body.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MalformedHeaderDefect

     A header was found that was missing a colon, or was otherwise
     malformed.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Cette anomalie est obsolète depuis
     plusieurs versions de Python.

 -- Exception: email.errors.MultipartInvariantViolationDefect

     A message claimed to be a ‘multipart’, but no subparts were found.
     Note that when a message has this defect, its *note is_multipart():
     3523. method may return ‘False’ even though its content type claims
     to be ‘multipart’.

 -- Exception: email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect

     When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the padding was not
     correct.  Enough padding is added to perform the decode, but the
     resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.

 -- Exception: email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect

     When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, characters outside
     the base64 alphabet were encountered.  The characters are ignored,
     but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.

 -- Exception: email.errors.InvalidBase64LengthDefect

     When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the number of
     non-padding base64 characters was invalid (1 more than a multiple
     of 4).  The encoded block was kept as-is.

 -- Exception: email.errors.InvalidDateDefect

     When decoding an invalid or unparsable date field.  The original
     value is kept as-is.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/errors.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Next: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Prev: email errors Exception and Defect classes,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.9 ‘email.headerregistry’: Custom Header Objects
......................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/headerregistry.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: (2)

Les en-têtes sont représentés par des sous-classes personnalisées de
*note str: 437.  La classe particulière utilisée pour représenter un
en-tête donné est déterminée par *note header_factory: 355f. de la *note
policy: 4f. en vigueur lorsque les en-têtes sont créés.  Cette section
documente la ‘header_factory’ particulière implémentée par le paquet de
messagerie pour la gestion des messages électroniques conformes à la RFC
5322(3), qui fournit non seulement des objets d'en-tête personnalisés
pour différents types d'en-tête, mais fournit également un mécanisme
d'extension permettant aux applications d'ajouter leurs propres types
d'en-tête personnalisés.

Lors de l'utilisation de l'un des objets de définition de politique
dérivés de *note EmailPolicy: 109b, tous les en-têtes sont produits par
*note HeaderRegistry: 3585. et ont *note BaseHeader: 350b. comme
dernière classe mère.  Chaque classe d'en-tête a une classe mère
supplémentaire qui est déterminée par le type de l'en-tête.  Par
exemple, de nombreux en-têtes ont la classe *note UnstructuredHeader:
3586. comme autre classe mère.  La deuxième classe spécialisée pour un
en-tête est déterminée par le nom de l'en-tête, en utilisant un tableau
de recherche stocké dans *note HeaderRegistry: 3585.  Tout cela est géré
de manière transparente pour le programme d'application typique, mais
des interfaces sont fournies pour modifier le comportement par défaut
pour une utilisation par des applications plus complexes.

Les sections ci-dessous documentent d'abord les classes mères d'en-tête
et leurs attributs, suivies de l'API pour modifier le comportement de
*note HeaderRegistry: 3585, et enfin les classes de gestion utilisées
pour représenter les données analysées à partir d'en-têtes structurés.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.BaseHeader (name, value)

     'name' et 'value' sont passés à ‘BaseHeader’ à partir de l'appel
     *note header_factory: 355f.  La valeur de chaîne de tout objet
     d'en-tête est la 'value' entièrement décodée en Unicode.

     Cette classe mère définit les propriétés en lecture seule
     suivantes :

      -- Attribut: name

          Nom de l'en-tête (la partie du champ avant le ‘:’).  C'est
          exactement la valeur passée dans l'appel *note header_factory:
          355f. pour 'name' ; c'est-à-dire que la casse est préservée.

      -- Attribut: defects

          'n'-uplet d'instances *note HeaderDefect: 3577. signalant tout
          problème de conformité avec les RFC détecté lors de l'analyse.
          Le paquet d'e-mails tente d'être complet en ce qui concerne la
          détection des problèmes de conformité.  Voir le module *note
          errors: 3f. pour une discussion sur les types de défauts qui
          peuvent être signalés.

      -- Attribut: max_count

          Nombre maximum d'en-têtes de ce type pouvant avoir le même
          ‘name’.  Une valeur de ‘None’ signifie illimité.  La valeur
          ‘BaseHeader’ pour cet attribut est ‘None’ ; les classes
          d'en-tête spécialisées sont censées remplacer cette valeur si
          nécessaire.

     ‘BaseHeader’ fournit également la méthode suivante, qui est appelée
     par le code de la bibliothèque de messagerie et ne doit
     généralement pas être appelée par les programmes d'application :

      -- Méthode: fold (*, policy)

          Renvoie une chaîne contenant les caractères *note linesep:
          3553. nécessaires pour remettre en forme correctement
          l'en-tête conformément à 'policy'.  Un *note cte_type: 354c.
          de ‘8bit’ est traité comme s'il s'agissait de ‘7bit’, car les
          en-têtes ne peuvent pas contenir de données binaires
          arbitraires.  Si *note utf8: de7. est ‘False’, les données
          non-ASCII seront encodées selon la RFC 2047(4).

     ‘BaseHeader’ seule ne peut pas être utilisée pour créer un objet
     d'en-tête.  Elle définit un protocole avec lequel chaque en-tête
     spécialisé coopère afin de produire l'objet d'en-tête.  Plus
     précisément, ‘BaseHeader’ nécessite que la classe spécialisée
     fournisse une *note classmethod(): 165. nommée ‘parse’.  Cette
     méthode s'appelle comme suit :

          parse(string, kwds)

     ‘kwds’ est un dictionnaire contenant une clé pré-initialisée :
     ‘defects’.  ‘defects’ est une liste vide.  La méthode d'analyse
     doit ajouter tous les défauts détectés à cette liste.  Au retour,
     le dictionnaire ‘kwds’ 'doit' contenir des valeurs pour au moins
     les clés ‘decoded’ et ‘defects’.  ‘decoded’ doit être la valeur de
     la chaîne pour l'en-tête (c'est-à-dire la valeur de l'en-tête
     entièrement décodée en Unicode).  La méthode d'analyse doit
     supposer que 'string' peut contenir des parties codées par
     transfert de contenu, mais doit également gérer correctement tous
     les caractères Unicode valides afin de pouvoir analyser les valeurs
     d'en-tête non codées.

     ‘__new__’ de ‘BaseHeader’ crée ensuite l'instance d'en-tête et
     appelle sa méthode ‘init’.  La classe spécialisée n'a besoin de
     fournir une méthode ‘init’ que si elle souhaite définir des
     attributs supplémentaires au-delà de ceux fournis par ‘BaseHeader’
     lui-même.  Une telle méthode ‘init’ devrait ressembler à ceci :

          def init(self, /, *args, **kw):
              self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
              super().init(*args, **kw)

     Autrement dit, tout ce que la classe spécialisée ajoute au
     dictionnaire ‘kwds’ doit être supprimé et géré, et le contenu
     restant de ‘kw’ (et ‘args’) est passé à la méthode ‘init’ de
     ‘BaseHeader’.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader

     Un en-tête « non structuré » est le type d'en-tête par défaut dans
     la RFC 5322(5).  Tout en-tête qui n'a pas de syntaxe spécifiée est
     traité comme non structuré.  L'exemple classique d'en-tête non
     structuré est l'en-tête ‘Subject’.

     Dans la RFC 5322(6), un en-tête non structuré est une séquence de
     texte arbitraire dans le jeu de caractères ASCII. RFC 2047(7),
     cependant, possède un mécanisme compatible RFC 5322(8) pour encoder
     du texte non-ASCII en tant que caractères ASCII dans une valeur
     d'en-tête.  Lorsqu'une 'value' contenant des mots encodés est
     passée au constructeur, l'analyseur ‘UnstructuredHeader’ convertit
     ces mots encodés en Unicode, en suivant les règles de la RFC
     2047(9) pour le texte non structuré.  L'analyseur utilise des
     heuristiques pour tenter de décoder certains mots codés non
     conformes.  Des défauts sont enregistrés dans de tels cas, ainsi
     que des défauts pour des problèmes tels que des caractères non
     valides dans les mots codés ou le texte non codé.

     Ce type d'en-tête ne fournit aucun attribut supplémentaire.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.DateHeader

     La RFC 5322(10) spécifie un format très spécifique pour les dates
     dans les en-têtes de courrier électronique.  L'analyseur
     ‘DateHeader’ reconnaît ce format de date, ainsi qu'un certain
     nombre de formes variantes que l'on trouve parfois « dans la
     nature ».

     Ce type d'en-tête fournit les attributs supplémentaires suivants :

      -- Attribut: datetime

          Si la valeur d'en-tête peut être reconnue comme une date
          valide d'une forme ou d'une autre, cet attribut contient une
          instance *note datetime: 1c7. représentant cette date.  Si le
          fuseau horaire de la date d'entrée est spécifié comme ‘-0000’
          (indiquant qu'il est en UTC mais ne contient aucune
          information sur le fuseau horaire source), alors *note
          datetime: 358b. est une *note datetime: 1c7. naïve.  Si un
          décalage de fuseau horaire spécifique est trouvé (y compris
          ‘+0000’), alors *note datetime: 358b. contient un ‘datetime’
          avisé qui utilise *note datetime.timezone: 10a3. pour
          enregistrer le décalage lié au fuseau horaire.

     La valeur ‘decoded’ de l'en-tête est déterminée en formatant le
     ‘datetime’ selon les règles de la RFC 5322(11) ; c'est-à-dire
     qu'elle est définie sur :

          email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)

     Lors de la création d'un ‘DateHeader’, 'value' peut être une
     instance de *note datetime: 1c7.  Cela signifie, par exemple, que
     le code suivant est valide et fait ce à quoi on pourrait
     s'attendre :

          msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)

     Comme il s'agit d'un ‘datetime’ naïf, il est interprété comme un
     horodatage UTC et la valeur résultante a un fuseau horaire de
     ‘-0000’.  Il est beaucoup plus utile d'utiliser la fonction *note
     localtime(): 2c2. du module *note utils: 50. :

          msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()

     Cet exemple définit l'en-tête de date sur l'heure et la date
     actuelles à l'aide du décalage horaire actuel.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.AddressHeader

     Les en-têtes d'adresse sont l'un des types d'en-têtes structurés
     les plus complexes.  La classe ‘AddressHeader’ fournit une
     interface générique à n'importe quel en-tête d'adresse.

     Ce type d'en-tête fournit les attributs supplémentaires suivants :

      -- Attribut: groups

          'n'-uplet d'objets *note Group: 358e. encodant les adresses et
          les groupes trouvés dans la valeur d'en-tête.  Les adresses
          qui ne font pas partie d'un groupe sont représentées dans
          cette liste comme des ‘Groups’ à adresse unique dont *note
          display_name: 358f. est ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: addresses

          'n'-uplet d'objets *note Address: 3591. encodant toutes les
          adresses individuelles à partir de la valeur d'en-tête.  Si la
          valeur d'en-tête contient des groupes, les adresses
          individuelles du groupe sont incluses dans la liste au point
          où le groupe apparaît dans la valeur (c'est-à-dire que la
          liste d'adresses est « aplatie » en une liste
          unidimensionnelle).

     La valeur ‘decoded’ de l'en-tête a tous les mots codés décodés en
     Unicode.  Les noms de domaine encodés en *note idna: 51. sont
     également décodés en Unicode.  La valeur ‘decoded’ est définie en
     *note joignant: 2184. la valeur *note str: 437. des éléments de
     l'attribut ‘groups’ avec ‘', '’.

     Une liste d'objets *note Address: 3591. et *note Group: 358e. dans
     n'importe quelle combinaison peut être utilisée pour définir la
     valeur d'un en-tête d'adresse.  Les objets ‘Group’ dont le
     ‘display_name’ est ‘None’ sont interprétés comme des adresses
     uniques, ce qui permet de copier une liste d'adresses avec des
     groupes intacts en utilisant la liste obtenue à partir de
     l'attribut ‘groups’ de l'en-tête source.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader

     Sous-classe de *note AddressHeader: 358c. qui ajoute un attribut
     supplémentaire :

      -- Attribut: address

          Adresse unique codée par la valeur d'en-tête.  Si la valeur
          d'en-tête contient en fait plus d'une adresse (ce qui serait
          une violation de la RFC sous la valeur par défaut *note
          policy: 4f.), l'accès à cet attribut lève une *note
          ValueError: 1ff.

La plupart des classes ci-dessus ont également une variante ‘Unique’
(par exemple, ‘UniqueUnstructuredHeader’).  La seule différence est que
dans la variante ‘Unique’, *note max_count: 3562. est définie sur 1.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader

     Il n'y a vraiment qu'une seule valeur valide pour l'en-tête
     ‘MIME-Version’, et c'est ‘1.0’.  Au cas où, cette classe d'en-tête
     prend en charge d'autres numéros de version valides.  Si un numéro
     de version a une valeur valide selon la RFC 2045(12), alors l'objet
     d'en-tête a des valeurs autres que ‘None’ pour les attributs
     suivants :

      -- Attribut: version

          Numéro de version sous forme de chaîne, sans espaces ni
          commentaires.

      -- Attribut: major

          Numéro de version majeure sous forme d'entier

      -- Attribut: minor

          Numéro de version mineure sous forme d'entier

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader

     Les en-têtes MIME commencent tous par le préfixe ‘'Content-'’.
     Chaque en-tête spécifique a une certaine valeur, décrite par la
     classe de cet en-tête.  Certains peuvent également prendre une
     liste de paramètres supplémentaires, qui ont un format commun.
     Cette classe sert de base à tous les en-têtes MIME qui prennent des
     paramètres.

      -- Attribut: params

          Dictionnaire de correspondance entre les noms de paramètres et
          leurs valeurs.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader

     Classe *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 3598. qui gère l'en-tête
     ‘Content-Type’.

      -- Attribut: content_type

          Chaîne de type de contenu, sous la forme ‘maintype/subtype’.

      -- Attribut: maintype

      -- Attribut: subtype

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader

     Classe *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 3598. qui gère l'en-tête
     ‘Content-Disposition’.

      -- Attribut: content_disposition

          ‘inline’ et ‘attachment’ sont les seules valeurs valides
          couramment utilisées.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding

     Gère l'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

      -- Attribut: cte

          Les valeurs valides sont ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’, ‘base64’ et
          ‘quoted-printable’.  Voir la RFC 2045(13) pour plus
          d'informations.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry (base_class=BaseHeader,
          default_class=UnstructuredHeader, use_default_map=True)

     This is the factory used by *note EmailPolicy: 109b. by default.
     ‘HeaderRegistry’ builds the class used to create a header instance
     dynamically, using 'base_class' and a specialized class retrieved
     from a registry that it holds.  When a given header name does not
     appear in the registry, the class specified by 'default_class' is
     used as the specialized class.  When 'use_default_map' is ‘True’
     (the default), the standard mapping of header names to classes is
     copied in to the registry during initialization.  'base_class' is
     always the last class in the generated class's *note __bases__:
     1462. list.

     Les correspondances par défaut sont :


          subject: UniqueUnstructuredHeader


          date: UniqueDateHeader


          resent-date: DateHeader


          orig-date: UniqueDateHeader


          sender: UniqueSingleAddressHeader


          resent-sender: SingleAddressHeader


          to: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-to: AddressHeader


          cc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-cc: AddressHeader


          bcc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-bcc: AddressHeader


          from: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-from: AddressHeader


          reply-to: UniqueAddressHeader


          mime-version: MIMEVersionHeader


          content-type: ContentTypeHeader


          content-disposition: ContentDispositionHeader


          content-transfer-encoding: ContentTransferEncodingHeader


          message-id: MessageIDHeader

     ‘HeaderRegistry’ a les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: map_to_type (self, name, cls)

          'name' est le nom de l'en-tête à faire correspondre.  Il est
          converti en minuscules dans le registre.  'cls' est la classe
          spécialisée à utiliser, avec 'base_class', pour créer la
          classe utilisée pour instancier les en-têtes qui correspondent
          à 'name'.

      -- Méthode: __getitem__ (name)

          Construit et renvoie une classe pour gérer la création d'un
          en-tête 'name'.

      -- Méthode: __call__ (name, value)

          Récupère l'en-tête spécialisé associé à 'name' du registre (en
          utilisant 'default_class' si 'name' n'apparaît pas dans le
          registre) et le compose avec 'base_class' pour produire une
          classe, appelle le constructeur de la classe construite, en
          lui passant la même liste d'arguments, et renvoie enfin
          l'instance de classe ainsi créée.

Les classes suivantes sont les classes utilisées pour représenter les
données analysées à partir d'en-têtes structurés et peuvent, en général,
être utilisées par un programme d'application pour construire des
valeurs structurées à affecter à des en-têtes spécifiques.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.Address (display_name='', username='',
          domain='', addr_spec=None)

     Classe utilisée pour représenter une adresse e-mail.  La forme
     générale d'une adresse est :

          [display_name] <username@domain>

     ou :

          username@domain

     où chaque partie doit se conformer à des règles de syntaxe
     spécifiques énoncées dans la RFC 5322(14).

     Pour plus de commodité, 'addr_spec' peut être spécifié à la place
     de 'username' et 'domain', 'username' et 'domain' sont alors
     analysés à partir de 'addr_spec'.  Une 'addr_spec' doit être une
     chaîne correctement entre guillemets RFC ; si ce n'est pas le cas,
     ‘Address’ lève une erreur.  Les caractères Unicode sont autorisés
     et sont encodés proprement lors de la sérialisation.  Cependant,
     selon les RFC, l’Unicode n'est 'pas' autorisé dans la partie nom
     d'utilisateur de l'adresse.

      -- Attribut: display_name

          Partie du nom d'affichage de l'adresse, le cas échéant, avec
          toutes les citations supprimées.  Si l'adresse n'a pas de nom
          d'affichage, cet attribut est une chaîne vide.

      -- Attribut: username

          Partie ‘username’ de l'adresse, sans guillemets.

      -- Attribut: domain

          Partie ‘domain’ de l'adresse.

      -- Attribut: addr_spec

          Partie ‘username@domain’ de l'adresse, correctement citée pour
          une utilisation en tant qu'adresse nue (la deuxième forme
          illustrée ci-dessus).  Cet attribut n'est pas modifiable.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          La valeur ‘str’ de l'objet est l'adresse entre guillemets
          selon les règles de la RFC 5322(15), mais sans encodage de
          contenu pour les caractères non-ASCII.

     Pour prendre en charge SMTP ( RFC 5321(16)), ‘Address’ gère un cas
     particulier : si ‘username’ et ‘domain’ sont tous deux la chaîne
     vide (ou ‘None’), alors la valeur de chaîne de ‘Address’ est ‘<>’.

 -- Classe: email.headerregistry.Group (display_name=None,
          addresses=None)

     Classe utilisée pour représenter un groupe d'adresses.  La forme
     générale d'un groupe d'adresses est :

          display_name: [address-list];

     Pour faciliter le traitement des listes d'adresses composées d'un
     mélange de groupes et d'adresses uniques, un ‘Group’ peut également
     être utilisé pour représenter des adresses uniques qui ne font pas
     partie d'un groupe en définissant 'display_name' sur ‘None’ et en
     fournissant une liste de l'adresse unique sous la forme 'adresses'.

      -- Attribut: display_name

          ‘display_name’ du groupe.  Si c'est ‘None’ et qu'il y a
          exactement une ‘Adress’ dans ‘adresses’, alors le ‘Group’
          représente une seule adresse qui n'est pas dans un groupe.

      -- Attribut: addresses

          'n'-uplet éventuellement vide d'objets *note Address: 3591.
          représentant les adresses du groupe.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          La valeur ‘str’ d'un ‘Group’ est formatée selon la RFC
          5322(17), mais sans encodage de contenu pour les caractères
          non-ASCII. Si ‘display_name’ est ‘None’ et qu'il y a une seule
          ‘Address’ dans la liste ‘addresses’, la valeur ‘str’ est la
          même que la ‘str’ de cette seule ‘Adress’.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/headerregistry.py

   (2) Ajouté à l'origine dans 3.3 en tant que *note paquet provisoire:
102c.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Next: email Exemples,  Prev: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.10 ‘email.contentmanager’: Managing MIME Content
.......................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/contentmanager.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: (2)

 -- Classe: email.contentmanager.ContentManager

     Classe mère pour les gestionnaires de contenu.  Fournit les
     mécanismes de registre standard pour enregistrer les convertisseurs
     entre le contenu MIME et d'autres représentations, ainsi que les
     méthodes de répartition ‘get_content’ et ‘set_content’.

      -- Méthode: get_content (msg, *args, **kw)

          Recherche une fonction de gestion en se basant sur le
          ‘mimetype’ de 'msg' (voir le paragraphe suivant), l'appelle en
          lui passant tous les arguments et renvoie le résultat de
          l'appel.  Le gestionnaire doit extraire la charge utile de
          'msg' et renvoyer un objet qui encode les informations
          relatives aux données extraites.

          Pour trouver le gestionnaire, recherche les clés suivantes
          dans le registre, en s'arrêtant à la première trouvée :

             * une chaîne représentant le type MIME complet
               (‘maintype/subtype’) ;

             * une chaîne représentant le ‘maintype’ ;

             * une chaîne vide.

          Si aucune de ces clés ne produit de gestionnaire, lève une
          *note KeyError: 33a. pour le type MIME complet.

      -- Méthode: set_content (msg, obj, *args, **kw)

          Si le ‘maintype’ est ‘multipart’, lève une *note TypeError:
          525. ; sinon recherche une fonction de gestion en se basant
          sur le type de 'obj' (voir le paragraphe suivant), appelle
          *note clear_content(): 3534. sur le 'msg' et appelle la
          fonction de gestion en lui passant tous les arguments.  Le
          gestionnaire doit transformer et stocker 'obj' en 'msg',
          apportant éventuellement d'autres modifications à 'msg'
          également, comme l'ajout de divers en-têtes MIME pour coder
          les informations nécessaires à l'interprétation des données
          stockées.

          Pour trouver le gestionnaire, récupère le type de 'obj' (‘typ
          = type(obj)’) et recherche les clés suivantes dans le
          registre, en s'arrêtant à la première trouvée :

             * le type lui-même (‘typ’) ;

             * le nom complet du type (‘typ.__module__ + '.' +
               typ.__qualname__’) ;

             * the type's *note qualname: 1ee2. (‘typ.__qualname__’)

             * the type's *note name: 1461. (‘typ.__name__’).

          If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for
          each of the types in the *note MRO: 35ae. (*note typ.__mro__:
          1ee5.).  Finally, if no other key yields a handler, check for
          a handler for the key ‘None’.  If there is no handler for
          ‘None’, raise a *note KeyError: 33a. for the fully qualified
          name of the type.

          Ajoute également un en-tête ‘MIME-Version’ s'il n'y en a pas
          (voir aussi *note MIMEPart: f27.).

      -- Méthode: add_get_handler (key, handler)

          Enregistre la fonction 'handler' comme gestionnaire pour
          'key'.  Pour les valeurs possibles de 'key', voir *note
          get_content(): 35b0.

      -- Méthode: add_set_handler (typekey, handler)

          Enregistre 'handler' comme fonction à appeler lorsqu'un objet
          d'un type correspondant à 'typekey' est passé à *note
          set_content(): 35b2.  Pour les valeurs possibles de 'typekey',
          voir *note set_content(): 35b2.

* Menu:

* Instances de gestionnaires de contenus::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/contentmanager.py

   (2) Initialement ajouté dans 3.4 en tant que *note paquet provisoire:
102c.


File: python.info,  Node: Instances de gestionnaires de contenus,  Up: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content

5.20.1.11 Instances de gestionnaires de contenus
................................................

Actuellement, le paquet 'email' ne fournit qu'un seul gestionnaire de
contenu concret, *note raw_data_manager: 3560, bien que d'autres
puissent être ajoutés à l'avenir.  *note raw_data_manager: 3560. est le
*note content_manager: f28. fourni par *note EmailPolicy: 109b. et ses
dérivés.

 -- Données: email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager

     Ce gestionnaire de contenu ne fournit qu'une interface minimale
     au-delà de celle fournie par *note Message: 279. lui-même : il
     prend seulement en charge le texte, les chaînes d'octets brutes et
     les objets *note Message: 279.  Néanmoins, il offre des avantages
     significatifs par rapport à l'API de base : ‘get_content’ sur une
     partie de texte renvoie une chaîne Unicode sans que l'application
     ait besoin de la décoder manuellement, ‘set_content’ fournit de
     nombreuses options pour contrôler les en-têtes ajoutés à une partie
     et l'encodage du transfert de contenu, et il permet l'utilisation
     des différentes méthodes ‘add_’, ce qui simplifie la création de
     messages en plusieurs parties.

      -- Méthode: email.contentmanager.get_content (msg,
               errors='replace')

          Renvoie la charge utile de la partie sous la forme d'une
          chaîne (pour les parties ‘text’), d'un objet *note
          EmailMessage: 278. (pour les parties ‘message/rfc822’) ou d'un
          objet ‘bytes’ (pour tous les autres types à l'exception de
          'multipart').  Lève une *note KeyError: 33a. si cette méthode
          est appelée sur un ‘multipart’.  S'il s'agit d'une partie
          ‘text’ et que 'errors' est spécifié, ce paramètre est utilisé
          comme gestionnaire d'erreurs lors du décodage de la charge
          utile en Unicode.  Le gestionnaire d'erreurs par défaut est
          ‘replace’.

      -- Méthode: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'str'>,
               subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', cte=None,
               disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None,
               headers=None)

      -- Méthode: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'bytes'>,
               maintype, subtype, cte="base64", disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

      -- Méthode: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg,
               <'EmailMessage'>, cte=None, disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

          Ajoute des en-têtes et une charge utile à 'msg' :

          Ajoute un en-tête ‘Content-Type’ avec une valeur
          ‘maintype/subtype’.

             * Pour ‘str’, définit le ‘maintype’ MIME à ‘text’ et
               définit le sous-type à 'subtype' s'il est spécifié, ou à
               ‘plain’ s'il ne l'est pas.

             * Pour ‘bytes’, utilise les 'maintype' et 'subtype'
               spécifiés, ou lève une *note TypeError: 525. s'ils ne
               sont pas spécifiés.

             * Pour les objets *note EmailMessage: 278, définit le type
               principal ('maintype') à ‘message’ et définit le
               sous-type à 'subtype' s'il est spécifié ou à ‘rfc822’
               s'il ne l'est pas.  Si 'subtype' est ‘partial’, lève une
               erreur (les objets ‘bytes’ doivent être utilisés pour
               construire les parties ‘message/partial’).

          Si 'charset' est fourni (qui n'est valide que pour ‘str’),
          encode la chaîne en octets en utilisant le jeu de caractères
          spécifié.  La valeur par défaut est ‘utf-8’.  Si le 'charset'
          spécifié est un alias connu pour un nom de jeu de caractères
          MIME standard, utilise plutôt le jeu de caractères standard.

          Si 'cte' est défini, encode la charge utile à l'aide de
          l'encodage de transfert de contenu spécifié et définit
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ à cette valeur.  Les
          valeurs possibles pour 'cte' sont ‘quoted-printable’,
          ‘base64’, ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’ et ‘binary’.  Si l'entrée ne peut pas
          être encodée dans l'encodage spécifié (par exemple, en
          spécifiant un 'cte' de ‘7bit’ pour une entrée qui contient des
          valeurs non-ASCII), lève une *note ValueError: 1ff.

             * For ‘str’ objects, if 'cte' is not set use heuristics to
               determine the most compact encoding.  Prior to encoding,
               *note str.splitlines(): 1237. is used to normalize all
               line boundaries, ensuring that each line of the payload
               is terminated by the current policy's *note linesep:
               3553. property (even if the original string did not end
               with one).

             * For ‘bytes’ objects, 'cte' is taken to be base64 if not
               set, and the aforementioned newline translation is not
               performed.

             * Pour *note EmailMessage: 278, selon la RFC 2046(1), pour
               le 'subtype' ‘rfc822’, lève une erreur pour un 'cte'
               valant ‘quoted-printable’ ou ‘base64’.  Pour le 'subtype'
               ‘external-body’, lève une erreur pour tout 'cte' autre
               que ‘7bit’.  Pour ‘message/rfc822’, la valeur par défaut
               de 'cte' est ‘8bit’.  Pour toutes les autres valeurs de
               'sous-type', la valeur par défaut de 'cte' est ‘7bit’.

               Note: la valeur ‘binary’ pour 'cte' ne fonctionne pas
               encore correctement.  L'objet ‘EmailMessage’ tel que
               modifié par ‘set_content’ est correct, mais *note
               BytesGenerator: 11ae. ne le sérialise pas correctement.

          Si 'disposition' est spécifié, utilise cette valeur pour
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Disposition’.  S'il n'est pas spécifié et
          que 'filename' est spécifié, utilise la valeur ‘attachment’
          pour l'en-tête.  Si ni 'disposition' ni 'filename' ne sont
          spécifiés, n'ajoute pas cet en-tête.  Les seules valeurs
          valides pour 'disposition' sont ‘attachment’ et ‘inline’.

          Si 'filename' est spécifié, utilise cette valeur pour le
          paramètre ‘filename’ de l'en-tête ‘Content-Disposition’.

          Si 'cid' est spécifié, ajoute un en-tête ‘Content-ID’ avec
          cette valeur.

          Si 'params' est spécifié, itère sur sa méthode ‘items’ et
          utilise les paires ‘(clé, valeur)’ résultantes pour définir
          des paramètres supplémentaires dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.

          Si 'headers' est spécifié et est une liste de chaînes de la
          forme ‘headername: headervalue’ ou une liste d'objets ‘header’
          (distingués des chaînes par l'attribut ‘name’), ajoute ces
          en-têtes à 'msg'.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html


File: python.info,  Node: email Exemples,  Next: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32,  Prev: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.12 ‘email’: Exemples
...........................

Cette page contient quelques exemples de l'utilisation du package *note
email: 3b. pour lire, écrire, et envoyer de simples messages mail, ainsi
que des messages MIME plus complexes.

Premièrement, regardons comment créer et envoyer un message avec
simplement du texte (le contenu textuel et les adresses peuvent tous
deux contenir des caractères Unicodes) :

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function
     import smtplib

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Open the plain text file whose name is in textfile for reading.
     with open(textfile) as fp:
         # Create a text/plain message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg.set_content(fp.read())

     # me == the sender's email address
     # you == the recipient's email address
     msg['Subject'] = f'The contents of {textfile}'
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = you

     # Send the message via our own SMTP server.
     s = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     s.send_message(msg)
     s.quit()

Analyser des entêtes RFC 822(1) peut être aisément réalisé en utilisant
les classes du module *note parser: 4e. :

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     #from email.parser import BytesParser
     from email.parser import Parser
     from email.policy import default

     # If the e-mail headers are in a file, uncomment these two lines:
     # with open(messagefile, 'rb') as fp:
     #     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)

     #  Or for parsing headers in a string (this is an uncommon operation), use:
     headers = Parser(policy=default).parsestr(
             'From: Foo Bar <user@example.com>\n'
             'To: <someone_else@example.com>\n'
             'Subject: Test message\n'
             '\n'
             'Body would go here\n')

     #  Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary:
     print('To: {}'.format(headers['to']))
     print('From: {}'.format(headers['from']))
     print('Subject: {}'.format(headers['subject']))

     # You can also access the parts of the addresses:
     print('Recipient username: {}'.format(headers['to'].addresses[0].username))
     print('Sender name: {}'.format(headers['from'].addresses[0].display_name))

Voici un exemple de l'envoi d'un message MIME contenant une série de
photos de famille qui sont stockés ensemble dans un dossier :

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function.
     import smtplib

     # Here are the email package modules we'll need.
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Create the container email message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = 'Our family reunion'
     # me == the sender's email address
     # family = the list of all recipients' email addresses
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = ', '.join(family)
     msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

     # Open the files in binary mode.  You can also omit the subtype
     # if you want MIMEImage to guess it.
     for file in pngfiles:
         with open(file, 'rb') as fp:
             img_data = fp.read()
         msg.add_attachment(img_data, maintype='image',
                                      subtype='png')

     # Send the email via our own SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

Voici un exemple d'envoi du contenu d'un dossier entier en tant que
message mail : (2)

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message."""

     import os
     import smtplib
     # For guessing MIME type based on file name extension
     import mimetypes

     from argparse import ArgumentParser

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.policy import SMTP


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.
     Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local
     SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine
     must be running an SMTP server.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory',
                             help="""Mail the contents of the specified directory,
                             otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular
                             files in the directory are sent, and we don't recurse to
                             subdirectories.""")
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output',
                             metavar='FILE',
                             help="""Print the composed message to FILE instead of
                             sending the message to the SMTP server.""")
         parser.add_argument('-s', '--sender', required=True,
                             help='The value of the From: header (required)')
         parser.add_argument('-r', '--recipient', required=True,
                             action='append', metavar='RECIPIENT',
                             default=[], dest='recipients',
                             help='A To: header value (at least one required)')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         directory = args.directory
         if not directory:
             directory = '.'
         # Create the message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg['Subject'] = f'Contents of directory {os.path.abspath(directory)}'
         msg['To'] = ', '.join(args.recipients)
         msg['From'] = args.sender
         msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

         for filename in os.listdir(directory):
             path = os.path.join(directory, filename)
             if not os.path.isfile(path):
                 continue
             # Guess the content type based on the file's extension.  Encoding
             # will be ignored, although we should check for simple things like
             # gzip'd or compressed files.
             ctype, encoding = mimetypes.guess_file_type(path)
             if ctype is None or encoding is not None:
                 # No guess could be made, or the file is encoded (compressed), so
                 # use a generic bag-of-bits type.
                 ctype = 'application/octet-stream'
             maintype, subtype = ctype.split('/', 1)
             with open(path, 'rb') as fp:
                 msg.add_attachment(fp.read(),
                                    maintype=maintype,
                                    subtype=subtype,
                                    filename=filename)
         # Now send or store the message
         if args.output:
             with open(args.output, 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=SMTP))
         else:
             with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
                 s.send_message(msg)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Voici un exemple de comment décomposer un message MIME comme celui
ci-dessus en tant que fichiers dans un dossier :

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files."""

     import os
     import email
     import mimetypes

     from email.policy import default

     from argparse import ArgumentParser


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory', required=True,
                             help="""Unpack the MIME message into the named
                             directory, which will be created if it doesn't already
                             exist.""")
         parser.add_argument('msgfile')
         args = parser.parse_args()

         with open(args.msgfile, 'rb') as fp:
             msg = email.message_from_binary_file(fp, policy=default)

         try:
             os.mkdir(args.directory)
         except FileExistsError:
             pass

         counter = 1
         for part in msg.walk():
             # multipart/* are just containers
             if part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart':
                 continue
             # Applications should really sanitize the given filename so that an
             # email message can't be used to overwrite important files
             filename = part.get_filename()
             if not filename:
                 ext = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
                 if not ext:
                     # Use a generic bag-of-bits extension
                     ext = '.bin'
                 filename = f'part-{counter:03d}{ext}'
             counter += 1
             with open(os.path.join(args.directory, filename), 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(part.get_payload(decode=True))


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Voici un exemple de création d'un message HTML avec une version en texte
comme alternative.  Pour rendre les choses un peu plus intéressantes,
nous incluons aussi une image dans la partie HTML, nous sauvons une
copie du message sur le disque, et nous l'envoyons.

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     import smtplib

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.headerregistry import Address
     from email.utils import make_msgid

     # Create the base text message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = "Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?"
     msg['From'] = Address("Pepé Le Pew", "pepe", "example.com")
     msg['To'] = (Address("Penelope Pussycat", "penelope", "example.com"),
                  Address("Fabrette Pussycat", "fabrette", "example.com"))
     msg.set_content("""\
     Salut!

     Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

     [1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718

     --Pepé
     """)

     # Add the html version.  This converts the message into a multipart/alternative
     # container, with the original text message as the first part and the new html
     # message as the second part.
     asparagus_cid = make_msgid()
     msg.add_alternative("""\
     <html>
       <head></head>
       <body>
         <p>Salut!</p>
         <p>Cette
             <a href="http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718">
                 recette
             </a> sera sûrement un très bon repas.
         </p>
         <img src="cid:{asparagus_cid}">
       </body>
     </html>
     """.format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
     # note that we needed to peel the <> off the msgid for use in the html.

     # Now add the related image to the html part.
     with open("roasted-asparagus.jpg", 'rb') as img:
         msg.get_payload()[1].add_related(img.read(), 'image', 'jpeg',
                                          cid=asparagus_cid)

     # Make a local copy of what we are going to send.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(bytes(msg))

     # Send the message via local SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

Si on nous avait envoyé le message de l'exemple précédent, voici la
manière avec laquelle nous pourrions le traiter :

     import os
     import sys
     import tempfile
     import mimetypes
     import webbrowser

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email import policy
     from email.parser import BytesParser


     def magic_html_parser(html_text, partfiles):
         """Return safety-sanitized html linked to partfiles.

         Rewrite the href="cid:...." attributes to point to the filenames in partfiles.
         Though not trivial, this should be possible using html.parser.
         """
         raise NotImplementedError("Add the magic needed")


     # In a real program you'd get the filename from the arguments.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'rb') as fp:
         msg = BytesParser(policy=policy.default).parse(fp)

     # Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary, and any non-ASCII will
     # be converted to unicode:
     print('To:', msg['to'])
     print('From:', msg['from'])
     print('Subject:', msg['subject'])

     # If we want to print a preview of the message content, we can extract whatever
     # the least formatted payload is and print the first three lines.  Of course,
     # if the message has no plain text part printing the first three lines of html
     # is probably useless, but this is just a conceptual example.
     simplest = msg.get_body(preferencelist=('plain', 'html'))
     print()
     print(''.join(simplest.get_content().splitlines(keepends=True)[:3]))

     ans = input("View full message?")
     if ans.lower()[0] == 'n':
         sys.exit()

     # We can extract the richest alternative in order to display it:
     richest = msg.get_body()
     partfiles = {}
     if richest['content-type'].maintype == 'text':
         if richest['content-type'].subtype == 'plain':
             for line in richest.get_content().splitlines():
                 print(line)
             sys.exit()
         elif richest['content-type'].subtype == 'html':
             body = richest
         else:
             print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
             sys.exit()
     elif richest['content-type'].content_type == 'multipart/related':
         body = richest.get_body(preferencelist=('html'))
         for part in richest.iter_attachments():
             fn = part.get_filename()
             if fn:
                 extension = os.path.splitext(part.get_filename())[1]
             else:
                 extension = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
             with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=extension, delete=False) as f:
                 f.write(part.get_content())
                 # again strip the <> to go from email form of cid to html form.
                 partfiles[part['content-id'][1:-1]] = f.name
     else:
         print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
         sys.exit()
     with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False) as f:
         f.write(magic_html_parser(body.get_content(), partfiles))
     webbrowser.open(f.name)
     os.remove(f.name)
     for fn in partfiles.values():
         os.remove(fn)

     # Of course, there are lots of email messages that could break this simple
     # minded program, but it will handle the most common ones.

La sortie textuelle du code ci dessus est :

     To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
     From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
     Subject: Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?

     Salut!

     Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

Notes
.....

API héritée :

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) Merci à Matthew Dixon Cowles pour l'inspiration originale et les
exemples.


File: python.info,  Node: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32,  Next: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Prev: email Exemples,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.13 ‘email.message.Message’ : représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API ‘compat32’
.........................................................................................................

La classe *note Message: 279. est très similaire à la classe *note
EmailMessage: 278, sans les méthodes ajoutées par cette classe et avec
le comportement par défaut légèrement différent pour certaines autres
méthodes.  Nous documentons également ici certaines méthodes qui, bien
que prises en charge par la classe *note EmailMessage: 278, ne sont pas
recommandées, sauf si vous avez affaire à du code hérité.

La philosophie et la structure des deux classes sont par ailleurs les
mêmes.

Ce document décrit le comportement avec les règles par défaut (pour
*note Message: 279.) *note Compat32: 1098.  Si vous envisagez d'utiliser
d'autres règles, vous devriez plutôt utiliser la classe *note
EmailMessage: 278.

Un message électronique se compose d''en-têtes' et d'une 'charge utile'.
Les en-têtes doivent être des noms et des valeurs de style RFC 5322(1),
où le nom et la valeur du champ sont séparés par deux-points.  Les
deux-points ne font partie ni du nom du champ ni de la valeur du champ.
La charge utile peut être un simple message texte, ou un objet binaire,
ou une séquence structurée de sous-messages chacun avec son propre
ensemble d'en-têtes et sa propre charge utile.  Ce dernier type de
charge utile est indiqué par le message ayant un type MIME tel que
‘multipart/*’ ou ‘message/rfc822’.

Le modèle conceptuel fourni par un objet *note Message: 279. est celui
d'un dictionnaire ordonné d'en-têtes avec des méthodes supplémentaires
pour accéder à la fois aux informations spécialisées des en-têtes, pour
accéder à la charge utile, pour générer une version sérialisée du
message et pour parcourir récursivement l'arbre d'objets.  Notez que les
en-têtes en double sont pris en charge mais que des méthodes spéciales
doivent être utilisées pour y accéder.

Le pseudo-dictionnaire *note Message: 279. est indicé par les noms
d'en-tête, qui doivent être des valeurs ASCII. Les valeurs du
dictionnaire sont des chaînes censées contenir uniquement des caractères
ASCII ; il existe une gestion spéciale pour les entrées non ASCII, mais
cela ne produit pas toujours les résultats corrects.  Les en-têtes sont
stockés et renvoyés sous une forme respectant la casse, mais les noms de
champ sont mis en correspondance sans tenir compte de la casse.  Il peut
également y avoir un seul en-tête d'enveloppe, également appelé en-tête
'Unix-From' ou en-tête ‘From_’.  La 'charge utile' est soit une chaîne
ou des octets, dans le cas d'objets message simples, soit une liste
d'objets *note Message: 279, pour les documents conteneurs MIME (par
exemple ‘multipart/*’ et ‘message/rfc822’).

Voici les méthodes de la classe *note Message: 279. :

 -- Classe: email.message.Message (policy=compat32)

     Si 'policy' est spécifié (il doit s'agir d'une instance d'une
     classe *note policy: 4f.), utilise les règles spécifiées pour
     mettre à jour et sérialiser la représentation du message.  Si
     'policy' n'est pas défini, utilise les règles *note compat32: 1098,
     qui maintient la rétrocompatibilité avec la version Python 3.2 du
     paquet de messagerie.  Pour plus d'informations, consultez la
     documentation *note policy: 4f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'argument nommé 'policy' a été
     ajouté.

      -- Méthode: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0,
               policy=None)

          Renvoie le message entier aplati sous forme de chaîne.
          Lorsque l'option 'unixfrom' est vraie, l'en-tête de
          l'enveloppe est inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée.  'unixfrom'
          par défaut est ‘False’.  Pour des raisons de compatibilité
          descendante, 'maxheaderlen' est par défaut à ‘0’, donc si vous
          voulez une valeur différente, vous devez la remplacer
          explicitement (la valeur spécifiée pour 'max_line_length' dans
          la politique sera ignorée par cette méthode).  L'argument
          'policy' peut être utilisé pour remplacer les règles par
          défaut obtenues à partir de l'instance de message.  Cela peut
          être utilisé pour contrôler une partie du formatage produit
          par la méthode, puisque la 'policy' spécifiée est transmise au
          ‘Generator’.

          L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements
          dans *note Message: 279. si les valeurs par défaut doivent
          être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en chaîne
          (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou
          modifiées).

          Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et
          peut ne pas toujours formater le message comme vous le
          souhaitez.  Par exemple, par défaut, elle ne reformate pas les
          lignes qui commencent par ‘From’ qui est requis par le format
          'mbox' Unix.  Pour plus de flexibilité, instanciez une
          instance *note Generator: 11ad. et utilisez sa méthode *note
          flatten(): 354e. directement.  Par exemple :

               from io import StringIO
               from email.generator import Generator
               fp = StringIO()
               g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          Si l'objet message contient des données binaires qui ne sont
          pas encodées selon les normes RFC, les données non conformes
          seront remplacées par des points de code Unicode « caractère
          inconnu » (voir aussi *note as_bytes(): f24. et *note
          BytesGenerator: 11ae.).

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: l'argument nommé 'policy' a été
          ajouté.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_string(): f23.  Allows ‘str(msg)’ to
          produce a string containing the formatted message.

      -- Méthode: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Renvoie le message entier aplati en tant qu'objet bytes.
          Lorsque l'option 'unixfrom' est vraie, l'en-tête de
          l'enveloppe est inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée.  'unixfrom'
          par défaut est ‘False’.  L'argument 'policy' peut être utilisé
          pour remplacer les règles par défaut obtenues à partir de
          l'instance de message.  Cela peut être utilisé pour contrôler
          une partie du formatage produit par la méthode, puisque la
          'policy' spécifiée est passée au ‘BytesGenerator’.

          L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements
          dans *note Message: 279. si les valeurs par défaut doivent
          être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en chaîne
          (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou
          modifiées).

          Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et
          peut ne pas toujours formater le message comme vous le
          souhaitez.  Par exemple, par défaut, elle ne reformate pas les
          lignes qui commencent par ‘From’ qui est requis par le format
          'mbox' Unix.  Pour plus de flexibilité, instanciez une
          instance *note BytesGenerator: 11ae. et utilisez sa méthode
          *note flatten(): 354a. directement.  Par exemple :

               from io import BytesIO
               from email.generator import BytesGenerator
               fp = BytesIO()
               g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): f24.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the formatted message.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: is_multipart ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si la charge utile du message est une liste
          d'objets sous-*note Message: 279, sinon renvoie ‘False’.
          Lorsque *note is_multipart(): 3523. renvoie ‘False’, la charge
          utile doit être un objet chaîne (qui peut être une charge
          utile binaire encodée CTE). (Notez que *note is_multipart():
          3523. renvoyant ‘True’ ne signifie pas nécessairement que
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ renvoie ‘True’.
          Par exemple, ‘is_multipart’ renvoie ‘True’ lorsque le *note
          Message: 279. est de type ‘message/rfc822’.)

      -- Méthode: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Définit l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message sur 'unixfrom',
          qui doit être une chaîne.

      -- Méthode: get_unixfrom ()

          Renvoie l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message.  La valeur par
          défaut est ‘None’ si l'en-tête de l'enveloppe n'a jamais été
          défini.

      -- Méthode: attach (payload)

          Ajoute le 'payload' donné à la charge utile actuelle, qui doit
          être ‘None’ ou une liste d'objets *note Message: 279. avant
          l'appel.  Après l'appel, la charge utile sera toujours une
          liste d'objets *note Message: 279.  Si vous souhaitez définir
          la charge utile sur un objet scalaire (par exemple, une
          chaîne), utilisez *note set_payload(): 35bb. à la place.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’ sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par *note
          set_content(): 1865. et les méthodes associées ‘make’ et
          ‘add’.

      -- Méthode: get_payload (i=None, decode=False)

          Renvoie la charge utile actuelle, qui est une liste d'objets
          *note Message: 279. lorsque *note is_multipart(): 3523. est
          ‘True’, ou une chaîne lorsque *note is_multipart(): 3523. est
          ‘False’.  Si la charge utile est une liste et que vous
          modifiez l'objet liste, vous modifiez la charge utile du
          message « sur place ».

          Avec l'argument optionnel 'i', *note get_payload(): 11ac.
          renvoie le 'i'^ème élément de la charge utile, en partant de
          zéro, si *note is_multipart(): 3523. vaut ‘True’.  Une *note
          IndexError: 14ec. est levée si 'i' est inférieur à 0 ou
          supérieur ou égal au nombre d'éléments dans la charge utile.
          Si la charge utile est une chaîne (c'est-à-dire que *note
          is_multipart(): 3523. est ‘False’) et que 'i' est donné, une
          *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

          'decode' est un indicateur facultatif indiquant si la charge
          utile doit être décodée ou non, selon l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  Lorsqu'il vaut ‘True’ et que le
          message n'est pas en plusieurs parties, la charge utile est
          décodée si la valeur de cet en-tête est ‘quoted-printable’ ou
          ‘base64’.  Si un autre encodage est utilisé, ou si l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ est manquant, la charge utile est
          renvoyée telle quelle (non décodée).  Dans tous les cas, la
          valeur renvoyée est une donnée binaire.  Si le message est en
          plusieurs parties et que l'indicateur 'decode' est ‘True’,
          alors ‘None’ est renvoyé.  Si la charge utile est en base64 et
          qu'elle n'a pas été parfaitement formée (remplissage manquant,
          caractères en dehors de l'alphabet base64), alors un défaut
          approprié est ajouté à la propriété de défaut du message
          (*note InvalidBase64PaddingDefect: 357f. ou *note
          InvalidBase64CharactersDefect: 3580, respectivement).

          Lorsque 'decode' est ‘False’ (valeur par défaut), le corps est
          renvoyé sous forme de chaîne sans décoder le
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  Cependant, pour un
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ de 8 bits, une tentative est faite
          pour décoder les octets d'origine en utilisant le ‘charset’
          spécifié par l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’, en utilisant le
          gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘replace’.  Si aucun ‘charset’ n'est
          spécifié, ou si le ‘charset’ donné n'est pas reconnu par le
          paquet de messagerie, le corps est décodé en utilisant le jeu
          de caractères ASCII par défaut.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’ sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par *note
          get_content(): 3529. et *note iter_parts(): 3528.

      -- Méthode: set_payload (payload, charset=None)

          Définit la charge utile de l'objet message entier à 'payload'.
          Il est de la responsabilité du client de s'assurer des
          invariants de la charge utile.  Le 'charset' facultatif
          définit le jeu de caractères par défaut du message ; voir
          *note set_charset(): 35bc. pour plus de détails.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’ sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par *note
          set_content(): 1865.

      -- Méthode: set_charset (charset)

          Définit le jeu de caractères de la charge utile à 'charset',
          qui peut être soit une instance de *note Charset: de9. (voir
          *note email.charset: 3c.), une chaîne nommant un jeu de
          caractères ou ‘None’.  S'il s'agit d'une chaîne, elle est
          convertie en une instance *note Charset: de9.  Si 'charset'
          est ‘None’, le paramètre ‘charset’ est supprimé de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ (le message n'est pas modifié autrement).  Tout
          le reste lève une *note TypeError: 525.

          S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête ‘MIME-Version’ existant, un en-tête
          est ajouté.  S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’, un
          en-tête est ajouté avec une valeur de ‘text/plain’.  Que
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ existe déjà ou non, son paramètre
          ‘charset’ est défini sur 'charset.output_charset'.  Si
          'charset.input_charset' et 'charset.output_charset' diffèrent,
          la charge utile est ré-encodée dans le 'output_charset'.  S'il
          n'y a pas d'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ existant,
          alors la charge utile est encodée par transfert, si
          nécessaire, en utilisant le *note Charset: de9. spécifié et un
          en-tête avec cette valeur est ajouté.  Si un en-tête
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ existe déjà, la charge utile est
          supposée être déjà correctement encodée à l'aide de cet
          en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ et n'est pas modifiée.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’ sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par le
          paramètre 'charset' de la méthode
          ‘email.emailmessage.EmailMessage.set_content()’.

      -- Méthode: get_charset ()

          Renvoie l'instance *note Charset: de9. associée à la charge
          utile du message.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’, elle renvoie toujours ‘None’.

     Les méthodes suivantes implémentent une interface de type
     correspondance pour accéder aux en-têtes RFC 2822(2) du message.
     Notez qu'il existe des différences sémantiques entre ces méthodes
     et une interface de correspondance normale (c'est-à-dire un
     dictionnaire).  Par exemple, dans un dictionnaire, il n'y a pas de
     clés en double, mais ici, il peut y avoir des en-têtes de message
     en double.  De plus, dans les dictionnaires, il n'y a pas d'ordre
     garanti pour les clés renvoyées par *note keys(): 35be, mais dans
     un objet *note Message: 279, les en-têtes sont toujours renvoyés
     dans l'ordre dans lequel ils sont apparus dans le message
     d'origine, ou ont été ajoutés au message plus tard.  Tout en-tête
     supprimé puis rajouté est toujours ajouté à la fin de la liste des
     en-têtes.

     Ces différences sémantiques sont intentionnelles et visent une
     commodité maximale.

     Notez que dans tous les cas, tout en-tête d'enveloppe présent dans
     le message n'est pas inclus dans l'interface de correspondance.

     Dans un modèle généré à partir d'octets, toutes les valeurs
     d'en-tête qui (en violation des RFC) contiennent des octets
     non-ASCII sont, lorsqu'elles sont récupérées via cette interface,
     représentées comme des objets *note Header: 1866. avec un 'charset'
     à ‘unknown-8bit’.

      -- Méthode: __len__ ()

          Renvoie le nombre total d'en-têtes, y compris les doublons.

      -- Méthode: __contains__ (name)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet message a un champ nommé 'name'.  La
          correspondance est insensible à la casse et 'name' ne doit pas
          inclure les deux-points à la fin.  Utilisé pour l'opérateur
          ‘in’, par exemple :

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- Méthode: __getitem__ (name)

          Renvoie la valeur du champ d'en-tête désigné.  'name' ne doit
          pas inclure le séparateur de champ deux-points.  Si l'en-tête
          est manquant, ‘None’ est renvoyé ; *note KeyError: 33a. n'est
          jamais levée.

          Notez que si le champ désigné apparaît plus d'une fois dans
          les en-têtes du message, la valeur exacte renvoyée n'est pas
          définie.  Utilisez la méthode *note get_all(): 35c1. pour
          obtenir les valeurs de tous les en-têtes existants.

      -- Méthode: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Ajoute un en-tête au message avec le nom de champ 'name' et la
          valeur 'val'.  Le champ est ajouté à la fin des champs
          existants du message.

          Notez que cela n'écrase 'pas' ou ne supprime aucun en-tête
          existant portant le même nom.  Si vous voulez vous assurer que
          le nouvel en-tête est le seul présent dans le message avec le
          nom de champ 'name', supprimez d'abord le champ, par exemple :

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

      -- Méthode: __delitem__ (name)

          Supprime toutes les occurrences du champ portant le nom 'name'
          des en-têtes du message.  Aucune exception n'est levée si le
          champ désigné n'est pas présent dans les en-têtes.

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Renvoie une liste de tous les noms de champs d'en-tête du
          message.

      -- Méthode: values ()

          Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs de champ du message.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          Renvoie une liste de couples contenant tous les en-têtes et
          valeurs de champs associées du message.

      -- Méthode: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 280. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing (defaults to ‘None’).

     Voici quelques méthodes supplémentaires utiles :

      -- Méthode: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Renvoie la liste de toutes les valeurs du champ nommé 'name'.
          S'il n'y a pas d'en-têtes de ce nom dans le message, 'failobj'
          est renvoyé (la valeur par défaut est ‘None’).

      -- Méthode: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Définition de paramètres d'en-têtes étendus.  Cette méthode
          est similaire à *note __setitem__(): 35c2. sauf que des
          paramètres d'en-tête supplémentaires peuvent être fournis en
          tant qu'arguments nommés.  '_name' est le champ d'en-tête à
          ajouter et '_value' est la valeur 'primaire' de l'en-tête.

          Pour chaque élément du dictionnaire d'arguments nommés
          '_params', la clé est prise comme nom de paramètre, avec des
          traits de soulignement convertis en tirets (puisque les tirets
          sont illégaux dans les identifiants Python).  Normalement, le
          paramètre est ajouté en tant que ‘key="value"’ sauf si la
          valeur est ‘None’, auquel cas seule la clé est ajoutée.  Si la
          valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, elle peut être
          spécifiée sous la forme d'un triplet au format ‘(CHARSET,
          LANGUAGE, VALUE)’, où ‘CHARSET’ est une chaîne nommant le jeu
          de caractères à utiliser pour coder la valeur, ‘LANGUAGE’ peut
          généralement être défini sur ‘None’ ou la chaîne vide (voir la
          RFC 2231(3) pour d'autres possibilités), et ‘VALUE’ est la
          valeur de chaîne contenant des points de code non-ASCII. Si un
          triplet n'est pas passé et que la valeur contient des
          caractères non-ASCII, elle est automatiquement encodée au
          format RFC 2231(4) en utilisant un ‘CHARSET’ à ‘utf-8’ et un
          ‘LANGUAGE’ à ‘None’.

          Voici un exemple :

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          Cela ajoute un en-tête qui ressemble à :

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          Un exemple avec des caractères non-ASCII :

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

          qui produit :

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"

      -- Méthode: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Remplace un en-tête.  Remplace le premier en-tête trouvé dans
          le message qui correspond à '_name', en conservant l'ordre des
          en-têtes et la casse des noms de champs.  Si aucun en-tête
          correspondant n'a été trouvé, une *note KeyError: 33a. est
          levée.

      -- Méthode: get_content_type ()

          Renvoie le type de contenu du message.  La chaîne renvoyée est
          convertie en minuscules sous la forme ‘maintype/subtype’.
          S'il n'y avait pas d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ dans le message,
          le type par défaut tel qu'indiqué par *note
          get_default_type(): 35ca. est renvoyé.  Puisque selon la RFC
          2045(5), les messages ont toujours un type par défaut, *note
          get_content_type(): 35c9. renvoie toujours une valeur.

          La RFC 2045(6) définit le type par défaut d'un message comme
          étant ‘text/plain’ sauf s'il apparaît dans un conteneur
          ‘multipart/digest’, auquel cas ce serait ‘message/rfc822’.  Si
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ a une spécification de type invalide,
          la RFC 2045(7) exige que le type par défaut soit ‘text/plain’.

      -- Méthode: get_content_maintype ()

          Renvoie le type de contenu principal du message.  C'est la
          partie ‘maintype’ de la chaîne renvoyée par *note
          get_content_type(): 35c9.

      -- Méthode: get_content_subtype ()

          Renvoie le type de sous-contenu du message.  C'est la partie
          ‘subtype’ de la chaîne renvoyée par *note get_content_type():
          35c9.

      -- Méthode: get_default_type ()

          Renvoie le type de contenu par défaut.  La plupart des
          messages ont un type de contenu par défaut de ‘text/plain’, à
          l'exception des messages qui sont des sous-parties des
          conteneurs ‘multipart/digest’.  Ces sous-parties ont un type
          de contenu par défaut de ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Méthode: set_default_type (ctype)

          Définit le type de contenu par défaut.  'ctype' doit être
          ‘text/plain’ ou ‘message/rfc822’, bien que cela ne soit pas
          appliqué.  Le type de contenu par défaut n'est pas stocké dans
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.

      -- Méthode: get_params (failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Renvoie les paramètres ‘Content-Type’ du message, sous forme
          de liste.  Les éléments de la liste renvoyée sont des couples
          clé-valeur, ayant été séparés sur le signe ‘'='’.  Le côté
          gauche du ‘'='’ est la clé, tandis que le côté droit est la
          valeur.  S'il n'y a pas de signe ‘'='’ dans le paramètre, la
          valeur est la chaîne vide, sinon la valeur est telle que
          décrite dans *note get_param(): 35cf. et n'est pas entre
          guillemets si l'option 'unquote' est ‘True’ (la valeur par
          défaut).

          'failobj' (facultatif) est l'objet à renvoyer s'il n'y a pas
          d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.  'header' (facultatif) est l'en-tête
          à rechercher au lieu de ‘Content-Type’.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’, sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par la
          propriété 'params' des objets d'en-tête individuels renvoyés
          par les méthodes d'accès aux en-têtes.

      -- Méthode: get_param (param, failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Renvoie la valeur du paramètre 'param' de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ sous forme de chaîne.  Si le message n'a pas
          d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ ou s'il n'y a pas un tel paramètre,
          alors 'failobj' est renvoyé (par défaut à ‘None’).

          'header' s'il est fourni, spécifie l'en-tête de message à
          utiliser à la place de ‘Content-Type’.

          Les clés en paramètre sont toujours comparées sans tenir
          compte de la casse.  La valeur de retour peut être soit une
          chaîne, soit un triplet si le paramètre a été encodé selon la
          RFC 2231(8).  Lorsqu'il s'agit d'un triplet, les éléments de
          la valeur sont de la forme ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’.
          Notez que ‘CHARSET’ et ‘LANGUAGE’ peuvent être ‘None’, vous
          devriez alors considérer que ‘VALUE’ est encodé dans le jeu de
          caractères ‘us-ascii’.  Vous pouvez généralement ignorer
          ‘LANGUAGE’.

          Si votre application ne se soucie pas de savoir si le
          paramètre a été encodé conformément à la RFC 2231(9), vous
          pouvez réduire la valeur du paramètre en appelant *note
          email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(): 35d0, en transmettant la
          valeur de retour de *note get_param(): 35cf.  Cela renverra
          une chaîne Unicode convenablement décodée lorsque la valeur
          est un 'n'-uplet, ou la chaîne d'origine sans guillemets si ce
          n'est pas le cas.  Par exemple :

               rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
               param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)

          Dans tous les cas, la valeur du paramètre (soit la chaîne
          renvoyée, soit l'élément ‘VALUE’ dans le triplet) est toujours
          sans guillemets, sauf si 'unquote' est défini sur ‘False’.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’, sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par la
          propriété 'params' des objets d'en-tête individuels renvoyés
          par les méthodes d'accès aux en-têtes.

      -- Méthode: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Définit un paramètre dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.  Si le
          paramètre existe déjà dans l'en-tête, sa valeur est remplacée
          par 'value'.  Si l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ n'a pas encore été
          défini pour ce message, il est défini à ‘text/plain’ et la
          nouvelle valeur du paramètre est ajoutée conformément à la RFC
          2045(10).

          L'option 'header' spécifie un en-tête alternatif à
          ‘Content-Type’, et tous les paramètres seront entre guillemets
          si nécessaire sauf si l'option 'requote' est ‘False’ (la
          valeur par défaut est ‘True’).

          Si 'charset' est spécifié, le paramètre est encodé selon la
          RFC 2231(11).  'language' (facultatif) spécifie la langue RFC
          2231, par défaut c'est la chaîne vide.  'charset' et
          'language' doivent être des chaînes.

          Si 'replace' est ‘False’ (valeur par défaut), l'en-tête est
          déplacé à la fin de la liste des en-têtes.  Si 'replace' est
          ‘True’, l'en-tête est mis à jour « sur place ».

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: l'argument nommé ‘replace’ a été
          ajouté.

      -- Méthode: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Supprime complètement le paramètre donné de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’.  L'en-tête est réécrit « sur place » sans le
          paramètre ou sa valeur.  Toutes les valeurs seront entre
          guillemets si nécessaire sauf si 'requote' est ‘False’ (la
          valeur par défaut est ‘True’).  L'option 'header' spécifie une
          alternative à ‘Content-Type’.

      -- Méthode: set_type (type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)

          Définit le type principal et le sous-type de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’.  'type' doit être une chaîne sous la forme
          ‘maintype/subtype’, sinon une *note ValueError: 1ff. est
          levée.

          Cette méthode remplace l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’, en gardant
          tous les paramètres en place.  Si 'requote' est ‘False’, cela
          laisse les guillemets de l'en-tête existant tels quels, sinon
          les paramètres sont mis entre guillemets (par défaut).

          Un en-tête alternatif peut être spécifié dans l'argument
          'header'.  Lorsque l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ est défini, un
          en-tête ‘MIME-Version’ est également ajouté.

          Il s'agit d'une ancienne méthode.  Dans la classe
          ‘EmailMessage’ sa fonctionnalité est remplacée par les
          méthodes ‘make_’ et ‘add_’.

      -- Méthode: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Renvoie la valeur du paramètre ‘filename’ de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Disposition’ du message.  Si l'en-tête n'a pas de
          paramètre ‘filename’, cette méthode revient à rechercher le
          paramètre ‘name’ dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.  Si aucun
          n'est trouvé, ou si l'en-tête est manquant, alors 'failobj'
          est renvoyé.  La chaîne renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets
          comme indiqué par *note email.utils.unquote(): 351c.

      -- Méthode: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Renvoie la valeur du paramètre ‘boundary’ de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ du message, ou 'failobj' si l'en-tête est
          manquant ou n'a pas de paramètre ‘boundary’.  La chaîne
          renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets comme indiqué par *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 351c.

      -- Méthode: set_boundary (boundary)

          Définit le paramètre ‘boundary’ de l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’
          sur 'boundary'.  *note set_boundary(): 35d5. met toujours
          'boundary' entre guillemets si nécessaire.  Une *note
          HeaderParseError: 351f. est levée si l'objet message n'a pas
          d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.

          Notez que l'utilisation de cette méthode est légèrement
          différente de la suppression de l'ancien en-tête
          ‘Content-Type’ et de l'ajout d'un nouveau avec la nouvelle
          limite via *note add_header(): 35c7, car *note set_boundary():
          35d5. préserve l'ordre des en-têtes ‘Content-Type’ dans la
          liste des en-têtes.  Cependant, elle ne conserve 'pas' les
          lignes de continuation qui auraient pu être présentes dans
          l'en-tête original ‘Content-Type’.

      -- Méthode: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Renvoie le paramètre ‘charset’ de l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’,
          mis en minuscules.  S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’,
          ou si cet en-tête n'a pas de paramètre ‘charset’, 'failobj'
          est renvoyé.

          Notez que cette méthode diffère de *note get_charset(): 35bd.
          qui renvoie l'instance *note Charset: de9. avec l'encodage par
          défaut du corps du message.

      -- Méthode: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Renvoie une liste contenant les noms des jeux de caractères
          dans le message.  Si le message est un ‘multipart’, alors la
          liste contient un élément pour chaque sous-partie dans la
          charge utile, sinon, c'est une liste de longueur 1.

          Chaque élément de la liste est une chaîne qui est la valeur du
          paramètre ‘charset’ dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ pour la
          sous-partie représentée.  Cependant, si la sous-partie n'a pas
          d'en-tête ‘Content-Type’, pas de paramètre ‘charset’, ou n'est
          pas du type MIME principal ‘text’, alors cet élément dans la
          liste renvoyée est 'failobj'.

      -- Méthode: get_content_disposition ()

          Renvoie la valeur en minuscules (sans paramètres) de l'en-tête
          ‘Content-Disposition’ du message s'il en a un, ou ‘None’.  Les
          valeurs possibles pour cette méthode sont 'inline',
          'attachment' ou ‘None’ si le message suit la RFC 2183(12).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: walk ()

          La méthode *note walk(): 35d8. est un générateur polyvalent
          qui peut être utilisé pour itérer sur toutes les parties et
          sous-parties d'une arborescence d'objets de message, dans
          l'ordre de parcours en profondeur d'abord.  Vous utiliserez
          généralement *note walk(): 35d8. comme itérateur dans une
          boucle ‘for’ ; chaque itération renvoie la sous-partie
          suivante.

          Voici un exemple qui imprime le type MIME de chaque partie
          d'une structure de message en plusieurs parties :

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ itère sur les sous-parties de toute partie où *note
          is_multipart(): 3523. renvoie ‘True’, même si
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ peut renvoyer
          ‘False’.  Nous pouvons le voir dans notre exemple en utilisant
          la fonction d'aide au débogage ‘_structure’ :

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Ici, les parties ‘message’ ne sont pas des ‘multiparts’, mais
          elles contiennent des sous-parties.  ‘is_multipart()’ renvoie
          ‘True’ et ‘walk’ descend dans les sous-parties.

     Les objets *note Message: 279. peuvent aussi éventuellement
     contenir deux attributs d'instance, qui peuvent être utilisés lors
     de la génération du texte brut d'un message MIME.

      -- Attribut: preamble

          Le format d'un document MIME permet d'insérer du texte entre
          la ligne vide suivant les en-têtes et la première chaîne de
          délimitation en plusieurs parties.  Normalement, ce texte
          n'est jamais visible dans un lecteur de courrier compatible
          MIME car il ne fait pas partie du cadre MIME standard.
          Toutefois, lors de l'affichage du texte brut du message ou
          lors de l'affichage du message dans un lecteur non compatible
          MIME, ce texte peut devenir visible.

          L'attribut 'preamble' contient ce texte hors-cadre de tête
          pour les documents MIME. Lorsque *note Parser: 117e. découvre
          du texte après les en-têtes mais avant la première chaîne de
          délimitation, il attribue ce texte à l'attribut 'preamble' du
          message.  Lorsque *note Generator: 11ad. écrit la
          représentation en texte brut d'un message MIME, et qu'il
          trouve que le message a un attribut 'preamble', il écrit ce
          texte dans la zone entre les en-têtes et la première
          frontière.  Voir *note email.parser: 4e. et *note
          email.generator: 40. pour plus de détails.

          Notez que si l'objet message n'a pas de préambule, l'attribut
          'preamble' est ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: epilogue

          L'attribut 'epilogue' agit de la même manière que l'attribut
          'preamble', sauf qu'il contient du texte qui apparaît entre la
          dernière limite et la fin du message.

          Vous n'avez pas besoin de définir l'épilogue sur la chaîne
          vide pour que *note Generator: 11ad. imprime une nouvelle
          ligne à la fin du fichier.

      -- Attribut: defects

          L'attribut 'defects' contient une liste de tous les problèmes
          rencontrés lors de l'analyse de ce message.  Voir *note
          email.errors: 3f. pour une description détaillée des défauts
          d'analyse possibles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Next: email header Internationalized headers,  Prev: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.14 ‘email.mime’: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
....................................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/mime/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fait partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (‘Compat32’).  Sa
fonctionnalité est partiellement remplacée par le *note contentmanager:
3d. dans la nouvelle API mais, dans certaines applications, ces classes
peuvent toujours être utiles, même dans du code pas si ancien.

Habituellement, vous obtenez une structure d'objet message en passant un
fichier ou du texte à un analyseur, qui analyse le texte et renvoie
l'objet message racine.  Cependant, vous pouvez également créer une
structure de message complète à partir de zéro, ou même des objets
individuels *note Message: 279. à la main.  En fait, vous pouvez
également prendre une structure existante et ajouter de nouveaux objets
*note Message: 279, les déplacer, etc.  Cela crée une interface très
pratique pour découper et manipuler chaque morceau de messages MIME.

Vous pouvez créer une nouvelle structure d'objet en créant des instances
*note Message: 279, en ajoutant manuellement les pièces jointes et tous
les en-têtes appropriés.  Pour les messages MIME cependant, le paquet
*note email: 3b. fournit quelques sous-classes pratiques pour faciliter
les choses.

Voici les classes :

 -- Classe: email.mime.base.MIMEBase (_maintype, _subtype, *,
          policy=compat32, **_params)

     Module : *note email.mime.base: 48.

     C'est la classe mère pour toutes les sous-classes spécifiques à
     MIME de *note Message: 279.  Normalement, vous ne créerez pas
     d'instances spécifiques de *note MIMEBase: 35de, bien que cela soit
     possible.  *note MIMEBase: 35de. est fourni principalement comme
     une classe mère pratique pour des sous-classes plus spécifiques
     compatibles MIME.

     '_maintype' est le type majeur du ‘Content-Type’ (par exemple
     ‘text’ ou ‘image’) et '_subtype' est le type mineur du
     ‘Content-Type’ (par exemple, ‘plain’ ou ‘gif’).  '_params' est un
     paramètre dictionnaire clé-valeur et est transmis directement à
     *note Message.add_header: 35c7.

     Si 'policy' est spécifiée, (par défaut la politique *note compat32:
     1098.) elle est passée à *note Message: 279.

     La classe *note MIMEBase: 35de. ajoute toujours un en-tête
     ‘Content-Type’ (basé sur '_maintype', '_subtype' et '_params') et
     un en-tête ‘MIME-Version’ (toujours défini à ‘1.0’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

 -- Classe: email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart

     Module : *note email.mime.nonmultipart: 4c.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMEBase: 35de, c'est une classe mère
     intermédiaire pour les messages MIME qui ne sont pas ‘multipart’.
     Le but principal de cette classe est d'empêcher l'utilisation de la
     méthode *note attach(): 3530, qui n'a de sens que pour les messages
     ‘multipart’.  Si *note attach(): 3530. est appelée, une exception
     *note MultipartConversionError: 3574. est levée.

 -- Classe: email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart (_subtype='mixed',
          boundary=None, _subparts=None, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

     Module : *note email.mime.multipart: 4b.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMEBase: 35de, c'est une classe mère
     intermédiaire pour les messages MIME qui sont ‘multipart’.
     '_subtype' (facultatif) est par défaut ‘mixed’, mais peut être
     utilisé pour spécifier le sous-type du message.  Un en-tête
     ‘Content-Type’ de ‘multipart/_subtype’ sera ajouté à l'objet
     message.  Un en-tête ‘MIME-Version’ sera également ajouté.

     'boundary' (facultatif) est la chaîne de délimitation en plusieurs
     parties.  Si elle vaut ‘None’ (la valeur par défaut), la
     délimitation est calculée au besoin (par exemple, lorsque le
     message est sérialisé).

     '_subparts' est une séquence de sous-parties initiales pour la
     charge utile.  Il doit être possible de convertir cette séquence en
     une liste.  Vous pouvez toujours joindre de nouvelles sous-parties
     au message en utilisant la méthode *note Message.attach: 3530.

     L'argument facultatif 'policy' est par défaut *note compat32: 1098.

     Des paramètres supplémentaires pour l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’ sont
     extraits des arguments nommés ou passés à l'argument '_params', qui
     est un dictionnaire de mots-clés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

 -- Classe: email.mime.application.MIMEApplication (_data,
          _subtype='octet-stream',
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module : *note email.mime.application: 46.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575, la classe *note
     MIMEApplication: 35e0. est utilisée pour représenter les objets de
     message MIME de type principal ‘application’.  '_data' contient les
     octets pour les données d'application brutes.  L'option '_subtype'
     spécifie le sous-type MIME et la valeur par défaut est
     ‘octet-stream’.

     '_encoder' (facultatif) est un appelable (c'est-à-dire une
     fonction) qui effectue le codage réel des données pour le
     transport.  Cet appelable prend un argument, qui est l'instance
     *note MIMEApplication: 35e0.  Il doit utiliser *note get_payload():
     11ac. et *note set_payload(): 35bb. pour modifier la charge utile
     sous forme codée.  Il doit également ajouter n'importe quel
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ ou d'autres en-têtes à l'objet message
     si nécessaire.  L'encodage par défaut est base64.  Voir le module
     *note email.encoders: 3e. pour une liste des encodeurs intégrés.

     L'argument facultatif 'policy' est par défaut *note compat32: 1098.

     Les '_params' sont transmis directement au constructeur de la
     classe mère.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

 -- Classe: email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio (_audiodata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module : *note email.mime.audio: 47.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575, la classe *note
     MIMEAudio: 35e1. est utilisée pour créer des objets de message MIME
     de type majeur ‘audio’.  '_audiodata' contient les octets pour les
     données audio brutes.  Si ces données peuvent être décodées au
     format 'au', 'wav', 'aiff' ou 'aifc', alors le sous-type est
     automatiquement inclus dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.  Sinon, vous
     pouvez spécifier explicitement le sous-type audio via l'argument
     '_subtype'.  Si le type mineur n'a pas pu être deviné et que
     '_subtype' n'a pas été donné, alors une *note TypeError: 525. est
     levée.

     '_encoder' (facultatif) est un appelable (c'est-à-dire une
     fonction) qui effectue le codage réel des données audio pour le
     transport.  Cet appelable prend un argument, qui est l'instance
     *note MIMEAudio: 35e1.  Il doit utiliser *note get_payload(): 11ac.
     et *note set_payload(): 35bb. pour modifier la charge utile sous
     forme codée.  Il doit également ajouter n'importe quel
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ ou d'autres en-têtes à l'objet message
     si nécessaire.  L'encodage par défaut est base64.  Voir le module
     *note email.encoders: 3e. pour une liste des encodeurs intégrés.

     L'argument facultatif 'policy' est par défaut *note compat32: 1098.

     Les '_params' sont transmis directement au constructeur de la
     classe mère.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

 -- Classe: email.mime.image.MIMEImage (_imagedata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module : *note email.mime.image: 49.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575, la classe *note
     MIMEImage: 3576. est utilisée pour créer des objets de message MIME
     de type principal ‘image’.  '_imagedata' contient les octets pour
     les données d'image brutes.  Si ce type de données peut être
     détecté ('jpeg', 'png', 'gif', 'tiff', 'rgb', 'pbm', 'pgm', 'ppm',
     'rast', 'xbm', 'bmp', 'webp' et 'exr' sont essayés), alors le
     sous-type est automatiquement inclus dans l'en-tête ‘Content-Type’.
     Sinon, vous pouvez spécifier explicitement le sous-type d'image via
     l'argument '_subtype'.  Si le type mineur n'a pas pu être deviné et
     que '_subtype' n'a pas été donné, alors une *note TypeError: 525.
     est levée.

     '_encoder' (facultatif) est un appelable (c'est-à-dire une
     fonction) qui effectue le codage réel des données d'image pour le
     transport.  Cet appelable prend un argument, qui est l'instance
     *note MIMEImage: 3576.  Il doit utiliser *note get_payload(): 11ac.
     et *note set_payload(): 35bb. pour modifier la charge utile sous
     forme codée.  Il doit également ajouter n'importe quel
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ ou d'autres en-têtes à l'objet message
     si nécessaire.  L'encodage par défaut est base64.  Voir le module
     *note email.encoders: 3e. pour une liste des encodeurs intégrés.

     L'argument facultatif 'policy' est par défaut *note compat32: 1098.

     Les '_params' sont transmis directement au constructeur *note
     MIMEBase: 35de.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

 -- Classe: email.mime.message.MIMEMessage (_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *,
          policy=compat32)

     Module : *note email.mime.message: 4a.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575, la classe *note
     MIMEMessage: 35e2. est utilisée pour créer des objets MIME de type
     principal ‘message’.  '_msg' est utilisé comme charge utile et doit
     être une instance de la classe *note Message: 279. (ou une
     sous-classe de celle-ci), sinon une *note TypeError: 525. est
     levée.

     L'option '_subtype' définit le sous-type du message ; par défaut
     c'est ‘rfc822’.

     L'argument facultatif 'policy' est par défaut *note compat32: 1098.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

 -- Classe: email.mime.text.MIMEText (_text, _subtype='plain',
          _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)

     Module : *note email.mime.text: 4d.

     Sous-classe de *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575, la classe *note
     MIMEText: de8. est utilisée pour créer des objets MIME de type
     principal ‘text’.  '_text' est la chaîne de la charge utile.
     '_subtype' est le type mineur et par défaut est ‘plain’.
     '_charset' est le jeu de caractères du texte et est passé en
     argument au constructeur *note MIMENonMultipart: 3575. ; sa valeur
     par défaut est ‘us-ascii’ si la chaîne ne contient que des points
     de code ‘ascii’, et ‘utf-8’ sinon.  Le paramètre '_charset' accepte
     soit une chaîne soit une instance *note Charset: de9.

     À moins que l'argument '_charset' ne soit explicitement défini sur
     ‘None’, l'objet 'MIMEText' créé possède à la fois un en-tête
     ‘Content-Type’ avec un paramètre ‘charset’ et un en-tête
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  Cela signifie qu'un appel ultérieur à
     ‘set_payload’ n'entraîne pas l'encodage de la charge utile, même si
     un jeu de caractères est passé dans la commande ‘set_payload’.
     Vous pouvez « réinitialiser » ce comportement en supprimant
     l'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, après quoi un appel
     ‘set_payload’ encodera automatiquement la nouvelle charge utile (et
     ajoutera un nouvel en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’).

     L'argument facultatif 'policy' est par défaut *note compat32: 1098.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: '_charset' accepte également les
     instances *note Charset: de9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé 'policy'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/mime/


File: python.info,  Node: email header Internationalized headers,  Next: email charset Representing character sets,  Prev: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.15 ‘email.header’: Internationalized headers
...................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/headers.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fait partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (‘Compat32’).
Dans l'API actuelle, l'encodage et le décodage des en-têtes sont gérés
de manière transparente par l'API de type dictionnaire de la classe
*note EmailMessage: 278.  En plus des utilisations dans de l'ancien
code, ce module peut être utile dans les applications qui doivent
contrôler complètement les jeux de caractères utilisés lors de
l'encodage des en-têtes.

Le texte restant de cette section est la documentation originale de ce
module.

La RFC 2822(2) est la norme de base qui décrit le format des messages
électroniques.  Elle dérive de l'ancienne norme RFC 822(3) qui s'est
généralisée à une époque où la plupart des e-mails étaient composés
uniquement de caractères ASCII. La RFC 2822(4) est une spécification
écrite en supposant que le courrier électronique ne contient que des
caractères ASCII 7 bits.

Bien sûr, à mesure que le courrier électronique a été déployé dans le
monde, il s'est internationalisé, de sorte que des jeux de caractères
spécifiques à une langue peuvent désormais être utilisés dans les
messages électroniques.  La norme de base exige toujours que les
messages électroniques soient transférés en utilisant uniquement des
caractères ASCII 7 bits, de sorte qu'un grand nombre de RFC décrivent
comment encoder les e-mails contenant des caractères non ASCII dans le
format conforme à la RFC 2822(5).  Ces RFC incluent la RFC 2045(6), la
RFC 2046(7), la RFC 2047(8) et la RFC 2231(9).  Le paquet *note email:
3b. gère ces normes dans ses modules *note email.header: 41. et *note
email.charset: 3c.

Si vous souhaitez inclure des caractères non-ASCII dans les en-têtes de
vos e-mails, par exemple dans les champs ‘Subject’ ou ‘To’, vous devez
utiliser la classe *note Header: 1866. et affecter le champ dans le
*note Message: 279. à une instance de *note Header: 1866. au lieu
d'utiliser une chaîne pour la valeur de l'en-tête.  Importez la classe
*note Header: 1866. du module *note email.header: 41.  Par exemple :

     >>> from email.message import Message
     >>> from email.header import Header
     >>> msg = Message()
     >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
     >>> msg['Subject'] = h
     >>> msg.as_string()
     'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'

Remarquez ici comment nous voulions que le champ ‘Subject’ contienne un
caractère non-ASCII : nous avons créé une instance *note Header: 1866.
et transmis le jeu de caractères dans lequel la chaîne d'octets était
encodée.  Lorsque l'instance suivante *note Message: 279. a été aplatie,
le champ ‘Subject’ était correctement encodé selon la RFC 2047(10).  Les
lecteurs de courrier compatibles MIME afficheraient cet en-tête en
utilisant le caractère ISO-8859-1 intégré.

Voici la description de la classe *note Header: 1866. :

 -- Classe: email.header.Header (s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')

     Crée un en-tête compatible MIME pouvant contenir des chaînes dans
     différents jeux de caractères.

     's' (facultatif) est la valeur d'en-tête initiale.  S'il vaut
     ‘None’ (valeur par défaut), la valeur d'en-tête initiale n'est pas
     définie.  Vous pouvez ensuite ajouter des choses à l'en-tête avec
     des appels de méthode *note append(): 35e5.  's' peut être une
     instance de *note bytes: 1bd. ou *note str: 437, mais consultez la
     documentation *note append(): 35e5. pour la sémantique.

     L'option 'charset' sert à deux fins : elle a la même signification
     que l'argument 'charset' de la méthode *note append(): 35e5.  Elle
     définit également le jeu de caractères par défaut pour tous les
     appels suivants *note append(): 35e5. qui omettent l'argument
     'charset'.  Si 'charset' n'est pas fourni dans le constructeur (par
     défaut), le jeu de caractères ‘us-ascii’ est utilisé à la fois
     comme jeu de caractères initial de 's' et comme jeu par défaut pour
     les appels suivants à *note append(): 35e5.

     The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via
     'maxlinelen'.  For splitting the first line to a shorter value (to
     account for the field header which isn't included in 's', e.g.
     ‘Subject’) pass in the name of the field in 'header_name'.  The
     default 'maxlinelen' is 78, and the default value for 'header_name'
     is ‘None’, meaning it is not taken into account for the first line
     of a long, split header.

     'continuation_ws' (facultatif) doit être conforme aux caractères de
     reformatage RFC 2822(11) ; c'est généralement soit une espace, soit
     un caractère de tabulation fixe.  Ce caractère est ajouté aux
     lignes de continuation.  'continuation_ws' utilise par défaut une
     seule espace.

     'errors' (facultatif) est transmis directement à la méthode *note
     append(): 35e5.

      -- Méthode: append (s, charset=None, errors='strict')

          Ajoute la chaîne 's' à l'en-tête MIME.

          Le 'charset' facultatif, s'il est fourni, doit être une
          instance de *note Charset: de9. (voir *note email.charset:
          3c.) ou le nom d'un jeu de caractères, qui est converti en une
          instance *note Charset: de9.  Une valeur ‘None’ (la valeur par
          défaut) signifie que le 'charset' donné dans le constructeur
          est utilisé.

          's' peut être une instance de *note bytes: 1bd. ou *note str:
          437.  S'il s'agit d'une instance de *note bytes: 1bd, alors
          'charset' est l'encodage de cette chaîne d'octets et une *note
          UnicodeError: 1283. est levée si la chaîne ne peut pas être
          décodée avec ce jeu de caractères.

          Si 's' est une instance de *note str: 437, alors 'charset' est
          une indication spécifiant le jeu de caractères des caractères
          de la chaîne.

          Dans les deux cas, lors de la production d'un en-tête conforme
          à la RFC 2822(12) à l'aide des règles RFC 2047(13), la chaîne
          est encodée à l'aide du codec de sortie du jeu de caractères.
          Si la chaîne ne peut pas être encodée à l'aide du codec de
          sortie, une erreur 'UnicodeError' est levée.

          L'option 'errors' est transmise comme argument d'erreurs à
          l'appel de décodage si 's' est une chaîne d'octets.

      -- Méthode: encode (splitchars=';, \t', maxlinelen=None,
               linesep='\n')

          Encode un en-tête de message dans un format conforme à la RFC,
          en reformatant éventuellement de longues lignes et en
          encapsulant des parties non ASCII dans des encodages base64 ou
          dits 'quoted-printable' (c.-à-d.  que, par exemple, les
          caractères non ASCII sont représentés par un signe égal, suivi
          de son numéro, exprimé en hexadécimal).

          'splitchars' (facultatif) est une chaîne contenant des
          caractères auxquels l'algorithme de fractionnement doit donner
          un poids supplémentaire lors du reformatage normal de
          l'en-tête.  Il s'agit d'une prise en charge très approximative
          des « ruptures syntaxiques de niveau supérieur » de la RFC
          2822(14) : les points de séparation précédés d'un caractère de
          séparation sont préférés lors de la séparation des lignes, les
          caractères étant préférés dans l'ordre dans lequel ils
          apparaissent dans la chaîne.  Une espace et une tabulation
          peuvent être incluses dans la chaîne pour indiquer si la
          préférence doit être donnée à l'une plutôt qu'à l'autre comme
          point de partage lorsque d'autres caractères fractionnés
          n'apparaissent pas dans la ligne fractionnée.  'splitchars'
          n'affecte pas les lignes encodées selon la RFC 2047(15).

          'maxlinelen', s'il est fourni, remplace la valeur de
          l'instance pour la longueur de ligne maximale.

          'linesep' spécifie les caractères utilisés pour séparer les
          lignes de l'en-tête plié.  Il prend par défaut la valeur la
          plus utile pour le code d'application Python (‘\n’), mais
          ‘\r\n’ peut être spécifié afin de produire des en-têtes avec
          des séparateurs de ligne conformes à la RFC.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout de l'argument 'linesep'.

     La classe *note Header: 1866. fournit également un certain nombre
     de méthodes pour prendre en charge les opérateurs standard et les
     fonctions intégrées.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          Renvoie une approximation de *note Header: 1866. sous forme de
          chaîne, en utilisant une longueur de ligne illimitée.  Toutes
          les parties sont converties en Unicode en utilisant l'encodage
          spécifié et réunies de manière appropriée.  Tous les morceaux
          avec un 'charset' à ‘'unknown-8bit'’ sont décodés en ASCII en
          utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘'replace'’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout de la gestion du jeu de
          caractères ‘'unknown-8bit'’.

      -- Méthode: __eq__ (other)

          Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'égalité de deux
          instances de *note Header: 1866.

      -- Méthode: __ne__ (other)

          Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'inégalité de deux
          instances de *note Header: 1866.

Le module *note email.header: 41. fournit également les fonctions
pratiques suivantes.

 -- Fonction: email.header.decode_header (header)

     Décode une valeur d'en-tête de message sans convertir le jeu de
     caractères.  La valeur de l'en-tête est dans 'header'.

     Cette fonction renvoie une liste de paires ‘(decoded_string,
     charset)’ contenant chacune des parties décodées de l'en-tête.
     'charset' est ‘None’ pour les parties non encodées de l'en-tête,
     sinon une chaîne en minuscules contenant le nom du jeu de
     caractères spécifié dans la chaîne encodée.

     Voici un exemple :

          >>> from email.header import decode_header
          >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
          [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]

 -- Fonction: email.header.make_header (decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')

     Crée une instance *note Header: 1866. à partir d'une séquence de
     paires renvoyées par *note decode_header(): 109c.

     *note decode_header(): 109c. prend une chaîne de valeur d'en-tête
     et renvoie une séquence de paires au format ‘(decoded_string,
     charset)’ où 'charset' est le nom du jeu de caractères.

     Cette fonction prend l'une de ces séquences de paires et renvoie
     une instance *note Header: 1866.  'maxlinelen', 'header_name' et
     'continuation_ws' (facultatifs) s'utilisent comme dans le
     constructeur *note Header: 1866.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/headers.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html


File: python.info,  Node: email charset Representing character sets,  Next: email encoders Encoders,  Prev: email header Internationalized headers,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.16 ‘email.charset’: Representing character sets
......................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/charset.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fait partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (‘Compat32’).
Dans la nouvelle API, seule la table des alias est utilisée.

Le texte restant de cette section est la documentation originale de ce
module.

Ce module fournit une classe *note Charset: de9. pour représenter les
jeux de caractères et les conversions de jeux de caractères dans les
messages électroniques, ainsi qu'un registre de jeux de caractères et
plusieurs méthodes pratiques pour manipuler ce registre.  Les instances
de *note Charset: de9. sont utilisées dans plusieurs autres modules du
paquet *note email: 3b.

Importez cette classe depuis le module *note email.charset: 3c.

 -- Classe: email.charset.Charset (input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)

     Associe les jeux de caractères à leurs propriétés d'e-mail.

     Cette classe fournit des informations sur les exigences imposées
     aux e-mails pour un jeu de caractères spécifique.  Elle fournit
     également des routines pratiques pour la conversion entre les jeux
     de caractères, compte tenu de la disponibilité des codecs
     applicables.  Étant donné un jeu de caractères, elle fait de son
     mieux pour fournir des informations sur la façon d'utiliser ce jeu
     de caractères dans un message électronique d'une manière conforme à
     la RFC.

     Certains jeux de caractères doivent être encodés avec
     'quoted-printable' ou en 'base64' lorsqu'ils sont utilisés dans les
     en-têtes ou les corps des e-mails.  Certains jeux de caractères
     doivent être convertis directement et ne sont pas autorisés dans
     les e-mails.

     Le 'input_charset' facultatif est tel que décrit ci-dessous ; il
     est toujours contraint en minuscules.  Après avoir été normalisé
     par alias, il est également utilisé comme recherche dans le
     registre des jeux de caractères pour trouver le codage d'en-tête,
     le codage de corps et le codec de conversion de sortie à utiliser
     pour le jeu de caractères.  Par exemple, si 'input_charset' vaut
     ‘iso-8859-1’, alors les en-têtes et les corps seront encodés en
     utilisant 'quoted-printable' et aucun codec de conversion de sortie
     n'est nécessaire.  Si 'input_charset' vaut ‘euc-jp’, alors les
     en-têtes seront encodés en 'base64', les corps ne seront pas
     encodés, mais le texte de sortie sera converti du jeu de caractères
     ‘euc-jp’ vers le jeu de caractères ‘iso-2022-jp’.

     Les instances de *note Charset: de9. ont les attributs de données
     suivants :

      -- Attribut: input_charset

          Jeu de caractères initial spécifié.  Les alias communs sont
          convertis en leurs noms de messagerie 'officiels' (par
          exemple, ‘latin_1’ est converti en ‘iso-8859-1’).  Par défaut,
          ‘us-ascii’ 7 bits.

      -- Attribut: header_encoding

          If the character set must be encoded before it can be used in
          an email header, this attribute will be set to ‘charset.QP’
          (for quoted-printable), ‘charset.BASE64’ (for base64
          encoding), or ‘charset.SHORTEST’ for the shortest of QP or
          BASE64 encoding.  Otherwise, it will be ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: body_encoding

          Same as 'header_encoding', but describes the encoding for the
          mail message's body, which indeed may be different than the
          header encoding.  ‘charset.SHORTEST’ is not allowed for
          'body_encoding'.

      -- Attribut: output_charset

          Certains jeux de caractères doivent être convertis avant de
          pouvoir être utilisés dans les en-têtes ou le corps des
          e-mails.  Si le 'input_charset' est un jeu de ce type, alors
          cet attribut contient le nom du jeu de caractères vers lequel
          la sortie sera convertie.  Sinon, il vaut ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: input_codec

          Nom du codec Python utilisé pour convertir le 'input_charset'
          en Unicode.  Si aucun codec de conversion n'est nécessaire,
          cet attribut vaut ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: output_codec

          Nom du codec Python utilisé pour convertir Unicode en
          'output_charset'.  Si aucun codec de conversion n'est
          nécessaire, cet attribut a la même valeur que le
          'input_codec'.

     Les instances de *note Charset: de9. ont également les méthodes
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: get_body_encoding ()

          Renvoie l'encodage de transfert de contenu utilisé pour
          l'encodage du corps.

          Il s'agit soit de la chaîne ‘quoted-printable’ ou ‘base64’
          selon l'encodage utilisé, soit d'une fonction, vous devez
          alors appeler la fonction avec un seul argument, l'objet
          Message étant encodé.  La fonction doit ensuite définir
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ à la valeur appropriée.

          Renvoie la chaîne ‘quoted-printable’ si 'body_encoding' est
          ‘QP’, renvoie la chaîne ‘base64’ si 'body_encoding' est
          ‘BASE64’ et renvoie la chaîne ‘7bit’ sinon.

      -- Méthode: get_output_charset ()

          Renvoie le jeu de caractères de sortie.

          C'est l'attribut 'output_charset' si ce n'est pas ‘None’,
          sinon c'est 'input_charset'.

      -- Méthode: header_encode (string)

          Encode la chaîne 'string' pour un en-tête.

          Le type d'encodage ('base64' ou 'quoted-printable') est basé
          sur l'attribut 'header_encoding'.

      -- Méthode: header_encode_lines (string, maxlengths)

          Encode 'string' en la convertissant d'abord en octets, pour un
          en-tête.

          C'est similaire à *note header_encode(): 35f4. sauf que la
          chaîne est adaptée aux longueurs de ligne maximales indiquées
          par l'argument 'maxlengths', qui doit être un itérateur :
          chaque élément renvoyé par cet itérateur fournit la prochaine
          longueur de ligne maximale.

      -- Méthode: body_encode (string)

          Encode la chaîne 'string' pour un usage en corps de message.

          Le type d'encodage ('base64' ou 'quoted-printable') est basé
          sur l'attribut 'body_encoding'.

     La classe *note Charset: de9. fournit également un certain nombre
     de méthodes pour prendre en charge les opérations standard et les
     fonctions intégrées.

      -- Méthode: __str__ ()

          Returns 'input_charset' as a string coerced to lower case.
          ‘__repr__()’ is an alias for ‘__str__()’.

      -- Méthode: __eq__ (other)

          Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'égalité de deux
          instances de *note Charset: de9.

      -- Méthode: __ne__ (other)

          Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'inégalité de deux
          instances de *note Charset: de9.

Le module *note email.charset: 3c. fournit également les fonctions
suivantes pour ajouter de nouvelles entrées à l'ensemble des jeux de
caractères globaux, aux registres d'alias et de codec :

 -- Fonction: email.charset.add_charset (charset, header_enc=None,
          body_enc=None, output_charset=None)

     Ajoute des propriétés relatives d'un jeu de caractères dans le
     registre global.

     'charset' est le jeu de caractères d'entrée et doit être le nom
     canonique d'un jeu de caractères.

     Optional 'header_enc' and 'body_enc' is either ‘charset.QP’ for
     quoted-printable, ‘charset.BASE64’ for base64 encoding,
     ‘charset.SHORTEST’ for the shortest of quoted-printable or base64
     encoding, or ‘None’ for no encoding.  ‘SHORTEST’ is only valid for
     'header_enc'.  The default is ‘None’ for no encoding.

     'output_charset' (facultatif) est le jeu de caractères dans lequel
     doit être la sortie.  Les conversions se poursuivent du jeu de
     caractères d'entrée, vers Unicode, vers le jeu de caractères de
     sortie lorsque la méthode ‘Charset.convert()’ est appelée.  La
     valeur par défaut est de sortir dans le même jeu de caractères que
     l'entrée.

     'input_charset' et 'output_charset' doivent avoir des entrées de
     codec Unicode dans la table de correspondances du jeu de caractères
     au codec du module ; utilisez *note add_codec(): 35fb. pour ajouter
     des codecs que le module ne connaît pas.  Voir la documentation du
     module *note codecs: 1b. pour plus d'informations.

     Le registre de jeux de caractères global est conservé dans le
     dictionnaire global du module ‘CHARSETS’.

 -- Fonction: email.charset.add_alias (alias, canonical)

     Ajoute un alias de jeu de caractères.  'alias' est le nom d'alias,
     par ex.  ‘latin-1’.  'canonical' est le nom canonique du jeu de
     caractères, par ex.  ‘iso-8859-1’.

     Le registre global des alias du jeu de caractères est conservé dans
     le dictionnaire global du module ‘ALIASES’.

 -- Fonction: email.charset.add_codec (charset, codecname)

     Ajoute un codec qui fait correspondre les caractères du jeu de
     caractères donné vers et depuis Unicode.

     'charset' est le nom canonique d'un jeu de caractères.  'codecname'
     est le nom d'un codec Python (c.-à-d.  une valeur valable comme
     second argument de la méthode *note encode(): 8c4. de *note str:
     437.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/charset.py


File: python.info,  Node: email encoders Encoders,  Next: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Prev: email charset Representing character sets,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.17 ‘email.encoders’: Encoders
....................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/encoders.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fait partie du code patrimonial (‘Compat32’) de l'API mail.
Dans la nouvelle API la fonctionnalité est fournie par le paramètre
'cte' de la méthode *note set_content(): 1865.

Ce module est obsolète en Python 3.  Il n'est pas de besoin d'appeler
explicitement les fonctions définies ici puisque la classe *note
MIMEText: de8. ajuste le type de contenu et l'entête CTE à l'aide des
paramètres '_subtype' et '_charset' de son constructeur.

Le texte restant de cette section est la documentation originale de ce
module.

Au moment de la création d'objets *note Message: 279. à la main, il est
souvent nécessaire d'encoder les charges utiles pour le transport à
travers des serveurs mail conformes.  C'est particulièrement vrai pour
les messages de type ‘image/*’ et ‘text/*’ contenant des données
binaires.

The *note email: 3b. package provides some convenient encoders in its
*note encoders: 3e. module.  These encoders are actually used by the
*note MIMEAudio: 35e1. and *note MIMEImage: 3576. class constructors to
provide default encodings.  All encoder functions take exactly one
argument, the message object to encode.  They usually extract the
payload, encode it, and reset the payload to this newly encoded value.
They should also set the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header as
appropriate.

À noter que ces fonctions n'ont pas de sens dans le cadre d'un message
en plusieurs parties.  Elles doivent à la place être appliquées aux
sous-parties individuelles, et lèvent *note TypeError: 525. si on leur
passe un message en plusieurs parties.

Voici les fonctions d'encodages fournies :

 -- Fonction: email.encoders.encode_quopri (msg)

     Encode la charge utile au format Quoted-Printable, et assigne
     ‘quoted-printable’ (2) à l'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
     C'est un bon encodage à utiliser quand la majorité de la charge
     utile contient essentiellement des données imprimables, à
     l'exceptions de quelques caractères.

 -- Fonction: email.encoders.encode_base64 (msg)

     Encode la charge utile au format 'base64', et assigne ‘base64’ à
     l'en-tête ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  C'est un bon encodage à
     utiliser quand la majorité de la charge utile est non imprimable
     puisque c'est une forme plus compacte que 'quoted-printable'.

 -- Fonction: email.encoders.encode_7or8bit (msg)

     Ceci ne modifie pas effectivement la charge utile du message, mais
     va bien en revanche assigner la valeur ‘7bit’ ou ‘8bit’ à l'en-tête
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ selon la nature de la charge utile.

 -- Fonction: email.encoders.encode_noop (msg)

     Ceci ne fait rien; et ne va même pas changer la valeur de l'en-tête
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/encoders.py

   (2) À noter que l'encodage avec *note encode_quopri(): 35ff. encode
également tous les caractères tabulation et espace.


File: python.info,  Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Next: email iterators Iterators,  Prev: email encoders Encoders,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.18 ‘email.utils’: Miscellaneous utilities
................................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/utils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Il y a quelques utilitaires utiles fournis dans le module *note
email.utils: 50. :

 -- Fonction: email.utils.localtime (dt=None)

     Return local time as an aware datetime object.  If called without
     arguments, return current time.  Otherwise 'dt' argument should be
     a *note datetime: 1c7. instance, and it is converted to the local
     time zone according to the system time zone database.  If 'dt' is
     naive (that is, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is ‘None’), it is assumed to be in
     local time.  The 'isdst' parameter is ignored.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     'isdst' parameter.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.make_msgid (idstring=None, domain=None)

     Renvoie une chaîne adaptée à un en-tête ‘Message-ID’ compatible RFC
     2822(2).  'idstring', s'il est fourni, est une chaîne utilisée pour
     renforcer l'unicité de l'identifiant du message.  Le 'domain'
     facultatif, s'il est fourni, fournit la partie du 'msgid' après le
     '@'.  La valeur par défaut est le nom d'hôte local.  Il n'est
     normalement pas nécessaire de remplacer cette valeur par défaut,
     mais cela peut être utile dans certains cas, comme la construction
     d'un système distribué qui utilise un nom de domaine cohérent sur
     plusieurs hôtes.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout du mot-clé 'domaine'.

Les fonctions restantes font partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie
(‘Compat32’).  Il n'est pas nécessaire de les utiliser directement avec
la nouvelle API, car l'analyse et le formatage qu'elles fournissent sont
effectués automatiquement par le mécanisme d'analyse d'en-tête de la
nouvelle API.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.quote (str)

     Renvoie une nouvelle chaîne avec les barres obliques inverses
     ('backslash') dans 'str' remplacées par deux barres obliques
     inverses et les guillemets doubles remplacés par des guillemets
     doubles échappés par une barre oblique inverse.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.unquote (str)

     Renvoie une nouvelle chaîne qui est une version 'sans guillemets'
     de 'str'.  Si 'str' se termine et commence par des guillemets
     doubles, ils sont supprimés.  De même, si 'str' est encadrée par
     des chevrons mathématiques, ils sont supprimés.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.parseaddr (address, *, strict=True)

     Analyse l'adresse – qui devrait être la valeur d'un champ contenant
     une adresse tel que ‘To’ ou ‘Cc’ – dans ses parties constituantes
     'realname' et 'email address'.  Renvoie un 'n'-uplet de cette
     information, sauf si l'analyse échoue, alors un couple ‘('', '')’
     est renvoyé.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add 'strict' optional parameter and
     reject malformed inputs by default.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.formataddr (pair, charset='utf-8')

     L'inverse de *note parseaddr(): 1df, elle prend un couple de la
     forme ‘(realname, email_address)’ et renvoie la valeur de chaîne
     appropriée pour un en-tête ‘To’ ou ‘Cc’.  Si le premier élément de
     'pair' s'évalue à faux, alors le deuxième élément est renvoyé sans
     modification.

     Le 'charset' optionnel est le jeu de caractères qui est utilisé
     dans l'encodage RFC 2047(3) du ‘realname’ si le ‘realname’ contient
     des caractères non-ASCII. Cela peut être une instance de *note str:
     437. ou un *note Charset: de9.  La valeur par défaut est ‘utf-8’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout de l'option 'charset'.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.getaddresses (fieldvalues, *, strict=True)

     This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by
     ‘parseaddr()’.  'fieldvalues' is a sequence of header field values
     as might be returned by *note Message.get_all: 35c1.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Here's a simple example that gets all the recipients of a message:

          from email.utils import getaddresses

          tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
          ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
          resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
          resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
          all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add 'strict' optional parameter and
     reject malformed inputs by default.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.parsedate (date)

     Tente d'analyser une date selon les règles de la RFC 2822(4).
     Cependant, certains expéditeurs ne suivent pas ce format comme
     spécifié, donc *note parsedate(): 3607. fait son possible dans de
     tels cas.  'date' est une chaîne contenant une date RFC 2822(5),
     telle que ‘"Mon, 20 Nov 1995 19:12:08 -0500"’.  Si elle réussit à
     analyser la date, *note parsedate(): 3607. renvoie un 9-uplet qui
     peut être passé directement à *note time.mktime(): 11c7. ; sinon
     ‘None’ est renvoyé.  Notez que les indices 6, 7 et 8 du 'n'-uplet
     résultat ne sont pas utilisables.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.parsedate_tz (date)

     Effectue la même fonction que *note parsedate(): 3607, mais renvoie
     soit ‘None’ ou un 10-uplet ; les 9 premiers éléments constituent un
     'n'-uplet qui peut être passé directement à *note time.mktime():
     11c7, et le dixième est le décalage du fuseau horaire de la date
     par rapport à UTC (qui est le terme officiel pour 'Greenwich Mean
     Time') (6).  Si la chaîne d'entrée n'a pas de fuseau horaire, le
     dernier élément du 'n'-uplet renvoyé est ‘0’, qui représente l'UTC.
     Notez que les indices 6, 7 et 8 du 'n'-uplet résultat ne sont pas
     utilisables.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime (date)

     L'inverse de *note format_datetime(): 10a1.  Effectue la même
     fonction que *note parsedate(): 3607. mais, en cas de succès,
     renvoie un *note datetime: 1c7. ; sinon une ‘ValueError’ est levée
     si 'date' contient une valeur invalide telle qu'une heure
     supérieure à 23 ou un décalage de fuseau horaire non compris entre
     −24 et 24 heures.  Si la date d'entrée a un fuseau horaire de
     ‘-0000’, le ‘datetime’ sera un ‘datetime’ naïf, et si la date est
     conforme aux RFC, elle représentera une heure en UTC mais sans
     indication du fuseau horaire source réel du message d'où provient
     la date.  Si la date d'entrée a un autre décalage de fuseau horaire
     valide, le ‘datetime’ sera un ‘datetime’ avisé avec le *note
     timezone: 10a3. *note tzinfo: 5ca. adéquat.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.mktime_tz (tuple)

     Transforme un 10-uplet renvoyé par *note parsedate_tz(): 183b. en
     un horodatage UTC (en secondes depuis 'Epoch').  Si l'élément de
     fuseau horaire dans le 'n'-uplet est ‘None’, elle considère que
     l'heure est locale.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.formatdate (timeval=None, localtime=False,
          usegmt=False)

     Renvoie une chaîne de date conforme à la RFC 2822(7), par exemple :

          Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000

     Optional 'timeval' if given is a floating-point time value as
     accepted by *note time.gmtime(): 119f. and *note time.localtime():
     14b1, otherwise the current time is used.

     L'option 'localtime' est un indicateur qui, lorsqu'il est ‘True’,
     interprète 'timeval' et renvoie une date relative au fuseau horaire
     local au lieu de UTC, en tenant correctement compte de l'heure
     d'été.  La valeur par défaut est ‘False’, ce qui signifie que l'UTC
     est utilisée.

     L'option 'usegmt' est un indicateur qui, lorsqu'il est ‘True’,
     affiche une chaîne de date avec le fuseau horaire sous la forme de
     la chaîne ASCII ‘GMT’, plutôt qu'un ‘-0000’ numérique.  C'est
     nécessaire pour certains protocoles (tels que HTTP). Cela ne
     s'applique que lorsque 'localtime' est ‘False’.  La valeur par
     défaut est ‘False’.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.format_datetime (dt, usegmt=False)

     Comme ‘formatdate’, mais l'entrée est une instance *note datetime:
     30.  S'il s'agit d'un groupe date-heure naïf, il est considéré être
     « UTC sans information sur le fuseau horaire source », et le
     ‘-0000’ conventionnel est utilisé pour le fuseau horaire.  S'il
     s'agit d'un ‘datetime’ avisé, alors le décalage numérique du fuseau
     horaire est utilisé.  S'il s'agit d'un groupe date-heure avisé avec
     un décalage de fuseau horaire de zéro, alors 'usegmt' peut être
     défini sur ‘True’, la chaîne ‘GMT’ est alors utilisée à la place du
     décalage numérique du fuseau horaire.  Cela fournit un moyen de
     générer des en-têtes de date HTTP conformes aux normes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.decode_rfc2231 (s)

     Décode la chaîne 's' selon la RFC 2231(8).

 -- Fonction: email.utils.encode_rfc2231 (s, charset=None,
          language=None)

     Encode la chaîne 's' selon la RFC 2231(9).  'charset' et
     'language', s'ils sont fournis, indiquent le jeu de caractères et
     le nom de la langue à utiliser.  Si aucun n'est donné, 's' est
     renvoyé telle quelle.  Si 'charset' est donné mais que 'language'
     ne l'est pas, la chaîne est encodée en utilisant la chaîne vide
     pour 'language'.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value (value,
          errors='replace', fallback_charset='us-ascii')

     Lorsqu'un paramètre d'en-tête est encodé au format RFC 2231(10),
     *note Message.get_param: 35cf. peut renvoyer un triplet contenant
     le jeu de caractères, la langue et la valeur.  *note
     collapse_rfc2231_value(): 35d0. transforme cela en une chaîne
     Unicode.  'errors' (facultatif) est passé à l'argument 'errors' de
     la méthode *note encode(): 8c4. de *note str: 437. ; sa valeur par
     défaut est ‘'replace'’.  'fallback_charset' (facultatif) spécifie
     le jeu de caractères à utiliser si celui de l'en-tête RFC 2231(11)
     n'est pas connu de Python ; sa valeur par défaut est ‘'us-ascii'’.

     Pour plus de commodité, si la 'valeur' transmise à *note
     collapse_rfc2231_value(): 35d0. n'est pas un 'n'-uplet, ce doit
     être une chaîne et elle est renvoyée sans guillemets.

 -- Fonction: email.utils.decode_params (params)

     Décode la liste des paramètres selon la RFC 2231(12).  'params' est
     une séquence de couples contenant des éléments de la forme
     ‘(content-type, string-value)’.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/utils.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) Notez que le signe du décalage horaire est l'opposé du signe de
la variable ‘time.timezone’ pour le même fuseau horaire ; cette dernière
variable suit la norme POSIX tandis que ce module suit la RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email iterators Iterators,  Prev: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Up: email --- An email and MIME handling package

5.20.1.19 ‘email.iterators’: Iterators
......................................

'Code source :' Lib/email/iterators.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Itérer sur l'arborescence d'un objet message est plutôt simple avec la
méthode *note Message.walk: 35d8.  Le module *note email.iterators: 43.
fournit des fonctionnalités d'itérations de plus haut niveau sur les
arbres d'objets messages.

 -- Fonction: email.iterators.body_line_iterator (msg, decode=False)

     Cette fonction permet d'itérer sur tous les contenus de tous les
     éléments de 'msg', en retournant les contenus sous forme de chaînes
     de caractères ligne par ligne.  Il saute les entêtes des sous
     éléments, et tous les sous éléments dont le contenu n'est pas une
     chaîne de caractères Python.  C'est en quelque sorte équivalent à
     une lecture plate d'une représentation textuelle du message à
     partir d'un fichier en utilisant *note readline(): 1c7b, et en
     sautant toutes les entêtes intermédiaires.

     Le paramètre optionnel 'decode' est transmis à la méthode *note
     Message.get_payload: 11ac.

 -- Fonction: email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator (msg,
          maintype='text', subtype=None)

     Cette fonction permet d'itérer sur tous les sous éléments de 'msg',
     en retournant seulement les sous éléments qui correspondent au type
     MIME spécifié par 'maintype' et 'subtype'.

     Notez que le paramètre 'subtype' est optionnel ; s'il n'est pas
     présent, alors le type MIME du sous élément est seulement composé
     du type principal.  'maintype' est également optionnel ; sa valeur
     par défaut est ‘text’.

     En conséquence, par défaut, *note typed_subpart_iterator(): 360f.
     retourne chaque sous élément qui a un type MIME de type ‘text/*’.

La fonction suivante a été ajouté en tant qu'un outil de débogage.  Elle
'ne devrait pas' être considérée comme une interface publique supportée
pour ce paquet.

 -- Fonction: email.iterators._structure (msg, fp=None, level=0,
          include_default=False)

     Affiche une représentation indentée des types de contenu de la
     structure de l'objet message.  Par exemple :

          >>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
          >>> _structure(msg)
          multipart/mixed
              text/plain
              text/plain
              multipart/digest
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
              text/plain

     Le paramètre optionnel 'fp' est un objet fichier-compatible dans
     lequel on peut écrire le flux de sortie.  Il doit être approprié
     pour la fonction de Python *note print(): f62.  'level' est utilisé
     en interne.  'include_default', si vrai, affiche aussi le type par
     défaut.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note smtplib: c9.

     Client SMTP ('Simple Mail Transport Protocol')

Module *note poplib: ab.

     Client POP ('Post Office Protocol')

Module *note imaplib: 73.

     Client IMAP ('Internet Message Access Protocol')

Module *note mailbox: 8a.

     Outils pour créer, lire et gérer des messages regroupés sur disque
     en utilisant des formats standards variés.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/iterators.py


File: python.info,  Node: json --- JSON encoder and decoder,  Next: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Prev: email --- An email and MIME handling package,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.2 ‘json’ -- JSON encoder and decoder
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/json/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(2), specified by RFC 7159(3) (which
obsoletes RFC 4627(4)) and by ECMA-404(5), is a lightweight data
interchange format inspired by JavaScript(6) object literal syntax
(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript (7) ).

     Avertissement: Be cautious when parsing JSON data from untrusted
     sources.  A malicious JSON string may cause the decoder to consume
     considerable CPU and memory resources.  Limiting the size of data
     to be parsed is recommended.

*note json: 81. fournit une API familière aux utilisateurs des modules
*note marshal: 8c. et *note pickle: a5. de la bibliothèque standard.

Encodage de quelques objets de base Python :

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
     '["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
     >>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
     "\"foo\bar"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
     "\u1234"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
     "\\"
     >>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
     {"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO()
     >>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
     >>> io.getvalue()
     '["streaming API"]'

Encodage compact :

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
     '[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'

Affichage plus lisible :

     >>> import json
     >>> print(json.dumps({'6': 7, '4': 5}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
     {
         "4": 5,
         "6": 7
     }

Specializing JSON object encoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> def custom_json(obj):
     ...     if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...         return {'__complex__': True, 'real': obj.real, 'imag': obj.imag}
     ...     raise TypeError(f'Cannot serialize object of {type(obj)}')
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(1 + 2j, default=custom_json)
     '{"__complex__": true, "real": 1.0, "imag": 2.0}'

Décodage JSON :

     >>> import json
     >>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
     ['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
     >>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
     '"foo\x08ar'
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
     >>> json.load(io)
     ['streaming API']

Spécialisation du décodage JSON pour un objet :

     >>> import json
     >>> def as_complex(dct):
     ...     if '__complex__' in dct:
     ...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
     ...     return dct
     ...
     >>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
     ...     object_hook=as_complex)
     (1+2j)
     >>> import decimal
     >>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
     Decimal('1.1')

Extension de la classe *note JSONEncoder: d36. :

     >>> import json
     >>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
     ...     def default(self, obj):
     ...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
     ...         # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
     ...         return super().default(obj)
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
     ['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']

Utilisation du module *note json.tool: 82. depuis l'invite de commandes
pour valider un flux et l'afficher lisiblement :

     $ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

Voir *note Interface en ligne de commande: 3613. pour une documentation
détaillée.

     Note: JSON is a subset of YAML(8) 1.2.  The JSON produced by this
     module's default settings (in particular, the default 'separators'
     value) is also a subset of YAML 1.0 and 1.1.  This module can thus
     also be used as a YAML serializer.

     Note: Les encodeurs et décodeurs de ce module conservent l'ordre
     d'entrée et de sortie par défaut.  L'ordre n'est perdu que si les
     conteneurs sous-jacents ne sont pas ordonnés.

* Menu:

* Utilisation de base::
* Encodeurs et décodeurs::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<17>.
* Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/json/__init__.py

   (2) https://json.org

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (5) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

   (7) Comme noté dans l'errata de la RFC 7159
(https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159), JSON autorise
les caractères littéraux U+2028 ('LINE SEPARATOR') et U+2029 ('PARAGRAPH
SEPARATOR') dans les chaînes de caractères, alors que Javascript (selon
le standard ECMAScript édition 5.1) ne le permet pas.

   (8) https://yaml.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de base,  Next: Encodeurs et décodeurs,  Up: json --- JSON encoder and decoder

5.20.2.1 Utilisation de base
............................

 -- Fonction: json.dump (obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     Serialize 'obj' as a JSON formatted stream to 'fp' (a
     ‘.write()’-supporting *note file-like object: 2544.) using this
     *note Python-to-JSON conversion table: 3615.

          Note: À l'inverse de *note pickle: a5. et *note marshal: 8c,
          JSON n'est pas un protocole par trames, donc essayer de
          sérialiser plusieurs objets par des appels répétés à *note
          dump(): d34. en utilisant le même 'fp' résulte en un fichier
          JSON invalide.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘obj’ (*note object: a7c.) - The Python object to be
          serialized.

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 2544.) - The file-like object
          'obj' will be serialized to.  The ‘json’ module always
          produces *note str: 437. objects, not *note bytes: 1bd.
          objects, therefore ‘fp.write()’ must support *note str: 437.
          input.

        * ‘skipkeys’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘True’, keys that are not
          of a basic type (*note str: 437, *note int: 254, *note float:
          2ec, *note bool: 453, ‘None’) will be skipped instead of
          raising a *note TypeError: 525.  Default ‘False’.

        * ‘ensure_ascii’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘True’ (the default),
          the output is guaranteed to have all incoming non-ASCII
          characters escaped.  If ‘False’, these characters will be
          outputted as-is.

        * ‘check_circular’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘False’, the circular
          reference check for container types is skipped and a circular
          reference will result in a *note RecursionError: d5b. (or
          worse).  Default ‘True’.

        * ‘allow_nan’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘False’, serialization of
          out-of-range *note float: 2ec. values (‘nan’, ‘inf’, ‘-inf’)
          will result in a *note ValueError: 1ff, in strict compliance
          with the JSON specification.  If ‘True’ (the default), their
          JavaScript equivalents (‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’) are
          used.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONEncoder: d36. subclass) - If set, a custom
          JSON encoder with the *note default(): 3616. method
          overridden, for serializing into custom datatypes.  If ‘None’
          (the default), ‘JSONEncoder’ is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 254.‘ | ’*note str: 437.‘ | ’‘None’) - If
          a positive integer or string, JSON array elements and object
          members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  A
          positive integer indents that many spaces per level; a string
          (such as ‘"\t"’) is used to indent each level.  If zero,
          negative, or ‘""’ (the empty string), only newlines are
          inserted.  If ‘None’ (the default), the most compact
          representation is used.

        * ‘separators’ (*note tuple: 366.‘ | ’‘None’) - A two-tuple:
          ‘(item_separator, key_separator)’.  If ‘None’ (the default),
          'separators' defaults to ‘(', ', ': ')’ if 'indent' is ‘None’,
          and ‘(',', ': ')’ otherwise.  For the most compact JSON,
          specify ‘(',', ':')’ to eliminate whitespace.

        * ‘default’ (*note callable: 28a7. | None) - A function that is
          called for objects that can't otherwise be serialized.  It
          should return a JSON encodable version of the object or raise
          a *note TypeError: 525.  If ‘None’ (the default), ‘TypeError’
          is raised.

        * ‘sort_keys’ (*note bool: 453.) - If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be outputted sorted by key.  Default ‘False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Autorise les chaînes en plus des
     nombres entiers pour 'indent'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Utilise ‘(',', ': ')’ par défaut si
     'indent' n'est pas ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: tous les paramètres optionnels sont
     maintenant des *note keyword-only: 2a2.

 -- Fonction: json.dumps (obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     Sérialise 'obj' en une *note str: 437. formatée en JSON, en
     utilisant cette *note table de conversion: 3615.  Les arguments ont
     la même signification que ceux de *note dump(): d34.

          Note: Les clés dans les couples JSON clé-valeur sont toujours
          de type *note str: 437.  Quand un dictionnaire est converti en
          JSON, toutes les clés du dictionnaire sont transformées en
          chaînes de caractères.  Ce qui fait que si un dictionnaire est
          converti en JSON et reconverti en dictionnaire, le résultat
          peut ne pas être égal à l'original.  Ainsi, ‘loads(dumps(x))
          != x’ si x contient des clés qui ne sont pas des chaînes.

 -- Fonction: json.load (fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     Deserialize 'fp' to a Python object using the *note JSON-to-Python
     conversion table: 3617.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 2544.) - A ‘.read()’-supporting
          *note text file: 1c44. or *note binary file: 1c45. containing
          the JSON document to be deserialized.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONDecoder: d37. subclass) - If set, a custom
          JSON decoder.  Additional keyword arguments to ‘load()’ will
          be passed to the constructor of 'cls'.  If ‘None’ (the
          default), ‘JSONDecoder’ is used.

        * ‘object_hook’ (*note callable: 28a7. | None) - If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any object literal
          decoded (a *note dict: 253.).  The return value of this
          function will be used instead of the *note dict: 253.  This
          feature can be used to implement custom decoders, for example
          JSON-RPC(1) class hinting.  Default ‘None’.

        * ‘object_pairs_hook’ (*note callable: 28a7. | None) - If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any object literal
          decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The return value of
          this function will be used instead of the *note dict: 253.
          This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.  If
          'object_hook' is also set, 'object_pairs_hook' takes priority.
          Default ‘None’.

        * ‘parse_float’ (*note callable: 28a7. | None) - If set, a
          function that is called with the string of every JSON float to
          be decoded.  If ‘None’ (the default), it is equivalent to
          ‘float(num_str)’.  This can be used to parse JSON floats into
          custom datatypes, for example *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.

        * ‘parse_int’ (*note callable: 28a7. | None) - If set, a
          function that is called with the string of every JSON int to
          be decoded.  If ‘None’ (the default), it is equivalent to
          ‘int(num_str)’.  This can be used to parse JSON integers into
          custom datatypes, for example *note float: 2ec.

        * ‘parse_constant’ (*note callable: 28a7. | None) - If set, a
          function that is called with one of the following strings:
          ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, or ‘'NaN'’.  This can be used to
          raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are encountered.
          Default ‘None’.


     Lève:

        * *note JSONDecodeError: e0f. - When the data being deserialized
          is not a valid JSON document.

        * *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. - When the data being
          deserialized does not contain UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32 encoded
          data.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1:

        * Added the optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter.

        * 'parse_constant' n'est plus appelée pour 'null', 'true' ou
          'false'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6:

        * tous les paramètres optionnels sont maintenant des *note
          keyword-only: 2a2.

        * 'fp' peut maintenant être un ‘binary file’.  Son encodage doit
          être UTF-8, UTF-16 ou UTF-32.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The default 'parse_int' of *note
     int(): 254. now limits the maximum length of the integer string via
     the interpreter's *note integer string conversion length
     limitation: 5e1. to help avoid denial of service attacks.

 -- Fonction: json.loads (s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     Identical to *note load(): ca4, but instead of a file-like object,
     deserialize 's' (a *note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. or *note
     bytearray: 52b. instance containing a JSON document) to a Python
     object using this *note conversion table: 3617.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: 's' peut maintenant être de type *note
     bytes: 1bd. ou *note bytearray: 52b.  L'encodage d'entrée doit être
     UTF-8, UTF-16 ou UTF-32.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: suppression de l’argument nommé
     'encoding'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Encodeurs et décodeurs,  Next: Exceptions<17>,  Prev: Utilisation de base,  Up: json --- JSON encoder and decoder

5.20.2.2 Encodeurs et décodeurs
...............................

 -- Classe: json.JSONDecoder (*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None,
          parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True,
          object_pairs_hook=None)

     Décodeur simple JSON.

     Applique par défaut les conversions suivantes en décodant :

     JSON                Python
                         
     --------------------------------------------
                         
     objet               'dict'
                         
                         
     'array'             'list'
                         
                         
     'string'            'str'
                         
                         
     'number' (nombre    'int'
     entier)             

     'number' (nombre    'float'
     réel)               

     'true'              'True'
                         
                         
     'false'             'False'
                         
                         
     'null'              ‘None’
                         

     Les valeurs ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’ et ‘-Infinity’ sont aussi comprises
     comme leurs valeurs ‘float’ correspondantes, bien que ne faisant
     pas partie de la spécification JSON.

     'object_hook' is an optional function that will be called with the
     result of every JSON object decoded and its return value will be
     used in place of the given *note dict: 253.  This can be used to
     provide custom deserializations (e.g.  to support JSON-RPC(1) class
     hinting).

     'object_pairs_hook' is an optional function that will be called
     with the result of every JSON object decoded with an ordered list
     of pairs.  The return value of 'object_pairs_hook' will be used
     instead of the *note dict: 253.  This feature can be used to
     implement custom decoders.  If 'object_hook' is also defined, the
     'object_pairs_hook' takes priority.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: ajout du support de
     'object_pairs_hook'.

     'parse_float' is an optional function that will be called with the
     string of every JSON float to be decoded.  By default, this is
     equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.  This can be used to use another
     datatype or parser for JSON floats (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal:
     29a.).

     'parse_int' is an optional function that will be called with the
     string of every JSON int to be decoded.  By default, this is
     equivalent to ‘int(num_str)’.  This can be used to use another
     datatype or parser for JSON integers (e.g.  *note float: 2ec.).

     'parse_constant' is an optional function that will be called with
     one of the following strings: ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, ‘'NaN'’.
     This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are
     encountered.

     Si 'strict' vaut ‘False’ (‘True’ par défaut), alors les caractères
     de contrôle sont autorisés à l'intérieur des chaînes.  Les
     caractères de contrôle dans ce contexte sont ceux dont les codes
     sont dans l'intervalle 0-31, incluant ‘'\t'’ (tabulation), ‘'\n'’,
     ‘'\r'’ et ‘'\0'’.

     Si les données à désérialiser ne sont pas un document JSON valide,
     une *note JSONDecodeError: e0f. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Tous les paramètres sont maintenant
     des *note keyword-only: 2a2.

      -- Méthode: decode (s)

          Renvoie la représentation Python de 's' (une instance *note
          str: 437. contenant un document JSON).

          Une *note JSONDecodeError: e0f. est levée si le document JSON
          donné n'est pas valide.

      -- Méthode: raw_decode (s)

          Décode en document JSON depuis 's' (une instance *note str:
          437. débutant par un document JSON) et renvoie un 'n'-uplet de
          2 éléments contenant la représentation Python de l'objet et
          l'index dans 's' où le document se terminait.

          Elle peut être utilisée pour décoder un document JSON depuis
          une chaîne qui peut contenir des données supplémentaires à la
          fin.

 -- Classe: json.JSONEncoder (*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False,
          indent=None, separators=None, default=None)

     Encodeur JSON extensible pour les structures de données Python.

     Prend en charge par défaut les objets et types suivants :

     Python                                       JSON
                                                  
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     'dict'                                       objet
                                                  
                                                  
     'list', 'tuple'                              'array'
                                                  
                                                  
     'str'                                        'string'
                                                  
                                                  
     'int', 'float', et 'Enums' dérivées          'number'
     d''int' ou de 'float'                        

     'True'                                       'true'
                                                  
                                                  
     'False'                                      'false'
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘None’                                       'null'
                                                  

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout de la prise en charge des
     classes 'Enum' dérivées d''int' ou de 'float'.

     To extend this to recognize other objects, subclass and implement a
     *note default(): 3616. method with another method that returns a
     serializable object for ‘o’ if possible, otherwise it should call
     the superclass implementation (to raise *note TypeError: 525.).

     If 'skipkeys' is false (the default), a *note TypeError: 525. will
     be raised when trying to encode keys that are not *note str: 437,
     *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec, *note bool: 453. or ‘None’.  If
     'skipkeys' is true, such items are simply skipped.

     Si 'ensure_ascii' vaut ‘True’ (valeur par défaut), les caractères
     non ASCII sont tous échappés à la sortie.  Si 'ensure_ascii' vaut
     ‘False’, ils sont écrits tels quels.

     Si 'check_circular' vaut ‘True’ (valeur par défaut), une
     vérification a lieu sur les listes, dictionnaires et objets
     personnalisés, afin de détecter les références circulaires et
     éviter les récursions infinies (qui causeraient une *note
     RecursionError: d5b.).  Autrement, la vérification n'a pas lieu.

     Si 'allow_nan' vaut ‘True’ (valeur par défaut), alors ‘NaN’,
     ‘Infinity’ et ‘-Infinity’ sont encodés comme tels.  Ce comportement
     ne respecte pas la spécification JSON, mais est cohérent avec le
     majorité des encodeurs-décodeurs JavaScript.  Autrement, une *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée pour de telles valeurs.

     Si 'sort_keys' vaut ‘True’ (‘False’ par défaut), alors les
     dictionnaires sont triés par clés en sortie ; cela est utile lors
     de tests de régression pour pouvoir comparer les sérialisations
     JSON au jour le jour.

     Si 'indent' est un nombre entier positif ou une chaîne de
     caractères, les éléments de tableaux et les membres d'objets JSON
     sont affichés élégamment avec ce niveau d'indentation.  Un niveau
     d'indentation de 0, négatif, ou ‘""’ n'insère que des retours à la
     ligne.  ‘None’ (la valeur par défaut) choisit la représentation la
     plus compacte.  Utiliser un entier positif pour 'indent' indente
     d'autant d'espaces par niveau.  Si 'indent' est une chaîne (telle
     que ‘"\t"’), cette chaîne est utilisée pour indenter à chaque
     niveau.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Autorise les chaînes en plus des
     nombres entiers pour 'indent'.

     Si spécifié, 'separators' doit être un 'n'-uplet ‘(item_separator,
     key_separator)’.  Sa valeur par défaut est ‘(', ', ': ')’ si
     'indent' est ‘None’, et ‘(',', ': ')’ autrement.  Pour obtenir la
     représentation JSON la plus compacte possible, passez ‘(',', ':')’
     pour éliminer les espaces.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Utilise ‘(',', ': ')’ par défaut si
     'indent' n'est pas ‘None’.

     Si spécifié, 'default' doit être une fonction qui sera appelée pour
     les objets qui ne peuvent être sérialisés autrement.  Elle doit
     renvoyer une représentation composée d'objets Python sérialisable
     en JSON ou lever une *note TypeError: 525.  Si non spécifié, une
     *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Tous les paramètres sont maintenant
     des *note keyword-only: 2a2.

      -- Méthode: default (o)

          Implémentez cette méthode dans une sous-classe afin qu'elle
          renvoie un objet sérialisable pour 'o', ou appelle
          l'implémentation de base (qui lèvera une *note TypeError:
          525.).

          For example, to support arbitrary iterators, you could
          implement *note default(): 3616. like this:

               def default(self, o):
                  try:
                      iterable = iter(o)
                  except TypeError:
                      pass
                  else:
                      return list(iterable)
                  # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
                  return super().default(o)

      -- Méthode: encode (o)

          Renvoie une chaîne JSON représentant la structure de données
          Python 'o'.  Par exemple :

               >>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
               '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

      -- Méthode: iterencode (o)

          Encode l'objet 'o' donné, et produit chaque chaîne
          représentant l'objet selon disponibilité.  Par exemple :

               for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
                   mysocket.write(chunk)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<17>,  Next: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité,  Prev: Encodeurs et décodeurs,  Up: json --- JSON encoder and decoder

5.20.2.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Exception: json.JSONDecodeError (msg, doc, pos)

     Sous-classe de *note ValueError: 1ff. avec les attributs
     additionnels suivants :

      -- Attribut: msg

          Le message d'erreur non formaté.

      -- Attribut: doc

          Le document JSON en cours de traitement.

      -- Attribut: pos

          L'index de 'doc' à partir duquel l'analyse a échoué.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          La ligne correspondant à 'pos'.

      -- Attribut: colno

          La colonne correspondant à 'pos'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<4>,  Prev: Exceptions<17>,  Up: json --- JSON encoder and decoder

5.20.2.4 Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité
...................................................

The JSON format is specified by RFC 7159(1) and by ECMA-404(2).  This
section details this module's level of compliance with the RFC. For
simplicity, *note JSONEncoder: d36. and *note JSONDecoder: d37.
subclasses, and parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are
not considered.

Ce module ne se conforme pas strictement à la RFC, implémentant quelques
extensions qui sont valides en JavaScript mais pas en JSON. En
particulier :

   - Les nombres infinis et 'NaN' sont acceptés et retranscrits ;

   - Les noms répétés au sein d'un objet sont acceptés, seule la valeur
     du dernier couple nom-valeur est utilisée.

Comme la RFC permet aux analyseurs conformes d'accepter en entrée des
textes non conformes, le désérialiseur de ce module avec ses paramètres
par défaut est techniquement conforme à la RFC.

* Menu:

* Encodage des caractères::
* Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN::
* Noms répétés au sein d'un objet::
* Valeurs de plus haut niveau (hors objets ou tableaux): Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux.
* Limitations de l'implémentation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (2) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/


File: python.info,  Node: Encodage des caractères,  Next: Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN,  Up: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

5.20.2.5 Encodage des caractères
................................

La RFC requiert que le JSON soit représenté en utilisant l'encodage
UTF-8, UTF-16 ou UTF-32, avec UTF-8 recommandé par défaut pour une
interopérabilité maximale.

Comme cela est permis par la RFC, bien que non requis, le sérialiseur du
module active 'ensure_ascii=True' par défaut, échappant ainsi la sortie
de façon à ce que les chaînes résultants ne contiennent que des
caractères ASCII.

Outre le paramètre 'ensure_ascii', les conversions entre objets Python
et *note chaînes Unicode: 437. de ce module sont strictement définies,
et ne résolvent donc pas directement le problème de l'encodage des
caractères.

La RFC interdit d'ajouter un octet marqueur d'ordre ('byte mark order'
ou BOM) au début du texte JSON, et le sérialiseur de ce module n'ajoute
pas de tel BOM. La RFC permet, mais ne requiert pas, que les
désérialiseurs JSON ignorent ces BOM. Le désérialiseur de ce module lève
une *note ValueError: 1ff. quand un BOM est présent au début du fichier.

La RFC n'interdit pas explicitement les chaînes JSON contenant des
séquences d'octets ne correspondant à aucun caractère Unicode valide (p.
ex.  les 'surrogates' UTF-16 sans correspondance), mais précise que cela
peut causer des problèmes d'interopérabilité.  Par défaut, ce module
accepte et retranscrit (quand présents dans la *note str: 437.
originale) les 'code points' de telles séquences.


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN,  Next: Noms répétés au sein d'un objet,  Prev: Encodage des caractères,  Up: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

5.20.2.6 Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN
...........................................

La RFC ne permet pas la représentation des nombres infinis ou des 'NaN'.
Néanmoins, par défaut, ce module accepte et retranscrit ‘Infinity’,
‘-Infinity’ et ‘NaN’ comme s'ils étaient des valeurs numériques
littérales JSON valides :

     >>> # Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON
     >>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
     '-Infinity'
     >>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
     'NaN'
     >>> # Same when deserializing
     >>> json.loads('-Infinity')
     -inf
     >>> json.loads('NaN')
     nan

Dans le sérialiseur, le paramètre 'allow_nan' peut être utilisé pour
altérer ce comportement.  Dans le désérialiseur, le paramètre
'parse_constant' peut être utilisé pour changer ce comportement.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms répétés au sein d'un objet,  Next: Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux,  Prev: Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN,  Up: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

5.20.2.7 Noms répétés au sein d'un objet
........................................

La RFC précise que les noms au sein d'un objet JSON doivent être
uniques, mais ne décrit pas comment les noms répétés doivent être gérés.
Par défaut, ce module ne lève pas d'exception ; à la place, il ignore
tous les couples nom-valeur sauf le dernier pour un nom donné :

     >>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
     >>> json.loads(weird_json)
     {'x': 3}

Le paramètre 'object_pairs_hook' peut être utilisé pour modifier ce
comportement.


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux,  Next: Limitations de l'implémentation,  Prev: Noms répétés au sein d'un objet,  Up: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

5.20.2.8 Valeurs de plus haut niveau (hors objets ou tableaux)
..............................................................

L'ancienne version de JSON définie par l'obsolète RFC 4627(1) demandait
à ce que la valeur de plus haut niveau du texte JSON soit un objet ou un
tableau JSON (*note dict: 253. ou *note list: 5fe. Python), et ne soit
pas 'null', un nombre, ou une chaîne de caractères.  La RFC 7159(2) a
supprimé cette restriction, jamais implémentée par ce module, que ce
soit dans le sérialiseur ou le désérialiseur.

Cependant, pour une interopérabilité maximale, vous pourriez
volontairement souhaiter adhérer à cette restriction.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations de l'implémentation,  Prev: Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux,  Up: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

5.20.2.9 Limitations de l'implémentation
........................................

Certaines implémentations de désérialiseurs JSON peuvent avoir des
limites sur :

   * la taille des textes JSON acceptés ;

   * le niveau maximum d'objets et tableaux JSON imbriqués ;

   * l'intervalle et la précision des nombres JSON ;

   * le contenu et la longueur maximale des chaînes JSON.

Ce module n'impose pas de telles limites si ce n'est celles inhérentes
aux types de données Python ou à l'interpréteur.

Lors d'une sérialisation JSON, faites attention à ces limitations dans
les applications qui utilisent votre JSON. En particulier, il est
courant pour les nombres JSON d'être désérialisés vers des nombres IEEE
754 à précision double, et donc sujets à l'intervalle et aux limitations
sur la précision de cette représentation.  Cela est d'autant plus
important lors de la sérialisation de grands *note int: 254. Python, ou
d'instances de types numériques « exotiques » comme *note
decimal.Decimal: 29a.


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<4>,  Prev: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité,  Up: json --- JSON encoder and decoder

5.20.2.10 Interface en ligne de commande
........................................

'Code source :' Lib/json/tool.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note json.tool: 82. fournit une simple interface en ligne de
commande pour valider et réécrire élégamment des objets JSON.

If the optional ‘infile’ and ‘outfile’ arguments are not specified,
*note sys.stdin: 52a. and *note sys.stdout: ac6. will be used
respectively:

     $ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La sortie conserve maintenant l'ordre des
données de l'entrée.  Utilisez l'option *note -sort-keys: 362a. pour
sortir des dictionnaires triés alphabétiquement par clés.

* Menu:

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/json/tool.py


File: python.info,  Node: Options de la ligne de commande<4>,  Up: Interface en ligne de commande<4>

5.20.2.11 Options de la ligne de commande
.........................................

 -- Option: infile

     Le fichier JSON à valider ou réécrire élégamment :

          $ python -m json.tool mp_films.json
          [
              {
                  "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
                  "year": 1971
              },
              {
                  "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
                  "year": 1975
              }
          ]

     If 'infile' is not specified, read from *note sys.stdin: 52a.

 -- Option: outfile

     Write the output of the 'infile' to the given 'outfile'.
     Otherwise, write it to *note sys.stdout: ac6.

 -- Option: --sort-keys

     Trie alphabétiquement les dictionnaires par clés.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Option: --no-ensure-ascii

     Désactive l’échappement des caractères non ASCII, voir *note
     json.dumps(): d35. pour plus d'informations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Option: --json-lines

     Transforme chaque ligne d'entrée en un objet JSON individuel.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Option: --indent, --tab, --no-indent, --compact

     Options mutuellement exclusives de contrôle des espaces.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Affiche le message d'aide.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Next: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types,  Prev: json --- JSON encoder and decoder,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.3 ‘mailbox’ -- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/mailbox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines two classes, *note Mailbox: 122d. and *note Message:
1231, for accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages
they contain.  ‘Mailbox’ offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to
messages.  ‘Message’ extends the *note email.message: 44. module's *note
Message: 279. class with format-specific state and behavior.  Supported
mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note email: 3b.

     Représente et manipule des messages.

* Menu:

* Mailbox objects::
* Message objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<18>.
* Exemples: Exemples<22>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/mailbox.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mailbox objects,  Next: Message objects,  Up: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.20.3.1 ‘Mailbox’ objects
..........................

 -- Classe: mailbox.Mailbox

     Une boîte mail, qui peut être inspectée et modifiée.

     The ‘Mailbox’ class defines an interface and is not intended to be
     instantiated.  Instead, format-specific subclasses should inherit
     from ‘Mailbox’ and your code should instantiate a particular
     subclass.

     The ‘Mailbox’ interface is dictionary-like, with small keys
     corresponding to messages.  Keys are issued by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance with which they will be used and are only meaningful to
     that ‘Mailbox’ instance.  A key continues to identify a message
     even if the corresponding message is modified, such as by replacing
     it with another message.

     Messages may be added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance using the set-like
     method *note add(): 122c. and removed using a ‘del’ statement or
     the set-like methods *note remove(): 363a. and *note discard():
     363b.

     ‘Mailbox’ interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in
     some noteworthy ways.  Each time a message is requested, a new
     representation (typically a *note Message: 1231. instance) is
     generated based upon the current state of the mailbox.  Similarly,
     when a message is added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance, the provided
     message representation's contents are copied.  In neither case is a
     reference to the message representation kept by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance.

     The default ‘Mailbox’ *note iterator: 1aa. iterates over message
     representations, not keys as the default *note dictionary: 253.
     iterator does.  Moreover, modification of a mailbox during
     iteration is safe and well-defined.  Messages added to the mailbox
     after an iterator is created will not be seen by the iterator.
     Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them
     will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may
     result in a *note KeyError: 33a. exception if the corresponding
     message is subsequently removed.

          Avertissement: Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that
          might be simultaneously changed by some other process.  The
          safest mailbox format to use for such tasks is *note Maildir:
          412.; try to avoid using single-file formats such as *note
          mbox: 163a. for concurrent writing.  If you're modifying a
          mailbox, you 'must' lock it by calling the *note lock(): 363c.
          and *note unlock(): 363d. methods 'before' reading any
          messages in the file or making any changes by adding or
          deleting a message.  Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk
          of losing messages or corrupting the entire mailbox.

     ‘Mailbox’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Méthode: add (message)

          Ajoute 'message' à la boîte mail et renvoie la clé qui lui a
          été assigné.

          Le paramètre 'message' peut être une instance *note Message:
          1231, une instance *note email.message.Message: 279, une
          chaîne de caractères, une séquence d'octets ou un objet
          fichier-compatible (qui doit être ouvert en mode binaire).  Si
          'message' est une instance de la sous-classe *note Message:
          1231. au format correspondant (par exemple s'il s'agit d'une
          instance *note mboxMessage: 3504. et d'une instance *note
          mbox: 163a.), les informations spécifiques à son format sont
          utilisées.  Sinon, des valeurs par défaut raisonnables pour
          son format sont utilisées.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la gestion des messages
          binaires.

      -- Méthode: remove (key)
      -- Méthode: __delitem__ (key)
      -- Méthode: discard (key)

          Supprime le message correspondant à 'key' dans la boîte mail.

          Si ce message n'existe pas, une exception *note KeyError: 33a.
          est levée si la méthode a été appelée en tant que *note
          remove(): 363a. ou *note __delitem__(): 363e. ; mais aucune
          exception n'est levée si la méthode a été appelée en tant que
          *note discard(): 363b.  Vous préférerez sûrement le
          comportement de *note discard(): 363b. si le format de boîte
          mail sous-jacent accepte la modification concurrente par les
          autres processus.

      -- Méthode: __setitem__ (key, message)

          Remplace le message correspondant à 'key' par 'message'.  Lève
          une exception *note KeyError: 33a. s'il n'y a pas déjà de
          message correspondant à 'key'.

          Comme pour *note add(): 122c, le paramètre 'message' peut être
          une instance *note Message: 1231, une instance *note
          email.message.Message: 279, une chaîne de caractères, une
          chaîne d'octets ou un objet fichier-compatible (qui doit être
          ouvert en mode binaire).  Si 'message' est une instance de la
          sous-classe *note Message: 1231. au format correspondant (par
          exemple s'il s'agit d'une instance *note mboxMessage: 3504. et
          d'une instance *note mbox: 163a.), les informations
          spécifiques à son format sont utilisées.  Sinon, les
          informations spécifiques au format du message qui correspond à
          'key' ne sont modifiées.

      -- Méthode: iterkeys ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1aa. over all keys

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          The same as *note iterkeys(): 3640, except that a *note list:
          5fe. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1aa.

      -- Méthode: itervalues ()
      -- Méthode: __iter__ ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1aa. over representations of all
          messages.  The messages are represented as instances of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 1231. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

               Note: Le comportement de *note __iter__(): 3643. diffère
               de celui d'un dictionnaire, pour lequel l'itération se
               fait sur ses clés.

      -- Méthode: values ()

          The same as *note itervalues(): 3642, except that a *note
          list: 5fe. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1aa.

      -- Méthode: iteritems ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1aa. over ('key', 'message') pairs,
          where 'key' is a key and 'message' is a message
          representation.  The messages are represented as instances of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 1231. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          The same as *note iteritems(): 3645, except that a *note list:
          5fe. of pairs is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1aa.
          of pairs.

      -- Méthode: get (key, default=None)
      -- Méthode: __getitem__ (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'.
          If no such message exists, 'default' is returned if the method
          was called as *note get(): 3647. and a *note KeyError: 33a.
          exception is raised if the method was called as
          ‘__getitem__()’.  The message is represented as an instance of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 1231. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Méthode: get_message (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          as an instance of the appropriate format-specific *note
          Message: 1231. subclass, or raise a *note KeyError: 33a.
          exception if no such message exists.

      -- Méthode: get_bytes (key)

          Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 33a. exception if no such
          message exists.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: get_string (key)

          Return a string representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 33a. exception if no such
          message exists.  The message is processed through *note
          email.message.Message: 279. to convert it to a 7bit clean
          representation.

      -- Méthode: get_file (key)

          Return a *note file-like: 2544. representation of the message
          corresponding to 'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 33a.
          exception if no such message exists.  The file-like object
          behaves as if open in binary mode.  This file should be closed
          once it is no longer needed.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: The file object really is a *note
          binary file: 1c45.; previously it was incorrectly returned in
          text mode.  Also, the *note file-like object: 2544. now
          supports the *note context manager: 5c0. protocol: you can use
          a *note with: 5be. statement to automatically close it.

               Note: Unlike other representations of messages, *note
               file-like: 2544. representations are not necessarily
               independent of the ‘Mailbox’ instance that created them
               or of the underlying mailbox.  More specific
               documentation is provided by each subclass.

      -- Méthode: __contains__ (key)

          Return ‘True’ if 'key' corresponds to a message, ‘False’
          otherwise.

      -- Méthode: __len__ ()

          Return a count of messages in the mailbox.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Supprime tous les messages de la boîte de courriel.

      -- Méthode: pop (key, default=None)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          and delete the message.  If no such message exists, return
          'default'.  The message is represented as an instance of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 1231. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Méthode: popitem ()

          Return an arbitrary ('key', 'message') pair, where 'key' is a
          key and 'message' is a message representation, and delete the
          corresponding message.  If the mailbox is empty, raise a *note
          KeyError: 33a. exception.  The message is represented as an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific *note Message:
          1231. subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
          when the ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Méthode: update (arg)

          Parameter 'arg' should be a 'key'-to-'message' mapping or an
          iterable of ('key', 'message') pairs.  Updates the mailbox so
          that, for each given 'key' and 'message', the message
          corresponding to 'key' is set to 'message' as if by using
          *note __setitem__(): 363f.  As with *note __setitem__(): 363f,
          each 'key' must already correspond to a message in the mailbox
          or else a *note KeyError: 33a. exception will be raised, so in
          general it is incorrect for 'arg' to be a ‘Mailbox’ instance.

               Note: Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are not
               supported.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Write any pending changes to the filesystem.  For some *note
          Mailbox: 122d. subclasses, changes are always written
          immediately and ‘flush()’ does nothing, but you should still
          make a habit of calling this method.

      -- Méthode: lock ()

          Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that
          other processes know not to modify it.  An *note
          ExternalClashError: 3651. is raised if the lock is not
          available.  The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon
          the mailbox format.  You should 'always' lock the mailbox
          before making any modifications to its contents.

      -- Méthode: unlock ()

          Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open
          files.  For some ‘Mailbox’ subclasses, this method does
          nothing.

* Menu:

* Maildir objects::
* mbox objects::
* MH objects::
* Babyl objects::
* MMDF objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Maildir objects,  Next: mbox objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.20.3.2 ‘Maildir’ objects
..........................

 -- Classe: mailbox.Maildir (dirname, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 122d. for mailboxes in Maildir format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MaildirMessage: 3655. is used as the default message
     representation.  If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if
     it does not exist.

     If 'create' is ‘True’ and the 'dirname' path exists, it will be
     treated as an existing maildir without attempting to verify its
     directory layout.

     It is for historical reasons that 'dirname' is named as such rather
     than 'path'.

     Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail
     mail transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs.
     Messages in a Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a
     common directory structure.  This design allows Maildir mailboxes
     to be accessed and modified by multiple unrelated programs without
     data corruption, so file locking is unnecessary.

     Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: ‘tmp’,
     ‘new’, and ‘cur’.  Messages are created momentarily in the ‘tmp’
     subdirectory and then moved to the ‘new’ subdirectory to finalize
     delivery.  A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to
     the ‘cur’ subdirectory and store information about the state of the
     message in a special "info" section appended to its file name.

     Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent
     are also supported.  Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is
     considered a folder if ‘'.'’ is the first character in its name.
     Folder names are represented by ‘Maildir’ without the leading
     ‘'.'’.  Each folder is itself a Maildir mailbox but should not
     contain other folders.  Instead, a logical nesting is indicated
     using ‘'.'’ to delimit levels, e.g., "Archived.2005.07".

      -- Attribut: colon

          The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (‘':'’)
          in certain message file names.  However, some operating
          systems do not permit this character in file names, If you
          wish to use a Maildir-like format on such an operating system,
          you should specify another character to use instead.  The
          exclamation point (‘'!'’) is a popular choice.  For example:

               import mailbox
               mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'

          The ‘colon’ attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: *note Maildir: 412. now ignores files
     with a leading dot.

     ‘Maildir’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 122d.
     in addition to the following:

      -- Méthode: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- Méthode: get_folder (folder)

          Return a ‘Maildir’ instance representing the folder whose name
          is 'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 3659. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- Méthode: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return a ‘Maildir’
          instance representing it.

      -- Méthode: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 365c. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- Méthode: clean ()

          Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been
          accessed in the last 36 hours.  The Maildir specification says
          that mail-reading programs should do this occasionally.

      -- Méthode: get_flags (key)

          Return as a string the flags that are set on the message
          corresponding to 'key'.  This is the same as
          ‘get_message(key).get_flags()’ but much faster, because it
          does not open the message file.  Use this method when
          iterating over the keys to determine which messages are
          interesting to get.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3655. object, use its
          *note get_flags(): 365e. method instead, because changes made
          by the message's *note set_flags(): 365f, *note add_flag():
          3660. and *note remove_flag(): 3661. methods are not reflected
          here until the mailbox's *note __setitem__(): 3662. method is
          called.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: set_flags (key, flags)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', set the flags specified
          by 'flags' and unset all others.  Calling
          ‘some_mailbox.set_flags(key, flags)’ is similar to

               one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
               one_message.set_flags(flags)
               some_mailbox[key] = one_message

          but faster, because it does not open the message file.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3655. object, use its
          *note set_flags(): 365f. method instead, because changes made
          with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message
          object's method, *note get_flags(): 365e.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: add_flag (key, flag)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', set the flags specified
          by 'flag' without changing other flags.  To add more than one
          flag at a time, 'flag' may be a string of more than one
          character.

          Considerations for using this method versus the message
          object's *note add_flag(): 3660. method are similar to those
          for *note set_flags(): 168d.; see the discussion there.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: remove_flag (key, flag)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', unset the flags
          specified by 'flag' without changing other flags.  To remove
          more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a string of more
          than one character.

          Considerations for using this method versus the message
          object's *note remove_flag(): 3661. method are similar to
          those for *note set_flags(): 168d.; see the discussion there.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: get_info (key)

          Return a string containing the info for the message
          corresponding to 'key'.  This is the same as
          ‘get_message(key).get_info()’ but much faster, because it does
          not open the message file.  Use this method when iterating
          over the keys to determine which messages are interesting to
          get.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3655. object, use its
          *note get_info(): 3663. method instead, because changes made
          by the message's *note set_info(): 3664. method are not
          reflected here until the mailbox's *note __setitem__(): 3662.
          method is called.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: set_info (key, info)

          Set the info of the message corresponding to 'key' to 'info'.
          Calling ‘some_mailbox.set_info(key, flags)’ is similar to

               one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
               one_message.set_info(info)
               some_mailbox[key] = one_message

          but faster, because it does not open the message file.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3655. object, use its
          *note set_info(): 3664. method instead, because changes made
          with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message
          object's method, *note get_info(): 3663.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Some *note Mailbox: 122d. methods implemented by ‘Maildir’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Méthode: add (message)
      -- Méthode: __setitem__ (key, message)
      -- Méthode: update (arg)

               Avertissement: These methods generate unique file names
               based upon the current process ID. When using multiple
               threads, undetected name clashes may occur and cause
               corruption of the mailbox unless threads are coordinated
               to avoid using these methods to manipulate the same
               mailbox simultaneously.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so
          this method does nothing.

      -- Méthode: lock ()
      -- Méthode: unlock ()

          Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so
          these methods do nothing.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          ‘Maildir’ instances do not keep any open files and the
          underlying mailboxes do not support locking, so this method
          does nothing.

      -- Méthode: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          modify or remove the underlying message while the returned
          file remains open.

Voir aussi
..........

maildir man page from Courier(1)

     A specification of the format.  Describes a common extension for
     supporting folders.

Using maildir format(2)

     Notes on Maildir by its inventor.  Includes an updated
     name-creation scheme and details on "info" semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html

   (2) https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html


File: python.info,  Node: mbox objects,  Next: MH objects,  Prev: Maildir objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.20.3.3 ‘mbox’ objects
.......................

 -- Classe: mailbox.mbox (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 122d. for mailboxes in mbox format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     mboxMessage: 3504. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix
     systems.  All messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single
     file with the beginning of each message indicated by a line whose
     first five characters are "From ".

     Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived
     shortcomings in the original.  In the interest of compatibility,
     ‘mbox’ implements the original format, which is sometimes referred
     to as 'mboxo'.  This means that the ‘Content-Length’ header, if
     present, is ignored and that any occurrences of "From " at the
     beginning of a line in a message body are transformed to ">From "
     when storing the message, although occurrences of ">From " are not
     transformed to "From " when reading the message.

     Some *note Mailbox: 122d. methods implemented by ‘mbox’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Méthode: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix "From " line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Méthode: get_file (key, from_=False)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 3650. or *note
          close(): 3652. on the ‘mbox’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix "From " line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Méthode: get_string (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix "From " line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Méthode: lock ()
      -- Méthode: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Voir aussi
..........

mbox man page from tin(1)

     A specification of the format, with details on locking.

Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad(2)

     An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a
     variation.

"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats(3)

     A history of mbox variations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox

   (2) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (3) 
https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: MH objects,  Next: Babyl objects,  Prev: mbox objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.20.3.4 ‘MH’ objects
.....................

 -- Classe: mailbox.MH (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 122d. for mailboxes in MH format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MHMessage: 3675. is used as the default message representation.  If
     'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message
     Handling System, a mail user agent.  Each message in an MH mailbox
     resides in its own file.  An MH mailbox may contain other MH
     mailboxes (called 'folders') in addition to messages.  Folders may
     be nested indefinitely.  MH mailboxes also support 'sequences',
     which are named lists used to logically group messages without
     moving them to sub-folders.  Sequences are defined in a file called
     ‘.mh_sequences’ in each folder.

     The ‘MH’ class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to
     emulate all of ‘mh’'s behaviors.  In particular, it does not modify
     and is not affected by the ‘context’ or ‘.mh_profile’ files that
     are used by ‘mh’ to store its state and configuration.

     ‘MH’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 122d. in
     addition to the following:

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Supported folders that don't contain
     a ‘.mh_sequences’ file.

      -- Méthode: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- Méthode: get_folder (folder)

          Return an ‘MH’ instance representing the folder whose name is
          'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 3659. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- Méthode: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return an ‘MH’
          instance representing it.

      -- Méthode: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 365c. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- Méthode: get_sequences ()

          Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists.  If
          there are no sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.

      -- Méthode: set_sequences (sequences)

          Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon
          'sequences', a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like
          returned by *note get_sequences(): 367a.

      -- Méthode: pack ()

          Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps
          in numbering.  Entries in the sequences list are updated
          correspondingly.

               Note: Already-issued keys are invalidated by this
               operation and should not be subsequently used.

     Some *note Mailbox: 122d. methods implemented by ‘MH’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Méthode: remove (key)
      -- Méthode: __delitem__ (key)
      -- Méthode: discard (key)

          These methods immediately delete the message.  The MH
          convention of marking a message for deletion by prepending a
          comma to its name is not used.

      -- Méthode: lock ()
      -- Méthode: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.  For MH
          mailboxes, locking the mailbox means locking the
          ‘.mh_sequences’ file and, only for the duration of any
          operations that affect them, locking individual message files.

      -- Méthode: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          remove the underlying message while the returned file remains
          open.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this
          method does nothing.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          ‘MH’ instances do not keep any open files, so this method is
          equivalent to *note unlock(): 3681.

Voir aussi
..........

nmh - Message Handling System(1)

     Home page of ‘nmh’, an updated version of the original ‘mh’.

MH & nmh: Email for Users & Programmers(2)

     A GPL-licensed book on ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’, with some information on the
     mailbox format.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nongnu.org/nmh/

   (2) https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/


File: python.info,  Node: Babyl objects,  Next: MMDF objects,  Prev: MH objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.20.3.5 ‘Babyl’ objects
........................

 -- Classe: mailbox.Babyl (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 122d. for mailboxes in Babyl format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     BabylMessage: 3688. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user
     agent included with Emacs.  The beginning of a message is indicated
     by a line containing the two characters Control-Underscore
     (‘'\037'’) and Control-L (‘'\014'’).  The end of a message is
     indicated by the start of the next message or, in the case of the
     last message, a line containing a Control-Underscore (‘'\037'’)
     character.

     Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original
     headers and so-called visible headers.  Visible headers are
     typically a subset of the original headers that have been
     reformatted or abridged to be more attractive.  Each message in a
     Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of 'labels', or short
     strings that record extra information about the message, and a list
     of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept in the
     Babyl options section.

     ‘Babyl’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 122d.
     in addition to the following:

      -- Méthode: get_labels ()

          Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in
          the mailbox.

               Note: The actual messages are inspected to determine
               which labels exist in the mailbox rather than consulting
               the list of labels in the Babyl options section, but the
               Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox is
               modified.

     Some *note Mailbox: 122d. methods implemented by ‘Babyl’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Méthode: get_file (key)

          In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored
          contiguously with the body of the message.  To generate a
          file-like representation, the headers and body are copied
          together into an *note io.BytesIO: e8f. instance, which has an
          API identical to that of a file.  As a result, the file-like
          object is truly independent of the underlying mailbox but does
          not save memory compared to a string representation.

      -- Méthode: lock ()
      -- Méthode: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Voir aussi
..........

Format of Version 5 Babyl Files(1)

     A specification of the Babyl format.

Reading Mail with Rmail(2)

     The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html


File: python.info,  Node: MMDF objects,  Prev: Babyl objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.20.3.6 ‘MMDF’ objects
.......................

 -- Classe: mailbox.MMDF (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 122d. for mailboxes in MMDF format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MMDFMessage: 368f. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel
     Memorandum Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent.  Each
     message is in the same form as an mbox message but is bracketed
     before and after by lines containing four Control-A (‘'\001'’)
     characters.  As with the mbox format, the beginning of each message
     is indicated by a line whose first five characters are "From ", but
     additional occurrences of "From " are not transformed to ">From "
     when storing messages because the extra message separator lines
     prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent
     messages.

     Some *note Mailbox: 122d. methods implemented by ‘MMDF’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Méthode: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix "From " line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Méthode: get_file (key, from_=False)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 3650. or *note
          close(): 3652. on the ‘MMDF’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix "From " line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Méthode: lock ()
      -- Méthode: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used--dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Voir aussi
..........

mmdf man page from tin(1)

     A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a
     newsreader.

MMDF(2)

     A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum
     Distribution Facility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF


File: python.info,  Node: Message objects,  Next: Exceptions<18>,  Prev: Mailbox objects,  Up: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.20.3.7 ‘Message’ objects
..........................

 -- Classe: mailbox.Message (message=None)

     A subclass of the *note email.message: 44. module's *note Message:
     279.  Subclasses of ‘mailbox.Message’ add mailbox-format-specific
     state and behavior.

     If 'message' is omitted, the new instance is created in a default,
     empty state.  If 'message' is an *note email.message.Message: 279.
     instance, its contents are copied; furthermore, any format-specific
     information is converted insofar as possible if 'message' is a
     ‘Message’ instance.  If 'message' is a string, a byte string, or a
     file, it should contain an RFC 2822(1)-compliant message, which is
     read and parsed.  Files should be open in binary mode, but text
     mode files are accepted for backward compatibility.

     The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary,
     but in general it is only the properties that are not specific to a
     particular mailbox that are supported (although presumably the
     properties are specific to a particular mailbox format).  For
     example, file offsets for single-file mailbox formats and file
     names for directory-based mailbox formats are not retained, because
     they are only applicable to the original mailbox.  But state such
     as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as
     important is retained, because it applies to the message itself.

     There is no requirement that ‘Message’ instances be used to
     represent messages retrieved using *note Mailbox: 122d. instances.
     In some situations, the time and memory required to generate
     ‘Message’ representations might not be acceptable.  For such
     situations, ‘Mailbox’ instances also offer string and file-like
     representations, and a custom message factory may be specified when
     a ‘Mailbox’ instance is initialized.

* Menu:

* MaildirMessage objects::
* mboxMessage objects::
* MHMessage objects::
* BabylMessage objects::
* MMDFMessage objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: MaildirMessage objects,  Next: mboxMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.20.3.8 ‘MaildirMessage’ objects
.................................

 -- Classe: mailbox.MaildirMessage (message=None)

     A message with Maildir-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 1231. constructor.

     Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages
     in the ‘new’ subdirectory to the ‘cur’ subdirectory after the first
     time the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the
     messages are old whether or not they've actually been read.  Each
     message in ‘cur’ has an "info" section added to its file name to
     store information about its state.  (Some mail readers may also add
     an "info" section to messages in ‘new’.)  The "info" section may
     take one of two forms: it may contain "2," followed by a list of
     standardized flags (e.g., "2,FR") or it may contain "1," followed
     by so-called experimental information.  Standard flags for Maildir
     messages are as follows:

     Option     Signification Explication
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     D          Draft         Under composition
                              
                              
     F          Flagged       Marked as important
                              
                              
     P          Passed        Forwarded, resent, or bounced
                              
                              
     R          Replied       Replied to
                              
                              
     S          Seen          Read
                              
                              
     T          Trashed       Marked for subsequent deletion
                              

     ‘MaildirMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Méthode: get_subdir ()

          Return either "new" (if the message should be stored in the
          ‘new’ subdirectory) or "cur" (if the message should be stored
          in the ‘cur’ subdirectory).

               Note: A message is typically moved from ‘new’ to ‘cur’
               after its mailbox has been accessed, whether or not the
               message has been read.  A message ‘msg’ has been read if
               ‘"S" in msg.get_flags()’ is ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: set_subdir (subdir)

          Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in.
          Parameter 'subdir' must be either "new" or "cur".

      -- Méthode: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the standard Maildir format, the
          result is the concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'P'’, ‘'R'’, ‘'S'’,
          and ‘'T'’.  The empty string is returned if no flags are set
          or if "info" contains experimental semantics.

      -- Méthode: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.

      -- Méthode: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.  The current "info" is
          overwritten whether or not it contains experimental
          information rather than flags.

      -- Méthode: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.  If "info" contains
          experimental information rather than flags, the current "info"
          is not modified.

      -- Méthode: get_date ()

          Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point
          number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- Méthode: set_date (date)

          Set the delivery date of the message to 'date', a
          floating-point number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- Méthode: get_info ()

          Return a string containing the "info" for a message.  This is
          useful for accessing and modifying "info" that is experimental
          (i.e., not a list of flags).

      -- Méthode: set_info (info)

          Set "info" to 'info', which should be a string.

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3504. or *note MMDFMessage: 368f. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 3504. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 368f. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
"cur" subdirectory       O flag
                         
                         
F flag                   F flag
                         
                         
R flag                   A flag
                         
                         
S flag                   R flag
                         
                         
T flag                   D flag
                         

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MHMessage: 3675. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note MHMessage: 3675. state
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
"cur" subdirectory                  "unseen" sequence
                                    
                                    
"cur" subdirectory and S flag       no "unseen" sequence
                                    
                                    
F flag                              "flagged" sequence
                                    
                                    
R flag                              "replied" sequence
                                    

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3688. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note BabylMessage: 3688. state
                                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
"cur" subdirectory                  "unseen" label
                                    
                                    
"cur" subdirectory and S flag       no "unseen" label
                                    
                                    
P flag                              "forwarded" or "resent" label
                                    
                                    
R flag                              "answered" label
                                    
                                    
T flag                              "deleted" label
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: mboxMessage objects,  Next: MHMessage objects,  Prev: MaildirMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.20.3.9 ‘mboxMessage’ objects
..............................

 -- Classe: mailbox.mboxMessage (message=None)

     A message with mbox-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 1231. constructor.

     Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file.
     The sender's envelope address and the time of delivery are
     typically stored in a line beginning with "From " that is used to
     indicate the start of a message, though there is considerable
     variation in the exact format of this data among mbox
     implementations.  Flags that indicate the state of the message,
     such as whether it has been read or marked as important, are
     typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’ headers.

     Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:

     Option     Signification  Explication
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘mboxMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Méthode: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading "From "
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- Méthode: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the "From " line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading "From " or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: cda.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 11c8, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          119f.).

      -- Méthode: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- Méthode: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- Méthode: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- Méthode: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3655. instance, a "From " line is generated based upon
the *note MaildirMessage: 3655. instance's delivery date, and the
following conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 3655. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                "cur" subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3675. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3675. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  "flagged" sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  "replied" sequence
                        

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3688. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 3688. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" label
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" label
                        
                        
D flag                  "deleted" label
                        
                        
A flag                  "answered" label
                        

When a ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MMDFMessage: 368f. instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note MMDFMessage: 368f. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: MHMessage objects,  Next: BabylMessage objects,  Prev: mboxMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.20.3.10 ‘MHMessage’ objects
.............................

 -- Classe: mailbox.MHMessage (message=None)

     A message with MH-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has the
     same meaning as with the *note Message: 1231. constructor.

     MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense,
     but they do support sequences, which are logical groupings of
     arbitrary messages.  Some mail reading programs (although not the
     standard ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’) use sequences in much the same way flags
     are used with other formats, as follows:

     Séquence       Explication
                    
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     unseen         Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                    
                    
     replied        Replied to
                    
                    
     flagged        Marked as important
                    

     ‘MHMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Méthode: get_sequences ()

          Return a list of the names of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- Méthode: set_sequences (sequences)

          Set the list of sequences that include this message.

      -- Méthode: add_sequence (sequence)

          Add 'sequence' to the list of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- Méthode: remove_sequence (sequence)

          Remove 'sequence' from the list of sequences that include this
          message.

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3655. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note MaildirMessage: 3655. state
                         
-------------------------------------------------------------
                         
"unseen" sequence        no S flag
                         
                         
"replied" sequence       R flag
                         
                         
"flagged" sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note mboxMessage:
3504. or *note MMDFMessage: 368f. instance, the ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 3504. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 368f. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
"unseen" sequence        no R flag
                         
                         
"replied" sequence       A flag
                         
                         
"flagged" sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note BabylMessage:
3688. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note BabylMessage: 3688. state
                         
-----------------------------------------------------------
                         
"unseen" sequence        "unseen" label
                         
                         
"replied" sequence       "answered" label
                         


File: python.info,  Node: BabylMessage objects,  Next: MMDFMessage objects,  Prev: MHMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.20.3.11 ‘BabylMessage’ objects
................................

 -- Classe: mailbox.BabylMessage (message=None)

     A message with Babyl-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 1231. constructor.

     Certain message labels, called 'attributes', are defined by
     convention to have special meanings.  The attributes are as
     follows:

     Label           Explication
                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     unseen          Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                     
                     
     deleted         Marked for subsequent deletion
                     
                     
     filed           Copied to another file or mailbox
                     
                     
     answered        Replied to
                     
                     
     forwarded       Forwarded
                     
                     
     edited          Modified by the user
                     
                     
     resent          Resent
                     

     By default, Rmail displays only visible headers.  The
     ‘BabylMessage’ class, though, uses the original headers because
     they are more complete.  Visible headers may be accessed explicitly
     if desired.

     ‘BabylMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Méthode: get_labels ()

          Return a list of labels on the message.

      -- Méthode: set_labels (labels)

          Set the list of labels on the message to 'labels'.

      -- Méthode: add_label (label)

          Add 'label' to the list of labels on the message.

      -- Méthode: remove_label (label)

          Remove 'label' from the list of labels on the message.

      -- Méthode: get_visible ()

          Return a *note Message: 1231. instance whose headers are the
          message's visible headers and whose body is empty.

      -- Méthode: set_visible (visible)

          Set the message's visible headers to be the same as the
          headers in 'message'.  Parameter 'visible' should be a *note
          Message: 1231. instance, an *note email.message.Message: 279.
          instance, a string, or a file-like object (which should be
          open in text mode).

      -- Méthode: update_visible ()

          When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance's original headers are
          modified, the visible headers are not automatically modified
          to correspond.  This method updates the visible headers as
          follows: each visible header with a corresponding original
          header is set to the value of the original header, each
          visible header without a corresponding original header is
          removed, and any of ‘Date’, ‘From’, ‘Reply-To’, ‘To’, ‘CC’,
          and ‘Subject’ that are present in the original headers but not
          the visible headers are added to the visible headers.

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3655. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MaildirMessage: 3655. state
                        
------------------------------------------------------------
                        
"unseen" label          no S flag
                        
                        
"deleted" label         T flag
                        
                        
"answered" label        R flag
                        
                        
"forwarded" label       P flag
                        

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3504. or *note MMDFMessage: 368f. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state        *note mboxMessage: 3504. or
                       *note MMDFMessage: 368f. state
                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
"unseen" label         no R flag
                       
                       
"deleted" label        D flag
                       
                       
"answered" label       A flag
                       

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3675. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state        *note MHMessage: 3675. state
                       
------------------------------------------------------
                       
"unseen" label         "unseen" sequence
                       
                       
"answered" label       "replied" sequence
                       


File: python.info,  Node: MMDFMessage objects,  Prev: BabylMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.20.3.12 ‘MMDFMessage’ objects
...............................

 -- Classe: mailbox.MMDFMessage (message=None)

     Un message avec des comportements spécifiques à 'MMDF'. Le
     paramètre 'message' a le même sens que pour le constructeur de
     *note Message: 1231.

     Comme pour le message d'une boîte de courriel 'mbox', les messages
     'MMDF' sont stockés avec l'adresse de l'expéditeur et la date
     d'expédition dans la ligne initiale commençant avec « From ».  De
     même, les options indiquant l'état du message sont stockées dans
     les en-têtes ‘Status’ et ‘X-Status’.

     Les options conventionnelles des messages 'MMDF' sont identiques à
     celles de message 'mbox' et sont les suivantes :

     Option     Signification  Explication
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘MMDFMessage’ instances offer the following methods, which are
     identical to those offered by *note mboxMessage: 3504.:

      -- Méthode: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading "From "
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- Méthode: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the "From " line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading "From " or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: cda.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 11c8, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          119f.).

      -- Méthode: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- Méthode: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- Méthode: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- Méthode: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3655. instance, a "From " line is generated based upon
the *note MaildirMessage: 3655. instance's delivery date, and the
following conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 3655. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                "cur" subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3675. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3675. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  "flagged" sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  "replied" sequence
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3688. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 3688. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no "unseen" label
                        
                        
O flag                  "unseen" label
                        
                        
D flag                  "deleted" label
                        
                        
A flag                  "answered" label
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3504. instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       état de
                      *note mboxMessage: 3504.
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<18>,  Next: Exemples<22>,  Prev: Message objects,  Up: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.20.3.13 Exceptions
....................

The following exception classes are defined in the ‘mailbox’ module:

 -- Exception: mailbox.Error

     Classe de base pour toutes les autres exceptions spécifiques à ce
     module.

 -- Exception: mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError

     Levée lorsqu'une boîte de courriel est attendue mais introuvable,
     comme quand on instancie une sous-classe *note Mailbox: 122d. avec
     un chemin qui n'existe pas (et avec le paramètre 'create' fixé à
     ‘False’), ou quand on ouvre un répertoire qui n'existe pas.

 -- Exception: mailbox.NotEmptyError

     Levée lorsqu'une boîte de courriel n'est pas vide mais devrait
     l'être, comme lorsqu'on supprime un répertoire contenant des
     messages.

 -- Exception: mailbox.ExternalClashError

     Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of
     the program causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing
     to acquire a lock that another program already holds a lock, or
     when a uniquely generated file name already exists.

 -- Exception: mailbox.FormatError

     Levée lorsque la donnée dans le fichier ne peut être analysée,
     comme lorsque l'instance de *note MH: 1671. tente de lire un
     fichier ‘.mh_sequences’ corrompu.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<22>,  Prev: Exceptions<18>,  Up: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.20.3.14 Exemples
..................

Un exemple simple d'affichage de l'objet, qui semble pertinent, de tous
les messages d'une boîte de courriel :

     import mailbox
     for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
         subject = message['subject']       # Could possibly be None.
         if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
             print(subject)

Cet exemple copie tout le courriel d'une boite de courriel au format
'Babyl' vers une boite de courriel au format 'MH', convertissant toute
l'information qu'il est possible de convertir du premier format vers le
second :

     import mailbox
     destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
     destination.lock()
     for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
         destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
     destination.flush()
     destination.unlock()

Cet exemple trie le courriel en provenance de plusieurs listes de
diffusion vers différentes boîtes de courriel, tout en évitant une
corruption à cause de modifications concurrentielles par d'autres
programmes, une perte due à une interruption du programme ou un arrêt
prématuré causé par des messages mal structurés :

     import mailbox
     import email.errors

     list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')

     boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
     inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)

     for key in inbox.iterkeys():
         try:
             message = inbox[key]
         except email.errors.MessageParseError:
             continue                # The message is malformed. Just leave it.

         for name in list_names:
             list_id = message['list-id']
             if list_id and name in list_id:
                 # Get mailbox to use
                 box = boxes[name]

                 # Write copy to disk before removing original.
                 # If there's a crash, you might duplicate a message, but
                 # that's better than losing a message completely.
                 box.lock()
                 box.add(message)
                 box.flush()
                 box.unlock()

                 # Remove original message
                 inbox.lock()
                 inbox.discard(key)
                 inbox.flush()
                 inbox.unlock()
                 break               # Found destination, so stop looking.

     for box in boxes.itervalues():
         box.close()


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types,  Next: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Prev: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.4 ‘mimetypes’ -- Map filenames to MIME types
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/mimetypes.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note mimetypes: 8e. module converts between a filename or URL and
the MIME type associated with the filename extension.  Conversions are
provided from filename to MIME type and from MIME type to filename
extension; encodings are not supported for the latter conversion.

The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions.
The functions are the normal interface to this module, but some
applications may be interested in the class as well.

The functions described below provide the primary interface for this
module.  If the module has not been initialized, they will call *note
init(): 36c2. if they rely on the information *note init(): 36c2. sets
up.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.guess_type (url, strict=True)

     Guess the type of a file based on its filename, path or URL, given
     by 'url'.  URL can be a string or a *note path-like object: 29d.

     The return value is a tuple ‘(type, encoding)’ where 'type' is
     ‘None’ if the type can't be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or
     a string of the form ‘'type/subtype'’, usable for a MIME
     ‘content-type’ header.

     'encoding' is ‘None’ for no encoding or the name of the program
     used to encode (e.g.  ‘compress’ or ‘gzip’).  The encoding is
     suitable for use as a ‘Content-Encoding’ header, 'not' as a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  The mappings are table driven.
     Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried
     case sensitively, then case insensitively.

     The optional 'strict' argument is a flag specifying whether the
     list of known MIME types is limited to only the official types
     registered with IANA(2). When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default),
     only the IANA types are supported; when 'strict' is ‘False’, some
     additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types are also
     recognized.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for 'url' being a *note
     path-like object: 29d.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Passing a file path instead of URL
     is *note soft deprecated: 206.  Use *note guess_file_type(): 204.
     for this.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.guess_file_type (path, *, strict=True)

     Guess the type of a file based on its path, given by 'path'.
     Similar to the *note guess_type(): 205. function, but accepts a
     path instead of URL. Path can be a string, a bytes object or a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a list of strings giving all possible
     filename extensions, including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The
     extensions are not guaranteed to have been associated with any
     particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type 'type'
     by *note guess_type(): 205. and *note guess_file_type(): 204.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 205. function.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.guess_extension (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a string giving a filename extension,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The extension is not guaranteed
     to have been associated with any particular data stream, but would
     be mapped to the MIME type 'type' by *note guess_type(): 205. and
     *note guess_file_type(): 204.  If no extension can be guessed for
     'type', ‘None’ is returned.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 205. function.

Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling
the behavior of the module.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.init (files=None)

     Initialize the internal data structures.  If given, 'files' must be
     a sequence of file names which should be used to augment the
     default type map.  If omitted, the file names to use are taken from
     *note knownfiles: 36c4.; on Windows, the current registry settings
     are loaded.  Each file named in 'files' or *note knownfiles: 36c4.
     takes precedence over those named before it.  Calling *note init():
     36c2. repeatedly is allowed.

     Specifying an empty list for 'files' will prevent the system
     defaults from being applied: only the well-known values will be
     present from a built-in list.

     If 'files' is ‘None’ the internal data structure is completely
     rebuilt to its initial default value.  This is a stable operation
     and will produce the same results when called multiple times.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Previously, Windows registry settings
     were ignored.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.read_mime_types (filename)

     Load the type map given in the file 'filename', if it exists.  The
     type map is returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’), to strings of the form
     ‘'type/subtype'’.  If the file 'filename' does not exist or cannot
     be read, ‘None’ is returned.

 -- Fonction: mimetypes.add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

     Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension 'ext'.
     When the extension is already known, the new type will replace the
     old one.  When the type is already known the extension will be
     added to the list of known extensions.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be added to
     the official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.

 -- Données: mimetypes.inited

     Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been
     initialized.  This is set to ‘True’ by *note init(): 36c2.

 -- Données: mimetypes.knownfiles

     List of type map file names commonly installed.  These files are
     typically named ‘mime.types’ and are installed in different
     locations by different packages.

 -- Données: mimetypes.suffix_map

     Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow
     recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and the type
     are indicated by the same extension.  For example, the ‘.tgz’
     extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the encoding and type to
     be recognized separately.

 -- Données: mimetypes.encodings_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.

 -- Données: mimetypes.types_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.

 -- Données: mimetypes.common_types

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but
     commonly found MIME types.

Un exemple d'utilisation du module :

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> mimetypes.init()
     >>> mimetypes.knownfiles
     ['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
     >>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
     '.tar.gz'
     >>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
     'gzip'
     >>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
     'application/x-tar-gz'

* Menu:

* MimeTypes Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/mimetypes.py

   (2) https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml


File: python.info,  Node: MimeTypes Objects,  Up: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types

5.20.4.1 MimeTypes Objects
..........................

The *note MimeTypes: 14b3. class may be useful for applications which
may want more than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface
similar to the one of the *note mimetypes: 8e. module.

 -- Classe: mimetypes.MimeTypes (filenames=(), strict=True)

     This class represents a MIME-types database.  By default, it
     provides access to the same database as the rest of this module.
     The initial database is a copy of that provided by the module, and
     may be extended by loading additional ‘mime.types’-style files into
     the database using the *note read(): 36cd. or *note readfp(): 36ce.
     methods.  The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
     loading additional data if the default data is not desired.

     The optional 'filenames' parameter can be used to cause additional
     files to be loaded "on top" of the default database.

      -- Attribut: suffix_map

          Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to
          allow recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and
          the type are indicated by the same extension.  For example,
          the ‘.tgz’ extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the
          encoding and type to be recognized separately.  This is
          initially a copy of the global *note suffix_map: 36c7. defined
          in the module.

      -- Attribut: encodings_map

          Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.
          This is initially a copy of the global *note encodings_map:
          36c8. defined in the module.

      -- Attribut: types_map

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions
          to MIME types: the first dictionary is for the non-standards
          types and the second one is for the standard types.  They are
          initialized by *note common_types: 36ca. and *note types_map:
          36c9.

      -- Attribut: types_map_inv

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a
          list of filename extensions: the first dictionary is for the
          non-standards types and the second one is for the standard
          types.  They are initialized by *note common_types: 36ca. and
          *note types_map: 36c9.

      -- Méthode: guess_extension (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_extension(): 36c3. function, using
          the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Méthode: guess_type (url, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_type(): 205. function, using the
          tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Méthode: guess_file_type (path, *, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_file_type(): 204. function, using
          the tables stored as part of the object.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_all_extensions(): 1852. function,
          using the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Méthode: read (filename, strict=True)

          Load MIME information from a file named 'filename'.  This uses
          *note readfp(): 36ce. to parse the file.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to list of
          standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- Méthode: readfp (fp, strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from an open file 'fp'.  The file
          must have the format of the standard ‘mime.types’ files.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- Méthode: read_windows_registry (strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.

          *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

          Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension
          'ext'.  When the extension is already known, the new type will
          replace the old one.  When the type is already known the
          extension will be added to the list of known extensions.

          When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be
          added to the official MIME types, otherwise to the
          non-standard ones.


File: python.info,  Node: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Next: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII,  Prev: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.5 ‘base64’ -- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
----------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/base64.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.  It
provides encoding and decoding functions for the encodings specified in
RFC 4648(2), which defines the Base16, Base32, and Base64 algorithms,
and for the de-facto standard Ascii85 and Base85 encodings.

The RFC 4648(3) encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that
it can be safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as
part of an HTTP POST request.  The encoding algorithm is not the same as
the ‘uuencode’ program.

There are two interfaces provided by this module.  The modern interface
supports encoding *note bytes-like objects: d1d. to ASCII *note bytes:
1bd, and decoding *note bytes-like objects: d1d. or strings containing
ASCII to *note bytes: 1bd.  Both base-64 alphabets defined in RFC
4648(4) (normal, and URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.

L'interface historique ne permet pas le décodage des chaînes de
caractères mais fournit des fonctions permettant d'encoder et décoder
depuis et vers des *note objets fichiers: 11a2.  Elle ne gère que
l'alphabet base64 standard et ajoute une nouvelle ligne tous les 76
caractères, comme spécifié par la RFC 2045(5).  Notez que le paquet
*note email: 3b. est probablement ce que vous cherchez si vous souhaitez
une implémentation de la RFC 2045(6).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les chaînes de caractères Unicode contenant
uniquement des caractères ASCII sont désormais acceptées par les
fonctions de décodage de l'interface moderne.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Tous les *note objets octet-compatibles:
d1d. sont désormais acceptés par l'ensemble des fonctions d'encodage et
de décodage de ce module.  La gestion de Ascii85/base85 a été ajoutée.

L'interface moderne propose :

 -- Fonction: base64.b64encode (s, altchars=None)

     Encode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant
     l'algorithme base64 et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd. encodés.

     Optional 'altchars' must be a *note bytes-like object: d1d. of
     length 2 which specifies an alternative alphabet for the ‘+’ and
     ‘/’ characters.  This allows an application to e.g.  generate URL
     or filesystem safe Base64 strings.  The default is ‘None’, for
     which the standard Base64 alphabet is used.

     May assert or raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the length of
     'altchars' is not 2.  Raises a *note TypeError: 525. if 'altchars'
     is not a *note bytes-like object: d1d.

 -- Fonction: base64.b64decode (s, altchars=None, validate=False)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 's' encodée en base64 et renvoie les *note bytes:
     1bd. décodés.

     Optional 'altchars' must be a *note bytes-like object: d1d. or
     ASCII string of length 2 which specifies the alternative alphabet
     used instead of the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters.

     Une exception *note binascii.Error: 1011. est levée si 's' n'est
     pas remplie à une longueur attendue.

     Si 'validate' est ‘False’ (par défaut), les caractères qui ne sont
     ni dans l'alphabet base64 normal, ni dans l'alphabet alternatif,
     sont ignorés avant la vérification de la longueur du remplissage.
     Si 'validate' est ‘True’, les caractères hors de l'alphabet de
     l'entrée produisent une *note binascii.Error: 1011.

     For more information about the strict base64 check, see *note
     binascii.a2b_base64(): 15e8.

     May assert or raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if the length of
     'altchars' is not 2.

 -- Fonction: base64.standard_b64encode (s)

     Encode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant
     l'alphabet standard base64 et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd.
     encodés.

 -- Fonction: base64.standard_b64decode (s)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 's' utilisant l'alphabet base64 standard et
     renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd. décodés.

 -- Fonction: base64.urlsafe_b64encode (s)

     Encode un *note objet byte-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant un
     alphabet sûr pour les URL et systèmes de fichiers qui substitue ‘-’
     et ‘_’ à ‘+’ et ‘/’ dans l'alphabet standard base64 et renvoie les
     *note bytes: 1bd. encodés.

 -- Fonction: base64.urlsafe_b64decode (s)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 's' utilisant un alphabet sûr pour les URL et
     systèmes de fichiers qui substitue ‘-’ et ‘_’ à ‘+’ et ‘/’ dans
     l'alphabet standard base64 et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd.
     décodés.

 -- Fonction: base64.b32encode (s)

     Encode un *note objet byte-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant
     l'algorithme base32 et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd. encodés.

 -- Fonction: base64.b32decode (s, casefold=False, map01=None)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 's' encodé en base32 et renvoie les *note bytes:
     1bd. décodés.

     L'option 'casefold' est un drapeau spécifiant si l'utilisation d'un
     alphabet en minuscules est acceptable comme entrée.  Pour des
     raisons de sécurité, cette option est à ‘False’ par défaut.

     RFC 4648(7) allows for optional mapping of the digit 0 (zero) to
     the letter O (oh), and for optional mapping of the digit 1 (one) to
     either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el).  The optional argument
     'map01' when not ‘None’, specifies which letter the digit 1 should
     be mapped to (when 'map01' is not ‘None’, the digit 0 is always
     mapped to the letter O). For security purposes the default is
     ‘None’, so that 0 and 1 are not allowed in the input.

     Une exception *note binascii.Error: 1011. est levée si 's' n'est
     pas remplie à une longueur attendue ou si elle contient des
     caractères hors de l'alphabet.

 -- Fonction: base64.b32hexencode (s)

     Similar to *note b32encode(): 36df. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(8).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: base64.b32hexdecode (s, casefold=False)

     Similar to *note b32decode(): 1010. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(9).

     This version does not allow the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O (oh)
     and digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el)
     mappings, all these characters are included in the Extended Hex
     Alphabet and are not interchangeable.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: base64.b16encode (s)

     Encode un *note objet byte-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant
     l'algorithme base16 et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd. encodés.

 -- Fonction: base64.b16decode (s, casefold=False)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 's' encodé en base16 et renvoie les *note bytes:
     1bd. décodés.

     L'option 'casefold' est un drapeau spécifiant si l'utilisation d'un
     alphabet en minuscules est acceptable comme entrée.  Pour des
     raisons de sécurité, cette option est à ‘False’ par défaut.

     Une exception *note binascii.Error: 1011. est levée si 's' n'est
     pas remplie à une longueur attendue ou si elle contient des
     caractères hors de l'alphabet.

 -- Fonction: base64.a85encode (b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0,
          pad=False, adobe=False)

     Encode un *note objet byte-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant
     l'algorithme Ascii85 et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd. encodés.

     L'option 'foldspaces' permet d'utiliser la séquence spéciale 'y' à
     la place de quatre espaces consécutives (ASCII ‘0x20’) comme pris
     en charge par 'btoa'.  Cette fonctionnalité n'est pas gérée par
     l'encodage « standard » Ascii85.

     'wrapcol' controls whether the output should have newline (‘b'\n'’)
     characters added to it.  If this is non-zero, each output line will
     be at most this many characters long, excluding the trailing
     newline.

     'pad' spécifie l'ajout de caractères de remplissage ('padding' en
     anglais) à l'entrée jusqu'à ce que sa longueur soit un multiple de
     4 avant encodage.  Notez que l'implémentation ‘btoa’ effectue
     systématiquement ce remplissage.

     'adobe' contrôle si oui ou non la séquence encodée d'octets est
     encadrée par ‘<~’ et ‘~>’ comme utilisé dans l'implémentation
     Adobe.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: base64.a85decode (b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False,
          ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\x0b')

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 's' encodé en Ascii85 et renvoie les *note bytes:
     1bd. décodés.

     L'option 'foldspaces' permet d'utiliser la séquence spéciale 'y' à
     la place de quatre espaces consécutives (ASCII ‘0x20’) comme pris
     en charge par 'btoa'.  Cette fonctionnalité n'est pas gérée par
     l'encodage « standard » Ascii85.

     'adobe' indique si la séquence d'entrée utilise le format Adobe
     Ascii85 (c'est-à-dire utilise l'encadrement par ‘<~’ et ‘~>’).

     'ignorechars' doit être un *note bytes-like object: d1d. ou une
     chaîne ASCII contenant des caractères à ignorer dans l'entrée.  Il
     ne doit contenir que des caractères d'espacement et contient par
     défaut l'ensemble des caractères d'espacement de l'alphabet ASCII.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: base64.b85encode (b, pad=False)

     Encode un *note objet byte-compatible: d1d. 's' en utilisant
     l'algorithme base85 (tel qu'utilisé par exemple par le programme
     'git-diff' sur des données binaires) et renvoie les *note bytes:
     1bd. encodés.

     Si 'pad' est vrai, des caractères de remplissage ‘b'\0'’ ('padding'
     en anglais) sont ajoutés à l'entrée jusqu'à ce que sa longueur soit
     un multiple de 4 octets avant encodage.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: base64.b85decode (b)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. ou une chaîne de
     caractères ASCII 'b' encodé en base85 et renvoie les *note bytes:
     1bd. décodés.  Les caractères de remplissage sont implicitement
     retirés si nécessaire.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: base64.z85encode (s)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: d1d. 's' using Z85 (as used in
     ZeroMQ) and return the encoded *note bytes: 1bd.  See Z85
     specification(10) for more information.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: base64.z85decode (s)

     Decode the Z85-encoded *note bytes-like object: d1d. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1bd.  See Z85
     specification(11) for more information.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

L'interface historique :

 -- Fonction: base64.decode (input, output)

     Décode le contenu d'un fichier binaire 'input' et écrit les données
     binaires résultantes dans le fichier 'output'.  'input' et 'output'
     doivent être des *note objets fichiers: 11a2.  'input' est lu
     jusqu'à ce que ‘input.readline()’ renvoie un objet 'bytes' vide.

 -- Fonction: base64.decodebytes (s)

     Décode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. 's' devant contenir
     une ou plusieurs lignes de données encodées en base64 et renvoie
     les *note bytes: 1bd. décodés.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: base64.encode (input, output)

     Encode le contenu du fichier binaire 'input' et écrit les données
     encodées en base64 résultantes dans le fichier 'output.  *input' et
     'output' doivent être des *note objets fichiers: 11a2.  'input' est
     lu jusqu'à ce que ‘input.readline()’ renvoie un objet 'bytes' vide.
     *note encode(): 36e3. insère un caractère de saut de ligne
     (‘b'\n'’) tous les 76 octets de sortie et assure que celle-ci se
     termine par une nouvelle ligne, comme spécifié par la RFC 2045(12)
     (MIME).

 -- Fonction: base64.encodebytes (s)

     Encode un *note objet octet-compatible: d1d. 's' pouvant contenir
     des données binaires arbitraires et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd.
     contenant les données encodées en base64.  Un caractère de saut de
     ligne (‘b'\n'’) est inséré tous les 76 octets de sortie et celle-ci
     se termine par une nouvelle ligne, comme spécifié par la RFC
     2045(13) (MIME).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Un exemple d'utilisation du module :

     >>> import base64
     >>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
     >>> encoded
     b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
     >>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
     >>> data
     b'data to be encoded'

* Menu:

* Considérations de sécurité: Considérations de sécurité<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/base64.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (11) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: Considérations de sécurité<2>,  Up: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings

5.20.5.1 Considérations de sécurité
...................................

A new security considerations section was added to RFC 4648(1) (section
12); it's recommended to review the security section for any code
deployed to production.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note binascii: 10.

     Module secondaire contenant les conversions ASCII vers binaire et
     binaire vers ASCII.

RFC 1521(2) — MIME ('Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions') 'Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies'

     La Section 5.2, "'Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding'", donne la
     définition de l'encodage base64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html


File: python.info,  Node: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII,  Next: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data,  Prev: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.6 ‘binascii’ -- Convert between binary and ASCII
-----------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note binascii: 10. module contains a number of methods to convert
between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations.
Normally, you will not use these functions directly but use wrapper
modules like *note base64: e. instead.  The *note binascii: 10. module
contains low-level functions written in C for greater speed that are
used by the higher-level modules.

     Note: La fonction ‘a2b_*’ accepte des chaînes de caractères
     contenant seulement des caractères ASCII. D’autres fonctions
     acceptent seulement des objets *note bytes et similaire: d1d. (tel
     que *note bytes: 1bd, *note bytearray: 52b. et autres objets qui
     supportent le protocole tampon).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les chaines de caractères 'unicode'
     seulement composées de caractères ASCII sont désormais acceptées
     par les fonctions ‘a2b_*’.

Le module *note binascii: 10. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: binascii.a2b_uu (string)

     Convertit une seule ligne de donnée 'uuencoded' en binaire et
     renvoie la donnée binaire.  Les lignes contiennent normalement 45
     octets (binaire), sauf pour la dernière ligne.  Il se peut que la
     ligne de donnée soit suivie d’un espace blanc.

 -- Fonction: binascii.b2a_uu (data, *, backtick=False)

     Convertit les données binaires en une ligne de caractères ASCII, la
     valeur renvoyée est la ligne convertie incluant un caractère de
     nouvelle ligne.  La longueur de 'data' doit être au maximum de 45.
     Si 'backtick' est vraie, les zéros sont représentés par ‘'`'’
     plutôt que par des espaces.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre 'backtick'.

 -- Fonction: binascii.a2b_base64 (string, /, *, strict_mode=False)

     Convertit un bloc de donnée en 'base64' en binaire et renvoie la
     donnée binaire.  Plus d’une ligne peut être passé à la fois.

     If 'strict_mode' is true, only valid base64 data will be converted.
     Invalid base64 data will raise *note binascii.Error: 1011.

     Valid base64:

        * Conforms to RFC 3548(1).

        * Contains only characters from the base64 alphabet.

        * Contains no excess data after padding (including excess
          padding, newlines, etc.).

        * Does not start with a padding.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'strict_mode' parameter.

 -- Fonction: binascii.b2a_base64 (data, *, newline=True)

     Convertit les données binaires en une ligne de caractères ASCII en
     codage base 64.  La valeur de renvoyée et la ligne convertie,
     incluant un caractère de nouvelle ligne si 'newline' est vraie.  La
     sortie de cette fonction se conforme à RFC 3548(2).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre 'newline'.

 -- Fonction: binascii.a2b_qp (data, header=False)

     Convertit un bloc de données 'quoted-printable' en binaire et
     renvoie les données binaires.  Plus d’une ligne peut être passée à
     la fois.  Si l’argument optionnel 'header' est présent et vrai, les
     traits soulignés seront décodés en espaces.

 -- Fonction: binascii.b2a_qp (data, quotetabs=False, istext=True,
          header=False)

     Convertit les données binaires en ligne(s) de caractères ASCII en
     codage imprimable entre guillemets.  La valeur de retour est lales
     lignes(s) convertie(s).  Si l’argument optionnel 'quotetabs' est
     présent et vrai, toutes les tabulations et espaces seront encodés.
     Si l’argument optionnel 'istext' est présent et faux, les nouvelles
     lignes ne sont pas encodées mais les espaces de fin de ligne le
     seront.  Si l’argument optionnel 'header' est présent et vrai, les
     espaces vont être encodés comme de traits soulignés selon RFC
     1522(3).  Si l’argument optionnel 'header' est présent et faux, les
     caractères de nouvelle ligne seront également encodés ; sinon la
     conversion de saut de ligne pourrait corrompre le flux de données
     binaire.

 -- Fonction: binascii.crc_hqx (data, value)

     Calcule une valeur en CRC 16-bit de 'data', commençant par 'value'
     comme CRC initial et renvoie le résultat.  Ceci utilise le
     CRC-CCITT polynomial 'x'^16 + 'x'^12 + 'x'^5 + 1, souvent
     représenté comme '0x1021'.  Ce CRC est utilisé dans le format
     'binhex4'.

 -- Fonction: binascii.crc32 (data[, value])

     Compute CRC-32, the unsigned 32-bit checksum of 'data', starting
     with an initial CRC of 'value'.  The default initial CRC is zero.
     The algorithm is consistent with the ZIP file checksum.  Since the
     algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not
     suitable for use as a general hash algorithm.  Use as follows:

          print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
          # Or, in two pieces:
          crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
          crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
          print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))

     Modifié dans la version 3.0: Renvoie une valeur non-signée.

 -- Fonction: binascii.b2a_hex (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])
 -- Fonction: binascii.hexlify (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

     Renvoie la représentation hexadécimale du binaire 'data'.  Chaque
     octet de 'data' est converti en la représentation 2 chiffres
     correspondante.  L’objet octets renvoyé est donc deux fois plus
     long que la longueur de 'data'.

     Fonctionnalité similaire est également commodément accessible en
     utilisant la méthode *note bytes.hex(): d58.

     Si 'sep' est spécifié, il doit s'agir d'une chaîne de caractères ou
     d'un objet 'byte'.  Il sera inséré dans la sortie tous les
     'bytes_per_sep' octets.  Par défaut, l'emplacement du séparateur
     est compté à partir de l'extrémité droite de la sortie.  Si vous
     souhaitez compter à partir de la gauche, indiquez une valeur
     'bytes_per_sep' négative.

          >>> import binascii
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef')
          b'b901ef'
          >>> binascii.hexlify(b'\xb9\x01\xef', '-')
          b'b9-01-ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b'_', 2)
          b'b9_01ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b' ', -2)
          b'b901 ef'

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout des paramètres 'sep' et
     'bytes_per_sep'.

 -- Fonction: binascii.a2b_hex (hexstr)
 -- Fonction: binascii.unhexlify (hexstr)

     Renvoie la donnée binaire représentée par la chaîne de caractères
     hexadécimale 'hexstr'.  Cette fonction est l’inverse de *note
     b2a_hex(): 23cd.  'hexstr' doit contenir un nombre pair de chiffres
     hexadécimaux (qui peuvent être en majuscule ou minuscule), sinon
     une exception *note Error: 1011. est levée.

     Une fonctionnalité similaire (n’acceptant que les arguments de
     chaîne de texte, mais plus libérale vis-à-vis des espaces blancs)
     est également accessible en utilisant la méthode de classe *note
     bytes.fromhex(): adf.

 -- Exception: binascii.Error

     Exception levée en cas d'erreurs.  Ce sont typiquement des erreurs
     de programmation.

 -- Exception: binascii.Incomplete

     Exception levée par des données incomplète.  Il ne s’agit
     généralement pas d’erreurs de programmation, mais elles peuvent
     être traitées en lisant un peu plus de données et en réessayant.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note base64: e.

     Support de l’encodage 'base64-style' conforme RFC en base 16, 32,
     64 et 85.

Module *note quopri: b6.

     Support de l’encodage 'quote-printable' utilisé par les messages
     'email' MIME.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data,  Prev: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII,  Up: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

5.20.7 ‘quopri’ -- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/quopri.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module effectue des encodages et décodages de transport
'quoted-printable', tel que définis dans la RFC 1521(2) : "'MIME
(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One Mechanisms for
Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies'".
L'encodage 'quoted-printable' est adapté aux données dans lesquelles peu
de données ne sont pas affichables.  L'encodage 'base64' disponible dans
le module *note base64: e. est plus compact dans les cas où ces
caractères sont nombreux, typiquement pour encoder des images.

 -- Fonction: quopri.decode (input, output, header=False)

     Décode le contenu du fichier 'input' et écrit le résultat décodé,
     binaire, dans le fichier 'output'.  'input' et 'output' doivent
     être des *note objets fichiers binaires: 11a2.  Si l'argument
     facultatif 'header' est fourni et vrai, les 'underscore' seront
     décodés en espaces.  C'est utilisé pour décoder des entêtes
     encodées "Q" décrits dans la RFC RFC 1522(3) : "'MIME (Multipurpose
     Internet Mail Extensions) Part Two: Message Header Extensions for
     Non-ASCII Text'".

 -- Fonction: quopri.encode (input, output, quotetabs, header=False)

     Encode le contenu du fichier 'input' et écrit le résultat dans le
     fichier 'output'.  'input' et 'output' doivent être des *note
     objets fichiers binaires: 11a2.  'quotetabs' (paramètre
     obligatoire) permet de choisir le style d'encodage des espaces et
     des tabulations, si vrai les espaces seront encodées, sinon elles
     seront laissées inchangées.  Notez que les espaces et tabulations
     en fin de ligne sont toujours encodées, tel que spécifié par la RFC
     1521(4).  'header' est une option permettant d'encoder les espace
     en 'underscores', tel que spécifié par la RFC 1522(5).

 -- Fonction: quopri.decodestring (s, header=False)

     Fonctionne comme *note decode(): 23d0, sauf qu'elle accepte des
     *note bytes: 1bd. comme source, et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd.
     décodés correspondants.

 -- Fonction: quopri.encodestring (s, quotetabs=False, header=False)

     Fonctionne comme *note encode(): 23cf, sauf qu'elle accepte des
     *note bytes: 1bd. comme source et renvoie les *note bytes: 1bd.
     encodés correspondants.  Par défaut, ‘False’ est donné au paramètre
     'quotetabs' de la fonction *note encode(): 23cf.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note base64: e.

     Encode et décode des données MIME en 'base64'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/quopri.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: Outils de traitement de balises structurées,  Next: Gestion des protocoles internet,  Prev: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.21 Outils de traitement de balises structurées
================================================

Python intègre une variété de modules pour fonctionner avec différentes
formes de données structurées et balisées, comme le SGML ('Standard
Generalized Markup Language'), le HTML ('Hypert Markup Language'), et
quelques interfaces pour travailler avec du XML ('eXtensible Markup
Language').

* Menu:

* html: html --- HyperText Markup Language support. HyperText Markup Language support
* html.parser: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser. Simple HTML and XHTML parser
* html.entities: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities. Definitions of HTML general entities
* Modules de traitement XML::
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API. The ElementTree XML API
* xml.dom: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API. The Document Object Model API
* xml.dom.minidom: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation. Minimal DOM implementation
* xml.dom.pulldom: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees. Support for building partial DOM trees
* xml.sax: xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers. Support for SAX2 parsers
* xml.sax.handler: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers. Base classes for SAX handlers
* xml.sax.saxutils: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities. SAX Utilities
* xml.sax.xmlreader: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers. Interface for XML parsers
* xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat. Fast XML parsing using Expat


File: python.info,  Node: html --- HyperText Markup Language support,  Next: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.1 ‘html’ -- HyperText Markup Language support
--------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module définit des outils permettant la manipulation d'HTML.

 -- Fonction: html.escape (s, quote=True)

     Convertit les caractères ‘&’, ‘<’ et ‘>’ de la chaîne de caractères
     's' en séquences HTML valides.  À utiliser si le texte à afficher
     pourrait contenir de tels caractères dans le HTML. Si le paramètre
     optionnel 'quote' est vrai, les caractères (‘"’) et (‘'’) sont
     également traduits; cela est utile pour les inclusions dans des
     valeurs d'attributs HTML délimitées par des guillemets, comme dans
     ‘<a href="...">’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: html.unescape (s)

     Convertit toutes les références de caractères nommés et numériques
     (e.g.  ‘&gt;’, ‘&#62;’, ‘&#x3e;’) dans la chaîne de caractères 's'
     par les caractères Unicode correspondants.  Cette fonction utilise
     les règles définies par le standard HTML 5 à la fois pour les
     caractères valides et les caractères invalides, et la *note liste
     des références des caractères nommés en HTML 5: 10b6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

__________________________________________________________________

Les sous-modules dans le paquet ‘html’ sont :

   * *note html.parser: 6c. - Parseur HTML/XHTML avec un mode de
     'parsing' tolérant

   * *note html.entities: 6b. - Définitions d'entités HTML

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Next: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities,  Prev: html --- HyperText Markup Language support,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.2 ‘html.parser’ -- Simple HTML and XHTML parser
----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/html/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module définit une classe *note HTMLParser: 864. qui sert de base
pour l'analyse syntaxique de fichiers texte formatés HTML ('HyperText
Mark-up Language', le « langage de balisage hypertexte ») et XHTML
('EXtensible HyperText Markup Language', le « langage extensible de
balisage hypertexte »).

 -- Classe: html.parser.HTMLParser (*, convert_charrefs=True)

     Crée une instance d'analyseur capable de traiter tout balisage,
     même invalide.

     Si 'convert_charrefs' est ‘True’ (valeur par défaut), toute
     référence de caractère (sauf ceux enchâssés dans des éléments
     ‘script’/‘style’) est automatiquement convertie en son caractère
     Unicode.

     Une instance de *note HTMLParser: 864. est alimentée par des
     données HTML. Elle fait appel à des méthodes offrant un traitement
     spécifique quand est rencontré un élément de balisage : balise
     ouvrante ou fermante, textes, commentaires… Pour implémenter le
     comportement désiré, l'utilisateur crée une sous-classe de *note
     HTMLParser: 864. en surchargeant ses méthodes.

     Cet analyseur ne vérifie ni que les balises fermantes correspondent
     aux balises ouvrantes, ni n'invoque le gestionnaire de balises
     fermantes pour les éléments implicitement fermés par un élément
     extérieur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: L'argument 'convert_charrefs' a été
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La valeur par défaut de l'argument
     'convert_charrefs' est désormais ‘True’.

* Menu:

* Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML::
* Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser::
* Exemples: Exemples<23>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML,  Next: Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser,  Up: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.21.2.1 Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML
..................................................

Comme exemple simple, un analyseur HTML minimal qui utilise la classe
*note HTMLParser: 864. pour afficher les balises ouvrantes, les balises
fermantes ainsi que les données quand elles apparaissent :

     from html.parser import HTMLParser

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Encountered some data  :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()
     parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
                 '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')

La sortie est alors :

     Encountered a start tag: html
     Encountered a start tag: head
     Encountered a start tag: title
     Encountered some data  : Test
     Encountered an end tag : title
     Encountered an end tag : head
     Encountered a start tag: body
     Encountered a start tag: h1
     Encountered some data  : Parse me!
     Encountered an end tag : h1
     Encountered an end tag : body
     Encountered an end tag : html


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser,  Next: Exemples<23>,  Prev: Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML,  Up: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.21.2.2 Méthodes de la classe ‘HTMLParser’
...........................................

Les instances de *note HTMLParser: 864. disposent des méthodes
suivantes :

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.feed (data)

     Alimente l'analyseur avec du texte.  Ce texte est traité dans la
     mesure où il constitue des éléments complets ; les données
     incomplètes sont mises dans un tampon jusqu'à ce que d'autres
     données soient fournies ou que la méthode *note close(): 36fb. soit
     appelée.  L'argument 'data' doit être de classe *note str: 437.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.close ()

     Force le traitement de toutes les données du tampon comme si elles
     étaient suivies par un caractère 'fin de fichier'.  Cette méthode
     peut-être redéfinie par une classe dérivée pour ajouter des
     traitements supplémentaires à la fin de l'entrée, mais la version
     redéfinie devra impérativement appeler la méthode *note close():
     36fb. de la classe de base *note HTMLParser: 864.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.reset ()

     Réinitialise l'instance.  Toutes les données non traitées sont
     perdues.  Cette méthode est appelée implicitement lors de
     l'instanciation.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.getpos ()

     Renvoie le numéro de ligne et le numéro du caractère dans la ligne
     où le curseur est positionné.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.get_starttag_text ()

     Return the text of the most recently opened start tag.  This should
     not normally be needed for structured processing, but may be useful
     in dealing with HTML "as deployed" or for re-generating input with
     minimal changes (whitespace between attributes can be preserved,
     etc.).

Les méthodes suivantes sont appelées lors de la rencontre de données ou
d'éléments de balisage ; elles sont destinées à être surchargées par la
sous-classe.  L'implémentation de la classe de base ne fait rien (sauf
pour ce qui est de *note handle_startendtag(): 36ff.) :

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_starttag (tag, attrs)

     Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter une balise ouvrante (p.  ex.
     ‘<div id="main">’).

     L'argument 'tag' contient le nom de la balise en minuscules.
     L'argument 'attrs' contient une liste de 'n-uplets' ‘(name, value)’
     regroupant les attributs présents entre les symboles ‘<’ et ‘>’ de
     la balise.  Le paramètre 'name' est converti en minuscule ; les
     guillemets sont supprimés du paramètre 'value' et toute entité de
     référence ou de caractère est remplacée.

     Par exemple, pour la balise ‘<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">’, cette
     méthode est appelée par ‘handle_starttag('a', [('href',
     'https://www.cwi.nl/')])’.

     Toute référence d'entité présente dans *note html.entities: 6b. est
     remplacée dans la valeur des attributs.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_endtag (tag)

     Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter les balises fermantes (p.
     ex.  ‘</div>’).

     L'argument 'tag' est le nom de la balise en minuscules.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_startendtag (tag, attrs)

     Traitée de façon similaire à *note handle_starttag(): 3700, mais
     appelée quand l'analyseur rencontre une balise vide de type 'XHTML'
     (p.  ex.  ‘<img ... />’).  Cette méthode peut-être surchargée par
     les sous-classes demandant cette information lexicale ;
     l'implémentation par défaut appelle simplement *note
     handle_starttag(): 3700. et *note handle_endtag(): 3701.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_data (data)

     Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter toute donnée arbitraire (p.
     ex.  les nœuds textuels ou les contenus de ‘<script>...</script>’
     et ‘<style>...</style>’).

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_entityref (name)

     Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter les références nommées de
     caractères de la forme ‘&name;’ (p.  ex.  ‘&gt;’), où 'name' est
     une référence à une entité générique (p.  ex.  ‘'gt'’).  Cette
     méthode n'est jamais appelée si 'convert_charrefs' vaut ‘True’.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_charref (name)

     This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric
     character references of the form ‘&#NNN;’ and ‘&#xNNN;’.  For
     example, the decimal equivalent for ‘&gt;’ is ‘&#62;’, whereas the
     hexadecimal is ‘&#x3E;’; in this case the method will receive
     ‘'62'’ or ‘'x3E'’.  This method is never called if
     'convert_charrefs' is ‘True’.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_comment (data)

     Cette méthode est appelée quand un commentaire (p.  ex.
     ‘<!--commentaire-->’) est rencontré.

     Par exemple, le commentaire ‘<!-- commentaire -->’ provoque l'appel
     de cette méthode avec l'argument ‘' commentaire '’.

     Le contenu des commentaires conditionnels d'Internet Explorer
     ('condcoms') ne sont pas traités de manière particulière par
     l'analyseur.  Ils sont passés à cette méthode comme tous les autres
     commentaires.  Ainsi, pour ‘<!--[if IE 9]>Contenu spécifique à
     IE9<![endif]-->’, cette méthode sera appelée avec ‘'[if IE
     9]>Contenu spécifique à IE9<![endif]'’.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_decl (decl)

     Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter la déclaration 'doctype' de
     HTML (p.  ex.  ‘<!DOCTYPE html>’).

     Le paramètre 'decl' contient la totalité de la déclaration contenue
     dans le balisage ‘<!...>’ (p.  ex.  ‘'DOCTYPE html'’).

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.handle_pi (data)

     Méthode appelée quand une instruction de traitement est rencontrée.
     Le paramètre 'data' contient la totalité de l'instruction de
     traitement.  Par exemple, pour l'instruction de traitement ‘<?proc
     color='rouge'>’, cette méthode est appelée par ‘handle_pi("proc
     color='rouge'")’.  Elle est destinée à être surchargée dans une
     classe dérivée ; la classe de base ne réalise aucun traitement.

          Note: La classe *note HTMLParser: 864. utilise les règles
          syntaxiques de 'SGML' pour traiter les instructions de
          traitement.  Une instruction de traitement 'XHTML' utilisant
          une terminaison en ‘'?'’ se traduit par l'inclusion de ce
          ‘'?'’ dans 'data'.

 -- Méthode: HTMLParser.unknown_decl (data)

     Cette méthode est appelée quand une déclaration non reconnue est
     lue par l'analyseur.

     Le paramètre 'data' contient toute la déclaration enchâssée dans le
     balisage ‘<![...]>’.  Il est parfois utile de le surcharger dans
     une classe dérivée.  L'implémentation de la classe de base ne
     réalise aucune opération.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<23>,  Prev: Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser,  Up: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.21.2.3 Exemples
.................

La classe suivante implémente un analyseur qui est utilisé dans les
exemples ci-dessous :

     from html.parser import HTMLParser
     from html.entities import name2codepoint

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Start tag:", tag)
             for attr in attrs:
                 print("     attr:", attr)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("End tag  :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Data     :", data)

         def handle_comment(self, data):
             print("Comment  :", data)

         def handle_entityref(self, name):
             c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
             print("Named ent:", c)

         def handle_charref(self, name):
             if name.startswith('x'):
                 c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
             else:
                 c = chr(int(name))
             print("Num ent  :", c)

         def handle_decl(self, data):
             print("Decl     :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()

Traitement du 'doctype' :

     >>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
     ...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
     Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"

Analyse d'un élément avec un titre et des attributs :

     >>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
     Start tag: img
          attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
          attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
     >>>
     >>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
     Start tag: h1
     Data     : Python
     End tag  : h1

Le contenu des éléments ‘script’ et ‘style’ est renvoyé tel quel (sans
autre traitement) :

     >>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
     Start tag: style
          attr: ('type', 'text/css')
     Data     : #python { color: green }
     End tag  : style

     >>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
     ...             'alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");</script>')
     Start tag: script
          attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
     Data     : alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");
     End tag  : script

Traitement des commentaires :

     >>> parser.feed('<!-- a comment -->'
     ...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
     Comment  :  a comment
     Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]

L'analyse des caractères nommés et des références numériques de
caractères et leur conversion en leur caractère correct (note : ces
trois références sont équivalentes à ‘'>'’) :

     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Named ent: >
     Num ent  : >
     Num ent  : >

Il est possible de fournir des portions de code incomplètes à *note
feed(): 36fa, mais alors il est possible que *note handle_data(): 3702.
soit appelée plusieurs fois, à moins que 'convert_charrefs' soit
‘True’ :

     >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered ', 'text</s', 'pan>']:
     ...     parser.feed(chunk)
     ...
     Start tag: span
     Data     : buff
     Data     : ered
     Data     : text
     End tag  : span

L'analyse de code 'HTML' non valide (p.  ex.  des attributs sans
guillemets) fonctionne également :

     >>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
     Start tag: p
     Start tag: a
          attr: ('class', 'link')
          attr: ('href', '#main')
     Data     : tag soup
     End tag  : p
     End tag  : a


File: python.info,  Node: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities,  Next: Modules de traitement XML,  Prev: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.3 ‘html.entities’ -- Definitions of HTML general entities
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/entities.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module définit quatre dictionnaires, *note html5: 10b6, *note
name2codepoint: 370d, *note codepoint2name: 370e, et *note entitydefs:
370f.

 -- Données: html.entities.html5

     Un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les références de caractères
     nommés HTML5 (2) aux caractères Unicode équivalents, e.g.
     ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’.  À noter que le point-virgule en fin de
     chaîne est inclus dans le nom (e.g.  ‘'gt;'’), toutefois certains
     noms sont acceptés par le standard même sans le point-virgule: dans
     ce cas, le nom est présent à la fois avec et sans le ‘;’.  Voir
     aussi *note html.unescape(): 946.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: html.entities.entitydefs

     Un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les définitions d'entités
     XHTML 1.0 avec leur remplacement en ISO Latin-1.

 -- Données: html.entities.name2codepoint

     A dictionary that maps HTML4 entity names to the Unicode code
     points.

 -- Données: html.entities.codepoint2name

     A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML4 entity names.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/entities.py

   (2) See
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references’


File: python.info,  Node: Modules de traitement XML,  Next: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API,  Prev: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.4 Modules de traitement XML
--------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/xml/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les interfaces de Python de traitement de XML sont regroupées dans le
paquet ‘xml’.

     Avertissement: les modules XML ne sont pas protégés contre les
     données mal construites ou malveillantes.  Si vous devez parcourir
     des données douteuses non authentifiées, lisez les sections *note
     Vulnérabilités XML: 3713. et *note The defusedxml Package: 3714.

Il est important de noter que les modules dans le paquet *note xml: 11f.
nécessitent qu'au moins un analyseur compatible 'SAX' soit disponible.
L'analyseur 'Expat' est inclus dans Python, ainsi le module *note
xml.parsers.expat: 125. est toujours disponible.

La documentation des interfaces vers 'DOM' et 'SAX' se trouve dans *note
xml.dom: 120. et *note xml.sax: 128.

Les sous-modules de traitement XML sont :

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. : l'API 'ElementTree', un
     processeur simple et léger

   * *note xml.dom: 120. : la définition de l'API DOM

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. : une implémentation minimale de DOM

   * *note xml.dom.pulldom: 122. : gestion de la construction partielle
     des arbres DOM

   * *note xml.sax: 128. : classes mères 'SAX2' et fonctions utilitaires

   * *note xml.parsers.expat: 125. : l'interface de l'analyseur 'Expat'

* Menu:

* Vulnérabilités XML::
* The defusedxml Package::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/


File: python.info,  Node: Vulnérabilités XML,  Next: The defusedxml Package,  Up: Modules de traitement XML

5.21.4.1 Vulnérabilités XML
...........................

Les modules de traitement XML ne sont pas sécurisés contre les données
construites malicieusement.  Un attaquant peut abuser des
fonctionnalités XML pour exécuter des attaques par déni de service,
accéder à des fichiers locaux, générer des connexions réseaux à d'autres
machines ou contourner des pare-feux.

Le tableau suivant donne une vue d'ensemble des attaques connues et
indique si les différents modules y sont vulnérables.

type                          'sax'                  'etree'                'minidom'              'pulldom'              'xmlrpc'
                                                                                                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                          
'billion laughs'              'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
'quadratic blowup'            'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)       'Vulnérable' (1)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
'external entity expansion'   Sûr (5)                Sûr (2)                Sûr (3)                Sûr (5)                Sûr (4)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
Récupération de DTD(1)        Sûr (5)                Sûr                    Sûr                    Sûr (5)                Sûr
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
'decompression bomb'          Sûr                    Sûr                    Sûr                    Sûr                    'Vulnérable'
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
large tokens                  'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)
                                                                                                                          

  1. Expat 2.4.1 and newer is not vulnerable to the "billion laughs" and
     "quadratic blowup" vulnerabilities.  Items still listed as
     vulnerable due to potential reliance on system-provided libraries.
     Check ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’.

  2. *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. doesn't expand external entities
     and raises a *note ParseError: 1258. when an entity occurs.

  3. *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. n'étend pas les entités externes et
     renvoie simplement l'entité mot pour mot (non étendue).

  4. *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. doesn't expand external entities and
     omits them.

  5. Depuis Python 3.7.1, par défaut les entités générales externes ne
     sont plus traitées.

  6. Expat 2.6.0 and newer is not vulnerable to denial of service
     through quadratic runtime caused by parsing large tokens.  Items
     still listed as vulnerable due to potential reliance on
     system-provided libraries.  Check ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’.

'billion laughs' / 'exponential entity expansion'

     L'attaque Billion Laughs(2) – aussi connue comme 'exponential
     entity expansion' – utilise de multiples niveaux d'entités
     imbriquées.  Chaque entité se réfère à une autre entité de multiple
     fois.  L'entité finale contient une chaîne courte.  Le résultat de
     l'expansion exponentielle génère plusieurs gigaoctets de texte et
     consomme beaucoup de mémoire et de temps processeur.

'quadratic blowup entity expansion'

     Une attaque 'quadratic blowup' est similaire à l'attaque Billion
     Laughs(3) ; il s'agit également d'un abus d'extension d'entités.
     Au lieu d'utiliser des entités imbriquées, cette attaque répète
     encore et encore une seule entité de plusieurs milliers de
     caractères.  Cette attaque n'est pas aussi efficace que la version
     exponentielle mais contourne les contre-mesures de l'analyseur qui
     interdit les entités imbriquées de multiples fois.

'external entity expansion'

     Les déclarations d'entités peuvent contenir plus que du texte de
     substitution.  Elles peuvent également référencer des ressources
     externes ou des fichiers locaux.  L'analyseur XML accède à ces
     fichiers et inclut les contenus dans le document XML.

Récupération de DTD(4)

     Certaines bibliothèques XML comme *note xml.dom.pulldom: 122. de
     Python récupère les documents de définitions de types ('DTD')
     depuis des emplacements distants ou locaux.  La fonctionnalité a
     des implications similaires au problème d'extension d'entités
     externes.

'decompression bomb'

     Des bombes de décompression (ou ZIP bomb(5)) sont valables pour
     toutes les bibliothèques XML qui peuvent analyser des flux XML
     compressés comme des flux HTTP 'gzip' ou des fichiers compressés
     'LZMA'. Pour L'attaquant, cela permet de réduire d'une magnitude
     d'ordre 3 ou plus la quantité de données transmises.

large tokens

     Expat needs to re-parse unfinished tokens; without the protection
     introduced in Expat 2.6.0, this can lead to quadratic runtime that
     can be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing
     XML. The issue is known as CVE 2023-52425(6).

The documentation for defusedxml(7) on PyPI has further information
about all known attack vectors with examples and references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (7) https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/


File: python.info,  Node: The defusedxml Package,  Prev: Vulnérabilités XML,  Up: Modules de traitement XML

5.21.4.2 The ‘defusedxml’ Package
.................................

defusedxml(1) is a pure Python package with modified subclasses of all
stdlib XML parsers that prevent any potentially malicious operation.
Use of this package is recommended for any server code that parses
untrusted XML data.  The package also ships with example exploits and
extended documentation on more XML exploits such as XPath injection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API,  Next: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API,  Prev: Modules de traitement XML,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.5 ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ -- The ElementTree XML API
---------------------------------------------------------

'Code Source:' Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. implémente une API simple et
efficace pour analyser et créer des données XML.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ce module utilise une implémentation rapide
chaque fois que c'est possible.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is
deprecated.

     Avertissement: le module *note xml.sax: 128. n'est pas sécurisé
     contre les données construites de façon malveillante.  Si vous avez
     besoin d'analyser des données non sécurisées ou non authentifiées,
     référez-vous à *note Vulnérabilités XML: 3713.

* Menu:

* Tutoriel: Tutoriel<3>.
* Prise en charge de XPath::
* Référence: Référence<2>.
* Prise en charge de XInclude::
* Référence: Référence<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel<3>,  Next: Prise en charge de XPath,  Up: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.1 Tutoriel
.................

Ceci est un petit tutoriel pour utiliser *note xml.etree.ElementTree:
124. (‘ET’).  Le but est de montrer quelques composants et les concepts
basiques du module.

* Menu:

* Arborescence et éléments XML::
* Analyse XML::
* API à flux tiré::
* Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt::
* Modification d'un fichier XML::
* Création de documents XML::
* Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms::


File: python.info,  Node: Arborescence et éléments XML,  Next: Analyse XML,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.2 Arborescence et éléments XML
.....................................

XML est un format de données fondamentalement hiérarchique et la façon
la plus naturelle de le représenter est avec un arbre.  ‘ET’ a deux
classes pour ce but : *note ElementTree: 93d. représente l'ensemble du
document XML comme un arbre et *note Element: 305. représente un simple
nœud dans cet arbre.  Les interactions (lire et écrire vers et depuis
des fichiers) sur le document sont habituellement effectuées au niveau
de *note ElementTree: 93d.  Les interactions sur un seul élément XML et
ses sous-éléments sont effectuées au niveau de *note Element: 305.


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse XML,  Next: API à flux tiré,  Prev: Arborescence et éléments XML,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.3 Analyse XML
....................

We'll be using the fictive ‘country_data.xml’ XML document as the sample
data for this section:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank>1</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank>4</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank>68</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

Nous pouvons importer ces données en lisant un fichier :

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
     tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
     root = tree.getroot()

Ou depuis une chaîne de caractères :

     root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)

*note fromstring(): 371d. analyse les données XML depuis une chaîne de
caractères et produit un *note Element: 305, qui est l'élément racine de
l'arbre analysé.  D'autres fonctions d'analyse peuvent créer un *note
ElementTree: 93d.  Vérifiez la documentation pour en être sûr.

En tant qu'*note Element: 305, ‘root’ a une balise ('tag') et un
dictionnaire d'attributs :

     >>> root.tag
     'data'
     >>> root.attrib
     {}

Il contient aussi des nœuds enfants sur lesquels nous pouvons itérer :

     >>> for child in root:
     ...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
     ...
     country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
     country {'name': 'Singapore'}
     country {'name': 'Panama'}

Les enfants sont imbriqués et nous pouvons accéder aux nœuds enfants
spécifiques 'via' un indice :

     >>> root[0][1].text
     '2008'

     Note: les éléments du XML d'entrée ne sont pas tous considérés
     comme des éléments de l'arborescence.  Actuellement, le module
     ignore les commentaires XML, les instructions de traitements et la
     déclaration du type de document dans l'entrée.  Néanmoins, les
     arborescences construites en utilisant l'API du module plutôt que
     par l'analyse du texte XML peuvent contenir des commentaires et des
     instructions de traitement ; ils seront inclus lors de la
     génération du XML de sortie.  La DTD du document est accessible en
     passant une instance de *note TreeBuilder: a45. au constructeur de
     *note XMLParser: a44.


File: python.info,  Node: API à flux tiré,  Next: Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt,  Prev: Analyse XML,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.4 API à flux tiré
........................

La plupart des fonctions d'analyse fournies par ce module nécessitent
que le document entier soit lu en même temps avant de renvoyer un
résultat.  Il est possible d'utiliser un *note XMLParser: a44. et d'y
introduire des données de manière incrémentielle, mais il s'agit d'une
API à flux poussé qui appelle des méthodes par rappel automatique, ce
qui est de trop bas niveau et peu pratique pour la plupart des besoins.
Parfois, ce que l'utilisateur souhaite réellement, c'est pouvoir
analyser du XML de manière incrémentielle, sans bloquer les opérations,
tout en bénéficiant de la commodité des objets *note Element: 305.
entièrement construits.

L'outil le plus puissant pour ce faire est *note XMLPullParser: fde.  Il
ne nécessite pas de lecture bloquante pour obtenir les données XML et
est plutôt alimenté en données de manière incrémentielle avec des appels
à *note XMLPullParser.feed(): 371f.  Pour obtenir les éléments XML
analysés, appelez *note XMLPullParser.read_events(): 3720.  Voici un
exemple :

     >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
     >>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
     >>> list(parser.read_events())
     [('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
     >>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
     >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
     ...     print(event)
     ...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
     ...
     end
     mytag text= sometext more text

Le cas d'utilisation évident concerne les applications qui fonctionnent
de manière non bloquante dans lesquelles les données XML sont reçues à
partir d'un connecteur réseau ou lues de manière incrémentielle à partir
d'un périphérique de stockage.  Dans de tels cas, le blocage des
lectures est inacceptable.

Parce qu'il est très flexible, *note XMLPullParser: fde. peut être peu
pratique à utiliser pour des cas d'utilisation plus simples.  Si cela ne
vous dérange pas que votre application se bloque pendant la lecture de
données XML mais que vous souhaitez tout de même disposer de capacités
d'analyse incrémentielle, jetez un œil à *note iterparse(): 270.  Cela
peut être utile lorsque vous lisez un document XML volumineux et que
vous ne souhaitez pas le conserver entièrement en mémoire.

Where 'immediate' feedback through events is wanted, calling method
*note XMLPullParser.flush(): 26d. can help reduce delay; please make
sure to study the related security notes.


File: python.info,  Node: Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt,  Next: Modification d'un fichier XML,  Prev: API à flux tiré,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.5 Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt
......................................

*note Element: 305. a quelques méthodes très utiles qui aident à
parcourir récursivement tous les sous-arbres (ses enfants, leurs enfants
et ainsi de suite).  Par exemple, *note Element.iter(): 132f. :

     >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
     ...     print(neighbor.attrib)
     ...
     {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
     {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
     {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}

*note Element.findall(): 1521. récupère seulement les éléments avec une
balise qui sont les descendants directs de l'élément courant.  *note
Element.find(): 151f. récupère le 'premier' élément avec une balise
particulière et *note Element.text: 3722. accède au contenu textuel de
l'élément.  *note Element.get(): 3723. accède aux attributs de
l'élément :

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     rank = country.find('rank').text
     ...     name = country.get('name')
     ...     print(name, rank)
     ...
     Liechtenstein 1
     Singapore 4
     Panama 68

Une caractérisation plus sophistiquée des éléments à rechercher est
possible en utilisant *note XPath: b9d.


File: python.info,  Node: Modification d'un fichier XML,  Next: Création de documents XML,  Prev: Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.6 Modification d'un fichier XML
......................................

*note ElementTree: 93d. fournit un moyen simple de créer des documents
XML et de les écrire dans des fichiers.  La méthode *note
ElementTree.write(): fe2. sert à cet effet.

Une fois créé, un objet *note Element: 305. peut être manipulé en
changeant directement ses champs (tels que *note Element.text: 3722.),
en ajoutant et en modifiant des attributs (méthode *note Element.set():
3725.), ou en ajoutant de nouveaux enfants (par exemple avec *note
Element.append(): 3726.).

Disons que nous voulons en ajouter un au classement de chaque pays, et
ajouter un attribut 'updated' (« mis à jour ») à l'élément de
classement :

     >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
     ...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
     ...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
     ...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Maintenant, notre XML ressemble à ceci :

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

Nous pouvons supprimer des éléments en utilisant *note Element.remove():
1523.  Supposons que nous souhaitions supprimer tous les pays dont le
classement est supérieur à 50 :

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     # using root.findall() to avoid removal during traversal
     ...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
     ...     if rank > 50:
     ...         root.remove(country)
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Notez que les modifications simultanées lors de l'itération peuvent
entraîner des problèmes, tout comme lors de l'itération et de la
modification de listes ou de dictionnaires Python.  Par conséquent,
l'exemple collecte d'abord tous les éléments correspondants avec
‘root.findall()’, et après seulement parcourt la liste des
correspondances.

Maintenant, notre XML ressemble à ceci :

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
     </data>


File: python.info,  Node: Création de documents XML,  Next: Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms,  Prev: Modification d'un fichier XML,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.7 Création de documents XML
..................................

La fonction *note SubElement(): 3728. fournit également un moyen
pratique de créer de nouveaux sous-éléments pour un élément donné :

     >>> a = ET.Element('a')
     >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
     >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
     >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
     >>> ET.dump(a)
     <a><b /><c><d /></c></a>


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms,  Prev: Création de documents XML,  Up: Tutoriel<3>

5.21.5.8 Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms
..................................................

Si l'entrée XML a des espaces de noms(1), les balises et les attributs
avec des préfixes sous la forme 'préfixe:unebalise' sont étendus à
‘{uri}unebalise’ où le 'préfixe' est remplacé par l''URI' complet.  De
plus, s'il existe un espace de noms par défaut(2), cet URI complet est
ajouté au début de toutes les balises non préfixées.

Voici un exemple XML qui intègre deux espaces de noms, l'un avec le
préfixe 'fictional' et l'autre servant d'espace de noms par défaut :

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
             xmlns="http://people.example.com">
         <actor>
             <name>John Cleese</name>
             <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
         </actor>
         <actor>
             <name>Eric Idle</name>
             <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
         </actor>
     </actors>

Une façon de rechercher et d'explorer cet exemple XML consiste à ajouter
manuellement l'URI à chaque balise ou attribut dans le 'xpath' d'une
recherche *note find(): 151f. ou *note findall(): 1521. :

     root = fromstring(xml_text)
     for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
         name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

Une meilleure façon de rechercher dans l'exemple XML avec espace de noms
consiste à créer un dictionnaire avec vos propres préfixes et à les
utiliser dans les fonctions de recherche :

     ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
           'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}

     for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
         name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

Ces deux approches donnent le même résultat :

     John Cleese
      |--> Lancelot
      |--> Archie Leach
     Eric Idle
      |--> Sir Robin
      |--> Gunther
      |--> Commander Clement

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espace_de_noms_XML

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de XPath,  Next: Référence<2>,  Prev: Tutoriel<3>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.9 Prise en charge de 'XPath'
...................................

Ce module fournit une prise en charge limitée des expressions XPath(1)
pour localiser des éléments dans une arborescence.  L'objectif est de
prendre en charge un petit sous-ensemble de la syntaxe abrégée ; un
moteur 'XPath' complet sort du cadre du module.

* Menu:

* Exemple: Exemple<8>.
* Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<8>,  Next: Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath,  Up: Prise en charge de XPath

5.21.5.10 Exemple
.................

Voici un exemple qui démontre certaines des fonctionnalités 'XPath' du
module.  Nous utilisons le document XML ‘countrydata’ de la section
*note Parsing XML: 371b. :

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET

     root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)

     # Top-level elements
     root.findall(".")

     # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level
     # elements
     root.findall("./country/neighbor")

     # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child
     root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")

     # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore'
     root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")

     # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent
     root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")

Pour du XML avec des espaces de noms, utilisez la notation qualifiée
habituelle ‘{namespace}tag’ :

     # All dublin-core "title" tags in the document
     root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath,  Prev: Exemple<8>,  Up: Prise en charge de XPath

5.21.5.11 Prise en charge de la syntaxe 'XPath'
...............................................

Syntaxe                     Signification
                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
‘tag’                       Sélectionne tous les éléments enfants avec une balise
                            donnée.  Par exemple, ‘spam’ sélectionne tous les
                            éléments enfants nommés ‘spam’ et ‘spam/egg’ sélectionne
                            tous les petits-enfants nommés ‘egg’ dans les enfants
                            nommés ‘spam’.  ‘{namespace}*’ sélectionne toutes les
                            balises dans l'espace de noms donné, ‘{*}spam’
                            sélectionne les balises nommées ‘spam’ dans n'importe
                            quel (ou aucun) espace de noms et ‘{}*’ sélectionne
                            seulement les balises qui ne sont pas dans un espace de
                            noms.
                            
                            Modifié dans la version 3.8: la prise en charge des
                            caractères génériques étoiles a été ajoutée.
                            
                            
‘*’                         Sélectionne tous les éléments enfants, y compris les
                            commentaires et les instructions de traitement.  Par
                            exemple, ‘*/egg’ sélectionne tous les petits-enfants
                            nommés ‘egg’.
                            
                            
‘.’                         Sélectionne le nœud actuel.  C'est surtout utile au
                            début du chemin, pour indiquer qu'il s'agit d'un chemin
                            relatif.
                            
                            
‘//’                        Sélectionne tous les sous-éléments, à tous les niveaux
                            situés sous l'élément actuel.  Par exemple, ‘.//egg’
                            sélectionne tous les éléments ‘egg’ dans l'arborescence
                            entière.
                            
                            
‘..’                        Sélectionne l'élément parent.  Renvoie ‘None’ si le
                            chemin tente d'atteindre les ancêtres de l'élément de
                            départ (l'élément sur lequel ‘find’ a été appelé).
                            
                            
‘[@attrib]’                 Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont l'attribut donné.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib='value']’         Sélectionne tous les éléments pour lesquels l'attribut
                            donné a la valeur donnée.  La valeur ne peut pas
                            contenir de guillemet simple (‘'’).
                            
                            
‘[@attrib!='value']’        Sélectionne tous les éléments pour lesquels l'attribut
                            donné n'a pas la valeur donnée.  La valeur ne peut pas
                            contenir de guillemet simple (‘'’).
                            
                            Ajouté dans la version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag]’                     Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont un enfant nommé
                            ‘tag’.  Seuls les enfants immédiats sont pris en charge.
                            
                            
‘[.='text']’                Sélectionne tous les éléments dont le contenu textuel
                            complet, y compris les descendants, est égal au ‘text’
                            donné.
                            
                            Ajouté dans la version 3.7.
                            
                            
‘[.!='text']’               Sélectionne tous les éléments dont le contenu textuel
                            complet, y compris les descendants, n'est pas égal au
                            ‘text’ donné.
                            
                            Ajouté dans la version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag='text']’              Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont un enfant nommé
                            ‘tag’ dont le contenu textuel complet, y compris les
                            descendants, est égal au ‘text’ donné.
                            
                            
‘[tag!='text']’             Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont un enfant nommé
                            ‘tag’ dont le contenu textuel complet, y compris les
                            descendants, n'est pas égal au ‘text’ donné.
                            
                            Ajouté dans la version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[position]’                Sélectionne tous les éléments situés à la position
                            donnée.  La position peut être soit un entier (1 est la
                            première position), l'expression ‘last()’ (pour la
                            dernière position), ou une position relative à la
                            dernière position (par exemple ‘last()-1’).
                            

Les prédicats (expressions entre crochets) doivent être précédés d'un
nom de balise, d'un astérisque ou d'un autre prédicat.  Les prédicats
‘position’ doivent être précédés d'un nom de balise.


File: python.info,  Node: Référence<2>,  Next: Prise en charge de XInclude,  Prev: Prise en charge de XPath,  Up: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.12 Référence
...................

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<9>,  Up: Référence<2>

5.21.5.13 Fonctions
...................

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize (xml_data=None, *,
          out=None, from_file=None, **options)

     Fonction de transformation C14N 2.0(1).

     Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that
     allows byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures.  It reduces
     the freedom that XML serializers have and instead generates a more
     constrained XML representation.  The main restrictions regard the
     placement of namespace declarations, the ordering of attributes,
     and ignorable whitespace.

     Cette fonction prend une chaîne de données XML ('xml_data') ou un
     chemin de fichier ou un objet de type fichier ('from_file') en
     entrée, la convertit sous la forme canonique et l'écrit à l'aide de
     l'objet simili-fichier 'out', s'il est fourni, ou le renvoie sous
     forme de chaîne de texte sinon.  Le fichier de sortie reçoit du
     texte, pas des octets.  Il doit donc être ouvert en mode texte avec
     l'encodage ‘utf-8’.

     Utilisation typique :

          xml_data = "<root>...</root>"
          print(canonicalize(xml_data))

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file)

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file)

     Les 'options' de configuration sont les suivantes :

        - 'with_comments' : définissez cet attribut à vrai pour inclure
          les commentaires (par défaut : faux)

        - 
          'strip_text' : définissez à vrai pour supprimer les espaces avant et après le contenu du texte

               (par défaut : faux)

        - 
          'rewrite_prefixes' : définissez à vrai pour remplacer les préfixes d'espace de noms par « n{nombre} »

               (par défaut : faux)

        - 
          'qname_aware_tags' : ensemble de noms de balises prenant en charge les noms qualifiés dans lesquels les préfixes

               doivent être remplacés dans le contenu du texte (par
               défaut : vide)

        - 
          'qname_aware_attrs' : ensemble de noms d'attributs prenant en charge les noms qualifiés dans lesquels les préfixes

               doivent être remplacés dans le contenu du texte (par
               défaut : vide)

        - 'exclude_attrs' : ensemble de noms d'attributs qui ne doivent
          pas être sérialisés

        - 'exclude_tags' : ensemble de noms de balises qui ne doivent
          pas être sérialisés

     Dans la liste d'options ci-dessus, un « ensemble » fait référence à
     toute collection ou itérable de chaînes, aucun ordre n'est attendu.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment (text=None)

     Fabrique d’éléments de commentaire.  Cette fonction crée un élément
     spécial qui sera sérialisé sous forme de commentaire XML par le
     sérialiseur standard.  La chaîne de commentaire peut être une
     chaîne d'octets ou une chaîne Unicode.  'text' est une chaîne
     contenant la chaîne de commentaire.  Renvoie une instance d'élément
     représentant un commentaire.

     Notez que *note XMLParser: a44. ignore les commentaires dans
     l'entrée au lieu de créer des objets de commentaire pour eux.  Un
     *note ElementTree: 93d. ne contiendra que des nœuds de commentaires
     qui ont été insérés dans l'arborescence à l'aide de l'une des
     méthodes d'*note Element: 305.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.dump (elem)

     Écrit une arborescence d'éléments ou une structure d'éléments dans
     'sys.stdout'.  Cette fonction doit être utilisée uniquement pour le
     débogage.

     Le format de sortie exact dépend de l’implémentation.  Dans cette
     version, il est écrit sous la forme d'un fichier XML ordinaire.

     'elem' est un élément de l'arborescence ou un élément individuel.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: la fonction *note dump(): 3732.
     préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
     l'utilisateur.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring (text, parser=None)

     Analyse une section XML à partir d'une constante de chaîne.
     Identique à *note XML(): 3733.  'text' est une chaîne contenant des
     données XML. 'parser' est une instance d'analyseur facultative.
     S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard *note XMLParser: a44.
     est utilisé.  Renvoie une instance d'*note Element: 305.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist (sequence,
          parser=None)

     Analyse un document XML à partir d'une séquence de fragments de
     chaîne.  'séquence' est une liste ou une autre séquence contenant
     des fragments de données XML. 'parser' est une instance d'analyseur
     facultative.  S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard *note
     XMLParser: a44. est utilisé.  Renvoie une instance d'*note Element:
     305.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.indent (tree, space=' ', level=0)

     Ajoute des espaces au sous-arbre pour indenter visuellement
     l'arborescence.  Cela peut être utilisé pour générer une sortie XML
     avec une mise en forme agréable.  'tree' peut être un élément ou un
     'ElementTree'.  'espace' est la chaîne d'espaces qui est insérée
     pour chaque niveau d'indentation, deux caractères d'espace par
     défaut.  Pour indenter des sous-arbres partiels à l'intérieur d'un
     arbre déjà indenté, transmettez le niveau d'indentation initial
     dans 'level'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement (element)

     Vérifie si un objet semble être un objet élément valide.  'element'
     est une instance d'élément.  Renvoie ‘True’ s'il s'agit d'un objet
     élément.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse (source, events=None,
          parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and
     reports what's going on to the user.  'source' is a filename or
     *note file object: 11a2. containing XML data.  'events' is a
     sequence of events to report back.  The supported events are the
     strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and
     ‘"end-ns"’ (the "ns" events are used to get detailed namespace
     information).  If 'events' is omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are
     reported.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: a44. parser is used.  'parser' must
     be a subclass of *note XMLParser: a44. and can only use the default
     *note TreeBuilder: a45. as a target.  Returns an *note iterator:
     1aa. providing ‘(event, elem)’ pairs; it has a ‘root’ attribute
     that references the root element of the resulting XML tree once
     'source' is fully read.  The iterator has the ‘close()’ method that
     closes the internal file object if 'source' is a filename.

     Notez que même si *note iterparse(): 270. construit l'arborescence
     de manière incrémentielle, il bloque pendant les lectures sur
     'source'.  En tant que tel, il ne convient pas aux applications
     dans lesquelles le blocage pendant les lectures ne peut pas être
     effectué.  Pour une analyse entièrement non bloquante, voir *note
     XMLPullParser: fde.

          Note: *note iterparse(): 270. garantit uniquement qu'il a vu
          le caractère ‘">"’ d'une balise de début lorsqu'il émet un
          événement ‘"start"’, donc les attributs sont définis mais le
          contenu des attributs 'text' et 'tail' n'est pas défini à ce
          stade.  La même chose s'applique aux nœuds enfants de
          l'élément ; ils peuvent être présents ou non.

          Si vous avez besoin d'un élément entièrement rempli,
          recherchez plutôt les événements ‘"end"’.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.4: l'argument 'parser'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les évènements ‘comment’ et ‘pi’ ont
     été ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the ‘close()’ method.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.parse (source, parser=None)

     Analyse une section XML dans une arborescence d'éléments.  'source'
     est un nom de fichier ou un objet fichier contenant des données
     XML.  'parser' (facultatif) est une instance d'analyseur.  S'il
     n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard *note XMLParser: a44. est
     utilisé.  Renvoie une instance d'*note ElementTree: 93d.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction (target,
          text=None)

     Fabrique d’éléments 'Processing Instruction' (PI). Cette fonction
     crée un élément spécial qui sera sérialisé en tant qu'instruction
     de traitement XML. 'target' est une chaîne contenant la cible PI.
     'text' est une chaîne contenant le contenu de l'instruction de
     traitement (ou PI), s'il est fourni.  Renvoie une instance
     d'élément, représentant l'instruction de traitement.

     Note that *note XMLParser: a44. skips over processing instructions
     in the input instead of creating PI objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: 93d. will only contain processing instruction nodes if
     they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the *note
     Element: 305. methods.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace (prefix, uri)

     Enregistre un préfixe d'espace de noms.  Le registre est global et
     toute correspondance existante pour le préfixe donné ainsi que
     l'URI de l'espace de noms sera supprimé.  'prefix' est un préfixe
     d'espace de noms.  'uri' est un URI d'espace de noms.  Les balises
     et les attributs de cet espace de noms seront sérialisés avec le
     préfixe donné, si possible.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement (parent, tag, attrib={},
          **extra)

     Fabrique de sous-élément.  Cette fonction crée une instance
     d'élément et l'ajoute à un élément existant.

     Le nom de l'élément, les noms d'attributs et les valeurs
     d'attributs peuvent être des chaînes d'octets ou des chaînes
     Unicode.  'parent' est l'élément parent.  'tag' est le nom du
     sous-élément.  'attrib' est un dictionnaire facultatif contenant
     les attributs de l'élément.  'extra' contient des attributs
     supplémentaires, donnés sous forme d'arguments nommés.  Renvoie une
     instance d'élément.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Génère une représentation sous forme de chaîne d'un élément XML, y
     compris tous les sous-éléments.  'element' est une instance de
     *note Element: 305.  'encoding' (2) est l'encodage de sortie (la
     valeur par défaut est US-ASCII). Utilisez ‘encoding="unicode"’ pour
     générer une chaîne Unicode (sinon, une chaîne d'octets est
     générée).  'method' vaut ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ ou ‘"text"’ (la valeur
     par défaut est ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration', 'default_namespace' et
     'short_empty_elements' ont la même signification que dans *note
     ElementTree.write(): fe2.  Renvoie une chaîne codée
     (éventuellement) contenant les données XML.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements'
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'xml_declaration' and
     'default_namespace' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: la fonction *note tostring(): fe0.
     préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
     l'utilisateur.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Génère une représentation sous forme de chaîne d'un élément XML, y
     compris tous les sous-éléments.  'element' est une instance de
     *note Element: 305.  'encoding' (3) est l'encodage de sortie (la
     valeur par défaut est US-ASCII). Utilisez ‘encoding="unicode"’ pour
     générer une chaîne Unicode (sinon, une chaîne d'octets est
     générée).  'method' vaut ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ ou ‘"text"’ (la valeur
     par défaut est ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration', 'default_namespace' et
     'short_empty_elements' ont la même signification que dans *note
     ElementTree.write(): fe2.  Renvoie une liste de chaînes codées
     (éventuellement) contenant les données XML. Elle ne garantit aucune
     séquence spécifique, seulement ‘b"".join(tostringlist(element)) ==
     tostring(element)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements'
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the 'xml_declaration' and
     'default_namespace' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: la fonction *note tostringlist(): fe1.
     préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
     l'utilisateur.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.XML (text, parser=None)

     Analyse une section XML à partir d'une constante de chaîne.  Cette
     fonction peut être utilisée pour intégrer des « littéraux XML »
     dans du code Python.  'text' est une chaîne contenant des données
     XML. 'parser', facultatif, est une instance d'analyseur.  S'il
     n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard *note XMLParser: a44. est
     utilisé.  Renvoie une instance d'*note Element: 305.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID (text, parser=None)

     Analyse une section XML à partir d'une constante de chaîne et
     renvoie également un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les
     identifiants d'éléments aux éléments.  'text' est une chaîne
     contenant des données XML. 'parser', facultatif, est une instance
     d'analyseur.  S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard *note
     XMLParser: a44. est utilisé.  Renvoie un 'n'-uplet contenant une
     instance d'*note Element: 305. et un dictionnaire.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/

   (2) La chaîne de caractères encodée inclue dans la sortie XML doit
être conforme aux standards.  Par exemple, ‘"UTF-8"’ est valide, mais
pas ‘"UTF8"’.  Voir
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ et
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (3) La chaîne de caractères encodée inclue dans la sortie XML doit
être conforme aux standards.  Par exemple, ‘"UTF-8"’ est valide, mais
pas ‘"UTF8"’.  Voir
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ et
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de XInclude,  Next: Référence<3>,  Prev: Référence<2>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.14 Prise en charge de 'XInclude'
.......................................

Ce module fournit une prise en charge limitée des directives
XInclude(1), via le module d'assistance *note xml.etree.ElementInclude:
123.  Ce module peut être utilisé pour insérer des sous-arbres et des
chaînes de texte dans des arborescences d'éléments, en fonction des
informations contenues dans l'arborescence.

* Menu:

* Exemple: Exemple<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<9>,  Up: Prise en charge de XInclude

5.21.5.15 Exemple
.................

Voici un exemple qui montre l'utilisation du module 'XInclude'.  Pour
inclure un document XML dans le document actuel, utilisez l'élément
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’, définissez l'attribut
'parse' sur ‘"xml"’ et utilisez l'attribut 'href' pour spécifier le
document à inclure.

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <xi:include href="source.xml" parse="xml" />
     </document>

Par défaut, l'attribut 'href' est traité comme un nom de fichier.  Vous
pouvez utiliser des chargeurs personnalisés pour remplacer ce
comportement.  Notez également que l'assistant standard ne prend pas en
charge la syntaxe 'XPointer'.

Pour traiter ce fichier, chargez-le comme d'habitude et passez l'élément
racine au module *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. :

     from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude

     tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml")
     root = tree.getroot()

     ElementInclude.include(root)

Le module 'ElementInclude' remplace l'élément
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ par l'élément racine du
document 'source.xml'.  Le résultat pourrait ressembler à ceci :

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <para>This is a paragraph.</para>
     </document>

Si l'attribut 'parse' est omis, sa valeur par défaut est ‘"xml"’.
L'attribut 'href' est obligatoire.

Pour inclure un document texte, utilisez l'élément
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ et définissez l'attribut
'parse' sur ‘"text"’ :

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) <xi:include href="year.txt" parse="text" />.
     </document>

Le résultat pourrait ressembler à ceci :

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) 2003.
     </document>


File: python.info,  Node: Référence<3>,  Prev: Prise en charge de XInclude,  Up: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.16 Référence
...................

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<10>.
* Objets Element::
* Objets ElementTree::
* Objets QName::
* Objets TreeBuilder::
* Objets XMLParser::
* Objets XMLPullParser::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<10>,  Next: Objets Element,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.17 Fonctions
...................

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader (href, parse,
          encoding=None)

     Default loader.  This default loader reads an included resource
     from disk.  'href' is a URL. 'parse' is for parse mode either "xml"
     or "text".  'encoding' is an optional text encoding.  If not given,
     encoding is ‘utf-8’.  Returns the expanded resource.  If the parse
     mode is ‘"xml"’, this is an *note Element: 305. instance.  If the
     parse mode is ‘"text"’, this is a string.  If the loader fails, it
     can return ‘None’ or raise an exception.

 -- Fonction: xml.etree.ElementInclude.include (elem, loader=None,
          base_url=None, max_depth=6)

     This function expands XInclude directives in-place in tree pointed
     by 'elem'.  'elem' is either the root *note Element: 305. or an
     *note ElementTree: 93d. instance to find such element.  'loader' is
     an optional resource loader.  If omitted, it defaults to *note
     default_loader(): 373f.  If given, it should be a callable that
     implements the same interface as *note default_loader(): 373f.
     'base_url' is base URL of the original file, to resolve relative
     include file references.  'max_depth' is the maximum number of
     recursive inclusions.  Limited to reduce the risk of malicious
     content explosion.  Pass ‘None’ to disable the limitation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the 'base_url' and 'max_depth'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Element,  Next: Objets ElementTree,  Prev: Fonctions<10>,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.18 Objets 'Element'
..........................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element (tag, attrib={}, **extra)

     Classe Element.  Cette classe définit l'interface Element et
     fournit une implémentation de référence de cette interface.

     Le nom de l'élément, les noms d'attributs et les valeurs
     d'attributs peuvent être des chaînes d'octets ou des chaînes
     Unicode.  'tag' est le nom de l'élément.  'attrib' est un
     dictionnaire facultatif contenant les attributs des éléments.
     'extra' contient des attributs supplémentaires, donnés sous forme
     d'arguments nommés.

      -- Attribut: tag

          Chaîne identifiant le type de données que cet élément
          représente (en d'autres termes, le type d'élément).

      -- Attribut: text
      -- Attribut: tail

          Ces attributs peuvent être utilisés pour contenir des données
          supplémentaires associées à l'élément.  Leurs valeurs sont
          généralement des chaînes mais peuvent être n'importe quel
          objet spécifique à une application.  Si l'élément est créé à
          partir d'un fichier XML, l'attribut 'text' contient soit le
          texte entre la balise de début de l'élément et sa première
          balise enfant ou de fin, soit ‘None’ ; l'attribut 'tail'
          contient soit le texte entre la balise de fin de l'élément et
          la balise suivante, soit ‘None’.  Pour les données XML

               <a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>

          les attributs 'text' et 'tail' de l'élément 'a' valent ‘None’,
          l'attribut 'text' de l'élément 'b' vaut ‘"1"’ et 'tail' vaut
          ‘"4"’, l'attribut 'text' de l'élément 'c' vaut ‘"2"’ et 'tail'
          vaut ‘None’, et l'attribut 'text' de l'élément 'd' vaut ‘None’
          et 'tail' vaut ‘"3"’.

          Pour récupérer le texte interne d'un élément, voir *note
          itertext(): 11b4, par exemple ‘"".join(element.itertext())’.

          Les applications peuvent stocker des objets arbitraires dans
          ces attributs.

      -- Attribut: attrib

          Dictionnaire contenant les attributs de l'élément.  Notez que
          même si la valeur 'attrib' est toujours un véritable
          dictionnaire Python mutable, une implémentation
          d''ElementTree' peut choisir d'utiliser une autre
          représentation interne et de créer le dictionnaire uniquement
          si quelqu'un le demande.  Pour profiter de telles
          implémentations, utilisez les méthodes de dictionnaire
          ci-dessous autant que possible.

     Les méthodes dictionnaire-compatibles suivantes traitent les
     attributs de l'élément.

      -- Méthode: clear ()

          Réinitialise un élément.  Cette fonction supprime tous les
          sous-éléments, efface tous les attributs et définit les
          attributs 'text' et 'tail' sur ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: get (key, default=None)

          Accède à l'attribut de l'élément nommé 'key'.

          Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut ou 'default' si l'attribut n'a
          pas été trouvé.

      -- Méthode: items ()

          Renvoie les attributs de l'élément comme une séquence de paire
          (nom, valeur).  Les attributs sont renvoyés dans un ordre
          arbitraire.

      -- Méthode: keys ()

          Renvoie les noms d'attributs des éléments sous forme de liste.
          Les noms sont renvoyés dans un ordre arbitraire.

      -- Méthode: set (key, value)

          Change l'attribut 'key' à l'élément 'value'.

     Les méthodes suivantes traitent les éléments enfants
     (sous-éléments).

      -- Méthode: append (subelement)

          Ajoute l'élément 'subelement' à la fin de la liste interne des
          sous-éléments de cet élément.  Lève une *note TypeError: 525.
          si 'subelement' n'est pas un *note Element: 305.

      -- Méthode: extend (subelements)

          Appends 'subelements' from an iterable of elements.  Raises
          *note TypeError: 525. if a subelement is not an *note Element:
          305.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Recherche le premier sous-élément correspondant à 'match'.
          'match' peut être un nom de balise ou un *note path: b9d.
          Renvoie une instance d'élément ou ‘None’.  'namespaces' est un
          tableau de correspondances facultatif de préfixes d'espaces de
          noms vers des noms complets.  Passez ‘''’ comme préfixe pour
          déplacer tous les noms de balises sans préfixe dans
          l'expression dans l'espace de noms donné.

      -- Méthode: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Recherche tous les sous-éléments correspondants, par nom de
          balise ou *note path: b9d.  Renvoie une liste contenant tous
          les éléments correspondants dans l'ordre du document.
          'namespaces' est un tableau de correspondances facultatif de
          préfixes d'espaces de noms vers des noms complets.  Passez
          ‘''’ comme préfixe pour déplacer tous les noms de balises sans
          préfixe dans l'expression dans l'espace de noms donné.

      -- Méthode: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Recherche le texte du premier sous-élément correspondant à
          'match'.  'match' peut être un nom de balise ou un *note path:
          b9d.  Renvoie le contenu textuel du premier élément
          correspondant, ou 'default' si aucun élément n'a été trouvé.
          Notez que si l'élément correspondant n'a pas de contenu
          textuel, une chaîne vide est renvoyée.  'namespaces' est un
          tableau de correspondances facultatif de préfixes d'espaces de
          noms vers des noms complets.  Passez ‘''’ comme préfixe pour
          déplacer tous les noms de balises sans préfixe dans
          l'expression dans l'espace de noms donné.

      -- Méthode: insert (index, subelement)

          Insère le 'subelement' à la position donnée dans cet élément.
          Lève une *note TypeError: 525. si 'subelement' n'est pas un
          *note Element: 305.

      -- Méthode: iter (tag=None)

          Crée un *note itérateur: 1aa. sur l'arbre avec l'élément
          actuel comme racine.  L'itérateur parcourt cet élément et tous
          les éléments situés en dessous, dans l'ordre du document
          (profondeur en premier).  Si 'tag' n'est pas ‘None’ ou ‘'*'’,
          seuls les éléments dont la balise est égale à 'tag' sont
          renvoyés par l'itérateur.  Si l'arborescence est modifiée au
          cours de l'itération, le résultat est indéfini.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Recherche tous les sous-éléments correspondants, par nom de
          balise ou *note path: b9d.  Renvoie un itérable donnant tous
          les éléments correspondants dans l'ordre du document.
          'namespaces' est un tableau de correspondances facultatif de
          préfixes d'espaces de noms vers des noms complets.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: itertext ()

          Crée un itérateur de texte.  L'itérateur parcourt cet élément
          et tous les sous-éléments, dans l'ordre du document, et
          renvoie tout le texte interne.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: makeelement (tag, attrib)

          Crée un nouvel objet élément du même type que cet élément.
          N'appelez pas cette méthode, utilisez plutôt la fonction de
          fabrique *note SubElement(): 3728.

      -- Méthode: remove (subelement)

          Supprime le 'subelement' de l'élément.  Contrairement aux
          méthodes 'find*', cette méthode compare les éléments en
          fonction de l'identité de l'instance, et non de la valeur ou
          du contenu de la balise.

     Les objets *note Element: 305. prennent également en charge les
     méthodes de type séquence suivantes pour travailler avec des sous
     éléments : *note __delitem__(): 12ac, *note __getitem__(): 280,
     *note __setitem__(): 12ab, *note __len__(): 1f1c.

     Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ‘False’.  In a
     future release of Python, all elements will test as ‘True’
     regardless of whether subelements exist.  Instead, prefer explicit
     ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests.:

          element = root.find('foo')

          if not element:  # careful!
              print("element not found, or element has no subelements")

          if element is None:
              print("element not found")

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Testing the truth value of an Element
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

     Avant Python 3.8, l'ordre de sérialisation des attributs XML des
     éléments était artificiellement rendu prévisible en classant les
     attributs par leur nom.  Sur la base de l'ordre désormais garanti
     des dictionnaires, cette réorganisation arbitraire a été supprimée
     dans Python 3.8 pour préserver l'ordre dans lequel les attributs
     ont été initialement analysés ou créés par le code utilisateur.

     En général, le code utilisateur doit essayer de ne pas dépendre
     d'un ordre spécifique des attributs, étant donné que la
     documentation de référence XML(1) exclut explicitement que l'ordre
     des attributs soit porteur d'information.  Le code doit être prêt à
     gérer tout ordre en entrée.  Dans les cas où une sortie XML
     déterministe est requise, par exemple pour la signature
     cryptographique ou les ensembles de données de test, la
     sérialisation canonique est disponible avec la fonction *note
     canonicalize(): 3730.

     Dans les cas où la sortie canonique n'est pas applicable mais où un
     ordre d'attributs spécifique est quand même souhaitable en sortie,
     le code doit viser à créer les attributs directement dans l'ordre
     souhaité, afin d'éviter des inadéquations de perception pour les
     lecteurs du code.  Dans les cas où cela est difficile à réaliser,
     une recette comme ci-dessous peut être appliquée avant la
     sérialisation pour appliquer un ordre indépendant de la création de
     l'élément :

          def reorder_attributes(root):
              for el in root.iter():
                  attrib = el.attrib
                  if len(attrib) > 1:
                      # adjust attribute order, e.g. by sorting
                      attribs = sorted(attrib.items())
                      attrib.clear()
                      attrib.update(attribs)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ElementTree,  Next: Objets QName,  Prev: Objets Element,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.19 Objets 'ElementTree'
..............................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree (element=None, file=None)

     Classe enveloppant 'ElementTree'.  Cette classe représente une
     hiérarchie d'éléments entière et ajoute une prise en charge
     supplémentaire pour la sérialisation vers et depuis le XML
     standard.

     'element' est l'élément racine.  L'arborescence est initialisée
     avec le contenu du fichier XML 'file' s'il est fourni.

      -- Méthode: _setroot (element)

          Remplace l'élément racine de cette arborescence.  Cela
          supprime le contenu actuel de l'arborescence et le remplace
          par l'élément donné.  À utiliser avec précaution.  'element'
          est une instance d'élément.

      -- Méthode: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Comme *note Element.find(): 151f, commence à la racine de
          l'arbre.

      -- Méthode: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Identique à *note Element.findall(): 1521, en commençant à la
          racine de l'arborescence.

      -- Méthode: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Identique à *note Element.findtext(): 1520, en commençant à la
          racine de l'arborescence.

      -- Méthode: getroot ()

          Renvoie l'élément racine de l'arbre.

      -- Méthode: iter (tag=None)

          Crée et renvoie un itérateur d'arborescence pour l'élément
          racine.  L'itérateur parcourt tous les éléments de cette
          arborescence, dans l'ordre des sections.  'tag' est la balise
          à rechercher (la valeur par défaut est de renvoyer tous les
          éléments).

      -- Méthode: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Identique à *note Element.iterfind(): 11b3, en commençant à la
          racine de l'arborescence.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: parse (source, parser=None)

          Charge une section XML externe dans cette arborescence
          d'éléments.  'source' est un nom de fichier ou un *note objet
          fichier: 11a2.  'parser', facultatif, est une instance
          d'analyseur.  S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard
          *note XMLParser: a44. est utilisé.  Renvoie l'élément racine
          de la section.

      -- Méthode: write (file, encoding='us-ascii',
               xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None,
               method='xml', *, short_empty_elements=True)

          Écrit l'arborescence des éléments dans un fichier, au format
          XML. 'file' est un nom de fichier ou un *note objet fichier:
          11a2. ouvert en écriture.  'encoding' (1) est l'encodage de
          sortie (la valeur par défaut est US-ASCII). 'xml_declaration'
          contrôle si une déclaration XML doit être ajoutée au fichier.
          Utilisez ‘False’ pour jamais, ‘True’ pour toujours, ‘None’
          pour seulement si ce n'est pas de l'US-ASCII ou de l'UTF-8 ou
          de l'Unicode (la valeur par défaut est ‘None’).
          'default_namespace' définit l'espace de noms XML par défaut
          (pour ‘"xmlns"’).  'method' vaut ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ ou ‘"text"’
          (la valeur par défaut est ‘"xml"’).  Le paramètre nommé
          (uniquement) 'short_empty_elements' contrôle le formatage des
          éléments qui ne contiennent aucun contenu.  Si c'est ‘True’
          (valeur par défaut), ils sont écrits sous la forme d'une seule
          balise auto-fermée, sinon ils sont écrits sous la forme d'une
          paire de balises de début-fin.

          La sortie est une chaîne (*note str: 437.) ou du binaire
          (*note bytes: 1bd.).  C'est contrôlé par l'argument
          'encoding'.  Si 'encoding' est ‘"unicode"’, la sortie est une
          chaîne ; sinon, c'est binaire.  Notez que cela peut entrer en
          conflit avec le type de 'fichier' s'il s'agit d'un *note objet
          fichier: 11a2. déjà ouvert ; assurez-vous de ne pas essayer
          d'écrire une chaîne dans un flux binaire et vice versa.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements'
          parameter.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode *note write(): fe2.
          préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
          l'utilisateur.

Voici le fichier XML à manipuler :

     <html>
         <head>
             <title>Example page</title>
         </head>
         <body>
             <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
             or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
         </body>
     </html>

Exemple de modification de l'attribut 'target' de chaque lien dans le
premier paragraphe :

     >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
     >>> tree = ElementTree()
     >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
     <Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
     >>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body
     >>> p
     <Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
     >>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # Returns list of all links
     >>> links
     [<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
     >>> for i in links:             # Iterates through all found links
     ...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
     ...
     >>> tree.write("output.xhtml")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) La chaîne de caractères encodée inclue dans la sortie XML doit
être conforme aux standards.  Par exemple, ‘"UTF-8"’ est valide, mais
pas ‘"UTF8"’.  Voir
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ et
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets QName,  Next: Objets TreeBuilder,  Prev: Objets ElementTree,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.20 Objets 'QName'
........................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.QName (text_or_uri, tag=None)

     Surcouche à 'QName'.  Cela peut être utilisé pour envelopper une
     valeur d'attribut 'QName', afin d'obtenir une gestion appropriée de
     l'espace de noms en sortie.  'text_or_uri' est une chaîne contenant
     la valeur 'QName', sous la forme '{uri}local' ou, si l'argument
     'tag' est donné, la partie URI d'un 'QName'.  Si 'tag' est donné,
     le premier argument est interprété comme un URI et cet argument est
     interprété comme un nom local.  Les instances *note QName: 3756.
     sont opaques.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets TreeBuilder,  Next: Objets XMLParser,  Prev: Objets QName,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.21 Objets 'TreeBuilder'
..............................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder (element_factory=None, *,
          comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False,
          insert_pis=False)

     Générateur de structure d'éléments générique.  Ce constructeur
     convertit une séquence d'appels de méthode 'start', 'data', 'end',
     'comment' et 'pi' en une structure d'éléments bien formée.  Vous
     pouvez utiliser cette classe pour créer une structure d'éléments à
     l'aide d'un analyseur XML personnalisé ou d'un analyseur pour un
     autre type de format XML.

     'element_factory', lorsqu'il est donné, doit être un appelable
     acceptant deux arguments positionnels : une balise et un
     dictionnaire d'attributs.  Elle est censée renvoyer une nouvelle
     instance d'élément.

     Les fonctions 'comment_factory' et 'pi_factory', lorsqu'elles sont
     données, doivent se comporter comme les fonctions *note Comment():
     3731. et *note ProcessingInstruction(): 3737. pour créer des
     commentaires et des instructions de traitement.  Lorsqu’elles ne
     sont pas fournies, les fabriques par défaut sont utilisées.
     Lorsque 'insert_comments' ou 'insert_pis' sont vraies, les
     commentaires et instructions de traitement sont insérés dans
     l'arborescence s'ils apparaissent dans l'élément racine (mais pas à
     l'extérieur de celui-ci).

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Vide les tampons du générateur et renvoie l'élément de
          document de niveau supérieur.  Renvoie une instance d'*note
          Element: 305.

      -- Méthode: data (data)

          Ajoute du texte à l'élément courant.  'data' est une chaîne de
          caractères.  Cela peut être une chaîne d'octets ou une chaîne
          Unicode.

      -- Méthode: end (tag)

          Ferme l'élément courant.  'tag' est le nom de l'élément.
          Renvoie l'élément fermé.

      -- Méthode: start (tag, attrs)

          Ouvre un nouvel élément.  'tag' est le nom de l'élément.
          'attrs' est un dictionnaire contenant les attributs de
          l'élément.  Renvoie l'élément ouvert.

      -- Méthode: comment (text)

          Crée un commentaire avec le 'text' donné.  Si
          ‘insert_comments’ est vrai, cela l'ajoute également à
          l'arborescence.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: pi (target, text)

          Creates a process instruction with the given 'target' name and
          'text'.  If ‘insert_pis’ is true, this will also add it to the
          tree.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     De plus, un objet *note TreeBuilder: a45. personnalisé peut fournir
     les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: doctype (name, pubid, system)

          Gère une déclaration 'doctype'.  'name' est le nom du type de
          document.  'pubid' est l'identifiant public.  'system' est
          l'identifiant du système.  Cette méthode n'existe pas sur la
          classe par défaut *note TreeBuilder: a45.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: start_ns (prefix, uri)

          Est appelée chaque fois que l'analyseur rencontre une nouvelle
          déclaration d'espace de noms, avant le rappel ‘start()’ pour
          l'élément d'ouverture qui le définit.  'prefix' est ‘''’ pour
          l'espace de noms par défaut et le nom du préfixe d'espace de
          noms déclaré dans le cas contraire.  'uri' est l'URI de
          l'espace de noms.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: end_ns (prefix)

          Est appelée après le rappel ‘end()’ d'un élément qui a déclaré
          une correspondance de préfixe d'espace de noms, avec le nom du
          'prefix' qui passe hors de portée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget (write, *,
          with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False,
          qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None,
          exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None)

     Écrivain C14N 2.0(1).  Les arguments sont les mêmes que pour la
     fonction *note canonicalize(): 3730.  Cette classe ne construit pas
     d'arborescence mais traduit les événements de rappel directement
     sous une forme sérialisée à l'aide de la fonction 'write'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets XMLParser,  Next: Objets XMLPullParser,  Prev: Objets TreeBuilder,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.22 Objets 'XMLParser'
............................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser (*, target=None,
          encoding=None)

     Cette classe est l’élément de base du module.  Elle utilise *note
     xml.parsers.expat: 125. pour une analyse efficace du XML et
     fonctionne à base d'événements.  Elle peut être alimentée en
     données XML de manière incrémentielle avec la méthode *note feed():
     3762, et les événements d'analyse sont traduits en une API à flux
     poussé – en appelant les méthodes de rappel de l'objet 'target'.
     Si 'target' est omis, le *note TreeBuilder: a45. standard est
     utilisé.  Si 'encoding' (1) est donné, la valeur remplace
     l'encodage spécifié dans le fichier XML.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Parameters are now *note keyword-only:
     2a2.  The 'html' argument is no longer supported.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Termine l'envoi des données à l'analyseur.  Renvoie le
          résultat de l'appel de la méthode ‘close()’ de la 'target'
          passée lors de la construction ; par défaut, il s'agit de
          l'élément de plus haut niveau du document.

      -- Méthode: feed (data)

          Fournit des données à l’analyseur.  'data' est une donnée
          encodée.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush(): 26c.
          temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently
          enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse deferral
          has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 26f.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 26c. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 26c. using *note hasattr():
          4be. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     *note XMLParser.feed(): 3762. appelle la méthode ‘start(tag,
     attrs_dict)’ de 'target' pour chaque balise d'ouverture, sa méthode
     ‘end(tag)’ pour chaque balise de fermeture, et les données sont
     traitées par la méthode ‘data(data)’.  Pour d'autres méthodes de
     rappel prises en charge, consultez la classe *note TreeBuilder:
     a45.  *note XMLParser.close(): 3763. appelle la méthode ‘close()’
     de 'target'.  *note XMLParser: a44. peut être utilisée pour autre
     chose que seulement construire une structure arborescente.  Voici
     un exemple de comptage de la profondeur maximale d'un fichier XML :

          >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
          >>> class MaxDepth:                     # The target object of the parser
          ...     maxDepth = 0
          ...     depth = 0
          ...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # Called for each opening tag.
          ...         self.depth += 1
          ...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
          ...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
          ...     def end(self, tag):             # Called for each closing tag.
          ...         self.depth -= 1
          ...     def data(self, data):
          ...         pass            # We do not need to do anything with data.
          ...     def close(self):    # Called when all data has been parsed.
          ...         return self.maxDepth
          ...
          >>> target = MaxDepth()
          >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
          >>> exampleXml = """
          ... <a>
          ...   <b>
          ...   </b>
          ...   <b>
          ...     <c>
          ...       <d>
          ...       </d>
          ...     </c>
          ...   </b>
          ... </a>"""
          >>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
          >>> parser.close()
          4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) La chaîne de caractères encodée inclue dans la sortie XML doit
être conforme aux standards.  Par exemple, ‘"UTF-8"’ est valide, mais
pas ‘"UTF8"’.  Voir
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ et
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets XMLPullParser,  Next: Exceptions<19>,  Prev: Objets XMLParser,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.23 Objets 'XMLPullParser'
................................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser (events=None)

     Analyseur à flux tiré adapté aux applications non bloquantes.  Son
     API côté entrée est similaire à celle de *note XMLParser: a44, mais
     au lieu de pousser les appels vers une cible de rappel, *note
     XMLPullParser: fde. collecte une liste interne d'événements
     d'analyse et permet à l'utilisateur de la lire.  'events' est une
     séquence d'événements à signaler.  Les événements pris en charge
     sont les chaînes ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’,
     ‘"start-ns"’ et ‘"end-ns"’ (les événements ‘"ns"’ sont utilisés
     pour obtenir des informations détaillées sur les espaces de noms).
     Si 'events' est omis, seuls les événements ‘"end"’ sont rapportés.

      -- Méthode: feed (data)

          Transmet les données d’octets à l’analyseur.

      -- Méthode: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush(): 26d.
          temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently
          enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse deferral
          has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 26f.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 26d. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 26d. using *note hasattr():
          4be. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Signale à l'analyseur que le flux de données est terminé.
          Contrairement à *note XMLParser.close(): 3763, cette méthode
          renvoie toujours *note None: 662.  Tous les événements non
          encore récupérés lorsque l'analyseur est fermé peuvent
          toujours être lus avec *note read_events(): 3720.

      -- Méthode: read_events ()

          Renvoie un itérateur sur les événements qui ont été rencontrés
          dans les données fournies à l'analyseur.  L'itérateur génère
          des paires ‘(event, elem)’, où 'event' est une chaîne
          représentant le type d'événement (par exemple ‘"end"’) et
          'elem' est l'objet *note Element: 305. rencontré, ou une autre
          valeur de contexte comme suit.

             * ‘start’, ‘end’ : l'élément actuel.

             * ‘comment’, ‘pi’ : le commentaire ou l'instruction de
               traitement actuel

             * ‘start-ns’ : couple ‘(prefix, uri)’ nommant la
               correspondance d'espace de noms déclarée.

             * ‘end-ns’ : *note None: 662. (cela peut changer dans une
               version future)

          Les événements fournis lors d'un appel précédent à *note
          read_events(): 3720. ne seront plus renvoyés.  Les événements
          sont consommés à partir de la file d'attente interne
          uniquement lorsqu'ils sont récupérés de l'itérateur, donc
          plusieurs lecteurs itérant en parallèle sur les itérateurs
          obtenus à partir de *note read_events(): 3720. auront des
          résultats imprévisibles.

          Note: *note XMLPullParser: fde. garantit uniquement qu'il a vu
          le caractère ‘">"’ d'une balise de début lorsqu'il émet un
          événement ‘"start"’, donc les attributs sont définis, mais le
          contenu des attributs 'text' et 'tail' n'est pas défini à ce
          stade.  La même chose s'applique aux nœuds enfants de
          l'élément ; ils peuvent être présents ou non.

          Si vous avez besoin d'un élément entièrement rempli,
          recherchez plutôt les événements ‘"end"’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les évènements ‘comment’ et ‘pi’ ont
     été ajoutés.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<19>,  Prev: Objets XMLPullParser,  Up: Référence<3>

5.21.5.24 Exceptions
....................

 -- Classe: xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError

     Erreur d'analyse XML, générée par les différentes méthodes
     d'analyse de ce module lorsque l'analyse échoue.  La représentation
     sous forme de chaîne d'une instance de cette exception contient un
     message d'erreur convivial.  De plus, elle possède les attributs
     suivants :

      -- Attribut: code

          Code d'erreur numérique de l'analyseur 'expat'.  Voir la
          documentation de *note xml.parsers.expat: 125. pour la liste
          des codes d'erreur et leur signification.

      -- Attribut: position

          Un 'n'-uplet de numéros de 'ligne' et 'colonne' indiquant le
          lieu d'apparition de l'erreur.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API,  Next: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.6 ‘xml.dom’ -- The Document Object Model API
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le Document Object Model, ou "DOM," est une API inter-langage du World
Wide Web Consortium ('W3C') pour accéder et modifier les documents XML.
Une implémentation DOM présente le document XML comme un arbre ou
autorise le code client à construire une telle structure depuis zéro.
Il permet alors d'accéder à la structure à l'aide d'un ensemble d'objet
qui fournissent des interfaces bien connues.

Le DOM est extrêmement utile pour les applications à accès aléatoire.
SAX ne vous permet de visualiser qu'un seul morceau du document à la
fois.  Si vous regardez un élément SAX, vous n'avez pas accès à un
autre.  Si vous regardez un nœud de texte, vous n'avez pas accès à un
élément parent.  Lorsque vous écrivez une application SAX, vous devez
suivre la position de votre programme dans le document quelque part dans
votre propre code.  SAX ne le fait pas pour vous.  De plus, si vous
devez examiner un nœud plus lus loin dans le document XML, vous n'avez
pas de chance.

Il est tout simplement impossible d'implémenter certains algorithmes
avec un modèle évènementiel, sans un accès à un arbre.  Bien sûr, vous
pourriez construire vous même un arbre à partir des événements SAX mais
DOM vous permet d'éviter d'écrire ce code.  Le DOM est représentation
standard en arbre pour des données XML.

Le DOM (Document Object Model) est défini par le 'W3C' en étapes ou
'"levels"' (niveaux) selon leur terminologie.  Le couplage de l'API de
Python est essentiellement basée sur la recommandation DOM Level 2.

Typiquement, les applications DOM commencent par analyser du XML dans du
DOM. Comment cela doit être exposé n'est absolument pas décrit par DOM
Level 1 et Level 2 ne fournit que des améliorations limités.  Il existe
une classe ‘DOMImplementation’ qui fournit un accès à des méthodes de
création de ‘Document’ mais il n'y a pas de moyen d'accéder à un
lecteur/analyseur/constructeur de 'document' de façon indépendante de
l'implémentation.  Il n'est pas également très bien définis comment
accéder à ces méthodes sans un objet ‘Document’.  En Python, chaque
implémentation fournira une fonction *note getDOMImplementation(): 376c.
.  DOM Level 3 ajoute une spécification 'Load/Store' (charge/stocke) qui
définie une interface pour le lecteur mais qui n'est pas disponible dans
la bibliothèque standard de Python.

Une fois que vous avez un objet document DOM, vous pouvez accéder aux
parties de votre document XML à travers ses méthodes et propriétés.  Ces
propriétés sont définis dans les spécifications DOM ; cette portion du
manuel de références décrit l'interprétation des ces spécifications en
Python.

Les spécifications fournies par le 'W3C' définissent les API DOM pour
Java, ECMAScript, et OMG IDL. Les correspondances de Python définies ici
sont basées pour une grande part sur la version IDL de la spécification
mais une conformité stricte n'est pas requise (bien que ces
implémentations soient libre d'implémenter le support strict des
correspondances de IDL). Voir la section *note Conformité: 376d. pour
une discussion détaillée des pré-requis des correspondances.

Voir aussi
..........

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification(2)

     La recommandation 'W3C' sur laquelle l'API DOM de Python est basée.

Spécification Level 1 Document Object Model (DOM)(3)

     La recommandation du 'W3C' pour le DOM supporté par *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 121.

Python Language Mapping Specification(4)

     Ceci spécifies les correspondances depuis OMG IDL vers Python.

* Menu:

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<4>.
* Objets dans le DOM::
* Conformité::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/

   (4) https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu du module<4>,  Next: Objets dans le DOM,  Up: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API

5.21.6.1 Contenu du module
..........................

Le *note xml.dom: 120. contient les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation (name, factory)

     Enregistre la fonction 'factory' avec le nom 'name'.  La fonction
     'factory' doit renvoyer un objet qui implémente l'interface de
     ‘DOMImplementation’.  La fonction 'factory' peut renvoyer le même
     objet à chaque fois ou un nouveau à chaque appel en accord avec les
     spécificités de l'implémentation (Par exemple si l'implémentation
     supporte certaines personnalisations).

 -- Fonction: xml.dom.getDOMImplementation (name=None, features=())

     Renvoie une implémentation DOM appropriée.  Le 'name' est soit
     connu, soit le nom du module d'une implémentation DOM, soit ‘None’.
     Si ce n'est pas ‘None’, le module correspondant est importé et
     retourne un objet ‘DOMImplementation’ si l'importation réussit.  Si
     Aucun 'name' n'est donné et que la variable d'environnement
     ‘PYTHON_DOM’ est positionnée, cette variable est utilisée pour
     trouver l'implémentation.

     Si 'name' n'est pas donné, la fonction examine les implémentations
     disponibles pour en trouver une avec l'ensemble des fonctionnalités
     requises.  Si aucune implémentation n'est trouvée, une *note
     ImportError: 40f. est levée.  La liste de fonctionnalité doit être
     une séquence de paires ‘(feature, version)’ qui est passée à la
     méthode ‘hasFeature()’ disponible dans les objets
     ‘DOMImplementation’.

Quelques constantes pratiques sont également fournies :

 -- Données: xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE

     La valeur utilisée pour indiquer qu'aucun espace de noms n'est
     associé à un nœud dans le DOM. Typiquement, ceci est trouvé comme
     ‘namespaceURI’ dans un nœud ou utilisé comme le paramètre
     'namespaceURI' dans une méthode spécifique aux espaces de noms.

 -- Données: xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE

     L'URI de l'espace de noms associé avec le préfixe réservé ‘xml’
     comme défini par Namespaces in XML(1) (section 4).

 -- Données: xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE

     L'URI de l'espace de noms pour la déclaration des espaces de noms,
     tel que défini par Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core
     Specification(2) (section 1.1.8).

 -- Données: xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE

     L'URI de l'espace de noms XHTML tel que défini par XHTML 1.0: The
     Extensible HyperText Markup Language(3) (section 3.1.1).

Par ailleurs, *note xml.dom: 120. contient une classe de base ‘Node’ et
les exceptions de DOM. La classe ‘Node’ fournie par ce module
n'implémente aucune des méthodes ou des attributs définis par les
spécifications DOM ; les implémentations concrètes des DOM doivent
fournir les informations suivantes.  La classe ‘Node’ fournie part ce
modules fournit les constantes utilisées pour l'attribut ‘nodeType’ pour
des objets concrets ‘Node’ ; ils sont situés dans les classes plutôt
qu'au niveau du module en accord avec les spécifications DOM.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets dans le DOM,  Next: Conformité,  Prev: Contenu du module<4>,  Up: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API

5.21.6.2 Objets dans le DOM
...........................

La documentation finale pour le DOM est la spécification DOM du 'W3C'.

Notez que les attributs DOM peuvent également être manipulés comme des
nœuds au lieu de simples chaînes.  Il est relativement rare que vous
ayez besoin de faire cela, cependant, cet usage n'est pas encore
documenté.

Interface                            Section                                 Objectif
                                                                             
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
‘DOMImplementation’                  *note Objets DOMImplementation: 3776.   Interface de l'implémentation
                                                                             sous-jacente.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Node’                               *note Objets nœuds: 3777.               Interface de base pour la majorité
                                                                             des objets dans un document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘NodeList’                           *note Objet NodeList: 3778.             Interface pour une séquence de
                                                                             nœuds.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘DocumentType’                       *note Objets DocumnentType: 3779.       Informations sur les déclarations
                                                                             nécessaires au traitement d'un
                                                                             document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Document’                           *note Objets Document: 377a.            Objet représentant un document
                                                                             entier.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Element’                            *note Objets Elements: 377b.            Nœuds éléments dans la hiérarchie
                                                                             d'un document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Attr’                               *note Objets Attr: 377c.                Valeur des nœuds attributs sur dans
                                                                             des nœuds éléments.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Comment’                            *note Objets Comment: 377d.             Représentation des commentaires
                                                                             dans le fichier source du document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Text’                               *note Objets Text et CDATASection: 377e.Nœud contenant un contenu texte du
                                                                             document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘ProcessingInstruction’              *note Objets ProcessingInstruction: 377f.Représentation des 'Processing
                                                                             Instructions'.
                                                                             

Une Section additionnelle décrit les exceptions définis pour travailler
avec le DOM en Python.

* Menu:

* Objets DOMImplementation::
* Objets nœuds::
* Objet NodeList::
* Objets DocumnentType::
* Objets Document::
* Objets Elements::
* Objets Attr::
* Objets NameNodeMap::
* Objets Comment::
* Objets Text et CDATASection::
* Objets ProcessingInstruction::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DOMImplementation,  Next: Objets nœuds,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.3 Objets DOMImplementation
.................................

L'interface ‘DOMImplementation’ fournit un moyen pour les applications
de déterminer la disponibilité de fonctionnalités particulières dans le
DOM qu'elles utilisent.  'DOM Level 2' ajoute la capacité de créer des
nouveaux objets ‘Document’ et ‘DocumentType’ utilisant également
‘DOMImplementation’.

 -- Méthode: DOMImplementation.hasFeature (feature, version)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la fonctionnalité identifiée par le couple de
     chaînes 'feature' et 'version' est implémentée.

 -- Méthode: DOMImplementation.createDocument (namespaceUri,
          qualifiedName, doctype)

     Renvoie un nouvel objet ‘Document’ (la racine du DOM), avec un
     objet fils ‘Element’ ayant les 'namespaceUri' et 'qualifiedName'
     passés en paramètre.  Le 'doctype' doit être un objet
     ‘DocumentType’ créé par *note createDocumentType(): 3783. ou
     ‘None’.  Dans l'API DOM de Python, les deux premiers arguments
     peuvent également être à ‘None’ de manière à indiquer qu'aucun
     enfant ‘Element’ ne soit crée.

 -- Méthode: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType (qualifiedName,
          publicId, systemId)

     Renvoie un nouvel objet ‘DocumentType’ qui encapsule les chaînes
     'qualifiedName', 'publicId', et 'systemId' passées en paramètre
     représentant les informations contenues dans dans la déclaration du
     document XML.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets nœuds,  Next: Objet NodeList,  Prev: Objets DOMImplementation,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.4 Objets nœuds
.....................

Tous les composants d'un document XML sont des sous-classes de ‘Node’.

 -- Attribut: Node.nodeType

     Un entier représentant le type de nœud.  Pour l'objet ‘Node’, les
     constantes symboliques pour les types sont ‘ELEMENT_NODE’,
     ‘ATTRIBUTE_NODE’, ‘TEXT_NODE’, ‘CDATA_SECTION_NODE’, ‘ENTITY_NODE’,
     ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’, ‘COMMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_NODE’,
     ‘DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE’, ‘NOTATION_NODE’.  Ceci est un attribut en
     lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.parentNode

     Le parent du nœud courant ou ‘None’ dans le cas du nœud document.
     La valeur est toujours un objet ‘Node’ ou ‘None’.  Pour les nœuds
     ‘Element’, ce sera le parent de l'élément sauf si l'élément est la
     racine, dans ce cas ce sera l'objet ‘Document’.  Pour les nœuds
     ‘Attr’, cela sera toujours ‘None’.  Ceci est un attribut en lecture
     seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.attributes

     Un objet ‘NamedNodeMap’ d'objet attributs.  Seulement les éléments
     ayant des valeurs seront listés, les autres renverront ‘None’ pour
     cet attribut.  Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.previousSibling

     Le nœud avec le même parent qui précède immédiatement le nœud
     courant.  Par exemple, l'élément avec la balise fermente qui est
     juste avant la balise ouvrante de l'élément 'self'.  Naturellement,
     les documents XML sont fait de plus que juste des éléments ; donc
     le 'previous sibling' peut être du texte, un commentaire ou autre
     chose.  Si le nœud courant est le premier fils du parent, cet
     attribut vaudra ‘None’.  Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.nextSibling

     Le nœud qui suit immédiatement le nœud courant dans le même parent.
     Voir également *note previousSibling: 3788.  Si ce nœud est le
     dernier de son parent, alors l'attribut sera ‘None’.  Cet attribut
     est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.childNodes

     Une liste de nœuds contenu dans le nœud courant.  Cet attribut est
     en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.firstChild

     S'il y a des fils, premier fils du nœud courant, sinon ‘None’.  Cet
     attribut est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.lastChild

     S'il y a des fils, le dernier nœud fils du nœud courant.  Sinon
     ‘None’.  Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.localName

     S'il y a un ':', contient la partie suivante de ‘tagName’ ce ':'
     sinon la valeur complète de ‘tagName’.  Cette valeur est une
     chaîne.

 -- Attribut: Node.prefix

     La partie de ‘tagName’ précédent le ':' s'il y en a un.  sinon une
     chaîne vide.  La valeur est une chaîne ou ‘None’.

 -- Attribut: Node.namespaceURI

     L'espace de noms associé ('namespace' en anglais) au nom de
     l'élément.  Cette valeur est une chaîne ou ‘None’.  Cet attribut
     est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.nodeName

     L'attribut a un sens différent pour chaque type de nœud ; se
     reporter à la spécification DOM pour les détails.  Vous obtiendrez
     toujours l'information que vous obtiendrez à l'aide d'une autre
     propriété comme ‘tagName’ pour les éléments ou ‘name’ pour les
     attributs.  Pour tous les types de nœuds, la valeur sera soit une
     chaîne soit ‘None’.  Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Node.nodeValue

     L'attribut a un sens différent pour chaque type de nœud ; se
     reporter à la spécification DOM pour les détails.  La situation est
     similaire à *note nodeName: 3790.  La valeur est une chaîne ou
     ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: Node.hasAttributes ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le nœud a des attributs.

 -- Méthode: Node.hasChildNodes ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si le nœud a des nœuds fils.

 -- Méthode: Node.isSameNode (other)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si 'other' fait référence au même nœud que le nœud
     courant.  Ceci est particulièrement pratique pour une
     implémentation de DOM qui utilise un ou des mandataires dans son
     architecture (car plus d'un objet peut se référer au même nœud).

          Note: Ceci est basé sur l'API proposé par * DOM Level 3* qui
          est toujours à l'étape "'working draft'" mais cette interface
          particulière ne parait pas controversée.  Les changement du
          'W3C' n'affecteront pas nécessairement cette méthode dans
          l'interface DOM de Python.  (bien que toute nouvelle API 'W3C'
          à cet effet soit également supportée).

 -- Méthode: Node.appendChild (newChild)

     Ajoute un nouveau nœud fils à ce nœud à la fin de la liste des fils
     renvoyant 'newChild'.  Si ce nœud est déjà dans l'arbre, il sera
     d'abord retiré.

 -- Méthode: Node.insertBefore (newChild, refChild)

     Insère un nouveau nœud fils avant un fils existant.  Il est
     impératif que 'refChild' soit un fils du nœud, sinon *note
     ValueError: 1ff. sera levée.  'newChild' est renvoyé.  Si
     'refChild' est ‘None’, 'newChild' est inséré à la fin de la liste
     des fils.

 -- Méthode: Node.removeChild (oldChild)

     Retire un nœud fils.  'oldChild' doit être un fils de ce nœud ;
     sinon *note ValueError: 1ff. sera levée.  En cas de succès,
     'oldChild' est renvoyé.  Si 'oldChild' n'est plus utilisé, sa
     méthode ‘unlink()’ doit être appelée.

 -- Méthode: Node.replaceChild (newChild, oldChild)

     Remplace un nœud existant avec un nouveau.  'oldChild' doit être un
     fils de ce nœud ; sinon *note ValueError: 1ff. sera levée.

 -- Méthode: Node.normalize ()

     Jointe les nœuds texte adjacents de manière à ce que tous les
     segments de texte soient stockés dans une seule instance de ‘Text’.
     Ceci simplifie le traitement du texte d'un arbre DOM pour de
     nombreuses applications.

 -- Méthode: Node.cloneNode (deep)

     Clone ce nœud.  Positionner 'deep' signifie que tous les nœuds fils
     seront également clonés.  La méthode renvoi le clone.


File: python.info,  Node: Objet NodeList,  Next: Objets DocumnentType,  Prev: Objets nœuds,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.5 Objet NodeList
.......................

‘NodeList’ représente une séquence de nœuds.  Ces objets sont utilisés
de deux manières dans la recommandation Dom Core : un objet ‘Element’
fournit en fournis liste des nœud fils et les méthodes
‘getElementsByTagName()’ et ‘getElementsByTagNameNS()’ de ‘Node’
renvoient des objet avec cette interface pour représenter les résultats
des requêtes.

La recommandation DOM Level 2 définit un attribut et une méthode pour
ces objets :

 -- Méthode: NodeList.item (i)

     Renvoie le 'i'^e élément de la séquence s'il existe ou ‘None’.
     L'index 'i' ne peut pas être inférieur à 0 ou supérieur ou égale à
     la longueur de la séquence.

 -- Attribut: NodeList.length

     Le nombre d'éléments dans la séquence.

En plus, l'interface DOM de Python requiert quelques ajouts
supplémentaires pour permettre que les objet ‘NodeList’ puissent être
utilisés comme des séquences Python.  Toutes les implémentations de
‘NodeList’ doivent inclure le support de *note __len__(): 1f1c. et de
*note __getitem__(): 280. ; ceci permet l'itération sur ‘NodeList’ avec
l'instruction *note for: 2e7. et un support de la fonction native *note
len(): 61b.

Si une implémentation de DOM support les modifications du document,
l'implémentation de ‘NodeList’ doit également supporter les méthodes
*note __setitem__(): 12ab. et *note __delitem__(): 12ac. .


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DocumnentType,  Next: Objets Document,  Prev: Objet NodeList,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.6 Objets DocumnentType
.............................

Les objets de type ‘DocumentType’ fournissent des informations sur les
notations et les entités déclarées par un document (incluant les données
externes si l'analyseur les utilise et peut les fournir).  Le
‘DocumentType’ d'un ‘Document’ est accessible via l'attribut ‘doctype’.
Si le document ne déclare pas de ‘DOCTYPE’, l'attribut ‘doctype’ vaudra
‘None’ plutôt qu'une instance de cette interface.

‘DocumentType’ est une spécialisation de ‘Node’ et ajoute les attributs
suivants :

 -- Attribut: DocumentType.publicId

     L'identifiant publique pour un sous ensemble de la définition type
     de document ('DTD'). Cela sera une chaîne ou ‘None’.

 -- Attribut: DocumentType.systemId

     L'identifiant système pour un sous ensemble du document de
     définition type ('DTD'). Cela sera une URI sous la forme d'une
     chaîne ou ‘None’.

 -- Attribut: DocumentType.internalSubset

     Un chaîne donnant le sous ensemble complet du document.  Ceci
     n'inclut pas les chevrons qui englobe le sous ensemble.  Si le
     document n'a pas de sous ensemble, cela devrait être ‘None’.

 -- Attribut: DocumentType.name

     Le nom de l'élément racine donné dans la déclaration ‘DOCTYPE’ si
     présente.

 -- Attribut: DocumentType.entities

     Ceci est un ‘NamedNodeMap’ donnant les définitions des entités
     externes.  Pour les entités définies plusieurs fois seule la
     première définition est fournie (les suivantes sont ignorées comme
     requis par la recommandation XML). Ceci peut retourner ‘None’ si
     l'information n'est pas fournie à l'analyseur ou si aucune entités
     n'est définis.

 -- Attribut: DocumentType.notations

     Ceci est un ‘NamedNodeMap’ donnant la définition des notations.
     Pour les notations définies plus d'une fois, seule la première est
     fournie (les suivante sont ignorées comme requis par la
     recommandation XML). Ceci peut retourner ‘None’ si l'information
     n'est pas fournie à l'analyseur ou si aucune entités n'est définis.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Document,  Next: Objets Elements,  Prev: Objets DocumnentType,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.7 Objets Document
........................

Un ‘Document’ représente un document XML en son entier, incluant les
éléments qui le constitue, les attributs, les 'processing instructions',
commentaires, etc.  Rappelez vous qu'il hérite des propriété de ‘Node’.

 -- Attribut: Document.documentElement

     Le seul et unique élément racine du document.

 -- Méthode: Document.createElement (tagName)

     Créé et renvoi un nouveau nœud élément.  Ce n'est pas inséré dans
     le document quand il est créé.  Vous avez besoin de l'insérer
     explicitement avec l'une des autres méthodes comme ‘insertBefore()’
     ou ‘appendChild()’.

 -- Méthode: Document.createElementNS (namespaceURI, tagName)

     Créé et renvoi un nouvel élément avec un 'namespace'.  Le 'tagName'
     peut avoir un préfixe.  L'élément ne sera pas insérer dans le
     document quand il est créé.  Vous avez besoin de l'insérer
     explicitement avec l'une des autres méthodes comme ‘insertBefore()’
     ou ‘appendChild()’.

 -- Méthode: Document.createTextNode (data)

     Créé et renvoi un nœud texte contenant les 'data' passées en
     paramètre.  Comme pour les autres méthodes de création, la méthode
     n'insère pas le nœud dans l'arbre.

 -- Méthode: Document.createComment (data)

     Créé et renvoi un nœud commentaire contenant les 'data' passé en
     commentaire.  Comme pour les autres méthodes de création, la
     méthode n'insère pas le nœud dans l'arbre.

 -- Méthode: Document.createProcessingInstruction (target, data)

     Créé et retourne un nœud 'processing instruction' contenant les
     'target' et 'data' passés en paramètres.  Comme pour les autres
     méthodes de création, la méthode n'insère pas le nœud dans l'arbre.

 -- Méthode: Document.createAttribute (name)

     Créé et renvoi un nœud attribut.  Cette méthode n'associe le nœud
     attribut aucun nœud en particulier.  Vous devez utiliser la méthode
     ‘setAttributeNode()’ sur un objet ‘Element’ approprié pour utiliser
     une instance d'attribut nouvellement créé.

 -- Méthode: Document.createAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qualifiedName)

     Créé et renvoi un nœud attribut avec un 'namespace'.  Le 'tagName'
     peut avoir un préfixe.  Cette méthode n'associe le nœud attribut à
     aucun nœud en particulier.  Vous devez utiliser la méthode
     ‘setAttributeNode()’ sur un objet ‘Element’ approprié pour utiliser
     une instance d'attribut nouvellement créé.

 -- Méthode: Document.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Cherche tout les descendants (fils directs, fils de fils, etc.)
     avec un nom de balise particulier.

 -- Méthode: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Cherche tous les descendants (fils directs, fils de fils, etc.)
     avec un 'namespace URI' particulier et un 'localName'.  Le
     'localName' fait parti du 'namespace' après le préfixe.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Elements,  Next: Objets Attr,  Prev: Objets Document,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.8 Objets Elements
........................

‘Element’ est une une sous classe de ‘Node’ et donc hérite de tout les
éléments de cette classe.

 -- Attribut: Element.tagName

     Le nom de l'élément type.  Dans un document utilisant des
     'namespace', il pourrait y avoir des ':' dedans.  La valeur est une
     chaîne.

 -- Méthode: Element.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Identique à la méthode équivalente de la classe ‘Document’.

 -- Méthode: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Identique à la méthode équivalente de la classe ‘Document’.

 -- Méthode: Element.hasAttribute (name)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'élément a un attribut nommé 'name'.

 -- Méthode: Element.hasAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'élément a un attribut nommé 'localName' dans
     l'espace de noms 'namespaceURI'.

 -- Méthode: Element.getAttribute (name)

     Retourne la valeur de l'attribut nommé par 'name' comme une chaîne.
     Si un tel attribue n'existe pas, une chaîne vide est retournée
     comme si l'attribut n'avait aucune valeur.

 -- Méthode: Element.getAttributeNode (attrname)

     Retourne le nœud ‘Attr’ pour l'attribut nommé par 'attrname'.

 -- Méthode: Element.getAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Renvoi la valeur de l'attribut nommé par 'namespaceURI' et
     'localName' comme une chaîne.  Si un tel attribue n'existe pas, une
     chaîne vide est retournée comme si l'attribut n'avait aucune
     valeur.

 -- Méthode: Element.getAttributeNodeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Renvoi la valeur de l'attribue comme un nœud étant donné
     'namespaceURI' et 'localName'.

 -- Méthode: Element.removeAttribute (name)

     Retire un attribut nommé 'name'.  S'il n'y a aucun attribut
     correspondant une *note NotFoundErr: 37bb. est levée.

 -- Méthode: Element.removeAttributeNode (oldAttr)

     Supprime et renvoi 'oldAttr' de la liste des attributs si présent.
     Si 'oldAttr' n'est pas présent, *note NotFoundErr: 37bb. est levée.

 -- Méthode: Element.removeAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Retire un attribut selon son nom.  Notez qu'il utilise un
     'localName' et nom un 'qname'.  Aucune exception n'est levée s'il
     n'y a pas d'attribut correspondant.

 -- Méthode: Element.setAttribute (name, value)

     Assigne la valeur à un attribut pour la chaîne.

 -- Méthode: Element.setAttributeNode (newAttr)

     Ajoute un nouveau nœud attribut à l'élément, remplaçant un attribut
     existant si nécessaire si ‘name’ corresponds à un attribut.  Si
     l'attribut en remplace un précédent, l'ancien attribut sera
     retourné.  Si 'newAttr' est déjà utilisé, *note InuseAttributeErr:
     37c0. sera levée.

 -- Méthode: Element.setAttributeNodeNS (newAttr)

     Ajoute un nouveau nœud attribut, remplaçant un attribut existant si
     ‘namespaceURI’ et ‘localName’ corresponds à un attribut.  S'il y a
     remplacement, l'ancien nœud sera renvoyé.  Si 'newAttr' est déjà
     utilisé, *note InuseAttributeErr: 37c0. sera levée.

 -- Méthode: Element.setAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qname, value)

     Assigne la valeur d'un attribut depuis une chaîne étant donnée un
     'namespaceURI' et un 'qname'.  Notez que 'qname' est le nom de
     l'attribut en entier.  Ceci est différent d'au dessus.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Attr,  Next: Objets NameNodeMap,  Prev: Objets Elements,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.9 Objets Attr
....................

‘Attr’ hérite ‘Node’ et donc hérite de tout ces attributs.

 -- Attribut: Attr.name

     Le nom de l'attribut.  Dans un document utilisant des 'namespaces',
     il pourra inclure un ':'.

 -- Attribut: Attr.localName

     La partie du nom suivant le ':' s'il y en a un ou le nom entier
     sinon.  Ceci est un attribut en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: Attr.prefix

     La partie du nom précédent le ':' s'il y en a un ou une chaîne
     vide.

 -- Attribut: Attr.value

     La valeur texte de l'attribut.  C'est un synonyme de l'attribut
     ‘nodeValue’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets NameNodeMap,  Next: Objets Comment,  Prev: Objets Attr,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.10 Objets NameNodeMap
............................

‘NamedNodeMap’ 'n'hérite pas' de ‘Node’.

 -- Attribut: NamedNodeMap.length

     La longueur de la liste d'attributs.

 -- Méthode: NamedNodeMap.item (index)

     Renvoi un attribut à un index particulier.  L'ordre des attribut
     est arbitraire mais sera constant durant toute la vie du DOM.
     Chacun des item sera un nœud attribut.  Obtenez sa valeur avec
     ‘value’ de l'attribut.

There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping
behavior.  You can use them or you can use the standardized
‘getAttribute*()’ family of methods on the ‘Element’ objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Comment,  Next: Objets Text et CDATASection,  Prev: Objets NameNodeMap,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.11 Objets Comment
........................

‘Comment’ représente un commentaire dans le document XML. C'est une sous
classe ‘Node’ mais n'a aucune nœuds fils.

 -- Attribut: Comment.data

     Le contenu du commentaire comme une chaîne.  L'attribut contient
     tous les caractères entre ‘<!-’‘-’ et ‘-’‘->’ mais ne les inclues
     pas.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Text et CDATASection,  Next: Objets ProcessingInstruction,  Prev: Objets Comment,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.12 Objets Text et CDATASection
.....................................

L'interface ‘Text’ représente le texte dans un document XML. Si
l'analyseur et l'implémentation DOM supporte les extensions XML du DOM,
les portion de texte encapsulées dans des section marquées CDATA seront
stockées dans des objets ‘CDATASection’.  Ces deux interfaces sont
identiques mais fournissent des valeurs différentes pour l'attribut
‘nodeType’.

Ces interfaces étendent l'interface ‘Node’.  Elles ne peuvent pas avoir
de nœuds fils.

 -- Attribut: Text.data

     Le contenu du nœud texte comme une chaîne.

     Note: L'utilisation d'un nœud ‘CDATASection’ n'indique pas que le
     nœud représente une section complète marquée CDATA, seulement que
     le contenu du nœud est le contenu d'une section CDATA. Une seule
     section CDATA peut représenter plus d'un nœud dans l'arbre du
     document.  Il n'y a aucun moyen de déterminer si deux nœuds
     ‘CDATASection’ adjacents représentent différentes sections CDATA.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ProcessingInstruction,  Next: Exceptions<20>,  Prev: Objets Text et CDATASection,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.13 Objets ProcessingInstruction
......................................

Représente une 'processing instruction' dans un document XML. Hérite de
l'interface ‘Node’ et ne peut avoir aucun nœud fils.

 -- Attribut: ProcessingInstruction.target

     Le contenu de la 'processing instruction' jusqu'au premier
     caractère blanc.  Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

 -- Attribut: ProcessingInstruction.data

     Le contenu de la 'processing instruction' après le premier
     caractère blanc.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<20>,  Prev: Objets ProcessingInstruction,  Up: Objets dans le DOM

5.21.6.14 Exceptions
....................

La recommandation 'DOM Level 2' définie une seule exception *note
DOMException: 37d5. et un nombre de constantes qui permettent aux
applications à déterminer quelle type d'erreur s'est produit.  Les
instances de *note DOMException: 37d5. ont un attribut *note code: 1a.
qui fourni une valeur approprié pour une exception spécifique.

L'interface DOM de Python fournit des constant mais également étends un
ensemble d'exception pour qu'il existe une exception spécifique pour
chaque code d'exception défini par le DOM. L'implémentation doit lever
l'exception spécifique appropriée.  Chacune ayant la valeur appropriée
pour l'attribut *note code: 1a.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.DOMException

     Exception de base utilisée pour toutes les exceptions spécifiques
     du DOM. Cette classe ne peut pas être instanciée directement.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr

     Levée quand un intervalle spécifique de texte ne rentre pas dans
     une chaîne.  Cette exception n'est pas réputée être utilisée par
     les implémentations DOM de Python mais elle peur être levée par des
     implémentations de DOM qui ne sont pas écrite en Python.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr

     Levée quand l'insertion d'un nœud est tentée dans un type de nœud
     incompatible.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.IndexSizeErr

     Levée quand un index ou la taille d'un paramètre d'une méthode est
     négatif ou excède les valeurs autorisées.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr

     Levée quand l'insertion d'un nœud ‘Attr’ est tenté alors que ce
     nœud est déjà présent ailleurs dans le document.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr

     Levée si un paramètre ou une opération n'est pas supporté par
     l'objet sous-jacent.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr

     Cette exception est levée quand un paramètre chaîne contient un
     caractère qui n'est pas autorisé dans le contexte utilisé par la
     recommandation XML 1.0.  Par exemple, lors la tentative de création
     d'un nœud ‘Element’ avec un espace dans le nom de l'élément.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr

     Levée lors de la tentative de modifier le type de nœud.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidStateErr

     Levée quand une tentative est faite d'utiliser un objet non défini
     ou qui ne sont plus utilisables.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.NamespaceErr

     Si une tentative est faite de changer un objet d'une manière qui
     n'est pas autorisée selon la recommandation Namespaces in XML(1) ,
     cette exception est levée.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.NotFoundErr

     Exception quand un nœud n'existe pas dans le contexte référencé.
     Par exemple, ‘NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()’ lèvera cette
     exception si le nœud passé n'appartient pas à la séquence.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.NotSupportedErr

     Levée si l'implémentation ne supporte pas le type d'objet requis ou
     l'opération.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr

     Levée si la donnée spécifiée pour un nœud n'est pas supportée.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr

     Levée lors de la tentative de modification sur objet où les
     modifications ne sont pas autorisées (tels que les nœuds en lecture
     seule).

 -- Exception: xml.dom.SyntaxErr

     Levée quand une chaîne invalide ou illégale est spécifiée.

 -- Exception: xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr

     Levée quand un nœud est inséré dans un document différent de celui
     auquel il appartient et que l'implémentation ne supporte pas la
     migration d'un document à un autre.

Les codes d'exceptions définis par la recommandation DOM avec leurs
correspondances décrites si dessous selon ce tableau :

Constante                                  Exception
                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                           
‘DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR’                       *note DomstringSizeErr: 37d6.
                                           
                                           
‘HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR’                    *note HierarchyRequestErr: 37d7.
                                           
                                           
‘INDEX_SIZE_ERR’                           *note IndexSizeErr: 37d8.
                                           
                                           
‘INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR’                      *note InuseAttributeErr: 37c0.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_ACCESS_ERR’                       *note InvalidAccessErr: 37d9.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR’                    *note InvalidCharacterErr: 37da.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR’                 *note InvalidModificationErr: 37db.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_STATE_ERR’                        *note InvalidStateErr: 37dc.
                                           
                                           
‘NAMESPACE_ERR’                            *note NamespaceErr: 37dd.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_FOUND_ERR’                            *note NotFoundErr: 37bb.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR’                        *note NotSupportedErr: 37de.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR’                      *note NoDataAllowedErr: 37df.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR’              *note NoModificationAllowedErr: 37e0.
                                           
                                           
‘SYNTAX_ERR’                               *note SyntaxErr: 37e1.
                                           
                                           
‘WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR’                       *note WrongDocumentErr: 37e2.
                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/


File: python.info,  Node: Conformité,  Prev: Objets dans le DOM,  Up: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API

5.21.6.15 Conformité
....................

Cette section décrit la conformité des pré requis et des relations entre
l'API DOM de Python, les recommandations 'W3C' DOM et les
correspondances OMG IDL pour Python.

* Menu:

* Correspondance des types::
* Méthodes d'accès::


File: python.info,  Node: Correspondance des types,  Next: Méthodes d'accès,  Up: Conformité

5.21.6.16 Correspondance des types
..................................

Les types IDL utilisés dans la spécification DOM correspondent aux types
Python selon le tableau suivant.

Type IDL               Type Python
                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘boolean’              ‘bool’ ou ‘int’
                       
                       
‘int’                  ‘int’
                       
                       
‘long int’             ‘int’
                       
                       
‘unsigned int’         ‘int’
                       
                       
‘DOMString’            ‘str’ or ‘bytes’
                       
                       
‘null’                 ‘None’
                       


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes d'accès,  Prev: Correspondance des types,  Up: Conformité

5.21.6.17 Méthodes d'accès
..........................

Les correspondance de OMG IDL vers Python définissent des fonction
d'accès pour les déclarations ‘attribut’ d'IDL à la manière dont Java le
fait.  Correspondance des déclarations IDL

     readonly attribute string someValue;
              attribute string anotherValue;

donne trois fonctions d'accès : une méthode 'get' pour ‘someValue’
(‘_get_someValue()’) et des méthodes 'get' et 'set' pour ‘anotherValue’
(‘_get_anotherValue()’ et ‘_set_anotherValue()’).  Le 'mapping', en
particulier, ne requiert pas que les attributs IDL soient accessible
comme des attributs Python normaux : ‘object.someValue’ n'est 'pas'
requis de fonctionner et peut lever une *note AttributeError: 343.

Cependant, l'API DOM de Python 'impose' que les accès par attributs
classiques fonctionnent.  Par conséquent, les substituts générés par le
compilateur IDL de Python ne fonctionneront probablement pas, et des
objets façade pourraient être nécessaires côté client si les objets DOM
sont manipulés via CORBA. Bien qu'utiliser un client DOM CORBA nécessite
une bonne réflexion, les développeurs habitués et expérimentés à
l'utilisation de CORBA ne considèrent pas que c'est un problème.  Les
attributs déclarés ‘readonly’ pourraient ne pas voir leur accès en
écriture restreint dans toutes les implémentations du DOM.

Dans l'API DOM de Python, les fonctions d'accès ne sont pas requises.
Si elles sont fournies, elles doivent prendre la forme définie par le
'mapping' de Python IDL, mais ces méthodes sont considérées inutiles car
les attributs sont directement accessible depuis Python.  Les fonctions
d'accès "Set" ne devraient jamais être fournies pour les attributs
‘readonly’ (en lecture seule).

Les définitions IDL n'embarquent pas entièrement les pré-requis de l'API
de DOM API telle que la notion de objets ou que la valeur de retour de
‘getElementsByTagName()’ est dynamique.  L'API DOM de Python ne requiert
pas des implémentations d'avoir de tel pré-requis.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation,  Next: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees,  Prev: xml dom --- The Document Object Model API,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.7 ‘xml.dom.minidom’ -- Minimal DOM implementation
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.dom.minidom: 121. est une implémentation minimale de
l'interface 'Document Object Model', avec une API similaire à celle
d'autres langages.  Elle est censée être plus simple que le DOM complet
et également nettement plus petite.  Les utilisateurs qui ne maîtrisent
pas déjà le DOM devraient plutôt envisager d'utiliser le module *note
xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. pour leur traitement XML.

     Avertissement: le module *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. n'est pas
     sécurisé contre les données construites de façon malveillante.  Si
     vous avez besoin d'analyser des données non sécurisées ou non
     authentifiées, référez-vous à *note Vulnérabilités XML: 3713.

Les applications DOM commencent généralement par analyser du XML dans un
DOM. Avec *note xml.dom.minidom: 121, cela se fait via les fonctions
d'analyse :

     from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString

     dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # parse an XML file by name

     datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
     dom2 = parse(datasource)  # parse an open file

     dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')

La fonction *note parse(): 37ea. peut prendre soit un nom de fichier,
soit un objet fichier ouvert.

 -- Fonction: xml.dom.minidom.parse (filename_or_file, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Renvoie un ‘Document’ à partir de l'entrée donnée.
     'filename_or_file' peut être soit un nom de fichier, soit un objet
     simili-fichier.  'parser', s'il est donné, doit être un objet
     analyseur 'SAX2'.  Cette fonction modifie le pointeur vers le
     document de l'analyseur et active la prise en charge des espaces de
     noms ; les autres configurations de l'analyseur (comme la
     définition d'un résolveur d'entité) doivent avoir été effectuées à
     l'avance.

Si votre XML se trouve dans une chaîne, vous pouvez utiliser la fonction
*note parseString(): 37eb. à la place :

 -- Fonction: xml.dom.minidom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Renvoie un ‘Document’ qui représente 'string'.  Cette méthode crée
     un objet *note io.StringIO: f14. pour la chaîne et le transmet à
     *note parse(): 37ea.

Les deux fonctions renvoient un objet ‘Document’ représentant le contenu
du document.

Ce que font les fonctions *note parse(): 37ea. et *note parseString():
37eb, c'est connecter un analyseur XML avec un « constructeur DOM » qui
peut accepter les événements d'analyse de n'importe quel analyseur 'SAX'
et les convertir en une arborescence DOM. Les noms des fonctions sont
peut-être trompeurs, mais sont faciles à comprendre lors de
l'apprentissage des interfaces.  L'analyse du document sera terminée
avant le retour de ces fonctions ; c'est simplement que ces fonctions ne
fournissent pas elles-mêmes d'implémentation d'analyseur.

Vous pouvez également créer un ‘Document’ en appelant une méthode sur un
objet « DOM Implementation ».  Vous pouvez obtenir cet objet soit en
appelant la fonction ‘getDOMImplementation()’ du paquet *note xml.dom:
120. ou du module *note xml.dom.minidom: 121.  Une fois que vous avez un
‘Document’, vous pouvez y ajouter des nœuds enfants pour remplir le
DOM :

     from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation

     impl = getDOMImplementation()

     newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
     top_element = newdoc.documentElement
     text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
     top_element.appendChild(text)

Une fois que vous disposez d'un objet document DOM, vous pouvez accéder
aux parties de votre document XML via ses propriétés et méthodes.  Ces
propriétés sont définies dans la spécification DOM. La propriété
principale de l'objet document est la propriété ‘documentElement’.  Il
vous donne l'élément principal du document XML : celui qui contient tous
les autres.  Voici un exemple de programme :

     dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
     assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"

Lorsque vous avez terminé avec une arborescence DOM, vous pouvez
éventuellement appeler la méthode ‘unlink()’ pour favoriser un nettoyage
précoce des objets désormais inutiles.  ‘unlink()’ est une extension
spécifique *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. de l'API DOM qui rend le nœud et
ses descendants essentiellement inutiles.  Sinon, le ramasse-miettes de
Python finira par s'occuper des objets dans l'arborescence.

Voir aussi
..........

Spécification Level 1 Document Object Model (DOM)(2)

     La recommandation du 'W3C' pour le DOM pris en charge par *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 121.

* Menu:

* Objets DOM::
* Exemple DOM::
* minidom et le standard DOM::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DOM,  Next: Exemple DOM,  Up: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

5.21.7.1 Objets DOM
...................

La définition de l'API DOM pour Python est donnée dans le cadre de la
documentation du module *note xml.dom: 120.  Cette section répertorie
les différences entre l'API et *note xml.dom.minidom: 121.

 -- Méthode: Node.unlink ()

     Casse les références internes dans le DOM afin qu'elles soient
     récupérées sur les versions de Python sans ramasse-miettes
     cyclique.  Même lorsque le ramasse-miettes cyclique est disponible,
     son utilisation peut libérer de grandes quantités de mémoire
     disponibles plus tôt, donc l'appeler sur les objets DOM dès qu'ils
     ne sont plus nécessaires est une bonne pratique.  Il est suffisant
     de l'appeler sur l'objet ‘Document’, mais peut être appelée sur les
     nœuds enfants pour éliminer les enfants de ce nœud.

     Vous pouvez éviter d'appeler cette méthode explicitement en
     utilisant l'instruction *note with: 5be.  Le code suivant dissocie
     automatiquement 'dom' lorsque le bloc ‘with’ est quitté :

          with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
              ... # Work with dom.

 -- Méthode: Node.writexml (writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='',
          encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Écrit du XML dans l'objet 'writer'.  Cet objet reçoit du texte mais
     pas des octets en entrée, il doit avoir une méthode ‘write()’ qui
     correspond à celle de l'interface objet fichier.  Le paramètre
     'indent' est l'indentation du nœud actuel.  Le paramètre
     'addindent' est l'indentation incrémentielle à utiliser pour les
     sous-nœuds du nœud actuel.  Le paramètre 'newl' spécifie la chaîne
     à utiliser pour terminer les nouvelles lignes.

     Pour le nœud ‘Document’, un argument nommé supplémentaire
     'encoding' peut être utilisé pour spécifier le champ d'encodage de
     l'en-tête XML.

     De même, l'indication explicite de l'argument 'standalone' entraîne
     l'ajout des déclarations de document autonome au prologue du
     document XML. Si la valeur est définie sur ‘True’,
     ‘standalone="yes"’ est ajoutée, sinon elle est définie sur ‘"no"’.
     Par défaut la déclaration n'est pas écrite dans le document.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode *note writexml(): 37ef.
     préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
     l'utilisateur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: le paramètre 'standalone' a été
     ajouté.

 -- Méthode: Node.toxml (encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Renvoie une chaîne ou une chaîne d'octets contenant le XML
     représenté par le nœud DOM.

     Avec un argument explicite 'encoding' (1), le résultat est une
     chaîne d'octets dans l'encodage spécifié.  Sans argument
     'encoding', le résultat est une chaîne Unicode et la déclaration
     XML dans la chaîne résultante ne spécifie pas d'encodage.  Encoder
     cette chaîne dans un codage autre que UTF-8 est probablement
     incorrect, puisque UTF-8 est l'encodage par défaut de XML.

     L'argument 'standalone' se comporte exactement comme dans *note
     writexml(): 37ef.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode *note toxml(): 147f.
     préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
     l'utilisateur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: le paramètre 'standalone' a été
     ajouté.

 -- Méthode: Node.toprettyxml (indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None,
          standalone=None)

     Renvoie une version du document agréablement mise en forme.
     'indent' spécifie la chaîne d'indentation et est par défaut une
     tabulation ; 'newl' spécifie la chaîne émise à la fin de chaque
     ligne et la valeur par défaut est ‘\n’.

     L'argument 'encoding' se comporte comme l'argument correspondant de
     *note toxml(): 147f.

     L'argument 'standalone' se comporte exactement comme dans *note
     writexml(): 37ef.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode *note toprettyxml(): 1480.
     préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par
     l'utilisateur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: le paramètre 'standalone' a été
     ajouté.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Le nom de codage inclus dans la sortie XML doit être conforme aux
normes appropriées.  Par exemple, ‘"UTF-8"’ est valide, mais ‘"UTF8"’ ne
l'est pas dans la déclaration d'un document XML, même si Python
l'accepte comme nom de codage.  Voir
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ et
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple DOM,  Next: minidom et le standard DOM,  Prev: Objets DOM,  Up: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

5.21.7.2 Exemple DOM
....................

Cet exemple de programme est un exemple assez réaliste de programme
simple.  Dans ce cas particulier, nous ne profitons pas beaucoup de la
flexibilité du DOM.

     import xml.dom.minidom

     document = """\
     <slideshow>
     <title>Demo slideshow</title>
     <slide><title>Slide title</title>
     <point>This is a demo</point>
     <point>Of a program for processing slides</point>
     </slide>

     <slide><title>Another demo slide</title>
     <point>It is important</point>
     <point>To have more than</point>
     <point>one slide</point>
     </slide>
     </slideshow>
     """

     dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document)

     def getText(nodelist):
         rc = []
         for node in nodelist:
             if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE:
                 rc.append(node.data)
         return ''.join(rc)

     def handleSlideshow(slideshow):
         print("<html>")
         handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide")
         handleToc(slides)
         handleSlides(slides)
         print("</html>")

     def handleSlides(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             handleSlide(slide)

     def handleSlide(slide):
         handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point"))

     def handleSlideshowTitle(title):
         print(f"<title>{getText(title.childNodes)}</title>")

     def handleSlideTitle(title):
         print(f"<h2>{getText(title.childNodes)}</h2>")

     def handlePoints(points):
         print("<ul>")
         for point in points:
             handlePoint(point)
         print("</ul>")

     def handlePoint(point):
         print(f"<li>{getText(point.childNodes)}</li>")

     def handleToc(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]
             print(f"<p>{getText(title.childNodes)}</p>")

     handleSlideshow(dom)


File: python.info,  Node: minidom et le standard DOM,  Prev: Exemple DOM,  Up: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

5.21.7.3 'minidom' et le standard DOM
.....................................

Le module *note xml.dom.minidom: 121. est essentiellement une interface
vers DOM compatible DOM 1.0 avec certaines fonctionnalités DOM 2
(principalement des fonctionnalités d'espace de noms).

L'utilisation de l'interface DOM en Python est simple.  Les règles de
correspondances suivantes s'appliquent :

   * Les interfaces sont accessibles via des objets d'instance.  Les
     applications ne doivent pas instancier les classes elles-mêmes ;
     elles doivent utiliser les fonctions de création disponibles sur
     l'objet ‘Document’.  Les interfaces dérivées prennent en charge
     toutes les opérations (et attributs) des interfaces de base, ainsi
     que toutes les nouvelles opérations.

   * Les opérations sont utilisées comme méthodes.  Puisque le DOM
     utilise uniquement les paramètres *note in: 2e9, les arguments sont
     passés dans l'ordre normal (de gauche à droite).  Il n'y a pas
     d'argument facultatif.  Les opérations ‘void’ renvoient ‘None’.

   * Les attributs 'IDL' ('Interface Description Language')
     correspondent aux attributs d'instance.  Pour des raisons de
     compatibilité avec la correspondance OMG ('Object Management
     Group') du langage 'IDL' pour Python, un attribut ‘foo’ est
     également accessible via les méthodes d'accès ‘_get_foo()’ et
     ‘_set_foo()’.  Les attributs ‘readonly’ ne doivent pas être
     modifiés ; ce n'est pas vérifié au moment de l'exécution.

   * Les types ‘short int’, ‘unsigned int’, ‘unsigned long long’ et
     ‘boolean’ correspondent tous à des objets entiers Python.

   * Le type ‘DOMString’ correspond aux chaînes Python.  *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 121. prend en charge soit les octets, soit les
     chaînes, et produit normalement des chaînes.  Les valeurs de type
     ‘DOMString’ peuvent également être ‘None’ là où la valeur 'IDL'
     ‘null’ est autorisée par la spécification DOM du W3C.

   * Les déclarations ‘const’ correspondent aux variables dans leur
     portée respective (par exemple
     ‘xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’) ; elles ne
     doivent pas être modifiées.

   * ‘DOMException’ n'est actuellement pas pris en charge dans *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 121.  En lieu et place, *note xml.dom.minidom:
     121. utilise des exceptions Python standard telles que *note
     TypeError: 525. et *note AttributeError: 343.

   * Les objets ‘NodeList’ sont implémentés à l'aide du type de liste
     natif de Python.  Ces objets fournissent l'interface définie dans
     la spécification DOM, mais avec les versions antérieures de Python,
     ils ne prennent pas en charge l'API officielle.  C'est cependant
     bien plus « Pythonique » que l’interface définie dans les
     recommandations du W3C.

Les interfaces suivantes n'ont aucune implémentation dans *note
xml.dom.minidom: 121. :

   * ‘DOMTimeStamp’

   * ‘EntityReference’

La plupart d'entre elles reflètent des informations contenues dans le
document XML qui ne sont pas d'utilité générale pour la plupart des
utilisateurs du DOM.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees,  Next: xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers,  Prev: xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.8 ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ -- Support for building partial DOM trees
------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note xml.dom.pulldom: 122. fournit un « analyseur à flux
tiré » auquel on peut également demander de produire des fragments du
document accessibles via le DOM si nécessaire.  Le concept de base
consiste à extraire des « événements » d'un flux XML entrant et à les
traiter.  Contrairement à 'SAX' qui utilise également un modèle de
traitement basé sur les événements avec des rappels, l'utilisateur d'un
analyseur à flux tiré est responsable de l'extraction explicite des
événements du flux, en parcourant ces événements en boucle jusqu'à ce
que le traitement soit terminé ou qu'une condition d'erreur se produise.

     Avertissement: le module *note xml.dom.pulldom: 122. n'est pas
     sécurisé contre les données construites de façon malveillante.  Si
     vous avez besoin d'analyser des données non sécurisées ou non
     authentifiées, référez-vous à *note Vulnérabilités XML: 3713.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.1: l'analyseur 'SAX' ne traite plus les
entités externes générales par défaut pour augmenter la sécurité par
défaut.  Pour activer le traitement des entités externes, transmettez
une instance d'analyseur personnalisée à :

     from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
     from xml.sax import make_parser
     from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges

     parser = make_parser()
     parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
     parse(filename, parser=parser)

Exemple :

     from xml.dom import pulldom

     doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
     for event, node in doc:
         if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
             if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
                 doc.expandNode(node)
                 print(node.toxml())

‘event’ est une constante parmi les éléments suivants :

   * ‘START_ELEMENT’

   * ‘END_ELEMENT’

   * ‘COMMENT’

   * ‘START_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘END_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘CHARACTERS’

   * ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION’

   * ‘IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE’

‘node’ est un objet de type ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’,
‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ ou ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’.

Puisque le document est traité comme un flux « plat » d’événements,
« l’arborescence » du document est implicitement parcourue et les
éléments souhaités sont trouvés quelle que soit leur profondeur dans
l’arborescence.  En d'autres termes, il n'est pas nécessaire de prendre
en compte les problèmes hiérarchiques tels que la recherche récursive
des nœuds du document, même dans le cas où le contexte des éléments est
important, et où il faudrait soit maintenir un état lié au contexte
(c'est-à-dire se souvenir où l'on se trouve dans le document à un moment
donné), soit utiliser la méthode *note DOMEventStream.expandNode():
37f6. et passer au traitement lié du DOM.

 -- Classe: xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom (documentFactory=None)

     Sous-classe de *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 37f8.

 -- Classe: xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM (documentFactory=None)

     Sous-classe de *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 37f8.

 -- Fonction: xml.dom.pulldom.parse (stream_or_string, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Renvoie un *note DOMEventStream: 721. à partir de l'entrée donnée.
     'stream_or_string' peut être soit un nom de fichier, soit un objet
     simili-fichier.  'parser', s'il est donné, doit être un objet *note
     XMLReader: 37fb.  Cette fonction modifie le gestionnaire de
     documents de l'analyseur et active la prise en charge des espaces
     de noms ; les autres configurations de l'analyseur (comme la
     définition d'un résolveur d'entité) doivent avoir été effectuées à
     l'avance.

Si vous avez du XML dans une chaîne, vous pouvez utiliser la fonction
*note parseString(): 37fc. à la place :

 -- Fonction: xml.dom.pulldom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Renvoie un *note DOMEventStream: 721. qui représente 'string'
     (Unicode).

 -- Données: xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize

     Valeur par défaut du paramètre 'bufsize' de *note parse(): 37fa.

     La valeur de cette variable peut être modifiée avant d'appeler
     *note parse(): 37fa. et la nouvelle valeur prendra effet.

* Menu:

* Objets DOMEventStream::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DOMEventStream,  Up: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees

5.21.8.1 Objets 'DOMEventStream'
................................

 -- Classe: xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream (stream, parser, bufsize)

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Support for *note __getitem__(): 280.
     method has been removed.

      -- Méthode: getEvent ()

          Renvoie un 'n'-uplet contenant 'event' et le 'node' actuel
          sous la forme d'un ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’ si l'événement
          est égal à ‘START_DOCUMENT’, un ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ si
          l'événement est égal à ‘START_ELEMENT’ ou ‘END_ELEMENT’, ou un
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ si l'événement est égal à ‘CHARACTERS’.
          Le nœud actuel ne contient pas d'informations sur ses enfants,
          sauf si *note expandNode(): 37f6. est appelé.

      -- Méthode: expandNode (node)

          Développe tous les enfants de 'node' dans 'node'.  Par
          exemple :

               from xml.dom import pulldom

               xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
               doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
               for event, node in doc:
                   if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
                       # Following statement only prints '<p/>'
                       print(node.toxml())
                       doc.expandNode(node)
                       # Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
                       print(node.toxml())

      -- Méthode: reset ()


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers,  Next: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers,  Prev: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.9 ‘xml.sax’ -- Support for SAX2 parsers
--------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le paquet *note xml.sax: 128. fournit des modules qui implémentent
l'interface 'Simple API for XML (SAX)' pour Python.  Le paquet en
lui-même fournit les exceptions 'SAX' et les fonctions les plus utiles
qui sont le plus utilisées par les utilisateurs de l'API 'SAX'.

     Avertissement: le module *note xml.sax: 128. n'est pas sécurisé
     contre les données construites de façon malveillante.  Si vous avez
     besoin d'analyser des données non sécurisées ou non authentifiées,
     lisez *note Vulnérabilités XML: 3713.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.1: l'analyseur 'SAX' ne traite plus les
entités externes générales par défaut pour augmenter la sécurité.
Auparavant, l'analyseur créait des connexions réseau pour extraire des
fichiers distants ou des fichiers locaux chargés à partir du système de
fichiers pour les 'DTD' et les entités.  La fonctionnalité peut être
activée à nouveau avec la méthode *note setFeature(): 3804. sur l'objet
analyseur et l'argument *note feature_external_ges: 3805.

Les fonctions les plus utiles sont :

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.make_parser (parser_list=[])

     Crée et renvoie un objet *note XMLReader: 37fb. 'SAX'. Le premier
     analyseur trouvé est utilisé.  Si 'parser_list' est fourni, il doit
     être un itérable de chaînes de caractères qui nomme des modules qui
     ont une fonction nommée ‘create_parser()’.  Les modules listés dans
     'parser_list' sont utilisés avant les modules dans la liste par
     défaut des analyseurs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: l'argument 'parser_list' peut être
     n'importe quel itérable, pas seulement une liste.

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.parse (filename_or_stream, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Crée un analyseur 'SAX' et l'utilise pour analyser un document.  Le
     document transmis comme 'filename_or_stream', peut être un nom de
     fichier ou un objet fichier.  Le paramètre 'handler' doit être une
     instance *note ContentHandler: 37f8. 'SAX'. Si un 'error_handler'
     est donné, il doit être un *note ErrorHandler: 3806. 'SAX' ; s'il
     est omis, une *note SAXParseException: 3807. est levée sur toutes
     les erreurs.  Il n'y a pas de valeur de retour, tout le travail
     doit être fait par le 'handler' transmis.

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.parseString (string, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Similaire à *note parse(): 19c2, mais analyse à partir d'un espace
     mémoire 'string' reçu en tant que paramètre.  'string' doit être
     une instance *note str: 437. ou un objet *note octet-compatible:
     d1d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la gestion des instances
     *note str: 437.

Une application 'SAX' typique utilise trois types d'objets : les
'readers', les 'handlers' et les sources d'entrée.  'Reader' dans ce
contexte est un autre terme pour « analyseur », c'est-à-dire un morceau
de code qui lit les octets ou les caractères de la source d'entrée et
qui produit une séquence d'événements.  Les événements sont ensuite
distribués aux objets du 'handler', c'est-à-dire que le lecteur appelle
une méthode sur le 'handler'.  L'application doit donc obtenir un objet
'reader', créer ou ouvrir les sources d'entrée, créer les 'handlers' et
connecter ces objets tous ensemble.  La dernière étape de la
préparation, le 'reader' est appelé à analyser l'entrée.  Pendant
l'analyse, les méthodes sur les objets du 'handler' sont appelées en
fonction d'événements structurels et syntaxiques à partir des données
d'entrée.

Pour ces objets, seules les interfaces sont pertinentes ; elles ne sont
pas normalement instanciées par l'application elle-même.  Puisque Python
n'a pas de notion explicite d'interface, elles sont formellement
introduites en tant que classes, mais les applications peuvent utiliser
des implémentations qui n'héritent pas des classes fournies.  Les
interfaces *note InputSource: e86, *note Locator: 3808, ‘Attributes’,
‘AttributesNS’ et *note XMLReader: 37fb. sont définies dans le module
*note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12b.  Les interfaces du 'handler' sont définies
dans *note xml.sax.handler: 129.  Pour plus de commodité, *note
xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource: e86. (qui est souvent instanciée
directement) et les classes du 'handler' sont également disponibles à
partir de *note xml.sax: 128.  Ces interfaces sont décrites ci-dessous.

En plus de ces classes, *note xml.sax: 128. fournit les classes
d'exceptions suivantes.

 -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXException (msg, exception=None)

     Encapsule une erreur ou un avertissement XML. Cette classe peut
     contenir une erreur de base ou une information d'avertissement soit
     de l'analyseur XML ou de l'application : elle peut être
     sous-classée pour fournir des fonctionnalités supplémentaires ou
     pour ajouter une localisation.  Noter que même si les 'handlers'
     définis dans l'interface *note ErrorHandler: 3806. reçoivent des
     instances de cette exception, ce n'est pas nécessaire de lever
     l'exception -- il est également utile en tant que conteneur pour
     l'information.

     Quand elle est instanciée, 'msg' doit être une description
     intelligible de l'erreur.  Le paramètre optionnel 'exception', s'il
     est donné, doit être ‘None’ ou une exception qui a été interceptée
     par le code d'analyse et qui est transmise comme information.

     Ceci est la classe de base pour les autres classes d'exception
     'SAX'.

 -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXParseException (msg, exception, locator)

     Sous-classe de *note SAXException: 3809. élevée sur les erreurs
     d'analyse.  Les instances de cette classe sont passées aux méthodes
     de l'interface *note ErrorHandler: 3806. 'SAX' pour fournir des
     informations sur l'erreur d'analyse.  Cette classe prend aussi en
     charge l'interface 'SAX' *note Locator: 3808. comme l'interface
     *note SAXException: 3809.

 -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException (msg, exception=None)

     Sous-classe de *note SAXException: 3809. levée quand un ‘
     XMLReader’ 'SAX' est confronté à une caractéristique ou à une
     propriété non reconnue.  Les applications et les extensions 'SAX'
     peuvent utiliser cette classe à des fins similaires.

 -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException (msg, exception=None)

     Sous-classe de *note SAXException: 3809. levée quand un *note
     XMLReader: 37fb. 'SAX' est demandé pour activer une fonctionnalité
     qui n'est pas prise en charge, ou pour définir une propriété à une
     valeur que l'implémentation ne prend pas en charge.  Les
     applications et les extensions 'SAX' peuvent utiliser cette classe
     à des fins similaires.

Voir aussi
..........

SAX : l'API simple pour XML(2)

     Ce site est le point focal pour la définition de l'API 'SAX'. Il
     offre une implémentation Java et une documentation en ligne.  Des
     liens pour l'implémentation et des informations historiques sont
     également disponibles.

Module *note xml.sax.handler: 129.

     Définitions des interfaces pour les objets fournis par
     l'application.

Module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12a.

     Fonctions pratiques pour une utilisation dans les applications
     'SAX'.

Module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12b.

     Définitions des interfaces pour les objets fournis par l'analyseur.

* Menu:

* Les objets SAXException::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py

   (2) http://www.saxproject.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets SAXException,  Up: xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers

5.21.9.1 Les objets 'SAXException'
..................................

La classe d'exception *note SAXException: 3809. gère les méthodes
suivantes :

 -- Méthode: SAXException.getMessage ()

     Renvoie un message intelligible décrivant la condition d'erreur.

 -- Méthode: SAXException.getException ()

     Renvoie un objet d'exception encapsulé ou ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers,  Next: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities,  Prev: xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.10 ‘xml.sax.handler’ -- Base classes for SAX handlers
----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/xml/sax/handler.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

L'API 'SAX' définit cinq types de gestionnaires : les gestionnaires de
contenu, les gestionnaires de 'DTD', les gestionnaires d'erreurs, les
résolveurs d'entités et les gestionnaires lexicaux.  Les applications
n'ont normalement besoin d'implémenter que les interfaces dont les
événements les intéressent ; elles peuvent implémenter les interfaces
dans un seul objet ou dans plusieurs objets.  Les implémentations de
gestionnaires doivent hériter des classes mères fournies dans le module
*note xml.sax.handler: 129, afin que toutes les méthodes aient des
implémentations par défaut.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler

     Il s'agit de l'interface de rappel principale de 'SAX' et de la
     plus importante pour les applications.  L'ordre des événements dans
     cette interface reflète l'ordre des informations dans le document.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler

     Gestionnaires d'évènements 'DTD'

     Cette interface concerne uniquement les événements 'DTD' requis
     pour une analyse basique (entités et attributs non analysés).

 -- Classe: xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver

     Interface de base pour résoudre les entités.  Si vous créez un
     objet implémentant cette interface, puis enregistrez l'objet auprès
     de votre analyseur, l'analyseur appellera la méthode de votre objet
     pour résoudre toutes les entités externes.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler

     Interface utilisée par l'analyseur pour présenter des messages
     d'erreur et d'avertissement à l'application.  Les méthodes de cet
     objet permettent de choisir si les erreurs doivent être
     immédiatement converties en exceptions ou si elles doivent être
     traitées d'une autre manière.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler

     Interface utilisée par l'analyseur pour représenter des événements
     rares qui n'intéressent que peu d'applications.

En plus de ces classes, *note xml.sax.handler: 129. fournit des
constantes symboliques pour les noms de fonctionnalités et de
propriétés.

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"’
          vrai : effectue le traitement de l'espace de noms.
          faux : n'effectue pas le traitement des espaces de noms (implique 'namespace-prefixes' ; valeur par défaut).
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"’
          vrai : renvoie les noms et attributs avec les préfixes originaux utilisés dans les déclarations d'espaces de noms.
          faux : ne renvoie pas les attributs utilisés pour les déclarations d'espaces de noms et, éventuellement, ne signale pas les noms avec les préfixes originaux (par défaut).
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"’
          vrai : tous les noms d'éléments, préfixes, noms d'attributs, URI d'espace de noms et noms locaux sont rendus internes à l'aide de la fonction native correspondante.
          faux : les noms ne sont pas nécessairement rendus internes, bien qu'ils puissent l'être (par défaut).
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.feature_validation

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"’
          vrai : signale toutes les erreurs de validation (implique 'external-general-entities' et 'external-parameter-entities').
          faux : ne signale pas les erreurs de validation.
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"’
          vrai : Inclut toutes les entités générales (texte) externes.
          faux : n'inclut pas les entités générales externes.
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"’
          vrai : Inclut toutes les entités de paramètres externes, y compris les sous-ensembles 'DTD' externes.
          faux : n'inclue aucune entité de paramètre externe, même les sous-ensembles 'DTD' externes.
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.all_features

     Liste de toutes les fonctionnalités.

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"’
          type de données : ‘xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler’ (non pris en charge dans Python 2)
          description : gestionnaire d'extension facultatif pour les événements lexicaux tels que les commentaires.
          accès : lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"’
          type de données : xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (non pris en charge dans Python 2)
          description : gestionnaire d'extension facultatif pour les événements liés à la 'DTD' autres que les notations et les entités non analysées.
          accès : lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"’
          type de données : org.w3c.dom.Node (non pris en charge dans Python 2)
          description : lors de l'analyse, le nœud DOM actuel visité s'il s'agit d'un itérateur DOM ; hors de l'analyse, le nœud racine du DOM pour l'itération.
          accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string

          valeur : ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"’
          type de données : octets
          description : chaîne littérale de caractères qui était la source de l'événement en cours.
          accès : lecture seule

 -- Données: xml.sax.handler.all_properties

     Liste de tous les noms de propriétés connus.

* Menu:

* Objets ContentHandler::
* Objets DTDHandler::
* Objets EntityResolver::
* Objets ErrorHandler::
* Objets LexicalHandler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ContentHandler,  Next: Objets DTDHandler,  Up: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

5.21.10.1 Objets 'ContentHandler'
.................................

Les utilisateurs doivent sous-classer *note ContentHandler: 37f8. dans
leur application.  Les méthodes suivantes sont appelées par l'analyseur
pour notifier les événements appropriés dans le document d'entrée :

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator (locator)

     Appelé par l'analyseur pour donner à l'application un localisateur
     permettant de localiser l'origine des événements du document.

     Les analyseurs 'SAX' sont fortement encouragés (bien que ce ne soit
     pas absolument obligatoire) à fournir un localisateur : s'ils le
     font, ils doivent fournir le localisateur à l'application en
     appelant cette méthode avant d'invoquer l'une des autres méthodes
     de l'interface 'DocumentHandler'.

     Le localisateur permet à l'application de déterminer la position
     finale de tout événement lié au document, même si l'analyseur ne
     signale pas d'erreur.  En règle générale, l'application utilise ces
     informations pour signaler ses propres erreurs (telles que le
     contenu d'un champ texte qui ne correspond pas aux règles métier
     d'une application).  Les informations renvoyées par le localisateur
     ne sont probablement pas suffisantes pour être utilisées avec un
     moteur de recherche.

     Notez que le localisateur renvoie des informations correctes
     pendant la durée de l'invocation des événements dans cette
     interface.  L'application ne doit pas tenter de l'utiliser à un
     autre moment.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.startDocument ()

     Reçoit la notification correspondant au début du document.

     L'analyseur 'SAX' invoque cette méthode une seule fois, avant toute
     autre méthode dans cette interface ou dans 'DTDHandler' (sauf pour
     *note setDocumentLocator(): 3821.).

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.endDocument ()

     Reçoit la notification correspondant à la fin du document.

     L'analyseur 'SAX' n'invoque cette méthode qu'une seule fois et
     c'est la dernière méthode invoquée lors de l'analyse.  L'analyseur
     ne doit pas invoquer cette méthode tant qu'il n'a pas abandonné
     l'analyse (en raison d'une erreur irrécupérable) ou atteint la fin
     de l'entrée.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping (prefix, uri)

     Commence la portée d’une correspondance d’espace de noms
     préfixe-URI.

     Les informations de cet événement ne sont pas nécessaires au
     traitement normal des espaces de noms : le lecteur XML 'SAX'
     remplace automatiquement les préfixes des noms d'éléments et
     d'attributs lorsque la fonctionnalité ‘feature_namespaces’ est
     activée (la valeur par défaut).

     Il existe cependant des cas où les applications doivent utiliser
     des préfixes dans des champs textes ou dans les valeurs d'attribut,
     où ils ne peuvent pas être développés automatiquement en toute
     sécurité ; les événements *note startPrefixMapping(): 3824. et
     *note endPrefixMapping(): 3825. fournissent les informations à
     l'application pour développer elle-même les préfixes dans ces
     contextes, si nécessaire.

     Notez qu'il n'est pas garanti que les événements *note
     startPrefixMapping(): 3824. et *note endPrefixMapping(): 3825.
     soient correctement imbriqués les uns par rapport aux autres : tout
     événement *note startPrefixMapping(): 3824. se produit avant
     l'événement *note startElement(): 14fa. correspondant, et tout
     événement *note endPrefixMapping(): 3825. se produit après
     l'événement *note endElement(): 14fb. correspondant, mais leur
     ordre n'est pas garanti.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping (prefix)

     Termine la portée d’une correspondance préfixe-URI.

     Voir *note startPrefixMapping(): 3824. pour plus de détails.  Cet
     événement se produit toujours après l'événement *note endElement():
     14fb. correspondant, mais l'ordre des événements *note
     endPrefixMapping(): 3825. n'est pas garanti entre eux.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.startElement (name, attrs)

     Signale le début d’un élément en mode sans espaces de noms.

     Le paramètre 'name' contient le nom brut XML 1.0 du type d'élément
     sous forme de chaîne et le paramètre 'attrs' contient un objet de
     l'interface ‘Attributes’ (voir *note The Attributes Interface:
     3826.) contenant les attributs de l'élément.  L'objet passé comme
     'attrs' peut être réutilisé par l'analyseur ; conserver une
     référence à celui-ci n’est pas un moyen fiable de conserver une
     copie des attributs.  Pour conserver une copie des attributs,
     utilisez la méthode *note copy(): 25. de l'objet 'attrs'.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.endElement (name)

     Signale la fin d'un élément en mode sans espaces de noms.

     Le paramètre 'name' contient le nom du type d'élément, tout comme
     pour l'événement *note startElement(): 14fa.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.startElementNS (name, qname, attrs)

     Signale le début d’un élément en mode avec espaces de noms.

     Le paramètre 'name' contient le nom du type d'élément sous forme de
     'n'-uplet ‘(uri, localname)’, le paramètre 'qname' contient le nom
     XML 1.0 brut utilisé dans le document source et le paramètre
     'attrs' contient une instance de l'interface ‘AttributesNS’ (voir
     *note The AttributesNS Interface: 3828.) contenant les attributs de
     l'élément.  Si aucun espace de noms n'est associé à l'élément, le
     composant 'uri' de 'name' est ‘None’.  L'objet passé comme 'attrs'
     peut être réutilisé par l'analyseur ; conserver une référence à
     celui-ci n’est pas un moyen fiable de conserver une copie des
     attributs.  Pour conserver une copie des attributs, utilisez la
     méthode *note copy(): 25. de l'objet 'attrs'.

     Les analyseurs peuvent définir le paramètre 'qname' à ‘None’, à
     moins que la fonctionnalité ‘feature_namespace_prefixes’ ne soit
     activée.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.endElementNS (name, qname)

     Signale la fin d'un élément en mode avec espaces de noms.

     Le paramètre 'name' contient le nom du type d'élément, tout comme
     avec la méthode *note startElementNS(): 3827, de même que le
     paramètre 'qname'.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.characters (content)

     Reçoit une notification correspondant à des données de type
     caractère.

     L'analyseur appelle cette méthode pour signaler chaque morceau de
     données de caractères.  Les analyseurs 'SAX' peuvent renvoyer
     toutes les données de caractères contiguës en un seul morceau ou
     ils peuvent les diviser en plusieurs morceaux ; cependant, tous les
     caractères d'un événement doivent provenir de la même entité
     externe afin que le localisateur fournisse des informations utiles.

     'content' peut être une instance de chaîne ou d'octets ; le module
     lecteur ‘expat’ produit toujours des chaînes.

          Note: l'interface 'SAX 1' précédente fournie par Python XML
          utilisait une interface plus proche de Java pour cette
          méthode.  Étant donné que la plupart des analyseurs utilisés à
          partir de Python ne tiraient pas parti de l’ancienne
          interface, la signature la plus simple a été choisie pour la
          remplacer.  Pour convertir l'ancien code vers la nouvelle
          interface, utilisez 'content' au lieu de découper le contenu
          avec les anciens paramètres 'offset' et 'length'.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace (whitespace)

     Reçoit une notification en cas d'espaces pouvant être ignorées dans
     le contenu de l'élément.

     Les analyseurs validateurs doivent utiliser cette méthode pour
     signaler chaque morceau d'espaces pouvant être ignorées (voir la
     recommandation W3C XML 1.0, section 2.10) : les analyseurs non
     validateurs peuvent également utiliser cette méthode s'ils sont
     capables d'analyser et d'utiliser des modèles de contenu.

     Les analyseurs 'SAX' peuvent renvoyer tous les espaces contigües en
     un seul morceau ou ils peuvent le diviser en plusieurs morceaux ;
     cependant, tous les caractères d'un événement doivent provenir de
     la même entité externe, afin que le localisateur fournisse des
     informations utiles.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.processingInstruction (target, data)

     Reçoit une notification correspondant à une instruction de
     traitement.

     L'analyseur invoque cette méthode une fois pour chaque instruction
     de traitement trouvée : notez que les instructions de traitement
     peuvent survenir avant ou après l'élément principal du document.

     Un analyseur 'SAX' ne doit jamais rapporter une déclaration XML
     (XML 1.0, section 2.8) ou une déclaration texte (XML 1.0, section
     4.3.1) en utilisant cette méthode.

 -- Méthode: ContentHandler.skippedEntity (name)

     Reçoit une notification correspondant à une entité ignorée.

     L'analyseur invoque cette méthode une fois pour chaque entité
     ignorée.  Les processeurs non validateurs peuvent ignorer les
     entités s'ils n'ont pas vu les déclarations (parce que, par
     exemple, l'entité a été déclarée dans un sous-ensemble 'DTD'
     externe).  Tous les processeurs peuvent ignorer les entités
     externes, en fonction des valeurs des propriétés
     ‘feature_external_ges’ et ‘feature_external_pes’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DTDHandler,  Next: Objets EntityResolver,  Prev: Objets ContentHandler,  Up: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

5.21.10.2 Objets 'DTDHandler'
.............................

Les instances *note DTDHandler: 3812. fournissent les méthodes
suivantes :

 -- Méthode: DTDHandler.notationDecl (name, publicId, systemId)

     Gère un événement de déclaration de notation.

 -- Méthode: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl (name, publicId, systemId,
          ndata)

     Gère un événement de déclaration d'entité non analysé.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets EntityResolver,  Next: Objets ErrorHandler,  Prev: Objets DTDHandler,  Up: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

5.21.10.3 Objets 'EntityResolver'
.................................

 -- Méthode: EntityResolver.resolveEntity (publicId, systemId)

     Résout l'identifiant système d'une entité et renvoie soit
     l'identifiant système à partir duquel lire sous forme de chaîne,
     soit un 'InputSource' à partir duquel lire.  L'implémentation par
     défaut renvoie 'systemId'.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets ErrorHandler,  Next: Objets LexicalHandler,  Prev: Objets EntityResolver,  Up: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

5.21.10.4 Objets 'ErrorHandler'
...............................

Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning
information from the *note XMLReader: 37fb.  If you create an object
that implements this interface, then register the object with your *note
XMLReader: 37fb, the parser will call the methods in your object to
report all warnings and errors.  There are three levels of errors
available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors, and unrecoverable
errors.  All methods take a *note SAXParseException: 3807. as the only
parameter.  Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by
raising the passed-in exception object.

 -- Méthode: ErrorHandler.error (exception)

     Appelée lorsque l'analyseur rencontre une erreur récupérable.  Si
     cette méthode ne génère pas d'exception, l'analyse peut continuer,
     mais l'application ne doit pas attendre d'autres informations
     concernant le document.  Autoriser l'analyseur à continuer peut
     permettre de découvrir des erreurs supplémentaires dans le document
     d'entrée.

 -- Méthode: ErrorHandler.fatalError (exception)

     Appelée lorsque l'analyseur rencontre une erreur irrécupérable ;
     l'analyse devrait se terminer au retour de cette méthode.

 -- Méthode: ErrorHandler.warning (exception)

     Appelée lorsque l'analyseur présente des informations
     d'avertissement mineures à l'application.  L'analyse devrait se
     poursuivre lorsque cette méthode termine et les informations du
     document continueront d'être transmises à l'application.  La levée
     d’une exception dans cette méthode entraîne la fin de l’analyse.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets LexicalHandler,  Prev: Objets ErrorHandler,  Up: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

5.21.10.5 Objets 'LexicalHandler'
.................................

Gestionnaire 'SAX2' facultatif pour les événements lexicaux.

Ce gestionnaire est utilisé pour obtenir des informations lexicales
relatives à un document XML. Les informations lexicales incluent des
informations décrivant le codage du document utilisé et les commentaires
XML intégrés dans le document, ainsi que les limites des sections pour
la 'DTD' et pour toutes les sections 'CDATA'. Les gestionnaires lexicaux
sont utilisés de la même manière que les gestionnaires de contenu.

Définissez le 'LexicalHandler' d'un 'XMLReader' en utilisant la méthode
'setProperty' avec l'identifiant de propriété
‘'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'’.

 -- Méthode: LexicalHandler.comment (content)

     Signale un commentaire n'importe où dans le document (y compris la
     'DTD' et en dehors de l'élément de document).

 -- Méthode: LexicalHandler.startDTD (name, public_id, system_id)

     Signale le début des déclarations 'DTD' si le document a une 'DTD'
     associée.

 -- Méthode: LexicalHandler.endDTD ()

     Signale la fin de la déclaration de la 'DTD'.

 -- Méthode: LexicalHandler.startCDATA ()

     Signale le début d’une section marquée 'CDATA'.

     Le contenu de la section marquée 'CDATA' est signalé via le
     gestionnaire de données de type caractère.

 -- Méthode: LexicalHandler.endCDATA ()

     Signale la fin d’une section marquée 'CDATA'.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities,  Next: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers,  Prev: xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.11 ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ -- SAX Utilities
-------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12a. contient des classes et fonctions
qui sont fréquemment utiles en créant des applications SAX, soit en
utilisation directe, soit en classes de base.

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.saxutils.escape (data, entities={})

     Échappe ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, et ‘'>'’ dans une chaine de caractères de
     données.

     Vous pouvez échapper d'autres chaines de caractères de données en
     passant un dictionnaire au paramètre optionnel 'entities'.  Les
     clés et valeurs doivent toutes être des chaines de caractères ;
     chaque clé sera remplacée par sa valeur correspondante.  Les
     caractères ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ et ‘'>'’ sont toujours échappés même si
     'entities' est donné en paramètre.

          Note: This function should only be used to escape characters
          that can't be used directly in XML. Do not use this function
          as a general string translation function.

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.saxutils.unescape (data, entities={})

     'Parse' ‘'&amp;'’, ‘'&lt;'’, et ‘'&gt;'’ dans une chaine de
     caractères de données.

     Vous pouvez dé-échapper d'autres chaines de caractères de données
     en passant un dictionnaire au paramètre optionnel 'entities'.  Les
     clés et valeurs doivent toutes être des chaines de caractères ;
     chaque clé sera remplacée par sa valeur correspondante.  Les
     caractères ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ et ‘'>'’ sont toujours dé-échappés même si
     'entities' est donné en paramètre.

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr (data, entities={})

     Similaire à *note escape(): 3842, mais prépare aussi 'data' pour
     être utilisé comme une valeur d'attribut.  La valeur renvoyée est
     une version entre guillemets de 'data' avec tous les remplacements
     supplémentaires nécessaires.  *note quoteattr(): 3844. va
     sélectionner un caractère guillemet basé sur le contenu de 'data',
     en essayant d’éviter d'encoder tous les caractères guillemets dans
     la chaine de caractères.  Si les caractères guillemet simple et
     guillemets sont déjà dans 'data', les caractères guillemets simples
     seront encodés et 'data' sera entouré de guillemets.  La chaine de
     caractères résultante pourra être utilisée en tant que valeur
     d'attribut :

          >>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
          <element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">

     Cette fonction est utile quand vous générez des valeurs d'attributs
     pour du HTML ou n'importe quel SGML en utilisant la syntaxe
     concrète de référence.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator (out=None,
          encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)

     Cette classe implémente l'interface *note ContentHandler: 37f8. en
     écrivant les événements SAX dans un document XML. En d'autres
     termes, utiliser un *note XMLGenerator: 3845. en tant que
     gestionnaire de contenu reproduira le document original qui était
     analysé.  'out' devrait être un objet de type fichier qui est par
     défaut 'sys.stdout'.  'encoding' est l'encodage du flux de sortie
     qui est par défaut ‘'iso-8859-1'’.  'short_empty_elements' contrôle
     le formatage des éléments qui ne contiennent rien : si ‘False’ (par
     défaut), ils sont émis comme une paire de balises (début, fin).  Si
     la valeur est ‘True’, ils sont émis comme une balise seule
     auto-fermante.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'short_empty_elements'
     parameter.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase (base)

     Cette classe est faite pour être entre *note XMLReader: 37fb. et le
     gestionnaire des événements de l'application client.  Par défaut,
     elle ne fait rien mais passe les requêtes au lecteur et les
     événements au gestionnaire sans les modifier, mais des sous-classes
     peuvent surcharger des méthodes spécifiques pour modifier le flux
     d’événements ou la configuration des requêtes à leur passage.

 -- Fonction: xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source (source, base='')

     This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and
     returns a fully resolved *note InputSource: e86. object ready for
     reading.  The input source can be given as a string, a file-like
     object, or an *note InputSource: e86. object; parsers will use this
     function to implement the polymorphic 'source' argument to their
     *note parse(): 3848. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers,  Next: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat,  Prev: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.12 ‘xml.sax.xmlreader’ -- Interface for XML parsers
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

SAX parsers implement the *note XMLReader: 37fb. interface.  They are
implemented in a Python module, which must provide a function
‘create_parser()’.  This function is invoked by *note
xml.sax.make_parser(): 19f9. with no arguments to create a new parser
object.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader

     Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser

     In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at
     once, but to feed chunks of the document as they get available.
     Note that the reader will normally not read the entire file, but
     read it in chunks as well; still ‘parse()’ won't return until the
     entire document is processed.  So these interfaces should be used
     if the blocking behaviour of ‘parse()’ is not desirable.

     When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data
     from the feed method immediately.  After parsing has been finished
     with a call to close the reset method must be called to make the
     parser ready to accept new data, either from feed or using the
     parse method.

     Note that these methods must 'not' be called during parsing, that
     is, after parse has been called and before it returns.

     By default, the class also implements the parse method of the
     XMLReader interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the
     IncrementalParser interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver
     writers.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator

     Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location.  A
     locator object will return valid results only during calls to
     DocumentHandler methods; at any other time, the results are
     unpredictable.  If information is not available, methods may return
     ‘None’.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource (system_id=None)

     Encapsulation of the information needed by the *note XMLReader:
     37fb. to read entities.

     This class may include information about the public identifier,
     system identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding
     information) and/or the character stream of an entity.

     Applications will create objects of this class for use in the *note
     XMLReader.parse(): 3848. method and for returning from
     EntityResolver.resolveEntity.

     An *note InputSource: e86. belongs to the application, the *note
     XMLReader: 37fb. is not allowed to modify *note InputSource: e86.
     objects passed to it from the application, although it may make
     copies and modify those.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl (attrs)

     This is an implementation of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see
     section *note The Attributes Interface: 3826.).  This is a
     dictionary-like object which represents the element attributes in a
     ‘startElement()’ call.  In addition to the most useful dictionary
     operations, it supports a number of other methods as described by
     the interface.  Objects of this class should be instantiated by
     readers; 'attrs' must be a dictionary-like object containing a
     mapping from attribute names to attribute values.

 -- Classe: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl (attrs, qnames)

     Namespace-aware variant of *note AttributesImpl: 384c, which will
     be passed to ‘startElementNS()’.  It is derived from *note
     AttributesImpl: 384c, but understands attribute names as two-tuples
     of 'namespaceURI' and 'localname'.  In addition, it provides a
     number of methods expecting qualified names as they appear in the
     original document.  This class implements the ‘AttributesNS’
     interface (see section *note The AttributesNS Interface: 3828.).

* Menu:

* XMLReader Objects::
* IncrementalParser Objects::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource Objects::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py


File: python.info,  Node: XMLReader Objects,  Next: IncrementalParser Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers

5.21.12.1 XMLReader Objects
...........................

The *note XMLReader: 37fb. interface supports the following methods:

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.parse (source)

     Process an input source, producing SAX events.  The 'source' object
     can be a system identifier (a string identifying the input source -
     typically a file name or a URL), a *note pathlib.Path: 226. or
     *note path-like: 29d. object, or an *note InputSource: e86. object.
     When *note parse(): 3848. returns, the input is completely
     processed, and the parser object can be discarded or reset.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support of character streams.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support of path-like objects.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.getContentHandler ()

     Return the current *note ContentHandler: 37f8.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setContentHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note ContentHandler: 37f8.  If no *note
     ContentHandler: 37f8. is set, content events will be discarded.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.getDTDHandler ()

     Return the current *note DTDHandler: 3812.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setDTDHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note DTDHandler: 3812.  If no *note DTDHandler:
     3812. is set, DTD events will be discarded.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.getEntityResolver ()

     Return the current *note EntityResolver: 3813.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setEntityResolver (handler)

     Set the current *note EntityResolver: 3813.  If no *note
     EntityResolver: 3813. is set, attempts to resolve an external
     entity will result in opening the system identifier for the entity,
     and fail if it is not available.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.getErrorHandler ()

     Return the current *note ErrorHandler: 3806.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setErrorHandler (handler)

     Set the current error handler.  If no *note ErrorHandler: 3806. is
     set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be
     printed.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setLocale (locale)

     Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings.

     SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and
     warnings; if they cannot support the requested locale, however,
     they must raise a SAX exception.  Applications may request a locale
     change in the middle of a parse.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.getFeature (featurename)

     Return the current setting for feature 'featurename'.  If the
     feature is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.
     The well-known featurenames are listed in the module *note
     xml.sax.handler: 129.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setFeature (featurename, value)

     Set the 'featurename' to 'value'.  If the feature is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the feature
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.getProperty (propertyname)

     Return the current setting for property 'propertyname'.  If the
     property is not recognized, a ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is
     raised.  The well-known propertynames are listed in the module
     *note xml.sax.handler: 129.

 -- Méthode: XMLReader.setProperty (propertyname, value)

     Set the 'propertyname' to 'value'.  If the property is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the property
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalParser Objects,  Next: Locator Objects,  Prev: XMLReader Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers

5.21.12.2 IncrementalParser Objects
...................................

Instances of *note IncrementalParser: 384b. offer the following
additional methods:

 -- Méthode: IncrementalParser.feed (data)

     Process a chunk of 'data'.

 -- Méthode: IncrementalParser.close ()

     Assume the end of the document.  That will check well-formedness
     conditions that can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers,
     and may clean up resources allocated during parsing.

 -- Méthode: IncrementalParser.reset ()

     This method is called after close has been called to reset the
     parser so that it is ready to parse new documents.  The results of
     calling parse or feed after close without calling reset are
     undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Locator Objects,  Next: InputSource Objects,  Prev: IncrementalParser Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers

5.21.12.3 Locator Objects
.........................

Instances of *note Locator: 3808. provide these methods:

 -- Méthode: Locator.getColumnNumber ()

     Return the column number where the current event begins.

 -- Méthode: Locator.getLineNumber ()

     Return the line number where the current event begins.

 -- Méthode: Locator.getPublicId ()

     Return the public identifier for the current event.

 -- Méthode: Locator.getSystemId ()

     Return the system identifier for the current event.


File: python.info,  Node: InputSource Objects,  Next: The Attributes Interface,  Prev: Locator Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers

5.21.12.4 InputSource Objects
.............................

 -- Méthode: InputSource.setPublicId (id)

     Sets the public identifier of this *note InputSource: e86.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.getPublicId ()

     Returns the public identifier of this *note InputSource: e86.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.setSystemId (id)

     Sets the system identifier of this *note InputSource: e86.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.getSystemId ()

     Returns the system identifier of this *note InputSource: e86.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.setEncoding (encoding)

     Sets the character encoding of this *note InputSource: e86.

     The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding
     declaration (see section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation).

     The encoding attribute of the *note InputSource: e86. is ignored if
     the *note InputSource: e86. also contains a character stream.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.getEncoding ()

     Get the character encoding of this InputSource.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.setByteStream (bytefile)

     Set the byte stream (a *note binary file: 1c45.) for this input
     source.

     The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream
     specified, but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a
     URI connection itself.

     If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream,
     it should set it with the setEncoding method.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.getByteStream ()

     Get the byte stream for this input source.

     The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this
     byte stream, or ‘None’ if unknown.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.setCharacterStream (charfile)

     Set the character stream (a *note text file: 1c44.) for this input
     source.

     If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will
     ignore any byte stream and will not attempt to open a URI
     connection to the system identifier.

 -- Méthode: InputSource.getCharacterStream ()

     Get the character stream for this input source.


File: python.info,  Node: The Attributes Interface,  Next: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: InputSource Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers

5.21.12.5 The ‘Attributes’ Interface
....................................

‘Attributes’ objects implement a portion of the *note mapping protocol:
119b, including the methods ‘copy()’, ‘get()’, *note __contains__():
1f17, ‘items()’, ‘keys()’, and ‘values()’.  The following methods are
also provided:

 -- Méthode: Attributes.getLength ()

     Return the number of attributes.

 -- Méthode: Attributes.getNames ()

     Return the names of the attributes.

 -- Méthode: Attributes.getType (name)

     Returns the type of the attribute 'name', which is normally
     ‘'CDATA'’.

 -- Méthode: Attributes.getValue (name)

     Return the value of attribute 'name'.


File: python.info,  Node: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: The Attributes Interface,  Up: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers

5.21.12.6 The ‘AttributesNS’ Interface
......................................

This interface is a subtype of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see section
*note The Attributes Interface: 3826.).  All methods supported by that
interface are also available on ‘AttributesNS’ objects.

The following methods are also available:

 -- Méthode: AttributesNS.getValueByQName (name)

     Return the value for a qualified name.

 -- Méthode: AttributesNS.getNameByQName (name)

     Return the ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair for a qualified 'name'.

 -- Méthode: AttributesNS.getQNameByName (name)

     Return the qualified name for a ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair.

 -- Méthode: AttributesNS.getQNames ()

     Return the qualified names of all attributes.


File: python.info,  Node: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat,  Prev: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers,  Up: Outils de traitement de balises structurées

5.21.13 ‘xml.parsers.expat’ -- Fast XML parsing using Expat
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

     Avertissement: The ‘pyexpat’ module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note Vulnérabilités XML: 3713.

The *note xml.parsers.expat: 125. module is a Python interface to the
Expat non-validating XML parser.  The module provides a single extension
type, ‘xmlparser’, that represents the current state of an XML parser.
After an ‘xmlparser’ object has been created, various attributes of the
object can be set to handler functions.  When an XML document is then
fed to the parser, the handler functions are called for the character
data and markup in the XML document.

This module uses the ‘pyexpat’ module to provide access to the Expat
parser.  Direct use of the ‘pyexpat’ module is deprecated.

This module provides one exception and one type object:

 -- Exception: xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError

     The exception raised when Expat reports an error.  See section
     *note ExpatError Exceptions: 387f. for more information on
     interpreting Expat errors.

 -- Exception: xml.parsers.expat.error

     Alias for *note ExpatError: 1259.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType

     The type of the return values from the *note ParserCreate(): 3882.
     function.

The *note xml.parsers.expat: 125. module contains two functions:

 -- Fonction: xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString (errno)

     Returns an explanatory string for a given error number 'errno'.

 -- Fonction: xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate (encoding=None,
          namespace_separator=None)

     Creates and returns a new ‘xmlparser’ object.  'encoding', if
     specified, must be a string naming the encoding used by the XML
     data.  Expat doesn't support as many encodings as Python does, and
     its repertoire of encodings can't be extended; it supports UTF-8,
     UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII. If 'encoding' (1) is given
     it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the document.

     Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled
     by providing a value for 'namespace_separator'.  The value must be
     a one-character string; a *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised if
     the string has an illegal length (‘None’ is considered the same as
     omission).  When namespace processing is enabled, element type
     names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be
     expanded.  The element name passed to the element handlers
     ‘StartElementHandler’ and ‘EndElementHandler’ will be the
     concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator
     character, and the local part of the name.  If the namespace
     separator is a zero byte (‘chr(0)’) then the namespace URI and the
     local part will be concatenated without any separator.

     For example, if 'namespace_separator' is set to a space character
     (‘' '’) and the following document is parsed:

          <?xml version="1.0"?>
          <root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
                xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
            <py:elem1 />
            <elem2 xmlns="" />
          </root>

     ‘StartElementHandler’ will receive the following strings for each
     element:

          http://default-namespace.org/ root
          http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
          elem2

     Due to limitations in the ‘Expat’ library used by ‘pyexpat’, the
     ‘xmlparser’ instance returned can only be used to parse a single
     XML document.  Call ‘ParserCreate’ for each document to provide
     unique parser instances.

Voir aussi
..........

The Expat XML Parser(2)

     Home page of the Expat project.

* Menu:

* Objets XMLParser: Objets XMLParser<2>.
* ExpatError Exceptions::
* Exemple: Exemple<10>.
* Content Model Descriptions::
* Expat error constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, "UTF-8" is valid, but "UTF8" is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (2) http://www.libexpat.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets XMLParser<2>,  Next: ExpatError Exceptions,  Up: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.21.13.1 Objets 'XMLParser'
............................

‘xmlparser’ objects have the following methods:

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.Parse (data[, isfinal])

     Parses the contents of the string 'data', calling the appropriate
     handler functions to process the parsed data.  'isfinal' must be
     true on the final call to this method; it allows the parsing of a
     single file in fragments, not the submission of multiple files.
     'data' can be the empty string at any time.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.ParseFile (file)

     Parse XML data reading from the object 'file'.  'file' only needs
     to provide the ‘read(nbytes)’ method, returning the empty string
     when there's no more data.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.SetBase (base)

     Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system
     identifiers in declarations.  Resolving relative identifiers is
     left to the application: this value will be passed through as the
     'base' argument to the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 3889,
     *note NotationDeclHandler(): 388a, and *note
     UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(): 388b. functions.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.GetBase ()

     Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to
     *note SetBase(): 3888, or ‘None’ if *note SetBase(): 3888. hasn't
     been called.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.GetInputContext ()

     Returns the input data that generated the current event as a
     string.  The data is in the encoding of the entity which contains
     the text.  When called while an event handler is not active, the
     return value is ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate (context[, encoding])

     Create a "child" parser which can be used to parse an external
     parsed entity referred to by content parsed by the parent parser.
     The 'context' parameter should be the string passed to the *note
     ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 3889. handler function, described
     below.  The child parser is created with the *note
     ordered_attributes: 388f. and *note specified_attributes: 3890. set
     to the values of this parser.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing (flag)

     Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD
     subset).  Possible 'flag' values are
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER’,
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE’ and
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS’.  Return true if setting the flag
     was successful.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD ([flag])

     Calling this with a true value for 'flag' (the default) will cause
     Expat to call the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 3889. with *note
     None: 662. for all arguments to allow an alternate DTD to be
     loaded.  If the document does not contain a document type
     declaration, the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 3889. will still
     be called, but the *note StartDoctypeDeclHandler: 3893. and *note
     EndDoctypeDeclHandler: 3894. will not be called.

     Passing a false value for 'flag' will cancel a previous call that
     passed a true value, but otherwise has no effect.

     This method can only be called before the *note Parse(): 3886. or
     *note ParseFile(): 3887. methods are called; calling it after
     either of those have been called causes *note ExpatError: 1259. to
     be raised with the *note code: 1a. attribute set to
     ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]’.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled (enabled)

          Avertissement: Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ has
          security implications, as detailed below; please make sure to
          understand these consequences prior to using the
          ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled’ method.

     Expat 2.6.0 introduced a security mechanism called "reparse
     deferral" where instead of causing denial of service through
     quadratic runtime from reparsing large tokens, reparsing of
     unfinished tokens is now delayed by default until a sufficient
     amount of input is reached.  Due to this delay, registered handlers
     may — depending of the sizing of input chunks pushed to Expat — no
     longer be called right after pushing new input to the parser.
     Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility of
     protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both
     wanted, calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ disables reparse
     deferral for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or
     altogether.  Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True)’ allows
     re-enabling reparse deferral.

     Note that *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 26f. has been
     backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix.
     Check for availability of *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 26f.
     using *note hasattr(): 4be. if used in code running across a
     variety of Python versions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled ()

     Returns whether reparse deferral is currently enabled for the given
     Expat parser instance.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

‘xmlparser’ objects have the following attributes:

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.buffer_size

     The size of the buffer used when *note buffer_text: 1478. is true.
     A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value to
     this attribute.  When the size is changed, the buffer will be
     flushed.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.buffer_text

     Setting this to true causes the ‘xmlparser’ object to buffer
     textual content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the
     *note CharacterDataHandler(): 3896. callback whenever possible.
     This can improve performance substantially since Expat normally
     breaks character data into chunks at every line ending.  This
     attribute is false by default, and may be changed at any time.
     Note that when it is false, data that does not contain newlines may
     be chunked too.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.buffer_used

     If *note buffer_text: 1478. is enabled, the number of bytes stored
     in the buffer.  These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text.  This
     attribute has no meaningful interpretation when *note buffer_text:
     1478. is false.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.ordered_attributes

     Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes
     to be reported as a list rather than a dictionary.  The attributes
     are presented in the order found in the document text.  For each
     attribute, two list entries are presented: the attribute name and
     the attribute value.  (Older versions of this module also used this
     format.)  By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at
     any time.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.specified_attributes

     If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those
     attributes which were specified in the document instance and not
     those which were derived from attribute declarations.  Applications
     which set this need to be especially careful to use what additional
     information is available from the declarations as needed to comply
     with the standards for the behavior of XML processors.  By default,
     this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.

The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent
error encountered by an ‘xmlparser’ object, and will only have correct
values once a call to ‘Parse()’ or ‘ParseFile()’ has raised an *note
xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 1259. exception.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex

     Byte index at which an error occurred.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.ErrorCode

     Numeric code specifying the problem.  This value can be passed to
     the *note ErrorString(): 3883. function, or compared to one of the
     constants defined in the ‘errors’ object.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber

     Column number at which an error occurred.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber

     Line number at which an error occurred.

The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse
location in an ‘xmlparser’ object.  During a callback reporting a parse
event they indicate the location of the first of the sequence of
characters that generated the event.  When called outside of a callback,
the position indicated will be just past the last parse event
(regardless of whether there was an associated callback).

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex

     Current byte index in the parser input.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber

     Current column number in the parser input.

 -- Attribut: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber

     Current line number in the parser input.

Here is the list of handlers that can be set.  To set a handler on an
‘xmlparser’ object 'o', use ‘o.handlername = func’.  'handlername' must
be taken from the following list, and 'func' must be a callable object
accepting the correct number of arguments.  The arguments are all
strings, unless otherwise stated.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler (version, encoding, standalone)

     Called when the XML declaration is parsed.  The XML declaration is
     the (optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML
     recommendation, the encoding of the document text, and an optional
     "standalone" declaration.  'version' and 'encoding' will be
     strings, and 'standalone' will be ‘1’ if the document is declared
     standalone, ‘0’ if it is declared not to be standalone, or ‘-1’ if
     the standalone clause was omitted.  This is only available with
     Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler (doctypeName, systemId,
          publicId, has_internal_subset)

     Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration
     (‘<!DOCTYPE ...’).  The 'doctypeName' is provided exactly as
     presented.  The 'systemId' and 'publicId' parameters give the
     system and public identifiers if specified, or ‘None’ if omitted.
     'has_internal_subset' will be true if the document contains and
     internal document declaration subset.  This requires Expat version
     1.2 or newer.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler ()

     Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration.
     This requires Expat version 1.2 or newer.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler (name, model)

     Called once for each element type declaration.  'name' is the name
     of the element type, and 'model' is a representation of the content
     model.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler (elname, attname, type,
          default, required)

     Called for each declared attribute for an element type.  If an
     attribute list declaration declares three attributes, this handler
     is called three times, once for each attribute.  'elname' is the
     name of the element to which the declaration applies and 'attname'
     is the name of the attribute declared.  The attribute type is a
     string passed as 'type'; the possible values are ‘'CDATA'’, ‘'ID'’,
     ‘'IDREF'’, ...  'default' gives the default value for the attribute
     used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance,
     or ‘None’ if there is no default value (‘#IMPLIED’ values).  If the
     attribute is required to be given in the document instance,
     'required' will be true.  This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or
     newer.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.StartElementHandler (name, attributes)

     Called for the start of every element.  'name' is a string
     containing the element name, and 'attributes' is the element
     attributes.  If *note ordered_attributes: 388f. is true, this is a
     list (see *note ordered_attributes: 388f. for a full description).
     Otherwise it's a dictionary mapping names to values.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.EndElementHandler (name)

     Called for the end of every element.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler (target, data)

     Called for every processing instruction.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler (data)

     Called for character data.  This will be called for normal
     character data, CDATA marked content, and ignorable whitespace.
     Applications which must distinguish these cases can use the *note
     StartCdataSectionHandler: 38a5, *note EndCdataSectionHandler: 38a6,
     and *note ElementDeclHandler: 38a0. callbacks to collect the
     required information.  Note that the character data may be chunked
     even if it is short and so you may receive more than one call to
     *note CharacterDataHandler(): 3896.  Set the *note buffer_text:
     1478. instance attribute to ‘True’ to avoid that.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler (entityName, base,
          systemId, publicId, notationName)

     Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations.  This is only
     present for version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent
     versions, use *note EntityDeclHandler: 38a7. instead.  (The
     underlying function in the Expat library has been declared
     obsolete.)

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler (entityName,
          is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId,
          notationName)

     Called for all entity declarations.  For parameter and internal
     entities, 'value' will be a string giving the declared contents of
     the entity; this will be ‘None’ for external entities.  The
     'notationName' parameter will be ‘None’ for parsed entities, and
     the name of the notation for unparsed entities.
     'is_parameter_entity' will be true if the entity is a parameter
     entity or false for general entities (most applications only need
     to be concerned with general entities).  This is only available
     starting with version 1.95.0 of the Expat library.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler (notationName, base,
          systemId, publicId)

     Called for notation declarations.  'notationName', 'base', and
     'systemId', and 'publicId' are strings if given.  If the public
     identifier is omitted, 'publicId' will be ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix, uri)

     Called when an element contains a namespace declaration.  Namespace
     declarations are processed before the *note StartElementHandler:
     38a2. is called for the element on which declarations are placed.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix)

     Called when the closing tag is reached for an element that
     contained a namespace declaration.  This is called once for each
     namespace declaration on the element in the reverse of the order
     for which the *note StartNamespaceDeclHandler: 38a8. was called to
     indicate the start of each namespace declaration's scope.  Calls to
     this handler are made after the corresponding *note
     EndElementHandler: 38a3. for the end of the element.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.CommentHandler (data)

     Called for comments.  'data' is the text of the comment, excluding
     the leading ‘'<!-’‘-'’ and trailing ‘'-’‘->'’.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler ()

     Called at the start of a CDATA section.  This and *note
     EndCdataSectionHandler: 38a6. are needed to be able to identify the
     syntactical start and end for CDATA sections.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler ()

     Called at the end of a CDATA section.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.DefaultHandler (data)

     Called for any characters in the XML document for which no
     applicable handler has been specified.  This means characters that
     are part of a construct which could be reported, but for which no
     handler has been supplied.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand (data)

     This is the same as the *note DefaultHandler(): 38ab, but doesn't
     inhibit expansion of internal entities.  The entity reference will
     not be passed to the default handler.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler ()

     Called if the XML document hasn't been declared as being a
     standalone document.  This happens when there is an external subset
     or a reference to a parameter entity, but the XML declaration does
     not set standalone to ‘yes’ in an XML declaration.  If this handler
     returns ‘0’, then the parser will raise an
     ‘XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE’ error.  If this handler is not set, no
     exception is raised by the parser for this condition.

 -- Méthode: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler (context, base,
          systemId, publicId)

     Called for references to external entities.  'base' is the current
     base, as set by a previous call to *note SetBase(): 3888.  The
     public and system identifiers, 'systemId' and 'publicId', are
     strings if given; if the public identifier is not given, 'publicId'
     will be ‘None’.  The 'context' value is opaque and should only be
     used as described below.

     For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be
     implemented.  It is responsible for creating the sub-parser using
     ‘ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)’, initializing it with the
     appropriate callbacks, and parsing the entity.  This handler should
     return an integer; if it returns ‘0’, the parser will raise an
     ‘XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING’ error, otherwise parsing will
     continue.

     If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by
     the *note DefaultHandler: 38ab. callback, if provided.


File: python.info,  Node: ExpatError Exceptions,  Next: Exemple<10>,  Prev: Objets XMLParser<2>,  Up: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.21.13.2 ExpatError Exceptions
...............................

*note ExpatError: 1259. exceptions have a number of interesting
attributes:

 -- Attribut: ExpatError.code

     Expat's internal error number for the specific error.  The *note
     errors.messages: 38b0. dictionary maps these error numbers to
     Expat's error messages.  For example:

          from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors

          p = ParserCreate()
          try:
              p.Parse(some_xml_document)
          except ExpatError as err:
              print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])

     The *note errors: 126. module also provides error message constants
     and a dictionary *note codes: 38b1. mapping these messages back to
     the error codes, see below.

 -- Attribut: ExpatError.lineno

     Line number on which the error was detected.  The first line is
     numbered ‘1’.

 -- Attribut: ExpatError.offset

     Character offset into the line where the error occurred.  The first
     column is numbered ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<10>,  Next: Content Model Descriptions,  Prev: ExpatError Exceptions,  Up: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.21.13.3 Exemple
.................

The following program defines three handlers that just print out their
arguments.

     import xml.parsers.expat

     # 3 handler functions
     def start_element(name, attrs):
         print('Start element:', name, attrs)
     def end_element(name):
         print('End element:', name)
     def char_data(data):
         print('Character data:', repr(data))

     p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()

     p.StartElementHandler = start_element
     p.EndElementHandler = end_element
     p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data

     p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
     <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
     <child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
     </parent>""", 1)

The output from this program is:

     Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
     Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
     Character data: 'Text goes here'
     End element: child1
     Character data: '\n'
     Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
     Character data: 'More text'
     End element: child2
     Character data: '\n'
     End element: parent


File: python.info,  Node: Content Model Descriptions,  Next: Expat error constants,  Prev: Exemple<10>,  Up: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.21.13.4 Content Model Descriptions
....................................

Content models are described using nested tuples.  Each tuple contains
four values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of
children.  Children are simply additional content model descriptions.

The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the *note
xml.parsers.expat.model: 127. module.  These constants can be collected
in two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.

The constants in the model type group are:

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY

     The element named by the model name was declared to have a content
     model of ‘ANY’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE

     The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is
     used for content models such as ‘(A | B | C)’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY

     Elements which are declared to be ‘EMPTY’ have this model type.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ

     Models which represent a series of models which follow one after
     the other are indicated with this model type.  This is used for
     models such as ‘(A, B, C)’.

The constants in the quantifier group are:

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE

     No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for ‘A’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT

     The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for
     ‘A?’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS

     The model must occur one or more times (like ‘A+’).

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP

     The model must occur zero or more times, as for ‘A*’.


File: python.info,  Node: Expat error constants,  Prev: Content Model Descriptions,  Up: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.21.13.5 Expat error constants
...............................

The following constants are provided in the *note
xml.parsers.expat.errors: 126. module.  These constants are useful in
interpreting some of the attributes of the ‘ExpatError’ exception
objects raised when an error has occurred.  Since for backwards
compatibility reasons, the constants' value is the error 'message' and
not the numeric error 'code', you do this by comparing its *note code:
1a. attribute with ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME]’.

The ‘errors’ module has the following attributes:

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes

     A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages

     A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string
     descriptions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY

 -- Données:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external
     entity instead of an internal entity.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF

     A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in
     XML (for example, character ‘0’, or '‘&#0;’').

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a
     notation, so cannot be parsed.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE

     An attribute was used more than once in a start tag.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN

     Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a
     character; for example, a NUL byte (value ‘0’) in a UTF-8 input
     stream.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT

     Something other than whitespace occurred after the document
     element.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI

     An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the
     input data.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS

     The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to
     contain exactly one top-level element)..

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY

     Expat was not able to allocate memory internally.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF

     A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR

     An incomplete character was found in the input.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity;
     possibly via a different name, and possibly indirectly.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX

     Some unspecified syntax error was encountered.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH

     An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN

     Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of
     the stream or the next token was encountered.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY

     A reference was made to an entity which was not defined.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING

     The document encoding is not supported by Expat.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION

     A CDATA marked section was not closed.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE

     The parser determined that the document was not "standalone" though
     it declared itself to be in the XML declaration, and the
     ‘NotStandaloneHandler’ was set and returned ‘0’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD

     An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled
     in, but Expat was configured without DTD support.  This should
     never be reported by a standard build of the *note
     xml.parsers.expat: 125. module.

 -- Données:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING

     A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can
     only be changed before parsing has started.  This is (currently)
     only raised by ‘UseForeignDTD()’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX

     An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was
     enabled.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX

     The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration
     associated with a prefix.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE

     A parameter entity contained incomplete markup.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL

     The document contained no document element at all.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL

     There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external
     entity.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID

     Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED

     The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn't
     allowed.  This includes attempts to provide additional input or to
     stop the parser.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED

     An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not
     been suspended.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED

     The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished
     parsing input, but isn't allowed.  This includes attempts to
     provide additional input or to stop the parser.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML

     An attempt was made to undeclare reserved namespace prefix ‘xml’ or
     to bind it to another namespace URI.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS

     An attempt was made to declare or undeclare reserved namespace
     prefix ‘xmlns’.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI

     An attempt was made to bind the URI of one the reserved namespace
     prefixes ‘xml’ and ‘xmlns’ to another namespace prefix.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- Données: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- Données:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH

     The limit on input amplification factor (from DTD and entities) has
     been breached.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des protocoles internet,  Next: Services multimédia,  Prev: Outils de traitement de balises structurées,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.22 Gestion des protocoles internet
====================================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre implémentent des protocoles
relatifs à Internet et à ses technologies relatives.  Ils sont tous
implémentés en Python.  La majorité de ces modules nécessitent la
présence du module *note socket: cb. lui même dépendant du système, mais
fourni sur la plupart des plateformes populaires.  Voici une vue
d'ensemble :

* Menu:

* webbrowser: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller. Convenient web-browser controller
* wsgiref: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
* urllib: urllib --- URL handling modules. URL handling modules
* urllib.request: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs. Extensible library for opening URLs
* urllib.response: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib. Response classes used by urllib
* urllib.parse: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components. Parse URLs into components
* urllib.error: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request. Exception classes raised by urllib.request
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt. Parser for robots.txt
* http: http --- HTTP modules. HTTP modules
* http.client: http client --- HTTP protocol client. HTTP protocol client
* ftplib: ftplib --- FTP protocol client. FTP protocol client
* poplib: poplib --- POP3 protocol client. POP3 protocol client
* imaplib: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client. IMAP4 protocol client
* smtplib: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client. SMTP protocol client
* uuid: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122. UUID objects according to RFC 4122
* socketserver: socketserver --- A framework for network servers. A framework for network servers
* http.server: http server --- HTTP servers. HTTP servers
* http.cookies: http cookies --- HTTP state management. HTTP state management
* http.cookiejar: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients. Cookie handling for HTTP clients
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules. XMLRPC server and client modules
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access. XML-RPC client access
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers. Basic XML-RPC servers
* ipaddress: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller,  Next: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.1 ‘webbrowser’ -- Convenient web-browser controller
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/webbrowser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note webbrowser: 114. module provides a high-level interface to
allow displaying web-based documents to users.  Under most
circumstances, simply calling the *note open(): 38ea. function from this
module will do the right thing.

Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode
browsers will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11
display isn't available.  If text-mode browsers are used, the calling
process will block until the user exits the browser.

If the environment variable ‘BROWSER’ exists, it is interpreted as the
*note os.pathsep: 1d01.-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the
platform defaults.  When the value of a list part contains the string
‘%s’, then it is interpreted as a literal browser command line to be
used with the argument URL substituted for ‘%s’; if the part does not
contain ‘%s’, it is simply interpreted as the name of the browser to
launch.  (2)

For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix,
the controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the
browser, but allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the
display.  If remote browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling
process will launch a new browser and wait.

On iOS, the ‘BROWSER’ environment variable, as well as any arguments
controlling autoraise, browser preference, and new tab/window creation
will be ignored.  Web pages will 'always' be opened in the user's
preferred browser, in a new tab, with the browser being brought to the
foreground.  The use of the *note webbrowser: 114. module on iOS
requires the *note ctypes: 2a. module.  If *note ctypes: 2a. isn't
available, calls to *note open(): 38ea. will fail.

The script ‘webbrowser’ can be used as a command-line interface for the
module.  It accepts a URL as the argument.  It accepts the following
optional parameters:

 -- Option: -n, --new-window

     Opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible.

 -- Option: -t, --new-tab

     Opens the URL in a new browser tab.

The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive.  Usage example:

     python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI, not Android.

L'exception suivante est définie :

 -- Exception: webbrowser.Error

     Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.

Les fonctions suivantes sont définies :

 -- Fonction: webbrowser.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the default browser.  If 'new' is 0, the 'url'
     is opened in the same browser window if possible.  If 'new' is 1, a
     new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new' is 2, a new
     browser page ("tab") is opened if possible.  If 'autoraise' is
     ‘True’, the window is raised if possible (note that under many
     window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this
     variable).

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this
     function, may work and start the operating system's associated
     program.  However, this is neither supported nor portable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘webbrowser.open’ with
     argument ‘url’.

 -- Fonction: webbrowser.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the default browser, if possible,
     otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser window.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Fonction: webbrowser.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page ("tab") of the default browser, if
     possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new(): 38f0.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Fonction: webbrowser.get (using=None)

     Return a controller object for the browser type 'using'.  If
     'using' is ‘None’, return a controller for a default browser
     appropriate to the caller's environment.

 -- Fonction: webbrowser.register (name, constructor, instance=None, *,
          preferred=False)

     Register the browser type 'name'.  Once a browser type is
     registered, the *note get(): 38f2. function can return a controller
     for that browser type.  If 'instance' is not provided, or is
     ‘None’, 'constructor' will be called without parameters to create
     an instance when needed.  If 'instance' is provided, 'constructor'
     will never be called, and may be ‘None’.

     Setting 'preferred' to ‘True’ makes this browser a preferred result
     for a *note get(): 38f2. call with no argument.  Otherwise, this
     entry point is only useful if you plan to either set the ‘BROWSER’
     variable or call *note get(): 38f2. with a nonempty argument
     matching the name of a handler you declare.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: 'preferred' keyword-only parameter was
     added.

A number of browser types are predefined.  This table gives the type
names that may be passed to the *note get(): 38f2. function and the
corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in
this module.

Type Name                    Class Name                                    Notes
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'mozilla'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'firefox'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'epiphany'’                 ‘Epiphany('epiphany')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'kfmclient'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'konqueror'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'kfm'’                      ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'opera'’                    ‘Opera()’
                             
                                                                           
‘'links'’                    ‘GenericBrowser('links')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'elinks'’                   ‘Elinks('elinks')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'lynx'’                     ‘GenericBrowser('lynx')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'w3m'’                      ‘GenericBrowser('w3m')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'windows-default'’          ‘WindowsDefault’                              (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'macosx'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('default')’                  (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'safari'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('safari')’                   (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'google-chrome'’            ‘Chrome('google-chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chrome'’                   ‘Chrome('chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium'’                 ‘Chromium('chromium')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium-browser'’         ‘Chromium('chromium-browser')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'iosbrowser'’               ‘IOSBrowser’                                  (4)
                                                                           

Notes :

  1. "Konqueror" is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for
     Unix, and only makes sense to use if KDE is running.  Some way of
     reliably detecting KDE would be nice; the ‘KDEDIR’ variable is not
     sufficient.  Note also that the name "kfm" is used even when using
     the ‘konqueror’ command with KDE 2 -- the implementation selects
     the best strategy for running Konqueror.

  2. Only on Windows platforms.

  3. Only on macOS.

  4. Only on iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: A new ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class has been added
and is used on Mac instead of the previous ‘MacOSX’ class.  This adds
support for opening browsers not currently set as the OS default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Support for several obsolete browsers has
been removed.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for iOS has been added.

Here are some simple examples:

     url = 'https://docs.python.org/'

     # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.
     webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

     # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.
     webbrowser.open_new(url)

* Menu:

* Browser Controller Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/webbrowser.py

   (2) Executables named here without a full path will be searched in
the directories given in the ‘PATH’ environment variable.


File: python.info,  Node: Browser Controller Objects,  Up: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller

5.22.1.1 Browser Controller Objects
...................................

Browser controllers provide the *note name: 294. attribute, and the
following three methods which parallel module-level convenience
functions:

 -- Attribut: controller.name

     System-dependent name for the browser.

 -- Méthode: controller.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the browser handled by this controller.  If
     'new' is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new'
     is 2, a new browser page ("tab") is opened if possible.

 -- Méthode: controller.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser
     window.  Alias *note open_new(): 38f0.

 -- Méthode: controller.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page ("tab") of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new():
     38f0.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Next: urllib --- URL handling modules,  Prev: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.2 ‘wsgiref’ -- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/wsgiref(1)

__________________________________________________________________

WSGI ('Web Server Gateway Interface') est une interface standard entre
le serveur web et une application web écrite en Python.  Avoir une
interface standardisée permet de faciliter l'usage de ces applications
avec un certain nombre de serveurs web différents.

Seules les personnes programmant des serveurs web et des cadriciels ont
besoin de connaître les détails d'implémentation et les cas particuliers
de l'architecture de WSGI. En tant qu'utilisateur WSGI vous avez
uniquement besoin d'installer WSGI ou d'utiliser un cadriciel existant.

*note wsgiref: 117. is a reference implementation of the WSGI
specification that can be used to add WSGI support to a web server or
framework.  It provides utilities for manipulating WSGI environment
variables and response headers, base classes for implementing WSGI
servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications, types for
static type checking, and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and
applications for conformance to the WSGI specification ( PEP 3333(2)).

Voir wsgi.readthedocs.io(3) pour plus d'informations à propos de WSGI
ainsi que des liens vers des tutoriels et d'autres ressources.

* Menu:

* wsgiref.util — outils pour les environnements WSGI: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
* wsgiref.headers: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools. WSGI response header tools
* wsgiref.simple_server: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server. a simple WSGI HTTP server
* wsgiref.validate: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker. WSGI conformance checker
* wsgiref.handlers: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes. server/gateway base classes
* wsgiref.types: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking. WSGI types for static type checking
* Exemples: Exemples<24>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/wsgiref

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI,  Next: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.1 ‘wsgiref.util’ — outils pour les environnements WSGI
.............................................................

This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with
WSGI environments.  A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP
request variables as described in PEP 3333(1).  All of the functions
taking an 'environ' parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be
supplied; please see PEP 3333(2) for a detailed specification and *note
WSGIEnvironment: 38fc. for a type alias that can be used in type
annotations.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.util.guess_scheme (environ)

     Tente de déterminer s'il faut assigner "http" ou "https" à
     ‘wsgi.url_sheme’, en vérifiant si une variable d'environnement
     ‘HTTPS’ est dans le dictionnaire 'environ'.  La valeur renvoyée est
     une chaîne de caractères.

     This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a
     CGI-like protocol such as FastCGI. Typically, servers providing
     such protocols will include a ‘HTTPS’ variable with a value of "1",
     "yes", or "on" when a request is received via SSL. So, this
     function returns "https" if such a value is found, and "http"
     otherwise.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.util.request_uri (environ, include_query=True)

     Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string,
     using the algorithm found in the "URL Reconstruction" section of
     PEP 3333(3).  If 'include_query' is false, the query string is not
     included in the resulting URI.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.util.application_uri (environ)

     Similar to *note request_uri(): 38fe, except that the ‘PATH_INFO’
     and ‘QUERY_STRING’ variables are ignored.  The result is the base
     URI of the application object addressed by the request.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.util.shift_path_info (environ)

     Shift a single name from ‘PATH_INFO’ to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ and return
     the name.  The 'environ' dictionary is 'modified' in-place; use a
     copy if you need to keep the original ‘PATH_INFO’ or ‘SCRIPT_NAME’
     intact.

     If there are no remaining path segments in ‘PATH_INFO’, ‘None’ is
     returned.

     Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a
     request URI path, for example to treat the path as a series of
     dictionary keys.  This routine modifies the passed-in environment
     to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI application that is
     located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI
     application at ‘/foo’, and the request URI path is ‘/foo/bar/baz’,
     and the WSGI application at ‘/foo’ calls *note shift_path_info():
     3900, it will receive the string "bar", and the environment will be
     updated to be suitable for passing to a WSGI application at
     ‘/foo/bar’.  That is, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ will change from ‘/foo’ to
     ‘/foo/bar’, and ‘PATH_INFO’ will change from ‘/bar/baz’ to ‘/baz’.

     When ‘PATH_INFO’ is just a "/", this routine returns an empty
     string and appends a trailing slash to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, even though
     empty path segments are normally ignored, and ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ doesn't
     normally end in a slash.  This is intentional behavior, to ensure
     that an application can tell the difference between URIs ending in
     ‘/x’ from ones ending in ‘/x/’ when using this routine to do object
     traversal.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults (environ)

     Met à jour 'environ' avec des valeurs par défaut pour des cas de
     tests.

     Cette fonction ajoute des paramètres requis pour WSGI, en
     particulier ‘HTTP_HOST’, ‘SERVER_NAME’, ‘SERVER_PORT’,
     ‘REQUEST_METHOD’, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, ‘PATH_INFO’ et toutes les autres
     variables WSGI définies dans la PEP 3333(4).  Elle ne fournit que
     des valeurs par défaut sans toucher aux valeurs déjà définies de
     ces variables.

     Cette fonction a pour but de faciliter les tests unitaires des
     serveurs et des applications WSGI dans des environnements factices.
     Elle ne devrait pas être utilisée dans une application ou un
     serveur WSGI, étant donné que les données sont factices !

     Example usage (see also *note demo_app(): 3902. for another
     example):

          from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
          # environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              setup_testing_defaults(environ)

              status = '200 OK'
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]

              start_response(status, headers)

              ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
                     for key, value in environ.items()]
              return ret

          with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving on port 8000...")
              httpd.serve_forever()

In addition to the environment functions above, the *note wsgiref.util:
11c. module also provides these miscellaneous utilities:

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop (header_name)

     Return ‘True’ if 'header_name' is an HTTP/1.1 "Hop-by-Hop" header,
     as defined by RFC 2616(5).

 -- Classe: wsgiref.util.FileWrapper (filelike, blksize=8192)

     A concrete implementation of the *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper:
     3903. protocol used to convert a file-like object to an *note
     iterator: 1aa.  The resulting objects are *note iterable: 1207.s.
     As the object is iterated over, the optional 'blksize' parameter
     will be repeatedly passed to the 'filelike' object's ‘read()’
     method to obtain bytestrings to yield.  When ‘read()’ returns an
     empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.

     If 'filelike' has a ‘close()’ method, the returned object will also
     have a ‘close()’ method, and it will invoke the 'filelike' object's
     ‘close()’ method when called.

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          from io import StringIO
          from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper

          # We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
          filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
          wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)

          for chunk in wrapper:
              print(chunk)

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Support for *note __getitem__(): 280.
     method has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools,  Next: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Prev: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.2 ‘wsgiref.headers’ - WSGI response header tools
.......................................................

This module provides a single class, *note Headers: e83, for convenient
manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.headers.Headers ([headers])

     Create a mapping-like object wrapping 'headers', which must be a
     list of header name/value tuples as described in PEP 3333(1).  The
     default value of 'headers' is an empty list.

     *note Headers: e83. objects support typical mapping operations
     including *note __getitem__(): 280, *note get(): 2200, *note
     __setitem__(): 12ab, *note setdefault(): 1064, *note __delitem__():
     12ac. and *note __contains__(): 1f17.  For each of these methods,
     the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the
     value is the first value associated with that header name.  Setting
     a header deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a
     new value at the end of the wrapped header list.  Headers' existing
     order is generally maintained, with new headers added to the end of
     the wrapped list.

     Unlike a dictionary, *note Headers: e83. objects do not raise an
     error when you try to get or delete a key that isn't in the wrapped
     header list.  Getting a nonexistent header just returns ‘None’, and
     deleting a nonexistent header does nothing.

     *note Headers: e83. objects also support ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and
     ‘items()’ methods.  The lists returned by ‘keys()’ and ‘items()’
     can include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued
     header.  The ‘len()’ of a *note Headers: e83. object is the same as
     the length of its ‘items()’, which is the same as the length of the
     wrapped header list.  In fact, the ‘items()’ method just returns a
     copy of the wrapped header list.

     Calling ‘bytes()’ on a *note Headers: e83. object returns a
     formatted bytestring suitable for transmission as HTTP response
     headers.  Each header is placed on a line with its value, separated
     by a colon and a space.  Each line is terminated by a carriage
     return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a blank
     line.

     In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features,
     *note Headers: e83. objects also have the following methods for
     querying and adding multi-valued headers, and for adding headers
     with MIME parameters:

      -- Méthode: get_all (name)

          Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs pour l'en-tête 'name'.

          The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in
          the original header list or were added to this instance, and
          may contain duplicates.  Any fields deleted and re-inserted
          are always appended to the header list.  If no fields exist
          with the given name, returns an empty list.

      -- Méthode: add_header (name, value, **_params)

          Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME
          parameters specified via keyword arguments.

          'name' is the header field to add.  Keyword arguments can be
          used to set MIME parameters for the header field.  Each
          parameter must be a string or ‘None’.  Underscores in
          parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are
          illegal in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names
          include dashes.  If the parameter value is a string, it is
          added to the header value parameters in the form
          ‘name="value"’.  If it is ‘None’, only the parameter name is
          added.  (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.)
          Example usage:

               h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          Le code ci-dessus ajoute un en-tête qui ressemble à ceci :

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre 'headers' est optionnel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Next: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker,  Prev: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.3 ‘wsgiref.simple_server’ - a simple WSGI HTTP server
............................................................

This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on *note http.server:
71.) that serves WSGI applications.  Each server instance serves a
single WSGI application on a given host and port.  If you want to serve
multiple applications on a single host and port, you should create a
WSGI application that parses ‘PATH_INFO’ to select which application to
invoke for each request.  (E.g., using the ‘shift_path_info()’ function
from *note wsgiref.util: 11c.)

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.simple_server.make_server (host, port, app,
          server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)

     Create a new WSGI server listening on 'host' and 'port', accepting
     connections for 'app'.  The return value is an instance of the
     supplied 'server_class', and will process requests using the
     specified 'handler_class'.  'app' must be a WSGI application
     object, as defined by PEP 3333(1).

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app

          with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")

              # Respond to requests until process is killed
              httpd.serve_forever()

              # Alternative: serve one request, then exit
              httpd.handle_request()

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app (environ, start_response)

     This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns
     a text page containing the message "Hello world!"  and a list of
     the key/value pairs provided in the 'environ' parameter.  It's
     useful for verifying that a WSGI server (such as *note
     wsgiref.simple_server: 11a.) is able to run a simple WSGI
     application correctly.

     The 'start_response' callable should follow the *note
     StartResponse: 3909. protocol.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     Create a *note WSGIServer: 390a. instance.  'server_address' should
     be a ‘(host,port)’ tuple, and 'RequestHandlerClass' should be the
     subclass of *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. that
     will be used to process requests.

     You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the *note
     make_server(): 3908. function can handle all the details for you.

     *note WSGIServer: 390a. is a subclass of *note
     http.server.HTTPServer: 390b, so all of its methods (such as
     ‘serve_forever()’ and ‘handle_request()’) are available.  *note
     WSGIServer: 390a. also provides these WSGI-specific methods:

      -- Méthode: set_app (application)

          Sets the callable 'application' as the WSGI application that
          will receive requests.

      -- Méthode: get_app ()

          Returns the currently set application callable.

     Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods,
     as *note set_app(): 390c. is normally called by *note
     make_server(): 3908, and the *note get_app(): 390d. exists mainly
     for the benefit of request handler instances.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server)

     Create an HTTP handler for the given 'request' (i.e.  a socket),
     'client_address' (a ‘(host,port)’ tuple), and 'server' (*note
     WSGIServer: 390a. instance).

     You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they
     are automatically created as needed by *note WSGIServer: 390a.
     objects.  You can, however, subclass this class and supply it as a
     'handler_class' to the *note make_server(): 3908. function.  Some
     possibly relevant methods for overriding in subclasses:

      -- Méthode: get_environ ()

          Return a *note WSGIEnvironment: 38fc. dictionary for a
          request.  The default implementation copies the contents of
          the *note WSGIServer: 390a. object's ‘base_environ’ dictionary
          attribute and then adds various headers derived from the HTTP
          request.  Each call to this method should return a new
          dictionary containing all of the relevant CGI environment
          variables as specified in PEP 3333(2).

      -- Méthode: get_stderr ()

          Return the object that should be used as the ‘wsgi.errors’
          stream.  The default implementation just returns ‘sys.stderr’.

      -- Méthode: handle ()

          Process the HTTP request.  The default implementation creates
          a handler instance using a *note wsgiref.handlers: 118. class
          to implement the actual WSGI application interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker,  Next: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes,  Prev: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.4 ‘wsgiref.validate’ -- WSGI conformance checker
.......................................................

When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or
middleware, it can be useful to validate the new code's conformance
using *note wsgiref.validate: 11d.  This module provides a function that
creates WSGI application objects that validate communications between a
WSGI server or gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both
sides for protocol conformance.

Note that this utility does not guarantee complete PEP 3333(1)
compliance; an absence of errors from this module does not necessarily
mean that errors do not exist.  However, if this module does produce an
error, then it is virtually certain that either the server or
application is not 100% compliant.

This module is based on the ‘paste.lint’ module from Ian Bicking's
"Python Paste" library.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.validate.validator (application)

     Wrap 'application' and return a new WSGI application object.  The
     returned application will forward all requests to the original
     'application', and will check that both the 'application' and the
     server invoking it are conforming to the WSGI specification and to
     RFC 2616(2).

     Any detected nonconformance results in an *note AssertionError:
     696. being raised; note, however, that how these errors are handled
     is server-dependent.  For example, *note wsgiref.simple_server:
     11a. and other servers based on *note wsgiref.handlers: 118. (that
     don't override the error handling methods to do something else)
     will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and dump
     the traceback to ‘sys.stderr’ or some other error stream.

     This wrapper may also generate output using the *note warnings:
     111. module to indicate behaviors that are questionable but which
     may not actually be prohibited by PEP 3333(3).  Unless they are
     suppressed using Python command-line options or the *note warnings:
     111. API, any such warnings will be written to ‘sys.stderr’ ('not'
     ‘wsgi.errors’, unless they happen to be the same object).

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          from wsgiref.validate import validator
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
          # standard, so the validator is going to break
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
              start_response(status, headers)

              # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
              # the validator is going to inform us
              return b"Hello World"

          # This is the application wrapped in a validator
          validator_app = validator(simple_app)

          with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
              print("Listening on port 8000....")
              httpd.serve_forever()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes,  Next: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking,  Prev: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.5 ‘wsgiref.handlers’ - server/gateway base classes
.........................................................

This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers
and gateways.  These base classes handle most of the work of
communicating with a WSGI application, as long as they are given a
CGI-like environment, along with input, output, and error streams.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler

     CGI-based invocation via ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, ‘sys.stderr’
     and ‘os.environ’.  This is useful when you have a WSGI application
     and want to run it as a CGI script.  Simply invoke
     ‘CGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application object
     you wish to invoke.

     This class is a subclass of *note BaseCGIHandler: 3916. that sets
     ‘wsgi.run_once’ to true, ‘wsgi.multithread’ to false, and
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ to true, and always uses *note sys: d8. and
     *note os: a0. to obtain the necessary CGI streams and environment.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler

     A specialized alternative to *note CGIHandler: 3915, for use when
     deploying on Microsoft's IIS web server, without having set the
     config allowPathInfo option (IIS>=7) or metabase
     allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7).

     By default, IIS gives a ‘PATH_INFO’ that duplicates the
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ at the front, causing problems for WSGI applications
     that wish to implement routing.  This handler strips any such
     duplicated path.

     IIS can be configured to pass the correct ‘PATH_INFO’, but this
     causes another bug where ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ is wrong.  Luckily this
     variable is rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7,
     though, the setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting
     all other script mappings, many of which break when exposed to the
     ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ bug.  For this reason IIS<7 is almost never
     deployed with the fix (Even IIS7 rarely uses it because there is
     still no UI for it.).

     There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so
     a separate handler class is provided.  It is used in the same way
     as *note CGIHandler: 3915, i.e., by calling
     ‘IISCGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application
     object you wish to invoke.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     Similar to *note CGIHandler: 3915, but instead of using the *note
     sys: d8. and *note os: a0. modules, the CGI environment and I/O
     streams are specified explicitly.  The 'multithread' and
     'multiprocess' values are used to set the ‘wsgi.multithread’ and
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ flags for any applications run by the handler
     instance.

     This class is a subclass of *note SimpleHandler: 3918. intended for
     use with software other than HTTP "origin servers".  If you are
     writing a gateway protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI,
     SCGI, etc.)  that uses a ‘Status:’ header to send an HTTP status,
     you probably want to subclass this instead of *note SimpleHandler:
     3918.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     Similar to *note BaseCGIHandler: 3916, but designed for use with
     HTTP origin servers.  If you are writing an HTTP server
     implementation, you will probably want to subclass this instead of
     *note BaseCGIHandler: 3916.

     This class is a subclass of *note BaseHandler: 19ae.  It overrides
     the ‘__init__()’, *note get_stdin(): 3919, *note get_stderr():
     391a, *note add_cgi_vars(): 391b, *note _write(): 391c, and *note
     _flush(): 391d. methods to support explicitly setting the
     environment and streams via the constructor.  The supplied
     environment and streams are stored in the ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’,
     ‘stderr’, and ‘environ’ attributes.

     The *note write(): ccb. method of 'stdout' should write each chunk
     in full, like *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler

     This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications.  Each
     instance will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle
     you could create a subclass that was reusable for multiple
     requests.

     *note BaseHandler: 19ae. instances have only one method intended
     for external use:

      -- Méthode: run (app)

          Run the specified WSGI application, 'app'.

     All of the other *note BaseHandler: 19ae. methods are invoked by
     this method in the process of running the application, and thus
     exist primarily to allow customizing the process.

     The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:

      -- Méthode: _write (data)

          Buffer the bytes 'data' for transmission to the client.  It's
          okay if this method actually transmits the data; *note
          BaseHandler: 19ae. just separates write and flush operations
          for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually has
          such a distinction.

      -- Méthode: _flush ()

          Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client.  It's
          okay if this method is a no-op (i.e., if *note _write(): 391c.
          actually sends the data).

      -- Méthode: get_stdin ()

          Return an object compatible with *note InputStream: 391f.
          suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.input’ of the request currently
          being processed.

      -- Méthode: get_stderr ()

          Return an object compatible with *note ErrorStream: 3920.
          suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.errors’ of the request currently
          being processed.

      -- Méthode: add_cgi_vars ()

          Insert CGI variables for the current request into the
          ‘environ’ attribute.

     Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to
     override.  This list is only a summary, however, and does not
     include every method that can be overridden.  You should consult
     the docstrings and source code for additional information before
     attempting to create a customized *note BaseHandler: 19ae.
     subclass.

     Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:

      -- Attribut: wsgi_multithread

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multithread’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to true in *note BaseHandler: 19ae, but
          may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in
          the other subclasses.

      -- Attribut: wsgi_multiprocess

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to true in *note BaseHandler: 19ae, but
          may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in
          the other subclasses.

      -- Attribut: wsgi_run_once

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.run_once’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to false in *note BaseHandler: 19ae,
          but *note CGIHandler: 3915. sets it to true by default.

      -- Attribut: os_environ

          The default environment variables to be included in every
          request's WSGI environment.  By default, this is a copy of
          ‘os.environ’ at the time that *note wsgiref.handlers: 118. was
          imported, but subclasses can either create their own at the
          class or instance level.  Note that the dictionary should be
          considered read-only, since the default value is shared
          between multiple classes and instances.

      -- Attribut: server_software

          If the *note origin_server: 3926. attribute is set, this
          attribute's value is used to set the default ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’
          WSGI environment variable, and also to set a default ‘Server:’
          header in HTTP responses.  It is ignored for handlers (such as
          *note BaseCGIHandler: 3916. and *note CGIHandler: 3915.) that
          are not HTTP origin servers.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: The term "Python" is replaced
          with implementation specific term like "CPython", "Jython"
          etc.

      -- Méthode: get_scheme ()

          Return the URL scheme being used for the current request.  The
          default implementation uses the ‘guess_scheme()’ function from
          *note wsgiref.util: 11c. to guess whether the scheme should be
          "http" or "https", based on the current request's ‘environ’
          variables.

      -- Méthode: setup_environ ()

          Set the ‘environ’ attribute to a fully populated WSGI
          environment.  The default implementation uses all of the above
          methods and attributes, plus the *note get_stdin(): 3919,
          *note get_stderr(): 391a, and *note add_cgi_vars(): 391b.
          methods and the *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 3929. attribute.  It
          also inserts a ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ key if not present, as long
          as the *note origin_server: 3926. attribute is a true value
          and the *note server_software: 3925. attribute is set.

     Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:

      -- Méthode: log_exception (exc_info)

          Log the 'exc_info' tuple in the server log.  'exc_info' is a
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’ tuple.  The default implementation
          simply writes the traceback to the request's ‘wsgi.errors’
          stream and flushes it.  Subclasses can override this method to
          change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback
          to an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed
          suitable.

      -- Attribut: traceback_limit

          The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output
          by the default *note log_exception(): 392a. method.  If
          ‘None’, all frames are included.

      -- Méthode: error_output (environ, start_response)

          This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page
          for the user.  It is only invoked if an error occurs before
          headers are sent to the client.

          This method can access the current error using
          ‘sys.exception()’, and should pass that information to
          'start_response' when calling it (as described in the "Error
          Handling" section of PEP 3333(1)).  In particular, the
          'start_response' callable should follow the *note
          StartResponse: 3909. protocol.

          The default implementation just uses the *note error_status:
          392d, *note error_headers: 392e, and *note error_body: 392f.
          attributes to generate an output page.  Subclasses can
          override this to produce more dynamic error output.

          Note, however, that it's not recommended from a security
          perspective to spit out diagnostics to any old user; ideally,
          you should have to do something special to enable diagnostic
          output, which is why the default implementation doesn't
          include any.

      -- Attribut: error_status

          The HTTP status used for error responses.  This should be a
          status string as defined in PEP 3333(2); it defaults to a 500
          code and message.

      -- Attribut: error_headers

          The HTTP headers used for error responses.  This should be a
          list of WSGI response headers (‘(name, value)’ tuples), as
          described in PEP 3333(3).  The default list just sets the
          content type to ‘text/plain’.

      -- Attribut: error_body

          The error response body.  This should be an HTTP response body
          bytestring.  It defaults to the plain text, "A server error
          occurred.  Please contact the administrator."

     Methods and attributes for PEP 3333(4)'s "Optional
     Platform-Specific File Handling" feature:

      -- Attribut: wsgi_file_wrapper

          A ‘wsgi.file_wrapper’ factory, compatible with *note
          wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3903, or ‘None’.  The default value
          of this attribute is the *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 722.
          class.

      -- Méthode: sendfile ()

          Override to implement platform-specific file transmission.
          This method is called only if the application's return value
          is an instance of the class specified by the *note
          wsgi_file_wrapper: 3929. attribute.  It should return a true
          value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so
          that the default transmission code will not be executed.  The
          default implementation of this method just returns a false
          value.

     Miscellaneous methods and attributes:

      -- Attribut: origin_server

          This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler's
          *note _write(): 391c. and *note _flush(): 391d. are being used
          to communicate directly to the client, rather than via a
          CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a
          special ‘Status:’ header.

          This attribute's default value is true in *note BaseHandler:
          19ae, but false in *note BaseCGIHandler: 3916. and *note
          CGIHandler: 3915.

      -- Attribut: http_version

          If *note origin_server: 3926. is true, this string attribute
          is used to set the HTTP version of the response set to the
          client.  It defaults to ‘"1.0"’.

 -- Fonction: wsgiref.handlers.read_environ ()

     Transcode CGI variables from ‘os.environ’ to PEP 3333(5) "bytes in
     unicode" strings, returning a new dictionary.  This function is
     used by *note CGIHandler: 3915. and *note IISCGIHandler: 3917. in
     place of directly using ‘os.environ’, which is not necessarily
     WSGI-compliant on all platforms and web servers using Python 3 -
     specifically, ones where the OS's actual environment is Unicode
     (i.e.  Windows), or ones where the environment is bytes, but the
     system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything other than
     ISO-8859-1 (e.g.  Unix systems using UTF-8).

     If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you
     probably want to use this routine instead of just copying values
     out of ‘os.environ’ directly.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking,  Next: Exemples<24>,  Prev: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.6 ‘wsgiref.types’ - WSGI types for static type checking
..............................................................

This module provides various types for static type checking as described
in PEP 3333(1).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.types.StartResponse

     A *note typing.Protocol: 261. describing start_response()(2)
     callables ( PEP 3333(3)).

 -- Données: wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment

     A type alias describing a WSGI environment dictionary.

 -- Données: wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication

     A type alias describing a WSGI application callable.

 -- Classe: wsgiref.types.InputStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 261. describing a WSGI Input Stream(4).

 -- Classe: wsgiref.types.ErrorStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 261. describing a WSGI Error Stream(5).

 -- Classe: wsgiref.types.FileWrapper

     A *note typing.Protocol: 261. describing a file wrapper(6).  See
     *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 722. for a concrete implementation
     of this protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (6) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<24>,  Prev: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking,  Up: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.22.2.7 Exemples
.................

This is a working "Hello World" WSGI application, where the
'start_response' callable should follow the *note StartResponse: 3909.
protocol:

     """
     Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
     object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
     use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
     use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
     is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
     second variable is the callable object.
     """
     from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server


     def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
         status = "200 OK"  # HTTP Status
         headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")]  # HTTP Headers
         start_response(status, headers)

         # The returned object is going to be printed
         return [b"Hello World"]

     with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
         print("Serving on port 8000...")

         # Serve until process is killed
         httpd.serve_forever()

Example of a WSGI application serving the current directory, accept
optional directory and port number (default: 8000) on the command line:

     """
     Small wsgiref based web server. Takes a path to serve from and an
     optional port number (defaults to 8000), then tries to serve files.
     MIME types are guessed from the file names, 404 errors are raised
     if the file is not found.
     """
     import mimetypes
     import os
     import sys
     from wsgiref import simple_server, util


     def app(environ, respond):
         # Get the file name and MIME type
         fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:])
         if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]:
             fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html")
         mime_type = mimetypes.guess_file_type(fn)[0]

         # Return 200 OK if file exists, otherwise 404 Not Found
         if os.path.exists(fn):
             respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)])
             return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb"))
         else:
             respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")])
             return [b"not found"]


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Get the path and port from command-line arguments
         path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd()
         port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000

         # Make and start the server until control-c
         httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app)
         print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop")
         try:
             httpd.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("Shutting down.")
             httpd.server_close()


File: python.info,  Node: urllib --- URL handling modules,  Next: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs,  Prev: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.3 ‘urllib’ -- URL handling modules
---------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/urllib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘urllib’ est un paquet qui collecte plusieurs modules travaillant avec
les URLs :

   * *note urllib.request: 10a. pour ouvrir et lire des URLs ;

   * *note urllib.error: 108. contenant les exceptions levées par *note
     urllib.request: 10a. ;

   * *note urllib.parse: 109. pour analyser les URLs ;

   * *note urllib.robotparser: 10c. pour analyser les fichiers
     ‘robots.txt’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs,  Next: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib,  Prev: urllib --- URL handling modules,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.4 ‘urllib.request’ -- Extensible library for opening URLs
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/request.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note urllib.request: 10a. module defines functions and classes
which help in opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world -- basic and
digest authentication, redirections, cookies and more.

Voir aussi
..........

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     Avertissement: On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs
     using *note os.fork(): 195. because the *note getproxies(): 3939.
     implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the
     environment variable ‘no_proxy’ to ‘*’ to avoid this problem (e.g.
     ‘os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*"’).

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

The *note urllib.request: 10a. module defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.urlopen (url, data=None[, timeout], *,
          context=None)

     Open 'url', which can be either a string containing a valid,
     properly encoded URL, or a *note Request: fc5. object.

     'data' must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to
     the server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed.  See *note
     Request: fc5. for details.

     urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes ‘Connection:close’
     header in its HTTP requests.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
     the global default timeout setting will be used).  This actually
     only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

     If 'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.
     instance describing the various SSL options.  See *note
     HTTPSConnection: b31. for more details.

     This function always returns an object which can work as a *note
     context manager: 5c0. and has the properties 'url', 'headers', and
     'status'.  See *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 393a. for more
     detail on these properties.

     For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse: 10b2. object slightly modified.  In
     addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains
     the same information as the *note reason: 393b. attribute -- the
     reason phrase returned by server -- instead of the response headers
     as it is specified in the documentation for *note HTTPResponse:
     10b2.

     For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by
     legacy *note URLopener: 303. and *note FancyURLopener: 304.
     classes, this function returns a *note urllib.response.addinfourl:
     393a. object.

     Raises *note URLError: 393c. on protocol errors.

     Note that ‘None’ may be returned if no handler handles the request
     (though the default installed global *note OpenerDirector: 393d.
     uses *note UnknownHandler: 393e. to ensure this never happens).

     In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a
     ‘*_proxy’ environment variable like ‘http_proxy’ is set), *note
     ProxyHandler: 198e. is default installed and makes sure the
     requests are handled through the proxy.

     The legacy ‘urllib.urlopen’ function from Python 2.6 and earlier
     has been discontinued; *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 290.
     corresponds to the old ‘urllib2.urlopen’.  Proxy handling, which
     was done by passing a dictionary parameter to ‘urllib.urlopen’, can
     be obtained by using *note ProxyHandler: 198e. objects.

     The default opener raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘urllib.Request’ with arguments ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’,
     ‘method’ taken from the request object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'cafile' and 'capath' were added.

     HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if
     *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423. is true).

     'data' can be an iterable object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'cadefault' was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.3: 'context' was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: HTTPS connection now send an ALPN
     extension with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is
     given.  Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): e4f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and
     'cadefault' parameters: use the 'context' parameter instead.

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.install_opener (opener)

     Install an *note OpenerDirector: 393d. instance as the default
     global opener.  Installing an opener is only necessary if you want
     urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call *note
     OpenerDirector.open(): fc9. instead of *note urlopen(): 290.  The
     code does not check for a real *note OpenerDirector: 393d, and any
     class with the appropriate interface will work.

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.build_opener ([handler, ...])

     Return an *note OpenerDirector: 393d. instance, which chains the
     handlers in the order given.  'handler's can be either instances of
     *note BaseHandler: 3941, or subclasses of *note BaseHandler: 3941.
     (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without
     any parameters).  Instances of the following classes will be in
     front of the 'handler's, unless the 'handler's contain them,
     instances of them or subclasses of them: *note ProxyHandler: 198e.
     (if proxy settings are detected), *note UnknownHandler: 393e, *note
     HTTPHandler: 3942, *note HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 3943, *note
     HTTPRedirectHandler: 3944, *note FTPHandler: 3945, *note
     FileHandler: 3946, *note HTTPErrorProcessor: 3947.

     If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the *note ssl:
     cf. module can be imported), *note HTTPSHandler: 1203. will also be
     added.

     A *note BaseHandler: 3941. subclass may also change its
     ‘handler_order’ attribute to modify its position in the handlers
     list.

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.pathname2url (path)

     Convert the given local path to a ‘file:’ URL. This function uses
     *note quote(): b93. function to encode the path.  For historical
     reasons, the return value omits the ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  This
     example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import pathname2url
          >>> path = 'C:\\Program Files'
          >>> 'file:' + pathname2url(path)
          'file:///C:/Program%20Files'

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.url2pathname (url)

     Convert the given ‘file:’ URL to a local path.  This function uses
     *note unquote(): 1742. to decode the URL. For historical reasons,
     the given value 'must' omit the ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  This
     example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import url2pathname
          >>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
          >>> url2pathname(url.removeprefix('file:'))
          'C:\\Program Files'

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.getproxies ()

     This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server
     URL mappings.  It scans the environment for variables named
     ‘<scheme>_proxy’, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating
     systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy
     information from System Configuration for macOS and Windows Systems
     Registry for Windows.  If both lowercase and uppercase environment
     variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred.

          Note: If the environment variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set,
          which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI
          environment, the environment variable ‘HTTP_PROXY’ (uppercase
          ‘_PROXY’) will be ignored.  This is because that variable can
          be injected by a client using the "Proxy:" HTTP header.  If
          you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use
          ‘ProxyHandler’ explicitly, or make sure the variable name is
          in lowercase (or at least the ‘_proxy’ suffix).

The following classes are provided:

 -- Classe: urllib.request.Request (url, data=None, headers={},
          origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)

     This class is an abstraction of a URL request.

     'url' should be a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL.

     'data' must be an object specifying additional data to send to the
     server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed.  Currently HTTP
     requests are the only ones that use 'data'.  The supported object
     types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables of bytes-like
     objects.  If no ‘Content-Length’ nor ‘Transfer-Encoding’ header
     field has been provided, *note HTTPHandler: 3942. will set these
     headers according to the type of 'data'.  ‘Content-Length’ will be
     used to send bytes objects, while ‘Transfer-Encoding: chunked’ as
     specified in RFC 7230(3), Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files
     and other iterables.

     For an HTTP POST request method, 'data' should be a buffer in the
     standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format.  The *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. function takes a mapping or sequence
     of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format.  It should
     be encoded to bytes before being used as the 'data' parameter.

     'headers' should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if *note
     add_header(): 3948. was called with each key and value as
     arguments.  This is often used to "spoof" the ‘User-Agent’ header
     value, which is used by a browser to identify itself - some HTTP
     servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed
     to scripts.  For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as
     ‘"Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127
     Firefox/2.0.0.11"’, while *note urllib: 107.'s default user agent
     string is ‘"Python-urllib/2.6"’ (on Python 2.6).  All header keys
     are sent in camel case.

     An appropriate ‘Content-Type’ header should be included if the
     'data' argument is present.  If this header has not been provided
     and 'data' is not ‘None’, ‘Content-Type:
     application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ will be added as a default.

     The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of
     third-party HTTP cookies:

     'origin_req_host' should be the request-host of the origin
     transaction, as defined by RFC 2965(4).  It defaults to
     ‘http.cookiejar.request_host(self)’.  This is the host name or IP
     address of the original request that was initiated by the user.
     For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document,
     this should be the request-host of the request for the page
     containing the image.

     'unverifiable' should indicate whether the request is unverifiable,
     as defined by RFC 2965(5).  It defaults to ‘False’.  An
     unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the
     option to approve.  For example, if the request is for an image in
     an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the
     automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.

     'method' should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method
     that will be used (e.g.  ‘'HEAD'’).  If provided, its value is
     stored in the *note method: fc6. attribute and is used by *note
     get_method(): 114b.  The default is ‘'GET'’ if 'data' is ‘None’ or
     ‘'POST'’ otherwise.  Subclasses may indicate a different default
     method by setting the *note method: fc6. attribute in the class
     itself.

          Note: The request will not work as expected if the data object
          is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g.  a file
          or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the
          request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication.  The
          'data' is sent to the HTTP server right away after the
          headers.  There is no support for a 100-continue expectation
          in the library.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note Request.method: fc6. argument is
     added to the Request class.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Default *note Request.method: fc6. may
     be indicated at the class level.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Do not raise an error if the
     ‘Content-Length’ has not been provided and 'data' is neither ‘None’
     nor a bytes object.  Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding
     instead.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.OpenerDirector

     The *note OpenerDirector: 393d. class opens URLs via *note
     BaseHandler: 3941.s chained together.  It manages the chaining of
     handlers, and recovery from errors.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.BaseHandler

     This is the base class for all registered handlers -- and handles
     only the simple mechanics of registration.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler

     A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses;
     all responses are turned into *note HTTPError: fcb. exceptions.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler

     A class to handle redirections.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor (cookiejar=None)

     A class to handle HTTP Cookies.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.ProxyHandler (proxies=None)

     Cause requests to go through a proxy.  If 'proxies' is given, it
     must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies.
     The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment
     variables ‘<protocol>_proxy’.  If no proxy environment variables
     are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained
     from the registry's Internet Settings section, and in a macOS
     environment proxy information is retrieved from the System
     Configuration Framework.

     To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.

     The ‘no_proxy’ environment variable can be used to specify hosts
     which shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a
     comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with ‘:port’
     appended, for example ‘cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080’.

          Note: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable
          ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note
          getproxies(): 3939.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.  A
     realm of ‘None’ is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched
     if no other realm fits.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth

     A variant of *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 394b. that also
     has a database of ‘uri -> is_authenticated’ mappings.  Can be used
     by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication
     credentials immediately instead of waiting for a ‘401’ response
     first.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 394a.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 394c. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.  If
     'passwd_mgr' also provides ‘is_authenticated’ and
     ‘update_authenticated’ methods (see *note
     HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects: 394d.), then the handler will
     use the ‘is_authenticated’ result for a given URI to determine
     whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request.
     If ‘is_authenticated’ returns ‘True’ for the URI, credentials are
     sent.  If ‘is_authenticated’ is ‘False’, credentials are not sent,
     and then if a ‘401’ response is received the request is re-sent
     with the authentication credentials.  If authentication succeeds,
     ‘update_authenticated’ is called to set ‘is_authenticated’ ‘True’
     for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its
     super-URIs will automatically include the authentication
     credentials.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Added ‘is_authenticated’ support.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 394a.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     Objects: 394c. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a *note ValueError:
     1ff. when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     394a.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 394c. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 394a.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 394c. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 394a.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     Objects: 394c. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic
     Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is
     always tried first.  If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x
     response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to
     Handle.  This Handler method will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or
     Basic.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Raise *note ValueError: 1ff. on
     unsupported Authentication Scheme.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     394a.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 394c. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPHandler

     A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPSHandler (debuglevel=0, context=None,
          check_hostname=None)

     A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.  'context' and
     'check_hostname' have the same meaning as in *note
     http.client.HTTPSConnection: b31.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'context' and 'check_hostname' were
     added.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.FileHandler

     Open local files.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.DataHandler

     Open data URLs.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.FTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize
     delays.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.UnknownHandler

     A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor

     Process HTTP error responses.

* Menu:

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector Objects::
* BaseHandler Objects::
* HTTPRedirectHandler Objects::
* HTTPCookieProcessor Objects::
* ProxyHandler Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgr Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPHandler Objects::
* HTTPSHandler Objects::
* FileHandler Objects::
* DataHandler Objects::
* FTPHandler Objects::
* CacheFTPHandler Objects::
* UnknownHandler Objects::
* HTTPErrorProcessor Objects::
* Exemples: Exemples<25>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/request.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Request Objects,  Next: OpenerDirector Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.1 Request Objects
........................

The following methods describe *note Request: fc5.'s public interface,
and so all may be overridden in subclasses.  It also defines several
public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed
request.

 -- Attribut: Request.full_url

     The original URL passed to the constructor.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.

     Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter.
     Getting *note full_url: fc7. returns the original request URL with
     the fragment, if it was present.

 -- Attribut: Request.type

     The URI scheme.

 -- Attribut: Request.host

     The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port
     separated by a colon.

 -- Attribut: Request.origin_req_host

     The original host for the request, without port.

 -- Attribut: Request.selector

     The URI path.  If the *note Request: fc5. uses a proxy, then
     selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.

 -- Attribut: Request.data

     The entity body for the request, or ‘None’ if not specified.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Changing value of *note Request.data:
     fc8. now deletes "Content-Length" header if it was previously set
     or calculated.

 -- Attribut: Request.unverifiable

     boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined
     by RFC 2965(1).

 -- Attribut: Request.method

     The HTTP request method to use.  By default its value is *note
     None: 662, which means that *note get_method(): 114b. will do its
     normal computation of the method to be used.  Its value can be set
     (thus overriding the default computation in *note get_method():
     114b.) either by providing a default value by setting it at the
     class level in a *note Request: fc5. subclass, or by passing a
     value in to the *note Request: fc5. constructor via the 'method'
     argument.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: A default value can now be set in
     subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor
     argument.

 -- Méthode: Request.get_method ()

     Return a string indicating the HTTP request method.  If *note
     Request.method: fc6. is not ‘None’, return its value, otherwise
     return ‘'GET'’ if *note Request.data: fc8. is ‘None’, or ‘'POST'’
     if it's not.  This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: get_method now looks at the value of
     *note Request.method: fc6.

 -- Méthode: Request.add_header (key, val)

     Add another header to the request.  Headers are currently ignored
     by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the
     list of headers sent to the server.  Note that there cannot be more
     than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite
     previous calls in case the 'key' collides.  Currently, this is no
     loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning
     when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining
     the same functionality using only one header.  Note that headers
     added using this method are also added to redirected requests.

 -- Méthode: Request.add_unredirected_header (key, header)

     Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.

 -- Méthode: Request.has_header (header)

     Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both
     regular and unredirected).

 -- Méthode: Request.remove_header (header)

     Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular
     and unredirected headers).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: Request.get_full_url ()

     Return the URL given in the constructor.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.

     Returns *note Request.full_url: fc7.

 -- Méthode: Request.set_proxy (host, type)

     Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server.  The 'host'
     and 'type' will replace those of the instance, and the instance's
     selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.

 -- Méthode: Request.get_header (header_name, default=None)

     Return the value of the given header.  If the header is not
     present, return the default value.

 -- Méthode: Request.header_items ()

     Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request
     headers.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The request methods add_data, has_data,
get_data, get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and
is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: OpenerDirector Objects,  Next: BaseHandler Objects,  Prev: Request Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.2 OpenerDirector Objects
...............................

*note OpenerDirector: 393d. instances have the following methods:

 -- Méthode: OpenerDirector.add_handler (handler)

     'handler' should be an instance of *note BaseHandler: 3941.  The
     following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains
     (note that HTTP errors are a special case).  Note that, in the
     following, 'protocol' should be replaced with the actual protocol
     to handle, for example ‘http_response()’ would be the HTTP protocol
     response handler.  Also 'type' should be replaced with the actual
     HTTP code, for example ‘http_error_404()’ would handle HTTP 404
     errors.

        * ‘<protocol>_open()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          open 'protocol' URLs.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(): 3962. for more
          information.

        * ‘http_error_<type>()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code 'type'.

          See *note BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(): 3963. for more
          information.

        * ‘<protocol>_error()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          handle errors from (non-‘http’) 'protocol'.

        * ‘<protocol>_request()’ -- signal that the handler knows how to
          pre-process 'protocol' requests.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(): 3964. for more
          information.

        * ‘<protocol>_response()’ -- signal that the handler knows how
          to post-process 'protocol' responses.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(): 3965. for more
          information.

 -- Méthode: OpenerDirector.open (url, data=None[, timeout])

     Open the given 'url' (which can be a request object or a string),
     optionally passing the given 'data'.  Arguments, return values and
     exceptions raised are the same as those of *note urlopen(): 290.
     (which simply calls the *note open(): 508. method on the currently
     installed global *note OpenerDirector: 393d.).  The optional
     'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
     operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the
     global default timeout setting will be used).  The timeout feature
     actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

 -- Méthode: OpenerDirector.error (proto, *args)

     Handle an error of the given protocol.  This will call the
     registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given
     arguments (which are protocol specific).  The HTTP protocol is a
     special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the
     specific error handler; refer to the ‘http_error_<type>()’ methods
     of the handler classes.

     Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of *note
     urlopen(): 290.

OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:

The order in which these methods are called within each stage is
determined by sorting the handler instances.

  1. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_request()’ has
     that method called to pre-process the request.

  2. Handlers with a method named like ‘<protocol>_open()’ are called to
     handle the request.  This stage ends when a handler either returns
     a non-*note None: 662. value (ie.  a response), or raises an
     exception (usually *note URLError: 393c.).  Exceptions are allowed
     to propagate.

     In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named *note
     default_open(): 3967.  If all such methods return *note None: 662,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named like
     ‘<protocol>_open()’.  If all such methods return *note None: 662,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named *note unknown_open():
     3968.

     Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 393d. instance's *note open():
     fc9. and *note error(): 3966. methods.

  3. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_response()’ has
     that method called to post-process the response.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Prev: OpenerDirector Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.3 BaseHandler Objects
............................

*note BaseHandler: 3941. objects provide a couple of methods that are
directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived
classes.  These are intended for direct use:

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.add_parent (director)

     Add a director as parent.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.close ()

     Remove any parents.

The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes
derived from *note BaseHandler: 3941.

     Note: The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining
     ‘<protocol>_request()’ or ‘<protocol>_response()’ methods are named
     ‘*Processor’; all others are named ‘*Handler’.

 -- Attribut: BaseHandler.parent

     A valid *note OpenerDirector: 393d, which can be used to open using
     a different protocol, or handle errors.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.default_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 393d.  It should return a file-like object as
     described in the return value of the *note open(): fc9. method of
     *note OpenerDirector: 393d, or ‘None’.  It should raise *note
     URLError: 393c, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for
     example, *note MemoryError: 1530. should not be mapped to *note
     URLError: 393c.).

     This method will be called before any protocol-specific open
     method.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the
     given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 393d.  Return values should be the same as for
     *note default_open(): 3967.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.unknown_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no
     specific registered handler to open it.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the *note parent:
     396d. *note OpenerDirector: 393d.  Return values should be the same
     as for *note default_open(): 3967.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.http_error_default (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but
     subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all
     for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors.  It will be called
     automatically by the *note OpenerDirector: 393d. getting the error,
     and should not normally be called in other circumstances.

     'req' will be a *note Request: fc5. object, 'fp' will be a
     file-like object with the HTTP error body, 'code' will be the
     three-digit code of the error, 'msg' will be the user-visible
     explanation of the code and 'hdrs' will be a mapping object with
     the headers of the error.

     Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
     *note urlopen(): 290.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     'nnn' should be a three-digit HTTP error code.  This method is also
     not defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but will be called, if it
     exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code
     'nnn' occurs.

     Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP
     errors.

     Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same
     as for *note http_error_default(): 396e.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of
     the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 393d.  'req' will be a *note Request: fc5. object.
     The return value should be a *note Request: fc5. object.

 -- Méthode: BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 3941, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses
     of the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 393d.  'req' will be a *note Request: fc5. object.
     'response' will be an object implementing the same interface as the
     return value of *note urlopen(): 290.  The return value should
     implement the same interface as the return value of *note
     urlopen(): 290.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Prev: BaseHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.4 HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
....................................

     Note: Some HTTP redirections require action from this module's
     client code.  If this is the case, *note HTTPError: fcb. is raised.
     See RFC 2616(1) for details of the precise meanings of the various
     redirection codes.

     An *note HTTPError: fcb. exception raised as a security
     consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a
     redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.

 -- Méthode: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs, newurl)

     Return a *note Request: fc5. or ‘None’ in response to a redirect.
     This is called by the default implementations of the
     ‘http_error_30*()’ methods when a redirection is received from the
     server.  If a redirection should take place, return a new *note
     Request: fc5. to allow ‘http_error_30*()’ to perform the redirect
     to 'newurl'.  Otherwise, raise *note HTTPError: fcb. if no other
     handler should try to handle this URL, or return ‘None’ if you
     can't but another handler might.

          Note: The default implementation of this method does not
          strictly follow RFC 2616(2), which says that 301 and 302
          responses to ‘POST’ requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a ‘GET’, and the default implementation
          reproduces this behavior.

 -- Méthode: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Redirect to the ‘Location:’ or ‘URI:’ URL. This method is called by
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 393d. when getting an HTTP 'moved
     permanently' response.

 -- Méthode: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3972, but called for the
     'found' response.

 -- Méthode: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3972, but called for the 'see
     other' response.

 -- Méthode: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3972, but called for the
     'temporary redirect' response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

 -- Méthode: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3972, but called for the
     'permanent redirect' response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Next: ProxyHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.5 HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
....................................

*note HTTPCookieProcessor: 3949. instances have one attribute:

 -- Attribut: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar

     The *note http.cookiejar.CookieJar: 397a. in which cookies are
     stored.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Prev: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.6 ProxyHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Méthode: ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)

     The *note ProxyHandler: 198e. will have a method
     ‘<protocol>_open()’ for every 'protocol' which has a proxy in the
     'proxies' dictionary given in the constructor.  The method will
     modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling
     ‘request.set_proxy()’, and call the next handler in the chain to
     actually execute the protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Prev: ProxyHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.7 HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
................................

These methods are available on *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 394a. and *note
HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 394b. objects.

 -- Méthode: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd)

     'uri' can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs.  'realm',
     'user' and 'passwd' must be strings.  This causes ‘(user, passwd)’
     to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for 'realm'
     and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.

 -- Méthode: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password (realm, authuri)

     Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any.  This method
     will return ‘(None, None)’ if there is no matching user/password.

     For *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 394b. objects, the realm
     ‘None’ will be searched if the given 'realm' has no matching
     user/password.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Next: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.8 HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
.............................................

This password manager extends *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm:
394b. to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials
should always be sent.

 -- Méthode: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password (realm, uri,
          user, passwd, is_authenticated=False)

     'realm', 'uri', 'user', 'passwd' are as for *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(): 397e.  'is_authenticated' sets the
     initial value of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given URI or
     list of URIs.  If 'is_authenticated' is specified as ‘True’,
     'realm' is ignored.

 -- Méthode: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password (realm,
          authuri)

     Same as for *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 394b. objects

 -- Méthode: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated (self,
          uri, is_authenticated=False)

     Update the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given 'uri' or list of
     URIs.

 -- Méthode: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated (self,
          authuri)

     Returns the current state of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the
     given URI.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.9 AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
.........................................

 -- Méthode: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair,
     and re-trying the request.  'authreq' should be the name of the
     header where the information about the realm is included in the
     request, 'host' specifies the URL and path to authenticate for,
     'req' should be the (failed) *note Request: fc5. object, and
     'headers' should be the error headers.

     'host' is either an authority (e.g.  ‘"python.org"’) or a URL
     containing an authority component (e.g.  ‘"http://python.org/"’).
     In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component
     (so, ‘"python.org"’ and ‘"python.org:80"’ are fine,
     ‘"joe:password@python.org"’ is not).


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.10 HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
......................................

 -- Méthode: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.11 ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
.......................................

 -- Méthode: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.12 AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
...........................................

 -- Méthode: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     'authreq' should be the name of the header where the information
     about the realm is included in the request, 'host' should be the
     host to authenticate to, 'req' should be the (failed) *note
     Request: fc5. object, and 'headers' should be the error headers.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.13 HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
.......................................

 -- Méthode: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.14 ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
........................................

 -- Méthode: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Prev: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.15 HTTPHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Méthode: HTTPHandler.http_open (req)

     Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
     ‘req.has_data()’.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Next: FileHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.16 HTTPSHandler Objects
..............................

 -- Méthode: HTTPSHandler.https_open (req)

     Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending
     on ‘req.has_data()’.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler Objects,  Next: DataHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.17 FileHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Méthode: FileHandler.file_open (req)

     Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name
     is ‘'localhost'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: This method is applicable only for
     local hostnames.  When a remote hostname is given, a *note
     URLError: 393c. is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: DataHandler Objects,  Next: FTPHandler Objects,  Prev: FileHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.18 DataHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Méthode: DataHandler.data_open (req)

     Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in
     the URL itself.  The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397(1).
     This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data
     URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes
     from.  But even though some browsers don't mind about a missing
     padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
     implementation will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. in that case.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTPHandler Objects,  Next: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Prev: DataHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.19 FTPHandler Objects
............................

 -- Méthode: FTPHandler.ftp_open (req)

     Open the FTP file indicated by 'req'.  The login is always done
     with empty username and password.


File: python.info,  Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Next: UnknownHandler Objects,  Prev: FTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.20 CacheFTPHandler Objects
.................................

*note CacheFTPHandler: 16e4. objects are *note FTPHandler: 3945. objects
with the following additional methods:

 -- Méthode: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout (t)

     Set timeout of connections to 't' seconds.

 -- Méthode: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns (m)

     Set maximum number of cached connections to 'm'.


File: python.info,  Node: UnknownHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Prev: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.21 UnknownHandler Objects
................................

 -- Méthode: UnknownHandler.unknown_open ()

     Raise a *note URLError: 393c. exception.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Next: Exemples<25>,  Prev: UnknownHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.22 HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
....................................

 -- Méthode: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response (request, response)

     Process HTTP error responses.

     For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.

     For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the
     ‘http_error_<type>()’ handler methods, via *note
     OpenerDirector.error(): 3966.  Eventually, *note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 3943. will raise an *note HTTPError: fcb.
     if no other handler handles the error.

 -- Méthode: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response (request, response)

     Process HTTPS error responses.

     The behavior is same as *note http_response(): 39ad.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<25>,  Next: Legacy interface,  Prev: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.23 Exemples
..................

In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in *note
Guide pratique ; récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module
urllib: 39b1.

This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300
bytes of it:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(300))
     ...
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 7]>      <html class="no-js ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">          <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 8]>      <html class="no-js ie8 lt-ie9">

Note that urlopen returns a bytes object.  This is because there is no
way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte
stream it receives from the HTTP server.  In general, a program will
decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
the appropriate encoding.

The following HTML spec document,
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#charset’, lists the various ways in which
an HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding
information.

For additional information, see the W3C document:
‘https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-html-encoding-declarations’.

As the python.org website uses 'utf-8' encoding as specified in its meta
tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object:

     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!-

It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the *note
context manager: 5c0. approach:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
     >>> try:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ... finally:
     ...     f.close()
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!--

In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a
CGI and reading the data it returns to us.  Note that this example will
only work when the Python installation supports SSL.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
     ...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"

The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import sys
     data = sys.stdin.read()
     print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)

Here is an example of doing a ‘PUT’ request using *note Request: fc5.:

     import urllib.request
     DATA = b'some data'
     req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA, method='PUT')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         pass
     print(f.status)
     print(f.reason)

Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:

     import urllib.request
     # Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
     auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
     auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
                               uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
                               user='klem',
                               passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
     # ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note build_opener(): 3940. provides many handlers by default, including
a *note ProxyHandler: 198e.  By default, *note ProxyHandler: 198e. uses
the environment variables named ‘<scheme>_proxy’, where ‘<scheme>’ is
the URL scheme involved.  For example, the ‘http_proxy’ environment
variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy's URL.

This example replaces the default *note ProxyHandler: 198e. with one
that uses programmatically supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy
authorization support with *note ProxyBasicAuthHandler: 394f.

     proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
     proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
     proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')

     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
     # This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Adding HTTP headers:

Use the 'headers' argument to the *note Request: fc5. constructor, or:

     import urllib.request
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
     req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
     # Customize the default User-Agent header value:
     req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note OpenerDirector: 393d. automatically adds a ‘User-Agent’ header to
every *note Request: fc5.  To change this:

     import urllib.request
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
     opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Also, remember that a few standard headers (‘Content-Length’,
‘Content-Type’ and ‘Host’) are added when the *note Request: fc5. is
passed to *note urlopen(): 290. (or *note OpenerDirector.open(): fc9.).
Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method to retrieve a URL
containing parameters:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses the ‘POST’ method instead.  Note that params
output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen
as data:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> data = data.encode('ascii')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy,
overriding environment settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...

The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment
settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy interface,  Next: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Exemples<25>,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.24 Legacy interface
..........................

The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module
‘urllib’ (as opposed to ‘urllib2’).  They might become deprecated at
some point in the future.

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.urlretrieve (url, filename=None,
          reporthook=None, data=None)

     Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file.  If the URL
     points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless
     filename is supplied.  Return a tuple ‘(filename, headers)’ where
     'filename' is the local file name under which the object can be
     found, and 'headers' is whatever the ‘info()’ method of the object
     returned by *note urlopen(): 290. returned (for a remote object).
     Exceptions are the same as for *note urlopen(): 290.

     The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to
     copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a
     generated name).  The third argument, if present, is a callable
     that will be called once on establishment of the network connection
     and once after each block read thereafter.  The callable will be
     passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a
     block size in bytes, and the total size of the file.  The third
     argument may be ‘-1’ on older FTP servers which do not return a
     file size in response to a retrieval request.

     The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:

          >>> import urllib.request
          >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
          >>> html = open(local_filename)
          >>> html.close()

     If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
     'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request (normally
     the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument must be a bytes
     object in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format; see
     the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. function.

     *note urlretrieve(): 39b4. will raise *note ContentTooShortError:
     39b5. when it detects that the amount of data available was less
     than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a
     'Content-Length' header).  This can occur, for example, when the
     download is interrupted.

     The 'Content-Length' is treated as a lower bound: if there's more
     data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is
     available, it raises the exception.

     You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is
     stored in the ‘content’ attribute of the exception instance.

     If no 'Content-Length' header was supplied, urlretrieve can not
     check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it.
     In this case you just have to assume that the download was
     successful.

 -- Fonction: urllib.request.urlcleanup ()

     Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by
     previous calls to *note urlretrieve(): 39b4.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.URLopener (proxies=None, **x509)

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.3.

     Base class for opening and reading URLs.  Unless you need to
     support opening objects using schemes other than ‘http:’, ‘ftp:’,
     or ‘file:’, you probably want to use *note FancyURLopener: 304.

     By default, the *note URLopener: 303. class sends a ‘User-Agent’
     header of ‘urllib/VVV’, where 'VVV' is the *note urllib: 107.
     version number.  Applications can define their own ‘User-Agent’
     header by subclassing *note URLopener: 303. or *note
     FancyURLopener: 304. and setting the class attribute *note version:
     39b6. to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.

     The optional 'proxies' parameter should be a dictionary mapping
     scheme names to proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies
     off completely.  Its default value is ‘None’, in which case
     environmental proxy settings will be used if present, as discussed
     in the definition of *note urlopen(): 290, above.

     Additional keyword parameters, collected in 'x509', may be used for
     authentication of the client when using the ‘https:’ scheme.  The
     keywords 'key_file' and 'cert_file' are supported to provide an SSL
     key and certificate; both are needed to support client
     authentication.

     *note URLopener: 303. objects will raise an *note OSError: 40d.
     exception if the server returns an error code.

      -- Méthode: open (fullurl, data=None)

          Open 'fullurl' using the appropriate protocol.  This method
          sets up cache and proxy information, then calls the
          appropriate open method with its input arguments.  If the
          scheme is not recognized, *note open_unknown(): 39b8. is
          called.  The 'data' argument has the same meaning as the
          'data' argument of *note urlopen(): 290.

          This method always quotes 'fullurl' using *note quote(): b93.

      -- Méthode: open_unknown (fullurl, data=None)

          Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.

      -- Méthode: retrieve (url, filename=None, reporthook=None,
               data=None)

          Retrieves the contents of 'url' and places it in 'filename'.
          The return value is a tuple consisting of a local filename and
          either an *note email.message.Message: 279. object containing
          the response headers (for remote URLs) or ‘None’ (for local
          URLs).  The caller must then open and read the contents of
          'filename'.  If 'filename' is not given and the URL refers to
          a local file, the input filename is returned.  If the URL is
          non-local and 'filename' is not given, the filename is the
          output of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 184a. with a suffix that
          matches the suffix of the last path component of the input
          URL.  If 'reporthook' is given, it must be a function
          accepting three numeric parameters: A chunk number, the
          maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the
          download (-1 if unknown).  It will be called once at the start
          and after each chunk of data is read from the network.
          'reporthook' is ignored for local URLs.

          If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
          'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request
          (normally the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument
          must in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format;
          see the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. function.

      -- Attribut: version

          Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object.
          To get *note urllib: 107. to tell servers that it is a
          particular user agent, set this in a subclass as a class
          variable or in the constructor before calling the base
          constructor.

 -- Classe: urllib.request.FancyURLopener (...)

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.3.

     *note FancyURLopener: 304. subclasses *note URLopener: 303.
     providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes:
     301, 302, 303, 307 and 401.  For the 30x response codes listed
     above, the ‘Location’ header is used to fetch the actual URL. For
     401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP
     authentication is performed.  For the 30x response codes, recursion
     is bounded by the value of the 'maxtries' attribute, which defaults
     to 10.

     For all other response codes, the method *note
     http_error_default(): 396e. is called which you can override in
     subclasses to handle the error appropriately.

          Note: According to the letter of RFC 2616(1), 301 and 302
          responses to POST requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a GET, and *note urllib: 107. reproduces
          this behaviour.

     The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for *note
     URLopener: 303.

          Note: When performing basic authentication, a *note
          FancyURLopener: 304. instance calls its *note
          prompt_user_passwd(): 39b9. method.  The default
          implementation asks the users for the required information on
          the controlling terminal.  A subclass may override this method
          to support more appropriate behavior if needed.

     The *note FancyURLopener: 304. class offers one additional method
     that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:

      -- Méthode: prompt_user_passwd (host, realm)

          Return information needed to authenticate the user at the
          given host in the specified security realm.  The return value
          should be a tuple, ‘(user, password)’, which can be used for
          basic authentication.

          The implementation prompts for this information on the
          terminal; an application should override this method to use an
          appropriate interaction model in the local environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Legacy interface,  Up: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

5.22.4.25 ‘urllib.request’ Restrictions
.......................................

   * Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP
     (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added support for data URLs.

   * The caching feature of *note urlretrieve(): 39b4. has been disabled
     until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of
     Expiration time headers.

   * There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in
     the cache.

   * For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local
     file but the file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using
     the FTP protocol.  This can sometimes cause confusing error
     messages.

   * The *note urlopen(): 290. and *note urlretrieve(): 39b4. functions
     can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network
     connection to be set up.  This means that it is difficult to build
     an interactive web client using these functions without using
     threads.

   * The data returned by *note urlopen(): 290. or *note urlretrieve():
     39b4. is the raw data returned by the server.  This may be binary
     data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP
     protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can
     be inspected by looking at the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
     returned data is HTML, you can use the module *note html.parser:
     6c. to parse it.

   * The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a
     file and a directory.  This can lead to unexpected behavior when
     attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not
     accessible.  If the URL ends in a ‘/’, it is assumed to refer to a
     directory and will be handled accordingly.  But if an attempt to
     read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found
     or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path
     is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a
     directory is specified by a URL but the trailing ‘/’ has been left
     off.  This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a
     file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will
     try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
     listing for the unreadable file.  If fine-grained control is
     needed, consider using the *note ftplib: 5d. module, subclassing
     *note FancyURLopener: 304, or changing '_urlopener' to meet your
     needs.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib,  Next: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components,  Prev: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.5 ‘urllib.response’ -- Response classes used by urllib
-----------------------------------------------------------

The *note urllib.response: 10b. module defines functions and classes
which define a minimal file-like interface, including ‘read()’ and
‘readline()’.  Functions defined by this module are used internally by
the *note urllib.request: 10a. module.  The typical response object is a
*note urllib.response.addinfourl: 393a. instance:

 -- Classe: urllib.response.addinfourl

      -- Attribut: url

          L'URL de la ressource récupérée, utilisée habituellement pour
          déterminer si une redirection a été suivie.

      -- Attribut: headers

          Returns the headers of the response in the form of an *note
          EmailMessage: 278. instance.

      -- Attribut: status

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

          Code d'état renvoyé par le serveur.

      -- Méthode: geturl ()

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          url: 39bc.

      -- Méthode: info ()

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          headers: 39bd.

      -- Attribut: code

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          status: 39be.

      -- Méthode: getcode ()

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          status: 39be.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components,  Next: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Prev: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.6 ‘urllib.parse’ -- Parse URLs into components
---------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/urllib/parse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network
location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL string,
and to convert a "relative URL" to an absolute URL given a "base URL."

The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative
Uniform Resource Locators.  It supports the following URL schemes:
‘file’, ‘ftp’, ‘gopher’, ‘hdl’, ‘http’, ‘https’, ‘imap’,
‘itms-services’, ‘mailto’, ‘mms’, ‘news’, ‘nntp’, ‘prospero’, ‘rsync’,
‘rtsp’, ‘rtsps’, ‘rtspu’, ‘sftp’, ‘shttp’, ‘sip’, ‘sips’, ‘snews’,
‘svn’, ‘svn+ssh’, ‘telnet’, ‘wais’, ‘ws’, ‘wss’.

'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' The inclusion of the
‘itms-services’ URL scheme can prevent an app from passing Apple's App
Store review process for the macOS and iOS App Stores.  Handling for the
‘itms-services’ scheme is always removed on iOS; on macOS, it 'may' be
removed if CPython has been built with the *note
-with-app-store-compliance: 15ae. option.

The *note urllib.parse: 109. module defines functions that fall into two
broad categories: URL parsing and URL quoting.  These are covered in
detail in the following sections.

This module's functions use the deprecated term ‘netloc’ (or ‘net_loc’),
which was introduced in RFC 1808(2).  However, this term has been
obsoleted by RFC 3986(3), which introduced the term ‘authority’ as its
replacement.  The use of ‘netloc’ is continued for backward
compatibility.

* Menu:

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/parse.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL Parsing,  Next: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components

5.22.6.1 URL Parsing
....................

The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its
components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urlparse (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item *note named
     tuple: 63b.  This corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
     ‘scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment’.  Each tuple item
     is a string, possibly empty.  The components are not broken up into
     smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single
     string), and % escapes are not expanded.  The delimiters as shown
     above are not part of the result, except for a leading slash in the
     'path' component, which is retained if present.  For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse("scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment")
          ParseResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path;parameters', params='',
                      query='query', fragment='fragment')
          >>> o = urlparse("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
          ...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
          >>> o
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
                      path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html', params='',
                      query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
          >>> o.scheme
          'http'
          >>> o.netloc
          'docs.python.org:80'
          >>> o.hostname
          'docs.python.org'
          >>> o.port
          80
          >>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
          'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'

     Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808(1), urlparse
     recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by '//'.
     Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to
     start with a path component.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
                      query='', fragment='')

     The 'scheme' argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
     used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same
     type (text or bytes) as 'urlstring', except that the default value
     ‘''’ is always allowed, and is automatically converted to ‘b''’ if
     appropriate.

     If the 'allow_fragments' argument is false, fragment identifiers
     are not recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path,
     parameters or query component, and ‘fragment’ is set to the empty
     string in the return value.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 63b, which means that its
     items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:

     Attribut               Index       Valeur                        Value if not present
                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘params’               3           Parameters for last path      empty string
                                        element                       
                                        
                                                                      
     ‘query’                4           Query component               empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             5           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     *note None: 662.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      *note None: 662.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        *note None: 662.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    *note None: 662.
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 39c6. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 1ff.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few
     additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful.
     One such method is ‘_replace()’.  The ‘_replace()’ method will
     return a new ParseResult object replacing specified fields with new
     values.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          >>> u
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')

          Avertissement: *note urlparse(): 302. does not perform
          validation.  See *note URL parsing security: 39c7. for
          details.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The fragment is now parsed for all URL
     schemes (unless 'allow_fragments' is false), in accordance with RFC
     3986(2).  Previously, an allowlist of schemes that support
     fragments existed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise
     *note ValueError: 1ff, instead of returning *note None: 662.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing
     under NFKC normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 1ff.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.parse_qs (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a
     dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable
     names and the values are lists of values for each name.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): 8c5. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. function (with the
     ‘doseq’ parameter set to ‘True’) to convert such dictionaries into
     query strings.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Add 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added 'max_num_fields' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added 'separator' parameter with the
     default value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
     allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This
     has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as
     the default separator.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.parse_qsl (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a list
     of name, value pairs.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): 8c5. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. function to convert
     such lists of pairs into query strings.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Add 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added 'max_num_fields' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added 'separator' parameter with the
     default value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
     allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This
     has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as
     the default separator.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urlunparse (parts)

     Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by ‘urlparse()’.  The
     'parts' argument can be any six-item iterable.  This may result in
     a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was
     parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ‘?’
     with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urlsplit (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     This is similar to *note urlparse(): 302, but does not split the
     params from the URL. This should generally be used instead of *note
     urlparse(): 302. if the more recent URL syntax allowing parameters
     to be applied to each segment of the 'path' portion of the URL (see
     RFC 2396(3)) is wanted.  A separate function is needed to separate
     the path segments and parameters.  This function returns a 5-item
     *note named tuple: 63b.:

          (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 63b, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     Attribut               Index       Valeur                        Value if not present
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘query’                3           Query component               empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             4           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     *note None: 662.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      *note None: 662.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        *note None: 662.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    *note None: 662.
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 39c6. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 1ff.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     Following some of the WHATWG spec(4) that updates RFC 3986, leading
     C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL. ‘\n’,
     ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are removed from the URL at any
     position.

          Avertissement: *note urlsplit(): d2f. does not perform
          validation.  See *note URL parsing security: 39c7. for
          details.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise
     *note ValueError: 1ff, instead of returning *note None: 662.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing
     under NFKC normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 1ff.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ASCII newline and tab characters are
     stripped from the URL.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space
     characters are stripped from the URL.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urlunsplit (parts)

     Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by *note urlsplit():
     d2f. into a complete URL as a string.  The 'parts' argument can be
     any five-item iterable.  This may result in a slightly different,
     but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had
     unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ?  with an empty query; the
     RFC states that these are equivalent).

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urljoin (base, url, allow_fragments=True)

     Construct a full ("absolute") URL by combining a "base URL"
     ('base') with another URL ('url').  Informally, this uses
     components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme,
     the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing
     components in the relative URL. For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
          >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
          'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

     The 'allow_fragments' argument has the same meaning and default as
     for *note urlparse(): 302.

          Note: If 'url' is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with
          ‘//’ or ‘scheme://’), the 'url"s hostname and/or scheme will
          be present in the result.  For example:

               >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
               ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
               'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

          If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the 'url' with
          *note urlsplit(): d2f. and *note urlunsplit(): 1591, removing
          possible 'scheme' and 'netloc' parts.

          Avertissement: Because an absolute URL may be passed as the
          ‘url’ parameter, it is generally 'not secure' to use ‘urljoin’
          with an attacker-controlled ‘url’.  For example in,
          ‘urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username)’, if
          ‘username’ can contain an absolute URL, the result of
          ‘urljoin’ will be the absolute URL.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Behavior updated to match the
     semantics defined in RFC 3986(5).

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urldefrag (url)

     If 'url' contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version
     of 'url' with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier
     as a separate string.  If there is no fragment identifier in 'url',
     return 'url' unmodified and an empty string.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 63b, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     Attribut               Index       Valeur                        Value if not present
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘url’                  0           URL with no fragment          empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             1           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      

     See section *note Structured Parse Results: 39c6. for more
     information on the result object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Result is a structured object rather
     than a simple 2-tuple.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.unwrap (url)

     Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as
     ‘<URL:scheme://host/path>’, ‘<scheme://host/path>’,
     ‘URL:scheme://host/path’ or ‘scheme://host/path’).  If 'url' is not
     a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (4) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL parsing security,  Next: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Prev: URL Parsing,  Up: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components

5.22.6.2 URL parsing security
.............................

The *note urlsplit(): d2f. and *note urlparse(): 302. APIs do not
perform 'validation' of inputs.  They may not raise errors on inputs
that other applications consider invalid.  They may also succeed on some
inputs that might not be considered URLs elsewhere.  Their purpose is
for practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead
return some component parts as empty strings.  Or components may contain
more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used
anywhere with security implications code defensively.  Do some
verification within your code before trusting a returned component part.
Does that ‘scheme’ make sense?  Is that a sensible ‘path’?  Is there
anything strange about that ‘hostname’?  etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined.  Different
applications have different needs and desired constraints.  For instance
the living WHATWG spec(1) describes what user facing web clients such as
a web browser require.  While RFC 3986(2) is more general.  These
functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be claimed
compliant with either.  The APIs and existing user code with
expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us to
be very cautious about making API behavior changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Next: Structured Parse Results,  Prev: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components

5.22.6.3 Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
....................................

The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on
character strings only.  In practice, it is useful to be able to
manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes.
Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all operate on
*note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. objects in addition to *note
str: 437. objects.

If *note str: 437. data is passed in, the result will also contain only
*note str: 437. data.  If *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b.
data is passed in, the result will contain only *note bytes: 1bd. data.

Attempting to mix *note str: 437. data with *note bytes: 1bd. or *note
bytearray: 52b. in a single function call will result in a *note
TypeError: 525. being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte
values will trigger *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03.

To support easier conversion of result objects between *note str: 437.
and *note bytes: 1bd, all return values from URL parsing functions
provide either an ‘encode()’ method (when the result contains *note str:
437. data) or a ‘decode()’ method (when the result contains *note bytes:
1bd. data).  The signatures of these methods match those of the
corresponding *note str: 437. and *note bytes: 1bd. methods (except that
the default encoding is ‘'ascii'’ rather than ‘'utf-8'’).  Each produces
a value of a corresponding type that contains either *note bytes: 1bd.
data (for ‘encode()’ methods) or *note str: 437. data (for ‘decode()’
methods).

Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs
that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from
bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.

The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing
functions.  The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing
or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the
individual URL quoting functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII
encoded byte sequences


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Parse Results,  Next: URL Quoting,  Prev: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Up: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components

5.22.6.4 Structured Parse Results
.................................

The result objects from the *note urlparse(): 302, *note urlsplit():
d2f. and *note urldefrag(): 1228. functions are subclasses of the *note
tuple: 366. type.  These subclasses add the attributes listed in the
documentation for those functions, the encoding and decoding support
described in the previous section, as well as an additional method:

 -- Méthode: urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl ()

     Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string.
     This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be
     normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped.
     Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers
     will be removed.

     For *note urldefrag(): 1228. results, only empty fragment
     identifiers will be removed.  For *note urlsplit(): d2f. and *note
     urlparse(): 302. results, all noted changes will be made to the URL
     returned by this method.

     The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through
     the original parsing function:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
          >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
          >>> r1.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
          >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
          >>> r2.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'

The following classes provide the implementations of the structured
parse results when operating on *note str: 437. objects:

 -- Classe: urllib.parse.DefragResult (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 1228. results containing
     *note str: 437. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResultBytes: 39ce. instance.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: urllib.parse.ParseResult (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 302. results containing *note
     str: 437. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResultBytes: 39d0. instance.

 -- Classe: urllib.parse.SplitResult (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): d2f. results containing *note
     str: 437. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResultBytes: 39d2. instance.

The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results
when operating on *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b. objects:

 -- Classe: urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 1228. results containing
     *note bytes: 1bd. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResult: 39cd. instance.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 302. results containing *note
     bytes: 1bd. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResult: 39cf. instance.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): d2f. results containing *note
     bytes: 1bd. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResult: 39d1. instance.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: URL Quoting,  Prev: Structured Parse Results,  Up: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components

5.22.6.5 URL Quoting
....................

The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it
safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and
appropriately encoding non-ASCII text.  They also support reversing
these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a
URL component if that task isn't already covered by the URL parsing
functions above.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.quote (string, safe='/', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Replace special characters in 'string' using the ‘%XX’ escape.
     Letters, digits, and the characters ‘'_.-~'’ are never quoted.  By
     default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of
     a URL. The optional 'safe' parameter specifies additional ASCII
     characters that should not be quoted -- its default value is ‘'/'’.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 437. or a *note bytes: 1bd.
     object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Moved from RFC 2396(1) to RFC 3986(2)
     for quoting URL strings.  "~" is now included in the set of
     unreserved characters.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to deal
     with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the *note str.encode():
     8c4. method.  'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults
     to ‘'strict'’, meaning unsupported characters raise a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 664.  'encoding' and 'errors' must not be
     supplied if 'string' is a *note bytes: 1bd, or a *note TypeError:
     525. is raised.

     Note that ‘quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)’ is equivalent to
     ‘quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)’.

     Example: ‘quote('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'’.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.quote_plus (string, safe='', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Like *note quote(): b93, but also replace spaces with plus signs,
     as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query
     string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are
     escaped unless they are included in 'safe'.  It also does not have
     'safe' default to ‘'/'’.

     Example: ‘quote_plus('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'’.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes (bytes, safe='/')

     Like *note quote(): b93, but accepts a *note bytes: 1bd. object
     rather than a *note str: 437, and does not perform string-to-bytes
     encoding.

     Example: ‘quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')’ yields ‘'a%26%EF'’.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.unquote (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-character equivalent.  The
     optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to decode
     percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by
     the *note bytes.decode(): 8c5. method.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 437. or a *note bytes: 1bd.
     object.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults to
     ‘'replace'’, meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a
     placeholder character.

     Example: ‘unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: 'string' parameter supports bytes and
     str objects (previously only str).

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.unquote_plus (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Like *note unquote(): 1742, but also replace plus signs with
     spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values.

     'string' must be a *note str: 437.

     Example: ‘unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes (string)

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and
     return a *note bytes: 1bd. object.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 437. or a *note bytes: 1bd.
     object.

     If it is a *note str: 437, unescaped non-ASCII characters in
     'string' are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.

     Example: ‘unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')’ yields ‘b'a&\xef'’.

 -- Fonction: urllib.parse.urlencode (query, doseq=False, safe='',
          encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

     Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which
     may contain *note str: 437. or *note bytes: 1bd. objects, to a
     percent-encoded ASCII text string.  If the resultant string is to
     be used as a 'data' for POST operation with the *note urlopen():
     290. function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it
     would result in a *note TypeError: 525.

     The resulting string is a series of ‘key=value’ pairs separated by
     ‘'&'’ characters, where both 'key' and 'value' are quoted using the
     'quote_via' function.  By default, *note quote_plus(): 1229. is
     used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a ‘'+'’
     character and '/' characters are encoded as ‘%2F’, which follows
     the standard for GET requests
     (‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  An alternate function that
     can be passed as 'quote_via' is *note quote(): b93, which will
     encode spaces as ‘%20’ and not encode '/' characters.  For maximum
     control of what is quoted, use ‘quote’ and specify a value for
     'safe'.

     When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the 'query'
     argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second
     is a value.  The value element in itself can be a sequence and in
     that case, if the optional parameter 'doseq' evaluates to ‘True’,
     individual ‘key=value’ pairs separated by ‘'&'’ are generated for
     each element of the value sequence for the key.  The order of
     parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter
     tuples in the sequence.

     The 'safe', 'encoding', and 'errors' parameters are passed down to
     'quote_via' (the 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters are only passed
     when a query element is a *note str: 437.).

     To reverse this encoding process, *note parse_qs(): 277. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 276. are provided in this module to parse query
     strings into Python data structures.

     Refer to *note urllib examples: 39b2. to find out how the *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): e80. method can be used for generating
     the query string of a URL or data for a POST request.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'query' supports bytes and string
     objects.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the 'quote_via' parameter.

Voir aussi
..........

WHATWG(3) - URL Living standard

     Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP
     addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and their
     API.

RFC 3986(4) - Uniform Resource Identifiers

     This is the current standard (STD66).  Any changes to urllib.parse
     module should conform to this.  Certain deviations could be
     observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes and
     for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly observed in
     major browsers.

RFC 2732(5) - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL's.

     This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.

RFC 2396(6) - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax

     Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both
     Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).

RFC 2368(7) - The mailto URL scheme.

     Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.

RFC 1808(8) - Relative Uniform Resource Locators

     This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an
     absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of "Abnormal
     Examples" which govern the treatment of border cases.

RFC 1738(9) - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

     This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2368.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt,  Prev: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.7 ‘urllib.error’ -- Exception classes raised by urllib.request
-------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/urllib/error.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note urllib.error: 108. définit les classes des exceptions
levées par *note urllib.request: 10a.  La classe de base de ces
exceptions est *note URLError: 393c.

Les exceptions suivantes sont levées par *note urllib.error: 108. aux
cas appropriés :

 -- Exception: urllib.error.URLError

     Les gestionnaires lèvent cette exception (ou des exceptions
     dérivées) quand ils rencontrent un problème.  Elle est une
     sous-classe de *note OSError: 40d.

      -- Attribut: reason

          La raison de cette erreur.  Il peut s'agir d'un message
          textuel ou d'une autre instance d'exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note URLError: 393c. used to be a
     subtype of *note IOError: 103d, which is now an alias of *note
     OSError: 40d.

 -- Exception: urllib.error.HTTPError (url, code, msg, hdrs, fp)

     Bien qu'étant une exception (une sous-classe de *note URLError:
     393c.), une *note HTTPError: fcb. peut aussi fonctionner comme une
     valeur de retour normale et fichier-compatible (la même chose que
     renvoyé par *note urlopen(): 290.).  Cela est utile pour gérer les
     erreurs HTTP exotiques, comme les requêtes d'authentification.

      -- Attribut: url

          Contains the request URL. An alias for 'filename' attribute.

      -- Attribut: code

          Un statut HTTP comme défini dans la RFC 2616(2).  Cette valeur
          numérique correspond à une valeur trouvée dans le dictionnaire
          des codes comme dans *note
          http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 39da.

      -- Attribut: reason

          This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.
          An alias for 'msg' attribute.

      -- Attribut: headers

          The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the
          *note HTTPError: fcb.  An alias for 'hdrs' attribute.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Attribut: fp

          A file-like object where the HTTP error body can be read from.

 -- Exception: urllib.error.ContentTooShortError (msg, content)

     This exception is raised when the *note urlretrieve(): 39b4.
     function detects that the amount of the downloaded data is less
     than the expected amount (given by the 'Content-Length' header).

      -- Attribut: content

          The downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/error.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt,  Next: http --- HTTP modules,  Prev: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.8 ‘urllib.robotparser’ -- Parser for robots.txt
----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/urllib/robotparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a single class, *note RobotFileParser: ced, which
answers questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch
a URL on the web site that published the ‘robots.txt’ file.  For more
details on the structure of ‘robots.txt’ files, see
‘http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html’.

 -- Classe: urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser (url='')

     Cette classe fournit des méthodes pour lire, analyser et répondre
     aux questions à propos du fichier ‘robots.txt’ disponible à
     l'adresse 'url'.

      -- Méthode: set_url (url)

          Modifie l'URL référençant le fichier ‘robots.txt’.

      -- Méthode: read ()

          Lit le fichier ‘robots.txt’ depuis son URL et envoie le
          contenu à l'analyseur.

      -- Méthode: parse (lines)

          Analyse les lignes données en argument.

      -- Méthode: can_fetch (useragent, url)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'useragent' est autorisé à accéder à 'url'
          selon les règles contenues dans le fichier ‘robots.txt’
          analysé.

      -- Méthode: mtime ()

          Renvoie le temps auquel le fichier ‘robots.txt’ a été
          téléchargé pour la dernière fois.  Cela est utile pour des
          'web spiders' de longue durée qui doivent vérifier
          périodiquement si le fichier est mis à jour.

      -- Méthode: modified ()

          Indique que le fichier ‘robots.txt’ a été téléchargé pour la
          dernière fois au temps courant.

      -- Méthode: crawl_delay (useragent)

          Renvoie la valeur du paramètre ‘Crawl-delay’ du ‘robots.txt’
          pour le 'useragent' en question.  S'il n'y a pas de tel
          paramètre ou qu'il ne s'applique pas au 'useragent' spécifié
          ou si l'entrée du ‘robots.txt’ pour ce paramètre a une syntaxe
          invalide, renvoie ‘None’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: request_rate (useragent)

          Renvoie le contenu du paramètre ‘Request-rate’ du ‘robots.txt’
          sous la forme d'un *note named tuple: 63b.
          ‘RequestRate(requests, seconds)’.  S'il n'y a pas de tel
          paramètre ou qu'il ne s'applique pas au 'useragent' spécifié
          ou si l'entrée du ‘robots.txt’ pour ce paramètre a une syntaxe
          invalide, ‘None’ est renvoyé.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: site_maps ()

          Renvoie le contenu du paramètre de ‘Sitemap’ depuis
          ‘robots.txt’ dans la forme d'une *note list(): 5fe.  S'il n'y
          a pas de tel paramètre ou qu'il ne s'applique pas au
          'useragent' spécifié ou si l'entrée du ‘robots.txt’ pour ce
          paramètre a une syntaxe invalide, renvoie ‘None’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

L'exemple suivant présente une utilisation basique de la classe *note
RobotFileParser: ced. :

     >>> import urllib.robotparser
     >>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
     >>> rp.set_url("http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt")
     >>> rp.read()
     >>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
     >>> rrate.requests
     3
     >>> rrate.seconds
     20
     >>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
     6
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco")
     False
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/")
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: http --- HTTP modules,  Next: http client --- HTTP protocol client,  Prev: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.9 ‘http’ -- HTTP modules
-----------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/http/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note http: 6d. est un paquet qui rassemble plusieurs modules servant à
travailler avec le protocole HTTP ('HyperText Transfer Procotol') :

   * Le module *note http.client: 6e. est un client HTTP bas niveau.
     Pour accéder à des ressources web, utiliser le module haut niveau
     *note urllib.request: 10a.

   * Le module *note http.server: 71. contient des classes serveur HTTP
     basiques basées sur *note socketserver: cc.

   * Le module *note http.cookies: 70. contient des utilitaires liés à
     la gestion d'état HTTP via les cookies

   * Le module *note http.cookiejar: 6f. fournit un mécanisme de
     persistance des cookies

The *note http: 6d. module also defines the following enums that help
you work with http related code:

 -- Classe: http.HTTPStatus

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Sous-classe de *note enum.IntEnum: ccf. qui définit un ensemble de
     codes d'état HTTP, messages explicatifs et descriptions complètes
     écrites en anglais.

     Utilisation :

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK
          HTTPStatus.OK
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.value
          200
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
          'OK'
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
          'Request fulfilled, document follows'
          >>> list(HTTPStatus)
          [HTTPStatus.CONTINUE, HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS, ...]

* Menu:

* Codes d'état HTTP::
* HTTP status category::
* HTTP methods::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Codes d'état HTTP,  Next: HTTP status category,  Up: http --- HTTP modules

5.22.9.1 Codes d'état HTTP
..........................

Supported, IANA-registered status codes(1) available in *note
http.HTTPStatus: 8ef. are:

Code        Message                                 Détails
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘100’       ‘CONTINUE’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), Section 15.2.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘101’       ‘SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), Section 15.2.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘102’       ‘PROCESSING’                            'WebDAV' RFC 2518(4), Section 10.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘103’       ‘EARLY_HINTS’                           An HTTP Status Code for Indicating Hints RFC 8297(5)
                                                    
                                                    
‘200’       ‘OK’                                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(6), Section 15.3.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘201’       ‘CREATED’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(7), Section 15.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘202’       ‘ACCEPTED’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(8), Section 15.3.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘203’       ‘NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION’         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(9), Section 15.3.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘204’       ‘NO_CONTENT’                            HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(10), Section 15.3.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘205’       ‘RESET_CONTENT’                         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(11), Section 15.3.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘206’       ‘PARTIAL_CONTENT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(12), Section 15.3.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘207’       ‘MULTI_STATUS’                          'WebDAV' RFC 4918(13), Section 11.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘208’       ‘ALREADY_REPORTED’                      'WebDAV' Binding Extensions RFC 5842(14), Section 7.1 (Expérimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘226’       ‘IM_USED’                               Delta Encoding in HTTP RFC 3229(15), Section 10.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘300’       ‘MULTIPLE_CHOICES’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(16), Section 15.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘301’       ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’                     HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(17), Section 15.4.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘302’       ‘FOUND’                                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(18), Section 15.4.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘303’       ‘SEE_OTHER’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(19), Section 15.4.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘304’       ‘NOT_MODIFIED’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(20), Section 15.4.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘305’       ‘USE_PROXY’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(21), Section 15.4.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘307’       ‘TEMPORARY_REDIRECT’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(22), Section 15.4.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘308’       ‘PERMANENT_REDIRECT’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(23), Section 15.4.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘400’       ‘BAD_REQUEST’                           HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(24), Section 15.5.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘401’       ‘UNAUTHORIZED’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(25), Section 15.5.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘402’       ‘PAYMENT_REQUIRED’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(26), Section 15.5.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘403’       ‘FORBIDDEN’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(27), Section 15.5.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘404’       ‘NOT_FOUND’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(28), Section 15.5.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘405’       ‘METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(29), Section 15.5.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘406’       ‘NOT_ACCEPTABLE’                        HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(30), Section 15.5.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘407’       ‘PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(31), Section 15.5.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘408’       ‘REQUEST_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(32), Section 15.5.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘409’       ‘CONFLICT’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(33), Section 15.5.10
                                                    
                                                    
‘410’       ‘GONE’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(34), Section 15.5.11
                                                    
                                                    
‘411’       ‘LENGTH_REQUIRED’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(35), Section 15.5.12
                                                    
                                                    
‘412’       ‘PRECONDITION_FAILED’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(36), Section 15.5.13
                                                    
                                                    
‘413’       ‘CONTENT_TOO_LARGE’                     HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(37), Section 15.5.14
                                                    
                                                    
‘414’       ‘URI_TOO_LONG’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(38), Section 15.5.15
                                                    
                                                    
‘415’       ‘UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE’                HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(39), Section 15.5.16
                                                    
                                                    
‘416’       ‘RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(40), Section 15.5.17
                                                    
                                                    
‘417’       ‘EXPECTATION_FAILED’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(41), Section 15.5.18
                                                    
                                                    
‘418’       ‘IM_A_TEAPOT’                           HTCPCP/1.0 RFC 2324(42), Section 2.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘421’       ‘MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(43), Section 15.5.20
                                                    
                                                    
‘422’       ‘UNPROCESSABLE_CONTENT’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(44), Section 15.5.21
                                                    
                                                    
‘423’       ‘LOCKED’                                'WebDAV' RFC 4918(45), Section 11.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘424’       ‘FAILED_DEPENDENCY’                     'WebDAV' RFC 4918(46), Section 11.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘425’       ‘TOO_EARLY’                             Using Early Data in HTTP RFC 8470(47)
                                                    
                                                    
‘426’       ‘UPGRADE_REQUIRED’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(48), Section 15.5.22
                                                    
                                                    
‘428’       ‘PRECONDITION_REQUIRED’                 Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(49)
                                                    
                                                    
‘429’       ‘TOO_MANY_REQUESTS’                     Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(50)
                                                    
                                                    
‘431’       ‘REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE’       Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(51)
                                                    
                                                    
‘451’       ‘UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’         An HTTP Status Code to Report Legal Obstacles RFC 7725(52)
                                                    
                                                    
‘500’       ‘INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(53), Section 15.6.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘501’       ‘NOT_IMPLEMENTED’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(54), Section 15.6.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘502’       ‘BAD_GATEWAY’                           HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(55), Section 15.6.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘503’       ‘SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(56), Section 15.6.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘504’       ‘GATEWAY_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(57), Section 15.6.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘505’       ‘HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED’            HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(58), Section 15.6.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘506’       ‘VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES’               Transparent Content Negotiation in HTTP RFC 2295(59), Section 8.1 (Expérimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘507’       ‘INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE’                  'WebDAV' RFC 4918(60), Section 11.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘508’       ‘LOOP_DETECTED’                         'WebDAV Binding Extensions' RFC 5842(61), Section 7.2 (Expérimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘510’       ‘NOT_EXTENDED’                          An HTTP Extension Framework RFC 2774(62), Section 7 (Expérimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘511’       ‘NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’       Codes d'état HTTP supplémentaires RFC 6585(63), Section 6
                                                    

Dans le but de préserver la compatibilité descendante, les valeurs
d'énumération sont aussi présentes dans le module *note http.client: 6e.
sous forme de constantes.  Les noms de valeurs de l'énumération sont
accessibles de deux manières : par exemple, le code HTTP 200 est
accessible sous les noms ‘http.HTTPStatus.OK’ et ‘http.client.OK’.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajouté le code d'état ‘421
MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Added ‘451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’
status code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: Added ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’
and ‘425 TOO_EARLY’ status codes.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Implemented RFC9110 naming for status
constants.  Old constant names are preserved for backwards
compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2518.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8297.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3229.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (24) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (25) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (26) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (27) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (28) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (30) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (31) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (32) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (33) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (34) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (35) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (37) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (39) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (40) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (41) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (42) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2324.html

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (44) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (45) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (46) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8470.html

   (48) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (49) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (50) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (51) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (52) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7725.html

   (53) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (56) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (57) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (58) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (59) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2295.html

   (60) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (61) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (62) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2774.html

   (63) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP status category,  Next: HTTP methods,  Prev: Codes d'état HTTP,  Up: http --- HTTP modules

5.22.9.2 HTTP status category
.............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The enum values have several properties to indicate the HTTP status
category:

Property                 Indicates that               Détails
                                                      
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘is_informational’       ‘100 <= status <= 199’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(1), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_success’             ‘200 <= status <= 299’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_redirection’         ‘300 <= status <= 399’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_client_error’        ‘400 <= status <= 499’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(4), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_server_error’        ‘500 <= status <= 599’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(5), Section 15
                                                      

     Utilisation :

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_success
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_client_error
          False

 -- Classe: http.HTTPMethod

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     A subclass of *note enum.StrEnum: 607. that defines a set of HTTP
     methods and descriptions written in English.

     Utilisation :

          >>> from http import HTTPMethod
          >>>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET
          <HTTPMethod.GET>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET == 'GET'
          True
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.value
          'GET'
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.description
          'Retrieve the target.'
          >>> list(HTTPMethod)
          [<HTTPMethod.CONNECT>,
           <HTTPMethod.DELETE>,
           <HTTPMethod.GET>,
           <HTTPMethod.HEAD>,
           <HTTPMethod.OPTIONS>,
           <HTTPMethod.PATCH>,
           <HTTPMethod.POST>,
           <HTTPMethod.PUT>,
           <HTTPMethod.TRACE>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP methods,  Prev: HTTP status category,  Up: http --- HTTP modules

5.22.9.3 HTTP methods
.....................

Supported, IANA-registered methods(1) available in *note
http.HTTPMethod: 39ec. are:

Méthode         Message                                 Détails
                                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘GET’           ‘GET’                                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), Section 9.3.1
                                                        
                                                        
‘HEAD’          ‘HEAD’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), Section 9.3.2
                                                        
                                                        
‘POST’          ‘POST’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(4), Section 9.3.3
                                                        
                                                        
‘PUT’           ‘PUT’                                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(5), Section 9.3.4
                                                        
                                                        
‘DELETE’        ‘DELETE’                                HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(6), Section 9.3.5
                                                        
                                                        
‘CONNECT’       ‘CONNECT’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(7), Section 9.3.6
                                                        
                                                        
‘OPTIONS’       ‘OPTIONS’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(8), Section 9.3.7
                                                        
                                                        
‘TRACE’         ‘TRACE’                                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(9), Section 9.3.8
                                                        
                                                        
‘PATCH’         ‘PATCH’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 5789(10)
                                                        

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-methods/http-methods.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5789.html


File: python.info,  Node: http client --- HTTP protocol client,  Next: ftplib --- FTP protocol client,  Prev: http --- HTTP modules,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.10 ‘http.client’ -- HTTP protocol client
---------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/http/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines classes that implement the client side of the HTTP
and HTTPS protocols.  It is normally not used directly -- the module
*note urllib.request: 10a. uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and
HTTPS.

Voir aussi
..........

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     Note: L'implémentation d'HTTPS n'est disponible que si Python a été
     compilé avec la prise en charge de SSL (au moyen du module *note
     ssl: cf.).

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Le module fournit les classes suivantes :

 -- Classe: http.client.HTTPConnection (host, port=None[, timeout],
          source_address=None, blocksize=8192)

     An *note HTTPConnection: b30. instance represents one transaction
     with an HTTP server.  It should be instantiated by passing it a
     host and optional port number.  If no port number is passed, the
     port is extracted from the host string if it has the form
     ‘host:port’, else the default HTTP port (80) is used.  If the
     optional 'timeout' parameter is given, blocking operations (like
     connection attempts) will timeout after that many seconds (if it is
     not given, the global default timeout setting is used).  The
     optional 'source_address' parameter may be a tuple of a (host,
     port) to use as the source address the HTTP connection is made
     from.  The optional 'blocksize' parameter sets the buffer size in
     bytes for sending a file-like message body.

     Par exemple, tous les appels suivants créent des instances qui se
     connectent à un serveur sur le même hôte et le même port :

          >>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
          >>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
          >>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
          >>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre 'source_address' a été
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The 'strict' parameter was removed.
     HTTP 0.9-style "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le paramètre 'blocksize' a été ajouté.

 -- Classe: http.client.HTTPSConnection (host, port=None, *[, timeout],
          source_address=None, context=None, blocksize=8192)

     Cette sous-classe de *note HTTPConnection: b30. utilise SSL pour
     communiquer avec des serveurs sécurisés.  Le port par défaut est
     ‘443’.  Si le paramètre 'context' est fourni, ce doit être une
     instance de *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. décrivant les diverses
     options SSL.

     Il est conseillé de lire *note Security considerations: 32ef. pour
     plus d'informations sur les bonnes pratiques.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Les paramètres 'source_address',
     'context' et 'check_hostname' ont été ajoutés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: This class now supports HTTPS virtual
     hosts if possible (that is, if *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423. is true).

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre 'strict' a été supprimé.
     Les « réponses simples » de HTTP 0.9 ne sont plus prises en charge.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4.3: This class now performs all the
     necessary certificate and hostname checks by default.  To revert to
     the previous, unverified, behavior
     ‘ssl._create_unverified_context()’ can be passed to the 'context'
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Cette classe sélectionne désormais TLS
     1.3 pour *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a21. dans le
     'context' par défaut ou quand 'cert_file' est fourni avec une
     valeur de 'context' personnalisée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This class now sends an ALPN
     extension with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is
     given.  Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): e4f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated 'key_file',
     'cert_file' and 'check_hostname' parameters have been removed.

 -- Classe: http.client.HTTPResponse (sock, debuglevel=0, method=None,
          url=None)

     Classe dont les instances sont renvoyées dès qu'une connexion est
     établie.  Cette classe n'est jamais instanciée directement par
     l'utilisateur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre 'strict' a été supprimé.
     Les « réponses simples » de HTTP 0.9 ne sont plus prises en charge.

Ce module fournit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: http.client.parse_headers (fp)

     Parse the headers from a file pointer 'fp' representing a HTTP
     request/response.  The file has to be a *note BufferedIOBase: 681.
     reader (i.e.  not text) and must provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style
     header.

     Cette fonction renvoie une instance de *note
     http.client.HTTPMessage: 39f1. qui contient les champs d'en-tête,
     mais pas la charge utile (de même que *note HTTPResponse.msg: 39f2.
     et *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers: 39f3.).  Après
     le retour, le pointeur de fichier 'fp' est prêt à lire le corps
     HTTP.

          Note: La méthode *note parse_headers(): 1a07. n'analyse pas la
          ligne initiale d'un message HTTP ; elle n'analyse que les
          lignes ‘Name: value’.  Le fichier doit être prêt à lire ces
          lignes de champs, aussi la première ligne doit déjà avoir été
          consommée avant l'appel de la fonction.

Les exceptions suivantes sont levées selon les cas :

 -- Exception: http.client.HTTPException

     La classe de base des autres exceptions de ce module.  C'est une
     sous-classe de *note Exception: 9c9.

 -- Exception: http.client.NotConnected

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.

 -- Exception: http.client.InvalidURL

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4, levée si le port donné
     n'est pas numérique ou est vide.

 -- Exception: http.client.UnknownProtocol

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.

 -- Exception: http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.

 -- Exception: http.client.UnimplementedFileMode

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.

 -- Exception: http.client.IncompleteRead

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.

 -- Exception: http.client.ImproperConnectionState

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.

 -- Exception: http.client.CannotSendRequest

     Sous-classe de *note ImproperConnectionState: 39fb.

 -- Exception: http.client.CannotSendHeader

     Sous-classe de *note ImproperConnectionState: 39fb.

 -- Exception: http.client.ResponseNotReady

     Sous-classe de *note ImproperConnectionState: 39fb.

 -- Exception: http.client.BadStatusLine

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.  Levée si un serveur
     répond avec un code d'état HTTP qui n'est pas compris.

 -- Exception: http.client.LineTooLong

     Sous-classe de *note HTTPException: 39f4.  Levée si une ligne du
     protocole HTTP est excessivement longue dans ce qui provient du
     serveur.

 -- Exception: http.client.RemoteDisconnected

     Sous-classe de *note ConnectionResetError: 104a. et *note
     BadStatusLine: 39ff.  Levée par la méthode *note
     HTTPConnection.getresponse(): df7. quand la tentative de lire la
     réponse n'aboutit à aucune donnée provenant de la connexion,
     indiquant ainsi que la partie distante a fermé celle-ci.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Antérieurement, *note BadStatusLine:
     39ff.‘('')’ était levée.

Les constantes définies dans ce module sont :

 -- Données: http.client.HTTP_PORT

     Le port par défaut du protocole HTTP (toujours ‘80’).

 -- Données: http.client.HTTPS_PORT

     Le port par défaut du protocole HTTPS (toujours ‘443’).

 -- Données: http.client.responses

     Ce dictionnaire associe les codes d'états HTTP 1.1 à leurs noms
     tels que définis par le W3C.

     Par exemple : ‘http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]’ est
     ‘'Not Found'’.

Voir *note Codes d'état HTTP: 39e9. pour une liste des codes d'état HTTP
qui sont disponibles comme constantes dans ce module.

* Menu:

* Les objets HTTPConnection::
* Les objets HTTPResponse::
* Exemples: Exemples<26>.
* Les objets HTTPMessage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/client.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/latest/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets HTTPConnection,  Next: Les objets HTTPResponse,  Up: http client --- HTTP protocol client

5.22.10.1 Les objets HTTPConnection
...................................

Les instances de la classe *note HTTPConnection: b30. possèdent les
méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.request (method, url, body=None, headers={},
          *, encode_chunked=False)

     This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request
     method 'method' and the request URI 'url'.  The provided 'url' must
     be an absolute path to conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(1) (unless
     connecting to an HTTP proxy server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or
     ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     Si 'body' est passé en paramètre, les données transmises sont
     envoyées à la suite des en-têtes.  Ce paramètre peut-être une *note
     str: 437, un *note objet octet-comptatible: d1d, un *note objet
     fichier: 11a2. préalablement ouvert, ou un itérable de classe *note
     bytes: 1bd.  Si 'body' est une chaîne, elle est encodée en
     ISO-8859-1, valeur par défaut pour HTTP. Si c'est un objet
     octet-compatible, les octets sont envoyés tels quels.  Si c'est un
     *note objet fichier: 11a2, le contenu du fichier est envoyé ; cet
     objet fichier doit implémenter au moins la méthode ‘read()’.  Si
     l'objet fichier est une instance de *note io.TextIOBase: 682, les
     données renvoyées par la méthode ‘read()’ sont encodées en
     ISO-8859-1, sinon les données renvoyées par ‘read()’ sont envoyées
     telles quelles.  Si 'body' est un itérable, les éléments de cet
     itérable sont envoyés jusqu'à ce que l'itérable soit vide.

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the request.  A Host header(2) must be provided to
     conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(3) (unless connecting to an HTTP proxy
     server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     Si 'headers' ne contient ni ‘Content-Length:’ ni
     ‘Transfer-Encoding:’, mais qu'un corps de requête est fourni, un de
     ces en-têtes est ajouté automatiquement.  Si 'body' est ‘None’,
     l'en-tête ‘Content-Length:’ est paramétré à ‘0’ pour les méthodes
     qui attendent un corps (‘PUT’, ‘POST’, et ‘PATCH’).  Si 'body' est
     une chaîne ou un objet de type octets qui n'est pas un (*note objet
     fichier: 11a2.), l'en-tête ‘Content-Length’ est paramétré à sa
     longueur.  Un 'body' de tout autre type (fichiers ou itérables en
     général) est encodé par morceaux et l'en-tête ‘Transfer-Encoding’
     est automatiquement paramétré à la place de ‘Content-Length’.

     L'argument 'encode_chunked' n'est pertinent que si l'en-tête
     ‘Transfer-Encoding:’ est présent.  Si 'encode_chunked' est ‘False’,
     l'objet HTTPConnection suppose que l'encodage est géré par le code
     d'appel.  S'il vaut ‘True’, le corps est encodé par morceaux.

     For example, to perform a ‘GET’ request to
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> host = "docs.python.org"
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection(host)
          >>> conn.request("GET", "/3/", headers={"Host": host})
          >>> response = conn.getresponse()
          >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
          200 OK

          Note: L'encodage pour les transferts par morceaux a été ajouté
          à la version 1.1 du protocole HTTP. À moins que le serveur
          HTTP sache gérer HTTP 1.1, l'appelant doit soit spécifier
          l'en-tête ‘Content-Length:’, soit passer la représentation du
          corps de message dans un objet de classe *note str: 437. ou un
          objet octet-compatible qui ne soit pas un fichier.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'body' peut désormais être un
     itérable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Si parmi les en-têtes ne figure ni
     ‘Content-Length:’, ni ‘Transfer-Encoding:’, les objets fichiers et
     itérables 'body' sont désormais encodés par morceaux.  L'argument
     'encode_chunked' a été ajouté.  Aucune tentative n'est faite pour
     essayer de déterminer la valeur de l'en-tête ‘Content-Length’ pour
     un objet fichier.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.getresponse ()

     Doit être appelé après qu'une requête a été envoyée pour récupérer
     la réponse du serveur.  Renvoie une instance de *note HTTPResponse:
     10b2.

          Note: Notez que la totalité de la réponse doit être lue avant
          de pouvoir envoyer une nouvelle requête au serveur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si une exception *note
     ConnectionError: df9. ou une de ses sous-classes est levée, l'objet
     de classe *note HTTPConnection: b30. sera prêt à se reconnecter
     quand une nouvelle requête sera envoyée.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel (level)

     Règle le niveau de débogage.  Le niveau de débogage par défaut est
     ‘0’ (aucune sortie de débogage n'est affichée).  Toute valeur plus
     grande que ‘0’ provoque l'affichage sur ‘sys.stdout’ de toutes les
     sorties de débogage actuellement définies.  Le paramètre
     ‘debuglevel’ est passé à tout nouvel objet de classe *note
     HTTPResponse: 10b2. qui est créé.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.set_tunnel (host, port=None, headers=None)

     Paramètre l'hôte et le port pour le tunnel de connexion HTTP. Il
     permet de réaliser la connexion au travers d'un serveur mandataire.

     The 'host' and 'port' arguments specify the endpoint of the
     tunneled connection (i.e.  the address included in the CONNECT
     request, 'not' the address of the proxy server).

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the CONNECT request.

     As HTTP/1.1 is used for HTTP CONNECT tunnelling request, as per the
     RFC(4), a HTTP ‘Host:’ header must be provided, matching the
     authority-form of the request target provided as the destination
     for the CONNECT request.  If a HTTP ‘Host:’ header is not provided
     via the headers argument, one is generated and transmitted
     automatically.

     Par exemple, pour un tunnel traversant un serveur mandataire HTTPS
     accessible localement sur le port 8080, nous devons passer
     l'adresse du serveur mandataire au constructeur de la classe *note
     HTTPSConnection: b31, en plus de l'éventuelle adresse de l'hôte que
     nous voulons atteindre, qui elle doit être passée à la méthode
     *note set_tunnel(): 1208. :

          >>> import http.client
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
          >>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
          >>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: HTTP CONNECT tunnelling requests use
     protocol HTTP/1.1, upgraded from protocol HTTP/1.0.  ‘Host:’ HTTP
     headers are mandatory for HTTP/1.1, so one will be automatically
     generated and transmitted if not provided in the headers argument.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers ()

     Returns a dictionary with the headers of the response received from
     the proxy server to the CONNECT request.

     If the CONNECT request was not sent, the method returns ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.connect ()

     Se connecte au serveur spécifié quand l'objet est créé.  Par
     défaut, est appelée automatiquement lorsqu'une requête est faite
     alors que le client ne s'est pas connecté au préalable.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘http.client.connect’
     contenant les arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.close ()

     Ferme la connexion au serveur.

 -- Attribut: HTTPConnection.blocksize

     Taille en octets du tampon utilisé pour transmettre un corps de
     message de type fichier.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

As an alternative to using the *note request(): c99. method described
above, you can also send your request step by step, by using the four
functions below.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.putrequest (method, url, skip_host=False,
          skip_accept_encoding=False)

     Ce doit être le premier appel une fois que la connexion au serveur
     a été réalisée.  Est envoyée au serveur une ligne consistant en la
     chaîne 'method', la chaîne d''url', et la version du protocole HTTP
     (‘HTTP/1.1’).  Pour désactiver l'envoi automatique des en-têtes
     ‘Host:’ ou ‘Accept-Encoding:’ (par exemple pour accepter des
     encodages supplémentaires de contenus), il est nécessaire de passer
     les paramètres 'skip_host' ou 'skip_accept_encoding' avec des
     valeurs différentes de ‘False’.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.putheader (header, argument[, ...])

     Envoie un en-tête de style RFC 822(5) au serveur.  Elle envoie au
     serveur une ligne regroupant un en-tête, une espace, un ‘:’, une
     espace et le premier argument.  Si plusieurs arguments sont donnés,
     des lignes de continuation sont envoyées, chacune d'elle étant
     constituée d'une espace suivie d'un argument.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.endheaders (message_body=None, *,
          encode_chunked=False)

     Envoie une ligne blanche au serveur, signalant la fin des en-têtes.
     L'argument optionnel 'message_body' peut-être utilisé pour passer
     le corps du message associé à la requête.

     Si 'encode_chunked' est ‘True’, le résultat de chaque itération sur
     'message_body' est un morceau encodé selon la RFC 7230(6), section
     3.3.1.  La façon dont les données sont encodées dépend du type de
     'message_body'.  Si 'message_body' implémente l'*note interface
     tampon: 38e. l'encodage donne un unique morceau.  Si 'message_body'
     est un itérable de classe *note collections.abc.Iterable: 220b,
     chaque itération sur 'message_body' donne un morceau.  Si
     'message_body' est un *note fichier objet: 11a2, chaque appel à
     ‘.read()’ renvoie un morceau.  La méthode signale automatiquement
     la fin des données encodées par morceaux immédiatement après
     'message_body'.

          Note: Selon la spécification de l'encodage des morceaux, les
          morceaux vides renvoyés par un itérateur associé au corps du
          message sont ignorés par l'encodeur de morceaux.  Ce
          comportement est choisi pour éviter que la lecture de la
          requête par le serveur cible ne se termine prématurément pour
          cause d'encodage mal formé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added chunked encoding support and the
     'encode_chunked' parameter.

 -- Méthode: HTTPConnection.send (data)

     Envoie les données au serveur.  Elle ne peut être utilisée
     directement qu'une fois la méthode *note endheaders(): c9a. a été
     appelée et avant que la méthode *note getresponse(): df7. ait été
     appelée.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘http.client.send’ avec
     comme arguments ‘self’, ‘data’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-14.23

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231#section-4.3.6

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets HTTPResponse,  Next: Exemples<26>,  Prev: Les objets HTTPConnection,  Up: http client --- HTTP protocol client

5.22.10.2 Les objets HTTPResponse
.................................

Une instance de *note HTTPResponse: 10b2. encapsule la réponse HTTP du
serveur.  Elle fournit un accès aux en-têtes et au corps de la réponse.
La réponse est un objet itérable pouvant être utilisé avec l'instruction
‘with’.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: L'interface de la classe *note
io.BufferedIOBase: 681. est désormais implémentée et toutes ses
opérations de lecture sont gérées.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.read ([amt])

     Lit et renvoie soit tout le corps de la réponse soit une partie de
     celui-ci se limitant aux 'amt' octets suivants.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.readinto (b)

     Lit les prochains ‘len(b)’ octets du corps de la réponse et les
     place dans le tampon 'b'.  Renvoie le nombre d'octets lus.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.getheader (name, default=None)

     Return the value of the header 'name', or 'default' if there is no
     header matching 'name'.  If there is more than one header with the
     name 'name', return all of the values joined by ', '.  If 'default'
     is any iterable other than a single string, its elements are
     similarly returned joined by commas.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.getheaders ()

     Renvoie une liste d''n'-uplets ‘(en-tête, valeur)’.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.fileno ()

     Renvoie le ‘fileno’ du connecteur réseau sous-jacent.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.msg

     Une instance de *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 39f1. contenant les
     en-têtes de la réponse.  La classe *note http.client.HTTPMessage:
     39f1. est une sous-classe de la classe *note email.message.Message:
     279.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.version

     La version du protocole HTTP utilisée par le serveur : 10 pour
     HTTP/1.0, 11 pour HTTP/1.1.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.url

     L'URL de la ressource récupérée, utilisée habituellement pour
     déterminer si une redirection a été suivie.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.headers

     Les en-têtes de la réponse sous la forme d'une instance de *note
     email.message.EmailMessage: 278.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.status

     Code d'état renvoyé par le serveur.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.reason

     Phrase renvoyée par le serveur et indiquant la cause.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.debuglevel

     Un point d'entrée pour débogage.  Si *note debuglevel: 3a16. est
     plus grand que zéro, les messages sont envoyés à ‘sys.stdout’
     pendant la lecture et l'analyse de la réponse.

 -- Attribut: HTTPResponse.closed

     Vaut ‘True’ si le flux est terminé.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.geturl ()

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Rendu obsolète par *note url: 3a13.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.info ()

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Rendu obsolète par *note headers:
     3a14.

 -- Méthode: HTTPResponse.getcode ()

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Rendu obsolète par *note status:
     3a15.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<26>,  Next: Les objets HTTPMessage,  Prev: Les objets HTTPResponse,  Up: http client --- HTTP protocol client

5.22.10.3 Exemples
..................

Voici un exemple de session utilisant la méthode ‘GET’ :

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data1 = r1.read()  # This will return entire content.
     >>> # The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> while chunk := r1.read(200):
     ...     print(repr(chunk))
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
     ...
     >>> # Example of an invalid request
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
     >>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
     404 Not Found
     >>> data2 = r2.read()
     >>> conn.close()

Voici un exemple de session utilisant la méthode ‘HEAD’.  Notez que la
méthode ‘HEAD’ ne renvoie jamais de données.

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
     >>> res = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(res.status, res.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data = res.read()
     >>> print(len(data))
     0
     >>> data == b''
     True

Here is an example session that uses the ‘POST’ method:

     >>> import http.client, urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
     >>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
     ...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     302 Found
     >>> data = response.read()
     >>> data
     b'Redirecting to <a href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12524">https://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
     >>> conn.close()

Client side HTTP ‘PUT’ requests are very similar to ‘POST’ requests.
The difference lies only on the server side where HTTP servers will
allow resources to be created via ‘PUT’ requests.  It should be noted
that custom HTTP methods are also handled in *note
urllib.request.Request: fc5. by setting the appropriate method
attribute.  Here is an example session that uses the ‘PUT’ method:

     >>> # This creates an HTTP request
     >>> # with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation
     >>> # for the resource http://localhost:8080/file
     ...
     >>> import http.client
     >>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
     >>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     200, OK


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets HTTPMessage,  Prev: Exemples<26>,  Up: http client --- HTTP protocol client

5.22.10.4 Les objets HTTPMessage
................................

 -- Classe: http.client.HTTPMessage (email.message.Message)

Une instance de classe *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 39f1. contient les
en-têtes d'une réponse HTTP. Elle est implémentée en utilisant la classe
*note email.message.Message: 279.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib --- FTP protocol client,  Next: poplib --- POP3 protocol client,  Prev: http client --- HTTP protocol client,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.11 ‘ftplib’ -- FTP protocol client
---------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/ftplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module définit la classe *note FTP: 8e9. et quelques éléments
associés.  La classe *note FTP: 8e9. implémente le côté client du
protocole FTP. Vous pouvez l'utiliser pour écrire des programmes Python
qui effectuent diverses tâches automatisées telles que la
synchronisation d'autres serveurs FTP. Il est aussi utilisé par le
module *note urllib.request: 10a. pour gérer les URL qui utilisent FTP.
Pour plus d'informations sur FTP (File Transfer Protocol), voir la RFC
959(2).

L'encodage par défaut est UTF-8, voir la RFC 2640(3).

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Voici un exemple de session utilisant le module *note ftplib: 5d. :

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> ftp = FTP('ftp.us.debian.org')  # connect to host, default port
     >>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
     '230 Login successful.'
     >>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # change into "debian" directory
     '250 Directory successfully changed.'
     >>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # list directory contents
     -rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
     ...
     drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
     drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
     drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
     '226 Directory send OK.'
     >>> with open('README', 'wb') as fp:
     >>>     ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', fp.write)
     '226 Transfer complete.'
     >>> ftp.quit()
     '221 Goodbye.'

* Menu:

* Référence: Référence<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ftplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: Référence<4>,  Up: ftplib --- FTP protocol client

5.22.11.1 Référence
...................

* Menu:

* FTP objects::
* FTP_TLS objects::
* Module variables::


File: python.info,  Node: FTP objects,  Next: FTP_TLS objects,  Up: Référence<4>

5.22.11.2 FTP objects
.....................

 -- Classe: ftplib.FTP (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='',
          timeout=None, source_address=None, *, encoding='utf-8')

     Return a new instance of the *note FTP: 8e9. class.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 437.) - The hostname to connect to.  If
          given, ‘connect(host)’ is implicitly called by the
          constructor.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 437.) - The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  If given, ‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ is implicitly called by the constructor.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 437.) - The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 437.) - Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(1) for more details.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ec.‘ | ’‘None’) - A timeout in
          seconds for blocking operations like *note connect(): 3a24.
          (default: the global default timeout setting).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 366.‘ | ’‘None’) - A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 437.) - The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     La classe *note FTP: 8e9. peut s'utiliser avec l'instruction *note
     with: 5be, p.  ex. :

          >>> from ftplib import FTP
          >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
          ...     ftp.login()
          ...     ftp.dir()
          ...
          '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
          dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
          dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
          >>>

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: La prise en charge de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. a été ajoutée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'source_address' parameter was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to
     be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.  The 'encoding' parameter was
     added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow
     RFC 2640(2).

     Several ‘FTP’ methods are available in two flavors: one for
     handling text files and another for binary files.  The methods are
     named for the command which is used followed by ‘lines’ for the
     text version or ‘binary’ for the binary version.

     Les instances de la classe *note FTP: 8e9. possèdent les méthodes
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: set_debuglevel (level)

          Set the instance's debugging level as an *note int: 254.  This
          controls the amount of debugging output printed.  The debug
          levels are:

             * ‘0’ (default): No debug output.

             * ‘1’: Produce a moderate amount of debug output, generally
               a single line per request.

             * ‘2’ or higher: Produce the maximum amount of debugging
               output, logging each line sent and received on the
               control connection.

      -- Méthode: connect (host='', port=0, timeout=None,
               source_address=None)

          Connect to the given host and port.  This function should be
          called only once for each instance; it should not be called if
          a 'host' argument was given when the *note FTP: 8e9. instance
          was created.  All other ‘FTP’ methods can only be called after
          a connection has successfully been made.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘host’ (*note str: 437.) - The host to connect to.

             * ‘port’ (*note int: 254.) - The TCP port to connect to
               (default: ‘21’, as specified by the FTP protocol
               specification).  It is rarely needed to specify a
               different port number.

             * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ec.‘ | ’‘None’) - A timeout in
               seconds for the connection attempt (default: the global
               default timeout setting).

             * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 366.‘ | ’‘None’) - A
               2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its
               source address before connecting.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ftplib.connect’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'source_address' parameter was
          added.

      -- Méthode: getwelcome ()

          Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the
          initial connection.  (This message sometimes contains
          disclaimers or help information that may be relevant to the
          user.)

      -- Méthode: login (user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')

          Log on to the connected FTP server.  This function should be
          called only once for each instance, after a connection has
          been established; it should not be called if the 'host' and
          'user' arguments were given when the *note FTP: 8e9. instance
          was created.  Most FTP commands are only allowed after the
          client has logged in.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘user’ (*note str: 437.) - The username to log in with
               (default: ‘'anonymous'’).

             * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 437.) - The password to use when
               logging in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty
               string or ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically
               generated.

             * ‘acct’ (*note str: 437.) - Account information to be used
               for the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.
               See RFC-959(3) for more details.

      -- Méthode: abort ()

          Abort a file transfer that is in progress.  Using this does
          not always work, but it's worth a try.

      -- Méthode: sendcmd (cmd)

          Send a simple command string to the server and return the
          response string.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ftplib.sendcmd’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘cmd’.

      -- Méthode: voidcmd (cmd)

          Send a simple command string to the server and handle the
          response.  Return the response string if the response code
          corresponds to success (codes in the range 200-299).  Raise
          *note error_reply: 3a2b. otherwise.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘ftplib.sendcmd’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘cmd’.

      -- Méthode: retrbinary (cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)

          Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 437.) - An appropriate ‘RETR’ command:
               ‘"RETR FILENAME"’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 28a7.) - A single parameter
               callable that is called for each block of data received,
               with its single argument being the data as *note bytes:
               1bd.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 254.) - The maximum chunk size to
               read on the low-level *note socket: d90. object created
               to do the actual transfer.  This also corresponds to the
               largest size of data that will be passed to 'callback'.
               Defaults to ‘8192’.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 254.) - A ‘REST’ command to be sent to
               the server.  See the documentation for the 'rest'
               parameter of the *note transfercmd(): 3a2d. method.

      -- Méthode: retrlines (cmd, callback=None)

          Retrieve a file or directory listing in the encoding specified
          by the 'encoding' parameter at initialization.  'cmd' should
          be an appropriate ‘RETR’ command (see *note retrbinary():
          3a2c.) or a command such as ‘LIST’ or ‘NLST’ (usually just the
          string ‘'LIST'’).  ‘LIST’ retrieves a list of files and
          information about those files.  ‘NLST’ retrieves a list of
          file names.  The 'callback' function is called for each line
          with a string argument containing the line with the trailing
          CRLF stripped.  The default 'callback' prints the line to
          *note sys.stdout: ac6.

      -- Méthode: set_pasv (val)

          Enable "passive" mode if 'val' is true, otherwise disable
          passive mode.  Passive mode is on by default.

      -- Méthode: storbinary (cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None,
               rest=None)

          Store a file in binary transfer mode.


          Paramètres:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 437.) - An appropriate ‘STOR’ command:
               ‘"STOR FILENAME"’.

             * ‘fp’ (*note file object: 11a2.) - A file object (opened
               in binary mode) which is read until EOF, using its *note
               read(): e0b. method in blocks of size 'blocksize' to
               provide the data to be stored.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 254.) - The read block size.
               Defaults to ‘8192’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 28a7.) - A single parameter
               callable that is called for each block of data sent, with
               its single argument being the data as *note bytes: 1bd.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 254.) - A ‘REST’ command to be sent to
               the server.  See the documentation for the 'rest'
               parameter of the *note transfercmd(): 3a2d. method.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: The 'rest' parameter was added.

      -- Méthode: storlines (cmd, fp, callback=None)

          Store a file in line mode.  'cmd' should be an appropriate
          ‘STOR’ command (see *note storbinary(): 12ea.).  Lines are
          read until EOF from the *note file object: 11a2. 'fp' (opened
          in binary mode) using its *note readline(): 1309. method to
          provide the data to be stored.  'callback' is an optional
          single parameter callable that is called on each line after it
          is sent.

      -- Méthode: transfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          Initiate a transfer over the data connection.  If the transfer
          is active, send an ‘EPRT’ or ‘PORT’ command and the transfer
          command specified by 'cmd', and accept the connection.  If the
          server is passive, send an ‘EPSV’ or ‘PASV’ command, connect
          to it, and start the transfer command.  Either way, return the
          socket for the connection.

          If optional 'rest' is given, a ‘REST’ command is sent to the
          server, passing 'rest' as an argument.  'rest' is usually a
          byte offset into the requested file, telling the server to
          restart sending the file's bytes at the requested offset,
          skipping over the initial bytes.  Note however that the *note
          transfercmd(): 3a2d. method converts 'rest' to a string with
          the 'encoding' parameter specified at initialization, but no
          check is performed on the string's contents.  If the server
          does not recognize the ‘REST’ command, an *note error_reply:
          3a2b. exception will be raised.  If this happens, simply call
          *note transfercmd(): 3a2d. without a 'rest' argument.

      -- Méthode: ntransfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          Like *note transfercmd(): 3a2d, but returns a tuple of the
          data connection and the expected size of the data.  If the
          expected size could not be computed, ‘None’ will be returned
          as the expected size.  'cmd' and 'rest' means the same thing
          as in *note transfercmd(): 3a2d.

      -- Méthode: mlsd (path='', facts=[])

          List a directory in a standardized format by using ‘MLSD’
          command ( RFC 3659(4)).  If 'path' is omitted the current
          directory is assumed.  'facts' is a list of strings
          representing the type of information desired (e.g.  ‘["type",
          "size", "perm"]’).  Return a generator object yielding a tuple
          of two elements for every file found in path.  First element
          is the file name, the second one is a dictionary containing
          facts about the file name.  Content of this dictionary might
          be limited by the 'facts' argument but server is not
          guaranteed to return all requested facts.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: nlst (argument[, ...])

          Renvoie une liste de noms de fichiers comme celle que renvoie
          la commande ‘NLST’.  Le paramètre optionnel 'argument' est une
          liste de dossiers (la valeur par défaut est le répertoire
          courant du serveur).  Plusieurs paramètres peuvent être
          utilisés pour passer des paramètres non standards à la
          commande ‘NLST’.

               Note: La commande *note mlsd(): 10a6. offre une meilleure
               API si votre serveur sait la gérer.

      -- Méthode: dir (argument[, ...])

          Produce a directory listing as returned by the ‘LIST’ command,
          printing it to standard output.  The optional 'argument' is a
          directory to list (default is the current server directory).
          Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to
          the ‘LIST’ command.  If the last argument is a function, it is
          used as a 'callback' function as for *note retrlines(): 3a2e.;
          the default prints to *note sys.stdout: ac6.  This method
          returns ‘None’.

               Note: La commande *note mlsd(): 10a6. offre une meilleure
               API si votre serveur sait la gérer.

      -- Méthode: rename (fromname, toname)

          Renomme le fichier portant le nom 'fromname' en 'toname' sur
          le serveur.

      -- Méthode: delete (filename)

          Remove the file named 'filename' from the server.  If
          successful, returns the text of the response, otherwise raises
          *note error_perm: 3a34. on permission errors or *note
          error_reply: 3a2b. on other errors.

      -- Méthode: cwd (pathname)

          Set the current directory on the server.

      -- Méthode: mkd (pathname)

          Crée un nouveau dossier sur le serveur.

      -- Méthode: pwd ()

          Renvoie le chemin d'accès au répertoire courant sur le
          serveur.

      -- Méthode: rmd (dirname)

          Supprime le dossier portant le nom 'dirname' sur le serveur.

      -- Méthode: size (filename)

          Request the size of the file named 'filename' on the server.
          On success, the size of the file is returned as an integer,
          otherwise ‘None’ is returned.  Note that the ‘SIZE’ command is
          not standardized, but is supported by many common server
          implementations.

      -- Méthode: quit ()

          Send a ‘QUIT’ command to the server and close the connection.
          This is the "polite" way to close a connection, but it may
          raise an exception if the server responds with an error to the
          ‘QUIT’ command.  This implies a call to the *note close():
          3a3b. method which renders the *note FTP: 8e9. instance
          useless for subsequent calls (see below).

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Close the connection unilaterally.  This should not be applied
          to an already closed connection such as after a successful
          call to *note quit(): 3a3a.  After this call the *note FTP:
          8e9. instance should not be used any more (after a call to
          *note close(): 3a3b. or *note quit(): 3a3a. you cannot reopen
          the connection by issuing another *note login(): 3a27.
          method).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3659.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTP_TLS objects,  Next: Module variables,  Prev: FTP objects,  Up: Référence<4>

5.22.11.3 FTP_TLS objects
.........................

 -- Classe: ftplib.FTP_TLS (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', *,
          context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None,
          encoding='utf-8')

     An *note FTP: 8e9. subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as
     described in RFC 4217(1).  Connect to port 21 implicitly securing
     the FTP control connection before authenticating.

          Note: The user must explicitly secure the data connection by
          calling the *note prot_p(): 3a3d. method.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 437.) - The hostname to connect to.  If
          given, ‘connect(host)’ is implicitly called by the
          constructor.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 437.) - The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  If given, ‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ is implicitly called by the constructor.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 437.) - The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 437.) - Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(2) for more details.

        * ‘context’ (*note ssl.SSLContext: 291.) - An SSL context object
          which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates
          and private keys into a single, potentially long-lived,
          structure.  Please read *note Security considerations: 32ef.
          for best practices.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ec.‘ | ’‘None’) - A timeout in
          seconds for blocking operations like *note connect(): 3a24.
          (default: the global default timeout setting).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 366.‘ | ’‘None’) - A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 437.) - The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the 'source_address' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check
     with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to
     be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.  The 'encoding' parameter was
     added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow
     RFC 2640(3).

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and
     'certfile' parameters have been removed.

     Voici un exemple de session utilisant la classe *note FTP_TLS:
     8ea. :

          >>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
          >>> ftps.login()
          '230 Anonymous user logged in'
          >>> ftps.prot_p()
          '200 Data protection level set to "private"'
          >>> ftps.nlst()
          ['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']

     ‘FTP_TLS’ class inherits from *note FTP: 8e9, defining these
     additional methods and attributes:

      -- Attribut: ssl_version

          The SSL version to use (defaults to *note ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23:
          3415.).

      -- Méthode: auth ()

          Set up a secure control connection by using TLS or SSL,
          depending on what is specified in the *note ssl_version: 3a3e.
          attribute.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: The method now supports hostname
          check with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and
          'Server Name Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

      -- Méthode: ccc ()

          Revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be useful
          to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
          with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: prot_p ()

          Établit une connexion de données sécurisée.

      -- Méthode: prot_c ()

          Établit une connexion de données non sécurisées.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4217.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: Module variables,  Prev: FTP_TLS objects,  Up: Référence<4>

5.22.11.4 Module variables
..........................

 -- Exception: ftplib.error_reply

     Exception levée lorsqu'une réponse inattendue est reçue du serveur.

 -- Exception: ftplib.error_temp

     Exception levée lorsqu'un code d'erreur signifiant une erreur
     temporaire (code de réponse dans l'intervalle 400-499) est reçu.

 -- Exception: ftplib.error_perm

     Exception levée lorsqu'un code d'erreur signifiant une erreur
     permanente (code de réponse dans l'intervalle 500-599) est reçu.

 -- Exception: ftplib.error_proto

     Exception levée lorsqu'une réponse reçue du serveur ne correspond
     pas aux à la spécification de File Transfer Protocol, c.-à-d.
     qu'elle doit commencer par un chiffre dans l'intervalle 1-5.

 -- Données: ftplib.all_errors

     The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of *note FTP:
     8e9. instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP
     connection (as opposed to programming errors made by the caller).
     This set includes the four exceptions listed above as well as *note
     OSError: 40d. and *note EOFError: 12b9.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note netrc: 9a.

     Parser for the ‘.netrc’ file format.  The file ‘.netrc’ is
     typically used by FTP clients to load user authentication
     information before prompting the user.


File: python.info,  Node: poplib --- POP3 protocol client,  Next: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client,  Prev: ftplib --- FTP protocol client,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.12 ‘poplib’ -- POP3 protocol client
----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/poplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a class, *note POP3: 913, which encapsulates a
connection to a POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in
RFC 1939(2).  The *note POP3: 913. class supports both the minimal and
optional command sets from RFC 1939(3).  The *note POP3: 913. class also
supports the ‘STLS’ command introduced in RFC 2595(4) to enable
encrypted communication on an already established connection.

Additionally, this module provides a class *note POP3_SSL: 914, which
provides support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an
underlying protocol layer.

Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent.  The
implementation quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are
quite poor.  If your mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off
using the *note imaplib.IMAP4: 8f2. class, as IMAP servers tend to be
better implemented.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

The *note poplib: ab. module provides two classes:

 -- Classe: poplib.POP3 (host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])

     This class implements the actual POP3 protocol.  The connection is
     created when the instance is initialized.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard POP3 port (110) is used.  The optional 'timeout'
     parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt
     (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be
     used).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘poplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘poplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to
     be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Classe: poplib.POP3_SSL (host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, *, timeout=None,
          context=None)

     This is a subclass of *note POP3: 913. that connects to the server
     over an SSL encrypted socket.  If 'port' is not specified, 995, the
     standard POP3-over-SSL port is used.  'timeout' works as in the
     *note POP3: 913. constructor.  'context' is an optional *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 291. object which allows bundling SSL configuration
     options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
     long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security considerations:
     32ef. for best practices.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘poplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘poplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'context' parameter added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check
     with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to
     be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and
     'certfile' parameters have been removed.

One exception is defined as an attribute of the *note poplib: ab.
module:

 -- Exception: poplib.error_proto

     Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from *note
     socket: cb. module are not caught).  The reason for the exception
     is passed to the constructor as a string.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note imaplib: 73.

     The standard Python IMAP module.

Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail(5)

     The FAQ for the ‘fetchmail’ POP/IMAP client collects information on
     POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if
     you need to write an application based on the POP protocol.

* Menu:

* POP3 Objects::
* POP3 Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/poplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html

   (5) http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 Objects,  Next: POP3 Example,  Up: poplib --- POP3 protocol client

5.22.12.1 POP3 Objects
......................

All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in
lowercase; most return the response text sent by the server.

A *note POP3: 913. instance has the following methods:

 -- Méthode: POP3.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the instance's debugging level.  This controls the amount of
     debugging output printed.  The default, ‘0’, produces no debugging
     output.  A value of ‘1’ produces a moderate amount of debugging
     output, generally a single line per request.  A value of ‘2’ or
     higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output, logging
     each line sent and received on the control connection.

 -- Méthode: POP3.getwelcome ()

     Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.

 -- Méthode: POP3.capa ()

     Query the server's capabilities as specified in RFC 2449(1).
     Returns a dictionary in the form ‘{'name': ['param'...]}’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Méthode: POP3.user (username)

     Send user command, response should indicate that a password is
     required.

 -- Méthode: POP3.pass_ (password)

     Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size.
     Note: the mailbox on the server is locked until *note quit(): 117c.
     is called.

 -- Méthode: POP3.apop (user, secret)

     Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3
     server.

 -- Méthode: POP3.rpop (user)

     Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into
     POP3 server.

 -- Méthode: POP3.stat ()

     Get mailbox status.  The result is a tuple of 2 integers: ‘(message
     count, mailbox size)’.

 -- Méthode: POP3.list ([which])

     Request message list, result is in the form ‘(response, ['mesg_num
     octets', ...], octets)’.  If 'which' is set, it is the message to
     list.

 -- Méthode: POP3.retr (which)

     Retrieve whole message number 'which', and set its seen flag.
     Result is in form ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

 -- Méthode: POP3.dele (which)

     Flag message number 'which' for deletion.  On most servers
     deletions are not actually performed until QUIT (the major
     exception is Eudora QPOP, which deliberately violates the RFCs by
     doing pending deletes on any disconnect).

 -- Méthode: POP3.rset ()

     Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.

 -- Méthode: POP3.noop ()

     Do nothing.  Might be used as a keep-alive.

 -- Méthode: POP3.quit ()

     Signoff: commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.

 -- Méthode: POP3.top (which, howmuch)

     Retrieves the message header plus 'howmuch' lines of the message
     after the header of message number 'which'.  Result is in form
     ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

     The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command,
     doesn't set the message's seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly
     specified in the RFCs and is frequently broken in off-brand
     servers.  Test this method by hand against the POP3 servers you
     will use before trusting it.

 -- Méthode: POP3.uidl (which=None)

     Return message digest (unique id) list.  If 'which' is specified,
     result contains the unique id for that message in the form
     ‘'response mesgnum uid’, otherwise result is list ‘(response,
     ['mesgnum uid', ...], octets)’.

 -- Méthode: POP3.utf8 ()

     Try to switch to UTF-8 mode.  Returns the server response if
     successful, raises *note error_proto: 117d. if not.  Specified in
     RFC 6856(2).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: POP3.stls (context=None)

     Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in RFC
     2595(3).  This is only allowed before user authentication

     'context' parameter is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object which
     allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private
     keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 32ef. for best practices.

     This method supports hostname checking via *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Instances of *note POP3_SSL: 914. have no additional methods.  The
interface of this subclass is identical to its parent.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2449.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 Example,  Prev: POP3 Objects,  Up: poplib --- POP3 protocol client

5.22.12.2 POP3 Example
......................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, poplib

     M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
     M.user(getpass.getuser())
     M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
     numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
     for i in range(numMessages):
         for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
             print(j)

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client,  Next: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client,  Prev: poplib --- POP3 protocol client,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.13 ‘imaplib’ -- IMAP4 protocol client
------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/imaplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines three classes, *note IMAP4: 8f2, *note IMAP4_SSL:
8f3. and *note IMAP4_stream: 8f5, which encapsulate a connection to an
IMAP4 server and implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client
protocol as defined in RFC 2060(2).  It is backward compatible with
IMAP4 ( RFC 1730(3)) servers, but note that the ‘STATUS’ command is not
supported in IMAP4.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Three classes are provided by the *note imaplib: 73. module, *note
IMAP4: 8f2. is the base class:

 -- Classe: imaplib.IMAP4 (host='', port=IMAP4_PORT, timeout=None)

     This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol.  The connection is
     created and protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined
     when the instance is initialized.  If 'host' is not specified, ‘''’
     (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted, the standard IMAP4
     port (143) is used.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If timeout is not
     given or is ‘None’, the global default socket timeout is used.

     The *note IMAP4: 8f2. class supports the *note with: 5be.
     statement.  When used like this, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ command is
     issued automatically when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from imaplib import IMAP4
          >>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
          ...     M.noop()
          ...
          ('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La prise en charge de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. a été ajoutée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The optional 'timeout' parameter was
     added.

Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the *note IMAP4: 8f2.
class:

 -- Exception: IMAP4.error

     Exception raised on any errors.  The reason for the exception is
     passed to the constructor as a string.

 -- Exception: IMAP4.abort

     IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised.  This is a
     sub-class of *note IMAP4.error: 3a5b.  Note that closing the
     instance and instantiating a new one will usually allow recovery
     from this exception.

 -- Exception: IMAP4.readonly

     This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status
     changed by the server.  This is a sub-class of *note IMAP4.error:
     3a5b.  Some other client now has write permission, and the mailbox
     will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write permission.

There's also a subclass for secure connections:

 -- Classe: imaplib.IMAP4_SSL (host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, *,
          ssl_context=None, timeout=None)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 8f2. that connects
     over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket
     module that was compiled with SSL support).  If 'host' is not
     specified, ‘''’ (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used.  'ssl_context' is a
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object which allows bundling SSL
     configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
     (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 32ef. for best practices.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     the connection attempt.  If timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the
     global default socket timeout is used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'ssl_context' parameter was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check
     with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The optional 'timeout' parameter was
     added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and
     'certfile' parameters have been removed.

The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:

 -- Classe: imaplib.IMAP4_stream (command)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 8f2. that connects to
     the ‘stdin/stdout’ file descriptors created by passing 'command' to
     ‘subprocess.Popen()’.

The following utility functions are defined:

 -- Fonction: imaplib.Internaldate2tuple (datestr)

     Parse an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ string and return corresponding local
     time.  The return value is a *note time.struct_time: cda. tuple or
     ‘None’ if the string has wrong format.

 -- Fonction: imaplib.Int2AP (num)

     Converts an integer into a bytes representation using characters
     from the set [‘A’ ..  ‘P’].

 -- Fonction: imaplib.ParseFlags (flagstr)

     Converts an IMAP4 ‘FLAGS’ response to a tuple of individual flags.

 -- Fonction: imaplib.Time2Internaldate (date_time)

     Convert 'date_time' to an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ representation.  The
     return value is a string in the form: ‘"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS
     +HHMM"’ (including double-quotes).  The 'date_time' argument can be
     a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as
     returned by *note time.time(): 251.), a 9-tuple representing local
     time an instance of *note time.struct_time: cda. (as returned by
     *note time.localtime(): 14b1.), an aware instance of *note
     datetime.datetime: 1c7, or a double-quoted string.  In the last
     case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.

Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in
particular, after an ‘EXPUNGE’ command performs deletions the remaining
messages are renumbered.  So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead,
with the UID command.

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.

Voir aussi
..........

Documents describing the protocol, sources for servers implementing it,
by the University of Washington's IMAP Information Center can all be
found at ('Source Code') ‘https://github.com/uw-imap/imap’ ('Not
Maintained').

* Menu:

* IMAP4 Objects::
* IMAP4 Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/imaplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1730.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 Objects,  Next: IMAP4 Example,  Up: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client

5.22.13.1 IMAP4 Objects
.......................

All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name,
either uppercase or lowercase.

All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for
‘AUTHENTICATE’, and the last argument to ‘APPEND’ which is passed as an
IMAP4 literal.  If necessary (the string contains IMAP4
protocol-sensitive characters and isn't enclosed with either parentheses
or double quotes) each string is quoted.  However, the 'password'
argument to the ‘LOGIN’ command is always quoted.  If you want to avoid
having an argument string quoted (eg: the 'flags' argument to ‘STORE’)
then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: ‘r'(\Deleted)'’).

Each command returns a tuple: ‘(type, [data, ...])’ where 'type' is
usually ‘'OK'’ or ‘'NO'’, and 'data' is either the text from the command
response, or mandated results from the command.  Each 'data' is either a
‘bytes’, or a tuple.  If a tuple, then the first part is the header of
the response, and the second part contains the data (ie: 'literal'
value).

The 'message_set' options to commands below is a string specifying one
or more messages to be acted upon.  It may be a simple message number
(‘'1'’), a range of message numbers (‘'2:4'’), or a group of
non-contiguous ranges separated by commas (‘'1:3,6:9'’).  A range can
contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite upper bound (‘'3:*'’).

An *note IMAP4: 8f2. instance has the following methods:

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.append (mailbox, flags, date_time, message)

     Append 'message' to named mailbox.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.authenticate (mechanism, authobject)

     Authenticate command -- requires response processing.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     - it should appear in the instance variable ‘capabilities’ in the
     form ‘AUTH=mechanism’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object:

          data = authobject(response)

     It will be called to process server continuation responses; the
     'response' argument it is passed will be ‘bytes’.  It should return
     ‘bytes’ 'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.
     It should return ‘None’ if the client abort response ‘*’ should be
     sent instead.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: string usernames and passwords are now
     encoded to ‘utf-8’ instead of being limited to ASCII.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.check ()

     Checkpoint mailbox on server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.close ()

     Close currently selected mailbox.  Deleted messages are removed
     from writable mailbox.  This is the recommended command before
     ‘LOGOUT’.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.copy (message_set, new_mailbox)

     Copy 'message_set' messages onto end of 'new_mailbox'.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.create (mailbox)

     Create new mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.delete (mailbox)

     Delete old mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.deleteacl (mailbox, who)

     Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.enable (capability)

     Enable 'capability' (see RFC 5161(1)).  Most capabilities do not
     need to be enabled.  Currently only the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability is
     supported (see RFC 6855(2)).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: The *note enable(): dfc. method itself,
     and RFC 6855(3) support.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.expunge ()

     Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox.  Generates
     an ‘EXPUNGE’ response for each deleted message.  Returned data
     contains a list of ‘EXPUNGE’ message numbers in order received.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.fetch (message_set, message_parts)

     Fetch (parts of) messages.  'message_parts' should be a string of
     message part names enclosed within parentheses, eg: ‘"(UID
     BODY[TEXT])"’.  Returned data are tuples of message part envelope
     and data.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.getacl (mailbox)

     Get the ‘ACL’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.getannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute)

     Retrieve the specified ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is
     non-standard, but is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.getquota (root)

     Get the ‘quota’ 'root"s resource usage and limits.  This method is
     part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.getquotaroot (mailbox)

     Get the list of ‘quota’ ‘roots’ for the named 'mailbox'.  This
     method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.list ([directory[, pattern]])

     List mailbox names in 'directory' matching 'pattern'.  'directory'
     defaults to the top-level mail folder, and 'pattern' defaults to
     match anything.  Returned data contains a list of ‘LIST’ responses.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.login (user, password)

     Identify the client using a plaintext password.  The 'password'
     will be quoted.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.login_cram_md5 (user, password)

     Force use of ‘CRAM-MD5’ authentication when identifying the client
     to protect the password.  Will only work if the server ‘CAPABILITY’
     response includes the phrase ‘AUTH=CRAM-MD5’.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.logout ()

     Shutdown connection to server.  Returns server ‘BYE’ response.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The method no longer ignores silently
     arbitrary exceptions.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.lsub (directory='""', pattern='*')

     List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern.
     'directory' defaults to the top level directory and 'pattern'
     defaults to match any mailbox.  Returned data are tuples of message
     part envelope and data.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.myrights (mailbox)

     Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e.  the rights that I have on
     mailbox).

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.namespace ()

     Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in RFC 2342(4).

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.noop ()

     Send ‘NOOP’ to server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.open (host, port, timeout=None)

     Opens socket to 'port' at 'host'.  The optional 'timeout' parameter
     specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If
     timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the global default socket
     timeout is used.  Also note that if the 'timeout' parameter is set
     to be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to reject
     creating a non-blocking socket.  This method is implicitly called
     by the *note IMAP4: 8f2. constructor.  The connection objects
     established by this method will be used in the *note IMAP4.read():
     3a79, *note IMAP4.readline(): 3a7a, *note IMAP4.send(): 3a7b, and
     *note IMAP4.shutdown(): 3a7c. methods.  You may override this
     method.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘imaplib.open’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.partial (message_num, message_part, start, length)

     Fetch truncated part of a message.  Returned data is a tuple of
     message part envelope and data.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.proxyauth (user)

     Assume authentication as 'user'.  Allows an authorised
     administrator to proxy into any user's mailbox.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.read (size)

     Reads 'size' bytes from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.readline ()

     Reads one line from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.recent ()

     Prompt server for an update.  Returned data is ‘None’ if no new
     messages, else value of ‘RECENT’ response.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.rename (oldmailbox, newmailbox)

     Rename mailbox named 'oldmailbox' to 'newmailbox'.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.response (code)

     Return data for response 'code' if received, or ‘None’.  Returns
     the given code, instead of the usual type.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.search (charset, criterion[, ...])

     Search mailbox for matching messages.  'charset' may be ‘None’, in
     which case no ‘CHARSET’ will be specified in the request to the
     server.  The IMAP protocol requires that at least one criterion be
     specified; an exception will be raised when the server returns an
     error.  'charset' must be ‘None’ if the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability
     was enabled using the *note enable(): dfc. command.

     Exemple :

          # M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')

          # or:
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.select (mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)

     Select a mailbox.  Returned data is the count of messages in
     'mailbox' (‘EXISTS’ response).  The default 'mailbox' is ‘'INBOX'’.
     If the 'readonly' flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not
     allowed.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.send (data)

     Sends ‘data’ to the remote server.  You may override this method.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘imaplib.send’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘data’.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.setacl (mailbox, who, what)

     Set an ‘ACL’ for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.setannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])

     Set ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but
     is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.setquota (root, limits)

     Set the ‘quota’ 'root"s resource 'limits'.  This method is part of
     the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.shutdown ()

     Close connection established in ‘open’.  This method is implicitly
     called by *note IMAP4.logout(): 3a74.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.socket ()

     Returns socket instance used to connect to server.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.sort (sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[,
          ...])

     The ‘sort’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with sorting semantics
     for the results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of
     matching message numbers.

     Sort has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s); a
     parenthesized list of 'sort_criteria', and the searching 'charset'.
     Note that unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is
     mandatory.  There is also a ‘uid sort’ command which corresponds to
     ‘sort’ the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The
     ‘sort’ command first searches the mailbox for messages that match
     the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the numbers of matching messages.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.starttls (ssl_context=None)

     Send a ‘STARTTLS’ command.  The 'ssl_context' argument is optional
     and should be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. object.  This will
     enable encryption on the IMAP connection.  Please read *note
     Security considerations: 32ef. for best practices.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The method now supports hostname check
     with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.status (mailbox, names)

     Request named status conditions for 'mailbox'.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.store (message_set, command, flag_list)

     Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox.  'command' is
     specified by section 6.4.6 of RFC 2060(5) as being one of "FLAGS",
     "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS", optionally with a suffix of ".SILENT".

     For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:

          typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
          for num in data[0].split():
             M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
          M.expunge()

          Note: Creating flags containing ']' (for example: "[test]")
          violates RFC 3501(6) (the IMAP protocol).  However, imaplib
          has historically allowed creation of such tags, and popular
          IMAP servers, such as Gmail, accept and produce such flags.
          There are non-Python programs which also create such tags.
          Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and servers
          are supposed to be strict, imaplib still continues to allow
          such tags to be created for backward compatibility reasons,
          and as of Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent from the
          server, since this improves real-world compatibility.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.subscribe (mailbox)

     Subscribe to new mailbox.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.thread (threading_algorithm, charset,
          search_criterion[, ...])

     The ‘thread’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with threading
     semantics for the results.  Returned data contains a space
     separated list of thread members.

     Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited
     by spaces, indicating successive parent and child.

     Thread has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s);
     a 'threading_algorithm', and the searching 'charset'.  Note that
     unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is mandatory.
     There is also a ‘uid thread’ command which corresponds to ‘thread’
     the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The ‘thread’
     command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the
     given searching criteria using the 'charset' argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified
     threading algorithm.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.uid (command, arg[, ...])

     Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than
     message number.  Returns response appropriate to command.  At least
     one argument must be supplied; if none are provided, the server
     will return an error and an exception will be raised.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.unsubscribe (mailbox)

     Unsubscribe from old mailbox.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.unselect ()

     *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 8f6. frees server's resources
     associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the
     authenticated state.  This command performs the same actions as
     *note imaplib.IMAP4.close(): 8f7, except that no messages are
     permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Méthode: IMAP4.xatom (name[, ...])

     Allow simple extension commands notified by server in ‘CAPABILITY’
     response.

The following attributes are defined on instances of *note IMAP4: 8f2.:

 -- Attribut: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION

     The most recent supported protocol in the ‘CAPABILITY’ response
     from the server.

 -- Attribut: IMAP4.debug

     Integer value to control debugging output.  The initialize value is
     taken from the module variable ‘Debug’.  Values greater than three
     trace each command.

 -- Attribut: IMAP4.utf8_enabled

     Boolean value that is normally ‘False’, but is set to ‘True’ if an
     *note enable(): dfc. command is successfully issued for the
     ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3501.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 Example,  Prev: IMAP4 Objects,  Up: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client

5.22.13.2 IMAP4 Example
.......................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, imaplib

     M = imaplib.IMAP4(host='example.org')
     M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
     M.select()
     typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
     for num in data[0].split():
         typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
         print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
     M.close()
     M.logout()


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client,  Next: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122,  Prev: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.14 ‘smtplib’ -- SMTP protocol client
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/smtplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note smtplib: c9. module defines an SMTP client session object that
can be used to send mail to any internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP
listener daemon.  For details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult RFC
821(2) (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and RFC 1869(3) (SMTP Service
Extensions).

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

 -- Classe: smtplib.SMTP (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[,
          timeout], source_address=None)

     An *note SMTP: 91c. instance encapsulates an SMTP connection.  It
     has methods that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP
     operations.  If the optional 'host' and 'port' parameters are
     given, the SMTP *note connect(): 1988. method is called with those
     parameters during initialization.  If specified, 'local_hostname'
     is used as the FQDN of the local host in the HELO/EHLO command.
     Otherwise, the local hostname is found using *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 1738.  If the *note connect(): 1988. call returns
     anything other than a success code, an *note SMTPConnectError:
     3a96. is raised.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection
     attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will
     be used).  If the timeout expires, *note TimeoutError: 821. is
     raised.  The optional 'source_address' parameter allows binding to
     some specific source address in a machine with multiple network
     interfaces, and/or to some specific source TCP port.  It takes a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’, for the socket to bind to as its source
     address before connecting.  If omitted (or if 'host' or 'port' are
     ‘''’ and/or ‘0’ respectively) the OS default behavior will be used.

     For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect,
     *note sendmail(): e44, and *note SMTP.quit(): 3a97. methods.  An
     example is included below.

     The *note SMTP: 91c. class supports the *note with: 5be. statement.
     When used like this, the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command is issued
     automatically when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from smtplib import SMTP
          >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
          ...     smtp.noop()
          ...
          (250, b'Ok')
          >>>

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘smtplib.SMTP.send’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘data’, where ‘data’
     is the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: La prise en charge de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. a été ajoutée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'source_address' argument was added.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: The SMTPUTF8 extension ( RFC 6531(4))
     is now supported.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to
     be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Classe: smtplib.SMTP_SSL (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, *[,
          timeout], context=None, source_address=None)

     An *note SMTP_SSL: 91d. instance behaves exactly the same as
     instances of *note SMTP: 91c.  *note SMTP_SSL: 91d. should be used
     for situations where SSL is required from the beginning of the
     connection and using ‘starttls()’ is not appropriate.  If 'host' is
     not specified, the local host is used.  If 'port' is zero, the
     standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used.  The optional arguments
     'local_hostname', 'timeout' and 'source_address' have the same
     meaning as they do in the *note SMTP: 91c. class.  'context', also
     optional, can contain a *note SSLContext: 291. and allows
     configuring various aspects of the secure connection.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 32ef. for best practices.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'context' was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'source_address' argument was
     added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check
     with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3411. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3423.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to
     be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and
     'certfile' parameters have been removed.

 -- Classe: smtplib.LMTP (host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None,
          source_address=None[, timeout])

     The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based
     on the standard SMTP client.  It's common to use Unix sockets for
     LMTP, so our ‘connect()’ method must support that as well as a
     regular host:port server.  The optional arguments 'local_hostname'
     and 'source_address' have the same meaning as they do in the *note
     SMTP: 91c. class.  To specify a Unix socket, you must use an
     absolute path for 'host', starting with a '/'.

     Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism.
     When using a Unix socket, LMTP generally don't support or require
     any authentication, but your mileage might vary.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The optional 'timeout' parameter was
     added.

A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPException

     Subclass of *note OSError: 40d. that is the base exception class
     for all the other exceptions provided by this module.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: SMTPException became subclass of *note
     OSError: 40d.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected

     This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects,
     or when an attempt is made to use the *note SMTP: 91c. instance
     before connecting it to a server.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPResponseException

     Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code.
     These exceptions are generated in some instances when the SMTP
     server returns an error code.  The error code is stored in the
     ‘smtp_code’ attribute of the error, and the ‘smtp_error’ attribute
     is set to the error message.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused

     Sender address refused.  In addition to the attributes set by on
     all *note SMTPResponseException: 3a99. exceptions, this sets
     'sender' to the string that the SMTP server refused.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused

     All recipient addresses refused.  The errors for each recipient are
     accessible through the attribute ‘recipients’, which is a
     dictionary of exactly the same sort as *note SMTP.sendmail(): e44.
     returns.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPDataError

     The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPConnectError

     Error occurred during establishment of a connection with the
     server.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPHeloError

     The server refused our ‘HELO’ message.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError

     The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Exception: smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError

     SMTP authentication went wrong.  Most probably the server didn't
     accept the username/password combination provided.

Voir aussi
..........

RFC 821(5) - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

     Protocol definition for SMTP. This document covers the model,
     operating procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.

RFC 1869(6) - SMTP Service Extensions

     Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP. This describes a
     framework for extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic
     discovery of the commands provided by the server, and defines a few
     additional commands.

* Menu:

* SMTP Objects::
* SMTP Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/smtplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP Objects,  Next: SMTP Example,  Up: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client

5.22.14.1 SMTP Objects
......................

An *note SMTP: 91c. instance has the following methods:

 -- Méthode: SMTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debug output level.  A value of 1 or ‘True’ for 'level'
     results in debug messages for connection and for all messages sent
     to and received from the server.  A value of 2 for 'level' results
     in these messages being timestamped.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added debuglevel 2.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.docmd (cmd, args='')

     Send a command 'cmd' to the server.  The optional argument 'args'
     is simply concatenated to the command, separated by a space.

     This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the
     actual response line (multiline responses are joined into one long
     line.)

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It is used to implement other methods and may be
     useful for testing private extensions.

     If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the
     reply, *note SMTPServerDisconnected: 3a98. will be raised.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.connect (host='localhost', port=0)

     Connect to a host on a given port.  The defaults are to connect to
     the local host at the standard SMTP port (25).  If the hostname
     ends with a colon (‘':'’) followed by a number, that suffix will be
     stripped off and the number interpreted as the port number to use.
     This method is automatically invoked by the constructor if a host
     is specified during instantiation.  Returns a 2-tuple of the
     response code and message sent by the server in its connection
     response.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘smtplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.helo (name='')

     Identify yourself to the SMTP server using ‘HELO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  The message returned by the server is stored as the
     ‘helo_resp’ attribute of the object.

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It will be implicitly called by the *note sendmail():
     e44. when necessary.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.ehlo (name='')

     Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using ‘EHLO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  Examine the response for ESMTP option and store them for use
     by *note has_extn(): 3aa4.  Also sets several informational
     attributes: the message returned by the server is stored as the
     ‘ehlo_resp’ attribute, ‘does_esmtp’ is set to ‘True’ or ‘False’
     depending on whether the server supports ESMTP, and
     ‘esmtp_features’ will be a dictionary containing the names of the
     SMTP service extensions this server supports, and their parameters
     (if any).

     Unless you wish to use *note has_extn(): 3aa4. before sending mail,
     it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.  It will
     be implicitly called by *note sendmail(): e44. when necessary.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed ()

     This method calls *note ehlo(): 3aa3. and/or *note helo(): 3aa2. if
     there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this session.
     It tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3a9d.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.has_extn (name)

     Return *note True: bfd. if 'name' is in the set of SMTP service
     extensions returned by the server, *note False: b27. otherwise.
     Case is ignored.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.verify (address)

     Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP ‘VRFY’.
     Returns a tuple consisting of code 250 and a full RFC 822(1)
     address (including human name) if the user address is valid.
     Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400 or greater and an error
     string.

          Note: Many sites disable SMTP ‘VRFY’ in order to foil
          spammers.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.login (user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)

     Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication.  The
     arguments are the username and the password to authenticate with.
     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  This method will
     return normally if the authentication was successful, or may raise
     the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3a9d.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPAuthenticationError: 3a9e.

          The server didn't accept the username/password combination.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987.

          The ‘AUTH’ command is not supported by the server.

     *note SMTPException: f8d.

          No suitable authentication method was found.

     Each of the authentication methods supported by *note smtplib: c9.
     are tried in turn if they are advertised as supported by the
     server.  See *note auth(): e42. for a list of supported
     authentication methods.  'initial_response_ok' is passed through to
     *note auth(): e42.

     Optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' specifies whether,
     for authentication methods that support it, an "initial response"
     as specified in RFC 4954(2) can be sent along with the ‘AUTH’
     command, rather than requiring a challenge/response.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987. may
     be raised, and the 'initial_response_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.auth (mechanism, authobject, *,
          initial_response_ok=True)

     Issue an ‘SMTP’ ‘AUTH’ command for the specified authentication
     'mechanism', and handle the challenge response via 'authobject'.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     as argument to the ‘AUTH’ command; the valid values are those
     listed in the ‘auth’ element of ‘esmtp_features’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object taking an optional single
     argument:

          data = authobject(challenge=None)

     If optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' is true,
     ‘authobject()’ will be called first with no argument.  It can
     return the RFC 4954(3) "initial response" ASCII ‘str’ which will be
     encoded and sent with the ‘AUTH’ command as below.  If the
     ‘authobject()’ does not support an initial response (e.g.  because
     it requires a challenge), it should return ‘None’ when called with
     ‘challenge=None’.  If 'initial_response_ok' is false, then
     ‘authobject()’ will not be called first with ‘None’.

     If the initial response check returns ‘None’, or if
     'initial_response_ok' is false, ‘authobject()’ will be called to
     process the server's challenge response; the 'challenge' argument
     it is passed will be a ‘bytes’.  It should return ASCII ‘str’
     'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.

     The ‘SMTP’ class provides ‘authobjects’ for the ‘CRAM-MD5’,
     ‘PLAIN’, and ‘LOGIN’ mechanisms; they are named
     ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5’, ‘SMTP.auth_plain’, and ‘SMTP.auth_login’
     respectively.  They all require that the ‘user’ and ‘password’
     properties of the ‘SMTP’ instance are set to appropriate values.

     User code does not normally need to call ‘auth’ directly, but can
     instead call the *note login(): 3aa7. method, which will try each
     of the above mechanisms in turn, in the order listed.  ‘auth’ is
     exposed to facilitate the implementation of authentication methods
     not (or not yet) supported directly by *note smtplib: c9.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.starttls (*, context=None)

     Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode.
     All SMTP commands that follow will be encrypted.  You should then
     call *note ehlo(): 3aa3. again.

     If 'keyfile' and 'certfile' are provided, they are used to create
     an *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.

     Optional 'context' parameter is an *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.
     object; This is an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile
     and if specified both 'keyfile' and 'certfile' should be ‘None’.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and
     'certfile' parameters have been removed.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3a9d.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987.

          The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.

     *note RuntimeError: 193.

          SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'context' was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The method now supports hostname check
     with ‘SSLContext.check_hostname’ and 'Server Name Indicator' (see
     *note HAS_SNI: 3423.).

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The error raised for lack of STARTTLS
     support is now the *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987. subclass
     instead of the base *note SMTPException: f8d.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.sendmail (from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(),
          rcpt_options=())

     Send mail.  The required arguments are an RFC 822(4) from-address
     string, a list of RFC 822(5) to-address strings (a bare string will
     be treated as a list with 1 address), and a message string.  The
     caller may pass a list of ESMTP options (such as ‘8bitmime’) to be
     used in ‘MAIL FROM’ commands as 'mail_options'.  ESMTP options
     (such as ‘DSN’ commands) that should be used with all ‘RCPT’
     commands can be passed as 'rcpt_options'.  (If you need to use
     different ESMTP options to different recipients you have to use the
     low-level methods such as ‘mail()’, ‘rcpt()’ and ‘data()’ to send
     the message.)

          Note: The 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' parameters are used to
          construct the message envelope used by the transport agents.
          ‘sendmail’ does not modify the message headers in any way.

     'msg' may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or
     a byte string.  A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec,
     and lone ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters are converted to ‘\r\n’
     characters.  A byte string is not modified.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  If the server does
     ESMTP, message size and each of the specified options will be
     passed to it (if the option is in the feature set the server
     advertises).  If ‘EHLO’ fails, ‘HELO’ will be tried and ESMTP
     options suppressed.

     This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at
     least one recipient.  Otherwise it will raise an exception.  That
     is, if this method does not raise an exception, then someone should
     get your mail.  If this method does not raise an exception, it
     returns a dictionary, with one entry for each recipient that was
     refused.  Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code and
     the accompanying error message sent by the server.

     If ‘SMTPUTF8’ is included in 'mail_options', and the server
     supports it, 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' may contain non-ASCII
     characters.

     This method may raise the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPRecipientsRefused: 3a9b.

          All recipients were refused.  Nobody got the mail.  The
          ‘recipients’ attribute of the exception object is a dictionary
          with information about the refused recipients (like the one
          returned when at least one recipient was accepted).

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3a9d.

          The server didn't reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPSenderRefused: 3a9a.

          The server didn't accept the 'from_addr'.

     *note SMTPDataError: 3a9c.

          The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a
          refusal of a recipient).

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987.

          ‘SMTPUTF8’ was given in the 'mail_options' but is not
          supported by the server.

     Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an
     exception is raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: 'msg' may be a byte string.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ‘SMTPUTF8’ support added, and *note
     SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987. may be raised if ‘SMTPUTF8’ is
     specified but the server does not support it.

 -- Méthode: SMTP.send_message (msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None,
          mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

     This is a convenience method for calling *note sendmail(): e44.
     with the message represented by an *note email.message.Message:
     279. object.  The arguments have the same meaning as for *note
     sendmail(): e44, except that 'msg' is a ‘Message’ object.

     If 'from_addr' is ‘None’ or 'to_addrs' is ‘None’, ‘send_message’
     fills those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of
     'msg' as specified in RFC 5322(6): 'from_addr' is set to the
     ‘Sender’ field if it is present, and otherwise to the ‘From’ field.
     'to_addrs' combines the values (if any) of the ‘To’, ‘Cc’, and
     ‘Bcc’ fields from 'msg'.  If exactly one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers
     appear in the message, the regular headers are ignored and the
     ‘Resent-*’ headers are used instead.  If the message contains more
     than one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers, a *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect the most
     recent set of ‘Resent-’ headers.

     ‘send_message’ serializes 'msg' using *note BytesGenerator: 11ae.
     with ‘\r\n’ as the 'linesep', and calls *note sendmail(): e44. to
     transmit the resulting message.  Regardless of the values of
     'from_addr' and 'to_addrs', ‘send_message’ does not transmit any
     ‘Bcc’ or ‘Resent-Bcc’ headers that may appear in 'msg'.  If any of
     the addresses in 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' contain non-ASCII
     characters and the server does not advertise ‘SMTPUTF8’ support, an
     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1987. is raised.  Otherwise the
     ‘Message’ is serialized with a clone of its *note policy: 4f. with
     the *note utf8: de7. attribute set to ‘True’, and ‘SMTPUTF8’ and
     ‘BODY=8BITMIME’ are added to 'mail_options'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Support for internationalized addresses
     (‘SMTPUTF8’).

 -- Méthode: SMTP.quit ()

     Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection.  Return the
     result of the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command.

Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands
‘HELP’, ‘RSET’, ‘NOOP’, ‘MAIL’, ‘RCPT’, and ‘DATA’ are also supported.
Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not
documented here.  For details, consult the module code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP Example,  Prev: SMTP Objects,  Up: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client

5.22.14.2 SMTP Example
......................

This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message
envelope ('To' and 'From' addresses), and the message to be delivered.
Note that the headers to be included with the message must be included
in the message as entered; this example doesn't do any processing of the
RFC 822(1) headers.  In particular, the 'To' and 'From' addresses must
be included in the message headers explicitly:

     import smtplib

     def prompt(title):
         return input(title).strip()

     from_addr = prompt("From: ")
     to_addrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
     print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")

     # Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
     lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
     while True:
         try:
             line = input()
         except EOFError:
             break
         else:
             lines.append(line)

     msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
     print("Message length is", len(msg))

     server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
     server.set_debuglevel(1)
     server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
     server.quit()

     Note: In general, you will want to use the *note email: 3b.
     package's features to construct an email message, which you can
     then send via *note send_message(): e45.; see *note email;
     Exemples: f29.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122,  Next: socketserver --- A framework for network servers,  Prev: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.15 ‘uuid’ -- UUID objects according to
-------------------------------------------

'RFC 4122'

'Code source :' Lib/uuid.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module exporte des objets *note UUID: a51. immuables (de la classe
*note UUID: a51.) et les fonctions *note uuid1(): b98, *note uuid3():
1518, *note uuid4(): 1519, *note uuid5(): 151a. permettant de générer
des UUID de version 1, 3, 4 et 5 tels que définis dans la RFC 4122(2).

Utilisez *note uuid1(): b98. ou *note uuid4(): 1519. si votre but est de
produire un identifiant unique.  Notez que *note uuid1(): b98. peut
dévoiler des informations personnelles car l'UUID produit contient
l'adresse réseau de l'ordinateur.  En revanche, *note uuid4(): 1519.
génère un UUID aléatoire.

Depending on support from the underlying platform, *note uuid1(): b98.
may or may not return a "safe" UUID. A safe UUID is one which is
generated using synchronization methods that ensure no two processes can
obtain the same UUID. All instances of *note UUID: a51. have an *note
is_safe: b96. attribute which relays any information about the UUID's
safety, using this enumeration:

 -- Classe: uuid.SafeUUID

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: safe

          L'UUID a été généré par la plateforme en utilisant une méthode
          sûre dans un contexte de parallélisme par processus.

      -- Attribut: unsafe

          L'UUID n'a pas été généré par une méthode sûre dans un
          contexte de parallélisme par processus.

      -- Attribut: unknown

          La plateforme ne précise pas si l'UUID a été généré de façon
          sûre ou non.

 -- Classe: uuid.UUID (hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None,
          int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)

     Produit un UUID à partir soit d'une chaîne de 32 chiffres
     hexadécimaux, soit une chaîne de 16 octets gros-boutiste (argument
     'bytes'), soit une chaîne de 16 octets petit-boutiste (argument
     'bytes_le'), soit un sextuplet d'entiers (32-bit 'time_low', 16-bit
     'time_mid', 16-bit 'time_hi_version', 8-bit 'clock_seq_hi_variant',
     8-bit 'clock_seq_low', 48-bit 'node') (argument 'fields'), soit un
     unique entier sur 128 bits (argument 'int').  Lorsque la fonction
     reçoit une chaîne de chiffres hexadécimaux, les accolades, les
     tirets et le préfixe URN sont facultatifs.  Par exemple, toutes les
     expressions ci-dessous génèrent le même UUID :

          UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
          UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
          UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
          UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
          UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
                        b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
          UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
          UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)

     Un seul des arguments 'hex', 'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields' ou 'int'
     doit être spécifié.  L'argument 'version' est optionnel : s'il est
     spécifié, l'UUID généré aura pour numéro de version et de variante
     la valeur indiquée dans la RFC 4122(3), remplaçant les bits idoines
     de 'hex', 'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields' ou 'int'.

     La comparaison de deux objets UUID se fait en comparant leurs
     attributs *note UUID.int: 3ab0.  La comparaison avec un objet autre
     qu'un UUID lève une exception *note TypeError: 525.

     ‘str(uuid)’ renvoie une chaîne de caractères de la forme
     ‘12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678’ représentant l'UUID par une
     chaîne de 32 chiffres hexadécimaux.

Les instances de *note UUID: a51. possèdent les attributs suivants en
lecture seule :

 -- Attribut: UUID.bytes

     L'UUID représenté comme une chaîne de 16 octets (contenant les six
     champs entiers dans l'ordre gros-boutiste).

 -- Attribut: UUID.bytes_le

     L'UUID représenté comme une chaîne de 16 octets (avec 'time_low',
     'time_mid' et 'time_hi_version' dans l'ordre petit-boutiste).

 -- Attribut: UUID.fields

     Un sextuplet contenant les champs entiers de l'UUID, également
     accessibles en tant que six attributs individuels et deux attributs
     dérivés :

Champ                                                  Signification
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.time_low                            The first 32 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.time_mid                            The next 16 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.time_hi_version                     The next 16 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.clock_seq_hi_variant                The next 8 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.clock_seq_low                       The next 8 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.node                                The last 48 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.time                                The 60-bit timestamp.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Attribut: UUID.clock_seq                           The 14-bit sequence number.
                                                       

 -- Attribut: UUID.hex

     The UUID as a 32-character lowercase hexadecimal string.

 -- Attribut: UUID.int

     Représentation de l'UUId sous forme d'un entier de 128 bits.

 -- Attribut: UUID.urn

     Représentation de l'UUID sous forme d'URN tel que spécifié dans la
     RFC 4122(4).

 -- Attribut: UUID.variant

     Variante de l'UUID. Celle-ci détermine l'agencement interne de
     l'UUID. Les valeurs possibles sont les constantes suivantes : *note
     RESERVED_NCS: 3abf, *note RFC_4122: 3ac0, *note RESERVED_MICROSOFT:
     3ac1. ou *note RESERVED_FUTURE: 3ac2.

 -- Attribut: UUID.version

     Numéro de version de l'UUID (de 1 à 5).  Cette valeur n'a de sens
     que dans le cas de la variante *note RFC_4122: 3ac0.

 -- Attribut: UUID.is_safe

     Valeur de l'énumération *note SafeUUID: 3aac. indiquant si la
     plateforme a généré l'UUID d'une façon sûre dans un contexte de
     parallélisme par processus.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Le module *note uu: 10e. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: uuid.getnode ()

     Renvoie l'adresse réseau matérielle sous forme d'un entier positif
     sur 48 bits.  Cette fonction peut faire appel à un programme
     externe relativement lent lors de sa première exécution.  Si toutes
     les tentatives d'obtenir l'adresse matérielle échouent, un nombre
     aléatoire sur 48 bit avec le bit de 'multicast' (bit de poids
     faible du premier octet) à 1 est généré, comme recommandé par la
     RFC 4122(5).  Ici, « adresse matérielle » correspond à l'adresse
     MAC d'une interface réseau.  Sur une machine avec plusieurs
     interfaces réseau, les adresses MAC de type UUA ('universally
     administered address', pour lesquelles le second bit de poids
     faible est à zéro) sont prioritaires par rapport aux autres
     adresses MAC. Aucune autre garantie n'est donnée sur l'ordre dans
     lequel les interfaces sont choisies.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les adresses MAC de type UUA sont
     préférées par rapport aux adresses locales car ces dernières ne
     sont pas nécessairement uniques.

 -- Fonction: uuid.uuid1 (node=None, clock_seq=None)

     Génère un UUID à partir d'un identifiant hôte, d'un numéro de
     séquence et de l'heure actuelle.  Si 'node' n'est pas spécifié, la
     fonction *note getnode(): b97. est appelée pour obtenir l'adresse
     matérielle.  'clock_seq' est utilisé comme numéro de séquence s'il
     est spécifié, sinon un numéro aléatoire sur 14 bits est utilisé à
     la place.

 -- Fonction: uuid.uuid3 (namespace, name)

     Generate a UUID based on the MD5 hash of a namespace identifier
     (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a *note bytes: 1bd. object
     or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8).

 -- Fonction: uuid.uuid4 ()

     Génère un UUID aléatoire.

 -- Fonction: uuid.uuid5 (namespace, name)

     Generate a UUID based on the SHA-1 hash of a namespace identifier
     (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a *note bytes: 1bd. object
     or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8).

Le module *note uuid: 10f. définit les identifiants d'espaces de noms
suivants (pour *note uuid3(): 1518. et *note uuid5(): 151a.).

 -- Données: uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is a fully
     qualified domain name.

 -- Données: uuid.NAMESPACE_URL

     Lorsque cet espace de nom est spécifié, la chaîne 'name' doit être
     une URL.

 -- Données: uuid.NAMESPACE_OID

     Lorsque cet espace de nom est spécifié, la chaîne 'name' doit être
     un OID ISO.

 -- Données: uuid.NAMESPACE_X500

     Lorsque cet espace de nom est spécifié, la chaîne 'name' doit être
     un DN X.500 au format texte ou DER.

The *note uuid: 10f. module defines the following constants for the
possible values of the *note variant: 3abe. attribute:

 -- Données: uuid.RESERVED_NCS

     Réservé pour la compatibilité NCS.

 -- Données: uuid.RFC_4122

     Utilise l'agencement des UUID de la RFC 4122(6).

 -- Données: uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT

     Réservé pour la compatibilité Microsoft.

 -- Données: uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE

     Réservé pour un usage futur.

Voir aussi
..........

RFC 4122(7) – 'A Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace'

     Cette spécification (en anglais) définit un espace de noms 'Uniform
     Resource Name' pour les UUID, leur format interne et les méthodes
     permettant de les générer.

* Menu:

* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
* Exemple: Exemple<11>.
* Command-Line Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/uuid.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>,  Next: Exemple<11>,  Up: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122

5.22.15.1 Utilisation en ligne de commande.
...........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The *note uuid: 10f. module can be executed as a script from the command
line.

     python -m uuid [-h] [-u {uuid1,uuid3,uuid4,uuid5}] [-n NAMESPACE] [-N NAME]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

 -- Option: -u <uuid>
 -- Option: --uuid <uuid>

     Specify the function name to use to generate the uuid.  By default
     *note uuid4(): 1519. is used.

 -- Option: -n <namespace>
 -- Option: --namespace <namespace>

     The namespace is a ‘UUID’, or ‘@ns’ where ‘ns’ is a well-known
     predefined UUID addressed by namespace name.  Such as ‘@dns’,
     ‘@url’, ‘@oid’, and ‘@x500’.  Only required for *note uuid3():
     1518. / *note uuid5(): 151a. functions.

 -- Option: -N <name>
 -- Option: --name <name>

     The name used as part of generating the uuid.  Only required for
     *note uuid3(): 1518. / *note uuid5(): 151a. functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<11>,  Next: Command-Line Example,  Prev: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>,  Up: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122

5.22.15.2 Exemple
.................

Voici quelques exemples classiques d'utilisation du module *note uuid:
10f. :

     >>> import uuid

     >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
     >>> uuid.uuid1()
     UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

     >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

     >>> # make a random UUID
     >>> uuid.uuid4()
     UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

     >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     >>> # make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)
     >>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')

     >>> # convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form
     >>> str(x)
     '00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'

     >>> # get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID
     >>> x.bytes
     b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'

     >>> # make a UUID from a 16-byte string
     >>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
     UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Example,  Prev: Exemple<11>,  Up: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122

5.22.15.3 Command-Line Example
..............................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the *note uuid: 10f. command
line interface:

     # generate a random uuid - by default uuid4() is used
     $ python -m uuid

     # generate a uuid using uuid1()
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid1

     # generate a uuid using uuid5
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid5 -n @url -N example.com


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver --- A framework for network servers,  Next: http server --- HTTP servers,  Prev: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.16 ‘socketserver’ -- A framework for network servers
---------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/socketserver.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note socketserver: cc. permet de simplifier le développement
de serveurs réseaux.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Il existe quatre classes concrètes fondamentales :

 -- Classe: socketserver.TCPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     Cette classe permet de créer des flux continus de données entre un
     client et un serveur en utilisant le protocole internet TCP. Si
     'bind_and_activate' est vrai, le constructeur tente automatiquement
     d'invoquer *note server_bind(): 3ad7. et *note server_activate():
     3ad8.  Les autres paramètres sont passés à la classe de base *note
     BaseServer: 111f.

 -- Classe: socketserver.UDPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     Cette classe utilise des datagrammes, qui sont des paquets
     d'information pouvant arriver dans le désordre, voire être perdus,
     durant le transport.  Les paramètres sont identiques à *note
     TCPServer: 12ff.

 -- Classe: socketserver.UnixStreamServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
 -- Classe: socketserver.UnixDatagramServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

     Ces classes, moins fréquemment utilisées, sont similaires aux
     classes pour TCP et UDP mais utilisent des connecteurs UNIX ; ces
     connecteurs ne sont disponibles que sur les plateformes UNIX. Les
     paramètres sont identiques à *note TCPServer: 12ff.

Ces quatre classes traitent les requêtes de façon 'synchrone' : chaque
requête doit être terminée avant de pouvoir traiter la suivante.  Cette
méthode n'est pas adaptée si les requêtes prennent beaucoup de temps à
être traitées.  Cela peut arriver si les requêtes demandent beaucoup de
calcul, ou si elles renvoient beaucoup de données que le client peine à
traiter.  Dans ce cas, la solution est de créer un processus ou un fil
d’exécution séparé pour chaque requête ; les classes de mélange *note
ForkingMixIn: b67. et *note ThreadingMixIn: b68. peuvent être utilisées
pour réaliser ce comportement asynchrone.

La création d'un serveur requiert plusieurs étapes.  Premièrement, vous
devez créer une classe pour gérer les requêtes en héritant de *note
BaseRequestHandler: 3adc. et surcharger sa méthode *note handle(): 3add,
laquelle traitera les requêtes entrantes.  Deuxièmement, vous devez
instancier l'une des classes serveurs et lui passer l’adresse du serveur
ainsi que la classe gérant les requêtes.  Il est recommandé de faire
ceci dans une instruction *note with: 5be.  Ensuite, appelez la méthode
*note handle_request(): 1302. ou *note serve_forever(): 1121. de l'objet
serveur afin de traiter une ou plusieurs requêtes.  Enfin, appelez la
méthode *note server_close(): 3ade. pour fermer le connecteur (à moins
que vous n'ayez utilisé une instruction ‘with’).

Lorsque vous héritez de *note ThreadingMixIn: b68. pour déléguer les
connexions à différent fils d’exécution, vous devez déclarer
explicitement comment les fils d’exécution doivent se comporter en cas
d'arrêt abrupt.  La classe *note ThreadingMixIn: b68. définit un
attribut 'daemon_threads', indiquant si le serveur doit attendre la fin
des fils d’exécution ou non.  Vous pouvez utiliser cet attribut si vous
souhaitez que les fils d’exécution soient autonomes.  La valeur par
défaut est *note False: b27, indiquant que Python ne doit pas quitter
avant que tous les fils d'exécution créés par *note ThreadingMixIn: b68.
ne soient terminés.

Toutes les classes de serveurs exposent les mêmes méthodes et attributs,
peu importe le protocole réseau utilisé.

* Menu:

* Notes sur la création de serveurs::
* Objets serveur::
* Objets gestionnaire de requêtes::
* Exemples: Exemples<27>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/socketserver.py


File: python.info,  Node: Notes sur la création de serveurs,  Next: Objets serveur,  Up: socketserver --- A framework for network servers

5.22.16.1 Notes sur la création de serveurs
...........................................

Il y a cinq classes dans la hiérarchie.  Quatre d'entre elles
représentent des serveurs synchrones de quatre types différents :

     +------------+
     | BaseServer |
     +------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +------------------+
     | TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
     +-----------+        +------------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +--------------------+
     | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
     +-----------+        +--------------------+

Note that *note UnixDatagramServer: 3adb. derives from *note UDPServer:
3ad9, not from *note UnixStreamServer: 3ada. -- the only difference
between an IP and a Unix server is the address family.

 -- Classe: socketserver.ForkingMixIn
 -- Classe: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn

     Des versions utilisant des fils d’exécution ou des processus
     peuvent être créées pour chaque type de serveur, en utilisant ces
     classes de mélange.  Par exemple, *note ThreadingUDPServer: 3ae0.
     est créé comme suit :

          class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
              pass

     La classe de mélange est en premier car elle surcharge une méthode
     définie dans *note UDPServer: 3ad9.  Configurer les différents
     attributs changera également le comportement du serveur.

     La classe *note ForkingMixIn: b67. et les classes créant des
     processus mentionnées ci-dessous sont uniquement disponibles sur
     les plateformes POSIX prenant en charge *note fork(): 195.

      -- Attribut: block_on_close

          *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3ade. waits until all child
          processes complete, except if *note block_on_close: bed.
          attribute is ‘False’.

          *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3ade. waits until all
          non-daemon threads complete, except if *note block_on_close:
          bed. attribute is ‘False’.

      -- Attribut: daemon_threads

          For *note ThreadingMixIn: b68. use daemonic threads by setting
          *note ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads: 3ae1. to ‘True’ to not
          wait until threads complete.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3ade.
     and *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3ade. now waits until all
     child processes and non-daemonic threads complete.  Add a new *note
     ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: bed. class attribute to opt-in for the
     pre-3.7 behaviour.

 -- Classe: socketserver.ForkingTCPServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ForkingUDPServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer
 -- Classe: socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer

     Ces classes sont prédéfinies en utilisant les classes de mélange.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: The ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and
‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes were added.

Pour implémenter un service, vous devez créer une classe héritant de
*note BaseRequestHandler: 3adc. et redéfinir sa méthode *note handle():
3add.  Ensuite, vous pourrez créer différentes versions de votre service
en combinant les classes serveurs avec votre classe de gestion des
requêtes.  Cette classe de gestion des requêtes doit être différente
pour les services utilisant des datagrammes ou des flux de données.
Cette contrainte peut être dissimulée en utilisant les classes de
gestion dérivées *note StreamRequestHandler: cca. ou *note
DatagramRequestHandler: 3ae9.

Bien entendu, vous devrez toujours utiliser votre tête !  Par exemple,
utiliser un serveur utilisant des processus clonés ('forking') n'aurait
aucun sens si le serveur garde en mémoire des états pouvant être
modifiés par les requêtes reçues.  En effet, un processus enfant
traitant une requête n'aurait alors aucun moyen de propager le nouvel
état à son parent.  Dans ce cas, vous devez utiliser un serveur
utilisant des fils d'exécution, mais cela demande probablement
d'utiliser des verrous pour protéger l’intégrité des données partagées.

D'un autre côté, si vous développez un serveur HTTP qui a toutes ses
données stockées hors de la mémoire (sur un système de fichiers par
exemple), une classe synchrone rendrait le service sourd à toute
nouvelle requête aussi longtemps qu'une précédente soit en cours de
traitement.  Cette situation pourrait perdurer pendant un long moment si
le client prend du temps à recevoir toutes les données demandées.  Dans
ce cas, un serveur utilisant des processus ou des fils d'exécutions est
approprié.

Dans certains cas, il peut être judicieux de commencer à traiter une
requête de façon synchrone mais de pouvoir déléguer le reste du
traitement à un processus enfant si besoin.  Ce comportement peut être
implémenté en utilisant un serveur synchrone et en laissant à la méthode
*note handle(): 3add, de la classe gérant les requêtes, le soin de créer
le processus enfant explicitement.

Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an
environment that supports neither threads nor *note fork(): 195. (or
where these are too expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to
maintain an explicit table of partially finished requests and to use
*note selectors: c1. to decide which request to work on next (or whether
to handle a new incoming request).  This is particularly important for
stream services where each client can potentially be connected for a
long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).


File: python.info,  Node: Objets serveur,  Next: Objets gestionnaire de requêtes,  Prev: Notes sur la création de serveurs,  Up: socketserver --- A framework for network servers

5.22.16.2 Objets serveur
........................

 -- Classe: socketserver.BaseServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     Il s'agit de la classe parente de tous les objets serveur du
     module.  Elle déclare l'interface, définie ci-dessous, mais laisse
     aux classes filles le soin d'implémenter la plupart des méthodes.
     Les deux paramètres sont stockés respectivement dans les attributs
     *note server_address: 3aeb. et *note RequestHandlerClass: 3aec.

      -- Méthode: fileno ()

          Renvoie un entier représentant le descripteur de fichier pour
          le connecteur que le serveur écoute.  Cette fonction est, la
          plupart du temps, passée à *note selectors: c1. afin de
          pouvoir surveiller plusieurs serveurs dans le même processus.

      -- Méthode: handle_request ()

          Traite une seule requête.  Cette fonction appelle, dans
          l'ordre, les méthodes *note get_request(): 3aee, *note
          verify_request(): 3aef. et *note process_request(): 3af0.  Si
          la méthode *note handle(): 3add. de la classe de gestion des
          requêtes lève une exception, alors la méthode *note
          handle_error(): d31. du serveur est appelée.  Si aucune
          requête n'est reçue avant « *note timeout: 1300. » secondes,
          *note handle_timeout(): 1301. est appelée et *note
          handle_request(): 1302. rend la main.

      -- Méthode: serve_forever (poll_interval=0.5)

          Gère les requêtes indéfiniment jusqu'à ce que *note
          shutdown(): 19f3. soit appelée.  Vérifie si une demande
          d’arrêt ('shutdown') a été émise toutes les 'poll_interval'
          secondes.  Ignore l'attribut *note timeout: 1300.  Appelle
          également *note service_actions(): 1120, qui peut être
          utilisée par une classe enfant ou une classe de mélange afin
          d'implémenter une action spécifique pour un service donné.
          Par exemple, la classe *note ForkingMixIn: b67. utilise *note
          service_actions(): 1120. pour supprimer les processus enfants
          zombies.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode ‘serve_forever’
          appelle dorénavant ‘service_actions’.

      -- Méthode: service_actions ()

          Cette méthode est appelée dans la boucle de *note
          serve_forever(): 1121.  Cette méthode peut être surchargée par
          une classe fille ou une classe de mélange afin d'effectuer une
          action spécifique à un service donné, comme une action de
          nettoyage.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: shutdown ()

          Demande l'arrêt de la boucle de *note serve_forever(): 1121.
          et attend jusqu'à ce que ce soit fait.  *note shutdown():
          19f3. doit être appelée dans un fil d’exécution différent de
          *note serve_forever(): 1121. sous peine d'interblocage.

      -- Méthode: server_close ()

          Nettoie le serveur.  Peut être surchargée.

      -- Attribut: address_family

          The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs.
          Common examples are *note socket.AF_INET: 17d9, *note
          socket.AF_INET6: 17da, and *note socket.AF_UNIX: 17db.
          Subclass the TCP or UDP server classes in this module with
          class attribute ‘address_family = AF_INET6’ set if you want
          IPv6 server classes.

      -- Attribut: RequestHandlerClass

          La classe de gestion des requêtes, fournie par l'utilisateur.
          Une instance de cette classe est créée pour chaque requête.

      -- Attribut: server_address

          Renvoie l’adresse sur laquelle le serveur écoute.  Le format
          de l’adresse dépend de la famille de protocoles utilisée ;
          pour plus de détails, voir la documentation du module *note
          socket: cb.  Pour les protocoles Internet, cette valeur est
          une paire formée d'une chaine de caractère pour l’adresse et
          d'un entier pour le port.  Exemple : ‘('127.0.0.1', 80)’.

      -- Attribut: socket

          L'objet connecteur utilisé par le serveur pour écouter les
          nouvelles requêtes.

     Les classes serveurs prennent en charge les variables de classe
     suivantes :

      -- Attribut: allow_reuse_address

          Indique si le serveur autorise la réutilisation d'une adresse.
          La valeur par défaut est *note False: b27. mais cela peut être
          changé dans les classes enfants.

      -- Attribut: request_queue_size

          La taille de la file des requêtes.  Lorsque traiter une
          requête prend du temps, toute nouvelle requête arrivant
          pendant que le serveur est occupé est placé dans une file
          jusqu'à atteindre « *note request_queue_size: 3af4. »
          requêtes.  Si la queue est pleine, les nouvelles requêtes
          clientes se voient renvoyer une erreur 'Connection denied'.
          La valeur par défaut est habituellement 5 mais peut être
          changée par les classes filles.

      -- Attribut: socket_type

          Le type de connecteur utilisé par le serveur ; *note
          socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12d3. et *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12d2.
          sont deux valeurs usuelles.

      -- Attribut: timeout

          Délai d'attente en secondes, ou *note None: 662. si aucune
          limite n'est demandée.  Si *note handle_request(): 1302. ne
          reçoit aucune requête entrante pendant le délai d'attente, la
          méthode *note handle_timeout(): 1301. est appelée.

     Il existe plusieurs méthodes serveur pouvant être surchargées par
     des classes dérivant de classes de base comme *note TCPServer:
     12ff. ; ces méthodes ne sont pas utiles aux utilisateurs externes
     de l'objet serveur.

      -- Méthode: finish_request (request, client_address)

          Méthode en charge de traiter la requête en instanciant *note
          RequestHandlerClass: 3aec. et en appelant sa méthode *note
          handle(): 3add.

      -- Méthode: get_request ()

          Accepte obligatoirement une requête depuis le connecteur et
          renvoie une paire contenant le 'nouvel' objet connecteur
          utilisé pour communiquer avec le client et l'adresse du
          client.

      -- Méthode: handle_error (request, client_address)

          Cette fonction est appelée si la méthode *note handle(): 3add.
          de l'objet *note RequestHandlerClass: 3aec. lève une
          exception.  Par défaut, la méthode imprime la trace d'appels
          sur la sortie d'erreur standard et continue de traiter les
          requêtes suivantes.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: N'est maintenant appelée que sur
          les exceptions dérivant de la classe *note Exception: 9c9.

      -- Méthode: handle_timeout ()

          Cette fonction est appelée lorsque l'attribut *note timeout:
          1300. est réglé à autre chose que *note None: 662. et que le
          délai d'attente expire sans qu'aucune requête ne soit reçue.
          Par défaut, cette fonction récupère le statut de tous les
          processus enfants ayant terminé pour les serveurs utilisant
          des processus ou ne fait rien pour le cas des serveurs
          utilisant des fils d’exécution.

      -- Méthode: process_request (request, client_address)

          Appelle *note finish_request(): 3af6. pour instancier *note
          RequestHandlerClass: 3aec.  Si désiré, cette fonction peut
          créer des processus fils ou des fils d’exécution pour traiter
          les requêtes ; les classes de mélange *note ForkingMixIn: b67.
          et *note ThreadingMixIn: b68. implémentent cela.

      -- Méthode: server_activate ()

          Appelée par le constructeur du serveur afin de l'activer.  Le
          comportement par défaut pour un serveur TCP est de seulement
          invoquer *note listen(): e49. sur le connecteur du serveur.
          Peut être surchargée.

      -- Méthode: server_bind ()

          Appelée par le constructeur du serveur afin d'assigner
          ('bind') l'adresse requise au connecteur du serveur.  Peut
          être surchargée.

      -- Méthode: verify_request (request, client_address)

          Doit renvoyer un booléen.  Si la valeur est *note True: bfd,
          la requête sera traitée.  Si la valeur est *note False: b27,
          la requête sera refusée.  Cette fonction peut être surchargée
          afin d'implémenter une stratégie de contrôle d'accès au
          serveur.  L'implémentation par défaut renvoie toujours *note
          True: bfd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: La gestion du protocole *note context
     manager: 5c0. a été ajoutée.  Sortir du gestionnaire de contexte
     revient à appeler *note server_close(): 3ade.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets gestionnaire de requêtes,  Next: Exemples<27>,  Prev: Objets serveur,  Up: socketserver --- A framework for network servers

5.22.16.3 Objets gestionnaire de requêtes
.........................................

 -- Classe: socketserver.BaseRequestHandler

     Classe de base de tous les objets gestionnaire de requêtes.  Elle
     déclare l'interface, définie ci-dessous, pour tous les
     gestionnaires.  Une implémentation concrète doit définir une
     nouvelle méthode *note handle(): 3add. et peut surcharger n'importe
     quelle autre méthode.  Cette classe concrète est instanciée pour
     chaque requête.

      -- Méthode: setup ()

          Appelée avant la méthode *note handle(): 3add. afin
          d'effectuer toutes les opérations d'initialisation requises.
          L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: handle ()

          This function must do all the work required to service a
          request.  The default implementation does nothing.  Several
          instance attributes are available to it; the request is
          available as *note request: 3af9.; the client address as *note
          client_address: 3afa.; and the server instance as *note
          server: 3afb, in case it needs access to per-server
          information.

          The type of *note request: 3af9. is different for datagram or
          stream services.  For stream services, *note request: 3af9. is
          a socket object; for datagram services, *note request: 3af9.
          is a pair of string and socket.

      -- Méthode: finish ()

          Appelée après la méthode *note handle(): 3add. pour effectuer
          les opérations de nettoyage requises.  L'implémentation par
          défaut ne fait rien.  Si *note setup(): 3af8. lève une
          exception, cette méthode n'est pas appelée.

      -- Attribut: request

          The 'new' *note socket.socket: d90. object to be used to
          communicate with the client.

      -- Attribut: client_address

          Client address returned by *note BaseServer.get_request():
          3aee.

      -- Attribut: server

          *note BaseServer: 111f. object used for handling the request.

 -- Classe: socketserver.StreamRequestHandler
 -- Classe: socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler

     These *note BaseRequestHandler: 3adc. subclasses override the *note
     setup(): 3af8. and *note finish(): 3afc. methods, and provide *note
     rfile: 3afd. and *note wfile: 3afe. attributes.

      -- Attribut: rfile

          A file object from which receives the request is read.
          Support the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681. readable interface.

      -- Attribut: wfile

          A file object to which the reply is written.  Support the
          *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681. writable interface

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note wfile: 3afe. also supports the
     *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681. writable interface.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<27>,  Prev: Objets gestionnaire de requêtes,  Up: socketserver --- A framework for network servers

5.22.16.4 Exemples
..................

* Menu:

* Exemple pour socketserver.TCPServer: Exemple pour socketserver TCPServer.
* Exemple pour socketserver.UDPServer: Exemple pour socketserver UDPServer.
* Classes de mélange asynchrone::


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple pour socketserver TCPServer,  Next: Exemple pour socketserver UDPServer,  Up: Exemples<27>

5.22.16.5 Exemple pour ‘socketserver.TCPServer’
...............................................

Implémentation côté serveur :

     import socketserver

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         The request handler class for our server.

         It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must
         override the handle() method to implement communication to the
         client.
         """

         def handle(self):
             # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
             pieces = [b'']
             total = 0
             while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000:
                 pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000))
                 total += len(pieces[-1])
             self.data = b''.join(pieces)
             print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # just send back the same data, but upper-cased
             self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
             # after we return, the socket will be closed.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999

         # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999
         with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
             # Activate the server; this will keep running until you
             # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C
             server.serve_forever()

Une implémentation alternative du gestionnaire de requêtes utilisant les
flux de données (avec des objets fichier-compatibles simplifiant la
communication en fournissant l'interface fichier standard) :

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler.
             # We can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls.
             # We limit ourselves to 10000 bytes to avoid abuse by the sender.
             self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip()
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
             # to the client
             self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())

The difference is that the ‘readline()’ call in the second handler will
call ‘recv()’ multiple times until it encounters a newline character,
while the the first handler had to use a ‘recv()’ loop to accumulate
data until a newline itself.  If it had just used a single ‘recv()’
without the loop it would just have returned what has been received so
far from the client.  TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it
was sent, but there no correlation between client ‘send()’ or
‘sendall()’ calls and the number of ‘recv()’ calls on the server
required to receive it.

Implémentation côté client :

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
         # Connect to server and send data
         sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
         sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8"))
         sock.sendall(b"\n")

         # Receive data from the server and shut down
         received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

La sortie de cet exemple devrait ressembler à ça :

Serveur :

     $ python TCPServer.py
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'hello world with TCP'
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'python is nice'

Client :

     $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
     Sent:     hello world with TCP
     Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
     $ python TCPClient.py python is nice
     Sent:     python is nice
     Received: PYTHON IS NICE


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple pour socketserver UDPServer,  Next: Classes de mélange asynchrone,  Prev: Exemple pour socketserver TCPServer,  Up: Exemples<27>

5.22.16.6 Exemple pour ‘socketserver.UDPServer’
...............................................

Implémentation côté serveur :

     import socketserver

     class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that
         self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since
         there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly
         when sending data back via sendto().
         """

         def handle(self):
             data = self.request[0].strip()
             socket = self.request[1]
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(data)
             socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
         with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
             server.serve_forever()

Implémentation côté client :

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     # As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.
     # Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().
     sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
     received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

La sortie de cet exemple devrait ressembler exactement à la sortie de
l'exemple pour le serveur TCP.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes de mélange asynchrone,  Prev: Exemple pour socketserver UDPServer,  Up: Exemples<27>

5.22.16.7 Classes de mélange asynchrone
.......................................

Pour développer des gestionnaires asynchrones, utilisez les classes
*note ThreadingMixIn: b68. et *note ForkingMixIn: b67.

Exemple pour *note ThreadingMixIn: b68. :

     import socket
     import threading
     import socketserver

     class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
             response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
             self.request.sendall(response)

     class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
         pass

     def client(ip, port, message):
         with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
             sock.connect((ip, port))
             sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
             response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             print("Received: {}".format(response))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0

         server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
         with server:
             ip, port = server.server_address

             # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one
             # more thread for each request
             server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
             # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates
             server_thread.daemon = True
             server_thread.start()
             print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)

             client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")

             server.shutdown()

La sortie de cet exemple devrait ressembler à ça :

     $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
     Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
     Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
     Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
     Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3

La classe *note ForkingMixIn: b67. est utilisable de la même façon à la
différence près que le serveur crée un nouveau processus fils pour
chaque requête.  Disponible uniquement sur les plateformes POSIX prenant
en charge *note fork(): 195.


File: python.info,  Node: http server --- HTTP servers,  Next: http cookies --- HTTP state management,  Prev: socketserver --- A framework for network servers,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.17 ‘http.server’ -- HTTP servers
-------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/http/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module définit des classes implémentant des serveurs HTTP.

     Avertissement: *note http.server: 71. is not recommended for
     production.  It only implements *note basic security checks: 3b05.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

Une des classes, *note HTTPServer: 390b, est une sous-classe de *note
socketserver.TCPServer: 12ff.  Elle crée une interface de connexion
('socket' en anglais) avant de rester à l'écoute des messages reçus sur
celle-ci, les répartissant à un gestionnaire d'évènements ('handler' en
anglais).  Le code pour créer et exécuter le serveur ressemble à ceci :

     def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
         server_address = ('', 8000)
         httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
         httpd.serve_forever()

 -- Classe: http.server.HTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     Cette classe hérite de la classe *note TCPServer: 12ff.  Ses
     instances contiennent l'adresse du serveur dans les variables
     d'instance ‘server_name’ et ‘server_port’.Le serveur est accessible
     par le gestionnaire d'évènements, habituellement par le biais de sa
     variable d'instance ‘server’.

 -- Classe: http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     Cette classe est identique à 'HTTPServer' mais utilise des fils
     d'exécution afin de gérer les requêtes, et ce, par le biais de
     *note ThreadingMixIn: b68.  Ceci est utile afin de gérer les
     pré-ouvertures des interfaces de connexion des navigateurs web, sur
     lesquelles *note HTTPServer: 390b. attendrait de façon perpétuelle.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

On doit passer un 'RequestHandlerClass' lors de l'instanciation de *note
HTTPServer: 390b. et de *note ThreadingHTTPServer: b34.  Ce module
fournit trois variantes différentes :

 -- Classe: http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     Cette classe est utilisée afin de gérer les requêtes HTTP arrivant
     au serveur.  Elle ne peut pas répondre par elle-même à des requêtes
     HTTP ; cette méthode doit être surchargée dans les classes
     dérivées, par exemple 'GET' ou 'POST'. La classe *note
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. fournit plusieurs classes et
     variables d'instance, ainsi que des méthodes à utiliser par les
     sous-classes.

     The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a
     method specific to the request type.  The method name is
     constructed from the request.  For example, for the request method
     ‘SPAM’, the ‘do_SPAM()’ method will be called with no arguments.
     All of the relevant information is stored in instance variables of
     the handler.  Subclasses should not need to override or extend the
     ‘__init__()’ method.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. a les variables d'instances
     suivantes :

      -- Attribut: client_address

          Contient un 'n'-uplet de la forme ‘(host, port)’, faisant
          référence à l'adresse du client.

      -- Attribut: server

          Contient l'instance du serveur.

      -- Attribut: close_connection

          Booléen qui doit être défini avant que *note
          handle_one_request(): 3b09. ne termine son exécution,
          indiquant si on peut recevoir une autre requête ou si la
          connexion doit être fermée.

      -- Attribut: requestline

          Contient la chaîne de caractères représentant la ligne de
          requête HTTP. La dénotation de fin de ligne 'CRLF' est
          enlevée.  Cet attribut doit être défini par *note
          handle_one_request(): 3b09.  Dans le cas où aucune ligne de
          requête valide n'a été traitée, il doit prendre la valeur de
          la chaîne de caractères vide.

      -- Attribut: command

          Contient la commande (le type de requête).  Par exemple,
          ‘'GET'’.

      -- Attribut: path

          Contient le chemin de la requête.  Si la composante de requête
          de l'URL est présente, alors ‘path’ contient la requête.
          Selon la terminologie de RFC 3986(2), ‘path’ inclut ici
          ‘hier-part’ et la ‘query’.

      -- Attribut: request_version

          Contient la version de la requête, en chaîne de caractères.
          Par exemple, ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- Attribut: headers

          Holds an instance of the class specified by the *note
          MessageClass: 3b0e. class variable.  This instance parses and
          manages the headers in the HTTP request.  The *note
          parse_headers(): 1a07. function from *note http.client: 6e. is
          used to parse the headers and it requires that the HTTP
          request provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style header.

      -- Attribut: rfile

          An *note io.BufferedIOBase: 681. input stream, ready to read
          from the start of the optional input data.

      -- Attribut: wfile

          Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the
          client.  Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used
          when writing to this stream in order to achieve successful
          interoperation with HTTP clients.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: This is an *note
          io.BufferedIOBase: 681. stream.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. has the following attributes:

      -- Attribut: server_version

          Précise la version du logiciel du serveur.  Vous pouvez la
          modifier.  Le format utilisé est constitué de plusieurs
          chaînes de caractères séparées par des caractères
          d'espacement, où chaque chaîne prend la forme 'nom[/version]'.
          Par exemple, ‘'BaseHTTP/0.2'’.

      -- Attribut: sys_version

          Contient la version système de Python, dans une forme pouvant
          être utilisée par la méthode *note version_string: 3b13. ainsi
          que par la variable de classe *note server_version: 3b11.  Par
          exemple, ‘'Python/1.4'’.

      -- Attribut: error_message_format

          Définit une chaîne de caractères avec champs de formatage
          devant être utilisée par la méthode *note send_error(): f3d.
          afin de construire une réponse d'erreur pour le client.  Par
          défaut, la chaîne contient des variables provenant de
          l'attribut *note responses: 39da. se basant sur le code de
          statut passé à *note send_error(): f3d.

      -- Attribut: error_content_type

          Définit l'en-tête HTTP Content-Type des réponses d'erreur
          envoyées au client.  La valeur par défaut est ‘'text/html'’.

      -- Attribut: protocol_version

          Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.
          It is sent in responses to let the client know the server's
          communication capabilities for future requests.  If set to
          ‘'HTTP/1.1'’, the server will permit HTTP persistent
          connections; however, your server 'must' then include an
          accurate ‘Content-Length’ header (using *note send_header():
          3b17.) in all of its responses to clients.  For backwards
          compatibility, the setting defaults to ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- Attribut: MessageClass

          Définit une classe similaire à *note email.message.Message:
          279. permettant l'analyse des en-têtes HTTP. Habituellement,
          cette valeur n'est pas modifiée, et prend par défaut la valeur
          de *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 39f1.

      -- Attribut: responses

          Cet attribut contient une table de correspondance entre des
          codes d'erreurs dénotés par des entiers et des 'n'-uplets
          contenant un message court et un message long.  Par exemple,
          ‘{code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}’.  Habituellement, le
          message 'shortmessage' correspond à la clé 'message' d'une
          réponse d'erreur, alors que le message 'longmessage'
          correspond à la clé 'explain' de celle-ci.  Il est utilisé par
          les méthodes *note send_response_only(): 3b18. et *note
          send_error(): f3d.

     Une instance de la classe *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af.
     contient les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: handle ()

          Calls *note handle_one_request(): 3b09. once (or, if
          persistent connections are enabled, multiple times) to handle
          incoming HTTP requests.  You should never need to override it;
          instead, implement appropriate ‘do_*()’ methods.

      -- Méthode: handle_one_request ()

          This method will parse and dispatch the request to the
          appropriate ‘do_*()’ method.  You should never need to
          override it.

      -- Méthode: handle_expect_100 ()

          When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an ‘Expect:
          100-continue’ request header it responds back with a ‘100
          Continue’ followed by ‘200 OK’ headers.  This method can be
          overridden to raise an error if the server does not want the
          client to continue.  For e.g.  server can choose to send ‘417
          Expectation Failed’ as a response header and ‘return False’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: send_error (code, message=None, explain=None)

          Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client.  The
          numeric 'code' specifies the HTTP error code, with 'message'
          as an optional, short, human readable description of the
          error.  The 'explain' argument can be used to provide more
          detailed information about the error; it will be formatted
          using the *note error_message_format: 3b14. attribute and
          emitted, after a complete set of headers, as the response
          body.  The *note responses: 39da. attribute holds the default
          values for 'message' and 'explain' that will be used if no
          value is provided; for unknown codes the default value for
          both is the string ‘???’.  The body will be empty if the
          method is HEAD or the response code is one of the following:
          ‘1XX’, ‘204 No Content’, ‘205 Reset Content’, ‘304 Not
          Modified’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: The error response includes a
          Content-Length header.  Added the 'explain' argument.

      -- Méthode: send_response (code, message=None)

          Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the
          accepted request.  The HTTP response line is written to the
          internal buffer, followed by 'Server' and 'Date' headers.  The
          values for these two headers are picked up from the *note
          version_string(): 3b13. and *note date_time_string(): 3b1c.
          methods, respectively.  If the server does not intend to send
          any other headers using the *note send_header(): 3b17. method,
          then *note send_response(): 3b1b. should be followed by an
          *note end_headers(): 10b0. call.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Headers are stored to an internal
          buffer and *note end_headers(): 10b0. needs to be called
          explicitly.

      -- Méthode: send_header (keyword, value)

          Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be
          written to the output stream when either *note end_headers():
          10b0. or *note flush_headers(): 10b1. is invoked.  'keyword'
          should specify the header keyword, with 'value' specifying its
          value.  Note that, after the send_header calls are done, *note
          end_headers(): 10b0. MUST BE called in order to complete the
          operation.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Headers are stored in an internal
          buffer.

      -- Méthode: send_response_only (code, message=None)

          Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when
          ‘100 Continue’ response is sent by the server to the client.
          The headers not buffered and sent directly the output
          stream.If the 'message' is not specified, the HTTP message
          corresponding the response 'code' is sent.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: end_headers ()

          Adds a blank line (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in
          the response) to the headers buffer and calls *note
          flush_headers(): 10b1.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: The buffered headers are written
          to the output stream.

      -- Méthode: flush_headers ()

          Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the
          internal headers buffer.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: log_request (code='-', size='-')

          Logs an accepted (successful) request.  'code' should specify
          the numeric HTTP code associated with the response.  If a size
          of the response is available, then it should be passed as the
          'size' parameter.

      -- Méthode: log_error (...)

          Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled.  By default,
          it passes the message to *note log_message(): 3b1f, so it
          takes the same arguments ('format' and additional values).

      -- Méthode: log_message (format, ...)

          Logs an arbitrary message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This is typically
          overridden to create custom error logging mechanisms.  The
          'format' argument is a standard printf-style format string,
          where the additional arguments to *note log_message(): 3b1f.
          are applied as inputs to the formatting.  The client ip
          address and current date and time are prefixed to every
          message logged.

      -- Méthode: version_string ()

          Returns the server software's version string.  This is a
          combination of the *note server_version: 3b11. and *note
          sys_version: 3b12. attributes.

      -- Méthode: date_time_string (timestamp=None)

          Returns the date and time given by 'timestamp' (which must be
          ‘None’ or in the format returned by *note time.time(): 251.),
          formatted for a message header.  If 'timestamp' is omitted, it
          uses the current date and time.

          The result looks like ‘'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'’.

      -- Méthode: log_date_time_string ()

          Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.

      -- Méthode: address_string ()

          Returns the client address.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Previously, a name lookup was
          performed.  To avoid name resolution delays, it now always
          returns the IP address.

 -- Classe: http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server, directory=None)

     This class serves files from the directory 'directory' and below,
     or the current directory if 'directory' is not provided, directly
     mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the 'directory' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The 'directory' parameter accepts a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

     A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base
     class *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af.  This class implements
     the *note do_GET(): 3b22. and *note do_HEAD(): 3b23. functions.

     The following are defined as class-level attributes of *note
     SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33.:

      -- Attribut: server_version

          This will be ‘"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__’, where
          ‘__version__’ is defined at the module level.

      -- Attribut: extensions_map

          A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom
          overrides for the default system mappings.  The mapping is
          used case-insensitively, and so should contain only
          lower-cased keys.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: This dictionary is no longer
          filled with the default system mappings, but only contains
          overrides.

     The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. class defines the
     following methods:

      -- Méthode: do_HEAD ()

          This method serves the ‘'HEAD'’ request type: it sends the
          headers it would send for the equivalent ‘GET’ request.  See
          the *note do_GET(): 3b22. method for a more complete
          explanation of the possible headers.

      -- Méthode: do_GET ()

          The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the
          request as a path relative to the current working directory.

          If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is
          checked for a file named ‘index.html’ or ‘index.htm’ (in that
          order).  If found, the file's contents are returned; otherwise
          a directory listing is generated by calling the
          ‘list_directory()’ method.  This method uses *note
          os.listdir(): 10dc. to scan the directory, and returns a ‘404’
          error response if the *note listdir(): 10dc. fails.

          If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened.  Any *note
          OSError: 40d. exception in opening the requested file is
          mapped to a ‘404’, ‘'File not found'’ error.  If there was an
          ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header in the request, and the file was
          not modified after this time, a ‘304’, ‘'Not Modified'’
          response is sent.  Otherwise, the content type is guessed by
          calling the ‘guess_type()’ method, which in turn uses the
          'extensions_map' variable, and the file contents are returned.

          A ‘'Content-type:'’ header with the guessed content type is
          output, followed by a ‘'Content-Length:'’ header with the
          file's size and a ‘'Last-Modified:'’ header with the file's
          modification time.

          Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers,
          and then the contents of the file are output.  If the file's
          MIME type starts with ‘text/’ the file is opened in text mode;
          otherwise binary mode is used.

          For example usage, see the implementation of the ‘test’
          function in Lib/http/server.py(4).

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: Support of the
          ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header.

The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. class can be used in the
following manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files
relative to the current directory:

     import http.server
     import socketserver

     PORT = 8000

     Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
         print("serving at port", PORT)
         httpd.serve_forever()

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. can also be subclassed to enhance
behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the
class attribute ‘index_pages’.

 -- Classe: http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts
     from the current directory and below.  Note that mapping HTTP
     hierarchic structure to local directory structure is exactly as in
     *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33.

          Note: CGI scripts run by the *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e.
          class cannot execute redirects (HTTP code 302), because code
          200 (script output follows) is sent prior to execution of the
          CGI script.  This pre-empts the status code.

     The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it
     as a file, if it guesses it to be a CGI script.  Only
     directory-based CGI are used -- the other common server
     configuration is to treat special extensions as denoting CGI
     scripts.

     The ‘do_GET()’ and ‘do_HEAD()’ functions are modified to run CGI
     scripts and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the
     request leads to somewhere below the ‘cgi_directories’ path.

     The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. defines the following data
     member:

      -- Attribut: cgi_directories

          This defaults to ‘['/cgi-bin', '/htbin']’ and describes
          directories to treat as containing CGI scripts.

     The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. defines the following method:

      -- Méthode: do_POST ()

          This method serves the ‘'POST'’ request type, only allowed for
          CGI scripts.  Error 501, "Can only POST to CGI scripts", is
          output when trying to POST to a non-CGI url.

     Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for
     security reasons.  Problems with the CGI script will be translated
     to error 403.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. is being removed in 3.15.  CGI
     has not been considered a good way to do things for well over a
     decade.  This code has been unmaintained for a while now and sees
     very little practical use.  Retaining it could lead to further
     *note security considerations: 3b05.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.
* Security considerations: Security considerations<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/server.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<2>,  Next: Security considerations<3>,  Up: http server --- HTTP servers

5.22.17.1 Command-line interface
................................

*note http.server: 71. can also be invoked directly using the *note -m:
5cd. switch of the interpreter.  The following example illustrates how
to serve files relative to the current directory:

     python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: port

     The server listens to port 8000 by default.  The default can be
     overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument:

          python -m http.server 9000

 -- Option: -b, --bind <address>

     Specifies a specific address to which it should bind.  Both IPv4
     and IPv6 addresses are supported.  By default, the server binds
     itself to all interfaces.  For example, the following command
     causes the server to bind to localhost only:

          python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Support IPv6 in the ‘--bind’ option.

 -- Option: -d, --directory <dir>

     Specifies a directory to which it should serve the files.  By
     default, the server uses the current directory.  For example, the
     following command uses a specific directory:

          python -m http.server --directory /tmp/

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Option: -p, --protocol <version>

     Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.  By
     default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0.  For example, the
     following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server:

          python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Option: --cgi

     *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. can be enabled in the command
     line by passing the ‘--cgi’ option:

          python -m http.server --cgi

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note http.server: 71. command line ‘--cgi’ support is being
     removed because *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. is being removed.

     Avertissement: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e. and the ‘--cgi’
     command-line option are not intended for use by untrusted clients
     and may be vulnerable to exploitation.  Always use within a secure
     environment.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<3>,  Prev: Command-line interface<2>,  Up: http server --- HTTP servers

5.22.17.2 Security considerations
.................................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b33. will follow symbolic links when
handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the
specified directory to be served.

Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log
messages emitted to stderr from ‘python -m http.server’ or the default
*note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10af. ‘.log_message’ implementation.  This
could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious
control codes to your terminal.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr
logs.


File: python.info,  Node: http cookies --- HTTP state management,  Next: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Prev: http server --- HTTP servers,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.18 ‘http.cookies’ -- HTTP state management
-----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/http/cookies.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note http.cookies: 70. définit des classes abstrayant le
concept de témoin web (cookie), un mécanisme de gestion d'état pour
HTTP.  Il fournit une abstraction gérant des données textuelles et tout
type de données sérialisable comme valeur de témoin.

The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the
RFC 2109(2) and RFC 2068(3) specifications.  It has since been
discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn't follow the character rules outlined in
those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed
parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling.  As a result, this
module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once
were.

The character set, *note string.ascii_letters: 12a3, *note
string.digits: 227d. and ‘!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:’ denote the set of valid
characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as *note key: bf1.).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Allowed ':' as a valid cookie name
character.

     Note: Quand un témoin invalide est rencontré, l'exception *note
     CookieError: 3b34. est levée.  Si les données du témoin proviennent
     d'un navigateur il faut impérativement gérer les données invalides
     en attrapant *note CookieError: 3b34.

 -- Exception: http.cookies.CookieError

     Exception levée pour cause d'incompatibilité avec la RFC 2109(4).
     Exemples : attributs incorrects, en-tête ‘Set-Cookie’ incorrect,
     etc.

 -- Classe: http.cookies.BaseCookie ([input])

     Cette classe définit un dictionnaire dont les clés sont des chaines
     de caractères et dont les valeurs sont des instances de *note
     Morsel: bf4.  Notez qu'à l'assignation d'une valeur à une clé, la
     valeur est transformée en *note Morsel: bf4. contenant la clé et la
     valeur.

     Si l'argument 'input' est donné, il est passé à la méthode *note
     load(): 3b36.

 -- Classe: http.cookies.SimpleCookie ([input])

     This class derives from *note BaseCookie: 3b35. and overrides *note
     value_decode(): 3b37. and *note value_encode(): 3b38.
     ‘SimpleCookie’ supports strings as cookie values.  When setting the
     value, ‘SimpleCookie’ calls the builtin *note str(): 437. to
     convert the value to a string.  Values received from HTTP are kept
     as strings.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note http.cookiejar: 6f.

     Gestion de témoins HTTP pour 'clients' web.  Les modules *note
     http.cookiejar: 6f. et *note http.cookies: 70. ne dépendent pas
     l'un de l'autre.

RFC 2109(5) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     Spécification de gestion d'états implantée par ce module.

* Menu:

* Objets Cookie::
* Objets Morsel::
* Exemple: Exemple<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/cookies.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Cookie,  Next: Objets Morsel,  Up: http cookies --- HTTP state management

5.22.18.1 Objets 'Cookie'
.........................

 -- Méthode: BaseCookie.value_decode (val)

     Renvoie une paire ‘(real_value, coded_value)’ depuis une
     représentation de chaine.  ‘real_value’ peut être de n’importe quel
     type.  Cette méthode ne décode rien dans *note BaseCookie: 3b35. –
     elle existe pour être surchargée.

 -- Méthode: BaseCookie.value_encode (val)

     Renvoie une paire ‘(real_value, coded_value)’.  'val' peut être de
     n’importe quel type, mais ‘coded_value’ est toujours converti en
     chaine de caractères.  Cette méthode n’encode pas dans *note
     BaseCookie: 3b35. – elle existe pour être surchargée.

     Généralement, les méthodes *note value_encode(): 3b38. et *note
     value_decode(): 3b37. doivent être inverses l'une de l'autre,
     c'est-à-dire qu'en envoyant la sortie de l'un dans l'entrée de
     l'autre la valeur finale doit être égale à la valeur initiale.

 -- Méthode: BaseCookie.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:',
          sep='\r\n')

     Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers.
     'attrs' and 'header' are sent to each *note Morsel: bf4.'s *note
     output(): 3b3c. method.  'sep' is used to join the headers
     together, and is by default the combination ‘'\r\n'’ (CRLF).

 -- Méthode: BaseCookie.js_output (attrs=None)

     Renvoie un extrait de code JavaScript qui, lorsque exécuté par un
     navigateur qui supporte le JavaScript, va fonctionner de la même
     manière que si les en-têtes HTTP avaient été envoyés.

     'attrs' a la même signification que dans la méthode *note output():
     3b3b.

 -- Méthode: BaseCookie.load (rawdata)

     Si 'rawdata' est une chaine de caractères, l'analyser comme étant
     un ‘HTTP_COOKIE’ et ajouter les valeurs trouvées en tant que *note
     Morsel: bf4.s.  S'il s'agit d'un dictionnaire, cela est équivalent
     à :

          for k, v in rawdata.items():
              cookie[k] = v


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Morsel,  Next: Exemple<12>,  Prev: Objets Cookie,  Up: http cookies --- HTTP state management

5.22.18.2 Objets 'Morsel'
.........................

 -- Classe: http.cookies.Morsel

     Abstraction de paire clé / valeur, accompagnée d'attributs
     provenant de la spécification RFC 2109(1).

     Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant
     -- the valid RFC 2109(2) attributes, which are:

           -- Attribut: expires
           -- Attribut: path
           -- Attribut: comment
           -- Attribut: domain

           -- Attribut: max-age
           -- Attribut: secure
           -- Attribut: version
           -- Attribut: httponly
           -- Attribut: samesite

     L'attribut *note httponly: 1389. spécifie que le témoin transféré
     dans les requêtes HTTP n'est pas accessible par le biais de
     JavaScript.  Il s'agit d'une contre-mesure à certaines attaques de
     scripts inter-sites ('XSS').

     L'attribut *note samesite: 3b46. spécifie que le navigateur n'est
     pas autorisé à envoyer le témoin de connexion avec les requêtes
     inter-sites.  Cela vise à contrer les attaques 'CSRF'. Les valeurs
     valides pour cet attribut sont « Strict » et « Lax ».

     Les clés ne sont pas sensibles à la casse, leur valeur par défaut
     est ‘''’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ‘__eq__()’ now takes *note key: bf1.
     and *note value: bf2. into account.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: les attributs *note key: bf1, *note
     value: bf2. et *note coded_value: bf3. sont en lecture seule.
     Utilisez *note set(): bf5. pour les assigner.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de la prise en charge de
     l'attribut *note samesite: 3b46.

 -- Attribut: Morsel.value

     La valeur du témoin.

 -- Attribut: Morsel.coded_value

     La valeur codée du témoin.  C'est celle qui doit être transférée.

 -- Attribut: Morsel.key

     Le nom du témoin.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.set (key, value, coded_value)

     Assigne les attributs 'key', 'value' et 'coded_value'.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.isReservedKey (K)

     Renvoie si 'K' est membre des clés d'un *note Morsel: bf4.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')

     Renvoie une représentation textuelle du 'Morsel' compatible avec
     les en-têtes HTTP. Par défaut, tous les attributs sont inclus, à
     moins que 'attrs' ne soit renseigné.  Dans ce cas la valeur doit
     être une liste d'attributs à utiliser.  Par défaut, 'header' a la
     valeur ‘"Set-Cookie:"’.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.js_output (attrs=None)

     Renvoie un extrait de code JavaScript qui, lorsque exécuté par un
     navigateur qui supporte le JavaScript, va fonctionner de la même
     manière que si les en-têtes HTTP avaient été envoyés.

     'attrs' a la même signification que dans la méthode *note output():
     3b3c.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.OutputString (attrs=None)

     Renvoie une chaine de caractères représentant le 'Morsel', nettoyé
     de son contexte HTTP ou JavaScript.

     'attrs' a la même signification que dans la méthode *note output():
     3b3c.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.update (values)

     Met à jour les valeurs du dictionnaire du 'Morsel' avec les valeurs
     provenant du dictionnaire 'values'.  Lève une erreur si une des
     clés n'est pas un attribut RFC 2109(3) valide.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: une erreur est levée pour les clés
     invalides.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.copy (value)

     Renvoie une copie superficielle de l'objet 'Morsel'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: renvoie un objet 'Morsel' au lieu d'un
     ‘dict’.

 -- Méthode: Morsel.setdefault (key, value=None)

     Lève une erreur si la clé n'est pas un attribut RFC 2109(4) valide,
     sinon fonctionne de la même manière que *note dict.setdefault():
     1064.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<12>,  Prev: Objets Morsel,  Up: http cookies --- HTTP state management

5.22.18.3 Exemple
.................

L'exemple suivant montre comment utiliser le module *note http.cookies:
70.

     >>> from http import cookies
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["fig"] = "newton"
     >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
     >>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> print(C.output()) # same thing
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["rocky"] = "road"
     >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
     >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
     >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header)
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
     Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";')
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;"
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
     >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
     >>> C["twix"].value
     'none for you'
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7)
     >>> C["string"] = "seven"
     >>> C["number"].value
     '7'
     >>> C["string"].value
     'seven'
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: number=7
     Set-Cookie: string=seven


File: python.info,  Node: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Next: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules,  Prev: http cookies --- HTTP state management,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.19 ‘http.cookiejar’ -- Cookie handling for HTTP clients
------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/cookiejar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note http.cookiejar: 6f. module defines classes for automatic
handling of HTTP cookies.  It is useful for accessing web sites that
require small pieces of data - 'cookies' - to be set on the client
machine by an HTTP response from a web server, and then returned to the
server in later HTTP requests.

Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by
RFC 2965(2) are handled.  RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.
RFC 2109(3) cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently
treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the 'policy'
in effect.  Note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are
Netscape cookies.  *note http.cookiejar: 6f. attempts to follow the
de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that
set out in the original Netscape specification), including taking note
of the ‘max-age’ and ‘port’ cookie-attributes introduced with RFC 2965.

     Note: The various named parameters found in ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers (eg.  ‘domain’ and ‘expires’) are
     conventionally referred to as 'attributes'.  To distinguish them
     from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the
     term 'cookie-attribute' instead.

The module defines the following exception:

 -- Exception: http.cookiejar.LoadError

     Instances of *note FileCookieJar: 3b50. raise this exception on
     failure to load cookies from a file.  *note LoadError: 3b4f. is a
     subclass of *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note LoadError: 3b4f. used to be a
     subtype of *note IOError: 103d, which is now an alias of *note
     OSError: 40d.

The following classes are provided:

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.CookieJar (policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 3b51.
     interface.

     The *note CookieJar: 397a. class stores HTTP cookies.  It extracts
     cookies from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses.
     *note CookieJar: 397a. instances automatically expire contained
     cookies when necessary.  Subclasses are also responsible for
     storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database.

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 3b51.
     interface.  For the other arguments, see the documentation for the
     corresponding attributes.

     A *note CookieJar: 397a. which can load cookies from, and perhaps
     save cookies to, a file on disk.  Cookies are 'NOT' loaded from the
     named file until either the *note load(): 3b52. or *note revert():
     3b53. method is called.  Subclasses of this class are documented in
     section *note FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web
     browsers: 3b54.

     This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below
     instead.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The filename parameter supports a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy

     This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should
     be accepted from / returned to the server.

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy (blocked_domains=None,
          allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False,
          rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False,
          strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True,
          strict_ns_unverifiable=False,
          strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal,
          strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False,
          secure_protocols=('https', 'wss'))

     Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
     'blocked_domains' is a sequence of domain names that we never
     accept cookies from, nor return cookies to.  'allowed_domains' if
     not *note None: 662, this is a sequence of the only domains for
     which we accept and return cookies.  'secure_protocols' is a
     sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be added to.  By
     default 'https' and 'wss' (secure websocket) are considered secure
     protocols.  For all other arguments, see the documentation for
     *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. and *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf.
     objects.

     *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf. implements the standard accept /
     reject rules for Netscape and RFC 2965(4) cookies.  By default, RFC
     2109(5) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the
     RFC 2965 rules.  However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or
     *note rfc2109_as_netscape: 3b55. is ‘True’, RFC 2109 cookies are
     'downgraded' by the *note CookieJar: 397a. instance to Netscape
     cookies, by setting the ‘version’ attribute of the *note Cookie:
     3b56. instance to 0.  *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf. also
     provides some parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy.

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.Cookie

     This class represents Netscape, RFC 2109(6) and RFC 2965(7)
     cookies.  It is not expected that users of *note http.cookiejar:
     6f. construct their own *note Cookie: 3b56. instances.  Instead, if
     necessary, call ‘make_cookies()’ on a *note CookieJar: 397a.
     instance.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note urllib.request: 10a.

     URL opening with automatic cookie handling.

Module *note http.cookies: 70.

     HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code.  The
     *note http.cookiejar: 6f. and *note http.cookies: 70. modules do
     not depend on each other.

‘https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html’

     The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol.  Though
     this is still the dominant protocol, the 'Netscape cookie protocol'
     implemented by all the major browsers (and *note http.cookiejar:
     6f.) only bears a passing resemblance to the one sketched out in
     ‘cookie_spec.html’.

RFC 2109(8) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     Obsoleted by RFC 2965(9).  Uses ‘Set-Cookie’ with version=1.

RFC 2965(10) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed.  Uses ‘Set-Cookie2’ in
     place of ‘Set-Cookie’.  Not widely used.

‘https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html’

     Unfinished errata to RFC 2965(11).

RFC 2964(12) - Use of HTTP State Management

* Menu:

* CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy Objects::
* DefaultCookiePolicy Objects::
* Objets Cookie: Objets Cookie<2>.
* Exemples: Exemples<28>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/cookiejar.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects,  Next: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.22.19.1 CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
.............................................

*note CookieJar: 397a. objects support the *note iterator: 1aa. protocol
for iterating over contained *note Cookie: 3b56. objects.

*note CookieJar: 397a. has the following methods:

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.add_cookie_header (request)

     Add correct ‘Cookie’ header to 'request'.

     If policy allows (ie.  the ‘rfc2965’ and ‘hide_cookie2’ attributes
     of the *note CookieJar: 397a.'s *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. instance
     are true and false respectively), the ‘Cookie2’ header is also
     added when appropriate.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: fc5.
     instance) must support the methods ‘get_full_url()’,
     ‘has_header()’, ‘get_header()’, ‘header_items()’,
     ‘add_unredirected_header()’ and the attributes ‘host’, ‘type’,
     ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’ as documented by *note
     urllib.request: 10a.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'request' object needs
     ‘origin_req_host’ attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.extract_cookies (response, request)

     Extract cookies from HTTP 'response' and store them in the *note
     CookieJar: 397a, where allowed by policy.

     The *note CookieJar: 397a. will look for allowable ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers in the 'response' argument, and store cookies
     as appropriate (subject to the *note CookiePolicy.set_ok(): 3b5b.
     method's approval).

     The 'response' object (usually the result of a call to *note
     urllib.request.urlopen(): 290, or similar) should support an
     ‘info()’ method, which returns an *note email.message.Message: 279.
     instance.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: fc5.
     instance) must support the method ‘get_full_url()’ and the
     attributes ‘host’, ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’, as
     documented by *note urllib.request: 10a.  The request is used to
     set default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking
     that the cookie is allowed to be set.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'request' object needs
     ‘origin_req_host’ attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.set_policy (policy)

     Set the *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. instance to be used.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.make_cookies (response, request)

     Return sequence of *note Cookie: 3b56. objects extracted from
     'response' object.

     See the documentation for *note extract_cookies(): 3b5a. for the
     interfaces required of the 'response' and 'request' arguments.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok (cookie, request)

     Set a *note Cookie: 3b56. if policy says it's OK to do so.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.set_cookie (cookie)

     Set a *note Cookie: 3b56, without checking with policy to see
     whether or not it should be set.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.clear ([domain[, path[, name]]])

     Clear some cookies.

     If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies.  If given a single
     argument, only cookies belonging to that 'domain' will be removed.
     If given two arguments, cookies belonging to the specified 'domain'
     and URL 'path' are removed.  If given three arguments, then the
     cookie with the specified 'domain', 'path' and 'name' is removed.

     Raises *note KeyError: 33a. if no matching cookie exists.

 -- Méthode: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies ()

     Discard all session cookies.

     Discards all contained cookies that have a true ‘discard’ attribute
     (usually because they had either no ‘max-age’ or ‘expires’
     cookie-attribute, or an explicit ‘discard’ cookie-attribute).  For
     interactive browsers, the end of a session usually corresponds to
     closing the browser window.

     Note that the ‘save()’ method won't save session cookies anyway,
     unless you ask otherwise by passing a true 'ignore_discard'
     argument.

*note FileCookieJar: 3b50. implements the following additional methods:

 -- Méthode: FileCookieJar.save (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Save cookies to a file.

     This base class raises *note NotImplementedError: 225.  Subclasses
     may leave this method unimplemented.

     'filename' is the name of file in which to save cookies.  If
     'filename' is not specified, ‘self.filename’ is used (whose default
     is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if ‘self.filename’
     is *note None: 662, *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

     'ignore_discard': save even cookies set to be discarded.
     'ignore_expires': save even cookies that have expired

     The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the
     cookies it contains.  Saved cookies can be restored later using the
     *note load(): 3b52. or *note revert(): 3b53. methods.

 -- Méthode: FileCookieJar.load (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Load cookies from a file.

     Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.

     Arguments are as for *note save(): 3b62.

     The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or
     *note LoadError: 3b4f. will be raised.  Also, *note OSError: 40d.
     may be raised, for example if the file does not exist.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note IOError: 103d. était normalement
     levée, elle est maintenant un alias de *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Méthode: FileCookieJar.revert (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.

     *note revert(): 3b53. can raise the same exceptions as *note
     load(): 3b52.  If there is a failure, the object's state will not
     be altered.

*note FileCookieJar: 3b50. instances have the following public
attributes:

 -- Attribut: FileCookieJar.filename

     Filename of default file in which to keep cookies.  This attribute
     may be assigned to.

 -- Attribut: FileCookieJar.delayload

     If true, load cookies lazily from disk.  This attribute should not
     be assigned to.  This is only a hint, since this only affects
     performance, not behaviour (unless the cookies on disk are
     changing).  A *note CookieJar: 397a. object may ignore it.  None of
     the *note FileCookieJar: 3b50. classes included in the standard
     library lazily loads cookies.


File: python.info,  Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Next: CookiePolicy Objects,  Prev: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects,  Up: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.22.19.2 FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
.....................................................................

The following *note CookieJar: 397a. subclasses are provided for reading
and writing.

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar (filename=None,
          delayload=None, policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 3b50. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in the Mozilla ‘cookies.txt’ file format (which is also used
     by curl and the Lynx and Netscape browsers).

          Note: This loses information about RFC 2965(1) cookies, and
          also about newer or non-standard cookie-attributes such as
          ‘port’.

          Avertissement: Back up your cookies before saving if you have
          cookies whose loss / corruption would be inconvenient (there
          are some subtleties which may lead to slight changes in the
          file over a load / save round-trip).

     Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get
     clobbered by Mozilla.

 -- Classe: http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 3b50. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in format compatible with the libwww-perl library's
     ‘Set-Cookie3’ file format.  This is convenient if you want to store
     cookies in a human-readable file.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The filename parameter supports a
     *note path-like object: 29d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookiePolicy Objects,  Next: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Prev: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.22.19.3 CookiePolicy Objects
..............................

Objects implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. interface have the
following methods:

 -- Méthode: CookiePolicy.set_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted
     from server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 3b56. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.extract_cookies(): 3b5a.

 -- Méthode: CookiePolicy.return_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned
     to server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 3b56. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.add_cookie_header(): 3b59.

 -- Méthode: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok (domain, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     domain.

     This method is an optimization.  It removes the need for checking
     every cookie with a particular domain (which might involve reading
     many files).  Returning true from *note domain_return_ok(): 3b6b.
     and *note path_return_ok(): 3b6c. leaves all the work to *note
     return_ok(): 3b6a.

     If *note domain_return_ok(): 3b6b. returns true for the cookie
     domain, *note path_return_ok(): 3b6c. is called for the cookie
     path.  Otherwise, *note path_return_ok(): 3b6c. and *note
     return_ok(): 3b6a. are never called for that cookie domain.  If
     *note path_return_ok(): 3b6c. returns true, *note return_ok():
     3b6a. is called with the *note Cookie: 3b56. object itself for a
     full check.  Otherwise, *note return_ok(): 3b6a. is never called
     for that cookie path.

     Note that *note domain_return_ok(): 3b6b. is called for every
     'cookie' domain, not just for the 'request' domain.  For example,
     the function might be called with both ‘".example.com"’ and
     ‘"www.example.com"’ if the request domain is ‘"www.example.com"’.
     The same goes for *note path_return_ok(): 3b6c.

     The 'request' argument is as documented for *note return_ok():
     3b6a.

 -- Méthode: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok (path, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     path.

     See the documentation for *note domain_return_ok(): 3b6b.

In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the
*note CookiePolicy: 3b51. interface must also supply the following
attributes, indicating which protocols should be used, and how.  All of
these attributes may be assigned to.

 -- Attribut: CookiePolicy.netscape

     Implement Netscape protocol.

 -- Attribut: CookiePolicy.rfc2965

     Implement RFC 2965(1) protocol.

 -- Attribut: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2

     Don't add ‘Cookie2’ header to requests (the presence of this header
     indicates to the server that we understand RFC 2965(2) cookies).

The most useful way to define a *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. class is by
subclassing from *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf. and overriding some or
all of the methods above.  *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. itself may be used
as a 'null policy' to allow setting and receiving any and all cookies
(this is unlikely to be useful).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Next: Objets Cookie<2>,  Prev: CookiePolicy Objects,  Up: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.22.19.4 DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
.....................................

Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.

Both RFC 2965(1) and Netscape cookies are covered.  RFC 2965 handling is
switched off by default.

The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and
call its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your
own additional checks:

     import http.cookiejar
     class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
         def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
             if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
                 return False
             if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
                 return False
             return True

In addition to the features required to implement the *note
CookiePolicy: 3b51. interface, this class allows you to block and allow
domains from setting and receiving cookies.  There are also some
strictness switches that allow you to tighten up the rather loose
Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of blocking some
benign cookies).

A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default).
Only domains not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the
allowlist is active) participate in cookie setting and returning.  Use
the 'blocked_domains' constructor argument, and ‘blocked_domains()’ and
‘set_blocked_domains()’ methods (and the corresponding argument and
methods for 'allowed_domains').  If you set an allowlist, you can turn
it off again by setting it to *note None: 662.

Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal
the cookie domain to be matched.  For example, ‘"example.com"’ matches a
blocklist entry of ‘"example.com"’, but ‘"www.example.com"’ does not.
Domains that do start with a dot are matched by more specific domains
too.  For example, both ‘"www.example.com"’ and
‘"www.coyote.example.com"’ match ‘".example.com"’ (but ‘"example.com"’
itself does not).  IP addresses are an exception, and must match
exactly.  For example, if blocked_domains contains ‘"192.168.1.2"’ and
‘".168.1.2"’, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf. implements the following additional
methods:

 -- Méthode: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains ()

     Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).

 -- Méthode: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains (blocked_domains)

     Set the sequence of blocked domains.

 -- Méthode: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is on the blocklist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

 -- Méthode: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains ()

     Return *note None: 662, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a
     tuple).

 -- Méthode: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains (allowed_domains)

     Set the sequence of allowed domains, or *note None: 662.

 -- Méthode: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is not on the allowlist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf. instances have the following
attributes, which are all initialised from the constructor arguments of
the same name, and which may all be assigned to.

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape

     If true, request that the *note CookieJar: 397a. instance downgrade
     RFC 2109(2) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by
     setting the version attribute of the *note Cookie: 3b56. instance
     to 0.  The default value is *note None: 662, in which case RFC 2109
     cookies are downgraded if and only if RFC 2965(3) handling is
     turned off.  Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.

General strictness switches:

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain

     Don't allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code
     top-level domains like ‘.co.uk’, ‘.gov.uk’, ‘.co.nz’.etc.  This is
     far from perfect and isn't guaranteed to work!

RFC 2965(4) protocol strictness switches:

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable

     Follow RFC 2965(5) rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an
     unverifiable transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a
     request for an image hosted on another site).  If this is false,
     cookies are 'never' blocked on the basis of verifiability

Netscape protocol strictness switches:

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable

     Apply RFC 2965(6) rules on unverifiable transactions even to
     Netscape cookies.

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain

     Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for
     Netscape cookies.  See below for acceptable values.

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar

     Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with
     ‘'$'’.

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path

     Don't allow setting cookies whose path doesn't path-match request
     URI.

‘strict_ns_domain’ is a collection of flags.  Its value is constructed
by or-ing together (for example,
‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ means both flags are set).

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots

     When setting cookies, the 'host prefix' must not contain a dot (eg.
     ‘www.foo.bar.com’ can't set a cookie for ‘.bar.com’, because
     ‘www.foo’ contains a dot).

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain

     Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ‘domain’ cookie-attribute
     can only be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the
     cookie (eg.  ‘spam.example.com’ won't be returned cookies from
     ‘example.com’ that had no ‘domain’ cookie-attribute).

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match

     When setting cookies, require a full RFC 2965(7) domain-match.

The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most
useful combinations of the above flags:

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal

     Equivalent to 0 (ie.  all of the above Netscape domain strictness
     flags switched off).

 -- Attribut: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict

     Equivalent to ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Cookie<2>,  Next: Exemples<28>,  Prev: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Up: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.22.19.5 Objets 'Cookie'
.........................

*note Cookie: 3b56. instances have Python attributes roughly
corresponding to the standard cookie-attributes specified in the various
cookie standards.  The correspondence is not one-to-one, because there
are complicated rules for assigning default values, because the
‘max-age’ and ‘expires’ cookie-attributes contain equivalent
information, and because RFC 2109(1) cookies may be 'downgraded' by
*note http.cookiejar: 6f. from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape)
cookies.

Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in
rare circumstances in a *note CookiePolicy: 3b51. method.  The class
does not enforce internal consistency, so you should know what you're
doing if you do that.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.version

     Integer or *note None: 662.  Netscape cookies have *note version:
     3b84. 0.  RFC 2965(2) and RFC 2109(3) cookies have a ‘version’
     cookie-attribute of 1.  However, note that *note http.cookiejar:
     6f. may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which
     case *note version: 3b84. is 0.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.name

     Cookie name (a string).

 -- Attribut: Cookie.value

     Cookie value (a string), or *note None: 662.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.port

     String representing a port or a set of ports (eg.  '80', or
     '80,8080'), or *note None: 662.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.domain

     Cookie domain (a string).

 -- Attribut: Cookie.path

     Cookie path (a string, eg.  ‘'/acme/rocket_launchers'’).

 -- Attribut: Cookie.secure

     ‘True’ if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.expires

     Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or *note None: 662.
     See also the *note is_expired(): 3b8c. method.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.discard

     ‘True’ if this is a session cookie.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.comment

     String comment from the server explaining the function of this
     cookie, or *note None: 662.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.comment_url

     URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of
     this cookie, or *note None: 662.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.rfc2109

     ‘True’ if this cookie was received as an RFC 2109(4) cookie (ie.
     the cookie arrived in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header, and the value of the
     Version cookie-attribute in that header was 1).  This attribute is
     provided because *note http.cookiejar: 6f. may 'downgrade' RFC 2109
     cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case *note version: 3b84. is
     0.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.port_specified

     ‘True’ if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the
     server (in the ‘Set-Cookie’ / ‘Set-Cookie2’ header).

 -- Attribut: Cookie.domain_specified

     ‘True’ if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.

 -- Attribut: Cookie.domain_initial_dot

     ‘True’ if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with
     a dot (‘'.'’).

Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes.  These may
be accessed using the following methods:

 -- Méthode: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr (name)

     Return ‘True’ if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.

 -- Méthode: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr (name, default=None)

     If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value.
     Otherwise, return 'default'.

 -- Méthode: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr (name, value)

     Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.

The *note Cookie: 3b56. class also defines the following method:

 -- Méthode: Cookie.is_expired (now=None)

     ‘True’ if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested
     it should expire.  If 'now' is given (in seconds since the epoch),
     return whether the cookie has expired at the specified time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<28>,  Prev: Objets Cookie<2>,  Up: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.22.19.6 Exemples
..................

The first example shows the most common usage of *note http.cookiejar:
6f.:

     import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla,
or Lynx cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the
cookies file):

     import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
     cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

The next example illustrates the use of *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 19cf.
Turn on RFC 2965(1) cookies, be more strict about domains when setting
and returning Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting
cookies or having them returned:

     import urllib.request
     from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
     policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
         rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
         blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
     cj = CookieJar(policy)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules,  Next: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access,  Prev: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.20 ‘xmlrpc’ -- XMLRPC server and client modules
----------------------------------------------------

XML-RPC est une méthode pour appeler des procédures distantes utilisant
XML via HTTP. XML-RPC permet à un client d'appeler des fonctions avec
leurs arguments sur un serveur distant (désigné par une URI), et
recevoir en retour des données structurées.

‘xmlrpc’ est un paquet rassemblant un client et un serveur XML-RPC. Ces
modules sont :

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 12d.

   * *note xmlrpc.server: 12e.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access,  Next: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers,  Prev: xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.21 ‘xmlrpc.client’ -- XML-RPC client access
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via
HTTP(S) as a transport.  With it, a client can call methods with
parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get
back structured data.  This module supports writing XML-RPC client code;
it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python
objects and XML on the wire.

     Avertissement: The *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. module is not secure
     against maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse
     untrusted or unauthenticated data see *note Vulnérabilités XML:
     3713.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: For HTTPS URIs, *note xmlrpc.client: 12d.
now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by
default.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy (uri, transport=None,
          encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False,
          use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(),
          context=None)

     A *note ServerProxy: a47. instance is an object that manages
     communication with a remote XML-RPC server.  The required first
     argument is a URI (Uniform Resource Indicator), and will normally
     be the URL of the server.  The optional second argument is a
     transport factory instance; by default it is an internal
     ‘SafeTransport’ instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP
     ‘Transport’ instance otherwise.  The optional third argument is an
     encoding, by default UTF-8.  The optional fourth argument is a
     debugging flag.

     The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy
     instance.  If 'allow_none' is true, the Python constant ‘None’ will
     be translated into XML; the default behaviour is for ‘None’ to
     raise a *note TypeError: 525.  This is a commonly used extension to
     the XML-RPC specification, but isn't supported by all clients and
     servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php(2) for a
     description.  The 'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause
     date/time values to be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 1c7.
     objects and binary data to be presented as *note bytes: 1bd.
     objects; this flag is false by default.  *note datetime.datetime:
     1c7, *note bytes: 1bd. and *note bytearray: 52b. objects may be
     passed to calls.  The 'headers' parameter is an optional sequence
     of HTTP headers to send with each request, expressed as a sequence
     of 2-tuples representing the header name and value.  (e.g.
     ‘[('Header-Name', 'value')]’).  If an HTTPS URL is provided,
     'context' may be *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. and configures the SSL
     settings of the underlying HTTPS connection.  The obsolete
     'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types' but it
     applies only to date/time values.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was
     added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The 'headers' parameter was added.

     Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension
     for HTTP Basic Authentication: ‘http://user:pass@host:port/path’.
     The ‘user:pass’ portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP
     'Authorization' header, and sent to the remote server as part of
     the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC method.  You only
     need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic
     Authentication user and password.

     The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be
     used to invoke corresponding RPC calls on the remote server.  If
     the remote server supports the introspection API, the proxy can
     also be used to query the remote server for the methods it supports
     (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated metadata.

     Types that are conformable (e.g.  that can be marshalled through
     XML), include the following (and except where noted, they are
     unmarshalled as the same Python type):

     XML-RPC type               Type Python
                                
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
     ‘boolean’                  *note bool: 453.
                                
                                
     ‘int’, ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i4’,   *note int: 254. in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
     ‘i8’ or ‘biginteger’       Values get the ‘<int>’ tag.
                                
                                
     ‘double’ or ‘float’        *note float: 2ec.  Values get the ‘<double>’ tag.
                                
                                
     ‘string’                   *note str: 437.
                                
                                
     ‘array’                    *note list: 5fe. or *note tuple: 366. containing
                                conformable elements.  Arrays are returned as
                                *note lists: 5fe.
                                
                                
     ‘struct’                   *note dict: 253.  Keys must be strings, values may be any
                                conformable type.  Objects of user-defined classes can be
                                passed in; only their *note __dict__: 549. attribute is
                                transmitted.
                                
                                
     ‘dateTime.iso8601’         *note DateTime: 139c. or *note datetime.datetime: 1c7.
                                Returned type depends on values of 'use_builtin_types'
                                and 'use_datetime' flags.
                                
                                
     ‘base64’                   *note Binary: 3b9c, *note bytes: 1bd. or
                                *note bytearray: 52b.  Returned type depends on the value
                                of the 'use_builtin_types' flag.
                                
                                
     ‘nil’                      The ‘None’ constant.  Passing is allowed only if
                                'allow_none' is true.
                                
                                
     ‘bigdecimal’               *note decimal.Decimal: 29a.  Returned type only.
                                

     This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method
     calls may also raise a special *note Fault: 3b9d. instance, used to
     signal XML-RPC server errors, or *note ProtocolError: 3b9e. used to
     signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer.  Both *note
     Fault: 3b9d. and *note ProtocolError: 3b9e. derive from a base
     class called ‘Error’.  Note that the xmlrpc client module currently
     does not marshal instances of subclasses of built-in types.

     When passing strings, characters special to XML such as ‘<’, ‘>’,
     and ‘&’ will be automatically escaped.  However, it's the caller's
     responsibility to ensure that the string is free of characters that
     aren't allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII
     values between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and
     carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC
     request that isn't well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary
     bytes via XML-RPC, use *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b.
     classes or the *note Binary: 3b9c. wrapper class described below.

     ‘Server’ is retained as an alias for *note ServerProxy: a47. for
     backwards compatibility.  New code should use *note ServerProxy:
     a47.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the 'context' argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support of type tags with
     prefixes (e.g.  ‘ex:nil’).  Added support of unmarshalling
     additional types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for
     numerics: ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i8’, ‘biginteger’, ‘float’ and ‘bigdecimal’.
     See ‘https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html’ for a description.

Voir aussi
..........

XML-RPC HOWTO(3)

     A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in
     several languages.  Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC
     client developer needs to know.

XML-RPC Introspection(4)

     Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.

XML-RPC Specification(5)

     The official specification.

* Menu:

* ServerProxy Objects::
* Objets DateTime::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError Objects::
* MultiCall Objects::
* Convenience Functions::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php

   (3) https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html

   (4) https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html

   (5) http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html


File: python.info,  Node: ServerProxy Objects,  Next: Objets DateTime,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.1 ServerProxy Objects
.............................

A *note ServerProxy: a47. instance has a method corresponding to each
remote procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server.  Calling the
method performs an RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature
(e.g.  the same method name can be overloaded with multiple argument
signatures).  The RPC finishes by returning a value, which may be either
returned data in a conformant type or a *note Fault: 3b9d. or *note
ProtocolError: 3b9e. object indicating an error.

Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common
methods grouped under the reserved ‘system’ attribute:

 -- Méthode: ServerProxy.system.listMethods ()

     This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system)
     method supported by the XML-RPC server.

 -- Méthode: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns an array of possible signatures
     for this method.  A signature is an array of types.  The first of
     these types is the return type of the method, the rest are
     parameters.

     Because multiple signatures (ie.  overloading) is permitted, this
     method returns a list of signatures rather than a singleton.

     Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters
     expected by a method.  For instance if a method expects one array
     of structs as a parameter, and it returns a string, its signature
     is simply "string, array".  If it expects three integers and
     returns a string, its signature is "string, int, int, int".

     If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is
     returned.  In Python this means that the type of the returned value
     will be something other than list.

 -- Méthode: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns a documentation string
     describing the use of that method.  If no such string is available,
     an empty string is returned.  The documentation string may contain
     HTML markup.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Instances of *note ServerProxy: a47.
support the *note context manager: 5c0. protocol for closing the
underlying transport.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def is_even(n):
         return n % 2 == 0

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
         print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
         print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DateTime,  Next: Binary Objects,  Prev: ServerProxy Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.2 Objets DateTime
.........................

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.client.DateTime

     This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time
     tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a *note datetime.datetime:
     1c7. instance.  It has the following methods, supported mainly for
     internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- Méthode: decode (string)

          Accept a string as the instance's new time value.

      -- Méthode: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC encoding of this *note DateTime: 139c. item
          to the 'out' stream object.

     It also supports certain of Python's built-in operators through
     *note rich comparison: 127f. and *note __repr__(): 609. methods.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     import datetime
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def today():
         today = datetime.datetime.today()
         return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(today, "today")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client
     import datetime

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")

     today = proxy.today()
     # convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object
     converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
     print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Objects,  Next: Fault Objects,  Prev: Objets DateTime,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.3 Binary Objects
........................

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.client.Binary

     This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include
     NULs).  The primary access to the content of a *note Binary: 3b9c.
     object is provided by an attribute:

      -- Attribut: data

          The binary data encapsulated by the *note Binary: 3b9c.
          instance.  The data is provided as a *note bytes: 1bd. object.

     *note Binary: 3b9c. objects have the following methods, supported
     mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- Méthode: decode (bytes)

          Accept a base64 *note bytes: 1bd. object and decode it as the
          instance's new data.

      -- Méthode: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the
          'out' stream object.

          The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per
          RFC 2045 section 6.8(1), which was the de facto standard
          base64 specification when the XML-RPC spec was written.

     It also supports certain of Python's built-in operators through
     *note __eq__(): aea. and *note __ne__(): 14cf. methods.

Example usage of the binary objects.  We're going to transfer an image
over XMLRPC:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def python_logo():
         with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
             return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')

     server.serve_forever()

The client gets the image and saves it to a file:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
         handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8


File: python.info,  Node: Fault Objects,  Next: ProtocolError Objects,  Prev: Binary Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.4 Fault Objects
.......................

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.client.Fault

     A *note Fault: 3b9d. object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC
     fault tag.  Fault objects have the following attributes:

      -- Attribut: faultCode

          An int indicating the fault type.

      -- Attribut: faultString

          A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the
          fault.

In the following example we're going to intentionally cause a *note
Fault: 3b9d. by returning a complex type object.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a
     # complex number
     def add(x, y):
         return x+y+0j

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(add, 'add')

     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     try:
         proxy.add(2, 5)
     except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
         print("A fault occurred")
         print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
         print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)


File: python.info,  Node: ProtocolError Objects,  Next: MultiCall Objects,  Prev: Fault Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.5 ProtocolError Objects
...............................

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError

     A *note ProtocolError: 3b9e. object describes a protocol error in
     the underlying transport layer (such as a 404 'not found' error if
     the server named by the URI does not exist).  It has the following
     attributes:

      -- Attribut: url

          The URI or URL that triggered the error.

      -- Attribut: errcode

          The error code.

      -- Attribut: errmsg

          The error message or diagnostic string.

      -- Attribut: headers

          A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that
          triggered the error.

In the following example we're going to intentionally cause a *note
ProtocolError: 3b9e. by providing an invalid URI:

     import xmlrpc.client

     # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests
     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")

     try:
         proxy.some_method()
     except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
         print("A protocol error occurred")
         print("URL: %s" % err.url)
         print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
         print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
         print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)


File: python.info,  Node: MultiCall Objects,  Next: Convenience Functions,  Prev: ProtocolError Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.6 MultiCall Objects
...........................

The *note MultiCall: 3bb8. object provides a way to encapsulate multiple
calls to a remote server into a single request (1).

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.client.MultiCall (server)

     Create an object used to boxcar method calls.  'server' is the
     eventual target of the call.  Calls can be made to the result
     object, but they will immediately return ‘None’, and only store the
     call name and parameters in the *note MultiCall: 3bb8. object.
     Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to be transmitted
     as a single ‘system.multicall’ request.  The result of this call is
     a *note generator: 104c.; iterating over this generator yields the
     individual results.

A usage example of this class follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def add(x, y):
         return x + y

     def subtract(x, y):
         return x - y

     def multiply(x, y):
         return x * y

     def divide(x, y):
         return x // y

     # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions
     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_multicall_functions()
     server.register_function(add, 'add')
     server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
     server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
     server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
     multicall.add(7, 3)
     multicall.subtract(7, 3)
     multicall.multiply(7, 3)
     multicall.divide(7, 3)
     result = multicall()

     print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This approach has been first presented in a discussion on
xmlrpc.com
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic).


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience Functions,  Next: Example of Client Usage,  Prev: MultiCall Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.7 Convenience Functions
...............................

 -- Fonction: xmlrpc.client.dumps (params, methodname=None,
          methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)

     Convert 'params' into an XML-RPC request.  or into a response if
     'methodresponse' is true.  'params' can be either a tuple of
     arguments or an instance of the *note Fault: 3b9d. exception class.
     If 'methodresponse' is true, only a single value can be returned,
     meaning that 'params' must be of length 1.  'encoding', if
     supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default
     is UTF-8.  Python's *note None: 662. value cannot be used in
     standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a
     true value for 'allow_none'.

 -- Fonction: xmlrpc.client.loads (data, use_datetime=False,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a
     ‘(params, methodname)’.  'params' is a tuple of argument;
     'methodname' is a string, or ‘None’ if no method name is present in
     the packet.  If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition,
     this function will raise a *note Fault: 3b9d. exception.  The
     'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause date/time values to
     be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. objects and binary
     data to be presented as *note bytes: 1bd. objects; this flag is
     false by default.

     The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types'
     but it applies only to date/time values.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was
     added.


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client Usage,  Next: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Convenience Functions,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.8 Example of Client Usage
.................................

     # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)
     from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error

     # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server
     with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:

         print(proxy)

         try:
             print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
         except Error as v:
             print("ERROR", v)

To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a
custom transport.  The following example shows how:

     import http.client
     import xmlrpc.client

     class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):

         def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
             self.proxy = host, port
             self.proxy_headers = headers

         def make_connection(self, host):
             connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
             connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
             self._connection = host, connection
             return connection

     transport = ProxiedTransport()
     transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
     server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
     print(server.examples.getStateName(41))


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Example of Client Usage,  Up: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access

5.22.21.9 Example of Client and Server Usage
............................................

See *note SimpleXMLRPCServer Example: 3bbe.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers,  Next: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library,  Prev: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.22 ‘xmlrpc.server’ -- Basic XML-RPC servers
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xmlrpc.server: 12e. module provides a basic server framework
for XML-RPC servers written in Python.  Servers can either be free
standing, using *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3bc1, or embedded in a CGI
environment, using *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3bc2.

     Avertissement: The *note xmlrpc.server: 12e. module is not secure
     against maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse
     untrusted or unauthenticated data see *note Vulnérabilités XML:
     3713.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new server instance.  This class provides methods for
     registration of functions that can be called by the XML-RPC
     protocol.  The 'requestHandler' parameter should be a factory for
     request handler instances; it defaults to *note
     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 1307.  The 'addr' and 'requestHandler'
     parameters are passed to the *note socketserver.TCPServer: 12ff.
     constructor.  If 'logRequests' is true (the default), requests will
     be logged; setting this parameter to false will turn off logging.
     The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed on to *note
     xmlrpc.client: 12d. and control the XML-RPC responses that will be
     returned from the server.  The 'bind_and_activate' parameter
     controls whether ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ are called
     immediately by the constructor; it defaults to true.  Setting it to
     false allows code to manipulate the 'allow_reuse_address' class
     variable before the address is bound.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 13ed. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was
     added.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (allow_none=False,
          encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.  The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed
     on to *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. and control the XML-RPC responses
     that will be returned from the server.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 13ed. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was
     added.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports ‘POST’ requests and modifies logging so that the
     'logRequests' parameter to the *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3bc1.
     constructor parameter is honored.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer Objects::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects,  Next: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers

5.22.22.1 SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects
....................................

The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3bc1. class is based on *note
socketserver.TCPServer: 12ff. and provides a means of creating simple,
stand alone XML-RPC servers.

 -- Méthode: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 12b4. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 12b4. will be used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note register_function(): 3bc5. can
     be used as a decorator.

 -- Méthode: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance (instance,
          allow_dotted_names=False)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 3bc5.  If
     'instance' contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request.  Its API
     is ‘def _dispatch(self, method, params)’ (note that 'params' does
     not represent a variable argument list).  If it calls an underlying
     function to perform its task, that function is called as
     ‘func(*params)’, expanding the parameter list.  The return value
     from ‘_dispatch()’ is returned to the client as the result.  If
     'instance' does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for
     an attribute matching the name of the requested method.

     If the optional 'allow_dotted_names' argument is true and the
     instance does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, then if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

          Avertissement: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows
          intruders to access your module's global variables and may
          allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine.
          Only use this option on a secure, closed network.

 -- Méthode: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- Méthode: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall.

 -- Attribut: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths

     An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions
     of the URL for receiving XML-RPC requests.  Requests posted to
     other paths will result in a 404 "no such page" HTTP error.  If
     this tuple is empty, all paths will be considered valid.  The
     default value is ‘('/', '/RPC2')’.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Example::


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Example,  Up: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects

5.22.22.2 SimpleXMLRPCServer Example
....................................

Server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     # Restrict to a particular path.
     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     # Create server
     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y
         server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')

         # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are
         # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul').
         class MyFuncs:
             def mul(self, x, y):
                 return x * y

         server.register_instance(MyFuncs())

         # Run the server's main loop
         server.serve_forever()

The following client code will call the methods made available by the
preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
     print(s.pow(2,3))  # Returns 2**3 = 8
     print(s.add(2,3))  # Returns 5
     print(s.mul(5,2))  # Returns 5*2 = 10

     # Print list of available methods
     print(s.system.listMethods())

‘register_function()’ can also be used as a decorator.  The previous
server example can register functions in a decorator way:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name, using
         # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given
         # as a keyword argument.
         @server.register_function(name='add')
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y

         # Register a function under function.__name__.
         @server.register_function
         def mul(x, y):
             return x * y

         server.serve_forever()

The following example included in the ‘Lib/xmlrpc/server.py’ module
shows a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall
function.

     Avertissement: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows
     intruders to access your module's global variables and may allow
     intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine.  Only use this
     example only within a secure, closed network.

     import datetime

     class ExampleService:
         def getData(self):
             return '42'

         class currentTime:
             @staticmethod
             def getCurrentTime():
                 return datetime.datetime.now()

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
         server.register_function(pow)
         server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
         server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
         server.register_multicall_functions()
         print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
         try:
             server.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
             sys.exit(0)

This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line:

     python -m xmlrpc.server

The client that interacts with the above server is included in
‘Lib/xmlrpc/client.py’:

     server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")

     try:
         print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

     multi = MultiCall(server)
     multi.getData()
     multi.pow(2,9)
     multi.add(1,2)
     try:
         for response in multi():
             print(response)
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked
as:

     python -m xmlrpc.client


File: python.info,  Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Next: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Prev: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects,  Up: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers

5.22.22.3 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
.................................

The *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3bc2. class can be used to handle
XML-RPC requests sent to Python CGI scripts.

 -- Méthode: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 12b4. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 12b4. will be used.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note register_function(): 3bcc. can
     be used as a decorator.

 -- Méthode: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance (instance)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 3bcc.  If
     instance contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request; the
     return value is returned to the client as the result.  If instance
     does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for an
     attribute matching the name of the requested method; if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

 -- Méthode: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- Méthode: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC multicall function ‘system.multicall’.

 -- Méthode: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request (request_text=None)

     Handle an XML-RPC request.  If 'request_text' is given, it should
     be the POST data provided by the HTTP server, otherwise the
     contents of stdin will be used.

Exemple :

     class MyFuncs:
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y


     handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
     handler.register_function(pow)
     handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
     handler.register_introspection_functions()
     handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
     handler.handle_request()


File: python.info,  Node: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Next: DocXMLRPCServer Objects,  Prev: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers

5.22.22.4 Documenting XMLRPC server
...................................

These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in
response to HTTP GET requests.  Servers can either be free standing,
using *note DocXMLRPCServer: 197c, or embedded in a CGI environment,
using *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3bd2.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=True)

     Create a new server instance.  All parameters have the same meaning
     as for *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3bc1.; 'requestHandler' defaults
     to *note DocXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3bd3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was
     added.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.

 -- Classe: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports XML-RPC POST requests, documentation GET requests, and
     modifies logging so that the 'logRequests' parameter to the *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 197c. constructor parameter is honored.


File: python.info,  Node: DocXMLRPCServer Objects,  Next: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Up: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers

5.22.22.5 DocXMLRPCServer Objects
.................................

The *note DocXMLRPCServer: 197c. class is derived from *note
SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3bc1. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC servers.  HTTP POST requests are
handled as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by
generating pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to
provide its own web-based documentation.

 -- Méthode: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML "title" element.

 -- Méthode: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a "h1"
     element.

 -- Méthode: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: DocXMLRPCServer Objects,  Up: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers

5.22.22.6 DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
....................................

The *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3bd2. class is derived from *note
CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3bc2. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts.  HTTP POST requests are handled
as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by generating
pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to provide its own
web-based documentation.

 -- Méthode: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML "title" element.

 -- Méthode: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a "h1"
     element.

 -- Méthode: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library,  Prev: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers,  Up: Gestion des protocoles internet

5.22.23 ‘ipaddress’ -- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
-----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/ipaddress.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ipaddress: 7f. propose des fonctionnalités pour créer, manipuler
et opérer sur des réseaux et adresses IPv4 et IPv6.

Les fonctions et les classes dans ce module facilitent la gestion de
différentes tâches reliée aux adresses IP, incluant vérifier si deux
hôtes sont sur le même sous-réseau, itérer sur tous les hôtes d'un
sous-réseau particulier, vérifier si une chaîne représente bien une
adresse IP ou une définition de réseau valide, et ainsi de suite.

Ceci est la référence complète de l'API du module, pour un aperçu et
introduction, voir *note Introduction au module ipaddress: 3bdf.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Fonctions fabriques pratiques::
* Adresses IP::
* Définitions de réseaux IP::
* Objets interface::
* Autres fonctions au niveau de module::
* Exceptions personnalisées::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ipaddress.py


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions fabriques pratiques,  Next: Adresses IP,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.22.23.1 Fonctions fabriques pratiques
.......................................

Le module *note ipaddress: 7f. propose des fonctions fabriques pour
facilement créer des adresses IP, réseaux et interfaces :

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.ip_address (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Address: 1f9. or *note IPv6Address: 1fa. object
     depending on the IP address passed as argument.  Either IPv4 or
     IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::')

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.ip_network (address, strict=True)

     Return an *note IPv4Network: 1fb. or *note IPv6Network: 1fc. object
     depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address' is a
     string or integer representing the IP network.  Either IPv4 or IPv6
     networks may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  'strict' is passed to *note
     IPv4Network: 1fb. or *note IPv6Network: 1fc. constructor.  A *note
     ValueError: 1ff. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid
     IPv4 or IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
          IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.ip_interface (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Interface: 17ca. or *note IPv6Interface: 17cb.
     object depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address'
     is a string or integer representing the IP address.  Either IPv4 or
     IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

Un inconvénient de ces fonctions pratiques est que le besoin de gérer à
la fois IPv4 et IPv6 signifie que les messages d'erreur contiennent peu
d'information sur l'erreur précise puisqu'elles ne peuvent pas deviner
quel format entre IPv4 et IPv6 est voulu.  Un compte-rendu d'erreur plus
détaillé peut être obtenu en appelant directement le constructeur de
classe pour la version voulue.


File: python.info,  Node: Adresses IP,  Next: Définitions de réseaux IP,  Prev: Fonctions fabriques pratiques,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.22.23.2 Adresses IP
.....................

* Menu:

* Objets adresse::
* Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers::
* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets adresse,  Next: Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers,  Up: Adresses IP

5.22.23.3 Objets adresse
........................

Les objets *note IPv4Address: 1f9. et *note IPv6Address: 1fa. ont
beaucoup d'attributs en commun.  Certains attributs qui n'ont du sens
que pour des adresses IPv6 sont aussi implémentés par les objets *note
IPv4Address: 1f9. pour faciliter l'écriture de code qui gère les 2
versions IP correctement.  Les objets d'adresse sont *note hachables:
5fd. pour qu'ils puissent être utilisés comme des clés dans des
dictionnaires.

 -- Classe: ipaddress.IPv4Address (address)

     Construit une adresse IPv4.  Une exception *note AddressValueError:
     3be6. est levée si 'address' n'est pas une adresse IPv4 valide.

     Une adresse IPv4 valide est composée de :

       1. Une chaîne en notation décimale par points, composée de quatre
          entiers décimaux dans la plage inclusive 0—255, séparés par
          des points (p. ex.  ‘192.168.0.1’).  Chaque entier représente
          un octet dans l'adresse.  Les zéros en tête ne sont pas
          tolérés pour éviter toute confusion avec la notation octale.

       2. Un entier qui tient dans 32 bits.

       3. Un entier tassé dans un objet *note bytes: 1bd. de taille 4
          (gros-boutiste).

          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les zéros en tête sont tolérés, même
     dans les cas ambigus qui ont l'apparence de notation octal.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9.5: Les zéros en tête ne sont plus
     tolérés et seront traités comme une erreur.  Les chaînes d'adresses
     IPv4 sont maintenant analysées aussi strictement que dans dans la
     fonction glibc *note inet_pton(): 951.

      -- Attribut: version

          Numéro de version approprié : ‘4’ pour IPv4, ‘6’ pour IPv6.

      -- Attribut: max_prefixlen

          Nombre total de bits dans la représentation d'adresse de cette
          version : ‘32’ pour IPv4, ‘128’ pour IPv6.

          Le préfixe définit le nombre de bits en tête dans une adresse
          qui sont comparés pour déterminer si une adresse fait partie
          d'un réseau.

      -- Attribut: compressed

      -- Attribut: exploded

          Une chaîne en notation décimale par points.  Les zéros en tête
          ne sont jamais inclus dans la représentation.

          Comme IPv4 ne définit pas une notation abrégée pour les
          adresses avec des octets définis à zéro, ces deux attributs
          sont toujours identiques à ‘str(addr)’ pour les adresses IPv4.
          Exposer ces attributs rend plus simple l'écriture de code
          d'affichage qui peut gérer à la fois les adresses IPv4 et
          IPv6.

      -- Attribut: packed

          La représentation binaire de cette adresse — un objet *note
          bytes: 1bd. avec une taille appropriée (gros-boutiste).  La
          taille est de 4 octets pour IPv4 et 16 octets pour IPv6.

      -- Attribut: reverse_pointer

          Nom de l'enregistrement DNS PTR inverse pour l'adresse IP,
          p. ex :

               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'

          C'est le nom utilisé pour effectuer une recherche inverse PTR
          et non le nom de l'hôte résolu lui-même.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Attribut: is_multicast

          ‘True’ si l'adresse est réservée pour utilisation 'multicast'.
          Voir RFC 3171(1) (pour IPv4) or RFC 2373(2) (pour IPv6).

      -- Attribut: is_private

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as not globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(3) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(4) (for IPv6) with the following
          exceptions:

             * ‘is_private’ is ‘False’ for the shared address space
               (‘100.64.0.0/10’)

             * For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
               determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4
               addresses and the following condition holds (see *note
               IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3bee.):

                    address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private

          ‘is_private’ has value opposite to *note is_global: f4c,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Fixed some false positives and
          false negatives.

             * ‘192.0.0.0/24’ is considered private with the exception
               of ‘192.0.0.9/32’ and ‘192.0.0.10/32’ (previously: only
               the ‘192.0.0.0/29’ sub-range was considered private).

             * ‘64:ff9b:1::/48’ is considered private.

             * ‘2002::/16’ is considered private.

             * There are exceptions within ‘2001::/23’ (otherwise
               considered private): ‘2001:1::1/128’, ‘2001:1::2/128’,
               ‘2001:3::/32’, ‘2001:4:112::/48’, ‘2001:20::/28’,
               ‘2001:30::/28’.  The exceptions are not considered
               private.

      -- Attribut: is_global

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(5) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(6) (for IPv6) with the following
          exception:

          For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
          determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses
          and the following condition holds (see *note
          IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3bee.):

               address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global

          ‘is_global’ has value opposite to *note is_private: 1604,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Fixed some false positives and
          false negatives, see *note is_private: 1604. for details.

      -- Attribut: is_unspecified

          ‘True’ si l'adresse est non-spécifiée.  Voir RFC 5735(7) (pour
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(8) (pour IPv6).

      -- Attribut: is_reserved

          ‘True’ si l'adresse est réservée par l'IETF.

      -- Attribut: is_loopback

          ‘True’ si c'est une adresse de rebouclage ('loopback' en
          anglais).  Voir RFC 3330(9) (pour IPv4) or RFC 2373(10) (pour
          IPv6).

      -- Attribut: is_link_local

          ‘True’ si l'adresse est réservée pour les liaisons locales
          auto-configurées.  Voir RFC 3927(11).

      -- Attribut: ipv6_mapped

          *note IPv4Address: 1f9. object representing the IPv4-mapped
          IPv6 address.  See RFC 4291(12).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Méthode: IPv4Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Renvoie l'adresse IP sous forme d'une chaîne, contrôlée par une
     chaîne de formatage explicite.  'fmt' peut être : ‘'s'’, l'option
     par défaut, équivalent à *note str(): 437, ‘'b'’ pour une chaîne
     binaire préfixée par des zéros, ‘'X'’ ou ‘'x'’ pour une
     représentation hexadécimale majuscule ou minuscule, ou ‘'n'’,
     équivalant à ‘'b'’ pour les adresses IPv4 et ‘'x'’ pour IPv6.  Pour
     les représentations binaires et hexadécimales, le spécificateur de
     forme ‘'#'’ et l'option de regroupement ‘'_'’ sont disponibles.
     ‘__format__’ est utilisé par ‘format’, ‘str.format’ et les
     f-strings.

          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '192.168.0.1'
          >>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '0b11000000101010000000000000000001'
          >>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}'
          '2001:db8::1000'
          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X')
          '2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'
          >>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'))
          '0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Classe: ipaddress.IPv6Address (address)

     Construit une adresse IPv6.  Une *note AddressValueError: 3be6. est
     levée si 'address' n'est pas une adresse IPv6 valide.

     Une adresse IPv6 valide est constituée de :

       1. Une chaîne constituée de huit groupes de quatre chiffres
          hexadécimaux, chaque groupe représentant 16 bits.  Les groupes
          sont séparés par des deux-points.  Ceci décrit une notation
          'éclatée' (longue).  La chaîne peut-être aussi 'abrégée'
          (notation courte) par différents moyens.  Voir RFC 4291(13)
          pour plus de détails.  Par exemple,
          ‘"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"’ peut s'écrire
          ‘"::abc:7:def"’.

          Optionnellement, la chaîne peut avoir un indice de zone de
          portée, exprimé avec un suffixe ‘%scope_id’.  Si présent,
          l'indice de portée ne doit pas être vide et ne doit pas
          contenir ‘%’.  Voir RFC 4007(14) pour plus de détails.  Par
          exemple, ‘fe80::1234%1’ pourrait identifier ‘fe80::1234’ sur
          la première interface du nœud.

       2. Un entier qui tient dans 128 bits.

       3. Un entier tassé dans un objet *note bytes: 1bd. de taille 16,
          gros-boutiste.

          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')
          IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')

      -- Attribut: compressed

     Version courte de la représentation d'adresse, avec les groupes de
     zéros en tête omis et la séquence la plus longue de groupes
     constitués entièrement de zéros réduit à un seul groupe vide.

     C'est aussi la valeur renvoyée par ‘str(addr)’ pour les adresses
     IPv6.

      -- Attribut: exploded

     Version longue de la représentation d'adresse, avec tous les zéros
     en tête et groupes composés entièrement de zéros inclus.

     Pour les attributs et méthodes suivants, voir la documentation de
     la classe *note IPv4Address: 1f9. :

      -- Attribut: packed

      -- Attribut: reverse_pointer

      -- Attribut: version

      -- Attribut: max_prefixlen

      -- Attribut: is_multicast

      -- Attribut: is_private

      -- Attribut: is_global

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Attribut: is_unspecified

      -- Attribut: is_reserved

      -- Attribut: is_loopback

      -- Attribut: is_link_local

      -- Attribut: is_site_local

          ‘True’ si l'adresse est réservée pour usage sur réseau local.
          Notez que l'espace d'adressage sur réseau local a été rendu
          obsolète par RFC 3879(15).  Utilisez *note is_private: 1604.
          pour tester si l'adresse est dans l'espace d'adresses locales
          et uniques défini par RFC 4193(16).

      -- Attribut: ipv4_mapped

          Pour les adresses qui semblent être des adresses mappées IPv4
          (commençant par ‘::FFFF/96’), cette propriété rapporte
          l'adresse IPv4 imbriquée.  Pour toute autre adresse, cette
          propriété sera ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: scope_id

          Pour les adresses avec une portée spécifiée comme définies par
          RFC 4007(17), cette propriété identifie la zone précise de la
          portée d'adresse à laquelle cette adresse appartient, en tant
          que chaîne.  Quand la zone de portée n'est pas spécifiée,
          cette propriété est ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: sixtofour

          Pour les adresses qui semblent être des adresses '6to4'
          (commençant par ‘2002::/16’) tel que défini par RFC 3056(18),
          cette propriété rapporte l'adresse IPv4 imbriquée.  Pour toute
          autre adresse, cette propriété sera ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: teredo

          Pour les adresses qui semblent être des adresses 'Teredo'
          (commençant par ‘2001::/32’) tel que défini par RFC 4380(19),
          cette propriété rapporte la paire ‘(server, client)’
          imbriquée.  Pour toute autre adresse, cette propriété sera
          ‘None’.

 -- Méthode: IPv6Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Référez-vous à la documentation de la méthode correspondante dans
     *note IPv4Address: 1f9.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (4) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (6) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers,  Next: Opérateurs<3>,  Prev: Objets adresse,  Up: Adresses IP

5.22.23.4 Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers
....................................................

Afin d'interagir avec les API de réseau tels que le module socket, les
adresses doivent être converties en chaînes et en entiers.  Ceci est
géré en utilisant les fonctions natives *note str(): 437. et *note
int(): 254. :

     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     '192.168.0.1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     3232235521
     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     '::1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     1

Note that IPv6 scoped addresses are converted to integers without scope
zone ID.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs<3>,  Prev: Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers,  Up: Adresses IP

5.22.23.5 Opérateurs
....................

Address objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Opérateurs de comparaison::
* Opérateurs arithmétiques::


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs de comparaison,  Next: Opérateurs arithmétiques,  Up: Opérateurs<3>

5.22.23.6 Opérateurs de comparaison
...................................

Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison
operators.  Same IPv6 addresses with different scope zone IDs are not
equal.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     False
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1')
     False
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2')
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs arithmétiques,  Prev: Opérateurs de comparaison,  Up: Opérateurs<3>

5.22.23.7 Opérateurs arithmétiques
..................................

Les entiers peuvent être additionnés ou soustraits des objets d'adresse.
Quelques exemples :

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
     IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
     IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
     >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address


File: python.info,  Node: Définitions de réseaux IP,  Next: Objets interface,  Prev: Adresses IP,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.22.23.8 Définitions de réseaux IP
...................................

The *note IPv4Network: 1fb. and *note IPv6Network: 1fc. objects provide
a mechanism for defining and inspecting IP network definitions.  A
network definition consists of a 'mask' and a 'network address', and as
such defines a range of IP addresses that equal the network address when
masked (binary AND) with the mask.  For example, a network definition
with the mask ‘255.255.255.0’ and the network address ‘192.168.1.0’
consists of IP addresses in the inclusive range ‘192.168.1.0’ to
‘192.168.1.255’.

* Menu:

* Préfixe, masque réseau et masque de l'hôte: Préfixe masque réseau et masque de l'hôte.
* Objets réseau::
* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Préfixe masque réseau et masque de l'hôte,  Next: Objets réseau,  Up: Définitions de réseaux IP

5.22.23.9 Préfixe, masque réseau et masque de l'hôte
....................................................

There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks.  A
'prefix' ‘/<nbits>’ is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits
are set in the network mask.  A 'net mask' is an IP address with some
number of high-order bits set.  Thus the prefix ‘/24’ is equivalent to
the net mask ‘255.255.255.0’ in IPv4, or ‘ffff:ff00::’ in IPv6.  In
addition, a 'host mask' is the logical inverse of a 'net mask', and is
sometimes used (for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a
network mask.  The host mask equivalent to ‘/24’ in IPv4 is ‘0.0.0.255’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets réseau,  Next: Opérateurs<4>,  Prev: Préfixe masque réseau et masque de l'hôte,  Up: Définitions de réseaux IP

5.22.23.10 Objets réseau
........................

All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network
objects as well.  In addition, network objects implement additional
attributes.  All of these are common between *note IPv4Network: 1fb. and
*note IPv6Network: 1fc, so to avoid duplication they are only documented
for *note IPv4Network: 1fb.  Network objects are *note hashable: 5fd, so
they can be used as keys in dictionaries.

 -- Classe: ipaddress.IPv4Network (address, strict=True)

     Construit une définition de réseau IPv4.  'address' peut valoir :

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask,
          separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the network
          address, and the mask can be either a single number, which
          means it's a 'prefix', or a string representation of an IPv4
          address.  If it's the latter, the mask is interpreted as a
          'net mask' if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a 'host
          mask' if it starts with a zero field, with the single
          exception of an all-zero mask which is treated as a 'net
          mask'.  If no mask is provided, it's considered to be ‘/32’.

          For example, the following 'address' specifications are
          equivalent: ‘192.168.1.0/24’, ‘192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0’ and
          ‘192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255’.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/32’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1bd. object of length 4,
          big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a
          4-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and
          the netmask is either an integer representing the prefix
          length (e.g.  ‘24’) or a string representing the prefix mask
          (e.g.  ‘255.255.255.0’).

     An *note AddressValueError: 3be6. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv4 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 3c08. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv4 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other
     network/address objects will raise *note TypeError: 525. if the
     argument's IP version is incompatible to ‘self’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la forme paire pour le
     paramètre 'address' du constructeur.

      -- Attribut: version

      -- Attribut: max_prefixlen

          Référez-vous à la documentation de l'attribut correspondant
          dans *note IPv4Address: 1f9.

      -- Attribut: is_multicast

      -- Attribut: is_private

      -- Attribut: is_unspecified

      -- Attribut: is_reserved

      -- Attribut: is_loopback

      -- Attribut: is_link_local

          These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they
          are true for both the network address and the broadcast
          address.

      -- Attribut: network_address

          The network address for the network.  The network address and
          the prefix length together uniquely define a network.

      -- Attribut: broadcast_address

          The broadcast address for the network.  Packets sent to the
          broadcast address should be received by every host on the
          network.

      -- Attribut: hostmask

          Le masque de l'hôte, en tant qu'objet *note IPv4Address: 1f9.

      -- Attribut: netmask

          Le masque réseau, en tant qu'objet *note IPv4Address: 1f9.

      -- Attribut: with_prefixlen

      -- Attribut: compressed

      -- Attribut: exploded

          Adresse IP du réseau sous forme d'une chaîne, avec le masque
          en notation CIDR.

          ‘with_prefixlen’ and ‘compressed’ are always the same as
          ‘str(network)’.  ‘exploded’ uses the exploded form the network
          address.

      -- Attribut: with_netmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in net
          mask notation.

      -- Attribut: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in host
          mask notation.

      -- Attribut: num_addresses

          Le nombre total d'adresses dans le réseau.

      -- Attribut: prefixlen

          Length of the network prefix, in bits.

      -- Méthode: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the network address itself and the network
          broadcast address.  For networks with a mask length of 31, the
          network address and network broadcast address are also
          included in the result.  Networks with a mask of 32 will
          return a list containing the single host address.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]

      -- Méthode: overlaps (other)

          ‘True’ si ce réseau est partiellement ou complètement contenu
          dans 'other' ou 'other' est complètement contenu dans ce
          réseau.

      -- Méthode: address_exclude (network)

          Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the
          given 'network' from this one.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.  Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if 'network' is not
          completely contained in this network.

               >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
               >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
               >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]

      -- Méthode: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The subnets that join to make the current network definition,
          depending on the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the
          amount our prefix length should be increased by.  'new_prefix'
          is the desired new prefix of the subnets; it must be larger
          than our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
                   raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
               ValueError: new prefix must be longer
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]

      -- Méthode: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The supernet containing this network definition, depending on
          the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the amount our
          prefix length should be decreased by.  'new_prefix' is the
          desired new prefix of the supernet; it must be smaller than
          our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns a single network object.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')

      -- Méthode: subnet_of (other)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si ce réseau est un sous-réseau de 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> b.subnet_of(a)
               True

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: supernet_of (other)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si 'other' est un sous-réseau de ce réseau.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> a.supernet_of(b)
               True

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Méthode: compare_networks (other)

          Compare this network to 'other'.  In this comparison only the
          network addresses are considered; host bits aren't.  Returns
          either ‘-1’, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
               -1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
               1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
               0

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: Utilise le même algorithme de
          relation d'ordre et de comparaison que ‘<’, ‘==’, et ‘>’.

 -- Classe: ipaddress.IPv6Network (address, strict=True)

     Construit une définition de réseau IPv6.  'address' peut valoir :

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix
          length, separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the
          network address, and the prefix length must be a single
          number, the 'prefix'.  If no prefix length is provided, it's
          considered to be ‘/128’.

          Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported.  That
          means ‘2001:db00::0/24’ is a valid argument while
          ‘2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::’ is not.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/128’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1bd. object of length
          16, big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a
          16-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv6Address object;
          and the netmask is an integer representing the prefix length.

     An *note AddressValueError: 3be6. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv6 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 3c08. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv6 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la forme paire pour le
     paramètre 'address' du constructeur.

      -- Attribut: version

      -- Attribut: max_prefixlen

      -- Attribut: is_multicast

      -- Attribut: is_private

      -- Attribut: is_unspecified

      -- Attribut: is_reserved

      -- Attribut: is_loopback

      -- Attribut: is_link_local

      -- Attribut: network_address

      -- Attribut: broadcast_address

      -- Attribut: hostmask

      -- Attribut: netmask

      -- Attribut: with_prefixlen

      -- Attribut: compressed

      -- Attribut: exploded

      -- Attribut: with_netmask

      -- Attribut: with_hostmask

      -- Attribut: num_addresses

      -- Attribut: prefixlen

      -- Méthode: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the Subnet-Router anycast address.  For
          networks with a mask length of 127, the Subnet-Router anycast
          address is also included in the result.  Networks with a mask
          of 128 will return a list containing the single host address.

      -- Méthode: overlaps (other)

      -- Méthode: address_exclude (network)

      -- Méthode: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- Méthode: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- Méthode: subnet_of (other)

      -- Méthode: supernet_of (other)

      -- Méthode: compare_networks (other)

          Référez-vous à la documentation de l'attribut correspondant
          dans *note IPv4Network: 1fb.

      -- Attribut: is_site_local

          These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is
          true for both the network address and the broadcast address.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs<4>,  Prev: Objets réseau,  Up: Définitions de réseaux IP

5.22.23.11 Opérateurs
.....................

Network objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Opérateurs logiques::
* Itération::
* Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses::


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs logiques,  Next: Itération,  Up: Opérateurs<4>

5.22.23.12 Opérateurs logiques
..............................

Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: Itération,  Next: Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses,  Prev: Opérateurs logiques,  Up: Opérateurs<4>

5.22.23.13 Itération
....................

Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to
the network.  For iteration, 'all' hosts are returned, including
unusable hosts (for usable hosts, use the *note hosts(): 3c1c. method).
An example:

     >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
     ...     addr
     ...
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')


File: python.info,  Node: Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses,  Prev: Itération,  Up: Opérateurs<4>

5.22.23.14 Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses
....................................................

Les objets réseau peuvent agir en tant que conteneurs d'adresses.
Quelques exemples :

     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Objets interface,  Next: Autres fonctions au niveau de module,  Prev: Définitions de réseaux IP,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.22.23.15 Objets interface
...........................

Les objets interface sont *note hachables: 5fd, ce qui signifie qu'ils
peuvent être utilisés comme clés de dictionnaire.

 -- Classe: ipaddress.IPv4Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv4 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv4Network: 1fb, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     *note IPv4Interface: 17ca. is a subclass of *note IPv4Address: 1f9,
     so it inherits all the attributes from that class.  In addition,
     the following attributes are available:

      -- Attribut: ip

          L'adresse (*note IPv4Address: 1f9.) sans information de
          réseau.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.ip
               IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')

      -- Attribut: network

          Le réseau (*note IPv4Network: 1fb.) auquel cette interface
          appartient.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.network
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

      -- Attribut: with_prefixlen

          A string representation of the interface with the mask in
          prefix notation.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_prefixlen
               '192.0.2.5/24'

      -- Attribut: with_netmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          net mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_netmask
               '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'

      -- Attribut: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          host mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_hostmask
               '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'

 -- Classe: ipaddress.IPv6Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv6 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv6Network: 1fc, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     *note IPv6Interface: 17cb. is a subclass of *note IPv6Address: 1fa,
     so it inherits all the attributes from that class.  In addition,
     the following attributes are available:

      -- Attribut: ip

      -- Attribut: network

      -- Attribut: with_prefixlen

      -- Attribut: with_netmask

      -- Attribut: with_hostmask

          Référez-vous à la documentation de l'attribut correspondant
          dans *note IPv4Interface: 17ca.

* Menu:

* Opérateurs: Opérateurs<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs<5>,  Up: Objets interface

5.22.23.16 Opérateurs
.....................

Interface objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Opérateurs logiques: Opérateurs logiques<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérateurs logiques<2>,  Up: Opérateurs<5>

5.22.23.17 Opérateurs logiques
..............................

Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical
operators.

For equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’), both the IP address and network
must be the same for the objects to be equal.  An interface will not
compare equal to any address or network object.

For ordering (‘<’, ‘>’, etc) the rules are different.  Interface and
address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the
address objects will always sort before the interface objects.  Two
interface objects are first compared by their networks and, if those are
the same, then by their IP addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres fonctions au niveau de module,  Next: Exceptions personnalisées,  Prev: Objets interface,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.22.23.18 Autres fonctions au niveau de module
...............................................

Le module fournit aussi les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv4 IP address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
          IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
          >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
          b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv6 IP address.

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.summarize_address_range (first, last)

     Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first
     and last IP addresses.  'first' is the first *note IPv4Address:
     1f9. or *note IPv6Address: 1fa. in the range and 'last' is the last
     *note IPv4Address: 1f9. or *note IPv6Address: 1fa. in the range.  A
     *note TypeError: 525. is raised if 'first' or 'last' are not IP
     addresses or are not of the same version.  A *note ValueError: 1ff.
     is raised if 'last' is not greater than 'first' or if 'first'
     address version is not 4 or 6.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.collapse_addresses (addresses)

     Return an iterator of the collapsed *note IPv4Network: 1fb. or
     *note IPv6Network: 1fc. objects.  'addresses' is an *note iterable:
     1207. of *note IPv4Network: 1fb. or *note IPv6Network: 1fc.
     objects.  A *note TypeError: 525. is raised if 'addresses' contains
     mixed version objects.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
          ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
          ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]

 -- Fonction: ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key (obj)

     Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses.
     Address and Network objects are not sortable by default; they're
     fundamentally different, so the expression:

          IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

     doesn't make sense.  There are some times however, where you may
     wish to have *note ipaddress: 7f. sort these anyway.  If you need
     to do this, you can use this function as the 'key' argument to
     *note sorted(): bbe.

     'obj' est un objet réseau ou adresse.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions personnalisées,  Prev: Autres fonctions au niveau de module,  Up: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.22.23.19 Exceptions personnalisées
....................................

To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the
module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Exception: ipaddress.AddressValueError (ValueError)

     Toute erreur de valeur liée à l'adresse.

 -- Exception: ipaddress.NetmaskValueError (ValueError)

     Toute erreur de valeur liée au masque réseau.


File: python.info,  Node: Services multimédia,  Next: Internationalisation,  Prev: Gestion des protocoles internet,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.23 Services multimédia
========================

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre implémentent divers algorithmes
ou interfaces principalement utiles pour les applications multimédia.
Ils peuvent ne pas être disponibles sur votre installation.  En voici un
aperçu :

* Menu:

* wave: wave --- Read and write WAV files. Read and write WAV files
* colorsys: colorsys --- Conversions between color systems. Conversions between color systems


File: python.info,  Node: wave --- Read and write WAV files,  Next: colorsys --- Conversions between color systems,  Up: Services multimédia

5.23.1 ‘wave’ -- Read and write WAV files
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/wave.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note wave: 112. module provides a convenient interface to the
Waveform Audio "WAVE" (or "WAV") file format.  Only uncompressed PCM
encoded wave files are supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Support for ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’
headers was added, provided that the extended format is
‘KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM’.

Le module *note wave: 112. définit la fonction et l'exception suivante :

 -- Fonction: wave.open (file, mode=None)

     Si 'file' est une chaîne de caractères, ouvre le fichier sous ce
     nom, sinon, il est traité comme un objet de type fichier.  'mode'
     peut être :

     ‘'rb'’

          Mode lecture seule.

     ‘'wb'’

          Mode écriture seule.

     Notez que ce module ne permet pas de manipuler des fichiers WAV en
     lecture/écriture.

     Un 'mode' ‘'rb'’ renvoie un objet *note Wave_read: 2b3, alors qu'un
     'mode' ‘'wb'’ renvoie un objet *note Wave_write: 2b4.  Si 'mode'
     est omis et qu'un objet de type fichier est donné au paramètre
     'file', ‘file.mode’ est utilisé comme valeur par défaut pour
     'mode'.

     If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close
     it when its ‘close()’ method is called; it is the caller's
     responsibility to close the file object.

     The *note open(): 93a. function may be used in a *note with: 5be.
     statement.  When the ‘with’ block completes, the *note
     Wave_read.close(): 3c59. or *note Wave_write.close(): 3c5a. method
     is called.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion des fichiers non
     navigables.

 -- Exception: wave.Error

     Une erreur est levée lorsque quelque chose est impossible car elle
     enfreint la spécification WAV ou rencontre un problème
     d'implémentation.

* Menu:

* Objets Wave_read::
* Objets Wave_write::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/wave.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Wave_read,  Next: Objets Wave_write,  Up: wave --- Read and write WAV files

5.23.1.1 Objets Wave_read
.........................

 -- Classe: wave.Wave_read

     Read a WAV file.

     Les objets Wave_read, tels qu'ils sont renvoyés par *note open():
     93a, ont les méthodes suivantes :

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Ferme le flux s'il a été ouvert par *note wave: 112. et rend
          l'instance inutilisable.  Ceci est appelé automatiquement
          lorsque l'objet est détruit .

      -- Méthode: getnchannels ()

          Renvoie le nombre de canaux audio (‘1’ pour mono, ‘2’ pour
          stéréo).

      -- Méthode: getsampwidth ()

          Renvoie la largeur de l'échantillon en octets.

      -- Méthode: getframerate ()

          Renvoie la fréquence d'échantillonnage.

      -- Méthode: getnframes ()

          Renvoie le nombre de trames audio.

      -- Méthode: getcomptype ()

          Renvoie le type de compression (‘'NONE'’ est le seul type
          géré).

      -- Méthode: getcompname ()

          Version compréhensible de *note getcomptype(): 3c62.
          Généralement, ‘'not compressed'’ équivaut à ‘'NONE'’.

      -- Méthode: getparams ()

          Returns a *note namedtuple(): 1c5. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
          framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output
          of the ‘get*()’ methods.

      -- Méthode: readframes (n)

          Lit et renvoie au plus 'n' trames audio, sous forme d'objet
          *note bytes: 1bd.

      -- Méthode: rewind ()

          Remet le pointeur de fichier au début du flux audio.

     The following two methods are defined for compatibility with the
     old ‘aifc’ module, and don't do anything interesting.

      -- Méthode: getmarkers ()

          Renvoie ‘None’.

          Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version
          3.15: The method only existed for compatibility with the
          ‘aifc’ module which has been removed in Python 3.13.

      -- Méthode: getmark (id)

          Lève une erreur.

          Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version
          3.15: The method only existed for compatibility with the
          ‘aifc’ module which has been removed in Python 3.13.

     Les deux fonctions suivantes utilisent le vocabulaire "position".
     Ces positions sont compatible entre elles, la "position" de l'un
     est compatible avec la "position" de l'autre.  Cette position est
     dépendante de l'implémentation.

      -- Méthode: setpos (pos)

          Place le pointeur du fichier sur la position spécifiée.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Renvoie la position actuelle du pointeur du fichier.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Wave_write,  Prev: Objets Wave_read,  Up: wave --- Read and write WAV files

5.23.1.2 Objets Wave_write
..........................

 -- Classe: wave.Wave_write

     Write a WAV file.

     Wave_write objects, as returned by *note open(): 93a.

     For seekable output streams, the ‘wave’ header will automatically
     be updated to reflect the number of frames actually written.  For
     unseekable streams, the 'nframes' value must be accurate when the
     first frame data is written.  An accurate 'nframes' value can be
     achieved either by calling *note setnframes(): 3c6a. or *note
     setparams(): 3c6b. with the number of frames that will be written
     before *note close(): 3c5a. is called and then using *note
     writeframesraw(): fd7. to write the frame data, or by calling *note
     writeframes(): fd8. with all of the frame data to be written.  In
     the latter case *note writeframes(): fd8. will calculate the number
     of frames in the data and set 'nframes' accordingly before writing
     the frame data.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion des fichiers non
     navigables.

     Wave_write objects have the following methods:

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Assurez-vous que 'nframes' soit correct et fermez le fichier
          s'il a été ouvert par *note wave: 112.  Cette méthode est
          appelée à la destruction de l'objet.  Il lève une erreur si le
          flux de sortie n'est pas navigable et si 'nframes' ne
          correspond pas au nombre de trames réellement écrites.

      -- Méthode: setnchannels (n)

          Définit le nombre de canaux.

      -- Méthode: setsampwidth (n)

          Définit la largeur de l'échantillon à 'n' octets.

      -- Méthode: setframerate (n)

          Définit la fréquence des trames à 'n'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Un paramètre non-entier passé à
          cette méthode est arrondi à l'entier le plus proche.

      -- Méthode: setnframes (n)

          Définit le nombre de trames à 'n'.  Cela sera modifié
          ultérieurement si le nombre de trames réellement écrites est
          différent (la tentative de mise à jour générera une erreur si
          le flux de sortie n'est pas indexable).

      -- Méthode: setcomptype (type, name)

          Définit le type de compression et la description.  Pour le
          moment, seul le type de compression ‘NONE’ est géré,
          c'est-à-dire aucune compression.

      -- Méthode: setparams (tuple)

          The 'tuple' should be ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate,
          nframes, comptype, compname)’, with values valid for the
          ‘set*()’ methods.  Sets all parameters.

      -- Méthode: tell ()

          Renvoie la position actuelle dans le fichier, avec les mêmes
          réserves que pour les méthodes *note Wave_read.tell(): 3c68.
          et *note Wave_read.setpos(): 3c67.

      -- Méthode: writeframesraw (data)

          Écrit les trames audio sans corriger 'nframes'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

      -- Méthode: writeframes (data)

          Écrit des trames audio et s'assure que 'nframes' est correct.
          Une erreur est levée si le flux de sortie est non-navigable et
          si le nombre total de trames écrites après que 'data' soit
          écrit ne correspond pas à la valeur précédemment définie pour
          'nframes'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: N'importe quel *note bytes-like
          object: d1d. est maintenant accepté.

          Notez qu'il est impossible de définir des paramètres après
          avoir appelé *note writeframes(): fd8. ou *note
          writeframesraw(): fd7, et toute tentative en ce sens lève une
          *note wave.Error: 3c5b.


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys --- Conversions between color systems,  Prev: wave --- Read and write WAV files,  Up: Services multimédia

5.23.2 ‘colorsys’ -- Conversions between color systems
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/colorsys.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note colorsys: 1f. module defines bidirectional conversions of
color values between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color
space used in computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ,
HLS (Hue Lightness Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value).
Coordinates in all of these color spaces are floating-point values.  In
the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between 0 and 1, but the I and Q
coordinates can be positive or negative.  In all other spaces, the
coordinates are all between 0 and 1.

Voir aussi
..........

Consultez ‘https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html’ et
‘https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm’ pour plus
d'informations concernant les espaces colorimétriques.

Le module *note colorsys: 1f. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: colorsys.rgb_to_yiq (r, g, b)

     Convertit la couleur des coordonnées RGB (RVB) vers les coordonnées
     YIQ.

 -- Fonction: colorsys.yiq_to_rgb (y, i, q)

     Convertit la couleur des coordonnées YIQ vers les coordonnées RGB
     (RVB).

 -- Fonction: colorsys.rgb_to_hls (r, g, b)

     Convertit la couleur des coordonnées RGB (RVB) vers les coordonnées
     HLS (TSV).

 -- Fonction: colorsys.hls_to_rgb (h, l, s)

     Convertit la couleur des coordonnées HLS (TSV) vers les coordonnées
     RGB (RVB).

 -- Fonction: colorsys.rgb_to_hsv (r, g, b)

     Convertit la couleur des coordonnées RGB (RVB) vers les coordonnées
     HSV (TSV).

 -- Fonction: colorsys.hsv_to_rgb (h, s, v)

     Convertit la couleur des coordonnées HSV (TSV) vers les coordonnées
     RGB (RVB).

Exemple :

     >>> import colorsys
     >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
     (0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     (0.2, 0.4, 0.4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/colorsys.py


File: python.info,  Node: Internationalisation,  Next: Cadriciels d'applications,  Prev: Services multimédia,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.24 Internationalisation
=========================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre vous aident à rédiger des
programmes indépendants des langues et des cultures en fournissant des
mécanismes pour sélectionner une langue à utiliser dans les messages, ou
en adaptant la sortie aux conventions culturelles.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* gettext: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services. Multilingual internationalization services
* locale: locale --- Internationalization services. Internationalization services


File: python.info,  Node: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services,  Next: locale --- Internationalization services,  Up: Internationalisation

5.24.1 ‘gettext’ -- Multilingual internationalization services
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/gettext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note gettext: 62. fournit un service d'internationalisation
('I18N') et de localisation linguistique ('L10N') pour vos modules et
applications Python.  Il est compatible avec l'API du catalogue de
messages GNU ‘gettext’ et à un plus haut niveau, avec l'API basée sur
les classes qui serait peut-être plus adaptée aux fichiers Python.
L'interface décrite ci-dessous vous permet d'écrire les textes de vos
modules et applications dans une langue naturelle, puis de fournir un
catalogue de traductions pour les lancer ensuite dans d'autres langues
naturelles.

Quelques astuces sur la localisation de vos modules et applications
Python sont également données.

* Menu:

* API GNU gettext::
* API basée sur les classes::
* Internationaliser vos programmes et modules::
* Remerciements: Remerciements<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/gettext.py


File: python.info,  Node: API GNU gettext,  Next: API basée sur les classes,  Up: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

5.24.1.1 API GNU ‘gettext’
..........................

Le module *note gettext: 62. définit l'API suivante, qui est très proche
de l'API de GNU ‘gettext’.  Si vous utilisez cette API, cela affectera
la traduction de toute votre application.  C'est souvent le comportement
attendu si votre application est monolingue, avec le choix de la langue
qui dépend des paramètres linguistiques de l'utilisateur.  Si vous
localisez un module Python ou si votre application a besoin de changer
de langue à la volée, il est plus judicieux d'utiliser l'API basée sur
des classes.

 -- Fonction: gettext.bindtextdomain (domain, localedir=None)

     Lie 'domain' au répertoire 'localedir' des localisations.  Plus
     spécifiquement, *note gettext: 62. va chercher les fichiers
     binaires ‘.mo’ pour un domaine donné, en utilisant le chemin
     suivant (sous Unix) :
     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’, où 'language' est
     recherché dans l'une des variables d'environnement suivantes :
     ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’, ‘LC_MESSAGES’ et ‘LANG’.

     Si 'localedir' n'est pas renseigné ou vaut ‘None’, alors le lien
     actuel de 'domain' est renvoyé.  (1)

 -- Fonction: gettext.textdomain (domain=None)

     Change ou interroge le domaine global actuel.  Si 'domain' vaut
     ‘None’, alors le domaine global actuel est renvoyé.  Sinon, le
     domaine global est positionné à 'domain', puis renvoyé.

 -- Fonction: gettext.gettext (message)

     Return the localized translation of 'message', based on the current
     global domain, language, and locale directory.  This function is
     usually aliased as ‘_()’ in the local namespace (see examples
     below).

 -- Fonction: gettext.dgettext (domain, message)

     Comme *note gettext(): 141f, mais cherche le message dans le
     domaine spécifié.

 -- Fonction: gettext.ngettext (singular, plural, n)

     Comme *note gettext(): 141f, mais prend en compte les formes au
     pluriel.  Si une traduction a été trouvée, utilise la formule pour
     trouver le pluriel à 'n' et renvoie le message généré (quelques
     langues ont plus de deux formes au pluriel).  Si aucune traduction
     n'a été trouvée, renvoie 'singular' si 'n' vaut 1, 'plural' sinon.

     La formule pour trouver le pluriel est récupérée dans l'entête du
     catalogue.  C'est une expression en C ou en Python qui a une
     variable libre 'n' et qui évalue l'index du pluriel dans le
     catalogue.  Voir la documentation de GNU gettext(2) pour la syntaxe
     précise à utiliser dans les fichiers ‘.po’ et pour les formules
     dans différents langues.

 -- Fonction: gettext.dngettext (domain, singular, plural, n)

     Comme *note ngettext(): 3c81, mais cherche le message dans le
     domaine spécifié.

 -- Fonction: gettext.pgettext (context, message)

 -- Fonction: gettext.dpgettext (domain, context, message)

 -- Fonction: gettext.npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

 -- Fonction: gettext.dnpgettext (domain, context, singular, plural, n)

     Semblable aux fonctions correspondantes sans le ‘p’ dans le préfixe
     (c'est-à-dire *note gettext(): 62, *note dgettext(): 3c80, *note
     ngettext(): 3c81. et *note dngettext(): 3c82.), mais la traduction
     est limitée au 'context' du message donné.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Note that GNU ‘gettext’ also defines a ‘dcgettext()’ method, but this
was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.

Voici un exemple classique d'utilisation de cette API :

     import gettext
     gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
     gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
     _ = gettext.gettext
     # ...
     print(_('This is a translatable string.'))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on
Red Hat Linux it is ‘/usr/share/locale’, but on Solaris it is
‘/usr/lib/locale’.  The ‘gettext’ module does not try to support these
system dependent defaults; instead its default is
‘`sys.base_prefix'/share/locale’ (see *note sys.base_prefix: 3e6.).  For
this reason, it is always best to call *note bindtextdomain(): 3c7e.
with an explicit absolute path at the start of your application.

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html


File: python.info,  Node: API basée sur les classes,  Next: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules,  Prev: API GNU gettext,  Up: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

5.24.1.2 API basée sur les classes
..................................

The class-based API of the *note gettext: 62. module gives you more
flexibility and greater convenience than the GNU ‘gettext’ API. It is
the recommended way of localizing your Python applications and modules.
‘gettext’ defines a *note GNUTranslations: 3c87. class which implements
the parsing of GNU ‘.mo’ format files, and has methods for returning
strings.  Instances of this class can also install themselves in the
built-in namespace as the function ‘_()’.

 -- Fonction: gettext.find (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          all=False)

     Cette fonction implémente l'algorithme standard de recherche de
     fichier ‘mo’.  Il prend en entrée un 'domain', tout comme la
     fonction *note textdomain(): 3c7f.  Le paramètre optionnel
     'localedir' est le même que celui de *note bindtextdomain(): 3c7e.
     Le paramètre optionnel 'langages' est une liste de chaînes de
     caractères correspondants au code d'une langue.

     Si 'localedir' n'est pas renseigné, alors le répertoire de la
     locale par défaut du système est utilisé.  (1)  Si 'languages'
     n'est pas renseigné, alors les variables d'environnement suivantes
     sont utilisées : ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’, ‘LC_MESSAGES’ et ‘LANG’.  La
     première à renvoyer une valeur non vide est alors utilisée pour
     'languages'.  Ces variables d'environnement doivent contenir une
     liste de langues, séparées par des deux-points, qui sera utilisée
     pour générer la liste des codes de langues attendue.

     Recherche avec *note find(): 3c88, découvre et normalise les
     langues, puis itère sur la liste obtenue afin de trouver un fichier
     de traduction existant et correspondant :

     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’

     Le premier nom de fichier trouvé est renvoyé par *note find():
     3c88.  Si aucun fichier n'a été trouvé, alors ‘None’ est renvoyé.
     Si 'all' est vrai, est renvoyée la liste de tous les noms de
     fichiers, dans l'ordre dans lequel ils apparaissent dans
     'languages' ou dans les variables d'environnement.

 -- Fonction: gettext.translation (domain, localedir=None,
          languages=None, class_=None, fallback=False)

     Return a ‘*Translations’ instance based on the 'domain',
     'localedir', and 'languages', which are first passed to *note
     find(): 3c88. to get a list of the associated ‘.mo’ file paths.
     Instances with identical ‘.mo’ file names are cached.  The actual
     class instantiated is 'class_' if provided, otherwise *note
     GNUTranslations: 3c87.  The class's constructor must take a single
     *note file object: 11a2. argument.

     Si plusieurs fichiers ont été trouvés, les derniers sont utilisés
     comme substitut des premiers.  Pour rendre possible cette
     substitution, *note copy.copy(): 520. est utilisé pour copier
     chaque objet traduit depuis le cache ; les vraies données de
     l'instance étant toujours recopiées dans le cache.

     Si aucun fichier ‘.mo’ n'a été trouvé, soit 'fallback' vaut 'False'
     (valeur par défaut) et une exception *note OSError: 40d. est levée,
     soit 'fallback' vaut 'True' et une instance *note NullTranslations:
     3c89. est renvoyée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note IOError: 103d. used to be
     raised, it is now an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'codeset' parameter is removed.

 -- Fonction: gettext.install (domain, localedir=None, *, names=None)

     This installs the function ‘_()’ in Python's builtins namespace,
     based on 'domain' and 'localedir' which are passed to the function
     *note translation(): a69.

     Concernant le paramètre 'names', se référer à la description de la
     méthode *note install(): 3c8a.

     As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application
     that are candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to
     the ‘_()’ function, like this:

          print(_('This string will be translated.'))

     For convenience, you want the ‘_()’ function to be installed in
     Python's builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all
     modules of your application.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'names' est désormais un paramètre à
     mot-clé uniquement.

* Menu:

* La classe NullTranslations::
* La classe GNUTranslations::
* Support du catalogue de message de Solaris::
* Le constructeur Catalog::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Voir la note de *note bindtextdomain(): 3c7e. ci-dessus.


File: python.info,  Node: La classe NullTranslations,  Next: La classe GNUTranslations,  Up: API basée sur les classes

5.24.1.3 La classe ‘NullTranslations’
.....................................

Les classes de traduction implémentent le fait de passer d'une chaîne de
caractères du fichier original à traduire à la traduction de celle-ci.
La classe de base utilisée est *note NullTranslations: 3c89.  C'est
l'interface de base à utiliser lorsque vous souhaitez écrire vos propres
classes spécifiques à la traduction.  Voici les méthodes de
‘NullTranslations’ :

 -- Classe: gettext.NullTranslations (fp=None)

     Prend un paramètre optionnel un *note file object: 11a2. 'fp', qui
     est ignoré par la classe de base.  Initialise les variables
     d'instance "protégées" '_info' et '_chardet', définies par des
     classes dérivées, tout comme '_fallback' qui est définie au travers
     de *note add_fallback(): 3c8c.  Puis appelle ‘self._parse(fp)’ si
     'fp' ne vaut pas ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: _parse (fp)

          Cette méthode, non exécutée dans la classe de base, prend en
          paramètre un objet fichier 'fp' et lit les données de ce
          dernier.  Si vous avez un catalogue de messages dont le format
          n'est pas pris en charge, vous devriez surcharger cette
          méthode pour analyser votre format.

      -- Méthode: add_fallback (fallback)

          Ajoute 'fallback' comme objet de substitution pour l'objet de
          traduction courant.  Un objet de traduction devrait interroger
          cet objet de substitution s'il ne peut fournir une traduction
          pour un message donné.

      -- Méthode: gettext (message)

          Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet ‘gettext()’
          à celui-ci.  Sinon, renvoie 'message'.  Surchargé dans les
          classes dérivées.

      -- Méthode: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet
          ‘ngettext()’ à celui-ci.  Sinon, renvoie 'singular' si 'n'
          vaut 1, 'plural' sinon.  Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

      -- Méthode: pgettext (context, message)

          Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet *note
          pgettext(): 9e5. à celui-ci.  Sinon, renvoie le message
          traduit.  Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet *note
          npgettext(): 3c84. à celui-ci.  Sinon, renvoie le message
          traduit.  Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: info ()

          Return a dictionary containing the metadata found in the
          message catalog file.

      -- Méthode: charset ()

          Renvoie l'encodage du fichier du catalogue de messages.

      -- Méthode: install (names=None)

          Cette méthode positionne *note gettext(): 3c8e. dans l'espace
          de nommage natif, en le liant à ‘_’.

          If the 'names' parameter is given, it must be a sequence
          containing the names of functions you want to install in the
          builtins namespace in addition to ‘_()’.  Supported names are
          ‘'gettext'’, ‘'ngettext'’, ‘'pgettext'’, and ‘'npgettext'’.

          Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient
          way, to make the ‘_()’ function available to your application.
          Because it affects the entire application globally, and
          specifically the built-in namespace, localized modules should
          never install ‘_()’.  Instead, they should use this code to
          make ‘_()’ available to their module:

               import gettext
               t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
               _ = t.gettext

          This puts ‘_()’ only in the module's global namespace and so
          only affects calls within this module.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de ‘'pgettext'’ et
          ‘'npgettext'’.


File: python.info,  Node: La classe GNUTranslations,  Next: Support du catalogue de message de Solaris,  Prev: La classe NullTranslations,  Up: API basée sur les classes

5.24.1.4 La classe ‘GNUTranslations’
....................................

The ‘gettext’ module provides one additional class derived from *note
NullTranslations: 3c89.: *note GNUTranslations: 3c87.  This class
overrides ‘_parse()’ to enable reading GNU ‘gettext’ format ‘.mo’ files
in both big-endian and little-endian format.

*note GNUTranslations: 3c87. parses optional metadata out of the
translation catalog.  It is convention with GNU ‘gettext’ to include
metadata as the translation for the empty string.  This metadata is in
RFC 822(1)-style ‘key: value’ pairs, and should contain the
‘Project-Id-Version’ key.  If the key ‘Content-Type’ is found, then the
‘charset’ property is used to initialize the "protected" ‘_charset’
instance variable, defaulting to ‘None’ if not found.  If the charset
encoding is specified, then all message ids and message strings read
from the catalog are converted to Unicode using this encoding, else
ASCII is assumed.

Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all ‘*gettext()’
methods will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.

The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set
as the "protected" ‘_info’ instance variable.

Si le nombre magique du fichier ‘.mo’ est invalide, le numéro de la
version majeure inattendu, ou si d'autres problèmes apparaissent durant
la lecture du fichier, instancier une classe *note GNUTranslations:
3c87. peut lever une exception *note OSError: 40d.

 -- Classe: gettext.GNUTranslations

     Les méthodes suivantes, provenant de l'implémentation de la classe
     de base, ont été surchargée :

      -- Méthode: gettext (message)

          Recherche l'identifiant de 'message' dans le catalogue et
          renvoie le message de la chaîne de caractères correspondante
          comme une chaîne Unicode.  Si aucun identifiant n'a été trouvé
          pour 'message' et qu'un substitut a été défini, la recherche
          est transmise à la méthode *note gettext(): 3c8e. du
          substitut.  Sinon, l'identifiant de 'message' est renvoyé.

      -- Méthode: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          Effectue une recherche sur les formes plurielles de
          l'identifiant d'un message.  'singular' est utilisé pour la
          recherche de l'identifiant dans le catalogue, alors que 'n'
          permet de savoir quelle forme plurielle utiliser.  La chaîne
          de caractère du message renvoyée est une chaîne Unicode.

          Si l'identifiant du message n'est pas trouvé dans le catalogue
          et qu'un substitut a été spécifié, la requête est transmise à
          la méthode *note ngettext(): 3c8f. du substitut.  Sinon, est
          renvoyé 'singular' lorsque 'n' vaut 1, 'plural' dans tous les
          autres cas.

          Voici un exemple :

               n = len(os.listdir('.'))
               cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
               message = cat.ngettext(
                   'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
                   'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
                   n) % {'num': n}

      -- Méthode: pgettext (context, message)

          Recherche le 'contexte' et l'identifiant de 'message' dans le
          catalogue et renvoie le message de la chaîne de caractères
          correspondante comme une chaîne Unicode.  Si aucun identifiant
          n'a été trouvé pour l'identifiant du 'message' et du 'context'
          et qu'un substitut a été défini, la recherche est transmise à
          la méthode *note pgettext(): 9e5. du substitut.  Sinon,
          l'identifiant de 'message' est renvoyé.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          Effectue une recherche sur les formes plurielles de
          l'identifiant d'un message.  'singular' est utilisé pour la
          recherche de l'identifiant dans le catalogue, alors que 'n'
          permet de savoir quelle forme plurielle utiliser.

          Si l'identifiant du message pour le 'context' n'est pas trouvé
          dans le catalogue et qu'un substitut a été spécifié, la
          requête est transmise à la méthode *note npgettext(): 3c84. du
          substitut.  Sinon, est renvoyé 'singular' lorsque 'n' vaut 1,
          'plural' dans tous les autres cas.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Support du catalogue de message de Solaris,  Next: Le constructeur Catalog,  Prev: La classe GNUTranslations,  Up: API basée sur les classes

5.24.1.5 Support du catalogue de message de Solaris
...................................................

Le système d'exploitation Solaris possède son propre format de fichier
binaire ‘.mo’, mais pour l'heure, puisqu'on ne peut trouver de
documentation sur ce format, il n'est pas géré.


File: python.info,  Node: Le constructeur Catalog,  Prev: Support du catalogue de message de Solaris,  Up: API basée sur les classes

5.24.1.6 Le constructeur 'Catalog'
..................................

GNOME utilise une version du module *note gettext: 62. de James
Henstridge, mais qui a une API légèrement différente.  D'après la
documentation, elle s'utilise ainsi :

     import gettext
     cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
     _ = cat.gettext
     print(_('hello world'))

For compatibility with this older module, the function ‘Catalog()’ is an
alias for the *note translation(): a69. function described above.

Une différence entre ce module et celui de Henstridge : les objets de
son catalogue étaient accessibles depuis un schéma de l'API, mais cela
semblait ne pas être utilisé et donc n'est pas pris en charge.


File: python.info,  Node: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules,  Next: Remerciements<9>,  Prev: API basée sur les classes,  Up: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

5.24.1.7 Internationaliser vos programmes et modules
....................................................

L'internationalisation ('I18N') consiste à permettre à un programme de
recevoir des traductions dans plusieurs langues.  La localisation
('L10N') consiste à adapter un programme à la langue et aux habitudes
culturelles locales, une fois celui-ci internationalisé.  Afin de
fournir du texte multilingue à votre programme Python, les étapes
suivantes sont nécessaires :

  1. préparer votre programme ou module en marquant spécifiquement les
     chaînes à traduire

  2. lancer une suite d'outils sur les fichiers contenant des chaînes à
     traduire pour générer des catalogues de messages brut

  3. créer les traductions spécifiques à une langue des catalogues de
     messages

  4. utiliser le module *note gettext: 62. pour que les chaînes de
     caractères soient bien traduites

In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the
strings in your files.  Any string that needs to be translated should be
marked by wrapping it in ‘_('...')’ -- that is, a call to the function
*note _: 62.  For example:

     filename = 'mylog.txt'
     message = _('writing a log message')
     with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
         fp.write(message)

Dans cet exemple, la chaîne ‘'writing a log message'’ est maquée comme
traduite, contrairement aux chaînes ‘'mylog.txt'’ et ‘'w'’.

There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation.  The
original GNU ‘gettext’ only supported C or C++ source code but its
extended version ‘xgettext’ scans code written in a number of languages,
including Python, to find strings marked as translatable.  Babel(1) is a
Python internationalization library that includes a ‘pybabel’ script to
extract and compile message catalogs.  François Pinard's program called
‘xpot’ does a similar job and is available as part of his po-utils
package(2).

(Python inclut également des versions en Python de ces programmes,
‘pygettext.py’ et ‘msgfmt.py’, que certaines distributions Python
installeront pour vous.  ‘pygettext.py’ est similaire à ‘xgettext’, mais
ne comprend que le code source écrit en Python et ne peut prendre en
charge d'autres langages de programmation tels que le C ou C++.
‘pygettext.py’ possède une interface en ligne de commande similaire à
celle de ‘xgettext’ -- pour plus de détails sur son utilisation,
exécuter ‘pygettext.py --help’.  ‘msgfmt.py’ est compatible avec GNU
‘msgfmt’.  Avec ces deux programmes, vous ne devriez pas avoir besoin du
paquet GNU ‘gettext’ pour internationaliser vos applications en Python.)

‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’ et d'autres outils similaires génèrent des
fichiers ‘.po’ représentant les catalogues de messages.  Il s'agit de
fichiers structurés et lisibles par un être humain, qui contiennent
toutes les chaînes du code source marquées comme traduisible, ainsi que
leur traduction à utiliser.

Les copies de ces fichiers ‘.po’ sont ensuite remises à des êtres
humains qui traduisent le contenu pour chaque langue naturelle prise en
charge.  Pour chacune des langues, ces derniers renvoient la version
complétée sous la forme d'un fichier ‘<code-langue>.po’ qui a été
compilé dans un fichier binaire ‘.mo’ représentant le catalogue lisible
par une machine à l'aide du programme ‘msgfmt’.  Les fichiers ‘.mo’ sont
utilisés par le module *note gettext: 62. pour la traduction lors de
l'exécution.

La façon dont vous utilisez le module *note gettext: 62. dans votre code
dépend de si vous internationalisez un seul module ou l'ensemble de
votre application.  Les deux sections suivantes traitent chacune des
cas.

* Menu:

* Localiser votre module::
* Localiser votre application::
* Changer de langue à la volée::
* Traductions différées::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/

   (2) https://github.com/pinard/po-utils


File: python.info,  Node: Localiser votre module,  Next: Localiser votre application,  Up: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

5.24.1.8 Localiser votre module
...............................

Si vous localisez votre module, veillez à ne pas faire de changements
globaux, e.g.  dans l'espace de nommage natif.  Vous ne devriez pas
utiliser l’API GNU ‘gettext’ mais plutôt celle basée sur les classes.

Disons que votre module s'appelle "spam" et que les fichiers ‘.mo’ de
traduction dans les différentes langues naturelles soient dans
‘/usr/share/locale’ au format GNU ‘gettext’.  Voici ce que vous pouvez
alors mettre en haut de votre module :

     import gettext
     t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
     _ = t.gettext


File: python.info,  Node: Localiser votre application,  Next: Changer de langue à la volée,  Prev: Localiser votre module,  Up: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

5.24.1.9 Localiser votre application
....................................

If you are localizing your application, you can install the ‘_()’
function globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main
driver file of your application.  This will let all your
application-specific files just use ‘_('...')’ without having to
explicitly install it in each file.

Dans ce cas, vous n'aurez à ajouter que le bout de code suivant au
fichier principal de votre application :

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication')

Si vous avez besoin de définir le dossier des localisations, vous pouvez
le mettre en argument de la fonction *note install(): a6a. :

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')


File: python.info,  Node: Changer de langue à la volée,  Next: Traductions différées,  Prev: Localiser votre application,  Up: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

5.24.1.10 Changer de langue à la volée
......................................

Si votre programme a besoin de prendre en charge plusieurs langues en
même temps, vous pouvez créer plusieurs instances de traduction, puis
basculer entre elles de façon explicite, comme ceci :

     import gettext

     lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
     lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
     lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])

     # start by using language1
     lang1.install()

     # ... time goes by, user selects language 2
     lang2.install()

     # ... more time goes by, user selects language 3
     lang3.install()


File: python.info,  Node: Traductions différées,  Prev: Changer de langue à la volée,  Up: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

5.24.1.11 Traductions différées
...............................

Dans la plupart des cas, en programmation, les chaînes de caractères
sont traduites à l'endroit où on les écrit.  Cependant, il peut arriver
que vous ayez besoin de traduire une chaîne de caractères un peu plus
loin.  Un exemple classique est :

     animals = ['mollusk',
                'albatross',
                'rat',
                'penguin',
                'python', ]
     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(a)

Ici, vous voulez marquer les chaînes de caractères de la liste ‘animals’
comme étant traduisibles, mais ne les traduire qu'au moment de les
afficher.

Voici un moyen de gérer ce cas :

     def _(message): return message

     animals = [_('mollusk'),
                _('albatross'),
                _('rat'),
                _('penguin'),
                _('python'), ]

     del _

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

This works because the dummy definition of ‘_()’ simply returns the
string unchanged.  And this dummy definition will temporarily override
any definition of ‘_()’ in the built-in namespace (until the *note del:
1762. command).  Take care, though if you have a previous definition of
‘_()’ in the local namespace.

Note that the second use of ‘_()’ will not identify "a" as being
translatable to the ‘gettext’ program, because the parameter is not a
string literal.

Voici une autre solution :

     def N_(message): return message

     animals = [N_('mollusk'),
                N_('albatross'),
                N_('rat'),
                N_('penguin'),
                N_('python'), ]

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function
‘N_()’, which won't conflict with any definition of ‘_()’.  However, you
will need to teach your message extraction program to look for
translatable strings marked with ‘N_()’.  ‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’,
‘pybabel extract’, and ‘xpot’ all support this through the use of the
‘-k’ command-line switch.  The choice of ‘N_()’ here is totally
arbitrary; it could have just as easily been
‘MarkThisStringForTranslation()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<9>,  Prev: Internationaliser vos programmes et modules,  Up: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

5.24.1.12 Remerciements
.......................

Les personnes suivantes ont contribué au code, ont fait des retours, ont
participé aux suggestions de conception et aux implémentations
précédentes, et ont partagé leur expérience précieuse pour la création
de ce module :

   * Peter Funk

   * James Henstridge

   * Juan David Ibáñez Palomar

   * Marc-André Lemburg

   * Martin von Löwis

   * François Pinard

   * Barry Warsaw

   * Gustavo Niemeyer

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: locale --- Internationalization services,  Prev: gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services,  Up: Internationalisation

5.24.2 ‘locale’ -- Internationalization services
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/locale.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note locale: 85. donne accès à la base de données et aux
fonctionnalités des paramètres linguistiques définis par POSIX. Le
mécanisme des paramètres linguistiques de POSIX permet aux développeurs
de faire face à certaines problématiques culturelles dans une
application, sans avoir à connaître toutes les spécificités de chaque
pays où le logiciel est exécuté.

The *note locale: 85. module is implemented on top of the ‘_locale’
module, which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.

Le module *note locale: 85. définit l'exception et les fonctions
suivantes :

 -- Exception: locale.Error

     Exception levée lorsque le paramètre régional passé en paramètre de
     *note setlocale(): 2da. n'est pas reconnu.

 -- Fonction: locale.setlocale (category, locale=None)

     Si 'locale' ne vaut pas ‘None’, *note setlocale(): 2da. modifie le
     paramètre régional pour la catégorie 'category'.  Les catégories
     disponibles sont listées dans la description des données
     ci-dessous.  'locale' peut être une chaîne de caractères ou un
     itérable de deux chaînes de caractères (code de la langue et
     encodage).  Si c'est un itérable, il est converti en un nom de
     paramètre régional à l'aide du moteur de normalisation fait pour.
     Si c'est une chaîne vide, les paramètres par défaut de
     l'utilisateur sont utilisés.  Si la modification du paramètre
     régional échoue, l'exception *note Error: 3ca3. est levée.  Si elle
     fonctionne, le nouveau paramètre est renvoyé.

     Si 'locale' est omis ou vaut ‘None’, le paramètre actuel de
     'category' est renvoyé.

     *note setlocale(): 2da. n'est pas 'thread-safe' sur la plupart des
     systèmes.  Les applications commencent généralement par un appel de

          import locale
          locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')

     Cela définit les paramètres régionaux dans toutes les catégories
     sur ceux par défaut de l'utilisateur (habituellement spécifiés dans
     la variable d'environnement ‘LANG’).  Si les paramètres régionaux
     ne sont pas modifiés par la suite, l'utilisation de fils
     d'exécution ne devrait pas poser de problèmes.

 -- Fonction: locale.localeconv ()

     Renvoie la base de données des conventions locales sous forme de
     dictionnaire.  Ce dictionnaire a les chaînes de caractères
     suivantes comme clés :

     Catégorie                  Clé                                       Signification
                                                                          
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3ca4.    ‘'decimal_point'’                         Caractère du séparateur décimal
                                                                          (entre la partie entière et la
                                                                          partie décimale).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'grouping'’                              Séquence de nombres spécifiant les
                                                                          positions relatives attendues pour
                                                                          ‘'thousands_sep'’ (séparateur de
                                                                          milliers).  Si la séquence se
                                                                          termine par *note CHAR_MAX: 3ca5,
                                                                          aucun autre regroupement n'est
                                                                          effectué.  Si la séquence se
                                                                          termine par un ‘0’, la dernière
                                                                          taille du groupe est utilisée à
                                                                          plusieurs reprises.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'thousands_sep'’                         Caractère utilisé entre les
                                                                          groupes (séparateur de milliers).
                                                                          
                                                                          
     *note LC_MONETARY: 3ca6.   ‘'int_curr_symbol'’                       Symbole monétaire international.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'currency_symbol'’                       Symbole monétaire local.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'’           Si le symbole monétaire précède ou
                                                                          non la valeur (pour les valeurs
                                                                          positives et négatives,
                                                                          respectivement).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'’         Si le symbole monétaire est séparé
                                                                          de la valeur par une espace ou non
                                                                          (pour les valeurs positives et
                                                                          négatives, respectivement).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_decimal_point'’                     Séparateur décimal (entre la
                                                                          partie entière et la partie
                                                                          décimale) utilisé pour les valeurs
                                                                          monétaires.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'frac_digits'’                           Nombre de décimales utilisées dans
                                                                          le format local des valeurs
                                                                          monétaires.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'int_frac_digits'’                       Nombre de décimales utilisées dans
                                                                          le format international des
                                                                          valeurs monétaires.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_thousands_sep'’                     Séparateur de groupe utilisé pour
                                                                          les valeurs monétaires.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_grouping'’                          Équivalent de ‘'grouping'’,
                                                                          utilisé pour les valeurs
                                                                          monétaires.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'positive_sign'’                         Symbole utilisé pour indiquer
                                                                          qu'une valeur monétaire est
                                                                          positive.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'negative_sign'’                         Symbole utilisé pour indiquer
                                                                          qu'une valeur monétaire est
                                                                          négative.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'’               Position du signe (pour les
                                                                          valeurs positives et négatives,
                                                                          respectivement), voir ci-dessous.
                                                                          

     Toutes les valeurs numériques peuvent être définies à *note
     CHAR_MAX: 3ca5. pour indiquer qu'il n'y a pas de valeur spécifiée
     pour ces paramètres régionaux.

     Les valeurs possibles pour ‘'p_sign_posn'’ et ‘'n_sign_posn'’ sont
     données ci-dessous.

     Valeur             Explication
                        
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     ‘0’                Le symbole monétaire et la valeur sont
                        entourés de parenthèses.
                        
                        
     ‘1’                Le signe doit précéder la valeur et le
                        symbole monétaire.
                        
                        
     ‘2’                Le signe doit suivre la valeur et le
                        symbole monétaire.
                        
                        
     ‘3’                Le signe doit précéder immédiatement la
                        valeur.
                        
                        
     ‘4’                Le signe doit suivre immédiatement la
                        valeur.
                        
                        
     ‘CHAR_MAX’         Rien n'est spécifié dans ces paramètres
                        régionaux.
                        

     The function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale or the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if locales are
     different and numeric or monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now temporarily sets the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.

 -- Fonction: locale.nl_langinfo (option)

     Renvoie quelques informations spécifiques aux paramètres régionaux
     sous forme de chaîne.  Cette fonction n'est pas disponible sur tous
     les systèmes et l'ensemble des options possibles peut également
     varier d'une plateforme à l'autre.  Les valeurs possibles pour les
     arguments sont des nombres, pour lesquels des constantes
     symboliques sont disponibles dans le module 'locale'.

     La fonction *note nl_langinfo(): 3ca7. accepte l'une des clés
     suivantes.  La plupart des descriptions sont extraites des
     descriptions correspondantes dans la bibliothèque GNU C.

      -- Données: locale.CODESET

          Récupère une chaîne avec le nom de l'encodage des caractères
          utilisé par le paramètre régional sélectionné.

      -- Données: locale.D_T_FMT

          Récupère une chaîne qui peut être utilisée comme une chaîne de
          format par *note time.strftime(): 11c8. afin de représenter la
          date et l'heure pour un paramètre régional spécifique.

      -- Données: locale.D_FMT

          Récupère une chaîne qui peut être utilisée comme une chaîne de
          format par *note time.strftime(): 11c8. afin de représenter
          une date pour un paramètre régional spécifique.

      -- Données: locale.T_FMT

          Récupère une chaîne qui peut être utilisée comme une chaîne de
          format par *note time.strftime(): 11c8. afin de représenter
          une heure pour un paramètre régional spécifique.

      -- Données: locale.T_FMT_AMPM

          Récupère une chaîne de format pour *note time.strftime():
          11c8. afin de représenter l'heure au format am / pm.

      -- Données: locale.DAY_1
      -- Données: locale.DAY_2
      -- Données: locale.DAY_3
      -- Données: locale.DAY_4
      -- Données: locale.DAY_5
      -- Données: locale.DAY_6
      -- Données: locale.DAY_7

          Récupère le nom du n-ième jour de la semaine.

               Note: Cela suit la convention américaine qui définit
               *note DAY_1: 3cad. comme étant dimanche, et non la
               convention internationale (ISO 8601) où lundi est le
               premier jour de la semaine.

      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_1
      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_2
      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_3
      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_4
      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_5
      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_6
      -- Données: locale.ABDAY_7

          Récupère l'abréviation du n-ième jour de la semaine.

      -- Données: locale.MON_1
      -- Données: locale.MON_2
      -- Données: locale.MON_3
      -- Données: locale.MON_4
      -- Données: locale.MON_5
      -- Données: locale.MON_6
      -- Données: locale.MON_7
      -- Données: locale.MON_8
      -- Données: locale.MON_9
      -- Données: locale.MON_10
      -- Données: locale.MON_11
      -- Données: locale.MON_12

          Récupère le nom du n-ième mois.

      -- Données: locale.ABMON_1
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_2
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_3
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_4
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_5
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_6
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_7
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_8
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_9
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_10
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_11
      -- Données: locale.ABMON_12

          Récupère l'abréviation du n-ième mois.

      -- Données: locale.RADIXCHAR

          Récupère le caractère de séparation 'radix' (point décimal,
          virgule décimale, etc.).

      -- Données: locale.THOUSEP

          Récupère le caractère de séparation des milliers (groupes de 3
          chiffres).

      -- Données: locale.YESEXPR

          Récupère une expression régulière qui peut être utilisée par
          la fonction 'regex' pour reconnaître une réponse positive à
          une question fermée (oui / non).

      -- Données: locale.NOEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the ‘regex(3)’
          function to recognize a negative response to a yes/no
          question.

               Note: The regular expressions for *note YESEXPR: 3cd5.
               and *note NOEXPR: 3cd6. use syntax suitable for the
               ‘regex’ function from the C library, which might differ
               from the syntax used in *note re: b8.

      -- Données: locale.CRNCYSTR

          Récupère le symbole monétaire, précédé de « - » si le symbole
          doit apparaître avant la valeur, « + » s'il doit apparaître
          après la valeur, ou « . » s'il doit remplacer le caractère de
          séparation 'radix'.

      -- Données: locale.ERA

          Get a string which describes how years are counted and
          displayed for each era in a locale.

          La plupart des paramètres régionaux ne définissent pas cette
          valeur.  Un exemple de région qui définit bien cette valeur
          est le japonais.  Au Japon, la représentation traditionnelle
          des dates comprend le nom de l'ère correspondant au règne de
          l'empereur de l'époque.

          Normally it should not be necessary to use this value
          directly.  Specifying the ‘E’ modifier in their format strings
          causes the *note time.strftime(): 11c8. function to use this
          information.  The format of the returned string is specified
          in 'The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 8', paragraph
          7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language Access(2).

      -- Données: locale.ERA_D_T_FMT

          Récupère la chaîne de format pour *note time.strftime(): 11c8.
          afin de représenter la date et l'heure pour un paramètre
          régional spécifique basée sur une ère.

      -- Données: locale.ERA_D_FMT

          Récupère la chaîne de format pour *note time.strftime(): 11c8.
          afin de représenter une date pour un paramètre régional
          spécifique basée sur une ère.

      -- Données: locale.ERA_T_FMT

          Récupère la chaîne de format pour *note time.strftime(): 11c8.
          afin de représenter une heure pour un paramètre régional
          spécifique basée sur une ère.

      -- Données: locale.ALT_DIGITS

          Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated
          symbols used to represent the values 0 to 99 in a
          locale-specific way.  In most locales this is an empty string.

 -- Fonction: locale.getdefaultlocale ([envvars])

     Tente de déterminer les paramètres régionaux par défaut, puis les
     renvoie sous la forme d'un n-uplet ‘(code de la langue, encodage)’.

     D'après POSIX, un programme qui n'a pas appelé ‘setlocale(LC_ALL,
     '')’ fonctionne en utilisant le paramètre régional portable ‘'C'’.
     Appeler ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ lui permet d'utiliser les
     paramètres régionaux par défaut définis par la variable ‘LANG’.
     Comme nous ne voulons pas interférer avec les paramètres régionaux
     actuels, nous émulons donc le comportement décrit ci-dessus.

     Afin de maintenir la compatibilité avec d'autres plateformes, non
     seulement la variable ‘LANG’ est testée, mais c'est aussi le cas
     pour toute une liste de variables passés en paramètre via
     'envvars'.  La première variable à être définie sera utilisée.
     'envvars' utilise par défaut le chemin de recherche utilisé dans
     GNU 'gettext' ; il doit toujours contenir le nom de variable
     ‘'LANG'’.  Le chemin de recherche de GNU 'gettext' contient
     ‘'LC_ALL'’, ‘'LC_CTYPE'’, ‘'LANG'’ et ‘'LANGUAGE'’, dans cet ordre.

     À l'exception du code ‘'C'’, le code d'une langue correspond à la
     RFC 1766(3).  Le 'code de la langue' et l''encodage' peuvent valoir
     ‘None’ si leur valeur ne peut être déterminée.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- Fonction: locale.getlocale (category=LC_CTYPE)

     Returns the current setting for the given locale category as
     sequence containing 'language code', 'encoding'.  'category' may be
     one of the ‘LC_*’ values except *note LC_ALL: 3cdd.  It defaults to
     *note LC_CTYPE: 3cde.

     À l'exception du code ‘'C'’, le code d'une langue correspond à la
     RFC 1766(4).  Le 'code de la langue' et l''encodage' peuvent valoir
     ‘None’ si leur valeur ne peut être déterminée.

 -- Fonction: locale.getpreferredencoding (do_setlocale=True)

     Return the *note locale encoding: 23f. used for text data,
     according to user preferences.  User preferences are expressed
     differently on different systems, and might not be available
     programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a
     guess.

     Sur certains systèmes, il est nécessaire d'invoquer *note
     setlocale(): 2da. pour obtenir les préférences de l'utilisateur,
     cette fonction n'est donc pas utilisable sans protection dans les
     programmes à fils d'exécutions multiples.  Si l'appel de
     ‘setlocale’ n'est pas nécessaire ou souhaité, 'do_setlocale' doit
     être réglé à ‘False’.

     On Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. is enabled,
     always return ‘'utf-8'’, the *note locale encoding: 23f. and the
     'do_setlocale' argument are ignored.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3cdf. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     528.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now always returns
     ‘"utf-8"’ on Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. is
     enabled.

 -- Fonction: locale.getencoding ()

     Get the current *note locale encoding: 23f.:

        * On Android and VxWorks, return ‘"utf-8"’.

        * On Unix, return the encoding of the current *note LC_CTYPE:
          3cde. locale.  Return ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
          returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE
          locale is not supported.

        * On Windows, return the ANSI code page.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3cdf. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     528.

     This function is similar to *note getpreferredencoding(False): 527.
     except this function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: locale.normalize (localename)

     Renvoie un code normalisé pour le nom du paramètre régional fourni.
     Ce code renvoyé est structuré de façon à être utilisé avec *note
     setlocale(): 2da.  Si la normalisation échoue, le nom d'origine est
     renvoyé inchangé.

     Si l'encodage donné n'est pas connu, la fonction utilise l'encodage
     par défaut pour le code du paramètre régional, tout comme *note
     setlocale(): 2da.

 -- Fonction: locale.strcoll (string1, string2)

     Compare deux chaînes en se basant sur le paramètre *note
     LC_COLLATE: 3ce2. actuel.  Comme toute autre fonction de
     comparaison, renvoie une valeur négative, positive, ou ‘0’, selon
     si 'string1' est lexicographiquement inférieure, supérieure, ou
     égale à 'string2'.

 -- Fonction: locale.strxfrm (string)

     Transforme une chaîne de caractères en une chaîne qui peut être
     utilisée dans les comparaisons sensibles aux paramètres régionaux.
     Par exemple, ‘strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)’ est équivalent à
     ‘strcoll(s1, s2) < 0’.  Cette fonction peut être utilisée lorsque
     la même chaîne est comparée de façon répétitive, par exemple lors
     de l'assemblage d'une séquence de chaînes.

 -- Fonction: locale.format_string (format, val, grouping=False,
          monetary=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_NUMERIC:
     3ca4. setting.  The format follows the conventions of the ‘%’
     operator.  For floating-point values, the decimal point is modified
     if appropriate.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’, also takes the grouping
     into account.

     Si 'monetary' est vrai, la conversion utilise un séparateur des
     milliers monétaire et des chaînes de regroupement.

     Traite les marqueurs de structure en ‘format % val’, mais en
     prenant en compte les paramètres régionaux actuels.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The 'monetary' keyword parameter was
     added.

 -- Fonction: locale.currency (val, symbol=True, grouping=False,
          international=False)

     Structure un nombre 'val' en fonction du paramètre *note
     LC_MONETARY: 3ca6. actuel.

     The returned string includes the currency symbol if 'symbol' is
     true, which is the default.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’ (which is not
     the default), grouping is done with the value.  If 'international'
     is ‘True’ (which is not the default), the international currency
     symbol is used.

          Note: This function will not work with the 'C' locale, so you
          have to set a locale via *note setlocale(): 2da. first.

 -- Fonction: locale.str (float)

     Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the
     built-in function ‘str(float)’, but takes the decimal point into
     account.

 -- Fonction: locale.delocalize (string)

     Convertit une chaîne de caractères en une chaîne de nombres
     normalisés, en suivant les réglages *note LC_NUMERIC: 3ca4.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: locale.localize (string, grouping=False, monetary=False)

     Converts a normalized number string into a formatted string
     following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 3ca4. settings.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: locale.atof (string, func=float)

     Converts a string to a number, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     3ca4. settings, by calling 'func' on the result of calling *note
     delocalize(): e14. on 'string'.

 -- Fonction: locale.atoi (string)

     Convertit une chaîne de caractères en un entier, en suivant les
     réglages *note LC_NUMERIC: 3ca4.

 -- Données: locale.LC_CTYPE

     Locale category for the character type functions.  Most
     importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e.  how
     bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints.  See PEP 538(5) and
     PEP 540(6) for how this variable might be automatically coerced to
     ‘C.UTF-8’ to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers
     or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections.

     Python doesn't internally use locale-dependent character
     transformation functions from ‘ctype.h’.  Instead, an internal
     ‘pyctype.h’ provides locale-independent equivalents like
     ‘Py_TOLOWER’.

 -- Données: locale.LC_COLLATE

     Catégorie de paramètre régional pour les tris de chaînes de
     caractères.  Les fonctions *note strcoll(): 3ce1. et *note
     strxfrm(): 3ce3. du module *note locale: 85. sont concernées.

 -- Données: locale.LC_TIME

     Catégorie de paramètre régional pour la mise en forme de la date et
     de l'heure.  La fonction *note time.strftime(): 11c8. suit ces
     conventions.

 -- Données: locale.LC_MONETARY

     Catégorie de paramètre régional pour la mise en forme des valeurs
     monétaires.  Les options disponibles sont accessibles à partir de
     la fonction *note localeconv(): bee.

 -- Données: locale.LC_MESSAGES

     Catégorie de paramètre régional pour l'affichage de messages.
     Actuellement, Python ne gère pas les messages spécifiques aux
     applications qui sont sensibles aux paramètres régionaux.  Les
     messages affichés par le système d'exploitation, comme ceux
     renvoyés par *note os.strerror(): 2ae2. peuvent être affectés par
     cette catégorie.

     This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming
     to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows.

 -- Données: locale.LC_NUMERIC

     Locale category for formatting numbers.  The functions *note
     format_string(): 50b, *note atoi(): 3ce8, *note atof(): 3ce7. and
     *note str(): 3ce5. of the *note locale: 85. module are affected by
     that category.  All other numeric formatting operations are not
     affected.

 -- Données: locale.LC_ALL

     Combinaison de tous les paramètres régionaux.  Si cette option est
     utilisée lors du changement de paramètres régionaux, la définition
     de ces paramètres pour toutes les catégories est tentée.  Si cela
     échoue pour n'importe quelle catégorie, aucune d'entre elles n'est
     modifiée.  Lorsque les paramètres régionaux sont récupérés à l'aide
     de cette option, une chaîne de caractères indiquant le réglage pour
     toutes les catégories est renvoyée.  Cette chaîne peut alors être
     utilisée plus tard pour restaurer les paramètres d'origine.

 -- Données: locale.CHAR_MAX

     Ceci est une constante symbolique utilisée pour différentes valeurs
     renvoyées par *note localeconv(): bee.

Exemple :

     >>> import locale
     >>> loc = locale.getlocale()  # get current locale
     # use German locale; name might vary with platform
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE')
     >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # compare a string containing an umlaut
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # use user's preferred locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # use default (C) locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # restore saved locale

* Menu:

* Contexte, détails, conseils, astuces et mises en garde: Contexte détails conseils astuces et mises en garde.
* Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python::
* Accéder aux catalogues de messages::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/locale.py

   (2) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1766.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1766.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Contexte détails conseils astuces et mises en garde,  Next: Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python,  Up: locale --- Internationalization services

5.24.2.1 Contexte, détails, conseils, astuces et mises en garde
...............................................................

The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be
relatively expensive to change.  On top of that, some implementations
are broken in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core
dumps.  This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly.

Initialement, lorsqu'un programme est démarré, les paramètres régionaux
‘C’ sont utilisés, peu importe les réglages de l'utilisateur.  Il y a
toutefois une exception : la catégorie *note LC_CTYPE: 3cde. est
modifiée au démarrage pour définir l'encodage des paramètres régionaux
actuels comme celui défini par l'utilisateur.  Le programme doit
explicitement dire qu'il veut utiliser les réglages de l'utilisateur
pour les autres catégories, en appelant ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’.

C'est généralement une mauvaise idée d'appeler *note setlocale(): 2da.
dans une routine de bibliothèque car cela a pour effet secondaire
d'affecter le programme entier.  Sauvegarder et restaurer les paramètres
est presque aussi mauvais : c'est coûteux et cela affecte d'autres fils
d'exécutions qui s'exécutent avant que les paramètres n'aient été
restaurés.

Si, lors du développement d'un module à usage général, vous avez besoin
d'une version indépendante des paramètres régionaux pour une opération y
étant sensible (comme c'est le cas pour certains formats utilisés avec
*note time.strftime(): 11c8.), vous devez trouver un moyen de le faire
sans utiliser la routine de la bibliothèque standard.  Le mieux est
encore de se convaincre que l'usage des paramètres régionaux est une
bonne chose.  Ce n'est qu'en dernier recours que vous devez documenter
que votre module n'est pas compatible avec les réglages du paramètre
régional ‘C’.

The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to
use the special functions defined by this module: *note atof(): 3ce7,
*note atoi(): 3ce8, *note format_string(): 50b, *note str(): 3ce5.

Il n'y a aucun moyen d'effectuer des conversions de casse et des
classifications de caractères en fonction des paramètres régionaux.
Pour les chaînes de caractères (Unicode), celles-ci se font uniquement
en fonction de la valeur du caractère, tandis que pour les chaînes
d'octets, les conversions et les classifications se font en fonction de
la valeur ASCII de l'octet, et les octets dont le bit de poids fort est
à 1 (c'est-à-dire les octets non ASCII) ne sont jamais convertis ou
considérés comme faisant partie d'une classe de caractères comme une
lettre ou une espace.


File: python.info,  Node: Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python,  Next: Accéder aux catalogues de messages,  Prev: Contexte détails conseils astuces et mises en garde,  Up: locale --- Internationalization services

5.24.2.2 Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python
.............................................................................

Les modules d'extensions ne devraient jamais appeler *note setlocale():
2da, sauf pour connaître le paramètre régional actuel.  Mais comme la
valeur renvoyée ne peut être utilisée que pour le restaurer, ce n'est
pas très utile (sauf peut-être pour savoir si le paramètre régional est
défini à ‘C’ ou non).

When Python code uses the *note locale: 85. module to change the locale,
this also affects the embedding application.  If the embedding
application doesn't want this to happen, it should remove the ‘_locale’
extension module (which does all the work) from the table of built-in
modules in the ‘config.c’ file, and make sure that the ‘_locale’ module
is not accessible as a shared library.


File: python.info,  Node: Accéder aux catalogues de messages,  Prev: Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python,  Up: locale --- Internationalization services

5.24.2.3 Accéder aux catalogues de messages
...........................................

 -- Fonction: locale.gettext (msg)

 -- Fonction: locale.dgettext (domain, msg)

 -- Fonction: locale.dcgettext (domain, msg, category)

 -- Fonction: locale.textdomain (domain)

 -- Fonction: locale.bindtextdomain (domain, dir)

 -- Fonction: locale.bind_textdomain_codeset (domain, codeset)

The locale module exposes the C library's gettext interface on systems
that provide this interface.  It consists of the functions *note
gettext(): 62, *note dgettext(): 3cf1, *note dcgettext(): 3cf2, *note
textdomain(): 3cf3, *note bindtextdomain(): 3cf4, and *note
bind_textdomain_codeset(): 3cf5.  These are similar to the same
functions in the *note gettext: 62. module, but use the C library's
binary format for message catalogs, and the C library's search
algorithms for locating message catalogs.

Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these
functions, and should use *note gettext: 62. instead.  A known exception
to this rule are applications that link with additional C libraries
which internally invoke C functions ‘gettext’ or ‘dcgettext’.  For these
applications, it may be necessary to bind the text domain, so that the
libraries can properly locate their message catalogs.


File: python.info,  Node: Cadriciels d'applications,  Next: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk,  Prev: Internationalisation,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.25 Cadriciels d'applications
==============================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre sont des cadriciels ('frameworks',
en anglais) qui encadreront la structure de vos programmes.
Actuellement tous les modules décrits ici sont destinés à écrire des
interfaces en ligne de commande.

La liste complète des modules décrits dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* turtle — Tortue graphique::
* cmd: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters. Support for line-oriented command interpreters
* shlex: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis. Simple lexical analysis


File: python.info,  Node: turtle — Tortue graphique,  Next: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Up: Cadriciels d'applications

5.25.1 ‘turtle’ — Tortue graphique
----------------------------------

'Code Source :' Lib/turtle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<10>.
* Get started::
* Tutoriel: Tutoriel<4>.
* How to...: How to.
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes::
* Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes::
* Classes publiques::
* Explication::
* Aide et configuration::
* turtledemo — Scripts de démonstration::
* Modifications depuis Python 2.6: Modifications depuis Python 2 6.
* Modifications depuis Python 3.0: Modifications depuis Python 3 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/turtle.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<10>,  Next: Get started,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.1 Introduction
.....................

Turtle graphics is an implementation of the popular geometric drawing
tools introduced in Logo(1), developed by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert
and Cynthia Solomon in 1967.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)


File: python.info,  Node: Get started,  Next: Tutoriel<4>,  Prev: Introduction<10>,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.2 Get started
....................

Imaginez un robot sous forme de tortue partant au centre (0, 0) d'un
plan cartésien x-y.  Après un ‘import turtle’, exécutez la commande
‘turtle.forward(15)’ et la tortue se déplace (sur l'écran) de 15 pixels
en face d'elle, en dessinant une ligne.

Turtle star
...........

La tortue permet de dessiner des formes complexes en utilisant un
programme qui répète des actions élémentaires.

[image src="python-figures/turtle-star.png"]


In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical
"turtle" (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on
the floor.

It's an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter
programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides
instant, visible feedback.  It also provides convenient access to
graphical output in general.

Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used
by teachers in the classroom.  For the programmer who needs to produce
some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of
introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel<4>,  Next: How to,  Prev: Get started,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.3 Tutoriel
.................

New users should start here.  In this tutorial we'll explore some of the
basics of turtle drawing.

* Menu:

* Starting a turtle environment::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: Starting a turtle environment,  Next: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutoriel<4>

5.25.1.4 Starting a turtle environment
......................................

In a Python shell, import all the objects of the ‘turtle’ module:

     from turtle import *

If you run into a ‘No module named '_tkinter'’ error, you'll have to
install the *note Tk interface package: ef. on your system.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic drawing,  Next: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Starting a turtle environment,  Up: Tutoriel<4>

5.25.1.5 Basic drawing
......................

Send the turtle forward 100 steps:

     forward(100)

You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line
drawn by the turtle, heading East.  Change the direction of the turtle,
so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise):

     left(120)

Let's continue by drawing a triangle:

     forward(100)
     left(120)
     forward(100)

Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different
directions as you steer it.

Experiment with those commands, and also with ‘backward()’ and
‘right()’.

* Menu:

* Réglage des stylos::
* The turtle's position::


File: python.info,  Node: Réglage des stylos,  Next: The turtle's position,  Up: Basic drawing

5.25.1.6 Réglage des stylos
...........................

Try changing the color - for example, ‘color('blue')’ - and width of the
line - for example, ‘width(3)’ - and then drawing again.

You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the
pen: ‘up()’ before moving.  To start drawing again, use ‘down()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The turtle's position,  Prev: Réglage des stylos,  Up: Basic drawing

5.25.1.7 The turtle's position
..............................

Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has
disappeared off-screen):

     home()

The home position is at the center of the turtle's screen.  If you ever
need to know them, get the turtle's x-y coordinates with:

     pos()

Home is at ‘(0, 0)’.

And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can
start anew:

     clearscreen()


File: python.info,  Node: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutoriel<4>

5.25.1.8 Making algorithmic patterns
....................................

Using loops, it's possible to build up geometric patterns:

     for steps in range(100):
         for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'):
             color(c)
             forward(steps)
             right(30)

- which of course, are limited only by the imagination!

Let's draw the star shape at the top of this page.  We want red lines,
filled in with yellow:

     color('red')
     fillcolor('yellow')

Just as ‘up()’ and ‘down()’ determine whether lines will be drawn,
filling can be turned on and off:

     begin_fill()

Next we'll create a loop:

     while True:
         forward(200)
         left(170)
         if abs(pos()) < 1:
             break

‘abs(pos()) < 1’ is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
home position.

Finally, complete the filling:

     end_fill()

(Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the
‘end_fill()’ command.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to,  Next: Turtle graphics reference,  Prev: Tutoriel<4>,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.9 How to...
..................

This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches.

* Menu:

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::


File: python.info,  Node: Get started as quickly as possible,  Next: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to

5.25.1.10 Get started as quickly as possible
............................................

One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback
that's available from simple commands - it's an excellent way to
introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not
just children, of course).

The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic
functionality as functions, available with ‘from turtle import *’.  The
*note turtle graphics tutorial: 3cfd. covers this approach.

It's worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more
terse equivalents, such as ‘fd()’ for *note forward(): 3d07.  These are
especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a
skill.

     You'll need to have the *note Tk interface package: ef. installed
     on your system for turtle graphics to work.  Be warned that this is
     not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you're
     planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.


File: python.info,  Node: Use the turtle module namespace,  Next: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Prev: Get started as quickly as possible,  Up: How to

5.25.1.11 Use the ‘turtle’ module namespace
...........................................

Using ‘from turtle import *’ is convenient - but be warned that it
imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you're doing
anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this
becomes even more an issue if you're using turtle graphics in a script
where other modules might be imported).

The solution is to use ‘import turtle’ - ‘fd()’ becomes ‘turtle.fd()’,
‘width()’ becomes ‘turtle.width()’ and so on.  (If typing "turtle" over
and over again becomes tedious, use for example ‘import turtle as t’
instead.)


File: python.info,  Node: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Next: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to

5.25.1.12 Use turtle graphics in a script
.........................................

It's recommended to use the ‘turtle’ module namespace as described
immediately above, for example:

     import turtle as t
     from random import random

     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends,
Python will also close the turtle's window.  Add:

     t.mainloop()

to the end of the script.  The script will now wait to be dismissed and
will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle
graphics window.


File: python.info,  Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Up: How to

5.25.1.13 Use object-oriented turtle graphics
.............................................

Voir aussi
..........

*note Explanation of the object-oriented interface: 3d0c.

Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things
out as quickly as possible, it's more usual and much more powerful to
use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics.  For example, this
allows multiple turtles on screen at once.

In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects
(mostly of ‘Turtle’ objects).  You 'can' use the object-oriented
approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script.

The example above then becomes:

     from turtle import Turtle
     from random import random

     t = Turtle()
     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

     t.screen.mainloop()

Note the last line.  ‘t.screen’ is an instance of the *note Screen:
3d0d. that a Turtle instance exists on; it's created automatically along
with the turtle.

The turtle's screen can be customised, for example:

     t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo')
     t.screen.bgcolor("orange")


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle graphics reference,  Next: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes,  Prev: How to,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.14 Turtle graphics reference
...................................

     Note: La liste des paramètres des fonctions est donnée dans cette
     documentation.  Les méthodes ont, évidemment, le paramètre 'self'
     comme premier argument, mais ce dernier n'est pas indiqué ici.

* Menu:

* Les méthodes du module Turtle::
* Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen::


File: python.info,  Node: Les méthodes du module Turtle,  Next: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.25.1.15 Les méthodes du module 'Turtle'
.........................................

Les mouvements dans le module 'Turtle'

     Bouger et dessiner

               *note forward(): 3d07. | *note fd(): 3d10.
               *note backward(): 3d11. | *note bk(): 3d12. | *note back(): 3d13.
               *note right(): 3d14. | *note rt(): 3d15.
               *note left(): 3d16. | *note lt(): 3d17.
               *note goto(): 3d18. | *note setpos(): 3d19. | *note setposition(): 3d1a.
               *note teleport(): 16e2.
               *note setx(): 3d1b.
               *note sety(): 3d1c.
               *note setheading(): 3d1d. | *note seth(): 3d1e.
               *note home(): 3d1f.
               *note circle(): 3d20.
               *note dot(): 3d21.
               *note stamp(): 3d22.
               *note clearstamp(): 3d23.
               *note clearstamps(): 3d24.
               *note undo(): 3d25.
               *note speed(): 3d26.

     Connaître l'état de la tortue

               *note position(): 3d27. | *note pos(): 3d28.
               *note towards(): 3d29.
               *note xcor(): 3d2a.
               *note ycor(): 3d2b.
               *note heading(): 3d2c.
               *note distance(): 3d2d.

     Paramétrage et mesure

               *note degrees(): 3d2e.
               *note radians(): 3d2f.

Réglage des stylos

     État des stylos

               *note pendown(): 3d30. | *note pd(): 3d31. | *note down(): 3d32.
               *note penup(): 3d33. | *note pu(): 3d34. | *note up(): 3d35.
               *note pensize(): 3d36. | *note width(): 3d37.
               *note pen(): 3d38.
               *note isdown(): 3d39.

     Réglage des couleurs

               *note color(): 3d3a.
               *note pencolor(): 3d3b.
               *note fillcolor(): 3d3c.

     Remplissage

               *note filling(): 3d3d.
               *note begin_fill(): 3d3e.
               *note end_fill(): 3d3f.

     Plus des réglages pour le dessin

               *note reset(): 3d40.
               *note clear(): 3d41.
               *note write(): 3d42.

État de la tortue

     Visibilité

               *note showturtle(): 3d43. | *note st(): 3d44.
               *note hideturtle(): 3d45. | *note ht(): 3d46.
               *note isvisible(): 3d47.

     Apparence

               *note shape(): 3d48.
               *note resizemode(): 3d49.
               *note shapesize(): 3d4a. | *note turtlesize(): 3d4b.
               *note shearfactor(): 3d4c.
               *note tiltangle(): 711.
               *note tilt(): 3d4d.
               *note shapetransform(): 3d4e.
               *note get_shapepoly(): 3d4f.

Utilisation des événements

          *note onclick(): 3d50.
          *note onrelease(): 3d51.
          *note ondrag(): 3d52.

Méthodes spéciales de la tortue

          *note begin_poly(): 3d53.
          *note end_poly(): 3d54.
          *note get_poly(): 3d55.
          *note clone(): 3d56.
          *note getturtle(): 3d57. | *note getpen(): 3d58.
          *note getscreen(): 3d59.
          *note setundobuffer(): 3d5a.
          *note undobufferentries(): 3d5b.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen,  Prev: Les méthodes du module Turtle,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.25.1.16 Méthodes de 'TurtleScreen'/'Screen'
.............................................

Réglage de la fenêtre

          *note bgcolor(): 3d5d.
          *note bgpic(): 3d5e.
          *note clearscreen(): 3d5f.
          *note resetscreen(): 3d60.
          *note screensize(): 3d61.
          *note setworldcoordinates(): 3d62.

Réglage de l'animation

          *note delay(): 3d63.
          *note tracer(): 3d64.
          *note update(): 3d65.

Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran

          *note listen(): 3d66.
          *note onkey(): 3d67. | *note onkeyrelease(): 3d68.
          *note onkeypress(): 3d69.
          *note onclick(): 3d50. | *note onscreenclick(): 3d6a.
          *note ontimer(): 3d6b.
          *note mainloop(): 3d6c. | *note done(): 3d6d.

Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales

          *note mode(): 3d6e.
          *note colormode(): 3d6f.
          *note getcanvas(): 3d70.
          *note getshapes(): 3d71.
          *note register_shape(): 3d72. | *note addshape(): 3d73.
          *note turtles(): 3d74.
          *note window_height(): 3d75.
          *note window_width(): 3d76.

Méthodes de saisie

          *note textinput(): 187f.
          *note numinput(): 1880.

Méthodes spécifiques de 'Screen'

          *note bye(): 3d77.
          *note exitonclick(): 3d78.
          *note setup(): 3d79.
          *note title(): 3d7a.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes,  Next: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes,  Prev: Turtle graphics reference,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.17 Méthodes de 'RawTurtle'/'Turtle' et leurs fonctions correspondantes
.............................................................................

La plupart des exemples de cette section se réfèrent à une instance de
'Turtle' appelée ‘turtle’.

* Menu:

* Les mouvements dans le module Turtle::
* Connaître l'état de la tortue::
* Paramètres de mesure::
* Réglage des stylos: Réglage des stylos<2>.
* État de la tortue::
* Utilisation des événements::
* Méthodes spéciales de la tortue::
* Formes composées::


File: python.info,  Node: Les mouvements dans le module Turtle,  Next: Connaître l'état de la tortue,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.18 Les mouvements dans le module 'Turtle'
................................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.forward (distance)
 -- Fonction: turtle.fd (distance)


     Paramètres: ‘distance’ - un nombre (entier ou flottant)

     Avance la tortue de la 'distance' spécifiée, dans la direction où
     elle se dirige.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(25)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (25.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(-75)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-50.00,0.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.back (distance)
 -- Fonction: turtle.bk (distance)
 -- Fonction: turtle.backward (distance)


     Paramètres: ‘distance’ - un nombre

     Déplace la tortue de 'distance' vers l'arrière (dans le sens opposé
     à celui vers lequel elle pointe).  Ne change pas le cap de la
     tortue.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.backward(30)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-30.00,0.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.right (angle)
 -- Fonction: turtle.rt (angle)


     Paramètres: ‘angle’ - un nombre (entier ou flottant)

     Tourne la tortue à droite de 'angle' unités (les unités sont par
     défaut des degrés, mais peuvent être définies via les fonctions
     *note degrees(): 3d2e. et *note radians(): 3d2f.).  L'orientation
     de l'angle dépend du mode de la tortue, voir *note mode(): 3d6e.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.right(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          337.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.left (angle)
 -- Fonction: turtle.lt (angle)


     Paramètres: ‘angle’ - un nombre (entier ou flottant)

     Tourne la tortue à gauche d'une valeur de 'angle' unités (les
     unités sont par défaut des degrés, mais peuvent être définies via
     les fonctions *note degrees(): 3d2e. et *note radians(): 3d2f.).
     L'orientation de l'angle dépend du mode de la tortue, voir *note
     mode(): 3d6e.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.left(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.goto (x, y=None)
 -- Fonction: turtle.setpos (x, y=None)
 -- Fonction: turtle.setposition (x, y=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘x’ - un nombre ou une paire / un vecteur de nombres

        * ‘y’ - un nombre ou ‘None’

     Si 'y' est ‘None’, 'x' doit être une paire de coordonnées, ou bien
     une instance de *note Vec2D: 3d7d. (par exemple, tel que renvoyé
     par *note pos(): 3d28.).

     Déplace la tortue vers une position absolue.  Si le stylo est en
     bas, trace une ligne.  Ne change pas l'orientation de la tortue.

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,30.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,80.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(tp)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (0.00,0.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.teleport (x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘x’ - un nombre ou ‘None’

        * ‘y’ - un nombre ou ‘None’

        * ‘fill_gap’ - a boolean

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  Unlike goto(x, y), a line
     will not be drawn.  The turtle's orientation does not change.  If
     currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled
     after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting.
     This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary
     line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in
     goto(x, y).

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(60)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(y=10)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,10.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(20, 30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,30.00)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: turtle.setx (x)


     Paramètres: ‘x’ - un nombre (entier ou flottant)

     Définit la première coordonnée de la tortue à 'x', en laissant la
     deuxième coordonnée inchangée.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.setx(10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (10.00,240.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.sety (y)


     Paramètres: ‘y’ - un nombre (entier ou flottant)

     Définit la deuxième coordonnée de la tortue à 'y', en laissant la
     première coordonnée inchangée.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,40.00)
          >>> turtle.sety(-10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.setheading (to_angle)
 -- Fonction: turtle.seth (to_angle)


     Paramètres: ‘to_angle’ - un nombre (entier ou flottant)

     Règle l'orientation de la tortue à la valeur ‘to_angle’.  Voici
     quelques orientations courantes en degrés :

     mode standard           mode logo
                             
     -------------------------------------------------
                             
     0 – Est                 0 – Nord
                             
                             
     90 – Nord               90 – Est
                             
                             
     180 – Ouest             180 – Sud
                             
                             
     270 – Sud               270 – Ouest
                             

          >>> turtle.setheading(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.home ()

     Déplace la tortue à l'origine — coordonnées (0,0) — et l'oriente à
     son cap initial (qui dépend du mode, voir *note mode(): 3d6e.).

          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)
          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.circle (radius, extent=None, steps=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘radius’ - un nombre

        * ‘extent’ - un nombre (ou ‘None’)

        * ‘steps’ - un entier (ou ‘None’)

     Dessine un cercle de rayon 'radius'.  Le centre se trouve à une
     distance de 'radius' à gauche de la tortue ; l'angle 'extent'
     détermine quelle partie du cercle est dessinée.  Si 'extent' n'est
     pas fourni, dessine le cercle en entier.  Si 'extent' ne correspond
     pas à un cercle entier, la position actuelle du stylo est donnée
     par l'un des points d'extrémité de l'arc de cercle.  Si la valeur
     de 'radius' est positive, dessine l'arc de cercle dans le sens
     inverse des aiguilles d'une montre, sinon le dessine dans le sens
     des aiguilles d'une montre.  Enfin, la direction de la tortue peut
     être modifiée en réglant la valeur de 'extent'.

     Comme le cercle est approximé par un polygone régulier inscrit,
     'steps' détermine le nombre de pas à utiliser.  Si cette valeur
     n'est pas donnée, elle sera calculée automatiquement.  Elle peut
     être utilisée pour dessiner des polygones réguliers.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # draw a semicircle
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          180.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.dot (size=None, *color)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘size’ - un entier supérieur ou égal à 1 (si fourni)

        * ‘color’ - une chaîne qui désigne une couleur ou un triplet de
          couleur numérique

     Dessine un point circulaire de diamètre 'size', de la couleur
     'color'.  Si le paramètre 'size' n'est pas indiqué, utilise la
     valeur maximum de la taille du stylo plus 4 et de la taille du
     stylo multiplié par 2.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.dot()
          >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (100.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.stamp ()

     Tamponne une copie de la forme de la tortue sur le canevas à la
     position actuelle de la tortue.  Renvoie un 'stamp_id' pour ce
     tampon, qui peut être utilisé pour le supprimer en appelant
     ‘clearstamp(stamp_id)’.

          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- Fonction: turtle.clearstamp (stampid)


     Paramètres: ‘stampid’ - un entier, doit être la valeur renvoyée par
     l'appel précédent de *note stamp(): 3d22.

     Supprime le tampon dont le 'stampid' est donné.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (150.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.clearstamps (n=None)


     Paramètres: ‘n’ - un entier (ou ‘None’)

     Supprime tous, les 'n' premiers ou les 'n' derniers tampons de la
     tortue.  Si 'n' est ‘None’, supprime tous les tampons, si 'n' > 0,
     supprime les 'n' premiers tampons et si n < 0, supprime les 'n'
     derniers tampons.

          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          ...     turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps()

 -- Fonction: turtle.undo ()

     Annule la ou les dernières (si répété) actions de la tortue.  Le
     nombre d'annulations disponible est déterminé par la taille de la
     mémoire tampon d'annulations.

          >>> for i in range(4):
          ...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
          ...
          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     turtle.undo()

 -- Fonction: turtle.speed (speed=None)


     Paramètres: ‘speed’ - un nombre entier compris dans l’intervalle
     entre 0 et 10 inclus, ou une chaîne de vitesse (voir ci-dessous)

     Règle la vitesse de la tortue à une valeur entière comprise entre 0
     et 10 inclus.  Si aucun argument n'est donné, renvoie la vitesse
     actuelle.

     Si l'entrée est un nombre supérieur à 10 ou inférieur à 0,5, la
     vitesse est fixée à 0.  Les chaînes de vitesse sont mises en
     correspondance avec les valeurs de vitesse comme suit :

        * ‘"fastest"’ : 0

        * ‘"fast"’ : 10

        * ‘"normal"’ : 6

        * ‘"slow"’ : 3

        * ‘"slowest"’ : 1

     Les vitesses de 1 à 10 permettent une animation de plus en plus
     rapide du trait du dessin et de la rotation des tortues.

     Attention : 'speed' = 0 signifie qu'il n'y a 'aucune' animation.
     'forward'/'back' font sauter la tortue et, de même, 'left'/'right'
     font tourner la tortue instantanément.

          >>> turtle.speed()
          3
          >>> turtle.speed('normal')
          >>> turtle.speed()
          6
          >>> turtle.speed(9)
          >>> turtle.speed()
          9


File: python.info,  Node: Connaître l'état de la tortue,  Next: Paramètres de mesure,  Prev: Les mouvements dans le module Turtle,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.19 Connaître l'état de la tortue
.......................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.position ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.pos ()

     Renvoie la position actuelle de la tortue (x,y) (en tant qu'un
     vecteur ‘Vec2d’).

          >>> turtle.pos()
          (440.00,-0.00)

 -- Fonction: turtle.towards (x, y=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘x’ - un nombre, ou une paire / un vecteur de nombres, ou une
          instance de tortue

        * ‘y’ - un nombre si 'x' est un nombre, sinon ‘None’

     Renvoie l'angle entre l'orientation d'origine et la ligne formée de
     la position de la tortue à la position spécifiée par (x,y), le
     vecteur ou l'autre tortue.  L'orientation d'origine dépend du mode
     — "standard"/"world" ou "logo".

          >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
          >>> turtle.towards(0,0)
          225.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.xcor ()

     Renvoie la coordonnée x de la tortue.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(50)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (64.28,76.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
          64.27876

 -- Fonction: turtle.ycor ()

     Renvoie la coordonnée y de la tortue.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> print(turtle.pos())
          (50.00,86.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
          86.60254

 -- Fonction: turtle.heading ()

     Renvoie le cap de la tortue (la valeur dépend du mode de la tortue,
     voir *note mode(): 3d6e.).

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(67)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.distance (x, y=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘x’ - un nombre, ou une paire / un vecteur de nombres, ou une
          instance de tortue

        * ‘y’ - un nombre si 'x' est un nombre, sinon ‘None’

     Renvoie la distance entre la tortue et (x,y), le vecteur donné ou
     l'autre tortue donnée.  La valeur est exprimée en unités de pas de
     tortue.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.distance(30,40)
          50.0
          >>> turtle.distance((30,40))
          50.0
          >>> joe = Turtle()
          >>> joe.forward(77)
          >>> turtle.distance(joe)
          77.0


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres de mesure,  Next: Réglage des stylos<2>,  Prev: Connaître l'état de la tortue,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.20 Paramètres de mesure
..............................

 -- Fonction: turtle.degrees (fullcircle=360.0)


     Paramètres: ‘fullcircle’ - un nombre

     Définit les unités de mesure des angles, c.-à-d.  fixe le nombre de
     « degrés » pour un cercle complet.  La valeur par défaut est de 360
     degrés.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

          >>> # Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
          >>> # grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
          >>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.degrees(360)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.radians ()

     Règle l'unité de mesure des angles sur radians.  Équivalent à
     ‘degrees(2*math.pi)’.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.radians()
          >>> turtle.heading()
          1.5707963267948966


File: python.info,  Node: Réglage des stylos<2>,  Next: État de la tortue,  Prev: Paramètres de mesure,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.21 Réglage des stylos
............................

* Menu:

* État des stylos::
* Réglage des couleurs::
* Remplissage::
* Plus des réglages pour le dessin::


File: python.info,  Node: État des stylos,  Next: Réglage des couleurs,  Up: Réglage des stylos<2>

5.25.1.22 État des stylos
.........................

 -- Fonction: turtle.pendown ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.pd ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.down ()

     Baisse la pointe du stylo — dessine quand il se déplace.

 -- Fonction: turtle.penup ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.pu ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.up ()

     Lève la pointe du stylo — pas de dessin quand il se déplace.

 -- Fonction: turtle.pensize (width=None)
 -- Fonction: turtle.width (width=None)


     Paramètres: ‘width’ - un nombre positif

     Règle l'épaisseur de la ligne à 'width' ou la renvoie.  Si
     'resizemode' est défini à "auto" et que 'turtleshape' (la forme de
     la tortue) est un polygone, le polygone est dessiné avec cette
     épaisseur.  Si aucun argument n'est passé, la taille actuelle du
     stylo ('pensize') est renvoyée.

          >>> turtle.pensize()
          1
          >>> turtle.pensize(10)   # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn

 -- Fonction: turtle.pen (pen=None, **pendict)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘pen’ - un dictionnaire avec certaines ou toutes les clés
          énumérées ci-dessous

        * ‘pendict’ - un ou plusieurs arguments par mots-clés avec les
          clés suivantes comme mots-clés

     Renvoie ou définit les attributs du stylo dans un
     ‘"pen-dictionary"’ avec les paires clés / valeurs suivantes :

        * ‘"shown"’ : ‘True’ / ‘False’

        * ‘"pendown"’ : ‘True’ / ‘False’

        * ‘"pencolor"’ : chaîne de caractères ou triplet désignant la
          couleur du stylo

        * ‘"fillcolor"’ : chaîne de caractères ou triplet pour la
          couleur de remplissage

        * ‘"pensize"’ : nombre positif

        * ‘"speed"’ : nombre compris dans intervalle 0 et 10

        * ‘"resizemode"’ : ‘"auto"’, ‘"user"’ ou ‘"noresize"’

        * ‘"stretchfactor"’ : (nombre positif, nombre positif)

        * ‘"outline"’ : nombre positif

        * ‘"tilt"’ : nombre

     Ce dictionnaire peut être utilisé comme argument pour un appel
     ultérieur à *note pen(): 3d38. pour restaurer l'ancien état du
     stylo.  En outre, un ou plus de ces attributs peuvent est passés en
     tant qu'arguments nommés.  Cela peut être utilisé pour définir
     plusieurs attributs du stylo en une instruction.

          >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
          [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
           ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
           ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
           ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
          >>> penstate=turtle.pen()
          >>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
          >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]

 -- Fonction: turtle.isdown ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la pointe du stylo est en bas et ‘False’ si elle
     est en haut.

          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          False
          >>> turtle.pendown()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Réglage des couleurs,  Next: Remplissage,  Prev: État des stylos,  Up: Réglage des stylos<2>

5.25.1.23 Réglage des couleurs
..............................

 -- Fonction: turtle.pencolor (*args)

     Renvoie ou règle la couleur du stylo.

     Quatre formats d'entrée sont autorisés :

     ‘pencolor()’

          Renvoie la couleur du stylo actuelle en tant que chaine de
          spécification de couleurs ou en tant qu'un 'n'-uplet (voir
          l'exemple).  Peut être utilisée comme entrée à un autre appel
          de 'color'/'pencolor'/'fillcolor'.

     ‘pencolor(colorstring)’

          Définit la couleur du stylo à ‘colorstring’, qui est une
          chaîne de spécification de couleur 'Tk', telle que ‘"red"’,
          ‘"yellow"’, ou ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘pencolor((r, g, b))’

          Définit la couleur du stylo à la couleur RGB représentée par
          le 'n'-uplet de 'r', 'g' et 'b'.  Chacun des 'r', 'g' et 'b'
          doit être dans l'intervalle ‘0..colormode’, où 'colormode' est
          vaut 1.0 ou 255 (voir *note colormode(): 3d6f.).

     ‘pencolor(r, g, b)’

          Définit la couleur du stylo à la couleur RGB représentée par
          'r', 'g' et 'b'.  Chacun des 'r', 'g' et 'b' doit être dans
          l'intervalle ‘0..colormode’.

     Si la forme de la tortue est un polygone, le contour de ce polygone
     est dessiné avec la nouvelle couleur du stylo.

          >>> colormode()
          1.0
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'red'
          >>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'brown'
          >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
          >>> colormode(255)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
          >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)

 -- Fonction: turtle.fillcolor (*args)

     Renvoie ou règle la couleur de remplissage.

     Quatre formats d'entrée sont autorisés :

     ‘fillcolor()’

          Renvoie la couleur de remplissage actuelle ('fillcolor') en
          tant que chaine de spécification, possiblement en format
          'n'-uplet (voir l'exemple).  Peut être utilisée en entrée pour
          un autre appel de 'color'/'pencolor'/'fillcolor'.

     ‘fillcolor(colorstring)’

          Définit la couleur de remplissage ('fillcolor') à
          'colorstring', qui est une chaine de spécification de couleur
          'Tk' comme par exemple ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’ ou ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘fillcolor((r, g, b))’

          Définit la couleur du remplissage ('fillcolor') à la couleur
          RGB représentée par le 'n'-uplet 'r', 'g', 'b'.  Chacun des
          'r', 'g' et 'b' doit être dans l'intervalle ‘0..colormode’ où
          'colormode' vaut 1.0 ou 255 (voir *note colormode(): 3d6f.).

     ‘fillcolor(r, g, b)’

          Définit la couleur du remplissage('fillcolor') à la couleur
          RGB représentée par 'r', 'g' et 'b'.  Chacun des 'r', 'g' et
          'b' doit être dans l'intervalle ‘0..colormode’.

     Si la forme de la tortue est un polygone, l'intérieur de ce
     polygone sera dessiné avec la nouvelle couleur de remplissage.

          >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          'violet'
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # Integers, not floats
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (255.0, 255.0, 255.0)

 -- Fonction: turtle.color (*args)

     Renvoie ou règle la couleur du stylo et la couleur de remplissage.

     Plusieurs formats d'entrée sont autorisés.  Ils peuvent avoir de
     zéro jusqu'à trois arguments, employés comme suit :

     ‘color()’

          Renvoie la couleur du stylo actuelle et la couleur de
          remplissage actuelle sous forme de paire, soit de chaines de
          spécification de couleur, soit de 'n'-uplets comme renvoyés
          par *note pencolor(): 3d3b. et *note fillcolor(): 3d3c.

     ‘color(colorstring)’, ‘color((r,g,b))’, ‘color(r,g,b)’

          Les formats d'entrée sont comme dans *note pencolor(): 3d3b.
          Définit à la fois la couleur de remplissage et la couleur du
          stylo à la valeur passée.

     ‘color(colorstring1, colorstring2)’, ‘color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))’

          Équivalent à ‘pencolor(colorstring1)’ et
          ‘fillcolor(colorstring2)’ et de manière analogue si un autre
          format d'entrée est utilisé.

     Si la forme de la tortue est un polygone, le contour et l'intérieur
     de ce polygone sont dessinés avec les nouvelles couleurs.

          >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
          >>> turtle.color()
          ('red', 'green')
          >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
          >>> color()
          ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))

Voir aussi : la méthode *note colormode(): 3d6f. de 'Screen'.


File: python.info,  Node: Remplissage,  Next: Plus des réglages pour le dessin,  Prev: Réglage des couleurs,  Up: Réglage des stylos<2>

5.25.1.24 Remplissage
.....................

 -- Fonction: turtle.filling ()

     Renvoie l'état de remplissage (‘True’ signifie en train de faire un
     remplissage, ‘False’ sinon).

          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> if turtle.filling():
          ...    turtle.pensize(5)
          ... else:
          ...    turtle.pensize(3)

 -- Fonction: turtle.begin_fill ()

     À appeler juste avant de dessiner une forme à remplir.

 -- Fonction: turtle.end_fill ()

     Remplit la forme dessinée après le dernier appel à *note
     begin_fill(): 3d3e.

     Le remplissage correct des formes complexes (polygones qui se
     recoupent, plusieurs formes) dépend des primitives graphiques du
     système d’exploitation, du type et du nombre des chevauchements.
     Par exemple, l'étoile ('Turtle star' en anglais) ci-dessus peut
     être entièrement jaune ou comporter quelques régions blanches.

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> turtle.circle(80)
          >>> turtle.end_fill()


File: python.info,  Node: Plus des réglages pour le dessin,  Prev: Remplissage,  Up: Réglage des stylos<2>

5.25.1.25 Plus des réglages pour le dessin
..........................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.reset ()

     Supprime les dessins de la tortue de l'écran, recentre la tortue et
     assigne les variables aux valeurs par défaut.

          >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
          >>> turtle.left(100)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-22.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.clear ()

     Supprime les dessins de la tortue de l'écran.  Ne déplace pas la
     tortue.  L'état et la position de la tortue ainsi que les dessins
     des autres tortues ne sont pas affectés.

 -- Fonction: turtle.write (arg, move=False, align='left',
          font=('Arial', 8, 'normal'))


     Paramètres:

        * ‘arg’ - objet à écrire sur le 'TurtleScreen'

        * ‘move’ - ‘True’ / ‘False’

        * ‘align’ - l'une des chaînes de caractères suivantes :
          ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’ ou ‘"right"’

        * ‘font’ - triplet (nom de police, taille de police, type de
          police)

     Écrit du texte - La représentation de la chaîne 'arg' - à la
     position actuelle de la tortue conformément à 'align' ("'left'",
     "'center'" ou "'right'") et en police donnée.  Si 'move' est
     ‘True’, le stylo est déplacé vers le coin inférieur droit du texte.
     Par défaut, 'move' est ‘False’.

          >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
          >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)


File: python.info,  Node: État de la tortue,  Next: Utilisation des événements,  Prev: Réglage des stylos<2>,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.26 État de la tortue
...........................

* Menu:

* Visibilité::
* Apparence::


File: python.info,  Node: Visibilité,  Next: Apparence,  Up: État de la tortue

5.25.1.27 Visibilité
....................

 -- Fonction: turtle.hideturtle ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.ht ()

     Rend la tortue invisible.  C'est recommandé lorsque vous êtes en
     train de faire un dessin complexe, vous observerez alors une
     accélération notable.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()

 -- Fonction: turtle.showturtle ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.st ()

     Rend la tortue visible.

          >>> turtle.showturtle()

 -- Fonction: turtle.isvisible ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ si la tortue est visible, et ‘False’ si elle est
     cachée.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          False
          >>> turtle.showturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Apparence,  Prev: Visibilité,  Up: État de la tortue

5.25.1.28 Apparence
...................

 -- Fonction: turtle.shape (name=None)


     Paramètres: ‘name’ - une chaîne de caractères qui correspond à un
     nom de forme valide

     La tortue prend la forme 'name' donnée, ou, si 'name' n'est pas
     donné, renvoie le nom de la forme actuelle.  Le nom 'name' donné
     doit exister dans le dictionnaire de formes de 'TurtleScreen'.
     Initialement, il y a les polygones suivants : "'arrow'",
     "'turtle'", "'circle'", "'square'", "'triangle'", "'classic'".
     Pour en apprendre plus sur comment gérer les formes, voir la
     méthode de 'Screen' *note register_shape(): 3d72.

          >>> turtle.shape()
          'classic'
          >>> turtle.shape("turtle")
          >>> turtle.shape()
          'turtle'

 -- Fonction: turtle.resizemode (rmode=None)


     Paramètres: ‘rmode’ - l'une des chaînes suivantes : ‘"auto"’,
     ‘"user"’, ‘"noresize"’

     Définit 'resizemode' à l'une des valeurs suivantes : "'auto'",
     "'user'", "'noresize'".  Si "'rmode'" n'est pas donné, renvoie le
     'resizemode' actuel.  Les différents 'resizemode' ont les effets
     suivants :

        - '"auto"' : adapte l'apparence de la tortue en fonction de la
          largeur du stylo ('value of pensize' en anglais).

        - '"user"' : adapte l'apparence de la tortue en fonction des
          valeurs du paramètre d'étirement et de la largeur des
          contours, déterminés par *note shapesize(): 3d4a.

        - '"noresize"' : il n'y a pas de modification de l'apparence de
          la tortue.

     ‘resizemode("user")’ est appelé par *note shapesize(): 3d4a. quand
     utilisé sans arguments.

          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'noresize'
          >>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'auto'

 -- Fonction: turtle.shapesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)
 -- Fonction: turtle.turtlesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘stretch_wid’ - nombre positif

        * ‘stretch_len’ - nombre positif

        * ‘outline’ - nombre positif

     Return or set the pen's attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or
     outline.  Set resizemode to "user".  If and only if resizemode is
     set to "user", the turtle will be displayed stretched according to
     its stretchfactors: 'stretch_wid' is stretchfactor perpendicular to
     its orientation, 'stretch_len' is stretchfactor in direction of its
     orientation, 'outline' determines the width of the shape's outline.

          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (1.0, 1.0, 1)
          >>> turtle.resizemode("user")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 8)

 -- Fonction: turtle.shearfactor (shear=None)


     Paramètres: ‘shear’ - un nombre (facultatif)

     Définit ou renvoie le paramétrage de cisaillement actuel.  Déforme
     la tortue en fonction du paramètre 'shear' donné, qui est la
     tangente de l'angle de cisaillement.  Ne change pas le sens de
     déplacement de la tortue.  Si le paramètre 'shear' n'est pas
     indiqué, renvoie la valeur actuelle du cisaillement, c.-à-d.  la
     valeur de la tangente de l'angle de cisaillement, celui par rapport
     auquel les lignes parallèles à la direction de la tortue sont
     cisaillées.

          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor()
          0.5

 -- Fonction: turtle.tilt (angle)


     Paramètres: ‘angle’ - un nombre

     Tourne la forme de la tortue de 'angle' depuis son angle
     d'inclinaison actuel, mais 'ne change pas' le cap de la tortue
     (direction du mouvement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- Fonction: turtle.tiltangle (angle=None)


     Paramètres: ‘angle’ - un nombre (facultatif)

     Définit ou renvoie l'angle d'inclinaison actuel.  Si l'angle est
     donné, la forme de la tortue est tournée pour pointer dans
     direction spécifiée par l'angle, indépendamment de son angle
     d'inclinaison actuel.  'Ne change pas' le cap de la tortue
     (direction du mouvement).  Si l'angle n'est pas donné, renvoie
     l'angle d'inclinaison actuel (L'angle entre l'orientation de la
     forme de la tortue et le cap de la tortue (sa direction de
     mouvement)).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(45)
          >>> turtle.tiltangle()
          45.0

 -- Fonction: turtle.shapetransform (t11=None, t12=None, t21=None,
          t22=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘t11’ - un nombre (facultatif)

        * ‘t12’ - un nombre (facultatif)

        * ‘t21’ - un nombre (facultatif)

        * ‘t12’ - un nombre (facultatif)

     Définit ou renvoie la matrice de transformation actuelle de la
     forme de la tortue.

     Si aucun élément de la matrice n'est fourni, renvoie la matrice de
     transformation sous la forme d'un 'n'-uplet à 4 éléments.
     Autrement, définit les éléments donnés et transforme la forme de la
     tortue conformément à la matrice dont la première ligne est t11,
     t12 et la deuxième ligne t21, t22.  Le déterminant t11 * t22 - t12
     * t21 ne doit pas être nul, sinon une erreur est levée.  Cela
     modifie le facteur d'étirement, le facteur de cisaillement et
     l'angle d'inclinaison en fonction de la matrice donnée.

          >>> turtle = Turtle()
          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
          >>> turtle.shapetransform()
          (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)

 -- Fonction: turtle.get_shapepoly ()

     Renvoie la forme actuelle du polygone en 'n'-uplet de paires de
     coordonnées.  Vous pouvez l'utiliser afin de définir une nouvelle
     forme ou en tant que composant pour une forme plus complexe.

          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
          >>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
          ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation des événements,  Next: Méthodes spéciales de la tortue,  Prev: État de la tortue,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.29 Utilisation des événements
....................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec
          les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

        * ‘btn’ - numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de
          gauche)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ ou ‘False’ — si ‘True’, un nouveau lien est
          ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

     Crée un lien vers 'fun' pour les événements de clics de la souris
     sur cette tortue.  Si 'fun' est ‘None’, les liens existants sont
     supprimés.  Exemple pour la tortue anonyme, c'est-à-dire la manière
     procédurale :

          >>> def turn(x, y):
          ...     left(180)
          ...
          >>> onclick(turn)  # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
          >>> onclick(None)  # event-binding will be removed

 -- Fonction: turtle.onrelease (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec
          les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

        * ‘btn’ - numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de
          gauche)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ ou ‘False’ — si ‘True’, un nouveau lien est
          ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

     Crée un lien vers 'fun' pour les événements de relâchement d'un
     clic de la souris sur cette tortue.  Si 'fun' est ‘None’, les liens
     existants sont supprimés.

          >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
          ...     def glow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("red")
          ...     def unglow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("")
          ...
          >>> turtle = MyTurtle()
          >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
          >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.

 -- Fonction: turtle.ondrag (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec
          les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

        * ‘btn’ - numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de
          gauche)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ ou ‘False’ — si ‘True’, un nouveau lien est
          ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

     Crée un lien vers 'fun' pour les événements de mouvement de la
     souris sur cette tortue.  Si 'fun' est ‘None’, les liens existants
     sont supprimés.

     Remarque : toutes les séquences d'événements de mouvement de la
     souris sur une tortue sont précédées par un événement de clic de la
     souris sur cette tortue.

          >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)

     Par la suite, un cliquer-glisser sur la tortue la fait se déplacer
     au travers de l'écran, produisant ainsi des dessins « à la main »
     (si le stylo est posé).


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes spéciales de la tortue,  Next: Formes composées,  Prev: Utilisation des événements,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.30 Méthodes spéciales de la tortue
.........................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.begin_poly ()

     Démarre l'enregistrement des sommets d'un polygone.  La position
     actuelle de la tortue est le premier sommet du polygone.

 -- Fonction: turtle.end_poly ()

     Arrête l'enregistrement des sommets d'un polygone.  La position
     actuelle de la tortue sera le dernier sommet du polygone.  Il sera
     connecté au premier sommet.

 -- Fonction: turtle.get_poly ()

     Renvoie le dernier polygone sauvegardé.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.begin_poly()
          >>> turtle.fd(100)
          >>> turtle.left(20)
          >>> turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.end_poly()
          >>> p = turtle.get_poly()
          >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)

 -- Fonction: turtle.clone ()

     Crée et renvoie un clone de la tortue avec les mêmes position, cap
     et propriétés.

          >>> mick = Turtle()
          >>> joe = mick.clone()

 -- Fonction: turtle.getturtle ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.getpen ()

     Renvoie l'objet 'Turtle' lui-même.  Sa seule utilisation : comme
     fonction pour renvoyer la "tortue anonyme" :

          >>> pet = getturtle()
          >>> pet.fd(50)
          >>> pet
          <turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>

 -- Fonction: turtle.getscreen ()

     Renvoie l'objet *note TurtleScreen: 3d8a. sur lequel la tortue
     dessine.  Les méthodes de TurtleScreen peuvent être appelées pour
     cet objet.

          >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
          >>> ts
          <turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
          >>> ts.bgcolor("pink")

 -- Fonction: turtle.setundobuffer (size)


     Paramètres: ‘size’ - un entier ou ‘None’

     Définit ou désactive la mémoire d'annulation.  Si 'size' est un
     entier, une mémoire d'annulation de la taille donnée est installée.
     'size' donne le nombre maximum d'actions de la tortue qui peuvent
     être annulées par la fonction/méthode *note undo(): 3d25.  Si
     'size' est ‘None’, la mémoire d'annulation est désactivée.

          >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)

 -- Fonction: turtle.undobufferentries ()

     Renvoie le nombre d'entrées dans la mémoire d'annulation.

          >>> while undobufferentries():
          ...     undo()


File: python.info,  Node: Formes composées,  Prev: Méthodes spéciales de la tortue,  Up: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.31 Formes composées
..........................

Pour utiliser des formes de tortues combinées, qui sont composées de
polygones de différentes couleurs, vous devez utiliser la classe
utilitaire *note Shape: 3d8d. explicitement comme décrit ci-dessous :

  1. Créez un objet Shape vide de type "compound".

  2. Add as many components to this object as desired, using the *note
     addcomponent(): 3d8e. method.

     Par exemple :

          >>> s = Shape("compound")
          >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
          >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")

  3. Maintenant ajoutez la 'Shape' à la liste des formes de 'Screen' et
     utilisez la :

          >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
          >>> shape("myshape")

     Note: La classe *note Shape: 3d8d. est utilisée en interne par la
     méthode *note register_shape(): 3d72. de différentes façons.  Le
     développeur n'interagit avec la classe Shape 'que' lorsqu'il
     utilise des formes composées comme montré ci-dessus !


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes,  Next: Classes publiques,  Prev: Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.32 Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes
............................................................................

La plupart des exemples dans cette section font référence à une instance
de TurtleScreen appelée ‘screen’.

* Menu:

* Réglage de la fenêtre::
* Réglage de l'animation::
* Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran::
* Méthodes de saisie::
* Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales::
* Méthodes spécifiques à Screen, non héritées de TurtleScreen: Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen.


File: python.info,  Node: Réglage de la fenêtre,  Next: Réglage de l'animation,  Up: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.33 Réglage de la fenêtre
...............................

 -- Fonction: turtle.bgcolor (*args)


     Paramètres: ‘args’ - chaîne spécifiant une couleur ou trois nombres
     dans l'intervalle '0..colormode' ou 'n'-uplet de ces trois nombres

     Définit ou renvoie la couleur de fond de l'écran de la tortue
     ('TurtleScreen' en anglais).

          >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          'orange'
          >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          (128.0, 0.0, 128.0)

 -- Fonction: turtle.bgpic (picname=None)


     Paramètres: ‘picname’ - une chaîne de caractères, le nom d'un
     fichier 'gif', ou ‘"nopic"’, ou ‘None’

     Définit l'image de fond ou renvoie l'image de fond actuelle.  Si
     'picname' est un nom de fichier, cette image et mis en image de
     fond.  Si 'picname' est ‘"nopic"’, l'image de fond sera supprimée
     si présente.  SI 'picname' est ‘None’, le nom du fichier de l'image
     de fond actuelle est renvoyé.

          >>> screen.bgpic()
          'nopic'
          >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
          >>> screen.bgpic()
          "landscape.gif"

 -- Fonction: turtle.clear ()

          Note: Cette méthode TurtleScreen est disponible en tant que
          fonction globale seulement sous le nom ‘clearscreen’.  La
          fonction globale ‘clear’ est une fonction différente dérivée
          de la méthode Turtle ‘clear’.

 -- Fonction: turtle.clearscreen ()

     Supprime tous les dessins et toutes les tortues du TurtleScreen.
     Réinitialise le TurtleScreen maintenant vide à son état initial :
     fond blanc, pas d'image de fond, pas d'événement liés, et traçage
     activé.

 -- Fonction: turtle.reset ()

          Note: Cette méthode TurtleScreen est disponible en tant que
          fonction globale seulement sous le nom ‘resetscreen’.  La
          fonction globale ‘reset’ est une fonction différente dérivée
          de la méthode Turtle ‘reset’.

 -- Fonction: turtle.resetscreen ()

     Remet toutes les tortues à l'écran dans leur état initial.

 -- Fonction: turtle.screensize (canvwidth=None, canvheight=None,
          bg=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘canvwidth’ - nombre entier positif, nouvelle largeur du
          canevas (zone sur laquelle se déplace la tortue), en pixels

        * ‘canvheight’ - nombre entier positif, nouvelle hauteur du
          canevas, en pixels

        * ‘bg’ - chaîne de caractères indiquant la couleur ou triplet de
          couleurs, nouvelle couleur de fond

     Si aucun arguments ne sont passés, renvoie l'actuel '(canvaswidth,
     canvasheight)'.  Sinon, redimensionne le canevas sur lequel les
     tortues dessinent.  Ne modifiez pas la fenêtre de dessin.  Pour
     observer les parties cachées du canevas, utilisez les barres de
     défilement.  Avec cette méthode, on peut rendre visible les parties
     d'un dessin qui étaient en dehors du canevas précédemment.

          >>> screen.screensize()
          (400, 300)
          >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
          >>> screen.screensize()
          (2000, 1500)

     par exemple, chercher une tortue échappée de manière erronée

 -- Fonction: turtle.setworldcoordinates (llx, lly, urx, ury)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘llx’ - un nombre, coordonnée x du coin inférieur gauche du
          canevas

        * ‘lly’ - un nombre, la coordonnée y du coin inférieur gauche du
          canevas

        * ‘urx’ - un nombre, la coordonnée x du coin supérieur droit du
          canevas

        * ‘ury’ - un nombre, la coordonnée y du coin supérieur droit du
          canevas

     Configure un système de coordonnées défini par l'utilisateur et
     bascule vers le mode "world" si nécessaire.  Cela effectuera un
     ‘screen.reset()’.  Si le mode "world" est déjà actif, tous les
     dessins sont re-déssinés par rapport aux nouveaux coordonnées.

     'ATTENTION' : dans les systèmes de coordonnées définis par
     l'utilisateur, les angles peuvent apparaître déformés.

          >>> screen.reset()
          >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
          >>> for _ in range(72):
          ...     left(10)
          ...
          >>> for _ in range(8):
          ...     left(45); fd(2)   # a regular octagon


File: python.info,  Node: Réglage de l'animation,  Next: Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran,  Prev: Réglage de la fenêtre,  Up: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.34 Réglage de l'animation
................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.delay (delay=None)


     Paramètres: ‘delay’ - entier positif

     Définit ou renvoie le délai ('delay') de dessin en millisecondes.
     (Cet approximativement le temps passé entre deux mises à jour du
     canevas.)  Plus le délai est long, plus l'animation sera lente.

     Argument facultatif :

          >>> screen.delay()
          10
          >>> screen.delay(5)
          >>> screen.delay()
          5

 -- Fonction: turtle.tracer (n=None, delay=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘n’ - entier non-négatif

        * ‘delay’ - entier non-négatif

     Active/désactive les animations des tortues et définit le délai
     pour mettre à jour les dessins.Si 'n' est passé, seulement les
     n-ièmes mises à jours régulières de l'écran seront vraiment
     effectuées.  (Peut être utilisé pour accélérer le dessin de
     graphiques complexes.)  Lorsqu'appelé sans arguments, renvoie la
     valeur actuelle de 'n'.  Le deuxième argument définit la valeur du
     délai (voir *note delay(): 3d63.).

          >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
          >>> dist = 2
          >>> for i in range(200):
          ...     fd(dist)
          ...     rt(90)
          ...     dist += 2

 -- Fonction: turtle.update ()

     Effectue une mise à jour de 'TurtleScreen'.  À utiliser lorsque le
     traceur est désactivé.

Voir aussi la méthode *note speed(): 3d26. de 'RawTurtle'/'Turtle'.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran,  Next: Méthodes de saisie,  Prev: Réglage de l'animation,  Up: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.35 Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran
.......................................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.listen (xdummy=None, ydummy=None)

     Donne le focus à 'TurtleScreen' (afin de collecter les événements
     clés).  Des arguments factices sont fournis afin de pouvoir passer
     *note listen(): 3d66. à la méthode 'onclick'.

 -- Fonction: turtle.onkey (fun, key)
 -- Fonction: turtle.onkeyrelease (fun, key)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction sans arguments ou ‘None’

        * ‘key’ - une chaîne : clé (par exemple "'a'") ou clé symbole
          (Par exemple "'space'")

     Lie 'fun' à l'événement d'un relâchement d'une touche.  Si 'fun'
     est ‘None’, les événements liés sont supprimés.  Remarque : Pour
     pouvoir enregistrer les événements lié au touches, TurtleScreen
     doit avoir le 'focus' (fenêtre en premier plan).  (Voir la méthode
     *note listen(): 3d66.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...     lt(60)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- Fonction: turtle.onkeypress (fun, key=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction sans arguments ou ‘None’

        * ‘key’ - une chaîne : clé (par exemple "'a'") ou clé symbole
          (Par exemple "'space'")

     Lie 'fun' à l'événement d'un pressement de touche si 'key' (touche)
     est donné, ou n'importe quelle touche si aucune touche n'est
     passée.  Remarque : Pour pouvoir enregistrer des événements liés au
     touches, TurtleScreen doit être en premier plan.  (voir la méthode
     *note listen(): 3d66.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- Fonction: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)
 -- Fonction: turtle.onscreenclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec
          les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

        * ‘btn’ - numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de
          gauche)

        * ‘add’ - ‘True’ ou ‘False’ — si ‘True’, un nouveau lien est
          ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

     Crée un lien vers 'fun' pour les événements de clique de la souris
     sur cet écran.  Si 'fun' est ‘None’, les liens existants sont
     supprimés.

     Exemple pour une instance de TurtleScreen nommée ‘screen’ et une
     instance Turtle nommée ‘turtle’ :

          >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
          >>>                             # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
          >>> screen.onclick(None)        # remove event binding again

          Note: Cette méthode de TurtleScreen est disponible en tant que
          fonction globale seulement sous le nom de ‘onscreenclick’.  La
          fonction globale ‘onclick’ est une autre fonction dérivée de
          la méthode Turtle ‘onclick’.

 -- Fonction: turtle.ontimer (fun, t=0)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘fun’ - une fonction sans arguments

        * ‘t’ - un nombre supérieur ou égal à 0

     Installe un minuteur qui appelle 'fun' après 't' millisecondes.

          >>> running = True
          >>> def f():
          ...     if running:
          ...         fd(50)
          ...         lt(60)
          ...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
          >>> f()   ### makes the turtle march around
          >>> running = False

 -- Fonction: turtle.mainloop ()
 -- Fonction: turtle.done ()

     Démarre la boucle d'événements - appelle la boucle principale de
     Tkinter.  Doit être la dernière opération dan un programme
     graphique 'turtle'.  'Ne dois pas' être utilisé si un script est
     lancé depuis IDLE avec le mode ‘-n’ (pas de sous processus) - pour
     une utilisation interactive des graphiques 'turtle'

          >>> screen.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de saisie,  Next: Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales,  Prev: Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran,  Up: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.36 Méthodes de saisie
............................

 -- Fonction: turtle.textinput (title, prompt)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘title’ - chaîne de caractères

        * ‘prompt’ - chaîne de caractères

     Fait apparaitre une fenêtre pour entrer une chaine de caractères.
     Le paramètre 'title' est le titre de la fenêtre, 'prompt' est le
     texte expliquant quelle information écrire.  Renvoie l'entrée
     utilisateur sous forme de chaîne.  Si le dialogue est annulé,
     renvoie ‘None’.

          >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")

 -- Fonction: turtle.numinput (title, prompt, default=None, minval=None,
          maxval=None)


     Paramètres:

        * ‘title’ - chaîne de caractères

        * ‘prompt’ - chaîne de caractères

        * ‘default’ - un nombre (facultatif)

        * ‘minval’ - un nombre (facultatif)

        * ‘maxval’ - un nombre (facultatif)

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a number.  title is the title
     of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what
     numerical information to input.  default: default value, minval:
     minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input.  The
     number input must be in the range minval ..  maxval if these are
     given.  If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for
     correction.  Return the number input.  If the dialog is canceled,
     return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)


File: python.info,  Node: Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales,  Next: Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen,  Prev: Méthodes de saisie,  Up: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.37 Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales
............................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.mode (mode=None)


     Paramètres: ‘mode’ - l'une des chaînes de caractères :
     ‘"standard"’, ‘"logo"’ ou ‘"world"’

     Règle le mode de la tortue ("'standard'", "'logo'" ou "'world'") et
     la réinitialise.  Si le mode n'est pas donné, le mode actuel est
     renvoyé.

     Le mode "'standard'" est compatible avec l'ancien *note turtle:
     100.  Le mode "'logo'" est compatible avec la plupart des
     graphiques 'turtle' Logo.  Le mode "'world'" utilise des
     "coordonnées monde" ('world coordinates') définis par
     l'utilisateur.  'Attention' : Dans ce mode, les angles apparaissent
     déformés si le ratio unitaire de ‘x/y’ n'est pas 1.

     Mode             Orientation initiale de la    angles positifs
                      tortue                        
                      
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
     "standard"       vers la droite (vers l'Est)   dans le sens inverse
                                                    des aiguilles d'une
                                                    montre
                                                    
                                                    
     "logo"           vers le haut (vers le Nord)   dans le sens des
                                                    aiguilles d'une
                                                    montre
                                                    

          >>> mode("logo")   # resets turtle heading to north
          >>> mode()
          'logo'

 -- Fonction: turtle.colormode (cmode=None)


     Paramètres: ‘cmode’ - l'une des valeurs suivantes : 1.0 ou 255

     Renvoie le mode de couleur ('colormode') ou le définit à 1.0 ou
     255.  Les valeurs 'r', 'g' et 'b' doivent aussi être dans la gamme
     ‘0’..'cmode'.

          >>> screen.colormode(1)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
          TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          1.0
          >>> screen.colormode(255)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          255
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)

 -- Fonction: turtle.getcanvas ()

     Renvoie le canevas de ce TurtleScreen.  Utile pour les initiés qui
     savent quoi faire avec un canevas Tkinter.

          >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
          >>> cv
          <turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>

 -- Fonction: turtle.getshapes ()

     Renvoie une liste de noms de toutes les formes actuellement
     disponibles pour les tortues.

          >>> screen.getshapes()
          ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']

 -- Fonction: turtle.register_shape (name, shape=None)
 -- Fonction: turtle.addshape (name, shape=None)

     Il existe trois façons différentes d’appeler cette fonction :

       1. 'name' est le nom d'un fichier 'gif' et 'shape' est ‘None’ :
          Installe la forme d'image correspondante.

               >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")

               Note: Les formes d'images 'ne tournent pas' lorsque la
               tortue tourne, donc elles n'indiquent pas le cap de la
               tortue !

       2. 'name' est une chaîne de caractères arbitraire et 'shape' est
          un 'n'-uplet de paires de coordonnées : Installe le polygone
          correspondant.

               >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))

       3. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a (compound)
          *note Shape: 3d8d. object: Install the corresponding compound
          shape.

     Ajoute une forme de tortue a la liste des formes du TurtleScreen.
     Seulement les formes enregistrées de cette façon peuvent être
     utilisée avec la commande ‘shape(shapename)’.

 -- Fonction: turtle.turtles ()

     Renvoie la liste des tortues présentes sur l'écran.

          >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
          ...     turtle.color("red")

 -- Fonction: turtle.window_height ()

     Renvoie la hauteur de la fenêtre de la tortue.

          >>> screen.window_height()
          480

 -- Fonction: turtle.window_width ()

     Renvoie la largeur de la fenêtre de la tortue.

          >>> screen.window_width()
          640


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen,  Prev: Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales,  Up: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

5.25.1.38 Méthodes spécifiques à Screen, non héritées de TurtleScreen
.....................................................................

 -- Fonction: turtle.bye ()

     Éteins la fenêtre 'turtlegraphics'.

 -- Fonction: turtle.exitonclick ()

     Lie la méthode ‘bye()’ à un clique de souris sur l'écran
     ('Screen').

     Si la valeur de "'using_IDLE'" dans le dictionnaire de
     configuration est ‘False’ (valeur par défaut), démarre aussi la
     boucle principale.  Remarque : Si IDLE est lancé avec l'option ‘-n’
     (Pas de sous processus), Cette valeur devrait être définie à ‘True’
     dans ‘turtle.cfg’.  Dans ce cas, la boucle principale d'IDLE est
     active aussi pour le script du client.

 -- Fonction: turtle.setup (width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'],
          startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom'])

     Définit la taille et la position de la fenêtre principale.  Les
     valeurs par défaut des arguments sont stockées dans le dictionnaire
     de configuration et peuvent être modifiées via un fichier
     ‘turtle.cfg’.


     Paramètres:

        * ‘width’ - s'il s'agit d'un nombre entier, une taille en
          pixels, s'il s'agit d'un nombre flottant, une fraction de
          l'écran ; la valeur par défaut est de 50 % de l'écran

        * ‘height’ - s'il s'agit d'un nombre entier, la hauteur en
          pixels, s'il s'agit d'un nombre flottant, une fraction de
          l'écran ; la valeur par défaut est 75 % de l'écran

        * ‘startx’ - s'il s'agit d'un nombre positif, position de départ
          en pixels à partir du bord gauche de l'écran, s'il s'agit d'un
          nombre négatif, position de départ en pixels à partir du bord
          droit, si c'est ‘None’, centre la fenêtre horizontalement

        * ‘starty’ - si positif, la position de départ en pixels depuis
          le haut de l'écran.  Si négatif, depuis de bas de l'écran.  Si
          ‘None’, Le centre de la fenêtre verticalement

          >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
          >>>              # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
          >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
          >>>              # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers

 -- Fonction: turtle.title (titlestring)


     Paramètres: ‘titlestring’ - chaîne de caractères affichée dans la
     barre de titre de la fenêtre graphique de la tortue

     Définit le titre de la fenêtre de la tortue comme 'titlestring'.

          >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")


File: python.info,  Node: Classes publiques,  Next: Explication,  Prev: Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.39 Classes publiques
...........................

 -- Classe: turtle.RawTurtle (canvas)
 -- Classe: turtle.RawPen (canvas)


     Paramètres: ‘canvas’ - a ‘tkinter.Canvas’, a *note ScrolledCanvas:
     3d9a. or a *note TurtleScreen: 3d8a.

     Crée une tortue.  Cette tortue à toutes les méthodes décrites
     ci-dessus comme "Méthode de Turtle/RawTurtle".

 -- Classe: turtle.Turtle

     Sous-classe de RawTurtle, à la même interface mais dessine sur un
     objet ‘screen’ par défaut créé automatiquement lorsque nécessaire
     pour la première fois.

 -- Classe: turtle.TurtleScreen (cv)


     Paramètres: ‘cv’ - a ‘tkinter.Canvas’

     Provides screen oriented methods like *note bgcolor(): 3d5d. etc.
     that are described above.

 -- Classe: turtle.Screen

     Sous-classess de TurtleScreen, avec *note quatre nouvelles
     méthodes: 3d96.

 -- Classe: turtle.ScrolledCanvas (master)


     Paramètres: ‘master’ - certain modules Tkinter pour contenir le
     ScrolledCanvas, c'est à dire, un canevas Tkinter avec des barres de
     défilement ajoutées

     Utilisé par la classe Screen, qui fournit donc automatiquement un
     ScrolledCanvas comme terrain de jeu pour les tortues.

 -- Classe: turtle.Shape (type_, data)


     Paramètres: ‘type_’ - l'une des chaînes suivantes : ‘"polygon"’,
     ‘"image"’ ou ‘"compound"’

     Formes de modélisation de la structure des données.  La paire
     ‘(type_, data)’ doit suivre cette spécification :

     'type_'         'données'
                     
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     "polygon"       un polygone 'n'-uplet, c'est-à-dire un 'n'-uplet constitué
                     de paires (chaque paire définissant des coordonnées)
                     
                     
     "image"         une image (utilisée uniquement en interne sous ce format !)
                     
                     
     "compound"      ‘None’ (une forme composée doit être construite en utilisant
                     la méthode *note addcomponent(): 3d8e.)
                     

      -- Méthode: addcomponent (poly, fill, outline=None)


          Paramètres:

             * ‘poly’ - un polygone, c.-à-d.  un 'n'-uplet de paires de
               nombres

             * ‘fill’ - une couleur de remplissage pour 'poly'

             * ‘outline’ - une couleur pour le contour du polygone (si
               elle est donnée)

          Exemple :

               >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
               >>> s = Shape("compound")
               >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
               >>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()

          Voir *note Formes composées: 3d8c.

 -- Classe: turtle.Vec2D (x, y)

     Une classe de vecteur bidimensionnel, utilisée en tant que classe
     auxiliaire pour implémenter les graphiques 'turtle'.  Peut être
     utile pour les programmes graphiques faits avec 'turtle'.  Dérivé
     des 'n'-uplets, donc un vecteur est un 'n'-uplet !

     Permet (pour les vecteurs 'a', 'b' et le nombre 'k') :

        * ‘a + b’ addition de vecteurs

        * ‘a - b’ soustraction de deux vecteurs

        * ‘a * b’ produit scalaire

        * ‘k * a’ et ‘a * k’ multiplication avec un scalaire

        * ‘abs(a)’ valeur absolue de a

        * ‘a.rotate(angle)’ rotation


File: python.info,  Node: Explication,  Next: Aide et configuration,  Prev: Classes publiques,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.40 Explication
.....................

A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key
classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to
create them and relate them to each other.

A *note Turtle: 3d9b. instance will automatically create a *note Screen:
3d0d. instance if one is not already present.

‘Turtle’ is a subclass of *note RawTurtle: 3d98, which 'doesn't'
automatically create a drawing surface - a 'canvas' will need to be
provided or created for it.  The 'canvas' can be a ‘tkinter.Canvas’,
*note ScrolledCanvas: 3d9a. or *note TurtleScreen: 3d8a.

*note TurtleScreen: 3d8a. is the basic drawing surface for a turtle.
*note Screen: 3d0d. is a subclass of ‘TurtleScreen’, and includes *note
some additional methods: 3d96. for managing its appearance (including
size and title) and behaviour.  ‘TurtleScreen’'s constructor needs a
‘tkinter.Canvas’ or a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3d9a. as an argument.

The functional interface for turtle graphics uses the various methods of
‘Turtle’ and ‘TurtleScreen’/‘Screen’.  Behind the scenes, a screen
object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a
‘Screen’ method is called.  Similarly, a turtle object is automatically
created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is
called.

To use multiple turtles on a screen, the object-oriented interface must
be used.


File: python.info,  Node: Aide et configuration,  Next: turtledemo — Scripts de démonstration,  Prev: Explication,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.41 Aide et configuration
...............................

* Menu:

* Utilisation de l'aide::
* Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues::
* Comment configurer Screen et Turtle::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de l'aide,  Next: Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues,  Up: Aide et configuration

5.25.1.42 Utilisation de l'aide
...............................

Les méthodes publiques des classes 'Screen' et 'Turtle' sont largement
documentées dans les 'docstrings'.  Elles peuvent donc être utilisées
comme aide en ligne via les fonctions d'aide de Python :

   - Lors de l'utilisation d'IDLE, des info-bulles apparaissent avec la
     signature et les premières lignes de 'docstring' de la
     fonction/méthode appelée.

   - L'appel de *note help(): 8c6. sur les méthodes ou fonctions
     affichera les 'docstrings' :

          >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
          Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.


              >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "orange"
              >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "#800080"

          >>> help(Turtle.penup)
          Help on method penup in module turtle:

          penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              >>> turtle.penup()

   - Les 'docstrings' des fonctions qui sont dérivées des méthodes ont
     une forme modifiée :

          >>> help(bgcolor)
          Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(*args)
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

              Example::

                >>> bgcolor("orange")
                >>> bgcolor()
                "orange"
                >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
                >>> bgcolor()
                "#800080"

          >>> help(penup)
          Help on function penup in module turtle:

          penup()
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              Example:
              >>> penup()

Ces chaînes de documents modifiées sont créées automatiquement avec les
définitions de fonctions qui sont dérivées des méthodes au moment de
l'importation.


File: python.info,  Node: Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues,  Next: Comment configurer Screen et Turtle,  Prev: Utilisation de l'aide,  Up: Aide et configuration

5.25.1.43 Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues
...................................................................

Il est utile de créer un dictionnaire dont les clés sont les noms des
méthodes et les valeurs sont les 'docstrings' de méthodes publiques des
classes Screen et Turtle.

 -- Fonction: turtle.write_docstringdict
          (filename='turtle_docstringdict')


     Paramètres: ‘filename’ - une chaîne de caractères, utilisée en tant
     que nom de fichier

     Crée et écrit un dictionnaire de 'docstrings' dans un script Python
     avec le nom donné.  Cette fonction doit être appelée explicitement
     (elle n'est pas utilisée par les classes graphiques de 'turtle').
     Ce dictionnaire de 'doctrings' sera écrit dans le script Python
     ‘`filename'.py’.  Il sert de modèle pour la traduction des
     'docstrings' dans différentes langues.

Si vous (ou vos étudiants) veulent utiliser *note turtle: 100. avec de
l'aide en ligne dans votre langue natale, vous devez traduire les
'docstrings' et sauvegarder les fichiers résultants en, par exemple,
‘turtle_docstringdict_german.py’.

Si vous avez une entrée appropriée dans votre fichier ‘turtle.cfg’, ce
dictionnaire est lu au moment de l'importation et remplace la
'docstrings' originale en anglais par cette entrée.

Au moment de l'écriture de cette documentation, il n'existe seulement
que des 'docstrings' en Allemand et Italien.  (Merci de faire vos
demandes à <glingl@aon.at>.)


File: python.info,  Node: Comment configurer Screen et Turtle,  Prev: Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues,  Up: Aide et configuration

5.25.1.44 Comment configurer 'Screen' et 'Turtle'
.................................................

La configuration par défaut imite l'apparence et le comportement de
l'ancien module 'turtle' pour pouvoir maintenir la meilleure
compatibilité avec celui-ci.

Si vous voulez utiliser une configuration différente qui reflète mieux
les fonctionnalités de ce module ou qui correspond mieux à vos besoins,
par exemple pour un cours, vous pouvez préparer un ficher de
configuration ‘turtle.cfg’ qui sera lu au moment de l'importation et qui
modifiera la configuration en utilisant les paramètres du fichier.

The built in configuration would correspond to the following
‘turtle.cfg’:

     width = 0.5
     height = 0.75
     leftright = None
     topbottom = None
     canvwidth = 400
     canvheight = 300
     mode = standard
     colormode = 1.0
     delay = 10
     undobuffersize = 1000
     shape = classic
     pencolor = black
     fillcolor = black
     resizemode = noresize
     visible = True
     language = english
     exampleturtle = turtle
     examplescreen = screen
     title = Python Turtle Graphics
     using_IDLE = False

Brève explication des entrées sélectionnées :

   - The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the *note
     Screen.setup: 3d79. method.

   - Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method *note
     Screen.screensize: 3d61.

   - 'shape' peut être n'importe quelle forme native, par exemple
     'arrow', 'turtle' etc.  Pour plus d'informations, essayez
     ‘help(shape)’.

   - If you want to use no fill color (i.e.  make the turtle
     transparent), you have to write ‘fillcolor = ""’ (but all nonempty
     strings must not have quotes in the cfg file).

   - Si vous voulez refléter l'état de la tortue, vous devez utiliser
     ‘resizemode = auto’.

   - If you set e.g.  ‘language = italian’ the docstringdict
     ‘turtle_docstringdict_italian.py’ will be loaded at import time (if
     present on the import path, e.g.  in the same directory as *note
     turtle: 100.).

   - Les entrées 'exampleturtle' et 'examplescreen' définissent les noms
     de ces objets tels qu'ils apparaissent dans les 'docstrings'.  La
     transformation des méthodes-'docstrings' vers fonction-'docstrings'
     supprimera ces noms des 'docstrings'.

   - 'using_IDLE': Set this to ‘True’ if you regularly work with IDLE
     and its ‘-n’ switch ("no subprocess").  This will prevent *note
     exitonclick(): 3d78. to enter the mainloop.

Il peut y avoir un ‘turtle.cfg’ dans le dossier où se situe *note
turtle: 100. et un autre dans le dossier de travail courant.  Ce dernier
prendra le dessus.

Le dossier ‘Lib/turtledemo’ contient un fichier ‘turtle.cfg’.  Vous
pouvez le prendre comme exemple et voir ses effets lorsque vous lancez
les démos (il est préférable de ne pas le faire depuis la visionneuse de
démos).


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo — Scripts de démonstration,  Next: Modifications depuis Python 2 6,  Prev: Aide et configuration,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.45 ‘turtledemo’ — Scripts de démonstration
.................................................

Le paquet *note turtledemo: 101. inclut un ensemble de scripts de
démonstration.  Ces scripts peuvent être lancés et observés en utilisant
la visionneuse de démos comme suit :

     python -m turtledemo

Alternativement, vous pouvez lancer les scripts de démo
individuellement.  Par exemple

     python -m turtledemo.bytedesign

Le paquet *note turtledemo: 101. contient :

   - Une visionneuse ‘__main__.py’ qui peut être utilisée pour lire le
     code source de ces scripts et pour les faire tourner en même temps.

   - Plusieurs script présentent les différentes fonctionnalités du
     module *note turtle: 100.  Les exemples peuvent être consultés via
     le menu 'Examples'.  Ils peuvent aussi être lancés de manière
     autonome.

   - Un fichier exemple ‘turtle.cfg’ montrant comment rédiger de tels
     fichiers.

Les scripts de démonstration sont :

Nom                  Description                        Caractéristiques
                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
'bytedesign'         motif complexe de la tortue        *note tracer(): 3d64,
                     graphique classique                temps mort,
                                                        *note update(): 3d65.
                                                        
                                                        
chaos                graphiques dynamiques de           'world coordinates'
                     Verhulst, cela démontre que les    
                     calculs de l'ordinateur peuvent
                     générer des résultats qui vont
                     parfois à l'encontre du bon sens
                     
                                                        
'clock'              horloge analogique indiquant       tortues sous forme des
                     l'heure de votre ordinateur        aiguilles d'horloge, sur
                                                        minuterie
                                                        
                                                        
'colormixer'         des expériences en rouge, vert,    *note ondrag(): 3d52.
(mélangeur de        bleu                               
couleurs)            

'forest' (forêt)     3 arbres tracés par un parcours    'randomization'
                     en largeur                         (répartition aléatoire)
                                                        
                                                        
'fractalcurves'      Courbes de Hilbert et de Koch      récursivité
                                                        
                                                        
'lindenmayer'        ethnomathématiques (kolams         'L-Système'
                     indiens)                           
                     
                                                        
'minimal_hanoi'      Tours de Hanoï                     Des tortues
                                                        rectangulaires à la place
                                                        des disques ('shape',
                                                        'shapesize')
                                                        
                                                        
'nim'                jouez au classique jeu de 'nim'    tortues en tant que
                     avec trois piles de bâtons         bâtons de 'nim', géré par
                     contre l'ordinateur.               des événements (clavier
                                                        et souris)
                                                        
                                                        
'paint' (peinture)   programme de dessin extra          *note onclick(): 3d50.
                     minimaliste                        
                     
                                                        
'peace' (paix)       basique                            tortue : apparence et
                                                        animation
                                                        
                                                        
'penrose'            tuiles apériodiques avec           *note stamp(): 3d22.
                     cerfs-volants et fléchettes        
                     
                                                        
'planet_and_moon'    simulation d'un système            formes composées,
(planète et lune)    gravitationnel                     *note Vec2D: 3d7d.
                                                        
                                                        
rosette              un motif issu de l'article de      *note clone(): 3d56,
                     'wikipedia' sur la tortue          *note undo(): 3d25.
                     graphique                          
                     
                                                        
'round_dance'        tortues dansantes tournant par     formes composées, clones
                     paires en sens inverse             de la forme
                                                        ('shapesize'), rotation,
                                                        'get_shapepoly', 'update'
                                                        
                                                        
'sorting_animate'    démonstration visuelle des         alignement simple,
                     différentes méthodes de            répartition aléatoire
                     classement                         
                     
                                                        
'tree' (arbre)       un arbre (tracé) par un parcours   *note clone(): 3d56.
                     en largeur (à l’aide de            
                     générateurs)
                     
                                                        
'two_canvases'       design simple                      tortues sur deux canevas
(deux toiles)                                           

'yinyang'            un autre exemple élémentaire       *note circle(): 3d20.
                                                        

Amusez-vous !


File: python.info,  Node: Modifications depuis Python 2 6,  Next: Modifications depuis Python 3 0,  Prev: turtledemo — Scripts de démonstration,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.46 Modifications depuis Python 2.6
.........................................

   - The methods *note Turtle.tracer: 3d64, *note Turtle.window_width:
     3d76. and *note Turtle.window_height: 3d75. have been eliminated.
     Methods with these names and functionality are now available only
     as methods of *note Screen: 3d0d.  The functions derived from these
     remain available.  (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods
     were merely duplications of the corresponding *note TurtleScreen:
     3d8a./*note Screen: 3d0d. methods.)

   - The method ‘Turtle.fill()’ has been eliminated.  The behaviour of
     *note begin_fill(): 3d3e. and *note end_fill(): 3d3f. have changed
     slightly: now every filling process must be completed with an
     ‘end_fill()’ call.

   - A method *note Turtle.filling: 3d3d. has been added.  It returns a
     boolean value: ‘True’ if a filling process is under way, ‘False’
     otherwise.  This behaviour corresponds to a ‘fill()’ call without
     arguments in Python 2.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifications depuis Python 3 0,  Prev: Modifications depuis Python 2 6,  Up: turtle — Tortue graphique

5.25.1.47 Modifications depuis Python 3.0
.........................................

   - The *note Turtle: 3d9b. methods *note shearfactor(): 3d4c, *note
     shapetransform(): 3d4e. and *note get_shapepoly(): 3d4f. have been
     added.  Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now
     available for transforming turtle shapes.  *note tiltangle(): 711.
     has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or
     set the tilt angle.

   - The *note Screen: 3d0d. method *note onkeypress(): 3d69. has been
     added as a complement to *note onkey(): 3d67.  As the latter binds
     actions to the key release event, an alias: *note onkeyrelease():
     3d68. was also added for it.

   - The method *note Screen.mainloop: 3d6c. has been added, so there is
     no longer a need to use the standalone *note mainloop(): 3d6c.
     function when working with *note Screen: 3d0d. and *note Turtle:
     3d9b. objects.

   - Two input methods have been added: *note Screen.textinput: 187f.
     and *note Screen.numinput: 1880.  These pop up input dialogs and
     return strings and numbers respectively.

   - Deux exemples de scripts ‘tdemo_nim.py’ et ‘tdemo_round_dance.py’
     ont été ajoutés au répertoire ‘Lib/turtledemo’.


File: python.info,  Node: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Next: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis,  Prev: turtle — Tortue graphique,  Up: Cadriciels d'applications

5.25.2 ‘cmd’ -- Support for line-oriented command interpreters
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/cmd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

La *note Cmd: 1680. fournit une base simple permettant d'écrire des
interpréteurs en ligne de commande.  Ceux-ci sont souvent utiles pour
piloter des tests, pour des outils administratifs, et pour des
prototypes destinés à être intégrés à une interface plus sophistiquée.

 -- Classe: cmd.Cmd (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)

     Une instance de *note Cmd: 1680. ou d'une classe en héritant est un
     'framework' orienté ligne de commande.  Il n'y a pas de bonne
     raison d'instancier *note Cmd: 1680. directement.  Elle est plutôt
     utile en tant que classe mère d'une classe-interprète que vous
     définirez afin d'hériter des méthodes de *note Cmd: 1680. et
     d'encapsuler les opérations.

     L'argument facultatif 'completekey' est le nom *note readline: b9.
     d'une touche de complétion.  Si 'completekey' ne vaut pas *note
     None: 662. et que *note readline: b9. est disponible, la complétion
     de commandes est faite automatiquement.

     The default, ‘'tab'’, is treated specially, so that it refers to
     the ‘Tab’ key on every *note readline.backend: 166a.  Specifically,
     if *note readline.backend: 166a. is ‘editline’, ‘Cmd’ will use
     ‘'^I'’ instead of ‘'tab'’.  Note that other values are not treated
     this way, and might only work with a specific backend.

     Les arguments facultatifs 'stdin' et 'stdout' spécifient les
     objets-fichiers de lecture et d'écriture que l'instance de Cmd ou
     d'une classe fille utilisera comme entrée et sortie.  Si ces
     arguments ne sont pas spécifiés, ils prendront comme valeur par
     défaut *note sys.stdin: 52a. et *note sys.stdout: ac6.

     Si vous souhaitez qu'un 'stdin' donné soit utilisé, assurez-vous
     que l'attribut *note use_rawinput: 3da7. de l'instance vaille
     ‘False’, faute de quoi 'stdin' sera ignoré.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘completekey='tab'’ is replaced by
     ‘'^I'’ for ‘editline’.

* Menu:

* Objets Cmd::
* Exemple: Exemple<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/cmd.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Cmd,  Next: Exemple<13>,  Up: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

5.25.2.1 Objets Cmd
...................

Une instance de *note Cmd: 1680. possède les méthodes suivantes :

 -- Méthode: Cmd.cmdloop (intro=None)

     Affiche une invite de commande de manière répétée, accepte une
     entrée, soustrait un préfixe initial de l'entrée reçue et envoie
     aux méthodes d'opération la partie restante de l'entrée reçue.

     L'argument facultatif est une bannière ou chaîne de caractères
     d'introduction à afficher avant la première invite de commande (il
     redéfinit l'attribut de classe *note intro: 3dab.).

     Si le module *note readline: b9. est chargé, l'entrée héritera
     automatiquement d'une édition d'historique similaire à ‘bash’ (Par
     exemple, ‘Control’-‘P’ reviendra à la dernière commande,
     ‘Control’-‘N’ avancera à la suivante, ‘Control’-‘F’ déplace le
     curseur vers la droite, ‘Control’-‘B’ déplace le curseur vers la
     gauche, etc...).

     Une caractère de fin de fichier est transmis via la chaîne de
     caractères ‘'EOF'’.

     An interpreter instance will recognize a command name ‘foo’ if and
     only if it has a method ‘do_foo()’.  As a special case, a line
     beginning with the character ‘'?'’ is dispatched to the method
     *note do_help(): 166f.  As another special case, a line beginning
     with the character ‘'!'’ is dispatched to the method ‘do_shell()’
     (if such a method is defined).

     This method will return when the *note postcmd(): 3dac. method
     returns a true value.  The 'stop' argument to *note postcmd():
     3dac. is the return value from the command's corresponding ‘do_*()’
     method.

     If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done
     automatically, and completing of commands args is done by calling
     ‘complete_foo()’ with arguments 'text', 'line', 'begidx', and
     'endidx'.  'text' is the string prefix we are attempting to match:
     all returned matches must begin with it.  'line' is the current
     input line with leading whitespace removed, 'begidx' and 'endidx'
     are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which
     could be used to provide different completion depending upon which
     position the argument is in.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.do_help (arg)

     All subclasses of *note Cmd: 1680. inherit a predefined
     ‘do_help()’.  This method, called with an argument ‘'bar'’, invokes
     the corresponding method ‘help_bar()’, and if that is not present,
     prints the docstring of ‘do_bar()’, if available.  With no
     argument, ‘do_help()’ lists all available help topics (that is, all
     commands with corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods or commands that
     have docstrings), and also lists any undocumented commands.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.onecmd (str)

     Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to
     the prompt.  This may be overridden, but should not normally need
     to be; see the *note precmd(): 3dae. and *note postcmd(): 3dac.
     methods for useful execution hooks.  The return value is a flag
     indicating whether interpretation of commands by the interpreter
     should stop.  If there is a ‘do_*()’ method for the command 'str',
     the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return
     value from the *note default(): 3daf. method is returned.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.emptyline ()

     Méthode appelée quand une ligne vide est entrée en réponse à
     l'invite de commande.  Si cette méthode n'est pas surchargée, elle
     répète la dernière commande non-vide entrée.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.default (line)

     Méthode appelée lorsque le préfixe de commande d'une ligne entrée
     n'est pas reconnu.  Si cette méthode n'est pas surchargée, elle
     affiche un message d'erreur et s'arrête.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.completedefault (text, line, begidx, endidx)

     Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific
     ‘complete_*()’ method is available.  By default, it returns an
     empty list.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.columnize (list, displaywidth=80)

     Méthode appelée pour afficher une liste de chaînes de caractères
     sous la forme d'un ensemble compact de colonnes.  Chaque colonne
     est de largeur minimale.  Les colonnes sont séparées par deux
     espaces pour faciliter la lecture.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.precmd (line)

     Méthode de rappel exécutée juste avant que la ligne de commande
     'line' ne soit interprétée, mais après que l'invite de commande ait
     été généré et affiché.  Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée
     par des classes filles de *note Cmd: 1680.  La valeur de retour est
     utilisée comme la commande qui sera exécutée par la méthode *note
     onecmd(): 3dad.  L'implémentation de *note precmd(): 3dae. peut
     réécrire la commande ou simplement renvoyer 'line' sans
     modification.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.postcmd (stop, line)

     Méthode de rappel exécutée juste après qu'une commande ait été
     exécutée.  Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des
     classes filles de *note Cmd: 1680.  'line' est la ligne de commande
     ayant été exécutée et 'stop' est un 'flag' indiquant si l'exécution
     sera terminée après un appel à *note postcmd(): 3dac.  'stop' sera
     la valeur de retour de *note onecmd(): 3dad.  La valeur de retour
     de cette méthode sera utilisée comme nouvelle valeur pour le 'flag'
     interne correspondant à 'stop'.  Renvoyer 'False' permettra à
     l'interprétation de continuer.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.preloop ()

     Méthode de rappel exécutée une fois lorsque *note cmdloop(): 3daa.
     est appelée.  Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des
     classes filles de *note Cmd: 1680.

 -- Méthode: Cmd.postloop ()

     Méthode de rappel exécutée une fois lorsque *note cmdloop(): 3daa.
     va s'arrêter.  Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des
     classes filles de *note Cmd: 1680.

Les instances de classes filles de *note Cmd: 1680. possèdent des
variables d'instance publiques :

 -- Attribut: Cmd.prompt

     L'invite de commande affiché pour solliciter une entrée.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.identchars

     La chaîne de caractères acceptée en tant que préfixe de commande.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.lastcmd

     Le dernier préfixe de commande non-vide vu.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.cmdqueue

     Une liste de lignes entrées en file.  La liste 'cmdqueue' est
     vérifiée dans *note cmdloop(): 3daa. lorsqu'une nouvelle entrée est
     nécessitée; si elle n'est pas vide, ses éléments seront traités
     dans l'ordre, comme si ils avaient entrés dans l'invite de
     commande.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.intro

     Une chaîne de caractères à afficher en introduction ou bannière.
     Peut être surchargée en passant un argument à la méthode *note
     cmdloop(): 3daa.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.doc_header

     L'en-tête à afficher si la sortie de l'aide possède une section
     pour les commandes documentées.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.misc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     miscellaneous help topics (that is, there are ‘help_*()’ methods
     without corresponding ‘do_*()’ methods).

 -- Attribut: Cmd.undoc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     undocumented commands (that is, there are ‘do_*()’ methods without
     corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods).

 -- Attribut: Cmd.ruler

     Le caractère utilisé pour afficher des lignes de séparation sous
     les en-têtes de messages d'aide.  Si il est vide, aucune ligne de
     séparation n'est affichée.  Par défaut, ce caractère vaut ‘'='’.

 -- Attribut: Cmd.use_rawinput

     A flag, defaulting to true.  If true, *note cmdloop(): 3daa. uses
     *note input(): 12b8. to display a prompt and read the next command;
     if false, *note sys.stdout.write(): ac6. and *note
     sys.stdin.readline(): 52a. are used.  (This means that by importing
     *note readline: b9, on systems that support it, the interpreter
     will automatically support ‘Emacs’-like line editing and
     command-history keystrokes.)


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<13>,  Prev: Objets Cmd,  Up: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

5.25.2.2 Exemple
................

Le module *note cmd: 19. est utile pour produire des invites de commande
permettant à l'utilisateur de travailler avec un programme de manière
interactive.

Cette section présente un exemple simple de comment produire une invite
de commande autour de quelques commandes du module *note turtle: 100.

Basic turtle commands such as *note forward(): 3d07. are added to a
*note Cmd: 1680. subclass with method named ‘do_forward()’.  The
argument is converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module.
The docstring is used in the help utility provided by the shell.

The example also includes a basic record and playback facility
implemented with the *note precmd(): 3dae. method which is responsible
for converting the input to lowercase and writing the commands to a
file.  The ‘do_playback()’ method reads the file and adds the recorded
commands to the *note cmdqueue: 3db7. for immediate playback:

     import cmd, sys
     from turtle import *

     class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
         intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
         prompt = '(turtle) '
         file = None

         # ----- basic turtle commands -----
         def do_forward(self, arg):
             'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
             forward(*parse(arg))
         def do_right(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
             right(*parse(arg))
         def do_left(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
             left(*parse(arg))
         def do_goto(self, arg):
             'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
             goto(*parse(arg))
         def do_home(self, arg):
             'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
             home()
         def do_circle(self, arg):
             'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
             circle(*parse(arg))
         def do_position(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
             print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
         def do_heading(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
             print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
         def do_color(self, arg):
             'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
             color(arg.lower())
         def do_undo(self, arg):
             'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
         def do_reset(self, arg):
             'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
             reset()
         def do_bye(self, arg):
             'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
             print('Thank you for using Turtle')
             self.close()
             bye()
             return True

         # ----- record and playback -----
         def do_record(self, arg):
             'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
             self.file = open(arg, 'w')
         def do_playback(self, arg):
             'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
             self.close()
             with open(arg) as f:
                 self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
         def precmd(self, line):
             line = line.lower()
             if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
                 print(line, file=self.file)
             return line
         def close(self):
             if self.file:
                 self.file.close()
                 self.file = None

     def parse(arg):
         'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
         return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         TurtleShell().cmdloop()

Voici une session d'exemple avec l'invite de commande 'turtle'.  Elle
montre les fonctions d'aide, utilise les lignes vides pour répéter des
commandes et montre l'utilitaire de 'playback' :

     Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.

     (turtle) ?

     Documented commands (type help <topic>):
     ========================================
     bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
     circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo

     (turtle) help forward
     Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
     (turtle) record spiral.cmd
     (turtle) position
     Current position is 0 0

     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 0

     (turtle) reset
     (turtle) circle 20
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 40
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 60
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 80
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 100
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 500
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 300
     (turtle) playback spiral.cmd
     Current position is 0 0

     Current heading is 0

     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) bye
     Thank you for using Turtle


File: python.info,  Node: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis,  Prev: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Up: Cadriciels d'applications

5.25.3 ‘shlex’ -- Simple lexical analysis
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/shlex.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note shlex: cbd. class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for
simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell.  This will often be
useful for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for
Python applications) or for parsing quoted strings.

The *note shlex: c3. module defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: shlex.split (s, comments=False, posix=True)

     Split the string 's' using shell-like syntax.  If 'comments' is
     *note False: b27. (the default), the parsing of comments in the
     given string will be disabled (setting the *note commenters: 3dc0.
     attribute of the *note shlex: cbd. instance to the empty string).
     This function operates in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX
     mode if the 'posix' argument is false.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now
     raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 52a.

 -- Fonction: shlex.join (split_command)

     Concatenate the tokens of the list 'split_command' and return a
     string.  This function is the inverse of *note split(): 529.

          >>> from shlex import join
          >>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words']))
          echo -n 'Multiple words'

     The returned value is shell-escaped to protect against injection
     vulnerabilities (see *note quote(): 27a.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: shlex.quote (s)

     Return a shell-escaped version of the string 's'.  The returned
     value is a string that can safely be used as one token in a shell
     command line, for cases where you cannot use a list.
          Avertissement: The ‘shlex’ module is 'only designed for Unix
          shells'.

          The *note quote(): 27a. function is not guaranteed to be
          correct on non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other
          operating systems such as Windows.  Executing commands quoted
          by this module on such shells can open up the possibility of a
          command injection vulnerability.

          Consider using functions that pass command arguments with
          lists such as *note subprocess.run(): b76. with ‘shell=False’.

     This idiom would be unsafe:

          >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
          >>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
          ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~

     *note quote(): 27a. lets you plug the security hole:

          >>> from shlex import quote
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
          >>> print(command)
          ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
          >>> print(remote_command)
          ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''

     The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with *note split():
     529.:

          >>> from shlex import split
          >>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
          >>> remote_command
          ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
          >>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
          >>> command
          ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The *note shlex: c3. module defines the following class:

 -- Classe: shlex.shlex (instream=None, infile=None, posix=False,
          punctuation_chars=False)

     A *note shlex: cbd. instance or subclass instance is a lexical
     analyzer object.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies where to read characters from.  It must be a
     file-/stream-like object with *note read(): 1c43. and *note
     readline(): 1c7b. methods, or a string.  If no argument is given,
     input will be taken from ‘sys.stdin’.  The second optional argument
     is a filename string, which sets the initial value of the *note
     infile: 3dc1. attribute.  If the 'instream' argument is omitted or
     equal to ‘sys.stdin’, this second argument defaults to "stdin".
     The 'posix' argument defines the operational mode: when 'posix' is
     not true (default), the *note shlex: cbd. instance will operate in
     compatibility mode.  When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex:
     cbd. will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell parsing
     rules.  The 'punctuation_chars' argument provides a way to make the
     behaviour even closer to how real shells parse.  This can take a
     number of values: the default value, ‘False’, preserves the
     behaviour seen under Python 3.5 and earlier.  If set to ‘True’,
     then parsing of the characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of
     these characters (considered punctuation characters) is returned as
     a single token.  If set to a non-empty string of characters, those
     characters will be used as the punctuation characters.  Any
     characters in the *note wordchars: 3dc2. attribute that appear in
     'punctuation_chars' will be removed from *note wordchars: 3dc2.
     See *note Improved Compatibility with Shells: cbe. for more
     information.  'punctuation_chars' can be set only upon *note shlex:
     cbd. instance creation and can't be modified later.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The 'punctuation_chars' parameter was
     added.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note configparser: 22.

     Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows ‘.ini’ files.

* Menu:

* shlex Objects::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shlex.py


File: python.info,  Node: shlex Objects,  Next: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

5.25.3.1 shlex Objects
......................

A *note shlex: cbd. instance has the following methods:

 -- Méthode: shlex.get_token ()

     Return a token.  If tokens have been stacked using *note
     push_token(): 3dc6, pop a token off the stack.  Otherwise, read one
     from the input stream.  If reading encounters an immediate
     end-of-file, *note eof: 3dc7. is returned (the empty string (‘''’)
     in non-POSIX mode, and ‘None’ in POSIX mode).

 -- Méthode: shlex.push_token (str)

     Push the argument onto the token stack.

 -- Méthode: shlex.read_token ()

     Read a raw token.  Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret
     source requests.  (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and
     is documented here only for the sake of completeness.)

 -- Méthode: shlex.sourcehook (filename)

     When *note shlex: cbd. detects a source request (see *note source:
     3dca. below) this method is given the following token as argument,
     and expected to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open
     file-like object.

     Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument.  If
     the result is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source
     request in effect, or the previous source was a stream (such as
     ‘sys.stdin’), the result is left alone.  Otherwise, if the result
     is a relative pathname, the directory part of the name of the file
     immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is prepended
     (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles ‘#include
     "file.h"’).

     The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and
     returned as the first component of the tuple, with *note open():
     508. called on it to yield the second component.  (Note: this is
     the reverse of the order of arguments in instance initialization!)

     This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory
     search paths, addition of file extensions, and other namespace
     hacks.  There is no corresponding 'close' hook, but a shlex
     instance will call the *note close(): 1f3. method of the sourced
     input stream when it returns EOF.

     For more explicit control of source stacking, use the *note
     push_source(): 3dcb. and *note pop_source(): 3dcc. methods.

 -- Méthode: shlex.push_source (newstream, newfile=None)

     Push an input source stream onto the input stack.  If the filename
     argument is specified it will later be available for use in error
     messages.  This is the same method used internally by the *note
     sourcehook(): 3dc9. method.

 -- Méthode: shlex.pop_source ()

     Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack.  This is the
     same method used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked
     input stream.

 -- Méthode: shlex.error_leader (infile=None, lineno=None)

     This method generates an error message leader in the format of a
     Unix C compiler error label; the format is ‘'"%s", line %d: '’,
     where the ‘%s’ is replaced with the name of the current source file
     and the ‘%d’ with the current input line number (the optional
     arguments can be used to override these).

     This convenience is provided to encourage *note shlex: c3. users to
     generate error messages in the standard, parseable format
     understood by Emacs and other Unix tools.

Instances of *note shlex: cbd. subclasses have some public instance
variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for
debugging:

 -- Attribut: shlex.commenters

     The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners.
     All characters from the comment beginner to end of line are
     ignored.  Includes just ‘'#'’ by default.

 -- Attribut: shlex.wordchars

     The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character
     tokens.  By default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and
     underscore.  In POSIX mode, the accented characters in the Latin-1
     set are also included.  If *note punctuation_chars: 198f. is not
     empty, the characters ‘~-./*?=’, which can appear in filename
     specifications and command line parameters, will also be included
     in this attribute, and any characters which appear in
     ‘punctuation_chars’ will be removed from ‘wordchars’ if they are
     present there.  If *note whitespace_split: 3dce. is set to ‘True’,
     this will have no effect.

 -- Attribut: shlex.whitespace

     Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped.
     Whitespace bounds tokens.  By default, includes space, tab,
     linefeed and carriage-return.

 -- Attribut: shlex.escape

     Characters that will be considered as escape.  This will be only
     used in POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'\'’ by default.

 -- Attribut: shlex.quotes

     Characters that will be considered string quotes.  The token
     accumulates until the same quote is encountered again (thus,
     different quote types protect each other as in the shell.)  By
     default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.

 -- Attribut: shlex.escapedquotes

     Characters in *note quotes: 3dd1. that will interpret escape
     characters defined in *note escape: 3dd0.  This is only used in
     POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'"'’ by default.

 -- Attribut: shlex.whitespace_split

     If ‘True’, tokens will only be split in whitespaces.  This is
     useful, for example, for parsing command lines with *note shlex:
     cbd, getting tokens in a similar way to shell arguments.  When used
     in combination with *note punctuation_chars: 198f, tokens will be
     split on whitespace in addition to those characters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The *note punctuation_chars: 198f.
     attribute was made compatible with the *note whitespace_split:
     3dce. attribute.

 -- Attribut: shlex.infile

     The name of the current input file, as initially set at class
     instantiation time or stacked by later source requests.  It may be
     useful to examine this when constructing error messages.

 -- Attribut: shlex.instream

     The input stream from which this *note shlex: cbd. instance is
     reading characters.

 -- Attribut: shlex.source

     This attribute is ‘None’ by default.  If you assign a string to it,
     that string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request
     similar to the ‘source’ keyword in various shells.  That is, the
     immediately following token will be opened as a filename and input
     will be taken from that stream until EOF, at which point the *note
     close(): 1f3. method of that stream will be called and the input
     source will again become the original input stream.  Source
     requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.

 -- Attribut: shlex.debug

     If this attribute is numeric and ‘1’ or more, a *note shlex: cbd.
     instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior.  If
     you need to use this, you can read the module source code to learn
     the details.

 -- Attribut: shlex.lineno

     Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).

 -- Attribut: shlex.token

     The token buffer.  It may be useful to examine this when catching
     exceptions.

 -- Attribut: shlex.eof

     Token used to determine end of file.  This will be set to the empty
     string (‘''’), in non-POSIX mode, and to ‘None’ in POSIX mode.

 -- Attribut: shlex.punctuation_chars

     A read-only property.  Characters that will be considered
     punctuation.  Runs of punctuation characters will be returned as a
     single token.  However, note that no semantic validity checking
     will be performed: for example, '>>>' could be returned as a token,
     even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing Rules,  Next: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: shlex Objects,  Up: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

5.25.3.2 Parsing Rules
......................

When operating in non-POSIX mode, *note shlex: cbd. will try to obey to
the following rules.

   * Quote characters are not recognized within words (‘Do"Not"Separate’
     is parsed as the single word ‘Do"Not"Separate’);

   * Escape characters are not recognized;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all
     characters within the quotes;

   * Closing quotes separate words (‘"Do"Separate’ is parsed as ‘"Do"’
     and ‘Separate’);

   * If *note whitespace_split: 3dce. is ‘False’, any character not
     declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be
     returned as a single-character token.  If it is ‘True’, *note
     shlex: cbd. will only split words in whitespaces;

   * EOF is signaled with an empty string (‘''’);

   * It's not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.

When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex: cbd. will try to obey to the
following parsing rules.

   * Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words
     (‘"Do"Not"Separate"’ is parsed as the single word ‘DoNotSeparate’);

   * Non-quoted escape characters (e.g.  ‘'\'’) preserve the literal
     value of the next character that follows;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of *note
     escapedquotes: 3dd2. (e.g.  ‘"'"’)  preserve the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of *note
     escapedquotes: 3dd2. (e.g.  ‘'"'’)  preserves the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the
     characters mentioned in *note escape: 3dd0.  The escape characters
     retain its special meaning only when followed by the quote in use,
     or the escape character itself.  Otherwise the escape character
     will be considered a normal character.

   * EOF is signaled with a *note None: 662. value;

   * Quoted empty strings (‘''’) are allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

5.25.3.3 Improved Compatibility with Shells
...........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

The *note shlex: c3. class provides compatibility with the parsing
performed by common Unix shells like ‘bash’, ‘dash’, and ‘sh’.  To take
advantage of this compatibility, specify the ‘punctuation_chars’
argument in the constructor.  This defaults to ‘False’, which preserves
pre-3.6 behaviour.  However, if it is set to ‘True’, then parsing of the
characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters is returned
as a single token.  While this is short of a full parser for shells
(which would be out of scope for the standard library, given the
multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow you to perform
processing of command lines more easily than you could otherwise.  To
illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)']
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';',
     '(', 'def', 'ghi', ')']

Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and
you'll need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.

Instead of passing ‘True’ as the value for the punctuation_chars
parameter, you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be
used to determine which characters constitute punctuation.  For example:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']

     Note: When ‘punctuation_chars’ is specified, the *note wordchars:
     3dc2. attribute is augmented with the characters ‘~-./*?=’.  That
     is because these characters can appear in file names (including
     wildcards) and command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘--color=auto’).
     Hence:

          >>> import shlex
          >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
          ...                 punctuation_chars=True)
          >>> list(s)
          ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']

     However, to match the shell as closely as possible, it is
     recommended to always use ‘posix’ and *note whitespace_split: 3dce.
     when using *note punctuation_chars: 198f, which will negate *note
     wordchars: 3dc2. entirely.

For best effect, ‘punctuation_chars’ should be set in conjunction with
‘posix=True’.  (Note that ‘posix=False’ is the default for *note shlex:
cbd.)


File: python.info,  Node: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk,  Next: Outils de développement,  Prev: Cadriciels d'applications,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.26 Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk
==============================================

Tk/Tcl has long been an integral part of Python.  It provides a robust
and platform independent windowing toolkit, that is available to Python
programmers using the *note tkinter: ef. package, and its extension, the
*note tkinter.ttk: f8. module.

The *note tkinter: ef. package is a thin object-oriented layer on top of
Tcl/Tk.  To use *note tkinter: ef, you don't need to write Tcl code, but
you will need to consult the Tk documentation, and occasionally the Tcl
documentation.  *note tkinter: ef. is a set of wrappers that implement
the Tk widgets as Python classes.

*note tkinter: ef.'s chief virtues are that it is fast, and that it
usually comes bundled with Python.  Although its standard documentation
is weak, good material is available, which includes: references,
tutorials, a book and others.  *note tkinter: ef. is also famous for
having an outdated look and feel, which has been vastly improved in Tk
8.5.  Nevertheless, there are many other GUI libraries that you could be
interested in.  The Python wiki lists several alternative GUI frameworks
and tools(1).

* Menu:

* tkinter: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk. Python interface to Tcl/Tk
* tkinter.colorchooser: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.font: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper. Tkinter font wrapper
* Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter::
* tkinter.messagebox: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts. Tkinter message prompts
* tkinter.scrolledtext: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget. Scrolled Text Widget
* tkinter.dnd: tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support. Drag and drop support
* tkinter.ttk: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets. Tk themed widgets
* IDLE: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>. Python editor and shell

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk,  Next: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.1 ‘tkinter’ -- Python interface to Tcl/Tk
----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le paquet *note tkinter: ef. (« interface Tk ») est l'interface Python
standard de la boîte à outils d'interface utilisateur graphique (GUI)
'Tcl/Tk'.  'Tk' et *note tkinter: ef. sont disponibles sur la plupart
des plates-formes Unix, y compris macOS, ainsi que sur les systèmes
Windows.

Exécuter ‘python -m tkinter’ depuis la ligne de commande ouvre une
fenêtre de démonstration d'une interface 'Tk' simple, vous indiquant que
*note tkinter: ef. est correctement installé sur votre système et
indiquant également quelle version de 'Tcl/Tk' est installée ; vous
pouvez donc lire la documentation 'Tcl/Tk' spécifique à cette version.

'Tkinter' prend en charge une gamme de versions 'Tcl/Tk', construites
avec ou sans prise en charge des fils d'exécution multiples.  La version
binaire officielle de Python utilise 'Tcl/Tk' 8.6 gérant les fils
d'exécution multiples.  Voir le code source du module *note _tkinter: 3.
pour plus d'informations sur les versions prises en charge.

'Tkinter' n'est pas une simple enveloppe, mais ajoute une bonne partie
de sa propre logique pour rendre l'expérience plus 'pythonique'.  Cette
documentation se concentre sur ces ajouts et modifications, et se réfère
à la documentation officielle de 'Tcl/Tk' pour les détails qui restent
inchangés.

     Note: 'Tcl/Tk' 8.5 (2007) a introduit un ensemble moderne de
     composants d'interface utilisateur thématiques ainsi qu'une
     nouvelle API pour les utiliser.  Les anciennes et les nouvelles API
     sont toujours disponibles.  La plupart des documents que vous
     trouverez en ligne utilisent toujours l'ancienne API et peuvent
     être terriblement obsolètes.

Voir aussi
..........

   * 
     TkDocs(2)

          Tutoriel complet sur la création d'interfaces utilisateur avec
          'Tkinter'.  Explique les concepts clés et illustre les
          approches recommandées à l'aide de l'API moderne.

   * 
     Référence *Tkinter* 8.5 : une interface graphique pour Python(3)

          Documentation de référence pour 'Tkinter' 8.5 détaillant les
          classes, méthodes et options disponibles (ressource en
          anglais).

Ressources 'Tcl'/Tk :

   * 
     Commandes *Tk*(4)

          Référence complète de chacune des commandes 'Tcl/Tk'
          sous-jacentes utilisées par 'Tkinter' (ressource en anglais).

   * 
     Page d'accueil de Tcl/Tk(5)

          Documentation supplémentaire et liens vers le développement
          principal de 'Tcl/Tk'.

Livres :

   * 
     Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers(6)

          par Mark Roseman.  (ISBN 978-1999149567)

   * 
     Python GUI programming with Tkinter(7)

          By Alan D. Moore.  (ISBN 978-1788835886)

   * 
     Programming Python(8)

          livre de Mark Lutz, qui couvre excellemment bien 'Tkinter'
          (ISBN 978-0596158101).

   * 
     Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)(9)

          par John Ousterhout, inventeur de 'Tcl/Tk', et Ken Jones ; ne
          couvre pas 'Tkinter'.  (ISBN 978-0321336330)

* Menu:

* Architecture::
* Modules Tkinter::
* Guide de survie Tkinter::
* Fils d'exécution multiples::
* Guide pratique::
* Gestionnaires de fichiers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.tkdocs.com/

   (3) https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk

   (6) https://tkdocs.com/book.html

   (7) 
https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886

   (8) https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html

   (9) https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X


File: python.info,  Node: Architecture,  Next: Modules Tkinter,  Up: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.1 Architecture
.....................

'Tcl/Tk' n'est pas une bibliothèque unique mais se compose plutôt de
quelques modules distincts, chacun avec des fonctionnalités distinctes
et sa propre documentation officielle.  Les versions binaires de Python
sont également livrées avec un module complémentaire.

Tcl

     'Tcl' est un langage de programmation interprété dynamique, tout
     comme Python.  Bien qu'il puisse être utilisé seul comme langage de
     programmation à usage général, il est le plus souvent intégré dans
     les applications C en tant que moteur de script ou interface avec
     la boîte à outils 'Tk'.  La bibliothèque 'Tcl' a une interface C
     pour créer et gérer une ou plusieurs instances d'un interpréteur
     'Tcl', exécuter des commandes et des scripts 'Tcl' dans ces
     instances et ajouter des commandes personnalisées implémentées en
     'Tcl' ou C. Chaque interpréteur a une file d'attente d'événements
     et il y a facilités pour lui envoyer des événements et les traiter.
     Contrairement à Python, le modèle d'exécution de 'Tcl' est conçu
     autour du multitâches coopératif, et 'Tkinter' comble cette
     différence (voir *note Modèle de thread: 3de0. pour plus de
     détails).

Tk

     'Tk' est un paquet *Tcl*(1) implémenté en C qui ajoute des
     commandes personnalisées pour créer et manipuler des widgets
     d'interface graphique.  Chaque objet *note Tk: 15f1. embarque sa
     propre instance d'interpréteur 'Tcl' avec 'Tk' chargé dedans.  Les
     widgets de 'Tk' sont très personnalisables, mais au prix d'une
     apparence datée.  'Tk' utilise la file d'attente d'événements de
     'Tcl' pour générer et traiter les événements de l'interface
     graphique.

Ttk

     'Themed Tk' ('Ttk') est une nouvelle famille de widgets 'Tk' qui
     offrent une bien meilleure apparence sur différentes plates-formes
     que la plupart des widgets 'Tk' classiques.  'Ttk' est distribué
     dans le cadre de 'Tk', à partir de la version 8.5 de 'Tk'.  Les
     liaisons Python sont fournies dans un module séparé, *note
     tkinter.ttk: f8.

En interne, 'Tk' et Ttk utilisent les fonctionnalités du système
d'exploitation sous-jacent, c'est-à-dire Xlib sur Unix/X11, Cocoa sur
macOS, GDI sur Windows.

Lorsque votre application Python utilise une classe dans 'Tkinter', par
exemple pour créer un widget, le module *note tkinter: ef. assemble
d'abord une chaîne de commande 'Tcl/Tk'.  Il passe cette chaîne de
commande 'Tcl' à un module binaire interne *note _tkinter: 3, qui
appelle ensuite l'interpréteur 'Tcl' pour l'évaluer.  L'interpréteur
'Tcl' appelle alors les paquets 'Tk' et/ou Ttk, qui à leur tour font des
appels à Xlib, Cocoa ou GDI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432


File: python.info,  Node: Modules Tkinter,  Next: Guide de survie Tkinter,  Prev: Architecture,  Up: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.2 Modules 'Tkinter'
..........................

La prise en charge de 'Tkinter' est répartie sur plusieurs modules.  La
plupart des applications auront besoin du module principal *note
tkinter: ef, ainsi que du module *note tkinter.ttk: f8, qui fournit
l'ensemble de widgets thématiques modernes et l'API :

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk

 -- Classe: tkinter.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)

     Construit un widget 'Tk' de niveau supérieur, qui est généralement
     la fenêtre principale d'une application, et initialise un
     interpréteur 'Tcl' pour ce widget.  Chaque instance a son propre
     interpréteur 'Tcl' associé.

     La classe *note Tk: 15f1. est généralement instanciée en utilisant
     toutes les valeurs par défaut.  Cependant, les arguments nommés
     suivants sont actuellement reconnus :

     'screenName'

          Lorsqu'il est donné (sous forme de chaîne), définit la
          variable d'environnement ‘DISPLAY’.  (X11 uniquement)

     'baseName'

          Nom du fichier de profil.  Par défaut, 'baseName' est dérivé
          du nom du programme (‘sys.argv[0]’).

     'className'

          Nom de la classe de widget.  Utilisé comme fichier de profil
          et aussi comme nom avec lequel 'Tcl' est invoqué ('argv0' dans
          'interp').

     'useTk'

          S'il vaut ‘True’, initialise le sous-système 'Tk'.  La
          fonction ‘tkinter.*Tcl*()’ définit ceci sur ‘False’.

     'sync'

          Si ‘True’, exécute toutes les commandes du serveur X de
          manière synchrone, afin que les erreurs soient signalées
          immédiatement.  Peut être utilisé pour le débogage.  (X11
          uniquement)

     'use'

          Spécifie l''id' de la fenêtre dans laquelle intégrer
          l'application, au lieu de la créer en tant que fenêtre de
          niveau supérieur indépendante.  'id' doit être spécifié de la
          même manière que la valeur de l'option -use pour les widgets
          de niveau supérieur (c'est-à-dire qu'il a une forme semblable
          à celle renvoyée par ‘winfo_id()’).

          Notez que sur certaines plates-formes, cela ne fonctionne
          correctement que si 'id' fait référence à un cadre 'Tk' ou à
          un niveau supérieur dont l'option -container est activée.

     *note Tk: 15f1. reads and interprets profile files, named
     ‘.`className'.tcl’ and ‘.`baseName'.tcl’, into the Tcl interpreter
     and calls *note exec(): 17d. on the contents of ‘.`className'.py’
     and ‘.`baseName'.py’.  The path for the profile files is the ‘HOME’
     environment variable or, if that isn't defined, then *note
     os.curdir: 2794.

      -- Attribut: tk

          L'objet d'application 'Tk' créé en instanciant *note Tk: 15f1.
          Cela donne accès à l'interpréteur 'Tcl'.  Chaque widget auquel
          est attachée la même instance de *note Tk: 15f1. a la même
          valeur pour son attribut *note tk: 3de2.

      -- Attribut: master

          L'objet widget qui contient ce widget.  Pour *note Tk: 15f1,
          le 'master' est *note None: 662. car c'est la fenêtre
          principale.  Les termes 'master' et 'parent' sont similaires
          et parfois utilisés de manière interchangeable comme noms
          d'arguments ; cependant, appeler ‘winfo_parent()’ renvoie une
          chaîne du nom du widget alors que *note master: 3de3. renvoie
          l'objet.  'parent'/'enfant' reflète la relation arborescente
          tandis que 'maître'/'esclave' reflète la structure du
          conteneur.

      -- Attribut: children

          Les descendants immédiats de ce widget en tant que *note dict:
          253. avec les noms des widgets enfants comme clés et les
          objets d'instance enfants comme valeurs.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.Tcl (screenName=None, baseName=None,
          className='Tk', useTk=False)

     La fonction *note Tcl(): 3de5. est une fonction fabrique qui crée
     un objet similaire à celui créé par la classe *note Tk: 15f1, sauf
     qu'elle n'initialise pas le sous-système 'Tk'.  Ceci est le plus
     souvent utile lorsque vous pilotez l'interpréteur 'Tcl' dans un
     environnement où vous ne voulez pas créer des fenêtres de haut
     niveau supplémentaires, ou alors si c'est impossible (comme les
     systèmes Unix/Linux sans un serveur X). Un objet créé par *note
     Tcl(): 3de5. peut avoir une fenêtre de haut niveau créée (et le
     sous-système 'Tk' initialisé) en appelant sa méthode ‘loadtk()’.

Parmi les modules qui savent gérer 'Tk', nous pouvons citer :

*note tkinter: ef.

     Module 'Tkinter' principal

*note tkinter.colorchooser: f0.

     Boîte de dialogue permettant à l'utilisateur de choisir une
     couleur.

*note tkinter.commondialog: f1.

     Classe de base pour les boîtes de dialogue définies dans les autres
     modules listés ici.

*note tkinter.filedialog: f3.

     Boîtes de dialogue standard permettant à l'utilisateur de spécifier
     un fichier à ouvrir ou à enregistrer.

*note tkinter.font: f4.

     Utilitaires pour gérer les polices de caractères.

*note tkinter.messagebox: f5.

     Accès aux boîtes de dialogue 'Tk' standard.

*note tkinter.scrolledtext: f6.

     Outil d'affichage de texte avec une barre de défilement verticale
     intégrée.

*note tkinter.simpledialog: f7.

     Boîtes de dialogue simples et fonctions utilitaires.

*note tkinter.ttk: f8.

     Ensemble de widgets thématiques introduit dans 'Tk' 8.5, offrant
     des alternatives modernes à de nombreux widgets classiques du
     module principal *note tkinter: ef.

Modules supplémentaires :

*note _tkinter: 3.

     Module binaire qui contient l'interface de bas niveau vers
     'Tcl/Tk'.  Il est automatiquement importé par le module principal
     *note tkinter: ef. et ne doit jamais être utilisé directement par
     les programmeurs d'applications.  Il s'agit généralement d'une
     bibliothèque partagée (ou 'DLL'), mais peut dans certains cas être
     lié statiquement à l'interpréteur Python.

*note idlelib: 72.

     Environnement de développement et d'apprentissage intégré de Python
     ('IDLE' pour 'Integrated Development and Learning Environment').
     Basé sur *note tkinter: ef.

‘tkinter.constants’

     Constantes symboliques pouvant être utilisées à la place des
     chaînes lors de la transmission de divers paramètres aux appels
     'Tkinter'.  Importé automatiquement par le module principal *note
     tkinter: ef.

*note tkinter.dnd: f2.

     Gestion du glisser-déposer pour *note tkinter: ef.  Il s'agit d'une
     méthode expérimentale qui ne sera plus maintenue lorsqu'elle sera
     remplacée par 'Tk DND'.

*note turtle: 100.

     Tortue graphique dans une fenêtre 'Tk'.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide de survie Tkinter,  Next: Fils d'exécution multiples,  Prev: Modules Tkinter,  Up: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.3 Guide de survie 'Tkinter'
..................................

Cette section n'est pas conçue pour être un tutoriel exhaustif sur 'Tk'
ou 'Tkinter'.  Pour cela, reportez-vous à l'une des ressources externes
mentionnées précédemment.  Cette section fournit plutôt un guide très
rapide sur ce à quoi ressemble une application 'Tkinter', identifie les
concepts fondamentaux de 'Tk' et explique comment l'enveloppe 'Tkinter'
est structurée.

Le reste de cette section vous aidera à identifier les classes, méthodes
et options dont vous aurez besoin dans votre application 'Tkinter', et
où trouver une documentation plus détaillée à leur sujet, y compris dans
le manuel de référence officiel 'Tcl/Tk'.

* Menu:

* Un simple programme Hello World::
* Concepts importants de Tk::
* Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk::
* Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?::
* Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk::


File: python.info,  Node: Un simple programme Hello World,  Next: Concepts importants de Tk,  Up: Guide de survie Tkinter

5.26.1.4 Un simple programme 'Hello World'
..........................................

Nous commençons par disséquer une application 'Hello World' dans
'Tkinter'.  Ce n'est pas le plus petit que nous puissions écrire, mais
il en contient suffisamment pour illustrer certains concepts clés que
vous devez connaître.

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk
     root = Tk()
     frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10)
     frm.grid()
     ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0)
     ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0)
     root.mainloop()

Après les importations, la ligne suivante crée une instance de la classe
‘Tk’, qui initialise 'Tk' et crée son interpréteur 'Tcl' associé.  Elle
crée également une fenêtre de niveau supérieur, connue sous le nom de
fenêtre racine, qui sert de fenêtre principale de l'application.

La ligne suivante crée un widget de cadre, qui dans ce cas contiendra
une étiquette et un bouton que nous créerons ensuite.  Le cadre est
ajusté à l'intérieur de la fenêtre racine.

La ligne suivante crée un widget d'étiquette contenant une chaîne de
texte statique.  La méthode ‘grid()’ est utilisée pour spécifier la
disposition relative (position) de l'étiquette dans son widget cadre
contenant, similaire au fonctionnement des tableaux en HTML.

Un widget de bouton est alors créé et placé à droite de l'étiquette.
Lorsqu'il est pressé, il appelle la méthode ‘destroy()’ de la fenêtre
racine.

Enfin, la méthode ‘mainloop()’ affiche tout sur l'écran et répond aux
entrées de l'utilisateur jusqu'à ce que le programme se termine.


File: python.info,  Node: Concepts importants de Tk,  Next: Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk,  Prev: Un simple programme Hello World,  Up: Guide de survie Tkinter

5.26.1.5 Concepts importants de 'Tk'
....................................

Même ce programme simple illustre les concepts clés suivants de 'Tk' :

widgets

     Une interface utilisateur 'Tkinter' est composée de 'widgets'
     individuels.  Chaque widget est représenté comme un objet Python,
     instancié à partir de classes comme ‘ttk.Frame’, ‘ttk.Label’ et
     ‘ttk.Button’.

hiérarchie des widgets

     Les widgets sont organisés dans une 'hiérarchie'.  L'étiquette et
     le bouton étaient contenus dans un cadre, qui à son tour était
     contenu dans la fenêtre racine.  Lors de la création de chaque
     widget 'enfant', son widget 'parent' est passé comme premier
     argument au constructeur du widget.

options de configuration

     Les widgets ont des 'options de configuration', qui modifient leur
     apparence et leur comportement, comme le texte à afficher dans une
     étiquette ou un bouton.  Différentes classes de widgets auront
     différents ensembles d'options.

gestion de la géométrie

     Les widgets ne sont pas automatiquement ajoutés à l'interface
     utilisateur lorsqu'ils sont créés.  Un 'gestionnaire de géométrie'
     comme ‘grid’ contrôle où ils sont placés dans l'interface
     utilisateur.

boucle d'événements

     'Tkinter' réagit aux entrées de l'utilisateur, aux modifications de
     votre programme et même rafraîchit l'affichage uniquement lors de
     l'exécution active d'une 'boucle d'événements'.  Si votre programme
     n'exécute pas la boucle d'événements, votre interface utilisateur
     n'est pas mise à jour.


File: python.info,  Node: Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk,  Next: Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?,  Prev: Concepts importants de Tk,  Up: Guide de survie Tkinter

5.26.1.6 Comprendre comment 'Tkinter' enveloppe 'Tcl/Tk'
........................................................

When your application uses Tkinter's classes and methods, internally
Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and
executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your
application's ‘Tk’ instance.

Qu'il s'agisse d'essayer de naviguer dans la documentation de référence,
d'essayer de trouver la bonne méthode ou option, d'adapter du code
existant ou de déboguer votre application 'Tkinter', il arrive qu'il
soit utile de comprendre à quoi ressemblent ces commandes 'Tcl/Tk'
sous-jacentes.

Pour illustrer cette idée, voici l'équivalent 'Tcl/Tk' de la partie
principale du script 'Tkinter' ci-dessus.

     ttk::frame .frm -padding 10
     grid .frm
     grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0
     grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0

La syntaxe de 'Tcl' est similaire à celle de nombreux langages 'shell',
où le premier mot est la commande à exécuter, suivi des arguments de
cette commande, séparés par des espaces.  Sans entrer dans trop de
détails, notez ce qui suit :

   * Les commandes utilisées pour créer des widgets (comme ‘ttk::frame’)
     correspondent aux classes de widgets dans 'Tkinter'.

   * Les options du widget 'Tcl' (comme ‘-text’) correspondent aux
     arguments de mots-clés dans 'Tkinter'.

   * Les widgets sont référencés par un 'chemin' en 'Tcl' (comme
     ‘.frm.btn’), alors que 'Tkinter' n'utilise pas de noms mais des
     références d'objets.

   * La place d'un widget dans la hiérarchie des widgets est encodée
     dans son nom de chemin (hiérarchique), qui utilise un ‘.’ (point)
     comme séparateur de chemin.  Le chemin d'accès à la fenêtre racine
     est simplement ‘.’ (point).  Dans 'Tkinter', la hiérarchie n'est
     pas définie par le nom de chemin mais en spécifiant le widget
     parent lors de la création de chaque widget enfant.

   * Les opérations qui sont implémentées comme des 'commandes' séparées
     dans 'Tcl' (comme ‘grid’ ou ‘destroy’) sont représentées comme des
     'méthodes' sur les objets widget de 'Tkinter'.  Comme vous le
     verrez bientôt, à d'autres moments, 'Tcl' utilise ce qui semble
     être des appels de méthode sur des objets widget, qui reflètent
     plus fidèlement ce qui serait utilisé dans 'Tkinter'.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?,  Next: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk,  Prev: Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk,  Up: Guide de survie Tkinter

5.26.1.7 Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?
............................................

Si vous ne savez pas comment faire quelque chose dans 'Tkinter' et que
vous ne le trouvez pas immédiatement dans le didacticiel ou la
documentation de référence que vous utilisez, il existe quelques
stratégies qui peuvent être utiles.

Tout d'abord, rappelez-vous que les détails du fonctionnement des
widgets individuels peuvent varier selon les différentes versions de
'Tkinter' et de 'Tcl/Tk'.  Si vous recherchez de la documentation,
assurez-vous qu'elle correspond aux versions Python et 'Tcl/Tk'
installées sur votre système.

Lorsque vous recherchez comment utiliser une API, il est utile de
connaître le nom exact de la classe, de l'option ou de la méthode que
vous utilisez.  L'introspection, soit dans un shell Python interactif,
soit avec *note print(): f62, peut vous aider à identifier ce dont vous
avez besoin.

Pour savoir quelles options de configuration sont disponibles sur
n'importe quel widget, appelez sa méthode ‘configure()’, qui renvoie un
dictionnaire contenant une variété d'informations sur l'objet, y compris
ses valeurs par défaut et actuelles.  Utilisez ‘keys()’ pour obtenir
uniquement les noms de chaque option.

     btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...)
     print(btn.configure().keys())

Comme la plupart des widgets ont de nombreuses options de configuration
en commun, il peut être utile de savoir lesquelles sont spécifiques à
une classe de widget particulière.  Comparer la liste des options à
celle d'un widget plus simple, comme un cadre, est une façon de faire.

     print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys()))

De même, vous pouvez trouver les méthodes disponibles pour un objet
widget en utilisant la fonction standard *note dir(): 61f.  Si vous
l'essayez, vous verrez qu'il existe plus de 200 méthodes de widget
courantes donc, encore une fois, identifier celles spécifiques à une
classe de widget est utile.

     print(dir(btn))
     print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))


File: python.info,  Node: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk,  Prev: Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?,  Up: Guide de survie Tkinter

5.26.1.8 Navigation dans le manuel de référence 'Tcl/Tk'
........................................................

Comme indiqué, le manuel de référence officiel des commandes Tk(1)
(pages de manuel) est souvent la description la plus précise sur ce que
font des opérations spécifiques sur les widgets.  Même lorsque vous
connaissez le nom de l'option ou de la méthode dont vous avez besoin, il
se peut que vous ayez encore quelques endroits à chercher.

Alors que toutes les opérations dans 'Tkinter' sont implémentées en tant
qu'appels de méthode sur des objets widget, vous avez vu que de
nombreuses opérations 'Tcl/Tk' apparaissent sous forme de commandes qui
prennent un chemin d'accès de widget comme premier paramètre, suivi de
paramètres facultatifs, par exemple :

     destroy .
     grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0

D'autres, cependant, ressemblent plus à des méthodes appelées sur un
objet widget (en fait, lorsque vous créez un widget en 'Tcl/Tk', il crée
une commande 'Tcl' avec le nom du chemin du widget, le premier paramètre
de cette commande étant le nom d'une méthode à appeler).

     .frm.btn invoke
     .frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye"

Dans la documentation de référence officielle 'Tcl/Tk', vous trouvez la
plupart des opérations qui ressemblent à des appels de méthode dans la
page de manuel d'un widget spécifique (par exemple, vous trouvez la
méthode ‘invoke()’ dans la page de manuel sur le ttk::button(2)), tandis
que les fonctions qui prennent un widget comme paramètre ont souvent
leur propre page de manuel (par exemple, grid(3)).

Vous trouvez de nombreuses options et méthodes courantes dans les pages
de manuel des options(4) ou ttk::widget(5), tandis que d'autres se
trouvent dans la page de manuel d'une classe de widget spécifique.

Vous constaterez également que de nombreuses méthodes 'Tkinter' ont des
noms composés, par exemple ‘winfo_x()’, ‘winfo_height()’,
‘winfo_viewable()’.  Vous trouverez de la documentation pour tout cela
dans la page de manuel winfo(6).

     Note: de manière quelque peu déroutante, il existe également des
     méthodes sur tous les widgets 'Tkinter' qui ne fonctionnent pas
     réellement sur le widget, mais fonctionnent à une portée globale,
     indépendamment de tout widget.  Les méthodes d'accès au
     presse-papiers ou à la sonnerie du système en font partie (il se
     trouve qu'elles sont implémentées en tant que méthodes dans la
     classe de base ‘Widget’ dont héritent tous les widgets 'Tkinter').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm

   (3) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm

   (6) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Fils d'exécution multiples,  Next: Guide pratique,  Prev: Guide de survie Tkinter,  Up: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.9 Fils d'exécution multiples
...................................

Python et 'Tcl/Tk' gèrent les fils d'exécution multiples ('threads') de
manière très différente, et *note tkinter: ef. essaie de combler cette
différence.  Si vous utilisez des fils d'exécution multiples, vous
devrez sûrement en être conscient.

Un interpréteur Python peut être associé à de nombreux fils d'exécution.
En 'Tcl', plusieurs fils d'exécution peuvent être créés, mais chaque fil
d'exécution est associé à une instance d'interpréteur 'Tcl' distincte.
Les fils d'exécution multiples peuvent également créer plusieurs
instances d'interpréteur, bien que chaque instance d'interpréteur ne
puisse être utilisée que par le seul fil d'exécution qui l'a créée.

Chaque objet ‘Tk’ créé par *note tkinter: ef. contient un interpréteur
'Tcl'.  Il garde également une trace du fil d'exécution qui a créé cet
interpréteur.  Les appels à *note tkinter: ef. peuvent être effectués à
partir de n'importe quel fil d'exécution Python.  En interne, si un
appel provient d'un fil d'exécution autre que celui qui a créé l'objet
‘Tk’, un événement est posté dans la file d'attente d'événements de
l'interpréteur et, lorsqu'il est exécuté, le résultat est renvoyé au fil
d'exécution Python appelant.

Les applications 'Tcl/Tk' sont normalement pilotées par les événements,
ce qui signifie qu'après l'initialisation, l'interpréteur exécute une
boucle d'événements (c'est-à-dire ‘Tk.mainloop()’) et répond aux
événements.  Comme il s'agit d'un seul fil d'exécution, les
gestionnaires d'événements doivent répondre rapidement, sinon ils
empêchent le traitement d'autres événements.  Pour éviter cela, les
calculs de longue durée ne doivent pas s'exécuter dans un gestionnaire
d'événements, mais sont soit divisés en plus petits morceaux à l'aide de
temporisateurs, soit exécutés dans un autre fil d'exécution.  Ceci est
différent de nombreux kits d'outils d'interface graphique où l'interface
graphique s'exécute dans un fil d'exécution complètement séparé de tout
le code d'application, y compris les gestionnaires d'événements.

Si l'interpréteur 'Tcl' n'exécute pas la boucle d'événements et ne
traite pas les événements, tout appel *note tkinter: ef. effectué à
partir de fils d'exécution autres que celui exécutant l'interpréteur
'Tcl' échoue.

Plusieurs cas particuliers existent :

   * Les bibliothèques 'Tcl/Tk' peuvent être construites de manière à ne
     pas gérer les fils d'exécution multiples.  Dans ce cas, *note
     tkinter: ef. appelle la bibliothèque à partir du fil d'exécution
     Python d'origine, même s'il est différent du fil d'exécution qui a
     créé l'interpréteur 'Tcl'.  Un verrou global garantit qu'un seul
     appel se produit à la fois.

   * Alors que *note tkinter: ef. vous permet de créer plus d'une
     instance d'un objet ‘Tk’ (avec son propre interpréteur), tous les
     interpréteurs qui font partie du même fil d'exécution partagent une
     file d'attente d'événements commune, qui devient très vite moche.
     En pratique, ne créez pas plus d'une instance de ‘Tk’ à la fois.
     Sinon, il est préférable de les créer dans des fils d'exécution
     séparés et de vous assurer que vous exécutez une instance 'Tcl/Tk'
     compatible avec les fils d'exécution multiples.

   * Le blocage des gestionnaires d'événements n'est pas le seul moyen
     d'empêcher l'interpréteur 'Tcl' de bien gérer la boucle
     d'événements.  Il est même possible d'exécuter plusieurs boucles
     d'événements imbriquées ou d'abandonner complètement la boucle
     d'événements.  Si vous faites quelque chose de délicat en ce qui
     concerne les événements ou les fils d'exécution, soyez conscient de
     ces possibilités.

   * Il existe quelques fonctions select *note tkinter: ef. qui ne
     fonctionnent actuellement que lorsqu'elles sont appelées depuis le
     fil d'exécution qui a créé l'interpréteur 'Tcl'.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide pratique,  Next: Gestionnaires de fichiers,  Prev: Fils d'exécution multiples,  Up: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.10 Guide pratique
........................

* Menu:

* Définition des options::
* L'empaqueteur::
* Options de l'empaqueteur::
* Association des variables de l'objet graphique::
* Le gestionnaire de fenêtres::
* Types de données des options Tk::
* Liaisons et événements::
* Le paramètre index::
* Images::


File: python.info,  Node: Définition des options,  Next: L'empaqueteur,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.11 Définition des options
................................

Les options contrôlent des paramètres tels que la couleur et la largeur
de la bordure d'un objet graphique.  Les options peuvent être réglées de
trois façons :

Lors de la création de l'objet, à l'aide d'arguments par mots-clés

          fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")

Après la création de l'objet, en manipulant le nom de l'option comme une entrée de dictionnaire

          fred["fg"] = "red"
          fred["bg"] = "blue"

Utilisez la méthode ‘config()’ pour mettre à jour plusieurs attributs après la création de l'objet

          fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")

Pour l'explication complète d'une option donnée et de son comportement,
voir les pages de manuel 'Tk' de l'objet graphique en question.

Notez que les pages de manuel listent « OPTIONS STANDARD » et « OPTIONS
SPÉCIFIQUES D'OBJETS GRAPHIQUES » pour chaque objet graphique.  La
première est une liste d'options communes à de nombreux objets
graphiques, la seconde est une liste d'options propres à cet objet
graphique particulier.  Les options standard sont documentées sur la
page de manuel ‘options(3)(1)’.

Aucune distinction n'est faite dans ce document entre les options
standard et les options spécifiques à un objet graphique.  Certaines
options ne s'appliquent pas à certains types d'objets graphiques.  La
réaction d'un objet graphique donné à une option particulière dépend de
la classe de l'objet graphique ; les boutons possèdent une option
‘command’, pas les étiquettes.

Les options gérées par un objet graphique donné sont listées dans la
page de manuel de cet objet graphique, ou peuvent être interrogées à
l'exécution en appelant la méthode ‘config()’ sans argument, ou en
appelant la méthode ‘keys()’ sur cet objet graphique.  La valeur de
retour de ces appels est un dictionnaire dont la clé est le nom de
l'option sous forme de chaîne (par exemple, ‘'relief'’) et dont les
valeurs sont des '5-uplets'.

Certaines options, comme ‘bg’, sont des synonymes d'options communes qui
ont des noms longs (‘bg’ est une abréviation pour ‘background’
« arrière-plan »).  Passer le nom abrégé d'une option à la méthode
‘config()’ renvoie un couple, pas un quintuplet.  Le couple renvoyé
contient le nom abrégé et le nom 'réel' de l'option, par exemple
‘('bg','background')’.

Index       Signification                         Exemple
                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
0           nom des options                       ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
1           nom de l'option pour la recherche     ‘'relief'’
            dans la base de données               
            
                                                  
2           classe de l'option pour la            ‘'Relief'’
            recherche dans la base de données     
            
                                                  
3           valeur par défaut                     ‘'raised'’
                                                  
                                                  
4           valeur actuelle                       ‘'groove'’
                                                  

Exemple :

     >>> print(fred.config())
     {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}

Bien sûr, le dictionnaire affiché contient toutes les options
disponibles et leurs valeurs.  Ceci n'est donné qu'à titre d'exemple.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)


File: python.info,  Node: L'empaqueteur,  Next: Options de l'empaqueteur,  Prev: Définition des options,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.12 L'empaqueteur
.......................

L'empaqueteur est l'un des mécanismes de 'Tk' pour la gestion de la
disposition des éléments sur l'écran.  Les gestionnaires de géométrie
sont utilisés pour spécifier le positionnement relatif du positionnement
des objets graphiques dans leur conteneur — leur 'constructeur' mutuel.
Contrairement au plus encombrant 'placeur' (qui est utilisé moins
souvent, et nous n'en parlons pas ici), l'empaqueteur prend les
spécifications qualitatives de relation — 'above', 'to the left of',
'filling', etc — et calcule tout pour déterminer les coordonnées exactes
du placement pour vous.

La taille d'un objet graphique 'constructeur' est déterminée par la
taille des « objets graphiques hérités » à l'intérieur.  L'empaqueteur
est utilisé pour contrôler l'endroit où les objets graphiques hérités
apparaissent à l'intérieur du constructeur dans lequel ils sont
empaquetés.  Vous pouvez regrouper des objets graphiques dans des
cadres, et des cadres dans d'autres cadres, afin d'obtenir le type de
mise en page souhaité.  De plus, l'arrangement est ajusté dynamiquement
pour s'adapter aux changements incrémentiels de la configuration, une
fois qu'elle est empaquetées.

Notez que les objets graphiques n'apparaissent pas tant que leur
disposition n'a pas été spécifiée avec un gestionnaire de géométrie.
C'est une erreur de débutant courante de ne pas tenir compte de la
spécification de la géométrie, puis d'être surpris lorsque l'objet
graphique est créé mais que rien n'apparaît.  Un objet graphique
n'apparaît qu'après que, par exemple, la méthode ‘pack()’ de
l'empaqueteur lui ait été appliquée.

La méthode ‘pack()’ peut être appelée avec des paires
mot-clé-option/valeur qui contrôlent où l'objet graphique doit
apparaître dans son conteneur et comment il doit se comporter lorsque la
fenêtre principale de l'application est redimensionnée.  En voici
quelques exemples :

     fred.pack()                     # defaults to side = "top"
     fred.pack(side="left")
     fred.pack(expand=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Options de l'empaqueteur,  Next: Association des variables de l'objet graphique,  Prev: L'empaqueteur,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.13 Options de l'empaqueteur
..................................

Pour de plus amples informations sur l'empaqueteur et les options qu'il
peut prendre, voir les pages de manuel et la page 183 du livre de John
Ousterhout.

'anchor'

     Type d'ancrage.  Indique l'endroit où l'empaqueteur doit placer
     chaque enfant dans son espace.

'expand'

     Booléen, ‘0’ ou ‘1’.

'fill'

     Valeurs acceptées : ‘'x'’, ‘'y'’, ‘'both'’, ‘'none'’.

'ipadx' et 'ipady'

     Une distance — désignant l'écart interne de chaque côté de l'objet
     graphique hérité.

'padx' et 'pady'

     Une distance — désignant l'écart externe de chaque côté de l'objet
     graphique hérité.

'side'

     Valeurs acceptées : ‘'left'’, ‘'right'’, ‘'top'’, ‘'bottom'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Association des variables de l'objet graphique,  Next: Le gestionnaire de fenêtres,  Prev: Options de l'empaqueteur,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.14 Association des variables de l'objet graphique
........................................................

L'assignation d'une valeur à certains objets graphiques (comme les
objets graphique de saisie de texte) peut être liée directement aux
variables de votre application à l'aide d'options spéciales.  Ces
options sont ‘variable’, ‘textvariable’, ‘onvalue’, ‘offvalue’ et
‘value’.  Ce lien fonctionne dans les deux sens : si la variable change
pour une raison ou pour une autre, l'objet graphique auquel elle est
connectée est mis à jour pour refléter la nouvelle valeur.

Malheureusement, dans l'implémentation actuelle de *note tkinter: ef. il
n'est pas possible de passer une variable Python arbitraire à un objet
graphique via une option ‘variable’ ou ‘textvariable’.  Les seuls types
de variables pour lesquels cela fonctionne sont les variables qui sont
sous-classées à partir d'une classe appelée ‘Variable’, définie dans
*note tkinter: ef.

Il existe de nombreuses sous-classes utiles de ‘Variable’ déjà
définies : ‘StringVar’, ‘IntVar’, ‘DoubleVar’ et ‘BooleanVar’.  Pour
lire la valeur courante d'une telle variable, appelez la méthode ‘get()’
dessus et, pour changer sa valeur, appelez la méthode ‘set()’.  Si vous
suivez ce protocole, l'objet graphique suivra toujours la valeur de la
variable, sans autre intervention de votre part.

Par exemple :

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

             self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
             self.entrythingy.pack()

             # Create the application variable.
             self.contents = tk.StringVar()
             # Set it to some value.
             self.contents.set("this is a variable")
             # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable.
             self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents

             # Define a callback for when the user hits return.
             # It prints the current value of the variable.
             self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
                                  self.print_contents)

         def print_contents(self, event):
             print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
                   self.contents.get())

     root = tk.Tk()
     myapp = App(root)
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Le gestionnaire de fenêtres,  Next: Types de données des options Tk,  Prev: Association des variables de l'objet graphique,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.15 Le gestionnaire de fenêtres
.....................................

Dans 'Tk', il y a une commande pratique, ‘wm’, pour interagir avec le
gestionnaire de fenêtres.  Les options de la commande ‘wm’ vous
permettent de contrôler les titres, le placement, les icônes en mode
'bitmap' et encore d'autres choses du même genre.  Dans *note tkinter:
ef, ces commandes ont été implémentées en tant que méthodes sur la
classe ‘Wm’.  Les objets graphiques de haut niveau sont sous-classés à
partir de la classe ‘Wm’, ils peuvent donc appeler directement les
méthodes de ‘Wm’.

Pour accéder à la fenêtre du plus haut niveau qui contient un objet
graphique donné, vous pouvez souvent simplement vous référer au parent
de cet objet graphique.  Bien sûr, si l'objet graphique a été empaqueté
à l'intérieur d'un cadre, le parent ne représentera pas la fenêtre de
plus haut niveau.  Pour accéder à la fenêtre du plus haut niveau qui
contient un objet graphique arbitraire, vous pouvez appeler la méthode
‘_root()’.  Cette méthode commence par un soulignement pour indiquer que
cette fonction fait partie de l'implémentation, et non d'une interface
avec la fonctionnalité 'Tk'.

Voici quelques exemples d'utilisation courante :

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master=None):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

     # create the application
     myapp = App()

     #
     # here are method calls to the window manager class
     #
     myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
     myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)

     # start the program
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données des options Tk,  Next: Liaisons et événements,  Prev: Le gestionnaire de fenêtres,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.16 Types de données des options 'Tk'
...........................................

'anchor'

     Les valeurs acceptées sont des points cardinaux : ‘"n"’, ‘"ne"’,
     ‘"e"’, ‘"se"’, ‘"s"’, ‘"sw"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"nw"’ et ‘"center"’.

'bitmap'

     Il y a huit bitmaps intégrés nommés : ‘"error"’, ‘"gray25"’,
     ‘"gray50"’, ‘"hourglass"’, ‘"info"’, ‘"questhead"’, ‘"question"’,
     ‘"warning"’.  Pour spécifier un nom de fichier bitmap X, indiquez
     le chemin complet du fichier, précédé de ‘@’, comme dans
     ‘"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"’.

'boolean'

     Vous pouvez lui donner les entiers 0 ou 1 ou les chaînes de
     caractères ‘"yes"’ ou ‘"no"’.

'callback'

     N'importe quelle fonction Python qui ne prend pas d'argument.  Par
     exemple :

          def print_it():
              print("hi there")
          fred["command"] = print_it

'color'

     Les couleurs peuvent être données sous forme de noms de couleurs
     'Xorg' dans le fichier 'rgb.txt', ou sous forme de chaînes
     représentant les valeurs RVB en 4 bits : ‘"#RGB"’, 8 bits :
     ‘"#RRVVBB"’, 12 bits : ‘"#RRRVVVBBB"’, ou 16 bits :
     ‘"#RRRRVVVVBBBB"’, où R,V,B représente ici tout chiffre hexadécimal
     valide.  Voir page 160 du livre d'Ousterhout pour plus de détails.

'cursor'

     Les noms de curseurs 'Xorg' standard que l'on trouve dans
     ‘cursorfont.h’ peuvent être utilisés, sans le préfixe ‘XC_’.  Par
     exemple pour obtenir un curseur en forme de main (‘XC_hand2’),
     utilisez la chaîne ‘"hand2"’.  Vous pouvez également spécifier
     votre propre bitmap et fichier masque.  Voir page 179 du livre
     d'Ousterhout.

'distance'

     Les distances à l'écran peuvent être spécifiées en pixels ou en
     distances absolues.  Les pixels sont donnés sous forme de nombres
     et les distances absolues sous forme de chaînes de caractères, le
     dernier caractère indiquant les unités : ‘c’ pour les centimètres,
     ‘i’ pour les pouces ('inches' en anglais), ‘m’ pour les
     millimètres, ‘p’ pour les points d'impression.  Par exemple, 3,5
     pouces est noté ‘"3.5i"’.

'font'

     'Tk' utilise un format de nom de police sous forme de liste, tel
     que ‘{courier 10 bold}’.  Les tailles de polices avec des nombres
     positifs sont mesurées en points ; les tailles avec des nombres
     négatifs sont mesurées en pixels.

'geometry'

     Il s'agit d'une chaîne de caractères de la forme ‘largeurxhauteur’,
     où la largeur et la hauteur sont mesurées en pixels pour la plupart
     des objets graphiques (en caractères pour les objets graphiques
     affichant du texte).  Par exemple : ‘fred["geometry"] = "200x100"’.

'justify'

     Les valeurs acceptées sont les chaînes de caractères : ‘"left"’,
     ‘"center"’, ‘"right"’ et ‘"fill"’.

'region'

     c'est une chaîne de caractères avec quatre éléments séparés par des
     espaces, chacun d'eux étant une distance valide (voir ci-dessus).
     Par exemple : ‘"2 3 4 5"’, ‘" 3i 2i 4.5i 2i"’ et ‘"3c 2c 4c
     10.43c"’ sont toutes des régions valides.

'relief'

     Détermine le style de bordure d'un objet graphique.  Les valeurs
     valides sont : ‘"raised"’, ‘"sunken"’, ‘"flat"’, ‘"groove"’ et
     ‘"ridge"’.

'scrollcommand'

     C'est presque toujours la méthode ‘set()’ d'un objet graphique de
     défilement, mais peut être n'importe quelle méthode d'objet
     graphique qui prend un seul argument.

'wrap'

     Doit être ‘"none"’, ‘"char"’ ou ‘"word"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Liaisons et événements,  Next: Le paramètre index,  Prev: Types de données des options Tk,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.17 Liaisons et événements
................................

La méthode ‘bind’ de la commande d'objet graphique vous permet de
surveiller certains événements et d'avoir un déclencheur de fonction de
rappel lorsque ce type d'événement se produit.  La forme de la méthode
de liaison est la suivante :

     def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):

où :

'sequence'

     est une chaîne de caractères qui indique le type d'événement cible.
     (Voir la page du manuel de ‘bind(3tk)(1)’ et la page 201 du livre
     de John Ousterhout ‘Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)’ pour plus
     de détails).

'func'

     est une fonction Python, prenant un argument, à invoquer lorsque
     l'événement se produit.  Une instance d’évènement sera passée en
     argument.  (Les fonctions déployées de cette façon sont communément
     appelées 'callbacks' ou « fonctions de rappel » en français).

'add'

     est facultative, soit ‘''’ ou ‘'+'’.  L'envoi d'une chaîne de
     caractères vide indique que cette liaison doit remplacer toute
     autre liaison à laquelle cet événement est associé.  L'envoi de
     ‘"+"’ signifie que cette fonction doit être ajoutée à la liste des
     fonctions liées à ce type d'événement.

Par exemple :

     def turn_red(self, event):
         event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"

     self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)

Remarquez comment on accède au champ 'objet graphique' de l'événement
dans la fonction de rappel ‘turn_red()’.  Ce champ contient l'objet
graphique qui a capturé l'événement 'Xorg'.  Le tableau suivant
répertorie les autres champs d'événements auxquels vous pouvez accéder,
et comment ils sont nommés dans 'Tk', ce qui peut être utile lorsque
vous vous référez aux pages de manuel 'Tk'.

Tk       Champ 'évènement' de      Tk       Champ 'évènement' de
         'Tkinter'                          'Tkinter'
                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
%f       focus                     %A       char
                                            
                                            
%h       hauteur                   %E       send_event
                                            
                                            
%k       keycode                   %K       keysym
                                            
                                            
%s       state                     %N       keysym_num
                                            
                                            
%t       time                      %T       type
                                            
                                            
%w       width                     %W       widget
                                            
                                            
%x       x                         %X       x_root
                                            
                                            
%y       y                         %Y       y_root
                                            

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)


File: python.info,  Node: Le paramètre index,  Next: Images,  Prev: Liaisons et événements,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.18 Le paramètre index
............................

Un certain nombre d'objets graphiques nécessitent le passage de
paramètres « indicés ».  Ils sont utilisés pour pointer vers un endroit
spécifique dans un objet graphique de type 'Texte', ou vers des
caractères particuliers dans un objet graphique de type 'Entrée', ou
vers des éléments de menu particuliers dans un objet graphique de type
'Menu'.

Index des objets graphique de type 'Entrée' (‘index’, ‘view index’, etc.)

     Les objets graphiques de type 'Entrée' ont des options qui se
     réfèrent à la position des caractères dans le texte affiché.  Vous
     pouvez utiliser ces fonctions *note tkinter: ef. pour accéder à ces
     points spéciaux dans les widgets textes :

Index des objets graphiques texte

     La notation de l'index des objets graphiques de type 'Texte' est
     très riche et mieux décrite dans les pages du manuel 'Tk'.

Index menu (‘menu.invoke()’, ‘menu.entryconfig()’, etc.)

     Certaines options et méthodes pour manipuler les menus nécessitent
     des éléments de spécifiques.  Chaque fois qu'un index de menu est
     nécessaire pour une option ou un paramètre, vous pouvez utiliser :

        * un entier qui fait référence à la position numérique de
          l'entrée dans l'objet graphique, comptée à partir du haut, en
          commençant par 0 ;

        * la chaîne de caractères ‘"active"’, qui fait référence à la
          position du menu qui se trouve actuellement sous le curseur ;

        * la chaîne de caractères ‘"last"’ qui fait référence au dernier
          élément du menu ;

        * un entier précédé de ‘@’, comme dans ‘@6’, où l'entier est
          interprété comme une coordonnée y de pixels dans le système de
          coordonnées du menu ;

        * la chaîne de caractères ‘"none"’, qui n'indique aucune entrée
          du menu, le plus souvent utilisée avec ‘menu.activate()’ pour
          désactiver toutes les entrées, et enfin,

        * une chaîne de texte dont le motif correspond à l'étiquette de
          l'entrée de menu, telle qu'elle est balayée du haut vers le
          bas du menu.  Notez que ce type d'index est considéré après
          tous les autres, ce qui signifie que les correspondances pour
          les éléments de menu étiquetés ‘last’, ‘active’ ou ‘none’
          peuvent être interprétés comme les littéraux ci-dessus,
          plutôt.


File: python.info,  Node: Images,  Prev: Le paramètre index,  Up: Guide pratique

5.26.1.19 Images
................

Des images de différents formats peuvent être créées à travers la
sous-classe correspondante de ‘tkinter.Image’ :

   * ‘BitmapImage’ pour les images au format 'XBM'.

   * ‘PhotoImage’ pour les images aux formats 'PGM', 'PPM', 'GIF' et
     'PNG'. Ce dernier est géré à partir de 'Tk' 8.6.

L'un ou l'autre type d'image est créé par l'option ‘file’ ou ‘data’
(d'autres options sont également disponibles).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the ‘PhotoImage’ method
‘copy_replace()’ to copy a region from one image to other image,
possibly with pixel zooming and/or subsampling.  Add 'from_coords'
parameter to ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.
Add 'zoom' and 'subsample' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.

L'objet image peut alors être utilisé partout où un objet graphique sait
gérer une option ‘image’ (par ex.  étiquettes, boutons, menus).  Dans
ces cas, 'Tk' ne conserve pas de référence à l'image.  Lorsque la
dernière référence Python à l'objet image est supprimée, les données de
l'image sont également supprimées, et 'Tk' affiche une boite vide à
l'endroit où l'image était utilisée.

Voir aussi
..........

Le paquet Pillow(1) ajoute la prise en charge de formats tels que 'BMP',
'JPEG', 'TIFF' et 'WebP', entre autres.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://python-pillow.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de fichiers,  Prev: Guide pratique,  Up: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.20 Gestionnaires de fichiers
...................................

'Tk' vous permet d'enregistrer et de 'désenregistrer' une fonction de
rappel qui est appelée depuis la boucle principale de 'Tk' lorsque des
entrées-sorties sont possibles sur un descripteur de fichier.  Un seul
gestionnaire peut être enregistré par descripteur de fichier.  Exemple
de code :

     import tkinter
     widget = tkinter.Tk()
     mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
     widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
     ...
     widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

Cette fonction n'est pas disponible sous Windows.

Dans la mesure où vous ne savez pas combien d'octets sont disponibles en
lecture, il ne faut pas utiliser les méthodes *note BufferedIOBase: 681.
ou *note TextIOBase: 682. *note read(): 1308. ou *note readline(): 1309,
car elles requièrent d'indiquer le nombre de 'bytes' à lire.  Pour les
connecteurs, les méthodes ‘recv()’ ou *note recvfrom(): d94.
fonctionnent bien ; pour les autres fichiers, utilisez des lectures
brutes ou ‘os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)’.

 -- Méthode: Widget.tk.createfilehandler (file, mask, func)

     Enregistre la fonction de rappel du gestionnaire de fichiers
     'func'.  L'argument ‘file’ peut être soit un objet avec une méthode
     *note fileno(): 2806. (comme un objet fichier ou connecteur), soit
     un descripteur de fichier de type entier.  L'argument ‘mask’ est
     une combinaison 'OU' de l'une des trois constantes ci-dessous.  La
     fonction de rappel s'utilise comme suit :

          callback(file, mask)

 -- Méthode: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler (file)

     Désenregistre un gestionnaire de fichiers.

 -- Données: _tkinter.READABLE
 -- Données: _tkinter.WRITABLE
 -- Données: _tkinter.EXCEPTION

     Constantes utilisées dans les arguments ‘mask’.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog,  Next: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper,  Prev: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.2 ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ -- Color choosing dialog
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.colorchooser: f0. fournit la classe *note
Chooser: 3e01. en tant qu'interface avec la boîte de dialogue native du
sélecteur de couleurs.  ‘Chooser’ implémente une fenêtre de dialogue de
choix de couleur modale.  La classe ‘Chooser’ hérite de la classe *note
Dialog: 3e02.

 -- Classe: tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser (master=None, **options)

 -- Fonction: tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor (color=None, **options)

     Crée une boîte de dialogue de choix de couleur.  Un appel à cette
     méthode affiche la fenêtre, attend que l'utilisateur fasse une
     sélection et renvoie la couleur sélectionnée (ou ‘None’) à
     l'appelant.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note tkinter.commondialog: f1.

     Module de dialogue standard 'Tkinter'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper,  Next: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter,  Prev: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.3 ‘tkinter.font’ -- Tkinter font wrapper
---------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/font.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.font: f4. fournit la classe *note Font: 18c7.
pour créer et utiliser des polices nommées.

Les différentes épaisseurs et inclinaisons des polices sont :

 -- Données: tkinter.font.NORMAL
 -- Données: tkinter.font.BOLD
 -- Données: tkinter.font.ITALIC
 -- Données: tkinter.font.ROMAN

 -- Classe: tkinter.font.Font (root=None, font=None, name=None,
          exists=False, **options)

     La classe *note Font: 18c7. représente une police nommée.  Les
     instances 'Font' reçoivent des noms uniques et peuvent être
     spécifiées par leur configuration de famille, de taille et de
     style.  Les polices nommées sont la méthode de 'Tk' pour créer et
     identifier les polices comme un seul objet, plutôt que de spécifier
     une police par ses attributs à chaque occurrence.

          arguments :

                    'font' – 'n'-uplet spécificateur de police (famille, taille, options)
                    'name' – nom de police unique
                    'exists' – s'il est vrai, 'self' pointe vers la police nommée existante

          options nommées supplémentaires (ignorées si 'font' est
          spécifié) :

                    'family' – famille de polices, c'est-à-dire 'Courier', 'Times'
                    'size' – taille de la police
                         Si 'size' est positif, il est interprété comme une taille en points.
                         Si 'size' est un nombre négatif sa valeur absolue est traitée
                         comme taille en pixels.
                    'weight' – accentuation de la police ('NORMAL', 'BOLD' pour gras)
                    'slant' – 'ROMAN' pour romain, 'ITALIC' pour italique
                    'underline' – soulignement de la police (0 – aucun, 1 – souligné)
                    'overstrike' – police barrée (0 – aucune, 1 – barré)

      -- Méthode: actual (option=None, displayof=None)

          Renvoie les attributs de la police.

      -- Méthode: cget (option)

          Récupère un attribut de la police.

      -- Méthode: config (**options)

          Modifie les attributs de la police.

      -- Méthode: copy ()

          Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la police actuelle.

      -- Méthode: measure (text, displayof=None)

          Renvoie la quantité d'espace que le texte occuperait sur
          l'affichage spécifié s'il était formaté dans la police
          actuelle.  Si 'displayof' n'est pas spécifié, 'tk' suppose que
          c'est la fenêtre principale de l'application.

      -- Méthode: metrics (*options, **kw)

          Renvoie des données spécifiques à la police.  Les options
          incluent :

          'ascent' – distance entre la ligne de base et le point le plus haut qu'un

               caractère de la police peut occuper

          'descent' – distance entre la ligne de base et le point le plus bas qu'un

               caractère de la police peut occuper

          'linespace' – séparation verticale minimale nécessaire entre deux

               caractères de la police qui assure l'absence de
               chevauchement vertical entre les lignes.

          'fixed' – 1 si la police est à largeur fixe sinon 0

 -- Fonction: tkinter.font.families (root=None, displayof=None)

     Renvoie les différentes familles de polices.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.font.names (root=None)

     Renvoie les noms des polices définies.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.font.nametofont (name, root=None)

     Renvoie une représentation *note Font: 18c7. d'une police 'tk'
     nommée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre 'root' a été ajouté.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/font.py


File: python.info,  Node: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter,  Next: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts,  Prev: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.4 Boîtes de dialogue 'Tkinter'
-----------------------------------

* Menu:

* tkinter.simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter: tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
* tkinter.filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers.
* tkinter.commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue: tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter,  Next: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers,  Up: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

5.26.4.1 ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de 'Tkinter'
....................................................................................

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.simpledialog: f7. contient des classes pratiques
et des fonctions pour créer des boîtes de dialogue modales simples afin
d'obtenir une valeur de l'utilisateur.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- Fonction: tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- Fonction: tkinter.simpledialog.askstring (title, prompt, **kw)

     Les trois fonctions ci-dessus fournissent des boîtes de dialogue
     qui invitent l'utilisateur à saisir une valeur du type souhaité.

 -- Classe: tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog (parent, title=None)

     Classe mère pour les boîtes de dialogue personnalisées.

      -- Méthode: body (master)

          À remplacer pour construire l'interface de la boîte de
          dialogue et renvoyer le widget qui doit avoir le focus
          initial.

      -- Méthode: buttonbox ()

          Le comportement par défaut ajoute les boutons OK et Annuler.
          À remplacer avoir une disposition de boutons personnalisée.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers,  Next: tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue,  Prev: tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter,  Up: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

5.26.4.2 ‘tkinter.filedialog’ – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers
...........................................................................

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.filedialog: f3. fournit des classes et des
fonctions de fabrique pour créer des fenêtres de sélection de fichiers
ou répertoires.

* Menu:

* Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives,  Up: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers

5.26.4.3 Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives
...............................................................

Les classes et fonctions suivantes fournissent des fenêtres de dialogue
de fichiers qui combinent une apparence native avec des options de
configuration pour personnaliser le comportement.  Les arguments nommés
suivants s'appliquent aux classes et fonctions répertoriées ci-dessous :

          'parent' – la fenêtre sur laquelle placer la boîte de dialogue

          'title' – le titre de la fenêtre

          'initialdir' – le répertoire dans lequel la boîte de dialogue démarre

          'initialfile' – le fichier sélectionné à l'ouverture de la boîte de dialogue

          'filetypes' – une séquence de 'n'-uplets (étiquette, motif), le caractère générique ‘'*'’ est autorisé

          'defaultextension' – extension par défaut à ajouter au fichier (boîtes de dialogue de sauvegarde)

          'multiple' – lorsque vrai, la sélection de plusieurs éléments est autorisée

'Fonctions statiques de fabrique'

Les fonctions ci-dessous, lorsqu'elles sont appelées, créent une boîte
de dialogue d'apparence modale native, attendent la sélection de
l'utilisateur, puis renvoient la ou les valeurs sélectionnées ou ‘None’
à l'appelant.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile (mode='r', **options)
 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles (mode='r', **options)

     Les deux fonctions ci-dessus créent une boîte de dialogue *note
     Open: 3e1e. et renvoient le(s) objet(s) fichier ouvert(s) en mode
     lecture seule.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile (mode='w', **options)

     Crée une boîte de dialogue *note SaveAs: 3e20. et renvoie un objet
     fichier ouvert en mode écriture seule.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename (**options)
 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames (**options)

     Les deux fonctions ci-dessus créent une boîte de dialogue *note
     Open: 3e1e. et renvoient le(s) nom(s) de fichier sélectionné(s) qui
     correspondent au(x) fichier(s) existant(s).

 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename (**options)

     Crée une boîte de dialogue *note SaveAs: 3e20. et renvoie le nom de
     fichier sélectionné.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory (**options)

          Demande à l'utilisateur de sélectionner un répertoire.
          Option nommée supplémentaire :
               'mustexist' – détermine si la sélection doit être un répertoire existant.

 -- Classe: tkinter.filedialog.Open (master=None, **options)
 -- Classe: tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs (master=None, **options)

     Les deux classes ci-dessus fournissent des fenêtres de dialogue
     natives pour enregistrer et charger des fichiers.

'Classes de commodité'

Les classes ci-dessous sont utilisées pour créer des fenêtres avec
fichiers et répertoires à partir de zéro.  Celles-ci n'imitent pas
l'apparence native de la plateforme.

 -- Classe: tkinter.filedialog.Directory (master=None, **options)

     Crée une boîte de dialogue invitant l'utilisateur à sélectionner un
     répertoire.

     Note: la classe 'FileDialog' doit être sous-classée pour un
     comportement et une gestion des événements personnalisés.

 -- Classe: tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog (master, title=None)

     Crée une boîte de dialogue basique de sélection de fichiers.

      -- Méthode: cancel_command (event=None)

          Déclenche la fermeture de la fenêtre de dialogue.

      -- Méthode: dirs_double_event (event)

          Gestionnaire d'événements pour l'événement de double-clic sur
          le répertoire.

      -- Méthode: dirs_select_event (event)

          Gestionnaire d'événements pour l'événement de clic sur le
          répertoire.

      -- Méthode: files_double_event (event)

          Gestionnaire d'événements pour l'événement de double-clic sur
          le fichier.

      -- Méthode: files_select_event (event)

          Gestionnaire d'événements pour un événement en un seul clic
          sur le fichier.

      -- Méthode: filter_command (event=None)

          Filtre les fichiers par répertoire.

      -- Méthode: get_filter ()

          Récupère le filtre de fichiers actuellement utilisé.

      -- Méthode: get_selection ()

          Récupère l'élément actuellement sélectionné.

      -- Méthode: go (dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='',
               key=None)

          Affiche la boîte de dialogue et lance la boucle d'événements.

      -- Méthode: ok_event (event)

          Quitte la boîte de dialogue en renvoyant la sélection
          actuelle.

      -- Méthode: quit (how=None)

          Sort de la boîte de dialogue en renvoyant le nom du fichier,
          le cas échéant.

      -- Méthode: set_filter (dir, pat)

          Définit le filtre de fichiers.

      -- Méthode: set_selection (file)

          Met à jour la sélection de fichiers actuelle vers 'file'.

 -- Classe: tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog (master, title=None)

     Sous-classe de 'FileDialog' qui crée une fenêtre de dialogue pour
     sélectionner un fichier existant.

      -- Méthode: ok_command ()

          Teste qu'un fichier est fourni et que la sélection indique un
          fichier déjà existant.

 -- Classe: tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog (master, title=None)

     Sous-classe de 'FileDialog' qui crée une fenêtre de dialogue pour
     sélectionner un fichier de destination.

      -- Méthode: ok_command ()

          Teste si la sélection pointe vers un fichier valide qui n'est
          pas un répertoire.  Une confirmation est requise si un fichier
          déjà existant est sélectionné.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue,  Prev: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers,  Up: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

5.26.4.4 ‘tkinter.commondialog’ – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue
................................................................

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.commondialog: f1. fournit la classe *note
Dialog: 3e02. qui est la classe mère pour les dialogues définis dans
d'autres modules.

 -- Classe: tkinter.commondialog.Dialog (master=None, **options)

      -- Méthode: show (color=None, **options)

          Affiche la fenêtre de dialogue.

Voir aussi
..........

Modules *note tkinter.messagebox: f5, *note Lecture et écriture de
fichiers: 1c3d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts,  Next: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget,  Prev: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.5 ‘tkinter.messagebox’ -- Tkinter message prompts
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.messagebox: f5. module provides a template base class
as well as a variety of convenience methods for commonly used
configurations.  The message boxes are modal and will return a subset of
(‘True’, ‘False’, ‘None’, *note OK: 3e3c, *note CANCEL: 3e3d, *note YES:
3e3e, *note NO: 3e3f.) based on the user's selection.  Common message
box styles and layouts include but are not limited to:

[image src="python-figures/tk_msg.png"]


Figure
 -- Classe: tkinter.messagebox.Message (master=None, **options)

     Create a message window with an application-specified message, an
     icon and a set of buttons.  Each of the buttons in the message
     window is identified by a unique symbolic name (see the 'type'
     options).

     The following options are supported:

          'command'

               Specifies the function to invoke when the user closes the
               dialog.  The name of the button clicked by the user to
               close the dialog is passed as argument.  This is only
               available on macOS.

          'default'

               Gives the *note symbolic name: 3e41. of the default
               button for this message window (*note OK: 3e3c, *note
               CANCEL: 3e3d, and so on).  If this option is not
               specified, the first button in the dialog will be made
               the default.

          'detail'

               Specifies an auxiliary message to the main message given
               by the 'message' option.  The message detail will be
               presented beneath the main message and, where supported
               by the OS, in a less emphasized font than the main
               message.

          'icon'

               Specifies an *note icon: 3e42. to display.  If this
               option is not specified, then the *note INFO: 3e43. icon
               will be displayed.

          'message'

               Specifies the message to display in this message box.
               The default value is an empty string.

          'parent'

               Makes the specified window the logical parent of the
               message box.  The message box is displayed on top of its
               parent window.

          'title'

               Specifies a string to display as the title of the message
               box.  This option is ignored on macOS, where platform
               guidelines forbid the use of a title on this kind of
               dialog.

          'type'

               Arranges for a *note predefined set of buttons: 3e44. to
               be displayed.

      -- Méthode: show (**options)

          Display a message window and wait for the user to select one
          of the buttons.  Then return the symbolic name of the selected
          button.  Keyword arguments can override options specified in
          the constructor.

'Boîte de message d'information'

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.showinfo (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an information message box with the specified
     title and message.

'Boîtes de message d'avertissement'

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.showwarning (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays a warning message box with the specified title
     and message.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.showerror (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an error message box with the specified title
     and message.

'Boîtes de message posant une question'

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.askquestion (title=None, message=None,
          *, type=YESNO, **options)

     Ask a question.  By default shows buttons *note YES: 3e3e. and
     *note NO: 3e3f.  Returns the symbolic name of the selected button.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask if operation should proceed.  Shows buttons *note OK: 3e3c. and
     *note CANCEL: 3e3d.  Returns ‘True’ if the answer is ok and ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel (title=None,
          message=None, **options)

     Ask if operation should be retried.  Shows buttons *note RETRY:
     3e4c. and *note CANCEL: 3e3d.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes
     and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.askyesno (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 3e3e. and *note NO: 3e3f.
     Returns ‘True’ if the answer is yes and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel (title=None,
          message=None, **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 3e3e, *note NO: 3e3f. and
     *note CANCEL: 3e3d.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes, ‘None’ if
     cancelled, and ‘False’ otherwise.
Symbolic names of buttons:

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no'
Predefined sets of buttons:

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note ABORT: 3e4f,
     *note RETRY: 3e4c. and *note IGNORE: 3e50.

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

     Displays one button whose symbolic name is *note OK: 3e3c.

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note OK: 3e3c. and
     *note CANCEL: 3e3d.

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note RETRY: 3e4c.
     and *note CANCEL: 3e3d.

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3e3e. and
     *note NO: 3e3f.

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3e3e,
     *note NO: 3e3f. and *note CANCEL: 3e3d.
Icon images:

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question'

 -- Données: tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget,  Next: tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support,  Prev: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.6 ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ -- Scrolled Text Widget
-----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.scrolledtext: f6. fournit une classe, de même
nom, implémentant un simple gadget texte avec une barre de défilement
verticale, configuré "pour faire ce qu'on attend de lui".  Utiliser
*note ScrolledText: 3e5b. est beaucoup plus simple que configurer un
gadget texte et une barre de défilement.

Le gadget texte et la barre de défilement sont regroupés dans une
‘Frame’, et les méthodes gestionnaires de géométrie ‘Grid’ et ‘Pack’
sont récupérées de l'objet ‘Frame’.  L'objet *note ScrolledText: 3e5b. a
donc tous les attributs classiques pour la gestion de la géométrie.

Si un contrôle plus fin est nécessaire, les attributs suivants sont
disponibles :

 -- Classe: tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText (master=None, **kw)

      -- Attribut: frame

          Le cadre (objet 'Frame') qui englobe le gadget texte et le
          gadget de la barre de défilement.

      -- Attribut: vbar

          Le gadget de la barre de défilement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support,  Next: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets,  Prev: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.7 ‘tkinter.dnd’ -- Drag and drop support
---------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/dnd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Note: Ceci est expérimental et devrait être obsolète lorsqu'il sera
     remplacé par le 'Tk DND'.

Le module *note tkinter.dnd: f2. offre une prise en charge du
glisser-déposer d'objets au sein d'une même application, dans la même
fenêtre ou entre les fenêtres.  Pour activer le glissement d'un objet,
vous devez créer une liaison d'événements pour celui-ci qui démarre le
processus de glisser-déposer.  En règle générale, vous liez un événement
'ButtonPress' à une fonction de rappel que vous écrivez (voir *note
Liaisons et événements: 3df4.).  La fonction doit appeler *note
dnd_start(): 3e60, où 'source' est l'objet à faire glisser et 'event'
est l'événement qui a invoqué l'appel (l'argument de votre fonction de
rappel).

La sélection d'un objet cible se produit comme suit :

  1. Recherche descendante de la zone sous la souris pour le widget
     cible

        * Le widget cible doit avoir un attribut appelable 'dnd_accept'

        * If 'dnd_accept' is not present or returns ‘None’, search moves
          to parent widget

        * If no target widget is found, then the target object is ‘None’

  2. Appel à ‘<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)’

  3. Appel à ‘<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)’

  4. Appel à ‘<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)’ pour notifier le
     déposer.

  5. Appel à ‘<source>.dnd_end(target, event)’ pour signaler la fin du
     glisser-déposer

 -- Classe: tkinter.dnd.DndHandler (source, event)

     La classe 'DndHandler' gère les événements de glisser-déposer qui
     suivent les événements 'Motion' et 'ButtonRelease' à la racine du
     widget d'événement.

      -- Méthode: cancel (event=None)

          Annule le processus de glisser-déposer.

      -- Méthode: finish (event, commit=0)

          Exécute les fonctions de fin de glisser-déposer.

      -- Méthode: on_motion (event)

          Inspecte la zone sous la souris pour les objets cibles pendant
          que le glissement est effectué.

      -- Méthode: on_release (event)

          Signale la fin de la traînée lorsque le modèle de relâchement
          est déclenché.

 -- Fonction: tkinter.dnd.dnd_start (source, event)

     Fonction de fabrique pour le processus de glisser-déposer.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Liaisons et événements: 3df4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets,  Next: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>,  Prev: tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.8 ‘tkinter.ttk’ -- Tk themed widgets
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tkinter/ttk.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tkinter.ttk: f8. donne accès à l'ensemble de widgets sur
le thème 'Tk', introduit dans 'Tk' 8.5.  Il offre des avantages
supplémentaires, notamment le rendu des polices avec anticrénelage sous
'X11' et la transparence des fenêtres (nécessitant un gestionnaire de
fenêtres de composition sur 'X11').

L'idée de base de *note tkinter.ttk: f8. est de séparer, dans la mesure
du possible, le code implémentant le comportement d'un widget du code
implémentant son apparence.

Voir aussi
..........

Tk Widget Styling Support(2)

     Document présentant la prise en charge des thèmes pour 'Tk'

* Menu:

* Utilisation de Ttk::
* Widgets Ttk::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Carnet de notes (notebook): Carnet de notes notebook.
* Barre de progression::
* Séparateur::
* Poignée de redimensionnement::
* Arborescence::
* Style Ttk::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py

   (2) https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de Ttk,  Next: Widgets Ttk,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.1 Utilisation de 'Ttk'
.............................

Pour commencer à utiliser 'Ttk', importez son module :

     from tkinter import ttk

Pour remplacer les widgets 'Tk' de base, l'importation doit suivre
l'importation 'Tk' :

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter.ttk import *

Ce code implique que plusieurs widgets *note tkinter.ttk: f8. (‘Button’,
‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’,
‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’ et ‘Scrollbar’) remplacent
automatiquement les widgets 'Tk'.

L'avantage immédiat est d'utiliser les nouveaux widgets qui donnent une
meilleure apparence sur toutes les plateformes ; cependant, les widgets
de remplacement ne sont pas complètement compatibles.  La principale
différence est que les options de widget telles que ‘"fg"’, ‘"bg"’ et
d'autres liées au style des widgets ne sont plus présentes dans les
widgets 'Ttk'.  Utilisez plutôt la classe ‘ttk.Style’ pour des effets de
style améliorés.

Voir aussi
..........

Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets(1)

     Monographie (utilisant la terminologie 'Tcl') sur les différences
     généralement rencontrées lors de la modification d'applications
     pour utiliser les nouveaux widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Widgets Ttk,  Next: Widget,  Prev: Utilisation de Ttk,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.2 Widgets 'Ttk'
......................

'Ttk' est livré avec 18 widgets, dont douze existaient déjà dans
'tkinter' : ‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’,
‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’,
‘Scrollbar’ et *note Spinbox: b84.  Les six autres sont nouveaux : *note
Combobox: 3e6a, *note Notebook: 3e6b, *note Progressbar: 3e6c,
‘Separator’, ‘Sizegrip’ et *note Treeview: a84.  Et tous sont des
sous-classes de *note Widget: 3e6d.

L'utilisation des widgets 'Ttk' donne à l'application une apparence et
une convivialité améliorées.  Comme indiqué ci-dessus, il existe des
différences dans la façon dont le style est codé.

Code 'Tk' :

     l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
     l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")

Code 'Ttk' :

     style = ttk.Style()
     style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")

     l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
     l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")

Pour plus d'informations sur *note TtkStyling: 3e6e, consultez la
documentation de la classe *note Style: 256.


File: python.info,  Node: Widget,  Next: Combobox,  Prev: Widgets Ttk,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.3 Widget
...............

‘ttk.Widget’ définit les options et méthodes standard prises en charge
par les widgets à thème 'Tk' et n'est pas censé être directement
instancié.

* Menu:

* Options standards::
* Options de widget avec barre de défilement::
* Options d'étiquette (label): Options d'étiquette label.
* Options de compatibilité::
* États des widgets::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Options standards,  Next: Options de widget avec barre de défilement,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.4 Options standards
..........................

All the ‘ttk’ Widgets accept the following options:

Option          Description
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
'class'         Spécifie la classe de fenêtre.  La classe est utilisée lors de
                l'interrogation de la base de données d'options pour les autres
                options de la fenêtre, pour déterminer les balises de liaison
                par défaut pour la fenêtre et pour sélectionner la disposition
                et le style par défaut du widget.  Cette option est en lecture
                seule et ne peut être spécifiée qu'à la création de la fenêtre.
                
                
'cursor'        Spécifie le curseur de la souris à utiliser pour le widget.
                S'il est défini sur la chaîne vide (valeur par défaut), le
                curseur est hérité du widget parent.
                
                
'takefocus'     Détermine si la fenêtre accepte le focus pendant le parcours du
                clavier.  0, 1 ou une chaîne vide est renvoyée.  Si 0 est
                renvoyé, cela signifie que la fenêtre doit être entièrement
                ignorée lors du parcours au clavier.  Si 1, cela signifie que la
                fenêtre doit recevoir le focus d'entrée tant qu'elle est
                visible.  Et une chaîne vide signifie que les scripts de
                parcours prennent la décision de donner ou non le focus à la
                fenêtre.
                
                
'style'         Peut être utilisé pour spécifier un style de widget
                personnalisé.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Options de widget avec barre de défilement,  Next: Options d'étiquette label,  Prev: Options standards,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.5 Options de widget avec barre de défilement
...................................................

Les options suivantes sont prises en charge par les widgets contrôlés
par une barre de défilement.

Option               Description
                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
'xscrollcommand'     Utilisé pour communiquer avec les barres de défilement
                     horizontal.
                     
                     Lorsque la vue dans la fenêtre du widget change, le widget
                     génère une commande 'Tcl' basée sur 'scrollcommand'.
                     
                     Habituellement, cette option consiste en la méthode
                     ‘Scrollbar.set()’ d'une barre de défilement.  Cela entraîne
                     la mise à jour de la barre de défilement chaque fois que la
                     vue dans la fenêtre change.
                     
                     
'yscrollcommand'     Utilisé pour communiquer avec les barres de défilement
                     vertical.  Pour plus d'informations, voir ci-dessus.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Options d'étiquette label,  Next: Options de compatibilité,  Prev: Options de widget avec barre de défilement,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.6 Options d'étiquette ('label')
......................................

Les options suivantes sont prises en charge par les étiquettes
('labels'), les boutons et autres widgets de type bouton.

Option             Description
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'text'             Spécifie une chaîne de texte à afficher dans le widget.
                   
                   
'textvariable'     Spécifie un nom dont la valeur est utilisée à la place de la
                   ressource d'option de texte.
                   
                   
'underline'        S'il est défini, spécifie l'indice (commençant à 0) d'un
                   caractère à souligner dans la chaîne de texte.  Le caractère
                   de soulignement est utilisé pour l'activation mnémonique.
                   
                   
'image'            Spécifie une image à afficher.  C'est une liste de un ou
                   plusieurs éléments.  Le premier élément est le nom de l'image
                   par défaut.  Le reste de la liste est une séquence de paires
                   'statespec'-'valeur' telles que définies par
                   *note Style.map(): 18da, spécifiant différentes images à
                   utiliser lorsque le widget est dans un état particulier ou
                   une combinaison d'états.  Toutes les images de la liste
                   doivent avoir la même taille.
                   
                   
'compound'         Spécifie comment afficher l'image par rapport au texte, dans
                   le cas où les options de texte et d'images sont présentes.
                   Les valeurs valides sont :
                   
                      * 'text' : afficher uniquement le texte
                   
                      * 'image' : afficher uniquement l'image
                   
                      * 'top', 'bottom', 'left', 'right' : afficher l'image
                        au-dessus, en dessous, à gauche ou à droite du texte,
                        respectivement.
                   
                      * 'none' : la valeur par défaut.  Afficher l'image si
                        présente, sinon le texte.
                   
                   
'width'            Si supérieur à zéro, spécifie la quantité d'espace, en
                   largeurs de caractères, à allouer à l'étiquette de texte, si
                   inférieur à zéro, spécifie une largeur minimale.  Si zéro ou
                   non spécifié, la largeur naturelle de l'étiquette de texte
                   est utilisée.
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Options de compatibilité,  Next: États des widgets,  Prev: Options d'étiquette label,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.7 Options de compatibilité
.................................

Option       Description
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
'state'      Peut être défini sur ‘"normal"’ ou ‘"disabled"’ pour contrôler le
             bit d'état d'activation.  Il s'agit d'une option en écriture
             seule : sa définition modifie l'état du widget, mais la méthode
             *note Widget.state(): 3e74. n'affecte pas cette option.
             


File: python.info,  Node: États des widgets,  Next: ttk Widget,  Prev: Options de compatibilité,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.8 États des widgets
..........................

L'état du widget est une combinaison d'indicateurs d'état indépendants.

Option           Description
                 
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
'active'         Le curseur de la souris est sur le widget et appuyer sur un
                 bouton de la souris provoquera une action
                 
                 
'disabled'       Le widget est désactivé sous le contrôle du programme
                 
                 
'focus'          Le widget a le focus du clavier
                 
                 
'pressed'        Le widget est en train d'être pressé
                 
                 
'selected'       ‘"On"’, ‘"true"’ ou ‘"current"’ pour des choses comme les
                 boutons de contrôle et les boutons radio
                 
                 
'background'     Windows et Mac ont une notion de fenêtre « active » ou de
                 premier plan.  L'état 'background' est défini pour les widgets
                 dans une fenêtre en arrière-plan et effacé pour ceux de la
                 fenêtre au premier plan
                 
                 
'readonly'       Le widget ne doit pas permettre la modification par
                 l'utilisateur
                 
                 
'alternate'      Un format d'affichage alternatif spécifique au widget
                 
                 
'invalid'        La valeur du widget est invalide
                 

Une spécification d'état est une séquence de noms d'état, éventuellement
précédée d'un point d'exclamation indiquant que le bit est désactivé.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Widget,  Prev: États des widgets,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.9 ttk.Widget
...................

Outre les méthodes décrites ci-dessous, la ‘ttk.Widget’ prend en charge
les méthodes ‘tkinter.Widget.cget()’ et ‘tkinter.Widget.configure()’.

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Widget

      -- Méthode: identify (x, y)

          Renvoie le nom de l'élément à la position 'x' 'y', ou la
          chaîne vide si le point ne se trouve dans aucun élément.

          'x' et 'y' sont des coordonnées en pixels relatives au widget.

      -- Méthode: instate (statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)

          Teste l'état du widget.  Si un rappel n'est pas spécifié,
          renvoie ‘True’ si l'état du widget correspond à 'statespec' et
          ‘False’ sinon.  Si le rappel est spécifié, il est appelé avec
          des arguments si l'état du widget correspond à 'statespec'.

      -- Méthode: state (statespec=None)

          Modifie ou demande l'état du widget.  Si 'statespec' est
          spécifié, définit l'état du widget en fonction de celui-ci et
          renvoie un nouveau 'statespec' indiquant quels drapeaux ont
          été modifiés.  Si 'statespec' n'est pas spécifié, renvoie les
          indicateurs d'état actuellement activés.

     'statespec' est généralement une liste ou un 'n'-uplet.


File: python.info,  Node: Combobox,  Next: Spinbox,  Prev: Widget,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.10 Combobox
..................

Le widget ‘ttk.Combobox’ combine un champ de texte avec une liste
déroulante de valeurs.  Ce widget est une sous-classe de ‘Entry’.

En plus des méthodes héritées de *note Widget: 3e6d. : ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3e77, *note
Widget.instate(): 3e78. et *note Widget.state(): 3e74, et les suivants
hérités de ‘Entry’ : ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’,
‘Entry.selection()’, ‘Entry.xview()’, il a quelques autres méthodes,
décrites dans ‘ttk.Combobox’.

* Menu:

* Options::
* Événements virtuels::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.


File: python.info,  Node: Options,  Next: Événements virtuels,  Up: Combobox

5.26.8.11 Options
.................

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option                Description
                      
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
'exportationsselection'Valeur booléenne.  Si elle est définie, la sélection du
                      widget est liée à la sélection du gestionnaire de fenêtres
                      (qui peut être renvoyée en appelant 'Misc.selection_get',
                      par exemple).
                      
                      
'justify'             Spécifie comment le texte est aligné dans le widget.  Les
                      valeurs possibles sont ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’ ou ‘"right"’.
                      
                      
'height'              Spécifie la hauteur de la liste déroulante, en lignes.
                      
                      
'postcommand'         Script (éventuellement enregistré avec 'Misc.register')
                      qui est appelé immédiatement avant d'afficher les valeurs.
                      Il peut spécifier les valeurs à afficher.
                      
                      
'state'               Les valeurs sont ‘"normal"’, ‘"readonly"’ ou ‘"disabled"’.
                      Dans l'état 'readonly', la valeur ne peut pas être
                      modifiée directement et l'utilisateur ne peut que
                      sélectionner les valeurs dans la liste déroulante.  Dans
                      l'état 'normal', le champ texte est directement éditable.
                      Dans l'état 'disabled', aucune interaction n'est possible.
                      
                      
'textvariable'        Spécifie un nom dont la valeur est liée à la valeur du
                      widget.  Chaque fois que la valeur associée à ce nom
                      change, la valeur du widget est mise à jour, et vice
                      versa.  Voir ‘tkinter.StringVar’.
                      
                      
'values'              Spécifie la liste de valeurs à afficher dans la liste
                      déroulante.
                      
                      
'width'               Spécifie une valeur entière indiquant la largeur souhaitée
                      de la fenêtre d'entrée, en caractères de taille moyenne de
                      la police du widget.
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Événements virtuels,  Next: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Options,  Up: Combobox

5.26.8.12 Événements virtuels
.............................

Les widgets 'combobox' génèrent un événement virtuel
'<<ComboboxSelected>>' lorsque l'utilisateur sélectionne un élément dans
la liste de valeurs.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Événements virtuels,  Up: Combobox

5.26.8.13 ttk.Combobox
......................

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Combobox

      -- Méthode: current (newindex=None)

          Si 'newindex' est spécifié, définit la valeur de la 'combobox'
          à la position de l'élément 'newindex'.  Sinon, renvoie
          l'indice de la valeur courante ou −1 si la valeur courante
          n'est pas dans la liste des valeurs.

      -- Méthode: get ()

          Renvoie la valeur actuelle de la 'combobox'.

      -- Méthode: set (value)

          Définit la valeur de la 'combobox' sur 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Spinbox,  Next: Carnet de notes notebook,  Prev: Combobox,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.14 Spinbox
.................

Le widget ‘ttk.Spinbox’ est un ‘ttk.Entry’ amélioré avec des flèches
d'incrémentation et de décrémentation.  Il peut être utilisé pour des
nombres ou des listes de valeurs de chaîne.  Ce widget est une
sous-classe de ‘Entry’.

En plus des méthodes héritées de *note Widget: 3e6d. : ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3e77, *note
Widget.instate(): 3e78. et *note Widget.state(): 3e74, et les suivantes
héritées de ‘Entry’ : ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.xview()’,
il a quelques autres méthodes, décrites dans ‘ttk.Spinbox’.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<2>.
* Événements virtuels: Événements virtuels<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<2>,  Next: Événements virtuels<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.26.8.15 Options
.................

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option                     Description
                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
'from'                     Valeur flottante.  Si elle est définie, il s'agit de la
                           valeur minimale à laquelle le bouton de décrémentation
                           décrémentera.  Doit être orthographié comme ‘from_’
                           lorsqu'il est utilisé comme argument, car ‘from’ est un
                           mot-clé Python.
                           
                           
'to'                       Valeur flottante.  Si elle est définie, il s'agit de la
                           valeur maximale du bouton d'incrémentation.
                           
                           
'increment'                Valeur flottante.  Spécifie la quantité dont les boutons
                           d'incrémentation/décrémentation modifient la valeur.  La
                           valeur par défaut est 1.0.
                           
                           
'values'                   Séquence de valeurs de chaîne ou flottantes.  S'ils sont
                           spécifiés, les boutons d'incrémentation/décrémentation
                           font défiler les éléments dans cette séquence plutôt que
                           d'incrémenter ou de décrémenter les nombres.
                           
                           
'wrap'                     Valeur booléenne.  Si ‘True’, les boutons
                           d'incrémentation et de décrémentation passent de la
                           valeur ‘to’ à la valeur ‘from’ ou de la valeur ‘from’ à
                           la valeur ‘to’, respectivement.
                           
                           
'format'                   Valeur sous forme de chaîne.  Cela spécifie le format
                           des nombres définis par les boutons
                           d'incrémentation/décrémentation.  Il doit être sous la
                           forme ‘"%W.Pf"’, où W est la largeur de la valeur, P est
                           la précision et ‘'%'’ et ‘'f'’ sont littéraux.
                           
                           
'command'                  appelable Python.  Est appelé sans argument chaque fois
                           que l'un des boutons d'incrémentation ou de
                           décrémentation est enfoncé.
                           


File: python.info,  Node: Événements virtuels<2>,  Next: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Options<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.26.8.16 Événements virtuels
.............................

Le widget 'spinbox' génère un événement virtuel '<<Increment>>' lorsque
l'utilisateur appuie sur <Up>, et un événement virtuel '<<Decrement>>'
lorsque l'utilisateur appuie sur <Down>.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Événements virtuels<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.26.8.17 ttk.Spinbox
.....................

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Spinbox

      -- Méthode: get ()

          Renvoie la valeur actuelle du 'spinbox'.

      -- Méthode: set (value)

          Définit la valeur du 'spinbox' sur 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Carnet de notes notebook,  Next: Barre de progression,  Prev: Spinbox,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.18 Carnet de notes ('notebook')
......................................

Le widget 'Ttk Notebook' gère une collection de fenêtres et n'en affiche
qu'une seule à la fois.  Chaque fenêtre enfant est associée à un onglet,
que l'utilisateur peut sélectionner pour changer la fenêtre actuellement
affichée.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<3>.
* Options d'onglet::
* Identifiants d'onglet::
* Événements virtuels: Événements virtuels<3>.
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<3>,  Next: Options d'onglet,  Up: Carnet de notes notebook

5.26.8.19 Options
.................

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option        Description
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
'height'      S'il est présent et supérieur à zéro, spécifie la hauteur
              souhaitée de la zone du volet (sans compter l'ajustement interne
              ni les onglets).  Sinon, la hauteur maximale de tous les volets
              est utilisée.
              
              
'padding'     Spécifie la quantité d'espace supplémentaire à ajouter autour de
              l'extérieur du bloc-notes.  L'ajustement est défini par une liste
              jusqu'à quatre spécifications de longueur à gauche en haut à
              droite en bas.  Si moins de quatre éléments sont spécifiés,
              'bottom' vaut par défaut 'top', 'right' vaut par défaut 'left' et
              'top' vaut par défaut 'left'.
              
              
'width'       S'il est présent et supérieur à zéro, spécifiez la largeur
              souhaitée de la zone du volet (hors ajustement interne).  Sinon,
              la largeur maximale de tous les volets est utilisée.
              


File: python.info,  Node: Options d'onglet,  Next: Identifiants d'onglet,  Prev: Options<3>,  Up: Carnet de notes notebook

5.26.8.20 Options d'onglet
..........................

Il existe également des options spécifiques pour les onglets :

Option          Description
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
'state'         Soit ‘"normal"’, ‘"disabled"’ ou ‘"hidden"’.  Si 'disabled',
                l'onglet n'est pas sélectionnable.  S'il est 'hidden', l'onglet
                n'est pas affiché.
                
                
'sticky'        Spécifie comment la fenêtre enfant est positionnée dans la zone
                du volet.  La valeur est une chaîne contenant zéro ou plusieurs
                des caractères "n", "s", "e" ou "w".  Chaque lettre fait
                référence à un côté (nord, sud, est ou ouest) auquel la fenêtre
                enfant colle, selon le gestionnaire de géométrie ‘grid()’.
                
                
'padding'       Spécifie la quantité d'espace supplémentaire à ajouter entre le
                bloc-notes et ce volet.  La syntaxe est la même que pour
                l'option d'ajustement utilisée par ce widget.
                
                
'text'          Spécifie un texte à afficher dans l'onglet.
                
                
'image'         Spécifie une image à afficher dans l'onglet.  Voir l'option
                'image' décrite dans *note Widget: 3e6d.
                
                
'compound'      Spécifie comment afficher l'image par rapport au texte, dans le
                cas où les deux options texte et image sont présentes.  Voir
                *note Label Options: 3e72. pour les valeurs autorisées.
                
                
'underline'     Spécifie l'indice (en commençant à 0) d'un caractère à souligner
                dans la chaîne de texte.  Le caractère souligné est utilisé pour
                l'activation mnémonique si
                *note Notebook.enable_traversal(): 3e89. est appelé.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiants d'onglet,  Next: Événements virtuels<3>,  Prev: Options d'onglet,  Up: Carnet de notes notebook

5.26.8.21 Identifiants d'onglet
...............................

Le 'tab_id' présent dans plusieurs méthodes de ‘ttk.Notebook’ peut
prendre l'une des formes suivantes :

   * Un entier compris entre zéro et le nombre d'onglets

   * Le nom d'une fenêtre fille

   * Une spécification de position de la forme "@x,y", qui identifie
     l'onglet

   * La chaîne littérale ‘"current"’, qui identifie l'onglet
     actuellement sélectionné

   * La chaîne littérale ‘"end"’, qui renvoie le nombre d'onglets
     (valable uniquement pour *note Notebook.index(): 3e8b.)


File: python.info,  Node: Événements virtuels<3>,  Next: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Identifiants d'onglet,  Up: Carnet de notes notebook

5.26.8.22 Événements virtuels
.............................

Ce widget génère un événement virtuel '<<NotebookTabChanged>>' après la
sélection d'un nouvel onglet.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Événements virtuels<3>,  Up: Carnet de notes notebook

5.26.8.23 ttk.Notebook
......................

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Notebook

      -- Méthode: add (child, **kw)

          Ajoute un nouvel onglet au bloc-notes.

          Si la fenêtre est actuellement gérée par le 'notebook' mais
          masquée, elle est restaurée à sa position précédente.

          Voir *note Options d'onglet: 3e88. pour la liste des options
          disponibles.

      -- Méthode: forget (tab_id)

          Supprime l'onglet spécifié par 'tab_id', et ne gère plus la
          fenêtre associée.

      -- Méthode: hide (tab_id)

          Masque l'onglet spécifié par 'tab_id'.

          L'onglet ne s'affiche pas, mais la fenêtre associée reste
          gérée par le 'notebook' et sa configuration mémorisée.  Les
          onglets cachés peuvent être restaurés avec la commande *note
          add(): 3e8e.

      -- Méthode: identify (x, y)

          Renvoie le nom de l'élément 'tab' à la position 'x', 'y', ou
          la chaîne vide s'il n'y en a pas.

      -- Méthode: index (tab_id)

          Renvoie l'indice de l'onglet spécifié par 'tab_id', ou le
          nombre total d'onglets si 'tab_id' est la chaîne ‘"end"’.

      -- Méthode: insert (pos, child, **kw)

          Insère un volet à la position spécifiée.

          'pos' est soit la chaîne ‘"end"’, un indice entier ou le nom
          d'un enfant géré.  Si 'child' est déjà géré par le 'notebook',
          le déplace vers la position spécifiée.

          Voir *note Options d'onglet: 3e88. pour la liste des options
          disponibles.

      -- Méthode: select (tab_id=None)

          Sélectionne le 'tab_id' spécifié.

          La fenêtre enfant associée est affichée, et la fenêtre
          précédemment sélectionnée (si différente) est masquée.  Si
          'tab_id' est omis, renvoie le nom du widget du volet
          actuellement sélectionné.

      -- Méthode: tab (tab_id, option=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou modifie les options du 'tab_id' spécifique.

          Si 'kw' n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des valeurs
          des options de l'onglet.  Si 'option' est spécifié, renvoie la
          valeur de cette 'option'.  Sinon, définit les options sur les
          valeurs correspondantes.

      -- Méthode: tabs ()

          Renvoie une liste des fenêtres gérées par le 'notebook'.

      -- Méthode: enable_traversal ()

          Active la traversée du clavier pour une fenêtre de niveau
          supérieur contenant ce bloc-notes.

          Cela étend les liaisons pour la fenêtre de niveau supérieur
          contenant le bloc-notes comme suit :

             * ‘Control’-‘Tab’ : sélectionne l'onglet suivant celui
               actuellement sélectionné.

             * ‘Shift’-‘Control’-‘Tab’ : sélectionne l'onglet précédant
               celui actuellement sélectionné.

             * ‘Alt’-‘K’ : où 'K' est le caractère mnémonique (souligné)
               de n'importe quel onglet, sélectionne cet onglet.

          Plusieurs blocs-notes dans un seul niveau supérieur peuvent
          être activés pour la traversée, y compris les blocs-notes
          imbriqués.  Cependant, la traversée du bloc-notes ne
          fonctionne correctement que si tous les volets ont le
          bloc-notes dans lequel ils se trouvent en tant que maître.


File: python.info,  Node: Barre de progression,  Next: Séparateur,  Prev: Carnet de notes notebook,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.24 Barre de progression
..............................

Le widget ‘ttk.Progressbar’ affiche l'état d'une opération de longue
durée.  Il peut fonctionner en deux modes : 1) le mode déterminé qui
indique la quantité achevée par rapport à la quantité totale de travail
à effectuer et 2) le mode indéterminé qui fournit un affichage animé
pour informer l'utilisateur que le travail progresse.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<4>,  Next: ttk Progressbar,  Up: Barre de progression

5.26.8.25 Options
.................

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option         Description
               
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
               
'orient'       ‘"horizontal"’ ou ‘"vertical"’.  Spécifie l'orientation de la
               barre de progression.
               
               
'length'       Spécifie la longueur de l'axe long de la barre de progression
               (largeur si horizontale, hauteur si verticale).
               
               
'mode'         ‘"determinate"’ ou ‘"indeterminate"’.
               
               
'maximum'      Nombre spécifiant la valeur maximale.  La valeur par défaut est
               100.
               
               
'value'        La valeur actuelle de la barre de progression.  En mode
               'determinate', cela représente la quantité de travail accompli.
               En mode 'indeterminate', il est interprété comme modulo
               'maximum' ; c'est-à-dire que la barre de progression effectue un
               « cycle » lorsque sa valeur augmente de 'maximum'.
               
               
'variable'     Nom lié à la valeur de l'option.  Si spécifié, la valeur de la
               barre de progression est automatiquement fixée à la valeur de ce
               nom à chaque modification de ce dernier.
               
               
'phase'        Option en lecture seule.  Le widget incrémente périodiquement la
               valeur de cette option chaque fois que sa valeur est supérieure à
               0 et, en mode 'déterminate', inférieure au maximum.  Cette option
               peut être utilisée par le thème actuel pour fournir des effets
               d'animation supplémentaires.
               


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Progressbar,  Prev: Options<4>,  Up: Barre de progression

5.26.8.26 ttk.Progressbar
.........................

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Progressbar

      -- Méthode: start (interval=None)

          Commence le mode d'auto-incrémentation : planifie un événement
          de minuterie récurrent qui appelle *note Progressbar.step():
          3e9a. toutes les 'interval' millisecondes.  S'il est omis,
          'interval' est par défaut de 50 millisecondes.

      -- Méthode: step (amount=None)

          Incrémente la valeur de la barre de progression de 'amount'.

          'amount' est par défaut égal à ‘1.0’ s'il est omis.

      -- Méthode: stop ()

          Arrête le mode d'auto-incrémentation : annule tout événement
          de minuterie récurrent initié par *note Progressbar.start():
          3e99. pour cette barre de progression.


File: python.info,  Node: Séparateur,  Next: Poignée de redimensionnement,  Prev: Barre de progression,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.27 Séparateur
....................

Le widget ‘ttk.Separator’ affiche une barre de séparation horizontale ou
verticale.

Il n'a pas d'autres méthodes que celles héritées de ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<5>,  Up: Séparateur

5.26.8.28 Options
.................

Ce widget accepte l'option spécifique suivante :

Option       Description
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
'orient'     ‘"horizontal"’ ou ‘"vertical"’.  Spécifie l'orientation du
             séparateur.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Poignée de redimensionnement,  Next: Arborescence,  Prev: Séparateur,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.29 Poignée de redimensionnement
......................................

Le widget ‘ttk.Sizegrip’ (également connu sous le nom de 'grow box')
permet à l'utilisateur de redimensionner la fenêtre de niveau supérieur
en appuyant et en faisant glisser la poignée.

Ce widget n'a ni options spécifiques ni méthodes spécifiques, à part
celles héritées de ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Notes spécifiques à une plateforme::
* Bogues::


File: python.info,  Node: Notes spécifiques à une plateforme,  Next: Bogues,  Up: Poignée de redimensionnement

5.26.8.30 Notes spécifiques à une plateforme
............................................

   * Sur macOS, les fenêtres de niveau supérieur incluent
     automatiquement une poignée de redimensionnement intégrée par
     défaut.  L'ajout d'un ‘Sizegrip’ est sans danger, car la poignée
     intégrée masquera simplement le widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Bogues,  Prev: Notes spécifiques à une plateforme,  Up: Poignée de redimensionnement

5.26.8.31 Bogues
................

   * Si la position du contenant de niveau supérieur a été spécifiée par
     rapport à la droite ou au bas de l'écran (par exemple…), le
     widget ‘Sizegrip’ ne redimensionne pas la fenêtre.

   * Ce widget ne prend en charge que le redimensionnement
     ‘"southeast"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Arborescence,  Next: Style Ttk,  Prev: Poignée de redimensionnement,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.32 Arborescence
......................

Le widget ‘ttk.Treeview’ affiche une collection hiérarchique d'éléments.
Chaque élément possède une étiquette textuelle, une image facultative et
une liste facultative de valeurs de données.  Les valeurs des données
sont affichées dans des colonnes successives après l'étiquette de
l'arbre.

L'ordre dans lequel les valeurs de données sont affichées peut être
contrôlé en définissant l'option de widget ‘displaycolumns’.  Le widget
d'arborescence peut également afficher les en-têtes de colonne.  Les
colonnes sont accessibles par des numéros ou des noms symboliques
indiqués dans l'option 'columns' du widget.  Voir *note Identifiants de
colonnes: 3ea2.

Chaque élément est identifié par un nom unique.  Le widget génère des
identifiants d'éléments s'ils ne sont pas fournis par l'appelant.  Il
existe un élément racine distinct, nommé ‘{}’.  L'élément racine
lui-même n'est pas affiché ; ses enfants apparaissent au niveau
supérieur de la hiérarchie.

Chaque élément possède également une liste de balises, qui peuvent être
utilisées pour associer des liaisons d'événements à des éléments
individuels et contrôler l'apparence de l'élément.

Le widget 'Treeview' prend en charge le défilement horizontal et
vertical, selon les options décrites dans *note Scrollable Widget
Options: 3e71. et les méthodes *note Treeview.xview(): 3ea3. et *note
Treeview.yview(): 3ea4.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<6>.
* Options d'éléments::
* Options de balise::
* Identifiants de colonnes::
* Événements virtuels: Événements virtuels<4>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<6>,  Next: Options d'éléments,  Up: Arborescence

5.26.8.33 Options
.................

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option               Description
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
'columns'            Une liste d'identificateurs de colonne, spécifiant le
                     nombre de colonnes et leurs noms.
                     
                     
'displaycolumns'     Une liste d'identificateurs de colonne (indices
                     symboliques ou entiers) spécifiant quelles colonnes de
                     données sont affichées et l'ordre dans lequel elles
                     apparaissent, ou la chaîne ‘"#all"’.
                     
                     
'height'             Spécifie le nombre de lignes qui doivent être visibles.
                     Remarque : la largeur demandée est déterminée à partir de
                     la somme des largeurs de colonne.
                     
                     
'padding'            Spécifie le remplissage interne du widget.  L'ajustement
                     est décrit par une liste jusqu'à quatre spécifications de
                     longueur.
                     
                     
'selectmode'         Contrôle la façon dont les liaisons de classe intégrées
                     gèrent la sélection.  Les valeurs possibles sont
                     ‘"extended"’, ‘"browse"’ ou ‘"none"’.  S'il est défini sur
                     'extended' (valeur par défaut), plusieurs éléments peuvent
                     être sélectionnés.  Si c'est 'browse' un seul élément ne
                     peut être sélectionné à la fois.  Si c'est 'none', la
                     sélection ne peut pas être modifiée.
                     
                     Notez que le code d'application et les liaisons de balises
                     peuvent définir la sélection comme ils le souhaitent,
                     quelle que soit la valeur de cette option.
                     
                     
'show'               Une liste contenant zéro ou plusieurs des valeurs
                     suivantes, spécifiant les éléments de l'arborescence à
                     afficher.
                     
                        * 'tree' : affiche les étiquettes de l'arbre dans la
                          colonne 0.
                     
                        * 'headings' : affiche la ligne d'en-tête.
                     
                     La valeur par défaut est ‘"tree headings"’, c'est-à-dire
                     afficher tous les éléments.
                     
                     'Remarque' : la colonne 0 fait toujours référence à la
                     colonne de l'arborescence, même si ‘show="tree"’ n'est pas
                     spécifié.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Options d'éléments,  Next: Options de balise,  Prev: Options<6>,  Up: Arborescence

5.26.8.34 Options d'éléments
............................

Les options d'éléments suivantes peuvent être spécifiées pour les
éléments dans les commandes 'insert' et les widgets de type élément.

Option       Description
             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
'text'       Libellé textuel à afficher pour l'élément.
             
             
'image'      Image 'Tk', affichée à gauche de l'étiquette.
             
             
'values'     Liste des valeurs associées à l'élément.
             
             Chaque élément doit avoir le même nombre de valeurs que les
             colonnes d'options du widget.  S'il y a moins de valeurs que de
             colonnes, les valeurs restantes sont supposées vides.  S'il y a
             plus de valeurs que de colonnes, les valeurs supplémentaires sont
             ignorées.
             
             
'open'       Valeur ‘True’ ou ‘False’ indiquant si les enfants de l'élément
             doivent être affichés ou masqués.
             
             
'tags'       Liste de balises associées à cet élément.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Options de balise,  Next: Identifiants de colonnes,  Prev: Options d'éléments,  Up: Arborescence

5.26.8.35 Options de balise
...........................

Les options suivantes peuvent être spécifiées sur les balises :

Option           Description
                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
'foreground'     Spécifie la couleur de premier plan du texte.
                 
                 
'background'     Spécifie la couleur d'arrière-plan de la cellule ou de
                 l'élément.
                 
                 
'font'           Spécifie la police à utiliser lors du dessin du texte.
                 
                 
'image'          Spécifie l'image de l'élément, au cas où l'option d'image de
                 l'élément est vide.
                 


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiants de colonnes,  Next: Événements virtuels<4>,  Prev: Options de balise,  Up: Arborescence

5.26.8.36 Identifiants de colonnes
..................................

Les identifiants de colonnes prennent l'une des formes suivantes :

   * Un nom symbolique de l'option de liste de colonnes.

   * Un entier n, spécifiant la n^ième colonne de données.

   * Une chaîne de la forme #n, où n est un entier, spécifiant la n^ième
     colonne d'affichage.

Notes :

   * Les valeurs d'option de l'élément peuvent être affichées dans un
     ordre différent de celui dans lequel elles sont stockées.

   * La colonne #0 fait toujours référence à la colonne de
     l'arborescence, même si ‘show="tree"’ n'est pas spécifié.

Un numéro de colonne de données est un indice dans la liste des valeurs
d'option d'un élément ; un numéro de colonne d'affichage est le numéro
de colonne dans l'arborescence où les valeurs sont affichées.  Les
étiquettes d'arbre sont affichées dans la colonne #0.  Si l'option
'displaycolumns' n'est pas définie, la colonne de données n s'affiche
dans la colonne #n+1.  Encore une fois, 'la colonne #0 fait toujours
référence à la colonne de l'arborescence'.


File: python.info,  Node: Événements virtuels<4>,  Next: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Identifiants de colonnes,  Up: Arborescence

5.26.8.37 Événements virtuels
.............................

Le widget 'Treeview' génère les événements virtuels suivants.

Événement                Description
                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
<<TreeviewSelect>>       Généré chaque fois que la sélection change.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewOpen>>         Généré juste avant de définir l'élément de focus sur
                         ‘open=True’.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewClose>>        Généré juste après avoir défini l'élément de focus
                         sur ‘open=False’.
                         

Les méthodes *note Treeview.focus(): 3ea9. et *note
Treeview.selection(): a83. peuvent être utilisées pour déterminer le ou
les éléments concernés.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Événements virtuels<4>,  Up: Arborescence

5.26.8.38 ttk.Treeview
......................

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Treeview

      -- Méthode: bbox (item, column=None)

          Renvoie la boîte englobante (relative à la fenêtre du widget
          'treeview') de l''item' spécifié sous la forme (x, y, largeur,
          hauteur).

          Si 'column' est spécifié, renvoie la boîte englobante de cette
          cellule.  Si 'item' n'est pas visible (c'est-à-dire s'il est
          un descendant d'un élément fermé ou se trouve hors écran en
          raison du défilement), renvoie une chaîne vide.

      -- Méthode: get_children (item=None)

          Renvoie la liste des enfants appartenant à 'item'.

          Si 'item' n'est pas spécifié, renvoie les enfants racine.

      -- Méthode: set_children (item, *newchildren)

          Remplace l'enfant de 'item' par 'newchildren'.

          Les enfants présents dans 'item' qui ne sont pas présents dans
          'newchildren' sont détachés de l'arbre.  Aucun élément de
          'newchildren' ne peut être un ancêtre de 'item'.  Notez que ne
          pas spécifier 'newchildren' entraîne le détachement des
          enfants de 'item'.

      -- Méthode: column (column, option=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou modifie les options pour la 'column' spécifiée.

          Si 'kw' n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des valeurs
          d'option de colonne.  Si 'option' est spécifié, la valeur de
          cette 'option' est renvoyée.  Sinon, définit les options sur
          les valeurs correspondantes.

          Les options/valeurs valides sont :

          'id'

               Renvoie le nom de la colonne.  Il s'agit d'une option en
               lecture seule.

          'anchor': One of the standard Tk anchor values.

               Spécifie comment le texte de cette colonne doit être
               aligné par rapport à la cellule.

          'minwidth': width

               La largeur minimale de la colonne en pixels.  Le widget
               'Treeview' ne rend pas la colonne plus petite que celle
               spécifiée par cette option lorsque le widget est
               redimensionné ou que l'utilisateur fait glisser une
               colonne.

          'stretch': ‘True’/‘False’

               Spécifie si la largeur de la colonne doit être ajustée
               lorsque le widget est redimensionné.

          'width': width

               La largeur de la colonne en pixels.

          Pour configurer la colonne d'arborescence, appelez-la avec
          ‘column = "#0"’

      -- Méthode: delete (*items)

          Supprime tous les 'items' spécifiés et tous leurs descendants.

          L'élément racine ne peut pas être supprimé.

      -- Méthode: detach (*items)

          Dissocie tous les 'items' spécifiés de l'arborescence.

          Les éléments et tous leurs descendants sont toujours présents
          et peuvent être réinsérés à un autre point de l'arborescence,
          mais ne seront pas affichés.

          L'élément racine ne peut pas être détaché.

      -- Méthode: exists (item)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si l''item' spécifié est présent dans
          l'arborescence.

      -- Méthode: focus (item=None)

          Si 'item' est spécifié, définit l'élément de focus sur 'item'.
          Sinon, renvoie l'élément de focus actuel, ou ‘''’ s'il n'y en
          a pas.

      -- Méthode: heading (column, option=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou modifie les options d'en-tête pour la 'column'
          spécifiée.

          Si 'kw' n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des valeurs
          d'option d'en-tête.  Si 'option' est spécifié, la valeur de
          cette 'option' est renvoyée.  Sinon, définit les options sur
          les valeurs correspondantes.

          Les options/valeurs valides sont :

          'text': text

               Texte à afficher dans l'en-tête de colonne.

          'image': imageName

               Spécifie une image à afficher à droite de l'en-tête de
               colonne.

          'anchor': anchor

               Spécifie comment le texte du titre doit être aligné.  Une
               des valeurs d'ancrage 'Tk' standard.

          'command': callback

               Un rappel à invoquer lorsque l'étiquette d'en-tête est
               pressée.

          Pour configurer l'en-tête de colonne de l'arborescence,
          appelez-la avec ‘column = "#0"’.

      -- Méthode: identify (component, x, y)

          Renvoie une description du 'component' spécifié sous le point
          donné par 'x' et 'y', ou la chaîne vide si aucun 'component'
          de ce type n'est présent à cette position.

      -- Méthode: identify_row (y)

          Renvoie l'ID d'élément de l'élément à la position 'y'.

      -- Méthode: identify_column (x)

          Renvoie l'identificateur de colonne de données de la cellule à
          la position 'x'.

          La colonne arborescence possède l'ID #0.

      -- Méthode: identify_region (x, y)

          Renvoie l'un des éléments suivants :

          'region'        signification
                          
          -----------------------------------------------------------
                          
          'heading'       Zone d'en-tête de l'arbre.
                          
                          
          'separator'     Espace entre deux en-têtes de colonnes.
                          
                          
          'tree'          Une zone de l'arbre.
          (arbre)         

          'cell'          Une cellule de données.
                          

          Disponibilité : 'Tk' 8.6.

      -- Méthode: identify_element (x, y)

          Renvoie l'élément à la position 'x', 'y'.

          Disponibilité : 'Tk' 8.6.

      -- Méthode: index (item)

          Renvoie l'indice (entier) de 'item' dans la liste des enfants
          de son parent.

      -- Méthode: insert (parent, index, iid=None, **kw)

          Crée un nouvel élément et renvoie l'identifiant de l'élément
          nouvellement créé.

          'parent' est l'ID d'élément de l'élément parent ou la chaîne
          vide pour créer un nouvel élément de niveau supérieur.
          'index' est un entier, ou la valeur ‘"end"’, spécifiant où
          dans la liste des enfants du parent insérer le nouvel élément.
          Si 'index' est inférieur ou égal à zéro, le nouveau nœud est
          inséré au début ; si 'index' est supérieur ou égal au nombre
          actuel d'enfants, il est inséré à la fin.  Si 'iid' est
          spécifié, il est utilisé comme identifiant d'élément ; 'iid'
          ne doit pas déjà exister dans l'arborescence.  Sinon, un
          nouvel identifiant unique est généré.

          See *note Item Options: 3ea6. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Méthode: item (item, option=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou modifie les options pour l''item' spécifié.

          Si aucune option n'est donnée, un dictionnaire avec des
          options/valeurs pour l'élément est renvoyé.  Si 'option' est
          spécifié, la valeur de cette option est renvoyée.  Sinon,
          définit les options sur les valeurs correspondantes données
          par 'kw'.

      -- Méthode: move (item, parent, index)

          Déplace 'item' vers la position 'index' dans la liste des
          enfants de 'parent'.

          Il est interdit de déplacer un élément sous l'un de ses
          descendants.  Si 'index' est inférieur ou égal à zéro, 'item'
          est déplacé au début ; s'il est supérieur ou égal au nombre
          d'enfants, il est déplacé à la fin.  Si 'item' a été détaché,
          il est rattaché.

      -- Méthode: next (item)

          Renvoie l'identifiant du frère suivant de 'item', ou ‘''’ si
          'item' est le dernier enfant de son parent.

      -- Méthode: parent (item)

          Renvoie l'identifiant du parent de 'item', ou ‘''’ si 'item'
          est au niveau supérieur de la hiérarchie.

      -- Méthode: prev (item)

          Renvoie l'identifiant du frère précédent de 'item', ou ‘''’ si
          'item' est le premier enfant de son parent.

      -- Méthode: reattach (item, parent, index)

          Alias pour *note Treeview.move(): 3ebb.

      -- Méthode: see (item)

          Fait en sorte que 'item' soit visible.

          Définit l'option d'ouverture de tous les ancêtres de 'item'
          sur ‘True’, et fait défiler le widget si nécessaire afin que
          'item' soit dans la partie visible de l'arborescence.

      -- Méthode: selection ()

          Renvoie un 'n'-uplet d'éléments sélectionnés.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: ‘selection()’ ne prend plus
          d'arguments.  Pour modifier l'état de sélection, utilisez les
          méthodes de sélection suivantes.

      -- Méthode: selection_set (*items)

          'items' devient la nouvelle sélection.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'items' peut être passé en tant
          qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que 'n'-uplet.

      -- Méthode: selection_add (*items)

          Ajoute des 'items' à la sélection.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'items' peut être passé en tant
          qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que 'n'-uplet.

      -- Méthode: selection_remove (*items)

          Supprime les 'items' de la sélection.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'items' peut être passé en tant
          qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que 'n'-uplet.

      -- Méthode: selection_toggle (*items)

          Bascule l'état de sélection de chaque élément de 'items'.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: 'items' peut être passé en tant
          qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que 'n'-uplet.

      -- Méthode: set (item, column=None, value=None)

          Avec un argument, renvoie un dictionnaire de paires
          colonne/valeur pour l''item' spécifié.  Avec deux arguments,
          renvoie la valeur actuelle de la 'column' spécifiée.  Avec
          trois arguments, définit la valeur de la 'column' donnée dans
          l''item' donné à la 'value' spécifiée.

      -- Méthode: tag_bind (tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)

          Lie le rappel 'callback' à l'événement donné 'sequence' pour
          la balise 'tagname'.  Lorsqu'un événement est envoyé à un
          élément, les rappels pour chacune des options de balises de
          l'élément sont appelés.

      -- Méthode: tag_configure (tagname, option=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou modifie les options pour le 'tagname' spécifié.

          Si 'kw' n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des
          paramètres d'option pour 'tagname'.  Si 'option' est spécifié,
          renvoie la valeur de cette 'option' pour le 'tagname'
          spécifié.  Sinon, définit les options sur les valeurs
          correspondantes pour le 'tagname' donné.

      -- Méthode: tag_has (tagname, item=None)

          Si 'item' est spécifié, renvoie 1 ou 0 selon que 'item'
          spécifié a le 'tagname' donné.  Sinon, renvoie une liste de
          tous les éléments qui ont la balise spécifiée.

          Disponibilité : 'Tk' 8.6

      -- Méthode: xview (*args)

          Interroge ou modifie la position horizontale de
          l'arborescence.

      -- Méthode: yview (*args)

          Interroge ou modifie la position verticale de l'arborescence.


File: python.info,  Node: Style Ttk,  Prev: Arborescence,  Up: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.39 Style Ttk
...................

Chaque widget dans ‘ttk’ se voit attribuer un style, qui spécifie
l'ensemble d'éléments composant le widget et la façon dont ils sont
disposés, ainsi que les paramètres dynamiques et par défaut pour les
options d'élément.  Par défaut, le nom du style est le même que le nom
de la classe du widget, mais il peut être remplacé par l'option de style
du widget.  Si vous ne connaissez pas le nom de classe d'un widget,
utilisez la méthode ‘Misc.winfo_class()’ ('somewidget.winfo_class()').

Voir aussi
..........

Tcl'2004 conference presentation(1)

     Ce document explique le fonctionnement du moteur de thème

 -- Classe: tkinter.ttk.Style

     Cette classe est utilisée pour manipuler la base de données de
     style.

      -- Méthode: configure (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou définit la valeur par défaut des options
          spécifiées dans 'style'.

          Chaque clé dans 'kw' est une option et chaque valeur est une
          chaîne identifiant la valeur de cette option.

          Par exemple, pour changer chaque bouton par défaut en un
          bouton plat avec un ajustement et une couleur d'arrière-plan
          différente :

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
                  background="#ccc")

               btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
               btn.pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- Méthode: map (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Interroge ou définit les valeurs dynamiques des options
          spécifiées dans 'style'.

          Chaque clé dans 'kw' est une option et chaque valeur doit être
          une liste ou un 'n'-uplet (généralement) contenant des
          spécifications d'état regroupées dans des 'n'-uplets, des
          listes ou une autre préférence.  Un 'statespec' est un composé
          d'un ou plusieurs états, puis d'une valeur.

          Un exemple peut le rendre plus compréhensible :

               import tkinter
               from tkinter import ttk

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.map("C.TButton",
                   foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
                   background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
                   )

               colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()

               root.mainloop()

          Notez que l'ordre des séquences (états, valeur) pour une
          option est important, si l'ordre est changé en ‘[('active',
          'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')]’ dans l'option de premier plan,
          par exemple, le résultat est un premier plan bleu lorsque le
          widget est dans les états actif ou pressé.

      -- Méthode: lookup (style, option, state=None, default=None)

          Renvoie la valeur spécifiée pour 'option' dans 'style'.

          Si 'state' est spécifié, on s'attend à ce qu'il s'agisse d'une
          séquence d'un ou plusieurs états.  Si l'argument 'default' est
          défini, il est utilisé comme valeur de secours au cas où
          aucune spécification d'option n'est trouvée.

          Pour vérifier quelle police un bouton utilise par défaut :

               from tkinter import ttk

               print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))

      -- Méthode: layout (style, layoutspec=None)

          Définit la disposition du widget pour un 'style' donné.  Si
          'layoutspec' est omis, renvoie la spécification de mise en
          page pour le style donné.

          'layoutspec', si spécifié, doit être une liste ou un autre
          type de séquence (à l'exception des chaînes), où chaque
          élément doit être un 'n'-uplet et le premier élément est le
          nom de la mise en page et le deuxième élément doit avoir le
          format décrit dans *note Layouts: 3ecc.

          Pour comprendre le format, consultez l'exemple suivant (il
          n'est pas destiné à faire quoi que ce soit d'utile) :

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.layout("TMenubutton", [
                  ("Menubutton.background", None),
                  ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
                      [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
                          [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
                              [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
                          })]
                      })]
                  }),
               ])

               mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
               mbtn.pack()
               root.mainloop()

      -- Méthode: element_create (elementname, etype, *args, **kw)

          Create a new element in the current theme, of the given
          'etype' which is expected to be either "image", "from" or
          "vsapi".  The latter is only available in Tk 8.6 on Windows.

          Si 'image' est utilisé, 'args' doit contenir le nom de l'image
          par défaut suivi de paires 'statespec' / 'value' (il s'agit de
          l''imagespec'), et 'kw' peut avoir les options suivantes :

          'border'=remplissage

               'padding' est une liste de quatre entiers maximum,
               spécifiant respectivement les bordures gauche,
               supérieure, droite et inférieure.

          'height'=hauteur

               Spécifie une hauteur minimale pour l'élément.  Si elle
               est inférieure à zéro, la hauteur de l'image de base est
               utilisée par défaut.

          'padding'= ajustement

               Spécifie l'ajustement intérieur de l'élément.  La valeur
               par défaut est la valeur de 'border' si elle n'est pas
               spécifiée.

          'sticky'= 'spec'

               Spécifie comment l'image est placée dans la partie de
               l'espace attribué finale.  'spec' contient zéro ou
               plusieurs caractères "n", "s", "w" ou "e".

          'width'=largeur

               Spécifie une largeur minimale pour l'élément.  Si
               inférieur à zéro, la largeur de l'image de base est
               utilisée par défaut.

          Exemple :

               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png')
               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('Button.button', 'image',
                                    img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3),
                                    border=(2, 4), sticky='we')

          Si 'from' est utilisé comme valeur de 'etype', *note
          element_create(): 255. clone un élément existant.  'args' doit
          contenir un nom de thème, à partir duquel l'élément est cloné,
          et éventuellement un élément à cloner.  Si cet élément qu'il
          faut cloner n'est pas spécifié, un élément vide est utilisé.
          'kw' est ignoré.

          Exemple :

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default')

          If "vsapi" is used as the value of 'etype', *note
          element_create(): 255. will create a new element in the
          current theme whose visual appearance is drawn using the
          Microsoft Visual Styles API which is responsible for the
          themed styles on Windows XP and Vista.  'args' is expected to
          contain the Visual Styles class and part as given in the
          Microsoft documentation followed by an optional sequence of
          tuples of ttk states and the corresponding Visual Styles API
          state value.  'kw' may have the following options:

          'padding'= ajustement

               Specify the element's interior padding.  'padding' is a
               list of up to four integers specifying the left, top,
               right and bottom padding quantities respectively.  If
               fewer than four elements are specified, bottom defaults
               to top, right defaults to left, and top defaults to left.
               In other words, a list of three numbers specify the left,
               vertical, and right padding; a list of two numbers
               specify the horizontal and the vertical padding; a single
               number specifies the same padding all the way around the
               widget.  This option may not be mixed with any other
               options.

          margins=padding

               Specifies the elements exterior padding.  'padding' is a
               list of up to four integers specifying the left, top,
               right and bottom padding quantities respectively.  This
               option may not be mixed with any other options.

          'width'=largeur

               Specifies the width for the element.  If this option is
               set then the Visual Styles API will not be queried for
               the recommended size or the part.  If this option is set
               then 'height' should also be set.  The 'width' and
               'height' options cannot be mixed with the 'padding' or
               'margins' options.

          'height'=hauteur

               Specifies the height of the element.  See the comments
               for 'width'.

          Exemple :

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('pin', 'vsapi', 'EXPLORERBAR', 3, [
                                    ('pressed', '!selected', 3),
                                    ('active', '!selected', 2),
                                    ('pressed', 'selected', 6),
                                    ('active', 'selected', 5),
                                    ('selected', 4),
                                    ('', 1)])
               style.layout('Explorer.Pin',
                            [('Explorer.Pin.pin', {'sticky': 'news'})])
               pin = ttk.Checkbutton(style='Explorer.Pin')
               pin.pack(expand=True, fill='both')

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support of the "vsapi"
          element factory.

      -- Méthode: element_names ()

          Renvoie la liste des éléments définis dans le thème courant.

      -- Méthode: element_options (elementname)

          Renvoie la liste des options de 'elementname'.

      -- Méthode: theme_create (themename, parent=None, settings=None)

          Crée un nouveau thème.

          C'est une erreur si 'themename' existe déjà.  Si 'parent' est
          spécifié, le nouveau thème hérite des styles, des éléments et
          des mises en page du thème parent.  Si 'settings' est présent,
          il doit avoir la même syntaxe que celle utilisée pour *note
          theme_settings(): 3ed0.

      -- Méthode: theme_settings (themename, settings)

          Définit temporairement le thème actuel sur 'themename',
          applique les 'settings' spécifiés, puis restaure le thème
          précédent.

          Chaque clé dans 'settings' est un style et chaque valeur peut
          contenir les clés ‘'configure'’, ‘'map'’, ‘'layout'’ et
          ‘'element create'’ et elles doivent avoir le même format que
          celui spécifié par les méthodes *note Style.configure(): 3ec9,
          *note Style.map(): 18da, *note Style.layout(): 3ecb. et *note
          Style.element_create(): 255. respectivement.

          À titre d'exemple, changeons un peu la 'Combobox' pour le
          thème par défaut :

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.theme_settings("default", {
                  "TCombobox": {
                      "configure": {"padding": 5},
                      "map": {
                          "background": [("active", "green2"),
                                         ("!disabled", "green4")],
                          "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
                          "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
                                         ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
                      }
                  }
               })

               combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- Méthode: theme_names ()

          Renvoie une liste de tous les thèmes connus.

      -- Méthode: theme_use (themename=None)

          Si 'themename' n'est pas donné, renvoie le thème utilisé.
          Sinon, définit le thème actuel sur 'themename', actualise tous
          les widgets et lève un événement <<ThemeChanged>>.

* Menu:

* Dispositions de mise en page::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Dispositions de mise en page,  Up: Style Ttk

5.26.8.40 Dispositions de mise en page
......................................

A layout can be just ‘None’, if it takes no options, or a dict of
options specifying how to arrange the element.  The layout mechanism
uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial
cavity, each element is allocated a parcel.

Les options/valeurs valides sont :

'side': whichside

     Spécifie de quel côté de l'espace vide placer l'élément ; 'top' (en
     haut), 'right' (à droite), 'bottom' (en bas) ou 'left' (à gauche).
     S'il est omis, l'élément occupe toute l'espace.

'sticky': nswe

     Spécifie où l'élément est placé à l'intérieur de sa partie d'espace
     alloué.

'unit': 0 or 1

     Si défini sur 1, l'élément et tous ses descendants sont traités
     comme un seul élément aux fins de *note Widget.identify(): 3e77. et
     consœurs.  Il est utilisé pour des choses comme la barre de
     défilement ou les agrandissements.

'children': [sublayout... ]

     Spécifie une liste d'éléments à placer à l'intérieur de l'élément.
     Chaque élément est un 'n'-uplet (ou un autre type de séquence) où
     le premier élément est le nom de la mise en page et l'autre est un
     *note Layout: 3ecc.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>,  Prev: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets,  Up: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk

5.26.9 IDLE -- Python editor and shell
--------------------------------------

'Code source' : Lib/idlelib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'IDLE' est l'environnement de développement et d'apprentissage intégré
de Python ('Integrated Development and Learning Environment').

'IDLE' a les fonctionnalités suivantes :

   * multiplateformes : fonctionne de la même manière sous Windows,
     'Unix' et 'macOS'

   * Console Python (interpréteur interactif) avec coloration du code
     entré, des sorties et des messages d'erreur

   * éditeur de texte multi-fenêtres avec annulations multiples,
     coloration Python, indentation automatique, aide pour les appels de
     fonction, 'autocomplétion', parmi d'autres fonctionnalités

   * recherche dans n'importe quelle fenêtre, remplacement dans une
     fenêtre d'édition et recherche dans des fichiers multiples ('grep')

   * débogueur avec points d'arrêt persistants, pas-à-pas et
     visualisation des espaces de nommage locaux et globaux

   * configuration, navigateur et d'autres fenêtres de dialogue

* Menu:

* Menus::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib: idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application. implementation of IDLE application

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/idlelib/


File: python.info,  Node: Menus,  Next: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>

5.26.9.1 Menus
..............

'IDLE' a deux principaux types de fenêtre, la fenêtre de console et la
fenêtre d'édition.  Il est possible d'avoir de multiples fenêtres
d'édition ouvertes simultanément.  Sous Windows et Linux, chacune a son
propre menu.  Chaque menu documenté ci-dessous indique à quel type de
fenêtre il est associé.

Les fenêtre d'affichage, comme celles qui sont utilisées pour 'Edit =>
Find in Files', sont un sous-type de fenêtre d'édition.  Elles possèdent
actuellement le même menu principal mais un titre par défaut et un menu
contextuel différents.

Sous 'macOS', il y a un menu d'application.  Il change dynamiquement en
fonction de la fenêtre active.  Il a un menu 'IDLE' et certaines entrées
décrites ci-dessous sont déplacées conformément aux directives d'Apple.

* Menu:

* Menu File (Console et Éditeur): Menu File Console et Éditeur.
* Menu Edit (console et éditeur): Menu Edit console et éditeur.
* Menu Format (fenêtre d'édition uniquement): Menu Format fenêtre d'édition uniquement.
* Menu Run (fenêtre d'édition uniquement): Menu Run fenêtre d'édition uniquement.
* Menu Shell (fenêtre de console uniquement): Menu Shell fenêtre de console uniquement.
* Menu Debug (fenêtre de console uniquement): Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement.
* Menu Options (console et éditeur): Menu Options console et éditeur.
* Menu Windows (console et éditeur): Menu Windows console et éditeur.
* Menu Help (console et éditeur): Menu Help console et éditeur.
* Context menus::


File: python.info,  Node: Menu File Console et Éditeur,  Next: Menu Edit console et éditeur,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.2 Menu 'File' (Console et Éditeur)
.........................................

'New File'

     Crée une nouvelle fenêtre d'édition.

'Open...'

     Ouvre un fichier existant avec une fenêtre de dialogue pour
     l'ouverture.

'Open Module...'

     Ouvre un module existant (cherche dans 'sys.path').

'Recent Files'

     Ouvre une liste des fichiers récents.  Cliquez sur l'un d'eux pour
     l'ouvrir.

Module Browser

     Montre les fonctions, classes et méthodes dans une arborescence
     pour le fichier en cours d'édition.  Dans la console, ouvre d'abord
     un module.

'Path Browser'

     Affiche les dossiers de 'sys.path', les modules, fonctions, classes
     et méthodes dans une arborescence.

'Save'

     Enregistre la fenêtre active sous le fichier associé, s'il existe.
     Les fenêtres qui ont été modifiées depuis leur ouverture ou leur
     dernier enregistrement ont un * avant et après le titre de la
     fenêtre.  S'il n'y a aucun fichier associé, exécute 'Save As' à la
     place.

'Save As...'

     Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved
     becomes the new associated file for the window.  (If your file
     namager is set to hide extensions, the current extension will be
     omitted in the file name box.  If the new filename has no '.',
     '.py' and '.txt' will be added for Python and text files, except
     that on macOS Aqua,'.py' is added for all files.)

'Save Copy As...'

     Save the current window to different file without changing the
     associated file.  (See Save As note above about filename
     extensions.)

'Print Window'

     Imprime la fenêtre active avec l'imprimante par défaut.

Close Window

     Close the current window (if an unsaved editor, ask to save; if an
     unsaved Shell, ask to quit execution).  Calling ‘exit()’ or
     ‘close()’ in the Shell window also closes Shell.  If this is the
     only window, also exit IDLE.

Exit IDLE

     Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved edit windows).


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Edit console et éditeur,  Next: Menu Format fenêtre d'édition uniquement,  Prev: Menu File Console et Éditeur,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.3 Menu 'Edit' (console et éditeur)
.........................................

'Undo'

     Annule le dernier changement dans la fenêtre active.  Un maximum de
     1000 changements peut être annulé.

'Redo'

     Ré-applique le dernier changement annulé dans la fenêtre active.

'Select All'

     Sélectionne la totalité du contenu de la fenêtre active.

'Cut'

     Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global ; puis supprime la
     sélection.

'Copy'

     Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global.

'Paste'

     Insère le contenu du presse-papier global dans la fenêtre active.

Les fonctions du presse-papier sont aussi disponibles dans les menus
contextuels.

'Find...'

     Ouvre une fenêtre de recherche avec de nombreuses options

'Find Again'

     Répète la dernière recherche, s'il y en a une.

'Find Selection'

     Cherche la chaîne sélectionnée, s'il y en a une.

'Find in Files...'

     Ouvre une fenêtre de recherche de fichiers.  Présente les résultats
     dans une nouvelle fenêtre d'affichage.

'Replace...'

     Ouvre une fenêtre de recherche et remplacement.

'Go to Line'

     Move the cursor to the beginning of the line requested and make
     that line visible.  A request past the end of the file goes to the
     end.  Clear any selection and update the line and column status.

'Show Completions'

     Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names.  See
     *note Completions: 3ed9. in the Editing and navigation section
     below.

'Expand Word'

     Complète un préfixe que vous avez saisi pour correspondre à un mot
     complet de la même fenêtre ; recommencez pour obtenir un autre
     complément.

Show Call Tip

     Après une parenthèse ouverte pour une fonction, ouvre une petite
     fenêtre avec des indications sur les paramètres de la fonction.
     Reportez-vous à *note Aides aux appels: 3eda. dans la section
     Édition et navigation ci-dessous.

Show Surrounding Parens

     Surligne les parenthèses encadrantes.


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Format fenêtre d'édition uniquement,  Next: Menu Run fenêtre d'édition uniquement,  Prev: Menu Edit console et éditeur,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.4 Menu 'Format' (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)
.....................................................

'Format Paragraph'

     Reformate le paragraphe actif, délimité par des lignes vides, en un
     bloc de commentaires, ou la chaîne de caractères multi-lignes ou
     ligne sélectionnée en chaîne de caractères.  Toutes les lignes du
     paragraphe seront formatées à moins de N colonnes, avec N valant 72
     par défaut.

'Indent Region'

     Décale les lignes sélectionnées vers la droite d'un niveau
     d'indentation (4 espaces par défaut).

'Dedent Region'

     Décale les lignes sélectionnées vers la gauche d'un niveau
     d'indentation (4 espaces par défaut).

'Comment Out Region'

     Insère ## devant les lignes sélectionnées.

'Uncomment Region'

     Enlève les # ou ## au début des lignes sélectionnées.

'Tabify Region'

     Transforme les blocs d'espaces 'au début des lignes' en
     tabulations.  (Note : Nous recommandons d'utiliser des blocs de 4
     espaces pour indenter du code Python.)

'Untabify Region'

     Transforme 'toutes' les tabulations en le bon nombre d'espaces.

'Toggle Tabs'

     Ouvre une boîte de dialogue permettant de passer des espaces aux
     tabulations (et inversement) pour l'indentation.

'New Indent Width'

     Ouvre une boîte de dialogue pour changer la taille de
     l'indentation.  La valeur par défaut acceptée par la communauté
     Python est de 4 espaces.

Strip Trailing Chitespace

     Enlève les espaces après le dernier caractère non blanc d'une ligne
     en appliquant 'str.rstrip' à chaque ligne, y compris les lignes
     avec des chaînes de caractères multi-lignes.  À l'exception des
     fenêtres de terminal, supprime les lignes supplémentaires à la fin
     du fichier.


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Run fenêtre d'édition uniquement,  Next: Menu Shell fenêtre de console uniquement,  Prev: Menu Format fenêtre d'édition uniquement,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.5 Menu 'Run' (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)
..................................................

'Run Module'

     Applique *note Check Module: 3edf. (ci-dessus).  S'il n'y a pas
     d'erreur, redémarre la console pour nettoyer l'environnement, puis
     exécute le module.  Les sorties sont affichées dans la fenêtre de
     console.  Notez qu'une sortie requiert l'utilisation de ‘print’ ou
     ‘write’.  Quand l'exécution est terminée, la console reste active
     et affiche une invite de commande.  À ce moment, vous pouvez
     explorer interactivement le résultat de l'exécution.  Ceci est
     similaire à l'exécution d'un fichier avec ‘python -i fichier’ sur
     un terminal.

Run... Customized

     Similaire à *note Run Module: 3ede, mais lance le module avec des
     paramètres personnalisés.  Les 'Command Line Arguments' se
     rajoutent à *note sys.argv: 1245. comme s'ils étaient passés par la
     ligne de commande.  Le module peut être lancé dans le terminal sans
     avoir à le redémarrer.

'Check Module'

     Vérifie la syntaxe du module actuellement ouvert dans la fenêtre
     d'édition.  Si le module n'a pas été enregistré, 'IDLE' va soit
     demander à enregistrer à l'utilisateur, soit enregistrer
     automatiquement, selon l'option sélectionnée dans l'onglet
     'General' de la fenêtre de configuration d''IDLE'. S'il y a une
     erreur de syntaxe, l'emplacement approximatif est indiqué dans la
     fenêtre d'édition.

Console Python

     Ouvre ou active la fenêtre de console Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Shell fenêtre de console uniquement,  Next: Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement,  Prev: Menu Run fenêtre d'édition uniquement,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.6 Menu Shell (fenêtre de console uniquement)
...................................................

'View Last Restart'

     Fait défiler la fenêtre de console jusqu'au dernier redémarrage de
     la console.

'Restart Shell'

     Restart the shell to clean the environment and reset display and
     exception handling.

'Previous History'

     Parcours les commandes précédentes dans l'historique qui
     correspondent à l'entrée actuelle.

'Next History'

     Parcours les commandes suivantes dans l'historique qui
     correspondent à l'entrée actuelle.

'Interrupt Execution'

     Arrête un programme en cours d'exécution.


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement,  Next: Menu Options console et éditeur,  Prev: Menu Shell fenêtre de console uniquement,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.7 Menu 'Debug' (fenêtre de console uniquement)
.....................................................

'Go to File/Line'

     Cherche, sur la ligne active et la ligne en-dessous, un nom de
     fichier et un numéro de ligne.  Le cas échéant, ouvre le fichier
     s'il n'est pas encore ouvert et montre la ligne.  Utilisez ceci
     pour visualiser les lignes de code source référencées dans un
     'traceback' d'exception et les lignes trouvées par 'Find in Files'.
     Également disponible dans le menu contextuel des fenêtres de
     console et d'affichage.

'Debugger' ([dés]activer)

     Quand cette fonctionnalité est activée, le code saisi dans la
     console ou exécuté depuis un Éditeur s'exécutera avec le débogueur.
     Dans l'Éditeur, des points d'arrêt peuvent être placés avec le menu
     contextuel.  Cette fonctionnalité est encore incomplète et plus ou
     moins expérimentale.

'Stack Viewer'

     Montre l'état de la pile au moment de la dernière erreur dans une
     arborescence, avec accès aux variables locales et globales.

'Auto-open Stack Viewer'

     Active ou désactive l'ouverture automatique de l'afficheur de pile
     après une erreur non gérée.


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Options console et éditeur,  Next: Menu Windows console et éditeur,  Prev: Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.8 Menu 'Options' (console et éditeur)
............................................

'Configure IDLE'

     Ouvre une fenêtre de configuration et change les préférences pour
     les éléments suivants : police, indentation, raccourcis clavier,
     thème de coloration du texte, taille et nature de la fenêtre au
     lancement, sources d'aide additionnelles et extensions.  Sous
     'macOS', ouvrez la fenêtre de configuration en sélectionnant
     'Preferences' dans le menu de l'application.  Pour plus de détails,
     référez-vous à *note Modifier les préférences: 3ee5. dans Aide et
     paramètres.

La plupart des paramètres de configuration s'appliquent à toutes les
fenêtres, ouvertes ou non.  Les éléments d'option ci-dessous
s'appliquent uniquement à la fenêtre active.

'Show/Hide Code Context' (fenêtres d'édition uniquement)

     Fais passer la fenêtre de taille normale à maximale.  La taille de
     départ par défaut est de 40 lignes par 80 caractères, sauf
     changement dans l'onglet 'General' de la fenêtre de configuration
     d''IDLE'. Consultez *note Code Context: 3ee6. dans la section
     « Édition et navigation » ci-dessous.

'Show/Hide Line Numbers' (fenêtre de l'éditeur uniquement)

     Ajoute une colonne à gauche de la fenêtre d'édition qui indique le
     numéro de chaque ligne de texte.  Cette colonne est désactivée par
     défaut, ce qui peut être modifié dans les préférences (voir *note
     Modifier les préférences: 3ee5.).

'Zoom/Restore Height'

     Bascule la fenêtre entre la taille normale et la hauteur maximale.
     La taille initiale par défaut est de 40 lignes par 80 caractères,
     sauf si elle est modifiée dans l'onglet « 'General' » de la boîte
     de dialogue « Configure IDLE ».  La hauteur maximale d'un écran est
     déterminée en maximisant momentanément une fenêtre lors du premier
     zoom sur l'écran.  La modification des paramètres d'écran peut
     invalider la hauteur enregistrée.  Cette bascule n'a aucun effet
     lorsqu'une fenêtre est agrandie.


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Windows console et éditeur,  Next: Menu Help console et éditeur,  Prev: Menu Options console et éditeur,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.9 Menu 'Windows' (console et éditeur)
............................................

Liste les noms de toutes les fenêtres ouvertes ; sélectionnez-en une
pour l'amener au premier plan (en l'ouvrant si nécessaire).


File: python.info,  Node: Menu Help console et éditeur,  Next: Context menus,  Prev: Menu Windows console et éditeur,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.10 Menu 'Help' (console et éditeur)
..........................................

About 'IDLE'

     Affiche la version, les copyrights, la licence, les crédits, entre
     autres.

'IDLE Help'

     Affiche ce document 'IDLE', qui détaille les options des menus, les
     bases de l'édition et de la navigation ainsi que d'autres astuces.

'Python Docs'

     Accède à la documentation Python locale, si installée, ou ouvre
     docs.python.org dans un navigateur pour afficher la documentation
     Python la plus récente.

'Turtle Demo'

     Exécute le module 'turtledemo' avec des exemples de code Python et
     de dessins 'turtle'.

Des sources d'aide supplémentaires peuvent être ajoutées ici avec la
fenêtre de configuration d''IDLE' dans l'onglet 'General'.  Référez-vous
à la sous-section *note Sources d'aide: 3ee9. ci-dessous pour plus de
détails sur les choix du menu d'aide.


File: python.info,  Node: Context menus,  Prev: Menu Help console et éditeur,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.11 Context menus
.......................

Vous pouvez ouvrir un menu contextuel par un clic droit dans une fenêtre
(Contrôle-clic sous 'macOS'). Les menus contextuels ont les fonctions de
presse-papier standard, également disponibles dans le menu 'Edit'.

'Cut'

     Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global ; puis supprime la
     sélection.

'Copy'

     Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global.

'Paste'

     Insère le contenu du presse-papier global dans la fenêtre active.

Les fenêtres d'édition ont aussi des fonctions de points d'arrêt.  Les
lignes sur lesquelles est défini un point d'arrêt sont marquées de
manière spéciale.  Les points d'arrêt n'ont d'effet que lorsque
l'exécution se déroule sous débogueur.  Les points d'arrêt pour un
fichier sont enregistrés dans le dossier ‘.idlerc’ de l'utilisateur.

'Set Breakpoint'

     Place un point d'arrêt sur la ligne active.

'Clear Breakpoint'

     Enlève le point d'arrêt sur cette ligne.

Les fenêtres de console et d'affichage disposent en plus des éléments
suivants.

'Go to file/line'

     Même effet que dans le menu 'Debug'.

Les fenêtres de console ont également une fonction de réduction des
sorties détaillée dans la sous-section 'fenêtre de console de Python'
ci-dessous.

'Squeeze'

     Si le curseur est sur une ligne d'affichage, compacte toute la
     sortie entre le code au-dessus et l'invite en-dessous en un bouton
     '"Squeezed text"'.


File: python.info,  Node: Editing and Navigation,  Next: Startup and Code Execution,  Prev: Menus,  Up: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>

5.26.9.12 Editing and Navigation
................................

* Menu:

* Fenêtre d'édition::
* Raccourcis clavier::
* Indentation automatique::
* Recherche et substitution::
* Complétions::
* Info-bulles::
* Contexte du code::
* Shell window::
* Coloration du texte::


File: python.info,  Node: Fenêtre d'édition,  Next: Raccourcis clavier,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.13 Fenêtre d'édition
...........................

'IDLE' peut ouvrir une fenêtre d'édition quand il démarre, selon les
paramètres et la manière dont vous démarrez 'IDLE'. Ensuite, utilisez le
menu 'File'.  Il ne peut y avoir qu'une fenêtre d'édition pour un
fichier donné.

La barre de titre contient le nom du fichier, le chemin absolu et la
version de Python et d''IDLE' s'exécutant dans la fenêtre.  La barre de
statut contient le numéro de ligne ("'Ln"') et le numéro de la colonne
("'Col"').  Les numéros de ligne commencent à 1 ; les numéros de colonne
commencent à 0.

'IDLE' suppose que les fichiers avec une extension en '.py*' reconnue
contiennent du code Python, mais pas les autres fichiers.  Exécutez du
code Python avec le menu 'Run'.


File: python.info,  Node: Raccourcis clavier,  Next: Indentation automatique,  Prev: Fenêtre d'édition,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.14 Raccourcis clavier
............................

The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character
positions.  When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and
everything to its right moves right one character and the new character
is entered in the new space.

Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete
characters.  Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has
an undo list.  Wherever this doc discusses keys, 'C' refers to the
‘Control’ key on Windows and Unix and the ‘Command’ key on macOS. (And
all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to
something else.)

   * Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.

   * ‘C’-‘LeftArrow’ and ‘C’-‘RightArrow’ moves left or right one word.

   * ‘Home’ and ‘End’ go to the beginning or end of the line.

   * ‘Page Up’ and ‘Page Down’ go up or down one screen.

   * ‘C’-‘Home’ and ‘C’-‘End’ go to beginning or end of the file.

   * ‘Backspace’ and ‘Del’ (or ‘C’-‘d’) delete the previous or next
     character.

   * ‘C’-‘Backspace’ and ‘C’-‘Del’ delete one word left or right.

   * ‘C’-‘k’ deletes ('kills') everything to the right.

Les raccourcis clavier standards (comme ‘C’-‘c’ pour copier et ‘C’-‘v’
pour coller) peuvent fonctionner.  Les raccourcis clavier sont
sélectionnés dans la fenêtre de configuration d''IDLE'.


File: python.info,  Node: Indentation automatique,  Next: Recherche et substitution,  Prev: Raccourcis clavier,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.15 Indentation automatique
.................................

Après une structure d'ouverture de bloc, la prochaine ligne est indentée
de 4 espaces (dans la console Python d'une tabulation).  Après certains
mots-clefs ('break', 'return' etc) la ligne suivante est 'dédentée'.
Dans une indentation au début de la ligne, ‘Retour’ ‘arrière’ supprime
jusqu'à 4 espaces s'il y en a. ‘Tab’ insère des espaces (dans la
console, une tabulation), en nombre dépendant de la configuration.  Les
tabulations sont actuellement restreintes à quatre espaces à cause de
limitations de 'Tcl/Tk'.

Cf.  les commandes 'indent/dedent region' dans le *note menu *Format*:
3edb.


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche et substitution,  Next: Complétions,  Prev: Indentation automatique,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.16 Recherche et substitution
...................................

Any selection becomes a search target.  However, only selections within
a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the
terminal newline removed.  If ‘[x] Regular expression’ is checked, the
target is interpreted according to the Python re module.


File: python.info,  Node: Complétions,  Next: Info-bulles,  Prev: Recherche et substitution,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.17 Complétions
.....................

Completions are supplied, when requested and available, for module
names, attributes of classes or functions, or filenames.  Each request
method displays a completion box with existing names.  (See tab
completions below for an exception.)  For any box, change the name being
completed and the item highlighted in the box by typing and deleting
characters; by hitting ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘PageUp’, ‘PageDown’, ‘Home’, and
‘End’ keys; and by a single click within the box.  Close the box with
‘Escape’, ‘Enter’, and double ‘Tab’ keys or clicks outside the box.  A
double click within the box selects and closes.

One way to open a box is to type a key character and wait for a
predefined interval.  This defaults to 2 seconds; customize it in the
settings dialog.  (To prevent auto popups, set the delay to a large
number of milliseconds, such as 100000000.)  For imported module names
or class or function attributes, type '.'.  For filenames in the root
directory, type *note os.sep: 657. or *note os.altsep: 658. immediately
after an opening quote.  (On Windows, one can specify a drive first.)
Move into subdirectories by typing a directory name and a separator.

Instead of waiting, or after a box is closed, open a completion box
immediately with Show Completions on the Edit menu.  The default hot key
is ‘C’-‘space’.  If one types a prefix for the desired name before
opening the box, the first match or near miss is made visible.  The
result is the same as if one enters a prefix after the box is displayed.
Show Completions after a quote completes filenames in the current
directory instead of a root directory.

Hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix usually has the same effect as Show
Completions.  (With no prefix, it indents.)  However, if there is only
one match to the prefix, that match is immediately added to the editor
text without opening a box.

Invoking 'Show Completions', or hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix, outside of
a string and without a preceding '.'  opens a box with keywords, builtin
names, and available module-level names.

When editing code in an editor (as oppose to Shell), increase the
available module-level names by running your code and not restarting the
Shell thereafter.  This is especially useful after adding imports at the
top of a file.  This also increases possible attribute completions.

Completion boxes initially exclude names beginning with '_' or, for
modules, not included in '__all__'.  The hidden names can be accessed by
typing '_' after '.', either before or after the box is opened.


File: python.info,  Node: Info-bulles,  Next: Contexte du code,  Prev: Complétions,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.18 Info-bulles
.....................

A calltip is shown automatically when one types ‘(’ after the name of an
'accessible' function.  A function name expression may include dots and
subscripts.  A calltip remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved
out of the argument area, or ‘)’ is typed.  Whenever the cursor is in
the argument part of a definition, select Edit and "Show Call Tip" on
the menu or enter its shortcut to display a calltip.

The calltip consists of the function's signature and docstring up to the
latter's first blank line or the fifth non-blank line.  (Some builtin
functions lack an accessible signature.)  A '/' or '*' in the signature
indicates that the preceding or following arguments are passed by
position or name (keyword) only.  Details are subject to change.

In Shell, the accessible functions depends on what modules have been
imported into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
and which definitions have been run, all since the last restart.

For example, restart the Shell and enter ‘itertools.count(’.  A calltip
appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own
use.  (This could change.)  Enter ‘turtle.write(’ and nothing appears.
Idle does not itself import turtle.  The menu entry and shortcut also do
nothing.  Enter ‘import turtle’.  Thereafter, ‘turtle.write(’ will
display a calltip.

In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.
One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after
adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.


File: python.info,  Node: Contexte du code,  Next: Shell window,  Prev: Info-bulles,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.19 Contexte du code
..........................

Dans une fenêtre d'édition contenant du code Python, le contexte du code
peut être activé pour afficher ou cacher une zone en haut de la fenêtre.
Quand elle est affichée, cette zone gèle les lignes ouvrant le bloc de
code, comme celles qui commencent par les mots-clés ‘class’, ‘def’ ou
‘if’, qui auraient autrement été cachées plus haut dans le fichier.  La
taille de cette zone varie automatiquement selon ce qui est nécessaire
pour afficher tous les niveaux de contexte, jusqu'à un nombre maximal de
lignes défini dans la fenêtre de configuration d''IDLE' (valeur qui vaut
15 par défaut).  S'il n'y a pas de lignes de contexte et que cette
fonctionnalité est activée, une unique ligne vide est affichée.  Un clic
sur une ligne dans la zone de contexte déplace cette ligne en haut de
l'éditeur.

Les couleurs de texte et du fond pour la zone de contexte peuvent être
configurées dans l'onglet 'Highlights' de la fenêtre de configuration
d''IDLE'.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell window,  Next: Coloration du texte,  Prev: Contexte du code,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.20 Shell window
......................

In IDLE's Shell, enter, edit, and recall complete statements.  (Most
consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time).

Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting ‘Return’ with
the cursor anywhere on the line.  If a line is extended with Backslash
(‘\’), the cursor must be on the last physical line.  Submit a
multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the
statement.

When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly
executed until one hits ‘Return’, as specified above.  One may edit
pasted code first.  If one pastes more than one statement into Shell,
the result will be a *note SyntaxError: 18b. when multiple statements
are compiled as if they were one.

Lines containing ‘RESTART’ mean that the user execution process has been
re-started.  This occurs when the user execution process has crashed,
when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in
an editor window.

The editing features described in previous subsections work when
entering code interactively.  IDLE's Shell window also responds to the
following:

   * ‘C’-‘c’ attempts to interrupt statement execution (but may fail).

   * ‘C’-‘d’ closes Shell if typed at a ‘>>>’ prompt.

   * ‘Alt’-‘p’ and ‘Alt’-‘n’ (‘C’-‘p’ and ‘C’-‘n’ on macOS) retrieve to
     the current prompt the previous or next previously entered
     statement that matches anything already typed.

   * ‘Return’ while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the
     latter to anything already typed at the prompt.


File: python.info,  Node: Coloration du texte,  Prev: Shell window,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.21 Coloration du texte
.............................

'IDLE' affiche par défaut le texte en noir sur blanc mais colore le
texte qui possède une signification spéciale.  Pour la console, ceci
concerne les sorties de la console et de l'utilisateur ainsi que les
erreurs de l'utilisateur.  Pour le code Python, dans l'invite de
commande de la console ou sur un éditeur, ce sont les mots-clefs, noms
de fonctions et de classes incluses par défaut, les noms suivant ‘class’
et ‘def’, les chaînes de caractères et les commentaires.  Pour n'importe
quelle fenêtre de texte, ce sont le curseur (si présent), le texte
trouvé (s'il y en a) et le texte sélectionné.

IDLE also highlights the *note soft keywords: 7f8. *note match: 7f9,
*note case: 7f9, and *note _: 7fa. in pattern-matching statements.
However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some
rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.

La coloration du texte est faite en arrière-plan, donc du texte non
coloré est parfois visible.  Pour changer les couleurs, utilisez
l'onglet 'Highlighting' de la fenêtre de configuration d''IDLE'. Le
marquage des points d'arrêt du débogueur dans l'éditeur et du texte dans
les dialogues n'est pas configurable.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup and Code Execution,  Next: Help and Preferences,  Prev: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>

5.26.9.22 Startup and Code Execution
....................................

Quand il est démarré avec l'option ‘-s’, 'IDLE' exécutera le fichier
référencé par la variable d'environnement ‘IDLE*STARTUP’ ou  *note
PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5.  'IDLE' cherche d'abord ‘IDLESTARTUP’ ; si
‘IDLESTARTUP’ est présent, le fichier référencé est exécuté.  Si
‘IDLESTARTUP’ n'est pas présent, alors 'IDLE' cherche ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’.
Les fichiers référencés par ces variables d'environnement sont de bons
endroits pour stocker des fonctions qui sont utilisées fréquemment
depuis la console d''IDLE' ou pour exécuter des commandes d'importation
des modules communs.

De plus, ‘Tk’ charge lui aussi un fichier de démarrage s'il est présent.
Notez que le fichier de 'Tk' est chargé sans condition.  Ce fichier
additionnel est ‘.Idle.py’ et est recherché dans le dossier personnel de
l'utilisateur.  Les commandes dans ce fichier sont exécutées dans
l'espace de nommage de 'Tk', donc ce fichier n'est pas utile pour
importer des fonctions à utiliser depuis la console Python d''IDLE'.

* Menu:

* Utilisation de la ligne de commande::
* Échec au démarrage::
* Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur::
* Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console::
* Développer des applications tkinter::
* Exécution sans sous-processus::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de la ligne de commande,  Next: Échec au démarrage,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.23 Utilisation de la ligne de commande
.............................................

IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options.  The
general syntax is:

     python -m idlelib [options] [file ...]

The following options are available:

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Run the specified Python command in the shell window.  For example,
     pass ‘-c "print('Hello, World!')"’.  On Windows, the outer quotes
     must be double quotes as shown.

 -- Option: -d

     Enable the debugger and open the shell window.

 -- Option: -e

     Open an editor window.

 -- Option: -h

     Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit.

 -- Option: -i

     Open a shell window.

 -- Option: -r <file>

     Run the specified file in the shell window.

 -- Option: -s

     Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables
     ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5.) before opening the
     shell window.

 -- Option: -t <title>

     Set the title of the shell window.

 -- Option: -

     Read and execute standard input in the shell window.  This option
     must be the last one before any arguments.

If arguments are provided:

   - If ‘-’, ‘-c’, or ‘-r’ is used, all arguments are placed in
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’, and ‘sys.argv[0]’ is set to ‘''’, ‘'-c'’, or ‘'-r'’
     respectively.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the
     default set in the 'Options' dialog.

   - Otherwise, arguments are treated as files to be opened for editing,
     and ‘sys.argv’ reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.


File: python.info,  Node: Échec au démarrage,  Next: Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur,  Prev: Utilisation de la ligne de commande,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.24 Échec au démarrage
............................

IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the
user code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever
the Shell starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider
line that says 'RESTART'). If the user process fails to connect to the
GUI process, it usually displays a ‘Tk’ error box with a 'cannot
connect' message that directs the user here.  It then exits.

One specific connection failure on Unix systems results from
misconfigured masquerading rules somewhere in a system's network setup.
When IDLE is started from a terminal, one will see a message starting
with ‘** Invalid host:’.  The valid value is ‘127.0.0.1
(idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST)’.  One can diagnose with ‘tcpconnect -irv
127.0.0.1 6543’ in one terminal window and ‘tcplisten <same args>’ in
another.

Une cause d'échec courant est un fichier écrit par l'utilisateur avec le
même nom qu'un module de la bibliothèque standard, comme 'random.py' et
'tkinter.py'.  Quand un fichier de ce genre est enregistré dans le même
répertoire qu'un fichier à exécuter, 'IDLE' ne peut pas importer le
fichier standard.  La solution actuelle consiste à renommer le fichier
de l'utilisateur.

Même si c'est plus rare qu'avant, un antivirus ou un pare-feu peuvent
interrompre la connexion.  Si le programme ne peut pas être paramétré
pour autoriser la connexion, alors il doit être éteint pour qu''IDLE'
puisse fonctionner.  Cette connexion interne est sûre car aucune donnée
n'est visible depuis un port extérieur.  Un problème similaire est une
mauvaise configuration du réseau qui bloque les connexions.

Des problèmes d'installation de Python stoppent parfois 'IDLE' : il peut
y avoir un conflit de versions ou bien l'installation peut nécessiter
des privilèges administrateurs.  Si on corrige le conflit , ou qu'on ne
peut ou ne veut pas accorder de privilège, il peut être plus facile de
désinstaller complètement Python et de recommencer.

A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
Manager to check for one and stop it if there is.  Sometimes a restart
initiated by a program crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail
to connect.  Dismissing the error box or using Restart Shell on the
Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.

When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
‘~/.idlerc/’ (~ is one's home directory).  If there is a problem, an
error message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches,
this can be prevented by never editing the files by hand.  Instead, use
the configuration dialog, under Options.  Once there is an error in a
user configuration file, the best solution may be to delete it and start
over with the settings dialog.

If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console,
try starting it from a console or terminal (‘python -m idlelib’) and see
if this results in an error message.

On Unix-based systems with tcl/tk older than ‘8.6.11’ (see ‘About IDLE’)
certain characters of certain fonts can cause a tk failure with a
message to the terminal.  This can happen either if one starts IDLE to
edit a file with such a character or later when entering such a
character.  If one cannot upgrade tcl/tk, then re-configure IDLE to use
a font that works better.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur,  Next: Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console,  Prev: Échec au démarrage,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.25 Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur
...........................................

With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default
method, directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal
window.  However, the different interface and operation occasionally
affect visible results.  For instance, ‘sys.modules’ starts with more
entries, and ‘threading.active_count()’ returns 2 instead of 1.

Par défaut, 'IDLE' exécute le code de l'utilisateur dans un processus
système séparé plutôt que dans le processus d'interface utilisateur qui
exécute la console et l'éditeur.  Dans le processus d'exécution, il
remplace ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ et ‘sys.stderr’ par des objets qui
récupèrent les entrées et envoient les sorties à la fenêtre de console.
Les valeurs originales stockées dans ‘sys.__stdin__’, ‘sys.__stdout__’
et ‘sys.__stderr__’ ne sont pas touchées, mais peuvent être ‘None’.

Sending print output from one process to a text widget in another is
slower than printing to a system terminal in the same process.  This has
the most effect when printing multiple arguments, as the string for each
argument, each separator, the newline are sent separately.  For
development, this is usually not a problem, but if one wants to print
faster in IDLE, format and join together everything one wants displayed
together and then print a single string.  Both format strings and *note
str.join(): 2168. can help combine fields and lines.

IDLE's standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by
modules such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use ‘input’ from
sys.stdin or ‘print’ or ‘write’ to sys.stdout or sys.stderr, IDLE should
be started in a command line window.  (On Windows, use ‘python’ or ‘py’
rather than ‘pythonw’ or ‘pyw’.)  The secondary subprocess will then be
attached to that window for input and output.

Si ‘sys’ est réinitialisé par le code de l'utilisateur, comme avec
‘importlib.reload(sys)’, les changements d''IDLE' seront perdus et
l'entrée du clavier et la sortie à l'écran ne fonctionneront pas
correctement.

Quand la console est au premier plan, elle contrôle le clavier et
l'écran.  Ceci est normalement transparent, mais les fonctions qui
accèdent directement au clavier et à l'écran ne fonctionneront pas.
Ceci inclut des fonctions spécifiques du système qui déterminent si une
touche a été pressée et, le cas échéant, laquelle.

Le code IDLE tournant dans le processus d'exécution ajoute des appels de
fonctions à la pile d'appels qui ne seraient pas là autrement.  IDLE
encapsule ‘sys.getrecursionlimit’ et ‘sys.setrecursionlimit’ pour
réduire l'effet des piles de fonctions supplémentaires.

Lorsque l'utilisateur lève ‘SystemExit’ directement ou en appelant
‘sys.exit’, IDLE revient au terminal IDLE au lieu de quitter.


File: python.info,  Node: Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console,  Next: Développer des applications tkinter,  Prev: Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.26 Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console
................................................

Quand un programme affiche du texte, le résultat est déterminé par le
support d'affichage correspondant.  Quand 'IDLE' exécute du code de
l'utilisateur, ‘sys.stdout’ et ‘sys.stderr’ sont connectées à la zone
d'affichage de la console d''IDLE'. Certaines de ces fonctionnalités
sont héritées des widgets 'Tk' sous-jacents.  D'autres sont des
additions programmées.  Quand cela importe, la console est conçue pour
le développement plutôt que l'exécution en production.

Par exemple, la console ne supprime jamais de sortie.  Un programme qui
écrit à l'infini dans la console finira par remplir la mémoire, ce qui
entraînera un erreur mémoire.  Par ailleurs, certains systèmes de
fenêtres textuelles ne conservent que les n dernières lignes de sortie.
Une console Windows, par exemple, conserve une quantité de lignes
configurable entre 1 et 9999, avec une valeur par défaut de 300.

Un widget 'Text' de 'Tk' et donc la console d''IDLE', affiche des
caractères (points de code) dans le sous-ensemble 'BMP' ('Basic
Multilingual Plane') d'Unicode.  Quels caractères sont affichés avec le
bon glyphe et lesquels sont affichés avec un caractère de remplacement
dépend du système d'exploitation et des polices installées.  Les
caractères de tabulation font que le texte suivant commencera après le
prochain taquet de tabulation (ils sont placés tous les 8
'"caractères"').  Les caractères saut de ligne font apparaître le texte
suivant sur une nouvelle ligne.  Les autres caractères de contrôle sont
ignorés ou affichés sous forme d'espace, de boîte, ou d'autre chose,
selon le système d'exploitation et la police (déplacer le curseur de
texte sur un affichage de ce genre peut provoquer un comportement
surprenant du point de vue de l'espacement).

     >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # Enter 22 chars.
     >>> len(s)
     14
     >>> s  # Display repr(s)
     'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
     >>> print(s, end='')  # Display s as is.
     # Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.

La fonction ‘repr’ est utilisée pour l'affichage interactif de la valeur
des expressions.  Elle renvoie une version modifiée de la chaîne en
entrée dans laquelle les codes de contrôle, certains points de code
'BMP' et tous les points de code non 'BMP' sont remplacés par des
caractères d'échappement.  Comme montré ci-dessus, ceci permet
d'identifier les caractères dans une chaîne, quelle que soit la façon
dont elle est affichée.

Les sorties standard et d'erreur sont généralement séparées (sur des
lignes séparées) de l'entrée de code et entre elles.  Elles ont chacune
une coloration différente.

Pour les 'traceback' de 'SyntaxError', le '"^"' habituel marquant
l'endroit où l'erreur a été détectée est remplacé par la coloration et
le surlignage du texte avec une erreur.  Quand du code exécuté depuis un
fichier cause d'autres exceptions, un clic droit sur la ligne du
'traceback' permet d'accéder à la ligne correspondante dans un éditeur
'IDLE'. Le fichier est ouvert si nécessaire.

La console a une fonctionnalité spéciale pour réduire les lignes de
sorties à une étiquette '"Squeezed text"'.  Ceci est fait
automatiquement pour un sortie de plus de N lignes (N = 50 par défaut).
N peut être changé dans la section 'PyShell' de la page 'General' de la
fenêtre de configuration.  Les sorties avec moins de lignes peuvent être
réduites par un clic droit sur la sortie.  Ceci peut être utile sur des
lignes si longues qu'elles ralentissent la navigation.

Les sorties réduites sont étendues sur place en double-cliquant sur
l'étiquette Elles peuvent aussi être envoyées au presse-papier ou sur un
fenêtre séparée par un clic-droit sur l'étiquette.


File: python.info,  Node: Développer des applications tkinter,  Next: Exécution sans sous-processus,  Prev: Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.27 Développer des applications 'tkinter'
...............................................

'IDLE' est intentionnellement différent de Python standard dans le but
de faciliter le développement des programmes 'tkinter'.  Saisissez
‘import *tkinter* as tk; root = tk.Tk()’ avec Python standard, rien
n'apparaît.  Saisissez la même chose dans 'IDLE' et une fenêtre 'tk'
apparaît.  En Python standard, il faut également saisir ‘root.update()’
pour voir la fenêtre.  'IDLE' fait un équivalent mais en arrière-plan,
environ 20 fois par seconde, soit environ toutes les 50 millisecondes.
Ensuite, saisissez ‘b = tk.Button(root, text='button'); b.pack()’.  De
la même manière, aucun changement n'est visible en Python standard
jusqu'à la saisie de ‘root.update()’.

La plupart des programmes 'tkinter' exécutent ‘root.mainloop()’, qui
d'habitude ne renvoie pas jusqu'à ce que l'application 'tk' soit
détruite.  Si le programme est exécuté avec ‘python -i’ ou depuis un
éditeur 'IDLE', une invite de commande ‘>>>’ n'apparaît pas tant que
‘mainloop()’ ne termine pas, c'est-à-dire quand il ne reste plus rien
avec lequel interagir.

Avec un programme 'tkinter' exécuté depuis un éditeur 'IDLE', vous
pouvez immédiatement commenter l'appel à 'mainloop'.  On a alors accès à
une invite de commande et on peut interagir en direct avec
l'application.  Il faut juste se rappeler de réactiver l'appel à
'mainloop' lors de l'exécution en Python standard.


File: python.info,  Node: Exécution sans sous-processus,  Prev: Développer des applications tkinter,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.28 Exécution sans sous-processus
.......................................

By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a
socket, which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is
not externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the
internet.  If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.

Si la tentative de connexion par le 'socket' échoue, 'IDLE' vous le
notifie.  Ce genre d'échec est parfois temporaire, mais s'il persiste,
le problème peut soit venir d'un pare-feu qui bloque la connexion ou
d'une mauvaise configuration dans un système particulier.  Jusqu'à ce
que le problème soit résolu, vous pouvez exécuter 'IDLE' avec l'option
'-n' de la ligne de commande.

Si 'IDLE' est démarré avec l'option '-n' de la ligne de commande, il
s'exécute dans un seul processus et ne crée pas de sous-processus pour
exécuter le serveur RPC d'exécution de Python.  Ceci peut être utile si
Python ne peut pas créer de sous-processus ou de connecteur 'RPC' sur
votre plateforme.  Cependant, dans ce mode, le code de l'utilisateur
n'est pas isolé de 'IDLE' lui-même.  De plus, l'environnement n'est pas
réinitialisé quand 'Run/Run Module' (‘F5’) est sélectionné.  Si votre
code a été modifié, vous devez 'reload'() les modules affectés et
ré-importer tous les éléments spécifiques (e.g.  'from foo import baz')
pour que les changements prennent effet.  Pour toutes ces raisons, il
est préférable d'exécuter 'IDLE' avec le sous-processus par défaut si
c'est possible.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and Preferences,  Next: idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application,  Prev: Startup and Code Execution,  Up: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>

5.26.9.29 Help and Preferences
..............................

* Menu:

* Sources d'aide::
* Modifier les préférences::
* IDLE sous macOS::
* Extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Sources d'aide,  Next: Modifier les préférences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.30 Sources d'aide
........................

L'entrée du menu d'aide '"IDLE Help"' affiche une version 'html'
formatée du chapitre sur 'IDLE' de la 'Library Reference'.  Le résultat,
dans une fenêtre de texte 'tkinter' en lecture-seule, est proche de ce
qu'on voit dans un navigateur.  Naviguez dans le texte avec la molette
de la souris, la barre de défilement ou avec les touches directionnelles
du clavier enfoncées.  Ou cliquez sur le bouton TOC ('Table of
Contents' : sommaire) et sélectionnez un titre de section dans l'espace
ouvert.

L'entrée du menu d'aide '"Python Docs"' ouvre les sources d'aide
détaillées, incluant des tutoriels, disponibles sur
‘https://docs.python.org/x.y’, avec '"x.y"' la version de Python en
cours d'exécution.  Si votre système a une copie locale de la
documentation (cela peut être une option d'installation), c'est elle qui
est ouverte.

Les URL sélectionnées peuvent être ajoutées ou enlevées du menu d'aide à
n'importe quel moment en utilisant l'onglet « 'General' » de la fenêtre
« Configure IDLE ».


File: python.info,  Node: Modifier les préférences,  Next: IDLE sous macOS,  Prev: Sources d'aide,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.31 Modifier les préférences
..................................

Les préférences de polices, surlignage, touches et les préférences
générales peuvent être changées via « Configure IDLE » dans le menu
« Options ».  Les paramètres modifiés par l'utilisateur sont enregistrés
dans un dossier ‘.idlerc’ dans le dossier personnel de l'utilisateur.
Les problèmes causés par des fichiers de configuration utilisateur
corrompus sont résolus en modifiant ou en supprimant un ou plusieurs
fichiers dans '.idlerc'.

Dans l'onglet 'Fonts', regardez les échantillons de texte pour voir
l'effet de la police et de la taille sur de multiples caractères de
multiples langues.  Éditez les échantillons pour ajouter d'autres
caractères qui vous intéressent.  Utilisez les échantillons pour
sélectionner les polices à largeur constante.  Si certains caractères
posent des difficultés dans la console ou l'éditeur, ajoutez-les en haut
des échantillons et essayez de changer d'abord la taille, puis la fonte.

Dans les onglets 'Highlights' et 'Keys', sélectionnez un ensemble de
couleurs et de raccourcis pré-inclus ou personnalisé.  Pour utiliser un
ensemble de couleurs et de raccourcis récent avec une version d''IDLE'
plus ancienne, enregistrez-le en tant que nouveau thème ou ensemble de
raccourcis personnalisé ; il sera alors accessible aux 'IDLE' plus
anciens.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE sous macOS,  Next: Extensions,  Prev: Modifier les préférences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.32 'IDLE' sous 'macOS'
.............................

Dans 'System Preferences: Dock', on peut mettre '"Prefer tabs when
opening documents"' à la valeur '"Always"'.  Ce paramètre n'est pas
compatible avec le cadriciel 'tk/tkinter' utilisé par 'IDLE' et il casse
quelques fonctionnalités d''IDLE'.


File: python.info,  Node: Extensions,  Prev: IDLE sous macOS,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.33 Extensions
....................

'IDLE' inclut un outil d'extensions.  Les préférences pour les
extensions peuvent être changées avec l'onglet Extensions de la fenêtre
de préférences.  Lisez le début de 'config-extensions.def' dans le
dossier 'idlelib' pour plus d'informations.  La seule extension
actuellement utilisée par défaut est 'zzdummy', un exemple également
utilisé pour les tests.


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application,  Prev: Help and Preferences,  Up: IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>

5.26.9.34 idlelib -- implementation of IDLE application
.......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/idlelib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application.  See the rest
of this page for how to use IDLE.

The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt.  Access it
either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu.  This
file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item.
Except for files listed under 'Startup', the idlelib code is 'private'
in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/idlelib

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: Outils de développement,  Next: Débogueur et instrumentation,  Prev: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.27 Outils de développement
============================

The modules described in this chapter help you write software.  For
example, the *note pydoc: b4. module takes a module and generates
documentation based on the module's contents.  The *note doctest: 3a.
and *note unittest: 105. modules contains frameworks for writing unit
tests that automatically exercise code and verify that the expected
output is produced.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type::
* pydoc: pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system. Documentation generator and online help system
* Python Development Mode::
* doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python::
* unittest: unittest --- Unit testing framework. Unit testing framework
* unittest.mock: unittest mock --- mock object library. mock object library
* unittest.mock: unittest mock --- getting started. getting started
* test: test --- Regression tests package for Python. Regression tests package for Python
* test.support: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite. Utilities for the Python test suite
* test.support.socket_helper: test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests. Utilities for socket tests
* test.support.script_helper: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests. Utilities for the Python execution tests
* test.support.bytecode_helper: test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation
* test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests. Utilities for threading tests
* test.support.os_helper: test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests. Utilities for os tests
* test.support.import_helper: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests. Utilities for import tests
* test.support.warnings_helper: test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests. Utilities for warnings tests


File: python.info,  Node: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type,  Next: pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.1 ‘typing’ — Prise en charge des annotations de type
---------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

'Code source :' Lib/typing.py(1)

     Note: The Python runtime does not enforce function and variable
     type annotations.  They can be used by third party tools such as
     *note type checkers: 26a, IDEs, linters, etc.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides runtime support for type hints.

Consider the function below:

     def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
         return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

The function ‘surface_area_of_cube’ takes an argument expected to be an
instance of *note float: 2ec, as indicated by the *note type hint: 1f3a.
‘edge_length: float’.  The function is expected to return an instance of
*note str: 437, as indicated by the ‘-> str’ hint.

While type hints can be simple classes like *note float: 2ec. or *note
str: 437, they can also be more complex.  The *note typing: 103. module
provides a vocabulary of more advanced type hints.

New features are frequently added to the ‘typing’ module.  The
typing_extensions(2) package provides backports of these new features to
older versions of Python.

Voir aussi
..........

"Typing cheat sheet"(3)

     A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs)

"Type System Reference" section of the mypy docs(4)

     The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this
     reference should broadly apply to most Python type checkers.  (Some
     parts may still be specific to mypy.)

"Static Typing with Python"(5)

     Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community
     detailing type system features, useful typing related tools and
     typing best practices.

* Menu:

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* Alias de type::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* Génériques::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur::
* Le type Any::
* Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel::
* Classe de données::
* Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/typing.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/

   (3) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html

   (4) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html

   (5) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Specification for the Python Type System,  Next: Alias de type,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.1 Specification for the Python Type System
.................................................

The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be
found at "Specification for the Python type system"(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html


File: python.info,  Node: Alias de type,  Next: NewType,  Prev: Specification for the Python Type System,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.2 Alias de type
......................

A type alias is defined using the *note type: 423. statement, which
creates an instance of *note TypeAliasType: 440.  In this example,
‘Vector’ and ‘list[float]’ will be treated equivalently by static type
checkers:

     type Vector = list[float]

     def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
         return [scalar * num for num in vector]

     # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
     new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

Les alias de type sont utiles pour simplifier les signatures complexes.
Par exemple :

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
     type Address = tuple[str, int]
     type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

     def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
         ...

     # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
     # being exactly equivalent to this one.
     def broadcast_message(
         message: str,
         servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
     ) -> None:
         ...

The *note type: 423. statement is new in Python 3.12.  For backwards
compatibility, type aliases can also be created through simple
assignment:

     Vector = list[float]

Or marked with *note TypeAlias: 7b5. to make it explicit that this is a
type alias, not a normal variable assignment:

     from typing import TypeAlias

     Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]


File: python.info,  Node: NewType,  Next: Annotating callable objects,  Prev: Alias de type,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.3 'NewType'
..................

Utilisez la classe *note NewType: ce5. pour créer des types distincts :

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

Le vérificateur de types statiques traite le nouveau type comme s'il
s'agissait d'une sous-classe du type original.  C'est utile pour aider à
détecter les erreurs logiques :

     def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
         ...

     # passes type checking
     user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

     # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
     user_b = get_user_name(-1)

Vous pouvez toujours effectuer toutes les opérations applicables à un
entier (type ‘int’) sur une variable de type ‘UserId’, mais le résultat
sera toujours de type ‘int’.  Ceci vous permet de passer un ‘UserId’
partout où un ‘int’ est attendu, mais vous empêche de créer
accidentellement un ‘UserId’ d'une manière invalide :

     # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
     output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

Notez que ces contrôles ne sont exécutés que par le vérificateur de
types statique.  À l'exécution, l'instruction ‘Derived =
NewType('Derived', Base)’ fait de ‘Derived’ une fonction qui renvoie
immédiatement le paramètre que vous lui passez.  Cela signifie que
l'expression ‘Derived(some_value)’ ne crée pas une nouvelle classe et
n'introduit pas de surcharge au-delà de celle d'un appel de fonction
normal.

Plus précisément, l'expression ‘some_value is Derived(some_value)’ est
toujours vraie au moment de l'exécution.

La création d'un sous-type de ‘Derived’ est invalide :

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
     class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

Il est néanmoins possible de créer un *note NewType: ce5. basé sur un
‘NewType’ « dérivé » :

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

et la vérification de type pour ‘ProUserId’ fonctionne comme prévu.

Voir la PEP 484(1) pour plus de détails.

     Note: Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be
     'equivalent' to one another.  Doing ‘type Alias = Original’ will
     make the static type checker treat ‘Alias’ as being 'exactly
     equivalent' to ‘Original’ in all cases.  This is useful when you
     want to simplify complex type signatures.

     En revanche, ‘NewType’ déclare qu'un type est un 'sous-type' d'un
     autre.  Écrire ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)’ fait que le
     vérificateur de type statique traite ‘Derived’ comme une
     'sous-classe' de ‘Original’, ce qui signifie qu'une valeur de type
     ‘Original’ ne peut être utilisée dans les endroits où une valeur de
     type ‘Derived’ est prévue.  C'est utile lorsque vous voulez éviter
     les erreurs logiques avec un coût d'exécution minimal.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a
function.  As a result, there is some additional runtime cost when
calling ‘NewType’ over a regular function.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The performance of calling ‘NewType’ has
been restored to its level in Python 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating callable objects,  Next: Génériques,  Prev: NewType,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.4 Annotating callable objects
....................................

Functions - or other *note callable: 28a7. objects - can be annotated
using *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. or deprecated *note
typing.Callable: 7b1.  ‘Callable[[int], str]’ signifies a function that
takes a single parameter of type *note int: 254. and returns a *note
str: 437.

For example:

     from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

     def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                     on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the
argument list and the return type.  The argument list must be a list of
types, a *note ParamSpec: 15d, *note Concatenate: 7b0, or an ellipsis.
The return type must be a single type.

If a literal ellipsis ‘...’ is given as the argument list, it indicates
that a callable with any arbitrary parameter list would be acceptable:

     def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
         return x + y

     x: Callable[..., str]
     x = str     # OK
     x = concat  # Also OK

‘Callable’ cannot express complex signatures such as functions that take
a variadic number of arguments, *note overloaded functions: 3f17, or
functions that have keyword-only parameters.  However, these signatures
can be expressed by defining a *note Protocol: 261. class with a *note
__call__(): 546. method:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import Protocol

     class Combiner(Protocol):
         def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

     def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
         for item in data:
             ...

     def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...
     def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...

     batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
     batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                              # different name and kind in the callback

Les appelables qui prennent en argument d'autres appelables peuvent
indiquer que leurs types de paramètres dépendent les uns des autres en
utilisant *note ParamSpec: 15d.  De plus, si un appelable ajoute ou
supprime des arguments d'autres appelables, l'opérateur *note
Concatenate: 7b0. peut être utilisé.  Ils prennent la forme
‘Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]’ et
‘Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable],
ReturnType]’ respectivement.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘Callable’ prend désormais en charge *note
ParamSpec: 15d. et *note Concatenate: 7b0.  Voir PEP 612(1) pour plus de
détails.

Voir aussi
..........

La documentation pour *note ParamSpec: 15d. et *note Concatenate: 7b0.
fournit des exemples d'utilisation dans ‘Callable’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Génériques,  Next: Annotating tuples,  Prev: Annotating callable objects,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.5 Génériques
...................

Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be
statically inferred in a generic way, many container classes in the
standard library support subscription to denote the expected types of
container elements.

     from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

     class Employee: ...

     # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
     # must be instances of "Employee".
     # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
     # must be strings.
     def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                         overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

Generic functions and classes can be parameterized by using *note type
parameter syntax: 2b0.:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
         return l[0]

Or by using the *note TypeVar: 15c. factory directly:

     from collections.abc import Sequence
     from typing import TypeVar

     U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

     def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
         return l[1]

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Syntactic support for generics is new in
Python 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating tuples,  Next: The type of class objects,  Prev: Génériques,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.6 Annotating tuples
..........................

For most containers in Python, the typing system assumes that all
elements in the container will be of the same type.  For example:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
     x: list[int] = []

     # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
     y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

     # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
     # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
     z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

*note list: 5fe. only accepts one type argument, so a type checker would
emit an error on the ‘y’ assignment above.  Similarly, *note Mapping:
8b9. only accepts two type arguments: the first indicates the type of
the keys, and the second indicates the type of the values.

Unlike most other Python containers, however, it is common in idiomatic
Python code for tuples to have elements which are not all of the same
type.  For this reason, tuples are special-cased in Python's typing
system.  *note tuple: 366. accepts 'any number' of type arguments:

     # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
     x: tuple[int] = (5,)

     # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
     # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
     y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

     # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
     # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
     z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

To denote a tuple which could be of 'any' length, and in which all
elements are of the same type ‘T’, use ‘tuple[T, ...]’.  To denote an
empty tuple, use ‘tuple[()]’.  Using plain ‘tuple’ as an annotation is
equivalent to using ‘tuple[Any, ...]’:

     x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
     # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
     x = (1, 2, 3)
     x = ()
     # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
     x = ("foo", "bar")

     # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
     y: tuple[()] = ()

     z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
     # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
     z = (1, 2, 3)
     z = ()


File: python.info,  Node: The type of class objects,  Next: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Prev: Annotating tuples,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.7 The type of class objects
..................................

A variable annotated with ‘C’ may accept a value of type ‘C’.  In
contrast, a variable annotated with ‘type[C]’ (or deprecated *note
typing.Type[C]: 3f1d.) may accept values that are classes themselves -
specifically, it will accept the 'class object' of ‘C’.  For example:

     a = 3         # Has type ``int``
     b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
     c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

Note that ‘type[C]’ is covariant:

     class User: ...
     class ProUser(User): ...
     class TeamUser(User): ...

     def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
         # ...
         return user_class()

     make_new_user(User)      # OK
     make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
     make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
     make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
     make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

The only legal parameters for *note type: d38. are classes, *note Any:
699, *note type variables: 1f38, and unions of any of these types.  For
example:

     def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

     new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
     new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
     new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                                   # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
     new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

‘type[Any]’ is equivalent to *note type: d38, which is the root of
Python's *note metaclass hierarchy: 1f2c.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Next: Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur,  Prev: The type of class objects,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.8 Annotating generators and coroutines
.............................................

A generator can be annotated using the generic type *note
Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: dca.  For example:

     def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
         sent = yield 0
         while sent >= 0:
             sent = yield round(sent)
         return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the
‘SendType’ of *note Generator: dca. behaves contravariantly, not
covariantly or invariantly.

The ‘SendType’ and ‘ReturnType’ parameters default to ‘None’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

It is also possible to set these types explicitly:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Simple generators that only ever yield values can also be annotated as
having a return type of either *note Iterable[YieldType]: 220b. or *note
Iterator[YieldType]: 220c.:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don't expect a
‘ReturnType’ type argument (*note AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]:
c7a.).  The ‘SendType’ argument defaults to ‘None’, so the following
definitions are equivalent:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, *note AsyncIterable[YieldType]: dce. and
*note AsyncIterator[YieldType]: dcd. are available as well:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using *note Coroutine[YieldType, SendType,
ReturnType]: dcc.  Generic arguments correspond to those of *note
Generator: dca, for example:

     from collections.abc import Coroutine
     c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
     x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
     async def bar() -> None:
         y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int


File: python.info,  Node: Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur,  Next: Le type Any,  Prev: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.9 Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur
...................................................

Une classe définie par l'utilisateur peut être définie comme une classe
générique.

     from logging import Logger

     class LoggedVar[T]:
         def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
             self.name = name
             self.logger = logger
             self.value = value

         def set(self, new: T) -> None:
             self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
             self.value = new

         def get(self) -> T:
             self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
             return self.value

         def log(self, message: str) -> None:
             self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

This syntax indicates that the class ‘LoggedVar’ is parameterised around
a single *note type variable: 3f20. ‘T’ .  This also makes ‘T’ valid as
a type within the class body.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note Generic: 15d4.  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and lower, it is also possible to inherit
explicitly from *note Generic: 15d4. to indicate a generic class:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
         ...

Generic classes have *note __class_getitem__(): 727. methods, meaning
they can be parameterised at runtime (e.g.  ‘LoggedVar[int]’ below):

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
         for var in vars:
             var.set(0)

A generic type can have any number of type variables.  All varieties of
*note TypeVar: 15c. are permissible as parameters for a generic type:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

     class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
         ...

     OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
     OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
     OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

     class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
         ...

Chaque argument de variable de type *note Generic: 15d4. doit être
distinct.  Ceci n'est donc pas valable :

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic
     ...

     class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
         ...

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
         ...

Generic classes can also inherit from other classes:

     from collections.abc import Sized

     class LinkedList[T](Sized):
         ...

When inheriting from generic classes, some type parameters could be
fixed:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
         ...

Dans ce cas, ‘MyDict’ a un seul paramètre, ‘T’.

Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes *note
Any: 699. for each position.  In the following example, ‘MyIterable’ is
not generic but implicitly inherits from ‘Iterable[Any]’:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
         ...

User-defined generic type aliases are also supported.  Examples:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

     # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
     def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
         ...

     type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

     def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
         return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

For backward compatibility, generic type aliases can also be created
through a simple assignment:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import TypeVar

     S = TypeVar("S")
     Response = Iterable[S] | int

Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note Generic: 15d4. n'a plus de métaclasse
personnalisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Syntactic support for generics and type
aliases is new in version 3.12.  Previously, generic classes had to
explicitly inherit from *note Generic: 15d4. or contain a type variable
in one of their bases.

User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via
parameter specification variables in the form ‘[**P]’.  The behavior is
consistent with type variables' described above as parameter
specification variables are treated by the typing module as a
specialized type variable.  The one exception to this is that a list of
types can be used to substitute a *note ParamSpec: 15d.:

     >>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
     ...
     >>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
     __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

Classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15d. can also be created using
explicit inheritance from *note Generic: 15d4.  In this case, ‘**’ is
not used:

     from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

     P = ParamSpec('P')

     class Z(Generic[P]):
         ...

Another difference between *note TypeVar: 15c. and *note ParamSpec: 15d.
is that a generic with only one parameter specification variable will
accept parameter lists in the forms ‘X[[Type1, Type2, ...]]’ and also
‘X[Type1, Type2, ...]’ for aesthetic reasons.  Internally, the latter is
converted to the former, so the following are equivalent:

     >>> class X[**P]: ...
     ...
     >>> X[int, str]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]
     >>> X[[int, str]]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]

Note that generics with *note ParamSpec: 15d. may not have correct
‘__parameters__’ after substitution in some cases because they are
intended primarily for static type checking.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note Generic: 15d4. can now be
parameterized over parameter expressions.  See *note ParamSpec: 15d. and
PEP 612(1) for more details.

A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a
metaclass conflict.  Generic metaclasses are not supported.  The outcome
of parameterizing generics is cached, and most types in the typing
module are *note hashable: 5fd. and comparable for equality.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Le type Any,  Next: Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel,  Prev: Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.10 Le type ‘Any’
.......................

Un type particulier est *note Any: 699.  Un vérificateur de types
statiques traite chaque type comme étant compatible avec *note Any: 699.
et *note Any: 699. comme étant compatible avec chaque type.

This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call
on a value of type *note Any: 699. and assign it to any variable:

     from typing import Any

     a: Any = None
     a = []          # OK
     a = 2           # OK

     s: str = ''
     s = a           # OK

     def foo(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
         # and that type might have a 'bar' method
         item.bar()
         ...

Notice that no type checking is performed when assigning a value of type
*note Any: 699. to a more precise type.  For example, the static type
checker did not report an error when assigning ‘a’ to ‘s’ even though
‘s’ was declared to be of type *note str: 437. and receives an *note
int: 254. value at runtime!

De plus, toutes les fonctions sans type de retour ni type de paramètre
sont considérées comme utilisant *note Any: 699. implicitement par
défaut :

     def legacy_parser(text):
         ...
         return data

     # A static type checker will treat the above
     # as having the same signature as:
     def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
         ...
         return data

Ce comportement permet à *note Any: 699. d'être utilisé comme succédané
lorsque vous avez besoin de mélanger du code typé dynamiquement et
statiquement.

Comparons le comportement de *note Any: 699. avec celui de *note object:
a7c.  De la même manière que pour *note Any: 699, chaque type est un
sous-type de *note object: a7c.  Cependant, contrairement à *note Any:
699, l'inverse n'est pas vrai : *note object: a7c. n'est 'pas' un
sous-type de chaque autre type.

Cela signifie que lorsque le type d'une valeur est *note object: a7c, un
vérificateur de types rejette presque toutes les opérations sur
celle-ci, et l'affecter à une variable (ou l'utiliser comme une valeur
de retour) d'un type plus spécialisé est une erreur de typage.  Par
exemple :

     def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
         # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
         item.magic()
         ...

     def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking
         item.magic()
         ...

     # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
     hash_a(42)
     hash_a("foo")

     # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
     hash_b(42)
     hash_b("foo")

Utilisez *note object: a7c. pour indiquer qu'une valeur peut être de
n'importe quel type de manière sûre.  Utiliser *note Any: 699. pour
indiquer qu'une valeur est typée dynamiquement.


File: python.info,  Node: Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel,  Next: Classe de données,  Prev: Le type Any,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.11 Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel
.......................................................

Initially PEP 484(1) defined the Python static type system as using
'nominal subtyping'.  This means that a class ‘A’ is allowed where a
class ‘B’ is expected if and only if ‘A’ is a subclass of ‘B’.

This requirement previously also applied to abstract base classes, such
as *note Iterable: 220b.  The problem with this approach is that a class
had to be explicitly marked to support them, which is unpythonic and
unlike what one would normally do in idiomatic dynamically typed Python
code.  For example, this conforms to PEP 484(2):

     from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

     class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

La PEP 544(3) permet de résoudre ce problème en permettant aux
utilisateurs d'écrire le code ci-dessus sans classes mères explicites
dans la définition de classe, permettant à ‘Bucket’ d'être implicitement
considéré comme un sous-type de ‘Sized’ et ‘Iterable[int]’ par des
vérificateurs de type statique.  C'est ce qu'on appelle le 'sous-typage
structurel' (ou typage canard) :

     from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

     class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

     def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
     result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

De plus, en sous-classant une classe spéciale *note Protocol: 261, un
utilisateur peut définir de nouveaux protocoles personnalisés pour
profiter pleinement du sous-typage structurel (voir exemples
ci-dessous).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: Classe de données,  Next: Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures,  Prev: Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.12 Classe de données
...........................

The ‘typing’ module defines the following classes, functions and
decorators.

* Menu:

* Special typing primitives::
* Protocoles: Protocoles<3>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* Functions and decorators::
* Utilitaires d'introspection::
* Constante::
* Deprecated aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: Special typing primitives,  Next: Protocoles<3>,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.13 Special typing primitives
...................................

* Menu:

* Special types::
* Special forms::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::


File: python.info,  Node: Special types,  Next: Special forms,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.14 Special types
.......................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They do not support
subscription using ‘[]’.

 -- Données: typing.Any

     Type spécial indiquant un type non contraint.

        * Chaque type est compatible avec *note Any: 699.

        * *note Any: 699. est compatible avec tous les types.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note Any: 699. can now be used as a
     base class.  This can be useful for avoiding type checker errors
     with classes that can duck type anywhere or are highly dynamic.

 -- Données: typing.AnyStr

     A *note constrained type variable: 3f26.

     Definition:

          AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

     ‘AnyStr’ is meant to be used for functions that may accept *note
     str: 437. or *note bytes: 1bd. arguments but cannot allow the two
     to mix.

     Par exemple :

          def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
              return a + b

          concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
          concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
          concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

     Note that, despite its name, ‘AnyStr’ has nothing to do with the
     *note Any: 699. type, nor does it mean "any string".  In
     particular, ‘AnyStr’ and ‘str | bytes’ are different from each
     other and have different use cases:

          # Invalid use of AnyStr:
          # The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
          # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
          def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

          # The better way of annotating this function:
          def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.18:
     Deprecated in favor of the new *note type parameter syntax: 2b0.
     Use ‘class A[T: (str, bytes)]: ...’ instead of importing ‘AnyStr’.
     See PEP 695(1) for more details.

     In Python 3.16, ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and
     deprecation warnings will be emitted at runtime when it is accessed
     or imported from ‘typing’.  ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing’
     in Python 3.18.

 -- Données: typing.LiteralString

     Special type that includes only literal strings.

     Any string literal is compatible with ‘LiteralString’, as is
     another ‘LiteralString’.  However, an object typed as just ‘str’ is
     not.  A string created by composing ‘LiteralString’-typed objects
     is also acceptable as a ‘LiteralString’.

     Example:

          def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
              ...

          def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
              run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
              run_query(literal_string)  # OK
              run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
              run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
              run_query(  # type checker error
                  f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
              )

     ‘LiteralString’ is useful for sensitive APIs where arbitrary
     user-generated strings could generate problems.  For example, the
     two cases above that generate type checker errors could be
     vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

     See PEP 675(2) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: typing.Never
 -- Données: typing.NoReturn

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ represent the bottom type(3), a type that
     has no members.

     They can be used to indicate that a function never returns, such as
     *note sys.exit(): 1329.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def stop() -> Never:
              raise RuntimeError('no way')

     Or to define a function that should never be called, as there are
     no valid arguments, such as *note assert_never(): 694.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
              pass

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _:
                      never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ have the same meaning in the type system and
     static type checkers treat both equivalently.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.2: Added *note NoReturn: 3f27.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added *note Never: 695.

 -- Données: typing.Self

     Special type to represent the current enclosed class.

     Par exemple :

          from typing import Self, reveal_type

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

          class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

          reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
          reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

     This annotation is semantically equivalent to the following, albeit
     in a more succinct fashion:

          from typing import TypeVar

          Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

     In general, if something returns ‘self’, as in the above examples,
     you should use ‘Self’ as the return annotation.  If
     ‘Foo.return_self’ was annotated as returning ‘"Foo"’, then the type
     checker would infer the object returned from
     ‘SubclassOfFoo.return_self’ as being of type ‘Foo’ rather than
     ‘SubclassOfFoo’.

     Other common use cases include:

        - *note classmethod: 165.s that are used as alternative
          constructors and return instances of the ‘cls’ parameter.

        - Annotating an *note __enter__(): 5b4. method which returns
          self.

     You should not use ‘Self’ as the return annotation if the method is
     not guaranteed to return an instance of a subclass when the class
     is subclassed:

          class Eggs:
              # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
              # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
              # even in subclasses
              def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
                  return Eggs()

     See PEP 673(4) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: typing.TypeAlias

     Special annotation for explicitly declaring a *note type alias:
     43f.

     Par exemple :

          from typing import TypeAlias

          Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

     ‘TypeAlias’ is particularly useful on older Python versions for
     annotating aliases that make use of forward references, as it can
     be hard for type checkers to distinguish these from normal variable
     assignments:

          from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

          T = TypeVar("T")

          # "Box" does not exist yet,
          # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
          # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
          # not a variable assignment to a string.
          BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

          class Box(Generic[T]):
              @classmethod
              def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

     See PEP 613(5) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: *note TypeAlias: 7b5. is
     deprecated in favor of the *note type: 423. statement, which
     creates instances of *note TypeAliasType: 440. and which natively
     supports forward references.  Note that while *note TypeAlias: 7b5.
     and *note TypeAliasType: 440. serve similar purposes and have
     similar names, they are distinct and the latter is not the type of
     the former.  Removal of *note TypeAlias: 7b5. is not currently
     planned, but users are encouraged to migrate to *note type: 423.
     statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/


File: python.info,  Node: Special forms,  Next: Building generic types and type aliases,  Prev: Special types,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.15 Special forms
.......................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They all support
subscription using ‘[]’, but each has a unique syntax.

 -- Données: typing.Union

     Union type; ‘Union[X, Y]’ is equivalent to ‘X | Y’ and means either
     X or Y.

     To define a union, use e.g.  ‘Union[int, str]’ or the shorthand
     ‘int | str’.  Using that shorthand is recommended.  Details:

        * Les arguments doivent être des types et il doit y en avoir au
          moins un.

        * Les unions d'unions sont aplanies, par exemple :

               Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

        * Les unions d'un seul argument disparaissent, par exemple :

               Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

        * Les arguments redondants sont ignorés, par exemple :

               Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

        * Lors de la comparaison d'unions, l'ordre des arguments est
          ignoré, par exemple :

               Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

        * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Union’.

        * Vous ne pouvez pas écrire ‘Union[X][Y]’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ne supprime pas les sous-classes
     explicites des unions à l'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Unions can now be written as ‘X | Y’.
     See *note union type expressions: 7ae.

 -- Données: typing.Optional

     ‘Optional[X]’ is equivalent to ‘X | None’ (or ‘Union[X, None]’).

     Notez que ce n'est pas le même concept qu'un argument optionnel,
     qui est un argument qui possède une valeur par défaut.  Un argument
     optionnel (qui a une valeur par défaut) ne nécessite pas, à ce
     titre, le qualificatif ‘Optional’ sur son annotation de type.  Par
     exemple :

          def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
              ...

     Par contre, si une valeur explicite de ‘None’ est permise,
     l'utilisation de ‘Optional’ est appropriée, que l'argument soit
     facultatif ou non.  Par exemple :

          def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
              ...

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Optional can now be written as ‘X |
     None’.  See *note union type expressions: 7ae.

 -- Données: typing.Concatenate

     Special form for annotating higher-order functions.

     ‘Concatenate’ can be used in conjunction with *note Callable: 24e6.
     and *note ParamSpec: 15d. to annotate a higher-order callable which
     adds, removes, or transforms parameters of another callable.  Usage
     is in the form ‘Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ...,
     ParamSpecVariable]’.  ‘Concatenate’ is currently only valid when
     used as the first argument to a *note Callable: 24e6.  The last
     parameter to ‘Concatenate’ must be a *note ParamSpec: 15d. or
     ellipsis (‘...’).

     For example, to annotate a decorator ‘with_lock’ which provides a
     *note threading.Lock: 1632. to the decorated function,
     ‘Concatenate’ can be used to indicate that ‘with_lock’ expects a
     callable which takes in a ‘Lock’ as the first argument, and returns
     a callable with a different type signature.  In this case, the
     *note ParamSpec: 15d. indicates that the returned callable's
     parameter types are dependent on the parameter types of the
     callable being passed in:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          from threading import Lock
          from typing import Concatenate

          # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
          # at any time.
          my_lock = Lock()

          def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
              '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
                  # Provide the lock as the first argument.
                  return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @with_lock
          def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
              '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
              with lock:
                  return sum(numbers)

          # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
          sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

        * PEP 612(1) - Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note ParamSpec: 15d.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 24e6.

 -- Données: typing.Literal

     Special typing form to define "literal types".

     ‘Literal’ can be used to indicate to type checkers that the
     annotated object has a value equivalent to one of the provided
     literals.

     Par exemple :

          def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
              ...

          type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
          def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
              ...

          open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
          open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

     ‘Literal[...]’ ne peut être sous-classé.  Lors de l'exécution, une
     valeur arbitraire est autorisée comme argument de type pour
     ‘Literal[...]’, mais les vérificateurs de type peuvent imposer des
     restrictions.  Voir la PEP 586(2) pour plus de détails sur les
     types littéraux.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9.1: ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates
     parameters.  Equality comparisons of ‘Literal’ objects are no
     longer order dependent.  ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note
     TypeError: 525. exception during equality comparisons if one of
     their parameters are not *note hashable: 5fd.

 -- Données: typing.ClassVar

     Construction de type particulière pour indiquer les variables de
     classe.

     Telle qu'introduite dans la PEP 526(3), une annotation de variable
     enveloppée dans ClassVar indique qu'un attribut donné est destiné à
     être utilisé comme une variable de classe et ne doit pas être
     défini sur des instances de cette classe.  Utilisation :

          class Starship:
              stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
              damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

     *note ClassVar: 263. n'accepte que les types et ne peut plus être
     dérivé.

     *note ClassVar: 263. n'est pas une classe en soi, et ne devrait pas
     être utilisée avec *note isinstance(): 42d. ou *note issubclass():
     7ad.  *note ClassVar: 263. ne modifie pas le comportement
     d'exécution Python, mais il peut être utilisé par des vérificateurs
     tiers.  Par exemple, un vérificateur de types peut marquer le code
     suivant comme une erreur :

          enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
          enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
          Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: *note ClassVar: 263. can now be
     nested in *note Final: 264. and vice versa.

 -- Données: typing.Final

     Special typing construct to indicate final names to type checkers.

     Final names cannot be reassigned in any scope.  Final names
     declared in class scopes cannot be overridden in subclasses.

     Par exemple :

          MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
          MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

          class Connection:
              TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

          class FastConnector(Connection):
              TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

     Ces propriétés ne sont pas vérifiées à l'exécution.  Voir la PEP
     591(4) pour plus de détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: *note Final: 264. can now be nested
     in *note ClassVar: 263. and vice versa.

 -- Données: typing.Required

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 161. key as
     required.

     This is mainly useful for ‘total=False’ TypedDicts.  See *note
     TypedDict: 161. and PEP 655(5) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: typing.NotRequired

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 161. key as
     potentially missing.

     See *note TypedDict: 161. and PEP 655(6) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: typing.ReadOnly

     A special typing construct to mark an item of a *note TypedDict:
     161. as read-only.

     Par exemple :

          class Movie(TypedDict):
             title: ReadOnly[str]
             year: int

          def mutate_movie(m: Movie) -> None:
             m["year"] = 1999  # allowed
             m["title"] = "The Matrix"  # typechecker error

     There is no runtime checking for this property.

     See *note TypedDict: 161. and PEP 705(7) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: typing.Annotated

     Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an
     annotation.

     Add metadata ‘x’ to a given type ‘T’ by using the annotation
     ‘Annotated[T, x]’.  Metadata added using ‘Annotated’ can be used by
     static analysis tools or at runtime.  At runtime, the metadata is
     stored in a ‘__metadata__’ attribute.

     If a library or tool encounters an annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’ and
     has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the
     metadata and simply treat the annotation as ‘T’.  As such,
     ‘Annotated’ can be useful for code that wants to use annotations
     for purposes outside Python's static typing system.

     Using ‘Annotated[T, x]’ as an annotation still allows for static
     typechecking of ‘T’, as type checkers will simply ignore the
     metadata ‘x’.  In this way, ‘Annotated’ differs from the *note
     @no_type_check: 6a1. decorator, which can also be used for adding
     annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely
     disables typechecking for a function or class.

     The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the
     tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ annotation.  A tool or
     library encountering an ‘Annotated’ type can scan through the
     metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using
     *note isinstance(): 42d.).

      -- Describe: Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

     Here is an example of how you might use ‘Annotated’ to add metadata
     to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

          @dataclass
          class ValueRange:
              lo: int
              hi: int

          T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
          T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

     The first argument to ‘Annotated’ must be a valid type.  Multiple
     metadata elements can be supplied as ‘Annotated’ supports variadic
     arguments.  The order of the metadata elements is preserved and
     matters for equality checks:

          @dataclass
          class ctype:
               kind: str

          a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
          a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]

          assert a1 != a2  # Order matters

     It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether
     the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one
     annotation and how to merge those annotations.

     Nested ‘Annotated’ types are flattened.  The order of the metadata
     elements starts with the innermost annotation:

          assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
          ]

     Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

          assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
          ]

     ‘Annotated’ can be used with nested and generic aliases:

               @dataclass
               class MaxLen:
                   value: int

               type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

               # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
               # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
               type V = Vec[int]

     ‘Annotated’ cannot be used with an unpacked *note TypeVarTuple:
     15e.:

          type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]  # NOT valid

     where ‘T1’, ‘T2’, ...  are *note TypeVars: 15c.  This is invalid as
     only one type should be passed to Annotated.

     By default, *note get_type_hints(): 69e. strips the metadata from
     annotations.  Pass ‘include_extras=True’ to have the metadata
     preserved:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
               >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
               ...
               >>> get_type_hints(func)
               {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
               >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
               {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

     At runtime, the metadata associated with an ‘Annotated’ type can be
     retrieved via the ‘__metadata__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated
               >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
               >>> X
               typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
               >>> X.__metadata__
               ('very', 'important', 'metadata')

     If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by ‘Annotated’,
     use the ‘__origin__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
               >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
               >>> Password.__origin__
               <class 'str'>

     Note that using *note get_origin(): a37. will return ‘Annotated’
     itself:

               >>> get_origin(Password)
               typing.Annotated

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 593(8) - Flexible function and variable annotations

          The PEP introducing ‘Annotated’ to the standard library.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: typing.TypeIs

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate
     functions.

     ‘TypeIs’ can be used to annotate the return type of a user-defined
     type predicate function.  ‘TypeIs’ only accepts a single type
     argument.  At runtime, functions marked this way should return a
     boolean and take at least one positional argument.

     ‘TypeIs’ aims to benefit 'type narrowing' - a technique used by
     static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an
     expression within a program's code flow.  Usually type narrowing is
     done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing
     to a block of code.  The conditional expression here is sometimes
     referred to as a "type predicate":

          def is_str(val: str | float):
              # "isinstance" type predicate
              if isinstance(val, str):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
                  ...
              else:
                  # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
                  ...

     Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean
     function as a type predicate.  Such a function should use
     ‘TypeIs[...]’ or *note TypeGuard: 163. as its return type to alert
     static type checkers to this intention.  ‘TypeIs’ usually has more
     intuitive behavior than ‘TypeGuard’, but it cannot be used when the
     input and output types are incompatible (e.g., ‘list[object]’ to
     ‘list[int]’) or when the function does not return ‘True’ for all
     instances of the narrowed type.

     Using ‘-> TypeIs[NarrowedType]’ tells the static type checker that
     for a given function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          intersection of the argument's original type and
          ‘NarrowedType’.

       3. If the return value is ‘False’, the type of its argument is
          narrowed to exclude ‘NarrowedType’.

     Par exemple :

          from typing import assert_type, final, TypeIs

          class Parent: pass
          class Child(Parent): pass
          @final
          class Unrelated: pass

          def is_parent(val: object) -> TypeIs[Parent]:
              return isinstance(val, Parent)

          def run(arg: Child | Unrelated):
              if is_parent(arg):
                  # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to the intersection
                  # of ``Parent`` and ``Child``, which is equivalent to
                  # ``Child``.
                  assert_type(arg, Child)
              else:
                  # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to exclude ``Parent``,
                  # so only ``Unrelated`` is left.
                  assert_type(arg, Unrelated)

     The type inside ‘TypeIs’ must be consistent with the type of the
     function's argument; if it is not, static type checkers will raise
     an error.  An incorrectly written ‘TypeIs’ function can lead to
     unsound behavior in the type system; it is the user's
     responsibility to write such functions in a type-safe manner.

     If a ‘TypeIs’ function is a class or instance method, then the type
     in ‘TypeIs’ maps to the type of the second parameter (after ‘cls’
     or ‘self’).

     In short, the form ‘def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeIs[TypeB]: ...’,
     means that if ‘foo(arg)’ returns ‘True’, then ‘arg’ is an instance
     of ‘TypeB’, and if it returns ‘False’, it is not an instance of
     ‘TypeB’.

     ‘TypeIs’ also works with type variables.  For more information, see
     PEP 742(9) (Narrowing types with ‘TypeIs’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: typing.TypeGuard

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate
     functions.

     Type predicate functions are user-defined functions that return
     whether their argument is an instance of a particular type.
     ‘TypeGuard’ works similarly to *note TypeIs: 162, but has subtly
     different effects on type checking behavior (see below).

     Using ‘-> TypeGuard’ tells the static type checker that for a given
     function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          type inside ‘TypeGuard’.

     ‘TypeGuard’ also works with type variables.  See PEP 647(10) for
     more details.

     Par exemple :

          def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
              '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
              return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

          def func1(val: list[object]):
              if is_str_list(val):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
                  print(" ".join(val))
              else:
                  # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
                  print("Not a list of strings!")

     ‘TypeIs’ and ‘TypeGuard’ differ in the following ways:

        * ‘TypeIs’ requires the narrowed type to be a subtype of the
          input type, while ‘TypeGuard’ does not.  The main reason is to
          allow for things like narrowing ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[str]’
          even though the latter is not a subtype of the former, since
          ‘list’ is invariant.

        * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers
          narrow the type of the variable to exactly the ‘TypeGuard’
          type.  When a ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers
          can infer a more precise type combining the previously known
          type of the variable with the ‘TypeIs’ type.  (Technically,
          this is known as an intersection type.)

        * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers
          cannot narrow the type of the variable at all.  When a
          ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers can narrow
          the type of the variable to exclude the ‘TypeIs’ type.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: typing.Unpack

     Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been
     unpacked.

     For example, using the unpack operator ‘*’ on a *note type variable
     tuple: 3f29. is equivalent to using ‘Unpack’ to mark the type
     variable tuple as having been unpacked:

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]
          # Effectively does:
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

     In fact, ‘Unpack’ can be used interchangeably with ‘*’ in the
     context of *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e. and *note
     builtins.tuple: 366. types.  You might see ‘Unpack’ being used
     explicitly in older versions of Python, where ‘*’ couldn't be used
     in certain places:

          # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
          # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
          from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

     ‘Unpack’ can also be used along with *note typing.TypedDict: 161.
     for typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature:

          from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

          class Movie(TypedDict):
              name: str
              year: int

          # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
          # and `year` of type `int`.
          def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

     See PEP 692(11) for more details on using ‘Unpack’ for ‘**kwargs’
     typing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/


File: python.info,  Node: Building generic types and type aliases,  Next: Other special directives,  Prev: Special forms,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.16 Building generic types and type aliases
.................................................

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations.  Their
intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and
type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (*note type
parameter lists: 2b0. and the *note type: 423. statement).  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created
without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.

 -- Classe: typing.Generic

     Classe de base abstraite pour les types génériques.

     A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type
     parameters after the class name:

          class Mapping[KT, VT]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

     Such a class implicitly inherits from ‘Generic’.  The runtime
     semantics of this syntax are discussed in the *note Language
     Reference: 43d.

     Cette classe peut alors être utilisée comme suit :

          def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
              try:
                  return mapping[key]
              except KeyError:
                  return default

     Here the brackets after the function name indicate a *note generic
     function: 43e.

     For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared
     by explicitly inheriting from ‘Generic’.  In this case, the type
     parameters must be declared separately:

          KT = TypeVar('KT')
          VT = TypeVar('VT')

          class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

 -- Classe: typing.TypeVar (name, *constraints, bound=None,
          covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False,
          default=typing.NoDefault)

     Variables de type.

     The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated
     syntax for *note generic functions: 43e, *note generic classes:
     43d, and *note generic type aliases: 441.:

          class Sequence[T]:  # T is a TypeVar
              ...

     This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type
     variables:

          class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
              ...                     # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"


          class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
              ...

     However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be
     constructed manually, like so:

          T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
          S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
          A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

     Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
     checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
     as for generic function and type alias definitions.  See *note
     Generic: 15d4. for more information on generic types.  Generic
     functions work as follows:

          def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
              """Return a list containing n references to x."""
              return [x]*n


          def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
              """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
              print(x.capitalize())
              return x


          def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
              """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
              return x + y

     Note that type variables can be 'bounded', 'constrained', or
     neither, but cannot be both bounded 'and' constrained.

     The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when
     they are created through the *note type parameter syntax: 2b0. or
     when ‘infer_variance=True’ is passed.  Manually created type
     variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by
     passing ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’.  By default,
     manually created type variables are invariant.  See PEP 484(1) and
     PEP 695(2) for more details.

     Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have
     different semantics in several important ways.  Using a 'bounded'
     type variable means that the ‘TypeVar’ will be solved using the
     most specific type possible:

          x = print_capitalized('a string')
          reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

          class StringSubclass(str):
              pass

          y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
          reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

          z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

     The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract
     type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types:

          # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
          def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
              print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

          U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
          V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
     Using a 'constrained' type variable, however, means that the
     ‘TypeVar’ can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the
     constraints given:

          a = concatenate('one', 'two')
          reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

          b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
          reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

          c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

     At runtime, ‘isinstance(x, T)’ will raise *note TypeError: 525.

      -- Attribut: __name__

          The name of the type variable.

      -- Attribut: __covariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

      -- Attribut: __contravariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as
          contravariant.

      -- Attribut: __infer_variance__

          Whether the type variable's variance should be inferred by
          type checkers.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Attribut: __bound__

          The upper bound of the type variable, if any.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: For type variables created
          through *note type parameter syntax: 2b0, the bound is
          evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the
          type variable is created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 442.).

      -- Attribut: __constraints__

          A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if
          any.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: For type variables created
          through *note type parameter syntax: 2b0, the constraints are
          evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the
          type variable is created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 442.).

      -- Attribut: __default__

          The default value of the type variable, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 25f. if it has no default.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the type variable has a default value.
          This is equivalent to checking whether *note __default__:
          3f31. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 25f. singleton,
          except that it does not force evaluation of the *note lazily
          evaluated: 442. default value.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type variables can now be declared
     using the *note type parameter: 2b0. syntax introduced by PEP
     695(3).  The ‘infer_variance’ parameter was added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added.

 -- Classe: typing.TypeVarTuple (name, *, default=typing.NoDefault)

     Type variable tuple.  A specialized form of *note type variable:
     3f20. that enables 'variadic' generics.

     Type variable tuples can be declared in *note type parameter lists:
     2b0. using a single asterisk (‘*’) before the name:

          def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     Or by explicitly invoking the ‘TypeVarTuple’ constructor:

          T = TypeVar("T")
          Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

          def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type.
     A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an
     'arbitrary' number of types by acting like an 'arbitrary' number of
     type variables wrapped in a tuple.  For example:

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
          # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
          # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
          # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

          # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
          # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
          # (at least one element is required)
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

     Note the use of the unpacking operator ‘*’ in ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’.
     Conceptually, you can think of ‘Ts’ as a tuple of type variables
     ‘(T1, T2, ...)’.  ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’ would then become ‘tuple[T, *(T1,
     T2, ...)]’, which is equivalent to ‘tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]’.  (Note
     that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using
     *note Unpack: 15ea. instead, as ‘Unpack[Ts]’.)

     Type variable tuples must 'always' be unpacked.  This helps
     distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

          x: Ts          # Not valid
          x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
          x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

     Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal
     type variables.  For example, in class definitions, arguments, and
     return types:

          class Array[*Shape]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
              def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
              def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

     Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type
     variables:

          class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
              pass

          class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
              pass

          class Height: ...
          class Width: ...

          float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
          int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

     However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a
     single list of type arguments or type parameters:

          x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
          class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
              pass

     Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type
     annotation of ‘*args’:

          def call_soon[*Ts](
              callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
              *args: *Ts
          ) -> None:
              ...
              callback(*args)

     In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of ‘*args’ - e.g.  ‘*args:
     int’, which would specify that 'all' arguments are ‘int’ - ‘*args:
     *Ts’ enables reference to the types of the 'individual' arguments
     in ‘*args’.  Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the
     ‘*args’ passed to ‘call_soon’ match the types of the (positional)
     arguments of ‘callback’.

     See PEP 646(4) for more details on type variable tuples.

      -- Attribut: __name__

          The name of the type variable tuple.

      -- Attribut: __default__

          The default value of the type variable tuple, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 25f. if it has no default.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the type variable tuple has a default
          value.  This is equivalent to checking whether *note
          __default__: 3f34. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 25f.
          singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the
          *note lazily evaluated: 442. default value.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type variable tuples can now be
     declared using the *note type parameter: 2b0. syntax introduced by
     PEP 695(5).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added.

 -- Classe: typing.ParamSpec (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False,
          contravariant=False, default=typing.NoDefault)

     Parameter specification variable.  A specialized version of *note
     type variables: 3f20.

     In *note type parameter lists: 2b0, parameter specifications can be
     declared with two asterisks (‘**’):

          type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

     For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ‘ParamSpec’ objects
     can also be created as follows:

          P = ParamSpec('P')

     Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit
     of static type checkers.  They are used to forward the parameter
     types of one callable to another callable - a pattern commonly
     found in higher order functions and decorators.  They are only
     valid when used in ‘Concatenate’, or as the first argument to
     ‘Callable’, or as parameters for user-defined Generics.  See *note
     Generic: 15d4. for more information on generic types.

     For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a
     decorator ‘add_logging’ to log function calls.  The parameter
     specification variable tells the type checker that the callable
     passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have
     inter-dependent type parameters:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          import logging

          def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
              '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
                  logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
                  return f(*args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @add_logging
          def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
              '''Add two numbers together.'''
              return x + y

     Without ‘ParamSpec’, the simplest way to annotate this previously
     was to use a *note TypeVar: 15c. with upper bound ‘Callable[...,
     Any]’.  However this causes two problems:

       1. The type checker can't type check the ‘inner’ function because
          ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ have to be typed *note Any: 699.

       2. *note cast(): 3f36. may be required in the body of the
          ‘add_logging’ decorator when returning the ‘inner’ function,
          or the static type checker must be told to ignore the ‘return
          inner’.

      -- Attribut: args

      -- Attribut: kwargs

          Since ‘ParamSpec’ captures both positional and keyword
          parameters, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ can be used to split a
          ‘ParamSpec’ into its components.  ‘P.args’ represents the
          tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only
          be used to annotate ‘*args’.  ‘P.kwargs’ represents the
          mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call,
          and should be only be used to annotate ‘**kwargs’.  Both
          attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope.  At
          runtime, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ are instances respectively of
          *note ParamSpecArgs: 7b2. and *note ParamSpecKwargs: 7b3.

      -- Attribut: __name__

          The name of the parameter specification.

      -- Attribut: __default__

          The default value of the parameter specification, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 25f. if it has no default.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the parameter specification has a
          default value.  This is equivalent to checking whether *note
          __default__: 3f3a. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 25f.
          singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the
          *note lazily evaluated: 442. default value.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Parameter specification variables created with ‘covariant=True’ or
     ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or
     contravariant generic types.  The ‘bound’ argument is also
     accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 15c.  However the actual
     semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Parameter specifications can now be
     declared using the *note type parameter: 2b0. syntax introduced by
     PEP 695(6).

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added.

          Note: Only parameter specification variables defined in global
          scope can be pickled.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

        * PEP 612(7) - Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note Concatenate: 7b0.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 24e6.

 -- Données: typing.ParamSpecArgs
 -- Données: typing.ParamSpecKwargs

     Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a *note ParamSpec:
     15d.  The ‘P.args’ attribute of a ‘ParamSpec’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecArgs’, and ‘P.kwargs’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecKwargs’.  They are intended for runtime introspection and
     have no special meaning to static type checkers.

     Calling *note get_origin(): a37. on either of these objects will
     return the original ‘ParamSpec’:

          >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
          >>> P = ParamSpec("P")
          >>> get_origin(P.args) is P
          True
          >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: typing.TypeAliasType (name, value, *, type_params=())

     The type of type aliases created through the *note type: 423.
     statement.

     Example:

          >>> type Alias = int
          >>> type(Alias)
          <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Attribut: __name__

          The name of the type alias:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__name__
               'Alias'

      -- Attribut: __module__

          The module in which the type alias was defined:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__module__
               '__main__'

      -- Attribut: __type_params__

          The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if
          the alias is not generic:

               >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
               >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
               (T,)
               >>> type NotGeneric = int
               >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
               ()

      -- Attribut: __value__

          The type alias's value.  This is *note lazily evaluated: 442,
          so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved
          until the ‘__value__’ attribute is accessed:

               >>> type Mutually = Recursive
               >>> type Recursive = Mutually
               >>> Mutually
               Mutually
               >>> Recursive
               Recursive
               >>> Mutually.__value__
               Recursive
               >>> Recursive.__value__
               Mutually

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Other special directives,  Prev: Building generic types and type aliases,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.17 Other special directives
..................................

These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations.
Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and
declaring types.

 -- Classe: typing.NamedTuple

     Version typée de *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5.

     Utilisation :

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int

     Ce qui est équivalent à :

          Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

     Pour assigner une valeur par défaut à un champ, vous pouvez lui
     donner dans le corps de classe :

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int = 3

          employee = Employee('Guido')
          assert employee.id == 3

     Les champs avec une valeur par défaut doivent venir après tous les
     champs sans valeur par défaut.

     The resulting class has an extra attribute ‘__annotations__’ giving
     a dict that maps the field names to the field types.  (The field
     names are in the ‘_fields’ attribute and the default values are in
     the ‘_field_defaults’ attribute, both of which are part of the
     *note namedtuple(): 1c5. API.)

     Les sous-classes de ‘NamedTuple’ peuvent aussi avoir des
     'docstrings' et des méthodes :

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              """Represents an employee."""
              name: str
              id: int = 3

              def __repr__(self) -> str:
                  return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can be generic:

          class Group[T](NamedTuple):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     Utilisation rétrocompatible :

          # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

          # A functional syntax is also supported
          Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de la gestion de la syntaxe
     d'annotation variable de la PEP 526(1).

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.1: Ajout de la prise en charge des
     valeurs par défaut, des méthodes et des chaînes de caractères
     'docstrings'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les attributs ‘_field_types’ et
     ‘__annotations__’ sont maintenant des dictionnaires standards au
     lieu d'instances de ‘OrderedDict’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: rend l'attribut ‘_field_types’
     obsolète en faveur de l'attribut plus standard ‘__annotations__’
     qui a la même information.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for generic
     namedtuples.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The
     undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple
     classes (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) is deprecated, and will be
     disallowed in 3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional
     syntax instead.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     When using the functional syntax to create a NamedTuple class,
     failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’ to the 'fields'
     parameter (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’) is also deprecated.  Both
     will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a NamedTuple class
     with 0 fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

 -- Classe: typing.NewType (name, tp)

     Helper class to create low-overhead *note distinct types: 3f14.

     A ‘NewType’ is considered a distinct type by a typechecker.  At
     runtime, however, calling a ‘NewType’ returns its argument
     unchanged.

     Utilisation :

          UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
          first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

      -- Attribut: __module__

          The module in which the new type is defined.

      -- Attribut: __name__

          The name of the new type.

      -- Attribut: __supertype__

          The type that the new type is based on.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than
     a function.

 -- Classe: typing.Protocol (Generic)

     Base class for protocol classes.

     Protocol classes are defined like this:

          class Proto(Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  ...

     Ces classes sont principalement utilisées avec les vérificateurs
     statiques de type qui reconnaissent les sous-types structurels
     (typage canard statique), par exemple :

          class C:
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  return 0

          def func(x: Proto) -> int:
              return x.meth()

          func(C())  # Passes static type check

     See PEP 544(2) for more details.  Protocol classes decorated with
     *note runtime_checkable(): 42e. (described later) act as
     simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of
     given attributes, ignoring their type signatures.  Protocol classes
     without this decorator cannot be used as the second argument to
     *note isinstance(): 42d. or *note issubclass(): 7ad.

     Les classes de protocole peuvent être génériques, par exemple :

          class GenProto[T](Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older,
     generic Protocols can be written as follows:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: @typing.runtime_checkable

     Marquez une classe de protocole comme protocole d'exécution.

     Such a protocol can be used with *note isinstance(): 42d. and *note
     issubclass(): 7ad.  This allows a simple-minded structural check,
     very similar to "one trick ponies" in *note collections.abc: 1e.
     such as *note Iterable: 220b.  For example:

          @runtime_checkable
          class Closable(Protocol):
              def close(self): ...

          assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

          @runtime_checkable
          class Named(Protocol):
              name: str

          import threading
          assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

     This decorator raises *note TypeError: 525. when applied to a
     non-protocol class.

          Note: ‘runtime_checkable()’ will check only the presence of
          the required methods or attributes, not their type signatures
          or types.  For example, *note ssl.SSLObject: b71. is a class,
          therefore it passes an *note issubclass(): 7ad. check against
          *note Callable: 24e6.  However, the ‘ssl.SSLObject.__init__’
          method exists only to raise a *note TypeError: 525. with a
          more informative message, therefore making it impossible to
          call (instantiate) *note ssl.SSLObject: b71.

          Note: An *note isinstance(): 42d. check against a
          runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared
          to an ‘isinstance()’ check against a non-protocol class.
          Consider using alternative idioms such as *note hasattr():
          4be. calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive
          code.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The internal implementation of *note
     isinstance(): 42d. checks against runtime-checkable protocols now
     uses *note inspect.getattr_static(): 480. to look up attributes
     (previously, *note hasattr(): 4be. was used).  As a result, some
     objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The members of a runtime-checkable
     protocol are now considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the
     class has been created.  Monkey-patching attributes onto a
     runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will have no impact
     on *note isinstance(): 42d. checks comparing objects to the
     protocol.  See *note "What's new in Python 3.12": 4bd. for more
     details.

 -- Classe: typing.TypedDict (dict)

     Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary.  At runtime it
     is a plain *note dict: 253.

     ‘TypedDict’ declares a dictionary type that expects all of its
     instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is
     associated with a value of a consistent type.  This expectation is
     not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers.
     Usage:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: str

          a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
          b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

          assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

     An alternative way to create a ‘TypedDict’ is by using
     function-call syntax.  The second argument must be a literal *note
     dict: 253.:

          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

     This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid
     *note identifiers: 1e4f, for example because they are keywords or
     contain hyphens, or when key names must not be *note mangled: 1c78.
     like regular private names:

          # raises SyntaxError
          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
              x-y: int  # name with hyphens

          class Definition(TypedDict):
              __schema: str  # mangled to `_Definition__schema`

          # OK, functional syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
          Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str})  # not mangled

     By default, all keys must be present in a ‘TypedDict’.  It is
     possible to mark individual keys as non-required using *note
     NotRequired: 5b1.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: NotRequired[str]

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have the ‘label’ key
     omitted.

     It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by
     specifying a totality of ‘False’:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: int
              y: int

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have any of the keys
     omitted.  A type checker is only expected to support a literal
     ‘False’ or ‘True’ as the value of the ‘total’ argument.  ‘True’ is
     the default, and makes all items defined in the class body
     required.

     Individual keys of a ‘total=False’ ‘TypedDict’ can be marked as
     required using *note Required: 5b0.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: Required[int]
              y: Required[int]
              label: str

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
              'x': Required[int],
              'y': Required[int],
              'label': str
          }, total=False)

     It is possible for a ‘TypedDict’ type to inherit from one or more
     other ‘TypedDict’ types using the class-based syntax.  Usage:

          class Point3D(Point2D):
              z: int

     ‘Point3D’ has three items: ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’.  It is equivalent to
     this definition:

          class Point3D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              z: int

     A ‘TypedDict’ cannot inherit from a non-‘TypedDict’ class, except
     for *note Generic: 15d4.  For example:

          class X(TypedDict):
              x: int

          class Y(TypedDict):
              y: int

          class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

          class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

          class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be generic:

          class Group[T](TypedDict):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     To create a generic ‘TypedDict’ that is compatible with Python 3.11
     or lower, inherit from *note Generic: 15d4. explicitly:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be introspected via annotations dicts (see *note
     Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations: 7c5. for more
     information on annotations best practices), *note __total__: 3f44,
     *note __required_keys__: 3f45, and *note __optional_keys__: 3f46.

      -- Attribut: __total__

          ‘Point2D.__total__’ gives the value of the ‘total’ argument.
          Example:

               >>> from typing import TypedDict
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               True
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               False
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
               >>> Point3D.__total__
               True

          This attribute reflects 'only' the value of the ‘total’
          argument to the current ‘TypedDict’ class, not whether the
          class is semantically total.  For example, a ‘TypedDict’ with
          ‘__total__’ set to ‘True’ may have keys marked with *note
          NotRequired: 5b1, or it may inherit from another ‘TypedDict’
          with ‘total=False’.  Therefore, it is generally better to use
          *note __required_keys__: 3f45. and *note __optional_keys__:
          3f46. for introspection.

      -- Attribut: __required_keys__

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

      -- Attribut: __optional_keys__

          ‘Point2D.__required_keys__’ and ‘Point2D.__optional_keys__’
          return *note frozenset: 5c6. objects containing required and
          non-required keys, respectively.

          Keys marked with *note Required: 5b0. will always appear in
          ‘__required_keys__’ and keys marked with *note NotRequired:
          5b1. will always appear in ‘__optional_keys__’.

          For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is
          also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
          non-required keys in the same ‘TypedDict’ .  This is done by
          declaring a ‘TypedDict’ with one value for the ‘total’
          argument and then inheriting from it in another ‘TypedDict’
          with a different value for ‘total’:

               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
               ...     x: int
               ...     y: int
               ...
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D):
               ...     z: int
               ...
               >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
               True
               >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
               True

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

               Note: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used or
               if annotations are given as strings, annotations are not
               evaluated when the ‘TypedDict’ is defined.  Therefore,
               the runtime introspection that ‘__required_keys__’ and
               ‘__optional_keys__’ rely on may not work properly, and
               the values of the attributes may be incorrect.

     Support for *note ReadOnly: 160. is reflected in the following
     attributes:

      -- Attribut: __readonly_keys__

          A *note frozenset: 5c6. containing the names of all read-only
          keys.  Keys are read-only if they carry the *note ReadOnly:
          160. qualifier.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: __mutable_keys__

          A *note frozenset: 5c6. containing the names of all mutable
          keys.  Keys are mutable if they do not carry the *note
          ReadOnly: 160. qualifier.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     See PEP 589(3) for more examples and detailed rules of using
     ‘TypedDict’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for marking individual
     keys as *note Required: 5b0. or *note NotRequired: 5b1.  See PEP
     655(4).

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for generic
     ‘TypedDict’s.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Removed support for the
     keyword-argument method of creating ‘TypedDict’s.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for the *note ReadOnly: 160.
     qualifier was added.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     When using the functional syntax to create a TypedDict class,
     failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’ to the 'fields'
     parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) is also deprecated.  Both
     will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a TypedDict class
     with 0 fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/


File: python.info,  Node: Protocoles<3>,  Next: ABCs for working with IO,  Prev: Special typing primitives,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.18 Protocoles
....................

The following protocols are provided by the typing module.  All are
decorated with *note @runtime_checkable: 42e.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsAbs

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__abs__’ qui est covariante
     dans son type de retour.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsBytes

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__bytes__’.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsComplex

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__complex__’.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsFloat

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__float__’.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsIndex

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__index__’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsInt

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__int__’.

 -- Classe: typing.SupportsRound

     Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite ‘__round__’ qui est covariante
     dans son type de retour.


File: python.info,  Node: ABCs for working with IO,  Next: Functions and decorators,  Prev: Protocoles<3>,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.19 ABCs for working with IO
..................................

 -- Classe: typing.IO
 -- Classe: typing.TextIO
 -- Classe: typing.BinaryIO

     Generic type ‘IO[AnyStr]’ and its subclasses ‘TextIO(IO[str])’ and
     ‘BinaryIO(IO[bytes])’ represent the types of I/O streams such as
     returned by *note open(): 508.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and decorators,  Next: Utilitaires d'introspection,  Prev: ABCs for working with IO,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.20 Functions and decorators
..................................

 -- Fonction: typing.cast (typ, val)

     Convertit une valeur en un type.

     Ceci renvoie la valeur inchangée.  Pour le vérificateur de types,
     cela signifie que la valeur de retour a le type désigné mais, à
     l'exécution, intentionnellement, rien n'est vérifié (afin que cela
     soit aussi rapide que possible).

 -- Fonction: typing.assert_type (val, typ, /)

     Vérifie que 'val' est bien du type 'typ'.

     At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument
     unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type
     of the argument.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to ‘assert_type()’, it
     emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

          def greet(name: str) -> None:
              assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
              assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

     Cette fonction permet de s'assurer de la compréhension du
     vérificateur de type d'un script par rapport aux intentions du
     développeur :

          def complex_function(arg: object):
              # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
              # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
              ...
              # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
              assert_type(arg, int)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: typing.assert_never (arg, /)

     Demande une confirmation de la part du vérificateur statique de
     type qu'une ligne de code est inaccessible.

     Example:

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _ as unreachable:
                      assert_never(unreachable)

     Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last
     case can never execute, because ‘arg’ is either an *note int: 254.
     or a *note str: 437, and both options are covered by earlier cases.

     If a type checker finds that a call to ‘assert_never()’ is
     reachable, it will emit an error.  For example, if the type
     annotation for ‘arg’ was instead ‘int | str | float’, the type
     checker would emit an error pointing out that ‘unreachable’ is of
     type *note float: 2ec.  For a call to ‘assert_never’ to pass type
     checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the
     bottom type, *note Never: 695, and nothing else.

     Une erreur est levé si la fonction est appelé lors de l'exécution.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking(1) has more
     information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: typing.reveal_type (obj, /)

     Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an
     expression.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it
     emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument.  For
     example:

          x: int = 1
          reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

     Cela est utile afin de comprendre comment le vérificateur de types
     va traiter un bout de code précis.

     At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument
     to *note sys.stderr: 928. and returns the argument unchanged
     (allowing the call to be used within an expression):

          x = reveal_type(1)  # prints "Runtime type is int"
          print(x)  # prints "1"

     Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less
     specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

     Most type checkers support ‘reveal_type()’ anywhere, even if the
     name is not imported from ‘typing’.  Importing the name from
     ‘typing’, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors
     and communicates intent more clearly.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @typing.dataclass_transform (*, eq_default=True,
          order_default=False, kw_only_default=False,
          frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

     Decorator to mark an object as providing *note dataclass: 1c6.-like
     behavior.

     ‘dataclass_transform’ may be used to decorate a class, metaclass,
     or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
     ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the
     decorated object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class
     in a similar way to *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6.

     Example usage with a decorator function:

          @dataclass_transform()
          def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
              ...
              return cls

          @create_model
          class CustomerModel:
              id: int
              name: str

     Avec une classe de base :

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelBase: ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     Avec une métaclasse :

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelMeta(type): ...

          class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     Les classes ‘CustomerModel’ définis ci-dessus sont traitées par les
     vérificateurs de type de la même que les classes créées avec *note
     @dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6.  Par exemple, les vérificateurs de
     type déduisent que ces classes possèdent une méthode ‘__init__’
     acceptant ‘id’ et ‘name’ comme arguments.

     Les arguments booléens suivants sont acceptés,les vérificateurs de
     type supposent qu'ils ont le même effet qu'ils auraient eu sur le
     décorateur *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 1c6. : ‘init’, ‘eq’,
     ‘order’, ‘unsafe_hash’, ‘frozen’, ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, et
     ‘slots’.  Il est possible d'évaluer statiquement les valeurs de ces
     arguments (‘True’ or ‘False’).

     Les arguments du décorateur ‘dataclass_transform’ permettent de
     personnaliser le comportement par défaut de la classe, métaclasse
     ou fonction décorée :


     Paramètres:

        * ‘eq_default’ (*note bool: 453.) - Indicates whether the ‘eq’
          parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted
          by the caller.  Defaults to ‘True’.

        * ‘order_default’ (*note bool: 453.) - Indicates whether the
          ‘order’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘kw_only_default’ (*note bool: 453.) - Indicates whether the
          ‘kw_only’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it
          is omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘frozen_default’ (*note bool: 453.) - Indicates whether the
          ‘frozen’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

        * ‘field_specifiers’ (*note tuple: 366.‘[’*note Callable:
          7d6.‘[’‘...’‘, ’‘Any’‘]’‘, ’‘...’‘]’) - Specifies a static
          list of supported classes or functions that describe fields,
          similar to *note dataclasses.field(): 19de.  Defaults to ‘()’.

        * ‘**kwargs’ (‘Any’) - D'autres arguments sont acceptés afin
          d'autoriser de futurs possibles extensions.

     Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field
     specifiers: 'Recognised parameters for field specifiers'

     Parameter name           Description
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     ‘init’                   Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized ‘__init__’
                              method.  If unspecified, ‘init’ defaults to ‘True’.
                              
                              
     ‘default’                Provides the default value for the field.
                              
                              
     ‘default_factory’        Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field.  If
                              neither ‘default’ nor ‘default_factory’ are specified, the field is assumed to
                              have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated.
                              
                              
     ‘factory’                An alias for the ‘default_factory’ parameter on field specifiers.
                              
                              
     ‘kw_only’                Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only.  If ‘True’, the
                              field will be keyword-only.  If ‘False’, it will not be keyword-only.  If
                              unspecified, the value of the ‘kw_only’ parameter on the object decorated with
                              ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of
                              ‘kw_only_default’ on ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used.
                              
                              
     ‘alias’                  Provides an alternative name for the field.  This alternative name is used in the
                              synthesized ‘__init__’ method.
                              

     Lors de l'exécution, les arguments de ce décorateur sont
     enregistrés au sein de l'attribut ‘__dataclass_transform__’ de
     l'objet décoré.  Il n'y pas d'autre effet à l'exécution.

     See PEP 681(2) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @typing.overload

     Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

     The ‘@overload’ decorator allows describing functions and methods
     that support multiple different combinations of argument types.  A
     series of ‘@overload’-decorated definitions must be followed by
     exactly one non-‘@overload’-decorated definition (for the same
     function/method).

     ‘@overload’-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type
     checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition.  The
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at
     runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime,
     calling an ‘@overload’-decorated function directly will raise *note
     NotImplementedError: 225.

     An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be
     expressed using a union or a type variable:

          @overload
          def process(response: None) -> None:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: bytes) -> str:
              ...
          def process(response):
              ...  # actual implementation goes here

     See PEP 484(3) for more details and comparison with other typing
     semantics.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Les fonctions surchargées peuvent
     maintenant être inspectées durant l'exécution via *note
     get_overloads(): 69b.

 -- Fonction: typing.get_overloads (func)

     Return a sequence of *note @overload: 3f51.-decorated definitions
     for 'func'.

     'func' is the function object for the implementation of the
     overloaded function.  For example, given the definition of
     ‘process’ in the documentation for *note @overload: 3f51,
     ‘get_overloads(process)’ will return a sequence of three function
     objects for the three defined overloads.  If called on a function
     with no overloads, ‘get_overloads()’ returns an empty sequence.

     ‘get_overloads()’ peut être utilisé afin d'inspecter une fonction
     surchargée durant l'exécution.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: typing.clear_overloads ()

     Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

     This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: @typing.final

     Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

     Decorating a method with ‘@final’ indicates to a type checker that
     the method cannot be overridden in a subclass.  Decorating a class
     with ‘@final’ indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

     Par exemple :

          class Base:
              @final
              def done(self) -> None:
                  ...
          class Sub(Base):
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

          @final
          class Leaf:
              ...
          class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

     Ces propriétés ne sont pas vérifiées à l'exécution.  Voir la PEP
     591(4) pour plus de détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The decorator will now attempt to set
     a ‘__final__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a
     check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)’ can be used at
     runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as
     final.  If the decorated object does not support setting
     attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without
     raising an exception.

 -- Fonction: @typing.no_type_check

     Décorateur pour indiquer que les annotations ne sont pas des
     indications de type.

     This works as a class or function *note decorator: 71d.  With a
     class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in
     that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or
     subclasses).  Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a
     function or class with this decorator.

     ‘@no_type_check’ mutates the decorated object in place.

 -- Fonction: @typing.no_type_check_decorator

     Décorateur pour donner à un autre décorateur l'effet *note
     no_type_check(): 6a1.

     Ceci enveloppe le décorateur avec quelque chose qui enveloppe la
     fonction décorée dans *note no_type_check(): 6a1.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: No
     type checker ever added support for ‘@no_type_check_decorator’.  It
     is therefore deprecated, and will be removed in Python 3.15.

 -- Fonction: @typing.override

     Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to
     override a method or attribute in a superclass.

     Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with
     ‘@override’ does not, in fact, override anything.  This helps
     prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an
     equivalent change to a child class.

     For example:

          class Base:
              def log_status(self) -> None:
                  ...

          class Sub(Base):
              @override
              def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
                  ...

              @override
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

     There is no runtime checking of this property.

     The decorator will attempt to set an ‘__override__’ attribute to
     ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a check like ‘if
     getattr(obj, "__override__", False)’ can be used at runtime to
     determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as an override.
     If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the
     decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an
     exception.

     See PEP 698(5) for more details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: @typing.type_check_only

     Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

     Ce décorateur n'est pas disponible à l'exécution.  Il est
     principalement destiné à marquer les classes qui sont définies dans
     des fichiers séparés d'annotations de type ('type stub file', en
     anglais) si une implémentation renvoie une instance d'une classe
     privée :

          @type_check_only
          class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
              code: int
              def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

          def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

     Notez qu'il n'est pas recommandé de renvoyer les instances des
     classes privées.  Il est généralement préférable de rendre ces
     classes publiques.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilitaires d'introspection,  Next: Constante,  Prev: Functions and decorators,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.21 Utilitaires d'introspection
.....................................

 -- Fonction: typing.get_type_hints (obj, globalns=None, localns=None,
          include_extras=False)

     Renvoie un dictionnaire contenant des annotations de type pour une
     fonction, une méthode, un module ou un objet de classe.

     This is often the same as ‘obj.__annotations__’, but this function
     makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary:

        * Forward references encoded as string literals or *note
          ForwardRef: 1800. objects are handled by evaluating them in
          'globalns', 'localns', and (where applicable) 'obj"s *note
          type parameter: 2b0. namespace.  If 'globalns' or 'localns' is
          not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred
          from 'obj'.

        * ‘None’ is replaced with *note types.NoneType: 83e.

        * If *note @no_type_check: 6a1. has been applied to 'obj', an
          empty dictionary is returned.

        * If 'obj' is a class ‘C’, the function returns a dictionary
          that merges annotations from ‘C’'s base classes with those on
          ‘C’ directly.  This is done by traversing *note C.__mro__:
          1ee5. and iteratively combining ‘__annotations__’
          dictionaries.  Annotations on classes appearing earlier in the
          *note method resolution order: 213d. always take precedence
          over annotations on classes appearing later in the method
          resolution order.

        * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
          ‘Annotated[T, ...]’ with ‘T’, unless 'include_extras' is set
          to ‘True’ (see *note Annotated: 92c. for more information).

     See also *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff, a lower-level
     function that returns annotations more directly.

          Note: If any forward references in the annotations of 'obj'
          are not resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function
          will raise an exception such as *note NameError: 42a.  For
          example, this can happen with imported *note type aliases:
          43f. that include forward references, or with names imported
          under *note if TYPE_CHECKING: ce4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added ‘include_extras’ parameter as
     part of PEP 593(1).  See the documentation on *note Annotated: 92c.
     for more information.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Avant, ‘Optional[t]’ était ajouté
     pour les annotations de fonctions et de méthodes dans le cas où une
     valeur par défaut était égal à ‘None’.  Maintenant, les annotations
     sont renvoyées inchangées.

 -- Fonction: typing.get_origin (tp)

     Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the
     form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘X’.

     If ‘X’ is a typing-module alias for a builtin or *note collections:
     1d. class, it will be normalized to the original class.  If ‘X’ is
     an instance of *note ParamSpecArgs: 7b2. or *note ParamSpecKwargs:
     7b3, return the underlying *note ParamSpec: 15d.  Return ‘None’ for
     unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_origin(str) is None
          assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
          assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
          assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
          P = ParamSpec('P')
          assert get_origin(P.args) is P
          assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: typing.get_args (tp)

     Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing
     object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘(Y, Z, ...)’.

     If ‘X’ is a union or *note Literal: 841. contained in another
     generic type, the order of ‘(Y, Z, ...)’ may be different from the
     order of the original arguments ‘[Y, Z, ...]’ due to type caching.
     Return ‘()’ for unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_args(int) == ()
          assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
          assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: typing.get_protocol_members (tp)

     Return the set of members defined in a *note Protocol: 261.

          >>> from typing import Protocol, get_protocol_members
          >>> class P(Protocol):
          ...     def a(self) -> str: ...
          ...     b: int
          >>> get_protocol_members(P) == frozenset({'a', 'b'})
          True

     Raise *note TypeError: 525. for arguments that are not Protocols.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: typing.is_protocol (tp)

     Determine if a type is a *note Protocol: 261.

     Par exemple :

          class P(Protocol):
              def a(self) -> str: ...
              b: int

          is_protocol(P)    # => True
          is_protocol(int)  # => False

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: typing.is_typeddict (tp)

     Vérifier si un type est un *note TypedDict: 161.

     For example:

          class Film(TypedDict):
              title: str
              year: int

          assert is_typeddict(Film)
          assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

          # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
          # not a typed dict itself
          assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: typing.ForwardRef

     Class used for internal typing representation of string forward
     references.

     For example, ‘List["SomeClass"]’ is implicitly transformed into
     ‘List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’.  ‘ForwardRef’ should not be
     instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

          Note: Les types PEP 585(2) tels que ‘list["SomeClass"]’ ne
          seront pas implicitement transformés en
          ‘list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’ et ne seront donc pas
          automatiquement résolus en ‘list[SomeClass]’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.4.

 -- Données: typing.NoDefault

     A sentinel object used to indicate that a type parameter has no
     default value.  For example:

          >>> T = TypeVar("T")
          >>> T.__default__ is typing.NoDefault
          True
          >>> S = TypeVar("S", default=None)
          >>> S.__default__ is None
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Constante,  Next: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: Utilitaires d'introspection,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.22 Constante
...................

 -- Données: typing.TYPE_CHECKING

     A special constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by 3rd party static
     type checkers.  It is ‘False’ at runtime.

     Utilisation :

          if TYPE_CHECKING:
              import expensive_mod

          def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None:
              local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

     The first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a
     "forward reference", to hide the ‘expensive_mod’ reference from the
     interpreter runtime.  Type annotations for local variables are not
     evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in
     quotes.

          Note: Si ‘from __future__ import annotations’ est utilisé, les
          annotations ne sont pas évaluées au moment de la définition de
          fonction.  Elles sont alors stockées comme des chaînes de
          caractères dans ‘__annotations__’, ce qui rend inutile
          l'utilisation de guillemets autour de l'annotation (Voir PEP
          563(1)).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: Constante,  Up: Classe de données

5.27.1.23 Deprecated aliases
............................

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard
library classes.  These were originally included in the typing module in
order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ‘[]’.
However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ‘[]’ (see
PEP 585(1)).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9.  However, while the
aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not
currently planned.  As such, no deprecation warnings are currently
issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two
releases prior to removal.  The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the
typing module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the
program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or
newer.

* Menu:

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to built-in types,  Next: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.24 Aliases to built-in types
...................................

 -- Classe: typing.Dict (dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note dict: 253.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Mapping: 8b9. rather than to use
     *note dict: 253. or ‘typing.Dict’.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note builtins.dict: 253. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.List (list, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note list: 5fe.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Sequence: 11a3. or *note Iterable:
     220b. rather than to use *note list: 5fe. or ‘typing.List’.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note builtins.list: 5fe. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Set (set, MutableSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.set: 5c5.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note collections.abc.Set: 2203. rather
     than to use *note set: 5c5. or *note typing.Set: 3f5c.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note builtins.set: 5c5. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.FrozenSet (frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.frozenset: 5c6.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note builtins.frozenset: 5c6. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Données: typing.Tuple

     Deprecated alias for *note tuple: 366.

     *note tuple: 366. and ‘Tuple’ are special-cased in the type system;
     see *note Annotating tuples: 3f19. for more details.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note builtins.tuple: 366. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Type (Generic[CT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note type: d38.

     See *note The type of class objects: 3f1c. for details on using
     *note type: d38. or ‘typing.Type’ in type annotations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note builtins.type: d38. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to types in collections,  Next: Aliases to other concrete types,  Prev: Aliases to built-in types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.25 Aliases to types in ‘collections’
...........................................

 -- Classe: typing.DefaultDict (collections.defaultdict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.defaultdict: 119c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.defaultdict:
     119c. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.OrderedDict (collections.OrderedDict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Type
     Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.ChainMap (collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT,
          VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.ChainMap: c0c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.ChainMap: c0c.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Type
     Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Counter (collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.Counter: 107d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.Counter: 107d.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Type
     Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Deque (deque, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.deque: 5c8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.deque: 5c8. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other concrete types,  Next: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.26 Aliases to other concrete types
.........................................

 -- Classe: typing.Pattern
 -- Classe: typing.Match

     Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from *note
     re.compile(): bc3. and *note re.match(): 120d.

     These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over
     *note AnyStr: 2af.  ‘Pattern’ can be specialised as ‘Pattern[str]’
     or ‘Pattern[bytes]’; ‘Match’ can be specialised as ‘Match[str]’ or
     ‘Match[bytes]’.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Classes ‘Pattern’ and ‘Match’ from
     *note re: b8. now support ‘[]’.  See PEP 585(1) and *note Type
     Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Text

     Deprecated alias for *note str: 437.

     ‘Text’ is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2
     code: in Python 2, ‘Text’ is an alias for ‘unicode’.

     Utilisez ‘Text’ pour indiquer qu'une valeur doit contenir une
     chaîne Unicode d'une manière compatible avec Python 2 et Python 3 :

          def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
              return text + u' \u2713'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.11: Python 2 is no longer supported,
     and most type checkers also no longer support type checking Python
     2 code.  Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users
     are encouraged to use *note str: 437. instead of ‘Text’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to other concrete types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.27 Aliases to container ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
........................................................

 -- Classe: typing.AbstractSet (Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Set: 2203.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Set: 2203.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Type
     Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.ByteString (Sequence[int])

     This type represents the types *note bytes: 1bd, *note bytearray:
     52b, and *note memoryview: 454. of byte sequences.

     Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Prefer *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c1, or a union like ‘bytes |
     bytearray | memoryview’.

 -- Classe: typing.Collection (Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Collection: c78.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Collection:
     c78. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Container (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Container: 220d.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Container:
     220d. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.ItemsView (MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co,
          VT_co]])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 2211.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.ItemsView:
     2211. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.KeysView (MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.KeysView: 2210.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.KeysView:
     2210. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Mapping (Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note Type
     Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.MappingView (Sized)

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MappingView: 220f.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.MappingView:
     220f. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(7) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.MutableMapping (Mapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1092.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1092. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(8) and *note Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.MutableSequence (Sequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 19f.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     collections.abc.MutableSequence: 19f. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(9) and *note Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.MutableSet (AbstractSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 220e.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableSet:
     220e. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(10) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Sequence (Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     11a3. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(11) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.ValuesView (MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 2212.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.ValuesView:
     2212. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(12) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.28 Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
...........................................................

 -- Classe: typing.Coroutine (Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dcc.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 24e7. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dcc. and
     ‘typing.Coroutine’ in type annotations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Coroutine:
     dcc. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.AsyncGenerator (AsyncIterator[YieldType],
          Generic[YieldType, SendType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c7a.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 24e7. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c7a. and
     ‘typing.AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c7a. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Type Alias générique: 69f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The ‘SendType’ parameter now has a
     default.

 -- Classe: typing.AsyncIterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: dce.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     collections.abc.AsyncIterable: dce. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.AsyncIterator (AsyncIterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dcd.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dcd. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Awaitable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Awaitable: dcb.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Awaitable:
     dcb. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.29 Aliases to other ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
....................................................

 -- Classe: typing.Iterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterable: 220b.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Iterable:
     220b. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Iterator (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterator: 220c.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Iterator:
     220c. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Données: typing.Callable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 24e6. for details on how to
     use *note collections.abc.Callable: 7d6. and ‘typing.Callable’ in
     type annotations.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Callable:
     7d6. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘Callable’ prend désormais en charge
     *note ParamSpec: 15d. et *note Concatenate: 7b0.  Voir PEP 612(4)
     pour plus de détails.

 -- Classe: typing.Generator (Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Generator: dca.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 24e7. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Generator: dca. and
     ‘typing.Generator’ in type annotations.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Generator:
     dca. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Default values for the send and
     return types were added.

 -- Classe: typing.Hashable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4e2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note
     collections.abc.Hashable: 4e2. directly instead.

 -- Classe: typing.Reversible (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Reversible: c79.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Reversible:
     c79. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note
     Type Alias générique: 69f.

 -- Classe: typing.Sized

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sized: 4e3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note collections.abc.Sized:
     4e3. directly instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.30 Aliases to ‘contextlib’ ABCs
......................................

 -- Classe: typing.ContextManager (Generic[T_co, ExitT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c7d.

     The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by
     the *note __enter__(): 5b4. method.  The optional second type
     parameter, ‘ExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents
     the type returned by the *note __exit__(): 12e0. method.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.4.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c7d. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Type Alias générique: 69f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the optional second type
     parameter, ‘ExitT_co’.

 -- Classe: typing.AsyncContextManager (Generic[T_co, AExitT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     b1b.

     The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by
     the *note __aenter__(): 1f89. method.  The optional second type
     parameter, ‘AExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents
     the type returned by the *note __aexit__(): 15e5. method.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: *note
     contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b1b. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Type Alias
     générique: 69f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the optional second type
     parameter, ‘AExitT_co’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures,  Prev: Classe de données,  Up: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type

5.27.1.31 Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures
............................................................

Certaines fonctionnalités dans ‘typing’ sont obsolètes et peuvent être
supprimées dans une future version de Python.  Le tableau suivant résume
les principales dépréciations.  Celui-ci peut changer et toutes les
dépréciations ne sont pas listées.

Fonctionnalité                Obsolète en                   Suppression prévue            PEP/issue
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
Versions de typage des        3.9                           Undecided (see                PEP 585(1)
collections standards                                       *note Deprecated aliases: 3f56.
                                                            for more information)
                                                            
                                                                                          
*note typing.ByteString: 2d2. 3.9                           3.14                          gh-91896(2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Text: 300.       3.11                          Non défini                    gh-92332(3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Hashable: 4e0.   3.12                          Non défini                    gh-94309(4)
and                                                                                       
*note typing.Sized: 4e1.

*note typing.TypeAlias: 7b5.  3.12                          Non défini                    PEP 695(5)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note @typing.no_type_check_decorator: 2ae.3.13             3.15                          gh-106309(6)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.AnyStr: 2af.     3.13                          3.18                          gh-105578(7)
                                                                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system,  Next: Python Development Mode,  Prev: typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.2 ‘pydoc’ -- Documentation generator and online help system
----------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pydoc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pydoc’ module automatically generates documentation from Python
modules.  The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the
console, served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files.

For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation
is derived from the docstring (i.e.  the *note __doc__: 917. attribute)
of the object, and recursively of its documentable members.  If there is
no docstring, ‘pydoc’ tries to obtain a description from the block of
comment lines just above the definition of the class, function or method
in the source file, or at the top of the module (see *note
inspect.getcomments(): 1581.).

The built-in function *note help(): 8c6. invokes the online help system
in the interactive interpreter, which uses ‘pydoc’ to generate its
documentation as text on the console.  The same text documentation can
also be viewed from outside the Python interpreter by running ‘pydoc’ as
a script at the operating system's command prompt.  For example, running

     python -m pydoc sys

dans un terminal, cela affiche la documentation du module *note sys: d8.
dans un style similaire à la commande Unix ‘man’.  On peut passer comme
argument à ‘pydoc’ le nom d’une fonction, d’un module, d’un paquet, ou
une référence pointant vers une classe, une méthode, ou une fonction
dans un module ou dans un paquet.  Si l’argument passé à ‘pydoc’ est un
chemin (c.-à-d.  qu’il contient des séparateurs de chemin tels que la
barre oblique ‘/’ dans Unix), et fait référence à un fichier source
Python existant, alors la documentation est générée pour ce fichier.

     Note: In order to find objects and their documentation, ‘pydoc’
     imports the module(s) to be documented.  Therefore, any code on
     module level will be executed on that occasion.  Use an ‘if
     __name__ == '__main__':’ guard to only execute code when a file is
     invoked as a script and not just imported.

When printing output to the console, ‘pydoc’ attempts to paginate the
output for easier reading.  If either the ‘MANPAGER’ or the ‘PAGER’
environment variable is set, ‘pydoc’ will use its value as a pagination
program.  When both are set, ‘MANPAGER’ is used.

Ajouter une option ‘-w’ avant l’argument entraine l’enregistrement de la
documentation HTML générée dans un fichier du répertoire courant au lieu
de l’afficher dans la console.

Ajouter une option ‘-w’ avant l’argument cherche les lignes de résumé de
tous les modules disponibles pour le mot clé donné comme argument, ceci
à la manière de la commande Unix ‘man’.  Les lignes de résumé d’un
module sont les premières lignes de sa 'docstring'.

You can also use ‘pydoc’ to start an HTTP server on the local machine
that will serve documentation to visiting web browsers.  ‘python -m
pydoc -p 1234’ will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to
browse the documentation at ‘http://localhost:1234/’ in your preferred
web browser.  Specifying ‘0’ as the port number will select an arbitrary
unused port.

‘python -m pydoc -n <hostname>’ will start the server listening at the
given hostname.  By default the hostname is 'localhost' but if you want
the server to be reached from other machines, you may want to change the
host name that the server responds to.  During development this is
especially useful if you want to run pydoc from within a container.

‘python -m pydoc -b’ will start the server and additionally open a web
browser to a module index page.  Each served page has a navigation bar
at the top where you can 'Get' help on an individual item, 'Search' all
modules with a keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the 'Module
index', 'Topics' and 'Keywords' pages.

Quand ‘pydoc’ génère de la documentation, il utilise l’environnement et
le chemin courant pour localiser les modules.  Ainsi, en invoquant les
documents ‘pydoc spam’ en précisant la version du module, vous obtenez
le même résultat qu’en lançant l’interpréteur Python et en tapant la
commande ‘import spam’.

Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in
‘https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/’ where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are the major
and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter.  This can be
overridden by setting the ‘PYTHONDOCS’ environment variable to a
different URL or to a local directory containing the Library Reference
Manual pages.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de l’option ‘-b’.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Suppression de l’option ‘-g’.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: ‘pydoc’ now uses *note inspect.signature():
724. rather than *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 725. to extract
signature information from callables.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l’option ‘-n’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pydoc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode,  Next: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python,  Prev: pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.3 Python Development Mode
------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

The Python Development Mode introduces additional runtime checks that
are too expensive to be enabled by default.  It should not be more
verbose than the default if the code is correct; new warnings are only
emitted when an issue is detected.

It can be enabled using the *note -X dev: 175. command line option or by
setting the *note PYTHONDEVMODE: add. environment variable to ‘1’.

See also *note Python debug build: 1f6.

* Menu:

* Effects of the Python Development Mode::
* ResourceWarning Example::
* Bad file descriptor error example::


File: python.info,  Node: Effects of the Python Development Mode,  Next: ResourceWarning Example,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.27.3.1 Effects of the Python Development Mode
...............................................

Enabling the Python Development Mode is similar to the following
command, but with additional effects described below:

     PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler

Effects of the Python Development Mode:

   * Add ‘default’ *note warning filter: 1cf6.  The following warnings
     are shown:

        * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.

        * *note ImportWarning: 4e7.

        * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.

        * *note ResourceWarning: 241.

     Normally, the above warnings are filtered by the default *note
     warning filters: 1cf6.

     It behaves as if the *note -W default: 8b6. command line option is
     used.

     Use the *note -W error: 8b6. command line option or set the *note
     PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a. environment variable to ‘error’ to treat
     warnings as errors.

   * Install debug hooks on memory allocators to check for:

        * Buffer underflow

        * Buffer overflow

        * Memory allocator API violation

        * Unsafe usage of the GIL

     See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. C function.

     It behaves as if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable
     is set to ‘debug’.

     To enable the Python Development Mode without installing debug
     hooks on memory allocators, set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54.
     environment variable to ‘default’.

   * Call *note faulthandler.enable(): c8e. at Python startup to install
     handlers for the *note SIGSEGV: 1d06, *note SIGFPE: 1d07, *note
     SIGABRT: 1d08, *note SIGBUS: 1d09. and *note SIGILL: 1d0a. signals
     to dump the Python traceback on a crash.

     It behaves as if the *note -X faulthandler: 175. command line
     option is used or if the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 106b.
     environment variable is set to ‘1’.

   * Enable *note asyncio debug mode: 1d0c.  For example, *note asyncio:
     a. checks for coroutines that were not awaited and logs them.

     It behaves as if the *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1d0b. environment
     variable is set to ‘1’.

   * Check the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments for string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 508, *note
     str.encode(): 8c4. and *note bytes.decode(): 8c5.

     By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   * The *note io.IOBase: 1f2. destructor logs ‘close()’ exceptions.

   * Set the *note dev_mode: 1a5f. attribute of *note sys.flags: 679. to
     ‘True’.

The Python Development Mode does not enable the *note tracemalloc: fe.
module by default, because the overhead cost (to performance and memory)
would be too large.  Enabling the *note tracemalloc: fe. module provides
additional information on the origin of some errors.  For example, *note
ResourceWarning: 241. logs the traceback where the resource was
allocated, and a buffer overflow error logs the traceback where the
memory block was allocated.

The Python Development Mode does not prevent the *note -O: da4. command
line option from removing *note assert: 957. statements nor from setting
*note __debug__: 7c6. to ‘False’.

The Python Development Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.
Its value can be read from *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 679.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The *note io.IOBase: 1f2. destructor now
logs ‘close()’ exceptions.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are
now checked for string encoding and decoding operations.


File: python.info,  Node: ResourceWarning Example,  Next: Bad file descriptor error example,  Prev: Effects of the Python Development Mode,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.27.3.2 ResourceWarning Example
................................

Example of a script counting the number of lines of the text file
specified in the command line:

     import sys

     def main():
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])
         nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)
         # The file is closed implicitly

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

The script does not close the file explicitly.  By default, Python does
not emit any warning.  Example using README.txt, which has 269 lines:

     $ python script.py README.txt
     269

Enabling the Python Development Mode displays a *note ResourceWarning:
241. warning:

     $ python -X dev script.py README.txt
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback

In addition, enabling *note tracemalloc: fe. shows the line where the
file was opened:

     $ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     Object allocated at (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", lineno 10
         main()
       File "script.py", lineno 4
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])

The fix is to close explicitly the file.  Example using a context
manager:

     def main():
         # Close the file explicitly when exiting the with block
         with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp:
             nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)

Not closing a resource explicitly can leave a resource open for way
longer than expected; it can cause severe issues upon exiting Python.
It is bad in CPython, but it is even worse in PyPy.  Closing resources
explicitly makes an application more deterministic and more reliable.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad file descriptor error example,  Prev: ResourceWarning Example,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.27.3.3 Bad file descriptor error example
..........................................

Script displaying the first line of itself:

     import os

     def main():
         fp = open(__file__)
         firstline = fp.readline()
         print(firstline.rstrip())
         os.close(fp.fileno())
         # The file is closed implicitly

     main()

By default, Python does not emit any warning:

     $ python script.py
     import os

The Python Development Mode shows a *note ResourceWarning: 241. and logs
a "Bad file descriptor" error when finalizing the file object:

     $ python -X dev script.py
     import os
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback
     Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", line 10, in <module>
         main()
     OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor

‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ closes the file descriptor.  When the file
object finalizer tries to close the file descriptor again, it fails with
the ‘Bad file descriptor’ error.  A file descriptor must be closed only
once.  In the worst case scenario, closing it twice can lead to a crash
(see bpo-18748(1) for an example).

The fix is to remove the ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ line, or open the file
with ‘closefd=False’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python,  Next: unittest --- Unit testing framework,  Prev: Python Development Mode,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.4 ‘doctest’ — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python
----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/doctest.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note doctest: 3a. cherche des extraits de texte ressemblant à
des sessions Python interactives avant de les exécuter, de façon à
vérifier que le fonctionnement correspond exactement à la description.
Voici quelques cas d'utilisation de 'doctest' :

   * Vérifier que les 'docstrings' d'un module sont à jour en vérifiant
     que tous les exemples interactifs fonctionnent toujours tels que
     décrits.

   * Réaliser un test de régression en vérifiant que les exemples
     interactifs provenant d'un fichier de test ou d'un objet de test
     fonctionnent comme prévu.

   * Rédiger de la documentation sous forme de tutoriel pour un paquet,
     avec une abondance d'exemples ayant des entrées et des sorties.  On
     pourrait voir ça comme des tests « dans le texte » ou de la
     « documentation exécutable », selon le point de vue.

Voici un petit exemple d'un module qui soit tout de même complet :

     """
     This is the "example" module.

     The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,

     >>> factorial(5)
     120
     """

     def factorial(n):
         """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0.

         >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
         >>> factorial(30)
         265252859812191058636308480000000
         >>> factorial(-1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be >= 0

         Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:
         >>> factorial(30.1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be exact integer
         >>> factorial(30.0)
         265252859812191058636308480000000

         It must also not be ridiculously large:
         >>> factorial(1e100)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
         """

         import math
         if not n >= 0:
             raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
         if math.floor(n) != n:
             raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
         if n+1 == n:  # catch a value like 1e300
             raise OverflowError("n too large")
         result = 1
         factor = 2
         while factor <= n:
             result *= factor
             factor += 1
         return result


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

L'exécution du fichier ‘example.py’ directement à partir de la ligne de
commande démontre la magie de *note doctest: 3a. :

     $ python example.py
     $

Il n'y a pas de sortie !  C'est normal, cela signifie que tous les
exemples fonctionnent.  Passez ‘-v’ au script pour que *note doctest:
3a. affiche un journal détaillé de ce qui a été essayé, avant d'afficher
un résumé à la fin :

     $ python example.py -v
     Trying:
         factorial(5)
     Expecting:
         120
     ok
     Trying:
         [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     Expecting:
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     ok

Et ainsi de suite, jusqu'à ce qu'on atteigne :

     Trying:
         factorial(1e100)
     Expecting:
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
     ok
     2 items passed all tests:
        1 test in __main__
        6 tests in __main__.factorial
     7 tests in 2 items.
     7 passed.
     Test passed.
     $

That's all you need to know to start making productive use of *note
doctest: 3a.!  Jump in.  The following sections provide full details.
Note that there are many examples of doctests in the standard Python
test suite and libraries.  Especially useful examples can be found in
the standard test file ‘Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py’.

* Menu:

* Utilisation simple ; vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings.
* Utilisation simple ; vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte.
* Command-line Usage::
* Comment ça marche::
* API de base::
* API de tests unitaires::
* API avancé::
* Débogage::
* Éditorial::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/doctest.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings,  Next: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.1 Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans des 'docstrings'
.........................................................................

Le plus simple pour commencer à utiliser 'doctest' (mais pas
nécessairement la façon avec laquelle vous continuerez) est de terminer
chaque module ‘M’ avec :

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

‘doctest’ examine alors les 'docstrings' dans le module ‘M’.

Exécuter le module comme un script a comme conséquence d'exécuter et de
vérifier les exemples dans les 'docstrings' :

     python M.py

Ceci n'affiche rien à moins qu'un exemple échoue ; le cas échéant, les
exemples défaillants et les causes du ou des échecs sont affichés sur
'stdout', et la ligne finale de la sortie est ‘***Test Failed*** *N
failures*.’, où 'N' est le nombre d'exemples défaillants.

À la place, exécutez-la avec l'option de ligne de commande ‘-v’ :

     python M.py -v

alors, un rapport détaillé de tous les exemples faisant partie de
l'essai est affiché sur la sortie standard, accompagné à la fin de leurs
résumés.

Vous pouvez activer le mode verbeux en passant ‘verbose=True’ à *note
testmod(): 1423, ou vous le désactiver en lui passant ‘verbose=False’.
Dans ces deux cas, ‘sys.argv’ n'est pas inspecté par *note testmod():
1423. (ainsi, lui passer ‘-v’ ou pas n'a aucun effet).

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testmod(): 1423,
see section *note Command-line Usage: 3f8f.

Pour plus d'informations sur *note testmod(): 1423, consultez la section
*note API de base: 3f90.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte,  Next: Command-line Usage,  Prev: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.2 Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte
.........................................................................

Une autre application simple de 'doctest' est de tester des exemples
interactifs dans un fichier texte.  Ceci est fait avec la fonction *note
testfile(): 3f93. :

     import doctest
     doctest.testfile("example.txt")

Ce court script exécute et vérifie chacun des exemples Python
interactifs contenus dans le fichier ‘example.txt’.  Le contenu du
fichier est traité comme une seule 'docstring' géante ; le fichier n'a
pas besoin de contenir un programme Python !  Par exemple, prenons un
fichier ‘example.txt’ contenant :

     The ``example`` module
     ======================

     Using ``factorial``
     -------------------

     This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
     ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:

         >>> from example import factorial

     Now use it:

         >>> factorial(6)
         120

Exécuter ‘doctest.testfile("example.txt")’ recherche les erreurs dans
cette documentation :

     File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
     Failed example:
         factorial(6)
     Expected:
         120
     Got:
         720

Comme pour *note testmod(): 1423, *note testfile(): 3f93. n'affichera
rien sauf si un exemple échoue.  Si un exemple échoue, alors le ou les
exemples défaillants et leurs causes sont affichés sur 'stdout', dans le
même format que *note testmod(): 1423.

Par défaut, *note testfile(): 3f93. cherche les fichiers dans le
répertoire où se situe le module qui l'appelle.  Consultez la section
*note API de base: 3f90. pour une description des options de ligne de
commande à utiliser afin de chercher dans d'autres répertoires.

Comme pour *note testmod(): 1423, la verbosité de *note testfile():
3f93. peut être ajustée avec l'option de ligne de commande ‘-v’ ou avec
le mot clé 'verbose'.

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testfile():
3f93, see section *note Command-line Usage: 3f8f.

Pour plus d'information sur *note testfile(): 3f93, consultez la section
*note API de base: 3f90.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line Usage,  Next: Comment ça marche,  Prev: Utilisation simple vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.3 Command-line Usage
...........................

The *note doctest: 3a. module can be invoked as a script from the
command line:

     python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...]

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard
     output, along with assorted summaries at the end:

          python -m doctest -v example.py

     This will import ‘example.py’ as a standalone module and run *note
     testmod(): 1423. on it.  Note that this may not work correctly if
     the file is part of a package and imports other submodules from
     that package.

     If the file name does not end with ‘.py’, ‘doctest’ infers that it
     must be run with *note testfile(): 3f93. instead:

          python -m doctest -v example.txt

 -- Option: -o, --option <option>

     Option flags control various aspects of doctest's behavior, see
     section *note Options de ligne de commande: f20.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Option: -f, --fail-fast

     This is shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment ça marche,  Next: API de base,  Prev: Command-line Usage,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.4 Comment ça marche
..........................

Cette section examine en détail le fonctionnement de 'doctest' : quelles
'docstrings' sont considérées, comment sont trouvés les exemples
interactifs, quel est le contexte d'exécution sélectionné, comment les
exceptions sont gérées, et de quelles façons les options de ligne de
commande peuvent être utilisées pour définir le comportement.  Ceci est
l'information dont vous avez besoin pour écrire des exemples 'doctest' ;
pour de l'information sur l'exécution de 'doctest' sur ces exemples,
consultez les sections suivantes.

* Menu:

* Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?::
* Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?::
* Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?::
* Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?::
* Options de ligne de commande::
* Instructions::
* Avertissements: Avertissements<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?,  Next: Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.5 Quelles 'docstrings' sont considérées ?
................................................

Les 'docstrings' du module, de toutes les fonctions, classes, et
méthodes sont cherchées.  Les objets qui sont importés dans le module ne
sont pas cherchés.

In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module
but not part of the help text, which requires that the tests not be
included in the docstring.  Doctest looks for a module-level variable
called ‘__test__’ and uses it to locate other tests.  If ‘M.__test__’
exists, it must be a dict, and each entry maps a (string) name to a
function object, class object, or string.  Function and class object
docstrings found from ‘M.__test__’ are searched, and strings are treated
as if they were docstrings.  In output, a key ‘K’ in ‘M.__test__’
appears with name ‘M.__test__.K’.

For example, place this block of code at the top of ‘example.py’:

     __test__ = {
         'numbers': """
     >>> factorial(6)
     720

     >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     """
     }

The value of ‘example.__test__["numbers"]’ will be treated as a
docstring and all the tests inside it will be run.  It is important to
note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or
module; if so, ‘doctest’ searches them recursively for docstrings, which
are then scanned for tests.

Toute classe trouvée est ainsi cherchée récursivement, afin de tester
les 'docstrings' contenues dans leurs méthodes et leurs classes
imbriquées.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?,  Next: Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?,  Prev: Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.6 Comment les exemples 'docstring' sont-ils identifiés ?
...............................................................

Dans la plupart des cas, un copier-coller d'une séance interactive de
console fonctionne bien, mais 'doctest' n'essaye pas de faire une
simulation exacte d'un 'shell' Python spécifique.

     >>> # comments are ignored
     >>> x = 12
     >>> x
     12
     >>> if x == 13:
     ...     print("yes")
     ... else:
     ...     print("no")
     ...     print("NO")
     ...     print("NO!!!")
     ...
     no
     NO
     NO!!!
     >>>

Toute sortie souhaitée doit immédiatement suivre le dernier ‘'>>> '’ ou
le dernier ‘'... '’ contenant le code, et la sortie souhaitée, s'il y en
a une, s'étend jusqu'au prochain ‘'>>> '’ ou à la prochaine ligne vide.

En détail :

   * La sortie souhaitée ne peut pas contenir une ligne vide, puisque
     contenir une telle ligne signale la fin de la sortie souhaitée.  Si
     la sortie souhaitée doit contenir une ligne vide, ajoutez
     ‘<BLANKLINE>’ dans votre exemple 'doctest' à chaque endroit où une
     ligne vide est souhaitée.

   * Tous les caractères de tabulation insécables ('hard tab
     characters') sont convertis en espaces, en utilisant des taquets de
     tabulation de 8 espaces.  Les tabulations se trouvant dans la
     sortie générée par le code test ne sont pas modifiées.  Comme tout
     caractère de tabulation insécable 'est' converti, ceci veut dire
     que si le code de sortie inclut des caractères de tabulation
     insécables, alors la seule façon que le 'doctest' peut réussir est
     si l'option *note NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3fa1. ou si *note
     directive: 3fa2. a cours.  De façon alternative, le test peut être
     ré-écrit afin de capturer la sortie et de la comparer à un ensemble
     de valeurs attendues, et ce, en tant qu'étape du test.  Cette
     gestion des tabulations à la source a été obtenue suite à un
     processus d'essais et d'erreurs ; il a été démontré que c'était là
     la façon de les gérer qui soit la moins susceptible de générer des
     erreurs.  Il est possible d'utiliser un algorithme différent pour
     la gestion des tabulations en rédigeant une classe sur mesure *note
     DocTestParser: 3fa3.

   * La sortie vers 'stdout' est capturée, mais pas la sortie vers
     'stderr' (les traces d'appel sont capturées par d'autres moyens).

   * Si vous souhaitez conserver les barres obliques inversées telles
     quelles lorsque vous terminez une ligne avec une barre oblique
     inversée dans une séance interactive, ou quand vous utilisez une
     telle barre pour toute autre raison, vous devez utiliser une
     'docstring' brute :

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

     Sinon, la barre oblique inversée est interprétée comme faisant
     partie de la chaîne de caractères.  Par exemple, le ‘\n’ ci-dessus
     est interprété comme un caractère de saut de ligne.  De façon
     alternative, vous pouvez doubler chaque barre oblique inversée dans
     la version 'doctest' (et n'utilisez pas dans ce cas de 'docstring'
     brute) :

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

   * La colonne de départ n'a pas d'importance :

          >>> assert "Easy!"
                >>> import math
                    >>> math.floor(1.9)
                    1

     et autant d'espaces sont retirés de la sortie attendue qu'il y
     avait d'espaces avant la ligne commençant par ‘'>>> '’.


File: python.info,  Node: Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?,  Next: Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?,  Prev: Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.7 Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?
...........................................

Par défaut, chaque fois que *note doctest: 3a. trouve une 'docstring' à
tester, il utilise une 'copie superficielle' des variables globales de
‘M’, de telle façon que l'exécution de tests ne change pas les variables
globales réelles du module et que l'exécution d'un unique test dans ‘M’
ne puisse laisser traîner des miettes pouvant accidentellement causer la
réussite d'un autre test.  Ceci signifie que les exemples peuvent
utiliser librement n'importe quel nom défini au niveau supérieur dans
‘M’ ainsi que les noms définis précédemment dans la 'docstring' en cours
d'exécution.  Les exemples ne peuvent voir les noms définis dans
d'autres 'docstrings'.

Vous pouvez forcer l'utilisation de votre propre 'dict' comme contexte
d'exécution en passant ‘globs=your_dict’ à *note testmod(): 1423. ou
encore, à *note testfile(): 3f93.


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?,  Next: Options de ligne de commande,  Prev: Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.8 Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?
......................................

Pas de problèmes, tant que la trace d'appels est la seule sortie
produite par l'exemple : il suffit d'ajouter la trace.  (1)  Comme les
traces d'appels contiennent des détails qui sont sujets à changement
rapide (par exemple, le chemin exact vers un fichier et les numéros de
ligne), ceci est un cas où 'doctest' fait un effort pour être flexible
dans ce qu'il accepte.

Exemple simple :

     >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

Ce 'doctest' réussit si *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée, avec le détail
‘list.remote(x): x not in list’ tel que montré.

La sortie attendue pour une exception doit commencer par un en-tête de
trace d'appels, qui peut être l'une des deux lignes suivantes, avec la
même indentation que la première ligne de l'exemple :

     Traceback (most recent call last):
     Traceback (innermost last):

L'en-tête de la trace d'appels est suivi par une pile optionnelle de
trace d'appels, dont le contenu est ignoré par 'doctest'.  La trace
d'appels est habituellement omise, ou est copiée verbatim à partir d'une
séance interactive.

La pile de trace d'appels est suivie par la partie la plus
intéressante : la ou les lignes contenant le type et le détail de
l'exception.  Ceci est habituellement la dernière ligne de la trace
d'appels ; dans le cas où l'exception a un détail sur plusieurs lignes,
il est possible de prolonger sur plusieurs lignes :

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

Les trois dernières lignes (en commençant par *note ValueError: 1ff.)
sont comparées avec le type et le détail de l'exception ; tout le reste
est ignoré.

La pratique optimale est d'omettre la pile de trace d'appels, à moins
que celle-ci ait une valeur significative de documentation de l'exemple.
Ainsi, le dernier exemple est probablement meilleur tel qui suit :

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

Prenez note que les traces d'appels sont traitées de façon vraiment
particulière.  Précisément, dans l'exemple ré-écrit, l'utilisation de
‘...’ est indépendante de l'option 'doctest' *note ELLIPSIS: 1424.  Les
points de suspension dans cet exemple peuvent être omis, ou peuvent
aussi être trois (ou trois cents) virgules ou chiffres, ou une
retranscription indentée d'une parodie de Monty Python.

Quelques détails que vous devriez lire une fois, mais que vous pouvez
oublier :

   * 'Doctest' ne peut pas deviner si votre sortie attendue provient
     d'une trace d'appels issue d'une exception ou d'un affichage
     ordinaire.  Ainsi, si nous avons un exemple s'attendant à obtenir
     ‘ValueError: 42 is prime’, celui-ci réussira peu importe si *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est réellement levée ou si l'exemple affiche
     simplement ce texte de trace d'appels.  Dans la pratique, une
     sortie ordinaire commence rarement par une ligne d'en-tête de trace
     d'appels ; ainsi, ceci ne pose pas de vrai problème.

   * Chaque ligne de la trace d'appel (s'il y en a) doit soit être
     indentée d'un niveau supplémentaire au niveau de la première ligne
     de l'exemple 'ou' doit commencer par un caractère qui ne soit pas
     alphanumérique.  La première ligne suivant l'en-tête de la trace
     d'appels qui soit indentée similairement et qui commence par un
     caractère alphanumérique est comprise comme étant le début du
     détail de l'exception.  Bien sûr, ceci fait la chose adéquate pour
     les traces d'appels véritables.

   * Lorsque l'option de 'doctest' *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12e9.
     est définie, tout ce qui suit le point-virgule se trouvant le plus
     à gauche ainsi que toute information liée au module dans le nom de
     l'exception sont ignorés.

   * Le shell interactif omet la ligne d'en-tête de la trace d'appels
     pour certaines erreurs *note SyntaxError: 18b.  Ceci étant dit,
     'doctest' utilise la ligne d'en-tête de la trace d'appels afin de
     faire une distinction entre les exceptions et les autres types
     d'erreurs.  Ainsi, dans les rares cas où vous avez besoin de tester
     une erreur *note SyntaxError: 18b. qui omet l'en-tête de la trace
     d'appels, il vous est nécessaire d'ajouter manuellement la ligne
     d'en-tête de la trace d'appels à l'exemple de test.

   * Pour certaines erreurs, Python affiche la position de l'erreur en
     utilisant le marqueur ‘^’ et des tildes :

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ~~^~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

     Comme les lignes dénotant la position de l'erreur précèdent le type
     et le détail de l'exception, elles ne sont pas vérifiées par
     'doctest'.  Par exemple, le test suivant réussira, même si le
     marqueur ‘^’ n'est pas à la bonne place :

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ^~~~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Les exemples contenant à la fois la sortie attendue et une
exception ne sont pas supportés.  Tenter de deviner où finit l'un et où
commence l'autre peut mener à plusieurs erreurs, en plus d'être un test
qui soit source de confusion.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de ligne de commande,  Next: Instructions,  Prev: Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.9 Options de ligne de commande
.....................................

Un ensemble d'options de ligne de commande contrôle différents aspects
du comportement de 'doctest'.  Pour les options, des noms symboliques
sont fournis comme des constantes de module, qui peuvent être composés
par un OU bit à bit (*note bitwise ORed: 202c.) et passés à diverses
fonctions.  Les noms peuvent aussi être utilisés dans des *note
instructions doctest: 3fa2, et peuvent être passés à l'interface de
ligne de commande de 'doctest' à l'aide de l'option ‘-o’.

Le premier groupe d'options définit les sémantiques de test, de façon à
contrôler comment 'doctest' décide si la sortie obtenue correspond à la
sortie attendue de l'exemple :

 -- Données: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1

     Par défaut, si un bloc de sortie attendu contient uniquement un
     ‘1’, un vrai bloc de sortie contenant uniquement un ‘1’ ou un
     ‘True’ sera considéré comme étant une correspondance ; de façon
     similaire, nous avons une correspondance pour ‘0’ et ‘False’.
     Lorsque l'option *note DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1: 3faa. est précisée,
     aucune de ces substitutions n'est acceptée.  Le comportement par
     défaut s'ajuste au fait que Python a changé le type de renvoi de
     plusieurs fonctions, passant de nombres entiers à des booléens ;
     les 'doctests' s'attendant à une sortie de « petit entier »
     ('little integer') fonctionnent encore dans ces cas.  Cette option
     disparaîtra probablement, mais pas avant plusieurs années.

 -- Données: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE

     Par défaut, si un bloc de sortie attendue contient une ligne
     contenant uniquement la chaîne de caractères ‘<BLANKLINE>’, alors
     cette ligne sera en correspondance avec une ligne vide dans la
     sortie réelle.  Puisqu'une véritable ligne vide permet de délimiter
     la sortie attendue, ceci est la seule façon de communiquer qu'une
     ligne vide est souhaitée.  Lorsque l'option *note
     DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE: 3fab. est précisée, cette substitution n'est
     pas permise.

 -- Données: doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE

     Lorsque précisé, toutes les séquences de caractères d'espacement et
     de caractères de saut de ligne sont traitées comme équivalentes.
     Toute séquence de caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur de la
     sortie attendue correspondra alors à toute séquence de caractères
     d'espacement à l'intérieur de la sortie réelle.  Par défaut, les
     caractères d'espacement doivent correspondre de façon exacte.
     L'option *note NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3fa1. est particulièrement
     utile lorsqu'une ligne de sortie attendue est très longue, et que
     l'on souhaite la répartir sur plusieurs lignes dans le fichier
     source.

 -- Données: doctest.ELLIPSIS

     Lorsque précisé, un marqueur de points de suspension (‘...’) dans
     la sortie attendue peut correspondre à n'importe quelle partie de
     chaîne de caractères dans la sortie réelle.  Ceci inclut les
     parties qui traversent les frontières de lignes, ainsi que les
     parties vides de chaînes de caractères ; ainsi, il est préférable
     d'en faire une utilisation simple.  Les usages complexes mènent aux
     mêmes surprises du type "oups, il y avait trop de correspondances
     !"  que l'utilisation de ‘.*’ dans les expressions régulières.

 -- Données: doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL

     When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an
     exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details
     (message and fully qualified exception name) don't match.

     For example, an example expecting ‘ValueError: 42’ will pass if the
     actual exception raised is ‘ValueError: 3*14’, but will fail if,
     say, a *note TypeError: 525. is raised instead.  It will also
     ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception
     class, which can vary between implementations and versions of
     Python and the code/libraries in use.  Hence, all three of these
     variations will work with the flag specified:

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          builtins.Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          __main__.Exception: message

     Note that *note ELLIPSIS: 1424. can also be used to ignore the
     details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail
     based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Maintenant, *note
     IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12e9. permet aussi d'ignorer toute
     information liée au module contenant l'exception qui est en train
     d'être testée.

 -- Données: doctest.SKIP

     Lorsque précisé, cesse complètement l'exécution de tous les
     exemples.  Ceci peut être utile dans des contextes où les exemples
     'doctest' sont à la fois de la documentation et des cas de tests,
     et qu'un exemple doit être inclus pour des raisons de
     documentation, mais ne devrait pas être vérifié.  Par exemple, la
     sortie de l'exemple doit être aléatoire ; ou encore, lorsque
     l'exemple peut dépendre de ressources inatteignables pour
     l'exécuteur de test.

     L'option 'SKIP' peut aussi être utilisée temporairement afin de
     commenter des exemples et d'en empêcher l'exécution.

 -- Données: doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS

     Un masque binaire effectuant une composition avec OU de toutes les
     options de comparaisons ci-dessus.

Le deuxième groupe d'options détermine comment les échecs de tests sont
signalés :

 -- Données: doctest.REPORT_UDIFF

     Lorsque précisé, les défaillances qui font intervenir des sorties
     attendues et réelles multi-lignes sont affichées dans une 'diff'
     unifiée.

 -- Données: doctest.REPORT_CDIFF

     Lorsque précisé, les défaillances qui font intervenir des sorties
     attendues et réelles multi-lignes sont affichées dans une 'diff' de
     contexte.

 -- Données: doctest.REPORT_NDIFF

     Lorsque précisé, les différences sont obtenues grâce à
     ‘difflib.Differ’, en utilisant le même algorithme que le populaire
     utilitaire ‘ndiff.py’.  Ceci est la seule méthode qui puisse faire
     la différence à l'intérieur des lignes ainsi que parmi les lignes
     prises conjointement.  Par exemple, si une ligne de sortie attendue
     contient le chiffre ‘1’ alors que la sortie réelle contient la
     lettre ‘l’, une ligne est insérée avec un marqueur caret démarquant
     les positions de colonnes où il n'y a pas de correspondance.

 -- Données: doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE

     Lorsque précisé, le premier exemple défaillant de chaque 'doctest'
     est affiché, mais la sortie est supprimée pour tous les autres
     exemples.  Ceci empêche 'doctest' de rapporter les exemples
     adéquats qui échouent du fait d'échecs précédents ; ceci peut aussi
     cacher des exemples inadéquats qui échouent de façon indépendante
     au premier échec.  Lorsque *note REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE: 3fae.
     est précisé, les exemples restants sont toujours exécutés, et sont
     toujours comptabilisés dans le nombre total des lignes échouant ;
     seulement la sortie est omise.

 -- Données: doctest.FAIL_FAST

     Lorsque précisé, mettre fin à l'exécution après le premier exemple
     défaillant et ne pas essayer d'exécuter les exemples restants.
     Ainsi, le nombre d'échecs rapporté sera au plus un (1).  Cette
     option peut être utile durant le débogage, étant donné que les
     exemples suivant le premier échec ne produiront aucune sortie de
     débogage.

 -- Données: doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS

     Un masque binaire effectuant une composition avec le OU de toutes
     les options de signalement ci-dessus.

Il y a aussi une façon d'enregistrer des nouveaux noms d'option, quoique
ceci n'est pas utile sauf dans le cas où vous devez faire une extension
pour le code interne de *note doctest: 3a. par le biais d'une
sous-classe :

 -- Fonction: doctest.register_optionflag (name)

     Crée une nouvelle option avec un nom donné, et renvoie la valeur en
     nombre entier de la nouvelle option.  La fonction *note
     register_optionflag(): 3fb0. peut être utilisée lors de la création
     de sous-classes à partir de *note OutputChecker: 3fb1. ou *note
     DocTestRunner: 3fb2. pour créer de nouvelles options qui sont
     supportées par vos sous-classes.  La fonction *note
     register_optionflag(): 3fb0. devrait toujours être appelée par
     l'expression suivante :

          MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')


File: python.info,  Node: Instructions,  Next: Avertissements<2>,  Prev: Options de ligne de commande,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.10 Instructions
......................

Les instructions 'doctest' peuvent être utilisées afin de modifier les
*note options: f20. pour un exemple individuel.  Les instructions
'doctest' sont des commentaires Python spéciaux suivant le code source
d'un exemple :

     directive             ::= "#" "doctest:" *note directive_options: 3fb5.
     directive_options     ::= *note directive_option: 3fb6. ("," *note directive_option: 3fb6.)*
     directive_option      ::= *note on_or_off: 3fb7. *note directive_option_name: 3fb8.
     on_or_off             ::= "+" | "-"
     directive_option_name ::= "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ...

Les caractères d'espacement ne sont pas permis entre les ‘+’ ou les ‘-’
et le nom de l'option d'instruction.  Le nom de l'option d'instruction
peut être n'importe lequel des noms d'options expliqués ci-dessus.

Les instructions d'un exemple 'doctest' modifient le comportement de
'doctest' et ce, seulement pour cet exemple.  Utilisez ‘+’ pour activer
le comportement nommé, ou ‘-’ pour le désactiver.

For example, this test passes:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
     10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]

Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output
doesn't have two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and
because the actual output is on a single line.  This test also passes,
and also requires a directive to do so:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, 1, ..., 18, 19]

Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by
commas:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they
are combined:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     ...                         # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

As the previous example shows, you can add ‘...’ lines to your example
containing only directives.  This can be useful when an example is too
long for a directive to comfortably fit on the same line:

     >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
     ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]

Prendre note que puisque toutes les options sont désactivées par défaut,
et comme les instructions s'appliquent uniquement aux exemples dans
lesquelles elles apparaissent, activer les options (par le biais de ‘+’
dans une instruction) est habituellement le seul choix ayant du sens.
Toutefois, les options peuvent aussi être passées aux fonctions qui
exécutent les 'doctests', définissant de nouvelles valeurs par défaut.
Dans de tels cas, désactiver une option par l'utilisation de ‘-’ dans
une instruction peut être utile.


File: python.info,  Node: Avertissements<2>,  Prev: Instructions,  Up: Comment ça marche

5.27.4.11 Avertissements
........................

Le module *note doctest: 3a. est rigoureux pour ce qui est d'inclure des
correspondances exactes dans la sortie attendue.  Si un seul caractère
ne correspond pas, le test échoue.  Ceci vous surprendra probablement
quelques fois, alors que vous apprenez exactement ce que Python garantit
et ne garantit pas pour qui est des sorties.  Par exemple, lorsqu'on
affiche un ensemble (set), Python ne garantit pas que les éléments sont
affichés dans un ordre particulier ; ainsi un test tel que

     >>> foo()
     {"spam", "eggs"}

est vulnérable !  Une alternative est de faire

     >>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"}
     True

à la place.  Une autre façon de faire est

     >>> d = sorted(foo())
     >>> d
     ['eggs', 'spam']

Il y en a d'autres, mais vous saisissez l'idée.

Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like

     >>> id(1.0)  # certain to fail some of the time
     7948648
     >>> class C: pass
     >>> C()  # the default repr() for instances embeds an address
     <C object at 0x00AC18F0>

The *note ELLIPSIS: 1424. directive gives a nice approach for the last
example:

     >>> C()  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     <C object at 0x...>

Les nombres à virgule flottante sont aussi sujets à de petites
variations à la sortie, tout dépendamment de la plateforme utilisée,
étant donné que Python s'en remet à la bibliothèque de la plateforme C
pour la mise-en-forme des 'floats', et les bibliothèques C varient
grandement pour ce qui de leur qualité sur ce point.

     >>> 1./7  # risky
     0.14285714285714285
     >>> print(1./7) # safer
     0.142857142857
     >>> print(round(1./7, 6)) # much safer
     0.142857

Numbers of the form ‘I/2.**J’ are safe across all platforms, and I often
contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form:

     >>> 3./4  # utterly safe
     0.75

Les fractions simples sont aussi plus faciles à comprendre, et cela fait
une meilleure documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: API de base,  Next: API de tests unitaires,  Prev: Comment ça marche,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.12 API de base
.....................

Les fonctions *note testmod(): 1423. et *note testfile(): 3f93.
fournissent une interface simple pour 'doctest' qui est suffisante pour
les cas d'usage les plus élémentaires.  Pour une introduction moins
formelle à ces deux fonctions, voir les sections *note Utilisation
simple ; vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings: 3f8d. et *note
Utilisation simple ; vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte: 3f91.

 -- Fonction: doctest.testfile (filename, module_relative=True,
          name=None, package=None, globs=None, verbose=None,
          report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     Tous les arguments sauf 'filename' sont optionnels, et doivent être
     précisés sous forme lettrée.

     Teste les exemples dans le fichier nommé 'filename'.  Renvoie
     ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     L'argument optionnel 'module_relative' précise comment le nom de
     fichier doit être interprété :

        * Si 'module_relative' prend la valeur ‘True’ (la valeur par
          défaut), alors 'filename' précise un chemin relatif au module
          qui soit indépendant du système d'exploitation ('OS'). Par
          défaut, ce chemin est relatif au répertoire du module
          appelant ; mais si l'argument 'package' est précisé, alors il
          est relatif à ce paquet.  Pour garantir l'indépendance quant
          au système d'exploitation, 'filename' doit utiliser des
          caractères ‘/’ pour séparer chaque segment de chemin, et ne
          peut pas être un chemin absolu (c'est-à-dire qu'il ne peut pas
          commencer par ‘/’).

        * Si 'module_relative' prend la valeur ‘False’, alors 'filename'
          précise un chemin en fonction du système d'exploitation.  Le
          chemin peut être absolu ou relatif ; les chemins relatifs sont
          résolus en rapport au répertoire actif.

     L'option 'name' désigne le nom du test ; par défaut, ou si ‘None’
     est passé en argument, ‘os.path.basename(filename)’ est utilisé.

     L'option 'package' est un paquet Python ou le nom d'un paquet
     Python dont le répertoire doit être utilisé comme le répertoire
     principal pour un nom de fichier lié à un module.  Si aucun paquet
     n'est spécifié, le répertoire du module appelé à l'exécution est
     utilisé comme le répertoire principal pour les noms de fichiers
     liés au module.  C'est une erreur que de spécifier 'package' si
     'module_relative' a ‘False’ comme valeur.

     L'option 'globs' spécifie un 'dict' à utiliser comme 'globals'
     lorsque des exemples sont exécutés.  Une copie superficielle de ce
     'dict' est créée pour le 'doctest' ; ainsi, ces exemples commencent
     avec un état vide.  Par défaut, ou si ‘None’ est passé en argument,
     un nouveau 'dict' vide est utilisé.

     L'option 'extraglobs' spécifie un 'dict' intégré dans les variables
     globales utilisées pour exécuter l'exemple.  Ceci fonctionne comme
     *note dict.update(): 141b. : si 'globs' et 'extraglobs' ont une clé
     commune, la valeur associée à 'extraglobs' apparaît dans le 'dict'
     combiné.  Par défaut, ou si ‘None’ est passé en argument, aucune
     variable globale supplémentaire est utilisée.  Ceci est une
     fonctionnalité avancée qui permet la configuration des 'doctests'.
     Par exemple, un 'doctest' peut être rédigé pour une classe de base,
     en utilisant un nom générique pour la classe, puis réutilisé afin
     de tester un nombre indéfini de sous-classes en passant un 'dict'
     'extraglobs' reliant le nom générique à la sous-classe qui doit
     être testée.

     L'option 'verbose' affiche une grande quantité d'information si
     elle est vraie, et affiche uniquement les défaillances si elle est
     fausse ; par défaut, ou si ‘None’, celle-ci est vraie si et
     seulement si ‘-v’ est présent dans ‘sys.argv’.

     L'option 'report' affiche un résumé à la fin lorsque vraie ; sinon,
     rien n'est affiché à la fin.  En mode 'verbose', le résumé est
     détaillé, sinon le résumé est très bref (en fait, vide si tous les
     tests ont réussi).

     L'option 'optionflags' (dont la valeur par défaut est de zéro)
     calcule la valeur *note bitwise OR: 202c. des options de ligne de
     commande.  Voir la section *note Options de ligne de commande: f20.

     L'option 'raise_on_error' est fausse par défaut.  Si elle est
     vraie, une exception est levée à la première défaillance ou à la
     première exception qui ne soit prévue dans l'exemple.  Ceci permet
     aux défaillances d'être analysées lors d'un post-mortem.  Le
     comportement par défaut est de poursuivre l'exécution des exemples.

     L'option 'parser' définit une classe ou une sous-classe *note
     DocTestParser: 3fa3. qui doit être utilisée pour extraire les tests
     des fichiers.  Par défaut, on utilise un analyseur normal
     (c'est-à-dire, ‘DocTestParser()’).

     L'option 'encoding' définit un encodage à utiliser pour convertir
     le fichier en format 'unicode'.

 -- Fonction: doctest.testmod (m=None, name=None, globs=None,
          verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)

     Toutes les options sont facultatives, et toutes sauf 'm' doivent
     être définies en format lettré.

     Ceci teste les exemples en 'docstrings' dans les fonctions et les
     classes accessibles depuis le module 'm' (ou depuis le module *note
     __main__: 1. si 'm' n'a pas été défini ou est ‘None’), en
     commençant par ‘m.__doc__’.

     Also test examples reachable from dict ‘m.__test__’, if it exists.
     ‘m.__test__’ maps names (strings) to functions, classes and
     strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples;
     strings are searched directly, as if they were docstrings.

     Seulement les 'docstrings' attribuées à des objets appartenant au
     module 'm' sont fouillées.

     Renvoie ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     L'option 'name' donne le nom du module ; par défaut, ou si ‘None’,
     ‘m.__name__’ est utilisé.

     Optional argument 'exclude_empty' defaults to false.  If true,
     objects for which no doctests are found are excluded from
     consideration.  The default is a backward compatibility hack, so
     that code still using *note doctest.master.summarize: 3fbc. in
     conjunction with *note testmod(): 1423. continues to get output for
     objects with no tests.  The 'exclude_empty' argument to the newer
     *note DocTestFinder: 15ed. constructor defaults to true.

     Les options 'extraglobs', 'verbose', 'report', 'optionflags',
     'raise_on_error', et 'globs' sont les mêmes que pour la fonction
     *note testfile(): 3f93. ci-dessus, sauf pour 'globs', qui est
     ‘m.__dict__’ par défaut.

 -- Fonction: doctest.run_docstring_examples (f, globs, verbose=False,
          name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0)

     Les exemples de test associés à l'objet 'f' ; par exemple, 'f' peut
     être une chaîne de caractères, un module, une fonction, ou un objet
     de classe.

     Une copie superficielle de l'argument-dictionnaire 'globs' est
     utilisée pour le contexte d'exécution.

     L'option 'name' est utilisée pour les messages d'échec, et prend
     ‘"NoName"’ comme valeur par défaut.

     Si l'option 'verbose' est vraie, les sorties sont générées même
     s'il n'y a aucun échec.  Par défaut, la sortie est générée
     seulement si un exemple échoue.

     L'option 'compileflags' donne l'ensemble des options qui doit être
     utilisée par le compilateur Python lorsqu'il exécute les exemples.
     Par défaut, ou si ‘None’, les options sont inférées à partir de
     l'ensemble des fonctionnalités futures trouvées dans 'globs'.

     L'option 'optionflags' fonctionne similairement à la fonction *note
     testfile(): 3f93. ci-dessus.


File: python.info,  Node: API de tests unitaires,  Next: API avancé,  Prev: API de base,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.13 API de tests unitaires
................................

As your collection of doctest'ed modules grows, you'll want a way to run
all their doctests systematically.  *note doctest: 3a. provides two
functions that can be used to create *note unittest: 105. test suites
from modules and text files containing doctests.  To integrate with
*note unittest: 105. test discovery, include a *note load_tests: 3fc0.
function in your test module:

     import unittest
     import doctest
     import my_module_with_doctests

     def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
         tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
         return tests

Il y a deux fonctions principales pour créer des instances de la classe
*note unittest.TestSuite: de3. à partir de fichiers textes et de modules
ayant des 'doctests' :

 -- Fonction: doctest.DocFileSuite (*paths, module_relative=True,
          package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None,
          optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     Convertit des tests 'doctest' à partir d'un ou plusieurs fichiers
     vers une classe *note unittest.TestSuite: de3.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: de3. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file.
     If an example in any file fails, then the synthesized unit test
     fails, and a *note failureException: 3fc2. exception is raised
     showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes
     approximate) line number.  If all the examples in a file are
     skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped.

     Passe un ou plusieurs chemins (sous forme de chaînes de caractères)
     à des fichiers textes afin d'être vérifiés.

     Les options peuvent être fournies comme des options lettrées :

     L'option 'module_relative' précise comment les noms de fichiers
     dans 'paths' doivent être interprétés :

        * Si 'module_relative' a ‘True’ comme valeur (valeur par
          défaut), alors chaque nom de fichier dans 'paths' précise un
          chemin relatif au module qui soit indépendant du système
          d'exploitation.  Par défaut, ce chemin est relatif au
          répertoire du module appelant ; mais si l'option 'package' est
          précisée, alors il est relatif à ce paquet.  Afin de garantir
          l'indépendance face au système d'exploitation, chaque nom de
          fichier doit utiliser des caractères ‘/’ afin de séparer les
          segments de chemin, et ne peut pas être un chemin absolu
          (c'est-à-dire, il ne peut pas commencer par ‘/’).

        * Si 'module_relative' prend la valeur ‘False’, alors 'filename'
          précise un chemin en fonction du système d'exploitation.  Le
          chemin peut être absolu ou relatif ; les chemins relatifs sont
          résolus en rapport au répertoire actif.

     L'option 'package' est un paquet Python ou le nom d'un paquet
     Python dont le répertoire dont être utilisé comme le répertoire
     principal pour un nom de fichier dans 'paths' qui soit lié à un
     module.  Si aucun paquet n'est spécifié, le répertoire du module
     appelé à l'exécution est utilisé comme le répertoire principal pour
     les noms de fichiers liés au module.  C'est une erreur que de
     spécifier 'package' si 'module_relative' a ‘False’ comme valeur.

     L'option 'setUp' précise une fonction de mise-en-place pour la
     suite de tests.  Ceci est appelé avant l'exécution des tests dans
     chaque fichier.  La fonction 'setUp' est passée à un objet *note
     DocTest: 166d.  La fonction 'setUp' peut accéder aux valeurs
     globales du test par le biais de l'attribut 'globs' du test passé.

     L'option 'tearDown' précise une fonction de démolition pour la
     suite de tests.  Celle-ci est appelée après avoir exécuté les tests
     dans chaque fichier.  La fonction 'tearDown' est passée à un objet
     *note DocTest: 166d.  La fonction 'setUp' peut accéder aux valeurs
     globales du test par l'attribut 'globs' du test passé.

     L'option 'globs' est un dictionnaire contenant les variables
     globales initiales pour les tests.  Une nouvelle copie de ce
     dictionnaire est créée pour chaque test.  Par défaut, 'globs' est
     un nouveau dictionnaire vide.

     Les options 'optionflags' précisent les options par défaut de
     'doctest' pour les tests, créées en composant par un OU les
     différentes options individuelles.  Voir la section *note Options
     de ligne de commande: f20.  Voir la fonction *note
     set_unittest_reportflags(): 3fc3. ci-dessous pour une meilleure
     façon de préciser des options de rapport.

     L'option 'parser' définit une classe ou une sous-classe *note
     DocTestParser: 3fa3. qui doit être utilisée pour extraire les tests
     des fichiers.  Par défaut, on utilise un analyseur normal
     (c'est-à-dire, ‘DocTestParser()’).

     L'option 'encoding' définit un encodage à utiliser pour convertir
     le fichier en format 'unicode'.

     La valeur globale ‘__file__’ est ajoutée aux valeurs globales
     fournies par les 'doctests', ceux-ci étant téléchargés d'un fichier
     texte utilisant la fonction *note DocFileSuite(): 3fc1.

 -- Fonction: doctest.DocTestSuite (module=None, globs=None,
          extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None,
          optionflags=0, checker=None)

     Convertit les tests 'doctest' pour un module donné à une classe
     *note unittest.TestSuite: de3.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: de3. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module.  If any of
     the doctests fail, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a
     *note failureException: 3fc2. exception is raised showing the name
     of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line
     number.  If all the examples in a docstring are skipped, then the
     synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped.

     L'option 'module' fournit le module qui sera testé.  Il peut
     prendre la forme d'un objet-module ou celle du nom d'un module
     (possiblement 'dotted').  Si non-précisée, le module appelant cette
     fonction est utilisé.

     L'option 'globs' est un dictionnaire contenant les variables
     globales initiales pour les tests.  Une nouvelle copie de ce
     dictionnaire est créée pour chaque test.  Par défaut, 'globs' est
     un nouveau dictionnaire vide.

     L'option 'extraglobs' précise un ensemble supplémentaire de
     variables globales, à fusionner avec 'globs'.  Par défaut, aucune
     variable globale supplémentaire est utilisée.

     L'option 'test_finder' est l'instance de *note DocTestFinder: 15ed.
     (ou un remplacement 'drop-in') qui est utilisée pour extraire les
     'doctests' à partir du module.

     Les options 'setUp', 'tearDown' et 'optionflags' sont les mêmes que
     pour la fonction *note DocFileSuite(): 3fc1. ci-dessus.

     Cette fonction utilise la même technique de recherche que *note
     testmod(): 1423.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: La fonction *note DocTestSuite(): de2.
     renvoie une instance vide de la classe *note unittest.TestSuite:
     de3. si 'module' ne contient aucune 'docstring', et ce, au lieu de
     lever l'exception *note ValueError: 1ff.

 -- Exception: doctest.failureException

     When doctests which have been converted to unit tests by *note
     DocFileSuite(): 3fc1. or *note DocTestSuite(): de2. fail, this
     exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the
     test and a (sometimes approximate) line number.

Under the covers, *note DocTestSuite(): de2. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: de3. out of ‘doctest.DocTestCase’ instances, and
‘DocTestCase’ is a subclass of *note unittest.TestCase: 439.
‘DocTestCase’ isn't documented here (it's an internal detail), but
studying its code can answer questions about the exact details of *note
unittest: 105. integration.

Similarly, *note DocFileSuite(): 3fc1. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: de3. out of ‘doctest.DocFileCase’ instances, and
‘DocFileCase’ is a subclass of ‘DocTestCase’.

So both ways of creating a *note unittest.TestSuite: de3. run instances
of ‘DocTestCase’.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
*note doctest: 3a. functions yourself, you can control the *note
doctest: 3a. options in use directly, by passing option flags to *note
doctest: 3a. functions.  However, if you're writing a *note unittest:
105. framework, *note unittest: 105. ultimately controls when and how
tests get run.  The framework author typically wants to control *note
doctest: 3a. reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
options), but there's no way to pass options through *note unittest:
105. to *note doctest: 3a. test runners.

Pour cette raison, *note doctest: 3a. implémente le concept d'options de
rapport de *note doctest: 3a. qui soit spécifique à *note unittest: 105,
par le biais de cette fonction :

 -- Fonction: doctest.set_unittest_reportflags (flags)

     Voir les options de ligne de commandes de *note doctest: 3a. pour
     l'utilisation.

     L'argument 'flags' prend la *note composition OU bit à bit: 202c.
     des arguments.  Voir la section *note Options de ligne de commande:
     f20.  Ce sont uniquement les "options de rapport" qui peuvent être
     utilisées.

     This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests
     run by module *note unittest: 105.: the ‘runTest()’ method of
     ‘DocTestCase’ looks at the option flags specified for the test case
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed.  If no reporting
     flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case),
     ‘doctest’'s *note unittest: 105. reporting flags are *note bitwise
     ORed: 202c. into the option flags, and the option flags so
     augmented are passed to the *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2. instance
     created to run the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed, ‘doctest’'s *note
     unittest: 105. reporting flags are ignored.

     La valeur prise par les options de rapport de *note unittest: 105.
     et ce, avant que la fonction n'ait été appelée, est renvoyée par la
     fonction.


File: python.info,  Node: API avancé,  Next: Débogage,  Prev: API de tests unitaires,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.14 API avancé
....................

The basic API is a simple wrapper that's intended to make doctest easy
to use.  It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users' needs;
however, if you require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish
to extend doctest's capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.

The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used
to store the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:

   * *note Example: 3fc6. : Un unique *note statement: 273b. Python,
     pris conjointement avec sa sortie attendue.

   * *note DocTest: 166d. : Une collection de *note Example: 3fc6,
     habituellement extraits d'une seule 'docstring' ou fichier texte.

Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and
check doctest examples:

   * *note DocTestFinder: 15ed.: Finds all docstrings in a given module,
     and uses a *note DocTestParser: 3fa3. to create a *note DocTest:
     166d. from every docstring that contains interactive examples.

   * *note DocTestParser: 3fa3.: Creates a *note DocTest: 166d. object
     from a string (such as an object's docstring).

   * *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2.: Executes the examples in a *note
     DocTest: 166d, and uses an *note OutputChecker: 3fb1. to verify
     their output.

   * *note OutputChecker: 3fb1.: Compares the actual output from a
     doctest example with the expected output, and decides whether they
     match.

The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the
following diagram:

                                 list of:
     +------+                   +---------+
     |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
     +------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
                 |        |     | Example |     |       |
                 v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
                DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
                                +---------+

* Menu:

* Objets doctest::
* Exemples d'objets::
* Objets DocTestFinder::
* Objets DocTestParser::
* Objets TestResults::
* Objets DocTestRunner::
* Objets OutputChecker::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets doctest,  Next: Exemples d'objets,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.15 Objets 'doctest'
..........................

 -- Classe: doctest.DocTest (examples, globs, name, filename, lineno,
          docstring)

     A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single
     namespace.  The constructor arguments are used to initialize the
     attributes of the same names.

     *note DocTest: 166d. définit les attributs suivants.  Ils sont
     initialisés par le constructeur, et ne doivent pas être modifiés
     directement.

      -- Attribut: examples

          A list of *note Example: 3fc6. objects encoding the individual
          interactive Python examples that should be run by this test.

      -- Attribut: globs

          The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run
          in.  This is a dictionary mapping names to values.  Any
          changes to the namespace made by the examples (such as binding
          new variables) will be reflected in *note globs: 3fca. after
          the test is run.

      -- Attribut: name

          A string name identifying the *note DocTest: 166d.  Typically,
          this is the name of the object or file that the test was
          extracted from.

      -- Attribut: filename

          The name of the file that this *note DocTest: 166d. was
          extracted from; or ‘None’ if the filename is unknown, or if
          the *note DocTest: 166d. was not extracted from a file.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number within *note filename: 3fcc. where this *note
          DocTest: 166d. begins, or ‘None’ if the line number is
          unavailable.  This line number is zero-based with respect to
          the beginning of the file.

      -- Attribut: docstring

          The string that the test was extracted from, or ‘None’ if the
          string is unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a
          string.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'objets,  Next: Objets DocTestFinder,  Prev: Objets doctest,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.16 Exemples d'objets
...........................

 -- Classe: doctest.Example (source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0,
          indent=0, options=None)

     A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and
     its expected output.  The constructor arguments are used to
     initialize the attributes of the same names.

     *note Example: 3fc6. defines the following attributes.  They are
     initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified
     directly.

      -- Attribut: source

          A string containing the example's source code.  This source
          code consists of a single Python statement, and always ends
          with a newline; the constructor adds a newline when necessary.

      -- Attribut: want

          The expected output from running the example's source code
          (either from stdout, or a traceback in case of exception).
          *note want: 3fd1. ends with a newline unless no output is
          expected, in which case it's an empty string.  The constructor
          adds a newline when necessary.

      -- Attribut: exc_msg

          The exception message generated by the example, if the example
          is expected to generate an exception; or ‘None’ if it is not
          expected to generate an exception.  This exception message is
          compared against the return value of *note
          traceback.format_exception_only(): 83a.  *note exc_msg: 3fd2.
          ends with a newline unless it's ‘None’.  The constructor adds
          a newline if needed.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number within the string containing this example
          where the example begins.  This line number is zero-based with
          respect to the beginning of the containing string.

      -- Attribut: indent

          The example's indentation in the containing string, i.e., the
          number of space characters that precede the example's first
          prompt.

      -- Attribut: options

          A dictionary mapping from option flags to ‘True’ or ‘False’,
          which is used to override default options for this example.
          Any option flags not contained in this dictionary are left at
          their default value (as specified by the *note DocTestRunner:
          3fb2.'s *note optionflags: f20.).  By default, no options are
          set.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DocTestFinder,  Next: Objets DocTestParser,  Prev: Exemples d'objets,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.17 Objets 'DocTestFinder'
................................

 -- Classe: doctest.DocTestFinder (verbose=False,
          parser=DocTestParser(), recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)

     A processing class used to extract the *note DocTest: 166d.s that
     are relevant to a given object, from its docstring and the
     docstrings of its contained objects.  *note DocTest: 166d.s can be
     extracted from modules, classes, functions, methods, staticmethods,
     classmethods, and properties.

     The optional argument 'verbose' can be used to display the objects
     searched by the finder.  It defaults to ‘False’ (no output).

     The optional argument 'parser' specifies the *note DocTestParser:
     3fa3. object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract
     doctests from docstrings.

     If the optional argument 'recurse' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 16b9. will only examine the given object, and
     not any contained objects.

     If the optional argument 'exclude_empty' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 16b9. will include tests for objects with
     empty docstrings.

     La classe *note DocTestFinder: 15ed. définit la méthode suivante :

      -- Méthode: find (obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])

          Return a list of the *note DocTest: 166d.s that are defined by
          'obj"s docstring, or by any of its contained objects'
          docstrings.

          The optional argument 'name' specifies the object's name; this
          name will be used to construct names for the returned *note
          DocTest: 166d.s.  If 'name' is not specified, then
          ‘obj.__name__’ is used.

          The optional parameter 'module' is the module that contains
          the given object.  If the module is not specified or is
          ‘None’, then the test finder will attempt to automatically
          determine the correct module.  The object's module is used:

             * As a default namespace, if 'globs' is not specified.

             * To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests
               from objects that are imported from other modules.
               (Contained objects with modules other than 'module' are
               ignored.)

             * Afin de trouver le nom du fichier contenant l'objet.

             * To help find the line number of the object within its
               file.

          If 'module' is ‘False’, no attempt to find the module will be
          made.  This is obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest
          itself: if 'module' is ‘False’, or is ‘None’ but cannot be
          found automatically, then all objects are considered to belong
          to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will
          (recursively) be searched for doctests.

          The globals for each *note DocTest: 166d. is formed by
          combining 'globs' and 'extraglobs' (bindings in 'extraglobs'
          override bindings in 'globs').  A new shallow copy of the
          globals dictionary is created for each *note DocTest: 166d.
          If 'globs' is not specified, then it defaults to the module's
          '__dict__', if specified, or ‘{}’ otherwise.  If 'extraglobs'
          is not specified, then it defaults to ‘{}’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DocTestParser,  Next: Objets TestResults,  Prev: Objets DocTestFinder,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.18 Objets 'DocTestParser'
................................

 -- Classe: doctest.DocTestParser

     A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a
     string, and use them to create a *note DocTest: 166d. object.

     La classe *note DocTestFinder: 15ed. définit les méthodes
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: get_doctest (string, globs, name, filename, lineno)

          Extrait tous les exemples de 'doctests' à partir de la chaîne
          de caractère donnée, et les réunit dans un objet *note
          DocTest: 166d.

          Notez que 'globs', 'name', 'filname' et 'lineno' sont des
          attributs pour le nouvel objet *note DocTest: 166d.  Voir la
          documentation pour *note DocTest: 166d. pour plus
          d'information.

      -- Méthode: get_examples (string, name='<string>')

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return
          them as a list of *note Example: 3fc6. objects.  Line numbers
          are 0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name
          identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.

      -- Méthode: parse (string, name='<string>')

          Divide the given string into examples and intervening text,
          and return them as a list of alternating *note Example: 3fc6.s
          and strings.  Line numbers for the *note Example: 3fc6.s are
          0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying
          this string, and is only used for error messages.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets TestResults,  Next: Objets DocTestRunner,  Prev: Objets DocTestParser,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.19 Objets 'TestResults'
..............................

 -- Classe: doctest.TestResults (failed, attempted)

      -- Attribut: failed

          Nombre de tests échoués.

      -- Attribut: attempted

          Nombre de tests tentés.

      -- Attribut: skipped

          Nombre de tests sautés.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DocTestRunner,  Next: Objets OutputChecker,  Prev: Objets TestResults,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.20 Objets 'DocTestRunner'
................................

 -- Classe: doctest.DocTestRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive
     examples in a *note DocTest: 166d.

     The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done
     by an *note OutputChecker: 3fb1.  This comparison may be customized
     with a number of option flags; see section *note Options de ligne
     de commande: f20. for more information.  If the option flags are
     insufficient, then the comparison may also be customized by passing
     a subclass of *note OutputChecker: 3fb1. to the constructor.

     The test runner's display output can be controlled in two ways.
     First, an output function can be passed to *note run(): 1d9.; this
     function will be called with strings that should be displayed.  It
     defaults to ‘sys.stdout.write’.  If capturing the output is not
     sufficient, then the display output can be also customized by
     subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods *note
     report_start(): 3fe3, *note report_success(): 3fe4, *note
     report_unexpected_exception(): 3fe5, and *note report_failure():
     3fe6.

     The optional keyword argument 'checker' specifies the *note
     OutputChecker: 3fb1. object (or drop-in replacement) that should be
     used to compare the expected outputs to the actual outputs of
     doctest examples.

     The optional keyword argument 'verbose' controls the *note
     DocTestRunner: 3fb2.'s verbosity.  If 'verbose' is ‘True’, then
     information is printed about each example, as it is run.  If
     'verbose' is ‘False’, then only failures are printed.  If 'verbose'
     is unspecified, or ‘None’, then verbose output is used iff the
     command-line switch ‘-v’ is used.

     The optional keyword argument 'optionflags' can be used to control
     how the test runner compares expected output to actual output, and
     how it displays failures.  For more information, see section *note
     Options de ligne de commande: f20.

     The test runner accumulates statistics.  The aggregated number of
     attempted, failed and skipped examples is also available via the
     *note tries: 3fe7, *note failures: 3fe8. and *note skips: 1da.
     attributes.  The *note run(): 1d9. and *note summarize(): 3fbc.
     methods return a *note TestResults: 3fde. instance.

     La classe *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2. définit les méthodes
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: report_start (out, test, example)

          Report that the test runner is about to process the given
          example.  This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note
          DocTestRunner: 3fb2. to customize their output; it should not
          be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'test' is the
          test 'containing example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1d9.

      -- Méthode: report_success (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example ran successfully.  This method
          is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2.
          to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1d9.

      -- Méthode: report_failure (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example failed.  This method is provided
          to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2. to customize
          their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1d9.

      -- Méthode: report_unexpected_exception (out, test, example,
               exc_info)

          Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception.
          This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note
          DocTestRunner: 3fb2. to customize their output; it should not
          be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'exc_info' is
          a tuple containing information about the unexpected exception
          (as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 677.).  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1d9.

      -- Méthode: run (test, compileflags=None, out=None,
               clear_globs=True)

          Run the examples in 'test' (a *note DocTest: 166d. object),
          and display the results using the writer function 'out'.
          Return a *note TestResults: 3fde. instance.

          The examples are run in the namespace ‘test.globs’.  If
          'clear_globs' is true (the default), then this namespace will
          be cleared after the test runs, to help with garbage
          collection.  If you would like to examine the namespace after
          the test completes, then use 'clear_globs=False'.

          'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should be used by
          the Python compiler when running the examples.  If not
          specified, then it will default to the set of future-import
          flags that apply to 'globs'.

          The output of each example is checked using the *note
          DocTestRunner: 3fb2.'s output checker, and the results are
          formatted by the ‘DocTestRunner.report_*()’ methods.

      -- Méthode: summarize (verbose=None)

          Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by
          this DocTestRunner, and return a *note TestResults: 3fde.
          instance.

          The optional 'verbose' argument controls how detailed the
          summary is.  If the verbosity is not specified, then the *note
          DocTestRunner: 3fb2.'s verbosity is used.

     *note DocTestParser: 3fa3. définit les attributs suivants :

      -- Attribut: tries

          Number of attempted examples.

      -- Attribut: failures

          Number of failed examples.

      -- Attribut: skips

          Number of skipped examples.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets OutputChecker,  Prev: Objets DocTestRunner,  Up: API avancé

5.27.4.21 Objets 'OutputChecker'
................................

 -- Classe: doctest.OutputChecker

     A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest
     example matches the expected output.  *note OutputChecker: 3fb1.
     defines two methods: *note check_output(): 3feb, which compares a
     given pair of outputs, and returns ‘True’ if they match; and *note
     output_difference(): 3fec, which returns a string describing the
     differences between two outputs.

     La classe *note OutputChecker: 3fb1. définit les méthodes
     suivantes :

      -- Méthode: check_output (want, got, optionflags)

          Return ‘True’ iff the actual output from an example ('got')
          matches the expected output ('want').  These strings are
          always considered to match if they are identical; but
          depending on what option flags the test runner is using,
          several non-exact match types are also possible.  See section
          *note Options de ligne de commande: f20. for more information
          about option flags.

      -- Méthode: output_difference (example, got, optionflags)

          Return a string describing the differences between the
          expected output for a given example ('example') and the actual
          output ('got').  'optionflags' is the set of option flags used
          to compare 'want' and 'got'.


File: python.info,  Node: Débogage,  Next: Éditorial,  Prev: API avancé,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.22 Débogage
..................

'Doctest' fournit plusieurs mécanismes pour déboguer des exemples
'doctest' :

   * Plusieurs fonctions convertissent les 'doctests' en programmes
     Python exécutables, qui peuvent être exécutés grâce au débogueur
     Python, *note pdb: a4.

   * The *note DebugRunner: 3fef. class is a subclass of *note
     DocTestRunner: 3fb2. that raises an exception for the first failing
     example, containing information about that example.  This
     information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on the
     example.

   * The *note unittest: 105. cases generated by *note DocTestSuite():
     de2. support the *note debug(): 3ff0. method defined by *note
     unittest.TestCase: 439.

   * You can add a call to *note pdb.set_trace(): 232. in a doctest
     example, and you'll drop into the Python debugger when that line is
     executed.  Then you can inspect current values of variables, and so
     on.  For example, suppose ‘a.py’ contains just this module
     docstring:

          """
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     g(x*2)
          >>> def g(x):
          ...     print(x+3)
          ...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          >>> f(3)
          9
          """

     Alors une séance interactive de Python peut ressembler à ceci :

          >>> import a, doctest
          >>> doctest.testmod(a)
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
          -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          (Pdb) list
            1     def g(x):
            2         print(x+3)
            3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          6
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
          -> g(x*2)
          (Pdb) list
            1     def f(x):
            2  ->     g(x*2)
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          3
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
          -> f(3)
          (Pdb) cont
          (0, 3)
          >>>

Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the
synthesized code under the debugger:

 -- Fonction: doctest.script_from_examples (s)

     Convertit du texte contenant des exemples en un script.

     Argument 's' is a string containing doctest examples.  The string
     is converted to a Python script, where doctest examples in 's' are
     converted to regular code, and everything else is converted to
     Python comments.  The generated script is returned as a string.
     For example,

          import doctest
          print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
              Set x and y to 1 and 2.
              >>> x, y = 1, 2

              Print their sum:
              >>> print(x+y)
              3
          """))

     affiche:

          # Set x and y to 1 and 2.
          x, y = 1, 2
          #
          # Print their sum:
          print(x+y)
          # Expected:
          ## 3

     Cette fonction est utilisée à l'interne par d'autres fonctions
     (voir ci-bas), mais peut aussi être utile lorsque l'on souhaite
     transformer une séance interactive de Python en script Python.

 -- Fonction: doctest.testsource (module, name)

     Convertit en script l'objet 'doctest'.

     Argument 'module' is a module object, or dotted name of a module,
     containing the object whose doctests are of interest.  Argument
     'name' is the name (within the module) of the object with the
     doctests of interest.  The result is a string, containing the
     object's docstring converted to a Python script, as described for
     *note script_from_examples(): 3ff1. above.  For example, if module
     ‘a.py’ contains a top-level function ‘f()’, then

          import a, doctest
          print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))

     prints a script version of function ‘f()’'s docstring, with
     doctests converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.

 -- Fonction: doctest.debug (module, name, pm=False)

     Débogue les 'doctests' pour un objet.

     The 'module' and 'name' arguments are the same as for function
     *note testsource(): 3ff2. above.  The synthesized Python script for
     the named object's docstring is written to a temporary file, and
     then that file is run under the control of the Python debugger,
     *note pdb: a4.

     Une copie superficielle de ‘module.__dict__’ est utilisée à la fois
     pour les contextes d'exécution locaux et globaux.

     Optional argument 'pm' controls whether post-mortem debugging is
     used.  If 'pm' has a true value, the script file is run directly,
     and the debugger gets involved only if the script terminates via
     raising an unhandled exception.  If it does, then post-mortem
     debugging is invoked, via *note pdb.post_mortem(): 1393, passing
     the traceback object from the unhandled exception.  If 'pm' is not
     specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from
     the start, via passing an appropriate *note exec(): 17d. call to
     *note pdb.run(): 3ff3.

 -- Fonction: doctest.debug_src (src, pm=False, globs=None)

     Débogue les 'doctests' dans une chaîne de caractères.

     Ceci est similaire à la fonction *note debug(): 3ff0. décrite
     ci-haut, mis-à-part qu'une chaîne de caractères contenant des
     exemples 'doctest' est définie directement, par l'option 'src'.

     L'option 'pm' a la même définition que dans la fonction *note
     debug(): 3ff0. ci-haut.

     L'option 'globs' définit un dictionnaire à utiliser comme contexte
     d'exécution global et local.  Si elle n'est pas définie, ou si
     ‘None’, un dictionnaire vide est utilisé.  Si définie, une copie
     superficielle du dictionnaire est utilisée.

The *note DebugRunner: 3fef. class, and the special exceptions it may
raise, are of most interest to testing framework authors, and will only
be sketched here.  See the source code, and especially *note
DebugRunner: 3fef.'s docstring (which is a doctest!)  for more details:

 -- Classe: doctest.DebugRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A subclass of *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2. that raises an exception
     as soon as a failure is encountered.  If an unexpected exception
     occurs, an *note UnexpectedException: 3ff5. exception is raised,
     containing the test, the example, and the original exception.  If
     the output doesn't match, then a *note DocTestFailure: 3ff6.
     exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the
     actual output.

     Pour de l'information sur les paramètres et méthodes du
     constructeur, voir la documentation pour la classe ‘DocTestrunner’
     dans la section *note API avancé: 3fc5.

Il y a deux exceptions qui peuvent être levées par des instances *note
DebugRunner: 3fef. :

 -- Exception: doctest.DocTestFailure (test, example, got)

     Une exception levée par *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2. pour signaler
     que la sortie obtenue suite à un exemple 'doctest' ne correspond
     pas à la sortie attendue.  Les arguments du constructeur sont
     utilisés pour initialiser les attributs des mêmes noms.

*note DocTestFailure: 3ff6. définit les attributs suivants :

 -- Attribut: DocTestFailure.test

     L'objet issu de la classe *note DocTest: 166d. qui était en cours
     d'exécution lorsque l'exemple a échoué.

 -- Attribut: DocTestFailure.example

     L'exemple *note Example: 3fc6. qui a échoué.

 -- Attribut: DocTestFailure.got

     La sortie obtenue par l'exécution de l'exemple.

 -- Exception: doctest.UnexpectedException (test, example, exc_info)

     Une exception levée par *note DocTestRunner: 3fb2. afin de signaler
     qu'un exemple 'doctest' a levé une exception inattendue.  Les
     arguments du constructeur sont utilisés pour initialiser les
     attributs des mêmes noms.

*note UnexpectedException: 3ff5. définit les attributs suivants :

 -- Attribut: UnexpectedException.test

     L'objet issu de la classe *note DocTest: 166d. qui était en cours
     d'exécution lorsque l'exemple a échoué.

 -- Attribut: UnexpectedException.example

     L'exemple *note Example: 3fc6. qui a échoué.

 -- Attribut: UnexpectedException.exc_info

     Un n-uplet contenant l'information au sujet de l'exception
     inattendue, telle que retourné par *note sys.exc_info(): 677.


File: python.info,  Node: Éditorial,  Prev: Débogage,  Up: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

5.27.4.23 Éditorial
...................

Comme mentionné dans l'introduction, *note doctest: 3a. a présentement
trois usages principaux :

  1. Vérifier les exemples dans les 'docstrings'.

  2. Test de régression.

  3. De la documentation exécutable / des tests littéraires.

These uses have different requirements, and it is important to
distinguish them.  In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure
test cases makes for bad documentation.

When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care.  There's
an art to this that needs to be learned--it may not be natural at first.
Examples should add genuine value to the documentation.  A good example
can often be worth many words.  If done with care, the examples will be
invaluable for your users, and will pay back the time it takes to
collect them many times over as the years go by and things change.  I'm
still amazed at how often one of my *note doctest: 3a. examples stops
working after a "harmless" change.

Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially
if you don't skimp on explanatory text.  By interleaving prose and
examples, it becomes much easier to keep track of what's actually being
tested, and why.  When a test fails, good prose can make it much easier
to figure out what the problem is, and how it should be fixed.  It's
true that you could write extensive comments in code-based testing, but
few programmers do.  Many have found that using doctest approaches
instead leads to much clearer tests.  Perhaps this is simply because
doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while
writing comments in code is a little harder.  I think it goes deeper
than just that: the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test
is that you want to explain the fine points of your software, and
illustrate them with examples.  This in turn naturally leads to test
files that start with the simplest features, and logically progress to
complications and edge cases.  A coherent narrative is the result,
instead of a collection of isolated functions that test isolated bits of
functionality seemingly at random.  It's a different attitude, and
produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and
explaining.

Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files.
There are several options for organizing tests:

   * Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and
     test the files using *note testfile(): 3f93. or *note
     DocFileSuite(): 3fc1.  This is recommended, although is easiest to
     do for new projects, designed from the start to use doctest.

   * Define functions named ‘_regrtest_topic’ that consist of single
     docstrings, containing test cases for the named topics.  These
     functions can be included in the same file as the module, or
     separated out into a separate test file.

   * Define a ‘__test__’ dictionary mapping from regression test topics
     to docstrings containing test cases.

Lorsque vous placez vos tests dans un module, le module lui-même peut
être l'exécuteur de tests.  Lorsqu'un test échoue, vous pouvez signifier
à votre exécuteur de tests de rouler une seconde fois uniquement les
tests qui échouent et ce, tant que vous travaillez sur le problème.
Voici un exemple minimal d'un test exécuteur de tests :

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import doctest
         flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
         if len(sys.argv) > 1:
             name = sys.argv[1]
             if name in globals():
                 obj = globals()[name]
             else:
                 obj = __test__[name]
             doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
                                            optionflags=flags)
         else:
             fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
             print(f"{fail} failures out of {total} tests")

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: unittest --- Unit testing framework,  Next: unittest mock --- mock object library,  Prev: doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.5 ‘unittest’ -- Unit testing framework
-------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/unittest/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

(Si vous êtes déjà familier des concepts de base concernant les tests,
vous pouvez souhaiter passer à *note la liste des méthodes: 4001.)

Le cadre applicatif de tests unitaires *note unittest: 105. était au
départ inspiré par 'JUnit' et ressemble aux principaux 'frameworks' de
tests unitaires des autres langages.  Il gère l'automatisation des
tests, le partage de code pour la mise en place et la finalisation des
tests, l'agrégation de tests en collections, et l'indépendance des tests
par rapport au 'framework' utilisé.

Pour y parvenir, *note unittest: 105. gère quelques concepts importants
avec une approche orientée objet :

aménagement de test ('fixture')

     Un 'aménagement de test' ('fixture' en anglais) désigne la
     préparation nécessaire au déroulement d'un ou plusieurs tests, et
     toutes les actions de nettoyage associées.  Cela peut concerner,
     par exemple, la création de bases de données temporaires ou
     mandataires, de répertoires, ou le démarrage d'un processus
     serveur.

scénario de test

     Un 'scénario de test' est l'élément de base des tests.  Il attend
     une réponse spécifique pour un ensemble particulier d'entrées.
     *note unittest: 105. fournit une classe de base, *note TestCase:
     439, qui peut être utilisée pour créer de nouveaux scénarios de
     test.

suite de tests

     Une 'suite de tests' est une collection de scénarios de test, de
     suites de tests ou les deux.  Cela sert à regrouper les tests qui
     devraient être exécutés ensemble.

lanceur de tests

     Un 'lanceur de tests' est un composant qui orchestre l'exécution
     des tests et fournit le résultat pour l'utilisateur.  Le lanceur
     peut utiliser une interface graphique, une interface textuelle, ou
     renvoie une valeur spéciale pour indiquer les résultats de
     l'exécution des tests.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note doctest: 3a.

     Un autre module de test adoptant une approche très différente.

Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns(2)

     Le papier originel de Kent Beck sur les 'frameworks' de test
     utilisant le modèle sur lequel s'appuie *note unittest: 105.

pytest(3)

     Des cadres applicatifs tiers de tests unitaires avec une syntaxe
     allégée pour l'écriture des tests.  Par exemple, ‘assert func(10)
     == 42’.

The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy(4)

     Une liste étendue des outils de test pour Python comprenant des
     'frameworks' de tests fonctionnels et des bibliothèques d'objets
     simulés ('mocks').

Testing in Python Mailing List(5)

     Un groupe de discussion dédié aux tests, et outils de test, en
     Python.

The script ‘Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py’ in the Python source
distribution is a GUI tool for test discovery and execution.  This is
intended largely for ease of use for those new to unit testing.  For
production environments it is recommended that tests be driven by a
continuous integration system such as Buildbot(6), Jenkins(7), GitHub
Actions(8), or AppVeyor(9).

* Menu:

* Exemple basique::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<5>.
* Découverte des tests::
* Organiser le code de test::
* Réutilisation d'ancien code de test::
* Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles::
* Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests::
* Classes et fonctions::
* Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests::
* Traitement des signaux::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/unittest/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm

   (3) https://docs.pytest.org/

   (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy

   (5) http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python

   (6) https://buildbot.net/

   (7) https://www.jenkins.io/

   (8) https://github.com/features/actions

   (9) https://www.appveyor.com/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple basique,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<5>,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.1 Exemple basique
........................

Le module *note unittest: 105. fournit un riche ensemble d'outils pour
construire et lancer des tests.  Cette section montre qu'une petite
partie des outils suffit pour satisfaire les besoins de la plupart des
utilisateurs.

Voici un court script pour tester trois méthodes de 'string' :

     import unittest

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_upper(self):
             self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

         def test_isupper(self):
             self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
             self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
             # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 s.split(2)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

Un scénario de test est créé comme classe-fille de *note
unittest.TestCase: 439.  Les trois tests individuels sont définis par
des méthodes dont les noms commencent par les lettres ‘test’.  Cette
convention de nommage signale au lanceur de tests quelles méthodes sont
des tests.

Le cœur de chaque test est un appel à *note assertEqual(): 515. pour
vérifier un résultat attendu ; *note assertTrue(): 513. ou *note
assertFalse(): 514. pour vérifier une condition ; ou *note
assertRaises(): 519. pour vérifier qu'une exception particulière est
levée.  Ces méthodes sont utilisées à la place du mot-clé *note assert:
957. pour que le lanceur de tests puisse récupérer les résultats de tous
les tests et produire un rapport.

Les méthodes *note setUp(): 1319. et *note tearDown(): 131a. vous
autorisent à définir des instructions qui seront exécutées avant et
après chaque méthode test.  Elles sont davantage détaillées dans la
section *note Organiser le code de test: 4004.

Le bloc final montre une manière simple de lancer les tests.  *note
unittest.main(): fd0. fournit une interface en ligne de commande pour le
script de test.  Lorsqu'il est lancé en ligne de commande, le script
ci-dessus produit une sortie qui ressemble à ceci :

     ...
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.000s

     OK

Passer l'option ‘-v’ à votre script de test informera *note
unittest.main(): fd0. qu'il doit fournir un niveau plus important de
détails, et produit la sortie suivante :

     test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok
     test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok
     test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.001s

     OK

Les exemples ci-dessus montrent les fonctionnalités d'*note unittest:
105. les plus communément utilisées et qui sont suffisantes pour couvrir
les besoins courants en matière de test.  Le reste de la documentation
explore l'ensemble complet des fonctionnalités depuis les premiers
principes.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The behavior of returning a value from a
test method (other than the default ‘None’ value), is now deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<5>,  Next: Découverte des tests,  Prev: Exemple basique,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.2 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

Le module 'unittest' est utilisable depuis la ligne de commande pour
exécuter des tests à partir de modules, de classes ou même de méthodes
de test individuelles :

     python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method

La commande accepte en argument une liste de n'importe quelle
combinaison de noms de modules et de noms de classes ou de méthodes
entièrement qualifiés.

Les modules de test peuvent également être spécifiés par un chemin de
fichier :

     python -m unittest tests/test_something.py

Cette fonctionnalité permet d'utiliser la complétion de l'interpréteur
de commandes système ('le shell') pour spécifier le module de test.  Le
chemin est converti en nom de module en supprimant le ‘.py’ et en
convertissant les séparateurs de chemin en '.'.  Si vous voulez exécuter
un fichier test qui n'est pas importable en tant que module, exécutez
directement le fichier.

Pour obtenir plus de détails lors de l'exécution utilisez l'option ‘-v’
(plus de verbosité) :

     python -m unittest -v test_module

Quand la commande est exécutée sans arguments *note Découverte des
tests: 4007. est lancée :

     python -m unittest

Pour afficher la liste de toutes les options de la commande utilisez
l'option ‘-h’ :

     python -m unittest -h

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Dans les versions antérieures, il était
seulement possible d'exécuter des méthodes de test individuelles et non
des modules ou des classes.

* Menu:

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de la ligne de commande<5>,  Up: Interface en ligne de commande<5>

5.27.5.3 Options de la ligne de commande
........................................

Le programme ‘unittest’ gère ces options de la ligne de commande :

 -- Option: -b, --buffer

     Les flux de sortie et d'erreur standards sont mis en mémoire tampon
     pendant l'exécution des tests.  L'affichage produit par un test
     réussi n'est pas pris en compte.  Les sorties d'affichages d'un
     test en échec ou en erreur sont conservés et ajoutés aux messages
     d'erreur.

 -- Option: -c, --catch

     Utiliser ‘Control’-‘C’ pendant l'exécution des tests attend que le
     test en cours se termine, puis affiche tous les résultats obtenus
     jusqu'ici.  Une seconde utilisation de ‘Control’-‘C’ provoque
     l'exception normale *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.

     Voir *note Signal Handling: 400b. pour les fonctions qui utilisent
     cette fonctionnalité.

 -- Option: -f, --failfast

     Arrête l'exécution des tests lors du premier cas d'erreur ou
     d'échec.

 -- Option: -k

     Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or
     substring.  This option may be used multiple times, in which case
     all test cases that match any of the given patterns are included.

     Les motifs qui contiennent un caractère de remplacement (‘*’) sont
     comparés au nom du test en utilisant *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase():
     185d. ; sinon, une recherche simple de sous chaîne respectant la
     casse est faite.

     Les motifs sont comparés au nom de la méthode de test complètement
     qualifiée tel qu'importé par le chargeur de test.

     Par exemple, ‘-k machin’ retient les tests
     ‘machin_tests.UnTest.test_untruc’, ‘truc_tests.UnTest.test_machin’,
     mais pas ‘truc_tests.MachinTest.test_untruc’.

 -- Option: --locals

     Affiche les variables locales dans les traces d'appels.

 -- Option: --durations N

     Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Les options de ligne de commande ‘-b’, ‘-c’
et ‘-f’ ont été ajoutées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande
‘--locals’.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande ‘-k’.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: The command-line option ‘--durations’.

La ligne de commande peut également être utilisée pour découvrir les
tests, pour exécuter tous les tests dans un projet ou juste un
sous-ensemble.


File: python.info,  Node: Découverte des tests,  Next: Organiser le code de test,  Prev: Interface en ligne de commande<5>,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.4 Découverte des tests
.............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Unittest supports simple test discovery.  In order to be compatible with
test discovery, all of the test files must be *note modules: 1c14. or
*note packages: 1c25. importable from the top-level directory of the
project (this means that their filenames must be valid *note
identifiers: 1e4f.).

La découverte de tests est implémentée dans *note TestLoader.discover():
fd2, mais peut également être utilisée depuis la ligne de commande.  Par
exemple :

     cd project_directory
     python -m unittest discover

     Note: Comme raccourci, ‘python -m unittest’ est l'équivalent de
     ‘python -m unittest discover’.  Pour passer des arguments au
     système de découverte des tests, la sous-commande ‘discover’ doit
     être utilisée explicitement.

La sous-commande ‘discover’ a les options suivantes :

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Affichage plus détaillé

 -- Option: -s, --start-directory directory

     Répertoire racine pour démarrer la découverte (‘.’ par défaut).

 -- Option: -p, --pattern pattern

     Motif de détection des fichiers de test (‘test*.py’ par défaut)

 -- Option: -t, --top-level-directory directory

     Dossier du premier niveau du projet (Par défaut le dossier de
     départ)

Les options *note -s: 4013, *note -p: 4015. et *note -t: 4017. peuvent
être passées en arguments positionnels dans cet ordre.  Les deux lignes
de commande suivantes sont équivalentes :

     python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
     python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"

Il est aussi possible de passer un nom de paquet plutôt qu'un chemin,
par exemple ‘monprojet.souspaquet.test’, comme répertoire racine.  Le
nom du paquet fourni est alors importé et son emplacement sur le système
de fichiers est utilisé comme répertoire racine.

     Prudence: Le mécanisme de découverte charge les tests en les
     important.  Une fois que le système a trouvé tous les fichiers de
     tests du répertoire de démarrage spécifié, il transforme les
     chemins en noms de paquets à importer.  Par exemple
     ‘truc/bidule/machin.py’ est importé sous ‘truc.bidule.machin’.

     Si un paquet est installé globalement et que le mécanisme de
     découverte de tests est effectué sur une copie différente du
     paquet, l'importation 'peut' se produire à partir du mauvais
     endroit.  Si cela arrive, le système émet un avertissement et se
     termine.

     Si vous donnez le répertoire racine sous la forme d'un nom de
     paquet plutôt que d'un chemin d'accès à un répertoire, alors Python
     suppose que l'emplacement à partir duquel il importe est
     l'emplacement que vous voulez, vous ne verrez donc pas
     l'avertissement.

Les modules de test et les paquets peuvent adapter le chargement et la
découverte des tests en utilisant le protocole *note load_tests
protocol: 4019.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Test discovery supports *note namespace
packages: 1c26. for the start directory.  Note that you need to specify
the top level directory too (e.g.  ‘python -m unittest discover -s
root/namespace -t root’).

Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note unittest: 105. dropped the *note
namespace packages: 1c26. support in Python 3.11.  It has been broken
since Python 3.7.  Start directory and subdirectories containing tests
must be regular package that have ‘__init__.py’ file.

Directories containing start directory still can be a namespace package.
In this case, you need to specify start directory as dotted package
name, and target directory explicitly.  For example:

     # proj/  <-- current directory
     #   namespace/
     #     mypkg/
     #       __init__.py
     #       test_mypkg.py

     python -m unittest discover -s namespace.mypkg -t .


File: python.info,  Node: Organiser le code de test,  Next: Réutilisation d'ancien code de test,  Prev: Découverte des tests,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.5 Organiser le code de test
..................................

Les éléments de base des tests unitaires sont les 'scénarios de tests'
('test cases' en anglais) -- Des scénarios uniques qui sont mis en place
et exécutés pour vérifier qu'ils sont corrects.  Dans *note unittest:
105, les scénarios de test sont représentés par des instances de *note
unittest.TestCase: 439.  Pour créer vos propres scénarios de test, vous
devez écrire des sous-classes de *note TestCase: 439. ou utiliser *note
FunctionTestCase: 16c3.

Le code de test d'une instance de *note TestCase: 439. doit être
entièrement autonome, de sorte qu'il puisse être exécuté soit de manière
isolée, soit en combinaison arbitraire avec un nombre quelconque
d'autres scénarios de test.

La sous-classe *note TestCase: 439. la plus simple va tout simplement
implémenter une méthode de test (c'est-à-dire une méthode dont le nom
commence par ‘test’) afin d'exécuter un code de test spécifique :

     import unittest

     class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             widget = Widget('The widget')
             self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))

Note that in order to test something, we use one of the *note assert*
methods: 4001. provided by the *note TestCase: 439. base class.  If the
test fails, an exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and
*note unittest: 105. will identify the test case as a 'failure'.  Any
other exceptions will be treated as 'errors'.

Les tests peuvent être nombreux et leur mise en place peut être
répétitive.  Heureusement, on peut factoriser le code de mise en place
en implémentant une méthode appelée *note setUp(): 1319, que le système
de test appelle automatiquement pour chaque test exécuté :

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
                              'incorrect default size')

         def test_widget_resize(self):
             self.widget.resize(100,150)
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
                              'wrong size after resize')

     Note: L'ordre dans lequel les différents tests sont exécutés est
     déterminé en classant les noms des méthodes de test en fonction de
     la relation d'ordre des chaines de caractères .

Si la méthode *note setUp(): 1319. lève une exception pendant
l'exécution du test, le système considère que le test a subi une erreur,
et la méthode test n'est pas exécutée.

De même, on peut fournir une méthode *note tearDown(): 131a. qui nettoie
après l'exécution de la méthode de test :

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def tearDown(self):
             self.widget.dispose()

Si *note setUp(): 1319. a réussi, *note tearDown(): 131a. est exécutée,
que la méthode de test ait réussi ou non.

Un tel environnement de travail pour le code de test s'appelle un
'aménagement de test' ('fixture' en anglais).  Une nouvelle instance de
'TestCase' est créée sous la forme d'un dispositif de test unique
utilisé pour exécuter chaque méthode de test individuelle.  Ainsi *note
setUp(): 1319, *note tearDown(): 131a. et ‘__init__()’ ne sont appelées
qu'une fois par test.

Il est recommandé d'utiliser 'TestCase' pour regrouper les tests en
fonction des fonctionnalités qu'ils testent.  *note unittest: 105.
fournit un mécanisme pour cela : la 'suite de tests', représentée par
*note TestSuite: de3. du module *note unittest: 105.  Dans la plupart
des cas, appeler *note unittest.main(): fd0. fait correctement les
choses et trouve tous les scénarios de test du module pour vous et les
exécute.

Cependant, si vous voulez personnaliser la construction de votre suite
de tests, vous pouvez le faire vous-même :

     def suite():
         suite = unittest.TestSuite()
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
         return suite

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
         runner.run(suite())

Vous pouvez placer les définitions des scénarios de test et des suites
de test dans le même module que le code à tester (tel que
‘composant.py’), mais il y a plusieurs avantages à placer le code de
test dans un module séparé, tel que ‘test_composant.py’ :

   * Le module de test peut être exécuté indépendamment depuis la ligne
     de commande.

   * Le code de test est plus facilement séparable du code livré.

   * La tentation est moins grande de changer le code de test pour
     l'adapter au code qu'il teste sans avoir une bonne raison.

   * Le code de test doit être modifié beaucoup moins souvent que le
     code qu'il teste.

   * Le code testé peut être réusiné plus facilement.

   * Les tests pour les modules écrits en C doivent de toute façon être
     dans des modules séparés, alors pourquoi ne pas être cohérent ?

   * Si la stratégie de test change, il n'est pas nécessaire de changer
     le code source.


File: python.info,  Node: Réutilisation d'ancien code de test,  Next: Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles,  Prev: Organiser le code de test,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.6 Réutilisation d'ancien code de test
............................................

Certains utilisateurs constatent qu'ils ont du code de test existant
qu'ils souhaitent exécuter à partir de *note unittest: 105, sans
convertir chaque ancienne fonction de test en une sous-classe de *note
TestCase: 439.

Pour cette raison, *note unittest: 105. fournit une classe *note
FunctionTestCase: 16c3.  Cette sous-classe de *note TestCase: 439. peut
être utilisée pour encapsuler une fonction de test existante.  Des
fonctions de mise en place ('setUp') et de démantèlement ('tearDown')
peuvent également être fournies.

Étant donnée la fonction de test suivante :

     def testSomething():
         something = makeSomething()
         assert something.name is not None
         # ...

on peut créer une instance de scénario de test équivalente, avec des
méthodes optionnelles de mise en place et de démantèlement :

     testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
                                          setUp=makeSomethingDB,
                                          tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)

     Note: Même si la classe *note FunctionTestCase: 16c3. peut être
     utilisée pour convertir rapidement une base de test existante vers
     un système basé sur *note unittest: 105, cette approche n'est pas
     recommandée.  Prendre le temps de bien configurer les sous-classes
     de *note TestCase: 439. simplifiera considérablement les futurs
     réusinages des tests.

Dans certains cas, les tests déjà existants ont pu être écrits avec le
module *note doctest: 3a.  Dans ce cas, *note doctest: 3a. fournit une
classe ‘DocTestSuite’ qui peut construire automatiquement des instances
de la classe *note unittest.TestSuite: de3. depuis des tests basés sur
le module *note doctest: 3a.


File: python.info,  Node: Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles,  Next: Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests,  Prev: Réutilisation d'ancien code de test,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.7 Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles
.....................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

'Unittest' permet d'ignorer des méthodes de test individuelles et même
des classes entières de tests.  De plus, il prend en charge le marquage
d'un test comme étant une "erreur prévue".  Un test qui est cassé et qui
échoue, mais qui ne doit pas être considéré comme un échec dans la
classe *note TestResult: 1149.

Ignorer un test consiste à soit utiliser le *note décorateur: 71d. *note
skip(): 1997. ou une de ses variantes conditionnelles, soit appeler
*note TestCase.skipTest(): 401f. à l'intérieur d'une méthode *note
setUp(): 1319. ou de test, soit lever *note SkipTest: fd1. directement.

Un exemple de tests à ignorer :

     class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):

         @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
         def test_nothing(self):
             self.fail("shouldn't happen")

         @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
                          "not supported in this library version")
         def test_format(self):
             # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.
             pass

         @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
         def test_windows_support(self):
             # windows specific testing code
             pass

         def test_maybe_skipped(self):
             if not external_resource_available():
                 self.skipTest("external resource not available")
             # test code that depends on the external resource
             pass

Ceci est le résultat de l'exécution de l'exemple ci-dessus en mode
verbeux :

     test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
     test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
     test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
     test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows'

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 4 tests in 0.005s

     OK (skipped=4)

Les classes peuvent être ignorées tout comme les méthodes :

     @unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
     class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_not_run(self):
             pass

La méthode *note TestCase.setUp(): 1319. permet également d'ignorer le
test.  Ceci est utile lorsqu'une ressource qui doit être configurée
n'est pas disponible.

Les erreurs prévisibles utilisent le décorateur *note expectedFailure():
4020.

     class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         @unittest.expectedFailure
         def test_fail(self):
             self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")

Il est facile de faire ses propres décorateurs en créant un décorateur
qui appelle *note skip(): 1997. sur le test que vous voulez ignorer.
Par exemple, ce décorateur ignore le test à moins que l'objet passé ne
possède un certain attribut :

     def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
         if hasattr(obj, attr):
             return lambda func: func
         return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))

Les décorateurs et exceptions suivants implémentent le système
d'omission des tests et les erreurs prévisibles :

 -- Fonction: @unittest.skip (reason)

     Ignore sans condition le test décoré.  'La raison' doit décrire la
     raison pour laquelle le test est omis.

 -- Fonction: @unittest.skipIf (condition, reason)

     Ignore le test décoré si la 'condition' est vraie.

 -- Fonction: @unittest.skipUnless (condition, reason)

     Ignore le test décoré sauf si la 'condition' est vraie.

 -- Fonction: @unittest.expectedFailure

     Mark the test as an expected failure or error.  If the test fails
     or errors in the test function itself (rather than in one of the
     'test fixture' methods) then it will be considered a success.  If
     the test passes, it will be considered a failure.

 -- Exception: unittest.SkipTest (reason)

     Cette exception est levée pour ignorer un test.

     Habituellement, on utilise *note TestCase.skipTest(): 401f. ou l'un
     des décorateurs d'omission au lieu de le lever une exception
     directement.

Les tests ignorés ne lancent ni *note setUp(): 1319. ni *note
tearDown(): 131a.  Les classes ignorées ne lancent ni *note
setUpClass(): a3f. ni *note tearDownClass(): 1317.  Les modules sautés
n'ont pas ‘setUpModule()’ ou ‘tearDownModule()’ d'exécutés.


File: python.info,  Node: Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests,  Next: Classes et fonctions,  Prev: Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.8 Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests
.................................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Lorsque certains de vos tests ne diffèrent que par de très petites
différences, par exemple certains paramètres, 'unittest' vous permet de
les distinguer en utilisant le gestionnaire de contexte *note subTest():
fce. dans le corps d'une méthode de test.

Par exemple, le test suivant :

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_even(self):
             """
             Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
             """
             for i in range(0, 6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

produit le résultat suivant :

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

Sans l'utilisation d'un sous-test, l'exécution se termine après le
premier échec, et l'erreur est moins facile à diagnostiquer car la
valeur de ‘i’ ne s'affiche pas :

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
     AssertionError: 1 != 0


File: python.info,  Node: Classes et fonctions,  Next: Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests,  Prev: Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.9 Classes et fonctions
.............................

Cette section décrit en détail l'API de *note unittest: 105.

* Menu:

* Scénarios de tests::
* Regroupement des tests::
* Chargement et exécution des tests::


File: python.info,  Node: Scénarios de tests,  Next: Regroupement des tests,  Up: Classes et fonctions

5.27.5.10 Scénarios de tests
............................

 -- Classe: unittest.TestCase (methodName='runTest')

     Les instances de la classe *note TestCase: 439. représentent des
     tests logiques unitaires dans l'univers *note unittest: 105.  Cette
     classe est conçue pour être utilisée comme classe de base.  Les
     scénarios de tests sont à implémenter en héritant de cette classe.
     La classe implémente l'interface nécessaire au lanceur de tests
     pour lui permettre de les exécuter ainsi que les méthodes que le
     code de test peut utiliser pour vérifier et signaler les différents
     types d'erreurs.

     Chaque instance de la classe *note TestCase: 439. n'exécute qu'une
     seule méthode de base : la méthode nommée 'methodName' .  Dans la
     plupart des utilisations de la classe *note TestCase: 439, vous
     n'avez pas à changer le nom de la méthode, ni à réimplémenter la
     méthode ‘runTest()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: La classe *note TestCase: 439. peut
     désormais être utilisée sans passer de paramètre 'methodName'.
     Cela facilite l'usage de *note TestCase: 439. dans l'interpréteur
     interactif.

     Les instances de la classe *note TestCase: 439. fournissent trois
     groupes de méthodes : un groupe utilisé pour exécuter le test, un
     autre utilisé par l'implémentation du test pour vérifier les
     conditions et signaler les échecs, et quelques méthodes de
     recherche permettant de recueillir des informations sur le test
     lui-même.

     Les méthodes du premier groupe (exécution du test) sont :

      -- Méthode: setUp ()

          Méthode appelée pour réaliser la mise en place du test.  Elle
          est exécutée immédiatement avant l'appel de la méthode de test
          ; à l'exception de *note AssertionError: 696. ou *note
          SkipTest: fd1, toute exception levée par cette méthode est
          considérée comme une erreur et non pas comme un échec du test.
          L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: tearDown ()

          Méthode appelée immédiatement après l'appel de la méthode de
          test et l'enregistrement du résultat.  Elle est appelée même
          si la méthode de test a levé une exception.  De fait,
          l'implémentation d'un sous-classes doit être fait avec
          précaution si vous vérifiez l'état interne de la classe.
          Toute exception, autre que *note AssertionError: 696. ou *note
          SkipTest: fd1, levée par cette méthode est considérée comme
          une erreur supplémentaire plutôt que comme un échec du test
          (augmentant ainsi le nombre total des erreurs signalées).
          Cette méthode est appelée uniquement si l'exécution de *note
          setUp(): 1319. est réussie quel que soit le résultat de la
          méthode de test.  L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: setUpClass ()

          Méthode de classe appelée avant l'exécution des tests dans la
          classe en question.  ‘setUpClass’ est appelée avec la classe
          comme seul argument et doit être décorée comme une *note
          classmethod(): 165. :

               @classmethod
               def setUpClass(cls):
                   ...

          Voir *note Class and Module Fixtures: 4028. pour plus de
          détails.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: tearDownClass ()

          Méthode de classe appelée après l'exécution des tests de la
          classe en question.  ‘tearDownClass’ est appelée avec la
          classe comme seul argument et doit être décorée comme une
          *note classmethod(): 165. :

               @classmethod
               def tearDownClass(cls):
                   ...

          Voir *note Class and Module Fixtures: 4028. pour plus de
          détails.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: run (result=None)

          Exécute le test, en collectant le résultat dans l'objet *note
          TestResult: 1149. passé comme 'result'.  Si 'result' est omis
          ou vaut ‘None’, un objet temporaire de résultat est créé (en
          appelant la méthode *note defaultTestResult(): 4029.) et
          utilisé.  L'objet résultat est renvoyé à l'appelant de *note
          run(): 1148.

          Le même effet peut être obtenu en appelant simplement
          l'instance *note TestCase: 439.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les versions précédentes de ‘run’
          ne renvoyaient pas le résultat.  Pas plus que l'appel d'une
          instance.

      -- Méthode: skipTest (reason)

          Appeler cette fonction pendant l'exécution d'une méthode de
          test ou de *note setUp(): 1319. permet d'ignorer le test en
          cours.  Voir *note Ignorer des tests et des erreurs
          prévisibles: 401e. pour plus d'informations.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: subTest (msg=None, **params)

          Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte qui exécute le bloc de
          code du contexte comme un sous-test.  'msg' et 'params' sont
          des valeurs optionnelles et arbitraires qui sont affichées
          chaque fois qu'un sous-test échoue, permettant de les
          identifier clairement.

          Un scénario de test peut contenir un nombre quelconque de
          déclarations de sous-test, et elles peuvent être imbriquées
          librement.

          Voir *note Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de
          sous-tests: fcf. pour plus d'informations.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: debug ()

          Lance le test sans collecter le résultat.  Ceci permet aux
          exceptions levées par le test d'être propagées à l'appelant,
          et donc peut être utilisé pour exécuter des tests sous un
          débogueur.
     La classe *note TestCase: 439. fournit plusieurs méthodes
     d'assertion pour vérifier et signaler les échecs.  Le tableau
     suivant énumère les méthodes les plus couramment utilisées (voir
     les tableaux ci-dessous pour plus de méthodes d'assertion) :

     Méthode                                       Vérifie que                       Disponible en
                                                                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertEqual(a, b): 515.                 ‘a == b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 516.              ‘a != b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertTrue(x): 513.                     ‘bool(x) is True’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertFalse(x): 514.                    ‘bool(x) is False’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertIs(a, b): 131b.                   ‘a is b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNot(a, b): 131c.                ‘a is not b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNone(x): 126a.                  ‘x is None’                       3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNotNone(x): 126b.               ‘x is not None’                   3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIn(a, b): 1324.                   ‘a in b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIn(a, b): 1325.                ‘a not in b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsInstance(a, b): 131d.           ‘isinstance(a, b)’                3.2
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIsInstance(a, b): 131e.        ‘not isinstance(a, b)’            3.2
                                                                                     

     Toutes les méthodes 'assert' prennent en charge un argument 'msg'
     qui, s'il est spécifié, est utilisé comme message d'erreur en cas
     d'échec (voir aussi *note longMessage: 1316.).  Notez que
     l'argument nommé 'msg' peut être passé à *note assertRaises(): 519,
     *note assertRaisesRegex(): 51b, *note assertWarns(): 1146, *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): 1147, seulement quand elles sont utilisées
     comme gestionnaire de contexte.

      -- Méthode: assertEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'first' et 'second' sont égaux.  Si les valeurs ne
          sont pas égales, le test échouera.

          En outre, si 'first' et 'second' ont exactement le même type
          et sont de type 'list', 'tuple', 'dict', 'set', 'frozenset' ou
          'str' ou tout autre type de sous classe enregistrée dans *note
          addTypeEqualityFunc(): 1328.  La fonction égalité spécifique
          au type sera appelée pour générer une erreur plus utile (voir
          aussi *note liste des méthodes spécifiques de type: 402a.).

          Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de l'appel automatique de
          la fonction d'égalité spécifique au type.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de *note
          assertMultiLineEqual(): 1323. comme fonction d'égalité de type
          par défaut pour comparer les chaînes.

      -- Méthode: assertNotEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'first' et 'second' ne sont pas égaux.  Si les
          valeurs sont égales, le test échouera.

      -- Méthode: assertTrue (expr, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertFalse (expr, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'expr' est vraie (ou fausse).

          Notez que cela revient à utiliser ‘bool(expr) is True’ et non
          à ‘expr is True’ (utilisez ‘assertIs(expr, True)’ pour cette
          dernière).  Cette méthode doit également être évitée lorsque
          des méthodes plus spécifiques sont disponibles (par exemple
          ‘assertEqual(a, b)’ au lieu de ‘assertTrue(a == b)’), car
          elles fournissent un meilleur message d'erreur en cas d'
          échec.

      -- Méthode: assertIs (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertIsNot (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'first' et 'second' sont (ou ne sont pas) le même
          objet.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertIsNone (expr, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertIsNotNone (expr, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'expr' est (ou n'est pas) la valeur ‘None’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertIn (member, container, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertNotIn (member, container, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'member' est (ou n'est pas) dans 'container'.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertNotIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'obj' est (ou n'est pas) une instance de 'cls' (Ce
          qui peut être une classe ou un 'n'-uplet de classes, comme
          utilisée par *note isinstance(): 42d.).  Pour vérifier le type
          exact, utilisez *note assertIs(type(obj), cls): 131b.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Il est également possible de vérifier la production des exceptions,
     des avertissements et des messages de journaux à l'aide des
     méthodes suivantes :

     Méthode                                                       Vérifie que                                Disponible en
                                                                                                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds): 519.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ lève bien
                                                                   l'exception 'exc'
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 51b.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ lève bien             3.1
                                                                   l'exception 'exc' et que le message        
                                                                   correspond au motif de l'expression
                                                                   régulière 'r'
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds): 1146.            ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ lève bien             3.2
                                                                   l'avertissement 'warn'                     
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 1147.    ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ lève bien             3.2
                                                                   l'avertissement 'warn' et que le message   
                                                                   correspond au motif de l'expression
                                                                   régulière 'r'
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertLogs(logger, level): 845.                         Le bloc ‘with’ écrit dans le 'logger'      3.4
                                                                   avec un niveau minimum égal à 'level'      
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertNoLogs(logger, level): 844.                       The ‘with’ block does not log on           3.10
                                                                                                              
                                                                        'logger' with minimum 'level'
                                                                   

      -- Méthode: assertRaises (exception, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- Méthode: assertRaises (exception, *, msg=None)

          Vérifie qu'une exception est levée lorsque 'callable' est
          appelé avec n'importe quel argument positionnel ou nommé qui
          est également passé à *note assertRaises(): 519.  Le test
          réussit si 'exception' est levée, est en erreur si une autre
          exception est levée, ou en échec si aucune exception n'est
          levée.  Pour capturer une exception d'un groupe d'exceptions,
          un 'n'-uplet contenant les classes d'exceptions peut être
          passé à 'exception'.

          Si seuls les arguments 'exception' et éventuellement 'msg'
          sont donnés, renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte pour que le
          code sous test puisse être écrit en ligne plutôt que comme une
          fonction :

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
                   do_something()

          Lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte, *note
          assertRaises(): 519. accepte l'argument nommé supplémentaire
          'msg'.

          Le gestionnaire de contexte enregistre l'exception interceptée
          dans son attribut ‘exception’.  Ceci est particulièrement
          utile si l'intention est d'effectuer des contrôles
          supplémentaires sur l'exception levée :

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
                   do_something()

               the_exception = cm.exception
               self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)

          Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de la possibilité
          d'utiliser *note assertRaises(): 519. comme gestionnaire de
          contexte.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de l'attribut ‘exception’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé 'msg'
          lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

      -- Méthode: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- Méthode: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, *, msg=None)

          Comme *note assertRaises(): 519. mais vérifie aussi que
          'regex' correspond à la représentation de la chaîne de
          caractères de l'exception levée.  'regex' peut être un objet
          d'expression rationnelle ou une chaîne contenant une
          expression rationnelle appropriée pour être utilisée par *note
          re.search(): 120c.  Exemples :

               self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
                                      int, 'XYZ')

          ou :

               with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
                  int('XYZ')

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1: Sous le nom ‘assertRaisesRegexp’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Renommé en *note
          assertRaisesRegex(): 51b.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé 'msg'
          lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

      -- Méthode: assertWarns (warning, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- Méthode: assertWarns (warning, *, msg=None)

          Test qu'un avertissement est déclenché lorsque 'callable' est
          appelé avec n'importe quel argument positionnel ou nommé qui
          est également passé à *note assertWarns(): 1146.  Le test
          passe si 'warning' est déclenché et échoue s'il ne l'est pas.
          Toute exception est une erreur.  Pour capturer un
          avertissement dans un ensemble d'avertissements, un 'n'-uplet
          contenant les classes d'avertissement peut être passé à
          'warnings'.

          Si seuls les arguments * warning* et éventuellement 'msg' sont
          donnés, renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte pour que le code
          testé puisse être écrit en ligne plutôt que comme une
          fonction :

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
                   do_something()

          Lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte, *note
          assertWarns(): 1146. accepte l'argument nommé supplémentaire
          'msg'.

          Le gestionnaire de contexte stocke l'avertissement capturé
          dans son attribut ‘warning’, et la ligne source qui a
          déclenché les avertissements dans les attributs ‘filename’ et
          ‘lineno’.  Cette fonction peut être utile si l'intention est
          d'effectuer des contrôles supplémentaires sur l'avertissement
          capturé :

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
                   do_something()

               self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
               self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)

          Cette méthode fonctionne indépendamment des filtres
          d'avertissement en place lorsqu'elle est appelée.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé 'msg'
          lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

      -- Méthode: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- Méthode: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, *, msg=None)

          Comme *note assertWarns(): 1146. mais vérifie aussi qu'une
          'regex' corresponde au message de l'avertissement.  'regex'
          peut être un objet d'expression régulière ou une chaîne
          contenant une expression régulière appropriée pour être
          utilisée par *note re.search(): 120c.  Exemple :

               self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
                                     r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
                                     legacy_function, 'XYZ')

          ou :

               with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
                   frobnicate('/etc/passwd')

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé 'msg'
          lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

      -- Méthode: assertLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          Un gestionnaire de contexte pour tester qu'au moins un message
          est enregistré sur le 'logger' ou un de ses enfants, avec au
          moins le 'niveau' donné.

          Si donné, 'logger' doit être une classe ‘logging.logger’ objet
          ou une classe *note str: 437. donnant le nom d'un journal.  La
          valeur par défaut est le journal racine 'root', qui capture
          tous les messages qui n'ont pas été arrêtés par un 'logger' ne
          propageant pas les messages.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 1cb2.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          1cb0.

          Le test passe si au moins un message émis à l'intérieur du
          bloc ‘with’ correspond aux conditions 'logger' et 'level',
          sinon il échoue.

          L'objet retourné par le gestionnaire de contexte est une aide
          à l'enregistrement qui garde la trace des messages de journal
          correspondants.  Il a deux attributs :

           -- Attribut: records

               Une liste d'objets *note logging.LogRecord: fd3. de
               messages de log correspondants.

           -- Attribut: output

               Une liste d'objets *note str: 437. avec la sortie
               formatée des messages correspondants.

          Exemple :

               with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
                   logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
                   logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
               self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
                                            'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: assertNoLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          A context manager to test that no messages are logged on the
          'logger' or one of its children, with at least the given
          'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: b3f.
          object or a *note str: 437. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 1cb2.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          1cb0.

          Unlike *note assertLogs(): 845, nothing will be returned by
          the context manager.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Il existe également d'autres méthodes utilisées pour effectuer des
     contrôles plus spécifiques, telles que :

     Méthode                                     Vérifie que                          Disponible en
                                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 517.         ‘round(a-b, 7) == 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 518.      ‘round(a-b, 7) != 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreater(a, b): 131f.            ‘a > b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreaterEqual(a, b): 1320.       ‘a >= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLess(a, b): 1321.               ‘a < b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLessEqual(a, b): 1322.          ‘a <= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertRegex(s, r): 51a.               ‘r.search(s)’                        3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotRegex(s, r): 51c.            ‘not r.search(s)’                    3.2
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertCountEqual(a, b): 120a.         'a' et 'b' ont les mêmes éléments    3.2
                                                 dans le même nombre, quel que soit   
                                                 leur ordre.
                                                 

      -- Méthode: assertAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None,
               delta=None)
      -- Méthode: assertNotAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7,
               msg=None, delta=None)

          Vérifie que 'first' et 'second' sont approximativement (ou pas
          approximativement) égaux en calculant la différence, en
          arrondissant au nombre donné de décimales 'places' (par défaut
          7), et en comparant à zéro.  Notez que ces méthodes
          arrondissent les valeurs au nombre donné de 'décimales' (par
          exemple comme la fonction *note round(): 12ba.) et non aux
          'chiffres significatifs'.

          Si 'delta' est fourni au lieu de 'places', la différence entre
          'first' et 'second' doit être inférieure ou égale (ou
          supérieure) à 'delta'.

          Fournir à la fois 'delta' et 'places' lève une *note
          TypeError: 525.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: *note assertAlmostEqual(): 517.
          considère automatiquement des objets presque égaux qui se
          comparent égaux.  ‘assertNotNotAlmostEqual()’ échoue
          automatiquement si les objets qui se comparent sont égaux.
          Ajout de l'argument nommé 'delta'.

      -- Méthode: assertGreater (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertGreaterEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertLess (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertLessEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que 'first' est respectivement >, >=, >=, < ou <= à
          'second' selon le nom de la méthode.  Sinon, le test
          échouera :

               >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
               AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertRegex (text, regex, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertNotRegex (text, regex, msg=None)

          Vérifie qu'une recherche par motif 'regex' correspond (ou ne
          correspond pas) à 'text'.  En cas d'échec, le message d'erreur
          inclura le motif et le 'texte' (ou le motif et la partie du
          'texte' qui correspond de manière inattendue).  'regex' peut
          être un objet d'expression régulière ou une chaîne contenant
          une expression régulière appropriée pour être utilisée par
          *note re.search(): 120c.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1: Ajouté sous le nom
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: La méthode
          ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ a été renommé en *note assertRegex():
          51a.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2: *note assertNotRegex(): 51c.

      -- Méthode: assertCountEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que la séquence 'first' contient les mêmes éléments
          que 'second', quel que soit leur ordre.  Si ce n'est pas le
          cas, un message d'erreur indiquant les différences entre les
          séquences est généré.

          Les éléments en double ne sont 'pas' ignorés lors de la
          comparaison entre 'first' et 'second'.  Il vérifie si chaque
          élément a le même nombre dans les deux séquences.  Équivalent
          à : ‘assertEqual(Counter(list(first))),
          Counter(list(second)))’ mais fonctionne aussi avec des
          séquences d'objets non 'hachables'.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     La méthode *note assertEqual(): 515. envoie le contrôle d'égalité
     pour les objets du même type à différentes méthodes spécifiques au
     type.  Ces méthodes sont déjà implémentées pour la plupart des
     types intégrés, mais il est également possible d'enregistrer de
     nouvelles méthodes en utilisant *note addTypeEqualityFunc():
     1328. :

      -- Méthode: addTypeEqualityFunc (typeobj, function)

          Enregistre une méthode spécifique appelée par *note
          assertEqual(): 515. pour vérifier si deux objets exactement du
          même 'typeobj' (et non leurs sous-classes) sont égaux.
          'function' doit prendre deux arguments positionnels et un
          troisième argument nommé 'msg=None' tout comme *note
          assertEqual(): 515. le fait.  Il doit lever *note
          self.failureException(msg): 402d. lorsqu'une inégalité entre
          les deux premiers paramètres est détectée en fournissant
          éventuellement des informations utiles et expliquant
          l'inégalité en détail dans le message d'erreur.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     La liste des méthodes spécifiques utilisées automatiquement par
     *note assertEqual(): 515. est résumée dans le tableau suivant.
     Notez qu'il n'est généralement pas nécessaire d'invoquer ces
     méthodes directement.

     Méthode                                       Utilisé pour comparer             Disponible en
                                                                                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertMultiLineEqual(a, b): 1323.       chaînes                           3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSequenceEqual(a, b): 1269.        séquences                         3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertListEqual(a, b): 1267.            listes                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertTupleEqual(a, b): 1268.           'n'-uplets                        3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSetEqual(a, b): 1265.             'sets' ou 'frozensets'            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertDictEqual(a, b): 1266.            dictionnaires                     3.1
                                                                                     

      -- Méthode: assertMultiLineEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que la chaîne sur plusieurs lignes 'first' est égale à
          la chaîne 'second'.  Si les deux chaînes de caractères ne sont
          pas égales, un 'diff' mettant en évidence les différences est
          inclus dans le message d'erreur.  Cette méthode est utilisée
          par défaut pour comparer les chaînes avec *note assertEqual():
          515.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertSequenceEqual (first, second, msg=None,
               seq_type=None)

          Vérifie que deux séquences sont égales.  Si un 'seq_type' est
          fourni, 'first' et 'second' doivent tous deux être des
          instances de 'seq_type' ou un échec est levé.  Si les
          séquences sont différentes, un message d'erreur indiquant la
          différence entre les deux est généré.

          Cette méthode n'est pas appelée directement par *note
          assertEqual(): 515, mais sert à implémenter *note
          assertListEqual(): 1267. et *note assertTupleEqual(): 1268.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertListEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Méthode: assertTupleEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que deux listes ou deux 'n'-uplets sont égaux.  Si ce
          n'est pas le cas, un message d'erreur qui ne montre que les
          différences entre les deux est généré.  Une erreur est
          également signalée si l'un ou l'autre des paramètres n'est pas
          du bon type.  Ces méthodes sont utilisées par défaut pour
          comparer des listes ou des 'n'-uplets avec *note
          assertEqual(): 515.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertSetEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que deux ensembles sont égaux.  Si ce n'est pas le
          cas, un message d'erreur s'affiche et indique les différences
          entre les 'sets'.  Cette méthode est utilisée par défaut lors
          de la comparaison de 'sets' ou de 'frozensets' avec *note
          assertEqual(): 515.

          Échoue si l'un des objets 'first' ou 'second' n'a pas de
          méthode ‘set.difference()’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: assertDictEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Vérifie que deux dictionnaires sont égaux.  Si ce n'est pas le
          cas, un message d'erreur qui montre les différences dans les
          dictionnaires est généré.  Cette méthode est utilisée par
          défaut pour comparer les dictionnaires dans les appels à *note
          assertEqual(): 515.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Enfin, la classe *note TestCase: 439. fournit les méthodes et
     attributs suivants :

      -- Méthode: fail (msg=None)

          Indique un échec du test sans condition, avec 'msg' ou ‘None’
          pour le message d'erreur.

      -- Attribut: failureException

          Cet attribut de classe donne l'exception levée par la méthode
          de test.  Si un 'framework' de tests doit utiliser une
          exception spécialisée, probablement pour enrichir l'exception
          d'informations additionnels., il doit hériter de cette classe
          d'exception pour 'bien fonctionner' avec le 'framework'.  La
          valeur initiale de cet attribut est *note AssertionError: 696.

      -- Attribut: longMessage

          Cet attribut de classe détermine ce qui se passe lorsqu'un
          message d'échec personnalisé est passé en argument au
          paramètre 'msg' à un appel 'assertXYYY' qui échoue.  ‘True’
          est la valeur par défaut.  Dans ce cas, le message
          personnalisé est ajouté à la fin du message d'erreur standard.
          Lorsqu'il est réglé sur ‘False’, le message personnalisé
          remplace le message standard.

          Le paramétrage de la classe peut être écrasé dans les méthodes
          de test individuelles en assignant un attribut d'instance,
          'self.longMessage', à ‘True’ ou ‘False’ avant d'appeler les
          méthodes d'assertion.

          Le réglage de la classe est réinitialisé avant chaque appel de
          test.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Attribut: maxDiff

          Cet attribut contrôle la longueur maximale des 'diffs' en
          sortie des méthodes qui génèrent des 'diffs' en cas d'échec.
          La valeur par défaut est 80*8 caractères.  Les méthodes
          d'assertions affectées par cet attribut sont *note
          assertSequenceEqual(): 1269. (y compris toutes les méthodes de
          comparaison de séquences qui lui sont déléguées), *note
          assertDictEqual(): 1266. et *note assertMultiLineEqual():
          1323.

          Régler ‘maxDiff’ sur ‘None’ signifie qu'il n'y a pas de
          longueur maximale pour les 'diffs'.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Les 'frameworks' de test peuvent utiliser les méthodes suivantes
     pour recueillir des informations sur le test :

      -- Méthode: countTestCases ()

          Renvoie le nombre de tests représentés par cet objet test.
          Pour les instances de *note TestCase: 439, c'est toujours ‘1’.

      -- Méthode: defaultTestResult ()

          Retourne une instance de la classe de résultat de test qui
          doit être utilisée pour cette classe de cas de test (si aucune
          autre instance de résultat n'est fournie à la méthode *note
          run(): 1148.).

          Pour les instances de *note TestCase: 439, c'est toujours une
          instance de *note TestResult: 1149. ; les sous-classes de
          *note TestCase: 439. peuvent la remplacer au besoin.

      -- Méthode: id ()

          Retourne une chaîne identifiant le cas de test spécifique.  Il
          s'agit généralement du nom complet de la méthode de test, y
          compris le nom du module et de la classe.

      -- Méthode: shortDescription ()

          Renvoie une description du test, ou ‘None’ si aucune
          description n'a été fournie.  L'implémentation par défaut de
          cette méthode renvoie la première ligne de la 'docstring' de
          la méthode de test, si disponible, ou ‘None’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.1: En 3.1, ceci a été modifié pour
          ajouter le nom du test à la description courte, même en
          présence d'une 'docstring'.  Cela a causé des problèmes de
          compatibilité avec les extensions 'unittest' et l'ajout du nom
          du test a été déplacé dans la classe *note TextTestResult:
          51d. dans Python 3.2.

      -- Méthode: addCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Ajout d'une fonction à appeler après *note tearDown(): 131a.
          pour nettoyer les ressources utilisées pendant le test.  Les
          fonctions seront appelées dans l'ordre inverse de l'ordre dans
          lequel elles ont été ajoutées (LIFO).  Elles sont appelées
          avec tous les arguments positionnels et arguments nommés
          passés à *note addCleanup(): a71. quand elles sont ajoutées.

          Si *note setUp(): 1319. échoue, cela signifie que *note
          tearDown(): 131a. n'est pas appelé, alors que les fonctions de
          nettoyage ajoutées seront toujours appelées.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: enterContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5c0.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 12e0. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addCleanup(): a71. and return the result of
          the *note __enter__(): 5b4. method.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: doCleanups ()

          Cette méthode est appelée sans conditions après *note
          tearDown(): 131a, ou après *note setUp(): 1319. si *note
          setUp(): 1319. lève une exception.

          Cette méthode est chargée d'appeler toutes les fonctions de
          nettoyage ajoutées par *note addCleanup(): a71.  Si vous avez
          besoin de fonctions de nettoyage à appeler 'avant' l'appel à
          *note tearDown(): 131a. alors vous pouvez appeler *note
          doCleanups(): 1318. vous-même.

          *note doCleanups(): 1318. extrait les méthodes de la pile des
          fonctions de nettoyage une à la fois, de sorte qu'elles
          peuvent être appelées à tout moment.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: classmethod addClassCleanup (function, /, *args,
               **kwargs)

          Ajout d'une fonction à appeler après *note tearDownClass():
          1317. pour nettoyer les ressources utilisées par la classe
          test.  Les fonctions sont appelées dans l'ordre inverse de
          l'ordre dans lequel elles ont été ajoutées (LIFO).  Elles sont
          appelées avec tous les arguments positionnels et nommés passés
          à *note addClassCleanup(): a3e. quand elles sont ajoutées.

          Si *note setUpClass(): a3f. échoue, impliquant que *note
          tearDownClass(): 1317. n'est pas appelé, alors les fonctions
          de nettoyage ajoutées sont quand même appelées.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: classmethod enterClassContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5c0.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 12e0. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addClassCleanup(): a3e. and return the
          result of the *note __enter__(): 5b4. method.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: classmethod doClassCleanups ()

          Cette méthode est appelée sans conditions après *note
          tearDownClass(): 1317, ou après *note setUpClass(): a3f. si
          *note setUpClass(): a3f. lève une exception.

          Cette méthode est chargée d'appeler toutes les fonctions de
          nettoyage ajoutées par *note addClassCleanup(): a3e.  Si vous
          avez besoin de fonctions de nettoyage à appeler 'avant'
          l'appel à *note tearDownClass(): 1317. alors vous pouvez
          appeler *note doClassCleanups(): 4033. vous-même.

          *note doClassCleanups(): 4033. extrait les méthodes de la pile
          des fonctions de nettoyage une à la fois, de sorte qu'elles
          peuvent être appelées à tout moment.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Classe: unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (methodName='runTest')

     Cette classe fournit une API similaire à *note TestCase: 439. et
     accepte aussi les coroutines en tant que fonctions de test.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Attribut: loop_factory

          The 'loop_factory' passed to *note asyncio.Runner: 5ed.
          Override in subclasses with *note asyncio.EventLoop: 16b0. to
          avoid using the asyncio policy system.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: async asyncSetUp ()

          Méthode appelée pour réaliser la mise en place du test.
          Celle-ci est exécutée après ‘setUp()’.  Elle est exécutée
          immédiatement avant l'appel de la méthode de test ; à
          l'exception de *note AssertionError: 696. ou *note SkipTest:
          fd1, toute exception levée par cette méthode est considérée
          comme une erreur et non pas comme un échec du test.
          L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: async asyncTearDown ()

          Méthode appelée immédiatement après l'appel de la méthode de
          test et l'enregistrement du résultat.  Elle est appelée avant
          ‘tearDown()’.  Elle est appelée même si la méthode de test a
          levé une exception.  De fait, l'implémentation d'une
          sous-classe doit être faite avec précaution si vous vérifiez
          l'état interne de la classe.  Toute exception, autre que *note
          AssertionError: 696. ou *note SkipTest: fd1, levée par cette
          méthode est considérée comme une erreur supplémentaire plutôt
          que comme un échec du test (augmentant ainsi le nombre total
          des erreurs signalées).  Cette méthode est appelée uniquement
          si l'exécution de *note asyncSetUp(): 4035. est réussie quel
          que soit le résultat de la méthode de test.  L'implémentation
          par défaut ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: addAsyncCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Cette méthode accepte une coroutine qui peut être utilisée
          comme fonction de nettoyage.

      -- Méthode: async enterAsyncContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note asynchronous context manager: 5c3.
          If successful, also add its *note __aexit__(): 15e5. method as
          a cleanup function by *note addAsyncCleanup(): 4037. and
          return the result of the *note __aenter__(): 1f89. method.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: run (result=None)

          Configure une nouvelle boucle d'évènements pour exécuter le
          test, en collectant le résultat dans l'objet *note TestResult:
          1149. passé comme 'result'.  Si 'result' est omis ou vaut
          ‘None’, un objet temporaire de résultat est créé (en appelant
          la méthode ‘defaultTestResult()’) et utilisé.  L'objet
          résultat est renvoyé à l'appelant de *note run(): 4038.  À la
          fin du test, toutes les taches de la boucle d’événements sont
          annulées.

     Exemple illustrant l'ordre :

          from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

          events = []


          class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):


              def setUp(self):
                  events.append("setUp")

              async def asyncSetUp(self):
                  self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection()
                  events.append("asyncSetUp")

              async def test_response(self):
                  events.append("test_response")
                  response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com")
                  self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
                  self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup)

              def tearDown(self):
                  events.append("tearDown")

              async def asyncTearDown(self):
                  await self._async_connection.close()
                  events.append("asyncTearDown")

              async def on_cleanup(self):
                  events.append("cleanup")

          if __name__ == "__main__":
              unittest.main()

     Après avoir lancé les tests, ‘events’ contiendrait ‘["setUp",
     "asyncSetUp", "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown",
     "cleanup"]’.

 -- Classe: unittest.FunctionTestCase (testFunc, setUp=None,
          tearDown=None, description=None)

     Cette classe implémente la partie de l'interface *note TestCase:
     439. qui permet au lanceur de test de piloter le scénario de test,
     mais ne fournit pas les méthodes que le code test peut utiliser
     pour vérifier et signaler les erreurs.  Ceci est utilisé pour créer
     des scénario de test utilisant du code de test existant afin de
     faciliter l'intégration dans un 'framework' de test basé sur *note
     unittest: 105.


File: python.info,  Node: Regroupement des tests,  Next: Chargement et exécution des tests,  Prev: Scénarios de tests,  Up: Classes et fonctions

5.27.5.11 Regroupement des tests
................................

 -- Classe: unittest.TestSuite (tests=())

     Cette classe représente une agrégation de cas de test individuels
     et de suites de tests.  La classe présente l'interface requise par
     le lanceur de test pour être exécutée comme tout autre cas de test.
     L'exécution d'une instance de *note TestSuite: de3. est identique à
     l'itération sur la suite, en exécutant chaque test indépendamment.

     Si 'tests' est fourni, il doit s'agir d'un itérable de cas de test
     individuels ou d'autres suites de test qui seront utilisés pour
     construire la suite initial.  Des méthodes supplémentaires sont
     fournies pour ajouter ultérieurement des cas de test et des suites
     à la collection.

     Les objets *note TestSuite: de3. se comportent comme les objets
     *note TestCase: 439, sauf qu'ils n'implémentent pas réellement un
     test.  Au lieu de cela, ils sont utilisés pour regrouper les tests
     en groupes de tests qui doivent être exécutés ensemble.  Des
     méthodes supplémentaires sont disponibles pour ajouter des tests
     aux instances de *note TestSuite: de3. :

      -- Méthode: addTest (test)

          Ajouter un objet *note TestCase: 439. ou *note TestSuite: de3.
          à la suite de tests.

      -- Méthode: addTests (tests)

          Ajouter tous les tests d'un itérable d'instances de *note
          TestCase: 439. et de *note TestSuite: de3. à cette suite de
          tests.

          C'est l'équivalent d'une itération sur 'tests', appelant *note
          addTest(): 403b. pour chaque élément.

     *note TestSuite: de3. partage les méthodes suivantes avec *note
     TestCase: 439. :

      -- Méthode: run (result)

          Exécute les tests associés à cette suite, en collectant le
          résultat dans l'objet de résultat de test passé par 'result'.
          Remarquer que contrairement à *note TestCase.run(): 1148,
          *note TestSuite.run(): 403d. nécessite que l'objet résultat
          soit passé.

      -- Méthode: debug ()

          Exécute les tests associés à cette suite sans collecter le
          résultat.  Ceci permet aux exceptions levées par le test
          d'être propagées à l'appelant et peut être utilisé pour
          exécuter des tests sous un débogueur.

      -- Méthode: countTestCases ()

          Renvoie le nombre de tests représentés par cet objet de test,
          y compris tous les tests individuels et les sous-suites.

      -- Méthode: __iter__ ()

          Tests grouped by a *note TestSuite: de3. are always accessed
          by iteration.  Subclasses can lazily provide tests by
          overriding ‘__iter__()’.  Note that this method may be called
          several times on a single suite (for example when counting
          tests or comparing for equality) so the tests returned by
          repeated iterations before *note TestSuite.run(): 403d. must
          be the same for each call iteration.  After *note
          TestSuite.run(): 403d, callers should not rely on the tests
          returned by this method unless the caller uses a subclass that
          overrides ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’ to preserve test
          references.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: In earlier versions the *note
          TestSuite: de3. accessed tests directly rather than through
          iteration, so overriding ‘__iter__()’ wasn't sufficient for
          providing tests.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Dans les versions précédentes, la
          classe *note TestSuite: de3. contenait des références à chaque
          *note TestCase: 439. après l'appel à *note TestSuite.run():
          403d.  Les sous-classes peuvent restaurer ce comportement en
          surchargeant ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’.

     Dans l'utilisation typique de l'objet *note TestSuite: de3, la
     méthode *note run(): 403d. est invoquée par une classe ‘TestRunner’
     plutôt que par le système de test de l'utilisateur.


File: python.info,  Node: Chargement et exécution des tests,  Prev: Regroupement des tests,  Up: Classes et fonctions

5.27.5.12 Chargement et exécution des tests
...........................................

 -- Classe: unittest.TestLoader

     La classe *note TestLoader: 28b. est utilisée pour créer des suites
     de tests à partir de classes et de modules.  Normalement, il n'est
     pas nécessaire de créer une instance de cette classe ; le module
     *note unittest: 105. fournit une instance qui peut être partagée
     comme *note unittest.defaultTestLoader: 4041.  L'utilisation d'une
     sous-classe ou d'une instance permet cependant de personnaliser
     certaines propriétés configurables.

     Les objets de la classe *note TestLoader: 28b. ont les attributs
     suivants :

      -- Attribut: errors

          A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading
          tests.  Not reset by the loader at any point.  Fatal errors
          are signalled by the relevant method raising an exception to
          the caller.  Non-fatal errors are also indicated by a
          synthetic test that will raise the original error when run.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Les objets de la classe *note TestLoader: 28b. ont les attributs
     suivants :

      -- Méthode: loadTestsFromTestCase (testCaseClass)

          Renvoie une suite de tous les cas de test contenus dans la
          classe ‘TestCaseClass’dérivée de ‘testCase’.

          Une instance de cas de test est créée pour chaque méthode
          nommée par *note getTestCaseNames(): 28e.  Par défaut, ce sont
          les noms des méthodes commençant par "test".  Si
          ‘getTestTestCaseNames()’ ne renvoie aucune méthode, mais que
          la méthode ‘runTest()’ est implémentée, un seul cas de test
          est créé pour cette méthode à la place.

      -- Méthode: loadTestsFromModule (module, *, pattern=None)

          Renvoie une suite de tous les cas de test contenus dans le
          module donné.  Cette méthode recherche 'module' pour les
          classes dérivées de *note TestCase: 439. et crée une instance
          de la classe pour chaque méthode de test définie pour cette
          classe.

               Note: Bien que l'utilisation d'une hiérarchie de classes
               *note TestCase: 439. (les classes dérivées de 'TestCase')
               peut être un moyen pratique de partager des 'fixtures' et
               des fonctions utilitaires, définir une méthode de test
               pour des classes de base non destinées à être directement
               instanciée ne marche pas bien avec cette méthode.  Cela
               peut toutefois s'avérer utile lorsque les 'fixtures' sont
               différentes et définies dans des sous-classes.

          Si un module fournit une fonction ‘load_tests’, il est appelé
          pour charger les tests.  Cela permet aux modules de
          personnaliser le chargement des tests.  C'est le protocole
          *note load_tests protocol: 4019.  L'argument 'pattern' est
          passé comme troisième argument à ‘load_tests’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la prise en charge de
          ‘load_tests’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Support for a keyword-only
          argument 'pattern' has been added.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: The undocumented and unofficial
          'use_load_tests' parameter has been removed.

      -- Méthode: loadTestsFromName (name, module=None)

          Renvoie une suite de tous les cas de test en fonction d'un
          spécificateur de chaîne de caractères.

          Le spécificateur 'name' est un "nom pointillé" qui peut être
          résolu soit par un module, une classe de cas de test, une
          méthode de test dans une classe de cas de test, une instance
          de *note TestSuite: de3, ou un objet appelable qui retourne
          une instance de classe *note TestCase: 439. ou de classe *note
          TestSuite: de3.  Ces contrôles sont appliqués dans l'ordre
          indiqué ici, c'est-à-dire qu'une méthode sur une classe de cas
          de test possible sera choisie comme "méthode de test dans une
          classe de cas de test", plutôt que comme "un objet appelable".

          Par exemple, si vous avez un module ‘SampleTests’ contenant
          une classe *note TestCase: 439. (classe dérivée de la classe
          ‘SampleTestCase’) avec trois méthodes de test (‘test_one()’,
          ‘test_two()’ et ‘test_three()’), l'élément spécificateur
          ‘SampleTests.sampleTestCase’ renvoie une suite qui va exécuter
          les trois méthodes de tests.  L'utilisation du spécificateur
          ‘SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two’ permettrait de retourner
          une suite de tests qui ne lancerait que la méthode test
          ‘test_two()’.  Le spécificateur peut se référer à des modules
          et packages qui n'ont pas été importés.  Ils seront importés
          par un effet de bord.

          La méthode résout facultativement 'name' relatif au 'module'
          donné.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si une *note ImportError: 40f. ou
          *note AttributeError: 343. se produit pendant la traversée de
          'name', un test synthétique qui enrichie l'erreur produite
          lors de l'exécution est renvoyé.  Ces erreurs sont incluses
          dans les erreurs accumulées par 'self.errors'.

      -- Méthode: loadTestsFromNames (names, module=None)

          Similaire à *note loadTestsFromName(): 1326, mais prend une
          séquence de noms plutôt qu'un seul nom.  La valeur renvoyée
          est une suite de tests qui gère tous les tests définis pour
          chaque nom.

      -- Méthode: getTestCaseNames (testCaseClass)

          Renvoie une séquence triée de noms de méthodes trouvés dans
          'testCaseClass' ; ceci doit être une sous-classe de *note
          TestCase: 439.

      -- Méthode: discover (start_dir, pattern='test*.py',
               top_level_dir=None)

          Trouve tous les modules de test en parcourant les
          sous-répertoires du répertoire de démarrage spécifié, et
          renvoie un objet 'TestSuite' qui les contient.  Seuls les
          fichiers de test qui correspondent à 'pattern' sont chargés.
          Seuls les noms de modules qui sont importables (c'est-à-dire
          qui sont des identifiants Python valides) sont chargés.

          All test modules must be importable from the top level of the
          project.  If the start directory is not the top level
          directory then 'top_level_dir' must be specified separately.

          Si l'importation d'un module échoue, par exemple en raison
          d'une erreur de syntaxe, celle-ci est alors enregistrée comme
          une erreur unique et la découverte se poursuit.  Si l'échec de
          l'importation est dû au fait que *note SkipTest: fd1. est
          levé, il est enregistré comme un saut plutôt que comme un
          message d'erreur.

          Si un paquet (un répertoire contenant un fichier nommé
          ‘__init__.py’) est trouvé, le paquet est alors vérifié pour
          une fonction ‘load_tests’.  Si elle existe, elle s'appellera
          ‘package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)’.  Le mécanisme de
          découverte de test prend soin de s'assurer qu'un paquet n'est
          vérifié qu'une seule fois au cours d'une invocation, même si
          la fonction 'load_tests' appelle elle-même ‘loader.discover’.

          Si ‘load_tests’ existe alors la découverte ne poursuit pas la
          récursion dans le paquet, ‘load_tests’ a la responsabilité de
          charger tous les tests dans le paquet.

          The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute
          so that packages can continue discovery themselves.

          'top_level_dir' is stored internally, and used as a default to
          any nested calls to ‘discover()’.  That is, if a package's
          ‘load_tests’ calls ‘loader.discover()’, it does not need to
          pass this argument.

          'start_dir' peut être un nom de module ainsi qu'un répertoire.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les modules levant une exception
          *note SkipTest: fd1. au moment de leur importation ne sont pas
          considérés comme des erreurs, et sont marqués à sauter.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: 'start_dir' peut être un *note
          paquet-espace de nommage: 1c26.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les chemins sont classés avant
          d'être importés afin que l'ordre d'exécution soit toujours le
          même, même si le système de fichiers sous-jacent ne classe pas
          les fichiers par leur nom.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les paquets trouvés sont
          maintenant vérifiés pour ‘load_tests’ indépendamment du fait
          que leur chemin d'accès corresponde ou non à 'pattern', car il
          est impossible pour un nom de paquet de correspondre au motif
          par défaut.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: 'start_dir' can not be a *note
          namespace packages: 1c26.  It has been broken since Python 3.7
          and Python 3.11 officially remove it.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'top_level_dir' is only stored
          for the duration of 'discover' call.

     Les attributs suivants d'une classe *note TestLoader: 28b. peuvent
     être configurés soit par héritage, soit par affectation sur une
     instance :

      -- Attribut: testMethodPrefix

          Chaîne donnant le préfixe des noms de méthodes qui seront
          interprétés comme méthodes de test.  La valeur par défaut est
          ‘'test'’.

          This affects *note getTestCaseNames(): 28e. and all the
          ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- Attribut: sortTestMethodsUsing

          Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them
          in *note getTestCaseNames(): 28e. and all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’
          methods.

      -- Attribut: suiteClass

          Objet appelable qui construit une suite de tests à partir
          d'une liste de tests.  Aucune méthode sur l'objet résultant
          n'est nécessaire.  La valeur par défaut est la classe *note
          TestSuite: de3.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- Attribut: testNamePatterns

          List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test
          methods have to match to be included in test suites (see ‘-k’
          option).

          If this attribute is not ‘None’ (the default), all test
          methods to be included in test suites must match one of the
          patterns in this list.  Note that matches are always performed
          using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 185d, so unlike patterns
          passed to the ‘-k’ option, simple substring patterns will have
          to be converted using ‘*’ wildcards.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Classe: unittest.TestResult

     Cette classe est utilisée pour compiler des informations sur les
     tests qui ont réussi et ceux qui ont échoué.

     Un objet *note TestResult: 1149. stocke les résultats d'un ensemble
     de tests.  Les classes *note TestCase: 439. et *note TestSuite:
     de3. s'assurent que les résultats sont correctement enregistrés.
     Les auteurs du test n'ont pas à se soucier de l'enregistrement des
     résultats des tests.

     Les cadriciels de test construits sur *note unittest: 105. peuvent
     nécessiter l'accès à l'objet *note TestResult: 1149. généré en
     exécutant un ensemble de tests à des fins de génération de
     comptes-rendu.  Une instance de *note TestResult: 1149. est alors
     renvoyée par la méthode ‘TestRunner.run()’ à cette fin.

     Les instance de *note TestResult: 1149. ont les attributs suivants
     qui sont intéressant pour l'inspection des résultats de l'exécution
     d'un ensemble de tests :

      -- Attribut: errors

          Une liste contenant des paires d'instances de *note TestCase:
          439. et de chaînes de caractères contenant des traces de pile
          d'appels formatées.  Chaque paire représente un test qui a
          levé une exception inattendue.

      -- Attribut: failures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 439. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test where a failure was explicitly signalled
          using the *note assert* methods: 4001.

      -- Attribut: skipped

          Une liste contenant des paires d'instances de *note TestCase:
          439. et de chaînes de caractères contenant la raison de
          l'omission du test.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Attribut: expectedFailures

          Une liste contenant des paires d'instances *note TestCase:
          439. et de chaînes de caractères contenant des traces de pile
          d'appels formatées.  Chaque paire représente un échec attendu
          ou une erreur du scénario de test.

      -- Attribut: unexpectedSuccesses

          Une liste contenant les instances *note TestCase: 439. qui ont
          été marquées comme des échecs attendus, mais qui ont réussi.

      -- Attribut: collectedDurations

          A list containing 2-tuples of test case names and floats
          representing the elapsed time of each test which was run.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- Attribut: shouldStop

          A positionner sur ‘True’ quand l'exécution des tests doit être
          arrêter par *note stop(): 404c.

      -- Attribut: testsRun

          Le nombre total de tests effectués jusqu'à présent.

      -- Attribut: buffer

          S'il est défini sur 'true', ‘sys.stdout’ et ‘sys.stderr’ sont
          mis dans un tampon entre les appels de *note startTest():
          404f. et *note stopTest(): 4050.  La sortie collectée est
          répercutée sur les sorties ‘sys.stdout’ et ‘sys.stderr’ réels
          uniquement en cas d'échec ou d'erreur du test.  Toute sortie
          est également attachée au message d'erreur.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Attribut: failfast

          Si la valeur est 'true' *note stop(): 404c. est appelée lors
          de la première défaillance ou erreur, ce qui interrompt le
          test en cours d'exécution.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Attribut: tb_locals

          Si la valeur est 'true', les variables locales sont affichées
          dans les traces d'appels.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: wasSuccessful ()

          Renvoie ‘True’ si tous les tests effectués jusqu'à présent ont
          réussi, sinon renvoie ‘False’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Renvoie ‘False’ s'il y a eu des
          *note unexpectedSuccesses: 404a. dans les tests annotés avec
          le décorateur *note expectedFailure(): 4020.

      -- Méthode: stop ()

          Cette méthode peut être appelée pour signaler que l'ensemble
          des tests en cours d'exécution doit être annulé en définissant
          l'attribut *note shouldStop: 404b. sur ‘True’.  Les instances
          de ‘TestRunner’ doivent respecter ce signal et se terminer
          sans exécuter de tests supplémentaires.

          Par exemple, cette fonctionnalité est utilisée par la classe
          *note TextTestRunner: 1701. pour arrêter le cadriciel de test
          lorsque l'utilisateur lance une interruption clavier.  Les
          outils interactifs qui fournissent des implémentations de
          ‘TestRunner’ peuvent l'utiliser de la même manière.

     Les méthodes suivantes de la classe *note TestResult: 1149. sont
     utilisées pour maintenir les structures de données internes, et
     peuvent être étendues dans des sous-classes pour gérer des
     exigences supplémentaires en termes de compte-rendu.  Cette
     fonction est particulièrement utile pour créer des outils qui
     prennent en charge la génération de rapports interactifs pendant
     l'exécution des tests.

      -- Méthode: startTest (test)

          Appelé lorsque le scénario de test 'test' est sur le point
          d'être exécuté.

      -- Méthode: stopTest (test)

          Appelé après l'exécution du cas de test 'test', quel qu'en
          soit le résultat.

      -- Méthode: startTestRun ()

          Appelé une fois avant l'exécution des tests.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: stopTestRun ()

          Appelé une fois après l'exécution des tests.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: addError (test, err)

          Appelé lorsque le cas de test 'test' soulève une exception
          inattendue.  'err' est un 'n'-uplet de la même forme que celle
          renvoyée par *note sys.exc_info(): 677. : ‘(type, valeur,
          traceback)’.

          L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un 'n'-uplet ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ à l'attribut *note errors: 4046. de
          l'instance, où 'formatted_err' est une trace formatée à partir
          de 'err'.

      -- Méthode: addFailure (test, err)

          Appelé lorsque le cas de test 'test' soulève une exception
          inattendue.  'err' est un triplet de la même forme que celui
          renvoyé par *note sys.exc_info(): 677. : ‘(type, valeur,
          traceback)’.

          L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un 'n'-uplet ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ à l'attribut ‘errors’ de l'instance, où
          'formatted_err' est une trace formatée à partir de 'err'.

      -- Méthode: addSuccess (test)

          Appelé lorsque le scénario de test 'test' réussit.

          L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

      -- Méthode: addSkip (test, reason)

          Appelé lorsque le scénario de test 'test' est ignoré.
          'raison' est la raison pour laquelle le test donné à été
          ignoré.

          L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un 'n'-uplet ‘(test,
          raison)’ à l'attribut *note skipped: 4048. de l'instance.

      -- Méthode: addExpectedFailure (test, err)

          Appelé lorsque le scénario de test 'test' échoue (assertion ou
          exception), mais qui a été marqué avec le décorateur *note
          expectedFailure(): 4020.

          L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un 'n'-uplet ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ à l'attribut ‘errors’ de l'instance, où
          'formatted_err' est une trace formatée à partir de 'err'.

      -- Méthode: addUnexpectedSuccess (test)

          Appelé lorsque le scénario de test 'test' réussit, mais que ce
          scénario a été marqué avec le décorateur *note
          expectedFailure(): 4020.

          L'implémentation par défaut ajoute le test à l'attribut *note
          unexpectedSuccesses: 404a. de l'instance.

      -- Méthode: addSubTest (test, subtest, outcome)

          Appelé à la fin d'un sous-test.  'test' est le cas de test
          correspondant à la méthode de test.  'subtest' est une
          instance dérivée de *note TestCase: 439. décrivant le
          sous-test.

          Si 'outcome' est *note None: 662, le sous-test a réussi.
          Sinon, il a échoué avec une exception où 'outcome' est un
          triplet du formulaire renvoyé par *note sys.exc_info(): 677. :
          ‘(type, valeur, traceback)’.

          L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien lorsque le résultat
          est un succès, et enregistre les échecs de sous-test comme des
          échecs normaux.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: addDuration (test, elapsed)

          Called when the test case finishes.  'elapsed' is the time
          represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of
          cleanup functions.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: unittest.TextTestResult (stream, descriptions, verbosity, *,
          durations=None)

     A concrete implementation of *note TestResult: 1149. used by the
     *note TextTestRunner: 1701.  Subclasses should accept ‘**kwargs’ to
     ensure compatibility as the interface changes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'durations' keyword
     parameter.

 -- Données: unittest.defaultTestLoader

     Instance de la classe *note TestLoader: 28b. destinée à être
     partagée.  Si aucune personnalisation de la classe *note
     TestLoader: 28b. n'est nécessaire, cette instance peut être
     utilisée au lieu de créer plusieurs fois de nouvelles instances.

 -- Classe: unittest.TextTestRunner (stream=None, descriptions=True,
          verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None,
          warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None)

     Une implémentation de base d'un lanceur de test qui fournit les
     résultats dans un flux.  Si 'stream' est ‘None’, par défaut, *note
     sys.stderr: 928. est utilisé comme flux de sortie.  Cette classe a
     quelques paramètres configurables, mais est essentiellement très
     simple.  Les applications graphiques qui exécutent des suites de
     tests doivent fournir des implémentations alternatives.  De telles
     implémentations doivent accepter ‘**kwargs’ car l'interface pour
     construire les lanceurs change lorsque des fonctionnalités sont
     ajoutées à 'unittest'.

     By default this runner shows *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7, *note ResourceWarning: 241. and
     *note ImportWarning: 4e7. even if they are *note ignored by
     default: 4057.  This behavior can be overridden using Python's
     ‘-Wd’ or ‘-Wa’ options (see *note Warning control: 1cf5.) and
     leaving 'warnings' to ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'warnings' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le flux par défaut est défini sur
     *note sys.stderr: 928. au moment de l'instanciation plutôt qu'à
     l'importation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the 'tb_locals' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the 'durations' parameter.

      -- Méthode: _makeResult ()

          Cette méthode renvoie l'instance de ‘TestResult’ utilisée par
          *note run(): 4059.  Il n'est pas destiné à être appelé
          directement, mais peut être surchargée dans des sous-classes
          pour fournir un ‘TestResult’ personnalisé.

          ‘_makeResult()’ instancie la classe ou l'appelable passé dans
          le constructeur ‘TextTestRunner’ comme argument ‘resultclass’.
          Il vaut par défaut *note TextTestResult: 51d. si aucune
          ‘resultclass’ n'est fournie.  La classe de résultat est
          instanciée avec les arguments suivants :

               stream, descriptions, verbosity

      -- Méthode: run (test)

          Cette méthode est l'interface publique principale du
          ‘TextTestRunner’.  Cette méthode prend une instance *note
          TestSuite: de3. ou *note TestCase: 439.  Un *note TestResult:
          1149. est créé en appelant *note _makeResult(): 4058. et le ou
          les tests sont exécutés et les résultats affichés sur la
          sortie standard.

 -- Fonction: unittest.main (module='__main__', defaultTest=None,
          argv=None, testRunner=None,
          testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader, exit=True, verbosity=1,
          failfast=None, catchbreak=None, buffer=None, warnings=None)

     Un programme en ligne de commande qui charge un ensemble de tests à
     partir du 'module' et les exécute.  L'utilisation principale est de
     rendre les modules de test facilement exécutables.  L'utilisation
     la plus simple pour cette fonction est d'inclure la ligne suivante
     à la fin d'un script de test :

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main()

     Vous pouvez exécuter des tests avec des informations plus
     détaillées en utilisant l'option de verbosité :

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main(verbosity=2)

     L'argument 'defaultTest' est soit le nom d'un seul test, soit un
     itérable de noms de test à exécuter si aucun nom de test n'est
     spécifié via 'argv'.  Si aucun nom de test n'est fourni via 'argv',
     tous les tests trouvés dans 'module' sont exécutés.

     L'argument 'argv' peut être une liste d'options passées au
     programme, le premier élément étant le nom du programme.  S'il
     n'est pas spécifié ou vaut ‘None’, les valeurs de *note sys.argv:
     1245. sont utilisées.

     The 'testRunner' argument can either be a test runner class or an
     already created instance of it.  By default ‘main’ calls *note
     sys.exit(): 1329. with an exit code indicating success (0) or
     failure (1) of the tests run.  An exit code of 5 indicates that no
     tests were run or skipped.

     L'argument 'testLoader' doit être une instance de *note TestLoader:
     28b, et par défaut de *note defaultTestLoader: 4041.

     Les ‘main’ sont utilisés à partir de l'interpréteur interactif en
     passant dans l'argument ‘exit=False’.  Ceci affiche le résultat sur
     la sortie standard sans appeler *note sys.exit(): 1329. :

          >>> from unittest import main
          >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)

     Les paramètres 'failfast', 'catchbreak' et 'buffer' ont le même
     effet que la même option en ligne de commande *note command-line
     options: 4008.

     L'argument 'warnings' spécifie l'argument *note filtre
     d'avertissement: 8b8. qui doit être utilisé lors de l'exécution des
     tests.  Si elle n'est pas spécifiée, elle reste réglée sur ‘None’
     si une option ‘-W'’ est passée à ‘python’ (voir *note Utilisation
     des avertissements: 1cf5.), sinon elle sera réglée sur ‘'default'’.

     Calling ‘main’ returns an object with the ‘result’ attribute that
     contains the result of the tests run as a *note
     unittest.TestResult: 1149.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout du paramètre 'exit'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout des paramètres 'verbosity',
     'failfast', 'catchbreak', 'buffer' et 'warnings'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre 'defaultTest' a été
     modifié pour accepter également un itérable de noms de test.

* Menu:

* Protocole de chargement des tests (load_tests Protocol): Protocole de chargement des tests load_tests Protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole de chargement des tests load_tests Protocol,  Up: Chargement et exécution des tests

5.27.5.13 Protocole de chargement des tests ('load_tests Protocol')
...................................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les modules ou paquets peuvent personnaliser la façon dont les tests
sont chargés à partir de ceux-ci pendant l'exécution des tests ou
pendant la découverte de tests en implémentant une fonction appelée
‘load_tests’.

Si un module de test définit ‘load_tests’ il est appelé par *note
TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28c. avec les arguments suivants :

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

où 'pattern' est passé directement depuis ‘loadTestsFromModule’.  La
valeur par défaut est ‘None’.

Elle doit renvoyer une classe *note TestSuite: de3.

'loader' est l'instance de *note TestLoader: 28b. qui effectue le
chargement.  'standard_tests' sont les tests qui sont chargés par défaut
depuis le module.  Il est courant que les modules de test veuillent
seulement ajouter ou supprimer des tests de l'ensemble standard de
tests.  Le troisième argument est utilisé lors du chargement de paquets
dans le cadre de la découverte de tests.

Une fonction typique de ‘load_tests’ qui charge les tests d'un ensemble
spécifique de classes *note TestCase: 439. peut ressembler à :

     test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)

     def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
         suite = TestSuite()
         for test_class in test_cases:
             tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
             suite.addTests(tests)
         return suite

Si la découverte est lancée dans un répertoire contenant un paquet, soit
à partir de la ligne de commande, soit en appelant *note
TestLoader.discover(): fd2, alors le système recherche dans le fichier
du paquet ‘__init__.py’ la fonction ‘load_tests’.  Si cette fonction
n'existe pas, la découverte se poursuit dans le paquet comme si c'était
juste un autre répertoire.  Sinon, la découverte des tests du paquet est
effectuée par ‘load_tests’ qui est appelé avec les arguments suivants :

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

Doit renvoyer une classe *note TestSuite: de3. représentant tous les
tests du paquet.  (‘standard_tests’ ne contient que les tests collectés
dans le fichier ‘__init__.py’).

Comme le motif est passé à ‘load_tests’, le paquet est libre de
continuer (et potentiellement de modifier) la découverte des tests.  Une
fonction « ne rien faire » ‘load_tests’ pour un paquet de test
ressemblerait à :

     def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
         # top level directory cached on loader instance
         this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
         package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
         standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
         return standard_tests

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La découverte de test ne vérifie plus que
les noms de paquets correspondent à 'pattern' en raison de
l'impossibilité de trouver des noms de paquets correspondant au motif
par défaut.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests,  Next: Traitement des signaux,  Prev: Classes et fonctions,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.14 Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests
.....................................................

Les classes et modules d'aménagements des tests sont implémentés dans
*note TestSuite: de3.  Lorsque la suite de tests rencontre un test d'une
nouvelle classe, alors ‘tearDownClass()’ de la classe précédente (s'il y
en a une) est appelé, suivi de ‘setUpClass()’ de la nouvelle classe.

De même, si un test provient d'un module différent du test précédent,
alors ‘tearDownModule’ du module précédent est exécuté, suivi par
‘setUpModule’ du nouveau module.

Après que tous les tests ont été exécutés, les ‘tearDownClass’ et
‘tearDownModule’ finaux sont exécutés.

Notez que les aménagements de tests partagés ne fonctionnent pas bien
avec de « potentielles » fonctions comme la parallélisation de test et
qu'ils brisent l'isolation des tests.  Ils doivent être utilisés avec
parcimonie.

L'ordre par défaut des tests créés par les chargeurs de tests unitaires
est de regrouper tous les tests des mêmes modules et classes.  Cela à
pour conséquence que ‘setUpClass’ / ‘setUpModule’ (etc) sont appelé
exactement une fois par classe et module.  Si vous rendez l'ordre
aléatoire, de sorte que les tests de différents modules et classes
soient adjacents les uns aux autres, alors ces fonctions d'aménagements
partagées peuvent être appelées plusieurs fois dans un même test.

Les aménagements de tests partagés ne sont pas conçus pour fonctionner
avec des suites dont la commande n'est pas standard.  Une
‘BaseTestSuite’ existe toujours pour les cadriciels qui ne veulent pas
gérer les aménagements de tests partagés.

S'il y a des exceptions levées pendant l'une des fonctions d'aménagement
de tests partagés, le test est signalé comme étant en erreur.  Parce
qu'il n'y a pas d'instance de test correspondante, un objet
‘_ErrorHolder’ (qui a la même interface qu'une classe *note TestCase:
439.) est créé pour représenter l'erreur.  Si vous n'utilisez que le
lanceur de test unitaire standard, ce détail n'a pas d'importance, mais
si vous êtes un auteur de cadriciel de test, il peut être pertinent.

* Menu:

* Classes de mise en place (setUpClass) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownClass): Classes de mise en place setUpClass et de démantèlement des tests tearDownClass.
* Module de mise en place (setUpModule) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownModule): Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes de mise en place setUpClass et de démantèlement des tests tearDownClass,  Next: Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule,  Up: Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests

5.27.5.15 Classes de mise en place ('setUpClass') et de démantèlement des tests ('tearDownClass')
.................................................................................................

Elles doivent être implémentées en tant que méthodes de classe :

     import unittest

     class Test(unittest.TestCase):
         @classmethod
         def setUpClass(cls):
             cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()

         @classmethod
         def tearDownClass(cls):
             cls._connection.destroy()

Si vous voulez que les classes de base ‘setUpClass’ et ‘tearDownClass’
soient appelées, vous devez les appeler vous-même.  Les implémentations
dans *note TestCase: 439. sont vides.

Si une exception est levée pendant l'exécution de ‘setUpClass’ alors les
tests dans la classe ne sont pas exécutés et la classe ‘tearDownClass’
n'est pas exécutée.  Les classes ignorées n'auront pas d'exécution de
‘setUpClass’ ou ‘tearDownClass’.  Si l'exception est une exception *note
SkipTest: fd1. alors la classe est signalée comme ayant été ignorée au
lieu d'être en échec.


File: python.info,  Node: Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule,  Prev: Classes de mise en place setUpClass et de démantèlement des tests tearDownClass,  Up: Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests

5.27.5.16 Module de mise en place ('setUpModule') et de démantèlement des tests ('tearDownModule')
..................................................................................................

Elles doivent être implémentées en tant que fonctions :

     def setUpModule():
         createConnection()

     def tearDownModule():
         closeConnection()

Si une exception est levée pendant l'exécution de la fonction
‘setUpModule’ alors aucun des tests du module ne sera exécuté et la
fonction ‘tearDownModule’ ne sera pas exécutée.  Si l'exception est une
exception *note SkipTest: fd1. alors le module est signalé comme ayant
été ignoré au lieu d'être en échec.

Pour ajouter du code de nettoyage qui doit être exécuté même en cas
d'exception, utilisez ‘addModuleCleanup’ :

 -- Fonction: unittest.addModuleCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Ajout d'une fonction à appeler après ‘tearDownModule()’ pour
     nettoyer les ressources utilisées pendant le test.  Les fonctions
     seront appelées dans l'ordre inverse de l'ordre dans lequel elles
     ont été ajoutées (LIFO).  Elles sont appelées avec tous les
     arguments et arguments nommés passés à *note addModuleCleanup():
     a3d. quand elles sont ajoutées.

     Si ‘setUpModule()’ échoue, impliquant que ‘tearDownModule()’ n'est
     pas appelée, alors les fonctions de nettoyage ajoutées sont quand
     même toujours appelées.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Méthode: classmethod unittest.enterModuleContext (cm)

     Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5c0.  If successful, also
     add its *note __exit__(): 12e0. method as a cleanup function by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): a3d. and return the result of the *note
     __enter__(): 5b4. method.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: unittest.doModuleCleanups ()

     Cette méthode est appelée sans conditions après ‘tearDownModule()’,
     ou après ‘setUpModule()’ si ‘setUpModule()’ lève une exception.

     It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): a3d.  If you need cleanup functions to be
     called 'prior' to ‘tearDownModule()’ then you can call *note
     doModuleCleanups(): 17f9. yourself.

     *note doModuleCleanups(): 17f9. extrait les méthodes de la pile des
     fonctions de nettoyage une à la fois, de sorte qu'elles peuvent
     être appelées à tout moment.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Traitement des signaux,  Prev: Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests,  Up: unittest --- Unit testing framework

5.27.5.17 Traitement des signaux
................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

The *note -c/-catch: 1313. command-line option to unittest, along with
the ‘catchbreak’ parameter to *note unittest.main(): fd0, provide more
friendly handling of control-C during a test run.  With catch break
behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to
complete, and the test run will then end and report all the results so
far.  A second control-c will raise a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. in
the usual way.

Le gestionnaire du signal 'contrôle-C' tente de rester compatible avec
le code ou les tests qui installent leur propre gestionnaire *note
signal.SIGINT: 830.  Si le gestionnaire ‘unittest’ est appelé mais
'n'est pas' le gestionnaire installé *note signal.SIGINT: 830,
c'est-à-dire qu'il a été remplacé par le système sous test et délégué,
alors il appelle le gestionnaire par défaut.  C'est normalement le
comportement attendu par un code qui remplace un gestionnaire installé
et lui délègue.  Pour les tests individuels qui ont besoin que le signal
'contrôle-C' "'unittest'" soit désactivée, le décorateur *note
removeHandler(): 1314. peut être utilisé.

Il existe quelques fonctions de support pour les auteurs de cadriciel
afin d'activer la fonctionnalité de gestion des 'contrôle-C' dans les
cadriciels de test.

 -- Fonction: unittest.installHandler ()

     Installe le gestionnaire 'contrôle-c'.  Quand un *note
     signal.SIGINT: 830. est reçu (généralement en réponse à
     l'utilisateur appuyant sur 'contrôle-c') tous les résultats
     enregistrés vont appeler la méthode *note stop(): 404c.

 -- Fonction: unittest.registerResult (result)

     Enregistre un objet *note TestResult: 1149. pour la gestion du
     'contrôle-C'. L'enregistrement d'un résultat stocke une référence
     faible sur celui-ci, de sorte qu'il n'empêche pas que le résultat
     soit collecté par le ramasse-miette.

     L'enregistrement d'un objet *note TestResult: 1149. n'a pas
     d'effets de bord si la gestion du 'contrôle-c' n'est pas activée,
     donc les cadriciels de test peuvent enregistrer sans condition tous
     les résultats qu'ils créent indépendamment du fait que la gestion
     soit activée ou non.

 -- Fonction: unittest.removeResult (result)

     Supprime un résultat enregistré.  Une fois qu'un résultat a été
     supprimé, *note stop(): 404c. n'est plus appelé sur cet objet
     résultat en réponse à un 'contrôle-c'.

 -- Fonction: unittest.removeHandler (function=None)

     Lorsqu'elle est appelée sans arguments, cette fonction supprime le
     gestionnaire 'contrôle-c' s'il a été installé.  Cette fonction peut
     également être utilisée comme décorateur de test pour supprimer
     temporairement le gestionnaire pendant l'exécution du test :

          @unittest.removeHandler
          def test_signal_handling(self):
              ...


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock --- mock object library,  Next: unittest mock --- getting started,  Prev: unittest --- Unit testing framework,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.6 ‘unittest.mock’ -- mock object library
---------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

'Code source :' Lib/unittest/mock.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note unittest.mock: 106. est une bibliothèque pour tester en Python.
Elle permet de remplacer des parties du système sous tests par des
objets simulacres et faire des assertions sur la façon dont ces objets
ont été utilisés.

*note unittest.mock: 106. fournit une classe *note Mock: a3c. pour ne
pas avoir besoin de créer manuellement des objets factices dans la suite
de tests.  Après avoir effectué une action, on peut faire des assertions
sur les méthodes / attributs utilisés et les arguments avec lesquels ils
ont été appelés.  On peut également spécifier des valeurs renvoyées et
définir les attributs nécessaires aux tests.

De plus, 'mock' fournit un décorateur *note patch(): e7d. qui est
capable de 'patcher' les modules et les classes dans la portée d'un
test, ainsi que *note sentinel: b90. pour créer des objets uniques.
Voir le guide rapide *note quick guide: 4061. pour quelques exemples
d'utilisation de *note Mock: a3c, *note MagicMock: e7c. et *note
patch(): e7d.

Mock is designed for use with *note unittest: 105. and is based on the
'action -> assertion' pattern instead of 'record -> replay' used by many
mocking frameworks.

There is a backport of *note unittest.mock: 106. for earlier versions of
Python, available as mock(2) on PyPI.

* Menu:

* Guide rapide::
* La classe Mock::
* The patchers::
* MagicMock and magic method support::
* Helpers::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/unittest/mock.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/mock/


File: python.info,  Node: Guide rapide,  Next: La classe Mock,  Up: unittest mock --- mock object library

5.27.6.1 Guide rapide
.....................

Les classes *note Mock: a3c. et *note MagicMock: e7c. créent tous les
attributs et méthodes au fur et à mesure des accès et stockent les
détails de la façon dont ils ont été utilisés.  On peut les configurer,
pour spécifier des valeurs de renvoi ou limiter les attributs
utilisables, puis faire des assertions sur la façon dont ils ont été
utilisés :

     >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
     >>> thing = ProductionClass()
     >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
     >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     3
     >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')

*note side_effect: 4062. allows you to perform side effects, including
raising an exception when a mock is called:

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     KeyError: 'foo'

     >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def side_effect(arg):
     ...     return values[arg]
     ...
     >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
     >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
     (5, 4, 3)

Il existe beaucoup d'autres façons de configurer et de contrôler le
comportement de 'Mock'.  Par exemple, l'argument 'spec' configure le
'mock' pour qu'il utilise les spécifications d'un autre objet.  Tenter
d'accéder à des attributs ou méthodes sur le 'mock' qui n'existent pas
sur l'objet 'spec' lève une *note AttributeError: 343.

The *note patch(): e7d. decorator / context manager makes it easy to
mock classes or objects in a module under test.  The object you specify
will be replaced with a mock (or other object) during the test and
restored when the test ends:

     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
     ... @patch('module.ClassName1')
     ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
     ...     module.ClassName1()
     ...     module.ClassName2()
     ...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
     ...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
     ...     assert MockClass1.called
     ...     assert MockClass2.called
     ...
     >>> test()

     Note: Lorsque l'on imbrique des décorateurs de patchs, les 'mocks'
     sont transmis à la fonction décorée dans le même ordre qu'ils ont
     été déclarés (l'ordre normal 'Python' des décorateurs est
     appliqué).  Cela signifie du bas vers le haut, donc dans l'exemple
     ci-dessus, l'objet simulacre pour ‘module.ClassName1’ est passé en
     premier.

     Avec *note patch(): e7d, il est important de 'patcher' les objets
     dans l'espace de nommage où ils sont recherchés.  C'est ce qui se
     fait normalement, mais pour un guide rapide, lisez *note où
     patcher: 4063.

Comme tout décorateur, *note patch(): e7d. peut être utilisé comme
gestionnaire de contexte avec une instruction 'with' :

     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
     ...     thing = ProductionClass()
     ...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

Il existe également *note patch.dict(): 19b1. pour définir des valeurs
d'un dictionnaire au sein d'une portée et restaurer ce dictionnaire à
son état d'origine lorsque le test se termine :

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

'Mock' gère le remplacement des *note méthodes magiques: 4064. de
Python.  La façon la plus simple d'utiliser les méthodes magiques est la
classe *note MagicMock: e7c.  Elle permet de faire des choses comme :

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
     >>> str(mock)
     'foobarbaz'
     >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()

'Mock' permet d'assigner des fonctions (ou d'autres instances 'Mock') à
des méthodes magiques et elles seront appelées correctement.  La classe
*note MagicMock: e7c. est juste une variante de 'Mock' qui a toutes les
méthodes magiques pré-créées (enfin, toutes les méthodes utiles).

L'exemple suivant est un exemple de création de méthodes magiques avec
la classe 'Mock' ordinaire :

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
     >>> str(mock)
     'wheeeeee'

Pour être sûr que les objets simulacres dans vos tests ont la même API
que les objets qu'ils remplacent, utilisez *note l'auto-spécification:
4065.  L'auto-spécification peut se faire via l'argument 'autospec' de
patch ou par la fonction *note create_autospec(): 15c3.
L'auto-spécification crée des objets simulacres qui ont les mêmes
attributs et méthodes que les objets qu'ils remplacent, et toutes les
fonctions et méthodes (y compris les constructeurs) ont les mêmes
signatures d'appel que l'objet réel.

Ceci garantit que vos objets simulacres échouent de la même manière que
votre code de production s'ils ne sont pas utilisés correctement :

     >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
     >>> def function(a, b, c):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
     >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
     'fishy'
     >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: missing a required argument: 'b'

La fonction *note create_autospec(): 15c3. peut aussi être utilisée sur
les classes, où elle copie la signature de la méthode ‘__init__’, et sur
les objets appelables où elle copie la signature de la méthode
‘__call__’.


File: python.info,  Node: La classe Mock,  Next: The patchers,  Prev: Guide rapide,  Up: unittest mock --- mock object library

5.27.6.2 La classe 'Mock'
.........................

La classe *note Mock: a3c. est un objet simulacre flexible destiné à
remplacer l'utilisation d'objets bouchons et factices dans votre code.
Les Mocks sont appelables et créent des attributs comme de nouveaux
'Mocks' lorsque l'on y accède (1).  L'accès au même attribut renvoie
toujours le même 'mock'.  Les simulacres enregistrent la façon dont ils
sont utilisés, ce qui permet de faire des assertions sur ce que le code
leur a fait.

La classe *note MagicMock: e7c. est une sous-classe de *note Mock: a3c.
avec toutes les méthodes magiques pré-créées et prête à l'emploi.  Il
existe également des variantes non appelables, utiles lorsque l'on
simule des objets qui ne sont pas appelables : *note NonCallableMock:
4067. et *note NonCallableMagicMock: 4068.

Le décorateur *note patch(): e7d. facilite le remplacement temporaire de
classes d'un module avec un objet *note Mock: a3c.  Par défaut *note
patch(): e7d. crée un *note MagicMock: e7c.  On peut spécifier une
classe alternative de *note Mock: a3c. en utilisant le paramètre
'new_callable' de *note patch(): e7d.

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.Mock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     Crée un nouvel objet *note Mock: a3c.  *note Mock: a3c. prend
     plusieurs arguments optionnels qui spécifient le comportement de
     l'objet 'Mock' :

        * 'spec' : une liste de chaînes de caractères ou un objet
          existant (une classe ou une instance) qui sert de
          spécification pour l'objet simulacre.  Si on passe un objet,
          alors une liste de chaînes de caractères est formée en
          appelant la fonction 'dir' sur l'objet (à l'exclusion des
          attributs et méthodes magiques non pris en charge).  L'accès à
          un attribut qui n'est pas dans cette liste entraîne la levée
          d'une exception *note AttributeError: 343.

          If 'spec' is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
          *note __class__: 1463. returns the class of the spec object.
          This allows mocks to pass *note isinstance(): 42d. tests.

        * 'spec_set' : variante plus stricte de 'spec'.  S'il est
          utilisé, essayer d'utiliser la fonction 'set' ou tenter
          d’accéder à un attribut sur le 'mock' qui n'est pas sur
          l'objet passé comme 'spec_set' lève une exception *note
          AttributeError: 343.

        * 'side_effect' : fonction à appeler à chaque fois que le 'Mock'
          est appelé.  Voir l'attribut *note side_effect: 4062.  Utile
          pour lever des exceptions ou modifier dynamiquement les
          valeurs de retour.  La fonction est appelée avec les mêmes
          arguments que la fonction simulée et, à moins qu'elle ne
          renvoie *note DEFAULT: 4069, la valeur de retour de cette
          fonction devient la valeur de retour de la fonction simulée.

          'side_effect' peut être soit une classe, soit une instance
          d'exception.  Dans ce cas, l'exception est levée lors de
          l'appel de l'objet simulacre.

          Si 'side_effect' est un itérable alors chaque appel au 'mock'
          renvoie la valeur suivante de l’itérable.

          Utilisez ‘None’ pour remettre à zéro un 'side_effect'.

        * 'return_value' : valeur renvoyée lors de l'appel de l'objet
          simulacre.  Par défaut, il s'agit d'un nouveau 'Mock' (créé
          lors du premier accès).  Voir l'attribut *note return_value:
          406a.

        * 'unsafe': By default, accessing any attribute whose name
          starts with 'assert', 'assret', 'asert', 'aseert' or 'assrt'
          will raise an *note AttributeError: 343.  Passing
          ‘unsafe=True’ will allow access to these attributes.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

        * 'wraps' : élément que le simulacre doit simuler.  Si 'wraps'
          n'est pas ‘None’ alors appeler 'Mock' passe l'appel à l'objet
          simulé (renvoyant le résultat réel).  L'accès à un attribut
          sur le 'mock' renvoie un objet 'Mock' qui simule l'attribut
          correspondant de l'objet simulé (donc essayer d'accéder à un
          attribut qui n'existe pas lève une exception *note
          AttributeError: 343.).

          Si l'objet simulacre a un ensemble explicite de 'return_value'
          alors les appels ne sont pas passés à l'objet simulé et c'est
          'return_value' qui est renvoyée à la place.

        * 'name' : Si le 'mock' a un nom, il est alors utilisé par la
          fonction 'repr' du 'mock'.  C'est utile pour le débogage.  Le
          nom est propagé aux enfants de l'objet 'mock'.

     Les 'mocks' peuvent aussi être appelés avec des arguments par
     mots-clés arbitraires.  Ceux-ci sont utilisés pour définir les
     attributs sur le 'mock' après sa création.  Voir la méthode *note
     configure_mock(): 406b. pour plus de détails.

      -- Méthode: assert_called ()

          Asserter que le 'mock' a été appelé au moins une fois.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called()

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: assert_called_once ()

          Asserter que le 'mock' a été appelé exactement une fois.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.
               Calls: [call(), call()].

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: assert_called_with (*args, **kwargs)

          This method is a convenient way of asserting that the last
          call has been made in a particular way:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')

      -- Méthode: assert_called_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that call was
          with the specified arguments.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock('other', bar='values')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
               Calls: [call('foo', bar='baz'), call('other', bar='values')].

      -- Méthode: assert_any_call (*args, **kwargs)

          Asserter que le simulacre a été appelé avec les arguments
          spécifiés.

          Asserter que le simulacre a 'bien' été appelé avec les
          arguments au cours de la vie du simulacre.  Contrairement à
          *note assert_called_with(): 19df. et *note
          assert_called_once_with(): 406c. qui passent seulement si
          l'appel demandé correspond bien au dernier appel, et dans le
          cas de *note assert_called_once_with(): 406c. l'appel au
          simulacre doit être unique.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
               >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
               >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')

      -- Méthode: assert_has_calls (calls, any_order=False)

          Asserter que le simulacre a été appelé avec les appels
          spécifiés.  L'attribut *note mock_calls: 406e. est comparé à
          la liste des appels.

          If 'any_order' is false then the calls must be sequential.
          There can be extra calls before or after the specified calls.

          Si 'any_order' est vrai alors les appels peuvent être dans
          n'importe quel ordre, mais ils doivent tous apparaître dans
          *note mock_calls: 406e.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1)
               >>> mock(2)
               >>> mock(3)
               >>> mock(4)
               >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
               >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

      -- Méthode: assert_not_called ()

          Asserter que le simulacre n'a jamais été appelé.

               >>> m = Mock()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               >>> obj = m.hello()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.
               Calls: [call()].

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: reset_mock (*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)

          La méthode 'reset_mock' réinitialise tous les attributs
          d'appel sur un simulacre :

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('hello')
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.reset_mock()
               >>> mock.called
               False

          This can be useful where you want to make a series of
          assertions that reuse the same object.

          'return_value' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          return_value: 406a.:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
               >>> mock('hello')
               5
               >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          'side_effect' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          side_effect: 4062.:

               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
               >>> mock('hello')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError
               >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          Note that *note reset_mock(): cea. 'doesn't' clear the *note
          return_value: 406a, *note side_effect: 4062. or any child
          attributes you have set using normal assignment by default.

          Child mocks are reset as well.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added two keyword-only arguments
          to the reset_mock function.

      -- Méthode: mock_add_spec (spec, spec_set=False)

          Ajoute une spécification à un simulacre.  'spec' peut être un
          objet ou une liste de chaînes de caractères.  Seuls les
          attributs de la spécification 'spec' peuvent être récupérés en
          tant qu'attributs du simulacre.

          Si 'spec_set' est vrai, seuls les attributs de la
          spécification peuvent être définis.

      -- Méthode: attach_mock (mock, attribute)

          Attache un simulacre comme attribut de l'instance courante, en
          remplaçant son nom et son parent.  Les appels au simulacre
          attaché sont enregistrés dans les attributs *note
          method_calls: 4070. et *note mock_calls: 406e. de l'instance
          courante.

      -- Méthode: configure_mock (**kwargs)

          Définir les attributs sur le simulacre à l'aide d'arguments
          nommés.

          Les attributs, les valeurs de retour et les effets de bords
          peuvent être définis sur des simulacres enfants en utilisant
          la notation par points standard et en dépaquetant un
          dictionnaire dans l'appel de méthode :

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          La même chose peut être réalisée en utilisant le constructeur
          des simulacres :

               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
               >>> mock.some_attribute
               'eggs'
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          *note configure_mock(): 406b. existe pour faciliter la
          configuration après la création du simulacre.

      -- Méthode: __dir__ ()

          Les objets *note Mock: a3c. limitent les résultats de
          ‘dir(un_mock)’ à des résultats utiles.  Pour les simulacres
          avec une spécification 'spec', cela inclut tous les attributs
          autorisés du simulacre.

          Voir *note FILTER_DIR: 4072. pour savoir ce que fait ce
          filtrage, et comment le désactiver.

      -- Méthode: _get_child_mock (**kw)

          Crée les simulacres enfants pour les attributs et la valeur de
          retour.  Par défaut, les objets simulacre enfants sont du même
          type que le parent.  Les sous-classes de 'Mock' peuvent
          surcharger cette méthode pour personnaliser la façon dont les
          simulacres enfants sont créés.

          Pour les simulacres non appelables, la variante appelable est
          utilisée (plutôt qu'une sous-classe personnalisée).

      -- Attribut: called

          Un booléen représentant si le simulacre a bien été appelé ou
          non :

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.called
               False
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True

      -- Attribut: call_count

          Un entier indiquant combien de fois le simulacre a été
          appelé :

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.call_count
               0
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_count
               2

      -- Attribut: return_value

          Définir cette option pour configurer la valeur renvoyé par
          appel du simulacre :

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
               >>> mock()
               'fish'

          La valeur de revoie par défaut est un simulacre configurable
          normalement :

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
               >>> mock.return_value()
               <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()

          L'attribut *note return_value: 406a. peut également être
          défini dans le constructeur :

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> mock.return_value
               3
               >>> mock()
               3

      -- Attribut: side_effect

          C'est soit une fonction à appeler lors de l'appel du
          simulacre, soit une exception (classe ou instance) à lever.

          Si vous passez une fonction, elle est appelée avec les mêmes
          arguments que la fonction simulée et à moins que la fonction
          ne renvoie le singleton *note DEFAULT: 4069. l'appel le la
          fonction simulée renvoie ce que la fonction renvoie.  Si la
          fonction renvoie *note DEFAULT: 4069. alors le simulacre
          renvoie sa valeur normale (celle de *note return_value:
          406a.).

          Si vous passez un itérable, il est utilisé pour récupérer un
          itérateur qui doit renvoyer une valeur à chaque appel.  Cette
          valeur peut être soit une instance d'exception à lever, soit
          une valeur à renvoyer à l'appel au simulacre (le traitement
          *note DEFAULT: 4069. est identique au renvoie de la fonction
          simulée).

          Un exemple d'un simulacre qui lève une exception (pour tester
          la gestion des exceptions d'une API) :

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
               >>> mock()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               Exception: Boom!

          Utiliser *note side_effect: 4062. pour renvoyer une séquence
          de valeurs :

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
               >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
               (3, 2, 1)

          Utilisation d'un objet appelable :

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     return DEFAULT
               ...
               >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
               >>> mock()
               3

          Un attribut *note side_effect: 4062. peut être défini dans le
          constructeur.  Voici un exemple qui ajoute un à la valeur du
          simulacre appelé et qui le renvoie :

               >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
               >>> mock(3)
               4
               >>> mock(-8)
               -7

          Positionner *note side_effect: 4062. sur ‘None’ l'efface :

               >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
               >>> m()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                ...
               KeyError
               >>> m.side_effect = None
               >>> m()
               3

      -- Attribut: call_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn't been called), or the
          arguments that the mock was last called with.  This will be in
          the form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be
          accessed through the ‘args’ property, is any ordered arguments
          the mock was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second
          member, which can also be accessed through the ‘kwargs’
          property, is any keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> print(mock.call_args)
               None
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_args
               call()
               >>> mock.call_args == ()
               True
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
               True
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {}
               >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4, 5)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'}

          L'attribut *note call_args: 193e, ainsi que les éléments des
          listes *note call_args_list: 4076, *note method_calls: 4070.
          et *note mock_calls: 406e. sont des objets *note call: 198c.
          Ce sont des 'n'-uplets, que l'on peut dépaqueter afin de faire
          des affirmations plus complexes sur chacun des arguments.
          Voir *note appels comme *n*-uplets: 4077.

          Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’
          properties.

      -- Attribut: call_args_list

          This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in
          sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it
          has been called).  Before any calls have been made it is an
          empty list.  The *note call: 198c. object can be used for
          conveniently constructing lists of calls to compare with *note
          call_args_list: 4076.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args_list
               [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
               >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
               >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
               True

          Members of *note call_args_list: 4076. are *note call: 198c.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 4077.

      -- Attribut: method_calls

          As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track
          calls to methods and attributes, and 'their' methods and
          attributes:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.property.method.attribute()
               <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method_calls
               [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]

          Members of *note method_calls: 4070. are *note call: 198c.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 4077.

      -- Attribut: mock_calls

          *note mock_calls: 406e. records 'all' calls to the mock
          object, its methods, magic methods 'and' return value mocks.

               >>> mock = MagicMock()
               >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
               >>> mock.first(a=3)
               <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.second()
               <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
               >>> int(mock)
               1
               >>> result(1)
               <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
               ... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
               >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
               True

          Members of *note mock_calls: 406e. are *note call: 198c.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 4077.

               Note: The way *note mock_calls: 406e. are recorded means
               that where nested calls are made, the parameters of
               ancestor calls are not recorded and so will always
               compare equal:

                    >>> mock = MagicMock()
                    >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
                    <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
                    >>> mock.mock_calls
                    [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
                    >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
                    True

      -- Attribut: __class__

          Normally the ‘__class__’ attribute of an object will return
          its type.  For a mock object with a ‘spec’, ‘__class__’
          returns the spec class instead.  This allows mock objects to
          pass *note isinstance(): 42d. tests for the object they are
          replacing / masquerading as:

               >>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
               >>> isinstance(mock, int)
               True

          ‘__class__’ is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
          *note isinstance(): 42d. check without forcing you to use a
          spec:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.__class__ = dict
               >>> isinstance(mock, dict)
               True

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.NonCallableMock (spec=None, wraps=None,
          name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)

     A non-callable version of *note Mock: a3c.  The constructor
     parameters have the same meaning of *note Mock: a3c, with the
     exception of 'return_value' and 'side_effect' which have no meaning
     on a non-callable mock.

Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a ‘spec’ or ‘spec_set’
are able to pass *note isinstance(): 42d. tests:

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True
     >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True

The *note Mock: a3c. classes have support for mocking magic methods.
See *note magic methods: 4064. for the full details.

The mock classes and the *note patch(): e7d. decorators all take
arbitrary keyword arguments for configuration.  For the *note patch():
e7d. decorators the keywords are passed to the constructor of the mock
being created.  The keyword arguments are for configuring attributes of
the mock:

     >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
     >>> m.attribute
     3
     >>> m.other
     'fish'

The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same
way, using dotted notation.  As you can't use dotted names directly in a
call you have to create a dictionary and unpack it using ‘**’:

     >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
     >>> mock.some_attribute
     'eggs'
     >>> mock.method()
     3
     >>> mock.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

A callable mock which was created with a 'spec' (or a 'spec_set') will
introspect the specification object's signature when matching calls to
the mock.  Therefore, it can match the actual call's arguments
regardless of whether they were passed positionally or by name:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

This applies to *note assert_called_with(): 19df, *note
assert_called_once_with(): 406c, *note assert_has_calls(): 1663. and
*note assert_any_call(): 406d.  When *note Autospeccing: 4065, it will
also apply to method calls on the mock object.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added signature introspection on specced
and autospecced mock objects.

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.PropertyMock (*args, **kwargs)

     A mock intended to be used as a *note property: 192, or other *note
     descriptor: 152c, on a class.  *note PropertyMock: 4079. provides
     *note __get__(): 149f. and *note __set__(): 1f23. methods so you
     can specify a return value when it is fetched.

     Fetching a *note PropertyMock: 4079. instance from an object calls
     the mock, with no args.  Setting it calls the mock with the value
     being set.

          >>> class Foo:
          ...     @property
          ...     def foo(self):
          ...         return 'something'
          ...     @foo.setter
          ...     def foo(self, value):
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
          ...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
          ...     this_foo = Foo()
          ...     print(this_foo.foo)
          ...     this_foo.foo = 6
          ...
          mockity-mock
          >>> mock_foo.mock_calls
          [call(), call(6)]

Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can't directly attach
a *note PropertyMock: 4079. to a mock object.  Instead you can attach it
to the mock type object:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
     >>> type(m).foo = p
     >>> m.foo
     3
     >>> p.assert_called_once_with()

     Prudence: If an *note AttributeError: 343. is raised by *note
     PropertyMock: 4079, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor
     and *note __getattr__(): 4bf. will be called on the parent mock:

          >>> m = MagicMock()
          >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
          >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
          >>> m.my_property
          <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>

     See *note __getattr__(): 4bf. for details.

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.AsyncMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     An asynchronous version of *note MagicMock: e7c.  The *note
     AsyncMock: a3b. object will behave so the object is recognized as
     an async function, and the result of a call is an awaitable.

          >>> mock = AsyncMock()
          >>> asyncio.iscoroutinefunction(mock)
          True
          >>> inspect.isawaitable(mock())
          True

     The result of ‘mock()’ is an async function which will have the
     outcome of ‘side_effect’ or ‘return_value’ after it has been
     awaited:

        - if ‘side_effect’ is a function, the async function will return
          the result of that function,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is an exception, the async function will
          raise the exception,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is an iterable, the async function will
          return the next value of the iterable, however, if the
          sequence of result is exhausted, ‘StopAsyncIteration’ is
          raised immediately,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is not defined, the async function will
          return the value defined by ‘return_value’, hence, by default,
          the async function returns a new *note AsyncMock: a3b. object.

     Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: a3c. or *note MagicMock: e7c.
     to an async function will result in a coroutine object being
     returned after calling.

          >>> async def async_func(): pass
          ...
          >>> mock = MagicMock(async_func)
          >>> mock
          <MagicMock spec='function' id='...'>
          >>> mock()
          <coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...>

     Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: a3c, *note MagicMock: e7c, or
     *note AsyncMock: a3b. to a class with asynchronous and synchronous
     functions will automatically detect the synchronous functions and
     set them as *note MagicMock: e7c. (if the parent mock is *note
     AsyncMock: a3b. or *note MagicMock: e7c.) or *note Mock: a3c. (if
     the parent mock is *note Mock: a3c.).  All asynchronous functions
     will be *note AsyncMock: a3b.

          >>> class ExampleClass:
          ...     def sync_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...     async def async_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass)
          >>> a_mock.sync_foo
          <MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> a_mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass)
          >>> mock.sync_foo
          <Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

      -- Méthode: assert_awaited ()

          Assert that the mock was awaited at least once.  Note that
          this is separate from the object having been called, the
          ‘await’ keyword must be used:

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(coroutine_mock):
               ...     await coroutine_mock
               ...
               >>> coroutine_mock = mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited.
               >>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()

      -- Méthode: assert_awaited_once ()

          Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- Méthode: assert_awaited_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the last await was with the specified arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: expected await not found.
               Expected: mock('other')
               Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar')

      -- Méthode: assert_awaited_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once and with the
          specified arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- Méthode: assert_any_await (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert the mock has ever been awaited with the specified
          arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('hello'))
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: mock('other') await not found

      -- Méthode: assert_has_awaits (calls, any_order=False)

          Assert the mock has been awaited with the specified calls.
          The *note await_args_list: 193d. list is checked for the
          awaits.

          If 'any_order' is false then the awaits must be sequential.
          There can be extra calls before or after the specified awaits.

          If 'any_order' is true then the awaits can be in any order,
          but they must all appear in *note await_args_list: 193d.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")]
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Awaits not found.
               Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')]
               Actual: []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)

      -- Méthode: assert_not_awaited ()

          Assert that the mock was never awaited.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> mock.assert_not_awaited()

      -- Méthode: reset_mock (*args, **kwargs)

          See *note Mock.reset_mock(): cea.  Also sets *note
          await_count: 4082. to 0, *note await_args: 4083. to None, and
          clears the *note await_args_list: 193d.

      -- Attribut: await_count

          An integer keeping track of how many times the mock object has
          been awaited.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               1
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               2

      -- Attribut: await_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been awaited), or
          the arguments that the mock was last awaited with.  Functions
          the same as *note Mock.call_args: 193e.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('foo')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('bar')

      -- Attribut: await_args_list

          This is a list of all the awaits made to the mock object in
          sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it
          has been awaited).  Before any awaits have been made it is an
          empty list.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo')]
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo'), call('bar')]

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.ThreadingMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, *, timeout=UNSET, **kwargs)

     A version of *note MagicMock: e7c. for multithreading tests.  The
     *note ThreadingMock: 4084. object provides extra methods to wait
     for a call to be invoked, rather than assert on it immediately.

     The default timeout is specified by the ‘timeout’ argument, or if
     unset by the *note ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 4085. attribute,
     which defaults to blocking (‘None’).

     You can configure the global default timeout by setting *note
     ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 4085.

      -- Méthode: wait_until_called (*, timeout=UNSET)

          Waits until the mock is called.

          If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock or if a
          timeout argument is passed to this function, the function
          raises an *note AssertionError: 696. if the call is not
          performed in time.

               >>> mock = ThreadingMock()
               >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock)
               >>> thread.start()
               >>> mock.wait_until_called(timeout=1)
               >>> thread.join()

      -- Méthode: wait_until_any_call_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Waits until the mock is called with the specified arguments.

          If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock the
          function raises an *note AssertionError: 696. if the call is
          not performed in time.

               >>> mock = ThreadingMock()
               >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock, args=("arg1", "arg2",), kwargs={"arg": "thing"})
               >>> thread.start()
               >>> mock.wait_until_any_call_with("arg1", "arg2", arg="thing")
               >>> thread.join()

      -- Attribut: DEFAULT_TIMEOUT

          Global default timeout in seconds to create instances of *note
          ThreadingMock: 4084.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Calling::
* Deleting Attributes::
* Mock names and the name attribute::
* Attaching Mocks as Attributes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that
have leading and trailing double underscores).  Mock doesn't create
these but instead raises an *note AttributeError: 343.  This is because
the interpreter will often implicitly request these methods, and gets
'very' confused to get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method.
If you need magic method support see *note magic methods: 4064.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling,  Next: Deleting Attributes,  Up: La classe Mock

5.27.6.3 Calling
................

Mock objects are callable.  The call will return the value set as the
*note return_value: 406a. attribute.  The default return value is a new
Mock object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed
(either explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the
same one returned each time.

Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes like *note
call_args: 193e. and *note call_args_list: 4076.

If *note side_effect: 4062. is set then it will be called after the call
has been recorded, so if ‘side_effect’ raises an exception the call is
still recorded.

The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to
make *note side_effect: 4062. an exception class or instance:

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     IndexError
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3)]
     >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
     >>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'Bang!'
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]

If *note side_effect: 4062. is a function then whatever that function
returns is what calls to the mock return.  The ‘side_effect’ function is
called with the same arguments as the mock.  This allows you to vary the
return value of the call dynamically, based on the input:

     >>> def side_effect(value):
     ...     return value + 1
     ...
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> m(1)
     2
     >>> m(2)
     3
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1), call(2)]

If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new
mock), or any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this.
Either return *note return_value: 406a. from inside *note side_effect:
4062, or return *note DEFAULT: 4069.:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return m.return_value
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m.return_value = 3
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return DEFAULT
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3

To remove a *note side_effect: 4062, and return to the default
behaviour, set the ‘side_effect’ to ‘None’:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return 3
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m.side_effect = None
     >>> m()
     6

The *note side_effect: 4062. can also be any iterable object.  Repeated
calls to the mock will return values from the iterable (until the
iterable is exhausted and a *note StopIteration: bea. is raised):

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
     >>> m()
     1
     >>> m()
     2
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     StopIteration

If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised
instead of returned:

     >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
     >>> m()
     33
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     ValueError
     >>> m()
     66


File: python.info,  Node: Deleting Attributes,  Next: Mock names and the name attribute,  Prev: Calling,  Up: La classe Mock

5.27.6.4 Deleting Attributes
............................

Mock objects create attributes on demand.  This allows them to pretend
to be objects of any type.

You may want a mock object to return ‘False’ to a *note hasattr(): 4be.
call, or raise an *note AttributeError: 343. when an attribute is
fetched.  You can do this by providing an object as a ‘spec’ for a mock,
but that isn't always convenient.

You "block" attributes by deleting them.  Once deleted, accessing an
attribute will raise an *note AttributeError: 343.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     True
     >>> del mock.m
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     False
     >>> del mock.f
     >>> mock.f
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: f


File: python.info,  Node: Mock names and the name attribute,  Next: Attaching Mocks as Attributes,  Prev: Deleting Attributes,  Up: La classe Mock

5.27.6.5 Mock names and the name attribute
..........................................

Since "name" is an argument to the *note Mock: a3c. constructor, if you
want your mock object to have a "name" attribute you can't just pass it
in at creation time.  There are two alternatives.  One option is to use
*note configure_mock(): 406b.:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
     >>> mock.name
     'my_name'

A simpler option is to simply set the "name" attribute after mock
creation:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.name = "foo"


File: python.info,  Node: Attaching Mocks as Attributes,  Prev: Mock names and the name attribute,  Up: La classe Mock

5.27.6.6 Attaching Mocks as Attributes
......................................

When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return
value) it becomes a "child" of that mock.  Calls to the child are
recorded in the *note method_calls: 4070. and *note mock_calls: 406e.
attributes of the parent.  This is useful for configuring child mocks
and then attaching them to the parent, or for attaching mocks to a
parent that records all calls to the children and allows you to make
assertions about the order of calls between mocks:

     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> parent.child1 = child1
     >>> parent.child2 = child2
     >>> child1(1)
     >>> child2(2)
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]

The exception to this is if the mock has a name.  This allows you to
prevent the "parenting" if for some reason you don't want it to happen.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
     >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
     >>> mock.attribute()
     <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     []

Mocks created for you by *note patch(): e7d. are automatically given
names.  To attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the *note
attach_mock(): 15ca. method:

     >>> thing1 = object()
     >>> thing2 = object()
     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
     ...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
     ...         child1('one')
     ...         child2('two')
     ...
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]


File: python.info,  Node: The patchers,  Next: MagicMock and magic method support,  Prev: La classe Mock,  Up: unittest mock --- mock object library

5.27.6.7 The patchers
.....................

The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope
of the function they decorate.  They automatically handle the unpatching
for you, even if exceptions are raised.  All of these functions can also
be used in with statements or as class decorators.

* Menu:

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop.
* patch builtins::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* Nesting Patch Decorators::
* Where to patch::
* Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: patch,  Next: patch object,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.8 patch
..............

     Note: The key is to do the patching in the right namespace.  See
     the section *note where to patch: 408f.

 -- Fonction: unittest.mock.patch (target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     *note patch(): e7d. acts as a function decorator, class decorator
     or a context manager.  Inside the body of the function or with
     statement, the 'target' is patched with a 'new' object.  When the
     function/with statement exits the patch is undone.

     If 'new' is omitted, then the target is replaced with an *note
     AsyncMock: a3b. if the patched object is an async function or a
     *note MagicMock: e7c. otherwise.  If *note patch(): e7d. is used as
     a decorator and 'new' is omitted, the created mock is passed in as
     an extra argument to the decorated function.  If *note patch():
     e7d. is used as a context manager the created mock is returned by
     the context manager.

     'target' should be a string in the form
     ‘'package.module.ClassName'’.  The 'target' is imported and the
     specified object replaced with the 'new' object, so the 'target'
     must be importable from the environment you are calling *note
     patch(): e7d. from.  The target is imported when the decorated
     function is executed, not at decoration time.

     The 'spec' and 'spec_set' keyword arguments are passed to the *note
     MagicMock: e7c. if patch is creating one for you.

     In addition you can pass ‘spec=True’ or ‘spec_set=True’, which
     causes patch to pass in the object being mocked as the
     spec/spec_set object.

     'new_callable' allows you to specify a different class, or callable
     object, that will be called to create the 'new' object.  By default
     *note AsyncMock: a3b. is used for async functions and *note
     MagicMock: e7c. for the rest.

     A more powerful form of 'spec' is 'autospec'.  If you set
     ‘autospec=True’ then the mock will be created with a spec from the
     object being replaced.  All attributes of the mock will also have
     the spec of the corresponding attribute of the object being
     replaced.  Methods and functions being mocked will have their
     arguments checked and will raise a *note TypeError: 525. if they
     are called with the wrong signature.  For mocks replacing a class,
     their return value (the 'instance') will have the same spec as the
     class.  See the *note create_autospec(): 15c3. function and *note
     Autospeccing: 4065.

     Instead of ‘autospec=True’ you can pass ‘autospec=some_object’ to
     use an arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being
     replaced.

     By default *note patch(): e7d. will fail to replace attributes that
     don't exist.  If you pass in ‘create=True’, and the attribute
     doesn't exist, patch will create the attribute for you when the
     patched function is called, and delete it again after the patched
     function has exited.  This is useful for writing tests against
     attributes that your production code creates at runtime.  It is off
     by default because it can be dangerous.  With it switched on you
     can write passing tests against APIs that don't actually exist!

          Note: 
          Modifié dans la version 3.5: If you are patching builtins in a
          module then you don't need to pass ‘create=True’, it will be
          added by default.

     Patch can be used as a *note TestCase: 439. class decorator.  It
     works by decorating each test method in the class.  This reduces
     the boilerplate code when your test methods share a common
     patchings set.  *note patch(): e7d. finds tests by looking for
     method names that start with ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  By default this
     is ‘'test'’, which matches the way *note unittest: 105. finds
     tests.  You can specify an alternative prefix by setting
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.

     Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement.
     Here the patching applies to the indented block after the with
     statement.  If you use "as" then the patched object will be bound
     to the name after the "as"; very useful if *note patch(): e7d. is
     creating a mock object for you.

     *note patch(): e7d. takes arbitrary keyword arguments.  These will
     be passed to *note AsyncMock: a3b. if the patched object is
     asynchronous, to *note MagicMock: e7c. otherwise or to
     'new_callable' if specified.

     ‘patch.dict(...)’, ‘patch.multiple(...)’ and ‘patch.object(...)’
     are available for alternate use-cases.

*note patch(): e7d. as function decorator, creating the mock for you and
passing it into the decorated function:

     >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
     ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
     ...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
     ...
     >>> function(None)
     True

Patching a class replaces the class with a *note MagicMock: e7c.
'instance'.  If the class is instantiated in the code under test then it
will be the *note return_value: 406a. of the mock that will be used.

If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use *note
side_effect: 4062. to return a new mock each time.  Alternatively you
can set the 'return_value' to be anything you want.

To configure return values on methods of 'instances' on the patched
class you must do this on the *note return_value: 406a.  For example:

     >>> class Class:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
     ...     instance = MockClass.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
     ...     assert Class() is instance
     ...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
     ...

If you use 'spec' or 'spec_set' and *note patch(): e7d. is replacing a
'class', then the return value of the created mock will have the same
spec.

     >>> Original = Class
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
     >>> MockClass = patcher.start()
     >>> instance = MockClass()
     >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
     >>> patcher.stop()

The 'new_callable' argument is useful where you want to use an
alternative class to the default *note MagicMock: e7c. for the created
mock.  For example, if you wanted a *note NonCallableMock: 4067. to be
used:

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
     ...     assert thing is mock_thing
     ...     thing()
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable

Another use case might be to replace an object with an *note
io.StringIO: f14. instance:

     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print('Something')
     ...
     >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     foo()
     ...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
     ...
     >>> test()

When *note patch(): e7d. is creating a mock for you, it is common that
the first thing you need to do is to configure the mock.  Some of that
configuration can be done in the call to patch.  Any arbitrary keywords
you pass into the call will be used to set attributes on the created
mock:

     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.first
     'one'
     >>> mock_thing.second
     'two'

As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the *note
return_value: 406a. and *note side_effect: 4062, of child mocks can also
be configured.  These aren't syntactically valid to pass in directly as
keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be
expanded into a *note patch(): e7d. call using ‘**’:

     >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.method()
     3
     >>> mock_thing.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or
an attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with *note
AttributeError: 343.:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute'

but adding ‘create=True’ in the call to *note patch(): e7d. will make
the previous example work as expected:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()

Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note patch(): e7d. now returns an *note
AsyncMock: a3b. if the target is an async function.


File: python.info,  Node: patch object,  Next: patch dict,  Prev: patch,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.9 patch.object
.....................

 -- Fonction: patch.object (target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     patch the named member ('attribute') on an object ('target') with a
     mock object.

     *note patch.object(): 1552. can be used as a decorator, class
     decorator or a context manager.  Arguments 'new', 'spec', 'create',
     'spec_set', 'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as
     for *note patch(): e7d.  Like *note patch(): e7d, *note
     patch.object(): 1552. takes arbitrary keyword arguments for
     configuring the mock object it creates.

     When used as a class decorator *note patch.object(): 1552. honours
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap.

You can either call *note patch.object(): 1552. with three arguments or
two arguments.  The three argument form takes the object to be patched,
the attribute name and the object to replace the attribute with.

When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object,
and a mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the
decorated function:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... def test(mock_method):
     ...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
     ...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
     ...
     >>> test()

'spec', 'create' and the other arguments to *note patch.object(): 1552.
have the same meaning as they do for *note patch(): e7d.


File: python.info,  Node: patch dict,  Next: patch multiple,  Prev: patch object,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.10 patch.dict
....................

 -- Fonction: patch.dict (in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)

     Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the
     dictionary to its original state after the test.

     'in_dict' can be a dictionary or a mapping like container.  If it
     is a mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and
     deleting items plus iterating over keys.

     'in_dict' can also be a string specifying the name of the
     dictionary, which will then be fetched by importing it.

     'values' can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary.
     'values' can also be an iterable of ‘(key, value)’ pairs.

     If 'clear' is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the
     new values are set.

     *note patch.dict(): 19b1. can also be called with arbitrary keyword
     arguments to set values in the dictionary.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note patch.dict(): 19b1. now returns
     the patched dictionary when used as a context manager.

*note patch.dict(): 19b1. can be used as a context manager, decorator or
class decorator:

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... def test():
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert foo == {}

When used as a class decorator *note patch.dict(): 19b1. honours
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ (default to ‘'test'’) for choosing which methods to
wrap:

     >>> import os
     >>> import unittest
     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def test_sample(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue')

If you want to use a different prefix for your test, you can inform the
patchers of the different prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  For
more details about how to change the value of see *note TEST_PREFIX:
4092.

*note patch.dict(): 19b1. can be used to add members to a dictionary, or
simply let a test change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is
restored when the test ends.

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo:
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict)
     ...     patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs'
     ...
     >>> assert foo == {}
     >>> assert patched_foo == {}

     >>> import os
     >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
     ...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
     ...
     newvalue
     >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ

Keywords can be used in the *note patch.dict(): 19b1. call to set values
in the dictionary:

     >>> mymodule = MagicMock()
     >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
     ...     import mymodule
     ...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
     ...
     'fish'

*note patch.dict(): 19b1. can be used with dictionary like objects that
aren't actually dictionaries.  At the very minimum they must support
item getting, setting, deleting and either iteration or membership test.
This corresponds to the magic methods *note __getitem__(): 280, *note
__setitem__(): 12ab, *note __delitem__(): 12ac. and either *note
__iter__(): 1c7e. or *note __contains__(): 1f17.

     >>> class Container:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.values = {}
     ...     def __getitem__(self, name):
     ...         return self.values[name]
     ...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
     ...         self.values[name] = value
     ...     def __delitem__(self, name):
     ...         del self.values[name]
     ...     def __iter__(self):
     ...         return iter(self.values)
     ...
     >>> thing = Container()
     >>> thing['one'] = 1
     >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
     ...     assert thing['one'] == 2
     ...     assert thing['two'] == 3
     ...
     >>> assert thing['one'] == 1
     >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']


File: python.info,  Node: patch multiple,  Next: patch methods start and stop,  Prev: patch dict,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.11 patch.multiple
........................

 -- Fonction: patch.multiple (target, spec=None, create=False,
          spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

     Perform multiple patches in a single call.  It takes the object to
     be patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by
     importing) and keyword arguments for the patches:

          with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
              ...

     Use *note DEFAULT: 4069. as the value if you want *note
     patch.multiple(): 4094. to create mocks for you.  In this case the
     created mocks are passed into a decorated function by keyword, and
     a dictionary is returned when *note patch.multiple(): 4094. is used
     as a context manager.

     *note patch.multiple(): 4094. can be used as a decorator, class
     decorator or a context manager.  The arguments 'spec', 'spec_set',
     'create', 'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as
     for *note patch(): e7d.  These arguments will be applied to 'all'
     patches done by *note patch.multiple(): 4094.

     When used as a class decorator *note patch.multiple(): 4094.
     honours ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap.

If you want *note patch.multiple(): 4094. to create mocks for you, then
you can use *note DEFAULT: 4069. as the value.  If you use *note
patch.multiple(): 4094. as a decorator then the created mocks are passed
into the decorated function by keyword.

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> other = object()

     >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(thing, other):
     ...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
     ...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

*note patch.multiple(): 4094. can be nested with other ‘patch’
decorators, but put arguments passed by keyword 'after' any of the
standard arguments created by *note patch(): e7d.:

     >>> @patch('sys.exit')
     ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
     ...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

If *note patch.multiple(): 4094. is used as a context manager, the value
returned by the context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are
keyed by name:

     >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
     ...     assert values['thing'] is thing
     ...     assert values['other'] is other
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: patch methods start and stop,  Next: patch builtins,  Prev: patch multiple,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.12 patch methods: start and stop
.......................................

All the patchers have ‘start()’ and ‘stop()’ methods.  These make it
simpler to do patching in ‘setUp’ methods or where you want to do
multiple patches without nesting decorators or with statements.

To use them call *note patch(): e7d, *note patch.object(): 1552. or
*note patch.dict(): 19b1. as normal and keep a reference to the returned
‘patcher’ object.  You can then call ‘start()’ to put the patch in place
and ‘stop()’ to undo it.

If you are using *note patch(): e7d. to create a mock for you then it
will be returned by the call to ‘patcher.start’.

     >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
     >>> from package import module
     >>> original = module.ClassName
     >>> new_mock = patcher.start()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
     >>> patcher.stop()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock

A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the
‘setUp’ method of a *note TestCase: 439.:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
     ...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
     ...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
     ...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher1.stop()
     ...         self.patcher2.stop()
     ...
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
     ...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').run()

     Prudence: If you use this technique you must ensure that the
     patching is "undone" by calling ‘stop’.  This can be fiddlier than
     you might think, because if an exception is raised in the ‘setUp’
     then ‘tearDown’ is not called.  *note
     unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a71. makes this easier:

          >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
          ...     def setUp(self):
          ...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
          ...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
          ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
          ...
          ...     def test_something(self):
          ...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
          ...

     As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the
     ‘patcher’ object.

It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using
*note patch.stopall(): 4097.

 -- Fonction: patch.stopall ()

     Stop all active patches.  Only stops patches started with ‘start’.


File: python.info,  Node: patch builtins,  Next: TEST_PREFIX,  Prev: patch methods start and stop,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.13 patch builtins
........................

You can patch any builtins within a module.  The following example
patches builtin *note ord(): 1ead.:

     >>> @patch('__main__.ord')
     ... def test(mock_ord):
     ...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
     ...     print(ord('c'))
     ...
     >>> test()
     101


File: python.info,  Node: TEST_PREFIX,  Next: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Prev: patch builtins,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.14 TEST_PREFIX
.....................

All of the patchers can be used as class decorators.  When used in this
way they wrap every test method on the class.  The patchers recognise
methods that start with ‘'test'’ as being test methods.  This is the
same way that the *note unittest.TestLoader: 28b. finds test methods by
default.

It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests.
You can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’:

     >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
     >>> value = 3
     >>>
     >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
     ... class Thing:
     ...     def foo_one(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...     def foo_two(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...
     >>>
     >>> Thing().foo_one()
     not three
     >>> Thing().foo_two()
     not three
     >>> value
     3


File: python.info,  Node: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Next: Where to patch,  Prev: TEST_PREFIX,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.15 Nesting Patch Decorators
..................................

If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the
decorators.

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ... def test(mock1, mock2):
     ...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
     ...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
     ...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
     ...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
     ...     return mock1, mock2
     ...
     >>> mock1, mock2 = test()
     >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')

Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards.  This is
the standard way that Python applies decorators.  The order of the
created mocks passed into your test function matches this order.


File: python.info,  Node: Where to patch,  Next: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects,  Prev: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.16 Where to patch
........................

*note patch(): e7d. works by (temporarily) changing the object that a
'name' points to with another one.  There can be many names pointing to
any individual object, so for patching to work you must ensure that you
patch the name used by the system under test.

The basic principle is that you patch where an object is 'looked up',
which is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined.  A
couple of examples will help to clarify this.

Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following
structure:

     a.py
         -> Defines SomeClass

     b.py
         -> from a import SomeClass
         -> some_function instantiates SomeClass

Now we want to test ‘some_function’ but we want to mock out ‘SomeClass’
using *note patch(): e7d.  The problem is that when we import module b,
which we will have to do when it imports ‘SomeClass’ from module a.  If
we use *note patch(): e7d. to mock out ‘a.SomeClass’ then it will have
no effect on our test; module b already has a reference to the 'real'
‘SomeClass’ and it looks like our patching had no effect.

The key is to patch out ‘SomeClass’ where it is used (or where it is
looked up).  In this case ‘some_function’ will actually look up
‘SomeClass’ in module b, where we have imported it.  The patching should
look like:

     @patch('b.SomeClass')

However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of ‘from a
import SomeClass’ module b does ‘import a’ and ‘some_function’ uses
‘a.SomeClass’.  Both of these import forms are common.  In this case the
class we want to patch is being looked up in the module and so we have
to patch ‘a.SomeClass’ instead:

     @patch('a.SomeClass')


File: python.info,  Node: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects,  Prev: Where to patch,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.17 Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects
................................................

Both *note patch: 408e. and *note patch.object: 4090. correctly patch
and restore descriptors: class methods, static methods and properties.
You should patch these on the 'class' rather than an instance.  They
also work with 'some' objects that proxy attribute access, like the
django settings object(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198


File: python.info,  Node: MagicMock and magic method support,  Next: Helpers,  Prev: The patchers,  Up: unittest mock --- mock object library

5.27.6.18 MagicMock and magic method support
............................................

* Menu:

* Mocking Magic Methods::
* Magic Mock::


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking Magic Methods,  Next: Magic Mock,  Up: MagicMock and magic method support

5.27.6.19 Mocking Magic Methods
...............................

*note Mock: a3c. supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also
known as *note "magic methods": 409f.  This allows mock objects to
replace containers or other objects that implement Python protocols.

Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods (1),
this support has been specially implemented.  This means that only
specific magic methods are supported.  The supported list includes
'almost' all of them.  If there are any missing that you need please let
us know.

You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a
function or a mock instance.  If you are using a function then it 'must'
take ‘self’ as the first argument (2).

     >>> def __str__(self):
     ...     return 'fooble'
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = __str__
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
     >>> list(mock)
     []

One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in
a *note with: 5be. statement:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
     >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
     >>> with mock as m:
     ...     assert m == 'foo'
     ...
     >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
     >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)

Calls to magic methods do not appear in *note method_calls: 4070, but
they are recorded in *note mock_calls: 406e.

     Note: If you use the 'spec' keyword argument to create a mock then
     attempting to set a magic method that isn't in the spec will raise
     an *note AttributeError: 343.

The full list of supported magic methods is:

   * ‘__hash__’, ‘__sizeof__’, ‘__repr__’ and ‘__str__’

   * ‘__dir__’, ‘__format__’ et ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__round__’, ‘__floor__’, ‘__trunc__’ and ‘__ceil__’

   * Comparisons: ‘__lt__’, ‘__gt__’, ‘__le__’, ‘__ge__’, ‘__eq__’ and
     ‘__ne__’

   * Container methods: ‘__getitem__’, ‘__setitem__’, ‘__delitem__’,
     ‘__contains__’, ‘__len__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’ and
     ‘__missing__’

   * Context manager: ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘__aenter__’ and
     ‘__aexit__’

   * Unary numeric methods: ‘__neg__’, ‘__pos__’ and ‘__invert__’

   * The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants):
     ‘__add__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__mul__’, ‘__matmul__’, ‘__truediv__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__lshift__’,
     ‘__rshift__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__xor__’, ‘__or__’, and ‘__pow__’

   * Numeric conversion methods: ‘__complex__’, ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’
     and ‘__index__’

   * Descriptor methods: ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’

   * Pickling: ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’,
     ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’

   * File system path representation: ‘__fspath__’

   * Asynchronous iteration methods: ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for *note
os.PathLike.__fspath__(): c42.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for ‘__aenter__’,
‘__aexit__’, ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’.

The following methods exist but are 'not' supported as they are either
in use by mock, can't be set dynamically, or can cause problems:

   * ‘__getattr__’, ‘__setattr__’, ‘__init__’ and ‘__new__’

   * ‘__prepare__’, ‘__instancecheck__’, ‘__subclasscheck__’, ‘__del__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Magic methods 'should' be looked up on the class rather than the
instance.  Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying
this rule.  The supported protocol methods should work with all
supported versions of Python.

   (2) The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each ‘Mock’
instance is kept isolated from the others.


File: python.info,  Node: Magic Mock,  Prev: Mocking Magic Methods,  Up: MagicMock and magic method support

5.27.6.20 Magic Mock
....................

There are two ‘MagicMock’ variants: *note MagicMock: e7c. and *note
NonCallableMagicMock: 4068.

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.MagicMock (*args, **kw)

     ‘MagicMock’ is a subclass of *note Mock: a3c. with default
     implementations of most of the *note magic methods: 409f.  You can
     use ‘MagicMock’ without having to configure the magic methods
     yourself.

     The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note Mock:
     a3c.

     If you use the 'spec' or 'spec_set' arguments then 'only' magic
     methods that exist in the spec will be created.

 -- Classe: unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock (*args, **kw)

     A non-callable version of *note MagicMock: e7c.

     The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note
     MagicMock: e7c, with the exception of 'return_value' and
     'side_effect' which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.

The magic methods are setup with *note MagicMock: e7c. objects, so you
can configure them and use them in the usual way:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock[3] = 'fish'
     >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
     >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
     >>> mock[2]
     'result'

By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects
of a specific type.  These methods are preconfigured with a default
return value, so that they can be used without you having to do anything
if you aren't interested in the return value.  You can still 'set' the
return value manually if you want to change the default.

Methods and their defaults:

   * ‘__lt__’: *note NotImplemented: 7be.

   * ‘__gt__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__le__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__ge__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__int__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__contains__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__int__’: ‘0’

   * ‘__iter__’: ‘iter([])’

   * ‘__exit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__exit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__complex__’: ‘1j’

   * ‘__float__’: ‘1.0’

   * ‘__bool__’: ‘True’

   * ‘__index__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__hash__’: default hash for the mock

   * ‘__str__’: default str for the mock

   * ‘__sizeof__’: default sizeof for the mock

Par exemple :

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> int(mock)
     1
     >>> len(mock)
     0
     >>> list(mock)
     []
     >>> object() in mock
     False

The two equality methods, ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__ne__()’, are special.  They
do the default equality comparison on identity, using the *note
side_effect: 4062. attribute, unless you change their return value to
return something else:

     >>> MagicMock() == 3
     False
     >>> MagicMock() != 3
     True
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
     >>> mock == 3
     True

The return value of ‘MagicMock.__iter__()’ can be any iterable object
and isn't required to be an iterator:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']

If the return value 'is' an iterator, then iterating over it once will
consume it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list:

     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     []

‘MagicMock’ has all of the supported magic methods configured except for
some of the obscure and obsolete ones.  You can still set these up if
you want.

Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in ‘MagicMock’
are:

   * ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__dir__’

   * ‘__format__’

   * ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ et ‘__delete__’

   * ‘__reversed__’ et ‘__missing__’

   * ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’, ‘__getnewargs__’,
     ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’

   * ‘__getformat__’


File: python.info,  Node: Helpers,  Next: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: MagicMock and magic method support,  Up: unittest mock --- mock object library

5.27.6.21 Helpers
.................

* Menu:

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* appel::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing::
* Sealing mocks::


File: python.info,  Node: sentinel,  Next: DEFAULT,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.22 sentinel
..................

 -- Données: unittest.mock.sentinel

     The ‘sentinel’ object provides a convenient way of providing unique
     objects for your tests.

     Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name.
     Accessing the same attribute will always return the same object.
     The objects returned have a sensible repr so that test failure
     messages are readable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The ‘sentinel’ attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are *note copied: 25. or *note pickled:
     a5.

Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed
as an argument to another method, or returned.  It can be common to
create named sentinel objects to test this.  *note sentinel: b90.
provides a convenient way of creating and testing the identity of
objects like this.

In this example we monkey patch ‘method’ to return
‘sentinel.some_object’:

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
     >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
     >>> result = real.method()
     >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
     >>> result
     sentinel.some_object


File: python.info,  Node: DEFAULT,  Next: appel,  Prev: sentinel,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.23 DEFAULT
.................

 -- Données: unittest.mock.DEFAULT

     The *note DEFAULT: 4069. object is a pre-created sentinel (actually
     ‘sentinel.DEFAULT’).  It can be used by *note side_effect: 4062.
     functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.


File: python.info,  Node: appel,  Next: create_autospec,  Prev: DEFAULT,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.24 appel
...............

 -- Fonction: unittest.mock.call (*args, **kwargs)

     *note call(): 198c. is a helper object for making simpler
     assertions, for comparing with *note call_args: 193e, *note
     call_args_list: 4076, *note mock_calls: 406e. and *note
     method_calls: 4070.  *note call(): 198c. can also be used with
     *note assert_has_calls(): 1663.

          >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
          >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
          >>> m()
          >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
          True

 -- Méthode: call.call_list ()

     For a call object that represents multiple calls, *note
     call_list(): 40a5. returns a list of all the intermediate calls as
     well as the final call.

‘call_list’ is particularly useful for making assertions on "chained
calls".  A chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code.
This results in multiple entries in *note mock_calls: 406e. on a mock.
Manually constructing the sequence of calls can be tedious.

*note call_list(): 40a5. can construct the sequence of calls from the
same chained call:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     >>> kall.call_list()
     [call(1),
      call().method(arg='foo'),
      call().method().other('bar'),
      call().method().other()(2.0)]
     >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
     True
A ‘call’ object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or
(name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was
constructed.  When you construct them yourself this isn't particularly
interesting, but the ‘call’ objects that are in the *note
Mock.call_args: 193e, *note Mock.call_args_list: 4076. and *note
Mock.mock_calls: 406e. attributes can be introspected to get at the
individual arguments they contain.

The ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.call_args: 193e. and *note
Mock.call_args_list: 4076. are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword
args) whereas the ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.mock_calls: 406e, along
with ones you construct yourself, are three-tuples of (name, positional
args, keyword args).

You can use their "tupleness" to pull out the individual arguments for
more complex introspection and assertions.  The positional arguments are
a tuple (an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the
keyword arguments are a dictionary:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
     >>> kall = m.call_args
     >>> kall.args
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> kall.kwargs
     {'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'}
     >>> kall.args is kall[0]
     True
     >>> kall.kwargs is kall[1]
     True

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
     >>> name, args, kwargs = kall
     >>> name
     'foo'
     >>> args
     (4, 5, 6)
     >>> kwargs
     {'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'}
     >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
     True


File: python.info,  Node: create_autospec,  Next: ANY,  Prev: appel,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.25 create_autospec
.........................

 -- Fonction: unittest.mock.create_autospec (spec, spec_set=False,
          instance=False, **kwargs)

     Create a mock object using another object as a spec.  Attributes on
     the mock will use the corresponding attribute on the 'spec' object
     as their spec.

     Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked
     to ensure that they are called with the correct signature.

     If 'spec_set' is ‘True’ then attempting to set attributes that
     don't exist on the spec object will raise an *note AttributeError:
     343.

     If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the
     instance of the class) will have the same spec.  You can use a
     class as the spec for an instance object by passing
     ‘instance=True’.  The returned mock will only be callable if
     instances of the mock are callable.

     *note create_autospec(): 15c3. also takes arbitrary keyword
     arguments that are passed to the constructor of the created mock.

See *note Autospeccing: 4065. for examples of how to use auto-speccing
with *note create_autospec(): 15c3. and the 'autospec' argument to *note
patch(): e7d.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: *note create_autospec(): 15c3. now returns
an *note AsyncMock: a3b. if the target is an async function.


File: python.info,  Node: ANY,  Next: FILTER_DIR,  Prev: create_autospec,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.26 ANY
.............

 -- Données: unittest.mock.ANY

Sometimes you may need to make assertions about 'some' of the arguments
in a call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or
want to pull them individually out of *note call_args: 193e. and make
more complex assertions on them.

To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal
to 'everything'.  Calls to *note assert_called_with(): 19df. and *note
assert_called_once_with(): 406c. will then succeed no matter what was
passed in.

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock('foo', bar=object())
     >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)

*note ANY: 198a. can also be used in comparisons with call lists like
*note mock_calls: 406e.:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1)
     >>> m(1, 2)
     >>> m(object())
     >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
     True

*note ANY: 198a. is not limited to comparisons with call objects and so
can also be used in test assertions:

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])


File: python.info,  Node: FILTER_DIR,  Next: mock_open,  Prev: ANY,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.27 FILTER_DIR
....................

 -- Données: unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR

*note FILTER_DIR: 4072. is a module level variable that controls the way
mock objects respond to *note dir(): 61f.  The default is ‘True’, which
uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members.  If you
dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic
purposes, then set ‘mock.FILTER_DIR = False’.

With filtering on, ‘dir(some_mock)’ shows only useful attributes and
will include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn't normally
be shown.  If the mock was created with a 'spec' (or 'autospec' of
course) then all the attributes from the original are shown, even if
they haven't been accessed yet:

     >>> dir(Mock())
     ['assert_any_call',
      'assert_called',
      'assert_called_once',
      'assert_called_once_with',
      'assert_called_with',
      'assert_has_calls',
      'assert_not_called',
      'attach_mock',
      ...
     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
     ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
      'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
      'AbstractHTTPHandler',
      'BaseHandler',
      ...

Many of the not-very-useful (private to *note Mock: a3c. rather than the
thing being mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes
have been filtered from the result of calling *note dir(): 61f. on a
*note Mock: a3c.  If you dislike this behaviour you can switch it off by
setting the module level switch *note FILTER_DIR: 4072.:

     >>> from unittest import mock
     >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
     >>> dir(mock.Mock())
     ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
      '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
      '__call__',
      '__class__',
      ...

Alternatively you can just use ‘vars(my_mock)’ (instance members) and
‘dir(type(my_mock))’ (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective
of *note FILTER_DIR: 4072.


File: python.info,  Node: mock_open,  Next: Autospeccing,  Prev: FILTER_DIR,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.28 mock_open
...................

 -- Fonction: unittest.mock.mock_open (mock=None, read_data=None)

     A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of *note
     open(): 508.  It works for *note open(): 508. called directly or
     used as a context manager.

     The 'mock' argument is the mock object to configure.  If ‘None’
     (the default) then a *note MagicMock: e7c. will be created for you,
     with the API limited to methods or attributes available on standard
     file handles.

     'read_data' is a string for the *note read(): e0b, *note
     readline(): 1309, and *note readlines(): 22ee. methods of the file
     handle to return.  Calls to those methods will take data from
     'read_data' until it is depleted.  The mock of these methods is
     pretty simplistic: every time the 'mock' is called, the 'read_data'
     is rewound to the start.  If you need more control over the data
     that you are feeding to the tested code you will need to customize
     this mock for yourself.  When that is insufficient, one of the
     in-memory filesystem packages on PyPI(1) can offer a realistic
     filesystem for testing.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added *note readline(): 1309. and
     *note readlines(): 22ee. support.  The mock of *note read(): e0b.
     changed to consume 'read_data' rather than returning it on each
     call.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: 'read_data' is now reset on each call
     to the 'mock'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added *note __iter__(): 1c7e. to
     implementation so that iteration (such as in for loops) correctly
     consumes 'read_data'.

Using *note open(): 508. as a context manager is a great way to ensure
your file handles are closed properly and is becoming common:

     with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
         f.write('something')

The issue is that even if you mock out the call to *note open(): 508. it
is the 'returned object' that is used as a context manager (and has
*note __enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. called).

Mocking context managers with a *note MagicMock: e7c. is common enough
and fiddly enough that a helper function is useful.

     >>> m = mock_open()
     >>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
     ...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
     ...         h.write('some stuff')
     ...
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call('foo', 'w'),
      call().__enter__(),
      call().write('some stuff'),
      call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
     >>> handle = m()
     >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')

And for reading files:

     >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
     ...     with open('foo') as h:
     ...         result = h.read()
     ...
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> assert result == 'bibble'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Autospeccing,  Next: Sealing mocks,  Prev: mock_open,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.29 Autospeccing
......................

Autospeccing is based on the existing ‘spec’ feature of mock.  It limits
the api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is
recursive (implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the
same api as the attributes of the spec.  In addition mocked functions /
methods have the same call signature as the original so they raise a
*note TypeError: 525. if they are called incorrectly.

Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here's why it is needed.

*note Mock: a3c. is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers
from a flaw which is general to mocking.  If you refactor some of your
code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using
the 'old api' but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still
pass.  This means your tests can all pass even though your code is
broken.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word
assert would silently pass when they should raise an error.  You can
still achieve this behavior by passing ‘unsafe=True’ to Mock.

Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well
as unit tests.  Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy,
but if you don't test how your units are "wired together" there is still
lots of room for bugs that tests might have caught.

*note unittest.mock: 106. already provides a feature to help with this,
called speccing.  If you use a class or instance as the ‘spec’ for a
mock then you can only access attributes on the mock that exist on the
real class:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
     >>> mock.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'

The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same
issue with any methods on the mock:

     >>> mock.has_data()
     <mock.Mock object at 0x...>
     >>> mock.has_data.assret_called_with()  # Intentional typo!

Auto-speccing solves this problem.  You can either pass ‘autospec=True’
to *note patch(): e7d. / *note patch.object(): 1552. or use the *note
create_autospec(): 15c3. function to create a mock with a spec.  If you
use the ‘autospec=True’ argument to *note patch(): e7d. then the object
that is being replaced will be used as the spec object.  Because the
speccing is done "lazily" (the spec is created as attributes on the mock
are accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects
(like modules that import modules that import modules) without a big
performance hit.

Here's an example of it in use:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
     >>> mock_request = patcher.start()
     >>> request is mock_request
     True
     >>> mock_request.Request
     <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>

You can see that ‘request.Request’ has a spec.  ‘request.Request’ takes
two arguments in the constructor (one of which is 'self').  Here's what
happens if we try to call it incorrectly:

     >>> req = request.Request()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e.  the return value of
specced mocks):

     >>> req = request.Request('foo')
     >>> req
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

‘Request’ objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating
our mocked out ‘request.Request’ is a non-callable mock.  With the spec
in place any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:

     >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
     <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
     >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
     >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')

In many cases you will just be able to add ‘autospec=True’ to your
existing *note patch(): e7d. calls and then be protected against bugs
due to typos and api changes.

As well as using 'autospec' through *note patch(): e7d. there is a *note
create_autospec(): 15c3. for creating autospecced mocks directly:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
     >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

This isn't without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is
not the default behaviour.  In order to know what attributes are
available on the spec object, autospec has to introspect (access
attributes) the spec.  As you traverse attributes on the mock a
corresponding traversal of the original object is happening under the
hood.  If any of your specced objects have properties or descriptors
that can trigger code execution then you may not be able to use
autospec.  On the other hand it is much better to design your objects so
that introspection is safe (1).

A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to
be created in the *note __init__(): 69d. method and not to exist on the
class at all.  'autospec' can't know about any dynamically created
attributes and restricts the api to visible attributes.

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

There are a few different ways of resolving this problem.  The easiest,
but not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the
required attributes on the mock after creation.  Just because 'autospec'
doesn't allow you to fetch attributes that don't exist on the spec it
doesn't prevent you setting them:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...

There is a more aggressive version of both 'spec' and 'autospec' that
'does' prevent you setting non-existent attributes.  This is useful if
you want to ensure your code only 'sets' valid attributes too, but
obviously it prevents this particular scenario:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes
as default values for instance members initialised in *note __init__():
69d.  Note that if you are only setting default attributes in
‘__init__()’ then providing them via class attributes (shared between
instances of course) is faster too.  e.g.

     class Something:
         a = 33

This brings up another issue.  It is relatively common to provide a
default value of ‘None’ for members that will later be an object of a
different type.  ‘None’ would be useless as a spec because it wouldn't
let you access 'any' attributes or methods on it.  As ‘None’ is 'never'
going to be useful as a spec, and probably indicates a member that will
normally of some other type, autospec doesn't use a spec for members
that are set to ‘None’.  These will just be ordinary mocks (well -
MagicMocks):

     >>> class Something:
     ...     member = None
     ...
     >>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
     >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>

If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn't to your
liking then there are more options.  One of these is simply to use an
instance as the spec rather than the class.  The other is to create a
subclass of the production class and add the defaults to the subclass
without affecting the production class.  Both of these require you to
use an alternative object as the spec.  Thankfully *note patch(): e7d.
supports this - you can simply pass the alternative object as the
'autospec' argument:

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
     ...   a = 33
     ...
     >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
     >>> mock = p.start()
     >>> mock.a
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects.
Calling a mocked class to create a mock instance 'does not' create a
real instance.  It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to *note
dir(): 61f. - that are done.


File: python.info,  Node: Sealing mocks,  Prev: Autospeccing,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.30 Sealing mocks
.......................

 -- Fonction: unittest.mock.seal (mock)

     Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an
     attribute of the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that
     are already mocks recursively.

     If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an
     attribute it won't be considered in the sealing chain.  This allows
     one to prevent seal from fixing part of the mock object.

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
          >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
          >>> seal(mock)
          >>> mock.new_attribute  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.submock.attribute2  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # This won't raise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: Helpers,  Up: unittest mock --- mock object library

5.27.6.31 Order of precedence of ‘side_effect’, ‘return_value’ and 'wraps'
..........................................................................

The order of their precedence is:

  1. *note side_effect: 4062.

  2. *note return_value: 406a.

  3. 'wraps'

If all three are set, mock will return the value from *note side_effect:
4062, ignoring *note return_value: 406a. and the wrapped object
altogether.  If any two are set, the one with the higher precedence will
return the value.  Regardless of the order of which was set first, the
order of precedence remains unchanged.

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> class Order:
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def get_value():
     ...         return "third"
     ...
     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'

As ‘None’ is the default value of *note side_effect: 4062, if you
reassign its value back to ‘None’, the order of precedence will be
checked between *note return_value: 406a. and the wrapped object,
ignoring *note side_effect: 4062.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

If the value being returned by *note side_effect: 4062. is *note
DEFAULT: 4069, it is ignored and the order of precedence moves to the
successor to obtain the value to return.

     >>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT]
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

When *note Mock: a3c. wraps an object, the default value of *note
return_value: 406a. will be *note DEFAULT: 4069.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT

The order of precedence will ignore this value and it will move to the
last successor which is the wrapped object.

As the real call is being made to the wrapped object, creating an
instance of this mock will return the real instance of the class.  The
positional arguments, if any, required by the wrapped object must be
passed.

     >>> order_mock_instance = order_mock()
     >>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order)
     True
     >>> order_mock_instance.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

But if you assign ‘None’ to it, this will not be ignored as it is an
explicit assignment.  So, the order of precedence will not move to the
wrapped object.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value() is None
     True

Even if you set all three at once when initializing the mock, the order
of precedence remains the same:

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order,
     ...                   **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"],
     ...                      "get_value.return_value": "second"}
     ...                   )
     ...
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

If *note side_effect: 4062. is exhausted, the order of precedence will
not cause a value to be obtained from the successors.  Instead,
‘StopIteration’ exception is raised.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value",
     ...                                     "another side effect value"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first side effect value'
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'another side effect value'

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     StopIteration


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock --- getting started,  Next: test --- Regression tests package for Python,  Prev: unittest mock --- mock object library,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.7 ‘unittest.mock’ -- getting started
-----------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer::
* Patch Decorators::
* Further Examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer,  Next: Patch Decorators,  Up: unittest mock --- getting started

5.27.7.1 Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer
...............................................

* Menu:

* Simulation des méthodes::
* S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet::
* Simulation des classes::
* Naming your mocks::
* Tracking all Calls::
* Setting Return Values and Attributes::
* Raising exceptions with mocks::
* Side effect functions and iterables::
* Mocking asynchronous iterators::
* Mocking asynchronous context manager::
* Creating a Mock from an Existing Object::
* Using side_effect to return per file content::


File: python.info,  Node: Simulation des méthodes,  Next: S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.2 Simulation des méthodes
................................

Usages courant de *note Mock: a3c. :

   * Substitution des méthodes

   * Enregistrement des appels faits sur les objets

On peut remplacer une méthode sur un objet pour contrôler qu'elle est
bien appelée avec le nombre correct d'arguments :

     >>> real = SomeClass()
     >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
     >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>

Une fois notre objet simulacre appelé (via ‘real.method’ dans notre
exemple), il fournit des méthodes et attributs permettant de valider
comment il a été appelé.

     Note: Dans la majeure partie des exemples donnés ici, les classes
     *note Mock: a3c. et *note MagicMock: e7c. sont interchangeables.
     Étant donné que ‘MagicMock’ est la classe la plus puissante des
     deux, cela fait sens de l'utiliser par défaut.

Une fois l'objet Mock appelé, son attribut *note called: 4074. est
défini à ‘True’.  Qui plus est, nous pouvons utiliser les méthodes *note
assert_called_with(): 19df. ou *note assert_called_once_with(): 406c.
pour contrôler qu'il a été appelé avec les bons arguments.

Cet exemple teste que l'appel de la méthode ‘ProductionClass().method’
implique bien celui de la méthode ‘something’ :

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
     ...     def something(self, a, b, c):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.something = MagicMock()
     >>> real.method()
     >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)


File: python.info,  Node: S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet,  Next: Simulation des classes,  Prev: Simulation des méthodes,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.3 S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet
.....................................................

Dans l'exemple précédent, nous avons directement remplacé une méthode
par un objet (afin de valider que l'appel était correct).  Une autre
façon de faire est de passer un objet Mock en argument d'une méthode (ou
de tout autre partie du code à tester) et ensuite de contrôler que notre
objet a été utilisé de la façon attendue.

Ci-dessous, ‘ProductionClass’ dispose d'une méthode ‘closer’.  Si on
l'appelle avec un objet, alors elle appelle la méthode ‘close’ dessus.

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def closer(self, something):
     ...         something.close()
     ...

Ainsi, pour tester cette classe, nous devons lui passer un objet ayant
une méthode ‘close’, puis vérifier qu'elle a bien été appelée.

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> real.closer(mock)
     >>> mock.close.assert_called_with()

En fait, nous n'avons pas à nous soucier de fournir la méthode ‘close’
dans notre objet « simulé ».  Le simple fait d'accéder à la méthode
‘close’ l'a crée.  Si par contre la méthode ‘close’ n'a pas été appelée
alors, bien que le test la créée en y accédant, *note
assert_called_with(): 19df. lèvera une exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Simulation des classes,  Next: Naming your mocks,  Prev: S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.4 Simulation des classes
...............................

Un cas d'utilisation courant consiste à émuler les classes instanciées
par le code que nous testons.  Quand on 'patch' une classe, alors cette
classe est remplacée par un objet 'mock'.  Les instances de la classe
étant créées en 'appelant la classe', on accède à « l'instance 'mock' »
via la valeur de retour de la classe émulée.

In the example below we have a function ‘some_function’ that
instantiates ‘Foo’ and calls a method on it.  The call to *note patch():
e7d. replaces the class ‘Foo’ with a mock.  The ‘Foo’ instance is the
result of calling the mock, so it is configured by modifying the mock
*note return_value: 406a.

     >>> def some_function():
     ...     instance = module.Foo()
     ...     return instance.method()
     ...
     >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
     ...     instance = mock.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
     ...     result = some_function()
     ...     assert result == 'the result'


File: python.info,  Node: Naming your mocks,  Next: Tracking all Calls,  Prev: Simulation des classes,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.5 Naming your mocks
..........................

It can be useful to give your mocks a name.  The name is shown in the
repr of the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test
failure messages.  The name is also propagated to attributes or methods
of the mock:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
     >>> mock
     <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
     >>> mock.method
     <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>


File: python.info,  Node: Tracking all Calls,  Next: Setting Return Values and Attributes,  Prev: Naming your mocks,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.6 Tracking all Calls
...........................

Often you want to track more than a single call to a method.  The *note
mock_calls: 406e. attribute records all calls to child attributes of the
mock - and also to their children.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.method()
     <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
     <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]

If you make an assertion about ‘mock_calls’ and any unexpected methods
have been called, then the assertion will fail.  This is useful because
as well as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are
also checking that they were made in the right order and with no
additional calls:

You use the *note call: 198c. object to construct lists for comparing
with ‘mock_calls’:

     >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

However, parameters to calls that return mocks are not recorded, which
means it is not possible to track nested calls where the parameters used
to create ancestors are important:

     >>> m = Mock()
     >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
     <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
     >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Setting Return Values and Attributes,  Next: Raising exceptions with mocks,  Prev: Tracking all Calls,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.7 Setting Return Values and Attributes
.............................................

Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.return_value = 3
     >>> mock()
     3

Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.method.return_value = 3
     >>> mock.method()
     3

The return value can also be set in the constructor:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
     >>> mock()
     3

If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.x = 3
     >>> mock.x
     3

Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example
‘mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")’.  If we wanted this call
to return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested
call.

We can use *note call: 198c. to construct the set of calls in a "chained
call" like this for easy assertion afterwards:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
     >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
     >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
     ['foo']
     >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

It is the call to ‘.call_list()’ that turns our call object into a list
of calls representing the chained calls.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising exceptions with mocks,  Next: Side effect functions and iterables,  Prev: Setting Return Values and Attributes,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.8 Raising exceptions with mocks
......................................

A useful attribute is *note side_effect: 4062.  If you set this to an
exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the
mock is called.

     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     Exception: Boom!


File: python.info,  Node: Side effect functions and iterables,  Next: Mocking asynchronous iterators,  Prev: Raising exceptions with mocks,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.9 Side effect functions and iterables
............................................

‘side_effect’ can also be set to a function or an iterable.  The use
case for ‘side_effect’ as an iterable is where your mock is going to be
called several times, and you want each call to return a different
value.  When you set ‘side_effect’ to an iterable every call to the mock
returns the next value from the iterable:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
     >>> mock()
     4
     >>> mock()
     5
     >>> mock()
     6

For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values
depending on what the mock is called with, ‘side_effect’ can be a
function.  The function will be called with the same arguments as the
mock.  Whatever the function returns is what the call returns:

     >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
     >>> def side_effect(*args):
     ...     return vals[args]
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> mock(1, 2)
     1
     >>> mock(2, 3)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking asynchronous iterators,  Next: Mocking asynchronous context manager,  Prev: Side effect functions and iterables,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.10 Mocking asynchronous iterators
........................................

Since Python 3.8, ‘AsyncMock’ and ‘MagicMock’ have support to mock *note
Itérateurs asynchrones: d69. through ‘__aiter__’.  The *note
return_value: 406a. attribute of ‘__aiter__’ can be used to set the
return values to be used for iteration.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> async def main():
     ...     return [i async for i in mock]
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     [1, 2, 3]


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking asynchronous context manager,  Next: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object,  Prev: Mocking asynchronous iterators,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.11 Mocking asynchronous context manager
..............................................

Since Python 3.8, ‘AsyncMock’ and ‘MagicMock’ have support to mock *note
Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones: 5e8. through ‘__aenter__’ and
‘__aexit__’.  By default, ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ are ‘AsyncMock’
instances that return an async function.

     >>> class AsyncContextManager:
     ...     async def __aenter__(self):
     ...         return self
     ...     async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager())  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> async def main():
     ...     async with mock_instance as result:
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     >>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once()
     >>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object,  Next: Using side_effect to return per file content,  Prev: Mocking asynchronous context manager,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.12 Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
.................................................

One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to
the implementation of your mocks rather than your real code.  Suppose
you have a class that implements ‘some_method’.  In a test for another
class, you provide a mock of this object that 'also' provides
‘some_method’.  If later you refactor the first class, so that it no
longer has ‘some_method’ - then your tests will continue to pass even
though your code is now broken!

*note Mock: a3c. allows you to provide an object as a specification for
the mock, using the 'spec' keyword argument.  Accessing methods /
attributes on the mock that don't exist on your specification object
will immediately raise an attribute error.  If you change the
implementation of your specification, then tests that use that class
will start failing immediately without you having to instantiate the
class in those tests.

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> mock.old_method()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'old_method'. Did you mean: 'class_method'?

Using a specification also enables a smarter matching of calls made to
the mock, regardless of whether some parameters were passed as
positional or named arguments:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

If you want this smarter matching to also work with method calls on the
mock, you can use *note auto-speccing: 4065.

If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting
of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use
'spec_set' instead of 'spec'.


File: python.info,  Node: Using side_effect to return per file content,  Prev: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object,  Up: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

5.27.7.13 Using side_effect to return per file content
......................................................

*note mock_open(): 16c4. is used to patch *note open(): 508. method.
*note side_effect: 4062. can be used to return a new Mock object per
call.  This can be used to return different contents per file stored in
a dictionary:

     DEFAULT = "default"
     data_dict = {"file1": "data1",
                  "file2": "data2"}

     def open_side_effect(name):
         return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))()

     with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect):
         with open("file1") as file1:
             assert file1.read() == "data1"

         with open("file2") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "data2"

         with open("file3") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "default"


File: python.info,  Node: Patch Decorators,  Next: Further Examples,  Prev: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer,  Up: unittest mock --- getting started

5.27.7.14 Patch Decorators
..........................

     Note: Avec *note patch(): e7d, il est important de 'patcher' les
     objets dans l'espace de nommage où ils sont recherchés.  C'est ce
     qui se fait normalement, mais pour un guide rapide, lisez *note où
     patcher: 4063.

A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module
attribute, for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a
module to test that it is instantiated.  Modules and classes are
effectively global, so patching on them has to be undone after the test
or the patch will persist into other tests and cause hard to diagnose
problems.

mock provides three convenient decorators for this: *note patch(): e7d,
*note patch.object(): 1552. and *note patch.dict(): 19b1.  ‘patch’ takes
a single string, of the form ‘package.module.Class.attribute’ to specify
the attribute you are patching.  It also optionally takes a value that
you want the attribute (or class or whatever) to be replaced with.
'patch.object' takes an object and the name of the attribute you would
like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it with.

‘patch.object’ :

     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

     >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import attribute
     ...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

If you are patching a module (including *note builtins: 12.) then use
*note patch(): e7d. instead of *note patch.object(): 1552.:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
     >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
     ...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
     ...
     >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
     >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"

The module name can be 'dotted', in the form ‘package.module’ if needed:

     >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import ClassName
     ...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
     ...
     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use *note patch(): e7d. with
only one argument (or *note patch.object(): 1552. with two arguments).
The mock will be created for you and passed into the test function /
method:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
     ...         SomeClass.static_method()
     ...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
     ...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated
function in the same order they applied (the normal 'Python' order that
decorators are applied).  This means from the bottom up, so in the
example above the mock for ‘test_module.ClassName2’ is passed in first.

Il existe également *note patch.dict(): 19b1. pour définir des valeurs
d'un dictionnaire au sein d'une portée et restaurer ce dictionnaire à
son état d'origine lorsque le test se termine :

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ and ‘patch.dict’ can all be used as context
managers.

Where you use *note patch(): e7d. to create a mock for you, you can get
a reference to the mock using the "as" form of the with statement:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
     ...     mock_method.return_value = None
     ...     real = ProductionClass()
     ...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)

As an alternative ‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ and ‘patch.dict’ can be used
as class decorators.  When used in this way it is the same as applying
the decorator individually to every method whose name starts with
"test".


File: python.info,  Node: Further Examples,  Prev: Patch Decorators,  Up: unittest mock --- getting started

5.27.7.15 Further Examples
..........................

Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios.

* Menu:

* Mocking chained calls::
* Partial mocking::
* Mocking a Generator Method::
* Applying the same patch to every test method::
* Mocking Unbound Methods::
* Checking multiple calls with mock::
* Coping with mutable arguments::
* Nesting Patches::
* Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock::
* Mock subclasses and their attributes::
* Mocking imports with patch.dict: Mocking imports with patch dict.
* Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions::
* More complex argument matching::


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking chained calls,  Next: Partial mocking,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.16 Mocking chained calls
...............................

Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you
understand the *note return_value: 406a. attribute.  When a mock is
called for the first time, or you fetch its ‘return_value’ before it has
been called, a new *note Mock: a3c. is created.

This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a
mocked object has been used by interrogating the ‘return_value’ mock:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
     <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)

From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions
about chained calls.  Of course another alternative is writing your code
in a more testable way in the first place...

So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this:

     >>> class Something:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     ...         # more code

Assuming that ‘BackendProvider’ is already well tested, how do we test
‘method()’?  Specifically, we want to test that the code section ‘# more
code’ uses the response object in the correct way.

As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey
patch the ‘backend’ attribute on a ‘Something’ instance.  In this
particular case we are only interested in the return value from the
final call to ‘start_call’ so we don't have much configuration to do.
Let's assume the object it returns is 'file-like', so we'll ensure that
our response object uses the builtin *note open(): 508. as its ‘spec’.

To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a
mock response object for it.  To set the response as the return value
for that final ‘start_call’ we could do this:

     mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response

We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the *note configure_mock():
406b. method to directly set the return value for us:

     >>> something = Something()
     >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
     >>> mock_backend = Mock()
     >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
     >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)

With these we monkey patch the "mock backend" in place and can make the
real call:

     >>> something.backend = mock_backend
     >>> something.method()

Using *note mock_calls: 406e. we can check the chained call with a
single assert.  A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so
there will be several entries in ‘mock_calls’.  We can use *note
call.call_list(): 40a5. to create this list of calls for us:

     >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     >>> call_list = chained.call_list()
     >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list


File: python.info,  Node: Partial mocking,  Next: Mocking a Generator Method,  Prev: Mocking chained calls,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.17 Partial mocking
.........................

In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to *note
datetime.date.today(): 1482. to return a known date, but I didn't want
to prevent the code under test from creating new date objects.
Unfortunately *note datetime.date: 1c8. is written in C, and so I
couldn't just monkey-patch out the static *note datetime.date.today():
1482. method.

I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping
the date class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor
to the real class (and returning real instances).

The *note patch decorator: e7d. is used here to mock out the ‘date’
class in the module under test.  The *note side_effect: 4062. attribute
on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns a
real date.  When the mock date class is called a real date will be
constructed and returned by ‘side_effect’.

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
     ...     mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw)
     ...
     ...     assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8)

Note that we don't patch *note datetime.date: 1c8. globally, we patch
‘date’ in the module that 'uses' it.  See *note where to patch: 4063.

When ‘date.today()’ is called a known date is returned, but calls to the
‘date(...)’ constructor still return normal dates.  Without this you can
find yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the
same algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing
anti-pattern.

Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the ‘mock_date’ attributes
(‘call_count’ and friends) which may also be useful for your tests.

An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin
classes, is discussed in this blog entry(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking a Generator Method,  Next: Applying the same patch to every test method,  Prev: Partial mocking,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.18 Mocking a Generator Method
....................................

A Python generator is a function or method that uses the *note yield:
9bd. statement to return a series of values when iterated over (1).

A generator method / function is called to return the generator object.
It is the generator object that is then iterated over.  The protocol
method for iteration is *note __iter__(): 1c7e, so we can mock this
using a *note MagicMock: e7c.

Here's an example class with an "iter" method implemented as a
generator:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def iter(self):
     ...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
     ...             yield i
     ...
     >>> foo = Foo()
     >>> list(foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

How would we mock this class, and in particular its "iter" method?

To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the
call to *note list: 5fe.), we need to configure the object returned by
the call to ‘foo.iter()’.

     >>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
     >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
     >>> list(mock_foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) There are also generator expressions and more advanced uses
(http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html) of generators, but we
aren't concerned about them here.  A very good introduction to
generators and how powerful they are is: Generator Tricks for Systems
Programmers (http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/).


File: python.info,  Node: Applying the same patch to every test method,  Next: Mocking Unbound Methods,  Prev: Mocking a Generator Method,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.19 Applying the same patch to every test method
......................................................

If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the
obvious way is to apply the patch decorators to every method.  This can
feel like unnecessary repetition.  Instead, you can use *note patch():
e7d. (in all its various forms) as a class decorator.  This applies the
patches to all test methods on the class.  A test method is identified
by methods whose names start with ‘test’:

     >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
     ... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def not_a_test(self):
     ...         return 'something'
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
     'something'

An alternative way of managing patches is to use the *note patch
methods; start and stop: 4096.  These allow you to move the patching
into your ‘setUp’ and ‘tearDown’ methods.

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher.stop()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone"
by calling ‘stop’.  This can be fiddlier than you might think, because
if an exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called.
*note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a71. makes this easier:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking Unbound Methods,  Next: Checking multiple calls with mock,  Prev: Applying the same patch to every test method,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.20 Mocking Unbound Methods
.................................

Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an 'unbound method'
(patching the method on the class rather than on the instance).  I
needed self to be passed in as the first argument because I want to make
asserts about which objects were calling this particular method.  The
issue is that you can't patch with a mock for this, because if you
replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn't become a bound method
when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn't get self passed in.
The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real function
instead.  The *note patch(): e7d. decorator makes it so simple to patch
out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a
nuisance.

If you pass ‘autospec=True’ to patch then it does the patching with a
'real' function object.  This function object has the same signature as
the one it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood.  You
still get your mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before.
What it means though, is that if you use it to patch out an unbound
method on a class the mocked function will be turned into a bound method
if it is fetched from an instance.  It will have ‘self’ passed in as the
first argument, which is exactly what I wanted:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...   def foo(self):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
     ...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
     ...   foo = Foo()
     ...   foo.foo()
     ...
     'foo'
     >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)

If we don't use ‘autospec=True’ then the unbound method is patched out
with a Mock instance instead, and isn't called with ‘self’.


File: python.info,  Node: Checking multiple calls with mock,  Next: Coping with mutable arguments,  Prev: Mocking Unbound Methods,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.21 Checking multiple calls with mock
...........................................

mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects
are used.

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
     >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')

If your mock is only being called once you can use the *note
assert_called_once_with(): 406c. method that also asserts that the *note
call_count: 4075. is one.

     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected 'foo_bar' to be called once. Called 2 times.
     Calls: [call('baz', spam='eggs'), call()].

Both ‘assert_called_with’ and ‘assert_called_once_with’ make assertions
about the 'most recent' call.  If your mock is going to be called
several times, and you want to make assertions about 'all' those calls
you can use *note call_args_list: 4076.:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock(4, 5, 6)
     >>> mock()
     >>> mock.call_args_list
     [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]

The *note call: 198c. helper makes it easy to make assertions about
these calls.  You can build up a list of expected calls and compare it
to ‘call_args_list’.  This looks remarkably similar to the repr of the
‘call_args_list’:

     >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
     >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Coping with mutable arguments,  Next: Nesting Patches,  Prev: Checking multiple calls with mock,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.22 Coping with mutable arguments
.......................................

Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called
with mutable arguments.  ‘call_args’ and ‘call_args_list’ store
'references' to the arguments.  If the arguments are mutated by the code
under test then you can no longer make assertions about what the values
were when the mock was called.

Here's some example code that shows the problem.  Imagine the following
functions defined in 'mymodule':

     def frob(val):
         pass

     def grob(val):
         "First frob and then clear val"
         frob(val)
         val.clear()

When we try to test that ‘grob’ calls ‘frob’ with the correct argument
look what happens:

     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> val
     set()
     >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
     Called with: ((set(),), {})

One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in.
This could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object
identity for equality.

Here's one solution that uses the *note side_effect: 4062.
functionality.  If you provide a ‘side_effect’ function for a mock then
‘side_effect’ will be called with the same args as the mock.  This gives
us an opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later
assertions.  In this example I'm using 'another' mock to store the
arguments so that I can use the mock methods for doing the assertion.
Again a helper function sets this up for me.

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
     >>> def copy_call_args(mock):
     ...     new_mock = Mock()
     ...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
     ...         return DEFAULT
     ...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
     ...     return new_mock
     ...
     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
     >>> new_mock.call_args
     call({6})

‘copy_call_args’ is called with the mock that will be called.  It
returns a new mock that we do the assertion on.  The ‘side_effect’
function makes a copy of the args and calls our ‘new_mock’ with the
copy.

     Note: If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier
     way of checking arguments at the point they are called.  You can
     simply do the checking inside a ‘side_effect’ function.

          >>> def side_effect(arg):
          ...     assert arg == {6}
          ...
          >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
          >>> mock({6})
          >>> mock(set())
          Traceback (most recent call last):
              ...
          AssertionError

An alternative approach is to create a subclass of *note Mock: a3c. or
*note MagicMock: e7c. that copies (using *note copy.deepcopy(): b5e.)
the arguments.  Here's an example implementation:

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
     ...
     >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
     >>> arg = set()
     >>> c(arg)
     >>> arg.add(1)
     >>> c.assert_called_with(set())
     >>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: expected call not found.
     Expected: mock({1})
     Actual: mock(set())
     >>> c.foo
     <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>

When you subclass ‘Mock’ or ‘MagicMock’ all dynamically created
attributes, and the ‘return_value’ will use your subclass automatically.
That means all children of a ‘CopyingMock’ will also have the type
‘CopyingMock’.


File: python.info,  Node: Nesting Patches,  Next: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock,  Prev: Coping with mutable arguments,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.23 Nesting Patches
.........................

Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches
you can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further
to the right:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
     ...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
     ...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
     ...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

With unittest ‘cleanup’ functions and the *note patch methods; start and
stop: 4096. we can achieve the same effect without the nested
indentation.  A simple helper method, ‘create_patch’, puts the patch in
place and returns the created mock for us:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def create_patch(self, name):
     ...         patcher = patch(name)
     ...         thing = patcher.start()
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         return thing
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
     ...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
     ...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
     ...
     ...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock,  Next: Mock subclasses and their attributes,  Prev: Nesting Patches,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.24 Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
.............................................

You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording
all access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary.

We can do this with *note MagicMock: e7c, which will behave like a
dictionary, and using *note side_effect: 4062. to delegate dictionary
access to a real underlying dictionary that is under our control.

When the *note __getitem__(): 280. and *note __setitem__(): 12ab.
methods of our ‘MagicMock’ are called (normal dictionary access) then
‘side_effect’ is called with the key (and in the case of ‘__setitem__’
the value too).  We can also control what is returned.

After the ‘MagicMock’ has been used we can use attributes like *note
call_args_list: 4076. to assert about how the dictionary was used:

     >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def getitem(name):
     ...      return my_dict[name]
     ...
     >>> def setitem(name, val):
     ...     my_dict[name] = val
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
     >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

     Note: An alternative to using ‘MagicMock’ is to use ‘Mock’ and
     'only' provide the magic methods you specifically want:

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
          >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)

     A 'third' option is to use ‘MagicMock’ but passing in ‘dict’ as the
     'spec' (or 'spec_set') argument so that the ‘MagicMock’ created
     only has dictionary magic methods available:

          >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
          >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
          >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

With these side effect functions in place, the ‘mock’ will behave like a
normal dictionary but recording the access.  It even raises a *note
KeyError: 33a. if you try to access a key that doesn't exist.

     >>> mock['a']
     1
     >>> mock['c']
     3
     >>> mock['d']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     KeyError: 'd'
     >>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
     >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
     >>> mock['b']
     'fish'
     >>> mock['d']
     'eggs'

After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using
the normal mock methods and attributes:

     >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
     [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
     >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
     [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
     >>> my_dict
     {'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}


File: python.info,  Node: Mock subclasses and their attributes,  Next: Mocking imports with patch dict,  Prev: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.25 Mock subclasses and their attributes
..............................................

There are various reasons why you might want to subclass *note Mock:
a3c.  One reason might be to add helper methods.  Here's a silly
example:

     >>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def has_been_called(self):
     ...         return self.called
     ...
     >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
     >>> mymock
     <MyMock id='...'>
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock()
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     True

The standard behaviour for ‘Mock’ instances is that attributes and the
return value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed
on.  This ensures that ‘Mock’ attributes are ‘Mocks’ and ‘MagicMock’
attributes are ‘MagicMocks’ (1).  So if you're subclassing to add helper
methods then they'll also be available on the attributes and return
value mock of instances of your subclass.

     >>> mymock.foo
     <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock.foo()
     <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     True

Sometimes this is inconvenient.  For example, one user(2) is subclassing
mock to created a Twisted adaptor(3).  Having this applied to attributes
too actually causes errors.

‘Mock’ (in all its flavours) uses a method called ‘_get_child_mock’ to
create these "sub-mocks" for attributes and return values.  You can
prevent your subclass being used for attributes by overriding this
method.  The signature is that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments
(‘**kwargs’) which are then passed onto the mock constructor:

     >>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
     ...     def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs):
     ...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
     ...
     >>> mymock = Subclass()
     >>> mymock.foo
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks.  Attributes
use the callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn't
have callable methods.

   (2) https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105

   (3) 
https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking imports with patch dict,  Next: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions,  Prev: Mock subclasses and their attributes,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.26 Mocking imports with patch.dict
.........................................

One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import
inside a function.  These are harder to mock because they aren't using
an object from the module namespace that we can patch out.

Generally local imports are to be avoided.  They are sometimes done to
prevent circular dependencies, for which there is 'usually' a much
better way to solve the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent "up
front costs" by delaying the import.  This can also be solved in better
ways than an unconditional local import (store the module as a class or
module attribute and only do the import on first use).

That aside there is a way to use ‘mock’ to affect the results of an
import.  Importing fetches an 'object' from the *note sys.modules: 1929.
dictionary.  Note that it fetches an 'object', which need not be a
module.  Importing a module for the first time results in a module
object being put in ‘sys.modules’, so usually when you import something
you get a module back.  This need not be the case however.

This means you can use *note patch.dict(): 19b1. to 'temporarily' put a
mock in place in *note sys.modules: 1929.  Any imports whilst this patch
is active will fetch the mock.  When the patch is complete (the
decorated function exits, the with statement body is complete or
‘patcher.stop()’ is called) then whatever was there previously will be
restored safely.

Here's an example that mocks out the 'fooble' module.

     >>> import sys
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    import fooble
     ...    fooble.blob()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
     >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
     >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()

As you can see the ‘import fooble’ succeeds, but on exit there is no
'fooble' left in *note sys.modules: 1929.

This also works for the ‘from module import name’ form:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    from fooble import blob
     ...    blob.blip()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()

With slightly more work you can also mock package imports:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
     ...    from package.module import fooble
     ...    fooble()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()


File: python.info,  Node: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions,  Next: More complex argument matching,  Prev: Mocking imports with patch dict,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.27 Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
..................................................................

The *note Mock: a3c. class allows you to track the 'order' of method
calls on your mock objects through the *note method_calls: 4070.
attribute.  This doesn't allow you to track the order of calls between
separate mock objects, however we can use *note mock_calls: 406e. to
achieve the same effect.

Because mocks track calls to child mocks in ‘mock_calls’, and accessing
an arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our
separate mocks from a parent one.  Calls to those child mock will then
all be recorded, in order, in the ‘mock_calls’ of the parent:

     >>> manager = Mock()
     >>> mock_foo = manager.foo
     >>> mock_bar = manager.bar

     >>> mock_foo.something()
     <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
     >>> mock_bar.other.thing()
     <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>

     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]

We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing
with the ‘mock_calls’ attribute on the manager mock:

     >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
     >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
     True

If ‘patch’ is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can
attach them to a manager mock using the *note attach_mock(): 15ca.
method.  After attaching calls will be recorded in ‘mock_calls’ of the
manager.

     >>> manager = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
     ...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
     ...         MockClass1().foo()
     ...         MockClass2().bar()
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.MockClass1(),
     call.MockClass1().foo(),
     call.MockClass2(),
     call.MockClass2().bar()]

If many calls have been made, but you're only interested in a particular
sequence of them then an alternative is to use the *note
assert_has_calls(): 1663. method.  This takes a list of calls
(constructed with the *note call: 198c. object).  If that sequence of
calls are in *note mock_calls: 406e. then the assert succeeds.

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m().foo().bar().baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
     >>> m.one().two().three()
     <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
     >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)

Even though the chained call ‘m.one().two().three()’ aren't the only
calls that have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds.

Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only
interested in asserting about 'some' of those calls.  You may not even
care about the order.  In this case you can pass ‘any_order=True’ to
‘assert_has_calls’:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
     (...)
     >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)


File: python.info,  Node: More complex argument matching,  Prev: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions,  Up: Further Examples

5.27.7.28 More complex argument matching
........................................

Using the same basic concept as *note ANY: 198a. we can implement
matchers to do more complex assertions on objects used as arguments to
mocks.

Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default
compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for
user defined classes).  To use *note assert_called_with(): 19df. we
would need to pass in the exact same object.  If we are only interested
in some of the attributes of this object then we can create a matcher
that will check these attributes for us.

You can see in this example how a 'standard' call to
‘assert_called_with’ isn't sufficient:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def __init__(self, a, b):
     ...         self.a, self.b = a, b
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: expected call not found.
     Expected: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
     Actual: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)

A comparison function for our ‘Foo’ class might look something like
this:

     >>> def compare(self, other):
     ...     if not type(self) == type(other):
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.a != other.a:
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.b != other.b:
     ...         return False
     ...     return True
     ...

And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its
equality operation would look something like this:

     >>> class Matcher:
     ...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
     ...         self.compare = compare
     ...         self.some_obj = some_obj
     ...     def __eq__(self, other):
     ...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
     ...

Putting all this together:

     >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)

The ‘Matcher’ is instantiated with our compare function and the ‘Foo’
object we want to compare against.  In ‘assert_called_with’ the
‘Matcher’ equality method will be called, which compares the object the
mock was called with against the one we created our matcher with.  If
they match then ‘assert_called_with’ passes, and if they don't an *note
AssertionError: 696. is raised:

     >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
     Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})

With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the
*note AssertionError: 696. directly and provide a more useful failure
message.

As of version 1.5, the Python testing library PyHamcrest(1) provides
similar functionality, that may be useful here, in the form of its
equality matcher (hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/

   (2) 
https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality


File: python.info,  Node: test --- Regression tests package for Python,  Next: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite,  Prev: unittest mock --- getting started,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.8 ‘test’ -- Regression tests package for Python
----------------------------------------------------

     Note: The *note test: e1. package is meant for internal use by
     Python only.  It is documented for the benefit of the core
     developers of Python.  Any use of this package outside of Python's
     standard library is discouraged as code mentioned here can change
     or be removed without notice between releases of Python.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note test: e1. package contains all regression tests for Python as
well as the modules *note test.support: e3. and *note test.regrtest: e2.
*note test.support: e3. is used to enhance your tests while *note
test.regrtest: e2. drives the testing suite.

Each module in the *note test: e1. package whose name starts with
‘test_’ is a testing suite for a specific module or feature.  All new
tests should be written using the *note unittest: 105. or *note doctest:
3a. module.  Some older tests are written using a "traditional" testing
style that compares output printed to ‘sys.stdout’; this style of test
is considered deprecated.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note unittest: 105.

     Writing PyUnit regression tests.

Module *note doctest: 3a.

     Tests embedded in documentation strings.

* Menu:

* Writing Unit Tests for the test package::
* Running tests using the command-line interface::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package,  Next: Running tests using the command-line interface,  Up: test --- Regression tests package for Python

5.27.8.1 Writing Unit Tests for the ‘test’ package
..................................................

It is preferred that tests that use the *note unittest: 105. module
follow a few guidelines.  One is to name the test module by starting it
with ‘test_’ and end it with the name of the module being tested.  The
test methods in the test module should start with ‘test_’ and end with a
description of what the method is testing.  This is needed so that the
methods are recognized by the test driver as test methods.  Also, no
documentation string for the method should be included.  A comment (such
as ‘# Tests function returns only True or False’) should be used to
provide documentation for test methods.  This is done because
documentation strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test
is being run is not stated.

A basic boilerplate is often used:

     import unittest
     from test import support

     class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):

         # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary

         def setUp(self):
             ... code to execute in preparation for tests ...

         def tearDown(self):
             ... code to execute to clean up after tests ...

         def test_feature_one(self):
             # Test feature one.
             ... testing code ...

         def test_feature_two(self):
             # Test feature two.
             ... testing code ...

         ... more test methods ...

     class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
         ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ...

     ... more test classes ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by *note
test.regrtest: e2, on its own as a script that supports the *note
unittest: 105. CLI, or via the ‘python -m unittest’ CLI.

The goal for regression testing is to try to break code.  This leads to
a few guidelines to be followed:

   * The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and
     constants.  This includes not just the external API that is to be
     presented to the outside world but also "private" code.

   * Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests
     are being written) is preferred.  Blackbox testing (testing only
     the published user interface) is not complete enough to make sure
     all boundary and edge cases are tested.

   * Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones.
     This makes sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but
     also that improper values are handled correctly.

   * Exhaust as many code paths as possible.  Test where branching
     occurs and thus tailor input to make sure as many different paths
     through the code are taken.

   * Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code.
     This will make sure that the error does not crop up again if the
     code is changed in the future.

   * Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove
     all temporary files).

   * If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating
     system then verify the condition already exists before attempting
     the test.

   * Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible.
     This minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes
     possible anomalous behavior from side-effects of importing a
     module.

   * Try to maximize code reuse.  On occasion, tests will vary by
     something as small as what type of input is used.  Minimize code
     duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that
     specifies the input:

          class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:

              func = mySuperWhammyFunction

              def test_func(self):
                  self.func(self.arg)

          class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = [1, 2, 3]

          class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = 'abc'

          class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = (1, 2, 3)

     When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit
     from *note unittest.TestCase: 439. are run as tests.  The
     ‘TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin’ class in the example above does not
     have any data and so can't be run by itself, thus it does not
     inherit from *note unittest.TestCase: 439.

Voir aussi
..........

Test Driven Development

     A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.


File: python.info,  Node: Running tests using the command-line interface,  Prev: Writing Unit Tests for the test package,  Up: test --- Regression tests package for Python

5.27.8.2 Running tests using the command-line interface
.......................................................

The *note test: e1. package can be run as a script to drive Python's
regression test suite, thanks to the *note -m: 5cd. option: ‘python -m
test’.  Under the hood, it uses *note test.regrtest: e2.; the call
‘python -m test.regrtest’ used in previous Python versions still works.
Running the script by itself automatically starts running all regression
tests in the *note test: e1. package.  It does this by finding all
modules in the package whose name starts with ‘test_’, importing them,
and executing the function ‘test_main()’ if present or loading the tests
via unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ‘test_main’ does not
exist.  The names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script.
Specifying a single regression test (‘python -m test test_spam’) will
minimize output and only print whether the test passed or failed.

Running *note test: e1. directly allows what resources are available for
tests to use to be set.  You do this by using the ‘-u’ command-line
option.  Specifying ‘all’ as the value for the ‘-u’ option enables all
possible resources: ‘python -m test -uall’.  If all but one resource is
desired (a more common case), a comma-separated list of resources that
are not desired may be listed after ‘all’.  The command ‘python -m test
-uall,-audio,-largefile’ will run *note test: e1. with all resources
except the ‘audio’ and ‘largefile’ resources.  For a list of all
resources and more command-line options, run ‘python -m test -h’.

Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform
the tests are being executed on.  On Unix, you can run ‘make test’ at
the top-level directory where Python was built.  On Windows, executing
‘rt.bat’ from your ‘PCbuild’ directory will run all regression tests.


File: python.info,  Node: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite,  Next: test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests,  Prev: test --- Regression tests package for Python,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.9 ‘test.support’ -- Utilities for the Python test suite
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support: e3. module provides support for Python's
regression test suite.

     Note: *note test.support: e3. is not a public module.  It is
     documented here to help Python developers write tests.  The API of
     this module is subject to change without backwards compatibility
     concerns between releases.

This module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Exception: test.support.TestFailed

     Exception to be raised when a test fails.  This is deprecated in
     favor of *note unittest: 105.-based tests and *note
     unittest.TestCase: 439.'s assertion methods.

 -- Exception: test.support.ResourceDenied

     Subclass of *note unittest.SkipTest: fd1.  Raised when a resource
     (such as a network connection) is not available.  Raised by the
     *note requires(): 40d5. function.

The *note test.support: e3. module defines the following constants:

 -- Données: test.support.verbose

     ‘True’ when verbose output is enabled.  Should be checked when more
     detailed information is desired about a running test.  'verbose' is
     set by *note test.regrtest: e2.

 -- Données: test.support.is_jython

     ‘True’ if the running interpreter is Jython.

 -- Données: test.support.is_android

     ‘True’ if the system is Android.

 -- Données: test.support.unix_shell

     Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise ‘None’.

 -- Données: test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for tests using a network server listening on
     the network local loopback interface like ‘127.0.0.1’.

     The timeout is long enough to prevent test failure: it takes into
     account that the client and the server can run in different threads
     or even different processes.

     The timeout should be long enough for *note connect(): d92, *note
     recv(): d93. and *note send(): d96. methods of *note socket.socket:
     d90.

     Its default value is 5 seconds.

     See also *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1973.

 -- Données: test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for network requests going to the internet.

     The timeout is short enough to prevent a test to wait for too long
     if the internet request is blocked for whatever reason.

     Usually, a timeout using *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1973. should not
     mark a test as failed, but skip the test instead: see *note
     transient_internet(): 40da.

     Its default value is 1 minute.

     See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1972.

 -- Données: test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to mark a test as failed if the test takes "too
     long".

     The timeout value depends on the regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line
     option.

     If a test using *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 186b. starts to fail randomly
     on slow buildbots, use *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 1974. instead.

     Its default value is 30 seconds.

 -- Données: test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to detect when a test hangs.

     It is long enough to reduce the risk of test failure on the slowest
     Python buildbots.  It should not be used to mark a test as failed
     if the test takes "too long".  The timeout value depends on the
     regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line option.

     Its default value is 5 minutes.

     See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1972, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT:
     1973. and *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 186b.

 -- Données: test.support.PGO

     Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.

 -- Données: test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer
     size, to make writes blocking.

 -- Données: test.support.Py_DEBUG

     ‘True’ if Python was built with the *note Py_DEBUG: 40de. macro
     defined, that is, if Python was *note built in debug mode: 1f6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket
     buffer size, to make writes blocking.

 -- Données: test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR

     Set to the top level directory that contains *note test.support:
     e3.

 -- Données: test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR

     Set to the top level directory for the test package.

 -- Données: test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR

     Set to the ‘data’ directory within the test package.

 -- Données: test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t

     Set to *note sys.maxsize: 11a4. for big memory tests.

 -- Données: test.support.max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 40e5. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 40e3.

 -- Données: test.support.real_max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 40e5. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Not limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 40e3.

 -- Données: test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if Python is built without docstrings (the
     ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro is not defined).  See the *note configure
     -without-doc-strings: 1d6e. option.

     See also the *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 40e8. variable.

 -- Données: test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if function docstrings are available.  See the *note
     python -OO: da4. option, which strips docstrings of functions
     implemented in Python.

     See also the *note MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS: 40e7. variable.

 -- Données: test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL

     Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.

 -- Données: test.support.ALWAYS_EQ

     Object that is equal to anything.  Used to test mixed type
     comparison.

 -- Données: test.support.NEVER_EQ

     Object that is not equal to anything (even to *note ALWAYS_EQ:
     40ea.).  Used to test mixed type comparison.

 -- Données: test.support.LARGEST

     Object that is greater than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

 -- Données: test.support.SMALLEST

     Object that is less than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

The *note test.support: e3. module defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: test.support.busy_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          error=True)

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.

     After 'timeout' seconds, raise an *note AssertionError: 696. if
     'error' is true, or just stop the loop if 'error' is false.

     Example:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     Example of error=False usage:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- Fonction: test.support.sleeping_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True)

     Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff.

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.  Sleep at each loop
     iteration, but not at the first iteration.  The sleep delay is
     doubled at each iteration (up to 'max_delay' seconds).

     See *note busy_retry(): 40ee. documentation for the parameters
     usage.

     Example raising an exception after SHORT_TIMEOUT seconds:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     Example of error=False usage:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- Fonction: test.support.is_resource_enabled (resource)

     Return ‘True’ if 'resource' is enabled and available.  The list of
     available resources is only set when *note test.regrtest: e2. is
     executing the tests.

 -- Fonction: test.support.python_is_optimized ()

     Return ‘True’ if Python was not built with ‘-O0’ or ‘-Og’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.with_pymalloc ()

     Return ‘_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.requires (resource, msg=None)

     Raise *note ResourceDenied: 40d4. if 'resource' is not available.
     'msg' is the argument to *note ResourceDenied: 40d4. if it is
     raised.  Always returns ‘True’ if called by a function whose
     ‘__name__’ is ‘'__main__'’.  Used when tests are executed by *note
     test.regrtest: e2.

 -- Fonction: test.support.sortdict (dict)

     Return a repr of 'dict' with keys sorted.

 -- Fonction: test.support.findfile (filename, subdir=None)

     Return the path to the file named 'filename'.  If no match is found
     'filename' is returned.  This does not equal a failure since it
     could be the path to the file.

     Setting 'subdir' indicates a relative path to use to find the file
     rather than looking directly in the path directories.

 -- Fonction: test.support.get_pagesize ()

     Get size of a page in bytes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: test.support.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 939. to the given
     'interval'.  Defines a minimum interval for Android systems to
     prevent the system from hanging.

 -- Fonction: test.support.check_impl_detail (**guards)

     Use this check to guard CPython's implementation-specific tests or
     to run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments.
     This function returns ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on the host
     platform.  Example usage:

          check_impl_detail()               # Only on CPython (default).
          check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Only on Jython.
          check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # Everywhere except CPython.

 -- Fonction: test.support.set_memlimit (limit)

     Set the values for *note max_memuse: 40e4. and *note
     real_max_memuse: 40e6. for big memory tests.

 -- Fonction: test.support.record_original_stdout (stdout)

     Store the value from 'stdout'.  It is meant to hold the stdout at
     the time the regrtest began.

 -- Fonction: test.support.get_original_stdout ()

     Return the original stdout set by *note record_original_stdout():
     40f8. or ‘sys.stdout’ if it's not set.

 -- Fonction: test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     settings in ‘sys.flags’ and ‘sys.warnoptions’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     optimization settings in ‘sys.flags’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.captured_stdin ()
 -- Fonction: test.support.captured_stdout ()
 -- Fonction: test.support.captured_stderr ()

     A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with
     *note io.StringIO: f14. object.

     Example use with output streams:

          with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
              print("hello")
              print("error", file=sys.stderr)
          assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
          assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"

     Example use with input stream:

          with captured_stdin() as stdin:
              stdin.write('hello\n')
              stdin.seek(0)
              # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin
              captured = input()
          self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")

 -- Fonction: test.support.disable_faulthandler ()

     A context manager that temporary disables *note faulthandler: 57.

 -- Fonction: test.support.gc_collect ()

     Force as many objects as possible to be collected.  This is needed
     because timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage
     collector.  This means that ‘__del__’ methods may be called later
     than expected and weakrefs may remain alive for longer than
     expected.

 -- Fonction: test.support.disable_gc ()

     A context manager that disables the garbage collector on entry.  On
     exit, the garbage collector is restored to its prior state.

 -- Fonction: test.support.swap_attr (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.

     Utilisation :

          with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj.attr’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’ block,
     restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘attr’ doesn't
     exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the end of
     the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

 -- Fonction: test.support.swap_item (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.

     Utilisation :

          with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj["item"]’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’
     block, restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘item’
     doesn't exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the
     end of the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

 -- Fonction: test.support.flush_std_streams ()

     Call the ‘flush()’ method on *note sys.stdout: ac6. and then on
     *note sys.stderr: 928.  It can be used to make sure that the logs
     order is consistent before writing into stderr.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: test.support.print_warning (msg)

     Print a warning into *note sys.__stderr__: 4105.  Format the
     message as: ‘f"Warning -- {msg}"’.  If 'msg' is made of multiple
     lines, add ‘"Warning -- "’ prefix to each line.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: test.support.wait_process (pid, *, exitcode, timeout=None)

     Wait until process 'pid' completes and check that the process exit
     code is 'exitcode'.

     Raise an *note AssertionError: 696. if the process exit code is not
     equal to 'exitcode'.

     If the process runs longer than 'timeout' seconds (*note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 186b. by default), kill the process and raise an
     *note AssertionError: 696.  The timeout feature is not available on
     Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: test.support.calcobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyObject: 32f. whose structure members
     are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size of the
     Python object header and alignment.

 -- Fonction: test.support.calcvobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyVarObject: 4108. whose structure
     members are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size
     of the Python object header and alignment.

 -- Fonction: test.support.checksizeof (test, o, size)

     For testcase 'test', assert that the ‘sys.getsizeof’ for 'o' plus
     the GC header size equals 'size'.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.anticipate_failure (condition)

     A decorator to conditionally mark tests with *note
     unittest.expectedFailure(): 4020.  Any use of this decorator should
     have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.

 -- Fonction: test.support.system_must_validate_cert (f)

     A decorator that skips the decorated test on TLS certification
     validation failures.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.run_with_locale (catstr, *locales)

     A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly
     resetting it after it has finished.  'catstr' is the locale
     category as a string (for example ‘"LC_ALL"’).  The 'locales'
     passed will be tried sequentially, and the first valid locale will
     be used.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.run_with_tz (tz)

     A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone,
     correctly resetting it after it has finished.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_freebsd_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD. If
     the FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_linux_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux.  If
     the Linux version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_mac_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on macOS. If
     the macOS version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_gil_enabled

     Decorator for skipping tests on the free-threaded build.  If the
     *note GIL: 158. is disabled, the test is skipped.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_IEEE_754

     Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_zlib

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note zlib: 132. doesn't exist.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_gzip

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note gzip: 66. doesn't exist.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_bz2

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note bz2: 13. doesn't exist.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_lzma

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note lzma: 89. doesn't exist.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_resource (resource)

     Decorator for skipping tests if 'resource' is not available.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_docstrings

     Decorator for only running the test if *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 40e8.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.requires_limited_api

     Decorator for only running the test if *note Limited C API: 38c. is
     available.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.cpython_only

     Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.impl_detail (msg=None, **guards)

     Decorator for invoking *note check_impl_detail(): 40f7. on
     'guards'.  If that returns ‘False’, then uses 'msg' as the reason
     for skipping the test.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.no_tracing

     Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the
     test.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.refcount_test

     Decorator for tests which involve reference counting.  The
     decorator does not run the test if it is not run by CPython.  Any
     trace function is unset for the duration of the test to prevent
     unexpected refcounts caused by the trace function.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.bigmemtest (size, memuse, dry_run=True)

     Decorator for bigmem tests.

     'size' is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary,
     test-interpreted units.)  'memuse' is the number of bytes per unit
     for the test, or a good estimate of it.  For example, a test that
     needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB each, could be decorated with
     ‘@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)’.

     The 'size' argument is normally passed to the decorated test method
     as an extra argument.  If 'dry_run' is ‘True’, the value passed to
     the test method may be less than the requested value.  If 'dry_run'
     is ‘False’, it means the test doesn't support dummy runs when ‘-M’
     is not specified.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.bigaddrspacetest

     Decorator for tests that fill the address space.

 -- Fonction: test.support.check_syntax_error (testcase, statement,
          errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)

     Test for syntax errors in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  'testcase' is the *note unittest: 105. instance for
     the test.  'errtext' is the regular expression which should match
     the string representation of the raised *note SyntaxError: 18b.  If
     'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the exception.  If
     'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception.

 -- Fonction: test.support.open_urlresource (url, *args, **kw)

     Open 'url'.  If open fails, raises *note TestFailed: 40d3.

 -- Fonction: test.support.reap_children ()

     Use this at the end of ‘test_main’ whenever sub-processes are
     started.  This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies)
     stick around to hog resources and create problems when looking for
     refleaks.

 -- Fonction: test.support.get_attribute (obj, name)

     Get an attribute, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: fd1. if *note
     AttributeError: 343. is raised.

 -- Fonction: test.support.catch_unraisable_exception ()

     Context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.

     Storing the exception value (‘cm.unraisable.exc_value’) creates a
     reference cycle.  The reference cycle is broken explicitly when the
     context manager exits.

     Storing the object (‘cm.unraisable.object’) can resurrect it if it
     is set to an object which is being finalized.  Exiting the context
     manager clears the stored object.

     Utilisation :

          with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm:
              # code creating an "unraisable exception"
              ...

              # check the unraisable exception: use cm.unraisable
              ...

          # cm.unraisable attribute no longer exists at this point
          # (to break a reference cycle)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: test.support.load_package_tests (pkg_dir, loader,
          standard_tests, pattern)

     Generic implementation of the *note unittest: 105. ‘load_tests’
     protocol for use in test packages.  'pkg_dir' is the root directory
     of the package; 'loader', 'standard_tests', and 'pattern' are the
     arguments expected by ‘load_tests’.  In simple cases, the test
     package's ‘__init__.py’ can be the following:

          import os
          from test.support import load_package_tests

          def load_tests(*args):
              return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)

 -- Fonction: test.support.detect_api_mismatch (ref_api, other_api, *,
          ignore=())

     Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of 'ref_api'
     not found on 'other_api', except for a defined list of items to be
     ignored in this check specified in 'ignore'.

     By default this skips private attributes beginning with '_' but
     includes all magic methods, i.e.  those starting and ending in
     '__'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: test.support.patch (test_instance, object_to_patch,
          attr_name, new_value)

     Override 'object_to_patch.attr_name' with 'new_value'.  Also add
     cleanup procedure to 'test_instance' to restore 'object_to_patch'
     for 'attr_name'.  The 'attr_name' should be a valid attribute for
     'object_to_patch'.

 -- Fonction: test.support.run_in_subinterp (code)

     Run 'code' in subinterpreter.  Raise *note unittest.SkipTest: fd1.
     if *note tracemalloc: fe. is enabled.

 -- Fonction: test.support.check_free_after_iterating (test, iter, cls,
          args=())

     Assert instances of 'cls' are deallocated after iterating.

 -- Fonction: test.support.missing_compiler_executable (cmd_names=[])

     Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are
     listed in 'cmd_names' or all the compiler executables when
     'cmd_names' is empty and return the first missing executable or
     ‘None’ when none is found missing.

 -- Fonction: test.support.check__all__ (test_case, module,
          name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=())

     Assert that the ‘__all__’ variable of 'module' contains all public
     names.

     The module's public names (its API) are detected automatically
     based on whether they match the public name convention and were
     defined in 'module'.

     The 'name_of_module' argument can specify (as a string or tuple
     thereof) what module(s) an API could be defined in order to be
     detected as a public API. One case for this is when 'module'
     imports part of its public API from other modules, possibly a C
     backend (like ‘csv’ and its ‘_csv’).

     The 'extra' argument can be a set of names that wouldn't otherwise
     be automatically detected as "public", like objects without a
     proper *note __module__: 2234. attribute.  If provided, it will be
     added to the automatically detected ones.

     The 'not_exported' argument can be a set of names that must not be
     treated as part of the public API even though their names indicate
     otherwise.

     Example use:

          import bar
          import foo
          import unittest
          from test import support

          class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  support.check__all__(self, foo)

          class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
                  not_exported = {'baz'}  # Undocumented name.
                  # bar imports part of its API from _bar.
                  support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
                                       extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Fonction: test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize ()

     Skip tests if the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module is missing,
     if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a
     lock raises an *note OSError: 40d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: test.support.check_disallow_instantiation (test_case, tp,
          *args, **kwds)

     Assert that type 'tp' cannot be instantiated using 'args' and
     'kwds'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits (max_digits)

     This function returns a context manager that will change the global
     *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 177a. setting for the duration
     of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a
     different limit on the number of digits when converting between an
     integer and string.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

The *note test.support: e3. module defines the following classes:

 -- Classe: test.support.SuppressCrashReport

     A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on
     tests that are expected to crash a subprocess.

     On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
     SetErrorMode(1).

     On UNIX, *note resource.setrlimit(): 412d. is used to set *note
     resource.RLIMIT_CORE: 412e.'s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump
     file creation.

     On both platforms, the old value is restored by *note __exit__():
     12e0.

 -- Classe: test.support.SaveSignals

     Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python
     signal handler.

      -- Méthode: save (self)

          Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal
          numbers to the current signal handler.

      -- Méthode: restore (self)

          Set the signal numbers from the *note save(): 4130. dictionary
          to the saved handler.

 -- Classe: test.support.Matcher

      -- Méthode: matches (self, d, **kwargs)

          Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.

      -- Méthode: match_value (self, k, dv, v)

          Try to match a single stored value ('dv') with a supplied
          value ('v').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests,  Next: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Prev: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.10 ‘test.support.socket_helper’ -- Utilities for socket tests
------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.socket_helper: e8. module provides support for
socket tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED

     Set to ‘True’ if IPv6 is enabled on this host, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port
          (family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)

     Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding.  This
     is achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and
     type as the ‘sock’ parameter (default is *note AF_INET: 17d9, *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 12d3.), and binding it to the specified host address
     (defaults to ‘0.0.0.0’) with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused
     ephemeral port from the OS. The temporary socket is then closed and
     deleted, and the ephemeral port is returned.

     Either this method or *note bind_port(): 4138. should be used for
     any tests where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular
     port for the duration of the test.  Which one to use depends on
     whether the calling code is creating a Python socket, or if an
     unused port needs to be provided in a constructor or passed to an
     external program (i.e.  the ‘-accept’ argument to openssl's
     s_server mode).  Always prefer *note bind_port(): 4138. over *note
     find_unused_port(): 4137. where possible.  Using a hard coded port
     is discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test
     impossible to run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.

 -- Fonction: test.support.socket_helper.bind_port (sock, host=HOST)

     Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number.  Relies
     on ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port.
     This is important as many tests may be running simultaneously,
     especially in a buildbot environment.  This method raises an
     exception if the ‘sock.family’ is *note AF_INET: 17d9. and
     ‘sock.type’ is *note SOCK_STREAM: 12d3, and the socket has
     ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ or ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ set on it.  Tests should never set
     these socket options for TCP/IP sockets.  The only case for setting
     these options is testing multicasting via multiple UDP sockets.

     Additionally, if the ‘SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE’ socket option is
     available (i.e.  on Windows), it will be set on the socket.  This
     will prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the
     duration of the test.

 -- Fonction: test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket (sock, addr)

     Bind a Unix socket, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: fd1. if *note
     PermissionError: d32. is raised.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket

     A decorator for running tests that require a functional ‘bind()’
     for Unix sockets.

 -- Fonction: test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet
          (resource_name, *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())

     A context manager that raises *note ResourceDenied: 40d4. when
     various issues with the internet connection manifest themselves as
     exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Next: test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Prev: test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.11 ‘test.support.script_helper’ -- Utilities for the Python execution tests
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.script_helper: e7. module provides support for
Python's script execution tests.

 -- Fonction:
          test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment ()

     Return ‘True’ if ‘sys.executable interpreter’ requires environment
     variables in order to be able to run at all.

     This is designed to be used with ‘@unittest.skipIf()’ to annotate
     tests that need to use an ‘assert_python*()’ function to launch an
     isolated mode (‘-I’) or no environment mode (‘-E’) sub-interpreter
     process.

     A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can
     happen when trying to run the standard library test suite from an
     interpreter that doesn't have an obvious home with Python's current
     home finding logic.

     Setting *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. is one way to get most of the
     testsuite to run in that situation.  *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. or
     ‘PYTHONUSERSITE’ are other common environment variables that might
     impact whether or not the interpreter can start.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Set up the environment based on 'env_vars' for running the
     interpreter in a subprocess.  The values can include ‘__isolated’,
     ‘__cleanenv’, ‘__cwd’, and ‘TERM’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function no longer strips
     whitespaces from 'stderr'.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' succeeds (‘rc == 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     If the '__cleanenv' keyword-only parameter is set, 'env_vars' is
     used as a fresh environment.

     Python is started in isolated mode (command line option ‘-I’),
     except if the '__isolated' keyword-only parameter is set to
     ‘False’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function no longer strips
     whitespaces from 'stderr'.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' fails (‘rc != 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     See *note assert_python_ok(): 413e. for more options.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function no longer strips
     whitespaces from 'stderr'.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.spawn_python (*args,
          stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)

     Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.

     'kw' is extra keyword args to pass to *note subprocess.Popen():
     197.  Returns a *note subprocess.Popen: 197. object.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.kill_python (p)

     Run the given *note subprocess.Popen: 197. process until completion
     and return stdout.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.make_script (script_dir,
          script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)

     Create script containing 'source' in path 'script_dir' and
     'script_basename'.  If 'omit_suffix' is ‘False’, append ‘.py’ to
     the name.  Return the full script path.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)

     Create zip file at 'zip_dir' and 'zip_basename' with extension
     ‘zip’ which contains the files in 'script_name'.  'name_in_zip' is
     the archive name.  Return a tuple containing ‘(full path, full path
     of archive name)’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.make_pkg (pkg_dir,
          init_source='')

     Create a directory named 'pkg_dir' containing an ‘__init__’ file
     with 'init_source' as its contents.

 -- Fonction: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1,
          compiled=False)

     Create a zip package directory with a path of 'zip_dir' and
     'zip_basename' containing an empty ‘__init__’ file and a file
     'script_basename' containing the 'source'.  If 'compiled' is
     ‘True’, both source files will be compiled and added to the zip
     package.  Return a tuple of the full zip path and the archive name
     for the zip file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Next: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests,  Prev: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.12 ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ -- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.bytecode_helper: e4. module provides support for
testing and inspecting bytecode generation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

The module defines the following class:

 -- Classe: test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase
          (unittest.TestCase)

     This class has custom assertion methods for inspecting bytecode.

 -- Méthode: BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string (co)

     Return the disassembly of 'co' as string.

 -- Méthode: BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Return instr if 'opname' is found, otherwise throws *note
     AssertionError: 696.

 -- Méthode: BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Throws *note AssertionError: 696. if 'opname' is found.


File: python.info,  Node: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests,  Next: test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests,  Prev: test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.13 ‘test.support.threading_helper’ -- Utilities for threading tests
------------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.threading_helper: e9. module provides support for
threading tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: test.support.threading_helper.join_thread (thread,
          timeout=None)

     Join a 'thread' within 'timeout'.  Raise an *note AssertionError:
     696. if thread is still alive after 'timeout' seconds.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads

     Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test
     fails.

 -- Fonction: test.support.threading_helper.start_threads (threads,
          unlock=None)

     Context manager to start 'threads', which is a sequence of threads.
     'unlock' is a function called after the threads are started, even
     if an exception was raised; an example would be *note
     threading.Event.set(): 30c8.  ‘start_threads’ will attempt to join
     the started threads upon exit.

 -- Fonction: test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup
          (*original_values)

     Cleanup up threads not specified in 'original_values'.  Designed to
     emit a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.

 -- Fonction: test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup ()

     Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.

 -- Fonction: test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit
          (timeout=None)

     Context manager to wait until all threads created in the ‘with’
     statement exit.

 -- Fonction: test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception ()

     Context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 93b. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 837.

     Attributes set when an exception is caught:

        * ‘exc_type’

        * ‘exc_value’

        * ‘exc_traceback’

        * ‘thread’

     See *note threading.excepthook(): 837. documentation.

     These attributes are deleted at the context manager exit.

     Utilisation :

          with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm:
              # code spawning a thread which raises an exception
              ...

              # check the thread exception, use cm attributes:
              # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread
              ...

          # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread attributes of cm no longer
          # exists at this point
          # (to avoid reference cycles)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests,  Next: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests,  Prev: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.14 ‘test.support.os_helper’ -- Utilities for os tests
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.os_helper: e6. module provides support for os
tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII

     A non-ASCII character encodable by *note os.fsencode(): c45.

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD

     Set to *note os.getcwd(): 1555.

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN

     Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file.
     Any temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked
     (removed).

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII

     Set to a filename containing the *note FS_NONASCII: 4154.
     character, if it exists.  This guarantees that if the filename
     exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem
     encoding.  This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to
     be easily skipped on platforms where they can't work.

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE

     Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded
     by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’ if it's
     not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE

     Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be
     decoded by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’
     if it's not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- Données: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE

     Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.

 -- Classe: test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard

     Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables.
     Instances can be used as a context manager and have a complete
     dictionary interface for querying/modifying the underlying
     ‘os.environ’.  After exit from the context manager all changes to
     environment variables done through this instance will be rolled
     back.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added dictionary interface.

 -- Classe: test.support.os_helper.FakePath (path)

     Simple *note path-like object: 29d.  It implements the *note
     __fspath__(): c42. method which just returns the 'path' argument.
     If 'path' is an exception, it will be raised in ‘__fspath__()’.

 -- Méthode: EnvironmentVarGuard.set (envvar, value)

     Temporarily set the environment variable ‘envvar’ to the value of
     ‘value’.

 -- Méthode: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset (envvar)

     Temporarily unset the environment variable ‘envvar’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.can_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the OS supports symbolic links, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.can_xattr ()

     Return ‘True’ if the OS supports xattr, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.change_cwd (path, quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily changes the current working
     directory to 'path' and yields the directory.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context manager raises an exception on
     error.  Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current
     working directory the same.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file (filename)

     Create an empty file with 'filename'.  If it already exists,
     truncate it.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.fd_count ()

     Count the number of open file descriptors.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive (directory)

     Return ‘True’ if the file system for 'directory' is
     case-insensitive.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd ()

     Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a
     temporary file, and returning its descriptor.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.rmdir (filename)

     Call *note os.rmdir(): 10d6. on 'filename'.  On Windows platforms,
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the file, which is needed due to antivirus programs that can hold
     files open and prevent deletion.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.rmtree (path)

     Call *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6. on 'path' or call *note
     os.lstat(): 48d. and *note os.rmdir(): 10d6. to remove a path and
     its contents.  As with *note rmdir(): 4165, on Windows platforms
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the files.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink

     A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic
     links.

 -- Fonction: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr

     A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd (name='tempcwd',
          quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and
     changes the current working directory (CWD).

     The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current
     directory with name 'name' before temporarily changing the current
     working directory.  If 'name' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is
     created using *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ and it is not possible to create or change
     the CWD, an error is raised.  Otherwise, only a warning is raised
     and the original CWD is used.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.temp_dir (path=None, quiet=False)

     A context manager that creates a temporary directory at 'path' and
     yields the directory.

     If 'path' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is created using *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21c.  If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context
     manager raises an exception on error.  Otherwise, if 'path' is
     specified and cannot be created, only a warning is issued.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.temp_umask (umask)

     A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.

 -- Fonction: test.support.os_helper.unlink (filename)

     Call *note os.unlink(): 10d8. on 'filename'.  As with *note
     rmdir(): 4165, on Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait
     loop that checks for the existence of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests,  Next: test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests,  Prev: test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.15 ‘test.support.import_helper’ -- Utilities for import tests
------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.import_helper: e5. module provides support for
import tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.forget (module_name)

     Remove the module named 'module_name' from ‘sys.modules’ and delete
     any byte-compiled files of the module.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module (name,
          fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)

     This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python
     module by removing the named module from ‘sys.modules’ before doing
     the import.  Note that unlike ‘reload()’, the original module is
     not affected by this operation.

     'fresh' is an iterable of additional module names that are also
     removed from the ‘sys.modules’ cache before doing the import.

     'blocked' is an iterable of module names that are replaced with
     ‘None’ in the module cache during the import to ensure that
     attempts to import them raise *note ImportError: 40f.

     The named module and any modules named in the 'fresh' and 'blocked'
     parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted
     into ‘sys.modules’ when the fresh import is complete.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.

     This function will raise *note ImportError: 40f. if the named
     module cannot be imported.

     Example use:

          # Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the
          # version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the
          # C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback
          # implementation
          py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
          c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.import_module (name,
          deprecated=False, *, required_on=())

     This function imports and returns the named module.  Unlike a
     normal import, this function raises *note unittest.SkipTest: fd1.
     if the module cannot be imported.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.  If a module is required on a
     platform but optional for others, set 'required_on' to an iterable
     of platform prefixes which will be compared against *note
     sys.platform: a7d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.modules_setup ()

     Return a copy of *note sys.modules: 1929.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup (oldmodules)

     Remove modules except for 'oldmodules' and ‘encodings’ in order to
     preserve internal cache.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.unload (name)

     Delete 'name' from ‘sys.modules’.

 -- Fonction: test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc (source)

     Move a PEP 3147(1)/ PEP 488(2) pyc file to its legacy pyc location
     and return the file system path to the legacy pyc file.  The
     'source' value is the file system path to the source file.  It does
     not need to exist, however the PEP 3147/488 pyc file must exist.

 -- Classe: test.support.import_helper.CleanImport (*module_names)

     A context manager to force import to return a new module reference.
     This is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the
     emission of a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. on import.  Example
     usage:

          with CleanImport('foo'):
              importlib.import_module('foo')  # New reference.

 -- Classe: test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath (*paths)

     A context manager to temporarily add directories to *note sys.path:
     3ab.

     This makes a copy of *note sys.path: 3ab, appends any directories
     given as positional arguments, then reverts *note sys.path: 3ab. to
     the copied settings when the context ends.

     Note that 'all' *note sys.path: 3ab. modifications in the body of
     the context manager, including replacement of the object, will be
     reverted at the end of the block.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests,  Prev: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests,  Up: Outils de développement

5.27.16 ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ -- Utilities for warnings tests
----------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.warnings_helper: ea. module provides support for
warnings tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings (*, category)

     Suppress warnings that are instances of 'category', which must be
     *note Warning: 226e. or a subclass.  Roughly equivalent to *note
     warnings.catch_warnings(): 572. with *note
     warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category): 6ae.  For
     example:

          @warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning)
          def test_suppress_warning():
              # do something

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning
          (testcase)

     Context manager to check that no *note ResourceWarning: 241. was
     raised.  You must remove the object which may emit *note
     ResourceWarning: 241. before the end of the context manager.

 -- Fonction: test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning
          (testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None)

     Test for syntax warning in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  Test also that the *note SyntaxWarning: 451. is
     emitted only once, and that it will be converted to a *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. when turned into error.  'testcase' is the *note
     unittest: 105. instance for the test.  'errtext' is the regular
     expression which should match the string representation of the
     emitted *note SyntaxWarning: 451. and raised *note SyntaxError:
     18b.  If 'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the
     warning and exception.  If 'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the
     offset of the exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings (*filters,
          quiet=True)

     A convenience wrapper for *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 572.
     that makes it easier to test that a warning was correctly raised.
     It is approximately equivalent to calling
     ‘warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)’ with *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 6ae. set to ‘always’ and with the option
     to automatically validate the results that are recorded.

     ‘check_warnings’ accepts 2-tuples of the form ‘("message regexp",
     WarningCategory)’ as positional arguments.  If one or more
     'filters' are provided, or if the optional keyword argument 'quiet'
     is ‘False’, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected:
     each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings
     raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings
     are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test
     fails.  To disable the first of these checks, set 'quiet' to
     ‘True’.

     If no arguments are specified, it defaults to:

          check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)

     In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.

     On entry to the context manager, a ‘WarningRecorder’ instance is
     returned.  The underlying warnings list from *note
     catch_warnings(): 572. is available via the recorder object's *note
     warnings: 111. attribute.  As a convenience, the attributes of the
     object representing the most recent warning can also be accessed
     directly through the recorder object (see example below).  If no
     warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would
     otherwise be expected on an object representing a warning will
     return ‘None’.

     The recorder object also has a ‘reset()’ method, which clears the
     warnings list.

     The context manager is designed to be used like this:

          with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
                              ("", UserWarning)):
              exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
              warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))

     In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other
     warning was raised, *note check_warnings(): 417a. would raise an
     error.

     When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather
     than just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can
     be used:

          with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
              warnings.warn("foo")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
              warnings.warn("bar")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
              assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
              assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
              w.reset()
              assert len(w.warnings) == 0

     Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the
     captured warnings directly.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: New optional arguments 'filters' and
     'quiet'.

 -- Classe: test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder

     Class used to record warnings for unit tests.  See documentation of
     *note check_warnings(): 417a. above for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Débogueur et instrumentation,  Next: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels,  Prev: Outils de développement,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.28 Débogueur et instrumentation
=================================

Ces bibliothèques sont là pour vous aider lors du développement en
Python : Le débogueur vous permet d'avancer pas à pas dans le code,
d'analyser la pile d'appel, de placer des points d'arrêts, … Les outils
d'instrumentation exécutent du code et vous donnent un rapport détaillé
du temps d'exécution, vous permettant d'identifier les goulots
d'étranglement dans vos programmes.  Les événements d'audit fournissent
une visibilité sur les comportements d'exécution qui nécessiteraient
autrement un débogage ou une correction intrusifs.

* Menu:

* Table des évènements d'audit::
* bdb: bdb --- Debugger framework. Debugger framework
* faulthandler: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback. Dump the Python traceback
* pdb — Le débogueur Python::
* The Python Profilers::
* timeit: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets. Measure execution time of small code snippets
* trace: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution. Trace or track Python statement execution
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations. Trace memory allocations


File: python.info,  Node: Table des évènements d'audit,  Next: bdb --- Debugger framework,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.1 Table des évènements d'audit
-----------------------------------

This table contains all events raised by *note sys.audit(): 1573. or
*note PySys_Audit(): 365. calls throughout the CPython runtime and the
standard library.  These calls were added in 3.8 or later (see PEP
578(1)).

Voir *note sys.addaudithook(): 4180. et *note PySys_AddAuditHook():
4181. pour plus d'informations sur la gestion de ces évènements.

Cette table est générée à partir de la documentation de CPython et peut
ne pas représenter des évènements levés par d'autres implémentations.
Consultez la documentation propre à votre implémentation pour connaître
les évènements réellement levés.

Audit event                        Arguments                                                   References
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
_thread.start_new_thread           ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’                                *note [1]: 4182.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
array.__new__                      ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’                                   *note [1]: 19e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.breakpoint                ‘breakpointhook’                                            *note [1]: 231.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.id                        ‘id’                                                        *note [1]: 13db.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input                     ‘prompt’                                                    *note [1]: 12b8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input/result              ‘result’                                                    *note [1]: 12b8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
code.__new__                       ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’,                     *note [1]: 2de.
                                   ‘posonlyargcount’, ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’,             
                                   ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’
                                   
                                                                                               
compile                            ‘source’, ‘filename’                                        *note [1]: 190.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear                                                               *note [1]: 4183.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_New                                                                 *note [1]: 4184.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks                                                                 *note [1]: d05.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_command                ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 5cc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_file                   ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: 4185.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_interactivehook        ‘hook’                                                      *note [1]: fb4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_module                 ‘module-name’                                               *note [1]: 5cd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_startup                ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: fb5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_stdin                                                                              *note [1]: 4186.*note [2]: 4187.*note [3]: 4188.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.addressof                   ‘obj’                                                       *note [1]: 2deb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.call_function               ‘func_pointer’, ‘arguments’                                 *note [1]: 2de3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata                       ‘address’                                                   *note [1]: 2dfd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata/buffer                ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’                                 *note [1]: 2dfb.*note [2]: 2dfc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_string_buffer        ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 2da0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_unicode_buffer       ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 198d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlopen                      ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 2de1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym                       ‘library’, ‘name’                                           *note [1]: 2de1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym/handle                ‘handle’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 2de1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_errno                                                                               *note [1]: 2ddb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_last_error                                                                          *note [1]: 2ddd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_errno                   ‘errno’                                                     *note [1]: 2ddc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_exception               ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 2de3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_last_error              ‘error’                                                     *note [1]: 2dde.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.string_at                   ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2df4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.wstring_at                  ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2df6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ensurepip.bootstrap                ‘root’                                                      *note [1]: 4189.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
exec                               ‘code_object’                                               *note [1]: 17e.*note [2]: 17d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.fcntl                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’                                          *note [1]: 33ee.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.flock                        ‘fd’, ‘operation’                                           *note [1]: 418a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.ioctl                        ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’                                      *note [1]: 1430.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.lockf                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’                       *note [1]: 13a5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3a24.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.sendcmd                     ‘self’, ‘cmd’                                               *note [1]: 3a29.*note [2]: 3a2a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
function.__new__                   ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 871.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_objects                     ‘generation’                                                *note [1]: 7ef.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referents                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 7f1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referrers                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 7f0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob                          ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’                                     *note [1]: 29c.*note [2]: 7f3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob/2                        ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’               *note [1]: 29c.*note [2]: 7f3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.connect                ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3a07.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.send                   ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 3a0c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.open                       ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 8f4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 3a7b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
import                             ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’,          *note [1]: 5ce.
                                   ‘sys.path_hooks’                                            
                                   
                                                                                               
marshal.dumps                      ‘value’, ‘version’                                          *note [1]: 2871.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.load                                                                                   *note [1]: 19d1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.loads                      ‘bytes’                                                     *note [1]: 19d1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
mmap.__new__                       ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’                      *note [1]: 208.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.get_osfhandle               ‘fd’                                                        *note [1]: 418b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.locking                     ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’                                      *note [1]: 418c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.open_osfhandle              ‘handle’, ‘flags’                                           *note [1]: 418d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__delattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: 1eea.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__getattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: bc2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__setattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’                                      *note [1]: 1ee9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
open                               ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’                                     *note [1]: 508.*note [2]: 509.*note [3]: d81.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.add_dll_directory               ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 9da.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chdir                           ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 5fa.*note [2]: d78.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chflags                         ‘path’, ‘flags’                                             *note [1]: 10d0.*note [2]: 2b39.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chmod                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 218.*note [2]: 219.*note [3]: 217.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chown                           ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’                              *note [1]: 10d1.*note [2]: d79.*note [3]: 2b3a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.exec                            ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 2b76.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fork                                                                                        *note [1]: 195.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.forkpty                                                                                     *note [1]: 196.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fwalk                           ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’    *note [1]: b4b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.getxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: 10e6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.kill                            ‘pid’, ‘sig’                                                *note [1]: 1340.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.killpg                          ‘pgid’, ‘sig’                                               *note [1]: 1994.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.link                            ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: 10d2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 10dc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdrives                                                                                  *note [1]: 489.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listmounts                      ‘volume’                                                    *note [1]: 48b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listvolumes                                                                                 *note [1]: 48a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listxattr                       ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 10e7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.lockf                           ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’                                          *note [1]: 10f5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.mkdir                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 21b.*note [2]: 21a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.posix_spawn                     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 21d.*note [2]: 19ed.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.putenv                          ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 90b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.remove                          ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 10d3.*note [2]: 2b3e.*note [3]: 10d8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.removexattr                     ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: 10e8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rename                          ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: 10d4.*note [2]: 2b3f.*note [3]: 10d5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rmdir                           ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 10d6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.scandir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: a4f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.setxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’                       *note [1]: 10e9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.spawn                           ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                               *note [1]: 16ed.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile                       ‘path’, ‘operation’                                         *note [1]: 1888.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile/2                     ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’         *note [1]: 1888.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.symlink                         ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’                                      *note [1]: 10d7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.system                          ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 1413.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.truncate                        ‘fd’, ‘length’                                              *note [1]: d7e.*note [2]: e2b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.unsetenv                        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 90a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.utime                           ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’                             *note [1]: 10d9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.walk                            ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’                  *note [1]: 495.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.glob                  ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 22a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.rglob                 ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 22b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pdb.Pdb                                                                                        *note [1]: 911.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pickle.find_class                  ‘module’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 284f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 913.*note [2]: 914.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.putline                     ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: 913.*note [2]: 914.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pty.spawn                          ‘argv’                                                      *note [1]: f6f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.prlimit                   ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                 *note [1]: f76.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.setrlimit                 ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                        *note [1]: 412d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
setopencodehook                                                                                *note [1]: 16e5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.chown                       ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’                                     *note [1]: 23d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copyfile                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a4a.*note [2]: a4b.*note [3]: a49.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copymode                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a4a.*note [2]: 1666.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copystat                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a4b.*note [2]: 1110.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copytree                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a19.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.make_archive                ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’               *note [1]: 49f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.move                        ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a4c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.rmtree                      ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 2f6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.unpack_archive              ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’                         *note [1]: 457.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
signal.pthread_kill                ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’                                    *note [1]: 1113.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 1988.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 91c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.__new__                     ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                        *note [1]: d90.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.bind                        ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 14f1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.connect                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: d92.*note [2]: 14f0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getaddrinfo                 ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                *note [1]: 170e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyaddr               ‘ip_address’                                                *note [1]: 1889.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyname               ‘hostname’                                                  *note [1]: 33e3.*note [2]: 188a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostname                                                                             *note [1]: 2ae4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getnameinfo                 ‘sockaddr’                                                  *note [1]: 167e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyname               ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’                               *note [1]: 33e5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyport               ‘port’, ‘protocolname’                                      *note [1]: 33e6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendmsg                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 462.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendto                      ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: d98.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sethostname                 ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 111d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect                    ‘database’                                                  *note [1]: 2a5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect/handle             ‘connection_handle’                                         *note [1]: 2a5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.enable_load_extension      ‘connection’, ‘enabled’                                     *note [1]: 82a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.load_extension             ‘connection’, ‘path’                                        *note [1]: 4a4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
subprocess.Popen                   ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, ‘env’                          *note [1]: 197.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_exceptions                                                                        *note [1]: 4ae.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_frames                                                                            *note [1]: 13eb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframe                      ‘frame’                                                     *note [1]: 6cd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframemodulename            ‘depth’                                                     *note [1]: 172b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.addaudithook                                                                               *note [1]: 4181.*note [2]: 4180.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.excepthook                     ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’                        *note [1]: 7f7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer                                                               *note [1]: 15e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter                                                               *note [1]: 15e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.setprofile                                                                                 *note [1]: 14b6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.settrace                                                                                   *note [1]: 14b7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.unraisablehook                 ‘hook’, ‘unraisable’                                        *note [1]: 1f4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.closelog                                                                                *note [1]: 52d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.openlog                     ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’                            *note [1]: 52c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.setlogmask                  ‘maskpri’                                                   *note [1]: 418e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.syslog                      ‘priority’, ‘message’                                       *note [1]: 52e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkdtemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 1214.*note [2]: 21c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkstemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 4b2.*note [2]: 2803.*note [3]: 2804.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
time.sleep                         ‘secs’                                                      *note [1]: 418f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
urllib.Request                     ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’                      *note [1]: 290.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
webbrowser.open                    ‘url’                                                       *note [1]: 38ea.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ConnectRegistry             ‘computer_name’, ‘key’                                      *note [1]: 4190.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.CreateKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 4191.*note [2]: 133b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 4192.*note [2]: 133c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteValue                 ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 4193.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DisableReflectionKey        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 133d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnableReflectionKey         ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 133e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumKey                     ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 4194.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumValue                   ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 4195.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings    ‘str’                                                       *note [1]: 13b1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.LoadKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’                               *note [1]: 4196.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 4197.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey/result              ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 4191.*note [2]: 133b.*note [3]: 4197.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.PyHKEY.Detach               ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 4198.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryInfoKey                ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 4199.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryReflectionKey          ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 133f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryValue                  ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’                              *note [1]: 419a.*note [2]: 419b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SaveKey                     ‘key’, ‘file_name’                                          *note [1]: 419c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SetValue                    ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’                           *note [1]: 419d.*note [2]: 174a.
                                                                                               

Les évènements suivants sont levés en interne et ne correspondent à
aucune API publique de CPython :

Audit event                    Arguments
                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                               
_winapi.CreateFile             ‘file_name’, ‘desired_access’, ‘share_mode’,
                               ‘creation_disposition’,
                               ‘flags_and_attributes’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateJunction         ‘src_path’, ‘dst_path’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateNamedPipe        ‘name’, ‘open_mode’, ‘pipe_mode’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreatePipe

_winapi.CreateProcess          ‘application_name’, ‘command_line’,
                               ‘current_directory’
                               
                               
_winapi.OpenProcess            ‘process_id’, ‘desired_access’
                               
                               
_winapi.TerminateProcess       ‘handle’, ‘exit_code’
                               
                               
ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr           ‘obj’
                               

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: bdb --- Debugger framework,  Next: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback,  Prev: Table des évènements d'audit,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.2 ‘bdb’ -- Debugger framework
----------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/bdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note bdb: f. module handles basic debugger functions, like setting
breakpoints or managing execution via the debugger.

L'exception suivante est définie :

 -- Exception: bdb.BdbQuit

     Exception raised by the *note Bdb: 12e2. class for quitting the
     debugger.

Le module *note bdb: f. définis deux classes :

 -- Classe: bdb.Breakpoint (self, file, line, temporary=False,
          cond=None, funcname=None)

     This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts,
     disabling and (re-)enabling, and conditionals.

     Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called *note
     bpbynumber: 41a2. and by ‘(file, line)’ pairs through *note bplist:
     41a3.  The former points to a single instance of class *note
     Breakpoint: 41a1.  The latter points to a list of such instances
     since there may be more than one breakpoint per line.

     When creating a breakpoint, its associated *note file name: 41a4.
     should be in canonical form.  If a *note funcname: 41a5. is
     defined, a breakpoint *note hit: 41a6. will be counted when the
     first line of that function is executed.  A *note conditional:
     41a7. breakpoint always counts a *note hit: 41a6.

     *note Breakpoint: 41a1. instances have the following methods:

      -- Méthode: deleteMe ()

          Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line.
          If it is the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes
          the entry for the file/line.

      -- Méthode: enable ()

          Active le point d'arrêt.

      -- Méthode: disable ()

          Désactive le point d'arrêt.

      -- Méthode: bpformat ()

          Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint,
          nicely formatted:

             * Breakpoint number.

             * Temporary status (del or keep).

             * File/line position.

             * Break condition.

             * Number of times to ignore.

             * Number of times hit.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: bpprint (out=None)

          Print the output of *note bpformat(): 41ab. to the file 'out',
          or if it is ‘None’, to standard output.

     *note Breakpoint: 41a1. instances have the following attributes:

      -- Attribut: file

          File name of the *note Breakpoint: 41a1.

      -- Attribut: line

          Line number of the *note Breakpoint: 41a1. within *note file:
          41a4.

      -- Attribut: temporary

          ‘True’ if a *note Breakpoint: 41a1. at (file, line) is
          temporary.

      -- Attribut: cond

          Condition for evaluating a *note Breakpoint: 41a1. at (file,
          line).

      -- Attribut: funcname

          Function name that defines whether a *note Breakpoint: 41a1.
          is hit upon entering the function.

      -- Attribut: enabled

          ‘True’ if *note Breakpoint: 41a1. is enabled.

      -- Attribut: bpbynumber

          Numeric index for a single instance of a *note Breakpoint:
          41a1.

      -- Attribut: bplist

          Dictionary of *note Breakpoint: 41a1. instances indexed by
          (*note file: 41a4, *note line: 41ad.) tuples.

      -- Attribut: ignore

          Number of times to ignore a *note Breakpoint: 41a1.

      -- Attribut: hits

          Count of the number of times a *note Breakpoint: 41a1. has
          been hit.

 -- Classe: bdb.Bdb (skip=None)

     The *note Bdb: 12e2. class acts as a generic Python debugger base
     class.

     This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a
     derived class should implement user interaction.  The standard
     debugger class (*note pdb.Pdb: 911.) is an example.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  Whether
     a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
     determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     The following methods of *note Bdb: 12e2. normally don't need to be
     overridden.

      -- Méthode: canonic (filename)

          Return canonical form of 'filename'.

          For real file names, the canonical form is an
          operating-system-dependent, *note case-normalized: 2793. *note
          absolute path: 12fb.  A 'filename' with angle brackets, such
          as ‘"<stdin>"’ generated in interactive mode, is returned
          unchanged.

      -- Méthode: reset ()

          Set the ‘botframe’, ‘stopframe’, ‘returnframe’ and *note
          quitting: 41b3. attributes with values ready to start
          debugging.

      -- Méthode: trace_dispatch (frame, event, arg)

          This function is installed as the trace function of debugged
          frames.  Its return value is the new trace function (in most
          cases, that is, itself).

          The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame,
          depending on the type of event (passed as a string) that is
          about to be executed.  'event' can be one of the following:

             * ‘"line"’: A new line of code is going to be executed.

             * ‘"call"’: A function is about to be called, or another
               code block entered.

             * ‘"return"’: A function or other code block is about to
               return.

             * ‘"exception"’ : Une exception est survenue.

             * ‘"c_call"’ : Une fonction C est sur le point d'être
               appelée.

             * ‘"c_return"’ : Une fonction C s'est terminée.

             * ‘"c_exception"’: A C function has raised an exception.

          For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are
          called.  For the C events, no action is taken.

          Le paramètre 'arg' dépend de l'événement précédent.

          See the documentation for *note sys.settrace(): 14b7. for more
          information on the trace function.  For more information on
          code and frame objects, refer to *note Hiérarchie des types
          standards: 1ea2.

      -- Méthode: dispatch_line (frame)

          If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the
          *note user_line(): 41b6. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 41a0. exception if the
          *note quitting: 41b3. flag is set (which can be set from *note
          user_line(): 41b6.).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 41b4. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Méthode: dispatch_call (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the
          *note user_call(): 41b8. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 41a0. exception if the
          *note quitting: 41b3. flag is set (which can be set from *note
          user_call(): 41b8.).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 41b4. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Méthode: dispatch_return (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke
          the *note user_return(): 41ba. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 41a0.
          exception if the *note quitting: 41b3. flag is set (which can
          be set from *note user_return(): 41ba.).  Return a reference
          to the *note trace_dispatch(): 41b4. method for further
          tracing in that scope.

      -- Méthode: dispatch_exception (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the
          *note user_exception(): 41bc. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 41a0.
          exception if the *note quitting: 41b3. flag is set (which can
          be set from *note user_exception(): 41bc.).  Return a
          reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 41b4. method for
          further tracing in that scope.

     Normally derived classes don't override the following methods, but
     they may if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and
     breakpoints.

      -- Méthode: is_skipped_line (module_name)

          Return ‘True’ if 'module_name' matches any skip pattern.

      -- Méthode: stop_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if 'frame' is below the starting frame in the
          stack.

      -- Méthode: break_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if there is an effective breakpoint for this
          line.

          Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in
          effect.  Delete temporary breakpoints based on information
          from *note effective(): 41c0.

      -- Méthode: break_anywhere (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if any breakpoint exists for 'frame"s filename.

     Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over
     debugger operation.

      -- Méthode: user_call (frame, argument_list)

          Called from *note dispatch_call(): 41b7. if a break might stop
          inside the called function.

          'argument_list' is not used anymore and will always be ‘None’.
          The argument is kept for backwards compatibility.

      -- Méthode: user_line (frame)

          Called from *note dispatch_line(): 41b5. when either *note
          stop_here(): 41be. or *note break_here(): 41bf. returns
          ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: user_return (frame, return_value)

          Called from *note dispatch_return(): 41b9. when *note
          stop_here(): 41be. returns ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: user_exception (frame, exc_info)

          Called from *note dispatch_exception(): 41bb. when *note
          stop_here(): 41be. returns ‘True’.

      -- Méthode: do_clear (arg)

          Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary
          one.

          This method must be implemented by derived classes.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     affect the stepping state.

      -- Méthode: set_step ()

          Arrête après une ligne de code.

      -- Méthode: set_next (frame)

          Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.

      -- Méthode: set_return (frame)

          Stop when returning from the given frame.

      -- Méthode: set_until (frame, lineno=None)

          Stop when the line with the 'lineno' greater than the current
          one is reached or when returning from current frame.

      -- Méthode: set_trace ([frame])

          Start debugging from 'frame'.  If 'frame' is not specified,
          debugging starts from caller's frame.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: *note set_trace(): 41c8. will
          enter the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line
          of code to be executed.

      -- Méthode: set_continue ()

          Stop only at breakpoints or when finished.  If there are no
          breakpoints, set the system trace function to ‘None’.

      -- Méthode: set_quit ()

          Set the ‘quitting’ attribute to ‘True’.  This raises *note
          BdbQuit: 41a0. in the next call to one of the ‘dispatch_*()’
          methods.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     manipulate breakpoints.  These methods return a string containing
     an error message if something went wrong, or ‘None’ if all is well.

      -- Méthode: set_break (filename, lineno, temporary=False,
               cond=None, funcname=None)

          Set a new breakpoint.  If the 'lineno' line doesn't exist for
          the 'filename' passed as argument, return an error message.
          The 'filename' should be in canonical form, as described in
          the *note canonic(): 41b1. method.

      -- Méthode: clear_break (filename, lineno)

          Delete the breakpoints in 'filename' and 'lineno'.  If none
          were set, return an error message.

      -- Méthode: clear_bpbynumber (arg)

          Delete the breakpoint which has the index 'arg' in the *note
          Breakpoint.bpbynumber: 41a2.  If 'arg' is not numeric or out
          of range, return an error message.

      -- Méthode: clear_all_file_breaks (filename)

          Delete all breakpoints in 'filename'.  If none were set,
          return an error message.

      -- Méthode: clear_all_breaks ()

          Delete all existing breakpoints.  If none were set, return an
          error message.

      -- Méthode: get_bpbynumber (arg)

          Return a breakpoint specified by the given number.  If 'arg'
          is a string, it will be converted to a number.  If 'arg' is a
          non-numeric string, if the given breakpoint never existed or
          has been deleted, a *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

      -- Méthode: get_break (filename, lineno)

          Return ‘True’ if there is a breakpoint for 'lineno' in
          'filename'.

      -- Méthode: get_breaks (filename, lineno)

          Return all breakpoints for 'lineno' in 'filename', or an empty
          list if none are set.

      -- Méthode: get_file_breaks (filename)

          Return all breakpoints in 'filename', or an empty list if none
          are set.

      -- Méthode: get_all_breaks ()

          Donne tous les points d'arrêt définis.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a
     data structure representing a stack trace.

      -- Méthode: get_stack (f, t)

          Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and
          a size.

          The most recently called frame is last in the list.  The size
          is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was
          invoked.

      -- Méthode: format_stack_entry (frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')

          Return a string with information about a stack entry, which is
          a ‘(frame, lineno)’ tuple.  The return string contains:

             * The canonical filename which contains the frame.

             * The function name or ‘"<lambda>"’.

             * Les arguments donnés.

             * Le résultat.

             * La ligne de code (si elle existe).

     The following two methods can be called by clients to use a
     debugger to debug a *note statement: 273b, given as a string.

      -- Méthode: run (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug a statement executed via the *note exec(): 17d.
          function.  'globals' defaults to ‘__main__.__dict__’, 'locals'
          defaults to 'globals'.

      -- Méthode: runeval (expr, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug an expression executed via the *note eval(): 17e.
          function.  'globals' and 'locals' have the same meaning as in
          *note run(): 41d6.

      -- Méthode: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          For backwards compatibility.  Calls the *note run(): 41d6.
          method.

      -- Méthode: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Debug a single function call, and return its result.

Finally, the module defines the following functions:

 -- Fonction: bdb.checkfuncname (b, frame)

     Return ‘True’ if we should break here, depending on the way the
     *note Breakpoint: 41a1. 'b' was set.

     If it was set via line number, it checks if *note b.line: 41ad. is
     the same as the one in 'frame'.  If the breakpoint was set via
     *note function name: 41a5, we have to check we are in the right
     'frame' (the right function) and if we are on its first executable
     line.

 -- Fonction: bdb.effective (file, line, frame)

     Return ‘(active breakpoint, delete temporary flag)’ or ‘(None,
     None)’ as the breakpoint to act upon.

     The 'active breakpoint' is the first entry in *note bplist: 41a3.
     for the (*note file: 41a4, *note line: 41ad.) (which must exist)
     that is *note enabled: 41af, for which *note checkfuncname(): 41d9.
     is true, and that has neither a false *note condition: 41a7. nor
     positive *note ignore: 41b0. count.  The 'flag', meaning that a
     temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ‘False’ only when the
     *note cond: 41a7. cannot be evaluated (in which case, *note ignore:
     41b0. count is ignored).

     If no such entry exists, then ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

 -- Fonction: bdb.set_trace ()

     Start debugging with a *note Bdb: 12e2. instance from caller's
     frame.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bdb.py


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback,  Next: pdb — Le débogueur Python,  Prev: bdb --- Debugger framework,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.3 ‘faulthandler’ -- Dump the Python traceback
--------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on
a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): c8e. to install fault handlers for the *note
SIGSEGV: 1d06, *note SIGFPE: 1d07, *note SIGABRT: 1d08, *note SIGBUS:
1d09, and *note SIGILL: 1d0a. signals.  You can also enable them at
startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 106b. environment
variable or by using the *note -X: 175. ‘faulthandler’ command line
option.

The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport
or the Windows fault handler.  The module uses an alternative stack for
signal handlers if the ‘sigaltstack()’ function is available.  This
allows it to dump the traceback even on a stack overflow.

The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only
use signal-safe functions (e.g.  it cannot allocate memory on the heap).
Because of this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to
normal Python tracebacks:

   * Only ASCII is supported.  The ‘backslashreplace’ error handler is
     used on encoding.

   * Each string is limited to 500 characters.

   * Only the filename, the function name and the line number are
     displayed.  (no source code)

   * It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads.

   * The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.

By default, the Python traceback is written to *note sys.stderr: 928.
To see tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal.  A log file
can alternatively be passed to *note faulthandler.enable(): c8e.

The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash
or when Python is deadlocked.

The *note Python Development Mode: 1f5. calls *note
faulthandler.enable(): c8e. at Python startup.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note pdb: a4.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

Module *note traceback: fd.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

* Menu:

* Dumping the traceback::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* Exemple: Exemple<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback,  Next: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.1 Dumping the traceback
..............................

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.dump_traceback (file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads into 'file'.  If 'all_threads'
     is ‘False’, dump only the current thread.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note traceback.print_tb(): e72, which can be used to print a
     traceback object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file
     descriptor to this function.


File: python.info,  Node: Fault handler state,  Next: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Prev: Dumping the traceback,  Up: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.2 Fault handler state
............................

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.enable (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)

     Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the *note SIGSEGV:
     1d06, *note SIGFPE: 1d07, *note SIGABRT: 1d08, *note SIGBUS: 1d09.
     and *note SIGILL: 1d0a. signals to dump the Python traceback.  If
     'all_threads' is ‘True’, produce tracebacks for every running
     thread.  Otherwise, dump only the current thread.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled:
     see *note issue with file descriptors: 41de.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file
     descriptor to this function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: On Windows, a handler for Windows
     exception is also installed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The dump now mentions if a garbage
     collector collection is running if 'all_threads' is true.

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.disable ()

     Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed
     by *note enable(): c8e.

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.is_enabled ()

     Check if the fault handler is enabled.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Next: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Prev: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.3 Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout
...............................................

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.dump_traceback_later (timeout, repeat=False,
          file=sys.stderr, exit=False)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of 'timeout'
     seconds, or every 'timeout' seconds if 'repeat' is ‘True’.  If
     'exit' is ‘True’, call ‘_exit()’ with status=1 after dumping the
     tracebacks.  (Note ‘_exit()’ exits the process immediately, which
     means it doesn't do any cleanup like flushing file buffers.)  If
     the function is called twice, the new call replaces previous
     parameters and resets the timeout.  The timer has a sub-second
     resolution.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or *note
     cancel_dump_traceback_later(): 41e2. is called: see *note issue
     with file descriptors: 41de.

     This function is implemented using a watchdog thread.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file
     descriptor to this function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: This function is now always available.

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later ()

     Cancel the last call to *note dump_traceback_later(): dee.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Next: Issue with file descriptors,  Prev: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Up: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.4 Dumping the traceback on a user signal
...............................................

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.register (signum, file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True, chain=False)

     Register a user signal: install a handler for the 'signum' signal
     to dump the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if
     'all_threads' is ‘False’, into 'file'.  Call the previous handler
     if chain is ‘True’.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by
     *note unregister(): 41e4.: see *note issue with file descriptors:
     41de.

     Not available on Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file
     descriptor to this function.

 -- Fonction: faulthandler.unregister (signum)

     Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the 'signum'
     signal installed by *note register(): dec.  Return ‘True’ if the
     signal was registered, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Not available on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Issue with file descriptors,  Next: Exemple<14>,  Prev: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Up: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.5 Issue with file descriptors
....................................

*note enable(): c8e, *note dump_traceback_later(): dee. and *note
register(): dec. keep the file descriptor of their 'file' argument.  If
the file is closed and its file descriptor is reused by a new file, or
if *note os.dup2(): b53. is used to replace the file descriptor, the
traceback will be written into a different file.  Call these functions
again each time that the file is replaced.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<14>,  Prev: Issue with file descriptors,  Up: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.6 Exemple
................

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the
fault handler:

     $ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
     Segmentation fault

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: pdb — Le débogueur Python,  Next: The Python Profilers,  Prev: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.4 ‘pdb’ — Le débogueur Python
----------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note pdb: a4. définit un débogueur de code source interactif
pour les programmes Python.  Il supporte le paramétrage (conditionnel)
de points d'arrêt et l'exécution du code source ligne par ligne,
l'inspection des 'frames' de la pile, la liste du code source, et
l'évaluation arbitraire de code Python dans le contexte de n'importe
quelle 'frame' de la pile.  Il supporte aussi le débogage post-mortem et
peut être contrôlé depuis un programme.

Le débogueur est extensible - Il est en réalité défini comme la classe
*note Pdb: 911.  C'est actuellement non-documenté mais facilement
compréhensible en lisant le code source.  L'interface d'extension
utilise les modules *note bdb: f. et *note cmd: 19.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note faulthandler: 57.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

Module *note traceback: fd.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

The typical usage to break into the debugger is to insert:

     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()

Or:

     breakpoint()

at the location you want to break into the debugger, and then run the
program.  You can then step through the code following this statement,
and continue running without the debugger using the *note continue:
41ea. command.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The built-in *note breakpoint(): 231, when
called with defaults, can be used instead of ‘import pdb;
pdb.set_trace()’.

     def double(x):
        breakpoint()
        return x * 2
     val = 3
     print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}")

The debugger's prompt is ‘(Pdb)’, which is the indicator that you are in
debug mode:

     > ...(2)double()
     -> breakpoint()
     (Pdb) p x
     3
     (Pdb) continue
     3 * 2 is 6

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La complétion via le module *note readline:
b9. est disponible pour les commandes et les arguments de commande, par
exemple les noms 'global' et 'local' sont proposés comme arguments de la
commande ‘p’.

You can also invoke *note pdb: a4. from the command line to debug other
scripts.  For example:

     python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | pyfile) [args ...]

When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem
debugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally.  After
post-mortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will
restart the program.  Automatic restarting preserves pdb's state (such
as breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the
debugger upon program's exit.

 -- Option: -c, --command <command>

     To execute commands as if given in a ‘.pdbrc’ file; see *note
     Commande du débogueur: 41ed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the ‘-c’ option.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     To execute modules similar to the way ‘python -m’ does.  As with a
     script, the debugger will pause execution just before the first
     line of the module.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the ‘-m’ option.

Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     >>> pdb.run("f(2)")
     > <string>(1)<module>()
     (Pdb) continue
     0.5
     >>>

L'usage typique pour inspecter un programme planté :

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     ...
     >>> f(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> pdb.pm()
     > <stdin>(2)f()
     (Pdb) p x
     0
     (Pdb)

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The implementation of PEP 667(2) means
that name assignments made via ‘pdb’ will immediately affect the active
scope, even when running inside an *note optimized scope: 17c.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes; chacune entre dans le
débogueur d'une manière légèrement différente :

 -- Fonction: pdb.run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)

     Exécute la 'déclaration' (donnée sous forme de chaîne de caractères
     ou d'objet code) sous le contrôle du débogueur.  L'invite de
     débogage apparaît avant l'exécution de tout code; vous pouvez
     définir des points d'arrêt et taper *note continue: 41ea, ou vous
     pouvez passer à travers l'instruction en utilisant *note step:
     41ef. ou *note next: 41f0. (toutes ces commandes sont expliquées
     ci-dessous).  Les arguments 'globals' et 'locals' optionnels
     spécifient l'environnement dans lequel le code est exécuté; par
     défaut le dictionnaire du module *note __main__: 1. est utilisé.
     (Voir l'explication des fonctions natives *note exec(): 17d. ou
     *note eval(): 17e.)

 -- Fonction: pdb.runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)

     Evaluate the 'expression' (given as a string or a code object)
     under debugger control.  When *note runeval(): 41f1. returns, it
     returns the value of the 'expression'.  Otherwise this function is
     similar to *note run(): 3ff3.

 -- Fonction: pdb.runcall (function, *args, **kwds)

     Appelle la 'function' (une fonction ou une méthode, pas une chaine
     de caractères) avec les arguments donnés.  Quand *note runcall():
     41f2. revient, il retourne ce que l'appel de fonctionne a renvoyé.
     L'invite de débogage apparaît dès que la fonction est entrée.

 -- Fonction: pdb.set_trace (*, header=None)

     Invoque le débogueur dans la cadre d'exécution appelant.  C'est
     utile pour coder en dur un point d'arrêt dans un programme, même si
     le code n'est pas autrement débogué (par exemple, quand une
     assertion échoue).  S'il est donné, 'header' est affiché sur la
     console juste avant que le débogage commence.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: L’argument 'keyword-only' 'header'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: *note set_trace(): 232. will enter
     the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code to
     be executed.

 -- Fonction: pdb.post_mortem (t=None)

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the given exception or *note
     traceback object: ae4.  If no value is given, it uses the exception
     that is currently being handled, or raises ‘ValueError’ if there
     isn’t one.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for exception objects was
     added.

 -- Fonction: pdb.pm ()

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the exception found in *note
     sys.last_exc: 4aa.

Les fonctions ‘run*’ et *note set_trace(): 232. sont des alias pour
instancier la classe *note Pdb: 911. et appeler la méthode du même nom.
Si vous souhaitez accéder à d'autres fonctionnalités, vous devez le
faire vous-même :

 -- Classe: pdb.Pdb (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None,
          skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True)

     Le classe du débogueur est la classe *note Pdb: 911.

     Les arguments 'completekey', 'stdin' et 'stdout' sont transmis à la
     classe sous-jacente *note cmd.Cmd: 1680.; voir la description ici.

     L'argument 'skip', s'il est donné, doit être un itérable des noms
     de modules de style 'glob'.  Le débogueur n'entrera pas dans les
     'frames' qui proviennent d'un module qui correspond à l'un de ces
     motifs.  (3)

     By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent
     when the user presses ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ on the console) when you give a
     *note continue: 41ea. command.  This allows you to break into the
     debugger again by pressing ‘Ctrl’-‘C’.  If you want Pdb not to
     touch the SIGINT handler, set 'nosigint' to true.

     L'argument 'readrc' vaut 'True' par défaut et contrôle si Pdb
     chargera les fichiers '.pdbrc' depuis le système de fichiers.

     Exemple d'appel pour activer le traçage avec 'skip' :

          import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘pdb.Pdb’ sans argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'nosigint' parameter.
     Previously, a SIGINT handler was never set by Pdb.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument 'readrc'.

      -- Méthode: run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- Méthode: runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- Méthode: runcall (function, *args, **kwds)
      -- Méthode: set_trace ()

          Voir la documentation pour les fonctions expliquées ci-dessus.

* Menu:

* Commande du débogueur::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pdb.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) La question de savoir si une 'frame' est considérée comme
provenant d'un certain module est déterminée par le ‘__name__’ dans les
globales de la 'frame'.


File: python.info,  Node: Commande du débogueur,  Up: pdb — Le débogueur Python

5.28.4.1 Commande du débogueur
..............................

Les commandes reconnues par le débogueur sont listées.  La plupart des
commandes peuvent être abrégées à une ou deux lettres comme indiquées;
par exemple.  ‘h(elp)’ signifie que soit ‘h’ ou ‘help’ peut être
utilisée pour entrer la commande 'help' (mais pas ‘he’ or ‘hel’, ni ‘H’
ou ‘HELP’).  Les arguments des commandes doivent être séparées par des
espaces (espaces ou tabulations).  Les arguments optionnels sont
entourés dans des crochets (‘[]’) dans la syntaxe de la commande; les
crochets ne doivent pas être insérés.  Les alternatives dans la syntaxe
de la commande sont séparés par une barre verticale (‘|’).

Entrer une ligne vide répète la dernière commande entrée.  Exception: si
la dernière commande était la commande *note list: 41f8, les 11
prochaines lignes sont affichées.

Les commandes que le débogueur ne reconnaît pas sont supposées être des
instructions Python et sont exécutées dans le contexte du programme en
cours de débogage.  Les instructions Python peuvent également être
préfixées avec un point d'exclamation (‘!’).  C'est une façon puissante
d'inspecter le programme en cours de débogage; il est même possible de
changer une variable ou d'appeler une fonction.  Lorsqu'une exception se
produit dans une telle instruction, le nom de l'exception est affiché
mais l'état du débogueur n'est pas modifié.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Expressions/Statements whose prefix is a
pdb command are now correctly identified and executed.

Le débogueur supporte *note aliases: 41f9.  Les alias peuvent avoir des
paramètres qui permettent un certain niveau d'adaptabilité au contexte
étudié.

Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ‘;;’.
(A single ‘;’ is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands
in a line that is passed to the Python parser.)  No intelligence is
applied to separating the commands; the input is split at the first ‘;;’
pair, even if it is in the middle of a quoted string.  A workaround for
strings with double semicolons is to use implicit string concatenation
‘';'';'’ or ‘";"";"’.

To set a temporary global variable, use a 'convenience variable'.  A
'convenience variable' is a variable whose name starts with ‘$’.  For
example, ‘$foo = 1’ sets a global variable ‘$foo’ which you can use in
the debugger session.  The 'convenience variables' are cleared when the
program resumes execution so it's less likely to interfere with your
program compared to using normal variables like ‘foo = 1’.

There are three preset 'convenience variables':

   * ‘$_frame’: the current frame you are debugging

   * ‘$_retval’: the return value if the frame is returning

   * ‘$_exception’: the exception if the frame is raising an exception

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: Added the 'convenience variable' feature.

If a file ‘.pdbrc’ exists in the user's home directory or in the current
directory, it is read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding and executed as if it had
been typed at the debugger prompt, with the exception that empty lines
and lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  This is particularly useful
for aliases.  If both files exist, the one in the home directory is read
first and aliases defined there can be overridden by the local file.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le fichier ‘.pdbrc’ peut maintenant
contenir des commandes qui continue le débogage, comme *note continue:
41ea. ou *note next: 41f0.  Précédemment, ces commandes n'avaient aucun
effet.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘.pdbrc’ is now read with ‘'utf-8'’
encoding.  Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding.

 -- Pdbcommand: h(elp) [command]

     Sans argument, affiche la liste des commandes disponibles.  Avec
     une 'commande' comme argument, affiche l'aide de cette commande.
     ‘help pdb’ affiche la documentation complète (la 'docstring' du
     module *note pdb: a4.).  Puisque l'argument 'command' doit être un
     identificateur, ‘help exec’ doit être entré pour obtenir de l'aide
     sur la commande ‘!’.

 -- Pdbcommand: w(here)

     Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom.  An
     arrow (‘>’) indicates the current frame, which determines the
     context of most commands.

 -- Pdbcommand: d(own) [count]

     Déplace le niveau de la 'frame' courante 'count' (par défaut un)
     vers le bas dans la trace de pile (vers une 'frame' plus récente).

 -- Pdbcommand: u(p) [count]

     Déplace le niveau de la 'frame' courante 'count' (par défaut un)
     vers le haut dans la trace de pile (vers une 'frame' plus
     ancienne).

 -- Pdbcommand: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     With a 'lineno' argument, set a break at line 'lineno' in the
     current file.  The line number may be prefixed with a 'filename'
     and a colon, to specify a breakpoint in another file (possibly one
     that hasn't been loaded yet).  The file is searched on *note
     sys.path: 3ab.  Accepatable forms of 'filename' are
     ‘/abspath/to/file.py’, ‘relpath/file.py’, ‘module’ and
     ‘package.module’.

     With a 'function' argument, set a break at the first executable
     statement within that function.  'function' can be any expression
     that evaluates to a function in the current namespace.

     Si un second argument est présent, c'est une expression qui doit
     évaluer à 'True' avant que le point d'arrêt ne soit honoré.

     Sans argument, liste tous les arrêts, incluant pour chaque point
     d'arrêt, le nombre de fois qu'un point d'arrêt a été atteint, le
     nombre de ignore, et la condition associée le cas échéant.

     Each breakpoint is assigned a number to which all the other
     breakpoint commands refer.

 -- Pdbcommand: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     Point d'arrêt temporaire, qui est enlevé automatiquement au premier
     passage.  Les arguments sont les mêmes que pour *note break: 41fe.

 -- Pdbcommand: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...]

     Avec un argument 'filename:lineno', efface tous les points d'arrêt
     sur cette ligne.  Avec une liste de numéros de points d'arrêt
     séparés par un espace, efface ces points d'arrêt.  Sans argument,
     efface tous les points d'arrêt (mais demande d'abord confirmation).

 -- Pdbcommand: disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Désactive les points d'arrêt indiqués sous la forme d'une liste de
     numéros de points d'arrêt séparés par un espace.  Désactiver un
     point d'arrêt signifie qu'il ne peut pas interrompre l'exécution du
     programme, mais à la différence d'effacer un point d'arrêt, il
     reste dans la liste des points d'arrêt et peut être (ré)activé.

 -- Pdbcommand: enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Active les points d'arrêt spécifiés.

 -- Pdbcommand: ignore bpnumber [count]

     Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number.  If 'count'
     is omitted, the ignore count is set to 0.  A breakpoint becomes
     active when the ignore count is zero.  When non-zero, the 'count'
     is decremented each time the breakpoint is reached and the
     breakpoint is not disabled and any associated condition evaluates
     to true.

 -- Pdbcommand: condition bpnumber [condition]

     Définit une nouvelle 'condition' pour le point d'arrêt, une
     expression qui doit évaluer à 'True' avant que le point d'arrêt ne
     soit honoré.  Si 'condition' est absente, toute condition existante
     est supprimée, c'est-à-dire que le point d'arrêt est rendu
     inconditionnel.

 -- Pdbcommand: commands [bpnumber]

     Spécifie une liste de commandes pour le numéro du point d'arrêt
     'bpnumber'.  Les commandes elles-mêmes apparaissent sur les lignes
     suivantes.  Tapez une ligne contenant juste ‘end’ pour terminer les
     commandes.  Un exemple :

          (Pdb) commands 1
          (com) p some_variable
          (com) end
          (Pdb)

     Pour supprimer toutes les commandes depuis un point d'arrêt,
     écrivez ‘commands’ suivi immédiatement de ‘end’ ; ceci supprime les
     commandes.

     Sans argument 'bpnumber', ‘commands’ se réfère au dernier point
     d'arrêt défini.

     Vous pouvez utiliser les commandes de point d'arrêt pour redémarrer
     votre programme.  Utilisez simplement la commande *note continue:
     41ea, ou *note step: 41ef, ou toute autre commande qui reprend
     l'exécution.

     Entrer toute commande reprenant l'exécution (actuellement *note
     continue: 41ea, *note step: 41ef, *note next: 41f0, *note return:
     4206, *note jump: 4207, *note quit: 4208. et leurs abréviations)
     termine la liste des commandes (comme si cette commande était
     immédiatement suivie de la fin).  C'est parce que chaque fois que
     vous reprenez l'exécution (même avec un simple 'next' ou 'step'),
     vous pouvez rencontrer un autre point d'arrêt - qui pourrait avoir
     sa propre liste de commandes, conduisant à des ambiguïtés sur la
     liste à exécuter.

     If you use the ‘silent’ command in the command list, the usual
     message about stopping at a breakpoint is not printed.  This may be
     desirable for breakpoints that are to print a specific message and
     then continue.  If none of the other commands print anything, you
     see no sign that the breakpoint was reached.

 -- Pdbcommand: s(tep)

     Exécute la ligne en cours, s'arrête à la première occasion possible
     (soit dans une fonction qui est appelée, soit sur la ligne suivante
     de la fonction courante).

 -- Pdbcommand: n(ext)

     Continue l'exécution jusqu'à ce que la ligne suivante de la
     fonction en cours soit atteinte ou qu'elle revienne.  (La
     différence entre *note next: 41f0. et *note step: 41ef. est que
     *note step: 41ef. s'arrête dans une fonction appelée, tandis que
     *note next: 41f0. exécute les fonctions appelées à (presque) pleine
     vitesse, ne s'arrêtant qu'à la ligne suivante dans la fonction
     courante.)

 -- Pdbcommand: unt(il) [lineno]

     Sans argument, continue l'exécution jusqu'à ce que la ligne avec un
     nombre supérieur au nombre actuel soit atteinte.

     With 'lineno', continue execution until a line with a number
     greater or equal to 'lineno' is reached.  In both cases, also stop
     when the current frame returns.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Permet de donner un numéro de ligne
     explicite.

 -- Pdbcommand: r(eturn)

     Continue l'exécution jusqu'au retour de la fonction courante.

 -- Pdbcommand: c(ont(inue))

     Continue l'exécution, seulement s'arrête quand un point d'arrêt est
     rencontré.

 -- Pdbcommand: j(ump) lineno

     Définit la prochaine ligne qui sera exécutée.  Uniquement
     disponible dans la 'frame' inférieur.  Cela vous permet de revenir
     en arrière et d'exécuter à nouveau le code, ou de passer en avant
     pour sauter le code que vous ne voulez pas exécuter.

     Il est à noter que tous les sauts ne sont pas autorisés - par
     exemple, il n'est pas possible de sauter au milieu d'une boucle
     *note for: 2e7. ou en dehors d'une clause *note finally: 9ba.

 -- Pdbcommand: l(ist) [first[, last]]

     Liste le code source du fichier courant.  Sans arguments, liste 11
     lignes autour de la ligne courante ou continue le listing
     précédant.  Avec l'argument ‘.’, liste 11 lignes autour de la ligne
     courante.  Avec un argument, liste les 11 lignes autour de cette
     ligne.  Avec deux arguments, liste la plage donnée; si le second
     argument est inférieur au premier, il est interprété comme un
     compte.

     La ligne en cours dans l'image courante est indiquée par ‘->’.  Si
     une exception est en cours de débogage, la ligne où l'exception a
     été initialement levée ou propagée est indiquée par ‘>>’, si elle
     diffère de la ligne courante.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the ‘>>’ marker.

 -- Pdbcommand: ll | longlist

     Liste le code source de la fonction ou du bloc courant.  Les lignes
     intéressantes sont marquées comme pour *note list: 41f8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: a(rgs)

     Print the arguments of the current function and their current
     values.

 -- Pdbcommand: p expression

     Evaluate 'expression' in the current context and print its value.

          Note: ‘print()’ peut aussi être utilisée, mais n'est pas une
          commande du débogueur -- il exécute la fonction Python *note
          print(): f62.

 -- Pdbcommand: pp expression

     Like the *note p: f63. command, except the value of 'expression' is
     pretty-printed using the *note pprint: ad. module.

 -- Pdbcommand: whatis expression

     Print the type of 'expression'.

 -- Pdbcommand: source expression

     Try to get source code of 'expression' and display it.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: display [expression]

     Display the value of 'expression' if it changed, each time
     execution stops in the current frame.

     Without 'expression', list all display expressions for the current
     frame.

          Note: Display evaluates 'expression' and compares to the
          result of the previous evaluation of 'expression', so when the
          result is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the
          changes.

     Exemple :

          lst = []
          breakpoint()
          pass
          lst.append(1)
          print(lst)

     Display won't realize ‘lst’ has been changed because the result of
     evaluation is modified in place by ‘lst.append(1)’ before being
     compared:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst
          display lst: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          (Pdb)

     You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst[:]
          display lst[:]: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          display lst[:]: [1]  [old: []]
          (Pdb)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: undisplay [expression]

     Do not display 'expression' anymore in the current frame.  Without
     'expression', clear all display expressions for the current frame.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: interact

     Start an interactive interpreter (using the *note code: 1a. module)
     in a new global namespace initialised from the local and global
     namespaces for the current scope.  Use ‘exit()’ or ‘quit()’ to exit
     the interpreter and return to the debugger.

          Note: As ‘interact’ creates a new dedicated namespace for code
          execution, assignments to variables will not affect the
          original namespaces.  However, modifications to any referenced
          mutable objects will be reflected in the original namespaces
          as usual.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ can be used to
     exit the *note interact: 4211. command.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: *note interact: 4211. directs its
     output to the debugger's output channel rather than *note
     sys.stderr: 928.

 -- Pdbcommand: alias [name [command]]

     Create an alias called 'name' that executes 'command'.  The
     'command' must 'not' be enclosed in quotes.  Replaceable parameters
     can be indicated by ‘%1’, ‘%2’, ...  and ‘%9’, while ‘%*’ is
     replaced by all the parameters.  If 'command' is omitted, the
     current alias for 'name' is shown.  If no arguments are given, all
     aliases are listed.

     Les alias peuvent être imbriqués et peuvent contenir tout ce qui
     peut être légalement tapé à l'invite 'pdb'.  Notez que les
     commandes 'pdb' internes 'peuvent' être remplacées par des alias.
     Une telle commande est alors masquée jusqu'à ce que l'alias soit
     supprimé.  L''aliasing' est appliqué récursivement au premier mot
     de la ligne de commande; tous les autres mots de la ligne sont
     laissés seuls.

     Comme un exemple, voici deux alias utiles (spécialement quand il
     est placé dans le fichier ‘.pdbrc’) :

          # Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst")
          alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}")
          # Print instance variables in self
          alias ps pi self

 -- Pdbcommand: unalias name

     Delete the specified alias 'name'.

 -- Pdbcommand: ! statement

     Execute the (one-line) 'statement' in the context of the current
     stack frame.  The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first
     word of the statement resembles a debugger command, e.g.:

          (Pdb) ! n=42
          (Pdb)

     To set a global variable, you can prefix the assignment command
     with a *note global: 188. statement on the same line, e.g.:

          (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
          (Pdb)

 -- Pdbcommand: run [args ...]
 -- Pdbcommand: restart [args ...]

     Restart the debugged Python program.  If 'args' is supplied, it is
     split with *note shlex: c3. and the result is used as the new *note
     sys.argv: 1245.  History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options
     are preserved.  *note restart: 4216. is an alias for *note run:
     4215.

 -- Pdbcommand: q(uit)

     Quitte le débogueur.  Le programme exécuté est arrêté.

 -- Pdbcommand: debug code

     Enter a recursive debugger that steps through 'code' (which is an
     arbitrary expression or statement to be executed in the current
     environment).

 -- Pdbcommand: retval

     Print the return value for the last return of the current function.

 -- Pdbcommand: exceptions [excnumber]

     List or jump between chained exceptions.

     When using ‘pdb.pm()’ or ‘Pdb.post_mortem(...)’ with a chained
     exception instead of a traceback, it allows the user to move
     between the chained exceptions using ‘exceptions’ command to list
     exceptions, and ‘exceptions <number>’ to switch to that exception.

     Exemple :

          def out():
              try:
                  middle()
              except Exception as e:
                  raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

          def middle():
              try:
                  return inner(0)
              except Exception as e:
                  raise ValueError("Middle fail")

          def inner(x):
              1 / x

           out()

     calling ‘pdb.pm()’ will allow to move between exceptions:

          > example.py(5)out()
          -> raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

          (Pdb) exceptions
            0 ZeroDivisionError('division by zero')
            1 ValueError('Middle fail')
          > 2 ValueError('reraise middle() error')

          (Pdb) exceptions 0
          > example.py(16)inner()
          -> 1 / x

          (Pdb) up
          > example.py(10)middle()
          -> return inner(0)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: The Python Profilers,  Next: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets,  Prev: pdb — Le débogueur Python,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.5 The Python Profilers
---------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/profile.py(1) and Lib/pstats.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction to the profilers::
* Instant User's Manual::
* profile and cProfile Module Reference::
* The Stats Class::
* What Is Deterministic Profiling?::
* Limitations::
* Calibration::
* Using a custom timer::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/profile.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pstats.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to the profilers,  Next: Instant User's Manual,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.1 Introduction to the profilers
......................................

*note cProfile: 27. and *note profile: ae. provide 'deterministic
profiling' of Python programs.  A 'profile' is a set of statistics that
describes how often and for how long various parts of the program
executed.  These statistics can be formatted into reports via the *note
pstats: af. module.

The Python standard library provides two different implementations of
the same profiling interface:

  1. *note cProfile: 27. is recommended for most users; it's a C
     extension with reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for
     profiling long-running programs.  Based on ‘lsprof’, contributed by
     Brett Rosen and Ted Czotter.

  2. *note profile: ae, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated
     by *note cProfile: 27, but which adds significant overhead to
     profiled programs.  If you're trying to extend the profiler in some
     way, the task might be easier with this module.  Originally
     designed and written by Jim Roskind.

     Note: The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution
     profile for a given program, not for benchmarking purposes (for
     that, there is *note timeit: ee. for reasonably accurate results).
     This particularly applies to benchmarking Python code against C
     code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code, but not for
     C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any
     Python one.


File: python.info,  Node: Instant User's Manual,  Next: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Prev: Introduction to the profilers,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.2 Instant User's Manual
..............................

This section is provided for users that "don't want to read the manual."
It provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform
profiling on an existing application.

To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")')

(Use *note profile: ae. instead of *note cProfile: 27. if the latter is
not available on your system.)

The above action would run *note re.compile(): bc3. and print profile
results like the following:

           214 function calls (207 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds

     Ordered by: cumulative time

     ncalls  tottime  percall  cumtime  percall filename:lineno(function)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.002    0.002 {built-in method builtins.exec}
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 <string>:1(<module>)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:250(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:289(_compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:759(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:937(parse)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:598(_code)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:435(_parse_sub)

The first line indicates that 214 calls were monitored.  Of those calls,
207 were 'primitive', meaning that the call was not induced via
recursion.  The next line: ‘Ordered by: cumulative time’ indicates the
output is sorted by the ‘cumtime’ values.  The column headings include:

ncalls

     for the number of calls.

tottime

     for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time
     made in calls to sub-functions)

percall

     is the quotient of ‘tottime’ divided by ‘ncalls’

cumtime

     is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from
     invocation till exit).  This figure is accurate 'even' for
     recursive functions.

percall

     is the quotient of ‘cumtime’ divided by primitive calls

filename:lineno(function)

     provides the respective data of each function

When there are two numbers in the first column (for example ‘3/1’), it
means that the function recursed.  The second value is the number of
primitive calls and the former is the total number of calls.  Note that
when the function does not recurse, these two values are the same, and
only the single figure is printed.

Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can
save the results to a file by specifying a filename to the ‘run()’
function:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats')

The *note pstats.Stats: 4220. class reads profile results from a file
and formats them in various ways.  The files *note cProfile: 27. and
*note profile: ae. can also be invoked as a script to profile another
script.  For example:

     python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)

 -- Option: -o <output_file>

     Writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout.

 -- Option: -s <sort_order>

     Specifies one of the *note sort_stats(): 4224. sort values to sort
     the output by.  This only applies when *note -o: 4222. is not
     supplied.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     Specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Added the ‘-m’ option to *note
     cProfile: 27.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Added the ‘-m’ option to *note profile:
     ae.

The *note pstats: af. module's *note Stats: 4220. class has a variety of
methods for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile
results file:

     import pstats
     from pstats import SortKey
     p = pstats.Stats('restats')
     p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()

The *note strip_dirs(): 4226. method removed the extraneous path from
all the module names.  The *note sort_stats(): 4224. method sorted all
the entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is
printed.  The *note print_stats(): 4227. method printed out all the
statistics.  You might try the following sort calls:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME)
     p.print_stats()

The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the
second call will print out the statistics.  The following are some
interesting calls to experiment with:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only
prints the ten most significant lines.  If you want to understand what
algorithms are taking time, the above line is what you would use.

If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking
a lot of time, you would do:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)

to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the
statistics for the top ten functions.

You might also try:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__')

This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out
statistics for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with
‘__init__’ in them).  As one final example, you could try:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init')

This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary
key of cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics.  To
be specific, the list is first culled down to 50% (re: ‘.5’) of its
original size, then only lines containing ‘init’ are maintained, and
that sub-sub-list is printed.

If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now
(‘p’ is still sorted according to the last criteria) do:

     p.print_callers(.5, 'init')

and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions.

If you want more functionality, you're going to have to read the manual,
or guess what the following functions do:

     p.print_callees()
     p.add('restats')

Invoked as a script, the *note pstats: af. module is a statistics
browser for reading and examining profile dumps.  It has a simple
line-oriented interface (implemented using *note cmd: 19.) and
interactive help.


File: python.info,  Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Next: The Stats Class,  Prev: Instant User's Manual,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.3 ‘profile’ and ‘cProfile’ Module Reference
..................................................

Both the *note profile: ae. and *note cProfile: 27. modules provide the
following functions:

 -- Fonction: profile.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1)

     This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the
     *note exec(): 17d. function, and an optional file name.  In all
     cases this routine executes:

          exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

     and gathers profiling statistics from the execution.  If no file
     name is present, then this function automatically creates a *note
     Stats: 4220. instance and prints a simple profiling report.  If the
     sort value is specified, it is passed to this *note Stats: 4220.
     instance to control how the results are sorted.

 -- Fonction: profile.runctx (command, globals, locals, filename=None,
          sort=-1)

     This function is similar to *note run(): 4229, with added arguments
     to supply the globals and locals mappings for the 'command' string.
     This routine executes:

          exec(command, globals, locals)

     and gathers profiling statistics as in the *note run(): 4229.
     function above.

 -- Classe: profile.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True,
          builtins=True)

     This class is normally only used if more precise control over
     profiling is needed than what the ‘cProfile.run()’ function
     provides.

     A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to
     run via the 'timer' argument.  This must be a function that returns
     a single number representing the current time.  If the number is an
     integer, the 'timeunit' specifies a multiplier that specifies the
     duration of each unit of time.  For example, if the timer returns
     times measured in thousands of seconds, the time unit would be
     ‘.001’.

     Directly using the *note Profile: 9d3. class allows formatting
     profile results without writing the profile data to a file:

          import cProfile, pstats, io
          from pstats import SortKey
          pr = cProfile.Profile()
          pr.enable()
          # ... do something ...
          pr.disable()
          s = io.StringIO()
          sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
          ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
          ps.print_stats()
          print(s.getvalue())

     The *note Profile: 9d3. class can also be used as a context manager
     (supported only in *note cProfile: 27. module.  see *note Le type
     gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78.):

          import cProfile

          with cProfile.Profile() as pr:
              # ... do something ...

              pr.print_stats()

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de la gestion des gestionnaires
     de contexte.

      -- Méthode: enable ()

          Start collecting profiling data.  Only in *note cProfile: 27.

      -- Méthode: disable ()

          Stop collecting profiling data.  Only in *note cProfile: 27.

      -- Méthode: create_stats ()

          Stop collecting profiling data and record the results
          internally as the current profile.

      -- Méthode: print_stats (sort=-1)

          Create a *note Stats: 4220. object based on the current
          profile and print the results to stdout.

          The 'sort' parameter specifies the sorting order of the
          displayed statistics.  It accepts a single key or a tuple of
          keys to enable multi-level sorting, as in *note
          Stats.sort_stats: 4224.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13: *note print_stats(): 422e. now
          accepts a tuple of keys.

      -- Méthode: dump_stats (filename)

          Write the results of the current profile to 'filename'.

      -- Méthode: run (cmd)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 17d.

      -- Méthode: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 17d. with the specified
          global and local environment.

      -- Méthode: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Profile ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’

Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function
actually returns.  If the interpreter is terminated (e.g.  via a *note
sys.exit(): 1329. call during the called command/function execution) no
profiling results will be printed.


File: python.info,  Node: The Stats Class,  Next: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Prev: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.4 The ‘Stats’ Class
..........................

Analysis of the profiler data is done using the *note Stats: 4220.
class.

 -- Classe: pstats.Stats (*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout)

     This class constructor creates an instance of a "statistics object"
     from a 'filename' (or list of filenames) or from a ‘Profile’
     instance.  Output will be printed to the stream specified by
     'stream'.

     The file selected by the above constructor must have been created
     by the corresponding version of *note profile: ae. or *note
     cProfile: 27.  To be specific, there is 'no' file compatibility
     guaranteed with future versions of this profiler, and there is no
     compatibility with files produced by other profilers, or the same
     profiler run on a different operating system.  If several files are
     provided, all the statistics for identical functions will be
     coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be
     considered in a single report.  If additional files need to be
     combined with data in an existing *note Stats: 4220. object, the
     *note add(): 4234. method can be used.

     Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a
     ‘cProfile.Profile’ or *note profile.Profile: 9d3. object can be
     used as the profile data source.

     *note Stats: 4220. objects have the following methods:

      -- Méthode: strip_dirs ()

          This method for the *note Stats: 4220. class removes all
          leading path information from file names.  It is very useful
          in reducing the size of the printout to fit within (close to)
          80 columns.  This method modifies the object, and the stripped
          information is lost.  After performing a strip operation, the
          object is considered to have its entries in a "random" order,
          as it was just after object initialization and loading.  If
          *note strip_dirs(): 4226. causes two function names to be
          indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same
          filename, and have the same function name), then the
          statistics for these two entries are accumulated into a single
          entry.

      -- Méthode: add (*filenames)

          This method of the *note Stats: 4220. class accumulates
          additional profiling information into the current profiling
          object.  Its arguments should refer to filenames created by
          the corresponding version of *note profile.run(): 4229. or
          ‘cProfile.run()’.  Statistics for identically named (re: file,
          line, name) functions are automatically accumulated into
          single function statistics.

      -- Méthode: dump_stats (filename)

          Save the data loaded into the *note Stats: 4220. object to a
          file named 'filename'.  The file is created if it does not
          exist, and is overwritten if it already exists.  This is
          equivalent to the method of the same name on the *note
          profile.Profile: 9d3. and ‘cProfile.Profile’ classes.

      -- Méthode: sort_stats (*keys)

          This method modifies the *note Stats: 4220. object by sorting
          it according to the supplied criteria.  The argument can be
          either a string or a SortKey enum identifying the basis of a
          sort (example: ‘'time'’, ‘'name'’, ‘SortKey.TIME’ or
          ‘SortKey.NAME’).  The SortKey enums argument have advantage
          over the string argument in that it is more robust and less
          error prone.

          When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are
          used as secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys
          selected before them.  For example, ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME,
          SortKey.FILE)’ will sort all the entries according to their
          function name, and resolve all ties (identical function names)
          by sorting by file name.

          For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key
          names, as long as the abbreviation is unambiguous.

          The following are the valid string and SortKey:

          Valid String Arg       Valid enum Arg            Signification
                                                           
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
          ‘'calls'’              SortKey.CALLS             call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumulative'’         SortKey.CUMULATIVE        cumulative time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumtime'’            N/A                       cumulative time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'file'’               N/A                       file name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'filename'’           SortKey.FILENAME          file name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'module'’             N/A                       file name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'ncalls'’             N/A                       call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'pcalls'’             SortKey.PCALLS            primitive call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'line'’               SortKey.LINE              line number
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'name'’               SortKey.NAME              function name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'nfl'’                SortKey.NFL               name/file/line
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'stdname'’            SortKey.STDNAME           standard name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'time'’               SortKey.TIME              internal time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'tottime'’            N/A                       internal time
                                                           

          Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order
          (placing most time consuming items first), where as name,
          file, and line number searches are in ascending order
          (alphabetical).  The subtle distinction between ‘SortKey.NFL’
          and ‘SortKey.STDNAME’ is that the standard name is a sort of
          the name as printed, which means that the embedded line
          numbers get compared in an odd way.  For example, lines 3, 20,
          and 40 would (if the file names were the same) appear in the
          string order 20, 3 and 40.  In contrast, ‘SortKey.NFL’ does a
          numeric compare of the line numbers.  In fact,
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)’ is the same as
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)’.

          For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments
          ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’, and ‘2’ are permitted.  They are interpreted
          as ‘'stdname'’, ‘'calls'’, ‘'time'’, and ‘'cumulative'’
          respectively.  If this old style format (numeric) is used,
          only one sort key (the numeric key) will be used, and
          additional arguments will be silently ignored.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Added the SortKey enum.

      -- Méthode: reverse_order ()

          This method for the *note Stats: 4220. class reverses the
          ordering of the basic list within the object.  Note that by
          default ascending vs descending order is properly selected
          based on the sort key of choice.

      -- Méthode: print_stats (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 4220. class prints out a
          report as described in the *note profile.run(): 4229.
          definition.

          The order of the printing is based on the last *note
          sort_stats(): 4224. operation done on the object (subject to
          caveats in *note add(): 4234. and *note strip_dirs(): 4226.).

          The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list
          down to the significant entries.  Initially, the list is taken
          to be the complete set of profiled functions.  Each
          restriction is either an integer (to select a count of lines),
          or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to select
          a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a
          regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is
          printed).  If several restrictions are provided, then they are
          applied sequentially.  For example:

               print_stats(.1, 'foo:')

          would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then
          only print functions that were part of filename ‘.*foo:’.  In
          contrast, the command:

               print_stats('foo:', .1)

          would limit the list to all functions having file names
          ‘.*foo:’, and then proceed to only print the first 10% of
          them.

      -- Méthode: print_callers (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 4220. class prints a list of
          all functions that called each function in the profiled
          database.  The ordering is identical to that provided by *note
          print_stats(): 4227, and the definition of the restricting
          argument is also identical.  Each caller is reported on its
          own line.  The format differs slightly depending on the
          profiler that produced the stats:

             * With *note profile: ae, a number is shown in parentheses
               after each caller to show how many times this specific
               call was made.  For convenience, a second
               non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time
               spent in the function at the right.

             * With *note cProfile: 27, each caller is preceded by three
               numbers: the number of times this specific call was made,
               and the total and cumulative times spent in the current
               function while it was invoked by this specific caller.

      -- Méthode: print_callees (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 4220. class prints a list of
          all function that were called by the indicated function.
          Aside from this reversal of direction of calls (re: called vs
          was called by), the arguments and ordering are identical to
          the *note print_callers(): 4237. method.

      -- Méthode: get_stats_profile ()

          This method returns an instance of StatsProfile, which
          contains a mapping of function names to instances of
          FunctionProfile.  Each FunctionProfile instance holds
          information related to the function's profile such as how long
          the function took to run, how many times it was called, etc...

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9: Added the following dataclasses:
          StatsProfile, FunctionProfile.  Added the following function:
          get_stats_profile.


File: python.info,  Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Next: Limitations,  Prev: The Stats Class,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.5 What Is Deterministic Profiling?
.........................................

'Deterministic profiling' is meant to reflect the fact that all
'function call', 'function return', and 'exception' events are
monitored, and precise timings are made for the intervals between these
events (during which time the user's code is executing).  In contrast,
'statistical profiling' (which is not done by this module) randomly
samples the effective instruction pointer, and deduces where time is
being spent.  The latter technique traditionally involves less overhead
(as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only
relative indications of where time is being spent.

In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the
presence of instrumented code is not required in order to do
deterministic profiling.  Python automatically provides a 'hook'
(optional callback) for each event.  In addition, the interpreted nature
of Python tends to add so much overhead to execution, that deterministic
profiling tends to only add small processing overhead in typical
applications.  The result is that deterministic profiling is not that
expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the
execution of a Python program.

Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising
counts), and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call
counts).  Internal time statistics can be used to identify "hot loops"
that should be carefully optimized.  Cumulative time statistics should
be used to identify high level errors in the selection of algorithms.
Note that the unusual handling of cumulative times in this profiler
allows statistics for recursive implementations of algorithms to be
directly compared to iterative implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations,  Next: Calibration,  Prev: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.6 Limitations
....................

One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information.  There is
a fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy.
The most obvious restriction is that the underlying "clock" is only
ticking at a rate (typically) of about .001 seconds.  Hence no
measurements will be more accurate than the underlying clock.  If enough
measurements are taken, then the "error" will tend to average out.
Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a second source of
error.

The second problem is that it "takes a while" from when an event is
dispatched until the profiler's call to get the time actually 'gets' the
state of the clock.  Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the
profiler event handler from the time that the clock's value was obtained
(and then squirreled away), until the user's code is once again
executing.  As a result, functions that are called many times, or call
many functions, will typically accumulate this error.  The error that
accumulates in this fashion is typically less than the accuracy of the
clock (less than one clock tick), but it 'can' accumulate and become
very significant.

The problem is more important with *note profile: ae. than with the
lower-overhead *note cProfile: 27.  For this reason, *note profile: ae.
provides a means of calibrating itself for a given platform so that this
error can be probabilistically (on the average) removed.  After the
profiler is calibrated, it will be more accurate (in a least square
sense), but it will sometimes produce negative numbers (when call counts
are exceptionally low, and the gods of probability work against you :-).
)  Do 'not' be alarmed by negative numbers in the profile.  They should
'only' appear if you have calibrated your profiler, and the results are
actually better than without calibration.


File: python.info,  Node: Calibration,  Next: Using a custom timer,  Prev: Limitations,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.7 Calibration
....................

The profiler of the *note profile: ae. module subtracts a constant from
each event handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the
time function, and socking away the results.  By default, the constant
is 0.  The following procedure can be used to obtain a better constant
for a given platform (see *note Limitations: 423d.).

     import profile
     pr = profile.Profile()
     for i in range(5):
         print(pr.calibrate(10000))

The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument,
directly and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both.  It
then computes the hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that
as a float.  For example, on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running macOS, and
using Python's time.process_time() as the timer, the magical number is
about 4.04e-6.

The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result.  If
your computer is 'very' fast, or your timer function has poor
resolution, you might have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get
consistent results.

When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it:

     import profile

     # 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.
     profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.
     pr = profile.Profile()
     pr.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.
     pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)

If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant,
and then your results will "less often" show up as negative in profile
statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom timer,  Prev: Calibration,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.28.5.8 Using a custom timer
.............................

If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to
force use of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing
function you want to the ‘Profile’ class constructor:

     pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)

The resulting profiler will then call ‘your_time_func’.  Depending on
whether you are using *note profile.Profile: 9d3. or ‘cProfile.Profile’,
‘your_time_func’'s return value will be interpreted differently:

*note profile.Profile: 9d3.

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number, or a list of
     numbers whose sum is the current time (like what *note os.times():
     10f7. returns).  If the function returns a single time number, or
     the list of returned numbers has length 2, then you will get an
     especially fast version of the dispatch routine.

     Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the
     timer function that you choose (see *note Calibration: 423f.).  For
     most machines, a timer that returns a lone integer value will
     provide the best results in terms of low overhead during profiling.
     (*note os.times(): 10f7. is 'pretty' bad, as it returns a tuple of
     floating-point values).  If you want to substitute a better timer
     in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a replacement
     dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
     appropriate calibration constant.

‘cProfile.Profile’

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number.  If it returns
     integers, you can also invoke the class constructor with a second
     argument specifying the real duration of one unit of time.  For
     example, if ‘your_integer_time_func’ returns times measured in
     thousands of seconds, you would construct the ‘Profile’ instance as
     follows:

          pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)

     As the ‘cProfile.Profile’ class cannot be calibrated, custom timer
     functions should be used with care and should be as fast as
     possible.  For the best results with a custom timer, it might be
     necessary to hard-code it in the C source of the internal ‘_lsprof’
     module.

Python 3.3 adds several new functions in *note time: ed. that can be
used to make precise measurements of process or wall-clock time.  For
example, see *note time.perf_counter(): a78.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets,  Next: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution,  Prev: The Python Profilers,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.6 ‘timeit’ -- Measure execution time of small code snippets
----------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/timeit.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une façon simple de mesurer le temps d'exécution de
fragments de code Python.  Il expose une *note Interface en ligne de
commande: 4244. ainsi qu'une *note interface Python: 4245.  Ce module
permet d'éviter un certain nombre de problèmes classiques liés à la
mesure des temps d'exécution.  Voir par exemple à ce sujet
l'introduction par Tim Peters du chapitre « Algorithmes » dans la
seconde édition du livre 'Python Cookbook', aux éditions O'Reilly.

* Menu:

* Exemples simples: Exemples simples<2>.
* Interface Python::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
* Exemples: Exemples<29>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/timeit.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples simples<2>,  Next: Interface Python,  Up: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.28.6.1 Exemples simples
.........................

L'exemple suivant illustre l'utilisation de l'*note Interface en ligne
de commande: 4244. afin de comparer trois expressions différentes :

     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop

L'*note Interface Python: 4245. peut être utilisée aux mêmes fins avec :

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
     0.3018611848820001
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
     0.2727368790656328
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
     0.23702679807320237

Un objet appelable peut également être passé en argument à l'*note
Interface Python: 4245. :

     >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
     0.19665591977536678

Notez cependant que *note timeit(): e6b. détermine automatiquement le
nombre de répétitions seulement lorsque l'interface en ligne de commande
est utilisée.  Vous pouvez trouver des exemples d'usages avancés dans la
section *note Exemples: 4247.


File: python.info,  Node: Interface Python,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<6>,  Prev: Exemples simples<2>,  Up: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.28.6.2 Interface Python
.........................

Ce module définit une classe publique ainsi que trois fonctions
destinées à simplifier son usage :

 -- Fonction: timeit.timeit (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)

     Crée une instance d'objet *note Timer: 147e. à partir de
     l'instruction donnée, du code 'setup' et de la fonction 'timer',
     puis exécute sa méthode *note timeit(): cdd. à 'number' reprises.
     L'argument optionnel 'globals' spécifie un espace de nommage dans
     lequel exécuter le code.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre optionnel 'globals' a été
     ajouté.

 -- Fonction: timeit.repeat (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)

     Crée une instance d'objet *note Timer: 147e. à partir de
     l'instruction donnée, du code 'setup' et de la fonction 'timer',
     puis exécute sa méthode *note repeat(): 424a. à 'number' reprises,
     'repeat' fois.  L'argument optionnel 'globals' spécifie un espace
     de nommage dans lequel exécuter le code.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre optionnel 'globals' a été
     ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: La valeur par défaut de 'repeat' est
     passée de 3 à 5.

 -- Fonction: timeit.default_timer ()

     The default timer, which is always time.perf_counter(), returns
     float seconds.  An alternative, time.perf_counter_ns, returns
     integer nanoseconds.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note time.perf_counter(): a78. est
     désormais le minuteur par défaut.

 -- Classe: timeit.Timer (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer
          function>, globals=None)

     Classe permettant de mesurer le temps d'exécution de fragments de
     code.

     Ce constructeur prend en argument une instruction dont le temps
     d'exécution doit être mesuré, une instruction additionnelle de mise
     en place et une fonction de chronométrage.  Les deux instructions
     valent ‘'pass'’ par défaut; la fonction de chronométrage dépend de
     la plateforme d'exécution (se référer au 'doc string' du module).
     'stmt' et 'setup' peuvent contenir plusieurs instructions séparées
     par des ‘;’ ou des sauts de lignes tant qu'ils ne comportent pas de
     littéraux sur plusieurs lignes.  L'instruction est exécutée dans
     l'espace de nommage de 'timeit' par défaut ; ce comportement peut
     être modifié en passant un espace de nommage au paramètre
     'globals'.

     Pour mesurer le temps d'exécution de la première instruction,
     utilisez la méthode *note timeit(): cdd.  Les méthodes *note
     repeat(): 424a. et *note autorange(): cdc. sont des méthodes
     d'agrément permettant d'appeler *note timeit(): cdd. à plusieurs
     reprises.

     Le temps d'exécution de 'setup' n'est pas pris en compte dans le
     temps global d'exécution.

     Les paramètres 'stmt' et 'setup' peuvent également recevoir des
     objets appelables sans argument.  Ceci transforme alors les appels
     à ces objets en fonction de chronométrage qui seront exécutées par
     *note timeit(): cdd.  Notez que le surcoût lié à la mesure du temps
     d'exécution dans ce cas est légèrement supérieur en raisons des
     appels de fonction supplémentaires.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre optionnel 'globals' a été
     ajouté.

      -- Méthode: timeit (number=1000000)

          Time 'number' executions of the main statement.  This executes
          the setup statement once, and then returns the time it takes
          to execute the main statement a number of times.  The default
          timer returns seconds as a float.  The argument is the number
          of times through the loop, defaulting to one million.  The
          main statement, the setup statement and the timer function to
          be used are passed to the constructor.

               Note: Par défaut, *note timeit(): cdd. désactive
               temporairement le *note ramasse-miettes: 18d6. pendant le
               chronométrage.  Cette approche a l'avantage de permettre
               de comparer des mesures indépendantes.  L'inconvénient de
               cette méthode est que le ramasse-miettes peut avoir un
               impact significatif sur les performances de la fonction
               étudiée.  Dans ce cas, le ramasse-miettes peut être
               réactivé en première instruction de la chaîne 'setup'.
               Par exemple :

                    timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()

      -- Méthode: autorange (callback=None)

          Détermine automatiquement combien de fois appeler *note
          timeit(): cdd.

          This is a convenience function that calls *note timeit(): cdd.
          repeatedly so that the total time >= 0.2 second, returning the
          eventual (number of loops, time taken for that number of
          loops).  It calls *note timeit(): cdd. with increasing numbers
          from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, ...  until the time
          taken is at least 0.2 seconds.

          Si 'callback' est spécifié et n'est pas ‘None’, elle est
          appelée après chaque itération avec deux arguments (numéro de
          l'itération et temps écoulé) : ‘callback(number, time_taken)’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: repeat (repeat=5, number=1000000)

          Appelle *note timeit(): cdd. plusieurs fois.

          Cette fonction d'agrément appelle *note timeit(): cdd. à
          plusieurs reprises et renvoie une liste de résultats.  Le
          premier argument spécifie le nombre d'appels à *note timeit():
          cdd.  Le second argument spécifie l'argument 'number' de *note
          timeit(): cdd.

               Note: Il est tentant de vouloir calculer la moyenne et
               l'écart-type des résultats et notifier ces valeurs.  Ce
               n'est cependant pas très utile.  En pratique, la valeur
               la plus basse donne une estimation basse de la vitesse
               maximale à laquelle votre machine peut exécuter le
               fragment de code spécifié ; les valeurs hautes de la
               liste sont typiquement provoquées non pas par une
               variabilité de la vitesse d'exécution de Python, mais par
               d'autres processus interférant avec la précision du
               chronométrage.  Le *note min(): ef5. du résultat est
               probablement la seule valeur à laquelle vous devriez vous
               intéresser.  Pour aller plus loin, vous devriez regarder
               l'intégralité des résultats et utiliser le bon sens
               plutôt que les statistiques.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: La valeur par défaut de 'repeat'
          est passée de 3 à 5.

      -- Méthode: print_exc (file=None)

          Outil permettant d'afficher la trace du code chronométré.

          Usage typique :

               t = Timer(...)       # outside the try/except
               try:
                   t.timeit(...)    # or t.repeat(...)
               except Exception:
                   t.print_exc()

          L'avantage par rapport à la trace standard est que les lignes
          sources du code compilé sont affichées.  Le paramètre
          optionnel 'file' définit l'endroit où la trace est envoyée,
          par défaut *note sys.stderr: 928.


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<6>,  Next: Exemples<29>,  Prev: Interface Python,  Up: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.28.6.3 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

Lorsque le module est appelé comme un programme en ligne de commande, la
syntaxe suivante est utilisée :

     python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...]

Les options suivantes sont gérées :

 -- Option: -n N, --number=N

     nombre d'exécutions de l'instruction 'statement'

 -- Option: -r N, --repeat=N

     nombre de répétitions du chronomètre (5 par défaut)

 -- Option: -s S, --setup=S

     instruction exécutée une seule fois à l'initialisation (‘pass’ par
     défaut)

 -- Option: -p, --process

     mesure le temps au niveau du processus et non au niveau du système,
     en utilisant *note time.process_time(): a79. plutôt que *note
     time.perf_counter(): a78. qui est utilisée par défaut

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Option: -u, --unit=U

     specify a time unit for timer output; can select ‘nsec’, ‘usec’,
     ‘msec’, or ‘sec’

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     affiche les temps d'exécutions bruts, répéter pour plus de
     précision

 -- Option: -h, --help

     affiche un court message d'aide puis quitte

Une instruction sur plusieurs lignes peut être donnée en entrée en
spécifiant chaque ligne comme un argument séparé.  Indenter une ligne
est possible en encadrant l'argument de guillemets et en le préfixant
par des espaces.  Plusieurs *note -s: 4252. sont gérées de la même
façon.

Si *note -n: 424e. n'est pas donnée, un nombre de boucles approprié est
calculé en essayant des nombres croissants de la séquence 1, 2, 5, 10,
20, 50, ...  jusqu'à ce que le temps total d'exécution dépasse 0,2
secondes.

Les mesures de *note default_timer(): 424b. peuvent être altérées par
d'autres programmes s'exécutant sur la même machine.  La meilleure
approche lorsqu'un chronométrage exact est nécessaire est de répéter
celui-ci à plusieurs reprises et considérer le meilleur temps.  L'option
*note -r: 4250. est adaptée à ce fonctionnement, les cinq répétitions
par défaut suffisent probablement dans la plupart des cas.  Vous pouvez
utiliser *note time.process_time(): a79. pour mesurer le temps
processeur.

     Note: Il existe un surcoût minimal associé à l'exécution de
     l'instruction ‘pass’.  Le code présenté ici ne tente pas de le
     masquer, mais vous devez être conscient de son existence.  Ce
     surcoût minimal peut être mesuré en invoquant le programme sans
     argument ; il peut différer en fonction des versions de Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<29>,  Prev: Interface en ligne de commande<6>,  Up: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.28.6.4 Exemples
.................

Il est possible de fournir une instruction de mise en place exécutée une
seule fois au début du chronométrage :

     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text"
     5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)"
     1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop

In the output, there are three fields.  The loop count, which tells you
how many times the statement body was run per timing loop repetition.
The repetition count ('best of 5') which tells you how many times the
timing loop was repeated, and finally the time the statement body took
on average within the best repetition of the timing loop.  That is, the
time the fastest repetition took divided by the loop count.

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     0.41440500499993504
     >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     1.7246671520006203

La même chose peut être réalisée en utilisant la classe *note Timer:
147e. et ses méthodes :

     >>> import timeit
     >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     >>> t.timeit()
     0.3955516149999312
     >>> t.repeat()
     [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]

Les exemples qui suivent montrent comment chronométrer des expressions
sur plusieurs lignes.  Nous comparons ici le coût d'utilisation de *note
hasattr(): 4be. par rapport à *note try: 6d5./*note except: 189. pour
tester la présence ou l'absence d'attributs d'un objet :

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop

     >>> import timeit
     >>> # attribute is missing
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     str.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.9138244460009446
     >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.5829014980008651
     >>>
     >>> # attribute is present
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     int.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.04215312199994514
     >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.08588060699912603

Afin de permettre à *note timeit: ee. d'accéder aux fonctions que vous
avez définies, vous pouvez passer au paramètre 'setup' une instruction
d'importation :

     def test():
         """Stupid test function"""
         L = [i for i in range(100)]

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import timeit
         print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))

Une autre possibilité est de passer *note globals(): 1824. au paramètre
'globals', ceci qui exécutera le code dans l'espace de nommage global
courant.  Cela peut être plus pratique que de spécifier manuellement des
importations :

     def f(x):
         return x**2
     def g(x):
         return x**4
     def h(x):
         return x**8

     import timeit
     print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))


File: python.info,  Node: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution,  Next: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations,  Prev: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.7 ‘trace’ -- Trace or track Python statement execution
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note trace: fc. module allows you to trace program execution,
generate annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee
relationships and list functions executed during a program run.  It can
be used in another program or from the command line.

Voir aussi
..........

Coverage.py(2)

     A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML output along
     with advanced features such as branch coverage.

* Menu:

* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>.
* Programmatic Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/abc.py

   (2) https://coverage.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>,  Next: Programmatic Interface,  Up: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution

5.28.7.1 Utilisation en ligne de commande.
..........................................

The *note trace: fc. module can be invoked from the command line.  It
can be as simple as

     python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...

The above will execute ‘somefile.py’ and generate annotated listings of
all Python modules imported during the execution into the current
directory.

 -- Option: --help

     Display usage and exit.

 -- Option: --version

     Display the version of the module and exit.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Added ‘--module’ option that allows to run
an executable module.

* Menu:

* Main options::
* Modifiers::
* Filters::


File: python.info,  Node: Main options,  Next: Modifiers,  Up: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>

5.28.7.2 Main options
.....................

At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking
*note trace: fc.  The *note -listfuncs: 4264. option is mutually
exclusive with the *note -trace: 4265. and *note -count: 4266. options.
When *note -listfuncs: 4264. is provided, neither *note -count: 4266.
nor *note -trace: 4265. are accepted, and vice versa.

 -- Option: -c, --count

     Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion
     that shows how many times each statement was executed.  See also
     *note -coverdir: 4268, *note -file: 4269. and *note -no-report:
     426a. below.

 -- Option: -t, --trace

     Display lines as they are executed.

 -- Option: -l, --listfuncs

     Display the functions executed by running the program.

 -- Option: -r, --report

     Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the
     *note -count: 4266. and *note -file: 4269. option.  This does not
     execute any code.

 -- Option: -T, --trackcalls

     Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifiers,  Next: Filters,  Prev: Main options,  Up: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>

5.28.7.3 Modifiers
..................

 -- Option: -f, --file=<file>

     Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs.
     Should be used with the *note -count: 4266. option.

 -- Option: -C, --coverdir=<dir>

     Directory where the report files go.  The coverage report for
     ‘package.module’ is written to file
     ‘`dir'/`package'/`module'.cover’.

 -- Option: -m, --missing

     When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not
     executed with ‘>>>>>>’.

 -- Option: -s, --summary

     When using *note -count: 4266. or *note -report: 426d, write a
     brief summary to stdout for each file processed.

 -- Option: -R, --no-report

     Do not generate annotated listings.  This is useful if you intend
     to make several runs with *note -count: 4266, and then produce a
     single set of annotated listings at the end.

 -- Option: -g, --timing

     Prefix each line with the time since the program started.  Only
     used while tracing.


File: python.info,  Node: Filters,  Prev: Modifiers,  Up: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>

5.28.7.4 Filters
................

These options may be repeated multiple times.

 -- Option: --ignore-module=<mod>

     Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is
     a package).  The argument can be a list of names separated by a
     comma.

 -- Option: --ignore-dir=<dir>

     Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and
     subdirectories.  The argument can be a list of directories
     separated by *note os.pathsep: 1d01.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic Interface,  Prev: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>,  Up: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution

5.28.7.5 Programmatic Interface
...............................

 -- Classe: trace.Trace (count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0,
          ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None,
          timing=False)

     Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or
     expression.  All parameters are optional.  'count' enables counting
     of line numbers.  'trace' enables line execution tracing.
     'countfuncs' enables listing of the functions called during the
     run.  'countcallers' enables call relationship tracking.
     'ignoremods' is a list of modules or packages to ignore.
     'ignoredirs' is a list of directories whose modules or packages
     should be ignored.  'infile' is the name of the file from which to
     read stored count information.  'outfile' is the name of the file
     in which to write updated count information.  'timing' enables a
     timestamp relative to when tracing was started to be displayed.

      -- Méthode: run (cmd)

          Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution
          with the current tracing parameters.  'cmd' must be a string
          or code object, suitable for passing into *note exec(): 17d.

      -- Méthode: runctx (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution
          with the current tracing parameters, in the defined global and
          local environments.  If not defined, 'globals' and 'locals'
          default to empty dictionaries.

      -- Méthode: runfunc (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Call 'func' with the given arguments under control of the
          *note Trace: 4280. object with the current tracing parameters.

      -- Méthode: results ()

          Return a *note CoverageResults: 4284. object that contains the
          cumulative results of all previous calls to ‘run’, ‘runctx’
          and ‘runfunc’ for the given *note Trace: 4280. instance.  Does
          not reset the accumulated trace results.

 -- Classe: trace.CoverageResults

     A container for coverage results, created by *note Trace.results():
     4283.  Should not be created directly by the user.

      -- Méthode: update (other)

          Merge in data from another *note CoverageResults: 4284.
          object.

      -- Méthode: write_results (show_missing=True, summary=False,
               coverdir=None, *, ignore_missing_files=False)

          Write coverage results.  Set 'show_missing' to show lines that
          had no hits.  Set 'summary' to include in the output the
          coverage summary per module.  'coverdir' specifies the
          directory into which the coverage result files will be output.
          If ‘None’, the results for each source file are placed in its
          directory.

          If 'ignore_missing_files' is ‘True’, coverage counts for files
          that no longer exist are silently ignored.  Otherwise, a
          missing file will raise a *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added 'ignore_missing_files'
          parameter.

A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface:

     import sys
     import trace

     # create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to
     # do tracing or line-counting or both.
     tracer = trace.Trace(
         ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
         trace=0,
         count=1)

     # run the new command using the given tracer
     tracer.run('main()')

     # make a report, placing output in the current directory
     r = tracer.results()
     r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations,  Prev: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution,  Up: Débogueur et instrumentation

5.28.8 ‘tracemalloc’ -- Trace memory allocations
------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/tracemalloc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated
by Python.  It provides the following information:

   * Traceback where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be
started as early as possible by setting the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:
1cf9. environment variable to ‘1’, or by using *note -X: 175.
‘tracemalloc’ command line option.  The *note tracemalloc.start(): 1cf8.
function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory
allocations.

By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most
recent frame (1 frame).  To store 25 frames at startup: set the *note
PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1cf9. environment variable to ‘25’, or use the *note
-X: 175. ‘tracemalloc=25’ command line option.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<30>.
* API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tracemalloc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<30>,  Next: API,  Up: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations

5.28.8.1 Exemples
.................

* Menu:

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::


File: python.info,  Node: Display the top 10,  Next: Compute differences,  Up: Exemples<30>

5.28.8.2 Display the top 10
...........................

Display the 10 files allocating the most memory:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     [ Top 10 ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
     <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB

We can see that Python loaded ‘4855 KiB’ data (bytecode and constants)
from modules and that the *note collections: 1d. module allocated ‘244
KiB’ to build *note namedtuple: 1c5. types.

See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 428b. for more options.


File: python.info,  Node: Compute differences,  Next: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Prev: Display the top 10,  Up: Exemples<30>

5.28.8.3 Compute differences
............................

Take two snapshots and display the differences:

     import tracemalloc
     tracemalloc.start()
     # ... start your application ...

     snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     # ... call the function leaking memory ...
     snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

     top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test
suite:

     [ Top 10 differences ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
     /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B

We can see that Python has loaded ‘8173 KiB’ of module data (bytecode
and constants), and that this is ‘4428 KiB’ more than had been loaded
before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken.  Similarly, the
*note linecache: 84. module has cached ‘940 KiB’ of Python source code
to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot.

If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk
using the *note Snapshot.dump(): 428d. method to analyze the snapshot
offline.  Then use the *note Snapshot.load(): 428e. method reload the
snapshot.


File: python.info,  Node: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Next: Pretty top,  Prev: Compute differences,  Up: Exemples<30>

5.28.8.4 Get the traceback of a memory block
............................................

Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block:

     import tracemalloc

     # Store 25 frames
     tracemalloc.start(25)

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')

     # pick the biggest memory block
     stat = top_stats[0]
     print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
     for line in stat.traceback.format():
         print(line)

Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25
frames):

     903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
         import pdb
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
         import doctest
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
         support.run_doctest(pickletools)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
         test_runner()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
         display_failure=not verbose)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
         match_tests=ns.match_tests)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
         main()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
         regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
         exec(code, run_globals)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
         "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)

We can see that the most memory was allocated in the *note importlib:
76. module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: ‘870.1
KiB’.  The traceback is where the *note importlib: 76. loaded data most
recently: on the ‘import pdb’ line of the *note doctest: 3a. module.
The traceback may change if a new module is loaded.


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty top,  Prev: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Up: Exemples<30>

5.28.8.5 Pretty top
...................

Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty
output, ignoring ‘<frozen importlib._bootstrap>’ and ‘<unknown>’ files:

     import linecache
     import os
     import tracemalloc

     def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
         snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
         ))
         top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)

         print("Top %s lines" % limit)
         for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
             frame = stat.traceback[0]
             print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
                   % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
             line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
             if line:
                 print('    %s' % line)

         other = top_stats[limit:]
         if other:
             size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
             print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
         total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
         print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     display_top(snapshot)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     Top 10 lines
     #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
         _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
     #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
         _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
     #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
         exec(class_definition, namespace)
     #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
         cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
     #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
         testMethod()
     #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
         lines = fp.readlines()
     #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
         for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
     #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
     #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
         self.data = set()
     #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
         _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
     6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
     Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB

See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 428b. for more options.

* Menu:

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::


File: python.info,  Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks,  Up: Pretty top

5.28.8.6 Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks
.....................................................................

The following code computes two sums like ‘0 + 1 + 2 + ...’
inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers.  This list consumes
a lot of memory temporarily.  We can use *note get_traced_memory():
4292. and *note reset_peak(): 92a. to observe the small memory usage
after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the
computations:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list
     large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))

     first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     tracemalloc.reset_peak()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list
     small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))

     second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
     print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")

Sortie :

     first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
     second_size=804, second_peak=29704

Using *note reset_peak(): 92a. ensured we could accurately record the
peak during the computation of ‘small_sum’, even though it is much
smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the *note
start(): 1cf8. call.  Without the call to *note reset_peak(): 92a,
‘second_peak’ would still be the peak from the computation ‘large_sum’
(that is, equal to ‘first_peak’).  In this case, both peaks are much
higher than the final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise
(by removing the unnecessary call to *note list: 5fe, and writing
‘sum(range(...))’).


File: python.info,  Node: API,  Prev: Exemples<30>,  Up: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations

5.28.8.7 API
............

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<11>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<11>,  Next: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.28.8.8 Fonctions
..................

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.clear_traces ()

     Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     See also *note stop(): 153c.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.get_object_traceback (obj)

     Get the traceback where the Python object 'obj' was allocated.
     Return a *note Traceback: b86. instance, or ‘None’ if the *note
     tracemalloc: fe. module is not tracing memory allocations or did
     not trace the allocation of the object.

     See also *note gc.get_referrers(): 7f0. and *note sys.getsizeof():
     1726. functions.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit ()

     Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a
     trace.

     The *note tracemalloc: fe. module must be tracing memory
     allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.

     The limit is set by the *note start(): 1cf8. function.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.get_traced_memory ()

     Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the
     *note tracemalloc: fe. module as a tuple: ‘(current: int, peak:
     int)’.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.reset_peak ()

     Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the *note tracemalloc:
     fe. module to the current size.

     Do nothing if the *note tracemalloc: fe. module is not tracing
     memory allocations.

     This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not
     modify or clear any traces, unlike *note clear_traces(): 4295.
     Snapshots taken with *note take_snapshot(): 4297. before a call to
     *note reset_peak(): 92a. can be meaningfully compared to snapshots
     taken after the call.

     See also *note get_traced_memory(): 4292.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory ()

     Get the memory usage in bytes of the *note tracemalloc: fe. module
     used to store traces of memory blocks.  Return an *note int: 254.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.is_tracing ()

     ‘True’ if the *note tracemalloc: fe. module is tracing Python
     memory allocations, ‘False’ otherwise.

     See also *note start(): 1cf8. and *note stop(): 153c. functions.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.start (nframe: int = 1)

     Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited
     to 'nframe' frames.  By default, a trace of a memory block only
     stores the most recent frame: the limit is ‘1’.  'nframe' must be
     greater or equal to ‘1’.

     You can still read the original number of total frames that
     composed the traceback by looking at the *note
     Traceback.total_nframe: 429a. attribute.

     Storing more than ‘1’ frame is only useful to compute statistics
     grouped by ‘'traceback'’ or to compute cumulative statistics: see
     the *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 429b. and *note
     Snapshot.statistics(): 428b. methods.

     Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the
     *note tracemalloc: fe. module.  Use the *note
     get_tracemalloc_memory(): 4298. function to measure how much memory
     is used by the *note tracemalloc: fe. module.

     The *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1cf9. environment variable
     (‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME’) and the *note -X: 175.
     ‘tracemalloc=NFRAME’ command line option can be used to start
     tracing at startup.

     See also *note stop(): 153c, *note is_tracing(): 4299. and *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 4296. functions.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.stop ()

     Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Also clears all previously collected traces of
     memory blocks allocated by Python.

     Call *note take_snapshot(): 4297. function to take a snapshot of
     traces before clearing them.

     See also *note start(): 1cf8, *note is_tracing(): 4299. and *note
     clear_traces(): 4295. functions.

 -- Fonction: tracemalloc.take_snapshot ()

     Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.
     Return a new *note Snapshot: 429c. instance.

     The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the
     *note tracemalloc: fe. module started to trace memory allocations.

     Tracebacks of traces are limited to *note get_traceback_limit():
     4296. frames.  Use the 'nframe' parameter of the *note start():
     1cf8. function to store more frames.

     The *note tracemalloc: fe. module must be tracing memory
     allocations to take a snapshot, see the *note start(): 1cf8.
     function.

     See also the *note get_object_traceback(): 1b16. function.


File: python.info,  Node: DomainFilter,  Next: Filter,  Prev: Fonctions<11>,  Up: API

5.28.8.9 DomainFilter
.....................

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.DomainFilter (inclusive: bool, domain: int)

     Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Attribut: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), match memory blocks
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 429f.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), match memory blocks not
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 429f.

      -- Attribut: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter,  Next: Frame,  Prev: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.28.8.10 Filter
................

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.Filter (inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str,
          lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int =
          None)

     Filter on traces of memory blocks.

     See the *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 185c. function for the syntax of
     'filename_pattern'.  The ‘'.pyc'’ file extension is replaced with
     ‘'.py'’.

     Exemples :

        * ‘Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)’ only includes traces of
          the *note subprocess: d5. module

        * ‘Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)’ excludes traces of the
          *note tracemalloc: fe. module

        * ‘Filter(False, "<unknown>")’ excludes empty tracebacks

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The ‘'.pyo'’ file extension is no
     longer replaced with ‘'.py'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the *note domain: 42a2.
     attribute.

      -- Attribut: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’ or ‘None’).

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- Attribut: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), only match memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 42a4. at line number *note lineno: 42a5.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), ignore memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 42a4. at line number *note lineno: 42a5.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          Line number (‘int’) of the filter.  If 'lineno' is ‘None’, the
          filter matches any line number.

      -- Attribut: filename_pattern

          Filename pattern of the filter (‘str’).  Read-only property.

      -- Attribut: all_frames

          If 'all_frames' is ‘True’, all frames of the traceback are
          checked.  If 'all_frames' is ‘False’, only the most recent
          frame is checked.

          This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is ‘1’.
          See the *note get_traceback_limit(): 4296. function and *note
          Snapshot.traceback_limit: 42a7. attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame,  Next: Snapshot,  Prev: Filter,  Up: API

5.28.8.11 Frame
...............

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.Frame

     Frame of a traceback.

     The *note Traceback: b86. class is a sequence of *note Frame: 42a9.
     instances.

      -- Attribut: filename

          Filename (‘str’).

      -- Attribut: lineno

          Line number (‘int’).


File: python.info,  Node: Snapshot,  Next: Statistic,  Prev: Frame,  Up: API

5.28.8.12 Snapshot
..................

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.Snapshot

     Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     The *note take_snapshot(): 4297. function creates a snapshot
     instance.

      -- Méthode: compare_to (old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str,
               cumulative: bool = False)

          Compute the differences with an old snapshot.  Get statistics
          as a sorted list of *note StatisticDiff: 42ad. instances
          grouped by 'key_type'.

          See the *note Snapshot.statistics(): 428b. method for
          'key_type' and 'cumulative' parameters.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          absolute value of *note StatisticDiff.size_diff: 42ae, *note
          StatisticDiff.size: 42af, absolute value of *note
          StatisticDiff.count_diff: 42b0, *note Statistic.count: 42b1.
          and then by *note StatisticDiff.traceback: 42b2.

      -- Méthode: dump (filename)

          Write the snapshot into a file.

          Use *note load(): 428e. to reload the snapshot.

      -- Méthode: filter_traces (filters)

          Create a new *note Snapshot: 429c. instance with a filtered
          *note traces: 42b4. sequence, 'filters' is a list of *note
          DomainFilter: ce1. and *note Filter: 42a1. instances.  If
          'filters' is an empty list, return a new *note Snapshot: 429c.
          instance with a copy of the traces.

          All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored
          if no inclusive filters match it.  A trace is ignored if at
          least one exclusive filter matches it.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note DomainFilter: ce1.
          instances are now also accepted in 'filters'.

      -- Méthode: classmethod load (filename)

          Load a snapshot from a file.

          See also *note dump(): 428d.

      -- Méthode: statistics (key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

          Get statistics as a sorted list of *note Statistic: 42b5.
          instances grouped by 'key_type':

          key_type                  description
                                    
          -------------------------------------------------------
                                    
          ‘'filename'’              filename
                                    
                                    
          ‘'lineno'’                filename and line number
                                    
                                    
          ‘'traceback'’             traceback
                                    

          If 'cumulative' is ‘True’, cumulate size and count of memory
          blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the
          most recent frame.  The cumulative mode can only be used with
          'key_type' equals to ‘'filename'’ and ‘'lineno'’.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          *note Statistic.size: 42b6, *note Statistic.count: 42b1. and
          then by *note Statistic.traceback: 42b7.

      -- Attribut: traceback_limit

          Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of *note
          traces: 42b4.: result of the *note get_traceback_limit():
          4296. when the snapshot was taken.

      -- Attribut: traces

          Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of
          *note Trace: 42b8. instances.

          The sequence has an undefined order.  Use the *note
          Snapshot.statistics(): 428b. method to get a sorted list of
          statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Statistic,  Next: StatisticDiff,  Prev: Snapshot,  Up: API

5.28.8.13 Statistic
...................

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.Statistic

     Statistic on memory allocations.

     *note Snapshot.statistics(): 428b. returns a list of *note
     Statistic: 42b5. instances.

     See also the *note StatisticDiff: 42ad. class.

      -- Attribut: count

          Number of memory blocks (‘int’).

      -- Attribut: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes (‘int’).

      -- Attribut: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: b86. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: StatisticDiff,  Next: Trace,  Prev: Statistic,  Up: API

5.28.8.14 StatisticDiff
.......................

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.StatisticDiff

     Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new
     *note Snapshot: 429c. instance.

     *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 429b. returns a list of *note
     StatisticDiff: 42ad. instances.  See also the *note Statistic:
     42b5. class.

      -- Attribut: count

          Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (‘int’): ‘0’ if
          the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.

      -- Attribut: count_diff

          Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the
          new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been
          allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- Attribut: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot
          (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been released in the
          new snapshot.

      -- Attribut: size_diff

          Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the
          old and the new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks
          have been allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- Attribut: traceback

          Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, *note
          Traceback: b86. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Trace,  Next: Traceback,  Prev: StatisticDiff,  Up: API

5.28.8.15 Trace
...............

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.Trace

     Trace of a memory block.

     The *note Snapshot.traces: 42b4. attribute is a sequence of *note
     Trace: 42b8. instances.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the *note domain: 42bd.
     attribute.

      -- Attribut: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- Attribut: size

          Size of the memory block in bytes (‘int’).

      -- Attribut: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: b86. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback,  Prev: Trace,  Up: API

5.28.8.16 Traceback
...................

 -- Classe: tracemalloc.Traceback

     Sequence of *note Frame: 42a9. instances sorted from the oldest
     frame to the most recent frame.

     A traceback contains at least ‘1’ frame.  If the ‘tracemalloc’
     module failed to get a frame, the filename ‘"<unknown>"’ at line
     number ‘0’ is used.

     When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 4296. frames.  See the *note
     take_snapshot(): 4297. function.  The original number of frames of
     the traceback is stored in the *note Traceback.total_nframe: 429a.
     attribute.  That allows to know if a traceback has been truncated
     by the traceback limit.

     The *note Trace.traceback: 42bf. attribute is an instance of *note
     Traceback: b86. instance.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Frames are now sorted from the oldest
     to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.

      -- Attribut: total_nframe

          Total number of frames that composed the traceback before
          truncation.  This attribute can be set to ‘None’ if the
          information is not available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The *note Traceback.total_nframe:
     429a. attribute was added.

      -- Méthode: format (limit=None, most_recent_first=False)

          Format the traceback as a list of lines.  Use the *note
          linecache: 84. module to retrieve lines from the source code.
          If 'limit' is set, format the 'limit' most recent frames if
          'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, format the ‘abs(limit)’
          oldest frames.  If 'most_recent_first' is ‘True’, the order of
          the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent
          frame first instead of last.

          Similar to the *note traceback.format_tb(): 42c1. function,
          except that *note format(): b87. does not include newlines.

          Exemple :

               print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
               for line in traceback:
                   print(line)

          Sortie :

               Traceback (most recent call first):
                 File "test.py", line 9
                   obj = Object()
                 File "test.py", line 12
                   tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())


File: python.info,  Node: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels,  Next: Environnement d'exécution Python,  Prev: Débogueur et instrumentation,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.29 Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels
=================================================

Ces bibliothèques vous aident lors de la publication et l'installation
de logiciels Python.  Bien que ces modules sont conçus pour fonctionner
avec le Python Package Index(1), ils peuvent aussi être utilisés avec un
serveur local, ou sans serveur.

* Menu:

* ensurepip: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer. Bootstrapping the pip installer
* venv: venv --- Creation of virtual environments. Creation of virtual environments
* zipapp: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives. Manage executable Python zip archives

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer,  Next: venv --- Creation of virtual environments,  Up: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

5.29.1 ‘ensurepip’ -- Bootstrapping the ‘pip’ installer
-------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/ensurepip(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note ensurepip: 54. met en place l'installateur ‘pip’ dans un
environnement Python, classique ou virtuel.  Ce principe d'amorçage a
été choisi car ‘pip’ est un projet séparé de Python avec son propre
cycle de versions.  Il permet en particulier d'embarquer la version la
plus récente de ‘pip’ dans les mises à jour de maintenance de
l'interpréteur CPython comme dans les nouvelles versions principales.

Dans la plupart des cas, il n'est pas nécessaire de recourir à ce
module.  ‘pip’ est le plus souvent déjà installé pour vous.  Cependant,
‘ensurepip’ peut s'avérer utile si l'installation de ‘pip’ a été sautée
au moment de l'installation de Python (ou en créant un environnement
virtuel), ou bien si ‘pip’ a été désinstallé par l'utilisateur.

     Note: Ce module n'accède 'pas' au réseau.  Tout ce qu'il faut pour
     amorcer ‘pip’ est compris dans le paquet.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Installation de modules Python: ee2.

     Guide de l'utilisateur final pour installer des paquets Python

PEP 453(2) : Amorçage explicite de pip dans les installations de Python

     Les motivations pour l'ajout de ce module et sa spécification
     d'origine

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

* Menu:

* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<7>.
* API du module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ensurepip

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<7>,  Next: API du module,  Up: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer

5.29.1.1 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

On fait appel à l'interface en ligne de commande à l'aide de l'option
‘-m’ de l'interpréteur.

L'invocation la plus simple est :

     python -m ensurepip

Cette commande installe ‘pip’ s'il n'est pas déjà présent.  Sinon, elle
ne fait rien.  Pour s'assurer que la version de ‘pip’ est au moins aussi
récente que celle embarquée dans ‘ensurepip’, passer l'option
‘--upgrade’ :

     python -m ensurepip --upgrade

‘pip’ est installé par défaut dans l'environnement virtuel courant, s'il
y en a un, ou bien dans le dossier ‘site-packages’ du système.
L'emplacement d'installation se règle à travers deux options :

 -- Option: --root <dir>

     Installs ‘pip’ relative to the given root directory rather than the
     root of the currently active virtual environment (if any) or the
     default root for the current Python installation.

 -- Option: --user

     Installs ‘pip’ into the user site packages directory rather than
     globally for the current Python installation (this option is not
     permitted inside an active virtual environment).

Par défaut, les commandes ‘pipX’ et ‘pipX.Y’ sont créées (où X.Y est la
version de Python avec laquelle ‘ensurepip’ est utilisé).  Cela se
contrôle par deux options supplémentaires :

 -- Option: --altinstall

     If an alternate installation is requested, the ‘pipX’ script will
     'not' be installed.

 -- Option: --default-pip

     If a "default pip" installation is requested, the ‘pip’ script will
     be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.

Combiner ces deux options conduit à une exception.


File: python.info,  Node: API du module,  Prev: Interface en ligne de commande<7>,  Up: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer

5.29.1.2 API du module
......................

Le module *note ensurepip: 54. définit deux fonctions pour utilisation
dans les programmes :

 -- Fonction: ensurepip.version ()

     Renvoie, sous forme de chaîne, la version de ‘pip’ qui serait
     installée par ‘ensurepip’.

 -- Fonction: ensurepip.bootstrap (root=None, upgrade=False, user=False,
          altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0)

     Amorce ‘pip’ dans l'environnement courant ou un environnement
     spécifique.

     Passer 'root' permet de changer la racine du chemin d'installation.
     Si 'root' vaut ‘None’ (la valeur par défaut), l'installation se
     fait dans la racine par défaut pour l'environnement courant.

     'upgrade' indique s'il faut ou non effectuer la mise à jour d'une
     éventuelle version plus ancienne de ‘pip’ déjà installée vers la
     version embarquée dans ‘ensurepip’.

     Si 'user' vaut vrai, ‘pip’ est mis dans des chemins qui le rendent
     disponible pour cet utilisateur uniquement, et non pour tous les
     utilisateurs de l'installation de Python.

     Par défaut, les commandes créées sont ‘pipX’ et ‘pipX.Y’ (où X.Y
     est la version de Python).

     Si 'altinstall' vaut vrai, ‘pipX’ n'est pas créée.

     Si 'default_pip' vaut vrai, la commande ‘pip’ est créée en plus des
     deux autres.

     Le fait de combiner 'altinstall' et 'default_pip' lève l'exception
     *note ValueError: 1ff.

     'verbosity' règle le niveau de verbosité des messages émis sur
     *note sys.stdout: ac6. pendant l'amorçage.

     Cette fonction lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877.
     ‘ensurepip.bootstrap’ avec l'argument ‘root’.

          Note: Le processus d'amorçage a des effets de bord sur
          ‘sys.path’ et ‘os.environ’.  Pour les éviter, on peut appeler
          l'interface en ligne de commande dans un sous-processus.

          Note: L'amorçage peut installer des modules supplémentaires
          qui sont requis pour ‘pip’.  Les autres programmes ne doivent
          pas prendre pour acquise la présence de ces modules, car ‘pip’
          pourrait dans une version future se passer de ces dépendances.


File: python.info,  Node: venv --- Creation of virtual environments,  Next: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives,  Prev: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer,  Up: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

5.29.2 ‘venv’ -- Creation of virtual environments
-------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

'Code source :' Lib/venv/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘venv’ module supports creating lightweight "virtual environments",
each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in
their *note site: c6. directories.  A virtual environment is created on
top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual
environment's "base" Python, and may optionally be isolated from the
packages in the base environment, so only those explicitly installed in
the virtual environment are available.

When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools
such as pip(2) will install Python packages into a virtual environment
without needing to be told to do so explicitly.

A virtual environment is (amongst other things):

   * Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software
     libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project
     (library or application).  These are by default isolated from
     software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and
     libraries installed in the operating system.

   * Contained in a directory, conventionally named ‘.venv’ or ‘venv’ in
     the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of
     virtual environments, such as ‘~/.virtualenvs’.

   * Not checked into source control systems such as Git.

   * Considered as disposable - it should be simple to delete and
     recreate it from scratch.  You don't place any project code in the
     environment.

   * Not considered as movable or copyable - you just recreate the same
     environment in the target location.

See PEP 405(3) for more background on Python virtual environments.

Voir aussi
..........

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4)

*note Availability: 1d11.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e12. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 179d.

* Menu:

* Création d'environnements virtuels: Création d'environnements virtuels<2>.
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/venv/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: Création d'environnements virtuels<2>,  Next: How venvs work,  Up: venv --- Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.1 Création d'environnements virtuels
...........................................

*note Virtual environments: 42cf. are created by executing the ‘venv’
module:

     python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment

This creates the target directory (including parent directories as
needed) and places a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file in it with a ‘home’ key pointing
to the Python installation from which the command was run.  It also
creates a ‘bin’ (or ‘Scripts’ on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy
or symlink of the Python executable (as appropriate for the platform or
arguments used at environment creation time).  It also creates a
‘lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages’ subdirectory (on Windows, this is
‘Libsite-packages’).  If an existing directory is specified, it will be
re-used.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: L'utilisation de ‘venv’ est maintenant
recommandée pour créer vos environnements virtuels.

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.8: ‘pyvenv’ was the
recommended tool for creating virtual environments for Python 3.3 and
3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing ‘venv’ directly.

On Windows, invoke the ‘venv’ command as follows:

     PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment

La commande, si lancée avec ‘-h’, montrera les options disponibles :

     usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
                 [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
                 [--without-scm-ignore-files]
                 ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]

     Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.

     positional arguments:
       ENV_DIR               A directory to create the environment in.

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --system-site-packages
                             Give the virtual environment access to the system
                             site-packages dir.
       --symlinks            Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when
                             symlinks are not the default for the platform.
       --copies              Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when
                             symlinks are the default for the platform.
       --clear               Delete the contents of the environment directory
                             if it already exists, before environment creation.
       --upgrade             Upgrade the environment directory to use this
                             version of Python, assuming Python has been
                             upgraded in-place.
       --without-pip         Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual
                             environment (pip is bootstrapped by default)
       --prompt PROMPT       Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this
                             environment.
       --upgrade-deps        Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest
                             version in PyPI
       --without-scm-ignore-files
                             Skips adding SCM ignore files to the environment
                             directory (Git is supported by default).

     Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
     sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Installs pip by default, added the
‘--without-pip’ and ‘--copies’ options.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Dans les versions précédentes, si le
dossier de destination existait déjà, une erreur était levée, sauf si
l'option ‘--clear’ ou ‘--upgrade’ était incluse.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ option to upgrade pip
+ setuptools to the latest on PyPI.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘setuptools’ is no longer a core venv
dependency.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’
option.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘venv’ now creates a ‘.gitignore’ file for
Git by default.

     Note: Bien que les liens symboliques soient pris en charge sous
     Windows, ils ne sont pas recommandés.  Il est particulièrement à
     noter que le double-clic sur ‘python.exe’ dans l'Explorateur de
     fichiers suivra le lien symbolique et ignorera l'environnement
     virtuel.

     Note: On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the
     ‘Activate.ps1’ script by setting the execution policy for the user.
     You can do this by issuing the following PowerShell command:

          PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser

     See About Execution Policies(1) for more information.

The created ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file also includes the
‘include-system-site-packages’ key, set to ‘true’ if ‘venv’ is run with
the ‘--system-site-packages’ option, ‘false’ otherwise.

Sauf si l'option ‘--without-pip’ est incluse, *note ensurepip: 54. sera
invoqué pour amorcer ‘pip’ dans l'environnement virtuel.

Plusieurs chemins peuvent être donnés à ‘venv’, et dans ce cas un
environnement virtuel sera créé, en fonction des options incluses, à
chaque chemin donné.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170


File: python.info,  Node: How venvs work,  Next: API<2>,  Prev: Création d'environnements virtuels<2>,  Up: venv --- Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.2 How venvs work
.......................

When a Python interpreter is running from a virtual environment, *note
sys.prefix: 3ad. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a9. point to the
directories of the virtual environment, whereas *note sys.base_prefix:
3e6. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e5. point to those of the base
Python used to create the environment.  It is sufficient to check
‘sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix’ to determine if the current interpreter
is running from a virtual environment.

A virtual environment may be "activated" using a script in its binary
directory (‘bin’ on POSIX; ‘Scripts’ on Windows).  This will prepend
that directory to your ‘PATH’, so that running ‘python’ will invoke the
environment's Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts
without having to use their full path.  The invocation of the activation
script is platform-specific (‘<VENV>’ must be replaced by the path to
the directory containing the virtual environment):

Plateforme        Invite de        Commande pour activer l'environnement virtuel
                  commande         
                  
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
POSIX             bash/zsh         ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate’
                                   
                  
fish              ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.fish’
                  
                  
csh/tcsh          ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.csh’
                  
                  
pwsh              ‘$
                  <VENV>/bin/Activate.ps1’
                  
                                   
Windows           cmd.exe          ‘C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\activate.bat’
                                   
                  
PowerShell        ‘PS C:\>
                  <VENV>\Scripts\Activate.ps1’
                  

Ajouté dans la version 3.4: ‘fish’ and ‘csh’ activation scripts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Scripts d'activation PowerShell installés
sous POSIX pour le support de PowerShell Core.

You don't specifically 'need' to activate a virtual environment, as you
can just specify the full path to that environment's Python interpreter
when invoking Python.  Furthermore, all scripts installed in the
environment should be runnable without activating it.

In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments
have a "shebang" line which points to the environment's Python
interpreter, ‘#!/<PATH-TO-VENV>/bin/python’.  This means that the script
will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of ‘PATH’.  On
Windows, "shebang" line processing is supported if you have the *note
Lanceur Python pour Windows: 5aa. installed.  Thus, double-clicking an
installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the
correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or
on the ‘PATH’.

When a virtual environment has been activated, the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’
environment variable is set to the path of the environment.  Since
explicitly activating a virtual environment is not required to use it,
‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ cannot be relied upon to determine whether a virtual
environment is being used.

     Avertissement: Because scripts installed in environments should not
     expect the environment to be activated, their shebang lines contain
     the absolute paths to their environment's interpreters.  Because of
     this, environments are inherently non-portable, in the general
     case.  You should always have a simple means of recreating an
     environment (for example, if you have a requirements file
     ‘requirements.txt’, you can invoke ‘pip install -r
     requirements.txt’ using the environment's ‘pip’ to install all of
     the packages needed by the environment).  If for any reason you
     need to move the environment to a new location, you should recreate
     it at the desired location and delete the one at the old location.
     If you move an environment because you moved a parent directory of
     it, you should recreate the environment in its new location.
     Otherwise, software installed into the environment may not work as
     expected.

You can deactivate a virtual environment by typing ‘deactivate’ in your
shell.  The exact mechanism is platform-specific and is an internal
implementation detail (typically, a script or shell function will be
used).


File: python.info,  Node: API<2>,  Next: Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder,  Prev: How venvs work,  Up: venv --- Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.3 API
............

La méthode haut niveau décrite au dessus utilise une API simple qui
permet à des créateurs d'environnements virtuels externes de
personnaliser la création d'environnements virtuels basés sur leurs
besoins, la classe *note EnvBuilder: 267.

 -- Classe: venv.EnvBuilder (system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

     La classe *note EnvBuilder: 267. accepte les arguments suivants
     lors de l'instanciation :

        * 'system_site_packages' - a boolean value indicating that the
          system Python site-packages should be available to the
          environment (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'clear' - a boolean value which, if true, will delete the
          contents of any existing target directory, before creating the
          environment.

        * 'symlinks' - a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to
          symlink the Python binary rather than copying.

        * 'upgrade' - a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an
          existing environment with the running Python - for use when
          that Python has been upgraded in-place (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'with_pip' - a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
          installed in the virtual environment.  This uses *note
          ensurepip: 54. with the ‘--default-pip’ option.

        * 'prompt' - a string to be used after virtual environment is
          activated (defaults to ‘None’ which means directory name of
          the environment would be used).  If the special string ‘"."’
          is provided, the basename of the current directory is used as
          the prompt.

        * 'upgrade_deps' - Update the base venv modules to the latest on
          PyPI

        * 'scm_ignore_files' - Create ignore files based for the
          specified source control managers (SCM) in the iterable.
          Support is defined by having a method named
          ‘create_{scm}_ignore_file’.  The only value supported by
          default is ‘"git"’ via *note create_git_ignore_file(): 42d4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre ‘with_pip’

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre ‘prompt’

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the ‘upgrade_deps’ parameter

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the ‘scm_ignore_files’
     parameter

     *note EnvBuilder: 267. may be used as a base class.

      -- Méthode: create (env_dir)

          Crée un environnement virtuel en spécifiant le chemin cible
          (absolu ou relatif par rapport au dossier courant) qui
          contiendra l'environnement virtuel.  La méthode ‘create’ crée
          l'environnement dans le dossier spécifié ou lève une exception
          appropriée.

          La méthode ‘create’ de la classe *note EnvBuilder: 267.
          illustre les points d'entrées disponibles pour la
          personnalisation de sous-classes :

               def create(self, env_dir):
                   """
                   Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.
                   env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.
                   """
                   env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
                   context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
                   self.create_configuration(context)
                   self.setup_python(context)
                   self.setup_scripts(context)
                   self.post_setup(context)

          Chacune des méthodes *note ensure_directories(): 42d6, *note
          create_configuration(): 42d7, *note setup_python(): 42d8,
          *note setup_scripts(): 42d9. et *note post_setup(): 42da.
          peuvent être écrasés.

      -- Méthode: ensure_directories (env_dir)

          Creates the environment directory and all necessary
          subdirectories that don't already exist, and returns a context
          object.  This context object is just a holder for attributes
          (such as paths) for use by the other methods.  If the *note
          EnvBuilder: 267. is created with the arg ‘clear=True’,
          contents of the environment directory will be cleared and then
          all necessary subdirectories will be recreated.

          The returned context object is a *note types.SimpleNamespace:
          1cc. with the following attributes:

             * ‘env_dir’ - The location of the virtual environment.
               Used for ‘__VENV_DIR__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 42db.).

             * ‘env_name’ - The name of the virtual environment.  Used
               for ‘__VENV_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 42db.).

             * ‘prompt’ - The prompt to be used by the activation
               scripts.  Used for ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ in activation
               scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 42db.).

             * ‘executable’ - The underlying Python executable used by
               the virtual environment.  This takes into account the
               case where a virtual environment is created from another
               virtual environment.

             * ‘inc_path’ - The include path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘lib_path’ - The purelib path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘bin_path’ - The script path for the virtual environment.

             * ‘bin_name’ - The name of the script path relative to the
               virtual environment location.  Used for
               ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 42db.).

             * ‘env_exe’ - The name of the Python interpreter in the
               virtual environment.  Used for ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ in
               activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 42db.).

             * ‘env_exec_cmd’ - The name of the Python interpreter,
               taking into account filesystem redirections.  This can be
               used to run Python in the virtual environment.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'venv' *note sysconfig
          installation scheme: 67c. is used to construct the paths of
          the created directories.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: The attribute ‘lib_path’ was
          added to the context, and the context object was documented.

      -- Méthode: create_configuration (context)

          Crée le fichier de configuration ‘pyvenv.cfg’ dans
          l'environnement.

      -- Méthode: setup_python (context)

          Crée une copie ou un lien symbolique vers l'exécutable Python
          dans l'environnement.  Sur les systèmes POSIX, si un
          exécutable spécifique ‘python3.x’ a été utilisé, des liens
          symboliques vers ‘python’ et ‘python3’ seront créés pointant
          vers cet exécutable, sauf si des fichiers avec ces noms
          existent déjà.

      -- Méthode: setup_scripts (context)

          Installe les scripts d'activation appropriés à la plateforme
          dans l'environnement virtuel.

      -- Méthode: upgrade_dependencies (context)

          Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently pip(1))
          in the environment.  This is done by shelling out to the ‘pip’
          executable in the environment.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: setuptools(2) is no longer a
          core venv dependency.

      -- Méthode: post_setup (context)

          Une méthode qui n'est la que pour se faire surcharger dans des
          implémentation externes pour pré installer des paquets dans
          l'environnement virtuel ou pour exécuter des étapes
          post-création.

      -- Méthode: install_scripts (context, path)

          This method can be called from *note setup_scripts(): 42d9. or
          *note post_setup(): 42da. in subclasses to assist in
          installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.

          'path' is the path to a directory that should contain
          subdirectories ‘common’, ‘posix’, ‘nt’; each containing
          scripts destined for the ‘bin’ directory in the environment.
          The contents of ‘common’ and the directory corresponding to
          *note os.name: 2ac0. are copied after some text replacement of
          placeholders:

             * ‘__VENV_DIR__’ est remplacé avec le chemin absolu du
               dossier de l'environnement.

             * ‘__VENV_NAME__’ est remplacé avec le nom de
               l'environnement (le dernier segment du chemin vers le
               dossier de l'environnement).

             * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ est remplacé par le prompt (nom de
               l'environnement entouré de parenthèses et avec un espace
               le suivant).

             * ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ est remplacé par le nom du dossier
               'bin' (soit ‘bin’ soit ‘Scripts’).

             * ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ est remplacé avec le chemin absolu de
               l’exécutable de l'environnement.

          Les dossiers peuvent exister (pour quand un environnement
          existant est mis à jour).

      -- Méthode: create_git_ignore_file (context)

          Creates a ‘.gitignore’ file within the virtual environment
          that causes the entire directory to be ignored by the Git
          source control manager.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: Windows utilise maintenant des
     scripts de redirection pour ‘python[w].exe’ au lieu de copier les
     fichiers binaires.  En 3.7.2 seulement *note setup_python(): 42d8.
     ne fait rien sauf s'il s'exécute à partir d'un 'build' dans
     l'arborescence source.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7.3: Windows copie les scripts de
     redirection dans le cadre de *note setup_python(): 42d8. au lieu de
     *note setup_scripts(): 42d9.  Ce n'était pas le cas en 3.7.2.
     Lorsque vous utilisez des liens symboliques, les exécutables
     originaux seront liés.

Il y a aussi une fonction pratique au niveau du module :

 -- Fonction: venv.create (env_dir, system_site_packages=False,
          clear=False, symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

     Crée une *note EnvBuilder: 267. avec les arguments donnés, et
     appelle sa méthode *note create(): 42d5. avec l'argument 'env_dir'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the 'with_pip' parameter

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the 'prompt' parameter

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the 'upgrade_deps' parameter

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'scm_ignore_files'
     parameter

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/


File: python.info,  Node: Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder,  Prev: API<2>,  Up: venv --- Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.4 Un exemple d'extension de ‘EnvBuilder’
...............................................

Le script qui suis montre comment étendre *note EnvBuilder: 267. en
implémentant une sous-classe qui installe 'setuptools' et 'pip' dans un
environnement créé :

     import os
     import os.path
     from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     import sys
     from threading import Thread
     from urllib.parse import urlparse
     from urllib.request import urlretrieve
     import venv

     class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
         """
         This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or
         easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.

         :param nodist: If true, setuptools and pip are not installed into the
                        created virtual environment.
         :param nopip: If true, pip is not installed into the created
                       virtual environment.
         :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the
                          installation can be monitored by passing a progress
                          callable. If specified, it is called with two
                          arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a
                          context indicating where the string is coming from.
                          The context argument can have one of three values:
                          'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize()
                          itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained
                          by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess
                          which is used to install the app.

                          If a callable is not specified, default progress
                          information is output to sys.stderr.
         """

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
             self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
             self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
             self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def post_setup(self, context):
             """
             Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the
             virtual environment being created.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
             if not self.nodist:
                 self.install_setuptools(context)
             # Can't install pip without setuptools
             if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
                 self.install_pip(context)

         def reader(self, stream, context):
             """
             Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress
             callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.
             """
             progress = self.progress
             while True:
                 s = stream.readline()
                 if not s:
                     break
                 if progress is not None:
                     progress(s, context)
                 else:
                     if not self.verbose:
                         sys.stderr.write('.')
                     else:
                         sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
                     sys.stderr.flush()
             stream.close()

         def install_script(self, context, name, url):
             _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url)
             fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
             binpath = context.bin_path
             distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
             # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder
             urlretrieve(url, distpath)
             progress = self.progress
             if self.verbose:
                 term = '\n'
             else:
                 term = ''
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
                 sys.stderr.flush()
             # Install in the virtual environment
             args = [context.env_exe, fn]
             p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
             t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
             t1.start()
             t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
             t2.start()
             p.wait()
             t1.join()
             t2.join()
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('done.', 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
             # Clean up - no longer needed
             os.unlink(distpath)

         def install_setuptools(self, context):
             """
             Install setuptools in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py"
             self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
             # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
             pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
             files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
             for f in files:
                 f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
                 os.unlink(f)

         def install_pip(self, context):
             """
             Install pip in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py'
             self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)


     def main(args=None):
         import argparse

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
                                          description='Creates virtual Python '
                                                      'environments in one or '
                                                      'more target '
                                                      'directories.')
         parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
                             help='A directory in which to create the '
                                  'virtual environment.')
         parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nodist',
                             help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
                                  "virtual environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nopip',
                             help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
                                  "environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='system_site',
                             help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
                                  'system site-packages dir.')
         if os.name == 'nt':
             use_symlinks = False
         else:
             use_symlinks = True
         parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
                             action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
                             help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
                                  'when symlinks are not the default for '
                                  'the platform.')
         parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
                                                'virtual environment '
                                                'directory if it already '
                                                'exists, before virtual '
                                                'environment creation.')
         parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
                                                  'environment directory to '
                                                  'use this version of '
                                                  'Python, assuming Python '
                                                  'has been upgraded '
                                                  'in-place.')
         parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
                                                  'from the scripts which '
                                                  'install setuptools and pip.')
         options = parser.parse_args(args)
         if options.upgrade and options.clear:
             raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
         builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
                                        clear=options.clear,
                                        symlinks=options.symlinks,
                                        upgrade=options.upgrade,
                                        nodist=options.nodist,
                                        nopip=options.nopip,
                                        verbose=options.verbose)
         for d in options.dirs:
             builder.create(d)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         rc = 1
         try:
             main()
             rc = 0
         except Exception as e:
             print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
         sys.exit(rc)

Ce script est aussi disponible au téléchargement en ligne(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives,  Prev: venv --- Creation of virtual environments,  Up: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

5.29.3 ‘zipapp’ -- Manage executable Python zip archives
--------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

'Code source :' Lib/zipapp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des outils pour gérer la création de fichiers zip
contenant du code Python, qui peuvent être *note exécutés directement
par l'interpréteur Python: 1ce6.  Le module fournit à la fois une
interface de ligne de commande *note Interface en ligne de commande:
42e0. et une interface *note API Python: 42e1.

* Menu:

* Exemple de base::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
* API Python::
* Exemples: Exemples<31>.
* Spécification de l'interprète::
* Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp::
* Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipapp.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple de base,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<8>,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.1 Exemple de base
........................

L'exemple suivant montre comment l'interface de ligne de commande *note
Interface en ligne de commande: 42e0. peut être utilisée pour créer une
archive exécutable depuis un répertoire contenant du code Python.  Lors
de l'exécution, l'archive exécutera la fonction ‘main’ du module ‘myapp’
dans l'archive.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<8>,  Next: API Python,  Prev: Exemple de base,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.2 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

Lorsqu'il est appelé en tant que programme à partir de la ligne de
commande, la syntaxe suivante est utilisée :

     $ python -m zipapp source [options]

Si 'source' est un répertoire, une archive est créée à partir du contenu
de 'source'.  Si 'source' est un fichier, ce doit être une archive et il
est copié dans l'archive cible (ou le contenu de sa ligne 'shebang' est
affiché si l'option ‘--info’ est indiquée).

Les options suivantes sont disponibles :

 -- Option: -o <output>, --output=<output>

     Écrit la sortie dans un fichier nommé 'output'.  Si cette option
     n'est pas spécifiée, le nom du fichier de sortie sera le même que
     celui de l'entrée 'source', avec l'extension ‘.pyz’.  Si un nom de
     fichier explicite est donné, il est utilisé tel quel (une extension
     ‘.pyz’ doit donc être incluse si nécessaire).

     Un nom de fichier de sortie doit être spécifié si la 'source' est
     une archive (et, dans ce cas, la 'sortie' ne doit pas être la même
     que la 'source').

 -- Option: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>

     Ajoute une ligne ‘#!’ à l'archive en spécifiant 'interpreter' comme
     commande à exécuter.  Aussi, sur un système POSIX, cela rend
     l'archive exécutable.  Le comportement par défaut est de ne pas
     écrire la ligne ‘#!’ et de ne pas rendre le fichier exécutable.

 -- Option: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>

     Écrit un fichier ‘__main__.py’ dans l'archive qui exécute 'mainfn'.
     L'argument 'mainfn' est de la forme « 'pkg.mod:fn' », où
     « 'pkg.mod' » est un paquet/module dans l'archive, et « 'fn' » est
     un appelable dans le module donné.  Le fichier ‘__main__.py’
     réalise cet appel.

     *note -main: 42e8. ne peut pas être spécifié lors de la copie d'une
     archive.

 -- Option: -c, --compress

     Compresse les fichiers avec la méthode 'deflate', réduisant ainsi
     la taille du fichier de sortie.  Par défaut, les fichiers sont
     stockés non compressés dans l'archive.

     *note -compress: 42ea. n'a aucun effet lors de la copie d'une
     archive.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Option: --info

     Affiche l'interpréteur intégré dans l'archive, à des fins de
     diagnostic.  Dans ce cas, toutes les autres options sont ignorées
     et SOURCE doit être une archive et non un répertoire.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Affiche un court message d'aide et quitte.


File: python.info,  Node: API Python,  Next: Exemples<31>,  Prev: Interface en ligne de commande<8>,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.3 API Python
...................

Ce module définit deux fonctions utilitaires :

 -- Fonction: zipapp.create_archive (source, target=None,
          interpreter=None, main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)

     Crée une archive d'application à partir de 'source'.  La source
     peut être de natures suivantes :

        * Le nom d'un répertoire, ou un *note path-like object: 29d. se
          référant à un répertoire ; dans ce cas, une nouvelle archive
          d'application sera créée à partir du contenu de ce répertoire.

        * Le nom d'un fichier d'archive d'application existant, ou un
          *note path-like object: 29d. se référant à un tel fichier ;
          dans ce cas, le fichier est copié sur la cible (en le
          modifiant pour refléter la valeur donnée à l'argument
          'interpreter').  Le nom du fichier doit inclure l'extension
          ‘.pyz’, si nécessaire.

        * Un objet fichier ouvert pour la lecture en mode binaire.  Le
          contenu du fichier doit être une archive d'application et
          Python suppose que l'objet fichier est positionné au début de
          l'archive.

     L'argument 'target' détermine où l'archive résultante sera écrite :

        * S'il s'agit d'un nom de fichier, ou d'un *note path-like
          object: 29d, l'archive sera écrite dans ce fichier.

        * S'il s'agit d'un objet fichier ouvert, l'archive sera écrite
          dans cet objet fichier, qui doit être ouvert pour l'écriture
          en mode octets.

        * Si la cible est omise (ou ‘None’), la source doit être un
          répertoire et la cible sera un fichier portant le même nom que
          la source, avec une extension ‘.pyz’ ajoutée.

     L'argument 'interpreter' spécifie le nom de l'interpréteur Python
     avec lequel l'archive sera exécutée.  Il est écrit dans une ligne
     'shebang' au début de l'archive.  Sur un système POSIX, cela est
     interprété par le système d'exploitation et, sur Windows, il sera
     géré par le lanceur Python.  L'omission de l''interpreter'
     n'entraîne pas l'écriture d'une ligne 'shebang'.  Si un
     interpréteur est spécifié et que la cible est un nom de fichier, le
     bit exécutable du fichier cible sera mis à 1.

     L'argument 'main' spécifie le nom d'un appelable, utilisé comme
     programme principal pour l'archive.  Il ne peut être spécifié que
     si la source est un répertoire et si la source ne contient pas déjà
     un fichier ‘__main__.py’.  L'argument 'main' doit prendre la forme
     ‘pkg.module:callable’ et l'archive sera exécutée en important
     ‘pkg.module’ et en exécutant l'appelable donné sans argument.
     Omettre 'main' est une erreur si la source est un répertoire et ne
     contient pas un fichier ‘__main__.py’ car, dans ce cas, l'archive
     résultante ne serait pas exécutable.

     L'argument optionnel 'filter' spécifie une fonction de rappel à
     laquelle on passe un objet 'Path' représentant le chemin du fichier
     à ajouter (par rapport au répertoire source).  Elle doit renvoyer
     ‘True’ si le fichier doit effectivement être ajouté.

     L'argument optionnel 'compressed' détermine si les fichiers doivent
     être compressés.  S'il vaut ‘True’, les fichiers de l'archive sont
     compressés avec l'algorithme 'deflate' ; sinon, les fichiers sont
     stockés non compressés.  Cet argument n'a aucun effet lors de la
     copie d'une archive existante.

     Si un objet fichier est spécifié pour 'source' ou 'target', il est
     de la responsabilité de l'appelant de le fermer après avoir appelé
     ‘create_archive’.

     Lors de la copie d'une archive existante, les objets fichier
     fournis n'ont besoin que des méthodes ‘read’ et ‘readline’ ou
     ‘write’.  Lors de la création d'une archive à partir d'un
     répertoire, si la cible est un objet fichier, elle sera passée à la
     classe ‘zipfile.ZipFile’ et devra fournir les méthodes nécessaires
     à cette classe.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the 'filter' and 'compressed'
     parameters.

 -- Fonction: zipapp.get_interpreter (archive)

     Renvoie l'interpréteur spécifié dans la ligne ‘#!’ au début de
     l'archive.  S'il n'y a pas de ligne ‘#!’, renvoie *note None: 662.
     L'argument 'archive' peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet de
     type fichier ouvert à la lecture en mode binaire.  Python suppose
     qu'il est au début de l'archive.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<31>,  Next: Spécification de l'interprète,  Prev: API Python,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.4 Exemples
.................

Regroupe le contenu d'un répertoire dans une archive, puis l'exécute.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

La même chose peut être faite en utilisant la fonction *note
create_archive(): ba0. :

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz')

Pour rendre l'application directement exécutable sur un système POSIX,
spécifiez un interpréteur à utiliser.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
     $ ./myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

Pour remplacer la ligne 'shebang' sur une archive existante, créez une
archive modifiée en utilisant la fonction *note create_archive(): ba0. :

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')

To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a *note
BytesIO: e8f. object, and then overwrite the source afterwards.  Note
that there is a risk when overwriting a file in place that an error will
result in the loss of the original file.  This code does not protect
against such errors, but production code should do so.  Also, this
method will only work if the archive fits in memory:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> import io
     >>> temp = io.BytesIO()
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
     >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
     >>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())


File: python.info,  Node: Spécification de l'interprète,  Next: Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp,  Prev: Exemples<31>,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.5 Spécification de l'interprète
......................................

Notez que si vous spécifiez un interpréteur et que vous distribuez
ensuite votre archive d'application, vous devez vous assurer que
l'interpréteur utilisé est portable.  Le lanceur Python pour Windows
gère la plupart des formes courantes de la ligne POSIX ‘#!’, mais il y a
d'autres problèmes à considérer :

   * Si vous utilisez ‘/usr/bin/env python’ (ou d'autres formes de la
     commande 'python', comme ‘/usr/bin/python’), vous devez considérer
     que vos utilisateurs peuvent avoir Python 2 ou Python 3 par défaut,
     et écrire votre code pour fonctionner dans les deux versions.

   * Si vous utilisez une version explicite, par exemple ‘/usr/bin/env
     python3’ votre application ne fonctionnera pas pour les
     utilisateurs qui n'ont pas cette version.  (C'est peut-être ce que
     vous voulez si vous n'avez pas rendu votre code compatible Python
     2).

   * Il n'y a aucun moyen de dire « python X.Y ou supérieur » donc
     faites attention si vous utilisez une version exacte comme
     ‘/usr/bin/env python3.4’ car vous devrez changer votre ligne
     'shebang' pour les utilisateurs de Python 3.5, par exemple.

Normalement, vous devriez utiliser un ‘/usr/bin/env python2’ ou
‘/usr/bin/env python3’, selon que votre code soit écrit pour Python 2 ou
3.


File: python.info,  Node: Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp,  Next: Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python,  Prev: Spécification de l'interprète,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.6 Création d'applications autonomes avec 'zipapp'
........................................................

En utilisant le module *note zipapp: 12f, il est possible de créer des
programmes Python qui peuvent être distribués à des utilisateurs finaux
dont le seul pré-requis est d'avoir la bonne version de Python installée
sur leur ordinateur.  Pour y arriver, la clé est de regrouper toutes les
dépendances de l'application dans l'archive avec le code source de
l'application.

Les étapes pour créer une archive autonome sont les suivantes :

  1. Créez votre application dans un répertoire comme d'habitude, de
     manière à avoir un répertoire ‘myapp’ contenant un fichier
     ‘__main__.py’ et tout le code de l'application correspondante.

  2. Installez toutes les dépendances de votre application dans le
     répertoire ‘myapp’ en utilisant 'pip' :

          $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp

     (ceci suppose que vous ayez vos dépendances de projet dans un
     fichier ‘requirements.txt’ — sinon vous pouvez simplement lister
     les dépendances manuellement sur la ligne de commande 'pip').

  3. Regroupez le tout à l'aide de :

          $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp

Cela produira un exécutable autonome qui peut être exécuté sur n'importe
quelle machine avec l'interpréteur approprié disponible.  Voir *note
Spécification de l'interprète: 42f4. pour plus de détails.  Il peut être
envoyé aux utilisateurs sous la forme d'un seul fichier.

Sous Unix, le fichier ‘myapp.pyz’ est exécutable tel quel.  Vous pouvez
renommer le fichier pour supprimer l'extension ‘.pyz’ si vous préférez
un nom de commande « simple ».  Sous Windows, le fichier ‘myapp.pyz[w]’
est exécutable en vertu du fait que l'interpréteur Python est associé
aux extensions de fichier ‘.pyz’ et ‘.pyzw’ une fois installé.

* Menu:

* Mises en garde::


File: python.info,  Node: Mises en garde,  Up: Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp

5.29.3.7 Mises en garde
.......................

Si votre application dépend d'un paquet qui inclut une extension C, ce
paquet ne peut pas être exécuté à partir d'un fichier zip (c'est une
limitation du système d'exploitation, car le code exécutable doit être
présent dans le système de fichiers pour que le lanceur de l'OS puisse
le charger).  Dans ce cas, vous pouvez exclure cette dépendance du
fichier zip et, soit demander à vos utilisateurs de l'installer, soit la
fournir avec votre fichier zip et ajouter du code à votre fichier
‘__main__.py’ pour inclure le répertoire contenant le module décompressé
dans ‘sys.path’.  Dans ce cas, vous devrez vous assurer d'envoyer les
binaires appropriés pour votre ou vos architecture(s) cible(s) (et
éventuellement choisir la bonne version à ajouter à ‘sys.path’ au moment
de l'exécution, basée sur la machine de l'utilisateur).


File: python.info,  Node: Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python,  Prev: Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp,  Up: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

5.29.3.8 Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python
.....................................................

Python est capable d'exécuter des fichiers zip qui contiennent un
fichier ‘__main__.py’ depuis la version 2.6.  Pour être exécutée par
Python, une archive d'application doit simplement être un fichier zip
standard contenant un fichier ‘__main__.py’ qui sera exécuté comme point
d'entrée de l'application.  Comme d'habitude pour tout script Python, le
parent du script (dans ce cas le fichier zip) sera placé sur *note
sys.path: 3ab. et ainsi d'autres modules pourront être importés depuis
le fichier zip.

Le format de fichier zip permet d'ajouter des données arbitraires à un
fichier zip.  Le format de l'application zip utilise cette possibilité
pour préfixer une ligne 'shebang' POSIX standard dans le fichier
(‘#!/path/to/interpreter’).

Formellement, le format d'application zip de Python est donc :

  1. An optional shebang line, containing the characters ‘b'#!'’
     followed by an interpreter name, and then a newline (‘b'\n'’)
     character.  The interpreter name can be anything acceptable to the
     OS "shebang" processing, or the Python launcher on Windows.  The
     interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows, and in *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. on POSIX.

  2. Des données 'zipfile' standards, telles que générées par le module
     *note zipfile: 130.  Le contenu du fichier zip 'doit' inclure un
     fichier appelé ‘__main__.py’ (qui doit se trouver à la racine du
     fichier zip — c'est-à-dire qu'il ne peut se trouver dans un
     sous-répertoire).  Les données du fichier zip peuvent être
     compressées ou non.

Si une archive d'application a une ligne 'shebang', elle peut avoir le
bit exécutable activé sur les systèmes POSIX, pour lui permettre d'être
exécutée directement.

Vous pouvez créer des archives d'applications sans utiliser les outils
de ce module — le module existe pour faciliter les choses, mais les
archives, créées par n'importe quel moyen tout en respectant le format
ci-dessus, sont valides pour Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Environnement d'exécution Python,  Next: Interpréteurs Python personnalisés,  Prev: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.30 Environnement d'exécution Python
=====================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent une large collection de
services relatifs à l'interpréteur Python et son interaction avec son
environnement.  En voici un survol :

* Menu:

* sys: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions. System-specific parameters and functions
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring. Execution event monitoring
* sysconfig: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information. Provide access to Python's configuration information
* builtins: builtins --- Built-in objects. Built-in objects
* __main__: __main__ --- Top-level code environment. Top-level code environment
* warnings: warnings --- Warning control. Warning control
* dataclasses: dataclasses --- Data Classes. Data Classes
* contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with::
* abc: abc --- Abstract Base Classes. Abstract Base Classes
* atexit: atexit --- Exit handlers. Exit handlers
* traceback: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback. Print or retrieve a stack traceback
* __future__: __future__ --- Future statement definitions. Future statement definitions
* gc: gc --- Garbage Collector interface. Garbage Collector interface
* inspect: inspect --- Inspect live objects. Inspect live objects
* site: site --- Site-specific configuration hook. Site-specific configuration hook


File: python.info,  Node: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions,  Next: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.1 ‘sys’ -- System-specific parameters and functions
--------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the
interpreter.  It is always available.  Unless explicitly noted
otherwise, all variables are read-only.

 -- Données: sys.abiflags

     Contient, sur les systèmes POSIX où Python a été compilé avec le
     script ‘configure’, les 'ABI flags' tels que définis par la PEP
     3149(1).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les options par défaut sont devenues
     des chaines de caractères vides (l'option ‘m’ pour 'pymalloc' a été
     enlevée).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: sys.addaudithook (hook)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks for
     the current (sub)interpreter.

     Quand un événement d'audit est déclenché par la fonction *note
     sys.audit(): 1573, chaque point d'entrée est appelé dans l'ordre
     dans lequel il a été ajouté avec le nom de l'événement et le
     'n'-uplet des arguments.  Les points d'entrées qui sont ajoutés par
     *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 4181. sont appelés les premiers, suivi
     par les fonctions de rappel ajoutées dans l'interpréteur en cours
     d'exécution.  Les points d'entrées peuvent 'logger' l'événement,
     lever une exception pour stopper l'opération ou terminer le
     processus entièrement.

     Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information
     about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python
     or libraries written in Python.  They are not suitable for
     implementing a "sandbox".  In particular, malicious code can
     trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function.  At a
     minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API
     *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 4181. before initialising the runtime,
     and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as
     *note ctypes: 2a.) should be completely removed or closely
     monitored.

     L'appel de *note sys.addaudithook(): 4180. lèvera d'elle même un
     événement d'audit appelé ‘sys.addaudithook’ sans arguments.  Si
     n'importe quel 'hook' lève une exception dérivée de *note
     RuntimeError: 193, le nouveau point d'entrée ne sera pas ajouté et
     l'exception supprimée.  Par conséquent, les appels ne peuvent pas
     supposer que leurs points d'entrées ont été ajoutés à moins de
     contrôler tous les points d'entrées existants.

     Voir la *note table d'évenements d'audit: 182d. pour tous les
     événements levés par CPython et PEP 578(2) pour la discussion
     originale de ce design.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8.1: Les exceptions dérivées de *note
     Exception: 9c9. mais pas *note RuntimeError: 193. ne sont plus
     supprimées.

     Quand le traçage est activé (voir *note settrace(): 14b7.), les
     'hooks' Python ne sont tracés que si la fonction a un membre
     ‘__cantrace__’ dont la valeur est vraie.  Autrement, les fonctions
     de traçage ignorent le 'hook'.

 -- Données: sys.argv

     La liste des arguments de la ligne de commande passés à un script
     Python.  ‘argv[0]’ est le nom du script (chemin complet, ou non, en
     fonction du système d'exploitation).  Si la commande a été exécutée
     avec l'option *note -c: 5cc. de l'interpréteur, ‘argv[0]’ vaut la
     chaîne ‘'-c'’.  Si aucun nom de script n'a été donné à
     l'interpréteur Python, ‘argv[0]’ sera une chaîne vide.

     Pour boucler sur l'entrée standard, ou la liste des fichiers donnés
     sur la ligne de commande, utilisez le module *note fileinput: 5a.

     See also *note sys.orig_argv: 82c.

          Note: Sous Unix, les arguments de ligne de commande sont
          passés par des octets depuis le système d'exploitation.
          Python les décode en utilisant l’encodage du système de
          fichiers et le gestionnaire d’erreur 'surrogateescape'.  Quand
          vous avez besoin des octets originaux, vous pouvez les
          récupérer avec ‘[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in sys.argv]’.

 -- Fonction: sys.audit (event, *args)

     Déclenche un événement d'audit pour tous les points d'entrées
     d'audit actifs.  'event' est une chaîne de caractères identifiant
     l'événement, et 'args' peut contenir des arguments optionnels avec
     plus d'informations sur l'événement en question.  Le nombre et
     types d'arguments pour un événement donné sont considérés comme une
     API publique et stable, et ne devraient pas être modifiés entre les
     versions.

     Par exemple, un événement d'audit est nommé ‘os.chdir’.  Cet
     événement à un argument appelé 'path' qui contiendras le nouveau
     répertoire de travail.

     *note sys.audit(): 1573. appellera les point d'entrées ('hooks' en
     anglais) d'audits existants, en passant le nom de l'événement et
     ses arguments, et lèvera à nouveau la première exception de
     n'importe quel point d'entrée.  En général, si une exception est
     levée, elle ne devrais pas être gérée et le processus devrait être
     terminé aussi rapidement que possible.  Cela permet que les
     implémentations des points d'entrées décident comment répondre à
     des événements particuliers : Ils peuvent simplement 'logger'
     l'événement ou arrêter l'opération en levant une exception.

     Les points d'entrées sont ajoutés en utilisant les fonctions *note
     sys.addaudithook(): 4180. ou *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 4181.

     L'équivalent natif de cette fonction est *note PySys_Audit(): 365.
     L'utilisation de la fonction native est encouragée lorsque c'est
     possible.

     Voir le *note tableau d'événements d'audit: 182d. pour tous les
     événements levés par CPython.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: sys.base_exec_prefix

     Défini au démarrage de Python, avant que ‘site.py’ ne soit évalué,
     à la même valeur que *note exec_prefix: 3a9.  Hors d'un *note
     environnement virtuel: 42cf, les valeurs restent les mêmes ; si
     ‘site.py’ détecte qu'un environnement virtuel est utilisé, les
     valeurs de *note prefix: 3ad. et *note exec_prefix: 3a9. sont
     modifiées pour pointer vers l'environnement virtuel, alors que
     *note base_prefix: 3e6. et *note base_exec_prefix: 3e5. pointent
     toujours à la racine de l'installation de Python (celui utilisé
     pour créer l'environnement virtuel).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: sys.base_prefix

     Défini au démarrage de Python, avant que ‘site.py’ ne soit évalué,
     à la même valeur que *note prefix: 3ad.  Hors d'un *note
     environnement virtuel: 42cf, les valeurs restent les mêmes ; si
     ‘site.py’ détecte qu'un environnement virtuel est utilisé, les
     valeurs de *note prefix: 3ad. et *note exec_prefix: 3a9. sont
     modifiées pour pointer vers l'environnement virtuel, alors que
     *note base_prefix: 3e6. et *note base_exec_prefix: 3e5. pointent
     toujours à la racine de l'installation de Python (celui utilisé
     pour créer l'environnement virtuel).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: sys.byteorder

     Un indicateur de l'ordre natif des octets.  Vaudra ‘'big'’ sur les
     plateformes gros-boutistes (octet le plus significatif en premier),
     et ‘'little'’ sur les plateformes petit-boutiste (octet le moins
     significatif en premier).

 -- Données: sys.builtin_module_names

     A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are
     compiled into this Python interpreter.  (This information is not
     available in any other way -- ‘modules.keys()’ only lists the
     imported modules.)

     See also the *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 82d. list.

 -- Fonction: sys.call_tracing (func, args)

     Call ‘func(*args)’, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is
     saved, and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from
     a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some
     other code.

     Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by *note
     settrace(): 14b7. or *note setprofile(): 14b6. to avoid infinite
     recursion.  ‘call_tracing()’ enables explicit recursion of the
     tracing function.

 -- Données: sys.copyright

     Une chaîne contenant le copyright relatif à l'interpréteur Python.

 -- Fonction: sys._clear_type_cache ()

     Vide le cache interne de types.  Le cache de types est utilisé pour
     accélérer les recherches d'attributs et de méthodes.  N'utilisez
     cette fonction 'que' pour libérer des références inutiles durant le
     débogage de fuite de référence.

     Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour un usage interne
     et spécialisé.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use the more general *note
     _clear_internal_caches(): 162b. function instead.

 -- Fonction: sys._clear_internal_caches ()

     Clear all internal performance-related caches.  Use this function
     'only' to release unnecessary references and memory blocks when
     hunting for leaks.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Fonction: sys._current_frames ()

     Renvoie un dictionnaire faisant correspondre chaque identifiant de
     fil d'exécution à la 'stack frame' actuellement active pour ces
     fils d'exécution au moment où la fonction est appelée.  Notez que
     les fonctions du module *note traceback: fd. peuvent construire une
     'call stack' à partir d'une telle 'frame'.

     N'ayant pas besoin de la coopération des fils d'exécution bloqués,
     cette fonction est très utile pour déboguer un 'deadlock'.  Aussi,
     les 'call stack' de ces fils d'exécution ne changeront pas tant
     qu'ils seront bloqués.  La 'frame' renvoyée pour un fil d'exécution
     non bloqué peut ne plus être liée à l'activité courante du fil
     d'exécution au moment où le code appelant examine la 'frame'.

     Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour un usage interne
     et spécialisé.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘sys._current_frames’ sans
     arguments.

 -- Fonction: sys._current_exceptions ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.  If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it
     is not included in the result dictionary.

     This is most useful for statistical profiling.

     Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour un usage interne
     et spécialisé.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘sys._current_exceptions’
     with no arguments.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Each value in the dictionary is now a
     single exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from
     ‘sys.exc_info()’.

 -- Fonction: sys.breakpointhook ()

     Cette fonction auto-déclenchée ('hook function' en anglais) est
     appelée par la fonction native *note breakpoint(): 231.  Par
     défaut, elle vous place dans le débogueur *note pdb: a4, mais elle
     peut être dirigée vers n'importe quelle autre fonction pour que
     vous puissiez choisir le débogueur utilisé.

     La signature de cette fonction dépend de ce qu'elle appelle.  Par
     exemple, l'appel par défaut (e.g.  ‘pdb.set_trace()’) n'attend pas
     d'argument, mais vous pourriez la lier à une fonction qui attend
     des arguments supplémentaires (positionnels et/ou mots-clés).  La
     fonction native ‘breakpoint()’ passe ses ‘*args’ et ‘**kws’
     directement au travers.  Tout ce que renvoie ‘breakpointhooks()’
     est renvoyé par ‘breakpoint()’.

     L'implémentation par défaut consulte d'abord la variable
     d'environnement *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: acb.  Si elle vaut ‘"0"’
     alors cette fonction s'achève immédiatement (elle ne fait donc
     rien).  Si la variable d'environnement n'est pas définie, ou s'il
     s'agit d'une chaîne vide, ‘pdb.set_trace()’ est appelée.  Sinon
     cette variable doit nommer une fonction à appeler, en utilisant la
     syntaxe d'importation de Python, par exemple
     ‘package.subpackage.module.function’.  Dans ce cas,
     ‘package.subpackage.module’ sera importé et le module devra
     contenir une fonction appelable ‘function()’.  Celle-ci est lancée
     en lui passant ‘*args’ et ‘*kws’ et, quoique renvoie ‘function()’,
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ retourne à la fonction native *note
     breakpoint(): 231.

     Notez que si un problème apparaît au moment de l'importation de la
     fonction nommée dans *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: acb, une alerte *note
     RuntimeWarning: 1bb. est indiquée et le point d'arrêt est ignoré.

     Notez également que si ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ est surchargé de
     manière programmatique, *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: acb. 'n'est pas'
     consulté.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: sys._debugmallocstats ()

     Affiche des informations bas-niveau sur la sortie d'erreur à propos
     de l'état de l'allocateur de mémoire de CPython.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 1f6. (*note configure
     -with-pydebug option: 41a.), it also performs some expensive
     internal consistency checks.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Cette fonction est spécifique à CPython.  Le format de sa sortie
     n'est pas définit ici et pourrait changer.

 -- Données: sys.dllhandle

     Nombre entier spécifiant le descripteur de la DLL Python.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- Fonction: sys.displayhook (value)

     Si 'value' n'est pas ‘None’, cette fonction écrit ‘repr(value)’ sur
     ‘sys.stdout’, et sauvegarde 'value' dans ‘builtins._’.  Si
     ‘repr(value)’ ne peut pas être encodé avec ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ en
     utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreur ‘sys.stdout.errors’ (qui est
     probablement ‘'strict'’), elle sera encodée avec
     ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ en utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreur
     ‘'backslashreplace'’.

     ‘sys.displayhook’ est appelé avec le résultat de l'évaluation d'une
     *note expression: 1f3e. entrée dans une session Python interactive.
     L'affichage de ces valeurs peut être personnalisé en assignant une
     autre fonction d'un argument à ‘sys.displayhook’.

     Pseudo-code :

          def displayhook(value):
              if value is None:
                  return
              # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
              builtins._ = None
              text = repr(value)
              try:
                  sys.stdout.write(text)
              except UnicodeEncodeError:
                  bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
                  if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
                      sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
                  else:
                      text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
                      sys.stdout.write(text)
              sys.stdout.write("\n")
              builtins._ = value

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utiliser le gestionnaire d'erreur
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ en cas d'*note UnicodeEncodeError: 664.

 -- Données: sys.dont_write_bytecode

     Si vrai, Python n'essaiera pas d'écrire de fichiers ‘.pyc’ à
     l'importation de modules source.  Cette valeur est initialement
     définie à ‘True’ ou ‘False’ en fonction de l'option de la ligne de
     commande *note -B: 1386. et de la variable d'environnement
     ‘PYTHONDONDONTWRITEBYTECODE’, mais vous pouvez aussi la modifier
     vous-même pour contrôler la génération des fichiers de 'bytecode'.

 -- Données: sys._emscripten_info

     A *note named tuple: 63b. holding information about the environment
     on the 'wasm32-emscripten' platform.  The named tuple is
     provisional and may change in the future.

      -- Attribut: _emscripten_info.emscripten_version

          Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro),
          e.g.  ‘(3, 1, 8)’.

      -- Attribut: _emscripten_info.runtime

          Runtime string, e.g.  browser user agent, ‘'Node.js
          v14.18.2'’, or ‘'UNKNOWN'’.

      -- Attribut: _emscripten_info.pthreads

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support.

      -- Attribut: _emscripten_info.shared_memory

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with shared memory support.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Emscripten.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Données: sys.pycache_prefix

     If this is set (not ‘None’), Python will write bytecode-cache
     ‘.pyc’ files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree
     rooted at this directory, rather than from ‘__pycache__’
     directories in the source code tree.  Any ‘__pycache__’ directories
     in the source code tree will be ignored and new ‘.pyc’ files
     written within the pycache prefix.  Thus if you use *note
     compileall: 20. as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it
     with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime.

     Un chemin relatif est interprété relativement au répertoire
     courant.

     Cette valeur est initialement définie basée sur la valeur de
     l'option de ligne de commande *note -X: 175. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’
     ou la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 993. (La
     ligne de commande est prioritaire).  Si aucune des deux options
     n'est définie, alors la valeur est ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: sys.excepthook (type, value, traceback)

     Cette fonction affiche la 'traceback' et l'exception donnée sur
     ‘sys.stderr’.

     When an exception other than *note SystemExit: d30. is raised and
     uncaught, the interpreter calls ‘sys.excepthook’ with three
     arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback
     object.  In an interactive session this happens just before control
     is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
     before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level
     exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument
     function to ‘sys.excepthook’.

     Lève un événement d'audit ‘sys.excepthook’ avec les arguments
     ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’ lorsqu'une exception non
     interceptée se produit.  Si aucun point d'entrée n'a été défini,
     ‘hook’ peut être ‘None’.  Si n'importe quel point d'entrée lève une
     exception dérivée de *note RuntimeError: 193, l'appel au point
     d'entrée sera supprimé.  Autrement, l'exception du point d'entrée
     d'audit sera reporté comme 'non levable' ('unraisable' en anglais)
     et ‘sys.excepthook’ sera appelé.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     La fonction *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. gère les exceptions
     'non-levables' et la fonction *note threading.excepthook(): 837.
     gère les exceptions levées par *note threading.Thread.run(): a2d.

 -- Données: sys.__breakpointhook__
 -- Données: sys.__displayhook__
 -- Données: sys.__excepthook__
 -- Données: sys.__unraisablehook__

     Ces objets contiennent les valeurs originales de ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’, ‘excepthook’ et ‘unraisablehook’ au début du
     programme.Ils sont sauvegardés de façon à ce que ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’, ‘excepthook’ et ‘unraisablehook’ puissent être
     restaurés au cas où ils seraient remplacés par des objets cassés ou
     alternatifs.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7: ‘__breakpointhook__’

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8: ‘__unraisablehook__’

 -- Fonction: sys.exception ()

     This function, when called while an exception handler is executing
     (such as an ‘except’ or ‘except*’ clause), returns the exception
     instance that was caught by this handler.  When exception handlers
     are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the
     innermost handler is accessible.

     If no exception handler is executing, this function returns ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: sys.exc_info ()

     This function returns the old-style representation of the handled
     exception.  If an exception ‘e’ is currently handled (so *note
     exception(): 678. would return ‘e’), *note exc_info(): 677. returns
     the tuple ‘(type(e), e, e.__traceback__)’.  That is, a tuple
     containing the type of the exception (a subclass of *note
     BaseException: 5a7.), the exception itself, and a *note traceback
     object: ae4. which typically encapsulates the call stack at the
     point where the exception last occurred.

     If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this
     function return a tuple containing three ‘None’ values.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields are
     now derived from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to *note exc_info():
     677.

 -- Données: sys.exec_prefix

     Une chaîne donnant le préfixe de dossier spécifique au site où les
     fichiers dépendant de la plateforme sont installés.  Par défaut,
     c'est ‘'/usr/local'’.  C'est configurable à la compilation avec
     l'option ‘--exec-prefix’ du script ‘configure’.  Tous les fichiers
     de configurations (tel que ‘pyconfig,h’) sont installés dans le
     dossier ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/config’, et les modules sous
     forme de bibliothèques partagées sont installés dans
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/lib-dynload’, où 'X.Y' est le numéro
     de version de Python, par exemple ‘3.2’.

          Note: Si un *note environment virtuel: 42cf. est actif, cette
          valeur sera modifiée par ‘site.py’ pour pointer vers
          l'environnement virtuel.  La valeur d'origine sera toujours
          disponible via *note base_exec_prefix: 3e5.

 -- Données: sys.executable

     Une chaîne donnant le chemin absolu vers l'interpréteur Python, un
     fichier binaire exécutable, sur les système sur lesquels ça à du
     sens.  Si Python n'est pas capable de récupérer le chemin réel de
     son exécutable, *note sys.executable: 3af. sera une chaîne vide ou
     ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: sys.exit ([arg])

     Raise a *note SystemExit: d30. exception, signaling an intention to
     exit the interpreter.

     L'argument optionnel 'arg' peut être un nombre entier donnant
     l'état de sortie (zéro par défaut), ou un autre type d'objet.  Pour
     les 'shells' (et autres), si c'est un entier, zéro signifie
     "terminé avec succès", et toutes les autres valeurs signifient
     "terminé anormalement".  La plupart des systèmes imposent qu'il se
     situe dans la plage 0-127, et leur comportement n'est pas défini
     pour les autres cas.  Certains systèmes peu communs ont pour
     convention d'assigner un sens particulier à des valeur spécifiques.
     Les programmes Unix utilisent généralement 2 pour les erreurs de
     syntaxe dans les arguments de la ligne de commande, et 1 pour
     toutes les autres erreurs.  Si un autre type est passé, ‘None’ est
     équivalent à zéro, et tout autre objet est écrit sur *note stderr:
     928. et donne un code de sortie 1.  Typiquement, ‘sys.exit("some
     error message")’ est un moyen rapide de quitter un programme en cas
     d'erreur.

     Since *note exit(): 2146. ultimately "only" raises an exception, it
     will only exit the process when called from the main thread, and
     the exception is not intercepted.  Cleanup actions specified by
     finally clauses of *note try: 6d5. statements are honored, and it
     is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Si une erreur survient lors du
     nettoyage après que l'interpréteur Python ait intercepté un *note
     SystemExit: d30. (typiquement une erreur en vidant les tampons des
     sorties standard), le code de sortie est changé à 120.

 -- Données: sys.flags

     La *note named tuple: 63b. 'flags' expose l'état des options de
     ligne de commande.  Ces attributs sont en lecture seule.

      -- Attribut: flags.debug                              *note -d: 1cee.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.inspect                            *note -i: 1493.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.interactive                        *note -i: 1493.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.isolated                           *note -I: 94d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.optimize                           *note -O: da4. or *note -OO: da5.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.dont_write_bytecode                *note -B: 1386.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.no_user_site                       *note -s: 1364.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.no_site                            *note -S: 1188.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.ignore_environment                 *note -E: 94c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.verbose                            *note -v: 13dd.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.bytes_warning                      *note -b: 5cf.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.quiet                              *note -q: 1cf1.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.hash_randomization                 *note -R: 1a55.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.dev_mode                           *note -X dev: 175.
                                                            (*note Python en mode développement: 1f5.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.utf8_mode                          *note -X utf8: 175.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.safe_path                          *note -P: 590.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.int_max_str_digits                 *note -X int_max_str_digits: 175.
                                                            (*note integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Attribut: flags.warn_default_encoding              *note -X warn_default_encoding: 175.
                                                            

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de l'attribut ‘quiet’ pour la
     nouvelle option *note -q: 1cf1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.3: L'attribut ‘hash_randomization’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Suppression de l'attribut obsolète
     ‘division_warning’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de l'attribut ‘isolated’ pour
     l'option *note -I: 94d. ‘isolated’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'attribut ‘dev_mode’ pour le
     nouveau *note Mode Développeur Python: 1f5. et l'attribut
     ‘utf8_mode’ pour la nouvelle option *note -X: 175. ‘utf8’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added ‘warn_default_encoding’
     attribute for *note -X: 175. ‘warn_default_encoding’ flag.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the ‘safe_path’ attribute for
     *note -P: 590. option.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the ‘int_max_str_digits’
     attribute.

 -- Données: sys.float_info

     Un *note named tuple: 63b. contenant des informations à propos du
     type 'float'.  Il contient des informations de bas niveau à propos
     de la précision et de la représentation interne.  Les valeurs
     correspondent aux différentes constantes à propos des nombres à
     virgule flottantes définies dans le fichier d'entête ‘float.h’ pour
     le langage de programmation C. Voir la section 5.2.4.2.2 de '1999
     ISO/IEC C standard' *note [C99]: 4318, 'Characteristics of floating
     types', pour plus de détails.  Attributes of the ‘float_info’ named
     tuple

     attribut                              macro 'float.h'                       explication
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.epsilon      ‘DBL_EPSILON’                         difference between 1.0 and the
                                                                                 least value greater than 1.0 that
                                                                                 is representable as a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 Voir aussi : *note math.ulp(): 901.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.dig          ‘DBL_DIG’                             The maximum number of decimal
                                                                                 digits that can be faithfully
                                                                                 represented in a float; see below.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.mant_dig     ‘DBL_MANT_DIG’                        Float precision: the number of
                                                                                 base-‘radix’ digits in the
                                                                                 significand of a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.max          ‘DBL_MAX’                             The maximum representable positive
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.max_exp      ‘DBL_MAX_EXP’                         The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a representable
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.max_10_exp   ‘DBL_MAX_10_EXP’                      The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is in the range of
                                                                                 representable finite floats.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.min          ‘DBL_MIN’                             The minimum representable positive
                                                                                 'normalized' float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 Utilisez *note math.ulp(0.0): 901.
                                                                                 pour obtenir le plus petit nombre a
                                                                                 virgule positif 'dénormalisé'
                                                                                 représentable.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.min_exp      ‘DBL_MIN_EXP’                         The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a normalized
                                                                                 float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.min_10_exp   ‘DBL_MIN_10_EXP’                      The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is a normalized float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.radix        ‘FLT_RADIX’                           The radix of exponent
                                                                                 representation.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Attribut: float_info.rounds       ‘FLT_ROUNDS’                          An integer representing the
                                                                                 rounding mode for floating-point
                                                                                 arithmetic.  This reflects the
                                                                                 value of the system ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 macro at interpreter startup time:
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘-1’: indeterminable
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘0’: toward zero
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘1’: to nearest
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘2’: toward positive infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘3’: toward negative infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                 All other values for ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 characterize implementation-defined
                                                                                 rounding behavior.
                                                                                 

     The attribute *note sys.float_info.dig: 431a. needs further
     explanation.  If ‘s’ is any string representing a decimal number
     with at most ‘sys.float_info.dig’ significant digits, then
     converting ‘s’ to a float and back again will recover a string
     representing the same decimal value:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.float_info.dig
          15
          >>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
          >>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
          '3.14159265358979'

     Cependant, pour les chaînes avec plus de *note sys.float_info.dig:
     431a. chiffres significatifs, ce n'est pas toujours vrai :

          >>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
          >>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
          '9876543211234568'

 -- Données: sys.float_repr_style

     Une chaîne indiquant comment la fonction *note repr(): 7e9. se
     comporte avec les nombres à virgule flottante.  Si la chaîne a la
     valeur ‘'short'’, alors pour un 'float' finit ‘x’, ‘repr(x)’ essaye
     de donner une courte chaîne tel que ‘float(repr(x)) == x’.  C'est
     le comportement typique à partir de Python 3.1.  Autrement,
     ‘float_repr_style’ a la valeur ‘'legacy'’ et ‘repr(x)’ se comporte
     comme les versions antérieures à 3.1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: sys.getallocatedblocks ()

     Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the
     interpreter, regardless of their size.  This function is mainly
     useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the
     interpreter's internal caches, the result can vary from call to
     call; you may have to call *note _clear_internal_caches(): 162b.
     and *note gc.collect(): a2a. to get more predictable results.

     If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
     information, *note getallocatedblocks(): fb2. is allowed to return
     0 instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: sys.getunicodeinternedsize ()

     Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: sys.getandroidapilevel ()

     Return the build-time API level of Android as an integer.  This
     represents the minimum version of Android this build of Python can
     run on.  For runtime version information, see *note
     platform.android_ver(): 1607.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Android.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: sys.getdefaultencoding ()

     Return ‘'utf-8'’.  This is the name of the default string encoding,
     used in methods like *note str.encode(): 8c4.

 -- Fonction: sys.getdlopenflags ()

     Return the current value of the flags that are used for ‘dlopen()’
     calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the
     *note os: a0. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g.  *note
     os.RTLD_LAZY: 10fa.).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: sys.getfilesystemencoding ()

     Get the *note filesystem encoding: 528.: the encoding used with the
     *note filesystem error handler: 528. to convert between Unicode
     filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem error handler is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): cd6.

     For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all
     cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported.
     Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either
     str or bytes and internally convert to the system's preferred
     representation.

     Les fonctions *note os.fsencode(): c45. et *note os.fsdecode():
     c44. devraient être utilisées pour s'assurer qu'un encodage et un
     gestionnaire d'erreurs correct sont utilisés.

     L'*note encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs
     associé: 528. sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la
     fonction *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. : regardez *note
     filesystem_encoding: 3df. et *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. dans les
     membres de *note PyConfig: 39d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: *note getfilesystemencoding(): c49. ne
     peut plus renvoyer ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sur Windows, on est plus assurés
     d'obtenir ‘'mbcs'’.  Voir la PEP 529(3) et *note
     _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab. pour plus d'informations.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Return ‘'utf-8'’ if the *note Python
     UTF-8 Mode: 643. is enabled.

 -- Fonction: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors ()

     Get the *note filesystem error handler: 528.: the error handler
     used with the *note filesystem encoding: 528. to convert between
     Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem encoding is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencoding(): c49.

     Les fonctions *note os.fsencode(): c45. et *note os.fsdecode():
     c44. devraient être utilisées pour s'assurer qu'un encodage et un
     gestionnaire d'erreurs correct sont utilisés.

     L'*note encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs
     associé: 528. sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la
     fonction *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. : regardez *note
     filesystem_encoding: 3df. et *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. dans les
     membres de *note PyConfig: 39d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Fonction: sys.get_int_max_str_digits ()

     Returns the current value for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 5e1.  See also *note set_int_max_str_digits():
     177a.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: sys.getrefcount (object)

     Donne le nombre de référence de l'objet 'object'.  Le nombre
     renvoyé est généralement d'une référence de plus qu'attendu,
     puisqu'il compte la référence (temporaire) de l'argument à *note
     getrefcount(): 4326.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are *note immortal: 4327. and have a very high refcount
     that does not reflect the actual number of references.
     Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate,
     other than a value of 0 or 1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects have very large
     refcounts that do not match the actual number of references to the
     object.

 -- Fonction: sys.getrecursionlimit ()

     Donne la limite actuelle de la limite de récursion, la profondeur
     maximum de la pile de l'interpréteur.  Cette limite empêche Python
     de planter lors d'une récursion infinie à cause d'un débordement de
     la pile.  Elle peut être modifiée par *note setrecursionlimit():
     4af.

 -- Fonction: sys.getsizeof (object[, default])

     Donne la taille d'un objet en octets.  L'objet peut être de
     n'importe quel type.  Le résultat sera correct pour tous les objets
     natifs, mais le résultat peut ne pas être toujours vrai pour les
     extensions, la valeur étant dépendante de l'implémentation.

     Seule la mémoire directement attribuée à l'objet est prise en
     compte, pas la mémoire consommée par les objets vers lesquels il a
     des références.

     S'il est fourni, 'default' sera renvoyé si l'objet ne fournit aucun
     moyen de récupérer sa taille.  Sinon, une exception *note
     TypeError: 525. sera levée.

     *note getsizeof(): 1726. appelle la méthode ‘__sizeof__’ de
     l'objet, et s'il est géré par lui, ajoute le surcoût du
     ramasse-miettes.

     See recursive sizeof recipe(4) for an example of using *note
     getsizeof(): 1726. recursively to find the size of containers and
     all their contents.

 -- Fonction: sys.getswitchinterval ()

     Return the interpreter's "thread switch interval" in seconds; see
     *note setswitchinterval(): 939.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: sys._getframe ([depth])

     Renvoie une 'frame' de la pile d'appels.  Si le nombre entier
     optionnel 'depth' est donné, la 'frame' donnée sera de 'depth'
     appels depuis le haut de la pile.  Si c'est plus profond que la
     hauteur de la pile, une exception *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.
     La profondeur par défaut est zéro, donnant ainsi la 'frame' du
     dessus de la pile.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘sys._getframe’ with argument
     ‘frame’.

     Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour une utilisation
     interne et spécifique.  Il n'est pas garanti qu'elle existe dans
     toutes les implémentations de Python.

 -- Fonction: sys._getframemodulename ([depth])

     Return the name of a module from the call stack.  If optional
     integer 'depth' is given, return the module that many calls below
     the top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, or if
     the module is unidentifiable, ‘None’ is returned.  The default for
     'depth' is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘sys._getframemodulename’
     with argument ‘depth’.

     Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour une utilisation
     interne et spécifique.  Il n'est pas garanti qu'elle existe dans
     toutes les implémentations de Python.

 -- Fonction: sys.getobjects (limit[, type])

     This function only exists if CPython was built using the
     specialized configure option *note -with-trace-refs: 38b.  It is
     intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues.

     Return a list of up to 'limit' dynamically allocated Python
     objects.  If 'type' is given, only objects of that exact type (not
     subtypes) are included.

     Objects from the list are not safe to use.  Specifically, the
     result will include objects from all interpreters that share their
     object allocator state (that is, ones created with *note
     PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4328. set to 1 or using
     *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1772, and the *note main interpreter:
     575.).  Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to
     crashes or other unexpected behavior.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' This function should
     be used for specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to
     exist in all implementations of Python.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13.1: The result may include objects from
     other interpreters.

 -- Fonction: sys.getprofile ()

     Renvoie la fonction de profilage tel que défini par *note
     setprofile(): 14b6.

 -- Fonction: sys.gettrace ()

     Renvoie la fonction de traçage tel que définie par *note
     settrace(): 14b7.

     La fonction *note gettrace(): 139a. ne sert que pour implémenter
     des débogueurs, des 'profilers', outils d'analyse de couverture,
     etc….  Son comportement dépend de l'implémentation et non du
     langage, elle n'est donc pas forcément disponible dans toutes les
     implémentations de Python.

 -- Fonction: sys.getwindowsversion ()

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet nommé décrivant la version de Windows en cours
     d'exécution.  Les attributs nommés sont 'major', 'minor', 'build',
     'platform', 'service_pack', 'service_pack_minor',
     'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', 'product_type' et
     'platform_version'.  'service_pack' contient une string,
     'platform_version' un triplet, et tous les autres sont des nombres
     entiers.  Ces attributs sont également accessibles par leur nom,
     donc ‘sys.getwindowsversion()[0]’ est équivalent à
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion().major’.  Pour des raisons de compatibilité
     avec les versions antérieures, seuls les 5 premiers éléments sont
     accessibles par leur indice.

     'platform' will be ‘2’ (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT).

     'product_type' peut être une des valeurs suivantes :

     Constante                                   Signification
                                                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘1’ (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)                    Le système une station de travail.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘2’ (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)              Le système est un contrôleur de
                                                 domaine.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘3’ (VER_NT_SERVER)                         Le système est un serveur, mais pas
                                                 un contrôleur de domaine.
                                                 

     This function wraps the Win32 ‘GetVersionEx()’ function; see the
     Microsoft documentation on ‘OSVERSIONINFOEX()’ for more information
     about these fields.

     'platform_version' returns the major version, minor version and
     build number of the current operating system, rather than the
     version that is being emulated for the process.  It is intended for
     use in logging rather than for feature detection.

          Note: 'platform_version' derives the version from kernel32.dll
          which can be of a different version than the OS version.
          Please use *note platform: a9. module for achieving accurate
          OS version.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Changé en un 'n'-uplet nommé, et ajout
     de 'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', et
     'product_type'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de 'platform_version'

 -- Fonction: sys.get_asyncgen_hooks ()

     Renvoie un objet 'asyncgen_hooks', qui est semblable à un *note
     namedtuple: 1c5. de la forme ‘(firstiter, finalizer)’, où
     'firstiter' et 'finalizer' sont soit ‘None’ ou des fonctions qui
     prennent un *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4329. comme
     argument, et sont utilisées pour planifier la finalisation d'un
     générateur asynchrone par un 'event loop'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 525(5) pour plus
     d'informations.

          Note: Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (voir la
          PEP 411(6) pour plus d'informations.)

 -- Fonction: sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth ()

     Récupère le nombre de cadres d'exécution conservés par les
     coroutines pour le suivi de leur création, telle que défini par
     *note set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b7c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

          Note: Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (Voir la
          PEP 411(7) pour plus d'informations.)  Utilisez la uniquement
          à des fins de débogage.

 -- Données: sys.hash_info

     Un *note named tuple: 63b. donnant les paramètres de
     l'implémentation de la fonction de hachage de nombres.  Pour plus
     d'informations sur le hachage des types numériques, consultez *note
     Hachage des types numériques: 215d.

      -- Attribut: hash_info.width

          The width in bits used for hash values

      -- Attribut: hash_info.modulus

          The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme

      -- Attribut: hash_info.inf

          The hash value returned for a positive infinity

      -- Attribut: hash_info.nan

          (This attribute is no longer used)

      -- Attribut: hash_info.imag

          The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number

      -- Attribut: hash_info.algorithm

          The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and
          memoryview

      -- Attribut: hash_info.hash_bits

          The internal output size of the hash algorithm

      -- Attribut: hash_info.seed_bits

          The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de 'algorithm', 'hash_bits' et
     'seed_bits'

 -- Données: sys.hexversion

     Le numéro de version codé sous forme d'un seul nombre entier.  Ce
     numéro augmente avec chaque version, y compris pour les versions
     hors production.  Par exemple, pour vérifier que l'interpréteur
     Python est au moins la version 1.5, utilisez :

          if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
              # use some advanced feature
              ...
          else:
              # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
              ...

     Cet attribut s'appelle ‘hexversion’ dans le sens où il ne semble
     avoir du sens que s'il est regardé après avoir été passé à la
     fonction native *note hex(): 12af.  Le *note named tuple: 63b.
     *note sys.version_info: 68d. représente la même information d'une
     manière plus humaine.

     Consultez *note Version des API et ABI: 4332. pour plus
     d'informations sur ‘hexversion’.

 -- Données: sys.implementation

     Un objet contenant des informations sur l'implémentation de la
     version actuelle de l'interpréteur Python.  Les attributs suivants
     existent obligatoirement sur toutes les implémentations Python.

     'name' est l'identifiant de l'implémentation, e.g.  ‘'cpython'’.
     Cette chaîne est définie par l'implémentation de Python, mais sera
     toujours en minuscule.

     'version' est un 'n'-uplet nommé, du même format que *note
     sys.version_info: 68d.  Il représente la version de
     l''implementation' de Python.  C'est une information différente de
     la version du 'langage' auquel l'interpréteur actuel se conforme
     (donnée par ‘sys.version_info’).  Par exemple, pour PyPy 1.8
     ‘sys.implementation.version’ peut valoir ‘sys.version_info(1, 8, 0,
     'final', 0)’, alors que ‘sys.version_info’ peut valoir
     ‘sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)’.  Pour CPython ces deux
     valeurs sont identiques puisque c'est l'implémentation de
     référence.

     'hexversion' est la version de l'implémentation sous forme
     hexadécimale, comme *note sys.hexversion: 4331.

     'cache_tag' est la balise utilisée par le mécanisme d'importation
     dans les noms de fichiers des modules mis en cache.  Par
     convention, il devrait se composer du nom et de la version de
     l'implémentation, comme ‘'cpython-33'’.  Cependant, une
     implémentation Python peut utiliser une autre valeur si nécessaire.
     ‘cache_tag’ à ‘None’ signifie que la mise en cache des modules doit
     être désactivée.

     *note sys.implementation: 503. peut contenir d'autres attributs
     spécifiques à l'implémentation de Python.  Ces attributs
     spécifiques doivent commencer par un 'underscore', et ne sont pas
     documentés ici.  Indépendamment de son contenu, *note
     sys.implementation: 503. ne change jamais durant l'exécution de
     l'interpréteur, ni entre les versions d'une même implémentation.
     (Il peut cependant changer entre les versions du langage Python.)
     Voir la PEP 421(8) pour plus d'informations.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

          Note: L'addition de nouveaux attributs requis doivent passer
          par le processus de 'PEP' classique.  Voir PEP 421(9) pour
          plus d'informations.

 -- Données: sys.int_info

     Un *note named tuple: 63b. qui contient des informations sur la
     représentation interne des entiers de Python.  Les attributs sont
     en lecture seule.

      -- Attribut: int_info.bits_per_digit

          The number of bits held in each digit.  Python integers are
          stored internally in base ‘2**int_info.bits_per_digit’.

      -- Attribut: int_info.sizeof_digit

          The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit.

      -- Attribut: int_info.default_max_str_digits

          The default value for *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits():
          223a. when it is not otherwise explicitly configured.

      -- Attribut: int_info.str_digits_check_threshold

          The minimum non-zero value for *note
          sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 177a, *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1779, or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
          175.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added *note default_max_str_digits:
     2239. and *note str_digits_check_threshold: 4335.

 -- Données: sys.__interactivehook__

     Lorsque cet attribut existe, sa valeur est automatiquement appelée
     (sans argument) par l'interpréteur lors de son démarrage en *note
     mode interactif: fb3.  L'appel se fait après que le fichier *note
     PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. soit lu, afin que vous puissiez y configurer
     votre fonction.  *note Configuré: fb6. par le module *note site:
     c6.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877.
     ‘cpython.run_interactivehook’ avec l'objet de point d'entrée comme
     argument lorsqu'il est appelé au démarrage.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: sys.intern (string)

     Ajoute 'string' dans le tableau des chaînes "internées" et renvoie
     la chaîne internée - qui peut être 'string' elle-même ou une copie.
     Interner une chaîne de caractères permet de gagner un peu de
     performance lors de l'accès aux dictionnaires - si les clés du
     dictionnaire et la clé recherchée sont internées, les comparaisons
     de clés (après le hachage) pourront se faire en comparant les
     pointeurs plutôt que caractère par caractère.  Normalement, les
     noms utilisés dans les programmes Python sont automatiquement
     internés, et les dictionnaires utilisés pour stocker les attributs
     de modules, de classes, ou d'instances ont aussi leurs clés
     internées.

     Interned strings are not *note immortal: 4327.; you must keep a
     reference to the return value of *note intern(): 12bb. around to
     benefit from it.

 -- Fonction: sys._is_gil_enabled ()

     Return *note True: bfd. if the *note GIL: 158. is enabled and *note
     False: b27. if it is disabled.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' It is not guaranteed
     to exist in all implementations of Python.

 -- Fonction: sys.is_finalizing ()

     Return *note True: bfd. if the main Python interpreter is *note
     shutting down: 14d.  Return *note False: b27. otherwise.

     See also the *note PythonFinalizationError: 14c. exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: sys.last_exc

     This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception
     instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter
     prints an error message and a stack traceback.  Its intended use is
     to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage
     in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
     that caused the error.  (Typical use is ‘import pdb; pdb.pm()’ to
     enter the post-mortem debugger; see *note pdb: a4. module for more
     information.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: sys._is_interned (string)

     Return *note True: bfd. if the given string is "interned", *note
     False: b27. otherwise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' It is not guaranteed
     to exist in all implementations of Python.

 -- Données: sys.last_type
 -- Données: sys.last_value
 -- Données: sys.last_traceback

     These three variables are deprecated; use *note sys.last_exc: 4aa.
     instead.  They hold the legacy representation of ‘sys.last_exc’, as
     returned from *note exc_info(): 677. above.

 -- Données: sys.maxsize

     Un entier donnant à la valeur maximale qu'une variable de type
     *note Py_ssize_t: a50. peut prendre.  C'est typiquement ‘2**31 - 1’
     sur une plateforme 32 bits et ‘2**63 - 1’ sur une plateforme 64
     bits.

 -- Données: sys.maxunicode

     Un entier donnant la valeur du plus grand point de code Unicode,
     c'est-à-dire ‘1114111’ (‘0x10FFFF’ en hexadécimal).

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Avant la PEP 393(10), ‘sys.maxunicode’
     valait soit ‘0xFFFF’ soit ‘0x10FFFF’, en fonction l'option de
     configuration qui spécifiait si les caractères Unicode étaient
     stockés en UCS-2 ou UCS-4.

 -- Données: sys.meta_path

     A list of *note meta path finder: 105b. objects that have their
     *note find_spec(): 855. methods called to see if one of the objects
     can find the module to be imported.  By default, it holds entries
     that implement Python's default import semantics.  The *note
     find_spec(): 855. method is called with at least the absolute name
     of the module being imported.  If the module to be imported is
     contained in a package, then the parent package's *note __path__:
     1c2c. attribute is passed in as a second argument.  The method
     returns a *note module spec: 1ed2, or ‘None’ if the module cannot
     be found.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b.

          La classe de base abstraite définissant l'interface des objets
          'finder' de *note meta_path: d1b.

     *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e20.

          La classe concrète dont *note find_spec(): 855. devrait
          renvoyer des instances.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: *note Module specs: 1ed2. were
     introduced in Python 3.4, by PEP 451(11).

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Removed the fallback that looked for
     a ‘find_module()’ method if a *note meta_path: d1b. entry didn't
     have a *note find_spec(): 855. method.

 -- Données: sys.modules

     This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have
     already been loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of
     modules and other tricks.  However, replacing the dictionary will
     not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from
     the dictionary may cause Python to fail.  If you want to iterate
     over this global dictionary always use ‘sys.modules.copy()’ or
     ‘tuple(sys.modules)’ to avoid exceptions as its size may change
     during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other
     threads.

 -- Données: sys.orig_argv

     The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
     Python executable.

     The elements of *note sys.orig_argv: 82c. are the arguments to the
     Python interpreter, while the elements of *note sys.argv: 1245. are
     the arguments to the user's program.  Arguments consumed by the
     interpreter itself will be present in *note sys.orig_argv: 82c. and
     missing from *note sys.argv: 1245.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: sys.path

     Une liste de chaînes de caractères spécifiant les chemins de
     recherche des modules, initialisée à partir de la variable
     d'environnement *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. et d'une valeur par défaut
     dépendante de l'installation.

     By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially
     unsafe path is prepended to *note sys.path: 3ab. ('before' the
     entries inserted as a result of *note PYTHONPATH: 1008.):

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: prepend the current working
          directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: prepend the script's
          directory.  If it's a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: prepend an
          empty string, which means the current working directory.

     To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the *note -P: 590.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 591. environment
     variable.

     A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only
     strings should be added to *note sys.path: 3ab.; all other data
     types are ignored during import.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

        * Le module *note site: c6. décrit comment utiliser les fichiers
          '.pth' pour étendre *note sys.path: 3ab.

 -- Données: sys.path_hooks

     Une liste d'appelables d'un argument, 'path', pour essayer de créer
     un *note finder: 1eda. pour ce chemin.  Si un 'finder' peut être
     créé, il doit être renvoyé par l'appelable, sinon une *note
     ImportError: 40f. doit être levée.

     Précisé à l'origine dans la PEP 302(12).

 -- Données: sys.path_importer_cache

     Un dictionnaire faisant office de cache pour les objets *note
     finder: 1eda.  Les clés sont les chemins qui ont été passés à *note
     sys.path_hooks: 100f. et les valeurs sont les 'finders' trouvés.
     Si un chemin est valide selon le système de fichiers mais qu'aucun
     'finder' n'est trouvé dans *note sys.path_hooks: 100f, ‘None’ est
     stocké.

     Précisé à l'origine dans la PEP 302(13).

 -- Données: sys.platform

     A string containing a platform identifier.  Known values are:

     Système              Valeur pour ‘plateforme’
                          
     -----------------------------------------------------
                          
     AIX                  ‘'aix'’
                          
                          
     Android              ‘'android'’
                          
                          
     Emscripten           ‘'emscripten'’
                          
                          
     iOS                  ‘'ios'’
                          
                          
     Linux                ‘'linux'’
                          
                          
     macOS                ‘'darwin'’
                          
                          
     Windows              ‘'win32'’
                          
                          
     Windows/Cygwin       ‘'cygwin'’
                          
                          
     WASI                 ‘'wasi'’
                          

     On Unix systems not listed in the table, the value is the
     lowercased OS name as returned by ‘uname -s’, with the first part
     of the version as returned by ‘uname -r’ appended, e.g.  ‘'sunos5'’
     or ‘'freebsd8'’, 'at the time when Python was built'.  Unless you
     want to test for a specific system version, it is therefore
     recommended to use the following idiom:

          if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'):
              # FreeBSD-specific code here...

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: On Linux, *note sys.platform: a7d.
     doesn't contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'linux'’,
     instead of ‘'linux2'’ or ‘'linux3'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: On AIX, *note sys.platform: a7d.
     doesn't contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’,
     instead of ‘'aix5'’ or ‘'aix7'’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Android, *note sys.platform: a7d.
     now returns ‘'android'’ rather than ‘'linux'’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note os.name: 2ac0. has a coarser granularity.  *note os.uname():
     10f8. gives system-dependent version information.

     Le module *note platform: a9. fournit des vérifications détaillées
     pour l'identité du système.

 -- Données: sys.platlibdir

     Nom du dossier de la bibliothèque spécifique à la plateforme.  Il
     est utilisé pour construire le chemin de vers la bibliothèque
     standard et les chemins vers les modules d'extensions installés.

     C'est égal à ‘"lib"’ sur la plupart des plateformes.  Sur Fedora et
     SuSE, c'est égal à ‘"lib64"’ sur les plateformes 64-bits qui
     renvoient les chemins ‘sys.path’ suivants (où ‘X.Y’ et la version
     ‘majeure.mineur’ de Python) :

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/’ : Bibliothèque standard (comme ‘os.py’
          du module *note os: a0.)

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/’ : Modules d'extension C de
          la bibliothèque standard (comme le module *note errno: 56, le
          nom du fichier exact est spécifique à la plateforme)

        * ‘/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ (toujours utiliser ‘lib’,
          et non *note sys.platlibdir: 927.) : modules tiers

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ : Modules d'extension C
          de paquets tiers

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: sys.prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the
     default is ‘/usr/local’.  This can be set at build time with the
     *note -prefix: 1d1f. argument to the ‘configure’ script.  See *note
     Installation paths: 67c. for derived paths.

          Note: Si a *note environnement virtuel: 42cf. est activé,
          cette valeur sera changée par ‘site py’ pour pointer vers
          l'environnement virtuel.  La valeur donnée au moment de la
          compilation de Python sera toujours disponible, dans *note
          base_prefix: 3e6.

 -- Données: sys.ps1
 -- Données: sys.ps2

     Chaînes spécifiant l'invite primaire et secondaire de
     l'interpréteur.  Celles-ci ne sont définies que si l'interpréteur
     est en mode interactif.  Dans ce cas, leurs valeurs initiales sont
     ‘'>>>'’ et ‘'...'’.  Si un objet qui n'est pas une chaîne est
     assigné à l'une ou l'autre variable, sa méthode *note str(): 437.
     sera appelée à chaque fois que l'interpréteur se prépare à lire une
     nouvelle commande interactive, c'est donc utilisable pour
     implémenter une invite dynamique.

 -- Fonction: sys.setdlopenflags (n)

     Set the flags used by the interpreter for ‘dlopen()’ calls, such as
     when the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things,
     this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a
     module, if called as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(0)’.  To share symbols
     across extension modules, call as
     ‘sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)’.  Symbolic names for the flag
     values can be found in the *note os: a0. module (‘RTLD_XXX’
     constants, e.g.  *note os.RTLD_LAZY: 10fa.).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

 -- Fonction: sys.set_int_max_str_digits (maxdigits)

     Set the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5e1.
     used by this interpreter.  See also *note get_int_max_str_digits():
     223a.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: sys.setprofile (profilefunc)

     Définit la fonction de profilage du système, qui vous permet
     d'implémenter un profileur de code source Python en Python.  Voir
     le chapitre *note The Python Profilers: 421a. pour plus
     d'informations sur le profileur Python.  La fonction de profilage
     du système est appelée de la même façon que la fonction trace du
     système (voir *note settrace(): 14b7.), mais elle est appelée pour
     des évènements différents, par exemple elle n'est pas appelée à
     chaque ligne de code exécutée (seulement sur appel et retours, mais
     l'événement pour les retours est appelé même en cas d'exception).
     Cette fonction est locale au fil d'exécution, et il n'existe aucun
     moyen, du point de vue du profileur, de prendre conscience des
     changements de contextes entre fils d'exécution, ça n'a donc aucun
     sens d'utiliser cette fonction dans un contexte 'multithread'.  Sa
     valeur de retour n'est pas utilisée, elle peut simplement renvoyer
     ‘None’.

          Note: The same tracing mechanism is used for ‘setprofile()’ as
          *note settrace(): 14b7.  To trace calls with ‘setprofile()’
          inside a tracing function (e.g.  in a debugger breakpoint),
          see *note call_tracing(): 17ef.

     Les fonctions de traçage doivent avoir trois arguments : 'frame',
     'event', et 'arg'.  'frame' est la 'stack frame' actuelle.  'event'
     est une chaîne de caractères pouvant valoir : ‘'call'’, ‘'return'’,
     ‘'c_call'’, ‘'c_return'’ ou ‘'c_exception'’.  'arg' dépend du type
     de l'évènement.

     Les événements ont la signification suivante :

     ‘'call'’

          Une fonction est appelée (ou Python entre dans un autre bloc
          de code).  La fonction de traçage est appelée, 'arg' est
          ‘None’.

     ‘'return'’

          La fonction (ou un autre type de bloc) est sur le point de se
          terminer.  La fonction de traçage est appelée, 'arg' est la
          valeur qui sera renvoyée, ou ‘None’ si l'événement est causé
          par la levée d'une exception.

     ‘'c_call'’

          Une fonction C est sur le point d'être appelée.  C'est soit
          une fonction d'extension ou une fonction native.  'arg'
          représente la fonction C.

     ‘'c_return'’

          Une fonction C a renvoyé une valeur.  'arg' représente la
          fonction C.

     ‘'c_exception'’

          Une fonction C a levé une exception.  'arg' représente la
          fonction C.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘sys.setprofile’ sans
     arguments.

 -- Fonction: sys.setrecursionlimit (limit)

     Définit la profondeur maximale de la pile de l'interpréteur Python
     à 'limit'.  Cette limite empêche une récursion infinie de provoquer
     un débordement de la pile C et ainsi un crash de Python.

     La limite haute dépend de la plate-forme.  Un utilisateur pourrait
     avoir besoin de remonter la limite, lorsque son programme nécessite
     une récursion profonde, si sa plate-forme le permet.  Cela doit
     être fait avec précaution, car une limite trop élevée peut conduire
     à un crash.

     Si la nouvelle limite est plus basse que la profondeur actuelle,
     une *note RecursionError: d5b. est levée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5.1: Une *note RecursionError: d5b. est
     maintenant levée si la nouvelle limite est plus basse que la
     profondeur de récursion actuelle.

 -- Fonction: sys.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Configure l'intervalle de bascule des fils d'exécution de
     l'interpréteur (en secondes).  Ce nombre à virgule flottante
     détermine la durée idéale allouée aux fils d'exécution en cour
     d'exécution (durée appelée 'timeslices').  Notez que la durée
     observée peut être plus grande, typiquement si des fonctions ou
     méthodes prenant beaucoup de temps sont utilisées.  Aussi, le choix
     du fil d'exécution prenant la main à la fin de l'intervalle revient
     au système d'exploitation.  L'interpréteur n'a pas son propre
     ordonnanceur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: sys.settrace (tracefunc)

     Définit la fonction de traçage du système, qui vous permet
     d'implémenter un débogueur de code source Python en Python.  Cette
     fonction est locale au fil d'exécution courant.  Pour qu'un
     débogueur puisse gérer plusieurs fils d'exécution, il doit
     enregistrer sa fonction en appelant *note settrace(): 14b7. pour
     chaque fil d'exécution qu'il souhaite surveiller ou utilisez *note
     threading.settrace(): 834.

     Les fonctions de traçage doivent avoir trois arguments : 'frame',
     'event', et 'arg'.  'frame' est la 'stack frame' actuelle.  'event'
     est une chaîne de caractères pouvant valoir : ‘'call'’, ‘'line'’,
     ‘'return'’, ‘'exception'’ ou ‘'opcode'’.  'arg' dépend du type de
     l'évènement.

     La fonction de traçage est appelée (avec 'event' à ‘'call'’) à
     chaque fois que l'interpréteur entre dans un nouveau 'scope'.  Elle
     doit renvoyer une référence à une fonction de traçage locale à
     utiliser pour ce 'scope', ou ‘None’ si le 'Scope' ne doit pas être
     tracé.

     The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to
     another function which would then be used as the local trace
     function for the scope.

     Si une erreur se produit dans la fonction de trace, elle sera
     désactivée, tout comme si ‘settrace(None)’ avait été appelée.

          Note: Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function
          (e.g.  a function set by ‘settrace()’).  For recursive tracing
          see *note call_tracing(): 17ef.

     Les événements ont la signification suivante :

     ‘'call'’

          Une fonction est appelée (un un bloc de code).  La fonction de
          traçage globale est appelée, 'arg' est ‘None’, la valeur
          renvoyée donne la fonction de traçage locale.

     ‘'line'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or
          re-execute the condition of a loop.  The local trace function
          is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for a
          detailed explanation of how this works.  Per-line events may
          be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: bcb.
          to *note False: b27. on that *note frame: 6cc.

     ‘'return'’

          La fonction (ou un autre type de bloc) est sur le point de se
          terminer.  La fonction de traçage locale est appelée, 'arg'
          est la valeur qui sera renvoyée, ou ‘None’ si l'événement est
          causé par la levée d'une exception.  La valeur renvoyée par la
          fonction de traçage est ignorée.

     ‘'exception'’

          Une exception est survenue.  La fonction de traçage locale est
          appelée, 'arg' est le triplet ‘(exception, valeur,
          traceback)’, la valeur renvoyée spécifie la nouvelle fonction
          de traçage locale.

     ‘'opcode'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see *note
          dis: 38. for opcode details).  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  Per-opcode events are not emitted by
          default: they must be explicitly requested by setting *note
          f_trace_opcodes: bcc. to *note True: bfd. on the *note frame:
          6cc.

     Remarquez que, comme une exception se propage au travers de toute
     chaîne d'appelants, un événement ‘'exception'’ est généré à chaque
     niveau.

     Pour une utilisation plus fine, il est possible de définir une
     fonction de traçage en assignant ‘frame.f_trace = tracefunc’
     explicitement, plutôt que de s'appuyer sur le fait qu'elle soit
     définie indirectement par la valeur de retour d'une fonction trace
     déjà installée.  Cela est aussi demandé pour l'activation de la
     fonction de traçage dans le cadre, ce que *note settrace(): 14b7.
     ne fait pas.  Notez que pour que cela fonctionne, une fonction
     globale de traçage doit avoir été installée avec *note settrace():
     14b7. afin d'activer le mécanisme de traçage au moment de
     l'exécution, mais il n'est pas nécessaire que ce soit la même
     fonction de traçage (Par exemple, cela pourrait être une fonction
     de traçage avec peu de surcharge qui retourne simplement ‘None’
     pour se désactiver immédiatement à chaque cadre).

     Pour plus d'informations sur les objets code et objets représentant
     une 'frame' de la pile, consultez *note Hiérarchie des types
     standards: 1ea2.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘sys.settrace’ sans
     arguments.

     La fonction *note settrace(): 14b7. est destinée uniquement à
     l'implémentation de débogueurs, de profileurs, d'outils d'analyse
     de couverture et d'autres outils similaires.  Son comportement fait
     partie de l'implémentation, plutôt que de la définition du langage,
     et peut donc ne pas être disponible dans toutes les implémentations
     de Python.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ‘'opcode'’ event type added; *note
     f_trace_lines: bcb. and *note f_trace_opcodes: bcc. attributes
     added to frames

 -- Fonction: sys.set_asyncgen_hooks ([firstiter] [, finalizer])

     Accepte deux arguments optionnels nommés, qui sont appelables qui
     acceptent un *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4329. comme
     argument.  L'appelable 'firsttiter' sera appelé lorsqu'un
     générateur asynchrone sera itéré pour la première fois, et
     l'appelable 'finalizer' sera appelé lorsqu'un générateur asynchrone
     est sur le point d'être détruit.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter’ sans arguments.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer’ sans arguments.

     Deux événements d'audit sont levés car l'API sous-jacente consiste
     de deux appels, dont chacun doit lever son propre événement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 525(14) pour plus de
     détails.  Pour un exemple de 'finalizer', voir l'implémentation de
     ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ dans
     Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(15)

          Note: Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (voir la
          PEP 411(16) pour plus d'informations.)

 -- Fonction: sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth (depth)

     Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking.  When
     enabled, the ‘cr_origin’ attribute on coroutine objects will
     contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
     describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
     with the most recent call first.  When disabled, ‘cr_origin’ will
     be ‘None’.

     Pour l'activer, passez une valeur 'depth' supérieure à zéro ; cela
     définit le nombre de cadres d'exécution dont les informations sont
     capturées.  Pour le désactiver, mettez 'depth' à zéro.

     Ce paramètre est spécifique au fil d'exécution courant.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

          Note: Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (Voir la
          PEP 411(17) pour plus d'informations.)  Utilisez la uniquement
          à des fins de débogage.

 -- Fonction: sys.activate_stack_trampoline (backend, /)

     Activate the stack profiler trampoline 'backend'.  The only
     supported backend is ‘"perf"’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

        * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18d.

        * ‘https://perf.wiki.kernel.org’

 -- Fonction: sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline ()

     Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend.

     If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: sys.is_stack_trampoline_active ()

     Return ‘True’ if a stack profiler trampoline is active.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding ()

     Changes the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528. to
     'mbcs' and 'replace' respectively, for consistency with versions of
     Python prior to 3.6.

     Équivaut à définir la variable d'environnement *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. avant de lancer Python.

     See also *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): cd6.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

          Note: Changing the filesystem encoding after Python startup is
          risky because the old fsencoding or paths encoded by the old
          fsencoding may be cached somewhere.  Use *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 529(18) pour plus
     d'informations.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.16: Use
     *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. instead.

 -- Données: sys.stdin
 -- Données: sys.stdout
 -- Données: sys.stderr

     *note objets fichiers: 11a2. utilisés par l'interpréteur pour
     l'entrée standard, la sortie standard et la sortie d'erreurs :

        * ‘stdin’ est utilisé pour toutes les entrées interactives (y
          compris les appels à *note input(): 12b8.)

        * ‘stdout’ est utilisé pour la sortie de *note print(): f62, des
          *note expression: 1f3e. et pour les invites de *note input():
          12b8. ;

        * Les invites de l'interpréteur et ses messages d'erreur sont
          écrits sur ‘stderr’.

     Ces flux sont de classiques *note fichiers texte: 1c44. comme ceux
     renvoyés par la fonction *note open(): 508.  Leurs paramètres sont
     choisis comme suit :

        * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 39a. and *note PyConfig.stdio_errors:
          4337.

          On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.
          Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the
          system locale encoding (i.e.  the ANSI codepage).  Non-console
          character devices such as NUL (i.e.  where ‘isatty()’ returns
          ‘True’) use the value of the console input and output
          codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and
          stdout/stderr.  This defaults to the system *note locale
          encoding: 23f. if the process is not initially attached to a
          console.

          Le comportement spécial de la console peut être redéfini en
          assignant la variable d'environnement
          'PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO' avant de démarrer Python.  Dans ce
          cas, les pages de code de la console sont utilisées comme pour
          tout autre périphérique de caractères.

          Sous toutes les plateformes, vous pouvez redéfinir le codage
          de caractères en assignant la variable d'environnement *note
          PYTHONIOENCODING: ff5. avant de démarrer Python ou en
          utilisant la nouvelle option de ligne de commande *note -X:
          175. ‘utf8’ et la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONUTF8:
          ac8.  Toutefois, pour la console Windows, cela s'applique
          uniquement lorsque *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c4b. est
          également défini.

        * When interactive, the ‘stdout’ stream is line-buffered.
          Otherwise, it is block-buffered like regular text files.  The
          ‘stderr’ stream is line-buffered in both cases.  You can make
          both streams unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 1962.
          command-line option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
          1963. environment variable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le ‘stderr’ non interactif est
     maintenant mis en mémoire-tampon ligne par ligne plutôt
     qu'entièrement.

          Note: Pour écrire ou lire des données binaires depuis ou vers
          les flux standards, utilisez l'objet sous-jacent *note buffer:
          1282.  Par exemple, pour écrire des octets sur *note stdout:
          ac6, utilisez ‘sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')’.

          However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in
          which context its code will be executed), be aware that the
          standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like
          *note io.StringIO: f14. which do not support the ‘buffer’
          attribute.

 -- Données: sys.__stdin__
 -- Données: sys.__stdout__
 -- Données: sys.__stderr__

     Ces objets contiennent les valeurs d'origine de ‘stdin’, ‘stderr’
     et ‘stdout’ tel que présentes au début du programme.  Ils sont
     utilisés pendant la finalisation, et peuvent être utiles pour
     écrire dans le vrai flux standard, peu importe si l'objet
     ‘sys.std*’ a été redirigé.

     Ils peuvent également être utilisés pour restaurer les entrées /
     sorties d'origine, au cas où ils auraient été écrasés par des
     objets cassé, cependant la bonne façon de faire serait de
     sauvegarder explicitement les flux avant de les remplacer et ainsi
     pouvoir les restaurer.

          Note: Dans certaines cas, ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ et ‘stderr’ ainsi
          que les valeurs initiales ‘__stdin__’, ‘__stdout__’ et
          ‘__stderr__’ peuvent être ‘None’.  C'est typiquement le cas
          pour les applications graphiques sur Windows qui ne sont pas
          connectées à une console, ou les applications Python démarrées
          avec ‘pythonw’.

 -- Données: sys.stdlib_module_names

     A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library
     modules.

     It is the same on all platforms.  Modules which are not available
     on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also
     listed.  All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen
     and extension modules.  Test modules are excluded.

     For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and
     sub-modules are not listed.  For example, the ‘email’ package is
     listed, but the ‘email.mime’ sub-package and the ‘email.message’
     sub-module are not listed.

     See also the *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1c1d. list.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Données: sys.thread_info

     Un *note named tuple: 63b. contenant des informations sur
     l'implémentation des fils d'exécution.

      -- Attribut: thread_info.name

          The name of the thread implementation:

             * ‘"nt"’: Windows threads

             * ‘"pthread"’: POSIX threads

             * ‘"pthread-stubs"’: stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly
               platforms without threading support)

             * ‘"solaris"’: Solaris threads

      -- Attribut: thread_info.lock

          The name of the lock implementation:

             * ‘"semaphore"’: a lock uses a semaphore

             * ‘"mutex+cond"’: a lock uses a mutex and a condition
               variable

             * ‘None’ si cette information n'est pas connue

      -- Attribut: thread_info.version

          The name and version of the thread library.  It is a string,
          or ‘None’ if this information is unknown.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: sys.tracebacklimit

     Lorsque cette variable contient un nombre entier, elle détermine la
     profondeur maximum de la pile d'appels affichée lorsqu'une
     exception non gérée se produit.  La valeur par défaut est ‘1000’,
     lorsque cette valeur est égale ou inférieure à ‘0’, la pile
     d'appels n'est pas affichée, seul seuls le type et la valeur de
     l'exception sont le sont.

 -- Fonction: sys.unraisablehook (unraisable, /)

     Gère une exception 'non levable' ('unraisable' en anglais)

     Appelé lorsqu'une exception s'est produite mais qu'il n'y a aucun
     moyen pour Python de la gérer.  Par exemple, lorsqu'un destructeur
     lève une exception ou durant le passage du ramasse-miettes (*note
     gc.collect(): a2a.).

     Les arguments 'unraisable' ont la signification suivante :

        * ‘exc_type’: Exception type.

        * ‘exc_value’: Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘exc_traceback’: Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘err_msg’: Error message, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘object’: Object causing the exception, can be ‘None’.

     The default hook formats ‘err_msg’ and ‘object’ as: ‘f'{err_msg}:
     {object!r}'’; use "Exception ignored in" error message if ‘err_msg’
     is ‘None’.

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. peut être remplacé pour contrôler
     comment les exceptions 'non levables' ('unraisable' en anglais)
     sont gérées.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note excepthook(): 7f7. which handles uncaught exceptions.

          Avertissement: Storing ‘exc_value’ using a custom hook can
          create a reference cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to
          break the reference cycle when the exception is no longer
          needed.

          Storing ‘object’ using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is
          set to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing
          ‘object’ after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting
          objects.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.unraisablehook’ with arguments 'hook',
     'unraisable' when an exception that cannot be handled occurs.  The
     'unraisable' object is the same as what will be passed to the hook.
     If no hook has been set, 'hook' may be ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: sys.version

     Une chaîne contenant le numéro de version de l'interpréteur Python,
     ainsi que d'autres informations comme le numéro de compilation et
     le compilateur utilisé.  Cette chaîne est affichée lorsque
     l'interpréteur est démarré en mode interactif.  N'essayez pas d'en
     extraire des informations de version, utilisez plutôt *note
     version_info: 68d. et les fonctions fournies par le module *note
     platform: a9.

 -- Données: sys.api_version

     La version de l'API C pour cet interpréteur.  Les développeurs
     peuvent trouver cette information utile en déboguant des conflits
     de versions entre Python et des modules d'extension.

 -- Données: sys.version_info

     Un quintuplet contenant les composants du numéro de version :
     'major', 'minor', 'micro', 'releaselevel' et 'serial'.  Toutes les
     valeurs sauf 'releaselevel' sont des nombres entiers.
     'releaselevel' peut valoir ‘'alpha'’, ‘'beta'’, ‘'candidate'’, ou
     ‘'final'’.  La valeur de ‘version_info’ pour Python 2.0 est ‘(2, 0,
     0, 'final', 0)’.  Ces attributs sont aussi accessibles par leur
     nom, ainsi ‘sys.version_info[0]’ est équivalent à
     ‘sys.version_info.major’, et ainsi de suite.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout des attributs nommés.

 -- Données: sys.warnoptions

     C'est une spécificité de l'implémentation de la gestion des
     avertissements.  Ne modifiez pas cette valeur.  Reportez-vous au
     module *note warnings: 111. pour plus d'informations sur le
     gestionnaire d'avertissements.

 -- Données: sys.winver

     The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms.
     This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value
     is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python
     interpreter.  It is provided in the *note sys: d8. module for
     informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the
     registry keys used by Python.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- Données: sys.monitoring

     Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks
     and controlling monitoring events.  See *note sys.monitoring: d9.
     for details.

 -- Données: sys._xoptions

     Un dictionnaire des différentes options spécifiques à
     l'implémentation passés en ligne de commande via l'option *note -X:
     175.  Aux noms des options correspondent soit leur valeur, si elle
     est donnée explicitement, soit à *note True: bfd.  Exemple :

          $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
          Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
          [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
          Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
          >>> import sys
          >>> sys._xoptions
          {'a': 'b', 'c': True}

     C'est un moyen spécifique à CPython pour accéder aux options
     passées via l'option *note -X: 175.  D'autres implémentations
     pourraient les exposer par d'autres moyens, ou pas du tout.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Citations
.........

(C99) ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  "Programming languages - C." A public draft of
this standard is available at
‘https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (15) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring,  Next: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information,  Prev: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.2 ‘sys.monitoring’ -- Execution event monitoring
-----------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

__________________________________________________________________

     Note: *note sys.monitoring: d9. is a namespace within the *note
     sys: d8. module, not an independent module, so there is no need to
     ‘import sys.monitoring’, simply ‘import sys’ and then use
     ‘sys.monitoring’.

This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary
to activate and control event monitoring.

As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools
that monitor execution.  The *note sys.monitoring: d9. namespace
provides means to receive callbacks when events of interest occur.

The monitoring API consists of three components:

   * *note Tool identifiers: 4340.

   * *note Events: 4341.

   * *note Callbacks: 4342.

* Menu:

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Tool identifiers,  Next: Events,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.1 Tool identifiers
.........................

A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name.  Tool
identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each
other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time.
Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor
each other.  This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an
identifier.  Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

* Menu:

* Registering and using tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Registering and using tools,  Up: Tool identifiers

5.30.2.2 Registering and using tools
....................................

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.use_tool_id (tool_id: int, name: str, /) ->
          None

     Must be called before 'tool_id' can be used.  'tool_id' must be in
     the range 0 to 5 inclusive.  Raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     'tool_id' is in use.

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.free_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None

     Should be called once a tool no longer requires 'tool_id'.

     Note: *note free_tool_id(): 4345. will not disable global or local
     events associated with 'tool_id', nor will it unregister any
     callback functions.  This function is only intended to be used to
     notify the VM that the particular 'tool_id' is no longer in use.

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.get_tool (tool_id: int, /) -> str | None

     Returns the name of the tool if 'tool_id' is in use, otherwise it
     returns ‘None’.  'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the
following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier:

     sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0
     sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1
     sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2
     sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5


File: python.info,  Node: Events,  Next: Turning events on and off,  Prev: Tool identifiers,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.3 Events
...............

The following events are supported:

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH

     A conditional branch is taken (or not).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.CALL

     A call in Python code (event occurs before the call).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE

     An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions
     (event occurs after the exit).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN

     Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs
     after the return).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED

     An exception is handled.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION

     A VM instruction is about to be executed.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.JUMP

     An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.LINE

     An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line
     number from the preceding instruction.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME

     Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine
     functions), except for ‘throw()’ calls.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN

     Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the
     return, the callee's frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_START

     Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the
     callee's frame will be on the stack)

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW

     A Python function is resumed by a ‘throw()’ call.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND

     Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD

     Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield,
     the callee's frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RAISE

     An exception is raised, except those that cause a *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 4354. event.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE

     An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a *note
     finally: 9ba. block.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION

     An artificial *note StopIteration: bea. is raised; see *note the
     STOP_ITERATION event: 4356.

More events may be added in the future.

These events are attributes of the ‘sys.monitoring.events’ namespace.
Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant.  To define a
set of events, simply bitwise OR the individual events together.  For
example, to specify both *note PY_RETURN: 434f. and *note PY_START:
4350. events, use the expression ‘PY_RETURN | PY_START’.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS

     An alias for ‘0’ so users can do explicit comparisons like:

          if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
              ...

Events are divided into three groups:

* Menu:

* Local events::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::


File: python.info,  Node: Local events,  Next: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.4 Local events
.....................

Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and
happen at clearly defined locations.  All local events can be disabled.
The local events are:

   * *note PY_START: 4350.

   * *note PY_RESUME: 434e.

   * *note PY_RETURN: 434f.

   * *note PY_YIELD: 4353.

   * *note CALL: 1601.

   * *note LINE: 434d.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 434b.

   * *note JUMP: 434c.

   * *note BRANCH: 4347.

   * *note STOP_ITERATION: 4354.


File: python.info,  Node: Ancillary events,  Next: Other events,  Prev: Local events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.5 Ancillary events
.........................

Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled
by another event:

   * *note C_RAISE: 4348.

   * *note C_RETURN: 4349.

The *note C_RETURN: 4349. and *note C_RAISE: 4348. events are controlled
by the *note CALL: 1601. event.  *note C_RETURN: 4349. and *note
C_RAISE: 4348. events will only be seen if the corresponding *note CALL:
1601. event is being monitored.


File: python.info,  Node: Other events,  Next: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.6 Other events
.....................

Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the
program and cannot be individually disabled.

The other events that can be monitored are:

   * *note PY_THROW: 4351.

   * *note PY_UNWIND: 4352.

   * *note RAISE: 15aa.

   * *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 434a.


File: python.info,  Node: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Other events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.7 The STOP_ITERATION event
.................................

PEP 380(1) specifies that a *note StopIteration: bea. exception is
raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine.  However,
this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python
implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless
it would be visible to other code.

To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down
generators and coroutines, the *note STOP_ITERATION: 4354. event is
provided.  *note STOP_ITERATION: 4354. can be locally disabled, unlike
*note RAISE: 15aa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values


File: python.info,  Node: Turning events on and off,  Next: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Events,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.8 Turning events on and off
..................................

In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding
callback must be registered.  Events can be turned on or off by setting
the events either globally or for a particular code object.

* Menu:

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting events globally,  Next: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.30.2.9 Setting events globally
................................

Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being
monitored.

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.get_events (tool_id: int, /) -> int

     Returns the ‘int’ representing all the active events.

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.set_events (tool_id: int, event_set: int,
          /) -> None

     Activates all events which are set in 'event_set'.  Raises a *note
     ValueError: 1ff. if 'tool_id' is not in use.

No events are active by default.


File: python.info,  Node: Per code object events,  Next: Disabling events,  Prev: Setting events globally,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.30.2.10 Per code object events
................................

Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis.  The functions
defined below which accept a *note types.CodeType: 2de. should be
prepared to accept a look-alike object from functions which are not
defined in Python (see *note Monitoring C API: 15b.).

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.get_local_events (tool_id: int, code:
          CodeType, /) -> int

     Returns all the local events for 'code'

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.set_local_events (tool_id: int, code:
          CodeType, event_set: int, /) -> None

     Activates all the local events for 'code' which are set in
     'event_set'.  Raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if 'tool_id' is not
     in use.

Local events add to global events, but do not mask them.  In other
words, all global events will trigger for a code object, regardless of
the local events.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling events,  Prev: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.30.2.11 Disabling events
..........................

 -- Données: sys.monitoring.DISABLE

     A special value that can be returned from a callback function to
     disable events for the current code location.

Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning
*note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 4364. from a callback function.  This does
not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the
same event.

Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high
performance monitoring.  For example, a program can be run under a
debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except
for a few breakpoints.

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.restart_events () -> None

     Enable all the events that were disabled by *note
     sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 4364. for all tools.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Turning events on and off,  Up: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.12 Registering callback functions
........................................

To register a callable for events call

 -- Fonction: sys.monitoring.register_callback (tool_id: int, event:
          int, func: Callable | None, /) -> Callable | None

     Registers the callable 'func' for the 'event' with the given
     'tool_id'

     If another callback was registered for the given 'tool_id' and
     'event', it is unregistered and returned.  Otherwise *note
     register_callback(): 4367. returns ‘None’.

Functions can be unregistered by calling
‘sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)’.

Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.

Registering or unregistering a callback function will generate a *note
sys.audit(): 1573. event.

* Menu:

* Callback function arguments::


File: python.info,  Node: Callback function arguments,  Up: Registering callback functions

5.30.2.13 Callback function arguments
.....................................

 -- Données: sys.monitoring.MISSING

     A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate
     that there are no arguments to the call.

When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called.
Different events will provide the callback function with different
arguments, as follows:

   * *note PY_START: 4350. and *note PY_RESUME: 434e.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note PY_RETURN: 434f. and *note PY_YIELD: 4353.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note CALL: 1601, *note C_RAISE: 4348. and *note C_RETURN: 4349.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object | MISSING) -> DISABLE | Any

     If there are no arguments, 'arg0' is set to *note
     sys.monitoring.MISSING: 4369.

   * *note RAISE: 15aa, *note RERAISE: 4355, *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED:
     434a, *note PY_UNWIND: 4352, *note PY_THROW: 4351. and *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 4354.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note LINE: 434d.:

          func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note BRANCH: 4347. and *note JUMP: 434c.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

     Note that the 'destination_offset' is where the code will next
     execute.  For an untaken branch this will be the offset of the
     instruction following the branch.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 434b.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information,  Next: builtins --- Built-in objects,  Prev: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.3 ‘sysconfig’ -- Provide access to Python's configuration information
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/sysconfig(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sysconfig: da. module provides access to Python's
configuration information like the list of installation paths and the
configuration variables relevant for the current platform.

* Menu:

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* Installation path functions::
* Autres fonctions: Autres fonctions<3>.
* Using sysconfig as a script::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sysconfig


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration variables,  Next: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.1 Configuration variables
................................

A Python distribution contains a ‘Makefile’ and a ‘pyconfig.h’ header
file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and
third-party C extensions compiled using ‘setuptools’.

*note sysconfig: da. puts all variables found in these files in a
dictionary that can be accessed using *note get_config_vars(): 1017. or
*note get_config_var(): 1016.

Notice that on Windows, it's a much smaller set.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_config_vars (*args)

     With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration
     variables relevant for the current platform.

     With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up
     each argument in the configuration variable dictionary.

     For each argument, if the value is not found, return ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_config_var (name)

     Return the value of a single variable 'name'.  Equivalent to
     ‘get_config_vars().get(name)’.

     If 'name' is not found, return ‘None’.

Example of usage:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
     0
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
     '/usr/local/lib'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
     ['ar', 'g++']


File: python.info,  Node: Installation paths,  Next: User scheme,  Prev: Configuration variables,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.2 Installation paths
...........................

Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the
platform and on the installation options.  These schemes are stored in
*note sysconfig: da. under unique identifiers based on the value
returned by *note os.name: 2ac0.  The schemes are used by package
installers to determine where to copy files to.

Python currently supports nine schemes:

   - 'posix_prefix': scheme for POSIX platforms like Linux or macOS.
     This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is
     installed.

   - 'posix_home': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'home' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under a specific home
     prefix.

   - 'posix_user': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'user' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under the user's home
     directory (*note site.USER_BASE: 12fc.).

   - 'posix_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 110. on
     POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as 'posix_prefix'.

   - 'nt': scheme for Windows.  This is the default scheme used when
     Python or a component is installed.

   - 'nt_user': scheme for Windows, when the 'user' option is used.

   - 'nt_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 110. on
     Windows; by default it is the same as 'nt'.

   - 'venv': a scheme with values from either 'posix_venv' or 'nt_venv'
     depending on the platform Python runs on.

   - 'osx_framework_user': scheme for macOS, when the 'user' option is
     used.

Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a
unique identifier.  Python currently uses eight paths:

   - 'stdlib': directory containing the standard Python library files
     that are not platform-specific.

   - 'platstdlib': directory containing the standard Python library
     files that are platform-specific.

   - 'platlib': directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.

   - 'purelib': directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files
     ('pure' Python).

   - 'include': directory for non-platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'platinclude': directory for platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'scripts': directory for script files.

   - 'data': directory for data files.


File: python.info,  Node: User scheme,  Next: Home scheme,  Prev: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.3 User scheme
....................

This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users
that don't have write permission to the global site-packages directory
or don't want to install into it.

Files will be installed into subdirectories of *note site.USER_BASE:
12fc. (written as ‘`userbase'’ hereafter).  This scheme installs pure
Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as
*note site.USER_SITE: 1cf2.).

* Menu:

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_user,  Next: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.30.3.4 ‘posix_user’
.....................

Path               Dossier d'installation
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'données'          ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt_user,  Next: osx_framework_user,  Prev: posix_user,  Up: User scheme

5.30.3.5 ‘nt_user’
..................

Path               Dossier d'installation
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'données'          ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: osx_framework_user,  Prev: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.30.3.6 ‘osx_framework_user’
.............................

Path               Dossier d'installation
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'données'          ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Home scheme,  Next: Prefix scheme,  Prev: User scheme,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.7 Home scheme
....................

L’idée derrière le « schéma home » est que vous compilez et maintenez un
espace personnel de modules Python.  Le nom de ce schéma vient de l’idée
du dossier « home » sur Unix, vu qu’il n’est pas rare pour un
utilisateur UNIX d'agencer son dossier 'home' avec la même disposition
que ‘/usr/’ ou ‘/usr/local/’.  Ce schéma peut être utilisé par n’importe
qui, quel que soit le système d’exploitation.

* Menu:

* posix_home::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_home,  Up: Home scheme

5.30.3.8 ‘posix_home’
.....................

Path               Dossier d'installation
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`home'/bin’
                   
                   
'données'          ‘`home'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix scheme,  Next: Installation path functions,  Prev: Home scheme,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.9 Prefix scheme
......................

Le schéma de préfixe est utile quand vous voulez une installation de
Python pour faire la compilation/l’installation (c.-à-d.  exécuter le
script 'setup'), mais utiliser les modules tiers d’une installation
Python différente (ou quelque chose qui ressemble à une installation
Python différente).  Si cela vous semble inhabituel, ça l’est — c’est
pourquoi les schémas 'user' et 'home' viennent avant.  Cependant, il y a
au moins deux cas connus où le schéma 'prefix' est utile.

First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in ‘/usr’,
rather than the more traditional ‘/usr/local’.  This is entirely
appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of "the system" rather
than a local add-on.  However, if you are installing Python modules from
source, you probably want them to go in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’
rather than ‘/usr/lib/python2.`X'’.

Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write
to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for
example, the Python interpreter accessed as ‘/usr/local/bin/python’
might search for modules in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’, but those
modules would have to be installed to, say,
‘/mnt/`@server'/export/lib/python2.`X'’.

* Menu:

* posix_prefix::
* nt::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_prefix,  Next: nt,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.30.3.10 ‘posix_prefix’
........................

Path               Dossier d'installation
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'/bin’
                   
                   
'données'          ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt,  Prev: posix_prefix,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.30.3.11 ‘nt’
..............

Path               Dossier d'installation
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'données'          ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Installation path functions,  Next: Autres fonctions<3>,  Prev: Prefix scheme,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.12 Installation path functions
.....................................

*note sysconfig: da. provides some functions to determine these
installation paths.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_scheme_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in *note
     sysconfig: da.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_default_scheme ()

     Return the default scheme name for the current platform.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10: This function was previously named
     ‘_get_default_scheme()’ and considered an implementation detail.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual
     environment, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme (key)

     Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified
     by 'key'.

     'key' must be either ‘"prefix"’, ‘"home"’, or ‘"user"’.

     The return value is a scheme name listed in *note
     get_scheme_names(): 437a.  It can be passed to *note sysconfig: da.
     functions that take a 'scheme' argument, such as *note get_paths():
     1224.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual
     environment and ‘key="prefix"’, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes ()

     Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current
     platform.  Python implementers and redistributors may add their
     preferred schemes to the ‘_INSTALL_SCHEMES’ module-level global
     value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to
     e.g.  provide different schemes for system and language package
     managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with
     those by the other.

     End users should not use this function, but *note
     get_default_scheme(): 17e0. and *note get_preferred_scheme(): 67d.
     instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_path_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in
     *note sysconfig: da.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_path (name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return an installation path corresponding to the path 'name', from
     the install scheme named 'scheme'.

     'name' has to be a value from the list returned by *note
     get_path_names(): 437c.

     *note sysconfig: da. stores installation paths corresponding to
     each path name, for each platform, with variables to be expanded.
     For instance the 'stdlib' path for the 'nt' scheme is:
     ‘{base}/Lib’.

     *note get_path(): 130e. will use the variables returned by *note
     get_config_vars(): 1017. to expand the path.  All variables have
     default values for each platform so one may call this function and
     get the default value.

     If 'scheme' is provided, it must be a value from the list returned
     by *note get_scheme_names(): 437a.  Otherwise, the default scheme
     for the current platform is used.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary returned by *note get_config_vars():
     1017.

     If 'expand' is set to ‘False’, the path will not be expanded using
     the variables.

     If 'name' is not found, raise a *note KeyError: 33a.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_paths ([scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding
     to an installation scheme.  See *note get_path(): 130e. for more
     information.

     If 'scheme' is not provided, will use the default scheme for the
     current platform.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary used to expand the paths.

     If 'expand' is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.

     If 'scheme' is not an existing scheme, *note get_paths(): 1224.
     will raise a *note KeyError: 33a.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres fonctions<3>,  Next: Using sysconfig as a script,  Prev: Installation path functions,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.13 Autres fonctions
..........................

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_python_version ()

     Return the ‘MAJOR.MINOR’ Python version number as a string.
     Similar to ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_platform ()

     Return a string that identifies the current platform.

     This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build
     directories and platform-specific built distributions.  Typically
     includes the OS name and version and the architecture (as supplied
     by *note os.uname(): 10f8.), although the exact information
     included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version
     isn't particularly important.

     Exemples de valeurs renvoyées :

        - linux-i586

        - linux-alpha (?)

        - solaris-2.6-sun4u

     Windows will return one of:

        - win-amd64 (64-bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and
          EM64T)

        - win-arm64 (64-bit Windows on ARM64, aka AArch64)

        - win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)

     macOS can return:

        - macosx-10.6-ppc

        - macosx-10.4-ppc64

        - macosx-10.3-i386

        - macosx-10.4-fat

     For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns *note
     sys.platform: a7d.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.is_python_build ()

     Return ‘True’ if the running Python interpreter was built from
     source and is being run from its built location, and not from a
     location resulting from e.g.  running ‘make install’ or installing
     via a binary installer.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.parse_config_h (fp[, vars])

     Parse a ‘config.h’-style file.

     'fp' is a file-like object pointing to the ‘config.h’-like file.

     A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned.  If an
     optional dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used
     instead of a new dictionary, and updated with the values read in
     the file.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_config_h_filename ()

     Return the path of ‘pyconfig.h’.

 -- Fonction: sysconfig.get_makefile_filename ()

     Return the path of ‘Makefile’.


File: python.info,  Node: Using sysconfig as a script,  Prev: Autres fonctions<3>,  Up: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

5.30.3.14 Using ‘sysconfig’ as a script
.......................................

You can use *note sysconfig: da. as a script with Python's '-m' option:

     $ python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"

     Paths:
             data = "/usr/local"
             include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
             platinclude = "."
             platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
             purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
             stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"

     Variables:
             AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
             AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
             AR = "ar"
             ARFLAGS = "rc"
             ...

This call will print in the standard output the information returned by
*note get_platform(): 1222, *note get_python_version(): 1223, *note
get_path(): 130e. and *note get_config_vars(): 1017.


File: python.info,  Node: builtins --- Built-in objects,  Next: __main__ --- Top-level code environment,  Prev: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.4 ‘builtins’ -- Built-in objects
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides direct access to all 'built-in' identifiers of
Python; for example, ‘builtins.open’ is the full name for the built-in
function *note open(): 508.

Ce module n'est normalement pas accédé explicitement par la plupart des
applications, mais peut être utile dans des modules qui exposent des
objets de même nom qu'une valeur native, mais pour qui le natif de même
nom est aussi nécessaire.  Par exemple, dans un module qui voudrait
implémenter une fonction *note open(): 508. autour de la fonction native
*note open(): 508, ce module peut être utilisé directement :

     import builtins

     def open(path):
         f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
         return UpperCaser(f)

     class UpperCaser:
         '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to uppercase.'''

         def __init__(self, f):
             self._f = f

         def read(self, count=-1):
             return self._f.read(count).upper()

         # ...

Spécificité de l'implémentation: La plupart des modules ont
‘__builtins__’ dans leurs globales.  La valeur de ‘__builtins__’ est
classiquement soit ce module, soit la valeur de l'attribut *note
__dict__: 549. du module.  Puisque c'est une spécificité de CPython, ce
n'est peut-être pas utilisé par toutes les autres implémentations.

Voir aussi
..........

   * *note Constantes natives: 2141.

   * *note Exceptions natives: 1840.

   * *note Fonctions natives: 123d.

   * *note Types natifs: 214b.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ --- Top-level code environment,  Next: warnings --- Warning control,  Prev: builtins --- Built-in objects,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.5 ‘__main__’ -- Top-level code environment
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

En Python, le nom ‘__main__’ a une fonction particulière.  Il intervient
dans deux cas :

  1. c'est le nom de l'environnement d'exécution principal, ce qui donne
     lieu au test courant ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ ;

  2. c'est aussi le nom du fichier ‘__main__.py’ dans les paquets
     Python.

Les deux sont liés aux modules Python, à la manière de s'en servir en
tant qu'utilisateur et à la manière dont ils interagissent entre eux.
Cette page contient des détails sur les modules Python.  Si vous ne les
avez jamais utilisés, commencez par la section qui leur est consacrée
dans le tutoriel : *note Modules: 1c14.

* Menu:

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* Le fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python.
* import __main__::


File: python.info,  Node: __name__ == '__main__',  Next: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python,  Up: __main__ --- Top-level code environment

5.30.5.1 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
.................................

Lorsqu'un module ou un paquet Python est importé, son attribut
‘__name__’ est défini à son nom, qui est la plupart du temps le nom du
fichier qui le contient sans l'extension ‘.py’ :

     >>> import configparser
     >>> configparser.__name__
     'configparser'

Si le fichier fait partie d'un paquet, ‘__name__’ donne tout le chemin
d'accès :

     >>> from concurrent.futures import process
     >>> process.__name__
     'concurrent.futures.process'

En revanche, si le module est exécuté dans l'environnement d'exécution
principal, la variable ‘__name__’ vaut ‘'__main__'’.

* Menu:

* Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?::
* Utilisation idiomatique::
* Considérations liées à l'empaquetage::


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?,  Next: Utilisation idiomatique,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.30.5.2 Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?
..................................................................

L'environnement principal a pour nom ‘__main__’.  Il s'agit du premier
module Python dont l'exécution a été demandée par l'utilisateur final.
On le qualifie de principal car c'est lui qui importe tous les autres
modules nécessités par le programme.  On l'appelle parfois le point
d'entrée de l'application.

L'environnement principal peut prendre diverses formes :

   * l'environnement d'une invite de commande interactive :

          >>> __name__
          '__main__'

   * le module passé directement en tant que fichier à la commande de
     l'interpréteur Python :

          $ python helloworld.py
          Hello, world!

   * le module ou paquet passé à l'interpréteur avec l'option *note -m:
     5cd. :

          $ python -m tarfile
          usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...)

   * le code lu par l'interpréteur depuis l'entrée standard :

          $ echo "import this" | python
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

   * le code passé à l'interpréteur avec l'option *note -c: 5cc. :

          $ python -c "import this"
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

Dans chacun de ces cas, l'attribut ‘__name__’ du module principal est
mis à ‘'__main__'’.

Un module peut donc savoir s'il est exécuté dans l'environnement
principal en vérifiant son ‘__name__’, ce qui permet typiquement
d'exécuter du code lorsque le module est initialisé d'une manière autre
que l'importation :

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # Execute when the module is not initialized from an import statement.
         ...

Voir aussi
..........

Pour plus de détails sur la manière dont ‘__name__’ est défini dans les
divers cas, voir la section *note Modules: 1c14. dans le tutoriel.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation idiomatique,  Next: Considérations liées à l'empaquetage,  Prev: Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.30.5.3 Utilisation idiomatique
................................

Il arrive qu'un module contienne du code qui ne doit s'exécuter que
lorsque le module est utilisé comme script.  On peut penser à l'analyse
des arguments passés en ligne de commande, ou bien à la lecture de
l'entrée standard.  Il ne faudrait pas que ces opérations soient
effectuées lorsque le module est importé depuis un autre module, comme
pour les tests.

C'est dans ces situations que sert la construction ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’.  Le code mis à l'intérieur du bloc n'est exécuté que si le
module est dans l'environnement principal.

Putting as few statements as possible in the block below ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ can improve code clarity and correctness.  Most often, a
function named ‘main’ encapsulates the program's primary behavior:

     # echo.py

     import shlex
     import sys

     def echo(phrase: str) -> None:
        """A dummy wrapper around print."""
        # for demonstration purposes, you can imagine that there is some
        # valuable and reusable logic inside this function
        print(phrase)

     def main() -> int:
         """Echo the input arguments to standard output"""
         phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv)
         echo(phrase)
         return 0

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())  # next section explains the use of sys.exit

Si, dans le module ci-dessus, le code de ‘main’ était placé directement
dans le ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’, la variable ‘phrase’ serait
globale, et d'autres fonctions pourraient s'en servir par erreur à la
place d'une variable locale.  Encapsuler le code dans la fonction ‘main’
évite cet ennui.

De plus, la fonction ‘echo’ est elle-même séparée du reste, et on peut
l'importer dans un autre module.  Le fait d'importer ‘echo.py’ définit
les fonctions ‘main’ et ‘echo’, mais n'en appelle aucune, puisque
‘__name__ != '__main__'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Considérations liées à l'empaquetage,  Prev: Utilisation idiomatique,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.30.5.4 Considérations liées à l'empaquetage
.............................................

Les fonctions ‘main’ servent souvent à créer des outils qui s'exécutent
en ligne de commande.  Les scripts sont ajoutés au système à l'aide de
points d'entrée, qui demandent à pip(1) de créer un exécutable.  Il le
fait en insérant un appel à la fonction à l'intérieur d'un modèle
prédéfini où la valeur qu'elle renvoie est passée directement à *note
sys.exit(): 1329. :

     sys.exit(main())

Puisque l'appel de ‘main’ est encapsulé dans *note sys.exit(): 1329,
‘main’ doit renvoyer une valeur qui convienne comme argument à *note
sys.exit(): 1329, par exemple un code de retour sous forme d'entier.  La
valeur ‘None’ est également acceptée, et c'est d'ailleurs celle que
renvoie la fonction si elle se termine sans rencontrer d'instruction
‘return’.

By proactively following this convention ourselves, our module will have
the same behavior when run directly (i.e.  ‘python echo.py’) as it will
have if we later package it as a console script entry-point in a
pip-installable package.

En particulier, mieux vaut éviter de renvoyer une chaîne de caractères
depuis la fonction ‘main’.  En effet, si *note sys.exit(): 1329. reçoit
une chaîne, elle l'interprète comme un message d'erreur, qu'elle affiche
sur *note sys.stderr: 928. avant de terminer le programme avec le code
de retour 1 (erreur).  L'exemple de ‘echo.py’ ci-dessus montre la
pratique recommandée.

Voir aussi
..........

Le guide de l'empaquetage en Python(2) (en anglais) contient plusieurs
tutoriels et documents de référence autour de la distribution et de
l'installation de paquets Python avec des outils modernes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pip.pypa.io/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python,  Next: import __main__,  Prev: __name__ == '__main__',  Up: __main__ --- Top-level code environment

5.30.5.5 Le fichier ‘__main__.py’ dans les paquets Python
.........................................................

Si vous n'êtes pas familier des paquets Python, lisez *note Les paquets:
1c25. dans le tutoriel.  Un fichier ‘__main__.py’ permet à un paquet de
définir une interface en ligne de commande.  Prenons pour exemple un
paquet nommé 'bandclass' :

     bandclass
       ├── __init__.py
       ├── __main__.py
       └── student.py

Le fichier ‘__main__.py’ qu'il contient s'exécute lorsque le paquet est
appelé depuis la ligne de commande avec l'option *note -m: 5cd. de
l'interpréteur, comme ceci :

     $ python -m bandclass

Cette commande lance l'exécution de ‘__main__.py’.  Il vous appartient,
en tant que concepteur du paquet, de déterminer ce qu'elle doit faire.
Dans notre exemple, elle pourrait rechercher un étudiant dans une base
de données :

     # bandclass/__main__.py

     import sys
     from .student import search_students

     student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else ''
     print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}')

Remarquez l'importation ‘from .student import search_students’.  Le
point avant ‘student’ sert à rendre le chemin ‘student’ relatif à la
position du module qui l'importe.  Pour plus d'informations, voir *note
Références internes dans un paquet: 1c2a. dans la section *note Modules:
1c14. du tutoriel.

* Menu:

* Utilisation idiomatique: Utilisation idiomatique<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation idiomatique<2>,  Up: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python

5.30.5.6 Utilisation idiomatique
................................

The content of ‘__main__.py’ typically isn't fenced with an ‘if __name__
== '__main__'’ block.  Instead, those files are kept short and import
functions to execute from other modules.  Those other modules can then
be easily unit-tested and are properly reusable.

Cependant, un ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’, s'il est présent dans le
‘__main__.py’, fonctionne correctement.  En effet, si ‘__main__.py’ est
importé depuis autre module, son attribut ‘__name__’ contient, avant
‘__main__’, le nom du paquet dont il fait partie :

     >>> import asyncio.__main__
     >>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
     'asyncio.__main__'

This won't work for ‘__main__.py’ files in the root directory of a
‘.zip’ file though.  Hence, for consistency, a minimal ‘__main__.py’
without a ‘__name__’ check is preferred.

Voir aussi
..........

See *note venv: 110. for an example of a package with a minimal
‘__main__.py’ in the standard library.  It doesn't contain a ‘if
__name__ == '__main__'’ block.  You can invoke it with ‘python -m venv
[directory]’.

La documentation du module *note runpy: bd. fournit une description
complète de l'option *note -m: 5cd. de l'interpréteur.

Le module *note zipapp: 12f. exécute des applications emballées dans une
archive ZIP. Dans ce cas, l'interpréteur recherche un fichier
‘__main__.py’ à la racine de l'archive.


File: python.info,  Node: import __main__,  Prev: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python,  Up: __main__ --- Top-level code environment

5.30.5.7 ‘import __main__’
..........................

Quel que soit le module principal d'un programme, les autres modules
peuvent accéder à l'*note espace de nommage: 1c15. dans lequel il
s'exécute en important le module spécial ‘__main__’.  Celui-ci ne
correspond pas forcément à un fichier ‘__main__.py’.  Il s'agit
simplement du module qui a reçu le nom ‘'__main__'’.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation du module ‘__main__’ :

     # namely.py

     import __main__

     def did_user_define_their_name():
         return 'my_name' in dir(__main__)

     def print_user_name():
         if not did_user_define_their_name():
             raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!')

         if '__file__' in dir(__main__):
             print(__main__.my_name, "found in file", __main__.__file__)
         else:
             print(__main__.my_name)

Ce code s'utilise comme ceci :

     # start.py

     import sys

     from namely import print_user_name

     # my_name = "Dinsdale"

     def main():
         try:
             print_user_name()
         except ValueError as ve:
             return str(ve)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         sys.exit(main())

Le programme ci-dessus donne la sortie :

     $ python start.py
     Define the variable `my_name`!

Son code de retour est 1, ce qui signifie une erreur.  En supprimant la
marque de commentaire en début de ligne ‘my_name = "Dinsdale"’, le
programme est corrigé, et renvoie au système le code 0 car il n'y a plus
d'erreur :

     $ python start.py
     Dinsdale found in file /path/to/start.py

On pourrait s'attendre à un problème au moment de l'importation de
‘__main__’ : cela ne provoque-t-il pas l'exécution anticipée du code de
script sous ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ dans le module principal
‘start’ ?

Python inserts an empty ‘__main__’ module in *note sys.modules: 1929. at
interpreter startup, and populates it by running top-level code.  In our
example this is the ‘start’ module which runs line by line and imports
‘namely’.  In turn, ‘namely’ imports ‘__main__’ (which is really
‘start’).  That's an import cycle!  Fortunately, since the partially
populated ‘__main__’ module is present in *note sys.modules: 1929,
Python passes that to ‘namely’.  See *note Special considerations for
__main__: 1fc3. in the import system's reference for details on how this
works.

L'interpréteur interactif est un autre environnement d'exécution
principal possible.  Toute variable qui y est définie appartient à
l'espace de nommage ‘__main__’ :

     >>> import namely
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     False
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`!
     >>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky'
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     True
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Jabberwocky

Dans ce cas, il n'y a pas de variable ‘__file__’, puisque cela n'a pas
de sens dans le mode interactif.

Le module ‘__main__’ est notamment employé dans les implémentations de
*note pdb: a4. et *note rlcompleter: bc.


File: python.info,  Node: warnings --- Warning control,  Next: dataclasses --- Data Classes,  Prev: __main__ --- Top-level code environment,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.6 ‘warnings’ -- Warning control
------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/warnings.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Les messages d'avertissement sont généralement émis dans les situations
où il est utile d'alerter l'utilisateur d'un problème dans un programme,
mais qu'il n'est pas justifié de lever une exception et de le terminer.
Par exemple, on peut vouloir émettre un avertissement lorsqu'un
programme utilise un module obsolète.

Les développeurs Python émettent des avertissements en appelant la
fonction *note warn(): 14d1. définie dans ce module.  (Les développeurs
C utilisent *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1403. ; voir *note Gestion des
exceptions: 4391. pour plus d'informations).

Les messages d'avertissement sont normalement écrits sur *note
sys.stderr: 928, mais leurs effets peuvent être modifiés, il est
possible d'ignorer tous les avertissements ou au contraire les
transformer en exceptions.  L'effet des avertissements peut varier selon
la *note catégorie d'avertissement: 4392, de son texte et d'où il est
émis.  Les répétitions du même avertissement depuis une même source sont
généralement ignorées.

La gestion des avertissements se fait en deux étapes : premièrement,
chaque fois qu'un avertissement est émis, le module détermine si un
message doit être émis ou non ; ensuite, si un message doit être émis,
il est formaté et affiché en utilisant une fonction qui peut être
définie par l'utilisateur.

Un *note filtre: 8b8. (une séquence de règles) est utilisé pour décider
si un message d'avertissement doit être émis ou non.  Des règles peuvent
être ajoutées au filtre en appelant *note filterwarnings(): 145f. et
remises à leur état par défaut en appelant *note resetwarnings(): 4393.

L'affichage des messages d'avertissement se fait en appelant la fonction
*note showwarning(): 4394, qui peut être redéfinie ; l'implémentation
par défaut formate le message en appelant *note formatwarning(): 19d3,
qui peut également être réutilisée par une implémentation personnalisée.

Voir aussi
..........

*note logging.captureWarnings(): 2c69. vous permet de gérer tous les
avertissements avec l'infrastructure de journalisation standard.

* Menu:

* Catégories d'avertissement::
* Le filtre des avertissements::
* Suppression temporaire des avertissements::
* Tester les avertissements::
* Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances::
* Fonctions disponibles::
* Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/warnings.py


File: python.info,  Node: Catégories d'avertissement,  Next: Le filtre des avertissements,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.1 Catégories d'avertissement
...................................

Il existe un certain nombre d'exceptions natives qui représentent des
catégories d'avertissement.  Cette catégorisation est utile pour filtrer
les groupes d'avertissements.

Bien qu'il s'agisse techniquement d'exceptions, les *note exceptions
natives: 226c. sont documentées ici, parce qu'elles appartiennent
conceptuellement au mécanisme des avertissements.

Le code utilisateur peut définir des catégories d'avertissement
supplémentaires en héritant l'une des catégories d'avertissement
standard.  Une catégorie d'avertissement doit toujours hériter de la
classe *note Warning: 226e.

Les classes de catégories d'avertissement suivantes sont actuellement
définies :

Classe                                 Description
                                       
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
*note Warning: 226e.                   Il s'agit de la classe de base de toutes les
                                       classes de catégories d'avertissement.  C'est une
                                       sous-classe de *note Exception: 9c9.
                                       
                                       
*note UserWarning: 226f.               Catégorie par défaut pour *note warn(): 14d1.
                                       
                                       
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.         Catégorie de base pour les avertissements sur les
                                       fonctionnalités obsolètes lorsque ces
                                       avertissements sont destinés à d'autres
                                       développeurs Python (ignorées par défaut, sauf si
                                       elles proviennent de ‘__main__’).
                                       
                                       
*note SyntaxWarning: 451.              Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       concernant les syntaxes douteuses.
                                       
                                       
*note RuntimeWarning: 1bb.             Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       concernant les fonctionnalités douteuses à
                                       l'exécution.
                                       
                                       
*note FutureWarning: 40b.              Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       concernant les fonctionnalités obsolètes lorsque
                                       ces avertissements sont destinés aux utilisateurs
                                       finaux des programmes écrits en Python.
                                       
                                       
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.  Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       concernant les fonctionnalités qui seront
                                       obsolètes dans le futur (ignorée par défaut).
                                       
                                       
*note ImportWarning: 4e7.              Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       déclenchés lors de l'importation d'un module
                                       (ignoré par défaut).
                                       
                                       
*note UnicodeWarning: 13dc.            Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       relatifs à Unicode.
                                       
                                       
*note BytesWarning: c13.               Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       relatifs à *note bytes: 1bd. et
                                       *note bytearray: 52b.
                                       
                                       
*note ResourceWarning: 241.            Catégorie de base pour les avertissements
                                       relatifs à l'utilisation des ressources (ignorés
                                       par défaut).
                                       

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Avant, la différence entre *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. et *note FutureWarning: 40b. était que l'un
était dédié aux fonctionnalités retirées, et l'autre aux fonctionnalités
modifiées.  La différence aujourd'hui est plutôt leur audience et la
façon dont ils sont traités par les filtres d'avertissement par défaut.


File: python.info,  Node: Le filtre des avertissements,  Next: Suppression temporaire des avertissements,  Prev: Catégories d'avertissement,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.2 Le filtre des avertissements
.....................................

Le filtre des avertissements contrôle si les avertissements sont
ignorés, affichés ou transformés en erreurs (ce qui lève une exception).

Conceptuellement, le filtre d'avertissements maintient une liste
ordonnée d'entrées ; chaque avertissement est comparé à chaque entrée de
la liste jusqu'à ce qu'une correspondance soit trouvée ; l'entrée
détermine l'action à effectuer.  Chaque entrée est un quintuplet de la
forme ('action', 'message', 'catégorie', 'module', 'lineno'), où :

   * 'action' est l'une des chaînes de caractères suivantes :

     Valeur              Action
                         
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
     ‘"default"’         affiche la première occurrence des
                         avertissements correspondants pour chaque
                         emplacement (module + numéro de ligne) où
                         l'avertissement est émis
                         
                         
     ‘"error"’           transforme les avertissements correspondants en
                         exceptions
                         
                         
     ‘"ignore"’          ignore les avertissements correspondants
                         
                         
     ‘"always"’          affiche toujours les avertissements
                         correspondants
                         
                         
     ‘"module"’          affiche la première occurrence des
                         avertissements correspondants pour chaque module
                         où l'avertissement est émis (quel que soit le
                         numéro de ligne)
                         
                         
     ‘"once"’            n'affiche que la première occurrence des
                         avertissements correspondants, quel que soit
                         l'endroit où ils se trouvent
                         

   * 'message' is a string containing a regular expression that the
     start of the warning message must match, case-insensitively.  In
     *note -W: 8b6. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a, 'message' is a
     literal string that the start of the warning message must contain
     (case-insensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end
     of 'message'.

   * 'category' est une classe (une sous-classe de *note Warning: 226e.)
     dont la catégorie d'avertissement doit être une sous-classe afin de
     correspondre.

   * 'module' is a string containing a regular expression that the start
     of the fully qualified module name must match, case-sensitively.
     In *note -W: 8b6. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a, 'module' is a
     literal string that the fully qualified module name must be equal
     to (case-sensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end
     of 'module'.

   * 'lineno' est le numéro de ligne d'où l'avertissement doit provenir,
     ou ‘0’ pour correspondre à tous les numéros de ligne.

Puisque que la classe *note Warning: 226e. hérite de la classe *note
Exception: 9c9, pour transformer un avertissement en erreur, il suffit
de lever ‘category(message)’.

Si un avertissement est signalé et ne correspond à aucun filtre
enregistré, l'action ‘default’ est appliquée (d'où son nom).

* Menu:

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement::
* Filtre d'avertissement par défaut::
* Outrepasser le filtre par défaut::


File: python.info,  Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Next: Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement,  Up: Le filtre des avertissements

5.30.6.3 Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria
..............................................

The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria
to determine if a warning is considered a repeat:

   - ‘"default"’: A warning is considered a repeat only if the
     ('message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno') are all the same.

   - ‘"module"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category', 'module') are the same, ignoring the line number.

   - ‘"once"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category') are the same, ignoring the module and line number.


File: python.info,  Node: Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement,  Next: Filtre d'avertissement par défaut,  Prev: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Up: Le filtre des avertissements

5.30.6.4 Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement
.............................................

Le filtre des avertissements est initialisé par les options *note -W:
8b6. passées à la ligne de commande de l'interpréteur Python et la
variable d'environnement *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a.  L'interpréteur
enregistre les arguments de toutes les entrées fournies sans
interprétation dans *note sys.warnoptions: 3a7. ; le module *note
warnings: 111. les analyse lors de la première importation (les options
invalides sont ignorées, et un message d'erreur est envoyé à *note
sys.stderr: 928.).

Les filtres d'avertissement individuels sont décrits sous la forme d'une
séquence de champs séparés par des deux-points :

     action:message:category:module:line

La signification de chacun de ces champs est décrite dans *note Le
filtre des avertissements: 8b8.  Plusieurs filtres peuvent être écrits
en une seule ligne (comme pour *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a.), ils sont
dans ce cas séparés par des virgules, et les filtres listés plus en
dernier ont priorité sur ceux qui les précèdent (car ils sont appliqués
de gauche à droite, et les filtres les plus récemment appliqués ont
priorité sur les précédents).

Les filtres d'avertissement couramment utilisés s'appliquent à tous les
avertissements, aux avertissements d'une catégorie particulière ou aux
avertissements émis par certains modules ou paquets.  Quelques
exemples :

     default                      # Show all warnings (even those ignored by default)
     ignore                       # Ignore all warnings
     error                        # Convert all warnings to errors
     error::ResourceWarning       # Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors
     default::DeprecationWarning  # Show DeprecationWarning messages
     ignore,default:::mymodule    # Only report warnings triggered by "mymodule"
     error:::mymodule             # Convert warnings to errors in "mymodule"


File: python.info,  Node: Filtre d'avertissement par défaut,  Next: Outrepasser le filtre par défaut,  Prev: Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement,  Up: Le filtre des avertissements

5.30.6.5 Filtre d'avertissement par défaut
..........................................

Par défaut, Python installe plusieurs filtres d'avertissement, qui
peuvent être outrepassés par l'option *note -W: 8b6. en ligne de
commande, la variable d'environnement *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a. et les
appels à *note filterwarnings(): 145f.

Dans les versions standard publiées de Python, le filtre d'avertissement
par défaut a les entrées suivantes (par ordre de priorité) :

     default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
     ignore::DeprecationWarning
     ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
     ignore::ImportWarning
     ignore::ResourceWarning

Dans les *note versions de débogage: 1f6, la liste des filtres
d'avertissement par défaut est vide.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. est
maintenant ignoré par défaut en plus de *note PendingDeprecationWarning:
8b7.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. est à
nouveau affiché par défaut lorsqu'il provient directement de ‘__main__’.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note BytesWarning: c13. n'apparaît plus
dans la liste de filtres par défaut et est configuré via *note
sys.warnoptions: 3a7. lorsque l'option *note -b: 5cf. est donnée deux
fois.


File: python.info,  Node: Outrepasser le filtre par défaut,  Prev: Filtre d'avertissement par défaut,  Up: Le filtre des avertissements

5.30.6.6 Outrepasser le filtre par défaut
.........................................

Les développeurs d'applications écrites en Python peuvent souhaiter
cacher 'tous' les avertissements Python à leurs utilisateurs, et ne les
afficher que lorsqu'ils exécutent des tests ou travaillent sur
l'application.  L'attribut *note sys.warnoptions: 3a7. utilisé pour
passer les configurations de filtre à l'interpréteur peut être utilisé
comme marqueur pour indiquer si les avertissements doivent être ou non
désactivés :

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")

Les développeurs d'exécuteurs de test pour le code Python sont invités à
s'assurer que 'tous' les avertissements sont affichés par défaut pour le
code en cours de test, en utilisant par exemple :

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import os, warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("default") # Change the filter in this process
         os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Also affect subprocesses

Enfin, les développeurs d'interpréteurs de commandes interactifs qui
exécutent du code utilisateur dans un espace de nommage autre que
‘__main__’ sont invités à s'assurer que les messages *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. sont rendus visibles par défaut, en utilisant
le code suivant (où ‘user_ns’ est le module utilisé pour exécuter le
code entré interactivement) :

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
                                        module=user_ns.get("__name__"))


File: python.info,  Node: Suppression temporaire des avertissements,  Next: Tester les avertissements,  Prev: Le filtre des avertissements,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.7 Suppression temporaire des avertissements
..................................................

Si vous utilisez un code dont vous savez qu'il va déclencher un
avertissement, comme une fonction obsolète, mais que vous ne voulez pas
voir l'avertissement (même si les avertissements ont été explicitement
configurés via la ligne de commande), alors il est possible de supprimer
l'avertissement en utilisant le gestionnaire de contexte *note
catch_warnings: 572. :

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings():
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
         fxn()

Dans le gestionnaire de contexte, tous les avertissements sont
simplement ignorés.  Ceci vous permet d'utiliser du code déclaré
obsolète sans voir l'avertissement tout en ne supprimant pas
l'avertissement pour un autre code qui pourrait ne pas être conscient de
son utilisation de code déprécié.  Remarque : ceci ne peut être garanti
que dans une application utilisant un seul fil d'exécution.  Si deux ou
plusieurs 'threads' utilisent le gestionnaire de contexte *note
catch_warnings: 572. en même temps, le comportement est indéfini.


File: python.info,  Node: Tester les avertissements,  Next: Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances,  Prev: Suppression temporaire des avertissements,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.8 Tester les avertissements
..................................

Pour tester les avertissements générés par le code, utilisez le
gestionnaire de contexte *note catch_warnings: 572.  Avec lui, vous
pouvez temporairement modifier le filtre d'avertissements pour faciliter
votre test.  Par exemple, procédez comme suit pour capturer tous les
avertissements levés à vérifier :

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
         # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
         warnings.simplefilter("always")
         # Trigger a warning.
         fxn()
         # Verify some things
         assert len(w) == 1
         assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
         assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)

Vous pouvez aussi faire en sorte que tous les avertissements soient des
exceptions en utilisant ‘error’ au lieu de ‘always’.  Il faut savoir que
si un avertissement a déjà été émis à cause d'une règle ‘once’ ou
‘default’, quel que soit le filtre activé, l'avertissement ne sera pas
revu à moins que le registre des avertissements lié à l'avertissement
ait été vidé.

A sa sortie, le gestionnaire de contexte restaure le filtre des
avertissements dans l'état où il était au démarrage du contexte.  Cela
empêche les tests de changer le filtre d'avertissements de manière
inattendue entre les tests et d'aboutir à des résultats de test
indéterminés.  La fonction *note showwarning(): 4394. du module est
également restaurée à sa valeur originale.  Remarque : ceci ne peut être
garanti que dans une application 'mono-threadées'.  Si deux ou plusieurs
fils d'exécution utilisent le gestionnaire de contexte *note
catch_warnings: 572. en même temps, le comportement est indéfini.

Lorsque vous testez plusieurs opérations qui provoquent le même type
d'avertissement, il est important de les tester d'une manière qui
confirme que chaque opération provoque un nouvel avertissement (par
exemple, définissez les avertissements comme exceptions et vérifiez que
les opérations provoquent des exceptions, vérifiez que la longueur de la
liste des avertissements continue à augmenter après chaque opération, ou
bien supprimez les entrées précédentes de la liste des avertissements
avant chaque nouvelle opération).


File: python.info,  Node: Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances,  Next: Fonctions disponibles,  Prev: Tester les avertissements,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.9 Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances
........................................................................

Les catégories d'avertissement qui intéressent principalement les
développeurs Python (plutôt que les utilisateurs finaux d'applications
écrites en Python) sont ignorées par défaut.

Notamment, cette liste "ignorés par défaut" inclut *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. (pour chaque module sauf ‘__main__’), ce qui
signifie que les développeurs doivent s'assurer de tester leur code avec
des avertissements généralement ignorés rendus visibles afin de recevoir
des notifications rapides des changements d'API (que ce soit dans la
bibliothèque standard ou les paquets tiers).

Dans le cas idéal, le code dispose d'une suite de tests appropriée, et
le testeur se charge d'activer implicitement tous les avertissements
lors de l'exécution des tests (le testeur fourni par le module *note
unittest: 105. le fait).

Dans des cas moins idéaux, l'utilisation de d'interfaces obsolète peut
être testé en passant *note -Wd: 8b6. à l'interpréteur Python (c'est une
abréviation pour ‘-W default’) ou en définissant
‘PYTHONWARNINGS=default’ dans l'environnement.  Ceci permet la gestion
par défaut de tous les avertissements, y compris ceux qui sont ignorés
par défaut.  Pour changer l'action prise pour les avertissements
rencontrés, vous pouvez changer quel argument est passé à *note -W: 8b6.
(par exemple ‘-W error’).  Voir l'option *note -W: 8b6. pour plus de
détails sur ce qui est possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions disponibles,  Next: Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles,  Prev: Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.10 Fonctions disponibles
...............................

 -- Fonction: warnings.warn (message, category=None, stacklevel=1,
          source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())

     Émet, ignore, ou transforme en exception un avertissement.
     L'argument 'category', s'il est donné, doit être une classe de
     *note warning category class: 4392. ; et vaut par défaut *note
     UserWarning: 226f.  Aussi 'message' peut être une instance de *note
     Warning: 226e, auquel cas 'category' sera ignoré et
     ‘message.__class__’ sera utilisé.  Dans ce cas, le texte du message
     sera ‘str(message)’.  Cette fonction lève une exception si cet
     avertissement particulier émis est transformé en erreur par le
     *note filtre des avertissements: 8b8.  L'argument 'stacklevel' peut
     être utilisé par les fonctions 'wrapper' écrites en Python, comme
     ceci :

          def deprecated_api(message):
              warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)

     This makes the warning refer to ‘deprecated_api’'s caller, rather
     than to the source of ‘deprecated_api’ itself (since the latter
     would defeat the purpose of the warning message).

     The 'skip_file_prefixes' keyword argument can be used to indicate
     which stack frames are ignored when counting stack levels.  This
     can be useful when you want the warning to always appear at call
     sites outside of a package when a constant 'stacklevel' does not
     fit all call paths or is otherwise challenging to maintain.  If
     supplied, it must be a tuple of strings.  When prefixes are
     supplied, stacklevel is implicitly overridden to be ‘max(2,
     stacklevel)’.  To cause a warning to be attributed to the caller
     from outside of the current package you might write:

          # example/lower.py
          _warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),)

          def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None):
              if r_luxury_yacht:
                  warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.",
                                skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips)

          # example/higher.py
          from . import lower

          def another_way(**kw):
              lower.one_way(**kw)

     This makes the warning refer to both the ‘example.lower.one_way()’
     and ‘package.higher.another_way()’ call sites only from calling
     code living outside of ‘example’ package.

     'source', s'il est fourni, est l'objet détruit qui a émis un *note
     ResourceWarning: 241.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre 'source'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added 'skip_file_prefixes'.

 -- Fonction: warnings.warn_explicit (message, category, filename,
          lineno, module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None,
          source=None)

     Il s'agit d'une interface de bas niveau pour la fonctionnalité de
     *note warn(): 14d1, en passant explicitement le message, la
     catégorie, le nom de fichier et le numéro de ligne, et
     éventuellement le nom du module et le registre (qui devrait être le
     dictionnaire ‘__warningregistry__’ du module).  Le nom de module
     par défaut est le nom de fichier sans ‘.py’ ; si aucun registre
     n'est passé, l'avertissement n'est jamais supprimé.  'message' doit
     être une chaîne de caractères et 'category' une sous-classe de
     *note Warning: 226e. ou 'message' peut être une instance de *note
     Warning: 226e, auquel cas 'category' sera ignoré.

     'module_globals', s'il est fourni, doit être l'espace de nommage
     global utilisé par le code pour lequel l'avertissement est émis.
     (Cet argument est utilisé pour afficher les sources des modules
     trouvés dans les fichiers zip ou d'autres sources d'importation
     hors du système de fichiers).

     'source', s'il est fourni, est l'objet détruit qui a émis un *note
     ResourceWarning: 241.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre 'source'.

 -- Fonction: warnings.showwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          file=None, line=None)

     Écrit un avertissement dans un fichier.  L'implémentation par
     défaut appelle ‘formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno,
     line)’ et écrit la chaîne résultante dans 'file', qui par défaut
     est *note sys.stderr: 928.  Vous pouvez remplacer cette fonction
     par n'importe quel appelable en l'affectant à
     ‘warnings.showwarning’.  'line' est une ligne de code source à
     inclure dans le message d'avertissement ; si 'line' n'est pas
     fourni, *note showwarning(): 4394. essaiera de lire la ligne
     spécifiée par 'filename' et 'lineno'.

 -- Fonction: warnings.formatwarning (message, category, filename,
          lineno, line=None)

     Formate un avertissement de la manière standard.  Ceci renvoie une
     chaîne pouvant contenir des retours à la ligne se termine par un
     retour à la ligne.  'line' est une ligne de code source à inclure
     dans le message d'avertissement ; si 'line' n'est pas fourni, *note
     formatwarning(): 19d3. essaiera de lire la ligne spécifiée par
     'filename' et 'lineno'.

 -- Fonction: warnings.filterwarnings (action, message='',
          category=Warning, module='', lineno=0, append=False)

     Insère une entrée dans la liste de *note warning filter
     specifications: 8b8.  L'entrée est insérée à l'avant par défaut ;
     si 'append' est vrai, elle est insérée à la fin.  Il vérifie le
     type des arguments, compile les expressions régulières 'message' et
     'module', et les insère sous forme de 'n'-uplet dans la liste des
     filtres d'avertissements.  Les entrées plus proches du début de la
     liste ont priorité sur les entrées plus loin dans la liste.  Les
     arguments omis ont par défaut une valeur qui correspond à tout.

 -- Fonction: warnings.simplefilter (action, category=Warning, lineno=0,
          append=False)

     Insère une entrée simple dans la liste de *note spécifications du
     filtre d'avertissements: 8b8.  La signification des paramètres de
     fonction est la même que pour *note filterwarnings(): 145f, mais
     les expressions régulières ne sont pas nécessaires car le filtre
     inséré correspond toujours à n'importe quel message dans n'importe
     quel module tant que la catégorie et le numéro de ligne
     correspondent.

 -- Fonction: warnings.resetwarnings ()

     Réinitialise le filtre des avertissements.  Ceci supprime l'effet
     de tous les appels précédents à *note filterwarnings(): 145f, y
     compris celui de l'option *note -W: 8b6. des options de ligne de
     commande et des appels à *note simplefilter(): 6ae.

 -- Fonction: @warnings.deprecated (msg, *, category=DeprecationWarning,
          stacklevel=1)

     Decorator to indicate that a class, function or overload is
     deprecated.

     When this decorator is applied to an object, deprecation warnings
     may be emitted at runtime when the object is used.  *note static
     type checkers: 26a. will also generate a diagnostic on usage of the
     deprecated object.

     Utilisation :

          from warnings import deprecated
          from typing import overload

          @deprecated("Use B instead")
          class A:
              pass

          @deprecated("Use g instead")
          def f():
              pass

          @overload
          @deprecated("int support is deprecated")
          def g(x: int) -> int: ...
          @overload
          def g(x: str) -> int: ...

     The warning specified by 'category' will be emitted at runtime on
     use of deprecated objects.  For functions, that happens on calls;
     for classes, on instantiation and on creation of subclasses.  If
     the 'category' is ‘None’, no warning is emitted at runtime.  The
     'stacklevel' determines where the warning is emitted.  If it is ‘1’
     (the default), the warning is emitted at the direct caller of the
     deprecated object; if it is higher, it is emitted further up the
     stack.  Static type checker behavior is not affected by the
     'category' and 'stacklevel' arguments.

     The deprecation message passed to the decorator is saved in the
     ‘__deprecated__’ attribute on the decorated object.  If applied to
     an overload, the decorator must be after the *note @overload: 3f51.
     decorator for the attribute to exist on the overload as returned by
     *note typing.get_overloads(): 69b.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13: See PEP 702(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles,  Prev: Fonctions disponibles,  Up: warnings --- Warning control

5.30.6.11 Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles
...............................................

 -- Classe: warnings.catch_warnings (*, record=False, module=None,
          action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

     Un gestionnaire de contexte qui copie et, à la sortie, restaure le
     filtre des avertissements et la fonction *note showwarning(): 4394.
     Si l'argument 'record' est *note False: b27. (par défaut), le
     gestionnaire de contexte retourne *note None: 662. en entrant.  Si
     'record' est *note True: bfd, une liste est renvoyée qui est
     progressivement remplie d'objets comme vus par une fonction custom
     ‘showwarning' (qui supprime également la sortie vers
     ``sys.stdout`()’).  Chaque objet de la liste a des attributs avec
     les mêmes noms que les arguments de *note showwarning(): 4394.

     L'argument 'module' prend un module qui sera utilisé à la place du
     module renvoyé lors de l'importation *note warnings: 111. dont le
     filtre sera protégé.  Cet argument existe principalement pour
     tester le module *note warnings: 111. lui-même.

     If the 'action' argument is not ‘None’, the remaining arguments are
     passed to *note simplefilter(): 6ae. as if it were called
     immediately on entering the context.

     See *note Le filtre des avertissements: 8b8. for the meaning of the
     'category' and 'lineno' parameters.

          Note: Le gestionnaire *note catch_warnings: 572. fonctionne en
          remplaçant puis en restaurant plus tard la fonction *note
          showwarning(): 4394. du module et la liste interne des
          spécifications du filtre.  Cela signifie que le gestionnaire
          de contexte modifie l'état global et n'est donc pas prévisible
          avec plusieurs fils d'exécution.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'action', 'category',
     'lineno', and 'append' parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses --- Data Classes,  Next: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with,  Prev: warnings --- Warning control,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.7 ‘dataclasses’ -- Data Classes
------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/dataclasses.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically adding
generated *note special methods: 1868. such as *note __init__(): 69d.
and *note __repr__(): 609. to user-defined classes.  It was originally
described in PEP 557(2).

Les variables membres à utiliser dans ces méthodes générées sont
définies en utilisant les annotations de type PEP 526(3).  Par exemple :

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
         name: str
         unit_price: float
         quantity_on_hand: int = 0

         def total_cost(self) -> float:
             return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

will add, among other things, a ‘__init__()’ that looks like:

     def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
         self.name = name
         self.unit_price = unit_price
         self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not
directly specified in the ‘InventoryItem’ definition shown above.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Classe de données: Classe de données<2>.
* Post-initialisation::
* Variables de classe::
* Variables d'initialisation::
* Instances figées::
* Héritage: Héritage<2>.
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* Fabriques de valeurs par défaut::
* Valeurs par défaut mutables::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dataclasses.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Classe de données<2>,  Next: Post-initialisation,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.1 Classe de données
..........................

 -- Fonction: @dataclasses.dataclass (*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True,
          order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

     This function is a *note decorator: 71d. that is used to add
     generated *note special methods: 1868. to classes, as described
     below.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator examines the class to find ‘field’s.  A
     ‘field’ is defined as a class variable that has a *note type
     annotation: d45.  With two exceptions described below, nothing in
     ‘@dataclass’ examines the type specified in the variable
     annotation.

     L’ordre des paramètres des méthodes générées est celui d’apparition
     des champs dans la définition de la classe.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator will add various "dunder" methods to the
     class, described below.  If any of the added methods already exist
     in the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented
     below.  The decorator returns the same class that it is called on;
     no new class is created.

     If ‘@dataclass’ is used just as a simple decorator with no
     parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in
     this signature.  That is, these three uses of ‘@dataclass’ are
     equivalent:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass()
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
                     match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
          class C:
              ...

     The parameters to ‘@dataclass’ are:

        - 'init': If true (the default), a *note __init__(): 69d. method
          will be generated.

          If the class already defines ‘__init__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), a *note __repr__(): 609. method
          will be generated.  The generated repr string will have the
          class name and the name and repr of each field, in the order
          they are defined in the class.  Fields that are marked as
          being excluded from the repr are not included.  For example:
          ‘InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0,
          quantity_on_hand=10)’.

          If the class already defines ‘__repr__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'eq': If true (the default), an *note __eq__(): aea. method
          will be generated.  This method compares the class as if it
          were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both instances in the
          comparison must be of the identical type.

          If the class already defines ‘__eq__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'order': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __lt__():
          127f, *note __le__(): 12eb, *note __gt__(): 12ec, and *note
          __ge__(): 12ed. methods will be generated.  These compare the
          class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both
          instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.  If
          'order' is true and 'eq' is false, a *note ValueError: 1ff. is
          raised.

          If the class already defines any of ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’,
          ‘__gt__()’, or ‘__ge__()’, then *note TypeError: 525. is
          raised.

        - 'unsafe_hash': If ‘False’ (the default), a *note __hash__():
          aeb. method is generated according to how 'eq' and 'frozen'
          are set.

          ‘__hash__()’ is used by built-in *note hash(): 5d7, and when
          objects are added to hashed collections such as dictionaries
          and sets.  Having a ‘__hash__()’ implies that instances of the
          class are immutable.  Mutability is a complicated property
          that depends on the programmer's intent, the existence and
          behavior of ‘__eq__()’, and the values of the 'eq' and
          'frozen' flags in the ‘@dataclass’ decorator.

          By default, ‘@dataclass’ will not implicitly add a *note
          __hash__(): aeb. method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither
          will it add or change an existing explicitly defined
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Setting the class attribute ‘__hash__ =
          None’ has a specific meaning to Python, as described in the
          ‘__hash__()’ documentation.

          If ‘__hash__()’ is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to
          ‘None’, then ‘@dataclass’ 'may' add an implicit ‘__hash__()’
          method.  Although not recommended, you can force ‘@dataclass’
          to create a ‘__hash__()’ method with ‘unsafe_hash=True’.  This
          might be the case if your class is logically immutable but can
          still be mutated.  This is a specialized use case and should
          be considered carefully.

          Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Note that you cannot both have an
          explicit ‘__hash__()’ method in your dataclass and set
          ‘unsafe_hash=True’; this will result in a *note TypeError:
          525.

          If 'eq' and 'frozen' are both true, by default ‘@dataclass’
          will generate a ‘__hash__()’ method for you.  If 'eq' is true
          and 'frozen' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be set to ‘None’,
          marking it unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If
          'eq' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be left untouched meaning the
          ‘__hash__()’ method of the superclass will be used (if the
          superclass is *note object: a7c, this means it will fall back
          to id-based hashing).

        - 'frozen': If true (the default is ‘False’), assigning to
          fields will generate an exception.  This emulates read-only
          frozen instances.  If *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. or *note
          __delattr__(): 1eea. is defined in the class, then *note
          TypeError: 525. is raised.  See the discussion below.

        - 'match_args': If true (the default is ‘True’), the *note
          __match_args__: 187c. tuple will be created from the list of
          non keyword-only parameters to the generated *note __init__():
          69d. method (even if ‘__init__()’ is not generated, see
          above).  If false, or if ‘__match_args__’ is already defined
          in the class, then ‘__match_args__’ will not be generated.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

        - 'kw_only': If true (the default value is ‘False’), then all
          fields will be marked as keyword-only.  If a field is marked
          as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the *note
          __init__(): 69d. parameter generated from a keyword-only field
          must be specified with a keyword when ‘__init__()’ is called.
          See the *note parameter: 1eba. glossary entry for details.
          Also see the *note KW_ONLY: 43a9. section.

          Keyword-only fields are not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

        - 'slots': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __slots__:
          14a2. attribute will be generated and new class will be
          returned instead of the original one.  If ‘__slots__’ is
          already defined in the class, then *note TypeError: 525. is
          raised.

               Avertissement: Calling no-arg *note super(): 4c8. in
               dataclasses using ‘slots=True’ will result in the
               following exception being raised: ‘TypeError: super(type,
               obj): obj must be an instance or subtype of type’.  The
               two-arg *note super(): 4c8. is a valid workaround.  See
               gh-90562(1) for full details.

               Avertissement: Passing parameters to a base class *note
               __init_subclass__(): 61e. when using ‘slots=True’ will
               result in a *note TypeError: 525.  Either use
               ‘__init_subclass__’ with no parameters or use default
               values as a workaround.  See gh-91126(2) for full
               details.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: If a field name is already
          included in the ‘__slots__’ of a base class, it will not be
          included in the generated ‘__slots__’ to prevent *note
          overriding them: 1f28.  Therefore, do not use ‘__slots__’ to
          retrieve the field names of a dataclass.  Use *note fields():
          16fe. instead.  To be able to determine inherited slots, base
          class ‘__slots__’ may be any iterable, but 'not' an iterator.

        - 'weakref_slot': If true (the default is ‘False’), add a slot
          named "__weakref__", which is required to make an instance
          *note weakref-able: fdb.  It is an error to specify
          ‘weakref_slot=True’ without also specifying ‘slots=True’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Les champs peuvent éventuellement préciser une valeur par défaut,
     en utilisant la syntaxe Python normale :

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: int       # 'a' has no default value
              b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'

     In this example, both ‘a’ and ‘b’ will be included in the added
     *note __init__(): 69d. method, which will be defined as:

          def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

     Une *note TypeError: 525. est levée si un champ sans valeur par
     défaut est défini après un champ avec une valeur par défaut.  C’est
     le cas que ce soit dans une seule classe ou si c’est le résultat
     d’un héritage de classes.

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.field (*, default=MISSING,
          default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None,
          compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING)

     For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
     required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that require
     additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
     additional information, you can replace the default field value
     with a call to the provided ‘field()’ function.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

          c = C()
          c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

     Comme le montre la signature, la constante *note MISSING: 43aa. est
     une valeur sentinelle pour déterminer si des paramètres ont été
     fournis par l'utilisateur.  ‘None’ ne conviendrait pas puisque
     c'est une valeur avec un sens qui peut être différent pour certains
     paramètres.  La sentinelle *note MISSING: 43aa. est interne au
     module et ne doit pas être utilisée dans vos programmes.

     The parameters to ‘field()’ are:

        - 'default': If provided, this will be the default value for
          this field.  This is needed because the ‘field()’ call itself
          replaces the normal position of the default value.

        - 'default_factory': If provided, it must be a zero-argument
          callable that will be called when a default value is needed
          for this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to
          specify fields with mutable default values, as discussed
          below.  It is an error to specify both 'default' and
          'default_factory'.

        - 'init': If true (the default), this field is included as a
          parameter to the generated *note __init__(): 69d. method.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), this field is included in the
          string returned by the generated *note __repr__(): 609.
          method.

        - 'hash': This can be a bool or ‘None’.  If true, this field is
          included in the generated *note __hash__(): aeb. method.  If
          false, this field is excluded from the generated *note
          __hash__(): aeb.  If ‘None’ (the default), use the value of
          'compare': this would normally be the expected behavior, since
          a field should be included in the hash if it's used for
          comparisons.  Setting this value to anything other than ‘None’
          is discouraged.

          Cependant, une raison légitime de mettre 'hash' à ‘False’
          alors que 'compare' est à ‘True’ est la concourance de trois
          facteurs : le champ est coûteux à hacher ; il est nécessaire
          pour les comparaisons d'égalité ; et il y a déjà d'autres
          champs qui participent au hachage des instances.  À ce moment,
          on peut alors se passer du champ dans le hachage tout en le
          faisant participer aux comparaisons.

        - 'compare': If true (the default), this field is included in
          the generated equality and comparison methods (*note __eq__():
          aea, *note __gt__(): 12ec, et al.).

        - 'metadata': This can be a mapping or ‘None’.  ‘None’ is
          treated as an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in *note
          MappingProxyType(): 459. to make it read-only, and exposed on
          the *note Field: 2213. object.  It is not used at all by Data
          Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism.
          Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as
          a namespace in the metadata.

        - 'kw_only': If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only.
          This is used when the generated *note __init__(): 69d.
          method's parameters are computed.

          Keyword-only fields are also not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
     ‘field()’, then the class attribute for this field will be replaced
     by the specified 'default' value.  If 'default' is not provided,
     then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is that after
     the *note @dataclass: 1c6. decorator runs, the class attributes
     will all contain the default values for the fields, just as if the
     default value itself were specified.  For example, after:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: int = field(repr=False)
              z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
              t: int = 20

     The class attribute ‘C.z’ will be ‘10’, the class attribute ‘C.t’
     will be ‘20’, and the class attributes ‘C.x’ and ‘C.y’ will not be
     set.

 -- Classe: dataclasses.Field

     ‘Field’ objects describe each defined field.  These objects are
     created internally, and are returned by the *note fields(): 16fe.
     module-level method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a
     ‘Field’ object directly.  Its documented attributes are:

        - ‘name’: The name of the field.

        - ‘type’: The type of the field.

        - ‘default’, ‘default_factory’, ‘init’, ‘repr’, ‘hash’,
          ‘compare’, ‘metadata’, and ‘kw_only’ have the identical
          meaning and values as they do in the *note field(): 19de.
          function.

     D'autres attributs peuvent exister, mais ils sont privés et ne sont
     pas censés être inspectés.  Le code ne doit jamais reposer sur eux.

 -- Classe: dataclasses.InitVar

     ‘InitVar[T]’ type annotations describe variables that are *note
     init-only: 43ab.  Fields annotated with ‘InitVar’ are considered
     pseudo-fields, and thus are neither returned by the *note fields():
     16fe. function nor used in any way except adding them as parameters
     to *note __init__(): 69d. and an optional *note __post_init__():
     43ac.

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.fields (class_or_instance)

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet d'objets *note Field: 2213. correspondant aux
     champs de l'argument, à l'exclusion des pseudo-champs ‘ClassVar’ ou
     ‘InitVar’.  L'argument peut être soit une classe de données, soit
     une instance d'une telle classe ; si ce n'est pas le cas, une
     exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.asdict (obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a dict (by using the factory
     function 'dict_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a dict of
     its fields, as ‘name: value’ pairs.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and
     tuples are recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b5e.

     Example of using ‘asdict()’ on nested dataclasses:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
               x: int
               y: int

          @dataclass
          class C:
               mylist: list[Point]

          p = Point(10, 20)
          assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

          c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
          assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

     Pour créer une copie superficielle, la solution de contournement
     suivante peut être utilisée :

          {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

     ‘asdict()’ raises *note TypeError: 525. if 'obj' is not a dataclass
     instance.

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.astuple (obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a tuple (by using the factory
     function 'tuple_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a tuple
     of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are
     recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b5e.

     Pour continuer l'exemple précédent :

          assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
          assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

     Pour créer une copie superficielle, la solution de contournement
     suivante peut être utilisée :

          tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

     ‘astuple()’ raises *note TypeError: 525. if 'obj' is not a
     dataclass instance.

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.make_dataclass (cls_name, fields, *, bases=(),
          namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False,
          unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None)

     Creates a new dataclass with name 'cls_name', fields as defined in
     'fields', base classes as given in 'bases', and initialized with a
     namespace as given in 'namespace'.  'fields' is an iterable whose
     elements are each either ‘name’, ‘(name, type)’, or ‘(name, type,
     Field)’.  If just ‘name’ is supplied, *note typing.Any: 699. is
     used for ‘type’.  The values of 'init', 'repr', 'eq', 'order',
     'unsafe_hash', 'frozen', 'match_args', 'kw_only', 'slots', and
     'weakref_slot' have the same meaning as they do in *note
     @dataclass: 1c6.

     If 'module' is defined, the ‘__module__’ attribute of the dataclass
     is set to that value.  By default, it is set to the module name of
     the caller.

     This function is not strictly required, because any Python
     mechanism for creating a new class with ‘__annotations__’ can then
     apply the *note @dataclass: 1c6. function to convert that class to
     a dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.  For
     example:

          C = make_dataclass('C',
                             [('x', int),
                               'y',
                              ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                             namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

     est équivalent à :

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: 'typing.Any'
              z: int = 5

              def add_one(self):
                  return self.x + 1

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.  If 'obj' is not a Data Class, raises
     *note TypeError: 525.  If keys in 'changes' are not field names of
     the given dataclass, raises *note TypeError: 525.

     The newly returned object is created by calling the *note
     __init__(): 69d. method of the dataclass.  This ensures that *note
     __post_init__(): 43ac, if present, is also called.

     Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
     specified on the call to ‘replace()’ so that they can be passed to
     ‘__init__()’ and *note __post_init__(): 43ac.

     It is an error for 'changes' to contain any fields that are defined
     as having ‘init=False’.  A *note ValueError: 1ff. will be raised in
     this case.

     Be forewarned about how ‘init=False’ fields work during a call to
     ‘replace()’.  They are not copied from the source object, but
     rather are initialized in *note __post_init__(): 43ac, if they're
     initialized at all.  It is expected that ‘init=False’ fields will
     be rarely and judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise
     to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom
     ‘replace()’ (or similarly named) method which handles instance
     copying.

     Dataclass instances are also supported by generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 150.

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.is_dataclass (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses
     of a dataclass) or an instance of one, otherwise return ‘False’.

     Pour vérifier qu'un objet 'obj' est une instance d'une classe de
     données, et non pas lui-même une classe de données, ajoutez le test
     ‘not isinstance(obj, type)’ :

          def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
              return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

 -- Données: dataclasses.MISSING

     Une valeur sentinelle pour dénoter l'absence de 'default' ou
     'default_factory'.

 -- Données: dataclasses.KW_ONLY

     A sentinel value used as a type annotation.  Any fields after a
     pseudo-field with the type of ‘KW_ONLY’ are marked as keyword-only
     fields.  Note that a pseudo-field of type ‘KW_ONLY’ is otherwise
     completely ignored.  This includes the name of such a field.  By
     convention, a name of ‘_’ is used for a ‘KW_ONLY’ field.
     Keyword-only fields signify *note __init__(): 69d. parameters that
     must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated.

     Dans cet exemple ‘y’ et ‘z’ sont marqués comme exclusivement
     nommés :

          @dataclass
          class Point:
              x: float
              _: KW_ONLY
              y: float
              z: float

          p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

     In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one
     field whose type is ‘KW_ONLY’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Exception: dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

     Raised when an implicitly defined *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. or
     *note __delattr__(): 1eea. is called on a dataclass which was
     defined with ‘frozen=True’.  It is a subclass of *note
     AttributeError: 343.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90562

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126


File: python.info,  Node: Post-initialisation,  Next: Variables de classe,  Prev: Classe de données<2>,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.2 Post-initialisation
............................

 -- Fonction: dataclasses.__post_init__ ()

     When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated *note
     __init__(): 69d, normally as ‘self.__post_init__()’.  However, if
     any ‘InitVar’ fields are defined, they will also be passed to
     ‘__post_init__()’ in the order they were defined in the class.  If
     no ‘__init__()’ method is generated, then ‘__post_init__()’ will
     not automatically be called.

     Cette méthode permet, entre autres, d'initialiser des champs qui
     dépendent d'autres champs.  Par exemple :

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: float
              b: float
              c: float = field(init=False)

              def __post_init__(self):
                  self.c = self.a + self.b

The *note __init__(): 69d. method generated by *note @dataclass: 1c6.
does not call base class ‘__init__()’ methods.  If the base class has an
‘__init__()’ method that has to be called, it is common to call this
method in a *note __post_init__(): 43ac. method:

     class Rectangle:
         def __init__(self, height, width):
             self.height = height
             self.width = width

     @dataclass
     class Square(Rectangle):
         side: float

         def __post_init__(self):
             super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated ‘__init__()’
methods don't need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take
care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass
itself.

See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass parameters
to ‘__post_init__()’.  Also see the warning about how *note replace():
16b3. handles ‘init=False’ fields.


File: python.info,  Node: Variables de classe,  Next: Variables d'initialisation,  Prev: Post-initialisation,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.3 Variables de classe
............................

One of the few places where *note @dataclass: 1c6. actually inspects the
type of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as
defined in PEP 526(1).  It does this by checking if the type of the
field is *note typing.ClassVar: 263.  If a field is a ‘ClassVar’, it is
excluded from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass
mechanisms.  Such ‘ClassVar’ pseudo-fields are not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 16fe. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Variables d'initialisation,  Next: Instances figées,  Prev: Variables de classe,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.4 Variables d'initialisation
...................................

Another place where *note @dataclass: 1c6. inspects a type annotation is
to determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by
seeing if the type of a field is of type *note InitVar: 17df.  If a
field is an *note InitVar: 17df, it is considered a pseudo-field called
an init-only field.  As it is not a true field, it is not returned by
the module-level *note fields(): 16fe. function.  Init-only fields are
added as parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 69d. method, and
are passed to the optional *note __post_init__(): 43ac. method.  They
are not otherwise used by dataclasses.

On peut par exemple imaginer un champ initialisé à partir d'une base de
données s'il n'a pas reçu de valeur explicite :

     @dataclass
     class C:
         i: int
         j: int | None = None
         database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

         def __post_init__(self, database):
             if self.j is None and database is not None:
                 self.j = database.lookup('j')

     c = C(10, database=my_database)

In this case, *note fields(): 16fe. will return *note Field: 2213.
objects for ‘i’ and ‘j’, but not for ‘database’.


File: python.info,  Node: Instances figées,  Next: Héritage<2>,  Prev: Variables d'initialisation,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.5 Instances figées
.........................

It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
by passing ‘frozen=True’ to the *note @dataclass: 1c6. decorator you can
emulate immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add *note
__setattr__(): 1ee9. and *note __delattr__(): 1eea. methods to the
class.  These methods will raise a *note FrozenInstanceError: 43ad. when
invoked.

There is a tiny performance penalty when using ‘frozen=True’: *note
__init__(): 69d. cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
must use ‘object.__setattr__()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Héritage<2>,  Next: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Prev: Instances figées,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.6 Héritage
.................

When the dataclass is being created by the *note @dataclass: 1c6.
decorator, it looks through all of the class's base classes in reverse
MRO (that is, starting at *note object: a7c.) and, for each dataclass
that it finds, adds the fields from that base class to an ordered
mapping of fields.  After all of the base class fields are added, it
adds its own fields to the ordered mapping.  All of the generated
methods will use this combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields.
Because the fields are in insertion order, derived classes override base
classes.  An example:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         y: int = 0

     @dataclass
     class C(Base):
         z: int = 10
         x: int = 15

The final list of fields is, in order, ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’.  The final type of
‘x’ is *note int: 254, as specified in class ‘C’.

The generated *note __init__(): 69d. method for ‘C’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):


File: python.info,  Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Next: Fabriques de valeurs par défaut,  Prev: Héritage<2>,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.7 Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in ‘__init__()’
...............................................................

After the parameters needed for *note __init__(): 69d. are computed, any
keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular
(non-keyword-only) parameters.  This is a requirement of how
keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after
non-keyword-only parameters.

In this example, ‘Base.y’, ‘Base.w’, and ‘D.t’ are keyword-only fields,
and ‘Base.x’ and ‘D.z’ are regular fields:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         _: KW_ONLY
         y: int = 0
         w: int = 1

     @dataclass
     class D(Base):
         z: int = 10
         t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

The generated ‘__init__()’ method for ‘D’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

Les paramètres ont été réarrangés par rapport à leur ordre d'apparition
dans la liste des champs : les paramètres provenant des attributs
normaux sont suivis par les paramètres qui proviennent des attributs
exclusivement nommés.

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the
re-ordered ‘__init__()’ parameter list.


File: python.info,  Node: Fabriques de valeurs par défaut,  Next: Valeurs par défaut mutables,  Prev: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.8 Fabriques de valeurs par défaut
........................................

If a *note field(): 19de. specifies a 'default_factory', it is called
with zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For
example, to create a new instance of a list, use:

     mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

If a field is excluded from *note __init__(): 69d. (using ‘init=False’)
and the field also specifies 'default_factory', then the default factory
function will always be called from the generated ‘__init__()’ function.
This happens because there is no other way to give the field an initial
value.


File: python.info,  Node: Valeurs par défaut mutables,  Next: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: Fabriques de valeurs par défaut,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.9 Valeurs par défaut mutables
....................................

En Python, les valeurs par défaut des attributs sont stockées dans des
attributs de la classe.  Observez cet exemple, sans classe de données :

     class C:
         x = []
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     o1 = C()
     o2 = C()
     o1.add(1)
     o2.add(2)
     assert o1.x == [1, 2]
     assert o1.x is o2.x

Note that the two instances of class ‘C’ share the same class variable
‘x’, as expected.

Avec les classes de données, si ce code était valide :

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = []      # This code raises ValueError
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

il générerait un code équivalent à :

     class D:
         x = []
         def __init__(self, x=x):
             self.x = x
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     assert D().x is D().x

This has the same issue as the original example using class ‘C’.  That
is, two instances of class ‘D’ that do not specify a value for ‘x’ when
creating a class instance will share the same copy of ‘x’.  Because
dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also share this
behavior.  There is no general way for Data Classes to detect this
condition.  Instead, the *note @dataclass: 1c6. decorator will raise a
*note ValueError: 1ff. if it detects an unhashable default parameter.
The assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable.  This is
a partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors.

Pour qu'un champ d'un type mutable soit par défaut initialisé à un
nouvel objet pour chaque instance, utilisez une fonction de fabrique :

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = field(default_factory=list)

     assert D().x is not D().x

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Instead of looking for and disallowing
objects of type *note list: 5fe, *note dict: 253, or *note set: 5c5,
unhashable objects are now not allowed as default values.  Unhashability
is used to approximate mutability.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: Valeurs par défaut mutables,  Up: dataclasses --- Data Classes

5.30.7.10 Descriptor-typed fields
.................................

Fields that are assigned *note descriptor objects: c3f. as their default
value have the following special behaviors:

   * The value for the field passed to the dataclass's *note __init__():
     69d. method is passed to the descriptor's *note __set__(): 1f23.
     method rather than overwriting the descriptor object.

   * Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor's
     *note __get__(): 149f. or ‘__set__()’ method is called rather than
     returning or overwriting the descriptor object.

   * To determine whether a field contains a default value, *note
     @dataclass: 1c6. will call the descriptor's ‘__get__()’ method
     using its class access form: ‘descriptor.__get__(obj=None,
     type=cls)’.  If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it
     will be used as the field's default.  On the other hand, if the
     descriptor raises *note AttributeError: 343. in this situation, no
     default value will be provided for the field.

     class IntConversionDescriptor:
         def __init__(self, *, default):
             self._default = default

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = "_" + name

         def __get__(self, obj, type):
             if obj is None:
                 return self._default

             return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

     i = InventoryItem()
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
     i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # calls __set__ with 2.5
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not
assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act
like a normal field.


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with,  Next: abc --- Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: dataclasses --- Data Classes,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.8 ‘contextlib’ — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction ‘with’
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/contextlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des utilitaires pour les tâches impliquant le mot-clé
*note with: 5be.  Pour plus d'informations voir aussi *note Le type
gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78. et *note Gestionnaire de contexte With:
1f76.

* Menu:

* Utilitaires::
* Exemples et Recettes::
* Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/contextlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilitaires,  Next: Exemples et Recettes,  Up: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

5.30.8.1 Utilitaires
....................

Fonctions et classes fournies :

 -- Classe: contextlib.AbstractContextManager

     *note Classe mère abstraite: 1195. pour les classes qui
     implémentent les méthodes *note object.__enter__(): 5b4. et *note
     object.__exit__(): 12e0.  Une implémentation par défaut de *note
     object.__enter__(): 5b4. est fournie, qui renvoie ‘self’, et *note
     object.__exit__(): 12e0. est une méthode abstraite qui renvoie
     ‘None’ par défaut.  Voir aussi la définition de *note Le type
     gestionnaire de contexte: 1f78.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Classe: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

     *note Classe mère abstraite: 1195. pour les classes qui
     implémentent les méthodes *note object.__aenter__(): 1f89. et *note
     object.__aexit__(): 15e5.  Une implémentation par défaut de *note
     object.__aenter__(): 1f89. est fournie, qui renvoie ‘self’, et
     *note object.__aexit__(): 15e5. est une méthode abstraite qui
     renvoie ‘None’ par défaut.  Voir aussi la définition de *note
     Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones: 5e8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: @contextlib.contextmanager

     This function is a *note decorator: 71d. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note with: 5be. statement context managers,
     without needing to create a class or separate *note __enter__():
     5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods.

     While many objects natively support use in with statements,
     sometimes a resource needs to be managed that isn't a context
     manager in its own right, and doesn't implement a ‘close()’ method
     for use with ‘contextlib.closing’.

     L'exemple abstrait suivant présente comment assurer une gestion
     correcte des ressources :

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
              # Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
              resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
              try:
                  yield resource
              finally:
                  # Code to release resource, e.g.:
                  release_resource(resource)

     The function can then be used like this:

          >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
          ...     # Resource is released at the end of this block,
          ...     # even if code in the block raises an exception

     La fonction à décorer doit renvoyer un *note générateur:
     104c.-itérateur quand elle est appelée.  Ce générateur ne doit
     produire qu'une seule valeur, qui est récupérée dans le bloc *note
     with: 5be. à l'aide de la clause ‘as’ si précisée.

     Au moment où le générateur produit une valeur, le bloc imbriqué
     sous l'instruction *note with: 5be. est exécuté.  Le générateur est
     ensuite repris après la sortie du bloc.  Si une exception non gérée
     survient dans le bloc, elle est relayée dans le générateur au
     niveau de l'instruction 'yield'.  Ainsi, vous pouvez utiliser les
     instructions *note try: 6d5.…*note except: 189.…*note finally: 9ba.
     pour attraper l'erreur (s'il y a), ou vous assurer qu'un nettoyage
     a bien lieu.  Si une exception est attrapée dans l'unique but
     d'être journalisée ou d'effectuer une action particulière (autre
     que supprimer entièrement l'exception), le générateur se doit de la
     relayer.  Autrement le générateur gestionnaire de contexte doit
     indiquer à l'instruction ‘with’ que l'exception a été gérée, et
     l'exécution reprend sur l'instruction qui suit directement le bloc
     ‘with’.

     Le décorateur *note contextmanager(): 11e1. utilise la classe *note
     ContextDecorator: 11e0. afin que les gestionnaires de contexte
     qu'il crée puissent être utilisés aussi bien en tant que
     décorateurs qu'avec des instructions *note with: 5be.  Quand vous
     l'utilisez comme décorateur, une nouvelle instance du générateur
     est créée à chaque appel de la fonction (cela permet aux
     gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique créés par *note
     contextmanager(): 11e1. de remplir la condition de pouvoir être
     invoqués plusieurs fois afin d'être utilisés comme décorateurs).

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utilisation de la classe *note
     ContextDecorator: 11e0.

 -- Fonction: @contextlib.asynccontextmanager

     Similaire à *note contextmanager(): 11e1, mais crée un *note
     gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone: 5e8.

     This function is a *note decorator: 71d. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note async with: 5c1. statement
     asynchronous context managers, without needing to create a class or
     separate *note __aenter__(): 1f89. and *note __aexit__(): 15e5.
     methods.  It must be applied to an *note asynchronous generator:
     1ff6. function.

     Un exemple simple :

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def get_connection():
              conn = await acquire_db_connection()
              try:
                  yield conn
              finally:
                  await release_db_connection(conn)

          async def get_all_users():
              async with get_connection() as conn:
                  return conn.query('SELECT ...')

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Les gestionnaires de contexte définis avec *note
     asynccontextmanager(): b1a. peuvent s'utiliser comme décorateurs ou
     dans les instructions *note async with: 5c1. :

          import time
          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def timeit():
              now = time.monotonic()
              try:
                  yield
              finally:
                  print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')

          @timeit()
          async def main():
              # ... async code ...

     When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly
     created on each function call.  This allows the otherwise
     "one-shot" context managers created by *note asynccontextmanager():
     b1a. to meet the requirement that context managers support multiple
     invocations in order to be used as decorators.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Async context managers created with
     *note asynccontextmanager(): b1a. can be used as decorators.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.closing (thing)

     Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte qui ferme 'thing' à la fin du
     bloc.  C'est essentiellement équivalent à :

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def closing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  thing.close()

     Et cela vous permet d'écrire du code tel que :

          from contextlib import closing
          from urllib.request import urlopen

          with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
              for line in page:
                  print(line)

     sans besoin de fermer explicitement ‘page’.  Même si une erreur
     survient, ‘page.close()’ est appelée à la fermeture du bloc *note
     with: 5be.

          Note: Most types managing resources support the *note context
          manager: 5c0. protocol, which closes 'thing' on leaving the
          *note with: 5be. statement.  As such, ‘closing()’ is most
          useful for third party types that don't support context
          managers.  This example is purely for illustration purposes,
          as *note urlopen(): 290. would normally be used in a context
          manager.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.aclosing (thing)

     Return an async context manager that calls the ‘aclose()’ method of
     'thing' upon completion of the block.  This is basically equivalent
     to:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def aclosing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  await thing.aclose()

     Significantly, ‘aclosing()’ supports deterministic cleanup of async
     generators when they happen to exit early by *note break: a99. or
     an exception.  For example:

          from contextlib import aclosing

          async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
              async for value in values:
                  if value == 42:
                      break

     This pattern ensures that the generator's async exit code is
     executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions
     and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn't run
     after the lifetime of some task it depends on).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.nullcontext (enter_result=None)

     Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte dont la méthode ‘__enter__’
     renvoie 'enter_result', mais ne fait rien d'autre.  L'idée est de
     l'utiliser comme remplaçant pour un gestionnaire de contexte
     optionnel, par exemple :

          def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
              if ignore_exceptions:
                  # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
                  cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
              else:
                  # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
                  cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
              with cm:
                  # Do something

     Un exemple utilisant 'enter_result' :

          def process_file(file_or_path):
              if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
                  # If string, open file
                  cm = open(file_or_path)
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing file
                  cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)

              with cm as file:
                  # Perform processing on the file

     It can also be used as a stand-in for *note asynchronous context
     managers: 5e8.:

          async def send_http(session=None):
              if not session:
                  # If no http session, create it with aiohttp
                  cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing the session
                  cm = nullcontext(session)

              async with cm as session:
                  # Send http requests with session

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note asynchronous context manager:
     5c3. support was added.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.suppress (*exceptions)

     Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified
     exceptions if they occur in the body of a ‘with’ statement and then
     resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the
     ‘with’ statement.

     Comme pour tous les mécanismes qui suppriment complètement les
     exceptions, ce gestionnaire de contexte doit seulement être utilisé
     pour couvrir des cas très spécifiques d'erreurs où il est certain
     que continuer silencieusement l'exécution du programme est la bonne
     chose à faire.

     Par exemple :

          from contextlib import suppress

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')

     Ce code est équivalent à :

          try:
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

          try:
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

     Ce gestionnaire de contexte est *note réentrant: 43bf.

     If the code within the ‘with’ block raises a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 25c, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
     group.  Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are
     re-raised in a new group which is created using the original
     group's *note derive(): 167b. method.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘suppress’ now supports suppressing
     exceptions raised as part of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.redirect_stdout (new_target)

     Gestionnaire de contexte servant à rediriger temporairement *note
     sys.stdout: ac6. vers un autre fichier ou objet fichier-compatible.

     Cet outil ajoute une certaine flexibilité aux fonctions ou classes
     existantes dont la sortie est envoyée vers la sortie standard.

     For example, the output of *note help(): 8c6. normally is sent to
     'sys.stdout'.  You can capture that output in a string by
     redirecting the output to an *note io.StringIO: f14. object.  The
     replacement stream is returned from the ‘__enter__’ method and so
     is available as the target of the *note with: 5be. statement:

          with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
              help(pow)
          s = f.getvalue()

     Pour envoyer la sortie de *note help(): 8c6. vers un fichier sur le
     disque, redirigez-la sur un fichier normal :

          with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
              with redirect_stdout(f):
                  help(pow)

     Pour envoyer la sortie de *note help(): 8c6. sur 'sys.stderr' :

          with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
              help(pow)

     Notez que l'effet de bord global sur *note sys.stdout: ac6.
     signifie que ce gestionnaire de contexte n'est pas adapté à une
     utilisation dans le code d'une bibliothèque ni dans la plupart des
     applications à plusieurs fils d'exécution.  Aussi, cela n'a pas
     d'effet sur la sortie des sous-processus.  Cependant, cela reste
     une approche utile pour beaucoup de scripts utilitaires.

     Ce gestionnaire de contexte est *note réentrant: 43bf.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.redirect_stderr (new_target)

     Similaire à *note redirect_stdout(): dd7. mais redirige *note
     sys.stderr: 928. vers un autre fichier ou objet fichier-compatible.

     Ce gestionnaire de contexte est *note réentrant: 43bf.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: contextlib.chdir (path)

     Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working
     directory.  As this changes a global state, the working directory,
     it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts.  It
     is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like
     generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished
     - unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context
     manager is active.

     This is a simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 5fa, it changes the
     current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on
     exit.

     Ce gestionnaire de contexte est *note réentrant: 43bf.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: contextlib.ContextDecorator

     Une classe mère qui permet à un gestionnaire de contexte d'être
     aussi utilisé comme décorateur.

     Les gestionnaires de contexte héritant de ‘ContextDecorator’
     doivent implémenter ‘__enter__’ et ‘__exit__’ comme habituellement.
     ‘__exit__’ conserve sa gestion optionnelle des exceptions même lors
     de l'utilisation en décorateur.

     ‘ContextDecorator’ est utilisé par *note contextmanager(): 11e1,
     donc vous bénéficiez automatiquement de cette fonctionnalité.

     Exemple de ‘ContextDecorator’ :

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> function()
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> with mycontext():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     Ce changement est simplement un sucre syntaxique pour les
     constructions de la forme suivante :

          def f():
              with cm():
                  # Do stuff

     ‘ContextDecorator’ vous permet d'écrire à la place :

          @cm()
          def f():
              # Do stuff

     Cela éclaircit le fait que ‘cm’ s'applique à la fonction entière,
     et pas seulement à un morceau en particulier (et gagner un niveau
     d'indentation est toujours appréciable).

     Les gestionnaires de contexte existants qui ont déjà une classe
     mère peuvent être étendus en utilisant ‘ContextDecorator’ comme une
     'mixin' :

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  return False

          Note: Comme la fonction décorée doit être capable d'être
          appelée plusieurs fois, le gestionnaire de contexte
          sous-jacent doit permettre d'être utilisé dans de multiples
          instructions *note with: 5be.  Si ce n'est pas le cas, alors
          la construction d'origine avec de multiples instructions
          ‘with’ au sein de la fonction doit être utilisée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Classe: contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator

     Similar to *note ContextDecorator: 11e0. but only for asynchronous
     functions.

     Example of ‘AsyncContextDecorator’:

          from asyncio import run
          from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator

          class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
              async def __aenter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... async def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> async def function():
          ...    async with mycontext():
          ...         print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: contextlib.ExitStack

     Gestionnaire de contexte conçu pour simplifier le fait de combiner
     programmatiquement d'autres gestionnaires de contexte et fonctions
     de nettoyage, spécifiquement ceux qui sont optionnels ou pilotés
     par des données d'entrée.

     Par exemple, un ensemble de fichiers peut facilement être géré dans
     une unique instruction 'with' comme suit :

          with ExitStack() as stack:
              files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
              # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
              # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
              # in the list raise an exception

     The *note __enter__(): 5b4. method returns the *note ExitStack:
     b19. instance, and performs no additional operations.

     Chaque instance maintient une pile de fonctions de rappels
     ('callbacks') enregistrées qui sont appelées en ordre inverse quand
     l'instance est fermée (explicitement ou implicitement à la fin d'un
     bloc *note with: 5be.).  Notez que ces fonctions ne sont 'pas'
     invoquées implicitement quand l'instance de la pile de contextes
     est collectée par le ramasse-miettes.

     Ce modèle de pile est utilisé afin que les gestionnaires de
     contexte qui acquièrent leurs ressources dans leur méthode
     ‘__init__’ (tels que les objets-fichiers) puissent être gérés
     correctement.

     Comme les fonctions de rappel enregistrées sont invoquées dans
     l'ordre inverse d'enregistrement, cela revient au même que si de
     multiples blocs *note with: 5be. imbriqués avaient été utilisés
     avec l'ensemble de fonctions enregistrées.  Cela s'étend aussi à la
     gestion d'exceptions — si une fonction de rappel intérieure
     supprime ou remplace une exception, alors les fonctions extérieures
     reçoivent des arguments basés sur ce nouvel état.

     C'est une 'API' relativement bas-niveau qui s'occupe de dérouler
     correctement la pile des appels de sortie.  Elle fournit une base
     adaptée pour des gestionnaires de contexte de plus haut niveau qui
     manipulent la pile de sortie de manière spécifique à l'application.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Méthode: enter_context (cm)

          Enters a new context manager and adds its *note __exit__():
          12e0. method to the callback stack.  The return value is the
          result of the context manager's own *note __enter__(): 5b4.
          method.

          Ces gestionnaires de contexte peuvent supprimer des exceptions
          comme ils le feraient normalement s'ils étaient utilisés
          directement derrière une instruction *note with: 5be.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: Raises *note TypeError: 525.
          instead of *note AttributeError: 343. if 'cm' is not a context
          manager.

      -- Méthode: push (exit)

          Adds a context manager's *note __exit__(): 12e0. method to the
          callback stack.

          As ‘__enter__’ is 'not' invoked, this method can be used to
          cover part of an *note __enter__(): 5b4. implementation with a
          context manager's own *note __exit__(): 12e0. method.

          If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method
          assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context
          manager's *note __exit__(): 12e0. method and adds it directly
          to the callback stack.

          By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress
          exceptions the same way context manager *note __exit__():
          12e0. methods can.

          L'objet passé en paramètre est renvoyé par la fonction, ce qui
          permet à la méthode d'être utilisée comme décorateur de
          fonction.

      -- Méthode: callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Accepte une fonction arbitraire et ses arguments et les ajoute
          à la pile des fonctions de rappel.

          À la différence des autres méthodes, les fonctions de rappel
          ajoutées de cette manière ne peuvent pas supprimer les
          exceptions (puisqu'elles ne reçoivent jamais les détails de
          l'exception).

          La fonction passée en paramètre est renvoyée par la méthode,
          ce qui permet à la méthode d'être utilisée comme décorateur de
          fonction.

      -- Méthode: pop_all ()

          Transfère la pile d'appels à une nouvelle instance de *note
          ExitStack: b19. et la renvoie.  Aucune fonction de rappel
          n'est invoquée par cette opération — à la place, elles sont
          dorénavant invoquées quand la nouvelle pile sera close (soit
          explicitement soit implicitement à la fin d'un bloc *note
          with: 5be.).

          Par exemple, un groupe de fichiers peut être ouvert comme une
          opération « tout ou rien » comme suit :

               with ExitStack() as stack:
                   files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
                   # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
                   close_files = stack.pop_all().close
                   # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
                   # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
                   # they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
                   # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.

      -- Méthode: close ()

          Déroule immédiatement la pile d'appels, invoquant les
          fonctions de rappel dans l'ordre inverse d'enregistrement.
          Pour chaque gestionnaire de contexte et fonction de sortie
          enregistré, les arguments passés indiqueront qu'aucune
          exception n'est survenue.

 -- Classe: contextlib.AsyncExitStack

     Un *note gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone: 5e8, similaire à
     *note ExitStack: b19, apte à combiner à la fois des gestionnaires
     de contexte synchrones et asynchrones, ainsi que la gestion de
     coroutines pour la logique de nettoyage.

     The *note close(): 43c2. method is not implemented; *note aclose():
     43c3. must be used instead.

      -- Méthode: async enter_async_context (cm)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.enter_context(): 5bf. but expects
          an asynchronous context manager.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: Raises *note TypeError: 525.
          instead of *note AttributeError: 343. if 'cm' is not an
          asynchronous context manager.

      -- Méthode: push_async_exit (exit)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.push(): 43c0. but expects either an
          asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function.

      -- Méthode: push_async_callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.callback(): a73. but expects a
          coroutine function.

      -- Méthode: async aclose ()

          Similar to *note ExitStack.close(): 43c2. but properly handles
          awaitables.

     En continuité de l'exemple de *note asynccontextmanager(): b1a. :

          async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
              connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
                  for i in range(5)]
              # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
              # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
              # later in the list raise an exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples et Recettes,  Next: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants,  Prev: Utilitaires,  Up: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

5.30.8.2 Exemples et Recettes
.............................

Cette section décrit quelques exemples et recettes pour décrire une
utilisation réelle des outils fournis par *note contextlib: 23.

* Menu:

* Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte::
* Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__::
* Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__::
* Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable::
* Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction::


File: python.info,  Node: Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte,  Next: Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__,  Up: Exemples et Recettes

5.30.8.3 Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte
..............................................................

Le cas d'utilisation primaire de *note ExitStack: b19. est celui décrit
dans la documentation de la classe : gérer un nombre variable de
gestionnaires de contexte et d'autres opérations de nettoyage en une
unique instruction *note with: 5be.  La variabilité peut venir du nombre
de gestionnaires de contexte voulus découlant d'une entrée de
l'utilisateur (comme ouvrir une collection spécifique de fichiers de
l'utilisateur), ou de certains gestionnaires de contexte qui peuvent
être optionnels :

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         for resource in resources:
             stack.enter_context(resource)
         if need_special_resource():
             special = acquire_special_resource()
             stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
         # Perform operations that use the acquired resources

Comme montré, *note ExitStack: b19. rend aussi assez facile d'utiliser
les instructions *note with: 5be. pour gérer des ressources arbitraires
qui ne gèrent pas nativement le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte.


File: python.info,  Node: Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__,  Next: Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__,  Prev: Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte,  Up: Exemples et Recettes

5.30.8.4 Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes ‘__enter__’
................................................................

Il est occasionnellement souhaitable d'attraper les exceptions depuis
l'implémentation d'une méthode ‘__enter__’, 'sans' attraper par
inadvertance les exceptions du corps de l'instruction *note with: 5be.
ou de la méthode ‘__exit__’ des gestionnaires de contexte.  En utilisant
*note ExitStack: b19, les étapes du protocole des gestionnaires de
contexte peuvent être légèrement séparées pour permettre le code
suivant :

     stack = ExitStack()
     try:
         x = stack.enter_context(cm)
     except Exception:
         # handle __enter__ exception
     else:
         with stack:
             # Handle normal case

Avoir à faire cela est en fait surtout utile pour indiquer que l''API'
sous-jacente devrait fournir une interface directe de gestion des
ressources à utiliser avec les instructions *note try: 6d5./*note
except: 189./*note finally: 9ba, mais que toutes les 'API' ne sont pas
bien conçues dans cet objectif.  Quand un gestionnaire de contexte est
la seule 'API' de gestion des ressources fournie, alors *note ExitStack:
b19. peut rendre plus facile la gestion de plusieurs situations qui ne
peuvent pas être traitées directement dans une instruction *note with:
5be.


File: python.info,  Node: Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__,  Next: Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable,  Prev: Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__,  Up: Exemples et Recettes

5.30.8.5 Nettoyer dans une méthode ‘__enter__’
..............................................

As noted in the documentation of *note ExitStack.push(): 43c0, this
method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if
later steps in the *note __enter__(): 5b4. implementation fail.

Voici un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte qui reçoit des fonctions
d'acquisition de ressources et de libération, avec une méthode de
validation optionnelle, et qui les adapte au protocole des gestionnaires
de contexte :

     from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack

     class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):

         def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
             self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
             self.release_resource = release_resource
             if check_resource_ok is None:
                 def check_resource_ok(resource):
                     return True
             self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok

         @contextmanager
         def _cleanup_on_error(self):
             with ExitStack() as stack:
                 stack.push(self)
                 yield
                 # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
                 # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
                 # back to our caller
                 stack.pop_all()

         def __enter__(self):
             resource = self.acquire_resource()
             with self._cleanup_on_error():
                 if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
                     msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
                     raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
             return resource

         def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
             # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
             self.release_resource()


File: python.info,  Node: Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable,  Next: Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction,  Prev: Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__,  Up: Exemples et Recettes

5.30.8.6 Remplacer un ‘try-finally’ avec une option variable
............................................................

Un modèle que vous rencontrerez parfois est un bloc ‘try-finally’ avec
une option pour indiquer si le corps de la clause ‘finally’ doit être
exécuté ou non.  Dans sa forme la plus simple (qui ne peut pas déjà être
gérée avec juste une clause ‘except’), cela ressemble à :

     cleanup_needed = True
     try:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cleanup_needed = False
     finally:
         if cleanup_needed:
             cleanup_resources()

Comme avec n'importe quel code basé sur une instruction ‘try’, cela peut
poser problème pour le développement et la revue, parce que beaucoup de
codes d'installation et de nettoyage peuvent finir par être séparés par
des sections de code arbitrairement longues.

*note ExitStack: b19. rend possible de plutôt enregistrer une fonction
de rappel pour être exécutée à la fin d'une instruction ‘with’, et
décider ensuite de passer l'exécution de cet appel :

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front,
rather than requiring a separate flag variable.

Si une application particulière utilise beaucoup ce modèle, cela
peut-être simplifié encore plus au moyen d'une petite classe d'aide :

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     class Callback(ExitStack):
         def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
             super().__init__()
             self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)

         def cancel(self):
             self.pop_all()

     with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cb.cancel()

Si le nettoyage de la ressource n'est pas déjà soigneusement embarqué
dans une fonction autonome, il est possible d'utiliser le décorateur
*note ExitStack.callback(): a73. pour déclarer la fonction de nettoyage
de ressource en avance :

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         @stack.callback
         def cleanup_resources():
             ...
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

Dû au fonctionnement du protocole des décorateurs, une fonction déclarée
ainsi ne peut prendre aucun paramètre.  À la place, les ressources à
libérer doivent être récupérées depuis l'extérieur comme des variables
de fermeture ('closure').


File: python.info,  Node: Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction,  Prev: Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable,  Up: Exemples et Recettes

5.30.8.7 Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction
................................................................................

*note ContextDecorator: 11e0. rend possible l'utilisation d'un
gestionnaire de contexte à la fois ordinairement avec une instruction
‘with’ ou comme un décorateur de fonction.

Par exemple, il est parfois utile d'emballer les fonctions ou blocs
d'instructions avec un journaliseur qui pourrait suivre le temps
d'exécution entre l'entrée et la sortie.  Plutôt qu'écrire à la fois un
décorateur et un gestionnaire de contexte pour la même tâche, hériter de
*note ContextDecorator: 11e0. fournit les deux fonctionnalités en une
seule définition :

     from contextlib import ContextDecorator
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def __enter__(self):
             logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
             logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)

Les instances de cette classe peuvent être utilisées comme gestionnaires
de contexte :

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Et comme décorateurs de fonctions :

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
as function decorators: there's no way to access the return value of
*note __enter__(): 5b4.  If that value is needed, then it is still
necessary to use an explicit ‘with’ statement.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 343(1) - The "with" statement

     La spécification, les motivations et des exemples de l'instruction
     *note with: 5be. en Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants,  Prev: Exemples et Recettes,  Up: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

5.30.8.8 Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants
..............................................................................

La plupart des gestionnaires de contexte sont écrits d'une manière qui
ne leur permet que d'être utilisés une fois avec une instruction *note
with: 5be.  Ces gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique doivent être
recréés chaque fois qu'ils sont utilisés — tenter de les utiliser une
seconde fois lève une exception ou ne fonctionne pas correctement.

Cette limitation commune signifie qu'il est généralement conseillé de
créer les gestionnaires de contexte directement dans l'en-tête du bloc
*note with: 5be. où ils sont utilisés (comme montré dans tous les
exemples d'utilisation au-dessus).

Les fichiers sont un exemple de gestionnaires de contexte étant
effectivement à usage unique, puisque la première instruction *note
with: 5be. ferme le fichier, empêchant d'autres opérations
d'entrée/sortie d'être exécutées sur ce fichier.

Les gestionnaires de contexte créés avec *note contextmanager(): 11e1.
sont aussi à usage unique, et se plaindront du fait que le générateur
sous-jacent ne produise plus de valeur si vous essayez de les utiliser
une seconde fois :

     >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
     >>> @contextmanager
     ... def singleuse():
     ...     print("Before")
     ...     yield
     ...     print("After")
     ...
     >>> cm = singleuse()
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Before
     After
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     RuntimeError: generator didn't yield

* Menu:

* Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants::
* Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables::


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants,  Next: Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables,  Up: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants

5.30.8.9 Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants
.............................................

Certains gestionnaires de contexte plus sophistiqués peuvent être
« réentrants ».  Ces gestionnaires de contexte ne peuvent pas seulement
être utilisés avec plusieurs instructions *note with: 5be, mais aussi 'à
l'intérieur' d'une instruction ‘with’ qui utilise déjà ce même
gestionnaire de contexte.

*note threading.RLock: 2dd. is an example of a reentrant context
manager, as are *note suppress(): f13, *note redirect_stdout(): dd7, and
*note chdir(): 5f9.  Here's a very simple example of reentrant use:

     >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> stream = StringIO()
     >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
     >>> with write_to_stream:
     ...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
     ...     with write_to_stream:
     ...         print("This is also written to the stream")
     ...
     >>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
     This is written directly to stdout
     >>> print(stream.getvalue())
     This is written to the stream rather than stdout
     This is also written to the stream

Les exemples plus réels de réentrance sont susceptibles d'invoquer
plusieurs fonctions s'entre-appelant, et donc être bien plus compliqués
que cet exemple.

Notez aussi qu'être réentrant ne signifie 'pas' être 'thread safe'.
*note redirect_stdout(): dd7, par exemple, n'est définitivement pas
'thread safe', puisqu'il effectue des changements globaux sur l'état du
système en branchant *note sys.stdout: ac6. sur différents flux.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables,  Prev: Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants,  Up: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants

5.30.8.10 Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables
.................................................

D'autres gestionnaires de contexte que ceux à usage unique et les
réentrants sont les gestionnaires de contexte « réutilisables » (ou,
pour être plus explicite, « réutilisables mais pas réentrants », puisque
les gestionnaires de contexte réentrants sont aussi réutilisables).  Ces
gestionnaires de contexte sont conçus afin d'être utilisés plusieurs
fois, mais échoueront (ou ne fonctionnent pas correctement) si
l'instance de gestionnaire de contexte référencée a déjà été utilisée
dans une instruction 'with' englobante.

*note threading.Lock: 1632. est un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte
réutilisable mais pas réentrant (pour un verrou réentrant, il faut à la
place utiliser *note threading.RLock: 2dd.).

Un autre exemple de gestionnaire de contexte réutilisable mais pas
réentrant est *note ExitStack: b19, puisqu'il invoque 'toutes' les
fonctions de rappel actuellement enregistrées en quittant l'instruction
'with', sans regarder où ces fonctions ont été ajoutées :

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> stack = ExitStack()
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
     ...     print("Leaving first context")
     ...
     Leaving first context
     Callback: from first context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
     ...     print("Leaving second context")
     ...
     Leaving second context
     Callback: from second context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with stack:
     ...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Callback: from outer context
     Leaving outer context

Comme le montre la sortie de l'exemple, réutiliser une simple pile entre
plusieurs instructions 'with' fonctionne correctement, mais essayer de
les imbriquer fait que la pile est vidée à la fin du 'with' le plus
imbriqué, ce qui n'est probablement pas le comportement voulu.

Pour éviter ce problème, utilisez des instances différentes de *note
ExitStack: b19. plutôt qu'une seule instance :

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
     ...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
     ...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Leaving outer context
     Callback: from outer context


File: python.info,  Node: abc --- Abstract Base Classes,  Next: atexit --- Exit handlers,  Prev: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.9 ‘abc’ -- Abstract Base Classes
-------------------------------------

'Code source:' Lib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module fournit l'infrastructure pour définir les *note classes mères
abstraites: 1195. ('Abstract Base Class' ou 'ABC' en anglais) en Python,
tel qu'indiqué dans la PEP 3119(2); voir la PEP pour la raison de son
ajout à Python.  (Voir également la PEP 3141(3) et le module *note
numbers: 9d. pour ce qui concerne la hiérarchie de types pour les
nombres basés sur les classes mères abstraites).  Par la suite nous
utiliserons l'abréviation ABC ('Abstract Base Class') pour désigner une
classe mère abstraite.

The *note collections: 1d. module has some concrete classes that derive
from ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived.  In addition, the
*note collections.abc: 1e. submodule has some ABCs that can be used to
test whether a class or instance provides a particular interface, for
example, if it is *note hashable: 5fd. or if it is a *note mapping:
119b.

Ce module fournit la métaclasse *note ABCMeta: f05. pour définir les ABC
ainsi que la classe d'aide *note ABC: f04, cette dernière permettant de
définir des ABC en utilisant l'héritage :

 -- Classe: abc.ABC

     A helper class that has *note ABCMeta: f05. as its metaclass.  With
     this class, an abstract base class can be created by simply
     deriving from ‘ABC’ avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage,
     for example:

          from abc import ABC

          class MyABC(ABC):
              pass

     Note that the type of ‘ABC’ is still *note ABCMeta: f05, therefore
     inheriting from ‘ABC’ requires the usual precautions regarding
     metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass
     conflicts.  One may also define an abstract base class by passing
     the metaclass keyword and using ‘ABCMeta’ directly, for example:

          from abc import ABCMeta

          class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
              pass

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Classe: abc.ABCMeta

     Métaclasse pour définir des classes mères abstraites (ABC).

     Utilisez cette métaclasse pour créer une ABC. Il est possible
     d'hériter d'une ABC directement, cette classe mère abstraite
     fonctionne alors comme une classe 'mixin'.  Vous pouvez également
     enregistrer une classe concrète sans lien (même une classe native)
     et des ABC comme "sous-classes virtuelles" - celles-ci et leur
     descendantes seront considérées comme des sous-classes de la classe
     mère abstraite par la fonction native *note issubclass(): 7ad, mais
     les ABC enregistrées n'apparaitront pas dans leur ordre de
     résolution des méthodes ('MRO' pour 'Method Resolution Order' en
     anglais).  Les implémentations de méthodes définies par l'ABC ne
     seront pas appelable (pas même via *note super(): 4c8.).  (4)

     Classes created with a metaclass of ‘ABCMeta’ have the following
     method:

      -- Méthode: register (subclass)

          Enregistrer 'subclass' en tant que sous-classe virtuelle de
          cette ABC. Par exemple :

               from abc import ABC

               class MyABC(ABC):
                   pass

               MyABC.register(tuple)

               assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
               assert isinstance((), MyABC)

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: Renvoie la sous-classe
          enregistrée pour permettre l'utilisation en tant que
          décorateur de classe.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: To detect calls to ‘register()’,
          you can use the *note get_cache_token(): f03. function.

     Vous pouvez également redéfinir cette méthode dans une ABC :

      -- Méthode: __subclasshook__ (subclass)

          (Doit être définie en tant que méthode de classe.)

          Check whether 'subclass' is considered a subclass of this ABC.
          This means that you can customize the behavior of *note
          issubclass(): 7ad. further without the need to call *note
          register(): 1074. on every class you want to consider a
          subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the
          *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f36. method of the ABC.)

          This method should return ‘True’, ‘False’ or *note
          NotImplemented: 7be.  If it returns ‘True’, the 'subclass' is
          considered a subclass of this ABC. If it returns ‘False’, the
          'subclass' is not considered a subclass of this ABC, even if
          it would normally be one.  If it returns ‘NotImplemented’, the
          subclass check is continued with the usual mechanism.

     Pour une illustration de ces concepts, voir cet exemple de
     définition de ABC :

          class Foo:
              def __getitem__(self, index):
                  ...
              def __len__(self):
                  ...
              def get_iterator(self):
                  return iter(self)

          class MyIterable(ABC):

              @abstractmethod
              def __iter__(self):
                  while False:
                      yield None

              def get_iterator(self):
                  return self.__iter__()

              @classmethod
              def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
                  if cls is MyIterable:
                      if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
                          return True
                  return NotImplemented

          MyIterable.register(Foo)

     The ABC ‘MyIterable’ defines the standard iterable method, *note
     __iter__(): 1f15, as an abstract method.  The implementation given
     here can still be called from subclasses.  The ‘get_iterator()’
     method is also part of the ‘MyIterable’ abstract base class, but it
     does not have to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.

     The *note __subclasshook__(): 24e4. class method defined here says
     that any class that has an *note __iter__(): 1f15. method in its
     *note __dict__: 549. (or in that of one of its base classes,
     accessed via the *note __mro__: 1ee5. list) is considered a
     ‘MyIterable’ too.

     Finally, the last line makes ‘Foo’ a virtual subclass of
     ‘MyIterable’, even though it does not define an *note __iter__():
     1f15. method (it uses the old-style iterable protocol, defined in
     terms of *note __len__(): 1f1c. and *note __getitem__(): 280.).
     Note that this will not make ‘get_iterator’ available as a method
     of ‘Foo’, so it is provided separately.

The ‘abc’ module also provides the following decorator:

 -- Fonction: @abc.abstractmethod

     Un décorateur marquant les méthodes comme abstraites.

     Using this decorator requires that the class's metaclass is *note
     ABCMeta: f05. or is derived from it.  A class that has a metaclass
     derived from ‘ABCMeta’ cannot be instantiated unless all of its
     abstract methods and properties are overridden.  The abstract
     methods can be called using any of the normal 'super' call
     mechanisms.  ‘abstractmethod()’ may be used to declare abstract
     methods for properties and descriptors.

     Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to
     modify the abstraction status of a method or class once it is
     created, are only supported using the *note
     update_abstractmethods(): 43d1. function.  The ‘abstractmethod()’
     only affects subclasses derived using regular inheritance; "virtual
     subclasses" registered with the ABC's *note register(): 1074.
     method are not affected.

     When ‘abstractmethod()’ is applied in combination with other method
     descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as
     shown in the following usage examples:

          class C(ABC):
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_method(self, arg1):
                  ...
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2):
                  ...
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3):
                  ...

              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...
              @my_abstract_property.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self, val):
                  ...

              @abstractmethod
              def _get_x(self):
                  ...
              @abstractmethod
              def _set_x(self, val):
                  ...
              x = property(_get_x, _set_x)

     In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class
     machinery, the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using
     ‘__isabstractmethod__’.  In general, this attribute should be
     ‘True’ if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are
     abstract.  For example, Python's built-in *note property: 192. does
     the equivalent of:

          class Descriptor:
              ...
              @property
              def __isabstractmethod__(self):
                  return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
                             f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))

          Note: Contrairement aux méthodes abstraites Java, ces méthodes
          abstraites peuvent être implémentées.  Cette implémentation
          peut être appelée via le mécanisme *note super(): 4c8. depuis
          la classe qui la redéfinit.  C'est typiquement utile pour y
          appeler 'super' et ainsi coopérer correctement dans un
          environnement utilisant de l'héritage multiple.

The ‘abc’ module also supports the following legacy decorators:

 -- Fonction: @abc.abstractclassmethod

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Il est désormais possible
     d'utiliser *note classmethod: 165. avec *note abstractmethod():
     1071, cela rend ce décorateur redondant.

     Sous-classe du décorateur natif *note classmethod(): 165. qui
     indique une méthode de classe ( ‘classmethod’ ) abstraite.  En
     dehors de cela, est similaire à *note abstractmethod(): 1071.

     Ce cas spécial est obsolète car le décorateur *note classmethod():
     165. est désormais correctement identifié comme abstrait quand il
     est appliqué à une méthode abstraite :

          class C(ABC):
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg):
                  ...

 -- Fonction: @abc.abstractstaticmethod

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Il est désormais possible
     d'utiliser *note staticmethod: 40c. avec *note abstractmethod():
     1071, cela rend ce décorateur redondant.

     Sous-classe du décorateur natif *note classmethod(): 165. qui
     indique une méthode statique ( ‘staticmethod’ ) abstraite.  En
     dehors de cela, est similaire à *note abstractmethod(): 1071.

     Ce cas spécial est obsolète car le décorateur *note staticmethod():
     40c. est désormais correctement identifié comme abstrait quand
     appliqué à une méthode abstraite :

          class C(ABC):
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg):
                  ...

 -- Fonction: @abc.abstractproperty

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Il est désormais possible
     d'utiliser *note property: 192, *note property.getter(): 1615,
     *note property.setter(): 1616. et *note property.deleter(): 1617.
     avec *note abstractmethod(): 1071, ce qui rend ce décorateur
     redondant.

     Sous-classe de *note property(): 192, qui indique une propriété
     abstraite.

     Ce cas spécial est obsolète car le décorateur *note property():
     192. est désormais correctement identifié comme abstrait quand
     appliqué à une méthode abstraite :

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...

     L'exemple ci-dessus définit une propriété en lecture seule.  Vous
     pouvez également définir une propriété en lecture-écriture
     abstraite en indiquant une ou plusieurs des méthodes sous-jacentes
     comme abstraite :

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  ...

              @x.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

     Si seuls certains composants sont abstraits, seuls ces composants
     abstraits nécessitent d'être mis à jour pour créer une propriété
     concrète dans une sous-classe :

          class D(C):
              @C.x.setter
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

The ‘abc’ module also provides the following functions:

 -- Fonction: abc.get_cache_token ()

     Renvoie le jeton de cache ( 'cache token') de l'ABC.

     Le jeton est un objet opaque (qui implémente le test d'égalité) qui
     identifie la version actuelle du cache de l'ABC pour les
     sous-classes virtuelles.  Le jeton change avec chaque appel à *note
     ABCMeta.register(): 1074. sur n'importe quelle ABC.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: abc.update_abstractmethods (cls)

     Recalcule l'état d'abstraction de la classe.  Il est nécessaire
     d'appeler cette fonction si les méthodes abstraites d'une classe
     sont ajoutées ou modifiées après la création de la classe.  C'est
     notamment le cas dans les décorateurs de classe.

     Pour permettre une utilisation en tant que décorateur, cette
     fonction renvoie 'cls'.

     Ne fait rien si 'cls' n'est pas une instance de *note ABCMeta: f05.

          Note: Cette fonction suppose que les classes mères de 'cls'
          ont vu leur état recalculé, et ne fait rien pour recalculer
          celui des classes filles.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Notes
.....

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (4) Les développeurs C++ noteront que le concept Python de classe
mère virtuelle ( 'virtual base class' ) n'est pas le même que celui de
C++.


File: python.info,  Node: atexit --- Exit handlers,  Next: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Prev: abc --- Abstract Base Classes,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.10 ‘atexit’ -- Exit handlers
---------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note atexit: c. définit des fonctions pour inscrire et
désinscrire des fonctions de nettoyage.  Les fonctions ainsi inscrites
sont automatiquement exécutées au moment de l'arrêt normal de
l'interpréteur.  *note atexit: c. exécute ces fonctions dans l'ordre
inverse dans lequel elles ont été inscrites ; si vous inscrivez ‘A’,
‘B’, et ‘C’, au moment de l'arrêt de l'interpréteur elles seront
exécutées dans l'ordre ‘C’, ‘B’, ‘A’.

'Note:' Les fonctions inscrites via ce module ne sont pas appelées quand
le programme est tué par un signal non géré par Python, quand une erreur
fatale interne de Python est détectée, ou quand *note os._exit(): 2254.
est appelé.

'Note:' The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within
a cleanup function is undefined.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Quand elles sont utilisées avec des
sous-interpréteurs de l'API C, les fonctions inscrites sont locales à
l'interpréteur dans lequel elles ont été inscrites.

 -- Fonction: atexit.register (func, *args, **kwargs)

     Inscrit 'func' comme une fonction à exécuter au moment de l'arrêt
     de l'interpréteur.  Tout argument optionnel qui doit être passé à
     'func' doit être passé comme argument à *note register(): 86b.  Il
     est possible d'inscrire les mêmes fonctions et arguments plus d'une
     fois.

     Lors d'un arrêt normal du programme (par exemple, si *note
     sys.exit(): 1329. est appelée ou l’exécution du module principal se
     termine), toutes les fonctions inscrites sont appelées, dans
     l'ordre de la dernière arrivée, première servie.  La supposition
     est que les modules les plus bas niveau vont normalement être
     importés avant les modules haut niveau et ainsi être nettoyés en
     dernier.

     Si une exception est levée durant l'exécution du gestionnaire de
     fin de programme, une trace d'appels est affichée (à moins que
     *note SystemExit: d30. ait été levée) et les informations de
     l'exception sont sauvegardées.  Une fois que tous les gestionnaires
     de fin de programme ont eu une chance de s'exécuter, la dernière
     exception à avoir été levée l'est de nouveau.

     Cette fonction renvoie 'func', ce qui rend possible de l'utiliser
     en tant que décorateur.

          Avertissement: Starting new threads or calling *note
          os.fork(): 195. from a registered function can lead to race
          condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
          thread states while internal *note threading: ec. routines or
          the new process try to use that state.  This can lead to
          crashes rather than clean shutdown.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Attempts to start a new thread or
     *note os.fork(): 195. a new process in a registered function now
     leads to *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Fonction: atexit.unregister (func)

     Retire 'func' de la liste des fonctions à exécuter au moment de
     l'arrêt de l'interpréteur.  *note unregister(): 43d4. ne fait rien
     et reste silencieux si 'func' n'a pas été préalablement inscrite.
     Si 'func' a été inscrite plus d'une fois, toutes les occurrences de
     cette fonction sont retirées de la pile d'appels de *note atexit:
     c.  La comparaison d'égalité (‘==’) est utilisée dans
     l'implémentation interne de la désinscription.  Les références des
     fonctions n'ont donc pas besoin d'avoir la même identité.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note readline: b9.

     Un exemple utile de l'usage de *note atexit: c. pour lire et écrire
     des fichiers d'historique *note readline: b9.

* Menu:

* Exemple avec atexit::


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple avec atexit,  Up: atexit --- Exit handlers

5.30.10.1 Exemple avec ‘atexit’
...............................

Le simple exemple suivant démontre comment un module peut initialiser un
compteur depuis un fichier quand il est importé, et sauver le valeur
mise à jour du compteur automatiquement quand le programme se termine,
sans avoir besoin que l'application fasse un appel explicite dans ce
module au moment de l'arrêt de l'interpréteur.

     try:
         with open('counterfile') as infile:
             _count = int(infile.read())
     except FileNotFoundError:
         _count = 0

     def incrcounter(n):
         global _count
         _count = _count + n

     def savecounter():
         with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile:
             outfile.write('%d' % _count)

     import atexit

     atexit.register(savecounter)

Les arguments positionnels et nommés peuvent aussi être passés à *note
register(): 86b. afin d'être repassés à la fonction inscrite lors de son
appel :

     def goodbye(name, adjective):
         print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))

     import atexit

     atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
     # or:
     atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')

Utilisation en tant que *note décorateur: 71d. :

     import atexit

     @atexit.register
     def goodbye():
         print('You are now leaving the Python sector.')

Ceci fonctionne uniquement avec des fonctions qui peuvent être appelées
sans argument.


File: python.info,  Node: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Next: __future__ --- Future statement definitions,  Prev: atexit --- Exit handlers,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.11 ‘traceback’ -- Print or retrieve a stack traceback
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/traceback.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print
stack traces of Python programs.  It is more flexible than the
interpreter's default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible
to configure certain aspects of the output.  Finally, it contains a
utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it
later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception.
Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility
can significantly improve memory management.

The module uses *note traceback objects: ae4. -- these are objects of
type *note types.TracebackType: ae2, which are assigned to the *note
__traceback__: 12a6. field of *note BaseException: 5a7. instances.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note faulthandler: 57.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

Module *note pdb: a4.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

The module's API can be divided into two parts:

   * Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are
     useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.

   * *note TracebackException: 259. class and its helper classes *note
     StackSummary: e70. and *note FrameSummary: e71.  These offer both
     more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store
     the information necessary for later formatting without holding
     references to actual exception and traceback objects.

* Menu:

* Fonctions de niveau module: Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
* TracebackException Objects::
* StackSummary Objects::
* FrameSummary Objects::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/traceback.py


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de niveau module<2>,  Next: TracebackException Objects,  Up: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.1 Fonctions de niveau module
....................................

 -- Fonction: traceback.print_tb (tb, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries from *note traceback
     object: ae4. 'tb' (starting from the caller's frame) if 'limit' is
     positive.  Otherwise, print the last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If
     'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all entries are printed.  If 'file'
     is omitted or ‘None’, the output goes to *note sys.stderr: 928.;
     otherwise it should be an open *note file: 11a2. or *note file-like
     object: 2544. to receive the output.

          Note: The meaning of the 'limit' parameter is different than
          the meaning of *note sys.tracebacklimit: 1595.  A negative
          'limit' value corresponds to a positive value of
          ‘sys.tracebacklimit’, whereas the behaviour of a positive
          'limit' value cannot be achieved with ‘sys.tracebacklimit’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added negative 'limit' support.

 -- Fonction: traceback.print_exception (exc, /[, value, tb],
          limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     Print exception information and stack trace entries from *note
     traceback object: ae4. 'tb' to 'file'.  This differs from *note
     print_tb(): e72. in the following ways:

        * if 'tb' is not ‘None’, it prints a header ‘Traceback (most
          recent call last):’

        * it prints the exception type and 'value' after the stack trace

        * if 'type(value)' is *note SyntaxError: 18b. and 'value' has
          the appropriate format, it prints the line where the syntax
          error occurred with a caret indicating the approximate
          position of the error.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value' and 'tb', an
     exception object can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value'
     and 'tb' are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to
     provide backwards compatibility.

     The optional 'limit' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): e72.  If 'chain' is true (the default), then chained
     exceptions (the *note __cause__: 12a8. or *note __context__: 12a7.
     attributes of the exception) will be printed as well, like the
     interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'etype' argument is ignored and
     inferred from the type of 'value'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'etype' parameter has been
     renamed to 'exc' and is now positional-only.

 -- Fonction: traceback.print_exc (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.exception(),
     limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain)’.

 -- Fonction: traceback.print_last (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit,
     file=file, chain=chain)’.  In general it will work only after an
     exception has reached an interactive prompt (see *note
     sys.last_exc: 4aa.).

 -- Fonction: traceback.print_stack (f=None, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries (starting from the
     invocation point) if 'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, print the
     last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all
     entries are printed.  The optional 'f' argument can be used to
     specify an alternate *note stack frame: 6cc. to start.  The
     optional 'file' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): e72.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added negative 'limit' support.

 -- Fonction: traceback.extract_tb (tb, limit=None)

     Return a *note StackSummary: e70. object representing a list of
     "pre-processed" stack trace entries extracted from the *note
     traceback object: ae4. 'tb'.  It is useful for alternate formatting
     of stack traces.  The optional 'limit' argument has the same
     meaning as for *note print_tb(): e72.  A "pre-processed" stack
     trace entry is a *note FrameSummary: e71. object containing
     attributes *note filename: 43dc, *note lineno: 43dd, *note name:
     43de, and *note line: 43df. representing the information that is
     usually printed for a stack trace.

 -- Fonction: traceback.extract_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     Extract the raw traceback from the current *note stack frame: 6cc.
     The return value has the same format as for *note extract_tb():
     43db.  The optional 'f' and 'limit' arguments have the same meaning
     as for *note print_stack(): e73.

 -- Fonction: traceback.print_list (extracted_list, file=None)

     Print the list of tuples as returned by *note extract_tb(): 43db.
     or *note extract_stack(): 43e0. as a formatted stack trace to the
     given file.  If 'file' is ‘None’, the output is written to *note
     sys.stderr: 928.

 -- Fonction: traceback.format_list (extracted_list)

     Given a list of tuples or *note FrameSummary: e71. objects as
     returned by *note extract_tb(): 43db. or *note extract_stack():
     43e0, return a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
     the resulting list corresponds to the item with the same index in
     the argument list.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings may
     contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source
     text line is not ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: traceback.format_exception_only (exc, /[, value], *,
          show_group=False)

     Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value
     such as given by *note sys.last_value: 4ac.  The return value is a
     list of strings, each ending in a newline.  The list contains the
     exception's message, which is normally a single string; however,
     for *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions, it contains several lines
     that (when printed) display detailed information about where the
     syntax error occurred.  Following the message, the list contains
     the exception's *note notes: 2241.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value', an exception object
     can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value' is provided, the
     first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards
     compatibility.

     When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance of
     *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c, the nested exceptions are included
     as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting
     depth.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'etype' parameter has been
     renamed to 'exc' and is now positional-only.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The returned list now includes any
     *note notes: 2241. attached to the exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: 'show_group' parameter was added.

 -- Fonction: traceback.format_exception (exc, /[, value, tb],
          limit=None, chain=True)

     Format a stack trace and the exception information.  The arguments
     have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to *note
     print_exception(): 83b.  The return value is a list of strings,
     each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines.
     When these lines are concatenated and printed, exactly the same
     text is printed as does *note print_exception(): 83b.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'etype' argument is ignored and
     inferred from the type of 'value'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function's behavior and
     signature were modified to match *note print_exception(): 83b.

 -- Fonction: traceback.format_exc (limit=None, chain=True)

     This is like ‘print_exc(limit)’ but returns a string instead of
     printing to a file.

 -- Fonction: traceback.format_tb (tb, limit=None)

     A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))’.

 -- Fonction: traceback.format_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))’.

 -- Fonction: traceback.clear_frames (tb)

     Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a *note
     traceback: ae4. 'tb' by calling the *note clear(): 27d. method of
     each *note frame object: 6cc.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: traceback.walk_stack (f)

     Walk a stack following *note f.f_back: 778. from the given frame,
     yielding the frame and line number for each frame.  If 'f' is
     ‘None’, the current stack is used.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 43e5.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: traceback.walk_tb (tb)

     Walk a traceback following *note tb_next: ae3. yielding the frame
     and line number for each frame.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 43e5.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: TracebackException Objects,  Next: StackSummary Objects,  Prev: Fonctions de niveau module<2>,  Up: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.2 ‘TracebackException’ Objects
......................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

‘TracebackException’ objects are created from actual exceptions to
capture data for later printing.  They offer a more lightweight method
of storing this information by avoiding holding references to *note
traceback: ae4. and *note frame: 6cc. objects.  In addition, they expose
more options to configure the output compared to the module-level
functions described above.

 -- Classe: traceback.TracebackException (exc_type, exc_value,
          exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True,
          capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15,
          max_group_depth=10)

     Capture an exception for later rendering.  The meaning of 'limit',
     'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
     StackSummary: e70. class.

     If 'compact' is true, only data that is required by
     ‘TracebackException’'s *note format(): 60c. method is saved in the
     class attributes.  In particular, the *note __context__: 43e7.
     field is calculated only if *note __cause__: 43e8. is ‘None’ and
     *note __suppress_context__: 43e9. is false.

     Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
     traceback.

     'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' control the formatting of
     exception groups (see *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c.).  The depth
     refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to
     the size of a single exception group's exceptions array.  The
     formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout du paramètre 'compact'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'max_group_width' and
     'max_group_depth' parameters.

      -- Attribut: __cause__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __cause__: 12a8.

      -- Attribut: __context__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __context__:
          12a7.

      -- Attribut: exceptions

          If ‘self’ represents an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4, this field
          holds a list of ‘TracebackException’ instances representing
          the nested exceptions.  Otherwise it is ‘None’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Attribut: __suppress_context__

          The *note __suppress_context__: 2073. value from the original
          exception.

      -- Attribut: __notes__

          The *note __notes__: 2241. value from the original exception,
          or ‘None’ if the exception does not have any notes.  If it is
          not ‘None’ is it formatted in the traceback after the
          exception string.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Attribut: stack

          A *note StackSummary: e70. representing the traceback.

      -- Attribut: exc_type

          The class of the original traceback.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: exc_type_str

          String display of the class of the original exception.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: filename

          For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.

      -- Attribut: end_lineno

          For syntax errors - the end line number where the error
          occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- Attribut: text

          For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.

      -- Attribut: offset

          For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error
          occurred.

      -- Attribut: end_offset

          For syntax errors - the end offset into the text where the
          error occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- Attribut: msg

          For syntax errors - the compiler error message.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_exception (exc, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Capture an exception for later rendering.  'limit',
          'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
          StackSummary: e70. class.

          Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
          traceback.

      -- Méthode: print (*, file=None, chain=True)

          Print to 'file' (default ‘sys.stderr’) the exception
          information returned by *note format(): 60c.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- Méthode: format (*, chain=True)

          Format the exception.

          If 'chain' is not ‘True’, *note __cause__: 43e8. and *note
          __context__: 43e7. will not be formatted.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline and some containing internal newlines.  *note
          print_exception(): 83b. is a wrapper around this method which
          just prints the lines to a file.

      -- Méthode: format_exception_only (*, show_group=False)

          Format the exception part of the traceback.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline.

          When 'show_group' is ‘False’, the generator emits the
          exception's message followed by its notes (if it has any).
          The exception message is normally a single string; however,
          for *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions, it consists of several
          lines that (when printed) display detailed information about
          where the syntax error occurred.

          When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance
          of *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25c, the nested exceptions are
          included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to
          their nesting depth.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: The exception's *note notes:
          2241. are now included in the output.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'show_group'
          parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: StackSummary Objects,  Next: FrameSummary Objects,  Prev: TracebackException Objects,  Up: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.3 ‘StackSummary’ Objects
................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

‘StackSummary’ objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.

 -- Classe: traceback.StackSummary

      -- Méthode: classmethod extract (frame_gen, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a frame generator (such
          as is returned by *note walk_stack(): e6e. or *note walk_tb():
          e6f.).

          If 'limit' is supplied, only this many frames are taken from
          'frame_gen'.  If 'lookup_lines' is ‘False’, the returned *note
          FrameSummary: e71. objects will not have read their lines in
          yet, making the cost of creating the ‘StackSummary’ cheaper
          (which may be valuable if it may not actually get formatted).
          If 'capture_locals' is ‘True’ the local variables in each
          ‘FrameSummary’ are captured as object representations.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: Exceptions raised from *note
          repr(): 7e9. on a local variable (when 'capture_locals' is
          ‘True’) are no longer propagated to the caller.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_list (a_list)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a supplied list of
          *note FrameSummary: e71. objects or old-style list of tuples.
          Each tuple should be a 4-tuple with 'filename', 'lineno',
          'name', 'line' as the elements.

      -- Méthode: format ()

          Returns a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
          the resulting list corresponds to a single *note frame: 6cc.
          from the stack.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings
          may contain internal newlines as well, for those items with
          source text lines.

          For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few
          repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the
          exact number of further repetitions.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: Long sequences of repeated frames
          are now abbreviated.

      -- Méthode: format_frame_summary (frame_summary)

          Returns a string for printing one of the *note frames: 6cc.
          involved in the stack.  This method is called for each *note
          FrameSummary: e71. object to be printed by *note
          StackSummary.format(): 43f8.  If it returns ‘None’, the frame
          is omitted from the output.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: FrameSummary Objects,  Next: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Prev: StackSummary Objects,  Up: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.4 ‘FrameSummary’ Objects
................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

A ‘FrameSummary’ object represents a single *note frame: 6cc. in a *note
traceback: ae4.

 -- Classe: traceback.FrameSummary (filename, lineno, name, *,
          lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None, end_lineno=None,
          colno=None, end_colno=None)

     Represents a single *note frame: 6cc. in the *note traceback: ae4.
     or stack that is being formatted or printed.  It may optionally
     have a stringified version of the frame's locals included in it.
     If 'lookup_line' is ‘False’, the source code is not looked up until
     the ‘FrameSummary’ has the *note line: 43df. attribute accessed
     (which also happens when casting it to a *note tuple: 366.).  *note
     line: 43df. may be directly provided, and will prevent line lookups
     happening at all.  'locals' is an optional local variable mapping,
     and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the
     summary for later display.

     ‘FrameSummary’ instances have the following attributes:

      -- Attribut: filename

          The filename of the source code for this frame.  Equivalent to
          accessing *note f.f_code.co_filename: 1346. on a *note frame
          object: 6cc. 'f'.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number of the source code for this frame.

      -- Attribut: name

          Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_name: 1ef2. on a
          *note frame object: 6cc. 'f'.

      -- Attribut: line

          A string representing the source code for this frame, with
          leading and trailing whitespace stripped.  If the source is
          not available, it is ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: end_lineno

          The last line number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is set to ‘lineno’ and indexation starts from 1.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: The default value changed from
          ‘None’ to ‘lineno’.

      -- Attribut: colno

          The column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.

      -- Attribut: end_colno

          The last column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Next: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: FrameSummary Objects,  Up: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.5 Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions
......................................................

This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to
(but less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop.
For a more complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the
*note code: 1a. module.

     import sys, traceback

     def run_user_code(envdir):
         source = input(">>> ")
         try:
             exec(source, envdir)
         except Exception:
             print("Exception in user code:")
             print("-"*60)
             traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
             print("-"*60)

     envdir = {}
     while True:
         run_user_code(envdir)

The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and
format the exception and traceback:

     import sys, traceback

     def lumberjack():
         bright_side_of_life()

     def bright_side_of_life():
         return tuple()[0]

     try:
         lumberjack()
     except IndexError as exc:
         print("*** print_tb:")
         traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exception:")
         traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exc:")
         traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
         formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
         print(formatted_lines[0])
         print(formatted_lines[-1])
         print("*** format_exception:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc)))
         print("*** extract_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** format_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno)

The output for the example would look similar to this:

     *** print_tb:
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
     *** print_exception:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** print_exc:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exc, first and last line:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exception:
     ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n',
      'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
     *** extract_tb:
     [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>]
     *** format_tb:
     ['  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n']
     *** tb_lineno: 10

The following example shows the different ways to print and format the
stack:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> def another_function():
     ...     lumberstack()
     ...
     >>> def lumberstack():
     ...     traceback.print_stack()
     ...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
     ...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
     ...
     >>> another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
         another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
         lumberstack()
       File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
         traceback.print_stack()
     [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
      ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
      ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
     ['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']

This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
     ...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
     ['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
      '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
     >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
     >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
     ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Up: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.6 Examples of Using ‘TracebackException’
................................................

With the helper class, we have more options:

     >>> import sys
     >>> from traceback import TracebackException
     >>>
     >>> def lumberjack():
     ...     bright_side_of_life()
     ...
     >>> def bright_side_of_life():
     ...     t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
     ...     return t[5]
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     lumberjack()
     ... except IndexError as e:
     ...     exc = e
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     try:
     ...         lumberjack()
     ...     except:
     ...         1/0
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     chained_exc = e
     ...
     >>> # limit works as with the module-level functions
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
         t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained
     >>> # exceptions are displayed
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: __future__ --- Future statement definitions,  Next: gc --- Garbage Collector interface,  Prev: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.12 ‘__future__’ -- Future statement definitions
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/_future_.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Imports of the form ‘from __future__ import feature’ are called *note
future statements: 187.  These are special-cased by the Python compiler
to allow the use of new Python features in modules containing the future
statement before the release in which the feature becomes standard.

While these future statements are given additional special meaning by
the Python compiler, they are still executed like any other import
statement and the *note __future__: 0. exists and is handled by the
import system the same way any other Python module would be.  This
design serves three purposes:

   * éviter de dérouter les outils existants qui analysent les
     instructions d'importation et s'attendent à trouver les modules
     qu'ils importent ;

   * Pour documenter le phasage de changements entraînant des
     incompatibilités : introduction, utilisation obligatoire.  Il
     s’agit d’une forme de documentation exécutable, qui peut être
     inspectée par un programme en important *note __future__: 0. et en
     examinant son contenu.

   * To ensure that *note future statements: 187. run under releases
     prior to Python 2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import
     of *note __future__: 0. will fail, because there was no module of
     that name prior to 2.1).

* Menu:

* Contenu du module: Contenu du module<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/_future_.py


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu du module<5>,  Up: __future__ --- Future statement definitions

5.30.12.1 Contenu du module
...........................

Aucune fonctionnalité ne sera jamais supprimée de *note __future__: 0.
Depuis son introduction dans Python 2.1, les fonctionnalités suivantes
ont trouvé leur places dans le langage utilisant ce mécanisme :

fonctionnalité         optionnel dans    obligatoire dans   effet
                                                            
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
nested_scopes          2.1.0b1           2.2                PEP 227(1) : 'Portées imbriquées'
                                                            
                                                            
générateurs            2.2.0a1           2.3                PEP 255(2) : 'Générateurs simples'
                                                            
                                                            
division               2.2.0a2           3.0                PEP 238(3) : 'Changement de l'opérateur de
                                                            division'
                                                            
                                                            
absolute_import        2.5.0a1           3.0                PEP 328(4) : 'Importations : multilignes et
                                                            absolues/relatives' (ressource en anglais)
                                                            
                                                            
with_statement         2.5.0a1           2.6                PEP 343(5) : 'L'instruction "with"'
                                                            
                                                            
print_function         2.6.0a2           3.0                PEP 3105(6) : 'Transformation de print en
                                                            fonction'
                                                            
                                                            
unicode_literals       2.6.0a2           3.0                PEP 3112(7) : 'Chaînes d'octets littéraux en
                                                            Python 3000'
                                                            
                                                            
generator_stop         3.5.0b1           3.7                PEP 479(8) : 'Gestion de *StopIteration' à
                                                            l’intérieur des générateurs*
                                                            
                                                            
annotations            3.7.0b1           TBD (9)            PEP 563(10) : 'Évaluation différée des
                                                            annotations'
                                                            

 -- Classe: __future__._Feature

     Chaque instruction dans ‘__future__.py’ est de la forme :

          FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
                                 CompilerFlag)

     où, normalement, 'OptionalRelease' est inférieur à
     'MandatoryRelease', et les deux sont des quintuplets de la même
     forme que *note sys.version_info: 68d. :

          (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
           PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
           PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
           PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
           PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
          )

 -- Méthode: _Feature.getOptionalRelease ()

     'OptionalRelease' enregistre la première version dans laquelle la
     fonctionnalité a été acceptée.

 -- Méthode: _Feature.getMandatoryRelease ()

     Dans le cas d'un 'MandatoryRelease' qui n'a pas encore eu lieu,
     'MandatoryRelease' prédit la 'release' dans laquelle la
     fonctionnalité deviendra un élément du langage.

     Sinon 'MandatoryRelease' enregistre lorsque la fonctionnalité est
     devenue une partie du langage ; dans cette version ou les
     suivantes, les modules n'ont plus besoin d'une déclaration 'future'
     pour utiliser la fonctionnalité en question, mais ils peuvent
     continuer à utiliser ces importations.

     'MandatoryRelease' may also be ‘None’, meaning that a planned
     feature got dropped or that it is not yet decided.

 -- Attribut: _Feature.compiler_flag

     'CompilerFlag' is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the
     fourth argument to the built-in function *note compile(): 190. to
     enable the feature in dynamically compiled code.  This flag is
     stored in the *note _Feature.compiler_flag: 1f02. attribute on
     *note _Feature: 4404. instances.

Voir aussi
..........

*note L'instruction future: 187.

     Comment le compilateur gère les importations « futures ».

PEP 236(11) — retour vers le ‘__future__’

     La proposition originale pour le mécanisme de ‘__future__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (9) ‘from __future__ import annotations’ was previously scheduled to
become mandatory in Python 3.10, but the Python Steering Council twice
decided to delay the change (announcement for Python 3.10
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/);
announcement for Python 3.11
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/)).
No final decision has been made yet.  See also PEP 563
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/) and PEP 649
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/).

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: gc --- Garbage Collector interface,  Next: inspect --- Inspect live objects,  Prev: __future__ --- Future statement definitions,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.13 ‘gc’ -- Garbage Collector interface
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module constitue une interface au ramasse-miettes facultatif.  Il
permet de désactiver le ramasse-miettes ou de régler la fréquence des
passages.  Il fournit des options de débogage, et donne aussi accès aux
objets qui ne peuvent pas être détruits bien qu'ils aient été détectés
comme non référencés.  Le ramasse-miettes vient en complément du système
de comptage de références, et peut donc être désactivé pour du code qui
ne crée aucun cycle de références.  On le désactive avec ‘gc.disable()’.
Pour remonter à la source d'une fuite de mémoire, utilisez
‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)’.  Notez que ‘gc.DEBUG_LEAK’ inclut
‘gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL’.  Cette dernière option fait que les objets
inatteignables, au lieu d'être détruits, sont placés dans la liste
‘gc.garbage’ pour pouvoir y être examinés.

Le module *note gc: 5f. contient les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: gc.enable ()

     Active le ramasse-miettes.

 -- Fonction: gc.disable ()

     Désactive le ramasse-miettes.

 -- Fonction: gc.isenabled ()

     Renvoie ‘True’ ou ‘False’ selon que le ramasse-miettes est activé
     ou non.

 -- Fonction: gc.collect (generation=2)

     With no arguments, run a full collection.  The optional argument
     'generation' may be an integer specifying which generation to
     collect (from 0 to 2).  A *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if the
     generation number is invalid.  The sum of collected objects and
     uncollectable objects is returned.

     The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are
     cleared whenever a full collection or collection of the highest
     generation (2) is run.  Not all items in some free lists may be
     freed due to the particular implementation, in particular *note
     float: 2ec.

     The effect of calling ‘gc.collect()’ while the interpreter is
     already performing a collection is undefined.

 -- Fonction: gc.set_debug (flags)

     Change les options de débogage du ramasse-miettes, qui activent
     l'écriture d'informations sur ‘sys.stderr’.  Une liste d'options se
     trouve plus bas.  Les options peuvent se combiner par les
     opérateurs bit à bit.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_debug ()

     Renvoie les options de débogage actives.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_objects (generation=None)

     Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding
     the list returned.  If 'generation' is not ‘None’, return only the
     objects tracked by the collector that are in that generation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre 'generation'.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘gc.get_objects’ avec
     l'argument ‘generation’.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_stats ()

     Renvoie une liste de trois dictionnaires, un par génération.  Ils
     contiennent des statistiques sur l'action du ramasse-miettes depuis
     le lancement de l'interpréteur.  Les clés actuellement présentes
     sont les suivantes (d'autres pourraient être ajoutées dans des
     versions ultérieures) :

        * ‘collections’, le nombre de fois où cette génération a été
          examinée par le ramasse-miettes ;

        * ‘collected’, le nombre total d'objets qui ont été détruits
          alors qu'ils étaient dans cette génération ;

        * ‘uncollectable’, le nombre total d'objets qui ont été
          identifiés comme indestructibles (et donc ajoutés à la liste
          *note garbage: 11a0.) au sein de cette génération.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: gc.set_threshold (threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])

     Règle les seuils de déclenchement du ramasse-miettes, qui
     déterminent sa fréquence de passage.  Si 'threshold0' est mis à
     zéro, le ramasse-miettes ne passe jamais.

     Les objets sont répartis en trois générations en fonction du nombre
     de passages du ramasse-miettes qui les ont laissés intacts.  Les
     objets fraîchement créés sont placés dans la génération la plus
     jeune, numéro 0.  À chaque fois qu'un objet persiste à la suite
     d'un passage du ramasse-miettes, il monte d'une génération, ceci
     jusqu'à la génération 2, la plus âgée.  Le ramasse-miettes se
     déclenche en fonction du nombre d'allocations et de destructions
     depuis le passage précédent : lorsque les allocations moins les
     destructions font plus que 'threshold0', un passage est initié.
     Lors des premiers passages, seule la génération 0 est inspectée.
     La génération 1 est examinée périodiquement, lorsque le nombre de
     passages sur la génération 0 depuis le dernier passage ayant aussi
     examiné la génération 1 vient à excéder 'threshold1'.  Les règles
     pour la génération 2 sont plus complexes.  Pour avoir des détails,
     voir Collecting the oldest generation(1) (dans le guide du
     développeur, en anglais).

 -- Fonction: gc.get_count ()

     Renvoie un triplet des nombres totaux de passages effectués par
     génération.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_threshold ()

     Renvoie les seuils de passage sous la forme du triplet
     ‘(threshold0, threshold1, threshold2)’.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_referrers (*objs)

     Renvoie la liste des objets qui contiennent directement une
     référence à l'un quelconque des arguments.  Il est à noter que
     cette fonction prend uniquement en compte les objets suivis par le
     ramasse-miettes, ce qui exclut les instances de certains types
     d'extension qui contiennent bien des références sans pour autant
     prendre en charge le ramassage des miettes.

     La liste renvoyée peut contenir des objets déjà isolés, mais
     maintenus en mémoire à cause d'un cycle.  Pour les exclure, appelez
     *note collect(): a2a. juste avant *note get_referrers(): 7f0.

          Avertissement: La manipulation des objets renvoyés par *note
          get_referrers(): 7f0. est hasardeuse car ils risquent d'être
          encore en cours d'initialisation, donc dans un état
          temporairement instable.  Mieux vaut réserver *note
          get_referrers(): 7f0. au débogage.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘gc.get_referrers’ avec
     l'argument ‘objs’.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_referents (*objs)

     Renvoie une liste des objets pointés par les références que
     contiennent les arguments.  Ils sont déterminés en appelant, si
     présente, la méthode C *note tp_traverse: 76a. de chaque argument,
     qui visite les objets auxquels cet argument fait référence.  Il est
     à noter que *note tp_traverse: 76a. n'est définie que par les
     objets qui gèrent le ramassage des miettes, et n'a l'obligation de
     visiter que les objets qui peuvent potentiellement faire partie
     d'un cycle.  Ainsi, la liste renvoyée par cette fonction ne
     contient par forcément tous les objets qu'il est possible
     d'atteindre à partir des arguments.  Par exemple, si l'un des
     arguments contient un entier, ce dernier objet peut être présent ou
     non dans la liste.

     Lève un *note événement d'audit: 1877. ‘gc.get_referents’ avec
     l'argument ‘objs’.

 -- Fonction: gc.is_tracked (obj)

     Renvoie ‘True’ ou ‘False’ selon que l'argument est suivi ou non par
     le ramasse-miettes.  En règle générale, les objets atomiques ne
     sont pas suivis, tandis que les objets non-atomiques, tels que les
     conteneurs et instances de classes définies par l'utilisateur, le
     sont.  Cependant, certains types présentent des optimisations qui
     permettent de se passer avantageusement du ramasse-miettes dans les
     cas simples, comme les dictionnaires dont toutes les clés et
     valeurs sont atomiques :

          >>> gc.is_tracked(0)
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked("a")
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked([])
          True
          >>> gc.is_tracked({})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": []})
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- Fonction: gc.is_finalized (obj)

     Renvoie ‘True’ ou ‘False’ selon que l'argument a été finalisé par
     le ramasse-miettes.

          >>> x = None
          >>> class Lazarus:
          ...     def __del__(self):
          ...         global x
          ...         x = self
          ...
          >>> lazarus = Lazarus()
          >>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus)
          False
          >>> del lazarus
          >>> gc.is_finalized(x)
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: gc.freeze ()

     Freeze all the objects tracked by the garbage collector; move them
     to a permanent generation and ignore them in all the future
     collections.

     If a process will ‘fork()’ without ‘exec()’, avoiding unnecessary
     copy-on-write in child processes will maximize memory sharing and
     reduce overall memory usage.  This requires both avoiding creation
     of freed "holes" in memory pages in the parent process and ensuring
     that GC collections in child processes won't touch the ‘gc_refs’
     counter of long-lived objects originating in the parent process.
     To accomplish both, call ‘gc.disable()’ early in the parent
     process, ‘gc.freeze()’ right before ‘fork()’, and ‘gc.enable()’
     early in child processes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: gc.unfreeze ()

     Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back
     into the oldest generation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: gc.get_freeze_count ()

     Return the number of objects in the permanent generation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Les variables suivantes sont publiques, mais elles ne sont pas censées
être modifiées (vous pouvez les muter, mais pas les redéfinir) :

 -- Données: gc.garbage

     Liste des objets indestructibles, que le ramasse-miettes n'a pas pu
     éliminer bien qu'ils soient inatteignables.  Depuis Python 3.4,
     cette liste demeure la plupart du temps vide.  Elle peut se remplir
     si le programme fait appel à des types d'extension définis en C
     avec un champ ‘tp_del’ différent de ‘NULL’.

     Si *note DEBUG_SAVEALL: 4411. est actif, tous les objets
     inatteignables sont ajoutés à cette liste au lieu d'être détruits.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Si cette liste n'est pas vide lors de
     l'*note arrêt de l'interpréteur: 14d, un *note ResourceWarning:
     241. est émis (les avertissements de ce type sont silencieux par
     défaut).  De plus, si *note DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 11a1. est actif,
     tous les objets indestructibles sont affichés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Following PEP 442(2), objects with a
     *note __del__(): 1f1a. method don't end up in *note gc.garbage:
     11a0. anymore.

 -- Données: gc.callbacks

     Liste de fonctions de rappel lancées par le ramasse-miettes avant
     et après un passage.  Elles prennent deux arguments, 'phase' et
     'info'.

     'phase' peut prendre deux valeurs :

          ‘"start"’ lorsque le passage du ramasse-miettes est imminent.

          ‘"stop"’ lorsque le passage du ramasse-miettes vient de se
          terminer.

     'info' est un dictionnaire qui donne plus d'informations à la
     fonction de rappel.  Les clés suivantes sont actuellement
     présentes :

          ‘"generation"’, la génération la plus âgée intégrée à ce
          passage ;

          ‘"collected"’ : si 'phase' vaut ‘"stop"’, le nombre d'objets
          détruits avec succès ;

          ‘"uncollectable"’ : si 'phase' vaut ‘"stop"’, le nombre
          d'objets indestructibles ajoutés à *note garbage: 11a0.

     Toute application peut ajouter ses propres fonctions de rappel à
     cette liste.  Voici les principales applications :

          Faire des statistiques sur le passage du ramasse-miettes, par
          exemple la fréquence à laquelle chaque génération est
          examinée, ou bien le temps d'un passage ;

          Identifier les types définis par une application dont les
          instances s'ajoutent à *note garbage: 11a0. car elles sont
          indestructibles.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Les constantes suivantes définissent les options de débogage que l'on
peut passer à *note set_debug(): 440c. :

 -- Données: gc.DEBUG_STATS

     Affiche des statistiques durant les passages du ramasse-miettes.
     Utile pour pouvoir régler la fréquence des passages.

 -- Données: gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE

     Affiche des informations sur les objets détruits.

 -- Données: gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE

     Affiche des informations sur les objets indestructibles (ceux qui
     sont ajoutés à la liste ‘garbage’, qui sont inatteignables mais
     dont la mémoire ne peut pas être libérée).

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Affiche également le contenu de *note
     garbage: 11a0. à l'*note arrêt de l'interpréteur: 14d, pour peu que
     cette liste ne soit pas vide.

 -- Données: gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL

     Lorsque cette option est active, les objets inatteignables sont
     ajoutés à la liste 'garbage' au lieu d'être supprimés.  Ceci est
     utile pour déboguer une fuite de mémoire.

 -- Données: gc.DEBUG_LEAK

     Combinaison des options utiles au débogage d'une fuite de mémoire.
     Il s'agit d'un raccourci pour
     ‘DEBUG_COLLECTABLE|DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE|DEBUG_SAVEALL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://devguide.python.org/garbage_collector/#collecting-the-oldest-generation

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: inspect --- Inspect live objects,  Next: site --- Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: gc --- Garbage Collector interface,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.14 ‘inspect’ -- Inspect live objects
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/inspect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note inspect: 7d. implémente plusieurs fonctions permettant
d'obtenir de l'information à propos d'objets tels que les modules,
classes, méthodes, fonctions, traces de piles, cadres d'exécution et
objets code.  Par exemple, il permet d'inspecter le contenu d'une
classe, de retrouver le code source d'une méthode, d'extraire et de
mettre en forme une liste d'arguments pour une fonction, ou obtenir
toute l'information nécessaire pour afficher une pile d'appels
détaillée.

Ce module donne accès à 4 types de services : vérification de typage,
obtention de code source, inspection de classes et de fonctions et
examen de la pile d'exécution.

* Menu:

* Types et membres::
* Récupération du code source::
* Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature::
* Classes et fonctions: Classes et fonctions<2>.
* La pile d'interpréteur::
* Recherche dynamique d'attributs::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Bit d'option des objets code::
* Buffer flags::
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/inspect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Types et membres,  Next: Récupération du code source,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.1 Types et membres
..........................

The *note getmembers(): 1811. function retrieves the members of an
object such as a class or module.  The functions whose names begin with
"is" are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument
to *note getmembers(): 1811.  They also help you determine when you can
expect to find the following special attributes (see *note
Import-related attributes on module objects: 1ed0. for module
attributes):

Type                  Attribut                Description
                                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
classe                __doc__                 texte de documentation
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                nom de la classe lors de sa
                                              définition
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              nom du module contenant la
                                              classe lors de sa définition
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 2b0.
                                              of a generic class
                                              
                                              
méthode               __doc__                 texte de documentation
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                nom de la méthode lors de sa
                                              définition
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      __func__                objet fonction contenant
                                              l'implémentation de la
                                              méthode
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance à laquelle cette
                                              méthode est liée, ou ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              nom du module contenant la
                                              méthode lors de sa définition
                                              
                                              
fonction              __doc__                 texte de documentation
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                nom de la fonction lors de sa
                                              définition
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      __code__                objet code contenant le
                                              *note code intermédiaire: 185.
                                              d'une fonction compilée
                                              
                                              
                      __defaults__            'n'-uplet de valeurs par
                                              défaut pour arguments
                                              positionnels ou nommés
                                              
                                              
                      __kwdefaults__          tableau de correspondance de
                                              valeurs par défaut pour les
                                              paramètres nommés
                                              
                                              
                      __globals__             espace de nommage global lors
                                              de la définition de la
                                              fonction
                                              
                                              
                      __builtins__            builtins namespace
                                              
                                              
                      __annotations__         tableau de correspondance des
                                              paramètres à leur
                                              annotation ; ‘"return"’ est
                                              un mot-clé réservé pour les
                                              annotations de type renvoyé.
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 2b0.
                                              of a generic function
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              nom du module contenant la
                                              fonction lors de sa
                                              définition
                                              
                                              
traceback             tb_frame                objet cadre à ce niveau
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lasti                index de la dernière
                                              instruction lancée dans le
                                              code intermédiaire
                                              (‘bytecode’)
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lineno               numéro de ligne courant dans
                                              le code source Python
                                              
                                              
                      tb_next                 trace de pile interne
                                              suivante (appel par le cadre
                                              courant)
                                              
                                              
cadre                 f_back                  trace d'exécution externe
                                              suivante (le contexte
                                              appelant du cadre courant)
                                              
                                              
                      f_builtins              espace de nommage natif du
                                              cadre courant
                                              
                                              
                      f_code                  objet code exécuté dans le
                                              cadre courant
                                              
                                              
                      f_globals               espace de nommage global tel
                                              que vu par cadre courant
                                              
                                              
                      f_lasti                 index de la dernière
                                              instruction lancée dans le
                                              code intermédiaire
                                              (‘bytecode’)
                                              
                                              
                      f_lineno                numéro de ligne courant dans
                                              le code source Python
                                              
                                              
                      f_locals                espace de nommage local du
                                              cadre courant
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace                 fonction de traçage du cadre
                                              courant, ou ‘None’
                                              
                                              
code                  co_argcount             nombre d'arguments (excluant
                                              les arguments 'keyword-only',
                                              * ou **)
                                              
                                              
                      co_code                 texte du code intermédiaire
                                              compilé
                                              
                                              
                      co_cellvars             'n'-uplet du nom des cellules
                                              variables (référencées par
                                              leur contexte)
                                              
                                              
                      co_consts               'n'-uplet des constantes
                                              utilisées dans le code
                                              intermédiaire (‘bytecode’)
                                              
                                              
                      co_filename             nom du fichier dans lequel
                                              cet objet code a été créé
                                              
                                              
                      co_firstlineno          numéro de la première ligne
                                              dans le code source Python
                                              
                                              
                      co_flags                'bitmap' des options ‘CO_*’,
                                              voir plus *note ici: 1f01.
                                              
                                              
                      co_lnotab               tableau de correspondance
                                              encodée des numéros de ligne
                                              aux numéros d'indices du code
                                              intermédiaire (‘bytecode’)
                                              
                                              
                      co_freevars             'n'-uplet des noms de
                                              variables libres (référencées
                                              par la fermeture ('closure'
                                              en anglais) d'une fonction)
                                              
                                              
                      co_posonlyargcount      nombre d'arguments
                                              positionnels
                                              
                                              
                      co_kwonlyargcount       nombre d'arguments
                                              'keywords-only' (excluant les
                                              arguments **)
                                              
                                              
                      co_name                 nom de l'objet code lors de
                                              sa définition
                                              
                                              
                      co_qualname             fully qualified name with
                                              which this code object was
                                              defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_names                tuple of names other than
                                              arguments and function locals
                                              
                                              
                      co_nlocals              nombre de variables locales
                                              
                                              
                      co_stacksize            espace requis pour la pile de
                                              la machine virtuelle
                                              
                                              
                      co_varnames             'n'-uplet des noms des
                                              arguments et variables
                                              locales
                                              
                                              
generator             __name__                nom
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      gi_frame                cadre
                                              
                                              
                      gi_running              est-ce que le générateur est
                                              en cours d'exécution ?
                                              
                                              
                      gi_code                 code
                                              
                                              
                      gi_yieldfrom            objet pointé par l'itérateur
                                              ‘yield from’, ou ‘None’
                                              
                                              
‘async generator’     __name__                nom
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      ‘cr_await’              objet sur lequel on attend
                                              ('await') présentement, ou
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      ‘gi_frame’              cadre
                                              
                                              
                      ‘ag_running’            est-ce que le générateur est
                                              en cours d'exécution ?
                                              
                                              
                      ‘ag_code’               code
                                              
                                              
coroutine             __name__                nom
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      ‘cr_await’              objet sur lequel on attend
                                              ('await') présentement, ou
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      ‘cr_frame’              cadre
                                              
                                              
                      ‘cr_running’            est-ce que la coroutine est
                                              en cours d'exécution ?
                                              
                                              
                      ‘cr_code’               code
                                              
                                              
                      ‘cr_origin’             lieu de création de la
                                              coroutine, ou ‘None’.  Voir
                                              *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b7c.
                                              
                                              
builtin               __doc__                 texte de documentation
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                nom originel de cette
                                              fonction ou méthode
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            nom qualifié
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance à laquelle est liée
                                              une méthode, ou ‘None’
                                              

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout des attributs ‘__qualname’ et
‘gi_yieldfrom’ aux générateurs.

L'attribut ‘__name__’ du générateur est maintenant déterminé par le nom
de la fonction, plutôt que le nom du code, et peut maintenant être
modifié.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'attribut ‘cr_origin’ aux
coroutines.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Add ‘__builtins__’ attribute to functions.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getmembers (object[, predicate])

     Renvoie tous les membres d'un objet sous la forme d'une liste de
     paires ‘(nom, valeur)’, ordonnée par nom.  Si l'argument
     'predicate' (qui sera appelé avec la ‘valeur’ de chaque membre) est
     fourni, seuls les membres pour lequel le prédicat est vrai seront
     inclus.

          Note: *note getmembers(): 1811. will only return class
          attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a
          class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass'
          custom *note __dir__(): 1f20.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getmembers_static (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__.  Optionally,
     only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

          Note: *note getmembers_static(): 636. may not be able to
          retrieve all members that getmembers can fetch (like
          dynamically created attributes) and may find members that
          getmembers can't (like descriptors that raise AttributeError).
          It can also return descriptor objects instead of instance
          members in some cases.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getmodulename (path)

     Renvoie le nom du module indiqué par le fichier 'path', excluant le
     nom des paquets englobants.  L'extension du fichier est vérifiée
     parmi toutes les entrées renvoyées par *note
     importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(): 4418.  S'il y a une
     correspondance, le chemin final est renvoyé, sans l'extension.
     Autrement, ‘None’ est renvoyé.

     Notez que cette fonction renvoie un nom significatif 'seulement'
     pour les modules Python - les chemins qui réfèrent à des paquets
     Python donnent toujours ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: La fonction est basée directement sur
     *note importlib: 76.

 -- Fonction: inspect.ismodule (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un module.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isclass (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une classe, qu'il s'agisse d'un objet
     natif ou qu'elle soit écrite en Python.

 -- Fonction: inspect.ismethod (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une méthode liée écrite en Python.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isfunction (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une fonction Python, ce qui inclut
     les fonctions créées par une expression *note lambda: 26f3.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isgeneratorfunction (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un générateur.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les fonctions englobées dans *note
     functools.partial(): 40a. renvoient maintenant ‘True’ si la
     fonction englobée est un générateur Python.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partialmethod(): a6b. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped
     function is a Python generator function.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isgenerator (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un générateur.

 -- Fonction: inspect.iscoroutinefunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine function: d66. (a
     function defined with an *note async def: 5bd. syntax), a *note
     functools.partial(): 40a. wrapping a *note coroutine function: d66,
     or a sync function marked with *note markcoroutinefunction(): 47c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: les fonctions englobées par *note
     functools.partial(): 40a. renvoient maintenant ‘True’ si la
     fonction englobée est une *note coroutine: d66.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Sync functions marked with *note
     markcoroutinefunction(): 47c. now return ‘True’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partialmethod(): a6b. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped
     function is a *note coroutine function: d66.

 -- Fonction: inspect.markcoroutinefunction (func)

     Decorator to mark a callable as a *note coroutine function: d66. if
     it would not otherwise be detected by *note iscoroutinefunction():
     2e3.

     This may be of use for sync functions that return a *note
     coroutine: 47d, if the function is passed to an API that requires
     *note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3.

     When possible, using an *note async def: 5bd. function is
     preferred.  Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the
     return with *note iscoroutine(): e05.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: inspect.iscoroutine (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une *note coroutine: 47d. créée par
     une fonction *note async def: 5bd.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isawaitable (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet peut être utilisé par une expression
     *note await: 1b7.

     Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from
     regular generators:

          import types

          def gen():
              yield
          @types.coroutine
          def gen_coro():
              yield

          assert not isawaitable(gen())
          assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isasyncgenfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator:
     1ff6. function, for example:

          >>> async def agen():
          ...     yield 1
          ...
          >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): 40a. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is an *note asynchronous generator: 1ff6. function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partialmethod(): a6b. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped
     function is a *note coroutine function: d66.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isasyncgen (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un *note itérateur de générateur
     asynchrone: 4329. créé par une fonction *note génératrice
     asynchrone: 1ff6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Fonction: inspect.istraceback (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une trace d'exécution.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isframe (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un cadre.

 -- Fonction: inspect.iscode (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un code.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isbuiltin (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une fonction native ou une méthode
     liée native.

 -- Fonction: inspect.ismethodwrapper (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the type of object is a *note MethodWrapperType:
     638.

     These are instances of *note MethodWrapperType: 638, such as *note
     __str__(): 60a, *note __eq__(): aea. and *note __repr__(): 609.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isroutine (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une fonction, qu'elle soit définie
     par l'utilisateur, native, ou une méthode.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isabstract (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est une classe de base abstraite.

 -- Fonction: inspect.ismethoddescriptor (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un descripteur de méthode sauf si
     *note ismethod(): 441b, *note isclass(): 441a, *note isfunction():
     441c. ou *note isbuiltin(): 4422. sont vrais (‘True’).

     This, for example, is true of ‘int.__add__’.  An object passing
     this test has a *note __get__(): 149f. method, but not a *note
     __set__(): 1f23. method or a *note __delete__(): 15c4. method.
     Beyond that, the set of attributes varies.  A *note __name__: 1051.
     attribute is usually sensible, and *note __doc__: 917. often is.

     Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other
     tests return ‘False’ from the *note ismethoddescriptor(): 15a5.
     test, simply because the other tests promise more - you can, e.g.,
     count on having the *note __func__: 12dc. attribute (etc) when an
     object passes *note ismethod(): 441b.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function no longer incorrectly
     reports objects with *note __get__(): 149f. and *note __delete__():
     15c4, but not *note __set__(): 1f23, as being method descriptors
     (such objects are data descriptors, not method descriptors).

 -- Fonction: inspect.isdatadescriptor (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un descripteur de données.

     Data descriptors have a *note __set__: 1f23. or a *note __delete__:
     15c4. method.  Examples are properties (defined in Python),
     getsets, and members.  The latter two are defined in C and there
     are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust
     across Python implementations.  Typically, data descriptors will
     also have *note __name__: 1051. and ‘__doc__’ attributes
     (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes),
     but this is not guaranteed.

 -- Fonction: inspect.isgetsetdescriptor (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un descripteur 'getset'.

     'getsets' sont des attributs définis dans des extensions de modules
     via des structures *note PyGetSetDef: ba8.  Pour les
     implémentations Python ne possédant pas ces types, cette méthode
     renvoie toujours ‘False’.

 -- Fonction: inspect.ismemberdescriptor (object)

     Renvoie ‘True’ si l'objet est un membre descripteur.

     Les membres descripteurs sont des attributs définis dans des
     extensions de modules via des structures *note PyMemberDef: 53d.
     Pour les implémentations Python ne possédant pas ces types, cette
     méthode renvoie toujours ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Récupération du code source,  Next: Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature,  Prev: Types et membres,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.2 Récupération du code source
.....................................

 -- Fonction: inspect.getdoc (object)

     Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with *note
     cleandoc(): 1670.  If the documentation string for an object is not
     provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a
     descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance
     hierarchy.  Return ‘None’ if the documentation string is invalid or
     missing.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: les chaînes de documentation sont
     maintenant héritées si elles ne sont pas surchargées.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getcomments (object)

     Renvoie en une chaîne de caractères toute ligne de commentaire qui
     précède immédiatement le code source de l'objet (pour une classe,
     fonction ou méthode) ou en début d'un fichier de code source Python
     (si l'objet est un module).  Si le code source de l'objet n'est pas
     disponible, renvoie ‘None’.  Cela peut se produire si l'objet a été
     défini en C ou dans un interpréteur interactif.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getfile (object)

     Renvoie le nom du fichier (texte ou binaire) dans lequel un objet a
     été défini.  Cette méthode échoue avec *note TypeError: 525. si
     l'objet est un module, une classe ou une fonction native.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getmodule (object)

     Try to guess which module an object was defined in.  Return ‘None’
     if the module cannot be determined.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getsourcefile (object)

     Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was
     defined or ‘None’ if no way can be identified to get the source.
     This will fail with a *note TypeError: 525. if the object is a
     built-in module, class, or function.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getsourcelines (object)

     Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an
     object.  The argument may be a module, class, method, function,
     traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is returned as a
     list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number
     indicates where in the original source file the first line of code
     was found.  An *note OSError: 40d. is raised if the source code
     cannot be retrieved.  A *note TypeError: 525. is raised if the
     object is a built-in module, class, or function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note OSError: 40d. est levé plutôt
     que *note IOError: 103d, qui est maintenant un alias de ce premier.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getsource (object)

     Return the text of the source code for an object.  The argument may
     be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
     object.  The source code is returned as a single string.  An *note
     OSError: 40d. is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  A
     *note TypeError: 525. is raised if the object is a built-in module,
     class, or function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note OSError: 40d. est levé plutôt
     que *note IOError: 103d, qui est maintenant un alias de ce premier.

 -- Fonction: inspect.cleandoc (doc)

     Nettoie les indentations des chaînes de documentation qui sont
     indentées de manières à s'aligner avec les blocs de code.

     Enlève tous les espaces blancs en début de ligne à partir de la
     première.  Tout espace blanc en début de ligne qui puisse être
     enlevé de manière uniforme à partir de la seconde ligne le sera.
     Les lignes vides en début et en fin de document seront ensuite
     enlevées.  Les tabulations seront converties en espaces.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature,  Next: Classes et fonctions<2>,  Prev: Récupération du code source,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.3 Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature
.............................................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The *note Signature: 1ca. object represents the call signature of a
callable object and its return annotation.  To retrieve a ‘Signature’
object, use the ‘signature()’ function.

 -- Fonction: inspect.signature (callable, *, follow_wrapped=True,
          globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

     Return a *note Signature: 1ca. object for the given 'callable':

          >>> from inspect import signature
          >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
          ...     pass

          >>> sig = signature(foo)

          >>> str(sig)
          '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

          >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
          'b: int'

          >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
          <class 'int'>

     La fonction accepte une grande étendue d'appelables Python, des
     fonctions et classes jusqu'aux objets ‘functools.partials()’.

     For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations (‘from
     __future__ import annotations’), *note signature(): 724. will
     attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using *note
     get_annotations(): 7ff.  The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters are passed into *note get_annotations(): 7ff. when
     resolving the annotations; see the documentation for *note
     get_annotations(): 7ff. for instructions on how to use these
     parameters.

     Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if no signature can be provided, and
     *note TypeError: 525. if that type of object is not supported.
     Also, if the annotations are stringized, and 'eval_str' is not
     false, the ‘eval()’ call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in
     *note get_annotations(): 7ff. could potentially raise any kind of
     exception.

     Une barre oblique (‘/’) dans la signature d'une fonction dénote que
     les paramètres qui précèdent sont exclusivement positionnels.  Pour
     plus d'information, voir *note l'entrée de la FAQ sur les arguments
     exclusivement positionnels: 212f.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'follow_wrapped' parameter was
     added.  Pass ‘False’ to get a signature of 'callable' specifically
     (‘callable.__wrapped__’ will not be used to unwrap decorated
     callables.)

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'globals', 'locals', and
     'eval_str' parameters were added.

          Note: Certains appelables ne peuvent bénéficier
          d'introspection dans certains environnements Python.  Par
          exemple, en CPython, certaines fonctions natives définies en C
          ne fournissent aucune métadonnée sur leurs arguments.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' If the passed object
     has a ‘__signature__’ attribute, we may use it to create the
     signature.  The exact semantics are an implementation detail and
     are subject to unannounced changes.  Consult the source code for
     current semantics.

 -- Classe: inspect.Signature (parameters=None, *,
          return_annotation=Signature.empty)

     A ‘Signature’ object represents the call signature of a function
     and its return annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the
     function it stores a *note Parameter: 1cb. object in its *note
     parameters: 442c. collection.

     L'argument optionnel 'parameters' est une séquence d'objets
     ‘Parameters’, qui permet de vérifier qu'il n'y a pas de duplication
     de noms de paramètres, que les paramètres sont dans le bon ordre
     (positionnels d'abord, positionnels ou nommés ensuite et que les
     paramètres avec valeurs par défaut sont placés après ceux qui n'en
     ont pas).

     The optional 'return_annotation' argument can be an arbitrary
     Python object.  It represents the "return" annotation of the
     callable.

     ‘Signature’ objects are 'immutable'.  Use *note
     Signature.replace(): 442d. or *note copy.replace(): 150. to make a
     modified copy.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ‘Signature’ objects are now picklable
     and *note hashable: 5fd.

      -- Attribut: empty

          Un marqueur spécial, accessible via ‘Signature.empty’,
          indiquant l'absence d'une annotation de type renvoyé.

      -- Attribut: parameters

          Une table de correspondance ordonnée des noms de paramètres
          avec les objets *note Parameter: 1cb.  Les paramètres
          apparaissent dans l'ordre strict de leur définition, incluant
          les paramètres exclusivement nommés.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: Python ne garantit explicitement
          la préservation de l'ordre des paramètres exclusivement nommés
          que depuis la version 3.7, bien qu'en pratique cet ordre a
          toujours été préservé sous Python 3.

      -- Attribut: return_annotation

          L'annotation du type renvoyé par l'appelable.  Si l'appelable
          n'a pas d'annotation de type, cet attribut est évalué à *note
          Signature.empty: 442e.

      -- Méthode: bind (*args, **kwargs)

          Crée une table de correspondance entre les arguments
          positionnels et nommés avec les paramètres.  Renvoie *note
          BoundArguments: 1054. si ‘*args’ et ‘**kwargs’ concordent avec
          la signature, autrement lève une *note TypeError: 525.

      -- Méthode: bind_partial (*args, **kwargs)

          Fonctionne de manière similaire à *note Signature.bind():
          151b, mais permet l'omission de certains arguments (semblable
          au comportement de *note functools.partial(): 40a.).  Renvoie
          *note BoundArguments: 1054, ou lève une *note TypeError: 525.
          si l'argument passé ne correspond pas à la signature.

      -- Méthode: replace (*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

          Create a new *note Signature: 1ca. instance based on the
          instance *note replace(): 442d. was invoked on.  It is
          possible to pass different 'parameters' and/or
          'return_annotation' to override the corresponding properties
          of the base signature.  To remove ‘return_annotation’ from the
          copied ‘Signature’, pass in *note Signature.empty: 442e.

               >>> def test(a, b):
               ...     pass
               ...
               >>> sig = signature(test)
               >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
               >>> str(new_sig)
               "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

          *note Signature: 1ca. objects are also supported by the
          generic function *note copy.replace(): 150.

      -- Méthode: format (*, max_width=None)

          Create a string representation of the *note Signature: 1ca.
          object.

          If 'max_width' is passed, the method will attempt to fit the
          signature into lines of at most 'max_width' characters.  If
          the signature is longer than 'max_width', all parameters will
          be on separate lines.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_callable (obj, *,
               follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None,
               eval_str=False)

          Return a *note Signature: 1ca. (or its subclass) object for a
          given callable 'obj'.

          This method simplifies subclassing of *note Signature: 1ca.:

               class MySignature(Signature):
                   pass
               sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
               assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

          Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of *note
          signature(): 724.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: The 'globals', 'locals', and
          'eval_str' parameters were added.

 -- Classe: inspect.Parameter (name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty,
          annotation=Parameter.empty)

     ‘Parameter’ objects are 'immutable'.  Instead of modifying a
     ‘Parameter’ object, you can use *note Parameter.replace(): 4432. or
     *note copy.replace(): 150. to create a modified copy.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Parameter objects are now picklable
     and *note hashable: 5fd.

      -- Attribut: empty

          Un marqueur spécial, accessible via ‘Parameters.empty’
          indiquant l'absence de valeurs par défaut et d'annotations.

      -- Attribut: name

          Le nom du paramètre (chaîne de caractères).  Le nom doit être
          un identifiant Python valide.

          CPython génère un nom de paramètre implicite de forme ‘.0’ sur
          les objets de code utilisés pour implémenter les
          compréhensions et expressions génératrices.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: These parameter names are now
          exposed by this module as names like ‘implicit0’.

      -- Attribut: default

          La valeur par défaut de ce paramètre.  Si le paramètre n'a pas
          de valeur par défaut, cet attribut vaut *note Parameter.empty:
          4433.

      -- Attribut: annotation

          L'annotation du paramètre.  Si le paramètre n'a pas
          d'annotation, cet attribut est défini à *note Parameter.empty:
          4433.

      -- Attribut: kind

          Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  The
          possible values are accessible via *note Parameter: 1cb. (like
          ‘Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY’), and support comparison and
          ordering, in the following order:

          Nom                          Signification
                                       
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_ONLY'            La valeur doit être donnée comme argument
                                       positionnel.  Les arguments exclusivement
                                       positionnels sont ceux qui apparaissent avant
                                       une entrée ‘/’ (si présente) dans une définition
                                       de fonction Python.
                                       
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD'      La valeur peut être donnée comme argument nommé
                                       ou positionnel (ce qui est l'affectation de
                                       variable standard pour les fonctions
                                       implémentées en Python).
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_POSITIONAL'             Un 'n'-uplet d'arguments positionnels qui ne
                                       sont affectés à aucun autre paramètre.  Cela
                                       correspond à un paramètre ‘*args’ dans une
                                       définition de fonction Python.
                                       
                                       
          'KEYWORD_ONLY'               La valeur doit être donnée comme argument nommé.
                                       Les arguments exclusivement nommés sont ceux qui
                                       apparaissent après un ‘*’ ou ‘*args’ dans une
                                       définition de fonction Python.
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_KEYWORD'                Un dictionnaire d'arguments nommés qui ne sont
                                       liés à aucun autre paramètre.  Cela correspond à
                                       une expression ‘**kwargs’ dans une définition de
                                       fonction Python.
                                       

          Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default
          values:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
               ...                        param.default is param.empty):
               ...         print('Parameter:', param)
               Parameter: c

      -- Attribut: kind.description

          Describes an enum value of *note Parameter.kind: 4437.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

          Example: print all descriptions of arguments:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     print(param.kind.description)
               positional or keyword
               positional or keyword
               keyword-only
               keyword-only

      -- Méthode: replace (*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

          Create a new *note Parameter: 1cb. instance based on the
          instance replaced was invoked on.  To override a ‘Parameter’
          attribute, pass the corresponding argument.  To remove a
          default value or/and an annotation from a ‘Parameter’, pass
          *note Parameter.empty: 4433.

               >>> from inspect import Parameter
               >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
               >>> str(param)
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
               "foo: 'spam'"

          *note Parameter: 1cb. objects are also supported by the
          generic function *note copy.replace(): 150.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: In Python 3.3 *note Parameter: 1cb.
     objects were allowed to have ‘name’ set to ‘None’ if their ‘kind’
     was set to ‘POSITIONAL_ONLY’.  This is no longer permitted.

 -- Classe: inspect.BoundArguments

     Le résultat d'un appel à *note Signature.bind(): 151b. ou *note
     Signature.bind_partial(): 4430.  Contient la correspondance entre
     les arguments et les paramètres de la fonction.

      -- Attribut: arguments

          Une correspondance mutable entre les noms de paramètres et les
          valeurs des arguments.  Contient seulement les arguments liés
          explicitement.  Les changements dans *note arguments: 8fb.
          sont reflétés dans *note args: 4439. et *note kwargs: 443a.

          Doit être utilisé en combinaison avec *note
          Signature.parameters: 442c. pour le traitement d'arguments.

               Note: Les arguments pour lesquels *note Signature.bind():
               151b. ou *note Signature.bind_partial(): 4430. supposent
               une valeur par défaut sont ignorés.  Au besoin, utiliser
               *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): e04. pour les
               inclure.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: *note arguments: 8fb. est
          maintenant de type *note dict: 253.  Anciennement, il était de
          type *note collections.OrderedDict: 5c7.

      -- Attribut: args

          Un 'n'-uplets des valeurs d'arguments positionnels.  Évalué
          dynamiquement à partir de l'attribut *note arguments: 8fb.

      -- Attribut: kwargs

          A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from
          the *note arguments: 8fb. attribute.  Arguments that can be
          passed positionally are included in *note args: 4439. instead.

      -- Attribut: signature

          Une référence à l'objet *note Signature: 1ca. de la classe
          parente.

      -- Méthode: apply_defaults ()

          Assigne les valeurs par défaut pour les arguments manquants.

          Pour les arguments positionnels variables (‘*args’) la valeur
          par défaut est un 'n'-uplet vide.

          Pour les arguments nommés variables (‘**kwargs’) la valeur par
          défaut est un dictionnaire vide.

               >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
               >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
               >>> ba.apply_defaults()
               >>> ba.arguments
               {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     The *note args: 4439. and *note kwargs: 443a. properties can be
     used to invoke functions:

          def test(a, *, b):
              ...

          sig = signature(test)
          ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
          test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 362(1) — 'Function Signature Object'.

     La spécification détaillée, détails d'implémentation et exemples.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: Classes et fonctions<2>,  Next: La pile d'interpréteur,  Prev: Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.4 Classes et fonctions
..............................

 -- Fonction: inspect.getclasstree (classes, unique=False)

     Organise la liste de classes donnée en une hiérarchie de listes
     imbriquées.  Lorsqu'une liste imbriquée apparaît, elle contient les
     classes dérivées de la classe dont l'entrée précède immédiatement
     cette liste.  Chaque entrée est une paire contenant la classe et un
     'n'-uplet de ses classes de base.  Si l'argument 'unique' est vrai,
     exactement une entrée apparaît dans la structure renvoyée pour
     chaque classe de la liste donnée en argument.  Autrement, les
     classes utilisant l'héritage multiple et ses descendantes
     apparaissent plusieurs fois.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getfullargspec (func)

     Obtenir les noms et les valeurs par défaut des paramètres de
     fonction Python.  Un *note n-uplet nommé: 63b. est renvoyé :

     ‘FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs,
     kwonlydefaults, annotations)’

     'args' est une liste de noms de paramètres positionnels.  'varargs'
     est le nom du paramètre ‘*’ ou ‘None’ si les arguments positionnels
     arbitraires ne sont pas acceptés.  'varkw' est le nom du paramètre
     ‘**’, ou ‘None’ si les paramètres arbitraires nommés ne sont pas
     acceptés.  'defaults' est un 'n'-uplet des valeurs des arguments
     par défaut correspondant aux derniers 'n' arguments positionnels,
     ou ‘None’ si aucun défaut n'est défini.  'kwonlyargs' est une liste
     d'arguments exclusivement nommés, ordonnée selon l'ordre de
     déclaration.  'kwonlydefaults' est un dictionnaire de
     correspondance entre les noms de paramètres de 'kwonlyargs' et les
     valeurs par défaut utilisées si aucun argument n'est donné.
     'annotations' est un dictionnaire de correspondance entre les noms
     de paramètres et les annotations.  La clef spéciale ‘"return"’ est
     utilisée pour obtenir la valeur de retour de l'annotation la
     fonction (si elle existe).

     Notez que *note signature(): 724. et *note Signature Object: 442a.
     fournissent l'API recommandé pour l’introspection d'appelables et
     prennent en charge des comportements additionnels (comme les
     arguments exclusivement positionnels) qui sont parfois rencontrés
     dans les APIs des modules d'extension.  Cette fonction et maintenue
     principalement pour maintenir la compatibilité avec l'API du module
     ‘inspect’ de Python 2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: cette fonction est maintenant basée
     sur *note signature(): 724, mais ignore toujours les attributs
     ‘_wrapped_’ et inclue le premier paramètre (déjà lié) dans la
     signature des méthodes liées.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: cette méthode fût précédemment
     documentée comme dépréciée en faveur de *note signature(): 724. en
     Python 3.5, mais cette décision fût renversée afin de ré-introduire
     une interface standard clairement supportée pour du code unifié
     Python 2/3 migrant pour se départir de l'API ‘getargspec()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Python ne garantit explicitement la
     préservation de l'ordre des paramètres exclusivement nommés que
     depuis la version 3.7, bien qu'en pratique cet ordre a toujours été
     préservé sous Python 3.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getargvalues (frame)

     Obtenir de l'information sur les arguments passés à un cadre
     particulier.  Un *note n-uplet nommé: 63b. ‘ArgInfo(args, varargs,
     keywords, locals)’ est renvoyé.  'args' est une liste de noms
     d'arguments.  'varags' et 'keywords' sont les noms des arguments
     ‘*’ et ‘**’ ou ‘None’.  'locals' est le dictionnaire des variables
     locales du cadre courant.

          Note: Cette fonction fût dépréciée par inadvertance en Python
          3.5.

 -- Fonction: inspect.formatargvalues (args[, varargs, varkw, locals,
          formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

     Formatage lisible des quatre valeurs renvoyées par *note
     getargvalues(): ea9.  Les arguments format* sont des fonctions de
     formatage optionnelles qui sont appelées pour convertir les noms et
     valeurs en chaînes de caractères.

          Note: Cette fonction fût dépréciée par inadvertance en Python
          3.5.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getmro (cls)

     Renvoie un 'n'-uplet des classes de base de 'cls', incluant 'cls',
     selon le l'ordre de résolution des méthodes ('method resolution
     order').  Aucune classe n'apparaît plus d'une fois dans ce
     'n'-uplet.  Notez que le l'ordre de résolution des méthodes dépend
     du type de 'cls'.  Exception faite d'une utilisation très
     particulière de la métaclasse définie par l'usager, 'cls' sera
     toujours le premier élément du tuple.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getcallargs (func, /, *args, **kwds)

     Bind the 'args' and 'kwds' to the argument names of the Python
     function or method 'func', as if it was called with them.  For
     bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named
     ‘self’) to the associated instance.  A dict is returned, mapping
     the argument names (including the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’
     arguments, if any) to their values from 'args' and 'kwds'.  In case
     of invoking 'func' incorrectly, i.e.  whenever ‘func(*args,
     **kwds)’ would raise an exception because of incompatible
     signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar
     message is raised.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.5: utilisez plutôt *note
     Signature.bind(): 151b. et *note Signature.bind_partial(): 4430.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getclosurevars (func)

     Obtenir la correspondance de nom de références externes d'une
     fonction ou méthode Python 'func' avec leur valeur courante.  Un
     *note n-uplet nommé: 63b. ‘ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals,
     builtins, unbound)’ est renvoyé.  'nonlocals' établit une
     correspondance des noms capturés par les fermetures lexicales,
     'globals' au module de la fonction et 'builtins' aux noms natifs
     visibles depuis le corps de la fonction.  'unbound' est un ensemble
     de noms référencés dans la fonction ne trouvant aucune résolution
     dans les valeurs globales du module courant ni à travers le lexique
     natif.

     *note TypeError: 525. est levée si 'func' n'est ni une fonction ni
     une méthode Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: inspect.unwrap (func, *, stop=None)

     Obtenir l'objet englobé par 'func'.  Suit une chaîne d'attributs de
     ‘__wrapped__’, renvoyant le dernier objet de la chaîne.

     'stop' est une fonction de 'callback' optionnelle qui accepte un
     objet de la chaîne englobée comme son seul argument et permet
     d'arrêter le déballage avant la fin si la fonction de 'callback'
     renvoie une valeur vraie.  Si la fonction 'callback' ne renvoie
     jamais une valeur vraie, le dernier objet de la chaîne est renvoyé
     comme d'habitude.  Par exemple, *note signature(): 724. utilise
     ceci pour arrêter le déballage si un objet dans la chaîne définit
     un attribut ‘__signature__’.

     *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée si un cycle est rencontré.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: inspect.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None,
          locals=None, eval_str=False)

     Compute the annotations dict for an object.

     ‘obj’ may be a callable, class, or module.  Passing in an object of
     any other type raises *note TypeError: 525.

     Returns a dict.  ‘get_annotations()’ returns a new dict every time
     it's called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
     different but equivalent dicts.

     This function handles several details for you:

        * If ‘eval_str’ is true, values of type ‘str’ will be
          un-stringized using *note eval(): 17e.  This is intended for
          use with stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import
          annotations’).

        * If ‘obj’ doesn't have an annotations dict, returns an empty
          dict.  (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict;
          classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.)

        * Ignores inherited annotations on classes.  If a class doesn't
          have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

        * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using
          ‘getattr()’ and ‘dict.get()’ for safety.

        * Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.

     ‘eval_str’ controls whether or not values of type ‘str’ are
     replaced with the result of calling *note eval(): 17e. on those
     values:

        * If eval_str is true, *note eval(): 17e. is called on values of
          type ‘str’.  (Note that ‘get_annotations’ doesn't catch
          exceptions; if *note eval(): 17e. raises an exception, it will
          unwind the stack past the ‘get_annotations’ call.)

        * If eval_str is false (the default), values of type ‘str’ are
          unchanged.

     ‘globals’ and ‘locals’ are passed in to *note eval(): 17e.; see the
     documentation for *note eval(): 17e. for more information.  If
     ‘globals’ or ‘locals’ is ‘None’, this function may replace that
     value with a context-specific default, contingent on ‘type(obj)’:

        * If ‘obj’ is a module, ‘globals’ defaults to ‘obj.__dict__’.

        * If ‘obj’ is a class, ‘globals’ defaults to
          ‘sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__’ and ‘locals’ defaults
          to the ‘obj’ class namespace.

        * If ‘obj’ is a callable, ‘globals’ defaults to *note
          obj.__globals__: 12b3, although if ‘obj’ is a wrapped function
          (using *note functools.update_wrapper(): 100d.) it is first
          unwrapped.

     Calling ‘get_annotations’ is best practice for accessing the
     annotations dict of any object.  See *note Bonnes pratiques
     concernant les annotations: 7c5. for more information on
     annotations best practices.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: La pile d'interpréteur,  Next: Recherche dynamique d'attributs,  Prev: Classes et fonctions<2>,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.5 La pile d'interpréteur
................................

Some of the following functions return *note FrameInfo: 639. objects.
For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on
all attributes except ‘positions’.  This behavior is considered
deprecated and may be removed in the future.

 -- Classe: inspect.FrameInfo

      -- Attribut: frame

          The *note frame object: 6cc. that the record corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          record corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that's being
          executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 4446. list.

      -- Attribut: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 4449. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Return a *note named tuple: 63b.
     instead of a *note tuple: 366.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘FrameInfo’ is now a class instance
     (that is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple:
     63b.).

 -- Classe: inspect.Traceback

      -- Attribut: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          traceback corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that's being
          executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Attribut: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 444d. list.

      -- Attribut: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 4449. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘Traceback’ is now a class instance
     (that is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple:
     63b.).

     Note: Conserver des références à des objets cadre, tel que trouvé
     dans le 1er élément des enregistrements de cadres que ces fonctions
     renvoient, peut créer des cycles de référence dans votre programme.
     Lorsqu'un cycle de référence a été créé, la durée de vie de tous
     les objets pouvant être accessibles par ces objets peut être
     grandement augmentée, même si le détecteur de cycle (optionnel) de
     Python est activé.  Si ces cycles doivent être créés, il est
     important de s'assurer qu'ils soient explicitement brisés pour
     éviter la destruction reportée des objets et l'augmentation
     résultante de l'utilisation de la mémoire.

     Bien que le détecteur trouvera ces cycles, la destruction des
     cadres (et variables locales) peut être fait de manière
     déterministe en enlevant les cycles dans une clause *note finally:
     9ba.  Cela est important si le détecteur de cycle a été désactivé
     lors de la compilation du code Python ou en utilisant *note
     gc.disable(): 440a.  Par exemple :

          def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
              frame = inspect.currentframe()
              try:
                  # do something with the frame
              finally:
                  del frame

     Pour conserver ces cadres (par exemple pour imprimer une trace
     d'exécution plus tard), vous pouvez briser ces cycles de référence
     en utilisant la méthode *note frame.clear(): 27d.

L'argument optionnel 'context' supporté par la plupart de ces méthodes
spécifie le nombre de lignes de contexte à renvoyer, qui sera centré
autour de la ligne courante.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getframeinfo (frame, context=1)

     Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A *note
     Traceback: 63a. object is returned.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: A *note Traceback: 63a. object is
     returned instead of a named tuple.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getouterframes (frame, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 639. objects for a frame and all
     outer frames.  These frames represent the calls that lead to the
     creation of 'frame'.  The first entry in the returned list
     represents 'frame'; the last entry represents the outermost call on
     'frame"s stack.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de *note n-uplet nommé: 63b.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     est renvoyée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 639.
     objects is returned.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getinnerframes (traceback, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 639. objects for a traceback's frame
     and all inner frames.  These frames represent calls made as a
     consequence of 'frame'.  The first entry in the list represents
     'traceback'; the last entry represents where the exception was
     raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de *note n-uplet nommé: 63b.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     est renvoyée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 639.
     objects is returned.

 -- Fonction: inspect.currentframe ()

     Renvoie l'objet cadre de la pile pour le cadre de l’appelant.

     cette fonction nécessite que l'interpréteur Python implémente une
     pile de cadres d'appel, ce qui n'est pas forcément le cas de toutes
     les implémentations Python.  Si le code s'exécute dans une
     implémentation Python n'implémentant pas la pile de cadres, cette
     fonction renvoie ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: inspect.stack (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 639. objects for the caller's
     stack.  The first entry in the returned list represents the caller;
     the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de *note n-uplet nommé: 63b.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     est renvoyée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 639.
     objects is returned.

 -- Fonction: inspect.trace (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 639. objects for the stack
     between the current frame and the frame in which an exception
     currently being handled was raised in.  The first entry in the list
     represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
     exception was raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de *note n-uplet nommé: 63b.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     est renvoyée.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 639.
     objects is returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche dynamique d'attributs,  Next: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: La pile d'interpréteur,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.6 Recherche dynamique d'attributs
.........................................

Both *note getattr(): bc1. and *note hasattr(): 4be. can trigger code
execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes.
Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and *note __getattr__():
4bf. and *note __getattribute__(): bc2. may be called.

Pour les cas où une introspection passive est désirée, comme des outils
de documentation, cela peut être inconvenable.  *note getattr_static():
480. possède la même signature que *note getattr(): bc1, mais évite
l'exécution de code lors de la recherche d'attributs.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getattr_static (obj, attr, default=None)

     Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, *note __getattr__(): 4bf. or *note
     __getattribute__(): bc2.

     Note : cette fonction ne retrouve pas forcément tous les attributs
     renvoyés par 'getattr' (tel que des attributs générés
     dynamiquement) et pourrait retrouver des attributs non retrouvés
     par 'getattr' (tel que des descripteurs qui lèvent un
     'AttributeError').  Elle peut aussi donner des objets descripteurs,
     plutôt que des membres d'instance.

     Si l'instance *note __dict__: 549. est cachée ('shadowed') par un
     autre membre (par exemple une propriété), cette fonction ne pourra
     pas retrouver les membres de l'instance.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

*note getattr_static(): 480. ne résout pas les descripteurs, par exemple
'slot descriptors' ou les descripteurs 'getset' des objets implémentés
en C. Le descripteur de l'objet est renvoyé plutôt que l'attribut
sous-jacent.

Vous pouvez gérer ces cas à l'aide du code suivant.  Notez que pour des
descripteurs arbitraires 'getset' les invoquant, de l'exécution de code
pourrait être lancée :

     # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
     class _foo:
         __slots__ = ['foo']

     slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
     getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
     wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
     descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

     result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
     if type(result) in descriptor_types:
         try:
             result = result.__get__()
         except AttributeError:
             # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
             # indicate there is no underlying value
             # in which case the descriptor itself will
             # have to do
             pass


File: python.info,  Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Next: Bit d'option des objets code,  Prev: Recherche dynamique d'attributs,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.7 Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators
..............................................................................

Lors de l'implémentation d'ordonnanceur de coroutine et autres
utilisations avancées de générateurs, il est utile de déterminer si un
générateur est présentement en cours d'exécution, en attente de
démarrage ou de continuation, ou s'il a déjà terminé.  *note
getgeneratorstate(): 1216. permet d'aisément déterminer l'état courant
d'un générateur.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getgeneratorstate (generator)

     Donne l'état courant d'un générateur-itérateur.

     Les états possibles :

        * GEN_CREATED : En attente de démarrage d'exécution.

        * GEN_RUNNING : En cours d'exécution par l'interpréteur.

        * GEN_SUSPENDED : Présentement suspendu à une expression
          'yield'.

        * GEN_CLOSED : L'exécution est complétée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getcoroutinestate (coroutine)

     Donne l'état courant d'un objet coroutine.  L'utilisation est
     prévue avec des objets coroutine créés avec des fonctions *note
     async def: 5bd, mais accepte n'importe quel objet semblable à une
     coroutine qui définisse des attributs ‘cr_running’ ‘cr_frame’.

     Les états possibles :

        * CORO_CREATED : En attente de démarrage d'exécution.

        * CORO_RUNNING : En cours d'exécution par l'interpréteur.

        * CORO_SUSPENDED : Suspendu à une expression 'await'.

        * CORO_CLOSED : Exécution complétée.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getasyncgenstate (agen)

     Get current state of an asynchronous generator object.  The
     function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects
     created by *note async def: 5bd. functions which use the *note
     yield: 9bd. statement, but will accept any asynchronous
     generator-like object that has ‘ag_running’ and ‘ag_frame’
     attributes.

     Les états possibles :

        * AGEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * AGEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * AGEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

        * AGEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

L'état courant interne du générateur peut aussi être vérifié.  Ceci est
utile pour des tests, afin d'assurer que l'état interne est mise à jour
tel que prévu :

 -- Fonction: inspect.getgeneratorlocals (generator)

     Donne une correspondance de variables locales dans 'generator' avec
     les valeurs courantes.  Un dictionnaire est renvoyé, établissant la
     correspondance entre variables et valeurs.  Ceci est équivalent à
     appeler *note locals(): 140. dans le corps du générateur et les
     mêmes restrictions s'appliquent.

     Si 'generator' est un *note générateur: 104c. sans cadre courant
     associé, alors un dictionnaire vide est renvoyé. *note TypeError:
     525. est levé sir 'generator' n'est pas un objet générateur Python.

     Cette fonction repose sur l'exposition d'une pile de cadres Python
     par le générateur pour l'introspection, ce qui n'est pas garanti
     dans toutes les implémentations Python.  Dans un tel cas, cette
     fonction renvoie toujours un dictionnaire vide.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getcoroutinelocals (coroutine)

     Cette fonction est semblable à *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10ba,
     mais fonctionne pour des objets coroutines créés avec des fonctions
     *note async def: 5bd.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: inspect.getasyncgenlocals (agen)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10ba, but
     works for asynchronous generator objects created by *note async
     def: 5bd. functions which use the *note yield: 9bd. statement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Bit d'option des objets code,  Next: Buffer flags,  Prev: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.8 Bit d'option des objets code
......................................

Python code objects have a *note co_flags: 1f00. attribute, which is a
bitmap of the following flags:

 -- Données: inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

     L'objet code est optimisé, utilisant des variables locales rapides.

 -- Données: inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

     If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's *note f_locals:
     180. when the code object is executed.

 -- Données: inspect.CO_VARARGS

     L'objet code possède un paramètre de variable positionnel (‘*args’
     ou semblable).

 -- Données: inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

     L'objet code possède une paramètre par mot-clé variable (‘**kwargs’
     ou semblable).

 -- Données: inspect.CO_NESTED

     L'option est définie lorsque le code est une fonction imbriquée.

 -- Données: inspect.CO_GENERATOR

     L'option est définie lorsque l'objet code est une fonction
     génératrice, c'est-à-dire qu'un objet générateur est renvoyé
     lorsque le code objet est exécuté.

 -- Données: inspect.CO_COROUTINE

     L'option est définie lorsque le code objet est une fonction
     coroutine.  Lors que le code objet est exécuté, il renvoie un objet
     coroutine.  Voir PEP 492(1) pour plus de détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

     L'option est utilisée pour transformer un générateur en une
     coroutine basée sur un générateur.  Les objets générateurs avec
     cette option peuvent être utilisés dans une expression ‘await’ et
     un objet coroutine ‘yield from’.  Voir PEP 492(2) pour plus de
     détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Données: inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

     L'option est définie lorsque l'objet code est une fonction
     génératrice asynchrone.  Lorsque l'objet code est exécuté, il
     renvoie un objet générateur asynchrone.  Voir PEP 525(3) pour les
     détails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Note: Ces options sont spécifiques à CPython et pourraient ne pas
     être définies dans d'autres implémentations Python.  De plus, les
     options constituent des détails d'implémentation et pourraient être
     enlevées ou dépréciées dans des versions ultérieures.  Il est
     recommandé d'utiliser les APIs publiques de *note inspect: 7d. pour
     tous les besoins d'introspection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer flags,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<9>,  Prev: Bit d'option des objets code,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.9 Buffer flags
......................

 -- Classe: inspect.BufferFlags

     This is an *note enum.IntFlag: 22b5. that represents the flags that
     can be passed to the *note __buffer__(): 44a. method of objects
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 38e.

     The meaning of the flags is explained at *note Buffer request
     types: 445d.

      -- Attribut: SIMPLE

      -- Attribut: WRITABLE

      -- Attribut: FORMAT

      -- Attribut: ND

      -- Attribut: STRIDES

      -- Attribut: C_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Attribut: F_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Attribut: ANY_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Attribut: INDIRECT

      -- Attribut: CONTIG

      -- Attribut: CONTIG_RO

      -- Attribut: STRIDED

      -- Attribut: STRIDED_RO

      -- Attribut: RECORDS

      -- Attribut: RECORDS_RO

      -- Attribut: FULL

      -- Attribut: FULL_RO

      -- Attribut: READ

      -- Attribut: WRITE

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<9>,  Prev: Buffer flags,  Up: inspect --- Inspect live objects

5.30.14.10 Interface en ligne de commande
.........................................

Le module *note inspect: 7d. fournit également des capacités
d'introspection de base en ligne de commande.

Par défaut, il accepte le nom d'un module et affiche la source de ce
module.  Une classe ou fonction à l'intérieur du module peut également
être affichée en ajoutant un ":" et le nom qualifié de l'objet désiré.

 -- Option: --details

     Affiche de l'information à propos de l'objet spécifié plutôt que du
     code source.


File: python.info,  Node: site --- Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: inspect --- Inspect live objects,  Up: Environnement d'exécution Python

5.30.15 ‘site’ -- Site-specific configuration hook
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/site.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'This module is automatically imported during initialization.'  The
automatic import can be suppressed using the interpreter's *note -S:
1188. option.

Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module
search path and adds *note callables: 2144, including *note help(): 8c6.
to the built-in namespace.  However, Python startup option *note -S:
1188. blocks this and this module can be safely imported with no
automatic modifications to the module search path or additions to the
builtins.  To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific additions, call
the *note main(): 1cf3. function.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Importing the module used to trigger paths
manipulation even when using *note -S: 1188.

It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail
part.  For the head part, it uses ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’;
empty heads are skipped.  For the tail part, it uses the empty string
and then ‘lib/site-packages’ (on Windows) or
‘lib/python`X.Y[t]'/site-packages’ (on Unix and macOS). (The optional
suffix "t" indicates the *note free threading: 151e. build, and is
appended if ‘"t"’ is present in the *note sys.abiflags: a54. constant.)
For each of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to
an existing directory, and if so, adds it to ‘sys.path’ and also
inspects the newly added path for configuration files.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Support for the "site-python" directory has
been removed.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Unix, *note Free threading: 151e.
Python installations are identified by the "t" suffix in the
version-specific directory name, such as ‘lib/python3.13t/’.

If a file named "pyvenv.cfg" exists one directory above sys.executable,
sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and it is also
checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix will
always be the "real" prefixes of the Python installation).  If
"pyvenv.cfg" (a bootstrap configuration file) contains the key
"include-system-site-packages" set to anything other than "true"
(case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will not be searched for
site-packages; otherwise they will.

A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form ‘`name'.pth’
and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents
are additional items (one per line) to be added to ‘sys.path’.
Non-existing items are never added to ‘sys.path’, and no check is made
that the item refers to a directory rather than a file.  No item is
added to ‘sys.path’ more than once.  Blank lines and lines beginning
with ‘#’ are skipped.  Lines starting with ‘import’ (followed by space
or tab) are executed.

     Note: An executable line in a ‘.pth’ file is run at every Python
     startup, regardless of whether a particular module is actually
     going to be used.  Its impact should thus be kept to a minimum.
     The primary intended purpose of executable lines is to make the
     corresponding module(s) importable (load 3rd-party import hooks,
     adjust ‘PATH’ etc).  Any other initialization is supposed to be
     done upon a module's actual import, if and when it happens.
     Limiting a code chunk to a single line is a deliberate measure to
     discourage putting anything more complex here.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The ‘.pth’ files are now decoded by UTF-8
at first and then by the *note locale encoding: 23f. if it fails.

For example, suppose ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ are set to
‘/usr/local’.  The Python X.Y library is then installed in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  Suppose this has a subdirectory
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ with three subsubdirectories,
‘foo’, ‘bar’ and ‘spam’, and two path configuration files, ‘foo.pth’ and
‘bar.pth’.  Assume ‘foo.pth’ contains the following:

     # foo package configuration

     foo
     bar
     bletch

and ‘bar.pth’ contains:

     # bar package configuration

     bar

Then the following version-specific directories are added to ‘sys.path’,
in this order:

     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo

Note that ‘bletch’ is omitted because it doesn't exist; the ‘bar’
directory precedes the ‘foo’ directory because ‘bar.pth’ comes
alphabetically before ‘foo.pth’; and ‘spam’ is omitted because it is not
mentioned in either path configuration file.

* Menu:

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* Module contents: Module contents<3>.
* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/site.py


File: python.info,  Node: sitecustomize,  Next: usercustomize,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.15.1 ‘sitecustomize’
.........................

After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module
named *note sitecustomize: c7, which can perform arbitrary site-specific
customizations.  It is typically created by a system administrator in
the site-packages directory.  If this import fails with an *note
ImportError: 40f. or its subclass exception, and the exception's *note
name: 2245. attribute equals to ‘'sitecustomize'’, it is silently
ignored.  If Python is started without output streams available, as with
‘pythonw.exe’ on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
attempted output from *note sitecustomize: c7. is ignored.  Any other
exception causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.


File: python.info,  Node: usercustomize,  Next: Readline configuration,  Prev: sitecustomize,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.15.2 ‘usercustomize’
.........................

After this, an attempt is made to import a module named *note
usercustomize: 10d, which can perform arbitrary user-specific
customizations, if *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4475. is true.  This file is
intended to be created in the user site-packages directory (see below),
which is part of ‘sys.path’ unless disabled by *note -s: 1364.  If this
import fails with an *note ImportError: 40f. or its subclass exception,
and the exception's *note name: 2245. attribute equals to
‘'usercustomize'’, it is silently ignored.

Note that for some non-Unix systems, ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’
are empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
*note sitecustomize: c7. and *note usercustomize: 10d. is still
attempted.


File: python.info,  Node: Readline configuration,  Next: Module contents<3>,  Prev: usercustomize,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.15.3 Readline configuration
................................

On systems that support *note readline: b9, this module will also import
and configure the *note rlcompleter: bc. module, if Python is started in
*note interactive mode: fb3. and without the *note -S: 1188. option.
The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use
‘~/.python_history’ as the history save file.  To disable it, delete (or
override) the *note sys.__interactivehook__: fb4. attribute in your
*note sitecustomize: c7. or *note usercustomize: 10d. module or your
*note PYTHONSTARTUP: fb5. file.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Activation of rlcompleter and history was
made automatic.


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<3>,  Next: Interface en ligne de commande<10>,  Prev: Readline configuration,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.15.4 Module contents
.........................

 -- Données: site.PREFIXES

     A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.

 -- Données: site.ENABLE_USER_SITE

     Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory.
     ‘True’ means that it is enabled and was added to ‘sys.path’.
     ‘False’ means that it was disabled by user request (with *note -s:
     1364. or *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1365.).  ‘None’ means it was
     disabled for security reasons (mismatch between user or group id
     and effective id) or by an administrator.

 -- Données: site.USER_SITE

     Path to the user site-packages for the running Python.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getusersitepackages(): 1220. hasn't been called
     yet.  Default value is ‘~/.local/lib/python`X.Y'[t]/site-packages’
     for UNIX and non-framework macOS builds,
     ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'/lib/python/site-packages’ for macOS
     framework builds, and ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python\Python`XY'\site-packages’
     on Windows.  The optional "t" indicates the free-threaded build.
     This directory is a site directory, which means that ‘.pth’ files
     in it will be processed.

 -- Données: site.USER_BASE

     Path to the base directory for the user site-packages.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getuserbase(): 121f. hasn't been called yet.
     Default value is ‘~/.local’ for UNIX and macOS non-framework
     builds, ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'’ for macOS framework builds, and
     ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python’ for Windows.  This value is used to compute
     the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python
     modules, etc.  for the *note user installation scheme: 1d04.  See
     also *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1363.

 -- Fonction: site.main ()

     Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module
     search path.  This function is called automatically when this
     module is imported, unless the Python interpreter was started with
     the *note -S: 1188. flag.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: This function used to be called
     unconditionally.

 -- Fonction: site.addsitedir (sitedir, known_paths=None)

     Add a directory to sys.path and process its ‘.pth’ files.
     Typically used in *note sitecustomize: c7. or *note usercustomize:
     10d. (see above).

 -- Fonction: site.getsitepackages ()

     Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: site.getuserbase ()

     Return the path of the user base directory, *note USER_BASE: 12fc.
     If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it,
     respecting *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1363.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Fonction: site.getusersitepackages ()

     Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory, *note
     USER_SITE: 1cf2.  If it is not initialized yet, this function will
     also set it, respecting *note USER_BASE: 12fc.  To determine if the
     user-specific site-packages was added to ‘sys.path’ *note
     ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4475. should be used.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<10>,  Prev: Module contents<3>,  Up: site --- Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.15.5 Interface en ligne de commande
........................................

The *note site: c6. module also provides a way to get the user
directories from the command line:

     $ python -m site --user-site
     /home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages

If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of *note
sys.path: 3ab. on the standard output, followed by the value of *note
USER_BASE: 12fc. and whether the directory exists, then the same thing
for *note USER_SITE: 1cf2, and finally the value of *note
ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4475.

 -- Option: --user-base

     Print the path to the user base directory.

 -- Option: --user-site

     Print the path to the user site-packages directory.

If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed
(always in this order), separated by *note os.pathsep: 1d01.

If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values:
‘0’ if the user site-packages directory is enabled, ‘1’ if it was
disabled by the user, ‘2’ if it is disabled for security reasons or by
an administrator, and a value greater than 2 if there is an error.

Voir aussi
..........

   * PEP 370(1) - Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur.

   * *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1c1e.
     - The initialization of *note sys.path: 3ab.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: Interpréteurs Python personnalisés,  Next: Importer des modules,  Prev: Environnement d'exécution Python,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.31 Interpréteurs Python personnalisés
=======================================

The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar
to Python's interactive interpreter.  If you want a Python interpreter
that supports some special feature in addition to the Python language,
you should look at the *note code: 1a. module.  (The *note codeop: 1c.
module is lower-level, used to support compiling a possibly incomplete
chunk of Python code.)

La liste complète des modules décrits dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* code: code --- Interpreter base classes. Interpreter base classes
* codeop: codeop --- Compile Python code. Compile Python code


File: python.info,  Node: code --- Interpreter base classes,  Next: codeop --- Compile Python code,  Up: Interpréteurs Python personnalisés

5.31.1 ‘code’ -- Interpreter base classes
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/code.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘code’ module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops
in Python.  Two classes and convenience functions are included which can
be used to build applications which provide an interactive interpreter
prompt.

 -- Classe: code.InteractiveInterpreter (locals=None)

     This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user's
     namespace); it does not deal with input buffering or prompting or
     input file naming (the filename is always passed in explicitly).
     The optional 'locals' argument specifies a mapping to use as the
     namespace in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly
     created dictionary with key ‘'__name__'’ set to ‘'__console__'’ and
     key ‘'__doc__'’ set to ‘None’.

 -- Classe: code.InteractiveConsole (locals=None, filename='<console>',
          local_exit=False)

     Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter.
     This class builds on *note InteractiveInterpreter: 1594. and adds
     prompting using the familiar ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’, and input
     buffering.  If 'local_exit' is true, ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ in the
     console will not raise *note SystemExit: d30, but instead return to
     the calling code.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added 'local_exit' parameter.

 -- Fonction: code.interact (banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None,
          exitmsg=None, local_exit=False)

     Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop.  This creates a
     new instance of *note InteractiveConsole: 2357. and sets 'readfunc'
     to be used as the *note InteractiveConsole.raw_input(): 4483.
     method, if provided.  If 'local' is provided, it is passed to the
     *note InteractiveConsole: 2357. constructor for use as the default
     namespace for the interpreter loop.  If 'local_exit' is provided,
     it is passed to the *note InteractiveConsole: 2357. constructor.
     The *note interact(): 4484. method of the instance is then run with
     'banner' and 'exitmsg' passed as the banner and exit message to
     use, if provided.  The console object is discarded after use.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added 'exitmsg' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added 'local_exit' parameter.

 -- Fonction: code.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python's
     interpreter main loop (a.k.a.  the read-eval-print loop).  The
     tricky part is to determine when the user has entered an incomplete
     command that can be completed by entering more text (as opposed to
     a complete command or a syntax error).  This function 'almost'
     always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main loop.

     'source' is the source string; 'filename' is the optional filename
     from which source was read, defaulting to ‘'<input>'’; and 'symbol'
     is the optional grammar start symbol, which should be ‘'single'’
     (the default), ‘'eval'’ or ‘'exec'’.

     Returns a code object (the same as ‘compile(source, filename,
     symbol)’) if the command is complete and valid; ‘None’ if the
     command is incomplete; raises *note SyntaxError: 18b. if the
     command is complete and contains a syntax error, or raises *note
     OverflowError: 86f. or *note ValueError: 1ff. if the command
     contains an invalid literal.

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/code.py


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Next: Interactive Console Objects,  Up: code --- Interpreter base classes

5.31.1.1 Interactive Interpreter Objects
........................................

 -- Méthode: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource (source,
          filename='<input>', symbol='single')

     Compile and run some source in the interpreter.  Arguments are the
     same as for *note compile_command(): 4485.; the default for
     'filename' is ‘'<input>'’, and for 'symbol' is ‘'single'’.  One of
     several things can happen:

        * The input is incorrect; *note compile_command(): 4485. raised
          an exception (*note SyntaxError: 18b. or *note OverflowError:
          86f.).  A syntax traceback will be printed by calling the
          *note showsyntaxerror(): 4489. method.  *note runsource():
          4488. returns ‘False’.

        * The input is incomplete, and more input is required; *note
          compile_command(): 4485. returned ‘None’.  *note runsource():
          4488. returns ‘True’.

        * The input is complete; *note compile_command(): 4485. returned
          a code object.  The code is executed by calling the *note
          runcode(): 448a. (which also handles run-time exceptions,
          except for *note SystemExit: d30.).  *note runsource(): 4488.
          returns ‘False’.

     The return value can be used to decide whether to use ‘sys.ps1’ or
     ‘sys.ps2’ to prompt the next line.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode (code)

     Execute a code object.  When an exception occurs, *note
     showtraceback(): dbf. is called to display a traceback.  All
     exceptions are caught except *note SystemExit: d30, which is
     allowed to propagate.

     A note about *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.: this exception may
     occur elsewhere in this code, and may not always be caught.  The
     caller should be prepared to deal with it.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror (filename=None)

     Display the syntax error that just occurred.  This does not display
     a stack trace because there isn't one for syntax errors.  If
     'filename' is given, it is stuffed into the exception instead of
     the default filename provided by Python's parser, because it always
     uses ‘'<string>'’ when reading from a string.  The output is
     written by the *note write(): 448b. method.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback ()

     Display the exception that just occurred.  We remove the first
     stack item because it is within the interpreter object
     implementation.  The output is written by the *note write(): 448b.
     method.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The full chained traceback is
     displayed instead of just the primary traceback.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveInterpreter.write (data)

     Write a string to the standard error stream (‘sys.stderr’).
     Derived classes should override this to provide the appropriate
     output handling as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Console Objects,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Up: code --- Interpreter base classes

5.31.1.2 Interactive Console Objects
....................................

The *note InteractiveConsole: 2357. class is a subclass of *note
InteractiveInterpreter: 1594, and so offers all the methods of the
interpreter objects as well as the following additions.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveConsole.interact (banner=None, exitmsg=None)

     Closely emulate the interactive Python console.  The optional
     'banner' argument specify the banner to print before the first
     interaction; by default it prints a banner similar to the one
     printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed by the class
     name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse
     this with the real interpreter - since it's so close!).

     The optional 'exitmsg' argument specifies an exit message printed
     when exiting.  Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message.
     If 'exitmsg' is not given or ‘None’, a default message is printed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: To suppress printing any banner, pass
     an empty string.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Print an exit message when exiting.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveConsole.push (line)

     Push a line of source text to the interpreter.  The line should not
     have a trailing newline; it may have internal newlines.  The line
     is appended to a buffer and the interpreter's *note runsource():
     4488. method is called with the concatenated contents of the buffer
     as source.  If this indicates that the command was executed or
     invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is incomplete,
     and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended.  The
     return value is ‘True’ if more input is required, ‘False’ if the
     line was dealt with in some way (this is the same as
     ‘runsource()’).

 -- Méthode: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer ()

     Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.

 -- Méthode: InteractiveConsole.raw_input (prompt='')

     Write a prompt and read a line.  The returned line does not include
     the trailing newline.  When the user enters the EOF key sequence,
     *note EOFError: 12b9. is raised.  The base implementation reads
     from ‘sys.stdin’; a subclass may replace this with a different
     implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: codeop --- Compile Python code,  Prev: code --- Interpreter base classes,  Up: Interpréteurs Python personnalisés

5.31.2 ‘codeop’ -- Compile Python code
--------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/codeop.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note codeop: 1c. fournit des outils permettant d'émuler une
boucle de lecture-évaluation-affichage (en anglais
'read-eval-print-loop' ou REPL), comme dans le module *note code: 1a.
Par conséquent, ce module n'est pas destiné à être utilisé directement ;
pour inclure un REPL dans un programme, il est préférable d'utiliser le
module *note code: 1a.

Cette tâche se divise en deux parties :

  1. Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python statement:
     in short, telling whether to print '‘>>>’' or '‘...’' next.

  2. Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so
     subsequent input can be compiled with these in effect.

Le module *note codeop: 1c. fournit un moyen d'effectuer ces deux
parties, individuellement ou simultanément.

Pour ne faire que la première partie :

 -- Fonction: codeop.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     Tries to compile 'source', which should be a string of Python code
     and return a code object if 'source' is valid Python code.  In that
     case, the filename attribute of the code object will be 'filename',
     which defaults to ‘'<input>'’.  Returns ‘None’ if 'source' is 'not'
     valid Python code, but is a prefix of valid Python code.

     En cas de problème avec 'source', une exception est levée ; *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. si la syntaxe Python est incorrecte, et *note
     OverflowError: 86f. ou *note ValueError: 1ff. si un littéral
     invalide est rencontré.

     The 'symbol' argument determines whether 'source' is compiled as a
     statement (‘'single'’, the default), as a sequence of *note
     statement: 273b. (‘'exec'’) or as an *note expression: 1f3e.
     (‘'eval'’).  Any other value will cause *note ValueError: 1ff. to
     be raised.

          Note: Il est possible (quoique improbable) que l'analyseur
          s'arrête avant d'atteindre la fin du code source ; dans ce
          cas, les symboles venant après peuvent être ignorés au lieu de
          provoquer une erreur.  Par exemple, une barre oblique inverse
          suivie de deux retours à la ligne peut être suivie par de la
          mémoire non-initialisée.  Ceci sera corrigé quand l'interface
          de l'analyseur aura été améliorée.

 -- Classe: codeop.Compile

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 546. methods
     identical in signature to the built-in function *note compile():
     190, but with the difference that if the instance compiles program
     text containing a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance
     'remembers' and compiles all subsequent program texts with the
     statement in force.

 -- Classe: codeop.CommandCompiler

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 546. methods
     identical in signature to *note compile_command(): 1784.; the
     difference is that if the instance compiles program text containing
     a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance 'remembers' and
     compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/codeop.py


File: python.info,  Node: Importer des modules,  Next: Services du Langage Python,  Prev: Interpréteurs Python personnalisés,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.32 Importer des modules
=========================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent de nouveaux moyens
d'importer d'autres modules Python, et des 'hooks' pour personnaliser le
processus d'importation.

La liste complète des modules décrits dans ce chapitre est :

* Menu:

* zipimport: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives. Import modules from Zip archives
* pkgutil: pkgutil --- Package extension utility. Package extension utility
* modulefinder: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script. Find modules used by a script
* runpy: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules. Locating and executing Python modules
* importlib: importlib --- The implementation of import. The implementation of import
* importlib.resources: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access. Package resource reading, opening and access
* importlib.resources.abc: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata. Accessing package metadata
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives,  Next: pkgutil --- Package extension utility,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.1 ‘zipimport’ -- Import modules from Zip archives
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/zipimport.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module ajoute la possibilité d'importer des modules Python (‘*.py’,
‘*.pyc’) et des paquets depuis des archives au format ZIP. Il n'est
généralement pas nécessaire d'utiliser explicitement le module *note
zipimport: 131. ; il est automatiquement utilisé par le mécanisme
intégré de *note import: 5ce. pour les éléments de *note sys.path: 3ab.
qui sont des chemins vers des archives ZIP.

En général, *note sys.path: 3ab. est une liste de noms de répertoires
sous forme de chaînes.  Ce module permet également à un élément de *note
sys.path: 3ab. d'être une chaîne nommant une archive de fichier ZIP.
L'archive peut contenir une arborescence de répertoires pour prendre en
charge les importations de paquets, et un chemin dans l'archive peut
être donné pour importer uniquement à partir d'un sous-répertoire.  Par
exemple, le chemin d'accès ‘example.zip/lib/’ importerait uniquement
depuis le sous-répertoire ‘lib/’ dans l'archive.

Tous les fichiers peuvent être présents dans l'archive ZIP, mais les
importateurs ne sont invoqués que pour les fichiers ‘.py’ et ‘.pyc’.
L'importation ZIP de modules dynamiques (‘.py’, ‘.so’) n'est pas
permise.  Notez que si une archive ne contient que des fichiers ‘.py’,
Python n'essaiera pas de modifier l'archive en ajoutant le fichier
‘.pyc’ correspondant, ce qui signifie que si une archive ZIP ne contient
pas de fichiers ‘.pyc’, l'importation peut être assez lente.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ZIP64 is supported

Modifié dans la version 3.8: auparavant, les archives ZIP avec un
commentaire d’archive n’étaient pas prises en charge.

Voir aussi
..........

PKZIP Application Note(2)

     Documentation sur le format de fichier ZIP par Phil Katz, créateur
     du format et des algorithmes utilisés.

PEP 273(3) — Importation de modules depuis des archives ZIP

     Écrit par James C. Ahlstrom, qui a également fourni une mise en
     œuvre.  Python 2.3 suit les spécifications de PEP 273(4), mais
     utilise une implémentation écrite par Just van Rossum qui utilise
     les crochets d'importation décrits dans PEP 302(5).

*note importlib: 76. — Implémentation du système d'importation

     Paquet qui définit les protocoles que doivent implémenter tous les
     objets importateurs.

Ce module définit une exception :

 -- Exception: zipimport.ZipImportError

     Exception levée par les objets 'zipimporter'.  C'est une
     sous-classe de *note ImportError: 40f, donc elle peut être aussi
     interceptée comme une *note ImportError: 40f.

* Menu:

* Objets zimporter::
* Exemples: Exemples<32>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipimport.py

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets zimporter,  Next: Exemples<32>,  Up: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives

5.32.1.1 Objets 'zimporter'
...........................

*note zipimporter: 449c. est la classe pour importer des fichiers ZIP.

 -- Classe: zipimport.zipimporter (archivepath)

     Classe d'objets qui importent depuis les archives.  Dans le
     constructeur, 'archivepath' doit être un chemin vers un fichier
     ZIP, éventuellement augmenté d'un chemin à l'intérieur de
     l'archive.  Par exemple, un 'archivepath' de ‘foo/bar.zip/lib’
     cherchera les modules dans le répertoire ‘lib’ du fichier ZIP
     ‘foo/bar.zip’ (à supposer que ce répertoire existe).

     *note ZipImportError: 4499. est levée si 'archivepath' ne pointe
     pas vers une archive ZIP valide.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Methods ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’, deprecated in 3.10 are now removed.  Use *note
     find_spec(): 84a. instead.

      -- Méthode: create_module (spec)

          Implémentation de *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module():
          c9e.  Elle renvoie toujours *note None: 662, ce qui déclenche
          le mécanisme standard.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- Méthode: exec_module (module)

          Implémentation de *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
          857.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- Méthode: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          Implémentation de *note
          importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 859.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- Méthode: get_code (fullname)

          Renvoie l'objet de code pour le module spécifié.  Lève *note
          ZipImportError: 4499. si l'importation a échoué.

      -- Méthode: get_data (pathname)

          Renvoie les données associées à 'pathname'.  Lève *note
          OSError: 40d. si le fichier n'a pas été trouvé.

          Modifié dans la version 3.3: *note IOError: 103d. used to be
          raised, it is now an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

      -- Méthode: get_filename (fullname)

          Renvoie la valeur ‘__file____’ qui serait définie si le module
          spécifié était importé.  Lève *note ZipImportError: 4499. si
          l'importation a échoué.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

      -- Méthode: get_source (fullname)

          Renvoie le code source du module spécifié.  Lève *note
          ZipImportError: 4499. si le module n'a pas pu être trouvé,
          renvoie *note None: 662. si l'archive contient le module, mais
          n'en a pas la source.

      -- Méthode: is_package (fullname)

          Renvoie ‘True’ si le module spécifié par 'fullname' est un
          paquet.  Lève *note ZipImportError: 4499. si le module n'a pas
          pu être trouvé.

      -- Méthode: load_module (fullname)

          Charge et renvoie le module spécifié par 'fullname', qui doit
          être le nom du module entièrement qualifié (avec des points).
          Lève *note ZipImportError: 4499. si l'importation a échoué.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: utilisez plutôt *note
          exec_module(): 307.

      -- Méthode: invalidate_caches ()

          Efface le cache interne des informations sur les fichiers à
          l'intérieur de l'archive ZIP.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- Attribut: archive

          Le nom de fichier de l'archive ZIP associé à l'importateur,
          sans sous-chemin à l'intérieur.

      -- Attribut: prefix

          Le sous-chemin du fichier ZIP où les modules sont recherchés.
          C'est la chaîne vide pour les objets 'zipimporter' qui
          pointent vers la racine du fichier ZIP.

     On a schématiquement *note archive: 44a2. + ‘'/'’ + *note prefix:
     44a3. == 'archivepath', où 'archivepath' est l'argument donné au
     constructeur *note zipimporter: 449c.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<32>,  Prev: Objets zimporter,  Up: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives

5.32.1.2 Exemples
.................

Voici un exemple qui importe un module d'une archive ZIP — notez que le
module *note zipimport: 131. n'est pas explicitement utilisé.

     $ unzip -l example.zip
     Archive:  example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     $ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     'example.zip/jwzthreading.py'


File: python.info,  Node: pkgutil --- Package extension utility,  Next: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script,  Prev: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.2 ‘pkgutil’ -- Package extension utility
---------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pkgutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit des utilitaires pour le système d'importation, en
particulier pour la prise en charge des paquets.

 -- Classe: pkgutil.ModuleInfo (module_finder, name, ispkg)

     Un 'n'-uplet nommé qui contient un bref résumé des informations
     d'un module.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.extend_path (path, name)

     Étend le chemin de recherche pour les modules qui composent un
     paquet.  L'usage prévu est de placer le code suivant dans le
     ‘__init__.py’ d'un paquet :

          from pkgutil import extend_path
          __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)

     For each directory on *note sys.path: 3ab. that has a subdirectory
     that matches the package name, add the subdirectory to the
     package's *note __path__: 1c2c.  This is useful if one wants to
     distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
     directories.

     It also looks for ‘*.pkg’ files beginning where ‘*’ matches the
     'name' argument.  This feature is similar to ‘*.pth’ files (see the
     *note site: c6. module for more information), except that it
     doesn't special-case lines starting with ‘import’.  A ‘*.pkg’ file
     is trusted at face value: apart from skipping blank lines and
     ignoring comments, all entries found in a ‘*.pkg’ file are added to
     the path, regardless of whether they exist on the filesystem (this
     is a feature).

     Si le chemin d'entrée n'est pas une liste (comme c'est le cas pour
     les paquets figés), il est retourné tel quel.  Le chemin d'entrée
     n'est pas modifié ; une copie étendue en est retournée.  Les
     éléments ne sont ajoutés à la copie qu'à la fin.

     L'interpréteur estime que *note sys.path: 3ab. est une séquence.
     Les éléments de *note sys.path: 3ab. qui ne sont pas des chaînes se
     référant à des répertoires existants sont ignorés.  Les éléments
     Unicode sur *note sys.path: 3ab. qui provoquent des erreurs
     lorsqu'ils sont utilisés comme noms de fichiers peuvent amener
     cette fonction à lever une exception (conformément au comportement
     de *note os.path.isdir(): a00.).

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.find_loader (fullname)

     Récupère un *note loader: 166b. de module pour le 'fullname' donné.

     Il s'agit d'une surcouche de compatibilité ascendante autour de
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. qui convertit la plupart des
     échecs en *note ImportError: 40f. et ne renvoie que le chargeur,
     plutôt que le *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e20. complet.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée
     directement sur *note importlib: 76. au lieu de dépendre de
     l'émulation interne de la PEP 302(2) du paquet.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Mise à jour pour être basée sur la PEP
     451(3)

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. instead.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.get_importer (path_item)

     Récupère un *note finder: 1eda. pour l'élément 'path_item' donné.

     Le chercheur retourné est mis en cache dans *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. s'il a été récemment créé par le
     chemin d'un point d'entrée.

     Le cache (ou une partie de celui-ci) peut être effacé manuellement
     si une nouvelle analyse de *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. est
     nécessaire.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée
     directement sur *note importlib: 76. au lieu de dépendre de
     l'émulation interne de la PEP 302(4) du paquet.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.get_loader (module_or_name)

     Récupère un objet *note loader: 166b. pour 'module_or_name'.

     Si le module ou le paquet est accessible via le mécanisme
     d'importation normal, une encapsulation autour de la partie
     pertinente de cette mécanique est renvoyé.  Renvoie ‘None’ si le
     module ne peut pas être trouvé ou importé.  Si le module nommé
     n'est pas déjà importé, son paquet contenant (le cas échéant) est
     importé afin d'établir le paquet ‘__path__’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée
     directement sur *note importlib: 76. au lieu de dépendre de
     l'émulation interne de la PEP 302(5) du paquet.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Mise à jour pour être basée sur la PEP
     451(6)

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. instead.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.iter_importers (fullname='')

     Génère des objets *note finder: 1eda. pour le nom du module donné.

     Si le nom complet contient un ‘'.'’, les chercheurs sont pour le
     paquet contenant le nom complet, sinon ils sont enregistrés pour
     tous les chercheurs de niveau supérieur (c'est-à-dire ceux de *note
     sys.meta_path: d1b. et de *note sys.path_hooks: 100f.).

     Si le module nommé se trouve dans un paquet, ce paquet est importé
     en tant qu'effet secondaire de l'invocation de cette fonction.

     Si aucun nom de module n'est spécifié, tous les chercheurs de
     niveau supérieur sont générés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée
     directement sur *note importlib: 76. au lieu de dépendre de
     l'émulation interne de la PEP 302(7) du paquet.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.iter_modules (path=None, prefix='')

     Fournit des *note ModuleInfo: d3b. pour tous les sous-modules sur
     'path' ou, si 'path' est ‘None’, pour tous les modules de niveau
     supérieur sur *note sys.path: 3ab.

     'path' doit être soit ‘None’, soit une liste de chemins pour
     rechercher des modules.

     'prefix' est une chaîne de caractères à afficher au début de chaque
     nom de module en sortie.

          Note: Cela fonctionne uniquement pour un *note finder: 1eda.
          qui définit une méthode ‘iter_modules()’.  Cette interface
          n'est pas standard, donc le module fournit également des
          implémentations pour *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder:
          105d. et *note zipimport.zipimporter: 449c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée
     directement sur *note importlib: 76. au lieu de dépendre de
     l'émulation interne de la PEP 302(8) du paquet.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.walk_packages (path=None, prefix='', onerror=None)

     Fournit des *note ModuleInfo: d3b. pour tous les modules de manière
     récursive sur 'path' ou, si 'path' est ‘None’, tous les modules
     accessibles.

     'path' doit être soit ‘None’, soit une liste de chemins pour
     rechercher des modules.

     'prefix' est une chaîne de caractères à afficher au début de chaque
     nom de module en sortie.

     Notez que cette fonction doit importer tous les 'packages' ('pas'
     tous les modules !)  sur le 'path' donné, afin d'accéder à
     l'attribut ‘__path__’ pour trouver les sous-modules.

     'onerror' est une fonction qui est appelée avec un argument (le nom
     du paquet qui était en cours d'importation) si une exception se
     produit lors de la tentative d'importation d'un paquet.  Si aucune
     fonction 'onerror' n'est fournie, les *note ImportError: 40f.s sont
     attrapées et ignorées, tandis que toutes les autres exceptions sont
     propagées, mettant fin à la recherche.

     Exemples :

          # list all modules python can access
          walk_packages()

          # list all submodules of ctypes
          walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')

          Note: Cela fonctionne uniquement pour un *note finder: 1eda.
          qui définit une méthode ‘iter_modules()’.  Cette interface
          n'est pas standard, donc le module fournit également des
          implémentations pour *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder:
          105d. et *note zipimport.zipimporter: 449c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée
     directement sur *note importlib: 76. au lieu de dépendre de
     l'émulation interne de la PEP 302(9) du paquet.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.get_data (package, resource)

     Obtient une ressource à partir d'un paquet.

     Ceci est une surcouche pour l'API *note loader: 166b. *note
     get_data: 44aa.  L'argument 'package' doit être le nom d'un paquet,
     au format module standard (‘foo.bar’).  L'argument 'resource' doit
     être sous forme d'un nom de fichier relatif, en utilisant ‘/’ comme
     séparateur de chemin.  Le nom du répertoire parent ‘..’ n'est pas
     autorisé, pas plus qu'un nom racine (commençant par ‘/’).

     La fonction renvoie une chaîne binaire qui est le contenu de la
     ressource spécifiée.

     Pour les paquets situés dans le système de fichiers, qui ont déjà
     été importés, c'est l'équivalent approximatif de :

          d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
          data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()

     Si le paquet ne peut pas être localisé ou chargé, ou s'il utilise
     un *note loader: 166b. qui ne prend pas en charge *note get_data:
     44aa, alors ‘None’ est retourné.  En particulier, le *note loader:
     166b. pour les *note paquets espaces de noms: 1c26. ne prend pas en
     charge *note get_data: 44aa.

 -- Fonction: pkgutil.resolve_name (name)

     Solutionne un nom en un objet.

     Cette fonctionnalité est utilisée dans de nombreux endroits de la
     bibliothèque standard (voir bpo-12915(10)) - et une fonctionnalité
     équivalente est également présente dans des paquets largement
     utilisés tels que Setuptools, Django et Pyramid.

     Python s'attend à ce que 'name' soit une chaîne de caractères dans
     l'un des formats suivants, où W est une abréviation pour un
     identifiant Python valide et le point représente un point littéral
     dans ces pseudo-regexes :

        * ‘W(.W)*’

        * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?’

     La première forme est destinée uniquement à assurer la
     compatibilité ascendante.  Elle suppose qu'une partie du nom pointé
     est un paquet, et que le reste est un objet quelque part à
     l'intérieur de ce paquet, éventuellement niché à l'intérieur
     d'autres objets.  Puisque l'endroit où le paquet s'arrête et où la
     hiérarchie des objets commence ne peut pas être déduit par
     inspection, des tentatives répétées d'importation doivent être
     effectuées avec cette forme.

     Dans la deuxième forme, l'appelant clarifie le point de division en
     fournissant un seul deux-points : le nom pointé à gauche des
     deux-points est un package à importer, et le nom pointé à droite
     est la hiérarchie d'objets à l'intérieur de ce paquet.  Seule une
     importation est nécessaire dans cette forme.  Si elle se termine
     par un deux-points, alors un objet module est retourné.

     La fonction renvoie un objet (qui pourrait être un module), ou
     génère l'une des exceptions suivantes :

     *note ValueError: 1ff. – si 'name' n'est pas un format reconnu.

     *note ImportError: 40f. – si une importation échoue lorsqu'elle
     n'aurait pas dû.

     *note AttributeError: 343. – Si un échec s'est produit lors du
     parcours de la hiérarchie d'objets dans le paquet importé pour
     accéder à l'objet souhaité.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pkgutil.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915


File: python.info,  Node: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script,  Next: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules,  Prev: pkgutil --- Package extension utility,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.3 ‘modulefinder’ -- Find modules used by a script
------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/modulefinder.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une classe *note ModuleFinder: 19c1. qui peut être
utilisée pour déterminer la liste des modules importés par un script.
‘modulefinder.py’ peut aussi être utilisé en tant que script, en passant
le nom du fichier Python en argument, ce qui affichera un rapport sur
les modules importés.

 -- Fonction: modulefinder.AddPackagePath (pkg_name, path)

     Enregistre que le paquet 'pkg_name' peut être trouvé au chemin
     'path' spécifié.

 -- Fonction: modulefinder.ReplacePackage (oldname, newname)

     Permet de spécifier que le module nommé 'oldname' est en réalité le
     paquet nommé 'newname'.

 -- Classe: modulefinder.ModuleFinder (path=None, debug=0, excludes=[],
          replace_paths=[])

     Cette classe fournit les méthodes *note run_script(): 44b0. et
     *note report(): 44b1. pour déterminer l'ensemble des modules
     importés par un script.  'path' peut être une liste de dossiers
     dans lesquels chercher les modules ; si non spécifié, ‘sys.path’
     est utilisé.  'debug' définit le niveau de débogage ; des valeurs
     plus élevées produisent plus de détails sur ce que fait la classe.
     'excludes' est une liste de noms de modules à exclure de l'analyse.
     'replace_paths' est une liste de paires ‘(oldpath, newpath)’ qui
     seront remplacés dans les chemins des modules.

      -- Méthode: report ()

          Affiche un rapport sur la sortie standard qui liste les
          modules importés par le script et leurs chemins, ainsi que les
          modules manquants ou qui n'ont pas été trouvés.

      -- Méthode: run_script (pathname)

          Analyse le contenu du fichier 'pathname', qui doit contenir du
          code Python.

      -- Attribut: modules

          Un dictionnaire de correspondance entre nom de modules et
          modules.  Voir *note Exemples d'utilisation de la classe
          ModuleFinder: 44b3.

* Menu:

* Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/modulefinder.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder,  Up: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script

5.32.3.1 Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ‘ModuleFinder’
...........................................................

Le script qui sera analysé ('bacon.py') :

     import re, itertools

     try:
         import baconhameggs
     except ImportError:
         pass

     try:
         import guido.python.ham
     except ImportError:
         pass

Le script qui va afficher le rapport de 'bacon.py' :

     from modulefinder import ModuleFinder

     finder = ModuleFinder()
     finder.run_script('bacon.py')

     print('Loaded modules:')
     for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
         print('%s: ' % name, end='')
         print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))

     print('-'*50)
     print('Modules not imported:')
     print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))

Exemple de sortie (peut varier en fonction de l'architecture) :

     Loaded modules:
     _types:
     copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
     re._compiler:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
     _sre:
     re._constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
     sys:
     re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
     itertools:
     __main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
     re._parser:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
     array:
     types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
     ---------------------------------------------------
     Modules not imported:
     guido.python.ham
     baconhameggs


File: python.info,  Node: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules,  Next: importlib --- The implementation of import,  Prev: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.4 ‘runpy’ -- Locating and executing Python modules
-------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/runpy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note runpy: bd. module is used to locate and run Python modules
without importing them first.  Its main use is to implement the *note
-m: 5cd. command line switch that allows scripts to be located using the
Python module namespace rather than the filesystem.

Note that this is 'not' a sandbox module - all code is executed in the
current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other
modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.

Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are
not guaranteed to work correctly after a *note runpy: bd. function has
returned.  If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case,
*note importlib: 76. is likely to be a more suitable choice than this
module.

The *note runpy: bd. module provides two functions:

 -- Fonction: runpy.run_module (mod_name, init_globals=None,
          run_name=None, alter_sys=False)

     Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting
     module's globals dictionary.  The module's code is first located
     using the standard import mechanism (refer to PEP 302(2) for
     details) and then executed in a fresh module namespace.

     The 'mod_name' argument should be an absolute module name.  If the
     module name refers to a package rather than a normal module, then
     that package is imported and the *note __main__: 1. submodule
     within that package is then executed and the resulting module
     globals dictionary returned.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module's globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  'init_globals' will not be modified.  If any of the
     special global variables below are defined in 'init_globals', those
     definitions are overridden by *note run_module(): 17c8.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals
     dictionary before the module code is executed.  (Note that this is
     a minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly
     as an interpreter implementation detail.)

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: 662, to ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’ if the named module is
     a package and to the 'mod_name' argument otherwise.

     ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the 'actually' imported
     module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be 'mod_name' or
     ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’, never 'run_name').

     ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are *note
     set as normal: 1ed0. based on the module spec.

     If the argument 'alter_sys' is supplied and evaluates to *note
     True: bfd, then ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of
     ‘__file__’ and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary
     module object for the module being executed.  Both ‘sys.argv[0]’
     and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ are restored to their original values
     before the function returns.

     Note that this manipulation of *note sys: d8. is not thread-safe.
     Other threads may see the partially initialised module, as well as
     the altered list of arguments.  It is recommended that the ‘sys’
     module be left alone when invoking this function from threaded
     code.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note -m: 5cd. option offering equivalent functionality from
     the command line.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added ability to execute packages by
     looking for a *note __main__: 1. submodule.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added ‘__cached__’ global variable
     (see PEP 3147(3)).

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the
     module spec feature added by PEP 451(4).  This allows ‘__cached__’
     to be set correctly for modules run this way, as well as ensuring
     the real module name is always accessible as ‘__spec__.name’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’,
     ‘__loader__’, and ‘__package__’ are deprecated.  See *note
     ModuleSpec: 1e20. for alternatives.

 -- Fonction: runpy.run_path (path_name, init_globals=None,
          run_name=None)

     Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the
     resulting module's globals dictionary.  As with a script name
     supplied to the CPython command line, 'file_path' may refer to a
     Python source file, a compiled bytecode file or a valid *note
     sys.path: 3ab. entry containing a *note __main__: 1. module (e.g.
     a zipfile containing a top-level ‘__main__.py’ file).

     For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a
     fresh module namespace.  For a valid *note sys.path: 3ab. entry
     (typically a zipfile or directory), the entry is first added to the
     beginning of ‘sys.path’.  The function then looks for and executes
     a *note __main__: 1. module using the updated path.  Note that
     there is no special protection against invoking an existing
     ‘__main__’ entry located elsewhere on ‘sys.path’ if there is no
     such module at the specified location.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module's globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  'init_globals' will not be modified.  If any of the
     special global variables below are defined in 'init_globals', those
     definitions are overridden by *note run_path(): 17f.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals
     dictionary before the module code is executed.  (Note that this is
     a minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly
     as an interpreter implementation detail.)

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: 662. and to ‘'<run_path>'’ otherwise.

     If 'file_path' directly references a script file (whether as source
     or as precompiled byte code), then ‘__file__’ will be set to
     'file_path', and ‘__spec__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ will all be set to *note None: 662.

     If 'file_path' is a reference to a valid *note sys.path: 3ab.
     entry, then ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the imported
     *note __main__: 1. module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be
     ‘__main__’).  ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ will be *note set as normal: 1ed0. based on the
     module spec.

     A number of alterations are also made to the *note sys: d8. module.
     Firstly, *note sys.path: 3ab. may be altered as described above.
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of 'file_path' and
     ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary module object
     for the module being executed.  All modifications to items in *note
     sys: d8. are reverted before the function returns.

     Note that, unlike *note run_module(): 17c8, the alterations made to
     *note sys: d8. are not optional in this function as these
     adjustments are essential to allowing the execution of *note
     sys.path: 3ab. entries.  As the thread-safety limitations still
     apply, use of this function in threaded code should be either
     serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note Options de l'interface: 1ce6. for equivalent functionality on
     the command line (‘python path/to/script’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the
     module spec feature added by PEP 451(5).  This allows ‘__cached__’
     to be set correctly in the case where ‘__main__’ is imported from a
     valid *note sys.path: 3ab. entry rather than being executed
     directly.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’,
     ‘__loader__’, and ‘__package__’ are deprecated.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 338(6) - Exécuter des modules en tant que scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 366(7) - Main module explicit relative imports

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 451(8) - A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow

*note Ligne de commande et environnement: 197d. - CPython command line
details

The *note importlib.import_module(): 504. function

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/runpy.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib --- The implementation of import,  Next: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access,  Prev: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.5 ‘importlib’ -- The implementation of ‘import’
----------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<11>.
* Fonctions: Fonctions<12>.
* importlib.abc: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.util: importlib util -- Utility code for importers. Utility code for importers
* Exemples: Exemples<33>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<11>,  Next: Fonctions<12>,  Up: importlib --- The implementation of import

5.32.5.1 Introduction
.....................

The purpose of the *note importlib: 76. package is three-fold.

One is to provide the implementation of the *note import: 5ce. statement
(and thus, by extension, the *note __import__(): 8c3. function) in
Python source code.  This provides an implementation of ‘import’ which
is portable to any Python interpreter.  This also provides an
implementation which is easier to comprehend than one implemented in a
programming language other than Python.

Two, the components to implement *note import: 5ce. are exposed in this
package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects
(known generically as an *note importer: 1fa2.) to participate in the
import process.

Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality
for managing aspects of Python packages:

   * *note importlib.metadata: 79. presents access to metadata from
     third-party distributions.

   * *note importlib.resources: 7a. provides routines for accessing
     non-code "resources" from Python packages.

Voir aussi
..........

*note L'instruction import: 5ce.

     The language reference for the *note import: 5ce. statement.

Packages specification(1)

     Original specification of packages.  Some semantics have changed
     since the writing of this document (e.g.  redirecting based on
     ‘None’ in *note sys.modules: 1929.).

La fonction *note __import__(): 1058.

     The *note import: 5ce. statement is syntactic sugar for this
     function.

*note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1c1e.

     The initialization of *note sys.path: 3ab.

PEP 235(2)

     Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 263(3)

     Defining Python Source Code Encodings

PEP 302(4)

     New Import Hooks

PEP 328(5)

     Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

PEP 366(6)

     Main module explicit relative imports

PEP 420(7)

     Implicit namespace packages

PEP 451(8)

     A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP 488(9)

     Elimination of PYO files

PEP 489(10)

     Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP 552(11)

     Deterministic pycs

PEP 3120(12)

     Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding

PEP 3147(13)

     PYC Repository Directories

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<12>,  Next: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import,  Prev: Introduction<11>,  Up: importlib --- The implementation of import

5.32.5.2 Fonctions
..................

 -- Fonction: importlib.__import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None,
          fromlist=(), level=0)

     An implementation of the built-in *note __import__(): 8c3.
     function.

          Note: Programmatic importing of modules should use *note
          import_module(): 504. instead of this function.

 -- Fonction: importlib.import_module (name, package=None)

     Import a module.  The 'name' argument specifies what module to
     import in absolute or relative terms (e.g.  either ‘pkg.mod’ or
     ‘..mod’).  If the name is specified in relative terms, then the
     'package' argument must be set to the name of the package which is
     to act as the anchor for resolving the package name (e.g.
     ‘import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')’ will import ‘pkg.mod’).

     The *note import_module(): 504. function acts as a simplifying
     wrapper around *note importlib.__import__(): 1058.  This means all
     semantics of the function are derived from *note
     importlib.__import__(): 1058.  The most important difference
     between these two functions is that *note import_module(): 504.
     returns the specified package or module (e.g.  ‘pkg.mod’), while
     *note __import__(): 8c3. returns the top-level package or module
     (e.g.  ‘pkg’).

     If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since
     the interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source
     file), you may need to call *note invalidate_caches(): c00. in
     order for the new module to be noticed by the import system.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Parent packages are automatically
     imported.

 -- Fonction: importlib.invalidate_caches ()

     Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at *note
     sys.meta_path: d1b.  If a finder implements ‘invalidate_caches()’
     then it will be called to perform the invalidation.  This function
     should be called if any modules are created/installed while your
     program is running to guarantee all finders will notice the new
     module's existence.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Namespace packages created/installed
     in a different *note sys.path: 3ab. location after the same
     namespace was already imported are noticed.

 -- Fonction: importlib.reload (module)

     Reload a previously imported 'module'.  The argument must be a
     module object, so it must have been successfully imported before.
     This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an
     external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving
     the Python interpreter.  The return value is the module object
     (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object
     to be placed in *note sys.modules: 1929.).

     When *note reload(): 505. is executed:

        * Python module's code is recompiled and the module-level code
          re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to
          names in the module's dictionary by reusing the *note loader:
          166b. which originally loaded the module.  The ‘init’ function
          of extension modules is not called a second time.

        * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only
          reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero.

        * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any
          new or changed objects.

        * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to
          the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and
          must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is
          desired.

     There are a number of other caveats:

     When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's
     global variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will
     override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem.
     If the new version of a module does not define a name that was
     defined by the old version, the old definition remains.  This
     feature can be used to the module's advantage if it maintains a
     global table or cache of objects -- with a *note try: 6d5.
     statement it can test for the table's presence and skip its
     initialization if desired:

          try:
              cache
          except NameError:
              cache = {}

     It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
     loaded modules.  Reloading *note sys: d8, *note __main__: 1, *note
     builtins: 12. and other key modules is not recommended.  In many
     cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more
     than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.

     If a module imports objects from another module using *note from:
     128b. ...  *note import: 5ce. ..., calling *note reload(): 505. for
     the other module does not redefine the objects imported from it --
     one way around this is to re-execute the ‘from’ statement, another
     is to use ‘import’ and qualified names ('module.name') instead.

     If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module
     that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of
     the instances -- they continue to use the old class definition.
     The same is true for derived classes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. is
     raised when the module being reloaded lacks a *note ModuleSpec:
     1e20.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import,  Next: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks,  Prev: Fonctions<12>,  Up: importlib --- The implementation of import

5.32.5.3 ‘importlib.abc’ - Abstract base classes related to import
..................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note importlib.abc: 77. module contains all of the core abstract
base classes used by *note import: 5ce.  Some subclasses of the core
abstract base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core
ABCs.

ABC hierarchy:

     object
      +-- MetaPathFinder
      +-- PathEntryFinder
      +-- Loader
           +-- ResourceLoader --------+
           +-- InspectLoader          |
                +-- ExecutionLoader --+
                                      +-- FileLoader
                                      +-- SourceLoader

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note meta path finder: 105b.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- Méthode: find_spec (fullname, path, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1ed2. for the
          specified module.  If this is a top-level import, 'path' will
          be ‘None’.  Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
          module and 'path' will be the value of *note __path__: 1c2c.
          from the parent package.  If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is
          returned.  When passed in, ‘target’ is a module object that
          the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what
          spec to return.  *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 85a.
          may be useful for implementing concrete ‘MetaPathFinders’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00. when invalidating the
          caches of all finders on *note sys.meta_path: d1b.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Returns ‘None’ when called
          instead of *note NotImplemented: 7be.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note path entry finder:
     105c.  Though it bears some similarities to *note MetaPathFinder:
     85b, ‘PathEntryFinder’ is meant for use only within the path-based
     import subsystem provided by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder:
     100e.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- Méthode: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1ed2. for the
          specified module.  The finder will search for the module only
          within the *note path entry: 1fbc. to which it is assigned.
          If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is returned.  When passed
          in, ‘target’ is a module object that the finder may use to
          make a more educated guess about what spec to return.  *note
          importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 85a. may be useful for
          implementing concrete ‘PathEntryFinders’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): bff. when
          invalidating the caches of all cached finders.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.Loader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 166b.  See PEP 302(2)
     for the exact definition for a loader.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
     ‘get_resource_reader()’ method as specified by *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 44be.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Introduced the optional
     ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.

      -- Méthode: create_module (spec)

          A method that returns the module object to use when importing
          a module.  This method may return ‘None’, indicating that
          default module creation semantics should take place.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: This method is no longer optional
          when *note exec_module(): 857. is defined.

      -- Méthode: exec_module (module)

          An abstract method that executes the module in its own
          namespace when a module is imported or reloaded.  The module
          should already be initialized when *note exec_module(): 857.
          is called.  When this method exists, *note create_module():
          c9e. must be defined.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

          Modifié dans la version 3.6: *note create_module(): c9e. must
          also be defined.

      -- Méthode: load_module (fullname)

          A legacy method for loading a module.  If the module cannot be
          loaded, *note ImportError: 40f. is raised, otherwise the
          loaded module is returned.

          If the requested module already exists in *note sys.modules:
          1929, that module should be used and reloaded.  Otherwise the
          loader should create a new module and insert it into *note
          sys.modules: 1929. before any loading begins, to prevent
          recursion from the import.  If the loader inserted a module
          and the load fails, it must be removed by the loader from
          *note sys.modules: 1929.; modules already in *note
          sys.modules: 1929. before the loader began execution should be
          left alone.

          The loader should set several attributes on the module (note
          that some of these attributes can change when a module is
          reloaded):

             - *note module.__name__: 1361.

             - *note module.__file__: 1ed9.

             - *note module.__cached__: 2d4. '(deprecated)'

             - *note module.__path__: 1c2c.

             - *note module.__package__: 2d6. '(deprecated)'

             - *note module.__loader__: 2e1. '(deprecated)'

          When *note exec_module(): 857. is available then
          backwards-compatible functionality is provided.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raise *note ImportError: 40f.
          when called instead of *note NotImplementedError: 225.
          Functionality provided when *note exec_module(): 857. is
          available.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          The recommended API for loading a module is *note
          exec_module(): 857. (and *note create_module(): c9e.).
          Loaders should implement it instead of *note load_module():
          856.  The import machinery takes care of all the other
          responsibilities of *note load_module(): 856. when *note
          exec_module(): 857. is implemented.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.ResourceLoader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

          An abstract base class for a *note loader: 166b. which
          implements the optional PEP 302(3) protocol for loading
          arbitrary resources from the storage back-end.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: This ABC is deprecated in
          favour of supporting resource loading through *note
          importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3.

           -- Méthode: abstractmethod get_data (path)

                    An abstract method to return the bytes for the data
                    located at 'path'.  Loaders that have a file-like
                    storage back-end that allows storing arbitrary data
                    can implement this abstract method to give direct
                    access to the data stored.  *note OSError: 40d. is
                    to be raised if the 'path' cannot be found.  The
                    'path' is expected to be constructed using a
                    module's *note __file__: 1ed9. attribute or an item
                    from a package's *note __path__: 1c2c.

                    Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises *note OSError:
                    40d. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 225.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.InspectLoader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 166b. which implements
     the optional PEP 302(4) protocol for loaders that inspect modules.

      -- Méthode: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for a module, or ‘None’ if the module
          does not have a code object (as would be the case, for
          example, for a built-in module).  Raise an *note ImportError:
          40f. if loader cannot find the requested module.

               Note: While the method has a default implementation, it
               is suggested that it be overridden if possible for
               performance.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: No longer abstract and a concrete
          implementation is provided.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod get_source (fullname)

               An abstract method to return the source of a module.  It
               is returned as a text string using *note universal
               newlines: d2a, translating all recognized line separators
               into ‘'\n'’ characters.  Returns ‘None’ if no source is
               available (e.g.  a built-in module).  Raises *note
               ImportError: 40f. if the loader cannot find the module
               specified.

               Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises *note ImportError:
               40f. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 225.

      -- Méthode: is_package (fullname)

          An optional method to return a true value if the module is a
          package, a false value otherwise.  *note ImportError: 40f. is
          raised if the *note loader: 166b. cannot find the module.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 40f.
          instead of *note NotImplementedError: 225.

      -- Méthode: static source_to_code (data, path='<string>')

          Create a code object from Python source.

          The 'data' argument can be whatever the *note compile(): 190.
          function supports (i.e.  string or bytes).  The 'path'
          argument should be the "path" to where the source code
          originated from, which can be an abstract concept (e.g.
          location in a zip file).

          With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module
          by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Made the method static.

      -- Méthode: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 857.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: load_module (fullname)

          Implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 856.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          use *note exec_module(): ffd. instead.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note InspectLoader:
     f41. that, when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a
     script.  The ABC represents an optional PEP 302(5) protocol.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

               An abstract method that is to return the value of *note
               __file__: 1ed9. for the specified module.  If no path is
               available, *note ImportError: 40f. is raised.

               If source code is available, then the method should
               return the path to the source file, regardless of whether
               a bytecode was used to load the module.

               Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises *note ImportError:
               40f. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 225.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.FileLoader (fullname, path)

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note ResourceLoader:
     bd7. and *note ExecutionLoader: 44c1, providing concrete
     implementations of *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 44aa. and *note
     ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 44c2.

     The 'fullname' argument is a fully resolved name of the module the
     loader is to handle.  The 'path' argument is the path to the file
     for the module.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: name

          The name of the module the loader can handle.

      -- Attribut: path

          Path to the file of the module.

      -- Méthode: load_module (fullname)

          Calls super's ‘load_module()’.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          Use *note Loader.exec_module(): 857. instead.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 44c4.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod get_data (path)

          Reads 'path' as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.SourceLoader

     An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally
     bytecode) file loading.  The class inherits from both *note
     ResourceLoader: bd7. and *note ExecutionLoader: 44c1, requiring the
     implementation of:

        * *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 44aa.

        * 
          *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 44c2.

               Should only return the path to the source file;
               sourceless loading is not supported.

     The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional
     bytecode file support.  Not implementing these optional methods (or
     causing them to raise *note NotImplementedError: 225.) causes the
     loader to only work with source code.  Implementing the methods
     allows the loader to work with source 'and' bytecode files; it does
     not allow for 'sourceless' loading where only bytecode is provided.
     Bytecode files are an optimization to speed up loading by removing
     the parsing step of Python's compiler, and so no bytecode-specific
     API is exposed.

      -- Méthode: path_stats (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns a *note dict: 253.
          containing metadata about the specified path.  Supported
          dictionary keys are:

             - ‘'mtime'’ (mandatory): an integer or floating-point
               number representing the modification time of the source
               code;

             - ‘'size'’ (optional): the size in bytes of the source
               code.

          Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for
          future extensions.  If the path cannot be handled, *note
          OSError: 40d. is raised.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raise *note OSError: 40d. instead
          of *note NotImplementedError: 225.

      -- Méthode: path_mtime (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns the modification time
          for the specified path.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: This method is deprecated in
          favour of *note path_stats(): 116c.  You don't have to
          implement it, but it is still available for compatibility
          purposes.  Raise *note OSError: 40d. if the path cannot be
          handled.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raise *note OSError: 40d. instead
          of *note NotImplementedError: 225.

      -- Méthode: set_data (path, data)

          Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a
          file path.  Any intermediate directories which do not exist
          are to be created automatically.

          When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only
          (*note errno.EACCES: 2269./*note PermissionError: d32.), do
          not propagate the exception.

          Modifié dans la version 3.4: No longer raises *note
          NotImplementedError: 225. when called.

      -- Méthode: get_code (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_code():
          f42.

      -- Méthode: exec_module (module)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 857.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: load_module (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 856.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          utilisez plutôt *note exec_module(): ffe.

      -- Méthode: get_source (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_source():
          f45.

      -- Méthode: is_package (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.is_package():
          44bf.  A module is determined to be a package if its file path
          (as provided by *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 44c2.)
          is a file named ‘__init__’ when the file extension is removed
          'and' the module name itself does not end in ‘__init__’.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 1195. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 29d. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the "directory".  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC's interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 662.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3. instead.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

               Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2544. for
               binary reading of the 'resource'.

               Si la ressource ne peut pas être trouvée, *note
               FileNotFoundError: eb0. est levée.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

               Renvoie le chemin de 'resource' dans le système de
               fichiers.

               If the resource does not concretely exist on the file
               system, raise *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

               Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a
               resource.  *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. is raised if
               'name' does not exist.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod contents ()

               Returns an *note iterable: 1207. of strings over the
               contents of the package.  Do note that it is not required
               that all names returned by the iterator be actual
               resources, e.g.  it is acceptable to return names for
               which *note is_resource(): 44cf. would be false.

               Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow
               for situations where how a package and its resources are
               stored are known a priori and the non-resource names
               would be useful.  For instance, returning subdirectory
               names is allowed so that when it is known that the
               package and resources are stored on the file system then
               those subdirectory names can be used directly.

               The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 226. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 479.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0. instead.

      -- Attribut: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield ‘Traversable’ objects in ‘self’.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a directory.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a file.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod joinpath (child)

          Return Traversable child in ‘self’.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return ‘Traversable’ child in ‘self’.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          277b.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.

      -- Méthode: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of ‘self’ as bytes.

      -- Méthode: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of ‘self’ as text.

 -- Classe: importlib.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 47a. interface.  Subclasses
     *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 44be. and provides
     concrete implementations of the *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 44be.'s abstract methods.
     Therefore, any loader supplying *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 183f. also supplies
     ResourceReader.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3. instead.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks,  Next: importlib util -- Utility code for importers,  Prev: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import,  Up: importlib --- The implementation of import

5.32.5.4 ‘importlib.machinery’ - Importers and path hooks
.........................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/machinery.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help *note import: 5ce.
find and load modules.

 -- Données: importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     source modules.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Données: importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized
     bytecode modules.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.5: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 502.
     instead.

 -- Données: importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized
     bytecode modules.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.5: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 502.
     instead.

 -- Données: importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     bytecode modules (including the leading dot).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The value is no longer dependent on
     ‘__debug__’.

 -- Données: importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     extension modules.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Fonction: importlib.machinery.all_suffixes ()

     Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes
     for modules recognized by the standard import machinery.  This is a
     helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path
     potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the
     kind of module (for example, *note inspect.getmodulename(): d29.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter

     An *note importer: 1fa2. for built-in modules.  All known built-in
     modules are listed in *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1c1d.  This
     class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b. and
     *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f41. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: As part of PEP 489(2), the builtin
     importer now implements ‘Loader.create_module()’ and
     ‘Loader.exec_module()’

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter

     An *note importer: 1fa2. for frozen modules.  This class implements
     the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b. and *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f41. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Gained ‘create_module()’ and
     ‘exec_module()’ methods.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder

     *note Finder: 1eda. for modules declared in the Windows registry.
     This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b.
     ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use *note site: c6. configuration
     instead.  Future versions of Python may not enable this finder by
     default.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.PathFinder

     A *note Finder: 1eda. for *note sys.path: 3ab. and package
     ‘__path__’ attributes.  This class implements the *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b. ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

      -- Méthode: classmethod find_spec (fullname, path=None,
               target=None)

          Class method that attempts to find a *note spec: 1ed2. for the
          module specified by 'fullname' on *note sys.path: 3ab. or, if
          defined, on 'path'.  For each path entry that is searched,
          *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. is checked.  If a
          non-false object is found then it is used as the *note path
          entry finder: 105c. to look for the module being searched for.
          If no entry is found in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0,
          then *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. is searched for a finder for
          the path entry and, if found, is stored in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. along with being queried about
          the module.  If no finder is ever found then ‘None’ is both
          stored in the cache and returned.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: If the current working directory
          - represented by an empty string - is no longer valid then
          ‘None’ is returned but no value is cached in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0.

      -- Méthode: classmethod invalidate_caches ()

          Calls *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches():
          44bd. on all finders stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache:
          5d0. that define the method.  Otherwise entries in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. set to ‘None’ are deleted.

          Modifié dans la version 3.7: Entries of ‘None’ in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. are deleted.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Calls objects in *note sys.path_hooks:
     100f. with the current working directory for ‘''’ (i.e.  the empty
     string).

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.FileFinder (path, *loader_details)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder:
     85c. which caches results from the file system.

     The 'path' argument is the directory for which the finder is in
     charge of searching.

     The 'loader_details' argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples
     each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader
     recognizes.  The loaders are expected to be callables which accept
     two arguments of the module's name and the path to the file found.

     The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making
     stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not
     outdated.  Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of
     the operating system's state information of the file system, there
     is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a
     new file, and then searching for the module the new file
     represents.  If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the
     granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail.  To
     prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically,
     make sure to call *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c00.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: path

          The path the finder will search in.

      -- Méthode: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          Attempt to find the spec to handle 'fullname' within *note
          path: 44dd.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Méthode: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache.

      -- Méthode: classmethod path_hook (*loader_details)

          A class method which returns a closure for use on *note
          sys.path_hooks: 100f.  An instance of *note FileFinder: 105d.
          is returned by the closure using the path argument given to
          the closure directly and 'loader_details' indirectly.

          If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory,
          *note ImportError: 40f. is raised.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader:
     44c8. by subclassing *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 105e. and
     providing some concrete implementations of other methods.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: name

          The name of the module that this loader will handle.

      -- Attribut: path

          The path to the source file.

      -- Méthode: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if *note path: 44e1. appears to be for a
          package.

      -- Méthode: path_stats (path)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 116c.

      -- Méthode: set_data (path, data)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data(): 44c9.

      -- Méthode: load_module (name=None)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 856. where specifying the
          name of the module to load is optional.

          Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15:
          Use *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 857. instead.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 105e.
     which can import bytecode files (i.e.  no source code files exist).

     Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source
     code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python
     implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode
     format.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

      -- Attribut: name

          The name of the module the loader will handle.

      -- Attribut: path

          The path to the bytecode file.

      -- Méthode: is_package (fullname)

          Determines if the module is a package based on *note path:
          44e6.

      -- Méthode: get_code (fullname)

          Returns the code object for *note name: 44e5. created from
          *note path: 44e6.

      -- Méthode: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as bytecode files have no source when this
          loader is used.

      -- Méthode: load_module (name=None)

     Concrete implementation of *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 856. where specifying the name
     of the module to load is optional.

     Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: Use
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 857. instead.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader:
     44c1. for extension modules.

     The 'fullname' argument specifies the name of the module the loader
     is to support.  The 'path' argument is the path to the extension
     module's file.

     Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in
     subinterpreters if it doesn't implement multi-phase init (see PEP
     489(3)), even if it would otherwise import successfully.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Multi-phase init is now required for
     use in subinterpreters.

      -- Attribut: name

          Name of the module the loader supports.

      -- Attribut: path

          Path to the extension module.

      -- Méthode: create_module (spec)

          Creates the module object from the given specification in
          accordance with PEP 489(4).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: exec_module (module)

          Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP
          489(5).

          Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

      -- Méthode: is_package (fullname)

          Returns ‘True’ if the file path points to a package's
          ‘__init__’ module based on *note EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 501.

      -- Méthode: get_code (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules lack a code object.

      -- Méthode: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules do not have source code.

      -- Méthode: get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 44eb.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader (name, path,
          path_finder)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader:
     f41. for namespace packages.  This is an alias for a private class
     and is only made public for introspecting the ‘__loader__’
     attribute on namespace packages:

          >>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader
          >>> import my_namespace
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader)
          True
          >>> import importlib.abc
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader)
          True

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec (name, loader, *,
          origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)

     A specification for a module's import-system-related state.  This
     is typically exposed as the module's *note __spec__: 1ed3.
     attribute.  Many of these attributes are also available directly on
     a module: for example, ‘module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__’.
     Note, however, that while the 'values' are usually equivalent, they
     can differ since there is no synchronization between the two
     objects.  For example, it is possible to update the module's *note
     __file__: 1ed9. at runtime and this will not be automatically
     reflected in the module's *note __spec__.origin: 44f1, and vice
     versa.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

      -- Attribut: name

          The module's fully qualified name (see *note module.__name__:
          1361.).  The *note finder: 1eda. should always set this
          attribute to a non-empty string.

      -- Attribut: loader

          The *note loader: 166b. used to load the module (see *note
          module.__loader__: 2e1.).  The *note finder: 1eda. should
          always set this attribute.

      -- Attribut: origin

          The location the *note loader: 166b. should use to load the
          module (see *note module.__file__: 1ed9.).  For example, for
          modules loaded from a ‘.py’ file this is the filename.  The
          *note finder: 1eda. should always set this attribute to a
          meaningful value for the *note loader: 166b. to use.  In the
          uncommon case that there is not one (like for namespace
          packages), it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: submodule_search_locations

          A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 4de. of strings enumerating
          the locations in which a package's submodules will be found
          (see *note module.__path__: 1c2c.).  Most of the time there
          will only be a single directory in this list.

          The *note finder: 1eda. should set this attribute to a
          sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system
          that the module is a package.  It should be set to ‘None’ for
          non-package modules.  It is set automatically later to a
          special object for namespace packages.

      -- Attribut: loader_state

          The *note finder: 1eda. may set this attribute to an object
          containing additional, module-specific data to use when
          loading the module.  Otherwise it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- Attribut: cached

          The filename of a compiled version of the module's code (see
          *note module.__cached__: 2d4.).  The *note finder: 1eda.
          should always set this attribute but it may be ‘None’ for
          modules that do not need compiled code stored.

      -- Attribut: parent

          (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module
          is in (or the empty string for a top-level module).  See *note
          module.__package__: 2d6.  If the module is a package then this
          is the same as *note name: 1ed4.

      -- Attribut: has_location

          ‘True’ if the spec's *note origin: 44f1. refers to a loadable
          location, ‘False’ otherwise.  This value impacts how ‘origin’
          is interpreted and how the module's *note __file__: 1ed9. is
          populated.

 -- Classe: importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader (name, path)

     A specialization of *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader:
     ca0. that is able to load extension modules in Framework format.

     For compatibility with the iOS App Store, 'all' binary modules in
     an iOS app must be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with
     appropriate metadata, stored in the ‘Frameworks’ folder of the
     packaged app.  There can be only a single binary per framework, and
     there can be no executable binary material outside the Frameworks
     folder.

     To accommodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension
     module binaries are 'not' packaged as ‘.so’ files on ‘sys.path’,
     but as individual standalone frameworks.  To discover those
     frameworks, this loader is be registered against the ‘.fwork’ file
     extension, with a ‘.fwork’ file acting as a placeholder in the
     original location of the binary on ‘sys.path’.  The ‘.fwork’ file
     contains the path of the actual binary in the ‘Frameworks’ folder,
     relative to the app bundle.  To allow for resolving a
     framework-packaged binary back to the original location, the
     framework is expected to contain a ‘.origin’ file that contains the
     location of the ‘.fwork’ file, relative to the app bundle.

     For example, consider the case of an import ‘from foo.bar import
     _whiz’, where ‘_whiz’ is implemented with the binary module
     ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, with ‘sources’ being the location
     registered on ‘sys.path’, relative to the application bundle.  This
     module 'must' be distributed as
     ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (creating the
     framework name from the full import path of the module), with an
     ‘Info.plist’ file in the ‘.framework’ directory identifying the
     binary as a framework.  The ‘foo.bar._whiz’ module would be
     represented in the original location with a
     ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’ marker file, containing the path
     ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’.  The framework would also
     contain ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’,
     containing the path to the ‘.fwork’ file.

     When a module is loaded with this loader, the ‘__file__’ for the
     module will report as the location of the ‘.fwork’ file.  This
     allows code to use the ‘__file__’ of a module as an anchor for file
     system traveral.  However, the spec origin will reference the
     location of the 'actual' binary in the ‘.framework’ folder.

     The Xcode project building the app is responsible for converting
     any ‘.so’ files from wherever they exist in the ‘PYTHONPATH’ into
     frameworks in the ‘Frameworks’ folder (including stripping
     extensions from the module file, the addition of framework
     metadata, and signing the resulting framework), and creating the
     ‘.fwork’ and ‘.origin’ files.  This will usually be done with a
     build step in the Xcode project; see the iOS documentation for
     details on how to construct this build step.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: iOS.

      -- Attribut: name

          Name of the module the loader supports.

      -- Attribut: path

          Path to the ‘.fwork’ file for the extension module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/machinery.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib util -- Utility code for importers,  Next: Exemples<33>,  Prev: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks,  Up: importlib --- The implementation of import

5.32.5.5 ‘importlib.util’ - Utility code for importers
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/util.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help in the construction
of an *note importer: 1fa2.

 -- Données: importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

     The bytes which represent the bytecode version number.  If you need
     help with loading/writing bytecode then consider *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 44c8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.cache_from_source (path,
          debug_override=None, *, optimization=None)

     Return the PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path to the byte-compiled file
     associated with the source 'path'.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ the return value would be
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  The
     ‘cpython-32’ string comes from the current magic tag (see
     ‘get_tag()’; if ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is not defined then
     *note NotImplementedError: 225. will be raised).

     The 'optimization' parameter is used to specify the optimization
     level of the bytecode file.  An empty string represents no
     optimization, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an 'optimization' of ‘''’
     will result in a bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’.  ‘None’ causes the
     interpreter's optimization level to be used.  Any other value's
     string representation is used, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an
     'optimization' of ‘2’ will lead to the bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc’.  The string
     representation of 'optimization' can only be alphanumeric, else
     *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

     The 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated and can be used to
     override the system's value for ‘__debug__’.  A ‘True’ value is the
     equivalent of setting 'optimization' to the empty string.  A
     ‘False’ value is the same as setting 'optimization' to ‘1’.  If
     both 'debug_override' an 'optimization' are not ‘None’ then *note
     TypeError: 525. is raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'optimization' parameter was added
     and the 'debug_override' parameter was deprecated.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.source_from_cache (path)

     Given the 'path' to a PEP 3147(4) file name, return the associated
     source code file path.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ the returned path would
     be ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’.  'path' need not exist, however if it does
     not conform to PEP 3147(5) or PEP 488(6) format, a *note
     ValueError: 1ff. is raised.  If ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is
     not defined, *note NotImplementedError: 225. is raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.decode_source (source_bytes)

     Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a
     string with universal newlines (as required by *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source(): f45.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.resolve_name (name, package)

     Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.

     If 'name' has no leading dots, then 'name' is simply returned.
     This allows for usage such as ‘importlib.util.resolve_name('sys',
     __spec__.parent)’ without doing a check to see if the 'package'
     argument is needed.

     *note ImportError: 40f. is raised if 'name' is a relative module
     name but 'package' is a false value (e.g.  ‘None’ or the empty
     string).  *note ImportError: 40f. is also raised if a relative name
     would escape its containing package (e.g.  requesting ‘..bacon’
     from within the ‘spam’ package).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: To improve consistency with import
     statements, raise *note ImportError: 40f. instead of *note
     ValueError: 1ff. for invalid relative import attempts.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.find_spec (name, package=None)

     Find the *note spec: 1ed2. for a module, optionally relative to the
     specified 'package' name.  If the module is in *note sys.modules:
     1929, then ‘sys.modules[name].__spec__’ is returned (unless the
     spec would be ‘None’ or is not set, in which case *note ValueError:
     1ff. is raised).  Otherwise a search using *note sys.meta_path:
     d1b. is done.  ‘None’ is returned if no spec is found.

     If 'name' is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is
     automatically imported.

     'name' and 'package' work the same as for ‘import_module()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 343. if 'package' is in fact not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a *note __path__: 1c2c. attribute).

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.module_from_spec (spec)

     Create a new module based on 'spec' and *note
     spec.loader.create_module: c9e.

     If *note spec.loader.create_module: c9e. does not return ‘None’,
     then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset.  Also, no *note
     AttributeError: 343. will be raised if triggered while accessing
     'spec' or setting an attribute on the module.

     This function is preferred over using *note types.ModuleType: e02.
     to create a new module as 'spec' is used to set as many
     import-controlled attributes on the module as possible.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.spec_from_loader (name, loader, *,
          origin=None, is_package=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1e20. instance
     based on a loader.  The parameters have the same meaning as they do
     for ModuleSpec.  The function uses available *note loader: 166b.
     APIs, such as ‘InspectLoader.is_package()’, to fill in any missing
     information on the spec.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.spec_from_file_location (name, location, *,
          loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1e20. instance
     based on the path to a file.  Missing information will be filled in
     on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication
     that the module will be file-based.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util.source_hash (source_bytes)

     Return the hash of 'source_bytes' as bytes.  A hash-based ‘.pyc’
     file embeds the *note source_hash(): 44f7. of the corresponding
     source file's contents in its header.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Fonction: importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions
          (*, disable_check)

     A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check
     for extension modules.  By default the check is enabled and will
     fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a
     subinterpreter.  It will also fail for a multi-phase init module
     that doesn't explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when
     imported in an interpreter with its own GIL.

     Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case;
     one which is likely to eventually go away.  There's is a pretty
     good chance this is not what you were looking for.

     You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the
     basic interface of multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)) and lying about
     support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL).

          Avertissement: Using this function to disable the check can
          lead to unexpected behavior and even crashes.  It should only
          be used during extension module development.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Classe: importlib.util.LazyLoader (loader)

     A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module
     until the module has an attribute accessed.

     This class 'only' works with loaders that define *note
     exec_module(): 857. as control over what module type is used for
     the module is required.  For those same reasons, the loader's *note
     create_module(): c9e. method must return ‘None’ or a type for which
     its ‘__class__’ attribute can be mutated along with not using *note
     slots: 5cb.  Finally, modules which substitute the object placed
     into *note sys.modules: 1929. will not work as there is no way to
     properly replace the module references throughout the interpreter
     safely; *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised if such a substitution is
     detected.

          Note: For projects where startup time is critical, this class
          allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module
          if it is never used.  For projects where startup time is not
          essential then use of this class is 'heavily' discouraged due
          to error messages created during loading being postponed and
          thus occurring out of context.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Began calling *note create_module():
     c9e, removing the compatibility warning for *note
     importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: c9f. and *note
     importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: ca0.

      -- Méthode: classmethod factory (loader)

          A class method which returns a callable that creates a lazy
          loader.  This is meant to be used in situations where the
          loader is passed by class instead of by instance.

               suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
               loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
               lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
               finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/util.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<33>,  Prev: importlib util -- Utility code for importers,  Up: importlib --- The implementation of import

5.32.5.6 Exemples
.................

* Menu:

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.


File: python.info,  Node: Importing programmatically,  Next: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: Exemples<33>

5.32.5.7 Importing programmatically
...................................

To programmatically import a module, use *note
importlib.import_module(): 504.

     import importlib

     itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')


File: python.info,  Node: Checking if a module can be imported,  Next: Importing a source file directly,  Prev: Importing programmatically,  Up: Exemples<33>

5.32.5.8 Checking if a module can be imported
.............................................

If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually
doing the import, then you should use *note importlib.util.find_spec():
2cb.

Note that if ‘name’ is a submodule (contains a dot), *note
importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. will import the parent module.

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes.
     name = 'itertools'

     if name in sys.modules:
         print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules")
     elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None:
         # If you chose to perform the actual import ...
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         print(f"{name!r} has been imported")
     else:
         print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")


File: python.info,  Node: Importing a source file directly,  Next: Implementing lazy imports,  Prev: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: Exemples<33>

5.32.5.9 Importing a source file directly
.........................................

This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an
import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than
*note sys.path: 3ab. being searched.  Alternatives should first be
considered first, such as modifying *note sys.path: 3ab. when a proper
module is required, or using *note runpy.run_path(): 17f. when the
global namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate.

To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following
recipe:

     import importlib.util
     import sys


     def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
         spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[module_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         return module


     # For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary).
     import json
     file_path = json.__file__
     module_name = json.__name__

     # Similar outcome as `import json`.
     json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing lazy imports,  Next: Setting up an importer,  Prev: Importing a source file directly,  Up: Exemples<33>

5.32.5.10 Implementing lazy imports
...................................

The example below shows how to implement lazy imports:

     >>> import importlib.util
     >>> import sys
     >>> def lazy_import(name):
     ...     spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
     ...     loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader)
     ...     spec.loader = loader
     ...     module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
     ...     sys.modules[name] = module
     ...     loader.exec_module(module)
     ...     return module
     ...
     >>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing")
     >>> #lazy_typing is a real module object,
     >>> #but it is not loaded in memory yet.
     >>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Setting up an importer,  Next: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Implementing lazy imports,  Up: Exemples<33>

5.32.5.11 Setting up an importer
................................

For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an
*note importer: 1fa2.  This means managing both the *note finder: 1eda.
and *note loader: 166b. side of things.  For finders there are two
flavours to choose from depending on your needs: a *note meta path
finder: 105b. or a *note path entry finder: 105c.  The former is what
you would put on *note sys.meta_path: d1b. while the latter is what you
create using a *note path entry hook: 1fbe. on *note sys.path_hooks:
100f. which works with *note sys.path: 3ab. entries to potentially
create a finder.  This example will show you how to register your own
importers so that import will use them (for creating an importer for
yourself, read the documentation for the appropriate classes defined
within this package):

     import importlib.machinery
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes only.
     SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
     SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
     loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
                       importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)

     # Setting up a meta path finder.
     # Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of
     # priority.
     sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)

     # Setting up a path entry finder.
     # Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms
     # of priority.
     sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Setting up an importer,  Up: Exemples<33>

5.32.5.12 Approximating ‘importlib.import_module()’
...................................................

Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to
expose most of the import machinery through importlib.  The following
helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an
approximate implementation of *note importlib.import_module(): 504.:

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     def import_module(name, package=None):
         """An approximate implementation of import."""
         absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
         try:
             return sys.modules[absolute_name]
         except KeyError:
             pass

         path = None
         if '.' in absolute_name:
             parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
             parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
             path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
         for finder in sys.meta_path:
             spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
             if spec is not None:
                 break
         else:
             msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
             raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         if path is not None:
             setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
         return module


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access,  Next: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources,  Prev: importlib --- The implementation of import,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.6 ‘importlib.resources’ - Package resource reading, opening and access
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

This module leverages Python's import system to provide access to
'resources' within 'packages'.

"Resources" are file-like resources associated with a module or package
in Python.  The resources may be contained directly in a package, within
a subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside
a package.  Resources may be text or binary.  As a result, Python module
sources (.py) of a package and compilation artifacts (pycache) are
technically de-facto resources of that package.  In practice, however,
resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts exposed specifically
by the package author.

Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode.

Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it's
important to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor.  Resources and
packages 'do not' have to exist as physical files and directories on the
file system: for example, a package and its resources can be imported
from a zip file using *note zipimport: 131.

     Note: This module provides functionality similar to
     pkg_resources(2) Basic Resource Access(3) without the performance
     overhead of that package.  This makes reading resources included in
     packages easier, with more stable and consistent semantics.

     The standalone backport of this module provides more information on
     using importlib.resources(4) and migrating from pkg_resources to
     importlib.resources(5).

*note Loaders: eb2. that wish to support resource reading should
implement a ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ method as specified by *note
importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 44be.

 -- Classe: importlib.resources.Anchor

     Represents an anchor for resources, either a *note module object:
     e02. or a module name as a string.  Defined as ‘Union[str,
     ModuleType]’.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.files (anchor: Anchor | None = None)

     Returns a *note Traversable: 1f0. object representing the resource
     container (think directory) and its resources (think files).  A
     Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories).

     'anchor' is an optional *note Anchor: 4504.  If the anchor is a
     package, resources are resolved from that package.  If a module,
     resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package
     or the package root).  If the anchor is omitted, the caller's
     module is used.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: 'package' parameter was renamed to
     'anchor'.  'anchor' can now be a non-package module and if omitted
     will default to the caller's module.  'package' is still accepted
     for compatibility but will raise a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
     Consider passing the anchor positionally or using
     ‘importlib_resources >= 5.10’ for a compatible interface on older
     Pythons.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.as_file (traversable)

     Given a *note Traversable: 1f0. object representing a file or
     directory, typically from *note importlib.resources.files(): 47a,
     return a context manager for use in a *note with: 5be. statement.
     The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path: 226. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file or
     directory created when the resource was extracted from e.g.  a zip
     file.

     Use ‘as_file’ when the Traversable methods (‘read_text’, etc) are
     insufficient and an actual file or directory on the file system is
     required.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for 'traversable'
     representing a directory.

* Menu:

* API par fonction::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py

   (2) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html

   (3) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access

   (4) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html

   (5) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: API par fonction,  Up: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access

5.32.6.1 API par fonction
.........................

A set of simplified, backwards-compatible helpers is available.  These
allow common operations in a single function call.

For all the following functions:

   - 'anchor' is an *note Anchor: 4504, as in *note files(): 47a.
     Unlike in ‘files’, it may not be omitted.

   - 'path_names' are components of a resource's path name, relative to
     the anchor.  For example, to get the text of resource named
     ‘info.txt’, use:

          importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info.txt")

     Like *note Traversable.joinpath: 1f0, The individual components
     should use forward slashes (‘/’) as path separators.  For example,
     the following are equivalent:

          importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics/painting.png")
          importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics", "painting.png")

     For backward compatibility reasons, functions that read text
     require an explicit 'encoding' argument if multiple 'path_names'
     are given.  For example, to get the text of ‘info/chapter1.txt’,
     use:

          importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info", "chapter1.txt",
                                        encoding='utf-8')

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.open_binary (anchor, *path_names)

     Open the named resource for binary reading.

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function returns a *note BinaryIO: 3f4f. object, that is, a
     binary stream open for reading.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('rb')

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.open_text (anchor, *path_names,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Open the named resource for text reading.  By default, the contents
     are read as strict UTF-8.

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as in
     built-in *note open(): 508.

     For backward compatibility reasons, the 'encoding' argument must be
     given explicitly if there are multiple 'path_names'.  This
     limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15.

     This function returns a *note TextIO: 3f4e. object, that is, a text
     stream open for reading.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('r', encoding=encoding)

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.
     'encoding' and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.read_binary (anchor, *path_names)

     Read and return the contents of the named resource as *note bytes:
     1bd.

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_bytes()

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.read_text (anchor, *path_names,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Read and return the contents of the named resource as *note str:
     437.  By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as in
     built-in *note open(): 508.

     For backward compatibility reasons, the 'encoding' argument must be
     given explicitly if there are multiple 'path_names'.  This
     limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_text(encoding=encoding)

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.
     'encoding' and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.path (anchor, *path_names)

     Provides the path to the 'resource' as an actual file system path.
     This function returns a context manager for use in a *note with:
     5be. statement.  The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path:
     226. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary files created,
     e.g.  when the resource needs to be extracted from a zip file.

     For example, the *note stat(): 80f. method requires an actual file
     system path; it can be used like this:

          with importlib.resources.path(anchor, "resource.txt") as fspath:
              result = fspath.stat()

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          as_file(files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names))

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.
     'encoding' and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.is_resource (anchor, *path_names)

     Return ‘True’ if the named resource exists, otherwise ‘False’.
     This function does not consider directories to be resources.

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).is_file()

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.

 -- Fonction: importlib.resources.contents (anchor, *path_names)

     Return an iterable over the named items within the package or path.
     The iterable returns names of resources (e.g.  files) and
     non-resources (e.g.  directories) as *note str: 437.  The iterable
     does not recurse into subdirectories.

     See *note the introduction: 4506. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          for resource in files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).iterdir():
              yield resource.name

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.11: Prefer ‘iterdir()’ as above, which
     offers more control over the results and richer functionality.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources,  Next: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata,  Prev: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.7 ‘importlib.resources.abc’ - Abstract base classes for resources
----------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 1195. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 29d. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the "directory".  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC's interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 662.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note
     importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3. instead.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

               Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2544. for
               binary reading of the 'resource'.

               Si la ressource ne peut pas être trouvée, *note
               FileNotFoundError: eb0. est levée.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

               Renvoie le chemin de 'resource' dans le système de
               fichiers.

               If the resource does not concretely exist on the file
               system, raise *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

               Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a
               resource.  *note FileNotFoundError: eb0. is raised if
               'name' does not exist.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod contents ()

               Returns an *note iterable: 1207. of strings over the
               contents of the package.  Do note that it is not required
               that all names returned by the iterator be actual
               resources, e.g.  it is acceptable to return names for
               which *note is_resource(): 450b. would be false.

               Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow
               for situations where how a package and its resources are
               stored are known a priori and the non-resource names
               would be useful.  For instance, returning subdirectory
               names is allowed so that when it is known that the
               package and resources are stored on the file system then
               those subdirectory names can be used directly.

               The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- Classe: importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 226. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 479.

      -- Attribut: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield Traversable objects in self.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a directory.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a file.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod joinpath (*pathsegments)

          Traverse directories according to 'pathsegments' and return
          the result as ‘Traversable’.

          Each 'pathsegments' argument may contain multiple names
          separated by forward slashes (‘/’, ‘posixpath.sep’ ).  For
          example, the following are equivalent:

               files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt')
               files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt')

          Note that some ‘Traversable’ implementations might not be
          updated to the latest version of the protocol.  For
          compatibility with such implementations, provide a single
          argument without path separators to each call to ‘joinpath’.
          For example:

               files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt')

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘joinpath’ accepts multiple
          'pathsegments', and these segments may contain forward slashes
          as path separators.  Previously, only a single 'child'
          argument was accepted.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return Traversable child in self.  Equivalent to
          ‘joinpath(child)’.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          277b.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7.

      -- Méthode: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of self as bytes.

      -- Méthode: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of self as text.

 -- Classe: importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 47a. interface.  Subclasses
     *note ResourceReader: 44be. and provides concrete implementations
     of the ‘ResourceReader’'s abstract methods.  Therefore, any loader
     supplying ‘TraversableResources’ also supplies ‘ResourceReader’.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

      -- Méthode: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata,  Next: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.8 ‘importlib.metadata’ - Accessing package metadata
--------------------------------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘importlib.metadata’ is no longer
provisional.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py(1)

‘importlib.metadata’ is a library that provides access to the metadata
of an installed Distribution Package(2), such as its entry points or its
top-level names (Import Package(3)s, modules, if any).  Built in part on
Python's import system, this library intends to replace similar
functionality in the entry point API(4) and metadata API(5) of
‘pkg_resources’.  Along with *note importlib.resources: 7a, this package
can eliminate the need to use the older and less efficient
‘pkg_resources’ package.

‘importlib.metadata’ operates on third-party 'distribution packages'
installed into Python's ‘site-packages’ directory via tools such as
pip(6).  Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable
‘dist-info’ or ‘egg-info’ directories, and metadata defined by the Core
metadata specifications(7).

     Important: These are 'not' necessarily equivalent to or correspond
     1:1 with the top-level 'import package' names that can be imported
     inside Python code.  One 'distribution package' can contain
     multiple 'import packages' (and single modules), and one top-level
     'import package' may map to multiple 'distribution packages' if it
     is a namespace package.  You can use *note
     packages_distributions(): 7fc. to get a mapping between them.

By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip
archives on *note sys.path: 3ab.  Through an extension mechanism, the
metadata can live almost anywhere.

Voir aussi
..........

‘https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/’

     The documentation for ‘importlib_metadata’, which supplies a
     backport of ‘importlib.metadata’.  This includes an API
     reference(8) for this module's classes and functions, as well as a
     migration guide(9) for existing users of ‘pkg_resources’.

* Menu:

* Aperçu: Aperçu<3>.
* API par fonction: API par fonction<2>.
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Extending the search algorithm::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (4) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points

   (5) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (7) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata

   (8) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html

   (9) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Aperçu<3>,  Next: API par fonction<2>,  Up: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.1 Aperçu
...............

Let's say you wanted to get the version string for a Distribution
Package(1) you've installed using ‘pip’.  We start by creating a virtual
environment and installing something into it:

     $ python -m venv example
     $ source example/bin/activate
     (example) $ python -m pip install wheel

You can get the version string for ‘wheel’ by running the following:

     (example) $ python
     >>> from importlib.metadata import version
     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

You can also get a collection of entry points selectable by properties
of the EntryPoint (typically 'group' or 'name'), such as
‘console_scripts’, ‘distutils.commands’ and others.  Each group contains
a collection of *note EntryPoint: 281. objects.

You can get the *note metadata for a distribution: 451b.:

     >>> list(metadata('wheel'))
     ['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']

You can also get a *note distribution's version number: 451c, list its
*note constituent files: 451d, and get a list of the distribution's
*note Distribution requirements: 451e.

 -- Exception: importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError

     Subclass of *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37. raised by several
     functions in this module when queried for a distribution package
     which is not installed in the current Python environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: API par fonction<2>,  Next: Distributions,  Prev: Aperçu<3>,  Up: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.2 API par fonction
.........................

This package provides the following functionality via its public API.

* Menu:

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Entry points,  Next: Distribution metadata,  Up: API par fonction<2>

5.32.8.3 Entry points
.....................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.entry_points (**select_params)

     Returns a *note EntryPoints: 4523. instance describing entry points
     for the current environment.  Any given keyword parameters are
     passed to the ‘select()’ method for comparison to the attributes of
     the individual entry point definitions.

     Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based
     on their ‘EntryPoint.dist’ attribute (as different ‘Distribution’
     instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the
     same attributes)

 -- Classe: importlib.metadata.EntryPoints

     Details of a collection of installed entry points.

     Also provides a ‘.groups’ attribute that reports all identified
     entry point groups, and a ‘.names’ attribute that reports all
     identified entry point names.

 -- Classe: importlib.metadata.EntryPoint

     Details of an installed entry point.

     Each ‘EntryPoint’ instance has ‘.name’, ‘.group’, and ‘.value’
     attributes and a ‘.load()’ method to resolve the value.  There are
     also ‘.module’, ‘.attr’, and ‘.extras’ attributes for getting the
     components of the ‘.value’ attribute, and ‘.dist’ for obtaining
     information regarding the distribution package that provides the
     entry point.

Query all entry points:

     >>> eps = entry_points()

The ‘entry_points()’ function returns a ‘EntryPoints’ object, a
collection of all ‘EntryPoint’ objects with ‘names’ and ‘groups’
attributes for convenience:

     >>> sorted(eps.groups)
     ['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']

‘EntryPoints’ has a ‘select()’ method to select entry points matching
specific properties.  Select entry points in the ‘console_scripts’
group:

     >>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts')

Equivalently, since ‘entry_points()’ passes keyword arguments through to
select:

     >>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts')

Pick out a specific script named "wheel" (found in the wheel project):

     >>> 'wheel' in scripts.names
     True
     >>> wheel = scripts['wheel']

Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection:

     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')
     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')

Inspect the resolved entry point:

     >>> wheel
     EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts')
     >>> wheel.module
     'wheel.cli'
     >>> wheel.attr
     'main'
     >>> wheel.extras
     []
     >>> main = wheel.load()
     >>> main
     <function main at 0x103528488>

The ‘group’ and ‘name’ are arbitrary values defined by the package
author and usually a client will wish to resolve all entry points for a
particular group.  Read the setuptools docs(1) for more information on
entry points, their definition, and usage.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The "selectable" entry points were
introduced in ‘importlib_metadata’ 3.6 and Python 3.10.  Prior to those
changes, ‘entry_points’ accepted no parameters and always returned a
dictionary of entry points, keyed by group.  With ‘importlib_metadata’
5.0 and Python 3.12, ‘entry_points’ always returns an ‘EntryPoints’
object.  See backports.entry_points_selectable(2) for compatibility
options.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ‘EntryPoint’ objects no longer present a
tuple-like interface (*note __getitem__(): 280.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution metadata,  Next: Distribution versions,  Prev: Entry points,  Up: API par fonction<2>

5.32.8.4 Distribution metadata
..............................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.metadata (distribution_name)

     Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named
     distribution package as a *note PackageMetadata: 4527. instance.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 451f. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- Classe: importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata

     A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol(1).

     In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and
     attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the
     ‘get()’ method.

Every Distribution Package(2) includes some metadata, which you can
extract using the ‘metadata()’ function:

     >>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel')

The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and
the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata:

     >>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

*note PackageMetadata: 4527. also presents a ‘json’ attribute that
returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566(3):

     >>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(4) for additional details.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The ‘Description’ is now included in the
metadata when presented through the payload.  Line continuation
characters have been removed.

The ‘json’ attribute was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution versions,  Next: Distribution files,  Prev: Distribution metadata,  Up: API par fonction<2>

5.32.8.5 Distribution versions
..............................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.version (distribution_name)

     Return the installed distribution package version(1) for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 451f. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

The ‘version()’ function is the quickest way to get a Distribution
Package(2)'s version number, as a string:

     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution files,  Next: Distribution requirements,  Prev: Distribution versions,  Up: API par fonction<2>

5.32.8.6 Distribution files
...........................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.files (distribution_name)

     Return the full set of files contained within the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 451f. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

     Returns *note None: 662. if the distribution is found but the
     installation database records reporting the files associated with
     the distribuion package are missing.

 -- Classe: importlib.metadata.PackagePath

     A *note pathlib.PurePath: 492. derived object with additional
     ‘dist’, ‘size’, and ‘hash’ properties corresponding to the
     distribution package's installation metadata for that file.

The ‘files()’ function takes a Distribution Package(1) name and returns
all of the files installed by this distribution.  Each file is reported
as a *note PackagePath: 452b. instance.  For example:

     >>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0]
     >>> util
     PackagePath('wheel/util.py')
     >>> util.size
     859
     >>> util.dist
     <importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0>
     >>> util.hash
     <FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI>

Once you have the file, you can also read its contents:

     >>> print(util.read_text())
     import base64
     import sys
     ...
     def as_bytes(s):
         if isinstance(s, text_type):
             return s.encode('utf-8')
         return s

You can also use the ‘locate()’ method to get the absolute path to the
file:

     >>> util.locate()
     PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')

In the case where the metadata file listing files (‘RECORD’ or
‘SOURCES.txt’) is missing, ‘files()’ will return *note None: 662.  The
caller may wish to wrap calls to ‘files()’ in always_iterable(2) or
otherwise guard against this condition if the target distribution is not
known to have the metadata present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution requirements,  Next: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution files,  Up: API par fonction<2>

5.32.8.7 Distribution requirements
..................................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.requires (distribution_name)

     Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 451f. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

To get the full set of requirements for a Distribution Package(1), use
the ‘requires()’ function:

     >>> requires('wheel')
     ["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution requirements,  Up: API par fonction<2>

5.32.8.8 Mapping import to distribution packages
................................................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.packages_distributions ()

     Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names
     found via *note sys.meta_path: d1b. to the names of the
     distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding
     files.

     To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by
     multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to
     a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a
     single name.

A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package(1) name (or
names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable
top-level Python module or Import Package(2):

     >>> packages_distributions()
     {'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...}

Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names(3), and thus this
function is not reliable with such installs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (3) https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609


File: python.info,  Node: Distributions,  Next: Distribution Discovery,  Prev: API par fonction<2>,  Up: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.9 Distributions
......................

 -- Fonction: importlib.metadata.distribution (distribution_name)

     Return a *note Distribution: 4533. instance describing the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 451f. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- Classe: importlib.metadata.Distribution

     Details of an installed distribution package.

     Note: different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare
     equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and
     accordingly have the same attributes.

While the module level API described above is the most common and
convenient usage, you can get all of that information from the
‘Distribution’ class.  ‘Distribution’ is an abstract object that
represents the metadata for a Python Distribution Package(1).  You can
get the concrete ‘Distribution’ subclass instance for an installed
distribution package by calling the *note distribution(): 4532.
function:

     >>> from importlib.metadata import distribution
     >>> dist = distribution('wheel')
     >>> type(dist)
     <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>

Thus, an alternative way to get the version number is through the
‘Distribution’ instance:

     >>> dist.version
     '0.32.3'

There are all kinds of additional metadata available on ‘Distribution’
instances:

     >>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
     >>> dist.metadata['License']
     'MIT'

For editable packages, an ‘origin’ property may present PEP 610(2)
metadata:

     >>> dist.origin.url
     'file:///path/to/wheel-0.32.3.editable-py3-none-any.whl'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(3) for additional details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: The ‘.origin’ property was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0610/

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution Discovery,  Next: Extending the search algorithm,  Prev: Distributions,  Up: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.10 Distribution Discovery
................................

By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of
metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package(1)s.  This
metadata finder search defaults to ‘sys.path’, but varies slightly in
how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does.  In
particular:

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ does not honor *note bytes: 1bd. objects on
     ‘sys.path’.

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ will incidentally honor *note pathlib.Path:
     226. objects on ‘sys.path’ even though such values will be ignored
     for imports.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Extending the search algorithm,  Prev: Distribution Discovery,  Up: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.11 Extending the search algorithm
........................................

Because Distribution Package(1) metadata is not available through *note
sys.path: 3ab. searches, or package loaders directly, the metadata for a
distribution is found through import system *note finders: 1fac.  To
find a distribution package's metadata, ‘importlib.metadata’ queries the
list of *note meta path finders: 105b. on *note sys.meta_path: d1b.

By default ‘importlib.metadata’ installs a finder for distribution
packages found on the file system.  This finder doesn't actually find
any 'distributions', but it can find their metadata.

The abstract class *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b. defines the
interface expected of finders by Python's import system.
‘importlib.metadata’ extends this protocol by looking for an optional
‘find_distributions’ callable on the finders from *note sys.meta_path:
d1b. and presents this extended interface as the ‘DistributionFinder’
abstract base class, which defines this abstract method:

     @abc.abstractmethod
     def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
         """Return an iterable of all Distribution instances capable of
         loading the metadata for packages for the indicated ``context``.
         """

The ‘DistributionFinder.Context’ object provides ‘.path’ and ‘.name’
properties indicating the path to search and name to match and may
supply other relevant context.

What this means in practice is that to support finding distribution
package metadata in locations other than the file system, subclass
‘Distribution’ and implement the abstract methods.  Then from a custom
finder, return instances of this derived ‘Distribution’ in the
‘find_distributions()’ method.

* Menu:

* Exemple: Exemple<15>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<15>,  Up: Extending the search algorithm

5.32.8.12 Exemple
.................

Consider for example a custom finder that loads Python modules from a
database:

     class DatabaseImporter(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder):
         def __init__(self, db):
             self.db = db

         def find_spec(self, fullname, target=None) -> ModuleSpec:
             return self.db.spec_from_name(fullname)

     sys.meta_path.append(DatabaseImporter(connect_db(...)))

That importer now presumably provides importable modules from a
database, but it provides no metadata or entry points.  For this custom
importer to provide metadata, it would also need to implement
‘DistributionFinder’:

     from importlib.metadata import DistributionFinder

     class DatabaseImporter(DistributionFinder):
         ...

         def find_distributions(self, context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
             query = dict(name=context.name) if context.name else {}
             for dist_record in self.db.query_distributions(query):
                 yield DatabaseDistribution(dist_record)

In this way, ‘query_distributions’ would return records for each
distribution served by the database matching the query.  For example, if
‘requests-1.0’ is in the database, ‘find_distributions’ would yield a
‘DatabaseDistribution’ for ‘Context(name='requests')’ or
‘Context(name=None)’.

For the sake of simplicity, this example ignores ‘context.path’.  The
‘path’ attribute defaults to ‘sys.path’ and is the set of import paths
to be considered in the search.  A ‘DatabaseImporter’ could potentially
function without any concern for a search path.  Assuming the importer
does no partitioning, the "path" would be irrelevant.  In order to
illustrate the purpose of ‘path’, the example would need to illustrate a
more complex ‘DatabaseImporter’ whose behavior varied depending on
‘sys.path’/‘PYTHONPATH’.  In that case, the ‘find_distributions’ should
honor the ‘context.path’ and only yield ‘Distribution’s pertinent to
that path.

‘DatabaseDistribution’, then, would look something like:

     class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distribution):
         def __init__(self, record):
             self.record = record

         def read_text(self, filename):
             """
             Read a file like "METADATA" for the current distribution.
             """
             if filename == "METADATA":
                 return f"""Name: {self.record.name}
     Version: {self.record.version}
     """
             if filename == "entry_points.txt":
                 return "\n".join(
                   f"""[{ep.group}]\n{ep.name}={ep.value}"""
                   for ep in self.record.entry_points)

         def locate_file(self, path):
             raise RuntimeError("This distribution has no file system")

This basic implementation should provide metadata and entry points for
packages served by the ‘DatabaseImporter’, assuming that the ‘record’
supplies suitable ‘.name’, ‘.version’, and ‘.entry_points’ attributes.

The ‘DatabaseDistribution’ may also provide other metadata files, like
‘RECORD’ (required for ‘Distribution.files’) or override the
implementation of ‘Distribution.files’.  See the source for more
inspiration.


File: python.info,  Node: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata,  Up: Importer des modules

5.32.9 The initialization of the ‘sys.path’ module search path
--------------------------------------------------------------

A module search path is initialized when Python starts.  This module
search path may be accessed at *note sys.path: 3ab.

The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains
the input script, if there is one.  Otherwise, the first entry is the
current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive
shell, a *note -c: 5cc. command, or *note -m: 5cd. module.

The *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. environment variable is often used to add
directories to the search path.  If this environment variable is found
then the contents are added to the module search path.

     Note: *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. will affect all installed Python
     versions/environments.  Be wary of setting this in your shell
     profile or global environment variables.  The *note site: c6.
     module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below.

The next items added are the directories containing standard Python
modules as well as any *note extension module: 4539.s that these modules
depend on.  Extension modules are ‘.pyd’ files on Windows and ‘.so’
files on other platforms.  The directory with the platform-independent
Python modules is called ‘prefix’.  The directory with the extension
modules is called ‘exec_prefix’.

The *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable may be used to set the
‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ locations.  Otherwise these directories are
found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then
looking for various 'landmark' files and directories.  Note that any
symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is
used as the search starting point.  The Python executable location is
called ‘home’.

Once ‘home’ is determined, the ‘prefix’ directory is found by first
looking for ‘python`majorversion'`minorversion'.zip’ (‘python311.zip’).
On Windows the zip archive is searched for in ‘home’ and on Unix the
archive is expected to be in ‘lib’.  Note that the expected zip archive
location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not
exist.  If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the
search for ‘prefix’ by looking for ‘Lib\os.py’.  Python on Unix will
look for ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/os.py’
(‘lib/python3.11/os.py’).  On Windows ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are the
same, however on other platforms
‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/lib-dynload’
(‘lib/python3.11/lib-dynload’) is searched for and used as an anchor for
‘exec_prefix’.  On some platforms ‘lib’ may be ‘lib64’ or another value,
see *note sys.platlibdir: 927. and *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 18fd.

Once found, ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are available at *note
sys.prefix: 3ad. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a9. respectively.

Finally, the *note site: c6. module is processed and ‘site-packages’
directories are added to the module search path.  A common way to
customize the search path is to create *note sitecustomize: c7. or *note
usercustomize: 10d. modules as described in the *note site: c6. module
documentation.

     Note: Certain command line options may further affect path
     calculations.  See *note -E: 94c, *note -I: 94d, *note -s: 1364.
     and *note -S: 1188. for further details.

* Menu:

* Environnements virtuels: Environnements virtuels<2>.
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Environnements virtuels<2>,  Next: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.32.9.1 Environnements virtuels
................................

If Python is run in a virtual environment (as described at *note
Environnements virtuels et paquets: 1cbb.) then ‘prefix’ and
‘exec_prefix’ are specific to the virtual environment.

If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable, or in the
directory one level above the executable, the following variations
apply:

   * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. is not
     set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable
     when deducing ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’.


File: python.info,  Node: _pth files,  Next: Embedded Python,  Prev: Environnements virtuels<2>,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.32.9.2 _pth files
...................

To completely override *note sys.path: 3ab. create a ‘._pth’ file with
the same name as the shared library or executable (‘python._pth’ or
‘python311._pth’).  The shared library path is always known on Windows,
however it may not be available on other platforms.  In the ‘._pth’ file
specify one line for each path to add to *note sys.path: 3ab.  The file
based on the shared library name overrides the one based on the
executable, which allows paths to be restricted for any program loading
the runtime if desired.

Lorsque le fichier existe, toutes les variables de registre et
d'environnement sont ignorées, le mode isolé est activé et *note site:
c6. n'est pas importé, sauf si une ligne du fichier spécifie ‘import
site’.  Les chemins et les lignes vides commençant par ‘#’ sont ignorés.
Chaque chemin d'accès peut être absolu ou relatif à l'emplacement du
fichier.  Les importations autres que vers 'site' ne sont pas
autorisées, ni n'importe quelle instruction Python.

Notez que les fichiers ‘.pth’ (sans signe souligné précédant le ‘pth’)
seront traités normalement par le module *note site: c6. lorsque ‘import
site’ a été spécifié.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedded Python,  Prev: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.32.9.3 Embedded Python
........................

If Python is embedded within another application *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. and the *note PyConfig: 39d. structure
can be used to initialize Python.  The path specific details are
described at *note Python Path Configuration: 89c.

Voir aussi
..........

   * *note Recherche de modules: c11. for detailed Windows notes.

   * *note Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix: 1d15. for
     Unix details.


File: python.info,  Node: Services du Langage Python,  Next: Services spécifiques à MS Windows,  Prev: Importer des modules,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.33 Services du Langage Python
===============================

Python fournit quelques modules pour vous aider à travailler avec le
langage Python lui-même.  Ces modules gèrent entre autres l'analyse
lexicale, l'analyse syntaxique, et le désassemblage de 'bytecode'.

Ces modules sont :

* Menu:

* ast: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees. Abstract Syntax Trees
* symtable: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables. Access to the compiler's symbol tables
* token: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees. Constants used with Python parse trees
* keyword: keyword --- Testing for Python keywords. Testing for Python keywords
* tokenize: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source. Tokenizer for Python source
* tabnanny: tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation. Detection of ambiguous indentation
* pyclbr: pyclbr --- Python module browser support. Python module browser support
* py_compile: py_compile --- Compile Python source files. Compile Python source files
* compileall: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries. Byte-compile Python libraries
* dis: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode. Disassembler for Python bytecode
* pickletools: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers. Tools for pickle developers


File: python.info,  Node: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees,  Next: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.1 ‘ast’ -- Abstract Syntax Trees
-------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/ast.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note ast: 8. permet aux applications Python de traiter les
arbres syntaxiques, dérivés directement de la grammaire abstraite du
langage.  On peut notamment déterminer dans un programme la forme de
chaque élément de grammaire, qui est susceptible d'être modifiée par les
nouvelles versions de Python.

Un arbre syntaxique abstrait peut être généré en passant l'option *note
ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST: 4542. à la fonction native *note compile(): 190, ou à
l'aide de la fonction auxiliaire *note parse(): 1a6. fournie par ce
module.  Le résultat est un arbre composé d'objets dont les classes
héritent toutes de *note ast.AST: 1a4.  On peut compiler les arbres en
code objet Python à l'aide de la fonction native *note compile(): 190.

* Menu:

* Grammaire abstraite::
* Classes de nœuds::
* Outils du module ast::
* Options du compilateur::
* Utilisation en ligne de commande: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ast.py


File: python.info,  Node: Grammaire abstraite,  Next: Classes de nœuds,  Up: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees

5.33.1.1 Grammaire abstraite
............................

La grammaire abstraite est actuellement définie comme suit :

     -- ASDL's 4 builtin types are:
     -- identifier, int, string, constant

     module Python
     {
         mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores)
             | Interactive(stmt* body)
             | Expression(expr body)
             | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns)

         stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                            stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                            string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)
               | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                                  stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                                  string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)

               | ClassDef(identifier name,
                  expr* bases,
                  keyword* keywords,
                  stmt* body,
                  expr* decorator_list,
                  type_param* type_params)
               | Return(expr? value)

               | Delete(expr* targets)
               | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment)
               | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value)
               | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
               -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
               | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)

               -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages
               | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)

               | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases)

               | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
               | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)

               | Import(alias* names)
               | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level)

               | Global(identifier* names)
               | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
               | Expr(expr value)
               | Pass | Break | Continue

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

               -- BoolOp() can use left & right?
         expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
              | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value)
              | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
              | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
              | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
              | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
              | Dict(expr* keys, expr* values)
              | Set(expr* elts)
              | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators)
              | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
              | Await(expr value)
              | Yield(expr? value)
              | YieldFrom(expr value)
              -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
              -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3
              | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
              | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
              | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
              | JoinedStr(expr* values)
              | Constant(constant value, string? kind)

              -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
              | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
              | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx)
              | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
              | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
              | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
              | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)

              -- can appear only in Subscript
              | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         expr_context = Load | Store | Del

         boolop = And | Or

         operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
                      | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv

         unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub

         cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn

         comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)

         excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
                         attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs,
                      expr* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)

         arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment)
                attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
         keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- import name with optional 'as' alias.
         alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)

         match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body)

         pattern = MatchValue(expr value)
                 | MatchSingleton(constant value)
                 | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns)
                 | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest)
                 | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns)

                 | MatchStar(identifier? name)
                 -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys

                 | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name)
                 | MatchOr(pattern* patterns)

                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

         type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag)

         type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound, expr? default_value)
                    | ParamSpec(identifier name, expr? default_value)
                    | TypeVarTuple(identifier name, expr? default_value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Classes de nœuds,  Next: Outils du module ast,  Prev: Grammaire abstraite,  Up: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees

5.33.1.2 Classes de nœuds
.........................

 -- Classe: ast.AST

     This is the base of all AST node classes.  The actual node classes
     are derived from the ‘Parser/Python.asdl’ file, which is reproduced
     *note above: 4543.  They are defined in the ‘_ast’ C module and
     re-exported in *note ast: 8.

     Il y a une classe définie pour chacun des symboles présents à
     gauche dans la grammaire abstraite (par exemple ‘ast.stmt’ ou
     ‘ast.expr’).  En plus de cela, une classe est définie pour chacun
     des constructeurs présentés à droite ; ces classes héritent des
     classes situées à leur gauche dans l'arbre.  Par exemple, la classe
     *note ast.BinOp: 198b. hérite de la classe ‘ast.expr’.  Pour les
     règles de réécriture avec alternatives (les « sommes »), la classe
     de la partie gauche est abstraite : seules les classes de nœuds à
     droite sont instanciées.

      -- Attribut: _fields

          Each concrete class has an attribute ‘_fields’ which gives the
          names of all child nodes.

          Chaque instance d'une classe concrète possède un attribut pour
          chaque nœud enfant, du type défini par la grammaire.  Par
          exemple, les instances *note ast.BinOp: 198b. possèdent un
          attribut ‘left’ de type ‘ast.expr’.

          Si un attribut est marqué comme optionnel dans la grammaire
          (avec un point d'interrogation ‘?’), sa valeur peut être
          ‘None’.  S'il peut avoir zéro, une ou plusieurs valeurs (ce
          qui est marqué par un astérisque ‘*’), elles sont regroupées
          dans une liste Python.  Tous les attributs possibles doivent
          être présents et avoir une valeur valide pour compiler un
          arbre syntaxique avec *note compile(): 190.

      -- Attribut: _field_types

          The ‘_field_types’ attribute on each concrete class is a
          dictionary mapping field names (as also listed in *note
          _fields: 155e.) to their types.

               >>> ast.TypeVar._field_types
               {'name': <class 'str'>, 'bound': ast.expr | None, 'default_value': ast.expr | None}

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- Attribut: lineno
      -- Attribut: col_offset
      -- Attribut: end_lineno
      -- Attribut: end_col_offset

          Instances of ‘ast.expr’ and ‘ast.stmt’ subclasses have *note
          lineno: 4546, *note col_offset: 4547, *note end_lineno: 4548,
          and *note end_col_offset: 4549. attributes.  The *note lineno:
          4546. and *note end_lineno: 4548. are the first and last line
          numbers of source text span (1-indexed so the first line is
          line 1) and the *note col_offset: 4547. and *note
          end_col_offset: 4549. are the corresponding UTF-8 byte offsets
          of the first and last tokens that generated the node.  The
          UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses UTF-8
          internally.

          Les décalages 'end…' ne sont pas obligatoires ni nécessaires
          au compilateur.  'end_col_offset' pointe 'après' le dernier
          lexème.  On peut donc obtenir la partie du code source ayant
          donné lieu à une expression avec ‘ligne_source[nœud.col_offset
          : nœud.end_col_offset]’.

     Le constructeur d'une classe nommée ‘ast.T’ analyse ses arguments
     comme suit :

        * S'il y a des arguments positionnels, il doit y avoir autant de
          termes dans ‘T._fields’ ; ils sont assignés comme attributs
          portant ces noms.

        * S'il y a des arguments nommés, ils définissent les attributs
          de mêmes noms avec les valeurs données.

     Par exemple, pour créer et peupler un nœud *note ast.UnaryOp: 454a,
     on peut utiliser

          node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
                             lineno=0, col_offset=0)

     If a field that is optional in the grammar is omitted from the
     constructor, it defaults to ‘None’.  If a list field is omitted, it
     defaults to the empty list.  If a field of type ‘ast.expr_context’
     is omitted, it defaults to *note Load(): 1a2.  If any other field
     is omitted, a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. is raised and the AST
     node will not have this field.  In Python 3.15, this condition will
     raise an error.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: toutes les constantes sont désormais
représentées par des instances de *note ast.Constant: 2b6.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Simple indices are represented by their
value, extended slices are represented as tuples.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.8: Old classes ‘ast.Num’, ‘ast.Str’,
‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’ are still available,
but they will be removed in future Python releases.  In the meantime,
instantiating them will return an instance of a different class.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Old classes ‘ast.Index’ and
‘ast.ExtSlice’ are still available, but they will be removed in future
Python releases.  In the meantime, instantiating them will return an
instance of a different class.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Previous
versions of Python allowed the creation of AST nodes that were missing
required fields.  Similarly, AST node constructors allowed arbitrary
keyword arguments that were set as attributes of the AST node, even if
they did not match any of the fields of the AST node.  This behavior is
deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.15.

     Note: Les descriptions individuelles des classes de nœuds dans la
     prochaine section sont au départ adaptées du merveilleux projet
     Green Tree Snakes(1), porté par de nombreux contributeurs.

* Menu:

* Root nodes::
* Littéraux: Littéraux<3>.
* Variables::
* Expressions: Expressions<2>.
* Instructions: Instructions<2>.
* Contrôle de l'exécution::
* Pattern matching::
* Type parameters::
* Définition de fonctions et de classes::
* async et await::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Root nodes,  Next: Littéraux<3>,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.3 Root nodes
...................

 -- Classe: ast.Module (body, type_ignores)

     A Python module, as with *note file input: 20f9.  Node type
     generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a6. in the default ‘"exec"’
     'mode'.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 5fe. of the module's *note Instructions:
     454e.

     ‘type_ignores’ is a *note list: 5fe. of the module's type ignore
     comments; see *note ast.parse(): 1a6. for more details.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

 -- Classe: ast.Expression (body)

     A single Python *note expression input: 20ff.  Node type generated
     by *note ast.parse(): 1a6. when 'mode' is ‘"eval"’.

     ‘body’ is a single node, one of the *note expression types: 4550.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- Classe: ast.Interactive (body)

     A single *note interactive input: 20fc, like in *note Mode
     interactif: 16e.  Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a6.
     when 'mode' is ‘"single"’.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 5fe. of *note statement nodes: 454e.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4))
          Interactive(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1)),
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- Classe: ast.FunctionType (argtypes, returns)

     A representation of an old-style type comments for functions, as
     Python versions prior to 3.5 didn't support PEP 484(1) annotations.
     Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a6. when 'mode' is
     ‘"func_type"’.

     Such type comments would look like this:

          def sum_two_number(a, b):
              # type: (int, int) -> int
              return a + b

     ‘argtypes’ is a *note list: 5fe. of *note expression nodes: 4550.

     ‘returns’ is a single *note expression node: 4550.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4))
          FunctionType(
              argtypes=[
                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
              returns=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='List', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Littéraux<3>,  Next: Variables,  Prev: Root nodes,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.4 Littéraux
..................

 -- Classe: ast.Constant (value)

     Valeur constante, contenue dans le champ 'value'.  Les valeurs
     possibles sont celles de types simples comme les nombres, les
     chaînes de caractères, ou encore ‘None’, mais aussi certains
     conteneurs immuables ('n'-uplets et ensembles figés) lorsque tous
     leurs éléments sont constants.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- Classe: ast.FormattedValue (value, conversion, format_spec)

     Champ de formatage dans une chaîne littérale formatée ('f-string').
     Ce nœud peut être isolé si la chaîne contient un unique champ et
     rien d'autre.  Sinon, il apparaît dans *note JoinedStr: 16a5.

        * 'value' est un nœud d'expression quelconque (comme un
          littéral, une variable, ou encore un appel de fonction).

        * 'conversion' est un entier parmi les valeurs suivantes :

             * -1, aucun formatage ;

             * 115, pour le formatage par ‘str()’ correspondant à ‘!s’ ;

             * 114, pour le formatage par ‘repr()’ correspondant à
               ‘!r’ ;

             * 97, pour le formatage par ‘ascii()’ correspondant à ‘!a’.

        * 'format_spec' est un nœud *note JoinedStr: 16a5. qui précise
          la manière de formater la valeur.  Si aucun formatage
          particulier n'a été donné, 'format_spec' vaut ‘None’.
          'conversion' et 'format_spec' peuvent tout à fait coexister.

 -- Classe: ast.JoinedStr (values)

     Chaîne littérale formatée ('f-string'), qui contient une liste de
     nœuds *note FormattedValue: 4554. et *note Constant: 2b6.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=JoinedStr(
                  values=[
                      Constant(value='sin('),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          conversion=-1),
                      Constant(value=') is '),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Call(
                              func=Name(id='sin', ctx=Load()),
                              args=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Load())]),
                          conversion=-1,
                          format_spec=JoinedStr(
                              values=[
                                  Constant(value='.3')]))]))

 -- Classe: ast.List (elts, ctx)
 -- Classe: ast.Tuple (elts, ctx)

     Liste ou 'n'-uplet, dont les éléments sont rassemblés dans la liste
     'elts'.  'ctx' est une instance de *note Store: 4557. si la liste
     ou le 'n'-uplet est la cible d'une affectation (par exemple ‘(x, y)
     = quelque_chose’).  Sinon, c'est une instance de *note Load: 1a2.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=List(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Tuple(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- Classe: ast.Set (elts)

     Ensemble.  'elts' est la liste de ses éléments.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Set(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))

 -- Classe: ast.Dict (keys, values)

     Dictionnaire.  Les listes 'keys' et 'values' contiennent
     respectivement les clés et les valeurs.  Leurs ordres se
     correspondent, c'est-à-dire que la valeur associée à l'élément
     d'indice 'i' dans 'keys' est à chercher à l'indice 'i' de 'values'.
     'keys' et 'values' sont donc des équivalents à
     ‘dictionnaire.keys()’ et ‘dictionnaire.values()’.

     Si un dictionnaire littéral contient une expression doublement
     étoilée à déballer, elle est intégrée dans 'values', et ‘None’ est
     mis à la place correspondante dans 'keys'.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Dict(
                  keys=[
                      Constant(value='a'),
                      None],
                  values=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))


File: python.info,  Node: Variables,  Next: Expressions<2>,  Prev: Littéraux<3>,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.5 Variables
..................

 -- Classe: ast.Name (id, ctx)

     Variable, dont le nom est 'id' (une chaîne de caractères).  'ctx'
     est de l'un des trois types :

 -- Classe: ast.Load
 -- Classe: ast.Store
 -- Classe: ast.Del

     Ces types de contexte distinguent les variables selon qu'elles sont
     utilisées pour lire la valeur, mettre la variable à une nouvelle
     valeur, ou supprimer la variable.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])])

 -- Classe: ast.Starred (value, ctx)

     Élément étoilé.  'value' est le nœud auquel s'applique l'étoile.
     Le plus souvent, 'value' est une instance de *note Name: 18fc.  Ce
     type est notamment nécessaire pour les appels de fonction avec
     déballage d'arguments (par exemple ‘fonction(*args)’ ; voir aussi
     *note Call: 455c.).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()),
                                      ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()))])


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions<2>,  Next: Instructions<2>,  Prev: Variables,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.6 Expressions
....................

 -- Classe: ast.Expr (value)

     Lorsque une expression, comme l'appel d'une fonction, apparaît
     comme une instruction à elle seule, sans que la valeur ne soit
     utilisée ou sauvegardée, l'expression est insérée dans ce
     conteneur.  Le type de 'value' peut être l'un des autres nœuds
     décrits dans cette section, ou bien parmi *note Constant: 2b6,
     *note Name: 18fc, *note Lambda: 455f, *note Yield: 4560. et *note
     YieldFrom: 4561.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=UnaryOp(
                          op=USub(),
                          operand=Name(id='a', ctx=Load())))])

 -- Classe: ast.UnaryOp (op, operand)

     Unité lexicale désignant une opération unaire.  L'opérateur est
     'op', l'opérande 'operand' est un nœud d'expression quelconque.

 -- Classe: ast.UAdd
 -- Classe: ast.USub
 -- Classe: ast.Not
 -- Classe: ast.Invert

     Unités lexicales désignant des opérations unaires.  *note Not:
     4564. correspond au mot-clé ‘not’, *note Invert: 4565. à
     l'opérateur ‘~’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=UnaryOp(
                  op=Not(),
                  operand=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))

 -- Classe: ast.BinOp (left, op, right)

     Opération binaire (comme l'addition ou la division).  L'opérateur
     est 'op', les opérandes 'left' et 'right' sont des nœuds
     d'expression quelconques.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BinOp(
                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='y', ctx=Load())))

 -- Classe: ast.Add
 -- Classe: ast.Sub
 -- Classe: ast.Mult
 -- Classe: ast.Div
 -- Classe: ast.FloorDiv
 -- Classe: ast.Mod
 -- Classe: ast.Pow
 -- Classe: ast.LShift
 -- Classe: ast.RShift
 -- Classe: ast.BitOr
 -- Classe: ast.BitXor
 -- Classe: ast.BitAnd
 -- Classe: ast.MatMult

     Unités lexicales pour les opérations binaires.

 -- Classe: ast.BoolOp (op, values)

     Opération booléenne, c'est-à-dire ‘and’ ou ‘or’, entre 'op' et les
     éléments de 'values'.  Les deux opérateurs sont distingués par le
     type de 'op', à savoir *note And: 4574. ou *note Or: 4575.  Les
     applications successives du même opérateur (comme ‘a or b or c’)
     sont regroupées dans un nœud unique avec plusieurs éléments dans la
     liste 'values'.

     L'opérateur ‘not’ n'est pas implémenté ici, mais bien dans *note
     UnaryOp: 454a.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BoolOp(
                  op=Or(),
                  values=[
                      Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      Name(id='y', ctx=Load())]))

 -- Classe: ast.And
 -- Classe: ast.Or

     Unités lexicales pour les opérations booléennes.

 -- Classe: ast.Compare (left, ops, comparators)

     Comparaison de deux valeurs ou plus.  'left' est le premier élément
     de la comparaison, 'ops' la liste des opérateurs, et 'comparators'
     la liste des éléments restants de la comparaison.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Compare(
                  left=Constant(value=1),
                  ops=[
                      LtE(),
                      Lt()],
                  comparators=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Constant(value=10)]))

 -- Classe: ast.Eq
 -- Classe: ast.NotEq
 -- Classe: ast.Lt
 -- Classe: ast.LtE
 -- Classe: ast.Gt
 -- Classe: ast.GtE
 -- Classe: ast.Is
 -- Classe: ast.IsNot
 -- Classe: ast.In
 -- Classe: ast.NotIn

     Unités lexicales pour les comparaisons.

 -- Classe: ast.Call (func, args, keywords)

     Appel d'une fonction.  Le nœud 'func', représentant la fonction
     appelée, est habituellement de type *note Name: 18fc. ou *note
     Attribute: 4581.  Les arguments sont contenus dans :

        * 'args', la liste des arguments passés sans les nommer
          (arguments positionnels) ;

        * ‘keywords’ holds a list of *note keyword: 4582. objects
          representing arguments passed by keyword.

     The ‘args’ and ‘keywords’ arguments are optional and default to
     empty lists.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='func', ctx=Load()),
                  args=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Starred(
                          value=Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load())],
                  keywords=[
                      keyword(
                          arg='b',
                          value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())),
                      keyword(
                          value=Name(id='e', ctx=Load()))]))

 -- Classe: ast.keyword (arg, value)

     A keyword argument to a function call or class definition.  ‘arg’
     is a raw string of the parameter name, ‘value’ is a node to pass
     in.

 -- Classe: ast.IfExp (test, body, orelse)

     Expression ternaire (‘a if b else c’).  Chaque champ contient un
     unique nœud.  Dans l'exemple suivant, les trois sont de la classe
     *note Name: 18fc.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=IfExp(
                  test=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                  body=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                  orelse=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())))

 -- Classe: ast.Attribute (value, attr, ctx)

     Accès à un attribut (comme ‘d.keys’).  'value' est un nœud, souvent
     de la classe *note Name: 18fc.  'attr' est le nom de l'attribut,
     sous forme de chaîne de caractères.  'ctx' est de classe *note
     Load: 1a2, *note Store: 4557. ou *note Del: 455a. selon le type de
     l'action effectuée sur l'attribut.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Attribute(
                  value=Name(id='snake', ctx=Load()),
                  attr='colour',
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- Classe: ast.NamedExpr (target, value)

     Expression d'affectation.  Ces nœuds proviennent de l'opérateur
     « morse » ‘:=’.  Contrairement à *note Assign: 4585, dont le
     premier argument est une liste qui peut contenir plusieurs cibles,
     les arguments 'target' et 'value' sont ici des nœuds simples.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=NamedExpr(
                  target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                  value=Constant(value=4)))

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

* Menu:

* Indiçage::
* Compréhensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Indiçage,  Next: Compréhensions,  Up: Expressions<2>

5.33.1.7 Indiçage
.................

 -- Classe: ast.Subscript (value, slice, ctx)

     Accès à un indice, par exemple ‘liste[1]’.  'value' est l'objet où
     l'indice est pris, donc la plupart du temps une séquence ou une
     table associative.  'slice' est soit un indice, soit une tranche,
     soit une clé.  Les instances de *note Tuple: 4556. pour 'slice'
     peuvent contenir des objets *note Slice: 4588.  'ctx' est de type
     *note Load: 1a2, *note Store: 4557. ou *note Del: 455a. selon
     l'action appliquée à l'indice.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Tuple(
                      elts=[
                          Slice(
                              lower=Constant(value=1),
                              upper=Constant(value=2)),
                          Constant(value=3)],
                      ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- Classe: ast.Slice (lower, upper, step)

     Tranches normales (de la forme ‘début:fin’ ou ‘début:fin:pas’).
     Les instances de cette classe ne peuvent apparaître que dans le
     champ 'slice' d'un *note Subscript: 4587, que ce soit directement
     ou en tant qu'élément d'un *note Tuple: 4556.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Slice(
                      lower=Constant(value=1),
                      upper=Constant(value=2)),
                  ctx=Load()))


File: python.info,  Node: Compréhensions,  Prev: Indiçage,  Up: Expressions<2>

5.33.1.8 Compréhensions
.......................

 -- Classe: ast.ListComp (elt, generators)
 -- Classe: ast.SetComp (elt, generators)
 -- Classe: ast.GeneratorExp (elt, generators)
 -- Classe: ast.DictComp (key, value, generators)

     Liste, ensemble ou dictionnaire en compréhension, ou expression
     génératrice.  'elt' est l'expression avant le premier ‘for’,
     évaluée à chaque itération.  Il est remplacé par 'key' (expression
     pour la clé) et 'value' (expression pour la valeur) dans le cas des
     dictionnaires.

     'generators' est une liste de nœuds *note comprehension: 458e.

          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=DictComp(
                  key=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  value=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=SetComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))

 -- Classe: ast.comprehension (target, iter, ifs, is_async)

     Une clause ‘for’ à l'intérieur d'une compréhension.  'iter' est
     l'objet à parcourir, 'target' est la cible de l'affectation qui se
     produit à chaque itération (la plupart du temps un nœud *note Name:
     18fc. ou *note Tuple: 4556.).  'ifs' contient les tests qui
     décident si l'élément doit être inséré.  C'est une liste, car
     chaque ‘for’ peut être suivi de plusieurs ‘if’.

     'is_async' est une valeur booléenne sous forme d'entier, 0 ou 1,
     qui indique si la compréhension est asynchrone, c'est-à-dire
     qu'elle a été écrite avec ‘async for’ au lieu de ‘for’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one.
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Call(
                      func=Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()),
                      args=[
                          Name(id='c', ctx=Load())]),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='file', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0),
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='line', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # generator comprehension
          Expression(
              body=GeneratorExp(
                  elt=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Lt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=10)])],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Async comprehension
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='soc', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=1)]))


File: python.info,  Node: Instructions<2>,  Next: Contrôle de l'exécution,  Prev: Expressions<2>,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.9 Instructions
.....................

 -- Classe: ast.Assign (targets, value, type_comment)

     Affectation.  'targets' est une liste de nœuds, 'value' est
     simplement un nœud.

     S'il y a plusieurs nœuds dans 'targets', ils sont tous pris comme
     des cibles auxquelles est affectée la même expression.  Le
     déballage de séquences est représenté par des nœuds *note Tuple:
     4556. ou *note List: 4555. comme éléments de 'targets'.

      -- Attribut: type_comment

          Le champ facultatif 'type_comment' contient une annotation de
          type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une
          chaîne de caractères.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                          Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))])

 -- Classe: ast.AnnAssign (target, annotation, value, simple)

     An assignment with a type annotation.  ‘target’ is a single node
     and can be a *note Name: 18fc, an *note Attribute: 4581. or a *note
     Subscript: 4587.  ‘annotation’ is the annotation, such as a *note
     Constant: 2b6. or *note Name: 18fc. node.  ‘value’ is a single
     optional node.

     ‘simple’ is always either 0 (indicating a "complex" target) or 1
     (indicating a "simple" target).  A "simple" target consists solely
     of a *note Name: 18fc. node that does not appear between
     parentheses; all other targets are considered complex.  Only simple
     targets appear in the ‘__annotations__’ dictionary of modules and
     classes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=1)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=0)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Attribute(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          attr='b',
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Constant(value=1),
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)])

 -- Classe: ast.AugAssign (target, op, value)

     Affectation incrémentale, par exemple ‘a += 1’.  Dans l'exemple qui
     suit, 'target' est un nœud de type *note Name: 18fc. avec le nom
     ‘'x'’ (de contexte *note Store: 4557.), 'op' est une instance de
     *note Add: 4566, et 'value' est un nœud *note Constant: 2b6.
     contenant la valeur 1.

     The ‘target’ attribute cannot be of class *note Tuple: 4556. or
     *note List: 4555, unlike the targets of *note Assign: 4585.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AugAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      op=Add(),
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- Classe: ast.Raise (exc, cause)

     Instruction ‘raise’.  'exc' est l'exception à lever, la plupart du
     temps un nœud de type *note Call: 455c. ou *note Name: 18fc.  Ce
     champ vaut ‘None’ dans le cas d'un ‘raise’ sans rien d'autre.  Le
     champ facultatif 'cause' correspond à la partie après le ‘from’
     dans ‘raise ... from ...’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Raise(
                      exc=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cause=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))])

 -- Classe: ast.Assert (test, msg)

     Assertion.  'test' est la condition, par exemple un nœud *note
     Compare: 4576.  'msg' est le message d'erreur affiché si le test
     s'évalue comme faux.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assert(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      msg=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))])

 -- Classe: ast.Delete (targets)

     Instruction ‘del’.  Les éléments à supprimer sont rassemblés dans
     la liste 'target'.  Ce sont généralement des nœuds de type *note
     Name: 18fc, *note Attribute: 4581. ou *note Subscript: 4587.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])])

 -- Classe: ast.Pass

     Instruction ‘pass’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Pass()])

 -- Classe: ast.TypeAlias (name, type_params, value)

     A *note type alias: 43f. created through the *note type: 423.
     statement.  ‘name’ is the name of the alias, ‘type_params’ is a
     list of *note type parameters: 4597, and ‘value’ is the value of
     the type alias.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      value=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Il existe d'autres instructions, qui ne peuvent apparaître que dans
certains contextes spécifiques comme l'intérieur d'une fonction ou d'une
boucle.  Elles sont décrites dans d'autres sections de ce document.

* Menu:

* Importations::


File: python.info,  Node: Importations,  Up: Instructions<2>

5.33.1.10 Importations
......................

 -- Classe: ast.Import (names)

     Instruction ‘import’.  'names' prend la forme d'une liste de nœuds
     *note alias: 187b.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Import(
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')])])

 -- Classe: ast.ImportFrom (module, names, level)

     Instruction ‘from ... import ...’.  La partie après ‘from’ est mise
     dans 'module' comme une simple chaîne de caractères.  Dans le cas
     des importations relatives, comme ‘from ..module import
     quelque_chose’, 'module' ne contient pas les points au début.  Dans
     les instructions de la forme ‘from . import toto’, 'module' vaut
     ‘None’.  'level' est le niveau d'importation relative sous forme
     d'entier (0 pour les importations absolues).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='y',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')],
                      level=0)])

 -- Classe: ast.alias (name, asname)

     Correspond à ‘... as ...’ dans une importation.  'name' et 'asname'
     sont de simples chaînes de caractères, qui correspondent aux deux
     parties de ‘... as ...’.  Dans les instructions sans ‘as’ (où le
     module n'est pas renommé), 'asname' vaut ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='foo.bar',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='a', asname='b'),
                          alias(name='c')],
                      level=2)])


File: python.info,  Node: Contrôle de l'exécution,  Next: Pattern matching,  Prev: Instructions<2>,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.11 Contrôle de l'exécution
.................................

     Note: Si une clause facultative comme ‘else’ est absente, le champ
     correspondant dans l'arbre est une liste vide.

 -- Classe: ast.If (test, body, orelse)

     Instruction ‘if’.  La condition, 'test', est un nœud, par exemple
     une instance de *note Compare: 4576.  'body' est la liste des
     instructions du bloc.  'orelse' contient les instructions dans le
     ‘else’ (liste vide s'il n'y a pas de ‘else’).

     Les clauses ‘elif’ ne possèdent pas de représentation particulière.
     Elles sont simplement mises dans le 'orelse' du ‘if’ ou ‘elif’
     précédent, comme nœuds de type *note If: 459c.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... if x:
          ...    ...
          ... elif y:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  If(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          If(
                              test=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                              orelse=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

 -- Classe: ast.For (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

     A ‘for’ loop.  ‘target’ holds the variable(s) the loop assigns to,
     as a single *note Name: 18fc, *note Tuple: 4556, *note List: 4555,
     *note Attribute: 4581. or *note Subscript: 4587. node.  ‘iter’
     holds the item to be looped over, again as a single node.  ‘body’
     and ‘orelse’ contain lists of nodes to execute.  Those in ‘orelse’
     are executed if the loop finishes normally, rather than via a
     ‘break’ statement.

      -- Attribut: type_comment

          Le champ facultatif 'type_comment' contient une annotation de
          type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une
          chaîne de caractères.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... for x in y:
          ...     ...
          ... else:
          ...     ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- Classe: ast.While (test, body, orelse)

     Boucle ‘while’.  'test' est la condition évaluée à chaque
     itération, par exemple un nœud *note Compare: 4576.  'body'
     contient les instructions du bloc, et 'orelse' celles d'un éventuel
     bloc ‘else’, exécuté lorsque la boucle termine parce que la
     condition devient fausse et non pas à cause d'une instruction
     ‘break’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... while x:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  While(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- Classe: ast.Break
 -- Classe: ast.Continue

     Instructions ‘break’ et ‘continue’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... for a in b:
          ...     if a > 5:
          ...         break
          ...     else:
          ...         continue
          ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          If(
                              test=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              body=[
                                  Break()],
                              orelse=[
                                  Continue()])])])

 -- Classe: ast.Try (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     Bloc ‘try’.  Les nœuds de la liste 'body' sont les instructions à
     exécuter sous contrôle des exceptions.  La liste 'handlers'
     contient des nœuds *note ExceptHandler: 45a3, un par ‘except’.  Les
     listes 'orelse' et 'finalbody' contiennent respectivement les
     instructions se trouvant dans d'éventuels blocs ‘else’ et
     ‘finally’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... except OtherException as e:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... finally:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='OtherException', ctx=Load()),
                              name='e',
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      finalbody=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- Classe: ast.TryStar (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ blocks which are followed by ‘except*’ clauses.  The
     attributes are the same as for *note Try: 45a2. but the *note
     ExceptHandler: 45a3. nodes in ‘handlers’ are interpreted as
     ‘except*’ blocks rather then ‘except’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except* Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TryStar(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Classe: ast.ExceptHandler (type, name, body)

     Une clause ‘except’.  Elle intercepte les exceptions de types
     donnés par 'type', qui est le plus souvent un nœud *note Name:
     18fc. ou bien ‘None’ (cette dernière valeur pour les clauses
     fourre-tout ‘except:’).  Le nom éventuel de la variable à laquelle
     affecter l'exception est dans la chaîne de caractères 'name'
     (‘None’ s'il n'y a pas de ‘as’).  Les instructions sous le ‘except’
     sont dans la liste 'body'.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... try:
          ...     a + 1
          ... except TypeError:
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=BinOp(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  op=Add(),
                                  right=Constant(value=1)))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='TypeError', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Pass()])])])

 -- Classe: ast.With (items, body, type_comment)

     Bloc ‘with’.  Les gestionnaires de contexte sont stockés dans
     'items' comme instances de *note withitem: 45a6.  Les instructions
     sous le ‘with’ forment la liste 'body'.

      -- Attribut: type_comment

          Le champ facultatif 'type_comment' contient une annotation de
          type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une
          chaîne de caractères.

 -- Classe: ast.withitem (context_expr, optional_vars)

     Gestionnaire de contexte dans un bloc ‘with’.  Le gestionnaire est
     donné par le nœud 'context_expr', souvent une instance de *note
     Call: 455c.  S'il y a affectation avec ‘as’, 'optional_vars'
     contient sa cible, qui est un nœud de type *note Name: 18fc, *note
     Tuple: 4556. ou *note List: 4555.  Sinon, 'optional_vars' vaut
     ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... with a as b, c as d:
          ...    something(b, d)
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  With(
                      items=[
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())),
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))],
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Call(
                                  func=Name(id='something', ctx=Load()),
                                  args=[
                                      Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))])])


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern matching,  Next: Type parameters,  Prev: Contrôle de l'exécution,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.12 Pattern matching
..........................

 -- Classe: ast.Match (subject, cases)

     A ‘match’ statement.  ‘subject’ holds the subject of the match (the
     object that is being matched against the cases) and ‘cases’
     contains an iterable of *note match_case: 45aa. nodes with the
     different cases.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.match_case (pattern, guard, body)

     A single case pattern in a ‘match’ statement.  ‘pattern’ contains
     the match pattern that the subject will be matched against.  Note
     that the *note AST: 1a4. nodes produced for patterns differ from
     those produced for expressions, even when they share the same
     syntax.

     The ‘guard’ attribute contains an expression that will be evaluated
     if the pattern matches the subject.

     ‘body’ contains a list of nodes to execute if the pattern matches
     and the result of evaluating the guard expression is true.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] if x>0:
          ...         ...
          ...     case tuple():
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(name='x')]),
                              guard=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=0)]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load())),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchValue (value)

     A match literal or value pattern that compares by equality.
     ‘value’ is an expression node.  Permitted value nodes are
     restricted as described in the match statement documentation.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is equal to the evaluated
     value.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case "Relevant":
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchValue(
                                  value=Constant(value='Relevant')),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchSingleton (value)

     A match literal pattern that compares by identity.  ‘value’ is the
     singleton to be compared against: ‘None’, ‘True’, or ‘False’.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is the given constant.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case None:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchSequence (patterns)

     A match sequence pattern.  ‘patterns’ contains the patterns to be
     matched against the subject elements if the subject is a sequence.
     Matches a variable length sequence if one of the subpatterns is a
     ‘MatchStar’ node, otherwise matches a fixed length sequence.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchStar (name)

     Matches the rest of the sequence in a variable length match
     sequence pattern.  If ‘name’ is not ‘None’, a list containing the
     remaining sequence elements is bound to that name if the overall
     sequence pattern is successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2, *rest]:
          ...         ...
          ...     case [*_]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2)),
                                      MatchStar(name='rest')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchStar()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchMapping (keys, patterns, rest)

     A match mapping pattern.  ‘keys’ is a sequence of expression nodes.
     ‘patterns’ is a corresponding sequence of pattern nodes.  ‘rest’ is
     an optional name that can be specified to capture the remaining
     mapping elements.  Permitted key expressions are restricted as
     described in the match statement documentation.

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is a mapping, all evaluated
     key expressions are present in the mapping, and the value
     corresponding to each key matches the corresponding subpattern.  If
     ‘rest’ is not ‘None’, a dict containing the remaining mapping
     elements is bound to that name if the overall mapping pattern is
     successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case {1: _, 2: _}:
          ...         ...
          ...     case {**rest}:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(
                                  keys=[
                                      Constant(value=1),
                                      Constant(value=2)],
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(),
                                      MatchAs()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(rest='rest'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchClass (cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns)

     A match class pattern.  ‘cls’ is an expression giving the nominal
     class to be matched.  ‘patterns’ is a sequence of pattern nodes to
     be matched against the class defined sequence of pattern matching
     attributes.  ‘kwd_attrs’ is a sequence of additional attributes to
     be matched (specified as keyword arguments in the class pattern),
     ‘kwd_patterns’ are the corresponding patterns (specified as keyword
     values in the class pattern).

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is an instance of the
     nominated class, all positional patterns match the corresponding
     class-defined attributes, and any specified keyword attributes
     match their corresponding pattern.

     Note: classes may define a property that returns self in order to
     match a pattern node against the instance being matched.  Several
     builtin types are also matched that way, as described in the match
     statement documentation.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case Point2D(0, 0):
          ...         ...
          ...     case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point2D', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point3D', ctx=Load()),
                                  kwd_attrs=[
                                      'x',
                                      'y',
                                      'z'],
                                  kwd_patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchAs (pattern, name)

     A match "as-pattern", capture pattern or wildcard pattern.
     ‘pattern’ contains the match pattern that the subject will be
     matched against.  If the pattern is ‘None’, the node represents a
     capture pattern (i.e a bare name) and will always succeed.

     The ‘name’ attribute contains the name that will be bound if the
     pattern is successful.  If ‘name’ is ‘None’, ‘pattern’ must also be
     ‘None’ and the node represents the wildcard pattern.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] as y:
          ...         ...
          ...     case _:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(
                                  pattern=MatchSequence(
                                      patterns=[
                                          MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                  name='y'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Classe: ast.MatchOr (patterns)

     A match "or-pattern".  An or-pattern matches each of its
     subpatterns in turn to the subject, until one succeeds.  The
     or-pattern is then deemed to succeed.  If none of the subpatterns
     succeed the or-pattern fails.  The ‘patterns’ attribute contains a
     list of match pattern nodes that will be matched against the
     subject.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] | (y):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchOr(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchSequence(
                                          patterns=[
                                              MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                      MatchAs(name='y')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameters,  Next: Définition de fonctions et de classes,  Prev: Pattern matching,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.13 Type parameters
.........................

*note Type parameters: 2b0. can exist on classes, functions, and type
aliases.

 -- Classe: ast.TypeVar (name, bound, default_value)

     A *note typing.TypeVar: 15c.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable.  ‘bound’ is the bound or constraints, if any.  If ‘bound’
     is a *note Tuple: 4556, it represents constraints; otherwise it
     represents the bound.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘TypeVar’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int = bool] = list[T]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVar(
                              name='T',
                              bound=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                              default_value=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='list', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Name(id='T', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.

 -- Classe: ast.ParamSpec (name, default_value)

     A *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d.  ‘name’ is the name of the parameter
     specification.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = [int, str]] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          ParamSpec(
                              name='P',
                              default_value=List(
                                  elts=[
                                      Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                                      Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
                                  ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='Callable', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='P', ctx=Load()),
                                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.

 -- Classe: ast.TypeVarTuple (name, default_value)

     A *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable tuple.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘TypeVarTuple’ has no default, this attribute will be set to
     ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts = ()] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVarTuple(
                              name='Ts',
                              default_value=Tuple(ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='Ts', ctx=Load()),
                                      ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Définition de fonctions et de classes,  Next: async et await,  Prev: Type parameters,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.14 Définition de fonctions et de classes
...............................................

 -- Classe: ast.FunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns,
          type_comment, type_params)

     Définition d'une fonction.

        * 'name' donne le nom de la fonction sous forme d'une chaîne de
          caractères.

        * ‘args’ is an *note arguments: 45b8. node.

        * 'body' est la liste des instructions dans le corps de la
          fonction.

        * 'decorators_list' est une liste de décorateurs appliqués à la
          fonction.  Ils sont rangés dans leur ordre d'apparition,
          c'est-à-dire que le premier de la liste est appliqué en
          dernier.

        * 'returns' est l'annotation de renvoi éventuelle.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 4597.

      -- Attribut: type_comment

          Le champ facultatif 'type_comment' contient une annotation de
          type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une
          chaîne de caractères.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- Classe: ast.Lambda (args, body)

     Fonction anonyme.  Elle est créée avec le mot-clé ‘lambda’, limitée
     à renvoyer une simple expression, et peut être intégrée à une
     expression plus large.  Contrairement à *note FunctionDef: 16c2,
     'body' est ici un nœud unique.  'args' est une instance de
     ‘arguments’ qui contient les arguments de la signature.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Lambda(
                          args=arguments(
                              args=[
                                  arg(arg='x'),
                                  arg(arg='y')]),
                          body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))])

 -- Classe: ast.arguments (posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs,
          kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults)

     Arguments d'une fonction.

        * 'posonlyargs', 'args' et 'kwonlyargs' sont des listes de nœuds
          *note arg: 45ba. qui correspondent respectivement aux
          arguments obligatoirement positionnels, positionnels ou nommés
          et obligatoirement nommés.

        * 'varargs' et 'kwargs' sont des nœuds *note arg: 45ba. qui
          apparaissent avec la capture des arguments restants,
          positionnels (‘*arguments_positionnels’) et nommés
          (‘**arguments_nommés’).

        * 'kw_defaults' est la liste des valeurs par défaut pour les
          arguments obligatoirement nommés.  Si l'un des éléments n'est
          pas un nœud mais ‘None’, il n'y a pas de valeur par défaut et
          l'argument correspondant doit être passé obligatoirement à la
          fonction.

        * 'defaults' est, quant à elle, la liste des valeurs par défauts
          pour les arguments qui peuvent être passés de manière
          positionnelle (obligatoirement ou non).  S'il y a moins
          d'éléments dans la liste que d'arguments positionnels, ces
          éléments donnent les valeurs par défaut des 'n' derniers
          arguments positionnels (avec 'n' la longueur de 'defaults').

 -- Classe: ast.arg (arg, annotation, type_comment)

     A single argument in a list.  ‘arg’ is a raw string of the argument
     name; ‘annotation’ is its annotation, such as a *note Name: 18fc.
     node.

      -- Attribut: type_comment

          Le champ facultatif 'type_comment' est, sous forme de chaîne,
          une annotation de type fournie par un commentaire.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation':
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  FunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          args=[
                              arg(
                                  arg='a',
                                  annotation=Constant(value='annotation')),
                              arg(arg='b'),
                              arg(arg='c')],
                          vararg=arg(arg='d'),
                          kwonlyargs=[
                              arg(arg='e'),
                              arg(arg='f')],
                          kw_defaults=[
                              None,
                              Constant(value=3)],
                          kwarg=arg(arg='g'),
                          defaults=[
                              Constant(value=1),
                              Constant(value=2)]),
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
                      returns=Constant(value='return annotation'))])

 -- Classe: ast.Return (value)

     Instruction ‘return’, qui renvoie 'value'.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Return(
                      value=Constant(value=4))])

 -- Classe: ast.Yield (value)
 -- Classe: ast.YieldFrom (value)

     A ‘yield’ or ‘yield from’ expression.  Because these are
     expressions, they must be wrapped in an *note Expr: 455e. node if
     the value sent back is not used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Yield(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=YieldFrom(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))])

 -- Classe: ast.Global (names)
 -- Classe: ast.Nonlocal (names)

     Instruction ‘global’ ou ‘nonlocal’.  Elle s'applique aux noms de
     variables donnés dans 'names', une liste de chaînes de caractères.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Global(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Nonlocal(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])])

 -- Classe: ast.ClassDef (name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list,
          type_params)

     Définition d'une classe.

        * 'name' est le nom de la classe sous forme de chaîne de
          caractères ;

        * 'bases' est la liste des classes mères données explicitement ;

        * ‘keywords’ is a list of *note keyword: 4582. nodes,
          principally for 'metaclass'.  Other keywords will be passed to
          the metaclass, as per PEP 3115(1).

        * 'body' est la liste des instructions contenues dans la
          définition de classe ;

        * 'decorators_list' est une liste de nœuds, comme pour *note
          FunctionDef: 16c2.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 4597.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta):
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ClassDef(
                      name='Foo',
                      bases=[
                          Name(id='base1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='base2', ctx=Load())],
                      keywords=[
                          keyword(
                              arg='metaclass',
                              value=Name(id='meta', ctx=Load()))],
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())])])

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added ‘type_params’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: async et await,  Prev: Définition de fonctions et de classes,  Up: Classes de nœuds

5.33.1.15 ‘async’ et ‘await’
............................

 -- Classe: ast.AsyncFunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list,
          returns, type_comment, type_params)

     Fonction déclarée avec ‘async def’.  Les champs sont les mêmes que
     dans *note FunctionDef: 16c2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- Classe: ast.Await (value)

     Expression ‘await’, qui attend 'value'.  Ces nœuds ne peuvent
     apparaître qu'à l'intérieur de *note AsyncFunctionDef: 16c1.

     >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
     ... async def f():
     ...     await other_func()
     ... """), indent=4))
     Module(
         body=[
             AsyncFunctionDef(
                 name='f',
                 args=arguments(),
                 body=[
                     Expr(
                         value=Await(
                             value=Call(
                                 func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()))))])])

 -- Classe: ast.AsyncFor (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)
 -- Classe: ast.AsyncWith (items, body, type_comment)

     Instruction ‘async for’ ou ‘async with’.  Les champs sont les mêmes
     que ceux de *note For: 459d. et *note With: 45a5.  Ces nœuds ne
     peuvent apparaître qu'à l'intérieur de *note AsyncFunctionDef:
     16c1.

     Note: Lorsqu'une chaîne contenant du code est transformée en arbre
     syntaxique par *note ast.parse(): 1a6, les nœuds représentants les
     opérateurs (classes filles de ‘ast.operator’, ‘ast.unaryop’,
     ‘ast.cmpop’, ‘ast.boolop’ et ‘ast.expr_context’) sont des
     singletons à l'intérieur de l'arbre renvoyé.  Si l'un, par exemple
     une instance de *note ast.Add: 4566, est muté, la modification sera
     visible sur toutes les autres apparitions de l'opérateur.


File: python.info,  Node: Outils du module ast,  Next: Options du compilateur,  Prev: Classes de nœuds,  Up: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees

5.33.1.16 Outils du module ‘ast’
................................

À part les classes de nœuds, le module *note ast: 8. définit plusieurs
fonctions et classes utilitaires pour traverser les arbres syntaxiques
abstraits :

 -- Fonction: ast.parse (source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *,
          type_comments=False, feature_version=None, optimize=-1)

     Parse the source into an AST node.  Equivalent to ‘compile(source,
     filename, mode, flags=FLAGS_VALUE, optimize=optimize)’, where
     ‘FLAGS_VALUE’ is ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ if ‘optimize <= 0’ and
     ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’ otherwise.

     If ‘type_comments=True’ is given, the parser is modified to check
     and return type comments as specified by PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2).
     This is equivalent to adding *note ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 45c4. to
     the flags passed to *note compile(): 190.  This will report syntax
     errors for misplaced type comments.  Without this flag, type
     comments will be ignored, and the ‘type_comment’ field on selected
     AST nodes will always be ‘None’.  In addition, the locations of ‘#
     type: ignore’ comments will be returned as the ‘type_ignores’
     attribute of *note Module: 454d. (otherwise it is always an empty
     list).

     In addition, if ‘mode’ is ‘'func_type'’, the input syntax is
     modified to correspond to PEP 484(3) "signature type comments",
     e.g.  ‘(str, int) -> List[str]’.

     Setting ‘feature_version’ to a tuple ‘(major, minor)’ will result
     in a "best-effort" attempt to parse using that Python version's
     grammar.  For example, setting ‘feature_version=(3, 9)’ will
     attempt to disallow parsing of *note match: 7f9. statements.
     Currently ‘major’ must equal to ‘3’.  The lowest supported version
     is ‘(3, 7)’ (and this may increase in future Python versions); the
     highest is ‘sys.version_info[0:2]’.  "Best-effort" attempt means
     there is no guarantee that the parse (or success of the parse) is
     the same as when run on the Python version corresponding to
     ‘feature_version’.

     If source contains a null character (‘\0’), *note ValueError: 1ff.
     is raised.

          Avertissement: Note that successfully parsing source code into
          an AST object doesn't guarantee that the source code provided
          is valid Python code that can be executed as the compilation
          step can raise further *note SyntaxError: 18b. exceptions.
          For instance, the source ‘return 42’ generates a valid AST
          node for a return statement, but it cannot be compiled alone
          (it needs to be inside a function node).

          In particular, *note ast.parse(): 1a6. won't do any scoping
          checks, which the compilation step does.

          Avertissement: Il est possible de faire planter l'interpréteur
          Python avec des chaînes suffisamment grandes ou complexes lors
          de la compilation d'un arbre syntaxique en raison de la
          limitation de la profondeur de la pile d'appels.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout des paramètres 'type_comments'
     et 'feature_version' ainsi que de la valeur ‘'func_type'’ pour
     'mode'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The minimum supported version for
     ‘feature_version’ is now ‘(3, 7)’.  The ‘optimize’ argument was
     added.

 -- Fonction: ast.unparse (ast_obj)

     À partir d'un arbre syntaxique *note ast.AST: 1a4, reconstruit un
     code sous forme de chaîne de caractères.  S'il est passé à *note
     ast.parse(): 1a6, le résultat produit un arbre *note ast.AST: 1a4.
     équivalent à l'original.

          Avertissement: The produced code string will not necessarily
          be equal to the original code that generated the *note
          ast.AST: 1a4. object (without any compiler optimizations, such
          as constant tuples/frozensets).

          Avertissement: Une *note RecursionError: d5b. est levée si
          l'expression comporte de très nombreux niveaux d'imbrication.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Fonction: ast.literal_eval (node_or_string)

     Evaluate an expression node or a string containing only a Python
     literal or container display.  The string or node provided may only
     consist of the following Python literal structures: strings, bytes,
     numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’.

     This can be used for evaluating strings containing Python values
     without the need to parse the values oneself.  It is not capable of
     evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving
     operators or indexing.

     This function had been documented as "safe" in the past without
     defining what that meant.  That was misleading.  This is
     specifically designed not to execute Python code, unlike the more
     general *note eval(): 17e.  There is no namespace, no name lookups,
     or ability to call out.  But it is not free from attack: A
     relatively small input can lead to memory exhaustion or to C stack
     exhaustion, crashing the process.  There is also the possibility
     for excessive CPU consumption denial of service on some inputs.
     Calling it on untrusted data is thus not recommended.

          Avertissement: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter
          due to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.

          It can raise *note ValueError: 1ff, *note TypeError: 525,
          *note SyntaxError: 18b, *note MemoryError: 1530. and *note
          RecursionError: d5b. depending on the malformed input.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: accepte maintenant les octets et
     ensembles littéraux.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: accepte ‘set()’ pour les ensembles
     vides.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: For string inputs, leading spaces and
     tabs are now stripped.

 -- Fonction: ast.get_docstring (node, clean=True)

     Renvoie la 'docstring' du nœud 'node' (de type *note FunctionDef:
     16c2, *note AsyncFunctionDef: 16c1, *note ClassDef: 16c0. or *note
     Module: 454d.), ou ‘None’ s'il n'a pas de 'docstring'.  Si 'clean'
     est vrai, cette fonction nettoie l'indentation de la 'docstring'
     avec *note inspect.cleandoc(): 1670.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: *note AsyncFunctionDef: 16c1. est
     maintenant gérée.

 -- Fonction: ast.get_source_segment (source, node, *, padded=False)

     Get source code segment of the 'source' that generated 'node'.  If
     some location information (*note lineno: 4546, *note end_lineno:
     4548, *note col_offset: 4547, or *note end_col_offset: 4549.) is
     missing, return ‘None’.

     If 'padded' is ‘True’, the first line of a multi-line statement
     will be padded with spaces to match its original position.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Fonction: ast.fix_missing_locations (node)

     When you compile a node tree with *note compile(): 190, the
     compiler expects *note lineno: 4546. and *note col_offset: 4547.
     attributes for every node that supports them.  This is rather
     tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper adds these
     attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to
     the values of the parent node.  It works recursively starting at
     'node'.

 -- Fonction: ast.increment_lineno (node, n=1)

     Incrémente de 'n' les numéros des lignes de début et ligne de fin
     de chaque nœud dans l'arbre, en commençant par le nœud 'node'.
     C'est utile pour « déplacer du code » à un endroit différent dans
     un fichier.

 -- Fonction: ast.copy_location (new_node, old_node)

     Copy source location (*note lineno: 4546, *note col_offset: 4547,
     *note end_lineno: 4548, and *note end_col_offset: 4549.) from
     'old_node' to 'new_node' if possible, and return 'new_node'.

 -- Fonction: ast.iter_fields (node)

     Produit un 'n'-uplet de couples ‘(nom_du_champ, valeur)’ pour
     chaque champ de ‘node._fields’ qui est présent dans 'node'.

 -- Fonction: ast.iter_child_nodes (node)

     Produit tous les nœuds enfants directs de 'node', c'est-à-dire tous
     les champs qui sont des nœuds et tous les éléments des champs qui
     sont des listes de nœuds.

 -- Fonction: ast.walk (node)

     Produit récursivement tous les nœuds enfants dans l'arbre en
     commençant par 'node' ('node' lui-même est inclus), sans ordre
     spécifique.  C'est utile lorsque l'on souhaite modifier les nœuds
     sur place sans prêter attention au contexte.

 -- Classe: ast.NodeVisitor

     Classe de base pour un visiteur de nœud, qui parcourt l'arbre
     syntaxique abstrait et appelle une fonction de visite pour chacun
     des nœuds trouvés.  Cette fonction peut renvoyer une valeur, qui
     est transmise par la méthode *note visit(): 45ca.

     Cette classe est faite pour être dérivée, en ajoutant des méthodes
     de visite à la sous-classe.

      -- Méthode: visit (node)

          Visite un nœud.  L'implémentation par défaut appelle la
          méthode ‘self.visit_CLASSE’ où 'classe' représente le nom de
          la classe du nœud, ou *note generic_visit(): 45cb. si cette
          méthode n'existe pas.

      -- Méthode: generic_visit (node)

          Le visiteur appelle la méthode *note visit(): 45ca. de tous
          les enfants du nœud.

          Notons que les nœuds enfants qui possèdent une méthode de
          visite spéciale ne sont pas visités à moins que le visiteur
          n'appelle la méthode *note generic_visit(): 45cb. ou ne les
          visite lui-même.

      -- Méthode: visit_Constant (node)

          Handles all constant nodes.

     N'utilisez pas *note NodeVisitor: a5d. si vous souhaitez appliquer
     des changements sur les nœuds lors du parcours.  Pour cela, un
     visiteur spécial existe (*note NodeTransformer: 45cc.) qui permet
     les modifications.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.8: Methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and
     ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are deprecated now and will not be called in
     future Python versions.  Add the *note visit_Constant(): a5e.
     method to handle all constant nodes.

 -- Classe: ast.NodeTransformer

     Une sous-classe de *note NodeVisitor: a5d. qui traverse l'arbre
     syntaxique abstrait et permet de modifier les nœuds.

     Le *note NodeTransformer: 45cc. traverse l'arbre syntaxique et
     utilise la valeur renvoyée par les méthodes du visiteur pour
     remplacer ou supprimer l'ancien nœud.  Si la valeur renvoyée par la
     méthode du visiteur est ‘None’, le nœud est supprimé de sa
     position, sinon il est remplacé par cette valeur.  Elle peut être
     le nœud original, auquel cas il n'y a pas de remplacement.

     Voici un exemple de transformation qui réécrit tous les accès à la
     valeur d'une variable ‘toto’ en ‘data['toto']’ :

          class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):

              def visit_Name(self, node):
                  return Subscript(
                      value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()),
                      slice=Constant(value=node.id),
                      ctx=node.ctx
                  )

     Keep in mind that if the node you're operating on has child nodes
     you must either transform the child nodes yourself or call the
     *note generic_visit(): 45cb. method for the node first.

     Pour les nœuds qui font partie d'un groupe (notamment toutes les
     instructions), le visiteur peut aussi renvoyer une liste des nœuds
     plutôt qu'un seul nœud.

     If *note NodeTransformer: 45cc. introduces new nodes (that weren't
     part of original tree) without giving them location information
     (such as *note lineno: 4546.), *note fix_missing_locations(): 45c5.
     should be called with the new sub-tree to recalculate the location
     information:

          tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval')
          new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree))

     Utilisation typique des transformations :

          node = YourTransformer().visit(node)

 -- Fonction: ast.dump (node, annotate_fields=True,
          include_attributes=False, *, indent=None, show_empty=False)

     Renvoie une représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères de
     l'arbre contenu dans 'node'.  Ceci est principalement utile à des
     fins de débogage.  Par défaut, les champs sont passés comme
     paramètres nommés aux constructeurs des classes d'arbre
     syntaxiques.  Cependant, si 'annotate_fields' est mis à ‘False’,
     les valeurs sont passées, lorsque cela est possible, comme
     arguments positionnels, rendant la représentation plus compacte.
     Les attributs comme les numéros de lignes et positions sur les
     lignes sont masqués par défaut, mais on peut les inclure en mettant
     'include_attributes' à ‘True’.

     La représentation peut comprendre une indentation afin d'être plus
     lisible.  Si 'indent' est une chaîne de caractères (par exemple une
     tabulation ‘"\t"’), elle est insérée au début des lignes en la
     répétant autant de fois que le niveau d'indentation.  Un entier
     positif équivaut à un certain nombre d'espaces.  Un entier
     strictement négatif produit un effet identique à 0 ou la chaîne
     vide, c'est-à-dire des retours à la ligne sans indentation.  Avec
     la valeur par défaut de ‘None’, la sortie tient sur une seule
     ligne.

     If 'show_empty' is ‘False’ (the default), empty lists and fields
     that are ‘None’ will be omitted from the output.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre 'indent'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'show_empty' option.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... async def f():
          ...     await other_func()
          ... """), indent=4, show_empty=True))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AsyncFunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          posonlyargs=[],
                          args=[],
                          kwonlyargs=[],
                          kw_defaults=[],
                          defaults=[]),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Await(
                                  value=Call(
                                      func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()),
                                      args=[],
                                      keywords=[])))],
                      decorator_list=[],
                      type_params=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Options du compilateur,  Next: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>,  Prev: Outils du module ast,  Up: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees

5.33.1.17 Options du compilateur
................................

Les options suivantes sont prises en charge par la fonction *note
compile(): 190.  Elles permettent de modifier le comportement de la
compilation :

 -- Données: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

     Active la reconnaissance de ‘await’, ‘async for’, ‘async with’ et
     des compréhensions asynchrones au niveau le plus haut.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- Données: ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST

     Génère et renvoie un arbre syntaxique au lieu d'un objet de code
     compilé.

 -- Données: ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST

     The returned AST is optimized according to the 'optimize' argument
     in *note compile(): 190. or *note ast.parse(): 1a6.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

     Ajoute la prise en charge des commentaires de types tels que
     définis dans la PEP 484(1) et la PEP 526(2) (‘# type: un_type’ et
     ‘# type: ignore’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>,  Prev: Options du compilateur,  Up: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees

5.33.1.18 Utilisation en ligne de commande
..........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Le module *note ast: 8. peut être exécuté en tant que script en ligne de
commande.  C'est aussi simple que ceci :

     python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

 -- Option: -m <mode>
 -- Option: --mode <mode>

     Précise le type de code à compiler, comme l'argument 'mode' de la
     fonction *note parse(): 1a6.

 -- Option: --no-type-comments

     Désactive la reconnaissance des commentaires de type.

 -- Option: -a, --include-attributes

     Affiche les attributs comme les numéros de lignes et les décalages
     par rapport aux débuts des lignes.

 -- Option: -i <indent>
 -- Option: --indent <indent>

     Nombre d'espaces pour chaque niveau d'indentation dans la sortie.

L'entrée est lue dans le fichier ‘infile’, s'il est donné, ou l'entrée
standard sinon.  Le code source est transformé en un arbre syntaxique,
qui est affiché sur la sortie standard.

Voir aussi
..........

Green Tree Snakes(1), une ressource documentaire externe, qui possède
plus de détails pour travailler avec des arbres syntaxiques Python.

ASTTokens(2) annote les arbres syntaxiques Python avec les positions des
lexèmes et les extraits de code source à partir desquels ils sont
produits.  Ceci est utile pour les outils qui transforment du code
source.

leoAst.py(3) unifies the token-based and parse-tree-based views of
python programs by inserting two-way links between tokens and ast nodes.

LibCST(4) produit à partir du code source des arbres syntaxiques
concrets, qui ressemblent à leurs homologues abstraits et conservent
tous les détails du formatage.  Cette bibliothèque est utile aux outils
de réusinage et d'analyse de code.

Parso(5) is a Python parser that supports error recovery and round-trip
parsing for different Python versions (in multiple Python versions).
Parso is also able to list multiple syntax errors in your Python file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html

   (3) https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io


File: python.info,  Node: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables,  Next: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees,  Prev: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.2 ‘symtable’ -- Access to the compiler's symbol tables
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/symtable.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before
bytecode is generated.  The symbol table is responsible for calculating
the scope of every identifier in the code.  *note symtable: d7. provides
an interface to examine these tables.

* Menu:

* Generating Symbol Tables::
* Examining Symbol Tables::
* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/symtable.py


File: python.info,  Node: Generating Symbol Tables,  Next: Examining Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

5.33.2.1 Generating Symbol Tables
.................................

 -- Fonction: symtable.symtable (code, filename, compile_type)

     Return the toplevel *note SymbolTable: 45de. for the Python source
     'code'.  'filename' is the name of the file containing the code.
     'compile_type' is like the 'mode' argument to *note compile(): 190.


File: python.info,  Node: Examining Symbol Tables,  Next: Utilisation en ligne de commande<5>,  Prev: Generating Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

5.33.2.2 Examining Symbol Tables
................................

 -- Classe: symtable.SymbolTableType

     An enumeration indicating the type of a *note SymbolTable: 45de.
     object.

      -- Attribut: MODULE = "module"

          Used for the symbol table of a module.

      -- Attribut: FUNCTION = "function"

          Used for the symbol table of a function.

      -- Attribut: CLASS = "class"

          Used for the symbol table of a class.

     The following members refer to different flavors of *note
     annotation scopes: 186.

      -- Attribut: ANNOTATION = "annotation"

          Used for annotations if ‘from __future__ import annotations’
          is active.

      -- Attribut: TYPE_ALIAS = "type alias"

          Used for the symbol table of *note type: 423. constructions.

      -- Attribut: TYPE_PARAMETERS = "type parameters"

          Used for the symbol table of *note generic functions: 43e. or
          *note generic classes: 43d.

      -- Attribut: TYPE_VARIABLE = "type variable"

          Used for the symbol table of the bound, the constraint tuple
          or the default value of a single type variable in the formal
          sense, i.e., a TypeVar, a TypeVarTuple or a ParamSpec object
          (the latter two do not support a bound or a constraint tuple).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Classe: symtable.SymbolTable

     A namespace table for a block.  The constructor is not public.

      -- Méthode: get_type ()

          Return the type of the symbol table.  Possible values are
          members of the *note SymbolTableType: 15c8. enumeration.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added ‘'annotation'’, ‘'TypeVar
          bound'’, ‘'type alias'’, and ‘'type parameter'’ as possible
          return values.

          Modifié dans la version 3.13: Return values are members of the
          *note SymbolTableType: 15c8. enumeration.

          The exact values of the returned string may change in the
          future, and thus, it is recommended to use *note
          SymbolTableType: 15c8. members instead of hard-coded strings.

      -- Méthode: get_id ()

          Return the table's identifier.

      -- Méthode: get_name ()

          Return the table's name.  This is the name of the class if the
          table is for a class, the name of the function if the table is
          for a function, or ‘'top'’ if the table is global (*note
          get_type(): 15c9. returns ‘'module'’).  For type parameter
          scopes (which are used for generic classes, functions, and
          type aliases), it is the name of the underlying class,
          function, or type alias.  For type alias scopes, it is the
          name of the type alias.  For *note TypeVar: 15c. bound scopes,
          it is the name of the ‘TypeVar’.

      -- Méthode: get_lineno ()

          Return the number of the first line in the block this table
          represents.

      -- Méthode: is_optimized ()

          Return ‘True’ if the locals in this table can be optimized.

      -- Méthode: is_nested ()

          Return ‘True’ if the block is a nested class or function.

      -- Méthode: has_children ()

          Return ‘True’ if the block has nested namespaces within it.
          These can be obtained with *note get_children(): 45ed.

      -- Méthode: get_identifiers ()

          Return a view object containing the names of symbols in the
          table.  See the *note documentation of view objects: 2201.

      -- Méthode: lookup (name)

          Lookup 'name' in the table and return a *note Symbol: 1689.
          instance.

      -- Méthode: get_symbols ()

          Return a list of *note Symbol: 1689. instances for names in
          the table.

      -- Méthode: get_children ()

          Return a list of the nested symbol tables.

 -- Classe: symtable.Function

     A namespace for a function or method.  This class inherits from
     *note SymbolTable: 45de.

      -- Méthode: get_parameters ()

          Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this
          function.

      -- Méthode: get_locals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function.

      -- Méthode: get_globals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function.

      -- Méthode: get_nonlocals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of explicitly declared
          nonlocals in this function.

      -- Méthode: get_frees ()

          Return a tuple containing names of *note free (closure)
          variables: 1efb. in this function.

 -- Classe: symtable.Class

     A namespace of a class.  This class inherits from *note
     SymbolTable: 45de.

      -- Méthode: get_methods ()

          Return a tuple containing the names of method-like functions
          declared in the class.

          Here, the term 'method' designates 'any' function defined in
          the class body via *note def: 1410. or *note async def: 5bd.

          Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class)
          are not picked up by *note get_methods(): 2e4.

          For example:

               >>> import symtable
               >>> st = symtable.symtable('''
               ... def outer(): pass
               ...
               ... class A:
               ...    def f():
               ...        def w(): pass
               ...
               ...    def g(self): pass
               ...
               ...    @classmethod
               ...    async def h(cls): pass
               ...
               ...    global outer
               ...    def outer(self): pass
               ... ''', 'test', 'exec')
               >>> class_A = st.get_children()[1]
               >>> class_A.get_methods()
               ('f', 'g', 'h')

          Although ‘A().f()’ raises *note TypeError: 525. at runtime,
          ‘A.f’ is still considered as a method-like function.

 -- Classe: symtable.Symbol

     An entry in a *note SymbolTable: 45de. corresponding to an
     identifier in the source.  The constructor is not public.

      -- Méthode: get_name ()

          Return the symbol's name.

      -- Méthode: is_referenced ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is used in its block.

      -- Méthode: is_imported ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is created from an import
          statement.

      -- Méthode: is_parameter ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a parameter.

      -- Méthode: is_global ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is global.

      -- Méthode: is_nonlocal ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is nonlocal.

      -- Méthode: is_declared_global ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is declared global with a global
          statement.

      -- Méthode: is_local ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is local to its block.

      -- Méthode: is_annotated ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is annotated.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

      -- Méthode: is_free ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is referenced in its block, but
          not assigned to.

      -- Méthode: is_assigned ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is assigned to in its block.

      -- Méthode: is_namespace ()

          Return ‘True’ if name binding introduces new namespace.

          If the name is used as the target of a function or class
          statement, this will be true.

          Par exemple :

               >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
               >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
               True

          Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects.  If
          the result is ‘True’, the name may also be bound to other
          objects, like an int or list, that does not introduce a new
          namespace.

      -- Méthode: get_namespaces ()

          Return a list of namespaces bound to this name.

      -- Méthode: get_namespace ()

          Return the namespace bound to this name.  If more than one or
          no namespace is bound to this name, a *note ValueError: 1ff.
          is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<5>,  Prev: Examining Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

5.33.2.3 Utilisation en ligne de commande.
..........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The *note symtable: d7. module can be executed as a script from the
command line.

     python -m symtable [infile...]

Symbol tables are generated for the specified Python source files and
dumped to stdout.  If no input file is specified, the content is read
from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees,  Next: keyword --- Testing for Python keywords,  Prev: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.3 ‘token’ -- Constants used with Python parse trees
--------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/token.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of
leaf nodes of the parse tree (terminal tokens).  Refer to the file
‘Grammar/Tokens’ in the Python distribution for the definitions of the
names in the context of the language grammar.  The specific numeric
values which the names map to may change between Python versions.

Le module fournit également une correspondance entre les codes
numériques et les noms et certaines fonctions.  Les fonctions reflètent
les définitions des fichiers d'en-tête C de Python.

Note that a token's value may depend on tokenizer options.  For example,
a ‘"+"’ token may be reported as either *note PLUS: 4608. or *note OP:
4609, or a ‘"match"’ token may be either *note NAME: 460a. or *note
SOFT_KEYWORD: 460b.

 -- Données: token.tok_name

     Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les valeurs numériques des
     constantes définies dans ce module à leurs noms, permettant de
     générer une représentation plus humaine des arbres syntaxiques.

 -- Fonction: token.ISTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for terminal token values.

 -- Fonction: token.ISNONTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for non-terminal token values.

 -- Fonction: token.ISEOF (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is the marker indicating the end of input.

Les constantes associées aux jetons sont :

 -- Données: token.NAME

     Token value that indicates an *note identifier: 1e4f.  Note that
     keywords are also initially tokenized an ‘NAME’ tokens.

 -- Données: token.NUMBER

     Token value that indicates a *note numeric literal: 1e80.

 -- Données: token.STRING

     Token value that indicates a *note string or byte literal: 1e5f,
     excluding *note formatted string literals: 999.  The token string
     is not interpreted: it includes the surrounding quotation marks and
     the prefix (if given); backslashes are included literally, without
     processing escape sequences.

 -- Données: token.OP

     A generic token value that indicates an *note operator: 1e9a. or
     *note delimiter: 1e9b.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' This value is only
     reported by the *note tokenize: fa. module.  Internally, the
     tokenizer uses *note exact token types: 4612. instead.

 -- Données: token.COMMENT

     Token value used to indicate a comment.  The parser ignores
     ‘COMMENT’ tokens.

 -- Données: token.NEWLINE

     Token value that indicates the end of a *note logical line: 1e3c.

 -- Données: token.NL

     Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.  ‘NL’
     tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over
     multiple physical lines.  The parser ignores ‘NL’ tokens.

 -- Données: token.INDENT

     Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 1e3c. to
     indicate the start of an *note indented block: 1e4a.

 -- Données: token.DEDENT

     Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 1e3c. to
     indicate the end of an *note indented block: 1e4a.

 -- Données: token.FSTRING_START

     Token value used to indicate the beginning of an *note f-string
     literal: 999.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' The token string
     includes the prefix and the opening quote(s), but none of the
     contents of the literal.

 -- Données: token.FSTRING_MIDDLE

     Token value used for literal text inside an *note f-string literal:
     999, including format specifications.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' Replacement fields
     (that is, the non-literal parts of f-strings) use the same tokens
     as other expressions, and are delimited by *note LBRACE: 4619,
     *note RBRACE: 461a, *note EXCLAMATION: 461b. and *note COLON: 461c.
     tokens.

 -- Données: token.FSTRING_END

     Token value used to indicate the end of a *note f-string: 999.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' The token string
     contains the closing quote(s).

 -- Données: token.ENDMARKER

     Token value that indicates the end of input.

 -- Données: token.ENCODING

     Valeur de jeton qui indique l'encodage utilisé pour décoder le
     fichier initial.  Le premier jeton renvoyé par *note
     tokenize.tokenize(): 4c6. sera toujours un jeton ‘ENCODING’.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' This token type isn't
     used by the C tokenizer but is needed for the *note tokenize: fa.
     module.

The following token types are not produced by the *note tokenize: fa.
module, and are defined for special uses in the tokenizer or parser:

 -- Données: token.TYPE_IGNORE

     Token value indicating that a ‘type: ignore’ comment was
     recognized.  Such tokens are produced instead of regular *note
     COMMENT: 4613. tokens only with the *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 45c4.
     flag.

 -- Données: token.TYPE_COMMENT

     Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized.  Such
     tokens are produced instead of regular *note COMMENT: 4613. tokens
     only with the *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 45c4. flag.

 -- Données: token.SOFT_KEYWORD

     Token value indicating a *note soft keyword: 7f8.

     The tokenizer never produces this value.  To check for a soft
     keyword, pass a *note NAME: 460a. token's string to *note
     keyword.issoftkeyword(): 4622.

 -- Données: token.ERRORTOKEN

     Token value used to indicate wrong input.

     The *note tokenize: fa. module generally indicates errors by
     raising exceptions instead of emitting this token.  It can also
     emit tokens such as *note OP: 4609. or *note NAME: 460a. with
     strings that are later rejected by the parser.
The remaining tokens represent specific *note operators: 1e9a. and *note
delimiters: 1e9b.  (The *note tokenize: fa. module reports these as
*note OP: 4609.; see ‘exact_type’ in the *note tokenize: fa.
documentation for details.)

Token                                                  Value
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LPAR                                ‘"("’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.RPAR                                ‘")"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LSQB                                ‘"["’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.RSQB                                ‘"]"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.COLON                               ‘":"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.COMMA                               ‘","’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.SEMI                                ‘";"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.PLUS                                ‘"+"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.MINUS                               ‘"-"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.STAR                                ‘"*"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.SLASH                               ‘"/"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.VBAR                                ‘"|"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.AMPER                               ‘"&"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LESS                                ‘"<"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.GREATER                             ‘">"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.EQUAL                               ‘"="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.DOT                                 ‘"."’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.PERCENT                             ‘"%"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LBRACE                              ‘"{"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.RBRACE                              ‘"}"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.EQEQUAL                             ‘"=="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.NOTEQUAL                            ‘"!="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LESSEQUAL                           ‘"<="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.GREATEREQUAL                        ‘">="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.TILDE                               ‘"~"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.CIRCUMFLEX                          ‘"^"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LEFTSHIFT                           ‘"<<"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.RIGHTSHIFT                          ‘">>"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.DOUBLESTAR                          ‘"**"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.PLUSEQUAL                           ‘"+="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.MINEQUAL                            ‘"-="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.STAREQUAL                           ‘"*="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.SLASHEQUAL                          ‘"/="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.PERCENTEQUAL                        ‘"%="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.AMPEREQUAL                          ‘"&="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.VBAREQUAL                           ‘"|="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL                     ‘"^="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL                      ‘"<<="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL                     ‘">>="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL                     ‘"**="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.DOUBLESLASH                         ‘"//"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL                    ‘"//="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.AT                                  ‘"@"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.ATEQUAL                             ‘"@="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.RARROW                              ‘"->"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.ELLIPSIS                            ‘"..."’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.COLONEQUAL                          ‘":="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Données: token.EXCLAMATION                         ‘"!"’
                                                       

The following non-token constants are provided:

 -- Données: token.N_TOKENS

     The number of token types defined in this module.

 -- Données: token.EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES

     A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its
     numeric code.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout des jetons *note COMMENT: 4613, *note
NL: 4615. et *note ENCODING: 461f.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Removed ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens.
"async" and "await" are now tokenized as *note NAME: 460a. tokens.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added *note TYPE_COMMENT: 4621, *note
TYPE_IGNORE: 4620, *note COLONEQUAL: 464e.  Added ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’
tokens back (they're needed to support parsing older Python versions for
*note ast.parse(): 1a6. with ‘feature_version’ set to 6 or lower).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added *note EXCLAMATION: 461b.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Removed ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/token.py


File: python.info,  Node: keyword --- Testing for Python keywords,  Next: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source,  Prev: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.4 ‘keyword’ -- Testing for Python keywords
-----------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/keyword.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a *note
keyword: 1e57. or *note soft keyword: 7f8.

 -- Fonction: keyword.iskeyword (s)

     Renvoie vrai si 's' est un *note mot-clé: 1e57. de Python.

 -- Données: keyword.kwlist

     Séquence contenant tous les *note mots-clés: 1e57. définis par
     l'interpréteur.  Si certains mots-clés sont définis pour être
     actifs seulement si des instructions *note __future__: 0.
     particulières sont effectives, ils seront tout de même inclus.

 -- Fonction: keyword.issoftkeyword (s)

     Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note soft keyword: 7f8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Données: keyword.softkwlist

     Sequence containing all the *note soft keywords: 7f8. defined for
     the interpreter.  If any soft keywords are defined to only be
     active when particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in
     effect, these will be included as well.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/keyword.py


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source,  Next: tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Prev: keyword --- Testing for Python keywords,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.5 ‘tokenize’ -- Tokenizer for Python source
------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tokenize.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tokenize: fa. module provides a lexical scanner for Python
source code, implemented in Python.  The scanner in this module returns
comments as tokens as well, making it useful for implementing
"pretty-printers", including colorizers for on-screen displays.

Pour simplifier la gestion de flux de 'tokens', tous les 'tokens' *note
operator: 1e9a. et *note delimiter: 1e9b, ainsi que les ‘Ellipsis*’ sont
renvoyés en utilisant le 'token' générique *note OP: 4609.  Le type
exact peut être déterminé en vérifiant la propriété ‘exact_type’ du
*note named tuple: 63b. renvoyé par *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4c6.

     Avertissement: Note that the functions in this module are only
     designed to parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does
     not raise when parsed using *note ast.parse(): 1a6.).  The behavior
     of the functions in this module is 'undefined' when providing
     invalid Python code and it can change at any point.

* Menu:

* Analyse Lexicale::
* Utilisation en ligne de commande.: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>.
* Exemples: Exemples<34>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tokenize.py


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse Lexicale,  Next: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>,  Up: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

5.33.5.1 Analyse Lexicale
.........................

Le point d'entrée principal est un *note générateur: 104c. :

 -- Fonction: tokenize.tokenize (readline)

     Le générateur *note tokenize(): 4c6. prend un argument 'readline'
     qui doit être un objet appelable exposant la même interface que la
     méthode *note io.IOBase.readline(): 1309. des objets fichiers.
     Chaque appel a la fonction doit renvoyer une ligne sous forme de
     'bytes'.

     The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type;
     the token string; a 2-tuple ‘(srow, scol)’ of ints specifying the
     row and column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple
     ‘(erow, ecol)’ of ints specifying the row and column where the
     token ends in the source; and the line on which the token was
     found.  The line passed (the last tuple item) is the 'physical'
     line.  The 5 tuple is returned as a *note named tuple: 63b. with
     the field names: ‘type string start end line’.

     Le *note n-uplet nommé: 63b. a une propriété additionnelle appelée
     ‘exact_type’ qui contient le type exact de l'opérateur pour les
     jetons *note OP: 4609.  Pour tous les autres types de jetons,
     ‘exact_type’ est égal au champ ‘type’ du 'n'-uplet nommé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: prise en charge des 'n'-uplets nommés.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: prise en charge de ‘exact_type’.

     *note tokenize(): 4c6. détermine le codage source du fichier en
     recherchant une nomenclature UTF-8 ou un cookie d'encodage, selon
     la PEP 263(1).

 -- Fonction: tokenize.generate_tokens (readline)

     Tokenize a source reading unicode strings instead of bytes.

     Like *note tokenize(): 4c6, the 'readline' argument is a callable
     returning a single line of input.  However, *note
     generate_tokens(): 4c7. expects 'readline' to return a str object
     rather than bytes.

     The result is an iterator yielding named tuples, exactly like *note
     tokenize(): 4c6.  It does not yield an *note ENCODING: 461f. token.

Toutes les constantes du module *note token: f9. sont également
exportées depuis module *note tokenize: fa.

Une autre fonction est fournie pour inverser le processus de
tokenisation.  Ceci est utile pour créer des outils permettant de
codifier un script, de modifier le flux de jetons et de réécrire le
script modifié.

 -- Fonction: tokenize.untokenize (iterable)

     Convertit les jetons en code source Python.  L''iterable' doit
     renvoyer des séquences avec au moins deux éléments, le type de
     jeton et la chaîne de caractères associée.  Tout élément de
     séquence supplémentaire est ignoré.

     The result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so
     that the conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured.  The
     guarantee applies only to the token type and token string as the
     spacing between tokens (column positions) may change.

     It returns bytes, encoded using the *note ENCODING: 461f. token,
     which is the first token sequence output by *note tokenize(): 4c6.
     If there is no encoding token in the input, it returns a str
     instead.

*note tokenize(): 4c6. a besoin de détecter le codage des fichiers
sources qu'il code.  La fonction utilisée pour cela est disponible :

 -- Fonction: tokenize.detect_encoding (readline)

     La fonction *note detect_encoding(): 2818. est utilisée pour
     détecter l'encodage à utiliser pour décoder un fichier source
     Python.  Il nécessite un seul argument, 'readline', de la même
     manière que le générateur *note tokenize(): 4c6.

     Il appelle 'readline' au maximum deux fois et renvoie le codage
     utilisé (sous forme de chaîne) et une liste de toutes les lignes
     (non décodées à partir des octets) dans lesquelles il a été lu.

     Il détecte l'encodage par la présence d'une marqueur UTF-8 ('BOM')
     ou d'un cookie de codage, comme spécifié dans la PEP 263(2).  Si un
     'BOM' et un cookie sont présents, mais en désaccord, un *note
     SyntaxError: 18b. sera levée.  Notez que si le 'BOM' est trouvé,
     ‘'utf-8-sig'’ sera renvoyé comme encodage.

     Si aucun codage n'est spécifié, la valeur par défaut, ‘'utf-8'’,
     sera renvoyée.

     Utilisez *note open(): 2817. pour ouvrir les fichiers source
     Python : ça utilise *note detect_encoding(): 2818. pour détecter le
     codage du fichier.

 -- Fonction: tokenize.open (filename)

     Ouvre un fichier en mode lecture seule en utilisant l'encodage
     détecté par ‘dectect_encoding()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- Exception: tokenize.TokenError

     Déclenché lorsque soit une 'docstring' soit une expression qui
     pourrait être divisée sur plusieurs lignes n'est pas complété dans
     le fichier, par exemple :

          """Beginning of
          docstring

     ou :

          [1,
           2,
           3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>,  Next: Exemples<34>,  Prev: Analyse Lexicale,  Up: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

5.33.5.2 Utilisation en ligne de commande.
..........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le module *note tokenize: fa. peut être exécuté en tant que script à
partir de la ligne de commande.  C'est aussi simple que :

     python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Montre ce message d'aide et quitte

 -- Option: -e, --exact

     Affiche les noms de jetons en utilisant le même type.

Si ‘filename.py’ est spécifié, son contenu est tokenisé vers 'stdout'.
Sinon, la tokenisation est effectuée sur ce qui est fourni sur 'stdin'.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<34>,  Prev: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>,  Up: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

5.33.5.3 Exemples
.................

Exemple d'un script qui transforme les littéraux de type 'float' en type
'Decimal' :

     from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
     from io import BytesIO

     def decistmt(s):
         """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.

         >>> from decimal import Decimal
         >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
         >>> decistmt(s)
         "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"

         The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.
         Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows).  Since
         we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the
         rest of the output should be platform-independent.

         >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         -3.21716034272e-0...7

         Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all
         platforms.

         >>> exec(decistmt(s))
         -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
         """
         result = []
         g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # tokenize the string
         for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
             if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # replace NUMBER tokens
                 result.extend([
                     (NAME, 'Decimal'),
                     (OP, '('),
                     (STRING, repr(tokval)),
                     (OP, ')')
                 ])
             else:
                 result.append((toknum, tokval))
         return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')

Exemple de tokenisation à partir de la ligne de commande.  Le script :

     def say_hello():
         print("Hello, World!")

     say_hello()

sera tokenisé à la sortie suivante où la première colonne est la plage
des coordonnées de la ligne/colonne où se trouve le jeton, la deuxième
colonne est le nom du jeton, et la dernière colonne est la valeur du
jeton (le cas échéant)

     $ python -m tokenize hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
     1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
     1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
     4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Les noms exacts des types de jeton peuvent être affichés en utilisant
l’option : *note -e: 465b. :

     $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
     1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
     1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
     4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Example of tokenizing a file programmatically, reading unicode strings
instead of bytes with *note generate_tokens(): 4c7.:

     import tokenize

     with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)

Or reading bytes directly with *note tokenize(): 4c6.:

     import tokenize

     with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)


File: python.info,  Node: tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Next: pyclbr --- Python module browser support,  Prev: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.6 ‘tabnanny’ -- Detection of ambiguous indentation
-------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tabnanny.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Pour l'instant ce module est destiné à être appelé comme un script.
Toutefois, il est possible de l'importer dans un IDE et d'utiliser la
fonction *note check(): 4660. décrite ci-dessous.

     Note: L'API fournie par ce module est susceptible de changer dans
     les versions futures ; ces modifications peuvent ne pas être
     rétro-compatibles.

 -- Fonction: tabnanny.check (file_or_dir)

     Si 'file_or_dir' est un répertoire et non un lien symbolique, alors
     descend récursivement l'arborescence de répertoire nommé par
     'file_or_dir', en vérifiant tous les fichiers ‘.py’ en chemin.  Si
     'file_or_dir' est un fichier source Python ordinaire, il est
     vérifié pour les problèmes liés aux espaces blancs.  Les messages
     de diagnostic sont écrits sur la sortie standard à l'aide de la
     fonction *note print(): f62.

 -- Données: tabnanny.verbose

     Option indiquant s'il faut afficher des messages détaillés.  Cela
     est incrémenté par l'option ‘-v’ s'il est appelé comme un script.

 -- Données: tabnanny.filename_only

     Option indiquant s'il faut afficher uniquement les noms de fichiers
     contenant des problèmes liés aux espaces blancs.  Est défini à True
     par l'option ‘-q’ s'il est appelé comme un script.

 -- Exception: tabnanny.NannyNag

     Déclenché par *note process_tokens(): 4664. si une indentation
     ambiguë est détectée.  Capturé et géré dans *note check(): 4660.

 -- Fonction: tabnanny.process_tokens (tokens)

     Cette fonction est utilisée par *note check(): 4660. pour traiter
     les jetons générés par le module *note tokenize: fa.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note tokenize: fa.

     Analyseur lexical pour le code source Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tabnanny.py


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr --- Python module browser support,  Next: py_compile --- Compile Python source files,  Prev: tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.7 ‘pyclbr’ -- Python module browser support
------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pyclbr.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pyclbr: b3. module provides limited information about the
functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module.  The
information is sufficient to implement a module browser.  The
information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by
importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code.
This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not
implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension
modules.

 -- Fonction: pyclbr.readmodule (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class
     descriptors.  If possible, descriptors for imported base classes
     are included.  Parameter 'module' is a string with the name of the
     module to read; it may be the name of a module within a package.
     If given, 'path' is a sequence of directory paths prepended to
     ‘sys.path’, which is used to locate the module source code.

     This function is the original interface and is only kept for back
     compatibility.  It returns a filtered version of the following.

 -- Fonction: pyclbr.readmodule_ex (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class
     descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with
     a ‘def’ or ‘class’ statement.  The returned dictionary maps
     module-level function and class names to their descriptors.  Nested
     objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent.
     As with readmodule, 'module' names the module to be read and 'path'
     is prepended to sys.path.  If the module being read is a package,
     the returned dictionary has a key ‘'__path__'’ whose value is a
     list containing the package search path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Descriptors for nested definitions.  They
are accessed through the new children attribute.  Each has a new parent
attribute.

The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of Function
and Class classes.  Users are not expected to create instances of these
classes.

* Menu:

* Objets fonctions::
* Objets classes: Objets classes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pyclbr.py


File: python.info,  Node: Objets fonctions,  Next: Objets classes<2>,  Up: pyclbr --- Python module browser support

5.33.7.1 Objets fonctions
.........................

 -- Classe: pyclbr.Function

     Class ‘Function’ instances describe functions defined by def
     statements.  They have the following attributes:

      -- Attribut: file

          Name of the file in which the function is defined.

      -- Attribut: module

          The name of the module defining the function described.

      -- Attribut: name

          The name of the function.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- Attribut: parent

          For top-level functions, ‘None’.  For nested functions, the
          parent.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: children

          A *note dictionary: 253. mapping names to descriptors for
          nested functions and classes.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: is_async

          ‘True’ for functions that are defined with the *note async:
          5bd. prefix, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets classes<2>,  Prev: Objets fonctions,  Up: pyclbr --- Python module browser support

5.33.7.2 Objets classes
.......................

 -- Classe: pyclbr.Class

     Class ‘Class’ instances describe classes defined by class
     statements.  They have the same attributes as *note Functions:
     4669. and two more.

      -- Attribut: file

          Name of the file in which the class is defined.

      -- Attribut: module

          The name of the module defining the class described.

      -- Attribut: name

          The name of the class.

      -- Attribut: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- Attribut: parent

          For top-level classes, ‘None’.  For nested classes, the
          parent.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: children

          A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions
          and classes.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: super

          A list of ‘Class’ objects which describe the immediate base
          classes of the class being described.  Classes which are named
          as superclasses but which are not discoverable by *note
          readmodule_ex(): 818. are listed as a string with the class
          name instead of as ‘Class’ objects.

      -- Attribut: methods

          A *note dictionary: 253. mapping method names to line numbers.
          This can be derived from the newer *note children: 4679.
          dictionary, but remains for back-compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile --- Compile Python source files,  Next: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries,  Prev: pyclbr --- Python module browser support,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.8 ‘py_compile’ -- Compile Python source files
--------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/py_compile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note py_compile: b2. définit une fonction principale qui
génère un fichier de code intermédiaire à partir d'un fichier source.
Il exporte également la fonction qu'il exécute quand il est lancé en
tant que script.

Bien que ce module ne soit pas d'usage fréquent, il peut servir lors de
l'installation de bibliothèques partagées, notamment dans le cas où tous
les utilisateurs n'ont pas les privilèges d'écriture dans l'emplacement
d'installation.

 -- Exception: py_compile.PyCompileError

     Exception levée quand une erreur se produit à la compilation.

 -- Fonction: py_compile.compile (file, cfile=None, dfile=None,
          doraise=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0)

     Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code
     cache file.  The source code is loaded from the file named 'file'.
     The byte-code is written to 'cfile', which defaults to the PEP
     3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path, ending in ‘.pyc’.  For example, if 'file'
     is ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ 'cfile' will default to
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  If
     'dfile' is specified, it is used instead of 'file' as the name of
     the source file from which source lines are obtained for display in
     exception tracebacks.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note
     PyCompileError: 467e. is raised when an error is encountered while
     compiling 'file'.  If 'doraise' is false (the default), an error
     string is written to ‘sys.stderr’, but no exception is raised.
     This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e.
     whatever 'cfile' value was used.

     Plus précisément, ce sont les arguments 'doraise' et 'quiet' qui
     déterminent la stratégie de gestion des erreurs.  En effet, si
     'quiet' vaut 0 ou 1, et 'doraise' est faux, le comportement par
     défaut s'applique : un message d'erreur est affiché dans
     ‘sys.stderr’, et la fonction renvoie ‘None’ au lieu d'un chemin.
     Au contraire, si 'doraise' est vrai, une exception *note
     PyCompileError: 467e. est levée, sauf si 'quiet' vaut 2.  Dans ce
     dernier cas, aucun message n'est émis, et 'doraise' reste sans
     effet.

     Si le chemin de destination, explicité par 'cfile' ou choisi
     automatiquement, est un lien symbolique, ou n'est pas un véritable
     fichier, une exception de type *note FileExistsError: 100b. est
     levée.  Ceci, dans le but de vous avertir que le système
     d'importation changera ces chemins en fichiers s'il est autorisé à
     y écrire des fichiers de code intermédiaire.  En effet, les
     importations passent par un renommage final du fichier de code
     intermédiaire vers sa destination, afin d'éviter les problèmes liés
     à l'écriture simultanée d'un même fichier par plusieurs processus.

     'optimize' règle le niveau d'optimisation.  Ce paramètre est passé
     directement à la fonction native *note compile(): 190.  Avec la
     valeur par défaut de ‘-1’, le code intermédiaire hérite du niveau
     d'optimisation de l'interpréteur courant.

     'invalidation_mode' précise la manière dont le code intermédiaire
     produit est invalidé à son exécution.  Il doit être un membre de
     l'énumération *note PycInvalidationMode: 467f.  La valeur par
     défaut est *note PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP: 4680.  Elle passe
     toutefois à *note PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 4681. si la
     variable d'environnement ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ est définie.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: la méthode de choix de destination a
     changé au profit de celle décrite dans la PEP 3147(4).  Auparavant,
     le nom du fichier de code intermédiaire était 'file' + ‘'c'’ (ou
     ‘'o'’ lorsque les optimisations étaient actives).  Le paramètre
     'optimize' a été ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: le code a été modifié pour faire appel
     à *note importlib: 76. dans les opérations d'écriture du code
     intermédiaire.  Ce module se comporte donc exactement comme *note
     importlib: 76. en ce qui concerne, par exemple, les permissions, ou
     le renommage final qui garantit une opération atomique.  *note
     FileExistsError: 100b. est désormais levée si la destination est un
     lien symbolique ou n'est pas un véritable fichier.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre 'invalidation_mode' a été
     ajouté comme requis par la PEP 552(5).  Si la variable
     d'environnement ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ est définie,
     'invalidation_mode' est ignoré, et *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 4681. s'applique dans tous les
     cas.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: La variable d'environnement
     ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ n'a plus préséance sur le paramètre
     'invalidation_mode', mais détermine seulement le comportement par
     défaut lorsque ce paramètre n'est pas passé.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre 'quiet'.

 -- Classe: py_compile.PycInvalidationMode

     An enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to
     determine whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file.
     The ‘.pyc’ file indicates the desired invalidation mode in its
     header.  See *note Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache: 5d8. for
     more information on how Python invalidates ‘.pyc’ files at runtime.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

      -- Attribut: TIMESTAMP

          Le fichier ‘.pyc’ contient l'horodatage et la taille de la
          source.  L'interpréteur inspecte les métadonnées du fichier
          source au moment de l'exécution, et régénère le fichier ‘.pyc’
          si elles ont changé.

      -- Attribut: CHECKED_HASH

          Le fichier ‘.pyc’ porte une empreinte du code source.  À
          l'exécution, elle est recalculée à partir de la source
          éventuellement modifiée, et le fichier ‘.pyc’ est régénéré si
          les deux empreintes sont différentes.

      -- Attribut: UNCHECKED_HASH

          Le principe est le même que *note CHECKED_HASH: 4681, mais à
          l'exécution, l'interpréteur considère systématiquement que le
          fichier ‘.pyc’ est à jour, sans regarder la source.

          Cette option est utile lorsque les fichiers ‘.pyc’ sont
          maintenus par un outil externe, comme un système
          d'intégration.

* Menu:

* Interface en ligne de commande: Interface en ligne de commande<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/py_compile.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: Interface en ligne de commande<11>,  Up: py_compile --- Compile Python source files

5.33.8.1 Interface en ligne de commande
.......................................

This module can be invoked as a script to compile several source files.
The files named in 'filenames' are compiled and the resulting bytecode
is cached in the normal manner.  This program does not search a
directory structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named
explicitly.  The exit status is nonzero if one of the files could not be
compiled.

 -- Option: <file> ... <fileN>
 -- Option: -

     Positional arguments are files to compile.  If ‘-’ is the only
     parameter, the list of files is taken from standard input.

 -- Option: -q, --quiet

     Suppress errors output.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added support for ‘-’.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added support for *note -q: 4687.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note compileall: 20.

     Utilitaires pour compiler des fichiers source Python dans une
     arborescence


File: python.info,  Node: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries,  Next: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Prev: py_compile --- Compile Python source files,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.9 ‘compileall’ -- Byte-compile Python libraries
----------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/compileall.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module contient des fonctions qui facilitent l'installation de
bibliothèques Python.  Elles compilent, sous forme de code intermédiaire
('bytecode'), les fichiers source situés dans un dossier de votre choix.
Ce module est particulièrement utile pour générer les fichiers de code
intermédiaire lors de l'installation d'une bibliothèque, les rendant
disponibles même pour les utilisateurs qui n'ont pas les privilèges
d'écriture dans l'emplacement d'installation.

*note Availability: 1d11.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
Plateformes WebAssembly: 179d. for more information.

* Menu:

* Utilisation en ligne de commande: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
* Fonctions publiques::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/compileall.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>,  Next: Fonctions publiques,  Up: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries

5.33.9.1 Utilisation en ligne de commande
.........................................

On peut se servir de ce module comme d'un script (avec ‘python -m
compileall’) pour compiler les fichiers source Python.

 -- Option: directory ...
 -- Option: file ...

     Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that
     contain source files, traversed recursively.  If no argument is
     given, behave as if the command line was ‘-l <DIRECTORIES FROM
     SYS.PATH>’.

 -- Option: -l

     Compiler uniquement les fichiers situés directement dans les
     dossiers passés en argument ou implicites, sans descendre
     récursivement dans les sous-dossiers.

 -- Option: -f

     Forcer la recompilation même si les horodatages sont à jour.

 -- Option: -q

     Supprimer l'affichage des noms des fichiers compilés.Si cette
     option est donnée une seule fois, les erreurs sont affichées malgré
     tout.  Vous pouvez les supprimer en passant l'option deux fois
     (c'est-à-dire avec ‘-qq’).

 -- Option: -d destdir

     Ce nom de dossier est ajouté en tête du chemin de chaque fichier
     compilé.  Il aura une influence sur les traces d'appels pour les
     erreurs levées lors de la compilation, et sera reflété dans les
     fichiers de code intermédiaire, pour utilisation dans les traces
     d'appels et autres messages si le fichier source n'existe pas au
     moment de l'exécution.

 -- Option: -s strip_prefix

 -- Option: -p prepend_prefix

     Retire (‘-s’) ou ajoute (‘-p’) le préfixe aux chemins stockés dans
     les fichiers ‘.pyc’.  Cette option ne peut pas être combinée avec
     ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -x regex

     Exclut tous les fichiers dont les noms correspondent à l'expression
     régulière 'regex'.

 -- Option: -i list

     Ajoute chaque ligne du fichier 'list' aux fichiers et dossiers à
     compiler.  'list' peut être ‘-’, auquel cas le script lit l'entrée
     standard.

 -- Option: -b

     Utilise l'ancienne manière de nommer et placer les fichiers de code
     intermédiaire, en écrasant éventuellement ceux générés par une
     autre version de Python.  Par défaut, les règles décrites dans la
     PEP 3147(1) s'appliquent.  Elles permettent à différentes versions
     de l'interpréteur Python de coexister en conservant chacune ses
     propres fichiers ‘.pyc’.

 -- Option: -r

     Règle le niveau de récursion maximal pour le parcours des
     sous-dossiers.  Lorsque cette option est fournie, ‘-l’ est ignorée.
     ‘python -m compileall <dossier> -r 0’ revient au même que ‘python
     -m compileall <dossier> -l’.

 -- Option: -j N

     Use 'N' workers to compile the files within the given directory.
     If ‘0’ is used, then the result of *note os.process_cpu_count():
     1bf. will be used.

 -- Option: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]

     Définit la manière dont les fichiers de code intermédiaire seront
     invalidés au moment de l'exécution.  Avec ‘timestamp’, les fichiers
     ‘.pyc’ générés comportent l'horodatage de la source et sa taille.
     Avec ‘checked-hash’ ou ‘unchecked-hash’, ce seront des pyc
     utilisant le hachage, qui contiennent une empreinte du code source
     plutôt qu'un horodatage.  Voir *note Invalidation de bytecode mis
     en cache: 5d8. pour plus d'informations sur la manière dont Python
     valide les fichiers de code intermédiaire conservés en cache lors
     de l'exécution.  La valeur par défaut est ‘timestamp’.  Cependant,
     si la variable d'environnement ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ a été réglée,
     elle devient ‘checked-hash’.

 -- Option: -o level

     Compile avec un certain niveau d'optimisation.  Cette option peut
     être passée plusieurs fois afin de compiler pour plusieurs niveaux
     d'un seul coup (par exemple, ‘compileall -o 1 -o 2’).

 -- Option: -e dir

     Ignore les liens symboliques qui redirigent en dehors du dossier.

 -- Option: --hardlink-dupes

     Si deux fichiers ‘.pyc’ compilés avec des niveaux d'optimisation
     différents ont finalement le même contenu, emploie des liens
     physiques pour les fusionner.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout des options ‘-i’, ‘-b’ et ‘-h’.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout des options ‘-j’, ‘-r’ et ‘-qq’
(l'option ‘-q’ peut donc prendre plusieurs niveaux).  ‘-b’ produit
toujours un fichier de code intermédiaire portant l'extension ‘.pyc’, et
jamais ‘.pyo’.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout de l'option ‘--invalidation-mode’.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des options ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’ et
‘--hardlink-dupes’.  Rehaussement de la limite de récursion par défaut à
*note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4b0. au lieu de 10 précédemment.
L'option ‘-o’ peut être passée plusieurs fois.

Il n'y a pas d'option en ligne de commande pour contrôler le niveau
d'optimisation utilisé par la fonction *note compile(): 190.  Il suffit
en effet d'utiliser l'option ‘-O’ de l'interpréteur Python lui-même :
‘python -O -m compileall’.

Similarly, the *note compile(): 190. function respects the *note
sys.pycache_prefix: 994. setting.  The generated bytecode cache will
only be useful if *note compile(): 190. is run with the same *note
sys.pycache_prefix: 994. (if any) that will be used at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions publiques,  Prev: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>,  Up: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries

5.33.9.2 Fonctions publiques
............................

 -- Fonction: compileall.compile_dir (dir,
          maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Parcourt récursivement le dossier 'dir', en compilant tous les
     fichiers ‘.py’.  Renvoie une valeur vraie si tous les fichiers ont
     été compilés sans erreur, et une valeur fausse dans le cas
     contraire.

     Le paramètre 'maxlevels' permet de limiter la profondeur de
     récursion.  Sa valeur par défaut est celle de
     ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’.

     Si 'ddir' est fourni, il est ajouté en tête du chemin de chaque
     fichier compilé, ce qui modifie l'affichage des traces d'appels
     pour les erreurs qui seraient levées lors de la compilation.  De
     plus, il se retrouve dans les fichiers de code intermédiaire, pour
     utilisation dans les traces et autres messages si le fichier source
     n'existe pas au moment de l'exécution.

     Si 'force' est vrai, les modules sont recompilés même si leurs
     horodatages sont à jour.

     Si 'rx' est donné, sa méthode ‘search’ est appelée sur le chemin
     complet de chaque fichier source, et si elle renvoie une valeur
     vraie, le fichier est sauté.  'rx' sera habituellement une
     expression régulière (objet *note re.Pattern: f73.).

     Si 'quiet' est ‘False’ ou bien ‘0’ (la valeur par défaut), les noms
     de fichiers et d'autres informations sont affichés sur la sortie
     standard.  Avec ‘1’, seules les erreurs sont affichées.  Avec ‘2’,
     aucune sortie n'est émise.

     Si 'legacy' est vrai, les fichiers de code intermédiaire sont
     nommés et placés selon l'ancienne méthode, en écrasant
     éventuellement ceux générés par une autre version de Python.  Par
     défaut, les règles décrites dans la PEP 3147(1) s'appliquent.
     Elles permettent à différentes versions de l'interpréteur Python de
     coexister en conservant chacune ses propres fichiers ‘.pyc’.

     'optimize' définit le niveau d'optimisation qu'applique le
     compilateur.  Cet argument est passé directement à la fonction
     native *note compile(): 190.  Il peut également être fourni sous la
     forme d'une séquence de niveaux d'optimisation, ce qui permet de
     compiler chaque fichier ‘.py’ plusieurs fois en appliquant divers
     niveaux d'optimisation.

     'workers' est le nombre de tâches lancées en parallèle pour la
     compilation.  Par défaut, les fichiers sont compilés
     séquentiellement.  Cette même stratégie s'applique dans tous les
     cas lorsque le parallélisme n'est pas possible sur la plateforme
     d'exécution.  Si 'workers' vaut 0, autant de tâches sont lancées
     que le système comporte de cœurs.  Si 'workers' est strictement
     négatif, une exception de type *note ValueError: 1ff. est levée.

     'invalidation_mode' doit être un membre de l'énumération *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 467f. et détermine la manière dont
     les fichiers ‘.pyc’ sont invalidés lorsque l'interpréteur tente de
     les utiliser.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: c41.

     Un argument 'hardlink_dupes' vrai correspond à l'utilisation de
     l'option ‘--hardlink-dupes’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout des paramètres 'legacy' et
     'optimize'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout du paramètre 'workers'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre 'quiet' peut prendre
     plusieurs niveaux.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Lorsque le paramètre 'legacy' est
     vrai, des fichiers ‘.pyc’, et jamais ‘.pyo’, sont générés, quel que
     soit le niveau d'optimisation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: accepte un *note objet simili-chemin:
     29d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre
     'invalidation_mode'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter's
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Un nombre de processus adapté à la
     machine est choisi lorsque 'workers' vaut 0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des arguments 'stripdir',
     'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' et 'hardlink_dupes'.  La valeur par
     défaut de 'maxlevels' a été changée pour ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’
     (elle était de 10 auparavant).

 -- Fonction: compileall.compile_file (fullname, ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Compile le fichier dont le chemin est donné par 'fullname'.
     Renvoie une valeur vraie si et seulement si le fichier est compilé
     sans erreur.

     Si 'ddir' est fourni, il est ajouté en tête du chemin de chaque
     fichier compilé, ce qui modifie l'affichage des traces pour les
     erreurs qui seraient levées lors de la compilation.  De plus, il se
     retrouve dans les fichiers de code intermédiaire, pour utilisation
     dans les traces et autres messages si le fichier source n'existe
     pas au moment de l'exécution.

     Si 'rx' est donné, sa méthode ‘search’ est appelée sur le chemin
     complet de chaque fichier source, et si elle renvoie une valeur
     vraie, le fichier est sauté.  'rx' sera habituellement une
     expression régulière (objet *note re.Pattern: f73.).

     Si 'quiet' est ‘False’ ou bien ‘0’ (la valeur par défaut), les noms
     de fichiers et d'autres informations sont affichés sur la sortie
     standard.  Avec ‘1’, seules les erreurs sont affichées.  Avec ‘2’,
     aucune sortie n'est émise.

     Si 'legacy' est vrai, les fichiers de code intermédiaire sont
     nommés et placés selon l'ancienne méthode, en écrasant
     éventuellement ceux générés par une autre version de Python.  Par
     défaut, les règles décrites dans la PEP 3147(2) s'appliquent.
     Elles permettent à différentes versions de l'interpréteur Python de
     coexister en conservant chacune ses propres fichiers ‘.pyc’.

     'optimize' définit le niveau d'optimisation qu'applique le
     compilateur.  Cet argument est passé directement à la fonction
     native *note compile(): 190.  Il peut également être fourni sous la
     forme d'une séquence de niveaux d'optimisation, ce qui permet de
     compiler chaque fichier ‘.py’ plusieurs fois en appliquant divers
     niveaux d'optimisation.

     'invalidation_mode' doit être un membre de l'énumération *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 467f. et détermine la manière dont
     les fichiers ‘.pyc’ sont invalidés lorsque l'interpréteur tente de
     les utiliser.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: c41.

     Un argument 'hardlink_dupes' vrai correspond à l'utilisation de
     l'option ‘--hardlink-dupes’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre 'quiet' peut prendre
     plusieurs niveaux.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Lorsque le paramètre 'legacy' est
     vrai, des fichiers ‘.pyc’, et jamais ‘.pyo’, sont générés, quel que
     soit le niveau d'optimisation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre
     'invalidation_mode'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter's
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajout des arguments 'stripdir',
     'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' et 'hardlink_dupes'.

 -- Fonction: compileall.compile_path (skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0,
          force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None)

     Compile tous les fichiers ‘.py’ contenus dans les dossiers de
     ‘sys.path’.  Renvoie une valeur vraie s'ils ont tous été compilés
     sans erreur, et une valeur fausse dans le cas contraire.

     Si 'skip_curdir' est vrai (c'est le cas par défaut), le dossier
     courant est exclu de la recherche.  Les autres paramètres sont
     passés à *note compile_dir(): b16.  Notez que contrairement aux
     autres fonctions de ce module, la valeur par défaut de ‘maxlevels’
     est ‘0’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout des paramètres 'legacy' et
     'optimize'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre 'quiet' peut prendre
     plusieurs niveaux.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Lorsque le paramètre 'legacy' est
     vrai, des fichiers ‘.pyc’, et jamais ‘.pyo’, sont générés, quel que
     soit le niveau d'optimisation.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre
     'invalidation_mode'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter's
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

Pour forcer la recompilation de tous les fichiers ‘.py’ dans le dossier
‘Lib/’ et tous ses sous-dossiers :

     import compileall

     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)

     # Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.
     import re
     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)

     # pathlib.Path objects can also be used.
     import pathlib
     compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note py_compile: b2.

     Compiler un fichier source unique.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Next: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers,  Prev: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.10 ‘dis’ -- Disassembler for Python bytecode
-------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/dis.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

La bibliothèque *note dis: 38. supporte l'analyse du *note bytecode:
185. CPython en le désassemblant.  Le code intermédiaire CPython, que
cette bibliothèque prend en paramètre, est défini dans le fichier
‘Include/opcode.h’ et est utilisé par le compilateur et l'interpréteur.

Le code intermédiaire est un détail d'implémentation de l'interpréteur
CPython.  Il n'y a pas de garantie que le code intermédiaire sera
ajouté, retiré, ou modifié dans les différentes versions de Python.
L'utilisation de cette bibliothèque ne fonctionne pas nécessairement sur
les machines virtuelles Python ni les différentes versions de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Utilisez 2 bits pour chaque instruction.
Avant, le nombre de bits variait par instruction.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The argument of jump, exception handling
and loop instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte
offset.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Some instructions are accompanied by one
or more inline cache entries, which take the form of *note CACHE: 6e5.
instructions.  These instructions are hidden by default, but can be
shown by passing ‘show_caches=True’ to any *note dis: 38. utility.
Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it
for different runtime conditions.  The adaptive bytecode can be shown by
passing ‘adaptive=True’.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The argument of a jump is the offset of
the target instruction relative to the instruction that appears
immediately after the jump instruction's *note CACHE: 6e5. entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the *note CACHE: 6e5. instructions is
transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when
reasoning about backward jumps.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The output shows logical labels rather
than instruction offsets for jump targets and exception handlers.  The
‘-O’ command line option and the ‘show_offsets’ argument were added.

Example: Given the function ‘myfunc()’:

     def myfunc(alist):
         return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
‘myfunc()’:

     >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
       2           RESUME                   0

       3           LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (len + NULL)
                   LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                   CALL                     1
                   RETURN_VALUE

(Le "2" est un numéro de ligne).

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* Analyse du code intermédiaire::
* Analyse de fonctions::
* Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python::
* Opcode collections::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dis.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<3>,  Next: Analyse du code intermédiaire,  Up: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.1 Command-line interface
................................

The *note dis: 38. module can be invoked as a script from the command
line:

     python -m dis [-h] [-C] [-O] [infile]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Display usage and exit.

 -- Option: -C, --show-caches

     Show inline caches.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Option: -O, --show-offsets

     Show offsets of instructions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

If ‘infile’ is specified, its disassembled code will be written to
stdout.  Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code
received from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse du code intermédiaire,  Next: Analyse de fonctions,  Prev: Command-line interface<3>,  Up: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.2 Analyse du code intermédiaire
.......................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

L'analyse de l''API' code intermédiaire permet de rassembler des blocs
de code en Python dans une classe *note Bytecode: f1b, qui permet un
accès facile aux détails du code compilé.

 -- Classe: dis.Bytecode (x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False)

     Analyse le code intermédiaire correspondant à une fonction, un
     générateur, un générateur asynchrone, une coroutine, une méthode,
     une chaîne de caractères du code source, ou bien une classe (comme
     retourne la fonction *note compile(): 190.).

     Ceci est 'wrapper' sur plusieurs fonctions de la liste ci-dessous,
     notamment *note get_instructions(): 1d6, étant donné qu'une
     itération sur une instance de la classe *note Bytecode: f1b. rend
     les opérations du code intermédiaire des instances de *note
     Instruction: 1d7.

     Si 'first_line' ne vaut pas ‘None’, elle indique le nombre de la
     ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le
     code désassemblé.  Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source
     sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

     Si la valeur de 'current_offset' est différente de ‘None’, c'est
     une référence à un offset d'une instruction dans le code
     désassemblé.  Cela veut dire que *note dis(): f1c. va générer un
     marqueur de " l'instruction en cours" contre le code d'opération
     donné.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f1c. will display inline
     cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f1c. will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     If 'show_offsets' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f1c. will include
     instruction offsets in the output.

      -- Méthode: classmethod from_traceback (tb, *, show_caches=False)

          Construisez une instance *note Bytecode: f1b. à partir de la
          trace d'appel, en mettant 'current_offet' à l'instruction
          responsable de l'exception.

      -- Données: codeobj

          Le code compilé objet.

      -- Données: first_line

          La première ligne source du code objet (si disponible)

      -- Méthode: dis ()

          Retourne une vue formatée des opérations du code intermédiaire
          (la même que celle envoyée par *note dis.dis(): b24, mais
          comme une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes ).

      -- Méthode: info ()

          Retourne une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes formatée
          avec des informations détaillées sur l'objet code comme *note
          code_info(): 1219.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette version supporte la coroutine et
     les objets générateurs asynchrones.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and
     'adaptive' parameters.

Example:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     ...
     RESUME
     LOAD_GLOBAL
     LOAD_FAST
     CALL
     RETURN_VALUE


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse de fonctions,  Next: Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python,  Prev: Analyse du code intermédiaire,  Up: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.3 Analyse de fonctions
..............................

La bibliothèque *note dis: 38. comprend également l'analyse des
fonctions suivantes, qui envoient l'entrée directement à la sortie
souhaitée.  Elles peuvent être utiles si il n'y a qu'une seule opération
à effectuer, la représentation intermédiaire objet n'étant donc pas
utile dans ce cas :

 -- Fonction: dis.code_info (x)

     Retourne une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes formatée avec
     des informations détaillées sur l'objet code pour les fonctions
     données, les générateurs asynchrone, coroutine, la méthode, la
     chaine de caractères du code source ou objet.

     Il est à noter que le contenu exact des chaînes de caractères
     figurant dans les informations du code dépendent fortement sur
     l'implémentation, et peuvent changer arbitrairement sous machines
     virtuelles Python ou les versions de Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette version supporte la coroutine et
     les objets générateurs asynchrones.

 -- Fonction: dis.show_code (x, *, file=None)

     Affiche des informations détaillées sur le code de la fonction
     fournie, la méthode, la chaîne de caractère du code source ou du
     code objet à 'file' (ou bien ‘sys.stdout’ si 'file' n'est pas
     spécifié).

     Ceci est un raccourci convenable de ‘print(code_info(x),
     file=file)’, principalement fait pour l'exploration interactive sur
     l'invite de l'interpréteur.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre 'file'.

 -- Fonction: dis.dis (x=None, *, file=None, depth=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Disassemble the 'x' object.  'x' can denote either a module, a
     class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous
     generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a
     byte sequence of raw bytecode.  For a module, it disassembles all
     functions.  For a class, it disassembles all methods (including
     class and static methods).  For a code object or sequence of raw
     bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.  It also
     recursively disassembles nested code objects.  These can include
     generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested
     classes, and the code objects used for *note annotation scopes:
     186.  Strings are first compiled to code objects with the *note
     compile(): 190. built-in function before being disassembled.  If no
     object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

     Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du
     fichier 'file' si il est fourni, et à ‘sys.stdout’ sinon.

     La profondeur maximale de récursion est limitée par 'depth' sauf si
     elle correspond à ‘None’.  ‘depth=0’ indique qu'il n'y a pas de
     récursion.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, this function will display inline cache
     entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, this function will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre 'file'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le désassemblage récursif a été
     implémenté, et le paramètre 'depth' a été ajouté.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette version supporte la coroutine et
     les objets générateurs asynchrones.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and
     'adaptive' parameters.

 -- Fonction: distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False,

 -- Fonction: show_offset=False)

     Désassemble la fonction du haut de la pile des traces d'appels, en
     utilisant la dernière trace d'appels si rien n'a été envoyé.
     L'instruction à l'origine de l'exception est indiquée.

     Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du
     fichier 'file' si il est fourni, et à ‘sys.stdout’ sinon.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre 'file'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and
     'adaptive' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

 -- Fonction: dis.disassemble (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

 -- Fonction: disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False,

 -- Fonction: show_offsets=False)

     Désassemble un code objet, en indiquant la dernière instruction si
     'lasti' est fournie.  La sortie est répartie sur les colonnes
     suivantes :

       1. le numéro de ligne, pour la première instruction de chaque
          ligne

       2. l'instruction en cours, indiquée par ‘-->’,

       3. une instruction libellée, indiquée par ‘> >’,

       4. l'adresse de l'instruction,

       5. le nom de le code d'opération,

       6. paramètres de l'opération, et

       7. interprétation des paramètres entre parenthèses.

     L'interprétation du paramètre reconnaît les noms des variables
     locales et globales, des valeurs constantes, des branchements
     cibles, et des opérateurs de comparaison.

     Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du
     fichier 'file' si il est fourni, et à ‘sys.stdout’ sinon.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre 'file'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and
     'adaptive' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

 -- Fonction: dis.get_instructions (x, *, first_line=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Retourne un itérateur sur les instructions dans la fonction
     fournie, la méthode, les chaînes de caractères du code source ou
     objet.

     Cet itérateur génère une série de 'n'-uplets de *note Instruction:
     1d7. qui donnent les détails de chacune des opérations dans le code
     fourni.

     Si 'first_line' ne vaut pas ‘None’, elle indique le nombre de la
     ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le
     code désassemblé.  Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source
     sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

     The 'adaptive' parameter works as it does in *note dis(): 38.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and
     'adaptive' parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'show_caches' parameter is
     deprecated and has no effect.  The iterator generates the *note
     Instruction: 1d7. instances with the 'cache_info' field populated
     (regardless of the value of 'show_caches') and it no longer
     generates separate items for the cache entries.

 -- Fonction: dis.findlinestarts (code)

     This generator function uses the *note co_lines(): 2f0. method of
     the *note code object: 1cd. 'code' to find the offsets which are
     starts of lines in the source code.  They are generated as
     ‘(offset, lineno)’ pairs.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les numéros de lignes peuvent être
     décroissants.  Avant, ils étaient toujours croissants.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The PEP 626(1) *note co_lines(): 2f0.
     method is used instead of the *note co_firstlineno: 1efe. and *note
     co_lnotab: 2df. attributes of the *note code object: 1cd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Line numbers can be ‘None’ for
     bytecode that does not map to source lines.

 -- Fonction: dis.findlabels (code)

     Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string 'code' which
     are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

 -- Fonction: dis.stack_effect (opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

     Compute the stack effect of 'opcode' with argument 'oparg'.

     If the code has a jump target and 'jump' is ‘True’, *note
     stack_effect(): f1e. will return the stack effect of jumping.  If
     'jump' is ‘False’, it will return the stack effect of not jumping.
     And if 'jump' is ‘None’ (default), it will return the maximal stack
     effect of both cases.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added 'jump' parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: If ‘oparg’ is omitted (or ‘None’),
     the stack effect is now returned for ‘oparg=0’.  Previously this
     was an error for opcodes that use their arg.  It is also no longer
     an error to pass an integer ‘oparg’ when the ‘opcode’ does not use
     it; the ‘oparg’ in this case is ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python,  Next: Opcode collections,  Prev: Analyse de fonctions,  Up: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.4 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python
..........................................................

La fonction *note get_instructions(): 1d6. et la méthode *note Bytecode:
f1b. fournit des détails sur le code intermédiaire des instructions
comme *note Instruction: 1d7. instances :

 -- Classe: dis.Instruction

     Détails sur le code intermédiaire de l'opération

      -- Données: opcode

          code numérique pour l'opération, correspondant aux valeurs de
          l''opcode' ci-dessous et les valeurs du code intermédiaire
          dans la *note Opcode collections: 46b1.

      -- Données: opname

          nom lisible/compréhensible de l'opération

      -- Données: baseopcode

          numeric code for the base operation if operation is
          specialized; otherwise equal to *note opcode: 46b0.

      -- Données: baseopname

          human readable name for the base operation if operation is
          specialized; otherwise equal to *note opname: 46b5.

      -- Données: arg

          le cas échéant, argument numérique de l'opération sinon ‘None’

      -- Données: oparg

          alias for *note arg: 46b6.

      -- Données: argval

          resolved arg value (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- Données: argrepr

          human readable description of operation argument (if any),
          otherwise an empty string.

      -- Données: offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence

      -- Données: start_offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence, including
          prefixed ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ operations if present; otherwise equal
          to *note offset: 46ba.

      -- Données: cache_offset

          start index of the cache entries following the operation

      -- Données: end_offset

          end index of the cache entries following the operation

      -- Données: starts_line

          ‘True’ if this opcode starts a source line, otherwise ‘False’

      -- Données: line_number

          source line number associated with this opcode (if any),
          otherwise ‘None’

      -- Données: is_jump_target

          ‘True’ if other code jumps to here, otherwise ‘False’

      -- Données: jump_target

          bytecode index of the jump target if this is a jump operation,
          otherwise ‘None’

      -- Données: positions

          *note dis.Positions: 4449. object holding the start and end
          locations that are covered by this instruction.

      -- Données: cache_info

          Information about the cache entries of this instruction, as
          triplets of the form ‘(name, size, data)’, where the ‘name’
          and ‘size’ describe the cache format and data is the contents
          of the cache.  ‘cache_info’ is ‘None’ if the instruction does
          not have caches.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Field ‘positions’ is added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Changed field ‘starts_line’.

     Added fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’, ‘end_offset’,
     ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’, ‘oparg’, ‘line_number’
     and ‘cache_info’.

 -- Classe: dis.Positions

     In case the information is not available, some fields might be
     ‘None’.

      -- Données: lineno

      -- Données: end_lineno

      -- Données: col_offset

      -- Données: end_col_offset

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode
instructions.

'General instructions'

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as ‘STACK’ and
describe operations on it as if it was a Python list.  The top of the
stack corresponds to ‘STACK[-1]’ in this language.

 -- Opcode: NOP

     Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer,
     and to generate line tracing events.

 -- Opcode: POP_TOP

     Removes the top-of-stack item:

          STACK.pop()

 -- Opcode: END_FOR

     Removes the top-of-stack item.  Equivalent to ‘POP_TOP’.  Used to
     clean up at the end of loops, hence the name.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: END_SEND

     Implements ‘del STACK[-2]’.  Used to clean up when a generator
     exits.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COPY (i)

     Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from
     its original location:

          assert i > 0
          STACK.append(STACK[-i])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SWAP (i)

     Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

          STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CACHE

     Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to
     mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly
     in the bytecode itself.  It is automatically hidden by all ‘dis’
     utilities, but can be viewed with ‘show_caches=True’.

     Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction.  Many
     opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and
     will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

     Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great
     care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive
     bytecode containing quickened data.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

'Unary operations'

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and
push the result back on the stack.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NEGATIVE

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NOT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This instruction now requires an
     exact *note bool: 453. operand.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_INVERT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: GET_ITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

 -- Opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is a *note generator iterator: bce. or *note
     coroutine: 47d. object it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements
     ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: TO_BOOL

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = bool(STACK[-1])’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

'Binary and in-place operations'

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (‘STACK[-1]’
and ‘STACK[-2]’).  They perform the operation, then put the result back
on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is
done in-place when ‘STACK[-2]’ supports it, and the resulting
‘STACK[-1]’ may be (but does not have to be) the original ‘STACK[-2]’.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_OP (op)

     Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the
     value of 'op'):

          rhs = STACK.pop()
          lhs = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[key])

 -- Opcode: STORE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          container[key] = value

 -- Opcode: DELETE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          del container[key]

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[start:end])

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          values = STACK.pop()
          container[start:end] = value

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

'Coroutine opcodes'

 -- Opcode: GET_AWAITABLE (where)

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])’, where
     ‘get_awaitable(o)’ returns ‘o’ if ‘o’ is a coroutine object or a
     generator object with the *note CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 445a. flag,
     or resolves ‘o.__await__’.

          If the ‘where’ operand is nonzero, it indicates where the
          instruction occurs:

             * ‘1’: After a call to ‘__aenter__’

             * ‘2’: After a call to ‘__aexit__’

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this instruction did not
     have an oparg.

 -- Opcode: GET_AITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Returning awaitable objects from
     ‘__aiter__’ is no longer supported.

 -- Opcode: GET_ANEXT

     Implement ‘STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))’ to
     the stack.  See ‘GET_AWAITABLE’ for details about ‘get_awaitable’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: END_ASYNC_FOR

     Terminates an *note async for: a9b. loop.  Handles an exception
     raised when awaiting a next item.  The stack contains the async
     iterable in ‘STACK[-2]’ and the raised exception in ‘STACK[-1]’.
     Both are popped.  If the exception is not *note StopAsyncIteration:
     19eb, it is re-raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack
     now consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: CLEANUP_THROW

     Handles an exception raised during a *note throw(): 4e5. or *note
     close(): 16ae. call through the current frame.  If ‘STACK[-1]’ is
     an instance of *note StopIteration: bea, pop three values from the
     stack and push its ‘value’ member.  Otherwise, re-raise
     ‘STACK[-1]’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH

     Resolves ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ from ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pushes
     ‘__aexit__’ and result of ‘__aenter__()’ to the stack:

          STACK.extend((__aexit__, __aenter__())

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

'Miscellaneous opcodes'

 -- Opcode: SET_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          set.add(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement set comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: LIST_APPEND (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          list.append(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement list comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: MAP_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          value = STACK.pop()
          key = STACK.pop()
          dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

     Used to implement dict comprehensions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Map value is ‘STACK[-1]’ and map key
     is ‘STACK[-2]’.  Before, those were reversed.

For all of the *note SET_ADD: 46d4, *note LIST_APPEND: 46d5. and *note
MAP_ADD: a9c. instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is
popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is
available for further iterations of the loop.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_VALUE

     Returns with ‘STACK[-1]’ to the caller of the function.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_CONST (consti)

     Returns with ‘co_consts[consti]’ to the caller of the function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: YIELD_VALUE

     Yields ‘STACK.pop()’ from a *note generator: 104c.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: oparg set to be the stack depth.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: oparg set to be the exception block
     depth, for efficient closing of generators.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: oparg is ‘1’ if this instruction is
     part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

     Checks whether ‘__annotations__’ is defined in ‘locals()’, if not
     it is set up to an empty ‘dict’.  This opcode is only emitted if a
     class or module body contains *note variable annotations: d45.
     statically.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: POP_EXCEPT

     Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception
     state.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack
     now consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: RERAISE

     Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack.  If oparg is
     non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to
     set *note f_lasti: 876. of the current frame.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack
     now consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_EXC_INFO

     Pops a value from the stack.  Pushes the current exception to the
     top of the stack.  Pushes the value originally popped back to the
     stack.  Used in exception handlers.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EXC_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except’.  Tests whether the
     ‘STACK[-2]’ is an exception matching ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pops ‘STACK[-1]’
     and pushes the boolean result of the test.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EG_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except*’.  Applies
     ‘split(STACK[-1])’ on the exception group representing ‘STACK[-2]’.

     In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the
     non-matching subgroup (‘None’ in case of full match) followed by
     the matching subgroup.  When there is no match, pops one item (the
     match type) and pushes ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: WITH_EXCEPT_START

     Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type,
     val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack.  Used
     to implement the call ‘context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())’ when
     an exception has occurred in a *note with: 5be. statement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘__exit__’ function is in
     position 4 of the stack rather than 7.  Exception representation on
     the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR

     Pushes *note AssertionError: 696. onto the stack.  Used by the
     *note assert: 957. statement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

     Pushes ‘builtins.__build_class__()’ onto the stack.  It is later
     called to construct a class.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_WITH

     This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.
     First, it loads *note __exit__(): 12e0. from the context manager
     and pushes it onto the stack for later use by *note
     WITH_EXCEPT_START: 46d8.  Then, *note __enter__(): 5b4. is called.
     Finally, the result of calling the ‘__enter__()’ method is pushed
     onto the stack.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: GET_LEN

     Perform ‘STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))’.  Used in *note match: 7f9.
     statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_MAPPING

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     8b9. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     1860. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 187a.), push ‘True’ onto the
     stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_SEQUENCE

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     11a3. and is 'not' an instance of *note str: 437./*note bytes:
     1bd./*note bytearray: 52b. (or, more technically: if it has the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1861. flag set in its *note tp_flags:
     187a.), push ‘True’ onto the stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_KEYS

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of mapping keys, and ‘STACK[-2]’ is the
     match subject.  If ‘STACK[-2]’ contains all of the keys in
     ‘STACK[-1]’, push a *note tuple: 366. containing the corresponding
     values.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also
     pushed a boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure
     (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: STORE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘name = STACK.pop()’.  'namei' is the index of 'name' in
     the attribute *note co_names: 1efd. of the *note code object: 1cd.
     The compiler tries to use *note STORE_FAST: 16ab. or *note
     STORE_GLOBAL: 46de. if possible.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘del name’, where 'namei' is the index into *note
     co_names: 1efd. attribute of the *note code object: 1cd.

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)

     Unpacks ‘STACK[-1]’ into 'count' individual values, which are put
     onto the stack right-to-left.  Require there to be exactly 'count'
     values.:

          assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
          STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_EX (counts)

     Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in
     ‘STACK[-1]’ into individual values, where the total number of
     values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one
     of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

     The number of values before and after the list value is limited to
     255.

     The number of values before the list value is encoded in the
     argument of the opcode.  The number of values after the list if any
     is encoded using an ‘EXTENDED_ARG’.  As a consequence, the argument
     can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of 'counts' is
     the number of values before the list value, the high byte of
     'counts' the number of values after it.

     The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e.
     ‘a, *b, c = d’ will be stored after execution as ‘STACK.extend((a,
     b, c))’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          obj.name = value

     where 'namei' is the index of name in *note co_names: 1efd. of the
     *note code object: 1cd.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          del obj.name

     where 'namei' is the index of name into *note co_names: 1efd. of
     the *note code object: 1cd.

 -- Opcode: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note STORE_NAME: 46dd, but stores the name as a global.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note DELETE_NAME: 46df, but deletes a global name.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CONST (consti)

     Pushes ‘co_consts[consti]’ onto the stack.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_NAME (namei)

     Pushes the value associated with ‘co_names[namei]’ onto the stack.
     The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the
     builtins.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_LOCALS

     Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack.  This
     is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4d3. and *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS:
     4d4.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for
     ‘co_names[namei]’.  If the name is not found there, looks it up in
     the globals and then the builtins, similar to *note LOAD_GLOBAL:
     16a4.  This is used for loading global variables in *note
     annotation scopes: 186. within class bodies.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_TUPLE (count)

     Creates a tuple consuming 'count' items from the stack, and pushes
     the resulting tuple onto the stack:

          if count == 0:
              value = ()
          else:
              value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
              STACK = STACK[:-count]

          STACK.append(value)

 -- Opcode: BUILD_LIST (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 46e5, but creates a list.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SET (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 46e5, but creates a set.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_MAP (count)

     Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops ‘2 * count’
     items so that the dictionary holds 'count' entries: ‘{...,
     STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack
     items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold
     'count' items.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count)

     The version of *note BUILD_MAP: 169d. specialized for constant
     keys.  Pops the top element on the stack which contains a tuple of
     keys, then starting from ‘STACK[-2]’, pops 'count' values to form
     values in the built dictionary.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_STRING (count)

     Concatenates 'count' strings from the stack and pushes the
     resulting string onto the stack.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: LIST_EXTEND (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build lists.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: SET_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build sets.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          map = STACK.pop()
          dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

     Used to build dicts.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_MERGE (i)

     Like *note DICT_UPDATE: 46ea. but raises an exception for duplicate
     keys.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ATTR (namei)

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is not set, this replaces ‘STACK[-1]’
     with ‘getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])’.

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, this will attempt to load a
     method named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ from the ‘STACK[-1]’ object.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.  This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if
     ‘STACK[-1]’ has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes
     the unbound method and ‘STACK[-1]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ will be used as
     the first argument (‘self’) by *note CALL: 6f3. or *note CALL_KW:
     169e. when calling the unbound method.  Otherwise, ‘NULL’ and the
     object returned by the attribute lookup are pushed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set,
     then a ‘NULL’ or ‘self’ is pushed to the stack before the attribute
     or unbound method respectively.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (namei)

     This opcode implements *note super(): 4c8, both in its
     zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g.  ‘super().method()’,
     ‘super().attr’ and ‘super(cls, self).method()’, ‘super(cls,
     self).attr’).

     It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down):

        * ‘self’: the first argument to the current method

        * ‘cls’: the class within which the current method was defined

        * the global ‘super’

     With respect to its argument, it works similarly to *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 4cb, except that ‘namei’ is shifted left by 2 bits
     instead of 1.

     The low bit of ‘namei’ signals to attempt a method load, as with
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 4cb, which results in pushing ‘NULL’ and the
     loaded method.  When it is unset a single value is pushed to the
     stack.

     The second-low bit of ‘namei’, if set, means that this was a
     two-argument call to *note super(): 4c8. (unset means
     zero-argument).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COMPARE_OP (opname)

     Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
     ‘cmp_op[opname >> 5]’.  If the fifth-lowest bit of ‘opname’ is set
     (‘opname & 16’), the result should be coerced to ‘bool’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The fifth-lowest bit of the oparg now
     indicates a forced conversion to *note bool: 453.

 -- Opcode: IS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘is’ comparison, or ‘is not’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: CONTAINS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘in’ comparison, or ‘not in’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_NAME (namei)

     Imports the module ‘co_names[namei]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’
     are popped and provide the 'fromlist' and 'level' arguments of
     *note __import__(): 8c3.  The module object is pushed onto the
     stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import
     statement, a subsequent *note STORE_FAST: 16ab. instruction
     modifies the namespace.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_FROM (namei)

     Loads the attribute ‘co_names[namei]’ from the module found in
     ‘STACK[-1]’.  The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be
     subsequently stored by a *note STORE_FAST: 16ab. instruction.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)

     Increments bytecode counter by 'delta'.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Checks for interrupts.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Does not check for
     interrupts.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is true, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta
     rather than an absolute target.  This opcode is a
     pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed
     versions (forward/backward).

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a
     pseudo-instruction.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This instruction now requires an
     exact *note bool: 453. operand.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is false, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta
     rather than an absolute target.  This opcode is a
     pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed
     versions (forward/backward).

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a
     pseudo-instruction.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This instruction now requires an
     exact *note bool: 453. operand.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is not ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a
     pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a
     pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: FOR_ITER (delta)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is an *note iterator: 1aa.  Call its *note __next__():
     12ad. method.  If this yields a new value, push it on the stack
     (leaving the iterator below it).  If the iterator indicates it is
     exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by 'delta'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped
     when it was exhausted.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)

     Loads the global named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ onto the stack.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set,
     then a ‘NULL’ is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This opcode is now only used in
     situations where the local variable is guaranteed to be
     initialized.  It cannot raise *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)

     Pushes references to ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’ onto the stack.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack, raising an *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed. if the local
     variable has not been initialized.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack (or pushes ‘NULL’ onto the stack if the local variable has
     not been initialized) and sets ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ to ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST (var_num)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (var_nums)

     Stores ‘STACK[-1]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘STACK[-2]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’
     and pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’
     onto the stack.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_FAST (var_num)

     Deletes local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_CELL (i)

     Creates a new cell in slot ‘i’.  If that slot is nonempty then that
     value is stored into the new cell.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_DEREF (i)

     Loads the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the "fast locals" storage.
     Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length
     of *note co_varnames: 1ef8.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with
     slot ‘i’ of the "fast locals" storage in this mapping.  If the name
     is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot ‘i’,
     similar to *note LOAD_DEREF: 46f5.  This is used for loading *note
     closure variables: 1efb. in class bodies (which previously used
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’) and in *note annotation scopes: 186. within
     class bodies.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_DEREF (i)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the
     "fast locals" storage.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length
     of *note co_varnames: 1ef8.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_DEREF (i)

     Empties the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the "fast locals"
     storage.  Used by the *note del: 1762. statement.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length
     of *note co_varnames: 1ef8.

 -- Opcode: COPY_FREE_VARS (n)

     Copies the ‘n’ *note free (closure) variables: 1efb. from the
     closure into the frame.  Removes the need for special code on the
     caller's side when calling closures.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)

     Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the ‘raise’
     statement, depending on the value of 'argc':

        * 0: ‘raise’ (re-raise previous exception)

        * 1: ‘raise STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at
          ‘STACK[-1]’)

        * 2: ‘raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance
          or type at ‘STACK[-2]’ with ‘__cause__’ set to ‘STACK[-1]’)

 -- Opcode: CALL (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’.  On the stack are (in ascending order):

        * The callable

        * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’

        * The remaining positional arguments

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional arguments, excluding ‘self’.

     ‘CALL’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
     calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the
     return value returned by the callable object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The callable now always appears at
     the same position on the stack.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Calls with keyword arguments are now
     handled by *note CALL_KW: 169e.

 -- Opcode: CALL_KW (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’, including one or more named arguments.  On the stack are
     (in ascending order):

        * The callable

        * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’

        * The remaining positional arguments

        * The named arguments

        * A *note tuple: 366. of keyword argument names

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional and named arguments,
     excluding ‘self’.  The length of the tuple of keyword argument
     names is the number of named arguments.

     ‘CALL_KW’ pops all arguments, the keyword names, and the callable
     object off the stack, calls the callable object with those
     arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable
     object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)

     Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
     arguments.  If the lowest bit of 'flags' is set, the top of the
     stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword
     arguments.  Before the callable is called, the mapping object and
     iterable object are each "unpacked" and their contents passed in as
     keyword and positional arguments respectively.  ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’
     pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the
     callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
     returned by the callable object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_NULL

     Pushes a ‘NULL’ to the stack.  Used in the call sequence to match
     the ‘NULL’ pushed by *note LOAD_METHOD: c0f. for non-method calls.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_FUNCTION

     Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code
     object at ‘STACK[-1]’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Flag value ‘0x04’ is a tuple of
     strings instead of dictionary

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Qualified name at ‘STACK[-1]’ was
     removed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Extra function attributes on the
     stack, signaled by oparg flags, were removed.  They now use *note
     SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE: 46f9.

 -- Opcode: SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (flag)

     Sets an attribute on a function object.  Expects the function at
     ‘STACK[-1]’ and the attribute value to set at ‘STACK[-2]’; consumes
     both and leaves the function at ‘STACK[-1]’.  The flag determines
     which attribute to set:

        * ‘0x01’ a tuple of default values for positional-only and
          positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

        * ‘0x02’ a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values

        * ‘0x04’ a tuple of strings containing parameters' annotations

        * ‘0x08’ a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a
          closure

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SLICE (argc)

     Pushes a slice object on the stack.  'argc' must be 2 or 3.  If it
     is 2, implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end))

     if it is 3, implements:

          step = STACK.pop()
          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

     See the *note slice(): 455. built-in function for more information.

 -- Opcode: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)

     Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the
     default one byte.  'ext' holds an additional byte which act as
     higher bits in the argument.  For each opcode, at most three
     prefixal ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ are allowed, forming an argument from
     two-byte to four-byte.

 -- Opcode: CONVERT_VALUE (oparg)

     Convert value to a string, depending on ‘oparg’:

          value = STACK.pop()
          result = func(value)
          STACK.append(result)

        * ‘oparg == 1’: call *note str(): 437. on 'value'

        * ‘oparg == 2’: call *note repr(): 7e9. on 'value'

        * ‘oparg == 3’: call *note ascii(): 139f. on 'value'

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_SIMPLE

     Formats the value on top of stack:

          value = STACK.pop()
          result = value.__format__("")
          STACK.append(result)

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_WITH_SPEC

     Formats the given value with the given format spec:

          spec = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          result = value.__format__(spec)
          STACK.append(result)

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_CLASS (count)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of keyword attribute names, ‘STACK[-2]’ is
     the class being matched against, and ‘STACK[-3]’ is the match
     subject.  'count' is the number of positional sub-patterns.

     Pop ‘STACK[-1]’, ‘STACK[-2]’, and ‘STACK[-3]’.  If ‘STACK[-3]’ is
     an instance of ‘STACK[-2]’ and has the positional and keyword
     attributes required by 'count' and ‘STACK[-1]’, push a tuple of
     extracted attributes.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also
     pushed a boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure
     (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: RESUME (context)

     A no-op.  Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization
     checks.

     The ‘context’ oparand consists of two parts.  The lowest two bits
     indicate where the ‘RESUME’ occurs:

        * ‘0’ The start of a function, which is neither a generator,
          coroutine nor an async generator

        * ‘1’ After a ‘yield’ expression

        * ‘2’ After a ‘yield from’ expression

        * ‘3’ After an ‘await’ expression

     The next bit is ‘1’ if the RESUME is at except-depth ‘1’, and ‘0’
     otherwise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The oparg value changed to include
     information about except-depth

 -- Opcode: RETURN_GENERATOR

     Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current
     frame.  Used as first opcode of in code object for the above
     mentioned callables.  Clear the current frame and return the newly
     created generator.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SEND (delta)

     Equivalent to ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])’.  Used in
     ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ statements.

     If the call raises *note StopIteration: bea, pop the top value from
     the stack, push the exception's ‘value’ attribute, and increment
     the bytecode counter by 'delta'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: HAVE_ARGUMENT

     This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line
     between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don't use their argument
     and those that do (‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ and ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’,
     respectively).

     If your application uses pseudo instructions or specialized
     instructions, use the *note hasarg: 29b. collection instead.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument,
     but opcodes ‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ ignore it.  Before, only opcodes ‘>=
     HAVE_ARGUMENT’ had an argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Pseudo instructions were added to the
     *note dis: 38. module, and for them it is not true that comparison
     with ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ indicates whether they use their arg.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use *note hasarg: 29b. instead.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_1

     Calls an intrinsic function with one argument.  Passes ‘STACK[-1]’
     as the argument and sets ‘STACK[-1]’ to the result.  Used to
     implement functionality that is not performance critical.

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                 Description
                                             
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_1_INVALID’                   Not valid
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PRINT’                       Prints the argument to standard out.
                                             Used in the REPL.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR’                 Performs ‘import *’ for the named
                                             module.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR’         Extracts the return value from a
                                             ‘StopIteration’ exception.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’              Wraps an async generator value
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE’              Performs the unary ‘+’ operation
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE’               Converts a list to a tuple
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR’                     Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15c.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.ParamSpec: 15d.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE’                Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15e.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC’           Returns *note typing.Generic: 15d4.
                                             subscripted with the argument
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeAliasType: 440.;
                                             used in the *note type: 423.
                                             statement.  The argument is a tuple
                                             of the type alias's name, type
                                             parameters, and value.
                                             

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_2

     Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments.  Used to implement
     functionality that is not performance critical:

          arg2 = STACK.pop()
          arg1 = STACK.pop()
          result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
          STACK.append(result)

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                      Description
                                                  
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_2_INVALID’                        Not valid
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR’                Calculates the
                                                  *note ExceptionGroup: 1b4. to raise
                                                  from a ‘try-except*’.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND’               Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15c.
                                                  with a bound.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS’         Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15c.
                                                  with constraints.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS’         Sets the ‘__type_params__’ attribute
                                                  of a function.
                                                  

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

'Pseudo-instructions'

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode.  They are used by the
compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is
generated.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_FINALLY (target)

     Set up an exception handler for the following code block.  If an
     exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current
     state and control is transferred to the exception handler at
     ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_CLEANUP (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, but in case of an exception also pushes the
     last instruction (‘lasti’) to the stack so that ‘RERAISE’ can
     restore it.  If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the
     last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state,
     and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_WITH (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’, but in case of an exception one more item is
     popped from the stack before control is transferred to the
     exception handler at ‘target’.

     This variant is used in *note with: 5be. and *note async with: 5c1.
     constructs, which push the return value of the context manager's
     *note __enter__(): 5b4. or *note __aenter__(): 1f89. to the stack.

 -- Opcode: POP_BLOCK

     Marks the end of the code block associated with the last
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’ or ‘SETUP_WITH’.

 -- Opcode: JUMP

 -- Opcode: JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

     Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their
     directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)

     Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the "fast
     locals" storage.

     Note that ‘LOAD_CLOSURE’ is replaced with ‘LOAD_FAST’ in the
     assembler.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: This opcode is now a
     pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_METHOD

     Optimized unbound method lookup.  Emitted as a ‘LOAD_ATTR’ opcode
     with a flag set in the arg.


File: python.info,  Node: Opcode collections,  Prev: Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python,  Up: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.5 Opcode collections
............................

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
instructions:

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The collections now contain pseudo
instructions and instrumented instructions as well.  These are opcodes
with values ‘>= MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE’.

 -- Données: dis.opname

     Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

 -- Données: dis.opmap

     Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

 -- Données: dis.cmp_op

     Sequence of all compare operation names.

 -- Données: dis.hasarg

     Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: dis.hasconst

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

 -- Données: dis.hasfree

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a *note free (closure) variable:
     1efb.  'free' in this context refers to names in the current scope
     that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that
     are referenced from this scope.  It does 'not' include references
     to global or builtin scopes.

 -- Données: dis.hasname

     Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

 -- Données: dis.hasjump

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a jump target.  All jumps are
     relative.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- Données: dis.haslocal

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

 -- Données: dis.hascompare

     Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.

 -- Données: dis.hasexc

     Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Données: dis.hasjrel

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: All jumps are now relative.  Use
     *note hasjump: 4709.

 -- Données: dis.hasjabs

     Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: All jumps are now relative.  This
     list is empty.


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers,  Prev: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Up: Services du Langage Python

5.33.11 ‘pickletools’ -- Tools for pickle developers
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pickletools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details
of the *note pickle: a5. module, some lengthy comments about the
implementation, and a few useful functions for analyzing pickled data.
The contents of this module are useful for Python core developers who
are working on the *note pickle: a5.; ordinary users of the *note
pickle: a5. module probably won't find the *note pickletools: a6. module
relevant.

* Menu:

* Utilisation de la ligne de commande: Utilisation de la ligne de commande<2>.
* Programmatic Interface: Programmatic Interface<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pickletools.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de la ligne de commande<2>,  Next: Programmatic Interface<2>,  Up: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers

5.33.11.1 Utilisation de la ligne de commande
.............................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

When invoked from the command line, ‘python -m pickletools’ will
disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files.  Note that if you
want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the
details of pickle format, you may want to use ‘-m pickle’ instead.
However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an
untrusted source, ‘-m pickletools’ is a safer option because it does not
execute pickle bytecode.

For example, with a tuple ‘(1, 2)’ pickled in file ‘x.pickle’:

     $ python -m pickle x.pickle
     (1, 2)

     $ python -m pickletools x.pickle
         0: \x80 PROTO      3
         2: K    BININT1    1
         4: K    BININT1    2
         6: \x86 TUPLE2
         7: q    BINPUT     0
         9: .    STOP
     highest protocol among opcodes = 2

* Menu:

* Options de la ligne de commande: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de la ligne de commande<6>,  Up: Utilisation de la ligne de commande<2>

5.33.11.2 Options de la ligne de commande
.........................................

 -- Option: -a, --annotate

     Annotate each line with a short opcode description.

 -- Option: -o, --output=<file>

     Name of a file where the output should be written.

 -- Option: -l, --indentlevel=<num>

     The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level.

 -- Option: -m, --memo

     When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between
     disassemblies.

 -- Option: -p, --preamble=<preamble>

     When more than one pickle file are specified, print given preamble
     before each disassembly.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic Interface<2>,  Prev: Utilisation de la ligne de commande<2>,  Up: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers

5.33.11.3 Programmatic Interface
................................

 -- Fonction: pickletools.dis (pickle, out=None, memo=None,
          indentlevel=4, annotate=0)

     Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like
     object 'out', defaulting to ‘sys.stdout’.  'pickle' can be a string
     or a file-like object.  'memo' can be a Python dictionary that will
     be used as the pickle's memo; it can be used to perform
     disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same pickler.
     Successive levels, indicated by ‘MARK’ opcodes in the stream, are
     indented by 'indentlevel' spaces.  If a nonzero value is given to
     'annotate', each opcode in the output is annotated with a short
     description.  The value of 'annotate' is used as a hint for the
     column where annotation should start.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the 'annotate' parameter.

 -- Fonction: pickletools.genops (pickle)

     Provides an *note iterator: 1aa. over all of the opcodes in a
     pickle, returning a sequence of ‘(opcode, arg, pos)’ triples.
     'opcode' is an instance of an ‘OpcodeInfo’ class; 'arg' is the
     decoded value, as a Python object, of the opcode's argument; 'pos'
     is the position at which this opcode is located.  'pickle' can be a
     string or a file-like object.

 -- Fonction: pickletools.optimize (picklestring)

     Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused
     ‘PUT’ opcodes.  The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less
     transmission time, requires less storage space, and unpickles more
     efficiently.


File: python.info,  Node: Services spécifiques à MS Windows,  Next: Services spécifiques à Unix,  Prev: Services du Langage Python,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.34 Services spécifiques à MS Windows
======================================

Ce chapitre documente les modules qui ne sont disponibles que sous MS
Windows.

* Menu:

* msvcrt: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
* winreg: winreg --- Windows registry access. Windows registry access
* winsound: winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows. Sound-playing interface for Windows


File: python.info,  Node: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime,  Next: winreg --- Windows registry access,  Up: Services spécifiques à MS Windows

5.34.1 ‘msvcrt’ -- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows
platforms.  Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the
Windows implementations of their services.  For example, the *note
getpass: 61. module uses this in the implementation of the *note
getpass(): 61. function.

Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform
API documentation.

The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the
console I/O api.  The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is
of limited use for internationalized applications.  The wide char API
should be used where ever possible.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les opérations de ce module lèvent
désormais *note OSError: 40d. au lieu de *note IOError: 103d.

* Menu:

* Opérations sur les fichiers::
* Entrées-sorties sur un terminal::
* Autres fonctions: Autres fonctions<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Opérations sur les fichiers,  Next: Entrées-sorties sur un terminal,  Up: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.34.1.1 Opérations sur les fichiers
....................................

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.locking (fd, mode, nbytes)

     Lock part of a file based on file descriptor 'fd' from the C
     runtime.  Raises *note OSError: 40d. on failure.  The locked region
     of the file extends from the current file position for 'nbytes'
     bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘LK_*’ constants listed below.  Multiple regions in a
     file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap.  Adjacent
     regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘msvcrt.locking’ with
     arguments ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’.

 -- Données: msvcrt.LK_LOCK
 -- Données: msvcrt.LK_RLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, the
     program immediately tries again after 1 second.  If, after 10
     attempts, the bytes cannot be locked, *note OSError: 40d. is
     raised.

 -- Données: msvcrt.LK_NBLCK
 -- Données: msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK

     Verrouille les octets spécifiés.  Si les octets ne peuvent pas être
     verrouillés, *note OSError: 40d. est levée.

 -- Données: msvcrt.LK_UNLCK

     Déverrouille les octets spécifiés, qui doivent avoir été
     précédemment verrouillés.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.setmode (fd, flags)

     Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor 'fd'.  To
     set it to text mode, 'flags' should be *note os.O_TEXT: 2b13.; for
     binary, it should be *note os.O_BINARY: 2b04.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.open_osfhandle (handle, flags)

     Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle 'handle'.
     The 'flags' parameter should be a bitwise OR of *note os.O_APPEND:
     2b06, *note os.O_RDONLY: 2b02, *note os.O_TEXT: 2b13. and *note
     os.O_NOINHERIT: 2b0e.  The returned file descriptor may be used as
     a parameter to *note os.fdopen(): 1eee. to create a file object.

     The file descriptor is inheritable by default.  Pass *note
     os.O_NOINHERIT: 2b0e. flag to make it non inheritable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘msvcrt.open_osfhandle’ with
     arguments ‘handle’, ‘flags’.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.get_osfhandle (fd)

     Return the file handle for the file descriptor 'fd'.  Raises *note
     OSError: 40d. if 'fd' is not recognized.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘msvcrt.get_osfhandle’ with
     argument ‘fd’.


File: python.info,  Node: Entrées-sorties sur un terminal,  Next: Autres fonctions<4>,  Prev: Opérations sur les fichiers,  Up: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.34.1.2 Entrées-sorties sur un terminal
........................................

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.kbhit ()

     Returns a nonzero value if a keypress is waiting to be read.
     Otherwise, return 0.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.getch ()

     Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte
     string.  Nothing is echoed to the console.  This call will block if
     a keypress is not already available, but will not wait for ‘Enter’
     to be pressed.  If the pressed key was a special function key, this
     will return ‘'\000'’ or ‘'\xe0'’; the next call will return the
     keycode.  The ‘Control’-‘C’ keypress cannot be read with this
     function.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.getwch ()

     Variante de *note getch(): 472e. qui lit un caractère large et
     renvoie une valeur Unicode.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.getche ()

     Similar to *note getch(): 472e, but the keypress will be echoed if
     it represents a printable character.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.getwche ()

     Variante de *note getche(): 472f. qui lit un caractère large et
     renvoie une valeur Unicode.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.putch (char)

     Print the byte string 'char' to the console without buffering.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.putwch (unicode_char)

     Variante de *note putch(): 4730. qui accepte une valeur Unicode et
     l'écrit comme caractère large.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.ungetch (char)

     Cause the byte string 'char' to be "pushed back" into the console
     buffer; it will be the next character read by *note getch(): 472e.
     or *note getche(): 472f.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.ungetwch (unicode_char)

     Variante de *note ungetch(): 4731. qui accepte une valeur Unicode
     et l'écrit comme caractère large.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres fonctions<4>,  Prev: Entrées-sorties sur un terminal,  Up: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.34.1.3 Autres fonctions
.........................

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.heapmin ()

     Force the ‘malloc()’ heap to clean itself up and return unused
     blocks to the operating system.  On failure, this raises *note
     OSError: 40d.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.set_error_mode (mode)

     Changes the location where the C runtime writes an error message
     for an error that might end the program.  'mode' must be one of the
     ‘OUT_*’ constants listed below or *note REPORT_ERRMODE: 4737.
     Returns the old setting or -1 if an error occurs.  Only available
     in *note debug build of Python: 1f6.

 -- Données: msvcrt.OUT_TO_DEFAULT

     Error sink is determined by the app's type.  Only available in
     *note debug build of Python: 1f6.

 -- Données: msvcrt.OUT_TO_STDERR

     Error sink is a standard error.  Only available in *note debug
     build of Python: 1f6.

 -- Données: msvcrt.OUT_TO_MSGBOX

     Error sink is a message box.  Only available in *note debug build
     of Python: 1f6.

 -- Données: msvcrt.REPORT_ERRMODE

     Report the current error mode value.  Only available in *note debug
     build of Python: 1f6.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.CrtSetReportMode (type, mode)

     Specifies the destination or destinations for a specific report
     type generated by ‘_CrtDbgReport()’ in the MS VC++ runtime.  'type'
     must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants listed below.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘CRTDBG_*’ constants listed below.  Only available in
     *note debug build of Python: 1f6.

 -- Fonction: msvcrt.CrtSetReportFile (type, file)

     After you use *note CrtSetReportMode(): 473b. to specify *note
     CRTDBG_MODE_FILE: 473d, you can specify the file handle to receive
     the message text.  'type' must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants
     listed below.  'file' should be the file handle your want
     specified.  Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1f6.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRT_WARN

     Warnings, messages, and information that doesn't need immediate
     attention.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRT_ERROR

     Errors, unrecoverable problems, and issues that require immediate
     attention.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRT_ASSERT

     Assertion failures.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG

     Writes the message to the debugger's output window.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_FILE

     Writes the message to a user-supplied file handle.  *note
     CrtSetReportFile(): 473c. should be called to define the specific
     file or stream to use as the destination.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW

     Creates a message box to display the message along with the
     ‘Abort’, ‘Retry’, and ‘Ignore’ buttons.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE

     Returns current 'mode' for the specified 'type'.

 -- Données: msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION

     The CRT Assembly version, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file.

 -- Données: msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN

     The VC Assembly public key token, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.

 -- Données: msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX

     The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.


File: python.info,  Node: winreg --- Windows registry access,  Next: winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows,  Prev: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime,  Up: Services spécifiques à MS Windows

5.34.2 ‘winreg’ -- Windows registry access
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python.  Instead of
using an integer as the registry handle, a *note handle object: 4746. is
used to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the
programmer neglects to explicitly close them.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Several functions in this module used to
raise a *note WindowsError: 103f, which is now an alias of *note
OSError: 40d.

* Menu:

* Fonctions: Fonctions<13>.
* Constantes: Constantes<10>.
* Registry Handle Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions<13>,  Next: Constantes<10>,  Up: winreg --- Windows registry access

5.34.2.1 Fonctions
..................

This module offers the following functions:

 -- Fonction: winreg.CloseKey (hkey)

     Closes a previously opened registry key.  The 'hkey' argument
     specifies a previously opened key.

          Note: If 'hkey' is not closed using this method (or via *note
          hkey.Close(): 474b.), it is closed when the 'hkey' object is
          destroyed by Python.

 -- Fonction: winreg.ConnectRegistry (computer_name, key)

     Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another
     computer, and returns a *note handle object: 4746.

     'computer_name' is the name of the remote computer, of the form
     ‘r"\\computername"’.  If ‘None’, the local computer is used.

     'key' is the predefined handle to connect to.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 40d. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.ConnectRegistry’ with
     arguments ‘computer_name’, ‘key’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.CreateKey (key, sub_key)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 4746.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 40d. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.CreateKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_WRITE)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 4746.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WRITE: 474d.  See *note Access Rights: 474e. for other allowed
     values.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 40d. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.DeleteKey (key, sub_key)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 40d.
     exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.DeleteKeyEx (key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY,
          reserved=0)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WOW64_64KEY: 474f.  On 32-bit Windows, the WOW64 constants are
     ignored.  See *note Access Rights: 474e. for other allowed values.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 40d.
     exception is raised.

     On unsupported Windows versions, *note NotImplementedError: 225. is
     raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.DeleteValue (key, value)

     Removes a named value from a registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'value' is a string that identifies the value to remove.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.DeleteValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘value’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.EnumKey (key, index)

     Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the key to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly until an *note OSError:
     40d. exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.EnumKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘index’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.EnumValue (key, index)

     Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the value to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly, until an *note OSError:
     40d. exception is raised, indicating no more values.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       Signification
                 
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         A string that identifies the value name
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An object that holds the value data, and whose
                 type depends on the underlying registry type
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer that identifies the type of the
                 value data (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 174a.)
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.EnumValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘index’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings (str)

     Expands environment variable placeholders ‘%NAME%’ in strings like
     *note REG_EXPAND_SZ: 4750.:

          >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
          'C:\\Windows'

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings’ with argument ‘str’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.FlushKey (key)

     Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     It is not necessary to call *note FlushKey(): 4751. to change a
     key.  Registry changes are flushed to disk by the registry using
     its lazy flusher.  Registry changes are also flushed to disk at
     system shutdown.  Unlike *note CloseKey(): 474a, the *note
     FlushKey(): 4751. method returns only when all the data has been
     written to the registry.  An application should only call *note
     FlushKey(): 4751. if it requires absolute certainty that registry
     changes are on disk.

          Note: If you don't know whether a *note FlushKey(): 4751. call
          is required, it probably isn't.

 -- Fonction: winreg.LoadKey (key, sub_key, file_name)

     Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration
     information from a specified file into that subkey.

     'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 4190. or one
     of the constants *note HKEY_USERS: 4752. or *note
     HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE: 4753.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the subkey to load.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to load registry data from.
     This file must have been created with the *note SaveKey(): 419c.
     function.  Under the file allocation table (FAT) file system, the
     filename may not have an extension.

     A call to *note LoadKey(): 4196. fails if the calling process does
     not have the ‘SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE’ privilege.  Note that
     privileges are different from permissions - see the RegLoadKey
     documentation(1) for more details.

     If 'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 4190,
     then the path specified in 'file_name' is relative to the remote
     computer.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.LoadKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.OpenKey (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)
 -- Fonction: winreg.OpenKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_READ)

     Opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 4746.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_READ: 4755.  See *note Access Rights: 474e. for other allowed
     values.

     The result is a new handle to the specified key.

     If the function fails, *note OSError: 40d. is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.OpenKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Allow the use of named arguments.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: See *note above: 4747.

 -- Fonction: winreg.QueryInfoKey (key)

     Returns information about a key, as a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       Signification
                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         An integer giving the number of sub keys this
                 key has.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the number of values this key
                 has.
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer giving when the key was last
                 modified (if available) as 100's of nanoseconds
                 since Jan 1, 1601.
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.QueryInfoKey’ with
     argument ‘key’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.QueryValue (key, sub_key)

     Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which
     the value is associated.  If this parameter is ‘None’ or empty, the
     function retrieves the value set by the *note SetValue(): 419d.
     method for the key identified by 'key'.

     Values in the registry have name, type, and data components.  This
     method retrieves the data for a key's first value that has a ‘NULL’
     name.  But the underlying API call doesn't return the type, so
     always use *note QueryValueEx(): 419b. if possible.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.QueryValueEx (key, value_name)

     Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated
     with an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'value_name' is a string indicating the value to query.

     The result is a tuple of 2 items:

     Index       Signification
                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The value of the registry item.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the registry type for
                 this value (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 174a.)
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.SaveKey (key, file_name)

     Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to save registry data to.  This
     file cannot already exist.  If this filename includes an extension,
     it cannot be used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by
     the *note LoadKey(): 4196. method.

     If 'key' represents a key on a remote computer, the path described
     by 'file_name' is relative to the remote computer.  The caller of
     this method must possess the 'SeBackupPrivilege' security
     privilege.  Note that privileges are different than permissions -
     see the Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions
     documentation(2) for more details.

     This function passes ‘NULL’ for 'security_attributes' to the API.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.SaveKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘file_name’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.SetValue (key, sub_key, type, value)

     Associates a value with a specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the subkey with which the value is
     associated.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.
     Currently this must be *note REG_SZ: 4756, meaning only strings are
     supported.  Use the *note SetValueEx(): 174a. function for support
     for other data types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     If the key specified by the 'sub_key' parameter does not exist, the
     SetValue function creates it.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     The key identified by the 'key' parameter must have been opened
     with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4757. access.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.SetValueEx (key, value_name, reserved, type, value)

     Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     'value_name' is a string that names the subkey with which the value
     is associated.

     'reserved' can be anything - zero is always passed to the API.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.  See
     *note Value Types: 4758. for the available types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     This method can also set additional value and type information for
     the specified key.  The key identified by the key parameter must
     have been opened with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4757. access.

     To open the key, use the *note CreateKey(): 4191. or *note
     OpenKey(): 4197. methods.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.DisableReflectionKey (key)

     Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a
     64-bit operating system.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but
     has no effect.  Disabling reflection for a key does not affect
     reflection of any subkeys.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.DisableReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.EnableReflectionKey (key)

     Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any
     subkeys.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.EnableReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

 -- Fonction: winreg.QueryReflectionKey (key)

     Determines the reflection state for the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 474c.

     Returns ‘True’ if reflection is disabled.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 225. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.QueryReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Constantes<10>,  Next: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: Fonctions<13>,  Up: winreg --- Windows registry access

5.34.2.2 Constantes
...................

The following constants are defined for use in many *note winreg: 115.
functions.

* Menu:

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::


File: python.info,  Node: HKEY_* Constants,  Next: Access Rights,  Up: Constantes<10>

5.34.2.3 HKEY_* Constants
.........................

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes)
     of documents and the properties associated with those types.  Shell
     and COM applications use the information stored under this key.

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of
     the current user.  These preferences include the settings of
     environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers,
     network connections, and application preferences.

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state
     of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory,
     and installed hardware and software.

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_USERS

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user
     configuration for new users on the local computer and the user
     configuration for the current user.

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA

     Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access
     performance data.  The data is not actually stored in the registry;
     the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from
     its source.

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

     Contains information about the current hardware profile of the
     local computer system.

 -- Données: winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA

     This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.


File: python.info,  Node: Access Rights,  Next: Value Types,  Prev: HKEY_* Constants,  Up: Constantes<10>

5.34.2.4 Access Rights
......................

For more information, see Registry Key Security and Access(1).

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 4763,
     *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4757, *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 4764, *note
     KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 4765, *note KEY_NOTIFY: 4766, and *note
     KEY_CREATE_LINK: 4767. access rights.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_WRITE

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4757, and
     *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 4764. access rights.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_READ

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 4763,
     *note KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 4765, and *note KEY_NOTIFY: 4766.
     values.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_EXECUTE

     Equivalent to *note KEY_READ: 4755.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE

     Required to query the values of a registry key.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE

     Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY

     Required to create a subkey of a registry key.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS

     Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_NOTIFY

     Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for
     subkeys of a registry key.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK

     Reserved for system use.

* Menu:

* 64-bit Specific::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 64-bit Specific,  Up: Access Rights

5.34.2.5 64-bit Specific
........................

For more information, see Accessing an Alternate Registry View(1).

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 64-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

 -- Données: winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 32-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Value Types,  Prev: Access Rights,  Up: Constantes<10>

5.34.2.6 Value Types
....................

For more information, see Registry Value Types(1).

 -- Données: winreg.REG_BINARY

     Binary data in any form.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_DWORD

     32-bit number.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_DWORD: 476e.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in big-endian format.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ

     Null-terminated string containing references to environment
     variables (‘%PATH%’).

 -- Données: winreg.REG_LINK

     A Unicode symbolic link.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ

     A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null
     characters.  (Python handles this termination automatically.)

 -- Données: winreg.REG_NONE

     No defined value type.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_QWORD

     A 64-bit number.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 64-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_QWORD: cf2.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST

     A device-driver resource list.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR

     A hardware setting.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST

     A hardware resource list.

 -- Données: winreg.REG_SZ

     A null-terminated string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: Constantes<10>,  Up: winreg --- Windows registry access

5.34.2.7 Registry Handle Objects
................................

This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when
the object is destroyed.  To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the
*note Close(): 474b. method on the object, or the *note CloseKey():
474a. function.

All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.

All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also
accept an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.

Handle objects provide semantics for *note __bool__(): 12b5. - thus

     if handle:
         print("Yes")

will print ‘Yes’ if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed
or detached).

The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will
compare true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle
value.

Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
*note int(): 254. function), in which case the underlying Windows handle
value is returned.  You can also use the *note Detach(): 4198. method to
return the integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from
the handle object.

 -- Méthode: PyHKEY.Close ()

     Closes the underlying Windows handle.

     If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.

 -- Méthode: PyHKEY.Detach ()

     Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.

     The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before
     it is detached.  If the handle is already detached or closed, this
     will return zero.

     After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated,
     but the handle is not closed.  You would call this function when
     you need the underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime
     of the handle object.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘winreg.PyHKEY.Detach’ with
     argument ‘key’.

 -- Méthode: PyHKEY.__enter__ ()
 -- Méthode: PyHKEY.__exit__ (*exc_info)

     The HKEY object implements *note __enter__(): 5b4. and *note
     __exit__(): 12e0. and thus supports the context protocol for the
     *note with: 5be. statement:

          with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
              ...  # work with key

     will automatically close 'key' when control leaves the *note with:
     5be. block.


File: python.info,  Node: winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows,  Prev: winreg --- Windows registry access,  Up: Services spécifiques à MS Windows

5.34.3 ‘winsound’ -- Sound-playing interface for Windows
--------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note winsound: 116. module provides access to the basic
sound-playing machinery provided by Windows platforms.  It includes
functions and several constants.

 -- Fonction: winsound.Beep (frequency, duration)

     Beep the PC's speaker.  The 'frequency' parameter specifies
     frequency, in hertz, of the sound, and must be in the range 37
     through 32,767.  The 'duration' parameter specifies the number of
     milliseconds the sound should last.  If the system is not able to
     beep the speaker, *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised.

 -- Fonction: winsound.PlaySound (sound, flags)

     Call the underlying ‘PlaySound()’ function from the Platform API.
     The 'sound' parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias,
     audio data as a *note bytes-like object: d1d, or ‘None’.  Its
     interpretation depends on the value of 'flags', which can be a
     bitwise ORed combination of the constants described below.  If the
     'sound' parameter is ‘None’, any currently playing waveform sound
     is stopped.  If the system indicates an error, *note RuntimeError:
     193. is raised.

 -- Fonction: winsound.MessageBeep (type=MB_OK)

     Call the underlying ‘MessageBeep()’ function from the Platform API.
     This plays a sound as specified in the registry.  The 'type'
     argument specifies which sound to play; possible values are ‘-1’,
     ‘MB_ICONASTERISK’, ‘MB_ICONEXCLAMATION’, ‘MB_ICONHAND’,
     ‘MB_ICONQUESTION’, and ‘MB_OK’, all described below.  The value
     ‘-1’ produces a "simple beep"; this is the final fallback if a
     sound cannot be played otherwise.  If the system indicates an
     error, *note RuntimeError: 193. is raised.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_FILENAME

     The 'sound' parameter is the name of a WAV file.  Do not use with
     *note SND_ALIAS: 477d.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_ALIAS

     The 'sound' parameter is a sound association name from the
     registry.  If the registry contains no such name, play the system
     default sound unless *note SND_NODEFAULT: 477e. is also specified.
     If no default sound is registered, raise *note RuntimeError: 193.
     Do not use with *note SND_FILENAME: 477c.

     All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems
     support many more:

     *note PlaySound(): cf6.        Corresponding Control Panel Sound name
     'name'                         

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
     ‘'SystemAsterisk'’             Asterisk
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExclamation'’          Exclamation
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExit'’                 Exit Windows
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemHand'’                 Critical Stop
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemQuestion'’             Question
                                    

     Par exemple :

          import winsound
          # Play Windows exit sound.
          winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

          # Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because
          # "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound).
          winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

 -- Données: winsound.SND_LOOP

     Play the sound repeatedly.  The *note SND_ASYNC: 4780. flag must
     also be used to avoid blocking.  Cannot be used with *note
     SND_MEMORY: 4781.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_MEMORY

     The 'sound' parameter to *note PlaySound(): cf6. is a memory image
     of a WAV file, as a *note bytes-like object: d1d.

          Note: This module does not support playing from a memory image
          asynchronously, so a combination of this flag and *note
          SND_ASYNC: 4780. will raise *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_PURGE

     Stop playing all instances of the specified sound.

          Note: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_ASYNC

     Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_NODEFAULT

     If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system
     default sound.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_NOSTOP

     Do not interrupt sounds currently playing.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_NOWAIT

     Return immediately if the sound driver is busy.

          Note: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

 -- Données: winsound.SND_APPLICATION

     The 'sound' parameter is an application-specific alias in the
     registry.  This flag can be combined with the *note SND_ALIAS:
     477d. flag to specify an application-defined sound alias.

 -- Données: winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK

     Play the ‘SystemDefault’ sound.

 -- Données: winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION

     Play the ‘SystemExclamation’ sound.

 -- Données: winsound.MB_ICONHAND

     Play the ‘SystemHand’ sound.

 -- Données: winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION

     Play the ‘SystemQuestion’ sound.

 -- Données: winsound.MB_OK

     Play the ‘SystemDefault’ sound.


File: python.info,  Node: Services spécifiques à Unix,  Next: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Prev: Services spécifiques à MS Windows,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.35 Services spécifiques à Unix
================================

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent des interfaces aux
fonctionnalités propres au système d'exploitation Unix ou, dans certains
cas, à certaines de ses variantes, en voici un aperçu :

* Menu:

* posix: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls. The most common POSIX system calls
* pwd: pwd --- The password database. The password database
* grp: grp --- The group database. The group database
* termios: termios --- POSIX style tty control. POSIX style tty control
* tty: tty --- Terminal control functions. Terminal control functions
* pty: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities. Pseudo-terminal utilities
* fcntl: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls. The fcntl and ioctl system calls
* resource: resource --- Resource usage information. Resource usage information
* syslog: syslog --- Unix syslog library routines. Unix syslog library routines


File: python.info,  Node: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls,  Next: pwd --- The password database,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.1 ‘posix’ -- The most common POSIX system calls
----------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module permet d'accéder aux fonctionnalités du système d'exploitation
normalisés par le Standard C et le Standard POSIX (une interface Unix
habilement déguisée).

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

'Ne pas importer ce module directement.'  À la place, importer le module
*note os: a0, qui fournit une version 'portable' de cette interface.
Sous Unix, le module *note os: a0. fournit un sur-ensemble de
l'interface *note posix: ac.  Sous les systèmes d'exploitation non Unix
le module *note posix: ac. n'est pas disponible, mais un sous ensemble
est toujours disponible via l'interface *note os: a0.  Une fois que
*note os: a0. est importé, il n'y a aucune perte de performance à
l'utiliser à la place de *note posix: ac.  De plus, *note os: a0.
fournit des fonctionnalités supplémentaires, telles que l'appel
automatique de *note putenv(): 90b. lorsqu'une entrée dans ‘os.environ’
est modifiée.

Les erreurs sont signalées comme des exceptions; les exceptions
habituelles sont données pour les erreurs de type, tandis que les
erreurs signalées par les appels système lèvent une erreur *note
OSError: 40d.

* Menu:

* Prise en charge de gros fichiers::
* Contenu du Module::


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de gros fichiers,  Next: Contenu du Module,  Up: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls

5.35.1.1 Prise en charge de gros fichiers
.........................................

Several operating systems (including AIX and Solaris) provide support
for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where
int and long are 32-bit values.  This is typically accomplished by
defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values.  Such
files are sometimes referred to as 'large files'.

Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an ‘off_t’ is
larger than a long and the long long is at least as large as an ‘off_t’.
It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain
compiler flags to enable this mode.  For example, with Solaris 2.6 and
2.7 you need to do something like:

     CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure

Sur les systèmes Linux capable de supporter les fichiers volumineux,
cela pourrait fonctionner :

     CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu du Module,  Prev: Prise en charge de gros fichiers,  Up: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls

5.35.1.2 Contenu du Module
..........................

En plus des nombreuses fonctions décrites dans la documentation du
module *note os: a0, *note posix: ac. possède les éléments suivants :

 -- Données: posix.environ

     Un dictionnaire représentant les variables d'environnement au
     moment où l'interpréteur à été lancé.  Les clés et les valeurs sont
     des ‘bytes’ sous Unix et des ‘str’ sous Windows.  Par exemple,
     ‘environ[b'HOME']’ (‘environ['HOME']’ dans Windows) est le chemin
     de votre dossier d’accueil, équivalent à ‘getenv("HOME")’ en C.

     Modifier ce dictionnaire n'affecte pas les variables
     d'environnements fournis par *note execv(): 2ad7, *note popen():
     a77. ou *note system(): 1413.; Si vous avez besoin de changer
     l'environnement, passer le paramètre ‘environ’ à *note execve():
     10db. ou ajouter les assignations de variables et les 'export' à la
     commande à exécuter via *note system(): 1413. ou *note popen():
     a77.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Sous Unix, les clés et les valeurs
     sont des octets.

          Note: Le module *note os: a0. fournit une implémentation
          alternative à ‘environ’ qui met à jour l'environnement en cas
          de modification.  Notez également que la mise à jour de *note
          os.environ: 1199. rendra ce dictionnaire obsolète.  Il est
          recommandé d'utiliser le module *note os: a0. au lieu du
          module *note posix: ac. dans ce cas-ci.


File: python.info,  Node: pwd --- The password database,  Next: grp --- The group database,  Prev: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.2 ‘pwd’ -- The password database
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix user account and password
database.  It is available on all Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

Password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
attributes correspond to the members of the ‘passwd’ structure
(Attribute field below, see ‘<pwd.h>’):

Index       Attribut            Signification
                                
------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘pw_name’           Nom d’utilisateur
                                
                                
1           ‘pw_passwd’         Optional encrypted password
                                
                                
2           ‘pw_uid’            Numerical user ID
                                
                                
3           ‘pw_gid’            Numerical group ID
                                
                                
4           ‘pw_gecos’          User name or comment field
                                
                                
5           ‘pw_dir’            Répertoire d’accueil de
                                l’utilisateur
                                
                                
6           ‘pw_shell’          User command interpreter
                                

The uid and gid items are integers, all others are strings.  *note
KeyError: 33a. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

     Note: In traditional Unix the field ‘pw_passwd’ usually contains a
     password encrypted with a DES derived algorithm.  However most
     modern unices use a so-called 'shadow password' system.  On those
     unices the 'pw_passwd' field only contains an asterisk (‘'*'’) or
     the letter ‘'x'’ where the encrypted password is stored in a file
     ‘/etc/shadow’ which is not world readable.  Whether the 'pw_passwd'
     field contains anything useful is system-dependent.

It defines the following items:

 -- Fonction: pwd.getpwuid (uid)

     Return the password database entry for the given numeric user ID.

 -- Fonction: pwd.getpwnam (name)

     Return the password database entry for the given user name.

 -- Fonction: pwd.getpwall ()

     Return a list of all available password database entries, in
     arbitrary order.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note grp: 65.

     Interface pour la base de données des groupes, similaire à
     celle-ci.


File: python.info,  Node: grp --- The group database,  Next: termios --- POSIX style tty control,  Prev: pwd --- The password database,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.3 ‘grp’ -- The group database
----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix group database.  It is available
on all Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
attributes correspond to the members of the ‘group’ structure (Attribute
field below, see ‘<grp.h>’):

Index       Attribut        Signification
                            
------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
0           gr_name         the name of the group
                            
                            
1           gr_passwd       the (encrypted) group password;
                            often empty
                            
                            
2           gr_gid          the numerical group ID
                            
                            
3           gr_mem          all the group member's user names
                            

The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member
list is a list of strings.  (Note that most users are not explicitly
listed as members of the group they are in according to the password
database.  Check both databases to get complete membership information.
Also note that a ‘gr_name’ that starts with a ‘+’ or ‘-’ is likely to be
a YP/NIS reference and may not be accessible via *note getgrnam(): 31af.
or *note getgrgid(): d16.)

It defines the following items:

 -- Fonction: grp.getgrgid (id)

     Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID.
     *note KeyError: 33a. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be
     found.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note TypeError: 525. is raised for
     non-integer arguments like floats or strings.

 -- Fonction: grp.getgrnam (name)

     Return the group database entry for the given group name.  *note
     KeyError: 33a. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

 -- Fonction: grp.getgrall ()

     Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note pwd: b1.

     An interface to the user database, similar to this.


File: python.info,  Node: termios --- POSIX style tty control,  Next: tty --- Terminal control functions,  Prev: grp --- The group database,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.4 ‘termios’ -- POSIX style tty control
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une interface aux appels POSIX pour le contrôle des
entrées-sorties d'un terminal.  Pour une description complète de ces
appels, voir la page du manuel UNIX ‘termios(3)(1)’.  Il n'est
disponible que pour les versions Unix qui gèrent le contrôle des
entrées-sorties du terminal à travers des appels POSIX 'termios'
configurés à l’installation.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

Toutes les fonctions de ce module prennent un descripteur de fichier
'fd' comme premier argument.  Ça peut être un descripteur de fichiers
entier, tel que le renvoie ‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, ou un *note file
object: 11a2, tel que ‘sys.stdin’.

Ce module définit aussi toutes les constantes nécessaires pour
travailler avec les fonctions fournies ici ; elles ont les mêmes noms
que leurs équivalents en C. Pour plus d’informations sur l’utilisation
de ces terminaux, veuillez vous référer à votre documentation système.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: termios.tcgetattr (fd)

     Renvoie une liste contenant les attributs du terminal pour le
     descripteur de fichier 'fd', tel que : ‘[iflag, oflag, cflag,
     lflag, ispeed, ospeed, cc]’ où 'cc' est une liste de caractères
     spéciaux du terminal (chacun est une chaine de caractère de
     longueur 1, à l’exception des éléments ayant les indices ‘VMIN’ et
     ‘VTIME’, ceux-ci sont alors des entiers quand ces champs sont
     définis).  L’interprétation des options ('flags' en anglais) et des
     vitesses ainsi que l’indexation dans le tableau 'cc' doivent être
     faites en utilisant les constantes symboliques définies dans le
     module *note termios: e0.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcsetattr (fd, when, attributes)

     Set the tty attributes for file descriptor 'fd' from the
     'attributes', which is a list like the one returned by *note
     tcgetattr(): 1631.  The 'when' argument determines when the
     attributes are changed:

      -- Données: termios.TCSANOW

          Change attributes immediately.

      -- Données: termios.TCSADRAIN

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output.

      -- Données: termios.TCSAFLUSH

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output and
          discarding all queued input.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcsendbreak (fd, duration)

     Envoie une pause sur le descripteur de fichier 'fd'.  Une
     'duration' à zéro envoie une pause de 0,25 à 0,5 seconde ; une
     'duration' différente de zéro possède une signification spécifique
     sur chaque système.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcdrain (fd)

     Attend que toutes les sorties écrites dans le descripteur de
     fichier 'fd' soient transmises.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcflush (fd, queue)

     Vide la queue de données du descripteur de fichier 'fd'.  Le
     sélecteur 'queue' précise la queue : ‘TCIFLUSH’ pour la queue des
     entrées, ‘TCOFLUSH’ pour la queue des sorties, ou ‘TCIOFLUSH’ pour
     les deux queues.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcflow (fd, action)

     Suspend ou reprend l’entrée ou la sortie du descripteur de fichier
     'fd'.  L’argument 'action' peut être ‘TCOOFF’ pour suspendre la
     sortie, ‘TCOON’ pour relancer la sortie, ‘TCIOFF’ pour suspendre
     l’entrée, ou ‘TCION’ pour relancer l’entrée.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcgetwinsize (fd)

     Return a tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ containing the tty window size
     for file descriptor 'fd'.  Requires ‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’ or
     ‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- Fonction: termios.tcsetwinsize (fd, winsize)

     Set the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd' from 'winsize',
     which is a two-item tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ like the one returned
     by *note tcgetwinsize(): 47a3.  Requires at least one of the pairs
     (‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’, ‘termios.TIOCSWINSZ’); (‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’,
     ‘termios.TIOCSSIZE’) to be defined.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Voir aussi
..........

Le module *note tty: ff.

     Fonctions utiles pour les opérations de contrôle communes dans le
     terminal.

* Menu:

* Exemple: Exemple<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<16>,  Up: termios --- POSIX style tty control

5.35.4.1 Exemple
................

Voici une fonction qui demande à l’utilisateur d’entrer un mot de passe
sans l’afficher.  Remarquez la technique qui consiste à séparer un appel
à *note tcgetattr(): 1631. et une instruction *note try: 6d5.… *note
finally: 9ba. pour s’assurer que les anciens attributs du terminal
soient restaurés tels quels quoi qu’il arrive :

     def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
         import termios, sys
         fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
         old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
         try:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
             passwd = input(prompt)
         finally:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
         return passwd


File: python.info,  Node: tty --- Terminal control functions,  Next: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities,  Prev: termios --- POSIX style tty control,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.5 ‘tty’ -- Terminal control functions
------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/tty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note tty: ff. expose des fonctions permettant de mettre le
'tty' en mode 'cbreak' ou 'raw'.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

Puisqu'il a besoin du module *note termios: e0, il ne fonctionnera que
sur Unix.

Le module *note tty: ff. définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: tty.cfmakeraw (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1631, to that of a tty in
     raw mode.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- Fonction: tty.cfmakecbreak (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1631, to that of a tty in
     cbreak mode.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags in 'mode' as
     well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12.2: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer
     cleared.  This matches Linux and macOS ‘stty cbreak’ behavior and
     what *note setcbreak(): 1633. historically did.

 -- Fonction: tty.setraw (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     Change the mode of the file descriptor 'fd' to raw.  If 'when' is
     omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 479e, and is
     passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 16b2.  The return value of
     *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1631. is saved before setting 'fd' to
     raw mode; this value is returned.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The return value is now the original
     tty attributes, instead of ‘None’.

 -- Fonction: tty.setcbreak (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     Change the mode of file descriptor 'fd' to cbreak.  If 'when' is
     omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 479e, and is
     passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 16b2.  The return value of
     *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1631. is saved before setting 'fd' to
     cbreak mode; this value is returned.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags as well as
     setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The return value is now the original
     tty attributes, instead of ‘None’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12.2: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer
     cleared.  This restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as
     well as matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their
     ‘stty(1)’ man pages regarding cbreak mode.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note termios: e0.

     Interface bas niveau de gestion du terminal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tty.py


File: python.info,  Node: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities,  Next: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Prev: tty --- Terminal control functions,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.6 ‘pty’ -- Pseudo-terminal utilities
-----------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/pty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Le module *note pty: b0. expose des fonctions de manipulation de
pseudo-terminaux, il permet d'écrire un programme capable de démarrer un
autre processus, d'écrire et de lire depuis son terminal.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix.

Pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent.  This code is
mainly tested on Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS (it is supposed to work on
other POSIX platforms but it's not been thoroughly tested).

Le module *note pty: b0. expose les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: pty.fork ()

     'Fork'.  Connecte le terminal contrôlé par le fils à un
     pseudo-terminal.  La valeur renvoyée est ‘(pid, fd)’.  Notez que le
     fils obtient ‘0’ comme 'pid' et un 'fd' non valide.  Le parent
     obtient le 'pid' du fils, et 'fd' un descripteur de fichier
     connecté à un terminal contrôlé par le fils (et donc à l'entrée et
     la sortie standard du fils).

          Avertissement: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe
          when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that
          includes using *note urllib.request: 10a.

 -- Fonction: pty.openpty ()

     Ouvre une nouvelle paire de pseudo-terminaux, en utilisant si
     possible *note os.openpty(): 2b19, ou du code émulant la
     fonctionnalité pour des systèmes 'Unix' génériques.  Renvoie une
     paire de descripteurs de fichier ‘(master, slave)’, pour le maître
     et pour l'esclave respectivement.

 -- Fonction: pty.spawn (argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])

     Crée un nouveau processus et connecte son terminal aux
     entrées/sorties standard du processus courant.  Cette stratégie est
     typiquement utilisée pour les programmes qui veulent lire depuis
     leur propre terminal.  Le processus créé utilisant le 'pty' est
     supposé se terminer et, quand il le fera, l'appel de 'spawn'
     terminera.

     A loop copies STDIN of the current process to the child and data
     received from the child to STDOUT of the current process.  It is
     not signaled to the child if STDIN of the current process closes
     down.

     The functions 'master_read' and 'stdin_read' are passed a file
     descriptor which they should read from, and they should always
     return a byte string.  In order to force spawn to return before the
     child process exits an empty byte array should be returned to
     signal end of file.

     L'implémentation par défaut pour les deux fonctions lit et renvoie
     jusqu'à 1024 octets à chaque appel de la fonction.  La fonction de
     rappel 'master_read' reçoit le descripteur de fichier du
     pseudo-terminal maître pour lire la sortie du processus enfant, et
     'stdin_read' reçoit le descripteur de fichier 0, pour lire l'entrée
     standard du processus parent.

     Le renvoi d'une chaîne d'octets vide à partir de l'un ou l'autre
     des rappels est interprété comme une condition de fin de fichier
     (EOF), et ce rappel ne sera pas appelé après cela.  Si 'stdin_read'
     signale EOF, le terminal de contrôle ne peut plus communiquer avec
     le processus parent OU le processus enfant.  À moins que le
     processus enfant ne quitte sans aucune entrée, 'spawn' sera lancé
     dans une boucle infinie.  Si 'master_read' indique la fin de
     fichier, on aura le même comportement (sur Linux au moins).

     Return the exit status value from *note os.waitpid(): d89. on the
     child process.

     *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 90c. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘pty.spawn’ with argument
     ‘argv’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: *note spawn(): f6f. renvoie maintenant
     la valeur renvoyée par *note os.waitpid(): d89. sur le processus
     fils.

* Menu:

* Exemple: Exemple<17>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pty.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple<17>,  Up: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities

5.35.6.1 Exemple
................

Le programme suivant se comporte comme la commande Unix ‘script(1)(1)’,
utilisant un pseudo-terminal pour enregistrer toutes les entrées et
sorties d'une session dans un fichier 'typescript'.

     import argparse
     import os
     import pty
     import sys
     import time

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
     options = parser.parse_args()

     shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
     filename = options.filename
     mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'

     with open(filename, mode) as script:
         def read(fd):
             data = os.read(fd, 1024)
             script.write(data)
             return data

         print('Script started, file is', filename)
         script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())

         pty.spawn(shell, read)

         script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
         print('Script done, file is', filename)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Next: resource --- Resource usage information,  Prev: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.7 ‘fcntl’ -- The ‘fcntl’ and ‘ioctl’ system calls
------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module performs file and I/O control on file descriptors.  It is an
interface to the ‘fcntl()’ and ‘ioctl()’ Unix routines.  See the
‘fcntl(2)(1)’ and ‘ioctl(2)(2)’ Unix manual pages for full details.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or an *note io.IOBase: 1f2. object, such as
‘sys.stdin’ itself, which provides a *note fileno(): 2806. that returns
a genuine file descriptor.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Operations in this module used to raise an
*note IOError: 103d. where they now raise an *note OSError: 40d.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The ‘fcntl’ module now contains
‘F_ADD_SEALS’, ‘F_GET_SEALS’, and ‘F_SEAL_*’ constants for sealing of
*note os.memfd_create(): 9fb. file descriptors.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: On macOS, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_GETPATH’ constant, which obtains the path of a file from a file
descriptor.  On Linux(>=3.15), the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ constants, which are
used when working with open file description locks.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the ‘fcntl’ module
exposes the ‘F_GETPIPE_SZ’ and ‘F_SETPIPE_SZ’ constants, which allow to
check and modify a pipe's size respectively.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants, which allow to duplicate a
file descriptor, the latter setting ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: On Linux >= 4.5, the *note fcntl: 58.
module exposes the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants, which allow
to share some data of one file with another file by reflinking on some
filesystems (e.g., btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly
referred to as "copy-on-write".

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Linux >= 2.6.32, the ‘fcntl’ module
exposes the ‘F_GETOWN_EX’, ‘F_SETOWN_EX’, ‘F_OWNER_TID’, ‘F_OWNER_PID’,
‘F_OWNER_PGRP’ constants, which allow to direct I/O availability signals
to a specific thread, process, or process group.  On Linux >= 4.13, the
‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GET_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_RW_HINT’,
‘F_GET_FILE_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_FILE_RW_HINT’, and ‘RWH_WRITE_LIFE_*’
constants, which allow to inform the kernel about the relative expected
lifetime of writes on a given inode or via a particular open file
description.  On Linux >= 5.1 and NetBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_SEAL_FUTURE_WRITE’ constant for use with ‘F_ADD_SEALS’ and
‘F_GET_SEALS’ operations.  On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_READAHEAD’, ‘F_ISUNIONSTACK’, and ‘F_KINFO’ constants.  On macOS and
FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_RDAHEAD’ constant.  On NetBSD
and AIX, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_CLOSEM’ constant.  On NetBSD,
the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_MAXFD’ constant.  On macOS and NetBSD,
the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETNOSIGPIPE’ and ‘F_SETNOSIGPIPE’
constant.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: fcntl.fcntl (fd, cmd, arg=0, /)

     Perform the operation 'cmd' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects
     providing a *note fileno(): 2806. method are accepted as well).
     The values used for 'cmd' are operating system dependent, and are
     available as constants in the *note fcntl: 58. module, using the
     same names as used in the relevant C header files.  The argument
     'arg' can either be an integer value, a *note bytes: 1bd. object,
     or a string.  The type and size of 'arg' must match the type and
     size of the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant
     C documentation.

     When 'arg' is an integer, the function returns the integer return
     value of the C ‘fcntl()’ call.

     When the argument is bytes, it represents a binary structure, for
     example, created by *note struct.pack(): 1257.  A string value is
     encoded to binary using the UTF-8 encoding.  The binary data is
     copied to a buffer whose address is passed to the C ‘fcntl()’ call.
     The return value after a successful call is the contents of the
     buffer, converted to a *note bytes: 1bd. object.  The length of the
     returned object will be the same as the length of the 'arg'
     argument.  This is limited to 1024 bytes.

     If the ‘fcntl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 40d. is raised.

          Note: If the type or the size of 'arg' does not match the type
          or size of the argument of the operation (for example, if an
          integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the
          information returned in the buffer by the operating system is
          larger than 1024 bytes), this is most likely to result in a
          segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘fcntl.fcntl’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’.

 -- Fonction: fcntl.ioctl (fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True, /)

     This function is identical to the *note fcntl(): 33ee. function,
     except that the argument handling is even more complicated.

     The 'request' parameter is limited to values that can fit in
     32-bits or 64-bits, depending on the platform.  Additional
     constants of interest for use as the 'request' argument can be
     found in the *note termios: e0. module, under the same names as
     used in the relevant C header files.

     The parameter 'arg' can be an integer, a *note bytes-like object:
     d1d, or a string.  The type and size of 'arg' must match the type
     and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the
     relevant C documentation.

     If 'arg' does not support the read-write buffer interface or the
     'mutate_flag' is false, behavior is as for the *note fcntl(): 33ee.
     function.

     If 'arg' supports the read-write buffer interface (like *note
     bytearray: 52b.) and 'mutate_flag' is true (the default), then the
     buffer is (in effect) passed to the underlying ‘ioctl()’ system
     call, the latter's return code is passed back to the calling
     Python, and the buffer's new contents reflect the action of the
     ‘ioctl()’.  This is a slight simplification, because if the
     supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied
     into a static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to *note
     ioctl(): 1430. and copied back into the supplied buffer.

     If the ‘ioctl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 40d. exception is
     raised.

          Note: If the type or size of 'arg' does not match the type or
          size of the operation's argument (for example, if an integer
          is passed when a pointer is expected, or the information
          returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than
          1024 bytes, or the size of the mutable bytes-like object is
          too small), this is most likely to result in a segmentation
          violation or a more subtle data corruption.

     Un exemple :

          >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
          >>> os.getpgrp()
          13341
          >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
          13341
          >>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
          >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
          0
          >>> buf
          array('h', [13341])

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘fcntl.ioctl’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’.

 -- Fonction: fcntl.flock (fd, operation, /)

     Perform the lock operation 'operation' on file descriptor 'fd'
     (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 2806. method are accepted
     as well).  See the Unix manual ‘flock(2)(3)’ for details.  (On some
     systems, this function is emulated using ‘fcntl()’.)

     If the ‘flock()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 40d. exception is
     raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘fcntl.flock’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘operation’.

 -- Fonction: fcntl.lockf (fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0, /)

     This is essentially a wrapper around the *note fcntl(): 33ee.
     locking calls.  'fd' is the file descriptor (file objects providing
     a *note fileno(): 2806. method are accepted as well) of the file to
     lock or unlock, and 'cmd' is one of the following values:

      -- Données: fcntl.LOCK_UN

          Release an existing lock.

      -- Données: fcntl.LOCK_SH

          Acquire a shared lock.

      -- Données: fcntl.LOCK_EX

          Acquire an exclusive lock.

      -- Données: fcntl.LOCK_NB

          Bitwise OR with any of the other three ‘LOCK_*’ constants to
          make the request non-blocking.

     If ‘LOCK_NB’ is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an *note
     OSError: 40d. will be raised and the exception will have an 'errno'
     attribute set to *note EACCES: 2269. or *note EAGAIN: 225a.
     (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both
     values).  On at least some systems, ‘LOCK_EX’ can only be used if
     the file descriptor refers to a file opened for writing.

     'len' is the number of bytes to lock, 'start' is the byte offset at
     which the lock starts, relative to 'whence', and 'whence' is as
     with *note io.IOBase.seek(): 126c, specifically:

        * ‘0’ - relative to the start of the file (*note os.SEEK_SET:
          126d.)

        * ‘1’ - relative to the current buffer position (*note
          os.SEEK_CUR: 126e.)

        * ‘2’ - relative to the end of the file (*note os.SEEK_END:
          126f.)

     The default for 'start' is 0, which means to start at the beginning
     of the file.  The default for 'len' is 0 which means to lock to the
     end of the file.  The default for 'whence' is also 0.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘fcntl.lockf’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’.

Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system):

     import struct, fcntl, os

     f = open(...)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)

     lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)

Note that in the first example the return value variable 'rv' will hold
an integer value; in the second example it will hold a *note bytes: 1bd.
object.  The structure lay-out for the 'lockdata' variable is system
dependent -- therefore using the *note flock(): 418a. call may be
better.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note os: a0.

     If the locking flags *note O_SHLOCK: 13e7. and *note O_EXLOCK:
     13e8. are present in the *note os: a0. module (on BSD only), the
     *note os.open(): d81. function provides an alternative to the *note
     lockf(): 13a5. and *note flock(): 418a. functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)


File: python.info,  Node: resource --- Resource usage information,  Next: syslog --- Unix syslog library routines,  Prev: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.8 ‘resource’ -- Resource usage information
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling
system resources utilized by a program.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI.

Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and
to request usage information about either the current process or its
children.

An *note OSError: 40d. is raised on syscall failure.

 -- Exception: resource.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 40d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was
     made an alias of *note OSError: 40d.

* Menu:

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Limits,  Next: Resource Usage,  Up: resource --- Resource usage information

5.35.8.1 Resource Limits
........................

Resources usage can be limited using the *note setrlimit(): 412d.
function described below.  Each resource is controlled by a pair of
limits: a soft limit and a hard limit.  The soft limit is the current
limit, and may be lowered or raised by a process over time.  The soft
limit can never exceed the hard limit.  The hard limit can be lowered to
any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised.  (Only processes
with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard limit.)

The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent.  They
are described in the ‘getrlimit(2)(1)’ man page.  The resources listed
below are supported when the underlying operating system supports them;
resources which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system
are not defined in this module for those platforms.

 -- Données: resource.RLIM_INFINITY

     Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.

 -- Fonction: resource.getrlimit (resource)

     Returns a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ with the current soft and hard
     limits of 'resource'.  Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if an invalid
     resource is specified, or *note error: 47b4. if the underlying
     system call fails unexpectedly.

 -- Fonction: resource.setrlimit (resource, limits)

     Sets new limits of consumption of 'resource'.  The 'limits'
     argument must be a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ of two integers describing
     the new limits.  A value of *note RLIM_INFINITY: 47b6. can be used
     to request a limit that is unlimited.

     Raises *note ValueError: 1ff. if an invalid resource is specified,
     if the new soft limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries
     to raise its hard limit.  Specifying a limit of *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 47b6. when the hard or system limit for that
     resource is not unlimited will result in a *note ValueError: 1ff.
     A process with the effective UID of super-user can request any
     valid limit value, including unlimited, but *note ValueError: 1ff.
     will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system
     imposed limit.

     ‘setrlimit’ may also raise *note error: 47b4. if the underlying
     system call fails.

     VxWorks only supports setting *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 47b8.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘resource.setrlimit’ with
     arguments ‘resource’, ‘limits’.

 -- Fonction: resource.prlimit (pid, resource[, limits])

     Combines *note setrlimit(): 412d. and *note getrlimit(): 47b7. in
     one function and supports to get and set the resources limits of an
     arbitrary process.  If 'pid' is 0, then the call applies to the
     current process.  'resource' and 'limits' have the same meaning as
     in *note setrlimit(): 412d, except that 'limits' is optional.

     When 'limits' is not given the function returns the 'resource'
     limit of the process 'pid'.  When 'limits' is given the 'resource'
     limit of the process is set and the former resource limit is
     returned.

     Raises *note ProcessLookupError: 1046. when 'pid' can't be found
     and *note PermissionError: d32. when the user doesn't have
     ‘CAP_SYS_RESOURCE’ for the process.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘resource.prlimit’ with
     arguments ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using
the *note setrlimit(): 412d. and *note getrlimit(): 47b7. functions
described below.  The values of these symbols are exactly the constants
used by C programs.

The Unix man page for ‘getrlimit(2)(2)’ lists the available resources.
Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote
the same resource.  This module does not attempt to mask platform
differences -- symbols not defined for a platform will not be available
from this module on that platform.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_CORE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process
     can create.  This may result in the creation of a partial core file
     if a larger core would be required to contain the entire process
     image.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_CPU

     The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process
     can use.  If this limit is exceeded, a ‘SIGXCPU’ signal is sent to
     the process.  (See the *note signal: c5. module documentation for
     information about how to catch this signal and do something useful,
     e.g.  flush open files to disk.)

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE

     The maximum size of a file which the process may create.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_DATA

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the process's heap.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_STACK

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current
     process.  This only affects the stack of the main thread in a
     multi-threaded process.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_RSS

     The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the
     process.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_NPROC

     The maximum number of processes the current process may create.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE

     The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current
     process.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_OFILE

     The BSD name for *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 47b8.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK

     The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_VMEM

     The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD >= 11.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_AS

     The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by
     the process.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE

     The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_NICE

     The ceiling for the process's nice level (calculated as 20 -
     rlim_cur).

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO

     The ceiling of the real-time priority.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME

     The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can
     spend under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING

     The number of signals which the process may queue.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
     This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of
     mbufs, that this user may hold at any time.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_SWAP

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved
     or used by all of this user id's processes.  This limit is enforced
     only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set.  Please see
     tuning(7)(3) for a complete description of this sysctl.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_NPTS

     The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- Données: resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES

     The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: FreeBSD >= 11.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (3) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Usage,  Prev: Resource Limits,  Up: resource --- Resource usage information

5.35.8.2 Resource Usage
.......................

These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:

 -- Fonction: resource.getrusage (who)

     This function returns an object that describes the resources
     consumed by either the current process or its children, as
     specified by the 'who' parameter.  The 'who' parameter should be
     specified using one of the ‘RUSAGE_*’ constants described below.

     Un exemple simple :

          from resource import *
          import time

          # a non CPU-bound task
          time.sleep(3)
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

          # a CPU-bound task
          for i in range(10 ** 8):
             _ = 1 + 1
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

     The fields of the return value each describe how a particular
     system resource has been used, e.g.  amount of time spent running
     is user mode or number of times the process was swapped out of main
     memory.  Some values are dependent on the clock tick internal, e.g.
     the amount of memory the process is using.

     For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as
     a tuple of 16 elements.

     The fields ‘ru_utime’ and ‘ru_stime’ of the return value are
     floating-point values representing the amount of time spent
     executing in user mode and the amount of time spent executing in
     system mode, respectively.  The remaining values are integers.
     Consult the ‘getrusage(2)(1)’ man page for detailed information
     about these values.  A brief summary is presented here:

     Index        Champ                     Resource
                                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
     ‘0’          ‘ru_utime’                time in user mode (float seconds)
                                            
                                            
     ‘1’          ‘ru_stime’                time in system mode (float seconds)
                                            
                                            
     ‘2’          ‘ru_maxrss’               maximum resident set size
                                            
                                            
     ‘3’          ‘ru_ixrss’                shared memory size
                                            
                                            
     ‘4’          ‘ru_idrss’                unshared memory size
                                            
                                            
     ‘5’          ‘ru_isrss’                unshared stack size
                                            
                                            
     ‘6’          ‘ru_minflt’               page faults not requiring I/O
                                            
                                            
     ‘7’          ‘ru_majflt’               page faults requiring I/O
                                            
                                            
     ‘8’          ‘ru_nswap’                number of swap outs
                                            
                                            
     ‘9’          ‘ru_inblock’              block input operations
                                            
                                            
     ‘10’         ‘ru_oublock’              block output operations
                                            
                                            
     ‘11’         ‘ru_msgsnd’               messages sent
                                            
                                            
     ‘12’         ‘ru_msgrcv’               messages received
                                            
                                            
     ‘13’         ‘ru_nsignals’             signals received
                                            
                                            
     ‘14’         ‘ru_nvcsw’                voluntary context switches
                                            
                                            
     ‘15’         ‘ru_nivcsw’               involuntary context switches
                                            

     This function will raise a *note ValueError: 1ff. if an invalid
     'who' parameter is specified.  It may also raise *note error: 47b4.
     exception in unusual circumstances.

 -- Fonction: resource.getpagesize ()

     Returns the number of bytes in a system page.  (This need not be
     the same as the hardware page size.)

The following ‘RUSAGE_*’ symbols are passed to the *note getrusage():
13e9. function to specify which processes information should be provided
for.

 -- Données: resource.RUSAGE_SELF

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 13e9. to request resources consumed by
     the calling process, which is the sum of resources used by all
     threads in the process.

 -- Données: resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 13e9. to request resources consumed by
     child processes of the calling process which have been terminated
     and waited for.

 -- Données: resource.RUSAGE_BOTH

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 13e9. to request resources consumed by
     both the current process and child processes.  May not be available
     on all systems.

 -- Données: resource.RUSAGE_THREAD

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 13e9. to request resources consumed by
     the current thread.  May not be available on all systems.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)


File: python.info,  Node: syslog --- Unix syslog library routines,  Prev: resource --- Resource usage information,  Up: Services spécifiques à Unix

5.35.9 ‘syslog’ -- Unix syslog library routines
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Ce module fournit une interface aux routines de la bibliothèque ‘syslog’
Unix.  Consultez les pages du manuel Unix pour plus de détails sur
‘syslog’.

*note Availability: 1d11.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

This module wraps the system ‘syslog’ family of routines.  A pure Python
library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module as *note SysLogHandler: 649.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes :

 -- Fonction: syslog.syslog (message)

 -- Fonction: syslog.syslog (priority, message)

     Envoie la chaîne de caractères 'message' au journaliseur système.
     Un retour à la ligne est ajouté à la fin du message si nécessaire.
     Chaque message est marqué avec une priorité constituée d'une
     'fonction' et d'un 'niveau'.  L'argument optionnel 'priority', qui
     par défaut est *note LOG_INFO: 47cb, définit la priorité du
     message.  Si la fonction n'est pas encodée dans 'priority' en
     utilisant un OU logique (‘LOG_INFO | LOG_USER’), la valeur donnée
     lors de l'appel à *note openlog(): 52c. est utilisée.

     If *note openlog(): 52c. has not been called prior to the call to
     *note syslog(): db, *note openlog(): 52c. will be called with no
     arguments.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘syslog.syslog’ avec les
     arguments ‘priority’, ‘message’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions, *note openlog():
     52c. would not be called automatically if it wasn't called prior to
     the call to *note syslog(): db, deferring to the syslog
     implementation to call ‘openlog()’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)
     *note openlog(): 52c. must be called in the main interpreter before
     *note syslog(): db. may be used in a subinterpreter.  Otherwise it
     will raise *note RuntimeError: 193.

 -- Fonction: syslog.openlog ([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])

     Les options de journalisation utilisées lors des appels à *note
     syslog(): db. peuvent être définies en appelant *note openlog():
     52c.  *note syslog(): db. appellera *note openlog(): 52c. sans
     argument si le journal n'est pas déjà ouvert.

     L'argument nommé optionnel 'ident' est une chaîne de caractères qui
     est ajoutée au début de chaque message.  Par défaut, le dernier
     élément du chemin définit dans ‘sys.argv[0]’ est utilisé.
     L'argument nommé optionnel 'logoption' est un champ de bits (défini
     à 0 par défaut) - Voir ci-dessous pour les combinaisons possibles.
     L'argument nommé optionnel 'facility' définit la fonction à
     utiliser pour les messages qui n'en définissent pas.  Par défaut,
     *note LOG_USER: 47cc. est utilisée.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘syslog.openlog’ avec les
     arguments ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions, keyword
     arguments were not allowed, and 'ident' was required.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This
     may only be called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 193. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- Fonction: syslog.closelog ()

     Réinitialise la configuration du module 'syslog' et appelle la
     bibliothèque système ‘closelog()’.

     Cet appel permet au module de se comporter comme lors de son import
     initial.  Par exemple, *note openlog(): 52c. sera appelée lors du
     premier appel à *note syslog(): db. (sauf si *note openlog(): 52c.
     a déjà été appelée).  Quant à 'ident' et aux paramètres de *note
     openlog(): 52c, ceux-ci seront réinitialisés à leur valeur par
     défaut.

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘syslog.closelog’ sans
     argument.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This
     may only be called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 193. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- Fonction: syslog.setlogmask (maskpri)

     Définit le masque de priorité à la valeur 'maskpri' et retourne la
     précédente valeur du masque.  Les appels à *note syslog(): db. avec
     un niveau de priorité non présent dans 'maskpri' seront ignorés.
     La fonction ‘LOG_MASK(pri)’ calcule le masque pour la priorité
     'pri'.  La fonction ‘LOG_UPTO(pri)’ calcule le masque pour toutes
     les priorités jusqu'à 'pri' (inclus).

     Lève un *note évènement d'audit: 1877. ‘syslog.setlogmask’ avec
     l'argument ‘maskpri’.

Le module définit les constantes suivantes :

 -- Données: syslog.LOG_EMERG
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_ALERT
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_CRIT
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_ERR
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_WARNING
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_NOTICE
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_INFO
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_DEBUG

     Priority levels (high to low).

 -- Données: syslog.LOG_AUTH
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_AUTHPRIV
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_CRON
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_DAEMON
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_FTP
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_INSTALL
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_KERN
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LAUNCHD
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LPR
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_MAIL
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_NETINFO
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_NEWS
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_RAS
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_REMOTEAUTH
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_SYSLOG
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_USER
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_UUCP
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL0
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL1
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL2
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL3
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL4
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL5
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL6
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_LOCAL7

     Facilities, depending on availability in ‘<syslog.h>’ for *note
     LOG_AUTHPRIV: 47d5, *note LOG_FTP: 47d8, *note LOG_NETINFO: 47de,
     *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 47e1, *note LOG_INSTALL: 47d9. and *note
     LOG_RAS: 47e0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added *note LOG_FTP: 47d8, *note
     LOG_NETINFO: 47de, *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 47e1, *note LOG_INSTALL:
     47d9, *note LOG_RAS: 47e0, and *note LOG_LAUNCHD: 47db.

 -- Données: syslog.LOG_PID
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_CONS
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_NDELAY
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_ODELAY
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_NOWAIT
 -- Données: syslog.LOG_PERROR

     Log options, depending on availability in ‘<syslog.h>’ for *note
     LOG_ODELAY: 47ef, *note LOG_NOWAIT: 47f0. and *note LOG_PERROR:
     47f1.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<35>,  Up: syslog --- Unix syslog library routines

5.35.9.1 Exemples
.................

* Menu:

* Exemple simple::


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple simple,  Up: Exemples<35>

5.35.9.2 Exemple simple
.......................

Un simple jeu d'exemples :

     import syslog

     syslog.syslog('Processing started')
     if error:
         syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')

Un exemple montrant comment définir certaines options de journalisation.
Ces options ajoutent l'identifiant du processus ('PID') dans les
messages journalisés et écrivent ces messages à l'aide de la fonction
utilisée pour la journalisation des systèmes de messagerie :

     syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
     syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')


File: python.info,  Node: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Next: Modules remplacés,  Prev: Services spécifiques à Unix,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.36 Modules command-line interface (CLI)
=========================================

The following modules have a command-line interface.

   * *note ast: 45d0.

   * *note asyncio: 3229.

   * *note base64: e.

   * *note calendar: 24a4.

   * *note code: 1a.

   * *note compileall: 468c.

   * *note cProfile: 27.: see *note profile: 4221.

   * *note difflib: 22f0.

   * *note dis: 46a2.

   * *note doctest: 3f8f.

   * ‘encodings.rot_13’

   * *note ensurepip: 54.

   * *note filecmp: 59.

   * *note fileinput: 5a.

   * *note ftplib: 5d.

   * *note gzip: 2921.

   * *note http.server: f3e.

   * ‘idlelib’

   * *note inspect: f48.

   * *note json.tool: 3613.

   * *note mimetypes: 8e.

   * *note pdb: a4.

   * *note pickle: a5.

   * *note pickletools: 4711.

   * *note platform: a9.

   * *note poplib: ab.

   * *note profile: 4221.

   * *note pstats: af.

   * *note py_compile: 4684.

   * *note pyclbr: b3.

   * *note pydoc: b4.

   * *note quopri: b6.

   * *note random: 153.

   * *note runpy: bd.

   * *note site: 447b.

   * *note sqlite3: 42c.

   * *note symtable: 4605.

   * *note sysconfig: 4381.

   * *note tabnanny: dc.

   * *note tarfile: fb8.

   * ‘this’

   * *note timeit: 4244.

   * *note tokenize: 4658.

   * *note trace: 4260.

   * *note turtledemo: 101.

   * *note unittest: 4006.

   * *note uuid: 42f.

   * *note venv: 110.

   * *note webbrowser: 114.

   * *note zipapp: 42e0.

   * *note zipfile: 298f.

See also the *note Python command-line interface: 197d.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules remplacés,  Next: Removed Modules,  Prev: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.37 Modules remplacés
======================

The modules described in this chapter have been superseded by other
modules for most use cases, and are retained primarily to preserve
backwards compatibility.

Modules may appear in this chapter because they only cover a limited
subset of a problem space, and a more generally applicable solution is
available elsewhere in the standard library (for example, *note getopt:
60. covers the very specific task of "mimic the C ‘getopt()’ API in
Python", rather than the broader command line option parsing and
argument parsing capabilities offered by *note optparse: 9f. and *note
argparse: 6.).

Alternatively, modules may appear in this chapter because they are
deprecated outright, and awaiting removal in a future release, or they
are *note soft deprecated: 206. and their use is actively discouraged in
new projects.  With the removal of various obsolete modules through PEP
594(1), there are currently no modules in this latter category.

* Menu:

* getopt: getopt --- C-style parser for command line options. C-style parser for command line options

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: getopt --- C-style parser for command line options,  Up: Modules remplacés

5.37.1 ‘getopt’ -- C-style parser for command line options
----------------------------------------------------------

'Code source :' Lib/getopt.py(1)

     Note: This module is considered feature complete.  A more
     declarative and extensible alternative to this API is provided in
     the *note optparse: 9f. module.  Further functional enhancements
     for command line parameter processing are provided either as third
     party modules on PyPI, or else as features in the *note argparse:
     6. module.

__________________________________________________________________

This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in
‘sys.argv’.  It supports the same conventions as the Unix ‘getopt()’
function (including the special meanings of arguments of the form '‘-’'
and '‘--’').  Long options similar to those supported by GNU software
may be used as well via an optional third argument.

Users who are unfamiliar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function should
consider using the *note argparse: 6. module instead.  Users who are
familiar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function, but would like to get
equivalent behavior while writing less code and getting better help and
error messages should consider using the *note optparse: 9f. module.
See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e1a. for additional
details.

Ce module fournit deux fonctions et une exception :

 -- Fonction: getopt.getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     Parses command line options and parameter list.  'args' is the
     argument list to be parsed, without the leading reference to the
     running program.  Typically, this means ‘sys.argv[1:]’.
     'shortopts' is the string of option letters that the script wants
     to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a
     colon (‘':'’; i.e., the same format that Unix ‘getopt()’ uses).

          Note: Unlike GNU ‘getopt()’, after a non-option argument, all
          further arguments are considered also non-options.  This is
          similar to the way non-GNU Unix systems work.

     'longopts', si spécifié, doit être une liste de chaînes avec les
     noms des options longues qui doivent être prises en charge.  Le
     premier ‘'--'’ ne dois pas figurer dans le nom de l’option.  Les
     options longues qui requièrent un argument doivent être suivies
     d’un signe égal (‘'='’).  Les arguments facultatifs ne sont pas
     pris en charge.  Pour accepter uniquement les options longues,
     'shortopts' doit être une chaîne vide.  Les options longues sur la
     ligne de commande peuvent être reconnues tant qu’elles fournissent
     un préfixe du nom de l’option qui correspond exactement à l’une des
     options acceptées.  Par exemple, si 'longopts' est ‘['foo',
     'frob']’, l’option ‘--fo’ correspondra à ‘--foo’, mais ‘--f’ ne
     correspondra pas de façon unique, donc *note GetoptError: 47fb.
     sera levé.

     La valeur de retour se compose de deux éléments : le premier est
     une liste de paires ‘(option, value)’, la deuxième est la liste des
     arguments de programme laissés après que la liste d’options est été
     dépouillée (il s’agit d’une tranche de fin de 'args').  Chaque
     paire option-valeur retournée a l’option comme premier élément,
     préfixée avec un trait d'union pour les options courtes (par
     exemple, ‘'-x'’) ou deux tirets pour les options longues (par
     exemple, ‘'--long-option'’), et l’argument option comme deuxième
     élément, ou une chaîne vide si le option n’a aucun argument.  Les
     options se trouvent dans la liste dans l’ordre dans lequel elles
     ont été trouvées, permettant ainsi plusieurs occurrences.  Les
     options longues et courtes peuvent être mélangées.

 -- Fonction: getopt.gnu_getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     Cette fonction fonctionne comme *note getopt(): 60, sauf que le
     mode de 'scan' GNU est utilisé par défaut.  Cela signifie que les
     arguments option et non-option peuvent être 'intermixés'.  La
     fonction *note getopt(): 60. arrête le traitement des options dès
     qu’un argument de non-option est rencontré.

     If the first character of the option string is ‘'+'’, or if the
     environment variable ‘POSIXLY_CORRECT’ is set, then option
     processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered.

 -- Exception: getopt.GetoptError

     This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument
     list or when an option requiring an argument is given none.  The
     argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the
     error.  For long options, an argument given to an option which does
     not require one will also cause this exception to be raised.  The
     attributes ‘msg’ and ‘opt’ give the error message and related
     option; if there is no specific option to which the exception
     relates, ‘opt’ is an empty string.

 -- Exception: getopt.error

     Alias pour *note GetoptError: 47fb. ; pour la rétrocompatibilité.

Un exemple utilisant uniquement les options de style UNIX :

     >>> import getopt
     >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
     >>> args
     ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
     >>> optlist
     [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

L’utilisation de noms d’options longs est tout aussi simple :

     >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
     ...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
     >>> optlist
     [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

In a script, typical usage is something like this:

     import getopt, sys

     def main():
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
         except getopt.GetoptError as err:
             # print help information and exit:
             print(err)  # will print something like "option -a not recognized"
             usage()
             sys.exit(2)
         output = None
         verbose = False
         for o, a in opts:
             if o == "-v":
                 verbose = True
             elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
                 usage()
                 sys.exit()
             elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
                 output = a
             else:
                 assert False, "unhandled option"
         process(args, output=output, verbose=verbose)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with
less code and more informative help and error messages by using the
*note optparse: 9f. module:

     import optparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = optparse.OptionParser()
         parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         opts, args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

A roughly equivalent command line interface for this case can also be
produced by using the *note argparse: 6. module:

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e1a. for details on how
the ‘argparse’ version of this code differs in behaviour from the
‘optparse’ (and ‘getopt’) version.

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note optparse: 9f.

     Declarative command line option parsing.

Module *note argparse: 6.

     More opinionated command line option and argument parsing library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/getopt.py


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules,  Next: Considérations de sécurité<3>,  Prev: Modules remplacés,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.38 Removed Modules
====================

The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python
standard library.  They are documented here to help people find
replacements.

* Menu:

* aifc: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files. Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
* asynchat: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler. Asynchronous socket command/response handler
* asyncore: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler. Asynchronous socket handler
* audioop: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data. Manipulate raw audio data
* cgi: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support. Common Gateway Interface support
* cgitb: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts. Traceback manager for CGI scripts
* chunk: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data. Read IFF chunked data
* crypt: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords. Function to check Unix passwords
* distutils: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules. Building and installing Python modules
* imghdr: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image. Determine the type of an image
* imp: imp --- Access the import internals. Access the import internals
* mailcap: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling. Mailcap file handling
* msilib: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files. Read and write Microsoft Installer files
* nis: nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages. Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
* nntplib: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client. NNTP protocol client
* ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
* pipes: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines. Interface to shell pipelines
* smtpd: smtpd --- SMTP Server. SMTP Server
* sndhdr: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file. Determine type of sound file
* spwd: spwd --- The shadow password database. The shadow password database
* sunau: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files. Read and write Sun AU files
* telnetlib: telnetlib --- Telnet client. Telnet client
* uu: uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files. Encode and decode uuencode files
* xdrlib: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data. Encode and decode XDR data


File: python.info,  Node: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files,  Next: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.1 ‘aifc’ -- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
---------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘aifc’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/aifc.html


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler,  Next: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler,  Prev: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.2 ‘asynchat’ -- Asynchronous socket command/response handler
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 4ee. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note asyncio: a. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘asynchat’ module was
Python 3.11(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asynchat.html


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler,  Next: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data,  Prev: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.3 ‘asyncore’ -- Asynchronous socket handler
------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 4ee. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note asyncio: a. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘asyncore’ module was
Python 3.11(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asyncore.html


File: python.info,  Node: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data,  Next: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support,  Prev: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.4 ‘audioop’ -- Manipulate raw audio data
---------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘audioop’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/audioop.html


File: python.info,  Node: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support,  Next: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Prev: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.5 ‘cgi’ -- Common Gateway Interface support
------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A fork of the module on PyPI can be used instead: legacy-cgi(2).  This
is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the
core Python team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘cgi’ module was Python
3.12(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgi.html


File: python.info,  Node: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Next: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data,  Prev: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.6 ‘cgitb’ -- Traceback manager for CGI scripts
---------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A fork of the module on PyPI can now be used instead: legacy-cgi(2).
This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by
the core Python team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘cgitb’ module was Python
3.12(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgitb.html


File: python.info,  Node: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data,  Next: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords,  Prev: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.7 ‘chunk’ -- Read IFF chunked data
---------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘chunk’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/chunk.html


File: python.info,  Node: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords,  Next: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules,  Prev: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.8 ‘crypt’ -- Function to check Unix passwords
--------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications can use the *note hashlib: 67. module from the standard
library.  Other possible replacements are third-party libraries from
PyPI: legacycrypt(2), bcrypt(3), argon2-cffi(4), or passlib(5).  These
are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘crypt’ module was Python
3.12(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/

   (6) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/crypt.html


File: python.info,  Node: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules,  Next: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image,  Prev: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.9 ‘distutils’ -- Building and installing Python modules
------------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.10, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 4f4. after being deprecated in Python
3.10.  The removal was decided in PEP 632(1), which has migration
advice(2).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘distutils’ module was
Python 3.11(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/distutils.html


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image,  Next: imp --- Access the import internals,  Prev: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.10 ‘imghdr’ -- Determine the type of an image
--------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: filetype(2),
puremagic(3), or python-magic(4).  These are not supported or maintained
by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘imghdr’ module was Python
3.12(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/imghdr.html


File: python.info,  Node: imp --- Access the import internals,  Next: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling,  Prev: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.11 ‘imp’ -- Access the import internals
--------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.4, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 4fe. after being deprecated in Python 3.4.

The *note removal notice: 4fe. includes guidance for migrating code from
‘imp’ to *note importlib: 76.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘imp’ module was Python
3.11(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/imp.html


File: python.info,  Node: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling,  Next: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Prev: imp --- Access the import internals,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.12 ‘mailcap’ -- Mailcap file handling
------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘mailcap’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/mailcap.html


File: python.info,  Node: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Next: nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Prev: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.13 ‘msilib’ -- Read and write Microsoft Installer files
------------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘msilib’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/msilib.html


File: python.info,  Node: nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Next: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client,  Prev: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.14 ‘nis’ -- Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘nis’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nis.html


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client,  Next: ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Prev: nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.15 ‘nntplib’ -- NNTP protocol client
-----------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘nntplib’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nntplib.html


File: python.info,  Node: ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Next: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines,  Prev: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.16 ‘ossaudiodev’ -- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
---------------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘ossaudiodev’ module was
Python 3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/ossaudiodev.html


File: python.info,  Node: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines,  Next: smtpd --- SMTP Server,  Prev: ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.17 ‘pipes’ -- Interface to shell pipelines
-----------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note subprocess: d5. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘pipes’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/pipes.html


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd --- SMTP Server,  Next: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file,  Prev: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.18 ‘smtpd’ -- SMTP Server
------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 4ee. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A possible replacement is the third-party aiosmtpd(2) library.  This
library is not maintained or supported by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘smtpd’ module was Python
3.11(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/smtpd.html


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file,  Next: spwd --- The shadow password database,  Prev: smtpd --- SMTP Server,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.19 ‘sndhdr’ -- Determine type of sound file
------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Possible replacements are third-party modules from PyPI: filetype(2),
puremagic(3), or python-magic(4).  These are not supported or maintained
by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘sndhdr’ module was Python
3.12(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sndhdr.html


File: python.info,  Node: spwd --- The shadow password database,  Next: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files,  Prev: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.20 ‘spwd’ -- The shadow password database
----------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A possible replacement is the third-party library python-pam(2).  This
library is not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘spwd’ module was Python
3.12(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/spwd.html


File: python.info,  Node: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files,  Next: telnetlib --- Telnet client,  Prev: spwd --- The shadow password database,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.21 ‘sunau’ -- Read and write Sun AU files
----------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘sunau’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sunau.html


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib --- Telnet client,  Next: uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files,  Prev: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.22 ‘telnetlib’ -- Telnet client
------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: telnetlib3(2)
or Exscript(3).  These are not supported or maintained by the Python
core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘telnetlib’ module was
Python 3.12(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/telnetlib.html


File: python.info,  Node: uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files,  Next: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data,  Prev: telnetlib --- Telnet client,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.23 ‘uu’ -- Encode and decode uuencode files
------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘uu’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/uu.html


File: python.info,  Node: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data,  Prev: uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.24 ‘xdrlib’ -- Encode and decode XDR data
----------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 142. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘xdrlib’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/xdrlib.html


File: python.info,  Node: Considérations de sécurité<3>,  Prev: Removed Modules,  Up: La bibliothèque standard

5.39 Considérations de sécurité
===============================

The following modules have specific security considerations:

   * *note base64: e.: *note base64 security considerations: 36e4. in
     RFC 4648(1)

   * *note hashlib: 67.: *note all constructors take a "usedforsecurity"
     keyword-only argument disabling known insecure and blocked
     algorithms: 2a88.

   * *note http.server: 71. is not suitable for production use, only
     implementing basic security checks.  See the *note security
     considerations: 3b05.

   * *note logging: 86.: *note Logging configuration uses eval(): 2c71.

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: *note Connection.recv() uses pickle:
     3119.

   * *note pickle: a5.: *note Restricting globals in pickle: 2850.

   * *note random: b7. shouldn't be used for security purposes, use
     *note secrets: bf. instead

   * *note shelve: c2.: *note shelve is based on pickle and thus
     unsuitable for dealing with untrusted sources: 286c.

   * *note ssl: cf.: *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 32ef.

   * *note subprocess: d5.: *note Subprocess security considerations:
     31bf.

   * *note tempfile: df.: *note mktemp is deprecated due to
     vulnerability to race conditions: 280f.

   * *note xml: 11f.: *note XML vulnerabilities: 3713.

   * *note zipfile: 130.: *note maliciously prepared .zip files can
     cause disk volume exhaustion: 299e.

The *note -I: 94d. command line option can be used to run Python in
isolated mode.  When it cannot be used, the *note -P: 590. option or the
*note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 591. environment variable can be used to not
prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ab. such as the
current directory, the script's directory or an empty string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python,  Next: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C,  Prev: La bibliothèque standard,  Up: Top

6 Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python
***************************************************

Ce document décrit comment écrire des modules en C ou C++ pour étendre
l'interpréteur Python à de nouveaux modules.  En plus de définir de
nouvelles fonctions, ces modules peuvent définir de nouveaux types
d'objets ainsi que leur méthodes.  Ce document explique aussi comment
intégrer l'interpréteur Python dans une autre application, pour être
utilisé comme langage d'extension.  Enfin, ce document montre comment
compiler et lier les modules d'extension pour qu'ils puissent être
chargés dynamiquement (à l'exécution) dans l'interpréteur, si le système
d'exploitation sous-jacent supporte cette fonctionnalité.

Ce document présuppose que vous avez des connaissances de base sur
Python.  Pour une introduction informelle du langage, voyez *note Le
tutoriel Python: 1b98.  *note La référence du langage Python: 144. donne
une définition plus formelle du langage.  *note La bibliothèque
standard: 143. documente les objets types, fonctions et modules
existants (tous intégrés et écrits en Python) qui donnent au langage sa
large gamme d'applications.

Pour une description dans sa totalité de l'API Python/C, voir *note
Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C: 1b9a.

* Menu:

* Les outils tiers recommandés::
* Création d'extensions sans outils tiers::
* Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application::


File: python.info,  Node: Les outils tiers recommandés,  Next: Création d'extensions sans outils tiers,  Up: Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python

6.1 Les outils tiers recommandés
================================

This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided
as part of this version of CPython.  Third party tools like Cython(1),
cffi(2), SWIG(3) and Numba(4) offer both simpler and more sophisticated
approaches to creating C and C++ extensions for Python.

Voir aussi
..........

Guide d'utilisation de l'empaquetage Python : Extensions binaires(5)

     Le guide d'utilisation de l'empaquetage Python ne couvre pas
     uniquement quelques outils disponibles qui simplifient la création
     d'extensions binaires, mais aborde aussi les différentes raisons
     pour lesquelles créer un module d'extension peut être souhaitable
     d'entrée.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://cffi.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://www.swig.org

   (4) https://numba.pydata.org/

   (5) https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Création d'extensions sans outils tiers,  Next: Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application,  Prev: Les outils tiers recommandés,  Up: Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python

6.2 Création d'extensions sans outils tiers
===========================================

Cette section du guide couvre la création d'extensions C et C++ sans
l'utilisation d'outils tiers.  Cette section est destinée aux créateurs
de ces outils, plus que d'être une méthode recommandée pour créer votre
propre extension C.

* Menu:

* Étendre Python en C ou C++::
* Tutoriel ; définir des types dans des extensions: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions.
* Définir les types d'extension ; divers sujets: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets.
* Construire des extensions C et C++::
* Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows::


File: python.info,  Node: Étendre Python en C ou C++,  Next: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions,  Up: Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

6.2.1 Étendre Python en C ou C++
--------------------------------

Il est relativement facile d'ajouter de nouveaux modules à Python, si
vous savez programmer en C. Ces 'modules d'extension' permettent deux
choses qui ne sont pas possibles directement en Python : ils peuvent
définir de nouveaux types natifs et peuvent appeler des fonctions de
bibliothèques C ou faire des appels systèmes.

Pour gérer les extensions, l'API Python ('Application Programmer
Interface') définit un ensemble de fonctions, macros et variables qui
donnent accès à la plupart des aspects du système d'exécution de Python.
L'API Python est incorporée dans un fichier source C en incluant
l'en-tête ‘Python.h’.

La compilation d'un module d'extension dépend de l'usage prévu et de la
configuration du système, plus de détails peuvent être trouvés dans les
chapitres suivants.

     Note: l'interface d'extension C est spécifique à 'CPython', et les
     modules d'extension ne fonctionnent pas sur les autres
     implémentations de Python.  Dans de nombreux cas, il est possible
     d'éviter la rédaction des extensions en C et ainsi préserver la
     portabilité vers d'autres implémentations.  Par exemple, si vous
     devez appeler une fonction de la bibliothèque C ou faire un appel
     système, vous devriez envisager d'utiliser le module *note ctypes:
     2a. ou d'utiliser la bibliothèque cffi(1) plutôt que d'écrire du
     code C sur mesure.  Ces modules vous permettent d'écrire du code
     Python s'interfaçant avec le code C et sont plus portables entre
     les implémentations de Python que l'écriture et la compilation
     d'une d'extension C.

* Menu:

* Un exemple simple::
* Intermezzo ; les erreurs et les exceptions: Intermezzo les erreurs et les exceptions.
* Retour vers l'exemple::
* La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module::
* Compilation et liaison::
* Appeler des fonctions Python en C::
* Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension::
* Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension::
* Créer des valeurs arbitraires::
* Compteurs de références::
* Écrire des extensions en C++::
* Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Un exemple simple,  Next: Intermezzo les erreurs et les exceptions,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.1 Un exemple simple
.........................

Créons un module d'extension appelé ‘spam’ (la nourriture préférée de
fans des 'Monty Python') et disons que nous voulons créer une interface
Python à la fonction de la bibliothèque C ‘system()’ (1).  Cette
fonction prend une chaîne de caractères à terminaison nulle comme
argument et renvoie un entier.  Nous voulons que cette fonction soit
appelable à partir de Python comme suit :

     >>> import spam
     >>> status = spam.system("ls -l")

Commençons par créer un fichier ‘spammodule.c’ (historiquement, si un
module se nomme ‘spam’, le fichier C contenant son implémentation est
appelé ‘spammodule.c’ ; si le nom du module est très long, comme
‘spammify’, le nom du module peut être juste ‘spammify.c’).

Les deux premières lignes de notre fichier peuvent être :

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

qui récupère l'API Python (vous pouvez ajouter un commentaire décrivant
le but du module et un avis de droit d'auteur si vous le souhaitez).

     Note: il est possible que Python déclare certaines définitions
     pré-processeur qui affectent les têtes standards sur certains
     systèmes, vous 'devez' donc inclure ‘Python.h’ avant les en-têtes
     standards.

     ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that ‘Py_ssize_t’
     should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’.  It is not necessary
     since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward compatibility.
     See *note Chaînes et tampons: 381. for a description of this macro.

Tous les symboles exposés par ‘Python.h’ sont préfixés de ‘Py’ ou ‘PY’,
sauf ceux qui sont définis dans les en-têtes standards.  Pour le
confort, et comme ils sont largement utilisés par l'interpréteur Python,
‘"Python.h"’ inclut lui-même quelques en-têtes standards : ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ et ‘<stdlib.h>’.  Si ce dernier n'existe pas
sur votre système, il déclare les fonctions ‘malloc()’, ‘free()’ et
‘realloc()’ directement.

La prochaine chose que nous ajoutons à notre fichier de module est la
fonction C qui sera appelée lorsque l'expression Python
‘spam.system(chaîne)’ sera évaluée (nous verrons bientôt comment elle
finit par être appelée) :

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

Il y a une correspondance directe de la liste des arguments en Python
(par exemple, l'expression ‘"ls -l"’) aux arguments passés à la fonction
C. La fonction C a toujours deux arguments, appelés par convention
'self' et 'args'.

Pour les fonctions au niveau du module, l'argument 'self' pointe sur
l'objet module, pour une méthode, il pointe sur l'instance de l'objet.

L'argument 'args' sera un pointeur vers un 'n'-uplet Python contenant
les arguments.  Chaque élément du 'n'-uplet correspond à un argument
dans la liste des arguments de l'appel.  Les arguments sont des objets
Python, afin d'en faire quelque chose dans notre fonction C, nous devons
les convertir en valeurs C. La fonction *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.
de l'API Python vérifie les types des arguments et les convertit en
valeurs C. Elle utilise un modèle sous forme de chaîne pour déterminer
les types requis des arguments ainsi que les types de variables C dans
lequel stocker les valeurs converties.  Nous approfondirons ceci plus
tard.

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. renvoie vrai (pas zéro) si tous les
arguments ont le bon type et que ses composants ont été stockés dans les
variables dont les adresses ont été données en entrée.  Elle renvoie
faux (zéro) si une liste d'arguments invalide a été passée.  Dans ce
dernier cas, elle lève également une exception appropriée de sorte que
la fonction d'appel puisse renvoyer ‘NULL’ immédiatement (comme nous
l'avons vu dans l'exemple).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Une interface pour cette fonction existe déjà dans le module
standard *note os: a0, elle a été choisie comme un exemple simple et
direct.


File: python.info,  Node: Intermezzo les erreurs et les exceptions,  Next: Retour vers l'exemple,  Prev: Un exemple simple,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.2 Intermezzo : les erreurs et les exceptions
..................................................

Une convention importante dans l'interpréteur Python est la suivante :
lorsqu'une fonction échoue, elle doit définir une condition d'exception
et renvoyer une valeur d'erreur (généralement ‘-1’ ou un pointeur
‘NULL’).  Les informations d'exception sont stockées dans trois
attributs de l'état du thread de l'interpréteur.  Ils valent ‘NULL’ s'il
n'y a pas d'exception.  Sinon, ce sont les équivalents C des membres du
'n'-uplet Python renvoyé par *note sys.exc_info(): 677.  Il s'agit du
type d'exception, de l'instance d'exception et d'un objet de trace.  Il
est important de les connaître pour comprendre comment les erreurs sont
transmises.

L'API Python définit un certain nombre de fonctions pour créer
différents types d'exceptions.

La plus courante est *note PyErr_SetString(): 56a.  Ses arguments sont
un objet exception et une chaîne C. L'objet exception est généralement
un objet prédéfini comme ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’.  La chaîne C indique
la cause de l'erreur et est convertie en une chaîne Python puis stockée
en tant que « valeur associée » à l'exception.

Une autre fonction utile est *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 483e, qui
construit une exception à partir de la valeur de la variable globale
‘errno’.  La fonction la plus générale est *note PyErr_SetObject(): 569,
qui prend deux arguments : l'exception et sa valeur associée.  Vous ne
devez pas appliquer *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. aux objets transmis à ces
fonctions.

Vous pouvez tester de manière non destructive si une exception a été
levée avec *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae.  Cela renvoie l'objet exception
actuel, ou ‘NULL’ si aucune exception n'a eu lieu.  Cependant, vous ne
devriez pas avoir besoin d'appeler *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. pour
voir si une erreur est survenue durant l'appel d'une fonction, puisque
vous devriez être en mesure de le déterminer à partir de la valeur
renvoyée.

Lorsqu'une fonction 'f' ayant appelé une autre fonction 'g' détecte que
cette dernière a échoué, 'f' devrait donner une valeur d'erreur à son
tour (habituellement ‘NULL’ ou ‘-1’).  La fonction 'f' ne devrait 'pas'
appeler l'une des fonctions ‘PyErr_*’, l'une d'entre elles ayant déjà
été appelée par 'g'.  La fonction appelant 'f' est alors censée renvoyer
aussi un code d'erreur à celle qui l'a appelée, toujours sans utiliser
‘PyErr_*’, et ainsi de suite.  La cause la plus détaillée de l'erreur a
déjà été signalée par la fonction l'ayant détecté en premier.  Une fois
l'erreur remontée à la boucle principale de l'interpréteur Python, il
interrompt le code en cours d'exécution et essaie de trouver un
gestionnaire d'exception spécifié par le développeur Python.

(Il y a des situations où un module peut effectivement donner un message
d'erreur plus détaillé en appelant une autre fonction ‘PyErr_*’ et, dans
de tels cas, il est tout à fait possible de le faire.  Cependant, ce
n'est généralement pas nécessaire, et peut amener à perdre des
informations sur la cause de l'erreur : la plupart des opérations
peuvent échouer pour tout un tas de raisons.)

Pour ignorer une exception qui aurait été émise lors d'un appel de
fonction qui a échoué, l'exception doit être retirée explicitement en
appelant *note PyErr_Clear(): 101c.  Le seul cas pour lequel du code C
devrait appeler *note PyErr_Clear(): 101c. est lorsqu'il ne veut pas
passer l'erreur à l'interpréteur, mais souhaite la gérer lui-même
(peut-être en essayant quelque chose d'autre, ou en prétendant que rien
n'a mal tourné).

Chaque échec de ‘malloc()’ doit être transformé en une exception,
l'appelant direct de ‘malloc()’ (ou ‘realloc()’) doit appeler *note
PyErr_NoMemory(): 483f. et prendre l'initiative de renvoyer une valeur
d'erreur.  Toutes les fonctions construisant des objets (tels que *note
PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6.) le font déjà, donc cette note ne concerne que
ceux qui appellent ‘malloc()’ directement.

Notez également que, à l'exception notable de *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
55f. et compagnie, les fonctions qui renvoient leur statut sous forme
d'entier donnent généralement une valeur positive ou zéro en cas de
succès et ‘-1’ en cas d'échec, comme les appels du système Unix.

Enfin, lorsque vous renvoyez un code d'erreur, n'oubliez pas faire un
brin de nettoyage (en appelant *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. ou *note
Py_DECREF(): 55d. avec les objets que vous auriez déjà créés) !

The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are
predeclared C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions,
such as ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’, which you can use directly.  Of
course, you should choose exceptions wisely -- don't use
‘PyExc_TypeError’ to mean that a file couldn't be opened (that should
probably be ‘PyExc_OSError’).  If something's wrong with the argument
list, the *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. function usually raises
‘PyExc_TypeError’.  If you have an argument whose value must be in a
particular range or must satisfy other conditions, ‘PyExc_ValueError’ is
appropriate.

Vous pouvez également créer une exception spécifique à votre module.
Pour cela, déclarez simplement une variable statique au début de votre
fichier :

     static PyObject *SpamError;

and initialize it in your module's initialization function
(‘PyInit_spam()’) with an exception object:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;

         m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "error", SpamError) < 0) {
             Py_CLEAR(SpamError);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Note that the Python name for the exception object is ‘spam.error’.  The
*note PyErr_NewException(): 124a. function may create a class with the
base class being *note Exception: 9c9. (unless another class is passed
in instead of ‘NULL’), described in *note Exceptions natives: 1840.

Notez également que la variable ‘SpamError’ contient une référence à la
nouvelle classe créée ; ceci est intentionnel !  Comme l'exception peut
être enlevée du module par du code externe, une référence à la classe
est nécessaire pour assurer qu'elle ne sera pas supprimée par le
ramasse-miettes, entraînant que ‘SpamError’ devienne un pointeur dans le
vide.  Si cela se produisait, le code C qui lève cette exception peut
engendrer un 'core dump' ou des effets secondaires inattendus.

We discuss the use of *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 148b. as a function return
type later in this sample.

The ‘spam.error’ exception can be raised in your extension module using
a call to *note PyErr_SetString(): 56a. as shown below:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         if (sts < 0) {
             PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Retour vers l'exemple,  Next: La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module,  Prev: Intermezzo les erreurs et les exceptions,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.3 Retour vers l'exemple
.............................

En revenant vers notre fonction exemple, vous devriez maintenant être
capable de comprendre cette affirmation :

     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
         return NULL;

Elle renvoie ‘NULL’ (l'indicateur d'erreur pour les fonctions renvoyant
des pointeurs d'objet) si une erreur est détectée dans la liste des
arguments, se fiant à l'exception définie par *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
55f.  Autrement, la valeur chaîne de l'argument a été copiée dans la
variable locale ‘command’.  Il s'agit d'une attribution de pointeur et
vous n'êtes pas supposés modifier la chaîne vers laquelle il pointe
(donc en C Standard, la variable ‘command’ doit être clairement déclarée
comme ‘const char *command’).

La prochaine instruction est un appel à la fonction Unix ‘system()’, en
lui passant la chaîne que nous venons d'obtenir à partir de *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. :

     sts = system(command);

Notre fonction ‘spam.system()’ doit renvoyer la valeur de ‘sts’ comme un
objet Python.  Cela est effectué par l'utilisation de la fonction *note
PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6.

     return PyLong_FromLong(sts);

Dans ce cas, elle renvoie un objet de type entier (oui, même les entiers
sont des objets, stockés dans le tas, en Python !).

Si vous avez une fonction C qui ne renvoie aucun argument utile (une
fonction renvoyant void), la fonction Python correspondante doit
renvoyer ‘None’.  Vous aurez besoin de cet idiome pour cela (qui est
implémenté par la macro *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 1429.) :

     Py_INCREF(Py_None);
     return Py_None;

*note Py_None: 4842. est la dénomination en C pour l'objet spécial
Python ‘None’.  C'est un authentique objet Python plutôt qu'un pointeur
‘NULL’ qui, dans la plupart des situations, signifie qu'une erreur est
survenue comme nous l'avons vu.


File: python.info,  Node: La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module,  Next: Compilation et liaison,  Prev: Retour vers l'exemple,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.4 La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module
.........................................................................

I promised to show how ‘spam_system()’ is called from Python programs.
First, we need to list its name and address in a "method table":

     static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = {
         ...
         {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
          "Execute a shell command."},
         ...
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
     };

Notez la troisième entrée (‘METH_VARARGS’).  C'est un indicateur du type
de convention à utiliser pour la fonction C, à destination de
l'interpréteur.  Il doit valoir normalement ‘METH_VARARGS’ ou
‘METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS’ ; la valeur ‘0’ indique qu'une variante
obsolète de *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. est utilisée.

Si seulement ‘METH_VARARGS’ est utilisé, la fonction s'attend à ce que
les paramètres Python soient passés comme un 'n'-uplet que l'on peut
analyser 'via' *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. ; des informations
supplémentaires sont fournies plus bas.

Le bit *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4845. peut être mis à un dans le troisième
champ si des arguments par mots-clés doivent être passés à la fonction.
Dans ce cas, la fonction C doit accepter un troisième paramètre
‘PyObject *’ qui est un dictionnaire des mots-clés.  Utilisez *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. pour analyser les arguments d'une
telle fonction.

Le tableau des méthodes doit être référencé dans la structure de
définition du module :

     static struct PyModuleDef spammodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         "spam",   /* name of module */
         spam_doc, /* module documentation, may be NULL */
         -1,       /* size of per-interpreter state of the module,
                      or -1 if the module keeps state in global variables. */
         SpamMethods
     };

This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the
module's initialization function.  The initialization function must be
named ‘PyInit_name()’, where 'name' is the name of the module, and
should be the only non-‘static’ item defined in the module file:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
     }

Note that *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 148b. declares the function as ‘PyObject
*’ return type, declares any special linkage declarations required by
the platform, and for C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

When the Python program imports module ‘spam’ for the first time,
‘PyInit_spam()’ is called.  (See below for comments about embedding
Python.)  It calls *note PyModule_Create(): 4846, which returns a module
object, and inserts built-in function objects into the newly created
module based upon the table (an array of *note PyMethodDef: 148f.
structures) found in the module definition.  *note PyModule_Create():
4846. returns a pointer to the module object that it creates.  It may
abort with a fatal error for certain errors, or return ‘NULL’ if the
module could not be initialized satisfactorily.  The init function must
return the module object to its caller, so that it then gets inserted
into ‘sys.modules’.

When embedding Python, the ‘PyInit_spam()’ function is not called
automatically unless there's an entry in the ‘PyImport_Inittab’ table.
To add the module to the initialization table, use *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f, optionally followed by an import of the
module:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyStatus status;
         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */
         if (PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam) == -1) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not extend in-built modules table\n");
             exit(1);
         }

         /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         /* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required.
            If this step fails, it will be a fatal error. */
         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         /* Optionally import the module; alternatively,
            import can be deferred until the embedded script
            imports it. */
         PyObject *pmodule = PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
         if (!pmodule) {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not import module 'spam'\n");
         }

         // ... use Python C API here ...

         return 0;

       exception:
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);
          Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     Note: supprimer des entrées de ‘sys.modules’ ou importer des
     modules compilés dans plusieurs interpréteurs au sein d'un même
     processus (ou le faire à la suite d'un ‘fork()’ sans un ‘exec()’
     préalable) peut créer des problèmes pour certains modules
     d'extension.  Les auteurs de modules d'extension doivent faire
     preuve de prudence lorsqu'ils initialisent des structures de
     données internes.

Un exemple de module plus substantiel est inclus dans la distribution
des sources Python sous le nom ‘Modules/xxmodule.c’.  Ce fichier peut
être utilisé comme modèle ou simplement lu comme exemple.

     Note: contrairement à notre exemple de ‘spam’, ‘xxmodule’ utilise
     une 'initialisation multi-phases' (nouveau en Python 3.5), où une
     structure 'PyModuleDef' est renvoyée à partir de ‘PyInit_spam’, et
     la création du module est laissée au mécanisme d'importation.  Pour
     plus de détails sur l'initialisation multi-phases, voir PEP 489(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation et liaison,  Next: Appeler des fonctions Python en C,  Prev: La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.5 Compilation et liaison
..............................

Il y a encore deux choses à faire avant de pouvoir utiliser votre
nouvelle extension : la compiler et la lier au système Python.  Si vous
utilisez le chargement dynamique, les détails peuvent dépendre du style
de chargement dynamique utilisé par votre système ; voir les chapitres
sur la compilation de modules d'extension (chapitre *note Construire des
extensions C et C++: 4849.) et les informations supplémentaires
concernant uniquement la construction sous Windows (chapitre *note
Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows: 1df5.) pour plus
d'informations à ce sujet.

Si vous ne pouvez pas utiliser le chargement dynamique, ou si vous
voulez faire de votre module une partie permanente de l'interpréteur
Python, vous devez modifier la configuration et reconstruire
l'interpréteur.  Heureusement, c'est très simple sous Unix : placez
simplement votre fichier (‘spammodule.c’ par exemple) dans le répertoire
‘Modules/’ d'une distribution source décompressée, ajoutez une ligne au
fichier ‘Modules/Setup.local’ décrivant votre fichier :

     spam spammodule.o

et reconstruisez l'interpréteur en exécutant ‘make’ dans le répertoire
de niveau supérieur.  Vous pouvez également exécuter ‘make’ dans le
sous-répertoire ‘Modules/’, mais vous devez d'abord reconstruire le
‘Makefile’ en exécutant « ‘make’ Makefile » (c'est nécessaire chaque
fois que vous modifiez le fichier ‘Setup’).

Si votre module nécessite d'être lié à des bibliothèques
supplémentaires, celles-ci peuvent être ajoutées à la fin de la ligne de
votre module dans le fichier de configuration, par exemple :

     spam spammodule.o -lX11


File: python.info,  Node: Appeler des fonctions Python en C,  Next: Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension,  Prev: Compilation et liaison,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.6 Appeler des fonctions Python en C
.........................................

Jusqu'à présent, nous nous sommes concentrés sur le fait de rendre les
fonctions C appelables depuis Python.  L'inverse est également utile :
appeler des fonctions Python depuis C. C'est notamment le cas pour les
bibliothèques qui gèrent les fonctions dites de « rappel » ('callback'
en anglais).  Si une interface C utilise des rappels, l'équivalent
Python doit souvent fournir un mécanisme de rappel au développeur
Python ; l'implémentation nécessite d'appeler les fonctions de rappel
Python à partir d'un rappel C. D'autres utilisations sont également
envisageables.

Heureusement, l'interpréteur Python est facilement appelé de manière
récursive et il existe une interface standard pour appeler une fonction
Python (nous ne nous attarderons pas sur la façon d'appeler l'analyseur
Python avec une chaîne particulière en entrée — si vous êtes intéressé,
jetez un œil à l'implémentation de l'option de ligne de commande *note
-c: 5cc. dans ‘Modules/main.c’ à partir du code source Python).

L'appel d'une fonction Python est facile.  Tout d'abord, le programme
Python doit vous transmettre d'une manière ou d'une autre l'objet de
fonction Python.  Vous devez fournir une fonction (ou une autre
interface) pour ce faire.  Lorsque cette fonction est appelée,
enregistrez un pointeur vers l'objet de la fonction Python (faites
attention à *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. !)  dans une variable globale — ou
là où vous le souhaitez.  Par exemple, la fonction suivante peut faire
partie d'une définition de module :

     static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;

     static PyObject *
     my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
     {
         PyObject *result = NULL;
         PyObject *temp;

         if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
             if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
                 PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
                 return NULL;
             }
             Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
             Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
             my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
             /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
             Py_INCREF(Py_None);
             result = Py_None;
         }
         return result;
     }

Cette fonction doit être déclarée en utilisant le drapeau *note
METH_VARARGS: 14c1. ; ceci est décrit dans la section *note La fonction
d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module: 4843.  La
fonction *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. et ses arguments sont documentés
dans la section *note Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions
d'extension: 484c.

Les macros *note Py_XINCREF(): a55. et *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b.
incrémentent/décrémentent le compteur des références d'un objet et sont
sûres quant à la présence de pointeurs ‘NULL’ (mais notez que 'temp' ne
sera pas ‘NULL’ dans ce contexte).  Plus d'informations à ce sujet dans
la section *note Compteurs de références: 484d.

Plus tard, quand il est temps d'appeler la fonction, vous appelez la
fonction C *note PyObject_CallObject(): 484e.  Cette fonction requiert
deux arguments, tous deux des pointeurs vers des objets Python
arbitraires : la fonction Python et la liste d'arguments.  La liste
d'arguments doit toujours être un objet 'n'-uplet, dont la longueur est
le nombre d'arguments.  Pour appeler la fonction Python sans argument,
passez ‘NULL’ ou le 'n'-uplet vide ; pour l'appeler avec un argument,
passez un 'n'-uplet singleton.  *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. renvoie un
'n'-uplet lorsque sa chaîne de format se compose de zéro ou plusieurs
codes de format entre parenthèses.  Par exemple :

     int arg;
     PyObject *arglist;
     PyObject *result;
     ...
     arg = 123;
     ...
     /* Time to call the callback */
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 484e. renvoie un pointeur d'objet Python :
c'est la valeur de retour de la fonction Python.  *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 484e. est « neutre en nombre de références » par
rapport à ses arguments.  Dans l'exemple, un nouveau 'n'-uplet a été
créé pour servir de liste d'arguments, qui est décrémenté (avec *note
Py_DECREF(): 55d.) immédiatement après l'appel *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 484e.

La valeur de retour de *note PyObject_CallObject(): 484e. est
« nouvelle » : soit c'est un tout nouvel objet, soit c'est un objet
existant dont le nombre de références a été incrémenté.  Donc, à moins
que vous ne vouliez l'enregistrer dans une variable globale, vous
devriez en quelque sorte décrémenter avec *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. le
résultat, même (surtout !)  si vous n'êtes pas intéressé par sa valeur.

Mais avant de le faire, il est important de vérifier que la valeur
renvoyée n'est pas ‘NULL’.  Si c'est le cas, la fonction Python s'est
terminée par une levée d'exception.  Si le code C qui a appelé *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 484e. est appelé depuis Python, il devrait
maintenant renvoyer une indication d'erreur à son appelant Python, afin
que l'interpréteur puisse afficher la pile d'appels, ou que le code
Python appelant puisse gérer l'exception.  Si cela n'est pas possible ou
souhaitable, l'exception doit être effacée en appelant *note
PyErr_Clear(): 101c.  Par exemple :

     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     ...use result...
     Py_DECREF(result);

Selon l'interface souhaitée pour la fonction de rappel Python, vous
devrez peut-être aussi fournir une liste d'arguments à *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 484e.  Dans certains cas, la liste d'arguments
est également fournie par le programme Python, par l'intermédiaire de la
même interface qui a spécifié la fonction de rappel.  Elle peut alors
être sauvegardée et utilisée de la même manière que l'objet fonction.
Dans d'autres cas, vous pouvez avoir à construire un nouveau 'n'-uplet à
passer comme liste d'arguments.  La façon la plus simple de faire cela
est d'appeler *note Py_BuildValue(): 896.  Par exemple, si vous voulez
passer un code d'événement intégral, vous pouvez utiliser le code
suivant :

     PyObject *arglist;
     ...
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);

Notez la présence de ‘Py_DECREF(arglist)’ immédiatement après l'appel,
avant la vérification des erreurs !  Notez également qu'à proprement
parler, ce code n'est pas complet : *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. peut
manquer de mémoire, et cela doit être vérifié.

Vous pouvez également appeler une fonction avec des arguments nommés en
utilisant *note PyObject_Call(): 393, qui accepte les arguments et les
arguments nommés.  Comme dans l'exemple ci-dessus, nous utilisons *note
Py_BuildValue(): 896. pour construire le dictionnaire.

     PyObject *dict;
     ...
     dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
     result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
     Py_DECREF(dict);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);


File: python.info,  Node: Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension,  Next: Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension,  Prev: Appeler des fonctions Python en C,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.7 Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension
..............................................................

La fonction *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. est déclarée ainsi :

     int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);

L'argument 'arg' doit être un 'n'-uplet contenant une liste d'arguments
passée de Python à une fonction C. L'argument 'format' doit être une
chaîne de format, dont la syntaxe est expliquée dans *note Analyse des
arguments et construction des valeurs: 897. dans le manuel de référence
de l'API Python/C. Les arguments restants doivent être des adresses de
variables dont le type est déterminé par la chaîne de format.

Notez que si *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. vérifie que les arguments
Python ont les types requis, elle ne peut pas vérifier la validité des
adresses des variables C transmises à l'appel : si vous y faites des
erreurs, votre code plantera probablement ou au moins écrasera des bits
aléatoires en mémoire.  Donc soyez prudent !

Notez que toute référence sur un objet Python donnée à l'appelant est
une référence 'empruntée' ; ne décrémentez pas son compteur de
références !

Quelques exemples d'appels :

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int ok;
     int i, j;
     long k, l;
     const char *s;
     Py_ssize_t size;

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */
         /* Python call: f() */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
         /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
         /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
         /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
         /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */

     {
         const char *file;
         const char *mode = "r";
         int bufsize = 0;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
         /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
         /* Possible Python calls:
            f('spam')
            f('spam', 'w')
            f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
     }

     {
         int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
                  &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
         /* A rectangle and a point */
         /* Possible Python call:
            f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
     }

     {
         Py_complex c;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
         /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
         /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension,  Next: Créer des valeurs arbitraires,  Prev: Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.8 Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension
........................................................

La fonction *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. est déclarée
ainsi :

     int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
                                     const char *format, char * const *kwlist, ...);

Les paramètres 'arg' et 'format' sont identiques à ceux de la fonction
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.  Le paramètre 'kwdict' est le
dictionnaire de mots-clés reçu comme troisième paramètre du 'runtime'
Python.  Le paramètre 'kwlist' est une liste de chaînes de caractères
terminée par ‘NULL’ qui identifie les paramètres ; les noms sont mis en
correspondance, de gauche à droite, avec les informations de type de
'format'.  En cas de succès du processus, *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. renvoie vrai, sinon elle renvoie
faux et lève une exception appropriée.

     Note: les 'n'-uplets imbriqués ne peuvent pas être traités
     lorsqu'on utilise des arguments nommés !  Ceux-ci doivent
     apparaître dans 'kwlist', dans le cas contraire une exception *note
     TypeError: 525. est levée.

Voici un exemple de module qui utilise des arguments nommés, basé sur un
exemple de 'Geoff Philbrick' (<philbrick@hks.com>) :

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     static PyObject *
     keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
     {
         int voltage;
         const char *state = "a stiff";
         const char *action = "voom";
         const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";

         static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
                                          &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
             return NULL;

         printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
                action, voltage);
         printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);

         Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

     static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
         /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
          * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
          * three.
          */
         {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
          "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef keywdargmodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         "keywdarg",
         NULL,
         -1,
         keywdarg_methods
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_keywdarg(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&keywdargmodule);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Créer des valeurs arbitraires,  Next: Compteurs de références,  Prev: Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.9 Créer des valeurs arbitraires
.....................................

Cette fonction est le complément de *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.  Elle
est déclarée comme suit :

     PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);

Elle reconnaît un ensemble d'unités de format similaires à celles
reconnues par *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f, mais les arguments (qui
sont les données en entrée de la fonction, et non de la sortie) ne
doivent pas être des pointeurs, mais juste des valeurs.  Elle renvoie un
nouvel objet Python, adapté pour être renvoyé par une fonction C appelée
depuis Python.

Une différence avec *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. : alors que cette
dernière nécessite que son premier argument soit un 'n'-uplet (puisque
les listes d'arguments Python sont toujours représentées comme des
'n'-uplets en interne), *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. ne construit pas
toujours un 'n'-uplet.  Elle construit un 'n'-uplet uniquement si sa
chaîne de format contient deux unités de format ou plus.  Si la chaîne
de format est vide, elle renvoie ‘None’ ; si elle contient exactement
une unité de format, elle renvoie tout objet décrit par cette unité de
format.  Pour la forcer à renvoyer un 'n'-uplet de taille 0 ou un,
mettez la chaîne de format entre parenthèses.

Exemples (à gauche l'appel, à droite la valeur résultante, en Python) :

     Py_BuildValue("")                        None
     Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
     Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
     Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
     Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
     Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
     Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
     Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
                   "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
     Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
                   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))


File: python.info,  Node: Compteurs de références,  Next: Écrire des extensions en C++,  Prev: Créer des valeurs arbitraires,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.10 Compteurs de références
................................

Dans les langages comme le C ou le C++, le développeur est responsable
de l'allocation dynamique et de la dés-allocation de la mémoire sur le
tas.  En C, cela se fait à l'aide des fonctions ‘malloc()’ et ‘free()’.
En C++, les opérateurs ‘new’ et ‘delete’ sont utilisés avec
essentiellement la même signification et nous limiterons la discussion
suivante au cas du C.

Every block of memory allocated with ‘malloc()’ should eventually be
returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to
‘free()’.  It is important to call ‘free()’ at the right time.  If a
block's address is forgotten but ‘free()’ is not called for it, the
memory it occupies cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This
is called a 'memory leak'.  On the other hand, if a program calls
‘free()’ for a block and then continues to use the block, it creates a
conflict with reuse of the block through another ‘malloc()’ call.  This
is called 'using freed memory'.  It has the same bad consequences as
referencing uninitialized data -- core dumps, wrong results, mysterious
crashes.

Les causes courantes des fuites de mémoire sont des exécutions
inhabituelles du code.  Par exemple, une fonction peut allouer un bloc
de mémoire, effectuer des calculs, puis libérer le bloc.  Plus tard, une
modification des exigences de la fonction peut ajouter un test au calcul
qui détecte une condition d'erreur et peut sortir prématurément de la
fonction.  Il est facile d'oublier de libérer le bloc de mémoire alloué
lors de cette sortie prématurée, surtout lorsqu'elle est ajoutée
ultérieurement au code.  De telles fuites, une fois introduites, passent
souvent inaperçues pendant longtemps : la sortie d'erreur n'est prise
que dans une petite fraction de tous les appels, et la plupart des
machines modernes ont beaucoup de mémoire virtuelle, de sorte que la
fuite ne devient apparente que dans un processus de longue durée qui
utilise fréquemment cette fonction.  Par conséquent, il est important
d'éviter les fuites en ayant une convention ou une stratégie de codage
qui minimise ce type d'erreurs.

Comme Python fait un usage intensif de ‘malloc()’ et de ‘free()’, il a
besoin d'une stratégie pour éviter les fuites de mémoire ainsi que
l'utilisation de la mémoire libérée.  La méthode choisie est appelée le
'comptage de références'.  Le principe est simple : chaque objet
contient un compteur, qui est incrémenté lorsqu'une référence à l'objet
est stockée quelque part, et qui est décrémenté lorsqu'une référence à
celui-ci est supprimée.  Lorsque le compteur atteint zéro, la dernière
référence à l'objet a été supprimée et l'objet est libéré.

Une stratégie alternative est appelée 'ramasse-miettes automatique'
('automatic garbage collection' en anglais).  Parfois, le comptage des
références est également appelé stratégie de ramasse-miettes, d'où
l'utilisation du terme « automatique » pour distinguer les deux.  Le
grand avantage du ramasse-miettes est que l'utilisateur n'a pas besoin
d'appeler ‘free()’ explicitement (un autre avantage important est
l'amélioration de la vitesse ou de l'utilisation de la mémoire, ce n'est
cependant pas un fait avéré).  L'inconvénient est que pour C, il n'y a
pas de ramasse-miettes portable proprement-dit, alors que le comptage
des références peut être implémenté de façon portable (tant que les
fonctions ‘malloc()’ et ‘free()’ sont disponibles, ce que la norme C
garantit).  Peut-être qu'un jour un ramasse-miettes suffisamment
portable sera disponible pour C. D'ici là, nous devons utiliser les
compteurs de références.

Bien que Python utilise l'implémentation traditionnelle de comptage de
références, il contient également un détecteur de cycles qui fonctionne
pour détecter les cycles de références.  Cela permet aux applications de
ne pas se soucier de la création de références circulaires directes ou
indirectes ; celles-ci sont les faiblesses des ramasse-miettes utilisant
uniquement le comptage de références.  Les cycles de références sont
constitués d'objets qui contiennent des références (éventuellement
indirectes) à eux-mêmes, de sorte que chaque objet du cycle a un
compteur de références qui n'est pas nul.  Les implémentations typiques
de comptage de références ne sont pas capables de récupérer la mémoire
des objets appartenant à un cycle de références, ou référencés à partir
des objets dans le cycle, même s'il n'y a pas d'autre référence au cycle
lui-même.

Le détecteur de cycle est capable de détecter les cycles isolés et peut
récupérer la mémoire afférente.  Le module *note gc: 5f. expose un moyen
d'exécuter le détecteur (la fonction *note collect(): a2a.), ainsi que
des interfaces de configuration et la possibilité de désactiver le
détecteur au moment de l'exécution.

* Menu:

* Comptage de références en Python::
* Règles concernant la possession de références::
* Terrain dangereux::
* Pointeurs NULL::


File: python.info,  Node: Comptage de références en Python,  Next: Règles concernant la possession de références,  Up: Compteurs de références

6.2.1.11 Comptage de références en Python
.........................................

Il existe deux macros, ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ et ‘Py_DECREF(x)’, qui gèrent
l'incrémentation et la décrémentation du comptage de références.  *note
Py_DECREF(): 55d. libère également l'objet lorsque le compteur atteint
zéro.  Pour plus de flexibilité, il n'appelle pas ‘free()’ directement —
plutôt, il fait un appel à travers un pointeur de fonction dans l'objet
'type objet' de l'objet.  À cette fin (et pour d'autres), chaque objet
contient également un pointeur vers son objet type.

La grande question demeure maintenant : quand utiliser ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ et
‘Py_DECREF(x)’ ?  Commençons par définir quelques termes.  Personne ne
possède un objet, mais vous pouvez en 'avoir une référence'.  Le
compteur de références d'un objet est maintenant défini comme étant le
nombre de références à cet objet.  Le propriétaire d'une référence est
responsable d'appeler *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. lorsque la référence n'est
plus nécessaire.  La possession d'une référence peut être transférée.
Il y a trois façons de se débarrasser d'une référence que l'on possède :
la transmettre, la stocker ou appeler *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.  Oublier
de se débarrasser d'une référence crée une fuite de mémoire.

Il est également possible d''emprunter' (1) une référence à un objet.
L'emprunteur d'une référence ne doit pas appeler *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.
L'emprunteur ne doit pas conserver l'objet plus longtemps que le
propriétaire à qui il a été emprunté.  L'utilisation d'une référence
empruntée après que le propriétaire s'en est débarrassée risque
d'utiliser de la mémoire libérée et doit être absolument évitée (2).

L'avantage d'emprunter, plutôt qu'être propriétaire d'une référence, est
que vous n'avez pas à vous soucier de libérer la référence sur tous les
chemins possibles dans le code — en d'autres termes, avec une référence
empruntée, vous ne courez pas le risque de fuites lors d'une sortie
prématurée.  L'inconvénient de l'emprunt par rapport à la possession est
qu'il existe certaines situations subtiles où, dans un code apparemment
correct, une référence empruntée peut être utilisée après que le
propriétaire auquel elle a été empruntée l'a en fait éliminée.

Une référence empruntée peut être changée en une référence possédée en
appelant *note Py_INCREF(): 55c.  Cela n'affecte pas le statut du
propriétaire à qui la référence a été empruntée — cela crée une nouvelle
référence possédée et donne l'entière responsabilité au propriétaire (le
nouveau propriétaire doit libérer la référence correctement, ainsi que
le propriétaire précédent).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) L'expression « emprunter une référence » n'est pas tout à fait
correcte, car le propriétaire a toujours une copie de la référence.

   (2) Vérifier que le comptage de référence est d'au moins 1 'ne
fonctionne pas', le compte de référence lui-même pourrait être en
mémoire libérée et peut donc être réutilisé pour un autre objet !


File: python.info,  Node: Règles concernant la possession de références,  Next: Terrain dangereux,  Prev: Comptage de références en Python,  Up: Compteurs de références

6.2.1.12 Règles concernant la possession de références
......................................................

Chaque fois qu'une référence d'objet est passée à l'intérieur ou à
l'extérieur d'une fonction, elle fait partie de la spécification de
l'interface de la fonction, peu importe que la possession soit
transférée avec la référence ou non.

La plupart des fonctions qui renvoient une référence à un objet
transmettent la possession avec la référence.  En particulier, toutes
les fonctions dont la fonction est de créer un nouvel objet, telles que
*note PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6. et *note Py_BuildValue(): 896,
transmettent la possession au récepteur.  Même si l'objet n'est pas
réellement nouveau, vous recevez toujours la possession d'une nouvelle
référence à cet objet.  Par exemple, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6.
maintient un cache des valeurs souvent utilisées et peut renvoyer une
référence à un élément mis en cache.

De nombreuses fonctions qui extraient des objets d'autres objets
transfèrent également la possession avec la référence, par exemple *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 342.  L'image est moins claire ici, cependant,
puisque quelques routines courantes sont des exceptions : *note
PyTuple_GetItem(): 4859, *note PyList_GetItem(): 352, *note
PyDict_GetItem(): 37d. et *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 37e. renvoient
toutes des références qui sont empruntées au 'n'-uplet, à la liste ou au
dictionnaire.

La fonction *note PyImport_AddModule(): 34f. renvoie également une
référence empruntée, même si elle peut en fait créer l'objet qu'elle
renvoie : c'est possible car une référence à l'objet est stockée dans
‘sys.modules’.

Lorsque vous passez une référence d'objet dans une autre fonction, en
général, la fonction vous emprunte la référence — si elle a besoin de la
stocker, elle utilise *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. pour devenir un
propriétaire indépendant.  Il existe exactement deux exceptions
importantes à cette règle : *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a. et *note
PyList_SetItem(): 1531.  Ces fonctions s'approprient l'élément qui leur
est transmis, même en cas d'échec !  (Notez que *note PyDict_SetItem():
485b. et compagnie ne prennent pas la possession de l'objet, elles sont
« normales ».)

Lorsqu'une fonction C est appelée depuis Python, elle emprunte à
l'appelant des références aux arguments.  L'appelant possède une
référence à l'objet, de sorte que la durée de vie de la référence
empruntée est garantie jusqu'au retour de la fonction.  Ce n'est que
lorsqu'une telle référence empruntée doit être stockée ou transmise
qu'elle doit être transformée en référence possédée en appelant *note
Py_INCREF(): 55c.

La référence d'objet renvoyée par une fonction C appelée depuis Python
doit être une référence détenue en propre — la possession est transférée
de la fonction à son appelant.


File: python.info,  Node: Terrain dangereux,  Next: Pointeurs NULL,  Prev: Règles concernant la possession de références,  Up: Compteurs de références

6.2.1.13 Terrain dangereux
..........................

Il existe quelques situations où l'utilisation apparemment inoffensive
d'une référence empruntée peut entraîner des problèmes.  Tous ces
problèmes sont en lien avec des invocations implicites de l’interpréteur
et peuvent amener le propriétaire d'une référence à s'en défaire.

Le premier cas, et le plus important à connaître, est celui de
l'utilisation de *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. à un objet non relié lors de
l'emprunt d'une référence à un élément de liste.  Par exemple :

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }

Cette fonction emprunte d'abord une référence à ‘list[0]’, puis remplace
‘list[1]’ par la valeur ‘0’, et enfin affiche la référence empruntée.
Ça a l'air inoffensif, n'est-ce pas ?  Mais ce n'est pas le cas !

Let's follow the control flow into *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531.  The
list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it
has to dispose of the original item 1.  Now let's suppose the original
item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let's further
suppose that the class defined a ‘__del__()’ method.  If this class
instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its
‘__del__()’ method.

Since it is written in Python, the ‘__del__()’ method can execute
arbitrary Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the
reference to ‘item’ in ‘bug()’?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed
into ‘bug()’ is accessible to the ‘__del__()’ method, it could execute a
statement to the effect of ‘del list[0]’, and assuming this was the last
reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it,
thereby invalidating ‘item’.

La solution, une fois que vous connaissez la source du problème, est
simple : incrémentez temporairement le compteur de références.  La
version correcte de la fonction est :

     void
     no_bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         Py_INCREF(item);
         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of
this bug and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger
to figure out why his ‘__del__()’ methods would fail...

Le deuxième cas de problèmes liés à une référence empruntée est une
variante impliquant des fils d'exécution.  Normalement, plusieurs
threads dans l'interpréteur Python ne peuvent pas se gêner mutuellement,
car il existe un verrou global protégeant tout l'espace objet de Python.
Cependant, il est possible de libérer temporairement ce verrou en
utilisant la macro *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e, et de le
ré-acquérir en utilisant *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a7e.  Ceci est un
procédé courant pour bloquer les appels d'entrées/sorties, afin de
permettre aux autres threads d'utiliser le processeur en attendant que
les E/S soient terminées.  Évidemment, la fonction suivante a le même
problème que la précédente :

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
         Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
         ...some blocking I/O call...
         Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Pointeurs NULL,  Prev: Terrain dangereux,  Up: Compteurs de références

6.2.1.14 Pointeurs ‘NULL’
.........................

En général, les fonctions qui prennent des références d'objets comme
arguments ne sont pas conçues pour recevoir des pointeurs ‘NULL’, et si
vous en donnez comme arguments, elles causeront une erreur de
segmentation (ou provoqueront des 'core dump' ultérieurs).  Les
fonctions qui renvoient des références d'objets renvoient généralement
‘NULL’ uniquement pour indiquer qu'une exception s'est produite.  La
raison pour laquelle les arguments ‘NULL’ ne sont pas testés est que les
fonctions passent souvent les objets qu'elles reçoivent à d'autres
fonctions, si chaque fonction devait tester pour ‘NULL’, il y aurait
beaucoup de tests redondants et le code s'exécuterait plus lentement.

Il est préférable de tester la présence de ‘NULL’ uniquement au début :
lorsqu'un pointeur qui peut être ‘NULL’ est reçu, par exemple, de
‘malloc()’ ou d'une fonction qui peut lever une exception.

Les macros *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. et *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. ne
vérifient pas les pointeurs ‘NULL’.  Cependant, leurs variantes *note
Py_XINCREF(): a55. et *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. le font.

Les macros de vérification d'un type d'objet particulier
(‘Pytype_Check()’) ne vérifient pas les pointeurs ‘NULL’ — encore une
fois, il y a beaucoup de code qui en appelle plusieurs à la suite pour
tester un objet par rapport à différents types attendus, ce qui
générerait des tests redondants.  Il n'y a pas de variantes avec la
vérification ‘NULL’.

Le mécanisme d'appel de fonctions C garantit que la liste d'arguments
passée aux fonctions C (‘args’ dans les exemples) n'est jamais ‘NULL’.
En fait, il garantit qu'il s'agit toujours d'un 'n'-uplet (1).

C'est une grave erreur de laisser un pointeur ‘NULL’ « s'échapper » vers
l'utilisateur Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Ces garanties ne sont pas valables lorsqu'on emploie les
conventions de nommage anciennes, qu'on retrouve encore assez souvent
dans beaucoup de code existant.


File: python.info,  Node: Écrire des extensions en C++,  Next: Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension,  Prev: Compteurs de références,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.15 Écrire des extensions en C++
.....................................

C'est possible d'écrire des modules d'extension en C++, mais sous
certaines conditions.  Si le programme principal (l'interpréteur Python)
est compilé et lié par le compilateur C, les objets globaux ou statiques
avec les constructeurs ne peuvent pas être utilisés.  Ceci n'est pas un
problème si le programme principal est relié par le compilateur C++.
Les fonctions qui seront appelées par l'interpréteur Python (en
particulier, les fonctions d'initialisation des modules) doivent être
déclarées en utilisant ‘extern "C"’.  Il n'est pas nécessaire d'inclure
les fichiers d'en-tête Python dans le ‘extern "C" {…}’, car ils
utilisent déjà ce format si le symbole ‘__cplusplus’ est défini (tous
les compilateurs C++ récents définissent ce symbole).


File: python.info,  Node: Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension,  Prev: Écrire des extensions en C++,  Up: Étendre Python en C ou C++

6.2.1.16 Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension
................................................................

De nombreux modules d'extension fournissent simplement de nouvelles
fonctions et de nouveaux types à utiliser à partir de Python, mais
parfois le code d'un module d'extension peut être utile pour d'autres
modules d'extension.  Par exemple, un module d'extension peut mettre en
œuvre un type « collection » qui fonctionne comme des listes sans ordre.
Tout comme le type de liste Python standard possède une API C qui permet
aux modules d'extension de créer et de manipuler des listes, ce nouveau
type de collection devrait posséder un ensemble de fonctions C pour une
manipulation directe à partir d'autres modules d'extension.

À première vue, cela semble facile : il suffit d'écrire les fonctions
(sans les déclarer « statiques », bien sûr), de fournir un fichier
d'en-tête approprié et de documenter l'API C. Et en fait, cela
fonctionnerait si tous les modules d'extension étaient toujours liés
statiquement avec l'interpréteur Python.  Cependant, lorsque les modules
sont utilisés comme des bibliothèques partagées, les symboles définis
dans un module peuvent ne pas être visibles par un autre module.  Les
détails de la visibilité dépendent du système d'exploitation ; certains
systèmes utilisent un espace de noms global pour l'interpréteur Python
et tous les modules d'extension (Windows, par exemple), tandis que
d'autres exigent une liste explicite des symboles importés au moment de
la liaison des modules (AIX en est un exemple), ou offrent un choix de
stratégies différentes (la plupart des 'Unix').  Et même si les symboles
sont globalement visibles, le module dont on souhaite appeler les
fonctions n'est peut-être pas encore chargé !

La portabilité exige donc de ne faire aucune supposition sur la
visibilité des symboles.  Cela signifie que tous les symboles des
modules d'extension doivent être déclarés ‘static’, à l'exception de la
fonction d'initialisation du module, afin d'éviter les conflits de noms
avec les autres modules d'extension (comme discuté dans la section *note
La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module:
4843.).  Et cela signifie que les symboles qui 'devraient' être
accessibles à partir d'autres modules d'extension doivent être exportés
d'une manière différente.

Python fournit un mécanisme spécial pour transmettre des informations de
niveau C (pointeurs) d'un module d'extension à un autre : les Capsules.
Une capsule est un type de données Python qui stocke un pointeur
(void*).  Les capsules ne peuvent être créées et accessibles que via
leur API C, mais elles peuvent être transmises comme n'importe quel
autre objet Python.  En particulier, elles peuvent être affectées à un
nom dans l'espace de noms d'un module d'extension.  D'autres modules
d'extension peuvent alors importer ce module, récupérer la valeur de ce
nom, puis récupérer le pointeur de la Capsule.

Il existe de nombreuses façons d'utiliser les Capsules pour exporter
l'API C d'un module d'extension.  Chaque fonction peut obtenir sa propre
Capsule, ou tous les pointeurs de l'API C peuvent être stockés dans un
tableau dont l'adresse est inscrite dans une Capsule.  Et les
différentes tâches de stockage et de récupération des pointeurs peuvent
être réparties de différentes manières entre le module fournissant le
code et les modules clients.

Quelle que soit la méthode que vous choisissez, il est important de bien
nommer vos Capsules.  La fonction *note PyCapsule_New(): 4864. prend un
paramètre nommé (const char*).  Vous êtes autorisé à passer un nom
‘NULL’, mais nous vous encourageons vivement à spécifier un nom.  Des
Capsules correctement nommées offrent un certain degré de sécurité
concernant un éventuel conflit de types, car il n'y a pas de moyen de
distinguer deux ou plusieurs Capsules non nommées entre elles.

En particulier, les capsules utilisées pour exposer les API C doivent
recevoir un nom suivant cette convention :

     modulename.attributename

La fonction de commodité *note PyCapsule_Import(): 182a. permet de
charger facilement une API C fournie via une Capsule, mais seulement si
le nom de la Capsule correspond à cette convention.  Ce comportement
donne aux utilisateurs d'API C un degré élevé de certitude que la
Capsule qu'ils chargent contient l'API C correcte.

L'exemple suivant montre une approche qui fait peser la plus grande
partie de la charge sur le rédacteur du module d'exportation, ce qui est
approprié pour les modules de bibliothèque couramment utilisés.  Il
stocke tous les pointeurs de l'API C (un seul dans l'exemple !)  dans un
tableau de pointeurs void qui devient la valeur d'une Capsule.  Le
fichier d'en-tête correspondant au module fournit une macro qui se
charge d'importer le module et de récupérer ses pointeurs d'API C. Les
modules clients n'ont qu'à appeler cette macro avant d'accéder à l'API
C.

The exporting module is a modification of the ‘spam’ module from section
*note Un exemple simple: 483b.  The function ‘spam.system()’ does not
call the C library function ‘system()’ directly, but a function
‘PySpam_System()’, which would of course do something more complicated
in reality (such as adding "spam" to every command).  This function
‘PySpam_System()’ is also exported to other extension modules.

The function ‘PySpam_System()’ is a plain C function, declared ‘static’
like everything else:

     static int
     PySpam_System(const char *command)
     {
         return system(command);
     }

The function ‘spam_system()’ is modified in a trivial way:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = PySpam_System(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

Au début du module, immédiatement après la ligne :

     #include <Python.h>

on doit ajouter deux lignes supplémentaires :

     #define SPAM_MODULE
     #include "spammodule.h"

L'indicateur ‘#define’ est utilisé pour indiquer au fichier d'en-tête
qu'il est inclus dans le module d'exportation, et non dans un module
client.  Enfin, la fonction d'initialisation du module doit prendre en
charge l'initialisation du tableau de pointeurs de l'API C :

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
         PyObject *c_api_object;

         m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
         PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;

         /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
         c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);

         if (PyModule_Add(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Note that ‘PySpam_API’ is declared ‘static’; otherwise the pointer array
would disappear when ‘PyInit_spam()’ terminates!

L'essentiel du travail se trouve dans le fichier d'en-tête
‘spammodule.h’, qui ressemble à ceci :

     #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #ifdef __cplusplus
     extern "C" {
     #endif

     /* Header file for spammodule */

     /* C API functions */
     #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
     #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
     #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)

     /* Total number of C API pointers */
     #define PySpam_API_pointers 1


     #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
     /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */

     static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;

     #else
     /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */

     static void **PySpam_API;

     #define PySpam_System \
      (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])

     /* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.
      * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error.
      */
     static int
     import_spam(void)
     {
         PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
         return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
     }

     #endif

     #ifdef __cplusplus
     }
     #endif

     #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */

All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
‘PySpam_System()’ is to call the function (or rather macro)
‘import_spam()’ in its initialization function:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_client(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;

         m = PyModule_Create(&clientmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;
         if (import_spam() < 0)
             return NULL;
         /* additional initialization can happen here */
         return m;
     }

Le principal inconvénient de cette approche est que le fichier
‘spammodule.h’ est assez compliqué.  Cependant, la structure de base est
la même pour chaque fonction exportée, ce qui fait qu'elle ne doit être
apprise qu'une seule fois.

Enfin, il convient de mentionner que les Capsules offrent des
fonctionnalités supplémentaires, qui sont particulièrement utiles pour
l'allocation de la mémoire et la dés-allocation du pointeur stocké dans
un objet Capsule.  Les détails sont décrits dans le manuel de référence
de l'API Python/C dans la section *note Capsules: 2538. et dans
l'implémentation des Capsules (fichiers ‘Include/pycapsule.h’ et
‘Objects/pycapsule.c’ dans la distribution du code source Python).

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions,  Next: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets,  Prev: Étendre Python en C ou C++,  Up: Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

6.2.2 Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions
------------------------------------------------------

Python permet à l'auteur d'un module d'extension C de définir de
nouveaux types qui peuvent être manipulés depuis du code Python, à la
manière des types natifs *note str: 437. et *note list: 5fe.  Les
implémentations de tous les types d'extension ont des similarités, mais
quelques subtilités doivent être abordées avant de commencer.

* Menu:

* Les bases: Les bases<2>.
* ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique::
* Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données::
* Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique::
* Sous-classement d'autres types::


File: python.info,  Node: Les bases<2>,  Next: ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique,  Up: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions

6.2.2.1 Les bases
.................

*note CPython: 6e2. considère que tous les objets Python sont des
variables de type *note PyObject: 32f.*, qui sert de type de base pour
tous les objets Python.  La structure de *note PyObject: 32f. ne
contient que le *note compteur de références: 4869. et un pointeur vers
un objet de type « type de l'objet ».  C'est ici que tout se joue :
l'objet type détermine quelle fonction C doit être appelée par
l'interpréteur quand, par exemple, un attribut est recherché sur un
objet, quand une méthode est appelée, ou quand l'objet est multiplié par
un autre objet.  Ces fonctions C sont appelées des « méthodes de type ».

Donc, pour définir un nouveau type dans une extension, vous devez créer
un nouvel objet type.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here's a
minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named ‘Custom’
inside a C extension module ‘custom’:

     Note: ce qui est montré ici est la manière traditionnelle de
     définir des types d'extension 'statiques', et cela convient dans la
     majorité des cas.  L'API C permet aussi de définir des types
     alloués sur le tas, via la fonction *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b,
     mais ce n'est pas couvert par ce tutoriel.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         /* Type-specific fields go here. */
     } CustomObject;

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

C'est un peu long, mais vous devez déjà reconnaître quelques morceaux
expliqués au chapitre précédent.  Ce fichier définit trois choses :

  1. What a ‘Custom’ 'object' contains: this is the ‘CustomObject’
     struct, which is allocated once for each ‘Custom’ instance.

  2. How the ‘Custom’ 'type' behaves: this is the ‘CustomType’ struct,
     which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the
     interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested.

  3. How to initialize the ‘custom’ module: this is the ‘PyInit_custom’
     function and the associated ‘custommodule’ struct.

Commençons par :

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } CustomObject;

C'est ce qu'un objet ‘Custom’ contient.  ‘PyObject_HEAD’ est
obligatoirement au début de chaque structure d'objet et définit un champ
appelé ‘ob_base’ de type *note PyObject: 32f, contenant un pointeur vers
un objet type et un compteur de références (on peut y accéder en
utilisant les macros *note Py_TYPE: 76c. et *note Py_REFCNT: 898,
respectivement).  La raison d'être de ces macros est d'abstraire
l'agencement de la structure, et ainsi de permettre l'ajout de champs en
*note mode débogage: 1f6.

     Note: il n'y a pas de point-virgule après la macro *note
     PyObject_HEAD: 12be.  Attention à ne pas l'ajouter par accident :
     certains compilateurs pourraient s'en plaindre.

Bien sûr, les objets ajoutent généralement des données supplémentaires
après l'entête standard ‘PyObject_HEAD’.  Par exemple voici la
définition du type standard Python ‘float’ :

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         double ob_fval;
     } PyFloatObject;

La deuxième partie est la définition de l'objet type

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     Note: nous recommandons d'utiliser la syntaxe d'initialisation
     nommée (C99) pour remplir la structure, comme ci-dessus, afin
     d'éviter d'avoir à lister les champs de *note PyTypeObject: a95.
     dont vous n'avez pas besoin, et de ne pas vous soucier de leur
     ordre.

La définition de *note PyTypeObject: a95. dans ‘object.h’ contient en
fait bien plus de *note champs: 97c. que la définition ci-dessus.  Les
champs restants sont mis à zéro par le compilateur C, et c'est une
pratique répandue de ne pas spécifier les champs dont vous n'avez pas
besoin.

Regardons les champs de cette structure, un par un :

     .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

Cette ligne, obligatoire, initialise le champ ‘ob_base’ mentionné
précédemment.

     .tp_name = "custom.Custom",

C'est le nom de notre type.  Il apparaît dans la représentation
textuelle par défaut de nos objets, ainsi que dans quelques messages
d'erreur, par exemple :

     >>> "" + custom.Custom()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name
and the name of the type within the module.  The module in this case is
‘custom’ and the type is ‘Custom’, so we set the type name to
‘custom.Custom’.  Using the real dotted import path is important to make
your type compatible with the *note pydoc: b4. and *note pickle: a5.
modules.

     .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
     .tp_itemsize = 0,

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
new ‘Custom’ instances.  *note tp_itemsize: 1f29. is only used for
variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.

     Note: If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and
     your type has the same *note tp_basicsize: 976. as its base type,
     you may have problems with multiple inheritance.  A Python subclass
     of your type will have to list your type first in its *note
     __bases__: 1462, or else it will not be able to call your type's
     *note __new__(): 56e. method without getting an error.  You can
     avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value
     for *note tp_basicsize: 976. than its base type does.  Most of the
     time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type will
     be *note object: a7c, or else you will be adding data members to
     your base type, and therefore increasing its size.

Nous définissons les drapeaux de la classe à *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT:
486a. :

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

Chaque type doit inclure cette constante dans ses options : elle active
tous les membres définis jusqu'à au moins Python 3.3.  Si vous avez
besoin de plus de membres, vous pouvez la combiner à d'autres constantes
avec un 'OU' binaire.

Nous fournissons une 'docstring' pour ce type via le membre *note
tp_doc: 486b.

     .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

To enable object creation, we have to provide a *note tp_new: 56d.
handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method *note __new__():
56e, but has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use
the default implementation provided by the API function *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 486c.

     .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
‘PyInit_custom()’:

     if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
         return;

This initializes the ‘Custom’ type, filling in a number of members to
the appropriate default values, including *note ob_type: 486d. that we
initially set to ‘NULL’.

     if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
         Py_DECREF(m);
         return NULL;
     }

This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
‘Custom’ instances by calling the ‘Custom’ class:

     >>> import custom
     >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That's it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called ‘custom.c’,

     [build-system]
     requires = ["setuptools"]
     build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"

     [project]
     name = "custom"
     version = "1"

in a file called ‘pyproject.toml’, and

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

dans un fichier appelé ‘setup.py’ ; puis en tapant

     $ python -m pip install .

in a shell should produce a file ‘custom.so’ in a subdirectory and
install it; now fire up Python -- you should be able to ‘import custom’
and play around with ‘Custom’ objects.

Ce n'était pas si difficile, n'est-ce pas ?

Bien sûr, le type personnalisé actuel est assez inintéressant.  Il n'a
pas de données et ne fait rien.  Il ne peut même pas être sous-classé.


File: python.info,  Node: ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique,  Next: Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données,  Prev: Les bases<2>,  Up: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions

6.2.2.2 ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique
...........................................................

Let's extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let's also
make the type usable as a base class.  We'll create a new module,
‘custom2’ that adds these capabilities:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base =PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom2",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom2(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Cette version du module comporte un certain nombre de modifications.

The ‘Custom’ type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
'first', 'last', and 'number'.  The 'first' and 'last' variables are
Python strings containing first and last names.  The 'number' attribute
is a C integer.

La structure de l'objet est mise à jour en conséquence

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

Comme nous avons maintenant des données à gérer, nous devons faire plus
attention à l'allocation et à la libération d'objets.  Au minimum, nous
avons besoin d'une méthode de dés-allocation

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

qui est assignée au membre *note tp_dealloc: 486f.

     .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python
attributes.  *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. correctly handles the case where
its argument is ‘NULL’ (which might happen here if ‘tp_new’ failed
midway).  It then calls the *note tp_free: 4870. member of the object's
type (computed by ‘Py_TYPE(self)’) to free the object's memory.  Note
that the object's type might not be ‘CustomType’, because the object may
be an instance of a subclass.

     Note: La conversion explicite en ‘destructor’ ci-dessus est
     nécessaire car nous avons défini ‘Custom_dealloc’ pour prendre un
     argument ‘CustomObject *’, mais le pointeur de fonction
     ‘tp_dealloc’ s'attend à recevoir un argument ‘PyObject *’.  Sinon,
     le compilateur émet un avertissement.  C'est du polymorphisme
     orienté objet, en C !

Nous voulons nous assurer que le prénom et le nom sont initialisés avec
des chaînes vides, nous fournissons donc une implémentation ‘tp_new’

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

et installez-le dans le membre *note tp_new: 56d. :

     .tp_new = Custom_new,

The ‘tp_new’ handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to
initializing) objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the *note
__new__(): 56e. method.  It is not required to define a ‘tp_new’ member,
and indeed many extension types will simply reuse *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 486c. as done in the first version of the ‘Custom’
type above.  In this case, we use the ‘tp_new’ handler to initialize the
‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes to non-‘NULL’ default values.

‘tp_new’ reçoit le type en cours d'instanciation (pas nécessairement
‘CustomType’, si une sous-classe est instanciée) et tous les arguments
passés lorsque le type a été appelé, et devrait renvoyer l'instance
créée.  Les gestionnaires ‘tp_new’ acceptent toujours les arguments
positionnels et nommés, mais ils ignorent souvent les arguments,
laissant la gestion des arguments aux méthodes d'initialisation (alias
‘tp_init’ en C ou ‘__init__’ en Python).

     Note: ‘tp_new’ ne doit pas appeler ‘tp_init’ explicitement, car
     l'interpréteur le fera lui-même.

L'implémentation ‘tp_new’ appelle l'emplacement *note tp_alloc: 4871.
pour allouer de la mémoire :

     self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

Puisque l'allocation de mémoire peut échouer, nous devons vérifier le
résultat *note tp_alloc: 4871. par rapport à ‘NULL’ avant de continuer.

     Note: Nous n'avons pas rempli l'emplacement *note tp_alloc: 4871.
     nous-mêmes.  C'est *note PyType_Ready(): 768. qui le remplit pour
     nous car il en hérite de notre classe mère, qui est *note object:
     a7c. par défaut.  La plupart des types utilisent la stratégie
     d'allocation par défaut.

     Note: If you are creating a co-operative *note tp_new: 56d. (one
     that calls a base type's *note tp_new: 56d. or *note __new__():
     56e.), you must 'not' try to determine what method to call using
     method resolution order at runtime.  Always statically determine
     what type you are going to call, and call its *note tp_new: 56d.
     directly, or via ‘type->tp_base->tp_new’.  If you do not do this,
     Python subclasses of your type that also inherit from other
     Python-defined classes may not work correctly.  (Specifically, you
     may not be able to create instances of such subclasses without
     getting a *note TypeError: 525.)

Nous définissons également une fonction d'initialisation qui accepte des
arguments pour fournir des valeurs initiales pour notre instance

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

en remplissant l'emplacement *note tp_init: 56f.

     .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,

The *note tp_init: 56f. slot is exposed in Python as the *note
__init__(): 69d. method.  It is used to initialize an object after it's
created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
and they should return either ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

Unlike the ‘tp_new’ handler, there is no guarantee that ‘tp_init’ is
called at all (for example, the *note pickle: a5. module by default
doesn't call *note __init__(): 69d. on unpickled instances).  It can
also be called multiple times.  Anyone can call the ‘__init__()’ method
on our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when
assigning the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to
assign the ‘first’ member like this:

     if (first) {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_INCREF(first);
         self->first = first;
     }

Mais ce serait risqué.  Notre type ne limite pas le type du membre
‘first’, il peut donc s'agir de n'importe quel type d'objet.  Il
pourrait avoir un destructeur qui provoque l'exécution de code essayant
d'accéder au membre ‘first’ ; ou ce destructeur pourrait libérer le
*note Global interpreter Lock: 158. et laisser du code arbitraire
s'exécuter dans d'autres threads qui accèdent et modifient notre objet.

Dans une optique paranoïaque et se prémunir contre cette éventualité, on
réaffecte presque toujours les membres avant de décrémenter leur
compteur de références.  Quand ne devons-nous pas faire cela ?

   * lorsque l'on est sûr que le compteur de références est supérieur à
     1 ;

   * lorsque nous savons que la libération de la mémoire de l'objet (1)
     ne libérera pas le *note GIL: 158. ni ne provoquera de rappel dans
     le code de notre type ;

   * lors de la décrémentation d'un compteur de références dans un
     gestionnaire *note tp_dealloc: 486f. sur un type qui ne prend pas
     en charge le ramasse-miettes cyclique (2).

Nous voulons exposer nos variables d'instance en tant qu'attributs.  Il
existe plusieurs façons de le faire.  Le moyen le plus simple consiste à
définir des définitions de membres :

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

et placer les définitions dans l'emplacement *note tp_members: 4872.

     .tp_members = Custom_members,

Chaque définition de membre possède un nom, un type, un décalage, des
indicateurs d'accès et une chaîne de documentation.  Voir la section
*note Gestion des attributs génériques: 4873. ci-dessous pour plus de
détails.

Un inconvénient de cette approche est qu'elle ne permet pas de
restreindre les types d'objets pouvant être affectés aux attributs
Python.  Nous nous attendons à ce que le prénom et le nom soient des
chaînes, mais tous les objets Python peuvent être affectés.  De plus,
les attributs peuvent être supprimés, en définissant les pointeurs C sur
‘NULL’.  Même si nous pouvons nous assurer que les membres sont
initialisés avec des valeurs non ‘NULL’, les membres peuvent être
définis sur ‘NULL’ si les attributs sont supprimés.

We define a single method, ‘Custom.name()’, that outputs the objects
name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a ‘Custom’ (or
‘Custom’ subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take
an instance as the first argument.  Methods often take positional and
keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don't take any and don't
need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument
dictionary.  This method is equivalent to the Python method:

     def name(self):
         return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our ‘first’ and
‘last’ members are ‘NULL’.  This is because they can be deleted, in
which case they are set to ‘NULL’.  It would be better to prevent
deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be
strings.  We'll see how to do that in the next section.

Maintenant que nous avons défini la méthode, nous devons créer un
tableau de définitions de méthode

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

(notez que nous avons utilisé le drapeau *note METH_NOARGS: 148c. pour
indiquer que la méthode n'attend aucun argument autre que 'self')

et assignons-le à l'emplacement *note tp_methods: 4874.

     .tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Enfin, nous rendons notre type utilisable comme classe de base pour le
sous-classement.  Nous avons écrit nos méthodes avec soin jusqu'à
présent afin qu'elles ne fassent aucune hypothèse sur le type de l'objet
créé ou utilisé, donc tout ce que nous avons à faire est d'ajouter la
macro *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 4875. à notre définition d'indicateur
de classe :

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename ‘PyInit_custom()’ to ‘PyInit_custom2()’, update the module
name in the *note PyModuleDef: 96c. struct, and update the full class
name in the *note PyTypeObject: a95. struct.

Finally, we update our ‘setup.py’ file to include the new module,

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[
         Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
         Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
     ])

and then we re-install so that we can ‘import custom2’:

     $ python -m pip install .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) C'est vrai lorsque nous savons que l'objet est un type de base,
comme une chaîne ou un flottant.

   (2) Nous nous sommes appuyés sur le gestionnaire *note tp_dealloc:
486f. dans cet exemple, car notre type ne prend pas en charge le
ramasse-miettes.


File: python.info,  Node: Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données,  Next: Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique,  Prev: ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique,  Up: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions

6.2.2.3 Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données
....................................................

In this section, we'll provide finer control over how the ‘first’ and
‘last’ attributes are set in the ‘Custom’ example.  In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables ‘first’ and ‘last’ could
be set to non-string values or even deleted.  We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom3",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom3(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

To provide greater control, over the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes,
we'll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions
for getting and setting the ‘first’ attribute:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         Py_INCREF(self->first);
         return self->first;
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         PyObject *tmp;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         tmp = self->first;
         Py_INCREF(value);
         self->first = value;
         Py_DECREF(tmp);
         return 0;
     }

The getter function is passed a ‘Custom’ object and a "closure", which
is a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure
supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the
getter and setter.  This could, for example, be used to allow a single
set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or
set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the ‘Custom’ object, the new value, and
the closure.  The new value may be ‘NULL’, in which case the attribute
is being deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is
deleted or if its new value is not a string.

Nous créons un tableau de structures *note PyGetSetDef: ba8.

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

et l'enregistrons dans l'emplacement *note tp_getset: 4877.

     .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

Le dernier élément d'une structure *note PyGetSetDef: ba8. est la
fermeture mentionnée ci-dessus.  Dans ce cas, nous n'utilisons pas de
fermeture, nous passons donc simplement ‘NULL’.

Nous supprimons également les définitions de membre pour ces attributs :

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

Nous devons également mettre à jour le gestionnaire *note tp_init: 56f.
pour autoriser uniquement le passage des chaînes (1)

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

Avec ces modifications, nous pouvons garantir que les membres ‘first’ et
‘last’ ne sont jamais ‘NULL’, nous pouvons donc supprimer les
vérifications des valeurs ‘NULL’ dans presque tous les cas.  Cela
signifie que la plupart des appels *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. peuvent être
convertis en appels *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.  Le seul endroit où nous ne
pouvons pas modifier ces appels est dans l'implémentation de
‘tp_dealloc’, où il est possible que l'initialisation de ces membres ait
échoué dans ‘tp_new’.

Nous renommons également la fonction d'initialisation du module et le
nom du module dans la fonction d'initialisation, comme nous l'avons fait
précédemment, et nous ajoutons une définition supplémentaire au fichier
‘setup.py’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Nous savons maintenant que les premier et dernier membres sont
des chaînes, nous pourrions donc peut-être être moins prudents quant à
la décrémentation de leur nombre de références, cependant, nous
acceptons les instances de sous-classes de chaînes.  Même si la
libération de la mémoire des chaînes normales ne rappellera pas nos
objets, nous ne pouvons pas garantir que la libération de mémoire d'une
instance d'une sous-classe de chaîne ne rappellera pas nos objets.


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique,  Next: Sous-classement d'autres types,  Prev: Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données,  Up: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions

6.2.2.4 Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique
...................................................

Python a un *note ramasse-miettes cyclique: 18d6. qui peut identifier
les objets inutiles même lorsque leur compteur de références n'est pas
nul.  Cela peut se produire lorsque des objets sont impliqués dans des
cycles.  Par exemple, considérons :

     >>> l = []
     >>> l.append(l)
     >>> del l

Dans cet exemple, nous créons une liste qui se contient elle-même.
Lorsque nous la supprimons, il existe toujours une référence à
elle-même.  Son compteur de références ne tombe pas à zéro.
Heureusement, le ramasse-miettes cyclique de Python finira par
comprendre que la liste est un déchet et la libérera.

In the second version of the ‘Custom’ example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the ‘first’ or ‘last’ attributes (1).  Besides,
in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing ‘Custom’, and
subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of those two reasons,
‘Custom’ objects can participate in cycles:

     >>> import custom3
     >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
     ...
     >>> n = Derived()
     >>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a ‘Custom’ instance participating in a reference cycle to be
properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our ‘Custom’ type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables
these slots:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc) Custom_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry) Custom_clear,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom4",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom4(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Tout d'abord, la méthode de parcours ('Custom_traverse') permet au
ramasse-miettes cyclique de connaître les sous-objets qui pourraient
conduire à des cycles

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         int vret;
         if (self->first) {
             vret = visit(self->first, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         if (self->last) {
             vret = visit(self->last, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         return 0;
     }

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
‘visit()’ function, which is passed to the traversal method.  The
‘visit()’ function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra
argument 'arg' passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer
value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

Python fournit une macro *note Py_VISIT(): 4879. qui automatise l'appel
des fonctions de visite.  Avec *note Py_VISIT(): 4879, nous pouvons
minimiser la quantité de code générique dans ‘Custom_traverse’

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     Note: l'implémentation *note tp_traverse: 76a. doit nommer ses
     arguments exactement 'visit' et 'arg' afin d'utiliser *note
     Py_VISIT(): 4879.

Deuxièmement, nous devons fournir une méthode pour effacer tous les
sous-objets qui peuvent conduire à des cycles

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

Notez l'utilisation de la macro *note Py_CLEAR(): 566.  C'est le moyen
recommandé et sûr d'effacer les attributs de données de types
arbitraires tout en décrémentant leur compteur de références.  Si vous
deviez appeler *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. à la place sur l'attribut avant
de le définir sur ‘NULL’, il est possible que le destructeur de
l'attribut appelle du code qui lit à nouveau l'attribut ('surtout' s'il
existe un cycle de références).

     Note: vous pouvez émuler *note Py_CLEAR(): 566. en écrivant

          PyObject *tmp;
          tmp = self->first;
          self->first = NULL;
          Py_XDECREF(tmp);

     Néanmoins, il est beaucoup plus facile et moins sujet aux erreurs
     de toujours utiliser *note Py_CLEAR(): 566. lors de la suppression
     d'un attribut.  N'essayez pas de micro-optimiser au détriment de la
     robustesse !

La fonction de libération de la mémoire ‘Custom_dealloc’ peut appeler du
code arbitraire lors de la suppression des attributs.  Cela signifie que
le ramasse-miettes cyclique peut être déclenché à l'intérieur de la
fonction.  Étant donné que le ramasse-miettes suppose que le nombre de
références n'est pas nul, nous devons annuler le suivi de l'objet par le
ramasse-miettes en appelant *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. avant
d'effacer les membres.  Voici notre fonction de libération de la mémoire
réimplémentée en utilisant *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. et
‘Custom_clear’ :

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

Enfin, nous ajoutons le drapeau *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. aux
drapeaux de la classe :

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

C'est à peu près tout.  Si nous avions écrit des gestionnaires
personnalisés *note tp_alloc: 4871. ou *note tp_free: 4870, nous aurions
besoin de les modifier pour le ramasse-miettes cyclique.  La plupart des
extensions utilisent les versions fournies automatiquement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) De plus, même avec nos attributs limités aux instances de
chaînes, l'utilisateur pourrait passer des sous-classes arbitraires
*note str: 437. et donc encore créer des références cycliques.


File: python.info,  Node: Sous-classement d'autres types,  Prev: Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique,  Up: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions

6.2.2.5 Sous-classement d'autres types
......................................

Il est possible de créer de nouveaux types d'extension dérivés de types
existants.  Il est plus facile d'hériter des types natifs, car une
extension peut facilement utiliser le *note PyTypeObject: a95. dont elle
a besoin.  Il peut être difficile de partager ces structures *note
PyTypeObject: a95. entre modules d'extension.

In this example we will create a ‘SubList’ type that inherits from the
built-in *note list: 5fe. type.  The new type will be completely
compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional ‘increment()’
method that increases an internal counter:

     >>> import sublist
     >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
     >>> s.extend(s)
     >>> print(len(s))
     6
     >>> print(s.increment())
     1
     >>> print(s.increment())
     2

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

     static PyObject *
     SubList_increment(SubListObject *self, PyObject *unused)
     {
         self->state++;
         return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
     }

     static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
         {"increment", (PyCFunction) SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
          PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
         {NULL},
     };

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

     static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_init = (initproc) SubList_init,
         .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
     };

     static PyModuleDef sublistmodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "sublist",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the ‘Custom’ examples
in previous sections.  We will break down the main differences between
them.

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

La principale différence pour les objets d'un type dérivé est que la
structure d'objet du type père doit être la première valeur.  Le type
père inclut déjà le *note PyObject_HEAD(): 12be. au début de sa
structure.

When a Python object is a ‘SubList’ instance, its ‘PyObject *’ pointer
can be safely cast to both ‘PyListObject *’ and ‘SubListObject *’:

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

We see above how to call through to the *note __init__(): 69d. method of
the base type.

Ce modèle est important lors de l'écriture d'un type avec des membres
personnalisés *note tp_new: 56d. et *note tp_dealloc: 486f.  Le
gestionnaire *note tp_new: 56d. ne doit pas réellement allouer la
mémoire pour l'objet avec son *note tp_alloc: 4871, mais laisser la
classe mère gérer ça en appelant sa propre *note tp_new: 56d.

La structure *note PyTypeObject: a95. prend en charge un *note tp_base:
487b. spécifiant la classe mère concrète du type.  En raison de
problèmes de compilateur multiplateformes, vous ne pouvez pas remplir ce
champ directement avec une référence à *note PyList_Type: 487c. ; cela
doit être fait plus tard dans la fonction d'initialisation du module :

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         PyObject* m;
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Avant d'appeler *note PyType_Ready(): 768, la structure de type doit
avoir l'emplacement *note tp_base: 487b. rempli.  Lorsque nous dérivons
un type existant, il n'est pas nécessaire de remplir l'emplacement *note
tp_alloc: 4871. avec *note PyType_GenericNew(): 486c. – la fonction
d'allocation du type père sera héritée.

After that, calling *note PyType_Ready(): 768. and adding the type
object to the module is the same as with the basic ‘Custom’ examples.

Notes
.....


File: python.info,  Node: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets,  Next: Construire des extensions C et C++,  Prev: Tutoriel définir des types dans des extensions,  Up: Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

6.2.3 Définir les types d'extension : divers sujets
---------------------------------------------------

Cette section vise à donner un aperçu rapide des différentes méthodes de
type que vous pouvez implémenter et de ce qu'elles font.

Voici la définition de *note PyTypeObject: a95, après avoir enlevé
certains champs utilisés uniquement dans *note debug builds: 1f6. :

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;

Cela fait 'beaucoup' de méthodes.  Ne vous inquiétez pas trop
cependant : si vous souhaitez définir un type, il y a de fortes chances
que vous n'implémentiez qu'une petite partie d'entre elles.

Comme vous vous en doutez probablement maintenant, nous allons passer en
revue cela et donner plus d'informations sur les différents
gestionnaires.  Nous ne suivrons pas l'ordre dans lequel ils sont
définis dans la structure, car l'ordre des champs résulte d'un certain
historique.  Il est souvent plus facile de trouver un exemple qui inclut
les champs dont vous avez besoin, puis de modifier les valeurs en
fonction de votre nouveau type :

     const char *tp_name; /* For printing */

Le nom du type – comme mentionné dans le chapitre précédent, cela
apparaîtra à divers endroits, presque entièrement à des fins de
diagnostic.  Essayez de choisir quelque chose qui sera utile dans une
telle situation !

     Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

Ces champs indiquent la quantité de mémoire à allouer à l'exécution
lorsque de nouveaux objets de ce type sont créés.  Python prend en
charge nativement des structures de longueur variable (pensez : chaînes,
'n'-uplets), c'est là que le champ *note tp_itemsize: 1f29. entre en
jeu.  Cela sera traité plus tard.

     const char *tp_doc;

Ici vous pouvez mettre une chaîne (ou son adresse) que vous voulez
renvoyer lorsque le script Python référence ‘obj.__doc__’ pour récupérer
le 'docstring'.

Nous en arrivons maintenant aux méthodes de type basiques - celles que
la plupart des types d'extension mettront en œuvre.

* Menu:

* Finalisation et libération de mémoire::
* Présentation de l'objet::
* Gestion des attributs::
* Comparaison des objets::
* Gestion de protocoles abstraits::
* Prise en charge de la référence faible::
* Plus de suggestions::


File: python.info,  Node: Finalisation et libération de mémoire,  Next: Présentation de l'objet,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.1 Finalisation et libération de mémoire
.............................................

     destructor tp_dealloc;

Cette fonction est appelée lorsque le compteur de références de
l'instance de votre type tombe à zéro et que l'interpréteur Python veut
récupérer la mémoire afférente.  Si votre type a de la mémoire à libérer
ou un autre nettoyage à effectuer, vous pouvez le mettre ici.  L'objet
lui-même doit être libéré ici aussi.  Voici un exemple de cette
fonction :

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

Si votre type prend en charge le ramasse-miettes, le destructeur doit
appeler *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. avant d'effacer les champs
membres :

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(obj);
         Py_CLEAR(obj->other_obj);
         ...
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

Une exigence importante de la fonction de libération de la mémoire est
de ne pas s'occuper de toutes les exceptions en attente.  C'est
important car les fonctions de libération de la mémoire sont fréquemment
appelées lorsque l'interpréteur remonte la pile d'appels Python ;
lorsque la pile est remontée à cause d'une exception (plutôt que de
retours normaux), les fonctions de libération peuvent voir qu'une
exception a déjà été définie.  Toute action effectuée par une fonction
de libération de la mémoire pouvant entraîner l'exécution de code Python
supplémentaire peut détecter qu'une exception a été définie.  Cela peut
conduire l’interpréteur à se tromper sur la nature de l'erreur.  La
bonne façon d'éviter cela est d'enregistrer une exception en attente
avant d'effectuer l'action non sécurisée et à la restaurer une fois
terminée.  Cela peut être fait en utilisant les fonctions *note
PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. et *note PyErr_Restore(): 3ec. :

     static void
     my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
     {
         MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
         PyObject *cbresult;

         if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
             PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;

             /* This saves the current exception state */
             PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

             cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback);
             if (cbresult == NULL)
                 PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
             else
                 Py_DECREF(cbresult);

             /* This restores the saved exception state */
             PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

             Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
         }
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
     }

     Note: des limites existent à ce que vous pouvez faire en toute
     sécurité dans une fonction de libération de la mémoire.  Tout
     d'abord, si votre type prend en charge le ramasse-miettes (en
     utilisant *note tp_traverse: 76a. et/ou *note tp_clear: 4882.),
     certains membres de l'objet peuvent avoir été effacés ou finalisés
     avant que *note tp_dealloc: 486f. ne soit appelé.  Deuxièmement,
     dans *note tp_dealloc: 486f, votre objet est dans un état
     instable : son compteur de références est égal à zéro.  Tout appel
     à un objet non trivial ou à une API (comme dans l'exemple
     ci-dessus) peut finir par appeler *note tp_dealloc: 486f. à
     nouveau, provoquant une double libération et un plantage.

     À partir de Python 3.4, il est recommandé de ne pas mettre de code
     de finalisation complexe dans *note tp_dealloc: 486f, et d'utiliser
     à la place la nouvelle méthode de type *note tp_finalize: a96.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 442(1) explique le nouveau schéma de finalisation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Présentation de l'objet,  Next: Gestion des attributs,  Prev: Finalisation et libération de mémoire,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.2 Présentation de l'objet
...............................

En Python, il existe deux façons de générer une représentation textuelle
d'un objet : la fonction *note repr(): 7e9. et la fonction *note str():
437. (la fonction *note print(): f62. appelle simplement *note str():
437.).  Ces gestionnaires sont tous deux facultatifs.

     reprfunc tp_repr;
     reprfunc tp_str;

Le gestionnaire *note tp_repr: 4884. doit renvoyer un objet chaîne
contenant une représentation de l'instance pour laquelle il est appelé.
Voici un exemple simple :

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }

Si aucun gestionnaire *note tp_repr: 4884. n'est spécifié,
l'interpréteur fournira une représentation qui utilise le type *note
tp_name: 18af. et une valeur d'identification unique pour l'objet.

Le gestionnaire *note tp_str: 4885. est à *note str(): 437. ce que le
gestionnaire *note tp_repr: 4884. décrit ci-dessus est à *note repr():
7e9. ; c'est-à-dire qu'il est appelé lorsque le code Python appelle
*note str(): 437. sur une instance de votre objet.  Son implémentation
est très similaire à la fonction *note tp_repr: 4884, mais la chaîne
résultante est destinée à être lue par des utilisateurs.  Si *note
tp_str: 4885. n'est pas spécifié, le gestionnaire *note tp_repr: 4884.
est utilisé à la place.

Voici un exemple simple :

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des attributs,  Next: Comparaison des objets,  Prev: Présentation de l'objet,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.3 Gestion des attributs
.............................

Pour chaque objet pouvant prendre en charge des attributs, le type
correspondant doit fournir les fonctions qui contrôlent la façon dont
les attributs sont résolus.  Il doit y avoir une fonction qui peut
récupérer les attributs (le cas échéant) et une autre pour définir les
attributs (si la définition des attributs est autorisée).  La
suppression d'un attribut est un cas particulier, pour lequel la
nouvelle valeur transmise au gestionnaire est ‘NULL’.

Python prend en charge deux paires de gestionnaires d'attributs ; un
type qui prend en charge les attributs n'a besoin d'implémenter les
fonctions que pour une paire.  La différence est qu'une paire prend le
nom de l'attribut en tant que char*, tandis que l'autre accepte un *note
PyObject: 32f.*.  Chaque type peut utiliser la paire la plus logique
pour la commodité de l'implémentation.

     getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
     setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
     /* ... */
     getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * version */
     setattrofunc tp_setattro;

Si accéder aux attributs d'un objet est toujours une opération simple
(ceci sera expliqué brièvement), il existe des implémentations
génériques qui peuvent être utilisées pour fournir la version *note
PyObject: 32f.* des fonctions de gestion des attributs.  Le besoin réel
de gestionnaires d'attributs spécifiques au type a presque complètement
disparu à partir de Python 2.2, bien qu'il existe de nombreux exemples
qui n'ont pas été mis à jour pour utiliser certains des nouveaux
mécanismes génériques disponibles.

* Menu:

* Gestion des attributs génériques::
* Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques::


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des attributs génériques,  Next: Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques,  Up: Gestion des attributs

6.2.3.4 Gestion des attributs génériques
........................................

La plupart des types d'extensions n'utilisent que des attributs
'simples'.  Alors, qu'est-ce qui rend les attributs simples ?  Seules
quelques conditions doivent être remplies :

  1. le nom des attributs doit être déjà connu lorsqu'on lance *note
     PyType_Ready(): 768. ;

  2. aucun traitement spécial n'est nécessaire pour enregistrer qu'un
     attribut a été recherché ou défini, et aucune action ne doit être
     entreprise en fonction de la valeur.

Notez que cette liste n'impose aucune restriction sur les valeurs des
attributs, le moment où les valeurs sont calculées ou la manière dont
les données pertinentes sont stockées.

Lorsque *note PyType_Ready(): 768. est appelé, il utilise trois tableaux
référencés par l'objet type pour créer des *note descripteurs: 152c. qui
sont placés dans le dictionnaire de l'objet type.  Chaque descripteur
contrôle l'accès à un attribut de l'objet instance.  Chacun des tableaux
est facultatif ; si les trois sont ‘NULL’, les instances du type
n'auront que des attributs hérités de leur type de base et doivent
laisser les champs *note tp_getattro: 16ac. et *note tp_setattro: 4888.
à ‘NULL’ également, permettant au type de base de gérer les attributs.

Les tableaux sont déclarés sous la forme de trois champs de type objet :

     struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
     struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
     struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;

Si *note tp_methods: 4874. n'est pas ‘NULL’, il doit faire référence à
un tableau de structures *note PyMethodDef: 148f.  Chaque entrée du
tableau est une instance de cette structure :

     typedef struct PyMethodDef {
         const char  *ml_name;       /* method name */
         PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
         int          ml_flags;      /* flags */
         const char  *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
     } PyMethodDef;

One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no
entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One
additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the
end of the array.  The *note ml_name: 4889. field of the sentinel must
be ‘NULL’.

Le deuxième tableau est utilisé pour définir les attributs qui
correspondent directement aux données stockées dans l'instance.  Divers
types C natifs sont pris en charge et l'accès peut être en lecture seule
ou en lecture-écriture.  Les structures du tableau sont définies comme
suit :

     typedef struct PyMemberDef {
         const char *name;
         int         type;
         int         offset;
         int         flags;
         const char *doc;
     } PyMemberDef;

For each entry in the table, a *note descriptor: 152c. will be
constructed and added to the type which will be able to extract a value
from the instance structure.  The *note type: 488a. field should contain
a type code like *note Py_T_INT: 57d. or *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 57e.; the
value will be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from
C values.  The *note flags: 488b. field is used to store flags which
control how the attribute can be accessed: you can set it to *note
Py_READONLY: 57f. to prevent Python code from setting it.

An interesting advantage of using the *note tp_members: 4872. table to
build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined
this way can have an associated doc string simply by providing the text
in the table.  An application can use the introspection API to retrieve
the descriptor from the class object, and get the doc string using its
*note __doc__: 1c6a. attribute.

As with the *note tp_methods: 4874. table, a sentinel entry with a *note
ml_name: 4889. value of ‘NULL’ is required.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques,  Prev: Gestion des attributs génériques,  Up: Gestion des attributs

6.2.3.5 Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques
.................................................

Pour plus de simplicité, seule la version char* est montrée ici ; le
type du paramètre 'name' est la seule différence entre les variations
char* et *note PyObject: 32f.* de l'interface.  Cet exemple fait
effectivement la même chose que l'exemple générique ci-dessus, mais
n'utilise pas le support générique ajouté dans Python 2.2.  Il explique
comment les fonctions de gestionnaire sont appelées, de sorte que si
vous avez besoin d'étendre leurs fonctionnalités, vous comprendrez ce
qui doit être fait.

The *note tp_getattr: 488d. handler is called when the object requires
an attribute look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the
*note __getattr__(): 4bf. method of a class would be called.

Voici un exemple :

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
     {
         if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0)
         {
             return PyLong_FromLong(obj->data);
         }

         PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
                      "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
                      Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name, name);
         return NULL;
     }

The *note tp_setattr: 488e. handler is called when the *note
__setattr__(): 1ee9. or *note __delattr__(): 1eea. method of a class
instance would be called.  When an attribute should be deleted, the
third parameter will be ‘NULL’.  Here is an example that simply raises
an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the *note tp_setattr:
488e. handler should be set to ‘NULL’.

     static int
     newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
     {
         PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
         return -1;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison des objets,  Next: Gestion de protocoles abstraits,  Prev: Gestion des attributs,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.6 Comparaison des objets
..............................

     richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

The *note tp_richcompare: 4890. handler is called when comparisons are
needed.  It is analogous to the *note rich comparison methods: 1f1b,
like ‘__lt__()’, and also called by *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 4891.
and *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1961.

Cette fonction est appelée avec deux objets Python et l'opérateur comme
arguments, où l'opérateur est ‘Py_EQ’, ‘Py_NE’, ‘Py_LE’, ‘Py_GE’,
‘Py_LT’ ou ‘Py_GT’.  Elle doit comparer les deux objets conformément à
l'opérateur spécifié et renvoyer ‘Py_True’ ou ‘Py_False’ si la
comparaison a réussi, ‘Py_NotImplemented’ pour indiquer que la
comparaison n'est pas implémentée et que la méthode de comparaison de
l'autre objet doit être essayée, ou ‘NULL’ si une exception doit être
levée.

Voici un exemple d'implémentation, pour un type de données où l'égalité
signifie que la taille d'un pointeur interne est égale :

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_richcmp(newdatatypeobject *obj1, newdatatypeobject *obj2, int op)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         int c, size1, size2;

         /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type
            newdatatype omitted */

         size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
         size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;

         switch (op) {
         case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
         case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
         case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
         case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
         case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
         case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
         }
         result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
         Py_INCREF(result);
         return result;
      }


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion de protocoles abstraits,  Next: Prise en charge de la référence faible,  Prev: Comparaison des objets,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.7 Gestion de protocoles abstraits
.......................................

Python prend en charge divers « protocoles » 'abstraits' ; les
interfaces spécifiques fournies pour utiliser ces interfaces sont
documentées dans *note Couche d'abstraction des objets: 4893.

Un certain nombre de ces interfaces abstraites ont été définies au début
du développement de l'implémentation Python.  En particulier, les
protocoles de nombre, de correspondance et de séquence font partie de
Python depuis le début.  D'autres protocoles ont été ajoutés au fil du
temps.  Pour les protocoles qui dépendent de plusieurs routines de
gestionnaire de l'implémentation du type, les anciens protocoles ont été
définis comme des blocs facultatifs de gestionnaires référencés par
l'objet type.  Pour les protocoles plus récents, il existe des
emplacements supplémentaires dans l'objet de type principal, avec un bit
d'indicateur défini pour indiquer que les emplacements sont présents et
doivent être vérifiés par l'interpréteur (le bit d'indicateur n'indique
pas que les valeurs d'emplacement ne sont pas ‘NULL’ ; il peut être
défini pour indiquer la présence d'un emplacement, mais un emplacement
peut toujours être vide). :

     PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
     PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
     PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;

Si vous souhaitez que votre objet puisse agir comme un nombre, une
séquence ou un tableau de correspondances, placez l'adresse d'une
structure qui implémente le type C *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6, *note
PySequenceMethods: 4894. ou *note PyMappingMethods: 4895,
respectivement.  C'est à vous de remplir cette structure avec les
valeurs appropriées.  Vous pouvez trouver des exemples d'utilisation de
chacun d'entre eux dans le répertoire ‘Objects’ de la distribution
source de Python. :

     hashfunc tp_hash;

Cette fonction, si vous la fournissez, doit renvoyer un condensat pour
une instance de votre type de données.  Voici un exemple simple :

     static Py_hash_t
     newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         Py_hash_t result;
         result = obj->some_size + 32767 * obj->some_number;
         if (result == -1)
            result = -2;
         return result;
     }

*note Py_hash_t: 1244. is a signed integer type with a platform-varying
width.  Returning ‘-1’ from *note tp_hash: 4896. indicates an error,
which is why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash
computation is successful, as seen above.

     ternaryfunc tp_call;

Cette fonction est appelée lorsqu'une instance de votre type de données
est « appelée », par exemple, si ‘obj1’ est une instance de votre type
de données et que le script Python contient ‘obj1('hello')’, le
gestionnaire *note tp_call: 547. est appelé.

Cette fonction prend trois arguments :

  1. 'self' est l'instance du type de données qui fait l'objet de
     l'appel.  Si l'appel est ‘obj1('hello')’, alors 'self' est ‘obj1’.

  2. 'args' est un 'n'-uplet contenant les arguments de l'appel.  Vous
     pouvez utiliser *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. pour extraire les
     arguments.

  3. 'kwds' est le dictionnaire d'arguments nommés qui ont été passés.
     Si ce n'est pas ‘NULL’ et que vous gérez les arguments nommés,
     utilisez *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. pour extraire
     les arguments.  Si vous ne souhaitez pas prendre en charge les
     arguments nommés et qu'il n'est pas ‘NULL’, levez une *note
     TypeError: 525. avec un message indiquant que les arguments nommés
     ne sont pas pris en charge.

Ceci est une implémentation ‘tp_call’ très simple :

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         const char *arg1;
         const char *arg2;
         const char *arg3;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
             return NULL;
         }
         result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
             "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
             obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
             arg1, arg2, arg3);
         return result;
     }

     /* Iterators */
     getiterfunc tp_iter;
     iternextfunc tp_iternext;

These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Both
handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are
being called, and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they
should set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note tp_iter: 14a6.
corresponds to the Python *note __iter__(): 1f15. method, while *note
tp_iternext: 14a7. corresponds to the Python *note __next__(): 12ad.
method.

Tout objet *note iterable: 1207. doit implémenter le gestionnaire *note
tp_iter: 14a6, qui doit renvoyer un objet de type *note iterator: 1aa.
Ici, les mêmes directives s'appliquent de la même façon que pour les
classes 'Python' :

   * Pour les collections (telles que les listes et les n-uplets) qui
     peuvent implémenter plusieurs itérateurs indépendants, un nouvel
     itérateur doit être créé et renvoyé par chaque appel de type *note
     tp_iter: 14a6.

   * Les objets qui ne peuvent être itérés qu'une seule fois
     (généralement en raison d'effets de bord de l'itération, tels que
     les objets fichiers) peuvent implémenter *note tp_iter: 14a6. en
     renvoyant une nouvelle référence à eux-mêmes – et doivent donc
     également implémenter le gestionnaire *note tp_iternext: 14a7.

Tout objet *note itérateur: 1aa. doit implémenter à la fois *note
tp_iter: 14a6. et *note tp_iternext: 14a7.  Le gestionnaire *note
tp_iter: 14a6. d'un itérateur doit renvoyer une nouvelle référence de
l'itérateur.  Son gestionnaire *note tp_iternext: 14a7. doit renvoyer
une nouvelle référence à l'objet suivant dans l'itération, s'il y en a
un.  Si l'itération a atteint la fin, *note tp_iternext: 14a7. peut
renvoyer ‘NULL’ sans définir d'exception, ou il peut définir *note
StopIteration: bea. 'en plus' de renvoyer ‘NULL’ ; éviter de lever une
exception peut donner des performances légèrement meilleures.  Si une
erreur réelle se produit, *note tp_iternext: 14a7. doit toujours définir
une exception et renvoyer ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge de la référence faible,  Next: Plus de suggestions,  Prev: Gestion de protocoles abstraits,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.8 Prise en charge de la référence faible
..............................................

L'un des objectifs de l'implémentation de la référence faible de
'Python' est de permettre à tout type d'objet de participer au mécanisme
de référence faible sans avoir à supporter le surcoût de la performance
critique des certains objets, tels que les nombres.

Voir aussi
..........

documentation pour le module *note weakref: 113.

For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set
the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF’ bit of the *note tp_flags: 187a. field.
The legacy *note tp_weaklistoffset: 977. field should be left as zero.

Concretely, here is how the statically declared type object would look:

     static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ...,
     };

The only further addition is that ‘tp_dealloc’ needs to clear any weak
references (by calling *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 564.):

     static void
     Trivial_dealloc(TrivialObject *self)
     {
         /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */
         PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) self);
         /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Plus de suggestions,  Prev: Prise en charge de la référence faible,  Up: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets

6.2.3.9 Plus de suggestions
...........................

Pour savoir comment mettre en œuvre une méthode spécifique pour votre
nouveau type de données, téléchargez le code source *note CPython: 6e2.
Allez dans le répertoire ‘Objects’, puis cherchez dans les fichiers
sources 'C' la fonction ‘tp_’ plus la fonction que vous voulez (par
exemple, ‘tp_richcompare’).  Vous trouverez des exemples de la fonction
que vous voulez implémenter.

Lorsque vous avez besoin de vérifier qu'un objet est une instance
concrète du type que vous implémentez, utilisez la fonction *note
PyObject_TypeCheck(): 18b4.  Voici un exemple de son utilisation :

     if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
         return NULL;
     }

Voir aussi
..........

Télécharger les versions sources de 'CPython'.

     ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/source/’

Le projet 'CPython' sur 'GitHub', où se trouve le code source 'CPython'.

     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython’


File: python.info,  Node: Construire des extensions C et C++,  Next: Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows,  Prev: Définir les types d'extension divers sujets,  Up: Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

6.2.4 Construire des extensions C et C++
----------------------------------------

Une extension C pour CPython est une bibliothèque partagée (Un ‘.so’ sur
Linux, un ‘.pyd’ sur Windows), qui expose une 'fonction
d'initialisation'.

To be importable, the shared library must be available on *note
PYTHONPATH: 1008, and must be named after the module name, with an
appropriate extension.  When using setuptools, the correct filename is
generated automatically.

La fonction d'initialisation doit avoir le prototype :

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyInit_modulename (void)

Elle doit donner soit un module entièrement initialisé, soit une
instance de *note PyModuleDef: 96c.  Voir *note Initializing C modules:
489c. pour plus de détails.

Pour les modules dont les noms sont entièrement en ASCII, la fonction
doit être nommée ‘PyInit_<modulename>’, dont ‘<modulename>’ est remplacé
par le nom du module.  En utilisant *note Multi-phase initialization:
489d, il est possible d'utiliser des noms de modules comptant des
caractères non ASCII. Dans ce cas, le nom de la fonction
d'initialisation est ‘PyInitU_<modulename>’, où ‘modulename’ est encodé
avec l'encodage 'punyencode' de Python, dont les tirets sont remplacés
par des tirets-bas.  En Python ça donne :

     def initfunc_name(name):
         try:
             suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
         return b'PyInit' + suffix

Il est possible d'exporter plusieurs modules depuis une seule
bibliothèque partagée en définissant plusieurs fonctions
d'initialisation.  Cependant pour les importer, un lien symbolique doit
être créé pour chacun, ou un 'importer' personnalisé, puisque par défaut
seule la fonction correspondant au nom du fichier est cherchée.  Voir le
chapitre '"Multiple modules in one library"' dans la PEP 489(1) pour
plus d'informations.
* Menu:

* Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


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6.2.4.1 Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools
.....................................................

Python 3.12 and newer no longer come with distutils.  Please refer to
the ‘setuptools’ documentation at
‘https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’ to learn
more about how build and distribute C/C++ extensions with setuptools.


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6.2.5 Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows
----------------------------------------------------

Cette page explique rapidement comment créer un module d'extension
Windows pour Python en utilisant Microsoft Visual C++, et donne plus
d'informations contextuelles sur son fonctionnement.  Le texte
explicatif est utile tant pour le développeur Windows qui apprend à
construire des extensions Python que pour le développeur Unix souhaitant
produire des logiciels pouvant être construits sur Unix et Windows.

Les auteurs de modules sont invités à utiliser l'approche 'distutils'
pour construire des modules d'extension, au lieu de celle décrite dans
cette section.  Vous aurez toujours besoin du compilateur C utilisé pour
construire Python ; typiquement Microsoft Visual C++.

     Note: Cette page mentionne plusieurs noms de fichiers comprenant un
     numéro de version Python encodé.  Ces noms de fichiers sont
     construits sous le format de version ‘XY’ ; en pratique, ‘'X'’
     représente le numéro de version majeure et ‘'Y'’ représente le
     numéro de version mineure de la version Python avec laquelle vous
     travaillez.  Par exemple, si vous utilisez Python 2.2.1, ‘XY’
     correspond à ‘22’.

* Menu:

* Une approche "recette de cuisine"::
* Différences entre Unix et Windows::
* Utiliser les DLL en pratique::


File: python.info,  Node: Une approche "recette de cuisine",  Next: Différences entre Unix et Windows,  Up: Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

6.2.5.1 Une approche "recette de cuisine"
.........................................

There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just
as there are on Unix: use the ‘setuptools’ package to control the build
process, or do things manually.  The setuptools approach works well for
most extensions; documentation on using ‘setuptools’ to build and
package extension modules is available in *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: ee4.  If you find you really need to do
things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the
winsound(1) standard library module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj


File: python.info,  Node: Différences entre Unix et Windows,  Next: Utiliser les DLL en pratique,  Prev: Une approche "recette de cuisine",  Up: Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

6.2.5.2 Différences entre Unix et Windows
.........................................

Unix et Windows utilisent des paradigmes complètement différents pour le
chargement du code pendant l'exécution.  Avant d'essayer de construire
un module qui puisse être chargé dynamiquement, soyez conscient du mode
de fonctionnement du système.

Sur Unix, un fichier objet partagé (‘.so’) contient du code servant au
programme, ainsi que les noms des fonctions et les données que l'on
s'attend à trouver dans le programme.  Quand le fichier est attaché au
programme, toutes les références à ces fonctions et données dans le code
du fichier sont modifiées pour pointer vers les localisations actuelles
dans le programme où sont désormais placées les fonctions et données
dans la mémoire.  C'est tout simplement une opération de liaison.

Sur Windows, un fichier bibliothèque de liens dynamiques (‘.dll’) n'a
pas de références paresseuses.  À la place, un accès aux fonctions ou
données passe par une table de conversion.  Cela est fait pour que le
code DLL ne doive pas être réarrangé à l'exécution pour renvoyer à la
mémoire du programme ; à la place, le code utilise déjà la table de
conversion DLL, et cette table est modifiée à l'exécution pour pointer
vers les fonctions et données.

Sur Unix, il n'y a qu'un type de bibliothèque de fichier (‘.a’) qui
contient du code venant de plusieurs fichiers objets (‘.o’).  Durant
l'étape de liaison pour créer un fichier objet partagé (‘.so’), le lieur
peut informer qu'il ne sait pas où un identificateur est défini.  Le
lieur le cherchera dans les fichiers objet dans les bibliothèques ; s'il
le trouve, il inclura tout le code provenant de ce fichier objet.

Sur Windows, il y a deux types de bibliothèques, une bibliothèque
statique et une bibliothèque d'importation (toutes deux appelées
‘.lib’).  Une bibliothèque statique est comme un fichier Unix ‘.a’ ;
elle contient du code pouvant être inclus si nécessaire.  Une
bibliothèque d'importation est uniquement utilisée pour rassurer le
lieur qu'un certain identificateur est légal, et sera présent dans le
programme quand la DLL est chargée.  Comme ça le lieur utilise les
informations provenant de la bibliothèque d'importation pour construire
la table de conversion pour utiliser les identificateurs qui ne sont pas
inclus dans la DLL. Quand une application ou une DLL est liée, une
bibliothèque d'importation peut être générée, qui devra être utilisée
pour toutes les futures DLL dépendantes aux symboles provenant de
l'application ou de la DLL.

Supposons que vous construisez deux modules de chargement dynamiques, B
et C, qui ne devraient pas partager un autre bloc de code avec A. Sur
Unix, vous ne transmettrez pas ‘A.a’ au lieur pour ‘B.so’ et ‘C.so’ ;
cela le ferait être inclus deux fois, pour que B et C aient chacun leur
propre copie.  Sur Windows, construire ‘A.dll’ construira aussi ‘A.lib’.
Vous transmettez ‘A.lib’ au lieur pour B et C. ‘A.lib’ ne contient pas
de code ; il contient uniquement des informations qui seront utilisées
lors de l'exécution pour accéder au code de A.

Sur Windows, utiliser une bibliothèque d'importation est comme utiliser
‘import spam’ ; cela vous donne accès aux noms des spams, mais ne crée
par de copie séparée.  Sur Unix, se lier à une bibliothèque est plus
comme ‘from spam import *’ ; cela crée une copie séparée.


File: python.info,  Node: Utiliser les DLL en pratique,  Prev: Différences entre Unix et Windows,  Up: Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

6.2.5.3 Utiliser les DLL en pratique
....................................

Le Python de Windows est construit en Microsoft Visual C++ ; utiliser
d'autres compilateurs pourrait fonctionner, ou pas.  Le reste de cette
section est spécifique à MSVC++.

Lorsque vous créez des DLL sur Windows, vous devez transmettre
‘pythonXY.lib’ au lieur.  Pour construire deux DLL, spam et ni (qui
utilisent des fonctions C trouvées dans spam), vous pouvez utiliser ces
commandes :

     cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
     cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib

La première commande a créé trois fichiers : ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ et
‘spam.lib’.  ‘Spam.dll’ ne contient pas de fonctions Python (telles que
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.), mais il sait comment trouver le code
Python grâce à ‘pythonXY.lib’.

La seconde commande a créé ‘ni.dll’ (et ‘.obj’ et ‘.lib’), qui sait
comment trouver les fonctions nécessaires dans spam, ainsi qu'à partir
de l'exécutable Python.

Chaque identificateur n'est pas exporté vers la table de conversion.  Si
vous voulez que tout autre module (y compris Python) soit capable de
voir vos identificateurs, vous devez préciser ‘_declspec(dllexport)’,
comme dans ‘void _declspec(dllexport) initspam(void)’ ou ‘PyObject
_declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)’.

Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not
really need, adding about 100K to your executable.  To get rid of them,
use the Project Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify 'ignore default
libraries'.  Add the correct ‘msvcrt`xx'.lib’ to the list of libraries.


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6.3 Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application
====================================================================

Parfois, plutôt que de créer une extension qui s'exécute dans
l'interpréteur Python comme application principale, il est préférable
d'intégrer l'interpréteur Python dans une application plus large.  Cette
section donne quelques informations nécessaires au succès de cette
opération.

* Menu:

* Intégrer Python dans une autre application::


File: python.info,  Node: Intégrer Python dans une autre application,  Up: Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application

6.3.1 Intégrer Python dans une autre application
------------------------------------------------

Les chapitres précédents couvraient l'extension de Python, c'est-à-dire,
comment enrichir une fonctionnalité de Python en y attachant une
bibliothèque de fonctions C. C'est aussi possible dans l'autre sens :
enrichir vos applications C/C++ en y intégrant Python.  Intégrer Python
vous permet d'implémenter certaines fonctionnalités de vos applications
en Python plutôt qu'en C ou C++.  C'est utile dans de nombreux cas, un
exemple serait de permettre aux utilisateurs d'adapter une application à
leurs besoins en y écrivant des scripts Python.  Vous pouvez aussi
l'utiliser vous même si certaines fonctionnalités peuvent être rédigées
plus facilement en Python.

Intégrer et étendre Python sont des tâches presque identiques.  La
différence est qu'en étendant Python, le programme principal reste
l'interpréteur Python, alors qu'en intégrant Python le programme
principal peut ne rien à voir avec Python.  C'est simplement quelques
parties du programme qui appellent l'interpréteur Python pour exécuter
un peu de code Python.

En intégrant Python, vous fournissez le programme principal.  L'une de
ses tâches sera d'initialiser l'interpréteur.  Au minimum vous devrez
appeler *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.  Il est possible, avec quelques
appels supplémentaires, de passer des options à Python.  Ensuite vous
pourrez appeler l'interpréteur depuis n'importe quelle partie de votre
programme.

Il existe différents moyens d'appeler l'interpréteur : vous pouvez
donner une chaîne contenant des instructions Python à *note
PyRun_SimpleString(): 48aa, ou vous pouvez donner un pointeur de fichier
'stdio' et un nom de fichier (juste pour nommer les messages d'erreur) à
‘PyRunSimpleFile()’.  Vous pouvez aussi appeler les API de bas niveau
décrites dans les chapitres précédents pour construire et utiliser des
objets Python.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C: 1b9a.

     Les détails sur l'interface entre Python et le C sont donnés dans
     ce manuel.  Pléthore informations s'y trouvent.

* Menu:

* Intégration de très haut niveau::
* Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau ; survol: Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau survol.
* Intégration pure::
* Étendre un Python intégré::
* Intégrer Python dans du C++::
* Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire::


File: python.info,  Node: Intégration de très haut niveau,  Next: Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau survol,  Up: Intégrer Python dans une autre application

6.3.1.1 Intégration de très haut niveau
.......................................

La manière la plus simple d'intégrer Python est d'utiliser une interface
de très haut niveau.  Cette interface a pour but d'exécuter un script
Python sans avoir à interagir avec directement.  C'est utile, par
exemple, pour effectuer une opération sur un fichier.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyStatus status;
         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* optional but recommended */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
                            "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             exit(120);
         }
         return 0;

       exception:
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);
          Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     Note: ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that
     ‘Py_ssize_t’ should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’.  It is
     not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward
     compatibility.  See *note Chaînes et tampons: 381. for a
     description of this macro.

Setting *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb. should be called before *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. to inform the interpreter about paths to
Python run-time libraries.  Next, the Python interpreter is initialized
with *note Py_Initialize(): 89b, followed by the execution of a
hard-coded Python script that prints the date and time.  Afterwards, the
*note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. call shuts the interpreter down, followed by
the end of the program.  In a real program, you may want to get the
Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor routine, a
file, or a database.  Getting the Python code from a file can better be
done by using the *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 48ad. function, which saves
you the trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file
contents.


File: python.info,  Node: Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau survol,  Next: Intégration pure,  Prev: Intégration de très haut niveau,  Up: Intégrer Python dans une autre application

6.3.1.2 Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau : survol
........................................................

L'interface de haut niveau vous permet d'exécuter n'importe quel morceau
de code Python depuis votre application, mais échanger des données est
quelque peu alambiqué.  Si c'est ce dont vous avez besoin, vous devez
utiliser des appels de niveau plus bas.  Il vous en coûtera plus de
lignes de C à écrire, mais vous pourrez presque tout faire.

Il est à souligner qu'étendre ou intégrer Python revient à la louche au
même, en dépit de la différence d'intention.  La plupart des sujets
parcourus dans les chapitres précédents sont toujours valides.  Pour le
prouver, regardez ce qu'un code d'extension de Python vers C fait
réellement :

  1. Convertir des valeurs de Python vers le C,

  2. Appeler une fonction C en utilisant les valeurs converties, et

  3. Convertir les résultats de l'appel à la fonction C pour Python.

Lors de l'intégration de Python, le code de l'interface fait :

  1. Convertir les valeurs depuis le C vers Python,

  2. Effectuer un appel de fonction de l'interface Python en utilisant
     les valeurs converties, et

  3. Convertir les valeurs de l'appel Python pour le C.

Tel que vous le voyez, les conversions sont simplement inversées pour
s'adapter aux différentes directions de transfert inter-langage.  La
seule différence est la fonction que vous appelez entre les deux
conversions de données.  Lors de l'extension, vous appelez une fonction
C, lors de l'intégration vous appelez une fonction Python.

Ce chapitre ne couvrira pas la conversion des données de Python vers le
C ni l'inverse.  Aussi, un usage correct des références, ainsi que
savoir gérer les erreurs sont considérés acquis.  Ces aspects étant
identiques à l'extension de l'interpréteur, vous pouvez vous référer aux
chapitres précédents.


File: python.info,  Node: Intégration pure,  Next: Étendre un Python intégré,  Prev: Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau survol,  Up: Intégrer Python dans une autre application

6.3.1.3 Intégration pure
........................

L'objectif du premier programme est d'exécuter une fonction dans un
script Python.  Comme dans la section à propos des interfaces de haut
niveau, l'interpréteur n'interagit pas directement avec l'application
(mais le fera dans la section suivante).

Le code pour appeler une fonction définie dans un script Python est :

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc;
         PyObject *pArgs, *pValue;
         int i;

         if (argc < 3) {
             fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n");
             return 1;
         }

         Py_Initialize();
         pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
         /* Error checking of pName left out */

         pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
         Py_DECREF(pName);

         if (pModule != NULL) {
             pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
             /* pFunc is a new reference */

             if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
                 pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3);
                 for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) {
                     pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3]));
                     if (!pValue) {
                         Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                         Py_DECREF(pModule);
                         fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n");
                         return 1;
                     }
                     /* pValue reference stolen here: */
                     PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue);
                 }
                 pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
                 Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                 if (pValue != NULL) {
                     printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue));
                     Py_DECREF(pValue);
                 }
                 else {
                     Py_DECREF(pFunc);
                     Py_DECREF(pModule);
                     PyErr_Print();
                     fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n");
                     return 1;
                 }
             }
             else {
                 if (PyErr_Occurred())
                     PyErr_Print();
                 fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]);
             }
             Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
             Py_DECREF(pModule);
         }
         else {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]);
             return 1;
         }
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             return 120;
         }
         return 0;
     }

Ce code charge un script Python en utilisant ‘argv[1]’, et appelle une
fonction dont le nom est dans ‘argv[2]’.  Ses arguments entiers sont les
autres valeurs de ‘argv’.  Si vous *note compilez et liez: 48b2. ce
programme (appelons l'exécutable ‘call’), et l'appelez pour exécuter un
script Python, tel que :

     def multiply(a,b):
         print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
         c = 0
         for i in range(0, a):
             c = c + b
         return c

alors, le résultat sera :

     $ call multiply multiply 3 2
     Will compute 3 times 2
     Result of call: 6

Bien que le programme soit plutôt gros pour ses fonctionnalités, la
plupart du code n'est que conversion de données entre Python et C, aussi
que pour rapporter les erreurs.  La partie intéressante, qui concerne
l'intégration de Python débute par :

     Py_Initialize();
     pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
     /* Error checking of pName left out */
     pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);

After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using *note
PyImport_Import(): 13b5.  This routine needs a Python string as its
argument, which is constructed using the *note
PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 16d5. data conversion routine.

     pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
     /* pFunc is a new reference */

     if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_XDECREF(pFunc);

Une fois le script chargé, le nom recherché est obtenu en utilisant
*note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 342.  Si le nom existe, et que l'objet
récupéré peut être appelé, vous pouvez présumer sans risque que c'est
une fonction.  Le programme continue, classiquement, par la construction
de 'n'-uplet d'arguments.  L'appel à la fonction Python est alors
effectué avec :

     pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);

Après l'exécution de la fonction, ‘pValue’ est soit ‘NULL’, soit une
référence sur la valeur donnée par la fonction.  Assurez-vous de libérer
la référence après avoir utilisé la valeur.


File: python.info,  Node: Étendre un Python intégré,  Next: Intégrer Python dans du C++,  Prev: Intégration pure,  Up: Intégrer Python dans une autre application

6.3.1.4 Étendre un Python intégré
.................................

Jusqu'à présent, l'interpréteur Python intégré n'avait pas accès aux
fonctionnalités de l'application elle-même.  L'API Python le permet en
étendant l'interpréteur intégré.  Autrement dit, l'interpréteur intégré
est étendu avec des fonctions fournies par l'application.  Bien que cela
puisse sembler complexe, ce n'est pas si dur.  Il suffit d'oublier que
l'application démarre l'interpréteur Python, au lieu de cela, voyez
l'application comme un ensemble de fonctions, et rédigez un peu de code
pour exposer ces fonctions à Python, tout comme vous écririez une
extension Python normale.  Par exemple :

     static int numargs=0;

     /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
     static PyObject*
     emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
             return NULL;
         return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
     }

     static PyMethodDef EmbMethods[] = {
         {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
          "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef EmbModule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, "emb", NULL, -1, EmbMethods,
         NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL
     };

     static PyObject*
     PyInit_emb(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&EmbModule);
     }

Insérez le code ci-dessus juste avant la fonction ‘main()’.  Ajoutez
aussi les deux instructions suivantes avant l'appel à *note
Py_Initialize(): 89b. :

     numargs = argc;
     PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);

These two lines initialize the ‘numargs’ variable, and make the
‘emb.numargs()’ function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
With these extensions, the Python script can do things like

     import emb
     print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())

Dans un cas réel, les méthodes exposeraient une API de l'application à
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Intégrer Python dans du C++,  Next: Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire,  Prev: Étendre un Python intégré,  Up: Intégrer Python dans une autre application

6.3.1.5 Intégrer Python dans du C++
...................................

Il est aussi possible d'intégrer Python dans un programme en C++, la
manière exacte dont cela se fait dépend de détails du système C++
utilisé.  En général vous écrirez le programme principal en C++,
utiliserez un compilateur C++ pour compiler et lier votre programme.  Il
n'y a pas besoin de recompiler Python en utilisant C++.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire,  Prev: Intégrer Python dans du C++,  Up: Intégrer Python dans une autre application

6.3.1.6 Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire
...........................................................

Ce n'est pas évident de trouver les bonnes options à passer au
compilateur (et 'linker') pour intégrer l'interpréteur Python dans une
application, Python ayant besoin de charger des extensions sous forme de
bibliothèques dynamiques en C (des ‘.so’) pour se lier avec.

Pour trouver les bonnes options de compilateur et 'linker', vous pouvez
exécuter le script ‘python`X.Y'-config’ généré durant l'installation (un
script ‘python3-config’ peut aussi être disponible).  Ce script a
quelques options, celles-ci vous seront utiles :

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --cflags’ vous donnera les options recommandées
     pour compiler :

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags
          -I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare  -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed’ vous donnera les drapeaux
     recommandés lors de l'édition de lien :

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed
          -L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl  -lutil -lm

     Note: Pour éviter la confusion entre différentes installations de
     Python, (et plus spécialement entre celle de votre système et votre
     version compilée), il est recommandé d'utiliser un chemin absolu
     vers ‘python`X.Y'-config’, comme dans l'exemple précédent.

Si cette procédure ne fonctionne pas pour vous (il n'est pas garanti
qu'elle fonctionne pour toutes les plateformes Unix, mais nous
traiteront volontiers les *note rapports de bugs: 48b8.), vous devrez
lire la documentation de votre système sur la liaison dynamique
('dynamic linking') et / ou examiner le ‘Makefile’ de Python (utilisez
*note sysconfig.get_makefile_filename(): 4380. pour trouver son
emplacement) et les options de compilation.  Dans ce cas, le module
*note sysconfig: da. est un outil utile pour extraire automatiquement
les valeurs de configuration que vous voudrez combiner ensemble.  Par
exemple :

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
     '-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
     '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'


File: python.info,  Node: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C,  Next: Installation de modules Python,  Prev: Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python,  Up: Top

7 Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C
***************************************

C'est la documentation de l'API utilisée par les développeurs C et C++
écrivant des modules d'extension ou intégrant Python.  Elle va de pair
avec *note Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python: 1b99, qui
décrit les principes généraux de l'écriture d'extensions, mais ne rentre
pas dans les détails de chaque fonction de l'API.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<12>.
* Stabilité de l’API C::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* Reference Counting::
* Gestion des exceptions: Gestion des exceptions<2>.
* Utilitaires: Utilitaires<2>.
* Couche d'abstraction des objets::
* Couche des objets concrets::
* Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads.
* Python Initialization Configuration::
* Memory Management::
* Implémentation d'objets::
* Version des API et ABI::
* Monitoring C API::
* Generating Execution Events::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<12>,  Next: Stabilité de l’API C,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.1 Introduction
================

The Application Programmer's Interface to Python gives C and C++
programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels.
The API is equally usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally
referred to as the Python/C API. There are two fundamentally different
reasons for using the Python/C API. The first reason is to write
'extension modules' for specific purposes; these are C modules that
extend the Python interpreter.  This is probably the most common use.
The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger
application; this technique is generally referred to as 'embedding'
Python in an application.

Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process,
where a "cookbook" approach works well.  There are several tools that
automate the process to some extent.  While people have embedded Python
in other applications since its early existence, the process of
embedding Python is less straightforward than writing an extension.

Many API functions are useful independent of whether you're embedding or
extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python will
need to provide a custom extension as well, so it's probably a good idea
to become familiar with writing an extension before attempting to embed
Python in a real application.

* Menu:

* Coding standards::
* Include Files::
* Useful macros::
* Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<21>.
* Embarquer Python: Embarquer Python<2>.
* Debugging Builds::


File: python.info,  Node: Coding standards,  Next: Include Files,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.1 Coding standards
----------------------

If you're writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you 'must' follow the
guidelines and standards defined in PEP 7(1).  These guidelines apply
regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to.  Following
these conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension
modules, unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: Include Files,  Next: Useful macros,  Prev: Coding standards,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.2 Include Files
-------------------

All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API
are included in your code by the following line:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, ‘<limits.h>’, ‘<assert.h>’ and ‘<stdlib.h>’
(if available).

     Note: Python pouvant définir certaines définitions pré-processeur
     qui affectent les têtes standard sur certains systèmes, vous
     'devez' inclure ‘Python.h’ avant les en-têtes standards.

     It is recommended to always define ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
     including ‘Python.h’.  See *note Analyse des arguments et
     construction des valeurs: 897. for a description of this macro.

All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the
included standard headers) have one of the prefixes ‘Py’ or ‘_Py’.
Names beginning with ‘_Py’ are for internal use by the Python
implementation and should not be used by extension writers.  Structure
member names do not have a reserved prefix.

     Note: User code should never define names that begin with ‘Py’ or
     ‘_Py’.  This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability
     of the user code to future Python versions, which may define
     additional names beginning with one of these prefixes.

The header files are typically installed with Python.  On Unix, these
are located in the directories ‘`prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ and
‘`exec_prefix'/include/pythonversion/’, where *note prefix: 1d1f. and
*note exec_prefix: 1d20. are defined by the corresponding parameters to
Python's ‘configure’ script and 'version' is ‘'%d.%d' %
sys.version_info[:2]’.  On Windows, the headers are installed in
‘`prefix'/include’, where ‘prefix’ is the installation directory
specified to the installer.

To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your
compiler's search path for includes.  Do 'not' place the parent
directories on the search path and then use ‘#include
<pythonX.Y/Python.h>’; this will break on multi-platform builds since
the platform independent headers under *note prefix: 1d1f. include the
platform specific headers from *note exec_prefix: 1d20.

C++ users should note that although the API is defined entirely using C,
the header files properly declare the entry points to be ‘extern "C"’.
As a result, there is no need to do anything special to use the API from
C++.


File: python.info,  Node: Useful macros,  Next: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Prev: Include Files,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.3 Useful macros
-------------------

Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files.  Many are
defined closer to where they are useful (e.g.  *note Py_RETURN_NONE:
1429.).  Others of a more general utility are defined here.  This is not
necessarily a complete listing.

 -- C Macro: PyMODINIT_FUNC

     Declare an extension module ‘PyInit’ initialization function.  The
     function return type is *note PyObject: 32f.*.  The macro declares
     any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for
     C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

     The initialization function must be named ‘PyInit_NAME’, where
     'name' is the name of the module, and should be the only
     non-‘static’ item defined in the module file.  Example:

          static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
              PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
              .m_name = "spam",
              ...
          };

          PyMODINIT_FUNC
          PyInit_spam(void)
          {
              return PyModule_Create(&spam_module);
          }

 -- C Macro: Py_ABS (x)

     Return the absolute value of ‘x’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Macro: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE

     Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decide to not inline the function.

     It can be used to inline performance critical static inline
     functions when building Python in debug mode with function inlining
     disabled.  For example, MSC disables function inlining when
     building in debug mode.

     Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can
     result in worse performances (due to increased code size for
     example).  The compiler is usually smarter than the developer for
     the cost/benefit analysis.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 1f6. (if the *note
     Py_DEBUG: 40de. macro is defined), the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE:
     1873. macro does nothing.

     It must be specified before the function return type.  Usage:

          static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Macro: Py_CHARMASK (c)

     Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127]
     or [0, 255].  This macro returns ‘c’ cast to an ‘unsigned char’.

 -- C Macro: Py_DEPRECATED (version)

     Use this for deprecated declarations.  The macro must be placed
     before the symbol name.

     Exemple :

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: MSVC support was added.

 -- C Macro: Py_GETENV (s)

     Like ‘getenv(s)’, but returns ‘NULL’ if *note -E: 94c. was passed
     on the command line (see *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0.).

 -- C Macro: Py_MAX (x, y)

     Return the maximum value between ‘x’ and ‘y’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Macro: Py_MEMBER_SIZE (type, member)

     Return the size of a structure (‘type’) ‘member’ in bytes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Macro: Py_MIN (x, y)

     Return the minimum value between ‘x’ and ‘y’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Macro: Py_NO_INLINE

     Disable inlining on a function.  For example, it reduces the C
     stack consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline
     code (see bpo-33720(1)).

     Utilisation :

          Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Macro: Py_STRINGIFY (x)

     Convert ‘x’ to a C string.  E.g.  ‘Py_STRINGIFY(123)’ returns
     ‘"123"’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Macro: Py_UNREACHABLE ()

     Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by
     design.  For example, in the ‘default:’ clause in a ‘switch’
     statement for which all possible values are covered in ‘case’
     statements.  Use this in places where you might be tempted to put
     an ‘assert(0)’ or ‘abort()’ call.

     In release mode, the macro helps the compiler to optimize the code,
     and avoids a warning about unreachable code.  For example, the
     macro is implemented with ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ on GCC in
     release mode.

     A use for ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ is following a call a function that
     never returns but that is not declared ‘_Py_NO_RETURN’.

     If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under
     exceptional case, this macro must not be used.  For example, under
     low memory condition or if a system call returns a value out of the
     expected range.  In this case, it's better to report the error to
     the caller.  If the error cannot be reported to caller, *note
     Py_FatalError(): 972. can be used.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Macro: Py_UNUSED (arg)

     Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence
     compiler warnings.  Example: ‘int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) {
     return a; }’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Macro: PyDoc_STRVAR (name, str)

     Creates a variable with name ‘name’ that can be used in docstrings.
     If Python is built without docstrings, the value will be empty.

     Use *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1930. for docstrings to support building
     Python without docstrings, as specified in PEP 7(2).

     Exemple :

          PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

          static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {
              // ...
              {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},
              // ...
          }

 -- C Macro: PyDoc_STR (str)

     Creates a docstring for the given input string or an empty string
     if docstrings are disabled.

     Use *note PyDoc_STR: 17c7. in specifying docstrings to support
     building Python without docstrings, as specified in PEP 7(3).

     Exemple :

          static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {
              {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,
                  PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},
              {NULL, NULL}
          };

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Next: Exceptions<21>,  Prev: Useful macros,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.4 Objects, Types and Reference Counts
-----------------------------------------

Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a
return value of type *note PyObject: 32f.*.  This type is a pointer to
an opaque data type representing an arbitrary Python object.  Since all
Python object types are treated the same way by the Python language in
most situations (e.g., assignments, scope rules, and argument passing),
it is only fitting that they should be represented by a single C type.
Almost all Python objects live on the heap: you never declare an
automatic or static variable of type *note PyObject: 32f, only pointer
variables of type *note PyObject: 32f.* can be declared.  The sole
exception are the type objects; since these must never be deallocated,
they are typically static *note PyTypeObject: a95. objects.

All Python objects (even Python integers) have a 'type' and a 'reference
count'.  An object's type determines what kind of object it is (e.g., an
integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as
explained in *note Hiérarchie des types standards: 1ea2.).  For each of
the well-known types there is a macro to check whether an object is of
that type; for instance, ‘PyList_Check(a)’ is true if (and only if) the
object pointed to by 'a' is a Python list.

* Menu:

* Compteurs de références: Compteurs de références<2>.
* Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Compteurs de références<2>,  Next: Types,  Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts

7.1.4.1 Compteurs de références
...............................

The reference count is important because today's computers have a finite
(and often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many different
places there are that have a *note strong reference: 333. to an object.
Such a place could be another object, or a global (or static) C
variable, or a local variable in some C function.  When the last *note
strong reference: 333. to an object is released (i.e.  its reference
count becomes zero), the object is deallocated.  If it contains
references to other objects, those references are released.  Those other
objects may be deallocated in turn, if there are no more references to
them, and so on.  (There's an obvious problem with objects that
reference each other here; for now, the solution is "don't do that.")

Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly.  The normal way is
to use the macro *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. to take a new reference to an
object (i.e.  increment its reference count by one), and *note
Py_DECREF(): 55d. to release that reference (i.e.  decrement the
reference count by one).  The *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. macro is
considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check
whether the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object's
deallocator to be called.  The deallocator is a function pointer
contained in the object's type structure.  The type-specific deallocator
takes care of releasing references for other objects contained in the
object if this is a compound object type, such as a list, as well as
performing any additional finalization that's needed.  There's no chance
that the reference count can overflow; at least as many bits are used to
hold the reference count as there are distinct memory locations in
virtual memory (assuming ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)’).  Thus,
the reference count increment is a simple operation.

It is not necessary to hold a *note strong reference: 333. (i.e.
increment the reference count) for every local variable that contains a
pointer to an object.  In theory, the object's reference count goes up
by one when the variable is made to point to it and it goes down by one
when the variable goes out of scope.  However, these two cancel each
other out, so at the end the reference count hasn't changed.  The only
real reason to use the reference count is to prevent the object from
being deallocated as long as our variable is pointing to it.  If we know
that there is at least one other reference to the object that lives at
least as long as our variable, there is no need to take a new *note
strong reference: 333. (i.e.  increment the reference count)
temporarily.  An important situation where this arises is in objects
that are passed as arguments to C functions in an extension module that
are called from Python; the call mechanism guarantees to hold a
reference to every argument for the duration of the call.

However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold
on to it for a while without taking a new reference.  Some other
operation might conceivably remove the object from the list, releasing
that reference, and possibly deallocating it.  The real danger is that
innocent-looking operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could
do this; there is a code path which allows control to flow back to the
user from a *note Py_DECREF(): 55d, so almost any operation is
potentially dangerous.

A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions whose
name begins with ‘PyObject_’, ‘PyNumber_’, ‘PySequence_’ or
‘PyMapping_’).  These operations always create a new *note strong
reference: 333. (i.e.  increment the reference count) of the object they
return.  This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call *note
Py_DECREF(): 55d. when they are done with the result; this soon becomes
second nature.

* Menu:

* Reference Count Details::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Count Details,  Up: Compteurs de références<2>

7.1.4.2 Reference Count Details
...............................

The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best
explained in terms of 'ownership of references'.  Ownership pertains to
references, never to objects (objects are not owned: they are always
shared).  "Owning a reference" means being responsible for calling
Py_DECREF on it when the reference is no longer needed.  Ownership can
also be transferred, meaning that the code that receives ownership of
the reference then becomes responsible for eventually releasing it by
calling *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. or *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. when it's no
longer needed--or passing on this responsibility (usually to its
caller).  When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its
caller, the caller is said to receive a 'new' reference.  When no
ownership is transferred, the caller is said to 'borrow' the reference.
Nothing needs to be done for a *note borrowed reference: 334.

Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object,
there are two possibilities: the function 'steals' a reference to the
object, or it does not.  'Stealing a reference' means that when you pass
a reference to a function, that function assumes that it now owns that
reference, and you are not responsible for it any longer.

Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are *note
PyList_SetItem(): 1531. and *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a, which steal a
reference to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item
is put!).  These functions were designed to steal a reference because of
a common idiom for populating a tuple or list with newly created
objects; for example, the code to create the tuple ‘(1, 2, "three")’
could look like this (forgetting about error handling for the moment; a
better way to code this is shown below):

     PyObject *t;

     t = PyTuple_New(3);
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

Here, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6. returns a new reference which is
immediately stolen by *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a.  When you want to
keep using an object although the reference to it will be stolen, use
*note Py_INCREF(): 55c. to grab another reference before calling the
reference-stealing function.

Incidentally, *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a. is the 'only' way to set
tuple items; *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a12. and *note
PyObject_SetItem(): 48ce. refuse to do this since tuples are an
immutable data type.  You should only use *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a.
for tuples that you are creating yourself.

Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using *note
PyList_New(): 48cf. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531.

However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and
populating a tuple or list.  There's a generic function, *note
Py_BuildValue(): 896, that can create most common objects from C values,
directed by a 'format string'.  For example, the above two blocks of
code could be replaced by the following (which also takes care of the
error checking):

     PyObject *tuple, *list;

     tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
     list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

It is much more common to use *note PyObject_SetItem(): 48ce. and
friends with items whose references you are only borrowing, like
arguments that were passed in to the function you are writing.  In that
case, their behaviour regarding references is much saner, since you
don't have to take a new reference just so you can give that reference
away ("have it be stolen").  For example, this function sets all items
of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item:

     int
     set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;

         n = PyObject_Length(target);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1;
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
             if (!index)
                 return -1;
             if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
                 Py_DECREF(index);
                 return -1;
             }
             Py_DECREF(index);
         }
         return 0;
     }

The situation is slightly different for function return values.  While
passing a reference to most functions does not change your ownership
responsibilities for that reference, many functions that return a
reference to an object give you ownership of the reference.  The reason
is simple: in many cases, the returned object is created on the fly, and
the reference you get is the only reference to the object.  Therefore,
the generic functions that return object references, like *note
PyObject_GetItem(): 33d. and *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11, always
return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).

It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned by
a function depends on which function you call only -- 'the plumage' (the
type of the object passed as an argument to the function) 'doesn't enter
into it!'  Thus, if you extract an item from a list using *note
PyList_GetItem(): 352, you don't own the reference -- but if you obtain
the same item from the same list using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11.
(which happens to take exactly the same arguments), you do own a
reference to the returned object.

Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the
sum of the items in a list of integers; once using *note
PyList_GetItem(): 352, and once using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11.

     long
     sum_list(PyObject *list)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;

         n = PyList_Size(list);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Not a list */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
             if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
             value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
             if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                 /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                 return -1;
             total += value;
         }
         return total;
     }

     long
     sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;
         n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Has no length */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
             if (item == NULL)
                 return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
             if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
                 value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
                 Py_DECREF(item);
                 if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                     /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                     return -1;
                 total += value;
             }
             else {
                 Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
             }
         }
         return total;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Types,  Prev: Compteurs de références<2>,  Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts

7.1.4.3 Types
.............

There are few other data types that play a significant role in the
Python/C API; most are simple C types such as int, long, double and
char*.  A few structure types are used to describe static tables used to
list the functions exported by a module or the data attributes of a new
object type, and another is used to describe the value of a complex
number.  These will be discussed together with the functions that use
them.

 -- C Type: type Py_ssize_t
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  A signed integral type such
     that ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t)’.  C99 doesn't define
     such a thing directly (size_t is an unsigned integral type).  See
     PEP 353(1) for details.  ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ is the largest positive
     value of type *note Py_ssize_t: a50.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<21>,  Next: Embarquer Python<2>,  Prev: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.5 Exceptions
----------------

The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific
error handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically
propagated to the caller, then to the caller's caller, and so on, until
they reach the top-level interpreter, where they are reported to the
user accompanied by a stack traceback.

For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit.
All functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an
explicit claim is made otherwise in a function's documentation.  In
general, when a function encounters an error, it sets an exception,
discards any object references that it owns, and returns an error
indicator.  If not documented otherwise, this indicator is either ‘NULL’
or ‘-1’, depending on the function's return type.  A few functions
return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an error.
Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an
ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae.  These exceptions are always explicitly
documented.

Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is equivalent
to using global storage in an unthreaded application).  A thread can be
in one of two states: an exception has occurred, or not.  The function
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. can be used to check for this: it returns
a borrowed reference to the exception type object when an exception has
occurred, and ‘NULL’ otherwise.  There are a number of functions to set
the exception state: *note PyErr_SetString(): 56a. is the most common
(though not the most general) function to set the exception state, and
*note PyErr_Clear(): 101c. clears the exception state.

The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can be
‘NULL’): the exception type, the corresponding exception value, and the
traceback.  These have the same meanings as the Python result of
‘sys.exc_info()’; however, they are not the same: the Python objects
represent the last exception being handled by a Python *note try: 6d5.
...  *note except: 189. statement, while the C level exception state
only exists while an exception is being passed on between C functions
until it reaches the Python bytecode interpreter's main loop, which
takes care of transferring it to ‘sys.exc_info()’ and friends.

Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to
access the exception state from Python code is to call the function
*note sys.exc_info(): 677, which returns the per-thread exception state
for Python code.  Also, the semantics of both ways to access the
exception state have changed so that a function which catches an
exception will save and restore its thread's exception state so as to
preserve the exception state of its caller.  This prevents common bugs
in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function
overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often
unwanted lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack
frames in the traceback.

As a general principle, a function that calls another function to
perform some task should check whether the called function raised an
exception, and if so, pass the exception state on to its caller.  It
should discard any object references that it owns, and return an error
indicator, but it should 'not' set another exception -- that would
overwrite the exception that was just raised, and lose important
information about the exact cause of the error.

A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in
the ‘sum_sequence()’ example above.  It so happens that this example
doesn't need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error.
The following example function shows some error cleanup.  First, to
remind you why you like Python, we show the equivalent Python code:

     def incr_item(dict, key):
         try:
             item = dict[key]
         except KeyError:
             item = 0
         dict[key] = item + 1

Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory:

     int
     incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
     {
         /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
         PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
         int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */

         item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
         if (item == NULL) {
             /* Handle KeyError only: */
             if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
                 goto error;

             /* Clear the error and use zero: */
             PyErr_Clear();
             item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
             if (item == NULL)
                 goto error;
         }
         const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
         if (const_one == NULL)
             goto error;

         incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
         if (incremented_item == NULL)
             goto error;

         if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
             goto error;
         rv = 0; /* Success */
         /* Continue with cleanup code */

      error:
         /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */

         /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
         Py_XDECREF(item);
         Py_XDECREF(const_one);
         Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);

         return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
     }

This example represents an endorsed use of the ‘goto’ statement in C! It
illustrates the use of *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 48d4. and *note
PyErr_Clear(): 101c. to handle specific exceptions, and the use of *note
Py_XDECREF(): 77b. to dispose of owned references that may be ‘NULL’
(note the ‘'X'’ in the name; *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. would crash when
confronted with a ‘NULL’ reference).  It is important that the variables
used to hold owned references are initialized to ‘NULL’ for this to
work; likewise, the proposed return value is initialized to ‘-1’
(failure) and only set to success after the final call made is
successful.


File: python.info,  Node: Embarquer Python<2>,  Next: Debugging Builds,  Prev: Exceptions<21>,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.6 Embarquer Python
----------------------

The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension
writers) of the Python interpreter have to worry about is the
initialization, and possibly the finalization, of the Python
interpreter.  Most functionality of the interpreter can only be used
after the interpreter has been initialized.

The basic initialization function is *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.  This
initializes the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental
modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__: 1, and *note sys: d8.  It
also initializes the module search path (‘sys.path’).

*note Py_Initialize(): 89b. does not set the "script argument list"
(‘sys.argv’).  If this variable is needed by Python code that will be
executed later, setting *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. and *note
PyConfig.parse_argv: 18e5. must be set: see *note Python Initialization
Configuration: 39e.

On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the
details are slightly different), *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. calculates
the module search path based upon its best guess for the location of the
standard Python interpreter executable, assuming that the Python library
is found in a fixed location relative to the Python interpreter
executable.  In particular, it looks for a directory named
‘lib/python`X.Y'’ relative to the parent directory where the executable
named ‘python’ is found on the shell command search path (the
environment variable ‘PATH’).

For instance, if the Python executable is found in
‘/usr/local/bin/python’, it will assume that the libraries are in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  (In fact, this particular path is also
the "fallback" location, used when no executable file named ‘python’ is
found along ‘PATH’.)  The user can override this behavior by setting the
environment variable *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3, or insert additional
directories in front of the standard path by setting *note PYTHONPATH:
1008.

The embedding application can steer the search by setting *note
PyConfig.program_name: 3bb. 'before' calling *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc.  Note that *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. still
overrides this and *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. is still inserted in front of
the standard path.  An application that requires total control has to
provide its own implementation of *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa, *note
Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac, *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8, and *note
Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae. (all defined in ‘Modules/getpath.c’).

Sometimes, it is desirable to "uninitialize" Python.  For instance, the
application may want to start over (make another call to *note
Py_Initialize(): 89b.) or the application is simply done with its use of
Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python.  This can be
accomplished by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05.  The function *note
Py_IsInitialized(): 48d7. returns true if Python is currently in the
initialized state.  More information about these functions is given in a
later chapter.  Notice that *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. does 'not' free
all memory allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g.  memory allocated
by extension modules currently cannot be released.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging Builds,  Prev: Embarquer Python<2>,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.7 Debugging Builds
----------------------

Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the
interpreter and extension modules.  These checks tend to add a large
amount of overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default.

A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file
‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution.  Builds are
available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory
allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop.  Only
the most frequently used builds will be described in the remainder of
this section.

 -- C Macro: Py_DEBUG

Compiling the interpreter with the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro defined produces
what is generally meant by *note a debug build of Python: 1f6.
‘Py_DEBUG’ is enabled in the Unix build by adding *note -with-pydebug:
41a. to the ‘./configure’ command.  It is also implied by the presence
of the not-Python-specific ‘_DEBUG’ macro.  When ‘Py_DEBUG’ is enabled
in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled.

In addition to the reference count debugging described below, extra
checks are performed, see *note Python Debug Build: 1f6.

Defining ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ enables reference tracing (see the *note
configure -with-trace-refs option: 38b.).  When defined, a circular
doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra
fields to every *note PyObject: 32f.  Total allocations are tracked as
well.  Upon exit, all existing references are printed.  (In interactive
mode this happens after every statement run by the interpreter.)

Please refer to ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source
distribution for more detailed information.


File: python.info,  Node: Stabilité de l’API C,  Next: The Very High Level Layer,  Prev: Introduction<12>,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.2 Stabilité de l’API C
========================

Unless documented otherwise, Python's C API is covered by the Backwards
Compatibility Policy, PEP 387(1).  Most changes to it are
source-compatible (typically by only adding new API). Changing existing
API or removing API is only done after a deprecation period or to fix
serious issues.

CPython's Application Binary Interface (ABI) is forward- and
backwards-compatible across a minor release (if these are compiled the
same way; see *note Considérations relatives aux plateformes: 48dc.
below).  So, code compiled for Python 3.10.0 will work on 3.10.8 and
vice versa, but will need to be compiled separately for 3.9.x and
3.11.x.

There are two tiers of C API with different stability expectations:

   - *note Unstable API: 535, may change in minor versions without a
     deprecation period.  It is marked by the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix in
     names.

   - *note Limited API: 38c, is compatible across several minor
     releases.  When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 414. is defined, only this
     subset is exposed from ‘Python.h’.

These are discussed in more detail below.

Names prefixed by an underscore, such as ‘_Py_InternalState’, are
private API that can change without notice even in patch releases.  If
you need to use this API, consider reaching out to CPython developers(2)
to discuss adding public API for your use case.

* Menu:

* Unstable C API::
* ABI stable::
* Considérations relatives aux plateformes::
* Contenu de l’API restreinte::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: Unstable C API,  Next: ABI stable,  Up: Stabilité de l’API C

7.2.1 Unstable C API
--------------------

Any API named with the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix exposes CPython
implementation details, and may change in every minor release (e.g.
from 3.9 to 3.10) without any deprecation warnings.  However, it will
not change in a bugfix release (e.g.  from 3.10.0 to 3.10.1).

It is generally intended for specialized, low-level tools like
debuggers.

Projects that use this API are expected to follow CPython development
and spend extra effort adjusting to changes.


File: python.info,  Node: ABI stable,  Next: Considérations relatives aux plateformes,  Prev: Unstable C API,  Up: Stabilité de l’API C

7.2.2 ABI stable
----------------

For simplicity, this document talks about 'extensions', but the Limited
API and Stable ABI work the same way for all uses of the API – for
example, embedding Python.

* Menu:

* Limited C API::
* Stable ABI::
* Porté de l’API restreinte et performance::
* Inconvénients de l’API restreinte::


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API,  Next: Stable ABI,  Up: ABI stable

7.2.2.1 Limited C API
.....................

Python 3.2 introduced the 'Limited API', a subset of Python's C API.
Extensions that only use the Limited API can be compiled once and be
loaded on multiple versions of Python.  Contents of the Limited API are
*note listed below: 786.

 -- C Macro: Py_LIMITED_API

     Définissez cette macro avant d’inclure ‘Python.h’ pour n’inclure
     que l’API restreinte et indiquer sa version.

     Define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to the value of *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 743.
     corresponding to the lowest Python version your extension supports.
     The extension will be ABI-compatible with all Python 3 releases
     from the specified one onward, and can use Limited API introduced
     up to that version.

     Il est recommandé de renseigner une version mineure minimale (par
     exemple ‘0x030A0000’ pour Python 3.10) plutôt que d’utiliser
     directement la macro ‘PY_VERSION_HEX’ pour ne pas dépendre de la
     version de Python utilisée lors de la compilation.

     Vous pouvez aussi définir ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ à ‘3’.  Cette valeur est
     équivalente à ‘0x03020000’ correspondant à Python 3.2, la première
     version à supporter l’API restreinte.


File: python.info,  Node: Stable ABI,  Next: Porté de l’API restreinte et performance,  Prev: Limited C API,  Up: ABI stable

7.2.2.2 Stable ABI
..................

To enable this, Python provides a 'Stable ABI': a set of symbols that
will remain ABI-compatible across Python 3.x versions.

     Note: The Stable ABI prevents ABI issues, like linker errors due to
     missing symbols or data corruption due to changes in structure
     layouts or function signatures.  However, other changes in Python
     can change the 'behavior' of extensions.  See Python's Backwards
     Compatibility Policy ( PEP 387(1)) for details.

The Stable ABI contains symbols exposed in the *note Limited API: 38c,
but also other ones – for example, functions necessary to support older
versions of the Limited API.

Sur Windows les extensions qui utilisent l’ABI stable doivent être liées
avec ‘python3.dll’ et non pas avec une bibliothèque spécifique à une
version comme ‘python39.dll’.

Sur certaines plateformes Python essaiera de charger une bibliothèque
partagée dont le nom contient ‘abi3’ (par exemple ‘mymodule.abi3.so’).
Il ne vérifie pas si ces extensions respectent l’ABI stable.
L’utilisateur (ou ses outils d’administration) doit s’assurer que les
extensions compilées avec une version donnée de l’API restreinte, par
exemple 3.10+, ne sont pas utilisées avec des versions plus anciennes de
Python.

Toutes les fonctions de l’ABI stable sont présentes dans la bibliothèque
dynamique de Python en tant que fonction, et pas uniquement comme macro.
Elles peuvent donc être utilisées avec des langages qui n’utilisent pas
le pré-processeur C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: Porté de l’API restreinte et performance,  Next: Inconvénients de l’API restreinte,  Prev: Stable ABI,  Up: ABI stable

7.2.2.3 Porté de l’API restreinte et performance
................................................

L’objectif de l’API restreinte est de permettre l’ensemble des
opérations possibles avec l’API C étendue, mais peut avoir un impact sur
les performances.

Par exemple la fonction *note PyList_GetItem(): 352. est disponible,
mais la macro « dangereuse » *note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 48e3. ne l’est
pas.  Cette macro peut être plus rapide car elle dépend de détails
d’implémentation spécifique à l’objet ‘list’.

Si ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ n’est pas défini certaines fonctions de l’API C
seront remplacées par des macros ou une version en-ligne.  Définir
‘Py_LIMITED_API’ désactive cette optimisation, permettant de se garantir
contre les évolutions des structures de données utilisées par Python, et
peut réduire les performances.

En omettant la définition de ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ il est possible de
compiler une extension utilisant l’API restreinte avec une version
spécifique de l’ABI. Les performances seront meilleures pour cette
version de Python, mais la compatibilité sera réduite.  Compiler en
définissant ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ produira une extension qui peut être
utilisée quand une variante spécifique à une version n’est pas
disponible — par exemple pour une version alpha de Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Inconvénients de l’API restreinte,  Prev: Porté de l’API restreinte et performance,  Up: ABI stable

7.2.2.4 Inconvénients de l’API restreinte
.........................................

Note that compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is 'not' a complete guarantee
that code conforms to the *note Limited API: 38c. or the *note Stable
ABI: 48e1.  ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ only covers definitions, but an API also
includes other issues, such as expected semantics.

Une des limitations est que ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ ne protège pas contre
l’appel d’une fonction avec des arguments qui sont invalides pour une
version de Python plus ancienne.  Par exemple considérons une fonction
qui accepte ‘NULL’ comme argument à partir de 3.9.  ‘NULL’ permet
maintenant d’utiliser le comportement par défaut, mais Python 3.8
essayera d’accéder à l’objet pointé et dé-référencera ‘NULL’, causant un
crash.  Des problèmes similaires peuvent se produire avec les attributs
des structures.

Un autre problème est que certains attributs ne sont pas encore cachés
lorsque ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ est défini, même s’ils ne font pas partie de
l’API restreinte.

Pour ces raisons il est recommandé de tester une extension avec
'l’ensemble des versions mineures' supportées de Python, et généralement
de la compiler avec la plus 'ancienne' de ces versions.

Il est aussi recommandé de vérifier la documentation de toutes les API
utilisées pour vérifier qu’elles fassent bien partie de l’API
restreinte.  Même lorsque ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ est défini quelques fonctions
privées peuvent être exposées aux utilisateurs pour des raisons
techniques, ou par erreur.

Notez aussi que l’API restreinte n’est pas forcément stable : compiler
avec Python 3.8 en définissant ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ garanti que l’extension
fonctionnera avec Python 3.12, mais pas qu’elle pourra 'être compilée'
avec Python 3.12.  En particulier certaines parties de l’API restreinte
peuvent être dépréciées et retirées tant que l’ABI stable n’est pas
modifiée.


File: python.info,  Node: Considérations relatives aux plateformes,  Next: Contenu de l’API restreinte,  Prev: ABI stable,  Up: Stabilité de l’API C

7.2.3 Considérations relatives aux plateformes
----------------------------------------------

ABI stability depends not only on Python, but also on the compiler used,
lower-level libraries and compiler options.  For the purposes of the
*note Stable ABI: 48e1, these details define a “platform”.  They usually
depend on the OS type and processor architecture

Les distributeurs de Python doivent s’assurer que toutes les versions de
Python pour une plateforme donnée sont compilées de manière à ne pas
rompre la compatibilité de l’ABI stable.  C’est le cas des versions
produites pour Windows et macOS de ‘python.org’ et de la plupart des
distributions tierces.


File: python.info,  Node: Contenu de l’API restreinte,  Prev: Considérations relatives aux plateformes,  Up: Stabilité de l’API C

7.2.4 Contenu de l’API restreinte
---------------------------------

Currently, the *note Limited API: 38c. includes the following items:

   * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 54c.

   * *note PyAIter_Check(): 48e7.

   * *note PyArg_Parse(): 19a2.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379.

   * *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14bf.

   * *note PyArg_VaParse(): 48e8.

   * *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37a.

   * *note PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(): 48e9.

   * *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea.

   * *note PyBool_FromLong(): 48eb.

   * *note PyBool_Type: 48ec.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 74b.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 74c.

   * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 748.

   * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 745.

   * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 74a.

   * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391.

   * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 746.

   * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 747.

   * ‘PyByteArrayIter_Type’

   * *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 48ed.

   * *note PyByteArray_Concat(): 48ee.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 136f.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1370.

   * *note PyByteArray_Resize(): 48ef.

   * *note PyByteArray_Size(): 48f0.

   * *note PyByteArray_Type: 48f1.

   * ‘PyBytesIter_Type’

   * *note PyBytes_AsString(): 875.

   * *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 48f2.

   * *note PyBytes_Concat(): 48f3.

   * *note PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(): 48f4.

   * ‘PyBytes_DecodeEscape()’

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 19e7.

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormatV(): 48f5.

   * *note PyBytes_FromObject(): 48f6.

   * *note PyBytes_FromString(): 48f7.

   * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 136e.

   * ‘PyBytes_Repr()’

   * *note PyBytes_Size(): 48f8.

   * *note PyBytes_Type: 48f9.

   * *note PyCFunction: 142d.

   * *note PyCFunctionFast: 48fa.

   * *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords: 48fb.

   * *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 48fc.

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFlags()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFunction()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetSelf()’

   * *note PyCFunction_New(): 18b0.

   * *note PyCFunction_NewEx(): 194b.

   * ‘PyCFunction_Type’

   * *note PyCMethod_New(): 18aa.

   * *note PyCallIter_New(): 48fd.

   * *note PyCallIter_Type: 48fe.

   * *note PyCallable_Check(): 48ff.

   * *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 4900.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetContext(): 4901.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetDestructor(): 4902.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetName(): 4903.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 4904.

   * *note PyCapsule_Import(): 182a.

   * *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1335.

   * *note PyCapsule_New(): 4864.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetContext(): 4905.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetDestructor(): 4906.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetName(): 4907.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetPointer(): 4908.

   * ‘PyCapsule_Type’

   * ‘PyClassMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(): 4909.

   * *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.

   * *note PyCodec_Decoder(): 490a.

   * *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.

   * *note PyCodec_Encoder(): 490b.

   * *note PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(): 490c.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(): 490d.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(): 490e.

   * *note PyCodec_KnownEncoding(): 490f.

   * *note PyCodec_LookupError(): 4910.

   * *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): e9a.

   * *note PyCodec_Register(): 4911.

   * *note PyCodec_RegisterError(): 4912.

   * *note PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(): 4913.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamReader(): 4914.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamWriter(): 4915.

   * *note PyCodec_StrictErrors(): 4916.

   * *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 885.

   * *note PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(): 4917.

   * *note PyComplex_FromDoubles(): 4918.

   * *note PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 1653.

   * *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 1652.

   * *note PyComplex_Type: 4919.

   * *note PyDescr_NewClassMethod(): 491a.

   * *note PyDescr_NewGetSet(): 491b.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMember(): 491c.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 194a.

   * ‘PyDictItems_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictKeys_Type’

   * *note PyDictProxy_New(): 491d.

   * ‘PyDictProxy_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictValues_Type’

   * *note PyDict_Clear(): 491e.

   * *note PyDict_Contains(): 32e.

   * *note PyDict_Copy(): 416.

   * *note PyDict_DelItem(): 491f.

   * *note PyDict_DelItemString(): 4920.

   * *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 37e.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 331.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 332.

   * *note PyDict_Items(): 4921.

   * *note PyDict_Keys(): 4922.

   * *note PyDict_Merge(): 4923.

   * *note PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(): 4924.

   * *note PyDict_New(): 4925.

   * *note PyDict_Next(): 15cd.

   * *note PyDict_SetItem(): 485b.

   * *note PyDict_SetItemString(): 15bb.

   * *note PyDict_Size(): 4926.

   * *note PyDict_Type: 4927.

   * *note PyDict_Update(): 4928.

   * *note PyDict_Values(): 4929.

   * *note PyEllipsis_Type: 492a.

   * ‘PyEnum_Type’

   * *note PyErr_BadArgument(): 492b.

   * *note PyErr_BadInternalCall(): 492c.

   * *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 452.

   * *note PyErr_Clear(): 101c.

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’

   * *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8.

   * *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 48d4.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9.

   * *note PyErr_Format(): e9c.

   * *note PyErr_FormatV(): e9b.

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 75e.

   * *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 75b.

   * *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.

   * *note PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(): 492d.

   * *note PyErr_NewException(): 124a.

   * *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1249.

   * *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 483f.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3eb.

   * *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae.

   * *note PyErr_Print(): 1902.

   * *note PyErr_PrintEx(): 492e.

   * ‘PyErr_ProgramText()’

   * *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): d07.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3ec.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 492f.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 16d3.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 4930.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(): 4931.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 75d.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 483e.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 16d2.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 4932.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(): 4933.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 4934.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 16d4.

   * *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 75c.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d2e.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): d06.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterrupt(): 4935.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 88c.

   * *note PyErr_SetNone(): 4936.

   * *note PyErr_SetObject(): 569.

   * *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3ed.

   * *note PyErr_SetString(): 56a.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocation(): 4937.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 4938.

   * *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1403.

   * *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 16db.

   * *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 4939.

   * *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a1.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 874.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1725.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrame(): 493a.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1019.

   * *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 347.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1778.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 346.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 348.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34a.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncDesc(): 493b.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 493c.

   * *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 349.

   * *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34b.

   * *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 15fc.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 493d.

   * *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f.

   * ‘PyExc_ArithmeticError’

   * ‘PyExc_AssertionError’

   * ‘PyExc_AttributeError’

   * ‘PyExc_BaseException’

   * ‘PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup’

   * ‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’

   * ‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’

   * ‘PyExc_BufferError’

   * ‘PyExc_BytesWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’

   * ‘PyExc_DeprecationWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_EOFError’

   * ‘PyExc_EncodingWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_EnvironmentError’

   * ‘PyExc_Exception’

   * ‘PyExc_FileExistsError’

   * ‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’

   * ‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’

   * ‘PyExc_FutureWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_GeneratorExit’

   * ‘PyExc_IOError’

   * ‘PyExc_ImportError’

   * ‘PyExc_ImportWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_IndentationError’

   * ‘PyExc_IndexError’

   * ‘PyExc_InterruptedError’

   * ‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_KeyError’

   * ‘PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt’

   * ‘PyExc_LookupError’

   * ‘PyExc_MemoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’

   * ‘PyExc_NameError’

   * ‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_NotImplementedError’

   * ‘PyExc_OSError’

   * ‘PyExc_OverflowError’

   * ‘PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_PermissionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’

   * ‘PyExc_RecursionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ReferenceError’

   * ‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_RuntimeError’

   * ‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’

   * ‘PyExc_StopIteration’

   * ‘PyExc_SyntaxError’

   * ‘PyExc_SyntaxWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_SystemError’

   * ‘PyExc_SystemExit’

   * ‘PyExc_TabError’

   * ‘PyExc_TimeoutError’

   * ‘PyExc_TypeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnboundLocalError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_UserWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_ValueError’

   * ‘PyExc_Warning’

   * ‘PyExc_WindowsError’

   * ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’

   * ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’

   * *note PyException_GetArgs(): 558.

   * *note PyException_GetCause(): 493e.

   * *note PyException_GetContext(): 493f.

   * *note PyException_GetTraceback(): 4940.

   * *note PyException_SetArgs(): 559.

   * *note PyException_SetCause(): 4941.

   * *note PyException_SetContext(): 4942.

   * *note PyException_SetTraceback(): 19a8.

   * *note PyFile_FromFd(): 4943.

   * *note PyFile_GetLine(): 4944.

   * *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 4945.

   * *note PyFile_WriteString(): 4946.

   * ‘PyFilter_Type’

   * *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a59.

   * *note PyFloat_FromDouble(): 4947.

   * *note PyFloat_FromString(): 4948.

   * *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 13a9.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 13a7.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 13a8.

   * *note PyFloat_Type: 4949.

   * *note PyFrameObject: 775.

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 776.

   * *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 13fe.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_Type: 494a.

   * *note PyGC_Collect(): 97d.

   * *note PyGC_Disable(): 893.

   * *note PyGC_Enable(): 892.

   * *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 894.

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2.

   * *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 494b.

   * *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.

   * ‘PyGILState_STATE’

   * *note PyGetSetDef: ba8.

   * ‘PyGetSetDescr_Type’

   * *note PyImport_AddModule(): 34f.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 494c.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 34e.

   * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 494d.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 494e.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 494f.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4950.

   * *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 16d1.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1183.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicTag(): 4951.

   * *note PyImport_GetModule(): ba3.

   * *note PyImport_GetModuleDict(): 4952.

   * *note PyImport_Import(): 13b5.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(): 4953.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 4954.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1184.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 4955.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4.

   * *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 4956.

   * *note PyIndex_Check(): 979.

   * *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 4183.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Delete(): 4957.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a4.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetDict(): 4958.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): bb6.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_New(): 4184.

   * *note PyIter_Check(): 18b1.

   * *note PyIter_Next(): 4959.

   * *note PyIter_Send(): 886.

   * ‘PyListIter_Type’

   * ‘PyListRevIter_Type’

   * *note PyList_Append(): 495a.

   * *note PyList_AsTuple(): 495b.

   * *note PyList_GetItem(): 352.

   * *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 351.

   * *note PyList_GetSlice(): 495c.

   * *note PyList_Insert(): 152f.

   * *note PyList_New(): 48cf.

   * *note PyList_Reverse(): 495d.

   * *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531.

   * *note PyList_SetSlice(): 495e.

   * *note PyList_Size(): 13d2.

   * *note PyList_Sort(): 495f.

   * *note PyList_Type: 487c.

   * *note PyLongObject: 576.

   * ‘PyLongRangeIter_Type’

   * *note PyLong_AsDouble(): 4960.

   * *note PyLong_AsInt(): 355.

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 356.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1247.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLong(): 4961.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1246.

   * *note PyLong_AsSize_t(): 4962.

   * *note PyLong_AsSsize_t(): 4963.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(): 4964.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1274.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 19a4.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(): 4965.

   * *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4966.

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 931.

   * *note PyLong_FromLong(): 17f6.

   * *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 17f7.

   * *note PyLong_FromSize_t(): 1981.

   * *note PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 4967.

   * *note PyLong_FromString(): 4968.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 197f.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 1980.

   * *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4969.

   * *note PyLong_GetInfo(): 496a.

   * *note PyLong_Type: 496b.

   * ‘PyMap_Type’

   * *note PyMapping_Check(): 496c.

   * *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 33e.

   * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33b.

   * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 33c.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 375.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 377.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 376.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 374.

   * *note PyMapping_Items(): bae.

   * *note PyMapping_Keys(): bac.

   * *note PyMapping_Length(): 496d.

   * *note PyMapping_SetItemString(): 496e.

   * *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a14.

   * *note PyMapping_Values(): bad.

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): e98.

   * *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb.

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387.

   * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 389.

   * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386.

   * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388.

   * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d.

   * *note PyMemberDef: 53d.

   * ‘PyMemberDescr_Type’

   * *note PyMember_GetOne(): 57b.

   * *note PyMember_SetOne(): 57c.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 74d.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1152.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromObject(): 496f.

   * *note PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(): 4970.

   * ‘PyMemoryView_Type’

   * *note PyMethodDef: 148f.

   * ‘PyMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyModuleDef: 96c.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Base’

   * *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 4971.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Type’

   * *note PyModule_Add(): 35a.

   * *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 4972.

   * *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 14f3.

   * *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c.

   * *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b.

   * *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 14f4.

   * *note PyModule_AddType(): 964.

   * *note PyModule_Create2(): 4973.

   * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): e9f.

   * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): e9e.

   * *note PyModule_GetDef(): 4974.

   * *note PyModule_GetDict(): 4975.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3ee.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3ef.

   * *note PyModule_GetName(): 4976.

   * *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4977.

   * *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f.

   * *note PyModule_New(): 4978.

   * *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4979.

   * *note PyModule_SetDocString(): 497a.

   * *note PyModule_Type: 497b.

   * *note PyNumber_Absolute(): 497c.

   * *note PyNumber_Add(): 497d.

   * *note PyNumber_And(): 497e.

   * *note PyNumber_AsSsize_t(): 497f.

   * *note PyNumber_Check(): a56.

   * *note PyNumber_Divmod(): 4980.

   * *note PyNumber_Float(): a58.

   * *note PyNumber_FloorDivide(): 4981.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(): 4982.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4983.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(): 4984.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(): 4985.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): ea1.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(): 4986.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4987.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlacePower(): 4988.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(): 4989.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(): 498a.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 498b.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(): 498c.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 498d.

   * *note PyNumber_Index(): 881.

   * *note PyNumber_Invert(): 498e.

   * *note PyNumber_Long(): a57.

   * *note PyNumber_Lshift(): 498f.

   * *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): ea0.

   * *note PyNumber_Multiply(): 4990.

   * *note PyNumber_Negative(): 4991.

   * *note PyNumber_Or(): 4992.

   * *note PyNumber_Positive(): 4993.

   * *note PyNumber_Power(): 4994.

   * *note PyNumber_Remainder(): 4995.

   * *note PyNumber_Rshift(): 4996.

   * *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4997.

   * *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17a6.

   * *note PyNumber_TrueDivide(): 4998.

   * *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4999.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f0.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bb0.

   * *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): baf.

   * *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 17d2.

   * *note PyOS_FSPath(): d08.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 573.

   * ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’

   * *note PyOS_double_to_string(): 499a.

   * *note PyOS_getsig(): 14f5.

   * ‘PyOS_mystricmp()’

   * ‘PyOS_mystrnicmp()’

   * *note PyOS_setsig(): 14f6.

   * *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 499b.

   * *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14c2.

   * *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1275.

   * *note PyOS_strtol(): 499c.

   * *note PyOS_strtoul(): 499d.

   * *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14c3.

   * *note PyObject: 32f.

   * *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 88d.

   * *note PyObject.ob_type: 486d.

   * *note PyObject_ASCII(): 499e.

   * *note PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(): 499f.

   * *note PyObject_Bytes(): 49a0.

   * *note PyObject_Call(): 393.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 395.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 49a1.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19bb.

   * *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 392.

   * *note PyObject_CallObject(): 484e.

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): e99.

   * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 38f.

   * *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 564.

   * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 749.

   * *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 16d8.

   * *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 15bd.

   * *note PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2.

   * *note PyObject_DelItemString(): 49a3.

   * *note PyObject_Dir(): 49a4.

   * *note PyObject_Format(): 49a5.

   * *note PyObject_Free(): c55.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 966.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 965.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14bd.

   * *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 49a6.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 18f7.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 49a7.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetDict(): 49a8.

   * *note PyObject_GetAIter(): 49a9.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 342.

   * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390.

   * *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d.

   * *note PyObject_GetIter(): 49aa.

   * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 33f.

   * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 340.

   * *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 537.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 371.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 373.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 372.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 370.

   * *note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9.

   * *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 137f.

   * *note PyObject_Init(): a5a.

   * *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1912.

   * *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e91.

   * *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): e92.

   * *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 49ab.

   * *note PyObject_Length(): 49ac.

   * *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.

   * *note PyObject_Not(): 49ad.

   * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc.

   * *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 4891.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1961.

   * *note PyObject_SelfIter(): 49ae.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 49af.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 15bc.

   * *note PyObject_SetItem(): 48ce.

   * *note PyObject_Size(): 49b0.

   * *note PyObject_Str(): 101b.

   * *note PyObject_Type(): 49b1.

   * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 54a.

   * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 54b.

   * *note PyProperty_Type: 49b2.

   * ‘PyRangeIter_Type’

   * ‘PyRange_Type’

   * ‘PyReversed_Type’

   * *note PySeqIter_New(): 49b3.

   * *note PySeqIter_Type: 49b4.

   * *note PySequence_Check(): 49b5.

   * *note PySequence_Concat(): 49b6.

   * *note PySequence_Contains(): 49b7.

   * *note PySequence_Count(): 49b8.

   * *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a13.

   * *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 49b9.

   * *note PySequence_Fast(): 49ba.

   * *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11.

   * *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 49bb.

   * ‘PySequence_In()’

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 49bc.

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 49bd.

   * *note PySequence_Index(): 49be.

   * *note PySequence_Length(): 49bf.

   * *note PySequence_List(): 49c0.

   * *note PySequence_Repeat(): 49c1.

   * *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a12.

   * *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 49c2.

   * *note PySequence_Size(): 1a10.

   * *note PySequence_Tuple(): 49c3.

   * ‘PySetIter_Type’

   * *note PySet_Add(): 13ff.

   * *note PySet_Clear(): 49c4.

   * *note PySet_Contains(): 1401.

   * *note PySet_Discard(): 1400.

   * *note PySet_New(): 13fd.

   * *note PySet_Pop(): 49c5.

   * *note PySet_Size(): 1402.

   * *note PySet_Type: 49c6.

   * *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 49c7.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f2.

   * *note PySlice_New(): 49c8.

   * *note PySlice_Type: 49c9.

   * *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f3.

   * *note PyState_AddModule(): 49ca.

   * *note PyState_FindModule(): 49cb.

   * *note PyState_RemoveModule(): 49cc.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Desc: baa.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Field: ba9.

   * *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 49cd.

   * *note PyStructSequence_New(): 49ce.

   * *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 49cf.

   * *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 49d0.

   * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 971.

   * ‘PySuper_Type’

   * *note PySys_Audit(): 365.

   * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 364.

   * *note PySys_FormatStderr(): 49d1.

   * *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 49d2.

   * *note PySys_GetObject(): 37f.

   * *note PySys_GetXOptions(): 49d3.

   * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.

   * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 15fb.

   * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 15fa.

   * *note PySys_SetObject(): 49d4.

   * *note PySys_WriteStderr(): 49d5.

   * *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 49d6.

   * *note PyThreadState: 779.

   * *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 15dc.

   * *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 195e.

   * *note PyThreadState_Get(): 368.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetDict(): 49d7.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 961.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 960.

   * *note PyThreadState_New(): 49d8.

   * *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): bb4.

   * *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 49d9.

   * ‘PyThread_GetInfo()’

   * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 404.

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock()’

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()’

   * ‘PyThread_allocate_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fa.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 3fc.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 402.

   * ‘PyThread_exit_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_free_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 400.

   * ‘PyThread_get_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’

   * ‘PyThread_init_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_release_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 3fe.

   * ‘PyThread_set_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’

   * *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3fb.

   * *note PyThread_tss_create(): 49da.

   * *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 403.

   * *note PyThread_tss_free(): 3fd.

   * *note PyThread_tss_get(): 401.

   * *note PyThread_tss_is_created(): 49db.

   * *note PyThread_tss_set(): 3ff.

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Here()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Print()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Type’

   * ‘PyTupleIter_Type’

   * *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 4859.

   * *note PyTuple_GetSlice(): 49dc.

   * *note PyTuple_New(): 394.

   * *note PyTuple_Pack(): 49dd.

   * *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a.

   * *note PyTuple_Size(): 49de.

   * *note PyTuple_Type: 49df.

   * *note PyTypeObject: a95.

   * *note PyType_ClearCache(): 49e0.

   * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e.

   * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f.

   * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.

   * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c.

   * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a5b.

   * *note PyType_GenericNew(): 486c.

   * *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1911.

   * *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 369.

   * *note PyType_GetModule(): 95d.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 36b.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 95e.

   * *note PyType_GetName(): 73e.

   * *note PyType_GetQualName(): 73f.

   * *note PyType_GetSlot(): 88a.

   * *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 538.

   * *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 49e1.

   * *note PyType_Modified(): 17ae.

   * *note PyType_Ready(): 768.

   * *note PyType_Slot: 49e2.

   * *note PyType_Spec: 16d6.

   * *note PyType_Type: 53b.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(): 49e3.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(): 49e4.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(): 49e5.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(): 49e6.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(): 49e7.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(): 49e8.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(): 49e9.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(): 49ea.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(): 49eb.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(): 49ec.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 49ed.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(): 49ee.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(): 49ef.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 49f0.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(): 49f1.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(): 49f2.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(): 49f3.

   * ‘PyUnicodeIter_Type’

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(): 49f4.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(): 49f5.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(): 49f6.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(): 49f7.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(): 49f8.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(): 49f9.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(): 49fa.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Append()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AppendAndDel()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 1174.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(): 49fb.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(): 49fc.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 1173.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1175.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1172.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 115a.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8aa.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(): 49fd.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(): 49fe.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 887.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1170.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1171.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1a15.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8ab.

   * ‘PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()’

   * *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8a6.

   * *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 1248.

   * *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1181.

   * *note PyUnicode_Contains(): 49ff.

   * *note PyUnicode_Count(): 4a00.

   * *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 19a0.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(): 4a01.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(): 4a02.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(): 4a03.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 16d5.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4a04.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(): 4a05.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(): 4a06.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bb9.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4a07.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4a08.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(): 4a09.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 4a0a.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 4a0b.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 4a0c.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 4a0d.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 4a0e.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(): 4a0f.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4a10.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 175b.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(): 4a11.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1176.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a0f.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bba.

   * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 36d.

   * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36c.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d09.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 565.

   * *note PyUnicode_Find(): 4a12.

   * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8a8.

   * *note PyUnicode_Format(): 4a13.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(): 4a14.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 562.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 4a15.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(): 4a16.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(): 4a18.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 116e.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(): 4a19.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8a2.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 15ba.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8a0.

   * *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 195b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1182.

   * *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 1529.

   * *note PyUnicode_RPartition(): 152a.

   * *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 1528.

   * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1153.

   * *note PyUnicode_Replace(): 4a1a.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Resize()’

   * *note PyUnicode_RichCompare(): 4a1b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Split(): 4a1c.

   * *note PyUnicode_Splitlines(): 4a1d.

   * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8a5.

   * *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8a7.

   * *note PyUnicode_Translate(): 4a1e.

   * *note PyUnicode_Type: 4a1f.

   * *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1154.

   * *note PyVarObject: 4108.

   * ‘PyVarObject.ob_base’

   * *note PyVarObject.ob_size: 4a20.

   * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 544.

   * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 543.

   * ‘PyWeakReference’

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewProxy(): 4a21.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewRef(): 180b.

   * ‘PyWrapperDescr_Type’

   * *note PyWrapper_New(): 4a22.

   * ‘PyZip_Type’

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 970.

   * *note Py_AtExit(): 4a23.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e.

   * *note Py_BLOCK_THREADS: 4a24.

   * *note Py_BuildValue(): 896.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9b1.

   * *note Py_CompileString(): 873.

   * *note Py_DecRef(): 4a25.

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7.

   * *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a7e.

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8.

   * *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 181c.

   * *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 962.

   * *note Py_Exit(): d3e.

   * *note Py_FatalError(): 972.

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_Finalize(): 1332.

   * *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05.

   * *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4a26.

   * *note Py_GenericAliasType: 4a27.

   * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13ea.

   * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4a28.

   * *note Py_GetConstant(): 34c.

   * *note Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 34d.

   * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4a29.

   * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8.

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.

   * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4a2a.

   * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac.

   * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.

   * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.

   * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1.

   * ‘Py_GetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4a2b.

   * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_IncRef(): 4a2c.

   * *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

   * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4a2d.

   * *note Py_Is(): 88e.

   * *note Py_IsFalse(): 891.

   * *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 350.

   * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 48d7.

   * *note Py_IsNone(): 88f.

   * *note Py_IsTrue(): 890.

   * *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 963.

   * *note Py_Main(): c15.

   * ‘Py_MakePendingCalls()’

   * *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1772.

   * *note Py_NewRef(): 888.

   * *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4a2e.

   * *note Py_ReprLeave(): 4a2f.

   * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 15f9.

   * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 15f8.

   * ‘Py_SetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_UCS4: 298.

   * *note Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS: 4a30.

   * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’

   * *note Py_VaBuildValue(): 4a31.

   * *note Py_Version: 742.

   * *note Py_XNewRef(): 889.

   * *note Py_buffer: 744.

   * ‘Py_intptr_t’

   * *note Py_ssize_t: a50.

   * ‘Py_uintptr_t’

   * *note allocfunc: 4a32.

   * *note binaryfunc: 4a33.

   * *note descrgetfunc: 4a34.

   * *note descrsetfunc: 4a35.

   * *note destructor: 4a36.

   * *note getattrfunc: 4a37.

   * *note getattrofunc: 4a38.

   * *note getbufferproc: 4a39.

   * *note getiterfunc: 4a3a.

   * *note getter: 4a3b.

   * *note hashfunc: 4a3c.

   * *note initproc: 4a3d.

   * *note inquiry: 4a3e.

   * *note iternextfunc: 4a3f.

   * *note lenfunc: 4a40.

   * *note newfunc: 4a41.

   * *note objobjargproc: 4a42.

   * *note objobjproc: 4a43.

   * *note releasebufferproc: 4a44.

   * *note reprfunc: 4a45.

   * *note richcmpfunc: 4a46.

   * *note setattrfunc: 4a47.

   * *note setattrofunc: 4a48.

   * *note setter: 4a49.

   * *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a.

   * *note ssizeobjargproc: 4a4b.

   * ‘ssizessizeargfunc’

   * ‘ssizessizeobjargproc’

   * ‘symtable’

   * *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c.

   * *note traverseproc: 4a4d.

   * *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.

   * *note vectorcallfunc: 545.

   * *note visitproc: 4a4f.


File: python.info,  Node: The Very High Level Layer,  Next: Reference Counting,  Prev: Stabilité de l’API C,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.3 The Very High Level Layer
=============================

The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code
given in a file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a
more detailed way with the interpreter.

Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
parameter.  The available start symbols are *note Py_eval_input: 4a53,
*note Py_file_input: 4a54, and *note Py_single_input: 4a55.  These are
described following the functions which accept them as parameters.

Note also that several of these functions take FILE* parameters.  One
particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the ‘FILE’
structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible.
Under Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked
extensions to actually use different libraries, so care should be taken
that FILE* parameters are only passed to these functions if it is
certain that they were created by the same library that the Python
runtime is using.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_AnyFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4a57. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4a57. below, leaving the 'closeit' argument set to ‘0’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_AnyFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int
          closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4a57. below, leaving the 'flags' argument set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     If 'fp' refers to a file associated with an interactive device
     (console or terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the
     value of *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4a5a, otherwise return the
     result of *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 48ad.  'filename' is decoded
     from the filesystem encoding (*note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     c49.).  If 'filename' is ‘NULL’, this function uses ‘"???"’ as the
     filename.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before
     ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_SimpleString (const char *command)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags():
     4a5b. below, leaving the *note PyCompilerFlags: a91.* argument set
     to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (const char *command,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Executes the Python source code from 'command' in the *note
     __main__: 1. module according to the 'flags' argument.  If *note
     __main__: 1. does not already exist, it is created.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  If there was an error,
     there is no way to get the exception information.  For the meaning
     of 'flags', see below.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: d30. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘-1’, but exit the process,
     as long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6. is zero.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_SimpleFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     18c5. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     18c5. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Similar to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4a5b, but the Python
     source code is read from 'fp' instead of an in-memory string.
     'filename' should be the name of the file, it is decoded from *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.  If 'closeit' is true,
     the file is closed before ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

          Note: On Windows, 'fp' should be opened as binary mode (e.g.
          ‘fopen(filename, "rb")’).  Otherwise, Python may not handle
          script file with LF line ending correctly.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_InteractiveOne (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(): 4a5e. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
     interactive device according to the 'flags' argument.  The user
     will be prompted using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

     Returns ‘0’ when the input was executed successfully, ‘-1’ if there
     was an exception, or an error code from the ‘errcode.h’ include
     file distributed as part of Python if there was a parse error.
     (Note that ‘errcode.h’ is not included by ‘Python.h’, so must be
     included specifically if needed.)

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(): 4a5f. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute statements from a file associated with an
     interactive device until EOF is reached.  The user will be prompted
     using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is decoded from the
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.  Returns ‘0’ at
     EOF or a negative number upon failure.

 -- C Variable: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Can be set to point to a
     function with the prototype ‘int func(void)’.  The function will be
     called when Python's interpreter prompt is about to become idle and
     wait for user input from the terminal.  The return value is
     ignored.  Overriding this hook can be used to integrate the
     interpreter's prompt with other event loops, as done in the
     ‘Modules/_tkinter.c’ in the Python source code.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is only called from the
     *note main interpreter: 575.

 -- C Variable: char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*,
          const char*)

     Can be set to point to a function with the prototype ‘char
     *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)’, overriding the
     default function used to read a single line of input at the
     interpreter's prompt.  The function is expected to output the
     string 'prompt' if it's not ‘NULL’, and then read a line of input
     from the provided standard input file, returning the resulting
     string.  For example, The *note readline: b9. module sets this hook
     to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.

     The result must be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
     386. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388, or ‘NULL’ if an error
     occurred.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The result must be allocated by *note
     PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388, instead
     of being allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. or *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 101d.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is only called from the
     *note main interpreter: 575.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyRun_String (const char *str, int
          start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 4a60. below, leaving
     'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyRun_StringFlags (const char
          *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Execute Python source
     code from 'str' in the context specified by the objects 'globals'
     and 'locals' with the compiler flags specified by 'flags'.
     'globals' must be a dictionary; 'locals' can be any object that
     implements the mapping protocol.  The parameter 'start' specifies
     the start token that should be used to parse the source code.

     Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyRun_File (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a62. below, leaving
     'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyRun_FileEx (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int
          closeit)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a62. below, leaving
     'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyRun_FileFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a62. below, leaving
     'closeit' set to ‘0’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyRun_FileExFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Similar to *note
     PyRun_StringFlags(): 4a60, but the Python source code is read from
     'fp' instead of an in-memory string.  'filename' should be the name
     of the file, it is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 528.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed
     before *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a62. returns.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_CompileString (const char *str,
          const char *filename, int start)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is a simplified interface to *note
     Py_CompileStringFlags(): 4a65. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_CompileStringFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note Py_CompileStringExFlags(): 4a66. below, with
     'optimize' set to ‘-1’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_CompileStringObject (const char
          *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Parse and compile the
     Python source code in 'str', returning the resulting code object.
     The start token is given by 'start'; this can be used to constrain
     the code which can be compiled and should be *note Py_eval_input:
     4a53, *note Py_file_input: 4a54, or *note Py_single_input: 4a55.
     The filename specified by 'filename' is used to construct the code
     object and may appear in tracebacks or *note SyntaxError: 18b.
     exception messages.  This returns ‘NULL’ if the code cannot be
     parsed or compiled.

     The integer 'optimize' specifies the optimization level of the
     compiler; a value of ‘-1’ selects the optimization level of the
     interpreter as given by *note -O: da4. options.  Explicit levels
     are ‘0’ (no optimization; ‘__debug__’ is true), ‘1’ (asserts are
     removed, ‘__debug__’ is false) or ‘2’ (docstrings are removed too).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_CompileStringExFlags (const
          char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags
          *flags, int optimize)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Like *note
     Py_CompileStringObject(): 4a67, but 'filename' is a byte string
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_EvalCode (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1725, with just the code object, and global
     and local variables.  The other arguments are set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_EvalCodeEx (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args,
          int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject
          *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject
          *closure)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular
     environment for its evaluation.  This environment consists of a
     dictionary of global variables, a mapping object of local
     variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and defaults, a dictionary
     of default values for *note keyword-only: 2a2. arguments and a
     closure tuple of cells.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_EvalFrame (PyFrameObject
          *f)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Evaluate an execution frame.  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1019, for backward
     compatibility.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_EvalFrameEx (PyFrameObject
          *f, int throwflag)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is the main, unvarnished function of Python
     interpretation.  The code object associated with the execution
     frame 'f' is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as
     needed.  The additional 'throwflag' parameter can mostly be ignored
     - if true, then it causes an exception to immediately be thrown;
     this is used for the *note throw(): 4e5. methods of generator
     objects.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Cette fonction inclut maintenant une
     assertion de débogage afin d'assurer qu'elle ne passe pas sous
     silence une exception active.

 -- C Fonction: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (PyCompilerFlags *cf)

     This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame,
     and returns true on success, false on failure.

 -- C Variable: int Py_eval_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 873.

 -- C Variable: int Py_file_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of
     statements as read from a file or other source; for use with *note
     Py_CompileString(): 873.  This is the symbol to use when compiling
     arbitrarily long Python source code.

 -- C Variable: int Py_single_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 873.  This is the symbol
     used for the interactive interpreter loop.

 -- C Structure: struct PyCompilerFlags

     This is the structure used to hold compiler flags.  In cases where
     code is only being compiled, it is passed as ‘int flags’, and in
     cases where code is being executed, it is passed as
     ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’.  In this case, ‘from __future__ import’
     can modify 'flags'.

     Whenever ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’ is ‘NULL’, *note cf_flags: 4a69.
     is treated as equal to ‘0’, and any modification due to ‘from
     __future__ import’ is discarded.

      -- C Membre: int cf_flags

          Compiler flags.

      -- C Membre: int cf_feature_version

          'cf_feature_version' is the minor Python version.  It should
          be initialized to ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.

          The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if
          ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in *note cf_flags: 4a69.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added 'cf_feature_version' field.

     The available compiler flags are accessible as macros:

      -- C Macro: PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT
      -- C Macro: PyCF_ONLY_AST
      -- C Macro: PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST
      -- C Macro: PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

          See *note compiler flags: 2120. in documentation of the ‘ast’
          Python module, which exports these constants under the same
          names.

      -- C Variable: int CO_FUTURE_DIVISION

          This bit can be set in 'flags' to cause division operator ‘/’
          to be interpreted as "true division" according to PEP 238(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counting,  Next: Gestion des exceptions<2>,  Prev: The Very High Level Layer,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.4 Reference Counting
======================

The functions and macros in this section are used for managing reference
counts of Python objects.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. Py_REFCNT (PyObject *o)

     Get the reference count of the Python object 'o'.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are *note immortal: 4327. and have a very high refcount
     that does not reflect the actual number of references.
     Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate,
     other than a value of 0 or 1.

     Use the *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 899. function to set an object
     reference count.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note Py_REFCNT(): 898. is changed to
     the inline static function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_SET_REFCNT (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt)

     Set the object 'o' reference counter to 'refcnt'.

     On *note Python build with Free Threading: 1d37, if 'refcnt' is
     larger than ‘UINT32_MAX’, the object is made *note immortal: 4327.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 4327. objects.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_INCREF (PyObject *o)

     Indicate taking a new *note strong reference: 333. to object 'o',
     indicating it is in use and should not be destroyed.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 4327. objects.

     Cette fonction est souvent utilisée pour convertir une *note
     référence empruntée: 334. en une *note référence forte: 333. 'sur
     place'.  La fonction *note Py_NewRef(): 888. peut être utilisée
     pour créer une nouvelle *note référence forte: 333.

     When done using the object, release is by calling *note
     Py_DECREF(): 55d.

     L'objet ne doit pas être ‘NULL’, la fonction *note Py_XINCREF():
     a55. doit être utilisée s'il est possible qu'il soit ‘NULL’.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(1), this function has no effect.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_XINCREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_INCREF(): 55c, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.

     Voir aussi *note Py_XNewRef(): 889.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_NewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Create a new *note strong reference: 333. to an object: call *note
     Py_INCREF(): 55c. on 'o' and return the object 'o'.

     When the *note strong reference: 333. is no longer needed, *note
     Py_DECREF(): 55d. should be called on it to release the reference.

     L'objet 'o' ne doit pas être ‘NULL’ et la fonction *note
     Py_XNewRef(): 889. doit être utilisée si 'o' peut être ‘NULL’.

     Par exemple :

          Py_INCREF(obj);
          self->attr = obj;

     peut s'écrire :

          self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj);

     Voir aussi *note Py_INCREF(): 55c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_XNewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Semblable à *note Py_NewRef(): 888. mais l'objet 'o' peut être
     ‘NULL’.

     Cette fonction renvoie ‘NULL’ si l'objet 'o' est ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_DECREF (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 333. to object 'o', indicating
     the reference is no longer used.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 4327. objects.

     Once the last *note strong reference: 333. is released (i.e.  the
     object's reference count reaches 0), the object's type's
     deallocation function (which must not be ‘NULL’) is invoked.

     Cette fonction est généralement utilisée pour supprimer une *note
     référence forte: 333. avant qu'elle ne soit plus accessible.

     L'objet en argument ne doit pas être ‘NULL’.  *note Py_XDECREF():
     77b. doit être utilisée si l'objet peut être ‘NULL’.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(2), this function has no effect.

          Avertissement: The deallocation function can cause arbitrary
          Python code to be invoked (e.g.  when a class instance with a
          *note __del__(): 1f1a. method is deallocated).  While
          exceptions in such code are not propagated, the executed code
          has free access to all Python global variables.  This means
          that any object that is reachable from a global variable
          should be in a consistent state before *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.
          is invoked.  For example, code to delete an object from a list
          should copy a reference to the deleted object in a temporary
          variable, update the list data structure, and then call *note
          Py_DECREF(): 55d. for the temporary variable.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_XDECREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_DECREF(): 55d, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.  The same warning from
     *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. applies here as well.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_CLEAR (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 333. for object 'o'.  The object
     may be ‘NULL’, in which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the
     effect is the same as for *note Py_DECREF(): 55d, except that the
     argument is also set to ‘NULL’.  The warning for *note Py_DECREF():
     55d. does not apply with respect to the object passed because the
     macro carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to
     ‘NULL’ before releasing the reference.

     It is a good idea to use this macro whenever releasing a reference
     to an object that might be traversed during garbage collection.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The macro argument is now only
     evaluated once.  If the argument has side effects, these are no
     longer duplicated.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_IncRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Indicate taking a new *note
     strong reference: 333. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XINCREF(): a55.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_DecRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Release a *note strong
     reference: 333. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 77b.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C Macro: Py_SETREF (dst, src)

     Macro safely releasing a *note strong reference: 333. to object
     'dst' and setting 'dst' to 'src'.

     As in case of *note Py_CLEAR(): 566, "the obvious" code can be
     deadly:

          Py_DECREF(dst);
          dst = src;

     The safe way is:

          Py_SETREF(dst, src);

     That arranges to set 'dst' to 'src' _before_ releasing the
     reference to the old value of 'dst', so that any code triggered as
     a side-effect of 'dst' getting torn down no longer believes 'dst'
     points to a valid object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The macro arguments are now only
     evaluated once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no
     longer duplicated.

 -- C Macro: Py_XSETREF (dst, src)

     Variant of *note Py_SETREF: 567. macro that uses *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 77b. instead of *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The macro arguments are now only
     evaluated once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no
     longer duplicated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des exceptions<2>,  Next: Utilitaires<2>,  Prev: Reference Counting,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.5 Gestion des exceptions
==========================

The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise
Python exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics of
Python exception handling.  It works somewhat like the POSIX ‘errno’
variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error
that occurred.  Most C API functions don't clear this on success, but
will set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure.  Most C API
functions also return an error indicator, usually ‘NULL’ if they are
supposed to return a pointer, or ‘-1’ if they return an integer
(exception: the ‘PyArg_*’ functions return ‘1’ for success and ‘0’ for
failure).

Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the
exception's type, the exception's value, and the traceback object.  Any
of those pointers can be ‘NULL’ if non-set (although some combinations
are forbidden, for example you can't have a non-‘NULL’ traceback if the
exception type is ‘NULL’).

When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it
generally doesn't set the error indicator; the function it called
already set it.  It is responsible for either handling the error and
clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it
holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should 'not'
continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error.  If
returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller
that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as
intended and may fail in mysterious ways.

     Note: The error indicator is 'not' the result of *note
     sys.exc_info(): 677.  The former corresponds to an exception that
     is not yet caught (and is therefore still propagating), while the
     latter returns an exception after it is caught (and has therefore
     stopped propagating).

* Menu:

* Printing and clearing::
* Lever des exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Traitement des signaux: Traitement des signaux<2>.
* Exception Classes::
* Objets exception::
* Objets exception Unicode::
* Contrôle de la récursion::
* Exceptions standards::
* Standard Warning Categories::


File: python.info,  Node: Printing and clearing,  Next: Lever des exceptions,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.1 Printing and clearing
---------------------------

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_Clear ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Clear the error indicator.
     If the error indicator is not set, there is no effect.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_PrintEx (int set_sys_last_vars)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Print a standard traceback
     to ‘sys.stderr’ and clear the error indicator.  'Unless' the error
     is a ‘SystemExit’, in that case no traceback is printed and the
     Python process will exit with the error code specified by the
     ‘SystemExit’ instance.

     Call this function 'only' when the error indicator is set.
     Otherwise it will cause a fatal error!

     If 'set_sys_last_vars' is nonzero, the variable *note sys.last_exc:
     4aa. is set to the printed exception.  For backwards compatibility,
     the deprecated variables *note sys.last_type: 4ab, *note
     sys.last_value: 4ac. and *note sys.last_traceback: 4ad. are also
     set to the type, value and traceback of this exception,
     respectively.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of *note sys.last_exc:
     4aa. was added.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_Print ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Alias for
     ‘PyErr_PrintEx(1)’.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Call *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4. using the current exception and 'obj'
     argument.

     This utility function prints a warning message to ‘sys.stderr’ when
     an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter
     to actually raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an
     exception occurs in an *note __del__(): 1f1a. method.

     The function is called with a single argument 'obj' that identifies
     the context in which the unraisable exception occurred.  If
     possible, the repr of 'obj' will be printed in the warning message.
     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     An exception must be set when calling this function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Print a traceback.  Print only
     traceback if 'obj' is ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_FormatUnraisable (const char *format, ...)

     Similar to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345, but the 'format' and
     subsequent parameters help format the warning message; they have
     the same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     380.  ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable(obj)’ is roughly equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_FormatUnraisable("Exception ignored in: %R", obj)’.  If
     'format' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_DisplayException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'
     Print the standard traceback display of ‘exc’ to ‘sys.stderr’,
     including chained exceptions and notes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Lever des exceptions,  Next: Issuing warnings,  Prev: Printing and clearing,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.2 Lever des exceptions
--------------------------

These functions help you set the current thread's error indicator.  For
convenience, some of these functions will always return a ‘NULL’ pointer
for use in a ‘return’ statement.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetString (PyObject *type, const char
          *message)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the most common way
     to set the error indicator.  The first argument specifies the
     exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions, e.g.
     ‘PyExc_RuntimeError’.  You need not create a new *note strong
     reference: 333. to it (e.g.  with *note Py_INCREF(): 55c.).  The
     second argument is an error message; it is decoded from ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This function is similar to
     *note PyErr_SetString(): 56a. but lets you specify an arbitrary
     Python object for the "value" of the exception.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_Format (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541.'  This function sets the error indicator and returns ‘NULL’.
     'exception' should be a Python exception class.  The 'format' and
     subsequent parameters help format the error message; they have the
     same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380.
     'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_FormatV (PyObject
          *exception, const char *format, va_list vargs)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. Depuis la version 3.5.'  Same as *note PyErr_Format(): e9c,
     but taking a ‘va_list’ argument rather than a variable number of
     arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetNone (PyObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_BadArgument ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal
     argument.  It is mostly for internal use.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_NoMemory ()
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541.'  This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)’;
     it returns ‘NULL’ so an object allocation function can write
     ‘return PyErr_NoMemory();’ when it runs out of memory.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_SetFromErrno (PyObject
          *type)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541.'

     This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C
     library function has returned an error and set the C variable
     ‘errno’.  It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the
     integer ‘errno’ value and whose second item is the corresponding
     error message (gotten from ‘strerror()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, object)’.  On Unix, when the ‘errno’ value
     is ‘EINTR’, indicating an interrupted system call, this calls *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 452, and if that set the error indicator,
     leaves it set to that.  The function always returns ‘NULL’, so a
     wrapper function around a system call can write ‘return
     PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);’ when the system call returns an error.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          PyObject *filenameObject)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 483e, with the
     additional behavior that if 'filenameObject' is not ‘NULL’, it is
     passed to the constructor of 'type' as a third parameter.  In the
     case of *note OSError: 40d. exception, this is used to define the
     ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (PyObject *type,
          PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject *filenameObject2)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 4932, but takes a second
     filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two
     filenames fails.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, const char *filename)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject():
     4932, but the filename is given as a C string.  'filename' is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (int ierr)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  This is a convenience
     function to raise *note OSError: 40d.  If called with 'ierr' of
     ‘0’, the error code returned by a call to ‘GetLastError()’ is used
     instead.  It calls the Win32 function ‘FormatMessage()’ to retrieve
     the Windows description of error code given by 'ierr' or
     ‘GetLastError()’, then it constructs a *note OSError: 40d. object
     with the *note winerror: 224a. attribute set to the error code, the
     *note strerror: 224b. attribute set to the corresponding error
     message (gotten from ‘FormatMessage()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError, object)’.  This function always
     returns ‘NULL’.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr
          (PyObject *type, int ierr)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 4934, with an additional parameter
     specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (int ierr, const char
          *filename)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 4934, with the additional behavior that
     if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is decoded from the filesystem
     encoding (*note os.fsdecode(): c44.) and passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 40d. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          int ierr, PyObject *filename)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 492f, with the additional behavior
     that if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 40d. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (PyObject
          *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 4930, but accepts a
     second filename object.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (PyObject *type, int
          ierr, const char *filename)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 16d4, with an additional
     parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_SetImportError (PyObject
          *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  This is a convenience function to
     raise *note ImportError: 40f.  'msg' will be set as the exception's
     message string.  'name' and 'path', both of which can be ‘NULL’,
     will be set as the *note ImportError: 40f.'s respective ‘name’ and
     ‘path’ attributes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass
          (PyObject *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject
          *path)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541. Depuis la version 3.6.'  Much like *note
     PyErr_SetImportError(): d2e. but this function allows for
     specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 40f. to raise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (PyObject *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)

     Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception.
     If the current exception is not a *note SyntaxError: 18b, then it
     sets additional attributes, which make the exception printing
     subsystem think the exception is a *note SyntaxError: 18b.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (const char *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Like
     *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 4a77, but 'filename' is a byte
     string decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 528.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation (const char *filename, int
          lineno)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Like *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 4938, but the 'col_offset' parameter is
     omitted.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_BadInternalCall ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that an internal operation (e.g.  a Python/C API
     function) was invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for
     internal use.


File: python.info,  Node: Issuing warnings,  Next: Querying the error indicator,  Prev: Lever des exceptions,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.3 Issuing warnings
----------------------

Use these functions to issue warnings from C code.  They mirror similar
functions exported by the Python *note warnings: 111. module.  They
normally print a warning message to 'sys.stderr'; however, it is also
possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into
errors, and in that case they will raise an exception.  It is also
possible that the functions raise an exception because of a problem with
the warning machinery.  The return value is ‘0’ if no exception is
raised, or ‘-1’ if an exception is raised.  (It is not possible to
determine whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the
reason is for the exception; this is intentional.)  If an exception is
raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for example,
*note Py_DECREF(): 55d. owned references and return an error value).

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_WarnEx (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, Py_ssize_t stack_level)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Issue a warning message.
     The 'category' argument is a warning category (see below) or
     ‘NULL’; the 'message' argument is a UTF-8 encoded string.
     'stack_level' is a positive number giving a number of stack frames;
     the warning will be issued from the currently executing line of
     code in that stack frame.  A 'stack_level' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1403, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.

     Warning categories must be subclasses of ‘PyExc_Warning’;
     ‘PyExc_Warning’ is a subclass of ‘PyExc_Exception’; the default
     warning category is ‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’.  The standard Python
     warning categories are available as global variables whose names
     are enumerated at *note Standard Warning Categories: 4a79.

     For information about warning control, see the documentation for
     the *note warnings: 111. module and the *note -W: 8b6. option in
     the command line documentation.  There is no C API for warning
     control.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (PyObject *category,
          PyObject *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject
          *module, PyObject *registry)

     Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning
     attributes.  This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python
     function *note warnings.warn_explicit(): cf0.; see there for more
     information.  The 'module' and 'registry' arguments may be set to
     ‘NULL’ to get the default effect described there.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_WarnExplicit (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char
          *module, PyObject *registry)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(): 4a7a. except that 'message' and
     'module' are UTF-8 encoded strings, and 'filename' is decoded from
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_WarnFormat (PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Function similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 1403, but use *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. to
     format the warning message.  'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_ResourceWarning (PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.6.'
     Function similar to *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 4939, but 'category'
     is *note ResourceWarning: 241. and it passes 'source' to
     ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the error indicator,  Next: Traitement des signaux<2>,  Prev: Issuing warnings,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.4 Querying the error indicator
----------------------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_Occurred ()
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Test whether the error indicator is set.  If
     set, return the exception 'type' (the first argument to the last
     call to one of the ‘PyErr_Set*’ functions or to *note
     PyErr_Restore(): 3ec.).  If not set, return ‘NULL’.  You do not own
     a reference to the return value, so you do not need to *note
     Py_DECREF(): 55d. it.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

          Note: Do not compare the return value to a specific exception;
          use *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 48d4. instead, shown
          below.  (The comparison could easily fail since the exception
          may be an instance instead of a class, in the case of a class
          exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)’.  This should
     only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access
     violation will occur if no exception has been raised.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (PyObject *given,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return true if the 'given'
     exception matches the exception type in 'exc'.  If 'exc' is a class
     object, this also returns true when 'given' is an instance of a
     subclass.  If 'exc' is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple
     (and recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_GetRaisedException (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Return the exception currently
     being raised, clearing the error indicator at the same time.
     Return ‘NULL’ if the error indicator is not set.

     This function is used by code that needs to catch exceptions, or
     code that needs to save and restore the error indicator
     temporarily.

     Par exemple :

          {
             PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

             /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

             PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 75b, to save the exception
     currently being handled.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetRaisedException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Set
     'exc' as the exception currently being raised, clearing the
     existing exception if one is set.

          Avertissement: This call steals a reference to 'exc', which
          must be a valid exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_Fetch (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. instead.

     Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses
     are passed.  If the error indicator is not set, set all three
     variables to ‘NULL’.  If it is set, it will be cleared and you own
     a reference to each object retrieved.  The value and traceback
     object may be ‘NULL’ even when the type object is not.

          Note: This function is normally only used by legacy code that
          needs to catch exceptions or save and restore the error
          indicator temporarily.

          Par exemple :

               {
                  PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
                  PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);

                  /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

                  PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
               }

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_Restore (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3ed. instead.

     Set the error indicator from the three objects, 'type', 'value',
     and 'traceback', clearing the existing exception if one is set.  If
     the objects are ‘NULL’, the error indicator is cleared.  Do not
     pass a ‘NULL’ type and non-‘NULL’ value or traceback.  The
     exception type should be a class.  Do not pass an invalid exception
     type or value.  (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems
     later.)  This call takes away a reference to each object: you must
     own a reference to each object before the call and after the call
     you no longer own these references.  (If you don't understand this,
     don't use this function.  I warned you.)

          Note: This function is normally only used by legacy code that
          needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. to save the current error
          indicator.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_NormalizeException (PyObject **exc, PyObject
          **val, PyObject **tb)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. instead, to avoid any possible
     de-normalization.

     Under certain circumstances, the values returned by *note
     PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9. below can be "unnormalized", meaning that
     ‘*exc’ is a class object but ‘*val’ is not an instance of the same
     class.  This function can be used to instantiate the class in that
     case.  If the values are already normalized, nothing happens.  The
     delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.

          Note: This function 'does not' implicitly set the *note
          __traceback__: 12a6. attribute on the exception value.  If
          setting the traceback appropriately is desired, the following
          additional snippet is needed:

               if (tb != NULL) {
                 PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
               }

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_GetHandledException (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Retrieve the active exception instance, as would be returned by
     *note sys.exception(): 678.  This refers to an exception that was
     'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised.
     Returns a new reference to the exception or ‘NULL’.  Does not
     modify the interpreter's exception state.

          Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_SetHandledException(): 75c. to restore or clear the
          exception state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetHandledException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Set
     the active exception, as known from ‘sys.exception()’.  This refers
     to an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that
     was freshly raised.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’.

          Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_GetHandledException(): 75b. to get the exception state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_GetExcInfo (PyObject **ptype, PyObject
          **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Retrieve the old-style representation of the exception info, as
     known from *note sys.exc_info(): 677.  This refers to an exception
     that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly
     raised.  Returns new references for the three objects, any of which
     may be ‘NULL’.  Does not modify the exception info state.  This
     function is kept for backwards compatibility.  Prefer using *note
     PyErr_GetHandledException(): 75b.

          Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 75d. to restore or clear the exception
          state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetExcInfo (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Set
     the exception info, as known from ‘sys.exc_info()’.  This refers to
     an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that
     was freshly raised.  This function steals the references of the
     arguments.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’ for all three
     arguments.  This function is kept for backwards compatibility.
     Prefer using *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 75c.

          Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 75e. to read the exception state.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments
     are no longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives
     them from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The
     function still steals references of all three arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Traitement des signaux<2>,  Next: Exception Classes,  Prev: Querying the error indicator,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.5 Traitement des signaux
----------------------------

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_CheckSignals ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     This function interacts with Python's signal handling.

     If the function is called from the main thread and under the main
     Python interpreter, it checks whether a signal has been sent to the
     processes and if so, invokes the corresponding signal handler.  If
     the *note signal: c5. module is supported, this can invoke a signal
     handler written in Python.

     The function attempts to handle all pending signals, and then
     returns ‘0’.  However, if a Python signal handler raises an
     exception, the error indicator is set and the function returns ‘-1’
     immediately (such that other pending signals may not have been
     handled yet: they will be on the next *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     452. invocation).

     If the function is called from a non-main thread, or under a
     non-main Python interpreter, it does nothing and returns ‘0’.

     This function can be called by long-running C code that wants to be
     interruptible by user requests (such as by pressing Ctrl-C).

          Note: The default Python signal handler for ‘SIGINT’ raises
          the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1. exception.

 -- C Fonction: void PyErr_SetInterrupt ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Simulate the effect of a ‘SIGINT’ signal arriving.  This is
     equivalent to ‘PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT)’.

          Note: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 158. and from a C signal handler.

 -- C Fonction: int PyErr_SetInterruptEx (int signum)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'

     Simulate the effect of a signal arriving.  The next time *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 452. is called, the Python signal handler for
     the given signal number will be called.

     This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal
     handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected
     when an interruption is requested (for example when the user
     presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation).

     If the given signal isn't handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 17dd. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 17dc.), it will be
     ignored.

     If 'signum' is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, ‘-1’
     is returned.  Otherwise, ‘0’ is returned.  The error indicator is
     never changed by this function.

          Note: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 158. and from a C signal handler.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd (int fd)

     This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the
     signal number is written as a single byte whenever a signal is
     received.  'fd' must be non-blocking.  It returns the previous such
     file descriptor.

     The value ‘-1’ disables the feature; this is the initial state.
     This is equivalent to *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): b60. in Python,
     but without any error checking.  'fd' should be a valid file
     descriptor.  The function should only be called from the main
     thread.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: On Windows, the function now also
     supports socket handles.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Classes,  Next: Objets exception,  Prev: Traitement des signaux<2>,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.6 Exception Classes
-----------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_NewException (const char
          *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This utility function creates and returns a new
     exception class.  The 'name' argument must be the name of the new
     exception, a C string of the form ‘module.classname’.  The 'base'
     and 'dict' arguments are normally ‘NULL’.  This creates a class
     object derived from *note Exception: 9c9. (accessible in C as
     ‘PyExc_Exception’).

     The *note __module__: 36a. attribute of the new class is set to the
     first part (up to the last dot) of the 'name' argument, and the
     class name is set to the last part (after the last dot).  The
     'base' argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it
     can either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  The 'dict'
     argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and
     methods.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (const
          char *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Same as *note PyErr_NewException(): 124a, except that
     the new exception class can easily be given a docstring: If 'doc'
     is non-‘NULL’, it will be used as the docstring for the exception
     class.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets exception,  Next: Objets exception Unicode,  Prev: Exception Classes,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.7 Objets exception
----------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyException_GetTraceback (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the traceback associated with the exception as a
     new reference, as accessible from Python through the *note
     __traceback__: 12a6. attribute.  If there is no traceback
     associated, this returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyException_SetTraceback (PyObject *ex, PyObject
          *tb)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the traceback associated
     with the exception to 'tb'.  Use ‘Py_None’ to clear it.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyException_GetContext (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the context (another exception instance during
     whose handling 'ex' was raised) associated with the exception as a
     new reference, as accessible from Python through the *note
     __context__: 12a7. attribute.  If there is no context associated,
     this returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: void PyException_SetContext (PyObject *ex, PyObject
          *ctx)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the context associated
     with the exception to 'ctx'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is no
     type check to make sure that 'ctx' is an exception instance.  This
     steals a reference to 'ctx'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyException_GetCause (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the cause (either an exception instance, or
     ‘None’, set by ‘raise ... from ...’) associated with the exception
     as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the *note
     __cause__: 12a8. attribute.

 -- C Fonction: void PyException_SetCause (PyObject *ex, PyObject
          *cause)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the cause associated
     with the exception to 'cause'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is
     no type check to make sure that 'cause' is either an exception
     instance or ‘None’.  This steals a reference to 'cause'.

     The *note __suppress_context__: 2073. attribute is implicitly set
     to ‘True’ by this function.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyException_GetArgs (PyObject *ex)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Return *note args: 55a. of
     exception 'ex'.

 -- C Fonction: void PyException_SetArgs (PyObject *ex, PyObject *args)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Set
     *note args: 55a. of exception 'ex' to 'args'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar
          (PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Implement part of the interpreter's implementation of ‘except*’.
     'orig' is the original exception that was caught, and 'excs' is the
     list of the exceptions that need to be raised.  This list contains
     the unhandled part of 'orig', if any, as well as the exceptions
     that were raised from the ‘except*’ clauses (so they have a
     different traceback from 'orig') and those that were reraised (and
     have the same traceback as 'orig').  Return the *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b4. that needs to be reraised in the end, or
     ‘None’ if there is nothing to reraise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets exception Unicode,  Next: Contrôle de la récursion,  Prev: Objets exception,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.8 Objets exception Unicode
------------------------------

The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions
from C.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (const
          char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. object with the
     attributes 'encoding', 'object', 'length', 'start', 'end' and
     'reason'.  'encoding' and 'reason' are UTF-8 encoded strings.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the 'encoding' attribute of the given exception
     object.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the 'object' attribute of the given exception
     object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Get the 'start' attribute of
     the given exception object and place it into '*start'.  'start'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the 'start' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'start'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’
     on failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Get the 'end' attribute of
     the given exception object and place it into '*end'.  'end' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the 'end' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'end'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’
     on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the 'reason' attribute of the given exception
     object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (PyObject *exc,
          const char *reason)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the 'reason' attribute
     of the given exception object to 'reason'.  Return ‘0’ on success,
     ‘-1’ on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Contrôle de la récursion,  Next: Exceptions standards,  Prev: Objets exception Unicode,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.9 Contrôle de la récursion
------------------------------

These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the
C level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are needed if
the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks
its recursion depth automatically).  They are also not needed for
'tp_call' implementations because the *note call protocol: 571. takes
care of recursion handling.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall (const char *where)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'  Marks
     a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.

     If ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is defined, this function checks if the OS
     stack overflowed using *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 17d2.  If this is
     the case, it sets a *note MemoryError: 1530. and returns a nonzero
     value.

     The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached.  If
     this is the case, a *note RecursionError: d5b. is set and a nonzero
     value is returned.  Otherwise, zero is returned.

     'where' should be a UTF-8 encoded string such as ‘" in instance
     check"’ to be concatenated to the *note RecursionError: d5b.
     message caused by the recursion depth limit.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: This function is now also available in
     the *note limited API: 38c.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'  Ends
     a *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 962.  Must be called once for each
     'successful' invocation of *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 962.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: This function is now also available in
     the *note limited API: 38c.

Properly implementing *note tp_repr: 4884. for container types requires
special recursion handling.  In addition to protecting the stack, *note
tp_repr: 4884. also needs to track objects to prevent cycles.  The
following two functions facilitate this functionality.  Effectively,
these are the C equivalent to *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11d2.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_ReprEnter (PyObject *object)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Called at the beginning of
     the *note tp_repr: 4884. implementation to detect cycles.

     If the object has already been processed, the function returns a
     positive integer.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 4884.
     implementation should return a string object indicating a cycle.
     As examples, *note dict: 253. objects return ‘{...}’ and *note
     list: 5fe. objects return ‘[...]’.

     The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit
     is reached.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 4884. implementation
     should typically return ‘NULL’.

     Otherwise, the function returns zero and the *note tp_repr: 4884.
     implementation can continue normally.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_ReprLeave (PyObject *object)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Ends a *note Py_ReprEnter():
     4a2e.  Must be called once for each invocation of *note
     Py_ReprEnter(): 4a2e. that returns zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions standards,  Next: Standard Warning Categories,  Prev: Contrôle de la récursion,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.10 Exceptions standards
---------------------------

All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose
names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name.  These have
the type *note PyObject: 32f.*; they are all class objects.  For
completeness, here are all the variables:

Nom C                                         Nom Python                            Notes
                                                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BaseException’                         *note BaseException: 5a7.             (1)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_Exception’                             *note Exception: 9c9.                 (2)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ArithmeticError’                       *note ArithmeticError: 2242.          (3)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_AssertionError’                        *note AssertionError: 696.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_AttributeError’                        *note AttributeError: 343.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’                       *note BlockingIOError: 1042.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’                       *note BrokenPipeError: 1047.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BufferError’                           *note BufferError: 17e1.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’                     *note ChildProcessError: 1043.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’                *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1048.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionError’                       *note ConnectionError: df9.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’                *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1049.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’                  *note ConnectionResetError: 104a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_EOFError’                              *note EOFError: 12b9.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FileExistsError’                       *note FileExistsError: 100b.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’                    *note FileNotFoundError: eb0.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’                    *note FloatingPointError: 2243.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_GeneratorExit’                         *note GeneratorExit: 1380.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ImportError’                           *note ImportError: 40f.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IndentationError’                      *note IndentationError: 794.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IndexError’                            *note IndexError: 14ec.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_InterruptedError’                      *note InterruptedError: d77.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’                     *note IsADirectoryError: 1044.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_KeyError’                              *note KeyError: 33a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt’                     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_LookupError’                           *note LookupError: 2189.              (4)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_MemoryError’                           *note MemoryError: 1530.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’                   *note ModuleNotFoundError: b37.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NameError’                             *note NameError: 42a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’                    *note NotADirectoryError: 1045.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NotImplementedError’                   *note NotImplementedError: 225.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_OSError’                               *note OSError: 40d.                   (5)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_OverflowError’                         *note OverflowError: 86f.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_PermissionError’                       *note PermissionError: d32.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’                    *note ProcessLookupError: 1046.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_PythonFinalizationError’               *note PythonFinalizationError: 14c.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ReferenceError’                        *note RecursionError: d5b.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ReferenceError’                        *note ReferenceError: 14c6.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_RuntimeError’                          *note RuntimeError: 193.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’                    *note StopAsyncIteration: 19eb.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_StopIteration’                         *note StopIteration: bea.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SyntaxError’                           *note SyntaxError: 18b.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SystemError’                           *note SystemError: 563.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SystemExit’                            *note SystemExit: d30.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TabError’                              *note TabError: 531.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ImportError’                           *note TimeoutError: 821.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TypeError’                             *note TypeError: 525.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnboundLocalError’                     *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError’                    *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError’                    *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeError’                          *note UnicodeError: 1283.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError’                 *note UnicodeTranslateError: 2259.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ValueError’                            *note ValueError: 1ff.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’                     *note ZeroDivisionError: 934.
                                              

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: ‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’,
‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’, ‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’,
‘PyExc_ConnectionError’, ‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’,
‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’, ‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’,
‘PyExc_FileExistsError’, ‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’,
‘PyExc_InterruptedError’, ‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’,
‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’, ‘PyExc_PermissionError’,
‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’ and ‘PyExc_TimeoutError’ were introduced
following PEP 3151(6).

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: ‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’ et
‘PyExc_RecursionError’.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: ‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’.

These are compatibility aliases to ‘PyExc_OSError’:

Nom C                                     Notes
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------
                                          
‘PyExc_EnvironmentError’

‘PyExc_IOError’

‘PyExc_WindowsError’                      (7)
                                          

Modifié dans la version 3.3: These aliases used to be separate exception
types.

Notes :

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) C'est la classe de base pour les autres exceptions standards.

   (2) C'est la classe de base pour les autres exceptions standards.

   (3) C'est la classe de base pour les autres exceptions standards.

   (4) C'est la classe de base pour les autres exceptions standards.

   (5) C'est la classe de base pour les autres exceptions standards.

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (7) Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing
that the preprocessor macro ‘MS_WINDOWS’ is defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Warning Categories,  Prev: Exceptions standards,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<2>

7.5.11 Standard Warning Categories
----------------------------------

All standard Python warning categories are available as global variables
whose names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name.  These
have the type *note PyObject: 32f.*; they are all class objects.  For
completeness, here are all the variables:

Nom C                                          Nom Python                            Notes
                                                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_Warning’                                *note Warning: 226e.                  (1)
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_BytesWarning’                           *note BytesWarning: c13.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_DeprecationWarning’                     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_FutureWarning’                          *note FutureWarning: 40b.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_ImportWarning’                          *note ImportWarning: 4e7.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning’              *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8b7.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’                        *note ResourceWarning: 241.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’                         *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_SyntaxWarning’                          *note SyntaxWarning: 451.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_UnicodeWarning’                         *note UnicodeWarning: 13dc.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_UserWarning’                            *note UserWarning: 226f.
                                               

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: ‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’.

Notes :

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) C'est la classe de base pour les autres catégories de 'warning'.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilitaires<2>,  Next: Couche d'abstraction des objets,  Prev: Gestion des exceptions<2>,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.6 Utilitaires
===============

Les fonctions de ce chapitre sont utilitaires, certaines aident à rendre
le code en C plus portable, d'autres à utiliser des modules Python
depuis du C, analyser des arguments de fonctions, ou encore construire
des valeurs Python à partir de valeurs C.

* Menu:

* Operating System Utilities::
* System Functions::
* Process Control::
* Importer des modules: Importer des modules<2>.
* Data marshalling support::
* Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs::
* Conversion et formatage de chaînes::
* PyHash API::
* Réflexion::
* Codec registry and support functions::
* PyTime C API::
* Support for Perf Maps::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating System Utilities,  Next: System Functions,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.1 Operating System Utilities
--------------------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyOS_FSPath (PyObject *path)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.6.'  Return the file system
     representation for 'path'.  If the object is a *note str: 437. or
     *note bytes: 1bd. object, then a new *note strong reference: 333.
     is returned.  If the object implements the *note os.PathLike: c41.
     interface, then *note __fspath__(): c42. is returned as long as it
     is a *note str: 437. or *note bytes: 1bd. object.  Otherwise *note
     TypeError: 525. is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_FdIsInteractive (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file 'fp' with name
     'filename' is deemed interactive.  This is the case for files for
     which ‘isatty(fileno(fp))’ is true.  If the *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 3c4. is non-zero, this function also returns
     true if the 'filename' pointer is ‘NULL’ or if the name is equal to
     one of the strings ‘'<stdin>'’ or ‘'???'’.

     This function must not be called before Python is initialized.

 -- C Fonction: void PyOS_BeforeFork ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. on platforms with fork()
     Depuis la version 3.7.'  Function to prepare some internal state
     before a process fork.  This should be called before calling
     ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones the current process.
     Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Avertissement: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from
          the *note "main" thread: 4a8e. (of the *note "main"
          interpreter: 575.).  The same is true for ‘PyOS_BeforeFork()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Fonction: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. on platforms with fork()
     Depuis la version 3.7.'  Function to update some internal state
     after a process fork.  This should be called from the parent
     process after calling ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones
     the current process, regardless of whether process cloning was
     successful.  Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Avertissement: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from
          the *note "main" thread: 4a8e. (of the *note "main"
          interpreter: 575.).  The same is true for
          ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Fonction: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. on platforms with fork()
     Depuis la version 3.7.'  Function to update internal interpreter
     state after a process fork.  This must be called from the child
     process after calling ‘fork()’, or any similar function that clones
     the current process, if there is any chance the process will call
     back into the Python interpreter.  Only available on systems where
     ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Avertissement: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from
          the *note "main" thread: 4a8e. (of the *note "main"
          interpreter: 575.).  The same is true for
          ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Child()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f5. allows registering custom Python
     functions to be called by *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): baf, *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bb0. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f1.

 -- C Fonction: void PyOS_AfterFork ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. on platforms with fork().'
     Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this
     should be called in the new process if the Python interpreter will
     continue to be used.  If a new executable is loaded into the new
     process, this function does not need to be called.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: This function is superseded by
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1.

 -- C Fonction: int PyOS_CheckStack ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. on platforms with
     USE_STACKCHECK Depuis la version 3.7.'

     Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space.  This is
     a reliable check, but is only available when ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is
     defined (currently on certain versions of Windows using the
     Microsoft Visual C++ compiler).  ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ will be defined
     automatically; you should never change the definition in your own
     code.

 -- C Type: typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 499b. PyOS_getsig (int i)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the current signal
     handler for signal 'i'.  This is a thin wrapper around either
     ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not call those functions directly!

 -- C Fonction: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 499b. PyOS_setsig (int i,
          PyOS_sighandler_t h)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the signal handler for
     signal 'i' to be 'h'; return the old signal handler.  This is a
     thin wrapper around either ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not
     call those functions directly!

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale (const char *arg, size_t *size)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
          Avertissement: This function should not be called directly:
          use the *note PyConfig: 39d. API with the *note
          PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 9a4. function which ensures that
          *note Python is preinitialized: 3cdf.

          This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3cdf. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2.
          function.

     Decode a byte string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 528.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 239f, undecodable bytes are decoded as characters in range
     U+DC80..U+DCFF; and if a byte sequence can be decoded as a
     surrogate character, the bytes are escaped using the
     surrogateescape error handler instead of decoding them.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use
     *note PyMem_RawFree(): 389. to free the memory.  If size is not
     ‘NULL’, write the number of wide characters excluding the null
     character into ‘*size’

     Return ‘NULL’ on decoding error or memory allocation error.  If
     'size' is not ‘NULL’, ‘*size’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on memory
     error or set to ‘(size_t)-2’ on decoding error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3df.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. members of *note PyConfig: 39d.

     Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C
     library.

     Use the *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8. function to encode the
     character string back to a byte string.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4a04. and *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bb9. functions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8
     encoding in the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8
     encoding on Windows if *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. is zero;

 -- C Fonction: char *Py_EncodeLocale (const wchar_t *text, size_t
          *error_pos)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Encode a wide character string to the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 528.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape
     error handler: 239f, surrogate characters in the range
     U+DC80..U+DCFF are converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 13fb. to free the memory.  Return ‘NULL’ on encoding
     error or memory allocation error.

     If error_pos is not ‘NULL’, ‘*error_pos’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on
     success, or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding
     error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3df.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. members of *note PyConfig: 39d.

     Use the *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. function to decode the bytes
     string back to a wide character string.

          Avertissement: This function must not be called before *note
          Python is preinitialized: 3cdf. and so that the LC_CTYPE
          locale is properly configured: see the *note
          Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2. function.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a0f. and *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bba. functions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8
     encoding in the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8
     encoding on Windows if *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. is zero.


File: python.info,  Node: System Functions,  Next: Process Control,  Prev: Operating System Utilities,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.2 System Functions
----------------------

These are utility functions that make functionality from the *note sys:
d8. module accessible to C code.  They all work with the current
interpreter thread's *note sys: d8. module's dict, which is contained in
the internal thread state structure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySys_GetObject (const char *name)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the object 'name' from the *note sys: d8.
     module or ‘NULL’ if it does not exist, without setting an
     exception.

 -- C Fonction: int PySys_SetObject (const char *name, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set 'name' in the *note sys:
     d8. module to 'v' unless 'v' is ‘NULL’, in which case 'name' is
     deleted from the sys module.  Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_ResetWarnOptions ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Reset *note sys.warnoptions:
     3a7. to an empty list.  This function may be called prior to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3a7. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_WriteStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Write the output string
     described by 'format' to *note sys.stdout: ac6.  No exceptions are
     raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).

     'format' should limit the total size of the formatted output string
     to 1000 bytes or less - after 1000 bytes, the output string is
     truncated.  In particular, this means that no unrestricted "%s"
     formats should occur; these should be limited using "%.<N>s" where
     <N> is a decimal number calculated so that <N> plus the maximum
     size of other formatted text does not exceed 1000 bytes.  Also
     watch out for "%f", which can print hundreds of digits for very
     large numbers.

     If a problem occurs, or *note sys.stdout: ac6. is unset, the
     formatted message is written to the real (C level) 'stdout'.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_WriteStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  As *note
     PySys_WriteStdout(): 49d6, but write to *note sys.stderr: 928. or
     'stderr' instead.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_FormatStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Function similar to
     PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 562. and don't truncate the message to an
     arbitrary length.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_FormatStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  As *note
     PySys_FormatStdout(): 49d2, but write to *note sys.stderr: 928. or
     'stderr' instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySys_GetXOptions ()
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Return the current
     dictionary of *note -X: 175. options, similarly to *note
     sys._xoptions: 1cfc.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception
     is set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: int PySys_Audit (const char *event, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Raise an auditing event with any active hooks.  Return zero for
     success and non-zero with an exception set on failure.

     The 'event' string argument must not be 'NULL'.

     If any hooks have been added, 'format' and other arguments will be
     used to construct a tuple to pass.  Apart from ‘N’, the same format
     characters as used in *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. are available.
     If the built value is not a tuple, it will be added into a
     single-element tuple.

     The ‘N’ format option must not be used.  It consumes a reference,
     but since there is no way to know whether arguments to this
     function will be consumed, using it may cause reference leaks.

     Note that ‘#’ format characters should always be treated as *note
     Py_ssize_t: a50, regardless of whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was
     defined.

     *note sys.audit(): 1573. performs the same function from Python
     code.

     See also *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 364.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8.2: Require *note Py_ssize_t: a50. for
     ‘#’ format characters.  Previously, an unavoidable deprecation
     warning was raised.

 -- C Fonction: int PySys_AuditTuple (const char *event, PyObject *args)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Similar to *note PySys_Audit(): 365, but pass arguments as a Python
     object.  'args' must be a *note tuple: 366.  To pass no arguments,
     'args' can be 'NULL'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PySys_AddAuditHook (Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void
          *userData)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks.
     Return zero on success and non-zero on failure.  If the runtime has
     been initialized, also set an error on failure.  Hooks added
     through this API are called for all interpreters created by the
     runtime.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.
     When called after runtime initialization, existing audit hooks are
     notified and may silently abort the operation by raising an error
     subclassed from *note Exception: 9c9. (other errors will not be
     silenced).

     The hook function is always called with the GIL held by the Python
     interpreter that raised the event.

     See PEP 578(1) for a detailed description of auditing.  Functions
     in the runtime and standard library that raise events are listed in
     the *note audit events table: 182d.  Details are in each function's
     documentation.

     If the interpreter is initialized, this function raises an auditing
     event ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments.  If any existing hooks
     raise an exception derived from *note Exception: 9c9, the new hook
     will not be added and the exception is cleared.  As a result,
     callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they
     control all existing hooks.

      -- C Type: typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char *event,
               *note PyObject: 32f. *args, void *userData)

          The type of the hook function.  'event' is the C string event
          argument passed to *note PySys_Audit(): 365. or *note
          PySys_AuditTuple(): 364.  'args' is guaranteed to be a *note
          PyTupleObject: 4a92.  'userData' is the argument passed to
          PySys_AddAuditHook().

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: Process Control,  Next: Importer des modules<2>,  Prev: System Functions,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.3 Process Control
---------------------

 -- C Fonction: void Py_FatalError (const char *message)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Print a fatal error message and kill the process.  No cleanup is
     performed.  This function should only be invoked when a condition
     is detected that would make it dangerous to continue using the
     Python interpreter; e.g., when the object administration appears to
     be corrupted.  On Unix, the standard C library function ‘abort()’
     is called which will attempt to produce a ‘core’ file.

     The ‘Py_FatalError()’ function is replaced with a macro which logs
     automatically the name of the current function, unless the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Log the function name automatically.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_Exit (int status)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Exit the current process.  This calls *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05.
     and then calls the standard C library function ‘exit(status)’.  If
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. indicates an error, the exit status is
     set to 120.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Errors from finalization no longer
     ignored.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_AtExit (void (*func)())
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Register a cleanup function to be called by *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     d05.  The cleanup function will be called with no arguments and
     should return no value.  At most 32 cleanup functions can be
     registered.  When the registration is successful, *note
     Py_AtExit(): 4a23. returns ‘0’; on failure, it returns ‘-1’.  The
     cleanup function registered last is called first.  Each cleanup
     function will be called at most once.  Since Python's internal
     finalization will have completed before the cleanup function, no
     Python APIs should be called by 'func'.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 1545. for passing a ‘void *data’
     argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Importer des modules<2>,  Next: Data marshalling support,  Prev: Process Control,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.4 Importer des modules
--------------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ImportModule (const char
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     This is a wrapper around *note PyImport_Import(): 13b5. which takes
     a const char* as an argument instead of a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock
          (const char *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This function is a deprecated alias of *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: This function used to fail immediately
     when the import lock was held by another thread.  In Python 3.3
     though, the locking scheme switched to per-module locks for most
     purposes, so this function's special behaviour isn't needed
     anymore.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. instead.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ImportModuleEx (const
          char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'

     Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the
     built-in Python function *note __import__(): 8c3.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): 8c3, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Import a module.  This is best
     described by referring to the built-in Python function *note
     __import__(): 8c3, as the standard *note __import__(): 8c3.
     function calls this function directly.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): 8c3, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (const
          char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject():
     4955, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode
     object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Negative values for 'level' are no
     longer accepted.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_Import (PyObject *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is a higher-level interface that calls the current
     "import hook function" (with an explicit 'level' of 0, meaning
     absolute import).  It invokes the *note __import__(): 8c3. function
     from the ‘__builtins__’ of the current globals.  This means that
     the import is done using whatever import hooks are installed in the
     current environment.

     This function always uses absolute imports.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ReloadModule (PyObject
          *m)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Reload a module.  Return a new reference to the
     reloaded module, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure (the
     module still exists in this case).

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_AddModuleRef (const char
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Return the module object
     corresponding to a module name.

     The 'name' argument may be of the form ‘package.module’.  First
     check the modules dictionary if there's one there, and if not,
     create a new one and insert it in the modules dictionary.

     Return a *note strong reference: 333. to the module on success.
     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     The module name 'name' is decoded from UTF-8.

     This function does not load or import the module; if the module
     wasn't already loaded, you will get an empty module object.  Use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. or one of its variants to
     import a module.  Package structures implied by a dotted name for
     'name' are not created if not already present.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_AddModuleObject (PyObject
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 34e, but return a *note borrowed
     reference: 334. and 'name' is a Python *note str: 437. object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_AddModule (const char
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 34e,
     but return a *note borrowed reference: 334.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ExecCodeModule (const
          char *name, PyObject *co)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Given a module name (possibly of the form ‘package.module’) and a
     code object read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the
     built-in function *note compile(): 190, load the module.  Return a
     new reference to the module object, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set
     if an error occurred.  'name' is removed from *note sys.modules:
     1929. in error cases, even if 'name' was already in *note
     sys.modules: 1929. on entry to *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule():
     494d.  Leaving incompletely initialized modules in *note
     sys.modules: 1929. is dangerous, as imports of such modules have no
     way to know that the module object is an unknown (and probably
     damaged with respect to the module author's intents) state.

     The module's *note __spec__: 1ed3. and *note __loader__: 2e1. will
     be set, if not set already, with the appropriate values.  The
     spec's loader will be set to the module's ‘__loader__’ (if set) and
     to an instance of *note SourceFileLoader: 105f. otherwise.

     The module's *note __file__: 1ed9. attribute will be set to the
     code object's *note co_filename: 1346.  If applicable, *note
     __cached__: 2d4. will also be set.

     This function will reload the module if it was already imported.
     See *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 4956. for the intended way to
     reload a module.

     If 'name' points to a dotted name of the form ‘package.module’, any
     package structures not already created will still not be created.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 494e. and *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4950.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of *note __cached__: 2d4.
     and *note __loader__: 2e1. is deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec:
     1e20. for alternatives.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (const
          char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 494d, but the
     *note __file__: 1ed9. attribute of the module object is set to
     'pathname' if it is non-‘NULL’.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4950.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject
          *cpathname)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Like *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 494e, but the *note __cached__: 2d4.
     attribute of the module object is set to 'cpathname' if it is
     non-‘NULL’.  Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to
     use.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Setting *note __cached__: 2d4. is
     deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1e20. for alternatives.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (const char *name,
          PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const char *cpathname)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 494f, but
     'name', 'pathname' and 'cpathname' are UTF-8 encoded strings.
     Attempts are also made to figure out what the value for 'pathname'
     should be from 'cpathname' if the former is set to ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Uses ‘imp.source_from_cache()’ in
     calculating the source path if only the bytecode path is provided.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: No longer uses the removed ‘imp’
     module.

 -- C Fonction: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the magic number for
     Python bytecode files (a.k.a.  ‘.pyc’ file).  The magic number
     should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode file, in
     little-endian byte order.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Return value of ‘-1’ upon failure.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the magic tag string
     for PEP 3147(1) format Python bytecode file names.  Keep in mind
     that the value at ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is authoritative
     and should be used instead of this function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_GetModuleDict ()
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the dictionary used for the module
     administration (a.k.a.  ‘sys.modules’).  Note that this is a
     per-interpreter variable.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_GetModule (PyObject
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.8.'  Return the already imported
     module with the given name.  If the module has not been imported
     yet then returns ‘NULL’ but does not set an error.  Returns ‘NULL’
     and sets an error if the lookup failed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyImport_GetImporter (PyObject
          *path)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a finder object for a *note sys.path:
     3ab./‘pkg.__path__’ item 'path', possibly by fetching it from the
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0. dict.  If it wasn't yet cached,
     traverse *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. until a hook is found that can
     handle the path item.  Return ‘None’ if no hook could; this tells
     our caller that the *note path based finder: 1fb1. could not find a
     finder for this path item.  Cache the result in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5d0.  Return a new reference to the finder
     object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (PyObject *name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Load
     a frozen module named 'name'.  Return ‘1’ for success, ‘0’ if the
     module is not found, and ‘-1’ with an exception set if the
     initialization failed.  To access the imported module on a
     successful load, use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5.  (Note the
     misnomer -- this function would reload the module if it was already
     imported.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The ‘__file__’ attribute is no longer
     set on the module.

 -- C Fonction: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (const char *name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 4954, but the name is a UTF-8
     encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C Structure: struct _frozen

     This is the structure type definition for frozen module
     descriptors, as generated by the ‘freeze’ utility (see
     ‘Tools/freeze/’ in the Python source distribution).  Its
     definition, found in ‘Include/import.h’, is:

          struct _frozen {
              const char *name;
              const unsigned char *code;
              int size;
              bool is_package;
          };

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The new ‘is_package’ field indicates
     whether the module is a package or not.  This replaces setting the
     ‘size’ field to a negative value.

 -- C Variable: const struct *note _frozen: 761. *PyImport_FrozenModules

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     761. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

 -- C Fonction: int PyImport_AppendInittab (const char *name, PyObject
          *(*initfunc)(void))
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Add a single module to the
     existing table of built-in modules.  This is a convenience wrapper
     around *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1760, returning ‘-1’ if the
     table could not be extended.  The new module can be imported by the
     name 'name', and uses the function 'initfunc' as the initialization
     function called on the first attempted import.  This should be
     called before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

 -- C Structure: struct _inittab

     Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in
     modules.  Programs which embed Python may use an array of these
     structures in conjunction with *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     1760. to provide additional built-in modules.  The structure
     consists of two members:

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          The module name, as an ASCII encoded string.

      -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. *(*initfunc)(void)

          Initialization function for a module built into the
          interpreter.

 -- C Fonction: int PyImport_ExtendInittab (struct _inittab *newtab)

     Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules.  The
     'newtab' array must end with a sentinel entry which contains ‘NULL’
     for the *note name: 4a99. field; failure to provide the sentinel
     value can result in a memory fault.  Returns ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     if insufficient memory could be allocated to extend the internal
     table.  In the event of failure, no modules are added to the
     internal table.  This must be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b.

     If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     1760. must be called before each Python initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Data marshalling support,  Next: Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs,  Prev: Importer des modules<2>,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.5 Data marshalling support
------------------------------

These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the
same data format as the *note marshal: 8c. module.  There are functions
to write data into the serialization format, and additional functions
that can be used to read the data back.  Files used to store marshalled
data must be opened in binary mode.

Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.

The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the
historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and
upon unmarshalling.  Version 2 uses a binary format for floating-point
numbers.  ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ indicates the current file format
(currently 2).

 -- C Fonction: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (long value, FILE *file,
          int version)

     Marshal a long integer, 'value', to 'file'.  This will only write
     the least-significant 32 bits of 'value'; regardless of the size of
     the native long type.  'version' indicates the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for that.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (PyObject *value, FILE
          *file, int version)

     Marshal a Python object, 'value', to 'file'.  'version' indicates
     the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for that.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString
          (PyObject *value, int version)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a bytes object
     containing the marshalled representation of 'value'.  'version'
     indicates the file format.

The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.

 -- C Fonction: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C long from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.
     Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless
     of the native size of long.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12b9.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C short from the data stream in a FILE* opened for
     reading.  Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function,
     regardless of the native size of short.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12b9.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (FILE
          *file)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a Python object
     from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12b9,
     *note ValueError: 1ff. or *note TypeError: 525.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile
          (FILE *file)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a Python object
     from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.  Unlike *note
     PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(): 4aa0, this function assumes that no
     further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
     aggressively load file data into memory so that the
     de-serialization can operate from data in memory rather than
     reading a byte at a time from the file.  Only use these variant if
     you are certain that you won't be reading anything else from the
     file.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12b9,
     *note ValueError: 1ff. or *note TypeError: 525.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString
          (const char *data, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a Python object
     from the data stream in a byte buffer containing 'len' bytes
     pointed to by 'data'.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12b9,
     *note ValueError: 1ff. or *note TypeError: 525.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs,  Next: Conversion et formatage de chaînes,  Prev: Data marshalling support,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.6 Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs
-------------------------------------------------------

These functions are useful when creating your own extension functions
and methods.  Additional information and examples are available in *note
Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python: 1b99.

Dans Les trois premières de ces fonctions décrites, *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379, et
*note PyArg_Parse(): 19a2, toutes utilisent 'des chaînes de format' qui
sont utilisées pour indiquer à la fonction les arguments attendus.  Les
chaînes de format utilise la même syntaxe pour chacune de ces fonctions.

* Menu:

* Analyse des arguments: Analyse des arguments<2>.
* Construction des valeurs::


File: python.info,  Node: Analyse des arguments<2>,  Next: Construction des valeurs,  Up: Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

7.6.6.1 Analyse des arguments
.............................

Une chaîne de format se compose de zéro ou plusieurs "unités de format".
Une unité de format décrit un objet Python, elle est généralement
composée d'un seul caractère ou d'une séquence d'unités de format entre
parenthèses.  À quelques exceptions près, une unité de format qui n'est
pas une séquence entre parenthèses correspond normalement à un argument
d'une seule adresse pour ces fonctions.  Dans la description qui suit,
la forme entre guillemets est l'unité de format, l'entrée entre
parenthèses est le type d'objet Python qui correspond à l'unité de
format, et l'entrée entre crochets est le type de la variable C (ou des
variables) dont l'adresse doit être donnée.

* Menu:

* Chaînes et tampons::
* Les nombres: Les nombres<2>.
* Autres objets::
* Fonction de l'API::


File: python.info,  Node: Chaînes et tampons,  Next: Les nombres<2>,  Up: Analyse des arguments<2>

7.6.6.2 Chaînes et tampons
..........................

     Note: Dans Python 3.12 et précédents, la macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’
     doit être définie avant d'inclure ‘Python.h’ pour utiliser toutes
     les variantes ‘#’ de format (‘s#’, ‘y#’, etc.)  détaillées
     ci-dessous.  Ce n'est plus nécessaire pour Python 3.13 et les
     versions ultérieures.

Ces formats permettent d'accéder à un objet sous forme d'un fragment de
mémoire contiguë.  Il n'est pas nécessaire d'allouer la mémoire pour
l''unicode' ou le 'bytes' renvoyé.

Sauf indication contraire, les tampons ne se terminent pas par NUL.

Les chaînes de caractères et tampons peuvent être convertis de trois
manières vers C:

   * Formats such as ‘y*’ and ‘s*’ fill a *note Py_buffer: 744.
     structure.  This locks the underlying buffer so that the caller can
     subsequently use the buffer even inside a *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. block without the risk of mutable
     data being resized or destroyed.  As a result, 'you have to call'
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. after you have finished processing
     the data (or in any early abort case).

   * Les formats ‘es’, ‘es#’, ‘et’ et ‘et#’ allouent le tampon de
     résultats.  'Vous devez appeler' *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb. après
     avoir fini de traiter les données (ou en cas d'abandon prématuré).

   * Other formats take a *note str: 437. or a read-only *note
     bytes-like object: d1d, such as *note bytes: 1bd, and provide a
     ‘const char *’ pointer to its buffer.  In this case the buffer is
     "borrowed": it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and
     shares the lifetime of this object.  You won't have to release any
     memory yourself.

     To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the
     object's *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 74f. field must be
     ‘NULL’.  This disallows common mutable objects such as *note
     bytearray: 52b, but also some read-only objects such as *note
     memoryview: 454. of *note bytes: 1bd.

     Besides this ‘bf_releasebuffer’ requirement, there is no check to
     verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g.  whether it
     would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another
     thread can mutate the data).

‘s’ (*note str: 437.) [‘const char *’]

     Convertit un objet Unicode en un pointeur vers une chaîne de
     caractères.  S'il s'agit d'un pointeur vers une chaîne de
     caractères déjà existante, il est stocké dans la variable de type
     pointeur vers un caractère dont vous avez donné l'adresse.  Une
     chaîne de caractères en C se termine par 'NULL'. La chaîne de
     caractères Python ne doit donc pas contenir de caractère dont le
     code est 'null'.  Si elle en contient, une exception *note
     ValueError: 1ff. est levée.  Si la conversion échoue, une *note
     UnicodeError: 1283. est levée.

          Note: Ce format n'accepte pas les *note objets compatibles
          avec une chaîne d'octets: d1d.  Si vous voulez accepter les
          chemins du système de fichiers et les convertir vers des
          chaînes de caractères C, il est préférable d'utiliser le
          format ‘O&’ avec *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d09. en tant
          que 'converter'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Auparavant, une *note TypeError: 525.
     était levée quand la chaîne de caractères Python contenait des
     codes NULL.

‘s*’ (*note str: 437. ou *note bytes-like object: d1d.) [‘Py_buffer’]

     Ce format accepte les objets Unicode et les 'bytes-like object'.
     Cela remplit une structure *note Py_buffer: 744. qui est fournie
     par l'appelant.  Dans ce cas, la chaîne de caractères C qui en
     résulte peut contenir des octets NULL. Les objets Unicode sont
     convertis en chaînes de caractères C en utilisant l'encodage
     ‘'utf-8'’.

‘s#’ (*note str: 437, read-only *note bytes-like object: d1d.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

     Like ‘s*’, except that it provides a *note borrowed buffer: 4aa6.
     The result is stored into two C variables, the first one a pointer
     to a C string, the second one its length.  The string may contain
     embedded null bytes.  Unicode objects are converted to C strings
     using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.

‘z’ (*note str: 437. ou ‘None’) [‘const char *’]

     Like ‘s’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘z*’ (*note str: 437, *note bytes-like object: d1d. ou ‘None’) [‘Py_buffer’]

     Comme ‘s*’, mais l'objet Python peut aussi être ‘None’, auquel cas
     le membre ‘buf’, dont la structure est *note Py_buffer: 744. est
     fixée à 'NULL'.

‘z#’ (*note str: 437, read-only *note bytes-like object: d1d. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

     Like ‘s#’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘y’ (lecture seule *note objet compatible avec une chaîne d'octets: d1d.) [constante char *]

     This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a *note
     borrowed: 4aa6. character string; it does not accept Unicode
     objects.  The bytes buffer must not contain embedded null bytes; if
     it does, a *note ValueError: 1ff. exception is raised.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Auparavant, *note TypeError: 525.
     était levée lorsque des octets 'null' étaient rencontrés dans le
     tampon d'octets.

‘y*’ (*note bytes-like object: d1d.) [‘Py_buffer’]

     This variant on ‘s*’ doesn't accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.  'This is the recommended way to accept binary
     data.'

‘y#’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: d1d.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

     Cette variante de ‘s#’ n'accepte pas les objets Unicode, uniquement
     des objets assimilés à des octets.

‘S’ (*note bytes: 1bd.) [‘PyBytesObject *’]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytes: 1bd. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 525. if
     the object is not a bytes object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 32f.*.

‘Y’ (*note bytearray: 52b.) [‘PyByteArrayObject *’]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytearray: 52b. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 525. if
     the object is not a *note bytearray: 52b. object.  The C variable
     may also be declared as *note PyObject: 32f.*.

‘U’ (*note str: 437.) [‘PyObject *’]

     Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without
     attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 525. if the
     object is not a Unicode object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 32f.*.

‘w*’ (lecture-écriture *note bytes-like object: d1d.) [‘Py_buffer’]

     This format accepts any object which implements the read-write
     buffer interface.  It fills a *note Py_buffer: 744. structure
     provided by the caller.  The buffer may contain embedded null
     bytes.  The caller have to call *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. when
     it is done with the buffer.

‘es’ (*note str: 437.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     This variant on ‘s’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.

     This format requires two arguments.  The first is only used as
     input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an
     encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case
     ‘'utf-8'’ encoding is used.  An exception is raised if the named
     encoding is not known to Python.  The second argument must be a
     char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a
     buffer with the contents of the argument text.  The text will be
     encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.

     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. will allocate a buffer of the needed
     size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and adjust '*buffer'
     to reference the newly allocated storage.  The caller is
     responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb. to free the
     allocated buffer after use.

‘et’ (*note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     Same as ‘es’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

‘es#’ (*note str: 437.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *buffer_length]

     This variant on ‘s#’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  Unlike the ‘es’ format, this variant allows input data
     which contains NUL characters.

     It requires three arguments.  The first is only used as input, and
     must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a
     NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case ‘'utf-8'’ encoding
     is used.  An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known
     to Python.  The second argument must be a char**; the value of the
     pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of
     the argument text.  The text will be encoded in the encoding
     specified by the first argument.  The third argument must be a
     pointer to an integer; the referenced integer will be set to the
     number of bytes in the output buffer.

     Il existe deux modes de fonctionnement :

     If '*buffer' points a ‘NULL’ pointer, the function will allocate a
     buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer
     and set '*buffer' to reference the newly allocated storage.  The
     caller is responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb. to free
     the allocated buffer after usage.

     If '*buffer' points to a non-‘NULL’ pointer (an already allocated
     buffer), *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. will use this location as
     the buffer and interpret the initial value of '*buffer_length' as
     the buffer size.  It will then copy the encoded data into the
     buffer and NUL-terminate it.  If the buffer is not large enough, a
     *note ValueError: 1ff. will be set.

     Dans les deux cas, '*buffer_length' est la longueur des données
     encodées, sans l'octet NUL de fin.

‘et#’ (*note str: 437, *note bytes: 1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *buffer_length]

     Same as ‘es#’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘u’, ‘u#’, ‘Z’, and ‘Z#’ are removed
because they used a legacy ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation.


File: python.info,  Node: Les nombres<2>,  Next: Autres objets,  Prev: Chaînes et tampons,  Up: Analyse des arguments<2>

7.6.6.3 Les nombres
...................

These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as
C numbers.  Formats that require *note int: 254, *note float: 2ec. or
*note complex: 2ed. can also use the corresponding special methods *note
__index__(): 709, *note __float__(): 9bc. or *note __complex__(): 5d3.
to convert the Python object to the required type.

For signed integer formats, *note OverflowError: 86f. is raised if the
value is out of range for the C type.  For unsigned integer formats, no
range checking is done -- the most significant bits are silently
truncated when the receiving field is too small to receive the value.

‘b’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned char’]

     Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny integer,
     stored in a C unsigned char.

‘B’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned char’]

     Convert a Python integer to a tiny integer without overflow
     checking, stored in a C unsigned char.

‘h’ (*note int: 254.) [‘short int’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C short int.

‘H’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned short int’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned short int, without
     overflow checking.

‘i’ (*note int: 254.) [‘int’]

     Convert a Python integer to a plain C int.

‘I’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned int’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned int, without overflow
     checking.

‘l’ (*note int: 254.) [‘long int’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C long int.

‘k’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned long’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long without overflow
     checking.

‘L’ (*note int: 254.) [‘long long’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C long long.

‘K’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned long long’]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long long without overflow
     checking.

‘n’ (*note int: 254.) [*note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

     Convertit un entier Python en un *note Py_ssize_t: a50.

‘c’ (*note bytes: 1bd. ou *note bytearray: 52b. de longueur 1) [‘char’]

     Convert a Python byte, represented as a *note bytes: 1bd. or *note
     bytearray: 52b. object of length 1, to a C char.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Allow *note bytearray: 52b. objects.

‘C’ (*note str: 437. de longueur 1) [‘int’]

     Convert a Python character, represented as a *note str: 437. object
     of length 1, to a C int.

‘f’ (*note float: 2ec.) [‘float’]

     Convert a Python floating-point number to a C float.

‘d’ (*note float: 2ec.) [‘double’]

     Convert a Python floating-point number to a C double.

‘D’ (*note complex: 2ed.) [‘Py_complex’]

     Convertit un nombre complexe Python vers une structure *note
     Py_complex: 4aa8. C.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres objets,  Next: Fonction de l'API,  Prev: Les nombres<2>,  Up: Analyse des arguments<2>

7.6.6.4 Autres objets
.....................

‘O’ (objet) [‘PyObject *’]

     Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object
     pointer.  The C program thus receives the actual object that was
     passed.  A new *note strong reference: 333. to the object is not
     created (i.e.  its reference count is not increased).  The pointer
     stored is not ‘NULL’.

‘O!’ (objet) ['typeobject', ‘PyObject *’]

     Store a Python object in a C object pointer.  This is similar to
     ‘O’, but takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a
     Python type object, the second is the address of the C variable (of
     type *note PyObject: 32f.*) into which the object pointer is
     stored.  If the Python object does not have the required type,
     *note TypeError: 525. is raised.

‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'address']

     Convert a Python object to a C variable through a 'converter'
     function.  This takes two arguments: the first is a function, the
     second is the address of a C variable (of arbitrary type),
     converted to void*.  The 'converter' function in turn is called as
     follows:

          status = converter(object, address);

     where 'object' is the Python object to be converted and 'address'
     is the void* argument that was passed to the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     function.  The returned 'status' should be ‘1’ for a successful
     conversion and ‘0’ if the conversion has failed.  When the
     conversion fails, the 'converter' function should raise an
     exception and leave the content of 'address' unmodified.

     If the 'converter' returns ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’, it may get
     called a second time if the argument parsing eventually fails,
     giving the converter a chance to release any memory that it had
     already allocated.  In this second call, the 'object' parameter
     will be ‘NULL’; 'address' will have the same value as in the
     original call.

     Examples of converters: *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d09. and
     *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 565.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’ was added.

‘p’ (*note bool: 453.) [‘int’]

     Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean 'p'redicate) and
     converts the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value.
     Sets the int to ‘1’ if the expression was true and ‘0’ if it was
     false.  This accepts any valid Python value.  See *note Valeurs
     booléennes: 2119. for more information about how Python tests
     values for truth.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 366.) ['matching-items']

     L'objet doit être une séquence Python dont la longueur est le
     nombre d'unités de formats dans 'articles'.  Les arguments C
     doivent correspondre à chaque unité de format particulière dans
     'articles'.  Les unités de formats pour les séquences peuvent être
     imbriquées.

Quelques autres caractères ont un sens dans une chaîne de format.  On ne
doit pas les trouvées dans des parenthèses imbriquées.  Ce sont :

‘|’

     Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list
     are optional.  The C variables corresponding to optional arguments
     should be initialized to their default value -- when an optional
     argument is not specified, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. does not
     touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s).

‘$’

     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. only: Indicates that the
     remaining arguments in the Python argument list are keyword-only.
     Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
     arguments, so ‘|’ must always be specified before ‘$’ in the format
     string.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

‘:’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is
     used as the function name in error messages (the "associated value"
     of the exception that *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. raises).

‘;’

     La liste des unités de format s'arrête ici ; la chaîne après le
     point-virgule est utilise comme message d'erreur 'au lieu' du
     message d'erreur par défaut.  ‘:’ et ‘;’ sont mutuellement
     exclusifs.

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not release them (i.e.  do not decrement
their reference count)!

Les arguments additionnels qui sont donnés à ces fonctions doivent être
des adresses de variables dont le type est déterminé par la chaîne de
format.  Elles sont utilisées pour stocker les valeurs du 'n'-uplet
d'entrée.  Il y a quelques cas, comme décrit précédemment dans le liste
des unités de formats, où ces paramètres sont utilisés comme valeurs
d'entrée.  Dans ce cas, ils devraient correspondre à ce qui est spécifié
pour l'unité de format correspondante.

For the conversion to succeed, the 'arg' object must match the format
and the format must be exhausted.  On success, the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
functions return true, otherwise they return false and raise an
appropriate exception.  When the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ functions fail due to
conversion failure in one of the format units, the variables at the
addresses corresponding to that and the following format units are left
untouched.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonction de l'API,  Prev: Autres objets,  Up: Analyse des arguments<2>

7.6.6.5 Fonction de l'API
.........................

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_ParseTuple (PyObject *args, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes only positional parameters into local
     variables.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false
     and raises the appropriate exception.

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_VaParse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f, except that it accepts a va_list rather
     than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args,
          PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes both positional and keyword parameters into
     local variables.  The 'keywords' argument is a ‘NULL’-terminated
     array of keyword parameter names specified as null-terminated ASCII
     or UTF-8 encoded C strings.  Empty names denote *note
     positional-only parameters: a75.  Returns true on success; on
     failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

          Note: The 'keywords' parameter declaration is char *const* in
          C and const char *const* in C++.  This can be overridden with
          the *note PY_CXX_CONST: 37b. macro.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support for *note
     positional-only parameters: a75.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The 'keywords' parameter has now type
     char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**.
     Added support for non-ASCII keyword parameter names.

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args,
          PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords,
          va_list vargs)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379, except that it accepts a
     va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (PyObject*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Ensure that the keys in the
     keywords argument dictionary are strings.  This is only needed if
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. is not used, since the
     latter already does this check.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_Parse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Parse the parameter of a
     function that takes a single positional parameter into a local
     variable.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false
     and raises the appropriate exception.

     Exemple :

          // Function using METH_O calling convention
          static PyObject*
          my_function(PyObject *module, PyObject *arg)
          {
              int value;
              if (!PyArg_Parse(arg, "i:my_function", &value)) {
                  return NULL;
              }
              // ... use value ...
          }

 -- C Fonction: int PyArg_UnpackTuple (PyObject *args, const char *name,
          Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  A simpler form of parameter
     retrieval which does not use a format string to specify the types
     of the arguments.  Functions which use this method to retrieve
     their parameters should be declared as *note METH_VARARGS: 14c1. in
     function or method tables.  The tuple containing the actual
     parameters should be passed as 'args'; it must actually be a tuple.
     The length of the tuple must be at least 'min' and no more than
     'max'; 'min' and 'max' may be equal.  Additional arguments must be
     passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a
     *note PyObject: 32f.* variable; these will be filled in with the
     values from 'args'; they will contain *note borrowed references:
     334.  The variables which correspond to optional parameters not
     given by 'args' will not be filled in; these should be initialized
     by the caller.  This function returns true on success and false if
     'args' is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an
     exception will be set if there was a failure.

     This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the
     sources for the ‘_weakref’ helper module for weak references:

          static PyObject *
          weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
          {
              PyObject *object;
              PyObject *callback = NULL;
              PyObject *result = NULL;

              if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
                  result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
              }
              return result;
          }

     The call to *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14bf. in this example is
     entirely equivalent to this call to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.:

          PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)

 -- C Macro: PY_CXX_CONST

     The value to be inserted, if any, before char *const* in the
     'keywords' parameter declaration of *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379. and *note
     PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37a.  Default empty for C and
     ‘const’ for C++ (const char *const*).  To override, define it to
     the desired value before including ‘Python.h’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Construction des valeurs,  Prev: Analyse des arguments<2>,  Up: Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

7.6.6.6 Construction des valeurs
................................

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_BuildValue (const char *format,
          ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a new value based on a format string similar to
     those accepted by the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ family of functions and a
     sequence of values.  Returns the value or ‘NULL’ in the case of an
     error; an exception will be raised if ‘NULL’ is returned.

     *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. does not always build a tuple.  It
     builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more
     format units.  If the format string is empty, it returns ‘None’; if
     it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is
     described by that format unit.  To force it to return a tuple of
     size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

     When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to
     build objects, as for the ‘s’ and ‘s#’ formats, the required data
     is copied.  Buffers provided by the caller are never referenced by
     the objects created by *note Py_BuildValue(): 896.  In other words,
     if your code invokes ‘malloc()’ and passes the allocated memory to
     *note Py_BuildValue(): 896, your code is responsible for calling
     ‘free()’ for that memory once *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. returns.

     In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit;
     the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the
     format unit will return; and the entry in [square] brackets is the
     type of the C value(s) to be passed.

     The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format
     strings (but not within format units such as ‘s#’).  This can be
     used to make long format strings a tad more readable.

     ‘s’ (*note str: 437. ou ‘None’) [‘const char *’]

          Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python *note str: 437.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is used.

     ‘s#’ (*note str: 437. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

          Convert a C string and its length to a Python *note str: 437.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y’ (*note bytes: 1bd.) [‘const char *’]

          This converts a C string to a Python *note bytes: 1bd. object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y#’ (*note bytes: 1bd.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

          This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘z’ (*note str: 437. ou ‘None’) [‘const char *’]

          Same as ‘s’.

     ‘z#’ (*note str: 437. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

          Same as ‘s#’.

     ‘u’ (*note str: 437.) [‘const wchar_t *’]

          Convert a null-terminated ‘wchar_t’ buffer of Unicode (UTF-16
          or UCS-4) data to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode
          buffer pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘u#’ (*note str: 437.) [const wchar_t *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

          Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length
          to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode buffer pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘U’ (*note str: 437. ou ‘None’) [‘const char *’]

          Same as ‘s’.

     ‘U#’ (*note str: 437. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

          Same as ‘s#’.

     ‘i’ (*note int: 254.) [‘int’]

          Convert a plain C int to a Python integer object.

     ‘b’ (*note int: 254.) [‘char’]

          Convert a plain C char to a Python integer object.

     ‘h’ (*note int: 254.) [‘short int’]

          Convert a plain C short int to a Python integer object.

     ‘l’ (*note int: 254.) [‘long int’]

          Convert a C long int to a Python integer object.

     ‘B’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned char’]

          Convert a C unsigned char to a Python integer object.

     ‘H’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned short int’]

          Convert a C unsigned short int to a Python integer object.

     ‘I’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned int’]

          Convert a C unsigned int to a Python integer object.

     ‘k’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned long’]

          Convert a C unsigned long to a Python integer object.

     ‘L’ (*note int: 254.) [‘long long’]

          Convert a C long long to a Python integer object.

     ‘K’ (*note int: 254.) [‘unsigned long long’]

          Convert a C unsigned long long to a Python integer object.

     ‘n’ (*note int: 254.) [*note Py_ssize_t: a50.]

          Convert a C *note Py_ssize_t: a50. to a Python integer.

     ‘c’ (*note bytes: 1bd. de taille 1) [‘char’]

          Convert a C int representing a byte to a Python *note bytes:
          1bd. object of length 1.

     ‘C’ (*note str: 437. de longueur 1) [‘int’]

          Convert a C int representing a character to Python *note str:
          437. object of length 1.

     ‘d’ (*note float: 2ec.) [‘double’]

          Convert a C double to a Python floating-point number.

     ‘f’ (*note float: 2ec.) [‘float’]

          Convert a C float to a Python floating-point number.

     ‘D’ (*note complex: 2ed.) [‘Py_complex *’]

          Convert a C *note Py_complex: 4aa8. structure to a Python
          complex number.

     ‘O’ (objet) [‘PyObject *’]

          Pass a Python object untouched but create a new *note strong
          reference: 333. to it (i.e.  its reference count is
          incremented by one).  If the object passed in is a ‘NULL’
          pointer, it is assumed that this was caused because the call
          producing the argument found an error and set an exception.
          Therefore, *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. will return ‘NULL’ but
          won't raise an exception.  If no exception has been raised
          yet, *note SystemError: 563. is set.

     ‘S’ (objet) [‘PyObject *’]

          Same as ‘O’.

     ‘N’ (objet) [‘PyObject *’]

          Same as ‘O’, except it doesn't create a new *note strong
          reference: 333.  Useful when the object is created by a call
          to an object constructor in the argument list.

     ‘O&’ (objet) ['converter', 'anything']

          Convert 'anything' to a Python object through a 'converter'
          function.  The function is called with 'anything' (which
          should be compatible with void*) as its argument and should
          return a "new" Python object, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 366.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same
          number of items.

     ‘[items]’ (*note list: 5fe.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same
          number of items.

     ‘{items}’ (*note dict: 253.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary.  Each
          pair of consecutive C values adds one item to the dictionary,
          serving as key and value, respectively.

     If there is an error in the format string, the *note SystemError:
     563. exception is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_VaBuildValue (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Identical to *note Py_BuildValue(): 896, except that it
     accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion et formatage de chaînes,  Next: PyHash API,  Prev: Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.7 Conversion et formatage de chaînes
----------------------------------------

Fonctions de conversion pour les nombres et pour la sortie des chaînes
formatées.

 -- C Fonction: int PyOS_snprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Output not more than 'size'
     bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the
     extra arguments.  See the Unix man page ‘snprintf(3)(1)’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyOS_vsnprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, va_list va)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Output not more than 'size'
     bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the
     variable argument list 'va'.  Unix man page ‘vsnprintf(3)(2)’.

*note PyOS_snprintf(): 14c2. and *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14c3. wrap the
Standard C library functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’.  Their
purpose is to guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the
Standard C functions do not.

The wrappers ensure that ‘str[size-1]’ is always ‘'\0'’ upon return.
They never write more than 'size' bytes (including the trailing ‘'\0'’)
into str.  Both functions require that ‘str != NULL’, ‘size > 0’,
‘format != NULL’ and ‘size < INT_MAX’.  Note that this means there is no
equivalent to the C99 ‘n = snprintf(NULL, 0, ...)’ which would determine
the necessary buffer size.

The return value ('rv') for these functions should be interpreted as
follows:

   * When ‘0 <= rv < size’, the output conversion was successful and
     'rv' characters were written to 'str' (excluding the trailing
     ‘'\0'’ byte at ‘str[rv]’).

   * When ‘rv >= size’, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer
     with ‘rv + 1’ bytes would have been needed to succeed.
     ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’ in this case.

   * When ‘rv < 0’, "something bad happened."  ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’
     in this case too, but the rest of 'str' is undefined.  The exact
     cause of the error depends on the underlying platform.

The following functions provide locale-independent string to number
conversions.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned long PyOS_strtoul (const char *str, char **ptr,
          int base)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an unsigned long value according to the
     given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be
     the special value ‘0’.

     Leading white space and case of characters are ignored.  If ‘base’
     is zero it looks for a leading ‘0b’, ‘0o’ or ‘0x’ to tell which
     base.  If these are absent it defaults to ‘10’.  Base must be 0 or
     between 2 and 36 (inclusive).  If ‘ptr’ is non-‘NULL’ it will
     contain a pointer to the end of the scan.

     If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return
     type, range error occurs (‘errno’ is set to ‘ERANGE’) and
     ‘ULONG_MAX’ is returned.  If no conversion can be performed, ‘0’ is
     returned.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtoul(3)(3)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: long PyOS_strtol (const char *str, char **ptr, int base)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an long value according to the given ‘base’,
     which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special
     value ‘0’.

     Same as *note PyOS_strtoul(): 499d, but return a long value instead
     and ‘LONG_MAX’ on overflows.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtol(3)(4)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: double PyOS_string_to_double (const char *s, char
          **endptr, PyObject *overflow_exception)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Convert a string ‘s’ to a
     double, raising a Python exception on failure.  The set of accepted
     strings corresponds to the set of strings accepted by Python's
     *note float(): 2ec. constructor, except that ‘s’ must not have
     leading or trailing whitespace.  The conversion is independent of
     the current locale.

     If ‘endptr’ is ‘NULL’, convert the whole string.  Raise *note
     ValueError: 1ff. and return ‘-1.0’ if the string is not a valid
     representation of a floating-point number.

     If endptr is not ‘NULL’, convert as much of the string as possible
     and set ‘*endptr’ to point to the first unconverted character.  If
     no initial segment of the string is the valid representation of a
     floating-point number, set ‘*endptr’ to point to the beginning of
     the string, raise ValueError, and return ‘-1.0’.

     If ‘s’ represents a value that is too large to store in a float
     (for example, ‘"1e500"’ is such a string on many platforms) then if
     ‘overflow_exception’ is ‘NULL’ return ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’ (with an
     appropriate sign) and don't set any exception.  Otherwise,
     ‘overflow_exception’ must point to a Python exception object; raise
     that exception and return ‘-1.0’.  In both cases, set ‘*endptr’ to
     point to the first character after the converted value.

     If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an
     out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and
     return ‘-1.0’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- C Fonction: char *PyOS_double_to_string (double val, char
          format_code, int precision, int flags, int *ptype)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Convert a double 'val' to a
     string using supplied 'format_code', 'precision', and 'flags'.

     'format_code' must be one of ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’,
     ‘'G'’ or ‘'r'’.  For ‘'r'’, the supplied 'precision' must be 0 and
     is ignored.  The ‘'r'’ format code specifies the standard *note
     repr(): 7e9. format.

     'flags' can be zero or more of the values ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’,
     ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’, or ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’, or-ed together:

        * ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’ means to always precede the returned string
          with a sign character, even if 'val' is non-negative.

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’ means to ensure that the returned string
          will not look like an integer.

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’ means to apply "alternate" formatting rules.
          See the documentation for the *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14c2.
          ‘'#'’ specifier for details.

     If 'ptype' is non-‘NULL’, then the value it points to will be set
     to one of ‘Py_DTST_FINITE’, ‘Py_DTST_INFINITE’, or ‘Py_DTST_NAN’,
     signifying that 'val' is a finite number, an infinite number, or
     not a number, respectively.

     The return value is a pointer to 'buffer' with the converted string
     or ‘NULL’ if the conversion failed.  The caller is responsible for
     freeing the returned string by calling *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- C Fonction: int PyOS_stricmp (const char *s1, const char *s2)

     Case insensitive comparison of strings.  The function works almost
     identically to ‘strcmp()’ except that it ignores the case.

 -- C Fonction: int PyOS_strnicmp (const char *s1, const char *s2,
          Py_ssize_t size)

     Case insensitive comparison of strings.  The function works almost
     identically to ‘strncmp()’ except that it ignores the case.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)


File: python.info,  Node: PyHash API,  Next: Réflexion,  Prev: Conversion et formatage de chaînes,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.8 PyHash API
----------------

See also the *note PyTypeObject.tp_hash: 4896. member and *note Hachage
des types numériques: 215d.

 -- C Type: type Py_hash_t

     Hash value type: signed integer.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Type: type Py_uhash_t

     Hash value type: unsigned integer.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Macro: PyHASH_MODULUS

     The Mersenne prime(1) ‘P = 2**n -1’, used for numeric hash scheme.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: PyHASH_BITS

     The exponent ‘n’ of ‘P’ in *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1624.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

     Prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: PyHASH_INF

     The hash value returned for a positive infinity.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: PyHASH_IMAG

     The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Type: type PyHash_FuncDef

     Hash function definition used by *note PyHash_GetFuncDef(): 4ab7.

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string).

      -- C Membre: const int hash_bits

          Internal size of the hash value in bits.

      -- C Membre: const int seed_bits

          Size of seed input in bits.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyHash_FuncDef: 4ab6. *PyHash_GetFuncDef (void)

     Get the hash function definition.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     PEP 456(2) "Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm".

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_hash_t: 1244. Py_HashPointer (const void *ptr)

     Hash a pointer value: process the pointer value as an integer (cast
     it to ‘uintptr_t’ internally).  The pointer is not dereferenced.

     The function cannot fail: it cannot return ‘-1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_hash_t: 1244. PyObject_GenericHash (PyObject
          *obj)

     Generic hashing function that is meant to be put into a type
     object's ‘tp_hash’ slot.  Its result only depends on the object's
     identity.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' In CPython, it is
     equivalent to *note Py_HashPointer(): 35e.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/


File: python.info,  Node: Réflexion,  Next: Codec registry and support functions,  Prev: PyHash API,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.9 Réflexion
---------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_GetBuiltins (void)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use *note
     PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 346. instead.

     Renvoie un dictionnaire des fonctions natives de la 'frame' en
     cours d'exécution, ou si aucune 'frame' n'est exécutée, les
     fonctions natives du 'thread' indiqué par le 'thread state'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_GetLocals (void)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use either *note
     PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34a. to obtain the same behaviour as
     calling *note locals(): 140. in Python code, or else call *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1778. to access the *note f_locals: 180. attribute of the currently
     executing frame.

     Return a mapping providing access to the local variables in the
     current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently
     executing.

     Refer to *note locals(): 140. for details of the mapping returned
     at different scopes.

     As this function returns a *note borrowed reference: 334, the
     dictionary returned for *note optimized scopes: 17c. is cached on
     the frame object and will remain alive as long as the frame object
     does.  Unlike *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34a. and *note
     locals(): 140, subsequent calls to this function in the same frame
     will update the contents of the cached dictionary to reflect
     changes in the state of the local variables rather than returning a
     new snapshot.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: As part of PEP 667(1), *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415, *note locals(): 140, and *note
     FrameType.f_locals: 180. no longer make use of the shared cache
     dictionary.  Refer to the *note What's New entry: 141. for
     additional details.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_GetGlobals (void)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use *note
     PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 348. instead.

     Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current
     execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyFrameObject: 775. *PyEval_GetFrame (void)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the current thread state's frame, which
     is ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

     See also *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 77a.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Renvoie un dictionnaire des
     fonctions natives de la 'frame' en cours d'exécution, ou si aucune
     'frame' n'est exécutée, les fonctions natives du 'thread' indiqué
     par le 'thread state'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_GetFrameLocals (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Return a dictionary of the
     local variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no
     frame is currently executing.  Equivalent to calling *note
     locals(): 140. in Python code.

     To access *note f_locals: 180. on the current frame without making
     an independent snapshot in *note optimized scopes: 17c, call *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 415. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1778.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Return a dictionary of the
     global variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no
     frame is currently executing.  Equivalent to calling *note
     globals(): 1824. in Python code.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyEval_GetFuncName (PyObject *func)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie le nom de 'func'
     s'il s'agit d'une fonction, d'une classe ou d'un objet d'instance,
     sinon le nom du type de 'func'

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc (PyObject *func)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie une description en
     chaîne de caractères, en fonction du type de 'func'.  Les valeurs
     renvoyées peuvent être ‘"()"’ pour les fonction et les méthodes,
     ‘\" constructor\"’, ‘\" instance\"’, ‘\" object\"’.  Concaténé avec
     le résultat de *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 493c, le résultat sera
     une description de 'func'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Codec registry and support functions,  Next: PyTime C API,  Prev: Réflexion,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.10 Codec registry and support functions
-------------------------------------------

 -- C Fonction: int PyCodec_Register (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Register a new codec search
     function.

     As side effect, this tries to load the ‘encodings’ package, if not
     yet done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of
     search functions.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCodec_Unregister (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry's cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.  Return 0 on
     success.  Raise an exception and return -1 on error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding (const char *encoding)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending
     on whether there is a registered codec for the given 'encoding'.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_Encode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Generic codec based encoding API.

     'object' is passed through the encoder function found for the given
     'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'.
     'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the
     codec.  Raises a *note LookupError: 2189. if no encoder can be
     found.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_Decode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Generic codec based decoding API.

     'object' is passed through the decoder function found for the given
     'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'.
     'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the
     codec.  Raises a *note LookupError: 2189. if no encoder can be
     found.

* Menu:

* Codec lookup API::
* Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::


File: python.info,  Node: Codec lookup API,  Next: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.6.10.1 Codec lookup API
.........................

In the following functions, the 'encoding' string is looked up converted
to all lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through
this mechanism effectively case-insensitive.  If no codec is found, a
*note KeyError: 33a. is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_Encoder (const char
          *encoding)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Get an encoder function for the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_Decoder (const char
          *encoding)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Get a decoder function for the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (const
          char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Get an *note IncrementalEncoder: 2383. object for the
     given 'encoding'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (const
          char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Get an *note IncrementalDecoder: 2384. object for the
     given 'encoding'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_StreamReader (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Get a *note StreamReader: 2388. factory function for
     the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_StreamWriter (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Get a *note StreamWriter: 2387. factory function for
     the given 'encoding'.


File: python.info,  Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Prev: Codec lookup API,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.6.10.2 Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers
.........................................................

 -- C Fonction: int PyCodec_RegisterError (const char *name, PyObject
          *error)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Register the error handling
     callback function 'error' under the given 'name'.  This callback
     function will be called by a codec when it encounters unencodable
     characters/undecodable bytes and 'name' is specified as the error
     parameter in the call to the encode/decode function.

     The callback gets a single argument, an instance of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 664, *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03. or *note
     UnicodeTranslateError: 2259. that holds information about the
     problematic sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the
     original string (see *note Objets exception Unicode: 4a81. for
     functions to extract this information).  The callback must either
     raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple containing
     the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer giving
     the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should
     be resumed.

     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_LookupError (const char
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Lookup the error handling callback function registered
     under 'name'.  As a special case ‘NULL’ can be passed, in which
     case the error handling callback for "strict" will be returned.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_StrictErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : toujours NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI:
     541.'  Raise 'exc' as an exception.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Replace the unicode encode error with ‘?’ or ‘U+FFFD’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Replace the unicode encode error with XML character
     references.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes
     (‘\x’, ‘\u’ and ‘\U’).

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Replace the unicode encode error
     with ‘\N{...}’ escapes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTime C API,  Next: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: Codec registry and support functions,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.11 PyTime C API
-------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The clock C API provides access to system clocks.  It is similar to the
Python *note time: ed. module.

For C API related to the *note datetime: 30. module, see *note Objets
DateTime: 4ac3.

* Menu:

* Types: Types<2>.
* Clock Functions::
* Raw Clock Functions::
* Conversion functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Types<2>,  Next: Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.1 Types
..............

 -- C Type: type PyTime_t

     A timestamp or duration in nanoseconds, represented as a signed
     64-bit integer.

     The reference point for timestamps depends on the clock used.  For
     example, *note PyTime_Time(): 32b. returns timestamps relative to
     the UNIX epoch.

     The supported range is around [-292.3 years; +292.3 years].  Using
     the Unix epoch (January 1st, 1970) as reference, the supported date
     range is around [1677-09-21; 2262-04-11].  The exact limits are
     exposed as constants:

 -- C Variable: *note PyTime_t: 323. PyTime_MIN

     Minimum value of *note PyTime_t: 323.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTime_t: 323. PyTime_MAX

     Maximum value of *note PyTime_t: 323.


File: python.info,  Node: Clock Functions,  Next: Raw Clock Functions,  Prev: Types<2>,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.2 Clock Functions
........................

The following functions take a pointer to a *note PyTime_t: 323. that
they set to the value of a particular clock.  Details of each clock are
given in the documentation of the corresponding Python function.

The functions return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ (with an exception set) on
failure.

On integer overflow, they set the ‘PyExc_OverflowError’ exception and
set ‘*result’ to the value clamped to the ‘[PyTime_MIN; PyTime_MAX]’
range.  (On current systems, integer overflows are likely caused by
misconfigured system time.)

As any other C API (unless otherwise specified), the functions must be
called with the *note GIL: 158. held.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_Monotonic (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the monotonic clock.  See *note time.monotonic(): 250. for
     important details on this clock.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_PerfCounter (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the performance counter.  See *note time.perf_counter(): a78.
     for important details on this clock.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_Time (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the “wall clock” time.  See *note time.time(): 251. for
     details important on this clock.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Clock Functions,  Next: Conversion functions,  Prev: Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.3 Raw Clock Functions
............................

Similar to clock functions, but don't set an exception on error and
don't require the caller to hold the GIL.

On success, the functions return ‘0’.

On failure, they set ‘*result’ to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’, 'without' setting
an exception.  To get the cause of the error, acquire the GIL and call
the regular (non-‘Raw’) function.  Note that the regular function may
succeed after the ‘Raw’ one failed.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_MonotonicRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 327, but don't set an
     exception on error and don't require holding the GIL.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 329, but don't set an
     exception on error and don't require holding the GIL.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_TimeRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_Time(): 32b, but don't set an exception on
     error and don't require holding the GIL.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion functions,  Prev: Raw Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.4 Conversion functions
.............................

 -- C Fonction: double PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (PyTime_t t)

     Convert a timestamp to a number of seconds as a C double.

     The function cannot fail, but note that double has limited accuracy
     for large values.


File: python.info,  Node: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: PyTime C API,  Up: Utilitaires<2>

7.6.12 Support for Perf Maps
----------------------------

On supported platforms (as of this writing, only Linux), the runtime can
take advantage of 'perf map files' to make Python functions visible to
an external profiling tool (such as perf(1)).  A running process may
create a file in the ‘/tmp’ directory, which contains entries that can
map a section of executable code to a name.  This interface is described
in the documentation of the Linux Perf tool(2).

In Python, these helper APIs can be used by libraries and features that
rely on generating machine code on the fly.

Note that holding the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is not required for
these APIs.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (void)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Open the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file, unless it's already opened, and
     create a lock to ensure thread-safe writes to the file (provided
     the writes are done through *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     16f5.).  Normally, there's no need to call this explicitly; just
     use *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 16f5. and it will
     initialize the state on first call.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure to create/open the perf map
     file, or ‘-2’ on failure to create a lock.  Check ‘errno’ for more
     information about the cause of a failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (const void *code_addr,
          unsigned int code_size, const char *entry_name)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Write one single entry to the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file.  This
     function is thread safe.  Here is what an example entry looks like:

          # address      size  name
          7f3529fcf759 b     py::bar:/run/t.py

     Will call *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 16f6. before
     writing the entry, if the perf map file is not already opened.
     Returns ‘0’ on success, or the same error codes as *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 16f6. on failure.

 -- C Fonction: void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (void)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Close the perf map file opened by *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 16f6.  This is called by the
     runtime itself during interpreter shut-down.  In general, there
     shouldn't be a reason to explicitly call this, except to handle
     specific scenarios such as forking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page

   (2) 
https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Couche d'abstraction des objets,  Next: Couche des objets concrets,  Prev: Utilitaires<2>,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.7 Couche d'abstraction des objets
===================================

Dans ce chapitre, les fonctions s'appliquent à des objets Python sans
tenir compte de leur type, ou des classes d'objets au sens large (par
exemple, tous les types numériques, ou tous les types de séquence).
Quand ils sont utilisés sur des types d'objets qui ne correspondent pas,
ils lèveront une exception Python.

Il n'est pas possible d'utiliser ces fonctions sur des objets qui n'ont
pas été correctement initialisés, comme un objet liste qui a été créé
avec *note PyList_New(): 48cf. mais dont les éléments n'ont pas encore
été mis à une valeur non-‘NULL’.

* Menu:

* Protocole Objet::
* Call Protocol::
* Number Protocol::
* Sequence Protocol::
* Protocole de correspondance::
* Protocole d'itération::
* Protocole tampon::


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole Objet,  Next: Call Protocol,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.1 Protocole Objet
---------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_GetConstant (unsigned int
          constant_id)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Get
     a *note strong reference: 333. to a constant.

     Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ if 'constant_id' is invalid.

     'constant_id' must be one of these constant identifiers:

     Constant Identifier                          Valeur    Returned object
                                                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_NONE                ‘0’       *note None: 662.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_FALSE               ‘1’       *note False: b27.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_TRUE                ‘2’       *note True: bfd.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS            ‘3’       *note Ellipsis: 2142.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED     ‘4’       *note NotImplemented: 7be.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_ZERO                ‘5’       ‘0’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_ONE                 ‘6’       ‘1’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR           ‘7’       ‘''’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES         ‘8’       ‘b''’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE         ‘9’       ‘()’
                                                            

     Numeric values are only given for projects which cannot use the
     constant identifiers.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' In CPython, all of
     these constants are *note immortal: 4327.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_GetConstantBorrowed (unsigned
          int constant_id)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Similar to *note Py_GetConstant(): 34c, but return a *note borrowed
     reference: 334.

     This function is primarily intended for backwards compatibility:
     using *note Py_GetConstant(): 34c. is recommended for new code.

     The reference is borrowed from the interpreter, and is valid until
     the interpreter finalization.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_NotImplemented

     Le singleton ‘NotImplemented’, utilisé pour signaler qu'une
     opération n'est pas implémentée pour la combinaison de types en
     question.

 -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED

     Properly handle returning *note Py_NotImplemented: 4ada. from
     within a C function (that is, create a new *note strong reference:
     333. to *note NotImplemented: 7be. and return it).

 -- C Macro: Py_PRINT_RAW

     Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like
     *note PyObject_Print(): 15ac. and *note PyFile_WriteObject():
     4945.).  If passed, these function would use the *note str(): 437.
     of the object instead of the *note repr(): 7e9.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_Print (PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)

     Print an object 'o', on file 'fp'.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.  The
     flags argument is used to enable certain printing options.  The
     only option currently supported is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4adc.; if
     given, the *note str(): 437. of the object is written instead of
     the *note repr(): 7e9.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_HasAttrWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘hasattr(o,
     attr_name)’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (PyObject *o, const
          char *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  This
     is the same as *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 370, but
     'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_HasAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the
     attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always
     succeeds.

          Note: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 4bf. and *note __getattribute__(): bc2. methods
          aren't propagated, but instead given to *note
          sys.unraisablehook(): 1f4.  For proper error handling, use
          *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 370, *note
          PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 33f. or *note PyObject_GetAttr():
          341. instead.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_HasAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_HasAttr(): 371, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     32f.*.

          Note: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 4bf. and *note __getattribute__(): bc2. methods
          or while creating the temporary *note str: 437. object are
          silently ignored.  For proper error handling, use *note
          PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 372, *note
          PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 340. or *note
          PyObject_GetAttrString(): 342. instead.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *attr_name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Retrieve an attribute named 'attr_name' from object
     'o'.  Returns the attribute value on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o.attr_name’.

     If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 33f. instead.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GetAttrString (PyObject
          *o, const char *attr_name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341, but
     'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 340. instead.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (PyObject *obj, PyObject
          *attr_name, PyObject **result);
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Variant of *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341. which doesn't raise *note
     AttributeError: 343. if the attribute is not found.

     If the attribute is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new
     *note strong reference: 333. to the attribute.  If the attribute is
     not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note
     AttributeError: 343. is silenced.  If an error other than *note
     AttributeError: 343. is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to
     ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (PyObject *obj, const
          char *attr_name, PyObject **result);
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  This
     is the same as *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 33f, but
     'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GenericGetAttr (PyObject
          *o, PyObject *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Accesseur d'attribut générique destiné à être mis dans
     le 'slot' ‘tp_getattro’ d'un objet type.  Recherche un descripteur
     dans le dictionnaire de classes du MRO de l'objet ainsi qu'un
     attribut dans le *note __dict__: 549. de l'objet (si présent).
     Comme défini dans *note Implémentation de descripteurs: c3f, les
     descripteurs de données sont prioritaires sur les attributs
     d'instance, contrairement aux autres descripteurs.  Sinon, une
     *note AttributeError: 343. est levée.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_SetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Définit la valeur de
     l'attribut nommé 'attr_name', pour l'objet 'o', à la valeur 'v'.
     Lève une exception et renvoie ‘-1’ en cas d'échec ; renvoie ‘0’ en
     cas de succès.  Ceci est équivalent à l'instruction Python
     ‘o.attr_name = v’.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted.  This behaviour is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 16d8, but
     there are currently no plans to remove it.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_SetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 49af, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     32f.*.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 15bd.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren't known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17.
     and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 49af. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 15ba, which may be used
     internally to create a key object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Accesseur et suppresseur
     générique d'attributs qui est fait pour être mis dans le *note
     tp_setattro: 4888. d'un objet type.  Il cherche un descripteur de
     données dans le dictionnaire de classes dans le MRO de l'objet et,
     si ce descripteur est trouvé, c'est lui qui est utilisé de
     préférence pour la suppression et la définition de l'attribut dans
     le dictionnaire d'instance.  Sinon, l'attribut est défini ou
     supprimé dans le *note __dict__: 549. de l'objet (si présent).  En
     cas de succès, ‘0’ est renvoyé, sinon une *note AttributeError:
     343. est levée et ‘-1’ est renvoyé.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_DelAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Supprime l'attribut nommé 'attr_name', pour l'objet 'o'.  Renvoie
     ‘-1’ en cas d'échec.  Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python
     ‘del o.attr_name’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_DelAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  This
     is the same as *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 16d8, but 'attr_name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren't known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17.
     and *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 16d8. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 15ba, which may be used
     internally to create a key object for lookup.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GenericGetDict (PyObject
          *o, void *context)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Une implémentation générique de
     l'accesseur d'un descripteur d'un ‘__dict__’.  Crée le dictionnaire
     si nécessaire.

     This function may also be called to get the *note __dict__: 549. of
     the object 'o'.  Pass ‘NULL’ for 'context' when calling it.  Since
     this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

     On failure, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GenericSetDict (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *value, void *context)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Une
     implémentation générique du mutateur d'un descripteur de
     ‘__dict__’.  Cette implémentation n'autorise pas la suppression du
     dictionnaire.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. **_PyObject_GetDictPtr (PyObject
          *obj)

     Return a pointer to *note __dict__: 549. of the object 'obj'.  If
     there is no ‘__dict__’, return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_RichCompare (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Compare the values of 'o1' and 'o2' using the operation
     specified by 'opid', which must be one of *note Py_LT: 4ade, *note
     Py_LE: 4adf, *note Py_EQ: 4ae0, *note Py_NE: 4ae1, *note Py_GT:
     4ae2, or *note Py_GE: 4ae3, corresponding to ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘==’, ‘!=’,
     ‘>’, or ‘>=’ respectively.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 op o2’, where ‘op’ is the operator corresponding to
     'opid'.  Returns the value of the comparison on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_RichCompareBool (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2, int opid)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Compare the values of 'o1'
     and 'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', like *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 4891, but returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ if the
     result is false, ‘1’ otherwise.

     Note: If 'o1' and 'o2' are the same object, *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1961. will always return ‘1’ for *note
     Py_EQ: 4ae0. and ‘0’ for *note Py_NE: 4ae1.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Format (PyObject *obj,
          PyObject *format_spec)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Format 'obj' using
     'format_spec'.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘format(obj, format_spec)’.

     'format_spec' may be ‘NULL’.  In this case the call is equivalent
     to ‘format(obj)’.  Returns the formatted string on success, ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Repr (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the string
     representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘repr(o)’.  Called by the *note
     repr(): 7e9. built-in function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Cette fonction inclut maintenant une
     assertion de débogage afin d'assurer qu'elle ne passe pas sous
     silence une exception active.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_ASCII (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Comme *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a, calcule une représentation en
     chaîne de caractères de l'objet 'o', mais échappe les caractères
     non ASCII dans la chaîne de caractères renvoyée par *note
     PyObject_Repr(): 101a. avec' ‘\x’, ‘\u’ ou ‘\U’.  Cela génère une
     chaîne de caractères similaire à celle renvoyée par *note
     PyObject_Repr(): 101a. en Python 2.  Appelée par la fonction native
     *note ascii(): 139f.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Str (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns
     the string representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘str(o)’.  Called by the
     *note str(): 437. built-in function and, therefore, by the *note
     print(): f62. function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Cette fonction inclut maintenant une
     assertion de débogage afin d'assurer qu'elle ne passe pas sous
     silence une exception active.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Bytes (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Compute a bytes representation of object 'o'.  ‘NULL’ is returned
     on failure and a bytes object on success.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘bytes(o)’, when 'o' is not an integer.
     Unlike ‘bytes(o)’, a TypeError is raised when 'o' is an integer
     instead of a zero-initialized bytes object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_IsSubclass (PyObject *derived, PyObject
          *cls)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie ‘1’ si la classe
     'derived' est identique à ou dérivée de la classe 'cls', renvoie
     ‘0’ sinon.  En cas d'erreur, renvoie ‘-1’.

     Si 'cls' est un 'n'-uplet, la vérification est menée sur chaque
     entrée de 'cls'.  Le résultat sera ‘1’ quand au moins une des
     vérifications renvoie ‘1’, sinon ce sera ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f36. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(1).  Otherwise, 'derived' is a subclass of 'cls' if it is a
     direct or indirect subclass, i.e.  contained in *note cls.__mro__:
     1ee5.

     Normally only class objects, i.e.  instances of *note type: d38. or
     a derived class, are considered classes.  However, objects can
     override this by having a *note __bases__: 1462. attribute (which
     must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_IsInstance (PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie ‘1’ si 'inst' est
     une instance de la classe 'cls' ou une sous-classe de 'cls', ou ‘0’
     sinon.  En cas d'erreur, renvoie ‘-1’ et initialise une exception.

     Si 'cls' est un 'n'-uplet, la vérification est menée sur chaque
     entrée de 'cls'.  Le résultat sera ‘1’ quand au moins une des
     vérifications renvoie ‘1’, sinon ce sera ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __instancecheck__(): 1f35. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(2).  Otherwise, 'inst' is an instance of 'cls' if its class is
     a subclass of 'cls'.

     An instance 'inst' can override what is considered its class by
     having a *note __class__: 1463. attribute.

     An object 'cls' can override if it is considered a class, and what
     its base classes are, by having a *note __bases__: 1462. attribute
     (which must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_hash_t: 1244. PyObject_Hash (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Compute and return the hash value of an object 'o'.  On failure,
     return ‘-1’.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘hash(o)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The return type is now Py_hash_t.
     This is a signed integer the same size as *note Py_ssize_t: a50.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_hash_t: 1244. PyObject_HashNotImplemented
          (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set a *note TypeError: 525.
     indicating that ‘type(o)’ is not *note hashable: 5fd. and return
     ‘-1’.  This function receives special treatment when stored in a
     ‘tp_hash’ slot, allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the
     interpreter that it is not hashable.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_IsTrue (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object
     'o' is considered to be true, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘not not o’.  On failure,
     return ‘-1’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_Not (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Returns ‘0’ if the object
     'o' is considered to be true, and ‘1’ otherwise.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘not o’.  On failure, return
     ‘-1’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Type (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     When 'o' is non-‘NULL’, returns a type object corresponding to the
     object type of object 'o'.  On failure, raises *note SystemError:
     563. and returns ‘NULL’.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘type(o)’.  This function creates a new *note strong
     reference: 333. to the return value.  There's really no reason to
     use this function instead of the *note Py_TYPE(): 76c. function,
     which returns a pointer of type *note PyTypeObject: a95.*, except
     when a new *note strong reference: 333. is needed.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_TypeCheck (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is of type 'type' or a subtype of
     'type', and ‘0’ otherwise.  Both parameters must be non-‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyObject_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyObject_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the length of object 'o'.  If the object 'o' provides either
     the sequence and mapping protocols, the sequence length is
     returned.  On error, ‘-1’ is returned.  This is the equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyObject_LengthHint (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t defaultvalue)

     Return an estimated length for the object 'o'.  First try to return
     its actual length, then an estimate using *note __length_hint__():
     ef8, and finally return the default value.  On error return ‘-1’.
     This is the equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *key)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return element of 'o' corresponding to the object 'key'
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o[key]’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_SetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Map the object 'key' to the
     value 'v'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return
     ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o[key] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'v'.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Remove the mapping for the
     object 'key' from the object 'o'.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     equivalent to the Python statement ‘del o[key]’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Dir (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘dir(o)’,
     returning a (possibly empty) list of strings appropriate for the
     object argument, or ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  If the argument
     is ‘NULL’, this is like the Python ‘dir()’, returning the names of
     the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame is active
     then ‘NULL’ is returned but *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. will
     return false.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GetIter (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘iter(o)’.
     It returns a new iterator for the object argument, or the object
     itself if the object is already an iterator.  Raises *note
     TypeError: 525. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be
     iterated.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_SelfIter (PyObject *obj)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is equivalent to the Python ‘__iter__(self):
     return self’ method.  It is intended for *note iterator: 1aa.
     types, to be used in the *note PyTypeObject.tp_iter: 14a6. slot.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_GetAIter (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  This is the equivalent to the
     Python expression ‘aiter(o)’.  Takes an ‘AsyncIterable’ object and
     returns an ‘AsyncIterator’ for it.  This is typically a new
     iterator but if the argument is an ‘AsyncIterator’, this returns
     itself.  Raises *note TypeError: 525. and returns ‘NULL’ if the
     object cannot be iterated.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyObject_GetTypeData (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject
          *cls)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Get
     a pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for 'cls'.

     The object 'o' must be an instance of 'cls', and 'cls' must have
     been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536.
     Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyType_GetTypeDataSize
          (PyTypeObject *cls)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'
     Return the size of the instance memory space reserved for 'cls',
     i.e.  the size of the memory *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 537.
     returns.

     This may be larger than requested using *note
     -PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536.; it is safe to use this larger size
     (e.g.  with ‘memset()’).

     The type 'cls' 'must' have been created using negative *note
     PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536.  Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return a negative value.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyObject_GetItemData (PyObject *o)

     Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 539.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note TypeError:
     525. is raised if 'o' does not have *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END:
     539. set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_VisitManagedDict (PyObject *obj, visitproc
          visit, void *arg)

     Visit the managed dictionary of 'obj'.

     This function must only be called in a traverse function of the
     type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. flag set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_ClearManagedDict (PyObject *obj)

     Clear the managed dictionary of 'obj'.

     This function must only be called in a traverse function of the
     type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. flag set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: Call Protocol,  Next: Number Protocol,  Prev: Protocole Objet,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.2 Call Protocol
-------------------

CPython supports two different calling protocols: 'tp_call' and
vectorcall.

* Menu:

* The tp_call Protocol::
* The Vectorcall Protocol::
* Object Calling API::
* Call Support API::


File: python.info,  Node: The tp_call Protocol,  Next: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.1 The 'tp_call' Protocol
..............................

Instances of classes that set *note tp_call: 547. are callable.  The
signature of the slot is:

     PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

A call is made using a tuple for the positional arguments and a dict for
the keyword arguments, similarly to ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ in
Python code.  'args' must be non-NULL (use an empty tuple if there are
no arguments) but 'kwargs' may be 'NULL' if there are no keyword
arguments.

This convention is not only used by 'tp_call': *note tp_new: 56d. and
*note tp_init: 56f. also pass arguments this way.

To call an object, use *note PyObject_Call(): 393. or another *note call
API: 4ae7.


File: python.info,  Node: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Next: Object Calling API,  Prev: The tp_call Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.2 The Vectorcall Protocol
...............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

The vectorcall protocol was introduced in PEP 590(1) as an additional
protocol for making calls more efficient.

As rule of thumb, CPython will prefer the vectorcall for internal calls
if the callable supports it.  However, this is not a hard rule.
Additionally, some third-party extensions use 'tp_call' directly (rather
than using *note PyObject_Call(): 393.).  Therefore, a class supporting
vectorcall must also implement *note tp_call: 547.  Moreover, the
callable must behave the same regardless of which protocol is used.  The
recommended way to achieve this is by setting *note tp_call: 547. to
*note PyVectorcall_Call(): 544.  This bears repeating:

     Avertissement: A class supporting vectorcall 'must' also implement
     *note tp_call: 547. with the same semantics.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542.
flag is now removed from a class when the class's *note __call__(): 546.
method is reassigned.  (This internally sets *note tp_call: 547. only,
and thus may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.)
In earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with *note
immutable: 3b9. or static types.

A class should not implement vectorcall if that would be slower than
'tp_call'.  For example, if the callee needs to convert the arguments to
an args tuple and kwargs dict anyway, then there is no point in
implementing vectorcall.

Classes can implement the vectorcall protocol by enabling the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag and setting *note
tp_vectorcall_offset: 4ae9. to the offset inside the object structure
where a 'vectorcallfunc' appears.  This is a pointer to a function with
the following signature:

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*vectorcallfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 32f. *callable, *note PyObject: 32f. *const *args,
          size_t nargsf, *note PyObject: 32f. *kwnames)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'

   - 'callable' is the object being called.

   - 
     'args' is a C array consisting of the positional arguments followed by the

          values of the keyword arguments.  This can be 'NULL' if there
          are no arguments.

   - 
     'nargsf' is the number of positional arguments plus possibly the

          *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 54c. flag.  To get the
          actual number of positional arguments from 'nargsf', use *note
          PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 543.

   - 
     'kwnames' is a tuple containing the names of the keyword arguments;

          in other words, the keys of the kwargs dict.  These names must
          be strings (instances of ‘str’ or a subclass) and they must be
          unique.  If there are no keyword arguments, then 'kwnames' can
          instead be 'NULL'.

 -- C Macro: PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  If
     this flag is set in a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, the callee is
     allowed to temporarily change ‘args[-1]’.  In other words, 'args'
     points to argument 1 (not 0) in the allocated vector.  The callee
     must restore the value of ‘args[-1]’ before returning.

     For *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 54b, this flag means instead
     that ‘args[0]’ may be changed.

     Whenever they can do so cheaply (without additional allocation),
     callers are encouraged to use *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET:
     54c.  Doing so will allow callables such as bound methods to make
     their onward calls (which include a prepended 'self' argument) very
     efficiently.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

To call an object that implements vectorcall, use a *note call API:
4ae7. function as with any other callable.  *note PyObject_Vectorcall():
54a. will usually be most efficient.

* Menu:

* Contrôle de la récursion: Contrôle de la récursion<2>.
* Vectorcall Support API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Contrôle de la récursion<2>,  Next: Vectorcall Support API,  Up: The Vectorcall Protocol

7.7.2.3 Contrôle de la récursion
................................

When using 'tp_call', callees do not need to worry about *note
recursion: 4a82.: CPython uses *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 962. and
*note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 963. for calls made using 'tp_call'.

For efficiency, this is not the case for calls done using vectorcall:
the callee should use 'Py_EnterRecursiveCall' and
'Py_LeaveRecursiveCall' if needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Vectorcall Support API,  Prev: Contrôle de la récursion<2>,  Up: The Vectorcall Protocol

7.7.2.4 Vectorcall Support API
..............................

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyVectorcall_NARGS (size_t
          nargsf)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'
     Given a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, return the actual number of
     arguments.  Currently equivalent to:

          (Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET)

     However, the function ‘PyVectorcall_NARGS’ should be used to allow
     for future extensions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- C Fonction: *note vectorcallfunc: 545. PyVectorcall_Function
          (PyObject *op)

     If 'op' does not support the vectorcall protocol (either because
     the type does not or because the specific instance does not),
     return 'NULL'. Otherwise, return the vectorcall function pointer
     stored in 'op'.  This function never raises an exception.

     This is mostly useful to check whether or not 'op' supports
     vectorcall, which can be done by checking
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyVectorcall_Call (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Call
     'callable"s *note vectorcallfunc: 545. with positional and keyword
     arguments given in a tuple and dict, respectively.

     This is a specialized function, intended to be put in the *note
     tp_call: 547. slot or be used in an implementation of ‘tp_call’.
     It does not check the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag
     and it does not fall back to ‘tp_call’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Object Calling API,  Next: Call Support API,  Prev: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.5 Object Calling API
..........................

Various functions are available for calling a Python object.  Each
converts its arguments to a convention supported by the called object –
either 'tp_call' or vectorcall.  In order to do as little conversion as
possible, pick one that best fits the format of data you have available.

The following table summarizes the available functions; please see
individual documentation for details.

Fonction                                       appelable              args                     kwargs
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Call(): 393.                    ‘PyObject *’           'n'-uplet                dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 392.              ‘PyObject *’           --                       --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 967.              ‘PyObject *’           1 object                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 484e.             ‘PyObject *’           tuple/‘NULL’             --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunction(): 395.            ‘PyObject *’           format                   --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396.              obj + ‘char*’          format                   --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 49a1.    ‘PyObject *’           variadic                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19bb.      obj + name             variadic                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): 4aee.       obj + name             --                       --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): 4aef.       obj + name             1 object                 --
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 54a.              ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallDict(): 4af0.         ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 54b.        arg + name             vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Call (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Appelle un objet Python appelable 'callable', avec des
     arguments donnés par le 'n'-uplet 'args', et des arguments nommés
     donnés par le dictionnaire 'kwargs'.

     'args' must not be 'NULL'; use an empty tuple if no arguments are
     needed.  If no named arguments are needed, 'kwargs' can be 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python : ‘callable(*args,
     **kwargs)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallNoArgs (PyObject
          *callable)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Call a callable Python object
     'callable' without any arguments.  It is the most efficient way to
     call a callable Python object without any argument.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallOneArg (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Call a callable Python
     object 'callable' with exactly 1 positional argument 'arg' and no
     keyword arguments.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallObject (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *args)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with
     arguments given by the tuple 'args'.  If no arguments are needed,
     then 'args' can be 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python : ‘callable(*args)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallFunction (PyObject
          *callable, const char *format, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a
     variable number of C arguments.  The C arguments are described
     using a *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. style format string.  The
     format can be 'NULL', indicating that no arguments are provided.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python : ‘callable(*args)’.

     Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 32f.* args, *note
     PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 49a1. is a faster alternative.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The type of 'format' was changed from
     ‘char *’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallMethod (PyObject
          *obj, const char *name, const char *format, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Call the method named 'name' of object 'obj' with a
     variable number of C arguments.  The C arguments are described by a
     *note Py_BuildValue(): 896. format string that should produce a
     tuple.

     The format can be 'NULL', indicating that no arguments are
     provided.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘obj.name(arg1,
     arg2, ...)’.

     Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 32f.* args, *note
     PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19bb. is a faster alternative.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The types of 'name' and 'format' were
     changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs
          (PyObject *callable, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a
     variable number of *note PyObject: 32f.* arguments.  The arguments
     are provided as a variable number of parameters followed by 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(arg1,
     arg2, ...)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs
          (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Call a method of the Python object 'obj', where the
     name of the method is given as a Python string object in 'name'.
     It is called with a variable number of *note PyObject: 32f.*
     arguments.  The arguments are provided as a variable number of
     parameters followed by 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs
          (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name)

     Call a method of the Python object 'obj' without arguments, where
     the name of the method is given as a Python string object in
     'name'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg
          (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg)

     Call a method of the Python object 'obj' with a single positional
     argument 'arg', where the name of the method is given as a Python
     string object in 'name'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Vectorcall (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Call
     a callable Python object 'callable'.  The arguments are the same as
     for *note vectorcallfunc: 545.  If 'callable' supports *note
     vectorcall: 540, this directly calls the vectorcall function stored
     in 'callable'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_VectorcallDict (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwdict)

     Call 'callable' with positional arguments passed exactly as in the
     *note vectorcall: 540. protocol, but with keyword arguments passed
     as a dictionary 'kwdict'.  The 'args' array contains only the
     positional arguments.

     Regardless of which protocol is used internally, a conversion of
     arguments needs to be done.  Therefore, this function should only
     be used if the caller already has a dictionary ready to use for the
     keyword arguments, but not a tuple for the positional arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_VectorcallMethod
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf,
          PyObject *kwnames)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'  Call
     a method using the vectorcall calling convention.  The name of the
     method is given as a Python string 'name'.  The object whose method
     is called is 'args[0]', and the 'args' array starting at 'args[1]'
     represents the arguments of the call.  There must be at least one
     positional argument.  'nargsf' is the number of positional
     arguments including 'args[0]', plus *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 54c. if the value of ‘args[0]’ may
     temporarily be changed.  Keyword arguments can be passed just like
     in *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 54a.

     If the object has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 4af1.
     feature, this will call the unbound method object with the full
     'args' vector as arguments.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Call Support API,  Prev: Object Calling API,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.6 Call Support API
........................

 -- C Fonction: int PyCallable_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Détermine si l'objet 'o' est
     appelable.  Renvoie ‘1’ si c'est le cas, et ‘0’ sinon.  Cette
     fonction réussit toujours.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Protocol,  Next: Sequence Protocol,  Prev: Call Protocol,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.3 Number Protocol
---------------------

 -- C Fonction: int PyNumber_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object
     'o' provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise.  This function
     always succeeds.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index
     integer.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Add (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 +
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Subtract (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 - o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Multiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 * o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Returns the result of matrix
     multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 @ o2’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_FloorDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the floor of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 //
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_TrueDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical
     value of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return
     value is "approximate" because binary floating-point numbers are
     approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in
     base two.  This function can return a floating-point value when
     passed two integers.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 / o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Remainder (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 % o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Divmod (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     See the built-in function *note divmod(): 991.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘divmod(o1, o2)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Power (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 9c2.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘pow(o1,
     o2, o3)’, where 'o3' is optional.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass
     *note Py_None: 4842. in its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would
     cause an illegal memory access).

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Negative (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘-o’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Positive (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘+o’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Absolute (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Returns the absolute value of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘abs(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Invert (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the bitwise negation of 'o' on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘~o’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Lshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 << o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Rshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 >> o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_And (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the "bitwise and" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success
     and ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 & o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Xor (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the "bitwise exclusive or" of 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 ^ o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Or (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the "bitwise or" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 | o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports
     it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 += o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 -=
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 *=
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Returns the result of matrix
     multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 @= o2’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the mathematical floor of dividing 'o1' by
     'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when
     'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o1 //= o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical
     value of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return
     value is "approximate" because binary floating-point numbers are
     approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in
     base two.  This function can return a floating-point value when
     passed two integers.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 /=
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 %=
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlacePower (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 9c2.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 **= o2’ when o3
     is *note Py_None: 4842, or an in-place variant of ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’
     otherwise.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass *note Py_None: 4842. in
     its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would cause an illegal memory
     access).

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 <<= o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 >>= o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the "bitwise and" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success
     and ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 &=
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceXor (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the "bitwise exclusive or" of 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 ^= o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_InPlaceOr (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the "bitwise or" of 'o1' and 'o2' on success,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 |=
     o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Long (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to an integer object on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘int(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Float (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to a float object on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘float(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_Index (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the 'o' converted to a Python int on success or
     ‘NULL’ with a *note TypeError: 525. exception raised on failure.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The result always has exact type
     *note int: 254.  Previously, the result could have been an instance
     of a subclass of ‘int’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyNumber_ToBase (PyObject *n, int
          base)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Returns the integer 'n' converted to base 'base' as a
     string.  The 'base' argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16.  For
     base 2, 8, or 16, the returned string is prefixed with a base
     marker of ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, or ‘'0x'’, respectively.  If 'n' is not a
     Python int, it is converted with *note PyNumber_Index(): 881.
     first.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyNumber_AsSsize_t (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Returns 'o' converted to a
     *note Py_ssize_t: a50. value if 'o' can be interpreted as an
     integer.  If the call fails, an exception is raised and ‘-1’ is
     returned.

     If 'o' can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to convert
     to a *note Py_ssize_t: a50. value would raise an *note
     OverflowError: 86f, then the 'exc' argument is the type of
     exception that will be raised (usually *note IndexError: 14ec. or
     *note OverflowError: 86f.).  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, then the exception
     is cleared and the value is clipped to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ for a
     negative integer or ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ for a positive integer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyIndex_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.8.'
     Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer (has the ‘nb_index’ slot of
     the ‘tp_as_number’ structure filled in), and ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Protocol,  Next: Protocole de correspondance,  Prev: Number Protocol,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.4 Sequence Protocol
-----------------------

 -- C Fonction: int PySequence_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the sequence protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise.  Note that it
     returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a *note __getitem__(): 280.
     method, unless they are *note dict: 253. subclasses, since in
     general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class
     supports.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySequence_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySequence_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Returns the number of objects in sequence 'o' on success, and ‘-1’
     on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_Concat (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success,
     and ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 + o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_Repeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o'
     'count' times, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o * count’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_InPlaceConcat (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success,
     and ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1
     += o2’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (PyObject
          *o, Py_ssize_t count)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o'
     'count' times, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done
     'in-place' when 'o' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o *= count’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the 'i'th element of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[i]’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_GetSlice (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the slice of sequence object 'o' between 'i1'
     and 'i2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C Fonction: int PySequence_SetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Assign object 'v' to the
     'i'th element of 'o'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on
     failure; return ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python statement ‘o[i] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a
     reference to 'v'.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the element is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a13.

 -- C Fonction: int PySequence_DelItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Delete the 'i'th element of
     object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of
     the Python statement ‘del o[i]’.

 -- C Fonction: int PySequence_SetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Assign the sequence object
     'v' to the slice in sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[i1:i2] = v’.

 -- C Fonction: int PySequence_DelSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Delete the slice in sequence
     object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySequence_Count (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the number of
     occurrences of 'value' in 'o', that is, return the number of keys
     for which ‘o[key] == value’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.count(value)’.

 -- C Fonction: int PySequence_Contains (PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Determine if 'o' contains
     'value'.  If an item in 'o' is equal to 'value', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘value in o’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySequence_Index (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the first index 'i'
     for which ‘o[i] == value’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.index(value)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_List (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a list object with the same contents as the
     sequence or iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The returned list
     is guaranteed to be new.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘list(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_Tuple (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or
     iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'o' is a tuple, a new
     reference will be returned, otherwise a tuple will be constructed
     with the appropriate contents.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘tuple(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_Fast (PyObject *o,
          const char *m)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the sequence or iterable 'o' as an object usable
     by the other ‘PySequence_Fast*’ family of functions.  If the object
     is not a sequence or iterable, raises *note TypeError: 525. with
     'm' as the message text.  Returns ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The ‘PySequence_Fast*’ functions are thus named because they assume
     'o' is a *note PyTupleObject: 4a92. or a *note PyListObject: 4af9.
     and access the data fields of 'o' directly.

     As a CPython implementation detail, if 'o' is already a sequence or
     list, it will be returned.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE
          (PyObject *o)

     Returns the length of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 49ba. and that 'o' is not ‘NULL’.  The size can
     also be retrieved by calling *note PySequence_Size(): 1a10. on 'o',
     but *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(): 4afa. is faster because it
     can assume 'o' is a list or tuple.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (PyObject
          *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Return the 'i'th element
     of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note PySequence_Fast():
     49ba, 'o' is not ‘NULL’, and that 'i' is within bounds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (PyObject
          *o)

     Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers.  Assumes that 'o'
     was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 49ba. and 'o' is not
     ‘NULL’.

     Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the
     items array.  So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts
     where the sequence cannot change.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySequence_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return the 'i'th element
     of 'o' or ‘NULL’ on failure.  Faster form of *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11. but without checking that *note
     PySequence_Check(): 49b5. on 'o' is true and without adjustment for
     negative indices.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole de correspondance,  Next: Protocole d'itération,  Prev: Sequence Protocol,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.5 Protocole de correspondance
---------------------------------

Voir aussi *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d, *note PyObject_SetItem():
48ce. et *note PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the mapping protocol or supports slicing, and ‘0’
     otherwise.  Note that it returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a
     *note __getitem__(): 280. method, since in general it is impossible
     to determine what type of keys the class supports.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyMapping_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyMapping_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Renvoie le nombre de clefs dans l'objet 'o' et ‘-1’ en cas d'échec.
     C'est l'équivalent de l'expression Python ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMapping_GetItemString (PyObject
          *o, const char *key)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d, but
     'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string,
     rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (PyObject *obj, PyObject
          *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Variant of *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d. which doesn't raise *note
     KeyError: 33a. if the key is not found.

     If the key is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new *note
     strong reference: 333. to the corresponding value.  If the key is
     not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note
     KeyError: 33a. is silenced.  If an error other than *note KeyError:
     33a. is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (PyObject *obj,
          const char *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  This
     is the same as *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33b, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_SetItemString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetItem(): 48ce, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

     This is an alias of *note PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)

     This is the same as *note PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Return ‘1’ if the mapping object has the key 'key' and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘key in o’.
     On failure, return ‘-1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (PyObject *o, const
          char *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  This
     is the same as *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 374, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_HasKey (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie ‘1’ si l'objet de
     correspondance possède une clef 'key' et ‘0’ sinon.  C'est
     l'équivalent de l'expression Python ‘key in o’.  Cette fonction ne
     provoque jamais d'erreur.

          Note: Exceptions which occur when this calls *note
          __getitem__(): 280. method are silently ignored.  For proper
          error handling, use *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 374,
          *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33b. or *note
          PyObject_GetItem(): 33d. instead.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMapping_HasKeyString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyMapping_HasKey(): 375, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

          Note: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getitem__(): 280. method or while creating the temporary
          *note str: 437. object are silently ignored.  For proper error
          handling, use *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 376,
          *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 33c. or *note
          PyMapping_GetItemString(): 33e. instead.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMapping_Keys (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie la liste des clefs dans l'objet 'o'.  En cas
     d'échec, renvoie 'NULL'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Auparavant, la fonction renvoyait une
     liste ou un 'n'-uplet.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMapping_Values (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie la liste des valeurs dans l'objet 'o'.  En cas
     d'échec, renvoie 'NULL'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Auparavant, la fonction renvoyait une
     liste ou un 'n'-uplet.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMapping_Items (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie la liste des éléments dans l'objet 'o', où
     chaque élément est un n-uplet contenant une paire clef-valeur.  En
     cas d'échec, renvoie 'NULL'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Auparavant, la fonction renvoyait une
     liste ou un 'n'-uplet.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole d'itération,  Next: Protocole tampon,  Prev: Protocole de correspondance,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.6 Protocole d'itération
---------------------------

Il existe deux fonctions dédiées à l'interaction avec les itérateurs.

 -- C Fonction: int PyIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.8.'
     Return non-zero if the object 'o' can be safely passed to *note
     PyIter_Next(): 4959, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyAIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Return non-zero if the object 'o' provides the ‘AsyncIterator’
     protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always succeeds.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyIter_Next (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the next value from the iterator 'o'.  The
     object must be an iterator according to *note PyIter_Check(): 18b1.
     (it is up to the caller to check this).  If there are no remaining
     values, returns ‘NULL’ with no exception set.  If an error occurs
     while retrieving the item, returns ‘NULL’ and passes along the
     exception.

Pour écrire une boucle itérant un itérateur, le code C devrait
ressembler à :

     PyObject *iterator = PyObject_GetIter(obj);
     PyObject *item;

     if (iterator == NULL) {
         /* propagate error */
     }

     while ((item = PyIter_Next(iterator))) {
         /* do something with item */
         ...
         /* release reference when done */
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

     Py_DECREF(iterator);

     if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
         /* propagate error */
     }
     else {
         /* continue doing useful work */
     }

 -- C Type: type PySendResult

     The enum value used to represent different results of *note
     PyIter_Send(): 886.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: *note PySendResult: 4b06. PyIter_Send (PyObject *iter,
          PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Sends the 'arg' value into the iterator 'iter'.  Returns:

        - ‘PYGEN_RETURN’ if iterator returns.  Return value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_NEXT’ if iterator yields.  Yielded value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_ERROR’ if iterator has raised and exception.  'presult'
          is set to ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole tampon,  Prev: Protocole d'itération,  Up: Couche d'abstraction des objets

7.7.7 Protocole tampon
----------------------

Certains objets Python enveloppent l'accès à un tableau de mémoire
sous-jacente (nommée zone tampon ou simplement tampon, 'buffer' en
anglais).  Les objets natifs *note bytes: 1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b.
en sont des exemples, ainsi que quelques types d'extension comme *note
array.array: 19e.  Les bibliothèques tierces peuvent définir leurs
propres types à des fins spéciales, telles que le traitement d'image ou
l'analyse numérique.

Alors que chacun de ces types a sa propre sémantique, ils partagent la
caractéristique commune d'être soutenus par un tampon de mémoire
important.  Il est donc souhaitable, dans certains cas, d'accéder à
cette mémoire directement sans l'étape intermédiaire de copie.

Python fournit une telle facilité au niveau du C sous la forme de *note
protocole tampon: 38e.  Ce protocole comporte deux aspects :

   - du côté producteur, un type peut exporter une "interface tampon"
     qui permet aux objets de ce type d'exposer des informations
     concernant leur tampon sous-jacent.  Cette interface est décrite
     dans la section *note Buffer Object Structures: 4b09. ;

   - du côté consommateur, plusieurs moyens sont disponibles pour
     obtenir un pointeur vers les données sous-jacentes brutes d'un
     objet (par exemple un paramètre de méthode).

Des objets simples tels que *note bytes: 1bd. et *note bytearray: 52b.
exposent leur tampon sous-jacent dans un format orienté octet.  D'autres
formes sont possibles ; par exemple, les éléments exposés par un *note
array.array: 19e. peuvent être des valeurs multi-octets.

An example consumer of the buffer interface is the *note write(): ccb.
method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes
through the buffer interface can be written to a file.  While ‘write()’
only needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object
passed to it, other methods such as *note readinto(): 2bda. need write
access to the contents of their argument.  The buffer interface allows
objects to selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and
read-only buffers.

Un consommateur de l'interface tampon peut acquérir un tampon sur un
objet cible de deux manières :

   * appelez *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. avec les paramètres
     appropriés ;

   * appelez *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. (ou l'un de ses fonctions
     sœurs) avec l'un des ‘y*’, ‘w*’ ou ‘s*’ *note format codes: 897.

Dans les deux cas, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. doit être appelée
quand le tampon n'est plus nécessaire.  Ne pas le faire peut conduire à
divers problèmes tels que des fuites de ressources.

* Menu:

* La structure buffer::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Fonctions relatives aux tampons::


File: python.info,  Node: La structure buffer,  Next: Buffer request types,  Up: Protocole tampon

7.7.7.1 La structure 'buffer'
.............................

Les structures tampons (ou simplement les "tampons", 'buffers' en
anglais) sont utiles pour exposer les données binaires d'un autre objet
au programmeur Python.  Elles peuvent également être utilisées comme un
mécanisme de découpage sans copie.  En utilisant leur capacité à
référencer un bloc de mémoire, il est possible d'exposer toutes les
données au programmeur Python assez facilement.  La mémoire peut être un
grand tableau constant dans une extension C, il peut s'agir d'un bloc
brut de mémoire à manipuler avant de passer à une bibliothèque de
système d'exploitation ou être utilisé pour transmettre des données
structurées dans son format natif en mémoire.

Contrairement à la plupart des types de données exposés par
l'interpréteur Python, les tampons ne sont pas de simples pointeurs vers
*note PyObject: 32f. mais plutôt des structures C simples.  Cela leur
permet d'être créés et copiés très simplement.  lorsque vous avez besoin
d'une enveloppe générique ('wrapper' en anglais) pour un tampon, un
objet *note memoryview: 4b0c. peut être créé.

For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see *note
Buffer Object Structures: 4b09.  For obtaining a buffer, see *note
PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390.

 -- C Type: type Py_buffer
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members) Depuis
     la version 3.11.'
      -- C Membre: void *buf

          A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by
          the buffer fields.  This can be any location within the
          underlying physical memory block of the exporter.  For
          example, with negative *note strides: 4b0e. the value may
          point to the end of the memory block.

          For *note contiguous: 21e4. arrays, the value points to the
          beginning of the memory block.

      -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. *obj

          A new reference to the exporting object.  The reference is
          owned by the consumer and automatically released (i.e.
          reference count decremented) and set to ‘NULL’ by *note
          PyBuffer_Release(): 391.  The field is the equivalent of the
          return value of any standard C-API function.

          As a special case, for 'temporary' buffers that are wrapped by
          *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 74d. or *note
          PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 74c. this field is ‘NULL’.  In general,
          exporting objects MUST NOT use this scheme.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. len

          ‘product(shape) * itemsize’.  For contiguous arrays, this is
          the length of the underlying memory block.  For non-contiguous
          arrays, it is the length that the logical structure would have
          if it were copied to a contiguous representation.

          Accessing ‘((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]’ is
          only valid if the buffer has been obtained by a request that
          guarantees contiguity.  In most cases such a request will be
          *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4b11. or *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373.

      -- C Membre: int readonly

          An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only.  This field
          is controlled by the *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. flag.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. itemsize

          Item size in bytes of a single element.  Same as the value of
          *note struct.calcsize(): 1982. called on non-‘NULL’ *note
          format: 4b14. values.

          Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without
          the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4b15. flag, *note format: 4b14. will
          be set to ‘NULL’, but *note itemsize: 4b13. still has the
          value for the original format.

          If *note shape: 4b16. is present, the equality ‘product(shape)
          * itemsize == len’ still holds and the consumer can use *note
          itemsize: 4b13. to navigate the buffer.

          If *note shape: 4b16. is ‘NULL’ as a result of a *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4b11. or a *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. request,
          the consumer must disregard *note itemsize: 4b13. and assume
          ‘itemsize == 1’.

      -- C Membre: char *format

          A 'NULL' terminated string in *note struct: d4. module style
          syntax describing the contents of a single item.  If this is
          ‘NULL’, ‘"B"’ (unsigned bytes) is assumed.

          This field is controlled by the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4b15.
          flag.

      -- C Membre: int ndim

          The number of dimensions the memory represents as an
          n-dimensional array.  If it is ‘0’, *note buf: 4b0d. points to
          a single item representing a scalar.  In this case, *note
          shape: 4b16, *note strides: 4b0e. and *note suboffsets: 4b18.
          MUST be ‘NULL’.  The maximum number of dimensions is given by
          *note PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 4b19.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *shape

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: a50. of length *note ndim: 4b17.
          indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array.
          Note that ‘shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize’ MUST be
          equal to *note len: 4b10.

          Shape values are restricted to ‘shape[n] >= 0’.  The case
          ‘shape[n] == 0’ requires special attention.  See *note complex
          arrays: 4b1a. for further information.

          The shape array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *strides

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: a50. of length *note ndim: 4b17.
          giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in
          each dimension.

          Stride values can be any integer.  For regular arrays, strides
          are usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle
          the case ‘strides[n] <= 0’.  See *note complex arrays: 4b1a.
          for further information.

          The strides array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *suboffsets

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: a50. of length *note ndim: 4b17.
          If ‘suboffsets[n] >= 0’, the values stored along the nth
          dimension are pointers and the suboffset value dictates how
          many bytes to add to each pointer after de-referencing.  A
          suboffset value that is negative indicates that no
          de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous memory
          block).

          If all suboffsets are negative (i.e.  no de-referencing is
          needed), then this field must be ‘NULL’ (the default value).

          This type of array representation is used by the Python
          Imaging Library (PIL). See *note complex arrays: 4b1a. for
          further information how to access elements of such an array.

          The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Membre: void *internal

          This is for use internally by the exporting object.  For
          example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter
          and used to store flags about whether or not the shape,
          strides, and suboffsets arrays must be freed when the buffer
          is released.  The consumer MUST NOT alter this value.

Constants:

 -- C Macro: PyBUF_MAX_NDIM

     The maximum number of dimensions the memory represents.  Exporters
     MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional buffers
     SHOULD be able to handle up to ‘PyBUF_MAX_NDIM’ dimensions.
     Currently set to 64.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer request types,  Next: Complex arrays,  Prev: La structure buffer,  Up: Protocole tampon

7.7.7.2 Buffer request types
............................

Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting
object via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390.  Since the complexity of the
logical structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses
the 'flags' argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.

All *note Py_buffer: 744. fields are unambiguously defined by the
request type.

* Menu:

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::


File: python.info,  Node: request-independent fields,  Next: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.3 request-independent fields
..................................

The following fields are not influenced by 'flags' and must always be
filled in with the correct values: *note obj: 4b0f, *note buf: 4b0d,
*note len: 4b10, *note itemsize: 4b13, *note ndim: 4b17.


File: python.info,  Node: readonly format,  Next: shape strides suboffsets,  Prev: request-independent fields,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.4 readonly, format
........................

      -- C Macro: PyBUF_WRITABLE

          Controls the *note readonly: 4b12. field.  If set, the
          exporter MUST provide a writable buffer or else report
          failure.  Otherwise, the exporter MAY provide either a
          read-only or writable buffer, but the choice MUST be
          consistent for all consumers.  For example, *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4b11. | *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. can be used
          to request a simple writable buffer.

      -- C Macro: PyBUF_FORMAT

          Controls the *note format: 4b14. field.  If set, this field
          MUST be filled in correctly.  Otherwise, this field MUST be
          ‘NULL’.

*note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. can be |'d to any of the flags in the next
section.  Since *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4b11. is defined as 0, *note
PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a
simple writable buffer.

*note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4b15. must be |'d to any of the flags except *note
PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4b11, because the latter already implies format ‘B’
(unsigned bytes).  ‘PyBUF_FORMAT’ cannot be used on its own.


File: python.info,  Node: shape strides suboffsets,  Next: contiguity requests,  Prev: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.5 shape, strides, suboffsets
..................................

The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed in
decreasing order of complexity.  Note that each flag contains all bits
of the flags below it.

Request                           shape       strides       suboffsets
                                                            
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_INDIRECT       oui         oui           si nécessaire
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_STRIDES        oui         oui           NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_ND             oui         NULL          NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_SIMPLE         NULL        NULL          NULL
                                                            


File: python.info,  Node: contiguity requests,  Next: compound requests,  Prev: shape strides suboffsets,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.6 contiguity requests
...........................

C or Fortran *note contiguity: 21e4. can be explicitly requested, with
and without stride information.  Without stride information, the buffer
must be C-contiguous.

Request                                 shape       strides       suboffsets       contig
                                                                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                   
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS         oui         oui           NULL             C
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS         oui         oui           NULL             F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS       oui         oui           NULL             C or F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
*note PyBUF_ND: 4b22.                   oui         NULL          NULL             C
                                                                                   


File: python.info,  Node: compound requests,  Prev: contiguity requests,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.7 compound requests
.........................

All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags
in the previous section.  For convenience, the buffer protocol provides
frequently used combinations as single flags.

In the following table 'U' stands for undefined contiguity.  The
consumer would have to call *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 74a. to
determine contiguity.

Request                             shape       strides       suboffsets       contig       lecture        format
                                                                                            seule          
                                                                                            
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_FULL             oui         oui           si nécessaire    U            0              oui
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_FULL_RO          oui         oui           si nécessaire    U            0 ou 1         oui
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_RECORDS          oui         oui           NULL             U            0              oui
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO       oui         oui           NULL             U            0 ou 1         oui
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_STRIDED          oui         oui           NULL             U            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO       oui         oui           NULL             U            0 ou 1         NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_CONTIG           oui         NULL          NULL             C            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Macro: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO        oui         NULL          NULL             C            0 ou 1         NULL
                                                                                                           


File: python.info,  Node: Complex arrays,  Next: Fonctions relatives aux tampons,  Prev: Buffer request types,  Up: Protocole tampon

7.7.7.8 Complex arrays
......................

* Menu:

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.


File: python.info,  Node: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Next: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Up: Complex arrays

7.7.7.9 NumPy-style: shape and strides
......................................

The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by *note
itemsize: 4b13, *note ndim: 4b17, *note shape: 4b16. and *note strides:
4b0e.

If ‘ndim == 0’, the memory location pointed to by *note buf: 4b0d. is
interpreted as a scalar of size *note itemsize: 4b13.  In that case,
both *note shape: 4b16. and *note strides: 4b0e. are ‘NULL’.

If *note strides: 4b0e. is ‘NULL’, the array is interpreted as a
standard n-dimensional C-array.  Otherwise, the consumer must access an
n-dimensional array as follows:

     ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1];
     item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);

As noted above, *note buf: 4b0d. can point to any location within the
actual memory block.  An exporter can check the validity of a buffer
with this function:

     def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
         """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within
            the bounds of the allocated memory:
                char *mem: start of the physical memory block
                memlen: length of the physical memory block
                offset: (char *)buf - mem
         """
         if offset % itemsize:
             return False
         if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
             return False
         if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
             return False

         if ndim <= 0:
             return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
         if 0 in shape:
             return True

         imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] <= 0)
         imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] > 0)

         return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen


File: python.info,  Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Prev: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Up: Complex arrays

7.7.7.10 PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets
.................................................

In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers
that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a
dimension.  For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ‘char
v[2][2][3]’ can also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2
two-dimensional arrays: ‘char (*v[2])[2][3]’.  In suboffsets
representation, those two pointers can be embedded at the start of *note
buf: 4b0d, pointing to two ‘char x[2][3]’ arrays that can be located
anywhere in memory.

Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array
pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-‘NULL’
strides and suboffsets:

     void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
                            Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
         char *pointer = (char*)buf;
         int i;
         for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
             pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
             if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
                 pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
             }
         }
         return (void*)pointer;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions relatives aux tampons,  Prev: Complex arrays,  Up: Protocole tampon

7.7.7.11 Fonctions relatives aux tampons
........................................

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_CheckBuffer (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Return ‘1’ if 'obj' supports the buffer interface otherwise ‘0’.
     When ‘1’ is returned, it doesn't guarantee that *note
     PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. will succeed.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GetBuffer (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer
          *view, int flags)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Send
     a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by 'flags'.
     If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST
     raise *note BufferError: 17e1, set ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return
     ‘-1’.

     On success, fill in 'view', set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to
     'exporter' and return 0.  In the case of chained buffer providers
     that redirect requests to a single object, ‘view->obj’ MAY refer to
     this object instead of 'exporter' (See *note Buffer Object
     Structures: 4b09.).

     Successful calls to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. must be paired
     with calls to *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391, similar to ‘malloc()’
     and ‘free()’.  Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer,
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. must be called exactly once.

 -- C Fonction: void PyBuffer_Release (Py_buffer *view)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Release the buffer 'view' and release the *note strong reference:
     333. (i.e.  decrement the reference count) to the view's supporting
     object, ‘view->obj’.  This function MUST be called when the buffer
     is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.

     It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not
     obtained via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (const
          char *format)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Return the implied *note itemsize: 4b13. from *note format: 4b14.
     On error, raise an exception and return -1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, char
          order)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Return ‘1’ if the memory defined by the 'view' is C-style ('order'
     is ‘'C'’) or Fortran-style ('order' is ‘'F'’) *note contiguous:
     21e4. or either one ('order' is ‘'A'’).  Return ‘0’ otherwise.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyBuffer_GetPointer (const Py_buffer *view, const
          Py_ssize_t *indices)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Get
     the memory area pointed to by the 'indices' inside the given
     'view'.  'indices' must point to an array of ‘view->ndim’ indices.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBuffer_FromContiguous (const Py_buffer *view,
          const void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char fort)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Copy
     contiguous 'len' bytes from 'buf' to 'view'.  'fort' can be ‘'C'’
     or ‘'F'’ (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering).  ‘0’ is returned
     on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous (void *buf, const Py_buffer
          *src, Py_ssize_t len, char order)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Copy
     'len' bytes from 'src' to its contiguous representation in 'buf'.
     'order' can be ‘'C'’ or ‘'F'’ or ‘'A'’ (for C-style or
     Fortran-style ordering or either one).  ‘0’ is returned on success,
     ‘-1’ on error.

     This function fails if 'len' != 'src->len'.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_CopyData (PyObject *dest, PyObject *src)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Copy
     data from 'src' to 'dest' buffer.  Can convert between C-style and
     or Fortran-style buffers.

     ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Fonction: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (int ndims,
          Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char
          order)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Fill
     the 'strides' array with byte-strides of a *note contiguous: 21e4.
     (C-style if 'order' is ‘'C'’ or Fortran-style if 'order' is ‘'F'’)
     array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per
     element.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBuffer_FillInfo (Py_buffer *view, PyObject
          *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose 'buf'
     of size 'len' with writability set according to 'readonly'.  'buf'
     is interpreted as a sequence of unsigned bytes.

     The 'flags' argument indicates the request type.  This function
     always fills in 'view' as specified by flags, unless 'buf' has been
     designated as read-only and *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1373. is set in
     'flags'.

     On success, set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to 'exporter' and
     return 0.  Otherwise, raise *note BufferError: 17e1, set
     ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’;

     If this function is used as part of a *note getbufferproc: 4b09,
     'exporter' MUST be set to the exporting object and 'flags' must be
     passed unmodified.  Otherwise, 'exporter' MUST be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Couche des objets concrets,  Next: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Prev: Couche d'abstraction des objets,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.8 Couche des objets concrets
==============================

Les fonctions de ce chapitre sont spécifiques à certains types d'objets
Python.  Leur donner un objet du mauvais type n'est pas une bonne idée,
si vous recevez un objet d'un programme Python, et que vous n'êtes pas
sûr qu'il soit du bon type, vous devez vérifier son type en premier.
Par exemple, pour vérifier qu'un objet est un dictionnaire, utilisez
*note PyDict_Check(): 4b34.  Ce chapitre est organisé comme un arbre
généalogique de types d'objets Python.

     Avertissement: Tandis que les fonctions décrites dans ce chapitre
     vérifient avec soin le type des objets qui leur sont passés,
     beaucoup d'entre elles ne vérifient pas que ‘NULL’ est passé au
     lieu d'un objet valide.  Autoriser ‘NULL’ à être passé peut
     provoquer des violations d'accès à la mémoire et ainsi terminer
     immédiatement l'interpréteur.

* Menu:

* Objets fondamentaux::
* Objets numériques::
* Objets séquences::
* Objets conteneurs::
* Objets fonctions: Objets fonctions<2>.
* Autres objets: Autres objets<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets fondamentaux,  Next: Objets numériques,  Up: Couche des objets concrets

7.8.1 Objets fondamentaux
-------------------------

Cette section décrit les objets de type Python et l'objet singleton
‘None’.

* Menu:

* Objets type: Objets type<2>.
* L'objet None::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets type<2>,  Next: L'objet None,  Up: Objets fondamentaux

7.8.1.1 Objets type
...................

 -- C Type: type PyTypeObject
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541. (as an opaque struct).'  The
     C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyType_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the type object for
     type objects; it is the same object as *note type: d38. in the
     Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, including
     instances of types derived from the standard type object.  Return 0
     in all other cases.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, but not a
     subtype of the standard type object.  Return 0 in all other cases.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Clear the internal lookup
     cache.  Return the current version tag.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the *note tp_flags:
     187a. member of 'type'.  This function is primarily meant for use
     with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’; the individual flag bits are guaranteed to
     be stable across Python releases, but access to *note tp_flags:
     187a. itself is not part of the *note limited API: 38c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The return type is now ‘unsigned long’
     rather than ‘long’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetDict (PyTypeObject
          *type)

     Return the type object's internal namespace, which is otherwise
     only exposed via a read-only proxy (*note cls.__dict__: c4d.).
     This is a replacement for accessing *note tp_dict: 16da. directly.
     The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.

     This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding
     cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect
     access (e.g.  via the proxy or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341.)
     isn't adequate.

     Extension modules should continue to use ‘tp_dict’, directly or
     indirectly, when setting up their own types.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: void PyType_Modified (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Invalidate the internal
     lookup cache for the type and all of its subtypes.  This function
     must be called after any manual modification of the attributes or
     base classes of the type.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_AddWatcher (PyType_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a type watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer ID which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyType_Watch(): 553.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     In free-threaded builds, *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 552. is not
     thread-safe, so it must be called at start up (before spawning the
     first thread).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' (previously returned from
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 552.).  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_ClearWatcher’ with a
     'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 552.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

     Mark 'type' as watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 552. will be called whenever *note
     PyType_Modified(): 17ae. reports a change to 'type'.  (The callback
     may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications
     to 'type', if ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ is not called on 'type' between
     the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to
     change.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_Watch’ with a 'watcher_id'
     that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 552.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(*note PyObject: 32f.
          *type)

     Type of a type-watcher callback function.

     The callback must not modify 'type' or cause *note
     PyType_Modified(): 17ae. to be called on 'type' or any type in its
     MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_HasFeature (PyTypeObject *o, int feature)

     Return non-zero if the type object 'o' sets the feature 'feature'.
     Type features are denoted by single bit flags.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_IS_GC (PyTypeObject *o)

     Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle
     detector; this tests the type flag *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_IsSubtype (PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return true if 'a' is a
     subtype of 'b'.

     This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
     *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f36. is not called on 'b'.  Call *note
     PyObject_IsSubclass(): e92. to do the same check that *note
     issubclass(): 7ad. would do.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GenericAlloc (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Generic handler for the *note tp_alloc: 4871. slot of a
     type object.  Use Python's default memory allocation mechanism to
     allocate a new instance and initialize all its contents to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GenericNew (PyTypeObject
          *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Generic handler for the *note tp_new: 56d. slot of a
     type object.  Create a new instance using the type's *note
     tp_alloc: 4871. slot.

 -- C Fonction: int PyType_Ready (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Finalize a type object.
     This should be called on all type objects to finish their
     initialization.  This function is responsible for adding inherited
     slots from a type's base class.  Return ‘0’ on success, or return
     ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

          Note: If some of the base classes implements the GC protocol
          and the provided type does not include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. in its flags, then the GC protocol
          will be automatically implemented from its parents.  On the
          contrary, if the type being created does include *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. in its flags then it 'must' implement
          the GC protocol itself by at least implementing the *note
          tp_traverse: 76a. handle.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Return the type's name.
     Equivalent to getting the type's *note __name__: 1461. attribute.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetQualName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Return the type's qualified
     name.  Equivalent to getting the type's *note __qualname__: 1ee2.
     attribute.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName
          (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Return the type's fully qualified name.  Equivalent to
     ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or *note
     type.__qualname__: 1ee2. if *note type.__module__: 36a. is not a
     string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetModuleName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Return the type's module name.  Equivalent to getting the *note
     type.__module__: 36a. attribute.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyType_GetSlot (PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.4.'
     Return the function pointer stored in the given slot.  If the
     result is ‘NULL’, this indicates that either the slot is ‘NULL’, or
     that the function was called with invalid parameters.  Callers will
     typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate function
     type.

     See *note PyType_Slot.slot: 4b3d. for possible values of the 'slot'
     argument.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: *note PyType_GetSlot(): 88a. can now
     accept all types.  Previously, it was limited to *note heap types:
     954.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetModule (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Return the module object associated with the given type when the
     type was created using *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 525. and returns ‘NULL’.

     This function is usually used to get the module in which a method
     is defined.  Note that in such a method,
     ‘PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self))’ may not return the intended
     result.  ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ may be a 'subclass' of the intended class,
     and subclasses are not necessarily defined in the same module as
     their superclass.  See *note PyCMethod: 750. to get the class that
     defines the method.  See *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a. for
     cases when ‘PyCMethod’ cannot be used.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyType_GetModuleState (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Return the state of the module object associated with the given
     type.  This is a shortcut for calling *note PyModule_GetState():
     96f. on the result of *note PyType_GetModule(): 95d.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 525. and returns ‘NULL’.

     If the 'type' has an associated module but its state is ‘NULL’,
     returns ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_GetModuleByDef
          (PyTypeObject *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Find
     the first superclass whose module was created from the given *note
     PyModuleDef: 96c. 'def', and return that module.

     If no module is found, raises a *note TypeError: 525. and returns
     ‘NULL’.

     This function is intended to be used together with *note
     PyModule_GetState(): 96f. to get module state from slot methods
     (such as *note tp_init: 56f. or *note nb_add: 4b3e.) and other
     places where a method's defining class cannot be passed using the
     *note PyCMethod: 750. calling convention.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (PyTypeObject
          *type)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.

     Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one
     was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

* Menu:

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types,  Up: Objets type<2>

7.8.1.2 Creating Heap-Allocated Types
.....................................

The following functions and structs are used to create *note heap types:
954.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_FromMetaclass (PyTypeObject
          *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject
          *bases)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'
     Create and return a *note heap type: 954. from the 'spec' (see
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 89e.).

     The metaclass 'metaclass' is used to construct the resulting type
     object.  When 'metaclass' is ‘NULL’, the metaclass is derived from
     'bases' (or 'Py_tp_base[s]' slots if 'bases' is ‘NULL’, see below).

     Metaclasses that override *note tp_new: 56d. are not supported,
     except if ‘tp_new’ is ‘NULL’.  (For backwards compatibility, other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions allow such metaclasses.  They ignore
     ‘tp_new’, which may result in incomplete initialization.  This is
     deprecated and in Python 3.14+ such metaclasses will not be
     supported.)

     The 'bases' argument can be used to specify base classes; it can
     either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  If 'bases' is
     ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_bases' slot is used instead.  If that also is
     ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_base' slot is used instead.  If that also is
     ‘NULL’, the new type derives from *note object: a7c.

     The 'module' argument can be used to record the module in which the
     new class is defined.  It must be a module object or ‘NULL’.  If
     not ‘NULL’, the module is associated with the new type and can
     later be retrieved with *note PyType_GetModule(): 95d.  The
     associated module is not inherited by subclasses; it must be
     specified for each class individually.

     This function calls *note PyType_Ready(): 768. on the new type.

     Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of
     calling *note type(): d38. or using the *note class: 12b7.
     statement.  With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer
     *note calling: 4ae7. *note type: d38. (or the metaclass) over
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions.  Specifically:

        * *note __new__(): 56e. is not called on the new class (and it
          must be set to ‘type.__new__’).

        * *note __init__(): 69d. is not called on the new class.

        * *note __init_subclass__(): 61e. is not called on any bases.

        * *note __set_name__(): c3e. is not called on new descriptors.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (PyObject
          *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: The function now accepts a single
     class as the 'bases' argument and ‘NULL’ as the ‘tp_doc’ slot.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a
     metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously,
     only *note type: d38. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 56d. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 56d. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_FromSpecWithBases
          (PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.3.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a
     metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously,
     only *note type: d38. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 56d. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 56d. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyType_FromSpec (PyType_Spec
          *spec)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Equivalent to ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec,
     NULL)’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a
     metaclass corresponding to the base classes provided in
     'Py_tp_base[s]' slots.  Previously, only *note type: d38. instances
     were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 56d. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 56d. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C Type: type PyType_Spec
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Structure defining a type's behavior.

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          Name of the type, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_name:
          18af.

      -- C Membre: int basicsize

          If positive, specifies the size of the instance in bytes.  It
          is used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 976.

          If zero, specifies that *note tp_basicsize: 976. should be
          inherited.

          If negative, the absolute value specifies how much space
          instances of the class need 'in addition' to the superclass.
          Use *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 537. to get a pointer to
          subclass-specific memory reserved this way.  For negative
          ‘basicsize’, Python will insert padding when needed to meet
          *note tp_basicsize: 976.'s alignment requirements.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: Previously, this field could not
          be negative.

      -- C Membre: int itemsize

          Size of one element of a variable-size type, in bytes.  Used
          to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize: 1f29.  See
          ‘tp_itemsize’ documentation for caveats.

          If zero, *note tp_itemsize: 1f29. is inherited.  Extending
          arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some
          types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can
          then overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass.  To help
          prevent mistakes, inheriting ‘itemsize’ is only possible in
          the following situations:

             - The base is not variable-sized (its *note tp_itemsize:
               1f29.).

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536. is
               positive, suggesting that the memory layout of the base
               class is known.

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536. is zero,
               suggesting that the subclass does not access the
               instance's memory directly.

             - With the *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 539. flag.

      -- C Membre: unsigned int flags

          Type flags, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 187a.

          If the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE’ flag is not set, *note
          PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. sets it automatically.

      -- C Membre: *note PyType_Slot: 49e2. *slots

          Array of *note PyType_Slot: 49e2. structures.  Terminated by
          the special slot value ‘{0, NULL}’.

          Each slot ID should be specified at most once.

 -- C Type: type PyType_Slot
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Structure defining optional functionality of a type, containing a
     slot ID and a value pointer.

      -- C Membre: int slot

          A slot ID.

          Slot IDs are named like the field names of the structures
          *note PyTypeObject: a95, *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6, *note
          PySequenceMethods: 4894, *note PyMappingMethods: 4895. and
          *note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45. with an added ‘Py_’ prefix.  For
          example, use:

             * ‘Py_tp_dealloc’ to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc:
               486f.

             * ‘Py_nb_add’ to set *note PyNumberMethods.nb_add: 4b3e.

             * ‘Py_sq_length’ to set *note PySequenceMethods.sq_length:
               4b46.

          The following “offset” fields cannot be set using *note
          PyType_Slot: 49e2.:

             * *note tp_weaklistoffset: 977. (use *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 548. instead if possible)

             * *note tp_dictoffset: 4b47. (use *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. instead if possible)

             * *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4ae9. (use
               ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’ in *note PyMemberDef: 4b48.)

          If it is not possible to switch to a ‘MANAGED’ flag (for
          example, for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12),
          specify the offset in *note Py_tp_members: 4872.  See *note
          PyMemberDef documentation: 4b48. for details.

          The following fields cannot be set at all when creating a heap
          type:

             * *note tp_vectorcall: 4b49. (use *note tp_new: 56d. and/or
               *note tp_init: 56f.)

             * Internal fields: *note tp_dict: 16da, *note tp_mro: 4b4a,
               *note tp_cache: 4b4b, *note tp_subclasses: 560, and *note
               tp_weaklist: 4b4c.

          Setting ‘Py_tp_bases’ or ‘Py_tp_base’ may be problematic on
          some platforms.  To avoid issues, use the 'bases' argument of
          *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c. instead.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: Slots in *note PyBufferProcs:
          4b4d. may be set in the unlimited API.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note bf_getbuffer: 74e. and
          *note bf_releasebuffer: 74f. are now available under the *note
          limited API: 38c.

      -- C Membre: void *pfunc

          The desired value of the slot.  In most cases, this is a
          pointer to a function.

          Slots other than ‘Py_tp_doc’ may not be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: L'objet None,  Prev: Objets type<2>,  Up: Objets fondamentaux

7.8.1.3 L'objet ‘None’
......................

Note that the *note PyTypeObject: a95. for ‘None’ is not directly
exposed in the Python/C API. Since ‘None’ is a singleton, testing for
object identity (using ‘==’ in C) is sufficient.  There is no
‘PyNone_Check()’ function for the same reason.

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_None

     The Python ‘None’ object, denoting lack of value.  This object has
     no methods and is *note immortal: 4327.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note Py_None: 4842. is *note
     immortal: 4327.

 -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_NONE

     Return *note Py_None: 4842. from a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets numériques,  Next: Objets séquences,  Prev: Objets fondamentaux,  Up: Couche des objets concrets

7.8.2 Objets numériques
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Objets Integer::
* Les objets booléens::
* Floating-Point Objects::
* Objets représentant des nombres complexes::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Integer,  Next: Les objets booléens,  Up: Objets numériques

7.8.2.1 Objets 'Integer'
........................

All integers are implemented as "long" integer objects of arbitrary
size.

On error, most ‘PyLong_As*’ APIs return ‘(return type)-1’ which cannot
be distinguished from a number.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
disambiguate.

 -- C Type: type PyLongObject
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541. (as an opaque struct).'  This
     subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python integer object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyLong_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python integer type.  This is the
     same object as *note int: 254. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyLong_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 576. or a
     subtype of *note PyLongObject: 576.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyLong_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 576, but not a
     subtype of *note PyLongObject: 576.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromLong (long v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from 'v',
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for
     all integers between ‘-5’ and ‘256’.  When you create an int in
     that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing
     object.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (unsigned
          long v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from a C
     unsigned long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromSsize_t (Py_ssize_t v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from a C
     *note Py_ssize_t: a50, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromSize_t (size_t v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from a C
     ‘size_t’, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromLongLong (long long v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from a C
     long long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong
          (unsigned long long v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from a C
     unsigned long long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromDouble (double v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. object from the
     integer part of 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromString (const char
          *str, char **pend, int base)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 576. based on the
     string value in 'str', which is interpreted according to the radix
     in 'base', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'pend' is non-‘NULL’, '*pend'
     will point to the end of 'str' on success or to the first character
     that could not be processed on error.  If 'base' is ‘0’, 'str' is
     interpreted using the *note Entiers littéraux: 1e83. definition; in
     this case, leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number raises a
     *note ValueError: 1ff.  If 'base' is not ‘0’, it must be between
     ‘2’ and ‘36’, inclusive.  Leading and trailing whitespace and
     single underscores after a base specifier and between digits are
     ignored.  If there are no digits or 'str' is not NULL-terminated
     following the digits and trailing whitespace, *note ValueError:
     1ff. will be raised.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     Python methods *note int.to_bytes(): 184c. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 180c. to convert a *note PyLongObject: 576.
     to/from an array of bytes in base ‘256’.  You can call those from C
     using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (PyObject
          *u, int base)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Convert a sequence of
     Unicode digits in the string 'u' to a Python integer value.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromVoidPtr (void *p)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Python integer from the pointer 'p'.  The
     pointer value can be retrieved from the resulting value using *note
     PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4966.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromNativeBytes (const void
          *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)

     Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first
     'n_bytes' of 'buffer', interpreted as a two's-complement signed
     number.

     'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 357.  Passing ‘-1’
     will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and
     assume that the most-significant bit is a sign bit.  Passing
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ will produce the same result as
     calling *note PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 359.  Other flags
     are ignored.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes
          (const void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)

     Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first
     'n_bytes' of 'buffer', interpreted as an unsigned number.

     'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 357.  Passing ‘-1’
     will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and
     assume that the most-significant bit is not a sign bit.  Flags
     other than endian are ignored.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: long PyLong_AsLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return a C long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 576, first call its *note
     __index__(): 709. method (if present) to convert it to a *note
     PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use
     *note __int__(): 708.

      -- C Fonction: long PyLong_AS_LONG (PyObject *obj)

          A *note soft deprecated: 206. alias.  Exactly equivalent to
          the preferred ‘PyLong_AsLong’.  In particular, it can fail
          with *note OverflowError: 86f. or another exception.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The function is soft
          deprecated.

 -- C Fonction: int PyLong_AsInt (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Similar to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 356, but store the result in a C
     int instead of a C long.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int
          *overflow)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a C long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 576, first call its *note __index__(): 709. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 576.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use
     *note __int__(): 708.

 -- C Fonction: long long PyLong_AsLongLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return a C long long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 576, first call its *note
     __index__(): 709. method (if present) to convert it to a *note
     PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use
     *note __int__(): 708.

 -- C Fonction: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj,
          int *overflow)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a C long long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 576, first call its *note __index__(): 709. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 576.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LLONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LLONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use
     *note __int__(): 708.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyLong_AsSsize_t (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return a C *note Py_ssize_t: a50. representation of 'pylong'.
     'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a *note Py_ssize_t: a50.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return a C unsigned long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must
     be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a unsigned long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     18ae. to disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return a C ‘size_t’ representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be
     an instance of *note PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a ‘size_t’.

     Returns ‘(size_t)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae.
     to disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return a C unsigned long long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong'
     must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for an unsigned long long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to disambiguate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.1: A negative 'pylong' now raises *note
     OverflowError: 86f, not *note TypeError: 525.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a C unsigned long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 576, first call its *note __index__(): 709. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 576.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long, return
     the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     18ae. to disambiguate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use
     *note __int__(): 708.

 -- C Fonction: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask
          (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a C unsigned long
     long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 576, first call its *note __index__(): 709. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 576.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long long,
     return the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULLONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to disambiguate.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use
     *note __int__(): 708.

 -- C Fonction: double PyLong_AsDouble (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a C double
     representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 576.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 86f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a double.

     Returns ‘-1.0’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Convert a Python integer
     'pylong' to a C void pointer.  If 'pylong' cannot be converted, an
     *note OverflowError: 86f. will be raised.  This is only assured to
     produce a usable void pointer for values created with *note
     PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4969.

     Returns ‘NULL’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyLong_AsNativeBytes (PyObject
          *pylong, void *buffer, Py_ssize_t n_bytes, int flags)

     Copy the Python integer value 'pylong' to a native 'buffer' of size
     'n_bytes'.  The 'flags' can be set to ‘-1’ to behave similarly to a
     C cast, or to values documented below to control the behavior.

     Returns ‘-1’ with an exception raised on error.  This may happen if
     'pylong' cannot be interpreted as an integer, or if 'pylong' was
     negative and the ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ flag was set.

     Otherwise, returns the number of bytes required to store the value.
     If this is equal to or less than 'n_bytes', the entire value was
     copied.  All 'n_bytes' of the buffer are written: large buffers are
     padded with zeroes.

     If the returned value is greater than than 'n_bytes', the value was
     truncated: as many of the lowest bits of the value as could fit are
     written, and the higher bits are ignored.  This matches the typical
     behavior of a C-style downcast.

          Note: Overflow is not considered an error.  If the returned
          value is larger than 'n_bytes', most significant bits were
          discarded.

     ‘0’ will never be returned.

     Values are always copied as two's-complement.

     Usage example:

          int32_t value;
          Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, &value, sizeof(value), -1);
          if (bytes < 0) {
              // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason.
              return NULL;
          }
          else if (bytes <= (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(value)) {
              // Success!
          }
          else {
              // Overflow occurred, but 'value' contains the truncated
              // lowest bits of pylong.
          }

     Passing zero to 'n_bytes' will return the size of a buffer that
     would be large enough to hold the value.  This may be larger than
     technically necessary, but not unreasonably so.  If 'n_bytes=0',
     'buffer' may be ‘NULL’.

          Note: Passing 'n_bytes=0' to this function is not an accurate
          way to determine the bit length of the value.

     To get at the entire Python value of an unknown size, the function
     can be called twice: first to determine the buffer size, then to
     fill it:

          // Ask how much space we need.
          Py_ssize_t expected = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, NULL, 0, -1);
          if (expected < 0) {
              // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason.
              return NULL;
          }
          assert(expected != 0);  // Impossible per the API definition.
          uint8_t *bignum = malloc(expected);
          if (!bignum) {
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_MemoryError, "bignum malloc failed.");
              return NULL;
          }
          // Safely get the entire value.
          Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, bignum, expected, -1);
          if (bytes < 0) {  // Exception has been set.
              free(bignum);
              return NULL;
          }
          else if (bytes > expected) {  // This should not be possible.
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                  "Unexpected bignum truncation after a size check.");
              free(bignum);
              return NULL;
          }
          // The expected success given the above pre-check.
          // ... use bignum ...
          free(bignum);

     'flags' is either ‘-1’ (‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS’) to select
     defaults that behave most like a C cast, or a combination of the
     other flags in the table below.  Note that ‘-1’ cannot be combined
     with other flags.

     Currently, ‘-1’ corresponds to ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN |
     Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’.

     Option                                            Valeur
                                                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS            ‘-1’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN          ‘0’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN       ‘1’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN       ‘3’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER     ‘4’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE     ‘8’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX         ‘16’
                                                       

     Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN’ will override any other
     endian flags.  Passing ‘2’ is reserved.

     By default, sufficient buffer will be requested to include a sign
     bit.  For example, when converting 128 with 'n_bytes=1', the
     function will return 2 (or more) in order to store a zero sign bit.

     If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ is specified, a zero sign bit
     will be omitted from size calculations.  This allows, for example,
     128 to fit in a single-byte buffer.  If the destination buffer is
     later treated as signed, a positive input value may become
     negative.  Note that the flag does not affect handling of negative
     values: for those, space for a sign bit is always requested.

     Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ causes an exception
     to be set if 'pylong' is negative.  Without this flag, negative
     values will be copied provided there is enough space for at least
     one sign bit, regardless of whether
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ was specified.

     If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ is specified and a non-integer
     value is passed, its *note __index__(): 709. method will be called
     first.  This may result in Python code executing and other threads
     being allowed to run, which could cause changes to other objects or
     values in use.  When 'flags' is ‘-1’, this option is not set, and
     non-integer values will raise *note TypeError: 525.

          Note: With the default 'flags' (‘-1’, or 'UNSIGNED_BUFFER'
          without 'REJECT_NEGATIVE'), multiple Python integers can map
          to a single value without overflow.  For example, both ‘255’
          and ‘-1’ fit a single-byte buffer and set all its bits.  This
          matches typical C cast behavior.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyLong_GetInfo (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  On success, return a read
     only *note named tuple: 63b, that holds information about Python's
     internal representation of integers.  See *note sys.int_info: 1273.
     for description of individual fields.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (const PyLongObject *op)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return 1 if 'op' is compact, 0 otherwise.

     This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to
     implement a “fast path” for small integers.  For compact values use
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 578.; for others fall back to
     a *note PyLong_As*: 4962. function or *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes():
     357.

     The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users.

     Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation
     detail and is subject to change.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue
          (const PyLongObject *op)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     If 'op' is compact, as determined by *note
     PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 577, return its value.

     Otherwise, the return value is undefined.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Les objets booléens,  Next: Floating-Point Objects,  Prev: Objets Integer,  Up: Objets numériques

7.8.2.2 Les objets booléens
...........................

Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers.  There are
only two booleans, *note Py_False: 4b64. and *note Py_True: 4b65.  As
such, the normal creation and deletion functions don't apply to
booleans.  The following macros are available, however.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyBool_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python boolean type; it is the
     same object as *note bool: 453. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBool_Check (PyObject *o)

     Renvoie vrai si 'o' est de type ‘PyBook_Type’.  Cette fonction
     réussit systématiquement.

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_False

     The Python ‘False’ object.  This object has no methods and is *note
     immortal: 4327.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note Py_False: 4b64. is *note
     immortal: 4327.

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_True

     The Python ‘True’ object.  This object has no methods and is *note
     immortal: 4327.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note Py_True: 4b65. is *note
     immortal: 4327.

 -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_FALSE

     Return *note Py_False: 4b64. from a function.

 -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_TRUE

     Return *note Py_True: 4b65. from a function.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyBool_FromLong (long v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return *note Py_True: 4b65. or *note Py_False: 4b64,
     depending on the truth value of 'v'.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Objects,  Next: Objets représentant des nombres complexes,  Prev: Les objets booléens,  Up: Objets numériques

7.8.2.3 Floating-Point Objects
..............................

 -- C Type: type PyFloatObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python
     floating-point object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyFloat_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python floating-point type.  This
     is the same object as *note float: 2ec. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFloat_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4b6a. or a
     subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4b6a.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFloat_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4b6a, but not
     a subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4b6a.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFloat_FromString (PyObject *str)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a *note PyFloatObject: 4b6a. object based on the
     string value in 'str', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFloat_FromDouble (double v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a *note PyFloatObject: 4b6a. object from 'v', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_AsDouble (PyObject *pyfloat)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a C double
     representation of the contents of 'pyfloat'.  If 'pyfloat' is not a
     Python floating-point object but has a *note __float__(): 9bc.
     method, this method will first be called to convert 'pyfloat' into
     a float.  If ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to
     *note __index__(): 709.  This method returns ‘-1.0’ upon failure,
     so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for
     errors.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (PyObject *pyfloat)

     Return a C double representation of the contents of 'pyfloat', but
     without error checking.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFloat_GetInfo (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie une instance 'structseq' qui contient les
     informations sur la précision et les valeurs minimales et maximales
     pour un nombre à virgule flottante.  C'est une enveloppe autour du
     fichier d'entête ‘float.h’.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_GetMax ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the maximum
     representable finite float 'DBL_MAX' as C double.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_GetMin ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the minimum
     normalized positive float 'DBL_MIN' as C double.

* Menu:

* Pack and Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack and Unpack functions,  Up: Floating-Point Objects

7.8.2.4 Pack and Unpack functions
.................................

The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent
way to store floating-point values as byte strings.  The Pack routines
produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce
a C double from such a bytes string.  The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies
the number of bytes in the bytes string.

On platforms that appear to use IEEE 754 formats these functions work by
copying bits.  On other platforms, the 2-byte format is identical to the
IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format, the 4-byte format (32-bit) is
identical to the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format, and the
8-byte format to the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format, although
the packing of INFs and NaNs (if such things exist on the platform)
isn't handled correctly, and attempting to unpack a bytes string
containing an IEEE INF or NaN will raise an exception.

On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic range, than
IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE platforms
with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values can be
unpacked.  What happens in such cases is partly accidental (alas).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack functions,  Next: Unpack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.5 Pack functions
......................

The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian
format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’, or ‘p+6’ ‘p+7’), zero if you
want big-endian format (exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’
constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big
endian processor, or ‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: ‘0’ if all is OK, ‘-1’ if error (and an exception is set,
most likely *note OverflowError: 86f.).

There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms:

   * What this does is undefined if 'x' is a NaN or infinity.

   * ‘-0.0’ and ‘+0.0’ produce the same bytes string.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFloat_Pack2 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFloat_Pack4 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFloat_Pack8 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpack functions,  Prev: Pack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.6 Unpack functions
........................

The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format
(exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’ or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if big-endian
(exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’ constant can be used to
use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big endian processor, or
‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: The unpacked double.  On error, this is ‘-1.0’ and *note
PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. is true (and an exception is set, most likely
*note OverflowError: 86f.).

Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes
string that represents a NaN or infinity.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_Unpack2 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_Unpack4 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.

 -- C Fonction: double PyFloat_Unpack8 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets représentant des nombres complexes,  Prev: Floating-Point Objects,  Up: Objets numériques

7.8.2.7 Objets représentant des nombres complexes
.................................................

Les nombres complexes Python sont implémentés comme deux types
distincts, lorsqu'ils sont vus de l'API C : l'un est l'objet Python tel
qu'il est vu par les programmes Python, et l'autre est une structure C
qui représente la valeur exacte du nombre complexe.  L'API fournit des
fonctions pour travailler avec ces deux représentations.

* Menu:

* Nombres complexes en tant que structures C::
* Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Nombres complexes en tant que structures C,  Next: Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python,  Up: Objets représentant des nombres complexes

7.8.2.8 Nombres complexes en tant que structures C
..................................................

Les fonctions qui acceptent ces structures comme paramètres et les
renvoient comme résultats le font en fonction de leur 'valeur' au lieu
de les dé-référencer en utilisant des pointeurs.  C'est constant dans
toute l'API.

 -- C Type: type Py_complex

     The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python
     complex number object.  Most of the functions for dealing with
     complex number objects use structures of this type as input or
     output values, as appropriate.

      -- C Membre: double real
      -- C Membre: double imag

     The structure is defined as:

          typedef struct {
              double real;
              double imag;
          } Py_complex;

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. _Py_c_sum (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Renvoie la somme de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme
     d'un *note Py_complex: 4aa8. en C.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. _Py_c_diff (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Renvoie la différence de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme
     d'un *note Py_complex: 4aa8. en C.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. _Py_c_neg (Py_complex num)

     Return the negation of the complex number 'num', using the C *note
     Py_complex: 4aa8. representation.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. _Py_c_prod (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Renvoie le produit de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme d'un
     *note Py_complex: 4aa8. en C.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. _Py_c_quot (Py_complex dividend,
          Py_complex divisor)

     Renvoie le quotient de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme d'un
     *note Py_complex: 4aa8. en C.

     If 'divisor' is null, this method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to
     ‘EDOM’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. _Py_c_pow (Py_complex num,
          Py_complex exp)

     Renvoie 'num' à la puissance 'exp', sous la forme d'un *note
     Py_complex: 4aa8. en C.

     If 'num' is null and 'exp' is not a positive real number, this
     method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to ‘EDOM’.


File: python.info,  Node: Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python,  Prev: Nombres complexes en tant que structures C,  Up: Objets représentant des nombres complexes

7.8.2.9 Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python
..................................................

 -- C Type: type PyComplexObject

     Ce sous-type de l'objet *note PyObject: 32f. représente un nombre
     complexe en Python.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyComplex_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Cette instance de *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. représente le type nombre complexe Python.
     C'est le même objet que la classe *note complex: 2ed. de la couche
     Python.

 -- C Fonction: int PyComplex_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 4b7d. or a
     subtype of *note PyComplexObject: 4b7d.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyComplex_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 4b7d, but
     not a subtype of *note PyComplexObject: 4b7d.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyComplex_FromCComplex (Py_complex
          v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new Python
     complex number object from a C *note Py_complex: 4aa8. value.
     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyComplex_FromDoubles (double
          real, double imag)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note PyComplexObject: 4b7d. object from
     'real' and 'imag'.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

 -- C Fonction: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the real part of 'op'
     as a C double.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 5d3. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to call *note PyFloat_AsDouble():
     a59. and returns its result.

     Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so
     one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for errors.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Use *note __complex__(): 5d3. if
     available.

 -- C Fonction: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the imaginary part of
     'op' as a C double.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 5d3. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to call *note PyFloat_AsDouble():
     a59. and returns ‘0.0’ on success.

     Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so
     one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for errors.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Use *note __complex__(): 5d3. if
     available.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_complex: 4aa8. PyComplex_AsCComplex (PyObject
          *op)

     Renvoie la valeur du nombre complexe 'op' sous la forme d'un *note
     Py_complex: 4aa8. en C.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 5d3. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to *note __float__(): 9bc.  If
     ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to *note
     __index__(): 709.

     Upon failure, this method returns *note Py_complex: 4aa8. with
     *note real: 4b75. set to ‘-1.0’ and with an exception set, so one
     should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for errors.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 709. if
     available.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets séquences,  Next: Objets conteneurs,  Prev: Objets numériques,  Up: Couche des objets concrets

7.8.3 Objets séquences
----------------------

Les opérations génériques sur les objets séquences ont été discutées
dans le chapitre précédent.  Cette section traite des genres spécifiques
d'objets séquences qui sont intrinsèques au langage Python.

* Menu:

* Objets bytes: Objets bytes<2>.
* Objets tableau d'octets::
* Objets Unicode et Codecs::
* Tuple Objects::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets bytes<2>,  Next: Objets tableau d'octets,  Up: Objets séquences

7.8.3.1 Objets 'bytes'
......................

These functions raise *note TypeError: 525. when expecting a bytes
parameter and called with a non-bytes parameter.

 -- C Type: type PyBytesObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python bytes
     object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyBytes_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python bytes type; it is the same
     object as *note bytes: 1bd. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBytes_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object or an instance of a
     subtype of the bytes type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBytes_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the bytes type.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyBytes_FromString (const char *v)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v'
     as value on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.  The parameter 'v' must
     not be ‘NULL’; it will not be checked.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *v, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v'
     as value and length 'len' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.  If
     'v' is ‘NULL’, the contents of the bytes object are uninitialized.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyBytes_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a
     variable number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting
     Python bytes object and return a bytes object with the values
     formatted into it.  The variable arguments must be C types and must
     correspond exactly to the format characters in the 'format' string.
     The following format characters are allowed:

     Caractères de format    Type                Comment
                                                 
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘%%’                    'n/a'               The literal % character.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%c’                    'int'               A single byte, represented as a C
                                                 int.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%d’                    'int'               Equivalent to ‘printf("%d")’.  (1)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%u’                    ‘unsigned int’      Equivalent to ‘printf("%u")’.  (2)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%ld’                   long                Equivalent to ‘printf("%ld")’.
                                                 (3)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%lu’                   ‘unsigned long’     Equivalent to ‘printf("%lu")’.
                                                 (4)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zd’                   *note Py_ssize_t: a50.Equivalent to ‘printf("%zd")’.
                                                 (5)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zu’                   size_t              Equivalent to ‘printf("%zu")’.
                                                 (6)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%i’                    'int'               Equivalent to ‘printf("%i")’.  (7)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%x’                    'int'               Equivalent to ‘printf("%x")’.  (8)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%s’                    const char*         A null-terminated C character
                                                 array.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%p’                    const void*         The hex representation of a C
                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what
                                                 the platform's ‘printf’ yields.
                                                 

     An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format
     string to be copied as-is to the result object, and any extra
     arguments discarded.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyBytes_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Identical to *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 19e7. except
     that it takes exactly two arguments.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyBytes_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the bytes representation of object 'o' that
     implements the buffer protocol.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyBytes_Size (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the length of the
     bytes in bytes object 'o'.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyBytes_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_Size(): 48f8, but without error checking.

 -- C Fonction: char *PyBytes_AsString (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a pointer to the
     contents of 'o'.  The pointer refers to the internal buffer of 'o',
     which consists of ‘len(o) + 1’ bytes.  The last byte in the buffer
     is always null, regardless of whether there are any other null
     bytes.  The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object
     was just created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It
     must not be deallocated.  If 'o' is not a bytes object at all,
     *note PyBytes_AsString(): 875. returns ‘NULL’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 525.

 -- C Fonction: char *PyBytes_AS_STRING (PyObject *string)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_AsString(): 875, but without error
     checking.

 -- C Fonction: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (PyObject *obj, char
          **buffer, Py_ssize_t *length)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the null-terminated
     contents of the object 'obj' through the output variables 'buffer'
     and 'length'.  Returns ‘0’ on success.

     If 'length' is ‘NULL’, the bytes object may not contain embedded
     null bytes; if it does, the function returns ‘-1’ and a *note
     ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

     The buffer refers to an internal buffer of 'obj', which includes an
     additional null byte at the end (not counted in 'length').  The
     data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just
     created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It must not
     be deallocated.  If 'obj' is not a bytes object at all, *note
     PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 48f2. returns ‘-1’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 525.

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 525. was
     raised when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes
     object.

 -- C Fonction: void PyBytes_Concat (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Create a new bytes object in
     '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to 'bytes';
     the caller will own the new reference.  The reference to the old
     value of 'bytes' will be stolen.  If the new object cannot be
     created, the old reference to 'bytes' will still be discarded and
     the value of '*bytes' will be set to ‘NULL’; the appropriate
     exception will be set.

 -- C Fonction: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Create a new bytes object in
     '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to 'bytes'.
     This version releases the *note strong reference: 333. to 'newpart'
     (i.e.  decrements its reference count).

 -- C Fonction: int _PyBytes_Resize (PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t
          newsize)

     Resize a bytes object.  'newsize' will be the new length of the
     bytes object.  You can think of it as creating a new bytes object
     and destroying the old one, only more efficiently.  Pass the
     address of an existing bytes object as an lvalue (it may be written
     into), and the new size desired.  On success, '*bytes' holds the
     resized bytes object and ‘0’ is returned; the address in '*bytes'
     may differ from its input value.  If the reallocation fails, the
     original bytes object at '*bytes' is deallocated, '*bytes' is set
     to ‘NULL’, *note MemoryError: 1530. is set, and ‘-1’ is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (2) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (3) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (4) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (5) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (6) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (7) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (8) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets tableau d'octets,  Next: Objets Unicode et Codecs,  Prev: Objets bytes<2>,  Up: Objets séquences

7.8.3.2 Objets tableau d'octets
...............................

 -- C Type: type PyByteArrayObject

     Ce sous-type de *note PyObject: 32f. représente un objet
     ‘bytearray’ Python.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyByteArray_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Cette instance de *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. représente le type Python 'bytearray', c'est le
     même que *note bytearray: 52b. côté Python.

* Menu:

* Macros de vérification de type::
* Fonctions directes sur l'API::
* Macros::


File: python.info,  Node: Macros de vérification de type,  Next: Fonctions directes sur l'API,  Up: Objets tableau d'octets

7.8.3.3 Macros de vérification de type
......................................

 -- C Fonction: int PyByteArray_Check (PyObject *o)

     Renvoie vrai si l'objet 'o' est un ‘bytearray’ ou une instance d'un
     sous-type du type ‘bytearray’.  Cette méthode réussit toujours.

 -- C Fonction: int PyByteArray_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Renvoie vrai si l'objet 'o' est un ‘bytearray’, mais pas une
     instance d'un sous-type du type ‘bytearray’.  Cette méthode réussit
     toujours.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions directes sur l'API,  Next: Macros,  Prev: Macros de vérification de type,  Up: Objets tableau d'octets

7.8.3.4 Fonctions directes sur l'API
....................................

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyByteArray_FromObject (PyObject
          *o)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie un nouvel objet 'bytearray' depuis n'importe
     quel objet, 'o', qui implémente le *note protocole buffer: 38e.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize
          (const char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a new bytearray object from 'string' and its
     length, 'len'.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyByteArray_Concat (PyObject *a,
          PyObject *b)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Concatène les ‘bytearrays’ 'a' et 'b' et renvoie un
     nouveau ‘bytearray’ avec le résultat.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyByteArray_Size (PyObject
          *bytearray)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie la taille de
     'bytearray' après vérification de la présence d'un pointeur ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: char *PyByteArray_AsString (PyObject *bytearray)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Renvoie le contenu de
     'bytearray' sous forme d'un tableau de caractères, en vérifiant que
     ce n'est pas un pointeur ‘NULL’.  Le tableau renvoyé a toujours un
     caractère 'null' rajouté.

 -- C Fonction: int PyByteArray_Resize (PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t
          len)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Redimensionne le tampon
     interne de 'bytearray' à la taille 'len'.


File: python.info,  Node: Macros,  Prev: Fonctions directes sur l'API,  Up: Objets tableau d'octets

7.8.3.5 Macros
..............

Ces macros sont taillées pour la vitesse d'exécution et ne vérifient pas
les pointeurs.

 -- C Fonction: char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING (PyObject *bytearray)

     Similar to *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 48ed, but without error
     checking.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *bytearray)

     Similar to *note PyByteArray_Size(): 48f0, but without error
     checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Unicode et Codecs,  Next: Tuple Objects,  Prev: Objets tableau d'octets,  Up: Objets séquences

7.8.3.6 Objets Unicode et Codecs
................................

* Menu:

* Objets Unicode::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Unicode,  Next: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Objets Unicode et Codecs

7.8.3.7 Objets Unicode
......................

Depuis l'implémentation de PEP 393(1) dans Python 3.3, les objets
Unicode utilisent une variété de représentations internes, pour
permettre de gérer l'intervalle complet des caractères Unicode en
restant efficace en termes de mémoire.  Il y a des cas spéciaux pour les
chaînes où tous les points de code sont inférieurs à 128, 256, ou
65536 ; sinon, les points de code doivent être inférieurs à 1114112 (qui
est l'intervalle Unicode complet).

UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode
object.

     Note: The *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. representation has been removed
     since Python 3.12 with deprecated APIs.  See PEP 623(2) for more
     information.

* Menu:

* Type Unicode::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Type Unicode,  Next: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Objets Unicode

7.8.3.8 Type Unicode
....................

Voici les types d'objets Unicode utilisés pour l'implémentation Unicode
en Python :

 -- C Type: type Py_UCS4
 -- C Type: type Py_UCS2
 -- C Type: type Py_UCS1
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Voici les 'typedefs' pour
     les types entiers non signés suffisamment large pour contenir des
     caractères de 32 bits, 16 bits et 8 bits, respectivement.  Pour
     traiter des caractères uniques, utilisez *note Py_UCS4: 298.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Type: type Py_UNICODE

     This is a typedef of ‘wchar_t’, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit
     type depending on the platform.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Dans les versions précédentes, ceci
     était un type 16-bit ou un type 32-bit selon que vous choisissiez
     une version Unicode 'narrow' ou 'wide' de Python à la compilation.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- C Type: type PyASCIIObject
 -- C Type: type PyCompactUnicodeObject
 -- C Type: type PyUnicodeObject

     These subtypes of *note PyObject: 32f. represent a Python Unicode
     object.  In almost all cases, they shouldn't be used directly,
     since all API functions that deal with Unicode objects take and
     return *note PyObject: 32f. pointers.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyUnicode_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python Unicode type.  It is
     exposed to Python code as ‘str’.

The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast
checks and access to internal read-only data of Unicode objects:

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object or an instance
     of a Unicode subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_CheckExact (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object, but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_READY (PyObject *unicode)

     Returns ‘0’.  This API is kept only for backward compatibility.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: This API does nothing since Python
     3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points.  'unicode'
     has to be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not
     checked).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS1: 1155. *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS2: 1156. *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2
     or UCS4 integer types for direct character access.  No checks are
     performed if the canonical representation has the correct character
     size; use *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 115f. to select the right
     function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Macro: PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
 -- C Macro: PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
 -- C Macro: PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

     Return values of the *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 115f. macro.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ has been
     removed.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_KIND (PyObject *unicode)

     Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that
     indicate how many bytes per character this Unicode object uses to
     store its data.  'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the
     "canonical" representation (not checked).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyUnicode_DATA (PyObject *unicode)

     Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer.  'unicode' has to
     be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not
     checked).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: void PyUnicode_WRITE (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 value)

     Write into a canonical representation 'data' (as obtained with
     *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 115b.).  This function performs no sanity
     checks, and is intended for usage in loops.  The caller should
     cache the 'kind' value and 'data' pointer as obtained from other
     calls.  'index' is the index in the string (starts at 0) and
     'value' is the new code point value which should be written to that
     location.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. PyUnicode_READ (int kind, void
          *data, Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a code point from a canonical representation 'data' (as
     obtained with *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 115b.).  No checks or ready
     calls are performed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a character from a Unicode object 'unicode', which must be in
     the "canonical" representation.  This is less efficient than *note
     PyUnicode_READ(): 1163. if you do multiple consecutive reads.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another
     string based on 'unicode', which must be in the "canonical"
     representation.  This is always an approximation but more efficient
     than iterating over the string.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (PyObject *unicode)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ if the string is
     a valid identifier according to the language definition, section
     *note Identifiants et mots-clés: 1e4f.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function does not call *note
     Py_FatalError(): 972. anymore if the string is not ready.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Character Properties,  Next: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Prev: Type Unicode,  Up: Objets Unicode

7.8.3.9 Unicode Character Properties
....................................

Unicode provides many different character properties.  The most often
needed ones are available through these macros which are mapped to C
functions depending on the Python configuration.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a whitespace
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a lowercase
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an uppercase
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a titlecase
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a linebreak
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a decimal character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a digit character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a numeric character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphabetic
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphanumeric
     character.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a printable
     character, in the sense of *note str.isprintable(): dc7.

These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to lower case.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to upper case.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to title case.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a decimal positive integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a single digit integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C Fonction: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a double.  Return ‘-1.0’ if
     this is not possible.  This function does not raise exceptions.

These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a high surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF’).

 -- C Fonction: int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a low surrogate (‘0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (Py_UCS4
          high, Py_UCS4 low)

     Join two surrogate code points and return a single *note Py_UCS4:
     298. value.  'high' and 'low' are respectively the leading and
     trailing surrogates in a surrogate pair.  'high' must be in the
     range [0xD800; 0xDBFF] and 'low' must be in the range [0xDC00;
     0xDFFF].


File: python.info,  Node: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Next: Locale Encoding,  Prev: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Objets Unicode

7.8.3.10 Creating and accessing Unicode strings
...............................................

To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties,
use these APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_New (Py_ssize_t size,
          Py_UCS4 maxchar)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new Unicode
     object.  'maxchar' should be the true maximum code point to be
     placed in the string.  As an approximation, it can be rounded up to
     the nearest value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.

     This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object.
     Objects created using this function are not resizable.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (int
          kind, const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new Unicode
     object with the given 'kind' (possible values are *note
     PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1160. etc., as returned by *note
     PyUnicode_KIND(): 115f.).  The 'buffer' must point to an array of
     'size' units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the
     kind.

     If necessary, the input 'buffer' is copied and transformed into the
     canonical representation.  For example, if the 'buffer' is a UCS4
     string (*note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1162.) and it consists only of
     codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1
     (*note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1160.).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object from the char buffer 'str'.
     The bytes will be interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded.  The buffer
     is copied into the new object.  The return value might be a shared
     object, i.e.  modification of the data is not allowed.

     This function raises *note SystemError: 563. when:

        * 'size' < 0,

        * 'str' is ‘NULL’ and 'size' > 0

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: 'str' == ‘NULL’ with 'size' > 0 is
     not allowed anymore.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromString (const char
          *str)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded
     null-terminated char buffer 'str'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a
     variable number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting
     Python Unicode string and return a string with the values formatted
     into it.  The variable arguments must be C types and must
     correspond exactly to the format characters in the 'format'
     ASCII-encoded string.

     Un indicateur de conversion contient deux ou plusieurs caractères
     et comporte les éléments suivants, qui doivent apparaître dans cet
     ordre :

       1. le caractère ‘'%'’, qui marque le début du marqueur ;

       2. des indications de conversion, facultatives, qui affectent le
          résultat de certains types de conversion ;

       3. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
          (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument,
          which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes
          after the minimum field width and optional precision.

       4. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
          precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
          precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type
          int, and the value to convert comes after the precision.

       5. modificateur de longueur (facultatif) ;

       6. type de conversion.

     Les caractères indicateurs de conversion sont :

     Option      Signification
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         Les valeurs numériques converties sont complétées de zéros.
                 
                 
     ‘-’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘0’ flag if
                 both are given).
                 

     The length modifiers for following integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’,
     ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘x’, or ‘X’) specify the type of the argument (int by
     default):

     Modifier       Types
                    
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘l’            long or unsigned long
                    
                    
     ‘ll’           long long or unsigned long long
                    
                    
     ‘j’            ‘intmax_t’ or ‘uintmax_t’
                    
                    
     ‘z’            ‘size_t’ or ‘ssize_t’
                    
                    
     ‘t’            ‘ptrdiff_t’
                    

     The length modifier ‘l’ for following conversions ‘s’ or ‘V’
     specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*.

     The conversion specifiers are:

     Conversion Specifier                  Type                                  Comment
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
     ‘%’                                   'n/a'                                 The literal ‘%’ character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘d’, ‘i’                              Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of a
                                                                                 signed C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘u’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘o’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The octal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘x’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (lowercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘X’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (uppercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘c’                                   int                                   A single character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘s’                                   const char* or const wchar_t*         A null-terminated C character
                                                                                 array.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘p’                                   const void*                           The hex representation of a C
                                                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what the
                                                                                 platform's ‘printf’ yields.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘A’                                   *note PyObject: 32f.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note ascii(): 139f.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘U’                                   *note PyObject: 32f.*                 A Unicode object.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘V’                                   *note PyObject: 32f.*, const char*    A Unicode object (which may be
                                           or const wchar_t*                     ‘NULL’) and a null-terminated C
                                                                                 character array as a second
                                                                                 parameter (which will be used, if
                                                                                 the first parameter is ‘NULL’).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘S’                                   *note PyObject: 32f.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Str(): 101b.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘R’                                   *note PyObject: 32f.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘T’                                   *note PyObject: 32f.*                 Get the fully qualified name of an
                                                                                 object type; call
                                                                                 *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 369.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘#T’                                  *note PyObject: 32f.*                 Similar to ‘T’ format, but use a
                                                                                 colon (‘:’) as separator between
                                                                                 the module name and the qualified
                                                                                 name.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘N’                                   *note PyTypeObject: a95.*             Get the fully qualified name of a
                                                                                 type; call
                                                                                 *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 369.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘#N’                                  *note PyTypeObject: a95.*             Similar to ‘N’ format, but use a
                                                                                 colon (‘:’) as separator between
                                                                                 the module name and the qualified
                                                                                 name.
                                                                                 

          Note: The width formatter unit is number of characters rather
          than bytes.  The precision formatter unit is number of bytes
          or ‘wchar_t’ items (if the length modifier ‘l’ is used) for
          ‘"%s"’ and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is ‘NULL’), and
          a number of characters for ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ and
          ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is not ‘NULL’).

          Note: Unlike to C ‘printf()’ the ‘0’ flag has effect even when
          a precision is given for integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’, ‘u’,
          ‘o’, ‘x’, or ‘X’).

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: Support for ‘"%lld"’ and ‘"%llu"’
     added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: Support for ‘"%li"’, ‘"%lli"’ and
     ‘"%zi"’ added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: Support width and precision formatter
     for ‘"%s"’, ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%V"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ added.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Support for conversion specifiers ‘o’
     and ‘X’.  Support for length modifiers ‘j’ and ‘t’.  Length
     modifiers are now applied to all integer conversions.  Length
     modifier ‘l’ is now applied to conversion specifiers ‘s’ and ‘V’.
     Support for variable width and precision ‘*’.  Support for flag
     ‘-’.

     An unrecognized format character now sets a *note SystemError: 563.
     In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to
     be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments
     discarded.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and
     ‘%#N’ formats added.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Identical to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 380. except
     that it takes exactly two arguments.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true
     Unicode object if necessary.  If 'obj' is already a true Unicode
     object (not a subtype), return a new *note strong reference: 333.
     to the object.

     Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a *note
     TypeError: 525.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (int
          ordinal)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode Object from the given Unicode code
     point 'ordinal'.

     The ordinal must be in ‘range(0x110000)’.  A *note ValueError: 1ff.
     is raised in the case it is not.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject
          (PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Decode an encoded object 'obj' to a Unicode object.

     *note bytes: 1bd, *note bytearray: 52b. and other *note bytes-like
     objects: d1d. are decoded according to the given 'encoding' and
     using the error handling defined by 'errors'.  Both can be ‘NULL’
     to have the interface use the default values (see *note Built-in
     Codecs: 4bb0. for details).

     All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a *note
     TypeError: 525. to be set.

     The API returns ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  The caller is
     responsible for decref'ing the returned objects.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the name of the
     default string encoding, ‘"utf-8"’.  See *note
     sys.getdefaultencoding(): 4325.

     The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid until
     interpreter shutdown.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_GetLength (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_CopyCharacters
          (PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t
          from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)

     Copy characters from one Unicode object into another.  This
     function performs character conversion when necessary and falls
     back to ‘memcpy()’ if possible.  Returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception
     on error, otherwise returns the number of copied characters.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_Fill (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4
          fill_char)

     Fill a string with a character: write 'fill_char' into
     ‘unicode[start:start+length]’.

     Fail if 'fill_char' is bigger than the string maximum character, or
     if the string has more than 1 reference.

     Return the number of written character, or return ‘-1’ and raise an
     exception on error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_WriteChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 character)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Write
     a character to a string.  The string must have been created through
     *note PyUnicode_New(): 89a.  Since Unicode strings are supposed to
     be immutable, the string must not be shared, or have been hashed
     yet.

     This function checks that 'unicode' is a Unicode object, that the
     index is not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified
     safely (i.e.  that it its reference count is one).

     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. PyUnicode_ReadChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Read
     a character from a string.  This function checks that 'unicode' is
     a Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to
     *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(): 1164, which performs no error
     checking.

     Return character on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Substring (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Return a substring of 'unicode',
     from character index 'start' (included) to character index 'end'
     (excluded).  Negative indices are not supported.  On error, set an
     exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Copy
     the string 'unicode' into a UCS4 buffer, including a null
     character, if 'copy_null' is set.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an
     exception on error (in particular, a *note SystemError: 563. if
     'buflen' is smaller than the length of 'unicode').  'buffer' is
     returned on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_UCS4: 298. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Copy
     the string 'unicode' into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.  If this fails, ‘NULL’ is returned with
     a *note MemoryError: 1530. set.  The returned buffer always has an
     extra null code point appended.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Locale Encoding,  Next: File System Encoding,  Prev: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Up: Objets Unicode

7.8.3.11 Locale Encoding
........................

The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the
operating system.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Decode a string from UTF-8 on
     Android and VxWorks, or from the current locale encoding on other
     platforms.  The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and
     ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(1)).  The decoder uses ‘"strict"’
     error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’.  'str' must end with a null
     character but cannot contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4a04. to decode a
     string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now also uses the current
     locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (const char
          *str, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bb9, but compute the string length
     using ‘strlen()’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8
     on Android and VxWorks, or to the current locale encoding on other
     platforms.  The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and
     ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(2)).  The encoder uses ‘"strict"’
     error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’.  Return a *note bytes: 1bd.
     object.  'unicode' cannot contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a0f. to encode a string to
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8. function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now also uses the current
     locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: File System Encoding,  Next: wchar_t Support,  Prev: Locale Encoding,  Up: Objets Unicode

7.8.3.12 File System Encoding
.............................

Functions encoding to and decoding from the *note filesystem encoding
and error handler: 528. ( PEP 383(1) and PEP 529(2)).

To encode file names to *note bytes: 1bd. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSConverter()’ as
the conversion function:

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_FSConverter (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  *note PyArg_Parse*
     converter: 897.: encode *note str: 437. objects - obtained directly
     or through the *note os.PathLike: c41. interface - to *note bytes:
     1bd. using *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a0f.; *note bytes:
     1bd. objects are output as-is.  'result' must be an address of a C
     variable of type *note PyObject: 32f.* (or *note PyBytesObject:
     77e.*).  On success, set the variable to a new *note strong
     reference: 333. to a *note bytes object: 4b85. which must be
     released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value
     (*note Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4aab.).  Embedded null bytes are not
     allowed in the result.  On failure, return ‘0’ with an exception
     set.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, the function releases a strong reference stored
     in the variable referred by 'result' and returns ‘1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

To decode file names to *note str: 437. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSDecoder()’ as the
conversion function:

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  *note PyArg_Parse*
     converter: 897.: decode *note bytes: 1bd. objects - obtained either
     directly or indirectly through the *note os.PathLike: c41.
     interface - to *note str: 437. using *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4a04.; *note str: 437. objects
     are output as-is.  'result' must be an address of a C variable of
     type *note PyObject: 32f.* (or *note PyUnicodeObject: 780.*).  On
     success, set the variable to a new *note strong reference: 333. to
     a *note Unicode object: 4b95. which must be released when it is no
     longer used and return a non-zero value (*note
     Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4aab.).  Embedded null characters are not
     allowed in the result.  On failure, return ‘0’ with an exception
     set.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, release the strong reference to the object
     referred to by 'result' and return ‘1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un *note path-like object:
     29d.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Decode a string from the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 528.

     If you need to decode a string from the current locale encoding,
     use *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bb9.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler:
     528. is now used.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (const
          char *str)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Decode a null-terminated string from the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 528.

     If the string length is known, use *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4a04.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler:
     528. is now used.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object to the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 528, and return *note bytes: 1bd.  Note
     that the resulting *note bytes: 1bd. object can contain null bytes.

     If you need to encode a string to the current locale encoding, use
     *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bba.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8. function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler:
     528. is now used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: wchar_t Support,  Prev: File System Encoding,  Up: Objets Unicode

7.8.3.13 wchar_t Support
........................

‘wchar_t’ support for platforms which support it:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_FromWideChar (const
          wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object from the ‘wchar_t’ buffer
     'wstr' of the given 'size'.  Passing ‘-1’ as the 'size' indicates
     that the function must itself compute the length, using ‘wcslen()’.
     Return ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_AsWideChar (PyObject
          *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Copy the Unicode object
     contents into the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr'.  At most 'size'
     ‘wchar_t’ characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing null
     termination character).  Return the number of ‘wchar_t’ characters
     copied or ‘-1’ in case of an error.

     When 'wstr' is ‘NULL’, instead return the 'size' that would be
     required to store all of 'unicode' including a terminating null.

     Note that the resulting wchar_t* string may or may not be
     null-terminated.  It is the responsibility of the caller to make
     sure that the wchar_t* string is null-terminated in case this is
     required by the application.  Also, note that the wchar_t* string
     might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be
     truncated when used with most C functions.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Convert the Unicode object to a wide character string.  The output
     string always ends with a null character.  If 'size' is not ‘NULL’,
     write the number of wide characters (excluding the trailing null
     termination character) into '*size'.  Note that the resulting
     ‘wchar_t’ string might contain null characters, which would cause
     the string to be truncated when used with most C functions.  If
     'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters a
     *note ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

     Returns a buffer allocated by *note PyMem_New: 14dc. (use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 13fb. to free it) on success.  On error, returns
     ‘NULL’ and '*size' is undefined.  Raises a *note MemoryError: 1530.
     if memory allocation is failed.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: Raises a *note ValueError: 1ff. if
     'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Codecs,  Next: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Objets Unicode,  Up: Objets Unicode et Codecs

7.8.3.14 Built-in Codecs
........................

Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for
speed.  All of these codecs are directly usable via the following
functions.

Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and
they have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in *note str():
437. string object constructor.

Setting encoding to ‘NULL’ causes the default encoding to be used which
is UTF-8.  The file system calls should use *note
PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d09. for encoding file names.  This uses the
*note filesystem encoding and error handler: 528. internally.

Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to ‘NULL’ meaning
to use the default handling defined for the codec.  Default error
handling for all built-in codecs is "strict" (*note ValueError: 1ff. is
raised).

The codecs all use a similar interface.  Only deviations from the
following generic ones are documented for simplicity.

* Menu:

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 Codecs::
* UTF-32 Codecs::
* UTF-16 Codecs::
* UTF-7 Codecs::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 Codecs::
* ASCII Codecs::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::
* Methods & Slots::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Codecs,  Next: UTF-8 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.15 Generic Codecs
.......................

These are the generic codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Decode (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     encoded string 'str'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same
     meaning as the parameters of the same name in the *note str(): 437.
     built-in function.  The codec to be used is looked up using the
     Python codec registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by
     the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString
          (PyObject *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python
     bytes object.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the
     parameters of the same name in the Unicode *note encode(): 8c4.
     method.  The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec
     registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 Codecs,  Next: UTF-32 Codecs,  Prev: Generic Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.16 UTF-8 Codecs
.....................

These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     UTF-8 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors,
          Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4a10.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’,
     trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be treated as an
     error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the
     result as Python bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
     (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’).

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Return a pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and
     store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in 'size'.
     The 'size' argument can be ‘NULL’; in this case no size will be
     stored.  The returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended
     (not included in 'size'), regardless of whether there are any other
     null code points.

     On error, set an exception, set 'size' to ‘-1’ (if it's not NULL)
     and return ‘NULL’.

     The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
     (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’).

     This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode
     object, and subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same
     buffer.  The caller is not responsible for deallocating the buffer.
     The buffer is deallocated and pointers to it become invalid when
     the Unicode object is garbage collected.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The return type is now ‘const char *’
     rather of ‘char *’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function is a part of the *note
     limited API: 38c.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (PyObject *unicode)

     As *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 887, but does not store the
     size.

          Avertissement: This function does not have any special
          behavior for null characters(1) embedded within 'unicode'.  As
          a result, strings containing null characters will remain in
          the returned string, which some C functions might interpret as
          the end of the string, leading to truncation.  If truncation
          is an issue, it is recommended to use *note
          PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 887. instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The return type is now ‘const char *’
     rather of ‘char *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-32 Codecs,  Next: UTF-16 Codecs,  Prev: UTF-8 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.17 UTF-32 Codecs
......................

These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string
     and return the corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if
     non-‘NULL’) defines the error handling.  It defaults to "strict".

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output.

     After completion, '*byteorder' is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 4a0c.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 4a0d. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not
     divisible by four) as an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded
     and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in
     'consumed'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding
     in native byte order.  The string always starts with a BOM mark.
     Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-16 Codecs,  Next: UTF-7 Codecs,  Prev: UTF-32 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.18 UTF-16 Codecs
......................

These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string
     and return the corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if
     non-‘NULL’) defines the error handling.  It defaults to "strict".

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output (where it will result in either a ‘\ufeff’ or a ‘\ufffe’
     character).

     After completion, ‘*byteorder’ is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 4a0a.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 4a0b. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or
     a split surrogate pair) as an error.  Those bytes will not be
     decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be
     stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding
     in native byte order.  The string always starts with a BOM mark.
     Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-7 Codecs,  Next: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-16 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.19 UTF-7 Codecs
.....................

These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     UTF-7 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors,
          Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 4a0e.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’,
     trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not be treated as
     an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-7 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.20 Unicode-Escape Codecs
..............................

These are the "Unicode Escape" codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return
     the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Latin-1 Codecs,  Prev: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.21 Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs
..................................

These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Raw-Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and
     return the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Latin-1 Codecs,  Next: ASCII Codecs,  Prev: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.22 Latin-1 Codecs
.......................

These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256
Unicode ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during
encoding.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Latin-1 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the
     result as Python bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: ASCII Codecs,  Next: Character Map Codecs,  Prev: Latin-1 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.23 ASCII Codecs
.....................

These are the ASCII codec APIs.  Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted.  All
other codes generate errors.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     ASCII encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the
     result as Python bytes object.  Error handling is "strict".  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Character Map Codecs,  Next: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Prev: ASCII Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.24 Character Map Codecs
.............................

This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different
codecs (and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard
codecs included in the ‘encodings’ package).  The codec uses mappings to
encode and decode characters.  The mapping objects provided must support
the *note __getitem__(): 280. mapping interface; dictionaries and
sequences work well.

These are the mapping codec APIs:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char
          *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     encoded string 'str' using the given 'mapping' object.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     If 'mapping' is ‘NULL’, Latin-1 decoding will be applied.  Else
     'mapping' must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to
     255) to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as
     Unicode ordinals) or ‘None’.  Unmapped data bytes - ones which
     cause a *note LookupError: 2189, as well as ones which get mapped
     to ‘None’, ‘0xFFFE’ or ‘'\ufffe'’, are treated as undefined
     mappings and cause an error.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString
          (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Encode a Unicode object using the given 'mapping'
     object and return the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is
     "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     The 'mapping' object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes
     objects, integers in the range from 0 to 255 or ‘None’.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 2189.) as
     well as mapped to ‘None’ are treated as "undefined mapping" and
     cause an error.

The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Translate (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Translate a string by applying a character mapping
     table to it and return the resulting Unicode object.  Return ‘NULL’
     if an exception was raised by the codec.

     The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode
     ordinal integers or ‘None’ (causing deletion of the character).

     Mapping tables need only provide the *note __getitem__(): 280.
     interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 2189.)
     are left untouched and are copied as-is.

     'errors' has the usual meaning for codecs.  It may be ‘NULL’ which
     indicates to use the default error handling.


File: python.info,  Node: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Next: Methods & Slots,  Prev: Character Map Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.25 MBCS codecs for Windows
................................

These are the MBCS codec APIs.  They are currently only available on
Windows and use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions.
Note that MBCS (or DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one.  The
target encoding is defined by the user settings on the machine running
the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Create a Unicode
     object by decoding 'size' bytes of the MBCS encoded string 'str'.
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors,
          Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  If 'consumed' is
     ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4a07.  If
     'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful():
     4a08. will not decode trailing lead byte and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful
          (int code_page, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char
          *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4a08, except uses the code page
     specified by 'code_page'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Encode a Unicode
     object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes object.
     Error handling is "strict".  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (int
          code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. on Windows Depuis la version 3.7.'  Encode the Unicode
     object using the specified code page and return a Python bytes
     object.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.
     Use ‘CP_ACP’ code page to get the MBCS encoder.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods & Slots,  Prev: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.26 Methods & Slots
........................


File: python.info,  Node: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Objets Unicode et Codecs

7.8.3.27 Methods and Slot Functions
...................................

The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings
on input (we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return
Unicode objects or integers as appropriate.

They all return ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’ if an exception occurs.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Concat (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Split (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings.  If
     'sep' is ‘NULL’, splitting will be done at all whitespace
     substrings.  Otherwise, splits occur at the given separator.  At
     most 'maxsplit' splits will be done.  If negative, no limit is set.
     Separators are not included in the resulting list.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.split(): e95.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_RSplit (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_Split(): 4a1c, but splitting
     will be done beginning at the end of the string.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.rsplit(): 1236.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Splitlines (PyObject
          *unicode, int keepends)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list
     of Unicode strings.  CRLF is considered to be one line break.  If
     'keepends' is ‘0’, the Line break characters are not included in
     the resulting strings.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Partition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Split a Unicode string at the first occurrence of
     'sep', and return a 3-tuple containing the part before the
     separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator.
     If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing the
     string itself, followed by two empty strings.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.partition(): e96.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_RPartition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 1529, but split
     a Unicode string at the last occurrence of 'sep'.  If the separator
     is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings,
     followed by the string itself.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.rpartition(): 1239.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Join (PyObject
          *separator, PyObject *seq)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Join a sequence of strings using the given 'separator'
     and return the resulting Unicode string.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_Tailmatch (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ if 'substr'
     matches ‘unicode[start:end]’ at the given tail end ('direction' ==
     ‘-1’ means to do a prefix match, 'direction' == ‘1’ a suffix
     match), ‘0’ otherwise.  Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_Find (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the first position of
     'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction'
     ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' ==
     ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return value is the index of the
     first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and
     ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been
     set.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_FindChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return the first position of the character 'ch' in
     ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction' ('direction' ==
     ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' == ‘-1’ a backward
     search).  The return value is the index of the first match; a value
     of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and ‘-2’ indicates that
     an error occurred and an exception has been set.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: 'start' and 'end' are now adjusted to
     behave like ‘unicode[start:end]’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyUnicode_Count (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the number of
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’.
     Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Replace (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t
          maxcount)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Replace at most 'maxcount' occurrences of 'substr' in
     'unicode' with 'replstr' and return the resulting Unicode object.
     'maxcount' == ‘-1’ means replace all occurrences.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_Compare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Compare two strings and
     return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than, equal, and greater than,
     respectively.

     This function returns ‘-1’ upon failure, so one should call *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to check for errors.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          const char *string, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Compare a Unicode object with a char buffer which is interpreted as
     being UTF-8 or ASCII encoded and return true (‘1’) if they are
     equal, or false (‘0’) otherwise.  If the Unicode object contains
     surrogate code points (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) or the C string is not
     valid UTF-8, false (‘0’) is returned.

     This function does not raise exceptions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (PyObject *unicode, const char
          *string)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Similar to *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36c, but compute
     'string' length using ‘strlen()’.  If the Unicode object contains
     null characters, false (‘0’) is returned.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (PyObject *unicode,
          const char *string)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Compare a Unicode object,
     'unicode', with 'string' and return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than,
     equal, and greater than, respectively.  It is best to pass only
     ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string
     as ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.

     This function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_RichCompare (PyObject
          *left, PyObject *right, int op)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the
     following:

        * ‘NULL’ in case an exception was raised

        * *note Py_True: 4b65. or *note Py_False: 4b64. for successful
          comparisons

        * *note Py_NotImplemented: 4ada. in case the type combination is
          unknown

     Possible values for 'op' are *note Py_GT: 4ae2, *note Py_GE: 4ae3,
     *note Py_EQ: 4ae0, *note Py_NE: 4ae1, *note Py_LT: 4ade, and *note
     Py_LE: 4adf.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_Format (PyObject
          *format, PyObject *args)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new string object from 'format' and 'args';
     this is analogous to ‘format % args’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnicode_Contains (PyObject *unicode, PyObject
          *substr)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Check whether 'substr' is
     contained in 'unicode' and return true or false accordingly.

     'substr' has to coerce to a one element Unicode string.  ‘-1’ is
     returned if there was an error.

 -- C Fonction: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace (PyObject **p_unicode)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Intern the argument **note
     p_unicode: 8a0. in place.  The argument must be the address of a
     pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object.  If
     there is an existing interned string that is the same as **note
     p_unicode: 8a0, it sets **note p_unicode: 8a0. to it (releasing the
     reference to the old string object and creating a new *note strong
     reference: 333. to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
     **note p_unicode: 8a0. alone and interns it.

     (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about
     references, think of this function as reference-neutral.  You must
     own the object you pass in; after the call you no longer own the
     passed-in reference, but you newly own the result.)

     This function never raises an exception.  On error, it leaves its
     argument unchanged without interning it.

     Instances of subclasses of *note str: 437. may not be interned,
     that is, *note PyUnicode_CheckExact: 4b99.(**note p_unicode: 8a0.)
     must be true.  If it is not, then - as with any other error - the
     argument is left unchanged.

     Note that interned strings are not “immortal”.  You must keep a
     reference to the result to benefit from interning.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyUnicode_InternFromString (const
          char *str)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  A combination of *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17.
     and *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8a0, meant for statically
     allocated strings.

     Return a new ("owned") reference to either a new Unicode string
     object that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object
     with the same value.

     Python may keep a reference to the result, or make it *note
     immortal: 4327, preventing it from being garbage-collected
     promptly.  For interning an unbounded number of different strings,
     such as ones coming from user input, prefer calling *note
     PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17. and *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace():
     8a0. directly.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' Strings interned this
     way are made *note immortal: 4327.


File: python.info,  Node: Tuple Objects,  Next: Struct Sequence Objects,  Prev: Objets Unicode et Codecs,  Up: Objets séquences

7.8.3.28 Tuple Objects
......................

 -- C Type: type PyTupleObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python tuple
     object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyTuple_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python tuple type; it is the same
     object as *note tuple: 366. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTuple_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of
     the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTuple_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTuple_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new tuple object of size 'len', or ‘NULL’ with
     an exception set on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTuple_Pack (Py_ssize_t n, ...)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new tuple object of size 'n', or ‘NULL’ with
     an exception set on failure.  The tuple values are initialized to
     the subsequent 'n' C arguments pointing to Python objects.
     ‘PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a,
     b)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyTuple_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Take a pointer to a tuple
     object, and return the size of that tuple.  On error, return ‘-1’
     and with an exception set.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyTuple_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p)

     Like *note PyTuple_Size(): 49de, but without error checking.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTuple_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the object at position 'pos' in the tuple
     pointed to by 'p'.  If 'pos' is negative or out of bounds, return
     ‘NULL’ and set an *note IndexError: 14ec. exception.

     The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple 'p' (that is: it
     is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p').  To get a
     *note strong reference: 333, use *note
     Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)): 888. or *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTuple_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Like *note
     PyTuple_GetItem(): 4859, but does no checking of its arguments.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTuple_GetSlice (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return the slice of the tuple pointed to by 'p' between
     'low' and 'high', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘p[low:high]’.
     Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTuple_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Insert a reference to object
     'o' at position 'pos' of the tuple pointed to by 'p'.  Return ‘0’
     on success.  If 'pos' is out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an
     *note IndexError: 14ec. exception.

          Note: This function "steals" a reference to 'o' and discards a
          reference to an item already in the tuple at the affected
          position.

 -- C Fonction: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)

     Like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a, but does no error checking, and
     should 'only' be used to fill in brand new tuples.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f6. or *note with assertions: 382.

          Note: This function "steals" a reference to 'o', and, unlike
          *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a, does 'not' discard a reference
          to any item that is being replaced; any reference in the tuple
          at position 'pos' will be leaked.

 -- C Fonction: int _PyTuple_Resize (PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     Can be used to resize a tuple.  'newsize' will be the new length of
     the tuple.  Because tuples are 'supposed' to be immutable, this
     should only be used if there is only one reference to the object.
     Do 'not' use this if the tuple may already be known to some other
     part of the code.  The tuple will always grow or shrink at the end.
     Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one,
     only more efficiently.  Returns ‘0’ on success.  Client code should
     never assume that the resulting value of ‘*p’ will be the same as
     before calling this function.  If the object referenced by ‘*p’ is
     replaced, the original ‘*p’ is destroyed.  On failure, returns ‘-1’
     and sets ‘*p’ to ‘NULL’, and raises *note MemoryError: 1530. or
     *note SystemError: 563.


File: python.info,  Node: Struct Sequence Objects,  Next: List Objects,  Prev: Tuple Objects,  Up: Objets séquences

7.8.3.29 Struct Sequence Objects
................................

Struct sequence objects are the C equivalent of *note namedtuple(): 1c5.
objects, i.e.  a sequence whose items can also be accessed through
attributes.  To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a
specific struct sequence type.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyTypeObject: a95. *PyStructSequence_NewType
          (PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a new struct sequence type from the data in
     'desc', described below.  Instances of the resulting type can be
     created with *note PyStructSequence_New(): 49ce.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Fonction: void PyStructSequence_InitType (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     Initializes a struct sequence type 'type' from 'desc' in place.

 -- C Fonction: int PyStructSequence_InitType2 (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     Like *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): fee, but returns ‘0’ on
     success and ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Type: type PyStructSequence_Desc
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Contains the meta information of a struct sequence type to create.

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8
          encoded.  The name must contain the module name.

      -- C Membre: const char *doc

          Pointer to docstring for the type or ‘NULL’ to omit.

      -- C Membre: *note PyStructSequence_Field: ba9. *fields

          Pointer to ‘NULL’-terminated array with field names of the new
          type.

      -- C Membre: int n_in_sequence

          Number of fields visible to the Python side (if used as
          tuple).

 -- C Type: type PyStructSequence_Field
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Describes a field of a struct sequence.  As a struct sequence is
     modeled as a tuple, all fields are typed as *note PyObject: 32f.*.
     The index in the *note fields: 4bcd. array of the *note
     PyStructSequence_Desc: baa. determines which field of the struct
     sequence is described.

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          Name for the field or ‘NULL’ to end the list of named fields,
          set to *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 971. to leave
          unnamed.

      -- C Membre: const char *doc

          Field docstring or ‘NULL’ to omit.

 -- C Variable: const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'
     Special value for a field name to leave it unnamed.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The type was changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyStructSequence_New (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Creates an instance of 'type', which must have been
     created with *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 49cf.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyStructSequence_GetItem (PyObject
          *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the object at position 'pos' in the
     struct sequence pointed to by 'p'.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f6. or *note with assertions: 382.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM
          (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Alias to *note
     PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 49cd.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to *note
     PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 49cd.

 -- C Fonction: void PyStructSequence_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          pos, PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Sets the field at index
     'pos' of the struct sequence 'p' to value 'o'.  Like *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 383, this should only be used to fill in brand
     new instances.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f6. or *note with assertions: 382.

          Note: This function "steals" a reference to 'o'.

 -- C Fonction: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          *pos, PyObject *o)

     Alias to *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 49d0.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to *note
     PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 49d0.


File: python.info,  Node: List Objects,  Prev: Struct Sequence Objects,  Up: Objets séquences

7.8.3.30 List Objects
.....................

 -- C Type: type PyListObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python list
     object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyList_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python list type.  This is the
     same object as *note list: 5fe. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a list object or an instance of a subtype of
     the list type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a list object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the list type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyList_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new list of length 'len' on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

          Note: If 'len' is greater than zero, the returned list
          object's items are set to ‘NULL’.  Thus you cannot use
          abstract API functions such as *note PySequence_SetItem():
          1a12. or expose the object to Python code before setting all
          items to a real object with *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531. or
          *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 384.  The following APIs are safe
          APIs before the list is fully initialized: *note
          PyList_SetItem(): 1531. and *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 384.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyList_Size (PyObject *list)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the length of the list object in 'list'; this is equivalent
     to ‘len(list)’ on a list object.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyList_GET_SIZE (PyObject *list)

     Similar to *note PyList_Size(): 13d2, but without error checking.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyList_GetItemRef (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Return the object at position
     'index' in the list pointed to by 'list'.  The position must be
     non-negative; indexing from the end of the list is not supported.
     If 'index' is out of bounds (‘<0 or >=len(list)’), return ‘NULL’
     and set an *note IndexError: 14ec. exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyList_GetItem (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Like *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 351, but returns
     a *note borrowed reference: 334. instead of a *note strong
     reference: 333.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyList_GET_ITEM (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Similar to *note
     PyList_GetItem(): 352, but without error checking.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_SetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the item at index
     'index' in list to 'item'.  Return ‘0’ on success.  If 'index' is
     out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an *note IndexError: 14ec.
     exception.

          Note: This function "steals" a reference to 'item' and
          discards a reference to an item already in the list at the
          affected position.

 -- C Fonction: void PyList_SET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i,
          PyObject *o)

     Macro form of *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531. without error checking.
     This is normally only used to fill in new lists where there is no
     previous content.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f6. or *note with assertions: 382.

          Note: This macro "steals" a reference to 'item', and, unlike
          *note PyList_SetItem(): 1531, does 'not' discard a reference
          to any item that is being replaced; any reference in 'list' at
          position 'i' will be leaked.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Insert (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Insert the item 'item' into
     list 'list' in front of index 'index'.  Return ‘0’ if successful;
     return ‘-1’ and set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous to
     ‘list.insert(index, item)’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Append (PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Append the object 'item' at
     the end of list 'list'.  Return ‘0’ if successful; return ‘-1’ and
     set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous to
     ‘list.append(item)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyList_GetSlice (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a list of the objects in 'list' containing the
     objects 'between' 'low' and 'high'.  Return ‘NULL’ and set an
     exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous to ‘list[low:high]’.
     Indexing from the end of the list is not supported.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_SetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low,
          Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the slice of 'list'
     between 'low' and 'high' to the contents of 'itemlist'.  Analogous
     to ‘list[low:high] = itemlist’.  The 'itemlist' may be ‘NULL’,
     indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion).
     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  Indexing from the end of
     the list is not supported.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Extend (PyObject *list, PyObject *iterable)

     Extend 'list' with the contents of 'iterable'.  This is the same as
     ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, iterable)’
     and analogous to ‘list.extend(iterable)’ or ‘list += iterable’.

     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list:
     5fe. object.  Return 0 on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Clear (PyObject *list)

     Remove all items from 'list'.  This is the same as
     ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, 0, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, NULL)’ and analogous to
     ‘list.clear()’ or ‘del list[:]’.

     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list:
     5fe. object.  Return 0 on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Sort (PyObject *list)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Sort the items of 'list' in
     place.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  This is equivalent
     to ‘list.sort()’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyList_Reverse (PyObject *list)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Reverse the items of 'list'
     in place.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of ‘list.reverse()’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyList_AsTuple (PyObject *list)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Return a new tuple object containing the contents of 'list';
     equivalent to ‘tuple(list)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets conteneurs,  Next: Objets fonctions<2>,  Prev: Objets séquences,  Up: Couche des objets concrets

7.8.4 Objets conteneurs
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Objets dictionnaires::
* Set Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets dictionnaires,  Next: Set Objects,  Up: Objets conteneurs

7.8.4.1 Objets dictionnaires
............................

 -- C Type: type PyDictObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python dictionary
     object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyDict_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python dictionary type.  This is
     the same object as *note dict: 253. in the Python layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of
     the dict type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a dict object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the dict type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_New ()
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new empty dictionary, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDictProxy_New (PyObject
          *mapping)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 459. object for
     a mapping which enforces read-only behavior.  This is normally used
     to create a view to prevent modification of the dictionary for
     non-dynamic class types.

 -- C Fonction: void PyDict_Clear (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Empty an existing dictionary
     of all key-value pairs.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Contains (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Determine if dictionary 'p'
     contains 'key'.  If an item in 'p' is matches 'key', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘key in p’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_ContainsString (PyObject *p, const char *key)

     This is the same as *note PyDict_Contains(): 32e, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_Copy (PyObject *p)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new dictionary that contains the same
     key-value pairs as 'p'.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_SetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *val)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Insert 'val' into the
     dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable:
     5fd.; if it isn't, *note TypeError: 525. will be raised.  Return
     ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  This function 'does not' steal
     a reference to 'val'.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_SetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject *val)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_SetItem(): 485b, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_DelItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Remove the entry in
     dictionary 'p' with key 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable: 5fd.;
     if it isn't, *note TypeError: 525. is raised.  If 'key' is not in
     the dictionary, *note KeyError: 33a. is raised.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_DelItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_DelItem(): 491f, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_GetItemRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key,
          PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Return a new *note strong reference: 333. to the object from
     dictionary 'p' which has a key 'key':

        * If the key is present, set '*result' to a new *note strong
          reference: 333. to the value and return ‘1’.

        * If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’.

        * On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     See also the *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d. function.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a *note borrowed reference: 334. to the
     object from dictionary 'p' which has a key 'key'.  Return ‘NULL’ if
     the key 'key' is missing 'without' setting an exception.

          Note: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__():
          aeb. and *note __eq__(): aea. methods are silently ignored.
          Prefer the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 332. function
          instead.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: Calling this API without *note GIL:
     158. held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer
     allowed.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_GetItemWithError (PyObject
          *p, PyObject *key)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Variant of *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d. that
     does not suppress exceptions.  Return ‘NULL’ 'with' an exception
     set if an exception occurred.  Return ‘NULL’ 'without' an exception
     set if the key wasn't present.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_GetItemString (PyObject *p,
          const char *key)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d,
     but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string,
     rather than a *note PyObject: 32f.*.

          Note: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__():
          aeb. and *note __eq__(): aea. methods or while creating the
          temporary *note str: 437. object are silently ignored.  Prefer
          using the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 332. function with
          your own *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17. 'key' instead.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_GetItemStringRef (PyObject *p, const char
          *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Similar to *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330, but 'key' is specified
     as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_SetDefault (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  This is the same as the
     Python-level *note dict.setdefault(): 1064.  If present, it returns
     the value corresponding to 'key' from the dictionary 'p'.  If the
     key is not in the dict, it is inserted with value 'defaultobj' and
     'defaultobj' is returned.  This function evaluates the hash
     function of 'key' only once, instead of evaluating it independently
     for the lookup and the insertion.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_SetDefaultRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *default_value, PyObject **result)

     Inserts 'default_value' into the dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'
     if the key is not already present in the dictionary.  If 'result'
     is not ‘NULL’, then '*result' is set to a *note strong reference:
     333. to either 'default_value', if the key was not present, or the
     existing value, if 'key' was already present in the dictionary.
     Returns ‘1’ if the key was present and 'default_value' was not
     inserted, or ‘0’ if the key was not present and 'default_value' was
     inserted.  On failure, returns ‘-1’, sets an exception, and sets
     ‘*result’ to ‘NULL’.

     For clarity: if you have a strong reference to 'default_value'
     before calling this function, then after it returns, you hold a
     strong reference to both 'default_value' and '*result' (if it's not
     ‘NULL’).  These may refer to the same object: in that case you hold
     two separate references to it.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Pop (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          **result)

     Remove 'key' from dictionary 'p' and optionally return the removed
     value.  Do not raise *note KeyError: 33a. if the key missing.

        - If the key is present, set '*result' to a new reference to the
          removed value if 'result' is not ‘NULL’, and return ‘1’.

        - If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ if 'result' is
          not ‘NULL’, and return ‘0’.

        - On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Similar to *note dict.pop(): 339, but without the default value and
     not raising *note KeyError: 33a. if the key missing.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_PopString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject **result)

     Similar to *note PyDict_Pop(): 337, but 'key' is specified as a
     const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 32f.*.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_Items (PyObject *p)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a *note PyListObject: 4af9. containing all the
     items from the dictionary.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_Keys (PyObject *p)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a *note PyListObject: 4af9. containing all the
     keys from the dictionary.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDict_Values (PyObject *p)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a *note PyListObject: 4af9. containing all the
     values from the dictionary 'p'.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyDict_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the number of items in the dictionary.  This is equivalent
     to ‘len(p)’ on a dictionary.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Next (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject
          **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Iterate over all key-value
     pairs in the dictionary 'p'.  The *note Py_ssize_t: a50. referred
     to by 'ppos' must be initialized to ‘0’ prior to the first call to
     this function to start the iteration; the function returns true for
     each pair in the dictionary, and false once all pairs have been
     reported.  The parameters 'pkey' and 'pvalue' should either point
     to *note PyObject: 32f.* variables that will be filled in with each
     key and value, respectively, or may be ‘NULL’.  Any references
     returned through them are borrowed.  'ppos' should not be altered
     during iteration.  Its value represents offsets within the internal
     dictionary structure, and since the structure is sparse, the
     offsets are not consecutive.

     Par exemple :

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              /* do something interesting with the values... */
              ...
          }

     The dictionary 'p' should not be mutated during iteration.  It is
     safe to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the
     dictionary, but only so long as the set of keys does not change.
     For example:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
              if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  return -1;
              }
              PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
              if (o == NULL)
                  return -1;
              if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(o);
                  return -1;
              }
              Py_DECREF(o);
          }

     The function is not thread-safe in the *note free-threaded: 151e.
     build without external synchronization.  You can use *note
     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 4bdf. to lock the dictionary while
     iterating over it:

          Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self->dict);
          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              ...
          }
          Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Merge (PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int
          override)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Iterate over mapping object
     'b' adding key-value pairs to dictionary 'a'.  'b' may be a
     dictionary, or any object supporting *note PyMapping_Keys(): bac.
     and *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d.  If 'override' is true, existing
     pairs in 'a' will be replaced if a matching key is found in 'b',
     otherwise pairs will only be added if there is not a matching key
     in 'a'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Update (PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the same as
     ‘PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)’ in C, and is similar to ‘a.update(b)’ in
     Python except that *note PyDict_Update(): 4928. doesn't fall back
     to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second
     argument has no "keys" attribute.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if
     an exception was raised.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2,
          int override)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Update or merge into
     dictionary 'a', from the key-value pairs in 'seq2'.  'seq2' must be
     an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed
     as key-value pairs.  In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if
     'override' is true, else the first wins.  Return ‘0’ on success or
     ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  Equivalent Python (except for the
     return value):

          def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
              for key, value in seq2:
                  if override or key not in a:
                      a[key] = value

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_AddWatcher (PyDict_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a dictionary watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer id which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 551.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 550.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 550. will be called when
     'dict' is modified or deallocated.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     on error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDict_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as no longer watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 550. will no longer be
     called when 'dict' is modified or deallocated.  The dict must
     previously have been watched by this watcher.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: type PyDict_WatchEvent

     Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events:
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’, or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(*note PyDict_WatchEvent:
          4be2. event, *note PyObject: 32f. *dict, *note PyObject: 32f.
          *key, *note PyObject: 32f. *new_value)

     Type of a dict watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’,
     both 'key' and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.  If 'event' is
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, 'new_value' will
     be the new value for 'key'.  If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’,
     'key' is being deleted from the dictionary and 'new_value' will be
     ‘NULL’.

     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ occurs when 'dict' was previously empty and
     another dict is merged into it.  To maintain efficiency of this
     operation, per-key ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ events are not issued in
     this case; instead a single ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ is issued, and
     'key' will be the source dictionary.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'dict'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.  Do not
     trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify
     the dict as a side effect.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, taking a new reference in
     the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect
     it and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the
     resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active
     at that time will be called again.

     Callbacks occur before the notified modification to 'dict' takes
     place, so the prior state of 'dict' can be inspected.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Set Objects,  Prev: Objets dictionnaires,  Up: Objets conteneurs

7.8.4.2 Set Objects
...................

This section details the public API for *note set: 5c5. and *note
frozenset: 5c6. objects.  Any functionality not listed below is best
accessed using either the abstract object protocol (including *note
PyObject_CallMethod(): 396, *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1961,
*note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9, *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a, *note
PyObject_IsTrue(): 49ab, *note PyObject_Print(): 15ac, and *note
PyObject_GetIter(): 49aa.) or the abstract number protocol (including
*note PyNumber_And(): 497e, *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4997, *note
PyNumber_Or(): 4992, *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4999, *note
PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4983, *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 498b,
*note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4987, and *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor():
498d.).

 -- C Type: type PySetObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. is used to hold the internal
     data for both *note set: 5c5. and *note frozenset: 5c6. objects.
     It is like a *note PyDictObject: 3b8. in that it is a fixed size
     for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will point to a
     separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
     sets (much like list storage).  None of the fields of this
     structure should be considered public and all are subject to
     change.  All access should be done through the documented API
     rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PySet_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is an instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. representing the Python *note set: 5c5. type.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyFrozenSet_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is an instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: a95. representing the Python *note frozenset: 5c6.
     type.

The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object.
Likewise, the constructor functions work with any iterable Python
object.

 -- C Fonction: int PySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5c5. object or an instance of a
     subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFrozenSet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 5c6. object or an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyAnySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5c5. object, a *note frozenset:
     5c6. object, or an instance of a subtype.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5c5. object but not an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int PyAnySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5c5. object or a *note
     frozenset: 5c6. object but not an instance of a subtype.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 5c6. object but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note set: 5c5. containing objects
     returned by the 'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create
     a new empty set.  Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  Raise *note TypeError: 525. if 'iterable' is not actually
     iterable.  The constructor is also useful for copying a set
     (‘c=set(s)’).

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrozenSet_New (PyObject
          *iterable)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new *note frozenset: 5c6. containing objects
     returned by the 'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create
     a new empty frozenset.  Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  Raise *note TypeError: 525. if 'iterable' is not actually
     iterable.

The following functions and macros are available for instances of *note
set: 5c5. or *note frozenset: 5c6. or instances of their subtypes.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySet_Size (PyObject *anyset)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the length of a *note set: 5c5. or *note frozenset: 5c6.
     object.  Equivalent to ‘len(anyset)’.  Raises a *note SystemError:
     563. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 5c5, *note frozenset: 5c6, or
     an instance of a subtype.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySet_GET_SIZE (PyObject *anyset)

     Macro form of *note PySet_Size(): 1402. without error checking.

 -- C Fonction: int PySet_Contains (PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ if found, ‘0’ if
     not found, and ‘-1’ if an error is encountered.  Unlike the Python
     *note __contains__(): 1f17. method, this function does not
     automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets.
     Raise a *note TypeError: 525. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise
     *note SystemError: 563. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 5c5, *note
     frozenset: 5c6, or an instance of a subtype.

 -- C Fonction: int PySet_Add (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Add 'key' to a *note set:
     5c5. instance.  Also works with *note frozenset: 5c6. instances
     (like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 485a. it can be used to fill in the
     values of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other
     code).  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  Raise a *note
     TypeError: 525. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise a *note
     MemoryError: 1530. if there is no room to grow.  Raise a *note
     SystemError: 563. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 5c5. or
     its subtype.

The following functions are available for instances of *note set: 5c5.
or its subtypes but not for instances of *note frozenset: 5c6. or its
subtypes.

 -- C Fonction: int PySet_Discard (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return ‘1’ if found and
     removed, ‘0’ if not found (no action taken), and ‘-1’ if an error
     is encountered.  Does not raise *note KeyError: 33a. for missing
     keys.  Raise a *note TypeError: 525. if the 'key' is unhashable.
     Unlike the Python *note discard(): 21fa. method, this function does
     not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary
     frozensets.  Raise *note SystemError: 563. if 'set' is not an
     instance of *note set: 5c5. or its subtype.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySet_Pop (PyObject *set)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the
     'set', and removes the object from the 'set'.  Return ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  Raise *note KeyError: 33a. if the set is empty.  Raise a
     *note SystemError: 563. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set:
     5c5. or its subtype.

 -- C Fonction: int PySet_Clear (PyObject *set)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Empty an existing set of all
     elements.  Return ‘0’ on success.  Return ‘-1’ and raise *note
     SystemError: 563. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 5c5. or
     its subtype.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets fonctions<2>,  Next: Autres objets<2>,  Prev: Objets conteneurs,  Up: Couche des objets concrets

7.8.5 Objets fonctions
----------------------

* Menu:

* Objets fonction::
* Instance Method Objects::
* Objets méthode: Objets méthode<2>.
* Objets Cellules::
* Objets code: Objets code<2>.
* Extra information::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets fonction,  Next: Instance Method Objects,  Up: Objets fonctions<2>

7.8.5.1 Objets fonction
.......................

Certaines fonctions sont spécifiques aux fonctions Python.

 -- C Type: type PyFunctionObject

     La structure C utilisée pour les fonctions.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyFunction_Type

     C'est une instance de *note PyTypeObject: a95. et représente le
     type fonction en Python.  Il est exposé aux développeurs comme
     ‘types.FunctionType’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFunction_Check (PyObject *o)

     Renvoie vrai si 'o' est un objet de type fonction (a comme type
     *note PyFunction_Type: 4bf3.).  Le paramètre ne doit pas être
     ‘NULL’.  Cette fonction réussit toujours.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_New (PyObject *code,
          PyObject *globals)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie une nouvelle
     fonction associée avec l'objet 'code'.  'globals' doit être un
     dictionnaire avec les variables globales accessibles à la fonction.

     The function's docstring and name are retrieved from the code
     object.  *note __module__: 1eb9. is retrieved from 'globals'.  The
     argument defaults, annotations and closure are set to ‘NULL’.
     *note __qualname__: 1eb8. is set to the same value as the code
     object's *note co_qualname: 1ef3. field.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_NewWithQualName
          (PyObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  As *note
     PyFunction_New(): 4bf5, but also allows setting the function
     object's *note __qualname__: 1eb8. attribute.  'qualname' should be
     a unicode object or ‘NULL’; if ‘NULL’, the ‘__qualname__’ attribute
     is set to the same value as the code object's *note co_qualname:
     1ef3. field.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_GetCode (PyObject *op)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Renvoie l'objet code
     associé avec l'objet de la fonction 'op'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_GetGlobals (PyObject
          *op)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Renvoie le dictionnaire
     global associé avec l'objet de la fonction 'op'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_GetModule (PyObject
          *op)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Return a *note borrowed
     reference: 334. to the *note __module__: 1eb9. attribute of the
     *note function object: 296. 'op'.  It can be 'NULL'.

     This is normally a *note string: 437. containing the module name,
     but can be set to any other object by Python code.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_GetDefaults (PyObject
          *op)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Renvoie les valeurs par
     défaut de l'argument de l'objet de la fonction 'op'.  Cela peut
     être un tuple d'arguments ou ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFunction_SetDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *defaults)

     Définir les valeurs par défaut de l'argument pour l'objet de la
     fonction 'op'.  'defaults' doit être ‘Py_None’ ou un tuple.

     Lève *note SystemError: 563. et renvoie ‘-1’ en cas de d'échec.

 -- C Fonction: void PyFunction_SetVectorcall (PyFunctionObject *func,
          vectorcallfunc vectorcall)

     Set the vectorcall field of a given function object 'func'.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered (default) vectorcall function!

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_GetClosure (PyObject
          *op)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Renvoie la fermeture
     associée avec l'objet de la fonction 'op'.  Cela peut être ‘NULL’
     ou un tuple d'objets cellule.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFunction_SetClosure (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *closure)

     Définir la fermeture associée avec l'objet de la fonction 'op'.
     'closure' doit être ‘Py_None’ ou un tuple d'objets cellule.

     Lève *note SystemError: 563. et renvoie ‘-1’ en cas de d'échec.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFunction_GetAnnotations
          (PyObject *op)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Renvoie les annotations
     de l'objet de la fonction 'op'.  Cela peut être un dictionnaire
     mutable ou ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *annotations)

     Définir les annotations pour l'objet de la fonction 'op'.
     'annotations' doit être un dictionnaire ou ‘Py_None’.

     Lève *note SystemError: 563. et renvoie ‘-1’ en cas de d'échec.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFunction_AddWatcher (PyFunction_WatchCallback
          callback)

     Register 'callback' as a function watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyFunction_ClearWatcher(): 4c00.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFunction_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyFunction_AddWatcher(): 4bff. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: type PyFunction_WatchEvent

          Enumeration of possible function watcher events:

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS’

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyFunction_WatchEvent: 4c01. event, *note PyFunctionObject:
          54f. *func, *note PyObject: 32f. *new_value)

     Type of a function watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ or
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ then 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.
     Otherwise, 'new_value' will hold a *note borrowed reference: 334.
     to the new value that is about to be stored in 'func' for the
     attribute that is being modified.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'func'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is
     invoked after ‘func’ has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the
     callback is invoked before the modification to 'func' takes place,
     so the prior state of 'func' can be inspected.  The runtime is
     permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when
     possible.  In such cases no event will be emitted.  Although this
     creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime
     behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change
     the semantics of the Python code being executed.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’, Taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it,
     preventing it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Instance Method Objects,  Next: Objets méthode<2>,  Prev: Objets fonction,  Up: Objets fonctions<2>

7.8.5.2 Instance Method Objects
...............................

An instance method is a wrapper for a *note PyCFunction: 142d. and the
new way to bind a *note PyCFunction: 142d. to a class object.  It
replaces the former call ‘PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)’.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyInstanceMethod_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     instance method type.  It is not exposed to Python programs.

 -- C Fonction: int PyInstanceMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is an instance method object (has type *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Type: 4c06.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyInstanceMethod_New (PyObject
          *func)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a new instance
     method object, with 'func' being any callable object.  'func' is
     the function that will be called when the instance method is
     called.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyInstanceMethod_Function
          (PyObject *im)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Return the function
     object associated with the instance method 'im'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION
          (PyObject *im)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Macro version of *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Function(): 4c09. which avoids error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets méthode<2>,  Next: Objets Cellules,  Prev: Instance Method Objects,  Up: Objets fonctions<2>

7.8.5.3 Objets méthode
......................

Methods are bound function objects.  Methods are always bound to an
instance of a user-defined class.  Unbound methods (methods bound to a
class object) are no longer available.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyMethod_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     method type.  This is exposed to Python programs as
     ‘types.MethodType’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is a method object (has type *note
     PyMethod_Type: 4c0d.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMethod_New (PyObject *func,
          PyObject *self)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a new method
     object, with 'func' being any callable object and 'self' the
     instance the method should be bound.  'func' is the function that
     will be called when the method is called.  'self' must not be
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMethod_Function (PyObject *meth)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Return the function
     object associated with the method 'meth'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject
          *meth)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Macro version of *note
     PyMethod_Function(): 4c10. which avoids error checking.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMethod_Self (PyObject *meth)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Return the instance
     associated with the method 'meth'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMethod_GET_SELF (PyObject *meth)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Macro version of *note
     PyMethod_Self(): 4c12. which avoids error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets Cellules,  Next: Objets code<2>,  Prev: Objets méthode<2>,  Up: Objets fonctions<2>

7.8.5.4 Objets Cellules
.......................

Les objets "Cellules" ('cell' en anglais) sont utilisés pour implémenter
des variables référencées dans de multiples environnements.  Pour
chacune de ces variables, un objet cellule est créé pour stocker sa
valeur ; les variables locales de chaque pile d'exécution qui référence
cette valeur contiennent une référence sur les cellules des autres
environnements qui utilisent aussi cette variable.  Quand la valeur est
accédée, la valeur de la cellule est utilisée, au lei de celle de
l'objet cellule proprement dit.  Ce dé-référencement de l'objet cellule
requiert l'intervention du 'bytecode' généré ; il n'est pas
automatiquement dé-référencé quand il est accédé.  Il est plausible que
les objets cellules ne soit utilisés ailleurs.

 -- C Type: type PyCellObject

     Structure C utilisée pour les objets cellules.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyCell_Type

     Type objet correspondant aux objets cellules.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCell_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a cell object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCell_New (PyObject *ob)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create and return a new
     cell object containing the value 'ob'.  The parameter may be
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCell_Get (PyObject *cell)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return the contents of
     the cell 'cell', which can be ‘NULL’.  If 'cell' is not a cell
     object, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCell_GET (PyObject *cell)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Return the contents of
     the cell 'cell', but without checking that 'cell' is non-‘NULL’ and
     a cell object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCell_Set (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     Set the contents of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'.  This
     releases the reference to any current content of the cell.  'value'
     may be ‘NULL’.  'cell' must be non-‘NULL’.

     On success, return ‘0’.  If 'cell' is not a cell object, set an
     exception and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Fonction: void PyCell_SET (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     Sets the value of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'.  No reference
     counts are adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; 'cell' must
     be non-‘NULL’ and must be a cell object.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets code<2>,  Next: Extra information,  Prev: Objets Cellules,  Up: Objets fonctions<2>

7.8.5.5 Objets code
...................

Les objets 'Code' sont spécifiques à l'implémentation bas niveau de
CPython.  Chacun d'eux représente une partie de code exécutable, qui n'a
pas encore été lié dans une fonction.

 -- C Type: type PyCodeObject

     La structure C utilisée pour décrire les objets 'Code'.  Les
     attributs de cette structure sont sujets à changer à tout moment.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyCode_Type

     This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. representing the
     Python *note code object: 1cd.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCode_Check (PyObject *co)

     Return true if 'co' is a *note code object: 1cd.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyCode_GetNumFree (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Return the number of *note free (closure) variables: 1efb. in a
     code object.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (PyCodeObject *co)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return the position of the first *note free (closure) variable:
     1efb. in a code object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Renamed from ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree’ as
     part of *note Unstable C API: 535.  The old name is deprecated, but
     will remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyCodeObject: 763. *PyUnstable_Code_New (int
          argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int
          flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names,
          PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars,
          PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int
          firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return a new code object.  If you need a dummy code object to
     create a frame, use *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 1331. instead.

     Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling *note
     PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4c22. directly can bind you to a precise
     Python version.

     The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex
     ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in
     incorrect execution or VM crashes.  Use this function only with
     extreme care.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed from ‘PyCode_New’ as part of
     *note Unstable C API: 535.  The old name is deprecated, but will
     remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyCodeObject: 763.
          *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (int argcount, int
          posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int
          stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts,
          PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars,
          PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name,
          PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable,
          PyObject *exceptiontable)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Similar to *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4c22, but with an extra
     "posonlyargcount" for positional-only arguments.  The same caveats
     that apply to ‘PyUnstable_Code_New’ also apply to this function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8: as ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’.  The old name is deprecated,
     but will remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyCodeObject: 763. *PyCode_NewEmpty (const char
          *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Return a new empty code
     object with the specified filename, function name, and first line
     number.  The resulting code object will raise an ‘Exception’ if
     executed.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCode_Addr2Line (PyCodeObject *co, int byte_offset)

     Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before
     ‘byte_offset’ and ends after it.  If you just need the line number
     of a frame, use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 777. instead.

     For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object,
     use the API described in PEP 626(1).

 -- C Fonction: int PyCode_Addr2Location (PyObject *co, int byte_offset,
          int *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int
          *end_column)

     Sets the passed ‘int’ pointers to the source code line and column
     numbers for the instruction at ‘byte_offset’.  Sets the value to
     ‘0’ when information is not available for any particular element.

     Returns ‘1’ if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCode_GetCode (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_code')’.  Returns a
     strong reference to a *note PyBytesObject: 77e. representing the
     bytecode in a code object.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an
     exception is raised.

     This ‘PyBytesObject’ may be created on-demand by the interpreter
     and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed
     by CPython.  The primary use case for this function is debuggers
     and profilers.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCode_GetVarnames (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_varnames')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4a92. containing
     the names of the local variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCode_GetCellvars (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_cellvars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4a92. containing
     the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested
     functions.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is
     raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCode_GetFreevars (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_freevars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4a92. containing
     the names of the *note free (closure) variables: 1efb.  On error,
     ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCode_AddWatcher (PyCode_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a code object watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 555.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCode_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 554. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: type PyCodeEvent

     Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: -
     ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(*note PyCodeEvent: 4c24.
          event, *note PyCodeObject: 763. *co)

     Type of a code object watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked
     after ‘co’ has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the callback is
     invoked before the destruction of 'co' takes place, so the prior
     state of 'co' can be inspected.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it
     and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime
     implementation details.  Such details may include, but are not
     limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction
     of code objects.  While changes in these details may result in
     differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is
     invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python
     code being executed.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 345.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers


File: python.info,  Node: Extra information,  Prev: Objets code<2>,  Up: Objets fonctions<2>

7.8.5.6 Extra information
.........................

To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external
just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to
code objects.

These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality
is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without
deprecation warnings.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50.
          PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (freefunc free)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return a new an opaque index value used to adding data to code
     objects.

     You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the
     result with ‘PyCode_GetExtra’ and ‘PyCode_SetExtra’ to manipulate
     data on individual code objects.

     If 'free' is not ‘NULL’: when a code object is deallocated, 'free'
     will be called on non-‘NULL’ data stored under the new index.  Use
     *note Py_DecRef(): 4a25. when storing *note PyObject: 32f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: as ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’.  The old private name is
     deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void **extra)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Set 'extra' to the extra data stored under the given index.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     If no data was set under the index, set 'extra' to ‘NULL’ and
     return 0 without setting an exception.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra’.  The old private name is deprecated,
     but will be available until the API changes.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void *extra)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Set the extra data stored under the given index to 'extra'.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra’.  The old private name is deprecated,
     but will be available until the API changes.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres objets<2>,  Prev: Objets fonctions<2>,  Up: Couche des objets concrets

7.8.6 Autres objets
-------------------

* Menu:

* Objets fichiers::
* Module Objects::
* Itérateurs: Itérateurs<2>.
* Les descripteurs::
* Slice Objects::
* Objets de type MemoryView::
* Objets à références faibles: Objets à références faibles<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Objets décrivant les frames::
* Objets générateur::
* Objets coroutines: Objets coroutines<2>.
* Context Variables Objects::
* Objets DateTime: Objets DateTime<2>.
* Objects for Type Hinting::


File: python.info,  Node: Objets fichiers,  Next: Module Objects,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.1 Objets fichiers
.......................

These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in
file objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (FILE*) support
from the C standard library.  In Python 3, files and streams use the new
*note io: 7e. module, which defines several layers over the low-level
unbuffered I/O of the operating system.  The functions described below
are convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for
internal error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised
to access the *note io: 7e. APIs instead.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFile_FromFd (int fd, const char
          *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding,
          const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of
     an already opened file 'fd'.  The arguments 'name', 'encoding',
     'errors' and 'newline' can be ‘NULL’ to use the defaults;
     'buffering' can be '-1' to use the default.  'name' is ignored and
     kept for backward compatibility.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.  For a
     more comprehensive description of the arguments, please refer to
     the *note io.open(): 509. function documentation.

          Avertissement: Étant donné que les flux de données Python
          possèdent leur propre couche de tampon, les mélanger avec des
          descripteurs de fichiers du niveau du système d'exploitation
          peut produire des erreurs (comme par exemple un ordre des
          données inattendu).

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: ignore l'attribut 'name'

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the file descriptor
     associated with 'p' as an int.  If the object is an integer, its
     value is returned.  If not, the object's *note fileno(): 2806.
     method is called if it exists; the method must return an integer,
     which is returned as the file descriptor value.  Sets an exception
     and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFile_GetLine (PyObject *p, int
          n)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Cette fonction, équivalente à ‘p.readline([n])’, lit une ligne de
     l'objet 'p'.  'p' peut être un objet fichier ou n'importe quel
     objet qui possède une méthode *note readline(): 1309.  Si 'n' vaut
     ‘0’, une seule ligne est lue, indépendamment de la taille de la
     ligne.  Si 'n' est plus grand que ‘0’, un maximum de 'n' octets
     seront lus en provenance du fichier ; une ligne partielle peut être
     renvoyée.  Dans les deux cas, une chaîne de caractères vide est
     renvoyée si la fin du fichier est atteinte immédiatement.
     Cependant, si 'n' est plus petit que ‘0’, une ligne est lue
     indépendamment de sa taille, mais *note EOFError: 12b9. est levée
     si la fin du fichier est atteinte immédiatement.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (Py_OpenCodeHookFunction
          handler)

     Overrides the normal behavior of *note io.open_code(): 16e3. to
     pass its parameter through the provided handler.

     The 'handler' is a function of type:

      -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f.
               *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, void*)

          Equivalent of *note PyObject: 32f. *(*)(*note PyObject: 32f.
          *path, void *userData), where 'path' is guaranteed to be *note
          PyUnicodeObject: 780.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     As this hook is intentionally used during import, avoid importing
     new modules during its execution unless they are known to be frozen
     or available in ‘sys.modules’.

     Once a hook has been set, it cannot be removed or replaced, and
     later calls to *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 16e5. will fail.  On
     failure, the function returns -1 and sets an exception if the
     interpreter has been initialized.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877. ‘setopencodehook’ with no
     arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFile_WriteObject (PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int
          flags)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Write object 'obj' to file object 'p'.  The only supported flag for
     'flags' is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4adc.; if given, the *note str():
     437. of the object is written instead of the *note repr(): 7e9.
     Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the appropriate exception
     will be set.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFile_WriteString (const char *s, PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Écrit la chaîne de
     caractères 's' dans l'objet fichier 'p'.  Retourne ‘0’ en cas de
     succès ou ‘-1’ en cas d'échec ; l'exception appropriée sera mise en
     place.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Objects,  Next: Itérateurs<2>,  Prev: Objets fichiers,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.2 Module Objects
......................

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyModule_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     module type.  This is exposed to Python programs as
     ‘types.ModuleType’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, or a subtype of a module
     object.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, but not a subtype of *note
     PyModule_Type: 497b.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_NewObject (PyObject
          *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'

     Return a new module object with *note module.__name__: 1361. set to
     'name'.  The module's ‘__name__’, *note __doc__: 180f, *note
     __package__: 2d6. and *note __loader__: 2e1. attributes are filled
     in (all but ‘__name__’ are set to ‘None’).  The caller is
     responsible for setting a *note __file__: 1ed9. attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: *note __package__: 2d6. and *note
     __loader__: 2e1. are now set to ‘None’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_New (const char *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4979, but the
     name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_GetDict (PyObject
          *module)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the dictionary object that implements 'module"s namespace;
     this object is the same as the *note __dict__: 549. attribute of
     the module object.  If 'module' is not a module object (or a
     subtype of a module object), *note SystemError: 563. is raised and
     ‘NULL’ is returned.

     It is recommended extensions use other ‘PyModule_*’ and
     ‘PyObject_*’ functions rather than directly manipulate a module's
     *note __dict__: 549.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_GetNameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'

     Return 'module"s *note __name__: 1361. value.  If the module does
     not provide one, or if it is not a string, *note SystemError: 563.
     is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyModule_GetName (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4977. but return the name encoded to
     ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyModule_GetState (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the "state" of the
     module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory allocated at
     module creation time, or ‘NULL’.  See *note PyModuleDef.m_size:
     96e.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyModuleDef: 96c. *PyModule_GetDef (PyObject
          *module)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a pointer to the
     *note PyModuleDef: 96c. struct from which the module was created,
     or ‘NULL’ if the module wasn't created from a definition.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_GetFilenameObject
          (PyObject *module)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

     Return the name of the file from which 'module' was loaded using
     'module"s *note __file__: 1ed9. attribute.  If this is not defined,
     or if it is not a string, raise *note SystemError: 563. and return
     ‘NULL’; otherwise return a reference to a Unicode object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyModule_GetFilename (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3ef. but return the filename encoded
     to 'utf-8'.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.2: *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3ee.
     raises *note UnicodeEncodeError: 664. on unencodable filenames, use
     *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3ef. instead.

* Menu:

* Initializing C modules::
* Module lookup::


File: python.info,  Node: Initializing C modules,  Next: Module lookup,  Up: Module Objects

7.8.6.3 Initializing C modules
..............................

Modules objects are usually created from extension modules (shared
libraries which export an initialization function), or compiled-in
modules (where the initialization function is added using *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f.).  See *note Construire des extensions C
et C++: 4849. or *note Étendre un Python intégré: 48b4. for details.

The initialization function can either pass a module definition instance
to *note PyModule_Create(): 4846, and return the resulting module
object, or request "multi-phase initialization" by returning the
definition struct itself.

 -- C Type: type PyModuleDef
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'  The
     module definition struct, which holds all information needed to
     create a module object.  There is usually only one statically
     initialized variable of this type for each module.

      -- C Membre: PyModuleDef_Base m_base

          Always initialize this member to ‘PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT’.

      -- C Membre: const char *m_name

          Name for the new module.

      -- C Membre: const char *m_doc

          Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created
          with *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1930. is used.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. m_size

          Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can
          be retrieved with *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f, rather than
          in static globals.  This makes modules safe for use in
          multiple sub-interpreters.

          This memory area is allocated based on 'm_size' on module
          creation, and freed when the module object is deallocated,
          after the *note m_free: 96b. function has been called, if
          present.

          Setting ‘m_size’ to ‘-1’ means that the module does not
          support sub-interpreters, because it has global state.

          Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can
          be re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of
          memory it requires for its state.  Non-negative ‘m_size’ is
          required for multi-phase initialization.

          See PEP 3121(1) for more details.

      -- C Membre: *note PyMethodDef: 148f. *m_methods

          A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by
          *note PyMethodDef: 148f. values.  Can be ‘NULL’ if no
          functions are present.

      -- C Membre: *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 4c3a. *m_slots

          An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization,
          terminated by a ‘{0, NULL}’ entry.  When using single-phase
          initialization, 'm_slots' must be ‘NULL’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prior to version 3.5, this member
          was always set to ‘NULL’, and was defined as:

                -- C Membre: *note inquiry: 4a3e. m_reload

      -- C Membre: *note traverseproc: 4a4d. m_traverse

          A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module
          object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 96d. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 96e. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: No longer called before the
          module state is allocated.

      -- C Membre: *note inquiry: 4a3e. m_clear

          A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module
          object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 96d. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 96e. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          Like *note PyTypeObject.tp_clear: 4882, this function is not
          'always' called before a module is deallocated.  For example,
          when reference counting is enough to determine that an object
          is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not
          involved and *note m_free: 96b. is called directly.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: No longer called before the
          module state is allocated.

      -- C Membre: *note freefunc: 4c3c. m_free

          A function to call during deallocation of the module object,
          or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 96d. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 96e. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.9: No longer called before the
          module state is allocated.

* Menu:

* Single-phase initialization::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Low-level module creation functions::
* Support functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/


File: python.info,  Node: Single-phase initialization,  Next: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.4 Single-phase initialization
...................................

The module initialization function may create and return the module
object directly.  This is referred to as "single-phase initialization",
and uses one of the following two module creation functions:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_Create (PyModuleDef *def)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new module
     object, given the definition in 'def'.  This behaves like *note
     PyModule_Create2(): 4973. with 'module_api_version' set to
     ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_Create2 (PyModuleDef
          *def, int module_api_version)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a new module object, given the definition in
     'def', assuming the API version 'module_api_version'.  If that
     version does not match the version of the running interpreter, a
     *note RuntimeWarning: 1bb. is emitted.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

          Note: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_Create(): 4846. instead; only use this if you are
          sure you need it.

Before it is returned from in the initialization function, the resulting
module object is typically populated using functions like *note
PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-phase initialization,  Next: Low-level module creation functions,  Prev: Single-phase initialization,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.5 Multi-phase initialization
..................................

An alternate way to specify extensions is to request "multi-phase
initialization".  Extension modules created this way behave more like
Python modules: the initialization is split between the 'creation
phase', when the module object is created, and the 'execution phase',
when it is populated.  The distinction is similar to the ‘__new__()’ and
‘__init__()’ methods of classes.

Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules
are not singletons: if the 'sys.modules' entry is removed and the module
is re-imported, a new module object is created, and the old module is
subject to normal garbage collection - as with Python modules.  By
default, multiple modules created from the same definition should be
independent: changes to one should not affect the others.  This means
that all state should be specific to the module object (using e.g.
using *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f.), or its contents (such as the
module's *note __dict__: 549. or individual classes created with *note
PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.).

All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to
support *note sub-interpreters: 575.  Making sure multiple modules are
independent is typically enough to achieve this.

To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function
(PyInit_modulename) returns a *note PyModuleDef: 96c. instance with
non-empty *note m_slots: 4c39.  Before it is returned, the ‘PyModuleDef’
instance must be initialized with the following function:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModuleDef_Init (PyModuleDef
          *def)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.5.'  Ensures a module
     definition is a properly initialized Python object that correctly
     reports its type and reference count.

     Returns 'def' cast to ‘PyObject*’, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The 'm_slots' member of the module definition must point to an array of
‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ structures:

 -- C Type: type PyModuleDef_Slot

      -- C Membre: int slot

          A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below.

      -- C Membre: void *value

          Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The 'm_slots' array must be terminated by a slot with id 0.

The available slot types are:

 -- C Macro: Py_mod_create

     Specifies a function that is called to create the module object
     itself.  The 'value' pointer of this slot must point to a function
     of the signature:

      -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *create_module (PyObject
               *spec, PyModuleDef *def)

     The function receives a *note ModuleSpec: 1e20. instance, as
     defined in PEP 451(1), and the module definition.  It should return
     a new module object, or set an error and return ‘NULL’.

     This function should be kept minimal.  In particular, it should not
     call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module
     again may result in an infinite loop.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_create’ slots may not be specified in one module
     definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_create’ is not specified, the import machinery will
     create a normal module object using *note PyModule_New(): 4978.
     The name is taken from 'spec', not the definition, to allow
     extension modules to dynamically adjust to their place in the
     module hierarchy and be imported under different names through
     symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.

     There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance
     of *note PyModule_Type: 497b.  Any type can be used, as long as it
     supports setting and getting import-related attributes.  However,
     only ‘PyModule_Type’ instances may be returned if the ‘PyModuleDef’
     has non-‘NULL’ ‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’, ‘m_free’; non-zero
     ‘m_size’; or slots other than ‘Py_mod_create’.

 -- C Macro: Py_mod_exec

     Specifies a function that is called to 'execute' the module.  This
     is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically,
     this function adds classes and constants to the module.  The
     signature of the function is:

      -- C Fonction: int exec_module (PyObject *module)

     If multiple ‘Py_mod_exec’ slots are specified, they are processed
     in the order they appear in the 'm_slots' array.

 -- C Macro: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters

     Specifies one of the following values:

      -- C Macro: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED

          The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters.

      -- C Macro: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but
          only when they share the main interpreter's GIL. (See *note
          Isolating Extension Modules: 4c47.)

      -- C Macro: Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even
          when they have their own GIL. (See *note Isolating Extension
          Modules: 4c47.)

     This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a
     subinterpreter will fail.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ slots may not be specified
     in one module definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ is not specified, the import
     machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Macro: Py_mod_gil

     Specifies one of the following values:

      -- C Macro: Py_MOD_GIL_USED

          The module depends on the presence of the global interpreter
          lock (GIL), and may access global state without
          synchronization.

      -- C Macro: Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED

          The module is safe to run without an active GIL.

     This slot is ignored by Python builds not configured with *note
     -disable-gil: 173.  Otherwise, it determines whether or not
     importing this module will cause the GIL to be automatically
     enabled.  See *note Free-threaded CPython: 13e. for more detail.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_gil’ slots may not be specified in one module
     definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_gil’ is not specified, the import machinery defaults to
     ‘Py_MOD_GIL_USED’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

See PEP 489(2) for more details on multi-phase initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level module creation functions,  Next: Support functions,  Prev: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.6 Low-level module creation functions
...........................................

The following functions are called under the hood when using multi-phase
initialization.  They can be used directly, for example when creating
module objects dynamically.  Note that both ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’
and ‘PyModule_ExecDef’ must be called to fully initialize a module.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec
          (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new module
     object, given the definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec'.
     This behaves like *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): e9e. with
     'module_api_version' set to ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2
          (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Create a new module object,
     given the definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec', assuming
     the API version 'module_api_version'.  If that version does not
     match the version of the running interpreter, a *note
     RuntimeWarning: 1bb. is emitted.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

          Note: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): e9d. instead; only use this if you
          are sure you need it.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_ExecDef (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef
          *def)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Process any execution slots (*note Py_mod_exec: 96d.) given in
     'def'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_SetDocString (PyObject *module, const char
          *docstring)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Set
     the docstring for 'module' to 'docstring'.  This function is called
     automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using
     either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_AddFunctions (PyObject *module, PyMethodDef
          *functions)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Add
     the functions from the ‘NULL’ terminated 'functions' array to
     'module'.  Refer to the *note PyMethodDef: 148f. documentation for
     details on individual entries (due to the lack of a shared module
     namespace, module level "functions" implemented in C typically
     receive the module as their first parameter, making them similar to
     instance methods on Python classes).  This function is called
     automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using
     either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Support functions,  Prev: Low-level module creation functions,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.7 Support functions
.........................

The module initialization function (if using single phase
initialization) or a function called from a module execution slot (if
using multi-phase initialization), can use the following functions to
help initialize the module state:

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_AddObjectRef (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Add
     an object to 'module' as 'name'.  This is a convenience function
     which can be used from the module's initialization function.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, raise an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_DECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     To be convenient, the function accepts ‘NULL’ 'value' with an
     exception set.  In this case, return ‘-1’ and just leave the raised
     exception unchanged.

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

     The number of different 'name' strings passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated
     strings as 'name'.  For names that aren't known at compile time,
     prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4a17. and *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 49af. directly.  For more details, see *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 15ba, which may be used internally to
     create a key object.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_Add (PyObject *module, const char *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Similar to *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b, but "steals" a
     reference to 'value'.  It can be called with a result of function
     that returns a new reference without bothering to check its result
     or even saving it to a variable.

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          if (PyModule_Add(module, "spam", PyBytes_FromString(value)) < 0) {
              goto error;
          }

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_AddObject (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b, but steals a reference to 'value' on
     success (if it returns ‘0’).

     The new *note PyModule_Add(): 35a. or *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b. functions are recommended, since it
     is easy to introduce reference leaks by misusing the *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 35c. function.

          Note: Unlike other functions that steal references,
          ‘PyModule_AddObject()’ only releases the reference to 'value'
          'on success'.

          This means that its return value must be checked, and calling
          code must *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. 'value' manually on error.

     Exemple d'utilisation :

          PyObject *obj = PyBytes_FromString(value);
          if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
              // If 'obj' is not NULL and PyModule_AddObject() failed,
              // 'obj' strong reference must be deleted with Py_XDECREF().
              // If 'obj' is NULL, Py_XDECREF() does nothing.
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              goto error;
          }
          // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
          // Py_XDECREF(obj) is not needed here.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35c.
     is *note soft deprecated: 206.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_AddIntConstant (PyObject *module, const
          char *name, long value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Add an integer constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module's initialization function.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception
     set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note PyLong_FromLong():
     17f6. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b.; see their
     documentation for details.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_AddStringConstant (PyObject *module, const
          char *name, const char *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Add a string constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module's initialization function.  The string 'value' must be
     ‘NULL’-terminated.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’
     on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 15ba. and *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35b.; see their documentation for details.

 -- C Macro: PyModule_AddIntMacro (module, macro)

     Add an int constant to 'module'.  The name and the value are taken
     from 'macro'.  For example ‘PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)’
     adds the int constant 'AF_INET' with the value of 'AF_INET' to
     'module'.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on
     success.

 -- C Macro: PyModule_AddStringMacro (module, macro)

     Add a string constant to 'module'.

 -- C Fonction: int PyModule_AddType (PyObject *module, PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Add
     a type object to 'module'.  The type object is finalized by calling
     internally *note PyType_Ready(): 768.  The name of the type object
     is taken from the last component of *note tp_name: 18af. after dot.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (PyObject *module, void
          *gil)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Indicate that 'module' does or does not support running without the
     global interpreter lock (GIL), using one of the values from *note
     Py_mod_gil: 157.  It must be called during 'module"s initialization
     function.  If this function is not called during module
     initialization, the import machinery assumes the module does not
     support running without the GIL. This function is only available in
     Python builds configured with *note -disable-gil: 173.  Return ‘-1’
     with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Module lookup,  Prev: Initializing C modules,  Up: Module Objects

7.8.6.8 Module lookup
.....................

Single-phase initialization creates singleton modules that can be looked
up in the context of the current interpreter.  This allows the module
object to be retrieved later with only a reference to the module
definition.

These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase
initialization, since multiple such modules can be created from a single
definition.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyState_FindModule (PyModuleDef
          *def)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Returns the module object that was created from
     'def' for the current interpreter.  This method requires that the
     module object has been attached to the interpreter state with *note
     PyState_AddModule(): 49ca. beforehand.  In case the corresponding
     module object is not found or has not been attached to the
     interpreter state yet, it returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyState_AddModule (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef
          *def)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.3.'
     Attaches the module object passed to the function to the
     interpreter state.  This allows the module object to be accessible
     via *note PyState_FindModule(): 49cb.

     Only effective on modules created using single-phase
     initialization.

     Python calls ‘PyState_AddModule’ automatically after importing a
     module, so it is unnecessary (but harmless) to call it from module
     initialization code.  An explicit call is needed only if the
     module's own init code subsequently calls ‘PyState_FindModule’.
     The function is mainly intended for implementing alternative import
     mechanisms (either by calling it directly, or by referring to its
     implementation for details of the required state updates).

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: int PyState_RemoveModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.3.'
     Removes the module object created from 'def' from the interpreter
     state.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Itérateurs<2>,  Next: Les descripteurs,  Prev: Module Objects,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.9 Itérateurs
..................

Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects.  The first, a
sequence iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the *note
__getitem__(): 280. method.  The second works with a callable object and
a sentinel value, calling the callable for each item in the sequence,
and ending the iteration when the sentinel value is returned.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PySeqIter_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Type des itérateurs renvoyés
     par les fonctions *note PySeqIter_New(): 49b3. et la forme à un
     argument de la fonction native *note iter(): 7c3. pour les
     séquences natives.

 -- C Fonction: int PySeqIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PySeqIter_Type: 49b4.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySeqIter_New (PyObject *seq)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie un itérateur sur la séquence 'seq'.
     L'itération prend fin lorsque la séquence lève *note IndexError:
     14ec. lors d'une tentative d'accès.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyCallIter_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Type de l'itérateur renvoyé
     par les fonctions *note PyCallIter_New(): 48fd. et *note iter():
     7c3. à deux arguments.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCallIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PyCallIter_Type: 48fe.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCallIter_New (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *sentinel)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Renvoie un nouvel itérateur.  Le premier paramètre,
     'callable', peut être n'importe quel objet Python appelable sans
     aucun paramètre ; chaque appel doit renvoyer l'élément suivant de
     l'itération.  Lorsque 'callable' renvoie une valeur égale à
     'sentinel', l'itération prend fin.


File: python.info,  Node: Les descripteurs,  Next: Slice Objects,  Prev: Itérateurs<2>,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.10 Les descripteurs
.........................

Les "Descripteurs" sont des objets décrivant des attributs pour un
objet.  Ils se trouvent dans le dictionnaire du type de l'objet.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyProperty_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  L'objet 'type' des
     descripteurs natifs.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDescr_NewGetSet (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDescr_NewMember (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDescr_NewMethod (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDescr_NewWrapper (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDescr_NewClassMethod
          (PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: int PyDescr_IsData (PyObject *descr)

     Return non-zero if the descriptor objects 'descr' describes a data
     attribute, or ‘0’ if it describes a method.  'descr' must be a
     descriptor object; there is no error checking.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyWrapper_New (PyObject*,
          PyObject*)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'


File: python.info,  Node: Slice Objects,  Next: Objets de type MemoryView,  Prev: Les descripteurs,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.11 Slice Objects
......................

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PySlice_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The type object for slice
     objects.  This is the same as *note slice: 455. in the Python
     layer.

 -- C Fonction: int PySlice_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a slice object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PySlice_New (PyObject *start,
          PyObject *stop, PyObject *step)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a new slice object with the given values.  The
     'start', 'stop', and 'step' parameters are used as the values of
     the slice object attributes of the same names.  Any of the values
     may be ‘NULL’, in which case the ‘None’ will be used for the
     corresponding attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set if the new object could not be
     allocated.

 -- C Fonction: int PySlice_GetIndices (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Retrieve the start, stop and
     step indices from the slice object 'slice', assuming a sequence of
     length 'length'.  Treats indices greater than 'length' as errors.

     Returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with no exception set
     (unless one of the indices was not ‘None’ and failed to be
     converted to an integer, in which case ‘-1’ is returned with an
     exception set).

     You probably do not want to use this function.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The parameter type for the 'slice'
     parameter was ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

 -- C Fonction: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step,
          Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Usable replacement for *note
     PySlice_GetIndices(): 49c7.  Retrieve the start, stop, and step
     indices from the slice object 'slice' assuming a sequence of length
     'length', and store the length of the slice in 'slicelength'.  Out
     of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the
     handling of normal slices.

     Return ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

          Note: This function is considered not safe for resizable
          sequences.  Its invocation should be replaced by a combination
          of *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f3. and *note
          PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4. where

               if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }

          is replaced by

               if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }
               slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: The parameter type for the 'slice'
     parameter was ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

     Modifié dans la version 3.6.1: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or
     set to the value between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not
     including) or ‘0x03060100’ or higher ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is
     implemented as a macro using ‘PySlice_Unpack()’ and
     ‘PySlice_AdjustIndices()’.  Arguments 'start', 'stop' and 'step'
     are evaluated more than once.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.6.1: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is set to the
     value less than ‘0x03050400’ or between ‘0x03060000’ and
     ‘0x03060100’ (not including) ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is a
     deprecated function.

 -- C Fonction: int PySlice_Unpack (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start,
          Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Extract the start, stop and step data members from a slice object
     as C integers.  Silently reduce values larger than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’
     to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’, silently boost the start and stop values less
     than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’, and silently boost the
     step values less than ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’.

     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PySlice_AdjustIndices (Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Adjust start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified
     length.  Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent
     with the handling of normal slices.

     Return the length of the slice.  Always successful.  Doesn't call
     Python code.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

* Menu:

* Ellipsis Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis Object,  Up: Slice Objects

7.8.6.12 Ellipsis Object
........................

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyEllipsis_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The type of Python *note
     Ellipsis: 2142. object.  Same as *note types.EllipsisType: 83d. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_Ellipsis

     The Python ‘Ellipsis’ object.  This object has no methods.  Like
     *note Py_None: 4842, it is an *note immortal: 4327. singleton
     object.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: *note Py_Ellipsis: 4c5c. is immortal.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets de type MemoryView,  Next: Objets à références faibles<2>,  Prev: Slice Objects,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.13 Objets de type MemoryView
..................................

Un objet Python *note memoryview: 454. expose le *note protocole tampon:
38e. du C. Cet objet peut ensuite être passé comme n'importe quel objet.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMemoryView_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Crée un objet 'memoryview' à partir d'un objet
     implémentant le protocole tampon.  Si 'obj' permet d'exporter des
     tampons modifiables, l'objet 'memoryview' crée acceptera la lecture
     et écriture, sinon l'objet crée est soit en lecture seule ou
     lecture/écriture, à la discrétion de l''exporteur'.

 -- C Macro: PyBUF_READ

     Flag to request a readonly buffer.

 -- C Macro: PyBUF_WRITE

     Flag to request a writable buffer.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMemoryView_FromMemory (char
          *mem, Py_ssize_t size, int flags)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Crée un objet 'memoryview'
     utilisant 'mem' comme un tampon sous-jacent.  'flags' peut être
     *note PyBUF_READ: 164b. ou *note PyBUF_WRITE: 164c.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (const
          Py_buffer *view)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  Crée un objet 'memoryview' à
     partir de la structure tampon 'view'.  Pour de simples tampons
     d'octets, *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1152. est préférée.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous
          (PyObject *obj, int buffertype, char order)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Crée un objet 'memoryview' vers un segment de mémoire
     *note contiguous: 21e4. (organisé comme en ‘'C'’ ou comme en ‘'F'’
     pour Fortran) à partir d'un objet qui expose le protocole tampon.
     Si la mémoire est contiguë, l'objet 'memoryview' pointe vers la
     mémoire d'origine.  Sinon une copie est faite et la 'memoryview'
     pointe vers un nouvel objet 'bytes'.

     'buffertype' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 164b. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 164c.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMemoryView_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a memoryview object.  It is not
     currently allowed to create subclasses of *note memoryview: 454.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_buffer: 744. *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (PyObject
          *mview)

     Retourne un pointeur vers la copie privée du tampon de
     l''exporteur' de 'memoryview'.  'mview' 'doit' être une instance de
     'memoryview'; cette macro ne vérifie pas le type, vous devez le
     faire vous-même sinon vous pourriez subir un crash.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (PyObject
          *mview)

     Renvoie soit un pointeur vers l'objet exporté sur lequel est basé
     la 'memoryview' ou ‘NULL’ si la 'memoryview' a été crée par *note
     PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1152. ou *note
     PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 74d.  'mview' 'doit' être une instance
     de 'memoryview'.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets à références faibles<2>,  Next: Capsules<2>,  Prev: Objets de type MemoryView,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.14 Objets à références faibles
....................................

Python gère les 'références faibles' comme des objets de première
classe.  Il existe deux types d'objets spécifiques qui implémentent
directement les références faibles.  Le premier est un objet de
référence simple, et le second agit autant que possible comme un
mandataire vers l'objet original.

 -- C Fonction: int PyWeakref_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is either a reference or proxy object.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyWeakref_CheckRef (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is a reference object.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is a proxy object.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyWeakref_NewRef (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a weak reference object for the object 'ob'.
     This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to
     create a new object; an existing reference object may be returned.
     The second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that
     receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should
     accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
     itself.  'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a
     weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable,
     ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note
     TypeError: 525.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyWeakref_NewProxy (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Return a weak reference proxy object for the object
     'ob'.  This will always return a new reference, but is not
     guaranteed to create a new object; an existing proxy object may be
     returned.  The second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable
     object that receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected;
     it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak
     reference object itself.  'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.
     If 'ob' is not a weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is
     not callable, ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise
     *note TypeError: 525.

 -- C Fonction: int PyWeakref_GetRef (PyObject *ref, PyObject **pobj)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Get
     a *note strong reference: 333. to the referenced object from a weak
     reference, 'ref', into '*pobj'.

        * On success, set '*pobj' to a new *note strong reference: 333.
          to the referenced object and return 1.

        * If the reference is dead, set '*pobj' to ‘NULL’ and return 0.

        * On error, raise an exception and return -1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyWeakref_GetObject (PyObject
          *ref)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a *note borrowed reference: 334. to the
     referenced object from a weak reference, 'ref'.  If the referent is
     no longer live, returns ‘Py_None’.

          Note: This function returns a *note borrowed reference: 334.
          to the referenced object.  This means that you should always
          call *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. on the object except when it
          cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed
          reference.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use
     *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. instead.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (PyObject
          *ref)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Similar to *note
     PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f, but does no error checking.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use
     *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. instead.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (PyObject *object)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This function is called by
     the *note tp_dealloc: 486f. handler to clear weak references.

     This iterates through the weak references for 'object' and calls
     callbacks for those references which have one.  It returns when all
     callbacks have been attempted.

 -- C Fonction: void PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks
          (PyObject *object)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Clears the weakrefs for 'object' without calling the callbacks.

     This function is called by the *note tp_dealloc: 486f. handler for
     types with finalizers (i.e., *note __del__(): 1f1a.).  The handler
     for those objects first calls *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 564.
     to clear weakrefs and call their callbacks, then the finalizer, and
     finally this function to clear any weakrefs that may have been
     created by the finalizer.

     In most circumstances, it's more appropriate to use *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 564. to clear weakrefs instead of this
     function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules<2>,  Next: Objets décrivant les frames,  Prev: Objets à références faibles<2>,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.15 Capsules
.................

Reportez-vous à *note Fournir une API en langage C pour un module
d'extension: 1336. pour plus d'informations sur l'utilisation de ces
objets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

 -- C Type: type PyCapsule

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents an opaque value,
     useful for C extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as
     a void* pointer) through Python code to other C code.  It is often
     used to make a C function pointer defined in one module available
     to other modules, so the regular import mechanism can be used to
     access C APIs defined in dynamically loaded modules.

 -- C Type: type PyCapsule_Destructor
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The type of a destructor
     callback for a capsule.  Defined as:

          typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);

     See *note PyCapsule_New(): 4864. for the semantics of
     PyCapsule_Destructor callbacks.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCapsule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyCapsule: 1253.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCapsule_New (void *pointer,
          const char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Create a *note PyCapsule: 1253. encapsulating the
     'pointer'.  The 'pointer' argument may not be ‘NULL’.

     On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' string may either be ‘NULL’ or a pointer to a valid C
     string.  If non-‘NULL’, this string must outlive the capsule.
     (Though it is permitted to free it inside the 'destructor'.)

     If the 'destructor' argument is not ‘NULL’, it will be called with
     the capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.

     If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the
     'name' should be specified as ‘modulename.attributename’.  This
     will enable other modules to import the capsule using *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 182a.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyCapsule_GetPointer (PyObject *capsule, const
          char *name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Retrieve the 'pointer'
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the
     capsule.  If the name stored in the capsule is ‘NULL’, the 'name'
     passed in must also be ‘NULL’.  Python uses the C function
     ‘strcmp()’ to compare capsule names.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 4900.
          PyCapsule_GetDestructor (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the current
     destructor stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and
     return ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ destructor.  This makes
     a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1335. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyCapsule_GetContext (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the current context
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ context.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1335. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: const char *PyCapsule_GetName (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the current name
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ name.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1335. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18ae. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyCapsule_Import (const char *name, int no_block)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Import a pointer to a C
     object from a capsule attribute in a module.  The 'name' parameter
     should specify the full name to the attribute, as in
     ‘module.attribute’.  The 'name' stored in the capsule must match
     this string exactly.

     Return the capsule's internal 'pointer' on success.  On failure,
     set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.3: 'no_block' has no effect anymore.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCapsule_IsValid (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Determines whether or not
     'capsule' is a valid capsule.  A valid capsule is non-‘NULL’,
     passes *note PyCapsule_CheckExact(): 4c6a, has a non-‘NULL’ pointer
     stored in it, and its internal name matches the 'name' parameter.
     (See *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 4904. for information on how
     capsule names are compared.)

     In other words, if *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1335. returns a true
     value, calls to any of the accessors (any function starting with
     ‘PyCapsule_Get’) are guaranteed to succeed.

     Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name
     passed in.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.  This function will not fail.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCapsule_SetContext (PyObject *capsule, void
          *context)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the context pointer
     inside 'capsule' to 'context'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor (PyObject *capsule,
          PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the destructor inside
     'capsule' to 'destructor'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCapsule_SetName (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the name inside
     'capsule' to 'name'.  If non-‘NULL’, the name must outlive the
     capsule.  If the previous 'name' stored in the capsule was not
     ‘NULL’, no attempt is made to free it.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCapsule_SetPointer (PyObject *capsule, void
          *pointer)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the void pointer inside
     'capsule' to 'pointer'.  The pointer may not be ‘NULL’.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets décrivant les frames,  Next: Objets générateur,  Prev: Capsules<2>,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.16 Objets décrivant les 'frames'
......................................

 -- C Type: type PyFrameObject
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541. (as an opaque struct).'
     Structure des objets C utilisée pour décrire les objets 'frame'.

     Il n'y a pas de membres publics dans cette structure.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Les membres de la structure API
     publique ont été retirés de l'API publique de C. Visiter *note
     l'entrée dans la page des nouveautés de Python: 774. pour plus
     détails.

Les fonctions ‘PyEval_GetFrame()’ et *note PyThreadState_GetFrame():
77a. peuvent être utilisées pour avoir un objet de 'frame'.

Voir aussi *note Réflexion: 4abd.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyFrame_Type

     Le type des objets de 'frame'.  C'est le même objet que *note
     types.FrameType: 180e. dans la couche de Python.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Précédemment, ce type était
     disponible uniquement après l'inclusion de ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFrame_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Renvoie un entier non nul si 'obj' est un objet 'frame'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: Précédemment, ce type était
     disponible uniquement après l'inclusion de ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyFrameObject: 775. *PyFrame_GetBack
          (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie la 'frame'
     encadrant immédiatement à 'frame'.

     Renvoie un *note strong reference: 333, ou ‘NULL’ si 'frame' n'a
     pas de 'frame' encadrante.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrame_GetBuiltins (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Get the 'frame"s *note
     f_builtins: 1f09. attribute.

     Renvoie un *note strong reference: 333.  Le résultat ne peut être
     ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyCodeObject: 763. *PyFrame_GetCode (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Obtenir le code 'frame'.

     Renvoie un *note strong reference: 333.

     Le résultat (code 'frame') ne peut être ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrame_GetGenerator
          (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Obtenir le générateur,
     coroutine, ou un générateur asynchrone qui maintient cette 'frame',
     ou ‘NULL’ si cette 'frame' n'est pas maintenu par un générateur.
     Il ne lève pas d'exception, même si la valeur renvoyée est ‘NULL’.

     Renvoie un *note strong reference: 333, ou ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrame_GetGlobals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Get the 'frame"s *note
     f_globals: 1f08. attribute.

     Renvoie un *note strong reference: 333.  Le résultat ne peut être
     ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFrame_GetLasti (PyFrameObject *frame)

     Get the 'frame"s *note f_lasti: 876. attribute.

     Renvoie -1 si ‘frame.f_lasti’ est ‘None’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrame_GetVar (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Get the variable 'name'
     of 'frame'.

        * Return a *note strong reference: 333. to the variable value on
          success.

        * Raise *note NameError: 42a. and return ‘NULL’ if the variable
          does not exist.

        * Raise an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     'name' type must be a *note str: 437.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrame_GetVarString
          (PyFrameObject *frame, const char *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Similar to *note
     PyFrame_GetVar(): 556, but the variable name is a C string encoded
     in UTF-8.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyFrame_GetLocals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Get the 'frame"s *note
     f_locals: 180. attribute.  If the frame refers to an *note
     optimized scope: 17c, this returns a write-through proxy object
     that allows modifying the locals.  In all other cases (classes,
     modules, *note exec(): 17d, *note eval(): 17e.) it returns the
     mapping representing the frame locals directly (as described for
     *note locals(): 140.).

     Renvoie un *note strong reference: 333.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: As part of PEP 667(1), return an
     instance of *note PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type: 4c6d.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber (PyFrameObject *frame)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Renvoie le numéro de ligne que cette 'frame' est en train
     d'exécuter.

* Menu:

* Frame Locals Proxies::
* Internal Frames::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Frame Locals Proxies,  Next: Internal Frames,  Up: Objets décrivant les frames

7.8.6.17 Frame Locals Proxies
.............................

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The *note f_locals: 180. attribute on a *note frame object: 6cc. is an
instance of a "frame-locals proxy".  The proxy object exposes a
write-through view of the underlying locals dictionary for the frame.
This ensures that the variables exposed by ‘f_locals’ are always up to
date with the live local variables in the frame itself.

See PEP 667(1) for more information.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type

     The type of frame *note locals(): 140. proxy objects.

 -- C Fonction: int PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame *note locals(): 140. proxy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Internal Frames,  Prev: Frame Locals Proxies,  Up: Objets décrivant les frames

7.8.6.18 Internal Frames
........................

Unless using PEP 523(1), you will not need this.

 -- C Structure: struct _PyInterpreterFrame

     The interpreter's internal frame representation.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
          Return a *note strong reference: 333. to the code object for
          the frame.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no
     line number.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Objets générateur,  Next: Objets coroutines<2>,  Prev: Objets décrivant les frames,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.19 Objets générateur
..........................

Python utilise des objets générateurs pour implémenter les itérations de
générateurs.  Ils sont normalement crées en itérant sur une fonction
donnant des valeurs via ‘yield’, au lieu d'appeler explicitement *note
PyGen_New(): 4c78. ou *note PyGen_NewWithQualName(): 4c79.

 -- C Type: type PyGenObject

     La structure C utilisée pour les objets générateurs.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyGen_Type

     Le type objet correspondant aux objets générateurs.

 -- C Fonction: int PyGen_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a generator object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyGen_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob"s type is *note PyGen_Type: 4c7b.; 'ob' must not
     be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyGen_New (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create and return a new
     generator object based on the 'frame' object.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The argument must not be
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyGen_NewWithQualName
          (PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create and return a new
     generator object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The 'frame' argument must not
     be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets coroutines<2>,  Next: Context Variables Objects,  Prev: Objets générateur,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.20 Objets coroutines
..........................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Les objets coroutines sont les objets renvoyés par les fonctions
déclarées avec le mot clef ‘async’.

 -- C Type: type PyCoroObject

     La structure C utilisée pour les objets coroutine.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyCoro_Type

     L'objet type correspondant aux objets coroutines.

 -- C Fonction: int PyCoro_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob"s type is *note PyCoro_Type: 4c81.; 'ob' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCoro_New (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create and return a new
     coroutine object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The 'frame' argument must not
     be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context Variables Objects,  Next: Objets DateTime<2>,  Prev: Objets coroutines<2>,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.21 Context Variables Objects
..................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.1:

     Note: In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables C
     APIs were 'changed' to use *note PyObject: 32f. pointers instead of
     *note PyContext: 4c86, *note PyContextVar: 4c87, and *note
     PyContextToken: 4c88, e.g.:

          // in 3.7.0:
          PyContext *PyContext_New(void);

          // in 3.7.1+:
          PyObject *PyContext_New(void);

     See bpo-34762(1) for more details.

This section details the public C API for the *note contextvars: 24.
module.

 -- C Type: type PyContext

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Context:
     1563. object.

 -- C Type: type PyContextVar

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.ContextVar:
     1516. object.

 -- C Type: type PyContextToken

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Token: 3201.
     object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyContext_Type

     The type object representing the 'context' type.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyContextVar_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable' type.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyContextToken_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable token' type.

Macros pour vérifier les types :

 -- C Fonction: int PyContext_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContext_Type: 4c89.  'o' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyContextVar_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextVar_Type: 4c8a.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyContextToken_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextToken_Type: 4c8b.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Context object management functions:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyContext_New (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new empty
     context object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyContext_Copy (PyObject *ctx)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a shallow copy of
     the passed 'ctx' context object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has
     occurred.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyContext_CopyCurrent (void)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a shallow copy of
     the current thread context.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has
     occurred.

 -- C Fonction: int PyContext_Enter (PyObject *ctx)

     Set 'ctx' as the current context for the current thread.  Returns
     ‘0’ on success, and ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Fonction: int PyContext_Exit (PyObject *ctx)

     Deactivate the 'ctx' context and restore the previous context as
     the current context for the current thread.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success, and ‘-1’ on error.

Context variable functions:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyContextVar_New (const char
          *name, PyObject *def)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create a new ‘ContextVar’
     object.  The 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug
     purposes.  The 'def' parameter specifies a default value for the
     context variable, or ‘NULL’ for no default.  If an error has
     occurred, this function returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyContextVar_Get (PyObject *var, PyObject
          *default_value, PyObject **value)

     Get the value of a context variable.  Returns ‘-1’ if an error has
     occurred during lookup, and ‘0’ if no error occurred, whether or
     not a value was found.

     If the context variable was found, 'value' will be a pointer to it.
     If the context variable was 'not' found, 'value' will point to:

        - 'default_value', if not ‘NULL’;

        - the default value of 'var', if not ‘NULL’;

        - ‘NULL’

     Except for ‘NULL’, the function returns a new reference.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyContextVar_Set (PyObject *var,
          PyObject *value)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Set the value of 'var' to
     'value' in the current context.  Returns a new token object for
     this change, or ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Fonction: int PyContextVar_Reset (PyObject *var, PyObject *token)

     Reset the state of the 'var' context variable to that it was in
     before *note PyContextVar_Set(): 4c96. that returned the 'token'
     was called.  This function returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on
     error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762


File: python.info,  Node: Objets DateTime<2>,  Next: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: Context Variables Objects,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.22 Objets DateTime
........................

Various date and time objects are supplied by the *note datetime: 30.
module.  Before using any of these functions, the header file
‘datetime.h’ must be included in your source (note that this is not
included by ‘Python.h’), and the macro ‘PyDateTime_IMPORT’ must be
invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function.  The
macro puts a pointer to a C structure into a static variable,
‘PyDateTimeAPI’, that is used by the following macros.

 -- C Type: type PyDateTime_Date

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python date
     object.

 -- C Type: type PyDateTime_DateTime

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python datetime
     object.

 -- C Type: type PyDateTime_Time

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents a Python time
     object.

 -- C Type: type PyDateTime_Delta

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 32f. represents the difference
     between two datetime values.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyDateTime_DateType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     date type; it is the same object as *note datetime.date: 1c8. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyDateTime_DateTimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     datetime type; it is the same object as *note datetime.datetime:
     1c7. in the Python layer.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyDateTime_TimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     time type; it is the same object as *note datetime.time: 1c9. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyDateTime_DeltaType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents Python type
     for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same
     object as *note datetime.timedelta: 9bf. in the Python layer.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyDateTime_TZInfoType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: a95. represents the Python
     time zone info type; it is the same object as *note
     datetime.tzinfo: 5ca. in the Python layer.

Macro pour accéder au singleton UTC :

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC

     Renvoie le singleton du fuseau horaire UTC, qui est le même objet
     que *note datetime.timezone.utc: 601.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Macros pour vérifier les types :

 -- C Fonction: int PyDate_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4c9e. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDate_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4c9e.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4c9f.
     or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateTimeType’.  'ob' must not be
     ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4c9f.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4ca0. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TimeType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4ca0.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDelta_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4ca1. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DeltaType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDelta_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4ca1.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTZInfo_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4ca2.
     or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TZInfoType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4ca2.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Macros pour créer des objets :

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDate_FromDate (int year, int
          month, int day)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.date: 1c8. avec l'année, le mois et le jour spécifiés.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (int
          year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second,
          int usecond)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.datetime: 1c7. avec l'année, le mois, le jour, l'heure, la
     minute, la seconde et la microseconde spécifiés.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold
          (int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int
          second, int usecond, int fold)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.datetime: 1c7. avec l'année, le mois, le jour, l'heure, la
     minute, la seconde, la microseconde et le pli ('fold' en anglais)
     spécifiés.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTime_FromTime (int hour, int
          minute, int second, int usecond)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.time: 1c9. avec l'heure, la minute, la seconde et la
     microseconde spécifiées.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (int hour,
          int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.time: 1c9. avec l'heure, la minute, la seconde, la
     microseconde et le pli ('fold' en anglais) spécifiés.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDelta_FromDSU (int days, int
          seconds, int useconds)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.timedelta: 9bf. représentant le nombre passé en paramètre
     de jours, de secondes et de microsecondes.  Le résultat est
     normalisé pour que le nombre de microsecondes et de secondes tombe
     dans la plage documentée pour les objets *note datetime.timedelta:
     9bf.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTimeZone_FromOffset (PyObject
          *offset)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.timezone: 10a3. avec un décalage anonyme fixe représenté
     par l'argument 'offset'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName
          (PyObject *offset, PyObject *name)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Renvoie un objet *note
     datetime.timezone: 10a3. avec un décalage fixe représenté par
     l'argument 'offset' et avec le nom de fuseau horaire 'name'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Macros to extract fields from date objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_Date: 4c9a, including subclasses (such as
*note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4c9b.).  The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and
the type is not checked:

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Renvoie l'année, sous forme d'entier positif.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Renvoie le mois, sous forme d'entier allant de 1 à 12.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Renvoie le jour, sous forme d'entier allant de 1 à 31.

Macros to extract fields from datetime objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4c9b, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Renvoie l'heure, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 23.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Renvoie la minute, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Renvoie la seconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime
          *o)

     Renvoie la microseconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 999999.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_Time: 4c9c, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Renvoie l'heure, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 23.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Renvoie la minute, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Renvoie la seconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Renvoie la microseconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 999999.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time delta objects.  The argument must be
an instance of *note PyDateTime_Delta: 4c9d, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     Renvoie le nombre de jours, sous forme d'entier allant de
     ‘-999999999’ à ‘999999999’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     Renvoie le nombre de secondes sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à
     86399.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

 -- C Fonction: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta
          *o)

     Renvoie le nombre de microsecondes, sous forme d'entier allant de 0
     à 999999.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Macros de confort pour les modules implémentant l'API DB :

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create and return a new
     *note datetime.datetime: 1c7. object given an argument tuple
     suitable for passing to *note datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp():
     4da.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyDate_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'  Create and return a new
     *note datetime.date: 1c8. object given an argument tuple suitable
     for passing to *note datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 15c5.


File: python.info,  Node: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: Objets DateTime<2>,  Up: Autres objets<2>

7.8.6.23 Objects for Type Hinting
.................................

Various built-in types for type hinting are provided.  Currently, two
types exist - *note GenericAlias: 69f. and *note Union: 7ae.  Only
‘GenericAlias’ is exposed to C.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *Py_GenericAlias (PyObject *origin,
          PyObject *args)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'
     Create a *note GenericAlias: 69f. object.  Equivalent to calling
     the Python class *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7.  The 'origin' and
     'args' arguments set the ‘GenericAlias’'s ‘__origin__’ and
     ‘__args__’ attributes respectively.  'origin' should be a *note
     PyTypeObject: a95.*, and 'args' can be a *note PyTupleObject:
     4a92.* or any ‘PyObject*’.  If 'args' passed is not a tuple, a
     1-tuple is automatically constructed and ‘__args__’ is set to
     ‘(args,)’.  Minimal checking is done for the arguments, so the
     function will succeed even if 'origin' is not a type.  The
     ‘GenericAlias’'s ‘__parameters__’ attribute is constructed lazily
     from ‘__args__’.  On failure, an exception is raised and ‘NULL’ is
     returned.

     Here's an example of how to make an extension type generic:

          ...
          static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
              // Other methods.
              ...
              {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
              ...
          }

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     The data model method *note __class_getitem__(): 727.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. Py_GenericAliasType
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'  The C
     type of the object returned by *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4a26.
     Equivalent to *note types.GenericAlias: 7d7. in Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Next: Python Initialization Configuration,  Prev: Couche des objets concrets,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.9 Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
=============================================

See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e. for details on how
to configure the interpreter prior to initialization.

* Menu:

* Before Python Initialization::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Process-wide parameters::
* Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock::
* Sub-interpreter support::
* Asynchronous Notifications::
* Profiling and Tracing::
* Reference tracing::
* Support avancé du débogueur::
* Thread Local Storage Support::
* Primitives de synchronisation: Primitives de synchronisation<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Before Python Initialization,  Next: Global configuration variables,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.1 Before Python Initialization
----------------------------------

In an application embedding Python, the *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.
function must be called before using any other Python/C API functions;
with the exception of a few functions and the *note global configuration
variables: 4ccb.

The following functions can be safely called before Python is
initialized:

   * Functions that initialize the interpreter:

        * *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

        * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4a2d.

        * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc.

        * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9b1.

        * *note Py_Main(): c15.

        * the runtime pre-initialization functions covered in *note
          Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

   * Configuration functions:

        * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f.

        * *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1760.

        * ‘PyInitFrozenExtensions()’

        * *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 579.

        * *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a.

        * *note PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(): 4ccc.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 15f9.

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 15f8.

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.

        * the configuration functions covered in *note Python
          Initialization Configuration: 39e.

   * Informative functions:

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 48d7.

        * *note PyMem_GetAllocator(): 4ccd.

        * *note PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(): 4cce.

        * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13ea.

        * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4a28.

        * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4a29.

        * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4a2a.

        * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4a2b.

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 48d7.

   * Utilities:

        * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7.

        * the status reporting and utility functions covered in *note
          Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

   * Memory allocators:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 389.

   * Synchronization:

        * *note PyMutex_Lock(): 320.

        * *note PyMutex_Unlock(): 321.

     Note: Despite their apparent similarity to some of the functions
     listed above, the following functions 'should not be called' before
     the interpreter has been initialized: *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bb8,
     *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1, *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0, *note
     PyEval_InitThreads(): 15fc, and *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5.


File: python.info,  Node: Global configuration variables,  Next: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Prev: Before Python Initialization,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.2 Global configuration variables
------------------------------------

Python has variables for the global configuration to control different
features and options.  By default, these flags are controlled by *note
command line options: 1ce6.

When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of
times that the option was set.  For example, ‘-b’ sets *note
Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3cb. to 1 and ‘-bb’ sets *note Py_BytesWarningFlag:
3cb. to 2.

 -- C Variable: int Py_BytesWarningFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cc. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Issue a warning when comparing *note bytes: 1bd. or *note
     bytearray: 52b. with *note str: 437. or *note bytes: 1bd. with
     *note int: 254.  Issue an error if greater or equal to ‘2’.

     Set by the *note -b: 5cf. option.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_DebugFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.parser_debug: 3be. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on
     compilation options).

     Set by the *note -d: 1cee. option and the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1cef.
     environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d2. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     If set to non-zero, Python won't try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.

     Set by the *note -B: 1386. option and the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1387. environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_FrozenFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3ce. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Suppress error messages when calculating the module search path in
     *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.

     Private flag used by ‘_freeze_module’ and ‘frozenmain’ programs.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_HashRandomizationFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.hash_seed: 3d9. and *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3d8.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 39e.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068. environment variable
     is set to a non-empty string.

     If the flag is non-zero, read the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068.
     environment variable to initialize the secret hash seed.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     1008. and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3, that might be set.

     Set by the *note -E: 94c. and *note -I: 94d. options.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_InspectFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.inspect: 3c6. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     When a script is passed as first argument or the *note -c: 5cc.
     option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script
     or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 52a. does not appear to
     be a terminal.

     Set by the *note -i: 1493. option and the *note PYTHONINSPECT:
     1492. environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_InteractiveFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 3c4. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Set by the *note -i: 1493. option.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

 -- C Variable: int Py_IsolatedFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.isolated: 3db. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Run Python in isolated mode.  In isolated mode *note sys.path: 3ab.
     contains neither the script's directory nor the user's
     site-packages directory.

     Set by the *note -I: 94d. option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     If the flag is non-zero, use the ‘mbcs’ encoding with ‘replace’
     error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with ‘surrogatepass’
     error handler, for the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     528.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac.
     environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

     Voir la PEP 529(1) pour plus d'informations.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     If the flag is non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 12f0. instead of
     ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys: d8. standard streams.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c4b. environment
     variable is set to a non-empty string.

     See PEP 528(2) for more details.

     *note Availability: 1d11.: Windows.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_NoSiteFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.site_import: 3ca. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Désactive l’importation du module *note site: c6. et les
     modifications locales de *note sys.path: 3ab. qu’il implique.
     Désactive aussi ces manipulations si *note site: c6. est importé
     explicitement plus tard (appelez *note site.main(): 1cf3. si vous
     voulez les déclencher).

     Set by the *note -S: 1188. option.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d4. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     N'ajoute pas le répertoire utilisateur *note site-packages: 1cf2. à
     *note sys.path: 3ab.

     Set by the *note -s: 1364. and *note -I: 94d. options, and the
     *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1365. environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_OptimizeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.optimization_level: 3c8. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Set by the *note -O: da4. option and the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE:
     1cf0. environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_QuietFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.quiet: 3c2. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     N'affiche pas le copyright et la version, même en mode interactif.

     Set by the *note -q: 1cf1. option.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d6. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.

     Set by the *note -u: 1962. option and the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
     1963. environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C Variable: int Py_VerboseFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.verbose: 3c0. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  If
     greater or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file that is
     checked for when searching for a module.  Also provides information
     on module cleanup at exit.

     Set by the *note -v: 13dd. option and the *note PYTHONVERBOSE:
     1cf4. environment variable.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Next: Process-wide parameters,  Prev: Global configuration variables,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.3 Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
-------------------------------------------------

 -- C Fonction: void Py_Initialize ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Initialize the Python interpreter.  In an application embedding
     Python, this should be called before using any other Python/C API
     functions; see *note Before Python Initialization: bb5. for the few
     exceptions.

     This initializes the table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’), and
     creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__:
     1. and *note sys: d8.  It also initializes the module search path
     (‘sys.path’).  It does not set ‘sys.argv’; use the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e. API for that.  This is a no-op
     when called for a second time (without calling *note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. first).  There is no return value; it is a
     fatal error if the initialization fails.

     Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. to customize the *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

          Note: On Windows, changes the console mode from ‘O_TEXT’ to
          ‘O_BINARY’, which will also affect non-Python uses of the
          console using the C Runtime.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_InitializeEx (int initsigs)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This function works like
     *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. if 'initsigs' is ‘1’.  If 'initsigs' is
     ‘0’, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
     may be useful when CPython is embedded as part of a larger
     application.

     Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. to customize the *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. Py_InitializeFromConfig (const
          PyConfig *config)

     Initialize Python from 'config' configuration, as described in
     *note Initialization with PyConfig: 4cd1.

     See the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e. section for
     details on pre-initializing the interpreter, populating the runtime
     configuration structure, and querying the returned status
     structure.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_IsInitialized ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return true (nonzero) when
     the Python interpreter has been initialized, false (zero) if not.
     After *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. is called, this returns false
     until *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. is called again.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_IsFinalizing ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Return true (non-zero) if the main Python interpreter is *note
     shutting down: 14d.  Return false (zero) otherwise.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_FinalizeEx ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.6.'  Undo
     all initializations made by *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. and
     subsequent use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all
     sub-interpreters (see *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1772. below) that
     were created and not yet destroyed since the last call to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 89b.  Ideally, this frees all memory allocated by
     the Python interpreter.  This is a no-op when called for a second
     time (without calling *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. again first).

     Since this is the reverse of *note Py_Initialize(): 89b, it should
     be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active.
     That means the main thread and the main interpreter.  This should
     never be called while *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5. is running.

     Normally the return value is ‘0’.  If there were errors during
     finalization (flushing buffered data), ‘-1’ is returned.

     This function is provided for a number of reasons.  An embedding
     application might want to restart Python without having to restart
     the application itself.  An application that has loaded the Python
     interpreter from a dynamically loadable library (or DLL) might want
     to free all memory allocated by Python before unloading the DLL.
     During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a developer might
     want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from the
     application.

     'Bugs and caveats:' The destruction of modules and objects in
     modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (*note
     __del__(): 1f1a. methods) to fail when they depend on other objects
     (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically loaded extension modules
     loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of memory
     allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a
     leak, please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references
     between objects is not freed.  Some memory allocated by extension
     modules may not be freed.  Some extensions may not work properly if
     their initialization routine is called more than once; this can
     happen if an application calls *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. and
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. more than once.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks’ with no arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_Finalize ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is a
     backwards-compatible version of *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. that
     disregards the return value.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_BytesMain (int argc, char **argv)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.8.'
     Similar to *note Py_Main(): c15. but 'argv' is an array of bytes
     strings, allowing the calling application to delegate the text
     decoding step to the CPython runtime.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_Main (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The main program for the
     standard interpreter, encapsulating a full
     initialization/finalization cycle, as well as additional behaviour
     to implement reading configurations settings from the environment
     and command line, and then executing ‘__main__’ in accordance with
     *note Ligne de commande: ff2.

     This is made available for programs which wish to support the full
     CPython command line interface, rather than just embedding a Python
     runtime in a larger application.

     The 'argc' and 'argv' parameters are similar to those which are
     passed to a C program's ‘main()’ function, except that the 'argv'
     entries are first converted to ‘wchar_t’ using *note
     Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7.  It is also important to note that the
     argument list entries may be modified to point to strings other
     than those passed in (however, the contents of the strings pointed
     to by the argument list are not modified).

     The return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits normally
     (i.e., without an exception), ‘1’ if the interpreter exits due to
     an exception, or ‘2’ if the argument list does not represent a
     valid Python command line.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: d30. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘1’, but exit the process, as
     long as ‘Py_InspectFlag’ is not set.  If ‘Py_InspectFlag’ is set,
     execution will drop into the interactive Python prompt, at which
     point a second otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: d30. will
     still exit the process, while any other means of exiting will set
     the return value as described above.

     In terms of the CPython runtime configuration APIs documented in
     the *note runtime configuration: 39e. section (and without
     accounting for error handling), ‘Py_Main’ is approximately
     equivalent to:

          PyConfig config;
          PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
          PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv);
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);

          Py_RunMain();

     In normal usage, an embedding application will call this function
     'instead' of calling *note Py_Initialize(): 89b, *note
     Py_InitializeEx(): 4a2d. or *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc.
     directly, and all settings will be applied as described elsewhere
     in this documentation.  If this function is instead called 'after'
     a preceding runtime initialization API call, then exactly which
     environmental and command line configuration settings will be
     updated is version dependent (as it depends on which settings
     correctly support being modified after they have already been set
     once when the runtime was first initialized).

 -- C Fonction: int Py_RunMain (void)

     Executes the main module in a fully configured CPython runtime.

     Executes the command (*note PyConfig.run_command: 4cd2.), the
     script (*note PyConfig.run_filename: 4cd3.) or the module (*note
     PyConfig.run_module: 4cd4.) specified on the command line or in the
     configuration.  If none of these values are set, runs the
     interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module's
     global namespace.

     If *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6. is not set (the default), the
     return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits normally (that
     is, without raising an exception), or ‘1’ if the interpreter exits
     due to an exception.  If an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit:
     d30. is raised, the function will immediately exit the process
     instead of returning ‘1’.

     If *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6. is set (such as when the *note -i:
     1493. option is used), rather than returning when the interpreter
     exits, execution will instead resume in an interactive Python
     prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module's global namespace.  If
     the interpreter exited with an exception, it is immediately raised
     in the REPL session.  The function return value is then determined
     by the way the 'REPL session' terminates: returning ‘0’ if the
     session terminates without raising an unhandled exception, exiting
     immediately for an unhandled *note SystemExit: d30, and returning
     ‘1’ for any other unhandled exception.

     This function always finalizes the Python interpreter regardless of
     whether it returns a value or immediately exits the process due to
     an unhandled *note SystemExit: d30. exception.

     See *note Python Configuration: 4cd5. for an example of a
     customized Python that always runs in isolated mode using *note
     Py_RunMain(): 9b5.

 -- C Fonction: int PyUnstable_AtExit (PyInterpreterState *interp, void
          (*func)(void*), void *data)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Register an *note atexit: c. callback for the target interpreter
     'interp'.  This is similar to *note Py_AtExit(): 4a23, but takes an
     explicit interpreter and data pointer for the callback.

     The *note GIL: 158. must be held for 'interp'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Process-wide parameters,  Next: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Prev: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.4 Process-wide parameters
-----------------------------

 -- C Fonction: void Py_SetProgramName (const wchar_t *name)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 3bb. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.
     is called for the first time, if it is called at all.  It tells the
     interpreter the value of the ‘argv[0]’ argument to the ‘main()’
     function of the program (converted to wide characters).  This is
     used by *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa. and some other functions below to
     find the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter
     executable.  The default value is ‘'python'’.  The argument should
     point to a zero-terminated wide character string in static storage
     whose contents will not change for the duration of the program's
     execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will change the
     contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramName ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the program name set
     with *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb, or the default.  The
     returned string points into static storage; the caller should not
     modify its value.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.executable: 3af. instead.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_GetPrefix ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the 'prefix' for
     installed platform-independent files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 3bb. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into static
     storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This corresponds
     to the ‘prefix’ variable in the top-level ‘Makefile’ and the *note
     -prefix: 1d1f. argument to the ‘configure’ script at build time.
     The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.base_prefix’.  It is
     only useful on Unix.  See also the next function.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.base_prefix: 3e6. instead, or *note sys.prefix: 3ad. if
     *note virtual environments: 42cf. need to be handled.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_GetExecPrefix ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the 'exec-prefix' for
     installed platform-'dependent' files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 3bb. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     exec-prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This
     corresponds to the ‘exec_prefix’ variable in the top-level
     ‘Makefile’ and the ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’
     script at build time.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.base_exec_prefix’.  It is only useful on Unix.

     Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform
     dependent files (such as executables and shared libraries) are
     installed in a different directory tree.  In a typical
     installation, platform dependent files may be installed in the
     ‘/usr/local/plat’ subtree while platform independent may be
     installed in ‘/usr/local’.

     Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and
     software families, e.g.  Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x
     operating system are considered the same platform, but Intel
     machines running Solaris 2.x are another platform, and Intel
     machines running Linux are yet another platform.  Different major
     revisions of the same operating system generally also form
     different platforms.  Non-Unix operating systems are a different
     story; the installation strategies on those systems are so
     different that the prefix and exec-prefix are meaningless, and set
     to the empty string.  Note that compiled Python bytecode files are
     platform independent (but not independent from the Python version
     by which they were compiled!).

     System administrators will know how to configure the ‘mount’ or
     ‘automount’ programs to share ‘/usr/local’ between platforms while
     having ‘/usr/local/plat’ be a different filesystem for each
     platform.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e5. instead, or *note sys.exec_prefix:
     3a9. if *note virtual environments: 42cf. need to be handled.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramFullPath ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is
     computed as a side-effect of deriving the default module search
     path from the program name (set by *note PyConfig.program_name:
     3bb.).  The returned string points into static storage; the caller
     should not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code
     as ‘sys.executable’.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.executable: 3af. instead.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_GetPath ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the default module search path; this is computed from the
     program name (set by *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb.) and some
     environment variables.  The returned string consists of a series of
     directory names separated by a platform dependent delimiter
     character.  The delimiter character is ‘':'’ on Unix and macOS,
     ‘';'’ on Windows.  The returned string points into static storage;
     the caller should not modify its value.  The list *note sys.path:
     3ab. is initialized with this value on interpreter startup; it can
     be (and usually is) modified later to change the search path for
     loading modules.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.path: 3ab. instead.

 -- C Fonction: const char *Py_GetVersion ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the version of this
     Python interpreter.  This is a string that looks something like

          "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"

     The first word (up to the first space character) is the current
     Python version; the first characters are the major and minor
     version separated by a period.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value
     is available to Python code as *note sys.version: 177.

     See also the *note Py_Version: 742. constant.

 -- C Fonction: const char *Py_GetPlatform ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix,
     this is formed from the "official" name of the operating system,
     converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number;
     e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value
     is ‘'sunos5'’.  On macOS, it is ‘'darwin'’.  On Windows, it is
     ‘'win'’.  The returned string points into static storage; the
     caller should not modify its value.  The value is available to
     Python code as ‘sys.platform’.

 -- C Fonction: const char *Py_GetCopyright ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the official
     copyright string for the current Python version, for example

     ‘'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'’

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.copyright’.

 -- C Fonction: const char *Py_GetCompiler ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return an indication of the
     compiler used to build the current Python version, in square
     brackets, for example:

          "[GCC 2.7.2.2]"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C Fonction: const char *Py_GetBuildInfo ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return information about the
     sequence number and build date and time of the current Python
     interpreter instance, for example

          "#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_SetArgvEx (int argc, wchar_t **argv, int
          updatepath)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.argv: 3ba, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 18e5. and *note
     PyConfig.safe_path: 75f. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Set *note sys.argv: 1245. based on 'argc' and 'argv'.  These
     parameters are similar to those passed to the program's ‘main()’
     function with the difference that the first entry should refer to
     the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting
     the Python interpreter.  If there isn't a script that will be run,
     the first entry in 'argv' can be an empty string.  If this function
     fails to initialize *note sys.argv: 1245, a fatal condition is
     signalled using *note Py_FatalError(): 972.

     If 'updatepath' is zero, this is all the function does.  If
     'updatepath' is non-zero, the function also modifies *note
     sys.path: 3ab. according to the following algorithm:

        - If the name of an existing script is passed in ‘argv[0]’, the
          absolute path of the directory where the script is located is
          prepended to *note sys.path: 3ab.

        - Otherwise (that is, if 'argc' is ‘0’ or ‘argv[0]’ doesn't
          point to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended
          to *note sys.path: 3ab, which is the same as prepending the
          current working directory (‘"."’).

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 882. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     3ba. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

          Note: It is recommended that applications embedding the Python
          interpreter for purposes other than executing a single script
          pass ‘0’ as 'updatepath', and update *note sys.path: 3ab.
          themselves if desired.  See CVE 2008-5983(1).

          On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by
          manually popping the first *note sys.path: 3ab. element after
          having called *note PySys_SetArgv(): 15fb, for example using:

               PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.3.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: void PySys_SetArgv (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. and *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 18e5. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     This function works like *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 15fa. with
     'updatepath' set to ‘1’ unless the ‘python’ interpreter was started
     with the *note -I: 94d.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 882. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     3ba. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.4: The 'updatepath' value depends on
     *note -I: 94d.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_SetPythonHome (const wchar_t *home)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.home: 3b2. should be
     used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 39e.

     Set the default "home" directory, that is, the location of the
     standard Python libraries.  See *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. for the
     meaning of the argument string.

     The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in
     static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of
     the program's execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will
     change the contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: wchar_t *Py_GetPythonHome ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the default "home",
     that is, the value set by *note PyConfig.home: 3b2, or the value of
     the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable if it is set.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     89b, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note PyConfig.home: 3b2. or *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment
     variable instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983


File: python.info,  Node: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Next: Sub-interpreter support,  Prev: Process-wide parameters,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.5 Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
--------------------------------------------------

The Python interpreter is not fully thread-safe.  In order to support
multi-threaded Python programs, there's a global lock, called the *note
global interpreter lock: 147. or *note GIL: 158, that must be held by
the current thread before it can safely access Python objects.  Without
the lock, even the simplest operations could cause problems in a
multi-threaded program: for example, when two threads simultaneously
increment the reference count of the same object, the reference count
could end up being incremented only once instead of twice.

Therefore, the rule exists that only the thread that has acquired the
*note GIL: 158. may operate on Python objects or call Python/C API
functions.  In order to emulate concurrency of execution, the
interpreter regularly tries to switch threads (see *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 939.).  The lock is also released around
potentially blocking I/O operations like reading or writing a file, so
that other Python threads can run in the meantime.

The Python interpreter keeps some thread-specific bookkeeping
information inside a data structure called *note PyThreadState: 779.
There's also one global variable pointing to the current *note
PyThreadState: 779.: it can be retrieved using *note
PyThreadState_Get(): 368.

* Menu:

* Releasing the GIL from extension code::
* Non-Python created threads::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* High-level API::
* Low-level API::


File: python.info,  Node: Releasing the GIL from extension code,  Next: Non-Python created threads,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.1 Releasing the GIL from extension code
.............................................

Most extension code manipulating the *note GIL: 158. has the following
simple structure:

     Save the thread state in a local variable.
     Release the global interpreter lock.
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Reacquire the global interpreter lock.
     Restore the thread state from the local variable.

This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:

     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

The *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. macro opens a new block and
declares a hidden local variable; the *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a7e.
macro closes the block.

The block above expands to the following code:

     PyThreadState *_save;

     _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

Here is how these functions work: the global interpreter lock is used to
protect the pointer to the current thread state.  When releasing the
lock and saving the thread state, the current thread state pointer must
be retrieved before the lock is released (since another thread could
immediately acquire the lock and store its own thread state in the
global variable).  Conversely, when acquiring the lock and restoring the
thread state, the lock must be acquired before storing the thread state
pointer.

     Note: Calling system I/O functions is the most common use case for
     releasing the GIL, but it can also be useful before calling
     long-running computations which don't need access to Python
     objects, such as compression or cryptographic functions operating
     over memory buffers.  For example, the standard *note zlib: 132.
     and *note hashlib: 67. modules release the GIL when compressing or
     hashing data.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-Python created threads,  Next: Cautions about fork,  Prev: Releasing the GIL from extension code,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.2 Non-Python created threads
..................................

When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
*note threading: ec. module), a thread state is automatically associated
to them and the code showed above is therefore correct.  However, when
threads are created from C (for example by a third-party library with
its own thread management), they don't hold the GIL, nor is there a
thread state structure for them.

If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be
part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party
library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by
creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and
finally storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using
the Python/C API. When you are done, you should reset the thread state
pointer, release the GIL, and finally free the thread state data
structure.

The *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.
functions do all of the above automatically.  The typical idiom for
calling into Python from a C thread is:

     PyGILState_STATE gstate;
     gstate = PyGILState_Ensure();

     /* Perform Python actions here. */
     result = CallSomeFunction();
     /* evaluate result or handle exception */

     /* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
     PyGILState_Release(gstate);

Note that the ‘PyGILState_*’ functions assume there is only one global
interpreter (created automatically by *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.).
Python supports the creation of additional interpreters (using *note
Py_NewInterpreter(): 1772.), but mixing multiple interpreters and the
‘PyGILState_*’ API is unsupported.


File: python.info,  Node: Cautions about fork,  Next: High-level API,  Prev: Non-Python created threads,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.3 Cautions about fork()
.............................

Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the
face of the C ‘fork()’ call.  On most systems with ‘fork()’, after a
process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist.  This has
a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all stored
state in CPython's runtime.

The fact that only the "current" thread remains means any locks held by
other threads will never be released.  Python solves this for *note
os.fork(): 195. by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the
fork, and releasing them afterwards.  In addition, it resets any *note
Verrous: 30b6. in the child.  When extending or embedding Python, there
is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that need to
be acquired before or reset after a fork.  OS facilities such as
‘pthread_atfork()’ would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling ‘fork()’
directly rather than through *note os.fork(): 195. (and returning to or
calling into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python's
internal locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
*note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f1. tries to reset the necessary locks,
but is not always able to.

The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython's
runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which *note os.fork():
195. does.  This means finalizing all other *note PyThreadState: 779.
objects belonging to the current interpreter and all other *note
PyInterpreterState: 8ac. objects.  Due to this and the special nature of
the *note "main" interpreter: 575, ‘fork()’ should only be called in
that interpreter's "main" thread, where the CPython global runtime was
originally initialized.  The only exception is if ‘exec()’ will be
called immediately after.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level API,  Next: Low-level API,  Prev: Cautions about fork,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.4 High-level API
......................

These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing C
extension code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:

 -- C Type: type PyInterpreterState
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541. (as an opaque struct).'  This
     data structure represents the state shared by a number of
     cooperating threads.  Threads belonging to the same interpreter
     share their module administration and a few other internal items.
     There are no public members in this structure.

     Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share
     nothing, except process state like available memory, open file
     descriptors and such.  The global interpreter lock is also shared
     by all threads, regardless of to which interpreter they belong.

 -- C Type: type PyThreadState
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541. (as an opaque struct).'  This
     data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The only
     public data member is:

      -- C Membre: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. *interp

          This thread's interpreter state.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_InitThreads ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Deprecated function which does nothing.

     In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn't
     exist.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function now does nothing.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: This function is now called by *note
     Py_Initialize(): 89b, so you don't have to call it yourself
     anymore.

     Modifié dans la version 3.2: This function cannot be called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. anymore.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyEval_SaveThread ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Release the global
     interpreter lock (if it has been created) and reset the thread
     state to ‘NULL’, returning the previous thread state (which is not
     ‘NULL’).  If the lock has been created, the current thread must
     have acquired it.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_RestoreThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Acquire the global
     interpreter lock (if it has been created) and set the thread state
     to 'tstate', which must not be ‘NULL’.  If the lock has been
     created, the current thread must not have acquired it, otherwise
     deadlock ensues.

          Note: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use *note Py_IsFinalizing():
          350. or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a7f. to check if the
          interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
          this function to avoid unwanted termination.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyThreadState_Get ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the current thread
     state.  The global interpreter lock must be held.  When the current
     thread state is ‘NULL’, this issues a fatal error (so that the
     caller needn't check for ‘NULL’).

     See also *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 367.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyThreadState_GetUnchecked ()

     Similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 368, but don't kill the
     process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible
     to check if the result is NULL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13: In Python 3.5 to 3.12, the function
     was private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyThreadState_Swap
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Swap the current thread
     state with the thread state given by the argument 'tstate', which
     may be ‘NULL’.  The global interpreter lock must be held and is not
     released.

The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible
with sub-interpreters:

 -- C Fonction: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Ensure that the current
     thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless of the current
     state of Python, or of the global interpreter lock.  This may be
     called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is
     matched with a call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.  In
     general, other thread-related APIs may be used between *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.
     calls as long as the thread state is restored to its previous state
     before the Release().  For example, normal usage of the *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a7e.
     macros is acceptable.

     The return value is an opaque "handle" to the thread state when
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. was called, and must be passed to
     *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3. to ensure Python is left in the
     same state.  Even though recursive calls are allowed, these handles
     'cannot' be shared - each unique call to *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     3a2. must save the handle for its call to *note
     PyGILState_Release(): 3a3.

     When the function returns, the current thread will hold the GIL and
     be able to call arbitrary Python code.  Failure is a fatal error.

          Note: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use *note Py_IsFinalizing():
          350. or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a7f. to check if the
          interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
          this function to avoid unwanted termination.

 -- C Fonction: void PyGILState_Release (PyGILState_STATE)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Release any resources
     previously acquired.  After this call, Python's state will be the
     same as it was prior to the corresponding *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. call (but generally this state will be
     unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GILState API).

     Every call to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. must be matched by a
     call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3. on the same thread.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState
          ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Get the current thread state
     for this thread.  May return ‘NULL’ if no GILState API has been
     used on the current thread.  Note that the main thread always has
     such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been
     made on the main thread.  This is mainly a helper/diagnostic
     function.

 -- C Fonction: int PyGILState_Check ()

     Return ‘1’ if the current thread is holding the GIL and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This function can be called from any thread at any
     time.  Only if it has had its Python thread state initialized and
     currently is holding the GIL will it return ‘1’.  This is mainly a
     helper/diagnostic function.  It can be useful for example in
     callback contexts or memory allocation functions when knowing that
     the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive actions
     or otherwise behave differently.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon;
look for example usage in the Python source distribution.

 -- C Macro: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This macro expands to ‘{
     PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();’.  Note that it
     contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a7e. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C Macro: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }’.  Note that it contains a closing
     brace; it must be matched with an earlier *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C Macro: Py_BLOCK_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a7e. without the closing brace.

 -- C Macro: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This macro expands to ‘_save
     = PyEval_SaveThread();’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. without the opening brace and
     variable declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level API,  Prev: High-level API,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.5 Low-level API
.....................

All of the following functions must be called after *note
Py_Initialize(): 89b.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: *note Py_Initialize(): 89b. now initializes
the *note GIL: 158.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. *PyInterpreterState_New
          ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Create a new interpreter
     state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held, but
     may be held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ with no arguments.

 -- C Fonction: void PyInterpreterState_Clear (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Reset all information in an
     interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock must be
     held.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1877.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear’ with no arguments.

 -- C Fonction: void PyInterpreterState_Delete (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Destroy an interpreter state
     object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.  The
     interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to
     *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 4183.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyThreadState_New
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Create a new thread state
     object belonging to the given interpreter object.  The global
     interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is
     necessary to serialize calls to this function.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThreadState_Clear (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Reset all information in a
     thread state object.  The global interpreter lock must be held.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: This function now calls the
     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that happened in
     *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 195e.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: The ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’
     callback was removed.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThreadState_Delete (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Destroy a thread state
     object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.  The thread
     state must have been reset with a previous call to *note
     PyThreadState_Clear(): 15dc.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (void)

     Destroy the current thread state and release the global interpreter
     lock.  Like *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 195e, the global
     interpreter lock must be held.  The thread state must have been
     reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 15dc.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyFrameObject: 775. *PyThreadState_GetFrame
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Get
     the current frame of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Return a *note strong reference: 333.  Return ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.

     See also *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1778.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Get
     the unique thread state identifier of the Python thread state
     'tstate'.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac.
          *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Get
     the interpreter of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThreadState_EnterTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Resume them using the *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 741.
     function.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'
     suspended by the *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 740. function.

     See also *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417. and *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5. functions.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. *PyInterpreterState_Get
          (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'  Get
     the current interpreter.

     Issue a fatal error if there no current Python thread state or no
     current interpreter.  It cannot return NULL.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return the interpreter's unique ID. If there was any error in doing
     so then ‘-1’ is returned and an error is set.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyInterpreterState_GetDict
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.8.'
     Return a dictionary in which interpreter-specific data may be
     stored.  If this function returns ‘NULL’ then no exception has been
     raised and the caller should assume no interpreter-specific dict is
     available.

     This is not a replacement for *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f, which
     extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state
     information.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return a *note strong reference: 333. to the ‘__main__’ *note
     module object: 4c31. for the given interpreter.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(*note
          PyThreadState: 779. *tstate, *note _PyInterpreterFrame: 4c71.
          *frame, int throwflag)

     Type of a frame evaluation function.

     The 'throwflag' parameter is used by the ‘throw()’ method of
     generators: if non-zero, handle the current exception.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'frame' parameter changed from
     ‘PyFrameObject*’ to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’.

 -- C Fonction: *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 762.
          _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

     Get the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(1) "Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython".

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc
          (PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame)

     Set the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(2) "Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython".

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyThreadState_GetDict ()
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Return a dictionary in which extensions can
     store thread-specific state information.  Each extension should use
     a unique key to use to store state in the dictionary.  It is okay
     to call this function when no current thread state is available.
     If this function returns ‘NULL’, no exception has been raised and
     the caller should assume no current thread state is available.

 -- C Fonction: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (unsigned long id,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Asynchronously raise an
     exception in a thread.  The 'id' argument is the thread id of the
     target thread; 'exc' is the exception object to be raised.  This
     function does not steal any references to 'exc'.  To prevent naive
     misuse, you must write your own C extension to call this.  Must be
     called with the GIL held.  Returns the number of thread states
     modified; this is normally one, but will be zero if the thread id
     isn't found.  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, the pending exception (if any)
     for the thread is cleared.  This raises no exceptions.

     Modifié dans la version 3.7: The type of the 'id' parameter changed
     from long to unsigned long.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_AcquireThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Acquire the global
     interpreter lock and set the current thread state to 'tstate',
     which must not be ‘NULL’.  The lock must have been created earlier.
     If this thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues.

          Note: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use *note Py_IsFinalizing():
          350. or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a7f. to check if the
          interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
          this function to avoid unwanted termination.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Updated to be consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a7e, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2, and terminate the current thread if
     called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0. is a higher-level function which
     is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_ReleaseThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Reset the current thread
     state to ‘NULL’ and release the global interpreter lock.  The lock
     must have been created earlier and must be held by the current
     thread.  The 'tstate' argument, which must not be ‘NULL’, is only
     used to check that it represents the current thread state -- if it
     isn't, a fatal error is reported.

     *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f. is a higher-level function which is
     always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Sub-interpreter support,  Next: Asynchronous Notifications,  Prev: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.6 Sub-interpreter support
-----------------------------

While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter,
there are cases where you need to create several independent
interpreters in the same process and perhaps even in the same thread.
Sub-interpreters allow you to do that.

The "main" interpreter is the first one created when the runtime
initializes.  It is usually the only Python interpreter in a process.
Unlike sub-interpreters, the main interpreter has unique process-global
responsibilities like signal handling.  It is also responsible for
execution during runtime initialization and is usually the active
interpreter during runtime finalization.  The *note
PyInterpreterState_Main(): 4ce3. function returns a pointer to its
state.

You can switch between sub-interpreters using the *note
PyThreadState_Swap(): 49d9. function.  You can create and destroy them
using the following functions:

 -- C Type: type PyInterpreterConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure a
     sub-interpreter.  Its values are used only in *note
     Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 447. and never modified by the
     runtime.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Membre: int use_main_obmalloc

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter will use its own
          "object" allocator state.  Otherwise it will use (share) the
          main interpreter's.

          If this is ‘0’ then *note check_multi_interp_extensions: 4ce4.
          must be ‘1’ (non-zero).  If this is ‘1’ then *note gil: 4ce5.
          must not be *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4ce6.

      -- C Membre: int allow_fork

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support forking the
          process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently
          active.  Otherwise fork is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d5. module still works when
          fork is disallowed.

      -- C Membre: int allow_exec

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support replacing the
          current process via exec (e.g.  *note os.execv(): 2ad7.) in
          any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active.
          Otherwise exec is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d5. module still works when
          exec is disallowed.

      -- C Membre: int allow_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter's *note threading: ec.
          module won't create threads.  Otherwise threads are allowed.

      -- C Membre: int allow_daemon_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter's *note threading: ec.
          module won't create daemon threads.  Otherwise daemon threads
          are allowed (as long as *note allow_threads: 4ce9. is
          non-zero).

      -- C Membre: int check_multi_interp_extensions

          If this is ‘0’ then all extension modules may be imported,
          including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread
          where the sub-interpreter is currently active.  Otherwise only
          multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489(1)) may be
          imported.  (Also see *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters:
          4c44.)

          This must be ‘1’ (non-zero) if *note use_main_obmalloc: 4328.
          is ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int gil

          This determines the operation of the GIL for the
          sub-interpreter.  It may be one of the following:

           -- C Macro: PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL

               Use the default selection (*note
               PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL: 4cec.).

           -- C Macro: PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL

               Use (share) the main interpreter's GIL.

           -- C Macro: PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL

               Use the sub-interpreter's own GIL.

          If this is *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4ce6. then *note
          PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4328. must be ‘0’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig
          (PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config)

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is an (almost) totally separate
     environment for the execution of Python code.  In particular, the
     new interpreter has separate, independent versions of all imported
     modules, including the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12,
     *note __main__: 1. and *note sys: d8.  The table of loaded modules
     (‘sys.modules’) and the module search path (‘sys.path’) are also
     separate.  The new environment has no ‘sys.argv’ variable.  It has
     new standard I/O stream file objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and
     ‘sys.stderr’ (however these refer to the same underlying file
     descriptors).

     The given 'config' controls the options with which the interpreter
     is initialized.

     Upon success, 'tstate_p' will be set to the first thread state
     created in the new sub-interpreter.  This thread state is made in
     the current thread state.  Note that no actual thread is created;
     see the discussion of thread states below.  If creation of the new
     interpreter is unsuccessful, 'tstate_p' is set to ‘NULL’; no
     exception is set since the exception state is stored in the current
     thread state and there may not be a current thread state.

     Like all other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock
     must be held before calling this function and is still held when it
     returns.  Likewise a current thread state must be set on entry.  On
     success, the returned thread state will be set as current.  If the
     sub-interpreter is created with its own GIL then the GIL of the
     calling interpreter will be released.  When the function returns,
     the new interpreter's GIL will be held by the current thread and
     the previously interpreter's GIL will remain released here.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

     Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other,
     with certain functionality restricted:

          PyInterpreterConfig config = {
              .use_main_obmalloc = 0,
              .allow_fork = 0,
              .allow_exec = 0,
              .allow_threads = 1,
              .allow_daemon_threads = 0,
              .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
              .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
          };
          PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
          PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
          if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
              Py_ExitStatusException(status);
          }

     Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get
     modified.  During initialization the config's values are converted
     into various *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. values.  A read-only
     copy of the config may be stored internally on the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 8ac.

     Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows:

        * For modules using multi-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): e9d, a separate module object is
          created and initialized for each interpreter.  Only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these module
          objects.

        * For modules using single-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_Create(): 4846, the first time a particular extension
          is imported, it is initialized normally, and a (shallow) copy
          of its module's dictionary is squirreled away.  When the same
          extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new
          module is initialized and filled with the contents of this
          copy; the extension's ‘init’ function is not called.  Objects
          in the module's dictionary thus end up shared across
          (sub-)interpreters, which might cause unwanted behavior (see
          *note Bugs and caveats: 4ced. below).

          Note that this is different from what happens when an
          extension is imported after the interpreter has been
          completely re-initialized by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx():
          d05. and *note Py_Initialize(): 89b.; in that case, the
          extension's ‘initmodule’ function 'is' called again.  As with
          multi-phase initialization, this means that only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these modules.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *Py_NewInterpreter (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is essentially just a wrapper
     around *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 447. with a config that
     preserves the existing behavior.  The result is an unisolated
     sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter's GIL, allows
     fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init
     modules.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_EndInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

     Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread
     state.  The given thread state must be the current thread state.
     See the discussion of thread states below.  When the call returns,
     the current thread state is ‘NULL’.  All thread states associated
     with this interpreter are destroyed.  The global interpreter lock
     used by the target interpreter must be held before calling this
     function.  No GIL is held when it returns.

     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. will destroy all sub-interpreters that
     haven't been explicitly destroyed at that point.

* Menu:

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: Bugs and caveats,  Up: Sub-interpreter support

7.9.6.1 A Per-Interpreter GIL
.............................

Using *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 447. you can create a
sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters,
including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this
isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without
being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others.  Thus a
single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores
when running Python code.  The isolation also encourages a different
approach to concurrency than that of just using threads.  (See PEP
554(1).)

Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that
isolation.  That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable
state without guarantees about thread-safety.  Even objects that are
otherwise immutable (e.g.  ‘None’, ‘(1, 5)’) can't normally be shared
because of the refcount.  One simple but less-efficient approach around
this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object).
Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings)
can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them *note
immortal: 4327.  In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons,
small integers, and a number of other builtin objects.

If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core
computing without the complications that come with free-threading.
Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences
of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes.

Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated
interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break
isolation) and efficiently.  The runtime and stdlib do not provide any
standard approach to this yet.  A future stdlib module would help
mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools
for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs and caveats,  Prev: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: Sub-interpreter support

7.9.6.2 Bugs and caveats
........................

Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same
process, the insulation between them isn't perfect -- for example, using
low-level file operations like *note os.close(): b64. they can
(accidentally or maliciously) affect each other's open files.  Because
of the way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some
extensions may not work properly; this is especially likely when using
single-phase initialization or (static) global variables.  It is
possible to insert objects created in one sub-interpreter into a
namespace of another (sub-)interpreter; this should be avoided if
possible.

Special care should be taken to avoid sharing user-defined functions,
methods, instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import
operations executed by such objects may affect the wrong
(sub-)interpreter's dictionary of loaded modules.  It is equally
important to avoid sharing objects from which the above are reachable.

Also note that combining this functionality with ‘PyGILState_*’ APIs is
delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread
states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of
sub-interpreters.  It is highly recommended that you don't switch
sub-interpreters between a pair of matching *note PyGILState_Ensure():
3a2. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a3. calls.  Furthermore,
extensions (such as *note ctypes: 2a.) using these APIs to allow calling
of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken
when using sub-interpreters.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Notifications,  Next: Profiling and Tracing,  Prev: Sub-interpreter support,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.7 Asynchronous Notifications
--------------------------------

A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
pointer and a void pointer argument.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_AddPendingCall (int (*func)(void*), void *arg)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Schedule a function to be
     called from the main interpreter thread.  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned and 'func' is queued for being called in the main thread.
     On failure, ‘-1’ is returned without setting any exception.

     When successfully queued, 'func' will be 'eventually' called from
     the main interpreter thread with the argument 'arg'.  It will be
     called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code,
     but with both these conditions met:

        * on a *note bytecode: 185. boundary;

        * with the main thread holding the *note global interpreter
          lock: 147. ('func' can therefore use the full C API).

     'func' must return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ on failure with an
     exception set.  'func' won't be interrupted to perform another
     asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be
     interrupted to switch threads if the global interpreter lock is
     released.

     This function doesn't need a current thread state to run, and it
     doesn't need the global interpreter lock.

     To call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must hold the
     GIL. Otherwise, the function 'func' can be scheduled to be called
     from the wrong interpreter.

          Avertissement: This is a low-level function, only useful for
          very special cases.  There is no guarantee that 'func' will be
          called as quick as possible.  If the main thread is busy
          executing a system call, 'func' won't be called before the
          system call returns.  This function is generally 'not'
          suitable for calling Python code from arbitrary C threads.
          Instead, use the *note PyGILState API: 4cda.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: If this function is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function 'func' is now scheduled to be called
     from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main
     interpreter.  Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled
     calls.


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling and Tracing,  Next: Reference tracing,  Prev: Asynchronous Notifications,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.8 Profiling and Tracing
---------------------------

The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching
profiling and execution tracing facilities.  These are used for
profiling, debugging, and coverage analysis tools.

This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the
overhead of calling through Python-level callable objects, making a
direct C function call instead.  The essential attributes of the
facility have not changed; the interface allows trace functions to be
installed per-thread, and the basic events reported to the trace
function are the same as had been reported to the Python-level trace
functions in previous versions.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(*note PyObject: 32f. *obj, *note
          PyFrameObject: 775. *frame, int what, *note PyObject: 32f.
          *arg)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417.  The
     first parameter is the object passed to the registration function
     as 'obj', 'frame' is the frame object to which the event pertains,
     'what' is one of the constants *note PyTrace_CALL: 4cf3, *note
     PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4cf4, *note PyTrace_LINE: 4cf5, *note
     PyTrace_RETURN: 4cf6, *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4cf7, *note
     PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4cf8, *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4cf9, or *note
     PyTrace_OPCODE: 4cfa, and 'arg' depends on the value of 'what':

     Value of 'what'                     Meaning of 'arg'
                                         
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         
     *note PyTrace_CALL: 4cf3.           Always *note Py_None: 4842.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4cf4.      Exception information as returned by
                                         *note sys.exc_info(): 677.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_LINE: 4cf5.           Always *note Py_None: 4842.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_RETURN: 4cf6.         Value being returned to the caller, or
                                         ‘NULL’ if caused by an exception.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4cf7.         Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4cf8.    Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4cf9.       Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4cfa.         Always *note Py_None: 4842.
                                         

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_CALL

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     function when a new call to a function or method is being reported,
     or a new entry into a generator.  Note that the creation of the
     iterator for a generator function is not reported as there is no
     control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding frame.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     function when an exception has been raised.  The callback function
     is called with this value for 'what' when after any bytecode is
     processed after which the exception becomes set within the frame
     being executed.  The effect of this is that as exception
     propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is
     called upon return to each frame as the exception propagates.  Only
     trace functions receives these events; they are not needed by the
     profiler.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_LINE

     The value passed as the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc:
     4cf2. function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number
     event is being reported.  It may be disabled for a frame by setting
     *note f_trace_lines: bcb. to '0' on that frame.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     functions when a call is about to return.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_C_CALL

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     functions when a C function is about to be called.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     functions when a C function has raised an exception.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_C_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     functions when a C function has returned.

 -- C Variable: int PyTrace_OPCODE

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4cf2.
     functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about
     to be executed.  This event is not emitted by default: it must be
     explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: bcc. to '1'
     on the frame.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_SetProfile (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject
          *obj)

     Set the profiler function to 'func'.  The 'obj' parameter is passed
     to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python
     object, or ‘NULL’.  If the profile function needs to maintain
     state, using a different value for 'obj' for each thread provides a
     convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The profile function
     is called for all monitored events except *note PyTrace_LINE: 4cf5.
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4cfa. and *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4cf4.

     See also the *note sys.setprofile(): 14b6. function.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 158.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5. but sets the profile function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 158.

     As *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all
     threads.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_SetTrace (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the tracing function to 'func'.  This is similar to *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14b5, except the tracing function does receive
     line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any
     event related to C function objects being called.  Any trace
     function registered using *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417. will not
     receive *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4cf7, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION:
     4cf8. or *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4cf9. as a value for the 'what'
     parameter.

     See also the *note sys.settrace(): 14b7. function.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 158.

 -- C Fonction: void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417. but sets the tracing function in
     all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of
     the setting it only on the current thread.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 158.

     As *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 417, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference tracing,  Next: Support avancé du débogueur,  Prev: Profiling and Tracing,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.9 Reference tracing
-----------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*PyRefTracer)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, int event,
          void *data)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 362.  The first parameter is a Python
     object that has been just created (when 'event' is set to *note
     PyRefTracer_CREATE: 4cfd.) or about to be destroyed (when 'event'
     is set to *note PyRefTracer_DESTROY: 4cfe.).  The 'data' argument
     is the opaque pointer that was provided when *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 362. was called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Variable: int PyRefTracer_CREATE

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 4cfc.
     functions when a Python object has been created.

 -- C Variable: int PyRefTracer_DESTROY

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 4cfc.
     functions when a Python object has been destroyed.

 -- C Fonction: int PyRefTracer_SetTracer (PyRefTracer tracer, void
          *data)

     Register a reference tracer function.  The function will be called
     when a new Python has been created or when an object is going to be
     destroyed.  If 'data' is provided it must be an opaque pointer that
     will be provided when the tracer function is called.  Return ‘0’ on
     success.  Set an exception and return ‘-1’ on error.

     Not that tracer functions 'must not' create Python objects inside
     or otherwise the call will be re-entrant.  The tracer also 'must
     not' clear any existing exception or set an exception.  The GIL
     will be held every time the tracer function is called.

     The GIL must be held when calling this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyRefTracer: 4cfc. PyRefTracer_GetTracer (void
          **data)

     Get the registered reference tracer function and the value of the
     opaque data pointer that was registered when *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 362. was called.  If no tracer was
     registered this function will return NULL and will set the 'data'
     pointer to NULL.

     The GIL must be held when calling this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Support avancé du débogueur,  Next: Thread Local Storage Support,  Prev: Reference tracing,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.10 Support avancé du débogueur
----------------------------------

These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging
tools.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. *PyInterpreterState_Head
          ()

     Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all
     such objects.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. *PyInterpreterState_Main
          ()

     Return the main interpreter state object.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ac. *PyInterpreterState_Next
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the next interpreter state object after 'interp' from the
     list of all such objects.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the pointer to the first *note PyThreadState: 779. object in
     the list of threads associated with the interpreter 'interp'.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyThreadState: 779. *PyThreadState_Next
          (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Return the next thread state object after 'tstate' from the list of
     all such objects belonging to the same *note PyInterpreterState:
     8ac. object.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Local Storage Support,  Next: Primitives de synchronisation<3>,  Prev: Support avancé du débogueur,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.11 Thread Local Storage Support
-----------------------------------

The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local
storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to
support the Python-level thread local storage API (*note
threading.local: 1727.).  The CPython C level APIs are similar to those
offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to
associate a void* value per thread.

The GIL does 'not' need to be held when calling these functions; they
supply their own locking.

Note that ‘Python.h’ does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs,
you need to include ‘pythread.h’ to use thread-local storage.

     Note: None of these API functions handle memory management on
     behalf of the void* values.  You need to allocate and deallocate
     them yourself.  If the void* values happen to be *note PyObject:
     32f.*, these functions don't do refcount operations on them either.

* Menu:

* Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
* Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: Thread Local Storage TLS API.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Specific Storage TSS API,  Next: Thread Local Storage TLS API,  Up: Thread Local Storage Support

7.9.11.1 Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API
..........................................

TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter.  This API uses a new type *note
Py_tss_t: acf. instead of int to represent thread keys.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Voir aussi
..........

"A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython" ( PEP 539(1))

 -- C Type: type Py_tss_t

     This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the
     definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS
     implementation, and it has an internal field representing the key's
     initialization state.  There are no public members in this
     structure.

     When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 541. is not defined, static allocation
     of this type by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4d04. is allowed.

 -- C Macro: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT

     This macro expands to the initializer for *note Py_tss_t: acf.
     variables.  Note that this macro won't be defined with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 541.

* Menu:

* Dynamic Allocation::
* Méthodes: Méthodes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic Allocation,  Next: Méthodes<2>,  Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API

7.9.11.2 Dynamic Allocation
...........................

Dynamic allocation of the *note Py_tss_t: acf, required in extension
modules built with *note Py_LIMITED_API: 541, where static allocation of
this type is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at
build time.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_tss_t: acf. *PyThread_tss_alloc ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return a value which is the same state as a value initialized with
     *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4d04, or ‘NULL’ in the case of dynamic
     allocation failure.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThread_tss_free (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'  Free
     the given 'key' allocated by *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3fb, after
     first calling *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 403. to ensure any
     associated thread locals have been unassigned.  This is a no-op if
     the 'key' argument is ‘NULL’.

          Note: A freed key becomes a dangling pointer.  You should
          reset the key to ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes<2>,  Prev: Dynamic Allocation,  Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API

7.9.11.3 Méthodes
.................

The parameter 'key' of these functions must not be ‘NULL’.  Moreover,
the behaviors of *note PyThread_tss_set(): 3ff. and *note
PyThread_tss_get(): 401. are undefined if the given *note Py_tss_t: acf.
has not been initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 49da.

 -- C Fonction: int PyThread_tss_is_created (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return a non-zero value if the given *note Py_tss_t: acf. has been
     initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 49da.

 -- C Fonction: int PyThread_tss_create (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return a zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key.  The
     behavior is undefined if the value pointed to by the 'key' argument
     is not initialized by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4d04.  This function
     can be called repeatedly on the same key - calling it on an already
     initialized key is a no-op and immediately returns success.

 -- C Fonction: void PyThread_tss_delete (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Destroy a TSS key to forget the values associated with the key
     across all threads, and change the key's initialization state to
     uninitialized.  A destroyed key is able to be initialized again by
     *note PyThread_tss_create(): 49da.  This function can be called
     repeatedly on the same key - calling it on an already destroyed key
     is a no-op.

 -- C Fonction: int PyThread_tss_set (Py_tss_t *key, void *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return a zero value to indicate successfully associating a void*
     value with a TSS key in the current thread.  Each thread has a
     distinct mapping of the key to a void* value.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyThread_tss_get (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Return the void* value associated with a TSS key in the current
     thread.  This returns ‘NULL’ if no value is associated with the key
     in the current thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Local Storage TLS API,  Prev: Thread Specific Storage TSS API,  Up: Thread Local Storage Support

7.9.11.4 Thread Local Storage (TLS) API
.......................................

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: This API is superseded by *note Thread
Specific Storage (TSS) API: ace.

     Note: This version of the API does not support platforms where the
     native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to
     ‘int’.  On such platforms, *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fa. will
     return immediately with a failure status, and the other TLS
     functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.

Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API
should not be used in new code.

 -- C Fonction: int PyThread_create_key ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: void PyThread_delete_key (int key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: int PyThread_set_key_value (int key, void *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: void *PyThread_get_key_value (int key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: void PyThread_delete_key_value (int key)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Fonction: void PyThread_ReInitTLS ()
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'


File: python.info,  Node: Primitives de synchronisation<3>,  Prev: Thread Local Storage Support,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.12 Primitives de synchronisation
------------------------------------

The C-API provides a basic mutual exclusion lock.

 -- C Type: type PyMutex

     A mutual exclusion lock.  The ‘PyMutex’ should be initialized to
     zero to represent the unlocked state.  For example:

          PyMutex mutex = {0};

     Instances of ‘PyMutex’ should not be copied or moved.  Both the
     contents and address of a ‘PyMutex’ are meaningful, and it must
     remain at a fixed, writable location in memory.

          Note: A ‘PyMutex’ currently occupies one byte, but the size
          should be considered unstable.  The size may change in future
          Python releases without a deprecation period.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMutex_Lock (PyMutex *m)

     Lock mutex 'm'.  If another thread has already locked it, the
     calling thread will block until the mutex is unlocked.  While
     blocked, the thread will temporarily release the *note GIL: 158. if
     it is held.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMutex_Unlock (PyMutex *m)

     Unlock mutex 'm'.  The mutex must be locked -- otherwise, the
     function will issue a fatal error.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Python Critical Section API::


File: python.info,  Node: Python Critical Section API,  Up: Primitives de synchronisation<3>

7.9.12.1 Python Critical Section API
....................................

The critical section API provides a deadlock avoidance layer on top of
per-object locks for *note free-threaded: 151e. CPython.  They are
intended to replace reliance on the *note global interpreter lock: 147,
and are no-ops in versions of Python with the global interpreter lock.

Critical sections avoid deadlocks by implicitly suspending active
critical sections and releasing the locks during calls to *note
PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f.  When *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a0. is
called, the most recent critical section is resumed, and its locks
reacquired.  This means the critical section API provides weaker
guarantees than traditional locks - they are useful because their
behavior is similar to the *note GIL: 158.

The functions and structs used by the macros are exposed for cases where
C macros are not available.  They should only be used as in the given
macro expansions.  Note that the sizes and contents of the structures
may change in future Python versions.

     Note: Operations that need to lock two objects at once must use
     *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 4d0b.  You 'cannot' use nested
     critical sections to lock more than one object at once, because the
     inner critical section may suspend the outer critical sections.
     This API does not provide a way to lock more than two objects at
     once.

Exemple d'utilisation :

     static PyObject *
     set_field(MyObject *self, PyObject *value)
     {
        Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self);
        Py_SETREF(self->field, Py_XNewRef(value));
        Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
        Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

In the above example, *note Py_SETREF: 567. calls *note Py_DECREF: 55d,
which can call arbitrary code through an object's deallocation function.
The critical section API avoids potential deadlocks due to reentrancy
and lock ordering by allowing the runtime to temporarily suspend the
critical section if the code triggered by the finalizer blocks and calls
*note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f.

 -- C Macro: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (op)

     Acquires the per-object lock for the object 'op' and begins a
     critical section.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

          {
              PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
              PyCriticalSection_Begin(&_py_cs, (PyObject*)(op))

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION ()

     Ends the critical section and releases the per-object lock.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

              PyCriticalSection_End(&_py_cs);
          }

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (a, b)

     Acquires the per-objects locks for the objects 'a' and 'b' and
     begins a critical section.  The locks are acquired in a consistent
     order (lowest address first) to avoid lock ordering deadlocks.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

          {
              PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
              PyCriticalSection2_Begin(&_py_cs2, (PyObject*)(a), (PyObject*)(b))

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

 -- C Macro: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 ()

     Ends the critical section and releases the per-object locks.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

              PyCriticalSection2_End(&_py_cs2);
          }

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Initialization Configuration,  Next: Memory Management,  Prev: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.10 Python Initialization Configuration
========================================

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. and
the *note PyConfig: 39d. structure.  It can be preinitialized with *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2. and the *note PyPreConfig: 99c. structure.

There are two kinds of configuration:

   * The *note Python Configuration: 4cd5. can be used to build a
     customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.  For
     example, environment variables and command line arguments are used
     to configure Python.

   * The *note Isolated Configuration: 4d10. can be used to embed Python
     into an application.  It isolates Python from the system.  For
     example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is
     left unchanged and no signal handler is registered.

The *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5. function can be used to write a customized
Python program.

See also *note Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: 4cc8.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 587(1) "Python Initialization Configuration".

* Menu:

* Example::
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/


File: python.info,  Node: Example,  Next: PyWideStringList,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.1 Example
--------------

Example of customized Python always running in isolated mode:

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config.isolated = 1;

         /* Decode command line arguments.
            Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         return Py_RunMain();

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) {
             return status.exitcode;
         }
         /* Display the error message and exit the process with
            non-zero exit code */
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyWideStringList,  Next: PyStatus,  Prev: Example,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.2 PyWideStringList
-----------------------

 -- C Type: type PyWideStringList

     List of ‘wchar_t*’ strings.

     If 'length' is non-zero, 'items' must be non-‘NULL’ and all strings
     must be non-‘NULL’.

     Methods:

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyWideStringList_Append
               (PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item)

          Append 'item' to 'list'.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyWideStringList_Insert
               (PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t
               *item)

          Insert 'item' into 'list' at 'index'.

          If 'index' is greater than or equal to 'list' length, append
          'item' to 'list'.

          'index' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. length

          List length.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t **items

          List items.


File: python.info,  Node: PyStatus,  Next: PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyWideStringList,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.3 PyStatus
---------------

 -- C Type: type PyStatus

     Structure to store an initialization function status: success,
     error or exit.

     For an error, it can store the C function name which created the
     error.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Membre: int exitcode

          Exit code.  Argument passed to ‘exit()’.

      -- C Membre: const char *err_msg

          Error message.

      -- C Membre: const char *func

          Name of the function which created an error, can be ‘NULL’.

     Functions to create a status:

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyStatus_Ok (void)

          Success.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyStatus_Error (const char
               *err_msg)

          Initialization error with a message.

          'err_msg' must not be ‘NULL’.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyStatus_NoMemory (void)

          Memory allocation failure (out of memory).

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyStatus_Exit (int exitcode)

          Exit Python with the specified exit code.

     Functions to handle a status:

      -- C Fonction: int PyStatus_Exception (PyStatus status)

          Is the status an error or an exit?  If true, the exception
          must be handled; by calling *note Py_ExitStatusException():
          9b2. for example.

      -- C Fonction: int PyStatus_IsError (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an error?

      -- C Fonction: int PyStatus_IsExit (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an exit?

      -- C Fonction: void Py_ExitStatusException (PyStatus status)

          Call ‘exit(exitcode)’ if 'status' is an exit.  Print the error
          message and exit with a non-zero exit code if 'status' is an
          error.  Must only be called if ‘PyStatus_Exception(status)’ is
          non-zero.

     Note: Internally, Python uses macros which set ‘PyStatus.func’,
     whereas functions to create a status set ‘func’ to ‘NULL’.

Exemple :

     PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size)
     {
         *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size);
         if (*ptr == NULL) {
             return PyStatus_NoMemory();
         }
         return PyStatus_Ok();
     }

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         void *ptr;
         PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
         PyMem_Free(ptr);
         return 0;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyPreConfig,  Next: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyStatus,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.4 PyPreConfig
------------------

 -- C Type: type PyPreConfig

     Structure used to preinitialize Python.

     Function to initialize a preconfiguration:

      -- C Fonction: void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Python
          Configuration: 4cd5.

      -- C Fonction: void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4d10.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Membre: int allocator

          Name of the Python memory allocators:

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’ (‘0’): don't change memory
               allocators (use defaults).

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT’ (‘1’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1d0d.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG’ (‘2’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1d0d. with *note debug hooks: 1d10.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC’ (‘3’): use ‘malloc()’ of the C
               library.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘4’): force usage of
               ‘malloc()’ with *note debug hooks: 1d10.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ (‘5’): *note Python pymalloc
               memory allocator: cff.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘6’): *note Python
               pymalloc memory allocator: cff. with *note debug hooks:
               1d10.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ (‘6’): use ‘mimalloc’, a fast
               malloc replacement.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘7’): use ‘mimalloc’, a
               fast malloc replacement with *note debug hooks: 1d10.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-pymalloc: 1d6d.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-mimalloc: 1d6c. or if the
          underlying atomic support isn't available.

          See *note Memory Management: 4d1b.

          Default: ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

      -- C Membre: int configure_locale

          Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale.

          If equals to ‘0’, set *note coerce_c_locale: 4d1d. and *note
          coerce_c_locale_warn: 4d1e. members to ‘0’.

          See the *note locale encoding: 23f.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int coerce_c_locale

          If equals to ‘2’, coerce the C locale.

          If equals to ‘1’, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it
          should be coerced.

          See the *note locale encoding: 23f.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int coerce_c_locale_warn

          If non-zero, emit a warning if the C locale is coerced.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int dev_mode

          *note Python Development Mode: 1f5.: see *note
          PyConfig.dev_mode: 4d20.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: int isolated

          Isolated mode: see *note PyConfig.isolated: 3db.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: int legacy_windows_fs_encoding

          If non-zero:

             * Set *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. to ‘0’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. to ‘"mbcs"’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e0. to
               ‘"replace"’.

          Initialized from the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac.
          environment variable value.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int parse_argv

          If non-zero, *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 9b3. and *note
          Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 9b4. parse their ‘argv’
          argument the same way the regular Python parses command line
          arguments: see *note Command Line Arguments: ff2.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 5dd.?  See *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int utf8_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

          Set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ by the *note -X utf8: 175. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: ac8. environment variable.

          Also set to ‘1’ if the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.


File: python.info,  Node: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Next: PyConfig,  Prev: PyPreConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.5 Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig
--------------------------------------------

The preinitialization of Python:

   * Set the Python memory allocators (*note PyPreConfig.allocator:
     4d1a.)

   * Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (*note locale encoding: 23f.)

   * Set the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643. (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode:
     3e1.)

The current preconfiguration (‘PyPreConfig’ type) is stored in
‘_PyRuntime.preconfig’.

Functions to preinitialize Python:

 -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. Py_PreInitialize (const PyPreConfig
          *preconfig)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs
          (const PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (bytes strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4d22. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (wide strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4d22. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): 9a9. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
9b2.

For *note Python Configuration: 4cd5. (*note
PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9a7.), if Python is initialized with
command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed
to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the
pre-configuration like encodings.  For example, the *note -X utf8: 175.
command line option enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 643.

‘PyMem_SetAllocator()’ can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize():
3e2. and before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. to install a
custom memory allocator.  It can be called before *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2. if *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4d1a. is set to
‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

Python memory allocation functions like *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386.
must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling
directly ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ is always safe.  *note
Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. must not be called before the Python
preinitialization.

Example using the preinitialization to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 643.:

     PyStatus status;
     PyPreConfig preconfig;
     PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig);

     preconfig.utf8_mode = 1;

     status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     /* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */

     Py_Initialize();
     /* ... use Python API here ... */
     Py_Finalize();


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig,  Next: Initialization with PyConfig,  Prev: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.6 PyConfig
---------------

 -- C Type: type PyConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure Python.

     When done, the *note PyConfig_Clear(): 99f. function must be used
     to release the configuration memory.

     Structure methods:

      -- C Fonction: void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Python Configuration:
          4cd5.

      -- C Fonction: void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4d10.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyConfig_SetString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str)

          Copy the wide character string 'str' into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if needed.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyConfig_SetBytesString
               (PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char
               *str)

          Decode 'str' using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7. and set the
          result into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if needed.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyConfig_SetArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 3ba. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of wide character strings.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if needed.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyConfig_SetBytesArgv
               (PyConfig *config, int argc, char *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 3ba. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of bytes strings.  Decode bytes
          using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bb7.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if needed.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyConfig_SetWideStringList
               (PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t
               length, wchar_t **items)

          Set the list of wide strings 'list' to 'length' and 'items'.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if needed.

      -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. PyConfig_Read (PyConfig
               *config)

          Read all Python configuration.

          Fields which are already initialized are left unchanged.

          Fields for *note path configuration: 89c. are no longer
          calculated or modified when calling this function, as of
          Python 3.11.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 3ba. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          18e5. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if needed.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: The *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba.
          arguments are now only parsed once, *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          18e5. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed, and arguments
          are only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 18e5. equals
          ‘1’.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. no
          longer calculates all paths, and so fields listed under *note
          Python Path Configuration: 89c. may no longer be updated until
          *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. is called.

      -- C Fonction: void PyConfig_Clear (PyConfig *config)

          Release configuration memory.

     Most ‘PyConfig’ methods *note preinitialize Python: 3cdf. if
     needed.  In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration
     (*note PyPreConfig: 99c.) in based on the *note PyConfig: 39d.  If
     configuration fields which are in common with *note PyPreConfig:
     99c. are tuned, they must be set before calling a *note PyConfig:
     39d. method:

        * *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 4d20.

        * *note PyConfig.isolated: 3db.

        * *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 18e5.

        * *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0.

     Moreover, if *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 9a2. or *note
     PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 9a3. is used, this method must be called
     before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration
     depends on command line arguments (if *note parse_argv: 18e5. is
     non-zero).

     The caller of these methods is responsible to handle exceptions
     (error or exit) using ‘PyStatus_Exception()’ and
     ‘Py_ExitStatusException()’.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Membre: *note PyWideStringList: 99e. argv

          Set *note sys.argv: 1245. command line arguments based on
          *note argv: 3ba.  These parameters are similar to those passed
          to the program's ‘main()’ function with the difference that
          the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed
          rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter.  If
          there isn't a script that will be run, the first entry in
          *note argv: 3ba. can be an empty string.

          Set *note parse_argv: 18e5. to ‘1’ to parse *note argv: 3ba.
          the same way the regular Python parses Python command line
          arguments and then to strip Python arguments from *note argv:
          3ba.

          If *note argv: 3ba. is empty, an empty string is added to
          ensure that *note sys.argv: 1245. always exists and is never
          empty.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          See also the *note orig_argv: 882. member.

      -- C Membre: int safe_path

          If equals to zero, ‘Py_RunMain()’ prepends a potentially
          unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ab. at startup:

             * If *note argv[0]: 3ba. is equal to ‘L"-m"’ (‘python -m
               module’), prepend the current working directory.

             * If running a script (‘python script.py’), prepend the
               script's directory.  If it's a symbolic link, resolve
               symbolic links.

             * Otherwise (‘python -c code’ and ‘python’), prepend an
               empty string, which means the current working directory.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -P: 590. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 591. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python config, ‘1’ in isolated config.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *base_exec_prefix

          *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e5.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4d27.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *base_executable

          Python base executable: ‘sys._base_executable’.

          Set by the ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable.

          Set from *note PyConfig.executable: 39c. if ‘NULL’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.executable: 39c.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *base_prefix

          *note sys.base_prefix: 3e6.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.prefix: 4d2a.

      -- C Membre: int buffered_stdio

          If equals to ‘0’ and *note configure_c_stdio: 4d2b. is
          non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and
          stderr.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -u: 1962. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1963. environment variable.

          stdin is always opened in buffered mode.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Membre: int bytes_warning

          If equals to ‘1’, issue a warning when comparing *note bytes:
          1bd. or *note bytearray: 52b. with *note str: 437, or
          comparing *note bytes: 1bd. with *note int: 254.

          If equal or greater to ‘2’, raise a *note BytesWarning: c13.
          exception in these cases.

          Incremented by the *note -b: 5cf. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int warn_default_encoding

          If non-zero, emit a *note EncodingWarning: 1cfa. warning when
          *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7a7. uses its default encoding.  See
          *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d12. for details.

          Default: ‘0’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- C Membre: int code_debug_ranges

          If equals to ‘0’, disables the inclusion of the end line and
          column mappings in code objects.  Also disables traceback
          printing carets to specific error locations.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5a2. environment
          variable and by the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 175. command
          line option.

          Default: ‘1’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode

          Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files:
          value of the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1ced. command line
          option.

          Valid values:

             - ‘L"always"’: Hash the source file for invalidation
               regardless of value of the 'check_source' flag.

             - ‘L"never"’: Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid.

             - ‘L"default"’: The 'check_source' flag in hash-based pycs
               determines invalidation.

          Default: ‘L"default"’.

          See also PEP 552(1) "Deterministic pycs".

      -- C Membre: int configure_c_stdio

          If non-zero, configure C standard streams:

             * On Windows, set the binary mode (‘O_BINARY’) on stdin,
               stdout and stderr.

             * If *note buffered_stdio: 3d6. equals zero, disable
               buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams.

             * If *note interactive: 3c4. is non-zero, enable stream
               buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows).

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int dev_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python Development Mode: 1f5.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -X dev: 175. option and the *note
          PYTHONDEVMODE: add. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: int dump_refs

          Dump Python references?

          If non-zero, dump all objects which are still alive at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 996. environment
          variable.

          Needs a special build of Python with the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro
          defined: see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 38b.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *exec_prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the
          platform-dependent Python files are installed: *note
          sys.exec_prefix: 3a9.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4d26.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *executable

          The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
          interpreter: *note sys.executable: 3af.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4d28.

      -- C Membre: int faulthandler

          Enable faulthandler?

          If non-zero, call *note faulthandler.enable(): c8e. at
          startup.

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X faulthandler: 175. and the *note
          PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 106b. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *filesystem_encoding

          *note Filesystem encoding: 528.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49.

          On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default.

          On Windows: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default, or ‘"mbcs"’ if *note
          legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. of *note PyPreConfig: 99c. is
          non-zero.

          Default encoding on other platforms:

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. is
               non-zero.

             * ‘"ascii"’ if Python detects that ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
               announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the ‘mbstowcs()’
               function decodes from a different encoding (usually
               Latin1).

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty
               string.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 23f.:
               ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ result.

          At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the
          Python codec name.  For example, ‘"ANSI_X3.4-1968"’ is
          replaced with ‘"ascii"’.

          See also the *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. member.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *filesystem_errors

          *note Filesystem error handler: 528.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): cd6.

          On Windows: use ‘"surrogatepass"’ by default, or ‘"replace"’
          if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. of *note
          PyPreConfig: 99c. is non-zero.

          On other platforms: use ‘"surrogateescape"’ by default.

          Supported error handlers:

             * ‘"strict"’

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’

             * ‘"surrogatepass"’ (only supported with the UTF-8
               encoding)

          See also the *note filesystem_encoding: 3df. member.

      -- C Membre: unsigned long hash_seed

      -- C Membre: int use_hash_seed

          Randomized hash function seed.

          If *note use_hash_seed: 3d8. is zero, a seed is chosen
          randomly at Python startup, and *note hash_seed: 3d9. is
          ignored.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1068. environment variable.

          Default 'use_hash_seed' value: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in
          isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *home

          Set the default Python "home" directory, that is, the location
          of the standard Python libraries (see *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. input.

      -- C Membre: int import_time

          If non-zero, profile import time.

          Set the ‘1’ by the *note -X importtime: 175. option and the
          *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ae5. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int inspect

          Enter interactive mode after executing a script or a command.

          If greater than ‘0’, enable inspect: when a script is passed
          as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive
          mode after executing the script or the command, even when
          *note sys.stdin: 52a. does not appear to be a terminal.

          Incremented by the *note -i: 1493. command line option.  Set
          to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1492. environment variable
          is non-empty.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int install_signal_handlers

          Install Python signal handlers?

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: int interactive

          If greater than ‘0’, enable the interactive mode (REPL).

          Incremented by the *note -i: 1493. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int int_max_str_digits

          Configures the *note integer string conversion length
          limitation: 5e1.  An initial value of ‘-1’ means the value
          will be taken from the command line or environment or
          otherwise default to 4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2239.).  A value of ‘0’
          disables the limitation.  Values greater than zero but less
          than 640 (*note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold:
          4335.) are unsupported and will produce an error.

          Configured by the *note -X int_max_str_digits: 175. command
          line flag or the *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1779.
          environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode.  4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2239.) in isolated mode.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- C Membre: int cpu_count

          If the value of *note cpu_count: 4d33. is not ‘-1’ then it
          will override the return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c0,
          *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1bf, and *note
          multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f5c.

          Configured by the ‘-X cpu_count=N|DEFAULT’ command line flag
          or the *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 20d. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

      -- C Membre: int isolated

          If greater than ‘0’, enable isolated mode:

             * Set *note safe_path: 75f. to ‘1’: don't prepend a
               potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ab. at Python
               startup, such as the current directory, the script's
               directory or an empty string.

             * Set *note use_environment: 3d0. to ‘0’: ignore ‘PYTHON’
               environment variables.

             * Set *note user_site_directory: 3d4. to ‘0’: don't add the
               user site directory to *note sys.path: 3ab.

             * Python REPL doesn't import *note readline: b9. nor enable
               default readline configuration on interactive prompts.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -I: 94d. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

          See also the *note Isolated Configuration: 4d10. and *note
          PyPreConfig.isolated: 4d21.

      -- C Membre: int legacy_windows_stdio

          If non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 12f0. instead of
          ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys.stdin: 52a, *note
          sys.stdout: ac6. and *note sys.stderr: 928.

          Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c4b.
          environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          Default: ‘0’.

          See also the PEP 528(2) (Change Windows console encoding to
          UTF-8).

      -- C Membre: int malloc_stats

          If non-zero, dump statistics on *note Python pymalloc memory
          allocator: cff. at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b14. environment
          variable.

          The option is ignored if Python is *note configured using the
          -without-pymalloc option: 1d6d.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *platlibdir

          Platform library directory name: *note sys.platlibdir: 927.

          Set by the *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 18fd. environment variable.

          Default: value of the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ macro which is set by the
          *note configure -with-platlibdir option: 1d35. (default:
          ‘"lib"’, or ‘"DLLs"’ on Windows).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. input.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: This macro is now used on
          Windows to locate the standard library extension modules,
          typically under ‘DLLs’.  However, for compatibility, note that
          this value is ignored for any non-standard layouts, including
          in-tree builds and virtual environments.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *pythonpath_env

          Module search paths (*note sys.path: 3ab.) as a string
          separated by ‘DELIM’ (*note os.pathsep: 1d01.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONPATH: 1008. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. input.

      -- C Membre: *note PyWideStringList: 99e. module_search_paths

      -- C Membre: int module_search_paths_set

          Module search paths: *note sys.path: 3ab.

          If *note module_search_paths_set: 5db. is equal to ‘0’, *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. will replace *note
          module_search_paths: 399. and sets *note
          module_search_paths_set: 5db. to ‘1’.

          Default: empty list (‘module_search_paths’) and ‘0’
          (‘module_search_paths_set’).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

      -- C Membre: int optimization_level

          Compilation optimization level:

             * ‘0’: Peephole optimizer, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘True’.

             * ‘1’: Level 0, remove assertions, set ‘__debug__’ to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘2’: Level 1, strip docstrings.

          Incremented by the *note -O: da4. command line option.  Set to
          the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1cf0. environment variable value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: *note PyWideStringList: 99e. orig_argv

          The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
          Python executable: *note sys.orig_argv: 82c.

          If *note orig_argv: 882. list is empty and *note argv: 3ba. is
          not a list only containing an empty string, *note
          PyConfig_Read(): 77c. copies *note argv: 3ba. into *note
          orig_argv: 882. before modifying *note argv: 3ba. (if *note
          parse_argv: 18e5. is non-zero).

          See also the *note argv: 3ba. member and the *note
          Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1913. function.

          Default: empty list.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- C Membre: int parse_argv

          Parse command line arguments?

          If equals to ‘1’, parse *note argv: 3ba. the same way the
          regular Python parses *note command line arguments: ff2, and
          strip Python arguments from *note argv: 3ba.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 3ba. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          18e5. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Modifié dans la version 3.10: The *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba.
          arguments are now only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          18e5. equals to ‘1’.

      -- C Membre: int parser_debug

          Parser debug mode.  If greater than ‘0’, turn on parser
          debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
          options).

          Incremented by the *note -d: 1cee. command line option.  Set
          to the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1cef. environment variable value.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1f6. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int pathconfig_warnings

          If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to
          log warnings into ‘stderr’.  If equals to ‘0’, suppress these
          warnings.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. input.

          Modifié dans la version 3.11: Now also applies on Windows.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the platform
          independent Python files are installed: *note sys.prefix: 3ad.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4d29.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *program_name

          Program name used to initialize *note executable: 39c. and in
          early error messages during Python initialization.

             * On macOS, use *note PYTHONEXECUTABLE: 1d05. environment
               variable if set.

             * If the ‘WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK’ macro is defined, use
               ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable if set.

             * Use ‘argv[0]’ of *note argv: 3ba. if available and
               non-empty.

             * Otherwise, use ‘L"python"’ on Windows, or ‘L"python3"’ on
               other platforms.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 89c. input.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *pycache_prefix

          Directory where cached ‘.pyc’ files are written: *note
          sys.pycache_prefix: 994.

          Set by the *note -X pycache_prefix=PATH: 175. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 993. environment
          variable.  The command-line option takes precedence.

          If ‘NULL’, *note sys.pycache_prefix: 994. is set to ‘None’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Membre: int quiet

          Quiet mode.  If greater than ‘0’, don't display the copyright
          and version at Python startup in interactive mode.

          Incremented by the *note -q: 1cf1. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *run_command

          Value of the *note -c: 5cc. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *run_filename

          Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line
          argument without *note -c: 5cc. or *note -m: 5cd.  It is used
          by the *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5. function.

          For example, it is set to ‘script.py’ by the ‘python3
          script.py arg’ command line.

          See also the *note PyConfig.skip_source_first_line: 4d37.
          option.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *run_module

          Value of the *note -m: 5cd. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 9b5.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *run_presite

          ‘package.module’ path to module that should be imported before
          ‘site.py’ is run.

          Set by the *note -X presite=package.module: 175. command-line
          option and the *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 1cfb. environment
          variable.  The command-line option takes precedence.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1f6. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Membre: int show_ref_count

          Show total reference count at exit (excluding *note immortal:
          4327. objects)?

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X showrefcount: 175. command line option.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1f6. (the ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: int site_import

          Import the *note site: c6. module at startup?

          If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and
          the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 3ab. that
          it entails.

          Also disable these manipulations if the *note site: c6. module
          is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1cf3. if
          you want them to be triggered).

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -S: 1188. command line option.

          *note sys.flags.no_site: 679. is set to the inverted value of
          *note site_import: 3ca.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Membre: int skip_source_first_line

          If non-zero, skip the first line of the *note
          PyConfig.run_filename: 4cd3. source.

          It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of ‘#!cmd’.  This is
          intended for a DOS specific hack only.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -x: 1cf7. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *stdio_encoding

      -- C Membre: wchar_t *stdio_errors

          Encoding and encoding errors of *note sys.stdin: 52a, *note
          sys.stdout: ac6. and *note sys.stderr: 928. (but *note
          sys.stderr: 928. always uses ‘"backslashreplace"’ error
          handler).

          Use the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: ff5. environment variable if
          it is non-empty.

          Default encoding:

             * ‘"UTF-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. is
               non-zero.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 23f.

          Default error handler:

             * On Windows: use ‘"surrogateescape"’.

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1.
               is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C" or "POSIX".

             * ‘"strict"’ otherwise.

          See also *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b.

      -- C Membre: int tracemalloc

          Enable tracemalloc?

          If non-zero, call *note tracemalloc.start(): 1cf8. at startup.

          Set by *note -X tracemalloc=N: 175. command line option and by
          the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1cf9. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: int perf_profiling

          Enable compatibility mode with the perf profiler?

          If non-zero, initialize the perf trampoline.  See *note Python
          support for the Linux perf profiler: 18d. for more
          information.

          Set by *note -X perf: 175. command-line option and by the
          *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 18e. environment variable for
          perf support with stack pointers and *note -X perf_jit: 175.
          command-line option and by the *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT:
          18e. environment variable for perf support with DWARF JIT
          information.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

      -- C Membre: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 5dd.?

          If equals to zero, ignore the *note environment variables:
          5dd.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -E: 94c. environment variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Membre: int user_site_directory

          If non-zero, add the user site directory to *note sys.path:
          3ab.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -s: 1364. and *note -I: 94d. command
          line options.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1365. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Membre: int verbose

          Verbose mode.  If greater than ‘0’, print a message each time
          a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in
          module) from which it is loaded.

          If greater than or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file
          that is checked for when searching for a module.  Also
          provides information on module cleanup at exit.

          Incremented by the *note -v: 13dd. command line option.

          Set by the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1cf4. environment variable
          value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Membre: *note PyWideStringList: 99e. warnoptions

          Options of the *note warnings: 111. module to build warnings
          filters, lowest to highest priority: *note sys.warnoptions:
          3a7.

          The *note warnings: 111. module adds *note sys.warnoptions:
          3a7. in the reverse order: the last *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 397. item becomes the first item of
          ‘warnings.filters’ which is checked first (highest priority).

          The *note -W: 8b6. command line options adds its value to
          *note warnoptions: 397, it can be used multiple times.

          The *note PYTHONWARNINGS: b9a. environment variable can also
          be used to add warning options.  Multiple options can be
          specified, separated by commas (‘,’).

          Default: empty list.

      -- C Membre: int write_bytecode

          If equal to ‘0’, Python won't try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
          import of source modules.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -B: 1386. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1387. environment variable.

          *note sys.dont_write_bytecode: 4300. is initialized to the
          inverted value of *note write_bytecode: 3d2.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Membre: *note PyWideStringList: 99e. xoptions

          Values of the *note -X: 175. command line options: *note
          sys._xoptions: 1cfc.

          Default: empty list.

If *note parse_argv: 18e5. is non-zero, *note argv: 3ba. arguments are
parsed the same way the regular Python parses *note command line
arguments: ff2, and Python arguments are stripped from *note argv: 3ba.

The *note xoptions: 398. options are parsed to set other options: see
the *note -X: 175. command line option.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The ‘show_alloc_count’ field has been
removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization with PyConfig,  Next: Isolated Configuration,  Prev: PyConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.7 Initialization with PyConfig
-----------------------------------

Initializing the interpreter from a populated configuration struct is
handled by calling *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): 9a9. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
9b2.

If *note PyImport_FrozenModules(): 2dce, *note PyImport_AppendInittab():
175f. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1760. are used, they must be
set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python
initialization.  If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 175f. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1760.
must be called before each Python initialization.

The current configuration (‘PyConfig’ type) is stored in
‘PyInterpreterState.config’.

Example setting the program name:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                     L"/path/to/my_program");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return;

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the
configuration, and then override some parameters.  Note that since 3.11,
many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values
cannot be read from the configuration structure.  Any values set before
initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization:

     PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name before reading the configuration
            (decode byte string from the locale encoding).

            Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                          program_name);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Read all configuration at once */
         status = PyConfig_Read(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Specify sys.path explicitly */
         /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish
            initialization first and then use PySys_GetObject("path") */
         config.module_search_paths_set = 1;
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/stdlib");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/more/modules");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable,
                                     L"/path/to/my_executable");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);

     done:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return status;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Configuration,  Next: Python Configuration,  Prev: Initialization with PyConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.8 Isolated Configuration
-----------------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9a6. and *note
PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9a0. functions create a configuration to
isolate Python from the system.  For example, to embed Python into an
application.

This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment
variables, command line arguments (*note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. is not
parsed) and user site directory.  The C standard streams (ex: ‘stdout’)
and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged.  Signal handlers are not
installed.

Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine
paths that are unspecified.  Ensure *note PyConfig.home: 3b2. is
specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Configuration,  Next: Python Path Configuration,  Prev: Isolated Configuration,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.9 Python Configuration
---------------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9a7. and *note
PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9a1. functions create a configuration to
build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.

Environments variables and command line arguments are used to configure
Python, whereas global configuration variables are ignored.

This function enables C locale coercion ( PEP 538(1)) and *note Python
UTF-8 Mode: 643. ( PEP 540(2)) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, *note
PYTHONUTF8: ac8. and *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ac5. environment
variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Path Configuration,  Next: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Prev: Python Configuration,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.10 Python Path Configuration
---------------------------------

*note PyConfig: 39d. contains multiple fields for the path
configuration:

   * Path configuration inputs:

        * *note PyConfig.home: 3b2.

        * *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 18fb.

        * *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3ce.

        * *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb.

        * *note PyConfig.pythonpath_env: 4d35.

        * current working directory: to get absolute paths

        * ‘PATH’ environment variable to get the program full path (from
          *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb.)

        * ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable

        * (Windows only) Application paths in the registry under
          "SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath" of HKEY_CURRENT_USER
          and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (where X.Y is the Python version).

   * Path configuration output fields:

        * *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4d26.

        * *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4d28.

        * *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4d29.

        * *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4d27.

        * *note PyConfig.executable: 39c.

        * *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5db, *note
          PyConfig.module_search_paths: 399.

        * *note PyConfig.prefix: 4d2a.

If at least one "output field" is not set, Python calculates the path
configuration to fill unset fields.  If *note module_search_paths_set:
5db. is equal to ‘0’, *note module_search_paths: 399. is overridden and
*note module_search_paths_set: 5db. is set to ‘1’.

It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default
path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output
fields listed above.  A string is considered as set even if it is
non-empty.  ‘module_search_paths’ is considered as set if
‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’.  In this case,
‘module_search_paths’ will be used without modification.

Set *note pathconfig_warnings: 3ce. to ‘0’ to suppress warnings when
calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any
warning).

If *note base_prefix: 4d29. or *note base_exec_prefix: 4d26. fields are
not set, they inherit their value from *note prefix: 4d2a. and *note
exec_prefix: 4d27. respectively.

*note Py_RunMain(): 9b5. and *note Py_Main(): c15. modify *note
sys.path: 3ab.:

   * If *note run_filename: 4cd3. is set and is a directory which
     contains a ‘__main__.py’ script, prepend *note run_filename: 4cd3.
     to *note sys.path: 3ab.

   * If *note isolated: 3db. is zero:

        * If *note run_module: 4cd4. is set, prepend the current
          directory to *note sys.path: 3ab.  Do nothing if the current
          directory cannot be read.

        * If *note run_filename: 4cd3. is set, prepend the directory of
          the filename to *note sys.path: 3ab.

        * Otherwise, prepend an empty string to *note sys.path: 3ab.

If *note site_import: 3ca. is non-zero, *note sys.path: 3ab. can be
modified by the *note site: c6. module.  If *note user_site_directory:
3d4. is non-zero and the user's site-package directory exists, the *note
site: c6. module appends the user's site-package directory to *note
sys.path: 3ab.

The following configuration files are used by the path configuration:

   * ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   * ‘._pth’ file (ex: ‘python._pth’)

   * ‘pybuilddir.txt’ (Unix only)

If a ‘._pth’ file is present:

   * Set *note isolated: 3db. to ‘1’.

   * Set *note use_environment: 3d0. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note site_import: 3ca. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note safe_path: 75f. to ‘1’.

The ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable is used to set *note
PyConfig.base_executable: 4d28.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Next: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Python Path Configuration,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.11 Py_GetArgcArgv()
------------------------

 -- C Fonction: void Py_GetArgcArgv (int *argc, wchar_t ***argv)

     Get the original command line arguments, before Python modified
     them.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 882. member.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.12 Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API
----------------------------------------------------------

This section is a private provisional API introducing multi-phase
initialization, the core feature of PEP 432(1):

   * "Core" initialization phase, "bare minimum Python":

        * Builtin types;

        * Builtin exceptions;

        * Builtin and frozen modules;

        * The *note sys: d8. module is only partially initialized (ex:
          *note sys.path: 3ab. doesn't exist yet).

   * "Main" initialization phase, Python is fully initialized:

        * Install and configure *note importlib: 76.;

        * Apply the *note Path Configuration: 89c.;

        * Install signal handlers;

        * Finish *note sys: d8. module initialization (ex: create *note
          sys.stdout: ac6. and *note sys.path: 3ab.);

        * Enable optional features like *note faulthandler: 57. and
          *note tracemalloc: fe.;

        * Import the *note site: c6. module;

        * etc.

Private provisional API:

   * ‘PyConfig._init_main’: if set to ‘0’, *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. stops at the "Core" initialization
     phase.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyStatus: 99d. _Py_InitializeMain (void)

     Move to the "Main" initialization phase, finish the Python
     initialization.

No module is imported during the "Core" phase and the ‘importlib’ module
is not configured: the *note Path Configuration: 89c. is only applied
during the "Main" phase.  It may allow to customize Python in Python to
override or tune the *note Path Configuration: 89c, maybe install a
custom *note sys.meta_path: d1b. importer or an import hook, etc.

It may become possible to calculate the *note Path Configuration: 89c.
in Python, after the Core phase and before the Main phase, which is one
of the PEP 432(2) motivation.

The "Core" phase is not properly defined: what should be and what should
not be available at this phase is not specified yet.  The API is marked
as private and provisional: the API can be modified or even be removed
anytime until a proper public API is designed.

Example running Python code between "Core" and "Main" initialization
phases:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config._init_main = 0;

         /* ... customize 'config' configuration ... */

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }

         /* Use sys.stderr because sys.stdout is only created
            by _Py_InitializeMain() */
         int res = PyRun_SimpleString(
             "import sys; "
             "print('Run Python code before _Py_InitializeMain', "
                    "file=sys.stderr)");
         if (res < 0) {
             exit(1);
         }

         /* ... put more configuration code here ... */

         status = _Py_InitializeMain();
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Management,  Next: Implémentation d'objets,  Prev: Python Initialization Configuration,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.11 Memory Management
======================

* Menu:

* Aperçu: Aperçu<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* Memory Interface::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* The mimalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* Exemples: Exemples<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Aperçu<4>,  Next: Allocator Domains,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.1 Aperçu
-------------

Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all
Python objects and data structures.  The management of this private heap
is ensured internally by the 'Python memory manager'.  The Python memory
manager has different components which deal with various dynamic storage
management aspects, like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or
caching.

At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough
room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by
interacting with the memory manager of the operating system.  On top of
the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate on
the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies adapted
to the peculiarities of every object type.  For example, integer objects
are managed differently within the heap than strings, tuples or
dictionaries because integers imply different storage requirements and
speed/space tradeoffs.  The Python memory manager thus delegates some of
the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
operate within the bounds of the private heap.

It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control
over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory
blocks inside that heap.  The allocation of heap space for Python
objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by the Python
memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in this
document.

To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to
operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C library:
‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.  This will result in
mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with
fatal consequences, because they implement different algorithms and
operate on different heaps.  However, one may safely allocate and
release memory blocks with the C library allocator for individual
purposes, as shown in the following example:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     ...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
     return res;

In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the
C library allocator.  The Python memory manager is involved only in the
allocation of the bytes object returned as a result.

In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from
the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the
Python memory manager.  For example, this is required when the
interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another
reason for using the Python heap is the desire to 'inform' the Python
memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module.  Even
when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly
specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory
manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
memory footprint as a whole.  Consequently, under certain circumstances,
the Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions,
like garbage collection, memory compaction or other preventive
procedures.  Note that by using the C library allocator as shown in the
previous example, the allocated memory for the I/O buffer escapes
completely the Python memory manager.

Voir aussi
..........

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable can be used to
configure the memory allocators used by Python.

The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b14. environment variable can be used to
print statistics of the *note pymalloc memory allocator: cff. every time
a new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.


File: python.info,  Node: Allocator Domains,  Next: Raw Memory Interface,  Prev: Aperçu<4>,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.2 Allocator Domains
------------------------

All allocating functions belong to one of three different "domains" (see
also *note PyMemAllocatorDomain: 4d49.).  These domains represent
different allocation strategies and are optimized for different
purposes.  The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or
what internal functions each domain calls is considered an
implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can
be found at *note here: 1d0d.  The APIs used to allocate and free a
block of memory must be from the same domain.  For example, *note
PyMem_Free(): 13fb. must be used to free memory allocated using *note
PyMem_Malloc(): c56.

The three allocation domains are:

   * Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose
     memory buffers where the allocation 'must' go to the system
     allocator or where the allocator can operate without the *note GIL:
     158.  The memory is requested directly from the system.  See *note
     Raw Memory Interface: 4d4a.

   * "Mem" domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
     general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be
     performed with the *note GIL: 158. held.  The memory is taken from
     the Python private heap.  See *note Memory Interface: 4d4b.

   * Object domain: intended for allocating memory for Python objects.
     The memory is taken from the Python private heap.  See *note Object
     allocators: 4d4c.

     Note: The *note free-threaded: 151e. build requires that only
     Python objects are allocated using the "object" domain and that all
     Python objects are allocated using that domain.  This differs from
     the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and
     not a hard requirement.

     For example, buffers (non-Python objects) should be allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56, *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386, or
     ‘malloc()’, but not *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.

     See *note Memory Allocation APIs: 4d4d.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Memory Interface,  Next: Memory Interface,  Prev: Allocator Domains,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.3 Raw Memory Interface
---------------------------

The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator.  These
functions are thread-safe, the *note GIL: 147. does not need to be held.

The *note default raw memory allocator: 1d0d. uses the following
functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’; call
‘malloc(1)’ (or ‘calloc(1, 1)’) when requesting zero bytes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyMem_RawMalloc (size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
     allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyMem_RawCalloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawCalloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyMem_RawRealloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Resizes the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The
     contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new
     sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388. or
     *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMem_RawFree (void *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'
     Frees the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been
     returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386, *note
     PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388. or *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387.
     Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_RawFree(p)’ has been called before,
     undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Interface,  Next: Object allocators,  Prev: Raw Memory Interface,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.4 Memory Interface
-----------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

The *note default memory allocator: 1d0d. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: cff.

     Avertissement: The *note GIL: 147. must be held when using these
     functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The default allocator is now pymalloc
instead of system ‘malloc()’.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyMem_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyMem_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)’
     had been called instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyMem_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_Malloc(n)’; else
     if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not
     freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d. or *note
     PyMem_Calloc(): e98.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMem_Free (void *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Frees the memory block
     pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d. or *note
     PyMem_Calloc(): e98.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_Free(p)’ has been
     called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note
that 'TYPE' refers to any C type.

 -- C Macro: PyMem_New (TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56, but allocates ‘(n *
     sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes of memory.  Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’.
     The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Macro: PyMem_Resize (p, TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d, but the memory block is
     resized to ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to
     ‘TYPE*’.  On return, 'p' will be a pointer to the new memory area,
     or ‘NULL’ in the event of failure.

     This is a C preprocessor macro; 'p' is always reassigned.  Save the
     original value of 'p' to avoid losing memory when handling errors.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMem_Del (void *p)

     Same as *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb.

In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the
Python memory allocator directly, without involving the C API functions
listed above.  However, note that their use does not preserve binary
compatibility across Python versions and is therefore deprecated in
extension modules.

   * ‘PyMem_MALLOC(size)’

   * ‘PyMem_NEW(type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_FREE(ptr)’

   * ‘PyMem_DEL(ptr)’


File: python.info,  Node: Object allocators,  Next: Default Memory Allocators,  Prev: Memory Interface,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.5 Object allocators
------------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

     Note: There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these
     allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when
     intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods
     described in the *note Customize Memory Allocators: 4d52. section.

The *note default object allocator: 1d0d. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: cff.

     Avertissement: The *note GIL: 147. must be held when using these
     functions.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyObject_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyObject_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyObject_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.7.'
     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyObject_Calloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Fonction: void *PyObject_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyObject_Malloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc. or
     *note PyObject_Calloc(): e99.

     If the request fails, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc. returns
     ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_Free (void *p)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Frees the memory block
     pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc. or
     *note PyObject_Calloc(): e99.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyObject_Free(p)’
     has been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Default Memory Allocators,  Next: Customize Memory Allocators,  Prev: Object allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.6 Default Memory Allocators
--------------------------------

Default memory allocators:

Configuration                       Nom                      PyMem_RawMalloc        PyMem_Malloc              PyObject_Malloc
                                                                                                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
Release build                       ‘"pymalloc"’             ‘malloc’               ‘pymalloc’                ‘pymalloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Debug build                         ‘"pymalloc_debug"’       ‘malloc’ + debug       ‘pymalloc’ + debug        ‘pymalloc’ + debug
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Release build, without pymalloc     ‘"malloc"’               ‘malloc’               ‘malloc’                  ‘malloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Debug build, without pymalloc       ‘"malloc_debug"’         ‘malloc’ + debug       ‘malloc’ + debug          ‘malloc’ + debug
                                                                                                              

Legend:

   * Name: value for *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable.

   * ‘malloc’: system allocators from the standard C library, C
     functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   * ‘pymalloc’: *note pymalloc memory allocator: cff.

   * ‘mimalloc’: *note mimalloc memory allocator: 1d0f.  The pymalloc
     allocator will be used if mimalloc support isn't available.

   * "+ debug": with *note debug hooks on the Python memory allocators:
     1d10.

   * "Debug build": *note Python build in debug mode: 1f6.


File: python.info,  Node: Customize Memory Allocators,  Next: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Prev: Default Memory Allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.7 Customize Memory Allocators
----------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Type: type PyMemAllocatorEx

     Structure used to describe a memory block allocator.  The structure
     has the following fields:

     Champ                                                          Signification
                                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
     ‘void *ctx’                                                    user context passed as first argument
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                         allocate a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)’         allocate a memory block initialized with
                                                                    zeros
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)’         allocate or resize a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)’                              free a memory block
                                                                    

     Modifié dans la version 3.5: The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was
     renamed to *note PyMemAllocatorEx: eb9. and a new ‘calloc’ field
     was added.

 -- C Type: type PyMemAllocatorDomain

     Enum used to identify an allocator domain.  Domains:

      -- C Macro: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

          Functions:

             * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 386.

             * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388.

             * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 387.

             * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 389.

      -- C Macro: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

          Functions:

             * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56,

             * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 101d.

             * *note PyMem_Calloc(): e98.

             * *note PyMem_Free(): 13fb.

      -- C Macro: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

          Functions:

             * *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.

             * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 13fc.

             * *note PyObject_Calloc(): e99.

             * *note PyObject_Free(): c55.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMem_GetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMem_SetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

     The new allocator must return a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer when
     requesting zero bytes.

     For the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d0e. domain, the allocator must be
     thread-safe: the *note GIL: 147. is not held when the allocator is
     called.

     For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe:
     the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not
     share a ‘GIL’.

     If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous
     allocator), the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. function must
     be called to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator.

     See also *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4d1a. and *note Preinitialize
     Python with PyPreConfig: 3cdf.

          Avertissement: *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 579. does have the
          following contract:

             * It can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2. and
               before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. to install a
               custom memory allocator.  There are no restrictions over
               the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by
               the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the
               allocator to be called without the GIL held).  See *note
               the section on allocator domains: 4d48. for more
               information.

             * If called after Python has finish initializing (after
               *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. has been called)
               the allocator 'must' wrap the existing allocator.
               Substituting the current allocator for some other
               arbitrary one is 'not supported'.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: All allocators must be thread-safe.

 -- C Fonction: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (void)

     Setup *note debug hooks in the Python memory allocators: 1d10. to
     detect memory errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Next: The pymalloc allocator,  Prev: Customize Memory Allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.8 Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators
--------------------------------------------------

When *note Python is built in debug mode: 1f6, the *note
PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. function is called at the *note Python
preinitialization: 3cdf. to setup debug hooks on Python memory
allocators to detect memory errors.

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable can be used to install
debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’).

The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a. function can be used to set
debug hooks after calling *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 579.

These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with special,
recognizable bit patterns.  Newly allocated memory is filled with the
byte ‘0xCD’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), freed memory is filled with the byte
‘0xDD’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’).  Memory blocks are surrounded by "forbidden
bytes" filled with the byte ‘0xFD’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’).  Strings of
these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or ASCII
strings.

Runtime checks:

   - Detect API violations.  For example, detect if *note
     PyObject_Free(): c55. is called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.

   - Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow).

   - Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow).

   - Check that the *note GIL: 147. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.)
     domains are called.

On error, the debug hooks use the *note tracemalloc: fe. module to get
the traceback where a memory block was allocated.  The traceback is only
displayed if *note tracemalloc: fe. is tracing Python memory allocations
and the memory block was traced.

Let 'S' = ‘sizeof(size_t)’.  ‘2*S’ bytes are added at each end of each
block of 'N' bytes requested.  The memory layout is like so, where p
represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like
function (‘p[i:j]’ means the slice of bytes from ‘*(p+i)’ inclusive up
to ‘*(p+j)’ exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices
differs from a Python slice):

‘p[-2*S:-S]’

     Number of bytes originally asked for.  This is a size_t, big-endian
     (easier to read in a memory dump).

‘p[-S]’

     API identifier (ASCII character):

        * ‘'r'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d0e.

        * ‘'m'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59.

        * ‘'o'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57.

‘p[-S+1:0]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and
     reads.

‘p[0:N]’

     The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used
     to catch reference to uninitialized memory.  When a realloc-like
     function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess
     bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like
     function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to
     catch reference to freed memory.  When a realloc- like function is
     called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are
     also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

‘p[N:N+S]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and
     reads.

‘p[N+S:N+2*S]’

     Only used if the ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ macro is defined (not
     defined by default).

     A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or
     realloc-like function.  Big-endian ‘size_t’.  If "bad memory" is
     detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a
     breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this
     block was passed out.  The static function bumpserialno() in
     obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and
     exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the
PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact.  If they've been
altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is
aborted via Py_FatalError().  The other main failure mode is provoking a
memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and
tries to use it as an address.  If you get in a debugger then and look
at the object, you're likely to see that it's entirely filled with
PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE
(meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c5a.
function now also works on Python compiled in release mode.  On error,
the debug hooks now use *note tracemalloc: fe. to get the traceback
where a memory block was allocated.  The debug hooks now also check if
the GIL is held when functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57. and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. domains are called.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Byte patterns ‘0xCB’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’),
‘0xDB’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’) and ‘0xFB’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’) have been
replaced with ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than
Windows CRT debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The pymalloc allocator,  Next: The mimalloc allocator,  Prev: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.9 The pymalloc allocator
-----------------------------

Python has a 'pymalloc' allocator optimized for small objects (smaller
or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime.  It uses memory mappings
called "arenas" with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit platforms
or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms.  It falls back to *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
386. and *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 388. for allocations larger than 512
bytes.

'pymalloc' is the *note default allocator: 1d0d. of the *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c59. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56.) and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c57. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.) domains.

The arena allocator uses the following functions:

   * ‘VirtualAlloc()’ and ‘VirtualFree()’ on Windows,

   * ‘mmap()’ and ‘munmap()’ if available,

   * ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ otherwise.

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the *note
-without-pymalloc: 1d6d. option.  It can also be disabled at runtime
using the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c54. environment variable (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’).

* Menu:

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::


File: python.info,  Node: Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator,  Up: The pymalloc allocator

7.11.9.1 Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
...........................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

 -- C Type: type PyObjectArenaAllocator

     Structure used to describe an arena allocator.  The structure has
     three fields:

     Champ                                                  Signification
                                                            
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
     ‘void *ctx’                                            user context passed as first argument
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                  allocate an arena of size bytes
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)’         free an arena
                                                            

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Get the arena allocator.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Set the arena allocator.


File: python.info,  Node: The mimalloc allocator,  Next: tracemalloc C API,  Prev: The pymalloc allocator,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.10 The mimalloc allocator
------------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Python supports the mimalloc allocator when the underlying platform
support is available.  mimalloc "is a general purpose allocator with
excellent performance characteristics.  Initially developed by Daan
Leijen for the runtime systems of the Koka and Lean languages."


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc C API,  Next: Exemples<36>,  Prev: The mimalloc allocator,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.11 tracemalloc C API
-------------------------

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTraceMalloc_Track (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t
          ptr, size_t size)

     Track an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: fe.
     module.

     Return ‘0’ on success, return ‘-1’ on error (failed to allocate
     memory to store the trace).  Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is
     disabled.

     If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.

 -- C Fonction: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (unsigned int domain,
          uintptr_t ptr)

     Untrack an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: fe.
     module.  Do nothing if the block was not tracked.

     Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<36>,  Prev: tracemalloc C API,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.12 Exemples
----------------

Here is the example from section *note Aperçu: 4d45, rewritten so that
the I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first
function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
     return res;

The same code using the type-oriented function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
     return res;

Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated
via functions belonging to the same set.  Indeed, it is required to use
the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of
mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum.  The following code
sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as 'fatal' because
it mixes two different allocators operating on different heaps.

     char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
     char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
     char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
     ...
     PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
     free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
     free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del()  */

In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from
the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with *note
PyObject_New: 974, *note PyObject_NewVar: 975. and *note PyObject_Del():
1489.

These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing
new object types in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Implémentation d'objets,  Next: Version des API et ABI,  Prev: Memory Management,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.12 Implémentation d'objets
============================

Ce chapitre décrit les fonctions, types, et macros utilisées pour
définir de nouveaux types d'objets.

* Menu:

* Allouer des objets dans le tas::
* Common Object Structures::
* Type Object Structures::
* Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::


File: python.info,  Node: Allouer des objets dans le tas,  Next: Common Object Structures,  Up: Implémentation d'objets

7.12.1 Allouer des objets dans le tas
-------------------------------------

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *_PyObject_New (PyTypeObject *type)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyVarObject: 4108. *_PyObject_NewVar (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.'

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyObject_Init (PyObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Initialize a newly allocated object 'op' with
     its type and initial reference.  Returns the initialized object.
     Other fields of the object are not affected.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyVarObject: 4108. *PyObject_InitVar (PyVarObject
          *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.''  Part of the *note
     Stable ABI: 541.'  Effectue les mêmes opérations que *note
     PyObject_Init(): a5a. fait, et initialise également l'information
     de la longueur pour un objet de taille variable.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and
     the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’).  Fields not
     defined by the Python object header are not initialized.  The
     caller will own the only reference to the object (i.e.  its
     reference count will be one).  The size of the memory allocation is
     determined from the *note tp_basicsize: 976. field of the type
     object.

     Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. set.  For such objects, use *note
     PyObject_GC_New(): a92. instead.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and
     the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’).  Fields not
     defined by the Python object header are not initialized.  The
     allocated memory allows for the 'TYPE' structure plus 'size'
     (‘Py_ssize_t’) fields of the size given by the *note tp_itemsize:
     1f29. field of 'typeobj'.  This is useful for implementing objects
     like tuples, which are able to determine their size at construction
     time.  Embedding the array of fields into the same allocation
     decreases the number of allocations, improving the memory
     management efficiency.

     Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. set.  For such objects, use *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar(): a93. instead.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_Del (void *op)

     Releases memory allocated to an object using *note PyObject_New:
     974. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 975.  This is normally called from
     the *note tp_dealloc: 486f. handler specified in the object's type.
     The fields of the object should not be accessed after this call as
     the memory is no longer a valid Python object.

 -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 32f. _Py_NoneStruct

     Objet qui est visible en tant que ‘None’ dans Python.  Ne devrait
     être accessible uniquement en utilisant la macro *note Py_None:
     4842, qui évalue cet objet à un pointeur.

Voir aussi
..........

*note PyModule_Create(): 4846.

     Allouer et créer des modules d'extension.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Object Structures,  Next: Type Object Structures,  Prev: Allouer des objets dans le tas,  Up: Implémentation d'objets

7.12.2 Common Object Structures
-------------------------------

There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition
of object types for Python.  This section describes these structures and
how they are used.

* Menu:

* Base object types and macros::
* Implementing functions and methods::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::


File: python.info,  Node: Base object types and macros,  Next: Implementing functions and methods,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.12.2.1 Base object types and macros
.....................................

All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the
beginning of the object's representation in memory.  These are
represented by the *note PyObject: 32f. and *note PyVarObject: 4108.
types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also
used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other
Python objects.  Additional macros can be found under *note reference
counting: 4a71.

 -- C Type: type PyObject
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541.  (Only some members are part
     of the stable ABI.)' All object types are extensions of this type.
     This is a type which contains the information Python needs to treat
     a pointer to an object as an object.  In a normal "release" build,
     it contains only the object's reference count and a pointer to the
     corresponding type object.  Nothing is actually declared to be a
     *note PyObject: 32f, but every pointer to a Python object can be
     cast to a *note PyObject: 32f.*.  Access to the members must be
     done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 898. and *note Py_TYPE:
     76c.

 -- C Type: type PyVarObject
     ' Part of the *note Limited API: 541.  (Only some members are part
     of the stable ABI.)' This is an extension of *note PyObject: 32f.
     that adds the *note ob_size: 4a20. field.  This is only used for
     objects that have some notion of 'length'.  This type does not
     often appear in the Python/C API. Access to the members must be
     done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 898, *note Py_TYPE: 76c,
     and *note Py_SIZE: 76e.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects without a varying length.  The PyObject_HEAD macro expands
     to:

          PyObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyObject: 32f. above.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_VAR_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects with a length that varies from instance to instance.  The
     PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to:

          PyVarObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyVarObject: 4108. above.

 -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: a95. PyBaseObject_Type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The base class of all other
     objects, the same as *note object: a7c. in Python.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_Is (PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Test
     if the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in
     Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_IsNone (PyObject *x)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Test
     if an object is the ‘None’ singleton, the same as ‘x is None’ in
     Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_IsTrue (PyObject *x)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Test
     if an object is the ‘True’ singleton, the same as ‘x is True’ in
     Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_IsFalse (PyObject *x)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'  Test
     if an object is the ‘False’ singleton, the same as ‘x is False’ in
     Python.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyTypeObject: a95. *Py_TYPE (PyObject *o)
     'Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.'  Get the type of the
     Python object 'o'.

     Return a *note borrowed reference: 334.

     Use the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 76d. function to set an object type.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note Py_TYPE(): 76c. is changed to
     an inline static function.  The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyObject: 32f.*.

 -- C Fonction: int Py_IS_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' type is 'type'.  Return zero
     otherwise.  Equivalent to: ‘Py_TYPE(o) == type’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_SET_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Set the object 'o' type to 'type'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. Py_SIZE (PyVarObject *o)

     Get the size of the Python object 'o'.

     Use the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f. function to set an object size.

     Modifié dans la version 3.11: *note Py_SIZE(): 76e. is changed to
     an inline static function.  The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyVarObject: 4108.*.

 -- C Fonction: void Py_SET_SIZE (PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)

     Set the object 'o' size to 'size'.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_HEAD_INIT (type)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyObject: 32f. type.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type,

 -- C Macro: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (type, size)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyVarObject: 4108. type, including the *note ob_size: 4a20.
     field.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type, size,


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing functions and methods,  Next: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Base object types and macros,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.12.2.2 Implementing functions and methods
...........................................

 -- C Type: type PyCFunction
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Type of the functions used
     to implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type
     take two *note PyObject: 32f.* parameters and return one such
     value.  If the return value is ‘NULL’, an exception shall have been
     set.  If not ‘NULL’, the return value is interpreted as the return
     value of the function as exposed in Python.  The function must
     return a new reference.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                                PyObject *args);

 -- C Type: type PyCFunctionWithKeywords
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Type of the functions used
     to implement Python callables in C with signature *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4d6e.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                            PyObject *args,
                                            PyObject *kwargs);

 -- C Type: type PyCFunctionFast
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Type
     of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                                    PyObject *const *args,
                                    Py_ssize_t nargs);

 -- C Type: type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.13.'  Type
     of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4d6f.  The function
     signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                                PyObject *const *args,
                                                Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                                PyObject *kwnames);

 -- C Type: type PyCMethod

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1649.
     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                              PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                              PyObject *const *args,
                              Py_ssize_t nargs,
                              PyObject *kwnames)

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Type: type PyMethodDef
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Structure used to describe a method of an extension type.  This
     structure has four fields:

      -- C Membre: const char *ml_name

          Name of the method.

      -- C Membre: *note PyCFunction: 142d. ml_meth

          Pointer to the C implementation.

      -- C Membre: int ml_flags

          Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed.

      -- C Membre: const char *ml_doc

          Points to the contents of the docstring.

The *note ml_meth: 4d70. is a C function pointer.  The functions may be
of different types, but they always return *note PyObject: 32f.*.  If
the function is not of the *note PyCFunction: 142d, the compiler will
require a cast in the method table.  Even though *note PyCFunction:
142d. defines the first parameter as *note PyObject: 32f.*, it is common
that the method implementation uses the specific C type of the 'self'
object.

The *note ml_flags: 4d71. field is a bitfield which can include the
following flags.  The individual flags indicate either a calling
convention or a binding convention.

There are these calling conventions:

 -- C Macro: METH_VARARGS

     This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the
     type *note PyCFunction: 142d.  The function expects two *note
     PyObject: 32f.* values.  The first one is the 'self' object for
     methods; for module functions, it is the module object.  The second
     parameter (often called 'args') is a tuple object representing all
     arguments.  This parameter is typically processed using *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f. or *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14bf.

 -- C Macro: METH_KEYWORDS

     Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4d6e, *note METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 4d6f. and *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 1649.

*note METH_VARARGS: 14c1. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4845.

     Methods with these flags must be of type *note
     PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 48fc.  The function expects three
     parameters: 'self', 'args', 'kwargs' where 'kwargs' is a dictionary
     of all the keyword arguments or possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no
     keyword arguments.  The parameters are typically processed using
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 379.

 -- C Macro: METH_FASTCALL

     Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments.  The
     methods have the type *note PyCFunctionFast: 48fa.  The first
     parameter is 'self', the second parameter is a C array of *note
     PyObject: 32f.* values indicating the arguments and the third
     parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     Modifié dans la version 3.10: ‘METH_FASTCALL’ is now part of the
     *note stable ABI: 48e1.

*note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4845.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. supporting also keyword
     arguments, with methods of type *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords:
     48fb.  Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the *note
     vectorcall protocol: 540.: there is an additional fourth *note
     PyObject: 32f.* parameter which is a tuple representing the names
     of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or
     possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no keywords.  The values of the
     keyword arguments are stored in the 'args' array, after the
     positional arguments.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- C Macro: METH_METHOD

     Can only be used in the combination with other flags: *note
     METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1649.

*note METH_METHOD: 95f. | *note METH_FASTCALL: 15e2. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 4845.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4d6f. supporting
     the 'defining class', that is, the class that contains the method
     in question.  The defining class might be a superclass of
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.

     The method needs to be of type *note PyCMethod: 750, the same as
     for ‘METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS’ with ‘defining_class’ argument
     added after ‘self’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Macro: METH_NOARGS

     Methods without parameters don't need to check whether arguments
     are given if they are listed with the *note METH_NOARGS: 148c.
     flag.  They need to be of type *note PyCFunction: 142d.  The first
     parameter is typically named 'self' and will hold a reference to
     the module or object instance.  In all cases the second parameter
     will be ‘NULL’.

     The function must have 2 parameters.  Since the second parameter is
     unused, *note Py_UNUSED: 16d7. can be used to prevent a compiler
     warning.

 -- C Macro: METH_O

     Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the *note
     METH_O: 14c0. flag, instead of invoking *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     55f. with a ‘"O"’ argument.  They have the type *note PyCFunction:
     142d, with the 'self' parameter, and a *note PyObject: 32f.*
     parameter representing the single argument.

These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but
the binding when use with methods of classes.  These may not be used for
functions defined for modules.  At most one of these flags may be set
for any given method.

 -- C Macro: METH_CLASS

     The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter
     rather than an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'class
     methods', similar to what is created when using the *note
     classmethod(): 165. built-in function.

 -- C Macro: METH_STATIC

     The method will be passed ‘NULL’ as the first parameter rather than
     an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'static methods',
     similar to what is created when using the *note staticmethod():
     40c. built-in function.

One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of
another definition with the same method name.

 -- C Macro: METH_COEXIST

     The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions.
     Without 'METH_COEXIST', the default is to skip repeated
     definitions.  Since slot wrappers are loaded before the method
     table, the existence of a 'sq_contains' slot, for example, would
     generate a wrapped method named *note __contains__(): 1f17. and
     preclude the loading of a corresponding PyCFunction with the same
     name.  With the flag defined, the PyCFunction will be loaded in
     place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the slot.  This
     is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more than
     wrapper object calls.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCMethod_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'  Turn 'ml' into a Python *note
     callable: 28a7. object.  The caller must ensure that 'ml' outlives
     the *note callable: 28a7.  Typically, 'ml' is defined as a static
     variable.

     The 'self' parameter will be passed as the 'self' argument to the C
     function in ‘ml->ml_meth’ when invoked.  'self' can be ‘NULL’.

     The *note callable: 28a7. object's ‘__module__’ attribute can be
     set from the given 'module' argument.  'module' should be a Python
     string, which will be used as name of the module the function is
     defined in.  If unavailable, it can be set to *note None: 662. or
     ‘NULL’.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     *note function.__module__: 1eb9.

     The 'cls' parameter will be passed as the 'defining_class' argument
     to the C function.  Must be set if *note METH_METHOD: 95f. is set
     on ‘ml->ml_flags’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCFunction_NewEx (PyMethodDef
          *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyCFunction_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self)
     'Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.''  Part of the *note Stable
     ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.4.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml,
     self, NULL, NULL)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Implementing functions and methods,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.12.2.3 Accessing attributes of extension types
................................................

 -- C Type: type PyMemberDef
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds
     to a C struct member.  When defining a class, put a NULL-terminated
     array of these structures in the *note tp_members: 4872. slot.

     Its fields are, in order:

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          Name of the member.  A NULL value marks the end of a
          ‘PyMemberDef[]’ array.

          The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

      -- C Membre: int type

          The type of the member in the C struct.  See *note Member
          types: 162e. for the possible values.

      -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. offset

          The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s
          object struct.

      -- C Membre: int flags

          Zero or more of the *note Member flags: 4d76, combined using
          bitwise OR.

      -- C Membre: const char *doc

          The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy
          is made of it.  Typically, it is defined using *note
          PyDoc_STR: 17c7.

     By default (when *note flags: 488b. is ‘0’), members allow both
     read and write access.  Use the *note Py_READONLY: 57f. flag for
     read-only access.  Certain types, like *note Py_T_STRING: 4d78,
     imply *note Py_READONLY: 57f.  Only *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 582. (and
     legacy *note T_OBJECT: 581.) members can be deleted.  For
     heap-allocated types (created using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.
     or similar), ‘PyMemberDef’ may contain a definition for the special
     member ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, corresponding to *note
     tp_vectorcall_offset: 4ae9. in type objects.  These must be defined
     with ‘Py_T_PYSSIZET’ and ‘Py_READONLY’, for example:

          static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
              {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
               offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
              {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
          };

     (You may need to ‘#include <stddef.h>’ for ‘offsetof()’.)

     The legacy offsets *note tp_dictoffset: 4b47. and *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 977. can be defined similarly using
     ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’ members, but
     extensions are strongly encouraged to use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     548. instead.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘PyMemberDef’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f. *PyMember_GetOne (const char
          *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Get an attribute belonging
     to the object at address 'obj_addr'.  The attribute is described by
     ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘NULL’ on error.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘PyMember_GetOne’ is always
     available.  Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMember_SetOne (char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef
          *m, PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set an attribute belonging
     to the object at address 'obj_addr' to object 'o'.  The attribute
     to set is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘0’ if
     successful and a negative value on failure.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: ‘PyMember_SetOne’ is always
     available.  Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

* Menu:

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::


File: python.info,  Node: Member flags,  Next: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.4 Member flags
.....................

The following flags can be used with *note PyMemberDef.flags: 488b.:

 -- C Macro: Py_READONLY

     Not writable.

 -- C Macro: Py_AUDIT_READ

     Emit an ‘object.__getattr__’ *note audit event: 182d. before
     reading.

 -- C Macro: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

     Indicates that the *note offset: 4d75. of this ‘PyMemberDef’ entry
     indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than
     from ‘PyObject’.

     Can only be used as part of *note Py_tp_members: 4872. *note slot:
     49e2. when creating a class using negative *note basicsize: 536.
     It is mandatory in that case.

     This flag is only used in *note PyType_Slot: 49e2.  When setting
     *note tp_members: 4872. during class creation, Python clears it and
     sets *note PyMemberDef.offset: 4d75. to the offset from the
     ‘PyObject’ struct.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The ‘RESTRICTED’, ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and
‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ macros available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ are
deprecated.  ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘RESTRICTED’ are equivalent to *note
Py_AUDIT_READ: 580.; ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ does nothing.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The ‘READONLY’ macro was renamed to *note
Py_READONLY: 57f.  The ‘PY_AUDIT_READ’ macro was renamed with the ‘Py_’
prefix.  The new names are now always available.  Previously, these
required ‘#include "structmember.h"’.  The header is still available and
it provides the old names.


File: python.info,  Node: Member types,  Next: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member flags,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.5 Member types
.....................

*note PyMemberDef.type: 488a. can be one of the following macros
corresponding to various C types.  When the member is accessed in
Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type.  When it is
set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type.  If that is
not possible, an exception such as *note TypeError: 525. or *note
ValueError: 1ff. is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using
e.g.  *note del: 1762. or *note delattr(): 210f.

Macro name                           Type C                            Type Python
                                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_BYTE               char                              *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_SHORT              short                             *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_INT                int                               *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_LONG               long                              *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_LONGLONG           long long                         *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_UBYTE              unsigned char                     *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_UINT               unsigned int                      *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_USHORT             unsigned short                    *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_ULONG              unsigned long                     *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_ULONGLONG          unsigned long long                *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_PYSSIZET           *note Py_ssize_t: a50.            *note int: 254.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_FLOAT              float                             *note float: 2ec.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_DOUBLE             double                            *note float: 2ec.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_BOOL               char (written as 0 or 1)          *note bool: 453.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_STRING             const char* (*)                   *note str: 437. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_STRING_INPLACE     const char[] (*)                  *note str: 437. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_CHAR               char (0-127)                      *note str: 437. (**)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Macro: Py_T_OBJECT_EX          *note PyObject: 32f.*             *note object: a7c. (D)
                                                                       

     (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string.  With ‘Py_T_STRING’
     the C representation is a pointer; with ‘Py_T_STRING_INPLACE’ the
     string is stored directly in the structure.

     (**): String of length 1.  Only ASCII is accepted.

     (RO): Implies *note Py_READONLY: 57f.

     (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to ‘NULL’.
     Reading a ‘NULL’ pointer raises *note AttributeError: 343.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only
available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ and were named without the
‘Py_’ prefix (e.g.  as ‘T_INT’).  The header is still available and
contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types:

 -- C Macro: T_OBJECT

     Like ‘Py_T_OBJECT_EX’, but ‘NULL’ is converted to ‘None’.  This
     results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute
     effectively sets it to ‘None’.

 -- C Macro: T_NONE

     Always ‘None’.  Must be used with *note Py_READONLY: 57f.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.6 Defining Getters and Setters
.....................................

 -- C Type: type PyGetSetDef
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. (including all members).'
     Structure to define property-like access for a type.  See also
     description of the *note PyTypeObject.tp_getset: 4877. slot.

      -- C Membre: const char *name

          attribute name

      -- C Membre: *note getter: 4a3b. get

          C function to get the attribute.

      -- C Membre: *note setter: 4a49. set

          Optional C function to set or delete the attribute.  If
          ‘NULL’, the attribute is read-only.

      -- C Membre: const char *doc

          optional docstring

      -- C Membre: void *closure

          Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for
          getter and setter.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*getter)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*, void*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The ‘get’ function takes one
     *note PyObject: 32f.* parameter (the instance) and a user data
     pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     It should return a new reference on success or ‘NULL’ with a set
     exception on failure.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*setter)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject:
          32f.*, void*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  ‘set’ functions take two
     *note PyObject: 32f.* parameters (the instance and the value to be
     set) and a user data pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is
     ‘NULL’.  Should return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with a set exception
     on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Object Structures,  Next: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection,  Prev: Common Object Structures,  Up: Implémentation d'objets

7.12.3 Type Object Structures
-----------------------------

Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system
is the structure that defines a new type: the *note PyTypeObject: a95.
structure.  Type objects can be handled using any of the ‘PyObject_*’ or
‘PyType_*’ functions, but do not offer much that's interesting to most
Python applications.  These objects are fundamental to how objects
behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any
extension module that implements new types.

Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types.
The reason for the size is that each type object stores a large number
of values, mostly C function pointers, each of which implements a small
part of the type's functionality.  The fields of the type object are
examined in detail in this section.  The fields will be described in the
order in which they occur in the structure.

In addition to the following quick reference, the *note Exemples: 4d91.
section provides at-a-glance insight into the meaning and use of *note
PyTypeObject: a95.

* Menu:

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* Exemples: Exemples<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Reference,  Next: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.1 Quick Reference
........................

* Menu:

* "tp slots"::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::


File: python.info,  Node: "tp slots",  Next: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.2 "tp slots"
...................

PyTypeObject Slot      *note Type: 4d95.      special                Info
(1)                                           methods/attrs          (2)
                                                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     
O                      T                      D                      I
                                                                     
                                                                                       
<R>                    const char *           __name__               X     X
*note tp_name: 18af.                                                       

*note tp_basicsize: 976.*note Py_ssize_t: a50.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_itemsize: 1f29.*note Py_ssize_t: a50.                             X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dealloc: 486f.*note destructor: 4a36.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4ae9.*note Py_ssize_t: a50.                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_getattr: 488d.)*note getattrfunc: 4a37.__getattribute__,                     G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_setattr: 488e.)*note setattrfunc: 4a47.__setattr__,                          G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_async: eba.*note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45.*note sub-slots: 4d96.               %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_repr: 4884.   *note reprfunc: 4a45.  __repr__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_number: 97a.*note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.*note sub-slots: 4d96.             %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_sequence: 4d97.*note PySequenceMethods: 4894.*note sub-slots: 4d96.        %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_mapping: 4d98.*note PyMappingMethods: 4895.*note sub-slots: 4d96.          %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_hash: 4896.   *note hashfunc: 4a3c.  __hash__               X                 G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_call: 547.    *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c.__call__                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_str: 4885.    *note reprfunc: 4a45.  __str__                X                 X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getattro: 16ac.*note getattrofunc: 4a38.__getattribute__,   X     X           G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_setattro: 4888.*note setattrofunc: 4a48.__setattr__,        X     X           G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_buffer: 978.*note PyBufferProcs: 4b4d.                                     %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_flags: 187a.  ‘unsigned long’                               X     X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_doc: 486b.    const char *           __doc__                X     X
                                                                           
                                                                                       
*note tp_traverse: 76a.*note traverseproc: 4a4d.                           X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_clear: 4882.  *note inquiry: 4a3e.                                X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_richcompare: 4890.*note richcmpfunc: 4a46.__lt__, __le__,   X                 G
                                              __eq__, __ne__,                          
                                              __gt__, __ge__
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_weaklistoffset: 977.)*note Py_ssize_t: a50.                      X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iter: 14a6.   *note getiterfunc: 4a3a.__iter__                                X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iternext: 14a7.*note iternextfunc: 4a3f.__next__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_methods: 4874.*note PyMethodDef: 148f.                      X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_members: 4872.*note PyMemberDef: 53d.                             X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getset: 4877. *note PyGetSetDef: ba8.                       X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_base: 487b.   *note PyTypeObject: a95.__base__                          X
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dict: 16da.   *note PyObject: 32f.   __dict__                           ?
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_get: 4d99.*note descrgetfunc: 4a34.__get__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_set: 18b3.*note descrsetfunc: 4a35.__set__, __delete__                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_dictoffset: 4b47.)*note Py_ssize_t: a50.                         X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_init: 56f.    *note initproc: 4a3d.  __init__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_alloc: 4871.  *note allocfunc: 4a32.                        X           ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_new: 56d.     *note newfunc: 4a41.   __new__                X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_free: 4870.   *note freefunc: 4c3c.                         X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_is_gc: 4d9a.  *note inquiry: 4a3e.                                X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_bases: 4d9b.>*note PyObject: 32f.   __bases__                          ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_mro: 4b4a.>  *note PyObject: 32f.   __mro__                            ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_cache: 4b4b.]*note PyObject: 32f.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_subclasses: 560.]void *             __subclasses__
                                              
                                                                                       
[*note tp_weaklist: 4b4c.]*note PyObject: 32f.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_del: 4d9c.)  *note destructor: 4a36.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_version_tag: 4d9d.]‘unsigned int’
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_finalize: a96.*note destructor: 4a36.__del__                                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall: 4b49.*note vectorcallfunc: 545.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_watched: 4d9e.]unsigned char
                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) '()': A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively)
deprecated.

'<>': Names in angle brackets should be initially set to ‘NULL’ and
treated as read-only.

'[]': Names in square brackets are for internal use only.

'<R>' (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-‘NULL’).

   (2) Columns:

'"O"': set on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea.

'"T"': set on *note PyType_Type: 53b.

'"D"': default (if slot is set to ‘NULL’)

     X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL
     ~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL)
     ? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots

     Also see the inheritance column ("I").

'"I"': inheritance

     X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value
     % - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually
     G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description
     ? - it's complicated; see the slot's description

Note that some slots are effectively inherited through the normal
attribute lookup chain.


File: python.info,  Node: sub-slots,  Next: slot typedefs,  Prev: "tp slots",  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.3 sub-slots
..................

Slot                           *note Type: 4d95.     special
                                                     methods
                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
*note am_await: 4da0.          *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__await__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_aiter: 4da1.          *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__aiter__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_anext: 4da2.          *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__anext__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_send: 4da3.           *note sendfunc: 4da4.
                               
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_add: 4b3e.            *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__add__
                                                     __radd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_add: 4da5.    *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_subtract: 4da6.       *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__sub__
                                                     __rsub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_subtract: 4da7.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__isub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_multiply: 4da8.       *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__mul__
                                                     __rmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_multiply: 4da9.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_remainder: 4daa.      *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__mod__
                                                     __rmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_remainder: 4dab.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__imod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_divmod: 4dac.         *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__divmod__
                                                     __rdivmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_power: 4dad.          *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c.__pow__
                                                     __rpow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_power: 4dae.  *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c.__ipow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_negative: 4daf.       *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__neg__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_positive: 4db0.       *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__pos__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_absolute: 4db1.       *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__abs__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_bool: 4db2.           *note inquiry: 4a3e.  __bool__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_invert: 4db3.         *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__invert__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_lshift: 4db4.         *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__lshift__
                                                     __rlshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_lshift: 4db5. *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__ilshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_rshift: 4db6.         *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__rshift__
                                                     __rrshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_rshift: 4db7. *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__irshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_and: 4db8.            *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__and__
                                                     __rand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_and: 4db9.    *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__iand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_xor: 4dba.            *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__xor__
                                                     __rxor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_xor: 4dbb.    *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__ixor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_or: 4dbc.             *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__or__ __ror__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_or: 4dbd.     *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__ior__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_int: 4dbe.            *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__int__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_reserved: 4dbf.       void *
                               
                                                     
*note nb_float: 4dc0.          *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__float__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_floor_divide: 4dc1.   *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__floordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_floor_divide: 4dc2.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__ifloordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_true_divide: 4dc3.    *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__truediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_true_divide: 4dc4.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__itruediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_index: 13d5.          *note unaryfunc: 4a4e.__index__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_matrix_multiply: 4dc5.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__matmul__
                                                     __rmatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 4dc6.*note binaryfunc: 4a33.__imatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_length: 4dc7.         *note lenfunc: 4a40.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_subscript: 18ea.      *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_ass_subscript: 4dc8.  *note objobjargproc: 4a42.__setitem__,
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_length: 4b46.         *note lenfunc: 4a40.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_concat: 4dc9.         *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__add__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_repeat: 4dca.         *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a.__mul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_item: 18e9.           *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_ass_item: 4dcb.       *note ssizeobjargproc: 4a4b.__setitem__
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_contains: 4dcc.       *note objobjproc: 4a43.__contains__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_concat: 4dcd. *note binaryfunc: 4a33.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_repeat: 4dce. *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_getbuffer: 74e.       *note getbufferproc(): 4a39.
                               
                                                     
*note bf_releasebuffer: 74f.   *note releasebufferproc(): 4a44.
                               


File: python.info,  Node: slot typedefs,  Prev: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.4 slot typedefs
......................

typedef                           Parameter Types                   Return Type
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
*note allocfunc: 4a32.                 *note PyTypeObject: a95. *   *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: a50.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note destructor: 4a36.           *note PyObject: 32f. *            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note freefunc: 4c3c.             void *                            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note traverseproc: 4a4d.              *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note visitproc: 4a4f.       
                                       void *
                                  
                                                                    
*note newfunc: 4a41.                   *note PyTypeObject: a95. *   *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note initproc: 4a3d.                  *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note reprfunc: 4a45.             *note PyObject: 32f. *            *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getattrfunc: 4a37.               *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       const char *                 
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrfunc: 4a47.               *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       const char *                 
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note getattrofunc: 4a38.              *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrofunc: 4a48.              *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrgetfunc: 4a34.              *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrsetfunc: 4a35.              *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note hashfunc: 4a3c.             *note PyObject: 32f. *            Py_hash_t
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note richcmpfunc: 4a46.               *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       'int'
                                  
                                                                    
*note getiterfunc: 4a3a.          *note PyObject: 32f. *            *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note iternextfunc: 4a3f.         *note PyObject: 32f. *            *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note lenfunc: 4a40.              *note PyObject: 32f. *            *note Py_ssize_t: a50.
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getbufferproc: 4a39.             *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note Py_buffer: 744. *      
                                       'int'
                                  
                                                                    
*note releasebufferproc: 4a44.         *note PyObject: 32f. *       void
                                       *note Py_buffer: 744. *      
                                  
                                                                    
*note inquiry: 4a3e.              *note PyObject: 32f. *            'int'
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note unaryfunc: 4a4e.                 *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note binaryfunc: 4a33.                *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ternaryfunc: 4a4c.               *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a.              *note PyObject: 32f. *       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: a50.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeobjargproc: 4a4b.           *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: a50.       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjproc: 4a43.                *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjargproc: 4a42.             *note PyObject: 32f. *       'int'
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 32f. *
                                  

See *note Slot Type typedefs: 4dd0. below for more detail.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Definition,  Next: PyObject Slots,  Prev: Quick Reference,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.5 PyTypeObject Definition
................................

The structure definition for *note PyTypeObject: a95. can be found in
‘Include/cpython/object.h’.  For convenience of reference, this repeats
the definition found there:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;


File: python.info,  Node: PyObject Slots,  Next: PyVarObject Slots,  Prev: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.6 PyObject Slots
.......................

The type object structure extends the *note PyVarObject: 4108.
structure.  The *note ob_size: 4a20. field is used for dynamic types
(created by ‘type_new()’, usually called from a class statement).  Note
that *note PyType_Type: 53b. (the metatype) initializes *note
tp_itemsize: 1f29, which means that its instances (i.e.  type objects)
'must' have the *note ob_size: 4a20. field.

 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyObject: 32f.ob_refcnt
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the type object's
     reference count, initialized to ‘1’ by the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’
     macro.  Note that for *note statically allocated type objects: 76b,
     the type's instances (objects whose *note ob_type: 486d. points
     back to the type) do 'not' count as references.  But for *note
     dynamically allocated type objects: 954, the instances 'do' count
     as references.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note PyTypeObject: a95. **note PyObject: 32f.ob_type
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  This is the type's type, in
     other words its metatype.  It is initialized by the argument to the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro, and its value should normally be
     ‘&PyType_Type’.  However, for dynamically loadable extension
     modules that must be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler
     complains that this is not a valid initializer.  Therefore, the
     convention is to pass ‘NULL’ to the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro and
     to initialize this field explicitly at the start of the module's
     initialization function, before doing anything else.  This is
     typically done like this:

          Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;

     This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
     *note PyType_Ready(): 768. checks if *note ob_type: 486d. is
     ‘NULL’, and if so, initializes it to the *note ob_type: 486d. field
     of the base class.  *note PyType_Ready(): 768. will not change this
     field if it is non-zero.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyVarObject Slots,  Next: PyTypeObject Slots,  Prev: PyObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.7 PyVarObject Slots
..........................

 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyVarObject: 4108.ob_size
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  For *note statically
     allocated type objects: 76b, this should be initialized to zero.
     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 954, this field has a
     special internal meaning.

     This field should be accessed using the *note Py_SIZE(): 76e. and
     *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f. macros.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Slots,  Next: Static Types,  Prev: PyVarObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.8 PyTypeObject Slots
...........................

Each slot has a section describing inheritance.  If *note
PyType_Ready(): 768. may set a value when the field is set to ‘NULL’
then there will also be a "Default" section.  (Note that many fields set
on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. and *note PyType_Type: 53b.
effectively act as defaults.)

 -- C Membre: const char **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_name

     Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type.
     For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should
     be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type
     name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name.  If the
     module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part
     of the full module name.  For example, a type named ‘T’ defined in
     module ‘M’ in subpackage ‘Q’ in package ‘P’ should have the *note
     tp_name: 18af. initializer ‘"P.Q.M.T"’.

     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 954, this should just
     be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type
     dict as the value for key ‘'__module__'’.

     For *note statically allocated type objects: 76b, the 'tp_name'
     field should contain a dot.  Everything before the last dot is made
     accessible as the *note __module__: 36a. attribute, and everything
     after the last dot is made accessible as the *note __name__: 1461.
     attribute.

     If no dot is present, the entire *note tp_name: 18af. field is made
     accessible as the *note __name__: 1461. attribute, and the *note
     __module__: 36a. attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in
     the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your type will be
     impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
     module documentations created with pydoc.

     This field must not be ‘NULL’.  It is the only required field in
     *note PyTypeObject(): a95. (other than potentially *note
     tp_itemsize: 1f29.).

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_basicsize
 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_itemsize

     These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of
     the type.

     There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances
     have a zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field, types with variable-length
     instances have a non-zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field.  For a type with
     fixed-length instances, all instances have the same size, given in
     ‘tp_basicsize’.  (Exceptions to this rule can be made using *note
     PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData(): 16f4.)

     For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have
     an *note ob_size: 4a20. field, and the instance size is
     ‘tp_basicsize’ plus N times ‘tp_itemsize’, where N is the "length"
     of the object.

     Functions like *note PyObject_NewVar(): 975. will take the value of
     N as an argument, and store in the instance's *note ob_size: 4a20.
     field.  Note that the *note ob_size: 4a20. field may later be used
     for other purposes.  For example, *note int: 254. instances use the
     bits of *note ob_size: 4a20. in an implementation-defined way; the
     underlying storage and its size should be accessed using
     ‘PyLong_Export()’.

          Note: The *note ob_size: 4a20. field should be accessed using
          the *note Py_SIZE(): 76e. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 76f.
          macros.

     Also, the presence of an *note ob_size: 4a20. field in the instance
     layout doesn't mean that the instance structure is variable-length.
     For example, the *note list: 5fe. type has fixed-length instances,
     yet those instances have a *note ob_size: 4a20. field.  (As with
     *note int: 254, avoid reading lists' ‘ob_size’ directly.  Call
     *note PyList_Size(): 13d2. instead.)

     The ‘tp_basicsize’ includes size needed for data of the type's
     *note tp_base: 487b, plus any extra data needed by each instance.

     The correct way to set ‘tp_basicsize’ is to use the ‘sizeof’
     operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.  This
     struct must include the struct used to declare the base type.  In
     other words, ‘tp_basicsize’ must be greater than or equal to the
     base's ‘tp_basicsize’.

     Since every type is a subtype of *note object: a7c, this struct
     must include *note PyObject: 32f. or *note PyVarObject: 4108.
     (depending on whether *note ob_size: 4a20. should be included).
     These are usually defined by the macro *note PyObject_HEAD: 12be.
     or *note PyObject_VAR_HEAD: 4d6a, respectively.

     The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header
     is not part of *note PyObject_HEAD: 12be.

     For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown,
     see *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 536. and *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 53e.

     Notes about alignment:

        - ‘tp_basicsize’ must be a multiple of ‘_Alignof(PyObject)’.
          When using ‘sizeof’ on a ‘struct’ that includes *note
          PyObject_HEAD: 12be, as recommended, the compiler ensures
          this.  When not using a C ‘struct’, or when using compiler
          extensions like ‘__attribute__((packed))’, it is up to you.

        - If the variable items require a particular alignment,
          ‘tp_basicsize’ and ‘tp_itemsize’ must each be a multiple of
          that alignment.  For example, if a type's variable part stores
          a ‘double’, it is your responsibility that both fields are a
          multiple of ‘_Alignof(double)’.

     'Inheritance:'

     These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  (That is, if
     the field is set to zero, *note PyType_Ready(): 768. will copy the
     value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not need
     additional storage.)

     If the base type has a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1f29, it is
     generally not safe to set *note tp_itemsize: 1f29. to a different
     non-zero value in a subtype (though this depends on the
     implementation of the base type).

 -- C Membre: *note destructor: 4a36. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_dealloc

     A pointer to the instance destructor function.  This function must
     be defined unless the type guarantees that its instances will never
     be deallocated (as is the case for the singletons ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’).  The function signature is:

          void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self);

     The destructor function is called by the *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.
     and *note Py_XDECREF(): 77b. macros when the new reference count is
     zero.  At this point, the instance is still in existence, but there
     are no references to it.  The destructor function should free all
     references which the instance owns, free all memory buffers owned
     by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding to the
     allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and call the
     type's *note tp_free: 4870. function.  If the type is not
     subtypable (doesn't have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 4875. flag
     bit set), it is permissible to call the object deallocator directly
     instead of via *note tp_free: 4870.  The object deallocator should
     be the one used to allocate the instance; this is normally *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1489. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_New: 974. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 975, or *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: a92. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: a93.

     If the type supports garbage collection (has the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit set), the destructor should call
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. before clearing any member
     fields.

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
              Py_CLEAR(self->ref);
              Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *)self);
          }

     Finally, if the type is heap allocated (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     89e.), the deallocator should release the owned reference to its
     type object (via *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.) after calling the type
     deallocator.  In order to avoid dangling pointers, the recommended
     way to achieve this is:

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self);
              // free references and buffers here
              tp->tp_free(self);
              Py_DECREF(tp);
          }

          Avertissement: In a garbage collected Python, ‘tp_dealloc’ may
          be called from any Python thread, not just the thread which
          created the object (if the object becomes part of a refcount
          cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage collection
          on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API calls,
          since the thread on which ‘tp_dealloc’ is called will own the
          Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). However, if the object being
          destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C or C++
          library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
          objects on the thread which called ‘tp_dealloc’ will not
          violate any assumptions of the library.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_vectorcall_offset

     An optional offset to a per-instance function that implements
     calling the object using the *note vectorcall protocol: 540, a more
     efficient alternative of the simpler *note tp_call: 547.

     This field is only used if the flag *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. is set.  If so, this must be a
     positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a *note
     vectorcallfunc: 545. pointer.

     The 'vectorcallfunc' pointer may be ‘NULL’, in which case the
     instance behaves as if *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. was
     not set: calling the instance falls back to *note tp_call: 547.

     Any class that sets ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ must also set
     *note tp_call: 547. and make sure its behaviour is consistent with
     the 'vectorcallfunc' function.  This can be done by setting
     'tp_call' to *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 544.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Before version 3.8, this slot was
     named ‘tp_print’.  In Python 2.x, it was used for printing to a
     file.  In Python 3.0 to 3.7, it was unused.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Before version 3.12, it was not
     recommended for *note mutable heap types: 954. to implement the
     vectorcall protocol.  When a user sets *note __call__: 546. in
     Python code, only 'tp_call' is updated, likely making it
     inconsistent with the vectorcall function.  Since 3.12, setting
     ‘__call__’ will disable vectorcall optimization by clearing the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is always inherited.  However, the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 542. flag is not always inherited.  If
     it's not set, then the subclass won't use *note vectorcall: 540,
     except when *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 544. is explicitly called.

 -- C Membre: *note getattrfunc: 4a37. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_getattr

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_getattro: 16ac.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 488d, *note tp_getattro: 16ac.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_getattro: 16ac.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 488d.
     and *note tp_getattro: 16ac. from its base type when the subtype's
     *note tp_getattr: 488d. and *note tp_getattro: 16ac. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Membre: *note setattrfunc: 4a47. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_setattr

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_setattro: 4888.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 488e, *note tp_setattro: 4888.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_setattro: 4888.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 488e.
     and *note tp_setattro: 4888. from its base type when the subtype's
     *note tp_setattr: 488e. and *note tp_setattro: 4888. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Membre: *note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_as_async

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement *note awaitable: 1ab. and *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1a9. protocols at the C-level.  See *note
     Async Object Structures: 4dd5. for details.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Formerly known as ‘tp_compare’ and
     ‘tp_reserved’.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_async: eba. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Membre: *note reprfunc: 4a45. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_repr

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note repr(): 7e9.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a.:

          PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  Ideally,
     this function should return a string that, when passed to *note
     eval(): 17e, given a suitable environment, returns an object with
     the same value.  If this is not feasible, it should return a string
     starting with ‘'<'’ and ending with ‘'>'’ from which both the type
     and the value of the object can be deduced.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     When this field is not set, a string of the form ‘<%s object at
     %p>’ is returned, where ‘%s’ is replaced by the type name, and ‘%p’
     by the object's memory address.

 -- C Membre: *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_as_number

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the number protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Number Object Structures: 4dd6.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_number: 97a. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Membre: *note PySequenceMethods: 4894. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_as_sequence

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the sequence protocol.  These
     fields are documented in *note Sequence Object Structures: 4dd7.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_sequence: 4d97. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Membre: *note PyMappingMethods: 4895. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_as_mapping

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the mapping protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Mapping Object Structures: 4dd8.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_mapping: 4d98. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Membre: *note hashfunc: 4a3c. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_hash

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note hash(): 5d7.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9.:

          Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *);

     The value ‘-1’ should not be returned as a normal return value;
     when an error occurs during the computation of the hash value, the
     function should set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     When this field is not set ('and' *note tp_richcompare: 4890. is
     not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises *note
     TypeError: 525.  This is the same as setting it to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 137f.

     This field can be set explicitly to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 137f. to block inheritance of the
     hash method from a parent type.  This is interpreted as the
     equivalent of ‘__hash__ = None’ at the Python level, causing
     ‘isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)’ to correctly return ‘False’.
     Note that the converse is also true - setting ‘__hash__ = None’ on
     a class at the Python level will result in the ‘tp_hash’ slot being
     set to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 137f.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 4896, *note tp_richcompare: 4890.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_richcompare: 4890.: a subtype inherits both of *note
     tp_richcompare: 4890. and *note tp_hash: 4896, when the subtype's
     *note tp_richcompare: 4890. and *note tp_hash: 4896. are both
     ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. uses *note PyObject_GenericHash():
     35d.

 -- C Membre: *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_call

     An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the
     object.  This should be ‘NULL’ if the object is not callable.  The
     signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Call(): 393.:

          PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note reprfunc: 4a45. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_str

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     operation *note str(): 437.  (Note that *note str: 437. is a type
     now, and *note str(): 437. calls the constructor for that type.
     This constructor calls *note PyObject_Str(): 101b. to do the actual
     work, and *note PyObject_Str(): 101b. will call this handler.)

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Str(): 101b.:

          PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  It should
     be a "friendly" string representation of the object, as this is the
     representation that will be used, among other things, by the *note
     print(): f62. function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     When this field is not set, *note PyObject_Repr(): 101a. is called
     to return a string representation.

 -- C Membre: *note getattrofunc: 4a38. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_getattro

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 341.:

          PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr);

     It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 49a6, which implements the normal way of
     looking for object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 488d, *note tp_getattro: 16ac.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_getattr:
     488d.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 488d. and *note
     tp_getattro: 16ac. from its base type when the subtype's *note
     tp_getattr: 488d. and *note tp_getattro: 16ac. are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 49a6.

 -- C Membre: *note setattrofunc: 4a48. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_setattro

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 49af.:

          int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value);

     In addition, setting 'value' to ‘NULL’ to delete an attribute must
     be supported.  It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 49a7, which implements the normal way of
     setting object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 488e, *note tp_setattro: 4888.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_setattr:
     488e.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 488e. and *note
     tp_setattro: 4888. from its base type when the subtype's *note
     tp_setattr: 488e. and *note tp_setattro: 4888. are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 49a7.

 -- C Membre: *note PyBufferProcs: 4b4d. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_as_buffer

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the buffer interface.  These fields
     are documented in *note Buffer Object Structures: 4b09.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_buffer: 978. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Membre: unsigned long *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_flags

     This field is a bit mask of various flags.  Some flags indicate
     variant semantics for certain situations; others are used to
     indicate that certain fields in the type object (or in the
     extension structures referenced via *note tp_as_number: 97a, *note
     tp_as_sequence: 4d97, *note tp_as_mapping: 4d98, and *note
     tp_as_buffer: 978.) that were historically not always present are
     valid; if such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must
     not be accessed and must be considered to have a zero or ‘NULL’
     value instead.

     'Inheritance:'

     Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are
     inherited individually, i.e.  if the base type has a flag bit set,
     the subtype inherits this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to
     extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension
     structure is inherited, i.e.  the base type's value of the flag bit
     is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
     structure.  The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit is
     inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 76a. and *note
     tp_clear: 4882. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769.
     flag bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 76a.
     and *note tp_clear: 4882. fields in the subtype exist and have
     ‘NULL’ values.  ..  XXX are most flag bits 'really' inherited
     individually?

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. uses ‘Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT |
     Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE’.

     'Bit Masks:'

     The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed
     together using the ‘|’ operator to form the value of the *note
     tp_flags: 187a. field.  The macro *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1910.
     takes a type and a flags value, 'tp' and 'f', and checks whether
     ‘tp->tp_flags & f’ is non-zero.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE

          This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on
          the heap, for example, types created dynamically using *note
          PyType_FromSpec(): 56b.  In this case, the *note ob_type:
          486d. field of its instances is considered a reference to the
          type, and the type object is INCREF'ed when a new instance is
          created, and DECREF'ed when an instance is destroyed (this
          does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type
          referenced by the instance's ob_type gets INCREF'ed or
          DECREF'ed).  Heap types should also *note support garbage
          collection: 4dd9. as they can form a reference cycle with
          their own module object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE

          This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of
          another type.  If this bit is clear, the type cannot be
          subtyped (similar to a "final" class in Java).

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_READY

          This bit is set when the type object has been fully
          initialized by *note PyType_Ready(): 768.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING

          This bit is set while *note PyType_Ready(): 768. is in the
          process of initializing the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

          This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection.
          If this bit is set, instances must be created using *note
          PyObject_GC_New: a92. and destroyed using *note
          PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc.  More information in section *note
          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4dd9.  This bit also
          implies that the GC-related fields *note tp_traverse: 76a. and
          *note tp_clear: 4882. are present in the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769, *note tp_traverse: 76a,
          *note tp_clear: 4882.

          The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit is inherited
          together with the *note tp_traverse: 76a. and *note tp_clear:
          4882. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag
          bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 76a.
          and *note tp_clear: 4882. fields in the subtype exist and have
          ‘NULL’ values.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT

          This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the
          existence of certain fields in the type object and its
          extension structures.  Currently, it includes the following
          bits: ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION’.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR

          This bit indicates that objects behave like unbound methods.

          If this flag is set for ‘type(meth)’, then:

             - ‘meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ (with ‘obj’ not
               None) must be equivalent to ‘meth(obj, *args, **kwds)’.

             - ‘meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ must be
               equivalent to ‘meth(*args, **kwds)’.

          This flag enables an optimization for typical method calls
          like ‘obj.meth()’: it avoids creating a temporary "bound
          method" object for ‘obj.meth’.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is never inherited by types without the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. flag set.  For extension types,
          it is inherited whenever *note tp_descr_get: 4d99. is
          inherited.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT

          This bit indicates that instances of the class have a
          ‘~object.__dict__’ attribute, and that the space for the
          dictionary is managed by the VM.

          If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. should
          also be set.

          The type traverse function must call *note
          PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 35f. and its clear function must
          call *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 360.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_dictoffset: 4b47.
          field is set in a superclass.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF

          This bit indicates that instances of the class should be
          weakly referenceable.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_weaklistoffset:
          977. field is set in a superclass.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END

          Only usable with variable-size types, i.e.  ones with non-zero
          *note tp_itemsize: 1f29.

          Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of
          this type is at the end of the instance's memory area, at an
          offset of ‘Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize’ (which may be different
          in each subclass).

          When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either
          use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized.  Python
          does not check this.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS

          These flags are used by functions such as *note
          PyLong_Check(): 4b57. to quickly determine if a type is a
          subclass of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster
          than a generic check, like *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e91.
          Custom types that inherit from built-ins should have their
          *note tp_flags: 187a. set appropriately, or the code that
          interacts with such types will behave differently depending on
          what kind of check is used.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE

          This bit is set when the *note tp_finalize: a96. slot is
          present in the type structure.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

          Obsolète depuis la version 3.8: This flag isn't necessary
          anymore, as the interpreter assumes the *note tp_finalize:
          a96. slot is always present in the type structure.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

          This bit is set when the class implements the *note vectorcall
          protocol: 540.  See *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4ae9. for
          details.

          'Inheritance:'

          This bit is inherited if *note tp_call: 547. is also
          inherited.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

          Modifié dans la version 3.12: This flag is now removed from a
          class when the class's *note __call__(): 546. method is
          reassigned.

          This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE

          This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type
          attributes cannot be set nor deleted.

          *note PyType_Ready(): 768. automatically applies this flag to
          *note static types: 76b.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION

          Disallow creating instances of the type: set *note tp_new:
          56d. to NULL and don't create the ‘__new__’ key in the type
          dictionary.

          The flag must be set before creating the type, not after.  For
          example, it must be set before *note PyType_Ready(): 768. is
          called on the type.

          The flag is set automatically on *note static types: 76b. if
          *note tp_base: 487b. is NULL or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note
          tp_new: 56d. is NULL.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.  However, subclasses will not be
          instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL *note tp_new: 56d.
          (which is only possible via the C API).

               Note: To disallow instantiating a class directly but
               allow instantiating its subclasses (e.g.  for an *note
               abstract base class: 1195.), do not use this flag.
               Instead, make *note tp_new: 56d. only succeed for
               subclasses.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          mapping patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          7f9. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9, and unset when
          registering *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3.

               Note: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1860. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1861. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1861.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          PEP 634(1) — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          sequence patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          7f9. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3, and unset
          when registering *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8b9.

               Note: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1860. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1861. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1860.

          Voir aussi
          ..........

          PEP 634(2) — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

          Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

      -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG

          Internal.  Do not set or unset this flag.  To indicate that a
          class has changed call *note PyType_Modified(): 17ae.

               Avertissement: This flag is present in header files, but
               is not be used.  It will be removed in a future version
               of CPython

 -- C Membre: const char **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_doc

     An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the
     docstring for this type object.  This is exposed as the *note
     __doc__: 1c6a. attribute on the type and instances of the type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is 'not' inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note traverseproc: 4a4d. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_traverse

     An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage
     collector.  This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769.
     flag bit is set.  The signature is:

          int tp_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg);

     More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4dd9.

     The *note tp_traverse: 76a. pointer is used by the garbage
     collector to detect reference cycles.  A typical implementation of
     a *note tp_traverse: 76a. function simply calls *note Py_VISIT():
     4879. on each of the instance's members that are Python objects
     that the instance owns.  For example, this is function
     ‘local_traverse()’ from the ‘_thread’ extension module:

          static int
          local_traverse(localobject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->args);
              Py_VISIT(self->kw);
              Py_VISIT(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 4879. is called only on those members
     that can participate in reference cycles.  Although there is also a
     ‘self->key’ member, it can only be ‘NULL’ or a Python string and
     therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.

     On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a
     cycle, as a debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so
     the *note gc: 5f. module's *note get_referents(): 7f1. function
     will include it.

     Heap types (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 89e.) must visit their type
     with:

          Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));

     It is only needed since Python 3.9.  To support Python 3.8 and
     older, this line must be conditional:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
              Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
          #endif

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 187a. field, the traverse function must call *note
     PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 35f. like this:

          PyObject_VisitManagedDict((PyObject*)self, visit, arg);

          Avertissement: When implementing *note tp_traverse: 76a, only
          the members that the instance 'owns' (by having *note strong
          references: 333. to them) must be visited.  For instance, if
          an object supports weak references via the *note tp_weaklist:
          4b4c. slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what
          'tp_weaklist' points to) must 'not' be visited as the instance
          does not directly own the weak references to itself (the
          weakreference list is there to support the weak reference
          machinery, but the instance has no strong reference to the
          elements inside it, as they are allowed to be removed even if
          the instance is still alive).

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 4879. requires the 'visit' and 'arg'
     parameters to ‘local_traverse()’ to have these specific names;
     don't name them just anything.

     Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 954. hold a reference to
     their type.  Their traversal function must therefore either visit
     *note Py_TYPE(self): 76c, or delegate this responsibility by
     calling ‘tp_traverse’ of another heap-allocated type (such as a
     heap-allocated superclass).  If they do not, the type object may
     not be garbage-collected.

     Modifié dans la version 3.9: Heap-allocated types are expected to
     visit ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ in ‘tp_traverse’.  In earlier versions of
     Python, due to bug 40217(3), doing this may lead to crashes in
     subclasses.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769, *note tp_traverse: 76a, *note
     tp_clear: 4882.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_clear:
     4882. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit: the flag
     bit, *note tp_traverse: 76a, and *note tp_clear: 4882. are all
     inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

 -- C Membre: *note inquiry: 4a3e. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_clear

     An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector.
     This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit is
     set.  The signature is:

          int tp_clear(PyObject *);

     The *note tp_clear: 4882. member function is used to break
     reference cycles in cyclic garbage detected by the garbage
     collector.  Taken together, all *note tp_clear: 4882. functions in
     the system must combine to break all reference cycles.  This is
     subtle, and if in any doubt supply a *note tp_clear: 4882.
     function.  For example, the tuple type does not implement a *note
     tp_clear: 4882. function, because it's possible to prove that no
     reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples.  Therefore the
     *note tp_clear: 4882. functions of other types must be sufficient
     to break any cycle containing a tuple.  This isn't immediately
     obvious, and there's rarely a good reason to avoid implementing
     *note tp_clear: 4882.

     Implementations of *note tp_clear: 4882. should drop the instance's
     references to those of its members that may be Python objects, and
     set its pointers to those members to ‘NULL’, as in the following
     example:

          static int
          local_clear(localobject *self)
          {
              Py_CLEAR(self->key);
              Py_CLEAR(self->args);
              Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
              Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     The *note Py_CLEAR(): 566. macro should be used, because clearing
     references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must
     not be released (via *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.) until after the
     pointer to the contained object is set to ‘NULL’.  This is because
     releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become
     trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include
     invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref
     callbacks, associated with the contained object).  If it's possible
     for such code to reference 'self' again, it's important that the
     pointer to the contained object be ‘NULL’ at that time, so that
     'self' knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The *note
     Py_CLEAR(): 566. macro performs the operations in a safe order.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 187a. field, the traverse function must call *note
     PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 360. like this:

          PyObject_ClearManagedDict((PyObject*)self);

     Note that *note tp_clear: 4882. is not 'always' called before an
     instance is deallocated.  For example, when reference counting is
     enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic
     garbage collector is not involved and *note tp_dealloc: 486f. is
     called directly.

     Because the goal of *note tp_clear: 4882. functions is to break
     reference cycles, it's not necessary to clear contained objects
     like Python strings or Python integers, which can't participate in
     reference cycles.  On the other hand, it may be convenient to clear
     all contained Python objects, and write the type's *note
     tp_dealloc: 486f. function to invoke *note tp_clear: 4882.

     More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4dd9.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769, *note tp_traverse: 76a, *note
     tp_clear: 4882.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_traverse: 76a. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit:
     the flag bit, *note tp_traverse: 76a, and *note tp_clear: 4882. are
     all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the
     subtype.

 -- C Membre: *note richcmpfunc: 4a46. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_richcompare

     An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose
     signature is:

          PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);

     The first parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type
     that is defined by *note PyTypeObject: a95.

     The function should return the result of the comparison (usually
     ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’).  If the comparison is undefined, it must
     return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred it must
     return ‘NULL’ and set an exception condition.

     The following constants are defined to be used as the third
     argument for *note tp_richcompare: 4890. and for *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 4891.:

     Constante                Comparaison
                              
     ------------------------------------------
                              
      -- C Macro: Py_LT       ‘<’
                              
                              
      -- C Macro: Py_LE       ‘<=’
                              
                              
      -- C Macro: Py_EQ       ‘==’
                              
                              
      -- C Macro: Py_NE       ‘!=’
                              
                              
      -- C Macro: Py_GT       ‘>’
                              
                              
      -- C Macro: Py_GE       ‘>=’
                              

     The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison
     functions:

      -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (VAL_A, VAL_B, op)

          Return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ from the function, depending on
          the result of a comparison.  VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable
          by C comparison operators (for example, they may be C ints or
          floats).  The third argument specifies the requested
          operation, as for *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 4891.

          The returned value is a new *note strong reference: 333.

          On error, sets an exception and returns ‘NULL’ from the
          function.

          Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 4896, *note tp_richcompare: 4890.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_hash:
     4896.: a subtype inherits *note tp_richcompare: 4890. and *note
     tp_hash: 4896. when the subtype's *note tp_richcompare: 4890. and
     *note tp_hash: 4896. are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. provides a *note tp_richcompare:
     4890. implementation, which may be inherited.  However, if only
     *note tp_hash: 4896. is defined, not even the inherited function is
     used and instances of the type will not be able to participate in
     any comparisons.

 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_weaklistoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 548. should be used instead, if at all
     possible.

     If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field
     is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance
     structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header,
     if present); this offset is used by *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs():
     564. and the ‘PyWeakref_*’ functions.  The instance structure needs
     to include a field of type *note PyObject: 32f.* which is
     initialized to ‘NULL’.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_weaklist: 4b4c.; that is
     the list head for weak references to the type object itself.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     548. bit and *note tp_weaklistoffset: 977.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed
     below.  A subtype may override this offset; this means that the
     subtype uses a different weak reference list head than the base
     type.  Since the list head is always found via *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 977, this should not be a problem.

     'Default:'

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 548. bit is set in the
     *note tp_flags: 187a. field, then *note tp_weaklistoffset: 977.
     will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to
     use this field.

 -- C Membre: *note getiterfunc: 4a3a. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_iter

     An optional pointer to a function that returns an *note iterator:
     1aa. for the object.  Its presence normally signals that the
     instances of this type are *note iterable: 1207. (although
     sequences may be iterable without this function).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyObject_GetIter():
     49aa.:

          PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note iternextfunc: 4a3f. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_iternext

     An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an
     *note iterator: 1aa.  The signature is:

          PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self);

     When the iterator is exhausted, it must return ‘NULL’; a *note
     StopIteration: bea. exception may or may not be set.  When another
     error occurs, it must return ‘NULL’ too.  Its presence signals that
     the instances of this type are iterators.

     Iterator types should also define the *note tp_iter: 14a6.
     function, and that function should return the iterator instance
     itself (not a new iterator instance).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyIter_Next(): 4959.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: struct *note PyMethodDef: 148f. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_methods

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMethodDef: 148f. structures, declaring regular methods of this
     type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 16da. below) containing a method
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C Membre: struct *note PyMemberDef: 53d. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_members

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMemberDef: 53d. structures, declaring regular data members
     (fields or slots) of instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 16da. below) containing a member
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C Membre: struct *note PyGetSetDef: ba8. **note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_getset

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyGetSetDef: ba8. structures, declaring computed attributes of
     instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 16da. below) containing a getset
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are
     inherited through a different mechanism).

 -- C Membre: *note PyTypeObject: a95. **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_base

     An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are
     inherited.  At this level, only single inheritance is supported;
     multiple inheritance require dynamically creating a type object by
     calling the metatype.

          Note: 
          Slot initialization is subject to the rules of initializing
          globals.  C99 requires the initializers to be "address
          constants".  Function designators like *note
          PyType_GenericNew(): 486c, with implicit conversion to a
          pointer, are valid C99 address constants.

          However, the unary '&' operator applied to a non-static
          variable like *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. is not required
          to produce an address constant.  Compilers may support this
          (gcc does), MSVC does not.  Both compilers are strictly
          standard conforming in this particular behavior.

          Consequently, *note tp_base: 487b. should be set in the
          extension module's init function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously).

     'Default:'

     This field defaults to ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ (which to Python
     programmers is known as the type *note object: a7c.).

 -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_dict

     The type's dictionary is stored here by *note PyType_Ready(): 768.

     This field should normally be initialized to ‘NULL’ before
     PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary
     containing initial attributes for the type.  Once *note
     PyType_Ready(): 768. has initialized the type, extra attributes for
     the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don't
     correspond to overloaded operations (like *note __add__(): 1f45.).
     Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be
     treated as read-only.

     Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot.  Use *note
     PyType_GetDict(): 16d9. to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary
     type.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Internals detail: For static builtin
     types, this is always ‘NULL’.  Instead, the dict for such types is
     stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 16d9.
     to get the dict for an arbitrary type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes
     defined in here are inherited through a different mechanism).

     'Default:'

     If this field is ‘NULL’, *note PyType_Ready(): 768. will assign a
     new dictionary to it.

          Avertissement: It is not safe to use *note PyDict_SetItem():
          485b. on or otherwise modify *note tp_dict: 16da. with the
          dictionary C-API.

 -- C Membre: *note descrgetfunc: 4a34. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_descr_get

     An optional pointer to a "descriptor get" function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note descrsetfunc: 4a35. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_descr_set

     An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting a
     descriptor's value.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);

     The 'value' argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the value.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Membre: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_dictoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT:
     361. should be used instead, if at all possible.

     If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance
     variables, this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the
     instances of the type of the instance variable dictionary; this
     offset is used by *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 49a6.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_dict: 16da.; that is the
     dictionary for attributes of the type object itself.

     The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of
     the instance structure.

     The *note tp_dictoffset: 4b47. should be regarded as write-only.
     To get the pointer to the dictionary call *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 18f7.  Calling *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 18f7. may need to allocate memory for
     the dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call *note
     PyObject_GetAttr(): 341. when accessing an attribute on the object.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361.
     bit and *note tp_dictoffset: 4b47.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.  A subtype should not override
     this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access
     the dictionary at the previous offset.  To properly support
     inheritance, use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361.

     'Default:'

     This slot has no default.  For *note static types: 76b, if the
     field is ‘NULL’ then no *note __dict__: 549. gets created for
     instances.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 361. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 187a. field, then *note tp_dictoffset: 4b47. will be set
     to ‘-1’, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

 -- C Membre: *note initproc: 4a3d. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_init

     An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.

     This function corresponds to the *note __init__(): 69d. method of
     classes.  Like ‘__init__()’, it is possible to create an instance
     without calling ‘__init__()’, and it is possible to reinitialize an
     instance by calling its ‘__init__()’ method again.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the 'args' and
     'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the
     call to *note __init__(): 69d.

     The *note tp_init: 56f. function, if not ‘NULL’, is called when an
     instance is created normally by calling its type, after the type's
     *note tp_new: 56d. function has returned an instance of the type.
     If the *note tp_new: 56d. function returns an instance of some
     other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no *note
     tp_init: 56f. function is called; if *note tp_new: 56d. returns an
     instance of a subtype of the original type, the subtype's *note
     tp_init: 56f. is called.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     For *note static types: 76b. this field does not have a default.

 -- C Membre: *note allocfunc: 4a32. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_alloc

     An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic
     subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement).

     'Default:'

     For dynamic subtypes, this field is always set to *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): a5b, to force a standard heap allocation
     strategy.

     For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. uses *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): a5b.  That is the recommended value for all
     statically defined types.

 -- C Membre: *note newfunc: 4a41. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_new

     An optional pointer to an instance creation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The 'subtype' argument is the type of the object being created; the
     'args' and 'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword
     arguments of the call to the type.  Note that 'subtype' doesn't
     have to equal the type whose *note tp_new: 56d. function is called;
     it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated type).

     The *note tp_new: 56d. function should call
     ‘subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)’ to allocate space for the
     object, and then do only as much further initialization as is
     absolutely necessary.  Initialization that can safely be ignored or
     repeated should be placed in the *note tp_init: 56f. handler.  A
     good rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization
     should take place in *note tp_new: 56d, while for mutable types,
     most initialization should be deferred to *note tp_init: 56f.

     Set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 570. flag to
     disallow creating instances of the type in Python.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by
     *note static types: 76b. whose *note tp_base: 487b. is ‘NULL’ or
     ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’.

     'Default:'

     For *note static types: 76b. this field has no default.  This means
     if the slot is defined as ‘NULL’, the type cannot be called to
     create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create
     instances, like a factory function.

 -- C Membre: *note freefunc: 4c3c. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_free

     An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_free(void *self);

     An initializer that is compatible with this signature is *note
     PyObject_Free(): c55.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic
     subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement)

     'Default:'

     In dynamic subtypes, this field is set to a deallocator suitable to
     match *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a5b. and the value of the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit.

     For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 48ea. uses *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1489.

 -- C Membre: *note inquiry: 4a3e. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_is_gc

     An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.

     The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is
     collectible or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the
     object's type's *note tp_flags: 187a. field, and check the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag bit.  But some types have a mixture
     of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the
     statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types
     should define this function; it should return ‘1’ for a collectible
     instance, and ‘0’ for a non-collectible instance.  The signature
     is:

          int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self);

     (The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
     *note PyType_Type: 53b, defines this function to distinguish
     between statically and *note dynamically allocated types: 954.)

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     This slot has no default.  If this field is ‘NULL’, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. is used as the functional equivalent.

 -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_bases

     Tuple of base types.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 768.

     For dynamically created classes, the ‘Py_tp_bases’ *note slot:
     49e2. can be used instead of the 'bases' argument of *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c.  The argument form is preferred.

          Avertissement: Multiple inheritance does not work well for
          statically defined types.  If you set ‘tp_bases’ to a tuple,
          Python will not raise an error, but some slots will only be
          inherited from the first base.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_mro

     Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the
     type itself and ending with *note object: a7c, in Method Resolution
     Order.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 768.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by *note
     PyType_Ready(): 768.

 -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_cache

     Unused.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Membre: void **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_subclasses

     A collection of subclasses.  Internal use only.  May be an invalid
     pointer.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 561.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: For some types, this field does not
     hold a valid *note PyObject: 32f.*.  The type was changed to void*
     to indicate this.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Membre: *note PyObject: 32f. **note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_weaklist

     Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object.
     Not inherited.  Internal use only.

     Modifié dans la version 3.12: Internals detail: For the static
     builtin types this is always ‘NULL’, even if weakrefs are added.
     Instead, the weakrefs for each are stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.
     Use the public C-API or the internal
     ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro to avoid the distinction.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Membre: *note destructor: 4a36. *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_del

     This field is deprecated.  Use *note tp_finalize: a96. instead.

 -- C Membre: unsigned int *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_version_tag

     Used to index into the method cache.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Membre: *note destructor: 4a36. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_finalize

     An optional pointer to an instance finalization function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);

     If *note tp_finalize: a96. is set, the interpreter calls it once
     when finalizing an instance.  It is called either from the garbage
     collector (if the instance is part of an isolated reference cycle)
     or just before the object is deallocated.  Either way, it is
     guaranteed to be called before attempting to break reference
     cycles, ensuring that it finds the object in a sane state.

     *note tp_finalize: a96. should not mutate the current exception
     status; therefore, a recommended way to write a non-trivial
     finalizer is:

          static void
          local_finalize(PyObject *self)
          {
              /* Save the current exception, if any. */
              PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

              /* ... */

              /* Restore the saved exception. */
              PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

     Modifié dans la version 3.8: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to
     set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3e8. flags bit in order for
     this field to be used.  This is no longer required.

     Voir aussi
     ..........

     "Safe object finalization" ( PEP 442(4))

 -- C Membre: *note vectorcallfunc: 545. *note PyTypeObject:
          a95.tp_vectorcall

     Vectorcall function to use for calls of this type object.  In other
     words, it is used to implement *note vectorcall: 540. for
     ‘type.__call__’.  If ‘tp_vectorcall’ is ‘NULL’, the default call
     implementation using *note __new__(): 56e. and *note __init__():
     69d. is used.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is never inherited.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9: (the field exists since 3.8 but it's
     only used since 3.9)

 -- C Membre: unsigned char *note PyTypeObject: a95.tp_watched

     Internal.  Do not use.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue40217

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Static Types,  Next: Heap Types,  Prev: PyTypeObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.9 Static Types
.....................

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static', that is, a static
*note PyTypeObject: a95. structure is defined directly in code and
initialized using *note PyType_Ready(): 768.

This results in types that are limited relative to types defined in
Python:

   * Static types are limited to one base, i.e.  they cannot use
     multiple inheritance.

   * Static type objects (but not necessarily their instances) are
     immutable.  It is not possible to add or modify the type object's
     attributes from Python.

   * Static type objects are shared across *note sub-interpreters: 575,
     so they should not include any subinterpreter-specific state.

Also, since *note PyTypeObject: a95. is only part of the *note Limited
API: 38c. as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types
must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types,  Next: Number Object Structures,  Prev: Static Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.10 Heap Types
....................

An alternative to *note static types: 76b. is 'heap-allocated types', or
'heap types' for short, which correspond closely to classes created by
Python's ‘class’ statement.  Heap types have the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 89e. flag set.

This is done by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 16d6. structure and calling
*note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 56c,
*note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f, or *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
53e.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Object Structures,  Next: Mapping Object Structures,  Prev: Heap Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.11 Number Object Structures
..................................

 -- C Type: type PyNumberMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the number protocol.  Each function is used by the
     function of similar name documented in the *note Number Protocol:
     4af4. section.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
               binaryfunc nb_add;
               binaryfunc nb_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_remainder;
               binaryfunc nb_divmod;
               ternaryfunc nb_power;
               unaryfunc nb_negative;
               unaryfunc nb_positive;
               unaryfunc nb_absolute;
               inquiry nb_bool;
               unaryfunc nb_invert;
               binaryfunc nb_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_and;
               binaryfunc nb_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_or;
               unaryfunc nb_int;
               void *nb_reserved;
               unaryfunc nb_float;

               binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
               ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;

               binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;

               unaryfunc nb_index;

               binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
          } PyNumberMethods;

          Note: Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all
          their operands, and implement the necessary conversions (at
          least one of the operands is an instance of the defined type).
          If the operation is not defined for the given operands, binary
          and ternary functions must return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if
          another error occurred they must return ‘NULL’ and set an
          exception.

          Note: The *note nb_reserved: 4dbf. field should always be
          ‘NULL’.  It was previously called ‘nb_long’, and was renamed
          in Python 3.0.1.

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_add

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_subtract

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_multiply

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_remainder

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_divmod

 -- C Membre: *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_power

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_negative

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_positive

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_absolute

 -- C Membre: *note inquiry: 4a3e. *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_bool

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_invert

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_lshift

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_rshift

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_and

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_xor

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_or

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_int

 -- C Membre: void **note PyNumberMethods: 13d6.nb_reserved

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_float

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_add

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_subtract

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_multiply

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_remainder

 -- C Membre: *note ternaryfunc: 4a4c. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_power

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_lshift

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_rshift

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_and

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_xor

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_or

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_floor_divide

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_true_divide

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_floor_divide

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_true_divide

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_index

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_matrix_multiply

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13d6.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Object Structures,  Next: Sequence Object Structures,  Prev: Number Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.12 Mapping Object Structures
...................................

 -- C Type: type PyMappingMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the mapping protocol.  It has three members:

 -- C Membre: *note lenfunc: 4a40. *note PyMappingMethods:
          4895.mp_length

     This function is used by *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a14. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 49b0, and has the same signature.  This slot may
     be set to ‘NULL’ if the object has no defined length.

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PyMappingMethods:
          4895.mp_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_GetItem(): 33d. and *note
     PySequence_GetSlice(): 49bb, and has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_GetItem()’.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PyMapping_Check(): 496c. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

 -- C Membre: *note objobjargproc: 4a42. *note PyMappingMethods:
          4895.mp_ass_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 48ce, *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2, *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 49c2. and
     *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 49b9.  It has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_SetItem()’, but 'v' can also be set to ‘NULL’ to delete
     an item.  If this slot is ‘NULL’, the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Object Structures,  Next: Buffer Object Structures,  Prev: Mapping Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.13 Sequence Object Structures
....................................

 -- C Type: type PySequenceMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the sequence protocol.

 -- C Membre: *note lenfunc: 4a40. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_length

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Size(): 1a10. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 49b0, and has the same signature.  It is also used
     for handling negative indices via the *note sq_item: 18e9. and the
     *note sq_ass_item: 4dcb. slots.

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_concat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Concat(): 49b6. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘+’ operator, after
     trying the numeric addition via the *note nb_add: 4b3e. slot.

 -- C Membre: *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_repeat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Repeat(): 49c1. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘*’ operator, after
     trying numeric multiplication via the *note nb_multiply: 4da8.
     slot.

 -- C Membre: *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_item

     This function is used by *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_GetItem():
     33d, after trying the subscription via the *note mp_subscript:
     18ea. slot.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PySequence_Check(): 49b5. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

     Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the *note sq_length:
     4b46. slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used
     to compute a positive index which is passed to *note sq_item: 18e9.
     If ‘sq_length’ is ‘NULL’, the index is passed as is to the
     function.

 -- C Membre: *note ssizeobjargproc: 4a4b. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_ass_item

     This function is used by *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a12. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_SetItem():
     48ce. and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 49a2, after trying the item
     assignment and deletion via the *note mp_ass_subscript: 4dc8. slot.
     This slot may be left to ‘NULL’ if the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.

 -- C Membre: *note objobjproc: 4a43. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_contains

     This function may be used by *note PySequence_Contains(): 49b7. and
     has the same signature.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this
     case ‘PySequence_Contains()’ simply traverses the sequence until it
     finds a match.

 -- C Membre: *note binaryfunc: 4a33. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_inplace_concat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 49bc.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceConcat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Concat(): 49b6.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘+=’, after trying numeric in-place addition via the
     *note nb_inplace_add: 4da5. slot.

 -- C Membre: *note ssizeargfunc: 4a4a. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4894.sq_inplace_repeat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 49bd.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Repeat(): 49c1.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘*=’, after trying numeric in-place multiplication via
     the *note nb_inplace_multiply: 4da9. slot.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer Object Structures,  Next: Async Object Structures,  Prev: Sequence Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.14 Buffer Object Structures
..................................

 -- C Type: type PyBufferProcs

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the
     *note Buffer protocol: 38e.  The protocol defines how an exporter
     object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.

 -- C Membre: *note getbufferproc: 4a39. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4b4d.bf_getbuffer

     The signature of this function is:

          int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);

     Handle a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by
     'flags'.  Except for point (3), an implementation of this function
     MUST take these steps:

       1. Check if the request can be met.  If not, raise *note
          BufferError: 17e1, set view->obj to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’.

       2. Fill in the requested fields.

       3. Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.

       4. Set view->obj to 'exporter' and increment view->obj.

       5. Return ‘0’.

     If 'exporter' is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two
     main schemes can be used:

        * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting
          object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself.

        * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object
          of the tree.  Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the
          root object.

     The individual fields of 'view' are described in section *note
     Buffer structure: 4b0a, the rules how an exporter must react to
     specific requests are in section *note Buffer request types: 445d.

     All memory pointed to in the *note Py_buffer: 744. structure
     belongs to the exporter and must remain valid until there are no
     consumers left.  *note format: 4b14, *note shape: 4b16, *note
     strides: 4b0e, *note suboffsets: 4b18. and *note internal: 4b1b.
     are read-only for the consumer.

     *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 74c. provides an easy way of exposing a
     simple bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 390. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.

 -- C Membre: *note releasebufferproc: 4a44. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4b4d.bf_releasebuffer

     The signature of this function is:

          void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);

     Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer.  If no
     resources need to be released, *note
     PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 74f. may be ‘NULL’.  Otherwise, a
     standard implementation of this function will take these optional
     steps:

       1. Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.

       2. If the counter is ‘0’, free all memory associated with 'view'.

     The exporter MUST use the *note internal: 4b1b. field to keep track
     of buffer-specific resources.  This field is guaranteed to remain
     constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer
     as the 'view' argument.

     This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done
     automatically in *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. (this scheme is
     useful for breaking reference cycles).

     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 391. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.


File: python.info,  Node: Async Object Structures,  Next: Slot Type typedefs,  Prev: Buffer Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.15 Async Object Structures
.................................

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

 -- C Type: type PyAsyncMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required to
     implement *note awaitable: 1ab. and *note asynchronous iterator:
     1a9. objects.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
              unaryfunc am_await;
              unaryfunc am_aiter;
              unaryfunc am_anext;
              sendfunc am_send;
          } PyAsyncMethods;

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45.am_await

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);

     The returned object must be an *note iterator: 1aa, i.e.  *note
     PyIter_Check(): 18b1. must return ‘1’ for it.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object is not an *note
     awaitable: 1ab.

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45.am_aiter

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: 1a9. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 152d. for details.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object does not implement
     asynchronous iteration protocol.

 -- C Membre: *note unaryfunc: 4a4e. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45.am_anext

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note awaitable: 1ab. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 152d. for details.  This slot may be set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Membre: *note sendfunc: 4da4. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4b45.am_send

     The signature of this function is:

          PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);

     See *note PyIter_Send(): 886. for details.  This slot may be set to
     ‘NULL’.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Slot Type typedefs,  Next: Exemples<37>,  Prev: Async Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.16 Slot Type typedefs
............................

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*allocfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: a95. *cls, *note Py_ssize_t: a50. nitems)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  The purpose of this function
     is to separate memory allocation from memory initialization.  It
     should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate length for
     the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with
     *note ob_refcnt: 88d. set to ‘1’ and *note ob_type: 486d. set to
     the type argument.  If the type's *note tp_itemsize: 1f29. is
     non-zero, the object's *note ob_size: 4a20. field should be
     initialized to 'nitems' and the length of the allocated memory
     block should be ‘tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize’, rounded up to
     a multiple of ‘sizeof(void*)’; otherwise, 'nitems' is not used and
     the length of the block should be *note tp_basicsize: 976.

     This function should not do any other instance initialization, not
     even to allocate additional memory; that should be done by *note
     tp_new: 56d.

 -- C Type: typedef void (*destructor)(*note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef void (*freefunc)(void*)

     See *note tp_free: 4870.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*newfunc)(*note PyTypeObject:
          a95.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_new: 56d.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*initproc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note
          PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_init: 56f.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*reprfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_repr: 4884.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*getattrfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f. *self, char *attr)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the value of the
     named attribute for the object.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*setattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 32f. *self, char
          *attr, *note PyObject: 32f. *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*getattrofunc)(*note
          PyObject: 32f. *self, *note PyObject: 32f. *attr)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Return the value of the
     named attribute for the object.

     See *note tp_getattro: 16ac.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*setattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 32f. *self,
          *note PyObject: 32f. *attr, *note PyObject: 32f. *value)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

     See *note tp_setattro: 4888.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*descrgetfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_descr_get:
     4d99.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note
          PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_descr_set:
     18b3.

 -- C Type: typedef *note Py_hash_t: 1244. (*hashfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_hash: 4896.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*richcmpfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*, int)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_richcompare:
     4890.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*getiterfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_iter: 14a6.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*iternextfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  See *note tp_iternext: 14a7.

 -- C Type: typedef *note Py_ssize_t: a50. (*lenfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef int (*getbufferproc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note
          Py_buffer: 744.*, int)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'

 -- C Type: typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*,
          *note Py_buffer: 744.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.12.'

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*unaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*binaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef *note PySendResult: 4b06. (*sendfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject:
          32f.**)

     See *note am_send: 4da3.

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*ternaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 32f. *(*ssizeargfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 32f.*, *note Py_ssize_t: a50.)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note
          Py_ssize_t: a50, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef int (*objobjproc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note
          PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'

 -- C Type: typedef int (*objobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 32f.*, *note
          PyObject: 32f.*, *note PyObject: 32f.*)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<37>,  Prev: Slot Type typedefs,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.17 Exemples
..................

The following are simple examples of Python type definitions.  They
include common usage you may encounter.  Some demonstrate tricky corner
cases.  For more examples, practical info, and a tutorial, see *note
Tutoriel ; définir des types dans des extensions: 4866. and *note
Définir les types d'extension ; divers sujets: 487f.

A basic *note static type: 76b.:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

You may also find older code (especially in the CPython code base) with
a more verbose initializer:

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         "mymod.MyObject",               /* tp_name */
         sizeof(MyObject),               /* tp_basicsize */
         0,                              /* tp_itemsize */
         (destructor)myobj_dealloc,      /* tp_dealloc */
         0,                              /* tp_vectorcall_offset */
         0,                              /* tp_getattr */
         0,                              /* tp_setattr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_async */
         (reprfunc)myobj_repr,           /* tp_repr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_number */
         0,                              /* tp_as_sequence */
         0,                              /* tp_as_mapping */
         0,                              /* tp_hash */
         0,                              /* tp_call */
         0,                              /* tp_str */
         0,                              /* tp_getattro */
         0,                              /* tp_setattro */
         0,                              /* tp_as_buffer */
         0,                              /* tp_flags */
         PyDoc_STR("My objects"),        /* tp_doc */
         0,                              /* tp_traverse */
         0,                              /* tp_clear */
         0,                              /* tp_richcompare */
         0,                              /* tp_weaklistoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_iter */
         0,                              /* tp_iternext */
         0,                              /* tp_methods */
         0,                              /* tp_members */
         0,                              /* tp_getset */
         0,                              /* tp_base */
         0,                              /* tp_dict */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_get */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_set */
         0,                              /* tp_dictoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_init */
         0,                              /* tp_alloc */
         myobj_new,                      /* tp_new */
     };

A type that supports weakrefs, instance dicts, and hashing:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
              Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT |
              Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF,
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear,
         .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
         .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash,
         .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare,
     };

A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create
instances (e.g.  uses a separate factory func) using *note
Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 570. flag:

     typedef struct {
         PyUnicodeObject raw;
         char *extra;
     } MyStr;

     static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr),
         .tp_base = NULL,  // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

The simplest *note static type: 76b. with fixed-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
     };

The simplest *note static type: 76b. with variable-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *data[1];
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *),
         .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *),
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection,  Prev: Type Object Structures,  Up: Implémentation d'objets

7.12.4 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
-------------------------------------------

Python's support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves
circular references requires support from object types which are
"containers" for other objects which may also be containers.  Types
which do not store references to other objects, or which only store
references to atomic types (such as numbers or strings), do not need to
provide any explicit support for garbage collection.

To create a container type, the *note tp_flags: 187a. field of the type
object must include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. and provide an
implementation of the *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler.  If instances of
the type are mutable, a *note tp_clear: 4882. implementation must also
be provided.

*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769.

     Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules
     documented here.  For convenience these objects will be referred to
     as container objects.

Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:

  1. The memory for the object must be allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: a92. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: a93.

  2. Once all the fields which may contain references to other
     containers are initialized, it must call *note PyObject_GC_Track():
     14bd.

Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair
of rules:

  1. Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated,
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. must be called.

  2. The object's memory must be deallocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc.

          Avertissement: If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it
          'must' implement at least a *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler or
          explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses.

          When calling *note PyType_Ready(): 768. or some of the APIs
          that indirectly call it like *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases():
          56c. or *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b. the interpreter will
          automatically populate the *note tp_flags: 187a, *note
          tp_traverse: 76a. and *note tp_clear: 4882. fields if the type
          inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector
          protocol and the child class does 'not' include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_GC_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_New: 974. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag set.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_GC_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_NewVar: 975. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag set.

 -- C Fonction: *note PyObject: 32f.
          *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (PyTypeObject *type,
          size_t extra_size)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Analogous to *note PyObject_GC_New: a92. but allocates 'extra_size'
     bytes at the end of the object (at offset *note tp_basicsize:
     976.).  The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for
     the *note Python object header: 32f.

     The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise
     it is not managed by Python.

          Avertissement: The function is marked as unstable because the
          final mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is
          not yet decided.  For allocating a variable number of fields,
          prefer using *note PyVarObject: 4108. and *note tp_itemsize:
          1f29. instead.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Macro: PyObject_GC_Resize (TYPE, op, newsize)

     Resize an object allocated by *note PyObject_NewVar: 975.  Returns
     the resized object of type ‘TYPE*’ (refers to any C type) or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

     'op' must be of type *note PyVarObject: 4108.* and must not be
     tracked by the collector yet.  'newsize' must be of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: a50.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_GC_Track (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Adds the object 'op' to the
     set of container objects tracked by the collector.  The collector
     can run at unexpected times so objects must be valid while being
     tracked.  This should be called once all the fields followed by the
     *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler become valid, usually near the end
     of the constructor.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_IS_GC (PyObject *obj)

     Returns non-zero if the object implements the garbage collector
     protocol, otherwise returns 0.

     The object cannot be tracked by the garbage collector if this
     function returns 0.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GC_IsTracked (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'
     Returns 1 if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and
     'op' is being currently tracked by the garbage collector and 0
     otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_tracked():
     12ee.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.9.'
     Returns 1 if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and
     'op' has been already finalized by the garbage collector and 0
     otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_finalized():
     8ec.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_GC_Del (void *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Releases memory allocated to
     an object using *note PyObject_GC_New: a92. or *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar: a93.

 -- C Fonction: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack (void *op)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Remove the object 'op' from
     the set of container objects tracked by the collector.  Note that
     *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14bd. can be called again on this object
     to add it back to the set of tracked objects.  The deallocator
     (*note tp_dealloc: 486f. handler) should call this for the object
     before any of the fields used by the *note tp_traverse: 76a.
     handler become invalid.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C API.

The *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler accepts a function parameter of this
type:

 -- C Type: typedef int (*visitproc)(*note PyObject: 32f. *object, void
          *arg)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Type of the visitor function
     passed to the *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler.  The function should
     be called with an object to traverse as 'object' and the third
     parameter to the *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler as 'arg'.  The
     Python core uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic
     garbage detection; it's not expected that users will need to write
     their own visitor functions.

The *note tp_traverse: 76a. handler must have the following type:

 -- C Type: typedef int (*traverseproc)(*note PyObject: 32f. *self,
          *note visitproc: 4a4f. visit, void *arg)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Traversal function for a
     container object.  Implementations must call the 'visit' function
     for each object directly contained by 'self', with the parameters
     to 'visit' being the contained object and the 'arg' value passed to
     the handler.  The 'visit' function must not be called with a ‘NULL’
     object argument.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value that value
     should be returned immediately.

To simplify writing *note tp_traverse: 76a. handlers, a *note
Py_VISIT(): 4879. macro is provided.  In order to use this macro, the
*note tp_traverse: 76a. implementation must name its arguments exactly
'visit' and 'arg':

 -- C Fonction: void Py_VISIT (PyObject *o)

     If 'o' is not ‘NULL’, call the 'visit' callback, with arguments 'o'
     and 'arg'.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value, then return it.
     Using this macro, *note tp_traverse: 76a. handlers look like:

          static int
          my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->foo);
              Py_VISIT(self->bar);
              return 0;
          }

The *note tp_clear: 4882. handler must be of the *note inquiry: 4a3e.
type, or ‘NULL’ if the object is immutable.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*inquiry)(*note PyObject: 32f. *self)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Drop references that may
     have created reference cycles.  Immutable objects do not have to
     define this method since they can never directly create reference
     cycles.  Note that the object must still be valid after calling
     this method (don't just call *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. on a
     reference).  The collector will call this method if it detects that
     this object is involved in a reference cycle.

* Menu:

* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Next: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.12.4.1 Controlling the Garbage Collector State
................................................

The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage
collection runs.

 -- C Fonction: *note Py_ssize_t: a50. PyGC_Collect (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541.'  Perform a full garbage
     collection, if the garbage collector is enabled.  (Note that *note
     gc.collect(): a2a. runs it unconditionally.)

     Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot
     be collected.  If the garbage collector is disabled or already
     collecting, returns ‘0’ immediately.  Errors during garbage
     collection are passed to *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f4.  This
     function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C Fonction: int PyGC_Enable (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Enable the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.enable(): 4409.
     Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int PyGC_Disable (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Disable the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.disable(): 440a.
     Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

 -- C Fonction: int PyGC_IsEnabled (void)
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.10.'
     Query the state of the garbage collector: similar to *note
     gc.isenabled(): 440b.  Returns the current state, 0 for disabled
     and 1 for enabled.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Prev: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.12.4.2 Querying Garbage Collector State
.........................................

The C-API provides the following interface for querying information
about the garbage collector.

 -- C Fonction: void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (gcvisitobjects_t
          callback, void *arg)

          This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 535. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Run supplied 'callback' on all live GC-capable objects.  'arg' is
     passed through to all invocations of 'callback'.

          Avertissement: If new objects are (de)allocated by the
          callback it is undefined if they will be visited.

          Garbage collection is disabled during operation.  Explicitly
          running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined
          behaviour e.g.  visiting the same objects multiple times or
          not at all.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

 -- C Type: typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(*note PyObject: 32f.
          *object, void *arg)

     Type of the visitor function to be passed to *note
     PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(): 4df2.  'arg' is the same as the 'arg'
     passed to ‘PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects’.  Return ‘1’ to continue
     iteration, return ‘0’ to stop iteration.  Other return values are
     reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is
     undefined.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Version des API et ABI,  Next: Monitoring C API,  Prev: Implémentation d'objets,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.13 Version des API et ABI
===========================

CPython révèle son numéro de version dans les macros suivantes.  À noter
qu'ils correspondent au code de la version 'compilée' avec, pas
nécessairement la version utilisée à l''exécution'.

Voir *note Stabilité de l’API C: 541. pour une discussion sur la
stabilité des API et ABI entre (ou en fonction) de la version.

 -- C Macro: PY_MAJOR_VERSION

     Le ‘3’ dans ‘3.4.1a2’.)

 -- C Macro: PY_MINOR_VERSION

     Le ‘4’ dans ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Macro: PY_MICRO_VERSION

     Le ‘1’ dans ‘3.4.1a2’.)

 -- C Macro: PY_RELEASE_LEVEL

     The ‘a’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.  This can be ‘0xA’ for alpha, ‘0xB’ for beta,
     ‘0xC’ for release candidate or ‘0xF’ for final.

 -- C Macro: PY_RELEASE_SERIAL

     Le ‘2’ dans ‘3.4.1a2’.  Nul pour des versions finales.

 -- C Macro: PY_VERSION_HEX

     Le numéro de version de Python encodé en un seul entier.

     L'information sur la version sous-jacente peut être trouvée en la
     traitant comme un nombre sous 32 bits de la manière suivante :

     Octets      Bits (ordre gros-boutiste)    Signification                 Valeur pour ‘3.4.1a2’
                                                                             
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
     1           1-8                           ‘PY_MAJOR_VERSION’            ‘0x03’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     2           9-16                          ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’            ‘0x04’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     3           17-24                         ‘PY_MICRO_VERSION’            ‘0x01’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     4           25-28                         ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL’            ‘0xA’
                                                                             
                                               
     29-32       ‘PY_RELEASE_SERIAL’           ‘0x2’
                                               

     Ainsi, ‘0x030401a2’ est la version en notation hexadécimale sur un
     entier de ‘3.4.1a2’ et ‘0x030a00f0’ est la version en notation
     hexadécimale sur un entier de ‘3.10.0’

     Vous pouvez l'utiliser pour les comparaisons numériques, par
     exemple, ‘#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= ...’.

     This version is also available via the symbol *note Py_Version:
     742.

 -- C Variable: const unsigned long Py_Version
     ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 541. Depuis la version 3.11.'  La
     version à l'exécution de Python est encodée en une constante, avec
     le même format que la macro *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 743.  Cela
     contient la version de Python utilisée lors de l'exécution.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Toutes les macros données sont définies dans Include/patchlevel.h(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Include/patchlevel.h


File: python.info,  Node: Monitoring C API,  Next: Generating Execution Events,  Prev: Version des API et ABI,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.14 Monitoring C API
=====================

Added in version 3.13.

An extension may need to interact with the event monitoring system.
Subscribing to events and registering callbacks can be done via the
Python API exposed in *note sys.monitoring: d9.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating Execution Events,  Prev: Monitoring C API,  Up: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C

7.15 Generating Execution Events
================================

The functions below make it possible for an extension to fire monitoring
events as it emulates the execution of Python code.  Each of these
functions accepts a ‘PyMonitoringState’ struct which contains concise
information about the activation state of events, as well as the event
arguments, which include a ‘PyObject*’ representing the code object, the
instruction offset and sometimes additional, event-specific arguments
(see *note sys.monitoring: d9. for details about the signatures of the
different event callbacks).  The ‘codelike’ argument should be an
instance of *note types.CodeType: 2de. or of a type that emulates it.

The VM disables tracing when firing an event, so there is no need for
user code to do that.

Monitoring functions should not be called with an exception set, except
those listed below as working with the current exception.

 -- C Type: type PyMonitoringState

     Representation of the state of an event type.  It is allocated by
     the user while its contents are maintained by the monitoring API
     functions described below.

All of the functions below return 0 on success and -1 (with an exception
set) on error.

See *note sys.monitoring: d9. for descriptions of the events.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_START’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_RESUME’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘PY_RETURN’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘PY_YIELD’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg0)

     Fire a ‘CALL’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, int lineno)

     Fire a ‘LINE’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject
          *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘JUMP’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject
          *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘BRANCH’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘C_RETURN’ event.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_THROW’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.).

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.).

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘C_RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.).

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘RERAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.).

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent
          (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire an ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ event with the current exception (as
     returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.).

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_UNWIND’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea.).

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent
          (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset,
          PyObject *value)

     Fire a ‘STOP_ITERATION’ event.  If ‘value’ is an instance of *note
     StopIteration: bea, it is used.  Otherwise, a new *note
     StopIteration: bea. instance is created with ‘value’ as its
     argument.

* Menu:

* Managing the Monitoring State::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing the Monitoring State,  Up: Generating Execution Events

7.15.1 Managing the Monitoring State
------------------------------------

Monitoring states can be managed with the help of monitoring scopes.  A
scope would typically correspond to a python function.

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_EnterScope (PyMonitoringState
          *state_array, uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types,
          Py_ssize_t length)

     Enter a monitored scope.  ‘event_types’ is an array of the event
     IDs for events that may be fired from the scope.  For example, the
     ID of a ‘PY_START’ event is the value
     ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START’, which is numerically equal to the
     base-2 logarithm of ‘sys.monitoring.events.PY_START’.
     ‘state_array’ is an array with a monitoring state entry for each
     event in ‘event_types’, it is allocated by the user but populated
     by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ with information about the
     activation state of the event.  The size of ‘event_types’ (and
     hence also of ‘state_array’) is given in ‘length’.

     The ‘version’ argument is a pointer to a value which should be
     allocated by the user together with ‘state_array’ and initialized
     to 0, and then set only by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ itself.  It
     allows this function to determine whether event states have changed
     since the previous call, and to return quickly if they have not.

     The scopes referred to here are lexical scopes: a function, class
     or method.  ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ should be called whenever
     the lexical scope is entered.  Scopes can be reentered, reusing the
     same 'state_array' and 'version', in situations like when emulating
     a recursive Python function.  When a code-like's execution is
     paused, such as when emulating a generator, the scope needs to be
     exited and re-entered.

     The macros for 'event_types' are:

     Macro                                                  Événement
                                                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH                *note BRANCH: 4347.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL                  *note CALL: 1601.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE               *note C_RAISE: 4348.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN              *note C_RETURN: 4349.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED     *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 434a.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION           *note INSTRUCTION: 434b.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP                  *note JUMP: 434c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE                  *note LINE: 434d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME             *note PY_RESUME: 434e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN             *note PY_RETURN: 434f.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START              *note PY_START: 4350.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW              *note PY_THROW: 4351.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND             *note PY_UNWIND: 4352.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD              *note PY_YIELD: 4353.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE                 *note RAISE: 15aa.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE               *note RERAISE: 4355.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION        *note STOP_ITERATION: 4354.
                                                            

 -- C Fonction: int PyMonitoring_ExitScope (void)

     Exit the last scope that was entered with
     ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’.

 -- C Fonction: int PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (uint8_t ev)

     Return true if the event corresponding to the event ID 'ev' is a
     *note local event: 4359.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

     Obsolète depuis la version 3.13.3: This function is *note soft
     deprecated: 206.


File: python.info,  Node: Installation de modules Python,  Next: Les HOWTOs de Python,  Prev: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C,  Up: Top

8 Installation de modules Python
********************************


Email: <distutils-sig@python.org>

En tant que logiciel libre populaire, Python bénéficie d'une communauté
active de contributeurs et d'utilisateurs qui rendent à leur tour leurs
logiciels disponibles, sous licence libre, pour les autres développeurs
Python.

Cela permet aux utilisateurs de Python de partager et de collaborer
efficacement, bénéficiant des solutions que les autres ont déjà crées
pour résoudre les problèmes communs (ou même, parfois, rares !), aussi
que de partager leurs propres solutions à tous.

This guide covers the installation part of the process.  For a guide to
creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the Python
packaging user guide(1).

     Note: Pour les entreprises et autres institutions, gardez en tête
     que certaines organisations ont leurs propres règles sur
     l'utilisation et la contribution au logiciel libre.  Prenez ces
     règles en compte lorsque vous utilisez les outils de distribution
     et d'installation fournis par Python.

* Menu:

* Vocabulaire::
* Utilisation de base: Utilisation de base<2>.
* Comment puis-je … ?::
* Les problèmes d'installation typiques::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: Vocabulaire,  Next: Utilisation de base<2>,  Up: Installation de modules Python

8.1 Vocabulaire
===============

   * ‘pip’ est l'outil d'installation de prédilection.  À partir de
     Python 3.4, il est inclus par défaut avec l'installateur de Python.

   * Un 'environnement virtuel' est un environnement Python semi-isolé
     qui autorise les paquets à être installés pour une application
     particulière, plutôt que d'être installés au niveau du système.

   * ‘venv’ est l'outil standard pour créer des environnements virtuels,
     et est intégré à Python depuis la version 3.3.  Depuis Python 3.4,
     il installe aussi ‘pip’ dans tous les environnements virtuels
     créés.

   * ‘virtualenv’ est une alternative tierce à ‘venv’ (et son
     prédécesseur).  Elle permet la création d'environnements virtuels
     pour les versions de Python antérieures à 3.4, qui ne fournissent
     pas de ‘venv’, ou ne sont pas capables d'installer automatiquement
     ‘pip’ dans les environnements créés.

   * L'Index des Paquets Python(1) est un dépôt public des paquets sous
     licence ouverte disponibles pour tous les utilisateurs Python.

   * the Python Packaging Authority(2) is the group of developers and
     documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and evolution
     of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
     file format standards.  They maintain a variety of tools,
     documentation, and issue trackers on GitHub(3).

   * ‘distutils’ est le premier système de construction et de
     distribution ajouté à la bibliothèque standard en 1998.  Bien que
     l'utilisation directe de ‘distutils’ soit progressivement
     supprimée, elle reste le fondement de l'infrastructure actuelle de
     construction de paquet et de distribution.  Au-delà de rester dans
     la bibliothèque standard, son nom vit aussi sous d'autres formes,
     tel que la liste de diffusion utilisée pour coordonner le
     développement et les standards de la création de paquet.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: L'utilisation de ‘venv’ est maintenant
recommandée pour créer vos environnements virtuels.

Voir aussi
..........

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Créer et utiliser des
environnements virtuels(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.pypa.io/

   (3) https://github.com/pypa

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de base<2>,  Next: Comment puis-je … ?,  Prev: Vocabulaire,  Up: Installation de modules Python

8.2 Utilisation de base
=======================

Les outils standards de création de paquets sont tous conçus pour être
utilisés à partir de la ligne de commande.

La commande suivante va installer la dernière version d'un module et ses
dépendances depuis le 'Python Package Index' :

     python -m pip install SomePackage

     Note: Pour les utilisateurs POSIX (y compris Mac OS X et Linux),
     les exemples de ce guide supposent l'utilisation d'un *note
     environnement virtuel: 1cbe.

     Pour les utilisateurs de Windows, les exemples de ce guide
     supposent que l'option proposant de modifier la variable
     d'environnement PATH à été cochée lors de l'installation de Python.

Il est aussi possible de préciser une version minimum exacte directement
depuis la ligne de commande.  Utiliser des caractères de comparaison tel
que ‘>’, ‘<’ ou d'autres caractères spéciaux qui sont interprétés par le
'shell', le nom du paquet et la version doivent être mis entre
guillemets :

     python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
     python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # minimum version

Normalement, si un module approprié est déjà installé, l'installer à
nouveau n'aura aucun effet.  La mise à jour de modules existants doit
être demandée explicitement :

     python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage

Plus d'informations et de ressources concernant ‘pip’ et ses capacités
peuvent être trouvées dans le Python Packaging User Guide(1).

La création d'environnements virtuels est réalisée grâce au module *note
venv: 110.  Installer des paquets au sein de l'environnement virtuel
courant utilise les commandes montrées précédemment.

Voir aussi
..........

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Installer les paquets de la
distribution Python(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/installing/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je … ?,  Next: Les problèmes d'installation typiques,  Prev: Utilisation de base<2>,  Up: Installation de modules Python

8.3 Comment puis-je … ?
=======================

Ce sont des réponses rapides ou des liens pour certaines tâches
courantes.

* Menu:

* ... Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3.4 ?: Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3 4 ?.
* ... Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?: Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?.
* ... Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?.
* ... Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?: Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3 4 ?,  Next: Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?,  Up: Comment puis-je … ?

8.3.1 ... Installer ‘pip’ avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3.4 ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python n'a commencé à fournir ‘pip’ depuis Python 3.4.  Pour les
versions précédentes, ‘pip’ a besoin d'être "amorcé" tel que décrit dans
le 'Python Packaging User Guide'.

Voir aussi
..........

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Pré-requis pour installer
des paquets(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages


File: python.info,  Node: Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?,  Next: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?,  Prev: Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3 4 ?,  Up: Comment puis-je … ?

8.3.2 ... Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Donner l'option ‘--user’ à ‘python -m pip install’ lui fera installer un
paquet juste pour l'utilisateur en cours, plutôt que pour tous les
utilisateurs du système.


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8.3.3 ... Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?
------------------------------------------------------

Un certain nombre de paquets scientifiques Python ont des dépendances
binaires complexes, et ne sont pas actuellement faciles à installer
directement avec ‘pip’.  Pour le moment, il est souvent plus simple pour
les utilisateurs d'installer ces paquets par d'autres moyens(1) plutôt
que d'essayer de les installer avec ‘pip’.

Voir aussi
..........

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Installer des paquets
scientifiques(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/science/


File: python.info,  Node: Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?,  Prev: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?,  Up: Comment puis-je … ?

8.3.4 ... Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sous Linux, Max OS X et autres systèmes POSIX, utiliser les commandes
Python de la version souhaitée en combinaison avec l'option ‘-m’ permet
de lancer la version appropriée de ‘pip’ :

     python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
     python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
     python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4

Les versions appropriées des commandes ‘pip’ peuvent aussi être
disponibles.

Sous Windows, utilisez le lanceur Python ‘py’ en combinaison avec
l'option ‘-m’ :

     py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
     py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
     py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4


File: python.info,  Node: Les problèmes d'installation typiques,  Prev: Comment puis-je … ?,  Up: Installation de modules Python

8.4 Les problèmes d'installation typiques
=========================================

* Menu:

* Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux::
* Pip n'est pas installé::
* Installation d'extensions binaires::


File: python.info,  Node: Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux,  Next: Pip n'est pas installé,  Up: Les problèmes d'installation typiques

8.4.1 Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux
---------------------------------------------------

Sur les systèmes Linux, une installation de Python sera généralement
incluse dans le cadre de la distribution.  Installer dans cette
installation de Python nécessite un accès 'root' sur le système, et peut
interférer avec le fonctionnement du gestionnaire de paquets du système
et d'autres composants du système si un composant est mis à jour de
façon inattendue en utilisant ‘pip’.

Sur de tels systèmes, il est souvent préférable d'utiliser un
environnement virtuel ou une installation par l'utilisateur lors de
l'installation des paquets avec ‘pip’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pip n'est pas installé,  Next: Installation d'extensions binaires,  Prev: Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux,  Up: Les problèmes d'installation typiques

8.4.2 ‘Pip’ n'est pas installé
------------------------------

Il est possible que ‘pip’ ne soit pas installé par défaut.  Une solution
est :

     python -m ensurepip --default-pip

Il existe également des ressources supplémentaires pour installer
pip.(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date


File: python.info,  Node: Installation d'extensions binaires,  Prev: Pip n'est pas installé,  Up: Les problèmes d'installation typiques

8.4.3 Installation d'extensions binaires
----------------------------------------

Python a généralement beaucoup misé sur une distribution basée sur les
sources, avec laquelle les utilisateurs finaux devaient compiler, lors
de l'installation, les modules d'extension à partir des sources.

Avec l'introduction du format binaire ‘wheel’, et la possibilité de
publier des 'wheels', pour, au moins Windows et Mac OS X, via le 'Python
Package Index', ce problème devrait diminuer au fil du temps, car les
utilisateurs sont plus régulièrement en mesure d'installer des
extensions pré-compilées plutôt que de devoir les compiler eux-mêmes.

Certaines solutions pour installer des paquets scientifiques(1) qui ne
sont pas encore disponibles comme ‘wheel’ pré-construites peuvent aussi
aider à obtenir d'autres extensions binaires sans devoir les construire
localement.

Voir aussi
..........

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Extensions binaires(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Les HOWTOs de Python,  Next: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python,  Prev: Installation de modules Python,  Up: Top

9 Les HOWTOs de Python
**********************

Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a specific topic in-depth.
Modeled on the Linux Documentation Project's HOWTO collection, this
collection is an effort to foster documentation that's more detailed
than the Python Library Reference.

* Menu:

* Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3::
* Programmation Curses avec Python::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum::
* Guide pratique ; programmation fonctionnelle: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle.
* Tutoriel sur la journalisation::
* Recettes pour la journalisation::
* Guide des expressions régulières::
* Guide pratique ; programmation avec les sockets: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets.
* Sorting Techniques::
* Guide Unicode::
* Guide pratique ; récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib.
* Introduction au module ipaddress::
* Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap::
* Python support for the Linux perf profiler::
* Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* timer file descriptor HOWTO::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.
* Python experimental support for free threading::
* C API Extension Support for Free Threading::


File: python.info,  Node: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3,  Next: Programmation Curses avec Python,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.1 Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3
=================================================

Nous recommandons les ressources suivantes pour migrer les modules
d'extensions vers Python 3 :

   * Le chapitre Migrating C extension(1) du livre 'Supporting Python 3:
     An in-depth guide' (un livre sur le portage de Python 2 à Python 3)
     guide le lecteur souhaitant porter un module d'extension.

   * Le Porting guide(2) du projet 'py3c' fournit des suggestions
     argumentées avec le code correspondant.

   * Les bibliothèques Cython(3) et CFFI(4) fournissent des abstractions
     de l'API C de Python.  Les extensions ont généralement besoin
     d'être réécrites pour profiter de ces bibliothèques, mais elles
     prennent en charge les différences entre versions et
     implémentations de Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html

   (2) https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html

   (3) https://cython.org/

   (4) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Programmation Curses avec Python,  Next: Descriptor Guide,  Prev: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.2 Programmation 'Curses' avec Python
======================================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond


Version: 2.04

Résumé
......

Ce document décrit comment utiliser le module d'extension *note curses:
2b. pour contrôler l'affichage en mode texte.

* Menu:

* Qu'est-ce que curses ?::
* Lancement et arrêt une application curses::
* Fenêtres et tampons (pads en anglais): Fenêtres et tampons pads en anglais.
* Affichage de texte::
* Entrées de l'utilisateur::
* Pour aller plus loin: Pour aller plus loin<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce que curses ?,  Next: Lancement et arrêt une application curses,  Up: Programmation Curses avec Python

9.2.1 Qu'est-ce que 'curses' ?
------------------------------

La bibliothèque 'curses' fournit une capacité de dessin à l'écran et de
gestion du clavier indépendante du terminal pour les terminaux
textuels ; ces terminaux comprennent les 'VT100', la console Linux et le
terminal simulé fourni par divers programmes.  Les terminaux d'affichage
prennent en charge divers codes de commande pour effectuer des
opérations courantes telles que déplacer le curseur, faire défiler
l'écran et effacer des zones.  Différents terminaux utilisent des codes
très différents et ont souvent leurs propres bizarreries mineures.

Dans un monde d'affichages graphiques, on pourrait se demander
« pourquoi s'embêter ? ».  Il est vrai que les terminaux d'affichage
caractère par caractère sont une technologie obsolète, mais il existe
des niches pour lesquelles la possibilité de faire des choses
fantaisistes est encore précieuse.  En exemple de niche, on peut citer
les systèmes de type Unix de petite taille ou embarqués qui n'utilisent
pas de serveur X. Il y a aussi les outils tels que les installateurs
d'OS et les outils de configuration du noyau qui doivent être exécutés
avant qu'un support graphique ne soit disponible.

The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the
programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple
non-overlapping windows of text.  The contents of a window can be
changed in various ways--adding text, erasing it, changing its
appearance--and the curses library will figure out what control codes
need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output.  curses
doesn't provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons,
checkboxes, or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user
interface library such as Urwid(1).

La bibliothèque 'curses' a été écrite à l'origine pour BSD Unix ; les
dernières versions 'System V' d'Unix d'AT&T ont ajouté de nombreuses
améliorations et de nouvelles fonctions.  BSD 'curses' n'est plus
maintenu, ayant été remplacé par 'ncurses', qui est une implémentation
open-source de l'interface AT&T. Si vous utilisez un Unix open-source
comme Linux ou FreeBSD, votre système utilise presque certainement
'ncurses'.  Comme la plupart des versions commerciales actuelles d'Unix
sont basées sur le code 'System V', toutes les fonctions décrites ici
seront probablement disponibles.  Les anciennes versions de 'curses'
portées par certains Unix propriétaires pourraient ne pas gérer toutes
les fonctions.

The Windows version of Python doesn't include the *note curses: 2b.
module.  A ported version called UniCurses(2) is available.

* Menu:

* Le module curses de Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/


File: python.info,  Node: Le module curses de Python,  Up: Qu'est-ce que curses ?

9.2.1.1 Le module 'curses' de Python
....................................

The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions
provided by curses; if you're already familiar with curses programming
in C, it's really easy to transfer that knowledge to Python.  The
biggest difference is that the Python interface makes things simpler by
merging different C functions such as ‘addstr()’, ‘mvaddstr()’, and
‘mvwaddstr()’ into a single *note addstr(): 2f24. method.  You'll see
this covered in more detail later.

Ce guide pratique est une introduction à l'écriture de programmes en
mode texte avec 'curses' et Python.  Il n'essaie pas d'être un guide
complet de l'API 'curses' ; pour cela, consultez la section du guide de
la bibliothèque Python sur 'ncurses' et les pages du manuel C pour
'ncurses'.  Il vous donne cependant les idées de base.


File: python.info,  Node: Lancement et arrêt une application curses,  Next: Fenêtres et tampons pads en anglais,  Prev: Qu'est-ce que curses ?,  Up: Programmation Curses avec Python

9.2.2 Lancement et arrêt une application 'curses'
-------------------------------------------------

Before doing anything, curses must be initialized.  This is done by
calling the *note initscr(): 155c. function, which will determine the
terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and create
various internal data structures.  If successful, ‘initscr()’ returns a
window object representing the entire screen; this is usually called
‘stdscr’ after the name of the corresponding C variable.

     import curses
     stdscr = curses.initscr()

Habituellement, les applications 'curses' désactivent l'écho automatique
des touches à l'écran, afin de pouvoir lire les touches et ne les
afficher que dans certaines circonstances.  Cela nécessite d'appeler la
fonction *note noecho(): 2f4e.

     curses.noecho()

Également, les applications réagissent généralement instantanément aux
touches sans qu'il soit nécessaire d'appuyer sur la touche Entrée ;
c'est ce qu'on appelle le mode 'cbreak', par opposition au mode d'entrée
habituel avec un tampon.

     curses.cbreak()

Les terminaux renvoient généralement les touches spéciales, telles que
les touches de curseur ou les touches de navigation (Page précédente et
Accueil par exemple), comme une séquence d'échappement sur plusieurs
octets.  Bien que vous puissiez écrire votre application pour vous
attendre à de telles séquences et les traiter en conséquence, 'curses'
peut le faire pour vous, renvoyant une valeur spéciale telle que *note
curses.KEY_LEFT: 2fc8.  Pour que 'curses' fasse le travail, vous devez
activer le mode 'keypad'.

     stdscr.keypad(True)

Arrêter une application 'curses' est beaucoup plus facile que d'en
démarrer une.  Appelez :

     curses.nocbreak()
     stdscr.keypad(False)
     curses.echo()

pour inverser les réglages du terminal mis en place pour 'curses'.
Ensuite, appelez la fonction ‘enddwin()’ pour restaurer le terminal dans
son mode de fonctionnement original.

     curses.endwin()

Un problème courant lors du débogage d'une application 'curses' est de
se retrouver avec un terminal sans queue ni tête lorsque l'application
meurt sans restaurer le terminal à son état précédent.  Avec Python,
cela arrive souvent lorsque votre code est bogué et lève une exception
non interceptée.  Les touches ne sont plus répétées à l'écran lorsque
vous les tapez, par exemple, ce qui rend l'utilisation de l'interface de
commande du 'shell' difficile.

En Python, vous pouvez éviter ces complications et faciliter le débogage
en important la fonction *note curses.wrapper(): a70. et en l'utilisant
comme suit :

     from curses import wrapper

     def main(stdscr):
         # Clear screen
         stdscr.clear()

         # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.
         for i in range(0, 11):
             v = i-10
             stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))

             stdscr.refresh()
             stdscr.getkey()

     wrapper(main)

The *note wrapper(): a70. function takes a callable object and does the
initializations described above, also initializing colors if color
support is present.  ‘wrapper()’ then runs your provided callable.  Once
the callable returns, ‘wrapper()’ will restore the original state of the
terminal.  The callable is called inside a *note try: 6d5...*note
except: 189. that catches exceptions, restores the state of the
terminal, and then re-raises the exception.  Therefore your terminal
won't be left in a funny state on exception and you'll be able to read
the exception's message and traceback.


File: python.info,  Node: Fenêtres et tampons pads en anglais,  Next: Affichage de texte,  Prev: Lancement et arrêt une application curses,  Up: Programmation Curses avec Python

9.2.3 Fenêtres et tampons ('pads' en anglais)
---------------------------------------------

Les fenêtres sont l'abstraction de base de 'curses'.  Un objet fenêtre
représente une zone rectangulaire de l'écran qui gère des méthodes pour
afficher du texte, l'effacer, permettre à l'utilisateur de saisir des
chaînes, etc.

L'objet ‘stdscr’ renvoyé par la fonction *note initscr(): 155c. est un
objet fenêtre qui couvre l'écran entier.  De nombreux programmes peuvent
n'avoir besoin que de cette fenêtre unique, mais vous pouvez diviser
l'écran en fenêtres plus petites, afin de les redessiner ou de les
effacer séparément.  La fonction *note newwin(): 2f4c. crée une nouvelle
fenêtre d'une taille donnée, renvoyant le nouvel objet fenêtre.

     begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
     height = 5; width = 40
     win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)

Notez que le système de coordonnées utilisé dans 'curses' est
inhabituel.  Les coordonnées sont toujours passées dans l'ordre 'y,x' et
le coin supérieur gauche d'une fenêtre a pour coordonnées (0,0).  Ceci
rompt la convention normale des coordonnées où la coordonnée 'x' vient
en premier.  C'est une différence malheureuse par rapport à la plupart
des autres applications informatiques, mais elle fait partie de 'curses'
depuis qu'il a été écrit et il est trop tard pour changer les choses
maintenant.

Votre application peut déterminer la taille de l'écran en utilisant les
variables *note curses.LINES: 16c6. et *note curses.COLS: 16c7. pour
obtenir les tailles 'y' et 'x'.  Les coordonnées licites s'étendent
alors de ‘(0,0)’ à ‘(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)’.

Quand vous appelez une méthode pour afficher ou effacer du texte,
l'affichage ne le reflète pas immédiatement.  Vous devez appeler la
méthode *note refresh(): 2f25. des objets fenêtre pour mettre à jour
l'écran.

This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud
terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the time
required to redraw the screen was very important.  Instead curses
accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most
efficient manner when you call ‘refresh()’.  For example, if your
program displays some text in a window and then clears the window,
there's no need to send the original text because they're never visible.

In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn't really
complicate programming with curses much.  Most programs go into a flurry
of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action
on the part of the user.  All you have to do is to be sure that the
screen has been redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first
calling ‘stdscr.refresh()’ or the ‘refresh()’ method of some other
relevant window.

Un tampon ('pad' en anglais) est une forme spéciale de fenêtre ; il peut
être plus grand que l'écran effectif et il est possible de n'afficher
qu'une partie du tampon à la fois.  La création d'un tampon nécessite de
fournir sa hauteur et sa largeur, tandis que pour le rafraîchissement du
tampon, vous devez fournir les coordonnées de la zone de l'écran où une
partie du tampon sera affichée.

     pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
     # These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is
     # explained in the next section
     for y in range(0, 99):
         for x in range(0, 99):
             pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)

     # Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.
     # (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.
     # (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled
     #         with pad content.
     # (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be
     #          : filled with pad content.
     pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)

The ‘refresh()’ call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle
extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the
upper left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the
pad.  Beyond that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and
support the same methods.

If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more
efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker
as each part of the screen gets updated.  ‘refresh()’ actually does two
things:

  1. elle appelle la méthode *note noutrefresh(): 2f23. de chaque
     fenêtre pour mettre à jour les données sous-jacentes qui permettent
     d'obtenir l'affichage voulu ;

  2. elle appelle la fonction *note doupdate(): 2f22. pour modifier
     l'écran physique afin de correspondre à l'état défini par les
     données sous-jacentes.

Instead you can call ‘noutrefresh()’ on a number of windows to update
the data structure, and then call ‘doupdate()’ to update the screen.


File: python.info,  Node: Affichage de texte,  Next: Entrées de l'utilisateur,  Prev: Fenêtres et tampons pads en anglais,  Up: Programmation Curses avec Python

9.2.4 Affichage de texte
------------------------

From a C programmer's point of view, curses may sometimes look like a
twisty maze of functions, all subtly different.  For example, ‘addstr()’
displays a string at the current cursor location in the ‘stdscr’ window,
while ‘mvaddstr()’ moves to a given y,x coordinate first before
displaying the string.  ‘waddstr()’ is just like ‘addstr()’, but allows
specifying a window to use instead of using ‘stdscr’ by default.
‘mvwaddstr()’ allows specifying both a window and a coordinate.

Heureusement, l'interface Python masque tous ces détails.  ‘stdscr’ est
un objet fenêtre comme les autres et les méthodes telles que *note
addstr(): 2f24. acceptent leurs arguments sous de multiples formes,
habituellement quatre.

Forme                                 Description
                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
'str' ou 'ch'                         Affiche la chaîne 'str' ou le caractère 'ch' à la
                                      position actuelle
                                      
                                      
'str' ou 'ch', 'attr'                 Affiche la chaîne 'str' ou le caractère 'ch', en
                                      utilisant l'attribut 'attr' à la position
                                      actuelle
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' ou 'ch'               Se déplace à la position 'y,x' dans la fenêtre et
                                      affiche la chaîne 'str' ou le caractère 'ch'
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' ou 'ch', 'attr'       Se déplace à la position 'y,x' dans la fenêtre et
                                      affiche la chaîne 'str' ou le caractère 'ch' en
                                      utilisant l'attribut 'attr'
                                      

Les attributs permettent de mettre en valeur du texte : gras, souligné,
mode vidéo inversé ou en couleur.  Nous les voyons plus en détail dans
la section suivante.

The *note addstr(): 2f24. method takes a Python string or bytestring as
the value to be displayed.  The contents of bytestrings are sent to the
terminal as-is.  Strings are encoded to bytes using the value of the
window's *note encoding: 1081. attribute; this defaults to the default
system encoding as returned by *note locale.getencoding(): 2db.

Les méthodes *note addch(): 2f67. prennent un caractère, soit sous la
forme d'une chaîne de longueur 1, d'une chaîne d'octets de longueur 1 ou
d'un entier.

Des constantes sont disponibles pour étendre les caractères ; ces
constantes sont des entiers supérieurs à 255.  Par exemple, *note
ACS_PLMINUS: 3035. correspond au symbole +/- et *note ACS_ULCORNER:
2f71. correspond au coin en haut et à gauche d'une boîte (utile pour
dessiner des encadrements).  Vous pouvez aussi utiliser les caractères
Unicode adéquats.

Windows se souvient de l'endroit où le curseur était positionné lors de
la dernière opération, de manière à ce que si vous n'utilisez pas les
coordonnées 'y,x', l'affichage se produit au dernier endroit utilisé.
Vous pouvez aussi déplacer le curseur avec la méthode ‘move(y,x)’.
Comme certains terminaux affichent un curseur clignotant, vous pouvez
ainsi vous assurer que celui-ci est positionné à un endroit où il ne
distrait pas l'utilisateur (il peut être déroutant d'avoir un curseur
qui clignote à des endroits apparemment aléatoires).

Si votre application n'a pas besoin d'un curseur clignotant, vous pouvez
appeler ‘curs_set(False)’ pour le rendre invisible.  Par souci de
compatibilité avec les anciennes versions de 'curses', il existe la
fonction ‘leaveok(bool)’ qui est un synonyme de *note curs_set(): 2f1c.
Quand 'bool' vaut ‘True’, la bibliothèque 'curses' essaie de supprimer
le curseur clignotant et vous n'avez plus besoin de vous soucier de le
laisser trainer à des endroits bizarres.

* Menu:

* Attributs et couleurs::


File: python.info,  Node: Attributs et couleurs,  Up: Affichage de texte

9.2.4.1 Attributs et couleurs
.............................

Les caractères peuvent être affichés de différentes façons.  Les lignes
de statut des applications en mode texte sont généralement affichées en
mode vidéo inversé ; vous pouvez avoir besoin de mettre en valeur
certains mots.  À ces fins, 'curses' vous permet de spécifier un
attribut pour chaque caractère à l'écran.

Un attribut est un entier dont chaque bit représente un attribut
différent.  Vous pouvez essayer d'afficher du texte avec plusieurs
attributs définis simultanément mais 'curses' ne garantit pas que toutes
les combinaisons soient prises en compte ou que le résultat soit
visuellement différent.  Cela dépend de la capacité de chaque terminal
utilisé, il est donc plus sage de se cantonner aux attributs les plus
communément utilisés, dont la liste est fournie ci-dessous.

Attribut                   Description
                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
*note A_BLINK: 2fb4.       Texte clignotant
                           
                           
*note A_BOLD: 2fb5.        Texte en surbrillance ou en gras
                           
                           
*note A_DIM: 2fb6.         Texte en demi-ton
                           
                           
*note A_REVERSE: 2f1a.     Texte en mode vidéo inversé
                           
                           
*note A_STANDOUT: 2f19.    Le meilleur mode de mis en valeur pour
                           le texte
                           
                           
*note A_UNDERLINE: 2fba.   Texte souligné
                           

Ainsi, pour mettre la ligne de statut située en haut de l'écran en mode
vidéo inversé, vous pouvez coder :

     stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
                   curses.A_REVERSE)
     stdscr.refresh()

La bibliothèque 'curses' gère également les couleurs pour les terminaux
compatibles.  Le plus répandu de ces terminaux est sûrement la console
Linux, suivie par 'xterm' en couleurs.

Pour utiliser les couleurs, vous devez d'abord appeler la fonction *note
start_color(): 2f58. juste après avoir appelé *note initscr(): 155c.
afin d'initialiser (la fonction *note curses.wrapper(): a70. le fait
automatiquement).  Ensuite, la fonction *note has_colors(): 2f3b.
renvoie ‘True’ si le terminal utilisé gère les couleurs (note : 'curses'
utilise l'orthographe américaine 'color' et non pas l'orthographe
britannique ou canadienne 'colour' ; si vous êtes habitué à
l'orthographe britannique, vous devrez vous résigner à mal
l'orthographier tant que vous utilisez 'curses').

La bibliothèque 'curses' maintient un nombre restreint de paires de
couleurs, constituées d'une couleur de texte ('foreground') et de fond
('background').  Vous pouvez obtenir la valeur des attributs
correspondant à une paire de couleur avec la fonction *note
color_pair(): 2f18. ; cette valeur peut être combinée bit par bit (avec
la fonction 'OR') avec les autres attributs tels que *note A_REVERSE:
2f1a,mais là encore, de telles combinaisons risquent de ne pas
fonctionner sur tous les terminaux.

Un exemple d'affichage d'une ligne de texte en utilisant la paire de
couleur 1 :

     stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
     stdscr.refresh()

Comme indiqué auparavant, une paire de couleurs est constituée d'une
couleur de texte et d'une couleur de fond.  La fonction ‘init_pair(n, f,
b)’ change la définition de la paire de couleurs 'n', en définissant la
couleur de texte à 'f' et la couleur de fond à 'b'.  La paire de
couleurs 0 est codée en dur à blanc sur noir et ne peut être modifiée.

Les couleurs sont numérotées et *note start_color(): 2f58. initialise 8
couleurs basiques lors de l'activation du mode en couleurs.  Ce sont : 0
pour noir ('black'), 1 pour rouge ('red'), 2 pour vert ('green'), 3 pour
jaune ('yellow'), 4 pour bleu '(blue'), 5 pour magenta, 6 pour cyan et 7
pour blanc ('white').  Le module *note curses: 2b. définit des
constantes nommées pour chacune de ces couleurs : *note
curses.COLOR_BLACK: 3047, *note curses.COLOR_RED: 304c. et ainsi de
suite.

Testons tout ça.  Pour changer la couleur 1 à rouge sur fond blanc,
appelez :

     curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)

Quand vous modifiez une paire de couleurs, tout le texte déjà affiché
qui utilise cette paire de couleur voit les nouvelles couleurs
s'appliquer à lui.  Vous pouvez aussi afficher du nouveau texte dans
cette couleur avec :

     stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))

Les terminaux « de luxe » peuvent définir les couleurs avec des valeurs
'RGB'. Cela vous permet de modifier la couleur 1, habituellement rouge,
en violet ou bleu voire toute autre couleur selon votre goût.
Malheureusement, la console Linux ne gère pas cette fonctionnalité, je
suis donc bien incapable de la tester et de vous en fournir un exemple.
Vous pouvez vérifier si votre terminal la prend en charge en appelant
*note can_change_color(): 2f15, qui renvoie ‘True’ en cas de succès.  Si
vous avez la chance d'avoir un terminal aussi perfectionné, consultez
les pages du manuel de votre système pour obtenir plus d'informations.


File: python.info,  Node: Entrées de l'utilisateur,  Next: Pour aller plus loin<2>,  Prev: Affichage de texte,  Up: Programmation Curses avec Python

9.2.5 Entrées de l'utilisateur
------------------------------

The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms.  Python's
*note curses: 2b. module adds a basic text-input widget.  (Other
libraries such as Urwid(1) have more extensive collections of widgets.)

Il y a deux méthodes pour obtenir des entrées dans une fenêtre :

   * *note getch(): 2f2d. rafraîchit l'écran et attend que l'utilisateur
     appuie sur une touche, affichant cette touche si *note echo():
     2f26. a été appelé auparavant.  Vous pouvez en option spécifier des
     coordonnées où positionner le curseur avant la mise en pause ;

   * *note getkey(): 2f85. effectue la même chose mais convertit
     l'entier en chaîne.  Les caractères individuels sont renvoyés en
     chaînes de longueur 1 alors que les touches spéciales (telles que
     les touches de fonction) renvoient des chaînes plus longues
     contenant le nom de la touche (tel que ‘KEY_UP’ ou ‘^G’).

It's possible to not wait for the user using the *note nodelay(): 2f9b.
window method.  After ‘nodelay(True)’, ‘getch()’ and ‘getkey()’ for the
window become non-blocking.  To signal that no input is ready, ‘getch()’
returns ‘curses.ERR’ (a value of -1) and ‘getkey()’ raises an exception.
There's also a *note halfdelay(): 2f3f. function, which can be used to
(in effect) set a timer on each ‘getch()’; if no input becomes available
within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second), curses raises
an exception.

The ‘getch()’ method returns an integer; if it's between 0 and 255, it
represents the ASCII code of the key pressed.  Values greater than 255
are special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys.  You can
compare the value returned to constants such as *note curses.KEY_PPAGE:
2fd9, *note curses.KEY_HOME: 2fca, or *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 2fc8.  The
main loop of your program may look something like this:

     while True:
         c = stdscr.getch()
         if c == ord('p'):
             PrintDocument()
         elif c == ord('q'):
             break  # Exit the while loop
         elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
             x = y = 0

Le module *note curses.ascii: 2c. fournit des fonctions pour déterminer
si l'entier ou la chaîne de longueur 1 passés en arguments font partie
de la classe ASCII ; elles peuvent s'avérer utile pour écrire du code
plus lisible dans ce genre de boucles.  Il fournit également des
fonctions de conversion qui prennent un entier ou une chaîne de longueur
1 en entrée et renvoient le type correspondant au nom de la fonction.
Par exemple, *note curses.ascii.ctrl(): 308e. renvoie le caractère de
contrôle correspondant à son paramètre.

Il existe aussi une méthode pour récupérer une chaîne entière, *note
getstr(): 2f88.  Elle n'est pas beaucoup utilisée car son utilité est
limitée : les seules touches d'édition disponibles sont le retour
arrière et la touche Entrée, qui termine la chaîne.  Elle peut, en
option, être limitée à un nombre fixé de caractères.

     curses.echo()            # Enable echoing of characters

     # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
     s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)

Le module *note curses.textpad: 2e. fournit un type de boîte texte qui
gère des touches de fonctions à la façon d''Emacs'.  Plusieurs méthodes
de la classe *note Textbox: 3050. gèrent l'édition avec la validation
des entrées et le regroupement de l'entrée avec ou sans les espaces de
début et de fin.  Par exemple :

     import curses
     from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle

     def main(stdscr):
         stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")

         editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
         rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
         stdscr.refresh()

         box = Textbox(editwin)

         # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.
         box.edit()

         # Get resulting contents
         message = box.gather()

Consultez la documentation de la bibliothèque pour plus de détails sur
*note curses.textpad: 2e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/


File: python.info,  Node: Pour aller plus loin<2>,  Prev: Entrées de l'utilisateur,  Up: Programmation Curses avec Python

9.2.6 Pour aller plus loin
--------------------------

Ce guide pratique ne couvre pas certains sujets avancés, tels que la
lecture du contenu de l'écran ou la capture des événements relatifs à la
souris dans une instance 'xterm', mais la page de la bibliothèque Python
du module *note curses: 2b. est maintenant suffisamment complète.  Nous
vous encourageons à la parcourir.

If you're in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses functions,
consult the manual pages for your curses implementation, whether it's
ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor's.  The manual pages will document
any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the functions, attributes,
and *note ACS_*: 3021. characters available to you.

Étant donné que l'API 'curses' est si volumineuse, certaines fonctions
ne sont pas prises en charge dans l'interface Python.  Souvent, ce n'est
pas parce qu'elles sont difficiles à implémenter, mais parce que
personne n'en a eu encore besoin.  De plus, Python ne prend pas encore
en charge la bibliothèque de gestion des menus associée à 'ncurses'.
Les correctifs ajoutant cette prise en charge seraient bienvenus ;
reportez-vous au guide du développeur Python(1) pour apprendre comment
soumettre des améliorations à Python.

   * Writing Programs with NCURSES(2): a lengthy tutorial for C
     programmers.

   * La page de manuel ncurses(3)

   * The ncurses FAQ(4)

   * "Use curses...  don't swear"(5) : vidéo d'une conférence lors de la
     PyCon 2013 sur la gestion des terminaux à l'aide de 'curses' et
     'Urwid' (vidéo en anglais).

   * "Console Applications with Urwid"(6): video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk
     demonstrating some applications written using Urwid.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html

   (3) https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses

   (4) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html

   (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU

   (6) https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor Guide,  Next: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Prev: Programmation Curses avec Python,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.3 Descriptor Guide
====================


Auteur: Raymond Hettinger


Contact: <python at rcn dot com>

Les *note descripteurs: 152c. permettent de personnaliser la recherche,
le stockage et la suppression des attributs des objets.

Ce guide comporte quatre parties principales :

  1. l'« introduction » donne un premier aperçu, en partant d'exemples
     simples, puis en ajoutant une fonctionnalité à la fois.  Commencez
     par là si vous débutez avec les descripteurs ;

  2. la deuxième partie montre un exemple de descripteur complet et
     pratique.  Si vous connaissez déjà les bases, commencez par là ;

  3. la troisième partie fournit un didacticiel plus technique qui
     décrit de manière détaillée comment fonctionnent les descripteurs.
     La plupart des gens n'ont pas besoin de ce niveau de détail ;

  4. la dernière partie contient des équivalents en pur Python des
     descripteurs natifs écrits en C. Lisez ceci si vous êtes curieux de
     savoir comment les fonctions se transforment en méthodes liées ou
     si vous voulez connaître l'implémentation d'outils courants comme
     *note classmethod(): 165, *note staticmethod(): 40c, *note
     property(): 192. et *note __slots__: 5cb.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<13>.
* Exemple complet pratique::
* Tutoriel technique::
* Équivalents en Python pur::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<13>,  Next: Exemple complet pratique,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.1 Introduction
------------------

Dans cette introduction, nous commençons par l'exemple le plus simple
possible, puis nous ajoutons de nouvelles fonctionnalités une par une.

* Menu:

* Un exemple simple ; un descripteur qui renvoie une constante: Un exemple simple un descripteur qui renvoie une constante.
* Recherches dynamiques::
* Attributs gérés::
* Noms personnalisés::
* Réflexions finales::


File: python.info,  Node: Un exemple simple un descripteur qui renvoie une constante,  Next: Recherches dynamiques,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.3.1.1 Un exemple simple : un descripteur qui renvoie une constante
....................................................................

The ‘Ten’ class is a descriptor whose *note __get__(): 149f. method
always returns the constant ‘10’:

     class Ten:
         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return 10

Pour utiliser le descripteur, il doit être stocké en tant que variable
de classe dans une autre classe :

     class A:
         x = 5                       # Regular class attribute
         y = Ten()                   # Descriptor instance

Une session interactive montre la différence entre la recherche
d'attribut normale et la recherche 'via' un descripteur :

     >>> a = A()                     # Make an instance of class A
     >>> a.x                         # Normal attribute lookup
     5
     >>> a.y                         # Descriptor lookup
     10

Dans la recherche d'attribut ‘a.x’, l'opérateur « point » trouve ‘'x':
5’ dans le dictionnaire de classe.  Dans la recherche ‘a.y’, l'opérateur
« point » trouve une instance de descripteur, reconnue par sa méthode
‘__get__’.  L'appel de cette méthode renvoie ‘10’.

Notez que la valeur ‘10’ n'est stockée ni dans le dictionnaire de classe
ni dans le dictionnaire d'instance.  Non, la valeur ‘10’ est calculée à
la demande.

Cet exemple montre comment fonctionne un descripteur simple, mais il
n'est pas très utile.  Pour récupérer des constantes, une recherche
d'attribut normale est préférable.

Dans la section suivante, nous allons créer quelque chose de plus utile,
une recherche dynamique.


File: python.info,  Node: Recherches dynamiques,  Next: Attributs gérés,  Prev: Un exemple simple un descripteur qui renvoie une constante,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.3.1.2 Recherches dynamiques
.............................

Les descripteurs intéressants exécutent généralement des calculs au lieu
de renvoyer des constantes :

     import os

     class DirectorySize:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname))

     class Directory:

         size = DirectorySize()              # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, dirname):
             self.dirname = dirname          # Regular instance attribute

Une session interactive montre que la recherche est dynamique — elle
calcule des réponses différentes, mises à jour à chaque fois :

     >>> s = Directory('songs')
     >>> g = Directory('games')
     >>> s.size                              # The songs directory has twenty files
     20
     >>> g.size                              # The games directory has three files
     3
     >>> os.remove('games/chess')            # Delete a game
     >>> g.size                              # File count is automatically updated
     2

Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also
reveals the purpose of the parameters to *note __get__(): 149f.  The
'self' parameter is 'size', an instance of 'DirectorySize'.  The 'obj'
parameter is either 'g' or 's', an instance of 'Directory'.  It is the
'obj' parameter that lets the *note __get__(): 149f. method learn the
target directory.  The 'objtype' parameter is the class 'Directory'.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributs gérés,  Next: Noms personnalisés,  Prev: Recherches dynamiques,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.3.1.3 Attributs gérés
.......................

A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data.  The
descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary
while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance
dictionary.  The descriptor's *note __get__(): 149f. and *note
__set__(): 1f23. methods are triggered when the public attribute is
accessed.

Dans l'exemple qui suit, 'age' est l'attribut public et '_age' est
l'attribut privé.  Lors de l'accès à l'attribut public, le descripteur
journalise la recherche ou la mise à jour :

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAgeAccess:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = obj._age
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value)
             obj._age = value

     class Person:

         age = LoggedAgeAccess()             # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                # Regular instance attribute
             self.age = age                  # Calls __set__()

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1                   # Calls both __get__() and __set__()

Une session interactive montre que tous les accès à l'attribut géré
'age' sont consignés, mais que rien n'est journalisé pour l'attribut
normal 'name' :

     >>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30)         # The initial age update is logged
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30
     >>> dave = Person('David D', 40)
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40

     >>> vars(mary)                          # The actual data is in a private attribute
     {'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30}
     >>> vars(dave)
     {'name': 'David D', '_age': 40}

     >>> mary.age                            # Access the data and log the lookup
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     30
     >>> mary.birthday()                     # Updates are logged as well
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31

     >>> dave.name                           # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged
     'David D'
     >>> dave.age                            # Only the managed attribute is logged
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40
     40

Un problème majeur avec cet exemple est que le nom privé '_age' est
écrit en dur dans la classe 'LoggedAgeAccess'.  Cela signifie que chaque
instance ne peut avoir qu'un seul attribut journalisé et que son nom est
immuable.  Dans l'exemple suivant, nous allons résoudre ce problème.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms personnalisés,  Next: Réflexions finales,  Prev: Attributs gérés,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.3.1.4 Noms personnalisés
..........................

Lorsqu'une classe utilise des descripteurs, elle peut informer chaque
descripteur du nom de variable utilisé.

In this example, the ‘Person’ class has two descriptor instances, 'name'
and 'age'.  When the ‘Person’ class is defined, it makes a callback to
*note __set_name__(): c3e. in 'LoggedAccess' so that the field names can
be recorded, giving each descriptor its own 'public_name' and
'private_name':

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAccess:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.public_name = name
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = getattr(obj, self.private_name)
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

     class Person:

         name = LoggedAccess()                # First descriptor instance
         age = LoggedAccess()                 # Second descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                 # Calls the first descriptor
             self.age = age                   # Calls the second descriptor

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1

An interactive session shows that the ‘Person’ class has called *note
__set_name__(): c3e. so that the field names would be recorded.  Here we
call *note vars(): 1a00. to look up the descriptor without triggering
it:

     >>> vars(vars(Person)['name'])
     {'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'}
     >>> vars(vars(Person)['age'])
     {'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'}

La nouvelle classe enregistre désormais l'accès à la fois à 'name' et
'age' :

     >>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10
     >>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20

Les deux instances de 'Person' ne contiennent que les noms privés :

     >>> vars(pete)
     {'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10}
     >>> vars(kate)
     {'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}


File: python.info,  Node: Réflexions finales,  Prev: Noms personnalisés,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.3.1.5 Réflexions finales
..........................

A *note descriptor: 152c. is what we call any object that defines *note
__get__(): 149f, *note __set__(): 1f23, or *note __delete__(): 15c4.

Optionally, descriptors can have a *note __set_name__(): c3e. method.
This is only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the
class where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned
to.  (This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a
descriptor.)

Les descripteurs sont invoqués par l'opérateur « point » lors de la
recherche d'attribut.  Si on accède indirectement au descripteur avec
‘vars(some_class)[descriptor_name]’, l'instance du descripteur est
renvoyée sans l'invoquer.

Les descripteurs ne fonctionnent que lorsqu'ils sont utilisés comme
variables de classe.  Lorsqu'ils sont placés dans des instances, ils
n'ont aucun effet.

La principale raison d'être des descripteurs est de fournir un point
d'entrée permettant aux objets stockés dans des variables de classe de
contrôler ce qui se passe lors de la recherche d'attributs.

Traditionnellement, la classe appelante contrôle ce qui se passe pendant
la recherche.  Les descripteurs inversent cette relation et permettent
aux données recherchées d'avoir leur mot à dire.

Les descripteurs sont utilisés partout dans le langage.  C'est ainsi que
les fonctions se transforment en méthodes liées.  Les outils courants
tels que *note classmethod(): 165, *note staticmethod(): 40c, *note
property(): 192. et *note functools.cached_property(): 52f. sont tous
implémentés en tant que descripteurs.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple complet pratique,  Next: Tutoriel technique,  Prev: Introduction<13>,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.2 Exemple complet pratique
------------------------------

Dans cet exemple, nous créons un outil pratique et puissant pour
localiser les bogues de corruption de données notoirement difficiles à
trouver.

* Menu:

* Classe « validateur »::
* Validateurs personnalisés::
* Application pratique::


File: python.info,  Node: Classe « validateur »,  Next: Validateurs personnalisés,  Up: Exemple complet pratique

9.3.2.1 Classe « validateur »
.............................

Un validateur est un descripteur pour l'accès aux attributs gérés.
Avant de stocker des données, il vérifie que la nouvelle valeur respecte
différentes restrictions de type et de plage.  Si ces restrictions ne
sont pas respectées, il lève une exception pour empêcher la corruption
des données à la source.

This ‘Validator’ class is both an *note abstract base class: 1195. and a
managed attribute descriptor:

     from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

     class Validator(ABC):

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return getattr(obj, self.private_name)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             self.validate(value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

         @abstractmethod
         def validate(self, value):
             pass

Custom validators need to inherit from ‘Validator’ and must supply a
‘validate()’ method to test various restrictions as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Validateurs personnalisés,  Next: Application pratique,  Prev: Classe « validateur »,  Up: Exemple complet pratique

9.3.2.2 Validateurs personnalisés
.................................

Voici trois utilitaires concrets de validation de données :

  1. ‘OneOf’ verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of
     options.

  2. ‘Number’ verifies that a value is either an *note int: 254. or
     *note float: 2ec.  Optionally, it verifies that a value is between
     a given minimum or maximum.

  3. ‘String’ verifies that a value is a *note str: 437.  Optionally, it
     validates a given minimum or maximum length.  It can validate a
     user-defined predicate(1) as well.

     class OneOf(Validator):

         def __init__(self, *options):
             self.options = set(options)

         def validate(self, value):
             if value not in self.options:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}'
                 )

     class Number(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None):
             self.minvalue = minvalue
             self.maxvalue = maxvalue

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, (int, float)):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float')
             if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}'
                 )

     class String(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None):
             self.minsize = minsize
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.predicate = predicate

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, str):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an str')
             if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value):
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}'
                 )

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)


File: python.info,  Node: Application pratique,  Prev: Validateurs personnalisés,  Up: Exemple complet pratique

9.3.2.3 Application pratique
............................

Voici comment les validateurs de données peuvent être utilisés par une
classe réelle :

     class Component:

         name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper)
         kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic')
         quantity = Number(minvalue=0)

         def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity):
             self.name = name
             self.kind = kind
             self.quantity = quantity

Les descripteurs empêchent la création d'instances non valides :

     >>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5)      # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget'

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5)      # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'}

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5)     # Blocked: -5 is negative
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V')    # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float

     >>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5)  # Allowed:  The inputs are valid


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel technique,  Next: Équivalents en Python pur,  Prev: Exemple complet pratique,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.3 Tutoriel technique
------------------------

Ce qui suit est un tutoriel plus technique relatif aux mécanismes et
détails de fonctionnement des descripteurs.

* Menu:

* Résumé::
* Définition et introduction::
* Protocole descripteur::
* Présentation de l'appel de descripteur::
* Appel depuis une instance::
* Appel depuis une classe::
* Appel depuis super::
* Résumé de la logique d'appel::
* Notification automatique des noms::
* Exemple d'ORM::


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé,  Next: Définition et introduction,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.1 Résumé
..............

Ce tutoriel définit des descripteurs, résume le protocole et montre
comment les descripteurs sont appelés.  Il fournit un exemple montrant
comment fonctionnent les correspondances relationnelles entre objets.

L'apprentissage des descripteurs permet non seulement d'accéder à un
ensemble d'outils plus vaste, mais aussi de mieux comprendre le
fonctionnement de Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Définition et introduction,  Next: Protocole descripteur,  Prev: Résumé,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.2 Définition et introduction
..................................

In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the
methods in the descriptor protocol.  Those methods are *note __get__():
149f, *note __set__(): 1f23, and *note __delete__(): 15c4.  If any of
those methods are defined for an attribute, it is said to be a *note
descriptor: 152c.

Le comportement par défaut pour l'accès aux attributs consiste à
obtenir, définir ou supprimer l'attribut dans le dictionnaire d'un
objet.  Par exemple, pour chercher ‘a.x’ Python commence par chercher
‘a.__dict__['x']’, puis ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, et continue la
recherche en utilisant la MRO (l'ordre de résolution des méthodes) de
‘type(a)’.  Si la valeur recherchée est un objet définissant l'une des
méthodes de descripteur, Python remplace le comportement par défaut par
un appel à la méthode du descripteur.  Le moment où cela se produit dans
la chaîne de recherche dépend des méthodes définies par le descripteur.

Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the
mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and
*note super(): 4c8.  They are used throughout Python itself.
Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of
new tools for everyday Python programs.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocole descripteur,  Next: Présentation de l'appel de descripteur,  Prev: Définition et introduction,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.3 Protocole descripteur
.............................

‘descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)’

‘descr.__set__(self, obj, value)’

‘descr.__delete__(self, obj)’

C'est tout ce qu'il y a à faire.  Définissez n'importe laquelle de ces
méthodes et un objet est considéré comme un descripteur ; il peut alors
remplacer le comportement par défaut lorsqu'il est recherché en tant
qu'attribut.

If an object defines *note __set__(): 1f23. or *note __delete__(): 15c4,
it is considered a data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define *note
__get__(): 149f. are called non-data descriptors (they are often used
for methods but other uses are possible).

Les descripteurs de données et les descripteurs hors-données diffèrent
dans la façon dont les changements de comportement sont calculés en ce
qui concerne les entrées du dictionnaire d'une instance.  Si le
dictionnaire d'une instance comporte une entrée portant le même nom
qu'un descripteur de données, le descripteur de données est prioritaire.
Si le dictionnaire d'une instance comporte une entrée portant le même
nom qu'un descripteur hors-données, l'entrée du dictionnaire a la
priorité.

To make a read-only data descriptor, define both *note __get__(): 149f.
and *note __set__(): 1f23. with the *note __set__(): 1f23. raising an
*note AttributeError: 343. when called.  Defining the *note __set__():
1f23. method with an exception raising placeholder is enough to make it
a data descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: Présentation de l'appel de descripteur,  Next: Appel depuis une instance,  Prev: Protocole descripteur,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.4 Présentation de l'appel de descripteur
..............................................

Un descripteur peut être appelé directement par ‘desc.__get__(obj)’ ou
‘desc.__get__(None, cls)’.

Mais il est plus courant qu'un descripteur soit invoqué automatiquement
à partir d'un accès à un attribut.

The expression ‘obj.x’ looks up the attribute ‘x’ in the chain of
namespaces for ‘obj’.  If the search finds a descriptor outside of the
instance *note __dict__: 549, its *note __get__(): 149f. method is
invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.

Les détails de l'appel varient selon que ‘obj’ est un objet, une classe
ou une instance de 'super'.


File: python.info,  Node: Appel depuis une instance,  Next: Appel depuis une classe,  Prev: Présentation de l'appel de descripteur,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.5 Appel depuis une instance
.................................

Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data
descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then
non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly *note
__getattr__(): 4bf. if it is provided.

Si un descripteur est trouvé pour ‘a.x’, alors il est appelé par
‘desc.__get__(a, type(a))’.

La logique d'une recherche « après un point » se trouve dans *note
object.__getattribute__(): bc2.  Voici un équivalent en Python pur :

     def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default):
         "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         for base in cls.__mro__:
             if name in vars(base):
                 return vars(base)[name]
         return default

     def object_getattribute(obj, name):
         "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c"
         null = object()
         objtype = type(obj)
         cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null)
         descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null)
         if descr_get is not null:
             if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__')
                 or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')):
                 return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)     # data descriptor
         if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj):
             return vars(obj)[name]                          # instance variable
         if descr_get is not null:
             return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)         # non-data descriptor
         if cls_var is not null:
             return cls_var                                  # class variable
         raise AttributeError(name)

Note, there is no *note __getattr__(): 4bf. hook in the *note
__getattribute__(): bc2. code.  That is why calling *note
__getattribute__(): bc2. directly or with ‘super().__getattribute__’
will bypass *note __getattr__(): 4bf. entirely.

Instead, it is the dot operator and the *note getattr(): bc1. function
that are responsible for invoking *note __getattr__(): 4bf. whenever
*note __getattribute__(): bc2. raises an *note AttributeError: 343.
Their logic is encapsulated in a helper function:

     def getattr_hook(obj, name):
         "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         try:
             return obj.__getattribute__(name)
         except AttributeError:
             if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'):
                 raise
         return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name)             # __getattr__


File: python.info,  Node: Appel depuis une classe,  Next: Appel depuis super,  Prev: Appel depuis une instance,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.6 Appel depuis une classe
...............................

The logic for a dotted lookup such as ‘A.x’ is in
‘type.__getattribute__()’.  The steps are similar to those for
‘object.__getattribute__()’ but the instance dictionary lookup is
replaced by a search through the class's *note method resolution order:
213d.

Si un descripteur est trouvé, il est appelé par ‘desc.__get__(None, A)’.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘type_getattro()’ and
‘_PyType_Lookup()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: Appel depuis super,  Next: Résumé de la logique d'appel,  Prev: Appel depuis une classe,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.7 Appel depuis super
..........................

The logic for super's dotted lookup is in the *note __getattribute__():
bc2. method for object returned by *note super(): 4c8.

La recherche d'attribut ‘super(A, obj).m’ recherche dans
‘obj.__class__.__mro__’ la classe ‘B’ qui suit immédiatement A, et
renvoie ‘B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)’.  Si ce n'est pas un
descripteur, ‘m’ est renvoyé inchangé.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘super_getattro()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).  A pure Python equivalent can be found in
Guido's Tutorial(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c

   (2) 
https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation


File: python.info,  Node: Résumé de la logique d'appel,  Next: Notification automatique des noms,  Prev: Appel depuis super,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.8 Résumé de la logique d'appel
....................................

The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the *note
__getattribute__(): bc2. methods for *note object: a7c, *note type: d38,
and *note super(): 4c8.

Les points importants à retenir sont :

   * Descriptors are invoked by the *note __getattribute__(): bc2.
     method.

   * les classes héritent ce mécanisme de *note object: a7c, *note type:
     d38. ou *note super(): 4c8. ;

   * Overriding *note __getattribute__(): bc2. prevents automatic
     descriptor calls because all the descriptor logic is in that
     method.

   * ‘object.__getattribute__()’ and ‘type.__getattribute__()’ make
     different calls to *note __get__(): 149f.  The first includes the
     instance and may include the class.  The second puts in ‘None’ for
     the instance and always includes the class.

   * les descripteurs de données sont toujours prioritaires sur les
     dictionnaires d'instances.

   * les descripteurs hors-données peuvent céder la priorité aux
     dictionnaires d'instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Notification automatique des noms,  Next: Exemple d'ORM,  Prev: Résumé de la logique d'appel,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.9 Notification automatique des noms
.........................................

Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable
name it was assigned to.  When a new class is created, the *note type:
d38. metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class.  If any of the
entries are descriptors and if they define *note __set_name__(): c3e,
that method is called with two arguments.  The 'owner' is the class
where the descriptor is used, and the 'name' is the class variable the
descriptor was assigned to.

The implementation details are in ‘type_new()’ and ‘set_names()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).

Since the update logic is in ‘type.__new__()’, notifications only take
place at the time of class creation.  If descriptors are added to the
class afterwards, *note __set_name__(): c3e. will need to be called
manually.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple d'ORM,  Prev: Notification automatique des noms,  Up: Tutoriel technique

9.3.3.10 Exemple d'ORM
......................

Le code suivant est une ossature simplifiée montrant comment les
descripteurs de données peuvent être utilisés pour implémenter une
correspondance objet-relationnel(1).

L'idée essentielle est que les données sont stockées dans une base de
données externe.  Les instances Python ne contiennent que les clés des
tables de la base de données.  Les descripteurs s'occupent des
recherches et des mises à jour :

     class Field:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;'
             self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;'

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0]

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
             conn.commit()

We can use the ‘Field’ class to define models(2) that describe the
schema for each table in a database:

     class Movie:
         table = 'Movies'                    # Table name
         key = 'title'                       # Primary key
         director = Field()
         year = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

     class Song:
         table = 'Music'
         key = 'title'
         artist = Field()
         year = Field()
         genre = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

Pour utiliser les modèles, connectons-nous d'abord à la base de
données :

     >>> import sqlite3
     >>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db')

Une session interactive montre comment les données sont extraites de la
base de données et comment elles peuvent être mises à jour :

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'George Lucas'
     >>> jaws = Movie('Jaws')
     >>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}'
     'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg'

     >>> Song('Country Roads').artist
     'John Denver'

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams'
     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'J.J. Abrams'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping_objet-relationnel

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model


File: python.info,  Node: Équivalents en Python pur,  Prev: Tutoriel technique,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.4 Équivalents en Python pur
-------------------------------

Le protocole descripteur est simple et offre des possibilités très
intéressantes.  Plusieurs cas d'utilisation sont si courants qu'ils ont
été regroupés dans des outils intégrés.  Les propriétés, les méthodes
liées, les méthodes statiques et les méthodes de classe sont toutes
basées sur le protocole descripteur.

* Menu:

* Propriétés::
* Fonctions et méthodes::
* Types de méthodes::
* Méthodes statiques::
* Méthodes de classe::
* Objets membres et __slots__::


File: python.info,  Node: Propriétés,  Next: Fonctions et méthodes,  Up: Équivalents en Python pur

9.3.4.1 Propriétés
..................

Appeler *note property(): 192. construit de façon succincte un
descripteur de données qui déclenche un appel de fonction lors de
l'accès à un attribut.  Sa signature est :

     property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property

La documentation montre une utilisation caractéristique pour définir un
attribut géré ‘x’ :

     class C:
         def getx(self): return self.__x
         def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
         def delx(self): del self.__x
         x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

To see how *note property(): 192. is implemented in terms of the
descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent that implements
most of the core functionality:

     class Property:
         "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

         def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
             self.fget = fget
             self.fset = fset
             self.fdel = fdel
             if doc is None and fget is not None:
                 doc = fget.__doc__
             self.__doc__ = doc

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.__name__ = name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             if self.fget is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             return self.fget(obj)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             if self.fset is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             self.fset(obj, value)

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             if self.fdel is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             self.fdel(obj)

         def getter(self, fget):
             return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

         def setter(self, fset):
             return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

         def deleter(self, fdel):
             return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)

La fonction native *note property(): 192. aide chaque fois qu'une
interface utilisateur a accordé l'accès à un attribut et que des
modifications ultérieures nécessitent l'intervention d'une méthode.

Par exemple, une classe de tableur peut donner accès à une valeur de
cellule via ‘Cell('b10').value’.  Les améliorations ultérieures du
programme exigent que la cellule soit recalculée à chaque accès ;
cependant, le programmeur ne veut pas impacter le code client existant
accédant directement à l'attribut.  La solution consiste à envelopper
l'accès à l'attribut 'value' dans un descripteur de données :

     class Cell:
         ...

         @property
         def value(self):
             "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
             self.recalc()
             return self._value

Either the built-in *note property(): 192. or our ‘Property()’
equivalent would work in this example.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions et méthodes,  Next: Types de méthodes,  Prev: Propriétés,  Up: Équivalents en Python pur

9.3.4.2 Fonctions et méthodes
.............................

Les fonctionnalités orientées objet de Python sont construites sur un
environnement basé sur des fonctions.  À l'aide de descripteurs
hors-données, les deux sont fusionnés de façon transparente.

Les fonctions placées dans les dictionnaires des classes sont
transformées en méthodes au moment de l'appel.  Les méthodes ne
diffèrent des fonctions ordinaires que par le fait que le premier
argument est réservé à l'instance de l'objet.  Par convention Python, la
référence de l'instance est appelée 'self', bien qu'il soit possible de
l'appeler 'this' ou tout autre nom de variable.

Les méthodes peuvent être créées manuellement avec *note
types.MethodType: 17b5, qui équivaut à peu près à :

     class MethodType:
         "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c"

         def __init__(self, func, obj):
             self.__func__ = func
             self.__self__ = obj

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             func = self.__func__
             obj = self.__self__
             return func(obj, *args, **kwargs)

         def __getattribute__(self, name):
             "Emulate method_getset() in Objects/classobject.c"
             if name == '__doc__':
                 return self.__func__.__doc__
             return object.__getattribute__(self, name)

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             "Emulate method_getattro() in Objects/classobject.c"
             return getattr(self.__func__, name)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Emulate method_descr_get() in Objects/classobject.c"
             return self

To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the *note
__get__(): 149f. method for binding methods during attribute access.
This means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound
methods during dotted lookup from an instance.  Here's how it works:

     class Function:
         ...

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             return MethodType(self, obj)

L'exécution de la classe suivante dans l'interpréteur montre comment le
descripteur de fonction se comporte en pratique :

     class D:
         def f(self):
              return self

     class D2:
         pass

La fonction possède un attribut ‘__qualname__’ (*note nom qualifié:
18fe.) pour prendre en charge l'introspection :

     >>> D.f.__qualname__
     'D.f'

Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke
*note __get__(): 149f.  Instead, it just returns the underlying function
object:

     >>> D.__dict__['f']
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

Dotted access from a class calls *note __get__(): 149f. which just
returns the underlying function unchanged:

     >>> D.f
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance.
The dotted lookup calls *note __get__(): 149f. which returns a bound
method object:

     >>> d = D()
     >>> d.f
     <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>

En interne, la méthode liée stocke la fonction sous-jacente et
l'instance liée :

     >>> d.f.__func__
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

     >>> d.f.__self__
     <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>

Si vous vous êtes déjà demandé d'où vient 'self' dans les méthodes
ordinaires ou d'où vient 'cls' dans les méthodes de classe, c'est ça !


File: python.info,  Node: Types de méthodes,  Next: Méthodes statiques,  Prev: Fonctions et méthodes,  Up: Équivalents en Python pur

9.3.4.3 Types de méthodes
.........................

Les descripteurs hors-données constituent un moyen simple pour modifier
le modèle usuel de transformation des fonctions en méthodes.

To recap, functions have a *note __get__(): 149f. method so that they
can be converted to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data
descriptor transforms an ‘obj.f(*args)’ call into ‘f(obj, *args)’.
Calling ‘cls.f(*args)’ becomes ‘f(*args)’.

Ce tableau résume le lien classique ('binding') et ses deux variantes
les plus utiles :

     Transformation        Appelée depuis un objet    Appelée depuis une
                                                      classe
                                                      
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
     fonction              f(obj, *args)              f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     méthode statique      f(*args)                   f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     méthode de classe     f(type(obj), *args)        f(cls, *args)
                                                      


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes statiques,  Next: Méthodes de classe,  Prev: Types de méthodes,  Up: Équivalents en Python pur

9.3.4.4 Méthodes statiques
..........................

Les méthodes statiques renvoient la fonction sous-jacente sans
modification.  Appeler ‘c.f’ ou ‘C.f’ est l'équivalent d'une recherche
directe dans ‘objet.__getattribute__(c, "f")’ ou
‘objet.__getattribute__(C, "f")’.  Par conséquent, l'accès à la fonction
devient identique que ce soit à partir d'un objet ou d'une classe.

Les bonnes candidates pour être méthode statique sont des méthodes qui
ne font pas référence à la variable ‘self’.

For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the
average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on
the data.  However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually
related but do not depend on the data.  For instance, ‘erf(x)’ is handy
conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not
directly depend on a particular dataset.  It can be called either from
an object or the class: ‘s.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332’ or ‘Sample.erf(1.5) -->
0.9332’.

Puisque les méthodes statiques renvoient la fonction sous-jacente sans
changement, les exemples d’appels sont d'une grande banalité :

     class E:
         @staticmethod
         def f(x):
             return x * 10

     >>> E.f(3)
     30
     >>> E().f(3)
     30

En utilisant le protocole de descripteur hors-données, une version
Python pure de *note staticmethod(): 40c. ressemblerait à ceci :

     import functools

     class StaticMethod:
         "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return self.f

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwds):
             return self.f(*args, **kwds)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 100d. call adds a ‘__wrapped__’
attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it carries
forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the
wrapped function: *note __name__: 12b4, *note __qualname__: 1eb8, *note
__doc__: 11b8, and *note __annotations__: 11b7.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes de classe,  Next: Objets membres et __slots__,  Prev: Méthodes statiques,  Up: Équivalents en Python pur

9.3.4.5 Méthodes de classe
..........................

Contrairement aux méthodes statiques, les méthodes de classe ajoutent la
référence de classe en tête de la liste d'arguments, avant d'appeler la
fonction.  C'est le même format que l'appelant soit un objet ou une
classe :

     class F:
         @classmethod
         def f(cls, x):
             return cls.__name__, x

     >>> F.f(3)
     ('F', 3)
     >>> F().f(3)
     ('F', 3)

Ce comportement est utile lorsque la fonction n'a besoin que d'une
référence de classe et ne se soucie pas des données propres à une
instance particulière.  Une des utilisations des méthodes de classe est
de créer des constructeurs de classe personnalisés.  Par exemple, la
méthode de classe *note dict.fromkeys(): 21ff. crée un nouveau
dictionnaire à partir d'une liste de clés.  L'équivalent Python pur
est :

     class Dict(dict):
         @classmethod
         def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
             "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
             d = cls()
             for key in iterable:
                 d[key] = value
             return d

Maintenant un nouveau dictionnaire de clés uniques peut être construit
comme ceci :

     >>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
     >>> type(d) is Dict
     True
     >>> d
     {'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}

En utilisant le protocole de descripteur hors-données, une version
Python pure de *note classmethod(): 165. ressemblerait à ceci :

     import functools

     class ClassMethod:
         "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, cls=None):
             if cls is None:
                 cls = type(obj)
             return MethodType(self.f, cls)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 100d. call in ‘ClassMethod’ adds a
‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it
carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like
the wrapped function: *note __name__: 12b4, *note __qualname__: 1eb8,
*note __doc__: 11b8, and *note __annotations__: 11b7.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets membres et __slots__,  Prev: Méthodes de classe,  Up: Équivalents en Python pur

9.3.4.6 Objets membres et '__slots__'
.....................................

Lorsqu'une classe définit ‘__slots__’, Python remplace le dictionnaire
d'instance par un tableau de longueur fixe de créneaux prédéfinis.  D'un
point de vue utilisateur, cela :

1/ permet une détection immédiate des bogues dus à des affectations
d'attributs mal orthographiés.  Seuls les noms d'attribut spécifiés dans
‘__slots__’ sont autorisés :

     class Vehicle:
         __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model')

     >>> auto = Vehicle()
     >>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer'

2/ aide à créer des objets immuables où les descripteurs gèrent l'accès
aux attributs privés stockés dans ‘__slots__’ :

     class Immutable:

         __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name')          # Replace the instance dictionary

         def __init__(self, dept, name):
             self._dept = dept                   # Store to private attribute
             self._name = name                   # Store to private attribute

         @property                               # Read-only descriptor
         def dept(self):
             return self._dept

         @property
         def name(self):                         # Read-only descriptor
             return self._name

     >>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney')
     >>> mark.dept
     'Botany'
     >>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter
     >>> mark.location = 'Mars'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location'

3/ économise de la mémoire.  Sur une version Linux 64 bits, une instance
avec deux attributs prend 48 octets avec ‘__slots__’ et 152 octets sans.
Ce patron de conception poids mouche(1) n'a probablement d'importance
que si un grand nombre d'instances doivent être créées ;

4/ améliore la vitesse.  La lecture des variables d'instance est 35 %
plus rapide avec ‘__slots__’ (mesure effectuée avec Python 3.10 sur un
processeur Apple M1) ;

5/ bloque les outils comme *note functools.cached_property(): 52f. qui
nécessitent un dictionnaire d'instance pour fonctionner correctement :

     from functools import cached_property

     class CP:
         __slots__ = ()                          # Eliminates the instance dict

         @cached_property                        # Requires an instance dict
         def pi(self):
             return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0)
                            for n in reversed(range(100_000)))

     >>> CP().pi
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property.

Il n'est pas possible de créer une version Python pure exacte de
‘__slots__’ car il faut un accès direct aux structures C et un contrôle
sur l'allocation de la mémoire des objets.  Cependant, nous pouvons
construire une simulation presque fidèle où la structure C réelle pour
les 'slots' est émulée par une liste privée ‘_slotvalues’.  Les lectures
et écritures dans cette structure privée sont gérées par des
descripteurs de membres :

     null = object()

     class Member:

         def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
             'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h'
             # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
             self.name = name
             self.clsname = clsname
             self.offset = offset

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null

         def __repr__(self):
             'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'

The ‘type.__new__()’ method takes care of adding member objects to class
variables:

     class Type(type):
         'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots'

         def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs):
             'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods()
             slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', [])
             for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names):
                 mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset)
             return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs)

La méthode *note object.__new__(): 56e. s'occupe de créer des instances
qui ont des 'slots' au lieu d'un dictionnaire d'instances.  Voici une
simulation approximative en Python pur :

     class Object:
         'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__'

         def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
             'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             inst = super().__new__(cls)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'):
                 empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names)
                 object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots)
             return inst

         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__setattr__(name, value)

         def __delattr__(self, name):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__delattr__(name)

To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from ‘Object’ and
set the *note metaclass: 1f3f. to ‘Type’:

     class H(Object, metaclass=Type):
         'Instance variables stored in slots'

         slot_names = ['x', 'y']

         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

À ce stade, la métaclasse a chargé des objets membres pour 'x' et 'y' :

     >>> from pprint import pp
     >>> pp(dict(vars(H)))
     {'__module__': '__main__',
      '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots',
      'slot_names': ['x', 'y'],
      '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>,
      'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>,
      'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>}

Lorsque les instances sont créées, elles ont une liste ‘slot_values’ où
les attributs sont stockés :

     >>> h = H(10, 20)
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [10, 20]}
     >>> h.x = 55
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [55, 20]}

Les attributs mal orthographiés ou non attribués lèvent une exception :

     >>> h.xz
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poids-mouche_(patron_de_conception)


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Next: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum,  Prev: Descriptor Guide,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.4 Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB
=============================================================

This document explains how the Python GDB extension, ‘python-gdb.py’,
can be used with the GDB debugger to debug CPython extensions and the
CPython interpreter itself.

When debugging low-level problems such as crashes or deadlocks, a
low-level debugger, such as GDB, is useful to diagnose and correct the
issue.  By default, GDB (or any of its front-ends) doesn't support
high-level information specific to the CPython interpreter.

The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension adds CPython interpreter information to
GDB. The extension helps introspect the stack of currently executing
Python functions.  Given a Python object represented by a *note
PyObject: 32f.* pointer, the extension surfaces the type and value of
the object.

Developers who are working on CPython extensions or tinkering with parts
of CPython that are written in C can use this document to learn how to
use the ‘python-gdb.py’ extension with GDB.

     Note: This document assumes that you are familiar with the basics
     of GDB and the CPython C API. It consolidates guidance from the
     devguide(1) and the Python wiki(2).

* Menu:

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb


File: python.info,  Node: Prerequisites,  Next: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.1 Prerequisites
-------------------

You need to have:

   - GDB 7 or later.  (For earlier versions of GDB, see ‘Misc/gdbinit’
     in the sources of Python 3.11 or earlier.)

   - GDB-compatible debugging information for Python and any extension
     you are debugging.

   - The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension.

The extension is built with Python, but might be distributed separately
or not at all.  Below, we include tips for a few common systems as
examples.  Note that even if the instructions match your system, they
might be outdated.

* Menu:

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::


File: python.info,  Node: Setup with Python built from source,  Next: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Up: Prerequisites

9.4.1.1 Setup with Python built from source
...........................................

When you build CPython from source, debugging information should be
available, and the build should add a ‘python-gdb.py’ file to the root
directory of your repository.

To activate support, you must add the directory containing
‘python-gdb.py’ to GDB's "auto-load-safe-path".  If you haven't done
this, recent versions of GDB will print out a warning with instructions
on how to do this.

     Note: If you do not see instructions for your version of GDB, put
     this in your configuration file (‘~/.gdbinit’ or
     ‘~/.config/gdb/gdbinit’):

          add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython

     You can also add multiple paths, separated by ‘:’.


File: python.info,  Node: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Prev: Setup with Python built from source,  Up: Prerequisites

9.4.1.2 Setup for Python from a Linux distro
............................................

Most Linux systems provide debug information for the system Python in a
package called ‘python-debuginfo’, ‘python-dbg’ or similar.  For
example:

   - Fedora:

               sudo dnf install gdb
               sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3

   - Ubuntu:

               sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg

On several recent Linux systems, GDB can download debugging symbols
automatically using 'debuginfod'.  However, this will not install the
‘python-gdb.py’ extension; you generally do need to install the debug
info package separately.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Next: Using the python-gdb extension,  Prev: Prerequisites,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.2 Using the Debug build and Development mode
------------------------------------------------

For easier debugging, you might want to:

   - Use a *note debug build: 1f6. of Python.  (When building from
     source, use ‘configure --with-pydebug’.  On Linux distros, install
     and run a package like ‘python-debug’ or ‘python-dbg’, if
     available.)

   - Use the runtime *note development mode: 1f5. (‘-X dev’).

Both enable extra assertions and disable some optimizations.  Sometimes
this hides the bug you are trying to find, but in most cases they make
the process easier.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the python-gdb extension,  Next: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.3 Using the ‘python-gdb’ extension
--------------------------------------

When the extension is loaded, it provides two main features: pretty
printers for Python values, and additional commands.

* Menu:

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty-printers,  Next: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.1 Pretty-printers
.......................

This is what a GDB backtrace looks like (truncated) when this extension
is enabled:

     #0  0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8
     ) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748
     #1  0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445
     #2  0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412
     #3  0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346
     #4  0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed=
         0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531
     #5  0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495
     #6  0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551
     #7  0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569
     #8  0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v=
         {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__cached__': None, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key=
         0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171

Notice how the dictionary argument to ‘PyDict_GetItemString’ is
displayed as its ‘repr()’, rather than an opaque ‘PyObject *’ pointer.

The extension works by supplying a custom printing routine for values of
type ‘PyObject *’.  If you need to access lower-level details of an
object, then cast the value to a pointer of the appropriate type.  For
example:

     (gdb) p globals
     $1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__':
     '__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None,
     '__package__': None}

     (gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals
     $2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5,
     ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70
     <lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912,
     me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>},
     {me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__',
     me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes',
     me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>},
     {me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {
       me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}}

Note that the pretty-printers do not actually call ‘repr()’.  For basic
types, they try to match its result closely.

An area that can be confusing is that the custom printer for some types
look a lot like GDB's built-in printer for standard types.  For example,
the pretty-printer for a Python ‘int’ (*note PyLongObject: 576.*) gives
a representation that is not distinguishable from one of a regular
machine-level integer:

     (gdb) p some_machine_integer
     $3 = 42

     (gdb) p some_python_integer
     $4 = 42

The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyLongObject: 576.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer
     $5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
     ob_digit = {42}}

A similar confusion can arise with the ‘str’ type, where the output
looks a lot like gdb's built-in printer for ‘char *’:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_python_str
     $6 = '__builtins__'

The pretty-printer for ‘str’ instances defaults to using single-quotes
(as does Python's ‘repr’ for strings) whereas the standard printer for
‘char *’ values uses double-quotes and contains a hexadecimal address:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_char_star
     $7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world"

Again, the implementation details can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyUnicodeObject: 780.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6
     $8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12,
     str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}


File: python.info,  Node: py-list,  Next: py-up and py-down,  Prev: Pretty-printers,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.2 ‘py-list’
.................

     The extension adds a ‘py-list’ command, which lists the Python
     source code (if any) for the current frame in the selected thread.
     The current line is marked with a ">":

          (gdb) py-list
           901        if options.profile:
           902            options.profile = False
           903            profile_me()
           904            return
           905
          >906        u = UI()
           907        if not u.quit:
           908            try:
           909                gtk.main()
           910            except KeyboardInterrupt:
           911                # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt...

     Use ‘py-list START’ to list at a different line number within the
     Python source, and ‘py-list START,END’ to list a specific range of
     lines within the Python source.


File: python.info,  Node: py-up and py-down,  Next: py-bt,  Prev: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.3 ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’
.............................

     The ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ commands are analogous to GDB's regular
     ‘up’ and ‘down’ commands, but try to move at the level of CPython
     frames, rather than C frames.

     GDB is not always able to read the relevant frame information,
     depending on the optimization level with which CPython was
     compiled.  Internally, the commands look for C frames that are
     executing the default frame evaluation function (that is, the core
     bytecode interpreter loop within CPython) and look up the value of
     the related ‘PyFrameObject *’.

     They emit the frame number (at the C level) within the thread.

     Par exemple :

          (gdb) py-up
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-up
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame

     so we're at the top of the Python stack.

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB's standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.  The command skips C frames which are not
     executing Python code.

     Going back down:

          (gdb) py-down
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-down
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          (gdb) py-down
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          (gdb) py-down
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          Unable to find a newer python frame

     and we're at the bottom of the Python stack.

     Note that in Python 3.12 and newer, the same C stack frame can be
     used for multiple Python stack frames.  This means that ‘py-up’ and
     ‘py-down’ may move multiple Python frames at once.  For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0)
             time.sleep(5)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> ()
             recursive_function(5)
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame


File: python.info,  Node: py-bt,  Next: py-print,  Prev: py-up and py-down,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.4 ‘py-bt’
...............

     The ‘py-bt’ command attempts to display a Python-level backtrace of
     the current thread.

     Par exemple :

          (gdb) py-bt
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB's standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.


File: python.info,  Node: py-print,  Next: py-locals,  Prev: py-bt,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.5 ‘py-print’
..................

     The ‘py-print’ command looks up a Python name and tries to print
     it.  It looks in locals within the current thread, then globals,
     then finally builtins:

          (gdb) py-print self
          local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          (gdb) py-print __name__
          global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower'
          (gdb) py-print len
          builtin 'len' = <built-in function len>
          (gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel
          'scarlet_pimpernel' not found

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     ‘py-print’ only considers the first one.


File: python.info,  Node: py-locals,  Prev: py-print,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.6 ‘py-locals’
...................

     The ‘py-locals’ command looks up all Python locals within the
     current Python frame in the selected thread, and prints their
     representations:

          (gdb) py-locals
          self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     locals from all of them will be shown:

          (gdb) py-locals
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 0
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 1
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 2
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 3
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 4
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 5
          Locals for <module>


File: python.info,  Node: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the python-gdb extension,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.4 Use with GDB commands
---------------------------

The extension commands complement GDB's built-in commands.  For example,
you can use a frame numbers shown by ‘py-bt’ with the ‘frame’ command to
go a specific frame within the selected thread, like this:

     (gdb) py-bt
     (output snipped)
     #68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> ()
             main()
     (gdb) frame 68
     #68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665
     2665                            x = call_function(&sp, oparg);
     (gdb) py-list
     1543        # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a
     1544        # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or
     1545        # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is
     1546        # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD.
     1547        with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True):
     >1548            main()

The ‘info threads’ command will give you a list of the threads within
the process, and you can use the ‘thread’ command to select a different
one:

     (gdb) info threads
       105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
       104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
     * 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)  0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82

You can use ‘thread apply all COMMAND’ or (‘t a a COMMAND’ for short) to
run a command on all threads.  With ‘py-bt’, this lets you see what
every thread is doing at the Python level:

     (gdb) t a a py-bt

     Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528)
                     f()

     Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272)
                     f()

     Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)):
     #5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait ()
         time.sleep(0.01)
     #8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated)
             _wait()


File: python.info,  Node: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum,  Next: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle,  Prev: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.5 Guide sur l'utilisation d''Enum'
====================================

An *note Enum: 61d. is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values.
They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful *note
repr(): 7e9, grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.

Elles sont particulièrement utiles lorsque vous avez une variable qui
peut prendre une valeur dans une plage limitée de valeurs.  Par exemple,
les jours de la semaine :

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7

Ou alors les couleurs primaires 'RVB' (NdT : 'RGB' en anglais) :

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

Comme vous pouvez le voir, créer une *note Enum: 61d. est très simple à
écrire, il suffit qu'elle hérite de *note Enum: 61d. elle-même.

     Note: casse des membres d'une énumération

     Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid
     issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and
     enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for
     members, and will be using that style in our examples.

Selon la nature de l'énumération, il peut être important d'avoir accès à
la valeur d'un membre.  Dans tous les cas, cette valeur peut être
utilisée pour obtenir le membre correspondant :

     >>> Weekday(3)
     <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3>

Comme vous pouvez le constater, la ‘repr()’ d'un membre affiche le nom
de l'énumération, le nom du membre et la valeur.  La ‘str()’ d'un membre
affiche uniquement le nom de l'énumération et le nom du membre :

     >>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY)
     Weekday.THURSDAY

Le 'type' d'un membre d'énumération est l'énumération à laquelle il
appartient :

     >>> type(Weekday.MONDAY)
     <enum 'Weekday'>
     >>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
     True

Enum members have an attribute that contains just their ‘name’:

     >>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
     TUESDAY

Likewise, they have an attribute for their ‘value’:

     >>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
     3

Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value
pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added.  For example, *note
datetime.date: 1c8. has two methods for returning the weekday: *note
weekday(): 2407. and *note isoweekday(): 2408.  The difference is that
one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7.  Rather than keep
track of that ourselves we can add a method to the ‘Weekday’ enum to
extract the day from the *note date: 1c8. instance and return the
matching enum member:

     @classmethod
     def from_date(cls, date):
         return cls(date.isoweekday())

The complete ‘Weekday’ enum now looks like this:

     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7
     ...     #
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def from_date(cls, date):
     ...         return cls(date.isoweekday())

Maintenant, nous pouvons découvrir quel jour nous sommes aujourd'hui !
Regardez :

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> Weekday.from_date(date.today())
     <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>

Bien sûr, si vous lisez cette page un autre jour, vous verrez ce jour-là
à la place.

This ‘Weekday’ enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
what if we need several?  Maybe we're writing a function to plot chores
during a week, and don't want to use a *note list: 5fe. - we could use a
different type of *note Enum: 61d.:

     >>> from enum import Flag
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 4
     ...     THURSDAY = 8
     ...     FRIDAY = 16
     ...     SATURDAY = 32
     ...     SUNDAY = 64

Nous avons changé deux choses : nous héritons de *note Flag: 610. et les
valeurs sont toutes des puissances de 2.

Just like the original ‘Weekday’ enum above, we can have a single
selection:

     >>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
     >>> first_week_day
     <Weekday.MONDAY: 1>

Mais *note Flag: 610. nous permet aussi de combiner plusieurs membres en
une seule variable :

     >>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY
     >>> weekend
     <Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96>

Nous pouvons même itérer sur une variable *note Flag: 610. :

     >>> for day in weekend:
     ...     print(day)
     Weekday.SATURDAY
     Weekday.SUNDAY

Bien, préparons quelques corvées :

     >>> chores_for_ethan = {
     ...     'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY,
     ...     'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY,
     ...     'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY,
     ...     }

Et une fonction pour afficher les corvées d'un jour donné :

     >>> def show_chores(chores, day):
     ...     for chore, days in chores.items():
     ...         if day in days:
     ...             print(chore)
     ...
     >>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY)
     answer SO questions

In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can
save yourself some work and use *note auto(): c8c. for the values:

     >>> from enum import auto
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = auto()
     ...     TUESDAY = auto()
     ...     WEDNESDAY = auto()
     ...     THURSDAY = auto()
     ...     FRIDAY = auto()
     ...     SATURDAY = auto()
     ...     SUNDAY = auto()
     ...     WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY

* Menu:

* Accès par programme aux membres de l'énumération et à leurs attributs::
* Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération::
* Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques::
* Utilisation de valeurs automatiques::
* Itération: Itération<2>.
* Comparaisons: Comparaisons<3>.
* Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations::
* Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations::
* Dataclass support::
* Sérialisation::
* API fonctionnelle::
* Déclinaisons d'énumérations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Dérivations d'EnumType::


File: python.info,  Node: Accès par programme aux membres de l'énumération et à leurs attributs,  Next: Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.1 Accès par programme aux membres de l'énumération et à leurs attributs
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Il est parfois utile d'accéder aux membres d'une énumération
programmatiquement (c'est-à-dire les cas où ‘Color.RED’ ne suffit pas
car la couleur exacte n'est pas connue au moment de l'écriture du
programme).  ‘Enum’ permet de tels accès :

     >>> Color(1)
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color(3)
     <Color.BLUE: 3>

Si vous souhaitez accéder aux membres d'une énumération par leur nom,
utilisez l'accès par indice :

     >>> Color['RED']
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color['GREEN']
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

If you have an enum member and need its ‘name’ or ‘value’:

     >>> member = Color.RED
     >>> member.name
     'RED'
     >>> member.value
     1


File: python.info,  Node: Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération,  Next: Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques,  Prev: Accès par programme aux membres de l'énumération et à leurs attributs,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.2 Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération
--------------------------------------------------------------

Il n'est pas licite d'avoir deux membres d'une énumération avec le même
nom :

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     SQUARE = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2

Cependant, un membre peut avoir d'autres noms qui lui sont associés.
Étant donné deux entrées ‘A’ et ‘B’ avec la même valeur (et ‘A’ définie
en premier), ‘B’ est un synonyme (ou alias) du membre ‘A’.  La recherche
par valeur de la valeur de ‘A’ renvoie le membre ‘A’.  La recherche par
nom de ‘A’ renvoie le membre ‘A’.  La recherche par nom de ‘B’ renvoie
également le membre ‘A’ :

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     DIAMOND = 1
     ...     CIRCLE = 3
     ...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape(2)
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>

     Note: tenter de créer un membre portant le même nom qu'un attribut
     déjà défini (un autre membre, une méthode, etc.)  ou tenter de
     créer un attribut portant le même nom qu'un membre n'est pas
     autorisé.


File: python.info,  Node: Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques,  Next: Utilisation de valeurs automatiques,  Prev: Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.3 Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques
-----------------------------------------------

Par défaut, les énumérations autorisent plusieurs noms comme synonymes
pour la même valeur.  Lorsque ce comportement n'est pas souhaité, vous
pouvez utiliser le décorateur *note unique(): 2570. :

     >>> from enum import Enum, unique
     >>> @unique
     ... class Mistake(Enum):
     ...     ONE = 1
     ...     TWO = 2
     ...     THREE = 3
     ...     FOUR = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de valeurs automatiques,  Next: Itération<2>,  Prev: Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.4 Utilisation de valeurs automatiques
-----------------------------------------

Si la valeur exacte n'est pas importante, vous pouvez utiliser *note
auto: c8c. :

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Color]
     [1, 2, 3]

The values are chosen by *note _generate_next_value_(): 2586, which can
be overridden:

     >>> class AutoName(Enum):
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
     ...         return name
     ...
     >>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
     ...     NORTH = auto()
     ...     SOUTH = auto()
     ...     EAST = auto()
     ...     WEST = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Ordinal]
     ['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST']

     Note: The *note _generate_next_value_(): 2586. method must be
     defined before any members.


File: python.info,  Node: Itération<2>,  Next: Comparaisons<3>,  Prev: Utilisation de valeurs automatiques,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.5 Itération
---------------

L'itération sur les membres d'une énumération ne fournit pas les
synonymes :

     >>> list(Shape)
     [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
     >>> list(Weekday)
     [<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>]

Note that the aliases ‘Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE’ and ‘Weekday.WEEKEND’
aren't shown.

L'attribut spécial ‘__members__’ est un tableau de correspondances
ordonné en lecture seule des noms vers les membres.  Il inclut tous les
noms définis dans l'énumération, y compris les synonymes :

     >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
     ...     name, member
     ...
     ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
     ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
     ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
     ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)

L'attribut ‘__members__’ peut être utilisé pour un accès programmatique
détaillé aux membres de l'énumération.  Par exemple, trouver tous les
synonymes :

     >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
     ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']

     Note: Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set,
     such as ‘3’, and no flags set, i.e.  ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaisons<3>,  Next: Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations,  Prev: Itération<2>,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.6 Comparaisons
------------------

Les membres de l'énumération sont comparés par identité :

     >>> Color.RED is Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
     False
     >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
     True

Les comparaisons ordonnées entre les valeurs d'énumération 'ne sont pas'
prises en charge.  Les membres d'une énumération ne sont pas des entiers
(mais voir *note IntEnum: 4e62. plus bas) :

     >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'

Les comparaisons d'égalité sont cependant définies :

     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
     False
     >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
     True

Les comparaisons avec des valeurs en dehors de l'énumération sont
toujours fausses (encore une fois, *note IntEnum: ccf. a été
explicitement conçue pour se comporter différemment, voir ci-dessous) :

     >>> Color.BLUE == 2
     False

     Avertissement: It is possible to reload modules - if a reloaded
     module contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members
     may not compare identical/equal to the original members.


File: python.info,  Node: Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations,  Next: Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations,  Prev: Comparaisons<3>,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.7 Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations
-----------------------------------------------------

La plupart des exemples ci-dessus utilisent des nombres entiers pour les
valeurs d'énumération.  L'utilisation d'entiers est rapide et pratique
(et fournie par défaut par l'*note API fonctionnelle: 4e64.), mais n'est
pas strictement obligatoire.  Dans la grande majorité des cas, on ne se
soucie pas de la valeur réelle des membres d'une énumération.  Mais si
la valeur 'est' importante, les énumérations peuvent avoir des valeurs
arbitraires.

Les énumérations sont des classes Python et peuvent avoir des méthodes
ainsi que des méthodes spéciales comme d'habitude.  Prenons cette
énumération :

     >>> class Mood(Enum):
     ...     FUNKY = 1
     ...     HAPPY = 3
     ...
     ...     def describe(self):
     ...         # self is the member here
     ...         return self.name, self.value
     ...
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
     ...
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def favorite_mood(cls):
     ...         # cls here is the enumeration
     ...         return cls.HAPPY
     ...

alors :

     >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
     <Mood.HAPPY: 3>
     >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
     ('HAPPY', 3)
     >>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
     'my custom str! 1'

The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end
with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all
other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of
this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (*note
__str__(): 60a, *note __add__(): 1f45, etc.), descriptors (methods are
also descriptors), and variable names listed in *note _ignore_: 2584.

Note: if your enumeration defines *note __new__(): 56e. and/or *note
__init__(): 69d, any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed
into those methods.  See *note Planet: 4e65. for an example.

     Note: The *note __new__(): 56e. method, if defined, is used during
     creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum's *note
     __new__(): 56e. which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.  See *note When to use __new__() vs.  __init__():
     4e66. for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations,  Next: Dataclass support,  Prev: Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.8 Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations
---------------------------------------------------

Une nouvelle classe *note Enum: 61d. doit avoir une classe mère 'Enum',
jusqu'à un type de données concret, et autant de classes mélangées
filles de *note object: a7c. que nécessaire.  L'ordre de ces classes
mères est :

     class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
         pass

De plus, la dérivation d'une énumération n'est autorisée que si
l'énumération ne définit aucun membre.  Donc ceci est interdit :

     >>> class MoreColor(Color):
     ...     PINK = 17
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'>

Mais ceci est autorisé :

     >>> class Foo(Enum):
     ...     def some_behavior(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> class Bar(Foo):
     ...     HAPPY = 1
     ...     SAD = 2
     ...

Autoriser la dérivation d'énumérations qui définissent les membres
conduirait à une violation de certains invariants importants des types
et des instances.  D'un autre côté, il est logique de permettre le
partage d'un comportement commun entre un groupe d'énumérations (voir
*note OrderedEnum: 4e68. pour un exemple).


File: python.info,  Node: Dataclass support,  Next: Sérialisation,  Prev: Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.9 Dataclass support
-----------------------

When inheriting from a *note dataclass: 1c6, the *note __repr__(): 1741.
omits the inherited class' name.  For example:

     >>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     >>> @dataclass
     ... class CreatureDataMixin:
     ...     size: str
     ...     legs: int
     ...     tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True)
     ...
     >>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum):
     ...     BEETLE = 'small', 6
     ...     DOG = 'medium', 4
     ...
     >>> Creature.DOG
     <Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4>

Use the *note dataclass(): 1c6. argument ‘repr=False’ to use the
standard *note repr(): 7e9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the
value area, not the dataclass' name.

     Note: Adding *note dataclass(): 1c6. decorator to *note Enum: 61d.
     and its subclasses is not supported.  It will not raise any errors,
     but it will produce very strange results at runtime, such as
     members being equal to each other:

          >>> @dataclass               # don't do this: it does not make any sense
          ... class Color(Enum):
          ...    RED = 1
          ...    BLUE = 2
          ...
          >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
          False
          >>> Color.RED == Color.BLUE  # problem is here: they should not be equal
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Sérialisation,  Next: API fonctionnelle,  Prev: Dataclass support,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.10 Sérialisation
--------------------

Les énumérations peuvent être sérialisées et désérialisées :

     >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
     >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
     >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
     True

Les restrictions habituelles pour la sérialisation s'appliquent : les
énumérations sérialisables doivent être définies au niveau supérieur
d'un module, car la sérialisation nécessite qu'elles puissent être
importées à partir de ce module.

     Note: avec la version 4 du protocole 'pickle', il est possible de
     sérialiser facilement les énumérations imbriquées dans d'autres
     classes.

It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by
defining *note __reduce_ex__(): 1574. in the enumeration class.  The
default method is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want
to use by-name:

     >>> import enum
     >>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
     ...     __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name

     Note: Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed
     aliases will not unpickle.


File: python.info,  Node: API fonctionnelle,  Next: Déclinaisons d'énumérations,  Prev: Sérialisation,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.11 API fonctionnelle
------------------------

La classe *note Enum: 61d. est appelable, elle fournit l'API
fonctionnelle suivante :

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
     >>> Animal
     <enum 'Animal'>
     >>> Animal.ANT
     <Animal.ANT: 1>
     >>> list(Animal)
     [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]

La sémantique de cette API ressemble à celle des *note namedtuple: 1c5.
Le premier argument de l'appel à *note Enum: 61d. est le nom de
l'énumération.

The second argument is the 'source' of enumeration member names.  It can
be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a
sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g.
dictionary) of names to values.  The last two options enable assigning
arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing
integers starting with 1 (use the ‘start’ parameter to specify a
different starting value).  A new class derived from *note Enum: 61d. is
returned.  In other words, the above assignment to ‘Animal’ is
equivalent to:

     >>> class Animal(Enum):
     ...     ANT = 1
     ...     BEE = 2
     ...     CAT = 3
     ...     DOG = 4
     ...

La raison de la valeur par défaut de ‘1’ comme numéro de départ et non
de ‘0’ est que le sens booléen de ‘0’ est ‘False’.  Or, par défaut, les
membres d'une énumération s'évaluent tous à ‘True’.

La sérialisation d'énumérations créées avec l'API fonctionnelle peut
être délicat car les détails d'implémentation de la pile d'appels sont
utilisés pour essayer de déterminer dans quel module l'énumération est
créée (par exemple, cela échoue si vous utilisez une fonction utilitaire
dans un module séparé, et peut également ne pas fonctionner sur
'IronPython' ou 'Jython').  La solution consiste à spécifier
explicitement le nom du module comme suit :

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)

     Avertissement: si le ‘module’ n'est pas fourni et qu''Enum' ne peut
     pas le déterminer, les nouveaux membres de l'énumération ne
     pourront pas être sélectionnés ; pour garder les erreurs au plus
     près de la source, la sérialisation est désactivée.

The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on *note
__qualname__: 1ee2. being set to the location where pickle will be able
to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in
class SomeData in the global scope:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')

La signature complète est :

     Enum(
         value='NewEnumName',
         names=<...>,
         *,
         module='...',
         qualname='...',
         type=<mixed-in class>,
         start=1,
         )

   * 'value': What the new enum class will record as its name.

   * 'names': The enum members.  This can be a whitespace- or
     comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise
     specified):

          'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'

     ou un itérateur sur des noms :

          ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     ou un itérateur sur des paires (nom, valeur) :

          [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]

     ou un tableau de correspondances :

          {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}

   * 'module': name of module where new enum class can be found.

   * 'qualname': where in module new enum class can be found.

   * 'type': type to mix in to new enum class.

   * 'start': number to start counting at if only names are passed in.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre 'start' a été ajouté.


File: python.info,  Node: Déclinaisons d'énumérations,  Next: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Prev: API fonctionnelle,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.12 Déclinaisons d'énumérations
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Autres énumérations::


File: python.info,  Node: IntEnum,  Next: StrEnum,  Up: Déclinaisons d'énumérations

9.5.12.1 'IntEnum'
..................

La première variante de *note Enum: 61d. fournie est également une
sous-classe de *note int: 254.  Les membres d'une *note IntEnum: ccf.
peuvent être comparés à des entiers ; par extension, des énumérations
'IntEnum' de différents types peuvent aussi être comparées :

     >>> from enum import IntEnum
     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Request(IntEnum):
     ...     POST = 1
     ...     GET = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape == 1
     False
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
     True
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
     True

Cependant, elles ne peuvent toujours pas être comparées aux énumérations
classiques *note Enum: 61d. :

     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
     False

Les valeurs *note IntEnum: ccf. se comportent comme des entiers, comme
vous pouvez vous y attendre :

     >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
     1
     >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
     'b'
     >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
     [0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: StrEnum,  Next: IntFlag,  Prev: IntEnum,  Up: Déclinaisons d'énumérations

9.5.12.2 'StrEnum'
..................

La deuxième variante de *note Enum: 61d. fournie est également une
sous-classe de *note str: 437.  Les membres d'une *note StrEnum: 607.
peuvent être comparés à des chaînes ; par extension, les énumérations
'StrEnum' de différents types peuvent également être comparées les unes
aux autres.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: IntFlag,  Next: Flag,  Prev: StrEnum,  Up: Déclinaisons d'énumérations

9.5.12.3 'IntFlag'
..................

La variante suivante fournie d'*note Enum: 61d. est *note IntFlag: 22b5,
également basée sur *note int: 254.  La différence étant que les membres
*note IntFlag: 22b5. peuvent être combinés à l'aide des opérateurs
bit-à-bit (&, |, ^, ~) et le résultat est toujours un membre *note
IntFlag: 22b5, si possible.  Comme *note IntEnum: ccf, les membres de
*note IntFlag: 22b5. sont aussi des entiers et peuvent être utilisés
partout où on utilise un *note int: 254.

     Note: toute opération sur un membre *note IntFlag: 22b5, en dehors
     des opérations bit-à-bit, fait perdre l'appartenance à *note
     IntFlag: 22b5.

     Les opérations bit-à-bit qui entraînent des valeurs *note IntFlag:
     22b5. invalides font perdre l'appartenance à *note IntFlag: 22b5.
     Voir *note FlagBoundary: 611. pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.

Classe exemple dérivée d'‘Intflag’ :

     >>> from enum import IntFlag
     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...
     >>> Perm.R | Perm.W
     <Perm.R|W: 6>
     >>> Perm.R + Perm.W
     6
     >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
     >>> Perm.R in RW
     True

Il est également possible de nommer les combinaisons :

     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...     RWX = 7
     ...
     >>> Perm.RWX
     <Perm.RWX: 7>
     >>> ~Perm.RWX
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> Perm(7)
     <Perm.RWX: 7>

     Note: les combinaisons nommées sont considérées être des synonymes
     (ou alias).  Les synonymes n'apparaissent pas dans une itération,
     mais peuvent être renvoyés à partir de recherches par valeur.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.

Une autre différence importante entre *note IntFlag: 22b5. et *note
Enum: 61d. est que si aucun indicateur n'est défini (la valeur est 0),
son évaluation booléenne est *note False: b27. :

     >>> Perm.R & Perm.X
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
     False

Comme les membres d'une *note IntFlag: 22b5. sont aussi des sous-classes
de *note int: 254, ils peuvent être combinés avec eux (mais peuvent
alors perdre l'appartenance à *note IntFlag: 22b5.) :

     >>> Perm.X | 4
     <Perm.R|X: 5>

     >>> Perm.X + 8
     9

     Note: l'opérateur de négation, ‘~’, renvoie toujours un membre
     *note IntFlag: 22b5. avec une valeur positive :

          >>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6
          True

On peut aussi itérer sur les membres d'une *note IntFlag: 22b5. :

     >>> list(RW)
     [<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag,  Next: Autres énumérations,  Prev: IntFlag,  Up: Déclinaisons d'énumérations

9.5.12.4 'Flag'
...............

La dernière variante est *note Flag: 610.  Comme *note IntFlag: 22b5,
les membres de *note Flag: 610. peuvent être combinés à l'aide des
opérateurs bit-à-bit (&, |, ^, ~).  Contrairement à *note IntFlag: 22b5,
ils ne peuvent être combinés ni comparés à aucune autre énumération
*note Flag: 610, ni à *note int: 254.  Bien qu'il soit possible de
spécifier les valeurs directement, il est recommandé d'utiliser *note
auto: c8c. comme valeur et de laisser *note Flag: 610. sélectionner une
valeur appropriée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Comme pour *note IntFlag: 22b5, si une combinaison de membres *note
Flag: 610. entraîne qu'aucun indicateur n'est défini, l'évaluation
booléenne est *note False: b27. :

     >>> from enum import Flag, auto
     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
     <Color: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
     False

Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8,
...), while combinations of flags will not:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
     ...
     >>> Color.WHITE
     <Color.WHITE: 7>

Donner un nom à la condition « aucun indicateur défini » ne change pas
sa valeur booléenne :

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.BLACK
     <Color.BLACK: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.BLACK)
     False

On peut aussi itérer sur les membres d'une *note Flag: 610. :

     >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
     >>> list(purple)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

     Note: pour la majorité du code nouveau, *note Enum: 61d. et *note
     Flag: 610. sont fortement recommandées, car *note IntEnum: ccf. et
     *note IntFlag: 22b5. brisent certaines promesses sémantiques d'une
     énumération (en pouvant être comparées à des entiers et donc, par
     transitivité, à d'autres énumérations sans rapport).  *note
     IntEnum: ccf. et *note IntFlag: 22b5. ne doivent être utilisées que
     dans les cas où *note Enum: 61d. et *note Flag: 610. ne suffisent
     pas ; par exemple, lorsque des constantes entières sont remplacées
     par des énumérations, ou pour l'interopérabilité avec d'autres
     systèmes.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres énumérations,  Prev: Flag,  Up: Déclinaisons d'énumérations

9.5.12.5 Autres énumérations
............................

Bien que *note IntEnum: ccf. fasse partie du module *note enum: 55, il
serait très simple de l'implémenter indépendamment :

     class IntEnum(int, ReprEnum):   # or Enum instead of ReprEnum
         pass

This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for
example a ‘FloatEnum’ that mixes in *note float: 2ec. instead of *note
int: 254.

Quelques règles :

  1. When subclassing *note Enum: 61d, mix-in types must appear before
     the *note Enum: 61d. class itself in the sequence of bases, as in
     the *note IntEnum: ccf. example above.

  2. Les types mélangés doivent pouvoir être sous-classés.  Par exemple,
     *note bool: 453. et *note range: 932. ne peuvent pas être
     sous-classés et génèrent une erreur lors de la création d'une
     énumération s'ils sont utilisés comme type de mélange.

  3. Alors qu'*note Enum: 61d. peut avoir des membres de n'importe quel
     type, une fois que vous avez mélangé un type supplémentaire, tous
     les membres doivent avoir des valeurs de ce type, par exemple *note
     int: 254. ci-dessus.  Cette restriction ne s'applique pas aux
     classes de mélange qui ajoutent uniquement des méthodes et ne
     spécifient pas d'autre type.

  4. When another data type is mixed in, the *note value: 257f.
     attribute is 'not the same' as the enum member itself, although it
     is equivalent and will compare equal.

  5. A ‘data type’ is a mixin that defines *note __new__(): 56e, or a
     *note dataclass: 1c6.

  6. %-style formatting: ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ call the *note Enum: 61d. class's
     *note __str__(): 60a. and *note __repr__(): 609. respectively;
     other codes (such as ‘%i’ or ‘%h’ for IntEnum) treat the enum
     member as its mixed-in type.

  7. *note Formatted string literals: 999, *note str.format(): 60e, and
     *note format(): 60c. will use the enum's *note __str__(): 60a.
     method.

     Note: Because *note IntEnum: ccf, *note IntFlag: 22b5, and *note
     StrEnum: 607. are designed to be drop-in replacements for existing
     constants, their *note __str__(): 60a. method has been reset to
     their data types' *note __str__(): 60a. method.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Next: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Prev: Déclinaisons d'énumérations,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.13 When to use ‘__new__()’ vs. ‘__init__()’
-----------------------------------------------

*note __new__(): 56e. must be used whenever you want to customize the
actual value of the *note Enum: 61d. member.  Any other modifications
may go in either *note __new__(): 56e. or *note __init__(): 69d, with
*note __init__(): 69d. being preferred.

Par exemple, si vous souhaitez passer plusieurs éléments au
constructeur, mais que vous souhaitez qu'un seul d'entre eux soit la
valeur :

     >>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum):
     ...     """
     ...     Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code.
     ...     """
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, label, unit):
     ...         obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value])
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         obj.label = label
     ...         obj.unit = unit
     ...         return obj
     ...     PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km')
     ...     PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km')
     ...     VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s')
     ...     VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s')
     ...

     >>> print(Coordinate['PY'])
     Coordinate.PY

     >>> print(Coordinate(3))
     Coordinate.VY

     Avertissement: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the
     lookup-only ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the
     data type directly.

* Menu:

* Approfondissements::


File: python.info,  Node: Approfondissements,  Up: When to use __new__ vs __init__

9.5.13.1 Approfondissements
...........................

* Menu:

* Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles: Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles<2>.
* Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles<2>.
* _Private__names::
* Types des membres d'une Enum::
* Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données::
* Valeur booléenne des classes et membres Enum::
* Méthodes dans les classes Enum::
* Combinaisons de membres de Flag::
* Précisions sur Flag et IntFlag::


File: python.info,  Node: Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles<2>,  Next: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles<2>,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.2 Noms de la forme ‘__dunder__’ disponibles
..................................................

*note __members__: 257a. is a read-only ordered mapping of
‘member_name’:‘member’ items.  It is only available on the class.

*note __new__(): 56e, if specified, must create and return the enum
members; it is also a very good idea to set the member's *note _value_:
2582. appropriately.  Once all the members are created it is no longer
used.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles<2>,  Next: _Private__names,  Prev: Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles<2>,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.3 Noms de la forme ‘_sunder_’ disponibles
................................................

   - *note _name_: 2581. - name of the member

   - *note _value_: 2582. - value of the member; can be set in ‘__new__’

   - *note _missing_(): 2589. - a lookup function used when a value is
     not found; may be overridden

   - *note _ignore_: 2584. - a list of names, either as a *note list:
     5fe. or a *note str: 437, that will not be transformed into
     members, and will be removed from the final class

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 2586. - used to get an appropriate
     value for an enum member; may be overridden

   - *note _add_alias_(): 257c. - adds a new name as an alias to an
     existing member.

   - *note _add_value_alias_(): 257d. - adds a new value as an alias to
     an existing member.  See *note MultiValueEnum: 4e74. for an
     example.

          Note: For standard *note Enum: 61d. classes the next value
          chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one.

          For *note Flag: 610. classes the next value chosen will be the
          next highest power-of-two.

     Modifié dans la version 3.13: Prior versions would use the last
     seen value instead of the highest value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’,
‘_generate_next_value_’

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: ‘_add_alias_’, ‘_add_value_alias_’

To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an *note _order_: 2583.
attribute can be provided.  It will be checked against the actual order
of the enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
       ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
       ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     Note: In Python 2 code the *note _order_: 2583. attribute is
     necessary as definition order is lost before it can be recorded.


File: python.info,  Node: _Private__names,  Next: Types des membres d'une Enum,  Prev: Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles<2>,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.4 '_Private__names'
..........................

*note Les noms privés: 1c78. ne sont pas convertis en membres de
l'énumération, mais restent des attributs normaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Types des membres d'une Enum,  Next: Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données,  Prev: _Private__names,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.5 Types des membres d'une ‘Enum’
.......................................

Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally
accessed as ‘EnumClass.member’.  In certain situations, such as writing
custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from
another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name
clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in
classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données,  Next: Valeur booléenne des classes et membres Enum,  Prev: Types des membres d'une Enum,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.6 Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données
....................................................................

Lorsque vous dérivez d'autres types de données, tels que *note int: 254.
ou *note str: 437, avec une *note Enum: 61d, toutes les valeurs après
‘=’ sont passées au constructeur de ce type de données.  Par exemple :

     >>> class MyEnum(IntEnum):      # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer
     ...     example = '11', 16      # so x='11' and base=16
     ...
     >>> MyEnum.example.value        # and hex(11) is...
     17


File: python.info,  Node: Valeur booléenne des classes et membres Enum,  Next: Méthodes dans les classes Enum,  Prev: Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.7 Valeur booléenne des classes et membres ‘Enum’
.......................................................

Les classes 'Enum' mélangées avec des types non-*note Enum: 61d. (tels
que *note int: 254, *note str: 437, etc.)  sont évaluées selon les
règles du type mélangé ; sinon, tous les membres sont évalués comme
*note True: bfd.  Pour que l'évaluation booléenne de votre propre
énumération dépende de la valeur du membre, ajoutez ce qui suit à votre
classe :

     def __bool__(self):
         return bool(self.value)

Les classes simples *note Enum: 61d. sont toujours évaluées comme *note
True: bfd.


File: python.info,  Node: Méthodes dans les classes Enum,  Next: Combinaisons de membres de Flag,  Prev: Valeur booléenne des classes et membres Enum,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.8 Méthodes dans les classes ‘Enum’
.........................................

Si vous dotez votre sous-classe énumération de méthodes supplémentaires,
comme la classe *note Planet: 4e65. ci-dessous, ces méthodes
apparaissent dans le *note dir(): 61f. des membres, mais pas dans celui
de la classe :

     >>> dir(Planet)
     ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
     >>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
     ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']


File: python.info,  Node: Combinaisons de membres de Flag,  Next: Précisions sur Flag et IntFlag,  Prev: Méthodes dans les classes Enum,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.9 Combinaisons de membres de ‘Flag’
..........................................

L'itération sur une combinaison de membres *note Flag: 610. ne renvoie
que les membres dont un seul bit est à 1 :

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
     ...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
     ...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
     ...
     >>> Color(3)  # named combination
     <Color.YELLOW: 3>
     >>> Color(7)      # not named combination
     <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>


File: python.info,  Node: Précisions sur Flag et IntFlag,  Prev: Combinaisons de membres de Flag,  Up: Approfondissements

9.5.13.10 Précisions sur ‘Flag’ et ‘IntFlag’
............................................

En utilisant l'extrait suivant pour nos exemples :

     >>> class Color(IntFlag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 4
     ...     PURPLE = RED | BLUE
     ...     WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE
     ...

ce qui suit est vrai :

   - les membres dont un seul bit est à 1 sont canoniques ;

   - ceux qui ont plusieurs bits à 1 ou aucun bit à 1 sont des
     synonymes ;

   - seuls les membres canoniques sont renvoyés pendant une itération :

          >>> list(Color.WHITE)
          [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

   - la négation d'un membre ou d'une composition de membres renvoie un
     nouveau membre (ou composition de membres) avec la valeur entière
     positive correspondante :

          >>> Color.BLUE
          <Color.BLUE: 4>

          >>> ~Color.BLUE
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

   - les noms des pseudo-membres sont construits à partir des noms de
     leurs membres :

          >>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
          'RED|GREEN'

          >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
          ...     R = 4
          ...     W = 2
          ...     X = 1
          ...
          >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None  # effectively Perm(0)
          True

   - les membres avec plusieurs bits à 1 (des alias) peuvent être
     renvoyés par les opérations :

          >>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
          <Color.PURPLE: 5>

          >>> Color(7)  # or Color(-1)
          <Color.WHITE: 7>

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color.BLACK: 0>

   - pour la vérification d'appartenance, les membres dont la valeur est
     0 sont toujours considérés comme étant membres :

          >>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE
          True

     sinon, seulement si tous les bits à 1 d'un membre sont aussi à 1
     dans l'autre membre, renvoie 'True' :

          >>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE
          True

          >>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE
          False

Il existe un nouveau mécanisme de délimitation qui contrôle la façon
dont les bits hors plage/invalides sont gérés : ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’,
‘EJECT’ et ‘KEEP’ :

   * 'STRICT' -> lève une exception lorsqu'on lui présente des valeurs
     invalides

   * 'CONFORM' -> ignore les bits invalides

   * 'EJECT' -> la valeur présentée perd le statut de membre et devient
     un entier normal

   * 'KEEP' -> garde les bits supplémentaires

        - garde le statut de membre avec les bits supplémentaires

        - les bits supplémentaires ne sont pas produits dans une
          itération

        - les bits supplémentaires ne sont pas représentés par 'repr()'
          et 'str()'

La valeur par défaut pour 'Flag' est ‘STRICT’, la valeur par défaut pour
‘IntFlag’ est ‘EJECT’ et la valeur par défaut pour ‘_convert_’ est
‘KEEP’ (voir ‘ssl.Options’ pour un exemple de cas où ‘KEEP’ est
nécessaire).


File: python.info,  Node: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Next: Enum Cookbook,  Prev: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.14 How are Enums and Flags different?
-----------------------------------------

Les énumérations ont une métaclasse personnalisée qui modifie de
nombreux aspects des classes dérivées d'*note Enum: 61d. et de leurs
instances (membres).

* Menu:

* Classes Enum::
* Flag Classes::
* Membres d'une Enum (les instances): Membres d'une Enum les instances.
* Flag Members::


File: python.info,  Node: Classes Enum,  Next: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.1 Classes 'Enum'
.......................

The *note EnumType: 1e2. metaclass is responsible for providing the
*note __contains__(): 1f17, *note __dir__(): 1f20, *note __iter__():
1f15. and other methods that allow one to do things with an *note Enum:
61d. class that fail on a typical class, such as ‘list(Color)’ or
‘some_enum_var in Color’.  *note EnumType: 1e2. is responsible for
ensuring that various other methods on the final *note Enum: 61d. class
are correct (such as *note __new__(): 56e, *note __getnewargs__(): 145b,
*note __str__(): 60a. and *note __repr__(): 609.).


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Classes,  Next: Membres d'une Enum les instances,  Prev: Classes Enum,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.2 Flag Classes
.....................

Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a
flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name.  So, in
addition to the *note Enum: 61d. definition of alias, a flag with no
value (a.k.a.  ‘0’) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g.  ‘3’)
is considered an alias.


File: python.info,  Node: Membres d'une Enum les instances,  Next: Flag Members,  Prev: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.3 Membres d'une 'Enum' (les instances)
.............................................

The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are
singletons.  *note EnumType: 1e2. creates them all while it is creating
the enum class itself, and then puts a custom *note __new__(): 56e. in
place to ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only
the existing member instances.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Members,  Prev: Membres d'une Enum les instances,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.4 Flag Members
.....................

Flag members can be iterated over just like the *note Flag: 610. class,
and only the canonical members will be returned.  For example:

     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

(Note that ‘BLACK’, ‘PURPLE’, and ‘WHITE’ do not show up.)

Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather
than a negative value -- for example:

     >>> ~Color.RED
     <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two
values they contain.  For example:

     >>> len(Color.PURPLE)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Cookbook,  Next: Dérivations d'EnumType,  Prev: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.15 Enum Cookbook
--------------------

*note Enum: 61d, *note IntEnum: ccf, *note StrEnum: 607, *note Flag:
610. et *note IntFlag: 22b5. sont censées couvrir la majorité des cas
d'utilisation, mais elles ne peuvent pas tout couvrir.  Voici quelques
recettes pour différents types d'énumérations qui peuvent être utilisées
directement, ou pour servir d'exemples afin de créer les vôtres.

* Menu:

* Omission de valeurs::
* Énumération ordonnée::
* Énumération sans doublon::
* MultiValueEnum::
* Planète::
* Intervalle de temps::


File: python.info,  Node: Omission de valeurs,  Next: Énumération ordonnée,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.1 Omission de valeurs
............................

Dans de nombreux cas d'utilisation, on ne se soucie pas de la valeur
réelle d'une énumération.  Il existe plusieurs manières de définir ce
type d'énumération simple :

   - utilisez des instances d'*note auto: c8c. pour la valeur ;

   - utilisez des instances d'*note object: a7c. comme valeur ;

   - utilisez une chaîne de caractères descriptive comme valeur ;

   - use a tuple as the value and a custom *note __new__(): 56e. to
     replace the tuple with an *note int: 254. value

L'utilisation de l'une de ces méthodes signifie au lecteur que ces
valeurs ne sont pas importantes et permet également d'ajouter, de
supprimer ou de réorganiser des membres sans avoir à renuméroter les
autres membres.

* Menu:

* Utilisation d'auto::
* Utilisation d'object::
* Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d'auto,  Next: Utilisation d'object,  Up: Omission de valeurs

9.5.15.2 Utilisation d'‘auto’
.............................

Voici un exemple où nous utilisons *note auto: c8c. :

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 3>


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d'object,  Next: Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive,  Prev: Utilisation d'auto,  Up: Omission de valeurs

9.5.15.3 Utilisation d'‘object’
...............................

Voici un exemple où nous utilisons *note object: a7c. :

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>

This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own
*note __repr__(): 609.:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_)
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN>


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive,  Next: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Utilisation d'object,  Up: Omission de valeurs

9.5.15.4 Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive
...........................................................

Voici un exemple où nous utilisons une chaîne de caractères :

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 'stop'
     ...     GREEN = 'go'
     ...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 'go'>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive,  Up: Omission de valeurs

9.5.15.5 Using a custom ‘__new__()’
...................................

Using an auto-numbering *note __new__(): 56e. would look like:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls):
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...
     >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
     ...     RED = ()
     ...     GREEN = ()
     ...     BLUE = ()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

Pour créer une ‘AutoNumber’ plus générale, ajoutons ‘*args’ à la
signature :

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, *args):      # this is the only change from above
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...

Ensuite, lorsque nous héritons de ‘AutoNumber’, nous pouvons écrire
notre propre ‘__init__’ pour gérer les arguments supplémentaires :

     >>> class Swatch(AutoNumber):
     ...     def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'):
     ...         self.pantone = pantone
     ...     AUBURN = '3497'
     ...     SEA_GREEN = '1246'
     ...     BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet!
     ...
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN
     <Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2>
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone
     '1246'
     >>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone
     'unknown'

     Note: The *note __new__(): 56e. method, if defined, is used during
     creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum's *note
     __new__(): 56e. which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.

     Avertissement: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the
     lookup-only ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the
     data type directly - e.g.:

          obj = int.__new__(cls, value)


File: python.info,  Node: Énumération ordonnée,  Next: Énumération sans doublon,  Prev: Omission de valeurs,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.6 Énumération ordonnée
.............................

Voici une énumération ordonnée qui n'est pas basée sur *note IntEnum:
ccf. et maintient donc les invariants normaux d'*note Enum: 61d. (comme
ne pas pouvoir être comparée à d'autres énumérations) :

     >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __ge__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value >= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __gt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value > other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __le__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value <= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __lt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value < other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...
     >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
     ...     A = 5
     ...     B = 4
     ...     C = 3
     ...     D = 2
     ...     F = 1
     ...
     >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Énumération sans doublon,  Next: MultiValueEnum,  Prev: Énumération ordonnée,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.7 Énumération sans doublon
.................................

Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating
an alias:

     >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __init__(self, *args):
     ...         cls = self.__class__
     ...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
     ...             a = self.name
     ...             e = cls(self.value).name
     ...             raise ValueError(
     ...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
     ...                 % (a, e))
     ...
     >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GRENE = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'

     Note: c'est un exemple utile de dérivation d''Enum' pour ajouter ou
     modifier d'autres comportements ainsi que pour interdire les
     synonymes.  Si le seul changement souhaité est l'interdiction des
     synonymes, le décorateur *note unique(): 2570. peut être utilisé à
     la place.


File: python.info,  Node: MultiValueEnum,  Next: Planète,  Prev: Énumération sans doublon,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.8 MultiValueEnum
.......................

Supports having more than one value per member:

     >>> class MultiValueEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, *values):
     ...         self = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         self._value_ = value
     ...         for v in values:
     ...             self._add_value_alias_(v)
     ...         return self
     ...
     >>> class DType(MultiValueEnum):
     ...     float32 = 'f', 8
     ...     double64 = 'd', 9
     ...
     >>> DType('f')
     <DType.float32: 'f'>
     >>> DType(9)
     <DType.double64: 'd'>


File: python.info,  Node: Planète,  Next: Intervalle de temps,  Prev: MultiValueEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.9 Planète
................

If *note __new__(): 56e. or *note __init__(): 69d. is defined, the value
of the enum member will be passed to those methods:

     >>> class Planet(Enum):
     ...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
     ...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
     ...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
     ...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
     ...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
     ...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
     ...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
     ...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
     ...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
     ...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
     ...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
     ...     @property
     ...     def surface_gravity(self):
     ...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
     ...         G = 6.67300E-11
     ...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
     ...
     >>> Planet.EARTH.value
     (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
     >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
     9.802652743337129


File: python.info,  Node: Intervalle de temps,  Prev: Planète,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.10 Intervalle de temps
.............................

An example to show the *note _ignore_: 2584. attribute in use:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum):
     ...     "different lengths of time"
     ...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
     ...     Period = vars()
     ...     for i in range(367):
     ...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
     ...
     >>> list(Period)[:2]
     [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
     >>> list(Period)[-2:]
     [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]


File: python.info,  Node: Dérivations d'EnumType,  Prev: Enum Cookbook,  Up: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

9.5.16 Dérivations d''EnumType'
-------------------------------

Alors que la plupart des besoins d'énumérations peuvent être satisfaits
en sous-classant *note Enum: 61d, avec des décorateurs de classe ou des
fonctions personnalisées, *note EnumType: 1e2. peut être dérivée pour
créer des énumérations vraiment différentes.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle,  Next: Tutoriel sur la journalisation,  Prev: Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.6 Guide pratique : programmation fonctionnelle
================================================


Auteur: A. M. Kuchling


Version: 0.32

Dans ce document, nous allons faire un tour des fonctionnalités de
Python adaptées à la réalisation d'un programme dans un style
fonctionnel.  Après une introduction à la programmation fonctionnelle,
nous aborderons des outils tels que les *note iterator: 1aa.s et les
*note generator: 104c.s ainsi que les modules *note itertools: 80. et
*note functools: 5e.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<14>.
* Itérateurs: Itérateurs<3>.
* Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes::
* Générateurs: Générateurs<2>.
* Fonctions natives: Fonctions natives<3>.
* Le module itertools::
* Le module functools::
* Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes::
* Historique des modifications et remerciements::
* Références: Références<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<14>,  Next: Itérateurs<3>,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.1 Introduction
------------------

Cette section détaille les fondamentaux de la programmation
fonctionnelle.  Si seules les fonctionnalités de Python vous
intéressent, vous pouvez sauter cette partie et lire la section suivante
sur les *note Itérateurs: 4e8e.

Les langages de programmation permettent de traiter des problèmes selon
différentes approches :

   * la plupart des langages de programmation suivent une logique
     'procédurale' : les programmes sont constitués de listes
     d'instructions qui détaillent les opérations que l'ordinateur doit
     appliquer aux entrées du programme.  C, Pascal ou encore les
     interpréteurs de commandes Unix sont des langages procéduraux ;

   * les langages 'déclaratifs' permettent d'écrire la spécification du
     problème et laissent l'implémentation du langage trouver une façon
     efficace de réaliser les calculs nécessaires à sa résolution.  SQL
     est un langage déclaratif que vous êtes susceptible de connaître ;
     une requête SQL décrit le jeu de données que vous souhaitez
     récupérer et le moteur SQL choisit de parcourir les tables ou
     d'utiliser les index, l'ordre de résolution des sous-clauses,
     etc. ;

   * les programmes 'orientés objet' manipulent des ensembles d'objets.
     Ceux-ci possèdent un état interne et des méthodes qui interrogent
     ou modifient cet état d'une façon ou d'une autre.  Smalltalk et
     Java sont deux langages orientés objet.  C++ et Python gèrent la
     programmation orientée objet mais n'imposent pas l'utilisation de
     telles fonctionnalités ;

   * la programmation 'fonctionnelle' implique de décomposer un problème
     en un ensemble de fonctions.  Dans l'idéal, les fonctions
     produisent des sorties à partir d'entrées et ne possède pas d'état
     interne qui soit susceptible de modifier la sortie pour une entrée
     donnée.  Les langages fonctionnels les plus connus sont ceux de la
     famille ML (Standard ML, OCaml et autres) et Haskell ;

Les personnes qui conçoivent des langages de programmation peuvent
choisir de privilégier une approche par rapport à une autre.  Cela
complexifie l'écriture de programmes appliquant un paradigme différent
de celui considéré.  Certains langages sont multi-paradigmes et gère
plusieurs approches différentes.  Lisp, C++ et Python sont de tels
langages ; vous pouvez écrire des programmes ou des bibliothèques dans
un style procédural, orienté objet ou fonctionnel dans chacun d'entre
eux.  Différentes parties d'une application peuvent être écrites selon
des approches différentes ; par exemple, l'interface graphique peut
suivre le paradigme orienté objet tandis que la logique de traitement
est procédurale ou fonctionnelle.

Dans un programme fonctionnel, l'entrée traverse un ensemble de
fonctions.  Chaque fonction opère sur son entrée et produit une sortie.
Le style fonctionnel préconise de ne pas écrire de fonctions ayant des
effets de bord, c'est-à-dire qui modifient un état interne ou réalisent
d'autres changements qui ne sont pas visibles dans la valeur de sortie
de la fonction.  Les fonctions qui ne présentent aucun effet de bord
sont dites 'purement fonctionnelles'.  L'interdiction des effets de bord
signifie qu'aucune structure de données n'est mise à jour lors de
l'exécution du programme ; chaque sortie d'une fonction ne dépend que de
son entrée.

Certains langages sont très stricts en ce qui concerne la pureté des
fonctions et ne laissent même pas la possibilité d'assigner des
variables avec des expressions telles que ‘a = 3’ ou ‘c = a + b’,
cependant il est difficile d'éviter tous les effets de bord.  Afficher
un message sur l'écran ou écrire un fichier sur le disque sont des
effets de bord.  Pour prendre un autre exemple, un appel aux fonctions
*note print(): f62. ou *note time.sleep(): 68a. en Python ne renvoie
aucune valeur utile ; ces fonctions ne sont appelées que pour leur effet
de bord (afficher du texte sur l'écran ou mettre en pause l'exécution du
programme).

Les programmes Python écrits dans un style fonctionnel ne poussent
généralement pas le curseur de la pureté à l'extrême en interdisant
toute entrée-sortie ou les assignations ; ils exhibent une interface
fonctionnelle en apparence mais utilisent des fonctionnalités impures en
interne.  Par exemple, l'implémentation d'une fonction peut assigner
dans des variables locales mais ne modifiera pas de variable globale et
n'aura pas d'autre effet de bord.

La programmation fonctionnelle peut être considérée comme l'opposé de la
programmation orientée objet.  Les objets encapsulent un état interne
ainsi qu'une collection de méthodes qui permettent de modifier cet état.
Les programmes consistent à appliquer les bons changements à ces états.
La programmation fonctionnelle vous impose d'éviter au maximum ces
changements d'états en travaillant sur des données qui traversent un
flux de fonctions.  En Python, vous pouvez combiner ces deux approches
en écrivant des fonctions qui prennent en argument et renvoient des
instances représentants des objets de votre application (courriers
électroniques, transactions, etc.).

Programmer sous la contrainte du paradigme fonctionnel peut sembler
étrange.  Pourquoi vouloir éviter les objets et les effets de bord ?  Il
existe des avantages théoriques et pratiques au style fonctionnel :

   * preuves formelles ;

   * modularité ;

   * composabilité ;

   * facilité de débogage et de test.

* Menu:

* Preuves formelles::
* Modularité::
* Facilité de débogage et de test::
* Composabilité::


File: python.info,  Node: Preuves formelles,  Next: Modularité,  Up: Introduction<14>

9.6.1.1 Preuves formelles
.........................

Un avantage théorique est qu'il plus facile de construire une preuve
mathématique de l'exactitude d'un programme fonctionnel.

Les chercheurs ont longtemps souhaité trouver des façons de prouver
mathématiquement qu'un programme est correct.  Cela ne se borne pas à
tester si la sortie d'un programme est correcte sur de nombreuses
entrées ou lire le code source et en conclure que le celui-ci semble
juste.  L'objectif est d'établir une preuve rigoureuse que le programme
produit le bon résultat pour toutes les entrées possibles.

La technique utilisée pour prouver l'exactitude d'un programme est
d'écrire des 'invariants', c'est-à-dire des propriétés de l'entrée et
des variables du programme qui sont toujours vérifiées.  Pour chaque
ligne de code, il suffit de montrer que si les invariants X et Y sont
vrais 'avant' l'exécution de cette ligne, les invariants légèrement
modifiés X' et Y' sont vérifiés 'après' son exécution.  Ceci se répète
jusqu'à atteindre la fin du programme.  À ce stade, les invariants
doivent alors correspondre aux propriétés que l'on souhaite que la
sortie du programme vérifie.

L'aversion du style fonctionnel envers les assignations de variable est
apparue car celles-ci sont difficiles à gérer avec cette méthode.  Les
assignations peuvent rompre des invariants qui étaient vrais auparavant
sans pour autant produire de nouveaux invariants qui pourraient être
propagés.

Malheureusement, prouver l'exactitude d'un programme est très peu
commode et ne concerne que rarement des logiciels en Python.  Même des
programmes triviaux nécessitent souvent des preuves s'étalant sur
plusieurs pages ; la preuve de l'exactitude d'un programme relativement
gros serait gigantesque.  Peu, voire aucun, des programmes que vous
utilisez quotidiennement (l'interpréteur Python, votre analyseur
syntaxique XML, votre navigateur web) ne peuvent être prouvés exacts.
Même si vous écriviez ou généreriez une preuve, il faudrait encore
vérifier celle-ci.  Peut-être qu'elle contient une erreur et que vous
pensez désormais, à tort, que vous avez prouvé que votre programme est
correct.


File: python.info,  Node: Modularité,  Next: Facilité de débogage et de test,  Prev: Preuves formelles,  Up: Introduction<14>

9.6.1.2 Modularité
..................

Un intérêt plus pratique de la programmation fonctionnelle est qu'elle
impose de décomposer le problème en petits morceaux.  Les programmes qui
en résultent sont souvent plus modulaires.  Il est plus simple de
spécifier et d'écrire une petite fonction qui ne fait qu'une seule tâche
plutôt qu'une grosse fonction qui réalise une transformation complexe.
Les petites fonctions sont plus faciles à lire et à vérifier.


File: python.info,  Node: Facilité de débogage et de test,  Next: Composabilité,  Prev: Modularité,  Up: Introduction<14>

9.6.1.3 Facilité de débogage et de test
.......................................

Tester et déboguer un programme fonctionnel est plus facile.

Déboguer est plus simple car les fonctions sont généralement petites et
bien spécifiées.  Lorsqu'un programme ne fonctionne pas, chaque fonction
constitue une étape intermédiaire au niveau de laquelle vous pouvez
vérifier que les valeurs sont justes.  Vous pouvez observer les entrées
intermédiaires et les sorties afin d'isoler rapidement la fonction qui
est à l'origine du bogue.

Les tests sont plus faciles car chaque fonction est désormais un sujet
potentiel pour un test unitaire.  Les fonctions ne dépendent pas d'un
état particulier du système qui devrait être répliqué avant d'exécuter
un test ; à la place vous n'avez qu'à produire une entrée synthétique et
vérifier que le résultat correspond à ce que vous attendez.


File: python.info,  Node: Composabilité,  Prev: Facilité de débogage et de test,  Up: Introduction<14>

9.6.1.4 Composabilité
.....................

En travaillant sur un programme dans le style fonctionnel, vous écrivez
un certain nombre de fonctions avec des entrées et des sorties
variables.  Certaines de ces fonctions sont inévitablement spécifiques à
une application en particulier, mais d'autres peuvent s'appliquer à de
nombreux cas d'usage.  Par exemple, une fonction qui liste l'ensemble
des fichiers XML d'un répertoire à partir du chemin de celui-ci ou une
fonction qui renvoie le contenu d'un fichier à partir de son nom peuvent
être utiles dans de nombreuses situations.

Au fur et à mesure, vous constituez ainsi une bibliothèque personnelle
d'utilitaires.  Souvent, vous pourrez construire de nouveaux programmes
en agençant des fonctions existantes dans une nouvelle configuration et
en écrivant quelques fonctions spécifiques à votre objectif en cours.


File: python.info,  Node: Itérateurs<3>,  Next: Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes,  Prev: Introduction<14>,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.2 Itérateurs
----------------

Commençons par jeter un œil à une des fonctionnalités les plus
importantes pour écrire en style fonctionnel avec Python : les
itérateurs.

Un itérateur est un objet qui représente un flux de données ; cet objet
renvoie les données un élément à la fois.  Un itérateur Python doit
posséder une méthode *note __next__(): 12ad. qui ne prend pas d'argument
et renvoie toujours l'élément suivant du flux.  S'il n'y plus d'élément
dans le flux, *note __next__(): 12ad. doit lever une exception *note
StopIteration: bea.  Toutefois, ce n'est pas indispensable ; il est
envisageable d'écrire un itérateur qui produit un flux infini de
données.

La fonction native *note iter(): 7c3. prend un objet arbitraire et tente
de construire un itérateur qui renvoie le contenu de l'objet (ou ses
éléments) en levant une exception *note TypeError: 525. si l'objet ne
gère pas l'itération.  Plusieurs types de données natifs à Python gèrent
l'itération, notamment les listes et les dictionnaires.  On appelle
*note iterable: 1207. un objet pour lequel il est possible de construire
un itérateur.

Vous pouvez expérimenter avec l'interface d'itération manuellement :

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> it = iter(L)
     >>> it
     <...iterator object at ...>
     >>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
     1
     >>> next(it)
     2
     >>> next(it)
     3
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     StopIteration
     >>>

Python s'attend à travailler sur des objets itérables dans divers
contextes et tout particulièrement dans une boucle *note for: 2e7.  Dans
l'expression ‘for X in Y’, Y doit être un itérateur ou un objet pour
lequel *note iter(): 7c3. peut générer un itérateur.  Ces deux
expressions sont équivalentes :

     for i in iter(obj):
         print(i)

     for i in obj:
         print(i)

Les itérateurs peuvent être transformés en listes ou en 'n'-uplets en
appelant les constructeurs respectifs *note list(): 5fe. et *note
tuple(): 366. :

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> t = tuple(iterator)
     >>> t
     (1, 2, 3)

Le dépaquetage de séquences fonctionne également sur les itérateurs : si
vous savez qu'un itérateur renvoie N éléments, vous pouvez les
dépaqueter dans un 'n'-uplet :

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> a, b, c = iterator
     >>> a, b, c
     (1, 2, 3)

Certaines fonctions natives telles que *note max(): ef6. et *note min():
ef5. prennent un itérateur en argument et en renvoie le plus grand ou le
plus petit élément.  Les opérateurs ‘"in"’ et ‘"not in"’ gèrent
également les itérateurs : ‘X in iterator’ est vrai si X a été trouvé
dans le flux renvoyé par l'itérateur.  Vous rencontrerez bien sûr des
problèmes si l'itérateur est infini : *note max(): ef6, *note min():
ef5. ne termineront jamais et, si l'élément X n'apparaît pas dans le
flux, les opérateurs ‘"in"’ et ‘"not in"’ non plus.

Notez qu'il n'est possible de parcourir un itérateur que vers l'avant et
qu'il est impossible de récupérer l'élément précédent, de réinitialiser
l'itérateur ou d'en créer une copie.  Des objets itérateurs peuvent
offrir ces possibilités de façon facultative, mais le protocole
d'itération ne spécifie que la méthode *note __next__(): 12ad.
Certaines fonctions peuvent ainsi consommer l'entièreté de la sortie
d'un itérateur et, si vous devez utiliser le même flux pour autre chose,
vous devrez en créer un nouveau.

* Menu:

* Types de données itérables::


File: python.info,  Node: Types de données itérables,  Up: Itérateurs<3>

9.6.2.1 Types de données itérables
..................................

Nous avons vu précédemment comment les listes et les 'n'-uplets gèrent
les itérateurs.  En réalité, n'importe quel type de séquence en Python,
par exemple les chaînes de caractères, sont itérables.

Appeler *note iter(): 7c3. sur un dictionnaire renvoie un itérateur qui
parcourt l'ensemble de ses clés :

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m:
     ...     print(key, m[key])
     Jan 1
     Feb 2
     Mar 3
     Apr 4
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     Oct 10
     Nov 11
     Dec 12

Notez qu'à partir de la version 3.7, Python garantit que l'ordre de
l'itération sur un dictionnaire est identique à l'ordre d'insertion des
clés.  Dans les versions précédentes, ce comportement n'était pas
spécifié et pouvait varier en fonction de l'implémentation.

Appliquer *note iter(): 7c3. sur un dictionnaire produit un itérateur
sur ses clés mais il est possible d'obtenir d'autres itérateurs par
d'autres méthodes.  Si vous souhaitez itérer sur les valeurs ou les
paires clé/valeur du dictionnaire, vous pouvez explicitement appeler les
méthodes *note values(): 7ba. ou *note items(): 7bb. pour obtenir
l'itérateur idoine.

Le constructeur *note dict(): 253. accepte de prendre un itérateur en
argument qui renvoie un flux fini de pairs ‘(clé, valeur)’ :

     >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
     >>> dict(iter(L))
     {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}

Les fichiers gèrent aussi l'itération en appelant la méthode *note
readline(): 1c7b. jusqu'à ce qu'il n'y ait plus d'autre ligne dans le
fichier.  Cela signifie que vous pouvez lire l'intégralité d'un fichier
de la façon suivante :

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Les ensembles peuvent être créés à partir d'un itérable et autorisent
l'itération sur les éléments de l'ensemble :

     >>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
     >>> for i in S:
     ...     print(i)
     2
     3
     5
     7
     11
     13


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes,  Next: Générateurs<2>,  Prev: Itérateurs<3>,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.3 Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes
---------------------------------------------------------

Deux opérations courantes réalisables sur la sortie d'un itérateur sont
1) effectuer une opération pour chaque élément, 2) extraire le
sous-ensemble des éléments qui vérifient une certaine condition.  Par
exemple, pour une liste de chaînes de caractères, vous pouvez choisir de
retirer tous les caractères blancs à la fin de chaque ligne ou extraire
toutes les chaînes contenant une sous-chaîne précise.

Les compréhensions de listes et les expressions génératrices sont des
façons concises d'exprimer de telles opérations, inspirées du langage de
programmation fonctionnel Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org/’).  Vous
pouvez retirer tous les caractères blancs initiaux et finaux d'un flux
de chaînes de caractères à l'aide du code suivant :

     >>> line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ' \n', '']

     >>> # Generator expression -- returns iterator
     >>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)

     >>> # List comprehension -- returns list
     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]

Vous pouvez ne sélectionner que certains éléments en ajoutant une
condition « ‘if’ » :

     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
     ...                  if line != ""]

La compréhension de liste renvoie une liste Python ; ‘stripped_list’ est
une liste contenant les lignes après transformation, pas un itérateur.
Les expressions génératrices renvoient un itérateur qui calcule les
valeurs au fur et à mesure sans toutes les matérialiser d'un seul coup.
Cela signifie que les compréhensions de listes ne sont pas très utiles
si vous travaillez sur des itérateurs infinis ou produisant une très
grande quantité de données.  Les expressions génératrices sont
préférables dans ce cas.

Les expressions génératrices sont écrites entre parenthèses (« () ») et
les compréhensions de listes entre crochets (« [] »).  Les expressions
génératrices sont de la forme :

     ( expression for expr in sequence1
                  if condition1
                  for expr2 in sequence2
                  if condition2
                  for expr3 in sequence3
                  ...
                  if condition3
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if conditionN )

La compréhension de liste équivalente s'écrit de la même manière,
utilisez juste des crochets à la place des parenthèses.

Les éléments de la sortie sont les valeurs successives de ‘expression’.
La clause ‘if’ est facultative ; si elle est présente, ‘expression’
n'est évaluée et ajoutée au résultat que si ‘condition’ est vérifiée.

Les expressions génératrices doivent toujours être écrites entre
parenthèses, mais les parenthèses qui encadrent un appel de fonction
comptent aussi.  Si vous souhaitez créer un itérateur qui soit
immédiatement passé à une fonction, vous pouvez écrire :

     obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Les clauses ‘for ... in’ indiquent les séquences sur lesquelles itérer.
Celles-ci peuvent être de longueurs différentes car l'itération est
réalisée de gauche à droite et non en parallèle.  ‘sequence2’ est
parcourue entièrement pour chaque élément de ‘sequence1’.  ‘sequence3’
est ensuite parcourue dans son intégralité pour chaque paire d'éléments
de ‘sequence1’ et ‘sequence2’.

Autrement dit, une compréhension de liste ou une expression génératrice
est équivalente au code Python ci-dessous :

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         if not (condition1):
             continue   # Skip this element
         for expr2 in sequence2:
             if not (condition2):
                 continue   # Skip this element
             ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                 if not (conditionN):
                     continue   # Skip this element

                 # Output the value of
                 # the expression.

Ainsi lorsque plusieurs clauses ‘for ... in’ sont présentes mais sans
condition ‘if’, la longueur totale de la nouvelle séquence est égale au
produit des longueurs des séquences itérées.  Si vous travaillez sur
deux listes de longueur 3, la sortie contiendra 9 éléments :

     >>> seq1 = 'abc'
     >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
     >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
      ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
      ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

Afin de ne pas créer une ambiguïté dans la grammaire de Python,
‘expression’ doit être encadrée par des parenthèses si elle produit un
n-uplet.  La première compréhension de liste ci-dessous n'est pas valide
syntaxiquement, tandis que la seconde l'est :

     # Syntax error
     [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]


File: python.info,  Node: Générateurs<2>,  Next: Fonctions natives<3>,  Prev: Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.4 Générateurs
-----------------

Les générateurs forment une classe spéciale de fonctions qui simplifie
la création d'itérateurs.  Les fonctions habituelles calculent une
valeur et la renvoie, tandis que les générateurs renvoient un itérateur
qui produit un flux de valeurs.

Vous connaissez sans doute le fonctionnement des appels de fonctions en
Python ou en C. Lorsqu'une fonction est appelée, un espace de nommage
privé lui est associé pour ses variables locales.  Lorsque le programme
atteint une instruction ‘return’, les variables locales sont détruites
et la valeur est renvoyée à l'appelant.  Les appels postérieurs à la
même fonction créent un nouvel espace de nommage privé et de nouvelles
variables locales.  Cependant, que se passerait-il si les variables
locales n'étaient pas détruites lors de la sortie d'une fonction ?  Et
s'il était possible de reprendre l'exécution de la fonction là où elle
s'était arrêtée ?  Les générateurs sont une réponse à ces questions ;
vous pouvez considérer qu'il s'agit de fonctions qu'il est possible
d'interrompre, puis de relancer sans perdre leur progression.

Voici un exemple simple de fonction génératrice :

     >>> def generate_ints(N):
     ...    for i in range(N):
     ...        yield i

N'importe quelle fonction contenant le mot-clé *note yield: 9bd. est un
générateur ; le compilateur *note bytecode: 185. de Python détecte ce
mot-clé et prend en compte cette particularité de la fonction.

Lorsque vous appelez une fonction génératrice, celle-ci ne renvoie pas
une unique valeur ; elle renvoie un objet générateur qui implémente le
protocole d'itération.  Lorsque l'expression ‘yield’ est exécutée, le
générateur renvoie la valeur de ‘i’, d'une façon similaire à un
‘return’.  La différence principale entre ‘yield’ et ‘return’ est qu'en
atteignant l'instruction ‘yield’, l'état du générateur est suspendu et
les variables locales sont conservées.  Lors de l'appel suivant à la
méthode *note __next__(): 1c82. du générateur, la fonction reprend son
exécution.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation du générateur ‘generate_ints()’ :

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object generate_ints at ...>
     >>> next(gen)
     0
     >>> next(gen)
     1
     >>> next(gen)
     2
     >>> next(gen)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

Vous pourriez de façon équivalente écrire ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’ ou
‘a, b, c = generate_ints(3)’.

Dans une fonction génératrice, une instruction ‘return value’ entraîne
la levée d'une exception ‘StopIteration(value)’ dans la méthode *note
__next__(): 1c82.  Lorsque cela se produit (ou que la fin de la fonction
est atteinte), le flot de nouvelles valeurs s'arrête et le générateur ne
peut plus rien produire.

Vous pouvez obtenir le même comportement que celui des générateurs en
écrivant votre propre classe qui stocke les variables locales du
générateur comme variables d'instance.  Pour renvoyer une liste
d'entiers, par exemple, vous pouvez initialiser ‘self.count’ à 0 et
écrire la méthode *note __next__(): 12ad. de telle sorte qu'elle
incrémente ‘self.count’ puis le renvoie.  Cependant, cela devient
beaucoup plus complexe pour des générateurs relativement sophistiqués.

Lib/test/test_generators.py(1), la suite de test de la bibliothèque
Python, contient de nombreux exemples intéressants.  Voici un générateur
qui implémente le parcours d'un arbre dans l'ordre en utilisant des
générateurs de façon récursive.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x

             yield t.label

             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Deux autres exemples de ‘test_generators.py’ permettent de résoudre le
problème des N Reines (placer 'N' reines sur un échiquier de dimensions
'NxN' de telle sorte qu'aucune reine ne soit en position d'en prendre
une autre) et le problème du cavalier (trouver un chemin permettant au
cavalier de visiter toutes les cases d'un échiquier 'NxN' sans jamais
visiter la même case deux fois).

* Menu:

* Transmettre des valeurs au générateur::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/test/test_generators.py


File: python.info,  Node: Transmettre des valeurs au générateur,  Up: Générateurs<2>

9.6.4.1 Transmettre des valeurs au générateur
.............................................

Avant Python 2.5, les générateurs ne pouvaient que produire des sorties.
Une fois le code du générateur exécuté pour créer un itérateur, il était
impossible d'introduire de l'information nouvelle dans la fonction mise
en pause.  Une astuce consistait à obtenir cette fonctionnalité en
autorisant le générateur à consulter des variables globales ou en lui
passant des objets mutables modifiés hors du générateur, mais ces
approches étaient compliquées.

À partir de Python 2.5, il existe une méthode simple pour transmettre
des valeurs à un générateur.  Le mot-clé *note yield: 9bd. est devenu
une expression qui renvoie une valeur sur laquelle il est possible
d'opérer et que vous pouvez assigner à une variable :

     val = (yield i)

Comme dans l'exemple ci-dessus, nous vous recommandons de 'toujours'
encadrer les expressions ‘yield’ par des parenthèses lorsque vous
utilisez leur valeur de retour.  Elles ne sont pas toujours
indispensables mais mieux vaut prévenir que guérir : il est plus facile
de les ajouter systématiquement que de prendre le risque de les oublier
là où elles sont requises.

(Les règles exactes de parenthésage sont spécifies dans la PEP 342(1) :
une expression ‘yield’ doit toujours être parenthésée sauf s'il s'agit
de l'expression la plus externe du côté droit d'une assignation.  Cela
signifie que vous pouvez écrire ‘val = yield i’ mais que les parenthèses
sont requises s'il y a une opération, comme dans ‘val = (yield i) +
12’.)

Des valeurs peuvent être transmises à un générateur en appelant sa
méthode *note send(value): 1f85.  Celle-ci reprend l'exécution du
générateur et l'expression ‘yield’ renvoie la valeur spécifiée.  Si
c'est la méthode *note __next__(): 1c82. habituelle qui est appelée,
alors ‘yield’ renvoie ‘None’.

Voici un exemple de compteur qui s'incrémente de 1 mais dont il est
possible de modifier le compte interne.

     def counter(maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

Et voici comment il est possible de modifier le compteur :

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> next(it)
     0
     >>> next(it)
     1
     >>> it.send(8)
     8
     >>> next(it)
     9
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
         it.next()
     StopIteration

Puisque ‘yield’ renvoie souvent ‘None’, vous devez toujours vérifier si
c'est le cas.  N'utilisez pas la valeur de retour à moins d'être certain
que seule la méthode *note send(): 1f85. sera utilisée pour reprendre
l'exécution de la fonction génératrice.

En plus de *note send(): 1f85, il existe deux autres méthodes
s'appliquant aux générateurs :

   * *note throw(value): 4e5. permet de lever une exception dans le
     générateur ; celle-ci est levée par l'expression ‘yield’ à
     l'endroit où l'exécution a été mise en pause.

   * *note close(): 16ae. lève une exception *note GeneratorExit: 1380.
     dans le générateur afin de terminer l'itération.  Le code du
     générateur qui reçoit cette exception doit lever à son tour *note
     GeneratorExit: 1380. ou *note StopIteration: bea.  Il est illégal
     d'attraper cette exception et de faire quoi que ce soit d'autre,
     ceci déclenche une erreur *note RuntimeError: 193.  Lorsque le
     ramasse-miette de Python collecte le générateur, il appelle sa
     méthode *note close(): 16ae.

     Si vous devez exécuter du code pour faire le ménage lors d'une
     *note GeneratorExit: 1380, nous vous suggérons d'utiliser une
     structure ‘try: ... finally’ plutôt que d'attraper *note
     GeneratorExit: 1380.

Ces changements cumulés transforment les générateurs de producteurs
unidirectionnels d'information vers un statut hybride à la fois
producteur et consommateur.

Les générateurs sont également devenus des 'coroutines', une forme
généralisée de sous-routine.  L'exécution des sous-routines démarre à un
endroit et se termine à un autre (au début de la fonction et au niveau
de l'instruction ‘return’), tandis qu'il est possible d'entrer, de
sortir ou de reprendre une coroutine à différents endroits (les
instructions ‘yield’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions natives<3>,  Next: Le module itertools,  Prev: Générateurs<2>,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.5 Fonctions natives
-----------------------

Voyons un peu plus en détail les fonctions natives souvent utilisées de
concert avec les itérateurs.

*note map(): 850. et *note filter(): 851. sont deux fonctions natives de
Python qui clonent les propriétés des expressions génératrices :

*note map(f, iterA, iterB, ...): 850. renvoie un itérateur sur une séquence

     ‘f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2],
     iterB[2]), ...’.

          >>> def upper(s):
          ...     return s.upper()

          >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
          >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']

Vous pouvez obtenir le même comportement à l'aide d'une compréhension de
liste.

*note filter(predicate, iter): 851. renvoie un itérateur sur l'ensemble
des éléments de la séquence qui vérifient une certaine condition.  Son
comportement peut également être reproduit par une compréhension de
liste.  Un 'prédicat' est une fonction qui renvoie vrai ou faux en
fonction d'une certaine condition.  Dans le cas de *note filter(): 851,
le prédicat ne doit prendre qu'un seul argument.

     >>> def is_even(x):
     ...     return (x % 2) == 0

     >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Cela peut se réécrire sous la forme d'une compréhension de liste :

     >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

*note enumerate(iter, start=0): 1435. énumère les éléments de l'itérable
en renvoyant des paires contenant le nombre d'éléments déjà listés
(depuis le 'début') et l'élément en cours

     >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
     ...     print(item)
     (0, 'subject')
     (1, 'verb')
     (2, 'object')

*note enumerate(): 1435. est souvent utilisée lorsque l'on souhaite
boucler sur une liste tout en listant les indices pour lesquels une
certaine condition est vérifiée :

     f = open('data.txt', 'r')
     for i, line in enumerate(f):
         if line.strip() == '':
             print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)

*note sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False): bbe. rassemble tous les
éléments de l'itérable dans une liste, les classe et renvoie le résultat
classé.  Les arguments 'key' et 'reverse' sont passés à la méthode *note
sort(): bbf. de la liste ainsi construite.

     >>> import random
     >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
     >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
     >>> rand_list
     [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
     >>> sorted(rand_list)
     [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
     >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)
     [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]

(Pour plus de détails sur les algorithmes de tri, se référer à *note
Sorting Techniques: 213b.)

Les fonctions natives *note any(iter): 13d9. et *note all(iter): 13da.
permettent d'observer les valeurs de vérité des éléments d'un itérable.
*note any(): 13d9. renvoie ‘True’ si au moins un élément de l'itérable
s'évalue comme vrai et *note all(): 13da. renvoie ‘True’ si tous les
éléments s'évaluent comme vrai :

     >>> any([0, 1, 0])
     True
     >>> any([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> any([1, 1, 1])
     True
     >>> all([0, 1, 0])
     False
     >>> all([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> all([1, 1, 1])
     True

*note zip(iterA, iterB, ...): 7bc. rassemble un élément de chaque
itérable dans un 'n'-uplet :

     zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)

Cela ne construit pas de liste stockée en mémoire, ni ne vide les
itérateurs d'entrée avant de renvoyer sa valeur ; en réalité les
'n'-uplets sont construits et renvoyés au fur et à mesure (il s'agit
techniquement parlant d'un comportement d'évaluation paresseuse(1)).

Cet itérateur suppose qu'il opère sur des itérables de même longueur.
Si la longueur des itérables diffère, le flux résultant a la même
longueur que le plus court des itérables.

     zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2)

Toutefois, vous devez éviter de dépendre de ce comportement.  En effet
un élément d'un des itérables les plus longs peut être retiré puis jeté
(car l'autre itérable est trop court).  Cela signifie que vous ne pouvez
alors plus utiliser cet itérable car vous allez sauter l'élément qui
vient d'être jeté.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89valuation_paresseuse


File: python.info,  Node: Le module itertools,  Next: Le module functools,  Prev: Fonctions natives<3>,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.6 Le module 'itertools'
---------------------------

The *note itertools: 80. module contains a number of commonly used
iterators as well as functions for combining several iterators.  This
section will introduce the module's contents by showing small examples.

Les fonctions du module se divisent en quelques grandes catégories :

   * les fonctions qui transforment un itérateur existant en un nouvel
     itérateur ;

   * les fonctions qui traitent les éléments d'un itérateur comme les
     arguments d'une fonction ;

   * les fonctions qui permettent de sélectionner des portions de la
     sortie d'un itérateur ;

   * une fonction qui permet de grouper la sortie d'un itérateur.

* Menu:

* Créer de nouveaux itérateurs::
* Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs::
* Sélectionner des éléments::
* Fonctions combinatoires::
* Grouper les éléments::


File: python.info,  Node: Créer de nouveaux itérateurs,  Next: Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs,  Up: Le module itertools

9.6.6.1 Créer de nouveaux itérateurs
....................................

*note itertools.count(start, step): 1263. renvoie un flux infini de
valeurs régulièrement espacées.  Vous pouvez spécifier la valeur de
départ (par défaut, 0) et l'intervalle entre les nombres (par défaut,
1) :

     itertools.count() =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
     itertools.count(10) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
     itertools.count(10, 5) =>
       10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...

*note itertools.cycle(iter): 26e4. sauvegarde une copie du contenu de
l'itérable passé en argument et renvoie un nouvel itérateur qui produit
tous les éléments du premier au dernier et se répète indéfiniment.

     itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

*note itertools.repeat(elem, [n]): 26e5. renvoie l'élément passé en
argument 'n' fois ou répète l'élément à l'infini si 'n' n'est pas
spécifié.

     itertools.repeat('abc') =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
     itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc

*note itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...): 213c. reçoit un nombre
arbitraire d'itérables en entrée et les concatène, renvoyant tous les
éléments du premier itérateur, puis tous ceux du second et ainsi de
suite jusqu'à ce que tous les itérables aient été épuisés.

     itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       a, b, c, 1, 2, 3

*note itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]): b3c. renvoie une
portion de l'itérateur.  En passant seulement l'argument 'stop', il
renvoie les 'stop' premiers éléments.  En spécifiant un indice de début,
vous récupérez 'stop - start' éléments ; utilisez 'step' pour spécifier
une valeur de pas.  Cependant vous ne pouvez pas utiliser de valeurs
négatives pour 'start', 'stop' ou 'step' (contrairement aux listes et
chaînes de caractères de Python).

     itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
       2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
       2, 4, 6

*note itertools.tee(iter, [n]): 26ea. duplique un itérateur et renvoie
'n' itérateurs indépendants, chacun copiant le contenu de l'itérateur
source.  La valeur par défaut pour 'n' est 2.  La réplication des
itérateurs nécessite la sauvegarde d'une partie du contenu de
l'itérateur source, ce qui peut consommer beaucoup de mémoire si
l'itérateur est grand et que l'un des nouveaux itérateurs est plus
consommé que les autres.

     itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
        iterA, iterB

     where iterA ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

     and   iterB ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...


File: python.info,  Node: Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs,  Next: Sélectionner des éléments,  Prev: Créer de nouveaux itérateurs,  Up: Le module itertools

9.6.6.2 Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs
.........................................................

Le module *note operator: 9e. rassemble des fonctions équivalentes aux
opérateurs Python.  Par exemple, *note operator.add(a,b): 270d.
additionne deux valeurs, *note operator.ne(a, b): 26fd. est équivalent à
‘a != b’ et *note operator.attrgetter('id'): e22. renvoie un objet
appelable qui récupère l'attribut ‘.id’.

*note itertools.starmap(func, iter): 10c7. suppose que l'itérable
renvoie une séquence de 'n'-uplets et appelle 'func' en utilisant tous
les 'n'-uplets comme arguments :

     itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
                       [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
                        ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
     =>
       /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby


File: python.info,  Node: Sélectionner des éléments,  Next: Fonctions combinatoires,  Prev: Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs,  Up: Le module itertools

9.6.6.3 Sélectionner des éléments
.................................

Une autre catégorie de fonctions est celle permettant de sélectionner un
sous-ensemble des éléments de l'itérateur selon un prédicat donné.

*note itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter): 2126. est l'opposé de
*note filter(): 851. et renvoie tous les éléments pour lesquels le
prédicat est faux :

     itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

*note itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter): 26e9. renvoie les éléments
de l'itérateur tant que ceux-ci vérifient le prédicat.  Dès lors que le
prédicat renvoie faux, l'itération s'arrête.

     def less_than_10(x):
         return x < 10

     itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

     itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       0

*note itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter): 26e7. supprime des éléments
tant que le prédicat renvoie vrai puis renvoie le reste des éléments de
l'itérable.

     itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...

     itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...

*note itertools.compress(data, selectors): 1262. prend un itérateur
'data' et un itérateur 'selectors' et renvoie les éléments de 'data'
pour lesquels l'élément correspondant de 'selectors' est évalué à vrai.
L'itération s'arrête lorsque l'un des deux itérateurs est épuisé :

     itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
        1, 2, 5


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions combinatoires,  Next: Grouper les éléments,  Prev: Sélectionner des éléments,  Up: Le module itertools

9.6.6.4 Fonctions combinatoires
...............................

*note itertools.combinations(iterable, r): 12f2. renvoie un itérateur
qui produit toutes les combinaisons possibles de 'r'-uplets des éléments
de 'iterable'.

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 5)

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
       (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
       (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
       (3, 4, 5)

Les éléments de chaque 'n'-uplet sont ordonnés dans le même ordre que
leur apparition dans 'iterable'.  Ainsi, dans les exemples ci-dessus, le
nombre 1 se trouve toujours avant 2, 3, 4 ou 5.  La fonction *note
itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None): 18d7. supprime la contrainte
sur l'ordre et renvoie tous les arrangements possibles de longueur 'r' :

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
       (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
       ...
       (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

Si vous ne spécifiez pas de valeur pour 'r', la longueur de l'itérable
est utilisée par défaut, c'est-à-dire que toutes les permutations de la
séquence sont renvoyées.

Notez que ces fonctions génèrent toutes les combinaisons possibles en se
basant sur la position des éléments et ne requièrent pas que les
éléments de 'iterable' soient uniques :

     itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
       ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
       ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')

Le triplet ‘('a', 'a', 'b')’ apparaît deux fois mais les deux chaînes de
caractères ‘'a'’ proviennent de deux positions différentes.

La fonction *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
1261. assouplit une autre contrainte : les éléments peuvent être répétés
au sein du même 'n'-uplet.  Il s'agit d'un tirage avec remise : le
premier élément sélectionné pour chaque 'n'-uplet est replacé dans la
séquence avant le tirage du deuxième.

     itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 4), (4, 5),
       (5, 5)


File: python.info,  Node: Grouper les éléments,  Prev: Fonctions combinatoires,  Up: Le module itertools

9.6.6.5 Grouper les éléments
............................

La dernière fonction que allons voir, *note itertools.groupby(iter,
key_func=None): 26e8. est la plus complexe.  ‘key_func(elem)’ est une
fonction qui produit une clé pour chaque élément renvoyé par l'itérable.
Si vous ne spécifiez pas de fonction 'key', alors celle-ci est
l'identité par défaut (c'est-à-dire que la clé d'un élément est
l'élément lui-même).

*note groupby(): 26e8. rassemble tous éléments consécutifs de l'itérable
sous-jacent qui ont la même clé et renvoie un flux de paires contenant
la clé et un itérateur produisant la liste des éléments pour cette clé.

     city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
                  ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
                  ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
                  ...
                 ]

     def get_state(city_state):
         return city_state[1]

     itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
       ('AL', iterator-1),
       ('AK', iterator-2),
       ('AZ', iterator-3), ...

     where
     iterator-1 =>
       ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
     iterator-2 =>
       ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
     iterator-3 =>
       ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')

*note groupby(): 26e8. fait l'hypothèse que le contenu de l'itérable
sous-jacent est d'ores et déjà ordonné en fonction de la clé.  Notez que
les itérateurs générés utilisent également l'itérable sous-jacent.  Vous
devez donc consommer l'intégralité des résultats du premier itérateur
renvoyé ('iterator-1' dans l'exemple ci-dessus) avant de récupérer le
deuxième itérateur ('iterator-2' dans l'exemple ci-dessus) et la clé à
laquelle il est associé.


File: python.info,  Node: Le module functools,  Next: Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes,  Prev: Le module itertools,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.7 Le module 'functools'
---------------------------

The *note functools: 5e. module contains some higher-order functions.  A
'higher-order function' takes one or more functions as input and returns
a new function.  The most useful tool in this module is the *note
functools.partial(): 40a. function.

En programmant dans un style fonctionnel, il est courant de vouloir
construire des variantes de fonctions existantes dont certains
paramètres sont prédéfinis.  Par exemple, considérons une fonction
Python ‘f(a, b, c)’.  Si vous voulez une nouvelle fonction ‘g(b, c)’
équivalente à ‘f(1, b, c)’, c'est-à-dire fixer le premier paramètre de
‘f()’.  La fonction ‘g()’ est une appelée « application partielle » de
‘f()’.

Le constructeur de *note partial(): 40a. prend en argument ‘(fonction,
arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2, ...)’.  Un appel à
l'objet ainsi créé invoque la fonction ‘fonction’ avec les arguments
spécifiés.

Voici un exemple court mais réaliste :

     import functools

     def log(message, subsystem):
         """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."""
         print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

*note functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]): 12bc. applique une
opération cumulative à tous les éléments d'un itérable et ne peut donc
être appliquée à des itérables infinis.  'func' doit être une fonction
qui prend deux éléments et renvoie une seule valeur.  *note
functools.reduce(): 12bc. prend les deux premiers éléments A et B
renvoyés par l'itérateur et calcule ‘func(A, B)’.  Elle extrait ensuite
le troisième élément C et calcule ‘func(func(A, B), C)’ puis combine ce
résultat avec le quatrième élément renvoyé etc.  jusqu'à épuisement de
l'itérable.  Une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée si l'itérable
ne renvoie aucune valeur.  La valeur initiale 'initial_value', si
spécifiée, est utilisée comme point de départ et le premier calcul est
alors ‘func(inital_value, A)’.

     >>> import operator, functools
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
     'ABBC'
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
     6
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
     1

Si vous combinez *note operator.add(): 270d. avec *note
functools.reduce(): 12bc, vous allez additionner tous les éléments de
l'itérable.  Ce cas est suffisamment courant pour qu'il existe une
fonction native *note sum(): 456. qui lui est équivalent :

     >>> import functools, operator
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
     10
     >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
     10
     >>> sum([])
     0

Cependant, il peut être plus lisible dans de nombreuses situations
impliquant *note functools.reduce(): 12bc. de simplement écrire la
boucle *note for: 2e7. :

     import functools
     # Instead of:
     product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)

     # You can write:
     product = 1
     for i in [1, 2, 3]:
         product *= i

A related function is *note itertools.accumulate(iterable,
func=operator.add): 9ed.  It performs the same calculation, but instead
of returning only the final result, *note accumulate(): 9ed. returns an
iterator that also yields each partial result:

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 3, 6, 10, 15

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
       1, 2, 6, 24, 120

* Menu:

* Le module operator::


File: python.info,  Node: Le module operator,  Up: Le module functools

9.6.7.1 Le module 'operator'
............................

Le module *note operator: 9e. mentionné précédemment contient un
ensemble de fonctions reproduisant les opérateurs de Python.  Ces
fonctions sont souvent utiles en programmation fonctionnelle car elles
permettent de ne pas avoir à écrire des fonctions triviales qui ne
réalisent qu'une seule opération.

Voici quelques fonctions de ce module :

   * les opérations mathématiques : ‘add()’, ‘sub()’, ‘mul()’,
     ‘floordiv()’, ‘abs()’… ;

   * les opérations logiques : ‘not_()’, ‘truth()’ ;

   * les opérations bit à bit : ‘and_()’, ‘or_()’, ‘invert()’ ;

   * les comparaisons : ‘eq()’, ‘ne()’, ‘lt()’, ‘le()’, ‘gt()’, et
     ‘ge()’ ;

   * l'identification des objets : ‘is_()’, ‘is_not()’.

Veuillez vous référer à la documentation du module 'operator' pour une
liste complète.


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes,  Next: Historique des modifications et remerciements,  Prev: Le module functools,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.8 Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes
---------------------------------------------

Dans un style de programmation fonctionnel, il est courant d'avoir
besoin de petites fonctions utilisées comme prédicats ou pour combiner
des éléments d'une façon ou d'une autre.

S'il existe une fonction native Python ou une fonction d'un module qui
convient, vous n'avez pas besoin de définir de nouvelle fonction :

     stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
     existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)

Si la fonction dont vous avez besoin n'existe pas, vous devez l'écrire.
Une façon d'écrire des fonctions courtes consiste à utiliser les
expressions *note lambda: 127c.  ‘lambda’ prend plusieurs paramètres et
une expression combinant ces derniers afin de créer une fonction anonyme
qui renvoie la valeur de cette expression :

     adder = lambda x, y: x+y

     print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)

Une autre façon de faire est de simplement utiliser l'instruction ‘def’
afin de définir une fonction de la manière habituelle :

     def adder(x, y):
         return x + y

     def print_assign(name, value):
         return name + '=' + str(value)

La méthode à préférer est une question de style, en général l'auteur
évite l'utilisation de ‘lambda’.

Une des raisons est que ‘lambda’ ne peut pas définir toutes les
fonctions.  Le résultat doit pouvoir se calculer en une seule
expression, ce qui signifie qu'il est impossible d'avoir des
comparaisons ‘if ... elif ... else’ à plusieurs branches ou des
structures ‘try ... except’.  Si vous essayez de trop en faire dans une
expression ‘lambda’, vous finirez avec une expression illisible.  Par
exemple, pouvez-vous dire du premier coup d’œil ce que fait le code
ci-dessous ?

     import functools
     total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]

Vous pouvez sûrement comprendre ce que fait ce code mais cela prend du
temps de démêler l'expression pour y voir plus clair.  Une clause ‘def’
concise améliore la situation :

     import functools
     def combine(a, b):
         return 0, a[1] + b[1]

     total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]

Toutefois l'idéal aurait été de simplement se contenter d'une boucle
‘for’ :

     total = 0
     for a, b in items:
         total += b

ou de la fonction native *note sum(): 456. et d'une expression
génératrice :

     total = sum(b for a, b in items)

Les boucles ‘for’ sont souvent plus lisibles que la fonction *note
functools.reduce(): 12bc.

Frederik Lundh a suggéré quelques règles pour le réusinage de code
impliquant les expressions ‘lambda’ :

  1. Écrire une fonction lambda.

  2. Écrire un commentaire qui explique ce que fait cette satanée
     fonction lambda.

  3. Scruter le commentaire pendant quelques temps et réfléchir à un nom
     qui synthétise son essence.

  4. Réécrire la fonction lambda en une définition 'def' en utilisant ce
     nom.

  5. Effacer le commentaire.

J'aime beaucoup ces règles, mais vous êtes libre de ne pas être d'accord
et de préférer un style avec des lambdas.


File: python.info,  Node: Historique des modifications et remerciements,  Next: Références<3>,  Prev: Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.9 Historique des modifications et remerciements
---------------------------------------------------

L'auteur souhaiterait remercier les personnes suivantes pour leurs
suggestions, leurs corrections et leur aide sur les premières versions
de cet article : Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond
Hettinger, Jim Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela,
Collin Winter, Blake Winton.

Version 0.1 : publiée le 30 juin 2006.

Version 0.11 : publiée le 1^er juillet 2006.  Correction orthographique.

Version 0.2 : publiée le 10 juillet 2006.  Fusion des sections 'genexp'
et 'listcomp'.  Correction orthographique.

Version 0.21 : ajout de plusieurs références suggérées sur la liste de
diffusion 'tutor'.

Version 0.30 : ajout d'une section sur le module ‘functional’ écrite par
Collin Winter ; ajout d'une courte section sur le module ‘operator’ ;
quelques autres modifications.


File: python.info,  Node: Références<3>,  Prev: Historique des modifications et remerciements,  Up: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle

9.6.10 Références
-----------------

* Menu:

* Général::
* Spécifique à Python::
* Documentation Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Général,  Next: Spécifique à Python,  Up: Références<3>

9.6.10.1 Général
................

'Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs', by Harold Abelson
and Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman.  The book can be found at
‘https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp’.  In this classic textbook of computer
science, chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to
organize the data flow inside a program.  The book uses Scheme for its
examples, but many of the design approaches described in these chapters
are applicable to functional-style Python code.

‘https://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html’: A general introduction to
functional programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy
historical introduction.

‘https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmation_fonctionnelle’ : l'entrée
Wikipédia qui décrit la programmation fonctionnelle.

‘https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’ : l'entrée pour les
coroutines.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_application’: Entry for the
concept of partial function application.

‘https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curryfication’ : l'entrée pour le concept
de curryfication (création d'applications partielles).


File: python.info,  Node: Spécifique à Python,  Next: Documentation Python,  Prev: Général,  Up: Références<3>

9.6.10.2 Spécifique à Python
............................

‘https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/’: The first chapter of David Mertz's book ‘Text
Processing in Python’ discusses functional programming for text
processing, in the section titled "Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in
Text Processing".

Mertz a également écrit une série de 3 articles (en anglais) sur la
programmation fonctionnelle pour le site DeveloperWorks d'IBM. Voir
partie 1(1), partie 2(2) et partie 3(3),

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/

   (2) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/

   (3) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Python,  Prev: Spécifique à Python,  Up: Références<3>

9.6.10.3 Documentation Python
.............................

Documentation du module *note itertools: 80.

Documentation du module *note functools: 5e.

Documentation du module *note operator: 9e.

PEP 289(1): '"Generator Expressions"'

PEP 342(2): '"Coroutines via Enhanced Generators"' décrit les nouvelles
fonctionnalités des générateurs en Python 2.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Tutoriel sur la journalisation,  Next: Recettes pour la journalisation,  Prev: Guide pratique programmation fonctionnelle,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.7 Tutoriel sur la journalisation
==================================


Auteur: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains tutorial information.  For links to reference
information and a logging cookbook, please see *note Autres ressources:
4eaa.

* Menu:

* Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging::
* Usage avancé de Logging::
* Niveaux de journalisation: Niveaux de journalisation<2>.
* Gestionnaires utiles::
* Exceptions levées par la journalisation::
* Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages::
* Optimisation::
* Autres ressources: Autres ressources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging,  Next: Usage avancé de Logging,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.1 Les bases de l'utilisation du module ‘logging’
----------------------------------------------------

La journalisation ('logging' en anglais) est une façon de suivre les
événements qui ont lieu durant le fonctionnement d'un logiciel.  Le
développeur du logiciel ajoute des appels à l'outil de journalisation
dans son code pour indiquer que certains événements ont eu lieu.  Un
événement est décrit par un message descriptif, qui peut éventuellement
contenir des données variables (c'est-à-dire qui peuvent être
différentes pour chaque occurrence de l'événement).  Un événement a
aussi une importance que le développeur lui attribue ; cette importance
peut aussi être appelée 'niveau' ou 'sévérité'.

* Menu:

* Quand utiliser logging::
* Un exemple simple: Un exemple simple<2>.
* Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier::
* Journalisation de données variables::
* Modifier le format du message affiché::
* Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages::
* Étapes suivantes::


File: python.info,  Node: Quand utiliser logging,  Next: Un exemple simple<2>,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.1 Quand utiliser ‘logging’
................................

You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ‘logger =
getLogger(__name__)’, and then calling the logger's *note debug(): e19,
*note info(): 2c20, *note warning(): 16be, *note error(): 2c22. and
*note critical(): e18. methods.  To determine when to use logging, and
to see which logger methods to use when, see the table below.  It
states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for that
task.

Tâche que vous souhaitez mener            Le meilleur outil pour cette tâche
                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
Affiche la sortie console d'un script     *note print(): f62.
en ligne de commande ou d'un programme    
lors de son utilisation ordinaire

Rapporter des évènements qui ont lieu     A logger's *note info(): 2c20. (or
au cours du fonctionnement normal d'un    *note debug(): e19. method for very
programme (par exemple pour suivre un     detailed output for diagnostic purposes)
statut ou examiner des                    
dysfonctionnements)

Émettre un avertissement ('warning' en    *note warnings.warn(): 14d1. dans le
anglais) en relation avec un évènement    code de la bibliothèque si le problème
particulier au cours du fonctionnement    est évitable et l'application cliente
d’un programme                            doit être modifiée pour éliminer cet
                                          avertissement
                                          
                                          A logger's *note warning(): 16be. method
                                          if there is nothing the client
                                          application can do about the situation,
                                          but the event should still be noted
                                          
                                          
Rapporter une erreur lors d'un            Lever une exception
évènement particulier en cours            
d'exécution

Rapporter la suppression d'une erreur     A logger's *note error(): 2c22,
sans lever d'exception (par exemple       *note exception(): e17. or
pour la gestion d'erreur d'un processus   *note critical(): e18. method as
de long terme sur un serveur)             appropriate for the specific error and
                                          application domain
                                          

The logger methods are named after the level or severity of the events
they are used to track.  The standard levels and their applicability are
described below (in increasing order of severity):

Niveau             Quand il est utilisé
                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
‘DEBUG’            Information détaillée, intéressante seulement
                   lorsqu'on diagnostique un problème.
                   
                   
‘INFO’             Confirmation que tout fonctionne comme prévu.
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          L'indication que quelque chose d'inattendu a eu
                   lieu, ou de la possibilité d'un problème dans
                   un futur proche (par exemple « espace disque
                   faible »).  Le logiciel fonctionne encore
                   normalement.
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            Du fait d'un problème plus sérieux, le logiciel
                   n'a pas été capable de réaliser une tâche.
                   
                   
‘CRITICAL’         Une erreur sérieuse, indiquant que le programme
                   lui-même pourrait être incapable de continuer à
                   fonctionner.
                   

The default level is ‘WARNING’, which means that only events of this
severity and higher will be tracked, unless the logging package is
configured to do otherwise.

Les évènements suivis peuvent être gérés de différentes façons.  La
manière la plus simple est de les afficher dans la console.  Une autre
méthode commune est de les écrire dans un fichier.


File: python.info,  Node: Un exemple simple<2>,  Next: Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier,  Prev: Quand utiliser logging,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.2 Un exemple simple
.........................

Un exemple très simple est :

     import logging
     logging.warning('Watch out!')  # will print a message to the console
     logging.info('I told you so')  # will not print anything

Si vous entrez ces lignes dans un script que vous exécutez, vous
verrez :

     WARNING:root:Watch out!

printed out on the console.  The ‘INFO’ message doesn't appear because
the default level is ‘WARNING’.  The printed message includes the
indication of the level and the description of the event provided in the
logging call, i.e.  'Watch out!'.  The actual output can be formatted
quite flexibly if you need that; formatting options will also be
explained later.

Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the ‘logging’
module, like ‘logging.debug’, rather than creating a logger and calling
functions on it.  These functions operation on the root logger, but can
be useful as they will call *note basicConfig(): 9f0. for you if it has
not been called yet, like in this example.  In larger programs you'll
usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however -
so for that reason as well as others, it's better to create loggers and
call their methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier,  Next: Journalisation de données variables,  Prev: Un exemple simple<2>,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.3 Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier
..................................................

Il est très commun d'enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier, c'est
donc ce que nous allons regarder maintenant.  Il faut essayer ce qui
suit avec un interpréteur Python nouvellement démarré, ne poursuivez pas
la session commencée ci-dessus :

     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logger.debug('This message should go to the log file')
     logger.info('So should this')
     logger.warning('And this, too')
     logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö')

Modifié dans la version 3.9: L'argument 'encoding' a été rajouté.  Dans
les versions précédentes de Python, ou si non spécifié, l'encodage
utilisé est la valeur par défaut utilisée par *note open(): 508.  Bien
que non montré dans l'exemple ci-dessus, un argument 'errors' peut aussi
être passé, qui détermine comment les erreurs d'encodage sont gérées.
Pour voir les valeurs disponibles et par défaut, consultez la
documentation de *note open(): 508.

Maintenant, si nous ouvrons le fichier et lisons ce qui s'y trouve, nous
trouvons les messages de journalisation :

     DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file
     INFO:__main__:So should this
     WARNING:__main__:And this, too
     ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö

Cet exemple montre aussi comment on peut régler le niveau de
journalisation qui sert de seuil pour le suivi.  Dans ce cas, comme nous
avons réglé le seuil à ‘DEBUG’, tous les messages ont été écrits.

Si vous souhaitez régler le niveau de journalisation à partir d'une
option de la ligne de commande comme :

     --log=INFO

et que vous passez ensuite la valeur du paramètre donné à l'option
‘--log’ dans une variable 'loglevel', vous pouvez utiliser :

     getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())

de manière à obtenir la valeur à passer à *note basicConfig(): 9f0. à
travers l'argument 'level'.  Vous pouvez vérifier que l'utilisateur n'a
fait aucune erreur pour la valeur de ce paramètre, comme dans l'exemple
ci-dessous :

     # assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the
     # command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to
     # specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug
     numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
     if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
         raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
     logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)

The call to *note basicConfig(): 9f0. should come 'before' any calls to
a logger's methods such as *note debug(): e19, *note info(): 2c20, etc.
Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner.

Si vous exécutez le script plusieurs fois, les messages des exécutions
successives sont ajoutés au fichier 'example.log'.  Si vous voulez que
chaque exécution reprenne un fichier vierge, sans conserver les messages
des exécutions précédentes, vous pouvez spécifier l'argument 'filemode',
en changeant l'appel à l'exemple précédent par :

     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)

La sortie est identique à la précédente, mais le texte n'est plus ajouté
au fichier de log, donc les messages des exécutions précédentes sont
perdus.


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation de données variables,  Next: Modifier le format du message affiché,  Prev: Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.4 Journalisation de données variables
...........................................

Pour enregistrer des données variables, utilisez une chaîne formatée
dans le message de description de l'évènement et ajoutez les données
variables comme argument.  Par exemple :

     import logging
     logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')

affiche :

     WARNING:root:Look before you leap!

Comme vous pouvez le voir, l'inclusion des données variables dans le
message de description de l'évènement emploie le vieux style de
formatage avec %.  C'est pour assurer la rétrocompatibilité : le module
‘logging’ est antérieur aux nouvelles options de formatage comme *note
str.format(): 60e. ou *note string.Template: 674.  Ces nouvelles options
de formatage 'sont' gérées, mais leur exploration sort du cadre de ce
tutoriel, voyez *note Using particular formatting styles throughout your
application: 2c40. pour plus d'information.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifier le format du message affiché,  Next: Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages,  Prev: Journalisation de données variables,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.5 Modifier le format du message affiché
.............................................

Pour changer le format utilisé pour afficher le message, vous devez
préciser le format que vous souhaitez employer :

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
     logging.info('So should this')
     logging.warning('And this, too')

ce qui affiche :

     DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
     INFO:So should this
     WARNING:And this, too

Notez que le ‘root’ qui apparaissait dans les exemples précédents a
disparu.  Pour voir l'ensemble des éléments qui peuvent apparaître dans
la chaîne de format, référez-vous à la documentation pour *note
LogRecord attributes: 2c3e.  Pour une utilisation simple, vous avez
seulement besoin du 'levelname' (la sévérité), du 'message' (la
description de l'évènement, avec les données variables) et peut-être du
moment auquel l'évènement a eu lieu.  Nous décrivons ces points dans la
prochaine section.


File: python.info,  Node: Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages,  Next: Étapes suivantes,  Prev: Modifier le format du message affiché,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.6 Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages
...............................................

Pour afficher la date ou le temps d'un évènement, ajoutez ‘'%(asctime)'’
dans votre chaîne de formatage :

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

ce qui affichera quelque chose comme :

     2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.

Le format par défaut de l'horodatage (comme ci-dessus) est donné par la
norme ISO8601 ou RFC 3339(1).  Pour plus de contrôle sur le formatage de
l'horodatage, vous pouvez fournir à ‘basicConfig’ un argument 'datefmt',
comme dans l'exemple suivant :

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

ce qui affichera quelque chose comme :

     12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.

Le format de 'datefmt' est le même que celui de *note time.strftime():
11c8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html


File: python.info,  Node: Étapes suivantes,  Prev: Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages,  Up: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

9.7.1.7 Étapes suivantes
........................

Nous concluons ainsi le tutoriel basique.  Il devrait suffire à vous
mettre le pied à l'étrier pour utiliser ‘logging’.  Le module ‘logging’
a beaucoup d'autre cordes à son arc, mais pour en profiter au maximum,
vous devez prendre le temps de lire les sections suivantes.  Si vous
êtes prêt, servez-vous votre boisson préférée et poursuivons.

If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to
incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems
or don't understand something, please post a question on the
comp.lang.python Usenet group (available at
‘https://groups.google.com/g/comp.lang.python’) and you should receive
help before too long.

Vous êtes encore là ?  Vous pouvez lire les prochaines sections, qui
donnent un peu plus de détails que l'introduction ci-dessus.  Après ça,
vous pouvez jeter un œil à *note Recettes pour la journalisation: 11d6.


File: python.info,  Node: Usage avancé de Logging,  Next: Niveaux de journalisation<2>,  Prev: Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.2 Usage avancé de Logging
-----------------------------

La bibliothèque de journalisation adopte une approche modulaire et offre
différentes catégories de composants : 'loggers', 'handlers', 'filters'
et 'formatters'.

   * Les enregistreurs ('loggers' en anglais) exposent l'interface que
     le code de l'application utilise directement.

   * Les gestionnaires ('handlers') envoient les entrées de journal
     (créés par les 'loggers') vers les destinations voulues.

   * Les filtres ('filters') fournissent un moyen de choisir finement
     quelles entrées de journal doivent être sorties.

   * Les formateurs ('formatters') spécifient la structure de l'entrée
     de journal dans la sortie finale.

L'information relative à un événement est passée entre 'loggers',
'handlers' et 'formatters' dans une instance de la classe *note
LogRecord: fd3.

La journalisation est réalisée en appelant les méthodes d'instance de la
classe *note Logger: b3f. (que l'on appelle ci-dessous 'loggers').
Chaque instance a un nom et les instances sont organisées
conceptuellement comme des hiérarchies dans l'espace de nommage, en
utilisant un point comme séparateur.  Par exemple, un 'logger' appelé
‘scan’ est le parent des 'loggers' ‘scan.text’, ‘scan.html’ et
‘scan.pdf’.  Les noms des 'loggers' peuvent être ce que vous voulez et
indiquent le sous-domaine d'une application depuis lequel le message
enregistré a été émis.

Une bonne convention lorsqu'on nomme les 'loggers' est d'utiliser un
'logger' au niveau du module, dans chaque module qui emploie ‘logging’,
nommé de la façon suivante :

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

Cela signifie que le nom d'un 'logger' se rapporte à la hiérarchie du
paquet et des modules, et il est évident de voir où un événement a été
enregistré simplement en regardant le nom du 'logger'.

La racine de la hiérarchie des enregistreurs est appelée le 'root
logger'.  C'est l'enregistreur utilisé par les fonctions *note debug():
2c21, *note info(): 2c4b, *note warning(): 2f4, *note error(): 2c5f. et
*note critical(): 2c60, qui appelle en fait les méthodes du même nom de
l'objet 'root logger'.  Les fonctions et les méthodes ont la même
signature.  Le nom de l'enregistreur racine est affiché comme
« ‘'root'’ » dans la sortie.

Il est bien sûr possible d'enregistrer des messages pour des
destinations différentes.  Ce paquet permet d'écrire des entrées de
journal dans des fichiers, des ressources HTTP GET/POST, par courriel
via SMTP, des connecteurs ('socket' en anglais) génériques, des files
d'attente, ou des mécanismes d'enregistrement spécifiques au système
d'exploitation, comme 'syslog' ou le journal d'événements de Windows NT.
Les destinations sont servies par des classes 'handler'.  Vous pouvez
créer votre propre classe de destination si vous avez des besoins
spéciaux qui ne sont couverts par aucune classe 'handler' prédéfinie.

Par défaut, aucune destination n'est prédéfinie pour les messages de
journalisation.  Vous pouvez définir une destination (comme la console
ou un fichier) en utilisant *note basicConfig(): 9f0. comme dans les
exemples donnés dans le tutoriel.  Si vous appelez les fonctions *note
debug(): 2c21, *note info(): 2c4b, *note warning(): 2f4, *note error():
2c5f. et *note critical(): 2c60, celles-ci vérifient si une destination
a été définie ; si ce n'est pas le cas, la destination est assignée à la
console (‘sys.stderr’) avec un format par défaut pour le message
affiché, avant d'être déléguée au 'logger' racine, qui sort le message.

Le format par défaut des messages est défini par *note basicConfig():
9f0. comme suit :

     severity:logger name:message

Vous pouvez modifier ce comportement en passant une chaîne de formatage
à *note basicConfig(): 9f0. par l'argument nommé 'format'.  Consultez
*note Formateurs: 2c3c. pour toutes les options de construction de cette
chaîne de formatage.

* Menu:

* Flux du processus de journalisation::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuration de logging::
* Comportement par défaut (si aucune configuration n'est fournie): Comportement par défaut si aucune configuration n'est fournie.
* Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque::


File: python.info,  Node: Flux du processus de journalisation,  Next: Loggers,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.1 Flux du processus de journalisation
...........................................

Le flux des informations associées à un évènement dans les 'loggers' et
les 'handlers' est illustré dans le diagramme suivant.

[image src="python-figures/logging_flow.png"]



File: python.info,  Node: Loggers,  Next: Handlers,  Prev: Flux du processus de journalisation,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.2 Loggers
...............

Les objets de classe *note Logger: b3f. ont un rôle triple.
Premièrement, ils exposent plusieurs méthodes au code de l'application,
de manière à ce qu'elle puisse enregistrer des messages en cours
d'exécution.  Deuxièmement, les objets 'logger' déterminent sur quel
message agir selon leur sévérité (à partir des filtres par défaut) ou
selon les objets 'filter' associés.  Troisièmement, les objets 'logger'
transmettent les messages pertinents à tous les 'handlers' concernés.

Les méthodes des objets 'logger' les plus utilisées appartiennent à deux
catégories : la configuration et l'envoi de messages.

Voici les méthodes de configuration les plus communes :

   * *note Logger.setLevel(): 1447. spécifie le plus bas niveau de
     sévérité qu'un 'logger' traitera.  Ainsi, ‘DEBUG’ est le niveau de
     sévérité défini par défaut le plus bas et ‘CRITICAL’ est le plus
     haut.  Par exemple, si le niveau de sévérité est ‘INFO’, le
     'logger' ne traite que les messages de niveau ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’,
     ‘ERROR’ et ‘CRITICAL’ ; il ignore les messages de niveau DEBUG.

   * *note Logger.addHandler(): 2c1b. et *note Logger.removeHandler():
     2c1c. ajoutent ou enlèvent des objets 'handlers' au 'logger'.  Les
     objets 'handlers' sont expliqués plus en détail dans *note
     Handlers: 4eb7.

   * *note Logger.addFilter(): 2c23. et *note Logger.removeFilter():
     2c24. ajoutent ou enlèvent des objets 'filter' au 'logger'.  Les
     objets 'filters' sont expliqués plus en détail dans *note Filtres:
     2c48.

Comme nous l'expliquons aux deux derniers paragraphes de cette section,
vous n'avez pas besoin de faire appel à ces méthodes à chaque fois que
vous créez un 'logger'.

Une fois que l'objet 'logger' est correctement configuré, les méthodes
suivantes permettent de créer un message :

   * Les méthodes *note Logger.debug(): e19, *note Logger.info(): 2c20,
     *note Logger.warning(): 16be, *note Logger.error(): 2c22. et *note
     Logger.critical(): e18. créent des entrées de journal avec un
     message et un niveau correspondant à leur nom.  Le message est en
     fait une chaîne de caractères qui peut contenir la syntaxe standard
     de substitution de chaînes de caractères : ‘%s’, ‘%d’, ‘%f’, etc.
     L'argument suivant est une liste des objets correspondant aux
     champs à substituer dans le message.  En ce qui concerne
     ‘**kwargs’, les méthodes de ‘logging’ ne tiennent compte que du mot
     clef ‘exc_info’ et l'utilisent pour déterminer s'il faut
     enregistrer les informations associées à une exception.

   * *note Logger.exception(): e17. crée un message similaire à *note
     Logger.error(): 2c22.  La différence est que *note
     Logger.exception(): e17. ajoute la trace de la pile d'exécution au
     message.  On ne peut appeler cette méthode qu'à l'intérieur d'un
     bloc de gestion d'exception.

   * *note Logger.log(): e16. prend le niveau de sévérité comme argument
     explicite.  C'est un peu plus verbeux pour enregistrer des messages
     que d'utiliser les méthodes plus pratiques décrites si dessus, mais
     c'est ce qui permet d'enregistrer des messages pour des niveaux de
     sévérité définis par l'utilisateur.

*note getLogger(): 94f. renvoie une référence à un objet 'logger' du nom
spécifié si celui-ci est donné en argument.  Dans le cas contraire,
c'est l'enregistreur racine.  Les noms sont des structures hiérarchiques
séparées par des points.  Des appels répétés à *note getLogger(): 94f.
avec le même nom renvoient une référence au même objet 'logger'.  Les
'loggers' qui sont plus bas dans cette liste hiérarchique sont des
enfants des 'loggers' plus haut dans la liste.  Par exemple, si un
enregistreur a le nom ‘foo’, les enregistreurs avec les noms ‘foo.bar’,
‘foo.bar.baz’ et ‘foo.bam’ sont tous des descendants de ‘foo’.

On associe aux 'loggers' un concept de 'niveau effectif'.  Si aucun
niveau n'est explicitement défini pour un 'logger', c'est le niveau du
parent qui est utilisé comme niveau effectif.  Si le parent n'a pas de
niveau défini, c'est celui de 'son' parent qui est considéré, et ainsi
de suite ; on examine tous les ancêtres jusqu'à ce qu'un niveau
explicite soit trouvé.  Le 'logger root' a toujours un niveau explicite
(‘WARNING’ par défaut).  Quand le 'logger' traite un événement, c'est ce
niveau effectif qui est utilisé pour déterminer si cet événement est
transmis à ses 'handlers'.

Les 'loggers' fils font remonter leurs messages aux 'handlers' associés
à leurs 'loggers' parents.  De ce fait, il n'est pas nécessaire de
définir et configurer des 'handlers' pour tous les 'loggers' employés
par une application.  Il suffit de configurer les 'handlers' pour un
'logger' de haut niveau et de créer des 'loggers' fils quand c'est
nécessaire (on peut cependant empêcher la propagation aux ancêtres des
messages en donnant la valeur ‘False’ à l'attribut 'propagate' d'un
'logger').


File: python.info,  Node: Handlers,  Next: Formatters,  Prev: Loggers,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.3 Handlers
................

Les objets de type *note Handler: 144a. sont responsables de la
distribution des messages (selon leur niveau de sévérité) vers les
destinations spécifiées pour ce 'handler'.  Les objets *note Logger:
b3f. peuvent ajouter des objets 'handler' à eux-mêmes en appelant *note
addHandler(): 2c1b.  Pour donner un exemple, une application peut
envoyer tous les messages dans un fichier journal, tous les messages de
niveau ‘ERROR’ ou supérieur vers la sortie standard, et tous les
messages de niveau ‘CRITICAL’ vers une adresse de courriel.  Dans ce
scénario, nous avons besoin de trois 'handlers', responsable chacun
d'envoyer des messages d'une sévérité donnée vers une destination
donnée.

La bibliothèque standard inclut déjà un bon nombre de types de
gestionnaires (voir *note Gestionnaires utiles: 4eb9.) ; le tutoriel
utilise surtout *note StreamHandler: 11d7. et *note FileHandler: 185b.
dans ses exemples.

Peu de méthodes des objets 'handlers' sont intéressantes pour les
développeurs.  Les seules méthodes intéressantes lorsqu'on utilise les
objets 'handlers' natifs (c'est-à-dire si l'on ne crée pas de 'handler'
personnalisé) sont les méthodes de configuration suivantes :

   * The *note setLevel(): 2c31. method, just as in logger objects,
     specifies the lowest severity that will be dispatched to the
     appropriate destination.  Why are there two *note setLevel(): 2c31.
     methods?  The level set in the logger determines which severity of
     messages it will pass to its handlers.  The level set in each
     handler determines which messages that handler will send on.

   * *note setFormatter(): 2c32. sélectionne l'objet ‘Formatter’ utilisé
     par ce ‘handler’.

   * *note addFilter(): 2c33. et *note removeFilter(): 2c34. configurent
     et respectivement dé-configurent des objets 'filter' sur les
     'handlers'.

Le code d'une application ne devrait ni instancier, ni utiliser
d'instances de la classe *note Handler: 144a.  La classe *note Handler:
144a. est plutôt une classe mère qui définit l'interface que tous les
gestionnaires doivent avoir et établit les comportements par défaut que
les classes filles peuvent employer (ou redéfinir).


File: python.info,  Node: Formatters,  Next: Configuration de logging,  Prev: Handlers,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.4 Formatters
..................

Les objets 'formatter' configurent l'ordre final, la structure et le
contenu du message.  Contrairement à la classe mère *note
logging.Handler: 144a, le code d'une application peut instancier un
objet de classe 'formatter', même si vous pouvez toujours sous-classer
'formatter' si vous avez besoin d'un comportement spécial dans votre
application.  Le constructeur a trois arguments optionnels : une chaîne
de formatage du message, une chaîne de formatage de la date et un
indicateur de style.

 -- Méthode: logging.Formatter.__init__ (fmt=None, datefmt=None,
          style='%')

S'il n'y a pas de chaîne de formatage, la chaîne brute est utilisée par
défaut.  S'il n'y a pas de chaîne de formatage de date, le format de
date par défaut est :

     %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S

avec les millisecondes ajoutées à la fin.  ‘style’ est l'un des
suivants : ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’, ou ‘'$'’.  Si l'un de ces styles n'est pas
spécifié, alors ‘'%'’ sera utilisé.

Si l'argument ‘style’ est ‘'%'’, la chaîne de formatage utilise ‘%(<clef
de dictionnaire>)s’ comme style de substitution de chaîne de caractères.
Les clefs possibles sont documentées dans *note LogRecord attributes:
2c3e.  Si le style est ‘'{'’, le message de la chaîne de formatage est
compatible avec *note str.format(): 60e. (en employant des arguments
nommés).  Enfin si le style est ‘'$'’ alors la chaîne de formatage du
message doit être conforme à ce qui est attendu de *note
string.Template.substitute(): 1ca7.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre ‘style’.

La chaîne de formatage de message suivante enregistrera le temps dans un
format lisible par les humains, la sévérité du message et son contenu,
dans cet ordre :

     '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'

Les 'formatters' emploient une fonction configurable par l'utilisateur
pour convertir le temps de création d'une entrée de journal en un
'n'-uplet.  Par défaut, *note time.localtime(): 14b1. est employé ; pour
changer cela pour une instance particulière de 'formatter', assignez une
fonction avec la même signature que *note time.localtime(): 14b1. ou
*note time.gmtime(): 119f. à l'attribut ‘converter’ de cette instance.
Pour changer cela pour tous les 'formatters', par exemple si vous voulez
que tous votre horodatage soit affiché en GMT, changez l'attribut
‘converter’ de la classe ‘Formatter’ en ‘time.gmtime’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration de logging,  Next: Comportement par défaut si aucune configuration n'est fournie,  Prev: Formatters,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.5 Configuration de ‘logging’
..................................

On peut configurer ‘logging’ de trois façons :

  1. Créer des 'loggers', 'handlers' et 'formatters' explicitement en
     utilisant du code Python qui appelle les méthodes de configuration
     listées ci-dessus.

  2. Créer un fichier de configuration de ‘logging’ et le lire en
     employant la fonction *note fileConfig(): b41.

  3. Créer un dictionnaire d'informations de configuration et le passer
     à la fonction *note dictConfig(): 118f.

Pour la documentation de référence de ces deux dernières options, voyez
*note Configuration functions: 12d1.  L'exemple suivant configure un
'logger' très simple, un 'handler' employant la console, et un
'formatter' simple en utilisant du code Python :

     import logging

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create console handler and set level to debug
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create formatter
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')

     # add formatter to ch
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)

     # add ch to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

L'exécution de ce module via la ligne de commande produit la sortie
suivante :

     $ python simple_logging_module.py
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message

Le module Python suivant crée un 'logger', un 'handler' et un
'formatter' identiques à ceux de l'exemple détaillé au-dessus, au nom
des objets près :

     import logging
     import logging.config

     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Voici le fichier 'logging.conf' :

     [loggers]
     keys=root,simpleExample

     [handlers]
     keys=consoleHandler

     [formatters]
     keys=simpleFormatter

     [logger_root]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler

     [logger_simpleExample]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler
     qualname=simpleExample
     propagate=0

     [handler_consoleHandler]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=simpleFormatter
     args=(sys.stdout,)

     [formatter_simpleFormatter]
     format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s

La sortie est presque identique à celle de l'exemple qui n'est pas basé
sur un fichier de configuration :

     $ python simple_logging_config.py
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message

Vous pouvez constater les avantages de l'approche par fichier de
configuration par rapport à celle du code Python, principalement la
séparation de la configuration et du code, et la possibilité pour une
personne qui ne code pas de modifier facilement les propriétés de
journalisation.

     Avertissement: La fonction *note fileConfig(): b41. accepte un
     paramètre par défaut ‘disable_existing_loggers’, qui vaut ‘True’
     par défaut pour des raisons de compatibilité ascendante.  Ce n'est
     pas forcément ce que vous souhaitez : en effet, tous les 'loggers'
     créés avant l'appel à *note fileConfig(): b41. seront désactivés
     sauf si eux-mêmes (ou l'un de leurs parents) sont explicitement
     nommés dans le fichier de configuration.  Veuillez vous reporter à
     la documentation pour plus de détails, et donner la valeur ‘False’
     à ce paramètre si vous le souhaitez.

     Le dictionnaire passé à *note dictConfig(): 118f. peut aussi
     spécifier une valeur Booléenne pour la clef
     ‘disable_existing_loggers’.  Si cette valeur n'est pas donnée, elle
     est interprétée comme vraie par défaut.  Cela conduit au
     comportement de désactivation des 'loggers' décrit ci-dessus, qui
     n'est pas forcément celui que vous souhaitez ; dans ce cas, donnez
     explicitement la valeur ‘False’ à cette clef.

Notez que les noms de classe référencés dans le fichier de configuration
doivent être relatifs au module ‘logging’, ou des valeurs absolues qui
peuvent être résolues à travers les mécanismes d'importation habituels.
Ainsi, on peut soit utiliser *note WatchedFileHandler: 2c9e.
(relativement au module ‘logging’) ou ‘mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler’
(pour une classe définie dans le paquet ‘mypackage’ et le module
‘mymodule’, si ‘mypackage’ est disponible dans les chemins d'importation
de Python).

Dans Python 3.2, un nouveau moyen de configuration de la journalisation
a été introduit, à l'aide de dictionnaires pour contenir les
informations de configuration.  Cela fournit un sur-ensemble de la
fonctionnalité décrite ci-dessus basée sur un fichier de configuration
et c’est la méthode recommandée pour les nouvelles applications et les
déploiements.  Étant donné qu'un dictionnaire Python est utilisé pour
contenir des informations de configuration et que vous pouvez remplir ce
dictionnaire à l'aide de différents moyens, vous avez plus d'options
pour la configuration.  Par exemple, vous pouvez utiliser un fichier de
configuration au format JSON ou, si vous avez accès à la fonctionnalité
de traitement YAML, un fichier au format YAML, pour remplir le
dictionnaire de configuration.  Ou bien sûr, vous pouvez construire le
dictionnaire dans le code Python, le recevoir sous forme de 'pickle' sur
un connecteur, ou utiliser n'importe quelle approche suivant la logique
de votre application.

Voici un exemple définissant la même configuration que ci-dessus, au
format YAML pour le dictionnaire correspondant à cette nouvelle
approche :

     version: 1
     formatters:
       simple:
         format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
     handlers:
       console:
         class: logging.StreamHandler
         level: DEBUG
         formatter: simple
         stream: ext://sys.stdout
     loggers:
       simpleExample:
         level: DEBUG
         handlers: [console]
         propagate: no
     root:
       level: DEBUG
       handlers: [console]

Pour plus d'informations sur la journalisation à l'aide d'un
dictionnaire, consultez *note Configuration functions: 12d1.


File: python.info,  Node: Comportement par défaut si aucune configuration n'est fournie,  Next: Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque,  Prev: Configuration de logging,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.6 Comportement par défaut (si aucune configuration n'est fournie)
.......................................................................

If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a
situation where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can
be found to output the event.

The event is output using a 'handler of last resort', stored in *note
lastResort: 11d9.  This internal handler is not associated with any
logger, and acts like a *note StreamHandler: 11d7. which writes the
event description message to the current value of ‘sys.stderr’
(therefore respecting any redirections which may be in effect).  No
formatting is done on the message - just the bare event description
message is printed.  The handler's level is set to ‘WARNING’, so all
events at this and greater severities will be output.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Pour les versions de Python antérieures à
3.2, le comportement est le suivant :

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 11d8. is ‘False’ (production mode), the
     event is silently dropped.

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 11d8. is ‘True’ (development mode), a
     message 'No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z' is printed
     once.

To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, *note lastResort: 11d9. can be set to
‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque,  Prev: Comportement par défaut si aucune configuration n'est fournie,  Up: Usage avancé de Logging

9.7.2.7 Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque
................................................................

Lors du développement d'une bibliothèque qui utilise la journalisation,
vous devez prendre soin de documenter la façon dont la bibliothèque
utilise la journalisation (par exemple, les noms des enregistreurs
utilisés).  Consacrez aussi un peu de temps à la configuration de la
journalisation.  Si l'application utilisant votre bibliothèque n'utilise
pas la journalisation et que le code de la bibliothèque effectue des
appels de journalisation, alors (comme décrit dans la section
précédente), les événements de gravité ‘WARNING’ et au-dessus seront
écrits sur ‘sys.stderr’.  Cela est considéré comme le meilleur
comportement par défaut.

Si, pour une raison quelconque, vous ne voulez 'pas' que ces messages
soient affichés en l'absence de toute configuration de journalisation,
vous pouvez attacher un gestionnaire 'ne-fait-rien' à l'enregistreur de
niveau supérieur de votre bibliothèque.  Cela évite qu’un message ne
soit écrit, puisqu’un gestionnaire sera toujours trouvé pour les
événements de la bibliothèque, il ne produit tout simplement pas de
sortie.  Si celui qui utilise la bibliothèque configure la
journalisation pour son application, il est vraisemblable que la
configuration ajoutera certains gestionnaires et, si les niveaux sont
convenablement configurés, alors la journalisation des appels effectués
dans le code de bibliothèque enverra la sortie à ces gestionnaires,
comme d'habitude.

Un gestionnaire 'ne-fait-rien' est inclus dans le paquet de
journalisation : *note NullHandler: 1264. (depuis Python 3.1).  Une
instance de ce gestionnaire peut être ajoutée à l'enregistreur de niveau
supérieur de l'espace de nommage de journalisation utilisé par la
bibliothèque ('si' vous souhaitez empêcher la copie de la journalisation
de votre bibliothèque dans ‘sys.stderr’ en l'absence de configuration de
journalisation).  Si toute la journalisation par une bibliothèque 'foo'
est effectuée en utilisant des enregistreurs avec des noms correspondant
à 'foo.x', 'foo.x.y', etc., alors le code :

     import logging
     logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

doit avoir l'effet désiré.  Si une organisation produit un certain
nombre de bibliothèques, le nom de l'enregistreur spécifié peut être
‘orgname.foo’ plutôt que simplement ‘foo’.

     Note: Il est fortement conseillé de 'ne pas journaliser vers
     l'enregistreur racine' dans votre bibliothèque.  À la place,
     utilisez un enregistreur avec un nom unique et facilement
     identifiable, tel que ‘__name__’ pour le paquet ou le module de
     niveau supérieur de votre bibliothèque.  La journalisation dans
     l'enregistreur racine rend difficile voire impossible pour le
     développeur de l'application de configurer la verbosité de
     journalisation ou les gestionnaires de votre bibliothèque comme il
     le souhaite.

     Note: Il est vivement conseillé de ne 'pas ajouter de gestionnaires
     autres que' *note NullHandler: 1264. 'aux enregistreurs de votre
     bibliothèque'.  Cela est dû au fait que la configuration des
     gestionnaires est la prérogative du développeur d'applications qui
     utilise votre bibliothèque.  Le développeur d'applications connaît
     le public cible et les gestionnaires les plus appropriés pour ses
     applications : si vous ajoutez des gestionnaires « sous le
     manteau », vous pourriez bien interférer avec les tests unitaires
     et la journalisation qui convient à ses exigences.


File: python.info,  Node: Niveaux de journalisation<2>,  Next: Gestionnaires utiles,  Prev: Usage avancé de Logging,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.3 Niveaux de journalisation
-------------------------------

Les valeurs numériques des niveaux de journalisation sont données dans
le tableau suivant.  Celles-ci n'ont d'intérêt que si vous voulez
définir vos propres niveaux, avec des valeurs spécifiques par rapport
aux niveaux prédéfinis.  Si vous définissez un niveau avec la même
valeur numérique, il écrase la valeur prédéfinie ; le nom prédéfini est
perdu.

Niveau             Valeur numérique
                   
---------------------------------------
                   
‘CRITICAL’         50
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            40
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          30
                   
                   
‘INFO’             20
                   
                   
‘DEBUG’            10
                   
                   
‘NOTSET’           0
                   

Les niveaux peuvent également être associés à des enregistreurs, étant
définis soit par le développeur, soit par le chargement d'une
configuration de journalisation enregistrée.  Lorsqu'une méthode de
journalisation est appelée sur un enregistreur, l'enregistreur compare
son propre niveau avec le niveau associé à l'appel de méthode.  Si le
niveau de l'enregistreur est supérieur à l'appel de méthode, aucun
message de journalisation n'est réellement généré.  C'est le mécanisme
de base contrôlant la verbosité de la sortie de journalisation.

Les messages de journalisation sont codés en tant qu'instances de *note
LogRecord: fd3.  Lorsqu'un enregistreur décide de réellement enregistrer
un événement, une instance de *note LogRecord: fd3. est créée à partir
du message de journalisation.

Les messages de journalisation sont soumis à un mécanisme d'expédition
via l'utilisation de 'handlers', qui sont des instances de sous-classes
de la classe *note Handler: 144a.  Les gestionnaires sont chargés de
s'assurer qu'un message journalisé (sous la forme d'un *note LogRecord:
fd3.) atterrit dans un emplacement particulier (ou un ensemble
d'emplacements) qui est utile pour le public cible pour ce message (tels
que les utilisateurs finaux, le personnel chargé de l'assistance aux
utilisateurs, les administrateurs système ou les développeurs).  Des
instances de *note LogRecord: fd3. adaptées à leur destination finale
sont passées aux gestionnaires destinées à des destinations
particulières.  Chaque enregistreur peut avoir zéro, un ou plusieurs
gestionnaires associés à celui-ci (via la méthode *note addHandler():
2c1b. de *note Logger: b3f.).  En plus de tous les gestionnaires
directement associés à un enregistreur, 'tous les gestionnaires associés
à tous les ancêtres de l'enregistreur' sont appelés pour envoyer le
message (à moins que l'indicateur 'propager' pour un enregistreur soit
défini sur la valeur ‘False’, auquel cas le passage au gestionnaire
ancêtre s'arrête).

Tout comme pour les enregistreurs, les gestionnaires peuvent avoir des
niveaux associés.  Le niveau d'un gestionnaire agit comme un filtre de
la même manière que le niveau d'un enregistreur.  Si un gestionnaire
décide de réellement distribuer un événement, la méthode *note emit():
2c3a. est utilisée pour envoyer le message à sa destination.  La plupart
des sous-classes définies par l'utilisateur de *note Handler: 144a.
devront remplacer ce *note emit(): 2c3a.

* Menu:

* Niveaux personnalisés::


File: python.info,  Node: Niveaux personnalisés,  Up: Niveaux de journalisation<2>

9.7.3.1 Niveaux personnalisés
.............................

La définition de vos propres niveaux est possible, mais ne devrait pas
être nécessaire, car les niveaux existants ont été choisis par
expérience.  Cependant, si vous êtes convaincu que vous avez besoin de
niveaux personnalisés, prenez grand soin à leur réalisation et il est
pratiquement certain que c’est 'une très mauvaise idée de définir des
niveaux personnalisés si vous développez une bibliothèque'.  Car si
plusieurs auteurs de bibliothèque définissent tous leurs propres niveaux
personnalisés, il y a une chance que la sortie de journalisation de ces
multiples bibliothèques utilisées ensemble sera difficile pour le
développeur à utiliser pour contrôler et/ou interpréter, car une valeur
numérique donnée peut signifier des choses différentes pour différentes
bibliothèques.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestionnaires utiles,  Next: Exceptions levées par la journalisation,  Prev: Niveaux de journalisation<2>,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.4 Gestionnaires utiles
--------------------------

En plus de la classe mère *note Handler: 144a, de nombreuses
sous-classes utiles sont fournies :

  1. Les instances *note StreamHandler: 11d7. envoient des messages aux
     flux (objets de type fichier).

  2. Les instances *note FileHandler: 185b. envoient des messages à des
     fichiers sur le disque.

  3. *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2ca2. est la classe mère pour les
     gestionnaires qui assurent la rotation des fichiers de
     journalisation à partir d’un certain point.  Elle n'est pas
     destinée à être instanciée directement.  Utilisez plutôt *note
     RotatingFileHandler: 1593. ou *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e.

  4. Les instances *note RotatingFileHandler: 1593. envoient des
     messages à des fichiers sur le disque, avec la prise en charge des
     tailles maximales de fichiers de journalisation et de la rotation
     des fichiers de journalisation.

  5. Les instances de *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f4e. envoient des
     messages aux fichiers de disque, en permutant le fichier journal à
     intervalles réguliers.

  6. Les instances de *note SocketHandler: f4f. envoient des messages
     aux connecteurs TCP/IP. Depuis 3.4, les connecteurs UNIX sont
     également pris en charge.

  7. Les instances de *note DatagramHandler: f50. envoient des messages
     aux connecteurs UDP. Depuis 3.4, les connecteurs UNIX sont
     également pris en charge.

  8. Les instances de *note SMTPHandler: 1522. envoient des messages à
     une adresse e-mail désignée.

  9. Les instances de *note SysLogHandler: 649. envoient des messages à
     un 'daemon' 'syslog' UNIX, éventuellement sur un ordinateur
     distant.

  10. Les instances de *note NTEventLogHandler: 2cc6. envoient des
     messages à un journal des événements Windows NT/2000/XP.

  11. Les instances de *note MemoryHandler: 2c82. envoient des messages
     à un tampon en mémoire, qui est vidé chaque fois que des critères
     spécifiques sont remplis.

  12. Les instances de *note HTTPHandler: e1a. envoient des messages à
     un serveur HTTP à l'aide de la sémantique ‘GET’ ou ‘POST’.

  13. Les instances de *note WatchedFileHandler: 2c9e. surveillent le
     fichier sur lequel elles se connectent.  Si le fichier change, il
     est fermé et rouvert à l'aide du nom de fichier.  Ce gestionnaire
     n'est utile que sur les systèmes de type UNIX ; Windows ne prend
     pas en charge le mécanisme sous-jacent utilisé.

  14. Les instances de *note QueueHandler: 1793. envoient des messages à
     une file d'attente, telles que celles implémentées dans les modules
     *note queue: b5. ou *note multiprocessing: 93.

  15. *note NullHandler: 1264. instances do nothing with error messages.
     They are used by library developers who want to use logging, but
     want to avoid the 'No handlers could be found for logger 'XXX"
     message which can be displayed if the library user has not
     configured logging.  See *note Configuration de la journalisation
     pour une bibliothèque: 2c9b. for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: La classe *note NullHandler: 1264.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: La classe *note QueueHandler: 1793.

Les classes *note NullHandler: 1264, *note StreamHandler: 11d7. et *note
FileHandler: 185b. sont définies dans le module de journalisation de
base.  Les autres gestionnaires sont définis dans un sous-module, *note
logging.handlers: 88. (il existe également un autre sous-module, *note
logging.config: 87, pour la fonctionnalité de configuration).

Les messages journalisés sont mis en forme pour la présentation via des
instances de la classe *note Formatter: 144b.  Ils sont initialisés avec
une chaîne de format appropriée pour une utilisation avec l'opérateur %
et un dictionnaire.

For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of *note
BufferingFormatter: 2c44. can be used.  In addition to the format string
(which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for
header and trailer format strings.

Lorsque le filtrage basé sur le niveau de l'enregistreur et/ou le niveau
du gestionnaire ne suffit pas, les instances de *note Filter: 11da.
peuvent être ajoutées aux deux instances de *note Logger: b3f. et *note
Handler: 144a. (par le biais de leur méthode *note addFilter(): 2c33.).
Avant de décider de traiter un message plus loin, les enregistreurs et
les gestionnaires consultent tous leurs filtres pour obtenir
l'autorisation.  Si un filtre renvoie une valeur ‘False’, le traitement
du message est arrêté.

La fonctionnalité de base *note Filter: 11da. permet de filtrer par nom
de 'logger' spécifique.  Si cette fonctionnalité est utilisée, les
messages envoyés à l'enregistreur nommé et à ses enfants sont autorisés
via le filtre et tous les autres sont abandonnés.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions levées par la journalisation,  Next: Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages,  Prev: Gestionnaires utiles,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.5 Exceptions levées par la journalisation
---------------------------------------------

Le paquet de journalisation est conçu pour ne pas faire apparaître les
exceptions qui se produisent lors de la journalisation en production.
Il s'agit de sorte que les erreurs qui se produisent lors de la gestion
des événements de journalisation (telles qu'une mauvaise configuration
de la journalisation, une erreur réseau ou d'autres erreurs similaires)
ne provoquent pas l'arrêt de l'application utilisant la journalisation.

Les exceptions *note SystemExit: d30. et *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9c1.
ne sont jamais passées sous silence.  Les autres exceptions qui se
produisent pendant la méthode *note emit(): 2c3a. d'une sous-classe
*note Handler: 144a. sont passées à sa méthode *note handleError():
2c39.

L'implémentation par défaut de *note handleError(): 2c39. dans la classe
*note Handler: 144a. vérifie si une variable au niveau du module, *note
raiseExceptions: 11d8, est définie.  Si cette valeur est définie, la
trace de la pile d'appels est affichée sur *note sys.stderr: 928.  Si
elle n'est pas définie, l'exception est passée sous silence.

     Note: La valeur par défaut de *note raiseExceptions: 11d8. est
     ‘True’.  C'est parce que pendant le développement, vous voulez
     généralement être notifié de toutes les exceptions qui se
     produisent.  Il est conseillé de définir *note raiseExceptions:
     11d8. à ‘False’ pour une utilisation en production.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages,  Next: Optimisation,  Prev: Exceptions levées par la journalisation,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.6 Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages
-----------------------------------------------------

Dans les sections et exemples précédents, il a été supposé que le
message passé lors de la journalisation de l'événement est une chaîne.
Cependant, ce n'est pas la seule possibilité.  Vous pouvez passer un
objet arbitraire en tant que message et sa méthode *note __str__(): 60a.
est appelée lorsque le système de journalisation doit le convertir en
une représentation sous forme de chaîne.  En fait, si vous le souhaitez,
vous pouvez complètement éviter de calculer une représentation sous
forme de chaîne.  Par exemple, les gestionnaires *note SocketHandler:
f4f. émettent un événement en lui appliquant 'pickle' et en l'envoyant
sur le réseau.


File: python.info,  Node: Optimisation,  Next: Autres ressources<2>,  Prev: Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.7 Optimisation
------------------

La mise en forme des arguments de message est différée jusqu'à ce
qu'elle ne puisse pas être évitée.  Toutefois, le calcul des arguments
passés à la méthode de journalisation peut également être coûteux et
vous voudrez peut-être éviter de le faire si l'enregistreur va
simplement jeter votre événement.  Pour décider de ce qu'il faut faire,
vous pouvez appeler la méthode *note isEnabledFor(): 12d6. qui prend en
argument le niveau et renvoie ‘True’ si un événement est créé par
l'enregistreur pour ce niveau d'appel.  Vous pouvez écrire un code qui
ressemble à ça :

     if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
         logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
                                             expensive_func2())

so that if the logger's threshold is set above ‘DEBUG’, the calls to
‘expensive_func1’ and ‘expensive_func2’ are never made.

     Note: Dans certains cas, *note isEnabledFor(): 12d6. peut être plus
     coûteux que vous le souhaitez (par exemple pour les enregistreurs
     profondément imbriqués où un niveau explicite n'est défini que dans
     la hiérarchie des enregistreurs).  Dans de tels cas (ou si vous
     souhaitez éviter d'appeler une méthode dans des boucles
     optimisées), vous pouvez mettre en cache le résultat d'un appel à
     *note isEnabledFor(): 12d6. dans une variable locale ou d'instance,
     et l'utiliser au lieu d'appeler la méthode à chaque fois.  Une
     telle valeur mise en cache ne doit être recalculée que lorsque la
     configuration de journalisation change dynamiquement pendant
     l'exécution de l'application (ce qui est rarement le cas).

Il existe d'autres optimisations qui peuvent être faites pour des
applications spécifiques qui nécessitent un contrôle plus précis sur les
informations de journalisation collectées.  Voici une liste de choses
que vous pouvez faire pour éviter le traitement pendant la
journalisation dont vous n'avez pas besoin :

Ce que vous ne voulez pas collecter                       Comment éviter de le collecter
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Informations sur l'endroit où les appels ont été faits.   Définissez ‘logging._srcfile’ à ‘None’.  Cela évite
                                                          d'appeler *note sys._getframe(): 6cd, qui peut aider
                                                          à accélérer votre code dans des environnements comme
                                                          PyPy (qui ne peut pas accélérer le code qui utilise
                                                          *note sys._getframe(): 6cd.).
                                                          
                                                          
Informations de 'threading'.                              Mettez ‘logging.logThreads’ à ‘False’.
                                                          
                                                          
Identifiant du processus courant (résultat de             Mettez ‘logging.logProcesses’ à ‘False’.
*note os.getpid(): 2abe.)                                 

Nom du processus actuel, si vous vous servez de           Mettez ‘logging.logMultiProcessing’ à ‘False’.
‘multiprocessing’ pour gérer plusieurs processus à la     
fois

Current *note asyncio.Task: 4c5. name when using          Set ‘logging.logAsyncioTasks’ to ‘False’.
‘asyncio’.                                                

Notez également que le module de journalisation principale inclut
uniquement les gestionnaires de base.  Si vous n'importez pas *note
logging.handlers: 88. et *note logging.config: 87, ils ne prendront pas
de mémoire.


File: python.info,  Node: Autres ressources<2>,  Prev: Optimisation,  Up: Tutoriel sur la journalisation

9.7.8 Autres ressources
-----------------------

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note logging: 86.

     Référence d'API pour le module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     API de configuration pour le module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

*note A logging cookbook: 11d6.


File: python.info,  Node: Recettes pour la journalisation,  Next: Guide des expressions régulières,  Prev: Tutoriel sur la journalisation,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.8 Recettes pour la journalisation
===================================


Auteur: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

Cette page contient des recettes relatives à la journalisation qui se
sont avérées utiles par le passé.  Pour des liens vers le tutoriel et
des informations de référence, consultez *note ces autres ressources:
4ec9.

* Menu:

* Journalisation dans plusieurs modules::
* Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples::
* Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs::
* Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations::
* Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation::
* Exemple d’un serveur de configuration::
* Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants::
* Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau::
* Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation::
* Use of contextvars::
* Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation::
* Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus::
* Utilisation du roulement de fichiers::
* Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage::
* Personnalisation de LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire::
* Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux::
* Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle::
* Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler::
* Journalisation structurée::
* Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig(): Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Autres ressources: Autres ressources<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation dans plusieurs modules,  Next: Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.1 Journalisation dans plusieurs modules
-------------------------------------------

Deux appels à ‘logging.getLogger('unLogger')’ renvoient toujours une
référence vers le même objet de journalisation.  C’est valable à
l’intérieur d’un module, mais aussi dans des modules différents pour
autant que ce soit le même processus de l’interpréteur Python.  En plus,
le code d’une application peut définir et configurer une journalisation
parente dans un module et créer (mais pas configurer) une journalisation
fille dans un module séparé.  Les appels à la journalisation fille
passeront alors à la journalisation parente.  Voici un module
principal :

     import logging
     import auxiliary_module

     # create logger with 'spam_application'
     logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to the logger
     logger.addHandler(fh)
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
     logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     a.do_something()
     logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
     auxiliary_module.some_function()
     logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')

Voici un module auxiliaire :

     import logging

     # create logger
     module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')

     class Auxiliary:
         def __init__(self):
             self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
             self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')

         def do_something(self):
             self.logger.info('doing something')
             a = 1 + 1
             self.logger.info('done doing something')

     def some_function():
         module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')

La sortie ressemble à ceci :

     2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
        creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        creating an instance of Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
        created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        done doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
        finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
        received a call to 'some_function'
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
        done with auxiliary_module.some_function()


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples,  Next: Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs,  Prev: Journalisation dans plusieurs modules,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.2 Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples
--------------------------------------------------------

La journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples ne requiert pas
d’effort particulier.  L’exemple suivant montre comment journaliser
depuis le fil principal (c.-à-d.  initial) et un autre fil :

     import logging
     import threading
     import time

     def worker(arg):
         while not arg['stop']:
             logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
             time.sleep(0.5)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
         info = {'stop': False}
         thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
         thread.start()
         while True:
             try:
                 logging.debug('Hello from main')
                 time.sleep(0.75)
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 info['stop'] = True
                 break
         thread.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

À l’exécution, le script doit afficher quelque chose comme ça :

        0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
        3 MainThread Hello from main
      505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
      755 MainThread Hello from main
     1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     1507 MainThread Hello from main
     1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2258 MainThread Hello from main
     2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3009 MainThread Hello from main
     3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3761 MainThread Hello from main
     4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     4513 MainThread Hello from main
     4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc

Les entrées de journalisation sont entrelacées, comme on pouvait s’y
attendre.  Cette approche fonctionne aussi avec plus de fils que dans
l’exemple, bien sûr.


File: python.info,  Node: Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs,  Next: Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations,  Prev: Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.3 Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs
-------------------------------------------

Les gestionnaires de journalisation sont des objets Python ordinaires.
La méthode *note addHandler(): 2c1b. n’est pas limitée, en nombre
minimum ou maximum, en gestionnaires que vous pouvez ajouter.  Parfois,
il peut être utile pour une application de journaliser tous les messages
quels que soient leurs niveaux vers un fichier texte, tout en
journalisant les erreurs (et plus grave) dans la console.  Pour ce
faire, configurez simplement les gestionnaires de manière adéquate.  Les
appels de journalisation dans le code de l’application resteront les
mêmes.  Voici une légère modification de l’exemple précédent dans une
configuration au niveau du module :

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)
     logger.addHandler(fh)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Notez que le code de « l’application » ignore la multiplicité des
gestionnaires.  Les modifications consistent simplement en l’ajout et la
configuration d’un nouveau gestionnaire appelé 'fh'.

La possibilité de créer de nouveaux gestionnaires avec des filtres sur
un niveau de gravité supérieur ou inférieur peut être très utile lors de
l’écriture ou du test d’une application.  Au lieu d’utiliser de
nombreuses instructions ‘print’ pour le débogage, utilisez
‘logger.debug’ : contrairement aux instructions ‘print’, que vous devrez
supprimer ou commenter plus tard, les instructions ‘logger.debug’
peuvent demeurer telles quelles dans le code source et restent dormantes
jusqu’à ce que vous en ayez à nouveau besoin.  À ce moment-là, il suffit
de modifier le niveau de gravité de la journalisation ou du gestionnaire
pour déboguer.


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations,  Next: Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation,  Prev: Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.4 Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations
------------------------------------------------

Supposons que vous souhaitiez journaliser dans la console et dans un
fichier avec différents formats de messages et avec différents critères.
Supposons que vous souhaitiez consigner les messages de niveau DEBUG et
supérieur dans le fichier, et les messages de niveau INFO et supérieur
dans la console.  Supposons également que le fichier doive contenir des
horodatages, mais pas les messages de la console.  Voici comment y
parvenir :

     import logging

     # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
                         datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
                         filename='/tmp/myapp.log',
                         filemode='w')
     # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
     console = logging.StreamHandler()
     console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     # set a format which is simpler for console use
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
     # tell the handler to use this format
     console.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handler to the root logger
     logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

Quand vous le lancez, vous devez voir

     root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

et, dans le fichier, vous devez trouver

     10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Comme vous pouvez le constater, le message DEBUG n’apparaît que dans le
fichier.  Les autres messages sont envoyés vers les deux destinations.

Cet exemple utilise la console et des gestionnaires de fichier, mais
vous pouvez utiliser et combiner autant de gestionnaires que de besoin.

Notez que le choix du nom de fichier journal ‘/tmp/myapp.log’ ci-dessus
implique l'utilisation d'un emplacement standard pour les fichiers
temporaires sur les systèmes POSIX. Sous Windows, vous devrez peut-être
choisir un nom de répertoire différent pour le journal – assurez-vous
simplement que le répertoire existe et que vous disposez des
autorisations nécessaires pour créer et mettre à jour des fichiers dans
celui-ci.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation,  Next: Exemple d’un serveur de configuration,  Prev: Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.5 Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation
--------------------------------------------------

Il peut arriver que vous souhaitiez que vos gestionnaires journalisent
légèrement différemment de la gestion standard des niveaux, où tous les
niveaux au-dessus d'un seuil sont traités par un gestionnaire.  Pour ce
faire, vous devez utiliser des filtres.  Examinons un scénario dans
lequel vous souhaitez organiser les choses comme suit :

   * envoyer les messages de niveau ‘INFO’ et ‘WARNING’ à ‘sys.stdout’ ;

   * envoyer les messages de niveau ‘ERROR’ et au-dessus à
     ‘sys.stderr’ ;

   * envoyer les messages de niveau ‘DEBUG’ et au-dessus vers le fichier
     ‘app.log’.

Supposons que vous configurez la journalisation avec le contenu au
format JSON suivant :

     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }

This configuration does 'almost' what we want, except that ‘sys.stdout’
would show messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and only events of this severity
and higher will be tracked as well as ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ messages.  To
prevent this, we can set up a filter which excludes those messages and
add it to the relevant handler.  This can be configured by adding a
‘filters’ section parallel to ‘formatters’ and ‘handlers’:

     {
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         }
     }

et en changeant la section du gestionnaire ‘stdout’ pour ajouter le
filtre :

     {
         "stdout": {
             "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
             "level": "INFO",
             "formatter": "simple",
             "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
             "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
         }
     }

Un filtre n'est qu'une fonction, nous pouvons donc définir un
‘filter_maker’ (une fonction fabrique) comme suit :

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

Elle convertit la chaîne transmise en argument vers un niveau numérique
puis renvoie une fonction qui ne renvoie ‘True’ que si le niveau de
l'enregistrement transmis est inférieur ou égal au niveau spécifié.
Notez que dans cet exemple, nous avons défini ‘filter_maker’ dans un
script de test ‘main.py’ qui est exécuté depuis la ligne de commande,
donc son module est ‘__main__’ – d'où le ‘__main__.filter_maker’ dans la
configuration du filtre.  Vous devez le changer si vous la définissez
dans un module différent.

Avec le filtre, nous pouvons exécuter ‘main.py’ dont voici la version
complète :

     import json
     import logging
     import logging.config

     CONFIG = '''
     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
                 "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }
     '''

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

     logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG))
     logging.debug('A DEBUG message')
     logging.info('An INFO message')
     logging.warning('A WARNING message')
     logging.error('An ERROR message')
     logging.critical('A CRITICAL message')

Et après l'avoir exécuté comme ceci :

     python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log

Nous obtenons le résultat attendu :

     $ more *.log
     ::::::::::::::
     app.log
     ::::::::::::::
     DEBUG    - A DEBUG message
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stderr.log
     ::::::::::::::
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stdout.log
     ::::::::::::::
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple d’un serveur de configuration,  Next: Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants,  Prev: Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.6 Exemple d’un serveur de configuration
-------------------------------------------

Voici un exemple de module mettant en œuvre la configuration de la
journalisation 'via' un serveur :

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time
     import os

     # read initial config file
     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create and start listener on port 9999
     t = logging.config.listen(9999)
     t.start()

     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     try:
         # loop through logging calls to see the difference
         # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
         while True:
             logger.debug('debug message')
             logger.info('info message')
             logger.warning('warn message')
             logger.error('error message')
             logger.critical('critical message')
             time.sleep(5)
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         # cleanup
         logging.config.stopListening()
         t.join()

Et voici un script qui, à partir d’un nom de fichier, commence par
envoyer la taille du fichier encodée en binaire (comme il se doit), puis
envoie ce fichier au serveur pour définir la nouvelle configuration de
journalisation :

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import socket, sys, struct

     with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
         data_to_send = f.read()

     HOST = 'localhost'
     PORT = 9999
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     print('connecting...')
     s.connect((HOST, PORT))
     print('sending config...')
     s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
     s.send(data_to_send)
     s.close()
     print('complete')


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants,  Next: Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau,  Prev: Exemple d’un serveur de configuration,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.7 Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants
--------------------------------------------

Parfois, il est nécessaire que les gestionnaires de journalisation
fassent leur travail sans bloquer le fil d’exécution qui émet des
événements.  C’est généralement le cas dans les applications Web, mais
aussi bien sûr dans d’autres scénarios.

Un gestionnaire classiquement lent est le *note SMTPHandler: 1522. :
l’envoi d’e-mails peut prendre beaucoup de temps, pour un certain nombre
de raisons indépendantes du développeur (par exemple, une infrastructure
de messagerie ou de réseau peu performante).  Mais n’importe quel autre
gestionnaire utilisant le réseau ou presque peut aussi s’avérer
bloquant : même une simple opération *note SocketHandler: f4f. peut
faire une requête DNS implicite et être ainsi très lente (cette requête
peut être enfouie profondément dans le code de la bibliothèque d’accès
réseau, sous la couche Python, et hors de votre contrôle).

Une solution consiste à utiliser une approche en deux parties.  Pour la
première partie, affectez un seul *note QueueHandler: 1793. à la
journalisation des fils d’exécution critiques pour les performances.
Ils écrivent simplement dans leur file d’attente, qui peut être
dimensionnée à une capacité suffisamment grande ou initialisée sans
limite supérieure en taille.  L’écriture dans la file d’attente est
généralement acceptée rapidement, mais nous vous conseillons quand même
de prévoir d’intercepter l’exception *note queue.Full: 30ff. par
précaution dans votre code.  Si vous développez une bibliothèque avec
des fils d’exécution critiques pour les performances, documentez-le bien
(avec une suggestion de n’affecter que des ‘QueueHandlers’ à votre
journalisation) pour faciliter le travail des développeurs qui utilisent
votre code.

La deuxième partie de la solution est la classe *note QueueListener:
e1b, conçue comme l’homologue de *note QueueHandler: 1793.  Un *note
QueueListener: e1b. est très simple : vous lui passez une file d’attente
et des gestionnaires, et il lance un fil d’exécution interne qui scrute
la file d’attente pour récupérer les événements envoyés par les
‘QueueHandlers’ (ou toute autre source de ‘LogRecords’, d’ailleurs).
Les ‘LogRecords’ sont supprimés de la file d’attente et transmis aux
gestionnaires pour traitement.

L’avantage d’avoir une classe *note QueueListener: e1b. séparée est que
vous pouvez utiliser la même instance pour servir plusieurs
‘QueueHandlers’.  Cela consomme moins de ressources que des instances de
gestionnaires réparties chacune dans un fil d’exécution séparé.

Voici un exemple d’utilisation de ces deux classes (les importations
sont omises) :

     que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
     queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
     handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.addHandler(queue_handler)
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
     handler.setFormatter(formatter)
     listener.start()
     # The log output will display the thread which generated
     # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
     # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
     # you want to happen.
     root.warning('Look out!')
     listener.stop()

ce qui produit ceci à l’exécution :

     MainThread: Look out!

     Note: bien que la discussion précédente n'aborde pas spécifiquement
     l'utilisation de code asynchrone, mais concerne les gestionnaires
     de journalisation lents, notez que lors de la journalisation à
     partir de code asynchrone, les gestionnaires qui écrivent vers le
     réseau ou même dans des fichiers peuvent entraîner des problèmes
     (blocage de la boucle d'événements) car une certaine journalisation
     est faite à partir du code natif de *note asyncio: a.  Il peut être
     préférable, si un code asynchrone est utilisé dans une application,
     d'utiliser l'approche ci-dessus pour la journalisation, de sorte
     que tout ce qui utilise du code bloquant ne s'exécute que dans le
     thread ‘QueueListener’.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: avant Python 3.5, la classe *note
QueueListener: e1b. passait chaque message reçu de la file d’attente à
chaque gestionnaire avec lequel l’instance avait été initialisée (on
supposait que le filtrage de niveau était entièrement effectué de
l’autre côté, au niveau de l’alimentation de la file d’attente).  Depuis
Python 3.5, le comportement peut être modifié en passant l’argument par
mot-clé ‘respect_handler_level=True’ au constructeur.  Dans ce cas, la
‘QueueListener’ compare le niveau de chaque message avec le niveau
défini dans chaque gestionnaire et ne transmet le message que si c’est
opportun.


File: python.info,  Node: Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau,  Next: Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation,  Prev: Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.8 Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Supposons que vous souhaitiez envoyer des événements de journalisation
sur un réseau et les traiter à la réception.  Une façon simple de faire
est d’attacher une instance *note SocketHandler: f4f. à la
journalisation racine de l’émetteur :

     import logging, logging.handlers

     rootLogger = logging.getLogger('')
     rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
                         logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
     # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
     # an unformatted pickle
     rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

Vous pouvez configurer le récepteur en utilisant le module *note
socketserver: cc.  Voici un exemple élémentaire :

     import pickle
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import socketserver
     import struct


     class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
         """Handler for a streaming logging request.

         This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
         configured locally.
         """

         def handle(self):
             """
             Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
             followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
             according to whatever policy is configured locally.
             """
             while True:
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
                 if len(chunk) < 4:
                     break
                 slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
                 while len(chunk) < slen:
                     chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
                 obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
                 record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
                 self.handleLogRecord(record)

         def unPickle(self, data):
             return pickle.loads(data)

         def handleLogRecord(self, record):
             # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
             # implied by the record.
             if self.server.logname is not None:
                 name = self.server.logname
             else:
                 name = record.name
             logger = logging.getLogger(name)
             # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
             # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
             # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
             # cycles and network bandwidth!
             logger.handle(record)

     class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
         """
         Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
         """

         allow_reuse_address = True

         def __init__(self, host='localhost',
                      port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
                      handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
             socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
             self.abort = 0
             self.timeout = 1
             self.logname = None

         def serve_until_stopped(self):
             import select
             abort = 0
             while not abort:
                 rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
                                            [], [],
                                            self.timeout)
                 if rd:
                     self.handle_request()
                 abort = self.abort

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(
             format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
         print('About to start TCP server...')
         tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Lancez d’abord le serveur, puis le client.  Côté client, rien ne
s’affiche sur la console ; côté serveur, vous devez voir quelque chose
comme ça :

     About to start TCP server...
        59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
        59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
        69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
        69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
        69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios.
If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by
overriding the *note makePickle(): 2cb7. method and implementing your
alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your
alternative serialization.

* Menu:

* Journalisation en production à l’aide d’un connecteur en écoute sur le réseau::


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation en production à l’aide d’un connecteur en écoute sur le réseau,  Up: Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau

9.8.8.1 Journalisation en production à l’aide d’un connecteur en écoute sur le réseau
.....................................................................................

Pour de la journalisation en production 'via' un connecteur réseau en
écoute, il est probable que vous ayez besoin d’utiliser un outil de
surveillance tel que Supervisor(1).  Vous trouverez dans ce Gist(2) des
gabarits pour assurer cette fonction avec 'Supervisor'.  Il est composé
des fichiers suivants :

Fichier                       Objectif
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘prepare.sh’                  Script Bash pour préparer l'environnement de test
                              
                              
‘supervisor.conf’             Fichier de configuration de 'Supervisor', avec les
                              entrées pour le connecteur en écoute et l'application
                              web multi-processus
                              
                              
‘ensure_app.sh’               Script Bash pour s'assurer que 'Supervisor' fonctionne
                              bien avec la configuration ci-dessus
                              
                              
‘log_listener.py’             Programme en écoute sur le réseau qui reçoit les
                              événements de journalisation et les enregistre dans un
                              fichier
                              
                              
‘main.py’                     Application web simple qui journalise 'via' un
                              connecteur réseau
                              
                              
‘webapp.json’                 Fichier JSON de configuration de l'application web
                              
                              
‘client.py’                   Script Python qui interagit avec l'application web
                              pour effectuer des appels à la journalisation
                              

L'application Web utilise Gunicorn(3), qui est un serveur d'applications
Web populaire qui démarre plusieurs processus de travail pour gérer les
demandes.  Cet exemple de configuration montre comment les processus
peuvent écrire dans le même fichier journal sans entrer en conflit les
uns avec les autres — ils passent tous par le connecteur en écoute.

Pour tester ces fichiers, suivez cette procédure dans un environnement
POSIX :

  1. Téléchargez l'archive ZIP du Gist(4) à l'aide du bouton Download
     ZIP.

  2. Décompressez les fichiers de l'archive dans un répertoire de
     travail.

  3. Dans le répertoire de travail, exécutez le script de préparation
     par ‘bash prepare.sh’.  Cela crée un sous-répertoire ‘run’ pour
     contenir les fichiers journaux et ceux relatifs à 'Supervisor',
     ainsi qu'un sous-répertoire ‘venv’ pour contenir un environnement
     virtuel dans lequel ‘bottle’, ‘gunicorn’ et ‘supervisor’ sont
     installés.

  4. Exécutez ‘bash ensure_app.sh’ pour vous assurer que 'Supervisor'
     s'exécute avec la configuration ci-dessus.

  5. Exécutez ‘venv/bin/python client.py’ pour tester l'application Web,
     ce qui entraîne l'écriture d'enregistrements dans le journal.

  6. Inspectez les fichiers journaux dans le sous-répertoire ‘run’.
     Vous devriez voir les lignes de journal les plus récentes dans les
     fichiers de type ‘app.log*’.  Ils ne seront pas dans un ordre
     particulier, car ils ont été traités par les différents processus
     de travail de manière non déterministe.

  7. Vous pouvez arrêter le connecteur en écoute et l'application Web en
     exécutant ‘venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown’.

Vous devrez peut-être modifier les fichiers de configuration dans le cas
peu probable où les ports configurés entrent en conflit avec autre chose
dans votre environnement de test.

The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020.  You can use a
Unix Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following:

  1. In ‘listener.json’, add a ‘socket’ key with the path to the domain
     socket you want to use.  If this key is present, the listener
     listens on the corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket
     (the ‘port’ key is ignored).

  2. In ‘webapp.json’, change the socket handler configuration
     dictionary so that the ‘host’ value is the path to the domain
     socket, and set the ‘port’ value to ‘null’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://supervisord.org/

   (2) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b

   (3) https://gunicorn.org/

   (4) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b


File: python.info,  Node: Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation,  Next: Use of contextvars,  Prev: Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.9 Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation
---------------------------------------------------------------

Dans certains cas, vous pouvez souhaiter que la journalisation contienne
des informations contextuelles en plus des paramètres transmis à l’appel
de journalisation.  Par exemple, dans une application réseau, il peut
être souhaitable de consigner des informations spécifiques au client
dans le journal (par exemple, le nom d’utilisateur ou l’adresse IP du
client distant).  Bien que vous puissiez utiliser le paramètre 'extra'
pour y parvenir, il n’est pas toujours pratique de transmettre les
informations de cette manière.  Il peut être aussi tentant de créer des
instances *note Logger: b3f. connexion par connexion, mais ce n’est pas
une bonne idée car ces instances *note Logger: b3f. ne sont pas
éliminées par le ramasse-miettes.  Même si ce point n’est pas
problématique en soi si la journalisation est configurée avec plusieurs
niveaux de granularité, cela peut devenir difficile de gérer un nombre
potentiellement illimité d’instances de *note Logger: b3f.

* Menu:

* Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles::
* Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles,  Next: Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles,  Up: Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation

9.8.9.1 Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles
...................................................................................................

Un moyen simple de transmettre des informations contextuelles
accompagnant les informations de journalisation consiste à utiliser la
classe *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5.  Cette classe est conçue pour
ressembler à un *note Logger: b3f, de sorte que vous pouvez appeler
*note debug(): 2c21, *note info(): 2c4b, *note warning(): 2f4, *note
error(): 2c5f, *note exception(): 1448, *note critical(): 2c60. et *note
log(): 2c61.  Ces méthodes ont les mêmes signatures que leurs homologues
dans *note Logger: b3f, vous pouvez donc utiliser les deux types
d’instances de manière interchangeable.

Lorsque vous créez une instance de *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5, vous lui
transmettez une instance de *note Logger: b3f. et un objet dictionnaire
qui contient vos informations contextuelles.  Lorsque vous appelez l’une
des méthodes de journalisation sur une instance de *note LoggerAdapter:
12d5, elle délègue l’appel à l’instance sous-jacente de *note Logger:
b3f. transmise à son constructeur et s’arrange pour intégrer les
informations contextuelles dans l’appel délégué.  Voici un extrait du
code de *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5. :

     def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs):
         """
         Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
         contextual information from this adapter instance.
         """
         msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
         self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Les informations contextuelles sont ajoutées dans la méthode *note
process(): 2c58. de *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5.  On lui passe le message
et les arguments par mot-clé de l’appel de journalisation, et elle en
renvoie des versions (potentiellement) modifiées à utiliser pour la
journalisation sous-jacente.  L’implémentation par défaut de cette
méthode laisse le message seul, mais insère une clé ‘extra’ dans
l’argument par mot-clé dont la valeur est l’objet dictionnaire passé au
constructeur.  Bien sûr, si vous avez passé un argument par mot-clé
‘extra’ dans l’appel à l’adaptateur, il est écrasé silencieusement.

L’avantage d’utiliser ‘extra’ est que les valeurs de l’objet
dictionnaire sont fusionnées dans le ‘__dict__’ de l’instance *note
LogRecord: fd3, ce qui vous permet d’utiliser des chaînes personnalisées
avec vos instances *note Formatter: 144b. qui connaissent les clés de
l’objet dictionnaire.  Si vous avez besoin d’une méthode différente, par
exemple si vous souhaitez ajouter des informations contextuelles avant
ou après la chaîne de message, il vous suffit de surcharger *note
LoggerAdapter: 12d5. et de remplacer *note process(): 2c58. pour faire
ce dont vous avez besoin.  Voici un exemple simple :

     class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         """
         This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
         'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
         """
         def process(self, msg, kwargs):
             return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs

que vous pouvez utiliser comme ceci :

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})

Ainsi, tout événement journalisé aura la valeur de ‘some_conn_id’
insérée en début de message de journalisation.

* Menu:

* Utilisation d’objets autres que les dictionnaires pour passer des informations contextuelles::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d’objets autres que les dictionnaires pour passer des informations contextuelles,  Up: Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles

9.8.9.2 Utilisation d’objets autres que les dictionnaires pour passer des informations contextuelles
....................................................................................................

Il n’est pas obligatoire de passer un dictionnaire réel à un *note
LoggerAdapter: 12d5, vous pouvez passer une instance d’une classe qui
implémente ‘__getitem__’ et ‘__iter__’ pour qu’il ressemble à un
dictionnaire du point de vue de la journalisation.  C’est utile si vous
souhaitez générer des valeurs de manière dynamique (alors que les
valeurs d’un dictionnaire seraient constantes).


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles,  Prev: Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles,  Up: Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation

9.8.9.3 Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles
..............................................................................

Un *note Filter: 11da. défini par l’utilisateur peut aussi ajouter des
informations contextuelles à la journalisation.  Les instances de
‘Filter’ sont autorisées à modifier les ‘LogRecords’ qui leur sont
transmis, y compris par l’ajout d’attributs supplémentaires qui peuvent
ensuite être intégrés à la journalisation en utilisant une chaîne de
formatage appropriée ou, si nécessaire, un *note Formatter: 144b.
personnalisé.

Par exemple, dans une application Web, la requête en cours de traitement
(ou du moins ce qu’elle contient d’intéressant) peut être stockée dans
une variable locale au fil d’exécution (*note threading.local: 1727.),
puis utilisée dans un ‘Filter’ pour ajouter, par exemple, des
informations relatives à la requête (par exemple, l’adresse IP distante
et le nom de l’utilisateur) au ‘LogRecord’, en utilisant les noms
d’attribut ‘ip’ et ‘user’ comme dans l’exemple ‘LoggerAdapter’
ci-dessus.  Dans ce cas, la même chaîne de formatage peut être utilisée
pour obtenir une sortie similaire à celle indiquée ci-dessus.  Voici un
exemple de script :

     import logging
     from random import choice

     class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.

         Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
         data in this demo.
         """

         USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
         IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']

         def filter(self, record):

             record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
             record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
             return True

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                             format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
         a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
         a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')

         f = ContextFilter()
         a1.addFilter(f)
         a2.addFilter(f)
         a1.debug('A debug message')
         a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
         for x in range(10):
             lvl = choice(levels)
             lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
             a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')

qui, à l’exécution, produit quelque chose comme ça :

     2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters


File: python.info,  Node: Use of contextvars,  Next: Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation,  Prev: Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.10 Use of ‘contextvars’
---------------------------

Since Python 3.7, the *note contextvars: 24. module has provided
context-local storage which works for both *note threading: ec. and
*note asyncio: a. processing needs.  This type of storage may thus be
generally preferable to thread-locals.  The following example shows how,
in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual
information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web
applications.

For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web
applications, each independent of the other but running in the same
Python process and using a library common to them.  How can each of
these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from
the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the
appropriate application's log file, while including in the log
additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method
and client username?

Let's assume that the library can be simulated by the following code:

     # webapplib.py
     import logging
     import time

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def useful():
         # Just a representative event logged from the library
         logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!')
         # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run
         time.sleep(0.01)

We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple
classes, ‘Request’ and ‘WebApp’.  These simulate how real threaded web
applications work - each request is handled by a thread:

     # main.py
     import argparse
     from contextvars import ContextVar
     import logging
     import os
     from random import choice
     import threading
     import webapplib

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     class Request:
         """
         A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method,
         client IP address and client username
         """
         def __init__(self, method, ip, user):
             self.method = method
             self.ip = ip
             self.user = user

     # A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick
     # from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX
     # addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users
     # are represented in the sample requests.

     REQUESTS = [
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'),
     ]

     # Note that the format string includes references to request context information
     # such as HTTP method, client IP and username

     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s')

     # Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request
     # processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing

     ctx_request = ContextVar('request')
     ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname')

     class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures
         that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log
         """
         def __init__(self, app):
             self.app = app

         def filter(self, record):
             request = ctx_request.get()
             record.method = request.method
             record.ip = request.ip
             record.user = request.user
             record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get()
             return appName == self.app.name

     class WebApp:
         """
         A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a
         webapp-specific log.
         """
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w')
             f = InjectingFilter(self)
             handler.setFormatter(formatter)
             handler.addFilter(f)
             root.addHandler(handler)
             self.num_requests = 0

         def process_request(self, request):
             """
             This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a
             different thread for every request. We store the context information into
             the context vars before doing anything else.
             """
             ctx_request.set(request)
             ctx_appname.set(self.name)
             self.num_requests += 1
             logger.debug('Request processing started')
             webapplib.useful()
             logger.debug('Request processing finished')

     def main():
         fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0]
         adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn,
                                      description='Simulate a couple of web '
                                                  'applications handling some '
                                                  'requests, showing how request '
                                                  'context can be used to '
                                                  'populate logs')
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate')
         options = ap.parse_args()

         # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select
         # from randomly
         app1 = WebApp('app1')
         app2 = WebApp('app2')
         apps = [app1, app2]
         threads = []
         # Add a common handler which will capture all events
         handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         root.addHandler(handler)

         # Generate calls to process requests
         for i in range(options.count):
             try:
                 # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process
                 app = choice(apps)
                 request = choice(REQUESTS)
                 # Process the request in its own thread
                 t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,))
                 threads.append(t)
                 t.start()
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 break

         # Wait for the threads to terminate
         for t in threads:
             t.join()

         for app in apps:
             print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go
into ‘app1.log’ and the rest into ‘app2.log’, and the all the requests
are logged to ‘app.log’.  Each webapp-specific log will contain only log
entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be
displayed consistently in the log (i.e.  the information in each dummy
request will always appear together in a log line).  This is illustrated
by the following shell output:

     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py
     app1 processed 51 requests
     app2 processed 49 requests
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log
       153 app1.log
       147 app2.log
       300 app.log
       600 total
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__  fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l
     147
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l
     147


File: python.info,  Node: Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation,  Next: Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus,  Prev: Use of contextvars,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.11 Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation
----------------------------------------------------------------

Chaque *note Handler: 144a. possède sa propre chaîne de filtres.  Si
vous souhaitez ajouter des informations contextuelles à un *note
LogRecord: fd3. sans impacter d'autres gestionnaires, vous pouvez
utiliser un filtre qui renvoie un nouveau *note LogRecord: fd3. au lieu
de le modifier sur place, comme dans le script suivant :

     import copy
     import logging

     def filter(record: logging.LogRecord):
         record = copy.copy(record)
         record.user = 'jim'
         return record

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         handler.addFilter(filter)
         logger.addHandler(handler)

         logger.info('A log message')


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus,  Next: Utilisation du roulement de fichiers,  Prev: Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.12 Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

La journalisation est fiable avec les programmes à fils d’exécution
multiples ('thread-safe') : rien n’empêche plusieurs fils d’exécution de
journaliser dans le même fichier, du moment que ces fils d’exécution
font partie du même processus.  En revanche, il n’existe aucun moyen
standard de sérialiser l’accès à un seul fichier sur plusieurs processus
en Python.  Si vous avez besoin de vous connecter à un seul fichier à
partir de plusieurs processus, une façon de le faire est de faire en
sorte que tous les processus se connectent à un *note SocketHandler:
f4f, et d’avoir un processus séparé qui implémente un serveur qui lit à
partir de ce connecteur et écrit les journaux dans le fichier (si vous
préférez, vous pouvez dédier un fil d’exécution dans l’un des processus
existants pour exécuter cette tâche).  *note Cette section: 4ed3.
documente cette approche plus en détail et inclut un connecteur en
écoute réseau fonctionnel qui peut être utilisé comme point de départ
pour l’adapter à vos propres applications.

You could also write your own handler which uses the *note Lock: 1556.
class from the *note multiprocessing: 93. module to serialize access to
the file from your processes.  The stdlib *note FileHandler: 185b. and
subclasses do not make use of *note multiprocessing: 93.

Autrement, vous pouvez utiliser une ‘Queue’ et un *note QueueHandler:
1793. pour envoyer tous les événements de journalisation à l’un des
processus de votre application multi-processus.  L’exemple de script
suivant montre comment procéder ; dans l’exemple, un processus d’écoute
distinct écoute les événements envoyés par les autres processus et les
journalise en fonction de sa propre configuration de journalisation.
Bien que l’exemple ne montre qu’une seule façon de faire (par exemple,
vous pouvez utiliser un fil d’exécution d’écoute plutôt qu’un processus
d’écoute séparé – l’implémentation serait analogue), il permet des
configurations de journalisation complètement différentes pour celui qui
écoute ainsi que pour les autres processus de votre application, et peut
être utilisé comme base pour répondre à vos propres exigences :

     # You'll need these imports in your own code
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import multiprocessing

     # Next two import lines for this demo only
     from random import choice, random
     import time

     #
     # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
     # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
     # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
     # which they use for communication.
     #
     # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
     # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
     # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
     # sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
     #
     # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
     def listener_configurer():
         root = logging.getLogger()
         h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
         f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         h.setFormatter(f)
         root.addHandler(h)

     # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
     # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
     # LogRecord.
     def listener_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer()
         while True:
             try:
                 record = queue.get()
                 if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
                     break
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
                 logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
             except Exception:
                 import sys, traceback
                 print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
                 traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)

     # Arrays used for random selections in this demo

     LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
               logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]

     LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']

     MESSAGES = [
         'Random message #1',
         'Random message #2',
         'Random message #3',
     ]

     # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
     # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
     # will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
     def worker_configurer(queue):
         h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
     # random intervening delays before terminating.
     # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
     def worker_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer(queue)
         name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
         print('Worker started: %s' % name)
         for i in range(10):
             time.sleep(random())
             logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
             level = choice(LEVELS)
             message = choice(MESSAGES)
             logger.log(level, message)
         print('Worker finished: %s' % name)

     # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
     # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
     # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
     def main():
         queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
         listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
                                            args=(queue, listener_configurer))
         listener.start()
         workers = []
         for i in range(10):
             worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                              args=(queue, worker_configurer))
             workers.append(worker)
             worker.start()
         for w in workers:
             w.join()
         queue.put_nowait(None)
         listener.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Une variante du script ci-dessus conserve la journalisation dans le
processus principal, dans un fil séparé :

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     import random
     import threading
     import time

     def logger_thread(q):
         while True:
             record = q.get()
             if record is None:
                 break
             logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
             logger.handle(record)


     def worker_process(q):
         qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(qh)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         q = Queue()
         d = {
             'version': 1,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO',
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'level': 'ERROR',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'level': 'DEBUG',
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
             },
         }
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
         logging.config.dictConfig(d)
         lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
         lp.start()
         # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
         # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
         q.put(None)
         lp.join()

Cette variante montre comment appliquer la configuration pour des
enregistreurs particuliers – par exemple l’enregistreur ‘foo’ a un
gestionnaire spécial qui stocke tous les événements du sous-système
‘foo’ dans un fichier ‘mplog-foo.log’.  C’est utilisé par le mécanisme
de journalisation dans le processus principal (même si les événements de
journalisation sont générés dans les processus de travail) pour diriger
les messages vers les destinations appropriées.

* Menu:

* Utilisation de concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Utilisation de concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI::


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation de concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI,  Up: Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus

9.8.12.1 Utilisation de concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor
..............................................................

Si vous souhaitez utiliser *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
8dd. pour démarrer vos processus de travail, vous devez créer la file
d’attente légèrement différemment.  À la place de

     queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)

vous devez écrire

     queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1)  # also works with the examples above

et vous pouvez alors remplacer la création du processus de travail telle
que :

     workers = []
     for i in range(10):
         worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                          args=(queue, worker_configurer))
         workers.append(worker)
         worker.start()
     for w in workers:
         w.join()

par celle-ci (souvenez-vous d’importer au préalable *note
concurrent.futures: 21.) :

     with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
         for i in range(10):
             executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)


File: python.info,  Node: Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI,  Prev: Utilisation de concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus

9.8.12.2 Déploiement d’applications Web avec 'Gunicorn' et 'uWSGI'
..................................................................

Lors du déploiement d’applications Web qui utilisent Gunicorn(1) ou
uWSGI(2) (ou équivalent), plusieurs processus de travail sont créés pour
traiter les requêtes des clients.  Dans de tels environnements, évitez
de créer des gestionnaires à fichiers directement dans votre application
Web.  Au lieu de cela, utilisez un *note SocketHandler: f4f. pour
journaliser depuis l’application Web vers gestionnaire réseau à l’écoute
dans un processus séparé.  Cela peut être configuré à l’aide d’un outil
de gestion de processus tel que 'Supervisor' (voir *note Journalisation
en production à l’aide d’un connecteur en écoute sur le réseau: 4ed5.
pour plus de détails).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gunicorn.org/

   (2) https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation du roulement de fichiers,  Next: Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage,  Prev: Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.13 Utilisation du roulement de fichiers
-------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a
new file and log to that.  You may want to keep a certain number of
these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the
files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain
bounded.  For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a *note
RotatingFileHandler: 1593.:

     import glob
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'

     # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
     my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
     my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # Add the log message handler to the logger
     handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
                   LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)

     my_logger.addHandler(handler)

     # Log some messages
     for i in range(20):
         my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)

     # See what files are created
     logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)

     for filename in logfiles:
         print(filename)

Vous devez obtenir 6 fichiers séparés, chacun contenant une partie de
l’historique de journalisation de l’application :

     logging_rotatingfile_example.out
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5

Le fichier de journalisation actuel est toujours
‘logging_rotatingfile_example.out’, et chaque fois qu’il atteint la
taille limite, il est renommé avec le suffixe ‘.1’.  Chacun des fichiers
de sauvegarde existants est renommé pour incrémenter le suffixe (‘.1’
devient ‘.2’, etc.)  et le fichier ‘.6’ est effacé.

De toute évidence, la longueur du journal définie dans cet exemple est
beaucoup trop petite.  À vous de définir 'maxBytes' à une valeur
appropriée.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage,  Next: Personnalisation de LogRecord,  Prev: Utilisation du roulement de fichiers,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.14 Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage
-----------------------------------------------

Lorsque la journalisation a été ajoutée à la bibliothèque standard
Python, la seule façon de formater les messages avec un contenu variable
était d’utiliser la méthode de formatage avec « % ».  Depuis, Python
s’est enrichi de deux nouvelles méthode de formatage : *note
string.Template: 674. (ajouté dans Python 2.4) et *note str.format():
60e. (ajouté dans Python 2.6).

La journalisation (à partir de la version 3.2) offre une meilleure prise
en charge de ces deux styles de formatage supplémentaires.  La classe
*note Formatter: 144b. a été améliorée pour accepter un paramètre par
mot-clé facultatif supplémentaire nommé ‘style’.  La valeur par défaut
est ‘'%'’, les autres valeurs possibles étant ‘'{'’ et ‘'$'’, qui
correspondent aux deux autres styles de formatage.  La
rétrocompatibilité est maintenue par défaut (comme vous vous en doutez)
mais, en spécifiant explicitement un paramètre de style, vous avez la
possibilité de spécifier des chaînes de format qui fonctionnent avec
*note str.format(): 60e. ou *note string.Template: 674.  Voici un
exemple de session interactive en console pour montrer les
possibilités :

     >>> import logging
     >>> root = logging.getLogger()
     >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
     ...                        style='{')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
     >>> root.addHandler(handler)
     >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
     ...                        style='$')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(df)
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>>

Notez que le formatage des messages de journalisation est, au final,
complètement indépendant de la façon dont un message de journalisation
individuel est construit.  Vous pouvez toujours utiliser formatage 'via'
« % », comme ici :

     >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
     2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
     >>>

Les appels de journalisation (‘logger.debug()’, ‘logger.info()’ etc.)
ne prennent que des paramètres positionnels pour le message de
journalisation lui-même, les paramètres par mots-clés étant utilisés
uniquement pour déterminer comment gérer le message réel (par exemple,
le paramètre par mot-clé ‘exc_info’ indique que les informations de
trace doivent être enregistrées, ou le paramètre par mot-clé ‘extra’
indique des informations contextuelles supplémentaires à ajouter au
journal).  Vous ne pouvez donc pas inclure dans les appels de
journalisation à l’aide de la syntaxe *note str.format(): 60e. ou *note
string.Template: 674, car le paquet de journalisation utilise le
formatage via « % » en interne pour fusionner la chaîne de format et les
arguments de variables.  Il n’est pas possible de changer ça tout en
préservant la rétrocompatibilité puisque tous les appels de
journalisation dans le code pré-existant utilisent des chaînes au format
« % ».

Il existe cependant un moyen d’utiliser le formatage 'via' « {} » et
« $ » pour vos messages de journalisation.  Rappelez-vous que, pour un
message, vous pouvez utiliser un objet arbitraire comme chaîne de format
de message, et que le package de journalisation appelle ‘str()’ sur cet
objet pour fabriquer la chaîne finale.  Considérez les deux classes
suivantes :

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

L’une ou l’autre peut être utilisée à la place d’une chaîne de format
"%(message)s" ou "{message}" ou "$message", afin de mettre en forme
'via' « { } » ou « $ » la partie « message réel » qui apparaît dans la
sortie de journal formatée.  Il est un peu lourd d’utiliser les noms de
classe chaque fois que vous voulez journaliser quelque chose, mais ça
devient acceptable si vous utilisez un alias tel que __ (double trait de
soulignement — à ne pas confondre avec _, le trait de soulignement
unique utilisé comme alias pour *note gettext.gettext(): 141f. ou ses
homologues).

Les classes ci-dessus ne sont pas incluses dans Python, bien qu’elles
soient assez faciles à copier et coller dans votre propre code.  Elles
peuvent être utilisées comme suit (en supposant qu’elles soient
déclarées dans un module appelé ‘wherever’) :

     >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
     ...       point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
     >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

Alors que les exemples ci-dessus utilisent ‘print()’ pour montrer
comment fonctionne le formatage, utilisez bien sûr ‘logger.debug()’ ou
similaire pour journaliser avec cette approche.

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That's because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes.

Si vous préférez, vous pouvez utiliser un *note LoggerAdapter: 12d5.
pour obtenir un effet similaire à ce qui précède, comme dans l’exemple
suivant :

     import logging

     class Message:
         def __init__(self, fmt, args):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args)

     class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs):
             if self.isEnabledFor(level):
                 msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
                 self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs,
                                 stacklevel=stacklevel+1)

     logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))

     def main():
         logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         main()

The above script should log the message ‘Hello, world!’ when run with
Python 3.8 or later.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation de LogRecord,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Prev: Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.15 Personnalisation de ‘LogRecord’
--------------------------------------

Chaque événement de journalisation est représenté par une instance *note
LogRecord: fd3.  Lorsqu’un événement est enregistré et non filtré en
raison du niveau d’un enregistreur, un *note LogRecord: fd3. est créé,
rempli avec les informations de l’événement, puis transmis aux
gestionnaires de cet enregistreur (et ses ancêtres, jusqu’à et y compris
l’enregistreur où la propagation vers le haut de la hiérarchie est
désactivée).  Avant Python 3.2, il n’y avait que deux endroits où cette
création était effectuée :

   * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2c28, qui est appelée dans le processus
     normal de journalisation d’un événement.  Elle appelait *note
     LogRecord: fd3. directement pour créer une instance.

   * *note makeLogRecord(): 2c4f, qui est appelée avec un dictionnaire
     contenant des attributs à ajouter au 'LogRecord'.  Elle est
     généralement invoquée lorsqu’un dictionnaire approprié a été reçu
     par le réseau (par exemple, sous forme de 'pickle' 'via' un *note
     SocketHandler: f4f, ou sous format JSON 'via' un *note HTTPHandler:
     e1a.).

Cela signifiait généralement que, si vous deviez faire quelque chose de
spécial avec un *note LogRecord: fd3, vous deviez faire l’une des choses
suivantes.

   * Créer votre propre sous-classe *note Logger: b3f, surchargeant
     *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2c28, et la personnaliser à l’aide de
     *note setLoggerClass(): 2c5e. avant que les enregistreurs qui vous
     intéressaient ne soient instanciés.

   * Ajouter un *note Filter: 11da. à un enregistreur ou un
     gestionnaire, qui effectuait la manipulation spéciale nécessaire
     dont vous aviez besoin lorsque sa méthode *note filter(): 2c4a.
     était appelée.

La première approche est un peu lourde dans le scénario où (disons)
plusieurs bibliothèques différentes veulent faire des choses
différentes.  Chacun essaie de définir sa propre sous-classe *note
Logger: b3f, et celui qui l’a fait en dernier gagne.

La seconde approche fonctionne raisonnablement bien dans de nombreux
cas, mais ne vous permet pas, par exemple, d’utiliser une sous-classe
spécialisée de *note LogRecord: fd3.  Les développeurs de bibliothèques
peuvent définir un filtre approprié sur leurs enregistreurs, mais ils
doivent se rappeler de le faire chaque fois qu’ils introduisent un
nouvel enregistreur (ce qu’ils font simplement en ajoutant de nouveaux
paquets ou modules et en écrivant

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

au niveau des modules).  C’est probablement trop de choses auxquelles
penser.  Les développeurs pourraient également ajouter le filtre à un
*note NullHandler: 1264. attaché à leur enregistreur de niveau
supérieur, mais cela ne serait pas invoqué si un développeur
d’application attachait un gestionnaire à un enregistreur de
bibliothèque de niveau inférieur — donc la sortie de ce gestionnaire ne
refléterait pas les intentions du développeur de la bibliothèque.

Dans Python 3.2 et ultérieurs, la création de *note LogRecord: fd3. est
effectuée via une fabrique, que vous pouvez spécifier.  La fabrique est
juste un appelable que vous pouvez définir avec *note
setLogRecordFactory(): 2c53, et interroger avec *note
getLogRecordFactory(): 2c52.  La fabrique est invoquée avec la même
signature que le constructeur *note LogRecord: fd3, car *note LogRecord:
fd3. est le paramètre par défaut de la fabrique.

Cette approche permet à une fabrique personnalisée de contrôler tous les
aspects de la création d’un 'LogRecord'.  Par exemple, vous pouvez
renvoyer une sous-classe ou simplement ajouter des attributs
supplémentaires à l’enregistrement une fois créé, en utilisant un modèle
similaire à celui-ci :

     old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

     def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
         record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
         record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
         return record

     logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

Ce modèle permet à différentes bibliothèques d’enchaîner des fabriques,
et tant qu’elles n’écrasent pas les attributs des autres ou n’écrasent
pas involontairement les attributs fournis en standard, il ne devrait
pas y avoir de surprise.  Cependant, il faut garder à l’esprit que
chaque maillon de la chaîne ajoute une surcharge d’exécution à toutes
les opérations de journalisation, et la technique ne doit être utilisée
que lorsque l’utilisation d’un *note Filter: 11da. ne permet pas
d’obtenir le résultat souhaité.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Prev: Personnalisation de LogRecord,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.16 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example
-------------------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler,  Next: Subclass QueueListener,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.8.16.1 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

Vous pouvez utiliser une sous-classe *note QueueHandler: 1793. pour
envoyer des messages à d’autres types de files d’attente, par exemple un
connecteur 'ZeroMQ publish'.  Dans l’exemple ci-dessous, le connecteur
est créé séparément et transmis au gestionnaire (en tant que file
d’attente) :

     import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
     import json  # for serializing records portably

     ctx = zmq.Context()
     sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
     sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)


     handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)

Bien sûr, il existe d’autres manières de faire, par exemple en
transmettant les données nécessaires au gestionnaire pour créer le
connecteur :

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
             self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
             socket.bind(uri)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener,  Prev: Subclass QueueHandler,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.8.16.2 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

Vous pouvez également dériver *note QueueListener: e1b. pour obtenir des
messages d’autres types de files d’attente, par exemple un connecteur
'ZeroMQ subscribe'.  Voici un exemple :

     class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
             socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
             socket.connect(uri)
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self):
             msg = self.queue.recv_json()
             return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Next: Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.17 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ‘pynng’ example
--------------------------------------------------------------------

In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and
handler using pynng(1), which is a Python binding to NNG(2), billed as a
spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate - you
can test them in an environment which has ‘pynng’ installed.  Just for
variety, we present the listener first.

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pynng/

   (2) https://nng.nanomsg.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Next: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.8.17.1 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

     # listener.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     interrupted = False

     class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):

         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
             # subscriber socket
             socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
             # The b'' subscription matches all topics
             topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b''
             socket.subscribe(topics)
             # We treat the socket as a queue
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self, block):
             data = None
             # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the
             # socket
             while not interrupted:
                 try:
                     data = self.queue.recv(block=block)
                     break
                 except pynng.Timeout:
                     pass
                 except pynng.Closed:  # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C
                     break
             if data is None:
                 return None
             # Get the logging event sent from a publisher
             event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8'))
             return logging.makeLogRecord(event)

         def enqueue_sentinel(self):
             # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a
             # queue
             pass

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'')
     listener.start()
     print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.')
     try:
         while True:
             pass
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         interrupted = True
     finally:
         listener.stop()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Prev: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.8.17.2 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

     # sender.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import time
     import random

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler):

         def __init__(self, uri):
             socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON
             d = dict(record.__dict__)
             data = json.dumps(d)
             self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8'))

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR)
     # Make sure the process ID is in the output
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler],
                         format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s')
     levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)
     logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2')
     msgno = 1
     while True:
         # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away
         level = random.choice(levels)
         logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names))
         logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno)
         msgno += 1
         delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5
         time.sleep(delay)

You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells.  If we
run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells,
we should see something like the following.  In the first sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the second sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the listener shell:

     $ python listener.py
     Press Ctrl-C to stop.
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved
in the listener's output.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire,  Next: Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.18 Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire
---------------------------------------------------------

Vous trouverez ci-dessous un exemple de dictionnaire de configuration de
journalisation ­– il est tiré de la documentation du projet Django(1).
Ce dictionnaire est passé à *note dictConfig(): 118f. pour activer la
configuration :

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'verbose': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
             'simple': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
         },
         'filters': {
             'special': {
                 '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
                 'foo': 'bar',
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'simple',
             },
             'mail_admins': {
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         },
         'loggers': {
             'django': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'propagate': True,
             },
             'django.request': {
                 'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'propagate': False,
             },
             'myproject.custom': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         }
     }

Pour plus d’informations sur cette configuration, vous pouvez consulter
la section correspondante(2) de la documentation de 'Django'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/fr/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging

   (2) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/fr/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux,  Next: Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle,  Prev: Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.19 Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

L’extrait de code suivant fournit un exemple de la façon dont vous
pouvez définir un nom et un rotateur, avec la compression par 'zlib' du
journal :

     import gzip
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import os
     import shutil

     def namer(name):
         return name + ".gz"

     def rotator(source, dest):
         with open(source, 'rb') as f_in:
             with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out:
                 shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
         os.remove(source)


     rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5)
     rh.rotator = rotator
     rh.namer = namer

     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     root.addHandler(rh)
     f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     rh.setFormatter(f)
     for i in range(1000):
         root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}')

Après l'avoir exécuté, vous verrez six nouveaux fichiers, dont cinq sont
compressés :

     $ ls rotated.log*
     rotated.log       rotated.log.2.gz  rotated.log.4.gz
     rotated.log.1.gz  rotated.log.3.gz  rotated.log.5.gz
     $ zcat rotated.log.1.gz
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998


File: python.info,  Node: Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle,  Next: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler,  Prev: Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.20 Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle
--------------------------------------------------------

L’exemple suivant que nous allons étudier montre comment la
journalisation peut être utilisée, à l’aide de fichiers de
configuration, pour un programme effectuant des traitements parallèles.
Les configurations sont assez simples, mais servent à illustrer comment
des configurations plus complexes pourraient être implémentées dans un
scénario multi-processus réel.

Dans l’exemple, le processus principal génère un processus d’écoute et
des processus de travail.  Chacun des processus, le principal,
l’auditeur ('listener_process' dans l’exemple) et les processus de
travail ('worker_process' dans l’exemple) ont trois configurations
distinctes (les processus de travail partagent tous la même
configuration).  Nous pouvons voir la journalisation dans le processus
principal, comment les processus de travail se connectent à un
'QueueHandler' et comment l’auditeur implémente un 'QueueListener' avec
une configuration de journalisation plus complexe, et s’arrange pour
envoyer les événements reçus 'via' la file d’attente aux gestionnaires
spécifiés dans la configuration.  Notez que ces configurations sont
purement illustratives, mais vous devriez pouvoir adapter cet exemple à
votre propre scénario.

Voici le script – les chaines de documentation et les commentaires
expliquent (en anglais), le principe de fonctionnement :

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
     import os
     import random
     import time

     class MyHandler:
         """
         A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
         dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
         which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
         configured for those loggers.
         """

         def handle(self, record):
             if record.name == "root":
                 logger = logging.getLogger()
             else:
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)

             if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno):
                 # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
                 # doing the logging to files and console
                 record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
                 logger.handle(record)

     def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
         """
         This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
         process for illustrative purposes.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
         via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
         listener.start()
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         stop_event.wait()
         listener.stop()

     def worker_process(config):
         """
         A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
         practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
         ones which are identical to each other.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
         loggers.

         A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
         is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
         processes a bit more than if it's left out.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
             time.sleep(0.01)

     def main():
         q = Queue()
         # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
         config_initial = {
             'version': 1,
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
         # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_worker = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'handlers': {
                 'queue': {
                     'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
                     'queue': q
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['queue'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
         # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
         # you want.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_listener = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 },
                 'simple': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'formatter': 'simple',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                     'level': 'ERROR'
                 }
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
         # normally.
         logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
         logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
         logger.info('About to create workers ...')
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
                          args=(config_worker,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
             logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
         logger.info('About to create listener ...')
         stop_event = Event()
         lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
                      args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
         lp.start()
         logger.info('Started listener')
         # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
         # Logging in the parent still works normally.
         logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
         stop_event.set()
         lp.join()
         logger.info('All done.')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler,  Next: Journalisation structurée,  Prev: Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.21 Insertion d’une 'BOM' dans les messages envoyés à un 'SysLogHandler'
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

La RFC 5424(1) requiert qu’un message Unicode soit envoyé à un démon
'syslog' sous la forme d’un ensemble d’octets ayant la structure
suivante : un composant ASCII pur facultatif, suivi d’une marque d’ordre
d’octet ('BOM' pour 'Byte Order Mark' en anglais) UTF-8, suivie de
contenu Unicode UTF-8 (voir la la spécification correspondante(2)).

Dans Python 3.1, du code a été ajouté à *note SysLogHandler: 649. pour
insérer une 'BOM' dans le message mais, malheureusement, il a été
implémenté de manière incorrecte, la 'BOM' apparaissant au début du
message et n’autorisant donc aucun composant ASCII pur à être placé
devant.

Comme ce comportement est inadéquat, le code incorrect d’insertion de la
'BOM' a été supprimé de Python 3.2.4 et ultérieurs.  Cependant, il n’est
pas remplacé et, si vous voulez produire des messages conformes  RFC
5424(3) qui incluent une 'BOM', une séquence facultative en ASCII pur
avant et un Unicode arbitraire après, encodé en UTF-8, alors vous devez
appliquer ce qui suit :

  1. Adjoignez une instance *note Formatter: 144b. à votre instance
     *note SysLogHandler: 649, avec une chaîne de format telle que :

          'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'

     Le point de code Unicode U+FEFF, lorsqu’il est encodé en UTF-8, est
     encodé comme une 'BOM' UTF-8 – la chaîne d’octets
     ‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’.

  2. Remplacez la section ASCII par les caractères de votre choix, mais
     assurez-vous que les données qui y apparaissent après la
     substitution sont toujours ASCII (ainsi elles resteront inchangées
     après l’encodage UTF-8).

  3. Remplacez la section Unicode par le contenu de votre choix ; si les
     données qui y apparaissent après la substitution contiennent des
     caractères en dehors de la plage ASCII, c’est pris en charge –
     elles seront encodées en UTF-8.

Le message formaté 'sera' encodé en UTF-8 par ‘SysLogHandler’.  Si vous
suivez les règles ci-dessus, vous devriez pouvoir produire des messages
conformes à la RFC 5424(4).  Si vous ne le faites pas, la journalisation
ne se plaindra peut-être pas, mais vos messages ne seront pas conformes
à la RFC 5424 et votre démon 'syslog' est susceptible de se plaindre.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html


File: python.info,  Node: Journalisation structurée,  Next: Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig,  Prev: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.22 Journalisation structurée
--------------------------------

Bien que la plupart des messages de journalisation soient destinés à
être lus par des humains, et donc difficilement analysables par la
machine, il peut arriver que vous souhaitiez produire des messages dans
un format structuré dans le but d’être analysé par un programme (sans
avoir besoin d’expressions régulières complexes pour analyser le message
du journal).  C’est simple à réaliser en utilisant le paquet de
journalisation.  Il existe plusieurs façons d’y parvenir et voici une
approche simple qui utilise JSON pour sérialiser l’événement de manière
à être analysable par une machine :

     import json
     import logging

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
     logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))

Si vous lancez le script ci-dessus, il imprime :

     message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}

Notez que l’ordre des éléments peut être différent en fonction de la
version de Python utilisée.

Si vous avez besoin d’un traitement plus spécifique, vous pouvez
utiliser un encodeur JSON personnalisé, comme dans l’exemple complet
suivant :

     import json
     import logging


     class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
         def default(self, o):
             if isinstance(o, set):
                 return tuple(o)
             elif isinstance(o, str):
                 return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
             return super().default(o)

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
         logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Quand vous exécutez le script ci-dessus, il imprime :

     message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}

Notez que l’ordre des éléments peut être différent en fonction de la
version de Python utilisée.


File: python.info,  Node: Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig,  Next: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Prev: Journalisation structurée,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.23 Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec ‘dictConfig()’
-------------------------------------------------------------

Il arrive de souhaiter personnaliser les gestionnaires de journalisation
d’une manière particulière et, en utilisant *note dictConfig(): 118f,
vous pourrez peut-être le faire sans avoir à dériver les classes mères.
Par exemple, supposons que vous souhaitiez définir le propriétaire d’un
fichier journal.  Dans un environnement POSIX, cela se fait facilement
en utilisant *note shutil.chown(): 23d, mais les gestionnaires de
fichiers de la bibliothèque standard n’offrent pas cette gestion
nativement.  Vous pouvez personnaliser la création du gestionnaire à
l’aide d’une fonction simple telle que :

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

Vous pouvez ensuite spécifier, dans une configuration de journalisation
transmise à *note dictConfig(): 118f, qu’un gestionnaire de
journalisation soit créé en appelant cette fonction :

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

Dans cet exemple, nous définissons le propriétaire à l’utilisateur et au
groupe ‘pulse’, uniquement à des fins d’illustration.  Rassemblons le
tout dans un script ‘chowntest.py’ :

     import logging, logging.config, os, shutil

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

     logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
     logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
     logger.debug('A debug message')

Pour l’exécuter, vous devrez probablement le faire en tant que ‘root’ :

     $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
     $ cat chowntest.log
     2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
     $ ls -l chowntest.log
     -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log

Notez que cet exemple utilise Python 3.3 car c’est là que *note
shutil.chown(): 23d. fait son apparition.  Cette approche devrait
fonctionner avec n’importe quelle version de Python prenant en charge
*note dictConfig(): 118f. – à savoir, Python 2.7, 3.2 ou version
ultérieure.  Avec les versions antérieures à la 3.3, vous devrez
implémenter le changement de propriétaire réel en utilisant par exemple
*note os.chown(): 10d1.

En pratique, la fonction de création de gestionnaire peut être située
dans un module utilitaire ailleurs dans votre projet.  Au lieu de cette
ligne dans la configuration :

     '()': owned_file_handler,

vous pouvez écrire par exemple :

     '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',

où ‘project.util’ peut être remplacé par le nom réel du paquet où réside
la fonction.  Dans le script étudié ci-dessus, l’utilisation de
‘'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'’ devrait fonctionner.  Dans le cas
présent, l’appelable réel est résolu par *note dictConfig(): 118f. à
partir de la spécification ‘ext://’.

Nous espérons qu'à partir de cet exemple vous saurez implémenter
d’autres types de modification de fichier – par ex.  définir des bits
d’autorisation POSIX spécifiques – de la même manière, en utilisant
*note os.chmod(): 218.

Bien sûr, l’approche pourrait également être étendue à des types de
gestionnaires autres qu’un *note FileHandler: 185b. – par exemple, l’un
des gestionnaires à roulement de fichiers ou un autre type de
gestionnaire complètement différent.


File: python.info,  Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Next: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Prev: Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.24 Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
---------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.2, the *note Formatter: 144b. gained a ‘style’ keyword
parameter which, while defaulting to ‘%’ for backward compatibility,
allowed the specification of ‘{’ or ‘$’ to support the formatting
approaches supported by *note str.format(): 60e. and *note
string.Template: 674.  Note that this governs the formatting of logging
messages for final output to logs, and is completely orthogonal to how
an individual logging message is constructed.

Logging calls (*note debug(): e19, *note info(): 2c20. etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate
that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword
parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to
the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note
str.format(): 60e. or *note string.Template: 674. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific
loggers, but that approach also runs into backward compatibility
problems because any existing code could be using a given logger name
and using %-formatting.

For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and
your code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of
the individual logging call.  This opens up a couple of ways in which
alternative formatting styles can be accommodated.

* Menu:

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LogRecord factories,  Next: Using custom message objects,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.8.24.1 Using LogRecord factories
..................................

In Python 3.2, along with the *note Formatter: 144b. changes mentioned
above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set
their own *note LogRecord: fd3. subclasses, using the *note
setLogRecordFactory(): 2c53. function.  You can use this to set your own
subclass of *note LogRecord: fd3, which does the Right Thing by
overriding the *note getMessage(): 2c51. method.  The base class
implementation of this method is where the ‘msg % args’ formatting
happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting;
however, you should be careful to support all formatting styles and
allow %-formatting as the default, to ensure interoperability with other
code.  Care should also be taken to call ‘str(self.msg)’, just as the
base implementation does.

Refer to the reference documentation on *note setLogRecordFactory():
2c53. and *note LogRecord: fd3. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Using custom message objects,  Prev: Using LogRecord factories,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.8.24.2 Using custom message objects
.....................................

There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $-
formatting to construct your individual log messages.  You may recall
(from *note Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages: 2c50.) that
when logging you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string,
and that the logging package will call *note str(): 437. on that object
to get the actual format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual "message" part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or
“$message”.  If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names
whenever you want to log something, you can make it more palatable if
you use an alias such as ‘M’ or ‘_’ for the message (or perhaps ‘__’, if
you are using ‘_’ for localization).

Examples of this approach are given below.  Firstly, formatting with
*note str.format(): 60e.:

     >>> __ = BraceMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)

Secondly, formatting with *note string.Template: 674.:

     >>> __ = DollarMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes shown above.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Next: Customized exception formatting,  Prev: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.25 Configuring filters with ‘dictConfig()’
----------------------------------------------

You 'can' configure filters using *note dictConfig(): 118f, though it
might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe).
Since *note Filter: 11da. is the only filter class included in the
standard library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it's
only there as a base class), you will typically need to define your own
*note Filter: 11da. subclass with an overridden *note filter(): 2c4a.
method.  To do this, specify the ‘()’ key in the configuration
dictionary for the filter, specifying a callable which will be used to
create the filter (a class is the most obvious, but you can provide any
callable which returns a *note Filter: 11da. instance).  Here is a
complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import sys

     class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
         def __init__(self, param=None):
             self.param = param

         def filter(self, record):
             if self.param is None:
                 allow = True
             else:
                 allow = self.param not in record.msg
             if allow:
                 record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
             return allow

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'filters': {
             'myfilter': {
                 '()': MyFilter,
                 'param': 'noshow',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'filters': ['myfilter']
             }
         },
         'root': {
             'level': 'DEBUG',
             'handlers': ['console']
         },
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.debug('hello')
         logging.debug('hello - noshow')

This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable
which constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters.  When
run, the above script will print:

     changed: hello

which shows that the filter is working as configured.

A couple of extra points to note:

   * If you can't refer to the callable directly in the configuration
     (e.g.  if it lives in a different module, and you can't import it
     directly where the configuration dictionary is), you can use the
     form ‘ext://...’ as described in *note Access to external objects:
     2c7f.  For example, you could have used the text
     ‘'ext://__main__.MyFilter'’ instead of ‘MyFilter’ in the above
     example.

   * As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to
     configure custom handlers and formatters.  See *note User-defined
     objects: 2c73. for more information on how logging supports using
     user-defined objects in its configuration, and see the other
     cookbook recipe *note Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec
     dictConfig(): 4ef2. above.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized exception formatting,  Next: Speaking logging messages,  Prev: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.26 Customized exception formatting
--------------------------------------

There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting
- for argument's sake, let's say you want exactly one line per logged
event, even when exception information is present.  You can do this with
a custom formatter class, as shown in the following example:

     import logging

     class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def formatException(self, exc_info):
             """
             Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
             """
             result = super().formatException(exc_info)
             return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to

         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             if record.exc_text:
                 s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
             return s

     def configure_logging():
         fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
         f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
                                       '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
         fh.setFormatter(f)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(fh)

     def main():
         configure_logging()
         logging.info('Sample message')
         try:
             x = 1 / 0
         except ZeroDivisionError as e:
             logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:

     28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
     28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero'|

While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how
exception information can be formatted to your liking.  The *note
traceback: fd. module may be helpful for more specialized needs.


File: python.info,  Node: Speaking logging messages,  Next: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Prev: Customized exception formatting,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.27 Speaking logging messages
--------------------------------

There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages
rendered in an audible rather than a visible format.  This is easy to do
if you have text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system,
even if it doesn't have a Python binding.  Most TTS systems have a
command line program you can run, and this can be invoked from a handler
using *note subprocess: d5.  It's assumed here that TTS command line
programs won't expect to interact with users or take a long time to
complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so high
as to swamp the user with messages, and that it's acceptable to have the
messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example
implementation below waits for one message to be spoken before the next
is processed, and this might cause other handlers to be kept waiting.
Here is a short example showing the approach, which assumes that the
‘espeak’ TTS package is available:

     import logging
     import subprocess
     import sys

     class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
         def emit(self, record):
             msg = self.format(record)
             # Speak slowly in a female English voice
             cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
             p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
                                  stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
             # wait for the program to finish
             p.communicate()

     def configure_logging():
         h = TTSHandler()
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # the default formatter just returns the message
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     def main():
         logging.info('Hello')
         logging.debug('Goodbye')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         configure_logging()
         sys.exit(main())

When run, this script should say "Hello" and then "Goodbye" in a female
voice.

The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and
even other systems altogether which can process messages via external
programs run from a command line.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Next: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Prev: Speaking logging messages,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.28 Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
-------------------------------------------------------------------

There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary
area and only output them if a certain condition occurs.  For example,
you may want to start logging debug events in a function, and if the
function completes without errors, you don't want to clutter the log
with the collected debug information, but if there is an error, you want
all the debug information to be output as well as the error.

Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator
for your functions where you want logging to behave this way.  It makes
use of the *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2c82, which allows
buffering of logged events until some condition occurs, at which point
the buffered events are ‘flushed’ - passed to another handler (the
‘target’ handler) for processing.  By default, the ‘MemoryHandler’
flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose level is
greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen.  You can use
this recipe with a more specialised subclass of ‘MemoryHandler’ if you
want custom flushing behavior.

The example script has a simple function, ‘foo’, which just cycles
through all the logging levels, writing to ‘sys.stderr’ to say what
level it's about to log at, and then actually logging a message at that
level.  You can pass a parameter to ‘foo’ which, if true, will log at
ERROR and CRITICAL levels - otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and
WARNING levels.

The script just arranges to decorate ‘foo’ with a decorator which will
do the conditional logging that's required.  The decorator takes a
logger as a parameter and attaches a memory handler for the duration of
the call to the decorated function.  The decorator can be additionally
parameterised using a target handler, a level at which flushing should
occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of records buffered).
These default to a *note StreamHandler: 11d7. which writes to
‘sys.stderr’, ‘logging.ERROR’ and ‘100’ respectively.

Here's the script:

     import logging
     from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
     import sys

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

     def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
         if target_handler is None:
             target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         if flush_level is None:
             flush_level = logging.ERROR
         if capacity is None:
             capacity = 100
         handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)

         def decorator(fn):
             def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
                 logger.addHandler(handler)
                 try:
                     return fn(*args, **kwargs)
                 except Exception:
                     logger.exception('call failed')
                     raise
                 finally:
                     super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
                     logger.removeHandler(handler)
             return wrapper

         return decorator

     def write_line(s):
         sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)

     def foo(fail=False):
         write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
         logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
         write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
         logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
         write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
         logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
         if fail:
             write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
             logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
             write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
             logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
         return fail

     decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
         assert not foo(False)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
         assert foo(True)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
         assert not decorated_foo(False)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
         assert decorated_foo(True)

When this script is run, the following output should be observed:

     Calling undecorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling undecorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Calling decorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling decorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     Actually logged at DEBUG
     Actually logged at INFO
     Actually logged at WARNING
     Actually logged at ERROR
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Actually logged at CRITICAL

As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is
logged whose severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any
previous events at lower severities are also logged.

You can of course use the conventional means of decoration:

     @log_if_errors(logger)
     def foo(fail=False):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Next: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Prev: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.29 Sending logging messages to email, with buffering
--------------------------------------------------------

To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set
number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass *note
BufferingHandler: 2cd2.  In the following example, which you can adapt
to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which
allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what
you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script
with the ‘-h’ argument to see the required and optional arguments.)

     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import smtplib

     class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler):
         def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs,
                      subject, capacity):
             logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity)
             self.mailhost = mailhost
             self.mailport = port
             self.username = username
             self.password = password
             self.fromaddr = fromaddr
             if isinstance(toaddrs, str):
                 toaddrs = [toaddrs]
             self.toaddrs = toaddrs
             self.subject = subject
             self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s"))

         def flush(self):
             if len(self.buffer) > 0:
                 try:
                     smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport)
                     smtp.starttls()
                     smtp.login(self.username, self.password)
                     msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject)
                     for record in self.buffer:
                         s = self.format(record)
                         msg = msg + s + "\r\n"
                     smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg)
                     smtp.quit()
                 except Exception:
                     if logging.raiseExceptions:
                         raise
                 self.buffer = []

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import argparse

         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server')
         aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port')
         aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username')
         aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password')
         aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails')
         aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address')
         aa('--subject', '-s',
            default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)',
            help='Subject of email')
         options = ap.parse_args()
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user,
                                  options.password, options.sender,
                                  options.to, options.subject, 10)
         logger.addHandler(h)
         for i in range(102):
             logger.info("Info index = %d", i)
         h.flush()
         h.close()

If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you
should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify.
The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh
will have two messages.  That makes up 102 messages as specified in the
script.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Next: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Prev: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.30 Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
---------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a
class such as ‘UTCFormatter’, shown below:

     import logging
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

and you can then use the ‘UTCFormatter’ in your code instead of *note
Formatter: 144b.  If you want to do that via configuration, you can use
the *note dictConfig(): 118f. API with an approach illustrated by the
following complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'utc': {
                 '()': UTCFormatter,
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             },
             'local': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console1': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'utc',
             },
             'console2': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'local',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
        }
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())

When this script is run, it should print something like:

     2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
     2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015

showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for
each handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Next: A CLI application starter template,  Prev: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.31 Using a context manager for selective logging
----------------------------------------------------

There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the
logging configuration and revert it back after doing something.  For
this, a context manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring
the logging context.  Here is a simple example of such a context
manager, which allows you to optionally change the logging level and add
a logging handler purely in the scope of the context manager:

     import logging
     import sys

     class LoggingContext:
         def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level
             self.handler = handler
             self.close = close

         def __enter__(self):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.old_level = self.logger.level
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)

         def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
             if self.handler and self.close:
                 self.handler.close()
             # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions

If you specify a level value, the logger's level is set to that value in
the scope of the with block covered by the context manager.  If you
specify a handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and
removed on exit from the block.  You can also ask the manager to close
the handler for you on block exit - you could do this if you don't need
the handler any more.

To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to
the above:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
         logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
             logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
         h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
             logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
         logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')

We initially set the logger's level to ‘INFO’, so message #1 appears and
message #2 doesn't.  We then change the level to ‘DEBUG’ temporarily in
the following ‘with’ block, and so message #3 appears.  After the block
exits, the logger's level is restored to ‘INFO’ and so message #4
doesn't appear.  In the next ‘with’ block, we set the level to ‘DEBUG’
again but also add a handler writing to ‘sys.stdout’.  Thus, message #5
appears twice on the console (once via ‘stderr’ and once via ‘stdout’).
After the ‘with’ statement's completion, the status is as it was before
so message #6 appears (like message #1) whereas message #7 doesn't (just
like message #2).

If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:

     $ python logctx.py
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

If we run it again, but pipe ‘stderr’ to ‘/dev/null’, we see the
following, which is the only message written to ‘stdout’:

     $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.

Once again, but piping ‘stdout’ to ‘/dev/null’, we get:

     $ python logctx.py >/dev/null
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

In this case, the message #5 printed to ‘stdout’ doesn't appear, as
expected.

Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example
to attach logging filters temporarily.  Note that the above code works
in Python 2 as well as Python 3.


File: python.info,  Node: A CLI application starter template,  Next: A Qt GUI for logging,  Prev: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.32 A CLI application starter template
-----------------------------------------

Here's an example which shows how you can:

   * Use a logging level based on command-line arguments

   * Dispatch to multiple subcommands in separate files, all logging at
     the same level in a consistent way

   * Make use of simple, minimal configuration

Suppose we have a command-line application whose job is to stop, start
or restart some services.  This could be organised for the purposes of
illustration as a file ‘app.py’ that is the main script for the
application, with individual commands implemented in ‘start.py’,
‘stop.py’ and ‘restart.py’.  Suppose further that we want to control the
verbosity of the application via a command-line argument, defaulting to
‘logging.INFO’.  Here's one way that ‘app.py’ could be written:

     import argparse
     import importlib
     import logging
     import os
     import sys

     def main(args=None):
         scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__)
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname)
         levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL')
         parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels)
         subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command',
                                            help='Available commands:')
         start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service')
         start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME',
                                help='Name of service to start')
         stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop',
                                          help='Stop one or more services')
         stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                               help='Name of service to stop')
         restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart',
                                             help='Restart one or more services')
         restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                                  help='Name of service to restart')
         options = parser.parse_args()
         # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes
         # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module.
         try:
             mod = importlib.import_module(options.command)
             cmd = getattr(mod, 'command')
         except (ImportError, AttributeError):
             print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command)
             return 1
         # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary
         logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level,
                             format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s')
         cmd(options)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())

And the ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘restart’ commands can be implemented in
separate modules, like so for starting:

     # start.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name)

and thus for stopping:

     # stop.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to stop %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural)

and similarly for restarting:

     # restart.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to restart %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural)

If we run this application with the default log level, we get output
like this:

     $ python app.py start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py stop foo bar
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py restart foo bar baz
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

The first word is the logging level, and the second word is the module
or package name of the place where the event was logged.

If we change the logging level, then we can change the information sent
to the log.  For example, if we want more information:

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo
     DEBUG start About to start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar
     DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar'
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz
     DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz'
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

And if we want less:

     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz

In this case, the commands don't print anything to the console, since
nothing at ‘WARNING’ level or above is logged by them.


File: python.info,  Node: A Qt GUI for logging,  Next: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Prev: A CLI application starter template,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.33 A Qt GUI for logging
---------------------------

A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI
application.  The Qt(1) framework is a popular cross-platform UI
framework with Python bindings using PySide2(2) or PyQt5(3) libraries.

The following example shows how to log to a Qt GUI. This introduces a
simple ‘QtHandler’ class which takes a callable, which should be a slot
in the main thread that does GUI updates.  A worker thread is also
created to show how you can log to the GUI from both the UI itself (via
a button for manual logging) as well as a worker thread doing work in
the background (here, just logging messages at random levels with random
short delays in between).

The worker thread is implemented using Qt's ‘QThread’ class rather than
the *note threading: ec. module, as there are circumstances where one
has to use ‘QThread’, which offers better integration with other ‘Qt’
components.

The code should work with recent releases of any of ‘PySide6’, ‘PyQt6’,
‘PySide2’ or ‘PyQt5’.  You should be able to adapt the approach to
earlier versions of Qt.  Please refer to the comments in the code
snippet for more detailed information.

     import datetime
     import logging
     import random
     import sys
     import time

     # Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages
     try:
         from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
         Signal = QtCore.Signal
         Slot = QtCore.Slot
     except ImportError:
         try:
             from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
             Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
             Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot
         except ImportError:
             try:
                 from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.Signal
                 Slot = QtCore.Slot
             except ImportError:
                 from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
                 Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)


     #
     # Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly
     # initialized.
     #
     class Signaller(QtCore.QObject):
         signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord)

     #
     # Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this
     # handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main
     # thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a
     # formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted
     # string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way
     # you like in the slot function itself.
     #
     # You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler
     # doesn't know or care about specific UI elements.
     #
     class QtHandler(logging.Handler):
         def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs):
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
             self.signaller = Signaller()
             self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc)

         def emit(self, record):
             s = self.format(record)
             self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record)

     #
     # This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level
     # are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the
     # current thread.
     #
     def ctname():
         return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName()


     #
     # Used to generate random levels for logging.
     #
     LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)

     #
     # This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the
     # main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press
     # that connects to a slot in the worker.
     #
     # Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add
     # a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that
     # value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the
     # QThread name.
     #
     # This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with
     # random delays of the order of a few seconds.
     #
     class Worker(QtCore.QObject):
         @Slot()
         def start(self):
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra)
             i = 1
             # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean
             # thread termination.
             while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested():
                 delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2
                 time.sleep(delay)
                 try:
                     if random.random() < 0.1:
                         raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i)
                     else:
                         level = random.choice(LEVELS)
                         logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra)
                 except ValueError as e:
                     logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra)
                 i += 1

     #
     # Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains:
     #
     # * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages
     # * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread
     # * A button to log something from the main thread
     # * A button to clear the log window
     #
     class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget):

         COLORS = {
             logging.DEBUG: 'black',
             logging.INFO: 'blue',
             logging.WARNING: 'orange',
             logging.ERROR: 'red',
             logging.CRITICAL: 'purple',
         }

         def __init__(self, app):
             super().__init__()
             self.app = app
             self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self)
             # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform
             f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont')
             if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'):
                 f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace)
             else:
                 f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace)  # for Qt6
             te.setFont(f)
             te.setReadOnly(True)
             PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton
             self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self)
             self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self)
             self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self)
             self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status)
             # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string.
             fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s'
             formatter = logging.Formatter(fs)
             h.setFormatter(formatter)
             logger.addHandler(h)
             # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit
             app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit)

             # Lay out all the widgets
             layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self)
             layout.addWidget(te)
             layout.addWidget(self.work_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.log_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.clear_button)
             self.setFixedSize(900, 400)

             # Connect the non-worker slots and signals
             self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update)
             self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display)

             # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker
             self.start_thread()
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start)
             # Once started, the button should be disabled
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False))

         def start_thread(self):
             self.worker = Worker()
             self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread()
             self.worker.setObjectName('Worker')
             self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread')  # for qThreadName
             self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread)
             # This will start an event loop in the worker thread
             self.worker_thread.start()

         def kill_thread(self):
             # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that
             # to happen
             self.worker_thread.requestInterruption()
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.worker_thread.quit()
                 self.worker_thread.wait()
             else:
                 print('worker has already exited.')

         def force_quit(self):
             # For use when the window is closed
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.kill_thread()

         # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because
         # that's where the slots are set up

         @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord)
         def update_status(self, status, record):
             color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black')
             s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status)
             self.textedit.appendHtml(s)

         @Slot()
         def manual_update(self):
             # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses
             # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate
             # color according to its severity (level).
             level = random.choice(LEVELS)
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra)

         @Slot()
         def clear_display(self):
             self.textedit.clear()


     def main():
         QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread')
         logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv)
         example = Window(app)
         example.show()
         if hasattr(app, 'exec'):
             rc = app.exec()
         else:
             rc = app.exec_()
         sys.exit(rc)

     if __name__=='__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.qt.io/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Next: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Prev: A Qt GUI for logging,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.34 Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support
---------------------------------------------

Although RFC 5424(1) dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured
by default to use the older RFC 3164(2), which hails from 2001.  When
‘logging’ was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and
only existing) protocol at the time.  Since RFC5424 came out, as there
has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the *note
SysLogHandler: 649. functionality has not been updated.

RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured
data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support
for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something
like this:

     import datetime
     import logging.handlers
     import re
     import socket
     import time

     class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler):

         tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$')
         escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])')

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None)
             self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def format(self, record):
             version = 1
             asctime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
             m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z'))
             has_offset = False
             if m and time.timezone:
                 hrs, mins = m.groups()
                 if int(hrs) or int(mins):
                     has_offset = True
             if not has_offset:
                 asctime += 'Z'
             else:
                 asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}'
             try:
                 hostname = socket.gethostname()
             except Exception:
                 hostname = '-'
             appname = self.appname or '-'
             procid = record.process
             msgid = '-'
             msg = super().format(record)
             sdata = '-'
             if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'):
                 sd = record.structured_data
                 # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a
                 # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these
                 # mean)
                 # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you
                 # can adapt this code for use in production environments
                 parts = []

                 def replacer(m):
                     g = m.groups()
                     return '\\' + g[0]

                 for sdid, dv in sd.items():
                     part = f'[{sdid}'
                     for k, v in dv.items():
                         s = str(v)
                         s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s)
                         part += f' {k}="{s}"'
                     part += ']'
                     parts.append(part)
                 sdata = ''.join(parts)
             return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}'

You'll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above
code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g.  for
how you pass structural data to the log).  Nevertheless, the above
should be adaptable to your speciric needs.  With the above handler,
you'd pass structured data using something like this:

     sd = {
         'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'},
         'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'}
     }
     extra = {'structured_data': sd}
     i = 1
     logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Next: Patterns to avoid,  Prev: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.35 How to treat a logger like an output stream
--------------------------------------------------

Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a
file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API's output to
a logger.  You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a
file-like API. Here's a short script illustrating such a class:

     import logging

     class LoggerWriter:
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level

         def write(self, message):
             if message != '\n':  # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like
                 self.logger.log(self.level, message)

         def flush(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation
             pass

         def close(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want
             # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception
             pass

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         logger = logging.getLogger('demo')
         info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
         debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG)
         print('An INFO message', file=info_fp)
         print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

When this script is run, it prints

     INFO:demo:An INFO message
     DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message

You could also use ‘LoggerWriter’ to redirect ‘sys.stdout’ and
‘sys.stderr’ by doing something like this:

     import sys

     sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)

You should do this 'after' configuring logging for your needs.  In the
above example, the *note basicConfig(): 9f0. call does this (using the
‘sys.stderr’ value 'before' it is overwritten by a ‘LoggerWriter’
instance).  Then, you'd get this kind of result:

     >>> print('Foo')
     INFO:demo:Foo
     >>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr)
     WARNING:demo:Bar
     >>>

Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used
by *note basicConfig(): 9f0, but you can use a different formatter when
you configure logging.

Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of
buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting.
For example, with the definition of ‘LoggerWriter’ above, if you have
the snippet

     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)
     1 / 0

then running the script results in

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):

     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module>

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:1 / 0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError
     WARNING:demo::
     WARNING:demo:division by zero

As you can see, this output isn't ideal.  That's because the underlying
code which writes to ‘sys.stderr’ makes multiple writes, each of which
results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines
above).  To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only
output log lines when newlines are seen.  Let's use a slightly better
implementation of ‘LoggerWriter’:

     class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter):
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             super().__init__(logger, level)
             self.buffer = ''

         def write(self, message):
             if '\n' not in message:
                 self.buffer += message
             else:
                 parts = message.split('\n')
                 if self.buffer:
                     s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0)
                     self.logger.log(self.level, s)
                 self.buffer = parts.pop()
                 for part in parts:
                     self.logger.log(self.level, part)

This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs
complete lines.  With this approach, you get better output:

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module>
     WARNING:demo:    main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main
     WARNING:demo:    1/0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns to avoid,  Next: Autres ressources<3>,  Prev: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.36 Patterns to avoid
------------------------

Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you
might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage
patterns which are 'unhelpful', and which should therefore be avoided in
most cases.  The following sections are in no particular order.

* Menu:

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::


File: python.info,  Node: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Next: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.1 Opening the same log file multiple times
.................................................

On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file
multiple times as this will lead to a "file is in use by another
process" error.  However, on POSIX platforms you'll not get any errors
if you open the same file multiple times.  This could be done
accidentally, for example by:

   * Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file
     (e.g.  by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error).

   * Opening two files that look different, as they have different
     names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the
     other.

   * Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a
     reference to the same file.  This might be through use of the *note
     multiprocessing: 93. module, for example.

Opening a file multiple times might 'appear' to work most of the time,
but can lead to a number of problems in practice:

   * Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes
     try to write to the same file.  Although logging guards against
     concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads,
     there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by
     two different threads using two different handler instances which
     happen to point to the same file.

   * An attempt to delete a file (e.g.  during file rotation) silently
     fails, because there is another reference pointing to it.  This can
     lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in
     unexpected places, or are lost altogether.  Or a file that was
     supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size
     unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place.

Use the techniques outlined in *note Journalisation vers un fichier
unique à partir de plusieurs processus: 4edd. to circumvent such issues.


File: python.info,  Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Next: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Prev: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.2 Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters
.............................................................................

While there might be unusual cases where you'll need to do this, in
general there is no point because loggers are singletons.  Code can
always access a given logger instance by name using
‘logging.getLogger(name)’, so passing instances around and holding them
as instance attributes is pointless.  Note that in other languages such
as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes.  However,
this pattern doesn't make sense in Python, where the module (and not the
class) is the unit of software decomposition.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Next: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.3 Adding handlers other than ‘NullHandler’ to a logger in a library
..........................................................................

Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the
responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer.
If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don't add handlers to
any of your loggers other than a *note NullHandler: 1264. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.4 Creating a lot of loggers
..................................

Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution,
and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can't then be
freed.  Rather than create a logger per e.g.  file processed or network
connection made, use the *note existing mechanisms: 2c57. for passing
contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created
to those describing areas within your application (generally modules,
but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).


File: python.info,  Node: Autres ressources<3>,  Prev: Patterns to avoid,  Up: Recettes pour la journalisation

9.8.37 Autres ressources
------------------------

Voir aussi
..........

Module *note logging: 86.

     Référence de l’API du module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     API pour la configuration du module de journalisation.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

*note Tutoriel de découverte: 11d4.

*note Tutoriel avancé: 11d5.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide des expressions régulières,  Next: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets,  Prev: Recettes pour la journalisation,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.9 Guide des expressions régulières
====================================


Auteur: A.M. Kuchling <<amk@amk.ca>>

Résumé
......

Ce document constitue un guide d'introduction à l'utilisation des
expressions régulières en Python avec le module *note re: b8.  Il
fournit une introduction plus abordable que la section correspondante
dans le guide de référence de la bibliothèque.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<15>.
* Motifs simples::
* Utilisation des expressions régulières::
* Des motifs plus puissants::
* Modification de chaînes::
* Problèmes classiques::
* Vos commentaires::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<15>,  Next: Motifs simples,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.1 Introduction
------------------

Les expressions régulières (notées RE ou motifs 'regex' dans ce
document) sont essentiellement un petit langage de programmation
hautement spécialisé embarqué dans Python et dont la manipulation est
rendue possible par l'utilisation du module *note re: b8.  En utilisant
ce petit langage, vous définissez des règles pour spécifier une
correspondance avec un ensemble souhaité de chaînes de caractères ; ces
chaînes peuvent être des phrases, des adresses de courriel, des
commandes 'TeX' ou tout ce que vous voulez.  Vous pouvez ensuite poser
des questions telles que « Est-ce que cette chaîne de caractères
correspond au motif ? » ou « Y a-t-il une correspondance pour ce motif à
l'intérieur de la chaîne de caractères ? ».  Vous pouvez aussi utiliser
les RE pour modifier une chaîne de caractères ou la découper de
différentes façons.

Un motif d'expression régulière est compilé en code intermédiaire
('bytecode' en anglais) qui est ensuite exécuté par un moteur de
correspondance écrit en C. Pour une utilisation plus poussée, il peut
s'avérer nécessaire de s'intéresser à la manière dont le moteur exécute
la RE afin d'écrire une expression dont le code intermédiaire est plus
rapide.  L'optimisation n'est pas traitée dans ce document, parce
qu'elle nécessite d'avoir une bonne compréhension des mécanismes
internes du moteur de correspondance.

Le langage des expressions régulières est relativement petit et
restreint, donc toutes les tâches de manipulation de chaînes de
caractères ne peuvent pas être réalisées à l'aide d'expressions
régulières.  Il existe aussi des tâches qui 'peuvent' être réalisées à
l'aide d'expressions régulières mais qui ont tendance à produire des
expressions régulières très compliquées.  Dans ces cas, il est plus
utile d'écrire du code Python pour réaliser le traitement ; même si le
code Python est plus lent qu'une expression régulière élaborée, il sera
probablement plus compréhensible.


File: python.info,  Node: Motifs simples,  Next: Utilisation des expressions régulières,  Prev: Introduction<15>,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.2 Motifs simples
--------------------

Nous commençons par étudier les expressions régulières les plus simples.
Dans la mesure où les expressions régulières sont utilisées pour
manipuler des chaînes de caractères, nous commençons par l'action la
plus courante : la correspondance de caractères.

Pour une explication détaillée sur le concept informatique sous-jacent
aux expressions régulières (automate à états déterministe ou
non-déterministe), vous pouvez vous référer à n'importe quel manuel sur
l'écriture de compilateurs.

* Menu:

* Correspondance de caractères::
* Répétitions::


File: python.info,  Node: Correspondance de caractères,  Next: Répétitions,  Up: Motifs simples

9.9.2.1 Correspondance de caractères
....................................

La plupart des lettres ou caractères correspondent simplement à
eux-mêmes.  Par exemple, l'expression régulière ‘test’ correspond à la
chaîne de caractères ‘test’, précisément.  Vous pouvez activer le mode
non-sensible à la casse qui permet à cette RE de correspondre également
à ‘Test’ ou ‘TEST’ (ce sujet est traité par la suite).

Il existe des exceptions à cette règle ; certains caractères sont des
'métacaractères' spéciaux et ne correspondent pas à eux-mêmes.  Au lieu
de cela, ils signalent que certaines choses non ordinaires doivent
correspondre, ou ils affectent d'autre portions de la RE en les répétant
ou en changeant leur sens.  Une grande partie de ce document est
consacrée au fonctionnement de ces métacaractères.

Voici une liste complète des métacaractères ; leur sens est décrit dans
la suite de ce guide.

     . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )

Les premiers métacaractères que nous étudions sont ‘[’ et ‘]’.  Ils sont
utilisés pour spécifier une classe de caractères, qui forme un ensemble
de caractères dont vous souhaitez trouver la correspondance.  Les
caractères peuvent être listés individuellement, ou une plage de
caractères peut être indiquée en fournissant deux caractères séparés par
un ‘'-'’.  Par exemple, ‘[abc]’ correspond à n'importe quel caractère
parmi ‘a’, ‘b’ ou ‘c’ ; c'est équivalent à ‘[a-c]’, qui utilise une
plage pour exprimer le même ensemble de caractères.  Si vous voulez
trouver une chaîne qui ne contient que des lettres en minuscules, la RE
est ‘[a-z]’.

Les métacaractères (à l’exception de ‘\’) ne sont pas actifs dans les
classes.  Par exemple, ‘[akm$]’ correspond à n'importe quel caractère
parmi ‘'a'’, ‘'k'’, ‘'m'’ ou ‘'$'’ ; ‘'$'’ est habituellement un
métacaractère mais dans une classe de caractères, il est dépourvu de sa
signification spéciale.

Vous pouvez trouver une correspondance avec les caractères non listés
dans une classe en spécifiant le 'complément' de l'ensemble.  Ceci est
indiqué en plaçant un ‘'^'’ en tant que premier caractère de la classe.
Par exemple, ‘[^5]’ correspond à tous les caractères, sauf ‘'5'’.  Si le
caret se trouve ailleurs dans la classe de caractères, il ne possède pas
de signification spéciale.  Ainsi, ‘[5^]’ correspond au ‘'5'’ ou au
caractère ‘'^'’.

Le métacaractère le plus important est probablement la barre oblique
inverse ('backslash' en anglais), ‘\’.  Comme dans les chaînes de
caractères en Python, la barre oblique inverse peut être suivie par
différents caractères pour signaler différentes séquences spéciales.
Elle est aussi utilisée pour échapper tous les métacaractères afin d'en
trouver les correspondances dans les motifs ; par exemple, si vous devez
trouver une correspondance pour ‘[’ ou ‘\’, vous pouvez les précéder
avec une barre oblique inverse pour annuler leur signification
spéciale : ‘\[’ ou ‘\\’.

Certaines séquences spéciales commençant par ‘'\'’ représentent des
ensembles de caractères prédéfinis qui sont souvent utiles, tels que
l'ensemble des chiffres, l'ensemble des lettres ou l'ensemble des
caractères qui ne sont pas des « blancs ».

Prenons un exemple : ‘\w’ correspond à n'importe quel caractère
alphanumérique.  Si l'expression régulière est exprimée en 'bytes',
c'est équivalent à la classe ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  Si l'expression régulière
est une chaîne de caractères, ‘\w’ correspond à tous les caractères
identifiés comme lettre dans la base de données Unicode fournie par le
module *note unicodedata: 104.  Vous pouvez utiliser la définition plus
restrictive de ‘\w’ dans un motif exprimé en chaîne de caractères en
spécifiant l'option *note re.ASCII: 619. lors de la compilation de
l'expression régulière.

La liste de séquences spéciales suivante est incomplète.  Pour une liste
complète des séquences et définitions de classes étendues relatives aux
motifs de chaînes de caractères Unicode, reportez-vous à la dernière
partie de la référence *note Syntaxe d'Expressions Régulières: 710. de
la bibliothèque standard.  En général, les versions Unicode trouvent une
correspondance avec n'importe quel caractère présent dans la catégorie
appropriée de la base de données Unicode.

‘\d’

     Correspond à n'importe quel caractère numérique ; équivalent à la
     classe ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Correspond à n'importe quel caractère non numérique ; équivalent à
     la classe ‘[^0-9]’.

‘\s’

     Correspond à n'importe quel caractère « blanc » ; équivalent à la
     classe ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Correspond à n'importe quel caractère autre que « blanc » ;
     équivalent à la classe ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\w’

     Correspond à n'importe quel caractère alphanumérique ; équivalent à
     la classe ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

‘\W’

     Correspond à n'importe quel caractère non-alphanumérique ;
     équivalent à la classe ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

Ces séquences peuvent être incluses dans une classe de caractères.  Par
exemple, ‘[\s,.]’ est une classe de caractères qui correspond à tous les
caractères « blanc » ou ‘','’ ou ‘'.'’.

Le dernier métacaractère de cette section est ‘.’.  Il correspond à tous
les caractères, à l'exception du caractère de retour à la ligne ; il
existe un mode alternatif (*note re.DOTALL: 22a8.) dans lequel il
correspond également au caractère de retour à la ligne.  ‘.’ est souvent
utilisé lorsque l'on veut trouver une correspondance avec « n'importe
quel caractère ».


File: python.info,  Node: Répétitions,  Prev: Correspondance de caractères,  Up: Motifs simples

9.9.2.2 Répétitions
...................

Trouver des correspondances de divers ensembles de caractères est la
première utilisation des expressions régulières, ce que l'on ne peut pas
faire avec les méthodes des chaînes.  Cependant, si c'était la seule
possibilité des expressions régulières, le gain ne serait pas
significatif.  Une autre utilisation consiste à spécifier des portions
d'une RE qui peuvent être répétées un certain nombre de fois.

Le premier métacaractère pour la répétition que nous abordons est ‘*’.
‘*’ ne correspond pas au caractère littéral ‘'*'’ ; à la place, il
spécifie que le caractère précédent peut correspondre zéro, une ou
plusieurs fois (au lieu d'une seule fois).

Par exemple, ‘cha*t’ correspond à ‘'cht'’ (0 caractère ‘'a'’), ‘'chat'’
(1 ‘'a'’), ‘'chaaat'’ (3 caractères ‘'a'’) et ainsi de suite.

Les répétitions telles que ‘*’ sont 'gloutonnes' ; quand vous répétez
une RE, le moteur de correspondance essaie de trouver la correspondance
la plus longue en répétant le motif tant qu'il le peut.  Si la suite du
motif ne correspond pas, le moteur de correspondance revient en arrière
et essaie avec moins de répétitions.

Un exemple étape par étape mettra les choses au clair.  Considérons
l'expression ‘a[bcd]*b’.  Elle correspond à la lettre ‘'a'’, suivi
d'aucune ou plusieurs lettres de la classe ‘[bcd]’ et finit par un
‘'b'’.  Maintenant, supposons que nous cherchons une correspondance de
cette RE avec la chaîne de caractères ‘'abcbd'’.

Étape      Correspond      Explication
                           
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                           
1          ‘a’             Le ‘a’ correspond dans la RE.
                           
                           
2          ‘abcbd’         Le moteur de correspondance trouve
                           ‘[bcd]*’, va aussi loin qu'il le
                           peut, c.-à-d.  la fin de la chaîne.
                           
                           
3          'échec'         Le moteur essaie de trouver une
                           correspondance avec ‘b’ mais la
                           position courante est à la fin de
                           la chaîne de caractères, donc il
                           échoue.
                           
                           
4          ‘abcb’          Retour en arrière, de manière à ce
                           que ‘[bcd]*’ corresponde avec un
                           caractère de moins.
                           
                           
5          'échec'         Essaie encore ‘b’, mais la position
                           courante est le dernier caractère,
                           qui est ‘'d'’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abc’           Encore un retour en arrière, de
                           manière à ce que ‘[bcd]*’ ne
                           corresponde qu'à ‘bc’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abcb’          Essaie ‘b’ encore une fois.  Cette
                           fois, le caractère à la position
                           courante est ‘'b'’, donc cela
                           fonctionne.
                           

La fin de la RE est maintenant atteinte et la correspondance trouvée est
‘'abcb'’.  Ceci démontre comment le moteur de correspondance essaie
d'aller le plus loin possible en premier et, si la correspondance
échoue, il revient progressivement en arrière et ré-essaie avec le reste
de la RE encore et encore.  Il revient en arrière jusqu'à qu'il n'y ait
aucune correspondance pour ‘[bcd]*’ et, si cela échoue toujours, le
moteur conclut que la chaîne de caractères et la RE ne correspondent pas
du tout.

Un autre métacaractère de répétition est ‘+’, qui fait correspondre une
ou plusieurs fois.  Faites bien attention à la différence entre ‘*’ et
‘+’ ; ‘*’ fait correspondre 'zéro' fois ou plus, ainsi ce qui doit être
répété peut ne pas être présent du tout, alors que ‘+’ requiert au moins
'une' occurrence.  Pour continuer avec le même exemple, ‘cha+t’
correspond avec ‘'chat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'chaaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’) mais ne
correspond pas avec ‘'cht'’.

Il existe deux autres quantificateurs pour les répétitions.  Le point
d'interrogation, ‘?’, fait correspondre zéro ou une fois ; vous pouvez
vous le représenter comme indiquant une option.  Par exemple,
‘méta-?caractère’ fait correspondre soit ‘'métacaractère'’, soit
‘'méta-caractère'’.

Le plus compliqué des quantificateurs est ‘{m,n}’ où 'm' et 'n' sont des
entiers décimaux.  Ce quantificateur indique qu'il faut au moins 'm'
répétitions et au plus 'n'.  Par exemple, ‘a/{1,3}b’ fait correspondre
‘'a/b'’, ‘'a//b'’ et ‘'a///b'’.  Elle ne fait pas correspondre ‘'ab'’
(pas de barre oblique) ni ‘'a////b'’ (quatre barres obliques).

Vous pouvez omettre soit 'm', soit 'n' ; dans ce cas, une valeur
raisonnable est prise pour la valeur manquante.  Omettre 'm' considère
que la borne basse est 0 alors qu'omettre 'n' signifie qu'il n'y a pas
de borne supérieure.

The simplest case ‘{m}’ matches the preceding item exactly 'm' times.
For example, ‘a/{2}b’ will only match ‘'a//b'’.

Le lecteur attentif aura noté que les trois premiers quantificateurs
peuvent être exprimés en utilisant cette notation.  ‘{0,}’ est la même
chose que ‘*’, ‘{1,}’ est équivalent à ‘+’ et ‘{0,1}’ se comporte comme
‘?’.  Il est préférable d'utiliser ‘*’, ‘+’ ou ‘?’ quand vous le pouvez,
simplement parce qu'ils sont plus courts et plus faciles à lire.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation des expressions régulières,  Next: Des motifs plus puissants,  Prev: Motifs simples,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.3 Utilisation des expressions régulières
--------------------------------------------

Maintenant que nous avons vu quelques expressions régulières simples,
utilisons-les concrètement.  Le module *note re: b8. fournit une
interface pour le moteur de correspondance, ce qui permet de compiler
les RE en objets et d'effectuer des correspondances avec.

* Menu:

* Compilation des expressions régulières::
* La maudite barre oblique inverse::
* Recherche de correspondances::
* Fonctions de niveau module: Fonctions de niveau module<3>.
* Options de compilation::


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation des expressions régulières,  Next: La maudite barre oblique inverse,  Up: Utilisation des expressions régulières

9.9.3.1 Compilation des expressions régulières
..............................................

Les expressions régulières sont compilées en objets motifs, qui
possèdent des méthodes pour diverses opérations telles que la recherche
de correspondances ou les substitutions dans les chaînes.

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('ab*')
     >>> p
     re.compile('ab*')

*note re.compile(): bc3. accepte aussi une option 'flags', utilisée pour
activer des fonctionnalités particulières et des variations de syntaxe.
Nous étudierons les options disponibles plus tard et, pour l'instant, un
petit exemple suffit :

     >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)

La RE passée à *note re.compile(): bc3. est une chaîne.  Les RE sont des
chaînes car les expressions régulières ne font pas partie intrinsèque du
langage Python et aucune syntaxe particulière n'a été créée pour les
exprimer (il existe des applications qui ne nécessitent aucune RE et il
n'a donc aucune raison de grossir les spécifications du langage en
incluant les RE). Ainsi, le module *note re: b8. est simplement un
module d'extension en C inclus dans Python, tout comme les modules *note
socket: cb. ou *note zlib: 132.

Exprimer les RE comme des chaînes de caractères garde le langage Python
plus simple mais introduit un inconvénient qui fait l'objet de la
section suivante.


File: python.info,  Node: La maudite barre oblique inverse,  Next: Recherche de correspondances,  Prev: Compilation des expressions régulières,  Up: Utilisation des expressions régulières

9.9.3.2 La maudite barre oblique inverse
........................................

Comme indiqué précédemment, les expressions régulières utilisent la
barre oblique inverse ('backslash' en anglais) pour indiquer des
constructions particulières ou pour autoriser des caractères spéciaux
sans que leur signification spéciale ne soit invoquée.  C'est en
contradiction avec l'usage de Python qui est qu'un caractère doit avoir
la même signification dans les littéraux de chaînes de caractères.

Considérons que vous voulez écrire une RE qui fait correspondre la
chaîne de caractères ‘\section’ (on en trouve dans un fichier 'LaTeX').
Pour savoir ce qu'il faut coder dans votre programme, commençons par la
chaîne de caractères cherchée.  Ensuite, nous devons échapper chaque
barre oblique inverse et tout autre métacaractère en les précédant d'une
barre oblique inverse, ce qui donne la chaîne de caractères ‘\\section’.
La chaîne résultante qui doit être passée à *note re.compile(): bc3. est
donc ‘\\section’.  Comme nous devons l'exprimer sous la forme d'une
chaîne littérale Python, nous devons échapper les deux barres obliques
inverses 'encore une fois'.

Caractères              Niveau
                        
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
‘\section’              Chaîne de caractère à chercher
                        
                        
‘\\section’             Barre oblique inverse échappée pour
                        *note re.compile(): bc3.
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         Barres obliques inverses échappées pour un
                        littéral de chaîne de caractères
                        

Pour faire court, si vous cherchez une correspondance pour une barre
oblique inverse littérale, écrivez ‘'\\\\'’ dans votre chaîne RE, car
l'expression régulière doit être ‘\\’ et que chaque barre oblique
inverse doit être exprimée comme ‘\\’ dans un littéral chaîne de
caractères Python.  Dans les RE qui comportent plusieurs barres obliques
inverses, cela conduit à beaucoup de barres obliques inverses et rend la
chaîne résultante difficile à comprendre.

La solution consiste à utiliser les chaînes brutes Python pour les
expressions régulières ; les barres obliques inverses ne sont pas gérées
d'une manière particulière dans les chaînes littérales préfixées avec
‘'r'’.  Ainsi, ‘r"\n"’ est la chaîne de deux caractères contenant ‘'\'’
et ‘'n'’ alors que ‘"\n"’ est la chaîne contenant uniquement le
caractère retour à la ligne.  Les expressions régulières sont souvent
écrites dans le code Python en utilisant la notation « chaînes brutes ».

En complément, les séquences d'échappement valides dans les expressions
régulières, mais non valides dans les littéraux chaînes classiques,
produisent dorénavant un *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. et,
possiblement, deviendront une *note SyntaxError: 18b, ce qui signifie
que les séquences seront invalides si la notation « chaîne brute » ou
l'échappement des barres obliques inverses ne sont pas utilisés.

Chaîne normale          Chaîne de caractères
                        brute
                        
-----------------------------------------------
                        
‘"ab*"’                 ‘r"ab*"’
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         ‘r"\\section"’
                        
                        
‘"\\w+\\s+\\1"’         ‘r"\w+\s+\1"’
                        


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche de correspondances,  Next: Fonctions de niveau module<3>,  Prev: La maudite barre oblique inverse,  Up: Utilisation des expressions régulières

9.9.3.3 Recherche de correspondances
....................................

Une fois que nous avons un objet représentant une expression régulière
compilée, qu'en faisons-nous ?  Les objets motifs ont plusieurs méthodes
et attributs.  Seuls les plus significatifs seront couverts ici ;
consultez la documentation *note re: b8. pour la liste complète.

Méthode/Attribut       Objectif
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘match()’              Détermine si la RE fait correspond dès le début
                       de la chaîne.
                       
                       
‘search()’             Analyse la chaîne à la recherche d'une position
                       où la RE correspond.
                       
                       
‘findall()’            Trouve toutes les sous-chaînes qui correspondent
                       à la RE et les renvoie sous la forme d'une liste.
                       
                       
‘finditer()’           Trouve toutes les sous-chaînes qui correspondent
                       à la RE et les renvoie sous la forme d'un
                       *note itérateur: 1aa.
                       

*note match(): 22ba. et *note search(): 22bb. renvoient ‘None’ si aucune
correspondance ne peut être trouvée.  Si elles trouvent une
correspondance, une instance d'*note objet correspondance: f74. est
renvoyée, contenant les informations relatives à la correspondance :
position de départ et de fin, la sous-chaîne qui correspond et d'autres
informations.

You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the *note
re: b8. module.

Ce guide utilise l'interpréteur standard de Python pour ses exemples.
Commencez par lancer l'interpréteur Python, importez le module *note re:
b8. et compilez une RE :

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
     >>> p
     re.compile('[a-z]+')

Maintenant, vous pouvez tester des correspondances de la RE ‘[a-z]+’
avec différentes chaînes.  Une chaîne vide ne doit pas correspondre,
puisque ‘+’ indique « une ou plusieurs occurrences ».  *note match():
22ba. doit renvoyer ‘None’ dans ce cas, ce qui fait que l'interpréteur
n'affiche rien.  Vous pouvez afficher le résultat de ‘match()’
explicitement pour que ce soit clair.

     >>> p.match("")
     >>> print(p.match(""))
     None

Maintenant, essayons sur une chaîne qui doit correspondre, par exemple
‘tempo’.  Dans ce cas, *note match(): 22ba. renvoie un *note objet
correspondance: f74, vous pouvez ainsi stocker le résultat dans une
variable pour une utilisation ultérieure.

     >>> m = p.match('tempo')
     >>> m
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>

Maintenant, vous pouvez interroger l'*note objet correspondance: f74.
pour obtenir des informations sur la chaîne qui correspond.  Les
instances d'objets correspondances possèdent plusieurs méthodes et
attributs ; les plus importants sont :

Méthode/Attribut       Objectif
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘group()’              Renvoie la chaîne de caractères correspondant
                       à la RE
                       
                       
‘start()’              Renvoie la position de début de la
                       correspondance
                       
                       
‘end()’                Renvoie la position de fin de la
                       correspondance
                       
                       
‘span()’               Renvoie un 'n'-uplet contenant les positions
                       (début, fin) de la correspondance
                       

Essayons ces méthodes pour clarifier leur signification :

     >>> m.group()
     'tempo'
     >>> m.start(), m.end()
     (0, 5)
     >>> m.span()
     (0, 5)

*note group(): 22d0. renvoie la sous-chaîne qui correspond à la RE.
*note start(): 22d4. et *note end(): 22d5. renvoient les indices de
début et de fin de la correspondance.  *note span(): 22d6. renvoie les
indices de début et de fin dans un seul couple.  Comme la méthode *note
match(): 22ba. ne fait que vérifier si la RE correspond au début de la
chaîne, ‘start()’ vaut toujours zéro.  Cependant, la méthode *note
search(): 22bb. d'un motif analyse toute la chaîne, afin de trouver une
correspondance potentielle qui ne commence pas à zéro.

     >>> print(p.match('::: message'))
     None
     >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
     >>> m.group()
     'message'
     >>> m.span()
     (4, 11)

Dans les programmes réels, la façon de faire la plus courante consiste à
stocker l'*note objet correspondance: f74. dans une variable, puis à
vérifier s'il vaut ‘None’.  Généralement, cela ressemble à ceci :

     p = re.compile( ... )
     m = p.match( 'string goes here' )
     if m:
         print('Match found: ', m.group())
     else:
         print('No match')

Deux méthodes de motifs renvoient toutes les correspondances pour un
motif.  *note findall(): 22c6. renvoie une liste des chaînes qui
correspondent :

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
     ['12', '11', '10']

Le préfixe ‘r’, qui indique une chaîne brute littérale, est nécessaire
dans cet exemple car les séquences d'échappement dans une chaîne
littérale qui ne sont pas reconnues par Python, alors qu'elles le sont
par les expressions régulières, produisent maintenant un *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a3. et deviendront possiblement des *note
SyntaxError: 18b.  Reportez-vous à *note La maudite barre oblique
inverse: 4f1a.

*note findall(): 22c6. doit créer la liste entière avant de la renvoyer
comme résultat.  La méthode *note finditer(): 22c7. renvoie une séquence
d'instances d'*note objets correspondances: f74. en tant *note
qu'itérateur: 1aa. :

     >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
     >>> iterator
     <callable_iterator object at 0x...>
     >>> for match in iterator:
     ...     print(match.span())
     ...
     (0, 2)
     (22, 24)
     (29, 31)


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions de niveau module<3>,  Next: Options de compilation,  Prev: Recherche de correspondances,  Up: Utilisation des expressions régulières

9.9.3.4 Fonctions de niveau module
..................................

Vous n'avez pas besoin de créer un objet motif et d'appeler ses
méthodes ; le module *note re: b8. fournit des fonctions à son niveau,
ce sont *note match(): 120d, *note search(): 120c, *note findall():
1015, *note sub(): 2a0. et ainsi de suite.  Ces fonctions prennent les
mêmes arguments que les méthodes correspondantes des objets motifs, avec
la chaîne RE ajoutée en tant que premier argument.  Elles renvoient
toujours ‘None’ ou une instance d'*note objet correspondance: f74.

     >>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
     None
     >>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>

En interne, ces fonctions créent simplement un objet motif pour vous et
appellent la méthode appropriée de cet objet.  Elles stockent également
l'objet compilé dans un cache afin que les appels suivants qui utilisent
la même RE n'aient pas besoin d'analyser le motif une nouvelle fois.

Devez-vous utiliser ces fonctions au niveau des modules ou devez-vous
calculer le motif et appeler vous-même ses méthodes ?  Si vous utilisez
l'expression régulière à l'intérieur d'une boucle, la pré-compilation
permet d'économiser quelques appels de fonctions.  En dehors des
boucles, il n'y a pas beaucoup de différence grâce au cache interne.


File: python.info,  Node: Options de compilation,  Prev: Fonctions de niveau module<3>,  Up: Utilisation des expressions régulières

9.9.3.5 Options de compilation
..............................

Les options de compilation vous permettent de modifier le comportement
des expressions régulières.  Ces options sont accessibles dans le module
*note re: b8. par deux noms, un long du type *note IGNORECASE: 16e1. et
un court (une seule lettre) tel que *note I: 22ab. (si vous êtes
habitués aux modificateurs de motifs Perl, la version courte utilise les
mêmes lettres que Perl, par exemple la version courte de *note
re.VERBOSE: 22b8. est *note re.X: 22b0.).  Plusieurs options peuvent
être spécifiées en appliquant l'opérateur bit-à-bit 'OR' ; par exemple,
‘re.I | re.M’ active à la fois les options *note I: 22ab. et *note M:
22ad.

Vous trouvez ci-dessous le tableau des options disponibles, suivies
d'explications détaillées.

Option                                Signification
                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
*note ASCII: 619, *note A: 22aa.      Transforme plusieurs échappements tels que
                                      ‘\w’, ‘\b’, ‘\s’ et ‘\d’ de manière à ce
                                      qu'ils ne correspondent qu'à des caractères
                                      ASCII ayant la propriété demandée.
                                      
                                      
*note DOTALL: 22a8, *note S: 22ae.    Fait en sorte que ‘.’ corresponde à n'importe
                                      quel caractère, caractère de retour à la ligne
                                      inclus.
                                      
                                      
*note IGNORECASE: 16e1,               Recherche une correspondance sans tenir compte
*note I: 22ab.                        de la casse.
                                      
                                      
*note LOCALE: b5c, *note L: 22ac.     Recherche une correspondance en tenant compte
                                      de la configuration de la région.
                                      
                                      
*note MULTILINE: 22a9,                Correspondance multi-lignes, affecte ‘^’ et
*note M: 22ad.                        ‘$’.
                                      
                                      
*note VERBOSE: 22b8, *note X: 22b0.   Active les RE verbeuses, qui peuvent être
(pour 'extended', c.-à-d.  étendu     organisées de manière plus propre et
en anglais)                           compréhensible.
                                      

 -- Données: re.I

 -- Données: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal
     strings will match letters by ignoring case.  For example, ‘[A-Z]’
     will match lowercase letters, too.  Full Unicode matching also
     works unless the *note ASCII: 619. flag is used to disable
     non-ASCII matches.  When the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’
     are used in combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 16e1. flag, they
     will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters:
     'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131,
     Latin small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long
     s) and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  ‘Spam’ will match ‘'Spam'’,
     ‘'spam'’, ‘'spAM'’, or ‘'ſpam'’ (the latter is matched only in
     Unicode mode).  This lowercasing doesn't take the current locale
     into account; it will if you also set the *note LOCALE: b5c. flag.

 -- Données: re.L

 -- Données: re.LOCALE

     Rend ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ et les correspondances non sensibles à
     la casse dépendants de la configuration de la région courante au
     lieu de la base de données Unicode.

     Les 'locales' sont une caractéristique de la bibliothèque C
     destinées à favoriser une programmation qui tient compte des
     différences linguistiques (NdT : nous utilisons 'configuration de
     région' dans cette page pour désigner ce concept de la bibliothèque
     C). Par exemple, si vous traitez du texte français, vous souhaitez
     pouvoir écrire ‘\w+’ pour faire correspondre les mots, mais ‘\w’ ne
     correspond qu'à la classe de caractères ‘[A-Za-za-z]’ en octets ;
     cette classe ne correspond pas avec les octets codant ‘é’ ou ‘ç’.
     Si votre système est configuré correctement et que la configuration
     de région est définie sur 'français', certaines fonctions C diront
     à votre programme que l'octet codant ‘é’ doit être considéré comme
     une lettre.  Définir l'option *note LOCALE: b5c. lors de la
     compilation d'une expression régulière fait que l'objet compilé
     résultant utilise ces fonctions C pour ‘\w’ ; c'est plus lent mais
     cela permet à ‘\w+’ de correspondre avec les mots français tel
     qu'attendu.  L'utilisation de cette option est déconseillée en
     Python 3 car le mécanisme de locale est très peu fiable, il ne gère
     qu'une seule « culture » à la fois et il ne fonctionne qu'avec des
     locales 8 bits.  La correspondance Unicode est déjà activée par
     défaut dans Python 3 pour les motifs Unicode (type 'str') et elle
     est capable de gérer différentes configurations de régions.

 -- Données: re.M

 -- Données: re.MULTILINE

     Nota : ‘^’ et ‘$’ n'ont pas encore été expliqués ; ils sont
     introduits dans la section *note Plus de métacaractères: 4f1e.

     Normalement, ‘^’ correspond uniquement au début de la chaîne, et
     ‘$’ correspond uniquement à la fin de la chaîne et immédiatement
     avant la nouvelle ligne (s'il y en a une) à la fin de la chaîne.
     Lorsque cette option est spécifiée, ‘^’ correspond au début de la
     chaîne de caractères et au début de chaque ligne de la chaîne de
     caractères, immédiatement après le début de la nouvelle ligne.  De
     même, le métacaractère ‘$’ correspond à la fin de la chaîne de
     caractères ou à la fin de chaque ligne (précédant immédiatement
     chaque nouvelle ligne).

 -- Données: re.S

 -- Données: re.DOTALL

     Fait que le caractère spécial ‘'.'’ corresponde avec n'importe quel
     caractère, y compris le retour à la ligne ; sans cette option,
     ‘'.'’ correspond avec tout, 'sauf' le retour à la ligne.

 -- Données: re.A

 -- Données: re.ASCII

     Fait que ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\s’ et ‘\S’ ne correspondent
     qu'avec des caractères ASCII au lieu de l'ensemble des caractères
     Unicode.  Cette option n'a de sens que pour des motifs Unicode,
     elle est ignorée pour les motifs 'bytes'.

 -- Données: re.X

 -- Données: re.VERBOSE

     Cette option vous permet d'écrire des expressions régulières plus
     lisibles en vous permettant plus de flexibilité pour le formatage.
     Lorsque cette option est activée, les « blancs » dans la chaîne RE
     sont ignorés, sauf lorsque le « blancs » se trouve dans une classe
     de caractères ou est précédé d'une barre oblique inverse ; ceci
     vous permet d'organiser et d'indenter vos RE plus clairement.
     Cette option vous permet également de placer des commentaires dans
     une RE, ils seront ignorés par le moteur ; les commentaires
     commencent par un ‘'#'’ qui n'est ni dans une classe de caractères,
     ni précédé d'une barre oblique inverse.

     Par exemple, voici une RE qui utilise *note re.VERBOSE: 22b8. ;
     vous pouvez constater qu'elle est beaucoup plus facile à lire

          charref = re.compile(r"""
           &[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference
           (
               0[0-7]+         # Octal form
             | [0-9]+          # Decimal form
             | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form
           )
           ;                   # Trailing semicolon
          """, re.VERBOSE)

     Sans l'option verbeuse, cette RE ressemble à ceci :

          charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
                               "|[0-9]+"
                               "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")

     Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, Python concatène automatiquement les
     littéraux chaînes de caractères qui ont été utilisés pour séparer
     la RE en petits morceaux, mais la RE reste plus difficile à
     comprendre que sa version utilisant *note re.VERBOSE: 22b8.


File: python.info,  Node: Des motifs plus puissants,  Next: Modification de chaînes,  Prev: Utilisation des expressions régulières,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.4 Des motifs plus puissants
-------------------------------

Jusqu'à présent nous avons seulement couvert une partie des
fonctionnalités des expressions régulières.  Dans cette section, nous
couvrirons quelques nouveaux métacaractères et l'utilisation des groupes
pour récupérer des portions de textes correspondantes.

* Menu:

* Plus de métacaractères::
* Regroupement::
* Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés::
* Assertions prédictives::


File: python.info,  Node: Plus de métacaractères,  Next: Regroupement,  Up: Des motifs plus puissants

9.9.4.1 Plus de métacaractères
..............................

Nous n'avons pas encore couvert tous les métacaractères.  Cette section
traite de la plupart de ceux que nous n'avons pas abordés.

Certains métacaractères restants sont des 'assertions de largeur zéro'
('zero-width assertions' en anglais).  Ils ne font pas avancer le moteur
dans la chaîne de caractères ; ils ne consomment aucun caractère et ils
réussissent ou échouent tout simplement.  Par exemple, ‘\b’ est une
assertion selon laquelle la position actuelle est située à la limite
d'un mot ; la position n'est pas modifiée par le " b ".  Cela signifie
que les assertions de largeur zéro ne doivent pas être répétées car, si
elles correspondent à un endroit donné, elles correspondent
automatiquement un nombre infini de fois.

‘|’

     Union ensembliste ou opérateur « ou ».  Si 'A' et 'B' sont des
     expressions régulières, ‘A|B’ correspond à toute chaîne qui
     correspond à A ou à B. La priorité de ‘|’ est très faible afin de
     pouvoir effectuer simplement des unions de chaînes de plusieurs
     caractères.  ‘Crow|Servo’ correspond avec ‘'Crow'’ ou ‘'Servo'’,
     mais pas avec ‘'Cro'’, un ‘'w'’ ou un ‘'S'’, ou encore ‘'ervo'’.

     Pour correspondre avec un ‘'|'’ littéral, utilisez ‘\|’ ou
     placez-le dans une classe de caractères, comme ceci ‘[|]’.

‘^’

     Correspond à un début de ligne.  À moins que l'option *note
     MULTILINE: 22a9. ne soit activée, cela ne fait correspondre que le
     début de la chaîne.  Dans le mode *note MULTILINE: 22a9, cela fait
     aussi correspondre immédiatement après chaque nouvelle ligne à
     l'intérieur de la chaîne.

     Par exemple, si vous voulez trouver le mot ‘From’ uniquement quand
     il est en début de ligne, la RE à utiliser est ‘^From’.

          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
          None

     Pour trouver un ‘'^'’ littéral, utilisez ‘\^’.

‘$’

     Correspond à une fin de ligne, ce qui veut dire soit la fin de la
     chaîne, soit tout emplacement qui est suivi du caractère de
     nouvelle ligne.

          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
          None
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>

     Pour trouver un ‘'$'’ littéral, utilisez ‘\$’ ou placez-le à
     l'intérieur d'une classe de caractères, comme ceci ‘[$]’.

‘\A’

     Correspond au début de la chaîne de caractères, uniquement.  Si
     l'option *note MULTILINE: 22a9. n'est pas activée, ‘\A’ et ‘^’ sont
     équivalents.  Dans le mode *note MULTILINE: 22a9, ils sont
     différents : ‘\A’ ne correspond toujours qu'au début de la chaîne
     alors que ‘^’ correspond aussi aux emplacements situés
     immédiatement après une nouvelle ligne à l'intérieur de la chaîne.

‘\Z’

     Correspond uniquement à la fin d'une chaîne de caractères.

‘\b’

     Limite de mot.  C'est une assertion de largeur zéro qui correspond
     uniquement aux positions de début et de fin de mot.  Un mot est
     défini comme une séquence de caractères alphanumériques ; ainsi, la
     fin d'un mot est indiquée par un « blanc » ou un caractère
     non-alphanumérique.

     L'exemple suivant fait correspondre ‘class’ seulement si c'est un
     mot complet ; il n'y a pas de correspondance quand il est à
     l'intérieur d'un autre mot.

          >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
          >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
          None

     Quand vous utilisez cette séquence spéciale, gardez deux choses à
     l'esprit.  Tout d'abord, c'est la pire collision entre les
     littéraux des chaînes Python et les séquences d'expressions
     régulières.  Dans les littéraux de chaîne de caractères Python,
     ‘\b’ est le caractère de retour-arrière ('backspace' en anglais),
     dont la valeur ASCII est 8.  Si vous n'utilisez pas les chaînes de
     caractères brutes, alors Python convertit le ‘\b’ en
     retour-arrière, et votre RE ne correspond pas à ce que vous
     attendez.  L'exemple suivant ressemble à notre RE précédente, mais
     nous avons omis le ‘'r'’ devant la chaîne RE.

          >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>

     Ensuite, dans une classe de caractères, où cette assertion n'a pas
     lieu d'être, ‘\b’ représente le caractère retour-arrière, afin
     d'être compatible avec les littéraux de chaînes de caractères.

‘\B’

     Encore une assertion de largeur zéro, qui est l'opposée de ‘\b’,
     c'est-à-dire qu'elle fait correspondre uniquement les emplacements
     qui ne sont pas à la limite d'un mot.


File: python.info,  Node: Regroupement,  Next: Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés,  Prev: Plus de métacaractères,  Up: Des motifs plus puissants

9.9.4.2 Regroupement
....................

Souvent, vous avez besoin d'obtenir plus d'informations que le simple
fait que la RE corresponde ou non.  Ainsi, les expressions régulières
sont souvent utilisées pour analyser des chaînes de caractères en
écrivant une RE qui divise une chaîne en plusieurs sous-groupes,
correspondant chacun à une information particulière.  Par exemple, une
ligne d'en-tête RFC-822 peut se diviser en un nom d'en-tête et une
valeur associée, séparés par un ‘':'’, comme ceci :

     From: author@example.com
     User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
     MIME-Version: 1.0
     To: editor@example.com

Vous pouvez alors écrire une expression régulière qui fait correspondre
une ligne d'en-tête entière et qui comporte un groupe correspondant au
nom de l'en-tête, et un autre groupe correspondant à la valeur de
l'en-tête.

Les groupes sont délimités par les métacaractères marqueurs ‘'('’ et
‘')'’.  ‘'('’ et ‘')'’ ont à peu près le même sens que dans les
expressions mathématiques ; ils forment un groupe à partir des
expressions qu'ils encadrent ; vous pouvez répéter le contenu d'un
groupe à l'aide d'un quantificateur, comme ‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’ ou ‘{m,n}’.
Par exemple, ‘(ab)*’ correspond à zéro, une ou plusieurs fois ‘ab’.

     >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
     >>> print(p.match('ababababab').span())
     (0, 10)

Les groupes délimités par ‘'('’ et ‘')'’ capturent également les indices
de début et de fin du texte avec lequel ils correspondent ; ces indices
peuvent être récupérés en passant un argument à *note group(): 22d0,
*note start(): 22d4, *note end(): 22d5. ou *note span(): 22d6.  Les
groupes sont numérotés à partir de 0, le groupe 0 étant toujours
présent ; c'est l'ensemble de la RE, donc les méthodes de l'*note objet
correspondance: f74. ont le groupe 0 comme argument par défaut.  Plus
loin, nous voyons comment exprimer les groupes qui ne capturent pas
l'étendue du texte avec lequel ils correspondent.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
     >>> m = p.match('ab')
     >>> m.group()
     'ab'
     >>> m.group(0)
     'ab'

Les sous-groupes sont numérotés de la gauche vers la droite, à partir de
1.  Les groupes peuvent être imbriqués ; pour déterminer le numéro, il
vous suffit de compter le nombre de parenthèses ouvrantes de la gauche
vers la droite.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
     >>> m = p.match('abcd')
     >>> m.group(0)
     'abcd'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'abc'
     >>> m.group(2)
     'b'

Vous pouvez passer plusieurs numéros de groupes à *note group(): 22d0.
en même temps, elle vous renvoie alors un 'n'-uplet contenant les
valeurs correspondantes pour ces groupes.

     >>> m.group(2,1,2)
     ('b', 'abc', 'b')

La méthode *note groups(): 22d2. renvoie un 'n'-uplet contenant les
chaînes pour tous les sous-groupes, en commençant par le numéro 1
jusqu'au dernier.

     >>> m.groups()
     ('abc', 'b')

Les renvois dans un motif vous permettent de spécifier que le contenu
d'un groupe précédent doit aussi être trouvé à l'emplacement actuel dans
la chaîne.  Par exemple, ‘\1’ réussit si le contenu du premier groupe se
trouve aussi à la position courante, sinon il échoue.  Rappelez-vous que
les littéraux de chaînes Python utilisent aussi la barre oblique inverse
suivie d'un nombre pour insérer des caractères arbitraires dans une
chaîne ; soyez sûr d'utiliser une chaîne brute quand vous faites des
renvois dans une RE.

Par exemple, la RE suivante détecte les mots doublés dans une chaîne.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'

Les renvois tels que celui-ci ne sont pas très utiles pour effectuer une
simple recherche dans une chaîne — il n'y a que peu de formats de textes
qui répètent des données ainsi — mais vous verrez bientôt qu'ils sont
'très' utiles pour effectuer des substitutions dans les chaînes.


File: python.info,  Node: Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés,  Next: Assertions prédictives,  Prev: Regroupement,  Up: Des motifs plus puissants

9.9.4.3 Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés
................................................

Les RE élaborées peuvent utiliser de nombreux groupes, à la fois pour
capturer des sous-chaînes intéressantes ainsi que pour regrouper et
structurer la RE elle-même.  Dans les RE complexes, il devient difficile
de garder la trace des numéros de groupes.  Deux caractéristiques aident
à résoudre ce problème, toutes deux utilisant la même syntaxe
d'extension des expressions régulières.  Nous allons donc commencer en
examinant cette syntaxe.

Les puissantes extensions des expressions régulières de Perl 5 sont
réputées.  Pour les mettre en œuvre, les développeurs Perl ne pouvaient
pas utiliser de nouveaux métacaractères simples ou de nouvelles
séquences commençant par ‘\’ sans que les RE Perl ne deviennent trop
différentes des RE standards au point de créer de la confusion.  S'ils
avaient choisi ‘&’ comme nouveau métacaractère, par exemple, les
expressions déjà écrites auraient considéré que ‘&’ était un caractère
standard et ne l'aurait pas échappé en écrivant ‘\&’ ou ‘[&]’.

La solution adoptée par les développeurs Perl a été d'utiliser ‘(?...)’
comme syntaxe d'extension.  Placer ‘?’ immédiatement après une
parenthèse était une erreur de syntaxe, parce que le ‘?’ n'a alors rien
à répéter.  Ainsi, cela n'a pas introduit de problème de compatibilité.
Les caractères qui suivent immédiatement le ‘?’ indiquent quelle
extension est utilisée, donc ‘(?=truc)’ est une chose (une assertion
positive anticipée) et ‘(?:truc)’ est une autre chose (la
sous-expression ‘truc’ que l'on groupe).

Python gère plusieurs des extensions Perl et rajoute une extension à la
syntaxe des extensions Perl.  Si le premier caractère après le point
d'interrogation est ‘P’, cela signifie que c'est une extension
spécifique à Python.

Après avoir vu la syntaxe générale d'extension des RE, nous pouvons
revenir aux fonctionnalités qui simplifient le travail avec les groupes
dans des RE complexes.

Parfois, vous souhaitez utiliser un groupe pour marquer une partie de
l'expression régulière mais le contenu de ce groupe ne vous intéresse
pas vraiment.  Vous pouvez l'indiquer explicitement en utilisant la
syntaxe de groupe, mais sans indiquer que vous voulez en capturer le
contenu : ‘(?:...)’, où vous remplacez les ‘...’ par n'importe quelle
expression régulière.

     >>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ('c',)
     >>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ()

À part le fait que vous n'avez pas accès au contenu du groupe, un groupe
se comporte exactement de la même manière qu'un groupe de capture ; vous
pouvez placer n'importe quoi dedans, spécifier une répétition avec un
métacaractère tel que ‘*’ et l'imbriquer dans un autre groupe (de
capture ou pas).  ‘(?:...)’ est particulièrement utile quand vous
modifiez des motifs existants, puisque vous pouvez ajouter de nouveaux
groupes sans changer la façon dont les autres groupes sont numérotés.
Nous devons mentionner ici qu'il n'y a aucune différence de performance
dans la recherche de groupes, de capture ou non ; les deux formes
travaillent à la même vitesse.

Une fonctionnalité plus importante est le nommage des groupes : au lieu
d'y faire référence par des nombres, vous pouvez référencer des groupes
par leur nom.

La syntaxe pour nommer les groupes est l'une des extensions spécifiques
à Python : ‘(?P<nom>....)’.  'nom' est, vous vous en doutez, le nom du
groupe.  Les groupes nommés se comportent exactement comme des groupes
de capture, sauf qu'ils associent en plus un nom à un groupe.  Les
méthodes des *note objets correspondances: f74. qui gèrent les groupes
de capture acceptent soit des entiers qui font référence aux numéros des
groupes, soit des chaînes de caractères qui désignent les noms des
groupes désirés.  Les groupes nommés se voient toujours attribuer un
numéro, vous pouvez ainsi récupérer les informations d'un groupe de deux
façons :

     >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
     >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
     >>> m.group('word')
     'Lots'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'Lots'

De plus, vous pouvez récupérer les groupes nommés comme dictionnaire
avec *note groupdict(): 22d3. :

     >>> m = re.match(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe')
     >>> m.groupdict()
     {'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'}

Les groupes nommés sont pratiques car il est plus facile de se rappeler
un nom qu'un numéro.  Voici un exemple de RE tirée du module *note
imaplib: 73. :

     InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
             r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
             r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
             r'"')

Il est évidemment plus facile de récupérer ‘m.group('zonem')’ que de se
rappeler de récupérer le groupe 9.

La syntaxe des renvois dans une expression telle que ‘(....)\1’ fait
référence au numéro du groupe.  Il y a naturellement une variante qui
utilise le nom du groupe au lieu du numéro.  C'est une autre extension
Python : ‘(?P=nom)’ indique que le contenu du groupe appelé 'nom' doit
correspondre à nouveau avec l'emplacement courant.  L'expression
régulière pour trouver des mots doublés, ‘\b(\w+)\s+\1\b’ peut ainsi
être ré-écrite en ‘\b(?P<mot>\w+)\s+(?P=mot)\b’ :

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'


File: python.info,  Node: Assertions prédictives,  Prev: Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés,  Up: Des motifs plus puissants

9.9.4.4 Assertions prédictives
..............................

Une autre assertion de largeur zéro est l'assertion prédictive.  Une
assertion prédictive peut s'exprimer sous deux formes, la positive et la
négative, comme ceci :

‘(?=...)’

     Assertion prédictive positive.  Elle réussit si l'expression
     régulière contenue, représentée ici par ‘...’, correspond
     effectivement à l'emplacement courant ; dans le cas contraire, elle
     échoue.  Mais, une fois que l'expression contenue a été essayée, le
     moteur de correspondance n'avance pas ; le reste du motif est testé
     à l'endroit même où l'assertion a commencé.

‘(?!...)’

     Assertion prédictive négative.  C'est l'opposée de l'assertion
     positive ; elle réussit si l'expression régulière contenue 'ne'
     correspond 'pas' à l'emplacement courant dans la chaîne.

Pour rendre ceci plus concret, regardons le cas où une prédiction est
utile.  Considérons un motif simple qui doit faire correspondre un nom
de fichier et le diviser en un nom de base et une extension, séparés par
un ‘.’.  Par exemple, dans ‘news.rc’, ‘news’ est le nom de base et ‘rc’
est l'extension du nom de fichier.

Le motif de correspondance est plutôt simple :

‘.*[.].*$’

Notez que le ‘.’ doit être traité spécialement car c'est un
métacaractère, nous le plaçons donc à l'intérieur d'une classe de
caractères pour ne faire correspondre que ce caractère spécifique.
Notez également le ‘$’ en fin ; nous l'avons ajouté pour nous assurer
que tout le reste de la chaîne est bien inclus dans l'extension.  Cette
expression régulière fait correspondre ‘truc.bar’, ‘autoexec.bat’,
‘sendmail.cf’ et ‘printers.conf’.

Maintenant, compliquons un peu le problème ; si nous voulons faire
correspondre les noms de fichiers dont l'extension n'est pas ‘bat’ ?
voici quelques tentatives incorrectes :

‘.*[.][^b].*$’ Le premier essai ci-dessus tente d'exclure ‘bat’ en
spécifiant que le premier caractère de l'extension ne doit pas être ‘b’.
Cela ne fonctionne pas, car le motif n'accepte pas ‘truc.bar’.

‘.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$’

L'expression devient plus confuse si nous essayons de réparer la
première solution en spécifiant l'un des cas suivants : le premier
caractère de l'extension n'est pas ‘b’ ; le deuxième caractère n'est pas
‘a’ ; ou le troisième caractère n'est pas ‘t’.  Ce motif accepte
‘truc.bar’ et rejette ‘autoexec.bat’, mais elle nécessite une extension
de trois lettres et n'accepte pas un nom de fichier avec une extension
de deux lettres comme ‘sendmail.cf’.  Compliquons encore une fois le
motif pour essayer de le réparer.

‘.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$’

Pour cette troisième tentative, les deuxième et troisième lettres sont
devenues facultatives afin de permettre la correspondance avec des
extensions plus courtes que trois caractères, comme ‘sendmail.cf’.

Le motif devient vraiment compliqué maintenant, ce qui le rend difficile
à lire et à comprendre.  Pire, si le problème change et que vous voulez
exclure à la fois ‘bat’ et ‘exe’ en tant qu'extensions, le modèle
deviendra encore plus compliqué et confus.

Une assertion prédictive négative supprime toute cette confusion :

‘.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$’ Cette assertion prédictive négative signifie : si
l'expression ‘bat’ ne correspond pas à cet emplacement, essaie le reste
du motif ; si ‘bat$’ correspond, tout le motif échoue.  Le ‘$’ est
nécessaire pour s'assurer que quelque chose comme ‘sample.batch’, où
c'est seulement le début de l'extension qui vaut ‘bat’, est autorisé.
Le ‘[^...]*’ s'assure que le motif fonctionne lorsqu'il y a plusieurs
points dans le nom de fichier.

Exclure une autre extension de nom de fichier est maintenant facile ; il
suffit de l'ajouter comme alternative à l'intérieur de l'assertion.  Le
motif suivant exclut les noms de fichiers qui se terminent par ‘bat’ ou
‘exe’ :

‘.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$’


File: python.info,  Node: Modification de chaînes,  Next: Problèmes classiques,  Prev: Des motifs plus puissants,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.5 Modification de chaînes
-----------------------------

Jusqu'à présent, nous avons simplement effectué des recherches dans une
chaîne statique.  Les expressions régulières sont aussi couramment
utilisées pour modifier les chaînes de caractères de diverses manières,
en utilisant les méthodes suivantes des motifs :

Méthode/Attribut       Objectif
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘split()’              Découpe la chaîne de caractère en liste, la
                       découpant partout où la RE correspond
                       
                       
‘sub()’                Recherche toutes les sous-chaînes de caractères
                       où la RE correspond et les substitue par une
                       chaîne de caractères différente
                       
                       
‘subn()’               Fait la même chose que ‘sub()’, mais renvoie la
                       nouvelle chaîne et le nombre de remplacements
                       effectués
                       

* Menu:

* Découpage de chaînes::
* Recherche et substitution: Recherche et substitution<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Découpage de chaînes,  Next: Recherche et substitution<2>,  Up: Modification de chaînes

9.9.5.1 Découpage de chaînes
............................

La méthode ‘split()’ d'un motif divise une chaîne de caractères à chaque
fois que la RE correspond, retournant la liste des morceaux.  C'est
similaire à la méthode *note split(): e95. mais est beaucoup plus
générale par les délimiteurs que vous pouvez spécifier ; la méthode
‘split()’ du type 'string' ne gère que les découpages en suivant les
« blancs » ou suivant une chaîne définie.  Comme vous pouvez vous y
attendre, il y a aussi une fonction *note re.split(): 29f. de niveau
module.

 -- Méthode: .split (string[, maxsplit=0])

     Découpe 'string' en suivant les correspondances de l'expression
     régulière.  Si des parenthèses de capture sont utilisées dans la
     RE, leur contenu est également renvoyé dans la liste résultante.
     Si 'maxsplit' n'est pas nul, au plus 'maxsplit' découpages sont
     effectués.

Vous pouvez limiter le nombre de découpages effectués en passant une
valeur pour 'maxsplit'.  Quand 'maxsplit' n'est pas nul, au plus
'maxsplit' découpages sont effectués et le reste de la chaîne est
renvoyé comme dernier élément de la liste.  Dans l'exemple suivant, le
délimiteur est toute séquence de caractères non alphanumériques.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']

Parfois, vous voulez récupérer le texte entre les délimiteurs mais aussi
quel était le délimiteur.  Si des parenthèses de capture sont utilisées
dans la RE, leurs valeurs sont également renvoyées dans la liste.
Comparons les appels suivants :

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
     >>> p.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
     >>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']

La fonction de niveau module *note re.split(): 29f. ajoute la RE à
utiliser comme premier argument, mais est par ailleurs identique.

     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
     >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
     ['Words', 'words, words.']


File: python.info,  Node: Recherche et substitution<2>,  Prev: Découpage de chaînes,  Up: Modification de chaînes

9.9.5.2 Recherche et substitution
.................................

Une autre tâche classique est de trouver toutes les correspondances d'un
motif et de les remplacer par une autre chaîne.  La méthode *note sub():
22c8. prend une valeur de substitution, qui peut être une chaîne de
caractères ou une fonction, et la chaîne à traiter.

 -- Méthode: .sub (replacement, string[, count=0])

     Renvoie la chaîne obtenue en remplaçant les occurrences sans
     chevauchement les plus à gauche de la RE dans 'string' par la
     substitution 'replacement'.  Si le motif n'est pas trouvé, 'string'
     est renvoyée inchangée.

     L'argument optionnel 'count' est le nombre maximum d'occurrences du
     motif à remplacer ; 'count' doit être un entier positif ou nul.  La
     valeur par défaut de 0 signifie qu'il faut remplacer toutes les
     occurrences.

Voici un exemple simple utilisant la méthode *note sub(): 22c8.  Nous
remplaçons les noms des couleurs par le mot ‘colour’ :

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     'colour socks and colour shoes'
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
     'colour socks and red shoes'

La méthode ‘subn()’ fait la même chose mais renvoie un couple contenant
la nouvelle valeur de la chaîne de caractères et le nombre de
remplacements effectués :

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
     ('no colours at all', 0)

Les correspondances vides ne sont remplacées que lorsqu'elles ne sont
pas adjacentes à une correspondance vide précédente.

     >>> p = re.compile('x*')
     >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
     '-a-b--d-'

Si 'replacement' est une chaîne de caractères, toute barre oblique
inverse d'échappement est traitée.  C'est-à-dire que ‘\n’ est converti
en caractère de nouvelle ligne, ‘\r’ est converti en retour chariot, et
ainsi de suite.  Les échappements inconnus comme ‘\&’ sont laissés tels
quels.  Les renvois, tels que ‘\6’, sont remplacés par la sous-chaîne
correspondante au groupe dans le RE. Ceci vous permet d'incorporer des
parties du texte original dans la chaîne de remplacement résultante.

Cet exemple fait correspondre le mot ‘section’ suivi par une chaîne
encadrée par ‘{’ et ‘}’, et modifie ‘section’ en ‘subsection’ :

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
     'subsection{First} subsection{second}'

Il existe aussi une syntaxe pour faire référence aux groupes nommés
définis par la syntaxe ‘(?P<nom>....)’.  ‘\g<nom>’ utilise la
sous-chaîne correspondante au groupe nommé ‘nom’ et ‘\g<numéro>’ utilise
le numéro de groupe correspondant.  ‘\g<2>’ est donc l'équivalent de
‘\2’, mais n'est pas ambigu dans une chaîne de substitution telle que
‘\g<2>0’ (‘\20’ serait interprété comme une référence au groupe 20 et
non comme une référence au groupe 2 suivie du caractère littéral ‘'0'’).
Les substitutions suivantes sont toutes équivalentes mais utilisent les
trois variantes de la chaîne de remplacement.

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'

'replacement' peut aussi être une fonction, ce qui vous donne encore
plus de contrôle.  Si 'replacement' est une fonction, la fonction est
appelée pour chaque occurrence non chevauchante de 'pattern'.  À chaque
appel, un argument *note objet correspondance: f74. est passé à la
fonction, qui peut utiliser cette information pour calculer la chaîne de
remplacement désirée et la renvoyer.

Dans l'exemple suivant, la fonction de substitution convertit un nombre
décimal en hexadécimal :

     >>> def hexrepl(match):
     ...     "Return the hex string for a decimal number"
     ...     value = int(match.group())
     ...     return hex(value)
     ...
     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
     'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'

Quand vous utilisez la fonction de niveau module *note re.sub(): 2a0, le
motif est passé comme premier argument.  Vous pouvez fournir le motif
sous forme d'objet ou de chaîne de caractères ; si vous avez besoin de
spécifier des options pour l'expression régulière, vous devez soit
utiliser un objet motif comme premier paramètre, soit utiliser des
modificateurs intégrés dans la chaîne de caractères, par exemple
‘sub("(?i)b+", "x", "bbbb BBBBB")’ renvoie ‘'x x'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Problèmes classiques,  Next: Vos commentaires,  Prev: Modification de chaînes,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.6 Problèmes classiques
--------------------------

Les expressions régulières constituent un outil puissant pour certaines
applications mais, à certains égards, leur comportement n'est pas
intuitif et, parfois, elles ne se comportent pas comme vous pouvez vous
y attendre.  Cette section met en évidence certains des pièges les plus
courants.

* Menu:

* Utilisez les méthodes du type string::
* match() contre search(): match contre search.
* Glouton contre non-glouton::
* Utilisez re.VERBOSE: Utilisez re VERBOSE.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisez les méthodes du type string,  Next: match contre search,  Up: Problèmes classiques

9.9.6.1 Utilisez les méthodes du type 'string'
..............................................

Parfois, il ne faut pas utiliser le module *note re: b8.  Si vous faites
correspondre une chaîne fixe, ou une classe à un seul caractère, et que
vous n'utilisez pas les fonctionnalités de *note re: b8. telles que
l'option *note IGNORECASE: 16e1, alors la puissance des expressions
régulières n'est pas nécessaire.  Les chaînes de caractères ont
plusieurs méthodes pour opérer sur des chaînes fixes et elles sont
généralement beaucoup plus rapides, parce que l'implémentation est une
seule petite boucle C qui a été optimisée, au lieu du gros moteur
d'expressions régulières plus généraliste.

Nous pouvons prendre l'exemple du remplacement d'une seule chaîne fixe
par une autre ; vous souhaitez remplacer ‘mot’ par ‘acte’.  *note
re.sub(): 2a0. semble être faite pour cela, mais regardons la méthode
*note replace(): 198.  Notons que ‘replace()’ remplace aussi ‘mot’ à
l'intérieur des mots, transformant ‘moteur’ en ‘acteeur’, mais la RE
naïve ‘mot’ aurait aussi fait cela (pour éviter d'effectuer la
substitution sur des parties de mots, le motif doit être ‘\bmot\b’, qui
exige que ‘mot’ soit en limite de mot d'un côté et de l'autre ; c'est
au-delà des capacités de la méthode ‘replace()’).

Une autre tâche classique est de supprimer chaque occurrence d'un seul
caractère d'une chaîne de caractères ou de le remplacer par un autre
caractère unique.  Vous pouvez le faire avec quelque chose comme
‘re.sub('\n', ' ', S)’, mais *note translate(): 2185. en est capable et
est plus rapide que n'importe quelle opération d'expression régulière.

Bref, avant de passer au module *note re: b8, évaluez d'abord si votre
problème peut être résolu avec une méthode de chaîne plus rapide et plus
simple.


File: python.info,  Node: match contre search,  Next: Glouton contre non-glouton,  Prev: Utilisez les méthodes du type string,  Up: Problèmes classiques

9.9.6.2 'match()' contre 'search()'
...................................

La fonction *note match(): 120d. vérifie seulement si la RE correspond
au début de la chaîne de caractères tandis que *note search(): 120c.
parcourt la chaîne de caractères pour trouver une correspondance.  Il
est important de garder cette distinction à l'esprit.  Rappelez-vous,
‘match()’ ne trouve qu'une correspondance qui commence à 0 ; si la
correspondance commence plus loin, ‘match()’ 'ne la trouve pas'.

     >>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable'))
     None

D'un autre côté, *note search(): 120c. balaie la chaîne de caractères,
rapportant la première correspondance qu'elle trouve.

     >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
     (2, 7)

Vous pouvez être tenté d'utiliser *note re.match(): 120d. en ajoutant
simplement ‘.*’ au début de votre RE. Ce n'est pas une bonne idée,
utilisez plutôt *note re.search(): 120c.  Le compilateur d'expressions
régulières analyse les RE pour optimiser le processus de recherche d'une
correspondance.  Cette analyse permet de déterminer ce que doit être le
premier caractère d'une correspondance ; par exemple, un motif
commençant par ‘Corbeau’ doit faire correspondre un ‘'C'’ en tête.
L'analyse permet au moteur de parcourir rapidement la chaîne de
caractères à la recherche du caractère de départ, n'essayant la
correspondance complète que si un ‘'C'’ a déjà été trouvé.

Ajouter ‘.*’ annihile cette optimisation, nécessitant un balayage
jusqu'à la fin de la chaîne de caractères, puis un retour en arrière
pour trouver une correspondance pour le reste de la RE. Préférez
l'utilisation *note re.search(): 120c.


File: python.info,  Node: Glouton contre non-glouton,  Next: Utilisez re VERBOSE,  Prev: match contre search,  Up: Problèmes classiques

9.9.6.3 Glouton contre non-glouton
..................................

Si vous répétez un motif dans une expression régulière, comme ‘a*’,
l'action résultante est de consommer autant de motifs que possible.
C'est un problème lorsque vous essayez de faire correspondre une paire
de délimiteurs, comme des chevrons encadrant une balise HTML. Le motif
naïf pour faire correspondre une seule balise HTML ne fonctionne pas en
raison de la nature gloutonne de ‘.*’.

     >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
     >>> len(s)
     32
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span())
     (0, 32)
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group())
     <html><head><title>Title</title>

La RE correspond au ‘'<'’ de ‘'<html>'’ et le ‘.*’ consomme le reste de
la chaîne.  Mais, comme il reste des éléments du motif dans la RE et que
le ‘>’ ne peut pas correspondre à la fin de la chaîne de caractères, le
moteur d'expression régulière doit faire marche arrière caractère par
caractère jusqu'à ce qu'il trouve une correspondance pour le ‘>’.  La
correspondance finale s'étend du ‘'<'’ de ‘'<html>'’ au ‘'>'’ de
‘'</title>'’, ce qui n'est pas ce que vous voulez.

Dans ce cas, la solution consiste à utiliser des quantificateurs non
gloutons tels que ‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’ ou ‘{m,n}?’, qui effectuent une
correspondance aussi 'petite' que possible.  Dans l'exemple ci-dessus,
le ‘'>'’ est essayé immédiatement après que le ‘'<'’ corresponde et,
s'il échoue, le moteur avance caractère par caractère, ré-essayant ‘'>'’
à chaque pas.  Nous obtenons alors le bon résultat :

     >>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group())
     <html>

Note : l'analyse du HTML ou du XML avec des expressions régulières est
tout sauf une sinécure.  Les motifs écrits à la va-vite traiteront les
cas communs, mais HTML et XML ont des cas spéciaux qui font planter
l'expression régulière évidente ; quand vous aurez écrit une expression
régulière qui traite tous les cas possibles, les motifs seront 'très'
compliqués.  Utilisez un module d'analyse HTML ou XML pour de telles
tâches.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisez re VERBOSE,  Prev: Glouton contre non-glouton,  Up: Problèmes classiques

9.9.6.4 Utilisez 're.VERBOSE'
.............................

À présent, vous vous êtes rendu compte que les expressions régulières
sont une notation très compacte, mais qu'elles ne sont pas très
lisibles.  Une RE modérément complexe peut rapidement devenir une longue
collection de barres obliques inverses, de parenthèses et de
métacaractères, ce qui la rend difficile à lire et à comprendre.

Pour de telles RE, activer l'option *note re.VERBOSE: 22b8. à la
compilation de l'expression régulière peut être utile ; cela vous permet
de formater l'expression régulière de manière plus claire.

L'option ‘re.VERBOSE’ a plusieurs effets.  Les espaces dans l'expression
régulière qui 'ne sont pas' à l'intérieur d'une classe de caractères
sont ignorées.  Cela signifie qu'une expression comme ‘chien | chat’ est
équivalente à ‘chien|chat’ qui est moins lisible, mais ‘[a b]’
correspond toujours aux caractères ‘'a'’, ‘'b'’ ou à une espace.  En
outre, vous avez la possibilité de mettre des commentaires à l'intérieur
d'une RE ; les commentaires s'étendent du caractère ‘#’ à la nouvelle
ligne suivante.  Lorsque vous l'utilisez avec des chaînes à triple
guillemets, cela permet aux RE d'être formatées plus proprement :

     pat = re.compile(r"""
      \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace
      (?P<header>[^:]+)   # Header name
      \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon
      (?P<value>.*?)      # The header's value -- *? used to
                          # lose the following trailing whitespace
      \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line
     """, re.VERBOSE)

Ceci est beaucoup plus lisible que :

     pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")


File: python.info,  Node: Vos commentaires,  Prev: Problèmes classiques,  Up: Guide des expressions régulières

9.9.7 Vos commentaires
----------------------

Les expressions régulières sont un sujet compliqué.  Est-ce que ce
document vous a aidé à les comprendre ?  Des parties ne sont pas
claires, ou des problèmes que vous avez rencontrés ne sont pas traités
ici ?  Si tel est le cas, merci d'envoyer vos suggestions
d'améliorations à l'auteur.

Le livre le plus complet sur les expressions régulières est certainement
'Mastering Regular Expressions' de Jeffrey Friedl, publié par O'Reilly.
Malheureusement, il se concentre sur les déclinaisons Perl et Java des
expressions régulières et ne contient aucun contenu pour Python ; il
n'est donc pas utile d'en faire référence pour la programmation Python.
(La première édition traitait du module Python ‘regex’, maintenant
supprimé, ce qui ne vous aidera pas beaucoup.)  Pensez à le retirer de
votre bibliothèque.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets,  Next: Sorting Techniques,  Prev: Guide des expressions régulières,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.10 Guide pratique : programmation avec les 'sockets'
======================================================


Auteur: Gordon McMillan

Résumé
......

Les connecteurs ('sockets', en anglais) sont utilisés presque partout,
mais ils sont l'une des technologies les plus méconnues.  En voici un
aperçu très général.  Ce n'est pas vraiment un tutoriel — vous aurez
encore du travail à faire pour avoir un résultat opérationnel.  Il ne
couvre pas les détails (et il y en a beaucoup), mais j'espère qu'il vous
donnera suffisamment d'informations pour commencer à les utiliser
correctement.

* Menu:

* Connecteurs (sockets): Connecteurs sockets.
* Création d'un connecteur::
* Utilisation d'un connecteur::
* Déconnexion::
* Connecteurs non bloquants::


File: python.info,  Node: Connecteurs sockets,  Next: Création d'un connecteur,  Up: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets

9.10.1 Connecteurs ('sockets')
------------------------------

Je ne parlerai que des connecteurs 'INET' (c'est-à-dire IPv4), mais ils
représentent au moins 99 % des connecteurs utilisés.  Et je ne parlerai
que des connecteurs 'STREAM' (c.-à-d.  'TCP') — à moins que vous ne
sachiez vraiment ce que vous faites (auquel cas ce guide n'est pas pour
vous), vous obtiendrez un meilleur comportement et de meilleures
performances avec un connecteur 'STREAM' qu'avec n'importe quel autre.
Je vais essayer d'éclaircir le mystère de ce qu'est un connecteur, ainsi
que quelques conseils sur la façon de travailler avec des connecteurs
bloquants et non bloquants.  Mais je commencerai par parler des
connecteurs bloquants.  Vous devez savoir comment ils fonctionnent avant
de vous intéresser aux connecteurs non bloquants.

Une partie de la difficulté à comprendre ces choses est que
« connecteur » peut désigner plusieurs choses très légèrement
différentes, selon le contexte.  Faisons donc d'abord une distinction
entre un connecteur « client » — point final d'une conversation — et un
connecteur « serveur », qui ressemble davantage à un standardiste.
L'application cliente (votre navigateur par exemple) utilise
exclusivement des connecteurs « client » ; le serveur web avec lequel
elle parle utilise à la fois des connecteurs « serveur » et des
connecteurs « client ».

* Menu:

* Historique::


File: python.info,  Node: Historique,  Up: Connecteurs sockets

9.10.1.1 Historique
...................

Parmi les différentes formes d’IPC (Inter Process Communication), les
connecteurs sont de loin les plus populaires.  Sur une plate-forme
donnée, il est probable que d'autres formes d''IPC' soient plus rapides,
mais pour la communication entre plates-formes, les connecteurs sont à
peu près la seule solution valable.

Ils ont été inventés à Berkeley dans le cadre de la déclinaison 'BSD'
d'Unix.  Ils se sont répandus comme une traînée de poudre avec Internet.
Et pour cause : la combinaison des connecteurs avec 'INET' rend le
dialogue avec n’importe quelle machine dans le monde entier
incroyablement facile (du moins par rapport à d'autres systèmes).


File: python.info,  Node: Création d'un connecteur,  Next: Utilisation d'un connecteur,  Prev: Connecteurs sockets,  Up: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets

9.10.2 Création d'un connecteur
-------------------------------

Grosso modo, lorsque vous avez cliqué sur le lien qui vous a amené à
cette page, votre navigateur a fait quelque chose comme ceci :

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port
     s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))

Lorsque l’appel à ‘connect’ est terminé, le connecteur ‘s’ peut être
utilisé pour envoyer une requête demandant le texte de la page.  Le même
connecteur lira la réponse, puis sera mis au rebut.  C'est exact, mis au
rebut.  Les connecteurs clients ne sont normalement utilisés que pour un
seul échange (ou un petit ensemble d'échanges séquentiels).

Ce qui se passe dans le serveur web est un peu plus complexe.  Tout
d'abord, le serveur web crée un « connecteur serveur » :

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port
     serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
     # become a server socket
     serversocket.listen(5)

Quelques remarques : nous avons utilisé ‘socket.gethostname()’ pour que
le connecteur soit visible par le monde extérieur.  Si nous avions
utilisé ‘s.bind(('localhost', 80))’ ou ‘s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))’, nous
aurions toujours un connecteur « serveur », mais qui ne serait visible
qu'à l'intérieur de la même machine.  ‘s.bind(('', 80))’ précise que le
connecteur est accessible par n'importe quelle adresse que la machine
possède.

Une deuxième chose à noter : les ports dont le numéro est petit sont
généralement réservés aux services « bien connus » (HTTP, SNMP, etc.).
Si vous expérimentez, utilisez un nombre suffisamment élevé (4
chiffres).

Enfin, l'argument passé à ‘listen’ indique à la bibliothèque de
connecteurs que nous voulons mettre en file d'attente jusqu'à 5 requêtes
de connexion (le maximum normal) avant de refuser les connexions
externes.  Si le reste du code est écrit correctement, cela devrait
suffire.

Maintenant que nous avons un connecteur « serveur », en écoute sur le
port 80, nous pouvons entrer dans la boucle principale du serveur web :

     while True:
         # accept connections from outside
         (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
         # now do something with the clientsocket
         # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server
         ct = client_thread(clientsocket)
         ct.run()

Il y a en fait trois façons générales de faire fonctionner cette boucle
: mobiliser un fil d'exécution pour gérer les ‘clientsocket’s, créer un
nouveau processus pour gérer les ‘clientsocket’s, ou restructurer cette
application pour utiliser des connecteurs non bloquants, et multiplexer
entre notre connecteur « serveur » et n'importe quel ‘clientsocket’
actif en utilisant ‘select’.  Plus d'informations à ce sujet plus tard.
La chose importante à comprendre maintenant est la suivante : c'est
'tout' ce que fait un connecteur « serveur ».  Il n'envoie aucune
donnée.  Il ne reçoit aucune donnée.  Il ne fait que produire des
connecteurs « clients ».  Chaque ‘clientsocket’ est créé en réponse à un
'autre' connecteur « client » qui se connecte à l'hôte et au port
auxquels nous sommes liés.  Dès que nous avons créé ce ‘clientsocket’,
nous retournons à l'écoute pour d'autres connexions.  Les deux
« clients » sont libres de discuter — ils utilisent un port alloué
dynamiquement qui sera recyclé à la fin de la conversation.

* Menu:

* IPC (Communication Entre Processus): IPC Communication Entre Processus.


File: python.info,  Node: IPC Communication Entre Processus,  Up: Création d'un connecteur

9.10.2.1 'IPC' (Communication Entre Processus)
..............................................

Si vous avez besoin d'une communication rapide entre deux processus sur
une même machine, vous devriez regarder comment utiliser les tubes
('pipe', en anglais) ou la mémoire partagée.  Si vous décidez d'utiliser
les connecteurs 'AF_INET', liez le connecteur « serveur » à
‘'localhost'’.  Sur la plupart des plates-formes, cela contourne
quelques couches réseau et est un peu plus rapide.

Voir aussi
..........

Le *note multiprocessing: 93. intègre de l’IPC multiplateformes dans une
API de plus haut niveau.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation d'un connecteur,  Next: Déconnexion,  Prev: Création d'un connecteur,  Up: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets

9.10.3 Utilisation d'un connecteur
----------------------------------

La première chose à noter, c'est que la prise « client » du navigateur
web et la prise « client » du serveur web sont des bêtes identiques.
C'est-à-dire qu'il s'agit d'une conversation « pair à pair ».  Ou pour
le dire autrement, 'en tant que concepteur, vous devrez décider quelles
sont les règles d'étiquette pour une conversation'.  Normalement, la
connexion via ‘connect’ lance la conversation en envoyant une demande,
ou peut-être un signe.  Mais c'est une décision de conception — ce n'est
pas une règle des connecteurs.

Il y a maintenant deux ensembles de verbes à utiliser pour la
communication.  Vous pouvez utiliser ‘send’ et ‘recv’, ou vous pouvez
transformer votre connecteur client en une bête imitant un fichier et
utiliser ‘read’ et ‘write’.  C'est la façon dont Java présente ses
connecteurs.  Je ne vais pas en parler ici, sauf pour vous avertir que
vous devez utiliser ‘flush’ sur les connecteurs.  Ce sont des
« fichiers », mis en mémoire tampon, et une erreur courante est
d'« écrire » via ‘write’ quelque chose, puis de « lire » via ‘read’ pour
obtenir une réponse.  Sans un ‘flush’, vous pouvez attendre la réponse
pour toujours, parce que la requête peut encore être dans votre mémoire
tampon de sortie.

Nous arrivons maintenant au principal écueil des connecteurs — ‘send’ et
‘recv’ fonctionnent sur les mémoires tampons du réseau.  Ils ne traitent
pas nécessairement tous les octets que vous leur passez (ou que vous
attendez d'eux), car leur principal objectif est de gérer les tampons
réseau.  En général, leur exécution se termine lorsque les tampons
réseau associés ont été remplis (‘send’) ou vidés (‘recv’).  Ils vous
indiquent alors combien d'octets ils ont traité.  Il est de 'votre'
responsabilité de les rappeler jusqu'à ce que votre message ait été
complètement traité.

Lorsqu'un ‘recv’ renvoie 0 octet, cela signifie que l'autre partie a
fermé (ou est en train de fermer) la connexion.  Vous ne recevrez plus
de données sur cette connexion.  Jamais.  Vous pouvez peut-être envoyer
des données avec succès.  J’en parlerai plus tard.

Un protocole comme HTTP utilise un connecteur pour un seul transfert.
Le client envoie une demande, puis lit une réponse.  C'est tout.  Le
connecteur est mis au rebut.  Cela signifie qu'un client peut détecter
la fin de la réponse en recevant 0 octet.

Mais si vous prévoyez de réutiliser votre connecteur pour d'autres
transferts, vous devez réaliser qu''il n'y a pas' d'EOT (End of
Transfer) 'sur un connecteur'.  Je répète : si un appel à ‘send’ ou
‘recv’ se termine après avoir traité 0 octet, la connexion a été
interrompue.  Si la connexion n'a 'pas' été interrompue, vous pouvez
attendre sur un ‘recv’ pour toujours, car le connecteur ne vous dira pas
qu'il n'y a plus rien à lire (pour le moment).  Maintenant, si vous y
réfléchissez un peu, vous allez vous rendre compte d'une vérité
fondamentale sur les connecteurs : 'les messages doivent être de
longueur fixe' (beurk), 'ou être délimités' (bof), 'ou indiquer de
quelle longueur ils sont' (beaucoup mieux), 'ou terminer en coupant la
connexion'.  Le choix est entièrement de votre côté (mais certaines
façons sont meilleurs que d'autres).

En supposant que vous ne vouliez pas terminer la connexion, la solution
la plus simple est un message de longueur fixe :

     class MySocket:
         """demonstration class only
           - coded for clarity, not efficiency
         """

         def __init__(self, sock=None):
             if sock is None:
                 self.sock = socket.socket(
                                 socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
             else:
                 self.sock = sock

         def connect(self, host, port):
             self.sock.connect((host, port))

         def mysend(self, msg):
             totalsent = 0
             while totalsent < MSGLEN:
                 sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
                 if sent == 0:
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 totalsent = totalsent + sent

         def myreceive(self):
             chunks = []
             bytes_recd = 0
             while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
                 chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
                 if chunk == b'':
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 chunks.append(chunk)
                 bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
             return b''.join(chunks)

Le code d'envoi ici est utilisable pour presque tous les systèmes de
messagerie — en Python, vous envoyez des chaînes de caractères, et vous
pouvez utiliser ‘len()’ pour en déterminer la longueur (même si elle
contient des caractères ‘\0’).  C'est surtout le code de réception qui
devient plus complexe.  (Et en C, ce n'est pas bien pire, sauf que vous
ne pouvez pas utiliser ‘strlen’ si le message contient des ‘\0’s).

Le plus simple est de faire du premier caractère du message un
indicateur du type de message, et de faire en sorte que le type
détermine la longueur.  Vous avez maintenant deux ‘recv’s — le premier
pour obtenir (au moins) ce premier caractère afin de pouvoir déterminer
la longueur, et le second dans une boucle pour obtenir le reste.  Si
vous décidez de suivre la route délimitée, vous recevrez un morceau de
taille arbitraire (4096 ou 8192 est fréquemment une bonne valeur pour
correspondre à la taille de la mémoire tampon du réseau), et vous
analyserez ce que vous avez reçu pour trouver un délimiteur.

Une subtilité dont il faut être conscient : si votre protocole de
conversation permet de renvoyer plusieurs messages les uns à la suite
des autres (sans aucune sorte de réponse), et que vous passez à ‘recv’
une taille de morceau arbitraire, vous pouvez en arriver à lire le début
du message suivant.  Vous devrez alors le mettre de côté et le
conserver, jusqu'à ce que vous en ayez besoin.

Préfixer le message avec sa longueur (disons, sous la forme de 5
caractères numériques) devient plus complexe, parce que (croyez-le ou
non), vous pouvez ne pas recevoir les 5 caractères en un seul ‘recv’.
Pour une utilisation triviale, vous vous en tirerez à bon compte ; mais
en cas de forte charge réseau, votre code se cassera très rapidement, à
moins que vous n’utilisiez deux boucles ‘recv’ — la première pour
déterminer la longueur, la deuxième pour obtenir la partie « données »
du message.  Vilain.  C’est aussi à ce moment que vous découvrirez que
« l’envoi » via ‘send’ ne parvient pas toujours à tout évacuer en un
seul passage.  Et bien que vous ayez lu cet avertissement, vous finirez
par vous faire avoir par cette subtilité !

Pour garder une longueur raisonnable à cette page, pour forger votre
caractère (et afin de garder l’avantage concurrentiel que j’ai sur
vous), ces améliorations ne seront pas abordées et sont laissées en
exercice au lecteur.  Passons maintenant au nettoyage.

* Menu:

* Données binaires::


File: python.info,  Node: Données binaires,  Up: Utilisation d'un connecteur

9.10.3.1 Données binaires
.........................

Il est parfaitement possible d'envoyer des données binaires par
l'intermédiaire d'un connecteur.  Le problème majeur est que toutes les
machines n'utilisent pas les mêmes formats pour les données binaires.
Par exemple, l’ordre des octets du réseau(1) est gros-boutiste, avec
l'octet le plus significatif en premier, de sorte qu'un entier de 16
bits avec la valeur ‘1’ serait les deux octets hexadécimaux ‘00 01’.
Cependant, la plupart des processeurs courants (x86/AMD64, ARM, RISC-V)
sont petit-boutistes, avec l'octet le moins significatif en premier - ce
même ‘1’ serait ‘01 00’.

Les bibliothèques de sockets ont des appels pour convertir les entiers
16 et 32 bits - ‘ntohl, htonl, ntohs, htons’ où « n » signifie 'network'
(réseau) et « h » signifie 'host' (hôte), « s » signifie 'short' (court)
et « l » signifie 'long'.  Lorsque l’ordre du réseau est l’ordre de
l’hôte, ils ne font rien, mais lorsque la machine fonctionne en ordre
inversé, ils échangent les octets de manière appropriée.

De nos jours, avec les machines 64 bits, la représentation 'ASCII' des
données binaires est souvent plus compacte que la représentation
binaire.  C’est parce que dans un nombre surprenant de cas, tous ces
'entiers' ont la valeur 0 et parfois 1.  La chaîne « 0 » serait codée
sur deux octets, alors qu'elle le serait sur 8 en tant que binaire 64
bits.  Bien sûr, cela ne fonctionne pas très bien avec les messages de
longueur fixe.  C’est une affaire de choix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutisme#Dans_les_communications


File: python.info,  Node: Déconnexion,  Next: Connecteurs non bloquants,  Prev: Utilisation d'un connecteur,  Up: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets

9.10.4 Déconnexion
------------------

À proprement parler, vous êtes censé utiliser ‘shutdown’ sur un
connecteur pour l’arrêter avant de le fermer via ‘close’.  Le ‘shutdown’
est un avertissement au connecteur de l’autre côté.  Selon l’argument
que vous lui passez, cela peut signifier « Je ne vais plus envoyer, mais
je vais quand même écouter », ou « Je n’écoute pas, bon débarras ! ».
La plupart des bibliothèques de connecteurs, cependant, sont tellement
habituées à ce que les programmeurs négligent d’utiliser ce morceau
d’étiquette que normalement un ‘close’ est équivalent à ‘shutdown() ;
close()’.  Ainsi, dans la plupart des situations, un ‘shutdown’
explicite n’est pas nécessaire.

Une façon d’utiliser efficacement le ‘shutdown’ est d’utiliser un
échange de type HTTP. Le client envoie une requête et effectue ensuite
un ‘shutdown(1)’.  Cela indique au serveur que « ce client a fini
d’envoyer, mais peut encore recevoir ».  Le serveur peut détecter 'EOF'
par une réception de 0 octet.  Il peut supposer qu’il a la requête
complète.  Le serveur envoie une réponse.  Si le ‘send’ se termine avec
succès, alors, en effet, le client était encore en train de recevoir.

Python pousse l’arrêt automatique un peu plus loin, et dit que lorsqu’un
connecteur est collecté par le ramasse-miette, il effectue
automatiquement une fermeture via ‘close’ si elle est nécessaire.  Mais
c’est une très mauvaise habitude de s’appuyer sur ce système.  Si votre
connecteur disparaît sans avoir fait un ‘close’, le connecteur à l’autre
bout peut rester suspendu indéfiniment, pensant que vous êtes juste
lent.  Fermez vos connecteurs quand vous avez terminé 's’il vous plaît'.

* Menu:

* Quand les connecteurs meurent::


File: python.info,  Node: Quand les connecteurs meurent,  Up: Déconnexion

9.10.4.1 Quand les connecteurs meurent
......................................

Le pire dans l'utilisation de connecteurs bloquants est probablement ce
qui se passe lorsque l'autre côté s'interrompt brutalement (sans faire
de fermeture via ‘close’).  Votre connecteur risque d’attendre
infiniment.  TCP est un protocole fiable, et il attendra très, très
longtemps avant d'abandonner une connexion.  Si vous utilisez des fils
d’exécution, le fil entier est pratiquement mort.  Il n'y a pas
grand-chose que vous puissiez faire à ce sujet.  Du moment que vous ne
faites rien de stupide, comme tenir un verrou verrouillé pendant une
lecture bloquante, le fil ne consomme pas vraiment beaucoup de
ressources.  N'essayez 'pas' de tuer le fil — si les fils sont plus
efficients que les processus, c'est en partie parce qu'ils évitent les
coûts significatifs liés au recyclage automatique des ressources.  En
d'autres termes, si vous parvenez à tuer le fil, tout votre processus
risque d'être foutu.


File: python.info,  Node: Connecteurs non bloquants,  Prev: Déconnexion,  Up: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets

9.10.5 Connecteurs non bloquants
--------------------------------

Si vous avez compris ce qui précède, vous savez déjà tout ce que vous
devez savoir sur la mécanique de l’utilisation des connecteurs.  Vous
utiliserez toujours les mêmes appels, de la même façon.  Il n’y que ça.
Si vous le faites bien, c’est presque dans la poche.

En Python, vous utilisez ‘socket.setblocking(0)’ pour rendre
non-bloquant.  En C, c’est plus complexe (pour commencer, vous devez
choisir entre la version BSD ‘O_NONBLOCK’ et la version POSIX presque
impossible à distinguer ‘O_NDELAY’, qui est complètement différente de
‘TCP_NODELAY’), mais c’est exactement la même idée.  Vous le faites
après avoir créé le connecteur mais avant de l’utiliser (en fait, si
vous êtes fou, vous pouvez alterner).

La différence majeure de fonctionnement est que ‘send’, ‘recv’,
‘connect’ et ‘accept’ peuvent rendre la main sans avoir rien fait.  Vous
avez (bien sûr) un certain nombre de choix.  Vous pouvez vérifier le
code de retour et les codes d'erreur et, en général, devenir fou.  Si
vous ne me croyez pas, essayez un jour.  Votre application va grossir,
boguer et vampiriser le processeur.  Alors, évitons les solutions vouées
à l’échec dès le départ et faisons les choses correctement.

Utilisation de ‘select’.

En C, implémenter ‘select’ est assez complexe.  En Python, c'est du
gâteau, mais c'est assez proche de la version C ; aussi, si vous
comprenez ‘select’ en Python, vous aurez peu de problèmes en C :

     ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
                    select.select(
                       potential_readers,
                       potential_writers,
                       potential_errs,
                       timeout)

Vous passez à ‘select’ trois listes : la première contient tous les
connecteurs dont vous souhaiter lire le contenu ; la deuxième tous les
connecteurs sur lesquels vous voudriez écrire, et la dernière
(normalement laissée vide) ceux sur lesquels vous voudriez vérifier s’il
y a des erreurs.  Prenez note qu'un connecteur peut figurer dans plus
d'une liste.  L'appel à ‘select’ est bloquant, mais vous pouvez lui
donner un délai d'attente.  C'est généralement une bonne chose à faire —
donnez-lui un bon gros délai d'attente (disons une minute), à moins que
vous n'ayez une bonne raison de ne pas le faire.

En retour, vous recevrez trois listes.  Elles contiennent les
connecteurs qui sont réellement lisibles, inscriptibles et en erreur.
Chacune de ces listes est un sous-ensemble (éventuellement vide) de la
liste correspondante que vous avez transmise.

Si un connecteur se trouve dans la liste renvoyée des connecteurs
lisibles, vous pouvez être pratiquement certain qu'un ‘recv’ sur ce
connecteur renvoie 'quelque chose'.  Même chose pour la liste renvoyée
des connecteurs inscriptibles.  Vous pourrez envoyer 'quelque chose'.
Peut-être pas tout ce que vous voudrez, mais 'quelque chose' est mieux
que rien (en fait, n'importe quel connecteur raisonnablement sain sera
présent dans la liste des connecteurs inscriptibles — cela signifie
simplement que l'espace tampon réseau sortant est disponible).

Si vous avez un connecteur « serveur », mettez-le dans la liste des
connecteurs potentiellement lisibles ‘potential_readers’.  S’il apparaît
dans la liste renvoyée des connecteurs que vous pouvez lire, votre
‘accept’ fonctionnera (presque certainement).  Si vous avez créé un
nouveau connecteur pour se connecter via ‘connect’ à quelqu'un d'autre,
mettez-le dans la liste des connecteurs potentiellement inscriptibles.
S’il apparaît dans la liste renvoyée des connecteurs sur lesquels vous
pouvez écrire, vous avez une bonne chance qu'il se soit connecté.

En fait, ‘select’ peut être pratique même avec des connecteurs
bloquants.  C'est une façon de déterminer si vous allez bloquer — le
connecteur est renvoyé comme lisible lorsqu'il y a quelque chose dans
les mémoires tampons.  Cependant, cela n'aide pas encore à déterminer si
l'autre extrémité a terminé, ou si elle est simplement occupée par autre
chose.

'Alerte de portabilité' : Sous Unix, ‘select’ fonctionne aussi bien avec
les connecteurs qu'avec les fichiers.  N'essayez pas cela sous Windows.
Sous Windows, ‘select’ ne fonctionne qu'avec les connecteurs.  Notez
également qu'en C, la plupart des options de connecteurs les plus
avancées se font différemment sous Windows.  En fait, sous Windows,
j'utilise habituellement des fils d'exécution (qui fonctionnent très,
très bien) avec mes connecteurs.


File: python.info,  Node: Sorting Techniques,  Next: Guide Unicode,  Prev: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.11 Sorting Techniques
=======================


Auteur: Andrew Dalke et Raymond Hettinger

Les listes Python ont une méthode native *note list.sort(): bbf. qui
modifie les listes elles-mêmes.  Il y a également une fonction native
*note sorted(): bbe. qui construit une nouvelle liste triée depuis un
itérable.

Dans ce document, nous explorons différentes techniques pour trier les
données en Python.

* Menu:

* Les bases du tri::
* Fonctions clef::
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* Ascendant et descendant::
* Stabilité des tris et tris complexes::
* Decorate-Sort-Undecorate::
* Comparison Functions::
* Et n'oublions pas::
* Partial Sorts::


File: python.info,  Node: Les bases du tri,  Next: Fonctions clef,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.1 Les bases du tri
-----------------------

Un tri ascendant simple est très facile : il suffit d'appeler la
fonction *note sorted(): bbe.  Elle renvoie une nouvelle liste triée :

     >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Vous pouvez aussi utiliser la méthode *note list.sort(): bbf.  Elle
modifie la liste elle-même (et renvoie ‘None’ pour éviter les
confusions).  Habituellement, cette méthode est moins pratique que la
fonction *note sorted(): bbe. - mais si vous n'avez pas besoin de la
liste originale, cette technique est légèrement plus efficace.

     >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
     >>> a.sort()
     >>> a
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Une autre différence est que la méthode *note list.sort(): bbf. est
seulement définie pour les listes.  Au contraire, la fonction *note
sorted(): bbe. accepte n'importe quel itérable.

     >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]


File: python.info,  Node: Fonctions clef,  Next: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Prev: Les bases du tri,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.2 Fonctions clef
---------------------

*note list.sort(): bbf. et *note sorted(): bbe. ont un paramètre 'key'
afin de spécifier une fonction (ou autre appelable) qui peut être
appelée sur chaque élément de la liste avant d'effectuer des
comparaisons.

Par exemple, voici une comparaison de texte insensible à la casse :

     >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold)
     ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']

La valeur du paramètre 'key' doit être une fonction (ou autre appelable)
qui prend un seul argument et renvoie une clef à utiliser à des fins de
tri.  Cette technique est rapide car la fonction clef est appelée
exactement une seule fois pour chaque enregistrement en entrée.

Un usage fréquent est de faire un tri sur des objets complexes en
utilisant les indices des objets en tant que clef.  Par exemple :

     >>> student_tuples = [
     ...     ('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

La même technique marche pour des objets avec des attributs nommés.  Par
exemple :

     >>> class Student:
     ...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
     ...         self.name = name
     ...         self.grade = grade
     ...         self.age = age
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))

     >>> student_objects = [
     ...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown
above, or they can be instances of *note dataclass: 1c6. or a *note
named tuple: 63b.


File: python.info,  Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Next: Ascendant et descendant,  Prev: Fonctions clef,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.3 Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation
----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note key function: df4. patterns shown above are very common, so
Python provides convenience functions to make accessor functions easier
and faster.  The *note operator: 9e. module has *note itemgetter(): a52,
*note attrgetter(): e22, and a *note methodcaller(): e23. function.

En utilisant ces fonctions, les exemples au dessus deviennent plus
simples et plus rapides :

     >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Les fonctions du module 'operator' permettent plusieurs niveaux de tri.
Par exemple, pour trier par 'grade' puis par 'age' :

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

The *note functools: 5e. module provides another helpful tool for making
key-functions.  The *note partial(): 40a. function can reduce the
arity(1) of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a
key-function.

     >>> from functools import partial
     >>> from unicodedata import normalize

     >>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split()

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD'))
     ['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë']

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC'))
     ['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity


File: python.info,  Node: Ascendant et descendant,  Next: Stabilité des tris et tris complexes,  Prev: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.4 Ascendant et descendant
------------------------------

*note list.sort(): bbf. et *note sorted(): bbe. acceptent un paramètre
nommé 'reverse' avec une valeur booléenne.  C'est utilisé pour
déterminer l'ordre descendant des tris.  Par exemple, pour avoir les
données des étudiants dans l'ordre inverse par 'age' :

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]


File: python.info,  Node: Stabilité des tris et tris complexes,  Next: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate,  Prev: Ascendant et descendant,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.5 Stabilité des tris et tris complexes
-------------------------------------------

Les tris sont garantis stables(1).  Cela signifie que lorsque plusieurs
enregistrements on la même clef, leur ordre original est préservé.

     >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
     >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
     [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]

Notez comme les deux enregistrements pour 'blue' gardent leur ordre
original et que par conséquent il est garanti que ‘('blue', 1)’ précède
‘('blue', 2)’.

Cette propriété fantastique vous permet de construire des tris complexes
dans des tris en plusieurs étapes.  Par exemple, afin de sortir les
données des étudiants en ordre descendant par 'grade' puis en ordre
ascendant par 'age', effectuez un tri par 'age' en premier puis un
second tri par 'grade' :

     >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # sort on secondary key
     >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # now sort on primary key, descending
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Ceci peut être encapsulé dans une fonction qui prend une liste et des
n-uplets (attribut, ordre) pour les trier en plusieurs passes.

     >>> def multisort(xs, specs):
     ...     for key, reverse in reversed(specs):
     ...         xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse)
     ...     return xs

     >>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False)))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

L'algorithme Timsort(2) utilisé dans Python effectue de multiples tris
efficacement parce qu'il peut tirer avantage de l'ordre existant dans un
jeu de données.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithme_de_tri#Caract.C3.A8re_stable

   (2) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort


File: python.info,  Node: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate,  Next: Comparison Functions,  Prev: Stabilité des tris et tris complexes,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.6 Decorate-Sort-Undecorate
-------------------------------

Cette technique est appelée Decorate-Sort-Undecorate et se base sur
trois étapes :

   * Premièrement, la liste de départ est décorée avec les nouvelles
     valeurs qui contrôlent l'ordre du tri.

   * En second lieu, la liste décorée est triée.

   * Enfin, la décoration est supprimée, créant ainsi une liste qui
     contient seulement la valeur initiale dans le nouvel ordre.

Par exemple, pour trier les données étudiant par 'grade' en utilisant
l'approche DSU :

     >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
     >>> decorated.sort()
     >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # undecorate
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

Cette technique marche parce que les 'n'-uplets sont comparés par ordre
lexicographique; les premiers objets sont comparés; si il y a des objets
identiques, alors l'objet suivant est comparé, et ainsi de suite.

Il n'est pas strictement nécessaire dans tous les cas d’inclure l'indice
'i' dans la liste décorée, mais l'inclure donne deux avantages :

   * Le tri est stable - si deux objets on la même clef, leur ordre sera
     préservé dans la liste triée.

   * Les objets d'origine ne sont pas nécessairement comparables car
     l'ordre des 'n'-uplets décorés sera déterminé par au plus les deux
     premiers objets.  Donc par exemple la liste originale pourrait
     contenir des nombres complexes qui pourraient ne pas être triés
     directement.

Un autre nom pour cette technique est Schwartzian transform(1), après
que Randal L. Schwartz l'ait popularisé chez les développeurs Perl.

Maintenant que le tri Python fournit des fonctions-clef, cette technique
n'est plus souvent utilisée.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison Functions,  Next: Et n'oublions pas,  Prev: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.7 Comparison Functions
---------------------------

Unlike key functions that return an absolute value for sorting, a
comparison function computes the relative ordering for two inputs.

For example, a balance scale(1) compares two samples giving a relative
ordering: lighter, equal, or heavier.  Likewise, a comparison function
such as ‘cmp(a, b)’ will return a negative value for less-than, zero if
the inputs are equal, or a positive value for greater-than.

It is common to encounter comparison functions when translating
algorithms from other languages.  Also, some libraries provide
comparison functions as part of their API. For example, *note
locale.strcoll(): 3ce1. is a comparison function.

To accommodate those situations, Python provides *note
functools.cmp_to_key: 11b9. to wrap the comparison function to make it
usable as a key function:

     sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG


File: python.info,  Node: Et n'oublions pas,  Next: Partial Sorts,  Prev: Comparison Functions,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.8 Et n'oublions pas
------------------------

   * For locale aware sorting, use *note locale.strxfrm(): 3ce3. for a
     key function or *note locale.strcoll(): 3ce1. for a comparison
     function.  This is necessary because "alphabetical" sort orderings
     can vary across cultures even if the underlying alphabet is the
     same.

   * Le paramètre 'reverse' maintient toujours un tri stable (de telle
     sorte que les enregistrements avec des clef égales gardent le même
     ordre).  Notez que cet effet peut être simulé sans le paramètre en
     utilisant la fonction native *note reversed(): 852. deux fois :

          >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
          >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
          >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
          >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
          >>> standard_way
          [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]

   * The sort routines use ‘<’ when making comparisons between two
     objects.  So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by
     defining an *note __lt__(): 127f. method:

          >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
          >>> sorted(student_objects)
          [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     However, note that ‘<’ can fall back to using *note __gt__(): 12ec.
     if *note __lt__(): 127f. is not implemented (see *note
     object.__lt__(): 127f. for details on the mechanics).  To avoid
     surprises, PEP 8(1) recommends that all six comparison methods be
     implemented.  The *note total_ordering(): f2f. decorator is
     provided to make that task easier.

   * Les fonctions clef n'ont pas besoin de dépendre directement des
     objets triés.  Une fonction clef peut aussi accéder à des
     ressources externes.  En l'occurrence, si les grades des étudiants
     sont stockés dans un dictionnaire, ils peuvent être utilisés pour
     trier une liste différentes de noms d'étudiants :

          >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
          >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
          >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
          ['jane', 'dave', 'john']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Partial Sorts,  Prev: Et n'oublions pas,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.9 Partial Sorts
--------------------

Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered.  The
standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full
sort:

   * *note min(): ef5. and *note max(): ef6. return the smallest and
     largest values, respectively.  These functions make a single pass
     over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory.

   * *note heapq.nsmallest(): 24ef. and *note heapq.nlargest(): 24ee.
     return the 'n' smallest and largest values, respectively.  These
     functions make a single pass over the data keeping only 'n'
     elements in memory at a time.  For values of 'n' that are small
     relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer
     comparisons than a full sort.

   * *note heapq.heappush(): 1472. and *note heapq.heappop(): 1473.
     create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that
     keeps the smallest element at position ‘0’.  These functions are
     suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used
     for task scheduling.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide Unicode,  Next: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib,  Prev: Sorting Techniques,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.12 Guide Unicode
==================


Version: 1.12

Ce guide décrit la gestion de la spécification Unicode par Python pour
les données textuelles et explique les différents problèmes généralement
rencontrés par les utilisateurs qui travaillent avec Unicode.

* Menu:

* Introduction à Unicode::
* Prise en charge Unicode de Python::
* Lecture et écriture de données Unicode::
* Remerciements: Remerciements<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction à Unicode,  Next: Prise en charge Unicode de Python,  Up: Guide Unicode

9.12.1 Introduction à Unicode
-----------------------------

* Menu:

* Définitions::
* Encodages::
* Références: Références<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Définitions,  Next: Encodages,  Up: Introduction à Unicode

9.12.1.1 Définitions
....................

Les programmes d'aujourd'hui doivent être capables de traiter une grande
variété de caractères.  Les applications sont souvent internationalisées
pour afficher les messages et les résultats dans une variété de langues
sélectionnables par l'utilisateur ; le même programme peut avoir besoin
d'afficher un message d'erreur en anglais, français, japonais, hébreu ou
russe.  Le contenu Web peut être écrit dans n'importe laquelle de ces
langues et peut également inclure une variété de symboles émoji.  Le
type de chaîne de caractères de Python utilise le standard Unicode pour
représenter les caractères, ce qui permet aux programmes Python de
travailler avec tous ces différents caractères possibles.

Unicode (‘https://www.unicode.org/’) est une spécification qui vise à
lister tous les caractères utilisés par les langues humaines et à donner
à chaque caractère son propre code unique.  Les spécifications Unicode
sont continuellement révisées et mises à jour pour ajouter de nouvelles
langues et de nouveaux symboles.

Un 'caractère' est le plus petit composant possible d'un texte.  « A »,
« B », « C », etc.  sont tous des caractères différents.  Il en va de
même pour « È » et « Í ».  Les caractères varient selon la langue ou le
contexte dont vous parlez.  Par exemple, il y a un caractère pour
« Chiffre Romain Un » ('Roman Numeral One'), « Ⅰ », qui est séparé de la
lettre majuscule « I ».  Ils se ressemblent généralement, mais ce sont
deux caractères différents qui ont des significations différentes.

Le standard Unicode décrit comment les caractères sont représentés par
les 'points de code'.  Une valeur de point de code est un nombre entier
compris entre ‘0’ et ‘0x10FFFF’ (environ 1,1 million de valeurs
possibles, le nombre de valeurs réellement assignées(1) est inférieur à
ce nombre).  Dans le standard et dans le présent document, un point de
code est écrit en utilisant la notation ‘U+265E’ pour désigner le
caractère avec la valeur ‘0x265e’ (9 822 en décimal).

La standard Unicode contient de nombreux tableaux contenant la liste des
caractères et des points de code correspondants :

     0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
     0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
     0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
     ...
     007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
     ...
     2167    'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
     2168    'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
     ...
     265E    '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
     265F    '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN
     ...
     1F600   '😀'; GRINNING FACE
     1F609   '😉'; WINKING FACE
     ...

À proprement parler, ces définitions laissent entendre qu'il est inutile
de dire « c'est le caractère ‘U+265E’ ».  ‘U+265E’ est un point de code,
qui représente un caractère particulier ; dans ce cas, il représente le
caractère « BLACK CHESS KNIGHT », « ♞ ».  Dans des contextes informels,
cette distinction entre les points de code et les caractères sera
parfois oubliée.

Un caractère est représenté sur un écran ou sur papier par un ensemble
d’éléments graphiques appelé 'glyphe'.  Le glyphe d’un A majuscule, par
exemple, est deux traits diagonaux et un trait horizontal, bien que les
détails exacts dépendent de la police utilisée.  La plupart du code
Python n’a pas besoin de s’inquiéter des glyphes ; trouver le bon glyphe
à afficher est généralement le travail d’une boîte à outils GUI ou du
moteur de rendu des polices d’un terminal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary


File: python.info,  Node: Encodages,  Next: Références<4>,  Prev: Définitions,  Up: Introduction à Unicode

9.12.1.2 Encodages
..................

Pour résumer la section précédente : une chaîne Unicode est une séquence
de points de code, qui sont des nombres de ‘0’ à ‘0x10FFFF’ (1 114 111
en décimal).  Cette séquence de points de code doit être stockée en
mémoire sous la forme d'un ensemble de 'unités de code', et les 'unités
de code' sont ensuite transposées en octets de 8 bits.  Les règles de
traduction d'une chaîne Unicode en une séquence d'octets sont appelées
un 'encodage de caractères' ou simplement un 'encodage'.

Le premier encodage auquel vous pouvez penser est l'utilisation
d'entiers 32 bits comme unité de code, puis l'utilisation de la
représentation des entiers 32 bits par le CPU. Dans cette
représentation, la chaîne « Python » ressemblerait à ceci :

        P           y           t           h           o           n
     0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
        0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Cette représentation est simple mais son utilisation pose un certain
nombre de problèmes.

  1. Elle n’est pas portable ; des processeurs différents ordonnent les
     octets différemment.

  2. Elle gâche beaucoup d'espace.  Dans la plupart des textes, la
     majorité des points de code sont inférieurs à 127, ou à 255, donc
     beaucoup d'espace est occupé par des octets ‘0x00’.  La chaîne
     ci-dessus occupe 24 octets, à comparer aux 6 octets nécessaires
     pour une représentation en ASCII. L'utilisation supplémentaire de
     RAM n'a pas trop d'importance (les ordinateurs de bureau ont des
     gigaoctets de RAM et les chaînes ne sont généralement pas si
     grandes que ça), mais l'accroissement de notre utilisation du
     disque et de la bande passante réseau par un facteur de 4 est
     intolérable.

  3. Elle n’est pas compatible avec les fonctions C existantes telles
     que ‘strlen()’, il faudrait donc utiliser une nouvelle famille de
     fonctions, celle des chaînes larges ('wide strings').

Par conséquent, cet encodage n'est pas très utilisé et d'autres
encodages, plus efficaces et pratiques comme UTF-8, sont plutôt choisis.

UTF-8 est l’un des encodages les plus couramment utilisés et Python
l’utilise souvent par défaut.  UTF signifie « Unicode Transformation
Format » (format de transformation Unicode) et « 8 » signifie que des
nombres à 8 bits sont utilisés dans l'encodage (il existe également des
codages UTF-16 et UTF-32, mais ils sont moins souvent utilisés que
UTF-8).  UTF-8 utilise les règles suivantes :

  1. Si le point de code est < 128, il est représenté par la valeur de
     l'octet correspondant.

  2. Si le point de code est ≥ 128, il est transformé en une séquence de
     deux, trois ou quatre octets, où chaque octet de la séquence est
     compris entre 128 et 255.

UTF-8 a plusieurs propriétés intéressantes :

  1. Il peut gérer n'importe quel point de code Unicode.

  2. Une chaîne Unicode est transformée en une séquence d’octets qui
     contient des octets zéro uniquement lorsqu’ils représentent le
     caractère nul (U+0000).  Cela signifie que les chaînes UTF-8
     peuvent être traitées par des fonctions C telles que ‘strcpy()’ et
     envoyées par des protocoles pour qui les octets zéro signifient
     forcément la fin de chaîne.

  3. Une chaîne de texte ASCII est également un texte UTF-8 valide.

  4. UTF-8 est assez compact.  La majorité des caractères couramment
     utilisés peuvent être représentés avec un ou deux octets.

  5. Si des octets sont corrompus ou perdus, il est possible de
     déterminer le début du prochain point de code encodé en UTF-8 et de
     se resynchroniser.  Il est également improbable que des données
     8-bits aléatoires ressemblent à du UTF-8 valide.

  6. UTF-8 est un encodage orienté octet.  L'encodage spécifie que
     chaque caractère est représenté par une séquence spécifique d'un ou
     plusieurs octets.  Ceci permet d'éviter les problèmes d'ordre des
     octets qui peuvent survenir avec les encodages orientés entiers
     ('integer') ou orientés mots processeurs ('words'), comme UTF-16 et
     UTF-32, où la séquence des octets varie en fonction du matériel sur
     lequel la chaîne a été encodée.


File: python.info,  Node: Références<4>,  Prev: Encodages,  Up: Introduction à Unicode

9.12.1.3 Références
...................

Le site du Consortium Unicode(1), en anglais, a des diagrammes de
caractères, un glossaire et des versions PDF de la spécification
Unicode.  Préparez-vous à une lecture difficile.  Une chronologie(2) de
l’origine et du développement de l’Unicode est également disponible sur
le site.

Sur la chaîne Youtube 'Computerphile', Tom Scott parle brièvement de
l’histoire d’Unicode et d’UTF-8(3) (9 minutes et 36 secondes).

Pour aider à comprendre le standard, Jukka Korpela a écrit un guide
d’introduction(4) à la lecture des tables de caractères Unicode
(ressource en anglais).

Un autre bon article d'introduction(5) a été écrit par Joel Spolsky.  Si
cette présente introduction ne vous a pas clarifié les choses, vous
devriez essayer de lire cet article-là avant de continuer.

Les pages Wikipédia sont souvent utiles ; voir les pages pour « Codage
des caractères(6) » et UTF-8(7), par exemple.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/history/

   (3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4

   (4) https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html

   (5) 
https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/

   (6) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codage_des_caract%C3%A8res

   (7) https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8


File: python.info,  Node: Prise en charge Unicode de Python,  Next: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode,  Prev: Introduction à Unicode,  Up: Guide Unicode

9.12.2 Prise en charge Unicode de Python
----------------------------------------

Maintenant que vous avez appris les rudiments de l'Unicode, nous pouvons
regarder les fonctionnalités Unicode de Python.

* Menu:

* Le type String::
* Conversion en octets::
* Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python::
* Propriétés Unicode::
* Comparaison de chaînes de caractères::
* Expressions régulières Unicode::
* Références: Références<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Le type String,  Next: Conversion en octets,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.1 Le type 'String'
.........................

Depuis Python 3.0, le type *note str: 437. du langage contient des
caractères Unicode, c'est-à-dire n'importe quelle chaîne créée à l'aide
de ‘"unicode déchire !"’, ‘'unicode déchire !'’ ou la syntaxe à triples
guillemets est enregistrée comme Unicode.

L'encodage par défaut pour le code source Python est UTF-8, il est donc
facile d'inclure des caractères Unicode dans une chaîne littérale :

     try:
         with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
             ...
     except OSError:
         # 'File not found' error message.
         print("Fichier non trouvé")

Note : Python 3 sait gérer les caractères Unicode dans les
identifiants :

     répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
     with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
         f.write("test\n")

Si vous ne pouvez pas entrer un caractère particulier dans votre éditeur
ou si vous voulez garder le code source uniquement en ASCII pour une
raison quelconque, vous pouvez également utiliser des séquences
d'échappement dans les littéraux de chaîne (en fonction de votre
système, il se peut que vous voyiez le glyphe réel du 'delta majuscule'
au lieu d'une séquence d'échappement ‘\u...’)

     >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # Using the character name
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\u0394"                          # Using a 16-bit hex value
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\U00000394"                      # Using a 32-bit hex value
     '\u0394'

De plus, une chaîne de caractères peut être créée en utilisant la
méthode *note decode(): 8c5. de la classe *note bytes: 1bd.  Cette
méthode prend un argument 'encoding', ‘UTF-8’ par exemple, et
optionnellement un argument 'errors'.

L'argument 'errors' détermine la réponse lorsque la chaîne en entrée ne
peut pas être convertie selon les règles de l'encodage.  Les valeurs
autorisées pour cet argument sont ‘'strict'’ (« strict » : lève une
exception *note UnicodeDecodeError: a03.), ‘'replace'’ (« remplacer » :
utilise ‘U+FFFD’, ‘REPLACEMENT CARACTER’), ‘'ignore'’ (« ignorer » :
n'inclut pas le caractère dans le résultat Unicode) ou
‘'backslashreplace'’ (« remplacer avec antislash » : insère une séquence
d’échappement ‘\xNN’).  Les exemples suivants illustrent les
différences :

     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
       invalid start byte
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
     '\ufffdabc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
     '\\x80abc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
     'abc'

Les encodages sont spécifiés sous forme de chaînes de caractères
contenant le nom de l'encodage.  Python est livré avec une centaine
d'encodages différents ; voir la référence de la bibliothèque Python sur
les *note encodages standards: da8. pour une liste.  Certains encodages
ont plusieurs noms ; par exemple, ‘'latin-1'’, ‘'iso_8859_1'’ et
‘'8859'’ sont tous synonymes du même encodage.

Des chaînes Unicode à un caractère peuvent également être créées avec la
fonction native *note chr(): 162d, qui prend des entiers et renvoie une
chaîne Unicode de longueur 1 qui contient le point de code
correspondant.  L'opération inverse est la fonction native *note ord():
1ead. qui prend une chaîne Unicode d'un caractère et renvoie la valeur
du point de code :

     >>> chr(57344)
     '\ue000'
     >>> ord('\ue000')
     57344


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion en octets,  Next: Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python,  Prev: Le type String,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.2 Conversion en octets
.............................

La méthode inverse de *note bytes.decode(): 8c5. est *note str.encode():
8c4, qui renvoie une représentation *note bytes: 1bd. de la chaîne
Unicode, codée dans l’encodage 'encoding' demandé.

Le paramètre 'errors' est le même que le paramètre de la méthode *note
decode(): 8c5. mais possède quelques gestionnaires supplémentaires.  En
plus de ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’ et ‘'remplace'’ (qui dans ce cas insère
un point d'interrogation au lieu du caractère non encodable), il y a
aussi ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ (insère une référence XML),
‘backslashreplace’ (insère une séquence ‘\uNNNN’) et ‘namereplace’
(insère une séquence ‘\N{...}’).

L'exemple suivant montre les différents résultats :

     >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
     >>> u.encode('utf-8')
     b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
       position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
     b'abcd'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
     b'?abcd?'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
     b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
     b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'

Les routines de bas niveau pour enregistrer et accéder aux encodages
disponibles se trouvent dans le module *note codecs: 1b.
L'implémentation de nouveaux encodages nécessite également de comprendre
le module *note codecs: 1b.  Cependant, les fonctions d'encodage et de
décodage renvoyées par ce module sont généralement de bas-niveau pour
être facilement utilisées et l'écriture de nouveaux encodages est une
tâche très spécialisée, donc le module ne sera pas couvert dans ce
guide.


File: python.info,  Node: Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python,  Next: Propriétés Unicode,  Prev: Conversion en octets,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.3 Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python
.....................................................

Dans le code source Python, des points de code Unicode spécifiques
peuvent être écrits en utilisant la séquence d'échappement ‘\u’, suivie
de quatre chiffres hexadécimaux donnant le point de code.  La séquence
d'échappement ‘\U’ est similaire, mais attend huit chiffres
hexadécimaux, pas quatre :

     >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
     ... #     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape
     ... #         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape
     ... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape
     >>> [ord(c) for c in s]
     [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]

L'utilisation de séquences d'échappement pour des points de code
supérieurs à 127 est acceptable à faible dose, mais devient gênante si
vous utilisez beaucoup de caractères accentués, comme c'est le cas dans
un programme avec des messages en français ou dans une autre langue
utilisant des lettres accentuées.  Vous pouvez également assembler des
chaînes de caractères à l'aide de la fonction native *note chr(): 162d,
mais c'est encore plus fastidieux.

Idéalement, vous devriez être capable d'écrire des littéraux dans
l'encodage naturel de votre langue.  Vous pourriez alors éditer le code
source de Python avec votre éditeur favori qui affiche les caractères
accentués naturellement, et a les bons caractères utilisés au moment de
l'exécution.

Python considère que le code source est écrit en UTF-8 par défaut, mais
vous pouvez utiliser presque n'importe quel encodage si vous déclarez
l'encodage utilisé.  Cela se fait en incluant un commentaire spécial sur
la première ou la deuxième ligne du fichier source :

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: latin-1 -*-

     u = 'abcdé'
     print(ord(u[-1]))

La syntaxe s'inspire de la notation d''Emacs' pour spécifier les
variables locales à un fichier.  'Emacs' supporte de nombreuses
variables différentes, mais Python ne gère que 'coding'.  Les symboles
‘-*-’ indiquent à 'Emacs' que le commentaire est spécial ; ils n'ont
aucune signification pour Python mais sont une convention.  Python
cherche ‘coding: name’ ou ‘coding=name’ dans le commentaire.

Si vous n'incluez pas un tel commentaire, l'encodage par défaut est
UTF-8 comme déjà mentionné.  Voir aussi la PEP 263(1) pour plus
d'informations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Propriétés Unicode,  Next: Comparaison de chaînes de caractères,  Prev: Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.4 Propriétés Unicode
...........................

La spécification Unicode inclut une base de données d'informations sur
les points de code.  Pour chaque point de code défini, l'information
comprend le nom du caractère, sa catégorie, la valeur numérique s'il y a
lieu (pour les caractères représentant des concepts numériques tels que
les chiffres romains, les fractions telles qu'un tiers et quatre
cinquièmes, etc.).  Il existe également des propriétés liées à
l'affichage, telles que l'utilisation du point de code dans un texte
bidirectionnel.

Le programme suivant affiche des informations sur plusieurs caractères
et affiche la valeur numérique d'un caractère particulier :

     import unicodedata

     u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)

     for i, c in enumerate(u):
         print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
         print(unicodedata.name(c))

     # Get numeric value of second character
     print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))

Si vous l'exécutez, cela affiche :

     0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
     1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
     2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
     3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
     4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
     1000.0

Les codes de catégorie sont des abréviations décrivant la nature du
caractère.  Celles-ci sont regroupées en catégories telles que
« Lettre », « Nombre », « Ponctuation » ou « Symbole », qui sont à leur
tour divisées en sous-catégories.  Pour prendre par exemple les codes de
la sortie ci-dessus, ‘'Ll'’ signifie « Lettre, minuscules », ‘'No'’
signifie « Nombre, autre », ‘'Mn'’ est « Marque, non-espaçant », et
‘'So'’ est « Symbole, autre ».  Voir la section Valeurs générales des
catégories de la documentation de la base de données de caractères
Unicode(1) (ressource en anglais) pour une liste de codes de catégories.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaison de chaînes de caractères,  Next: Expressions régulières Unicode,  Prev: Propriétés Unicode,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.5 Comparaison de chaînes de caractères
.............................................

Unicode ajoute une certaine complication à la comparaison des chaînes de
caractères, car le même jeu de caractères peut être représenté par
différentes séquences de points de code.  Par exemple, une lettre comme
« ê » peut être représentée comme un point de code unique ‘U+00EA’, ou
comme ‘U+0065 U+0302’, qui est le point de code pour « e » suivi d'un
point de code pour ‘COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT’.  Celles-ci produisent
le même résultat lorsqu'elles sont affichées, mais l'une est une chaîne
de caractères de longueur 1 et l'autre de longueur 2.

Un outil pour une comparaison insensible à la casse est la méthode *note
casefold(): dc5. qui convertit une chaîne en une forme insensible à la
casse suivant un algorithme décrit par le standard Unicode.  Cet
algorithme a un traitement spécial pour les caractères tels que la
lettre allemande « 'ß' » (point de code ‘U+00DF’), qui devient la paire
de lettres minuscules « 'ss' ».

     >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
     >>> street.casefold()
     'gürzenichstrasse'

A second tool is the *note unicodedata: 104. module's *note normalize():
6c1. function that converts strings to one of several normal forms,
where letters followed by a combining character are replaced with single
characters.  *note normalize(): 6c1. can be used to perform string
comparisons that won't falsely report inequality if two strings use
combining characters differently:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_strs(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)

     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
     print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
     print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
     print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))

Si vous l'exécutez, cela affiche :

     $ python compare-strs.py
     length of first string= 1
     length of second string= 2
     True

Le premier argument de la fonction *note normalize(): 6c1. est une
chaîne de caractères donnant la forme de normalisation désirée, qui peut
être une de celles-ci : ‘'NFC'’, ‘'NFKC'’, ‘'NFD'’ et ‘'NFKD'’.

La norme Unicode spécifie également comment faire des comparaisons
insensibles à la casse :

     import unicodedata

     def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())

     # Example usage
     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'

     print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))

This will print ‘True’.  (Why is ‘NFD()’ invoked twice?  Because there
are a few characters that make *note casefold(): dc5. return a
non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again.  See
section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions régulières Unicode,  Next: Références<5>,  Prev: Comparaison de chaînes de caractères,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.6 Expressions régulières Unicode
.......................................

Les expressions régulières gérées par le module *note re: b8. peuvent
être fournies sous forme de chaîne d'octets ou de texte.  Certaines
séquences de caractères spéciaux telles que ‘\d’ et ‘\w’ ont des
significations différentes selon que le motif est fourni en octets ou en
texte.  Par exemple, ‘\d’ correspond aux caractères ‘[0-9]’ en octets
mais dans les chaînes de caractères correspond à tout caractère de la
catégorie ‘'Nd'’.

Dans cet exemple, la chaîne contient le nombre 57 écrit en chiffres
arabes et thaïlandais :

     import re
     p = re.compile(r'\d+')

     s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
     m = p.search(s)
     print(repr(m.group()))

Une fois exécuté, ‘\d+’ correspond aux chiffres thaïlandais et les
affiche.  Si vous fournissez le drapeau *note re.ASCII: 619. à *note
compile(): bc3, ‘\d+’ correspond cette fois à la chaîne "57".

De même, ‘\w’ correspond à une grande variété de caractères Unicode mais
seulement ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ en octets (ou si *note re.ASCII: 619. est
fourni) et ‘\s’ correspond soit aux caractères blancs Unicode soit aux
caractères ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.


File: python.info,  Node: Références<5>,  Prev: Expressions régulières Unicode,  Up: Prise en charge Unicode de Python

9.12.2.7 Références
...................

Quelques bonnes discussions alternatives sur la gestion d'Unicode par
Python sont :

   * Processing Text Files in Python 3(1), par Nick Coghlan.

   * Pragmatic Unicode(2), une présentation 'PyCon' 2012 par Ned
     Batchelder.

Le type *note str: 437. est décrit dans la référence de la bibliothèque
Python à *note Type Séquence de Texte — str: 1bba.

La documentation du module *note unicodedata: 104.

La documentation du module *note codecs: 1b.

Marc-André Lemburg a donné une présentation intitulée « Python et
Unicode » (diapositives PDF)(3) à 'EuroPython' 2002.  Les diapositives
sont un excellent aperçu de la conception des fonctionnalités Unicode de
Python 2 (où le type de chaîne Unicode est appelé ‘unicode’ et les
littéraux commencent par ‘u’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html

   (2) https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html

   (3) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode,  Next: Remerciements<10>,  Prev: Prise en charge Unicode de Python,  Up: Guide Unicode

9.12.3 Lecture et écriture de données Unicode
---------------------------------------------

Une fois que vous avez écrit du code qui fonctionne avec des données
Unicode, le problème suivant concerne les entrées/sorties.  Comment
obtenir des chaînes Unicode dans votre programme et comment convertir
les chaînes Unicode dans une forme appropriée pour le stockage ou la
transmission ?

Il est possible que vous n'ayez rien à faire en fonction de vos sources
d'entrée et des destinations de vos données de sortie ; il convient de
vérifier si les bibliothèques utilisées dans votre application gèrent
l'Unicode nativement.  Par exemple, les analyseurs XML renvoient souvent
des données Unicode.  De nombreuses bases de données relationnelles
prennent également en charge les colonnes encodées en Unicode et peuvent
renvoyer des valeurs Unicode à partir d'une requête SQL.

Les données Unicode sont généralement converties en un encodage
particulier avant d'être écrites sur le disque ou envoyées sur un
connecteur réseau.  Il est possible de faire tout le travail vous-même :
ouvrir un fichier, lire un élément 8-bits, puis convertir les octets
avec ‘bytes.decode(encoding)’.  Cependant, l'approche manuelle n'est pas
recommandée.

La nature multi-octets des encodages pose problème ; un caractère
Unicode peut être représenté par plusieurs octets.  Si vous voulez lire
le fichier par morceaux de taille arbitraire (disons 1024 ou 4096
octets), vous devez écrire un code de gestion des erreurs pour détecter
le cas où une partie seulement des octets codant un seul caractère
Unicode est lue à la fin d'un morceau.  Une solution serait de lire le
fichier entier en mémoire et d'effectuer le décodage, mais cela vous
empêche de travailler avec des fichiers extrêmement volumineux ; si vous
avez besoin de lire un fichier de 2 Gio, vous avez besoin de 2 Gio de
RAM (plus que ça, en fait, puisque pendant un moment, vous aurez besoin
d'avoir à la fois la chaîne encodée et sa version Unicode en mémoire).

La solution serait d'utiliser l'interface de décodage de bas-niveau pour
intercepter le cas des séquences d'encodage incomplètes.  Ce travail
d'implémentation a déjà été fait pour vous : la fonction native *note
open(): 508. peut renvoyer un objet de type fichier qui suppose que le
contenu du fichier est dans un encodage spécifié et accepte les
paramètres Unicode pour des méthodes telles que *note read(): 1c43. et
*note write(): 1c32.  Ceci fonctionne grâce aux paramètres 'encoding' et
'errors' de *note open(): 508. qui sont interprétés comme ceux de *note
str.encode(): 8c4. et *note bytes.decode(): 8c5.

Lire de l'Unicode à partir d'un fichier est donc simple :

     with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         for line in f:
             print(repr(line))

Il est également possible d'ouvrir des fichiers en mode « mise à jour »,
permettant à la fois la lecture et l'écriture :

     with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
         f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
         f.seek(0)
         print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))

Le caractère Unicode ‘U+FEFFF’ est utilisé comme marque pour indiquer le
boutisme (c'est-à-dire l'ordre dans lequel les octets sont placés pour
indiquer une valeur sur plusieurs octets, 'byte-order mark' en anglais
ou 'BOM'), et est souvent écrit en tête (premier caractère) d'un fichier
afin d'aider à l'auto-détection du boutisme du fichier.  Certains
encodages, comme UTF-16, s'attendent à ce qu'une 'BOM' soit présente au
début d'un fichier ; lorsqu'un tel encodage est utilisé, la 'BOM' sera
automatiquement écrite comme premier caractère et sera silencieusement
retirée lorsque le fichier sera lu.  Il existe des variantes de ces
encodages, comme ‘utf-16-le’ et ‘utf-16-be’ pour les encodages
petit-boutiste et gros-boutiste, qui spécifient un ordre d'octets donné
et ne sautent pas la 'BOM'.

Dans certains cas, il est également d'usage d'utiliser une 'BOM' au
début des fichiers encodés en UTF-8 ; le nom est trompeur puisque
l'UTF-8 ne dépend pas de l'ordre des octets.  La marque annonce
simplement que le fichier est encodé en UTF-8.  Pour lire ces fichiers,
utilisez le codec ‘utf-8-sig’ pour sauter automatiquement la marque si
elle est présente.

* Menu:

* Noms de fichiers Unicode::
* Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode::
* Références: Références<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Noms de fichiers Unicode,  Next: Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode,  Up: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode

9.12.3.1 Noms de fichiers Unicode
.................................

La plupart des systèmes d'exploitation couramment utilisés aujourd'hui
prennent en charge les noms de fichiers qui contiennent des caractères
Unicode arbitraires.  Habituellement, ceci est implémenté en
convertissant la chaîne Unicode en un encodage qui varie en fonction du
système.  Aujourd'hui, Python converge vers l'utilisation d'UTF-8 :
Python sous MacOS utilise UTF-8 depuis plusieurs versions et Python 3.6
sous Windows est passé à UTF-8 également.  Sur les systèmes Unix, il n'y
aura un *note encodage pour le système de fichiers: 528. que si vous
avez défini les variables d'environnement ‘LANG’ ou ‘LC_CTYPE’ ; sinon,
l'encodage par défaut est UTF-8.

La fonction *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. renvoie l'encodage à
utiliser sur votre système actuel, au cas où vous voudriez faire
l'encodage manuellement, mais il n'y a pas vraiment de raisons de
s'embêter avec ça.  Lors de l'ouverture d'un fichier pour la lecture ou
l'écriture, vous pouvez généralement simplement fournir la chaîne
Unicode comme nom de fichier et elle est automatiquement convertie à
l'encodage qui convient :

     filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
     with open(filename, 'w') as f:
         f.write('blah\n')

Les fonctions du module *note os: a0. telles que *note os.stat(): 48c.
acceptent également les noms de fichiers Unicode.

La fonction *note os.listdir(): 10dc. renvoie des noms de fichiers, ce
qui soulève un problème : doit-elle renvoyer la version Unicode des noms
de fichiers ou doit-elle renvoyer des chaînes d'octets contenant les
versions encodées ?  *note os.listdir(): 10dc. peut faire les deux,
selon que vous fournissez le chemin du répertoire en chaîne d'octets ou
en chaîne Unicode.  Si vous passez une chaîne Unicode comme chemin
d'accès, les noms de fichiers sont décodés en utilisant l'encodage du
système de fichiers et une liste de chaînes Unicode est renvoyée, tandis
que passer un chemin d'accès en chaîne d'octets renvoie les noms de
fichiers comme chaîne d'octets.  Par exemple, en supposant que l'*note
encodage par défaut du système de fichiers: 528. est UTF-8, exécuter le
programme suivant :

     fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
     f = open(fn, 'w')
     f.close()

     import os
     print(os.listdir(b'.'))
     print(os.listdir('.'))

produit la sortie suivante :

     $ python listdir-test.py
     [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
     ['filename\u4500abc', ...]

La première liste contient les noms de fichiers encodés en UTF-8 et la
seconde contient les versions Unicode.

Notez que, dans la plupart des cas, il convient de vous en tenir à
l'utilisation d'Unicode avec ces 'APIs'.  Les 'API' d'octets ne
devraient être utilisées que sur les systèmes où des noms de fichiers
non décodables peuvent être présents.  Cela ne concerne pratiquement que
des systèmes Unix maintenant.


File: python.info,  Node: Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode,  Next: Références<6>,  Prev: Noms de fichiers Unicode,  Up: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode

9.12.3.2 Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode
................................................................

Cette section fournit quelques suggestions sur l'écriture de logiciels
qui traitent de l'Unicode.

Le conseil le plus important est :

     Il convient que le logiciel ne traite que des chaînes Unicode en
     interne, décodant les données d'entrée dès que possible et encodant
     la sortie uniquement à la fin.

Si vous essayez d'écrire des fonctions de traitement qui acceptent à la
fois les chaînes Unicode et les chaînes d'octets, les possibilités
d'occurrences de bogues dans votre programme augmentent partout où vous
combinez les deux différents types de chaînes.  Il n'y a pas d'encodage
ou de décodage automatique : si vous faites par exemple ‘str + octets’,
une *note TypeError: 525. est levée.

Lors de l'utilisation de données provenant d'un navigateur Web ou d'une
autre source non fiable, une technique courante consiste à vérifier la
présence de caractères illégaux dans une chaîne de caractères avant de
l'utiliser pour générer une ligne de commande ou de la stocker dans une
base de données.  Si vous le faites, vérifiez bien la chaîne décodée,
pas les données d'octets codés ; certains encodages peuvent avoir des
propriétés intéressantes, comme ne pas être bijectifs ou ne pas être
entièrement compatibles avec l'ASCII. C'est particulièrement vrai si
l'encodage est spécifié explicitement dans vos données d'entrée, car
l'attaquant peut alors choisir un moyen intelligent de cacher du texte
malveillant dans le flux de données encodé.

* Menu:

* Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers::
* Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu::


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers,  Next: Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu,  Up: Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode

9.12.3.3 Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers
...................................................

La classe *note StreamRecoder: 19af. peut convertir de manière
transparente entre les encodages : prenant un flux qui renvoie des
données dans l'encodage #1, elle se comporte comme un flux qui renvoie
des données dans l'encodage #2.

Par exemple, si vous avez un fichier d'entrée 'f' qui est en Latin-1,
vous pouvez l'encapsuler dans un *note StreamRecoder: 19af. pour qu'il
renvoie des octets encodés en UTF-8 :

     new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
         # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and
         # by write() to decode its input.
         codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),

         # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.
         codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )


File: python.info,  Node: Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu,  Prev: Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers,  Up: Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode

9.12.3.4 Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu
..........................................

Vous avez besoin de modifier un fichier, mais vous ne connaissez pas son
encodage ?  Si vous savez que l'encodage est compatible ASCII et que
vous voulez seulement examiner ou modifier les parties ASCII, vous
pouvez ouvrir le fichier avec le gestionnaire d'erreurs
‘surrogateescape’ :

     with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         data = f.read()

     # make changes to the string 'data'

     with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
               encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         f.write(data)

Le gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘surrogateescape’ décode tous les octets
non-ASCII comme points de code dans une plage spéciale allant de
‘U+DC80’ à ‘U+DCFF’.  Ces points de code redeviennent alors les mêmes
octets lorsque le gestionnaire d'erreurs ‘surrogateescape’ est utilisé
pour encoder les données et les réécrire.


File: python.info,  Node: Références<6>,  Prev: Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode,  Up: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode

9.12.3.5 Références
...................

Une partie de la conférence Mastering Python 3 Input/Output(1)
(ressource en anglais), donnée lors de 'PyCon' 2010 de David Beazley,
parle du traitement de texte et du traitement des données binaires.

Le PDF du diaporama de la présentation de Marc-André Lemburg "Writing
Unicodeaware Applications in Python"(2) (ressource en anglais) traite
des questions d'encodage de caractères ainsi que de
l'internationalisation et de la localisation d'une application.  Ces
diapositives ne couvrent que Python 2.x.

The Guts of Unicode in Python(3) (ressource en anglais) est une
conférence 'PyCon' 2013 donnée par Benjamin Peterson qui traite de la
représentation interne Unicode en Python 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010-mastering-python-3-i-o

   (2) 
https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf

   (3) https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python


File: python.info,  Node: Remerciements<10>,  Prev: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode,  Up: Guide Unicode

9.12.4 Remerciements
--------------------

La première ébauche de ce document a été rédigée par Andrew Kuchling.
Il a depuis été révisé par Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl, Andrew
Kuchling et Ezio Melotti.

Merci aux personnes suivantes qui ont noté des erreurs ou qui ont fait
des suggestions sur cet article : Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick
Coghlan, Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg,
Martin von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad
Whitacre, Graham Wideman.


File: python.info,  Node: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib,  Next: Introduction au module ipaddress,  Prev: Guide Unicode,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.13 Guide pratique : récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module 'urllib'
==================================================================================


Auteur: Michael Foord(1)

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<16>.
* Fetching URLs::
* Gestion des exceptions: Gestion des exceptions<3>.
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* Notes: Notes<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://agileabstractions.com/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<16>,  Next: Fetching URLs,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.1 Introduction
-------------------

Related Articles
................

You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources
with Python:

   * Basic Authentication(1)

          A tutorial on 'Basic Authentication', with examples in Python.

'urllib.request' is a Python module for fetching URLs (Uniform Resource
Locators).  It offers a very simple interface, in the form of the
'urlopen' function.  This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of
different protocols.  It also offers a slightly more complex interface
for handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies,
proxies and so on.  These are provided by objects called handlers and
openers.

urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many "URL schemes" (identified
by the string before the ‘":"’ in URL - for example ‘"ftp"’ is the URL
scheme of ‘"ftp://python.org/"’) using their associated network
protocols (e.g.  FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common
case, HTTP.

For straightforward situations 'urlopen' is very easy to use.  But as
soon as you encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP
URLs, you will need some understanding of the HyperText Transfer
Protocol.  The most comprehensive and authoritative reference to HTTP is
RFC 2616(2).  This is a technical document and not intended to be easy
to read.  This HOWTO aims to illustrate using 'urllib', with enough
detail about HTTP to help you through.  It is not intended to replace
the *note urllib.request: 10a. docs, but is supplementary to them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Fetching URLs,  Next: Gestion des exceptions<3>,  Prev: Introduction<16>,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.2 Fetching URLs
--------------------

The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows:

     import urllib.request
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
        html = response.read()

If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary
location, you can do so via the *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a4d. and
*note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 4b2. functions:

     import shutil
     import tempfile
     import urllib.request

     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
         with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
             shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)

     with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
         pass

Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an 'http:'
URL we could have used a URL starting with 'ftp:', 'file:', etc.).
However, it's the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more
complicated cases, concentrating on HTTP.

HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and
servers send responses.  urllib.request mirrors this with a ‘Request’
object which represents the HTTP request you are making.  In its
simplest form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you
want to fetch.  Calling ‘urlopen’ with this Request object returns a
response object for the URL requested.  This response is a file-like
object, which means you can for example call ‘.read()’ on the response:

     import urllib.request

     req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to
handle all URL schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like
so:

     req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')

In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects
allow you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.
Second, you can pass extra information ("metadata") 'about' the data or
about the request itself, to the server - this information is sent as
HTTP "headers".  Let's look at each of these in turn.

* Menu:

* Data::
* Headers::


File: python.info,  Node: Data,  Next: Headers,  Up: Fetching URLs

9.13.2.1 Data
.............

Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a
CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application).  With
HTTP, this is often done using what's known as a 'POST' request.  This
is often what your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you
filled in on the web.  Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can
use a POST to transmit arbitrary data to your own application.  In the
common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be encoded in a standard
way, and then passed to the Request object as the ‘data’ argument.  The
encoding is done using a function from the *note urllib.parse: 109.
library.

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
               'location' : 'Northampton',
               'language' : 'Python' }

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g.  for file upload
from HTML forms - see HTML Specification, Form Submission(1) for more
details).

If you do not pass the ‘data’ argument, urllib uses a 'GET' request.
One way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests
often have "side-effects": they change the state of the system in some
way (for example by placing an order with the website for a
hundredweight of tinned spam to be delivered to your door).  Though the
HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are intended to 'always' cause
side-effects, and GET requests 'never' to cause side-effects, nothing
prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a POST requests
from having no side-effects.  Data can also be passed in an HTTP GET
request by encoding it in the URL itself.

This is done as follows:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = {}
     >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
     >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
     >>> data['language'] = 'Python'
     >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
     >>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.
     name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
     >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
     >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
     >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)

Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ‘?’ to the URL, followed
by the encoded values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13


File: python.info,  Node: Headers,  Prev: Data,  Up: Fetching URLs

9.13.2.2 Headers
................

We'll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add
headers to your HTTP request.

Some websites (1) dislike being browsed by programs, or send different
versions to different browsers (2).  By default urllib identifies itself
as ‘Python-urllib/x.y’ (where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the major and minor
version numbers of the Python release, e.g.  ‘Python-urllib/2.5’), which
may confuse the site, or just plain not work.  The way a browser
identifies itself is through the ‘User-Agent’ header (3).  When you
create a Request object you can pass a dictionary of headers in.  The
following example makes the same request as above, but identifies itself
as a version of Internet Explorer (4).

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
     values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
               'location': 'Northampton',
               'language': 'Python' }
     headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii')
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

The response also has two useful methods.  See the section on *note info
and geturl: 4f5e. which comes after we have a look at what happens when
things go wrong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Google for example.

   (2) Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design -
building sites using web standards is much more sensible.  Unfortunately
a lot of sites still send different versions to different browsers.

   (3) The user agent for MSIE 6 is ''Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0;
Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)"

   (4) For details of more HTTP request headers, see Quick Reference to
HTTP Headers (https://jkorpela.fi/http.html).


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion des exceptions<3>,  Next: info and geturl,  Prev: Fetching URLs,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.3 Gestion des exceptions
-----------------------------

'urlopen' raises *note URLError: 393c. when it cannot handle a response
(though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as *note
ValueError: 1ff, *note TypeError: 525. etc.  may also be raised).

*note HTTPError: fcb. is the subclass of *note URLError: 393c. raised in
the specific case of HTTP URLs.

The exception classes are exported from the *note urllib.error: 108.
module.

* Menu:

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::


File: python.info,  Node: URLError,  Next: HTTPError,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<3>

9.13.3.1 URLError
.................

Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no
route to the specified server), or the specified server doesn't exist.
In this case, the exception raised will have a 'reason' attribute, which
is a tuple containing an error code and a text error message.

e.g.

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
     >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
     ...     print(e.reason)
     ...
     (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPError,  Next: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: URLError,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<3>

9.13.3.2 HTTPError
..................

Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric "status code".
Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil
the request.  The default handlers will handle some of these responses
for you (for example, if the response is a "redirection" that requests
the client fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle
that for you).  For those it can't handle, urlopen will raise an *note
HTTPError: fcb.  Typical errors include '404' (page not found), '403'
(request forbidden), and '401' (authentication required).

See section 10 of RFC 2616(1) for a reference on all the HTTP error
codes.

The *note HTTPError: fcb. instance raised will have an integer 'code'
attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server.

* Menu:

* Error Codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Error Codes,  Up: HTTPError

9.13.3.3 Error Codes
....................

Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range),
and codes in the 100-299 range indicate success, you will usually only
see error codes in the 400-599 range.

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 39da. is a useful
dictionary of response codes in that shows all the response codes used
by RFC 2616(1).  The dictionary is reproduced here for convenience

     # Table mapping response codes to messages; entries have the
     # form {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}.
     responses = {
         100: ('Continue', 'Request received, please continue'),
         101: ('Switching Protocols',
               'Switching to new protocol; obey Upgrade header'),

         200: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
         201: ('Created', 'Document created, URL follows'),
         202: ('Accepted',
               'Request accepted, processing continues off-line'),
         203: ('Non-Authoritative Information', 'Request fulfilled from cache'),
         204: ('No Content', 'Request fulfilled, nothing follows'),
         205: ('Reset Content', 'Clear input form for further input.'),
         206: ('Partial Content', 'Partial content follows.'),

         300: ('Multiple Choices',
               'Object has several resources -- see URI list'),
         301: ('Moved Permanently', 'Object moved permanently -- see URI list'),
         302: ('Found', 'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
         303: ('See Other', 'Object moved -- see Method and URL list'),
         304: ('Not Modified',
               'Document has not changed since given time'),
         305: ('Use Proxy',
               'You must use proxy specified in Location to access this '
               'resource.'),
         307: ('Temporary Redirect',
               'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),

         400: ('Bad Request',
               'Bad request syntax or unsupported method'),
         401: ('Unauthorized',
               'No permission -- see authorization schemes'),
         402: ('Payment Required',
               'No payment -- see charging schemes'),
         403: ('Forbidden',
               'Request forbidden -- authorization will not help'),
         404: ('Not Found', 'Nothing matches the given URI'),
         405: ('Method Not Allowed',
               'Specified method is invalid for this server.'),
         406: ('Not Acceptable', 'URI not available in preferred format.'),
         407: ('Proxy Authentication Required', 'You must authenticate with '
               'this proxy before proceeding.'),
         408: ('Request Timeout', 'Request timed out; try again later.'),
         409: ('Conflict', 'Request conflict.'),
         410: ('Gone',
               'URI no longer exists and has been permanently removed.'),
         411: ('Length Required', 'Client must specify Content-Length.'),
         412: ('Precondition Failed', 'Precondition in headers is false.'),
         413: ('Request Entity Too Large', 'Entity is too large.'),
         414: ('Request-URI Too Long', 'URI is too long.'),
         415: ('Unsupported Media Type', 'Entity body in unsupported format.'),
         416: ('Requested Range Not Satisfiable',
               'Cannot satisfy request range.'),
         417: ('Expectation Failed',
               'Expect condition could not be satisfied.'),

         500: ('Internal Server Error', 'Server got itself in trouble'),
         501: ('Not Implemented',
               'Server does not support this operation'),
         502: ('Bad Gateway', 'Invalid responses from another server/proxy.'),
         503: ('Service Unavailable',
               'The server cannot process the request due to a high load'),
         504: ('Gateway Timeout',
               'The gateway server did not receive a timely response'),
         505: ('HTTP Version Not Supported', 'Cannot fulfill request.'),
         }

When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error
code 'and' an error page.  You can use the *note HTTPError: fcb.
instance as a response on the page returned.  This means that as well as
the code attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as
returned by the ‘urllib.response’ module:

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
     >>> try:
     ...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
     ...     print(e.code)
     ...     print(e.read())
     ...
     404
     b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
       "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
       ...
       <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
       ...

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: HTTPError,  Up: Gestion des exceptions<3>

9.13.3.4 Wrapping it Up
.......................

So if you want to be prepared for *note HTTPError: fcb. 'or' *note
URLError: 393c. there are two basic approaches.  I prefer the second
approach.

* Menu:

* Number 1::
* Number 2::


File: python.info,  Node: Number 1,  Next: Number 2,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.13.3.5 Number 1
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except HTTPError as e:
         print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
         print('Error code: ', e.code)
     except URLError as e:
         print('We failed to reach a server.')
         print('Reason: ', e.reason)
     else:
         # everything is fine

     Note: The ‘except HTTPError’ 'must' come first, otherwise ‘except
     URLError’ will 'also' catch an *note HTTPError: fcb.


File: python.info,  Node: Number 2,  Prev: Number 1,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.13.3.6 Number 2
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except URLError as e:
         if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
             print('We failed to reach a server.')
             print('Reason: ', e.reason)
         elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
             print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
             print('Error code: ', e.code)
     else:
         # everything is fine


File: python.info,  Node: info and geturl,  Next: Openers and Handlers,  Prev: Gestion des exceptions<3>,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.4 info and geturl
----------------------

The response returned by urlopen (or the *note HTTPError: fcb. instance)
has two useful methods ‘info()’ and ‘geturl()’ and is defined in the
module *note urllib.response: 10b.

   * 'geturl' - this returns the real URL of the page fetched.  This is
     useful because ‘urlopen’ (or the opener object used) may have
     followed a redirect.  The URL of the page fetched may not be the
     same as the URL requested.

   * 'info' - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the
     page fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server.  It is
     currently an *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 39f1. instance.

Typical headers include 'Content-length', 'Content-type', and so on.
See the Quick Reference to HTTP Headers(1) for a useful listing of HTTP
headers with brief explanations of their meaning and use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://jkorpela.fi/http.html


File: python.info,  Node: Openers and Handlers,  Next: Basic Authentication,  Prev: info and geturl,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.5 Openers and Handlers
---------------------------

When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps
confusingly named *note urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 393d.).  Normally
we have been using the default opener - via ‘urlopen’ - but you can
create custom openers.  Openers use handlers.  All the "heavy lifting"
is done by the handlers.  Each handler knows how to open URLs for a
particular URL scheme (http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of
URL opening, for example HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies.

You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific
handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies,
or to get an opener that does not handle redirections.

To create an opener, instantiate an ‘OpenerDirector’, and then call
‘.add_handler(some_handler_instance)’ repeatedly.

Alternatively, you can use ‘build_opener’, which is a convenience
function for creating opener objects with a single function call.
‘build_opener’ adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick
way to add more and/or override the default handlers.

Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies,
authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations.

‘install_opener’ can be used to make an ‘opener’ object the (global)
default opener.  This means that calls to ‘urlopen’ will use the opener
you have installed.

Opener objects have an ‘open’ method, which can be called directly to
fetch urls in the same way as the ‘urlopen’ function: there's no need to
call ‘install_opener’, except as a convenience.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Authentication,  Next: Proxies,  Prev: Openers and Handlers,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.6 Basic Authentication
---------------------------

To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the
‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’.  For a more detailed discussion of this subject
- including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the
Basic Authentication Tutorial(1).

When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as
the 401 error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the
authentication scheme and a 'realm'.  The header looks like:
‘WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM"’.

e.g.

     WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"

The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and
password for the realm included as a header in the request.  This is
'basic authentication'.  In order to simplify this process we can create
an instance of ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ and an opener to use this handler.

The ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ uses an object called a password manager to
handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames.  If
you know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the
server), then you can use a ‘HTTPPasswordMgr’.  Frequently one doesn't
care what the realm is.  In that case, it is convenient to use
‘HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm’.  This allows you to specify a default
username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of
you providing an alternative combination for a specific realm.  We
indicate this by providing ‘None’ as the realm argument to the
‘add_password’ method.

The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication.  URLs
"deeper" than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match.

     # create a password manager
     password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()

     # Add the username and password.
     # If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.
     top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
     password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)

     handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)

     # create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)

     # use the opener to fetch a URL
     opener.open(a_url)

     # Install the opener.
     # Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     Note: In the above example we only supplied our
     ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ to ‘build_opener’.  By default openers have
     the handlers for normal situations - ‘ProxyHandler’ (if a proxy
     setting such as an ‘http_proxy’ environment variable is set),
     ‘UnknownHandler’, ‘HTTPHandler’, ‘HTTPDefaultErrorHandler’,
     ‘HTTPRedirectHandler’, ‘FTPHandler’, ‘FileHandler’, ‘DataHandler’,
     ‘HTTPErrorProcessor’.

‘top_level_url’ is in fact 'either' a full URL (including the 'http:'
scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g.
‘"http://example.com/"’ 'or' an "authority" (i.e.  the hostname,
optionally including the port number) e.g.  ‘"example.com"’ or
‘"example.com:8080"’ (the latter example includes a port number).  The
authority, if present, must NOT contain the "userinfo" component - for
example ‘"joe:password@example.com"’ is not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: Proxies,  Next: Sockets and Layers,  Prev: Basic Authentication,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.7 Proxies
--------------

'urllib' will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those.  This is
through the ‘ProxyHandler’, which is part of the normal handler chain
when a proxy setting is detected.  Normally that's a good thing, but
there are occasions when it may not be helpful (1).  One way to do this
is to setup our own ‘ProxyHandler’, with no proxies defined.  This is
done using similar steps to setting up a Basic Authentication(2)
handler:

     >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
     >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     Note: Currently ‘urllib.request’ 'does not' support fetching of
     ‘https’ locations through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by
     extending urllib.request as shown in the recipe (3).

     Note: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’
     is set; see the documentation on *note getproxies(): 3939.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work.
If you attempt to fetch 'localhost' URLs through this proxy it blocks
them.  IE is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on.  In order
to test scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from
using the proxy.

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (3) urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): ASPN Cookbook
Recipe
(https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/).


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets and Layers,  Next: Notes<3>,  Prev: Proxies,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.8 Sockets and Layers
-------------------------

The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.
urllib uses the *note http.client: 6e. library, which in turn uses the
socket library.

As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a
response before timing out.  This can be useful in applications which
have to fetch web pages.  By default the socket module has 'no timeout'
and can hang.  Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the
http.client or urllib.request levels.  However, you can set the default
timeout globally for all sockets using

     import socket
     import urllib.request

     # timeout in seconds
     timeout = 10
     socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

     # this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout
     # we have set in the socket module
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
     response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Notes<3>,  Prev: Sockets and Layers,  Up: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

9.13.9 Notes
------------

This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction au module ipaddress,  Next: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap,  Prev: Guide pratique récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.14 Introduction au module ‘ipaddress’
=======================================


auteur: Peter Moody


auteur: Nick Coghlan

Aperçu
......

Ce document vise à fournir une introduction rapide au module *note
ipaddress: 7f.  Il est destiné aux utilisateurs qui ne sont pas
familiers avec la terminologie des réseaux IP, mais il peut aussi être
utile aux ingénieurs réseaux qui cherchent un aperçu de la
représentation des concepts d'adressage IP avec le module *note
ipaddress: 7f.

* Menu:

* Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface::
* Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface::
* Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses::
* Comparaisons: Comparaisons<4>.
* Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules::
* Obtenir plus de détails lors de l'échec de la création de l'instance::


File: python.info,  Node: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface,  Next: Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface,  Up: Introduction au module ipaddress

9.14.1 Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface
----------------------------------------------

Vu que *note ipaddress: 7f. est un module pour inspecter et manipuler
des adresses IP, la première chose que vous voudrez faire est de créer
quelques objets.  Vous pouvez utiliser *note ipaddress: 7f. pour créer
des objets à partir de chaînes de caractères et d'entiers.

* Menu:

* Note sur les versions d'IP::
* Adresses IP des hôtes::
* Définir des réseaux::
* Interfaces des hôtes::


File: python.info,  Node: Note sur les versions d'IP,  Next: Adresses IP des hôtes,  Up: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface

9.14.1.1 Note sur les versions d'IP
...................................

Pour les lecteurs qui ne sont pas particulièrement familiers avec
l'adressage IP il est important de savoir que le 'protocole Internet'
(IP) est actuellement en évolution de la version 4 du protocole vers la
version 6.  Cette transition est largement due au fait que la version 4
du protocole ne fournit pas assez d'adresses pour gérer les besoins du
monde entier, particulièrement à cause de la croissance des
périphériques directement connectés à Internet.

Expliquer les détails des différences entre les deux versions du
protocole est au-delà du périmètre de cette introduction, mais les
lecteurs doivent au moins être avertis de l'existence de ces deux
versions et qu'il sera nécessaire de forcer l'utilisation d'une version
ou de l'autre.


File: python.info,  Node: Adresses IP des hôtes,  Next: Définir des réseaux,  Prev: Note sur les versions d'IP,  Up: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface

9.14.1.2 Adresses IP des hôtes
..............................

Les adresses, souvent dénommées "adresses hôtes" sont les unités les
plus basiques quand on travaille avec l'adressage IP. Le moyen le plus
simple de créer des adresses est d'utiliser la fonction de fabrication
*note ipaddress.ip_address(): 3be1. qui va automatiquement déterminer
quoi créer entre une adresse IPv4 ou une adresse IPv6 en fonction de la
valeur qui est transmise :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Les adresses peuvent être créées directement depuis des entiers.  Les
valeurs qui correspondent à des entiers 32 bits sont assimilées à des
adresses IPv4 :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Pour forcer l'utilisation d'IPv4 ou d'IPv6, la classe appropriée peut
être invoquée directement.  C'est particulièrement utile pour forcer la
création d'adresse IPv6 pour de petits entiers :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
     IPv6Address('::1')


File: python.info,  Node: Définir des réseaux,  Next: Interfaces des hôtes,  Prev: Adresses IP des hôtes,  Up: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface

9.14.1.3 Définir des réseaux
............................

Les adresses hôtes sont souvent regroupées dans des réseaux IP, donc
*note ipaddress: 7f. fournit un moyen de créer, d'inspecter et de
manipuler les définitions des réseaux.  Les objets correspondants aux
réseaux IP sont construits à partir de chaînes de caractères qui
définissent le périmètre des adresses hôtes qui font partie de ce
réseau.  La forme la plus simple de cette information est un couple
"adresse réseau/préfixe réseau" , où le préfixe définit le nombre de
bits de tête qui sont comparés pour déterminer si l'adresse fait ou ne
fait pas partie de ce réseau et l'adresse réseau définit la valeur
attendue pour ces bits.

Tout comme pour les adresses, une fonction de fabrication est disponible
et détermine automatiquement la version correcte d'IP :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Il est interdit pour des objets réseaux d'avoir des bits affectés à
leurs hôtes mis à 1.  Ainsi la chaîne de caractères ‘192.0.2.1/24’ ne
peut définir un réseau.  Ces objets réseaux sont aussi appelés objets
d'interfaces car la notation ‘adresse ip / réseau’ est couramment
utilisée pour décrire les interfaces réseau d'un ordinateur sur un
réseau donné (nous les détaillons plus loin dans cette section).

Par défaut, tenter de créer un objet réseau avec des bits d'hôtes mis à
1 lève une *note ValueError: 1ff.  Pour demander que les bits
supplémentaires soient plutôt forcés à zéro, l'attribut ‘strict=False’
peut être passé au constructeur :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

Alors que la forme textuelle offre davantage de flexibilité les réseaux
peuvent aussi être définis avec des entiers, tout comme les adresses
hôtes.  Dans ce cas le réseau est considéré comme contenant uniquement
l'adresse identifiée par l'entier, donc le préfixe réseau inclut
l'adresse du réseau complet :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')

Comme avec les adresses, la création d'un type de réseau particulier
peut être forcée en appelant directement le constructeur de la classe
plutôt que d'utiliser la fonction de fabrication.


File: python.info,  Node: Interfaces des hôtes,  Prev: Définir des réseaux,  Up: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface

9.14.1.4 Interfaces des hôtes
.............................

Comme mentionné ci-dessus, si vous avez besoin de décrire une adresse
sur un réseau particulier, ni l'adresse ni les classes réseaux ne sont
suffisantes.  Les notations comme ‘192.0.2.1/24’ sont généralement
utilisées par les ingénieurs réseaux et les personnes qui écrivent des
outils pour les pare-feu et les routeurs comme raccourci pour " l'hôte
‘192.0.2.1’ sur le réseau ‘192.0.2.0/24’", par conséquent, *note
ipaddress: 7f. fournit un ensemble de classes hybrides qui associent une
adresse à un réseau particulier.  L'interface pour la création est
identique à celle pour la définition des objets réseaux, excepté que la
partie adresse n'est pas contrainte d'être une adresse réseau.

     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')

Les entiers sont acceptés en entrée (comme avec les réseaux) et
l'utilisation d'une version d'IP peut être forcée en appelant
directement le constructeur adapté.


File: python.info,  Node: Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface,  Next: Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses,  Prev: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface,  Up: Introduction au module ipaddress

9.14.2 Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface
-----------------------------------------------------

Vous vous êtes donné la peine de créer un objet
(adresse|réseau|interface)IPv(4|6), donc vous voudrez probablement des
informations sur celui-ci.  *note ipaddress: 7f. essaie de rendre ceci
facile et intuitif.

Extraire la version du protocole IP :

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> addr6.version
     6
     >>> addr4.version
     4

Obtenir le réseau à partir de l'interface :

     >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> host4.network
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     >>> host6.network
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Trouver combien d'adresses individuelles sont dans un réseau :

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.num_addresses
     256
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.num_addresses
     4294967296

Itération sur chacune des adresses "utilisables" d'un réseau :

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> for x in net4.hosts():
     ...     print(x)
     192.0.2.1
     192.0.2.2
     192.0.2.3
     192.0.2.4
     ...
     192.0.2.252
     192.0.2.253
     192.0.2.254

Obtenir le masque réseau (définit les bits correspondant au préfixe du
réseau) ou le masque de l'hôte (tous les bits qui ne sont pas dans le
masque du réseau) :

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.netmask
     IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
     >>> net4.hostmask
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.netmask
     IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
     >>> net6.hostmask
     IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')

Éclater ou compresser l'adresse :

     >>> addr6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
     >>> addr6.compressed
     '2001:db8::1'
     >>> net6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
     >>> net6.compressed
     '2001:db8::/96'

Alors que IPv4 ne gère pas l'éclatement ou la compression, les objets
associés fournissent toujours les propriétés adaptées pour que du code,
le plus neutre possible vis-à-vis de la version, puisse facilement
s'assurer que la forme la plus concise ou la plus verbeuse utilisée pour
des adresses IPv6 va aussi fonctionner pour gérer des adresses IPv4.


File: python.info,  Node: Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses,  Next: Comparaisons<4>,  Prev: Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface,  Up: Introduction au module ipaddress

9.14.3 Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses
--------------------------------------------

Il est parfois utile de traiter les réseaux en tant que listes.  Cela
signifie qu'il est possible de les indexer comme ça :

     >>> net4[1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> net4[-1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
     >>> net6[1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> net6[-1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')

Cela signifie aussi que les objets réseaux se prêtent bien à
l'utilisation de la syntaxe suivante pour le test d'appartenance à la
liste :

     if address in network:
         # do something

En se basant sur le préfixe réseau on peut efficacement tester
l'appartenance :

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     True
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Comparaisons<4>,  Next: Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules,  Prev: Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses,  Up: Introduction au module ipaddress

9.14.4 Comparaisons
-------------------

*note ipaddress: 7f. fournit des moyens simples et intuitifs (du moins
nous l'espérons) pour comparer les objets, quand cela fait sens :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
     True

Une exception *note TypeError: 525. est levée si vous tentez de comparer
des objets de différentes versions ou de types différents.


File: python.info,  Node: Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules,  Next: Obtenir plus de détails lors de l'échec de la création de l'instance,  Prev: Comparaisons<4>,  Up: Introduction au module ipaddress

9.14.5 Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules
---------------------------------------------------

Les autres modules qui utilisent des adresses IP (comme *note socket:
cb.) n'acceptent généralement pas les objets de ce module directement.
Au lieu de cela, ils doivent être convertis en entiers ou en chaînes de
caractères que l'autre module va accepter :

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> str(addr4)
     '192.0.2.1'
     >>> int(addr4)
     3221225985


File: python.info,  Node: Obtenir plus de détails lors de l'échec de la création de l'instance,  Prev: Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules,  Up: Introduction au module ipaddress

9.14.6 Obtenir plus de détails lors de l'échec de la création de l'instance
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lors de la création des objets Adresse/Réseau/Interface en utilisant les
fonctions de fabrication agnostiques à la version, n'importe quelle
erreur va être signalée en tant que *note ValueError: 1ff. avec un
message d'erreur générique qui dit simplement que la valeur entrée n'a
pas été reconnue en tant qu'objet de ce type.  Pour fournir plus de
détails sur la cause du rejet, il faudrait reconnaître si la valeur est
'supposée' être une adresse IPv4 ou IPv6.

Pour gérer les cas d'usage où il est utile d'avoir accès à ces détails,
les constructeurs individuels des classes lèvent actuellement les
sous-classes de *note ValueError: 1ff, *note
ipaddress.AddressValueError: 3be6. et *note ipaddress.NetmaskValueError:
3c08. pour indiquer précisément quelle partie de la définition n'a pas
pu être correctement traitée.

Les messages d'erreur sont particulièrement plus détaillés lors de
l'utilisation directe du constructeur.  Par exemple :

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask

Cependant, les exceptions spécifiques des deux modules ont *note
ValueError: 1ff. comme classe parent ; donc si vous n'êtes pas intéressé
par le type particulier d'erreur remontée, vous pouvez écrire votre code
comme suit :

     try:
         network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
     except ValueError:
         print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)


File: python.info,  Node: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap,  Next: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Prev: Introduction au module ipaddress,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.15 Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap
==================================================


auteur: David Malcolm


auteur: Łukasz Langa

'DTrace' et 'SystemTap' sont des outils de surveillance, chacun
fournissant un moyen de d'inspecter ce que font les processus d'un
système informatique.  Ils utilisent tous les deux des langages dédiés
permettant à un utilisateur d'écrire des scripts qui permettent de :

   - Filtrer les processus à observer.

   - Recueillir des données sur le processus choisi.

   - Générer des rapports sur les données.

À partir de Python 3.6, CPython peut être compilé avec des « marqueurs »
intégrés, aussi appelés « sondes », qui peuvent être observés par un
script 'DTrace' ou 'SystemTap', ce qui facilite le suivi des processus
CPython.

Les marqueurs DTrace sont des détails d'implémentation de l'interpréteur
CPython.  Aucune garantie n'est donnée quant à la compatibilité des
sondes entre les versions de CPython.  Les scripts DTrace peuvent
s'arrêter de fonctionner ou fonctionner incorrectement sans
avertissement lors du changement de version de CPython.

* Menu:

* Activer les marqueurs statiques::
* Sondes DTrace statiques::
* Marqueurs statiques SystemTap::
* Marqueurs statiques disponibles::
* Tapsets de SystemTap::
* Exemples: Exemples<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Activer les marqueurs statiques,  Next: Sondes DTrace statiques,  Up: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

9.15.1 Activer les marqueurs statiques
--------------------------------------

macOS est livré avec un support intégré pour 'DTrace'.  Sous Linux, pour
construire CPython avec les marqueurs embarqués pour 'SystemTap', les
outils de développement 'SystemTap' doivent être installés.

Sur une machine Linux, cela se fait via :

     $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel

ou :

     $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev

CPython doit être configuré avec l'option *note -with-dtrace: 1d74. :

     checking for --with-dtrace... yes

Sous macOS, vous pouvez lister les sondes 'DTrace' disponibles en
exécutant un processus Python en arrière-plan et en listant toutes les
sondes mises à disposition par le fournisseur Python :

     $ python3.6 -q &
     $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6

        ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
     29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
     29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
     29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
     29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
     29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
     29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
     29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
     29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line

Sous Linux, pour vérifier que les marqueurs statiques 'SystemTap' sont
présents dans le binaire compilé, il suffit de regarder s'il contient
une section ‘.note.stapsdt’.

     $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
     [30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78

Si vous avez compilé Python en tant que bibliothèque partagée (avec
l'option *note -enable-shared: 84f. du script ‘configure’), vous devez
plutôt regarder dans la bibliothèque partagée.  Par exemple :

     $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
     [29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68

Une version suffisamment moderne de 'readelf' peut afficher les
métadonnées :

     $ readelf -n ./python

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
             OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
             Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__start
             Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
             Arguments: -4@%ebx
         stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__done
             Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
             Arguments: -8@%rax
         stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__entry
             Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
         stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__return
             Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax

The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it
can patch strategically placed machine code instructions to enable the
tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.


File: python.info,  Node: Sondes DTrace statiques,  Next: Marqueurs statiques SystemTap,  Prev: Activer les marqueurs statiques,  Up: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

9.15.2 Sondes DTrace statiques
------------------------------

L'exemple suivant de script 'DTrace' montre la hiérarchie d'appel/retour
d'un script Python, en ne traçant que l'invocation d'une fonction
‘start’.  En d'autres termes, les appels de fonctions lors de la phase
d'import ne seront pas répertoriées :

     self int indent;

     python$target:::function-entry
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 1;
     }

     python$target:::function-entry
     /self->trace/
     {
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
             self->indent++;
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /self->trace/
     {
             self->indent--;
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 0;
     }

Il peut être utilisé de cette manière :

     $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"

La sortie ressemble à ceci :

     156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
     156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
     156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
     156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
     156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
     156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
     156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
     156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28


File: python.info,  Node: Marqueurs statiques SystemTap,  Next: Marqueurs statiques disponibles,  Prev: Sondes DTrace statiques,  Up: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

9.15.3 Marqueurs statiques 'SystemTap'
--------------------------------------

La façon la plus simple d'utiliser l'intégration 'SystemTap' est
d'utiliser directement les marqueurs statiques.  Pour cela vous devez
pointer explicitement le fichier binaire qui les contient.

Par exemple, ce script 'SystemTap' peut être utilisé pour afficher la
hiérarchie d'appel/retour d'un script Python :

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
          filename = user_string($arg1);
          funcname = user_string($arg2);
          lineno = $arg3;

          printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
                 thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;

         printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
                thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

Il peut être utilisé de cette manière :

     $ stap \
       show-call-hierarchy.stp \
       -c "./python test.py"

La sortie ressemble à ceci :

     11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
     11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
     11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
     11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
     11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
     11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366

où les colonnes sont :

   - temps en microsecondes depuis le début du script

   - nom de l'exécutable

   - PID du processus

et le reste indique la hiérarchie d'appel/retour lorsque le script
s'exécute.

Pour une compilation *note -enable-shared: 84f. de CPython, les
marqueurs sont contenus dans la bibliothèque partagée 'libpython', et le
chemin du module de la sonde doit le refléter.  Par exemple, la ligne de
l'exemple ci-dessus :

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {

doit plutôt se lire comme :

     probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {

(en supposant une version de CPython 3.6 compilée avec le *note
débogage: 1f6. activé)


File: python.info,  Node: Marqueurs statiques disponibles,  Next: Tapsets de SystemTap,  Prev: Marqueurs statiques SystemTap,  Up: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

9.15.4 Marqueurs statiques disponibles
--------------------------------------

 -- Object: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     Ce marqueur indique que l'exécution d'une fonction Python a
     commencé.  Il n'est déclenché que pour les fonctions en Python pur
     (code intermédiaire).

     Le nom de fichier, le nom de la fonction et le numéro de ligne sont
     renvoyés au script de traçage sous forme d'arguments positionnels,
     auxquels il faut accéder en utilisant ‘$arg1’, ‘$arg2’, ‘$arg3’ :

             * ‘$arg1’ : ‘(const char *)’ nom de fichier, accessible via
               ‘user_string($arg1)’

             * ‘$arg2’ : ‘(const char *)’ nom de la fonction, accessible
               via ‘user_string($arg2)’

             * ‘$arg3’ : numéro de ligne ‘int’

 -- Object: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker is the converse of ‘function__entry()’, and indicates
     that execution of a Python function has ended (either via ‘return’,
     or via an exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python
     (bytecode) functions.

     The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’

 -- Object: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     Ce marqueur indique qu'une ligne Python est sur le point d'être
     exécutée.  C'est l'équivalent du traçage ligne par ligne avec un
     profileur Python.  Il n'est pas déclenché dans les fonctions C.

     The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’.

 -- Object: gc__start(int generation)

     Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection
     cycle.  ‘arg0’ is the generation to scan, like *note gc.collect():
     a2a.

 -- Object: gc__done(long collected)

     Fonction appelée lorsque l'interpréteur Python termine un cycle de
     collecte du ramasse-miettes.  ‘Arg0’ est le nombre d'objets
     collectés.

 -- Object: import__find__load__start(str modulename)

     Fonction appelée avant que *note importlib: 76. essaye de trouver
     et de charger le module.  ‘arg0’ est le nom du module.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Object: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)

     Fonction appelée après que la fonction ‘find_and_load’ du module
     *note importlib: 76. soit appelée.  ‘arg0’ est le nom du module,
     ‘arg1’ indique si le module a été chargé avec succès.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

 -- Object: audit(str event, void *tuple)

     Fonction appelée quand les fonctions *note sys.audit(): 1573. ou
     *note PySys_Audit(): 365. sont appelées.  ‘arg0’ est le nom de
     l'évènement de type chaîne de caractère C. ‘arg1’ est un pointeur
     sur un 'n'-uplet d'objet de type *note PyObject: 32f.

     Ajouté dans la version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Tapsets de SystemTap,  Next: Exemples<38>,  Prev: Marqueurs statiques disponibles,  Up: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

9.15.5 'Tapsets' de 'SystemTap'
-------------------------------

La façon la plus simple d'utiliser l'intégration 'SystemTap' est
d'utiliser un '« tapset »'.  L'équivalent pour 'SystemTap' d'une
bibliothèque, qui permet de masquer les détails de niveau inférieur des
marqueurs statiques.

Voici un fichier 'tapset', basé sur une version non partagée compilée de
CPython :

     /*
        Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
        function__return markers:
      \*/
     probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }
     probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }

Si ce fichier est installé dans le répertoire 'tapset' de 'SystemTap'
(par exemple ‘/usr/share/systemtap/tapset’), alors ces sondes
supplémentaires deviennent disponibles :

 -- Object: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     Cette sonde indique que l'exécution d'une fonction Python a
     commencé.  Elle n'est déclenchée que pour les fonctions en Python
     pur (code intermédiaire).

 -- Object: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     Cette sonde est l'inverse de ‘python.function.return’, et indique
     que l'exécution d'une fonction Python est terminée (soit via
     ‘return’, soit via une exception).  Elle est uniquement déclenchée
     pour les fonctions en Python pur (code intermédiaire ou
     'bytecode').


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<38>,  Prev: Tapsets de SystemTap,  Up: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

9.15.6 Exemples
---------------

Ce script 'SystemTap' utilise le 'tapset' ci-dessus pour implémenter
plus proprement l'exemple précédent de traçage de la hiérarchie des
appels de fonctions Python, sans avoir besoin de nommer directement les
marqueurs statiques :

     probe python.function.entry
     {
       printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe python.function.return
     {
       printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of
all running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently entered
bytecode frames, each second, across the whole system:

     global fn_calls;

     probe python.function.entry
     {
         fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
     }

     probe timer.ms(1000) {
         printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
         printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
                "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
         foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
             printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
                 pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
                 fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
         }
         delete fn_calls;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Next: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations,  Prev: Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.16 Python support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
=================================================


auteur: Pablo Galindo

The Linux perf profiler(1) is a very powerful tool that allows you to
profile and obtain information about the performance of your
application.  ‘perf’ also has a very vibrant ecosystem of tools that aid
with the analysis of the data that it produces.

The main problem with using the ‘perf’ profiler with Python applications
is that ‘perf’ only gets information about native symbols, that is, the
names of functions and procedures written in C. This means that the
names and file names of Python functions in your code will not appear in
the output of ‘perf’.

Since Python 3.12, the interpreter can run in a special mode that allows
Python functions to appear in the output of the ‘perf’ profiler.  When
this mode is enabled, the interpreter will interpose a small piece of
code compiled on the fly before the execution of every Python function
and it will teach ‘perf’ the relationship between this piece of code and
the associated Python function using *note perf map files: 4ac8.

     Note: Support for the ‘perf’ profiler is currently only available
     for Linux on select architectures.  Check the output of the
     ‘configure’ build step or check the output of ‘python -m sysconfig
     | grep HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE’ to see if your system is supported.

For example, consider the following script:

     def foo(n):
         result = 0
         for _ in range(n):
             result += 1
         return result

     def bar(n):
         foo(n)

     def baz(n):
         bar(n)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         baz(1000000)

We can run ‘perf’ to sample CPU stack traces at 9999 hertz:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py

Then we can use ‘perf report’ to analyze the data:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  ..........................................
     #
         91.08%     0.00%             0  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --90.71%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--55.02%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--11.52%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc
     ...

As you can see, the Python functions are not shown in the output, only
‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault’ (the function that evaluates the Python
bytecode) shows up.  Unfortunately that's not very useful because all
Python functions use the same C function to evaluate bytecode so we
cannot know which Python function corresponds to which
bytecode-evaluating function.

Instead, if we run the same experiment with ‘perf’ support enabled we
get:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  .....................................................................
     #
         90.58%     0.36%             1  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --89.86%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--53.62%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     py::<module>:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::baz:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::bar:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::foo:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--13.77%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc

* Menu:

* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::
* How to work without frame pointers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org


File: python.info,  Node: How to enable perf profiling support,  Next: How to obtain the best results,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.16.1 How to enable ‘perf’ profiling support
---------------------------------------------

‘perf’ profiling support can be enabled either from the start using the
environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 45a. or the *note -X perf:
175. option, or dynamically using *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline():
45b. and *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 45c.

The ‘sys’ functions take precedence over the ‘-X’ option, the ‘-X’
option takes precedence over the environment variable.

Example, using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the ‘-X’ option:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf my_script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the *note sys: d8. APIs in file ‘example.py’:

     import sys

     sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf")
     do_profiled_stuff()
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

     non_profiled_stuff()

...then:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python ./example.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data


File: python.info,  Node: How to obtain the best results,  Next: How to work without frame pointers,  Prev: How to enable perf profiling support,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.16.2 How to obtain the best results
-------------------------------------

For best results, Python should be compiled with
‘CFLAGS="-fno-omit-frame-pointer -mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer"’ as this
allows profilers to unwind using only the frame pointer and not on DWARF
debug information.  This is because as the code that is interposed to
allow ‘perf’ support is dynamically generated it doesn't have any DWARF
debugging information available.

You can check if your system has been compiled with this flag by
running:

     $ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer'

If you don't see any output it means that your interpreter has not been
compiled with frame pointers and therefore it may not be able to show
Python functions in the output of ‘perf’.


File: python.info,  Node: How to work without frame pointers,  Prev: How to obtain the best results,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.16.3 How to work without frame pointers
-----------------------------------------

If you are working with a Python interpreter that has been compiled
without frame pointers, you can still use the ‘perf’ profiler, but the
overhead will be a bit higher because Python needs to generate unwinding
information for every Python function call on the fly.  Additionally,
‘perf’ will take more time to process the data because it will need to
use the DWARF debugging information to unwind the stack and this is a
slow process.

To enable this mode, you can use the environment variable *note
PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 18e. or the *note -X perf_jit: 175. option,
which will enable the JIT mode for the ‘perf’ profiler.

     Note: Due to a bug in the ‘perf’ tool, only ‘perf’ versions higher
     than v6.8 will work with the JIT mode.  The fix was also backported
     to the v6.7.2 version of the tool.

     Note that when checking the version of the ‘perf’ tool (which can
     be done by running ‘perf version’) you must take into account that
     some distros add some custom version numbers including a ‘-’
     character.  This means that ‘perf 6.7-3’ is not necessarily ‘perf
     6.7.3’.

When using the perf JIT mode, you need an extra step before you can run
‘perf report’.  You need to call the ‘perf inject’ command to inject the
JIT information into the ‘perf.data’ file.:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
     $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
     $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

or using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python my_script.py
     $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
     $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

‘perf inject --jit’ command will read ‘perf.data’, automatically pick up
the perf dump file that Python creates (in ‘/tmp/perf-$PID.dump’), and
then create ‘perf.jit.data’ which merges all the JIT information
together.  It should also create a lot of ‘jitted-XXXX-N.so’ files in
the current directory which are ELF images for all the JIT trampolines
that were created by Python.

     Avertissement: When using ‘--call-graph dwarf’, the ‘perf’ tool
     will take snapshots of the stack of the process being profiled and
     save the information in the ‘perf.data’ file.  By default, the size
     of the stack dump is 8192 bytes, but you can change the size by
     passing it after a comma like ‘--call-graph dwarf,16384’.

     The size of the stack dump is important because if the size is too
     small ‘perf’ will not be able to unwind the stack and the output
     will be incomplete.  On the other hand, if the size is too big,
     then ‘perf’ won't be able to sample the process as frequently as it
     would like as the overhead will be higher.

     The stack size is particularly important when profiling Python code
     compiled with low optimization levels (like ‘-O0’), as these builds
     tend to have larger stack frames.  If you are compiling Python with
     ‘-O0’ and not seeing Python functions in your profiling output, try
     increasing the stack dump size to 65528 bytes (the maximum):

          $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf,65528 -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py

     Different compilation flags can significantly impact stack sizes:

        - Builds with ‘-O0’ typically have much larger stack frames than
          those with ‘-O1’ or higher

        - Adding optimizations (‘-O1’, ‘-O2’, etc.)  typically reduces
          stack size

        - Frame pointers (‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’) generally provide
          more reliable stack unwinding


File: python.info,  Node: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations,  Next: Isolating Extension Modules,  Prev: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.17 Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations
================================================


auteur: Larry Hastings

Résumé
......

Ce document a pour but de regrouper les bonnes pratiques de travail avec
le dictionnaire d'annotations.  Si vous écrivez du code Python qui
examine les ‘__annotations__’ des objets, nous vous encourageons à
suivre les recommandations décrites dans la suite.

Ce document est organisé en quatre sections : bonnes pratiques pour
accéder aux annotations d'un objet en Python 3.10 et plus récent, bonnes
pratiques pour accéder aux annotations d'un objet en Python 3.9 et
antérieur, autres bonnes pratiques pour ‘__annotations__’ à appliquer
quelle que soit la version de Python, et enfin les curiosités concernant
‘__annotations__’.

Notez que ce document traite spécifiquement du traitement des
‘__annotations__’, et non de l''utilisation' des annotations.  Si vous
cherchez des informations sur la façon d'utiliser les « indications de
type » dans votre code, veuillez consulter le module *note typing: 103.

* Menu:

* Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3.10 et plus récent: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3 10 et plus récent.
* Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3.9 et antérieur: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3 9 et antérieur.
* Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères::
* Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python::
* Les curiosités concernant __annotations__::


File: python.info,  Node: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3 10 et plus récent,  Next: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3 9 et antérieur,  Up: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

9.17.1 Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3.10 et plus récent
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python 3.10 ajoute une nouvelle fonction à la bibliothèque standard :
*note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff.  Dans les versions Python 3.10 et
plus récentes, l'appel à cette fonction est la meilleure pratique pour
accéder au dictionnaire d'annotations de tout objet qui prend en charge
les annotations.  Cette fonction peut également convertir pour vous les
annotations contenues dans des chaînes de caractères en objets.

Si pour une raison quelconque, *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff.
n'est pas viable pour votre cas d'utilisation, vous pouvez accéder à
l'attribut de données ‘__annotations__’ manuellement.  La bonne pratique
pour cela a également changé en Python 3.10 : à partir de Python 3.10,
le fonctionnement de ‘o.__annotations__’ est 'toujours' garanti sur les
fonctions, classes et modules Python.  Si vous êtes certain que l'objet
que vous examinez est l'un de ces trois objets 'spécifiques', vous
pouvez simplement utiliser ‘o.__annotations__’ pour accéder au
dictionnaire d'annotations de l'objet.

Cependant, d'autres types d'objets appelables – par exemple, les objets
appelables créés par *note functools.partial(): 40a. – peuvent ne pas
avoir d'attribut ‘__annotations__’ défini.  Pour accéder à l'attribut
‘__annotations__’ d'un objet éventuellement inconnu, la meilleure
pratique, à partir de la version 3.10 de Python, est d'appeler *note
getattr(): bc1. avec trois arguments, par exemple ‘getattr(o,
'__annotations__', None)’.

Dans les versions antérieures à Python 3.10, l'accès aux
‘__annotations__’ d'une classe qui n'a pas d'annotation mais dont un
parent de cette classe en a, aurait renvoyé les ‘__annotations__’ de la
classe parent.  Dans les versions 3.10 et plus récentes, le résultat
d'annotations de la classe enfant est un dictionnaire vide.


File: python.info,  Node: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3 9 et antérieur,  Next: Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères,  Prev: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3 10 et plus récent,  Up: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

9.17.2 Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3.9 et antérieur
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

En Python 3.9 et antérieur, l'accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un
objet est beaucoup plus compliqué que dans les versions plus récentes.
Le problème est dû à un défaut de conception de ces anciennes versions
de Python, notamment en ce qui concerne les annotations de classe.

La bonne pratique pour accéder au dictionnaire d'annotations d'autres
objets – fonctions, autres objets appelables et modules – est la même
que pour la 3.10, en supposant que vous n'appelez pas *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. : vous devez utiliser la forme à trois
arguments de *note getattr(): bc1. pour accéder à l'attribut
‘__annotations__’ de l'objet.

Malheureusement, ce n'est pas la bonne pratique pour les classes.  Le
problème est que, puisque ‘__annotations__’ est optionnel sur les
classes et que les classes peuvent hériter des attributs de leurs
classes de base, accéder à l'attribut ‘__annotations__’ d'une classe
peut par inadvertance renvoyer le dictionnaire d'annotations d'une
'classe de base.'  Par exemple :

     class Base:
         a: int = 3
         b: str = 'abc'

     class Derived(Base):
         pass

     print(Derived.__annotations__)

Ceci affiche le dictionnaire d'annotations de ‘Base’, pas de ‘Derived’.

Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you're
examining is a class (‘isinstance(o, type)’).  In that case, best
practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if
a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class's *note
__dict__: c4d. dictionary.  Since the class may or may not have
annotations defined, best practice is to call the *note get(): 2200.
method on the class dict.

Pour résumer, voici un exemple de code qui accède en toute sécurité à
l'attribut ‘__annotations__’ d'un objet quelconque en Python 3.9 et
antérieur :

     if isinstance(o, type):
         ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)
     else:
         ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)

Après avoir exécuté ce code, ‘ann’ pourra être soit un dictionnaire,
soit ‘None’.  Nous vous conseillons de vérifier le type de ‘ann’ en
utilisant *note isinstance(): 42d. avant de poursuivre l'analyse.

Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a *note
__dict__: c4d. attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use
*note getattr(): bc1. to access ‘__dict__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères,  Next: Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python,  Prev: Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3 9 et antérieur,  Up: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

9.17.3 Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dans les situations où certaines annotations peuvent se présenter sous
forme de chaînes de caractères brutes, et que vous souhaitez évaluer ces
chaînes pour trouver les valeurs Python qu'elles représentent, il est
vraiment préférable d'appeler *note inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. pour
faire ce travail à votre place.

Si vous utilisez Python 3.9 ou antérieur ou, si pour une raison
quelconque, vous ne pouvez pas utiliser *note inspect.get_annotations():
7ff, vous devrez dupliquer son principe de fonctionnement.  Nous vous
encourageons à examiner l'implémentation de *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 7ff. dans la version actuelle de Python et à
suivre une approche similaire.

En bref, si vous souhaitez évaluer une annotation empaquetée en chaîne
de caractères sur un objet arbitraire ‘o’ :

   * Si ‘o’ est un module, utilisez ‘o.__dict__’ pour accéder aux noms
     ‘globals’ lors de l'appel à *note eval(): 17e.

   * Si ‘o’ est une classe, utilisez
     ‘sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__’ pour désigner les noms
     ‘globals’, et ‘dict(vars(o))’ pour désigner les ‘locals’, lorsque
     vous appelez *note eval(): 17e.

   * Si ‘o’ est un appelable encapsulé à l'aide de *note
     functools.update_wrapper(): 100d, *note functools.wraps(): f4a, ou
     *note functools.partial(): 40a, dés-encapsulez-le itérativement en
     accédant à ‘o.__wrapped__’ ou ‘o.func’ selon le cas, jusqu'à ce que
     vous ayez trouvé la fonction racine.

   * If ‘o’ is a callable (but not a class), use *note o.__globals__:
     12b3. as the globals when calling *note eval(): 17e.

Cependant, toutes les valeurs de chaîne utilisées comme annotations ne
peuvent pas être transformées avec succès en valeurs Python par *note
eval(): 17e.  Les valeurs de chaîne peuvent théoriquement contenir des
chaînes valides et, en pratique, il existe des cas d'utilisation
valables pour les indications de type qui nécessitent d'annoter avec des
valeurs de chaîne qui 'ne peuvent pas' être évaluées.  Par exemple :

   * Les types d'union de style PEP 604(1) avec ‘|’, avant que cette
     prise en charge ne soit ajoutée à Python 3.10.

   * Les définitions qui ne sont pas nécessaires à l'exécution,
     importées uniquement lorsque *note typing.TYPE_CHECKING: ce4. est
     vrai.

Si *note eval(): 17e. tente d'évaluer de telles valeurs, elle échoue et
lève une exception.  Ainsi, lors de la conception d'une API de
bibliothèque fonctionnant avec des annotations, il est recommandé de ne
tenter d'évaluer des valeurs de type chaîne que si l'appelant le demande
explicitement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python,  Next: Les curiosités concernant __annotations__,  Prev: Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères,  Up: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

9.17.4 Bonnes pratiques pour ‘__annotations__’ dans toutes les versions de Python
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

   * Évitez d'assigner directement des objets à l'élément
     ‘__annotations__’.  Laissez Python gérer le paramétrage de
     ‘__annotations__’.

   * Si vous assignez directement à l'élément ‘__annotations__’ d'un
     objet, vous devez toujours le définir comme un ‘dict’.

   * Si vous accédez directement à l'élément ‘__annotations__’ d'un
     objet, vous devez vous assurer qu'il s'agit d'un dictionnaire avant
     de tenter d'examiner son contenu.

   * Évitez de modifier les dictionnaires ‘__annotations__’.

   * Évitez de supprimer l'attribut ‘__annotations__’ d'un objet.


File: python.info,  Node: Les curiosités concernant __annotations__,  Prev: Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python,  Up: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

9.17.5 Les curiosités concernant ‘__annotations__’
--------------------------------------------------

Dans toutes les versions de Python 3, les fonctions créent
paresseusement un dictionnaire d'annotations si aucune annotation n'est
définie sur cet objet.  Vous pouvez supprimer l'attribut
‘__annotations__’ en utilisant ‘del fn.__annotations__’, mais si vous
accédez ensuite à ‘fn.__annotations__’, l'objet créera un nouveau
dictionnaire vide qu'il stockera et renverra quand on lui demande ses
annotations.  Si vous supprimez les annotations d'une fonction avant
qu'elle n'ait créé paresseusement son dictionnaire d'annotations, vous
obtiendrez une exception ‘AttributeError’ ; si vous utilisez ‘del
fn.__annotations__’ deux fois de suite, vous êtes sûr de toujours
obtenir ‘AttributeError’.

Tout ce qui est dit dans le paragraphe précédent s'applique également
aux objets de type classe et module en Python 3.10 et suivants.

Dans toutes les versions de Python 3, vous pouvez définir à ‘None’
l'élément ‘__annotations__’ sur un objet fonction.  Cependant, si vous
accédez ensuite aux annotations de cet objet en utilisant
‘fn.__annotations__’, un dictionnaire vide sera créé paresseusement,
comme indiqué dans le premier paragraphe de cette section.  Ce 'n'est
pas' le cas des modules et des classes, quelle que soit la version de
Python ; ces objets permettent de définir ‘__annotations__’ à n'importe
quelle valeur Python, et conserveront la valeur définie.

Si Python convertit vos annotations en chaînes de caractères (en
utilisant ‘from __future__ import annotations’), et que vous spécifiez
une chaîne de caractères comme annotation, la chaîne sera elle-même
entre guillemets.  En fait, l'annotation est mise entre guillemets 'deux
fois'.  Par exemple :

     from __future__ import annotations
     def foo(a: "str"): pass

     print(foo.__annotations__)

Ceci renvoie : ‘{'a': "'str'"}’.  Cela ne devrait pas vraiment être
considéré comme une « bizarrerie » ; nous le mentionnons ici simplement
parce que cela peut être surprenant.


File: python.info,  Node: Isolating Extension Modules,  Next: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Prev: Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.18 Isolating Extension Modules
================================

Résumé
......

Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C
‘static’ variables, which have process-wide scope.  This document
describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way:
per-module state.

The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where
possible.  This transition involves allocating space for that state,
potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most
importantly—accessing per-module state from code.

* Menu:

* Who should read this::
* Background: Background<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Who should read this,  Next: Background<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.1 Who should read this
---------------------------

This guide is written for maintainers of *note C-API: 1b9a. extensions
who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where
Python itself is used as a library.


File: python.info,  Node: Background<2>,  Next: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Prev: Who should read this,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.2 Background
-----------------

An 'interpreter' is the context in which Python code runs.  It contains
configuration (e.g.  the import path) and runtime state (e.g.  the set
of imported modules).

Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process.  There are
two cases to think about—users may run interpreters:

   - in sequence, with several *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4a2d./*note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): d05. cycles, and

   - in parallel, managing "sub-interpreters" using *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 1772./*note Py_EndInterpreter(): 181c.

Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when
embedding Python within a library.  Libraries generally shouldn't make
assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming
a process-wide "main Python interpreter".

Historically, Python extension modules don't handle this use case well.
Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use 'per-process'
global state, because C ‘static’ variables are extremely easy to use.
Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being
shared between interpreters.  Unless the extension developer is careful,
it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a
module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process.

Unfortunately, 'per-interpreter' state is not easy to achieve.
Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when
developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior.

* Menu:

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::


File: python.info,  Node: Enter Per-Module State,  Next: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background<2>

9.18.2.1 Enter Per-Module State
...............................

Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python's C API is evolving
to better support the more granular 'per-module' state.  This means that
C-level data should be attached to a 'module object'.  Each interpreter
creates its own module object, keeping the data separate.  For testing
the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single
extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter.

Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and
resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module
object is created, and clean up when it's freed.  In this regard, a
module is just like any other *note PyObject: 32f.*; there are no "on
interpreter shutdown" hooks to think—or forget—about.

Note that there are use cases for different kinds of "globals":
per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state.  With
per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you
should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should
give them additional care and testing.  (Note that this guide does not
cover them.)


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Module Objects,  Next: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Enter Per-Module State,  Up: Background<2>

9.18.2.2 Isolated Module Objects
................................

The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is
that several module objects can be created from a single shared library.
For example:

     >>> import sys
     >>> import binascii
     >>> old_binascii = binascii
     >>> del sys.modules['binascii']
     >>> import binascii  # create a new module object
     >>> old_binascii == binascii
     False

As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent.
All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated
within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and
cleaned up when the module object is deallocated.  Since this just is a
rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see *note Managing Global State:
4f90.), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases.

While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated
modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that
work across a variety of use cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background<2>

9.18.2.3 Surprising Edge Cases
..............................

Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases.  Most
notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and
exceptions with other similar modules.  Continuing from the *note
example above: 4f8f, note that ‘old_binascii.Error’ and ‘binascii.Error’
are separate objects.  In the following code, the exception is 'not'
caught:

     >>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error
     False
     >>> try:
     ...     old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop')
     ... except binascii.Error:
     ...     print('boo')
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

This is expected.  Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way:
it is a part of how Python works.

The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make
hacks behave intuitively.  Mutating ‘sys.modules’ "manually" counts as a
hack.


File: python.info,  Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Next: Heap Types<2>,  Prev: Background<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.3 Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters
-----------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Global State,  Next: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.1 Managing Global State
..............................

Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to
that module, but to the entire process (or something else "more global"
than a module).  For example:

   - The ‘readline’ module manages 'the' terminal.

   - A module running on a circuit board wants to control 'the' on-board
     LED.

In these cases, the Python module should provide 'access' to the global
state, rather than 'own' it.  If possible, write the module so that
multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with
other libraries, whether for Python or other languages).  If that is not
possible, consider explicit locking.

If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to
avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a
module from being loaded more than once per process—see *note Opt-Out;
Limiting to One Module Object per Process: 4f93.


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Per-Module State,  Next: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Prev: Managing Global State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.2 Managing Per-Module State
..................................

To use per-module state, use *note multi-phase extension module
initialization: 489d.  This signals that your module supports multiple
interpreters correctly.

Set ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ to a positive number to request that many bytes
of storage local to the module.  Usually, this will be set to the size
of some module-specific ‘struct’, which can store all of the module's
C-level state.  In particular, it is where you should put pointers to
classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings
(e.g.  ‘csv’'s *note field_size_limit: 17c2.) which the C code needs to
function.

     Note: Another option is to store state in the module's ‘__dict__’,
     but you must avoid crashing when users modify ‘__dict__’ from
     Python code.  This usually means error- and type-checking at the C
     level, which is easy to get wrong and hard to test sufficiently.

     However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in
     ‘__dict__’ only is a good idea.

If the module state includes ‘PyObject’ pointers, the module object must
hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks
‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’ and ‘m_free’.  These work like ‘tp_traverse’,
‘tp_clear’ and ‘tp_free’ of a class.  Adding them will require some work
and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be
unloaded cleanly.

An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as
xxlimited(1); example module initialization shown at the bottom of the
file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Next: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.3 Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process
...........................................................

A non-negative ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ signals that a module supports
multiple interpreters correctly.  If this is not yet the case for your
module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per
process.  For example:

     static int loaded = 0;

     static int
     exec_module(PyObject* module)
     {
         if (loaded) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot load module more than once per process");
             return -1;
         }
         loaded = 1;
         // ... rest of initialization
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.4 Module State Access from Functions
...........................................

Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward.
Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting
the state, you can use ‘PyModule_GetState’:

     static PyObject *
     func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         // ... rest of logic
     }

     Note: ‘PyModule_GetState’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
     exception if there is no module state, i.e.  ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’
     was zero.  In your own module, you're in control of ‘m_size’, so
     this is easy to prevent.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types<2>,  Next: Open Issues,  Prev: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.4 Heap Types
-----------------

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static'; that is, ‘static
PyTypeObject’ structures defined directly in code and initialized using
‘PyType_Ready()’.

Such types are necessarily shared across the process.  Sharing them
between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own
or access.  To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at
the Python level: for example, you can't set ‘str.myattribute = 123’.

'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' Sharing truly immutable
objects between interpreters is fine, as long as they don't provide
access to mutable objects.  However, in CPython, every Python object has
a mutable implementation detail: the reference count.  Changes to the
refcount are guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python
objects across interpreters implicitly depends on CPython's current,
process-wide GIL.

Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot
access "their" module state.  If any method of such a type requires
access to module state, the type must be converted to a 'heap-allocated
type', or 'heap type' for short.  These correspond more closely to
classes created by Python's ‘class’ statement.

For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb.

* Menu:

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::


File: python.info,  Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Next: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.1 Changing Static Types to Heap Types
............................................

Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type
API was not designed for "lossless" conversion from static types—that
is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.  So,
when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to
unintentionally change a few details (e.g.  pickleability or inherited
slots).  Always test the details that are important to you.

Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this
is not a comprehensive list):

   * Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default.  Use
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3b9. flag to prevent
     mutability.

   * Heap types inherit *note tp_new: 56d. by default, so it may become
     possible to instantiate them from Python code.  You can prevent
     this with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 570. flag.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Heap Types,  Next: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Prev: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.2 Defining Heap Types
............................

Heap types can be created by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 16d6.
structure, a description or "blueprint" of a class, and calling *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f. to construct a new class object.

     Note: Other functions, like *note PyType_FromSpec(): 56b, can also
     create heap types, but *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f.
     associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module
     state from methods.

The class should generally be stored in 'both' the module state (for
safe access from C) and the module's ‘__dict__’ (for access from Python
code).


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Next: Module State Access from Classes,  Prev: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.3 Garbage-Collection Protocol
....................................

Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type.  This ensures
that the type isn't destroyed before all its instances are, but may
result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage
collector.

To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the
garbage collection protocol.  That is, heap types should:

   - Have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. flag.

   - Define a traverse function using ‘Py_tp_traverse’, which visits the
     type (e.g.  using ‘Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))’).

Please refer to the documentation of *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 769. and
*note tp_traverse: 76a. for additional considerations.

The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat
awkward to use in its current state.  The following sections will guide
you through common issues.

* Menu:

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::


File: python.info,  Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Next: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.4 ‘tp_traverse’ in Python 3.8 and lower
..............................................

The requirement to visit the type from ‘tp_traverse’ was added in Python
3.9.  If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must
'not' visit the type, so it must be more complicated:

     static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
         return 0;
     }

Unfortunately, *note Py_Version: 742. was only added in Python 3.11.  As
a replacement, use:

   * *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 743, if not using the stable ABI, or

   * *note sys.version_info: 68d. (via *note PySys_GetObject(): 37f. and
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 55f.).


File: python.info,  Node: Delegating tp_traverse,  Next: Defining tp_dealloc,  Prev: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.5 Delegating ‘tp_traverse’
.................................

If your traverse function delegates to the *note tp_traverse: 76a. of
its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
only once.  Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in
‘tp_traverse’.

For example, if your traverse function includes:

     base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

...and ‘base’ may be a static type, then it should also include:

     if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
         // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
     } else {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
     }

It is not necessary to handle the type's reference count in *note
tp_new: 56d. and *note tp_clear: 4882.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining tp_dealloc,  Next: Not overriding tp_free,  Prev: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.6 Defining ‘tp_dealloc’
..............................

If your type has a custom *note tp_dealloc: 486f. function, it needs to:

   - call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14be. before any fields are
     invalidated, and

   - decrement the reference count of the type.

To keep the type valid while ‘tp_free’ is called, the type's refcount
needs to be decremented 'after' the instance is deallocated.  For
example:

     static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         ...
         PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self);
         type->tp_free(self);
         Py_DECREF(type);
     }

The default ‘tp_dealloc’ function does this, so if your type does 'not'
override ‘tp_dealloc’ you don't need to add it.


File: python.info,  Node: Not overriding tp_free,  Next: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Defining tp_dealloc,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.7 Not overriding ‘tp_free’
.................................

The *note tp_free: 4870. slot of a heap type must be set to *note
PyObject_GC_Del(): 14bc.  This is the default; do not override it.


File: python.info,  Node: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Not overriding tp_free,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.8 Avoiding ‘PyObject_New’
................................

GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.

If you use use *note PyObject_New(): 974. or *note PyObject_NewVar():
975.:

   - Get and call type's *note tp_alloc: 4871. slot, if possible.  That
     is, replace ‘TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)’ with:

          TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0);

     Replace ‘o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)’ with the same,
     but use size instead of the 0.

   - If the above is not possible (e.g.  inside a custom ‘tp_alloc’),
     call *note PyObject_GC_New(): a92. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar():
     a93.:

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj);

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Classes,  Next: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Prev: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.9 Module State Access from Classes
.........................................

If you have a type object defined with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec():
53f, you can call *note PyType_GetModule(): 95d. to get the associated
module, and then *note PyModule_GetState(): 96f. to get the module's
state.

To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine
these two steps with *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 95e, resulting in:

     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Next: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Prev: Module State Access from Classes,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.10 Module State Access from Regular Methods
..................................................

Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat
more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python
3.9.  To get the state, you need to first get the 'defining class', and
then get the module state from it.

The largest roadblock is getting 'the class a method was defined in', or
that method's "defining class" for short.  The defining class can have a
reference to the module it is part of.

Do not confuse the defining class with ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.  If the method
is called on a 'subclass' of your type, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ will refer to
that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours.

     Note: The following Python code can illustrate the concept.
     ‘Base.get_defining_class’ returns ‘Base’ even if ‘type(self) ==
     Sub’:

          class Base:
              def get_type_of_self(self):
                  return type(self)

              def get_defining_class(self):
                  return __class__

          class Sub(Base):
              pass

For a method to get its "defining class", it must use the *note
METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1649. *note calling
convention: 148f. and the corresponding *note PyCMethod: 750. signature:

     PyObject *PyCMethod(
         PyObject *self,               // object the method was called on
         PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class
         PyObject *const *args,        // C array of arguments
         Py_ssize_t nargs,             // length of "args"
         PyObject *kwnames)            // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments

Once you have the defining class, call *note PyType_GetModuleState():
95e. to get the state of its associated module.

Par exemple :

     static PyObject *
     example_method(PyObject *self,
             PyTypeObject *defining_class,
             PyObject *const *args,
             Py_ssize_t nargs,
             PyObject *kwnames)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         ... // rest of logic
     }

     PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "...");

     static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = {
         {"example_method",
           (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method,
           METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS,
           example_method_doc}
         {NULL},
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Next: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.11 Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters
....................................................................

     Note: This is new in Python 3.11.

Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as *note
nb_add: 4b3e. for *note __add__: 1f45. or *note tp_new: 56d. for
initialization—have a very simple API that doesn't allow passing in the
defining class, unlike with *note PyCMethod: 750.  The same goes for
getters and setters defined with *note PyGetSetDef: ba8.

To access the module state in these cases, use the *note
PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38a. function, and pass in the module
definition.  Once you have the module, call *note PyModule_GetState():
96f. to get the state:

     PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def);
     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }

‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ works by searching the *note method resolution
order: 213d. (i.e.  all superclasses) for the first superclass that has
a corresponding module.

     Note: In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning multiple
     modules created from the same definition),
     ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ might not return the module of the true
     defining class.  However, it will always return a module with the
     same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.


File: python.info,  Node: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.12 Lifetime of the Module State
......................................

When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed.
For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a
reference to the module object.

Usually this is not an issue, because types created with *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 53f, and their instances, hold a reference
to the module.  However, you must be careful in reference counting when
you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for
external libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Open Issues,  Prev: Heap Types<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.5 Open Issues
------------------

Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.

Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the capi-sig
mailing list(1).

* Menu:

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/capi-sig.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Per-Class Scope,  Next: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Up: Open Issues

9.18.5.1 Per-Class Scope
........................

It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to
individual 'types' without relying on CPython implementation details
(which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper
solution for per-class scope).


File: python.info,  Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Prev: Per-Class Scope,  Up: Open Issues

9.18.5.2 Lossless Conversion to Heap Types
..........................................

The heap type API was not designed for "lossless" conversion from static
types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static
type.


File: python.info,  Node: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Next: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: Isolating Extension Modules,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.19 timer file descriptor HOWTO
================================


Version: 1.13

This HOWTO discusses Python's support for the linux timer file
descriptor.

* Menu:

* Exemples: Exemples<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<39>,  Up: timer file descriptor HOWTO

9.19.1 Exemples
---------------

The following example shows how to use a timer file descriptor to
execute a function twice a second:

     # Practical scripts should use really use a non-blocking timer,
     # we use a blocking timer here for simplicity.
     import os, time

     # Create the timer file descriptor
     fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME)

     # Start the timer in 1 second, with an interval of half a second
     os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=1, interval=0.5)

     try:
         # Process timer events four times.
         for _ in range(4):
             # read() will block until the timer expires
             _ = os.read(fd, 8)
             print("Timer expired")
     finally:
         # Remember to close the timer file descriptor!
         os.close(fd)

To avoid the precision loss caused by the *note float: 2ec. type, timer
file descriptors allow specifying initial expiration and interval in
integer nanoseconds with ‘_ns’ variants of the functions.

This example shows how *note epoll(): f80. can be used with timer file
descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

     import os, time, select, socket, sys

     # Create an epoll object
     ep = select.epoll()

     # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
     #
     # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
     # Trying 127.0.0.1...
     # Connected to 127.0.0.1.
     # Escape character is '^]'.
     # stop
     # Connection closed by foreign host.
     #
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sock.listen(1)
     ep.register(sock, select.EPOLLIN)

     # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
     num = 3
     fds = []
     for _ in range(num):
         fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
         fds.append(fd)
         # Register the timer file descriptor for read events
         ep.register(fd, select.EPOLLIN)

     # Start the timer with os.timerfd_settime_ns() in nanoseconds.
     # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
     for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
         one_sec_in_nsec = 10**9
         i = i * one_sec_in_nsec
         os.timerfd_settime_ns(fd, initial=i//4, interval=i//4)

     timeout = 3
     try:
         conn = None
         is_active = True
         while is_active:
             # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
             # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
             # fd is a file descriptor.
             # sock and conn[=returned value of socket.accept()] are socket objects, not file descriptors.
             # So use sock.fileno() and conn.fileno() to get the file descriptors.
             events = ep.poll(timeout)

             # If more than one timer file descriptors are ready for reading at once,
             # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
             #
             # In this example settings,
             #    1st timer fires every 0.25 seconds in 0.25 seconds. (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, ...)
             #    2nd timer every 0.5 seconds in 0.5 seconds. (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, ...)
             #    3rd timer every 0.75 seconds in 0.75 seconds. (0.75, 1.5, 2.25, 3.0, ...)
             #
             #    In 0.25 seconds, only 1st timer fires.
             #    In 0.5 seconds, 1st timer and 2nd timer fires at once.
             #    In 0.75 seconds, 1st timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
             #    In 1.5 seconds, 1st timer, 2nd timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
             #
             # If a timer file descriptor is signaled more than once since
             # the last os.read() call, os.read() returns the number of signaled
             # as host order of class bytes.
             print(f"Signaled events={events}")
             for fd, event in events:
                 if event & select.EPOLLIN:
                     if fd == sock.fileno():
                         # Check if there is a connection request.
                         print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                         conn, addr = sock.accept()
                         conn.setblocking(False)
                         print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                         ep.register(conn, select.EPOLLIN)
                     elif conn and fd == conn.fileno():
                         # Check if there is data to read.
                         print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                         data = conn.recv(1024)
                         if data:
                             # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                             cmd = data.decode()
                             if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                                 print(f"Stopping server")
                                 is_active = False
                             else:
                                 print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                         else:
                             # No more data, close connection
                             print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                             ep.unregister(conn)
                             conn.close()
                             conn = None
                     elif fd in fds:
                         print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                         count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                         print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                     else:
                         print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
     finally:
         for fd in fds:
             ep.unregister(fd)
             os.close(fd)
         ep.close()

This example shows how *note select(): d8f. can be used with timer file
descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

     import os, time, select, socket, sys

     # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
     #
     # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
     # Trying 127.0.0.1...
     # Connected to 127.0.0.1.
     # Escape character is '^]'.
     # stop
     # Connection closed by foreign host.
     #
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sock.listen(1)

     # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
     num = 3
     fds = [os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
            for _ in range(num)]
     select_fds = fds + [sock]

     # Start the timers with os.timerfd_settime() in seconds.
     # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
     for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
        os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=i/4, interval=i/4)

     timeout = 3
     try:
         conn = None
         is_active = True
         while is_active:
            # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
            # select.select() returns a list of file descriptors or objects.
            rfd, wfd, xfd = select.select(select_fds, select_fds, select_fds, timeout)
            for fd in rfd:
                if fd == sock:
                    # Check if there is a connection request.
                    print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                    conn, addr = sock.accept()
                    conn.setblocking(False)
                    print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                    select_fds.append(conn)
                elif conn and fd == conn:
                    # Check if there is data to read.
                    print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                    data = conn.recv(1024)
                    if data:
                        # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                        cmd = data.decode()
                        if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                            print(f"Stopping server")
                            is_active = False
                        else:
                            print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                    else:
                        # No more data, close connection
                        print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                        select_fds.remove(conn)
                        conn.close()
                        conn = None
                elif fd in fds:
                    print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                    count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                    print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                else:
                    print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
     finally:
         for fd in fds:
            os.close(fd)
         sock.close()
         sock = None


File: python.info,  Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Python experimental support for free threading,  Prev: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.20 The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
===========================================

     Note: This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to the
     official documentation.  The Method Resolution Order discussed here
     was 'introduced' in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later
     versions - including Python 3.

By Michele Simionato(1).


Résumé: 'This document is intended for Python programmers who want to
understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3.  Although
it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked
out examples.  I am not aware of other publicly available documents with
the same scope, therefore it should be useful.'

Disclaimer:

     'I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under
     the Python 2.3 license.  As usual in these circumstances, I warn
     the reader that what follows' should 'be correct, but I don't give
     any warranty.  Use it at your own risk and peril!'

Acknowledgments:

     'All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their
     support.  Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made
     me to add the part on local precedence ordering.  David Goodger for
     help with the formatting in reStructuredText.  David Mertz for help
     with the editing.  Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically
     added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.'

* Menu:

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Exemples: Exemples<40>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/


File: python.info,  Node: The beginning,  Next: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.20.1 The beginning
--------------------

     'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas' - Virgilius

Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python
development mailing list (1).  In his post, Samuele showed that the
Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to
replace it with the C3 method resolution order.  Guido agreed with his
arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3.  The C3 method itself
has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working
on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers (2).  The
present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3
algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the
change.

First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies
to the 'new style classes' introduced in Python 2.2: 'classic classes'
maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to
right.  Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes;
and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2
new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution
order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare
that no real breaking of code is expected.  Therefore:

     'Don't be scared!'

Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you
have non-trivial hierarchies, you don't need to understand the C3
algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper.  On the other hand, if
you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper
is for you.  The good news is that things are not as complicated as you
might expect.

Let me begin with some basic definitions.

  1. Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it
     is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are
     overridden, i.e.  to specify the order of the ancestors of C.

  2. The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself,
     ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the
     class precedence list or the 'linearization' of C.

  3. The 'Method Resolution Order' (MRO) is the set of rules that
     construct the linearization.  In the Python literature, the idiom
     "the MRO of C" is also used as a synonymous for the linearization
     of the class C.

  4. For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is
     a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the
     linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2].  However, with
     multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the
     linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to
     construct a linearization that respects 'local precedence ordering'
     and 'monotonicity'.

  5. I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give
     the definition of monotonicity here.  A MRO is monotonic when the
     following is true: 'if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C,
     then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C'.
     Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could
     change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing
     very subtle bugs.  Examples where this happens will be shown later.

  6. Not all classes admit a linearization.  There are cases, in
     complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class
     such that its linearization respects all the desired properties.

Here I give an example of this situation.  Consider the hierarchy

     >>> O = object
     >>> class X(O): pass
     >>> class Y(O): pass
     >>> class A(X,Y): pass
     >>> class B(Y,X): pass

which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I
have denoted with O the ‘object’ class, which is the beginning of any
hierarchy for new style classes:

           -----------
          |           |
          |    O      |
          |  /   \    |
           - X    Y  /
             |  / | /
             | /  |/
             A    B
             \   /
               ?

In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B,
since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method
resolution order would be ambiguous in C.

Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO
conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating
ambiguous hierarchies.  Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception,
but chooses an 'ad hoc' ordering (CABXYO in this case).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni:
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’

   (2) The paper 'A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan':
‘https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343’


File: python.info,  Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Exemples<40>,  Prev: The beginning,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.20.2 The C3 Method Resolution Order
-------------------------------------

Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the
following discussion.  I will use the shortcut notation:

     C1 C2 ... CN

to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, ...  , CN].

The 'head' of the list is its first element:

     head = C1

whereas the 'tail' is the rest of the list:

     tail = C2 ... CN.

I shall also use the notation:

     C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN

to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, ...  ,CN].

Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3.

Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C
inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, ...  , BN. We want to compute
the linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following:

     'the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the
     linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.'

In symbolic notation:

     L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN)

In particular, if C is the ‘object’ class, which has no parents, the
linearization is trivial:

     L[object] = object.

However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the
following prescription:

     'take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not
     in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the
     linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge,
     otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a
     good head.  Then repeat the operation until all the class are
     removed or it is impossible to find good heads.  In this case, it
     is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to
     create the class C and will raise an exception.'

This prescription ensures that the merge operation 'preserves' the
ordering, if the ordering can be preserved.  On the other hand, if the
order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order
disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed.

The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single
inheritance); in this case:

     L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B]

However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome
and I don't expect you can understand the rule without a couple of
examples ;-)


File: python.info,  Node: Exemples<40>,  Next: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Prev: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.20.3 Exemples
---------------

First example.  Consider the following hierarchy:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(D,E): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as:

                                    6
                                   ---
          Level 3                 | O |                  (more general)
                                /  ---  \
                               /    |    \                      |
                              /     |     \                     |
                             /      |      \                    |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
          Level 2        3 | D | 4| E |  | F | 5                |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
                             \  \ _ /       |                   |
                              \    / \ _    |                   |
                               \  /      \  |                   |
                                ---      ---                    |
          Level 1            1 | B |    | C | 2                 |
                                ---      ---                    |
                                  \      /                      |
                                   \    /                      \ /
                                     ---
          Level 0                 0 | A |                (more specialized)
                                     ---

The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial:

     L[O] = O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[F] = F O

The linearization of B can be computed as:

     L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE)

We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to
compute ‘merge(O,EO,E)’.  Now O is not a good head, since it is in the
tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip
to the next sequence.  Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and
we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,O)’ which gives O. Therefore:

     L[B] =  B D E O

Using the same procedure one finds:

     L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF)
          = C + D + merge(O,FO,F)
          = C + D + F + merge(O,O)
          = C D F O

Now we can compute:

     L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
          = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
          = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO)
          = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O)
          = A B C D E F O

In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way
according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e.
more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance
graph).  However, this is not the general case.

I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for
my second example:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(E,D): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) ->
B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the
ordering of the hierarchy:

                                     6
                                    ---
          Level 3                  | O |
                                 /  ---  \
                                /    |    \
                               /     |     \
                              /      |      \
                            ---     ---    ---
          Level 2        2 | E | 4 | D |  | F | 5
                            ---     ---    ---
                             \      / \     /
                              \    /   \   /
                               \  /     \ /
                                ---     ---
          Level 1            1 | B |   | C | 3
                                ---     ---
                                 \       /
                                  \     /
                                    ---
          Level 0                0 | A |
                                    ---

Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy,
precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e.
E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.

A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in
this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization.  It is enough
to invoke the *note mro(): 1ee7. method of class A:

     >>> A.mro()
     [<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
     <class 'C'>, <class 'D'>, <class 'F'>,
     <class 'object'>]

Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section,
involving a serious order disagreement.  In this case, it is
straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B:

          L[O] = 0
          L[X] = X O
          L[Y] = Y O
          L[A] = A X Y O
          L[B] = B Y X O

However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C
that inherits from A and B:

     L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB)
          = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B)
          = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO)

At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the
tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good
heads and the C3 algorithm stops.  Python 2.3 raises an error and
refuses to create the class C.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Next: The end,  Prev: Exemples<40>,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.20.4 Bad Method Resolution Orders
-----------------------------------

A MRO is 'bad' when it breaks such fundamental properties as local
precedence ordering and monotonicity.  In this section, I will show that
both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in
Python 2.2 are bad.

It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering.  Consider the
following example:

     >>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'})
     >>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'})
     >>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error!

with inheritance diagram

                       O
                       |
          (buy spam)   F
                       | \
                       | E   (buy eggs)
                       | /
                       G

                (buy eggs or spam ?)

We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F 'before' E: therefore
we would expect the attribute 'G.remember2buy' to be inherited by
'F.remember2buy' and not by 'E.remember2buy': nevertheless Python 2.2
gives

     >>> G.remember2buy
     'eggs'

This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the
local precedence list, i.e.  the list of the parents of G, is not
preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G:

     L[G,P22]= G E F object   # F *follows* E

One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2
linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the
superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering
is quite non-intuitive and error prone.  This is particularly true since
it is a different from old style classes:

     >>> class F: remember2buy='spam'
     >>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs'
     >>> class G(F,E): pass
     >>> G.remember2buy
     'spam'

In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is
preserved.

As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be
avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa.
Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation
of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating
ambiguous hierarchies.  The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm
fails when the merge:

     merge(FO,EFO,FE)

cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail
of FE.

The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e.  to
derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in
this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt.

                     O
                     |
                     F (spam)
                   / |
          (eggs)   E |
                   \ |
                     G
                       (eggs, no doubt)

Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at
least, less error-prone ones).

On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is
smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of
classes in the list of parents:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class C(A,A): pass # error
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     TypeError: duplicate base class A

Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this
situation, would not raise any exception.

Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this
example:

  1. despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of
     attributes, not only of methods;

  2. the default food for Pythonistas is spam !  (but you already knew
     that ;-)

Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now
consider the issue of monotonicity.  My goal is to show that neither the
MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is
monotonic.

To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather
trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram:

             C
            / \
           /   \
          A     B
           \   /
            \ /
             D

One easily discerns the inconsistency:

     L[B,P21] = B C        # B precedes C : B's methods win
     L[D,P21] = D A C B C  # B follows C  : C's methods win!

On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3
MROs, they give both:

     L[D] = D A B C

Guido points out in his essay (1) that the classic MRO is not so bad in
practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes.
But all new style classes inherit from ‘object’, therefore diamonds are
unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance
graph.

The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not
impossible.  The following example, originally provided by Samuele
Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class B(object): pass
     >>> class C(object): pass
     >>> class D(object): pass
     >>> class E(object): pass
     >>> class K1(A,B,C): pass
     >>> class K2(D,B,E): pass
     >>> class K3(D,A):   pass
     >>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should
verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance
diagram ;-)

     L[A] = A O
     L[B] = B O
     L[C] = C O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[K1]= K1 A B C O
     L[K2]= K2 D B E O
     L[K3]= K3 D A O
     L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O

Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1,
K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z:

     L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O

It is clear that this linearization is 'wrong', since A comes before D
whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes 'after' D. In other words, in
K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which
still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived
by D! This is a violation of monotonicity.  Moreover, the Python 2.2
linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering,
since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2
precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 'follows' K3.  These
problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3
rule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Guido van Rossum's essay, 'Unifying types and classes in Python
2.2':
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro’


File: python.info,  Node: The end,  Next: Resources,  Prev: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.20.5 The end
--------------

This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous
sections and jumped immediately to the end.  This section is for the
lazy programmer too, who didn't want to exercise her/his brain.
Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would
not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple
inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and
'not' separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2
script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your
brain.  Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I
have discussed in this paper.:

     #<mro.py>

     """C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me)."""

     class __metaclass__(type):
         "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed"
         __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__

     class ex_2:
         "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido
         class O: pass
         class X(O): pass
         class Y(O): pass
         class A(X,Y): pass
         class B(Y,X): pass
         try:
             class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2
         except TypeError:
             pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3

     class ex_5:
         "My first example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(D,E): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_6:
         "My second example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(E,D): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_9:
         "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele
         class O: pass
         class A(O): pass
         class B(O): pass
         class C(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class K1(A,B,C): pass
         class K2(D,B,E): pass
         class K3(D,A): pass
         class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

     def merge(seqs):
         print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs),
         res = []; i=0
         while 1:
           nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq]
           if not nonemptyseqs: return res
           i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...',
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads
               cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand,
               nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]]
               if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate
               else: break
           if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy"
           res.append(cand)
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand
               if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0]

     def mro(C):
         "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3"
         return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)])

     def print_mro(C):
         print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C))
         print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro())

     print_mro(ex_9.Z)

     #</mro.py>

That's all folks,

     enjoy !


File: python.info,  Node: Resources,  Prev: The end,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.20.6 Resources
----------------


File: python.info,  Node: Python experimental support for free threading,  Next: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Prev: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.21 Python experimental support for free threading
===================================================

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for a
build of Python called *note free threading: 151e. where the *note
global interpreter lock: 147. (GIL) is disabled.  Free-threaded
execution allows for full utilization of the available processing power
by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.  While not all
software will benefit from this automatically, programs designed with
threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.

'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve
it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.

This document describes the implications of free threading for Python
code.  See *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 4fb5. for
information on how to write C extensions that support the free-threaded
build.

Voir aussi
..........

PEP 703(1) – Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython for
an overall description of free-threaded Python.

* Menu:

* Installation::
* Identifying free-threaded Python::
* The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python::
* Thread safety::
* Known limitations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Installation,  Next: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.21.1 Installation
-------------------

Starting with Python 3.13, the official macOS and Windows installers
optionally support installing free-threaded Python binaries.  The
installers are available at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.

For information on other platforms, see the Installing a Free-Threaded
Python(1), a community-maintained installation guide for installing
free-threaded Python.

When building CPython from source, the *note -disable-gil: 173.
configure option should be used to build a free-threaded Python
interpreter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/installing_cpython/


File: python.info,  Node: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Next: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Prev: Installation,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.21.2 Identifying free-threaded Python
---------------------------------------

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note
python -VV: 176. and *note sys.version: 177. contain "experimental
free-threading build".  The new *note sys._is_gil_enabled(): 4336.
function can be used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in
the running process.

The ‘sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ configuration variable
can be used to determine whether the build supports free threading.  If
the variable is set to ‘1’, then the build supports free threading.
This is the recommended mechanism for decisions related to the build
configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Next: Thread safety,  Prev: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.21.3 The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python
----------------------------------------------------------

Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 174.
or the command-line option *note -X gil: 175.

The GIL may also automatically be enabled when importing a C-API
extension module that is not explicitly marked as supporting free
threading.  A warning will be printed in this case.

In addition to individual package documentation, the following websites
track the status of popular packages support for free threading:

   * ‘https://py-free-threading.github.io/tracking/’

   * ‘https://hugovk.github.io/free-threaded-wheels/’


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety,  Next: Known limitations,  Prev: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.21.4 Thread safety
--------------------

The free-threaded build of CPython aims to provide similar thread-safety
behavior at the Python level to the default GIL-enabled build.  Built-in
types like *note dict: 253, *note list: 5fe, and *note set: 5c5. use
internal locks to protect against concurrent modifications in ways that
behave similarly to the GIL. However, Python has not historically
guaranteed specific behavior for concurrent modifications to these
built-in types, so this should be treated as a description of the
current implementation, not a guarantee of current or future behavior.

     Note: It's recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 1632. or
     other synchronization primitives instead of relying on the internal
     locks of built-in types, when possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Known limitations,  Prev: Thread safety,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.21.5 Known limitations
------------------------

This section describes known limitations of the free-threaded CPython
build.

* Menu:

* Immortalization::
* Objets cadres: Objets cadres<2>.
* Itérateurs: Itérateurs<4>.
* Single-threaded performance::


File: python.info,  Node: Immortalization,  Next: Objets cadres<2>,  Up: Known limitations

9.21.5.1 Immortalization
........................

The free-threaded build of the 3.13 release makes some objects *note
immortal: 4327.  Immortal objects are not deallocated and have reference
counts that are never modified.  This is done to avoid reference count
contention that would prevent efficient multi-threaded scaling.

An object will be made immortal when a new thread is started for the
first time after the main thread is running.  The following objects are
immortalized:

   * *note function: 296. objects declared at the module level

   * *note method: 1ebe. descriptors

   * *note code: 1cd. objects

   * *note module: 161a. objects and their dictionaries

   * *note classes: 1eca. (type objects)

Because immortal objects are never deallocated, applications that create
many objects of these types may see increased memory usage.  This is
expected to be addressed in the 3.14 release.

Additionally, numeric and string literals in the code as well as strings
returned by *note sys.intern(): 12bb. are also immortalized.  This
behavior is expected to remain in the 3.14 free-threaded build.


File: python.info,  Node: Objets cadres<2>,  Next: Itérateurs<4>,  Prev: Immortalization,  Up: Known limitations

9.21.5.2 Objets cadres
......................

It is not safe to access *note frame: 6cc. objects from other threads
and doing so may cause your program to crash .  This means that *note
sys._current_frames(): 13eb. is generally not safe to use in a
free-threaded build.  Functions like *note inspect.currentframe(): 6ce.
and *note sys._getframe(): 6cd. are generally safe as long as the
resulting frame object is not passed to another thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Itérateurs<4>,  Next: Single-threaded performance,  Prev: Objets cadres<2>,  Up: Known limitations

9.21.5.3 Itérateurs
...................

Sharing the same iterator object between multiple threads is generally
not safe and threads may see duplicate or missing elements when
iterating or crash the interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Single-threaded performance,  Prev: Itérateurs<4>,  Up: Known limitations

9.21.5.4 Single-threaded performance
....................................

The free-threaded build has additional overhead when executing Python
code compared to the default GIL-enabled build.  In 3.13, this overhead
is about 40% on the pyperformance(1) suite.  Programs that spend most of
their time in C extensions or I/O will see less of an impact.  The
largest impact is because the specializing adaptive interpreter ( PEP
659(2)) is disabled in the free-threaded build.  We expect to re-enable
it in a thread-safe way in the 3.14 release.  This overhead is expected
to be reduced in upcoming Python release.  We are aiming for an overhead
of 10% or less on the pyperformance suite compared to the default
GIL-enabled build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/


File: python.info,  Node: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Prev: Python experimental support for free threading,  Up: Les HOWTOs de Python

9.22 C API Extension Support for Free Threading
===============================================

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for
running with the *note global interpreter lock: 147. (GIL) disabled in a
configuration called *note free threading: 151e.  This document
describes how to adapt C API extensions to support free threading.

* Menu:

* Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C::
* Module Initialization::
* General API Guidelines::
* Borrowed References::
* Memory Allocation APIs::
* Thread State and GIL APIs::
* Protecting Internal Extension State::
* Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::


File: python.info,  Node: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C,  Next: Module Initialization,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.1 Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C
-----------------------------------------------

The CPython C API exposes the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro: in the
free-threaded build it's defined to ‘1’, and in the regular build it's
not defined.  You can use it to enable code that only runs under the
free-threaded build:

     #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
     /* code that only runs in the free-threaded build */
     #endif


File: python.info,  Node: Module Initialization,  Next: General API Guidelines,  Prev: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.2 Module Initialization
----------------------------

Extension modules need to explicitly indicate that they support running
with the GIL disabled; otherwise importing the extension will raise a
warning and enable the GIL at runtime.

There are two ways to indicate that an extension module supports running
with the GIL disabled depending on whether the extension uses
multi-phase or single-phase initialization.

* Menu:

* Multi-Phase Initialization::
* Single-Phase Initialization::


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization,  Next: Single-Phase Initialization,  Up: Module Initialization

9.22.2.1 Multi-Phase Initialization
...................................

Extensions that use multi-phase initialization (i.e., *note
PyModuleDef_Init(): 4971.) should add a *note Py_mod_gil: 157. slot in
the module definition.  If your extension supports older versions of
CPython, you should guard the slot with a *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 743.
check.

     static struct PyModuleDef_Slot module_slots[] = {
         ...
     #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030D0000
         {Py_mod_gil, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED},
     #endif
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_slots = module_slots,
         ...
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Single-Phase Initialization,  Prev: Multi-Phase Initialization,  Up: Module Initialization

9.22.2.2 Single-Phase Initialization
....................................

Extensions that use single-phase initialization (i.e., *note
PyModule_Create(): 4846.) should call *note PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL():
178. to indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled.  The
function is only defined in the free-threaded build, so you should guard
the call with ‘#ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED’ to avoid compilation errors in
the regular build.

     static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         ...
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_mymodule(void)
     {
         PyObject *m = PyModule_Create(&moduledef);
         if (m == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
     #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
         PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(m, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED);
     #endif
         return m;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: General API Guidelines,  Next: Borrowed References,  Prev: Module Initialization,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.3 General API Guidelines
-----------------------------

Most of the C API is thread-safe, but there are some exceptions.

   * 'Struct Fields': Accessing fields in Python C API objects or
     structs directly is not thread-safe if the field may be
     concurrently modified.

   * 'Macros': Accessor macros like *note PyList_GET_ITEM: 48e3. and
     *note PyList_SET_ITEM: 384. do not perform any error checking or
     locking.  These macros are not thread-safe if the container object
     may be modified concurrently.

   * 'Borrowed References': C API functions that return *note borrowed
     references: 334. may not be thread-safe if the containing object is
     modified concurrently.  See the section on *note borrowed
     references: 4fc6. for more information.

* Menu:

* Container Thread Safety::


File: python.info,  Node: Container Thread Safety,  Up: General API Guidelines

9.22.3.1 Container Thread Safety
................................

Containers like *note PyListObject: 4af9, *note PyDictObject: 3b8, and
*note PySetObject: 4be7. perform internal locking in the free-threaded
build.  For example, the *note PyList_Append(): 495a. will lock the list
before appending an item.

* Menu:

* PyDict_Next::


File: python.info,  Node: PyDict_Next,  Up: Container Thread Safety

9.22.3.2 ‘PyDict_Next’
......................

A notable exception is *note PyDict_Next(): 15cd, which does not lock
the dictionary.  You should use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 4bdf.
to protect the dictionary while iterating over it if the dictionary may
be concurrently modified:

     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(dict);
     PyObject *key, *value;
     Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
     while (PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();


File: python.info,  Node: Borrowed References,  Next: Memory Allocation APIs,  Prev: General API Guidelines,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.4 Borrowed References
--------------------------

Some C API functions return *note borrowed references: 334.  These APIs
are not thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently.
For example, it's not safe to use *note PyList_GetItem(): 352. if the
list may be modified concurrently.

The following table lists some borrowed reference APIs and their
replacements that return *note strong references: 333.

Borrowed reference API                  Strong reference API
                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
*note PyList_GetItem(): 352.            *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 351.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d.            *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 332.   *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 330.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItemString(): 37e.      *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 331.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_SetDefault(): 336.         *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 335.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_Next(): 15cd.              none (see *note PyDict_Next: 4fc9.)
                                        
                                        
*note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f.       *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e.
                                        
                                        
*note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b6.      *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e.
                                        
                                        
*note PyImport_AddModule(): 34f.        *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 34e.
                                        

Not all APIs that return borrowed references are problematic.  For
example, *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 4859. is safe because tuples are
immutable.  Similarly, not all uses of the above APIs are problematic.
For example, *note PyDict_GetItem(): 37d. is often used for parsing
keyword argument dictionaries in function calls; those keyword argument
dictionaries are effectively private (not accessible by other threads),
so using borrowed references in that context is safe.

Some of these functions were added in Python 3.13.  You can use the
pythoncapi-compat(1) package to provide implementations of these
functions for older Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Allocation APIs,  Next: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Prev: Borrowed References,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.5 Memory Allocation APIs
-----------------------------

Python's memory management C API provides functions in three different
*note allocation domains: 4d48.: "raw", "mem", and "object".  For
thread-safety, the free-threaded build requires that only Python objects
are allocated using the object domain, and that all Python object are
allocated using that domain.  This differs from the prior Python
versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard
requirement.

     Note: Search for uses of *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58. in your
     extension and check that the allocated memory is used for Python
     objects.  Use *note PyMem_Malloc(): c56. to allocate buffers
     instead of *note PyObject_Malloc(): c58.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Next: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Prev: Memory Allocation APIs,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.6 Thread State and GIL APIs
--------------------------------

Python provides a set of functions and macros to manage thread state and
the GIL, such as:

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. and *note PyGILState_Release():
     3a3.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread():
     3a0.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS:
     a7e.

These functions should still be used in the free-threaded build to
manage thread state even when the *note GIL: 158. is disabled.  For
example, if you create a thread outside of Python, you must call *note
PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a2. before calling into the Python API to ensure
that the thread has a valid Python thread state.

You should continue to call *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 39f. or *note
Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 485e. around blocking operations, such as I/O or
lock acquisitions, to allow other threads to run the *note cyclic
garbage collector: 18d6.


File: python.info,  Node: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Next: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build,  Prev: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.7 Protecting Internal Extension State
------------------------------------------

Your extension may have internal state that was previously protected by
the GIL. You may need to add locking to protect this state.  The
approach will depend on your extension, but some common patterns
include:

   * 'Caches': global caches are a common source of shared state.
     Consider using a lock to protect the cache or disabling it in the
     free-threaded build if the cache is not critical for performance.

   * 'Global State': global state may need to be protected by a lock or
     moved to thread local storage.  C11 and C++11 provide the
     ‘thread_local’ or ‘_Thread_local’ for thread-local storage(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/language/storage_duration


File: python.info,  Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build,  Prev: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.22.8 Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build
------------------------------------------------------

C API extensions need to be built specifically for the free-threaded
build.  The wheels, shared libraries, and binaries are indicated by a
‘t’ suffix.

   * pypa/manylinux(1) supports the free-threaded build, with the ‘t’
     suffix, such as ‘python3.13t’.

   * pypa/cibuildwheel(2) supports the free-threaded build if you set
     CIBW_FREE_THREADED_SUPPORT(3).

* Menu:

* Limited C API and Stable ABI::
* Windows: Windows<77>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pypa/manylinux

   (2) https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel

   (3) 
https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#free-threaded-support


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI,  Next: Windows<77>,  Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

9.22.8.1 Limited C API and Stable ABI
.....................................

The free-threaded build does not currently support the *note Limited C
API: 38c. or the stable ABI. If you use setuptools(1) to build your
extension and currently set ‘py_limited_api=True’ you can use
‘py_limited_api=not sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ to opt
out of the limited API when building with the free-threaded build.

     Note: You will need to build separate wheels specifically for the
     free-threaded build.  If you currently use the stable ABI, you can
     continue to build a single wheel for multiple non-free-threaded
     Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<77>,  Prev: Limited C API and Stable ABI,  Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

9.22.8.2 Windows
................

Due to a limitation of the official Windows installer, you will need to
manually define ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED=1’ when building extensions from
source.

Voir aussi
..........

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(1): A
community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

General:

   * *note Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations: 7c5.

   * *note Tutoriel argparse: 2e1b.

   * *note Descriptor Guide: 14a4.

   * *note Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum: 4e5a.

   * *note Guide pratique ; programmation fonctionnelle: 4e8b.

   * *note Introduction au module ipaddress: 3bdf.

   * *note Tutoriel sur la journalisation: 4ea9.

   * *note Recettes pour la journalisation: 11d6.

   * *note Guide des expressions régulières: 22a7.

   * *note Sorting Techniques: 213b.

   * *note Guide Unicode: 1284.

   * *note Guide pratique ; récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le
     module urllib: 39b1.

Advanced development:

   * *note Programmation Curses avec Python: 2f0e.

   * *note Python experimental support for free threading: 4fb3.

   * *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 4fb5.

   * *note Isolating Extension Modules: 4c47.

   * *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1460.

   * *note Guide pratique ; programmation avec les sockets: 33ef.

   * *note timer file descriptor HOWTO: 4fa8.

   * *note Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3: 12c1.

Debugging and profiling:

   * *note Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB:
     4e4c.

   * *note Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap: c5c.

   * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/


File: python.info,  Node: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python,  Next: Deprecations,  Prev: Les HOWTOs de Python,  Up: Top

10 Questions fréquemment posées sur Python
******************************************

* Menu:

* FAQ générale sur Python::
* FAQ de programmation::
* FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception::
* FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions::
* FAQ extension/intégration::
* FAQ ; Python et Windows: FAQ Python et Windows.
* FAQ interface graphique::
* FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"::


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ générale sur Python,  Next: FAQ de programmation,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.1 FAQ générale sur Python
============================

* Menu:

* Informations générales::
* Python c'est le monde réel::


File: python.info,  Node: Informations générales,  Next: Python c'est le monde réel,  Up: FAQ générale sur Python

10.1.1 Informations générales
-----------------------------

* Menu:

* Qu'est-ce que Python ?::
* Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?::
* Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?::
* Pourquoi Python a été créé ?::
* Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?::
* Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?::
* Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?::
* Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?::
* Je n'ai jamais programmé avant. Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?.
* Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?::
* Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?::
* Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?::
* Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?::
* Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?::
* Où www.python.org est-il localisé dans le monde ?: Où www python org est-il localisé dans le monde ?.
* Pourquoi le nom Python ?::
* Dois-je aimer "Monty Python's Flying Circus" ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce que Python ?,  Next: Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.1 Qu'est-ce que Python ?
...............................

Python est un langage de programmation interprété, interactif et orienté
objet.  Il intègre des modules, des exceptions, un typage dynamique, des
types de données dynamiques de très haut niveau et des classes.  Il gère
de multiples paradigmes de programmation au-delà de la programmation
orientée objet, tels que la programmation procédurale et fonctionnelle.
Python combine une puissance remarquable avec une syntaxe très claire.
Il possède des interfaces avec de nombreux appels système et
bibliothèques, ainsi qu'avec divers systèmes d'interfaces graphiques, et
il peut être étendu avec du C ou du C++.  Il est également utilisable
comme langage d'extension pour les applications qui nécessitent une
interface de programmation.  Enfin, Python est portable : il fonctionne
sur de nombreuses variantes d'Unix, y compris Linux et macOS, et sur
Windows.

Pour en savoir plus, commencez par *note Le tutoriel Python: 1b98.  Le
« Guide des Débutants pour Python(1) » renvoie vers d'autres tutoriels
et ressources d'initiation pour apprendre Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?,  Next: Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce que Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.2 Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?
......................................................

La Python Software Foundation (PSF) est une organisation indépendante à
but non lucratif qui détient les droits d'auteur sur les versions Python
2.1 et plus récentes.  La mission de la PSF est de faire progresser les
technologies ouvertes ('open source') relatives au langage de
programmation Python et de promouvoir son utilisation.  Le page
d'accueil de la PSF se trouve à l'adresse suivante :
‘https://www.python.org/psf/’.

Si vous utilisez Python et que vous le trouvez utile, merci de
contribuer par le biais de la page de donation de la PSF(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/psf/donations/


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?,  Next: Pourquoi Python a été créé ?,  Prev: Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.3 Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?
...........................................................................................................

Vous pouvez faire ce que vous souhaitez avec la source, tant que vous
respecterez la licence d'utilisation et que vous l'afficherez dans toute
documentation que vous produirez au sujet de Python.  Si vous respectez
ces règles, vous pouvez utiliser Python dans un cadre commercial, vendre
le code source ou la forme binaire (modifiée ou non), ou vendre des
produits qui incorporent Python sous une forme quelconque.  Bien
entendu, nous souhaiterions avoir connaissance de tous les projets
commerciaux utilisant Python.

See the license page(1) to find further explanations and the full text
of the PSF License.

Le logo de Python est une marque déposée, et dans certains cas une
autorisation est nécessaire pour l'utiliser.  Consultez la politique
d'utilisation de la marque(2) pour plus d'informations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3/license.html

   (2) https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi Python a été créé ?,  Next: Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?,  Prev: Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.4 Pourquoi Python a été créé ?
.....................................

Voici un 'très' bref résumé de comment tout a commencé, écrit par Guido
van Rossum (puis traduit en français) :

     J'avais une expérience complète avec la mise en œuvre du langage
     interprété ABC au sein du CWI, et en travaillant dans ce groupe
     j'ai appris beaucoup à propos de la conception de langage.  C'est
     l'origine de nombreuses fonctionnalités de Python, notamment
     l'utilisation de l'indentation pour le groupement et l'inclusion de
     types de très haut niveau (bien que dans les détails ils soient
     tous différents dans Python).

     J'avais un certain nombre de différends avec le langage ABC, mais
     j'aimais aussi beaucoup de ses fonctionnalités.  Il était
     impossible d'étendre le langage ABC (ou ses implémentations) pour
     remédier à mes réclamations - en vérité le manque d'extensibilité
     était l'un des plus gros problème.  J'avais un peu d'expérience
     avec l'utilisation de Modula-2+ et j'en ai parlé avec les
     concepteurs de Modula-3 et j'ai lu le rapport sur Modula-3.
     Modula-3 est à l'origine de la syntaxe et de la sémantique utilisée
     pour les exceptions, et quelques autres fonctionnalités en Python.

     Je travaillais sur un groupe de systèmes d'exploitation distribués
     Amoeba au CWI. Nous avions besoin d'un meilleur moyen pour gérer
     l'administration système qu'écrire un programme en C ou en script
     Bourne shell, puisque l'Amoeba avait sa propre interface d'appels
     système qui n'était pas facilement accessible depuis les scripts
     Bourne shell.  Mon expérience avec le traitement des erreurs dans
     l'Amoeba m'a vraiment fait prendre conscience de l'importance des
     exceptions en tant que fonctionnalité d'un langage de
     programmation.

     Il m'est venu à l'esprit qu'un langage de script avec une syntaxe
     comme ABC mais avec un accès aux appels systèmes d'Amoeba
     remplirait les besoins.  J'ai réalisé que ce serait idiot d'écrire
     un langage spécifique à Amoeba, donc j'ai décidé que j'avais besoin
     d'un langage qui serait généralement extensible.

     Pendant les vacances de Noël 1989, j'avais beaucoup de temps à
     disposition, donc j'ai décidé de faire un essai.  Durant l'année
     suivante, j'ai encore beaucoup travaillé dessus sur mon propre
     temps.  Python a été utilisé dans le projet Amoeba avec un succès
     croissant, et les retours de mes collègues m'ont permis d'ajouter
     beaucoup des premières améliorations.

     En Février 1991, juste après un peu plus d'un an de développement,
     j'ai décidé de le poster sur USENET. Le reste se trouve dans le
     fichier « Misc/HISTORY ».


File: python.info,  Node: Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?,  Next: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi Python a été créé ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.5 Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?
.......................................

Python est un langage de programmation haut niveau généraliste qui peut
être utilisé pour pallier à différents problèmes.

Le langage vient avec une bibliothèque standard importante qui couvre
des domaines tels que le traitement des chaînes de caractères
(expressions régulières, Unicode, calcul de différences entre les
fichiers), les protocoles internet (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, POP, IMAP,
script CGI), ingénierie logicielle (tests unitaires, enregistrement,
analyse de code Python), et interfaces pour systèmes d'exploitation
(appels système, système de fichiers, connecteurs TCP/IP). Regardez la
table des matières *note La bibliothèque standard: 143. pour avoir une
idée de ce qui est disponible.  Une grande variété de greffons tiers
existent aussi.  Consultez le sommaire des paquets Python(1) pour
trouver les paquets qui pourraient vous intéresser.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?,  Next: Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?,  Prev: Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.6 Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?
..................................................................

Python versions are numbered "A.B.C" or "A.B":

   * 'A' is the major version number - it is only incremented for really
     major changes in the language.

   * 'B' is the minor version number - it is incremented for less
     earth-shattering changes.

   * 'C' is the micro version number - it is incremented for each bugfix
     release.

Not all releases are bugfix releases.  In the run-up to a new feature
release, a series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha,
beta, or release candidate.  Alphas are early releases in which
interfaces aren't yet finalized; it's not unexpected to see an interface
change between two alpha releases.  Betas are more stable, preserving
existing interfaces but possibly adding new modules, and release
candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed to fix
critical bugs.

Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix:

   * The suffix for an alpha version is "aN" for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a beta version is "bN" for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a release candidate version is "rcN" for some small
     number 'N'.

In other words, all versions labeled '2.0aN' precede the versions
labeled '2.0bN', which precede versions labeled '2.0rcN', and 'those'
precede 2.0.

Vous pouvez aussi trouver des versions avec un signe « + » en suffixe,
par exemple « 2.2+ ».  Ces versions sont non distribuées, construites
directement depuis le dépôt de développement de CPython.  En pratique,
après la sortie finale d'une version mineure, la version est augmentée à
la prochaine version mineure, qui devient la version 'a0', c'est-à-dire
'2.4a0'.

See the Developer's Guide(1) for more information about the development
cycle, and PEP 387(2) to learn more about Python's backward
compatibility policy.  See also the documentation for *note sys.version:
177, *note sys.hexversion: 4331, and *note sys.version_info: 68d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?,  Next: Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?,  Prev: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.7 Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?
.............................................................

La dernière version du code source déployée est toujours disponible sur
python.org, à ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.  Le code source de la
dernière version en développement peut être obtenue à
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/’.

Le code source est dans une archive 'gzippée' au format 'tar', elle
contient le code source C complet, la documentation formatée avec
Sphinx, les libraires Python, des exemples de programmes, et plusieurs
morceaux de code utiles distribuables librement.  Le code source sera
compilé et prêt à fonctionner immédiatement sur la plupart des
plateformes UNIX.

Consultez la section Premiers pas du Guide des Développeurs Python(1)
pour plus d'informations sur comment obtenir le code source et le
compiler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/setup/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?,  Next: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?,  Prev: Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.8 Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?
.....................................................

La documentation standard pour la version stable actuelle est disponible
à ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’.  Des versions aux formats PDF, texte et
HTML sont aussi disponibles à ‘https://docs.python.org/3/download.html’.

La documentation est écrite au format 'reStructuredText' et traitée par
l'outil de documentation Sphinx(1).  La source du 'reStructuredText'
pour la documentation constitue une partie des sources de Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sphinx-doc.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?,  Next: Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?,  Prev: Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.9 Je n'ai jamais programmé avant. Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?
.........................................................................

Il y a de nombreux tutoriels et livres disponibles.  La documentation
standard inclut *note Le tutoriel Python: 1b98.

Consultez le Guide du Débutant(1) afin de trouver des informations pour
les développeurs Python débutants, incluant une liste de tutoriels.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?,  Next: Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?,  Prev: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.10 Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?
......................................................................

Il y a un forum, ‘comp.lang.python’ et une liste de diffusion,
python-list(1).  Le forum et la liste de diffusion sont des passerelles
l'un vers l'autre - si vous pouvez lire les 'news' ce n'est pas inutile
de souscrire à la liste de diffusion.  ‘comp.lang.python’ a beaucoup
d'activité, il reçoit des centaines de messages chaque jour, et les
lecteurs du réseau Usenet sont souvent plus capables de faire face à ce
volume.

Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in
comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives
about five postings per day.  It's available as the python-announce
mailing list(2).

Plus d'informations à propos des autres listes de diffusion et forums
peuvent être trouvées à ‘https://www.python.org/community/lists/’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?,  Next: Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?,  Prev: Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.11 Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?
...........................................................

Les versions alpha et bêta sont disponibles depuis
‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.  Toutes les versions sont annoncées
sur les 'newsgroups' 'comp.lang.python' et 'comp.lang.python.announce'
ainsi que sur la page d'accueil de Python à ‘https://www.python.org/’;
un flux RSS d'actualités y est aussi disponible.

Vous pouvez aussi accéder aux de Python en développement grâce à Git.
Voir Le Guide du Développeur Python(1) pour plus de détails.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


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10.1.1.12 Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?
..............................................................................

Pour signaler un bogue ou soumettre un correctif, utilisez le système de
suivi des problèmes à l'adresse
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’.

Pour davantage d'informations sur comment Python est développé,
consultez le Guide du Développeur Python(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?,  Next: Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?,  Prev: Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.13 Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?
...........................................................................................

C'est probablement mieux de vous référer à votre livre favori à propos
de Python.

Le tout premier article(1) sur Python a été écrit en 1991 et est
aujourd'hui assez dépassé.

     Guido van Rossum et Jelke de Boer, « 'Interactively Testing Remote
     Servers Using the Python Programming Language' », CWI Quarterly,
     Volume 4, Issue 4 (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283-303.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204


File: python.info,  Node: Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?,  Next: Où www python org est-il localisé dans le monde ?,  Prev: Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.14 Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?
..................................................

Oui, il y en a beaucoup, et d'autres sont en cours de publication.  Voir
le wiki python à ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks’ pour avoir
une liste.

Vous pouvez aussi chercher chez les revendeurs de livres en ligne avec
le terme « Python » et éliminer les références concernant les Monty
Python, ou peut-être faire une recherche avec les termes « langage » et
« Python ».


File: python.info,  Node: Où www python org est-il localisé dans le monde ?,  Next: Pourquoi le nom Python ?,  Prev: Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?,  Up: Informations générales

10.1.1.15 Où www.python.org est-il localisé dans le monde ?
...........................................................

L'infrastructure du projet Python est située dans le monde entier et est
gérée par l'équipe de l'infrastructure Python.  Plus de détails ici(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://infra.psf.io


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10.1.1.16 Pourquoi le nom Python ?
..................................

Quand il a commencé à implémenter Python, Guido van Rossum a aussi lu le
script publié par "Monty Python's Flying Circus"(1), une série comique
des années 1970 diffusée par la BBC. Van Rossum a pensé qu'il avait
besoin d'un nom court, unique, et un peu mystérieux, donc il a décidé de
l'appeler le langage Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python


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10.1.1.17 Dois-je aimer "Monty Python's Flying Circus" ?
........................................................

Non, mais ça peut aider.  :)


File: python.info,  Node: Python c'est le monde réel,  Prev: Informations générales,  Up: FAQ générale sur Python

10.1.2 Python c'est le monde réel
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?::
* Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?::
* Y a-t-il un nombre de projets significatif réalisés en Python ?::
* Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?::
* Est-il raisonnable de proposer des changements incompatibles dans Python ?::
* Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?,  Next: Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?,  Up: Python c'est le monde réel

10.1.2.1 Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?
....................................................

Very stable.  New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6
to 18 months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue.  As of
version 3.9, Python will have a new feature release every 12 months (
PEP 602(1)).

The developers issue bugfix releases of older versions, so the stability
of existing releases gradually improves.  Bugfix releases, indicated by
a third component of the version number (e.g.  3.5.3, 3.6.2), are
managed for stability; only fixes for known problems are included in a
bugfix release, and it's guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same
throughout a series of bugfix releases.

The latest stable releases can always be found on the Python download
page(2).  Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most
widely used libraries.  Python 2.x is not maintained anymore(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/


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10.1.2.2 Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?
................................................

Il y a probablement des millions d'utilisateurs, bien qu'il soit
difficile d'en déterminer le nombre exact.

Python est disponible en téléchargement gratuit, donc il n'y a pas de
chiffres de ventes, il est disponible depuis de nombreux sites
différents et il est inclus avec de beaucoup de distributions Linux,
donc les statistiques de téléchargement ne donnent pas la totalité non
plus.

Le forum 'comp.lang.python' est très actif, mais tous les utilisateurs
de Python ne laissent pas de messages dessus ou même ne le lisent pas.


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10.1.2.3 Y a-t-il un nombre de projets significatif réalisés en Python ?
........................................................................

Voir ‘https://www.python.org/about/success’ pour avoir une liste des
projets qui utilisent Python.  En consultant les comptes-rendus des
conférences Python précédentes(1) il s'avère que les contributions
proviennent de nombreux organismes et entreprises divers.

Les projets Python les plus connus incluent Mailman mailing list
manager(2) et l'application serveur Zope(3).  Plusieurs distributions
Linux, notamment Red Hat(4), qui a écrit tout ou partie de son
installateur et de son logiciel d'administration système en Python.  Les
entreprises qui utilisent Python en interne comprennent Google, Yahoo,
et Lucasfilm Ltd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/community/workshops/

   (2) https://www.list.org

   (3) https://www.zope.org

   (4) https://www.redhat.com


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10.1.2.4 Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?
.............................................................................

Regardez les propositions d'amélioration de Python (« 'Python
Enhancement Proposals' », ou 'PEP') sur ‘https://peps.python.org/’.  Les
PEP sont des documents techniques qui décrivent une nouvelle
fonctionnalité qui a été suggérée pour Python, en fournissant une
spécification technique concise et logique.  Recherchez une PEP
intitulée "Python X.Y Release Schedule", où X.Y est la version qui n'a
pas encore été publiée.

New development is discussed on the python-dev mailing list(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/


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10.1.2.5 Est-il raisonnable de proposer des changements incompatibles dans Python ?
...................................................................................

En général, non.  Il y a déjà des millions de lignes de code de Python
tout autour du monde, donc n'importe quel changement dans le langage qui
rend invalide ne serait-ce qu'une très petite fraction du code de
programmes existants doit être désapprouvé.  Même si vous pouvez fournir
un programme de conversion, il y a toujours des problèmes de mise à jour
dans toutes les documentations, beaucoup de livres ont été écrits au
sujet de Python, et nous ne voulons pas les rendre invalides
soudainement.

En fournissant un rythme de mise à jour progressif qui est obligatoire
si une fonctionnalité doit être changée.


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10.1.2.6 Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?
...........................................................................................

Oui.

Il reste commun pour les étudiants de commencer avec un langage
procédural et à typage statique comme le Pascal, le C, ou un
sous-ensemble du C++ ou Java.  Les étudiants pourraient être mieux
servis en apprenant Python comme premier langage.  Python a une syntaxe
très simple et cohérente ainsi qu'une vaste libraire standard, plus
important encore, utiliser Python dans les cours d'initiation à la
programmation permet aux étudiants de se concentrer sur les compétences
de programmation les cruciales comme les problèmes de découpage et
d'architecture.  Avec Python, les étudiants peuvent rapidement aborder
des concepts fondamentaux comme les boucles et les procédures.  Ils
peuvent même probablement travailler avec des objets définis dans leurs
premiers cours.

Pour un étudiant qui n'a jamais programmé avant, utiliser un langage à
typage statique peut sembler contre-nature.  Cela représente une
complexité additionnelle que l'étudiant doit maîtriser ce qui ralentit
le cours.  Les étudiants essaient d'apprendre à penser comme un
ordinateur, décomposer les problèmes, établir une architecture propre,
et résumer les données.  Apprendre à utiliser un langage typé
statiquement est important sur le long terme, ce n'est pas
nécessairement la meilleure idée pour s'adresser aux étudiants durant
leur tout premier cours.

De nombreux autres aspects de Python en font un bon premier langage.
Comme Java, Python a une large bibliothèque standard donc les étudiants
peuvent être assigner à la programmation de projets très tôt dans leur
apprentissage qui 'fait' quelque chose.  Les missions ne sont pas
restreintes aux quatre fonction standards.  En utilisant la bibliothèque
standard, les étudiants peuvent ressentir de la satisfaction en
travaillant sur des applications réalistes alors qu'ils apprennent les
fondamentaux de la programmation.  Utiliser la bibliothèque standard
apprend aussi aux étudiants la réutilisation de code.  Les modules tiers
tels que PyGame sont aussi très utiles pour étendre les compétences des
étudiants.

L'interpréteur interactif de Python permet aux étudiants de tester les
fonctionnalités du langage pendant qu'ils programment.  Ils peuvent
garder une fenêtre avec l'interpréteur en fonctionnement pendant qu'ils
rentrent la source de leur programme dans une autre fenêtre.  S'ils ne
peuvent pas se souvenir des méthodes pour une liste, ils peuvent faire
quelque chose comme ça :

     >>> L = []
     >>> dir(L)
     ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
     '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
     '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
     '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
     '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
     '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
     '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
     'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
     'reverse', 'sort']
     >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
     ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']

     >>> help(L.append)
     Help on built-in function append:

     append(...)
         L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end

     >>> L.append(1)
     >>> L
     [1]

Avec l'interpréteur, la documentation n'est jamais loin des étudiants
quand ils travaillent.

Il y a aussi de bons environnements de développement intégrés (EDIs)
pour Python.  IDLE est un EDI multiplateformes pour Python qui est écrit
en Python en utilisant Tkinter.  Les utilisateurs d'Emacs seront heureux
d'apprendre qu'il y a un très bon mode Python pour Emacs.  Tous ces
environnements de développement intégrés fournissent la coloration
syntaxique, l'auto-indentation, et l'accès à l'interpréteur interactif
durant le codage.  Consultez le wiki Python(1) pour une liste complète
des environnements de développement intégrés.

Si vous voulez discuter de l'usage de Python dans l'éducation, vous
devriez intéressé pour rejoindre la liste de diffusion pour
l'enseignement(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ de programmation,  Next: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception,  Prev: FAQ générale sur Python,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.2 FAQ de programmation
=========================

* Menu:

* Questions générales::
* Fondamentaux::
* Nombres et chaînes de caractères::
* Performances: Performances<4>.
* Séquences (n-uplets / listes): Séquences n-uplets / listes.
* Objets::
* Modules: Modules<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Questions générales,  Next: Fondamentaux,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.1 Questions générales
--------------------------

* Menu:

* Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts, exécution pas-à-pas, etc. ?: Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts exécution pas-à-pas etc ?.
* Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?::
* Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?::
* Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts exécution pas-à-pas etc ?,  Next: Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?,  Up: Questions générales

10.2.1.1 Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts, exécution pas-à-pas, etc. ?
..................................................................................................

Oui.

Plusieurs débogueurs sont décrits ci-dessous et la fonction native *note
breakpoint(): 231. permet d'utiliser n'importe lequel d'entre eux.

Le module ‘pdb’ est un débogueur console simple, mais parfaitement
adapté à Python.  Il fait partie de la bibliothèque standard de Python,
sa documentation se trouve dans le *note manuel de référence: a4.  Vous
pouvez vous inspirer du code de ‘pdb’ pour écrire votre propre
débogueur.

L'environnement de développement interactif IDLE, qui est fourni avec la
distribution standard de Python (normalement disponible dans
Tools/scripts/idle3(1)) contient un débogueur graphique.

'PythonWin' est un environnement de développement intégré (EDI) Python
qui embarque un débogueur graphique basé sur ‘pdb’.  Le débogueur
'PythonWin' colore les points d'arrêts et possède quelques
fonctionnalités sympathiques, comme la possibilité de déboguer des
programmes développés sans 'PythonWin'.  'PythonWin' est disponible dans
le projet pywin32(2) et fait partie de la distribution ActivePython(3).

Eric(4) est un EDI basé sur PyQt et l'outil d'édition Scintilla.

trepan3k(5) est un débogueur semblable à GDB.

Visual Studio Code(6) est un EDI qui contient des outils de débogage.
Il sait interagir avec les outils de gestion de versions.

Il existe de nombreux EDI Python propriétaires qui embarquent un
débogueur graphique, notamment :

   * Wing IDE(7) ;

   * Komodo IDE(8) ;

   * PyCharm(9) ;

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/scripts/idle3

   (2) https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32

   (3) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (4) https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/

   (5) https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/

   (6) https://code.visualstudio.com/

   (7) https://wingware.com/

   (8) https://www.activestate.com/products/komodo-ide/

   (9) https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/


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10.2.1.2 Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?
........................................................................................................

Oui.

Pylint(1) et Pyflakes(2) font des vérifications de base et vous aideront
à trouver des bogues plus tôt.

Static type checkers such as Mypy(3), Pyre(4), and Pytype(5) can check
type hints in Python source code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pylint.pycqa.org/en/latest/index.html

   (2) https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://pyre-check.org/

   (5) https://github.com/google/pytype


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10.2.1.3 Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?
........................................................................

Pour créer un programme autonome, c'est-à-dire un programme que
n'importe qui peut télécharger et exécuter sans avoir à installer une
distribution Python au préalable, il n'est pas nécessaire de compiler du
code Python en code C. Il existe en effet plusieurs outils qui
déterminent les modules requis par un programme et lient ces modules
avec un binaire Python pour produire un seul exécutable.

Un de ces outils est 'freeze', qui se trouve dans Tools/freeze(1) de
l'arborescence des sources de Python.  Il convertit le code
intermédiaire ('bytecode') Python en tableaux C ; avec un compilateur C,
vous pouvez intégrer tous vos modules dans un nouveau programme, qui est
ensuite lié aux modules standards Python.

Il fonctionne en cherchant de manière récursive les instructions
d'importation (sous les deux formes) dans le code source et en
recherchant ces modules dans le chemin Python standard ainsi que dans le
répertoire source (pour les modules natifs).  Il transforme ensuite le
code intermédiaire des modules écrits en Python en code C (des tableaux
pré-remplis qui peuvent être transformés en objets code à l'aide du
module 'marshal') et crée un fichier de configuration personnalisé qui
contient uniquement les modules natifs qui sont réellement utilisés dans
le programme.  Il compile ensuite le code C généré et le lie au reste de
l'interpréteur Python pour former un binaire autonome qui fait
exactement la même chose que le script.

Voici quelques paquets qui permettent de créer des exécutables en ligne
de commande comme graphiques :

   * Nuitka(2) (multiplateformes) ;

   * PyInstaller(3) (Cross-platform)

   * PyOxidizer(4) (multi-plateforme) ;

   * cx_Freeze(5) (multi-plateforme) ;

   * py2app(6) (uniquement pour macOS) ;

   * py2exe(7) (uniquement pour Windows).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze

   (2) https://nuitka.net/

   (3) https://pyinstaller.org/

   (4) https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (5) https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/

   (6) https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app

   (7) https://www.py2exe.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?,  Prev: Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?,  Up: Questions générales

10.2.1.4 Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?
.........................................................................................................

Oui.  Le style de développement que les modules de la bibliothèque
standard doivent obligatoirement respecter est documenté dans la PEP
8(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Fondamentaux,  Next: Nombres et chaînes de caractères,  Prev: Questions générales,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.2 Fondamentaux
-------------------

* Menu:

* Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?::
* Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?::
* Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?::
* Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?::
* Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?::
* Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?::
* Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?::
* Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?::
* Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?::
* Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? (passage par référence): Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? passage par référence.
* Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?::
* Comment copier un objet en Python ?::
* Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?::
* Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?::
* Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?::
* Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ?; » du C ?: Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ? » du C ?.
* Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis (obfuscated) d'une ligne en Python ?: Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis obfuscated d'une ligne en Python ?.
* Que signifie la barre oblique (/) dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?: Que signifie la barre oblique / dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?,  Next: Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.1 Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?
......................................................................................

Il est parfois surprenant d'obtenir une *note UnboundLocalError: 14ed.
dans du code jusqu'à présent correct, quand celui-ci est modifié en
ajoutant une instruction d'affectation quelque part dans le corps d'une
fonction.

Le code suivant :

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def bar():
     ...     print(x)
     ...
     >>> bar()
     10

fonctionne, mais le suivant :

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1

results in an ‘UnboundLocalError’:

     >>> foo()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment

Cela est dû au fait que, quand une variable est affectée dans un
contexte, cette variable devient locale à ce contexte et remplace toute
variable du même nom du contexte appelant.  Vu que la dernière
instruction dans 'foo' affecte une nouvelle valeur à ‘x’, le compilateur
la traite comme une nouvelle variable.  Par conséquent, quand le
‘print(x)’ essaye d'afficher la variable non initialisée, une erreur se
produit.

Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, la variable du contexte appelant reste
accessible en la déclarant globale :

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foobar():
     ...     global x
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1
     ...
     >>> foobar()
     10

Cette déclaration explicite est obligatoire pour se rappeler que
(contrairement au cas à peu près similaire avec des variables de classe
et d'instance), c'est la valeur de la variable du contexte appelant qui
est modifiée :

     >>> print(x)
     11

Une alternative dans un contexte imbriqué consiste à utiliser le mot-clé
*note nonlocal: 1287. :

     >>> def foo():
     ...    x = 10
     ...    def bar():
     ...        nonlocal x
     ...        print(x)
     ...        x += 1
     ...    bar()
     ...    print(x)
     ...
     >>> foo()
     10
     11


File: python.info,  Node: Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?,  Next: Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?,  Prev: Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.2 Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?
...................................................................................

En Python, si une variable n'est pas modifiée dans une fonction mais
seulement lue, elle est implicitement considérée comme globale.  Si une
valeur lui est affectée, elle est considérée locale (sauf si elle est
explicitement déclarée globale).

Bien que surprenant au premier abord, ce choix s'explique facilement.
D'une part, exiger *note global: 188. pour des variables affectées est
une protection contre des effets de bord inattendus.  D'autre part, si
‘global’ était obligatoire pour toutes les références à des objets
globaux, il faudrait mettre ‘global’ partout, car il faudrait dans ce
cas déclarer globale chaque référence à une fonction native ou à un
composant d'un module importé.  Le codé serait alors truffé de
déclarations ‘global’, ce qui nuirait à leur raison d'être : identifier
les effets de bords.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?,  Next: Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?,  Prev: Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.3 Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?
..................................................................................................................................

Supposons que l'on utilise une boucle itérative pour définir des
expressions lambda (voire des fonctions) différentes, par exemple :

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)

Le code précédent crée une liste de 5 expressions lambda qui calculent
chacune ‘x**2’.  En les exécutant, on pourrait s'attendre à obtenir ‘0’,
‘1’, ‘4’, ‘9’ et ‘16’.  Elles renvoient en réalité toutes ‘16’ :

     >>> squares[2]()
     16
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

Ceci s'explique par le fait que ‘x’ n'est pas une variable locale aux
expressions, mais est définie dans le contexte appelant.  Elle est lue à
l'appel de l'expression lambda – et non au moment où cette expression
est définie.  À la fin de la boucle, ‘x’ vaut ‘4’, donc toutes les
fonctions renvoient ‘4*2’, c.-à-d.  ‘16’.  Ceci se vérifie également en
changeant la valeur de ‘x’ et en constatant que les résultats sont
modifiés :

     >>> x = 8
     >>> squares[2]()
     64

Pour éviter ce phénomène, les valeurs doivent être stockées dans des
variables locales aux expressions lambda pour que celles-ci ne se basent
plus sur la variable globale ‘x’ :

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)

Dans ce code, ‘n=x’ crée une nouvelle variable ‘n’, locale à
l'expression.  Cette variable est évaluée quand l'expression est définie
donc ‘n’ a la même valeur que ‘x’ à ce moment.  La valeur de ‘n’ est
donc ‘0’ dans la première lambda, ‘1’ dans la deuxième, ‘2’ dans la
troisième et ainsi de suite.  Chaque expression lambda renvoie donc le
résultat correct :

     >>> squares[2]()
     4
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

Ce comportement n'est pas propre aux expressions lambda, mais s'applique
aussi aux fonctions normales.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?,  Next: Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?,  Prev: Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.4 Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?
................................................................

La manière standard de partager des informations entre modules d'un même
programme est de créer un module spécial (souvent appelé 'config' ou
'cfg') et de l'importer dans tous les modules de l'application ; le
module devient accessible depuis l'espace de nommage global.  Vu qu'il
n'y a qu'une instance de chaque module, tout changement dans l'instance
est propagé partout.  Par exemple :

'config.py' :

     x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting

'mod.py' :

     import config
     config.x = 1

'main.py' :

     import config
     import mod
     print(config.x)

Pour les mêmes raisons, l'utilisation d'un module est aussi à la base de
l'implémentation du patron de conception singleton.


File: python.info,  Node: Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?,  Next: Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?,  Prev: Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.5 Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?
....................................................................................

De manière générale, il ne faut pas faire ‘from modulename import *’.
Ceci encombre l'espace de nommage de l'importateur et rend la détection
de noms non-définis beaucoup plus ardue pour les analyseurs de code.

Les modules doivent être importés au début d'un fichier.  Ceci permet
d'afficher clairement de quels modules le code à besoin et évite de se
demander si le module est dans le contexte.  Faire un seul ‘import’ par
ligne rend l'ajout et la suppression d'une importation de module plus
aisé, mais importer plusieurs modules sur une même ligne prend moins
d'espace.

Il est recommandé d'importer les modules dans l'ordre suivant :

  1. les modules de la bibliothèque standard — p.  ex.  *note sys: d8,
     *note os: a0, *note getopt: 60, *note re: b8.

  2. les modules externes (tout ce qui est installé dans le dossier
     'site-packages' de Python) — par exemple ‘dateutil’, ‘requests’,
     ‘PIL.Image’

  3. les modules développés en local

Il est parfois nécessaire de déplacer des importations dans une fonction
ou une classe pour éviter les problèmes d'importations circulaires.
Comme le souligne Gordon McMillan :

     Il n'y a aucun souci à faire des importations circulaires tant que
     les deux modules utilisent la forme ‘import <module>’.  Ça ne pose
     problème que si le second module cherche à récupérer un nom du
     premier module ('"from module import name"') et que l'importation
     est dans l'espace de nommage du fichier.  Les noms du premier
     module ne sont en effet pas encore disponibles car le premier
     module est occupé à importer le second.

Dans ce cas, si le second module n'est utilisé que dans une fonction,
l'importation peut facilement être déplacée dans cette fonction.  Au
moment où l'importation sera appelée, le premier module aura fini de
s'initialiser et le second pourra faire son importation.

Il peut parfois être nécessaire de déplacer des importations de modules
hors de l'espace de plus haut niveau du code si certains de ces modules
dépendent de la machine utilisée.  Dans ce cas de figure, il est parfois
impossible d'importer tous les modules au début du fichier.  Dans ce
cas, il est recommandé d'importer les modules adéquats dans le code
spécifique à la machine.

Les importations ne devraient être déplacées dans un espace de nommage
local, comme dans la définition d'une fonction, que si cela est
nécessaire pour résoudre un problème comme éviter des dépendances
circulaires ou réduire le temps d'initialisation d'un module.  Cette
technique est particulièrement utile si la majorité des importations est
superflue selon le flux d'exécution du programme.  Il est également
pertinent de déplacer des importations dans une fonction si le module
n'est utilisé qu'au sein de cette fonction.  Le premier chargement d'un
module peut être coûteux à cause du coût fixe d'initialisation d'un
module, mais charger un module plusieurs fois est quasiment gratuit,
cela ne coûte que quelques indirections dans un dictionnaire.  Même si
le nom du module est sorti du contexte courant, le module est
probablement disponible dans *note sys.modules: 1929.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?,  Next: Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?,  Prev: Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.6 Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?
...............................................................................

C'est un problème que rencontrent souvent les programmeurs débutants.
Examinons la fonction suivante :

     def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
         ... compute something ...
         mydict[key] = value
         return mydict

Au premier appel de cette fonction, ‘mydict’ ne contient qu'un seul
élément.  Au second appel, ‘mydict’ contient deux éléments car quand
‘foo()’ commence son exécution, ‘mydict’ contient déjà un élément.

On est souvent amené à croire qu'un appel de fonction créé des nouveaux
objets pour les valeurs par défaut.  Ce n'est pas le cas.  Les valeurs
par défaut ne sont créées qu'une et une seule fois, au moment où la
fonction est définie.  Si l'objet est modifié, comme le dictionnaire
dans cet exemple, les appels suivants à cette fonction font référence à
l'objet ainsi modifié.

Par définition, les objets immuables comme les nombres, les chaînes de
caractères, les 'n'-uplets et ‘None’ ne sont pas modifiés.  Les
changements sur des objets modifiables comme les dictionnaires, les
listes et les instances de classe peuvent porter à confusion.

En raison de cette fonctionnalité, il vaut mieux ne pas utiliser
d'objets modifiables comme valeurs par défaut.  Il vaut mieux utiliser
‘None’ comme valeur par défaut et, à l'intérieur de la fonction,
vérifier si le paramètre est à ‘None’ et créer une nouvelle liste,
dictionnaire ou autre, le cas échéant.  Par exemple, il ne faut pas
écrire :

     def foo(mydict={}):
         ...

mais plutôt :

     def foo(mydict=None):
         if mydict is None:
             mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace

Cette fonctionnalité a une utilité.  Il est courant de mettre en cache
les paramètres et la valeur de retour de chacun des appels d'une
fonction coûteuse à exécuter, et de renvoyer la valeur stockée en cache
si le même appel est ré-effectué.  C'est la technique dite de
« mémoïsation », qui s'implémente de la manière suivante :

     # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
     def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
         if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
             return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]

         # Calculate the value
         result = ... expensive computation ...
         _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
         return result

Il est possible d'utiliser une variable globale contenant un
dictionnaire à la place de la valeur par défaut ; ce n'est qu'une
question de goût.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?,  Next: Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.7 Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?
......................................................................................

Il faut récupérer les arguments en utilisant les sélecteurs ‘*’ et ‘**’
dans la liste des paramètres de la fonction ; ceci donne les arguments
positionnels sous la forme d'un 'n'-uplet et les arguments nommés sous
forme de dictionnaire.  Ces arguments peuvent être passés à une autre
fonction en utilisant ‘*’ et ‘**’ :

     def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
         ...
         kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
         ...
         g(x, *args, **kwargs)


File: python.info,  Node: Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?,  Next: Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?,  Prev: Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.8 Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?
.........................................................................

Les *note paramètres: 1eba. sont les noms qui apparaissent dans une
définition de fonction, alors que les *note arguments: 434. sont les
valeurs qui sont réellement passées à une fonction lors de l'appel de
celle-ci.  Les paramètres définissent les *note types d'arguments: 1eba.
qu'une fonction accepte.  Ainsi, avec la définition de fonction
suivante :

     def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
         pass

'foo', 'bar' et 'kwargs' sont des paramètres de ‘func’.  Mais à l'appel
de ‘func’ avec, par exemple :

     func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)

les valeurs ‘42’, ‘314’, et ‘somevar’ sont des arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?,  Next: Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? passage par référence,  Prev: Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.9 Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?
....................................................................

Si vous avez écrit du code comme :

     >>> x = []
     >>> y = x
     >>> y.append(10)
     >>> y
     [10]
     >>> x
     [10]

vous vous demandez peut-être pourquoi l'ajout d'un élément à ‘y’ a aussi
changé ‘x’.

Il y a deux raisons qui conduisent à ce comportement :

  1. Les variables ne sont que des noms qui font référence à des objets.
     La ligne ‘y = x’ ne crée pas une copie de la liste — elle crée une
     nouvelle variable ‘y’ qui pointe sur le même objet que ‘x’.  Ceci
     signifie qu'il n'existe qu'un seul objet (la liste) auquel ‘x’ et
     ‘y’ font référence.

  2. Les listes sont des *note mutable: 1bbe, ce qui signifie que leur
     contenu peut être modifié.

After the call to ‘append()’, the content of the mutable object has
changed from ‘[]’ to ‘[10]’.  Since both the variables refer to the same
object, using either name accesses the modified value ‘[10]’.

Si au contraire, on affecte un objet immuable à ‘x’ :

     >>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
     >>> y = x
     >>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
     >>> x
     6
     >>> y
     5

on observe que ‘x’ et ‘y’ ne sont ici plus égales.  Les entiers sont des
immuables (*note immutable: 980.), et ‘x = x + 1’ ne change pas l'entier
‘5’ en incrémentant sa valeur.  Au contraire, un nouvel objet est créé
(l'entier ‘6’) et affecté à ‘x’ (c'est-à-dire qu'on change l'objet
auquel fait référence ‘x’).  Après cette affectation on a deux objets
(les entiers ‘6’ et ‘5’) et deux variables qui font référence à ces deux
objets (‘x’ fait désormais référence à ‘6’ mais ‘y’ fait toujours
référence à ‘5’).

Certaines opérations (par exemple, ‘y.append(10)’ et ‘y.sort()’)
modifient l'objet, alors que des opérations identiques en apparence (par
exemple ‘y = y + [10]’ et ‘sorted(y)()’) créent un nouvel objet.  En
général, en Python, une méthode qui modifie un objet renvoie ‘None’
(c'est même systématique dans la bibliothèque standard) pour éviter la
confusion entre les deux opérations.  Donc écrire par erreur ‘y.sort()’
en pensant obtenir une copie triée de ‘y’ donne ‘None’, ce qui conduit
très souvent le programme à générer une erreur facile à diagnostiquer.

Il existe cependant une classe d'opérations qui se comporte différemment
selon le type : les opérateurs d'affectation incrémentaux.  Par exemple,
‘+=’ modifie les listes mais pas les 'n'-uplets ni les entiers (‘a_list
+= [1, 2, 3]’ équivaut à ‘a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])’ et modifie ‘a_list’,
alors que ‘some_tuple += (1, 2, 3)’ et ‘some_int += 1’ créent de
nouveaux objets).

En d'autres termes :

   * Il est possible d'appliquer des opérations qui modifient un objet
     mutable (*note list: 5fe, *note dict: 253, *note set: 5c5, etc.)
     et toutes les variables qui y font référence verront le changement.

   * Toutes les variables qui font référence à un objet immuable (*note
     str: 437, *note int: 254, *note tuple: 366, etc.)  renvoient la
     même valeur, mais les opérations qui transforment cette valeur en
     une nouvelle valeur renvoient toujours un nouvel objet.

L'opérateur *note is: 2ea. ou la fonction native *note id(): 13db.
permettent de savoir si deux variables font référence au même objet.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? passage par référence,  Next: Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.10 Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? (passage par référence)
..........................................................................................

En Python, les arguments sont passés comme des affectations de
variables.  Vu qu'une affectation crée des références à des objets, il
n'y a pas de lien entre un argument dans l'appel de la fonction et sa
définition, et donc pas de passage par référence en soi.  Il y a
cependant plusieurs façons d'en émuler un.

  1. En renvoyant un 'n'-uplet de résultats :

          >>> def func1(a, b):
          ...     a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
          ...     b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
          ...     return a, b            # return new values
          ...
          >>> x, y = 'old-value', 99
          >>> func1(x, y)
          ('new-value', 100)

     C'est presque toujours la meilleure solution.

  2. En utilisant des variables globales.  Cette approche ne fonctionne
     pas dans des contextes à plusieurs fils d'exécution (elle n'est pas
     'thread-safe'), et n'est donc pas recommandée.

  3. En passant un objet mutable (modifiable sur place) :

          >>> def func2(a):
          ...     a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
          ...     a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
          ...
          >>> args = ['old-value', 99]
          >>> func2(args)
          >>> args
          ['new-value', 100]

  4. En passant un dictionnaire, qui sera modifié :

          >>> def func3(args):
          ...     args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
          ...     args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
          ...
          >>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
          >>> func3(args)
          >>> args
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

  5. Ou regrouper les valeurs dans une instance de classe :

          >>> class Namespace:
          ...     def __init__(self, /, **args):
          ...         for key, value in args.items():
          ...             setattr(self, key, value)
          ...
          >>> def func4(args):
          ...     args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable Namespace
          ...     args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
          ...
          >>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99)
          >>> func4(args)
          >>> vars(args)
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

     Faire quelque chose d'aussi compliqué est rarement une bonne idée.

La meilleure option reste de renvoyer un 'n'-uplet contenant les
différents résultats.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?,  Next: Comment copier un objet en Python ?,  Prev: Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? passage par référence,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.11 Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?
.......................................................................

Deux possibilités : on peut utiliser des portées imbriquées ou bien des
objets appelables.  Par exemple, supposons que l'on souhaite définir
‘linear(a, b)’ qui renvoie une fonction ‘f(x)’ qui calcule la valeur
‘a*x+b’.  En utilisant les portées imbriquées :

     def linear(a, b):
         def result(x):
             return a * x + b
         return result

Ou en utilisant un objet appelable :

     class linear:

         def __init__(self, a, b):
             self.a, self.b = a, b

         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * x + self.b

Dans les deux cas

     taxes = linear(0.3, 2)

donne un objet appelable où ‘taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2’.

L'approche par objet appelable a le désavantage d'être légèrement plus
lente et de produire un code légèrement plus long.  Cependant, il faut
noter qu'une collection d'objet appelables peuvent partager leurs
signatures par héritage :

     class exponential(linear):
         # __init__ inherited
         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * (x ** self.b)

Les objets peuvent encapsuler un état pour plusieurs méthodes :

     class counter:

         value = 0

         def set(self, x):
             self.value = x

         def up(self):
             self.value = self.value + 1

         def down(self):
             self.value = self.value - 1

     count = counter()
     inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set

Ici ‘inc()’, ‘dec()’ et ‘reset()’ agissent comme des fonctions
partageant une même variable compteur.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment copier un objet en Python ?,  Next: Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?,  Prev: Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.12 Comment copier un objet en Python ?
.............................................

En général, essayez *note copy.copy(): 520. ou *note copy.deepcopy():
b5e.  Tous les objets ne peuvent pas être copiés, mais la plupart le
peuvent.

Certains objets peuvent être copiés plus facilement que d'autres.  Les
dictionnaires ont une méthode *note copy(): bc0. :

     newdict = olddict.copy()

Les séquences peuvent être copiées via la syntaxe des tranches :

     new_l = l[:]


File: python.info,  Node: Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?,  Next: Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?,  Prev: Comment copier un objet en Python ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.13 Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?
......................................................................

Pour une instance ‘x’ d'une classe définie par un utilisateur, *note
dir(x): 61f. renvoie une liste alphabétique des noms contenants les
attributs de l'instance, et les attributs et méthodes définies par sa
classe.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?,  Next: Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?,  Prev: Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.14 Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?
.............................................................

C'est impossible en général, parce qu'un objet n'a pas de nom à
proprement parler.  Schématiquement, l'affectation fait correspondre un
nom à une valeur ; c'est vrai aussi pour les instructions ‘def’ et
‘class’, à la différence près que, dans ce cas, la valeur est un
appelable.  Par exemple, dans le code suivant :

     >>> class A:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> B = A
     >>> a = B()
     >>> b = a
     >>> print(b)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
     >>> print(a)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>

Affirmer que la classe a un nom est discutable.  Bien qu'elle soit liée
à deux noms, et qu'elle soit appelée via le nom ‘B’, l'instance créée
déclare tout de même être une instance de la classe ‘A’.  De même, il
est impossible de dire si le nom de l'instance est ‘a’ ou ‘b’, les deux
noms étant attachés à la même valeur.

De façon générale, une application ne devrait pas avoir besoin de
« connaître le nom » d'une valeur particulière.  À moins d'être
délibérément en train d'écrire un programme introspectif, c'est souvent
l'indication qu'un changement d'approche serait bénéfique.

Sur 'comp.lang.python', Fredrik Lundh a donné un jour une excellente
analogie pour répondre à cette question :

     C'est pareil que trouver le nom du chat qui traîne devant votre
     porte : le chat (objet) ne peut pas vous dire lui-même son nom, et
     il s'en moque un peu ­– alors le meilleur moyen de savoir comment
     il s'appelle est de demander à tous vos voisins (espaces de
     nommage) si c'est leur chat (objet)…

     …et ne soyez pas surpris si vous découvrez qu'il est connu sous
     plusieurs noms, ou s'il n'a pas de nom du tout !


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?,  Next: Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ? » du C ?,  Prev: Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.15 Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?
................................................................

La virgule n'est pas un opérateur en Python.  Observez le code suivant :

     >>> "a" in "b", "a"
     (False, 'a')

Comme la virgule n'est pas un opérateur, mais un séparateur entre deux
expressions, l'expression ci-dessus est évaluée de la même façon que si
vous aviez écrit :

     ("a" in "b"), "a"

et non :

     "a" in ("b", "a")

Ceci est vrai pour tous les opérateurs d'affectation (‘=’, ‘+=’ etc).
Ce ne sont pas vraiment des opérateurs mais plutôt des délimiteurs
syntaxiques dans les instructions d'affectation.


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ? » du C ?,  Next: Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis obfuscated d'une ligne en Python ?,  Prev: Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.16 Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ?: » du C ?
........................................................................

Oui.  Sa syntaxe est la suivante :

     [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

     x, y = 50, 25
     small = x if x < y else y

Avant l'introduction de cette syntaxe dans Python 2.5, il était courant
d'utiliser les opérateurs de logique :

     [expression] and [on_true] or [on_false]

Cet idiome est dangereux, car il donne un résultat erroné quand
'on_true' a la valeur booléenne fausse.  Il faut donc toujours utiliser
la forme ‘... if ... else ...’.


File: python.info,  Node: Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis obfuscated d'une ligne en Python ?,  Next: Que signifie la barre oblique / dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?,  Prev: Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ? » du C ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.17 Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis ('obfuscated') d'une ligne en Python ?
..................................................................................................

Oui.  C'est souvent le cas en imbriquant des *note lambda: 127c. dans
des ‘lambda’.  Par exemple les trois morceaux de code suivants,
légèrement adaptés par Ulf Bartelt :

     from functools import reduce

     # Primes < 1000
     print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
     map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))

     # First 10 Fibonacci numbers
     print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
     f(x,f), range(10))))

     # Mandelbrot set
     print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y,
     Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
     Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
     i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
     >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
     64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
     ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
     #    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
     #        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
     #        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
     #        |          |_________________ range on y axis
     #        |____________________________ range on x axis

Les enfants, ne faites pas ça chez vous !


File: python.info,  Node: Que signifie la barre oblique / dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?,  Prev: Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis obfuscated d'une ligne en Python ?,  Up: Fondamentaux

10.2.2.18 Que signifie la barre oblique (/) dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?
.........................................................................................

Une barre oblique dans la liste des arguments d'une fonction indique que
les paramètres la précédant sont uniquement positionnels.  Les
paramètres uniquement positionnels ne peuvent pas être référencés par
leur nom depuis l'extérieur.  Lors de l'appel d'une fonction qui accepte
des paramètres uniquement positionnels, les arguments sont affectés aux
paramètres en fonction de leur position.  Par exemple, la fonction *note
divmod(): 991. n'accepte que des paramètres uniquement positionnels.  Sa
documentation est la suivante :

     >>> help(divmod)
     Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins:

     divmod(x, y, /)
         Return the tuple (x//y, x%y).  Invariant: div*y + mod == x.

La barre oblique à la fin de la liste des paramètres signifie que les
trois paramètres sont uniquement positionnels.  Et donc, appeler *note
divmod(): 991. avec des arguments nommés provoque une erreur :

     >>> divmod(x=3, y=4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments


File: python.info,  Node: Nombres et chaînes de caractères,  Next: Performances<4>,  Prev: Fondamentaux,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.3 Nombres et chaînes de caractères
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?::
* Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?::
* Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?::
* Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?::
* Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?::
* Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?::
* Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::


File: python.info,  Node: Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?,  Next: Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.1 Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?
............................................................

Pour écrire un entier octal, faites précéder la valeur octale par un
zéro, puis un "o" majuscule ou minuscule.  Par exemple pour affecter la
valeur octale "10" (8 en décimal) à la variable "a", tapez :

     >>> a = 0o10
     >>> a
     8

L'hexadécimal est tout aussi simple, faites précéder le nombre
hexadécimal par un zéro, puis un "x" majuscule ou minuscule.  Les
nombres hexadécimaux peuvent être écrits en majuscules ou en minuscules.
Par exemple, dans l'interpréteur Python :

     >>> a = 0xa5
     >>> a
     165
     >>> b = 0XB2
     >>> b
     178


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?,  Next: Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?,  Prev: Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.2 Pourquoi ‘-22 // 10’ donne-t-il ‘-3’ ?
...............................................

Cela est principalement dû à la volonté que ‘i % j’ ait le même signe
que j.  Si vous voulez en plus que :

     i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)

alors la division entière doit renvoyer l'entier inférieur.  Le C impose
également que cette égalité soit vérifiée, et donc les compilateurs qui
tronquent ‘i // j’ ont besoin que ‘i % j’ ait le même signe que ‘i’.

Il y a peu de cas d'utilisation réels pour ‘i % j’ quand ‘j’ est
négatif.  Quand ‘j’ est positif, il y en a beaucoup, et dans
pratiquement tous, il est plus utile que ‘i % j’ soit ‘>=0’.  Si
l'horloge affiche 10 h maintenant, qu'affichait-elle il y a 200 heures ?
‘-190 % 12 == 2’ est utile ; ‘-190 % 12 == -10’ est un bogue en
puissance.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?,  Next: Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?,  Prev: Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.3 Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?
....................................................................................................

Essayer d'utiliser l'opérateur d'accès à un attribut sur un entier
littéral lève une *note SyntaxError: 18b. car le point est compris comme
un séparateur décimal en notation anglo-saxonne :

     >>> 1.__class__
       File "<stdin>", line 1
       1.__class__
        ^
     SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

Il faut séparer l'entier du point, soit avec une espace, soit avec des
parenthèses.

     >>> 1 .__class__
     <class 'int'>
     >>> (1).__class__
     <class 'int'>


File: python.info,  Node: Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?,  Next: Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?,  Prev: Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.4 Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?
...............................................................

For integers, use the built-in *note int(): 254. type constructor, e.g.
‘int('144') == 144’.  Similarly, *note float(): 2ec. converts to a
floating-point number, e.g.  ‘float('144') == 144.0’.

Par défaut, ces fonctions interprètent les nombres comme des décimaux,
de telle façon que ‘int('0144') == 144’ et ‘int('0x144')’ lève une *note
ValueError: 1ff.  Le second argument (optionnel) de ‘int(string, base)’
est la base dans laquelle convertir, donc ‘int('0x144', 16) == 324’.  Si
la base donnée est 0, le nombre est interprété selon les règles Python :
un préfixe ‘0o’ indique de l'octal et ‘0x’ indique de l'hexadécimal.

N'utilisez pas la fonction native *note eval(): 17e. pour convertir des
chaînes de caractères en nombres.  *note eval(): 17e. est beaucoup plus
lente et pose des problèmes de sécurité : quelqu'un pourrait vous
envoyer une expression Python pouvant avoir des effets de bord
indésirables.  Par exemple, quelqu'un pourrait passer
‘__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")’ ce qui effacerait votre
répertoire personnel.

*note eval(): 17e. a aussi pour effet d'interpréter les nombres comme
des expressions Python.  Ainsi ‘eval('09')’ produit une erreur de
syntaxe, parce que Python ne permet pas les '0' en tête d'un nombre
décimal (à l'exception du nombre '0').


File: python.info,  Node: Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?,  Next: Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?,  Prev: Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.5 Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?
..............................................................

Pour transformer, par exemple, le nombre ‘144’ en la chaîne de
caractères ‘'144'’, il faut utiliser la fonction native *note str():
437.  Pour obtenir la représentation hexadécimale ou octale, il faut
utiliser les fonctions natives *note hex(): 12af. ou *note oct(): 12ae.
Pour des représentations non-conventionnelles, se référer aux sections
*note f-strings: 999. et *note Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne: 1369, par
exemple ‘"{:04d}".format(144)’ produit ‘'0144'’ et
‘"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)’ produit ‘'0.333'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?,  Next: Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?,  Prev: Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.6 Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?
..................................................................

C'est impossible car les chaînes de caractères sont immuables.  Dans la
plupart des cas, il faut tout simplement construire une nouvelle chaîne
à partir des morceaux de l'ancienne.  Si toutefois vous avez besoin d'un
objet capable de modifier de la donnée Unicode « sur place », essayez
d'utiliser un objet *note io.StringIO: f14. ou le module *note array:
7. :

     >>> import io
     >>> s = "Hello, world"
     >>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, world'
     >>> sio.seek(7)
     7
     >>> sio.write("there!")
     6
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, there!'

     >>> import array
     >>> a = array.array('w', s)
     >>> print(a)
     array('w', 'Hello, world')
     >>> a[0] = 'y'
     >>> print(a)
     array('w', 'yello, world')
     >>> a.tounicode()
     'yello, world'


File: python.info,  Node: Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?,  Next: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Prev: Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.7 Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?
.........................................................................................

Il y a plusieurs façons de faire.

   * La meilleure est d'utiliser un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre
     les chaînes de caractères à des fonctions.  Le principal avantage
     de cette technique est que les chaînes n'ont pas besoin d'être
     égales aux noms de fonctions.  C'est aussi la façon principale
     d'imiter la construction "case" :

          def a():
              pass

          def b():
              pass

          dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs

          dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function

   * Utiliser la fonction *note getattr(): bc1. :

          import foo
          getattr(foo, 'bar')()

     Notez que *note getattr(): bc1. marche sur n'importe quel objet,
     ceci inclut les classes, les instances de classes, les modules et
     ainsi de suite.

     Ceci est utilisé à plusieurs reprises dans la bibliothèque
     standard, de cette façon :

          class Foo:
              def do_foo(self):
                  ...

              def do_bar(self):
                  ...

          f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
          f()

   * Utilisez *note locals(): 140. pour résoudre le nom de la fonction :

          def myFunc():
              print("hello")

          fname = "myFunc"

          f = locals()[fname]
          f()


File: python.info,  Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Next: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Prev: Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.8 Is there an equivalent to Perl's ‘chomp()’ for removing trailing newlines from strings?
................................................................................................

Vous pouvez utiliser ‘S.rstrip("\r\n")’ pour retirer toutes les
occurrences de tout marqueur de fin de ligne à la fin d'une chaîne de
caractère ‘S’, sans en enlever aucune espace.  Si la chaîne ‘S’
représente plus d'une ligne, avec plusieurs lignes vides, les marqueurs
de fin de ligne de chaque ligne vide seront retirés :

     >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
     ...          "\r\n"
     ...          "\r\n")
     >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
     'line 1 '

Vu que cela ne sert presque qu'à lire un texte ligne à ligne, utiliser
‘S.rstrip()’ de cette manière fonctionne correctement.


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Next: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Prev: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.9 Is there a ‘scanf()’ or ‘sscanf()’ equivalent?
.......................................................

Pas exactement.

For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the
line into whitespace-delimited words using the *note split(): e95.
method of string objects and then convert decimal strings to numeric
values using *note int(): 254. or *note float(): 2ec.  ‘split()’
supports an optional "sep" parameter which is useful if the line uses
something other than whitespace as a separator.

Pour des analyses plus compliquées, les expressions rationnelles sont
plus puissantes que la fonction ‘sscanf’ de C et mieux adaptées à la
tâche.


File: python.info,  Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Next: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.10 What does ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or ‘UnicodeEncodeError’ error mean?
............................................................................

Voir *note Guide Unicode: 1284.


File: python.info,  Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Up: Nombres et chaînes de caractères

10.2.3.11 Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?
...................................................................

A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the
string's quote:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
         ^
     SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)

There are several workarounds for this.  One is to use regular strings
and double the backslashes:

     >>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Another is to concatenate a regular string containing an escaped
backslash to the raw string:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

It is also possible to use *note os.path.join(): 15ee. to append a
backslash on Windows:

     >>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '')
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Note that while a backslash will "escape" a quote for the purposes of
determining where the raw string ends, no escaping occurs when
interpreting the value of the raw string.  That is, the backslash
remains present in the value of the raw string:

     >>> r'backslash\'preserved'
     "backslash\\'preserved"

Also see the specification in the *note language reference: 1e5f.


File: python.info,  Node: Performances<4>,  Next: Séquences n-uplets / listes,  Prev: Nombres et chaînes de caractères,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.4 Performances
-------------------

* Menu:

* Mon programme est trop lent. Comment l'accélérer ?: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?.
* Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?,  Next: Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?,  Up: Performances<4>

10.2.4.1 Mon programme est trop lent. Comment l'accélérer ?
...........................................................

Question difficile en général.  Il faut garder en tête les points
suivants avant d'aller plus loin :

   * Les performances varient en fonction des implémentations de Python.
     Cette FAQ ne traite que de *note CPython: 6e2.

   * Les comportements peuvent différer d'un système d'exploitation à
     l'autre, tout particulièrement quand il s'agit d'entrée/sortie ou
     de fils d'exécution multiples.

   * Il faut toujours essayer de trouver où sont les points de
     contention d'un programme 'avant' d'essayer d'optimiser du code
     (voir le module *note profile: ae.).

   * Écrire des scripts d'évaluation de performances permet de
     progresser rapidement dans la recherche d'améliorations (voir le
     module *note timeit: ee.).

   * Il est très fortement recommandé d'avoir une bonne couverture de
     code (avec des tests unitaires ou autre) avant d'ajouter des
     erreurs dans des optimisations sophistiquées.

Ceci étant dit, il y a beaucoup d'astuces pour accélérer du code Python.
Voici quelques principes généraux qui peuvent aider à atteindre des
niveaux de performance satisfaisants :

   * Améliorer les algorithmes (ou en changer pour des plus performants)
     peut produire de bien meilleurs résultats que d'optimiser çà et là
     de petites portions du code.

   * Utiliser les structures de données adaptées.  Se référer à la
     documentation des *note Types natifs: 214b. et du module *note
     collections: 1d.

   * Quand la bibliothèque standard fournit une implémentation pour
     quelque chose, il y a de fortes chances (même si ce n'est pas
     systématique) que cette implémentation soit plus rapide que la
     vôtre.  C'est d'autant plus vrai pour les routines écrites en C,
     comme les routines natives et certaines extensions de types.  Par
     exemple, il faut utiliser la méthode native *note list.sort(): bbf.
     ou la fonction *note sorted(): bbe. similaire pour classer (et se
     référer à la section *note Sorting Techniques: 213b. pour des
     exemples d'utilisation courante).

   * Les abstractions ont tendance à créer des indirections et obligent
     l'interpréteur à faire plus d'efforts.  Si le niveau d'indirection
     dépasse la quantité de travail effectif, le programme sera ralenti.
     Il faut toujours éviter trop d'indirections, en particulier sous la
     forme de fonctions ou méthodes trop petites (qui nuisent aussi
     souvent à la clarté du code).

Si vous atteignez les limites de ce que du Python « pur » permet de
faire, il y a des outils qui permettent d'aller plus loin.  Par exemple,
Cython(1) peut compiler une version légèrement modifiée de code Python
en une extension C et est disponible sur de nombreuses plate-formes.
Cython peut bénéficier de la compilation (et de l'annotation,
optionnelle, des types) pour rendre votre code beaucoup plus rapide que
s'il était interprété.  Si vous avez confiance en vos capacités de
programmation en C, vous pouvez aussi *note écrire un module d'extension
en C: 1b99. vous-même.

Voir aussi
..........

La page wiki dédiée aux astuces de performance(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips


File: python.info,  Node: Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?,  Prev: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?,  Up: Performances<4>

10.2.4.2 Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?
........................................................................................................

Les objets *note str: 437. et *note bytes: 1bd. sont immuables, par
conséquent concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères entre
elles n'est pas très efficace car chaque concaténation crée un nouvel
objet.  Dans le cas général, la complexité est quadratique par rapport à
la taille totale de la chaîne.

Pour mettre bout à bout un grand nombre d'objets *note str: 437, la
technique recommandée consiste à toutes les mettre dans une liste et
appeler la méthode *note str.join(): 2168. à la fin :

     chunks = []
     for s in my_strings:
         chunks.append(s)
     result = ''.join(chunks)

(une autre technique relativement efficace consiste à utiliser *note
io.StringIO: f14.)

Pour concaténer un grand nombre d'objets *note bytes: 1bd, la technique
recommandée consiste à étendre un objet *note bytearray: 52b. en
utilisant la concaténation en-place (l'opérateur ‘+=’) :

     result = bytearray()
     for b in my_bytes_objects:
         result += b


File: python.info,  Node: Séquences n-uplets / listes,  Next: Objets,  Prev: Performances<4>,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.5 Séquences ('n'-uplets / listes)
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?::
* Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?::
* Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?::
* Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?::
* Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste::
* Comment construire un tableau en Python ?::
* Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?::
* Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?::
* Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?::
* Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué ; peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?: Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?.
* Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?,  Next: Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.1 Comment convertir les listes en 'n'-uplets et inversement ?
....................................................................

Le constructeur de type ‘tuple(seq)’ convertit toute séquence (plus
précisément, tout itérable) en un 'n'-uplet avec les mêmes éléments dans
le même ordre.

Par exemple ‘tuple([1, 2, 3])’ renvoie ‘(1, 2, 3)’ et ‘tuple('abc')’
renvoie ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’.  Si l'argument est un 'n'-uplet, cela ne crée
pas de copie, mais renvoie le même objet, ce qui fait de *note tuple():
366. une fonction économique à appeler quand vous ne savez pas si votre
objet est déjà un 'n'-uplet.

Le constructeur de type ‘list(seq)’ convertit toute séquence ou itérable
en liste contenant les mêmes éléments dans le même ordre.  Par exemple,
‘list((1,2,3))’ renvoie ‘[1,2,3]’ et ‘list('abc')’ renvoie
‘['a','b','c']’.  Si l'argument est une liste, il renvoie une copie, de
la même façon que ‘seq[:]’.


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?,  Next: Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?,  Prev: Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.2 Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?
.........................................

Les séquences Python sont indicées avec des nombres positifs aussi bien
que négatifs.  Pour les nombres positifs, 0 est le premier indice, 1 est
le deuxième, et ainsi de suite.  Pour les indices négatifs, ‘-1’ est le
dernier indice, ‘-2’ est le pénultième (avant-dernier), et ainsi de
suite.  On peut aussi dire que ‘seq[-n]’ est équivalent à
‘seq[len(seq)-n]’.

Utiliser des indices négatifs peut être très pratique.  Par exemple
‘S[:-1]’ représente la chaîne tout entière à l'exception du dernier
caractère, ce qui est pratique pour retirer un caractère de fin de ligne
à la fin d'une chaîne.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?,  Next: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.3 Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?
....................................................

Utilisez la fonction native *note reversed(): 852. :

     for x in reversed(sequence):
         ...  # do something with x ...

Cela ne modifie pas la séquence initiale, mais construit à la place une
copie en ordre inverse pour itérer dessus.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?,  Next: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste,  Prev: Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.4 Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?
...................................................

Lisez le « livre de recettes » Python pour trouver une longue discussion
sur les nombreuses approches possibles :

     ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/’

Si changer l'ordre de la liste ne vous dérange pas, commencez par
ordonner celle-ci, puis parcourez-la d'un bout à l'autre, en supprimant
les doublons trouvés en chemin :

     if mylist:
         mylist.sort()
         last = mylist[-1]
         for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
             if last == mylist[i]:
                 del mylist[i]
             else:
                 last = mylist[i]

Si tous les éléments de la liste peuvent être utilisés comme des clés de
dictionnaire (c'est-à-dire, qu'elles sont toutes *note hachables: 5fd.)
ceci est souvent plus rapide

     mylist = list(set(mylist))

Ceci convertit la liste en un ensemble, ce qui supprime automatiquement
les doublons, puis la transforme à nouveau en liste.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste,  Next: Comment construire un tableau en Python ?,  Prev: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.5 Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste
.................................................

Comme pour supprimer les doublons, il est possible d’itérer
explicitement à l’envers avec une condition de suppression.  Cependant,
il est plus facile et plus rapide d’utiliser le remplacement des
tranches par une itération avant, implicite ou explicite.  Voici trois
variantes :

     mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
     mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
     mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition]

La liste en compréhension est peut-être la plus rapide :


File: python.info,  Node: Comment construire un tableau en Python ?,  Next: Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?,  Prev: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.6 Comment construire un tableau en Python ?
..................................................

Utilisez une liste :

     ["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"]

Les listes ont un coût équivalent à celui des tableaux C ou Pascal ; la
principale différence est qu'une liste Python peut contenir des objets
de différents types.

Le module ‘array’ fournit des méthodes pour créer des tableaux de types
fixes dans une représentation compacte, mais ils sont plus lents à
indexer que les listes.  Notez aussi que NumPy(1) (et d'autres)
fournissent différentes structures de type tableaux, avec des
caractéristiques différentes.

Pour obtenir des listes chaînées à la sauce Lisp, vous pouvez émuler les
'cons cells' en utilisant des 'n'-uplets :

     lisp_list = ("like",  ("this",  ("example", None) ) )

Si vous voulez pouvoir modifier les éléments, utilisez une liste plutôt
qu'un 'n'-uplet.  Ici la version équivalente du 'car' de Lisp est
‘lisp_list[0]’ et l'équivalent de 'cdr' est ‘lisp_list[1]’.  Ne faites
ceci que si vous êtes réellement sûr d'en avoir besoin, cette méthode
est en général bien plus lente que les listes Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?,  Next: Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?,  Prev: Comment construire un tableau en Python ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.7 Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?
.........................................................

Vous avez probablement essayé de créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions
de cette façon :

     >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3

Elle semble correcte si on l'affiche :

     >>> A
     [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]

Mais quand vous affectez une valeur, celle-ci apparaît à plusieurs
endroits :

     >>> A[0][0] = 5
     >>> A
     [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]

Dupliquer une liste en utilisant ‘*’ ne crée en réalité pas de copie
mais seulement des références aux objets existants.  Le ‘*3’ crée une
liste contenant trois références à la même liste de longueur deux.  Un
changement dans une colonne apparaîtra donc dans toutes les colonnes, ce
qui n'est très probablement pas ce que vous souhaitiez.

L'approche suggérée est d'abord de créer une liste de la longueur
désirée, puis de remplir tous les éléments avec une nouvelle chaîne :

     A = [None] * 3
     for i in range(3):
         A[i] = [None] * 2

Cela génère une liste contenant elle-même trois listes distinctes, de
longueur deux.  Vous pouvez aussi utiliser la syntaxe des listes en
compréhension :

     w, h = 2, 3
     A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]

Vous pouvez aussi utiliser une extension qui fournit un type matriciel
natif ; NumPy(1) est la plus répandue.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?,  Next: Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?,  Prev: Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.8 Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?
................................................................................

Pour appeler une méthode ou une fonction et accumuler les valeurs
renvoyées dans une liste, une *note compréhension de liste: 6ba. est une
solution élégante :

     result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]

     result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist]

To just run the method or function without saving the return values, a
plain *note for: 2e7. loop will suffice:

     for obj in mylist:
         obj.method()

     for obj in mylist:
         function(obj)


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?,  Next: Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?,  Prev: Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.9 Pourquoi ‘a_tuple[i] += ['item']’ lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?
....................................................................................................

Ceci est dû à la combinaison de deux facteurs : le fait que les
opérateurs d'affectation incrémentaux sont des opérateurs
d''affectation' et à la différence entre les objets mutables et
immuables en Python.

Cette discussion est valable, en général, quand des opérateurs
d'affectation incrémentale sont appliqués aux éléments d'un 'n'-uplet
qui pointe sur des objets mutables, mais on prendra ‘list’ et ‘+=’ comme
exemple.

Si vous écrivez :

     >>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
     >>> a_tuple[0] += 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

La cause de l'exception est claire : ‘1’ est ajouté à l'objet
‘a_tuple[0]’ qui pointe sur (‘1’), ce qui produit l'objet résultant ‘2’,
mais, lorsque l'on tente d'affecter le résultat du calcul, ‘2’, à
l'élément ‘0’ du 'n'-uplet, on obtient une erreur car il est impossible
de modifier la cible sur laquelle pointe un élément d'un 'n'-uplet.

Sous le capot, une instruction d'affectation incrémentale fait à peu
près ceci :

     >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

C'est la partie de l'affectation de l'opération qui génère l'erreur, vu
qu'un 'n'-uplet est immuable.

Quand vous écrivez un code du style :

     >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
     >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

L'exception est un peu plus surprenante et, chose encore plus étrange,
malgré l'erreur, l'ajout a fonctionné :

     >>> a_tuple[0]
     ['foo', 'item']

To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object
implements an *note __iadd__(): 1f47. magic method, it gets called when
the ‘+=’ augmented assignment is executed, and its return value is what
gets used in the assignment statement; and (b) for lists, ‘__iadd__()’
is equivalent to calling ‘extend()’ on the list and returning the list.
That's why we say that for lists, ‘+=’ is a "shorthand" for
‘list.extend()’:

     >>> a_list = []
     >>> a_list += [1]
     >>> a_list
     [1]

C’est équivalent à :

     >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
     >>> a_list = result

L'objet sur lequel pointe ‘a_list’ a été modifié et le pointeur vers
l'objet modifié est réaffecté à ‘a_list’.  'In fine', l'affectation ne
change rien, puisque c'est un pointeur vers le même objet que sur lequel
pointait ‘a_list’, mais l'affectation a tout de même lieu.

Donc, dans notre exemple avec un 'n'-uplet, il se passe quelque chose
équivalent à :

     >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

L'appel à ‘__iadd__()’ réussit et la liste est étendue, mais bien que
‘result’ pointe sur le même objet que ‘a_tuple[0]’, l'affectation finale
échoue car les 'n'-uplets ne sont pas mutables.


File: python.info,  Node: Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?,  Next: Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?,  Prev: Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.10 Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué : peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?
..............................................................................................................

Cette technique, attribuée à Randal Schwartz de la communauté Perl,
ordonne les éléments d'une liste à l'aide une transformation qui fait
correspondre chaque élément à sa "valeur de tri".  En Python, ceci est
géré par l'argument ‘key’ de la méthode *note list.sort(): bbf. :

     Isorted = L[:]
     Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))


File: python.info,  Node: Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?,  Prev: Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?,  Up: Séquences n-uplets / listes

10.2.5.11 Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?
................................................................................

Fusionnez-les dans un itérateur de 'n'-uplets, ordonnez la liste
obtenue, puis choisissez l'élément que vous voulez

     >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
     >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
     >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
     >>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
     >>> pairs
     [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
     >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
     >>> result
     ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']


File: python.info,  Node: Objets,  Next: Modules<5>,  Prev: Séquences n-uplets / listes,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.6 Objets
-------------

* Menu:

* Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?::
* Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?::
* Qu'est-ce que self ?::
* Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?::
* Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?::
* Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?::
* Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?::
* Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?::
* Comment surcharger les constructeurs (ou méthodes) en Python ?: Comment surcharger les constructeurs ou méthodes en Python ?.
* J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam.: J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam.
* Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.: Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.
* Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?::
* Pourquoi le résultat de id() peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?: Pourquoi le résultat de id peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?.
* Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?::
* Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?::
* Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?,  Next: Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.1 Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?
..................................

Une classe est le type d'objet particulier créé par l'exécution d'une
déclaration de classe.  Les objets de classe sont utilisés comme modèles
pour créer des objets, qui incarnent à la fois les données (attributs)
et le code (méthodes) spécifiques à un type de données.

Une classe peut être fondée sur une ou plusieurs autres classes, appelée
sa (ou ses) classe(s) de base.  Elle hérite alors des attributs et des
méthodes de ses classes mères.  Cela permet à un modèle d'objet d'être
successivement raffiné par héritage.  Vous pourriez avoir une classe
générique ‘Mailbox’, qui fournit des méthodes d'accès de base pour une
boîte aux lettres, et des sous-classes telles que ‘MboxMailbox’,
‘MaildirMailbox’, ‘OutlookMailbox’ qui gèrent les plusieurs formats
spécifiques de boîtes aux lettres.


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?,  Next: Qu'est-ce que self ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.2 Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?
...................................

Une méthode est une fonction sur un objet ‘x’ qu'on appelle de manière
générale sous la forme ‘x.name(arguments…)’.  Les méthodes sont définies
comme des fonctions à l'intérieur de la définition de classe :

     class C:
         def meth(self, arg):
             return arg * 2 + self.attribute


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce que self ?,  Next: Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.3 Qu'est-ce que self ?
.............................

Par convention, le premier argument d'une méthode est appelé self.  Une
méthode ‘meth(self, a, b, c)’ doit être appelée sous la forme ‘x.meth(a,
b, c)’ où ‘x’ est une instance de la classe dans laquelle cette méthode
est définie ; tout se passe comme si la méthode était appelée comme
‘meth(x, a, b, c)’.

Voir aussi *note Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans
les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?: 502b.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?,  Next: Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce que self ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.4 Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?
.............................................................................................................

Utilisez la fonction native *note isinstance(obj, cls): 42d.  Vous
pouvez vérifier qu'un objet est une instance de plusieurs classes à la
fois en fournissant un 'n'-uplet à la place d'une seule classe, par
exemple, ‘isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...))’.  Vous pouvez
également vérifier qu'un objet est l'un des types natifs de Python, par
exemple ‘isinstance(obj, str)’ ou ‘isinstance(obj, (int, float,
complex))’.

Notez que *note isinstance(): 42d. prend aussi en compte l'héritage
virtuel d'une *note classe mère abstraite: 1195, c'est à dire qu'elle
renvoie ‘True’ pour une classe A enregistrée auprès d'une classe mère
abstraite B même si A n'est pas directement ou indirectement une classe
fille de B. Pour vérifier l'héritage dans le sens plus restreint,
parcourez l'*note ordre de résolution des méthodes: 35ae. de la classe :

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class P:
          pass

     class C(P):
         pass

     Mapping.register(P)

     >>> c = C()
     >>> isinstance(c, C)        # direct
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, P)        # indirect
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, Mapping)  # virtual
     True

     # Actual inheritance chain
     >>> type(c).__mro__
     (<class 'C'>, <class 'P'>, <class 'object'>)

     # Test for "true inheritance"
     >>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__
     False

Notez que la plupart des programmes n'utilisent que rarement
‘isInstance()’ sur les classes définies par l'utilisateur.  Si vous
développez vous-même des classes, une approche plus orientée-objet
consiste définir des méthodes sur les classes qui sont porteuses d'un
comportement particulier, plutôt que de vérifier la classe de l'objet et
de faire un traitement ad-hoc.  Par exemple, si vous avez une fonction
qui fait quelque chose :

     def search(obj):
         if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox
         elif isinstance(obj, Document):
             ...  # code to search a document
         elif ...

Une meilleure approche est de définir une méthode ‘search()’ dans toutes
les classes et qu'il suffit d'appeler de la manière suivante :

     class Mailbox:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox

     class Document:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a document

     obj.search()


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?,  Next: Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?,  Prev: Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.5 Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?
......................................

La délégation est une technique orientée objet (aussi appelée « patron
de conception).  Prenons un objet ‘x’ dont on souhaite modifier le
comportement d'une seule de ses méthodes.  On peut créer une nouvelle
classe qui fournit une nouvelle implémentation de la méthode qui nous
intéresse dans l'évolution et qui délègue toute autre méthode à la
méthode correspondante de ‘x’.

Les programmeurs Python peuvent facilement mettre en œuvre la
délégation.  Par exemple, la classe suivante implémente une classe qui
se comporte comme un fichier, mais convertit toutes les données écrites
en majuscules :

     class UpperOut:

         def __init__(self, outfile):
             self._outfile = outfile

         def write(self, s):
             self._outfile.write(s.upper())

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             return getattr(self._outfile, name)

Here the ‘UpperOut’ class redefines the ‘write()’ method to convert the
argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying
‘self._outfile.write()’ method.  All other methods are delegated to the
underlying ‘self._outfile’ object.  The delegation is accomplished via
the *note __getattr__(): 4bf. method; consult *note the language
reference: 1f1d. for more information about controlling attribute
access.

Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier.  When
attributes must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a
*note __setattr__(): 1ee9. method too, and it must do so carefully.  The
basic implementation of ‘__setattr__()’ is roughly equivalent to the
following:

     class X:
         ...
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             self.__dict__[name] = value
         ...

Many *note __setattr__(): 1ee9. implementations call
‘object.__setattr__()’ to set an attribute on self without causing
infinite recursion:

     class X:
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             # Custom logic here...
             object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting entries
into *note self.__dict__: 549. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?,  Next: Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.6 Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?
..............................................................................................................

Utilisez la fonction native *note super(): 4c8. :

     class Derived(Base):
         def meth(self):
             super().meth()  # calls Base.meth

Dans cet exemple, *note super(): 4c8. détermine automatiquement
l'instance dont une méthode l'appelle (l'objet ‘self’), observe l'*note
ordre de résolution des méthodes: 213d. obtenu avec
‘type(self).__mro__’, et renvoie la classe qui suit ‘Derived’ dans cet
ordre, donc ‘Base’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?,  Next: Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?,  Prev: Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.7 Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?
.............................................................................................

Vous pouvez définir un alias pour la classe mère et dériver depuis
l'alias.  Ensuite, tout ce que vous devez changer est la valeur
attribuée à cet alias.  Accessoirement, cette astuce est également utile
pour déterminer dynamiquement (par exemple en fonction de la
disponibilité de certaines ressources) la classe mère à utiliser.
Exemple :

     class Base:
         ...

     BaseAlias = Base

     class Derived(BaseAlias):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?,  Next: Comment surcharger les constructeurs ou méthodes en Python ?,  Prev: Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.8 Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?
............................................................................................

Les données statiques et les méthodes statiques (au sens C++ ou Java)
sont prises en charge en Python.

Pour les données statiques, il suffit de définir un attribut de classe.
Pour attribuer une nouvelle valeur à l'attribut, vous devez
explicitement utiliser le nom de classe dans l'affectation :

     class C:
         count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called

         def __init__(self):
             C.count = C.count + 1

         def getcount(self):
             return C.count  # or return self.count

‘c.count’ se réfère également à ‘C.count’ pour tout ‘c’ tel que
‘isInstance (c, C)’ est vrai, sauf remplacement par ‘c’ lui-même ou par
une classe sur le chemin de recherche de classe mère de ‘c.__class__’
jusqu'à ‘C’.

Attention : dans une méthode de C, une affectation comme ‘self.count =
42’ crée une nouvelle instance sans rapport avec le nom ‘count’ dans le
dictionnaire de données de ‘self’.  La redéfinition d'une donnée
statique de classe doit toujours spécifier la classe, que l'on soit à
l'intérieur d'une méthode ou non :

     C.count = 314

Il est possible d'utiliser des méthodes statiques :

     class C:
         @staticmethod
         def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
             # No 'self' parameter!
             ...

Cependant, d'une manière beaucoup plus simple pour obtenir l'effet d'une
méthode statique se fait par une simple fonction au niveau du module :

     def getcount():
         return C.count

Si votre code est structuré de manière à définir une classe (ou bien la
hiérarchie des classes connexes) par module, ceci fournira
l'encapsulation souhaitée.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment surcharger les constructeurs ou méthodes en Python ?,  Next: J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam,  Prev: Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.9 Comment surcharger les constructeurs (ou méthodes) en Python ?
.......................................................................

Cette réponse s'applique en fait à toutes les méthodes, mais la question
se pose généralement dans le contexte des constructeurs.

En C++, on écrirait

     class C {
         C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
         C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
     }

En Python, vous devez écrire un constructeur unique qui considère tous
les cas en utilisant des arguments par défaut.  Par exemple :

     class C:
         def __init__(self, i=None):
             if i is None:
                 print("No arguments")
             else:
                 print("Argument is", i)

Ce n'est pas tout à fait équivalent, mais suffisamment proche dans la
pratique.

Vous pouvez aussi utiliser une liste d'arguments de longueur variable,
par exemple

     def __init__(self, *args):
         ...

La même approche fonctionne pour toutes les définitions de méthode.


File: python.info,  Node: J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam,  Next: Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet,  Prev: Comment surcharger les constructeurs ou méthodes en Python ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.10 J'essaie d'utiliser ‘__spam’ et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de ‘_SomeClassName__spam’.
..................................................................................................

Les noms de variables commençant avec deux tirets bas sont « déformés »,
c'est un moyen simple mais efficace de définir des variables privées à
une classe.  Tout identifiant de la forme ‘__spam’ (commençant par au
moins deux tirets bas et se terminant par au plus un tiret bas) est
textuellement remplacé par ‘_classname__spam’, où ‘classname’ est le nom
de la classe en cours sans les éventuels tirets bas du début.

The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it
outside the class, the mangled name must be used:

     class A:
         def __one(self):
             return 1
         def two(self):
             return 2 * self.__one()

     class B(A):
         def three(self):
             return 3 * self._A__one()

     four = 4 * A()._A__one()

In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can
still deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers
never bother to use private variable names at all.

Voir aussi
..........

The *note private name mangling specifications: 1c78. for details and
special cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet,  Next: Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?,  Prev: J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.11 Ma classe définit ‘__del__’ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.
..............................................................................................

Il y a plusieurs explications possibles.

The *note del: 1762. statement does not necessarily call *note
__del__(): 1f1a. - it simply decrements the object's reference count,
and if this reaches zero ‘__del__()’ is called.

If your data structures contain circular links (e.g.  a tree where each
child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the
reference counts will never go back to zero.  Once in a while Python
runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage collector might
run some time after the last reference to your data structure vanishes,
so your ‘__del__()’ method may be called at an inconvenient and random
time.  This is inconvenient if you're trying to reproduce a problem.
Worse, the order in which object's ‘__del__()’ methods are executed is
arbitrary.  You can run *note gc.collect(): a2a. to force a collection,
but there 'are' pathological cases where objects will never be
collected.

Despite the cycle collector, it's still a good idea to define an
explicit ‘close()’ method on objects to be called whenever you're done
with them.  The ‘close()’ method can then remove attributes that refer
to subobjects.  Don't call ‘__del__()’ directly - ‘__del__()’ should
call ‘close()’ and ‘close()’ should make sure that it can be called more
than once for the same object.

Une alternative pour éviter les références cycliques consiste à utiliser
le module *note weakref: 113, qui permet de faire référence à des objets
sans incrémenter leur compteur de références.  Par exemple, les
structures d'arbres devraient utiliser des références faibles entre
pères et fils (si nécessaire !).

Finally, if your ‘__del__()’ method raises an exception, a warning
message is printed to *note sys.stderr: 928.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?,  Next: Pourquoi le résultat de id peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?,  Prev: Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.12 Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?
.............................................................

Python ne tient pas de registre de toutes les instances d'une classe (ni
de n'importe quel type natif).  Il est cependant possible de programmer
le constructeur de la classe de façon à tenir un tel registre, en
maintenant une liste de références faibles vers chaque instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi le résultat de id peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?,  Next: Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?,  Prev: Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.13 Pourquoi le résultat de ‘id()’ peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?
...........................................................................................

La fonction native *note id(): 13db. renvoie un entier dont l'unicité
est garantie durant toute la vie de l'objet.  Vu qu'en CPython cet
entier est en réalité l'adresse mémoire de l'objet, il est fréquent
qu'un nouvel objet soit alloué à une adresse mémoire identique à celle
d'un objet venant d'être supprimé.  Comme l'illustre le code suivant :

     >>> id(1000)
     13901272
     >>> id(2000)
     13901272

Les deux identifiants appartiennent à des objets entiers créés juste
avant l'appel à ‘id()’ et détruits immédiatement après.  Pour s'assurer
que les objets dont on veut examiner les identifiants sont toujours en
vie, créons une nouvelle référence à l'objet :

     >>> a = 1000; b = 2000
     >>> id(a)
     13901272
     >>> id(b)
     13891296


File: python.info,  Node: Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?,  Next: Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?,  Prev: Pourquoi le résultat de id peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.14 Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité 'is' ?
..........................................................................

L'opérateur ‘is’ détermine si deux objets sont identiques, c'est-à-dire
le même objet.  Le test ‘a is b’ est équivalent à ‘id(a) == id(b)’.

La propriété la plus importante du test d'identité est qu'un objet est
toujours identique à lui-même.  Quelle que soit la valeur de 'a', ‘a is
a’ vaut toujours ‘True’.  Un test d'identité est généralement plus
rapide qu'un test d'égalité.  De plus, contrairement à l'opérateur ‘==’,
l'opérateur ‘is’ renvoie toujours un booléen, ‘True’ ou ‘False’.

Cependant, les tests d'identité ne peuvent remplacer les tests d'égalité
que si l'identité est garantie.  C'est le cas dans les trois situations
suivantes :

  1. Assignments create new names but do not change object identity.
     After the assignment ‘new = old’, it is guaranteed that ‘new is
     old’.

  2. Putting an object in a container that stores object references does
     not change object identity.  After the list assignment ‘s[0] = x’,
     it is guaranteed that ‘s[0] is x’.

  3. If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of
     that object can exist.  After the assignments ‘a = None’ and ‘b =
     None’, it is guaranteed that ‘a is b’ because ‘None’ is a
     singleton.

Dans la plupart des autres cas, un test d'identité n'est pas approprié
par rapport à un test d'égalité.  En particulier, il ne faut pas
utiliser ‘is’ pour comparer à des constantes comme les entiers (type
*note int: 254.) ou des chaînes de caractères (type *note str: 437.) car
ces valeurs ne sont pas nécessairement des singletons :

     >>> a = 1000
     >>> b = 500
     >>> c = b + 500
     >>> a is c
     False

     >>> a = 'Python'
     >>> b = 'Py'
     >>> c = b + 'thon'
     >>> a is c
     False

De même, deux instances fraîchement créées d'un type de conteneurs
mutables ne sont jamais identiques :

     >>> a = []
     >>> b = []
     >>> a is b
     False

Voici quelques exemples de la bibliothèque standard qui illustrent
comment utiliser correctement les tests d'identité dans certaines
situations particulières :

  1. As recommended by PEP 8(1), an identity test is the preferred way
     to check for ‘None’.  This reads like plain English in code and
     avoids confusion with other objects that may have boolean values
     that evaluate to false.

  2. Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when ‘None’ is a valid
     input value.  In those situations, you can create a singleton
     sentinel object guaranteed to be distinct from other objects.  For
     example, here is how to implement a method that behaves like *note
     dict.pop(): 339.:

          _sentinel = object()

          def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
              if key in self:
                  value = self[key]
                  del self[key]
                  return value
              if default is _sentinel:
                  raise KeyError(key)
              return default

  3. Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests
     with identity tests.  This prevents the code from being confused by
     objects such as ‘float('NaN')’ that are not equal to themselves.

For example, here is the implementation of
‘collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__()’:

     def __contains__(self, value):
         for v in self:
             if v is value or v == value:
                 return True
         return False

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?,  Next: Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?,  Prev: Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.15 Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?
.......................................................................................

When subclassing an immutable type, override the *note __new__(): 56e.
method instead of the *note __init__(): 69d. method.  The latter only
runs 'after' an instance is created, which is too late to alter data in
an immutable instance.

Toutes les classes d'objets immuables suivantes ont des signatures de
constructeur différentes de leur classe mère :

     from datetime import date

     class FirstOfMonthDate(date):
         "Always choose the first day of the month"
         def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
             return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)

     class NamedInt(int):
         "Allow text names for some numbers"
         xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10}
         def __new__(cls, value):
             value = cls.xlat.get(value, value)
             return super().__new__(cls, value)

     class TitleStr(str):
         "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path"
         def __new__(cls, s):
             s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-')
             s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-'])
             return super().__new__(cls, s)

Ces classes s'utilisent comme ceci :

     >>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14)
     FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1)
     >>> NamedInt('ten')
     10
     >>> NamedInt(20)
     20
     >>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks')
     'blog-why-python-rocks'


File: python.info,  Node: Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?,  Prev: Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?,  Up: Objets

10.2.6.16 Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?
.............................................................

Il existe deux outils principaux pour mettre en cache la valeur de
retour d'une méthode, à savoir *note functools.cached_property(): 52f,
qui stocke les valeurs au niveau de l'instance, et *note
functools.lru_cache(): 9df, qui le fait au niveau de la classe.

La fonction ‘cached_property’ n'est applicable qu'aux méthodes sans
argument.  Elle n'induit aucune référence vers l'instance.  Le cache est
simplement conservé aussi longtemps que l'instance elle-même.

L'avantage est que le cache est supprimé aussitôt que l'instance est
détruite.  L'inconvénient est que les caches peuvent s'accumuler avec
les instances, sans limite de nombre.

La fonction ‘lru_cache’ s'applique quant à elle aux méthodes dont les
arguments sont *note hachables: 5fd.  Elle crée une référence forte à
l'instance, sauf à passer par des circonvolutions pour que la référence
soit faible.

L'avantage de l'algorithme LRU est d'offrir une limitation sur la taille
du cache, que l'on peut régler avec le paramètre 'maxsize' (NdT : LRU
signifie 'Least Recently Used' en anglais, les entrées du cache les plus
anciennes sont évincées pour conserver la taille).  L'inconvénient est
qu'une référence forte vers l'instance est conservée dans le cache, ce
qui maintient l'instance hors de portée du ramasse-miettes jusqu'à ce
que l'entrée soit effacée du cache ou que le cache soit remis à zéro.

Voici une démonstration des différentes techniques :

     class Weather:
         "Lookup weather information on a government website"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self._station_id = station_id
             # The _station_id is private and immutable

         def current_temperature(self):
             "Latest hourly observation"
             # Do not cache this because old results
             # can be out of date.

         @cached_property
         def location(self):
             "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station"
             # Result only depends on the station_id

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'):
             "Rainfall on a given date"
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

Cet exemple suppose que l'attribut 'station_id' n'est jamais changé.  Si
les attributs utilisés par la méthode sont susceptibles d'être modifiés,
‘cached_property’ ne peut pas fonctionner car elle ne peut pas détecter
les mutations pour invalider le cache.

To make the 'lru_cache' approach work when the 'station_id' is mutable,
the class needs to define the *note __eq__(): aea. and *note __hash__():
aeb. methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates:

     class Weather:
         "Example with a mutable station identifier"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def change_station(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.station_id == other.station_id

         def __hash__(self):
             return hash(self.station_id)

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'):
             'Rainfall on a given date'
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<5>,  Prev: Objets,  Up: FAQ de programmation

10.2.7 Modules
--------------

* Menu:

* Comment créer des fichiers .pyc ?: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?.
* Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?::
* Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?::
* __import__('x.y.z') renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?: __import__ 'x y z' renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?.
* Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte, je ne vois pas les changements. Pourquoi ?: Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte je ne vois pas les changements Pourquoi ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?,  Next: Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.1 Comment créer des fichiers ‘.pyc’ ?
............................................

Quand un module est importé pour la première fois (ou si le fichier
source a été modifié depuis la création du fichier compilé), un fichier
‘.pyc’ contenant le code précompilé est créé dans un sous-dossier
‘__pycache__’ du dossier contentant le fichier ‘.py’.  Le nom du fichier
‘.pyc’ est identique au fichier ‘.py’ et se termine par ‘.pyc’, avec une
partie centrale qui dépend du binaire ‘python’ qui l'a créé (voir la PEP
3147(1) pour de plus amples précisions).

Une des raisons pour lesquelles un fichier ‘.pyc’ peut ne pas être créé
est un problème de droits sur le dossier qui contient le fichier source,
ce qui veut dire qu'il est impossible de créer le sous-dossier
‘__pycache__’.  Ceci peut arriver, par exemple, si vous développez en
tant qu'un certain utilisateur, mais que le code est exécuté en tant
qu'un autre utilisateur, par exemple pour tester un serveur Web.

La création du fichier ‘.pyc’ est automatique durant l'importation d'un
module si Python est capable (en termes de droits, d'espace disque, etc)
de créer un sous-dossier ‘__pycache__’ et d'écrire le module ainsi
compilé dans ce sous-répertoire, à moins que la variable d'environnement
*note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1387. soit définie.

Exécuter du Python dans un script de plus haut niveau n'est pas
considéré comme une importation et le fichier ‘.pyc’ n'est pas créé.
Par exemple, si un module de plus haut niveau ‘foo.py’ importe un autre
module ‘xyz.py’, alors à l'exécution de ‘foo’ (en tapant ‘python foo.py’
dans la console), un fichier ‘.pyc’ est créé pour ‘xyz’ mais pas pour
‘foo’ car ‘foo.py’ n'est pas importé.

Pour créer un fichier ‘.pyc’ pour ‘foo’ — c'est-à-dire créer un fichier
‘.pyc’ pour un module qui n'est pas importé — il existe les modules
*note py_compile: b2. et *note compileall: 20.

Le module *note py_compile: b2. peut compiler n'importe quel module
manuellement.  Il est ainsi possible d'appeler la fonction ‘compile()’
de manière interactive :

     >>> import py_compile
     >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')

Ces lignes écrivent le ‘.pyc’ dans un sous-dossier ‘__pycache__’ à côté
de ‘foo.py’ (le paramètre optionnel ‘cfile’ permet de changer ce
comportement).

Tous les fichiers d'un ou plusieurs dossiers peuvent aussi être compilés
avec le module *note compileall: 20.  C'est possible depuis l'invite de
commande en exécutant ‘compileall.py’ avec le chemin du dossier
contenant les fichiers Python à compiler :

     python -m compileall .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?,  Next: Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?,  Prev: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.2 Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?
..................................................

Un module peut déterminer son propre nom en examinant la variable
globale prédéfinie ‘__name__’.  Si celle-ci vaut ‘'__main__'’, c'est que
le programme est exécuté comme un script.  Beaucoup de modules qui
doivent normalement être importés pour pouvoir être utilisés fournissent
aussi une interface en ligne de commande ou un test automatique.  Ils
n'exécutent cette portion du code qu'après avoir vérifié la valeur de
‘__name__’ :

     def main():
         print('Running test...')
         ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?,  Next: __import__ 'x y z' renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?,  Prev: Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.3 Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?
.................................................................

Considérons les modules suivants :

‘foo.py’ :

     from bar import bar_var
     foo_var = 1

‘bar.py’ :

     from foo import foo_var
     bar_var = 2

Le problème réside dans les étapes que l'interpréteur va réaliser :

   * 'main' importe 'foo' ;

   * Les variables globales (vides) de 'foo' sont créées ;

   * 'foo' est compilé et commence à s'exécuter ;

   * 'foo' importe 'bar' ;

   * Les variables globales (vides) de 'bar' sont créées ;

   * 'bar' est compilé et commence à s'exécuter ;

   * 'bar' importe 'foo' (en réalité, rien ne passe car il y a déjà un
     module appelé 'foo') ;

   * La mécanique des importations tente de lire 'foo_var' dans les
     variables globales de 'foo' pour procéder à l'affectation
     ‘bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var’.

La dernière étape échoue car Python n'a pas fini d'interpréter ‘foo’ et
le dictionnaire global des symboles de ‘foo’ est encore vide.

Le même phénomène arrive quand on utilise ‘import foo’, et qu'on essaye
ensuite d'accéder à ‘foo.foo_var’ dans le code global.

Il y a (au moins) trois façons de contourner ce problème.

Guido van Rossum déconseille d'utiliser ‘from <module> import ...’ et de
mettre tout le code dans des fonctions.  L'initialisation des variables
globales et des variables de classe ne doit utiliser que des constantes
ou des fonctions natives.  Ceci implique que tout ce qui est fourni par
un module soit référencé par ‘<module>.<nom>’.

Jim Roskind recommande d'effectuer les étapes suivantes dans cet ordre
dans chaque module :

   * les exportations (variables globales, fonctions et les classes qui
     ne nécessitent d'importer des classes mères)

   * les instructions ‘import’

   * le code (avec les variables globales qui sont initialisées à partir
     de valeurs importées).

van Rossum désapprouve cette approche car les importations se trouvent à
un endroit bizarre, mais cela fonctionne.

Matthias Urlichs conseille de restructurer le code pour éviter les
importations récursives.

Ces solutions peuvent être combinées.


File: python.info,  Node: __import__ 'x y z' renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?,  Next: Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte je ne vois pas les changements Pourquoi ?,  Prev: Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.4 ‘__import__('x.y.z')’ renvoie ‘<module 'x'>’ ; comment accéder à ‘z’ ?
...............................................................................

Utilisez plutôt la fonction *note import_module(): 504. de *note
importlib: 76. :

     z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')


File: python.info,  Node: Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte je ne vois pas les changements Pourquoi ?,  Prev: __import__ 'x y z' renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.5 Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte, je ne vois pas les changements. Pourquoi ?
...................................................................................................

Pour des raisons de performance et de cohérence, Python ne lit le
fichier d'un module que la première fois où celui-ci est importé.  Si ce
n'était pas le cas, dans un programme composé d'un très grand nombre de
modules qui importent tous le même module de base, ce module de base
serait analysé et ré-analysé un très grand nombre de fois.  Pour forcer
la relecture d'un module, il faut faire :

     import importlib
     import modname
     importlib.reload(modname)

Attention, cette technique ne marche pas systématiquement.  En
particulier, les modules qui contiennent des instructions comme

     from modname import some_objects

continuent de fonctionner avec l'ancienne version des objets importés.
Si le module contient une définition de classe, les instances déjà
existantes de celle-ci ne sont 'pas' mises à jour avec la nouvelle
définition de la classe.  Ceci peut conduire au comportement paradoxal
suivant :

     >>> import importlib
     >>> import cls
     >>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
     >>> importlib.reload(cls)
     <module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
     >>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
     False

La nature du problème apparaît clairement en affichant « l'identité »
des objets de la classe :

     >>> hex(id(c.__class__))
     '0x7352a0'
     >>> hex(id(cls.C))
     '0x4198d0'


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception,  Next: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions,  Prev: FAQ de programmation,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.3 FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception
========================================

* Menu:

* Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?::
* Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?::
* Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?::
* Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?::
* Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?::
* Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?::
* Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités (ex ; list.index()) mais des fonctions pour d'autres (ex ; len(list)) ?: Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités ex list index mais des fonctions pour d'autres ex len list ?.
* Pourquoi join() est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?: Pourquoi join est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?.
* À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?::
* Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?::
* Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?::
* Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?::
* Python peut-il être compilé en code machine, en C ou dans un autre langage ?: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?.
* Comment Python gère la mémoire ?::
* Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?::
* Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?::
* Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?::
* Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?::
* Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?::
* Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?::
* Pourquoi list.sort() ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?: Pourquoi list sort ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?.
* Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?::
* Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?::
* Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes (r-strings) ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes r-strings ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?.
* Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?::
* Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?::
* Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?::
* Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?,  Next: Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.1 Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Guido van Rossum considère que l'usage de l'indentation pour regrouper
les blocs d'instruction est élégant et contribue énormément à la clarté
d'un programme Python ordinaire.  La plupart des gens finissent par
aimer cette particularité au bout d'un moment.

Comme il n'y a pas d'accolades de début et fin, il ne peut y avoir de
différence entre le bloc perçu par l'analyseur syntaxique et le lecteur
humain.  Parfois les programmeurs C pourront trouver un morceau de code
comme celui-ci :

     if (x <= y)
             x++;
             y--;
     z++;

Seule l'instruction ‘x++’ est exécutée si la condition est vraie, mais
l'indentation conduit beaucoup de gens à penser le contraire.  Mêmes des
développeurs C expérimentés peuvent parfois rester pendant un moment à
se demander pourquoi ‘y’ est décrémenté même si ‘x > y’.

Comme il n'y a pas d'accolades de début et fin, Python est moins sujet
aux conflits de style de code.  En C, on peut placer les accolades de
nombreuses façons.  Après s'être habitué à lire et écrire selon un style
particulier, il est normal de se sentir perturbé en lisant (ou en devant
écrire) avec un autre style.

Nombre de styles de programmation utilisent des accolades de début et
fin sur une ligne à part.  Cela rend les programmes beaucoup plus longs
et fait perdre une bonne partie de l'espace visible sur l'écran,
empêchant un peu d'avoir une vue globale du programme.  Idéalement, une
fonction doit être visible sur un écran (environ 20 ou 30 lignes).  20
lignes de Python peuvent faire beaucoup plus que 20 lignes de C. Ce
n'est pas seulement dû à l'absence d'accolades de début et fin —
l'absence de déclarations et la présence de types de haut-niveau en sont
également responsables — mais la syntaxe basée sur l'indentation aide
sûrement.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?,  Next: Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?,  Prev: Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.2 Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Voir la question suivante.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?,  Next: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?,  Prev: Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.3 Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Les gens sont très souvent surpris par des résultats comme celui-ci :

     >>> 1.2 - 1.0
     0.19999999999999996

et pensent que c'est un bogue dans Python.  Ça n'en est pas un.  Ceci
n'a d'ailleurs que peu à voir avec Python, mais avec la manière dont la
plateforme sous-jacente gère les nombres à virgule flottante.

La classe *note float: 2ec. dans CPython utilise le type double du
langage C comme stockage.  La valeur d'un objet *note float: 2ec. est
stockée dans un format binaire à virgule flottante avec une précision
fixe (généralement 53 bits).  Python utilise des opérations qui
proviennent du langage C qui à leur tour reposent sur l'implémentation
au niveau du processeur afin d'effectuer des opérations en virgule
flottante.  Cela signifie que, dans le cadre des opérations sur les
nombres à virgule flottante, Python se comporte comme beaucoup de
langages populaires dont C et Java.

Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be
expressed exactly in binary floating point.  For example, after:

     >>> x = 1.2

la valeur stockée pour ‘x’ est une (très bonne) approximation de la
valeur décimale ‘1.2’, mais cette valeur n'est pas exacte.  Sur une
machine typique, la valeur stockée est en fait :

     1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary)

qui est, exactement :

     1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal)

La précision typique de 53 bits des 'floats' Python permet une précision
de 15–16 décimales.

For a fuller explanation, please see the *note floating-point
arithmetic: 1cce. chapter in the Python tutorial.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?,  Next: Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.4 Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Il y a plusieurs avantages.

La première concerne la performance : savoir qu'une chaîne de caractères
est immuable signifie que l'allocation mémoire allouée lors de la
création de cette chaîne est fixe et figée.  C'est aussi l'une des
raisons pour lesquelles on fait la distinction entre les 'n'-uplets et
les listes.

Un autre avantage est que les chaînes en Python sont considérées aussi
« élémentaires » que les nombres.  Aucun processus ne changera la valeur
du nombre 8 en autre chose et, en Python, aucun processus ne changera la
chaîne de caractères "huit" en autre chose.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?,  Next: Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.5 Pourquoi 'self' doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

L'idée a été empruntée à Modula-3.  Cela s'avère très utile, pour
diverses raisons.

Tout d'abord, il est plus évident d'utiliser une méthode ou un attribut
d'instance par exemple au lieu d'une variable locale.  Lire ‘self.x’ ou
‘self.meth()’ est sans ambiguïté sur le fait que c'est une variable
d'instance ou une méthode qui est utilisée, même si vous ne connaissez
pas la définition de classe par cœur.  En C++, vous pouvez les
reconnaître par l'absence d'une déclaration de variable locale (en
supposant que les variables globales sont rares ou facilement
reconnaissables) — mais en Python, il n'y a pas de déclarations de
variables locales, de sorte que vous devriez chercher la définition de
classe pour être sûr.  Certaines normes de programmation C++ et Java
préfixent les attributs d'instance par ‘m_’.  Cette syntaxe explicite
est ainsi utile également pour ces langages.

Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to
explicitly reference or call the method from a particular class.  In
C++, if you want to use a method from a base class which is overridden
in a derived class, you have to use the ‘::’ operator - in Python you
can write ‘baseclass.methodname(self, <argument list>)’.  This is
particularly useful for *note __init__(): 69d. methods, and in general
in cases where a derived class method wants to extend the base class
method of the same name and thus has to call the base class method
somehow.

Enfin, pour des variables d'instance, ça résout un problème syntactique
pour l'assignation : puisque les variables locales en Python sont (par
définition !)  ces variables auxquelles les valeurs sont assignées dans
le corps d'une fonction (et n'étant pas déclarées explicitement
globales), il doit y avoir un moyen de dire à l'interpréteur qu'une
assignation est censée assigner une variable d'instance plutôt qu'une
variable locale, et doit de préférence être syntactique (pour des
raisons d'efficacité).  C++ fait ça au travers de déclarations, mais
Python n'a pas de déclarations et ça serait dommage d'avoir à les
introduire juste pour cette raison.  Utiliser explicitement ‘self.var’
résout ça avec élégance.  Pareillement, pour utiliser des variables
d'instance, avoir à écrire ‘self.var’ signifie que les références vers
des noms non-qualifiés au sein d'une méthode n'ont pas à être cherchés
dans l'annuaire d'instances.  En d'autres termes, les variables locales
et les variables d'instance vivent dans deux différents espaces de
nommage, et vous devez dire à Python quel espace de nommage utiliser.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?,  Next: Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités ex list index mais des fonctions pour d'autres ex len list ?,  Prev: Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.6 Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Depuis Python 3.8, c'est possible !

Les expressions d'affectation qui utilisent l'opérateur morse ‘:=’
affectent une variable dans une expression :

     while chunk := fp.read(200):
        print(chunk)

Voir la PEP 572(1) pour plus d'informations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités ex list index mais des fonctions pour d'autres ex len list ?,  Next: Pourquoi join est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?,  Prev: Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.7 Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités (ex : ‘list.index()’) mais des fonctions pour d'autres (ex : ‘len(list)’) ?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Comme l'a dit Guido :

     (a) Pour certaines opérations, la notation préfixe se lit mieux que
     celle suffixe — les opérations préfixe (et infixe !)  sont une
     longue tradition en mathématique, où on apprécie les notations qui
     aident visuellement le mathématicien à réfléchir sur un problème.
     Comparez la facilité avec laquelle nous réécrivons une formule
     comme x*(a+b) en x*a + x*b à la lourdeur de faire la même chose
     avec une notation orientée objet brute.

     (b) Quand je lis du code qui dit ‘len(x)’ 'je sais' qu'il demande
     la longueur de quelque chose.  Cela me dit deux choses : le
     résultat est un entier, et l'argument est une sorte de conteneur.
     Au contraire, quand je lis ‘x.len()’, je dois déjà savoir que x est
     une sorte de conteneur implémentant une interface ou héritant d'une
     classe qui a un ‘len()’ standard.  Voyez la confusion qui arrive
     parfois quand une classe qui n'implémente pas une interface de
     dictionnaire a une méthode ‘get()’ ou ‘key()’, ou quand un objet
     qui n'est pas un fichier implémente une méthode ‘write()’.

-- ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html’


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi join est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?,  Next: À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?,  Prev: Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités ex list index mais des fonctions pour d'autres ex len list ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.8 Pourquoi ‘join()’ est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de 'n'-uplet ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Les chaînes sont devenues bien plus comme d'autres types standards à
partir de Python 1.6, lorsque les méthodes ont été ajoutées fournissant
ainsi les mêmes fonctionnalités que celles qui étaient déjà disponibles
en utilisant les fonctions du module string.  La plupart de ces
nouvelles méthodes ont été largement acceptées, mais celle qui semble
rendre certains programmeurs mal à l'aise est :

     ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])

qui donne le résultat :

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16"

Il y a deux arguments fréquents contre cet usage.

Le premier argument peut se résumer à : « c'est vraiment moche
d'utiliser une méthode de chaîne littérale (c.-à-d.  constante) ».  La
réponse est « certes, mais une chaîne littérale est une valeur comme une
autre, juste fixe ».  Si on utilise les méthodes sur des noms de
variables, il n'y a pas de raison à les interdire sur des chaînes
littérales.

Le second consiste à se demander : « suis-je réellement en train de dire
à une séquence de joindre ses membres avec une constante de chaîne ? ».
Malheureusement, ce n'est pas ça.  Allez savoir, il semble être bien
moins difficile de comprendre ce qui se passe avec *note split(): e95.
en tant que méthode de chaîne, puisque dans ce cas il est facile de voir
que

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")

est une instruction à une chaîne littérale de renvoyer les sous-chaînes
délimitées par le séparateur fourni (ou, par défaut, les espaces ou
groupes d'espaces).

*note join(): 2168. est une méthode de chaîne parce qu'en l'utilisant
vous dites au séparateur de chaîne d'itérer une séquence de chaînes et
de s'insérer entre les éléments adjacents.  Cette méthode peut être
utilisée avec n'importe quel argument qui obéit aux règles d'objets
séquence, incluant n'importe quelles nouvelles classes que vous pourriez
définir vous-même.  Des méthodes similaires existent pour des objets
‘bytes’ et ‘bytearray’.


File: python.info,  Node: À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?,  Next: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi join est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.9 À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?
-------------------------------------------------------

A *note try: 6d5./*note except: 189. block is extremely efficient if no
exceptions are raised.  Actually catching an exception is expensive.  In
versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was common to use this idiom:

     try:
         value = mydict[key]
     except KeyError:
         mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
         value = mydict[key]

Cela n'a de sens que si vous vous attendez à ce que le dictionnaire ait
la clé presque tout le temps.  Si ce n'était pas le cas, vous l'auriez
codé comme suit :

     if key in mydict:
         value = mydict[key]
     else:
         value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

Pour ce cas, vous pouvez également utiliser ‘value =
dict.setdefault(key, getvalue(key))’, mais seulement si l'appel à
‘getvalue()’ est suffisamment peu coûteux car il est évalué dans tous
les cas.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?,  Next: Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?,  Prev: À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.10 Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction 'switch' ou une structure similaire à 'switch / case' en Python ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when
an expression has a particular value or set of values.  Since Python
3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a
namespace, with a ‘match ... case’ statement.  An older alternative is a
sequence of ‘if... elif... elif... else’.

Dans les cas où vous devez choisir parmi un très grand nombre de
possibilités, vous pouvez créer un dictionnaire faisant correspondre des
valeurs à des fonctions à appeler.  Par exemple :

     functions = {'a': function_1,
                  'b': function_2,
                  'c': self.method_1}

     func = functions[value]
     func()

Pour appeler les méthodes sur des objets, vous pouvez simplifier
davantage en utilisant la fonction native *note getattr(): bc1. pour
récupérer les méthodes avec un nom donné :

     class MyVisitor:
         def visit_a(self):
             ...

         def dispatch(self, value):
             method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
             method = getattr(self, method_name)
             method()

Il est suggéré que vous utilisiez un préfixe pour les noms de méthodes,
telles que ‘visit_’ dans cet exemple.  Sans ce préfixe, si les valeurs
proviennent d'une source non fiable, un attaquant serait en mesure
d'appeler n'importe quelle méthode sur votre objet.

Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C's switch-case-default, is
possible, much harder, and less needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?,  Next: Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?,  Prev: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.11 Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Réponse 1 : malheureusement, l'interpréteur pousse au moins un bloc de
pile C ('stack frame') pour chaque bloc de pile de Python.  Aussi, les
extensions peuvent rappeler dans Python à presque n'importe quel moment.
Par conséquent, une implémentation complète des fils d'exécution
nécessiterait une gestion complète pour le C.

Réponse 2 : heureusement, il existe Stackless Python(1), qui a
complètement ré-architecturé la boucle principale de l'interpréteur afin
de ne pas utiliser la pile C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki


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10.3.12 Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Les expressions lambda de Python ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions
parce que le cadre syntaxique de Python ne peut pas gérer les
instructions imbriquées à l'intérieur d'expressions.  Cependant, en
Python, ce n'est pas vraiment un problème.  Contrairement aux formes
lambda dans d'autres langages, où elles ajoutent des fonctionnalités,
les expressions lambda de Python sont seulement une notation concise si
vous êtes trop paresseux pour définir une fonction.

Les fonctions sont déjà des objets de première classe en Python et
peuvent être déclarées dans une portée locale.  L'unique avantage
d'utiliser une fonction lambda au lieu d'une fonction définie localement
est que vous n'avez nullement besoin d'un nom pour la fonction — mais
c'est juste une variable locale à laquelle est affecté l'objet fonction
(qui est exactement le même type d'objet que celui renvoyé par une
expression lambda) !


File: python.info,  Node: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?,  Next: Comment Python gère la mémoire ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.13 Python peut-il être compilé en code machine, en C ou dans un autre langage ?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cython(1) compiles a modified version of Python with optional
annotations into C extensions.  Nuitka(2) is an up-and-coming compiler
of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full Python language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://nuitka.net/


File: python.info,  Node: Comment Python gère la mémoire ?,  Next: Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?,  Prev: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.14 Comment Python gère la mémoire ?
----------------------------------------

Les détails de la gestion de la mémoire en Python dépendent de
l'implémentation.  En effet, l'implémentation standard de Python, *note
CPython: 6e2, utilise des compteurs de références afin de détecter des
objets inaccessibles et un autre mécanisme pour collecter les références
circulaires, exécutant périodiquement un algorithme de détection de
cycles qui recherche les cycles inaccessibles et supprime les objets
impliqués.  Le module *note gc: 5f. fournit des fonctions pour lancer le
ramasse-miettes, d'obtenir des statistiques de débogage et ajuster ses
paramètres.

Other implementations (such as Jython(1) or PyPy(2)), however, can rely
on a different mechanism such as a full-blown garbage collector.  This
difference can cause some subtle porting problems if your Python code
depends on the behavior of the reference counting implementation.

Dans certaines implémentations de Python, le code suivant (qui
fonctionne parfaitement avec 'CPython') aurait probablement manqué de
descripteurs de fichiers :

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         f = open(file)
         c = f.read(1)

Indeed, using CPython's reference counting and destructor scheme, each
new assignment to ‘f’ closes the previous file.  With a traditional GC,
however, those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at
varying and possibly long intervals.

Si vous souhaitez écrire du code qui fonctionne avec n'importe quelle
implémentation de Python, vous devez explicitement fermer le fichier ou
utiliser l'instruction *note with: 5be. ; ceci fonctionne indépendamment
du système de gestion de la mémoire :

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         with open(file) as f:
             c = f.read(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org

   (2) https://pypy.org


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?,  Next: Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?,  Prev: Comment Python gère la mémoire ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.15 Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

D'une part, ce n'est pas une caractéristique normalisée en C et, par
conséquent, ce n'est pas portable.  (Oui, nous connaissons la
bibliothèque 'GC Boehm'.  Elle contient du code assembleur pour la
plupart des plateformes classiques, mais pas toutes, et bien qu'elle
soit le plus souvent transparente, elle ne l'est pas complètement ; des
correctifs sont nécessaires afin que Python fonctionne correctement
avec.)

Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other
applications.  While in a standalone Python it's fine to replace the
standard ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ with versions provided by the GC
library, an application embedding Python may want to have its 'own'
substitute for ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, and may not want Python's.
Right now, CPython works with anything that implements ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’ properly.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?,  Next: Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?,  Prev: Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.16 Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque 'CPython' s'arrête ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Les objets référencés depuis les espaces de nommage globaux des modules
Python ne sont pas toujours désalloués lorsque Python s'arrête.  Cela
peut se produire s'il y a des références circulaires.  Il y a aussi
certaines parties de mémoire qui sont allouées par la bibliothèque C qui
sont impossibles à libérer (par exemple un outil comme 'Purify' s'en
plaindra).  Python est, cependant, agressif sur le nettoyage de la
mémoire en quittant et cherche à détruire chaque objet.

Si vous voulez forcer Python à désallouer certains objets en quittant,
utilisez le module *note atexit: c. pour exécuter une fonction qui va
forcer ces destructions.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?,  Next: Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?,  Prev: Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.17 Pourquoi les 'n'-uplets et les 'list' sont deux types de données séparés ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in
fundamentally different ways.  Tuples can be thought of as being similar
to Pascal ‘records’ or C ‘structs’; they're small collections of related
data which may be of different types which are operated on as a group.
For example, a Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a
tuple of two or three numbers.

Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages.  They
tend to hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type
and which are operated on one-by-one.  For example, *note
os.listdir('.'): 10dc. returns a list of strings representing the files
in the current directory.  Functions which operate on this output would
generally not break if you added another file or two to the directory.

Les 'n'-uplets sont immuables, ce qui signifie que lorsqu'un 'n'-uplet a
été créé, vous ne pouvez remplacer aucun de ses éléments par une
nouvelle valeur.  Les listes sont mutables, ce qui signifie que vous
pouvez toujours modifier les éléments d'une liste.  Seuls des éléments
immuables peuvent être utilisés comme clés de dictionnaires, et donc de
‘tuple’ et ‘list’ seul des 'n'-uplets peuvent être utilisés comme clés.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?,  Next: Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.18 Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Les listes en CPython sont de vrais tableaux de longueur variable
contrairement à des listes orientées 'Lisp' (c.-à-d.  des listes
chaînées).  L'implémentation utilise un tableau contigu de références à
d'autres objets.  Elle conserve également un pointeur vers ce tableau et
la longueur du tableau dans une structure de tête de liste.

Cela rend l'indexation d'une liste ‘a[i]’ une opération dont le coût est
indépendant de la taille de la liste ou de la valeur de l'indice.

Lorsque des éléments sont ajoutés ou insérés, le tableau de références
est redimensionné.  Un savoir-faire ingénieux permet l'amélioration des
performances lors de l'ajout fréquent d'éléments ; lorsque le tableau
doit être étendu, un certain espace supplémentaire est alloué de sorte
que pour la prochaine fois, ceci ne nécessite plus un redimensionnement
effectif.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?,  Next: Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?,  Prev: Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.19 Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Les dictionnaires CPython sont implémentés sous forme de tables de
hachage redimensionnables.  Par rapport aux 'B-trees', cela donne de
meilleures performances pour la recherche (l'opération la plus courante
de loin) dans la plupart des circonstances, et leur implémentation est
plus simple.

Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the
dictionary using the *note hash(): 5d7. built-in function.  The hash
code varies widely depending on the key and a per-process seed; for
example, ‘'Python'’ could hash to ‘-539294296’ while ‘'python'’, a
string that differs by a single bit, could hash to ‘1142331976’.  The
hash code is then used to calculate a location in an internal array
where the value will be stored.  Assuming that you're storing keys that
all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take
constant time - 'O'(1), in Big-O notation - to retrieve a key.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?,  Next: Pourquoi list sort ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?,  Prev: Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.20 Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?
----------------------------------------------------------

L'implémentation de la table de hachage des dictionnaires utilise une
valeur de hachage calculée à partir de la valeur de la clé pour trouver
la clé elle-même.  Si la clé était un objet mutable, sa valeur peut
changer, et donc son hachage pourrait également changer.  Mais toute
personne modifiant l'objet clé ne peut pas dire qu'elle a été utilisée
comme une clé de dictionnaire.  Il ne peut déplacer l'entrée dans le
dictionnaire.  Ainsi, lorsque vous essayez de rechercher le même objet
dans le dictionnaire, il ne sera pas disponible parce que sa valeur de
hachage est différente.  Si vous essayez de chercher l'ancienne valeur,
elle serait également introuvable car la valeur de l'objet trouvé dans
cet emplacement de hachage serait différente.

Si vous voulez un dictionnaire indexé avec une liste, il faut simplement
convertir la liste en un 'n'-uplet ; la fonction ‘tuple(L)’ crée un
'n'-uplet avec les mêmes entrées que la liste ‘L’.  Les 'n'-uplets sont
immuables et peuvent donc être utilisés comme clés du dictionnaire.

Certaines solutions insatisfaisantes ont été proposées :

   - Hacher les listes par leur adresse ('ID' de l'objet).  Cela ne
     fonctionne pas parce que si vous créez une nouvelle liste avec la
     même valeur, elle ne sera pas retrouvée ; par exemple :

          mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
          print(mydict[[1, 2]])

     lèverait une exception *note KeyError: 33a. car l'ID de ‘[1, 2]’
     utilisé dans la deuxième ligne diffère de celui de la première
     ligne.  En d'autres termes, les clés de dictionnaire doivent être
     comparées à l'aide du comparateur ‘==’ et non à l'aide du mot clé
     *note is: 2ea.

   - Faire une copie lors de l'utilisation d'une liste en tant que clé.
     Cela ne fonctionne pas puisque la liste, étant un objet mutable,
     pourrait contenir une référence à elle-même ou avoir une boucle
     infinie au niveau du code copié.

   - Autoriser les listes en tant que clés, mais indiquer à
     l'utilisateur de ne pas les modifier.  Cela permettrait un ensemble
     de bogues difficiles à suivre dans les programmes lorsque vous avez
     oublié ou modifié une liste par accident.  Cela casse également un
     impératif important des dictionnaires : chaque valeur de ‘d.keys()’
     est utilisable comme clé du dictionnaire.

   - Marquer les listes comme étant en lecture seule une fois qu'elles
     sont utilisées comme clé de dictionnaire.  Le problème est que ce
     n'est pas seulement l'objet de niveau supérieur qui pourrait
     changer sa valeur ; vous pourriez utiliser un 'n'-uplet contenant
     une liste comme clé.  Utiliser n'importe quoi comme une clé dans un
     dictionnaire nécessiterait de marquer tous les objets accessibles à
     partir de là comme en lecture seule — et encore une fois, les
     objets se faisant référence pourraient provoquer une boucle
     infinie.

There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your
own risk: You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which
has both a *note __eq__(): aea. and a *note __hash__(): aeb. method.
You must then make sure that the hash value for all such wrapper objects
that reside in a dictionary (or other hash based structure), remain
fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or other structure).

     class ListWrapper:
         def __init__(self, the_list):
             self.the_list = the_list

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.the_list == other.the_list

         def __hash__(self):
             l = self.the_list
             result = 98767 - len(l)*555
             for i, el in enumerate(l):
                 try:
                     result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
                 except Exception:
                     result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
             return result

Notez que le calcul de hachage peut être compliqué car il est possible
que certains membres de la liste soient impossibles à hacher et aussi
par la possibilité de débordement arithmétique.

De plus, il faut toujours que, si ‘o1 == o2’ (par exemple ‘o1.__eq__(o2)
vaut True’) alors ‘hash(o1) == hash(o2)’ (par exemple, ‘o1.__hash__() ==
o2.__hash__()’), que l’objet se trouve dans un dictionnaire ou pas.  Si
vous ne remplissez pas ces conditions, les dictionnaires et autres
structures basées sur le hachage se comporteront mal.

In the case of ‘ListWrapper’, whenever the wrapper object is in a
dictionary the wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies.  Don't
do this unless you are prepared to think hard about the requirements and
the consequences of not meeting them correctly.  Consider yourself
warned.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi list sort ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?,  Next: Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.21 Pourquoi ‘list.sort()’ ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?
--------------------------------------------------------------

Dans les situations où la performance est importante, faire une copie de
la liste juste pour la classer serait un gaspillage.  Par conséquent,
*note list.sort(): bbf. classe la liste en place.  Afin de vous le
rappeler, elle ne renvoie pas la liste classée.  De cette façon, vous ne
serez pas dupés en écrasant accidentellement une liste lorsque vous avez
besoin d’une copie triée tout en gardant sous la main la version non
triée.

Si vous souhaitez qu'une nouvelle liste soit renvoyée, utilisez plutôt
la fonction native *note sorted(): bbe.  Cette fonction crée une
nouvelle liste à partir d’un itérable fourni, la classe et la renvoie.
Par exemple, voici comment itérer dans l’ordre sur les clés d’un
dictionnaire :

     for key in sorted(mydict):
         ...  # do whatever with mydict[key]...


File: python.info,  Node: Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?,  Next: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi list sort ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.22 Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Une spécification d'interface pour un module fourni par des langages
tels que C++ et Java décrit les prototypes pour les méthodes et les
fonctions du module.  Beaucoup estiment que la vérification au moment de
la compilation des spécifications d'interface facilite la construction
de grands programmes.

Python 2.6 ajoute un module *note abc: 4. qui vous permet de définir des
classes mères abstraites (ABC pour 'abstract base classes' en anglais).
Vous pouvez ensuite utiliser *note isinstance(): 42d. et *note
issubclass(): 7ad. pour vérifier si une instance ou une classe
implémente une ABC particulière.  Le module *note collections.abc: 1e.
définit un ensemble d'ABC utiles telles que *note Iterable: 220b, *note
Container: 220d. et *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1092.

Pour Python, la plupart des avantages des spécifications d'interface
peuvent être obtenus par une discipline de test appropriée pour les
composants.

Une bonne suite de tests pour un module peut à la fois fournir un test
de non-régression et servir de spécification d'interface de module ainsi
qu'un ensemble d'exemples.  De nombreux modules Python peuvent être
exécutés en tant que script pour fournir un simple « auto-test ».  Même
les modules qui utilisent des interfaces externes complexes peuvent
souvent être testés isolément à l'aide d'émulations triviales
embryonnaires de l'interface externe.  Les modules *note doctest: 3a. et
‘UnitTest’ ou des cadriciels de test tiers peuvent être utilisés pour
construire des suites de tests exhaustives qui éprouvent chaque ligne de
code dans un module.

An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex
applications in Python as well as having interface specifications would.
In fact, it can be better because an interface specification cannot test
certain properties of a program.  For example, the ‘list.append()’
method is expected to add new elements to the end of some internal list;
an interface specification cannot test that your ‘list.append()’
implementation will actually do this correctly, but it's trivial to
check this property in a test suite.

L'écriture des suites de tests est très utile, et vous voudrez peut-être
concevoir votre code de manière à le rendre facilement testable.  Une
technique de plus en plus populaire, le développement dirigé par les
tests, requiert d'écrire d'abord des éléments de la suite de tests,
avant d'écrire le code réel.  Bien sûr, Python vous permet d'être
laxiste et de ne pas écrire de test du tout.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?,  Next: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes r-strings ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?,  Prev: Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.23 Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de ‘goto’ en Python ?
-----------------------------------------------------

In the 1970s people realized that unrestricted goto could lead to messy
"spaghetti" code that was hard to understand and revise.  In a
high-level language, it is also unneeded as long as there are ways to
branch (in Python, with *note if: 2e8. statements and *note or: 2eb,
*note and: 2e6, and *note if: 2e8./*note else: 18a. expressions) and
loop (with *note while: 1bc2. and *note for: 2e7. statements, possibly
containing *note continue: 9b9. and *note break: a99.).

One can also use exceptions to provide a "structured goto" that works
even across function calls.  Many feel that exceptions can conveniently
emulate all reasonable uses of the ‘go’ or ‘goto’ constructs of C,
Fortran, and other languages.  For example:

     class label(Exception): pass  # declare a label

     try:
         ...
         if condition: raise label()  # goto label
         ...
     except label:  # where to goto
         pass
     ...

This doesn't allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that's
usually considered an abuse of ‘goto’ anyway.  Use sparingly.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes r-strings ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?,  Next: Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.24 Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes (r-strings) ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un 'backslash' ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Plus précisément, elles ne peuvent pas se terminer par un nombre impair
de 'backslashes' : le 'backslash' non appairé à la fin échappe le
caractère de guillemet final, laissant la chaîne non terminée.

Les chaînes brutes ont été conçues pour faciliter la création de données
pour les processeurs de texte (principalement les moteurs d'expressions
régulières) qui veulent faire leur propre traitement d'échappement
d''antislashes'.  Ces processeurs considèrent un 'antislash' de fin
non-appairé comme une erreur, alors les chaînes brutes ne le permettent
pas.  En retour, elles vous permettent de transmettre le caractère de
citation de la chaîne en l'échappant avec un 'antislash'.  Ces règles
fonctionnent bien lorsque les chaînes brutes sont utilisées pour leur
but premier.

Si vous essayez de construire des chemins d'accès Windows, notez que
tous les appels système Windows acceptent également les 'slashes'
« classiques » :

     f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # works fine!

Si vous essayez de construire un chemin d'accès pour une commande DOS,
essayez par exemple l'un de ceux-ci

     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
     dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?,  Next: Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes r-strings ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.25 Pourquoi la déclaration ‘with’ pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python has a *note with: 5be. statement that wraps the execution of a
block, calling code on the entrance and exit from the block.  Some
languages have a construct that looks like this:

     with obj:
         a = 1               # equivalent to obj.a = 1
         total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1

En Python, une telle construction serait ambiguë.

Les autres langages, tels que Pascal, Delphi et C++ utilisent des types
statiques, il est donc possible de savoir d'une manière claire et
directe ce à quoi est attribué un membre.  C'est le point principal du
typage statique — le compilateur connaît 'toujours' la portée de toutes
les variables au moment de la compilation.

Python utilise le typage dynamique.  Il est impossible de savoir à
l'avance quel attribut sera référencé lors de l'exécution.  Les
attributs membres peuvent être ajoutés ou retirés des objets à la volée.
Il est donc impossible de savoir, d'une simple lecture, quel attribut
est référencé : s'il est local, global ou un attribut membre ?

Prenons par exemple l'extrait incomplet suivant :

     def foo(a):
         with a:
             print(x)

The snippet assumes that ‘a’ must have a member attribute called ‘x’.
However, there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this.
What should happen if ‘a’ is, let us say, an integer?  If there is a
global variable named ‘x’, will it be used inside the *note with: 5be.
block?  As you see, the dynamic nature of Python makes such choices much
harder.

The primary benefit of *note with: 5be. and similar language features
(reduction of code volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by
assignment.  Instead of:

     function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
     function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
     function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63

écrivez ceci :

     ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
     ref.a = 21
     ref.b = 42
     ref.c = 63

Cela a également pour effet secondaire d'augmenter la vitesse
d'exécution car les liaisons de noms sont résolues au moment de
l'exécution en Python, et la deuxième version n'a besoin d'exécuter la
résolution qu'une seule fois.

Similar proposals that would introduce syntax to further reduce code
volume, such as using a 'leading dot', have been rejected in favour of
explicitness (see
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html’).


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?,  Next: Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?,  Prev: Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.26 Pourquoi l'instruction ‘with’ ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

For technical reasons, a generator used directly as a context manager
would not work correctly.  When, as is most common, a generator is used
as an iterator run to completion, no closing is needed.  When it is,
wrap it as *note contextlib.closing(generator): 28fc. in the *note with:
5be. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?,  Next: Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?,  Prev: Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.27 Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations ‘if/while/def/class’ ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Le deux-points est principalement nécessaire pour améliorer la
lisibilité (l'un des résultats du langage expérimental ABC). Considérez
ceci :

     if a == b
         print(a)

et cela

     if a == b:
         print(a)

Remarquez comment le deuxième est un peu plus facile à lire.  Remarquez
aussi comment un deux-points introduit l'exemple dans cette réponse à la
FAQ ; c'est un usage standard en français (et en anglais).

Une autre raison mineure est que les deux-points facilitent la tâche des
éditeurs avec coloration syntaxique ; ils peuvent rechercher les
deux-points pour décider quand l'indentation doit être augmentée au lieu
d'avoir à faire une analyse plus élaborée du texte du programme.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?,  Prev: Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?,  Up: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

10.3.28 Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des 'n'-uplets ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python vous permet d'ajouter une virgule à la fin des listes, des
'n'-uplets et des dictionnaires :

     [1, 2, 3,]
     ('a', 'b', 'c',)
     d = {
         "A": [1, 5],
         "B": [6, 7],  # last trailing comma is optional but good style
     }

Il y a plusieurs raisons d'accepter cela.

Lorsque vous avez une valeur littérale pour une liste, un 'n'-uplet ou
un dictionnaire réparti sur plusieurs lignes, il est plus facile
d'ajouter plus d'éléments parce que vous n'avez pas besoin de vous
rappeler d'ajouter une virgule à la ligne précédente.  Les lignes
peuvent aussi être réorganisées sans créer une erreur de syntaxe.

L'omission accidentelle de la virgule peut entraîner des erreurs
difficiles à diagnostiquer, par exemple :

     x = [
       "fee",
       "fie"
       "foo",
       "fum"
     ]

Cette liste a l'air d'avoir quatre éléments, mais elle en contient en
fait trois : "'fee'", "'fiefoo'" et "'fum'".  Toujours ajouter la
virgule permet d'éviter cette source d'erreur.

Permettre la virgule de fin peut également faciliter la génération de
code.


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions,  Next: FAQ extension/intégration,  Prev: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.4 FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions
==============================================

* Menu:

* Questions générales sur la bibliothèque::
* Tâches fréquentes::
* Fils d'exécution: Fils d'exécution<4>.
* Les entrées/sorties: Les entrées/sorties<2>.
* Programmation réseau et Internet::
* Bases de données::
* Mathématiques et calcul numérique::


File: python.info,  Node: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque,  Next: Tâches fréquentes,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.1 Questions générales sur la bibliothèque
----------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?::
* Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math.py, socket.py, regex.py, etc ?: Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math py socket py regex py etc ?.
* Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?::
* Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?::
* Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit() en Python ?: Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit en Python ?.
* Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?,  Next: Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math py socket py regex py etc ?,  Up: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

10.4.1.1 Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?
.................................................................................

Regardez si la *note bibliothèque standard: 143. contient un module
approprié (avec l'expérience, vous connaîtrez le contenu de la
bibliothèque standard et pourrez sauter cette étape).

Pour des paquets tiers, regardez dans l'index des paquets Python(1) ou
essayez Google(2) ou un autre moteur de recherche (NDT : comme le moteur
français Qwant(3)).  Rechercher « Python » accompagné d'un ou deux
mots-clés se rapportant à ce qui vous intéresse donne souvent de bons
résultats.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.google.com

   (3) https://www.qwant.com


File: python.info,  Node: Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math py socket py regex py etc ?,  Next: Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?,  Prev: Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?,  Up: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

10.4.1.2 Où sont stockés les fichiers sources 'math.py', 'socket.py', 'regex.py', etc ?
.......................................................................................

Si vous ne parvenez pas à trouver le fichier source d'un module, c'est
peut-être parce que celui-ci est un module natif ou bien un module
implémenté en C, C++, ou autre langage compilé, qui est chargé
dynamiquement.  Dans ce cas, vous ne possédez peut-être pas le fichier
source ou celui-ci est en réalité stocké quelque part dans un dossier de
fichiers source C (qui ne sera pas dans le chemin Python), comme par
exemple ‘mathmodule.c’.

Il y a (au moins) trois types de modules dans Python :

  1. les modules écrits en Python ('.py') ;

  2. les modules écrits en C et chargés dynamiquement ('.dll', '.pyd',
     '.so', '.sl', 'etc.') ;

  3. les modules écrits en C et liés à l'interpréteur ; pour obtenir
     leur liste, entrez :

          import sys
          print(sys.builtin_module_names)


File: python.info,  Node: Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?,  Next: Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?,  Prev: Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math py socket py regex py etc ?,  Up: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

10.4.1.3 Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?
...............................................................

Deux conditions doivent être remplies : les droits d'accès au fichier
doivent permettre son exécution et la première ligne du script doit
commencer par ‘#!’ suivi du chemin vers l'interpréteur Python.

La première condition est remplie en exécutant ‘chmod +x scriptfile’ ou
‘chmod 755 scriptfile’.

Il y a plusieurs façons de remplir la seconde.  La plus simple consiste
à écrire au tout début du fichier

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

en utilisant le chemin de l'interpréteur Python sur votre machine.

Pour rendre ce script indépendant de la localisation de l'interpréteur
Python, il faut utiliser le programme ‘env’.  La ligne ci-dessous
fonctionne sur la quasi-totalité des dérivés de Unix, à condition que
l'interpréteur Python soit dans un dossier référencé dans la variable
‘PATH’ de l'utilisateur :

     #!/usr/bin/env python

Ne faites 'pas' ceci pour des scripts CGI. La variable ‘PATH’ des
scripts CGI est souvent très succincte, il faut par conséquent préciser
le chemin absolu réel de l'interpréteur.

Il peut arriver que l'environnement d'un utilisateur soit si chargé que
le programme ‘/usr/bin/env’ échoue ; ou que le programme 'env' n'existe
pas du tout.  Dans ce cas, vous pouvez utiliser l'astuce suivante,
élaborée par Alex Rezinsky :

     #! /bin/sh
     """:"
     exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
     """

Le léger inconvénient est que cela définit la variable '__doc__' du
script.  Cependant, il est possible de corriger cela en ajoutant

     __doc__ = """...Whatever..."""


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?,  Next: Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit en Python ?,  Prev: Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?,  Up: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

10.4.1.4 Existe-t-il un module 'curses' ou 'termcap' en Python ?
................................................................

Pour les dérivés d'Unix : la distribution standard de Python contient un
module 'curses' dans le sous-dossier Modules(1), bien qu'il ne soit pas
compilé par défaut.  Il n'est pas disponible en Windows — le module
'curses' n'existant pas en Windows.

Le module *note curses: 2b. comprend les fonctionnalités de base de
'curses' et beaucoup de fonctionnalités supplémentaires provenant de
'ncurses' et de 'SYSV curses' comme la couleur, la gestion des ensembles
de caractères alternatifs, la prise en charge du pavé tactile et de la
souris.  Cela implique que le module n'est pas compatible avec des
systèmes d'exploitation qui n'ont que le 'curses' de BSD mais, de nos
jours, de tels systèmes d'exploitation ne semblent plus exister ou être
maintenus.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Modules


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit en Python ?,  Next: Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?,  Prev: Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?,  Up: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

10.4.1.5 Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C ‘onexit()’ en Python ?
.........................................................................

The *note atexit: c. module provides a register function that is similar
to C's ‘onexit()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?,  Prev: Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit en Python ?,  Up: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

10.4.1.6 Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?
........................................................................

Le problème le plus courant est d'appeler le gestionnaire de signaux
avec les mauvais arguments.  Un gestionnaire est appelé de la façon
suivante

     handler(signum, frame)

donc il doit être déclaré avec deux paramètres :

     def handler(signum, frame):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Tâches fréquentes,  Next: Fils d'exécution<4>,  Prev: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.2 Tâches fréquentes
------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?::
* Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?::
* Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?,  Next: Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?,  Up: Tâches fréquentes

10.4.2.1 Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?
.............................................................

Python fournit deux cadriciels de test.  Le module *note doctest: 3a.
cherche des exemples dans les 'docstrings' d'un module et les exécute.
Il compare alors la sortie avec la sortie attendue, telle que définie
dans la 'docstring'.

Le module *note unittest: 105. est un cadriciel un peu plus élaboré basé
sur les cadriciels de test de Java et de Smalltalk.

Pour rendre le test plus aisé, il est nécessaire de bien découper le
code d'un programme.  Votre programme doit avoir la quasi-totalité des
fonctionnalités dans des fonctions ou des classes — et ceci a parfois
l'avantage aussi plaisant qu'inattendu de rendre le programme plus
rapide, les accès aux variables locales étant en effet plus rapides que
les accès aux variables globales.  De plus le programme doit éviter au
maximum de manipuler des variables globales, car ceci rend le test
beaucoup plus difficile.

La « logique générale » d'un programme devrait être aussi simple que

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main_logic()

à la fin du module principal du programme.

Une fois que la logique du programme est implémentée par un ensemble de
fonctions et de comportements de classes, il faut écrire des fonctions
de test qui vont éprouver cette logique.  À chaque module, il est
possible d'associer une suite de tests qui joue de manière automatique
un ensemble de tests.  Au premier abord, il semble qu'il faille fournir
un effort conséquent, mais comme Python est un langage concis et
flexible, c'est surprenamment aisé.  Écrire simultanément le code « de
production » et les fonctions de test associées rend le développement
plus agréable et plus amusant, car ceci permet de trouver des bogues,
voire des défauts de conception, plus facilement.

Les « modules auxiliaires » qui n'ont pas vocation à être le module
principal du programme peuvent inclure un test pour se vérifier
eux-mêmes.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         self_test()

Les programmes qui interagissent avec des interfaces externes complexes
peuvent être testés même quand ces interfaces ne sont pas disponibles,
en utilisant des interfaces « simulacres » implémentées en Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?,  Next: Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?,  Prev: Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?,  Up: Tâches fréquentes

10.4.2.2 Comment générer la documentation à partir des 'docstrings' ?
.....................................................................

Le module *note pydoc: b4. peut générer du HTML à partir des
'docstrings' du code source Python.  Il est aussi possible de documenter
une API uniquement à partir des 'docstrings' à l'aide de epydoc(1).
Sphinx(2) peut également inclure du contenu provenant de 'docstrings'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/

   (2) https://sphinx-doc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?,  Prev: Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?,  Up: Tâches fréquentes

10.4.2.3 Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?
.....................................................

Pour les dérivés d'Unix, plusieurs solutions s'offrent à vous.  C'est
facile en utilisant le module 'curses', mais 'curses' est un module
assez conséquent à apprendre.


File: python.info,  Node: Fils d'exécution<4>,  Next: Les entrées/sorties<2>,  Prev: Tâches fréquentes,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.3 Fils d'exécution
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?::
* Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter ; pourquoi ?: Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter pourquoi ?.
* Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?::
* Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?::
* Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?,  Next: Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter pourquoi ?,  Up: Fils d'exécution<4>

10.4.3.1 Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?
.......................................................

Veillez à bien utiliser le module *note threading: ec. et non le module
*note _thread: 2.  Le module *note threading: ec. fournit une
abstraction plus facile à manipuler que les primitives de bas-niveau du
module *note _thread: 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter pourquoi ?,  Next: Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?,  Prev: Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?,  Up: Fils d'exécution<4>

10.4.3.2 Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter : pourquoi ?
............................................................

Dès que le fil d'exécution principal se termine, tous les fils sont
tués.  Le fil principal s'exécute trop rapidement, sans laisser le temps
aux autres fils de faire quoi que ce soit.

Une correction simple consiste à ajouter un temps d'attente suffisamment
long à la fin du programme pour que tous les fils puissent se terminer :

     import threading, time

     def thread_task(name, n):
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!

Mais à présent, sur beaucoup de plates-formes, les fils ne s'exécutent
pas en parallèle, mais semblent s'exécuter de manière séquentielle, l'un
après l'autre !  En réalité, l'ordonnanceur de fils du système
d'exploitation ne démarre pas de nouveau fil avant que le précédent ne
soit bloqué.

Une correction simple consiste à ajouter un petit temps d'attente au
début de la fonction :

     def thread_task(name, n):
         time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)

Au lieu d'essayer de trouver une bonne valeur d'attente pour la fonction
*note time.sleep(): 68a, il vaut mieux utiliser un mécanisme basé sur
les sémaphores.  Une solution consiste à utiliser le module *note queue:
b5. pour créer un objet file, faire en sorte que chaque fil ajoute un
jeton à la file quand il se termine, et que le fil principal retire
autant de jetons de la file qu'il y a de fils.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?,  Next: Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?,  Prev: Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter pourquoi ?,  Up: Fils d'exécution<4>

10.4.3.3 Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?
............................................................................................

La manière la plus simple est d'utiliser le module *note
concurrent.futures: 21, en particulier la classe *note
ThreadPoolExecutor: 72e.

Ou bien, si vous désirez contrôler plus finement l'algorithme de
distribution, vous pouvez écrire votre propre logique « à la main ».
Utilisez le module *note queue: b5. pour créer une file de tâches ; la
classe *note Queue: 1367. gère une liste d'objets et a une méthode
‘.put(objet)’ pour ajouter un élément à la file, et une méthode ‘.get()’
pour les récupérer.  La classe s'occupe de gérer les verrous pour que
chaque tâche soit exécutée une et une seule fois.

Voici un exemple trivial :

     import threading, queue, time

     # The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it
     # assumes there will be no more work and exits.
     # (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)
     def worker():
         print('Running worker')
         time.sleep(0.1)
         while True:
             try:
                 arg = q.get(block=False)
             except queue.Empty:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('queue empty')
                 break
             else:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('running with argument', arg)
                 time.sleep(0.5)

     # Create queue
     q = queue.Queue()

     # Start a pool of 5 workers
     for i in range(5):
         t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
         t.start()

     # Begin adding work to the queue
     for i in range(50):
         q.put(i)

     # Give threads time to run
     print('Main thread sleeping')
     time.sleep(5)

Quand celui-ci est exécuté, il produit la sortie suivante :

     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Main thread sleeping
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
     Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
     Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
     Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
     Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
     ...

Consultez la documentation du module pour plus de détails ; la classe
*note Queue: 1367. fournit une interface pleine de fonctionnalités.


File: python.info,  Node: Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?,  Next: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?,  Prev: Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?,  Up: Fils d'exécution<4>

10.4.3.4 Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?
...........................................................................................................................................

Le *note verrou global de l'interpréteur: 147. (GIL pour 'global
interpreter lock') est utilisé en interne pour s'assurer que la machine
virtuelle Python (MVP) n'exécute qu'un seul fil à la fois.  De manière
générale, Python ne change de fil qu'entre les instructions du code
intermédiaire ; *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 939. permet de contrôler
la fréquence de bascule entre les fils.  Chaque instruction du code
intermédiaire, et, par conséquent, tout le code C appelé par cette
instruction est donc atomique du point de vue d'un programme Python.

En théorie, cela veut dire qu'un décompte exact nécessite une
connaissance parfaite de l'implémentation de la MVP. En pratique, cela
veut dire que les opérations sur des variables partagées de type natif
(les entier, les listes, les dictionnaires, etc.)  qui « semblent
atomiques » le sont réellement.

Par exemple, les opérations suivantes sont toutes atomiques ('L', 'L1'
et 'L2' sont des listes, 'D', 'D1' et 'D2' sont des dictionnaires, 'x'
et 'y' sont des objets, 'i' et 'j' des entiers) :

     L.append(x)
     L1.extend(L2)
     x = L[i]
     x = L.pop()
     L1[i:j] = L2
     L.sort()
     x = y
     x.field = y
     D[x] = y
     D1.update(D2)
     D.keys()

Les suivantes ne le sont pas :

     i = i+1
     L.append(L[-1])
     L[i] = L[j]
     D[x] = D[x] + 1

Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects'
*note __del__(): 1f1a. method when their reference count reaches zero,
and that can affect things.  This is especially true for the mass
updates to dictionaries and lists.  When in doubt, use a mutex!


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?,  Prev: Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?,  Up: Fils d'exécution<4>

10.4.3.5 Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?
............................................................................

Le *note verrou global de l'interpréteur: 147. (GIL) est souvent vu
comme un obstacle au déploiement de code Python sur des serveurs
puissants avec de nombreux processeurs, car un programme Python à fils
d'exécutions multiples n'utilise en réalité qu'un seul processeur.
Presque tout le code Python ne peut en effet être exécuté qu'avec le GIL
acquis.

With the approval of PEP 703(1) work is now underway to remove the GIL
from the CPython implementation of Python.  Initially it will be
implemented as an optional compiler flag when building the interpreter,
and so separate builds will be available with and without the GIL.
Long-term, the hope is to settle on a single build, once the performance
implications of removing the GIL are fully understood.  Python 3.13 is
likely to be the first release containing this work, although it may not
be completely functional in this release.

The current work to remove the GIL is based on a fork of Python 3.9 with
the GIL removed(2) by Sam Gross.  Prior to that, in the days of Python
1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a comprehensive patch set (the
"free threading" patches) that removed the GIL and replaced it with
fine-grained locking.  Adam Olsen did a similar experiment in his
python-safethread(3) project.  Unfortunately, both of these earlier
experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread performance (at
least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained locking necessary
to compensate for the removal of the GIL. The Python 3.9 fork is the
first attempt at removing the GIL with an acceptable performance impact.

The presence of the GIL in current Python releases doesn't mean that you
can't make good use of Python on multi-CPU machines!  You just have to
be creative with dividing the work up between multiple 'processes'
rather than multiple 'threads'.  The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8dd.
class in the new *note concurrent.futures: 21. module provides an easy
way of doing so; the *note multiprocessing: 93. module provides a
lower-level API in case you want more control over dispatching of tasks.

Des extensions C appropriées peuvent aussi aider ; en utilisant une
extension C pour effectuer une tâche longue, l'extension peut relâcher
le GIL pendant que le fil est en train d'exécuter ce code et laisser les
autres fils travailler.  Des modules de la bibliothèque standard comme
*note zlib: 132. ou *note hashlib: 67. utilisent cette technique.

An alternative approach to reducing the impact of the GIL is to make the
GIL a per-interpreter-state lock rather than truly global.  This was
*note first implemented in Python 3.12: 427. and is available in the C
API. A Python interface to it is expected in Python 3.13.  The main
limitation to it at the moment is likely to be 3rd party extension
modules, since these must be written with multiple interpreters in mind
in order to be usable, so many older extension modules will not be
usable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://github.com/colesbury/nogil

   (3) https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread


File: python.info,  Node: Les entrées/sorties<2>,  Next: Programmation réseau et Internet,  Prev: Fils d'exécution<4>,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.4 Les entrées/sorties
--------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment supprimer un fichier ? (et autres questions sur les fichiers…): Comment supprimer un fichier ? et autres questions sur les fichiers….
* Comment copier un fichier ?::
* Comment lire (ou écrire) des données binaires ?: Comment lire ou écrire des données binaires ?.
* Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os.read() sur un tube créé avec os.popen() ; pourquoi ?: Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os read sur un tube créé avec os popen ; pourquoi ?.
* Comment accéder au port de transmission en série (RS-232) ?: Comment accéder au port de transmission en série RS-232 ?.
* Pourquoi fermer sys.stdout, sys.stdin, sys.stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?: Pourquoi fermer sys stdout sys stdin sys stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment supprimer un fichier ? et autres questions sur les fichiers…,  Next: Comment copier un fichier ?,  Up: Les entrées/sorties<2>

10.4.4.1 Comment supprimer un fichier ? (et autres questions sur les fichiers…)
...............................................................................

Utilisez ‘os.remove(filename)’ ou ‘os.unlink(filename)’ ; pour la
documentation, référez-vous au module *note os: a0.  Ces deux fonctions
sont identiques, *note unlink(): 10d8. n'est tout simplement que le nom
de l'appel système à cette fonction sous Unix.

Utilisez *note os.rmdir(): 10d6. pour supprimer un dossier et *note
os.mkdir(): 21a. pour en créer un nouveau.  ‘os.makedirs(chemin)’ crée
les dossiers intermédiaires de ‘chemin’ qui n'existent pas et
‘os.removedirs(chemin)’ supprime les dossiers intermédiaires si ceux-ci
sont vides.  Pour supprimer une arborescence et tout son contenu,
utilisez *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f6.

‘os.rename(ancien_chemin, nouveau_chemin)’ permet de renommer un
fichier.

Pour supprimer le contenu d'un fichier, ouvrez celui-ci avec ‘f =
open(nom_du_fichier, "rb+")’, puis exécutez ‘f.truncate(décalage)’ où
'décalage' est par défaut la position actuelle de la tête de lecture.
Il existe aussi ‘os.ftruncate(df, décalage)’ pour les fichiers ouverts
avec *note os.open(): d81, où 'df' est le descripteur de fichier (un
entier court).

Le module *note shutil: c4. propose aussi un grand nombre de fonctions
pour effectuer des opérations sur des fichiers comme *note copyfile():
a49, *note copytree(): a19. et *note rmtree(): 2f6.


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10.4.4.2 Comment copier un fichier ?
....................................

The *note shutil: c4. module contains a *note copyfile(): a49. function.
Note that on Windows NTFS volumes, it does not copy alternate data
streams(1) nor resource forks(2) on macOS HFS+ volumes, though both are
now rarely used.  It also doesn't copy file permissions and metadata,
though using *note shutil.copy2(): a4b. instead will preserve most
(though not all) of it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork


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10.4.4.3 Comment lire (ou écrire) des données binaires ?
........................................................

Pour lire ou écrire des formats de données complexes en binaire, il est
recommandé d'utiliser le module *note struct: d4.  Celui-ci permet de
convertir une chaîne de caractères qui contient des données binaires,
souvent des nombres, en objets Python, et vice-versa.

Par exemple, le code suivant lit, depuis un fichier, deux entiers codés
sur 2 octets et un entier codé sur 4 octets, en format gros-boutiste :

     import struct

     with open(filename, "rb") as f:
         s = f.read(8)
         x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)

« > » dans la chaîne de formatage indique que la donnée doit être lue en
mode gros-boutiste, la lettre « h » indique un entier court (2 octets)
et la lettre « l » indique un entier long (4 octets).

Pour une donnée plus régulière (p.  ex.  une liste homogène d'entiers ou
de nombres à virgule flottante), il est possible d'utiliser le module
*note array: 7.

     Note: Pour lire et écrire de la donnée binaire, il est obligatoire
     d'ouvrir le fichier en mode binaire également (ici, en passant
     ‘"rb"’ à *note open(): 508.).  En utilisant ‘"r"’ (valeur par
     défaut), le fichier est ouvert en mode textuel et ‘f.read()’
     renvoie des objets *note str: 437. au lieu d'objets *note bytes:
     1bd.


File: python.info,  Node: Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os read sur un tube créé avec os popen ; pourquoi ?,  Next: Comment accéder au port de transmission en série RS-232 ?,  Prev: Comment lire ou écrire des données binaires ?,  Up: Les entrées/sorties<2>

10.4.4.4 Il me semble impossible d'utiliser ‘os.read()’ sur un tube créé avec ‘os.popen()’ ; pourquoi ?
.......................................................................................................

*note os.read(): d84. est une fonction de bas niveau qui prend en
paramètre un descripteur de fichier — un entier court qui représente le
fichier ouvert.  *note os.popen(): a77. crée un objet fichier de haut
niveau, du même type que celui renvoyé par la fonction native *note
open(): 508.  Par conséquent, pour lire 'n' octets d'un tube 'p' créé
avec *note os.popen(): a77, il faut utiliser ‘p.read(n)’.


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10.4.4.5 Comment accéder au port de transmission en série (RS-232) ?
....................................................................

Pour Win32, OSX, Linux, BSD, Jython et IronPython :

     pyserial(1)

Pour Unix, référez-vous à une publication sur Usenet de Mitch Chapman :

     ‘https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/


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10.4.4.6 Pourquoi fermer 'sys.stdout', 'sys.stdin', 'sys.stderr' ne les ferme pas réellement ?
..............................................................................................

Les *note objets fichiers: 11a2. en Python sont des abstractions de haut
niveau sur les descripteurs de fichier C de bas niveau.

Pour la plupart des objets fichiers créés en Python avec la fonction
native *note open(): 508, ‘f.close()’ marque le fichier comme fermé du
point de vue de Python et ferme aussi le descripteur C sous-jacent.  Le
même mécanisme est enclenché automatiquement dans le destructeur de ‘f’,
lorsque ‘f’ est recyclé.

Mais 'stdin', 'stdout' et 'stderr' ont droit à un traitement spécial en
Python, car leur statut en C est lui aussi spécial.  Exécuter
‘sys.stdout.close()’ marque l'objet fichier comme fermé du point de vue
de Python, mais le descripteur de fichier C associé n'est 'pas' fermé.

Pour fermer le descripteur de fichier sous-jacent C de l'une de ces
trois sorties, demandez-vous avant tout si vous êtes sûr de vous (cela
peut, par exemple, perturber le bon fonctionnement de modules qui font
des opérations d'entrée-sortie).  Si c'est le cas, utilisez *note
os.close(): b64. :

     os.close(stdin.fileno())
     os.close(stdout.fileno())
     os.close(stderr.fileno())

Il est aussi possible de fermer respectivement les constantes numériques
0, 1 ou 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmation réseau et Internet,  Next: Bases de données,  Prev: Les entrées/sorties<2>,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.5 Programmation réseau et Internet
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?::
* Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?::
* Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?::
* Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect() d'un connecteur réseau ?: Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect d'un connecteur réseau ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?,  Next: Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?,  Up: Programmation réseau et Internet

10.4.5.1 Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?
.......................................................

Référez-vous aux chapitres intitulés *note Gestion des protocoles
internet: 38e6. et *note Traitement des données provenant d'Internet:
34f6. dans le manuel de référence de la bibliothèque.  Python a de
nombreux modules pour construire des applications web côté client comme
côté serveur.

Un résumé des cadriciels disponibles est maintenu par Paul Boddie à
l'adresse ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming’.


File: python.info,  Node: Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?,  Next: Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?,  Prev: Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?,  Up: Programmation réseau et Internet

10.4.5.2 Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?
....................................................

La page wiki de la programmation web(1) (en anglais) répertorie un
ensemble de liens pertinents.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming


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10.4.5.3 Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?
............................................................

Utilisez le module *note smtplib: c9. de la bibliothèque standard.

Voici un exemple très simple d'un envoyeur de courriel qui l'utilise.
Cette méthode fonctionne sur tous les serveurs qui implémentent SMTP.

     import sys, smtplib

     fromaddr = input("From: ")
     toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
     print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
     msg = ''
     while True:
         line = sys.stdin.readline()
         if not line:
             break
         msg += line

     # The actual mail send
     server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
     server.quit()

Sous Unix, il est possible d'utiliser 'sendmail'.  La localisation de
l'exécutable 'sendmail' dépend du système ; cela peut-être
‘/usr/lib/sendmail’ ou ‘/usr/sbin/sendmail’, la page de manuel de
'sendmail' peut vous aider.  Par exemple :

     import os

     SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
     p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
     p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
     p.write("Subject: test\n")
     p.write("\n")  # blank line separating headers from body
     p.write("Some text\n")
     p.write("some more text\n")
     sts = p.close()
     if sts != 0:
         print("Sendmail exit status", sts)


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10.4.5.4 Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode ‘connect()’ d'un connecteur réseau ?
.......................................................................................

Le module *note select: c0. est fréquemment utilisé pour effectuer des
entrées-sorties asynchrones sur des connecteurs réseaux.

To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to
non-blocking mode.  Then when you do the *note connect(): d92, you will
either connect immediately (unlikely) or get an exception that contains
the error number as ‘.errno’.  ‘errno.EINPROGRESS’ indicates that the
connection is in progress, but hasn't finished yet.  Different OSes will
return different values, so you're going to have to check what's
returned on your system.

You can use the *note connect_ex(): 14f0. method to avoid creating an
exception.  It will just return the errno value.  To poll, you can call
*note connect_ex(): 14f0. again later - ‘0’ or ‘errno.EISCONN’ indicate
that you're connected - or you can pass this socket to *note
select.select(): d8f. to check if it's writable.

     Note: The *note asyncio: a. module provides a general purpose
     single-threaded and concurrent asynchronous library, which can be
     used for writing non-blocking network code.  The third-party
     Twisted(1) library is a popular and feature-rich alternative.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://twisted.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Bases de données,  Next: Mathématiques et calcul numérique,  Prev: Programmation réseau et Internet,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.6 Bases de données
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?::
* Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?,  Next: Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?,  Up: Bases de données

10.4.6.1 Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?
.....................................................................................

Oui.

La distribution standard de Python fournit aussi des interfaces à des
bases de données comme *note DBM: 34. ou *note GDBM: 33.  Il existe
aussi le module *note sqlite3: ce. qui implémente une base de données
relationnelle légère sur disque.

La gestion de la plupart des bases de données relationnelles est
assurée.  Voir la page wiki DatabaseProgramming(1) pour plus de détails.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming


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10.4.6.2 Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?
................................................................

Le module *note pickle: a5. répond à cela de manière large (bien qu'il
ne soit pas possible de stocker des fichiers ouverts, des connecteurs ou
des fenêtres par exemple), et le module *note shelve: c2. de la
bibliothèque utilise 'pickle' et '(g)dbm' pour créer des liens
persistants vers des objets Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Mathématiques et calcul numérique,  Prev: Bases de données,  Up: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

10.4.7 Mathématiques et calcul numérique
----------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?,  Up: Mathématiques et calcul numérique

10.4.7.1 Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?
...........................................................

Le module *note random: b7. de la bibliothèque standard comprend un
générateur de nombres aléatoires.  Son utilisation est simple :

     import random
     random.random()

This returns a random floating-point number in the range [0, 1).

Ce module fournit beaucoup d'autres générateurs spécialisés comme :

   * ‘randrange(a, b)’ génère un entier dans l'intervalle [a, b[.

   * ‘uniform(a, b)’ chooses a floating-point number in the range [a,
     b).

   * ‘normalvariate(mean, sdev)’ simule la loi normale (Gaussienne).

Des fonctions de haut niveau opèrent directement sur des séquences
comme :

   * ‘choice(S)’ sélectionne au hasard un élément d'une séquence donnée.

   * ‘shuffle(L)’ mélange une liste en-place, c.-à-d.  lui applique une
     permutation aléatoire.

Il existe aussi une classe ‘Random’ qu'il est possible d'instancier pour
créer des générateurs aléatoires indépendants.


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ extension/intégration,  Next: FAQ Python et Windows,  Prev: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.5 FAQ extension/intégration
==============================

* Menu:

* Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?::
* Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?::
* Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?::
* Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?::
* Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?::
* Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?::
* Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue() pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?: Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?.
* Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?::
* Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print() (ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr) ?: Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr ?.
* Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?::
* Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?::
* J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?::
* Comment déboguer une extension ?::
* Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux, mais il manque certains fichiers. Pourquoi ?: Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux mais il manque certains fichiers Pourquoi ?.
* Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » (incomplete input) d'une « entrée invalide » (invalid input) ?: Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » incomplete input d'une « entrée invalide » invalid input ?.
* Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?::
* Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python (p. ex. en utilisant l'héritage) ?: Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python p ex en utilisant l'héritage ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?,  Next: Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.1 Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?
-------------------------------------------------

Oui, vous pouvez créer des modules intégrés contenant des fonctions, des
variables, des exceptions et même de nouveaux types en C. Ceci est
expliqué dans le document *note Extension et intégration de
l'interpréteur Python: 1b99.

La plupart des livres Python intermédiaires ou avancés couvrent
également ce sujet.


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10.5.2 Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?
---------------------------------------------------

Oui, en utilisant les fonctionnalités de compatibilité C existantes en
C++.  Placez ‘extern "C" { ... }’ autour des fichiers Python inclus et
mettez ‘extern "C"’ avant chaque fonction qui va être appelée par
l'interpréteur Python.  Les objets C++ globaux ou statiques avec les
constructeurs ne sont probablement pas une bonne idée.


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10.5.3 Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Il y a un certain nombre de solutions existantes qui vous permettent
d'écrire vos propres extensions C, selon ce que vous essayez de faire.

Cython(1) and its relative Pyrex(2) are compilers that accept a slightly
modified form of Python and generate the corresponding C code.  Cython
and Pyrex make it possible to write an extension without having to learn
Python's C API.

If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python
extension currently exists, you can try wrapping the library's data
types and functions with a tool such as SWIG(3). SIP(4), CXX(5)
Boost(6), or Weave(7) are also alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://www.csse.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/

   (3) https://www.swig.org

   (4) https://github.com/Python-SIP/sip

   (5) https://cxx.sourceforge.net/

   (6) https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html

   (7) https://github.com/scipy/weave


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10.5.4 Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

La fonction de plus haut niveau pour ce faire est
‘PyRun_SimpleStringString()’ qui prend une chaîne pour seul argument
afin de l'exécuter dans le contexte du module ‘__main__’ et renvoie ‘0’
en cas de succès et ‘-1’ quand une exception se produit (incluant *note
SyntaxError: 18b.).  Pour une meilleure maîtrise, utilisez *note
PyRun_String(): 1999. ; voir le code source pour *note
PyRun_SimpleString(): 48aa. dans ‘Python/pythonrun.c’.


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10.5.5 Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appelez la fonction *note PyRun_String(): 1999. de la question
précédente avec le symbole de départ *note Py_eval_input: 4a53. ; il
analyse une expression, l'évalue et renvoie sa valeur.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?,  Next: Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.6 Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------

That depends on the object's type.  If it's a tuple, *note
PyTuple_Size(): 49de. returns its length and *note PyTuple_GetItem():
4859. returns the item at a specified index.  Lists have similar
functions, *note PyList_Size(): 13d2. and *note PyList_GetItem(): 352.

For bytes, *note PyBytes_Size(): 48f8. returns its length and *note
PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 48f2. provides a pointer to its value and its
length.  Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C's
‘strlen()’ should not be used.

Pour tester le type d'un objet, assurez-vous d'abord qu'il ne soit pas
‘NULL’, puis utilisez *note PyBytes_Check(): 136d, *note
PyTuple_Check(): 4bc6, *note PyList_Check(): 4bd6, etc.

Il y a aussi une API de haut niveau pour les objets Python qui est
fournie par l'interface dite « abstraite » — voir ‘Include/abstract.h’
pour plus de détails.  Elle permet l'interfaçage avec tout type de
séquence Python en utilisant des appels tels que *note
PySequence_Length(): 49bf, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a11, etc.  ainsi
que de nombreux autres protocoles utiles tels que les nombres (*note
PyNumber_Index(): 881. et autres) et les correspondances dans les APIs
PyMapping.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?,  Next: Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.7 Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue() pour créer un 'n'-uplet de longueur définie ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Vous ne pouvez pas.  Utilisez *note PyTuple_Pack(): 49dd. à la place.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?,  Next: Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr ?,  Prev: Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.8 Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

La fonction *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 396. peut être utilisée pour
appeler la méthode d'un objet.  Les paramètres sont l'objet, le nom de
la méthode à appeler, une chaîne de caractères comme celle utilisée pour
*note Py_BuildValue(): 896. et les valeurs des arguments :

     PyObject *
     PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
                         const char *arg_format, ...);

Cela fonctionne pour tous les objets qui ont des méthodes — qu'elles
soient intégrées ou définies par l'utilisateur.  Vous êtes responsable
de « *note Py_DECREF(): 55d.'er' » la valeur de retour à la fin.

Pour appeler, p.  ex., la méthode 'seek' d'un objet 'file' avec les
arguments 10, 0 (en supposant que le pointeur de l'objet fichier est
'f') :

     res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
     if (res == NULL) {
             ... an exception occurred ...
     }
     else {
             Py_DECREF(res);
     }

Notez que *note PyObject_CallObject(): 484e. veut 'toujours' un
'n'-uplet comme liste d'arguments.  Aussi, pour appeler une fonction
sans arguments, utilisez "()" pour être conforme au type et, pour
appeler une fonction avec un paramètre, entourez-le de parenthèses, p.
ex.  "(i)".


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr ?,  Next: Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.9 Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de ‘PyErr_Print()’ (ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur 'stdout'/'stderr') ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dans le code Python, définissez un objet qui possède la méthode
‘write()’.  Affectez cet objet à *note sys.stdout: ac6. et *note
sys.stderr: 928.  Appelez 'print_error' ou faites simplement en sorte
que le mécanisme standard de remontée des erreurs fonctionne.  Ensuite,
la sortie sera dirigée vers l'endroit où votre méthode ‘write()’ écrit.

La façon la plus simple consiste à utiliser la classe *note io.StringIO:
f14. :

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
     foo
     hello world!

Le code d'un objet à la fonctionnalité similaire ressemblerait à ceci :

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.data = []
     ...     def write(self, stuff):
     ...         self.data.append(stuff)
     ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
     foo
     hello world!


File: python.info,  Node: Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?,  Next: Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.10 Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Vous pouvez obtenir un pointeur sur l'objet module comme suit :

     module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");

Si le module n'a pas encore été importé (c.-à-d.  qu'il n'est pas encore
présent dans *note sys.modules: 1929.), cela initialise le module ;
sinon il renvoie simplement la valeur de ‘sys.modules["<modulename>"]’.
Notez qu'il n'inscrit le module dans aucun espace de nommage — il
s'assure seulement qu'il a été initialisé et qu'il est stocké dans *note
sys.modules: 1929.

Vous pouvez alors accéder aux attributs du module (c.-à-d.  à tout nom
défini dans le module) comme suit :

     attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");

Appeler *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 15bc. pour assigner des valeurs
aux variables du module fonctionne également.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?,  Next: J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?,  Prev: Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.11 Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?
----------------------------------------------------------------

Selon vos besoins, de nombreuses approches sont possibles.  Pour le
faire manuellement, commencez par lire *note le document "Extension et
intégration": 1b99.  Sachez que pour le système d'exécution Python, il
n'y a pas beaucoup de différence entre C et C++ — donc la méthode pour
construire un nouveau type Python à partir d'une structure C (pointeur)
fonctionne également avec des objets en C++.

Pour les bibliothèques C++, voir *note Écrire directement en C est
difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?: 5085.


File: python.info,  Node: J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?,  Next: Comment déboguer une extension ?,  Prev: Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.12 J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier 'Setup' et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Le fichier 'Setup' doit se terminer par une ligne vide, s'il n'y a pas
de ligne vide, le processus de compilation échoue (ce problème peut se
régler en bidouillant un script shell, et ce bogue est si mineur qu'il
ne mérite pas qu'on s'y attarde).


File: python.info,  Node: Comment déboguer une extension ?,  Next: Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux mais il manque certains fichiers Pourquoi ?,  Prev: J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.13 Comment déboguer une extension ?
----------------------------------------

Lorsque vous utilisez GDB avec des extensions chargées dynamiquement,
vous ne pouvez pas placer de point d'arrêt dans votre extension tant que
celle-ci n'est pas chargée.

Dans votre fichier ‘.gdbinit’ (ou manuellement), ajoutez la commande :

     br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule

Ensuite, lorsque vous exécutez GDB :

     $ gdb /local/bin/python
     gdb) run myscript.py
     gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
     gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
     gdb) br myfunction.c:50
     gdb) continue


File: python.info,  Node: Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux mais il manque certains fichiers Pourquoi ?,  Next: Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » incomplete input d'une « entrée invalide » invalid input ?,  Prev: Comment déboguer une extension ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.14 Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux, mais il manque certains fichiers. Pourquoi ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Most packaged versions of Python omit some files required for compiling
Python extensions.

For Red Hat, install the python3-devel RPM to get the necessary files.

For Debian, run ‘apt-get install python3-dev’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » incomplete input d'une « entrée invalide » invalid input ?,  Next: Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?,  Prev: Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux mais il manque certains fichiers Pourquoi ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.15 Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » ('incomplete input') d'une « entrée invalide » ('invalid input') ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Parfois vous souhaitez émuler le comportement de l'interpréteur
interactif Python, quand il vous donne une invite de continuation
lorsque l'entrée est incomplète (par exemple, vous avez tapé le début
d'une instruction "if" ou vous n'avez pas fermé vos parenthèses ou
triple guillemets) mais il vous renvoie immédiatement une erreur
syntaxique quand la saisie est incorrecte.

En Python, vous pouvez utiliser le module *note codeop: 1c, qui se
rapproche assez du comportement de l'analyseur.  Par exemple, IDLE
l'utilise.

La façon la plus simple de le faire en C est d'appeler *note
PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4a5a. (peut-être dans un autre fil d'exécution)
et laisser l'interpréteur Python gérer l'entrée pour vous.  Vous pouvez
également définir *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 574. pour
pointer vers votre fonction d'entrée personnalisée.  Voir
‘Modules/readline.c’ et ‘Parser/myreadline.c’ pour plus de conseils.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?,  Next: Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python p ex en utilisant l'héritage ?,  Prev: Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » incomplete input d'une « entrée invalide » invalid input ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.16 Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis ‘__builtin_new’ ou ‘__pure_virtual’ ?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Pour charger dynamiquement les modules d'extension g++, vous devez
recompiler Python, effectuer l'édition de liens en utilisant g++
(modifiez 'LINKCC' dans le 'Python Modules Makefile'), et effectuer
l'édition de liens de votre module d'extension avec g++ (par exemple,
‘g++ -shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o’).


File: python.info,  Node: Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python p ex en utilisant l'héritage ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?,  Up: FAQ extension/intégration

10.5.17 Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python (p. ex. en utilisant l'héritage) ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Oui, vous pouvez hériter de classes intégrées telles que *note int: 254,
*note list: 5fe, *note dict: 253, etc.

The Boost Python Library (BPL,
‘https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html’) provides a way of
doing this from C++ (i.e.  you can inherit from an extension class
written in C++ using the BPL).


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ Python et Windows,  Next: FAQ interface graphique,  Prev: FAQ extension/intégration,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.6 FAQ : Python et Windows
============================

* Menu:

* Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?::
* Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?::
* Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?::
* Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?::
* Est-ce qu'un fichier *.pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?: Est-ce qu'un fichier * pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?.
* Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?::
* Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?::
* Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?::
* Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll manquante » ?: Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll manquante » ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?,  Next: Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.1 Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?
----------------------------------------------------------

Ce n'est pas forcément une question simple.  Si vous êtes déjà familier
avec le lancement de programmes depuis la ligne de commande de Windows
alors tout semblera évident ; sinon, vous pourriez avoir besoin d'être
un peu guidé.

À moins que vous n'utilisiez une sorte d'environnement de développement,
vous finirez par 'taper' des commandes Windows dans ce qui est appelé
une « invite de commande Windows ».  En général vous pouvez ouvrir un
telle fenêtre depuis votre barre de recherche en cherchant ‘cmd’.  Vous
devriez être capable de reconnaître quand vous avez lancé une telle
fenêtre parce que vous verrez une « invite de commande » Windows, qui en
en général ressemble à ça :

     C:\>

La lettre peut être différente, et il peut y avoir d'autres choses à la
suite, alors il se peut que ça ressemble également à ça :

     D:\YourName\Projects\Python>

selon la configuration de votre ordinateur et ce que vous avez récemment
fait avec.  Une fois que vous avez ouvert cette fenêtre, vous êtes bien
partis pour pouvoir lancer des programmes Python.

Retenez que vos scripts Python doivent être traités par un autre
programme appelé "l’interpréteur" Python.  L’interpréteur lit votre
script, le compile en 'bytecode', et exécute le 'bytecode' pour faire
tourner votre programme.  Alors, comment faire pour donner votre code
Python à l'interpréteur ?

Tout d'abord, vous devez vous assurer que votre fenêtre d'invite de
commande reconnaît le mot "python" comme une instruction pour démarrer
l'interpréteur.  Si vous avez ouvert une invite de commande, entrez la
commande ‘py’, puis appuyez sur entrée :

     C:\Users\YourName> py

Vous devez voir quelque chose comme ça :

     Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

Vous avez lancé l'interpréteur dans son "mode interactif".  Cela
signifie que vous pouvez entrer des instructions ou des expressions
Python de manière interactive pour qu'elles soient exécutées.  Il s'agit
là d'une des plus puissantes fonctionnalités de Python.  Vous pouvez le
vérifier en entrant quelques commandes de votre choix et en regardant le
résultat :

     >>> print("Hello")
     Hello
     >>> "Hello" * 3
     'HelloHelloHello'

Beaucoup de gens utilisent le mode interactif comme une calculatrice
pratique mais néanmoins hautement programmable.  Lorsque vous souhaitez
mettre fin à votre session Python interactive, appelez la fonction *note
exit(): 2146. ou maintenez la touche ‘Ctrl’ enfoncée pendant que vous
entrez un ‘Z’, puis appuyez sur la touche "‘Enter’" pour revenir à votre
invite de commande Windows.

Peut-être avez-vous remarqué une nouvelle entrée dans votre menu
Démarrer telle que Démarrer ‣ Programmes ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python (ligne de
commande) qui a pour résultat que vous voyez l'invite ‘>>>’ dans une
nouvelle fenêtre.  Si oui, la fenêtre va disparaître quand vous
appellerez la fonction *note exit(): 2146. ou entrez le caractère
‘Ctrl’-‘Z’ ; Windows exécute une commande "python" dans la fenêtre et
ferme celle-ci lorsque vous fermez l'interpréteur.

Maintenant que nous savons que la commande ‘py’ est reconnue, vous
pouvez lui donner votre script Python.  Vous devez donner le chemin
absolu ou relatif du script Python.  Disons que votre script Python est
situé sur votre bureau et est nommé ‘hello.py’, et votre invite de
commande est bien ouvert dans votre répertoire d’accueil, alors vous
voyez quelque chose comme :

     C:\Users\YourName>

Alors maintenant, vous demanderez à la commande ‘py’ de donner votre
script à Python en tapant ‘py’ suivi de votre chemin de script :

     C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
     hello


File: python.info,  Node: Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?,  Next: Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?,  Prev: Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.2 Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?
------------------------------------------------------

Sous Windows, l'installateur Python associe l'extension '.py' avec un
type de fichier (Python.File) et une commande qui lance l’interpréteur
(‘D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe "%1" %*’).  Cela suffit pour
pouvoir exécuter les scripts Python depuis la ligne de commande en
saisissant 'foo.py'.  Si vous souhaitez pouvoir exécuter les scripts en
saisissant simplement 'foo' sans l’extension, vous devez ajouter '.py'
au paramètre d’environnement PATHEXT.


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?,  Next: Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?,  Prev: Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.3 Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?
---------------------------------------------------

Normalement, sous Windows, Python se lance très rapidement, mais parfois
des rapports d'erreurs indiquent que Python commence soudain à prendre
beaucoup de temps pour démarrer.  C'est d'autant plus intrigant que
Python fonctionne correctement avec d'autres Windows configurés de façon
similaire.

Le problème peut venir d'un antivirus mal configuré.  Certains antivirus
sont connus pour doubler le temps de démarrage lorsqu'ils sont
configurés pour surveiller toutes les lectures du système de fichiers.
Essayez de regarder si les antivirus des deux machines sont bien
paramétrés à l'identique.  'McAfee' est particulièrement problématique
lorsqu'il est paramétré pour surveiller toutes les lectures du système
de fichiers.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?,  Next: Est-ce qu'un fichier * pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?,  Prev: Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.4 Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Voir *note Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python
?: 4ff4. pour une liste d'outils qui créent des exécutables.


File: python.info,  Node: Est-ce qu'un fichier * pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?,  Next: Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?,  Prev: Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.5 Est-ce qu'un fichier ‘*.pyd’ est la même chose qu'une DLL ?
------------------------------------------------------------------

Oui, les fichiers '.pyd' sont des fichiers 'dll', mais il y a quelques
différences.  Si vous avez une 'DLL' ‘foo.pyd’, celle-ci doit posséder
une fonction ‘PyInit_foo()’.  Vous pouvez alors écrire en Python
« 'import foo' » et Python recherchera le fichier 'foo.pyd' (ainsi que
'foo.py' et 'foo.pyc'); s'il le trouve, il tentera d'appeler
‘PyInit_foo()’ pour l'initialiser.  Ne liez pas votre '.exe' avec
'foo.lib' car dans ce cas Windows aura besoin de la DLL.

Notez que le chemin de recherche pour 'foo.pyd' est 'PYTHONPATH', il est
différent de celui qu'utilise Windows pour rechercher 'foo.dll'.  De
plus, 'foo.pyd' n'a pas besoin d'être présent pour que votre programme
s'exécute alors que si vous avez lié votre programme avec une 'dll'
celle-ci est requise.  Bien sûr 'foo.pyd' est nécessaire si vous écrivez
‘import foo’.  Dans une 'DLL' le lien est déclaré dans le code source
avec ‘__declspec(dllexport)’.  Dans un '.pyd' la liaison est définie
dans une liste de fonctions disponibles.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?,  Next: Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?,  Prev: Est-ce qu'un fichier * pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.6 Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------

L'intégration de l'interpréteur Python dans une application Windows peut
se résumer comme suit :

  1. Ne compilez 'pas' Python directement dans votre fichier '.exe'.
     Sous Windows, Python doit être une DLL pour pouvoir importer des
     modules qui sont eux-mêmes des DLL (ceci constitue une information
     de première importance non documentée).  Au lieu de cela faites un
     lien vers ‘python`NN'.dll’ qui est généralement placé dans
     ‘C:\Windows\System’.  'NN' étant la version Python, par exemple
     « 33 » pour Python 3.3.

     Vous pouvez créer un lien vers Python de deux manières différentes.
     Un lien au moment du chargement signifie pointer vers
     ‘python`NN'.lib’, tandis qu'un lien au moment de l'exécution
     signifie pointer vers ‘python`NN'.dll’.  (Note générale :
     ‘python`NN'.lib’ est le soi-disant « 'import lib' » correspondant à
     ‘python`NN'.dll’.  Il définit simplement des liens symboliques pour
     l'éditeur de liens.)

     La liaison en temps réel simplifie grandement les options de
     liaison ; tout se passe au moment de l'exécution.  Votre code doit
     charger ‘python`NN'.dll’ en utilisant la routine Windows
     ‘LoadLibraryEx()’.  Le code doit aussi utiliser des routines
     d'accès et des données dans ‘python`NN'.dll’ (c'est-à-dire les API
     C de Python) en utilisant des pointeurs obtenus par la routine
     Windows ‘GetProcAddress()’.  Les macros peuvent rendre
     l'utilisation de ces pointeurs transparente à tout code C qui
     appelle des routines dans l'API C de Python.

  2. Si vous utilisez SWIG, il est facile de créer un « module
     d'extension » Python qui rendra les données et les méthodes de
     l'application disponibles pour Python.  SWIG s'occupera de tous les
     détails ennuyeux pour vous.  Le résultat est du code C que vous
     liez 'dans' votre 'fichier.exe' (!)  Vous n'avez 'pas' besoin de
     créer un fichier DLL, et cela simplifie également la liaison.

  3. SWIG va créer une fonction d'initialisation (fonction en C) dont le
     nom dépend du nom du module d'extension.  Par exemple, si le nom du
     module est 'leo', la fonction 'init' sera appelée 'initleo()'.  Si
     vous utilisez des classes 'shadow' SWIG, comme vous le devriez, la
     fonction 'init' sera appelée 'initleoc()'.  Ceci initialise une
     classe auxiliaire invisible utilisée par la classe 'shadow'.

     La raison pour laquelle vous pouvez lier le code C à l'étape 2 dans
     votre 'fichier.exe' est que l'appel de la fonction d'initialisation
     équivaut à importer le module dans Python !  (C'est le deuxième
     fait clé non documenté.)

  4. En bref, vous pouvez utiliser le code suivant pour initialiser
     l'interpréteur Python avec votre module d'extension.

          #include <Python.h>
          ...
          Py_Initialize();  // Initialize Python.
          initmyAppc();  // Initialize (import) the helper class.
          PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // Import the shadow class.

  5. Il y a deux problèmes avec l'API C de Python qui apparaîtront si
     vous utilisez un compilateur autre que MSVC, le compilateur utilisé
     pour construire 'pythonNN.dll'.

     Problème 1 : Les fonctions dites de « Très Haut Niveau » qui
     prennent les arguments ‘FILE *’ ne fonctionneront pas dans un
     environnement multi-compilateur car chaque compilateur aura une
     notion différente de ‘struct FILE’.  Du point de vue de
     l'implémentation, il s'agit de fonctions de très bas niveau.

     Problème 2 : SWIG génère le code suivant lors de la génération
     'd'encapsuleurs' pour annuler les fonctions :

          Py_INCREF(Py_None);
          _resultobj = Py_None;
          return _resultobj;

     Hélas, 'Py_None' est une macro qui se développe en référence à une
     structure de données complexe appelée '_Py_NoneStruct' dans
     'pythonNN.dll'.  Encore une fois, ce code échouera dans un
     environnement multi-compilateur.  Remplacez ce code par :

          return Py_BuildValue("");

     Il est possible d'utiliser la commande ‘%typemap’ de SWIG pour
     effectuer le changement automatiquement, bien que je n'ai pas
     réussi à le faire fonctionner (je suis un débutant complet avec
     SWIG).

  6. Utiliser un script shell Python pour créer une fenêtre
     d'interpréteur Python depuis votre application Windows n'est pas
     une bonne idée ; la fenêtre résultante sera indépendante du système
     de fenêtrage de votre application.  Vous (ou la classe
     'wxPythonWindow') devriez plutôt créer une fenêtre d'interpréteur
     « native ».  Il est facile de connecter cette fenêtre à
     l'interpréteur Python.  Vous pouvez rediriger l'entrée/sortie de
     Python vers 'n'importe quel' objet qui supporte la lecture et
     l'écriture, donc tout ce dont vous avez besoin est un objet Python
     (défini dans votre module d'extension) qui contient les méthodes
     'read()' et 'write()'.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?,  Next: Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.7 Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

La FAQ ne recommande pas l'utilisation des indentations et le guide
stylistique de Python, la PEP 8(1), recommande l'utilisation de 4
espaces dans les codes Python.  C'est aussi le comportement par défaut
d'Emacs avec Python.

Quel que soit votre éditeur, mélanger des tabulations et des espaces est
une mauvaise idée.  'Visual C++', par exemple, peut être facilement
configuré pour utiliser des espaces : allez dans Tools ‣ Options ‣ Tabs
et pour le type de fichier par défaut, vous devez mettre 'Tab size' et
'Indent size' à 4, puis sélectionner 'Insert spaces'.

Python va lever *note IndentationError: 794. ou *note TabError: 531. si
un mélange de tabulation et d’indentation pose problème en début de
ligne.  Vous pouvez aussi utiliser le module *note tabnanny: dc. pour
détecter ces erreurs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


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10.6.8 Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Utilisez le module *note msvcrt: 92.  C'est une extension standard
spécifique à Windows, qui définit une fonction ‘kbhit()’ qui vérifie si
une pression de touche s'est produite, et ‘getch()’ qui récupère le
caractère sans l'afficher.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll manquante » ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?,  Up: FAQ Python et Windows

10.6.9 Comment résoudre l'erreur « ‘api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll’ manquante » ?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ce problème peut se produire avec Python 3.5 et les versions ultérieures
lorsque vous utilisez Windows 8.1 ou une version antérieure sans que
toutes les mises à jour aient été installées.  Assurez-vous d'abord que
votre système d'exploitation est pris en charge et qu'il est à jour, et
si cela ne résout pas le problème, visitez la page d’assistance de
Microsoft(1) pour obtenir des conseils sur l'installation manuelle de la
mise à jour du 'C Runtime'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ interface graphique,  Next: FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?",  Prev: FAQ Python et Windows,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.7 FAQ interface graphique
============================

* Menu:

* Questions générales sur l'interface graphique::
* Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?::
* Questions à propos de Tkinter::


File: python.info,  Node: Questions générales sur l'interface graphique,  Next: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?,  Up: FAQ interface graphique

10.7.1 Questions générales sur l'interface graphique
----------------------------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?,  Next: Questions à propos de Tkinter,  Prev: Questions générales sur l'interface graphique,  Up: FAQ interface graphique

10.7.2 Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?
---------------------------------------------------------

Les versions standards de Python incluent une interface orientée objet
pour le jeu d'objets graphiques 'Tcl/Tk', appelée *note tkinter: 3ddc.
C'est probablement la plus facile à installer (puisqu'elle est incluse
avec la plupart des distributions binaires(1) de Python) et à utiliser.
Pour plus d'informations sur 'Tk', y compris les liens vers les sources,
voir la page d'accueil Tcl/Tk(2).  'Tcl/Tk' est entièrement portable sur
les plates-formes macOS, Windows et Unix.

D'autres outils existent.  Le choix doit dépendre notamment de la ou des
plateformes que vous visez.  Sur le Wiki Python se trouvent des listes
de bibliothèques graphiques multiplateformes(3) et pour une seule
plate-forme(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk

   (3) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks

   (4) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks


File: python.info,  Node: Questions à propos de Tkinter,  Prev: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?,  Up: FAQ interface graphique

10.7.3 Questions à propos de 'Tkinter'
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Comment puis-je geler (freezer) les applications Tkinter ?: Comment puis-je geler freezer les applications Tkinter ?.
* Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?::
* Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter ; pourquoi ?: Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter pourquoi ?.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment puis-je geler freezer les applications Tkinter ?,  Next: Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?,  Up: Questions à propos de Tkinter

10.7.3.1 Comment puis-je geler ('freezer') les applications 'Tkinter' ?
.......................................................................

'Freeze' est un outil pour créer des applications autonomes.  Lors du
'freezage' des applications Tkinter, les applications ne seront pas
vraiment autonomes, car l'application aura toujours besoin des
bibliothèques Tcl et Tk.

One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries,
and point to them at run-time using the ‘TCL_LIBRARY’ and ‘TK_LIBRARY’
environment variables.

Various third-party freeze libraries such as py2exe and cx_Freeze have
handling for Tkinter applications built-in.


File: python.info,  Node: Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?,  Next: Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter pourquoi ?,  Prev: Comment puis-je geler freezer les applications Tkinter ?,  Up: Questions à propos de Tkinter

10.7.3.2 Puis-je modifier des événements 'Tk' pendant l'écoute des 'E/S' ?
..........................................................................

On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don't even need threads!
But you'll have to restructure your I/O code a bit.  Tk has the
equivalent of Xt's ‘XtAddInput()’ call, which allows you to register a
callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is
possible on a file descriptor.  See *note Gestionnaires de fichiers:
3df9.


File: python.info,  Node: Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter pourquoi ?,  Prev: Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?,  Up: Questions à propos de Tkinter

10.7.3.3 Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans 'Tkinter' : pourquoi ?
...............................................................................................

An often-heard complaint is that event handlers *note bound: 3df4. to
events with the ‘bind()’ method don't get handled even when the
appropriate key is pressed.

La cause la plus fréquente est que l'objet graphique auquel s'applique
la liaison n'a pas de « focus clavier ».  Consultez la documentation
'Tk' pour la commande 'focus'.  Habituellement, un objet graphique
reçoit le focus du clavier en cliquant dessus (mais pas pour les
étiquettes ; voir l'option 'takefocus').


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?",  Prev: FAQ interface graphique,  Up: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

10.8 FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"
============================================================

* Menu:

* Qu'est-ce que Python ?: Qu'est-ce que Python ?<2>.
* Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?::
* Puis-je supprimer Python ?::


File: python.info,  Node: Qu'est-ce que Python ?<2>,  Next: Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?,  Up: FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

10.8.1 Qu'est-ce que Python ?
-----------------------------

Python est un langage de programmation.  Il est utilisé dans de
nombreuses applications.  Souvent utilisé dans les lycées et universités
comme langage d'introduction à la programmation pour sa simplicité
d'apprentissage, il est aussi utilisé par des développeurs
professionnels appartenant à des grands groupes comme Google, la NASA,
Lucasfilm etc.

Si vous voulez en apprendre plus sur Python, vous pouvez commencer par
le Guide des Débutants pour Python(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?,  Next: Puis-je supprimer Python ?,  Prev: Qu'est-ce que Python ?<2>,  Up: FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

10.8.2 Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?
----------------------------------------------------

Si Python est installé sur votre système mais que vous ne vous rappelez
pas l'avoir installé, il y a plusieurs raisons possibles à sa présence.

   * Peut être qu'un autre utilisateur de l'ordinateur voulait apprendre
     la programmation et l'a installé, dans ce cas vous allez devoir
     trouver qui a utilisé votre machine et aurait pu l'installer.

   * Une application tierce installée sur votre machine écrite en Python
     installera Python.  Il existe de nombreuses applications de ce
     type, allant de programme avec interface graphique, jusqu'aux
     scripts d'administration, en passant par les serveurs.

   * Certaines machines fonctionnant avec le système d'exploitation
     Windows possèdent une installation de Python.  À ce jour, les
     ordinateurs des marques Hewlett-Packard et Compaq incluent
     nativement Python.  Certains outils d'administration de ces marques
     sont écrits en Python.

   * Python est installé par défaut sur de nombreux systèmes compatibles
     Unix, comme macOS et certaines distributions Linux.


File: python.info,  Node: Puis-je supprimer Python ?,  Prev: Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?,  Up: FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

10.8.3 Puis-je supprimer Python ?
---------------------------------

Cela dépend de l'origine de Python.

Si Python a été installé délibérément par une personne tierce ou vous
même, vous pouvez le supprimer sans causer de dommage.  Sous Windows,
vous pouvez simplement utiliser l'icône d'Ajout / Suppression de
programmes du Panneau de configuration.

Si Python a été installé par une application tierce, Python peut être
désinstallé, l'application l'ayant installé cessera alors de
fonctionner.  Dans ce cas, désinstallez l'application en utilisant son
outil de désinstallation est plus indiqué que supprimer Python.

Si Python a été installé avec votre système d'exploitation, le supprimer
n'est pas recommandé.  Si vous choisissez tout de même de le supprimer,
tous les outils écrits en python cesseront alors de fonctionner,
certains outils pouvant être importants.  La réinstallation intégrale du
système pourrait être nécessaire pour résoudre les problèmes suite à la
désinstallation de Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations,  Next: Glossaire,  Prev: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python,  Up: Top

11 Deprecations
***************

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>.
* C API Deprecations::


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
===================================

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b6. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2b7,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 2b8, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2b9.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2ba. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2bb, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bc, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2bd. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2be. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2bf. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c0.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c1.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     2c1.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c2.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 77. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7b. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f0.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c3.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(8).)

   * *note itertools: 80. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 2c4. or *note set_start_method(): 2c5. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contextes et méthodes de démarrage: 2c6.

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note is_relative_to(): 2c7. and *note
     relative_to(): 2c8.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note find_loader(): 2c9. and *note
     get_loader(): 2ca. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2cb. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).)

   * *note pty: b0.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cc.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cc.

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note version: 2cd. and *note version_info: 2ce.

        * *note execute(): 2cf. and *note executemany(): 2d0. if *note
          named placeholders: 2d1. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 253.

   * *note typing: 103.: *note ByteString: 2d2, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a3. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 107.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __cached__: 2d4. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.cached: 2d5. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 2d6. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 2d7. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 71.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 29e.
          has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement
          exists.  'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web
          server with a request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 76.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 85.:

        * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2d8. function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.11.  Its removal was originally
          planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed
          to Python 3.15.  Use *note getlocale(): 2d9, *note
          setlocale(): 2da, and *note getencoding(): 2db. instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).)

   * *note pathlib: a3.:

        * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a3. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 220. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: a9.:

        * *note java_ver(): 2a4. has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: da.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dc. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ec.:

        * *note RLock(): 2dd. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 102.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2de.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2df.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a3. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 103.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2ad. classes (e.g.  ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
          x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use
          the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

        * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2ae. decorator
          function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 103. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.

   * *note wave: 112.:

        * The *note getmark(): 2b1, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers():
          2b2. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b3. and *note
          Wave_write: 2b4. classes have been deprecated since Python
          3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


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11.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2e1. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 2e2. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 298.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16, use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e3. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note shutil: c4.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 193.

   * *note symtable: d7.:

        * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e4. method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: d8.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ab. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2ac. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note tarfile: dd.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>,  Next: C API Deprecations,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Up: Deprecations

11.4 Pending Removal in Future Versions
=======================================

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note array: 7.'s ‘'u'’ format code (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          2e6, *note else: 18a, *note for: 2e7, *note if: 2e8, *note in:
          2e9, *note is: 2ea. and *note or: 2eb.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(2))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 254.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 2ec.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 2ec.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 2ed.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 2ed.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 2ed. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2ee. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2ef.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(4).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2df.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 2f0. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 2f1.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f2.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 62.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 76.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 2f3. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 79.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 86.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f4. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8a.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a0.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f5. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b8.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c4.: *note rmtree(): 2f6.'s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: cf. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 291. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 291.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2f7.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ec. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          2f8.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2f9.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2fa.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 2fb. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 2fc.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 2fd. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 2fe.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          2ff.

   * *note typing.Text: 300. (gh-92332(6)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 301.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 109. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     302. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10a.: *note URLopener: 303. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 304. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 290. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 117.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 124.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 305. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 306. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 307. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: C API Deprecations,  Prev: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.5 C API Deprecations
=======================

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.5.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
-------------------------------------

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3b8. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3b9. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3ba. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3bb.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b2. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3bd.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3be. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3bf.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c0.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c1.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c2.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c3.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c4. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c5.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c6.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3c7.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3c8. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3c9.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3ca. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3cb.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cc. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3cd.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3ce. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3cf.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d0. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d1.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d2. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d3.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d4. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d5.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3d7.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3d8. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3d9. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3da.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3db.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3dc.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3dd. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3de.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39b. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3df. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e0. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e1. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e2.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bc. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 39d. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.5.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
-------------------------------------

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’.

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b4.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b5. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 36f. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     3b6.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 36e. instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e4. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a6.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3a7. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3a8.: Get *note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e5. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a9.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3aa.: Get *note sys.path: 3ab. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3ac.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3e6.
          and *note sys.prefix: 3ad. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3ae.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b0.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3af. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b1.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b2.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b3. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.5.3 Pending Removal in Future Versions
-----------------------------------------

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3e8.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3e9.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     3ea. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3eb.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ea. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3ec.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     3ed. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3ee.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3ef. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f0.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f1. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f2.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     3f3. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f4. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f5.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3f6.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3f7.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3f8.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fa.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3fb. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 3fc.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 3fd. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 3fe.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 3ff. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 400.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 401. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 402.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 403. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 404.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Glossaire,  Next: About this documentation,  Prev: Deprecations,  Up: Top

12 Glossaire
************

‘>>>’

     The default Python prompt of the *note interactive: 168. shell.
     Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in
     the interpreter.

‘...’

     Peut faire référence à :

        * The default Python prompt of the *note interactive: 168. shell
          when entering the code for an indented code block, when within
          a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses,
          square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after
          specifying a decorator.

        * La constante *note Ellipsis: 2142.

classe mère abstraite

     Les classes mères abstraites (ABC, suivant l'abréviation anglaise
     'Abstract Base Class') complètent le *note duck-typing: 50bb. en
     fournissant un moyen de définir des interfaces pour les cas où
     d'autres techniques comme *note hasattr(): 4be. seraient
     inélégantes ou subtilement fausses (par exemple avec les *note
     méthodes magiques: 1f1f.).  Les ABC introduisent des sous-classes
     virtuelles qui n'héritent pas d'une classe mais qui sont quand même
     reconnues par *note isinstance(): 42d. ou *note issubclass(): 7ad.
     (voir la documentation du module *note abc: 4.).  Python contient
     de nombreuses ABC pour les structures de données (dans le module
     *note collections.abc: 1e.), les nombres (dans le module *note
     numbers: 9d.), les flux (dans le module *note io: 7e.) et les
     chercheurs-chargeurs du système d'importation (dans le module *note
     importlib.abc: 77.).  Vous pouvez créer vos propres ABC avec le
     module *note abc: 4.

annotation

     Étiquette associée à une variable, un attribut de classe, un
     paramètre de fonction ou une valeur de retour.  Elle est utilisée
     par convention comme *note type hint: 1f3a.

     Les annotations de variables locales ne sont pas accessibles au
     moment de l'exécution, mais les annotations de variables globales,
     d'attributs de classe et de fonctions sont stockées dans l'attribut
     spécial ‘__annotations__’ des modules, classes et fonctions,
     respectivement.

     Voir *note annotation de variable: d45, *note annotation de
     fonction: 1bf5, les PEP 484(1) et PEP 526(2), qui décrivent cette
     fonctionnalité.  Voir aussi *note Bonnes pratiques concernant les
     annotations: 7c5. sur les bonnes pratiques concernant les
     annotations.

argument

     Valeur, donnée à une *note fonction: 2014. ou à une *note méthode:
     150b. lors de son appel.  Il existe deux types d'arguments :

        * 'argument nommé' : un argument précédé d'un identifiant (comme
          ‘name=’) ou un dictionnaire précédé de ‘**’, lors d'un appel
          de fonction.  Par exemple, ‘3’ et ‘5’ sont tous les deux des
          arguments nommés dans l'appel à *note complex(): 2ed. ici :

               complex(real=3, imag=5)
               complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})

        * 'argument positionnel' : un argument qui n'est pas nommé.  Les
          arguments positionnels apparaissent au début de la liste des
          arguments, ou donnés sous forme d'un *note itérable: 1207.
          précédé par ‘*’.  Par exemple, ‘3’ et ‘5’ sont tous les deux
          des arguments positionnels dans les appels suivants :

               complex(3, 5)
               complex(*(3, 5))

     Les arguments se retrouvent dans le corps de la fonction appelée
     parmi les variables locales.  Voir la section *note Appels: d6c. à
     propos des règles dictant cette affectation.  Syntaxiquement, toute
     expression est acceptée comme argument, et c'est la valeur
     résultante de l'expression qui sera affectée à la variable locale.

     Voir aussi *note paramètre: 1eba. dans le glossaire, la question
     *note Différence entre argument et paramètre: 4fff. de la FAQ et la
     PEP 362(3).

gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone

     ('asynchronous context manager' en anglais) Objet contrôlant
     l'environnement à l'intérieur d'une instruction *note async with:
     5c1. en définissant les méthodes *note __aenter__(): 1f89. et *note
     __aexit__(): 15e5.  A été Introduit par la PEP 492(4).

générateur asynchrone

     Fonction qui renvoie un *note itérateur de générateur asynchrone:
     4329.  Cela ressemble à une coroutine définie par *note async def:
     5bd, sauf qu'elle contient une ou des expressions *note yield: 9bd.
     produisant ainsi uns série de valeurs utilisables dans une boucle
     *note async for: a9b.

     Générateur asynchrone fait généralement référence à une fonction,
     mais peut faire référence à un 'itérateur de générateur asynchrone'
     dans certains contextes.  Dans les cas où le sens voulu n'est pas
     clair, utiliser l'ensemble des termes lève l’ambiguïté.

     Un générateur asynchrone peut contenir des expressions *note await:
     1b7. ainsi que des instructions *note async for: a9b, et *note
     async with: 5c1.

itérateur de générateur asynchrone

     Objet créé par un *note générateur asynchrone: 1ff6.

     C'est un *note asynchronous iterator: 1a9. qui, lorsqu'il est
     appelé via la méthode *note __anext__(): 152d. renvoie un objet
     'awaitable' qui exécute le corps de la fonction du générateur
     asynchrone jusqu'au prochain *note yield: 9bd.

     Each *note yield: 9bd. temporarily suspends processing, remembering
     the execution state (including local variables and pending
     try-statements).  When the 'asynchronous generator iterator'
     effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by *note
     __anext__(): 152d, it picks up where it left off.  See PEP 492(5)
     and PEP 525(6).

itérable asynchrone

     Objet qui peut être utilisé dans une instruction *note async for:
     a9b.  Sa méthode *note __aiter__(): beb. doit renvoyer un *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1a9.  A été introduit par la PEP 492(7).

itérateur asynchrone

     Objet qui implémente les méthodes *note __aiter__(): beb. et *note
     __anext__(): 152d.  *note __anext__(): 152d. doit renvoyer un objet
     *note awaitable: 1ab.  Tant que la méthode *note __anext__(): 152d.
     produit des objets 'awaitable', le *note async for: a9b. appelant
     les consomme.  L'itérateur asynchrone lève une exception *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 19eb. pour signifier la fin de l'itération.  A
     été introduit par la PEP 492(8).

attribut

     Valeur associée à un objet et habituellement désignée par son nom
     'via' une notation utilisant des points.  Par exemple, si un objet
     'o' possède un attribut 'a', cet attribut est référencé par 'o.a'.

     Il est possible de donner à un objet un attribut dont le nom n'est
     pas un identifiant tel que défini pour les *note Identifiants et
     mots-clés: 1e4f, par exemple en utilisant *note setattr(): 2116, si
     l'objet le permet.  Un tel attribut ne sera pas accessible à l'aide
     d'une expression pointée et on devra y accéder avec *note
     getattr(): bc1.

attendable ('awaitable')

     Objet pouvant être utilisé dans une expression *note await: 1b7.
     Ce peut être une *note coroutine: 47d. ou un objet avec une méthode
     *note __await__(): 1f80.  Voir aussi la PEP 492(9).

BDFL

     Dictateur bienveillant à vie ('Benevolent Dictator For Life' en
     anglais).  Pseudonyme de Guido van Rossum(10), le créateur de
     Python.

fichier binaire

     A *note file object: 11a2. able to read and write *note bytes-like
     objects: d1d.  Examples of binary files are files opened in binary
     mode (‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’ or ‘'rb+'’), *note sys.stdin.buffer: 52a,
     *note sys.stdout.buffer: ac6, and instances of *note io.BytesIO:
     e8f. and *note gzip.GzipFile: 410.

     Consultez *note fichier texte: 1c44, un objet fichier capable de
     lire et d'écrire des objets *note str: 437.

référence empruntée

     In Python's C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an
     object, where the code using the object does not own the reference.
     It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed.  For
     example, a garbage collection can remove the last *note strong
     reference: 333. to the object and so destroy it.

     Il est recommandé d'appeler *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. sur la *note
     référence empruntée: 334, ce qui la transforme 'in situ' en une
     *note référence forte: 333.  Vous pouvez faire une exception si
     vous êtes certain que l'objet ne peut pas être supprimé avant la
     dernière utilisation de la référence empruntée.  Voir aussi la
     fonction *note Py_NewRef(): 888, qui crée une nouvelle *note
     référence forte: 333.

objet octet-compatible

     Un objet gérant le *note protocole tampon: 38e. et pouvant exporter
     un tampon ('buffer' en anglais) C-*note contigu: 21e4.  Cela inclut
     les objets *note bytes: 1bd, *note bytearray: 52b. et *note
     array.array: 19e, ainsi que beaucoup d'objets *note memoryview:
     454.  Les objets octets-compatibles peuvent être utilisés pour
     diverses opérations sur des données binaires, comme la compression,
     la sauvegarde dans un fichier binaire ou l'envoi sur le réseau.

     Certaines opérations nécessitent de travailler sur des données
     binaires variables.  La documentation parle de ceux-ci comme des
     'read-write bytes-like objects'.  Par exemple, *note bytearray:
     52b. ou une *note memoryview: 454. d'un *note bytearray: 52b. en
     font partie.  D'autres opérations nécessitent de travailler sur des
     données binaires stockées dans des objets immuables (« 'objets
     octets-compatibles en lecture seule' »), par exemple des *note
     bytes: 1bd. ou des *note memoryview: 454. d'un objet *note bytes:
     1bd.

code intermédiaire ('bytecode')

     Le code source, en Python, est compilé en un code intermédiaire
     ('bytecode' en anglais), la représentation interne à CPython d'un
     programme Python.  Le code intermédiaire est mis en cache dans un
     fichier ‘.pyc’ de manière à ce qu'une seconde exécution soit plus
     rapide (la compilation en code intermédiaire a déjà été faite).  On
     dit que ce 'langage intermédiaire' est exécuté sur une *note
     virtual machine: 34a5. qui exécute des instructions machine pour
     chaque instruction du code intermédiaire.  Notez que le code
     intermédiaire n'a pas vocation à fonctionner sur différentes
     machines virtuelles Python ou à être stable entre différentes
     versions de Python.

     La documentation du *note module dis: 59e. fournit une liste des
     instructions du code intermédiaire.

appelable ('callable')

     Un appelable est un objet qui peut être appelé, éventuellement avec
     un ensemble d'arguments (voir *note argument: 434.), avec la
     syntaxe suivante :

          callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN)

     Une *note fonction: 2014, et par extension une *note méthode: 150b,
     est un appelable.  Une instance d'une classe qui implémente la
     méthode *note __call__(): 546. est également un appelable.

fonction de rappel ('callback')

     Une fonction (classique, par opposition à une coroutine) passée en
     argument pour être exécutée plus tard.

classe

     Modèle pour créer des objets définis par l'utilisateur.  Une
     définition de classe ('class') contient normalement des définitions
     de méthodes qui agissent sur les instances de la classe.

variable de classe

     Une variable définie dans une classe et destinée à être modifiée
     uniquement au niveau de la classe (c'est-à-dire, pas dans une
     instance de la classe).

closure variable

     A *note free variable: 1f93. referenced from a *note nested scope:
     1efa. that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved
     at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces.  May be
     explicitly defined with the *note nonlocal: 1287. keyword to allow
     write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being
     read.

     For example, in the ‘inner’ function in the following code, both
     ‘x’ and ‘print’ are *note free variables: 1f93, but only ‘x’ is a
     'closure variable':

          def outer():
              x = 0
              def inner():
                  nonlocal x
                  x += 1
                  print(x)
              return inner

     Due to the *note codeobject.co_freevars: 1eb6. attribute (which,
     despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables
     rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more
     general *note free variable: 1f93. term is sometimes used even when
     the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables.

nombre complexe

     Extension des nombres réels familiers, dans laquelle tous les
     nombres sont exprimés sous la forme d'une somme d'une partie réelle
     et d'une partie imaginaire.  Les nombres imaginaires sont les
     nombres réels multipliés par l'unité imaginaire (la racine carrée
     de ‘-1’, souvent écrite ‘i’ en mathématiques ou ‘j’ par les
     ingénieurs).  Python comprend nativement les nombres complexes,
     écrits avec cette dernière notation : la partie imaginaire est
     écrite avec un suffixe ‘j’, exemple, ‘3+1j’.  Pour utiliser les
     équivalents complexes de *note math: 8d, utilisez *note cmath: 18.
     Les nombres complexes sont un concept assez avancé en
     mathématiques.  Si vous ne connaissez pas ce concept, vous pouvez
     tranquillement les ignorer.

context

     This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is
     used.  Some common meanings:

        * The temporary state or environment established by a *note
          context manager: 5c0. via a *note with: 5be. statement.

        * The collection of key­value bindings associated with a
          particular *note contextvars.Context: 1563. object and
          accessed via *note ContextVar: 1516. objects.  Also see *note
          context variable: 50bf.

        * A *note contextvars.Context: 1563. object.  Also see *note
          current context: 156c.

context management protocol

     The *note __enter__(): 5b4. and *note __exit__(): 12e0. methods
     called by the *note with: 5be. statement.  See PEP 343(11).

gestionnaire de contexte

     An object which implements the *note context management protocol:
     156d. and controls the environment seen in a *note with: 5be.
     statement.  See PEP 343(12).

variable de contexte

     A variable whose value depends on which context is the *note
     current context: 156c.  Values are accessed via *note
     contextvars.ContextVar: 1516. objects.  Context variables are
     primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous
     tasks.

contigu

     Un tampon ('buffer' en anglais) est considéré comme contigu s’il
     est soit 'C-contigu' soit 'Fortran-contigu'.  Les tampons de
     dimension zéro sont C-contigus et Fortran-contigus.  Pour un
     tableau à une dimension, ses éléments doivent être placés en
     mémoire l’un à côté de l’autre, dans l’ordre croissant de leur
     indice, en commençant à zéro.  Pour qu’un tableau multidimensionnel
     soit C-contigu, le dernier indice doit être celui qui varie le plus
     rapidement lors du parcours de ses éléments dans l’ordre de leur
     adresse mémoire.  À l'inverse, dans les tableaux Fortran-contigu,
     c’est le premier indice qui doit varier le plus rapidement.

coroutine

     Les coroutines sont une forme généralisée des fonctions.  On entre
     dans une fonction en un point et on en sort en un autre point.  On
     peut entrer, sortir et reprendre l'exécution d'une coroutine en
     plusieurs points.  Elles peuvent être implémentées en utilisant
     l'instruction *note async def: 5bd.  Voir aussi la PEP 492(13).

fonction coroutine

     Fonction qui renvoie un objet *note coroutine: 47d.  Une fonction
     coroutine peut être définie par l'instruction *note async def: 5bd.
     et peut contenir les mots clés *note await: 1b7, *note async for:
     a9b. ainsi que *note async with: 5c1.  A été introduit par la PEP
     492(14).

CPython

     L'implémentation canonique du langage de programmation Python, tel
     que distribué sur python.org(15).  Le terme "CPython" est utilisé
     dans certains contextes lorsqu'il est nécessaire de distinguer
     cette implémentation des autres comme 'Jython' ou 'IronPython'.

current context

     The *note context: 156b. (*note contextvars.Context: 1563. object)
     that is currently used by *note ContextVar: 1516. objects to access
     (get or set) the values of *note context variables: 50bf.  Each
     thread has its own current context.  Frameworks for executing
     asynchronous tasks (see *note asyncio: a.) associate each task with
     a context which becomes the current context whenever the task
     starts or resumes execution.

décorateur

     Fonction dont la valeur de retour est une autre fonction.  Un
     décorateur est habituellement utilisé pour transformer une fonction
     via la syntaxe ‘@wrapper’, dont les exemples typiques sont : *note
     classmethod(): 165. et *note staticmethod(): 40c.

     La syntaxe des décorateurs est simplement du sucre syntaxique, les
     définitions des deux fonctions suivantes sont sémantiquement
     équivalentes :

          def f(arg):
              ...
          f = staticmethod(f)

          @staticmethod
          def f(arg):
              ...

     Quoique moins fréquemment utilisé, le même concept existe pour les
     classes.  Consultez la documentation *note définitions de
     fonctions: 1bf4. et *note définitions de classes: 12b7. pour en
     savoir plus sur les décorateurs.

descripteur

     Any object which defines the methods *note __get__(): 149f, *note
     __set__(): 1f23, or *note __delete__(): 15c4.  When a class
     attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is
     triggered upon attribute lookup.  Normally, using 'a.b' to get, set
     or delete an attribute looks up the object named 'b' in the class
     dictionary for 'a', but if 'b' is a descriptor, the respective
     descriptor method gets called.  Understanding descriptors is a key
     to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for
     many features including functions, methods, properties, class
     methods, static methods, and reference to super classes.

     Pour plus d'informations sur les méthodes des descripteurs,
     consultez *note Implémentation de descripteurs: c3f. ou le *note
     guide pour l'utilisation des descripteurs: 14a4.

dictionnaire

     An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values.
     The keys can be any object with *note __hash__(): aeb. and *note
     __eq__(): aea. methods.  Called a hash in Perl.

dictionnaire en compréhension (ou dictionnaire en intension)

     Écriture concise pour traiter tout ou partie des éléments d'un
     itérable et renvoyer un dictionnaire contenant les résultats.
     ‘results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)}’ génère un dictionnaire
     contenant des clés ‘n’ liées à leurs valeurs ‘n ** 2’.  Voir *note
     compréhensions: 5bc.

vue de dictionnaire

     Objets retournés par les méthodes *note dict.keys(): 7b9, *note
     dict.values(): 7ba. et *note dict.items(): 7bb.  Ils fournissent
     des vues dynamiques des entrées du dictionnaire, ce qui signifie
     que lorsque le dictionnaire change, la vue change.  Pour
     transformer une vue en vraie liste, utilisez ‘list(dictview)’.
     Voir *note Les vues de dictionnaires: 2201.

chaîne de documentation ('docstring')

     A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
     function or module.  While ignored when the suite is executed, it
     is recognized by the compiler and put into the *note __doc__: 917.
     attribute of the enclosing class, function or module.  Since it is
     available via introspection, it is the canonical place for
     documentation of the object.

typage canard ('duck-typing')

     Style de programmation qui ne prend pas en compte le type d'un
     objet pour déterminer s'il respecte une interface, mais qui appelle
     simplement la méthode ou l'attribut ('Si ça a un bec et que ça
     cancane, ça doit être un canard', 'duck' signifie canard en
     anglais).  En se concentrant sur les interfaces plutôt que les
     types, du code bien construit améliore sa flexibilité en autorisant
     des substitutions polymorphiques.  Le 'duck-typing' évite de
     vérifier les types via *note type(): d38. ou *note isinstance():
     42d, Notez cependant que le 'duck-typing' peut travailler de pair
     avec les *note classes mère abstraites: 1195.  À la place, le
     'duck-typing' utilise plutôt *note hasattr(): 4be. ou la
     programmation *note EAFP: 2b38.

EAFP

     Il est plus simple de demander pardon que demander la permission
     ('Easier to Ask for Forgiveness than Permission' en anglais).  Ce
     style de développement Python fait l'hypothèse que le code est
     valide et traite les exceptions si cette hypothèse s'avère fausse.
     Ce style, propre et efficace, est caractérisé par la présence de
     beaucoup de mots clés *note try: 6d5. et *note except: 189.  Cette
     technique de programmation contraste avec le style *note LBYL:
     50c1. utilisé couramment dans les langages tels que C.

expression

     Suite logique de termes et chiffres conformes à la syntaxe Python
     dont l'évaluation fournit une valeur.  En d'autres termes, une
     expression est une suite d'éléments tels que des noms, opérateurs,
     littéraux, accès d'attributs, méthodes ou fonctions qui aboutissent
     à une valeur.  Contrairement à beaucoup d'autres langages, les
     différentes constructions du langage ne sont pas toutes des
     expressions.  On trouve également des *note instructions: 273b. qui
     ne peuvent pas être utilisées comme expressions, tel que *note
     while: 1bc2.  Les affectations sont également des instructions et
     non des expressions.

module d'extension

     Module écrit en C ou C++, utilisant l'API C de Python pour
     interagir avec Python et le code de l'utilisateur.

f-string

     Chaîne littérale préfixée de ‘'f'’ ou ‘'F'’.  Les "f-strings" sont
     un raccourci pour *note formatted string literals: 999.  Voir la
     PEP 498(16).

objet fichier

     An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as
     ‘read()’ or ‘write()’) to an underlying resource.  Depending on the
     way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real
     on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device
     (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets,
     pipes, etc.).  File objects are also called 'file-like objects' or
     'streams'.

     Il existe en réalité trois catégories de fichiers objets : les
     *note fichiers binaires: 1c45. bruts, les *note fichiers binaires:
     1c45. avec tampon ('buffer') et les *note fichiers textes: 1c44.
     Leurs interfaces sont définies dans le module *note io: 7e.  Le
     moyen le plus simple et direct de créer un objet fichier est
     d'utiliser la fonction *note open(): 508.

objet fichier-compatible

     Synonyme de *note objet fichier: 11a2.

encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé

     Encodage et gestionnaire d'erreurs utilisés par Python pour décoder
     les octets fournis par le système d'exploitation et encoder les
     chaînes de caractères Unicode afin de les passer au système.

     L'encodage du système de fichiers doit impérativement pouvoir
     décoder tous les octets jusqu'à 128.  Si ce n'est pas le cas,
     certaines fonctions de l'API lèvent *note UnicodeError: 1283.

     Cet encodage et son gestionnaire d'erreur peuvent être obtenus à
     l'aide des fonctions *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c49. et
     *note sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): cd6.

     L'*note encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs
     associé: 528. sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la
     fonction *note PyConfig_Read(): 77c. : regardez *note
     filesystem_encoding: 3df. et *note filesystem_errors: 3e0. dans les
     membres de *note PyConfig: 39d.

     Voir aussi *note encodage régional: 23f.

chercheur

     Objet qui essaie de trouver un *note chargeur: 166b. pour le module
     en cours d'importation.

     There are two types of finder: *note meta path finders: 105b. for
     use with *note sys.meta_path: d1b, and *note path entry finders:
     105c. for use with *note sys.path_hooks: 100f.

     See *note Chercheurs et chargeurs: 1fac. and *note importlib: 76.
     for much more detail.

division entière

     Division mathématique arrondissant à l'entier inférieur.
     L'opérateur de la division entière est ‘//’.  Par exemple
     l'expression ‘11 // 4’ vaut ‘2’, contrairement à ‘11 / 4’ qui vaut
     ‘2.75’.  Notez que ‘(-11) // 4’ vaut ‘-3’ car l'arrondi se fait à
     l'entier inférieur.  Voir la PEP 328(17).

free threading

     A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode
     simultaneously within the same interpreter.  This is in contrast to
     the *note global interpreter lock: 147. which allows only one
     thread to execute Python bytecode at a time.  See PEP 703(18).

free variable

     Formally, as defined in the *note language execution model: 1f90, a
     free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a
     local variable in that namespace.  See *note closure variable:
     1efb. for an example.  Pragmatically, due to the name of the *note
     codeobject.co_freevars: 1eb6. attribute, the term is also sometimes
     used as a synonym for *note closure variable: 1efb.

fonction

     Suite d'instructions qui renvoie une valeur à son appelant.  On
     peut lui passer des *note arguments: 434. qui pourront être
     utilisés dans le corps de la fonction.  Voir aussi *note paramètre:
     1eba, *note méthode: 150b. et *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4.

annotation de fonction

     *note annotation: 443. d'un paramètre de fonction ou valeur de
     retour.

     Les annotations de fonctions sont généralement utilisées pour des
     *note indications de types: 1f3a. : par exemple, cette fonction
     devrait prendre deux arguments *note int: 254. et devrait également
     avoir une valeur de retour de type *note int: 254. :

          def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
             return a + b

     L'annotation syntaxique de la fonction est expliquée dans la
     section *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4.

     Voir *note annotation de variable: d45. et la PEP 484(19), qui
     décrivent cette fonctionnalité.  Voir aussi *note Bonnes pratiques
     concernant les annotations: 7c5. sur les bonnes pratiques
     concernant les annotations.

__future__

     Une *note importation depuis le futur: 187. s'écrit ‘from
     __future__ import <fonctionnalité>’.  Lorsqu'une importation du
     futur est active dans un module, Python compile ce module avec une
     certaine modification de la syntaxe ou du comportement qui est
     vouée à devenir standard dans une version ultérieure.  Le module
     *note __future__: 0. documente les possibilités pour
     'fonctionnalité'.  L'importation a aussi l'effet normal d'importer
     une variable du module.  Cette variable contient des informations
     utiles sur la fonctionnalité en question, notamment la version de
     Python dans laquelle elle a été ajoutée, et celle dans laquelle
     elle deviendra standard :

          >>> import __future__
          >>> __future__.division
          _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)

ramasse-miettes

     ('garbage collection' en anglais) Mécanisme permettant de libérer
     de la mémoire lorsqu'elle n'est plus utilisée.  Python utilise un
     ramasse-miettes par comptage de référence et un ramasse-miettes
     cyclique capable de détecter et casser les références circulaires.
     Le ramasse-miettes peut être contrôlé en utilisant le module *note
     gc: 5f.

générateur

     Fonction qui renvoie un *note itérateur de générateur: bce.  Cela
     ressemble à une fonction normale, en dehors du fait qu'elle
     contient une ou des expressions *note yield: 9bd. produisant une
     série de valeurs utilisable dans une boucle 'for' ou récupérées une
     à une via la fonction *note next(): 7c4.

     Fait généralement référence à une fonction génératrice mais peut
     faire référence à un 'itérateur de générateur' dans certains
     contextes.  Dans les cas où le sens voulu n'est pas clair, utiliser
     les termes complets lève l’ambiguïté.

itérateur de générateur

     Objet créé par une fonction *note générateur: 104c.

     Each *note yield: 9bd. temporarily suspends processing, remembering
     the execution state (including local variables and pending
     try-statements).  When the 'generator iterator' resumes, it picks
     up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on
     every invocation).

expression génératrice

     An *note expression: 1f3e. that returns an *note iterator: 1aa.  It
     looks like a normal expression followed by a ‘for’ clause defining
     a loop variable, range, and an optional ‘if’ clause.  The combined
     expression generates values for an enclosing function:

          >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
          285

fonction générique

     Fonction composée de plusieurs fonctions implémentant les mêmes
     opérations pour différents types.  L'implémentation à utiliser est
     déterminée lors de l'appel par l'algorithme de répartition.

     Voir aussi *note single dispatch: 9e2, le décorateur *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 626. et la PEP 443(20).

type générique

     Un *note type: 18f0. qui peut être paramétré ; généralement un
     *note conteneur: 1f43. comme *note list: 5fe. ou *note dict: 253.
     Utilisé pour les *note indications de type: 1f3a. et les *note
     annotations: 443.

     Pour plus de détails, voir *note types alias génériques: 69f. et le
     module *note typing: 103.  On trouvera l'historique de cette
     fonctionnalité dans les PEP 483(21), PEP 484(22) et PEP 585(23).

GIL

     Voir *note global interpreter lock: 147.

verrou global de l'interpréteur

     ('global interpreter lock' en anglais) Mécanisme utilisé par
     l'interpréteur *note CPython: 6e2. pour s'assurer qu'un seul fil
     d'exécution ('thread' en anglais) n'exécute le *note bytecode: 185.
     à la fois.  Cela simplifie l'implémentation de CPython en rendant
     le modèle objet (incluant des parties critiques comme la classe
     native *note dict: 253.) implicitement protégé contre les accès
     concourants.  Verrouiller l'interpréteur entier rend plus facile
     l'implémentation de multiples fils d'exécution ('multi-thread' en
     anglais), au détriment malheureusement de beaucoup du parallélisme
     possible sur les machines ayant plusieurs processeurs.

     Cependant, certains modules d'extension, standards ou non, sont
     conçus de manière à libérer le GIL lorsqu'ils effectuent des tâches
     lourdes tel que la compression ou le hachage.  De la même manière,
     le GIL est toujours libéré lors des entrées-sorties.

     As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the *note
     -disable-gil: 173. build configuration.  After building Python with
     this option, code must be run with *note -X gil=0: 175. or after
     setting the *note PYTHON_GIL=0: 174. environment variable.  This
     feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded
     applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs
     efficiently.  For more details, see PEP 703(24).

'pyc' utilisant le hachage

     Un fichier de cache de code intermédiaire ('bytecode' en anglais)
     qui utilise le hachage plutôt que l'heure de dernière modification
     du fichier source correspondant pour déterminer sa validité.  Voir
     *note Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache: 5d8.

hachable

     An object is 'hashable' if it has a hash value which never changes
     during its lifetime (it needs a *note __hash__(): aeb. method), and
     can be compared to other objects (it needs an *note __eq__(): aea.
     method).  Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same
     hash value.

     La hachabilité permet à un objet d'être utilisé comme clé de
     dictionnaire ou en tant que membre d'un ensemble (type 'set'), car
     ces structures de données utilisent ce 'hash'.

     La plupart des types immuables natifs de Python sont hachables,
     mais les conteneurs mutables (comme les listes ou les
     dictionnaires) ne le sont pas ; les conteneurs immuables (comme les
     n-uplets ou les ensembles figés) ne sont hachables que si leurs
     éléments sont hachables.  Les instances de classes définies par les
     utilisateurs sont hachables par défaut.  Elles sont toutes
     considérées différentes (sauf avec elles-mêmes) et leur valeur de
     hachage est calculée à partir de leur *note id(): 13db.

IDLE

     Environnement d'apprentissage et de développement intégré pour
     Python.  *note IDLE: 1000. est un éditeur basique et un
     interpréteur livré avec la distribution standard de Python.

immortal

     'Immortal objects' are a CPython implementation detail introduced
     in PEP 683(25).

     If an object is immortal, its *note reference count: 4869. is never
     modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the
     interpreter is running.  For example, *note True: bfd. and *note
     None: 662. are immortal in CPython.

immuable

     Objet dont la valeur ne change pas.  Les nombres, les chaînes et
     les 'n'-uplets sont immuables.  Ils ne peuvent être modifiés.  Un
     nouvel objet doit être créé si une valeur différente doit être
     stockée.  Ils jouent un rôle important quand une valeur de 'hash'
     constante est requise, typiquement en clé de dictionnaire.

chemin des importations

     Liste de *note entrées: 1fbc. dans lesquelles le *note chercheur
     basé sur les chemins: 1fb1. cherche les modules à importer.
     Typiquement, lors d'une importation, cette liste vient de *note
     sys.path: 3ab. ; pour les sous-paquets, elle peut aussi venir de
     l'attribut ‘__path__’ du paquet parent.

importation

     Processus rendant le code Python d'un module disponible dans un
     autre.

importateur

     Objet qui trouve et charge un module, en même temps un *note
     chercheur: 1eda. et un *note chargeur: 166b.

interactif

     Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter
     statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately
     execute them and see their results.  Just launch ‘python’ with no
     arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer's main
     menu).  It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect
     modules and packages (remember ‘help(x)’).  For more on interactive
     mode, see *note Mode interactif: 16e.

interprété

     Python est un langage interprété, en opposition aux langages
     compilés, bien que la frontière soit floue en raison de la présence
     d'un compilateur en code intermédiaire.  Cela signifie que les
     fichiers sources peuvent être exécutés directement, sans avoir à
     compiler un fichier exécutable intermédiaire.  Les langages
     interprétés ont généralement un cycle de développement / débogage
     plus court que les langages compilés.  Cependant, ils s'exécutent
     généralement plus lentement.  Voir aussi *note interactif: 168.

arrêt de l'interpréteur

     Lorsqu'on lui demande de s'arrêter, l'interpréteur Python entre
     dans une phase spéciale où il libère graduellement les ressources
     allouées, comme les modules ou quelques structures de données
     internes.  Il fait aussi quelques appels au *note ramasse-miettes:
     18d6.  Cela peut déclencher l'exécution de code dans des
     destructeurs ou des fonctions de rappels de 'weakrefs'.  Le code
     exécuté lors de l'arrêt peut rencontrer des exceptions puisque les
     ressources auxquelles il fait appel sont susceptibles de ne plus
     fonctionner, (typiquement les modules des bibliothèques ou le
     mécanisme de 'warning').

     La principale raison d'arrêt de l'interpréteur est que le module
     ‘__main__’ ou le script en cours d'exécution a terminé de
     s'exécuter.

itérable

     An object capable of returning its members one at a time.  Examples
     of iterables include all sequence types (such as *note list: 5fe,
     *note str: 437, and *note tuple: 366.) and some non-sequence types
     like *note dict: 253, *note file objects: 11a2, and objects of any
     classes you define with an *note __iter__(): 1f15. method or with a
     *note __getitem__(): 280. method that implements *note sequence:
     4de. semantics.

     Iterables can be used in a *note for: 2e7. loop and in many other
     places where a sequence is needed (*note zip(): 7bc, *note map():
     850, ...).  When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the
     built-in function *note iter(): 7c3, it returns an iterator for the
     object.  This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values.
     When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call *note
     iter(): 7c3. or deal with iterator objects yourself.  The *note
     for: 2e7. statement does that automatically for you, creating a
     temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of
     the loop.  See also *note iterator: 1aa, *note sequence: 4de, and
     *note generator: 104c.

itérateur

     An object representing a stream of data.  Repeated calls to the
     iterator's *note __next__(): 12ad. method (or passing it to the
     built-in function *note next(): 7c4.) return successive items in
     the stream.  When no more data are available a *note StopIteration:
     bea. exception is raised instead.  At this point, the iterator
     object is exhausted and any further calls to its ‘__next__()’
     method just raise *note StopIteration: bea. again.  Iterators are
     required to have an *note __iter__(): 1c81. method that returns the
     iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may
     be used in most places where other iterables are accepted.  One
     notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes.
     A container object (such as a *note list: 5fe.) produces a fresh
     new iterator each time you pass it to the *note iter(): 7c3.
     function or use it in a *note for: 2e7. loop.  Attempting this with
     an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object
     used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty
     container.

     Vous trouverez davantage d'informations dans *note Les types
     itérateurs: 2130.

     'Particularité de l'implémentation CPython :' CPython does not
     consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define *note
     __iter__(): 1c81.  And also please note that the free-threading
     CPython does not guarantee the thread-safety of iterator
     operations.

fonction clé

     Une fonction clé est un objet appelable qui renvoie une valeur à
     fins de tri ou de classement.  Par exemple, la fonction *note
     locale.strxfrm(): 3ce3. est utilisée pour générer une clé de
     classement prenant en compte les conventions de classement
     spécifiques aux paramètres régionaux courants.

     Plusieurs outils dans Python acceptent des fonctions clés pour
     déterminer comment les éléments sont classés ou groupés.  On peut
     citer les fonctions *note min(): ef5, *note max(): ef6, *note
     sorted(): bbe, *note list.sort(): bbf, *note heapq.merge(): df3,
     *note heapq.nsmallest(): 24ef, *note heapq.nlargest(): 24ee. et
     *note itertools.groupby(): 26e8.

     Il existe plusieurs moyens de créer une fonction clé.  Par exemple,
     la méthode *note str.lower(): 17a9. peut servir de fonction clé
     pour effectuer des recherches insensibles à la casse.  Aussi, il
     est possible de créer des fonctions clés avec des expressions *note
     lambda: 127c, comme ‘lambda r: (r[0], r[2])’.  Par ailleurs *note
     attrgetter(): e22, *note itemgetter(): a52. et *note
     methodcaller(): e23. permettent de créer des fonctions clés.  Voir
     *note le guide pour le tri: 213b. pour des exemples de création et
     d'utilisation de fonctions clefs.

argument nommé

     Voir *note argument: 434.

lambda

     Fonction anonyme sous la forme d'une *note expression: 1f3e. et ne
     contenant qu'une seule expression, exécutée lorsque la fonction est
     appelée.  La syntaxe pour créer des fonctions lambda est : ‘lambda
     [parameters]: expression’

LBYL

     Regarde avant de sauter, ('Look before you leap' en anglais).  Ce
     style de programmation consiste à vérifier des conditions avant
     d'effectuer des appels ou des accès.  Ce style contraste avec le
     style *note EAFP: 2b38. et se caractérise par la présence de
     beaucoup d'instructions *note if: 2e8.

     Dans un environnement avec plusieurs fils d'exécution
     ('multi-threaded' en anglais), le style 'LBYL' peut engendrer un
     séquencement critique ('race condition' en anglais) entre le
     "regarde" et le "sauter".  Par exemple, le code ‘if key in mapping:
     return mapping[key]’ peut échouer si un autre fil d'exécution
     supprime la clé 'key' du 'mapping' après le test mais avant
     l'accès.  Ce problème peut être résolu avec des verrous ('locks')
     ou avec l'approche EAFP.

lexical analyzer

     Formal name for the 'tokenizer'; see *note token: 1e38.

liste

     A built-in Python *note sequence: 4de.  Despite its name it is more
     akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since
     access to elements is 'O'(1).

liste en compréhension (ou liste en intension)

     Écriture concise pour manipuler tout ou partie des éléments d'une
     séquence et renvoyer une liste contenant les résultats.  ‘result =
     ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0]’ génère la
     liste composée des nombres pairs de 0 à 255 écrits sous formes de
     chaînes de caractères et en hexadécimal (‘0x…’).  La clause *note
     if: 2e8. est optionnelle.  Si elle est omise, tous les éléments du
     ‘range(256)’ seront utilisés.

chargeur

     An object that loads a module.  It must define the ‘exec_module()’
     and ‘create_module()’ methods to implement the *note Loader: eb2.
     interface.  A loader is typically returned by a *note finder: 1eda.
     See also:

        * *note Chercheurs et chargeurs: 1fac.

        * *note importlib.abc.Loader: eb2.

        * PEP 302(26)

encodage régional

     Sous Unix, il est défini par la variable régionale LC_CTYPE. Il
     peut être modifié par *note locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE,
     new_locale): 2da.

     Sous Windows, c'est un encodage ANSI (par ex.  : ‘"cp1252"’).

     Sous Android et VxWorks, Python utilise ‘"utf-8"’ comme encodage
     régional.

     *note locale.getencoding(): 2db. can be used to get the locale
     encoding.

     Voir aussi l'*note encodage du systèmes de fichiers et gestionnaire
     d'erreurs associé: 528.

méthode magique

     Un synonyme informel de *note special method: 1868.

tableau de correspondances ('mapping' en anglais)

     Conteneur permettant de rechercher des éléments à partir de clés et
     implémentant les méthodes spécifiées dans les classes mères
     abstraites des *note tableaux de correspondances: 8b9. (immuables)
     ou *note tableaux de correspondances mutables: 1092. (voir les
     *note classes mères abstraites: 865.).  Les classes suivantes sont
     des exemples de tableaux de correspondances : *note dict: 253,
     *note collections.defaultdict: 119c, *note collections.OrderedDict:
     5c7. et *note collections.Counter: 107d.

chercheur dans les méta-chemins

     Un *note chercheur: 1eda. renvoyé par une recherche dans *note
     sys.meta_path: d1b.  Les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins
     ressemblent, mais sont différents des *note chercheurs d'entrée
     dans path: 105c.

     Voir *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 85b. pour les méthodes que
     les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins doivent implémenter.

métaclasse

     Classe d'une classe.  Les définitions de classe créent un nom pour
     la classe, un dictionnaire de classe et une liste de classes
     parentes.  La métaclasse a pour rôle de réunir ces trois paramètres
     pour construire la classe.  La plupart des langages orientés objet
     fournissent une implémentation par défaut.  La particularité de
     Python est la possibilité de créer des métaclasses personnalisées.
     La plupart des utilisateurs n'auront jamais besoin de cet outil,
     mais lorsque le besoin survient, les métaclasses offrent des
     solutions élégantes et puissantes.  Elles sont utilisées pour
     journaliser les accès à des propriétés, rendre sûrs les
     environnements 'multi-threads', suivre la création d'objets,
     implémenter des singletons et bien d'autres tâches.

     Plus d'informations sont disponibles dans : *note Métaclasses:
     1f2c.

méthode

     Fonction définie à l'intérieur d'une classe.  Lorsqu'elle est
     appelée comme un attribut d'une instance de cette classe, la
     méthode reçoit l'instance en premier *note argument: 434. (qui, par
     convention, est habituellement nommé ‘self’).  Voir *note function:
     2014. et *note nested scope: 1efa.

ordre de résolution des méthodes

     Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are
     searched for a member during lookup.  See *note The Python 2.3
     Method Resolution Order: 1460. for details of the algorithm used by
     the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release.

module

     Objet utilisé pour organiser une portion unitaire de code en
     Python.  Les modules ont un espace de nommage et peuvent contenir
     n'importe quels objets Python.  Charger des modules est appelé
     *note importer: 50c5.

     Voir aussi *note paquet: 1ed6.

spécificateur de module

     Espace de nommage contenant les informations, relatives à
     l'importation, utilisées pour charger un module.  C'est une
     instance de la classe *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e20.

     See also *note Spécificateurs de modules: 1ed5.

MRO

     Voir *note ordre de résolution des méthodes: 213d.

mutable

     Un objet mutable peut changer de valeur tout en gardant le même
     *note id(): 13db.  Voir aussi *note immuable: 980.

'n'-uplet nommé

     Le terme "n-uplet nommé" s'applique à tous les types ou classes qui
     héritent de la classe ‘tuple’ et dont les éléments indexables sont
     aussi accessibles en utilisant des attributs nommés.  Les types et
     classes peuvent avoir aussi d'autres caractéristiques.

     Plusieurs types natifs sont appelés n-uplets, y compris les valeurs
     retournées par *note time.localtime(): 14b1. et *note os.stat():
     48c.  Un autre exemple est *note sys.float_info: 19a9. :

          >>> sys.float_info[1]                   # indexed access
          1024
          >>> sys.float_info.max_exp              # named field access
          1024
          >>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple)   # kind of tuple
          True

     Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples).
     Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class
     definition that inherits from *note tuple: 366. and that defines
     named fields.  Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be
     created by inheriting *note typing.NamedTuple: 2ad, or with the
     factory function *note collections.namedtuple(): 1c5.  The latter
     techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in
     hand-written or built-in named tuples.

espace de nommage

     L'endroit où une variable est stockée.  Les espaces de nommage sont
     implémentés avec des dictionnaires.  Il existe des espaces de
     nommage globaux, natifs ou imbriqués dans les objets (dans les
     méthodes).  Les espaces de nommage favorisent la modularité car ils
     permettent d'éviter les conflits de noms.  Par exemple, les
     fonctions *note builtins.open: 508. et *note os.open(): d81. sont
     différenciées par leurs espaces de nom.  Les espaces de nommage
     aident aussi à la lisibilité et la maintenabilité en rendant clair
     quel module implémente une fonction.  Par exemple, écrire *note
     random.seed(): 1254. ou *note itertools.islice(): b3c. affiche
     clairement que ces fonctions sont implémentées respectivement dans
     les modules *note random: b7. et *note itertools: 80.

paquet-espace de nommage

     A *note package: 1ed6. which serves only as a container for
     subpackages.  Namespace packages may have no physical
     representation, and specifically are not like a *note regular
     package: 1fa6. because they have no ‘__init__.py’ file.

     Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages
     to have a common parent package.  Otherwise, it is recommended to
     use a *note regular package: 1fa6.

     For more information, see PEP 420(27) and *note Paquets espaces de
     nommage: 1fa8.

     Voir aussi *note module: 161a.

portée imbriquée

     Possibilité de faire référence à une variable déclarée dans une
     définition englobante.  Typiquement, une fonction définie à
     l'intérieur d'une autre fonction a accès aux variables de cette
     dernière.  Souvenez-vous cependant que cela ne fonctionne que pour
     accéder à des variables, pas pour les assigner.  Les variables
     locales sont lues et assignées dans l'espace de nommage le plus
     proche.  Tout comme les variables globales qui sont stockés dans
     l'espace de nommage global, le mot clef *note nonlocal: 1287.
     permet d'écrire dans l'espace de nommage dans lequel est déclarée
     la variable.

nouvelle classe

     Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects.
     In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use
     Python's newer, versatile features like *note __slots__: 14a2,
     descriptors, properties, *note __getattribute__(): bc2, class
     methods, and static methods.

objet

     N'importe quelle donnée comportant des états (sous forme
     d'attributs ou d'une valeur) et un comportement (des méthodes).
     C'est aussi (‘object’) l'ancêtre commun à absolument toutes les
     *note nouvelles classes: 2840.

optimized scope

     A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the
     compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read
     and write access to these names.  The local namespaces for
     functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator
     expressions are optimized in this fashion.  Note: most interpreter
     optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a
     known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to
     optimized scopes.

paquet

     *note module: 161a. Python qui peut contenir des sous-modules ou
     des sous-paquets.  Techniquement, un paquet est un module qui
     possède un attribut ‘__path__’.

     Voir aussi *note paquet classique: 1fa6. et *note namespace
     package: 1c26.

paramètre

     Entité nommée dans la définition d'une *note fonction: 2014. (ou
     méthode), décrivant un *note argument: 434. (ou dans certains cas
     des arguments) que la fonction accepte.  Il existe cinq sortes de
     paramètres :

        * 'positional-or-keyword' : l'argument peut être passé soit par
          sa *note position: 434, soit en tant que *note argument nommé:
          434.  C'est le type de paramètre par défaut.  Par exemple,
          'foo' et 'bar' dans l'exemple suivant :

               def func(foo, bar=None): ...

        * 'positional-only' : définit un argument qui ne peut être
          fourni que par position.  Les paramètres 'positional-only'
          peuvent être définis en insérant un caractère "/" dans la
          liste de paramètres de la définition de fonction après eux.
          Par exemple : 'posonly1' et 'posonly2' dans le code suivant :

               def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ...

        * 'keyword-only' : l'argument ne peut être fourni que nommé.
          Les paramètres 'keyword-only' peuvent être définis en
          utilisant un seul paramètre 'var-positional', ou en ajoutant
          une étoile (‘*’) seule dans la liste des paramètres avant eux.
          Par exemple, 'kw_only1' et 'kw_only2' dans le code suivant :

               def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...

        * 'var-positional' : une séquence d'arguments positionnels peut
          être fournie (en plus de tous les arguments positionnels déjà
          acceptés par d'autres paramètres).  Un tel paramètre peut être
          défini en préfixant son nom par une ‘*’.  Par exemple 'args'
          ci-après :

               def func(*args, **kwargs): ...

        * 'var-keyword' : une quantité arbitraire d'arguments peut être
          passée, chacun étant nommé (en plus de tous les arguments
          nommés déjà acceptés par d'autres paramètres).  Un tel
          paramètre est défini en préfixant le nom du paramètre par
          ‘**’.  Par exemple, 'kwargs' ci-dessus.

     Les paramètres peuvent spécifier des arguments obligatoires ou
     optionnels, ainsi que des valeurs par défaut pour les arguments
     optionnels.

     Voir aussi *note argument: 434. dans le glossaire, la question sur
     *note la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres: 4fff.
     dans la FAQ, la classe *note inspect.Parameter: 1cb, la section
     *note Définition de fonctions: 1bf4. et la PEP 362(28).

entrée de chemin

     Emplacement dans le *note chemin des importations: 1fae. ('import
     path' en anglais, d'où le 'path') que le *note chercheur basé sur
     les chemins: 1fb1. consulte pour trouver des modules à importer.

chercheur de chemins

     *note chercheur: 1eda. renvoyé par un appelable sur un *note
     sys.path_hooks: 100f. (c'est-à-dire un *note point d'entrée pour la
     recherche dans path: 1fbe.) qui sait où trouver des modules
     lorsqu'on lui donne une *note entrée de path: 1fbc.

     Voir *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 85c. pour les méthodes
     qu'un chercheur d'entrée dans 'path' doit implémenter.

point d'entrée pour la recherche dans 'path'

     A callable on the *note sys.path_hooks: 100f. list which returns a
     *note path entry finder: 105c. if it knows how to find modules on a
     specific *note path entry: 1fbc.

chercheur basé sur les chemins

     L'un des *note chercheurs dans les méta-chemins: 105b. par défaut
     qui cherche des modules dans un *note chemin des importations:
     1fae.

objet simili-chemin

     Objet représentant un chemin du système de fichiers.  Un objet
     simili-chemin est un objet *note str: 437. ou un objet *note bytes:
     1bd. représentant un chemin ou un objet implémentant le protocole
     *note os.PathLike: c41.  Un objet qui accepte le protocole *note
     os.PathLike: c41. peut être converti en un chemin *note str: 437.
     ou *note bytes: 1bd. du système de fichiers en appelant la fonction
     *note os.fspath(): c43.  *note os.fsdecode(): c44. et *note
     os.fsencode(): c45. peuvent être utilisées, respectivement, pour
     garantir un résultat de type *note str: 437. ou *note bytes: 1bd. à
     la place.  A été Introduit par la PEP 519(29).

PEP

     'Python Enhancement Proposal' (Proposition d'amélioration de
     Python).  Une PEP est un document de conception fournissant des
     informations à la communauté Python ou décrivant une nouvelle
     fonctionnalité pour Python, ses processus ou son environnement.
     Les PEP doivent fournir une spécification technique concise et une
     justification des fonctionnalités proposées.

     Les PEP sont censées être les principaux mécanismes pour proposer
     de nouvelles fonctionnalités majeures, pour recueillir les
     commentaires de la communauté sur une question et pour documenter
     les décisions de conception qui sont intégrées en Python.  L’auteur
     du PEP est responsable de l’établissement d’un consensus au sein de
     la communauté et de documenter les opinions contradictoires.

     Voir la  PEP 1(30).

portion

     Jeu de fichiers dans un seul dossier (pouvant être stocké sous
     forme de fichier zip) qui contribue à l'espace de nommage d'un
     paquet, tel que défini dans la PEP 420(31).

argument positionnel

     Voir *note argument: 434.

API provisoire

     Une API provisoire est une API qui n'offre aucune garantie de
     rétrocompatibilité (la bibliothèque standard exige la
     rétrocompatibilité).  Bien que des changements majeurs d'une telle
     interface ne soient pas attendus, tant qu'elle est étiquetée
     provisoire, des changements cassant la rétrocompatibilité (y
     compris sa suppression complète) peuvent survenir si les
     développeurs principaux le jugent nécessaire.  Ces modifications ne
     surviendront que si de sérieux problèmes sont découverts et qu'ils
     n'avaient pas été identifiés avant l'ajout de l'API.

     Même pour les API provisoires, les changements cassant la
     rétrocompatibilité sont considérés comme des "solutions de dernier
     recours".  Tout ce qui est possible sera fait pour tenter de
     résoudre les problèmes en conservant la rétrocompatibilité.

     Ce processus permet à la bibliothèque standard de continuer à
     évoluer avec le temps, sans se bloquer longtemps sur des erreurs
     d'architecture.  Voir la PEP 411(32) pour plus de détails.

paquet provisoire

     Voir *note provisional API: af3.

Python 3000

     Surnom donné à la série des Python 3.x (très vieux surnom donné à
     l'époque où Python 3 représentait un futur lointain).  Aussi abrégé
     'Py3k'.

'Pythonique'

     Idée, ou bout de code, qui colle aux idiomes de Python plutôt
     qu'aux concepts communs rencontrés dans d'autres langages.  Par
     exemple, il est idiomatique en Python de parcourir les éléments
     d'un itérable en utilisant *note for: 2e7.  Beaucoup d'autres
     langages n'ont pas cette possibilité, donc les gens qui ne sont pas
     habitués à Python utilisent parfois un compteur numérique à la
     place :

          for i in range(len(food)):
              print(food[i])

     Plutôt qu'utiliser la méthode, plus propre et élégante, donc
     'Pythonique' :

          for piece in food:
              print(piece)

nom qualifié

     Nom, comprenant des points, montrant le "chemin" de l'espace de
     nommage global d'un module vers une classe, fonction ou méthode
     définie dans ce module, tel que défini dans la PEP 3155(33).  Pour
     les fonctions et classes de premier niveau, le nom qualifié est le
     même que le nom de l'objet :

          >>> class C:
          ...     class D:
          ...         def meth(self):
          ...             pass
          ...
          >>> C.__qualname__
          'C'
          >>> C.D.__qualname__
          'C.D'
          >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
          'C.D.meth'

     Lorsqu'il est utilisé pour nommer des modules, le 'nom qualifié
     complet' ('fully qualified name - FQN' en anglais) signifie le
     chemin complet (séparé par des points) vers le module, incluant
     tous les paquets parents.  Par exemple : ‘email.mime.text’ :

          >>> import email.mime.text
          >>> email.mime.text.__name__
          'email.mime.text'

nombre de références

     The number of references to an object.  When the reference count of
     an object drops to zero, it is deallocated.  Some objects are *note
     immortal: 4327. and have reference counts that are never modified,
     and therefore the objects are never deallocated.  Reference
     counting is generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key
     element of the *note CPython: 6e2. implementation.  Programmers can
     call the *note sys.getrefcount(): 4326. function to return the
     reference count for a particular object.

paquet classique

     *note paquet: 1ed6. traditionnel, tel qu'un dossier contenant un
     fichier ‘__init__.py’.

     Voir aussi *note paquet-espace de nommage: 1c26.

REPL

     An acronym for the "read–eval–print loop", another name for the
     *note interactive: 168. interpreter shell.

__slots__

     Déclaration dans une classe qui économise de la mémoire en
     pré-allouant de l'espace pour les attributs des instances et qui
     élimine le dictionnaire (des attributs) des instances.  Bien que
     populaire, cette technique est difficile à maîtriser et devrait
     être réservée à de rares cas où un grand nombre d'instances dans
     une application devient un sujet critique pour la mémoire.

séquence

     An *note iterable: 1207. which supports efficient element access
     using integer indices via the *note __getitem__(): 280. special
     method and defines a *note __len__(): 1f1c. method that returns the
     length of the sequence.  Some built-in sequence types are *note
     list: 5fe, *note str: 437, *note tuple: 366, and *note bytes: 1bd.
     Note that *note dict: 253. also supports *note __getitem__(): 280.
     and ‘__len__()’, but is considered a mapping rather than a sequence
     because the lookups use arbitrary *note hashable: 5fd. keys rather
     than integers.

     The *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11a3. abstract base class
     defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just *note
     __getitem__(): 280. and *note __len__(): 1f1c, adding ‘count()’,
     ‘index()’, *note __contains__(): 1f17, and *note __reversed__():
     1f16.  Types that implement this expanded interface can be
     registered explicitly using *note register(): 1074.  For more
     documentation on sequence methods generally, see *note Common
     Sequence Operations: 2166.

ensemble en compréhension (ou ensemble en intension)

     Une façon compacte de traiter tout ou partie des éléments d'un
     itérable et de renvoyer un 'set' avec les résultats.  ‘results = {c
     for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}’ génère l'ensemble
     contenant les lettres « r » et « d » ‘{'r', 'd'}’.  Voir *note
     Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires: 5bc.

distribution simple

     Forme de distribution, comme les *note fonction génériques: 9e1, où
     l'implémentation est choisie en fonction du type d'un seul
     argument.

tranche

     ('slice' en anglais), un objet contenant habituellement une portion
     de *note séquence: 4de.  Une tranche est créée en utilisant la
     notation ‘[]’ avec des ‘:’ entre les nombres lorsque plusieurs sont
     fournis, comme dans ‘variable_name[1:3:5]’.  Cette notation utilise
     des objets *note slice: 455. en interne.

soft deprecated

     A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code, but it is
     safe for already existing code to use it.  The API remains
     documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further.

     Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on
     removing the API and will not emit warnings.

     See PEP 387: Soft Deprecation(34).

méthode spéciale

     ('special method' en anglais) Méthode appelée implicitement par
     Python pour exécuter une opération sur un type, comme une addition.
     De telles méthodes ont des noms commençant et terminant par des
     doubles tirets bas.  Les méthodes spéciales sont documentées dans
     *note Méthodes spéciales: c5e.

instruction

     Une instruction ('statement' en anglais) est un composant d'un
     "bloc" de code.  Une instruction est soit une *note expression:
     1f3e, soit une ou plusieurs constructions basées sur un mot-clé,
     comme *note if: 2e8, *note while: 1bc2. ou *note for: 2e7.

static type checker

     An external tool that reads Python code and analyzes it, looking
     for issues such as incorrect types.  See also *note type hints:
     1f3a. and the *note typing: 103. module.

référence forte

     In Python's C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object
     which is owned by the code holding the reference.  The strong
     reference is taken by calling *note Py_INCREF(): 55c. when the
     reference is created and released with *note Py_DECREF(): 55d. when
     the reference is deleted.

     Une référence forte est créée à l'aide de la fonction *note
     Py_NewRef(): 888.  Il faut normalement appeler *note Py_DECREF():
     55d. dessus avant de sortir de sa portée lexicale, sans quoi il y a
     une fuite de référence.

     Voir aussi *note référence empruntée: 334.

encodages de texte

     Une chaîne de caractères en Python est une suite de points de code
     Unicode (dans l'intervalle ‘U+0000’-‘U+10FFFF’).  Pour stocker ou
     transmettre une chaîne, il est nécessaire de la sérialiser en suite
     d'octets.

     Sérialiser une chaîne de caractères en une suite d'octets s'appelle
     « encoder » et recréer la chaîne à partir de la suite d'octets
     s'appelle « décoder ».

     Il existe de multiples *note codecs: da8. pour la sérialisation de
     texte, que l'on regroupe sous l'expression « encodages de texte ».

fichier texte

     *note Objet fichier: 11a2. capable de lire et d'écrire des objets
     *note str: 437.  Souvent, un fichier texte ('text file' en anglais)
     accède en fait à un flux de donnée en octets et gère l'*note
     encodage de texte: 2135. automatiquement.  Des exemples de fichiers
     textes sont les fichiers ouverts en mode texte (‘'r'’ ou ‘'w'’),
     *note sys.stdin: 52a, *note sys.stdout: ac6. et les instances de
     *note io.StringIO: f14.

     Voir aussi *note fichier binaire: 1c45. pour un objet fichier
     capable de lire et d'écrire des *note objets octets-compatibles:
     d1d.

token

     A small unit of source code, generated by the *note lexical
     analyzer: 1e36. (also called the 'tokenizer').  Names, numbers,
     strings, operators, newlines and similar are represented by tokens.

     The *note tokenize: fa. module exposes Python's lexical analyzer.
     The *note token: f9. module contains information on the various
     types of tokens.

chaîne entre triple guillemets

     Chaîne qui est délimitée par trois guillemets simples (‘'’) ou
     trois guillemets doubles (‘"’).  Bien qu'elle ne fournisse aucune
     fonctionnalité qui ne soit pas disponible avec une chaîne entre
     guillemets, elle est utile pour de nombreuses raisons.  Elle vous
     autorise à insérer des guillemets simples et doubles dans une
     chaîne sans avoir à les protéger et elle peut s'étendre sur
     plusieurs lignes sans avoir à terminer chaque ligne par un ‘\’.
     Elle est ainsi particulièrement utile pour les chaînes de
     documentation ('docstrings').

type

     The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is;
     every object has a type.  An object's type is accessible as its
     *note __class__: 1463. attribute or can be retrieved with
     ‘type(obj)’.

alias de type

     Synonyme d'un type, créé en affectant le type à un identifiant.

     Les alias de types sont utiles pour simplifier les *note
     indications de types: 1f3a.  Par exemple :

          def remove_gray_shades(
                  colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]:
              pass

     pourrait être rendu plus lisible comme ceci :

          Color = tuple[int, int, int]

          def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]:
              pass

     Voir *note typing: 103. et la PEP 484(35), qui décrivent cette
     fonctionnalité.

indication de type

     L'*note annotation: 443. qui spécifie le type attendu pour une
     variable, un attribut de classe, un paramètre de fonction ou une
     valeur de retour.

     Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but they are
     useful to *note static type checkers: 26a.  They can also aid IDEs
     with code completion and refactoring.

     Les indications de type de variables globales, d'attributs de
     classe et de fonctions, mais pas de variables locales, peuvent être
     consultées en utilisant *note typing.get_type_hints(): 69e.

     Voir *note typing: 103. et la PEP 484(36), qui décrivent cette
     fonctionnalité.

retours à la ligne universels

     Une manière d'interpréter des flux de texte dans lesquels sont
     reconnues toutes les fins de ligne suivantes : la convention Unix
     ‘'\n'’, la convention Windows ‘'\r\n'’ et l'ancienne convention
     Macintosh ‘'\r'’.  Voir la PEP 278(37) et la PEP 3116(38), ainsi
     que la fonction *note bytes.splitlines(): 21d2. pour d'autres
     usages.

annotation de variable

     *note annotation: 443. d'une variable ou d'un attribut de classe.

     Lorsque vous annotez une variable ou un attribut de classe,
     l'affectation est facultative :

          class C:
              field: 'annotation'

     Les annotations de variables sont généralement utilisées pour des
     *note indications de types: 1f3a. : par exemple, cette variable
     devrait prendre des valeurs de type *note int: 254. :

          count: int = 0

     La syntaxe d'annotation de variable est expliquée dans la
     section *note Les assignations annotées: 206a.

     Reportez-vous à *note annotation de fonction: 1bf5, à la PEP
     484(39) et à la PEP 526(40) qui décrivent cette fonctionnalité.
     Voir aussi *note Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations: 7c5.
     sur les bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations.

environnement virtuel

     Environnement d'exécution isolé (en mode coopératif) qui permet aux
     utilisateurs de Python et aux applications d'installer et de mettre
     à jour des paquets sans interférer avec d'autres applications
     Python fonctionnant sur le même système.

     Voir aussi *note venv: 110.

machine virtuelle

     Ordinateur défini entièrement par du logiciel.  La machine
     virtuelle ('virtual machine') de Python exécute le *note code
     intermédiaire: 185. produit par le compilateur de 'bytecode'.

Le zen de Python

     Liste de principes et de préceptes utiles pour comprendre et
     utiliser le langage.  Cette liste peut être obtenue en tapant
     "‘import this’" dans une invite Python interactive.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (10) https://gvanrossum.github.io/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (15) https://www.python.org

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/

   (38) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: About this documentation,  Next: S'attaquer aux bogues,  Prev: Glossaire,  Up: Top

13 About this documentation
***************************

Python's documentation is generated from reStructuredText(1) sources
using Sphinx(2), a documentation generator originally created for Python
and now maintained as an independent project.

Le développement de la documentation et de ses outils est entièrement
basé sur le volontariat, tout comme Python.  Si vous voulez contribuer,
allez voir la page *note S'attaquer aux bogues: 48b8. qui contient des
informations pour vous y aider.  Les nouveaux volontaires sont toujours
les bienvenus !

Merci beaucoup à :

   * Fred L. Drake, Jr., the creator of the original Python
     documentation toolset and author of much of the content;

   * le projet Docutils(3) pour avoir créé 'reStructuredText' et la
     suite d'outils 'Docutils' ;

   * Fredrik Lundh pour son projet 'Alternative Python Reference', dont
     Sphinx a pris beaucoup de bonnes idées.

* Menu:

* Contributors to the Python documentation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (3) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Contributors to the Python documentation,  Up: About this documentation

13.1 Contributors to the Python documentation
=============================================

De nombreuses personnes ont contribué au langage Python, à sa
bibliothèque standard et à sa documentation.  Consultez Misc/ACKS(1)
dans les sources de la distribution Python pour avoir une liste
partielle des contributeurs.

Ce n'est que grâce aux suggestions et contributions de la communauté
Python que Python a une documentation si merveilleuse — Merci !

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Misc/ACKS


File: python.info,  Node: S'attaquer aux bogues,  Next: Copyright,  Prev: About this documentation,  Up: Top

14 S'attaquer aux bogues
************************

Python est un langage de programmation robuste réputé pour sa stabilité.
Afin de maintenir cette réputation, les développeurs souhaitent
connaître tout problème que vous pourriez rencontrer dans Python.

Il est parfois plus rapide de réparer les bogues soi-même et d'en
proposer les correctifs, ça simplifie le processus et implique moins de
monde.  Apprenez à *note contribuer: 50d4.

* Menu:

* Bogues de documentation::
* Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python::
* Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même::


File: python.info,  Node: Bogues de documentation,  Next: Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python,  Up: S'attaquer aux bogues

14.1 Bogues de documentation
============================

Si vous trouvez un bogue dans cette documentation ou si vous désirez
proposer une amélioration, si cela concerne aussi la documentation en
anglais, ouvrez un rapport sur le *note traqueur: 24b. décrivant en
anglais le bogue et où vous l'avez trouvé.  Si le problème ne touche que
la traduction en français, ouvrez un ticket sur
‘https://git.afpy.org/AFPy/python-docs-fr/issues’, ou venez nous en
toucher un mot sur le canal #python-fr sur 'libera.chat'
(‘https://kiwiirc.com/nextclient/#irc://irc.libera.chat’/#python-fr).
Si vous avez une suggestion de correction, merci de l'inclure également.

Vous pouvez aussi commenter une discussion sur le forum de discussion de
la documentation(1).

If you find a bug in the theme (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) of the
documentation, please submit a bug report on the python-doc-theme bug
tracker(2).

Si vous êtes limité par le temps, vous pouvez aussi envoyer un courriel
à <docs@python.org> (les bogues de comportement peuvent être envoyés à
<python-list@python.org>).  « docs@ » est une liste de diffusion gérée
par des volontaires, votre requête sera vue, mais elle peut prendre un
moment pour être traitée.

Voir aussi
..........

*note Bogues de documentation: 50d5.

     Liste des bogues de documentation soumis à l'outil de suivi des
     problèmes Python.

Outil de suivi des problèmes(3)

     Vue d'ensemble du processus pour proposer une amélioration avec
     l'outil de suivi.

Aider avec la documentation(4)

     Guide complet pour qui souhaite contribuer à la documentation
     Python.

Traductions de la Documentation(5)

     Liste de dépôts GitHub où la documentation est traduite, avec les
     personnes à contacter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26

   (2) https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme

   (3) https://devguide.python.org/tracker/

   (4) 
https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation

   (5) https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translating/


File: python.info,  Node: Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python,  Next: Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même,  Prev: Bogues de documentation,  Up: S'attaquer aux bogues

14.2 Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python
==================================================

Les rapports concernant un problème relatif à Python lui-même doivent
être soumis 'via' l'outil de suivi des problèmes de GitHub
(‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’).  Le gestionnaire de
tickets propose un formulaire Web permettant de saisir des informations
pertinentes à soumettre aux développeurs.

La première étape pour remplir un rapport est de déterminer si le
problème a déjà été rapporté.  L'avantage de cette approche, en plus
d'économiser du temps aux développeurs, est d'apprendre ce qui a été
fait pour le résoudre ; il se peut que le problème soit déjà résolu dans
la prochaine version, ou que des informations complémentaires soient
attendues (auquel cas votre contribution est la bienvenue !).  Pour ce
faire, cherchez dans le gestionnaire de tickets grâce à la boîte de
recherche en haut de la page.

Si le problème que vous soumettez n'est pas déjà dans la liste,
connectez-vous à GitHub.  Si vous n'avez pas déjà un compte GitHub,
créez un nouveau compte en cliquant sur le lien « Sign Up ».  Il n'est
pas possible de soumettre un rapport de bogue de manière anonyme.

Une fois connecté, vous pouvez rapporter un problème.  Sélectionnez le
bouton 'New issue' dans la barre en haut pour ouvrir un nouveau
formulaire de rapport.

Le formulaire de rapport contient deux champs, 'Title' et 'Comment'.

Dans le champ 'Title', entrez une 'très' brève description du problème
rencontré : dix mots ou moins suffiront.

Dans le champ « Commentaire », décrivez le problème de manière
détaillée, incluant ce à quoi vous vous attendiez et ce qui s'est
vraiment produit.  Assurez-vous d'y inclure les éventuels modules
d'extensions impliqués et la plateforme matérielle et logicielle vous
utilisiez (en incluant les informations de versions).

Chaque rapport sera attribué à un développeur qui déterminera ce qui est
nécessaire d'entreprendre pour corriger le problème.  Vous recevrez une
notification à chaque action concernant le rapport.

Voir aussi
..........

Comment signaler des bogues de manière efficace(1) (en anglais)

     Article qui entre dans les détails sur la manière de créer un
     rapport de bogue utile.  Il décrit quel genre d'information est
     utile et pourquoi elle est utile.

Guide pour la rédaction de rapports de bogues(2)

     Conseils pour écrire un bon rapport de bogue.  Certains sont
     spécifiques au projet Mozilla mais présentent des bonnes pratiques
     générales.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html

   (2) https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html


File: python.info,  Node: Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même,  Prev: Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python,  Up: S'attaquer aux bogues

14.3 Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même
==============================================

Au-delà de simplement remonter les bogues que vous trouvez, il est aussi
apprécié d'y attacher des correctifs.  Vous pouvez trouver plus
d'informations pour débuter la rédaction de correctifs dans le Python
Developer's Guide(1).  Si vous avez des questions, le core-mentorship
mailing list(2) est un endroit amical pour obtenir des réponses à toutes
les questions à propos du processus de corrections de bugs dans Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Copyright,  Next: Histoire et licence,  Prev: S'attaquer aux bogues,  Up: Top

15 Copyright
************

Python et cette documentation sont :

Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation.  Tous droits réservés.

Copyright © 2000 'BeOpen.com'.  Tous droits réservés.

Copyright © 1995-2000 'Corporation for National Research Initiatives'.
Tous droits réservés.

Copyright © 1991-1995 'Stichting Mathematisch Centrum'.  Tous droits
réservés.

__________________________________________________________________

Voir *note Histoire et licence: 50da. pour des informations complètes
concernant la licence et les permissions.


File: python.info,  Node: Histoire et licence,  Next: Index des modules Python,  Prev: Copyright,  Up: Top

16 Histoire et licence
**********************

* Menu:

* Histoire du logiciel::
* Conditions générales pour accéder à, ou utiliser, Python: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python.
* Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers::


File: python.info,  Node: Histoire du logiciel,  Next: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python,  Up: Histoire et licence

16.1 Histoire du logiciel
=========================

Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting
Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see ‘https://www.cwi.nl’) in the Netherlands
as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python's
principal author, although it includes many contributions from others.

In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for
National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see
‘https://www.cnri.reston.va.us’) in Reston, Virginia where he released
several versions of the software.

In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to
BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team.  In October of the same
year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope
Corporation.  In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
‘https://www.python.org/psf/’) was formed, a non-profit organization
created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property.  Zope
Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF.

All Python releases are Open Source (see ‘https://opensource.org’ for
the Open Source Definition).  Historically, most, but not all, Python
releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the
various releases.

Version              Dérivé de          Année            Propriétaire     GPL-compatible?  (1)
                                                                          
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
0.9.0 à 1.2          n/a                1991-1995        CWI              oui
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.3 à 1.5.2          1.2                1995-1999        CNRI             oui
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6                  1.5.2              2000             CNRI             non
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0                  1.6                2000             BeOpen.com       non
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6.1                1.6                2001             CNRI             yes (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1                  2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              non
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0.1                2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              oui
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.1                2.1+2.0.1          2001             PSF              oui
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.2                2.1.1              2002             PSF              oui
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.3                2.1.2              2002             PSF              oui
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.2 et ultérieure    2.1.1              2001-maintenant  PSF              oui
                                                                          

     Note: 
       1. GPL-compatible doesn't mean that we're distributing Python
          under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you
          distribute a modified version without making your changes open
          source.  The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to
          combine Python with other software that is released under the
          GPL; the others don't.

       2. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible,
          because its license has a choice of law clause.  According to
          CNRI, however, Stallman's lawyer has told CNRI's lawyer that
          1.6.1 is "not incompatible" with the GPL.

Merci aux nombreux bénévoles qui ont travaillé sous la direction de
Guido pour rendre ces versions possibles.


File: python.info,  Node: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python,  Next: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers,  Prev: Histoire du logiciel,  Up: Histoire et licence

16.2 Conditions générales pour accéder à, ou utiliser, Python
=============================================================

Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software
Foundation License Version 2.

Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the
documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the
*note Zero-Clause BSD license: 50df.

Certains logiciels faisant partie de Python sont soumis à d'autres
licences.  Ces licences sont incluses avec le code lié à celles-ci.
Voir *note Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers: 50e0.
pour une liste non exhaustive de ces licences.

* Menu:

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN.COM POUR PYTHON 2.0: LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN COM POUR PYTHON 2 0.
* LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1.6.1: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1 6 1.
* LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0.9.0 à 1.2: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0 9 0 à 1 2.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2,  Next: LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN COM POUR PYTHON 2 0,  Up: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python

16.2.1 PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2
---------------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
        the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this
        software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
        copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
        Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the
        derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
        agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python.

     4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON
        FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
        of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.

     8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees
        to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN COM POUR PYTHON 2 0,  Next: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1 6 1,  Prev: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2,  Up: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python

16.2.2 LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN.COM POUR PYTHON 2.0
-------------------------------------------------------

LICENCE D'UTILISATION LIBRE BEOPEN PYTHON VERSION 1

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
        160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
        ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
        form and its associated documentation ("the Software").

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
        BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
        to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
        works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
        Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.

     3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
        MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
        ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
        by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
        Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
        agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
        ‘http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html’ may be used according to the permissions
        granted on that web page.

     7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
        bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1 6 1,  Next: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0 9 0 à 1 2,  Prev: LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN COM POUR PYTHON 2 0,  Up: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python

16.2.3 LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1.6.1
---------------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
        Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
        ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
        otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
        associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
        provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
        i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
        Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
        Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
        is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
        Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
        internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
        1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
        internet using the following URL: ‘http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013’".

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
        work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
        include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.

     4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
        MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
        BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
        OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
        PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
        law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
        law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
        Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
        Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
        1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
        under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
        Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
        with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
        this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
        partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
        does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
        sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
        party.

     8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
        or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
        conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0 9 0 à 1 2,  Next: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION,  Prev: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1 6 1,  Up: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python

16.2.4 LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0.9.0 à 1.2
--------------------------------------------------------

     Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
     Netherlands.  All rights reserved.

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
     the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
     notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
     the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
     publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
     EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
     OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
     DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION,  Prev: LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0 9 0 à 1 2,  Up: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python

16.2.5 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION
-------------------------------------------------------------------

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
     purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
     REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
     INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM
     LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR
     OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers,  Prev: Conditions générales pour accéder à ou utiliser Python,  Up: Histoire et licence

16.3 Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers
=======================================================

Cette section est une liste incomplète mais grandissante de licences et
remerciements pour les logiciels tiers incorporés dans la distribution
de Python.

* Menu:

* Mersenne twister::
* Interfaces de connexion (sockets): Interfaces de connexion sockets.
* Interfaces de connexion asynchrones::
* Gestion de témoin (cookie): Gestion de témoin cookie.
* Traçage d'exécution::
* Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode::
* Appel de procédures distantes en XML (RPC, pour Remote Procedure Call): Appel de procédures distantes en XML RPC pour Remote Procedure Call.
* test_epoll::
* Select kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod et dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C::
* mimalloc::
* asyncio: asyncio<12>.
* Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS): Global Unbounded Sequences GUS.


File: python.info,  Node: Mersenne twister,  Next: Interfaces de connexion sockets,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.1 Mersenne twister
-----------------------

The ‘_random’ C extension underlying the *note random: b7. module
includes code based on a download from
‘http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html’.
The following are the verbatim comments from the original code:

     A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
     Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.

     Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
     or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).

     Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

      1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

      2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
         documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

      3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
         products derived from this software without specific prior written
         permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
     CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
     EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
     PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
     PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


     Any feedback is very welcome.
     http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
     email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)


File: python.info,  Node: Interfaces de connexion sockets,  Next: Interfaces de connexion asynchrones,  Prev: Mersenne twister,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.2 Interfaces de connexion ('sockets')
------------------------------------------

The *note socket: cb. module uses the functions, ‘getaddrinfo()’, and
‘getnameinfo()’, which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE
Project, ‘https://www.wide.ad.jp/’.

     Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
        may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
        without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Interfaces de connexion asynchrones,  Next: Gestion de témoin cookie,  Prev: Interfaces de connexion sockets,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.3 Interfaces de connexion asynchrones
------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.asynchat’ and ‘test.support.asyncore’ modules contain
the following notice:

     Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing

                             All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
     Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior
     permission.

     SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
     INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
     NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
     CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
     OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
     CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Gestion de témoin cookie,  Next: Traçage d'exécution,  Prev: Interfaces de connexion asynchrones,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.4 Gestion de témoin ('cookie')
-----------------------------------

Le module *note http.cookies: 70. contient la note suivante :

     Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>

                    All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
     and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
     ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Traçage d'exécution,  Next: Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode,  Prev: Gestion de témoin cookie,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.5 Traçage d'exécution
--------------------------

Le module *note trace: fc. contient la note suivante :

     portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
     err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
     Python 2.2 license.
     Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
     http://zooko.com/
     mailto:zooko@zooko.com

     Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Andrew Dalke

     Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.


     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
     and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
     Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.


File: python.info,  Node: Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode,  Next: Appel de procédures distantes en XML RPC pour Remote Procedure Call,  Prev: Traçage d'exécution,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.6 Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode
-----------------------------------------

The ‘uu’ codec contains the following notice:

     Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
     Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
                            All Rights Reserved
     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
     provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
     both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
     not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
     of the software without specific, written prior permission.
     LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
     THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
     ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
     OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

     Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
     - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
       between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
       version is still 5 times faster, though.
     - Arguments more compliant with Python standard


File: python.info,  Node: Appel de procédures distantes en XML RPC pour Remote Procedure Call,  Next: test_epoll,  Prev: Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.7 Appel de procédures distantes en XML ('RPC', pour 'Remote Procedure Call')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Le module *note xmlrpc.client: 12d. contient la note suivante :

         The XML-RPC client interface is

     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh

     By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
     associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
     and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
     hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
     all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
     TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
     ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
     BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
     DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: test_epoll,  Next: Select kqueue,  Prev: Appel de procédures distantes en XML RPC pour Remote Procedure Call,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.8 test_epoll
-----------------

The ‘test.test_epoll’ module contains the following notice:

     Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Select kqueue,  Next: SipHash24,  Prev: test_epoll,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.9 Select kqueue
--------------------

Le module *note select: c0. contient la note suivante pour l'interface
'kqueue' :

     Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: SipHash24,  Next: strtod et dtoa,  Prev: Select kqueue,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.10 SipHash24
-----------------

Le fichier ‘Python/pyhash.c’ contient une implémentation par Marek
Majkowski de l'algorithme 'SipHash24' de Dan Bernstein.  Il contient la
note suivante :

     <MIT License>
     Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
     all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
     </MIT License>

     Original location:
        https://github.com/majek/csiphash/

     Solution inspired by code from:
        Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
        djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
        Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)


File: python.info,  Node: strtod et dtoa,  Next: OpenSSL<2>,  Prev: SipHash24,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.11 'strtod' et 'dtoa'
--------------------------

The file ‘Python/dtoa.c’, which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for
conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of
the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c’.
The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the
following copyright and licensing notice:

     /****************************************************************
      *
      * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
      *
      * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
      *
      * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
      * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
      * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
      * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
      * documentation for such software.
      *
      * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
      * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
      * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
      * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
      *
      ***************************************************************/


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL<2>,  Next: expat,  Prev: strtod et dtoa,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.12 OpenSSL
---------------

The modules *note hashlib: 67, *note posix: ac. and *note ssl: cf. use
the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the
operating system.  Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for
Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy
of the OpenSSL license here.  For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later
releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies:

                                   Apache License
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                          https://www.apache.org/licenses/

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File: python.info,  Node: expat,  Next: libffi,  Prev: OpenSSL<2>,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.13 expat
-------------

The *note pyexpat: 125. extension is built using an included copy of the
expat sources unless the build is configured ‘--with-system-expat’:

     Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
                                    and Clark Cooper

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
     CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
     SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: libffi,  Next: zlib<3>,  Prev: expat,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.14 libffi
--------------

The ‘_ctypes’ C extension underlying the *note ctypes: 2a. module is
built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is
configured ‘--with-system-libffi’:

     Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
     HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
     DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<3>,  Next: cfuhash,  Prev: libffi,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.15 zlib
------------

Le module *note zlib: 132. est compilé en utilisant une copie du code
source de 'zlib' si la version de 'zlib' trouvée sur le système est trop
vieille pour être utilisée :

     Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler

     This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
     warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
     arising from the use of this software.

     Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
     including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
     freely, subject to the following restrictions:

     1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
        claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
        in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
        appreciated but is not required.

     2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
        misrepresented as being the original software.

     3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.

     Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
     jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu


File: python.info,  Node: cfuhash,  Next: libmpdec,  Prev: zlib<3>,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.16 cfuhash
---------------

L'implémentation des dictionnaires, utilisée par le module *note
tracemalloc: fe. est basée sur le projet 'cfuhash' :

     Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
     All rights reserved.

     This code is released under the BSD license:

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

       * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

       * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
         copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
         disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
         with the distribution.

       * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
         contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
         from this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
     FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
     (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
     STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
     ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
     OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: libmpdec,  Next: Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C,  Prev: cfuhash,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.17 libmpdec
----------------

The ‘_decimal’ C extension underlying the *note decimal: 36. module is
built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is
configured ‘--with-system-libmpdec’:

     Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C,  Next: mimalloc,  Prev: libmpdec,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.18 Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C
-------------------------------------

Les tests de C14N version 2.0 du module *note test: e1.
(‘Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/’) proviennent du site du W3C à l'adresse
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/’ et sont distribués sous
licence BSD modifiée :

     Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang),
     All Rights Reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice,
       this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright
       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be
       used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without
       specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
     OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
     SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: mimalloc,  Next: asyncio<12>,  Prev: Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.19 mimalloc
----------------

MIT License:

     Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
     copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
     IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
     FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<12>,  Next: Global Unbounded Sequences GUS,  Prev: mimalloc,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.20 'asyncio'
-----------------

Parts of the *note asyncio: a. module are incorporated from uvloop
0.16(1), which is distributed under the MIT license:

     Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc.  http://magic.io

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Global Unbounded Sequences GUS,  Prev: asyncio<12>,  Up: Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

16.3.21 Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS)
----------------------------------------

The file ‘Python/qsbr.c’ is adapted from FreeBSD's "Global Unbounded
Sequences" safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c(1).  The file is
distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License:

     Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org>

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice unmodified, this list of conditions, and the following
        disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
     OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
     NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF
     THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd-src/blob/main/sys/kern/subr_smr.c


File: python.info,  Node: Index des modules Python,  Next: Index,  Prev: Histoire et licence,  Up: Top

Index des modules Python
************************

* Menu:

* __future__: 0. Future statement definitions
* __main__: 1. The environment where top-level code is run. Covers
                        command-line interfaces, import-time
                        behavior, and ''__name__ ==
                        '__main__'''.
* _thread: 2. Low-level threading API.
* _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface
                        to Tcl/Tk.
* abc: 4. Abstract base classes according to :pep:'3119'.
* aifc: 5. Removed in 3.13.
* argparse: 6. Command-line option and argument parsing library.
* array: 7. Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric
                        values.
* ast: 8. Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
* asynchat: 9. Removed in 3.12.
* asyncio: a. Asynchronous I/O.
* asyncore: b. Removed in 3.12.
* atexit: c. Register and execute cleanup functions.
* audioop: d. Removed in 3.13.
* base64: e. RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data
                        Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85
* bdb: f. Debugger framework.
* binascii: 10. Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-
                        encoded binary representations.
* bisect: 11. Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
* builtins: 12. The module that provides the built-in namespace.
* bz2: 13. Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
* calendar: 14. Functions for working with calendars, including
                        some emulation of the Unix cal program.
* cgi: 15. Removed in 3.13.
* cgitb: 16. Removed in 3.13.
* chunk: 17. Removed in 3.13.
* cmath: 18. Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
* cmd: 19. Build line-oriented command interpreters.
* code: 1a. Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
* codecs: 1b. Encode and decode data and streams.
* codeop: 1c. Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
* collections: 1d. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: 1e. Abstract base classes for containers
* colorsys: 1f. Conversion functions between RGB and other color
                        systems.
* compileall: 20. Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a
                        directory tree.
* concurrent.futures: 21. Execute computations concurrently using threads or
                        processes.
* configparser: 22. Configuration file parser.
* contextlib: 23. Utilities for with-statement contexts.
* contextvars: 24. Context Variables
* copy: 25. Shallow and deep copy operations.
* copyreg: 26. Register pickle support functions.
* cProfile: 27.
* crypt: 28. Removed in 3.13.
* csv: 29. Write and read tabular data to and from delimited
                        files.
* ctypes: 2a. A foreign function library for Python.
* curses: 2b. An interface to the curses library, providing
                        portable terminal handling.
* curses.ascii: 2c. Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII
                        characters.
* curses.panel: 2d. A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses
                        windows.
* curses.textpad: 2e. Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
* dataclasses: 2f. Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
* datetime: 30. Basic date and time types.
* dbm: 31. Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
* dbm.dumb: 32. Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
* dbm.gnu: 33. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: 34. The New Database Manager
* dbm.sqlite3: 35. SQLite backend for dbm
* decimal: 36. Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic
                        Specification.
* difflib: 37. Helpers for computing differences between objects.
* dis: 38. Disassembler for Python bytecode.
* distutils: 39. Removed in 3.12.
* doctest: 3a. Test pieces of code within docstrings.
* email: 3b. Package supporting the parsing,
                        manipulating, and generating email messages.
* email.charset: 3c. Character Sets
* email.contentmanager: 3d. Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
* email.encoders: 3e. Encoders for email message payloads.
* email.errors: 3f. The exception classes used by the email package.
* email.generator: 40. Generate flat text email messages from a message
                        structure.
* email.header: 41. Representing non-ASCII headers
* email.headerregistry: 42. Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
* email.iterators: 43. Iterate over a message object tree.
* email.message: 44. The base class representing email messages.
* email.mime: 45. Build MIME messages.
* email.mime.application: 46.
* email.mime.audio: 47.
* email.mime.base: 48.
* email.mime.image: 49.
* email.mime.message: 4a.
* email.mime.multipart: 4b.
* email.mime.nonmultipart: 4c.
* email.mime.text: 4d.
* email.parser: 4e. Parse flat text email messages to produce a message
                        object structure.
* email.policy: 4f. Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
* email.utils: 50. Miscellaneous email package utilities.
* encodings.idna: 51. Internationalized Domain Names implementation
* encodings.mbcs: 52. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: 53. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
* ensurepip: 54. Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing
                        Python installation or virtual environment.
* enum: 55. Implementation of an enumeration class.
* errno: 56. Standard errno system symbols.
* faulthandler: 57. Dump the Python traceback.
* fcntl: 58. The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
* filecmp: 59. Compare files efficiently.
* fileinput: 5a. Loop over standard input or a list of files.
* fnmatch: 5b. Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
* fractions: 5c. Rational numbers.
* ftplib: 5d. FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* functools: 5e. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects.
* gc: 5f. Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
* getopt: 60. Portable parser for command line options; support both
                        short and long option names.
* getpass: 61. Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the
                        userid.
* gettext: 62. Multilingual internationalization services.
* glob: 63. Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
* graphlib: 64. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
* grp: 65. The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
* gzip: 66. Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression
                        using file objects.
* hashlib: 67. Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
* heapq: 68. Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
* hmac: 69. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC)
                        implementation
* html: 6a. Helpers for manipulating HTML.
* html.entities: 6b. Definitions of HTML general entities.
* html.parser: 6c. A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
* http: 6d. HTTP status codes and messages
* http.client: 6e. HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
* http.cookiejar: 6f. Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
* http.cookies: 70. Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
* http.server: 71. HTTP server and request handlers.
* idlelib: 72. Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
* imaplib: 73. IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
* imghdr: 74. Removed in 3.13.
* imp: 75. Removed in 3.12.
* importlib: 76. The implementation of the import machinery.
* importlib.abc: 77. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: 78. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.metadata: 79. Accessing package metadata
* importlib.resources: 7a. Package resource reading, opening, and
                        access
* importlib.resources.abc: 7b. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.util: 7c. Utility code for importers
* inspect: 7d. Extract information and source code from live objects.
* io: 7e. Core tools for working with streams.
* ipaddress: 7f. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
* itertools: 80. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
* json: 81. Encode and decode the JSON format.
* json.tool: 82. A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON.
* keyword: 83. Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
* linecache: 84. Provides random access to individual lines from text
                        files.
* locale: 85. Internationalization services.
* logging: 86. Flexible event logging system for applications.
* logging.config: 87. Configuration of the logging module.
* logging.handlers: 88. Handlers for the logging module.
* lzma: 89. A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
* mailbox: 8a. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mailcap: 8b. Removed in 3.13.
* marshal: 8c. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back
                        (with different constraints).
* math: 8d. Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
* mimetypes: 8e. Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
* mmap: 8f. Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
* modulefinder: 90. Find modules used by a script.
* msilib: 91. Removed in 3.13.
* msvcrt: 92. Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++
                        runtime.
* multiprocessing: 93. Process-based parallelism.
* multiprocessing.connection: 94. API for dealing with sockets.
* multiprocessing.dummy: 95. Dumb wrapper around threading.
* multiprocessing.managers: 96. Share data between process with shared objects.
* multiprocessing.pool: 97. Create pools of processes.
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: 98. Provides shared memory for direct access
                                 across processes.
* multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 99. Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
* netrc: 9a. Loading of .netrc files.
* nis: 9b. Removed in 3.13.
* nntplib: 9c. Removed in 3.13.
* numbers: 9d. Numeric abstract base classes (Complex,
                        Real, Integral, etc.).
* operator: 9e. Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
* optparse: 9f. Command-line option parsing library.
* os: a0. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
* os.path: a1. Operations on pathnames.
* ossaudiodev: a2. Removed in 3.13.
* pathlib: a3. Object-oriented filesystem paths
* pdb: a4. The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
* pickle: a5. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
* pickletools: a6. Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols
                        and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some
                        useful functions.
* pipes: a7. Removed in 3.13.
* pkgutil: a8. Utilities for the import system.
* platform: a9. Retrieves as much platform identifying data as
                        possible.
* plistlib: aa. Generate and parse Apple plist files.
* poplib: ab. POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
* posix: ac. The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via
                        module os).
* pprint: ad. Data pretty printer.
* profile: ae. Python source profiler.
* pstats: af. Statistics object for use with the profiler.
* pty: b0. Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
* pwd: b1. The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
* py_compile: b2. Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
* pyclbr: b3. Supports information extraction for a Python module
                        browser.
* pydoc: b4. Documentation generator and online help system.
* queue: b5. A synchronized queue class.
* quopri: b6. Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-
                        printable encoding.
* random: b7. Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common
                        distributions.
* re: b8. Regular expression operations.
* readline: b9. GNU readline support for Python.
* reprlib: ba. Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
* resource: bb. An interface to provide resource usage information on
                        the current process.
* rlcompleter: bc. Python identifier completion, suitable for the
                        GNU readline library.
* runpy: bd. Locate and run Python modules without importing them
                        first.
* sched: be. General purpose event scheduler.
* secrets: bf. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
* select: c0. Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
* selectors: c1. High-level I/O multiplexing.
* shelve: c2. Python object persistence.
* shlex: c3. Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
* shutil: c4. High-level file operations, including copying.
* signal: c5. Set handlers for asynchronous events.
* site: c6. Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
* sitecustomize: c7.
* smtpd: c8. Removed in 3.12.
* smtplib: c9. SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* sndhdr: ca. Removed in 3.13.
* socket: cb. Low-level networking interface.
* socketserver: cc. A framework for network servers.
* spwd: cd. Removed in 3.13.
* sqlite3: ce. A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
* ssl: cf. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* stat: d0. Utilities for interpreting the results of
                        os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat().
* statistics: d1. Mathematical statistics functions
* string: d2. Common string operations.
* stringprep: d3. String preparation, as per RFC 3453
* struct: d4. Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
* subprocess: d5. Subprocess management.
* sunau: d6. Removed in 3.13.
* symtable: d7. Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
* sys: d8. Access system-specific parameters and functions.
* sys.monitoring: d9. Access and control event monitoring
* sysconfig: da. Python's configuration information
* syslog: db. An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
* tabnanny: dc. Tool for detecting white space related problems in
                        Python source files in a directory tree.
* tarfile: dd. Read and write tar-format archive files.
* telnetlib: de. Removed in 3.13.
* tempfile: df. Generate temporary files and directories.
* termios: e0. POSIX style tty control.
* test: e1. Regression tests package containing the testing suite
                        for Python.
* test.regrtest: e2. Drives the regression test suite.
* test.support: e3. Support for Python's regression test suite.
* test.support.bytecode_helper: e4. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation.
* test.support.import_helper: e5. Support for import tests.
* test.support.os_helper: e6. Support for os tests.
* test.support.script_helper: e7. Support for Python's script execution tests.
* test.support.socket_helper: e8. Support for socket tests.
* test.support.threading_helper: e9. Support for threading tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper: ea. Support for warnings tests.
* textwrap: eb. Text wrapping and filling
* threading: ec. Thread-based parallelism.
* time: ed. Time access and conversions.
* timeit: ee. Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
* tkinter: ef. Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
* tkinter.colorchooser: f0. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.commondialog: f1. Tkinter base class for dialogs
* tkinter.dnd: f2. Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
* tkinter.filedialog: f3. Dialog classes for file selection
* tkinter.font: f4. Tkinter font-wrapping class
* tkinter.messagebox: f5. Various types of alert dialogs
* tkinter.scrolledtext: f6. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
* tkinter.simpledialog: f7. Simple dialog windows
* tkinter.ttk: f8. Tk themed widget set
* token: f9. Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse
                        tree.
* tokenize: fa. Lexical scanner for Python source code.
* tomllib: fb. Parse TOML files.
* trace: fc. Trace or track Python statement execution.
* traceback: fd. Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
* tracemalloc: fe. Trace memory allocations.
* tty: ff. Utility functions that perform common terminal control
                        operations.
* turtle: 100. An educational framework for simple graphics
                        applications
* turtledemo: 101. A viewer for example turtle scripts
* types: 102. Names for built-in types.
* typing: 103. Support for type hints (see :pep:'484').
* unicodedata: 104. Access the Unicode Database.
* unittest: 105. Unit testing framework for Python.
* unittest.mock: 106. Mock object library.
* urllib: 107.
* urllib.error: 108. Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
* urllib.parse: 109. Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
* urllib.request: 10a. Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response: 10b. Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.robotparser: 10c. Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
                        fetchability of other URLs.
* usercustomize: 10d.
* uu: 10e. Removed in 3.13.
* uuid: 10f. UUID objects (universally unique identifiers)
                        according to RFC 4122
* venv: 110. Creation of virtual environments.
* warnings: 111. Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
* wave: 112. Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
* weakref: 113. Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
* webbrowser: 114. Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
* winreg: 115. Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows
                        registry.
* winsound: 116. Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
* wsgiref: 117. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
* wsgiref.handlers: 118. WSGI server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.headers: 119. WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server: 11a. A simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.types: 11b. WSGI types for static type checking
* wsgiref.util: 11c. WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.validate: 11d. WSGI conformance checker.
* xdrlib: 11e. Removed in 3.13.
* xml: 11f. Package containing XML processing modules
* xml.dom: 120. Document Object Model API for Python.
* xml.dom.minidom: 121. Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom: 122. Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX
                        events.
* xml.etree.ElementInclude: 123.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: 124. Implementation of the ElementTree API.
* xml.parsers.expat: 125. An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
* xml.parsers.expat.errors: 126.
* xml.parsers.expat.model: 127.
* xml.sax: 128. Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience
                        functions.
* xml.sax.handler: 129. Base classes for SAX event handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils: 12a. Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
* xml.sax.xmlreader: 12b. Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must
                        implement.
* xmlrpc: 12c. Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC.
* xmlrpc.client: 12d. XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server: 12e. Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
* zipapp: 12f. Manage executable Python zip archives
* zipfile: 130. Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
* zipimport: 131. Support for importing Python modules from ZIP
                        archives.
* zlib: 132. Low-level interface to compression and decompression
                        routines compatible with gzip.
* zoneinfo: 133. IANA time zone support


File: python.info,  Node: Index,  Prev: Index des modules Python,  Up: Top

Index
*****

[index]
* Menu:

* _ (underscore);gettext:                API GNU gettext.    (line   34)
* _ (underscore);in numeric literal:     Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line   13)
* _ (underscore);in numeric literal <1>: Entiers littéraux.  (line   41)
* _ (underscore);in string formatting:   Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line  131)
* __, identifiers:                       Mots-clés ad hoc.   (line   21)
* __abs__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   78)
* __abs__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  111)
* __add__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   83)
* __add__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __aenter__() (méthode object):         Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones.
                                                             (line   15)
* __aexit__() (méthode object):          Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones.
                                                             (line   20)
* __aiter__() (méthode object):          Itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   14)
* __all__:                               Importer * depuis un paquet.
                                                             (line    6)
* __all__ (optional module attribute):   L'instruction import.
                                                             (line   86)
* __all__ (package variable):            Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* __and__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   88)
* __and__() (méthode enum.Flag):         Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  480)
* __and__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __anext__() (méthode agen):            Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   10)
* __anext__() (méthode object):          Itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   18)
* __annotations__ (attribut function):   Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   45)
* __annotations__ (attribut module):     Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* __annotations__ (attribut type):       Special attributes. (line   36)
* __annotations__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __annotations__ (function attribute):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __annotations__ (module attribute):    Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __args__ (attribut genericalias):      Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques.
                                                             (line   16)
* __await__() (méthode object):          Objets attendables awaitable.
                                                             (line   15)
* __bases__ (attribut type):             Special attributes. (line   26)
* __bases__ (class attribute):           Special attributes. (line    6)
* __bool__() (méthode object):           Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  342)
* __bool__() (object method):            Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line   41)
* __bound__ (attribut typing.TypeVar):   Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  175)
* __breakpointhook__ (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  441)
* __buffer__() (méthode object):         Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   15)
* __bytes__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  136)
* __bytes__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  153)
* __bytes__() (méthode object):          Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  158)
* __cached__ (attribut module):          Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  139)
* __cached__ (module attribute):         Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __call__() (dans le module operator):  operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  225)
* __call__() (méthode argparse.Action):  Classes Action.     (line   28)
* __call__() (méthode email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  409)
* __call__() (méthode enum.EnumType):    Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* __call__() (méthode object):           Émulation d'objets appelables.
                                                             (line    6)
* __call__() (méthode weakref.finalize): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  295)
* __call__() (object method):            Appels.             (line  169)
* __callback__ (attribut weakref.ref):   weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  126)
* __cause__ (attribut BaseException):    Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* __cause__ (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* __cause__ (exception attribute):       L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line   30)
* __cause__ (exception attribute) <1>:   Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* __ceil__() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  191)
* __ceil__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  141)
* __class__ (attribut object):           Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.   (line  582)
* __class__ (instance attribute):        Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (method cell):               Création de l'objet classe.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (module attribute):          Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class_getitem__() (méthode de la classe object): Émulation de types génériques.
                                                             (line   34)
* __classcell__ (class namespace entry): Création de l'objet classe.
                                                             (line    6)
* __closure__ (attribut function):       Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* __closure__ (function attribute):      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __code__ (attribut function):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   36)
* __code__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __code__ (function object attribute):  Objets code.        (line    6)
* __complex__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  119)
* __concat__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  180)
* __constraints__ (attribut typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  184)
* __contains__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  185)
* __contains__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  189)
* __contains__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  328)
* __contains__() (méthode enum.EnumType): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* __contains__() (méthode enum.Flag):    Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  417)
* __contains__() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects. (line  208)
* __contains__() (méthode object):       Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line  155)
* __context__ (attribut BaseException):  Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* __context__ (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* __context__ (exception attribute):     L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line   30)
* __context__ (exception attribute) <1>: Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* __contravariant__ (attribut typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  163)
* __copy__() (copy protocol):            copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   85)
* __covariant__ (attribut typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  159)
* __debug__:                             L'instruction assert.
                                                             (line   21)
* __debug__ (variable de base):          Constantes natives. (line   69)
* __deepcopy__() (copy protocol):        copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   85)
* __default__ (attribut typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  427)
* __default__ (attribut typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  194)
* __default__ (attribut typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  326)
* __defaults__ (attribut function):      Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   30)
* __defaults__ (function attribute):     Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __del__() (méthode io.IOBase):         I/O Base Classes.   (line  164)
* __del__() (méthode object):            Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line   57)
* __delattr__() (méthode object):        Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs.
                                                             (line   71)
* __delete__() (méthode object):         Implémentation de descripteurs.
                                                             (line   45)
* __delitem__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  195)
* __delitem__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  238)
* __delitem__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  364)
* __delitem__() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line   78)
* __delitem__() (méthode mailbox.MH):    MH objects.         (line   79)
* __delitem__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line  111)
* __dict__ (attribut function):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   40)
* __dict__ (attribut module):            Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (attribut object):            Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* __dict__ (attribut type):              Special attributes. (line   21)
* __dict__ (class attribute):            Special attributes. (line    6)
* __dict__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (instance attribute):         Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (module attribute):           Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   49)
* __dir__ (module attribute):            Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__() (méthode enum.Enum):         Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  189)
* __dir__() (méthode enum.EnumType):     Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* __dir__() (méthode object):            Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs.
                                                             (line   81)
* __dir__() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.    (line  315)
* __displayhook__ (dans le module sys):  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  441)
* __divmod__() (méthode object):         Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __doc__ (attribut definition):         Attributs spéciaux. (line   26)
* __doc__ (attribut function):           Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   12)
* __doc__ (attribut method):             Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   19)
* __doc__ (attribut module):             Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* __doc__ (attribut type):               Special attributes. (line   32)
* __doc__ (class attribute):             Special attributes. (line    6)
* __doc__ (function attribute):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __doc__ (method attribute):            Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   10)
* __doc__ (module attribute):            Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __doc__ (module attribute) <1>:        Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __enter__() (méthode contextmanager):  Le type gestionnaire de contexte.
                                                             (line   13)
* __enter__() (méthode object):          Gestionnaire de contexte With.
                                                             (line   22)
* __enter__() (méthode winreg.PyHKEY):   Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __eq__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* __eq__() (instance method):            Comparaisons<2>.    (line   52)
* __eq__() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  162)
* __eq__() (méthode email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  186)
* __eq__() (méthode memoryview):         Vues mémoire.       (line  118)
* __eq__() (méthode object):             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  194)
* __excepthook__ (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  441)
* __excepthook__ (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  117)
* __exit__() (méthode contextmanager):   Le type gestionnaire de contexte.
                                                             (line   34)
* __exit__() (méthode object):           Gestionnaire de contexte With.
                                                             (line   29)
* __exit__() (méthode winreg.PyHKEY):    Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __file__ (attribut module):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  137)
* __file__ (module attribute):           Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __file__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __file__ (module attribute) <2>:       Module Objects.     (line   92)
* __firstlineno__ (attribut type):       Special attributes. (line   65)
* __firstlineno__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __float__() (méthode object):          Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  119)
* __floor__() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  181)
* __floor__() (méthode object):          Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  141)
* __floordiv__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   93)
* __floordiv__() (méthode object):       Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __format__:                            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  814)
* __format__() (méthode datetime.date):  Objets date.        (line  310)
* __format__() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime. (line  783)
* __format__() (méthode datetime.time):  Objets time.        (line  236)
* __format__() (méthode enum.Enum):      Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  334)
* __format__() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  209)
* __format__() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  188)
* __format__() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  326)
* __format__() (méthode object):         Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  165)
* __fspath__() (méthode os.PathLike):    Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  130)
* __func__ (attribut method):            Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   16)
* __func__ (method attribute):           Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   10)
* __future__:                            Glossaire.          (line  617)
* __future__;future statement:           L'instruction future.
                                                             (line    6)
* __ge__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* __ge__() (instance method):            Comparaisons<2>.    (line   52)
* __ge__() (méthode object):             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  194)
* __get__() (méthode object):            Implémentation de descripteurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* __getattr__ (module attribute):        Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getattr__() (méthode object):        Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs.
                                                             (line   10)
* __getattribute__() (méthode object):   Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs.
                                                             (line   33)
* __getitem__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  200)
* __getitem__() (mapping object method): Méthodes spéciales. (line    6)
* __getitem__() (méthode email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  404)
* __getitem__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  199)
* __getitem__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  338)
* __getitem__() (méthode enum.EnumType): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line   83)
* __getitem__() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line  153)
* __getitem__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line   78)
* __getitem__() (méthode re.Match):      Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line   91)
* __getnewargs__() (méthode object):     Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line   48)
* __getnewargs_ex__() (méthode object):  Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line   29)
* __getstate__() (copy protocol):        Traitement des objets à état.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getstate__() (méthode object):       Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line   62)
* __globals__ (attribut function):       Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line   10)
* __globals__ (function attribute):      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __gt__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* __gt__() (instance method):            Comparaisons<2>.    (line   52)
* __gt__() (méthode object):             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  194)
* __hash__() (méthode object):           Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  256)
* __iadd__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   39)
* __iadd__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __iand__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   44)
* __iand__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __iconcat__() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   49)
* __ifloordiv__() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   55)
* __ifloordiv__() (méthode object):      Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __ilshift__() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   60)
* __ilshift__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __imatmul__() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   75)
* __imatmul__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __imod__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   65)
* __imod__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __import__() (dans le module importlib): Fonctions<12>.    (line    6)
* __imul__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   70)
* __imul__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __index__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   98)
* __index__() (méthode object):          Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  127)
* __infer_variance__ (attribut typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  168)
* __init__() (méthode asyncio.Future):   Constructeurs privés Future et Task.
                                                             (line   17)
* __init__() (méthode asyncio.Task):     Constructeurs privés Future et Task.
                                                             (line   23)
* __init__() (méthode difflib.HtmlDiff): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  100)
* __init__() (méthode enum.Enum):        Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  243)
* __init__() (méthode logging.Handler):  Gestionnaires.      (line   13)
* __init__() (méthode logging.logging.Formatter): Formatters.
                                                             (line   15)
* __init__() (méthode object):           Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line   40)
* __init_subclass__() (méthode de la classe object): Personnalisation de la création de classes.
                                                             (line   14)
* __init_subclass__() (méthode enum.Enum): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  256)
* __instancecheck__() (méthode type):    Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* __int__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  119)
* __interactivehook__ (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1216)
* __inv__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  107)
* __invert__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  107)
* __invert__() (méthode object):         Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  111)
* __ior__() (dans le module operator):   Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   82)
* __ior__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __ipow__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   87)
* __ipow__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __irshift__() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   92)
* __irshift__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __isub__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   97)
* __isub__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __iter__() (méthode container):        Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* __iter__() (méthode enum.EnumType):    Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line   91)
* __iter__() (méthode iterator):         Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line   30)
* __iter__() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):  Mailbox objects.    (line  120)
* __iter__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line  127)
* __iter__() (méthode unittest.TestSuite): Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line   64)
* __itruediv__() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line  102)
* __itruediv__() (méthode object):       Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __ixor__() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line  107)
* __ixor__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   80)
* __kwdefaults__ (attribut function):    Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   52)
* __kwdefaults__ (function attribute):   Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __le__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* __le__() (instance method):            Comparaisons<2>.    (line   52)
* __le__() (méthode object):             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  194)
* __len__() (mapping object method):     Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  344)
* __len__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  185)
* __len__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  324)
* __len__() (méthode enum.EnumType):     Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* __len__() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):   Mailbox objects.    (line  213)
* __len__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line   39)
* __length_hint__() (méthode object):    Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line   54)
* __loader__ (attribut module):          Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* __loader__ (module attribute):         Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __loader__ (module attribute) <1>:     Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __lshift__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  114)
* __lshift__() (méthode object):         Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __lt__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* __lt__() (instance method):            Comparaisons<2>.    (line   52)
* __lt__() (méthode object):             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  194)
* __matmul__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  129)
* __matmul__() (méthode object):         Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __members__ (attribut enum.EnumType):  Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  105)
* __missing__():                         Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line   97)
* __missing__() (méthode collections.defaultdict): Objets defaultdict.
                                                             (line   25)
* __missing__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line  121)
* __mod__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  119)
* __mod__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __module__ (attribut definition):      Attributs spéciaux. (line   22)
* __module__ (attribut function):        Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   26)
* __module__ (attribut method):          Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   29)
* __module__ (attribut type):            Special attributes. (line   18)
* __module__ (attribut typing.NewType):  Other special directives.
                                                             (line  118)
* __module__ (attribut typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  513)
* __module__ (class attribute):          Special attributes. (line    6)
* __module__ (function attribute):       Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __module__ (method attribute):         Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   10)
* __mro__ (attribut type):               Special attributes. (line   73)
* __mro_entries__() (méthode object):    Résolution des entrées MRO.
                                                             (line    6)
* __mul__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  124)
* __mul__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __mutable_keys__ (attribut typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  459)
* __name__ (attribut definition):        Attributs spéciaux. (line   10)
* __name__ (attribut function):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* __name__ (attribut method):            Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   25)
* __name__ (attribut module):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* __name__ (attribut property):          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1744)
* __name__ (attribut type):              Special attributes. (line   10)
* __name__ (attribut typing.NewType):    Other special directives.
                                                             (line  122)
* __name__ (attribut typing.ParamSpec):  Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  423)
* __name__ (attribut typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  505)
* __name__ (attribut typing.TypeVar):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  155)
* __name__ (attribut typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  322)
* __name__ (class attribute):            Special attributes. (line    6)
* __name__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __name__ (method attribute):           Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   10)
* __name__ (module attribute):           Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __name__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __name__ (module attribute) <2>:       Module Objects.     (line   64)
* __ne__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* __ne__() (instance method):            Comparaisons<2>.    (line   52)
* __ne__() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  167)
* __ne__() (méthode email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  191)
* __ne__() (méthode object):             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  194)
* __neg__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  136)
* __neg__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  111)
* __new__() (méthode enum.Enum):         Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  284)
* __new__() (méthode object):            Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line    6)
* __next__() (méthode csv.csvreader):    Objets lecteurs.    (line   10)
* __next__() (méthode generator):        Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   14)
* __next__() (méthode iterator):         Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line   38)
* __not__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   51)
* __notes__ (attribut BaseException):    Classes mères.      (line   61)
* __notes__ (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* __objclass__ (attribut object):        Implémentation de descripteurs.
                                                             (line   53)
* __optional_keys__ (attribut typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  410)
* __or__() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  141)
* __or__() (méthode enum.Flag):          Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  473)
* __or__() (méthode object):             Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __origin__ (attribut genericalias):    Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques.
                                                             (line    9)
* __package__ (attribut module):         Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __package__ (module attribute):        Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __package__ (module attribute) <1>:    Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __parameters__ (attribut genericalias): Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques.
                                                             (line   25)
* __path__ (attribut module):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* __path__ (module attribute):           Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __pos__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  146)
* __pos__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  111)
* __post_init__() (dans le module dataclasses): Post-initialisation.
                                                             (line    6)
* __pow__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  151)
* __pow__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __prepare__ (metaclass method):        Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe.
                                                             (line    6)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:                   PyConfig.           (line  187)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:               PyConfig.           (line  705)
* __qualname__ (attribut definition):    Attributs spéciaux. (line   15)
* __qualname__ (attribut function):      Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   20)
* __qualname__ (attribut type):          Special attributes. (line   14)
* __radd__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rand__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rdivmod__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __readonly_keys__ (attribut typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  451)
* __reduce__() (méthode object):         Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line  125)
* __reduce_ex__() (méthode object):      Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line  182)
* __release_buffer__() (méthode object): Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   25)
* __replace__() (replace protocol):      copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line  103)
* __repr__() (méthode enum.Enum):        Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  301)
* __repr__() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Objets mandataires.
                                                             (line  151)
* __repr__() (méthode netrc.netrc):      Objets netrc.       (line   16)
* __repr__() (méthode object):           Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  125)
* __required_keys__ (attribut typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  406)
* __reversed__() (méthode enum.EnumType): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* __reversed__() (méthode object):       Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line  135)
* __rfloordiv__() (méthode object):      Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rlshift__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rmatmul__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rmod__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rmul__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __ror__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __round__() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  197)
* __round__() (méthode object):          Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  141)
* __rpow__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rrshift__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rshift__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  156)
* __rshift__() (méthode object):         Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __rsub__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rtruediv__() (méthode object):       Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __rxor__() (méthode object):           Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   43)
* __self__ (attribut method):            Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   12)
* __self__ (method attribute):           Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line   10)
* __set__() (méthode object):            Implémentation de descripteurs.
                                                             (line   35)
* __set_name__() (méthode object):       Personnalisation de la création de classes.
                                                             (line   50)
* __setattr__() (méthode object):        Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs.
                                                             (line   56)
* __setitem__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  209)
* __setitem__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  216)
* __setitem__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  350)
* __setitem__() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line   93)
* __setitem__() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.  (line  193)
* __setitem__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line  100)
* __setstate__() (copy protocol):        Traitement des objets à état.
                                                             (line    6)
* __setstate__() (méthode object):       Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line   89)
* __slots__:                             Glossaire.          (line 1403)
* __spec__ (attribut module):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* __spec__ (module attribute):           Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __static_attributes__ (attribut type): Special attributes. (line   58)
* __static_attributes__ (class attribute): Special attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __stderr__ (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1952)
* __stdin__ (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1952)
* __stdout__ (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1952)
* __str__() (méthode datetime.date):     Objets date.        (line  282)
* __str__() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.    (line  753)
* __str__() (méthode datetime.time):     Objets time.        (line  226)
* __str__() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  157)
* __str__() (méthode email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  174)
* __str__() (méthode email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  467)
* __str__() (méthode email.headerregistry.Group): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  502)
* __str__() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  100)
* __str__() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  114)
* __str__() (méthode enum.Enum):         Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  318)
* __str__() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Objets mandataires.
                                                             (line  155)
* __str__() (méthode object):            Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  143)
* __sub__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  161)
* __sub__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __subclasscheck__() (méthode type):    Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes.
                                                             (line   21)
* __subclasses__() (méthode type):       Special methods.    (line   15)
* __subclasshook__() (méthode abc.ABCMeta): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   98)
* __supertype__ (attribut typing.NewType): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  126)
* __suppress_context__ (attribut BaseException): Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* __suppress_context__ (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* __suppress_context__ (exception attribute): Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* __total__ (attribut typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  381)
* __traceback__ (attribut BaseException): Classes mères.     (line   47)
* __traceback__ (exception attribute):   L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line    6)
* __truediv__() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  166)
* __truediv__() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  544)
* __truediv__() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  137)
* __truediv__() (méthode object):        Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* __trunc__() (méthode object):          Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  141)
* __type_params__ (attribut definition): Attributs spéciaux. (line   31)
* __type_params__ (attribut function):   Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   56)
* __type_params__ (attribut type):       Special attributes. (line   51)
* __type_params__ (attribut typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  521)
* __type_params__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __type_params__ (function attribute):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __unpacked__ (attribut genericalias):  Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques.
                                                             (line   42)
* __unraisablehook__ (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  441)
* __value__ (attribut typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  533)
* __version__ (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line   20)
* __xor__() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  172)
* __xor__() (méthode enum.Flag):         Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  489)
* __xor__() (méthode object):            Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   12)
* _, identifiers:                        Mots-clés ad hoc.   (line   22)
* _add_alias_() (méthode enum.EnumType): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* _add_value_alias_() (méthode enum.EnumType): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  124)
* _align_ (attribut ctypes.Structure):   Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   87)
* _anonymous_ (attribut ctypes.Structure): Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   96)
* _asdict() (méthode collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
                                                             (line  114)
* _b_base_ (attribut ctypes._CData):     Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   71)
* _b_needsfree_ (attribut ctypes._CData): Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   78)
* _callmethod() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Objets mandataires.
                                                             (line  103)
* _CData (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* _CFuncPtr (classe dans ctypes):        Fonctions externes. (line   22)
* _clear_internal_caches() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  206)
* _clear_type_cache() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  193)
* _current_exceptions() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  235)
* _current_frames() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  214)
* _debugmallocstats() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  294)
* _emscripten_info (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  361)
* _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1855)
* _enter_task() (dans le module asyncio): Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches.
                                                             (line   23)
* _exit() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  130)
* _Feature (classe dans __future__):     Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   47)
* _field_defaults (attribut collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
                                                             (line  165)
* _field_types (attribut ast.AST):       Classes de nœuds.   (line   41)
* _fields (attribut ast.AST):            Classes de nœuds.   (line   23)
* _fields (attribut collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
                                                             (line  151)
* _fields_ (attribut ctypes.Structure):  Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   43)
* _flush() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  117)
* _frozen (C struct):                    Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  275)
* _generate_next_value_() (méthode enum.Enum): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  211)
* _get_child_mock() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  325)
* _get_preferred_schemes() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   41)
* _getframe() (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  915)
* _getframemodulename() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  931)
* _getvalue() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Objets mandataires.
                                                             (line  144)
* _handle (attribut ctypes.PyDLL):       Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line  160)
* _ignore_ (attribut enum.Enum):         Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  179)
* _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  171)
* _inittab (C struct):                   Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  311)
* _inittab.initfunc (C member):          Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  323)
* _inittab.name (C member):              Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  319)
* _is_gil_enabled() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1249)
* _is_interned() (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1281)
* _leave_task() (dans le module asyncio): Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches.
                                                             (line   31)
* _length_ (attribut ctypes.Array):      Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line   18)
* _log (attribut logging.LoggerAdapter): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* _make() (méthode de la classe collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
                                                             (line  105)
* _makeResult() (méthode unittest.TextTestRunner): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  523)
* _missing_() (méthode enum.Enum):       Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  261)
* _name (attribut ctypes.PyDLL):         Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line  164)
* _name_ (attribut enum.Enum):           Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  166)
* _numeric_repr_() (méthode enum.Flag):  Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  509)
* _objects (attribut ctypes._CData):     Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   83)
* _order_ (attribut enum.Enum):          Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* _pack_ (attribut ctypes.Structure):    Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   79)
* _parse() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   22)
* _Pointer (classe dans ctypes):         Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line   39)
* _Py_c_diff (C function):               Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   34)
* _Py_c_neg (C function):                Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   40)
* _Py_c_pow (C function):                Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   60)
* _Py_c_prod (C function):               Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   45)
* _Py_c_quot (C function):               Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   51)
* _Py_c_sum (C function):                Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   28)
* _Py_InitializeMain (C function):       Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   44)
* _Py_NoneStruct (C var):                Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line   66)
* _PyBytes_Resize (C function):          Objets bytes<2>.    (line  182)
* _PyCode_GetExtra (C function):         Extra information.  (line   45)
* _PyCode_SetExtra (C function):         Extra information.  (line   58)
* _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   29)
* _PyFrameEvalFunction (C type):         Low-level API.      (line  167)
* _PyInterpreterFrame (C struct):        Internal Frames.    (line    8)
* _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (C function): Low-level API.
                                                             (line  182)
* _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (C function): Low-level API.
                                                             (line  192)
* _PyObject_GetDictPtr (C function):     Protocole Objet.    (line  290)
* _PyObject_New (C function):            Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line    6)
* _PyObject_NewVar (C function):         Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line    9)
* _PyTuple_Resize (C function):          Tuple Objects.      (line  100)
* _register_task() (dans le module asyncio): Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches.
                                                             (line   10)
* _replace() (méthode collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
                                                             (line  133)
* _setroot() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   16)
* _SimpleCData (classe dans ctypes):     Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* _structure() (dans le module email.iterators): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   48)
* _type_ (attribut ctypes._Pointer):     Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line   54)
* _type_ (attribut ctypes.Array):        Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line   24)
* _unregister_task() (dans le module asyncio): Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches.
                                                             (line   16)
* _value_ (attribut enum.Enum):          Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* _write() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  109)
* _xoptions (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2143)
* - (minus);binary operator:             Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   86)
* - (minus);binary operator <1>:         Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* - (minus);in doctests:                 Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  190)
* - (minus);in glob-style wildcards:     glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (minus);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   16)
* - (minus);in printf-style formatting:  Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   71)
* - (minus);in printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   66)
* - (minus);in regular expressions:      Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  199)
* - (minus);in string formatting:        Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   79)
* - (minus);unary operator:              Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   11)
* - (minus);unary operator <1>:          Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* -=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations:               Annotations de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations <1>:           Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  118)
* , (comma):                             Formes parenthésées.
                                                             (line   21)
* , (comma);argument list:               Tranches.           (line   45)
* , (comma);expression list:             Agencements de listes.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <1>:         Agencements d'ensembles.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <2>:         Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <3>:         L'instruction assert.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <4>:         Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);identifier list:             L'instruction global.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);identifier list <1>:         L'instruction nonlocal.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);import statement:            L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);in dictionary displays:      Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);in string formatting:        Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line  131)
* , (comma);in target list:              Les assignations.   (line   37)
* , (comma);parameter list:              Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);slicing:                     Tranches.           (line    6)
* , (comma);with statement:              L'instruction with. (line    6)
* ; (colon);annotated variable:          Les assignations annotées.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement:          L'instruction if<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <1>:      L'instruction while.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <2>:      L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <3>:      L'instruction try.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <4>:      L'instruction with. (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <5>:      L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <6>:      Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <7>:      Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations:        Annotations de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations <1>:    Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  118)
* ; (colon);in dictionary expressions:   Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);in formatted string literal: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* ; (colon);in formatted string literal <1>: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* ; (colon);in SQL statements:           Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* ; (colon);in string formatting:        Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne.
                                                             (line   13)
* ; (colon);lambda expression:           Expressions lambda. (line    6)
* ; (colon);path separator (POSIX):      Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  145)
* ; (colon);slicing:                     Tranches.           (line    6)
* ; (semicolon):                         Instructions composées.
                                                             (line   20)
* ; (semicolon) <1>:                     Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  145)
* ;= (colon equals):                     Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   38)
* ! (exclamation mark);in formatted string literal: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* ! (exclamation);in a command interpreter: Objets Cmd.      (line   28)
* ! (exclamation);in curses module:      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  229)
* ! (exclamation);in formatted string literal: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* ! (exclamation);in glob-style wildcards: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* ! (exclamation);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   16)
* ! (exclamation);in string formatting:  Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne.
                                                             (line   13)
* ! (exclamation);in struct format strings: Boutisme taille et alignement.
                                                             (line   13)
* ! (pdb command):                       Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  419)
* ! f-string:                            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* ! formatted string literal:            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* ! patterns:                            Filtres.            (line    6)
* ? (question mark);in a command interpreter: Objets Cmd.    (line   28)
* ? (question mark);in argparse module:  Le paramètre nargs. (line   25)
* ? (question mark);in AST grammar:      Classes de nœuds.   (line   23)
* ? (question mark);in glob-style wildcards: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* ? (question mark);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   16)
* ? (question mark);in regular expressions: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   93)
* ? (question mark);in SQL statements:   Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* ? (question mark);in struct format strings: Caractères de format.
                                                             (line   95)
* ? (question mark);in struct format strings <1>: Caractères de format.
                                                             (line  184)
* ? (question mark);replacement character: Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* ??;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   99)
* ?+;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  111)
* . (dot);attribute reference:           Références à des attributs.
                                                             (line    6)
* . (dot);in glob-style wildcards:       glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* . (dot);in numeric literal:            Entiers littéraux.  (line   42)
* . (dot);in pathnames:                  Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  109)
* . (dot);in pathnames <1>:              Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  139)
* . (dot);in printf-style formatting:    Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   31)
* . (dot);in printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   26)
* . (dot);in regular expressions:        Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   54)
* . (dot);in string formatting:          Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne.
                                                             (line   13)
* ..;in pathnames:                       Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  115)
* ...:                                   Glossaire.          (line   10)
* ...;ellipsis literal:                  Ellipse.            (line    6)
* ...;ellipsis literal <1>:              Constantes natives. (line   61)
* ...;ellipsis literal <2>:              L'objet Null.       (line   12)
* ...;in doctests:                       Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   56)
* ...;interpreter prompt:                Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?.
                                                             (line   26)
* ...;interpreter prompt <1>:            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1536)
* ...;placeholder:                       textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  292)
* ...;placeholder <1>:                   Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line    6)
* ...;placeholder <2>:                   reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   61)
* .ini;file:                             configparser --- Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* .pdbrc;file:                           Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line   61)
* ' (single quote);string literal:       Littéraux.          (line    9)
* ''';string literal:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   37)
* " (double quote);string literal:       Littéraux.          (line    9)
* """;string literal:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   37)
* (?;;in regular expressions:            Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  315)
* (?;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  276)
* (?!;in regular expressions:            Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  435)
* (?(;in regular expressions:            Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  480)
* (?#;in regular expressions:            Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  424)
* (?<!;in regular expressions:           Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  471)
* (?<=;in regular expressions:           Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  442)
* (?=;in regular expressions:            Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  428)
* (?P<;in regular expressions:           Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  379)
* (?P=;in regular expressions:           Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  419)
* () (parentheses);call:                 Tranches.           (line   45)
* () (parentheses);class definition:     Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);function definition:  Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);generator expression: Expressions génératrices.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);in assignment target list: Les assignations.
                                                             (line   37)
* () (parentheses);in printf-style formatting: Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   31)
* () (parentheses);in printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   26)
* () (parentheses);in regular expressions: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  266)
* () (parentheses);tuple display:        Formes parenthésées.
                                                             (line    6)
* [] (square brackets);in assignment target list: Les assignations.
                                                             (line   37)
* [] (square brackets);in glob-style wildcards: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* [] (square brackets);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   16)
* [] (square brackets);in regular expressions: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  191)
* [] (square brackets);in string formatting: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne.
                                                             (line   13)
* [] (square brackets);list expression:  Agencements de listes.
                                                             (line    6)
* [] (square brackets);subscription:     sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* {} (curly brackets);dictionary expression: Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* {} (curly brackets);in formatted string literal: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* {} (curly brackets);in formatted string literal <1>: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* {} (curly brackets);in regular expressions: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  130)
* {} (curly brackets);in string formatting: Syntaxe de formatage de chaîne.
                                                             (line   13)
* {} (curly brackets);set expression:    Agencements d'ensembles.
                                                             (line    6)
* @ (at);class definition:               Définition de classes.
                                                             (line   48)
* @ (at);function definition:            Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line   37)
* @ (at);in struct format strings:       Boutisme taille et alignement.
                                                             (line   13)
* * (asterisk);function definition:      Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  100)
* * (asterisk);import statement:         L'instruction import.
                                                             (line   82)
* * (asterisk);in argparse module:       Le paramètre nargs. (line   58)
* * (asterisk);in assignment target list: Les assignations.  (line   37)
* * (asterisk);in AST grammar:           Classes de nœuds.   (line   23)
* * (asterisk);in expression lists:      Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line   18)
* * (asterisk);in function calls:        Listes d'arguments arbitraires.
                                                             (line    6)
* * (asterisk);in function calls <1>:    Appels.             (line   77)
* * (asterisk);in glob-style wildcards:  glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* * (asterisk);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   16)
* * (asterisk);in printf-style formatting: Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   31)
* * (asterisk);in printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   26)
* * (asterisk);in regular expressions:   Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   79)
* *?;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   99)
* **;function definition:                Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  100)
* **;in dictionary displays:             Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   25)
* **;in function calls:                  Séparation des listes d'arguments.
                                                             (line   20)
* **;in function calls <1>:              Appels.             (line  105)
* **;in glob-style wildcards:            glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   51)
* **=;augmented assignment:              Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* *+;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  111)
* *=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* *Clear Breakpoint*:                    Menu Help console et éditeur.
                                                             (line   32)
* *Copy*:                                Menu Help console et éditeur.
                                                             (line   32)
* *Cut*:                                 Menu Help console et éditeur.
                                                             (line   32)
* *IDLE*:                                IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* *Paste*:                               Menu Help console et éditeur.
                                                             (line   32)
* *Set Breakpoint*:                      Menu Help console et éditeur.
                                                             (line   32)
* / (slash);function definition:         Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  100)
* / (slash);in pathnames:                Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  122)
* / (slash);in pathnames <1>:            Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  132)
* //=;augmented assignment:              Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* /=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* \ (backslash);escape sequence:         Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \ (backslash);escape sequence <1>:     Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* \ (backslash);in pathnames (Windows):  Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  122)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions:  Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  174)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <1>: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  212)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <2>: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  500)
* \\;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \\;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \a;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \A;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  513)
* \a;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \b;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \b;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  517)
* \B;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  535)
* \b;in regular expressions <1>:         Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \d;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  551)
* \D;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  566)
* \f;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \f;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \g;in regular expressions:             Fonctions<2>.       (line  221)
* \n;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \N;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \N;escape sequence <1>:                Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   55)
* \n;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \N;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \r;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \r;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \s;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  573)
* \S;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  589)
* \t;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \t;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \u;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \U;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \u;escape sequence <1>:                Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* \U;escape sequence <1>:                Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* \u;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \U;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \v;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \v;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \w;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  596)
* \W;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  613)
* \x;escape sequence:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* \x;escape sequence <1>:                Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* \x;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  628)
* \Z;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  624)
* &=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (hash);comment:                      Introduction informelle à Python.
                                                             (line   15)
* # (hash);comment <1>:                  Commentaires.       (line    6)
* # (hash);comment <2>:                  site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   52)
* # (hash);in doctests:                  Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  191)
* # (hash);in printf-style formatting:   Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   71)
* # (hash);in printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   66)
* # (hash);in regular expressions:       Flags.              (line  131)
* # (hash);in string formatting:         Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line  102)
* # (hash);source encoding declaration:  Déclaration d'encodage.
                                                             (line    6)
* % (percent);datetime format:           Objets timezone.    (line   74)
* % (percent);datetime format <1>:       Fonctions<5>.       (line  331)
* % (percent);datetime format <2>:       Fonctions<5>.       (line  507)
* % (percent);environment variables expansion (Windows): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  166)
* % (percent);environment variables expansion (Windows) <1>: Fonctions<13>.
                                                             (line  228)
* % (percent);interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation des valeurs.
                                                             (line   11)
* % (percent);printf-style formatting:   Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* % (percent);printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* %=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* %APPDATA%:                             Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires.
                                                             (line   14)
* ^ (caret);in curses module:            curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  229)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions:      Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   61)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions <1>:  Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  222)
* ^ (caret);in string formatting:        Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   46)
* ^ (caret);marker:                      Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?.
                                                             (line  105)
* ^ (caret);marker <1>:                  Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* ^=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* + (plus);binary operator:              Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   77)
* + (plus);binary operator <1>:          Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* + (plus);in argparse module:           Le paramètre nargs. (line   71)
* + (plus);in doctests:                  Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  191)
* + (plus);in printf-style formatting:   Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   71)
* + (plus);in printf-style formatting <1>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   66)
* + (plus);in regular expressions:       Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   86)
* + (plus);in string formatting:         Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   79)
* + (plus);unary operator:               Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   15)
* + (plus);unary operator <1>:           Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* +?;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   99)
* ++;in regular expressions:             Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  111)
* +=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* < (less);in string formatting:         Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   46)
* < (less);in struct format strings:     Boutisme taille et alignement.
                                                             (line   13)
* <<=;augmented assignment:              Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* <BLANKLINE>:                           Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   32)
* = (equals);assignment statement:       Les assignations.   (line    6)
* = (equals);class definition:           Métaclasses.        (line    6)
* = (equals);for help in debugging using string literals: Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* = (equals);for help in debugging using string literals <1>: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  731)
* = (equals);function definition:        Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line   73)
* = (equals);in function calls:          Tranches.           (line   44)
* = (equals);in string formatting:       Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   46)
* = (equals);in struct format strings:   Boutisme taille et alignement.
                                                             (line   13)
* > (greater);in string formatting:      Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   46)
* > (greater);in struct format strings:  Boutisme taille et alignement.
                                                             (line   13)
* >>=;augmented assignment:              Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* >>>:                                   Glossaire.          (line    6)
* >>>;interpreter prompt:                Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?.
                                                             (line   26)
* >>>;interpreter prompt <1>:            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1536)
* | (vertical bar);in regular expressions: Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  251)
* |=;augmented assignment:               Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* ~ (tilde);home directory expansion:    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  141)
* $ (dollar);environment variables expansion: os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  166)
* $ (dollar);in regular expressions:     Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   67)
* $ (dollar);in template strings:        Chaînes modèles.    (line   13)
* $ (dollar);interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation des valeurs.
                                                             (line   44)
* 0b;integer literal:                    Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line   14)
* 0o;integer literal:                    Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line   14)
* 0x;integer literal:                    Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line   14)
* 2-digit years:                         time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   36)
* A (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line   17)
* A_ALTCHARSET (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line   67)
* A_ATTRIBUTES (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  128)
* A_BLINK (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line   70)
* A_BOLD (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line   73)
* A_CHARTEXT (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  131)
* A_COLOR (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  134)
* A_DIM (dans le module curses):         Constantes<6>.      (line   76)
* A_HORIZONTAL (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  101)
* A_INVIS (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line   79)
* A_ITALIC (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line   82)
* A_LEFT (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  104)
* A_LOW (dans le module curses):         Constantes<6>.      (line  107)
* A_NORMAL (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line   85)
* A_PROTECT (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line   88)
* A_REVERSE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line   91)
* A_RIGHT (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  110)
* A_STANDOUT (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line   95)
* A_TOP (dans le module curses):         Constantes<6>.      (line  113)
* A_UNDERLINE (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line   98)
* A_VERTICAL (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  116)
* a2b_base64() (dans le module binascii): binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   44)
* a2b_hex() (dans le module binascii):   binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  152)
* a2b_qp() (dans le module binascii):    binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   74)
* a2b_uu() (dans le module binascii):    binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   27)
* a85decode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  204)
* a85encode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  177)
* ABC (classe dans abc):                 abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   30)
* ABCMeta (classe dans abc):             abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   55)
* ABDAY_1 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* ABDAY_2 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* ABDAY_3 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* ABDAY_4 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* ABDAY_5 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* ABDAY_6 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* ABDAY_7 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  245)
* abiflags (dans le module sys):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* ABMON_1 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_10 (dans le module locale):      locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_11 (dans le module locale):      locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_12 (dans le module locale):      locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_2 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_3 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_4 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_5 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_6 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_7 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_8 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* ABMON_9 (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* abort (C function):                    Process Control.    (line    7)
* ABORT (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  147)
* abort_clients() (méthode asyncio.Server): Objets Serveur.  (line   56)
* abort() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   17)
* abort() (méthode asyncio.Barrier):     Barrière Barrier.   (line   90)
* abort() (méthode asyncio.DatagramTransport): Transports par datagrammes.
                                                             (line   22)
* abort() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line    6)
* abort() (méthode ftplib.FTP):          FTP objects.        (line  154)
* abort() (méthode threading.Barrier):   Barrier Objects.    (line   82)
* ABORTRETRYIGNORE (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  162)
* ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   69)
* above() (méthode curses.panel.Panel):  Panel Objects.      (line   13)
* abs() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   78)
* abs() (méthode decimal.Context):       Objets de contexte. (line  264)
* absolute() (méthode pathlib.Path):     Expansion et résolution de chemins.
                                                             (line   40)
* AbsoluteLinkError:                     tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  271)
* AbsolutePathError:                     tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  257)
* abspath() (dans le module os.path):    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   52)
* AbstractAsyncContextManager (classe dans contextlib): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line   20)
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  340)
* AbstractChildWatcher (classe dans asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   46)
* abstractclassmethod() (dans le module abc): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  244)
* AbstractContextManager (classe dans contextlib): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line    8)
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  379)
* AbstractEventLoop (classe dans asyncio): Implémentations de boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   55)
* AbstractEventLoopPolicy (classe dans asyncio): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line    9)
* abstractmethod() (dans le module abc): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  167)
* abstractproperty() (dans le module abc): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  288)
* AbstractSet (classe dans typing):      Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* abstractstaticmethod() (dans le module abc): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  266)
* accept() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line   88)
* accept() (méthode socket.socket):      Socket Objects.     (line   13)
* access() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line   51)
* accumulate() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line   10)
* ACK (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   37)
* aclose() (méthode agen):               Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   62)
* aclose() (méthode contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilitaires. (line  668)
* aclosing() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.       (line  191)
* acos() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* acos() (dans le module math):          Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (dans le module cmath):        Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (dans le module math):         Fonctions hyperboliques.
                                                             (line    9)
* acquire() (méthode _thread.lock):      _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  154)
* acquire() (méthode asyncio.Condition): Condition.          (line   48)
* acquire() (méthode asyncio.Lock):      Verrou lock.        (line   37)
* acquire() (méthode asyncio.Semaphore): Sémaphore.          (line   44)
* acquire() (méthode logging.Handler):   Gestionnaires.      (line   27)
* acquire() (méthode multiprocessing.Lock): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   68)
* acquire() (méthode multiprocessing.RLock): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line  123)
* acquire() (méthode threading.Condition): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* acquire() (méthode threading.Lock):    Verrous.            (line   43)
* acquire() (méthode threading.RLock):   RLock Objects.      (line   44)
* acquire() (méthode threading.Semaphore): Semaphore Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* ACS_BBSS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  472)
* ACS_BLOCK (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  475)
* ACS_BOARD (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  478)
* ACS_BSBS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  481)
* ACS_BSSB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  484)
* ACS_BSSS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  487)
* ACS_BTEE (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  490)
* ACS_BULLET (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  493)
* ACS_CKBOARD (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  496)
* ACS_DARROW (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  499)
* ACS_DEGREE (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  502)
* ACS_DIAMOND (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  505)
* ACS_GEQUAL (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  508)
* ACS_HLINE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  511)
* ACS_LANTERN (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  514)
* ACS_LARROW (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  517)
* ACS_LEQUAL (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  520)
* ACS_LLCORNER (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  523)
* ACS_LRCORNER (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  526)
* ACS_LTEE (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  529)
* ACS_NEQUAL (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  532)
* ACS_PI (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  535)
* ACS_PLMINUS (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  538)
* ACS_PLUS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  541)
* ACS_RARROW (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  544)
* ACS_RTEE (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  547)
* ACS_S1 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  550)
* ACS_S3 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  553)
* ACS_S7 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  556)
* ACS_S9 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  559)
* ACS_SBBS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  562)
* ACS_SBSB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  565)
* ACS_SBSS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  568)
* ACS_SSBB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  571)
* ACS_SSBS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  574)
* ACS_SSSB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  577)
* ACS_SSSS (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  580)
* ACS_STERLING (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  583)
* ACS_TTEE (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  586)
* ACS_UARROW (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  589)
* ACS_ULCORNER (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  592)
* ACS_URCORNER (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  595)
* ACS_VLINE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  598)
* action (attribut optparse.Option):     Option attributes.  (line   19)
* Action (classe dans argparse):         Classes Action.     (line   11)
* ACTIONS (attribut optparse.Option):    Adding new actions. (line   31)
* activate_stack_trampoline() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1821)
* active_children() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* active_count() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line   53)
* actual() (méthode tkinter.font.Font):  tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   49)
* Add (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* add_alias() (dans le module email.charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  207)
* add_alternative() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  672)
* add_argument_group() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Groupes d'arguments.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_argument() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): La méthode add_argument.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_attachment() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  684)
* add_cgi_vars() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  135)
* add_charset() (dans le module email.charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  176)
* add_child_handler() (méthode asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   48)
* add_codec() (dans le module email.charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  216)
* add_cookie_header() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* add_dll_directory() (dans le module os): Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   26)
* add_done_callback() (méthode asyncio.Future): Objet Future.
                                                             (line   87)
* add_done_callback() (méthode asyncio.Task): Objets Task.   (line  107)
* add_done_callback() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* add_fallback() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   30)
* add_flag() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):  Maildir objects.    (line  129)
* add_flag() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* add_flag() (méthode mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_flag() (méthode mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_folder() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.   (line   75)
* add_folder() (méthode mailbox.MH):     MH objects.         (line   45)
* add_get_handler() (méthode email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   77)
* add_handler() (méthode urllib.request.OpenerDirector): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* add_header() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  273)
* add_header() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  398)
* add_header() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_header() (méthode wsgiref.headers.Headers): wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   61)
* add_history() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line   39)
* add_label() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* add_mutually_exclusive_group() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Exclusion mutuelle.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_note() (méthode BaseException):    Classes mères.      (line   53)
* add_option() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Defining options.
                                                             (line   14)
* add_parent() (méthode urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_password() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* add_password() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_reader() (méthode asyncio.loop):   Surveillance de descripteur de fichier.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_related() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  659)
* add_section() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* add_section() (méthode configparser.RawConfigParser): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* add_sequence() (méthode mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* add_set_handler() (méthode email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   83)
* add_signal_handler() (méthode asyncio.loop): Signaux Unix. (line    6)
* add_subparsers() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Sous commandes.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_type() (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  121)
* add_type() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* add_unredirected_header() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* add_writer() (méthode asyncio.loop):   Surveillance de descripteur de fichier.
                                                             (line   21)
* add() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   83)
* add() (méthode decimal.Context):       Objets de contexte. (line  268)
* add() (méthode frozenset):             Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  207)
* add() (méthode graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line   82)
* add() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):       Mailbox objects.    (line   59)
* add() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):       Maildir objects.    (line  193)
* add() (méthode pstats.Stats):          The Stats Class.    (line   49)
* add() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):       Les objets TarFile. (line  291)
* add() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook):  ttk Notebook.       (line    8)
* addAsyncCleanup() (méthode unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  950)
* addaudithook() (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* addch() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line    9)
* addClassCleanup() (méthode de la classe unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  866)
* addCleanup() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  824)
* addcomponent() (méthode turtle.Shape): Classes publiques.  (line   69)
* addDuration() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  465)
* addError() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  390)
* addExpectedFailure() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  428)
* addFailure() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  402)
* addfile() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):   Les objets TarFile. (line  311)
* addFilter() (méthode logging.Handler): Gestionnaires.      (line   55)
* addFilter() (méthode logging.Logger):  Enregistreurs.      (line  348)
* addHandler() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.      (line  366)
* addinfourl (classe dans urllib.response): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   12)
* addition:                              Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   77)
* addLevelName() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  128)
* addModuleCleanup() (dans le module unittest): Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   23)
* addnstr() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line   23)
* AddPackagePath() (dans le module modulefinder): modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   16)
* addr_spec (attribut email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  461)
* address (attribut email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  237)
* address (attribut multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line  105)
* address (attribut multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* Address (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  423)
* address_exclude() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  160)
* address_exclude() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  341)
* address_family (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   71)
* address_string() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  347)
* addresses (attribut email.headerregistry.AddressHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  208)
* addresses (attribut email.headerregistry.Group): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  497)
* AddressHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  192)
* addressof() (dans le module ctypes):   Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* AddressValueError:                     Exceptions personnalisées.
                                                             (line    9)
* addshape() (dans le module turtle):    Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line   80)
* addsitedir() (dans le module site):    Module contents<3>. (line   52)
* addSkip() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  419)
* addstr() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line   31)
* addSubTest() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  447)
* addSuccess() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  413)
* addTest() (méthode unittest.TestSuite): Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line   27)
* addTests() (méthode unittest.TestSuite): Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* addTypeEqualityFunc() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  628)
* addUnexpectedSuccess() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  438)
* adjust_int_max_str_digits() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  738)
* adjusted() (méthode decimal.Decimal):  Les objets Decimal. (line  120)
* adler32() (dans le module zlib):       zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   31)
* AF_ALG (dans le module socket):        Constantes<8>.      (line  265)
* AF_CAN (dans le module socket):        Constantes<8>.      (line  128)
* AF_DIVERT (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  204)
* AF_HYPERV (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  346)
* AF_INET (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line   11)
* AF_INET6 (dans le module socket):      Constantes<8>.      (line   11)
* AF_LINK (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line  289)
* AF_PACKET (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  214)
* AF_QIPCRTR (dans le module socket):    Constantes<8>.      (line  316)
* AF_RDS (dans le module socket):        Constantes<8>.      (line  236)
* AF_UNIX (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line   11)
* AF_UNSPEC (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line   21)
* AF_VSOCK (dans le module socket):      Constantes<8>.      (line  276)
* alarm() (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  269)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  510)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  510)
* AlertDescription (classe dans ssl):    Constantes<9>.      (line  524)
* algorithm (attribut sys.hash_info):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1096)
* algorithms_available (dans le module hashlib): Attributes. (line   18)
* algorithms_guaranteed (dans le module hashlib): Attributes.
                                                             (line    8)
* alias (classe dans ast):               Importations.       (line   41)
* alias (pdb command):                   Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  390)
* alias de type:                         Glossaire.          (line 1559)
* alignment() (dans le module ctypes):   Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   14)
* alive (attribut weakref.finalize):     weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  312)
* ALL_COMPLETED (dans le module asyncio): Primitives d'attente.
                                                             (line   46)
* ALL_COMPLETED (dans le module concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* all_errors (dans le module ftplib):    Module variables.   (line   26)
* all_features (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   99)
* all_frames (attribut tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.          (line   59)
* all_properties (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  131)
* all_suffixes() (dans le module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   57)
* all_tasks() (dans le module asyncio):  Introspection.      (line   16)
* allocate_lock() (dans le module _thread): _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   85)
* allocfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line    6)
* allow_reuse_address (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  102)
* allowed_domains() (méthode http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* ALT_DIGITS (dans le module locale):    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  355)
* alt() (dans le module curses.ascii):   curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  221)
* altsep (dans le module os):            Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  132)
* altzone (dans le module time):         Constantes de fuseau horaire.
                                                             (line    6)
* ALWAYS_EQ (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  175)
* ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (attribut optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   43)
* AmbiguousOptionError:                  Exceptions<10>.     (line   25)
* AMPER (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  214)
* AMPEREQUAL (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  280)
* anchor (attribut pathlib.PurePath):    Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line   66)
* Anchor (classe dans importlib.resources): importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   45)
* And (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   93)
* and_() (dans le module operator):      operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   88)
* android_ver() (dans le module platform): Android Platform. (line    6)
* AnnAssign (classe dans ast):           Instructions<2>.    (line   43)
* Annotated (dans le module typing):     Special forms.      (line  261)
* annotated;assignment:                  Les assignations annotées.
                                                             (line    6)
* annotation:                            Glossaire.          (line   40)
* annotation (attribut inspect.Parameter): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  226)
* ANNOTATION (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   26)
* annotation de fonction:                Glossaire.          (line  597)
* annotation de variable:                Glossaire.          (line 1606)
* annotation;type annotation; type hint: Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique Union.
                                                             (line    6)
* anonymous;function:                    Expressions lambda. (line    6)
* answer_challenge() (dans le module multiprocessing.connection): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line   28)
* anticipate_failure() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  451)
* Any (dans le module typing):           Special types.      (line    9)
* ANY (dans le module unittest.mock):    ANY.                (line    6)
* ANY_CONTIGUOUS (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   29)
* AnyStr (dans le module typing):        Special types.      (line   21)
* API provisoire:                        Glossaire.          (line 1301)
* api_version (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2100)
* apilevel (dans le module sqlite3):     Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   65)
* apop() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   42)
* APPDATA:                               PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* appelable (callable):                  Glossaire.          (line  235)
* append_history_file() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'historique.
                                                             (line   20)
* append() (méthode array.array):        array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  122)
* append() (méthode collections.deque):  Objets deque.       (line   36)
* append() (méthode email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  104)
* append() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   33)
* append() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   95)
* append() (sequence method):            Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* appendChild() (méthode xml.dom.Node):  Objets nœuds.       (line  119)
* appendleft() (méthode collections.deque): Objets deque.    (line   40)
* AppleFrameworkLoader (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  444)
* application_uri() (dans le module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   35)
* apply_async() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line   79)
* apply_defaults() (méthode inspect.BoundArguments): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  374)
* apply() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line   71)
* APRIL (dans le module calendar):       calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* architecture() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line    6)
* archive (attribut zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   96)
* AREGTYPE (dans le module tarfile):     tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  288)
* aRepr (dans le module reprlib):        reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   44)
* arg (classe dans ast):                 Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line   83)
* args (attribut BaseException):         Classes mères.      (line   18)
* args (attribut functools.partial):     Objets partial.     (line   15)
* args (attribut inspect.BoundArguments): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  358)
* args (attribut subprocess.CompletedProcess): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  109)
* args (attribut subprocess.Popen):      Objets Popen.       (line  109)
* args (attribut typing.ParamSpec):      Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  408)
* args (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  279)
* args_from_interpreter_flags() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  318)
* argtypes (attribut ctypes._CFuncPtr):  Fonctions externes. (line   47)
* argument:                              Glossaire.          (line   58)
* argument nommé:                        Glossaire.          (line  911)
* argument positionnel:                  Glossaire.          (line 1297)
* argument;call semantics:               Tranches.           (line   45)
* argument;difference from parameter:    Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?.
                                                             (line   18)
* argument;function definition:          Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line   73)
* ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (classe dans argparse): Le paramètre formatter_class.
                                                             (line   11)
* ArgumentError:                         Fonctions externes. (line   96)
* ArgumentError <1>:                     Exceptions<9>.      (line    6)
* ArgumentParser (classe dans argparse): Objets ArgumentParser.
                                                             (line    6)
* arguments (attribut inspect.BoundArguments): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  338)
* arguments (classe dans ast):           Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line   55)
* ArgumentTypeError:                     Exceptions<9>.      (line   14)
* argv (dans le module sys):             sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   76)
* argv (in module sys):                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  218)
* argv (in module sys) <1>:              PyConfig.           (line  130)
* arithmetic:                            Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* arithmetic;conversion:                 Conversions arithmétiques.
                                                             (line    6)
* ArithmeticError:                       Classes mères.      (line   76)
* array (classe dans array):             array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line   87)
* Array (classe dans ctypes):            Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* ARRAY() (dans le module ctypes):       Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line   31)
* Array() (dans le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line   54)
* Array() (dans le module multiprocessing): Objets ctypes partagés.
                                                             (line   44)
* Array() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  228)
* arrays:                                array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line    6)
* arraysize (attribut sqlite3.Cursor):   Cursor objects.     (line  170)
* arrêt de l'interpréteur:               Glossaire.          (line  818)
* AS pattern, OR pattern, capture pattern, wildcard pattern: Filtres.
                                                             (line    6)
* as_bytes() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  111)
* as_bytes() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  119)
* as_completed() (dans le module asyncio): Primitives d'attente.
                                                             (line   61)
* as_completed() (dans le module concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   44)
* as_file() (dans le module importlib.resources): importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   73)
* as_integer_ratio() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  128)
* as_integer_ratio() (méthode float):    Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante.
                                                             (line    9)
* as_integer_ratio() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  123)
* as_integer_ratio() (méthode int):      Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers.
                                                             (line  165)
* as_posix() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  176)
* as_string() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   64)
* as_string() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line   67)
* as_tuple() (méthode decimal.Decimal):  Les objets Decimal. (line  143)
* as_uri() (méthode pathlib.Path):       Analyse et génération des URI.
                                                             (line   42)
* as;except clause:                      clause except.      (line   30)
* as;import statement:                   L'instruction import.
                                                             (line   42)
* as;match statement:                    L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* as;with statement:                     L'instruction with. (line    6)
* ASCII:                                 Notations.          (line   35)
* ASCII <1>:                             Littéraux.          (line    9)
* ASCII (dans le module re):             Flags.              (line   17)
* ascii_letters (dans le module string): Chaînes constantes. (line    8)
* ascii_lowercase (dans le module string): Chaînes constantes.
                                                             (line   14)
* ascii_uppercase (dans le module string): Chaînes constantes.
                                                             (line   20)
* ascii() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  212)
* asctime() (dans le module time):       Fonctions<5>.       (line    6)
* asdict() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  346)
* asend() (méthode agen):                Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   28)
* asin() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* asin() (dans le module math):          Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (dans le module cmath):        Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (dans le module math):         Fonctions hyperboliques.
                                                             (line   13)
* askcolor() (dans le module tkinter.colorchooser): tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line   18)
* askdirectory() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   56)
* askfloat() (dans le module tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line   14)
* askinteger() (dans le module tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line   14)
* askokcancel() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  119)
* askopenfile() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   32)
* askopenfilename() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   44)
* askopenfilenames() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   44)
* askopenfiles() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   32)
* askquestion() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  113)
* askretrycancel() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  126)
* asksaveasfile() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   39)
* asksaveasfilename() (dans le module tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   51)
* askstring() (dans le module tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line   14)
* askyesno() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  133)
* askyesnocancel() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  139)
* Assert (classe dans ast):              Instructions<2>.    (line  131)
* assert_any_await() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  866)
* assert_any_call() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  157)
* assert_awaited_once_with() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  849)
* assert_awaited_once() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  816)
* assert_awaited_with() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  832)
* assert_awaited() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  796)
* assert_called_once_with() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  142)
* assert_called_once() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  114)
* assert_called_with() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  132)
* assert_called() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  103)
* assert_has_awaits() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  883)
* assert_has_calls() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  175)
* assert_never() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   43)
* assert_not_awaited() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  910)
* assert_not_called() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  198)
* assert_python_failure() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   57)
* assert_python_ok() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   40)
* assert_type() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   15)
* assertAlmostEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  545)
* assertCountEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  605)
* assertDictEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  722)
* assertEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  194)
* assertFalse() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  218)
* assertGreater() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  571)
* assertGreaterEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  571)
* assertIn() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  246)
* assertInBytecode() (méthode test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase): test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   22)
* AssertionError:                        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line    8)
* assertIs() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  231)
* assertIsInstance() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  253)
* assertIsNone() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  239)
* assertIsNot() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  231)
* assertIsNotNone() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  239)
* assertLess() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  571)
* assertLessEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  571)
* assertListEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  696)
* assertLogs() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  444)
* assertMultiLineEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  670)
* assertNoLogs() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  489)
* assertNotAlmostEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  545)
* assertNotEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  213)
* assertNotIn() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  246)
* assertNotInBytecode() (méthode test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase): test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   28)
* assertNotIsInstance() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  253)
* assertNotRegex() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  585)
* assertRaises() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  300)
* assertRaisesRegex() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  345)
* assertRegex() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  585)
* assertSequenceEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  681)
* assertSetEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  709)
* assertTrue() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  218)
* assertTupleEqual() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  696)
* assertWarns() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  373)
* assertWarnsRegex() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  419)
* Assign (classe dans ast):              Instructions<2>.    (line    6)
* assignment expression:                 Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   38)
* assignment;expression:                 Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   37)
* assignment;statement:                  Séquences mutables. (line    6)
* assignment;statement <1>:              Les assignations.   (line    6)
* AST (classe dans ast):                 Classes de nœuds.   (line    6)
* astimezone() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime. (line  493)
* astuple() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  379)
* async for;in comprehensions:           Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   17)
* AsyncContextDecorator (classe dans contextlib): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  472)
* AsyncContextManager (classe dans typing): Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   24)
* asynccontextmanager() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line   98)
* AsyncExitStack (classe dans contextlib): Utilitaires.      (line  639)
* AsyncFor (classe dans ast):            async et await.     (line   34)
* AsyncFunctionDef (classe dans ast):    async et await.     (line    6)
* AsyncGenerator (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  166)
* AsyncGenerator (classe dans typing):   Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   21)
* AsyncGeneratorType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   49)
* asynchronous generator;asynchronous iterator: Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line    6)
* asynchronous generator;function:       Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (variable de base): Constantes<7>.
                                                             (line   23)
* asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (variable de base): Constantes<7>. (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.Process (classe de base): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line   11)
* asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (variable de base): Constantes<7>.
                                                             (line   17)
* AsyncIterable (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  151)
* AsyncIterable (classe dans typing):    Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   39)
* AsyncIterator (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  158)
* AsyncIterator (classe dans typing):    Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   49)
* AsyncMock (classe dans unittest.mock): La classe Mock.     (line  724)
* AsyncResult (classe dans multiprocessing.pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  207)
* asyncSetUp() (méthode unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  924)
* asyncTearDown() (méthode unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  934)
* AsyncWith (classe dans ast):           async et await.     (line   34)
* AT (dans le module token):             token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  304)
* at_eof() (méthode asyncio.StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line   88)
* atan() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* atan() (dans le module math):          Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line   16)
* atan2() (dans le module math):         Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line   21)
* atanh() (dans le module cmath):        Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* atanh() (dans le module math):         Fonctions hyperboliques.
                                                             (line   17)
* ATEQUAL (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  307)
* atexit (attribut weakref.finalize):    weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  317)
* athrow() (méthode agen):               Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   43)
* atof() (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  529)
* atoi() (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  535)
* atom:                                  Atomes.             (line    6)
* attach_loop() (méthode asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   68)
* attach_mock() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  270)
* attach() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  183)
* attempted (attribut doctest.TestResults): Objets TestResults.
                                                             (line   12)
* attendable (awaitable):                Glossaire.          (line  159)
* AttlistDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  246)
* attrgetter() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  239)
* attrib (attribut xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   50)
* attribut:                              Glossaire.          (line  146)
* attribute:                             Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line   13)
* Attribute (classe dans ast):           Expressions<2>.     (line  178)
* attribute;assignment:                  Les assignations.   (line    6)
* attribute;assignment <1>:              Les assignations.   (line   81)
* attribute;deletion:                    L'instruction del<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* attribute;reference:                   Références à des attributs.
                                                             (line    6)
* AttributeError:                        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   12)
* attributes (attribut xml.dom.Node):    Objets nœuds.       (line   26)
* AttributesImpl (classe dans xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   69)
* AttributesNSImpl (classe dans xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   80)
* attroff() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line   53)
* attron() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line   58)
* attrset() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line   63)
* audit events:                          Débogueur et instrumentation.
                                                             (line   15)
* audit() (dans le module sys):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   97)
* auditing:                              sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* AugAssign (classe dans ast):           Instructions<2>.    (line   97)
* augmented;assignment:                  Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* AUGUST (dans le module calendar):      calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* auth() (méthode ftplib.FTP_TLS):       FTP_TLS objects.    (line   89)
* auth() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):         SMTP Objects.       (line  141)
* authenticate() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line   37)
* AuthenticationError:                   Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  246)
* authenticators() (méthode netrc.netrc): Objets netrc.      (line    8)
* authkey (attribut multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  144)
* auto (classe dans enum):               Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* autocommit (attribut sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  733)
* autorange() (méthode timeit.Timer):    Interface Python.   (line  104)
* available_timezones() (dans le module zoneinfo): Fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* avoids_symlink_attacks (attribut shutil.rmtree): Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  327)
* Await (classe dans ast):               async et await.     (line   14)
* await_args (attribut unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  939)
* await_args_list (attribut unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  957)
* await_count (attribut unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  923)
* await;in comprehensions:               Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   51)
* Awaitable (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  111)
* Awaitable (classe dans typing):        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   59)
* b';bytes literal:                      Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   47)
* b";bytes literal:                      Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   47)
* b16decode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  163)
* b16encode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  158)
* b2a_base64() (dans le module binascii): binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   65)
* b2a_hex() (dans le module binascii):   binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  121)
* b2a_qp() (dans le module binascii):    binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   81)
* b2a_uu() (dans le module binascii):    binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   34)
* b32decode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  117)
* b32encode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  112)
* b32hexdecode() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  146)
* b32hexencode() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  139)
* b64decode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   60)
* b64encode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   45)
* b85decode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  239)
* b85encode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  226)
* Babyl (classe dans mailbox):           Babyl objects.      (line    6)
* BabylMessage (classe dans mailbox):    BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* back() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   24)
* backend (dans le module readline):     readline --- GNU readline interface.
                                                             (line   50)
* backslash character:                   Continuation de ligne explicite.
                                                             (line    6)
* backslashreplace_errors() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  162)
* backslashreplace;error handler's name: Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* backup() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects. (line  531)
* backward() (dans le module turtle):    Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   24)
* BadGzipFile:                           gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line   65)
* BadOptionError:                        Exceptions<10>.     (line   21)
* BadStatusLine:                         http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  184)
* BadZipFile:                            zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   25)
* BadZipfile:                            zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   31)
* Barrier (classe dans asyncio):         Barrière Barrier.   (line    6)
* Barrier (classe dans multiprocessing): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   14)
* Barrier (classe dans threading):       Barrier Objects.    (line   36)
* Barrier() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* base_exec_prefix (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  133)
* base_prefix (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  147)
* base64;encoding:                       base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    8)
* BaseCGIHandler (classe dans wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   53)
* BaseCookie (classe dans http.cookies): http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   41)
* BaseException:                         Classes mères.      (line    9)
* BaseExceptionGroup:                    Exception groups.   (line   14)
* BaseHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  280)
* BaseHandler (classe dans wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   89)
* BaseHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* BaseHTTPRequestHandler (classe dans http.server): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   54)
* BaseManager (classe dans multiprocessing.managers): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* basename() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   62)
* BaseProtocol (classe dans asyncio):    Protocoles de base. (line    6)
* BaseProxy (classe dans multiprocessing.managers): Objets mandataires.
                                                             (line   98)
* BaseRequestHandler (classe dans socketserver): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line    6)
* BaseRotatingHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   12)
* BaseSelector (classe dans selectors):  Classes<4>.         (line   53)
* BaseServer (classe dans socketserver): Objets serveur.     (line    6)
* BaseTransport (classe dans asyncio):   Hiérarchie des transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* basicConfig() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  204)
* BasicContext (dans le module decimal): Objets de contexte. (line   68)
* BasicInterpolation (classe dans configparser): Interpolation des valeurs.
                                                             (line   11)
* batched() (dans le module itertools):  Itertool Functions. (line   73)
* baudrate() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line   18)
* bbox() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.       (line    8)
* BDADDR_ANY (dans le module socket):    Constantes<8>.      (line  300)
* BDADDR_LOCAL (dans le module socket):  Constantes<8>.      (line  300)
* Bdb (classe dans bdb):                 bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  129)
* BdbQuit:                               bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   15)
* BDFL:                                  Glossaire.          (line  165)
* beep() (dans le module curses):        Fonctions<6>.       (line   26)
* Beep() (dans le module winsound):      winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   12)
* BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode):            Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  361)
* BEFORE_WITH (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  513)
* begin_fill() (dans le module turtle):  Remplissage.        (line   17)
* begin_poly() (dans le module turtle):  Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line    6)
* BEL (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   40)
* BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   76)
* below() (méthode curses.panel.Panel):  Panel Objects.      (line   17)
* benchmarking:                          Fonctions<5>.       (line  226)
* benchmarking <1>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  258)
* benchmarking <2>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  648)
* Benchmarking:                          timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets.
                                                             (line    8)
* betavariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   35)
* bgcolor() (dans le module turtle):     Réglage de la fenêtre.
                                                             (line    6)
* bgpic() (dans le module turtle):       Réglage de la fenêtre.
                                                             (line   22)
* bidirectional() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   57)
* bigaddrspacetest() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  566)
* BigEndianStructure (classe dans ctypes): Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   22)
* BigEndianUnion (classe dans ctypes):   Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   10)
* bigmemtest() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  550)
* Binary (classe dans xmlrpc.client):    Binary Objects.     (line    6)
* binary literal:                        Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary semaphores:                     _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* BINARY_OP (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  242)
* BINARY_SLICE (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  278)
* BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  253)
* binary;arithmetic;operation:           Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary;bitwise;operation:              Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary;literals:                       Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* binaryfunc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  112)
* BinaryIO (classe dans typing):         ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind (widgets):                        Liaisons et événements.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind_partial() (méthode inspect.Signature): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  131)
* bind_port() (dans le module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* bind_textdomain_codeset() (dans le module locale): Accéder aux catalogues de messages.
                                                             (line   16)
* bind_unix_socket() (dans le module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   54)
* bind() (méthode inspect.Signature):    Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  124)
* bind() (méthode socket.socket):        Socket Objects.     (line   32)
* binding;name:                          Liaisons des noms.  (line    6)
* binding;name <1>:                      Les assignations.   (line    6)
* bindtextdomain() (dans le module gettext): API GNU gettext.
                                                             (line   15)
* bindtextdomain() (dans le module locale): Accéder aux catalogues de messages.
                                                             (line   14)
* binomialvariate() (dans le module random): Discrete distributions.
                                                             (line    8)
* BinOp (classe dans ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line   44)
* bisect_left() (dans le module bisect): bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   24)
* bisect_right() (dans le module bisect): bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   49)
* bisect() (dans le module bisect):      bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   49)
* bit_count() (méthode int):             Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers.
                                                             (line   36)
* bit_length() (méthode int):            Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers.
                                                             (line    9)
* BitAnd (classe dans ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* BitOr (classe dans ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* bits_per_digit (attribut sys.int_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1190)
* bitwise;and:                           Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   13)
* bitwise;operations:                    Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* bitwise;or:                            Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   21)
* bitwise;xor:                           Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   17)
* BitXor (classe dans ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* bk() (dans le module turtle):          Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   24)
* bkgd() (méthode curses.window):        Window Objects.     (line   68)
* bkgdset() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line   80)
* blake2b, blake2s:                      BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>.
                                                             (line   25)
* blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>.
                                                             (line   19)
* blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>.
                                                             (line   12)
* blake2b.SALT_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>. (line    6)
* blake2b() (dans le module hashlib):    Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line    9)
* blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>.
                                                             (line   27)
* blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>.
                                                             (line   21)
* blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* blake2s.SALT_SIZE (dans le module hashlib): Constantes<5>. (line    8)
* blake2s() (dans le module hashlib):    Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   14)
* blank line:                            Lignes vierges.     (line    6)
* BLKTYPE (dans le module tarfile):      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  305)
* Blob (classe dans sqlite3):            Blob objects.       (line    6)
* blobopen() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* block:                                 Structure d'un programme.
                                                             (line    6)
* block_on_close (attribut socketserver.ThreadingMixIn): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   46)
* block_size (attribut hmac.HMAC):       hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line  103)
* blocked_domains() (méthode http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* BlockingIOError:                       Exceptions système. (line    9)
* BlockingIOError <1>:                   Interface de haut niveau du module.
                                                             (line   67)
* blocksize (attribut http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  167)
* BNF:                                   Notations.          (line    6)
* BNF <1>:                               Expressions.        (line    6)
* body_encode() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  146)
* body_encoding (attribut email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   75)
* body_line_iterator() (dans le module email.iterators): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   15)
* body() (méthode tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog): tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line   25)
* BOLD (dans le module tkinter.font):    tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* BOM (dans le module codecs):           codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_BE (dans le module codecs):        codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_LE (dans le module codecs):        codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF16 (dans le module codecs):     codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF16_BE (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF16_LE (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF32 (dans le module codecs):     codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF32_BE (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF32_LE (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* BOM_UTF8 (dans le module codecs):      codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* bool (classe de base):                 Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  133)
* BOOLEAN_STATES (attribut configparser.ConfigParser): Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur.
                                                             (line  271)
* Boolean;operation:                     Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;operations:                    Valeurs booléennes. (line    6)
* Boolean;operations <1>:                Opérations booléennes — and or not.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;type:                          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* Boolean;values:                        Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* BooleanOptionalAction (classe dans argparse): Le paramètre action.
                                                             (line  108)
* BoolOp (classe dans ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line   73)
* bootstrap() (dans le module ensurepip): API du module.     (line   14)
* border() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line   91)
* bottom_panel() (dans le module curses.panel): Fonctions<7>.
                                                             (line    8)
* bottom() (méthode curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.      (line   21)
* BoundArguments (classe dans inspect):  Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  332)
* BoundaryError:                         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   38)
* BoundedSemaphore (classe dans asyncio): Sémaphore capé BoundedSemaphore.
                                                             (line    6)
* BoundedSemaphore (classe dans multiprocessing): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   20)
* BoundedSemaphore (classe dans threading): Semaphore Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* BoundedSemaphore() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  181)
* box() (méthode curses.window):         Window Objects.     (line  130)
* bpbynumber (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):  bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  110)
* bpformat() (méthode bdb.Breakpoint):   bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   56)
* bplist (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):      bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  115)
* bpprint() (méthode bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   75)
* BRANCH (monitoring event):             Events.             (line    8)
* Break (classe dans ast):               Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  105)
* break (pdb command):                   Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  102)
* break_anywhere() (méthode bdb.Bdb):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  264)
* break_here() (méthode bdb.Bdb):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  255)
* break_long_words (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  262)
* break_on_hyphens (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  272)
* Breakpoint (classe dans bdb):          bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   22)
* breakpointhook() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  254)
* breakpoints:                           Menu Help console et éditeur.
                                                             (line   31)
* broadcast_address (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   90)
* broadcast_address (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  310)
* broken (attribut asyncio.Barrier):     Barrière Barrier.   (line  106)
* broken (attribut threading.Barrier):   Barrier Objects.    (line  101)
* BrokenBarrierError:                    Barrier Objects.    (line  105)
* BrokenBarrierError <1>:                Barrière Barrier.   (line  110)
* BrokenExecutor:                        Exception classes.  (line   18)
* BrokenPipeError:                       Exceptions système. (line   39)
* BrokenProcessPool:                     Exception classes.  (line   41)
* BrokenThreadPool:                      Exception classes.  (line   33)
* BROWSER:                               webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   20)
* BROWSER <1>:                           webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   34)
* BROWSER <2>:                           webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  122)
* BS (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   43)
* BsdDbShelf (classe dans shelve):       Limites.            (line   65)
* buf (attribut multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  116)
* buffer (attribut io.TextIOBase):       Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* buffer (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  311)
* Buffer (classe dans collections.abc):  Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  176)
* buffer interface;(see buffer protocol): Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   79)
* buffer object;(see buffer protocol):   Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   78)
* buffer protocol:                       Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   79)
* buffer protocol;binary sequence types: Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line  195)
* buffer protocol;str (built-in class):  Type Séquence de Texte — str.
                                                             (line   65)
* buffer size, I/O:                      Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* buffer_info() (méthode array.array):   array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  127)
* buffer_size (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  120)
* buffer_text (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  127)
* buffer_updated() (méthode asyncio.BufferedProtocol): Protocoles connectés avec tampon.
                                                             (line   37)
* buffer_used (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  138)
* BufferedIOBase (classe dans io):       I/O Base Classes.   (line  224)
* BufferedProtocol (classe dans asyncio): Protocoles de base.
                                                             (line   16)
* BufferedRandom (classe dans io):       Buffered Streams.   (line  140)
* BufferedReader (classe dans io):       Buffered Streams.   (line   57)
* BufferedRWPair (classe dans io):       Buffered Streams.   (line  155)
* BufferedWriter (classe dans io):       Buffered Streams.   (line   99)
* BufferError:                           Classes mères.      (line   82)
* BufferFlags (classe dans inspect):     Buffer flags.       (line    6)
* BufferingFormatter (classe dans logging): Formateurs.      (line  132)
* BufferingHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* BufferTooShort:                        Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  238)
* BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode):          Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  694)
* BUILD_LIST (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  676)
* BUILD_MAP (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  684)
* build_opener() (dans le module urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  122)
* BUILD_SET (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  680)
* BUILD_SLICE (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1148)
* BUILD_STRING (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  703)
* BUILD_TUPLE (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  663)
* built-in function; __import__():       Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2261)
* built-in function; abs():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* built-in function; aiter():            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* built-in function; all():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line   60)
* built-in function; anext():            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* built-in function; any():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line   90)
* built-in function; ascii():            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* built-in function; bin():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* built-in function; breakpoint():       Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  147)
* built-in function; callable():         Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  236)
* built-in function; chr():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  249)
* built-in function; classmethod():      Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  260)
* built-in function; compile():          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  301)
* built-in function; delattr():          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  459)
* built-in function; dir():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  483)
* built-in function; divmod():           Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  544)
* built-in function; enumerate():        Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  557)
* built-in function; eval():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  580)
* built-in function; exec():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  658)
* built-in function; filter():           Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  729)
* built-in function; format():           Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  814)
* built-in function; getattr():          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  849)
* built-in function; globals():          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  868)
* built-in function; hasattr():          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  875)
* built-in function; hash():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  883)
* built-in function; help():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  896)
* built-in function; hex():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  922)
* built-in function; id():               Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  953)
* built-in function; input():            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  965)
* built-in function; isinstance():       Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1068)
* built-in function; issubclass():       Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1085)
* built-in function; iter():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1098)
* built-in function; len():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1128)
* built-in function; locals():           Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1149)
* built-in function; map():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1204)
* built-in function; max():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1215)
* built-in function; min():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1253)
* built-in function; multiprocessing.Manager(): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* built-in function; next():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1284)
* built-in function; oct():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1304)
* built-in function; open():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1329)
* built-in function; ord():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1580)
* built-in function; pow():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1587)
* built-in function; print():            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1630)
* built-in function; property.deleter(): Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1710)
* built-in function; property.getter():  Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1706)
* built-in function; property.setter():  Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1708)
* built-in function; repr():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1760)
* built-in function; reversed():         Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1783)
* built-in function; round():            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1790)
* built-in function; setattr():          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1829)
* built-in function; sorted():           Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1880)
* built-in function; staticmethod():     Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1918)
* built-in function; sum():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1976)
* built-in function; vars():             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2140)
* built-in function; zip():              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2164)
* built-in function;__import__:          Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* built-in function;abs:                 Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  116)
* built-in function;abs <1>:             Number Protocol.    (line  101)
* built-in function;ascii:               Protocole Objet.    (line  348)
* built-in function;bytes:               Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  160)
* built-in function;bytes <1>:           Protocole Objet.    (line  372)
* built-in function;call:                Appels.             (line  152)
* built-in function;chr:                 Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   16)
* built-in function;classmethod:         Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  197)
* built-in function;compile:             L'instruction global.
                                                             (line   18)
* built-in function;compile <1>:         Objets code.        (line    6)
* built-in function;compile <2>:         Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   58)
* built-in function;compile <3>:         Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  133)
* built-in function;complex:             Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  123)
* built-in function;complex <1>:         Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* built-in function;divmod:              Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;divmod <1>:          Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   58)
* built-in function;divmod <2>:          Number Protocol.    (line   72)
* built-in function;eval:                L'instruction global.
                                                             (line   18)
* built-in function;eval <1>:            Entrée d'expression.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;eval <2>:            Objets code.        (line   17)
* built-in function;eval <3>:            Fonctions<4>.       (line   92)
* built-in function;eval <4>:            Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line   70)
* built-in function;exec:                L'instruction global.
                                                             (line   18)
* built-in function;exec <1>:            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  658)
* built-in function;exec <2>:            Objets code.        (line   17)
* built-in function;float:               Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  123)
* built-in function;float <1>:           Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* built-in function;float <2>:           Number Protocol.    (line  271)
* built-in function;hash:                Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  258)
* built-in function;hash <1>:            Types de séquences immuables.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;hash <2>:            Protocole Objet.    (line  423)
* built-in function;hash <3>:            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  361)
* built-in function;help:                Interface avec le système d'exploitation.
                                                             (line   20)
* built-in function;id:                  Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* built-in function;int:                 Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  123)
* built-in function;int <1>:             Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* built-in function;int <2>:             Number Protocol.    (line  263)
* built-in function;len:                 Séquences.          (line    6)
* built-in function;len <1>:             Ensembles<2>.       (line    6)
* built-in function;len <2>:             Tableaux de correspondances.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;len <3>:             Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line   41)
* built-in function;len <4>:             Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* built-in function;len <5>:             Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;len <6>:             Protocole Objet.    (line  472)
* built-in function;len <7>:             Sequence Protocol.  (line   16)
* built-in function;len <8>:             Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   19)
* built-in function;len <9>:             List Objects.       (line   41)
* built-in function;len <10>:            Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  227)
* built-in function;len <11>:            Set Objects.        (line  100)
* built-in function;max:                 Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* built-in function;min:                 Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* built-in function;open:                Lecture et écriture de fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;open <1>:            Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;ord:                 Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   16)
* built-in function;pow:                 Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;pow <1>:             Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;pow <2>:             Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   58)
* built-in function;pow <3>:             Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line   69)
* built-in function;pow <4>:             Number Protocol.    (line   81)
* built-in function;pow <5>:             Number Protocol.    (line  211)
* built-in function;print:               Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  165)
* built-in function;range:               L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* built-in function;repr:                Les expressions.    (line   18)
* built-in function;repr <1>:            Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line   96)
* built-in function;repr <2>:            Protocole Objet.    (line  335)
* built-in function;repr <3>:            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  299)
* built-in function;round:               Émulation de types numériques.
                                                             (line  146)
* built-in function;slice:               Objets tranches.    (line    6)
* built-in function;slice <1>:           Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1150)
* built-in function;staticmethod:        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  204)
* built-in function;tuple:               Sequence Protocol.  (line  120)
* built-in function;tuple <1>:           List Objects.       (line  163)
* built-in function;type:                Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* built-in function;type <1>:            Métaclasses.        (line    6)
* built-in function;type <2>:            Objets type.        (line    6)
* built-in function;type <3>:            Protocole Objet.    (line  454)
* built-in method;call:                  Appels.             (line  152)
* built-in;method:                       Méthodes natives.   (line    6)
* built-in;types:                        Types natifs.       (line    9)
* builtin_module_names (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  168)
* BuiltinFunctionType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   81)
* BuiltinImporter (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   67)
* BuiltinMethodType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   81)
* busy_retry() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  197)
* BUTTON_ALT (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  629)
* BUTTON_CTRL (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  626)
* BUTTON_SHIFT (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  623)
* buttonbox() (méthode tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog): tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line   31)
* BUTTONn_CLICKED (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.    (line  614)
* BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.
                                                             (line  617)
* BUTTONn_PRESSED (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.    (line  608)
* BUTTONn_RELEASED (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.   (line  611)
* BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.
                                                             (line  620)
* bye() (dans le module turtle):         Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line    6)
* byref() (dans le module ctypes):       Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   19)
* byte:                                  Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   42)
* bytearray:                             Séquences mutables. (line   27)
* bytearray (classe de base):            Objets bytearray.   (line    9)
* bytearray;formatting:                  Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;interpolation:               Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;methods:                     Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytecode:                              Objets Code.        (line    6)
* Bytecode (classe dans dis):            Analyse du code intermédiaire.
                                                             (line   12)
* BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (dans le module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   40)
* Bytecode.codeobj (dans le module dis): Analyse du code intermédiaire.
                                                             (line   52)
* Bytecode.first_line (dans le module dis): Analyse du code intermédiaire.
                                                             (line   56)
* BytecodeTestCase (classe dans test.support.bytecode_helper): test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   13)
* byteorder (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  161)
* bytes:                                 Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   42)
* bytes (attribut uuid.UUID):            uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   89)
* bytes (classe de base):                Objets bytes.       (line   12)
* bytes literal:                         Littéraux.          (line    9)
* bytes_le (attribut uuid.UUID):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   94)
* bytes_warning (attribut sys.flags):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  581)
* bytes;formatting:                      Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;interpolation:                   Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;methods:                         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;str (built-in class):            Type Séquence de Texte — str.
                                                             (line   65)
* BytesFeedParser (classe dans email.parser): API FeedParser.
                                                             (line   30)
* BytesGenerator (classe dans email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line   45)
* BytesHeaderParser (classe dans email.parser): API de Parser.
                                                             (line   70)
* BytesIO (classe dans io):              Buffered Streams.   (line    9)
* BytesParser (classe dans email.parser): API de Parser.     (line   18)
* ByteString (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* ByteString (classe dans typing):       Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* byteswap() (méthode array.array):      array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  148)
* BytesWarning:                          Avertissements.     (line   85)
* BZ2Compressor (classe dans bz2):       Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line    6)
* BZ2Decompressor (classe dans bz2):     Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   34)
* BZ2File (classe dans bz2):             Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line   43)
* C:                                     Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* c_bool (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  207)
* c_byte (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* c_char (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* c_char_p (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* C_CONTIGUOUS (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags. (line   25)
* c_contiguous (attribut memoryview):    Vues mémoire.       (line  488)
* c_double (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* c_float (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* c_int (classe dans ctypes):            Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* c_int16 (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* c_int32 (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* c_int64 (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* c_int8 (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* c_long (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* c_longdouble (classe dans ctypes):     Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* c_longlong (classe dans ctypes):       Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* C_RAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   16)
* C_RETURN (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   21)
* c_short (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  119)
* c_size_t (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  124)
* c_ssize_t (classe dans ctypes):        Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  128)
* c_time_t (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  134)
* c_ubyte (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  140)
* c_uint (classe dans ctypes):           Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  146)
* c_uint16 (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  158)
* c_uint32 (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  163)
* c_uint64 (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  168)
* c_uint8 (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* c_ulong (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  173)
* c_ulonglong (classe dans ctypes):      Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  178)
* c_ushort (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* c_void_p (classe dans ctypes):         Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  189)
* c_wchar (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* c_wchar_p (classe dans ctypes):        Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  201)
* C-contiguous:                          shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* C-contiguous <1>:                      Glossaire.          (line  345)
* C;language:                            Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;language <1>:                        numbers Real float. (line    6)
* C;language <2>:                        Fonctions natives.  (line    6)
* C;language <3>:                        Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* C;language <4>:                        Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;structures:                          struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
                                                             (line    8)
* C14NWriterTarget (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line  102)
* CACHE (opcode):                        Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  177)
* cache_from_source() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   21)
* cache() (dans le module functools):    functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* cached (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  423)
* cached_property() (dans le module functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* CacheFTPHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  439)
* calcobjsize() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  434)
* calcsize() (dans le module struct):    Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* calcvobjsize() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  440)
* Calendar (classe dans calendar):       calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   28)
* calendar() (dans le module calendar):  calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  440)
* call:                                  Tranches.           (line   45)
* Call (classe dans ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line  128)
* CALL (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   12)
* CALL (opcode):                         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1041)
* call_args (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.   (line  459)
* call_args_list (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  504)
* call_at() (méthode asyncio.loop):      Planification des rappels différés.
                                                             (line   39)
* call_count (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.  (line  348)
* call_exception_handler() (méthode asyncio.loop): API de gestion d'erreur.
                                                             (line   49)
* CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1093)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_1 (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1299)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_2 (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1360)
* CALL_KW (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1066)
* call_later() (méthode asyncio.loop):   Planification des rappels différés.
                                                             (line   10)
* call_list() (méthode unittest.mock.call): appel.           (line   20)
* call_soon_threadsafe() (méthode asyncio.loop): Planification des fonctions de rappel.
                                                             (line   28)
* call_soon() (méthode asyncio.loop):    Planification des fonctions de rappel.
                                                             (line    6)
* call_tracing() (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  177)
* call;instance:                         Émulation d'objets appelables.
                                                             (line    8)
* call() (dans le module operator):      operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  225)
* call() (dans le module subprocess):    Ancienne interface API haut-niveau.
                                                             (line   11)
* call() (dans le module unittest.mock): appel.              (line    6)
* Callable (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Callable (dans le module typing):      Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   22)
* CallableProxyType (dans le module weakref): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  340)
* callback (attribut optparse.Option):   Option attributes.  (line   68)
* callback_args (attribut optparse.Option): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback_kwargs (attribut optparse.Option): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback() (méthode contextlib.ExitStack): Utilitaires.    (line  596)
* callbacks (dans le module gc):         gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  269)
* called (attribut unittest.mock.Mock):  La classe Mock.     (line  336)
* CalledProcessError:                    Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  216)
* calloc (C function):                   Aperçu<4>.          (line   33)
* CAN (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   97)
* CAN_BCM (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line  147)
* can_change_color() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.  (line   30)
* can_fetch() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   35)
* CAN_ISOTP (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  186)
* CAN_J1939 (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  195)
* CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.  (line  162)
* CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  175)
* can_symlink() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   75)
* can_write_eof() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   49)
* can_write_eof() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   14)
* can_xattr() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   79)
* CANCEL (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  155)
* cancel_command() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   86)
* cancel_dump_traceback_later() (dans le module faulthandler): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line   29)
* cancel_join_thread() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  209)
* cancel() (méthode asyncio.Future):     Objet Future.       (line  122)
* cancel() (méthode asyncio.Handle):     Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs.
                                                             (line   18)
* cancel() (méthode asyncio.Task):       Objets Task.        (line  207)
* cancel() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* cancel() (méthode sched.scheduler):    Scheduler Objects.  (line   41)
* cancel() (méthode threading.Timer):    Timer Objects.      (line   36)
* cancel() (méthode tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   52)
* cancelled() (méthode asyncio.Future):  Objet Future.       (line   76)
* cancelled() (méthode asyncio.Handle):  Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs.
                                                             (line   23)
* cancelled() (méthode asyncio.Task):    Objets Task.        (line  270)
* cancelled() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CancelledError:                        Exception classes.  (line    6)
* CancelledError <1>:                    Exceptions<13>.     (line   18)
* cancelling() (méthode asyncio.Task):   Objets Task.        (line  331)
* CannotSendHeader:                      http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  176)
* CannotSendRequest:                     http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  172)
* canonic() (méthode bdb.Bdb):           bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  149)
* canonical() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  272)
* canonical() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  148)
* canonicalize() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line    6)
* capa() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   24)
* capitalize() (méthode bytearray):      Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  490)
* capitalize() (méthode bytes):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  490)
* capitalize() (méthode str):            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* CapsuleType (classe dans types):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  294)
* captured_stderr() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  328)
* captured_stdin() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  328)
* captured_stdout() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  328)
* captureWarnings() (dans le module logging): Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line    9)
* capwords() (dans le module string):    Fonctions d'assistance.
                                                             (line    6)
* case block:                            Bloc case attrape-tout.
                                                             (line    6)
* casefold() (méthode str):              Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* cast() (dans le module ctypes):        Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   33)
* cast() (dans le module typing):        Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line    6)
* cast() (méthode memoryview):           Vues mémoire.       (line  287)
* catch_threading_exception() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   47)
* catch_unraisable_exception() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  596)
* catch_warnings (classe dans warnings): Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles.
                                                             (line    6)
* category() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   52)
* cbreak() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line   35)
* cbrt() (dans le module math):          Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* CC:                                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* ccc() (méthode ftplib.FTP_TLS):        FTP_TLS objects.    (line   99)
* cdf() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.  (line   89)
* CDLL (classe dans ctypes):             Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line   10)
* ceil() (dans le module math):          Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line    6)
* ceil() (in module math):               Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  119)
* CellType (dans le module types):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   70)
* center() (méthode bytearray):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  304)
* center() (méthode bytes):              Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  304)
* center() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* CERT_NONE (dans le module ssl):        Constantes<9>.      (line   11)
* CERT_OPTIONAL (dans le module ssl):    Constantes<9>.      (line   24)
* CERT_REQUIRED (dans le module ssl):    Constantes<9>.      (line   40)
* cert_store_stats() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts. (line   91)
* cert_time_to_seconds() (dans le module ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line    6)
* CertificateError:                      Exceptions<16>.     (line   96)
* certificates:                          SSL Contexts.       (line  765)
* CFLAGS:                                New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CFLAGS <1>:                            Options de performance.
                                                             (line   30)
* CFLAGS <2>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* CFLAGS <3>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* CFLAGS <4>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* CFLAGS <5>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* CFLAGS <6>:                            Linker flags.       (line   18)
* CFLAGS_NODIST:                         Compiler flags.     (line   24)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                     Compiler flags.     (line   61)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:                     Linker flags.       (line   26)
* cfmakecbreak() (dans le module tty):   tty --- Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   28)
* cfmakeraw() (dans le module tty):      tty --- Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* CFUNCTYPE() (dans le module ctypes):   Prototypes de fonction.
                                                             (line   16)
* cget() (méthode tkinter.font.Font):    tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   53)
* cgi_directories (attribut http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  483)
* CGIHandler (classe dans wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   11)
* CGIHTTPRequestHandler (classe dans http.server): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  457)
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (classe dans xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   52)
* chain() (dans le module itertools):    Itertool Functions. (line  107)
* chaîne de documentation (docstring):   Glossaire.          (line  451)
* chaîne entre triple guillemets:        Glossaire.          (line 1540)
* chaining;comparisons:                  Comparaisons.       (line   22)
* chaining;comparisons <1>:              Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* ChainMap (classe dans collections):    Objets ChainMap.    (line   16)
* ChainMap (classe dans typing):         Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   28)
* change_cwd() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   83)
* CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>. (line  471)
* CHAR_MAX (dans le module locale):      locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  603)
* character:                             Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   16)
* character <1>:                         sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line   60)
* character <2>:                         unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* CharacterDataHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  278)
* characters_written (attribut BlockingIOError): Exceptions système.
                                                             (line   19)
* characters() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  138)
* chargeur:                              Chercheurs et chargeurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* chargeur <1>:                          Glossaire.          (line  959)
* Charset (classe dans email.charset):   email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   25)
* charset() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   70)
* chdir() (dans le module contextlib):   Utilitaires.        (line  371)
* chdir() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  122)
* check (attribut lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  170)
* check__all__() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  676)
* check_call() (dans le module subprocess): Ancienne interface API haut-niveau.
                                                             (line   45)
* check_disallow_instantiation() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  730)
* CHECK_EG_MATCH (opcode):               Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  476)
* CHECK_EXC_MATCH (opcode):              Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  468)
* check_free_after_iterating() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  664)
* check_hostname (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.    (line  496)
* check_impl_detail() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  292)
* check_no_resource_warning() (dans le module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* check_output() (dans le module subprocess): Ancienne interface API haut-niveau.
                                                             (line   83)
* check_output() (méthode doctest.OutputChecker): Objets OutputChecker.
                                                             (line   18)
* check_returncode() (méthode subprocess.CompletedProcess): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  142)
* check_syntax_error() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  570)
* check_syntax_warning() (dans le module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* check_unused_args() (méthode string.Formatter): Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line  100)
* check_warnings() (dans le module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   48)
* check() (dans le module tabnanny):     tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   18)
* check() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line   58)
* checkcache() (dans le module linecache): linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   45)
* CHECKED_HASH (attribut py_compile.PycInvalidationMode): py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  120)
* checkfuncname() (dans le module bdb):  bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  456)
* checksizeof() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  446)
* checksum;Cyclic Redundancy Check:      zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  130)
* chemin des importations:               Glossaire.          (line  779)
* chercheur:                             Chercheurs et chargeurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* chercheur <1>:                         Glossaire.          (line  553)
* chercheur basé sur les chemins:        Glossaire.          (line 1254)
* chercheur dans les méta-chemins:       Glossaire.          (line 1004)
* chercheur de chemins:                  Glossaire.          (line 1238)
* chercheur;find_spec:                   Méta-chemins.       (line    6)
* chflags() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  143)
* chgat() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  136)
* childNodes (attribut xml.dom.Node):    Objets nœuds.       (line   49)
* ChildProcessError:                     Exceptions système. (line   26)
* children (attribut pyclbr.Class):      Objets classes<2>.  (line   35)
* children (attribut pyclbr.Function):   Objets fonctions.   (line   34)
* children (attribut tkinter.Tk):        Modules Tkinter.    (line   93)
* chksum (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  138)
* chmod() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  186)
* chmod() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Permissions et propriété.
                                                             (line   36)
* choice() (dans le module random):      Fonctions pour les séquences.
                                                             (line    6)
* choice() (dans le module secrets):     Nombres aléatoires. (line   16)
* choices (attribut optparse.Option):    Option attributes.  (line   63)
* choices() (dans le module random):     Fonctions pour les séquences.
                                                             (line   11)
* Chooser (classe dans tkinter.colorchooser): tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line   16)
* chown() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  258)
* chown() (dans le module shutil):       Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  401)
* chroot() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  289)
* CHRTYPE (dans le module tarfile):      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  301)
* cipher() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket):      SSL Sockets.        (line  229)
* circle() (dans le module turtle):      Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  213)
* CIRCUMFLEX (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  253)
* CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  286)
* Clamped (classe dans decimal):         Signaux.            (line   20)
* CLASS (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   19)
* Class (classe dans pyclbr):            Objets classes<2>.  (line    6)
* Class (classe dans symtable):          Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  150)
* class instance;attribute:              Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* class instance;attribute;assignment:   Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* class instance;call:                   Appels.             (line  162)
* class object;call:                     Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* class object;call <1>:                 Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   31)
* class object;call <2>:                 Appels.             (line  158)
* class;attribute:                       Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* class;attribute;assignment:            Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   28)
* class;body:                            Exécution du corps de la classe.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;constructor:                     Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line   42)
* class;definition:                      L'instruction return.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;definition <1>:                  Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;instance:                        Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;name:                            Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* ClassDef (classe dans ast):            Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  184)
* classe:                                Glossaire.          (line  252)
* classe mère abstraite:                 Glossaire.          (line   23)
* ClassMethodDescriptorType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  116)
* ClassVar (dans le module typing):      Special forms.      (line  162)
* clause:                                Instructions composées.
                                                             (line   20)
* CLD_CONTINUED (dans le module os):     Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1093)
* CLD_DUMPED (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1093)
* CLD_EXITED (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1093)
* CLD_KILLED (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1093)
* CLD_STOPPED (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1093)
* CLD_TRAPPED (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1093)
* clean() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):     Maildir objects.    (line   86)
* cleandoc() (dans le module inspect):   Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   71)
* CleanImport (classe dans test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   87)
* cleanup functions:                     Process Control.    (line   34)
* CLEANUP_THROW (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  351)
* cleanup() (méthode tempfile.TemporaryDirectory): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  208)
* clear (pdb command):                   Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  131)
* clear_all_breaks() (méthode bdb.Bdb):  bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  370)
* clear_all_file_breaks() (méthode bdb.Bdb): bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  365)
* clear_bpbynumber() (méthode bdb.Bdb):  bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  359)
* clear_break() (méthode bdb.Bdb):       bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  354)
* clear_cache() (dans le module filecmp): filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   60)
* clear_cache() (méthode de la classe zoneinfo.ZoneInfo): La classe ZoneInfo.
                                                             (line   59)
* clear_content() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  705)
* clear_flags() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  181)
* clear_frames() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  177)
* clear_history() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line    8)
* clear_overloads() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  302)
* clear_session_cookies() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* clear_traces() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line    6)
* clear_traps() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  185)
* clear() (dans le module turtle):       Plus des réglages pour le dessin.
                                                             (line   23)
* clear() (méthode array.array):         array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  229)
* clear() (méthode asyncio.Event):       Événement Event.    (line   60)
* clear() (méthode collections.deque):   Objets deque.       (line   44)
* clear() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  152)
* clear() (méthode dbm.gnu.gdbm):        dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  121)
* clear() (méthode dbm.ndbm.ndbm):       dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   75)
* clear() (méthode dict):                Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  144)
* clear() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  701)
* clear() (méthode frame):               Frame object methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* clear() (méthode frozenset):           Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  225)
* clear() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* clear() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):     Mailbox objects.    (line  217)
* clear() (méthode threading.Event):     Event Objects.      (line   37)
* clear() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   64)
* clear() (sequence method):             Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* clearcache() (dans le module linecache): linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   39)
* clearok() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  157)
* clearscreen() (dans le module turtle): Réglage de la fenêtre.
                                                             (line   47)
* clearstamp() (dans le module turtle):  Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  290)
* clearstamps() (dans le module turtle): Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  309)
* client_address (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   76)
* client_address (attribut socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   48)
* Client() (dans le module multiprocessing.connection): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line   37)
* CLOCK_BOOTTIME (dans le module time):  Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line    9)
* clock_getres() (dans le module time):  Fonctions<5>.       (line   43)
* clock_gettime_ns() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.    (line   66)
* clock_gettime() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.       (line   53)
* CLOCK_HIGHRES (dans le module time):   Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   23)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   34)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   43)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   52)
* CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   61)
* CLOCK_PROF (dans le module time):      Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   69)
* CLOCK_REALTIME (dans le module time):  Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line  131)
* clock_seq (attribut uuid.UUID):        uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  129)
* clock_seq_hi_variant (attribut uuid.UUID): uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  117)
* clock_seq_low (attribut uuid.UUID):    uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  120)
* clock_settime_ns() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.    (line   87)
* clock_settime() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.       (line   75)
* CLOCK_TAI (dans le module time):       Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   77)
* CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   89)
* CLOCK_UPTIME (dans le module time):    Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line   97)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line  108)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX (dans le module time): Constantes d’identification d’horloge.
                                                             (line  119)
* CLONE_FILES (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_FS (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWCGROUP (dans le module os):   Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWIPC (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWNET (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWNS (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWPID (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWTIME (dans le module os):     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWUSER (dans le module os):     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_NEWUTS (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_SIGHAND (dans le module os):     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_SYSVSEM (dans le module os):     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_THREAD (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* CLONE_VM (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  646)
* clone() (dans le module turtle):       Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   32)
* clone() (méthode email.generator.BytesGenerator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  121)
* clone() (méthode email.generator.Generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  224)
* clone() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  243)
* cloneNode() (méthode xml.dom.Node):    Objets nœuds.       (line  152)
* close (in module os):                  Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  196)
* close_clients() (méthode asyncio.Server): Objets Serveur.  (line   44)
* close_connection (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   85)
* close() (dans le module fileinput):    fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  137)
* close() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   24)
* close() (dans le module socket):       Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* close() (méthode asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   87)
* close() (méthode asyncio.BaseTransport): Classe de base des Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* close() (méthode asyncio.loop):        Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   46)
* close() (méthode asyncio.Runner):      Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur.
                                                             (line   56)
* close() (méthode asyncio.Server):      Objets Serveur.     (line   32)
* close() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   39)
* close() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line   61)
* close() (méthode contextlib.ExitStack): Utilitaires.       (line  631)
* close() (méthode coroutine):           Objets coroutines.  (line   51)
* close() (méthode dbm.dumb.dumbdbm):    dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   84)
* close() (méthode dbm.gnu.gdbm):        dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  117)
* close() (méthode dbm.ndbm.ndbm):       dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   71)
* close() (méthode email.parser.BytesFeedParser): API FeedParser.
                                                             (line   70)
* close() (méthode ftplib.FTP):          FTP objects.        (line  375)
* close() (méthode generator):           Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   70)
* close() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   17)
* close() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  163)
* close() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line   62)
* close() (méthode io.IOBase):           I/O Base Classes.   (line   48)
* close() (méthode logging.FileHandler): Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* close() (méthode logging.Handler):     Gestionnaires.      (line   77)
* close() (méthode logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   57)
* close() (méthode logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* close() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (méthode logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* close() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):     Mailbox objects.    (line  274)
* close() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):     Maildir objects.    (line  215)
* close() (méthode mailbox.MH):          MH objects.         (line  107)
* close() (méthode mmap.mmap):           mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  183)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   37)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line   95)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  182)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  200)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  187)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   93)
* close() (méthode multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  236)
* close() (méthode os.scandir):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  934)
* close() (méthode select.devpoll):      /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* close() (méthode select.epoll):        Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* close() (méthode select.kqueue):       Kqueue Objects.     (line    6)
* close() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>.      (line  137)
* close() (méthode shelve.Shelf):        shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   82)
* close() (méthode socket.socket):       Socket Objects.     (line   43)
* close() (méthode sqlite3.Blob):        Blob objects.       (line   37)
* close() (méthode sqlite3.Connection):  Connection objects. (line   88)
* close() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor):      Cursor objects.     (line  153)
* close() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):     Les objets TarFile. (line  345)
* close() (méthode urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* close() (méthode wave.Wave_read):      Objets Wave_read.   (line   13)
* close() (méthode wave.Wave_write):     Objets Wave_write.  (line   30)
* Close() (méthode winreg.PyHKEY):       Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* close() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   32)
* close() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser): Objets XMLParser.
                                                             (line   22)
* close() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): Objets XMLPullParser.
                                                             (line   42)
* close() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* close() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):     Objets ZipFile.     (line  115)
* CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   85)
* closed (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   79)
* closed (attribut io.IOBase):           I/O Base Classes.   (line   58)
* closed (attribut mmap.mmap):           mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  189)
* closed (attribut select.devpoll):      /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* closed (attribut select.epoll):        Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* closed (attribut select.kqueue):       Kqueue Objects.     (line   10)
* CloseKey() (dans le module winreg):    Fonctions<13>.      (line    8)
* closelog() (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   80)
* closerange() (dans le module os):      Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   36)
* closing() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.        (line  156)
* closure variable:                      Glossaire.          (line  264)
* clrtobot() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  162)
* clrtoeol() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  168)
* cmd (attribut subprocess.CalledProcessError): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  228)
* cmd (attribut subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  181)
* Cmd (classe dans cmd):                 cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters.
                                                             (line   15)
* cmdloop() (méthode cmd.Cmd):           Objets Cmd.         (line    8)
* cmdqueue (attribut cmd.Cmd):           Objets Cmd.         (line  146)
* cmp_op (dans le module dis):           Opcode collections. (line   21)
* cmp_to_key() (dans le module functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  119)
* cmp() (dans le module filecmp):        filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   17)
* cmpfiles() (dans le module filecmp):   filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   38)
* CMSG_LEN() (dans le module socket):    Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  336)
* CMSG_SPACE() (dans le module socket):  Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  353)
* co_argcount (attribut codeobject):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* co_argcount (code object attribute):   Objets Code.        (line   17)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   56)
* co_cellvars (attribut codeobject):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* co_cellvars (code object attribute):   Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_code (attribut codeobject):         Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* co_code (code object attribute):       Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_consts (attribut codeobject):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* co_consts (code object attribute):     Objets Code.        (line   17)
* CO_COROUTINE (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   38)
* co_filename (attribut codeobject):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* co_filename (code object attribute):   Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_firstlineno (attribut codeobject):  Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* co_firstlineno (code object attribute): Objets Code.       (line   17)
* co_flags (attribut codeobject):        Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* co_flags (code object attribute):      Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_freevars (attribut codeobject):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* co_freevars (code object attribute):   Objets Code.        (line   17)
* CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C var):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  366)
* CO_GENERATOR (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   32)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   46)
* co_kwonlyargcount (attribut codeobject): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* co_kwonlyargcount (code object attribute): Objets Code.    (line   17)
* co_lines() (méthode codeobject):       Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* co_lnotab (attribut codeobject):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* co_lnotab (code object attribute):     Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_name (attribut codeobject):         Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_name (code object attribute):       Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_names (attribut codeobject):        Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* co_names (code object attribute):      Objets Code.        (line   17)
* CO_NESTED (dans le module inspect):    Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   28)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   13)
* co_nlocals (attribut codeobject):      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* co_nlocals (code object attribute):    Objets Code.        (line   17)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_positions() (méthode codeobject):   Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_posonlyargcount (attribut codeobject): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* co_posonlyargcount (code object attribute): Objets Code.   (line   17)
* co_qualname (attribut codeobject):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_qualname (code object attribute):   Objets Code.        (line   17)
* co_stacksize (attribut codeobject):    Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* co_stacksize (code object attribute):  Objets Code.        (line   17)
* CO_VARARGS (dans le module inspect):   Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (dans le module inspect): Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   23)
* co_varnames (attribut codeobject):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* co_varnames (code object attribute):   Objets Code.        (line   17)
* code (attribut SystemExit):            Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  424)
* code (attribut urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   44)
* code (attribut urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   40)
* code (attribut xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError): Exceptions<19>.
                                                             (line   14)
* code (attribut xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError): ExpatError Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* code intermédiaire (bytecode):         Glossaire.          (line  218)
* code object:                           Objets Code.        (line    6)
* code object <1>:                       Méthodes.           (line   43)
* code object <2>:                       marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   33)
* code object <3>:                       Objets Cellules.    (line   60)
* code_context (attribut inspect.FrameInfo): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   32)
* code_context (attribut inspect.Traceback): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   73)
* code_info() (dans le module dis):      Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line   12)
* code;block:                            Modèle d'exécution. (line    6)
* Codec (classe dans codecs):            Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* CodecInfo (classe dans codecs):        codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   62)
* Codecs:                                codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;decode:                         codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;encode:                         codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* coded_value (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel. (line   52)
* codepoint2name (dans le module html.entities): html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   36)
* codes (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   16)
* CODESET (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  202)
* CodeType (classe dans types):          Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   56)
* coding;style:                          Aparté le style de codage.
                                                             (line    6)
* col_offset (attribut ast.AST):         Classes de nœuds.   (line   52)
* collapse_addresses() (dans le module ipaddress): Autres fonctions au niveau de module.
                                                             (line   43)
* collapse_rfc2231_value() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  213)
* collect() (dans le module gc):         gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   36)
* collectedDurations (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  295)
* Collection (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   37)
* Collection (classe dans typing):       Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   23)
* colno (attribut json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<17>.     (line   27)
* colno (attribut re.PatternError):      Exceptions<3>.      (line   32)
* colno (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* colon (attribut mailbox.Maildir):      Maildir objects.    (line   45)
* COLON (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  190)
* COLONEQUAL (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  316)
* COLOR_BLACK (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  641)
* COLOR_BLUE (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  644)
* color_content() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.     (line   45)
* COLOR_CYAN (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  647)
* COLOR_GREEN (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  650)
* COLOR_MAGENTA (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.      (line  653)
* color_pair() (dans le module curses):  Fonctions<6>.       (line   53)
* COLOR_PAIRS (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line   41)
* COLOR_RED (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  656)
* COLOR_WHITE (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  659)
* COLOR_YELLOW (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  662)
* color() (dans le module turtle):       Réglage des couleurs.
                                                             (line  106)
* colormode() (dans le module turtle):   Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line   42)
* COLORS (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line   36)
* COLS (dans le module curses):          Constantes<6>.      (line   46)
* column() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.     (line   35)
* columnize() (méthode cmd.Cmd):         Objets Cmd.         (line   89)
* COLUMNS:                               Fonctions<6>.       (line  595)
* COLUMNS <1>:                           Fonctions<6>.       (line  598)
* columns (attribut os.terminal_size):   Demander la taille d'un terminal.
                                                             (line   31)
* comb() (dans le module math):          Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* combinations_with_replacement() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  171)
* combinations() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  130)
* combine() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  189)
* combining() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   63)
* Combobox (classe dans tkinter.ttk):    ttk Combobox.       (line    6)
* comma:                                 Formes parenthésées.
                                                             (line   21)
* COMMA (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  193)
* command (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  101)
* command line:                          Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line   26)
* CommandCompiler (classe dans codeop):  codeop --- Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   67)
* commands (pdb command):                Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  167)
* comment:                               Commentaires.       (line    6)
* comment (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* comment (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.     (line   14)
* comment (attribut zipfile.ZipFile):    Objets ZipFile.     (line  381)
* comment (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):    Objets ZipInfo.     (line   95)
* COMMENT (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   71)
* comment_url (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Comment() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line   75)
* comment() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   55)
* comment() (méthode xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): Objets LexicalHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* commenters (attribut shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line   85)
* CommentHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  336)
* commit() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects. (line   72)
* common (attribut filecmp.dircmp):      La classe dircmp.   (line   63)
* common_dirs (attribut filecmp.dircmp): La classe dircmp.   (line   75)
* common_files (attribut filecmp.dircmp): La classe dircmp.  (line   79)
* common_funny (attribut filecmp.dircmp): La classe dircmp.  (line   83)
* common_types (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  158)
* commonpath() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   74)
* commonprefix() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   90)
* communicate() (méthode asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line   54)
* communicate() (méthode subprocess.Popen): Objets Popen.    (line   40)
* Compare (classe dans ast):             Expressions<2>.     (line   98)
* compare_digest() (dans le module hmac): hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line  121)
* compare_digest() (dans le module secrets): Autres fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* compare_networks() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  237)
* compare_networks() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  351)
* COMPARE_OP (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  798)
* compare_signal() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  280)
* compare_signal() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  165)
* compare_to() (méthode tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.     (line   13)
* compare_total_mag() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  289)
* compare_total_mag() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  200)
* compare_total() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  284)
* compare_total() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  173)
* compare() (méthode decimal.Context):   Objets de contexte. (line  276)
* compare() (méthode decimal.Decimal):   Les objets Decimal. (line  154)
* compare() (méthode difflib.Differ):    Differ Objects.     (line   38)
* comparison:                            Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* COMPARISON_FLAGS (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  116)
* comparisons:                           Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  201)
* Compat32 (classe dans email.policy):   email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  609)
* compat32 (dans le module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  669)
* Compile (classe dans codeop):          codeop --- Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   58)
* compile_command() (dans le module code): code --- Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   55)
* compile_command() (dans le module codeop): codeop --- Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   30)
* compile_dir() (dans le module compileall): Fonctions publiques.
                                                             (line    6)
* compile_file() (dans le module compileall): Fonctions publiques.
                                                             (line  104)
* compile_path() (dans le module compileall): Fonctions publiques.
                                                             (line  174)
* compile() (dans le module py_compile): py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   24)
* compile() (dans le module re):         Fonctions<2>.       (line    6)
* compiler_flag (attribut __future__._Feature): Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   85)
* complete_statement() (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions du module.
                                                             (line  109)
* complete() (méthode rlcompleter.Completer): rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line   45)
* completedefault() (méthode cmd.Cmd):   Objets Cmd.         (line   83)
* CompletedProcess (classe dans subprocess): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  104)
* Completer (classe dans rlcompleter):   rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line   40)
* Complex (classe dans numbers):         La tour numérique.  (line    6)
* complex (classe de base):              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  385)
* complex literal:                       Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* complex number;literals:               Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* complex;number:                        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* compound;statement:                    Instructions composées.
                                                             (line    6)
* comprehension (classe dans ast):       Compréhensions.     (line   60)
* comprehensions:                        Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress_size (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.  (line  146)
* compress_type (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.  (line   91)
* compress() (dans le module bz2):       Dé compression en une fois.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress() (dans le module gzip):      gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  200)
* compress() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line  213)
* compress() (dans le module lzma):      Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  195)
* compress() (dans le module zlib):      zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   48)
* compress() (méthode bz2.BZ2Compressor): Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   16)
* compress() (méthode lzma.LZMACompressor): Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line   88)
* compress() (méthode zlib.Compress):    zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  215)
* compressed (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line   60)
* compressed (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  106)
* compressed (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  247)
* compressed (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  318)
* compression() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.        (line  247)
* CompressionError:                      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  226)
* compressobj() (dans le module zlib):   zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   85)
* COMSPEC:                               Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  810)
* COMSPEC <1>:                           Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line  118)
* concat() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  180)
* Concatenate (dans le module typing):   Special forms.      (line   70)
* concatenation;operation:               Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* cond (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   96)
* Condition (classe dans asyncio):       Condition.          (line    6)
* Condition (classe dans multiprocessing): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   33)
* Condition (classe dans threading):     Condition Objects.  (line   72)
* condition (pdb command):               Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  159)
* Condition() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  186)
* Conditional;expression:                Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line    6)
* conditional;expression:                Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line    6)
* config() (méthode tkinter.font.Font):  tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   57)
* ConfigParser (classe dans configparser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* configuration information:             sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information.
                                                             (line   10)
* configuration;file:                    configparser --- Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* configure_mock() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  278)
* configure() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.        (line   26)
* CONFORM (attribut enum.FlagBoundary):  Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  675)
* confstr_names (dans le module os):     Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   30)
* confstr() (dans le module os):         Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line    6)
* conjugate() (complex number method):   Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  105)
* conjugate() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  214)
* conjugate() (méthode numbers.Complex): La tour numérique.  (line   23)
* connect_accepted_socket() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de serveurs.
                                                             (line  151)
* connect_ex() (méthode socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line   88)
* connect_read_pipe() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail avec des tubes pipes.
                                                             (line    6)
* connect_write_pipe() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail avec des tubes pipes.
                                                             (line   23)
* connect() (dans le module sqlite3):    Fonctions du module.
                                                             (line    6)
* connect() (méthode ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line   90)
* connect() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  154)
* connect() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* connect() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):      SMTP Objects.       (line   33)
* connect() (méthode socket.socket):     Socket Objects.     (line   64)
* connection (attribut sqlite3.Cursor):  Cursor objects.     (line  176)
* Connection (classe dans multiprocessing.connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   13)
* Connection (classe dans sqlite3):      Connection objects. (line    6)
* connection_lost() (méthode asyncio.BaseProtocol): Protocoles de base<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* connection_made() (méthode asyncio.BaseProtocol): Protocoles de base<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* ConnectionAbortedError:                Exceptions système. (line   46)
* ConnectionError:                       Exceptions système. (line   31)
* ConnectionRefusedError:                Exceptions système. (line   52)
* ConnectionResetError:                  Exceptions système. (line   58)
* ConnectRegistry() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.  (line   17)
* const (attribut optparse.Option):      Option attributes.  (line   58)
* constant:                              Littéraux.          (line    6)
* Constant (classe dans ast):            Littéraux<3>.       (line    6)
* constructor() (dans le module copyreg): copyreg --- Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* consumed (attribut asyncio.LimitOverrunError): Exceptions<13>.
                                                             (line   70)
* container:                             Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   72)
* container <1>:                         Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* Container (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Container (classe dans typing):        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* container;iteration over:              Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* CONTAINS_OP (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  813)
* contains() (dans le module operator):  operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  185)
* content (attribut urllib.error.ContentTooShortError): urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   73)
* content_disposition (attribut email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  303)
* content_manager (attribut email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  455)
* content_type (attribut email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  290)
* ContentDispositionHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  298)
* ContentHandler (classe dans xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   20)
* ContentManager (classe dans email.contentmanager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   12)
* contents (attribut ctypes._Pointer):   Tableaux et pointeurs.
                                                             (line   58)
* contents() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line  150)
* contents() (méthode importlib.abc.ResourceReader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  492)
* contents() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   69)
* ContentTooShortError:                  urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   67)
* ContentTransferEncoding (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  308)
* ContentTypeHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  285)
* context:                               Glossaire.          (line  306)
* context (attribut ssl.SSLSocket):      SSL Sockets.        (line  340)
* Context (classe dans contextvars):     Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line   21)
* Context (classe dans decimal):         Objets de contexte. (line  122)
* context management protocol:           Le type gestionnaire de contexte.
                                                             (line    6)
* context management protocol <1>:       Glossaire.          (line  323)
* context manager:                       Gestionnaire de contexte With.
                                                             (line   14)
* context manager <1>:                   Le type gestionnaire de contexte.
                                                             (line    6)
* context_diff() (dans le module difflib): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  168)
* ContextDecorator (classe dans contextlib): Utilitaires.    (line  389)
* ContextManager (classe dans typing):   Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line    6)
* contextmanager() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires. (line   32)
* ContextVar (classe dans contextvars):  Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line    6)
* CONTIG (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.       (line   33)
* CONTIG_RO (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.    (line   35)
* contigu:                               Glossaire.          (line  341)
* contiguous:                            shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* contiguous (attribut memoryview):      Vues mémoire.       (line  501)
* Continue (classe dans ast):            Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  105)
* continue (pdb command):                Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  239)
* CONTINUOUS (attribut enum.EnumCheck):  Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  613)
* control() (méthode select.kqueue):     Kqueue Objects.     (line   22)
* controlnames (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  240)
* CONTTYPE (dans le module tarfile):     tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  317)
* convert_arg_line_to_args() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* convert_field() (méthode string.Formatter): Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line  118)
* CONVERT_VALUE (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1174)
* Cookie (classe dans http.cookiejar):   http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  113)
* CookieError:                           http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   35)
* cookiejar (attribut urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor): HTTPCookieProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* CookieJar (classe dans http.cookiejar): http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   46)
* CookiePolicy (classe dans http.cookiejar): http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   77)
* Coordinated Universal Time:            time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   42)
* COPY (opcode):                         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  159)
* copy_abs() (méthode decimal.Context):  Objets de contexte. (line  294)
* copy_abs() (méthode decimal.Decimal):  Les objets Decimal. (line  219)
* copy_context() (dans le module contextvars): Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line    6)
* copy_decimal() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  195)
* copy_file_range() (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   48)
* COPY_FREE_VARS (opcode):               Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1020)
* copy_location() (dans le module ast):  Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  167)
* copy_negate() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  298)
* copy_negate() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  225)
* copy_sign() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  302)
* copy_sign() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  231)
* copy;protocol:                         Sérialisation des instances d'une classe.
                                                             (line  112)
* copy() (dans le module copy):          copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   19)
* copy() (dans le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line   86)
* copy() (dans le module shutil):        Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  126)
* copy() (méthode collections.deque):    Objets deque.       (line   49)
* copy() (méthode contextvars.Context):  Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line  104)
* copy() (méthode decimal.Context):      Objets de contexte. (line  191)
* copy() (méthode dict):                 Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  148)
* copy() (méthode frozenset):            Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  129)
* copy() (méthode hashlib.hash):         Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   55)
* copy() (méthode hmac.HMAC):            hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   89)
* copy() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel):  Objets Morsel.      (line  102)
* copy() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line   68)
* copy() (méthode tkinter.font.Font):    tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   61)
* copy() (méthode types.MappingProxyType): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  257)
* copy() (méthode zlib.Compress):        zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  238)
* copy() (méthode zlib.Decompress):      zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  307)
* copy() (sequence method):              Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* copy2() (dans le module shutil):       Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  159)
* copyfile() (dans le module shutil):    Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line   17)
* copyfileobj() (dans le module shutil): Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* copying files:                         shutil --- High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    8)
* copymode() (dans le module shutil):    Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line   62)
* copyright (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  189)
* copyright (in module sys):             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  190)
* copyright (variable de base):          Constantes ajoutées par le module site.
                                                             (line   26)
* copysign() (dans le module math):      Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* copystat() (dans le module shutil):    Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line   81)
* copytree() (dans le module shutil):    Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  199)
* coroutine:                             Recherche des méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line   76)
* coroutine <1>:                         Expressions yield.  (line   55)
* coroutine <2>:                         Glossaire.          (line  354)
* Coroutine (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  129)
* Coroutine (classe dans typing):        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine;function:                    Fonctions coroutines.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine() (dans le module types):    Coroutine Utility Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* CoroutineType (dans le module types):  Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   42)
* correlation() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  611)
* cos() (dans le module cmath):          Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* cos() (dans le module math):           Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line   31)
* cosh() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* cosh() (dans le module math):          Fonctions hyperboliques.
                                                             (line   21)
* count (attribut tracemalloc.Statistic): Statistic.         (line   15)
* count (attribut tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff. (line   15)
* count_diff (attribut tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   20)
* count() (dans le module itertools):    Itertool Functions. (line  226)
* count() (méthode array.array):         array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  157)
* count() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   38)
* count() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   38)
* count() (méthode collections.deque):   Objets deque.       (line   55)
* count() (méthode multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  332)
* count() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* count() (sequence method):             Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* Counter (classe dans collections):     Objets Counter.     (line   24)
* Counter (classe dans typing):          Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   39)
* countOf() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  191)
* countTestCases() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  788)
* countTestCases() (méthode unittest.TestSuite): Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line   59)
* covariance() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  589)
* CoverageResults (classe dans trace):   Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   47)
* CPPFLAGS:                              New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CPPFLAGS <1>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* CPPFLAGS <2>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* CPPFLAGS <3>:                          Linker flags.       (line   50)
* CPU time:                              Fonctions<5>.       (line  258)
* CPU time <1>:                          Fonctions<5>.       (line  648)
* cpu_count() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.   (line   13)
* cpu_count() (dans le module os):       Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   39)
* CPython:                               Glossaire.          (line  370)
* cpython_only() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  528)
* CR (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   64)
* crawl_delay() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   53)
* CRC (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):        Objets ZipInfo.     (line  142)
* crc_hqx() (dans le module binascii):   binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   97)
* crc32() (dans le module binascii):     binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  105)
* crc32() (dans le module zlib):         zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  128)
* create_aggregate() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  158)
* create_archive() (dans le module zipapp): API Python.      (line    8)
* create_autospec() (dans le module unittest.mock): create_autospec.
                                                             (line    6)
* CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line  144)
* create_collation() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* create_configuration() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.  (line  150)
* create_connection() (dans le module socket): Creating sockets.
                                                             (line   85)
* create_connection() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de connexions.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_datagram_endpoint() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de connexions.
                                                             (line  167)
* create_decimal_from_float() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  225)
* create_decimal() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  199)
* create_default_context() (dans le module ssl): Création de contexte.
                                                             (line    9)
* CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line  132)
* create_eager_task_factory() (dans le module asyncio): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line   32)
* create_empty_file() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   92)
* create_function() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* create_future() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de Futures et des tâches.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_git_ignore_file() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.
                                                             (line  220)
* create_module() (méthode importlib.abc.Loader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  103)
* create_module() (méthode importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  315)
* create_module() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   24)
* CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   54)
* CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   59)
* CREATE_NO_WINDOW (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line  117)
* create_server() (dans le module socket): Creating sockets. (line  117)
* create_server() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de serveurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_stats() (méthode profile.Profile): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   87)
* create_string_buffer() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   40)
* create_subprocess_exec() (dans le module asyncio): Créer des sous-processus.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_subprocess_shell() (dans le module asyncio): Créer des sous-processus.
                                                             (line   23)
* create_system (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.  (line  106)
* create_task() (dans le module asyncio): Création de tâches.
                                                             (line   10)
* create_task() (méthode asyncio.loop):  Création de Futures et des tâches.
                                                             (line   18)
* create_task() (méthode asyncio.TaskGroup): Groupes de tâches.
                                                             (line   19)
* create_unicode_buffer() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   58)
* create_unix_connection() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de connexions.
                                                             (line  250)
* create_unix_server() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de serveurs.
                                                             (line  120)
* create_version (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo. (line  110)
* create_window_function() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  213)
* create() (dans le module venv):        API<2>.             (line  242)
* create() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   72)
* create() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder):    API<2>.             (line   63)
* createAttribute() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   47)
* createAttributeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   54)
* createComment() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   35)
* createDocument() (méthode xml.dom.DOMImplementation): Objets DOMImplementation.
                                                             (line   17)
* createDocumentType() (méthode xml.dom.DOMImplementation): Objets DOMImplementation.
                                                             (line   28)
* createElement() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   14)
* createElementNS() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   21)
* createfilehandler() (méthode _tkinter.Widget.tk): Gestionnaires de fichiers.
                                                             (line   29)
* CreateKey() (dans le module winreg):   Fonctions<13>.      (line   35)
* CreateKeyEx() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.      (line   63)
* createLock() (méthode logging.Handler): Gestionnaires.     (line   21)
* createLock() (méthode logging.NullHandler): Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler.
                                                             (line   25)
* createProcessingInstruction() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   41)
* createSocket() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* createSocket() (méthode logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* createTextNode() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   29)
* credits (variable de base):            Constantes ajoutées par le module site.
                                                             (line   26)
* CRITICAL (dans le module logging):     Niveaux de journalisation.
                                                             (line   46)
* critical() (dans le module logging):   Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   86)
* critical() (méthode logging.Logger):   Enregistreurs.      (line  328)
* CRNCYSTR (dans le module locale):      locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  312)
* CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   89)
* CRT_ASSERT (dans le module msvcrt):    Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   66)
* CRT_ERROR (dans le module msvcrt):     Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   61)
* CRT_WARN (dans le module msvcrt):      Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   56)
* CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   70)
* CRTDBG_MODE_FILE (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   74)
* CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   80)
* CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   85)
* CrtSetReportFile() (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   48)
* CrtSetReportMode() (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   40)
* cryptography:                          Service de cryptographie.
                                                             (line    6)
* cssclass_month (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  312)
* cssclass_month_head (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  304)
* cssclass_noday (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  289)
* cssclass_year (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  319)
* cssclass_year_head (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  327)
* cssclasses (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  275)
* cssclasses_weekday_head (attribut calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  296)
* csv:                                   csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line    8)
* cte (attribut email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  312)
* cte_type (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  175)
* ctermid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line    9)
* ctime() (dans le module time):         Fonctions<5>.       (line   96)
* ctime() (méthode datetime.date):       Objets date.        (line  286)
* ctime() (méthode datetime.datetime):   Objets datetime.    (line  758)
* CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  199)
* CTRL_C_EVENT (dans le module signal):  Module contents<2>. (line  190)
* ctrl() (dans le module curses.ascii):  curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  216)
* curdir (dans le module os):            Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  109)
* currency() (dans le module locale):    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  494)
* current context:                       Glossaire.          (line  377)
* current_process() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* current_task() (dans le module asyncio): Introspection.    (line    6)
* current_thread() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line   61)
* current() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Combobox): ttk Combobox.    (line    8)
* CurrentByteIndex (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  195)
* CurrentColumnNumber (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  199)
* currentframe() (dans le module inspect): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line  165)
* CurrentLineNumber (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* curs_set() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line   61)
* Cursor (classe dans sqlite3):          Cursor objects.     (line   19)
* cursor() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects. (line   27)
* cursyncup() (méthode curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  172)
* cwd() (méthode de la classe pathlib.Path): Expansion et résolution de chemins.
                                                             (line   32)
* cwd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):            FTP objects.        (line  341)
* cycle() (dans le module itertools):    Itertool Functions. (line  248)
* CycleError:                            Exceptions<4>.      (line    9)
* Cyclic Redundancy Check:               zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  130)
* D_FMT (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  213)
* D_T_FMT (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  207)
* daemon (attribut multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  103)
* daemon (attribut threading.Thread):    Objets Threads.     (line  215)
* daemon_threads (attribut socketserver.ThreadingMixIn): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   56)
* dangling;else:                         Instructions composées.
                                                             (line   60)
* data:                                  Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line    6)
* data (attribut collections.UserDict):  Objets UserDict.    (line   24)
* data (attribut collections.UserList):  Objets UserList.    (line   28)
* data (attribut collections.UserString): Objets UserString. (line   25)
* data (attribut plistlib.UID):          plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  147)
* data (attribut select.kevent):         Kevent Objects.     (line  175)
* data (attribut selectors.SelectorKey): Classes<4>.         (line   48)
* data (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.   (line   39)
* data (attribut xml.dom.Comment):       Objets Comment.     (line    9)
* data (attribut xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction): Objets ProcessingInstruction.
                                                             (line   14)
* data (attribut xml.dom.Text):          Objets Text et CDATASection.
                                                             (line   16)
* data (attribut xmlrpc.client.Binary):  Binary Objects.     (line   12)
* data_filter() (dans le module tarfile): Default named filters.
                                                             (line   36)
* data_open() (méthode urllib.request.DataHandler): DataHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* data_received() (méthode asyncio.Protocol): Protocoles connectés.
                                                             (line   13)
* data;tabular:                          csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line    8)
* data;type:                             Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line    6)
* data() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   38)
* DatabaseError:                         Exceptions<7>.      (line   44)
* databases:                             dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line    8)
* dataclass_transform() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  113)
* dataclass() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* DataError:                             Exceptions<7>.      (line   51)
* datagram_received() (méthode asyncio.DatagramProtocol): Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés.
                                                             (line   10)
* DatagramHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* DatagramProtocol (classe dans asyncio): Protocoles de base.
                                                             (line   21)
* DatagramRequestHandler (classe dans socketserver): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   57)
* DatagramTransport (classe dans asyncio): Hiérarchie des transports.
                                                             (line   45)
* DataHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  429)
* date (classe dans datetime):           Objets date.        (line   13)
* date_time (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):  Objets ZipInfo.     (line   57)
* date_time_string() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  334)
* date() (méthode datetime.datetime):    Objets datetime.    (line  455)
* DateHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  145)
* datetime (attribut email.headerregistry.DateHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* datetime (classe dans datetime):       Objets datetime.    (line   16)
* DateTime (classe dans xmlrpc.client):  Objets DateTime.    (line    6)
* day (attribut datetime.date):          Objets date.        (line  125)
* day (attribut datetime.datetime):      Objets datetime.    (line  326)
* Day (classe dans calendar):            calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  489)
* DAY_1 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* DAY_2 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* DAY_3 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* DAY_4 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* DAY_5 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* DAY_6 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* DAY_7 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  230)
* day_abbr (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  467)
* day_name (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  458)
* daylight (dans le module time):        Constantes de fuseau horaire.
                                                             (line   14)
* Daylight Saving Time:                  time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   48)
* days (attribut datetime.timedelta):    Objets timedelta.   (line   99)
* DbfilenameShelf (classe dans shelve):  Limites.            (line   78)
* DC1 (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   76)
* DC2 (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   79)
* DC3 (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   82)
* DC4 (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   85)
* dcgettext() (dans le module locale):   Accéder aux catalogues de messages.
                                                             (line   10)
* deactivate_stack_trampoline() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1837)
* deallocation, object:                  Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* debug (attribut imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  399)
* debug (attribut shlex.shlex):          shlex Objects.      (line  162)
* debug (attribut sys.flags):            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  551)
* debug (attribut zipfile.ZipFile):      Objets ZipFile.     (line  375)
* DEBUG (dans le module logging):        Niveaux de journalisation.
                                                             (line   25)
* DEBUG (dans le module re):             Flags.              (line   33)
* debug (pdb command):                   Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  447)
* DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (dans le module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   20)
* DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (dans le module gc): gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  316)
* DEBUG_LEAK (dans le module gc):        gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  336)
* DEBUG_SAVEALL (dans le module gc):     gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  330)
* debug_src() (dans le module doctest):  Débogage.           (line  149)
* DEBUG_STATS (dans le module gc):       gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  311)
* DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (dans le module gc): gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  320)
* debug() (dans le module doctest):      Débogage.           (line  126)
* debug() (dans le module logging):      Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   46)
* debug() (méthode logging.Logger):      Enregistreurs.      (line  197)
* debug() (méthode unittest.TestCase):   Scénarios de tests. (line  135)
* debug() (méthode unittest.TestSuite):  Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line   52)
* debugger:                              threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  188)
* debugger <1>:                          Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement.
                                                             (line   16)
* debugger <2>:                          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  978)
* debugger <3>:                          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1664)
* debugger;configuration;file:           Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line   61)
* debugging:                             pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line    8)
* debugging;assertions:                  L'instruction assert.
                                                             (line    6)
* debuglevel (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   73)
* DebugRunner (classe dans doctest):     Débogage.           (line  170)
* DECEMBER (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* Decimal (classe dans decimal):         Les objets Decimal. (line    6)
* decimal literal:                       Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* decimal() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   31)
* DecimalException (classe dans decimal): Signaux.           (line   28)
* decode (attribut codecs.CodecInfo):    codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   74)
* decode_header() (dans le module email.header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  199)
* decode_params() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  230)
* decode_rfc2231() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  199)
* decode_source() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   74)
* decode() (dans le module base64):      base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  266)
* decode() (dans le module codecs):      codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   35)
* decode() (dans le module quopri):      quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   19)
* decode() (méthode bytearray):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   98)
* decode() (méthode bytes):              Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   98)
* decode() (méthode codecs.Codec):       Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   29)
* decode() (méthode codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* decode() (méthode json.JSONDecoder):   Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line   90)
* decode() (méthode xmlrpc.client.Binary): Binary Objects.   (line   20)
* decode() (méthode xmlrpc.client.DateTime): Objets DateTime.
                                                             (line   13)
* decodebytes() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  273)
* DecodedGenerator (classe dans email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  251)
* decodestring() (dans le module quopri): quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   42)
* decomposition() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   80)
* decompress() (dans le module bz2):     Dé compression en une fois.
                                                             (line   16)
* decompress() (dans le module gzip):    gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  222)
* decompress() (dans le module lzma):    Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  204)
* decompress() (dans le module zlib):    zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  144)
* decompress() (méthode bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   48)
* decompress() (méthode lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  140)
* decompress() (méthode zlib.Decompress): zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  277)
* decompressobj() (dans le module zlib): zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  192)
* décorateur:                            Glossaire.          (line  387)
* DEDENT (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   91)
* DEDENT token:                          Indentation.        (line   37)
* DEDENT token <1>:                      Instructions composées.
                                                             (line   60)
* dedent() (dans le module textwrap):    textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   80)
* deepcopy() (dans le module copy):      copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   23)
* def_prog_mode() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.     (line   70)
* def_shell_mode() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.    (line   77)
* default (attribut inspect.Parameter):  Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  220)
* default (attribut optparse.Option):    Option attributes.  (line   44)
* default (dans le module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  546)
* DEFAULT (dans le module unittest.mock): DEFAULT.           (line    6)
* DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (dans le module io): Interface de haut niveau du module.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_bufsize (dans le module xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line  109)
* default_exception_handler() (méthode asyncio.loop): API de gestion d'erreur.
                                                             (line   37)
* default_factory (attribut collections.defaultdict): Objets defaultdict.
                                                             (line   51)
* DEFAULT_FORMAT (dans le module tarfile): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  349)
* DEFAULT_IGNORES (dans le module filecmp): La classe dircmp.
                                                             (line  116)
* default_loader() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementInclude): Fonctions<10>.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_max_str_digits (attribut sys.int_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1199)
* default_open() (méthode urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (dans le module pickle): Interface du module.
                                                             (line   21)
* DEFAULT_TIMEOUT (attribut unittest.mock.ThreadingMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line 1021)
* default_timer() (dans le module timeit): Interface Python. (line   36)
* default;parameter;value:               Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line   73)
* default() (méthode cmd.Cmd):           Objets Cmd.         (line   77)
* default() (méthode json.JSONEncoder):  Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line  207)
* DefaultContext (dans le module decimal): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line   94)
* DefaultCookiePolicy (classe dans http.cookiejar): http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   82)
* defaultdict (classe dans collections): Objets defaultdict. (line    6)
* DefaultDict (classe dans typing):      Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultEventLoopPolicy (classe dans asyncio): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   55)
* DefaultHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  351)
* DefaultHandlerExpand() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  358)
* defaults() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* DefaultSelector (classe dans selectors): Classes<4>.       (line  161)
* defaultTestLoader (dans le module unittest): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  485)
* defaultTestResult() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  793)
* defects (attribut email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* defects (attribut email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  746)
* defects (attribut email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  772)
* defpath (dans le module os):           Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  153)
* DefragResult (classe dans urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   40)
* DefragResultBytes (classe dans urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   65)
* degrees() (dans le module math):       Conversion angulaire.
                                                             (line    6)
* degrees() (dans le module turtle):     Paramètres de mesure.
                                                             (line    6)
* Del (classe dans ast):                 Variables.          (line   11)
* DEL (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  124)
* del_param() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  401)
* del_param() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  583)
* delay_output() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.      (line   85)
* delay() (dans le module turtle):       Réglage de l'animation.
                                                             (line    6)
* delayload (attribut http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  159)
* delch() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  177)
* dele() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   68)
* Delete (classe dans ast):              Instructions<2>.    (line  144)
* DELETE_ATTR (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  616)
* DELETE_DEREF (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1010)
* DELETE_FAST (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  971)
* DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  630)
* DELETE_NAME (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  570)
* DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  270)
* delete() (méthode ftplib.FTP):         FTP objects.        (line  334)
* delete() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   76)
* delete() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.     (line   76)
* deleteacl() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line   80)
* deletefilehandler() (méthode _tkinter.Widget.tk): Gestionnaires de fichiers.
                                                             (line   40)
* DeleteKey() (dans le module winreg):   Fonctions<13>.      (line  102)
* DeleteKeyEx() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.      (line  124)
* deleteln() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  181)
* deleteMe() (méthode bdb.Breakpoint):   bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   42)
* DeleteValue() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.      (line  160)
* deletion;target:                       L'instruction del<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* deletion;target;list:                  L'instruction del<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* delimiter (attribut csv.Dialect):      Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   19)
* delimiters:                            Délimiteurs.        (line    6)
* delitem() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  195)
* deliver_challenge() (dans le module multiprocessing.connection): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line   17)
* delocalize() (dans le module locale):  locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  515)
* demo_app() (dans le module wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   36)
* denominator (attribut fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  119)
* denominator (attribut numbers.Rational): La tour numérique.
                                                             (line   56)
* deprecated() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line  142)
* DeprecationWarning:                    Avertissements.     (line   18)
* deque (classe dans collections):       Objets deque.       (line    6)
* Deque (classe dans typing):            Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   49)
* dequeue() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   50)
* DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (dans le module ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   52)
* derive() (méthode BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.   (line   76)
* derwin() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  186)
* descrgetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   69)
* descripteur:                           Glossaire.          (line  411)
* description (attribut inspect.Parameter.kind): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  287)
* description (attribut sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.     (line  189)
* descrsetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   74)
* deserialize() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  699)
* dest (attribut optparse.Option):       Option attributes.  (line   35)
* destructor:                            Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line   59)
* destructor <1>:                        Les assignations.   (line   76)
* destructor (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line   24)
* detach() (méthode io.BufferedIOBase):  I/O Base Classes.   (line  259)
* detach() (méthode io.TextIOBase):      Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* detach() (méthode socket.socket):      Socket Objects.     (line  102)
* detach() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.     (line   82)
* detach() (méthode weakref.finalize):   weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  301)
* Detach() (méthode winreg.PyHKEY):      Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* DETACHED_PROCESS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line  124)
* detect_api_mismatch() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  638)
* detect_encoding() (dans le module tokenize): Analyse Lexicale.
                                                             (line   78)
* deterministic profiling:               Introduction to the profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* dev_mode (attribut sys.flags):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  590)
* device_encoding() (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   85)
* devmajor (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):   Les objets TarInfo. (line  142)
* devminor (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):   Les objets TarInfo. (line  146)
* devnull (dans le module os):           Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  169)
* DEVNULL (dans le module subprocess):   Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  149)
* devpoll() (dans le module select):     select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   36)
* DevpollSelector (classe dans selectors): Classes<4>.       (line  184)
* dgettext() (dans le module gettext):   API GNU gettext.    (line   41)
* dgettext() (dans le module locale):    Accéder aux catalogues de messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* dialect (attribut csv.csvreader):      Objets lecteurs.    (line   20)
* dialect (attribut csv.csvwriter):      Objets transcripteurs.
                                                             (line   34)
* Dialect (classe dans csv):             Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  189)
* Dialog (classe dans tkinter.commondialog): tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue.
                                                             (line   14)
* Dialog (classe dans tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line   21)
* Dict (classe dans ast):                Littéraux<3>.       (line  104)
* Dict (classe dans typing):             Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line    6)
* dict (classe de base):                 Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line   22)
* DICT_MERGE (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  743)
* DICT_UPDATE (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  732)
* dict() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  237)
* DictComp (classe dans ast):            Compréhensions.     (line    6)
* dictConfig() (dans le module logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* dictionary;comprehensions:             Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictionary;display:                    Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictionnaire:                          Glossaire.          (line  428)
* dictionnaire en compréhension (ou dictionnaire en intension): Glossaire.
                                                             (line  434)
* DictReader (classe dans csv):          Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  105)
* DictWriter (classe dans csv):          Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  152)
* diff_bytes() (dans le module difflib): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  355)
* diff_files (attribut filecmp.dircmp):  La classe dircmp.   (line   94)
* Differ (classe dans difflib):          difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   56)
* difference_update() (méthode frozenset): Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  193)
* difference() (méthode frozenset):      Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  115)
* dig (attribut sys.float_info):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  654)
* digest_size (attribut hmac.HMAC):      hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   98)
* digest() (dans le module hmac):        hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   33)
* digest() (méthode hashlib.hash):       Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   40)
* digest() (méthode hashlib.shake):      Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE.
                                                             (line   16)
* digest() (méthode hmac.HMAC):          hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   61)
* digit() (dans le module unicodedata):  unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   38)
* digits (dans le module string):        Chaînes constantes. (line   26)
* dir() (méthode ftplib.FTP):            FTP objects.        (line  315)
* dircmp (classe dans filecmp):          La classe dircmp.   (line    6)
* Directory (classe dans tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   74)
* directory;changing:                    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  124)
* directory;creating:                    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  579)
* directory;deleting:                    Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  274)
* directory;deleting <1>:                Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  783)
* directory;traversal:                   Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1742)
* directory;traversal <1>:               Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1851)
* directory;walking:                     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1742)
* directory;walking <1>:                 Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1851)
* DirEntry (classe dans os):             Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  975)
* dirname() (dans le module os.path):    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  109)
* dirs_double_event() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   90)
* dirs_select_event() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   95)
* DirsOnSysPath (classe dans test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* DIRTYPE (dans le module tarfile):      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  309)
* dis() (dans le module dis):            Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line   44)
* dis() (dans le module pickletools):    Programmatic Interface<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* dis() (méthode dis.Bytecode):          Analyse du code intermédiaire.
                                                             (line   60)
* DISABLE (dans le module sys.monitoring): Disabling events. (line    6)
* disable (pdb command):                 Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  138)
* disable_faulthandler() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  352)
* disable_gc() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  364)
* disable_interspersed_args() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   10)
* disable() (dans le module faulthandler): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   26)
* disable() (dans le module gc):         gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   27)
* disable() (dans le module logging):    Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  105)
* disable() (méthode bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   52)
* disable() (méthode profile.Profile):   profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   83)
* disabled (attribut logging.Logger):    Enregistreurs.      (line  101)
* DisableReflectionKey() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.
                                                             (line  482)
* disassemble() (dans le module dis):    Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line  104)
* discard (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* discard() (méthode frozenset):         Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  216)
* discard() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):   Mailbox objects.    (line   78)
* discard() (méthode mailbox.MH):        MH objects.         (line   79)
* discover() (méthode unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  125)
* disk_usage() (dans le module shutil):  Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  382)
* dispatch_call() (méthode bdb.Bdb):     bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  212)
* dispatch_exception() (méthode bdb.Bdb): bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  232)
* dispatch_line() (méthode bdb.Bdb):     bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  202)
* dispatch_return() (méthode bdb.Bdb):   bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  222)
* dispatch_table (attribut pickle.Pickler): Interface du module.
                                                             (line  186)
* DISPLAY:                               Modules Tkinter.    (line   29)
* display (pdb command):                 Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  307)
* display_name (attribut email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  447)
* display_name (attribut email.headerregistry.Group): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  491)
* displayhook() (dans le module sys):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  314)
* dist() (dans le module math):          Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* distance() (dans le module turtle):    Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line   68)
* Distribution (classe dans importlib.metadata): Distributions.
                                                             (line   14)
* distribution simple:                   Glossaire.          (line 1441)
* distribution() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Distributions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Div (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* divide_int() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  310)
* divide() (méthode decimal.Context):    Objets de contexte. (line  306)
* division:                              Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   35)
* division entière:                      Glossaire.          (line  565)
* DivisionByZero (classe dans decimal):  Signaux.            (line   33)
* divmod() (méthode decimal.Context):    Objets de contexte. (line  314)
* DLE (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   73)
* DllCanUnloadNow() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   76)
* DllGetClassObject() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   84)
* dllhandle (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  308)
* dnd_start() (dans le module tkinter.dnd): tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   70)
* DndHandler (classe dans tkinter.dnd):  tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   46)
* dngettext() (dans le module gettext):  API GNU gettext.    (line   61)
* dnpgettext() (dans le module gettext): API GNU gettext.    (line   72)
* do_clear() (méthode bdb.Bdb):          bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  295)
* do_command() (méthode curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* do_GET() (méthode http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  400)
* do_handshake() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.       (line  126)
* do_HEAD() (méthode http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  393)
* do_help() (méthode cmd.Cmd):           Objets Cmd.         (line   50)
* do_POST() (méthode http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  490)
* doc (attribut json.JSONDecodeError):   Exceptions<17>.     (line   15)
* doc_header (attribut cmd.Cmd):         Objets Cmd.         (line  160)
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (classe dans xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   23)
* DocFileSuite() (dans le module doctest): API de tests unitaires.
                                                             (line   25)
* doClassCleanups() (méthode de la classe unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  891)
* doCleanups() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  848)
* docmd() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):        SMTP Objects.       (line   17)
* docstring:                             Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* docstring (attribut doctest.DocTest):  Objets doctest.     (line   49)
* docstrings:                            Définir des fonctions.
                                                             (line   21)
* docstrings <1>:                        Chaînes de documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTest (classe dans doctest):         Objets doctest.     (line    6)
* DocTestFailure:                        Débogage.           (line  188)
* DocTestFinder (classe dans doctest):   Objets DocTestFinder.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestParser (classe dans doctest):   Objets DocTestParser.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestRunner (classe dans doctest):   Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestSuite() (dans le module doctest): API de tests unitaires.
                                                             (line  108)
* doctype() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   74)
* documentation string:                  Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line  104)
* documentation strings:                 Définir des fonctions.
                                                             (line   21)
* documentation strings <1>:             Chaînes de documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* documentation;generation:              pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentation;online:                  pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentElement (attribut xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   10)
* DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (classe dans xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   28)
* DocXMLRPCServer (classe dans xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   11)
* domain (attribut email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  457)
* domain (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>. (line   41)
* domain (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.      (line   14)
* domain (attribut tracemalloc.DomainFilter): DomainFilter.  (line   20)
* domain (attribut tracemalloc.Filter):  Filter.             (line   32)
* domain (attribut tracemalloc.Trace):   Trace.              (line   16)
* domain_initial_dot (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   90)
* domain_return_ok() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* domain_specified (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   86)
* DomainFilter (classe dans tracemalloc): DomainFilter.      (line    6)
* DomainLiberal (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* DomainRFC2965Match (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* DomainStrict (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  161)
* DomainStrictNoDots (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* DomainStrictNonDomain (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* DOMEventStream (classe dans xml.dom.pulldom): Objets DOMEventStream.
                                                             (line    6)
* DOMException:                          Exceptions<20>.     (line   18)
* doModuleCleanups() (dans le module unittest): Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   47)
* DomstringSizeErr:                      Exceptions<20>.     (line   23)
* done() (dans le module turtle):        Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line  109)
* done() (méthode asyncio.Future):       Objet Future.       (line   68)
* done() (méthode asyncio.Task):         Objets Task.        (line   71)
* done() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* done() (méthode graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  136)
* DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   32)
* DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   18)
* dont_write_bytecode (attribut sys.flags): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  566)
* dont_write_bytecode (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  352)
* doRollover() (méthode logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   48)
* doRollover() (méthode logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  115)
* DOT (dans le module token):            token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  226)
* dot() (dans le module turtle):         Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  256)
* DOTALL (dans le module re):            Flags.              (line  109)
* doublequote (attribut csv.Dialect):    Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   24)
* DOUBLESLASH (dans le module token):    token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  298)
* DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  301)
* DOUBLESTAR (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  262)
* DOUBLESTAREQUAL (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  295)
* doupdate() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line   89)
* down (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line   91)
* down() (dans le module turtle):        État des stylos.    (line    6)
* dpgettext() (dans le module gettext):  API GNU gettext.    (line   68)
* drain() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   69)
* drive (attribut pathlib.PurePath):     Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line   15)
* drop_whitespace (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  213)
* dropwhile() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  269)
* dst() (méthode datetime.datetime):     Objets datetime.    (line  554)
* dst() (méthode datetime.time):         Objets time.        (line  254)
* dst() (méthode datetime.timezone):     Objets timezone.    (line   60)
* dst() (méthode datetime.tzinfo):       Objets tzinfo.      (line   68)
* DTDHandler (classe dans xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   26)
* dump_stats() (méthode profile.Profile): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  105)
* dump_stats() (méthode pstats.Stats):   The Stats Class.    (line   59)
* dump_traceback_later() (dans le module faulthandler): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump_traceback() (dans le module faulthandler): Dumping the traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump() (dans le module ast):           Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  278)
* dump() (dans le module json):          Utilisation de base.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump() (dans le module marshal):       marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   51)
* dump() (dans le module pickle):        Interface du module.
                                                             (line   38)
* dump() (dans le module plistlib):      plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   93)
* dump() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line   90)
* dump() (méthode pickle.Pickler):       Interface du module.
                                                             (line  162)
* dump() (méthode tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.           (line   29)
* dumps() (dans le module json):         Utilisation de base.
                                                             (line   92)
* dumps() (dans le module marshal):      marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   94)
* dumps() (dans le module pickle):       Interface du module.
                                                             (line   51)
* dumps() (dans le module plistlib):     plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  130)
* dumps() (dans le module xmlrpc.client): Convenience Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* dup() (dans le module os):             Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   97)
* dup() (méthode socket.socket):         Socket Objects.     (line  110)
* dup2() (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  111)
* DuplicateOptionError:                  Exceptions<8>.      (line   24)
* DuplicateSectionError:                 Exceptions<8>.      (line   14)
* dwFlags (attribut subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line   21)
* DynamicClassAttribute() (dans le module types): Additional Utility Classes and Functions.
                                                             (line   55)
* e (dans le module cmath):              Constantes<3>.      (line   10)
* e (dans le module math):               Constantes<2>.      (line   11)
* e;in numeric literal:                  Entiers littéraux.  (line   42)
* E2BIG (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   56)
* EACCES (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   82)
* EADDRINUSE (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  435)
* EADDRNOTAVAIL (dans le module errno):  errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  439)
* EADV (dans le module errno):           errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  308)
* EAFNOSUPPORT (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  431)
* EAFP:                                  Glossaire.          (line  475)
* EAGAIN (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   73)
* eager_task_factory() (dans le module asyncio): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line    6)
* EALREADY (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  504)
* east_asian_width() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   69)
* EAUTH (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  584)
* EBADARCH (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  590)
* EBADE (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  244)
* EBADEXEC (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  596)
* EBADF (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   64)
* EBADFD (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  344)
* EBADMACHO (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  602)
* EBADMSG (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  332)
* EBADR (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  248)
* EBADRPC (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  668)
* EBADRQC (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  260)
* EBADSLT (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  264)
* EBFONT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  272)
* EBUSY (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   95)
* ECANCELED (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  695)
* ECHILD (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   68)
* echo() (dans le module curses):        Fonctions<6>.       (line  105)
* echochar() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  196)
* ECHRNG (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  212)
* ECOMM (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  316)
* ECONNABORTED (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  455)
* ECONNREFUSED (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  491)
* ECONNRESET (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  460)
* EDEADLK (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  175)
* EDEADLOCK (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  268)
* EDESTADDRREQ (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  393)
* EDEVERR (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  608)
* edit() (méthode curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.  (line   19)
* EDOM (dans le module errno):           errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  167)
* EDOTDOT (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  328)
* EDQUOT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  538)
* EEXIST (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   99)
* EFAULT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   87)
* EFBIG (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  142)
* EFD_CLOEXEC (dans le module os):       Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 2028)
* EFD_NONBLOCK (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 2037)
* EFD_SEMAPHORE (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 2046)
* effective() (dans le module bdb):      bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  467)
* EFTYPE (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  614)
* ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (méthode smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* ehlo() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):         SMTP Objects.       (line   58)
* EHOSTDOWN (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  496)
* EHOSTUNREACH (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  500)
* EIDRM (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  208)
* EILSEQ (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  372)
* EINPROGRESS (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  509)
* EINTR (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   43)
* EINVAL (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  122)
* EIO (dans le module errno):            errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   48)
* EISCONN (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  469)
* EISDIR (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  117)
* EISNAM (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  530)
* EJECT (attribut enum.FlagBoundary):    Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  689)
* EKEYEXPIRED (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  560)
* EKEYREJECTED (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  568)
* EKEYREVOKED (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  564)
* EL2HLT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  240)
* EL2NSYNC (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  216)
* EL3HLT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  220)
* EL3RST (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  224)
* Element (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets Element.
                                                             (line    6)
* element_create() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.   (line  136)
* element_names() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.    (line  261)
* element_options() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.  (line  265)
* ElementDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  240)
* elements() (méthode collections.Counter): Objets Counter.  (line   68)
* ElementTree (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line    6)
* ELIBACC (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  352)
* ELIBBAD (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  356)
* ELIBEXEC (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  368)
* ELIBMAX (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  364)
* ELIBSCN (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  360)
* ELLIPSIS (dans le module doctest):     Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   56)
* ELLIPSIS (dans le module token):       token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  313)
* Ellipsis (variable de base):           Constantes natives. (line   61)
* EllipsisType (dans le module types):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  144)
* ELNRNG (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  228)
* ELOCKUNMAPPED (dans le module errno):  errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  576)
* ELOOP (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  195)
* else;conditional expression:           Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line    6)
* EM (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  100)
* EmailMessage (classe dans email.message): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   53)
* EmailPolicy (classe dans email.policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  389)
* EMEDIUMTYPE (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  552)
* EMFILE (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  130)
* emit() (méthode logging.FileHandler):  Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler.
                                                             (line   31)
* emit() (méthode logging.Handler):      Gestionnaires.      (line  111)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.DatagramHandler): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.HTTPHandler): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   52)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.SMTPHandler): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   61)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  119)
* emit() (méthode logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler): Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   53)
* emit() (méthode logging.NullHandler):  Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler.
                                                             (line   17)
* emit() (méthode logging.StreamHandler): Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   17)
* EMLINK (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  158)
* Empty:                                 queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   86)
* empty (attribut inspect.Parameter):    Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  203)
* empty (attribut inspect.Signature):    Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  101)
* EMPTY_NAMESPACE (dans le module xml.dom): Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   37)
* empty;list:                            Agencements de listes.
                                                             (line    6)
* empty;tuple:                           Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   30)
* empty;tuple <1>:                       Formes parenthésées.
                                                             (line   16)
* empty() (méthode asyncio.Queue):       File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   29)
* empty() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  124)
* empty() (méthode multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  246)
* empty() (méthode queue.Queue):         Objets Queue.       (line   17)
* empty() (méthode queue.SimpleQueue):   Objets SimpleQueue. (line   14)
* empty() (méthode sched.scheduler):     Scheduler Objects.  (line   47)
* emptyline() (méthode cmd.Cmd):         Objets Cmd.         (line   71)
* emscripten_version (attribut sys._emscripten_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  367)
* EMSGSIZE (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  397)
* EMULTIHOP (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  324)
* enable (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  146)
* enable_callback_tracebacks() (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions du module.
                                                             (line  131)
* enable_interspersed_args() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   31)
* enable_load_extension() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  426)
* enable_traversal() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.
                                                             (line   75)
* ENABLE_USER_SITE (dans le module site): Module contents<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* enable() (dans le module faulthandler): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line    6)
* enable() (dans le module gc):          gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   23)
* enable() (méthode bdb.Breakpoint):     bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   48)
* enable() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   84)
* enable() (méthode profile.Profile):    profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   79)
* EnableControlFlowGuard:                Build<33>.          (line   47)
* enabled (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):     bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  106)
* EnableReflectionKey() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.
                                                             (line  500)
* ENAMETOOLONG (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  179)
* ENAVAIL (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  526)
* enclose() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  201)
* encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé: Glossaire.
                                                             (line  531)
* encodage régional:                     Glossaire.          (line  973)
* encodages de texte:                    Glossaire.          (line 1502)
* encode (attribut codecs.CodecInfo):    codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   74)
* encode_7or8bit() (dans le module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   59)
* encode_base64() (dans le module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   52)
* encode_noop() (dans le module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   65)
* encode_quopri() (dans le module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   44)
* encode_rfc2231() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  203)
* encode() (dans le module base64):      base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  281)
* encode() (dans le module codecs):      codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   23)
* encode() (dans le module quopri):      quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   30)
* encode() (méthode codecs.Codec):       Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   11)
* encode() (méthode codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* encode() (méthode email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  134)
* encode() (méthode json.JSONEncoder):   Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line  227)
* encode() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* encode() (méthode xmlrpc.client.Binary): Binary Objects.   (line   25)
* encode() (méthode xmlrpc.client.DateTime): Objets DateTime.
                                                             (line   17)
* encodebytes() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  292)
* EncodedFile() (dans le module codecs): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  212)
* encodePriority() (méthode logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   95)
* encodestring() (dans le module quopri): quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   48)
* encoding (attribut curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  211)
* encoding (attribut io.TextIOBase):     Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* encoding (attribut UnicodeError):      Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  464)
* ENCODING (dans le module tarfile):     tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  282)
* ENCODING (dans le module token):       token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  127)
* encoding declarations (source file):   Déclaration d'encodage.
                                                             (line    6)
* encodings_map (attribut mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* encodings_map (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  150)
* EncodingWarning:                       Avertissements.     (line   77)
* end (attribut UnicodeError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  481)
* END_ASYNC_FOR (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  338)
* end_col_offset (attribut ast.AST):     Classes de nœuds.   (line   52)
* end_colno (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* end_fill() (dans le module turtle):    Remplissage.        (line   21)
* END_FOR (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  145)
* end_headers() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  289)
* end_lineno (attribut ast.AST):         Classes de nœuds.   (line   52)
* end_lineno (attribut SyntaxError):     Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  349)
* end_lineno (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* end_lineno (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* end_ns() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   94)
* end_offset (attribut SyntaxError):     Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  355)
* end_offset (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* end_poly() (dans le module turtle):    Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   11)
* END_SEND (opcode):                     Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  152)
* end() (méthode re.Match):              Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  149)
* end() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   44)
* endCDATA() (méthode xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): Objets LexicalHandler.
                                                             (line   40)
* EndCdataSectionHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  347)
* EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* endDocument() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* endDTD() (méthode xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): Objets LexicalHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* endElement() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  103)
* EndElementHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* endElementNS() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  130)
* endheaders() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  198)
* ENDMARKER (dans le module token):      token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  123)
* EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  326)
* endpos (attribut re.Match):            Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  189)
* endPrefixMapping() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line   81)
* endswith() (méthode bytearray):        Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  129)
* endswith() (méthode bytes):            Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  129)
* endswith() (méthode str):              Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line   95)
* endwin() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  110)
* ENEEDAUTH (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  620)
* ENETDOWN (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  443)
* ENETRESET (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  451)
* ENETUNREACH (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  447)
* ENFILE (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  126)
* ENOANO (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  256)
* ENOATTR (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  626)
* ENOBUFS (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  465)
* ENOCSI (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  236)
* ENODATA (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  280)
* ENODEV (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  108)
* ENOENT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   33)
* ENOEXEC (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   60)
* ENOKEY (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  556)
* ENOLCK (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  183)
* ENOLINK (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  304)
* ENOMEDIUM (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  548)
* ENOMEM (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   78)
* ENOMSG (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  204)
* ENONET (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  292)
* ENOPKG (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  296)
* ENOPOLICY (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  632)
* ENOPROTOOPT (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  405)
* ENOSPC (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  146)
* ENOSR (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  288)
* ENOSTR (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  276)
* ENOSYS (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  187)
* ENOTACTIVE (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  580)
* ENOTBLK (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   91)
* ENOTCAPABLE (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  686)
* ENOTCONN (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  473)
* ENOTDIR (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  112)
* ENOTEMPTY (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  191)
* ENOTNAM (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  522)
* ENOTRECOVERABLE (dans le module errno): errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  707)
* ENOTSOCK (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  388)
* ENOTSUP (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  421)
* ENOTTY (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  134)
* ENOTUNIQ (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  340)
* ENQ (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   34)
* enqueue_sentinel() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   95)
* enqueue() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   78)
* ensemble en compréhension (ou ensemble en intension): Glossaire.
                                                             (line 1433)
* ensure_directories() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.    (line   92)
* ensure_future() (dans le module asyncio): Fonctions pour Future.
                                                             (line   19)
* enter_async_context() (méthode contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  649)
* enter_context() (méthode contextlib.ExitStack): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  559)
* enter() (méthode sched.scheduler):     Scheduler Objects.  (line   30)
* enterabs() (méthode sched.scheduler):  Scheduler Objects.  (line    9)
* enterAsyncContext() (méthode unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  955)
* enterClassContext() (méthode de la classe unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  882)
* enterContext() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  839)
* enterModuleContext() (dans le module unittest): Module de mise en place setUpModule et de démantèlement des tests tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   38)
* entities (attribut xml.dom.DocumentType): Objets DocumnentType.
                                                             (line   38)
* EntityDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  299)
* entitydefs (dans le module html.entities): html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   26)
* EntityResolver (classe dans xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   33)
* entrée de chemin:                      Glossaire.          (line 1232)
* entry_points() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Entry points.
                                                             (line    6)
* EntryPoint (classe dans importlib.metadata): Entry points. (line   26)
* EntryPoints (classe dans importlib.metadata): Entry points.
                                                             (line   18)
* Enum (classe dans enum):               Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  133)
* enum_certificates() (dans le module ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   87)
* enum_crls() (dans le module ssl):      Certificate handling.
                                                             (line  110)
* EnumCheck (classe dans enum):          Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  592)
* EnumDict (classe dans enum):           Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  720)
* enumerate() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  152)
* Énumération des faiblesses communes ; CWE 257: Recettes et bonnes pratiques.
                                                             (line   16)
* Énumération des faiblesses communes ; CWE 295: ssl<2>.     (line   21)
* Énumération des faiblesses communes ; CWE 295 <1>: Library<25>.
                                                             (line  516)
* EnumKey() (dans le module winreg):     Fonctions<13>.      (line  172)
* EnumType (classe dans enum):           Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* EnumValue() (dans le module winreg):   Fonctions<13>.      (line  191)
* EnvBuilder (classe dans venv):         API<2>.             (line   11)
* environ (dans le module os):           Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line   16)
* environ (dans le module posix):        Contenu du Module.  (line    9)
* environb (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line   59)
* environment:                           Résolution des noms.
                                                             (line   12)
* environment variables;deleting:        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  605)
* environment variables;setting:         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  363)
* EnvironmentError:                      Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  518)
* Environments;virtual:                  venv --- Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   10)
* EnvironmentVarGuard (classe dans test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   49)
* environnement virtuel:                 Glossaire.          (line 1630)
* ENXIO (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   52)
* eof (attribut bz2.BZ2Decompressor):    Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   78)
* eof (attribut lzma.LZMADecompressor):  Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  177)
* eof (attribut shlex.shlex):            shlex Objects.      (line  178)
* eof (attribut ssl.MemoryBIO):          Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* eof (attribut zlib.Decompress):        zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  268)
* eof_received() (méthode asyncio.BufferedProtocol): Protocoles connectés avec tampon.
                                                             (line   44)
* eof_received() (méthode asyncio.Protocol): Protocoles connectés.
                                                             (line   31)
* EOFError:                              Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   27)
* EOFError (built-in exception):         Objets fichiers.    (line   46)
* EOPNOTSUPP (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  417)
* EOT (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   31)
* EOVERFLOW (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  336)
* EOWNERDEAD (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  701)
* EPERM (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   28)
* EPFNOSUPPORT (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  427)
* epilogue (attribut email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  738)
* epilogue (attribut email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  762)
* EPIPE (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  162)
* epoch:                                 time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   22)
* epoll() (dans le module select):       select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   55)
* EpollSelector (classe dans selectors): Classes<4>.         (line  175)
* EPROCLIM (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  638)
* EPROCUNAVAIL (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  644)
* EPROGMISMATCH (dans le module errno):  errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  650)
* EPROGUNAVAIL (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  656)
* EPROTO (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  320)
* EPROTONOSUPPORT (dans le module errno): errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  409)
* EPROTOTYPE (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  401)
* epsilon (attribut sys.float_info):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  647)
* EPWROFF (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  662)
* Eq (classe dans ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* eq() (dans le module operator):        operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* EQEQUAL (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  238)
* EQFULL (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  542)
* EQUAL (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  223)
* ERA (dans le module locale):           locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  319)
* ERA_D_FMT (dans le module locale):     locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  343)
* ERA_D_T_FMT (dans le module locale):   locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  337)
* ERA_T_FMT (dans le module locale):     locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  349)
* ERANGE (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  171)
* erase() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  221)
* erasechar() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  114)
* EREMCHG (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  348)
* EREMOTE (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  300)
* EREMOTEIO (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  534)
* ERESTART (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  376)
* erf() (dans le module math):           Fonctions spéciales.
                                                             (line    6)
* erfc() (dans le module math):          Fonctions spéciales.
                                                             (line   20)
* ERFKILL (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  572)
* EROFS (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  154)
* ERPCMISMATCH (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  674)
* ERR (dans le module curses):           Constantes<6>.      (line    8)
* errcheck (attribut ctypes._CFuncPtr):  Fonctions externes. (line   72)
* errcode (attribut xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* errmsg (attribut xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* errno (attribut OSError):              Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  174)
* error:                                 Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line    8)
* Error:                                 copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* Error <1>:                             Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  471)
* error <1>:                             dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases".
                                                             (line   22)
* error <2>:                             dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   22)
* error <3>:                             dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   28)
* error <4>:                             dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   23)
* Error <2>:                             Exceptions<7>.      (line   15)
* error <5>:                             zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   27)
* Error <3>:                             Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  336)
* Error <4>:                             Exceptions<8>.      (line    6)
* error <6>:                             os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   52)
* error <7>:                             Fonctions<6>.       (line    8)
* error <8>:                             _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   21)
* error <9>:                             Exceptions<15>.     (line    6)
* error <10>:                            select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   29)
* Error <5>:                             Exceptions<18>.     (line    8)
* Error <6>:                             binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  166)
* error <11>:                            xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   31)
* Error <7>:                             webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   62)
* Error <8>:                             wave --- Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   55)
* Error <9>:                             locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   23)
* error <12>:                            resource --- Resource usage information.
                                                             (line   19)
* error <13>:                            getopt --- C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   96)
* ERROR (dans le module logging):        Niveaux de journalisation.
                                                             (line   41)
* ERROR (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  192)
* error handling:                        Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* error_body (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  266)
* error_content_type (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  168)
* error_headers (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  259)
* error_leader() (méthode shlex.shlex):  shlex Objects.      (line   69)
* error_message_format (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  159)
* error_output() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  229)
* error_perm:                            Module variables.   (line   15)
* error_proto:                           Module variables.   (line   20)
* error_proto <1>:                       poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   89)
* error_received() (méthode asyncio.DatagramProtocol): Protocoles par datagrammes non connectés.
                                                             (line   16)
* error_reply:                           Module variables.   (line    6)
* error_status (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  253)
* error_temp:                            Module variables.   (line   10)
* error() (dans le module logging):      Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   80)
* error() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Méthodes d'interruptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* error() (méthode logging.Logger):      Enregistreurs.      (line  322)
* error() (méthode urllib.request.OpenerDirector): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* error() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler): Objets ErrorHandler.
                                                             (line   16)
* ErrorByteIndex (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* ErrorCode (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* errorcode (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   13)
* ErrorColumnNumber (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  180)
* ErrorHandler (classe dans xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   40)
* errorlevel (attribut tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile. (line  242)
* ErrorLineNumber (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* errors:                                Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* errors (attribut io.TextIOBase):       Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* errors (attribut unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line   19)
* errors (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  261)
* Errors;logging:                        logging --- Logging facility for Python.
                                                             (line    8)
* ErrorStream (classe dans wsgiref.types): wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   28)
* ErrorString() (dans le module xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   42)
* ERRORTOKEN (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  161)
* ESC (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  106)
* escape (attribut shlex.shlex):         shlex Objects.      (line  110)
* escape sequence:                       Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* escape() (dans le module glob):        glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line  105)
* escape() (dans le module html):        html --- HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line   12)
* escape() (dans le module re):          Fonctions<2>.       (line  266)
* escape() (dans le module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   14)
* escapechar (attribut csv.Dialect):     Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   36)
* escapedquotes (attribut shlex.shlex):  shlex Objects.      (line  122)
* ESHLIBVERS (dans le module errno):     errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  680)
* ESHUTDOWN (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  477)
* ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (dans le module errno): errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  413)
* espace de nommage:                     Glossaire.          (line 1100)
* espace;in string formatting:           Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   79)
* ESPIPE (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  150)
* ESRCH (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   38)
* ESRMNT (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  312)
* ESTALE (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  514)
* ESTRPIPE (dans le module errno):       errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  380)
* ETB (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   94)
* ETH_P_ALL (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  224)
* ETHERTYPE_ARP (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.      (line  366)
* ETHERTYPE_IP (dans le module socket):  Constantes<8>.      (line  366)
* ETHERTYPE_IPV6 (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.     (line  366)
* ETHERTYPE_VLAN (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.     (line  366)
* ETIME (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  284)
* ETIMEDOUT (dans le module errno):      errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  486)
* Etiny() (méthode decimal.Context):     Objets de contexte. (line  245)
* ETOOMANYREFS (dans le module errno):   errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  482)
* Etop() (méthode decimal.Context):      Objets de contexte. (line  252)
* ETX (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   28)
* ETXTBSY (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  138)
* EUCLEAN (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  518)
* EUNATCH (dans le module errno):        errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  232)
* EUSERS (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  384)
* evaluation;order:                      Ordre d'évaluation. (line    6)
* Event (classe dans asyncio):           Événement Event.    (line    6)
* Event (classe dans multiprocessing):   Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   44)
* Event (classe dans threading):         Event Objects.      (line   14)
* event scheduling:                      sched --- Event scheduler.
                                                             (line    8)
* EVENT_READ (dans le module selectors): Classes<4>.         (line   23)
* EVENT_WRITE (dans le module selectors): Classes<4>.        (line   26)
* Event() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  198)
* eventfd_read() (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 2008)
* eventfd_write() (dans le module os):   Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 2018)
* eventfd() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1955)
* EventLoop (classe dans asyncio):       Implémentations de boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   45)
* events (attribut selectors.SelectorKey): Classes<4>.       (line   44)
* events (widgets):                      Liaisons et événements.
                                                             (line    6)
* EWOULDBLOCK (dans le module errno):    errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  199)
* EX_CANTCREAT (dans le module os):      Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  222)
* EX_CONFIG (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  260)
* EX_DATAERR (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  167)
* EX_IOERR (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  229)
* EX_NOHOST (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  187)
* EX_NOINPUT (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  174)
* EX_NOPERM (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  252)
* EX_NOTFOUND (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  267)
* EX_NOUSER (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  181)
* EX_OK (dans le module os):             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  151)
* EX_OSERR (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  207)
* EX_OSFILE (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  215)
* EX_PROTOCOL (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  245)
* EX_SOFTWARE (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  200)
* EX_TEMPFAIL (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  236)
* EX_UNAVAILABLE (dans le module os):    Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  193)
* EX_USAGE (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  159)
* EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  328)
* example (attribut doctest.DocTestFailure): Débogage.       (line  202)
* example (attribut doctest.UnexpectedException): Débogage.  (line  224)
* Example (classe dans doctest):         Exemples d'objets.  (line    6)
* examples (attribut doctest.DocTest):   Objets doctest.     (line   17)
* exc_info (attribut doctest.UnexpectedException): Débogage. (line  228)
* exc_info (in module sys):              Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* exc_info (in module sys) <1>:          Exceptions<21>.     (line   45)
* exc_info() (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  469)
* exc_msg (attribut doctest.Example):    Exemples d'objets.  (line   31)
* exc_type (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* exc_type_str (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* excel (classe dans csv):               Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  209)
* excel_tab (classe dans csv):           Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  215)
* ExceptHandler (classe dans ast):       Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  210)
* excepthook() (dans le module sys):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  411)
* excepthook() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line   71)
* exception:                             Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* exception <1>:                         L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line    6)
* Exception:                             Classes mères.      (line   69)
* EXCEPTION (dans le module _tkinter):   Gestionnaires de fichiers.
                                                             (line   44)
* exception handler:                     Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* EXCEPTION_HANDLED (monitoring event):  Events.             (line   26)
* exception;AssertionError:              L'instruction assert.
                                                             (line   21)
* exception;AttributeError:              Références à des attributs.
                                                             (line   11)
* exception;chaining:                    L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line   30)
* exception;chaining <1>:                Contexte des exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;GeneratorExit:               Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   70)
* exception;GeneratorExit <1>:           Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   62)
* exception;handler:                     Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;ImportError:                 L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;NameError:                   Identifiants noms.  (line   11)
* exception;StopAsyncIteration:          Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;StopIteration:               Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   14)
* exception;StopIteration <1>:           L'instruction yield.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;TypeError:                   Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   24)
* exception;ValueError:                  Opérations de décalage.
                                                             (line   20)
* exception;ZeroDivisionError:           Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   35)
* exception() (dans le module logging):  Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   92)
* exception() (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  457)
* exception() (méthode asyncio.Future):  Objet Future.       (line  134)
* exception() (méthode asyncio.Task):    Objets Task.        (line   93)
* exception() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* exception() (méthode logging.Logger):  Enregistreurs.      (line  340)
* ExceptionGroup:                        Exception groups.   (line   12)
* exceptions (attribut BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.
                                                             (line   38)
* exceptions (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* exceptions (pdb command):              Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  457)
* EXCLAMATION (dans le module token):    token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  319)
* exclusive;or:                          Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   17)
* EXDEV (dans le module errno):          errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  104)
* exec_module() (méthode importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  260)
* exec_module() (méthode importlib.abc.Loader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  114)
* exec_module() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  407)
* exec_module() (méthode importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  322)
* exec_module() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   32)
* exec_prefix (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  489)
* execl() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* execle() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* execlp() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* execlpe() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* executable (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  506)
* executable (in module sys):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  117)
* Executable Zip Files:                  zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives.
                                                             (line   10)
* execute() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* execute() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor):    Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* executemany() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* executemany() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.    (line   59)
* executescript() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* executescript() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.  (line  100)
* execution model:                       Modèle d'exécution. (line    6)
* execution;frame:                       Structure d'un programme.
                                                             (line   21)
* execution;frame <1>:                   Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* execution;stack:                       Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* ExecutionLoader (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  273)
* Executor (classe dans concurrent.futures): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* execv() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* execve() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* execvp() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* execvpe() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   55)
* EXFULL (dans le module errno):         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  252)
* exists() (dans le module os.path):     os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  118)
* exists() (méthode pathlib.Path):       Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   37)
* exists() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.     (line   92)
* exists() (méthode zipfile.Path):       Objets Path.        (line   77)
* exit (C function):                     Process Control.    (line   23)
* exit (variable de base):               Constantes ajoutées par le module site.
                                                             (line   12)
* exit() (dans le module _thread):       _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   80)
* exit() (dans le module sys):           sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  514)
* exit() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Méthodes d'interruptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* exitcode (attribut multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  129)
* exitonclick() (dans le module turtle): Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   10)
* ExitStack (classe dans contextlib):    Utilitaires.        (line  513)
* exp() (dans le module cmath):          Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle.
                                                             (line    6)
* exp() (dans le module math):           Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* exp() (méthode decimal.Context):       Objets de contexte. (line  318)
* exp() (méthode decimal.Decimal):       Les objets Decimal. (line  245)
* exp2() (dans le module math):          Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* expand_tabs (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  176)
* expand() (méthode re.Match):           Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line   23)
* ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.
                                                             (line  228)
* expandNode() (méthode xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream): Objets DOMEventStream.
                                                             (line   21)
* expandtabs() (méthode bytearray):      Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  501)
* expandtabs() (méthode bytes):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  501)
* expandtabs() (méthode str):            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* expanduser() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  141)
* expanduser() (méthode pathlib.Path):   Expansion et résolution de chemins.
                                                             (line   19)
* expandvars() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  166)
* Expat:                                 xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   12)
* ExpatError:                            xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   25)
* expected (attribut asyncio.IncompleteReadError): Exceptions<13>.
                                                             (line   54)
* expectedFailure() (dans le module unittest): Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles.
                                                             (line  102)
* expectedFailures (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  283)
* expired() (méthode asyncio.Timeout):   Délais d'attente.   (line   74)
* expires (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   53)
* expires (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.     (line   14)
* exploded (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse. (line   62)
* exploded (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.  (line  108)
* exploded (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse. (line  256)
* exploded (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.  (line  320)
* expm1() (dans le module math):         Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* expovariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   40)
* Expr (classe dans ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line    6)
* expression:                            Expressions.        (line    6)
* expression <1>:                        Glossaire.          (line  486)
* Expression (classe dans ast):          Root nodes.         (line   26)
* expression génératrice:                Glossaire.          (line  669)
* expression génératrice <1>:            Glossaire.          (line  669)
* expression;list:                       Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* expression;list <1>:                   Les expressions.    (line    6)
* expression;list <2>:                   Les expressions.    (line    6)
* expression;statement:                  Les expressions.    (line    6)
* expunge() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   93)
* extend_path() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   20)
* extend() (méthode array.array):        array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  161)
* extend() (méthode collections.deque):  Objets deque.       (line   61)
* extend() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  101)
* extend() (sequence method):            Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* EXTENDED_ARG (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1166)
* ExtendedContext (dans le module decimal): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line   80)
* ExtendedInterpolation (classe dans configparser): Interpolation des valeurs.
                                                             (line   44)
* extendleft() (méthode collections.deque): Objets deque.    (line   66)
* EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (dans le module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   50)
* extension;module:                      Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line    6)
* ExtensionFileLoader (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  289)
* extensions_map (attribut http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  379)
* External Data Representation:          Format du flux de données.
                                                             (line    6)
* external_attr (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.  (line  134)
* ExternalClashError:                    Exceptions<18>.     (line   26)
* ExternalEntityParserCreate() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* ExternalEntityRefHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  374)
* extra (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):      Objets ZipInfo.     (line  100)
* extract_cookies() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* extract_stack() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   94)
* extract_tb() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* extract_version (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.
                                                             (line  114)
* extract() (méthode de la classe traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* extract() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):   Les objets TarFile. (line  190)
* extract() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):   Objets ZipFile.     (line  201)
* extractall() (méthode tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  149)
* extractall() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile): Objets ZipFile.    (line  230)
* ExtractError:                          tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  237)
* extractfile() (méthode tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  226)
* extraction_filter (attribut tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  262)
* extsep (dans le module os):            Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  139)
* f_back (attribut frame):               Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_back (frame attribute):              Objets cadres.      (line   10)
* f_builtins (attribut frame):           Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   29)
* f_builtins (frame attribute):          Objets cadres.      (line   10)
* f_code (attribut frame):               Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_code (frame attribute):              Objets cadres.      (line   10)
* F_CONTIGUOUS (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags. (line   27)
* f_contiguous (attribut memoryview):    Vues mémoire.       (line  494)
* f_globals (attribut frame):            Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   25)
* f_globals (frame attribute):           Objets cadres.      (line   10)
* f_lasti (attribut frame):              Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* f_lasti (frame attribute):             Objets cadres.      (line   10)
* f_lineno (attribut frame):             Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* f_lineno (frame attribute):            Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* f_locals (attribut frame):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* f_locals (frame attribute):            Objets cadres.      (line   10)
* F_LOCK (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  290)
* F_OK (dans le module os):              Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  113)
* F_TEST (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  290)
* F_TLOCK (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  290)
* f_trace (attribut frame):              Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_trace (frame attribute):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* f_trace_lines (attribut frame):        Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* f_trace_lines (frame attribute):       Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* f_trace_opcodes (attribut frame):      Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute):     Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* F_ULOCK (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  290)
* f-string:                              Formatage de données.
                                                             (line   96)
* f-string <1>:                          Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* f-string <2>:                          Glossaire.          (line  504)
* f-strings:                             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* f';formatted string literal:           Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   66)
* f";formatted string literal:           Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   66)
* fabs() (dans le module math):          Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   13)
* factorial() (dans le module math):     Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* factory() (méthode de la classe importlib.util.LazyLoader): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  225)
* FAIL_FAST (dans le module doctest):    Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  159)
* fail() (méthode unittest.TestCase):    Scénarios de tests. (line  735)
* failed (attribut doctest.TestResults): Objets TestResults. (line    8)
* failfast (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  322)
* failureException:                      API de tests unitaires.
                                                             (line  152)
* failureException (attribut unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  740)
* failures (attribut doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line  140)
* failures (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  268)
* FakePath (classe dans test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   60)
* False:                                 numbers Integral.   (line   28)
* false:                                 Valeurs booléennes. (line    6)
* False <1>:                             Valeurs booléennes. (line   24)
* False <2>:                             Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* False (Built-in object):               Valeurs booléennes. (line   16)
* False (variable de base):              Constantes natives. (line    9)
* families() (dans le module tkinter.font): tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   92)
* family (attribut socket.socket):       Socket Objects.     (line  626)
* FancyURLopener (classe dans urllib.request): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  146)
* fast (attribut pickle.Pickler):        Interface du module.
                                                             (line  227)
* FastChildWatcher (classe dans asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line  152)
* fatalError() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler): Objets ErrorHandler.
                                                             (line   25)
* Fault (classe dans xmlrpc.client):     Fault Objects.      (line    6)
* faultCode (attribut xmlrpc.client.Fault): Fault Objects.   (line   11)
* faultString (attribut xmlrpc.client.Fault): Fault Objects. (line   15)
* fchdir() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  298)
* fchmod() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  126)
* fchown() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  143)
* fcntl() (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line   67)
* fd (attribut selectors.SelectorKey):   Classes<4>.         (line   40)
* fd_count() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* fd() (dans le module turtle):          Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line    6)
* fdatasync() (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  159)
* fdopen() (dans le module os):          Création de fichiers objets.
                                                             (line    9)
* feature_external_ges (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   85)
* feature_external_pes (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   92)
* feature_namespace_prefixes (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   64)
* feature_namespaces (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   57)
* feature_string_interning (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   71)
* feature_validation (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   78)
* FEBRUARY (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* feed_eof() (méthode asyncio.StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line   17)
* feed() (méthode email.parser.BytesFeedParser): API FeedParser.
                                                             (line   60)
* feed() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line    9)
* feed() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser): Objets XMLParser.
                                                             (line   29)
* feed() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): Objets XMLPullParser.
                                                             (line   19)
* feed() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* FeedParser (classe dans email.parser): API FeedParser.     (line   77)
* fetch() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line   99)
* fetchall() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor):   Cursor objects.     (line  146)
* fetchmany() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor):  Cursor objects.     (line  129)
* fetchone() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor):   Cursor objects.     (line  122)
* FF (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   61)
* fflags (attribut select.kevent):       Kevent Objects.     (line   90)
* fichier binaire:                       Glossaire.          (line  171)
* fichier texte:                         Glossaire.          (line 1517)
* Field (classe dans dataclasses):       Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  310)
* field_size_limit() (dans le module csv): Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line   97)
* field() (dans le module dataclasses):  Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  210)
* fieldnames (attribut csv.DictReader):  Objets lecteurs.    (line   33)
* fields (attribut uuid.UUID):           uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   99)
* fields() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  338)
* FIFOTYPE (dans le module tarfile):     tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  313)
* file (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   82)
* file (attribut pyclbr.Class):          Objets classes<2>.  (line   12)
* file (attribut pyclbr.Function):       Objets fonctions.   (line   11)
* file object;io module:                 Aperçu<2>.          (line    6)
* file object;open() built-in function:  Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1329)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  458)
* file_digest() (dans le module hashlib): Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers.
                                                             (line   10)
* file_open() (méthode urllib.request.FileHandler): FileHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* file_size (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):  Objets ZipInfo.     (line  150)
* file;byte-code:                        py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line    8)
* file;copying:                          shutil --- High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    8)
* file;large files:                      Prise en charge de gros fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* file;mime.types:                       mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  138)
* file;modes:                            Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1356)
* fileConfig() (dans le module logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* FileCookieJar (classe dans http.cookiejar): http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   57)
* FileDialog (classe dans tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   82)
* FileExistsError:                       Exceptions système. (line   64)
* FileFinder (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  154)
* FileHandler (classe dans logging):     Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* FileHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  425)
* FileInput (classe dans fileinput):     fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  145)
* FileIO (classe dans io):               Raw File I/O.       (line    6)
* filelineno() (dans le module fileinput): fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  109)
* FileLoader (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  292)
* filemode() (dans le module stat):      stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  127)
* filename (attribut doctest.DocTest):   Objets doctest.     (line   36)
* filename (attribut http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  154)
* filename (attribut inspect.FrameInfo): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   17)
* filename (attribut inspect.Traceback): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   58)
* filename (attribut netrc.NetrcParseError): netrc --- netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   58)
* filename (attribut OSError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  196)
* filename (attribut SyntaxError):       Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  328)
* filename (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* filename (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* filename (attribut tracemalloc.Frame): Frame.              (line   13)
* filename (attribut zipfile.ZipFile):   Objets ZipFile.     (line  371)
* filename (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):   Objets ZipInfo.     (line   53)
* filename_only (dans le module tabnanny): tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   33)
* filename_pattern (attribut tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.    (line   55)
* filename() (dans le module fileinput): fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   91)
* filename2 (attribut OSError):          Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  196)
* filenames;pathname expansion:          glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line    8)
* filenames;wildcard expansion:          fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    8)
* fileno() (dans le module fileinput):   fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   96)
* fileno() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):        Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line   93)
* fileno() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   39)
* fileno() (méthode io.IOBase):          I/O Base Classes.   (line   62)
* fileno() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   32)
* fileno() (méthode select.devpoll):     /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* fileno() (méthode select.epoll):       Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* fileno() (méthode select.kqueue):      Kqueue Objects.     (line   14)
* fileno() (méthode selectors.DevpollSelector): Classes<4>.  (line  188)
* fileno() (méthode selectors.EpollSelector): Classes<4>.    (line  179)
* fileno() (méthode selectors.KqueueSelector): Classes<4>.   (line  199)
* fileno() (méthode socket.socket):      Socket Objects.     (line  121)
* fileno() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   15)
* FileNotFoundError:                     Exceptions système. (line   69)
* fileobj (attribut selectors.SelectorKey): Classes<4>.      (line   36)
* files_double_event() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  100)
* files_select_event() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  105)
* files() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Distribution files.
                                                             (line    6)
* files() (dans le module importlib.resources): importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   51)
* files() (méthode importlib.abc.TraversableResources): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  584)
* files() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  170)
* FileType (classe dans argparse):       Objets FileType.    (line    6)
* FileWrapper (classe dans wsgiref.types): wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   32)
* FileWrapper (classe dans wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line  120)
* fill() (dans le module textwrap):      textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   35)
* fill() (méthode textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  313)
* fillcolor() (dans le module turtle):   Réglage des couleurs.
                                                             (line   59)
* filling() (dans le module turtle):     Remplissage.        (line    6)
* fillvalue (attribut reprlib.Repr):     Repr Objects.       (line   10)
* filter (attribut select.kevent):       Kevent Objects.     (line   15)
* Filter (classe dans logging):          Filtres<2>.         (line   13)
* Filter (classe dans tracemalloc):      Filter.             (line    6)
* filter_command() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  110)
* FILTER_DIR (dans le module unittest.mock): FILTER_DIR.     (line    6)
* filter_traces() (méthode tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.  (line   35)
* filter() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  121)
* filter() (dans le module fnmatch):     fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   81)
* filter() (méthode logging.Filter):     Filtres<2>.         (line   20)
* filter() (méthode logging.Handler):    Gestionnaires.      (line   63)
* filter() (méthode logging.Logger):     Enregistreurs.      (line  356)
* FilterError:                           tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  248)
* filterfalse() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  290)
* filterwarnings() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line  112)
* Final (dans le module typing):         Special forms.      (line  195)
* final() (dans le module typing):       Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  310)
* finalization, of objects:              Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* finalize (classe dans weakref):        weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  268)
* finalizer:                             Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line   59)
* find_class() (méthode pickle.Unpickler): Interface du module.
                                                             (line  309)
* find_class() (pickle protocol):        Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global.
                                                             (line    6)
* find_library() (dans le module ctypes.util): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line   92)
* find_loader() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   57)
* find_longest_match() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* find_msvcrt() (dans le module ctypes.util): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  101)
* find_spec() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  103)
* find_spec() (méthode de la classe importlib.machinery.PathFinder): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  117)
* find_spec() (méthode importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   35)
* find_spec() (méthode importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   71)
* find_spec() (méthode importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  184)
* find_spec() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   39)
* find_unused_port() (dans le module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   15)
* find_user_password() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* find_user_password() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* find() (dans le module gettext):       API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   14)
* find() (méthode bytearray):            Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  141)
* find() (méthode bytes):                Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  141)
* find() (méthode doctest.DocTestFinder): Objets DocTestFinder.
                                                             (line   32)
* find() (méthode mmap.mmap):            mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  195)
* find() (méthode str):                  Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  127)
* find() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  109)
* find() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   23)
* findall() (dans le module re):         Fonctions<2>.       (line  135)
* findall() (méthode re.Pattern):        Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   86)
* findall() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  119)
* findall() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   28)
* findCaller() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.      (line  374)
* findfile() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  271)
* finditer() (dans le module re):        Fonctions<2>.       (line  164)
* finditer() (méthode re.Pattern):       Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   93)
* findlabels() (dans le module dis):     Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line  191)
* findlinestarts() (dans le module dis): Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line  174)
* findtext() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  129)
* findtext() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   33)
* finish_request() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  137)
* finish() (méthode socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   36)
* finish() (méthode tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   56)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (dans le module asyncio): Primitives d'attente.
                                                             (line   36)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (dans le module concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (dans le module asyncio): Primitives d'attente.
                                                             (line   40)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (dans le module concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* firstChild (attribut xml.dom.Node):    Objets nœuds.       (line   54)
* FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect:   email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   92)
* firstkey() (méthode dbm.gnu.gdbm):     dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   84)
* firstweekday (attribut calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* firstweekday() (dans le module calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  384)
* fix_missing_locations() (dans le module ast): Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  150)
* fix_sentence_endings (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  235)
* Flag (classe dans enum):               Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  410)
* flag_bits (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):  Objets ZipInfo.     (line  122)
* FlagBoundary (classe dans enum):       Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  652)
* flags (attribut re.Pattern):           Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  110)
* flags (attribut select.kevent):        Kevent Objects.     (line   52)
* flags (dans le module sys):            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  546)
* flash() (dans le module curses):       Fonctions<6>.       (line  132)
* flatten() (méthode email.generator.BytesGenerator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line   85)
* flatten() (méthode email.generator.Generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  187)
* flattening;objects:                    pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* float (classe de base):                Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  747)
* float_info (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  631)
* float_repr_style (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  741)
* floating-point literal:                Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* floating-point;literals:               Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* floating-point;number:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* FloatingPointError:                    Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   34)
* FloatOperation (classe dans decimal):  Signaux.            (line  100)
* flock() (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  160)
* floor() (dans le module math):         Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   17)
* floor() (in module math):              Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  119)
* FloorDiv (classe dans ast):            Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* floordiv() (dans le module operator):  operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   93)
* flush_headers() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  298)
* flush_std_streams() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  403)
* flush() (méthode bz2.BZ2Compressor):   Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   26)
* flush() (méthode io.BufferedWriter):   Buffered Streams.   (line  127)
* flush() (méthode io.IOBase):           I/O Base Classes.   (line   68)
* flush() (méthode logging.Handler):     Gestionnaires.      (line   71)
* flush() (méthode logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   30)
* flush() (méthode logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   62)
* flush() (méthode logging.StreamHandler): Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   25)
* flush() (méthode lzma.LZMACompressor): Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line   98)
* flush() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):     Mailbox objects.    (line  254)
* flush() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):     Maildir objects.    (line  204)
* flush() (méthode mailbox.MH):          MH objects.         (line  102)
* flush() (méthode mmap.mmap):           mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  205)
* flush() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser): Objets XMLParser.
                                                             (line   34)
* flush() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): Objets XMLPullParser.
                                                             (line   23)
* flush() (méthode zlib.Compress):       zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  223)
* flush() (méthode zlib.Decompress):     zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  297)
* flushinp() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  139)
* FlushKey() (dans le module winreg):    Fonctions<13>.      (line  239)
* fma() (dans le module math):           Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   23)
* fma() (méthode decimal.Context):       Objets de contexte. (line  322)
* fma() (méthode decimal.Decimal):       Les objets Decimal. (line  283)
* fmean() (dans le module statistics):   Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line   53)
* fmod() (dans le module math):          Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   38)
* FMT_BINARY (dans le module plistlib):  plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  162)
* FMT_XML (dans le module plistlib):     plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  156)
* fnmatch() (dans le module fnmatch):    fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   56)
* fnmatchcase() (dans le module fnmatch): fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   75)
* focus() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.      (line   97)
* fold (attribut datetime.datetime):     Objets datetime.    (line  351)
* fold (attribut datetime.time):         Objets time.        (line   74)
* fold_binary() (méthode email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  657)
* fold_binary() (méthode email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  527)
* fold_binary() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  380)
* fold() (méthode email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* fold() (méthode email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  648)
* fold() (méthode email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  504)
* fold() (méthode email.policy.Policy):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* fonction:                              Glossaire.          (line  589)
* fonction clé:                          Glossaire.          (line  886)
* fonction coroutine:                    Glossaire.          (line  362)
* fonction de rappel (callback):         Glossaire.          (line  247)
* fonction générique:                    Glossaire.          (line  678)
* Font (classe dans tkinter.font):       tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   20)
* For (classe dans ast):                 Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line   45)
* FOR_ITER (opcode):                     Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  903)
* for;in comprehensions:                 Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   17)
* forget() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* forget() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.     (line   18)
* fork() (dans le module os):            Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  274)
* fork() (dans le module pty):           pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line   22)
* ForkingMixIn (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   27)
* ForkingTCPServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ForkingUDPServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ForkingUnixDatagramServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ForkingUnixStreamServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* forkpty() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  319)
* FORMAT (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.       (line   19)
* format (attribut memoryview):          Vues mémoire.       (line  436)
* format (attribut multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  341)
* format (attribut struct.Struct):       Classes<3>.         (line   55)
* format_datetime() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  184)
* format_exc() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  164)
* format_exception_only() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* format_exception_only() (méthode traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* format_exception() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* format_field() (méthode string.Formatter): Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line  112)
* format_frame_summary() (méthode traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* format_help() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Afficher l'aide.
                                                             (line   32)
* format_list() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* format_map() (méthode str):            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* FORMAT_SIMPLE (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1192)
* format_stack_entry() (méthode bdb.Bdb): bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  415)
* format_stack() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  173)
* format_string() (dans le module locale): locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  476)
* format_tb() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  169)
* format_usage() (méthode argparse.Action): Classes Action.  (line   57)
* format_usage() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Afficher l'aide.
                                                             (line   26)
* FORMAT_WITH_SPEC (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1204)
* format() (built-in function);__str__() (object method): Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  143)
* format() (méthode inspect.Signature):  Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  159)
* format() (méthode logging.BufferingFormatter): Formateurs. (line  155)
* format() (méthode logging.Formatter):  Formateurs.         (line   52)
* format() (méthode logging.Handler):    Gestionnaires.      (line  106)
* format() (méthode pprint.PrettyPrinter): Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line   87)
* format() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* format() (méthode string.Formatter):   Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   19)
* format() (méthode traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* format() (méthode traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  143)
* format() (méthode tracemalloc.Traceback): Traceback.       (line   37)
* formataddr() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   75)
* formatargvalues() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* formatdate() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  160)
* formatday() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  166)
* FormatError:                           Exceptions<18>.     (line   33)
* FormatError() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  113)
* formatException() (méthode logging.Formatter): Formateurs. (line  117)
* formatFooter() (méthode logging.BufferingFormatter): Formateurs.
                                                             (line  148)
* formatHeader() (méthode logging.BufferingFormatter): Formateurs.
                                                             (line  141)
* formatmonth() (méthode calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  242)
* formatmonth() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  195)
* formatmonthname() (méthode calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  265)
* formatmonthname() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  205)
* formatStack() (méthode logging.Formatter): Formateurs.     (line  125)
* formatted string literal:              Formatage de données.
                                                             (line   96)
* formatted string literal <1>:          Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* formatted string literals:             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* FormattedValue (classe dans ast):      Littéraux<3>.       (line   18)
* Formatter (classe dans logging):       Formateurs.         (line    6)
* Formatter (classe dans string):        Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   14)
* formatTime() (méthode logging.Formatter): Formateurs.      (line   77)
* formatting, string (%):                Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting;bytearray (%):              Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting;bytes (%):                  Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatwarning() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line  102)
* formatweek() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  173)
* formatweekday() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  181)
* formatweekheader() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  188)
* formatyear() (méthode calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  248)
* formatyear() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  219)
* formatyearpage() (méthode calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  254)
* Fortran contiguous:                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   25)
* Fortran contiguous <1>:                Glossaire.          (line  345)
* forward() (dans le module turtle):     Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line    6)
* ForwardRef (classe dans typing):       Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line  149)
* fp (attribut urllib.error.HTTPError):  urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   63)
* fpathconf() (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  168)
* Fraction (classe dans fractions):      fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   17)
* frame (attribut inspect.FrameInfo):    La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   13)
* frame (attribut tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText): tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   26)
* Frame (classe dans tracemalloc):       Frame.              (line    6)
* FrameInfo (classe dans inspect):       La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   11)
* FrameSummary (classe dans traceback):  FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* FrameType (dans le module types):      Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  195)
* free (C function):                     Aperçu<4>.          (line   33)
* free threading:                        Glossaire.          (line  573)
* free variable:                         Glossaire.          (line  580)
* free_tool_id() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   13)
* free;variable:                         Liaisons des noms.  (line   49)
* freedesktop_os_release() (dans le module platform): Linux Platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* freefunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   27)
* freeze utility:                        Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  277)
* freeze_support() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* freeze() (dans le module gc):          gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  214)
* frexp() (dans le module math):         Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* FRIDAY (dans le module calendar):      calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* from_address() (méthode ctypes._CData): Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* from_buffer_copy() (méthode ctypes._CData): Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_buffer() (méthode ctypes._CData): Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* from_bytes() (méthode de la classe int): Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers.
                                                             (line  114)
* from_callable() (méthode de la classe inspect.Signature): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  171)
* from_decimal() (méthode de la classe fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  149)
* from_exception() (méthode de la classe traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* from_file() (méthode de la classe zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.
                                                             (line   14)
* from_file() (méthode de la classe zoneinfo.ZoneInfo): La classe ZoneInfo.
                                                             (line   29)
* from_float() (méthode de la classe decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  256)
* from_float() (méthode de la classe fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  137)
* from_iterable() (méthode de la classe itertools.chain): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  119)
* from_list() (méthode de la classe traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_param() (méthode ctypes._CData):  Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   51)
* from_samples() (méthode de la classe statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line   46)
* from_traceback() (méthode de la classe dis.Bytecode): Analyse du code intermédiaire.
                                                             (line   46)
* from_uri() (méthode de la classe pathlib.Path): Analyse et génération des URI.
                                                             (line   12)
* from;import statement:                 Liaisons des noms.  (line    9)
* from;import statement <1>:             L'instruction import.
                                                             (line   55)
* from;yield from expression:            Expressions yield.  (line   70)
* frombuf() (méthode de la classe tarfile.TarInfo): Les objets TarInfo.
                                                             (line   38)
* frombytes() (méthode array.array):     array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  170)
* fromfd() (dans le module socket):      Creating sockets.   (line  162)
* fromfd() (méthode select.epoll):       Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* fromfd() (méthode select.kqueue):      Kqueue Objects.     (line   18)
* fromfile() (méthode array.array):      array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  180)
* fromhex() (méthode de la classe bytearray): Objets bytearray.
                                                             (line   37)
* fromhex() (méthode de la classe bytes): Objets bytes.      (line   68)
* fromhex() (méthode de la classe float): Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante.
                                                             (line   41)
* fromisocalendar() (méthode de la classe datetime.date): Objets date.
                                                             (line   92)
* fromisocalendar() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  257)
* fromisoformat() (méthode de la classe datetime.date): Objets date.
                                                             (line   64)
* fromisoformat() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  206)
* fromisoformat() (méthode de la classe datetime.time): Objets time.
                                                             (line  111)
* fromkeys() (méthode collections.Counter): Objets Counter.  (line  122)
* fromkeys() (méthode de la classe dict): Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  152)
* fromlist() (méthode array.array):      array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  188)
* fromordinal() (méthode de la classe datetime.date): Objets date.
                                                             (line   55)
* fromordinal() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  180)
* fromshare() (dans le module socket):   Creating sockets.   (line  181)
* fromstring() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  105)
* fromstringlist() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  113)
* fromtarfile() (méthode de la classe tarfile.TarInfo): Les objets TarInfo.
                                                             (line   45)
* fromtimestamp() (méthode de la classe datetime.date): Objets date.
                                                             (line   35)
* fromtimestamp() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  103)
* fromunicode() (méthode array.array):   array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  194)
* fromutc() (méthode datetime.timezone): Objets timezone.    (line   64)
* fromutc() (méthode datetime.tzinfo):   Objets tzinfo.      (line  168)
* FrozenImporter (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   81)
* FrozenInstanceError:                   Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  517)
* FrozenSet (classe dans typing):        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   42)
* frozenset (classe de base):            Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   37)
* FS (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  109)
* fs_is_case_insensitive() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  101)
* FS_NONASCII (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* fsdecode() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line   97)
* fsencode() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line   84)
* fspath() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  110)
* fstat() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  191)
* fstatvfs() (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  203)
* fstring:                               Formatage de données.
                                                             (line   96)
* fstring <1>:                           Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* fstring <2>:                           Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* FSTRING_END (dans le module token):    token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  116)
* FSTRING_MIDDLE (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  105)
* FSTRING_START (dans le module token):  token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   96)
* fsum() (dans le module math):          Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* fsync() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  211)
* FTP:                                   urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   37)
* FTP (classe dans ftplib):              FTP objects.        (line    6)
* ftp_open() (méthode urllib.request.FTPHandler): FTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP_TLS (classe dans ftplib):          FTP_TLS objects.    (line    6)
* FTP;ftplib (standard module):          ftplib --- FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTP;protocol:                          urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP;protocol <1>:                      ftplib --- FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTPHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  435)
* ftruncate() (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  224)
* Full:                                  queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   92)
* FULL (attribut inspect.BufferFlags):   Buffer flags.       (line   45)
* full_match() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  258)
* FULL_RO (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.      (line   47)
* full_url (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* full() (méthode asyncio.Queue):        File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   33)
* full() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  133)
* full() (méthode queue.Queue):          Objets Queue.       (line   25)
* fullmatch() (dans le module re):       Fonctions<2>.       (line   69)
* fullmatch() (méthode re.Pattern):      Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   63)
* fully_trusted_filter() (dans le module tarfile): Default named filters.
                                                             (line    9)
* func (attribut functools.partial):     Objets partial.     (line    9)
* funcname (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  101)
* function (attribut inspect.FrameInfo): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   27)
* function (attribut inspect.Traceback): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   68)
* FUNCTION (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   15)
* Function (classe dans pyclbr):         Objets fonctions.   (line    6)
* Function (classe dans symtable):       Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  122)
* function;annotations:                  Annotations de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;annotations <1>:              Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  118)
* function;argument:                     Types appelables.   (line    6)
* function;call:                         Types appelables.   (line    6)
* function;call <1>:                     Appels.             (line  141)
* function;call <2>:                     Appels.             (line  152)
* function;definition:                   L'instruction return.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;definition <1>:               Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;generator:                    L'instruction yield.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;name:                         Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;name <1>:                     Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionDef (classe dans ast):         Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionTestCase (classe dans unittest): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line 1015)
* FunctionType (classe dans ast):        Root nodes.         (line   57)
* FunctionType (dans le module types):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   25)
* funny_files (attribut filecmp.dircmp): La classe dircmp.   (line  100)
* Future (classe dans asyncio):          Objet Future.       (line    6)
* Future (classe dans concurrent.futures): Future Objects.   (line   10)
* future;statement:                      L'instruction future.
                                                             (line    6)
* FutureWarning:                         Avertissements.     (line   58)
* fwalk() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1848)
* gaierror:                              Exceptions<15>.     (line   27)
* gamma() (dans le module math):         Fonctions spéciales.
                                                             (line   29)
* gammavariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   50)
* garbage (dans le module gc):           gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  248)
* garbage collection:                    Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   39)
* gather() (dans le module asyncio):     Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente.
                                                             (line    6)
* gather() (méthode curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* gauss() (dans le module random):       Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   63)
* gc_collect() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  356)
* gcd() (dans le module math):           Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* gcvisitobjects_t (C type):             Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   26)
* ge() (dans le module operator):        operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* generate_tokens() (dans le module tokenize): Analyse Lexicale.
                                                             (line   38)
* générateur:                            Glossaire.          (line  646)
* générateur <1>:                        Glossaire.          (line  646)
* générateur asynchrone:                 Glossaire.          (line   97)
* Generator (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   56)
* Generator (classe dans email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  149)
* Generator (classe dans typing):        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   38)
* generator;expression:                  Expressions génératrices.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function:                    Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function <1>:                Expressions yield.  (line    6)
* generator;function <2>:                L'instruction yield.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;iterator:                    Fonctions génératrices ou générateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;iterator <1>:                L'instruction yield.
                                                             (line    6)
* GeneratorExit:                         Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   38)
* GeneratorExp (classe dans ast):        Compréhensions.     (line    6)
* GeneratorType (dans le module types):  Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   37)
* Generic (classe dans typing):          Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   15)
* generic_visit() (méthode ast.NodeVisitor): Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  208)
* Generic;Alias:                         Type Alias générique.
                                                             (line    6)
* generic;special;attribute:             Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line   13)
* GenericAlias (classe dans types):      Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  150)
* genops() (dans le module pickletools): Programmatic Interface<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* geometric_mean() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line   82)
* gestionnaire de contexte:              Glossaire.          (line  327)
* gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone:   Glossaire.          (line   90)
* GET_AITER (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  322)
* get_all_breaks() (méthode bdb.Bdb):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  399)
* get_all_start_methods() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* get_all() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  267)
* get_all() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  392)
* get_all() (méthode wsgiref.headers.Headers): wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   51)
* GET_ANEXT (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  331)
* get_annotations() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  166)
* get_app() (méthode wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_archive_formats() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_args() (dans le module typing):    Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line   82)
* get_asyncgen_hooks() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1042)
* get_attribute() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  591)
* GET_AWAITABLE (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  303)
* get_begidx() (dans le module readline): Complétion.        (line   43)
* get_blocking() (dans le module os):    Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  237)
* get_body_encoding() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_body() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  539)
* get_boundary() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  421)
* get_boundary() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  622)
* get_bpbynumber() (méthode bdb.Bdb):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  375)
* get_break() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  384)
* get_breaks() (méthode bdb.Bdb):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  389)
* get_buffer() (méthode asyncio.BufferedProtocol): Protocoles connectés avec tampon.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_bytes() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.    (line  172)
* get_bytes() (méthode mailbox.mbox):    mbox objects.       (line   32)
* get_bytes() (méthode mailbox.MMDF):    MMDF objects.       (line   29)
* get_ca_certs() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.     (line  181)
* get_cache_token() (dans le module abc): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  335)
* get_channel_binding() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  258)
* get_charset() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  290)
* get_charsets() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  451)
* get_charsets() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  658)
* get_child_watcher() (dans le module asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   27)
* get_child_watcher() (méthode asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_children() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_children() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_ciphers() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.      (line  195)
* get_clock_info() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.      (line  110)
* get_close_matches() (dans le module difflib): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  222)
* get_code() (méthode importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  207)
* get_code() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  402)
* get_code() (méthode importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  334)
* get_code() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  270)
* get_code() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   46)
* get_completer_delims() (dans le module readline): Complétion.
                                                             (line   53)
* get_completer() (dans le module readline): Complétion.     (line   32)
* get_completion_type() (dans le module readline): Complétion.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_config_h_filename() (dans le module sysconfig): Autres fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line   70)
* get_config_var() (dans le module sysconfig): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_config_vars() (dans le module sysconfig): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   16)
* get_content_charset() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  444)
* get_content_charset() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  647)
* get_content_disposition() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  475)
* get_content_disposition() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  672)
* get_content_maintype() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  339)
* get_content_maintype() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  465)
* get_content_subtype() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  345)
* get_content_subtype() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  471)
* get_content_type() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  322)
* get_content_type() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  449)
* get_content() (dans le module email.contentmanager): Instances de gestionnaires de contenus.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_content() (méthode email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_content() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  608)
* get_context() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>. (line   86)
* get_context() (méthode asyncio.Handle): Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_context() (méthode asyncio.Task):  Objets Task.        (line  177)
* get_coro() (méthode asyncio.Task):     Objets Task.        (line  164)
* get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1057)
* get_count() (dans le module gc):       gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_current_history_length() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_data() (dans le module pkgutil):   pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  195)
* get_data() (méthode importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  324)
* get_data() (méthode importlib.abc.ResourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  187)
* get_data() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   51)
* get_date() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_debug() (dans le module gc):       gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   60)
* get_debug() (méthode asyncio.loop):    Activation du mode débogage.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_default_scheme() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_default_type() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  351)
* get_default_type() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  477)
* get_default_verify_paths() (dans le module ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_default() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur.
                                                             (line   35)
* get_dialect() (dans le module csv):    Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line   87)
* get_disassembly_as_string() (méthode test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase): test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   18)
* get_docstring() (dans le module ast):  Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  127)
* get_doctest() (méthode doctest.DocTestParser): Objets DocTestParser.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_endidx() (dans le module readline): Complétion.        (line   43)
* get_environ() (méthode wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   91)
* get_errno() (dans le module ctypes):   Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  129)
* get_escdelay() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.      (line  448)
* get_event_loop_policy() (dans le module asyncio): Obtenir et définir la politique.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_event_loop() (dans le module asyncio): Boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   44)
* get_event_loop() (méthode asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   13)
* get_events() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_examples() (méthode doctest.DocTestParser): Objets DocTestParser.
                                                             (line   25)
* get_exception_handler() (méthode asyncio.loop): API de gestion d'erreur.
                                                             (line   30)
* get_exec_path() (dans le module os):   Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  171)
* get_extra_info() (méthode asyncio.BaseTransport): Classe de base des Transports.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_extra_info() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_field() (méthode string.Formatter): Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   61)
* get_file_breaks() (méthode bdb.Bdb):   bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  394)
* get_file() (méthode mailbox.Babyl):    Babyl objects.      (line   49)
* get_file() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):  Mailbox objects.    (line  188)
* get_file() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):  Maildir objects.    (line  221)
* get_file() (méthode mailbox.mbox):     mbox objects.       (line   39)
* get_file() (méthode mailbox.MH):       MH objects.         (line   96)
* get_file() (méthode mailbox.MMDF):     MMDF objects.       (line   36)
* get_filename() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  411)
* get_filename() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  612)
* get_filename() (méthode importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  279)
* get_filename() (méthode importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  320)
* get_filename() (méthode importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  342)
* get_filename() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   59)
* get_filter() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  114)
* get_flags() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.    (line   92)
* get_flags() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_flags() (méthode mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_flags() (méthode mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_folder() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.   (line   69)
* get_folder() (méthode mailbox.MH):     MH objects.         (line   39)
* get_frees() (méthode symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  145)
* get_freeze_count() (dans le module gc): gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  239)
* get_from() (méthode mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_from() (méthode mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_full_url() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_globals() (méthode symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  136)
* get_grouped_opcodes() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  168)
* get_handle_inheritable() (dans le module os): Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_header() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  121)
* get_history_item() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_history_length() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'historique.
                                                             (line   30)
* get_id() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_ident() (dans le module _thread):  _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   90)
* get_ident() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  125)
* get_identifiers() (méthode string.Template): Chaînes modèles.
                                                             (line   78)
* get_identifiers() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_importer() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   76)
* get_info() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):  Maildir objects.    (line  155)
* get_info() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_inheritable() (dans le module os): Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   27)
* get_inheritable() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects. (line  130)
* get_instructions() (dans le module dis): Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line  145)
* get_int_max_str_digits() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  851)
* get_interpreter() (dans le module zipapp): API Python.     (line   87)
* GET_ITER (opcode):                     Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  214)
* get_key() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>.    (line  145)
* get_labels() (méthode mailbox.Babyl):  Babyl objects.      (line   35)
* get_labels() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_last_error() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  137)
* GET_LEN (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  524)
* get_line_buffer() (dans le module readline): Tampon de ligne.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_lineno() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   85)
* get_loader() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_local_events() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_locals() (méthode symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  132)
* get_logger() (dans le module multiprocessing): Journalisation<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_loop() (méthode asyncio.Future):   Objet Future.       (line  147)
* get_loop() (méthode asyncio.Runner):   Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_loop() (méthode asyncio.Server):   Objets Serveur.     (line   69)
* get_makefile_filename() (dans le module sysconfig): Autres fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line   74)
* get_map() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>.    (line  153)
* get_matching_blocks() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_message() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line  165)
* get_method() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_methods() (méthode symtable.Class): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  155)
* get_mixed_type_key() (dans le module ipaddress): Autres fonctions au niveau de module.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_name() (méthode asyncio.Task):     Objets Task.        (line  184)
* get_name() (méthode symtable.Symbol):  Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  196)
* get_name() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_namespace() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  267)
* get_namespaces() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  263)
* get_native_id() (dans le module _thread): _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   99)
* get_native_id() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  136)
* get_nonlocals() (méthode symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  140)
* get_nonstandard_attr() (méthode http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_nowait() (méthode asyncio.Queue):  File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   50)
* get_nowait() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  178)
* get_nowait() (méthode queue.Queue):    Objets Queue.       (line   72)
* get_nowait() (méthode queue.SimpleQueue): Objets SimpleQueue.
                                                             (line   53)
* get_object_traceback() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_objects() (dans le module gc):     gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_opcodes() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* get_option_group() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Grouping Options.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_option() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_origin() (dans le module typing):  Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line   59)
* get_original_bases() (dans le module types): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_original_stdout() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  313)
* get_osfhandle() (dans le module msvcrt): Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_output_charset() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  121)
* get_overloads() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  285)
* get_pagesize() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  280)
* get_param() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  514)
* get_parameters() (méthode symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  127)
* get_params() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  492)
* get_path_names() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_path() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_paths() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* get_payload() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  197)
* get_pid() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_pipe_transport() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_platform() (dans le module sysconfig): Autres fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_poly() (dans le module turtle):    Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   17)
* get_preferred_scheme() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_protocol_members() (dans le module typing): Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line  100)
* get_protocol() (méthode asyncio.BaseTransport): Classe de base des Transports.
                                                             (line   95)
* get_proxy_response_headers() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  145)
* get_python_version() (dans le module sysconfig): Autres fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_ready() (méthode graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  150)
* get_referents() (dans le module gc):   gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  150)
* get_referrers() (dans le module gc):   gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  128)
* get_request() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  143)
* get_returncode() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line   30)
* get_running_loop() (dans le module asyncio): Boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   31)
* get_scheme_names() (dans le module sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_scheme() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  192)
* get_selection() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_sequences() (méthode mailbox.MH):  MH objects.         (line   56)
* get_sequences() (méthode mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_server_certificate() (dans le module ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_server() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_shapepoly() (dans le module turtle): Apparence.        (line  178)
* get_source_segment() (dans le module ast): Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  138)
* get_source() (méthode importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  221)
* get_source() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  420)
* get_source() (méthode importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  338)
* get_source() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  275)
* get_source() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   67)
* get_stack() (méthode asyncio.Task):    Objets Task.        (line  128)
* get_stack() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  406)
* get_start_method() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* get_starttag_text() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_stats_profile() (méthode pstats.Stats): The Stats Class.
                                                             (line  225)
* get_stats() (dans le module gc):       gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   75)
* get_stderr() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  129)
* get_stderr() (méthode wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line  101)
* get_stdin() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  123)
* get_string() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.   (line  180)
* get_string() (méthode mailbox.mbox):   mbox objects.       (line   50)
* get_subdir() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_symbols() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  113)
* get_tabsize() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.       (line  463)
* get_task_factory() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de Futures et des tâches.
                                                             (line   51)
* get_terminal_size() (dans le module os): Demander la taille d'un terminal.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_terminal_size() (dans le module shutil): Querying the size of the output terminal.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_threshold() (dans le module gc):   gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  123)
* get_token() (méthode shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line    8)
* get_tool() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traceback_limit() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traced_memory() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_tracemalloc_memory() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_type_hints() (dans le module typing): Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_type() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   53)
* get_unixfrom() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  159)
* get_unixfrom() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  177)
* get_unpack_formats() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  190)
* get_unverified_chain() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  222)
* get_usage() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_value() (méthode string.Formatter): Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   72)
* get_verified_chain() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets. (line  213)
* get_version() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_visible() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_wch() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  241)
* get_write_buffer_limits() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_write_buffer_size() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   19)
* GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode):          Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  218)
* get() (dans le module webbrowser):     webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  104)
* get() (méthode asyncio.Queue):         File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   41)
* get() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  225)
* get() (méthode contextvars.Context):   Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line  119)
* get() (méthode contextvars.ContextVar): Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   32)
* get() (méthode dict):                  Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  165)
* get() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  258)
* get() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  384)
* get() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):       Mailbox objects.    (line  153)
* get() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  212)
* get() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  160)
* get() (méthode multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  253)
* get() (méthode queue.Queue):           Objets Queue.       (line   50)
* get() (méthode queue.SimpleQueue):     Objets SimpleQueue. (line   40)
* get() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Combobox):  ttk Combobox.       (line   15)
* get() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Spinbox):   ttk Spinbox.        (line    8)
* get() (méthode types.MappingProxyType): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  261)
* get() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   70)
* getacl() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  106)
* getaddresses() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   90)
* getaddrinfo() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* getaddrinfo() (méthode asyncio.loop):  DNS.                (line    6)
* getallocatedblocks() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  753)
* getandroidapilevel() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  774)
* getannotation() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  111)
* getargvalues() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* getasyncgenlocals() (dans le module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line  101)
* getasyncgenstate() (dans le module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   49)
* getatime() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  179)
* getattr_static() (dans le module inspect): Recherche dynamique d'attributs.
                                                             (line   16)
* getattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   43)
* getAttribute() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements. (line   32)
* getAttributeNode() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   38)
* getAttributeNodeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   49)
* getAttributeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   42)
* getattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   54)
* GetBase() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* getbegyx() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  225)
* getbkgd() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  229)
* getblocking() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  167)
* getboolean() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  259)
* getbuffer() (méthode io.BytesIO):      Buffered Streams.   (line   21)
* getbufferproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  100)
* getByteStream() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* getcallargs() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   99)
* getcanvas() (dans le module turtle):   Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line   63)
* getch() (dans le module msvcrt):       Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   11)
* getch() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  234)
* getCharacterStream() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* getche() (dans le module msvcrt):      Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   26)
* getChild() (méthode logging.Logger):   Enregistreurs.      (line  172)
* getChildren() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.     (line  185)
* getclasstree() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* getclosurevars() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  130)
* getcode() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   92)
* getcode() (méthode urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   45)
* getColumnNumber() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* getcomments() (dans le module inspect): Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   18)
* getcompname() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read.  (line   41)
* getcomptype() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read.  (line   36)
* getconfig() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  649)
* getContentHandler() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* getcontext() (dans le module decimal): Objets de contexte. (line   15)
* getcoroutinelocals() (dans le module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   93)
* getcoroutinestate() (dans le module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   30)
* getctime() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  196)
* getcwd() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  310)
* getcwdb() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  315)
* getdecoder() (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  114)
* getdefaultencoding() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  785)
* getdefaultlocale() (dans le module locale): locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  361)
* getdefaulttimeout() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  375)
* getdlopenflags() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  790)
* getdoc() (dans le module inspect):     Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line    6)
* getDOMImplementation() (dans le module xml.dom): Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   17)
* getDTDHandler() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* getEffectiveLevel() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.
                                                             (line  162)
* getegid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  181)
* getElementsByTagName() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   62)
* getElementsByTagName() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   15)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (méthode xml.dom.Document): Objets Document.
                                                             (line   67)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   19)
* getencoder() (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  106)
* getencoding() (dans le module locale): locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  426)
* getEncoding() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* getEntityResolver() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* getenv() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  139)
* getenvb() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  155)
* getErrorHandler() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* geteuid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  189)
* getEvent() (méthode xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream): Objets DOMEventStream.
                                                             (line   11)
* getEventCategory() (méthode logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* getEventType() (méthode logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* getException() (méthode xml.sax.SAXException): Les objets SAXException.
                                                             (line   13)
* getFeature() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* getfile() (dans le module inspect):    Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   27)
* getFilesToDelete() (méthode logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  124)
* getfilesystemencodeerrors() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  832)
* getfilesystemencoding() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  799)
* getfirstweekday() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   51)
* getfloat() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  252)
* getfqdn() (dans le module socket):     Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   99)
* getframeinfo() (dans le module inspect): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line  127)
* getframerate() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read. (line   28)
* getfullargspec() (dans le module inspect): Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* getgeneratorlocals() (dans le module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   74)
* getgeneratorstate() (dans le module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   13)
* getgid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  196)
* getgrall() (dans le module grp):       grp --- The group database.
                                                             (line   58)
* getgrgid() (dans le module grp):       grp --- The group database.
                                                             (line   44)
* getgrnam() (dans le module grp):       grp --- The group database.
                                                             (line   53)
* getgrouplist() (dans le module os):    Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  205)
* getgroups() (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  216)
* getHandlerByName() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  183)
* getHandlerNames() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  190)
* getheader() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   27)
* getheaders() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   35)
* gethostbyaddr() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  156)
* gethostbyaddr() (in module socket):    Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  569)
* gethostbyname_ex() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  126)
* gethostbyname() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* gethostname() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* gethostname() (in module socket):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  569)
* getincrementaldecoder() (dans le module codecs): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  130)
* getincrementalencoder() (dans le module codecs): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  122)
* getinfo() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):   Objets ZipFile.     (line  121)
* getinnerframes() (dans le module inspect): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line  150)
* GetInputContext() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* getint() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  245)
* getitem() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  200)
* getiterfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   88)
* getitimer() (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  436)
* getkey() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  249)
* GetLastError() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  121)
* getLength() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   11)
* getLevelName() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  150)
* getLevelNamesMapping() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  141)
* getlimit() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  593)
* getline() (dans le module linecache):  linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   23)
* getLineNumber() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* getloadavg() (dans le module os):      Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   54)
* getlocale() (dans le module locale):   locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  388)
* getLogger() (dans le module logging):  Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line    9)
* getLoggerClass() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   23)
* getlogin() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  239)
* getLogRecordFactory() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   34)
* getMandatoryRelease() (méthode __future__._Feature): Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   70)
* getmark() (méthode wave.Wave_read):    Objets Wave_read.   (line   72)
* getmarkers() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read.   (line   64)
* getmaxyx() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  256)
* getmember() (méthode tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile. (line  111)
* getmembers_static() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  346)
* getmembers() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.   (line  333)
* getmembers() (méthode tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  121)
* getMessage() (méthode logging.LogRecord): Objets LogRecord.
                                                             (line   64)
* getMessage() (méthode xml.sax.SAXException): Les objets SAXException.
                                                             (line    9)
* getMessageID() (méthode logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   60)
* getmodule() (dans le module inspect):  Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   33)
* getmodulename() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  362)
* getmouse() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  145)
* getmro() (dans le module inspect):     Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line   89)
* getmtime() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  186)
* getName() (méthode threading.Thread):  Objets Threads.     (line  170)
* getNameByQName() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   16)
* getnameinfo() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  172)
* getnameinfo() (méthode asyncio.loop):  DNS.                (line   11)
* getnames() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):  Les objets TarFile. (line  127)
* getNames() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* getnchannels() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read. (line   19)
* getnframes() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read.   (line   32)
* getnode() (dans le module uuid):       uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  167)
* getobjects() (dans le module sys):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  946)
* getopt() (dans le module getopt):      getopt --- C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   33)
* GetoptError:                           getopt --- C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   85)
* getOptionalRelease() (méthode __future__._Feature): Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   65)
* getouterframes() (dans le module inspect): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line  135)
* getoutput() (dans le module subprocess): Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell.
                                                             (line   48)
* getpagesize() (dans le module resource): Resource Usage.   (line  101)
* getparams() (méthode wave.Wave_read):  Objets Wave_read.   (line   46)
* getparyx() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  260)
* getpass() (dans le module getpass):    getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   17)
* GetPassWarning:                        getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   36)
* getpeercert() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.        (line  144)
* getpeername() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  138)
* getpen() (dans le module turtle):      Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   40)
* getpgid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  251)
* getpgrp() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  259)
* getpid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  265)
* getpos() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   32)
* getppid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  272)
* getpreferredencoding() (dans le module locale): locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  399)
* getpriority() (dans le module os):     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  283)
* getprofile() (dans le module sys):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  971)
* getprofile() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  211)
* getProperty() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* getprotobyname() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  192)
* getproxies() (dans le module urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  168)
* getPublicId() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* getPublicId() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* getpwall() (dans le module pwd):       pwd --- The password database.
                                                             (line   64)
* getpwnam() (dans le module pwd):       pwd --- The password database.
                                                             (line   60)
* getpwuid() (dans le module pwd):       pwd --- The password database.
                                                             (line   56)
* getQNameByName() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   20)
* getQNames() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getquota() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  116)
* getquotaroot() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  121)
* getrandbits() (dans le module random): Fonctions pour les entiers.
                                                             (line   38)
* getrandbits() (méthode random.Random): Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line   42)
* getrandom() (dans le module os):       Nombres aléatoires<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* getreader() (dans le module codecs):   codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  138)
* getrecursionlimit() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  877)
* getrefcount() (dans le module sys):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  859)
* GetReparseDeferralEnabled() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* getresgid() (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  332)
* getresponse() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line   82)
* getresuid() (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  322)
* getrlimit() (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line   24)
* getroot() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   38)
* getrusage() (dans le module resource): Resource Usage.     (line    8)
* getsampwidth() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read. (line   24)
* getscreen() (dans le module turtle):   Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   51)
* getservbyname() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* getservbyport() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  214)
* GetSetDescriptorType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  200)
* getshapes() (dans le module turtle):   Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line   72)
* getsid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  527)
* getsignal() (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  284)
* getsitepackages() (dans le module site): Module contents<3>.
                                                             (line   58)
* getsize() (dans le module os.path):    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  208)
* getsizeof() (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  885)
* getsockname() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  146)
* getsockopt() (méthode socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  152)
* getsource() (dans le module inspect):  Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   59)
* getsourcefile() (dans le module inspect): Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   38)
* getsourcelines() (dans le module inspect): Récupération du code source.
                                                             (line   45)
* getstate() (dans le module random):    Fonctions de gestion d'état.
                                                             (line   34)
* getstate() (méthode codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* getstate() (méthode codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* getstate() (méthode random.Random):    Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line   24)
* getstatusoutput() (dans le module subprocess): Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell.
                                                             (line   12)
* getstr() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  266)
* getSubject() (méthode logging.handlers.SMTPHandler): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* getswitchinterval() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  908)
* getSystemId() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* getSystemId() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* getsyx() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  163)
* gettarinfo() (méthode tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  323)
* gettempdir() (dans le module tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  333)
* gettempdirb() (dans le module tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  370)
* gettempprefix() (dans le module tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  377)
* gettempprefixb() (dans le module tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  382)
* getter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   33)
* getTestCaseNames() (méthode unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  119)
* gettext() (dans le module gettext):    API GNU gettext.    (line   34)
* gettext() (dans le module locale):     Accéder aux catalogues de messages.
                                                             (line    6)
* gettext() (méthode gettext.GNUTranslations): La classe GNUTranslations.
                                                             (line   38)
* gettext() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   37)
* gettimeout() (méthode socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  176)
* gettrace() (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  976)
* gettrace() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  186)
* getturtle() (dans le module turtle):   Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   40)
* getType() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   19)
* getuid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  342)
* getunicodeinternedsize() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  768)
* geturl() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   83)
* geturl() (méthode urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   12)
* geturl() (méthode urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   30)
* getuser() (dans le module getpass):    getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   41)
* getuserbase() (dans le module site):   Module contents<3>. (line   64)
* getusersitepackages() (dans le module site): Module contents<3>.
                                                             (line   72)
* getvalue() (méthode io.BytesIO):       Buffered Streams.   (line   38)
* getvalue() (méthode io.StringIO):      Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  265)
* getValue() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getValueByQName() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   12)
* getwch() (dans le module msvcrt):      Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   21)
* getwche() (dans le module msvcrt):     Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   31)
* getweakrefcount() (dans le module weakref): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  156)
* getweakrefs() (dans le module weakref): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  161)
* getwelcome() (méthode ftplib.FTP):     FTP objects.        (line  123)
* getwelcome() (méthode poplib.POP3):    POP3 Objects.       (line   20)
* getwin() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  169)
* getwindowsversion() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  987)
* getwriter() (dans le module codecs):   codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  146)
* getxattr() (dans le module os):        Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line   10)
* getyx() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  277)
* gid (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):        Les objets TarInfo. (line  114)
* GIL:                                   Glossaire.          (line  697)
* glob() (dans le module glob):          glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   29)
* glob() (méthode pathlib.Path):         Lecture des dossiers.
                                                             (line   30)
* Global (classe dans ast):              Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  160)
* global interpreter lock:               Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* global_enum() (dans le module enum):   Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line   94)
* global;name;binding:                   L'instruction global.
                                                             (line    6)
* global;namespace:                      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* globs (attribut doctest.DocTest):      Objets doctest.     (line   22)
* gmtime() (dans le module time):        Fonctions<5>.       (line  145)
* gname (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):      Les objets TarInfo. (line  130)
* GNOME:                                 Le constructeur Catalog.
                                                             (line    6)
* GNU_FORMAT (dans le module tarfile):   tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  341)
* gnu_getopt() (dans le module getopt):  getopt --- C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   73)
* GNUTranslations (classe dans gettext): La classe GNUTranslations.
                                                             (line   33)
* GNUTYPE_LONGLINK (dans le module tarfile): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  325)
* GNUTYPE_LONGNAME (dans le module tarfile): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  321)
* GNUTYPE_SPARSE (dans le module tarfile): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  329)
* go() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  122)
* got (attribut doctest.DocTestFailure): Débogage.           (line  206)
* goto() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   76)
* grammar:                               Notations.          (line    6)
* grantpt() (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  257)
* Graphical User Interface:              Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* GREATER (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  220)
* GREATEREQUAL (dans le module token):   token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  247)
* Greenwich Mean Time:                   time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   42)
* GRND_NONBLOCK (dans le module os):     Nombres aléatoires<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* GRND_RANDOM (dans le module os):       Nombres aléatoires<2>.
                                                             (line   95)
* Group (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  477)
* group() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Permissions et propriété.
                                                             (line   21)
* group() (méthode re.Match):            Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line   36)
* groupby() (dans le module itertools):  Itertool Functions. (line  307)
* groupdict() (méthode re.Match):        Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  138)
* groupindex (attribut re.Pattern):      Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  121)
* grouping:                              Indentation.        (line    6)
* groups (attribut email.headerregistry.AddressHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  200)
* groups (attribut re.Pattern):          Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  117)
* groups() (méthode re.Match):           Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  114)
* GS (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  112)
* Gt (classe dans ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* gt() (dans le module operator):        operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* GtE (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* guard:                                 Gardes.             (line    6)
* guess_all_extensions() (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   64)
* guess_all_extensions() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* guess_extension() (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   76)
* guess_extension() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* guess_file_type() (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   55)
* guess_file_type() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* guess_scheme() (dans le module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   14)
* guess_type() (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   24)
* guess_type() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* GUI:                                   Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* GzipFile (classe dans gzip):           gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line   73)
* hachable:                              Glossaire.          (line  734)
* halfdelay() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  211)
* Handle (classe dans asyncio):          Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* handle an exception:                   Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* handle_charref() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   98)
* handle_comment() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line  107)
* handle_data() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   85)
* handle_decl() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line  122)
* handle_defect() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  255)
* handle_endtag() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   69)
* handle_entityref() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   91)
* handle_error() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  150)
* handle_expect_100() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  219)
* handle_one_request() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  213)
* handle_pi() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line  130)
* handle_request() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   22)
* handle_request() (méthode xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* handle_startendtag() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   76)
* handle_starttag() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   50)
* handle_timeout() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  161)
* handle() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  206)
* handle() (méthode logging.Handler):    Gestionnaires.      (line   86)
* handle() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   67)
* handle() (méthode logging.Logger):     Enregistreurs.      (line  389)
* handle() (méthode logging.NullHandler): Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler.
                                                             (line   21)
* handle() (méthode socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   21)
* handle() (méthode wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line  106)
* handleError() (méthode logging.Handler): Gestionnaires.    (line   92)
* handleError() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* Handler (classe dans logging):         Gestionnaires.      (line   11)
* handlers (attribut logging.Logger):    Enregistreurs.      (line   91)
* Handlers (classe dans signal):         Module contents<2>. (line   24)
* hardlink_to() (méthode pathlib.Path):  Création de fichiers et de dossiers.
                                                             (line   73)
* harmonic_mean() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  104)
* HAS_ALPN (dans le module ssl):         Constantes<9>.      (line  382)
* has_children() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   98)
* has_colors() (dans le module curses):  Fonctions<6>.       (line  176)
* has_default() (méthode typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  434)
* has_default() (méthode typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  201)
* has_default() (méthode typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  333)
* has_dualstack_ipv6() (dans le module socket): Creating sockets.
                                                             (line  155)
* HAS_ECDH (dans le module ssl):         Constantes<9>.      (line  398)
* has_extended_color_support() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.
                                                             (line  181)
* has_extn() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line   85)
* has_header() (méthode csv.Sniffer):    Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  247)
* has_header() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* has_ic() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  192)
* has_il() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  199)
* has_ipv6 (dans le module socket):      Constantes<8>.      (line  295)
* has_key() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  206)
* has_location (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  437)
* HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  390)
* has_nonstandard_attr() (méthode http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* HAS_NPN (dans le module ssl):          Constantes<9>.      (line  413)
* has_option() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  143)
* has_option() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   42)
* HAS_PSK (dans le module ssl):          Constantes<9>.      (line  465)
* has_section() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* HAS_SNI (dans le module ssl):          Constantes<9>.      (line  406)
* HAS_SSLv2 (dans le module ssl):        Constantes<9>.      (line  423)
* HAS_SSLv3 (dans le module ssl):        Constantes<9>.      (line  430)
* has_ticket (attribut ssl.SSLSession):  SSL session.        (line   20)
* HAS_TLSv1 (dans le module ssl):        Constantes<9>.      (line  437)
* HAS_TLSv1_1 (dans le module ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  444)
* HAS_TLSv1_2 (dans le module ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  451)
* HAS_TLSv1_3 (dans le module ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  458)
* hasarg (dans le module dis):           Opcode collections. (line   25)
* hasAttribute() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements. (line   23)
* hasAttributeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   27)
* hasAttributes() (méthode xml.dom.Node): Objets nœuds.      (line   97)
* hasChildNodes() (méthode xml.dom.Node): Objets nœuds.      (line  101)
* hascompare (dans le module dis):       Opcode collections. (line   58)
* hasconst (dans le module dis):         Opcode collections. (line   31)
* hasexc (dans le module dis):           Opcode collections. (line   62)
* hasFeature() (méthode xml.dom.DOMImplementation): Objets DOMImplementation.
                                                             (line   12)
* hasfree (dans le module dis):          Opcode collections. (line   35)
* hash character:                        Commentaires.       (line    6)
* hash_bits (attribut sys.hash_info):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1101)
* hash_info (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1069)
* hash_randomization (attribut sys.flags): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  587)
* hash.block_size (dans le module hashlib): Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   13)
* hash.digest_size (dans le module hashlib): Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line    9)
* hashable:                              Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   41)
* Hashable (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* Hashable (classe dans typing):         Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   54)
* hasHandlers() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.     (line  404)
* hashfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   79)
* hasjabs (dans le module dis):          Opcode collections. (line   75)
* hasjrel (dans le module dis):          Opcode collections. (line   68)
* hasjump (dans le module dis):          Opcode collections. (line   47)
* haslocal (dans le module dis):         Opcode collections. (line   54)
* hasname (dans le module dis):          Opcode collections. (line   43)
* HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1279)
* HAVE_CONTEXTVAR (dans le module decimal): Constantes<4>.   (line   33)
* HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  163)
* HAVE_THREADS (dans le module decimal): Constantes<4>.      (line   26)
* HCI_DATA_DIR (dans le module socket):  Constantes<8>.      (line  308)
* HCI_FILTER (dans le module socket):    Constantes<8>.      (line  308)
* HCI_TIME_STAMP (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.     (line  308)
* Header (classe dans email.header):     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   65)
* header_encode_lines() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  135)
* header_encode() (méthode email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  128)
* header_encoding (attribut email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   67)
* header_factory (attribut email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  442)
* header_fetch_parse() (méthode email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  641)
* header_fetch_parse() (méthode email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  495)
* header_fetch_parse() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  344)
* header_items() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* header_max_count() (méthode email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  471)
* header_max_count() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  280)
* header_offset (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.  (line  138)
* header_source_parse() (méthode email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  629)
* header_source_parse() (méthode email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  477)
* header_source_parse() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* header_store_parse() (méthode email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  637)
* header_store_parse() (méthode email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  485)
* header_store_parse() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  326)
* HeaderDefect:                          email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   60)
* HeaderError:                           tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  243)
* HeaderParseError:                      email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   26)
* HeaderParser (classe dans email.parser): API de Parser.    (line  111)
* HeaderRegistry (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  318)
* headers (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   60)
* headers (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  118)
* headers (attribut urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   56)
* headers (attribut urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   19)
* headers (attribut xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* Headers (classe dans wsgiref.headers): wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line    9)
* HeaderWriteError:                      email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   50)
* heading() (dans le module turtle):     Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line   58)
* heading() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.    (line  103)
* heapify() (dans le module heapq):      heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   61)
* heapmin() (dans le module msvcrt):     Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* heappop() (dans le module heapq):      heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   47)
* heappush() (dans le module heapq):     heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   42)
* heappushpop() (dans le module heapq):  heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   54)
* heapreplace() (dans le module heapq):  heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   66)
* helo() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):         SMTP Objects.       (line   47)
* help (attribut optparse.Option):       Option attributes.  (line   80)
* help (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line   76)
* help;online:                           pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* herror:                                Exceptions<15>.     (line   13)
* hex (attribut uuid.UUID):              uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  132)
* hex() (méthode bytearray):             Objets bytearray.   (line   54)
* hex() (méthode bytes):                 Objets bytes.       (line   85)
* hex() (méthode float):                 Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante.
                                                             (line   34)
* hex() (méthode memoryview):            Vues mémoire.       (line  197)
* hexadecimal literal:                   Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* hexadecimal;literals:                  Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* hexdigest() (méthode hashlib.hash):    Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   47)
* hexdigest() (méthode hashlib.shake):   Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE.
                                                             (line   22)
* hexdigest() (méthode hmac.HMAC):       hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   75)
* hexdigits (dans le module string):     Chaînes constantes. (line   30)
* hexlify() (dans le module binascii):   binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  121)
* hexversion (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1114)
* hidden() (méthode curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.      (line   25)
* hide_cookie2 (attribut http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* hide() (méthode curses.panel.Panel):   Panel Objects.      (line   30)
* hide() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.       (line   23)
* hideturtle() (dans le module turtle):  Visibilité.         (line    6)
* HierarchyRequestErr:                   Exceptions<20>.     (line   30)
* HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   83)
* HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (dans le module pickle): Interface du module.
                                                             (line   14)
* hits (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  124)
* HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (dans le module winreg): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (dans le module winreg): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   38)
* HKEY_CURRENT_USER (dans le module winreg): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   12)
* HKEY_DYN_DATA (dans le module winreg): HKEY_* Constants.   (line   43)
* HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (dans le module winreg): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   19)
* HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (dans le module winreg): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* HKEY_USERS (dans le module winreg):    HKEY_* Constants.   (line   25)
* hline() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  282)
* hls_to_rgb() (dans le module colorsys): colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   43)
* HOME:                                  os path<4>.         (line   15)
* HOME <1>:                              Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  117)
* HOME <2>:                              Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* HOME <3>:                              Windows<40>.        (line   18)
* HOME <4>:                              os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  146)
* HOME <5>:                              os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  164)
* HOME <6>:                              Modules Tkinter.    (line   70)
* home() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  198)
* home() (méthode de la classe pathlib.Path): Expansion et résolution de chemins.
                                                             (line    6)
* HOMEDRIVE:                             os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  153)
* HOMEPATH:                              os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  153)
* hook_compressed() (dans le module fileinput): fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  204)
* hook_encoded() (dans le module fileinput): fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  225)
* host (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.   (line   25)
* hostmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.  (line   96)
* hostmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.  (line  312)
* hostname_checks_common_name (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  617)
* hosts (attribut netrc.netrc):          Objets netrc.       (line   25)
* hosts() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.    (line  135)
* hosts() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.    (line  330)
* hour (attribut datetime.datetime):     Objets datetime.    (line  330)
* hour (attribut datetime.time):         Objets time.        (line   53)
* HRESULT (classe dans ctypes):          Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* hStdError (attribut subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line   45)
* hStdInput (attribut subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line   30)
* hStdOutput (attribut subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line   38)
* hsv_to_rgb() (dans le module colorsys): colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   53)
* HT (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   49)
* ht() (dans le module turtle):          Visibilité.         (line    6)
* HTML:                                  html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTML <1>:                              urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* html5 (dans le module html.entities):  html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   14)
* HTMLCalendar (classe dans calendar):   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  236)
* HtmlDiff (classe dans difflib):        difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   90)
* HTMLParser (classe dans html.parser):  html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line   16)
* htonl() (dans le module socket):       Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  242)
* htons() (dans le module socket):       Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  249)
* HTTP (dans le module email.policy):    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  567)
* http_error_301() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* http_error_302() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* http_error_303() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* http_error_307() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* http_error_308() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* http_error_401() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler): HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_401() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler): HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (méthode urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler): ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (méthode urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler): ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (méthode urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler): AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (méthode urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler): AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_default() (méthode urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* http_open() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPHandler): HTTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP_PORT (dans le module http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  208)
* http_response() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_version (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  307)
* HTTP;http (standard module):           http --- HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;http.client (standard module):    http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol:                         urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP;protocol <1>:                     urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTP;protocol <2>:                     http --- HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <3>:                     http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <4>:                     http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* http.server;security:                  Security considerations<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  363)
* HTTPConnection (classe dans http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   32)
* HTTPCookieProcessor (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  294)
* httpd:                                 http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  285)
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  387)
* HTTPError:                             urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   32)
* HTTPErrorProcessor (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  448)
* HTTPException:                         http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  138)
* HTTPHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): HTTPHandler.   (line   10)
* HTTPHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  411)
* HTTPMessage (classe dans http.client): Les objets HTTPMessage.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPMethod (classe dans http):         HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   38)
* httponly (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.    (line   14)
* HTTPPasswordMgr (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  320)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  324)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  330)
* HTTPRedirectHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  290)
* HTTPResponse (classe dans http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  104)
* https_open() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPSHandler): HTTPSHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPS_PORT (dans le module http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  212)
* https_response() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* HTTPSConnection (classe dans http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   64)
* HTTPServer (classe dans http.server):  http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   31)
* HTTPSHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  415)
* HTTPStatus (classe dans http):         http --- HTTP modules.
                                                             (line   29)
* HV_GUID_BROADCAST (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.  (line  346)
* HV_GUID_CHILDREN (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.   (line  346)
* HV_GUID_LOOPBACK (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.   (line  346)
* HV_GUID_PARENT (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.     (line  346)
* HV_GUID_WILDCARD (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.   (line  346)
* HV_GUID_ZERO (dans le module socket):  Constantes<8>.      (line  346)
* HV_PROTOCOL_RAW (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.    (line  346)
* HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  346)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  346)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  346)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  346)
* hypot() (dans le module math):         Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   35)
* I (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line   39)
* I/O control;buffering:                 Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* I/O control;buffering <1>:             Socket Objects.     (line  216)
* iadd() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   39)
* iand() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   44)
* iconcat() (dans le module operator):   Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   49)
* id (attribut ssl.SSLSession):          SSL session.        (line   12)
* id() (méthode unittest.TestCase):      Scénarios de tests. (line  804)
* idcok() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  289)
* ident (attribut select.kevent):        Kevent Objects.     (line    8)
* ident (attribut threading.Thread):     Objets Threads.     (line  178)
* identchars (attribut cmd.Cmd):         Objets Cmd.         (line  138)
* identifier:                            Identifiants et mots-clés.
                                                             (line    6)
* identifier <1>:                        Identifiants noms.  (line    6)
* identify_column() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  147)
* identify_element() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  176)
* identify_region() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  154)
* identify_row() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  143)
* identify() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.   (line   32)
* identify() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  137)
* identify() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Widget): ttk Widget.       (line   11)
* identity of an object:                 Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* identity;test:                         Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   41)
* IDLE:                                  Glossaire.          (line  755)
* IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   90)
* IDLE*STARTUP:                          Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* IDLESTARTUP:                           IDLE<38>.           (line  176)
* IDLESTARTUP <1>:                       IDLE<42>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <2>:                       IDLE<48>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <3>:                       Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   41)
* idlok() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  297)
* If (classe dans ast):                  Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line    9)
* if_indextoname() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  444)
* if_nameindex() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  401)
* if_nametoindex() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  426)
* if;conditional expression:             Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line    6)
* if;in comprehensions:                  Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   17)
* IfExp (classe dans ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line  165)
* ifloordiv() (dans le module operator): Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   55)
* iglob() (dans le module glob):         glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   81)
* ignorableWhitespace() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  162)
* ignore (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):      bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  120)
* IGNORE (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  151)
* ignore (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  150)
* ignore_environment (attribut sys.flags): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  575)
* ignore_errors() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  148)
* IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   67)
* ignore_patterns() (dans le module shutil): Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  192)
* ignore_warnings() (dans le module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* ignore;error handler's name:           Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* IGNORECASE (dans le module re):        Flags.              (line   39)
* IISCGIHandler (classe dans wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   24)
* IllegalMonthError:                     calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  547)
* IllegalWeekdayError:                   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  556)
* ilshift() (dans le module operator):   Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   60)
* imag (attribut numbers.Complex):       La tour numérique.  (line   19)
* imag (attribut sys.hash_info):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1092)
* imaginary literal:                     Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* imap_unordered() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  154)
* imap() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  138)
* IMAP4 (classe dans imaplib):           imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   25)
* IMAP4_SSL (classe dans imaplib):       imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   75)
* IMAP4_SSL;protocol:                    imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4_stream (classe dans imaplib):    imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  106)
* IMAP4_stream;protocol:                 imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4;protocol:                        imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4.abort:                           imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   59)
* IMAP4.error:                           imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   54)
* IMAP4.readonly:                        imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   66)
* imatmul() (dans le module operator):   Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   75)
* immedok() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  303)
* immortal:                              Glossaire.          (line  761)
* immuable:                              Glossaire.          (line  771)
* immutable object:                      Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* immutable;data;type:                   Littéraux<2>.       (line   18)
* immutable;object:                      Littéraux<2>.       (line   18)
* immutable;object <1>:                  Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   41)
* immutable;sequence;types:              Types de séquences immuables.
                                                             (line    6)
* imod() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   65)
* impl_detail() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  532)
* implementation (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1137)
* Import (classe dans ast):              Importations.       (line    6)
* import_fresh_module() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   16)
* IMPORT_FROM (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  828)
* import_module() (dans le module importlib): Fonctions<12>. (line   15)
* import_module() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   52)
* IMPORT_NAME (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  819)
* importateur:                           Glossaire.          (line  792)
* importation:                           Le système d'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* importation <1>:                       Glossaire.          (line  787)
* ImportError:                           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   46)
* ImportFrom (classe dans ast):          Importations.       (line   20)
* ImportWarning:                         Avertissements.     (line   64)
* ImproperConnectionState:               http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  168)
* imul() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   70)
* In (classe dans ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* in_dll() (méthode ctypes._CData):      Types de données<3>.
                                                             (line   63)
* in_table_a1() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   45)
* in_table_b1() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   50)
* in_table_c11_c12() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   77)
* in_table_c11() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   67)
* in_table_c12() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   72)
* in_table_c21_c22() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   92)
* in_table_c21() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   82)
* in_table_c22() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   87)
* in_table_c3() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   97)
* in_table_c4() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  101)
* in_table_c5() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  106)
* in_table_c6() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  110)
* in_table_c7() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  115)
* in_table_c8() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  120)
* in_table_c9() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  125)
* in_table_d1() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  130)
* in_table_d2() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  135)
* in_transaction (attribut sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  767)
* inch() (méthode curses.window):        Window Objects.     (line  311)
* include() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementInclude): Fonctions<10>.
                                                             (line   17)
* inclusive (attribut tracemalloc.DomainFilter): DomainFilter.
                                                             (line   12)
* inclusive (attribut tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.           (line   40)
* inclusive;or:                          Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   21)
* Incomplete:                            binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  171)
* IncompleteRead:                        http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  164)
* IncompleteReadError:                   Exceptions<13>.     (line   45)
* incr_item():                           Exceptions<21>.     (line   78)
* incr_item() <1>:                       Exceptions<21>.     (line  123)
* increment_lineno() (dans le module ast): Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  160)
* incrementaldecoder (attribut codecs.CodecInfo): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   84)
* IncrementalDecoder (classe dans codecs): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* incrementalencoder (attribut codecs.CodecInfo): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   84)
* IncrementalEncoder (classe dans codecs): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* IncrementalNewlineDecoder (classe dans io): Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  287)
* IncrementalParser (classe dans xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   20)
* indent (attribut doctest.Example):     Exemples d'objets.  (line   47)
* indent (attribut reprlib.Repr):        Repr Objects.       (line   54)
* INDENT (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   86)
* INDENT token:                          Indentation.        (line   37)
* indent() (dans le module textwrap):    textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  107)
* indent() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  125)
* indentation:                           Indentation.        (line    6)
* IndentationError:                      Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  371)
* index (attribut inspect.FrameInfo):    La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   37)
* index (attribut inspect.Traceback):    La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   78)
* index operation:                       Séquences.          (line    6)
* index() (dans le module operator):     operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   98)
* index() (méthode array.array):         array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  202)
* index() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  164)
* index() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  164)
* index() (méthode collections.deque):   Objets deque.       (line   72)
* index() (méthode multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  336)
* index() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  189)
* index() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.      (line   37)
* index() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.      (line  182)
* index() (sequence method):             Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* IndexError:                            Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   75)
* indexOf() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  205)
* IndexSizeErr:                          Exceptions<20>.     (line   35)
* indication de type:                    Glossaire.          (line 1580)
* indices() (méthode slice):             Objets tranches.    (line   17)
* INDIRECT (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.     (line   31)
* inet_aton() (dans le module socket):   Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  259)
* inet_ntoa() (dans le module socket):   Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  279)
* inet_ntop() (dans le module socket):   Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  314)
* inet_pton() (dans le module socket):   Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  296)
* Inexact (classe dans decimal):         Signaux.            (line   42)
* inf (attribut sys.hash_info):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1084)
* inf (dans le module cmath):            Constantes<3>.      (line   20)
* inf (dans le module math):             Constantes<2>.      (line   27)
* infile (attribut shlex.shlex):         shlex Objects.      (line  140)
* Infinity:                              Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  751)
* infj (dans le module cmath):           Constantes<3>.      (line   27)
* INFO (dans le module logging):         Niveaux de journalisation.
                                                             (line   30)
* INFO (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  194)
* info() (dans le module logging):       Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   64)
* info() (méthode dis.Bytecode):         Analyse du code intermédiaire.
                                                             (line   66)
* info() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   65)
* info() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   87)
* info() (méthode logging.Logger):       Enregistreurs.      (line  305)
* info() (méthode urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   35)
* infolist() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):  Objets ZipFile.     (line  128)
* inheritance:                           Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* ini file:                              configparser --- Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* init_color() (dans le module curses):  Fonctions<6>.       (line  220)
* init_pair() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  232)
* init() (dans le module mimetypes):     mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   92)
* inited (dans le module mimetypes):     mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  131)
* initgroups() (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  351)
* initial_indent (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  222)
* initproc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   35)
* initscr() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  245)
* InitVar (classe dans dataclasses):     Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  329)
* inode() (méthode os.DirEntry):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1032)
* input:                                 Entrée d'expression.
                                                             (line    6)
* input_charset (attribut email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   60)
* input_codec (attribut email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   90)
* input() (dans le module fileinput):    fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   60)
* InputSource (classe dans xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   51)
* InputStream (classe dans wsgiref.types): wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   24)
* inquiry (C type):                      Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  199)
* insch() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  317)
* insdelln() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  324)
* insert_text() (dans le module readline): Tampon de ligne.  (line   13)
* insert() (méthode array.array):        array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  213)
* insert() (méthode collections.deque):  Objets deque.       (line   81)
* insert() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.     (line   42)
* insert() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.     (line  187)
* insert() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  142)
* insert() (sequence method):            Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* insertBefore() (méthode xml.dom.Node): Objets nœuds.       (line  125)
* insertln() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  332)
* insnstr() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  337)
* insort_left() (dans le module bisect): bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   63)
* insort_right() (dans le module bisect): bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   80)
* insort() (dans le module bisect):      bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   80)
* inspect (attribut sys.flags):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  554)
* InspectLoader (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  202)
* insstr() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  348)
* install_opener() (dans le module urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  113)
* install_scripts() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.       (line  187)
* install() (dans le module gettext):    API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   72)
* install() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   74)
* installHandler() (dans le module unittest): Traitement des signaux.
                                                             (line   31)
* instance;call:                         Appels.             (line  169)
* instate() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Widget): ttk Widget.        (line   18)
* instr() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  358)
* instream (attribut shlex.shlex):       shlex Objects.      (line  146)
* instruction:                           Glossaire.          (line 1474)
* Instruction (classe dans dis):         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   10)
* INSTRUCTION (monitoring event):        Events.             (line   30)
* Instruction.arg (dans le module dis):  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   34)
* Instruction.argrepr (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   46)
* Instruction.argval (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   42)
* Instruction.baseopcode (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   24)
* Instruction.baseopname (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   29)
* Instruction.cache_info (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   92)
* Instruction.cache_offset (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   61)
* Instruction.end_offset (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   65)
* Instruction.is_jump_target (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   78)
* Instruction.jump_target (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   82)
* Instruction.line_number (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   73)
* Instruction.offset (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   51)
* Instruction.oparg (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   38)
* Instruction.opcode (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   14)
* Instruction.opname (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   20)
* Instruction.positions (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   87)
* Instruction.start_offset (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   55)
* Instruction.starts_line (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line   69)
* int (attribut uuid.UUID):              uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  136)
* int (classe de base):                  Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  990)
* int_info (dans le module sys):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1184)
* int_max_str_digits (attribut sys.flags): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  600)
* Int2AP() (dans le module imaplib):     imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  120)
* integer:                               Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   16)
* integer literal:                       Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* integer;literals:                      Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* integer;representation:                numbers Integral.   (line    9)
* Integral (classe dans numbers):        La tour numérique.  (line   60)
* Integrated Development Environment:    IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* IntegrityError:                        Exceptions<7>.      (line   65)
* IntEnum (classe dans enum):            Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  356)
* interact (pdb command):                Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  368)
* interact() (dans le module code):      code --- Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   37)
* interact() (méthode code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* interactif:                            Glossaire.          (line  797)
* interactive (attribut sys.flags):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  557)
* Interactive (classe dans ast):         Root nodes.         (line   37)
* interactive mode:                      Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line   19)
* InteractiveConsole (classe dans code): code --- Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   25)
* InteractiveInterpreter (classe dans code): code --- Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* InterfaceError:                        Exceptions<7>.      (line   37)
* intern() (dans le module sys):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1231)
* internal type:                         Types internes.     (line    6)
* internal_attr (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo): Objets ZipInfo.  (line  130)
* Internaldate2tuple() (dans le module imaplib): imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  114)
* InternalError:                         Exceptions<7>.      (line   71)
* internalSubset (attribut xml.dom.DocumentType): Objets DocumnentType.
                                                             (line   27)
* Internet:                              Gestion des protocoles internet.
                                                             (line    6)
* INTERNET_TIMEOUT (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   65)
* interpolated string literal:           Formatage de données.
                                                             (line   96)
* interpolated string literal <1>:       Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* interpolated string literal <2>:       Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* interpolation, string (%):             Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation;bytearray (%):           Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation;bytes (%):               Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* InterpolationDepthError:               Exceptions<8>.      (line   42)
* InterpolationError:                    Exceptions<8>.      (line   37)
* InterpolationMissingOptionError:       Exceptions<8>.      (line   49)
* InterpolationSyntaxError:              Exceptions<8>.      (line   54)
* interprété:                            Glossaire.          (line  807)
* interpreter:                           Composants de plus haut niveau.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter lock:                      Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter prompts:                   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1536)
* interpreter_requires_environment() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line    9)
* interrupt_main() (dans le module _thread): _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   58)
* interrupt() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  340)
* InterruptedError:                      Exceptions système. (line   74)
* intersection_update() (méthode frozenset): Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  186)
* intersection() (méthode frozenset):    Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  108)
* IntFlag (classe dans enum):            Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  526)
* intro (attribut cmd.Cmd):              Objets Cmd.         (line  154)
* InuseAttributeErr:                     Exceptions<20>.     (line   40)
* inv_cdf() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line   96)
* inv() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  107)
* InvalidAccessErr:                      Exceptions<20>.     (line   45)
* invalidate_caches() (dans le module importlib): Fonctions<12>.
                                                             (line   41)
* invalidate_caches() (méthode de la classe importlib.machinery.PathFinder): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  140)
* invalidate_caches() (méthode importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   49)
* invalidate_caches() (méthode importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   84)
* invalidate_caches() (méthode importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  191)
* invalidate_caches() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   89)
* InvalidBase64CharactersDefect:         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  129)
* InvalidBase64LengthDefect:             email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  135)
* InvalidBase64PaddingDefect:            email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  123)
* InvalidCharacterErr:                   Exceptions<20>.     (line   50)
* InvalidDateDefect:                     email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  141)
* InvalidFileException:                  plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  170)
* InvalidModificationErr:                Exceptions<20>.     (line   57)
* InvalidOperation (classe dans decimal): Signaux.           (line   50)
* InvalidStateErr:                       Exceptions<20>.     (line   61)
* InvalidStateError:                     Exception classes.  (line   26)
* InvalidStateError <1>:                 Exceptions<13>.     (line   30)
* InvalidTZPathWarning:                  Exceptions et avertissements.
                                                             (line   12)
* InvalidURL:                            http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  147)
* inversion:                             Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   19)
* Invert (classe dans ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line   29)
* invert() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  107)
* invocation:                            Types appelables.   (line    6)
* IO (classe dans typing):               ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  482)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  482)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK (dans le module stat): stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  482)
* IOBase (classe dans io):               I/O Base Classes.   (line    6)
* IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  276)
* ioctl() (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  103)
* ioctl() (méthode socket.socket):       Socket Objects.     (line  182)
* IOError:                               Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  520)
* ior() (dans le module operator):       Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   82)
* ios_ver() (dans le module platform):   iOS Platform.       (line    6)
* ip (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Objets interface.   (line   19)
* ip (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Objets interface.   (line   74)
* ip_address() (dans le module ipaddress): Fonctions fabriques pratiques.
                                                             (line    9)
* ip_interface() (dans le module ipaddress): Fonctions fabriques pratiques.
                                                             (line   37)
* ip_network() (dans le module ipaddress): Fonctions fabriques pratiques.
                                                             (line   23)
* ipow() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   87)
* ipv4_mapped (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  296)
* IPv4Address (classe dans ipaddress):   Objets adresse.     (line   14)
* IPv4Interface (classe dans ipaddress): Objets interface.   (line    9)
* IPv4Network (classe dans ipaddress):   Objets réseau.      (line   13)
* IPV6_ENABLED (dans le module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* ipv6_mapped (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  181)
* IPv6Address (classe dans ipaddress):   Objets adresse.     (line  214)
* IPv6Interface (classe dans ipaddress): Objets interface.   (line   64)
* IPv6Network (classe dans ipaddress):   Objets réseau.      (line  253)
* irrefutable case block:                Bloc case attrape-tout.
                                                             (line    6)
* irshift() (dans le module operator):   Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   92)
* Is (classe dans ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* is_() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   66)
* is_absolute() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  187)
* is_active() (méthode asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   78)
* is_active() (méthode graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  111)
* is_alive() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line   95)
* is_alive() (méthode threading.Thread): Objets Threads.     (line  205)
* is_android (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   40)
* is_annotated() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  230)
* is_assigned() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  241)
* is_async (attribut pyclbr.Function):   Objets fonctions.   (line   41)
* is_attachment() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  465)
* is_authenticated() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* is_block_device() (méthode pathlib.Path): Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line  134)
* is_blocked() (méthode http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* is_canonical() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  326)
* is_canonical() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  291)
* is_char_device() (méthode pathlib.Path): Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line  144)
* IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (dans le module difflib): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  380)
* is_check_supported() (dans le module lzma): Divers<2>.     (line    6)
* is_closed() (méthode asyncio.loop):    Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   42)
* is_closing() (méthode asyncio.BaseTransport): Classe de base des Transports.
                                                             (line   18)
* is_closing() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line  112)
* is_dataclass() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  473)
* is_declared_global() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  221)
* is_dir() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  532)
* is_dir() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  104)
* is_dir() (méthode os.DirEntry):        Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1043)
* is_dir() (méthode pathlib.Path):       Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   70)
* is_dir() (méthode zipfile.Path):       Objets Path.        (line   60)
* is_dir() (méthode zipfile.ZipInfo):    Objets ZipInfo.     (line   44)
* is_enabled() (dans le module faulthandler): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   31)
* is_expired() (méthode http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* is_fifo() (méthode pathlib.Path):      Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line  124)
* is_file() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  536)
* is_file() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  108)
* is_file() (méthode os.DirEntry):       Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1073)
* is_file() (méthode pathlib.Path):      Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   56)
* is_file() (méthode zipfile.Path):      Objets Path.        (line   64)
* is_finalized() (dans le module gc):    gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  194)
* is_finalizing() (dans le module sys):  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1259)
* is_finite() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  330)
* is_finite() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  298)
* is_free() (méthode symtable.Symbol):   Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  236)
* is_global (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  138)
* is_global (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  276)
* is_global() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  213)
* is_hop_by_hop() (dans le module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line  115)
* is_imported() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  204)
* is_infinite() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  334)
* is_infinite() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  303)
* is_integer() (méthode float):          Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante.
                                                             (line   16)
* is_integer() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  131)
* is_integer() (méthode int):            Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers.
                                                             (line  174)
* is_junction() (méthode os.DirEntry):   Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1108)
* is_junction() (méthode pathlib.Path):  Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   92)
* is_jython (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   36)
* IS_LINE_JUNK() (dans le module difflib): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  373)
* is_linetouched() (méthode curses.window): Window Objects.  (line  368)
* is_link_local (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  176)
* is_link_local (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   79)
* is_link_local (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  286)
* is_link_local (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  306)
* is_local() (méthode symtable.Symbol):  Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  226)
* is_loopback (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  170)
* is_loopback (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   77)
* is_loopback (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  284)
* is_loopback (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  304)
* is_mount() (méthode pathlib.Path):     Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   99)
* is_multicast (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line   95)
* is_multicast (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   69)
* is_multicast (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  272)
* is_multicast (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  296)
* is_multipart() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  141)
* is_multipart() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  160)
* is_namespace() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  245)
* is_nan() (méthode decimal.Context):    Objets de contexte. (line  338)
* is_nan() (méthode decimal.Decimal):    Les objets Decimal. (line  308)
* is_nested() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   94)
* is_nonlocal() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  217)
* is_normal() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  343)
* is_normal() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  313)
* is_normalized() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  128)
* is_not_allowed() (méthode http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_not() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   71)
* IS_OP (opcode):                        Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  807)
* is_optimized() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   90)
* is_package() (méthode importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  234)
* is_package() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  425)
* is_package() (méthode importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  329)
* is_package() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  221)
* is_package() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  265)
* is_package() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_parameter() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  209)
* is_private (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  100)
* is_private (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   71)
* is_private (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  274)
* is_private (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  298)
* is_protocol() (dans le module typing): Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line  115)
* is_python_build() (dans le module sysconfig): Autres fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line   52)
* is_qnan() (méthode decimal.Context):   Objets de contexte. (line  347)
* is_qnan() (méthode decimal.Decimal):   Les objets Decimal. (line  320)
* is_reading() (méthode asyncio.ReadTransport): Transports en lecture seule.
                                                             (line    6)
* is_referenced() (méthode symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  200)
* is_relative_to() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  206)
* is_reserved (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  166)
* is_reserved (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   75)
* is_reserved (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  282)
* is_reserved (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  302)
* is_reserved() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  230)
* is_resource_enabled() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  245)
* is_resource() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line  136)
* is_resource() (méthode importlib.abc.ResourceReader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  486)
* is_resource() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   63)
* is_running() (méthode asyncio.loop):   Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   38)
* is_safe (attribut uuid.UUID):          uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  157)
* is_serving() (méthode asyncio.Server): Objets Serveur.     (line  118)
* is_set() (méthode asyncio.Event):      Événement Event.    (line   68)
* is_set() (méthode threading.Event):    Event Objects.      (line   25)
* is_signed() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  351)
* is_signed() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  325)
* is_site_local (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  288)
* is_site_local (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  356)
* is_skipped_line() (méthode bdb.Bdb):   bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  246)
* is_snan() (méthode decimal.Context):   Objets de contexte. (line  355)
* is_snan() (méthode decimal.Decimal):   Les objets Decimal. (line  331)
* is_socket() (méthode pathlib.Path):    Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line  114)
* is_stack_trampoline_active() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1847)
* is_subnormal() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  360)
* is_subnormal() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  336)
* is_symlink() (méthode os.DirEntry):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1089)
* is_symlink() (méthode pathlib.Path):   Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   84)
* is_symlink() (méthode zipfile.Path):   Objets Path.        (line   68)
* is_tarfile() (dans le module tarfile): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  205)
* is_term_resized() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.   (line  253)
* is_tracing() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.  (line   61)
* is_tracked() (dans le module gc):      gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  168)
* is_typeddict() (dans le module typing): Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line  130)
* is_unspecified (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  161)
* is_unspecified (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   73)
* is_unspecified (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  280)
* is_unspecified (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  300)
* is_valid() (méthode string.Template):  Chaînes modèles.    (line   70)
* is_wintouched() (méthode curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  375)
* is_zero() (méthode decimal.Context):   Objets de contexte. (line  365)
* is_zero() (méthode decimal.Decimal):   Les objets Decimal. (line  341)
* is_zipfile() (dans le module zipfile): zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   79)
* isabs() (dans le module os.path):      os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  216)
* isabstract() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.   (line  537)
* IsADirectoryError:                     Exceptions système. (line   84)
* isalnum() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  134)
* isalnum() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  530)
* isalnum() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  530)
* isalnum() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* isalpha() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  139)
* isalpha() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  547)
* isalpha() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  547)
* isalpha() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  202)
* isascii() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  144)
* isascii() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  562)
* isascii() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  562)
* isascii() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  212)
* isasyncgen() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.   (line  497)
* isasyncgenfunction() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  476)
* isatty() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  269)
* isatty() (méthode io.IOBase):          I/O Base Classes.   (line   73)
* isawaitable() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.  (line  455)
* isblank() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  148)
* isblk() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  212)
* isbuiltin() (dans le module inspect):  Types et membres.   (line  517)
* ischr() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  207)
* isclass() (dans le module inspect):    Types et membres.   (line  382)
* isclose() (dans le module cmath):      Fonctions de classifications.
                                                             (line   23)
* isclose() (dans le module math):       Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* iscntrl() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  152)
* iscode() (dans le module inspect):     Types et membres.   (line  513)
* iscoroutine() (dans le module asyncio): Introspection.     (line   26)
* iscoroutine() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.  (line  448)
* iscoroutinefunction() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  412)
* isctrl() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  193)
* isDaemon() (méthode threading.Thread): Objets Threads.     (line  228)
* isdatadescriptor() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  564)
* isdecimal() (méthode str):             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  220)
* isdev() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  220)
* isdevdrive() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  282)
* isdigit() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  157)
* isdigit() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  571)
* isdigit() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  571)
* isdigit() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  229)
* isdir() (dans le module os.path):      os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  237)
* isdir() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  195)
* isdisjoint() (méthode frozenset):      Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   73)
* isdown() (dans le module turtle):      État des stylos.    (line   91)
* iselement() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  138)
* isenabled() (dans le module gc):       gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   31)
* isEnabledFor() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.    (line  154)
* isendwin() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  258)
* ISEOF() (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   39)
* isfifo() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):    Les objets TarInfo. (line  216)
* isfile() (dans le module os.path):     os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  228)
* isfile() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):    Les objets TarInfo. (line  186)
* isfinite() (dans le module cmath):     Fonctions de classifications.
                                                             (line    6)
* isfinite() (dans le module math):      Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* isfirstline() (dans le module fileinput): fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  115)
* isframe() (dans le module inspect):    Types et membres.   (line  509)
* isfunction() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.   (line  391)
* isfuture() (dans le module asyncio):   Fonctions pour Future.
                                                             (line    6)
* isgenerator() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.  (line  408)
* isgeneratorfunction() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  396)
* isgetsetdescriptor() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  577)
* isgraph() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  162)
* isidentifier() (méthode str):          Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  241)
* isinf() (dans le module cmath):        Fonctions de classifications.
                                                             (line   13)
* isinf() (dans le module math):         Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   68)
* isjunction() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  246)
* iskeyword() (dans le module keyword):  keyword --- Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   13)
* isleap() (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  389)
* islice() (dans le module itertools):   Itertool Functions. (line  370)
* islink() (dans le module os.path):     os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  254)
* islnk() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  203)
* islower() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  166)
* islower() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  585)
* islower() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  585)
* islower() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  260)
* ismemberdescriptor() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  586)
* ismeta() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  197)
* ismethod() (dans le module inspect):   Types et membres.   (line  387)
* ismethoddescriptor() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  541)
* ismethodwrapper() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  522)
* ismodule() (dans le module inspect):   Types et membres.   (line  378)
* ismount() (dans le module os.path):    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  263)
* isnan() (dans le module cmath):        Fonctions de classifications.
                                                             (line   18)
* isnan() (dans le module math):         Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   73)
* ISNONTERMINAL() (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   35)
* IsNot (classe dans ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* isnumeric() (méthode str):             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  266)
* isocalendar() (méthode datetime.date): Objets date.        (line  245)
* isocalendar() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  668)
* isoformat() (méthode datetime.date):   Objets date.        (line  273)
* isoformat() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.  (line  673)
* isoformat() (méthode datetime.time):   Objets time.        (line  170)
* isolated (attribut sys.flags):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  560)
* IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (classe dans unittest): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  909)
* isolation_level (attribut sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  777)
* isoweekday() (méthode datetime.date):  Objets date.        (line  238)
* isoweekday() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime. (line  662)
* isprint() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  170)
* isprintable() (méthode str):           Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  277)
* ispunct() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  174)
* isqrt() (dans le module math):         Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* isreadable() (dans le module pprint):  Fonctions<4>.       (line   90)
* isreadable() (méthode pprint.PrettyPrinter): Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line   68)
* isrecursive() (dans le module pprint): Fonctions<4>.       (line  100)
* isrecursive() (méthode pprint.PrettyPrinter): Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line   77)
* isreg() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  191)
* isreserved() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  301)
* isReservedKey() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.
                                                             (line   64)
* isroutine() (dans le module inspect):  Types et membres.   (line  532)
* isSameNode() (méthode xml.dom.Node):   Objets nœuds.       (line  105)
* issoftkeyword() (dans le module keyword): keyword --- Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   24)
* isspace() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  179)
* isspace() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  602)
* isspace() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  602)
* isspace() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  294)
* isstdin() (dans le module fileinput):  fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  120)
* issubset() (méthode frozenset):        Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   79)
* issuperset() (méthode frozenset):      Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   90)
* issym() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  199)
* ISTERMINAL() (dans le module token):   token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   31)
* istitle() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  610)
* istitle() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  610)
* istitle() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  306)
* istraceback() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.  (line  505)
* isub() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line   97)
* isupper() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  184)
* isupper() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  624)
* isupper() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  624)
* isupper() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  314)
* isvisible() (dans le module turtle):   Visibilité.         (line   22)
* isxdigit() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  188)
* ITALIC (dans le module tkinter.font):  tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* item selection:                        Séquences.          (line    6)
* item() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.       (line  206)
* item() (méthode xml.dom.NamedNodeMap): Objets NameNodeMap. (line   12)
* item() (méthode xml.dom.NodeList):     Objet NodeList.     (line   16)
* itemgetter() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  276)
* items() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  272)
* items() (méthode contextvars.Context): Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line  145)
* items() (méthode dict):                Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  172)
* items() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  253)
* items() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  379)
* items() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):     Mailbox objects.    (line  147)
* items() (méthode types.MappingProxyType): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  268)
* items() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   77)
* itemsize (attribut array.array):       array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  117)
* itemsize (attribut memoryview):        Vues mémoire.       (line  448)
* ItemsView (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  103)
* ItemsView (classe dans typing):        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   41)
* iter_attachments() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  583)
* iter_child_nodes() (dans le module ast): Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  178)
* iter_fields() (dans le module ast):    Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  173)
* iter_importers() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  113)
* iter_modules() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  132)
* iter_parts() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  602)
* iter_unpack() (dans le module struct): Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line   44)
* iter_unpack() (méthode struct.Struct): Classes<3>.         (line   47)
* iter() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  148)
* iter() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   42)
* itérable:                              Glossaire.          (line  835)
* Iterable (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* Iterable (classe dans typing):         Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* itérable asynchrone:                   Glossaire.          (line  130)
* iterable;unpacking:                    Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line   18)
* itérateur:                             Glossaire.          (line  857)
* itérateur asynchrone:                  Glossaire.          (line  136)
* itérateur de générateur:               Glossaire.          (line  657)
* itérateur de générateur asynchrone:    Glossaire.          (line  114)
* Iterator (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   43)
* Iterator (classe dans typing):         Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* iterator protocol:                     Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterdecode() (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  246)
* iterdir() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  528)
* iterdir() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  100)
* iterdir() (méthode pathlib.Path):      Lecture des dossiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterdir() (méthode zipfile.Path):      Objets Path.        (line   56)
* iterdump() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  502)
* iterencode() (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  233)
* iterencode() (méthode json.JSONEncoder): Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line  235)
* iterfind() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  160)
* iterfind() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   50)
* iteritems() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.    (line  138)
* iterkeys() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):  Mailbox objects.    (line  111)
* itermonthdates() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* itermonthdays() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   78)
* itermonthdays2() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   87)
* itermonthdays3() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   95)
* itermonthdays4() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* iternextfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   92)
* iterparse() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  144)
* itertext() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  170)
* itervalues() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.   (line  120)
* iterweekdays() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   64)
* ITIMER_PROF (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  223)
* ITIMER_REAL (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  213)
* ITIMER_VIRTUAL (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* ItimerError:                           Module contents<2>. (line  256)
* itruediv() (dans le module operator):  Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line  102)
* ixor() (dans le module operator):      Opérateurs en-place.
                                                             (line  107)
* j;in numeric literal:                  Floating-point literals.
                                                             (line   28)
* JANUARY (dans le module calendar):     calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* java_ver() (dans le module platform):  Plateforme Java.    (line    6)
* Java;language:                         numbers Real float. (line    6)
* join_thread() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* join_thread() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  195)
* join() (dans le module os.path):       os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  323)
* join() (dans le module shlex):         shlex --- Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   29)
* join() (méthode asyncio.Queue):        File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   55)
* join() (méthode bytearray):            Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  176)
* join() (méthode bytes):                Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  176)
* join() (méthode multiprocessing.JoinableQueue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  284)
* join() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  195)
* join() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line   66)
* join() (méthode queue.Queue):          Objets Queue.       (line   99)
* join() (méthode str):                  Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  329)
* join() (méthode threading.Thread):     Objets Threads.     (line  134)
* JoinableQueue (classe dans multiprocessing): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  261)
* JoinedStr (classe dans ast):           Littéraux<3>.       (line   43)
* joinpath() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  540)
* joinpath() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  112)
* joinpath() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  244)
* joinpath() (méthode zipfile.Path):     Objets Path.        (line  119)
* js_output() (méthode http.cookies.BaseCookie): Objets Cookie.
                                                             (line   33)
* js_output() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.  (line   76)
* JSONDecodeError:                       Exceptions<17>.     (line    6)
* JSONDecoder (classe dans json):        Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* JSONEncoder (classe dans json):        Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line  109)
* JULY (dans le module calendar):        calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* JUMP (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   34)
* JUMP (opcode):                         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1434)
* jump (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  244)
* JUMP_BACKWARD (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  838)
* JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  844)
* JUMP_FORWARD (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  834)
* JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):            Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1436)
* JUNE (dans le module calendar):        calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* kbhit() (dans le module msvcrt):       Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line    6)
* kde_random() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  193)
* kde() (dans le module statistics):     Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  145)
* KEEP (attribut enum.FlagBoundary):     Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  703)
* kevent() (dans le module select):      select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  109)
* key:                                   Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* key (attribut http.cookies.Morsel):    Objets Morsel.      (line   56)
* key (attribut zoneinfo.ZoneInfo):      La classe ZoneInfo. (line   78)
* KEY_A1 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  236)
* KEY_A3 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  239)
* KEY_ALL_ACCESS (dans le module winreg): Access Rights.     (line    8)
* KEY_B2 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  242)
* KEY_BACKSPACE (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.      (line  166)
* KEY_BEG (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  254)
* KEY_BREAK (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  148)
* KEY_BTAB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  251)
* KEY_C1 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  245)
* KEY_C3 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  248)
* KEY_CANCEL (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  257)
* KEY_CATAB (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  218)
* KEY_CLEAR (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  191)
* KEY_CLOSE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  260)
* KEY_COMMAND (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  263)
* KEY_COPY (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  266)
* KEY_CREATE (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  269)
* KEY_CREATE_LINK (dans le module winreg): Access Rights.    (line   51)
* KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (dans le module winreg): Access Rights. (line   38)
* KEY_CTAB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  215)
* KEY_DC (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  182)
* KEY_DL (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  176)
* KEY_DOWN (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  151)
* KEY_EIC (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  188)
* KEY_END (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  272)
* KEY_ENTER (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  221)
* KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (dans le module winreg): Access Rights.
                                                             (line   42)
* KEY_EOL (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  197)
* KEY_EOS (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  194)
* KEY_EXECUTE (dans le module winreg):   Access Rights.      (line   26)
* KEY_EXIT (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  275)
* KEY_F0 (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  169)
* KEY_FIND (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  278)
* KEY_Fn (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  173)
* KEY_HELP (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  281)
* KEY_HOME (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  163)
* KEY_IC (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  185)
* KEY_IL (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  179)
* KEY_LEFT (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  157)
* KEY_LL (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  233)
* KEY_MARK (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  284)
* KEY_MAX (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  425)
* KEY_MESSAGE (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  287)
* KEY_MIN (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  145)
* KEY_MOUSE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  419)
* KEY_MOVE (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  290)
* KEY_NEXT (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  293)
* KEY_NOTIFY (dans le module winreg):    Access Rights.      (line   46)
* KEY_NPAGE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  206)
* KEY_OPEN (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  296)
* KEY_OPTIONS (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  299)
* KEY_PPAGE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  209)
* KEY_PREVIOUS (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  302)
* KEY_PRINT (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  230)
* KEY_QUERY_VALUE (dans le module winreg): Access Rights.    (line   30)
* KEY_READ (dans le module winreg):      Access Rights.      (line   20)
* KEY_REDO (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  305)
* KEY_REFERENCE (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.      (line  308)
* KEY_REFRESH (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  311)
* KEY_REPLACE (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  314)
* KEY_RESET (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  227)
* KEY_RESIZE (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  422)
* KEY_RESTART (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  317)
* KEY_RESUME (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  320)
* KEY_RIGHT (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  160)
* KEY_SAVE (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  323)
* KEY_SBEG (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  326)
* KEY_SCANCEL (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  329)
* KEY_SCOMMAND (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  332)
* KEY_SCOPY (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  335)
* KEY_SCREATE (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  338)
* KEY_SDC (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  341)
* KEY_SDL (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  344)
* KEY_SELECT (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  347)
* KEY_SEND (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  350)
* KEY_SEOL (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  353)
* KEY_SET_VALUE (dans le module winreg): Access Rights.      (line   34)
* KEY_SEXIT (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  356)
* KEY_SF (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  200)
* KEY_SFIND (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  359)
* KEY_SHELP (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  362)
* KEY_SHOME (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  365)
* KEY_SIC (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line  368)
* KEY_SLEFT (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  371)
* KEY_SMESSAGE (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  374)
* KEY_SMOVE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  377)
* KEY_SNEXT (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  380)
* KEY_SOPTIONS (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  383)
* KEY_SPREVIOUS (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.      (line  386)
* KEY_SPRINT (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  389)
* KEY_SR (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  203)
* KEY_SREDO (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  392)
* KEY_SREPLACE (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  395)
* KEY_SRESET (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  224)
* KEY_SRIGHT (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  398)
* KEY_SRSUME (dans le module curses):    Constantes<6>.      (line  401)
* KEY_SSAVE (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  404)
* KEY_SSUSPEND (dans le module curses):  Constantes<6>.      (line  407)
* KEY_STAB (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  212)
* KEY_SUNDO (dans le module curses):     Constantes<6>.      (line  410)
* KEY_SUSPEND (dans le module curses):   Constantes<6>.      (line  413)
* KEY_UNDO (dans le module curses):      Constantes<6>.      (line  416)
* KEY_UP (dans le module curses):        Constantes<6>.      (line  154)
* KEY_WOW64_32KEY (dans le module winreg): 64-bit Specific.  (line   14)
* KEY_WOW64_64KEY (dans le module winreg): 64-bit Specific.  (line    8)
* KEY_WRITE (dans le module winreg):     Access Rights.      (line   15)
* key/value pair:                        Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* KeyboardInterrupt:                     Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   87)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception): Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <1>: Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <2>: Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* KeyError:                              Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   82)
* keylog_filename (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  531)
* keyname() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  263)
* keypad() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  380)
* keyrefs() (méthode weakref.WeakKeyDictionary): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  210)
* keys() (méthode contextvars.Context):  Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line  135)
* keys() (méthode dict):                 Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  178)
* keys() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  244)
* keys() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  370)
* keys() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):      Mailbox objects.    (line  115)
* keys() (méthode sqlite3.Row):          Row objects.        (line   19)
* keys() (méthode types.MappingProxyType): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  273)
* keys() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   83)
* KeysView (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  103)
* KeysView (classe dans typing):         Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   50)
* keyword:                               Mots-clés.          (line    6)
* keyword <1>:                           Mots-clés ad hoc.   (line    6)
* keyword (classe dans ast):             Expressions<2>.     (line  159)
* keyword;as:                            L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;as <1>:                        L'instruction try.  (line    6)
* keyword;as <2>:                        L'instruction with. (line    6)
* keyword;as <3>:                        L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;async:                         Définition de fonctions coroutines.
                                                             (line    9)
* keyword;await:                         Appels.             (line  171)
* keyword;await <1>:                     Définition de fonctions coroutines.
                                                             (line    9)
* keyword;case:                          L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;elif:                          L'instruction if<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;else:                          L'instruction break.
                                                             (line   12)
* keyword;else <1>:                      L'instruction if<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;else <2>:                      L'instruction while.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;else <3>:                      L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;else <4>:                      L'instruction try.  (line    6)
* keyword;else <5>:                      clause except*.     (line   59)
* keyword;except:                        L'instruction try.  (line    6)
* keyword;except_star:                   clause except.      (line   84)
* keyword;finally:                       L'instruction return.
                                                             (line   18)
* keyword;finally <1>:                   L'instruction break.
                                                             (line   18)
* keyword;finally <2>:                   L'instruction continue.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;finally <3>:                   L'instruction try.  (line    6)
* keyword;finally <4>:                   clause else.        (line   11)
* keyword;from:                          Expressions yield.  (line    6)
* keyword;from <1>:                      L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;if:                            L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;in:                            L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;yield:                         Expressions yield.  (line    6)
* keywords (attribut functools.partial): Objets partial.     (line   20)
* kill_python() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   77)
* kill() (dans le module os):            Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  346)
* kill() (méthode asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  112)
* kill() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line   36)
* kill() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  193)
* kill() (méthode subprocess.Popen):     Objets Popen.       (line  100)
* killchar() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  273)
* killpg() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  368)
* kind (attribut inspect.Parameter):     Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  232)
* knownfiles (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  136)
* kqueue() (dans le module select):      select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   98)
* KqueueSelector (classe dans selectors): Classes<4>.        (line  195)
* KW_ONLY (dans le module dataclasses):  Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  490)
* kwargs (attribut inspect.BoundArguments): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  363)
* kwargs (attribut typing.ParamSpec):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  410)
* kwlist (dans le module keyword):       keyword --- Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   17)
* L (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line   59)
* lambda:                                Glossaire.          (line  915)
* Lambda (classe dans ast):              Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line   36)
* lambda;expression:                     Expressions lambda. (line    6)
* lambda;expression <1>:                 Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  137)
* lambda;form:                           Expressions lambda. (line    6)
* LambdaType (dans le module types):     Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   25)
* LANG:                                  API GNU gettext.    (line   23)
* LANG <1>:                              API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* LANG <2>:                              locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   53)
* LANG <3>:                              locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  369)
* LANG <4>:                              locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  374)
* LANGUAGE:                              API GNU gettext.    (line   22)
* LANGUAGE <1>:                          API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* large files:                           Prise en charge de gros fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* LARGEST (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  185)
* LargeZipFile:                          zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   38)
* last_accepted (attribut multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line  109)
* last_exc (dans le module sys):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1268)
* last_traceback (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1291)
* last_traceback (in module sys):        Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* last_type (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1291)
* last_value (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1291)
* lastChild (attribut xml.dom.Node):     Objets nœuds.       (line   59)
* lastcmd (attribut cmd.Cmd):            Objets Cmd.         (line  142)
* lastgroup (attribut re.Match):         Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  204)
* lastindex (attribut re.Match):         Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  196)
* lastResort (dans le module logging):   Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* lastrowid (attribut sqlite3.Cursor):   Cursor objects.     (line  199)
* layout() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style):  Style Ttk.          (line  100)
* lazycache() (dans le module linecache): linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   52)
* LazyLoader (classe dans importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  195)
* LBRACE (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  232)
* LBYL:                                  Glossaire.          (line  922)
* LC_ALL:                                API GNU gettext.    (line   23)
* LC_ALL <1>:                            API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* LC_ALL (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  592)
* LC_COLLATE (dans le module locale):    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  554)
* LC_CTYPE (dans le module locale):      locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  540)
* LC_MESSAGES:                           API GNU gettext.    (line   23)
* LC_MESSAGES <1>:                       API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* LC_MESSAGES (dans le module locale):   locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  572)
* LC_MONETARY (dans le module locale):   locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  566)
* LC_NUMERIC (dans le module locale):    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  584)
* LC_TIME (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  560)
* lchflags() (dans le module os):        Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  325)
* lchmod() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  340)
* lchmod() (méthode pathlib.Path):       Permissions et propriété.
                                                             (line   56)
* lchown() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  362)
* lcm() (dans le module math):           Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* LDCXXSHARED:                           Build and C API Changes<8>.
                                                             (line  153)
* ldexp() (dans le module math):         Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   78)
* LDFLAGS:                               New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* LDFLAGS <1>:                           Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <2>:                           Linker flags.       (line   15)
* LDFLAGS <3>:                           Linker flags.       (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <4>:                           Linker flags.       (line   28)
* LDFLAGS <5>:                           Linker flags.       (line   31)
* LDFLAGS <6>:                           Linker flags.       (line   35)
* LDFLAGS <7>:                           Linker flags.       (line   50)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST:                        Linker flags.       (line   26)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                    Linker flags.       (line   40)
* le chercheur dans *path*:              Le chercheur dans path.
                                                             (line    6)
* Le zen de Python:                      Glossaire.          (line 1645)
* le() (dans le module operator):        operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* leading whitespace:                    Indentation.        (line    6)
* leapdays() (dans le module calendar):  calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  394)
* leaveok() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  387)
* left (attribut filecmp.dircmp):        La classe dircmp.   (line   45)
* left_list (attribut filecmp.dircmp):   La classe dircmp.   (line   53)
* left_only (attribut filecmp.dircmp):   La classe dircmp.   (line   67)
* left() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   58)
* LEFTSHIFT (dans le module token):      token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  256)
* LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  289)
* LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line    6)
* lenfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   96)
* length (attribut xml.dom.NamedNodeMap): Objets NameNodeMap.
                                                             (line    8)
* length (attribut xml.dom.NodeList):    Objet NodeList.     (line   22)
* length_hint() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  214)
* Les paquets:                           Les paquets<2>.     (line    6)
* Les paquets;classique:                 Paquets classiques. (line    6)
* Les paquets;espace de nommage:         Paquets espaces de nommage.
                                                             (line    6)
* Les paquets;portion:                   Paquets espaces de nommage.
                                                             (line    6)
* LESS (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  217)
* LESSEQUAL (dans le module token):      token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  244)
* level (attribut logging.Logger):       Enregistreurs.      (line   33)
* lexical analysis:                      Analyse lexicale.   (line    6)
* lexical analyzer:                      Glossaire.          (line  939)
* lexical definitions:                   Notations.          (line   35)
* LexicalHandler (classe dans xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   48)
* lexists() (dans le module os.path):    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  132)
* LF (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   52)
* lgamma() (dans le module math):        Fonctions spéciales.
                                                             (line   35)
* libc_ver() (dans le module platform):  Plateformes Unix.   (line    6)
* LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   98)
* library (attribut ssl.SSLError):       Exceptions<16>.     (line   19)
* library (dans le module dbm.ndbm):     dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   34)
* LibraryLoader (classe dans ctypes):    Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line  173)
* license (variable de base):            Constantes ajoutées par le module site.
                                                             (line   32)
* LifoQueue (classe dans asyncio):       Pile LIFO.          (line    6)
* LifoQueue (classe dans queue):         queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   43)
* light-weight processes:                _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* limit_denominator() (méthode fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  159)
* LimitOverrunError:                     Exceptions<13>.     (line   63)
* line (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   86)
* line (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* LINE (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   38)
* line continuation:                     Continuation de ligne explicite.
                                                             (line    6)
* line joining:                          Lignes logiques.    (line    6)
* line joining <1>:                      Continuation de ligne explicite.
                                                             (line    6)
* line structure:                        Structure des lignes.
                                                             (line    6)
* line_buffering (attribut io.TextIOWrapper): Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* line_num (attribut csv.csvreader):     Objets lecteurs.    (line   25)
* line-buffered I/O:                     Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* linear_regression() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  659)
* lineno (attribut ast.AST):             Classes de nœuds.   (line   52)
* lineno (attribut doctest.DocTest):     Objets doctest.     (line   42)
* lineno (attribut doctest.Example):     Exemples d'objets.  (line   41)
* lineno (attribut inspect.FrameInfo):   La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   22)
* lineno (attribut inspect.Traceback):   La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   63)
* lineno (attribut json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<17>.    (line   23)
* lineno (attribut netrc.NetrcParseError): netrc --- netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   62)
* lineno (attribut pyclbr.Class):        Objets classes<2>.  (line   24)
* lineno (attribut pyclbr.Function):     Objets fonctions.   (line   23)
* lineno (attribut re.PatternError):     Exceptions<3>.      (line   28)
* lineno (attribut shlex.shlex):         shlex Objects.      (line  169)
* lineno (attribut SyntaxError):         Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  333)
* lineno (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* lineno (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* lineno (attribut tracemalloc.Filter):  Filter.             (line   50)
* lineno (attribut tracemalloc.Frame):   Frame.              (line   17)
* lineno (attribut xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError): ExpatError Exceptions.
                                                             (line   27)
* lineno() (dans le module fileinput):   fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  102)
* LINES:                                 Fonctions<6>.       (line  125)
* LINES <1>:                             Fonctions<6>.       (line  595)
* LINES <2>:                             Fonctions<6>.       (line  597)
* lines (attribut os.terminal_size):     Demander la taille d'un terminal.
                                                             (line   35)
* LINES (dans le module curses):         Constantes<6>.      (line   53)
* linesep (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  168)
* linesep (dans le module os):           Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  159)
* lineterminator (attribut csv.Dialect): Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   48)
* LineTooLong:                           http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  189)
* link() (dans le module os):            Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  377)
* linkname (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):   Les objets TarInfo. (line   97)
* LinkOutsideDestinationError:           tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  275)
* List (classe dans ast):                Littéraux<3>.       (line   67)
* List (classe dans typing):             Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   18)
* list (classe de base):                 Listes<2>.          (line   10)
* list (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  255)
* LIST_APPEND (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  381)
* list_dialects() (dans le module csv):  Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line   93)
* LIST_EXTEND (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  710)
* list_folders() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects. (line   65)
* list_folders() (méthode mailbox.MH):   MH objects.         (line   35)
* list;comprehensions:                   Agencements de listes.
                                                             (line    6)
* list;display:                          Agencements de listes.
                                                             (line    6)
* list() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  126)
* list() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  246)
* list() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   57)
* list() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):      Les objets TarFile. (line  132)
* ListComp (classe dans ast):            Compréhensions.     (line    6)
* listdir() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  400)
* listdrives() (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  441)
* liste:                                 Glossaire.          (line  943)
* liste en compréhension (ou liste en intension): Glossaire. (line  949)
* listen() (dans le module logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* listen() (dans le module turtle):      Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line    6)
* listen() (méthode socket.socket):      Socket Objects.     (line  200)
* listener (attribut logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   84)
* Listener (classe dans multiprocessing.connection): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line   53)
* listMethods() (méthode xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* listmounts() (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  460)
* listvolumes() (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  484)
* listxattr() (dans le module os):       Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line   29)
* literal:                               Littéraux.          (line    6)
* literal <1>:                           Littéraux<2>.       (line    6)
* Literal (dans le module typing):       Special forms.      (line  128)
* literal_eval() (dans le module ast):   Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line   88)
* LiteralString (dans le module typing): Special types.      (line   67)
* LittleEndianStructure (classe dans ctypes): Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   26)
* LittleEndianUnion (classe dans ctypes): Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   16)
* ljust() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  317)
* ljust() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  317)
* ljust() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  337)
* LK_LOCK (dans le module msvcrt):       Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   19)
* LK_NBLCK (dans le module msvcrt):      Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   27)
* LK_NBRLCK (dans le module msvcrt):     Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   27)
* LK_RLCK (dans le module msvcrt):       Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   19)
* LK_UNLCK (dans le module msvcrt):      Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   33)
* ll (pdb command):                      Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  272)
* LMTP (classe dans smtplib):            smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  106)
* ln() (méthode decimal.Context):        Objets de contexte. (line  369)
* ln() (méthode decimal.Decimal):        Les objets Decimal. (line  346)
* LNKTYPE (dans le module tarfile):      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  293)
* Load (classe dans ast):                Variables.          (line   11)
* LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR (opcode):         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  501)
* LOAD_ATTR (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  750)
* LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  508)
* load_cert_chain() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.  (line  104)
* LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1441)
* LOAD_CONST (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  634)
* load_default_certs() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  135)
* LOAD_DEREF (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  982)
* load_dh_params() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  356)
* load_extension() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  474)
* LOAD_FAST (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  920)
* LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (opcode):          Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  944)
* LOAD_FAST_CHECK (opcode):              Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  936)
* LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode):          Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  929)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (opcode):      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  990)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (opcode):    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  653)
* LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  913)
* LOAD_LOCALS (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  644)
* LOAD_METHOD (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1452)
* load_module() (méthode importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  313)
* load_module() (méthode importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  266)
* load_module() (méthode importlib.abc.Loader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  127)
* load_module() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  413)
* load_module() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  236)
* load_module() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  280)
* load_module() (méthode zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter.
                                                             (line   80)
* LOAD_NAME (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  638)
* load_package_tests() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  623)
* LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (opcode):              Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  768)
* load_verify_locations() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  152)
* load() (dans le module json):          Utilisation de base.
                                                             (line  108)
* load() (dans le module marshal):       marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   72)
* load() (dans le module pickle):        Interface du module.
                                                             (line   62)
* load() (dans le module plistlib):      plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   46)
* load() (dans le module tomllib):       tomllib --- Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   32)
* load() (méthode de la classe tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.
                                                             (line   50)
* load() (méthode http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* load() (méthode http.cookies.BaseCookie): Objets Cookie.   (line   42)
* load() (méthode pickle.Unpickler):     Interface du module.
                                                             (line  285)
* loader (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  388)
* Loader (classe dans importlib.abc):    importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   91)
* loader_state (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  417)
* LoadError:                             http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   34)
* LoadFileDialog (classe dans tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  145)
* LoadKey() (dans le module winreg):     Fonctions<13>.      (line  258)
* LoadLibrary() (méthode ctypes.LibraryLoader): Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line  184)
* loads() (dans le module json):         Utilisation de base.
                                                             (line  190)
* loads() (dans le module marshal):      marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line  111)
* loads() (dans le module pickle):       Interface du module.
                                                             (line   80)
* loads() (dans le module plistlib):     plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   82)
* loads() (dans le module tomllib):      tomllib --- Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   48)
* loads() (dans le module xmlrpc.client): Convenience Functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* loadTestsFromModule() (méthode unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line   44)
* loadTestsFromName() (méthode unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line   76)
* loadTestsFromNames() (méthode unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  112)
* loadTestsFromTestCase() (méthode unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* local (classe dans threading):         Données locales au fil d'exécution.
                                                             (line   17)
* LOCAL_CREDS (dans le module socket):   Constantes<8>.      (line  323)
* LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  323)
* localcontext() (dans le module decimal): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line   27)
* LOCALE (dans le module re):            Flags.              (line   59)
* localeconv() (dans le module locale):  locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   57)
* LocaleHTMLCalendar (classe dans calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  358)
* LocaleTextCalendar (classe dans calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  352)
* localize() (dans le module locale):    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  522)
* localName (attribut xml.dom.Attr):     Objets Attr.        (line   13)
* localName (attribut xml.dom.Node):     Objets nœuds.       (line   64)
* localtime() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   13)
* localtime() (dans le module time):     Fonctions<5>.       (line  156)
* Locator (classe dans xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   43)
* lock (attribut sys.thread_info):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2012)
* Lock (classe dans asyncio):            Verrou lock.        (line    6)
* Lock (classe dans multiprocessing):    Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   48)
* Lock (classe dans threading):          Verrous.            (line   33)
* LOCK_EX (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  188)
* LOCK_NB (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  192)
* LOCK_SH (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  184)
* LOCK_UN (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  180)
* lock, interpreter:                     Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* lock() (méthode mailbox.Babyl):        Babyl objects.      (line   59)
* lock() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):      Mailbox objects.    (line  261)
* lock() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):      Maildir objects.    (line  209)
* lock() (méthode mailbox.mbox):         mbox objects.       (line   57)
* lock() (méthode mailbox.MH):           MH objects.         (line   87)
* lock() (méthode mailbox.MMDF):         MMDF objects.       (line   47)
* Lock() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* locked() (méthode _thread.lock):       _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  184)
* locked() (méthode asyncio.Condition):  Condition.          (line   65)
* locked() (méthode asyncio.Lock):       Verrou lock.        (line   62)
* locked() (méthode asyncio.Semaphore):  Sémaphore.          (line   53)
* locked() (méthode threading.Lock):     Verrous.            (line   88)
* lockf() (dans le module fcntl):        fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  173)
* lockf() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  274)
* locking() (dans le module msvcrt):     Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* LockType (dans le module _thread):     _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   28)
* LOG_ALERT (dans le module syslog):     syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* LOG_AUTH (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_AUTHPRIV (dans le module syslog):  syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_CONS (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  161)
* LOG_CRIT (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* LOG_CRON (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_DAEMON (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* log_date_time_string() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  343)
* LOG_DEBUG (dans le module syslog):     syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* LOG_EMERG (dans le module syslog):     syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* LOG_ERR (dans le module syslog):       syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* log_error() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  312)
* log_exception() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  213)
* LOG_FTP (dans le module syslog):       syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_INFO (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* LOG_INSTALL (dans le module syslog):   syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_KERN (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LAUNCHD (dans le module syslog):   syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL0 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL1 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL2 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL3 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL4 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL5 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL6 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LOCAL7 (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_LPR (dans le module syslog):       syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_MAIL (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* log_message() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  318)
* LOG_NDELAY (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  161)
* LOG_NETINFO (dans le module syslog):   syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_NEWS (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_NOTICE (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* LOG_NOWAIT (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  161)
* LOG_ODELAY (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  161)
* LOG_PERROR (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  161)
* LOG_PID (dans le module syslog):       syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  161)
* LOG_RAS (dans le module syslog):       syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_REMOTEAUTH (dans le module syslog): syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* log_request() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  305)
* LOG_SYSLOG (dans le module syslog):    syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* log_to_stderr() (dans le module multiprocessing): Journalisation<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* LOG_USER (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_UUCP (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOG_WARNING (dans le module syslog):   syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  115)
* log() (dans le module cmath):          Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle.
                                                             (line   11)
* log() (dans le module logging):        Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   99)
* log() (dans le module math):           Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* log() (méthode logging.Logger):        Enregistreurs.      (line  334)
* log10() (dans le module cmath):        Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle.
                                                             (line   17)
* log10() (dans le module math):         Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* log10() (méthode decimal.Context):     Objets de contexte. (line  373)
* log10() (méthode decimal.Decimal):     Les objets Decimal. (line  351)
* log1p() (dans le module math):         Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* log2() (dans le module math):          Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   53)
* logb() (méthode decimal.Context):      Objets de contexte. (line  377)
* logb() (méthode decimal.Decimal):      Les objets Decimal. (line  356)
* Logger (classe dans logging):          Enregistreurs.      (line   24)
* LoggerAdapter (classe dans logging):   LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* logical line:                          Lignes logiques.    (line    6)
* logical_and() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  382)
* logical_and() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  365)
* logical_invert() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  387)
* logical_invert() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  372)
* logical_or() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  391)
* logical_or() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  377)
* logical_xor() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  396)
* logical_xor() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  384)
* login_cram_md5() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.   (line  137)
* login_tty() (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  302)
* login() (méthode ftplib.FTP):          FTP objects.        (line  130)
* login() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line  132)
* login() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):        SMTP Objects.       (line  102)
* LOGNAME:                               Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  244)
* LOGNAME <1>:                           getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   45)
* lognormvariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   82)
* logout() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  143)
* LogRecord (classe dans logging):       Objets LogRecord.   (line   11)
* LONG_MAX (C macro):                    Objets Integer.     (line  142)
* LONG_TIMEOUT (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   93)
* longMessage (attribut unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  749)
* longname() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  280)
* lookup_error() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  131)
* lookup() (dans le module codecs):      codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   49)
* lookup() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   16)
* lookup() (méthode symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  108)
* lookup() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style):  Style Ttk.          (line   85)
* LookupError:                           Classes mères.      (line   87)
* loop control;target:                   L'instruction break.
                                                             (line   12)
* loop_factory (attribut unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  916)
* loop;over mutable sequence:            Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   81)
* loop;statement:                        L'instruction break.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <1>:                    L'instruction continue.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <2>:                    L'instruction while.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <3>:                    L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   48)
* lower() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  642)
* lower() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  642)
* lower() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  344)
* LPAR (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  178)
* lpAttributeList (attribut subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line   63)
* lru_cache() (dans le module functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  144)
* lseek() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  313)
* LShift (classe dans ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* lshift() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  114)
* LSQB (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  184)
* lstat() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  505)
* lstat() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   31)
* lstrip() (méthode bytearray):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  330)
* lstrip() (méthode bytes):              Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  330)
* lstrip() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  352)
* lsub() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  150)
* Lt (classe dans ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* lt() (dans le module operator):        operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* lt() (dans le module turtle):          Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   58)
* LtE (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* LWPCookieJar (classe dans http.cookiejar): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   28)
* LZMACompressor (classe dans lzma):     Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* LZMADecompressor (classe dans lzma):   Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  107)
* LZMAError:                             lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm.
                                                             (line   24)
* LZMAFile (classe dans lzma):           Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.
                                                             (line   47)
* M (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line   83)
* mac_ver() (dans le module platform):   macOS Platform.     (line    6)
* machine virtuelle:                     Glossaire.          (line 1639)
* machine() (dans le module platform):   Multiplateformes.   (line   37)
* macros (attribut netrc.netrc):         Objets netrc.       (line   31)
* MADV_AUTOSYNC (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_CORE (dans le module mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DODUMP (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DOFORK (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTDUMP (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTFORK (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTNEED (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE (dans le module mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSABLE (dans le module mmap): MADV_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSE (dans le module mmap): MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HUGEPAGE (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HWPOISON (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_MERGEABLE (dans le module mmap):  MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOCORE (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOHUGEPAGE (dans le module mmap): MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NORMAL (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOSYNC (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_PROTECT (dans le module mmap):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_RANDOM (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_REMOVE (dans le module mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SEQUENTIAL (dans le module mmap): MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE (dans le module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line    6)
* MADV_UNMERGEABLE (dans le module mmap): MADV_* Constants.  (line    6)
* MADV_WILLNEED (dans le module mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* madvise() (méthode mmap.mmap):         mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  223)
* MAGIC_NUMBER (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   13)
* magic;méthode:                         Glossaire.          (line  993)
* MagicMock (classe dans unittest.mock): Magic Mock.         (line    9)
* Mailbox (classe dans mailbox):         Mailbox objects.    (line    6)
* Maildir (classe dans mailbox):         Maildir objects.    (line    6)
* MaildirMessage (classe dans mailbox):  MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* main_thread() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  160)
* main():                                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    7)
* main() <1>:                            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  218)
* main() <2>:                            PyConfig.           (line  130)
* main() (dans le module site):          Module contents<3>. (line   42)
* main() (dans le module unittest):      Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  547)
* mainloop() (dans le module turtle):    Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line  109)
* maintype (attribut email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  294)
* major (attribut email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  263)
* major() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  665)
* make_alternative() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  637)
* make_archive() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_bad_fd() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  106)
* MAKE_CELL (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  975)
* make_cookies() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* make_dataclass() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  400)
* make_file() (méthode difflib.HtmlDiff): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  121)
* MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1114)
* make_header() (dans le module email.header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  216)
* make_legacy_pyc() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   80)
* make_mixed() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  648)
* make_msgid() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   27)
* make_parser() (dans le module xml.sax): xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   30)
* make_pkg() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* make_related() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  626)
* make_script() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* make_server() (dans le module wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_table() (méthode difflib.HtmlDiff): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  157)
* make_zip_pkg() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line  103)
* make_zip_script() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   89)
* makedev() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  675)
* makedirs() (dans le module os):        Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  577)
* makeelement() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  178)
* makefile() (méthode socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  213)
* makefile() (socket method):            Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* makeLogRecord() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  196)
* makePickle() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* makeRecord() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.      (line  398)
* makeSocket() (méthode logging.handlers.DatagramHandler): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   37)
* makeSocket() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* maketrans() (méthode statique bytearray): Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  186)
* maketrans() (méthode statique bytes):  Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  186)
* maketrans() (méthode statique str):    Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  375)
* MalformedHeaderDefect:                 email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  108)
* malloc (C function):                   Aperçu<4>.          (line   33)
* manager (attribut logging.LoggerAdapter): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* mangle_from_ (attribut email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  622)
* mangle_from_ (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  206)
* MANPAGER:                              pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* MANPAGER <1>:                          pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   48)
* mant_dig (attribut sys.float_info):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  659)
* MAP_32BIT (dans le module mmap):       MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_ADD (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  390)
* MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER (dans le module mmap): MAP_* Constants.  (line    6)
* MAP_ANON (dans le module mmap):        MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_ANONYMOUS (dans le module mmap):   MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map_async() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  117)
* MAP_CONCEAL (dans le module mmap):     MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_DENYWRITE (dans le module mmap):   MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_EXECUTABLE (dans le module mmap):  MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_HASSEMAPHORE (dans le module mmap): MAP_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MAP_JIT (dans le module mmap):         MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_NOCACHE (dans le module mmap):     MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_NOEXTEND (dans le module mmap):    MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_NORESERVE (dans le module mmap):   MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_POPULATE (dans le module mmap):    MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_PRIVATE (dans le module mmap):     MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN (dans le module mmap): MAP_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA (dans le module mmap): MAP_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* MAP_SHARED (dans le module mmap):      MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_STACK (dans le module mmap):       MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map_table_b2() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   55)
* map_table_b3() (dans le module stringprep): stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   61)
* map_to_type() (méthode email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  396)
* MAP_TPRO (dans le module mmap):        MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE (dans le module mmap): MAP_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* MAP_UNIX03 (dans le module mmap):      MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map() (méthode concurrent.futures.Executor): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* map() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  100)
* map() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style):     Style Ttk.          (line   51)
* mapLogRecord() (méthode logging.handlers.HTTPHandler): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* Mapping (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* Mapping (classe dans typing):          Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   58)
* MappingProxyType (classe dans types):  Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  225)
* MappingView (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  103)
* MappingView (classe dans typing):      Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   66)
* mapPriority() (méthode logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line  201)
* maps (attribut collections.ChainMap):  Objets ChainMap.    (line   42)
* MARCH (dans le module calendar):       calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* markcoroutinefunction() (dans le module inspect): Types et membres.
                                                             (line  432)
* marshalling;objects:                   pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* masking;operations:                    Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* master (attribut tkinter.Tk):          Modules Tkinter.    (line   81)
* Match (classe dans ast):               Pattern matching.   (line    6)
* Match (classe dans re):                Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line   15)
* Match (classe dans typing):            Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line    6)
* match_case (classe dans ast):          Pattern matching.   (line   15)
* MATCH_CLASS (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1217)
* MATCH_KEYS (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  550)
* MATCH_MAPPING (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  531)
* MATCH_SEQUENCE (opcode):               Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  540)
* match_value() (méthode test.support.Matcher): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  786)
* match;case:                            L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* match() (dans le module re):           Fonctions<2>.       (line   50)
* match() (méthode pathlib.PurePath):    Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  290)
* match() (méthode re.Pattern):          Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   44)
* MatchAs (classe dans ast):             Pattern matching.   (line  293)
* MatchClass (classe dans ast):          Pattern matching.   (line  230)
* Matcher (classe dans test.support):    test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  780)
* matches() (méthode test.support.Matcher): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  782)
* MatchMapping (classe dans ast):        Pattern matching.   (line  184)
* MatchOr (classe dans ast):             Pattern matching.   (line  333)
* MatchSequence (classe dans ast):       Pattern matching.   (line  114)
* MatchSingleton (classe dans ast):      Pattern matching.   (line   90)
* MatchStar (classe dans ast):           Pattern matching.   (line  144)
* MatchValue (classe dans ast):          Pattern matching.   (line   63)
* matmul() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  129)
* MatMult (classe dans ast):             Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* matrix multiplication:                 Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   27)
* max (attribut datetime.date):          Objets date.        (line  106)
* max (attribut datetime.datetime):      Objets datetime.    (line  306)
* max (attribut datetime.time):          Objets time.        (line   39)
* max (attribut datetime.timedelta):     Objets timedelta.   (line   82)
* max (attribut sys.float_info):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  664)
* max_10_exp (attribut sys.float_info):  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  673)
* max_count (attribut email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* MAX_EMAX (dans le module decimal):     Constantes<4>.      (line   17)
* max_exp (attribut sys.float_info):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  668)
* MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (dans le module configparser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  347)
* max_line_length (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* max_lines (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  284)
* max_mag() (méthode decimal.Context):   Objets de contexte. (line  405)
* max_mag() (méthode decimal.Decimal):   Les objets Decimal. (line  398)
* max_memuse (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  145)
* MAX_PREC (dans le module decimal):     Constantes<4>.      (line   14)
* max_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line   51)
* max_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   64)
* max_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  270)
* max_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  294)
* MAX_Py_ssize_t (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  141)
* max() (méthode decimal.Context):       Objets de contexte. (line  401)
* max() (méthode decimal.Decimal):       Les objets Decimal. (line  391)
* maxarray (attribut reprlib.Repr):      Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxdeque (attribut reprlib.Repr):      Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxdict (attribut reprlib.Repr):       Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxDiff (attribut unittest.TestCase):  Scénarios de tests. (line  769)
* maxfrozenset (attribut reprlib.Repr):  Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (attribut ssl.TLSVersion): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  565)
* maximum_version (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  542)
* maxlen (attribut collections.deque):   Objets deque.       (line  130)
* maxlevel (attribut reprlib.Repr):      Repr Objects.       (line   17)
* maxlist (attribut reprlib.Repr):       Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxlong (attribut reprlib.Repr):       Repr Objects.       (line   34)
* maxother (attribut reprlib.Repr):      Repr Objects.       (line   47)
* maxset (attribut reprlib.Repr):        Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxsize (attribut asyncio.Queue):      File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   25)
* maxsize (dans le module sys):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1299)
* maxstring (attribut reprlib.Repr):     Repr Objects.       (line   39)
* maxtuple (attribut reprlib.Repr):      Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxunicode (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1306)
* MAXYEAR (dans le module datetime):     Constantes.         (line   13)
* MAY (dans le module calendar):         calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* MB_ICONASTERISK (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  134)
* MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  138)
* MB_ICONHAND (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  142)
* MB_ICONQUESTION (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  146)
* MB_OK (dans le module winsound):       winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  150)
* mbox (classe dans mailbox):            mbox objects.       (line    6)
* mboxMessage (classe dans mailbox):     mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* md5() (dans le module hashlib):        Constructeurs.      (line   20)
* mean (attribut statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.  (line   21)
* mean() (dans le module statistics):    Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line   10)
* measure() (méthode tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   65)
* median (attribut statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line   26)
* median_grouped() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  288)
* median_high() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  268)
* median_low() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  248)
* median() (dans le module statistics):  Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  219)
* member_names (attribut enum.EnumDict): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  735)
* member() (dans le module enum):        Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line   80)
* MemberDescriptorType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  208)
* membership;test:                       Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   38)
* memfd_create() (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1911)
* memmove() (dans le module ctypes):     Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  147)
* MemoryBIO (classe dans ssl):           Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  134)
* MemoryError:                           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  105)
* MemoryHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* memoryview (classe de base):           Vues mémoire.       (line   10)
* memset() (dans le module ctypes):      Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  153)
* merge() (dans le module heapq):        heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   87)
* message (attribut BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.   (line   33)
* Message (classe dans email.message):   email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line   54)
* Message (classe dans mailbox):         Message objects.    (line    6)
* Message (classe dans tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   21)
* message digest, MD5:                   hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* message_factory (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  215)
* message_from_binary_file() (dans le module email): API de Parser.
                                                             (line  136)
* message_from_bytes() (dans le module email): API de Parser.
                                                             (line  122)
* message_from_file() (dans le module email): API de Parser. (line  160)
* message_from_string() (dans le module email): API de Parser.
                                                             (line  149)
* MessageBeep() (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* MessageClass (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  184)
* MessageDefect:                         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   55)
* MessageError:                          email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* MessageParseError:                     email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* messages (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   22)
* meta_path (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1316)
* méta-points d'entrée d'importation:    Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* meta() (dans le module curses):        Fonctions<6>.       (line  287)
* metaclass:                             Métaclasses.        (line    6)
* metaclass hint:                        Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée.
                                                             (line    6)
* métaclasse:                            Glossaire.          (line 1014)
* metadata() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* MetaPathFinder (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   27)
* metavar (attribut optparse.Option):    Option attributes.  (line   88)
* MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (classe dans argparse): Le paramètre formatter_class.
                                                             (line   11)
* METH_CLASS (C macro):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  195)
* METH_COEXIST (C macro):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  212)
* METH_FASTCALL (C macro):               Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  124)
* METH_KEYWORDS (C macro):               Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  108)
* METH_METHOD (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  151)
* METH_NOARGS (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  169)
* METH_O (C macro):                      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  182)
* METH_STATIC (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  202)
* METH_VARARGS (C macro):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   98)
* method (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects. (line   52)
* method_calls (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  527)
* method;call:                           Appels.             (line  152)
* methodcaller() (dans le module operator): operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  328)
* MethodDescriptorType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  109)
* méthode:                               Glossaire.          (line 1032)
* méthode magique:                       Glossaire.          (line  989)
* méthode spéciale:                      Glossaire.          (line 1466)
* methodHelp() (méthode xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* methods (attribut pyclbr.Class):       Objets classes<2>.  (line   50)
* methodSignature() (méthode xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* MethodType (dans le module types):     Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   77)
* MethodType (in module types):          Objets fonction.    (line   14)
* MethodType (in module types) <1>:      Objets méthode<2>.  (line   12)
* MethodWrapperType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   96)
* metrics() (méthode tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   72)
* MFD_ALLOW_SEALING (dans le module os): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_CLOEXEC (dans le module os):       Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_16GB (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_16MB (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_1GB (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_1MB (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_256MB (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_2GB (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_2MB (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_32MB (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_512KB (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_512MB (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_64KB (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_8MB (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_MASK (dans le module os):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGE_SHIFT (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MFD_HUGETLB (dans le module os):       Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1929)
* MH (classe dans mailbox):              MH objects.         (line    6)
* MHMessage (classe dans mailbox):       MHMessage objects.  (line    6)
* microsecond (attribut datetime.datetime): Objets datetime. (line  342)
* microsecond (attribut datetime.time):  Objets time.        (line   65)
* microseconds (attribut datetime.timedelta): Objets timedelta.
                                                             (line  118)
* MIME;base64 encoding:                  base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;content type:                     mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;headers:                          mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   26)
* MIME;headers <1>:                      mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   57)
* MIME;quoted-printable encoding:        quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIMEApplication (classe dans email.mime.application): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  100)
* MIMEAudio (classe dans email.mime.audio): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  131)
* MIMEBase (classe dans email.mime.base): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   32)
* MIMEImage (classe dans email.mime.image): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  165)
* MIMEMessage (classe dans email.mime.message): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  200)
* MIMEMultipart (classe dans email.mime.multipart): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   70)
* MIMENonMultipart (classe dans email.mime.nonmultipart): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   59)
* MIMEPart (classe dans email.message):  email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  753)
* MIMEText (classe dans email.mime.text): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  219)
* MimeTypes (classe dans mimetypes):     MimeTypes Objects.  (line   10)
* MIMEVersionHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  249)
* min (attribut datetime.date):          Objets date.        (line  102)
* min (attribut datetime.datetime):      Objets datetime.    (line  301)
* min (attribut datetime.time):          Objets time.        (line   34)
* min (attribut datetime.timedelta):     Objets timedelta.   (line   77)
* min (attribut sys.float_info):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  678)
* min_10_exp (attribut sys.float_info):  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  692)
* MIN_EMIN (dans le module decimal):     Constantes<4>.      (line   20)
* MIN_ETINY (dans le module decimal):    Constantes<4>.      (line   23)
* min_exp (attribut sys.float_info):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  687)
* min_mag() (méthode decimal.Context):   Objets de contexte. (line  413)
* min_mag() (méthode decimal.Decimal):   Les objets Decimal. (line  410)
* min() (méthode decimal.Context):       Objets de contexte. (line  409)
* min() (méthode decimal.Decimal):       Les objets Decimal. (line  403)
* MINEQUAL (dans le module token):       token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  268)
* MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (attribut ssl.TLSVersion): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  563)
* minimum_version (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  560)
* minor (attribut email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  267)
* minor() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  670)
* minus:                                 Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   11)
* MINUS (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  202)
* minus() (méthode decimal.Context):     Objets de contexte. (line  417)
* minute (attribut datetime.datetime):   Objets datetime.    (line  334)
* minute (attribut datetime.time):       Objets time.        (line   57)
* MINYEAR (dans le module datetime):     Constantes.         (line    8)
* mirrored() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   74)
* misc_header (attribut cmd.Cmd):        Objets Cmd.         (line  165)
* MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect:         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   96)
* MISSING (attribut contextvars.Token):  Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   97)
* MISSING (dans le module dataclasses):  Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  485)
* MISSING (dans le module sys.monitoring): Callback function arguments.
                                                             (line    6)
* MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  155)
* missing_compiler_executable() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  669)
* MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect:      email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  100)
* MissingSectionHeaderError:             Exceptions<8>.      (line   60)
* mkd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):            FTP objects.        (line  345)
* mkdir() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  538)
* mkdir() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Création de fichiers et de dossiers.
                                                             (line   21)
* mkdir() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):     Objets ZipFile.     (line  357)
* mkdtemp() (dans le module tempfile):   tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  300)
* mkfifo() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  618)
* mknod() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  643)
* mkstemp() (dans le module tempfile):   tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  236)
* mktemp() (dans le module tempfile):    Fonctions et variables obsolètes.
                                                             (line   16)
* mktime_tz() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  153)
* mktime() (dans le module time):        Fonctions<5>.       (line  170)
* mlsd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):           FTP objects.        (line  288)
* mmap (classe dans mmap):               mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line   54)
* MMDF (classe dans mailbox):            MMDF objects.       (line    6)
* MMDFMessage (classe dans mailbox):     MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Mock (classe dans unittest.mock):      La classe Mock.     (line   26)
* mock_add_spec() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  260)
* mock_calls (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.  (line  545)
* mock_open() (dans le module unittest.mock): mock_open.     (line    6)
* Mod (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* mod() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  119)
* mode (attribut bz2.BZ2File):           Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line  135)
* mode (attribut gzip.GzipFile):         gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  151)
* mode (attribut io.FileIO):             Raw File I/O.       (line   59)
* mode (attribut lzma.LZMAFile):         Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.
                                                             (line  103)
* mode (attribut statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.  (line   31)
* mode (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):       Les objets TarInfo. (line   79)
* mode binaire:                          Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* mode() (dans le module statistics):    Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  337)
* mode() (dans le module turtle):        Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line    6)
* modf() (dans le module math):          Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   55)
* modified() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   48)
* modify() (méthode select.devpoll):     /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* modify() (méthode select.epoll):       Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* modify() (méthode select.poll):        Polling Objects.    (line   60)
* modify() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>.     (line   94)
* module:                                Glossaire.          (line 1047)
* module (attribut pyclbr.Class):        Objets classes<2>.  (line   16)
* module (attribut pyclbr.Function):     Objets fonctions.   (line   15)
* MODULE (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   11)
* Module (classe dans ast):              Root nodes.         (line    6)
* Module browser:                        Menu File Console et Éditeur.
                                                             (line   24)
* module d'extension:                    Glossaire.          (line  499)
* module_from_spec() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  123)
* module; __future__:                    __future__ --- Future statement definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; __main__:                      __main__ --- Top-level code environment.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _thread:                       _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _tkinter:                      Modules Tkinter.    (line  158)
* module; abc:                           abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; aifc:                          aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; argparse:                      argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; array:                         array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ast:                           ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asynchat:                      asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncio:                       asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncore:                      asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; atexit:                        atexit --- Exit handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; audioop:                       audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; base64:                        base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bdb:                           bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; binascii:                      binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bisect:                        bisect --- Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; builtins:                      builtins --- Built-in objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bz2:                           bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; calendar:                      calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgi:                           cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgitb:                         cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; chunk:                         chunk --- Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmath:                         cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmd:                           cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; code:                          code --- Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codecs:                        codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codeop:                        codeop --- Compile Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections:                   collections --- Container datatypes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections.abc:               collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; colorsys:                      colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compileall:                    compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; concurrent.futures:            concurrent futures --- Launching parallel tasks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; configparser:                  configparser --- Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextlib:                    contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextvars:                   contextvars --- Context Variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copy:                          copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copyreg:                       copyreg --- Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cProfile:                      profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; crypt:                         crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; csv:                           csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ctypes:                        ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses:                        curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.ascii:                  curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.panel:                  curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.textpad:                curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dataclasses:                   dataclasses --- Data Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; datetime:                      datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm:                           dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases".
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.dumb:                      dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.gnu:                       dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.ndbm:                      dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.sqlite3:                   dbm sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; decimal:                       decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; difflib:                       difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dis:                           dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; distutils:                     distutils --- Building and installing Python modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; doctest:                       doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email:                         email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.charset:                 email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.contentmanager:          email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.encoders:                email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.errors:                  email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.generator:               email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.header:                  email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.headerregistry:          email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.iterators:               email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.message:                 email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime:                    email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime.application:        email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  100)
* module; email.mime.audio:              email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  131)
* module; email.mime.base:               email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   32)
* module; email.mime.image:              email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  165)
* module; email.mime.message:            email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  200)
* module; email.mime.multipart:          email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   70)
* module; email.mime.nonmultipart:       email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   59)
* module; email.mime.text:               email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  219)
* module; email.parser:                  email parser Parsing email messages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.policy:                  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.utils:                   email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.idna:                encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.mbcs:                encodings mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.utf_8_sig:           encodings utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ensurepip:                     ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; enum:                          enum --- Support for enumerations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; errno:                         errno --- Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; faulthandler:                  faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fcntl:                         fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; filecmp:                       filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fileinput:                     fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fnmatch:                       fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fractions:                     fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ftplib:                        ftplib --- FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; functools:                     functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gc:                            gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getopt:                        getopt --- C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getpass:                       getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gettext:                       gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; glob:                          glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; graphlib:                      graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; grp:                           grp --- The group database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gzip:                          gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hashlib:                       hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; heapq:                         heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hmac:                          hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html:                          html --- HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.entities:                 html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.parser:                   html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http:                          http --- HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.client:                   http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookiejar:                http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookies:                  http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.server:                   http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; idlelib:                       idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imaplib:                       imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imghdr:                        imghdr --- Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imp:                           imp --- Access the import internals.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib:                     importlib --- The implementation of import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.abc:                 importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.machinery:           importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.metadata:            importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources:           importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources.abc:       importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.util:                importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; inspect:                       inspect --- Inspect live objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; io:                            io --- Core tools for working with streams.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ipaddress:                     ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; itertools:                     itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json:                          json --- JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json.tool:                     Interface en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; keyword:                       keyword --- Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; linecache:                     linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; locale:                        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging:                       logging --- Logging facility for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.config:                logging config --- Logging configuration.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.handlers:              logging handlers --- Logging handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lzma:                          lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailbox:                       mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailcap:                       mailcap --- Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; marshal:                       marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; math:                          math --- Mathematical functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mimetypes:                     mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mmap:                          mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; modulefinder:                  modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msilib:                        msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msvcrt:                        msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing:               multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.connection:    Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.dummy:         Le module multiprocessing dummy.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.managers:      Gestionnaires<2>.   (line   21)
* module; multiprocessing.pool:          Pools de processus. (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.sharedctypes:  Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; netrc:                         netrc --- netrc file processing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nis:                           nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nntplib:                       nntplib --- NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; numbers:                       numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; operator:                      operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; optparse:                      optparse --- Parser for command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os:                            os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os.path:                       os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ossaudiodev:                   ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pathlib:                       pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pdb:                           pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickle:                        pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickletools:                   pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pipes:                         pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pkgutil:                       pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; platform:                      platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; plistlib:                      plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; poplib:                        poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; posix:                         posix --- The most common POSIX system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pprint:                        pprint — L’affichage élégant de données.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profile:                       profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pstats:                        The Stats Class.    (line    9)
* module; pty:                           pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pwd:                           pwd --- The password database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; py_compile:                    py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pyclbr:                        pyclbr --- Python module browser support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pydoc:                         pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; queue:                         queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; quopri:                        quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; random:                        random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; re:                            re --- Regular expression operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; readline:                      readline --- GNU readline interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; reprlib:                       reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; resource:                      resource --- Resource usage information.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; rlcompleter:                   rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; runpy:                         runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sched:                         sched --- Event scheduler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; secrets:                       secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; select:                        select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; selectors:                     selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shelve:                        shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shlex:                         shlex --- Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shutil:                        shutil --- High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; signal:                        signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; site:                          site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sitecustomize:                 sitecustomize.      (line    6)
* module; smtpd:                         smtpd --- SMTP Server.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; smtplib:                       smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sndhdr:                        sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socket:                        socket --- Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socketserver:                  socketserver --- A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; spwd:                          spwd --- The shadow password database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sqlite3:                       sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ssl:                           ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stat:                          stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; statistics:                    statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; string:                        string --- Common string operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stringprep:                    stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; struct:                        struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; subprocess:                    subprocess --- Subprocess management.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sunau:                         sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; symtable:                      symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys:                           sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys.monitoring:                sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sysconfig:                     sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; syslog:                        syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tabnanny:                      tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tarfile:                       tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; telnetlib:                     telnetlib --- Telnet client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tempfile:                      tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; termios:                       termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test:                          test --- Regression tests package for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.regrtest:                 Running tests using the command-line interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support:                  test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.bytecode_helper:  test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.import_helper:    test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.os_helper:        test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.script_helper:    test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.socket_helper:    test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.warnings_helper:  test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; textwrap:                      textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; threading:                     threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; time:                          time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; timeit:                        timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter:                       tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.colorchooser:          tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.commondialog:          tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.dnd:                   tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.filedialog:            tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.font:                  tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.messagebox:            tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.scrolledtext:          tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.simpledialog:          tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.ttk:                   tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; token:                         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tokenize:                      tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tomllib:                       tomllib --- Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; trace:                         trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; traceback:                     traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tracemalloc:                   tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tty:                           tty --- Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtle:                        turtle — Tortue graphique.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtledemo:                    turtledemo — Scripts de démonstration.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; types:                         types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; typing:                        typing — Prise en charge des annotations de type.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unicodedata:                   unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest:                      unittest --- Unit testing framework.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest.mock:                 unittest mock --- mock object library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib:                        urllib --- URL handling modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.error:                  urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.parse:                  urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.request:                urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.response:               urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.robotparser:            urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; usercustomize:                 usercustomize.      (line    6)
* module; uu:                            uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; uuid:                          uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line    8)
* module; venv:                          venv --- Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; warnings:                      warnings --- Warning control.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wave:                          wave --- Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; weakref:                       weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; webbrowser:                    webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winreg:                        winreg --- Windows registry access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winsound:                      winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref:                       wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.handlers:              wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.headers:               wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.simple_server:         wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.types:                 wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.util:                  wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.validate:              wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xdrlib:                        xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml:                           Modules de traitement XML.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom:                       xml dom --- The Document Object Model API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.minidom:               xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.pulldom:               xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementInclude:      Fonctions<10>.      (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementTree:         xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat:             xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.errors:      Expat error constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.model:       Content Model Descriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax:                       xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.handler:               xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.saxutils:              xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.xmlreader:             xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc:                        xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.client:                 xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.server:                 xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipapp:                        zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipfile:                       zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipimport:                     zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zlib:                          zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zoneinfo:                      zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__:                       Résolution des noms.
                                                             (line   54)
* module;__main__ <1>:                   Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__ <2>:                   Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line   19)
* module;__main__ <3>:                   runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   30)
* module;__main__ <4>:                   runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  101)
* module;__main__ <5>:                   Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;__main__ <6>:                   Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;__main__ <7>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* module;__main__ <8>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;_locale:                        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   17)
* module;_thread:                        High-level API.     (line   49)
* module;array:                          Séquences mutables. (line   11)
* module;array <1>:                      Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;base64:                         binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;bdb:                            pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line   18)
* module;builtins:                       La fonction dir.    (line   47)
* module;builtins <1>:                   Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;builtins <2>:                   Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2264)
* module;builtins <3>:                   Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;builtins <4>:                   Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;builtins <5>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* module;builtins <6>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;cmd:                            pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line   18)
* module;collections:                    Séquences mutables. (line   12)
* module;copy:                           copyreg --- Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;dbm.gnu:                        Dictionnaires<2>.   (line   27)
* module;dbm.gnu <1>:                    Limites.            (line    6)
* module;dbm.ndbm:                       Dictionnaires<2>.   (line   27)
* module;dbm.ndbm <1>:                   Limites.            (line    6)
* module;errno:                          Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  155)
* module;glob:                           fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   38)
* module;importing:                      L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;io:                             Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;json:                           Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;math:                           Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  119)
* module;math <1>:                       Constantes<3>.      (line   50)
* module;namespace:                      Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* module;os:                             posix --- The most common POSIX system calls.
                                                             (line   14)
* module;pickle:                         copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   79)
* module;pickle <1>:                     copyreg --- Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;pickle <2>:                     shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;pickle <3>:                     marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* module;pty:                            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  497)
* module;pwd:                            os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  146)
* module;pyexpat:                        xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   20)
* module;re:                             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;re <1>:                         fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;search;path:                    Les dossiers de recherche de modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;search;path <1>:                linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   30)
* module;search;path <2>:                sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1376)
* module;search;path <3>:                site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   14)
* module;search;path <4>:                Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;search;path <5>:                Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;search;path <6>:                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  136)
* module;shelve:                         marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* module;signal:                         _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  201)
* module;signal <1>:                     Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;signal <2>:                     Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* module;signal <3>:                     Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* module;socket:                         Gestion des protocoles internet.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;stat:                           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1188)
* module;struct:                         Socket Objects.     (line  578)
* module;sys:                            Modules standards.  (line    6)
* module;sys <1>:                        clause except.      (line   61)
* module;sys <2>:                        Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;sys <3>:                        Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* module;sys <4>:                        Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;sys <5>:                        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;sys <6>:                        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* module;sys <7>:                        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;types:                          Objets type.        (line    6)
* module;urllib.request:                 http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* ModuleFinder (classe dans modulefinder): modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   26)
* ModuleInfo (classe dans pkgutil):      pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   13)
* ModuleNotFoundError:                   Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   66)
* modules (attribut modulefinder.ModuleFinder): modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   50)
* modules (dans le module sys):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1349)
* modules (in module sys):               Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* modules (in module sys) <1>:           Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* modules_cleanup() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   71)
* modules_setup() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   67)
* ModuleSpec (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  366)
* ModuleType (classe dans types):        Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  123)
* ModuleType (in module types):          Module Objects.     (line    7)
* modulo:                                Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   49)
* modulus (attribut sys.hash_info):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1080)
* MON_1 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_10 (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_11 (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_12 (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_2 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_3 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_4 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_5 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_6 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_7 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_8 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MON_9 (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  255)
* MONDAY (dans le module calendar):      calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* monotonic_ns() (dans le module time):  Fonctions<5>.       (line  217)
* monotonic() (dans le module time):     Fonctions<5>.       (line  183)
* month (attribut calendar.IllegalMonthError): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  552)
* month (attribut datetime.date):        Objets date.        (line  121)
* month (attribut datetime.datetime):    Objets datetime.    (line  322)
* Month (classe dans calendar):          calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  537)
* month_abbr (dans le module calendar):  calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  508)
* month_name (dans le module calendar):  calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  497)
* month() (dans le module calendar):     calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  430)
* monthcalendar() (dans le module calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  418)
* monthdatescalendar() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  115)
* monthdays2calendar() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  121)
* monthdayscalendar() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* monthrange() (dans le module calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  412)
* Morsel (classe dans http.cookies):     Objets Morsel.      (line    6)
* most_common() (méthode collections.Counter): Objets Counter.
                                                             (line   80)
* mouseinterval() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.     (line  292)
* mousemask() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  299)
* move_to_end() (méthode collections.OrderedDict): Objets OrderedDict.
                                                             (line   80)
* move() (dans le module shutil):        Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  336)
* move() (méthode curses.panel.Panel):   Panel Objects.      (line   35)
* move() (méthode curses.window):        Window Objects.     (line  396)
* move() (méthode mmap.mmap):            mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  236)
* move() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.       (line  216)
* MozillaCookieJar (classe dans http.cookiejar): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line    9)
* MRO:                                   Glossaire.          (line 1064)
* mro() (méthode type):                  Special methods.    (line    9)
* msg (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   43)
* msg (attribut json.JSONDecodeError):   Exceptions<17>.     (line   11)
* msg (attribut netrc.NetrcParseError):  netrc --- netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   54)
* msg (attribut re.PatternError):        Exceptions<3>.      (line   15)
* msg (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* mtime (attribut gzip.GzipFile):        gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  158)
* mtime (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):      Les objets TarInfo. (line   70)
* mtime() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   41)
* mul() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  124)
* Mult (classe dans ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* MultiCall (classe dans xmlrpc.client): MultiCall Objects.  (line    9)
* MULTILINE (dans le module re):         Flags.              (line   83)
* MultilineContinuationError:            Exceptions<8>.      (line   73)
* MultiLoopChildWatcher (classe dans asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line  112)
* multimode() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  375)
* MultipartConversionError:              email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   42)
* MultipartInvariantViolationDefect:     email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  116)
* multiplication:                        Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   17)
* multiply() (méthode decimal.Context):  Objets de contexte. (line  421)
* mutable:                               Glossaire.          (line 1068)
* mutable object:                        Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* mutable sequence;loop over:            Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   81)
* mutable;sequence;types:                Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line    6)
* MutableMapping (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* MutableMapping (classe dans typing):   Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   74)
* MutableSequence (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* MutableSequence (classe dans typing):  Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   82)
* MutableSet (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   92)
* MutableSet (classe dans typing):       Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   90)
* mvderwin() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  400)
* mvwin() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  407)
* myrights() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  157)
* N_TOKENS (dans le module token):       token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  324)
* n_waiting (attribut asyncio.Barrier):  Barrière Barrier.   (line  101)
* n_waiting (attribut threading.Barrier): Barrier Objects.   (line   97)
* n-uplet nommé:                         Glossaire.          (line 1073)
* NAK (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   88)
* name:                                  Identifiants et mots-clés.
                                                             (line    6)
* name <1>:                              Liaisons des noms.  (line    6)
* name <2>:                              Identifiants noms.  (line    6)
* name (attribut bz2.BZ2File):           Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line  141)
* name (attribut codecs.CodecInfo):      codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   70)
* name (attribut contextvars.ContextVar): Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   26)
* name (attribut doctest.DocTest):       Objets doctest.     (line   30)
* name (attribut email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* name (attribut enum.Enum):             Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  137)
* name (attribut gzip.GzipFile):         gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  166)
* name (attribut hashlib.hash):          Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   19)
* name (attribut hmac.HMAC):             hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line  109)
* name (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   28)
* name (attribut ImportError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   55)
* name (attribut importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  305)
* name (attribut importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  523)
* name (attribut importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  502)
* name (attribut importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  307)
* name (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  382)
* name (attribut importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  213)
* name (attribut importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  257)
* name (attribut importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   95)
* name (attribut inspect.Parameter):     Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  208)
* name (attribut io.FileIO):             Raw File I/O.       (line   63)
* name (attribut logging.Logger):        Enregistreurs.      (line   26)
* name (attribut lzma.LZMAFile):         Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.
                                                             (line  109)
* name (attribut multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line   83)
* name (attribut multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  120)
* name (attribut os.DirEntry):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1004)
* name (attribut pathlib.PurePath):      Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  125)
* name (attribut pyclbr.Class):          Objets classes<2>.  (line   20)
* name (attribut pyclbr.Function):       Objets fonctions.   (line   19)
* name (attribut sys.thread_info):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1999)
* name (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):       Les objets TarInfo. (line   62)
* name (attribut tempfile.TemporaryDirectory): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  200)
* name (attribut threading.Thread):      Objets Threads.     (line  163)
* name (attribut traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* name (attribut webbrowser.controller): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* name (attribut xml.dom.Attr):          Objets Attr.        (line    8)
* name (attribut xml.dom.DocumentType):  Objets DocumnentType.
                                                             (line   33)
* name (attribut zipfile.Path):          Objets Path.        (line   32)
* Name (classe dans ast):                Variables.          (line    6)
* name (dans le module os):              os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   56)
* NAME (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   45)
* name;binding:                          L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <1>:                      L'instruction import.
                                                             (line   55)
* name;binding <2>:                      Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <3>:                      Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <4>:                      Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;mangling:                         Variables privées.  (line   14)
* name;mangling <1>:                     Identifiants noms.  (line   15)
* name() (dans le module unicodedata):   unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   25)
* name2codepoint (dans le module html.entities): html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   31)
* named expression:                      Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   38)
* Named Shared Memory:                   multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* NAMED_FLAGS (attribut enum.EnumCheck): Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  629)
* NamedExpr (classe dans ast):           Expressions<2>.     (line  193)
* NamedTemporaryFile() (dans le module tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line   80)
* NamedTuple (classe dans typing):       Other special directives.
                                                             (line   10)
* namedtuple() (dans le module collections): namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés.
                                                             (line   12)
* NameError:                             Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  117)
* NameError (built-in exception):        Résolution des noms.
                                                             (line   16)
* namelist() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):  Objets ZipFile.     (line  135)
* nameprep() (dans le module encodings.idna): encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   50)
* namer (attribut logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* namereplace_errors() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  182)
* namereplace;error handler's name:      Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   55)
* names() (dans le module tkinter.font): tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   96)
* namespace:                             Noms et liaisons.   (line    6)
* Namespace (classe dans argparse):      L'objet Namespace.  (line    6)
* Namespace (classe dans multiprocessing.managers): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  258)
* NAMESPACE_DNS (dans le module uuid):   uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  215)
* NAMESPACE_OID (dans le module uuid):   uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  225)
* NAMESPACE_URL (dans le module uuid):   uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  220)
* NAMESPACE_X500 (dans le module uuid):  uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  230)
* namespace() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  162)
* Namespace() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  208)
* NamespaceErr:                          Exceptions<20>.     (line   66)
* NamespaceLoader (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  348)
* namespaceURI (attribut xml.dom.Node):  Objets nœuds.       (line   75)
* nametofont() (dans le module tkinter.font): tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line  100)
* NaN:                                   Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  751)
* nan (attribut sys.hash_info):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1088)
* nan (dans le module cmath):            Constantes<3>.      (line   35)
* nan (dans le module math):             Constantes<2>.      (line   34)
* nanj (dans le module cmath):           Constantes<3>.      (line   42)
* NannyNag:                              tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   39)
* napms() (dans le module curses):       Fonctions<6>.       (line  308)
* nargs (attribut optparse.Option):      Option attributes.  (line   50)
* native_id (attribut threading.Thread): Objets Threads.     (line  187)
* nbytes (attribut memoryview):          Vues mémoire.       (line  395)
* ncurses_version (dans le module curses): Constantes<6>.    (line   24)
* ND (attribut inspect.BufferFlags):     Buffer flags.       (line   21)
* ndiff() (dans le module difflib):      difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  250)
* ndim (attribut memoryview):            Vues mémoire.       (line  461)
* ne() (dans le module operator):        operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   25)
* needs_input (attribut bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   91)
* needs_input (attribut lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  187)
* neg() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  136)
* negation:                              Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   11)
* netmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.   (line  100)
* netmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.   (line  314)
* NetmaskValueError:                     Exceptions personnalisées.
                                                             (line   13)
* netrc (classe dans netrc):             netrc --- netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   13)
* NetrcParseError:                       netrc --- netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   48)
* netscape (attribut http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* network (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   28)
* network (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   76)
* network_address (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line   85)
* network_address (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  308)
* Never (dans le module typing):         Special types.      (line   99)
* NEVER_EQ (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  180)
* new_child() (méthode collections.ChainMap): Objets ChainMap.
                                                             (line   49)
* new_class() (dans le module types):    Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line    6)
* new_event_loop() (dans le module asyncio): Boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   77)
* new_event_loop() (méthode asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   28)
* new_panel() (dans le module curses.panel): Fonctions<7>.   (line   12)
* new() (dans le module hashlib):        Constructeurs.      (line    6)
* new() (dans le module hmac):           hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   13)
* newfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   31)
* NEWLINE (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   76)
* NEWLINE token:                         Lignes logiques.    (line    6)
* NEWLINE token <1>:                     Instructions composées.
                                                             (line   60)
* newlines (attribut io.TextIOBase):     Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* newpad() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  312)
* NewType (classe dans typing):          Other special directives.
                                                             (line  105)
* newwin() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  332)
* next (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  213)
* next_minus() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  425)
* next_minus() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  415)
* next_plus() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  429)
* next_plus() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  421)
* next_toward() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  433)
* next_toward() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  427)
* next() (méthode tarfile.TarFile):      Les objets TarFile. (line  143)
* next() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.       (line  227)
* nextafter() (dans le module math):     Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* nextfile() (dans le module fileinput): fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  125)
* nextkey() (méthode dbm.gnu.gdbm):      dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   92)
* nextSibling (attribut xml.dom.Node):   Objets nœuds.       (line   42)
* ngettext() (dans le module gettext):   API GNU gettext.    (line   46)
* ngettext() (méthode gettext.GNUTranslations): La classe GNUTranslations.
                                                             (line   47)
* ngettext() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   43)
* nice() (dans le module os):            Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  377)
* NL (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   55)
* NL (dans le module token):             token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   80)
* nl_langinfo() (dans le module locale): locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  189)
* nl() (dans le module curses):          Fonctions<6>.       (line  342)
* nlargest() (dans le module heapq):     heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  115)
* nlst() (méthode ftplib.FTP):           FTP objects.        (line  303)
* NO (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  159)
* no_cache() (méthode de la classe zoneinfo.ZoneInfo): La classe ZoneInfo.
                                                             (line   42)
* NO_EVENTS (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   94)
* no_proxy:                              urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  311)
* no_site (attribut sys.flags):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  572)
* no_tracing() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  538)
* no_type_check_decorator() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  360)
* no_type_check() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  347)
* no_user_site (attribut sys.flags):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  569)
* NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect:           email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   75)
* nocbreak() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  348)
* NoDataAllowedErr:                      Exceptions<20>.     (line   83)
* node (attribut uuid.UUID):             uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  123)
* node() (dans le module platform):      Multiplateformes.   (line   42)
* NoDefault (dans le module typing):     Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line  165)
* nodelay() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  411)
* nodeName (attribut xml.dom.Node):      Objets nœuds.       (line   81)
* NodeTransformer (classe dans ast):     Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  233)
* nodeType (attribut xml.dom.Node):      Objets nœuds.       (line    8)
* nodeValue (attribut xml.dom.Node):     Objets nœuds.       (line   90)
* NodeVisitor (classe dans ast):         Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  191)
* noecho() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  353)
* NOEXPR (dans le module locale):        locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  301)
* NOFLAG (dans le module re):            Flags.              (line   97)
* nom qualifié:                          Glossaire.          (line 1352)
* nombre complexe:                       Glossaire.          (line  292)
* nombre de références:                  Glossaire.          (line 1381)
* NoModificationAllowedErr:              Exceptions<20>.     (line   87)
* NonCallableMagicMock (classe dans unittest.mock): Magic Mock.
                                                             (line   22)
* NonCallableMock (classe dans unittest.mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  603)
* None (Built-in object):                Valeurs booléennes. (line   16)
* None (variable de base):               Constantes natives. (line   20)
* NoneType (dans le module types):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* nonl() (dans le module curses):        Fonctions<6>.       (line  357)
* Nonlocal (classe dans ast):            Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  160)
* nonmember() (dans le module enum):     Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line   87)
* noop() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  166)
* noop() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   79)
* NoOptionError:                         Exceptions<8>.      (line   32)
* NOP (opcode):                          Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  134)
* noqiflush() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  367)
* noraw() (dans le module curses):       Fonctions<6>.       (line  375)
* NoReturn (dans le module typing):      Special types.      (line   99)
* NORMAL (dans le module tkinter.font):  tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   97)
* NormalDist (classe dans statistics):   Objets NormalDist.  (line   13)
* NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   43)
* normalize() (dans le module locale):   locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  448)
* normalize() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   87)
* normalize() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  437)
* normalize() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal. (line  435)
* normalize() (méthode xml.dom.Node):    Objets nœuds.       (line  145)
* normalvariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   90)
* normcase() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  345)
* normpath() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  355)
* NoSectionError:                        Exceptions<8>.      (line   10)
* NoSuchMailboxError:                    Exceptions<18>.     (line   13)
* Not (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   29)
* not_() (dans le module operator):      operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   51)
* NotADirectoryError:                    Exceptions système. (line   90)
* notation:                              Notations.          (line    6)
* notationDecl() (méthode xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler): Objets DTDHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* NotationDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  313)
* notations (attribut xml.dom.DocumentType): Objets DocumnentType.
                                                             (line   47)
* NotConnected:                          http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  143)
* Notebook (classe dans tkinter.ttk):    ttk Notebook.       (line    6)
* NotEmptyError:                         Exceptions<18>.     (line   20)
* NotEq (classe dans ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* NOTEQUAL (dans le module token):       token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  241)
* NotFoundErr:                           Exceptions<20>.     (line   72)
* notify_all() (méthode asyncio.Condition): Condition.       (line   69)
* notify_all() (méthode threading.Condition): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line  173)
* notify() (méthode asyncio.Condition):  Condition.          (line   55)
* notify() (méthode threading.Condition): Condition Objects. (line  153)
* notimeout() (méthode curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  415)
* NotImplemented (variable de base):     Constantes natives. (line   27)
* NotImplementedError:                   Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  130)
* NotImplementedType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  103)
* NotIn (classe dans ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line  115)
* NotRequired (dans le module typing):   Special forms.      (line  231)
* NOTSET (dans le module logging):       Niveaux de journalisation.
                                                             (line   17)
* NotStandaloneHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  364)
* NotSupportedErr:                       Exceptions<20>.     (line   78)
* NotSupportedError:                     Exceptions<7>.      (line   85)
* noutrefresh() (méthode curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  423)
* nouvelle classe:                       Glossaire.          (line 1144)
* NOVEMBER (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* now() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line   62)
* npgettext() (dans le module gettext):  API GNU gettext.    (line   70)
* npgettext() (méthode gettext.GNUTranslations): La classe GNUTranslations.
                                                             (line   82)
* npgettext() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   57)
* NSIG (dans le module signal):          Module contents<2>. (line  208)
* nsmallest() (dans le module heapq):    heapq --- Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  124)
* NTEventLogHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   11)
* ntohl() (dans le module socket):       Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  225)
* ntohs() (dans le module socket):       Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  232)
* ntransfercmd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):   FTP objects.        (line  280)
* NUL (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   19)
* null;operation:                        L'instruction pass<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* null;operation <1>:                    L'instruction pass<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* nullcontext() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.    (line  224)
* NullHandler (classe dans logging):     Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* NullTranslations (classe dans gettext): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   13)
* num_addresses (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  127)
* num_addresses (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  326)
* num_tickets (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.       (line  567)
* number:                                Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* Number (classe dans numbers):          numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* NUMBER (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   50)
* number_class() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  441)
* number_class() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  460)
* numerator (attribut fractions.Fraction): fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  115)
* numerator (attribut numbers.Rational): La tour numérique.  (line   52)
* numeric literal:                       Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* numeric;conversions:                   Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  119)
* numeric;literals:                      Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* numeric() (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   45)
* numinput() (dans le module turtle):    Méthodes de saisie. (line   23)
* O_APPEND (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* O_ASYNC (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_BINARY (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_CLOEXEC (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_CREAT (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* O_DIRECT (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_DIRECTORY (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_DSYNC (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_EVTONLY (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  467)
* O_EXCL (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* O_EXLOCK (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_FSYNC (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  467)
* O_NDELAY (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_NOATIME (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_NOCTTY (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_NOFOLLOW (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_NOFOLLOW_ANY (dans le module os):    Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  467)
* O_NOINHERIT (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_NONBLOCK (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_PATH (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_RANDOM (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_RDONLY (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* O_RDWR (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* O_RSYNC (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_SEQUENTIAL (dans le module os):      Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_SHLOCK (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_SHORT_LIVED (dans le module os):     Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_SYMLINK (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  467)
* O_SYNC (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  445)
* O_TEMPORARY (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_TEXT (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  457)
* O_TMPFILE (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  478)
* O_TRUNC (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* O_WRONLY (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  435)
* obj (attribut memoryview):             Vues mémoire.       (line  384)
* object:                                Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object (attribut UnicodeError):        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  473)
* object (classe de base):               Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1293)
* object;''None'':                       None.               (line    6)
* object;asynchronous-generator:         Fonctions génératrices asynchrones.
                                                             (line   70)
* object;Boolean:                        numbers Integral.   (line   28)
* object;Boolean <1>:                    Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;built-in function:              Fonctions natives.  (line    6)
* object;built-in function <1>:          Appels.             (line  152)
* object;built-in method:                Méthodes natives.   (line    6)
* object;built-in method <1>:            Appels.             (line  152)
* object;bytearray:                      Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytearray <1>:                  Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytearray <2>:                  Objets bytearray.   (line    6)
* object;bytearray <3>:                  Objets tableau d'octets.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytes:                          Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytes <1>:                      Objets bytes.       (line    6)
* object;bytes <2>:                      Objets bytes<2>.    (line    9)
* object;callable:                       Types appelables.   (line    6)
* object;callable <1>:                   Tranches.           (line   45)
* object;Capsule:                        Capsules<2>.        (line    6)
* object;class:                          Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;class <1>:                      Appels.             (line  158)
* object;class <2>:                      Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;class instance:                 Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;class instance <1>:             Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;class instance <2>:             Appels.             (line  162)
* object;code:                           Objets Code.        (line    6)
* object;code <1>:                       Méthodes.           (line   44)
* object;code <2>:                       marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   33)
* object;code <3>:                       Objets Cellules.    (line   61)
* object;complex:                        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;complex number:                 Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;complex number <1>:             Objets représentant des nombres complexes.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;deallocation:                   Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary:                     Dictionnaires<2>.   (line    6)
* object;dictionary <1>:                 Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;dictionary <2>:                 Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  258)
* object;dictionary <3>:                 Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <4>:                 sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <5>:                 Les assignations.   (line  124)
* object;dictionary <6>:                 Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <7>:                 Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;Ellipse:                        Ellipse.            (line    6)
* object;file:                           Lecture et écriture de fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;file <1>:                       Objets fichiers.    (line    6)
* object;finalization:                   Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;floating-point:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* object;floating-point <1>:             Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;floating-point <2>:             Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;frame:                          Objets cadres.      (line    6)
* object;frozenset:                      Ensembles<2>.       (line   33)
* object;frozenset <1>:                  Set Objects.        (line    6)
* object;function:                       Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;function <1>:                   Fonctions natives.  (line    6)
* object;function <2>:                   Appels.             (line  141)
* object;function <3>:                   Appels.             (line  152)
* object;function <4>:                   Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;function <5>:                   Objets fonction.    (line    6)
* object;generator:                      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   89)
* object;generator <1>:                  Expressions génératrices.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;generator <2>:                  Expressions yield.  (line  116)
* object;GenericAlias:                   Type Alias générique.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;immutable:                      Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;immutable sequence:             Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;instance:                       Classes déclarées par le développeur.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;instance <1>:                   Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;instance <2>:                   Appels.             (line  162)
* object;instancemethod:                 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;integer:                        numbers Integral.   (line    6)
* object;integer <1>:                    Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;integer <2>:                    Objets Integer.     (line    6)
* object;io.StringIO:                    Type Séquence de Texte — str.
                                                             (line   40)
* object;list:                           Séquences mutables. (line   19)
* object;list <1>:                       Agencements de listes.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;list <2>:                       Références à des attributs.
                                                             (line   11)
* object;list <3>:                       sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;list <4>:                       Tranches.           (line    6)
* object;list <5>:                       Les assignations.   (line  114)
* object;list <6>:                       Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;list <7>:                       Listes<2>.          (line    6)
* object;list <8>:                       List Objects.       (line    6)
* object;long integer:                   Objets Integer.     (line    6)
* object;mapping:                        Tableaux de correspondances.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mapping <1>:                    Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* object;mapping <2>:                    sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mapping <3>:                    Les assignations.   (line  124)
* object;mapping <4>:                    Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mapping <5>:                    Objets conteneurs.  (line    6)
* object;memoryview:                     Séquences Binaires — bytes bytearray vue mémoire.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;memoryview <1>:                 Ellipsis Object.    (line   19)
* object;method:                         Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;method <1>:                     Méthodes natives.   (line    6)
* object;method <2>:                     Appels.             (line  152)
* object;method <3>:                     Méthodes.           (line    6)
* object;method <4>:                     Objets méthode<2>.  (line    6)
* object;module:                         Modules<3>.         (line    6)
* object;module <1>:                     Références à des attributs.
                                                             (line   11)
* object;module <2>:                     Module Objects.     (line    6)
* object;mutable:                        Séquences mutables. (line    6)
* object;mutable <1>:                    Les assignations.   (line    6)
* object;mutable <2>:                    Les assignations.   (line  108)
* object;mutable sequence:               Séquences mutables. (line    6)
* object;None:                           Les expressions.    (line   18)
* object;None <1>:                       L'objet None.       (line    6)
* object;NotImplemented:                 NotImplemented.     (line    6)
* object;numeric:                        numbers Number.     (line    6)
* object;numeric <1>:                    Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* object;numeric <2>:                    Comparaisons<2>.    (line   44)
* object;numeric <3>:                    Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;numeric <4>:                    Objets numériques.  (line    6)
* object;range:                          Ranges.             (line    6)
* object;sequence:                       Séquences.          (line    6)
* object;sequence <1>:                   Instances de classe<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* object;sequence <2>:                   sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;sequence <3>:                   Tranches.           (line    6)
* object;sequence <4>:                   Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   38)
* object;sequence <5>:                   Les assignations.   (line  114)
* object;sequence <6>:                   L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;sequence <7>:                   Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;sequence <8>:                   Objets séquences.   (line    6)
* object;set:                            Ensembles<2>.       (line   26)
* object;set <1>:                        Agencements d'ensembles.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;set <2>:                        Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;set <3>:                        Set Objects.        (line    6)
* object;set type:                       Ensembles<2>.       (line    6)
* object;slice:                          Émulation de types conteneurs.
                                                             (line   66)
* object;socket:                         socket --- Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* object;string:                         sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;string <1>:                     Tranches.           (line    6)
* object;string <2>:                     Ranges.             (line  128)
* object;traceback:                      Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;traceback <1>:                  L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line   21)
* object;traceback <2>:                  clause except.      (line   61)
* object;traceback <3>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  480)
* object;traceback <4>:                  traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;tuple:                          Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   30)
* object;tuple <1>:                      sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;tuple <2>:                      Tranches.           (line    6)
* object;tuple <3>:                      Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line   13)
* object;tuple <4>:                      Types de séquences immuables.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;tuple <5>:                      N-uplets.           (line    6)
* object;tuple <6>:                      Tuple Objects.      (line    6)
* object;type:                           Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2099)
* object;type <1>:                       Objects Types and Reference Counts.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;type <2>:                       Objets type<2>.     (line    6)
* object;Union:                          Type Union.         (line    6)
* object;user-defined function:          Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;user-defined function <1>:      Appels.             (line  141)
* object;user-defined function <2>:      Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;user-defined method:            Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* object.__match_args__ (variable de base): Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes.
                                                             (line   12)
* object.__slots__ (variable de base):   créneaux prédéfinis __slots__.
                                                             (line   15)
* objects;comparing:                     Comparaisons<2>.    (line   44)
* objet:                                 Glossaire.          (line 1152)
* objet fichier:                         Glossaire.          (line  510)
* objet fichier-compatible:              Glossaire.          (line  527)
* objet octet-compatible:                Glossaire.          (line  198)
* objet simili-chemin:                   Glossaire.          (line 1260)
* objets;method:                         Objets instances.   (line   27)
* objobjargproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  138)
* objobjproc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  134)
* octal literal:                         Littéraux numériques.
                                                             (line    6)
* octal;literals:                        Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* octdigits (dans le module string):     Chaînes constantes. (line   34)
* OCTOBER (dans le module calendar):     calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* offset (attribut SyntaxError):         Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  339)
* offset (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  150)
* offset (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* offset (attribut xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError): ExpatError Exceptions.
                                                             (line   32)
* offset_data (attribut tarfile.TarInfo): Les objets TarInfo.
                                                             (line  154)
* OK (dans le module curses):            Constantes<6>.      (line   13)
* OK (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  153)
* ok_command() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  150)
* ok_command() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  160)
* ok_event() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  127)
* OKCANCEL (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  171)
* old_value (attribut contextvars.Token): Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   90)
* OleDLL (classe dans ctypes):           Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line   36)
* on_motion() (méthode tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   60)
* on_release() (méthode tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   65)
* onclick() (dans le module turtle):     Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line   58)
* ondrag() (dans le module turtle):      Utilisation des événements.
                                                             (line   59)
* onecmd() (méthode cmd.Cmd):            Objets Cmd.         (line   60)
* onkey() (dans le module turtle):       Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line   12)
* onkeypress() (dans le module turtle):  Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line   36)
* onkeyrelease() (dans le module turtle): Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line   12)
* onrelease() (dans le module turtle):   Utilisation des événements.
                                                             (line   31)
* onscreenclick() (dans le module turtle): Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line   58)
* ontimer() (dans le module turtle):     Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran.
                                                             (line   89)
* OP (dans le module token):             token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   62)
* OP_ALL (dans le module ssl):           Constantes<9>.      (line  211)
* OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  300)
* OP_ENABLE_KTLS (dans le module ssl):   Constantes<9>.      (line  358)
* OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  324)
* OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  350)
* OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  375)
* OP_NO_COMPRESSION (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.     (line  333)
* OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.   (line  290)
* OP_NO_SSLv2 (dans le module ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  219)
* OP_NO_SSLv3 (dans le module ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  229)
* OP_NO_TICKET (dans le module ssl):     Constantes<9>.      (line  344)
* OP_NO_TLSv1 (dans le module ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  239)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (dans le module ssl):    Constantes<9>.      (line  251)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (dans le module ssl):    Constantes<9>.      (line  263)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (dans le module ssl):    Constantes<9>.      (line  275)
* OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.      (line  308)
* OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.    (line  316)
* Open (classe dans tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   62)
* open_binary() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line   35)
* open_code() (dans le module io):       Interface de haut niveau du module.
                                                             (line   22)
* open_connection() (dans le module asyncio): Flux streams.  (line   43)
* open_flags (dans le module dbm.gnu):   dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   75)
* open_new_tab() (dans le module webbrowser): webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   96)
* open_new_tab() (méthode webbrowser.controller): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* open_new() (dans le module webbrowser): webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   88)
* open_new() (méthode webbrowser.controller): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* open_osfhandle() (dans le module msvcrt): Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   44)
* open_resource() (méthode importlib.abc.ResourceReader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  470)
* open_resource() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   47)
* open_text() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line   51)
* open_unix_connection() (dans le module asyncio): Flux streams.
                                                             (line  119)
* open_unknown() (méthode urllib.request.URLopener): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  108)
* open_urlresource() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  580)
* open() (dans le module bz2):           Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (dans le module codecs):        codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  182)
* open() (dans le module dbm.dumb):      dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   29)
* open() (dans le module dbm.gnu):       dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   28)
* open() (dans le module dbm.ndbm):      dbm ndbm --- New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   38)
* open() (dans le module dbm.sqlite3):   dbm sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm.
                                                             (line   22)
* open() (dans le module dbm):           dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases".
                                                             (line   49)
* open() (dans le module gzip):          gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line   28)
* open() (dans le module io):            Interface de haut niveau du module.
                                                             (line   12)
* open() (dans le module lzma):          Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  386)
* open() (dans le module shelve):        shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   18)
* open() (dans le module tarfile):       tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line   50)
* open() (dans le module tokenize):      Analyse Lexicale.   (line  102)
* open() (dans le module wave):          wave --- Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   20)
* open() (dans le module webbrowser):    webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   68)
* open() (méthode de la classe tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  106)
* open() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  170)
* open() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  548)
* open() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  142)
* open() (méthode pathlib.Path):         Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (méthode urllib.request.OpenerDirector): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* open() (méthode urllib.request.URLopener): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   97)
* open() (méthode webbrowser.controller): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* open() (méthode zipfile.Path):         Objets Path.        (line   36)
* open() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):      Objets ZipFile.     (line  139)
* OpenerDirector (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  274)
* OpenKey() (dans le module winreg):     Fonctions<13>.      (line  286)
* OpenKeyEx() (dans le module winreg):   Fonctions<13>.      (line  286)
* openlog() (dans le module syslog):     syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   52)
* openpty() (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  495)
* openpty() (dans le module pty):        pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line   35)
* OPENSSL_VERSION (dans le module ssl):  Constantes<9>.      (line  479)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.  (line  489)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  499)
* OpenSSL;(use in module hashlib):       Algorithmes de hachage.
                                                             (line   21)
* OpenSSL;(use in module ssl):           ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* OperationalError:                      Exceptions<7>.      (line   57)
* operations on;dictionary;type:         Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;integer;types:           Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;list;type:               Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* operations on;mapping;types:           Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;numeric;types:           Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  105)
* operations on;sequence;types:          Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* operations on;sequence;types <1>:      Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator;- (minus):                    Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   11)
* operator;- (minus) <1>:                Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   86)
* operator;- (minus) <2>:                Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;!=:                           Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* operator;!= <1>:                       Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;@ (at):                       Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;* (asterisk):                 Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   17)
* operator;* (asterisk) <1>:             Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;**:                           L'opérateur puissance.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;** <1>:                       Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;/ (slash):                    Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   35)
* operator;/ (slash) <1>:                Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;//:                           Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   35)
* operator;// <1>:                       Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;& (ampersand):                Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   13)
* operator;& (ampersand) <1>:            Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;% (percent):                  Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   49)
* operator;% (percent) <1>:              Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;^ (caret):                    Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   17)
* operator;^ (caret) <1>:                Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;+ (plus):                     Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   15)
* operator;+ (plus) <1>:                 Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   77)
* operator;+ (plus) <2>:                 Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line   33)
* operator;< (less):                     Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* operator;< (less) <1>:                 Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;<<:                           Opérations de décalage.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;<< <1>:                       Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;<=:                           Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* operator;<= <1>:                       Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;==:                           Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* operator;== <1>:                       Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;> (greater):                  Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* operator;> (greater) <1>:              Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;>=:                           Comparaisons.       (line    6)
* operator;>= <1>:                       Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;>>:                           Opérations de décalage.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;>> <1>:                       Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;| (vertical bar):             Opérations binaires bit à bit.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator;| (vertical bar) <1>:         Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;~ (tilde):                    Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   19)
* operator;~ (tilde) <1>:                Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;and:                          Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator;and <1>:                      Valeurs booléennes. (line   24)
* operator;and <2>:                      Opérations booléennes — and or not.
                                                             (line   24)
* operator;comparison:                   Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;in:                           Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   38)
* operator;in <1>:                       Comparaisons<2>.    (line   68)
* operator;in <2>:                       Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;is:                           Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   41)
* operator;is <1>:                       Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;is not:                       Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   41)
* operator;is not <1>:                   Comparaisons<2>.    (line    6)
* operator;not:                          Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator;not <1>:                      Opérations booléennes — and or not.
                                                             (line   24)
* operator;not in:                       Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble.
                                                             (line   38)
* operator;not in <1>:                   Comparaisons<2>.    (line   68)
* operator;not in <2>:                   Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;or:                           Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   25)
* operator;or <1>:                       Valeurs booléennes. (line   24)
* operator;or <2>:                       Opérations booléennes — and or not.
                                                             (line   24)
* operator;overloading:                  Méthodes spéciales. (line    6)
* operator;precedence:                   Priorités des opérateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* operators:                             Opérateurs.         (line    6)
* opmap (dans le module dis):            Opcode collections. (line   17)
* opname (dans le module dis):           Opcode collections. (line   13)
* OPT:                                   Debug options.      (line   39)
* optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  323)
* optimize (attribut sys.flags):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  563)
* optimize() (dans le module pickletools): Programmatic Interface<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* optimized scope:                       Glossaire.          (line 1159)
* OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (dans le module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   30)
* Option (classe dans optparse):         Option attributes.  (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -a:   Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   29)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -h:   Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -help: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -i:   Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -include-attributes: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   29)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -indent: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -m:   Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -mode: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande ast; -no-type-comments: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -c: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  117)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -css: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  117)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -e: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   66)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -encoding: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   66)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -f: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   75)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -first-weekday: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   75)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -h: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   57)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -help: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   57)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -L: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   61)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -l: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  100)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -lines: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  100)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -locale: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   61)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -m: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  111)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -months: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  111)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -s: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  106)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -spacing: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  106)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -t: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   71)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -type: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   71)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -w: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   94)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; -width: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   94)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; month: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   86)
* option de ligne de commande calendar; year: Utilisation en ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   82)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -b: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   62)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -d: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -e: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line  104)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -f: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -hardlink-dupes: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line  108)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -i: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   56)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -invalidation-mode: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   84)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -j: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   78)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -l: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -o: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   98)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -p: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   45)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -q: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -r: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   71)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -s: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   43)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; -x: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   51)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; directory: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line    9)
* option de ligne de commande compileall; file: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line    9)
* option de ligne de commande cProfile; -m: Instant User's Manual.
                                                             (line   99)
* option de ligne de commande cProfile; -o: Instant User's Manual.
                                                             (line   89)
* option de ligne de commande cProfile; -s: Instant User's Manual.
                                                             (line   93)
* option de ligne de commande dis; -C:   Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande dis; -h:   Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande dis; -help: Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande dis; -O:   Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande dis; -show-caches: Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande dis; -show-offsets: Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande doctest; -f: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   35)
* option de ligne de commande doctest; -fail-fast: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   35)
* option de ligne de commande doctest; -o: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   28)
* option de ligne de commande doctest; -option: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   28)
* option de ligne de commande doctest; -v: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande doctest; -verbose: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande ensurepip; -altinstall: Interface en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   40)
* option de ligne de commande ensurepip; -default-pip: Interface en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   45)
* option de ligne de commande ensurepip; -root: Interface en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   24)
* option de ligne de commande ensurepip; -user: Interface en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   30)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; -best: Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; -d:  Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; -decompress: Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; -fast: Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; -h:  Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; -help: Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande gzip; file: Options de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -b: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -bind: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -cgi: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -d: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -directory: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -p: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; -protocol: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* option de ligne de commande http.server; port: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -:   Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   49)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -c:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -d:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -e:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -h:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -i:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   31)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -r:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   35)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -s:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   39)
* option de ligne de commande idle; -t:  Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   45)
* option de ligne de commande inspect; -details: Interface en ligne de commande<9>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -compact: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   48)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -h: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   54)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -help: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   54)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -indent: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   48)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -json-lines: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   42)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -no-ensure-ascii: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   35)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -no-indent: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   48)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -sort-keys: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   29)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; -tab: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   48)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; infile: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande json.tool; outfile: Options de la ligne de commande<4>.
                                                             (line   24)
* option de ligne de commande pdb; -c:   pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line   86)
* option de ligne de commande pdb; -command: pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line   86)
* option de ligne de commande pdb; -m:   pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line   93)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -a: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -annotate: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -indentlevel: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -l: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -m: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -memo: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -o: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -output: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -p: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande pickletools; -preamble: Options de la ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-py_compile; -: Interface en ligne de commande<11>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-py_compile; -q: Interface en ligne de commande<11>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-py_compile; -quiet: Interface en ligne de commande<11>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-py_compile; <file>: Interface en ligne de commande<11>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql]; -h: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql]; -help: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql]; -v: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql]; -version: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande random; -c: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande random; -choice: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande random; -f: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   29)
* option de ligne de commande random; -float: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   29)
* option de ligne de commande random; -h: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande random; -help: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande random; -i: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande random; -integer: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande site; -user-base: Interface en ligne de commande<10>.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande site; -user-site: Interface en ligne de commande<10>.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -c: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -create: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -e: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -extract: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -filter: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -l: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -list: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -t: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -test: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -v: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande tarfile; -verbose: Options de la ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -h: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   46)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -help: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   46)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -n: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -number: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -p: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   26)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -process: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   26)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -r: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -repeat: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -s: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -setup: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -u: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -unit: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -v: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   41)
* option de ligne de commande timeit; -verbose: Interface en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   41)
* option de ligne de commande tokenize; -e: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande tokenize; -exact: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande tokenize; -h: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande tokenize; -help: Utilisation en ligne de commande<6>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -c: Main options.       (line   12)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -C: Modifiers.          (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -count: Main options.   (line   12)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -coverdir: Modifiers.   (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -f: Modifiers.          (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -file: Modifiers.       (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -g: Modifiers.          (line   33)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -help: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -ignore-dir: Filters.   (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -ignore-module: Filters.
                                                             (line    8)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -l: Main options.       (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -listfuncs: Main options.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -m: Modifiers.          (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -missing: Modifiers.    (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -no-report: Modifiers.  (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -r: Main options.       (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -R: Modifiers.          (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -report: Main options.  (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -s: Modifiers.          (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -summary: Modifiers.    (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -t: Main options.       (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -T: Main options.       (line   33)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -timing: Modifiers.     (line   33)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -trace: Main options.   (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -trackcalls: Main options.
                                                             (line   33)
* option de ligne de commande trace; -version: Utilisation en ligne de commande<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -p: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   36)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -pattern: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   36)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -s: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -start-directory: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -t: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   40)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -top-level-directory: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   40)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -v: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   28)
* option de ligne de commande unittest-discover; -verbose: Découverte des tests.
                                                             (line   28)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -b: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line    8)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -buffer: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line    8)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -c: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -catch: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -durations: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   53)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -f: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   26)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -failfast: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   26)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -k: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   31)
* option de ligne de commande unittest; -locals: Options de la ligne de commande<5>.
                                                             (line   49)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -h:  Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -help: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -n:  Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -N:  Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -name: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -namespace: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -u:  Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande uuid; -uuid: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* option de ligne de commande webbrowser; -n: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   46)
* option de ligne de commande webbrowser; -new-tab: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   50)
* option de ligne de commande webbrowser; -new-window: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   46)
* option de ligne de commande webbrowser; -t: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   50)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -c: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   48)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -compress: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   48)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -h: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   65)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -help: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   65)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -info: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   59)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -m: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   37)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -main: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   37)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -o: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -output: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -p: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   30)
* option de ligne de commande zipapp; -python: Interface en ligne de commande<8>.
                                                             (line   30)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -c: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -create: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -e: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -extract: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -l: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -list: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -metadata-encoding: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -t: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande zipfile; -test: Options de la ligne de commande<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande; -?:       Options génériques. (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -b:       Options diverses.   (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -B:       Options diverses.   (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande; -build:   Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   12)
* option de ligne de commande; -c:       Options de l'interface.
                                                             (line   41)
* option de ligne de commande; -check-hash-based-pycs: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande; -d:       Options diverses.   (line   37)
* option de ligne de commande; -disable-gil: Options générales.
                                                             (line  227)
* option de ligne de commande; -disable-ipv6: Options générales.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande; -disable-test-modules: Options d'installation.
                                                             (line   24)
* option de ligne de commande; -E:       Options diverses.   (line   45)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-big-digits: Options générales.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-bolt: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   66)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-experimental-jit: Options générales.
                                                             (line  239)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-framework: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-framework <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-framework <2>: iOS Options.
                                                             (line    8)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: Options générales.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-optimizations: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-profiling: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  132)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-pystats: Options générales.
                                                             (line  133)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-shared: Linker options<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-universalsdk: macOS Options.
                                                             (line    8)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-universalsdk <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: Options de WebAssembly.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande; -enable-wasm-pthreads: Options de WebAssembly.
                                                             (line   27)
* option de ligne de commande; -exec-prefix: Options d'installation.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande; -h:       Options génériques. (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -help:    Options génériques. (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -help-all: Options génériques.
                                                             (line   28)
* option de ligne de commande; -help-env: Options génériques.
                                                             (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande; -help-xoptions: Options génériques.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande; -host:    Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* option de ligne de commande; -i:       Options diverses.   (line   53)
* option de ligne de commande; -I:       Options diverses.   (line   74)
* option de ligne de commande; -J:       Options à ne pas utiliser.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -m:       Options de l'interface.
                                                             (line   56)
* option de ligne de commande; -O:       Options diverses.   (line   86)
* option de ligne de commande; -OO:      Options diverses.   (line   97)
* option de ligne de commande; -P:       Options diverses.   (line  106)
* option de ligne de commande; -prefix:  Options d'installation.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -q:       Options diverses.   (line  128)
* option de ligne de commande; -R:       Options diverses.   (line  134)
* option de ligne de commande; -s:       Options diverses.   (line  160)
* option de ligne de commande; -S:       Options diverses.   (line  172)
* option de ligne de commande; -u:       Options diverses.   (line  180)
* option de ligne de commande; -V:       Options génériques. (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande; -v:       Options diverses.   (line  191)
* option de ligne de commande; -version: Options génériques. (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande; -W:       Options diverses.   (line  206)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-address-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   59)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-app-store-compliance: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   56)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-app-store-compliance <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   58)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-assertions: Debug options.
                                                             (line   34)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-build-python: Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   20)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: Security Options.
                                                             (line   21)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-computed-gotos: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  103)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-dbmliborder: Options générales.
                                                             (line   68)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-dtrace: Debug options.  (line   51)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-emscripten-target: Options de WebAssembly.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-ensurepip: Options d'installation.
                                                             (line   32)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-framework-name: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   51)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-framework-name <1>: iOS Options.
                                                             (line   13)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-hash-algorithm: Security Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-libc: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   58)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-libm: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   53)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-libs: Libraries options.
                                                             (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-lto: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   49)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-memory-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   66)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-openssl: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   63)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-openssl-rpath: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   69)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-pkg-config: Options générales.
                                                             (line  119)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-platlibdir: Options générales.
                                                             (line   97)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-pydebug: Debug options. (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-readline: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   35)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-ssl-default-suites: Security Options.
                                                             (line   40)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-strict-overflow: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  136)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-suffix: Options générales.
                                                             (line   32)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-system-expat: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-system-libmpdec: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-thread-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   80)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-trace-refs: Debug options.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-tzpath: Options générales.
                                                             (line   44)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   73)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-universal-archs: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   23)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-valgrind: Debug options.
                                                             (line   47)
* option de ligne de commande; -with-wheel-pkg-dir: Options générales.
                                                             (line  107)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-c-locale-coercion: Options générales.
                                                             (line   82)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-decimal-contextvar: Options générales.
                                                             (line   57)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-doc-strings: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  122)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-freelists: Options générales.
                                                             (line   91)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-mimalloc: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  108)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-pymalloc: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  115)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-readline: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   45)
* option de ligne de commande; -without-static-libpython: Linker options<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* option de ligne de commande; -x:       Options diverses.   (line  275)
* option de ligne de commande; -X:       Options diverses.   (line  281)
* option de ligne de commande; BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   91)
* option de ligne de commande; BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   97)
* option de ligne de commande; BZIP2_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line    8)
* option de ligne de commande; BZIP2_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande; CC:       C compiler options. (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; CFLAGS:   C compiler options. (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande; CONFIG_SITE: Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* option de ligne de commande; CPP:      C compiler options. (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande; CPPFLAGS: C compiler options. (line   18)
* option de ligne de commande; CURSES_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   15)
* option de ligne de commande; CURSES_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   17)
* option de ligne de commande; GDBM_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   22)
* option de ligne de commande; GDBM_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   24)
* option de ligne de commande; HOSTRUNNER: Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   38)
* option de ligne de commande; LDFLAGS:  Linker options.     (line    6)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBB2_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   28)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBB2_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   30)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBEDIT_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   35)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBEDIT_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   37)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBFFI_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   42)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBFFI_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   44)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBLZMA_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   59)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBLZMA_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   61)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   49)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBMPDEC_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   51)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   66)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBREADLINE_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   68)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBS:     Linker options.     (line   10)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   73)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBSQLITE3_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   75)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBUUID_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   80)
* option de ligne de commande; LIBUUID_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   82)
* option de ligne de commande; MACHDEP:  Linker options.     (line   14)
* option de ligne de commande; PANEL_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   87)
* option de ligne de commande; PANEL_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   89)
* option de ligne de commande; PKG_CONFIG: Options générales.
                                                             (line  261)
* option de ligne de commande; PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR: Options générales.
                                                             (line  265)
* option de ligne de commande; PKG_CONFIG_PATH: Options générales.
                                                             (line  267)
* option de ligne de commande; TCLTK_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   96)
* option de ligne de commande; TCLTK_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   98)
* option de ligne de commande; ZLIB_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  102)
* option de ligne de commande; ZLIB_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  104)
* Optional (dans le module typing):      Special forms.      (line   47)
* OptionConflictError:                   Exceptions<10>.     (line   11)
* OptionError:                           Exceptions<10>.     (line    6)
* OptionGroup (classe dans optparse):    Grouping Options.   (line   12)
* OptionParser (classe dans optparse):   Creating the parser.
                                                             (line    9)
* options (attribut doctest.Example):    Exemples d'objets.  (line   53)
* options (attribut ssl.SSLContext):     SSL Contexts.       (line  575)
* Options (classe dans ssl):             Constantes<9>.      (line  340)
* options() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  139)
* OptionValueError:                      Exceptions<10>.     (line   16)
* optionxform() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  321)
* Or (classe dans ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line   93)
* or_() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  141)
* ordered_attributes (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  145)
* OrderedDict (classe dans collections): Objets OrderedDict. (line   62)
* OrderedDict (classe dans typing):      Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   17)
* ordre de résolution des méthodes:      Glossaire.          (line 1040)
* orig_argv (dans le module sys):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1361)
* origin (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  394)
* origin_req_host (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* origin_server (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  295)
* os_environ (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  169)
* OSError:                               Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  150)
* OUT_TO_DEFAULT (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   20)
* OUT_TO_MSGBOX (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   30)
* OUT_TO_STDERR (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* output:                                Les expressions.    (line   18)
* output (attribut subprocess.CalledProcessError): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  232)
* output (attribut subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  189)
* output (attribut unittest.TestCase):   Scénarios de tests. (line  474)
* output_charset (attribut email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   82)
* output_codec (attribut email.charset.Charset): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   96)
* output_difference() (méthode doctest.OutputChecker): Objets OutputChecker.
                                                             (line   28)
* output() (méthode http.cookies.BaseCookie): Objets Cookie. (line   25)
* output() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.     (line   68)
* OutputChecker (classe dans doctest):   Objets OutputChecker.
                                                             (line    6)
* OutputString() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.
                                                             (line   85)
* OutsideDestinationError:               tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  261)
* Overflow (classe dans decimal):        Signaux.            (line   67)
* OverflowError:                         Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  218)
* OverflowError (built-in exception):    Objets Integer.     (line  142)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <1>: Objets Integer.    (line  199)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <2>: Objets Integer.    (line  243)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <3>: Objets Integer.    (line  255)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <4>: Objets Integer.    (line  267)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <5>: Objets Integer.    (line  280)
* overlap() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line  106)
* overlaps() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau. (line  154)
* overlaps() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau. (line  339)
* overlay() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  430)
* overload() (dans le module typing):    Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  245)
* override() (dans le module typing):    Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  372)
* overwrite() (méthode curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  443)
* owner() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Permissions et propriété.
                                                             (line    6)
* p (pdb command):                       Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  284)
* P_ALL (dans le module os):             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1006)
* P_DETACH (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  726)
* P_NOWAIT (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  706)
* P_NOWAITO (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  706)
* P_OVERLAY (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  726)
* P_PGID (dans le module os):            Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1006)
* P_PID (dans le module os):             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1006)
* P_PIDFD (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1006)
* P_WAIT (dans le module os):            Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  716)
* pack_into() (dans le module struct):   Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* pack_into() (méthode struct.Struct):   Classes<3>.         (line   29)
* pack() (dans le module struct):        Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line   13)
* pack() (méthode mailbox.MH):           MH objects.         (line   67)
* pack() (méthode struct.Struct):        Classes<3>.         (line   24)
* package:                               site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   74)
* package variable;__all__:              Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PackageMetadata (classe dans importlib.metadata): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   14)
* PackageNotFoundError:                  Aperçu<3>.          (line   35)
* PackagePath (classe dans importlib.metadata): Distribution files.
                                                             (line   18)
* packages_distributions() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Mapping import to distribution packages.
                                                             (line    6)
* packed (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.   (line   74)
* packed (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.   (line  264)
* packing (widgets):                     L'empaqueteur.      (line    6)
* packing;binary;data:                   struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
                                                             (line    8)
* PAGER:                                 pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* pair_content() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.      (line  380)
* pair_number() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.       (line  386)
* pairwise() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line  415)
* paquet:                                Glossaire.          (line 1170)
* paquet classique:                      Glossaire.          (line 1391)
* paquet provisoire:                     Glossaire.          (line 1322)
* paquet-espace de nommage:              Glossaire.          (line 1115)
* Parameter (classe dans inspect):       Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  193)
* parameter;call semantics:              Appels.             (line   26)
* parameter;difference from argument:    Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?.
                                                             (line   17)
* parameter;function definition:         Filtres de classes. (line  146)
* ParameterizedMIMEHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  271)
* parameters (attribut inspect.Signature): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  106)
* paramètre:                             Glossaire.          (line 1179)
* params (attribut email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  280)
* ParamSpec (classe dans ast):           Type parameters.    (line   36)
* ParamSpec (classe dans typing):        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  351)
* ParamSpecArgs (dans le module typing): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  471)
* ParamSpecKwargs (dans le module typing): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  471)
* paramstyle (dans le module sqlite3):   Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   70)
* pardir (dans le module os):            Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  115)
* parent (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  430)
* parent (attribut logging.Logger):      Enregistreurs.      (line   42)
* parent (attribut pathlib.PurePath):    Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line   96)
* parent (attribut pyclbr.Class):        Objets classes<2>.  (line   28)
* parent (attribut pyclbr.Function):     Objets fonctions.   (line   27)
* parent (attribut urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* parent_process() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* parent() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.     (line  232)
* parenthesized form:                    Formes parenthésées.
                                                             (line    6)
* parentNode (attribut xml.dom.Node):    Objets nœuds.       (line   17)
* parents (attribut collections.ChainMap): Objets ChainMap.  (line   67)
* parents (attribut pathlib.PurePath):   Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line   79)
* paretovariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line  105)
* parse_and_bind() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'initialisation.
                                                             (line    9)
* parse_args() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): La méthode parse_args.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_args() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Analyse des arguments.
                                                             (line    9)
* PARSE_COLNAMES (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   35)
* parse_config_h() (dans le module sysconfig): Autres fonctions<3>.
                                                             (line   59)
* PARSE_DECLTYPES (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   13)
* parse_headers() (dans le module http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  116)
* parse_intermixed_args() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Analyse entremêlée.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_args() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Analyse partielle.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_intermixed_args() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Analyse entremêlée.
                                                             (line    9)
* parse_qs() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.     (line  153)
* parse_qsl() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.    (line  200)
* parse() (dans le module ast):          Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line   10)
* parse() (dans le module xml.dom.minidom): xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line   38)
* parse() (dans le module xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   89)
* parse() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  187)
* parse() (dans le module xml.sax):      xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   42)
* parse() (méthode doctest.DocTestParser): Objets DocTestParser.
                                                             (line   32)
* parse() (méthode email.parser.BytesParser): API de Parser. (line   35)
* parse() (méthode email.parser.Parser): API de Parser.      (line   89)
* parse() (méthode string.Formatter):    Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   45)
* parse() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   31)
* parse() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   57)
* Parse() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* parseaddr() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   61)
* parsebytes() (méthode email.parser.BytesParser): API de Parser.
                                                             (line   56)
* parsedate_to_datetime() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  136)
* parsedate_tz() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  124)
* parsedate() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  112)
* ParseError (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Exceptions<19>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ParseFile() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* ParseFlags() (dans le module imaplib): imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  125)
* parser:                                Analyse lexicale.   (line    6)
* parser (attribut pathlib.PurePath):    Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line    8)
* Parser (classe dans email.parser):     API de Parser.      (line   78)
* ParserCreate() (dans le module xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   46)
* ParseResult (classe dans urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   48)
* ParseResultBytes (classe dans urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   73)
* parsestr() (méthode email.parser.Parser): API de Parser.   (line  100)
* parseString() (dans le module xml.dom.minidom): xml dom minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line   53)
* parseString() (dans le module xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line  104)
* parseString() (dans le module xml.sax): xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   54)
* ParsingError:                          Exceptions<8>.      (line   65)
* partial (attribut asyncio.IncompleteReadError): Exceptions<13>.
                                                             (line   58)
* partial() (dans le module functools):  functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  325)
* partial() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  189)
* partialmethod (classe dans functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  356)
* parties (attribut asyncio.Barrier):    Barrière Barrier.   (line   97)
* parties (attribut threading.Barrier):  Barrier Objects.    (line   93)
* partition() (méthode bytearray):       Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  197)
* partition() (méthode bytes):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  197)
* partition() (méthode str):             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  392)
* parts (attribut pathlib.PurePath):     Accéder aux parties individuelles.
                                                             (line    9)
* Pass (classe dans ast):                Instructions<2>.    (line  159)
* pass_() (méthode poplib.POP3):         POP3 Objects.       (line   36)
* patch.dict() (dans le module unittest.mock): patch dict.   (line    6)
* patch.multiple() (dans le module unittest.mock): patch multiple.
                                                             (line    6)
* patch.object() (dans le module unittest.mock): patch object.
                                                             (line    6)
* patch.stopall() (dans le module unittest.mock): patch methods start and stop.
                                                             (line   70)
* patch() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  651)
* patch() (dans le module unittest.mock): patch.             (line    9)
* PATH:                                  Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  144)
* PATH <1>:                              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PATH <2>:                              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <3>:                              Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PATH <4>:                              macOS<6>.           (line   14)
* PATH <5>:                              Windows<21>.        (line   56)
* PATH <6>:                              Windows<25>.        (line   14)
* PATH <7>:                              Security<34>.       (line   16)
* PATH <8>:                              Security<34>.       (line   20)
* PATH <9>:                              Les dossiers de recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   17)
* PATH <10>:                             Scripts Python exécutables.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <11>:                             Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   29)
* PATH <12>:                             Divers.             (line   16)
* PATH <13>:                             Étapes d'installation.
                                                             (line   36)
* PATH <14>:                             Étapes d'installation.
                                                             (line   63)
* PATH <15>:                             Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   82)
* PATH <16>:                             Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   87)
* PATH <17>:                             Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <18>:                             Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   37)
* PATH <19>:                             Trouver l'exécutable Python.
                                                             (line   15)
* PATH <20>:                             Trouver l'exécutable Python.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <21>:                             Trouver l'exécutable Python.
                                                             (line   26)
* PATH <22>:                             Lanceur Python pour Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* PATH <23>:                             Depuis la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line    9)
* PATH <24>:                             Lignes Shebang.     (line   56)
* PATH <25>:                             Lignes Shebang.     (line   62)
* PATH <26>:                             Lignes Shebang.     (line   64)
* PATH <27>:                             Lignes Shebang.     (line   69)
* PATH <28>:                             Comparaison aux modules os et os path.
                                                             (line   41)
* PATH <29>:                             Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  431)
* PATH <30>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   47)
* PATH <31>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   90)
* PATH <32>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   93)
* PATH <33>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   96)
* PATH <34>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  566)
* PATH <35>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  658)
* PATH <36>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  662)
* PATH <37>:                             Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  665)
* PATH <38>:                             Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  149)
* PATH <39>:                             Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line   36)
* PATH <40>:                             webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  241)
* PATH <41>:                             How venvs work.     (line   16)
* PATH <42>:                             How venvs work.     (line   62)
* PATH <43>:                             How venvs work.     (line   67)
* PATH <44>:                             site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   66)
* PATH <45>:                             Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* PATH <46>:                             Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PATH <47>:                             Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <48>:                             Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?.
                                                             (line   28)
* path (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   45)
* path (attribut http.cookies.Morsel):   Objets Morsel.      (line   14)
* path (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  106)
* path (attribut ImportError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   59)
* path (attribut importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  309)
* path (attribut importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  506)
* path (attribut importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  311)
* path (attribut importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  180)
* path (attribut importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  217)
* path (attribut importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  261)
* path (attribut os.DirEntry):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1015)
* Path (classe dans pathlib):            Chemins concrets.   (line   11)
* Path (classe dans zipfile):            Objets Path.        (line    6)
* path (dans le module sys):             sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1374)
* path (in module sys):                  Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* path (in module sys) <1>:              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* path (in module sys) <2>:              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  136)
* Path browser:                          Menu File Console et Éditeur.
                                                             (line   24)
* path_hook() (méthode de la classe importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  195)
* path_hooks (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1408)
* path_importer_cache (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1417)
* path_mtime() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  375)
* path_return_ok() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* path_stats() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  353)
* path_stats() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  226)
* path;configuration;file:               site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   74)
* path;operations:                       pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet.
                                                             (line   10)
* path;operations <1>:                   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line    9)
* Path.stem (dans le module zipfile):    Objets Path.        (line   90)
* Path.suffix (dans le module zipfile):  Objets Path.        (line   82)
* Path.suffixes (dans le module zipfile): Objets Path.       (line   96)
* path() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line  110)
* pathconf_names (dans le module os):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  707)
* pathconf() (dans le module os):        Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  680)
* PathEntryFinder (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   59)
* PATHEXT:                               Autres Améliorations<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PATHEXT <1>:                           Library<40>.        (line  138)
* PATHEXT <2>:                           Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   82)
* PATHEXT <3>:                           Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   87)
* PATHEXT <4>:                           Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  442)
* PathFinder (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  108)
* PathLike (classe dans os):             Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  123)
* pathname2url() (dans le module urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  144)
* pathsep (dans le module os):           Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  145)
* pattern (attribut re.Pattern):         Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  127)
* pattern (attribut re.PatternError):    Exceptions<3>.      (line   19)
* Pattern (classe dans re):              Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line    6)
* Pattern (classe dans typing):          Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line    6)
* pattern matching:                      L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PatternError:                          Exceptions<3>.      (line    6)
* pause_reading() (méthode asyncio.ReadTransport): Transports en lecture seule.
                                                             (line   12)
* pause_writing() (méthode asyncio.BaseProtocol): Protocoles de base<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* pause() (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  312)
* PAX_FORMAT (dans le module tarfile):   tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  345)
* pax_headers (attribut tarfile.TarFile): Les objets TarFile.
                                                             (line  350)
* pax_headers (attribut tarfile.TarInfo): Les objets TarInfo.
                                                             (line  162)
* pbkdf2_hmac() (dans le module hashlib): Dérivation de clé. (line   12)
* pd() (dans le module turtle):          État des stylos.    (line    6)
* Pdb (class in pdb):                    pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line   18)
* Pdb (classe dans pdb):                 pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  198)
* pdf() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.  (line   76)
* peek() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):          Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line   77)
* peek() (méthode gzip.GzipFile):        gzip --- Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  136)
* peek() (méthode io.BufferedReader):    Buffered Streams.   (line   76)
* peek() (méthode lzma.LZMAFile):        Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.
                                                             (line   89)
* peek() (méthode weakref.finalize):     weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  307)
* PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (dans le module ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   57)
* pen() (dans le module turtle):         État des stylos.    (line   34)
* pencolor() (dans le module turtle):    Réglage des couleurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* pending (attribut ssl.MemoryBIO):      Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  139)
* pending() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket):     SSL Sockets.        (line  335)
* PendingDeprecationWarning:             Avertissements.     (line   31)
* pendown() (dans le module turtle):     État des stylos.    (line    6)
* pensize() (dans le module turtle):     État des stylos.    (line   18)
* penup() (dans le module turtle):       État des stylos.    (line   12)
* PEP:                                   Glossaire.          (line 1273)
* PERCENT (dans le module token):        token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  229)
* PERCENTEQUAL (dans le module token):   token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  277)
* perf_counter_ns() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.     (line  249)
* perf_counter() (dans le module time):  Fonctions<5>.       (line  224)
* Performance:                           timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets.
                                                             (line    8)
* perm() (dans le module math):          Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   66)
* PermissionError:                       Exceptions système. (line   98)
* permutations() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  438)
* persistence:                           pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* persistent_id (pickle protocol):       Persistance d'objets externes.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_id() (méthode pickle.Pickler): Interface du module.
                                                             (line  167)
* persistent_load (pickle protocol):     Persistance d'objets externes.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_load() (méthode pickle.Unpickler): Interface du module.
                                                             (line  293)
* persistent;objects:                    pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* PF_CAN (dans le module socket):        Constantes<8>.      (line  128)
* PF_DIVERT (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  204)
* PF_PACKET (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  214)
* PF_RDS (dans le module socket):        Constantes<8>.      (line  236)
* pformat() (dans le module pprint):     Fonctions<4>.       (line   80)
* pformat() (méthode pprint.PrettyPrinter): Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line   52)
* pgettext() (dans le module gettext):   API GNU gettext.    (line   66)
* pgettext() (méthode gettext.GNUTranslations): La classe GNUTranslations.
                                                             (line   70)
* pgettext() (méthode gettext.NullTranslations): La classe NullTranslations.
                                                             (line   49)
* PGO (dans le module test.support):     test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  107)
* phase() (dans le module cmath):        Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires.
                                                             (line   23)
* Philbrick, Geoff:                      Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension.
                                                             (line   27)
* physical line:                         Lignes logiques.    (line    6)
* physical line <1>:                     Continuation de ligne explicite.
                                                             (line    6)
* physical line <2>:                     Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* pi (dans le module cmath):             Constantes<3>.      (line    6)
* pi (dans le module math):              Constantes<2>.      (line    6)
* pi() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   63)
* pickle() (dans le module copyreg):     copyreg --- Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* PickleBuffer (classe dans pickle):     Interface du module.
                                                             (line  326)
* PickleError:                           Interface du module.
                                                             (line   99)
* Pickler (classe dans pickle):          Interface du module.
                                                             (line  125)
* pickling;objects:                      pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* PicklingError:                         Interface du module.
                                                             (line  104)
* pid (attribut asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  144)
* pid (attribut multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  124)
* pid (attribut subprocess.Popen):       Objets Popen.       (line  151)
* PIDFD_NONBLOCK (dans le module os):    Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  397)
* pidfd_open() (dans le module os):      Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  384)
* pidfd_send_signal() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  330)
* PidfdChildWatcher (classe dans asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line  167)
* PIP_USER:                              Windows<42>.        (line  102)
* PIPE (dans le module subprocess):      Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  157)
* PIPE_BUF (dans le module select):      select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  163)
* pipe_connection_lost() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessProtocol): Protocoles liés aux sous-processus.
                                                             (line   19)
* pipe_data_received() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessProtocol): Protocoles liés aux sous-processus.
                                                             (line   10)
* PIPE_MAX_SIZE (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  111)
* Pipe() (dans le module multiprocessing): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line   86)
* pipe() (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  508)
* pipe2() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  520)
* placeholder (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  292)
* platform (dans le module sys):         sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1428)
* platform (in module sys):              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  173)
* platform() (dans le module platform):  Multiplateformes.   (line   48)
* platlibdir (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1493)
* PlaySound() (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   20)
* plist;file:                            plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    8)
* plock() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  409)
* plus:                                  Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line   15)
* PLUS (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  199)
* plus() (méthode decimal.Context):      Objets de contexte. (line  445)
* PLUSEQUAL (dans le module token):      token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  265)
* pm() (dans le module pdb):             pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  188)
* point d'entrée pour la recherche dans path: Glossaire.     (line 1248)
* POINTER() (dans le module ctypes):     Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  159)
* pointer() (dans le module ctypes):     Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  165)
* points d'entrée d'importation:         Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* points d'entrée de chemin de fichier:  Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* points d'entrée;chemin:                Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* points d'entrée;importation:           Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* points d'entrée;méta:                  Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation.
                                                             (line    6)
* polar() (dans le module cmath):        Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires.
                                                             (line   41)
* Policy (classe dans email.policy):     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* poll() (dans le module select):        select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   90)
* poll() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   44)
* poll() (méthode select.devpoll):       /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* poll() (méthode select.epoll):         Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* poll() (méthode select.poll):          Polling Objects.    (line   77)
* poll() (méthode subprocess.Popen):     Objets Popen.       (line    9)
* PollSelector (classe dans selectors):  Classes<4>.         (line  171)
* Pool (classe dans multiprocessing.pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line    9)
* pop_all() (méthode contextlib.ExitStack): Utilitaires.     (line  610)
* POP_BLOCK (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1429)
* POP_EXCEPT (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  441)
* POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode):            Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  867)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  893)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (opcode):         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  883)
* POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  851)
* pop_source() (méthode shlex.shlex):    shlex Objects.      (line   63)
* POP_TOP (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  139)
* pop() (méthode array.array):           array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  219)
* pop() (méthode collections.deque):     Objets deque.       (line   91)
* pop() (méthode dict):                  Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  183)
* pop() (méthode frozenset):             Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  220)
* pop() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):       Mailbox objects.    (line  221)
* pop() (sequence method):               Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* POP3 (classe dans poplib):             poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   34)
* POP3_SSL (classe dans poplib):         poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   54)
* POP3;protocol:                         poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* Popen (classe dans subprocess):        Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line   11)
* popen() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  417)
* popen() (in module os):                Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* popen() (in module os) <1>:            select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  144)
* popitem() (méthode collections.OrderedDict): Objets OrderedDict.
                                                             (line   70)
* popitem() (méthode dict):              Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  190)
* popitem() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):   Mailbox objects.    (line  230)
* popleft() (méthode collections.deque): Objets deque.       (line   97)
* port (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   36)
* port_specified (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* portée imbriquée:                      Glossaire.          (line 1131)
* portion:                               Glossaire.          (line 1291)
* pos (attribut json.JSONDecodeError):   Exceptions<17>.     (line   19)
* pos (attribut re.Match):               Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  182)
* pos (attribut re.PatternError):        Exceptions<3>.      (line   23)
* pos() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  146)
* pos() (dans le module turtle):         Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line    6)
* position (attribut xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError): Exceptions<19>.
                                                             (line   20)
* position() (dans le module turtle):    Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line    6)
* positions (attribut inspect.FrameInfo): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   42)
* positions (attribut inspect.Traceback): La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   83)
* Positions (classe dans dis):           Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  110)
* Positions.col_offset (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  119)
* Positions.end_col_offset (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  121)
* Positions.end_lineno (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  117)
* Positions.lineno (dans le module dis): Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  115)
* POSIX Shared Memory:                   multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  557)
* POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  557)
* POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  557)
* POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  557)
* POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  557)
* POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  557)
* posix_fadvise() (dans le module os):   Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  542)
* posix_fallocate() (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  532)
* posix_openpt() (dans le module os):    Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  584)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE (dans le module os): Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  485)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM (dans le module os): Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  497)
* POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2 (dans le module os):  Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  491)
* POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN (dans le module os):  Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  479)
* posix_spawn() (dans le module os):     Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  456)
* posix_spawnp() (dans le module os):    Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  558)
* POSIX;I/O control:                     termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* PosixPath (classe dans pathlib):       Chemins concrets.   (line   24)
* post_handshake_auth (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  593)
* post_mortem() (dans le module pdb):    pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  178)
* post_setup() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.            (line  180)
* postcmd() (méthode cmd.Cmd):           Objets Cmd.         (line  107)
* postloop() (méthode cmd.Cmd):          Objets Cmd.         (line  125)
* Pow (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* pow() (dans le module math):           Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   72)
* pow() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  151)
* power;operation:                       L'opérateur puissance.
                                                             (line    6)
* power() (méthode decimal.Context):     Objets de contexte. (line  451)
* pp (pdb command):                      Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  292)
* pp() (dans le module pprint):          Fonctions<4>.       (line    6)
* pprint() (dans le module pprint):      Fonctions<4>.       (line   71)
* pprint() (méthode pprint.PrettyPrinter): Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line   58)
* prcal() (dans le module calendar):     calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  435)
* pread() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  572)
* preadv() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  602)
* preamble (attribut email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  713)
* preamble (attribut email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  737)
* precmd() (méthode cmd.Cmd):            Objets Cmd.         (line   96)
* prefix (attribut xml.dom.Attr):        Objets Attr.        (line   18)
* prefix (attribut xml.dom.Node):        Objets nœuds.       (line   70)
* prefix (attribut zipimport.zipimporter): Objets zimporter. (line  101)
* prefix (dans le module sys):           sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1519)
* PREFIXES (dans le module site):        Module contents<3>. (line    6)
* prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau. (line  131)
* prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau. (line  328)
* preloop() (méthode cmd.Cmd):           Objets Cmd.         (line  119)
* prepare_class() (dans le module types): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   23)
* prepare_input_source() (dans le module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   90)
* prepare() (méthode graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  101)
* prepare() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* prepare() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   58)
* PrepareProtocol (classe dans sqlite3): PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PrettyPrinter (classe dans pprint):    Les Objets PrettyPrinter.
                                                             (line    6)
* prev() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.       (line  237)
* previousSibling (attribut xml.dom.Node): Objets nœuds.     (line   32)
* primary:                               Primaires.          (line    6)
* print_callees() (méthode pstats.Stats): The Stats Class.   (line  217)
* print_callers() (méthode pstats.Stats): The Stats Class.   (line  196)
* print_exc() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* print_exc() (méthode timeit.Timer):    Interface Python.   (line  150)
* print_exception() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* print_help() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Afficher l'aide.
                                                             (line   16)
* print_last() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* print_list() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* print_stack() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* print_stack() (méthode asyncio.Task):  Objets Task.        (line  151)
* print_stats() (méthode profile.Profile): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   92)
* print_stats() (méthode pstats.Stats):  The Stats Class.    (line  164)
* print_tb() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* print_usage() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Afficher l'aide.
                                                             (line   10)
* print_usage() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* print_version() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   26)
* print_warning() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  411)
* print() (built-in function);__str__() (object method): Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  143)
* print() (méthode traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* printable (dans le module string):     Chaînes constantes. (line   44)
* printdir() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):  Objets ZipFile.     (line  253)
* printf-style formatting:               Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* printf-style formatting <1>:           Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* PRIO_DARWIN_BG (dans le module os):    Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  310)
* PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI (dans le module os): Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  310)
* PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS (dans le module os): Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  310)
* PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD (dans le module os): Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  310)
* PRIO_PGRP (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  299)
* PRIO_PROCESS (dans le module os):      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  299)
* PRIO_USER (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  299)
* PriorityQueue (classe dans asyncio):   File avec priorité. (line    6)
* PriorityQueue (classe dans queue):     queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   52)
* private;names:                         Identifiants noms.  (line   15)
* prlimit() (dans le module resource):   Resource Limits.    (line   56)
* prmonth() (dans le module calendar):   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  425)
* prmonth() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  214)
* ProactorEventLoop (classe dans asyncio): Implémentations de boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   33)
* procedure;call:                        Les expressions.    (line   18)
* Process (classe dans multiprocessing): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* process_cpu_count() (dans le module os): Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   63)
* process_exited() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessProtocol): Protocoles liés aux sous-processus.
                                                             (line   27)
* process_request() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  171)
* process_time_ns() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.     (line  269)
* process_time() (dans le module time):  Fonctions<5>.       (line  256)
* process_tokens() (dans le module tabnanny): tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   44)
* process;group:                         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  198)
* process;group <1>:                     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  261)
* process;id:                            Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  267)
* process;id of parent:                  Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  274)
* process;killing:                       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  348)
* process;killing <1>:                   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  370)
* process;scheduling priority:           Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  285)
* process;scheduling priority <1>:       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  478)
* process;signalling:                    Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  348)
* process;signalling <1>:                Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  370)
* process() (méthode logging.LoggerAdapter): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* ProcessError:                          Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  233)
* processes, light-weight:               _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* ProcessingInstruction() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  195)
* processingInstruction() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  179)
* ProcessingInstructionHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  274)
* ProcessLookupError:                    Exceptions système. (line  108)
* processor time:                        Fonctions<5>.       (line  258)
* processor time <1>:                    Fonctions<5>.       (line  648)
* processor() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.   (line   71)
* ProcessPoolExecutor (classe dans concurrent.futures): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   21)
* prod() (dans le module math):          Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* product() (dans le module itertools):  Itertool Functions. (line  490)
* Profile (classe dans profile):         profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   35)
* profile function:                      threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  195)
* profile function <1>:                  threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  213)
* profile function <2>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  973)
* profile function <3>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1568)
* PROFILE_TASK:                          Build<17>.          (line   13)
* PROFILE_TASK <1>:                      Options de performance.
                                                             (line   13)
* profiler:                              sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  973)
* profiler <1>:                          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1568)
* profiling, deterministic:              Introduction to the profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* program:                               Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line    6)
* ProgrammingError:                      Exceptions<7>.      (line   78)
* Progressbar (classe dans tkinter.ttk): ttk Progressbar.    (line    6)
* prompt (attribut cmd.Cmd):             Objets Cmd.         (line  134)
* prompt_user_passwd() (méthode urllib.request.FancyURLopener): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  183)
* prompts, interpreter:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1536)
* propagate (attribut logging.Logger):   Enregistreurs.      (line   50)
* property (classe de base):             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1656)
* property list:                         plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    8)
* property_declaration_handler (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  110)
* property_dom_node (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  117)
* property_lexical_handler (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  103)
* property_xml_string (dans le module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  124)
* property() (dans le module enum):      Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line   39)
* PropertyMock (classe dans unittest.mock): La classe Mock.  (line  672)
* prot_c() (méthode ftplib.FTP_TLS):     FTP_TLS objects.    (line  111)
* prot_p() (méthode ftplib.FTP_TLS):     FTP_TLS objects.    (line  107)
* proto (attribut socket.socket):        Socket Objects.     (line  634)
* protocol (attribut ssl.SSLContext):    SSL Contexts.       (line  612)
* Protocol (classe dans asyncio):        Protocoles de base. (line   11)
* Protocol (classe dans typing):         Other special directives.
                                                             (line  135)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (dans le module ssl):  Constantes<9>.      (line  161)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (dans le module ssl):   Constantes<9>.      (line  168)
* PROTOCOL_TLS (dans le module ssl):     Constantes<9>.      (line  131)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.   (line  144)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.   (line  153)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (dans le module ssl):   Constantes<9>.      (line  184)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.      (line  191)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.      (line  201)
* protocol_version (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  173)
* PROTOCOL_VERSION (attribut imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.  (line  394)
* protocol;context management:           Le type gestionnaire de contexte.
                                                             (line    6)
* protocol;iterator:                     Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* ProtocolError (classe dans xmlrpc.client): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* proxy() (dans le module weakref):      weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  136)
* proxyauth() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  194)
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  372)
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  404)
* ProxyHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  298)
* ProxyType (dans le module weakref):    weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  336)
* ProxyTypes (dans le module weakref):   weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  344)
* pryear() (méthode calendar.TextCalendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  231)
* ps1 (dans le module sys):              sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1533)
* ps2 (dans le module sys):              sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1533)
* pstdev() (dans le module statistics):  Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  388)
* pthread_getcpuclockid() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* pthread_kill() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  345)
* pthread_sigmask() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  375)
* pthreads:                              _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   16)
* pthreads (attribut sys._emscripten_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  377)
* ptsname() (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  664)
* pu() (dans le module turtle):          État des stylos.    (line   12)
* publicId (attribut xml.dom.DocumentType): Objets DocumnentType.
                                                             (line   16)
* PullDom (classe dans xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   81)
* punctuation (dans le module string):   Chaînes constantes. (line   38)
* punctuation_chars (attribut shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.   (line  183)
* PurePath (classe dans pathlib):        Chemins purs.       (line   10)
* PurePosixPath (classe dans pathlib):   Chemins purs.       (line   74)
* PureWindowsPath (classe dans pathlib): Chemins purs.       (line   86)
* purge() (dans le module re):           Fonctions<2>.       (line  301)
* Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.   (line  540)
* Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.   (line  531)
* push_async_callback() (méthode contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  663)
* push_async_exit() (méthode contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  658)
* PUSH_EXC_INFO (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  460)
* PUSH_NULL (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1107)
* push_source() (méthode shlex.shlex):   shlex Objects.      (line   56)
* push_token() (méthode shlex.shlex):    shlex Objects.      (line   16)
* push() (méthode code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* push() (méthode contextlib.ExitStack): Utilitaires.        (line  574)
* put_nowait() (méthode asyncio.Queue):  File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   76)
* put_nowait() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  156)
* put_nowait() (méthode queue.Queue):    Objets Queue.       (line   46)
* put_nowait() (méthode queue.SimpleQueue): Objets SimpleQueue.
                                                             (line   35)
* put() (méthode asyncio.Queue):         File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   67)
* put() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  139)
* put() (méthode multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  257)
* put() (méthode queue.Queue):           Objets Queue.       (line   33)
* put() (méthode queue.SimpleQueue):     Objets SimpleQueue. (line   20)
* putch() (dans le module msvcrt):       Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   36)
* putenv() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  361)
* putheader() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  190)
* putp() (dans le module curses):        Fonctions<6>.       (line  392)
* putrequest() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  178)
* putwch() (dans le module msvcrt):      Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   40)
* putwin() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  456)
* pvariance() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  397)
* pwd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):            FTP objects.        (line  349)
* pwrite() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  678)
* pwritev() (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  690)
* Py_ABS (C macro):                      Useful macros.      (line   34)
* Py_AddPendingCall (C function):        Asynchronous Notifications.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_ALWAYS_INLINE (C macro):            Useful macros.      (line   40)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX (C macro): Objets Integer.    (line  467)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN (C macro): Objets Integer.     (line  452)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS (C macro):   Objets Integer.     (line  449)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN (C macro): Objets Integer.  (line  455)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN (C macro): Objets Integer.  (line  458)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE (C macro): Objets Integer.
                                                             (line  464)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER (C macro): Objets Integer.
                                                             (line  461)
* Py_AtExit (C function):                Process Control.    (line   33)
* Py_AUDIT_READ (C macro):               Member flags.       (line   12)
* Py_AuditHookFunction (C type):         System Functions.   (line  152)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):      Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:  High-level API.     (line  163)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro):   Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   49)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro):  Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   77)
* Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro):            High-level API.     (line  177)
* Py_buffer (C type):                    La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_buffer.buf (C member):              La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_buffer.format (C member):           La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   92)
* Py_buffer.internal (C member):         La structure buffer.
                                                             (line  155)
* Py_buffer.itemsize (C member):         La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   72)
* Py_buffer.len (C member):              La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   55)
* Py_buffer.ndim (C member):             La structure buffer.
                                                             (line  101)
* Py_buffer.obj (C member):              La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_buffer.readonly (C member):         La structure buffer.
                                                             (line   67)
* Py_buffer.shape (C member):            La structure buffer.
                                                             (line  110)
* Py_buffer.strides (C member):          La structure buffer.
                                                             (line  123)
* Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member):       La structure buffer.
                                                             (line  136)
* Py_BuildValue (C function):            Construction des valeurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_BytesMain (C function):             Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  114)
* Py_BytesWarningFlag (C var):           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_CHARMASK (C macro):                 Useful macros.      (line   65)
* Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED (C macro):        Autres objets.      (line   40)
* Py_CLEAR (C function):                 Reference Counting. (line  145)
* Py_CompileString (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  221)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <1>:     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  313)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <2>:     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  318)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <3>:     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  325)
* Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  255)
* Py_CompileStringFlags (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  228)
* Py_CompileStringObject (C function):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  234)
* Py_complex (C type):                   Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   11)
* Py_complex.imag (C member):            Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_complex.real (C member):            Nombres complexes en tant que structures C.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS (C macro):        Protocole Objet.    (line   28)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES (C macro):     Protocole Objet.    (line   43)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR (C macro):       Protocole Objet.    (line   40)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE (C macro):     Protocole Objet.    (line   46)
* Py_CONSTANT_FALSE (C macro):           Protocole Objet.    (line   22)
* Py_CONSTANT_NONE (C macro):            Protocole Objet.    (line   19)
* Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED (C macro): Protocole Objet.    (line   31)
* Py_CONSTANT_ONE (C macro):             Protocole Objet.    (line   37)
* Py_CONSTANT_TRUE (C macro):            Protocole Objet.    (line   25)
* Py_CONSTANT_ZERO (C macro):            Protocole Objet.    (line   34)
* PY_CXX_CONST (C macro):                Fonction de l'API.  (line  115)
* Py_DEBUG (C macro):                    Debugging Builds.   (line   17)
* Py_DEBUG (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  116)
* Py_DebugFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_DecodeLocale (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  117)
* Py_DECREF (C function):                Compteurs de références<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_DECREF (C function) <1>:            Reference Counting. (line  105)
* Py_DecRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line  168)
* Py_DEPRECATED (C macro):               Useful macros.      (line   70)
* Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_Ellipsis (C var):                   Ellipsis Object.    (line   11)
* Py_EncodeLocale (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  170)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):        Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:    High-level API.     (line  170)
* Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro):     Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   64)
* Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro):    Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   93)
* Py_EndInterpreter (C function):        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  206)
* Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function):    Contrôle de la récursion.
                                                             (line   13)
* Py_EQ (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1074)
* Py_eval_input (C var):                 The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  311)
* Py_Exit (C function):                  Process Control.    (line   22)
* Py_ExitStatusException (C function):   PyStatus.           (line   65)
* Py_False (C var):                      Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_FatalError (C function):            Process Control.    (line    6)
* Py_FatalError():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  218)
* Py_FdIsInteractive (C function):       Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_file_input (C var):                 The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  316)
* Py_Finalize (C function):              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function):            Process Control.    (line   23)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <1>:        Process Control.    (line   34)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <2>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <3>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   64)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <4>:        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  169)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <5>:        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  207)
* Py_FrozenFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_GE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1083)
* Py_GenericAlias (C function):          Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_GenericAliasType (C var):           Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_GetArgcArgv (C function):           Py_GetArgcArgv.     (line    6)
* Py_GetBuildInfo (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  205)
* Py_GetCompiler (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  194)
* Py_GetConstant (C function):           Protocole Objet.    (line    6)
* Py_GetConstantBorrowed (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line   57)
* Py_GetCopyright (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  184)
* Py_GETENV (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line   81)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C function):         Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C function) <1>:     Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   68)
* Py_GetPath (C function):               Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetPath (C function) <1>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  135)
* Py_GetPath():                          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_GetPlatform (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  172)
* Py_GetPrefix (C function):             Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetPrefix (C function) <1>:         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   45)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function):    Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function) <1>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  116)
* Py_GetProgramName (C function):        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_GetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  308)
* Py_GetVersion (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* Py_GT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1080)
* Py_hash_t (C type):                    PyHash API.         (line    9)
* Py_HashPointer (C function):           PyHash API.         (line   80)
* Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   70)
* Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   85)
* Py_INCREF (C function):                Compteurs de références<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_INCREF (C function) <1>:            Reference Counting. (line   42)
* Py_IncRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line  162)
* Py_Initialize (C function):            Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <1>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <2>:        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  169)
* Py_Initialize():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_InitializeEx (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_InitializeFromConfig (C function):  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   40)
* Py_InspectFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   98)
* Py_InteractiveFlag (C var):            Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  114)
* Py_Is (C function):                    Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   59)
* Py_IS_TYPE (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   99)
* Py_IsFalse (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   80)
* Py_IsFinalizing (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function):         Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function) <1>:     Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   51)
* Py_IsNone (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_IsolatedFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  124)
* Py_IsTrue (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   73)
* Py_LE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1071)
* Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function):    Contrôle de la récursion.
                                                             (line   33)
* Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C var): Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  140)
* Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C var):     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  160)
* Py_LIMITED_API (C macro):              Limited C API.      (line   11)
* Py_LT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1068)
* Py_Main (C function):                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  122)
* PY_MAJOR_VERSION (C macro):            Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   13)
* Py_MAX (C macro):                      Useful macros.      (line   86)
* Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro):              Useful macros.      (line   92)
* PY_MICRO_VERSION (C macro):            Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_MIN (C macro):                      Useful macros.      (line   98)
* PY_MINOR_VERSION (C macro):            Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_mod_create (C macro):               Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   63)
* Py_mod_exec (C macro):                 Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_mod_gil (C macro):                  Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  140)
* Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED (C macro):         Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  150)
* Py_MOD_GIL_USED (C macro):             Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  144)
* Py_mod_multiple_interpreters (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  113)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  117)
* Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  123)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH (C macro):  Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   44)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   50)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   53)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   47)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   56)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   59)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   62)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   65)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   68)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   71)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   74)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   77)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   80)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   83)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE (C macro):   Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   86)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   89)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   92)
* PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (C function): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line  100)
* Py_NE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1077)
* Py_NewInterpreter (C function):        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  196)
* Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (C function): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_NewRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line   72)
* Py_NO_INLINE (C macro):                Useful macros.      (line  104)
* Py_None (C var):                       L'objet None.       (line   11)
* Py_NoSiteFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  178)
* Py_NotImplemented (C var):             Protocole Objet.    (line   71)
* Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  194)
* py_object (classe dans ctypes):        Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line  220)
* Py_OpenCodeHookFunction (C type):      Objets fichiers.    (line   68)
* Py_OptimizeFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  208)
* Py_PreInitialize (C function):         Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro):                Protocole Objet.    (line   83)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro) <1>:            Objets fichiers.    (line   97)
* PY_PYTHON:                             Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut.
                                                             (line   19)
* Py_QuietFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  219)
* Py_READONLY (C macro):                 Member flags.       (line    8)
* Py_REFCNT (C function):                Reference Counting. (line    9)
* Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET (C macro):          Member flags.       (line   17)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL (C macro):            Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   25)
* PY_RELEASE_SERIAL (C macro):           Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_ReprEnter (C function):             Contrôle de la récursion.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_ReprLeave (C function):             Contrôle de la récursion.
                                                             (line   64)
* PY_RESUME (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   43)
* PY_RETURN (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   48)
* Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro):             Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   37)
* Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro):              L'objet None.       (line   19)
* Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro):    Protocole Objet.    (line   77)
* Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C macro):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1089)
* Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro):              Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   41)
* Py_RunMain (C function):               Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  179)
* Py_SET_REFCNT (C function):            Reference Counting. (line   29)
* Py_SET_SIZE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  122)
* Py_SET_TYPE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  106)
* Py_SetProgramName (C function):        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_SetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  289)
* Py_SETREF (C macro):                   Reference Counting. (line  174)
* Py_single_input (C var):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  323)
* Py_SIZE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  112)
* Py_ssize_t (C type):                   Types.              (line   14)
* PY_SSIZE_T_MAX (C macro):              Objets Integer.     (line  243)
* PY_START (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   53)
* Py_STRINGIFY (C macro):                Useful macros.      (line  116)
* Py_T_BOOL (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   59)
* Py_T_BYTE (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   20)
* Py_T_CHAR (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   68)
* Py_T_DOUBLE (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   56)
* Py_T_FLOAT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   53)
* Py_T_INT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   26)
* Py_T_LONG (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   29)
* Py_T_LONGLONG (C macro):               Member types.       (line   32)
* Py_T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):              Member types.       (line   71)
* Py_T_PYSSIZET (C macro):               Member types.       (line   50)
* Py_T_SHORT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   23)
* Py_T_STRING (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   62)
* Py_T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):         Member types.       (line   65)
* Py_T_UBYTE (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   35)
* Py_T_UINT (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   38)
* Py_T_ULONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   44)
* Py_T_ULONGLONG (C macro):              Member types.       (line   47)
* Py_T_USHORT (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   41)
* PY_THROW (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   58)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  716)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  566)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  710)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  616)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  714)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  773)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  729)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  594)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  740)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  548)
* Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  759)
* Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  684)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  706)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  704)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  652)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  672)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  801)
* Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  627)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READY (C macro):            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  576)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  585)
* Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  825)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  708)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  718)
* Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  712)
* Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  849)
* Py_tracefunc (C type):                 Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_True (C var):                       Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro):           Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_tss_t (C type):                     Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_TYPE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   87)
* Py_UCS1 (C type):                      Type Unicode.       (line    9)
* Py_UCS2 (C type):                      Type Unicode.       (line    9)
* Py_UCS4 (C type):                      Type Unicode.       (line    9)
* Py_uhash_t (C type):                   PyHash API.         (line   15)
* Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro):          High-level API.     (line  182)
* Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  233)
* Py_UNICODE (C type):                   Type Unicode.       (line   19)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   99)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  103)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C function):  Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   95)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   52)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   35)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   25)
* Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  107)
* Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   76)
* Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   82)
* Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   64)
* Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   88)
* Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   72)
* Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   68)
* Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro):              Useful macros.      (line  123)
* Py_UNUSED (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line  148)
* PY_UNWIND (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   62)
* Py_VaBuildValue (C function):          Construction des valeurs.
                                                             (line  202)
* PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET (C macro): The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line   69)
* Py_VerboseFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  246)
* Py_Version (C var):                    Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   70)
* PY_VERSION_HEX (C macro):              Version des API et ABI.
                                                             (line   34)
* Py_VISIT (C function):                 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  182)
* Py_XDECREF (C function):               Exceptions<21>.     (line  123)
* Py_XDECREF (C function) <1>:           Reference Counting. (line  139)
* Py_XINCREF (C function):               Reference Counting. (line   65)
* Py_XNewRef (C function):               Reference Counting. (line   96)
* Py_XSETREF (C macro):                  Reference Counting. (line  200)
* PY_YIELD (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   66)
* PyAIter_Check (C function):            Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyAnySet_Check (C function):           Set Objects.        (line   54)
* PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function):      Set Objects.        (line   67)
* PyArg_Parse (C function):              Fonction de l'API.  (line   55)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function):         Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function) <1>:     Fonction de l'API.  (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function) <1>: Fonction de l'API.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function):        Fonction de l'API.  (line   75)
* PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function): Fonction de l'API.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyArg_VaParse (C function):            Fonction de l'API.  (line   13)
* PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): Fonction de l'API.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyASCIIObject (C type):                Type Unicode.       (line   30)
* PyAsyncMethods (C type):               Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_send (C member):     Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyBaseObject_Type (C var):             Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyBool_Check (C function):             Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyBool_FromLong (C function):          Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyBool_Type (C var):                   Les objets booléens.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):        contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro):                compound requests.  (line   37)
* PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro):             compound requests.  (line   40)
* PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro):                readonly format.    (line   16)
* PyBUF_FULL (C macro):                  compound requests.  (line   19)
* PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   22)
* PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro):              shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_MAX_NDIM (C macro):              La structure buffer.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyBUF_ND (C macro):                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_READ (C macro):                  Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   25)
* PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   28)
* PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro):                shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   31)
* PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   34)
* PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro):               shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro):              readonly format.    (line    6)
* PyBUF_WRITE (C macro):                 Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function): Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function):        Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyBuffer_FromContiguous (C function):  Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyBuffer_GetPointer (C function):      Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function):    Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyBuffer_Release (C function):         Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function):  Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function):    Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyBufferProcs (C type):                Protocole tampon.   (line   22)
* PyBufferProcs (C type) <1>:            Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function):    Macros.             (line    9)
* PyByteArray_AsString (C function):     Fonctions directes sur l'API.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyByteArray_Check (C function):        Macros de vérification de type.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function):   Macros de vérification de type.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyByteArray_Concat (C function):       Fonctions directes sur l'API.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyByteArray_FromObject (C function):   Fonctions directes sur l'API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function): Fonctions directes sur l'API.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function):     Macros.             (line   14)
* PyByteArray_Resize (C function):       Fonctions directes sur l'API.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyByteArray_Size (C function):         Fonctions directes sur l'API.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyByteArray_Type (C var):              Objets tableau d'octets.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyByteArrayObject (C type):            Objets tableau d'octets.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function):        Objets bytes<2>.    (line  138)
* PyBytes_AsString (C function):         Objets bytes<2>.    (line  127)
* PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function):  Objets bytes<2>.    (line  143)
* PyBytes_Check (C function):            Objets bytes<2>.    (line   19)
* PyBytes_CheckExact (C function):       Objets bytes<2>.    (line   24)
* PyBytes_Concat (C function):           Objets bytes<2>.    (line  165)
* PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function):     Objets bytes<2>.    (line  175)
* PyBytes_FromFormat (C function):       Objets bytes<2>.    (line   43)
* PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function):      Objets bytes<2>.    (line  108)
* PyBytes_FromObject (C function):       Objets bytes<2>.    (line  114)
* PyBytes_FromString (C function):       Objets bytes<2>.    (line   30)
* PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function): Objets bytes<2>.   (line   36)
* PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function):         Objets bytes<2>.    (line  123)
* PyBytes_Size (C function):             Objets bytes<2>.    (line  119)
* PyBytes_Type (C var):                  Objets bytes<2>.    (line   14)
* PyBytesObject (C type):                Objets bytes<2>.    (line    9)
* pyc utilisant le hachage:              Glossaire.          (line  727)
* pycache_prefix (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  389)
* PyCallable_Check (C function):         Call Support API.   (line    6)
* PyCallIter_Check (C function):         Itérateurs<2>.      (line   34)
* PyCallIter_New (C function):           Itérateurs<2>.      (line   39)
* PyCallIter_Type (C var):               Itérateurs<2>.      (line   29)
* PyCapsule (C type):                    Capsules<2>.        (line   12)
* PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   30)
* PyCapsule_Destructor (C type):         Capsules<2>.        (line   21)
* PyCapsule_GetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   77)
* PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line   66)
* PyCapsule_GetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line   87)
* PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   55)
* PyCapsule_Import (C function):         Capsules<2>.        (line   97)
* PyCapsule_IsValid (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  109)
* PyCapsule_New (C function):            Capsules<2>.        (line   35)
* PyCapsule_SetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  125)
* PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line  133)
* PyCapsule_SetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  141)
* PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  151)
* PyCell_Check (C function):             Objets Cellules.    (line   26)
* PyCell_Get (C function):               Objets Cellules.    (line   36)
* PyCell_GET (C function):               Objets Cellules.    (line   41)
* PyCell_New (C function):               Objets Cellules.    (line   31)
* PyCell_Set (C function):               Objets Cellules.    (line   46)
* PyCell_SET (C function):               Objets Cellules.    (line   55)
* PyCell_Type (C var):                   Objets Cellules.    (line   22)
* PyCellObject (C type):                 Objets Cellules.    (line   18)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (C macro):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  357)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (dans le module ast): Options du compilateur.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (C macro):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  357)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (dans le module ast):    Options du compilateur.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (C macro):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  357)
* PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (dans le module ast): Options du compilateur.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (C macro):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  357)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (dans le module ast): Options du compilateur.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyCFunction (C type):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCFunction_New (C function):          Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  258)
* PyCFunction_NewEx (C function):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  253)
* PyCFunctionFast (C type):              Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type):  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type):      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   20)
* PycInvalidationMode (classe dans py_compile): py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyCMethod (C type):                    Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyCMethod_New (C function):            Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  225)
* PyCode_Addr2Line (C function):         Objets code<2>.     (line   98)
* PyCode_Addr2Location (C function):     Objets code<2>.     (line  107)
* PyCode_AddWatcher (C function):        Objets code<2>.     (line  164)
* PyCode_Check (C function):             Objets code<2>.     (line   20)
* PyCode_ClearWatcher (C function):      Objets code<2>.     (line  173)
* PyCode_GetCellvars (C function):       Objets code<2>.     (line  143)
* PyCode_GetCode (C function):           Objets code<2>.     (line  119)
* PyCode_GetFreevars (C function):       Objets code<2>.     (line  154)
* PyCode_GetNumFree (C function):        Objets code<2>.     (line   25)
* PyCode_GetVarnames (C function):       Objets code<2>.     (line  133)
* PyCode_New (C function):               Objets code<2>.     (line   64)
* PyCode_NewEmpty (C function):          Objets code<2>.     (line   91)
* PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Objets code<2>.    (line   82)
* PyCode_Type (C var):                   Objets code<2>.     (line   15)
* PyCode_WatchCallback (C type):         Objets code<2>.     (line  189)
* PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyCodec_Decode (C function):           Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyCodec_Decoder (C function):          Codec lookup API.   (line   16)
* PyCodec_Encode (C function):           Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCodec_Encoder (C function):          Codec lookup API.   (line   11)
* PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function):     Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line   27)
* PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line   21)
* PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function):    Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyCodec_LookupError (C function):      Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyCodec_Register (C function):         Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_RegisterError (C function):    Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function):    Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyCodec_StreamReader (C function):     Codec lookup API.   (line   33)
* PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function):     Codec lookup API.   (line   39)
* PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function):     Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyCodec_Unregister (C function):       Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyCodeEvent (C type):                  Objets code<2>.     (line  182)
* PyCodeObject (C type):                 Objets code<2>.     (line   10)
* PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type):       Type Unicode.       (line   30)
* PyCompileError:                        py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyCompilerFlags (C struct):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  329)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_feature_version (C member): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  345)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags (C member):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  341)
* PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function):     Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyComplex_Check (C function):          Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyComplex_CheckExact (C function):     Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function):   Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function):    Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function):   Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function):   Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyComplex_Type (C var):                Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyComplexObject (C type):              Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyConfig (C type):                     PyConfig.           (line    6)
* PyConfig_Clear (C function):           PyConfig.           (line   97)
* PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyConfig.        (line   20)
* PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyConfig.          (line   15)
* PyConfig_Read (C function):            PyConfig.           (line   66)
* PyConfig_SetArgv (C function):         PyConfig.           (line   41)
* PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (C function):    PyConfig.           (line   49)
* PyConfig_SetBytesString (C function):  PyConfig.           (line   32)
* PyConfig_SetString (C function):       PyConfig.           (line   25)
* PyConfig_SetWideStringList (C function): PyConfig.         (line   58)
* PyConfig.argv (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  128)
* PyConfig.base_exec_prefix (C member):  PyConfig.           (line  173)
* PyConfig.base_executable (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  183)
* PyConfig.base_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  197)
* PyConfig.buffered_stdio (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  207)
* PyConfig.bytes_warning (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  220)
* PyConfig.check_hash_pycs_mode (C member): PyConfig.        (line  257)
* PyConfig.code_debug_ranges (C member): PyConfig.           (line  243)
* PyConfig.configure_c_stdio (C member): PyConfig.           (line  277)
* PyConfig.cpu_count (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  489)
* PyConfig.dev_mode (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  292)
* PyConfig.dump_refs (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  301)
* PyConfig.exec_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  315)
* PyConfig.executable (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  327)
* PyConfig.faulthandler (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  338)
* PyConfig.filesystem_encoding (C member): PyConfig.         (line  350)
* PyConfig.filesystem_errors (C member): PyConfig.           (line  383)
* PyConfig.hash_seed (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  405)
* PyConfig.home (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  420)
* PyConfig.import_time (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  431)
* PyConfig.inspect (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  440)
* PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (C member): PyConfig.     (line  455)
* PyConfig.int_max_str_digits (C member): PyConfig.          (line  469)
* PyConfig.interactive (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  461)
* PyConfig.isolated (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  503)
* PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (C member): PyConfig.        (line  528)
* PyConfig.malloc_stats (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  545)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths (C member): PyConfig.         (line  589)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths_set (C member): PyConfig.     (line  591)
* PyConfig.optimization_level (C member): PyConfig.          (line  605)
* PyConfig.orig_argv (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  621)
* PyConfig.parse_argv (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  639)
* PyConfig.parser_debug (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  660)
* PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings (C member): PyConfig.         (line  674)
* PyConfig.perf_profiling (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  868)
* PyConfig.platlibdir (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  558)
* PyConfig.prefix (C member):            PyConfig.           (line  686)
* PyConfig.program_name (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  697)
* PyConfig.pycache_prefix (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  718)
* PyConfig.pythonpath_env (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  578)
* PyConfig.quiet (C member):             PyConfig.           (line  731)
* PyConfig.run_command (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  740)
* PyConfig.run_filename (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  748)
* PyConfig.run_module (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  762)
* PyConfig.run_presite (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  770)
* PyConfig.safe_path (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  151)
* PyConfig.show_ref_count (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  784)
* PyConfig.site_import (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  796)
* PyConfig.skip_source_first_line (C member): PyConfig.      (line  815)
* PyConfig.stdio_encoding (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  827)
* PyConfig.stdio_errors (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  829)
* PyConfig.tracemalloc (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  857)
* PyConfig.use_environment (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  887)
* PyConfig.use_hash_seed (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  407)
* PyConfig.user_site_directory (C member): PyConfig.         (line  898)
* PyConfig.verbose (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  911)
* PyConfig.warn_default_encoding (C member): PyConfig.       (line  233)
* PyConfig.warnoptions (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  928)
* PyConfig.write_bytecode (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  948)
* PyConfig.xoptions (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  961)
* PyContext (C type):                    Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyContext_CheckExact (C function):     Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyContext_Copy (C function):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function):    Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyContext_Enter (C function):          Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyContext_Exit (C function):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyContext_New (C function):            Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyContext_Type (C var):                Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyContextToken (C type):               Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function): Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyContextToken_Type (C var):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyContextVar (C type):                 Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function):  Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyContextVar_Get (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* PyContextVar_New (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyContextVar_Reset (C function):       Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  131)
* PyContextVar_Set (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyContextVar_Type (C var):             Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyCoro_CheckExact (C function):        Objets coroutines<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyCoro_New (C function):               Objets coroutines<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyCoro_Type (C var):                   Objets coroutines<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyCoroObject (C type):                 Objets coroutines<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyDate_Check (C function):             Objets DateTime<2>. (line   75)
* PyDate_CheckExact (C function):        Objets DateTime<2>. (line   81)
* PyDate_FromDate (C function):          Objets DateTime<2>. (line  132)
* PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function):     Objets DateTime<2>. (line  312)
* PyDateTime_Check (C function):         Objets DateTime<2>. (line   86)
* PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function):    Objets DateTime<2>. (line   92)
* PyDateTime_Date (C type):              Objets DateTime<2>. (line   14)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (C function): Objets DateTime<2>. (line  231)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function): Objets DateTime<2>. (line  214)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  226)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  222)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  237)
* PyDateTime_DateTime (C type):          Objets DateTime<2>. (line   19)
* PyDateTime_DateTimeType (C var):       Objets DateTime<2>. (line   40)
* PyDateTime_DateType (C var):           Objets DateTime<2>. (line   34)
* PyDateTime_Delta (C type):             Objets DateTime<2>. (line   29)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  281)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  295)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  288)
* PyDateTime_DeltaType (C var):          Objets DateTime<2>. (line   52)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function): Objets DateTime<2>. (line  305)
* PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function):       Objets DateTime<2>. (line  206)
* PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function):     Objets DateTime<2>. (line  202)
* PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function):      Objets DateTime<2>. (line  198)
* PyDateTime_Time (C type):              Objets DateTime<2>. (line   24)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (C function): Objets DateTime<2>. (line  264)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function): Objets DateTime<2>. (line  248)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  260)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  252)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  256)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* PyDateTime_TimeType (C var):           Objets DateTime<2>. (line   46)
* PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C var):       Objets DateTime<2>. (line   66)
* PyDateTime_TZInfoType (C var):         Objets DateTime<2>. (line   58)
* PyDelta_Check (C function):            Objets DateTime<2>. (line  108)
* PyDelta_CheckExact (C function):       Objets DateTime<2>. (line  114)
* PyDelta_FromDSU (C function):          Objets DateTime<2>. (line  168)
* PyDescr_IsData (C function):           Les descripteurs.   (line   37)
* PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function):   Les descripteurs.   (line   32)
* PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function):        Les descripteurs.   (line   13)
* PyDescr_NewMember (C function):        Les descripteurs.   (line   18)
* PyDescr_NewMethod (C function):        Les descripteurs.   (line   23)
* PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function):       Les descripteurs.   (line   28)
* PyDict_AddWatcher (C function):        Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  324)
* PyDict_Check (C function):             Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyDict_CheckExact (C function):        Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyDict_Clear (C function):             Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyDict_ClearWatcher (C function):      Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  333)
* PyDict_Contains (C function):          Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyDict_ContainsString (C function):    Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyDict_Copy (C function):              Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyDict_DelItem (C function):           Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyDict_DelItemString (C function):     Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyDict_GetItem (C function):           Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyDict_GetItemRef (C function):        Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyDict_GetItemString (C function):     Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyDict_GetItemStringRef (C function):  Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function):  Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  120)
* PyDict_Items (C function):             Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  211)
* PyDict_Keys (C function):              Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  216)
* PyDict_Merge (C function):             Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  291)
* PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function):     Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  309)
* PyDict_New (C function):               Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyDict_Next (C function):              Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  232)
* PyDict_Pop (C function):               Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  183)
* PyDict_PopString (C function):         Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  202)
* PyDict_SetDefault (C function):        Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyDict_SetDefaultRef (C function):     Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyDict_SetItem (C function):           Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyDict_SetItemString (C function):     Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyDict_Size (C function):              Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  226)
* PyDict_Type (C var):                   Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyDict_Unwatch (C function):           Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  350)
* PyDict_Update (C function):            Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  301)
* PyDict_Values (C function):            Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  221)
* PyDict_Watch (C function):             Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  341)
* PyDict_WatchCallback (C type):         Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  369)
* PyDict_WatchEvent (C type):            Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line  360)
* PyDictObject (C type):                 Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyDictProxy_New (C function):          Objets dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyDLL (classe dans ctypes):            Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyDoc_STR (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line  174)
* PyDoc_STRVAR (C macro):                Useful macros.      (line  156)
* PyEllipsis_Type (C var):               Ellipsis Object.    (line    6)
* PyErr_BadArgument (C function):        Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function):    Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  221)
* PyErr_CheckSignals (C function):       Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear (C function):              Exceptions<21>.     (line   25)
* PyErr_Clear (C function) <1>:          Exceptions<21>.     (line  123)
* PyErr_Clear (C function) <2>:          Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_DisplayException (C function):   Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function):   Exceptions<21>.     (line  123)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function):              Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function) <1>:          Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyErr_Format (C function):             Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyErr_FormatUnraisable (C function):   Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyErr_FormatV (C function):            Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyErr_GetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyErr_GetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyErr_NewException (C function):       Exception Classes.  (line    6)
* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function): Exception Classes. (line   24)
* PyErr_NoMemory (C function):           Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyErr_NormalizeException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function):           Exceptions<21>.     (line   12)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function) <1>:       Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Print (C function):              Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyErr_PrintEx (C function):            Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function):    Issuing warnings.   (line   69)
* PyErr_Restore (C function):            Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyErr_Restore (C function) <1>:        Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  198)
* PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function):       Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function):  Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyErr_SetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  166)
* PyErr_SetImportError (C function):     Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  175)
* PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  186)
* PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function):       Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyErr_SetInterruptEx (C function):     Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyErr_SetNone (C function):            Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyErr_SetObject (C function):          Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyErr_SetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyErr_SetString (C function):          Exceptions<21>.     (line   25)
* PyErr_SetString (C function) <1>:      Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function):     Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  215)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function):   Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  206)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function): Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line  196)
* PyErr_WarnEx (C function):             Issuing warnings.   (line   19)
* PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function):       Issuing warnings.   (line   53)
* PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function): Issuing warnings.   (line   41)
* PyErr_WarnFormat (C function):         Issuing warnings.   (line   61)
* PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function):    Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyEval_AcquireThread (C function):     Low-level API.      (line  225)
* PyEval_AcquireThread():                High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_EvalCode (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  264)
* PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  271)
* PyEval_EvalFrame (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  284)
* PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  291)
* PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function):       Réflexion.          (line    6)
* PyEval_GetFrame (C function):          Réflexion.          (line   60)
* PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (C function):  Réflexion.          (line   67)
* PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (C function):   Réflexion.          (line   90)
* PyEval_GetFrameLocals (C function):    Réflexion.          (line   76)
* PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function):       Réflexion.          (line  104)
* PyEval_GetFuncName (C function):       Réflexion.          (line   99)
* PyEval_GetGlobals (C function):        Réflexion.          (line   50)
* PyEval_GetLocals (C function):         Réflexion.          (line   17)
* PyEval_InitThreads (C function):       High-level API.     (line   30)
* PyEval_InitThreads():                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  306)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function):     Low-level API.      (line  246)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread():                High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function):     Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function) <1>: High-level API.     (line   56)
* PyEval_RestoreThread():                High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function):        Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function) <1>:    High-level API.     (line   49)
* PyEval_SaveThread():                   High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_SetProfile (C function):        Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyEval_SetTrace (C function):          Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  147)
* PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyExc_ArithmeticError (C var):         Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_AssertionError (C var):          Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_AttributeError (C var):          Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BaseException (C var):           Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BlockingIOError (C var):         Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BrokenPipeError (C var):         Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BufferError (C var):             Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BytesWarning (C var):            Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ChildProcessError (C var):       Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError (C var):  Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionError (C var):         Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError (C var):  Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionResetError (C var):    Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_DeprecationWarning (C var):      Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_EnvironmentError (C var):        Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line  194)
* PyExc_EOFError (C var):                Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_Exception (C var):               Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FileExistsError (C var):         Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FileNotFoundError (C var):       Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FloatingPointError (C var):      Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FutureWarning (C var):           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_GeneratorExit (C var):           Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ImportError (C var):             Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ImportWarning (C var):           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IndentationError (C var):        Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IndexError (C var):              Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_InterruptedError (C var):        Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IOError (C var):                 Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line  194)
* PyExc_IsADirectoryError (C var):       Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt (C var):       Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_KeyError (C var):                Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_LookupError (C var):             Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_MemoryError (C var):             Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError (C var):     Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NameError (C var):               Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NotADirectoryError (C var):      Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NotImplementedError (C var):     Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_OSError (C var):                 Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_OverflowError (C var):           Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning (C var): Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PermissionError (C var):         Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ProcessLookupError (C var):      Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PythonFinalizationError (C var): Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RecursionError (C var):          Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ReferenceError (C var):          Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ResourceWarning (C var):         Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RuntimeError (C var):            Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RuntimeWarning (C var):          Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_StopAsyncIteration (C var):      Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_StopIteration (C var):           Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SyntaxError (C var):             Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SyntaxWarning (C var):           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SystemError (C var):             Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SystemExit (C var):              Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TabError (C var):                Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TimeoutError (C var):            Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TypeError (C var):               Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnboundLocalError (C var):       Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError (C var):      Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError (C var):      Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeError (C var):            Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError (C var):   Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeWarning (C var):          Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UserWarning (C var):             Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ValueError (C var):              Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_Warning (C var):                 Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_WindowsError (C var):            Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line  194)
* PyExc_ZeroDivisionError (C var):       Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyException_GetArgs (C function):      Objets exception.   (line   53)
* PyException_GetCause (C function):     Objets exception.   (line   35)
* PyException_GetContext (C function):   Objets exception.   (line   19)
* PyException_GetTraceback (C function): Objets exception.   (line    6)
* PyException_SetArgs (C function):      Objets exception.   (line   58)
* PyException_SetCause (C function):     Objets exception.   (line   43)
* PyException_SetContext (C function):   Objets exception.   (line   28)
* PyException_SetTraceback (C function): Objets exception.   (line   14)
* PyFile_FromFd (C function):            Objets fichiers.    (line   15)
* PyFile_GetLine (C function):           Objets fichiers.    (line   43)
* PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (C function):   Objets fichiers.    (line   60)
* PyFile_WriteObject (C function):       Objets fichiers.    (line   95)
* PyFile_WriteString (C function):       Objets fichiers.    (line  105)
* PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function):        Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyFloat_AsDouble (C function):         Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyFloat_Check (C function):            Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFloat_CheckExact (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyFloat_FromDouble (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyFloat_FromString (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyFloat_GetInfo (C function):          Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyFloat_GetMax (C function):           Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyFloat_GetMin (C function):           Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyFloat_Pack2 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   22)
* PyFloat_Pack4 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   26)
* PyFloat_Pack8 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   30)
* PyFloat_Type (C var):                  Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyFloat_Unpack2 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   20)
* PyFloat_Unpack4 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   24)
* PyFloat_Unpack8 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   28)
* PyFloatObject (C type):                Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyFrame_Check (C function):            Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyFrame_GetBack (C function):          Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyFrame_GetBuiltins (C function):      Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyFrame_GetCode (C function):          Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyFrame_GetGenerator (C function):     Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyFrame_GetGlobals (C function):       Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyFrame_GetLasti (C function):         Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function):    Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line  139)
* PyFrame_GetLocals (C function):        Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line  122)
* PyFrame_GetVar (C function):           Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyFrame_GetVarString (C function):     Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyFrame_Type (C var):                  Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (C function): Frame Locals Proxies.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type (C var):       Frame Locals Proxies.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFrameObject (C type):                Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyFrozenSet_Check (C function):        Set Objects.        (line   49)
* PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function):   Set Objects.        (line   73)
* PyFrozenSet_New (C function):          Set Objects.        (line   87)
* PyFrozenSet_Type (C var):              Set Objects.        (line   35)
* PyFunction_AddWatcher (C function):    Objets fonction.    (line  117)
* PyFunction_Check (C function):         Objets fonction.    (line   18)
* PyFunction_ClearWatcher (C function):  Objets fonction.    (line  127)
* PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function): Objets fonction.   (line  103)
* PyFunction_GetClosure (C function):    Objets fonction.    (line   89)
* PyFunction_GetCode (C function):       Objets fonction.    (line   47)
* PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function):   Objets fonction.    (line   65)
* PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function):    Objets fonction.    (line   51)
* PyFunction_GetModule (C function):     Objets fonction.    (line   56)
* PyFunction_New (C function):           Objets fonction.    (line   24)
* PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function): Objets fonction.  (line   36)
* PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function): Objets fonction.   (line  109)
* PyFunction_SetClosure (C function):    Objets fonction.    (line   95)
* PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function):   Objets fonction.    (line   71)
* PyFunction_SetVectorcall (C function): Objets fonction.    (line   79)
* PyFunction_Type (C var):               Objets fonction.    (line   12)
* PyFunction_WatchCallback (C type):     Objets fonction.    (line  152)
* PyFunction_WatchEvent (C type):        Objets fonction.    (line  136)
* PyFunctionObject (C type):             Objets fonction.    (line    8)
* PYFUNCTYPE() (dans le module ctypes):  Prototypes de fonction.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyGC_Collect (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyGC_Disable (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyGC_Enable (C function):              Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyGC_IsEnabled (C function):           Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyGen_Check (C function):              Objets générateur.  (line   19)
* PyGen_CheckExact (C function):         Objets générateur.  (line   24)
* PyGen_New (C function):                Objets générateur.  (line   29)
* PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function):    Objets générateur.  (line   35)
* PyGen_Type (C var):                    Objets générateur.  (line   15)
* PyGenObject (C type):                  Objets générateur.  (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef (C type):                  Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyGetSetDef.closure (C member):        Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyGetSetDef.doc (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyGetSetDef.get (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyGetSetDef.name (C member):           Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef.set (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyGILState_Check (C function):         High-level API.     (line  147)
* PyGILState_Ensure (C function):        High-level API.     (line   97)
* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function): High-level API.
                                                             (line  138)
* PyGILState_Release (C function):       High-level API.     (line  128)
* PyHASH_BITS (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   27)
* PyHash_FuncDef (C type):               PyHash API.         (line   51)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   59)
* PyHash_FuncDef.name (C member):        PyHash API.         (line   55)
* PyHash_FuncDef.seed_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   63)
* PyHash_GetFuncDef (C function):        PyHash API.         (line   69)
* PyHASH_IMAG (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   45)
* PyHASH_INF (C macro):                  PyHash API.         (line   39)
* PyHASH_MODULUS (C macro):              PyHash API.         (line   21)
* PyHASH_MULTIPLIER (C macro):           PyHash API.         (line   33)
* PyImport_AddModule (C function):       Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyImport_AddModuleRef (C function):    Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyImport_AppendInittab (C function):   Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  301)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function):  Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  130)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function):   Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  328)
* PyImport_FrozenModules (C var):        Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  293)
* PyImport_GetImporter (C function):     Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  243)
* PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function):  Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  211)
* PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function):     Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  219)
* PyImport_GetModule (C function):       Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  233)
* PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function):   Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  227)
* PyImport_Import (C function):          Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  256)
* PyImport_ImportModule (C function):    Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function):  Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function): Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyImport_ReloadModule (C function):    Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyIndex_Check (C function):            Number Protocol.    (line  311)
* PyInit_modulename (C function):        Construire des extensions C et C++.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function):   Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function): Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyInstanceMethod_New (C function):     Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyInstanceMethod_Type (C var):         Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyInterpreterConfig (C type):          Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_daemon_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_exec (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_fork (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyInterpreterConfig.check_multi_interp_extensions (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyInterpreterConfig.gil (C member):    Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyInterpreterState (C type):           High-level API.     (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function): Low-level API.      (line   21)
* PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function): Low-level API.     (line   30)
* PyInterpreterState_Get (C function):   Low-level API.      (line  119)
* PyInterpreterState_GetDict (C function): Low-level API.    (line  141)
* PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function): Low-level API.      (line  131)
* PyInterpreterState_Head (C function):  Support avancé du débogueur.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Main (C function):  Support avancé du débogueur.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInterpreterState_New (C function):   Low-level API.      (line   12)
* PyInterpreterState_Next (C function):  Support avancé du débogueur.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function): Support avancé du débogueur.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyIter_Check (C function):             Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyIter_Next (C function):              Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyIter_Send (C function):              Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   63)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:              Windows<9>.         (line   24)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>:          Windows<23>.        (line   15)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>:          Installation à la demande.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL:             Installation à la demande.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:                      Diagnostics.        (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:                     Exécution à vide.   (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>:                 Installation à la demande.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH:             Lignes Shebang.     (line   68)
* PyList_Append (C function):            List Objects.       (line  106)
* PyList_AsTuple (C function):           List Objects.       (line  161)
* PyList_Check (C function):             List Objects.       (line   16)
* PyList_CheckExact (C function):        List Objects.       (line   21)
* PyList_Clear (C function):             List Objects.       (line  140)
* PyList_Extend (C function):            List Objects.       (line  129)
* PyList_GET_ITEM (C function):          List Objects.       (line   68)
* PyList_GET_SIZE (C function):          List Objects.       (line   46)
* PyList_GetItem (C function):           Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyList_GetItem (C function) <1>:       List Objects.       (line   61)
* PyList_GetItemRef (C function):        List Objects.       (line   50)
* PyList_GetSlice (C function):          List Objects.       (line  112)
* PyList_Insert (C function):            List Objects.       (line   99)
* PyList_New (C function):               List Objects.       (line   26)
* PyList_Reverse (C function):           List Objects.       (line  156)
* PyList_SET_ITEM (C function):          List Objects.       (line   84)
* PyList_SetItem (C function):           Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyList_SetItem (C function) <1>:       List Objects.       (line   73)
* PyList_SetSlice (C function):          List Objects.       (line  120)
* PyList_Size (C function):              List Objects.       (line   40)
* PyList_Sort (C function):              List Objects.       (line  151)
* PyList_Type (C var):                   List Objects.       (line   11)
* PyListObject (C type):                 List Objects.       (line    6)
* PyLong_AS_LONG (C function):           Objets Integer.     (line  161)
* PyLong_AsDouble (C function):          Objets Integer.     (line  331)
* PyLong_AsInt (C function):             Objets Integer.     (line  170)
* PyLong_AsLong (C function):            Objets Integer.     (line  141)
* PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function): Objets Integer.     (line  177)
* PyLong_AsLongLong (C function):        Objets Integer.     (line  198)
* PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function): Objets Integer. (line  218)
* PyLong_AsNativeBytes (C function):     Objets Integer.     (line  352)
* PyLong_AsSize_t (C function):          Objets Integer.     (line  266)
* PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function):         Objets Integer.     (line  241)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function):    Objets Integer.     (line  254)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function): Objets Integer.    (line  278)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function): Objets Integer.
                                                             (line  312)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function): Objets Integer.    (line  294)
* PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function):         Objets Integer.     (line  342)
* PyLong_Check (C function):             Objets Integer.     (line   22)
* PyLong_CheckExact (C function):        Objets Integer.     (line   27)
* PyLong_FromDouble (C function):        Objets Integer.     (line   69)
* PyLong_FromLong (C function):          Objets Integer.     (line   32)
* PyLong_FromLongLong (C function):      Objets Integer.     (line   58)
* PyLong_FromNativeBytes (C function):   Objets Integer.     (line  112)
* PyLong_FromSize_t (C function):        Objets Integer.     (line   53)
* PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function):       Objets Integer.     (line   48)
* PyLong_FromString (C function):        Objets Integer.     (line   74)
* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function): Objets Integer.     (line   99)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function):  Objets Integer.     (line   42)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function): Objets Integer.  (line   63)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes (C function): Objets Integer.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function):       Objets Integer.     (line  106)
* PyLong_GetInfo (C function):           Objets Integer.     (line  505)
* PyLong_Type (C var):                   Objets Integer.     (line   17)
* PyLongObject (C type):                 Objets Integer.     (line   13)
* PyMapping_Check (C function):          Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyMapping_DelItem (C function):        Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyMapping_DelItemString (C function):  Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyMapping_GetItemString (C function):  Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (C function): Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (C function): Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyMapping_HasKey (C function):         Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function):   Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (C function): Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (C function): Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyMapping_Items (C function):          Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line  130)
* PyMapping_Keys (C function):           Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyMapping_Length (C function):         Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyMapping_SetItemString (C function):  Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyMapping_Size (C function):           Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyMapping_Values (C function):         Protocole de correspondance.
                                                             (line  122)
* PyMappingMethods (C type):             Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_length (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyMem_Calloc (C function):             Memory Interface.   (line   28)
* PyMem_Del (C function):                Memory Interface.   (line   84)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   53)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   65)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyMem_Free (C function):               Memory Interface.   (line   56)
* PyMem_GetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyMem_Malloc (C function):             Memory Interface.   (line   19)
* PyMem_New (C macro):                   Memory Interface.   (line   68)
* PyMem_RawCalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyMem_RawFree (C function):            Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMem_RawMalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyMem_RawRealloc (C function):         Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMem_Realloc (C function):            Memory Interface.   (line   40)
* PyMem_Resize (C macro):                Memory Interface.   (line   74)
* PyMem_SetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (C function):    Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyMemAllocatorDomain (C type):         Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyMemAllocatorEx (C type):             Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMember_GetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyMember_SetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMemberDef (C type):                  Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMemberDef.doc (C member):            Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMemberDef.flags (C member):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyMemberDef.name (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyMemberDef.offset (C member):         Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyMemberDef.type (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyMemoryView_Check (C function):       Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (C function):  Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyMemoryView_FromMemory (C function):  Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyMemoryView_FromObject (C function):  Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (C function):    Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (C function):  Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (C function): Objets de type MemoryView.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyMethod_Check (C function):           Objets méthode<2>.  (line   16)
* PyMethod_Function (C function):        Objets méthode<2>.  (line   30)
* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function):    Objets méthode<2>.  (line   34)
* PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function):        Objets méthode<2>.  (line   43)
* PyMethod_New (C function):             Objets méthode<2>.  (line   22)
* PyMethod_Self (C function):            Objets méthode<2>.  (line   39)
* PyMethod_Type (C var):                 Objets méthode<2>.  (line   10)
* PyMethodDef (C type):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyMethodDef.ml_doc (C member):         Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMethodDef.ml_flags (C member):       Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMethodDef.ml_meth (C member):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyMethodDef.ml_name (C member):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyMODINIT_FUNC (C macro):              Useful macros.      (line   11)
* PyModule_Add (C function):             Support functions.  (line   63)
* PyModule_AddFunctions (C function):    Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyModule_AddIntConstant (C function):  Support functions.  (line  113)
* PyModule_AddIntMacro (C macro):        Support functions.  (line  136)
* PyModule_AddObject (C function):       Support functions.  (line   79)
* PyModule_AddObjectRef (C function):    Support functions.  (line   11)
* PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function): Support functions.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyModule_AddStringMacro (C macro):     Support functions.  (line  144)
* PyModule_AddType (C function):         Support functions.  (line  148)
* PyModule_Check (C function):           Module Objects.     (line   13)
* PyModule_CheckExact (C function):      Module Objects.     (line   18)
* PyModule_Create (C function):          Single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyModule_Create2 (C function):         Single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyModule_ExecDef (C function):         Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function):  Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function): Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyModule_GetDef (C function):          Module Objects.     (line   83)
* PyModule_GetDict (C function):         Module Objects.     (line   46)
* PyModule_GetFilename (C function):     Module Objects.     (line  101)
* PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function): Module Objects.   (line   89)
* PyModule_GetName (C function):         Module Objects.     (line   72)
* PyModule_GetNameObject (C function):   Module Objects.     (line   61)
* PyModule_GetState (C function):        Module Objects.     (line   77)
* PyModule_New (C function):             Module Objects.     (line   41)
* PyModule_NewObject (C function):       Module Objects.     (line   23)
* PyModule_SetDocString (C function):    Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyModule_Type (C var):                 Module Objects.     (line    6)
* PyModuleDef (C type):                  Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyModuleDef_Init (C function):         Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyModuleDef_Slot (C type):             Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member):      Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member):     Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyModuleDef.m_base (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member):        Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member):          Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyModuleDef.m_free (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line  113)
* PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member):      Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyModuleDef.m_name (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyModuleDef.m_size (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member):        Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots.m_reload (C member): Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member):     Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyMonitoring_EnterScope (C function):  Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyMonitoring_ExitScope (C function):   Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyMonitoringState (C type):            Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyMutex (C type):                      Primitives de synchronisation<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMutex_Lock (C function):             Primitives de synchronisation<3>.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyMutex_Unlock (C function):           Primitives de synchronisation<3>.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyNumber_Absolute (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   99)
* PyNumber_Add (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line   14)
* PyNumber_And (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line  126)
* PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line  296)
* PyNumber_Check (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line    6)
* PyNumber_Divmod (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line   69)
* PyNumber_Float (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line  269)
* PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function):     Number Protocol.    (line   44)
* PyNumber_Index (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line  277)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  147)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  237)
* PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line  180)
* PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function):   Number Protocol.    (line  221)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function): Number Protocol.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function): Number Protocol.    (line  162)
* PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line  253)
* PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function):    Number Protocol.    (line  208)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function): Number Protocol.   (line  200)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function):   Number Protocol.    (line  229)
* PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function): Number Protocol.    (line  154)
* PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function): Number Protocol.  (line  188)
* PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  245)
* PyNumber_Invert (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  106)
* PyNumber_Long (C function):            Number Protocol.    (line  261)
* PyNumber_Lshift (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  112)
* PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function):  Number Protocol.    (line   35)
* PyNumber_Multiply (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   28)
* PyNumber_Negative (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   89)
* PyNumber_Or (C function):              Number Protocol.    (line  140)
* PyNumber_Positive (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   94)
* PyNumber_Power (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line   78)
* PyNumber_Remainder (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line   62)
* PyNumber_Rshift (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  119)
* PyNumber_Subtract (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   21)
* PyNumber_ToBase (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  286)
* PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line   51)
* PyNumber_Xor (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line  133)
* PyNumberMethods (C type):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_add (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_and (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  107)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_bool (C member):    Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_float (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_index (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  120)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  156)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  168)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  147)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  129)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  138)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  159)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  144)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_int (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  113)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_invert (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_negative (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_or (C member):      Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_positive (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_power (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   84)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   78)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_xor (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyObject (C type):                     Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyObject_ASCII (C function):           Protocole Objet.    (line  346)
* PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function): Objets fichiers.   (line   35)
* PyObject_Bytes (C function):           Protocole Objet.    (line  370)
* PyObject_Call (C function):            Object Calling API. (line   57)
* PyObject_CallFunction (C function):    Object Calling API. (line  108)
* PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyObject_CallMethod (C function):      Object Calling API. (line  127)
* PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  175)
* PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  163)
* PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  187)
* PyObject_CallNoArgs (C function):      Object Calling API. (line   73)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function):      Appeler des fonctions Python en C.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function) <1>:  Object Calling API. (line   96)
* PyObject_Calloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   30)
* PyObject_CallOneArg (C function):      Object Calling API. (line   85)
* PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function):     Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyObject_ClearManagedDict (C function): Protocole Objet.   (line  602)
* PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (C function):   Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyObject_CopyData (C function):        Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyObject_Del (C function):             Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyObject_DelAttr (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  243)
* PyObject_DelAttrString (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line  249)
* PyObject_DelItem (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  504)
* PyObject_DelItemString (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line  509)
* PyObject_Dir (C function):             Protocole Objet.    (line  515)
* PyObject_Format (C function):          Protocole Objet.    (line  323)
* PyObject_Free (C function):            Object allocators.  (line   58)
* PyObject_GC_Del (C function):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (C function):  Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyObject_GC_IsTracked (C function):    Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  113)
* PyObject_GC_New (C macro):             Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyObject_GC_NewVar (C macro):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyObject_GC_Resize (C macro):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyObject_GC_Track (C function):        Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function):      Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function):  Protocole Objet.    (line  188)
* PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function):  Protocole Objet.    (line  264)
* PyObject_GenericHash (C function):     PyHash API.         (line   89)
* PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function):  Protocole Objet.    (line  230)
* PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function):  Protocole Objet.    (line  281)
* PyObject_GetAIter (C function):        Protocole Objet.    (line  539)
* PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyObject_GetAttr (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  144)
* PyObject_GetAttrString (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line  154)
* PyObject_GetBuffer (C function):       Fonctions relatives aux tampons.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyObject_GetItem (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  490)
* PyObject_GetItemData (C function):     Protocole Objet.    (line  581)
* PyObject_GetIter (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  525)
* PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (C function): Protocole Objet.    (line  164)
* PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (C function): Protocole Objet.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyObject_GetTypeData (C function):     Protocole Objet.    (line  550)
* PyObject_HasAttr (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  116)
* PyObject_HasAttrString (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line  129)
* PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (C function): Protocole Objet.
                                                             (line  107)
* PyObject_HasAttrWithError (C function): Protocole Objet.   (line   98)
* PyObject_Hash (C function):            Protocole Objet.    (line  422)
* PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function): Protocole Objet. (line  432)
* PyObject_HEAD (C macro):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):          Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyObject_Init (C function):            Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyObject_InitVar (C function):         Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyObject_IS_GC (C function):           Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyObject_IsInstance (C function):      Protocole Objet.    (line  401)
* PyObject_IsSubclass (C function):      Protocole Objet.    (line  380)
* PyObject_IsTrue (C function):          Protocole Objet.    (line  440)
* PyObject_Length (C function):          Protocole Objet.    (line  470)
* PyObject_LengthHint (C function):      Protocole Objet.    (line  479)
* PyObject_Malloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   21)
* PyObject_New (C macro):                Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyObject_NewVar (C macro):             Allouer des objets dans le tas.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyObject_Not (C function):             Protocole Objet.    (line  446)
* PyObject_Print (C function):           Protocole Objet.    (line   90)
* PyObject_Realloc (C function):         Object allocators.  (line   42)
* PyObject_Repr (C function):            Protocole Objet.    (line  333)
* PyObject_RichCompare (C function):     Protocole Objet.    (line  300)
* PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function): Protocole Objet.    (line  312)
* PyObject_SelfIter (C function):        Protocole Objet.    (line  533)
* PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyObject_SetAttr (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  200)
* PyObject_SetAttrString (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line  212)
* PyObject_SetItem (C function):         Protocole Objet.    (line  497)
* PyObject_Size (C function):            Protocole Objet.    (line  470)
* PyObject_Str (C function):             Protocole Objet.    (line  358)
* PyObject_Type (C function):            Protocole Objet.    (line  452)
* PyObject_TypeCheck (C function):       Protocole Objet.    (line  465)
* PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro):           Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyObject_Vectorcall (C function):      Object Calling API. (line  199)
* PyObject_VectorcallDict (C function):  Object Calling API. (line  213)
* PyObject_VectorcallMethod (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  229)
* PyObject_VisitManagedDict (C function): Protocole Objet.   (line  592)
* PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member):         PyObject Slots.     (line   13)
* PyObject.ob_type (C member):           PyObject Slots.     (line   26)
* PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type):       Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_AfterFork (C function):           Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function):     Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function):    Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyOS_BeforeFork (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyOS_CheckStack (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyOS_double_to_string (C function):    Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyOS_FSPath (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyOS_getsig (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyOS_InputHook (C var):                The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  136)
* PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C var):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  148)
* PyOS_setsig (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyOS_sighandler_t (C type):            Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyOS_snprintf (C function):            Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyOS_stricmp (C function):             Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyOS_string_to_double (C function):    Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyOS_strnicmp (C function):            Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line  158)
* PyOS_strtol (C function):              Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyOS_strtoul (C function):             Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyOS_vsnprintf (C function):           Conversion et formatage de chaînes.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyPreConfig (C type):                  PyPreConfig.        (line    6)
* PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.  (line   18)
* PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.    (line   12)
* PyPreConfig.allocator (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line   26)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line   82)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale_warn (C member): PyPreConfig.  (line   93)
* PyPreConfig.configure_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.      (line   71)
* PyPreConfig.dev_mode (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   99)
* PyPreConfig.isolated (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line  106)
* PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding (C member): PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  112)
* PyPreConfig.parse_argv (C member):     PyPreConfig.        (line  131)
* PyPreConfig.use_environment (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line  140)
* PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line  147)
* PyProperty_Type (C var):               Les descripteurs.   (line    9)
* PyRefTracer (C type):                  Reference tracing.  (line    8)
* PyRefTracer_CREATE (C var):            Reference tracing.  (line   21)
* PyRefTracer_DESTROY (C var):           Reference tracing.  (line   26)
* PyRefTracer_GetTracer (C function):    Reference tracing.  (line   49)
* PyRefTracer_SetTracer (C function):    Reference tracing.  (line   31)
* PyRun_AnyFile (C function):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyRun_File (C function):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  191)
* PyRun_FileEx (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  197)
* PyRun_FileExFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  211)
* PyRun_FileFlags (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  204)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  120)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  127)
* PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  106)
* PyRun_SimpleFile (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyRun_SimpleString (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyRun_String (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  172)
* PyRun_StringFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  178)
* PySendResult (C type):                 Protocole d'itération.
                                                             (line   56)
* PySeqIter_Check (C function):          Itérateurs<2>.      (line   18)
* PySeqIter_New (C function):            Itérateurs<2>.      (line   23)
* PySeqIter_Type (C var):                Itérateurs<2>.      (line   12)
* PySequence_Check (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line    6)
* PySequence_Concat (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   21)
* PySequence_Contains (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   99)
* PySequence_Count (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line   92)
* PySequence_DelItem (C function):       Sequence Protocol.  (line   75)
* PySequence_DelSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   86)
* PySequence_Fast (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  128)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line  152)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line  143)
* PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function):    Sequence Protocol.  (line  158)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function):       Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  117)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function) <1>:   Sequence Protocol.  (line   51)
* PySequence_GetSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   57)
* PySequence_Index (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line  105)
* PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line   35)
* PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line   43)
* PySequence_ITEM (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  169)
* PySequence_Length (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   14)
* PySequence_List (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  111)
* PySequence_Repeat (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   28)
* PySequence_SetItem (C function):       Sequence Protocol.  (line   64)
* PySequence_SetSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   80)
* PySequence_Size (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line   14)
* PySequence_Tuple (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line  118)
* PySequenceMethods (C type):            Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   50)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   19)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   60)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   68)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   79)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member):  Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   34)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   26)
* PySet_Add (C function):                Set Objects.        (line  120)
* PySet_Check (C function):              Set Objects.        (line   44)
* PySet_CheckExact (C function):         Set Objects.        (line   60)
* PySet_Clear (C function):              Set Objects.        (line  153)
* PySet_Contains (C function):           Set Objects.        (line  111)
* PySet_Discard (C function):            Set Objects.        (line  135)
* PySet_GET_SIZE (C function):           Set Objects.        (line  107)
* PySet_New (C function):                Set Objects.        (line   78)
* PySet_Pop (C function):                Set Objects.        (line  145)
* PySet_Size (C function):               Set Objects.        (line   99)
* PySet_Type (C var):                    Set Objects.        (line   31)
* PySetObject (C type):                  Set Objects.        (line   19)
* PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function):     Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function):    Slice Objects.      (line  100)
* PySlice_Check (C function):            Slice Objects.      (line   11)
* PySlice_GetIndices (C function):       Slice Objects.      (line   28)
* PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function):     Slice Objects.      (line   44)
* PySlice_New (C function):              Slice Objects.      (line   16)
* PySlice_Type (C var):                  Slice Objects.      (line    6)
* PySlice_Unpack (C function):           Slice Objects.      (line   87)
* PyState_AddModule (C function):        Module lookup.      (line   25)
* PyState_FindModule (C function):       Module lookup.      (line   15)
* PyState_RemoveModule (C function):     Module lookup.      (line   49)
* PyStatus (C type):                     PyStatus.           (line    6)
* PyStatus_Error (C function):           PyStatus.           (line   34)
* PyStatus_Exception (C function):       PyStatus.           (line   51)
* PyStatus_Exit (C function):            PyStatus.           (line   45)
* PyStatus_IsError (C function):         PyStatus.           (line   57)
* PyStatus_IsExit (C function):          PyStatus.           (line   61)
* PyStatus_NoMemory (C function):        PyStatus.           (line   41)
* PyStatus_Ok (C function):              PyStatus.           (line   30)
* PyStatus.err_msg (C member):           PyStatus.           (line   20)
* PyStatus.exitcode (C member):          PyStatus.           (line   16)
* PyStatus.func (C member):              PyStatus.           (line   24)
* PyStructSequence_Desc (C type):        Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.doc (C member):  Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.fields (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.n_in_sequence (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyStructSequence_Field (C type):       Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyStructSequence_Field.doc (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyStructSequence_Field.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyStructSequence_InitType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyStructSequence_New (C function):     Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyStructSequence_NewType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C var): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* PySys_AddAuditHook (C function):       System Functions.   (line  118)
* PySys_Audit (C function):              System Functions.   (line   77)
* PySys_AuditTuple (C function):         System Functions.   (line  110)
* PySys_FormatStderr (C function):       System Functions.   (line   61)
* PySys_FormatStdout (C function):       System Functions.   (line   53)
* PySys_GetObject (C function):          System Functions.   (line   11)
* PySys_GetXOptions (C function):        System Functions.   (line   68)
* PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function):   System Functions.   (line   23)
* PySys_SetArgv (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  268)
* PySys_SetArgvEx (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  216)
* PySys_SetObject (C function):          System Functions.   (line   17)
* PySys_WriteStderr (C function):        System Functions.   (line   48)
* PySys_WriteStdout (C function):        System Functions.   (line   31)
* Python 3000:                           Glossaire.          (line 1326)
* Python Editor:                         IDLE --- Python editor and shell<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0007#documentation-strings: Documentation<21>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0249#threadsafety: Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0453#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0564#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers: Objets code<2>.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0632#migration-advice: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0683: Reference Counting.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1:   Nouveau processus de développement.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <1>: Nouveau processus de développement.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <2>: Glossaire.        (line 1291)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 100: Unicode<2>.         (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11:  Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <1>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <2>: Changements à la compilation.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <3>: Changements à la compilation.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <4>: Changements à la compilation.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <5>: Changements à la compilation.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <6>: Changements à la compilation<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <7>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <8>: Unsupported Operating Systems.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <9>: Library Changes. (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <10>: Build<25>.      (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <11>: Build<25>.      (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <12>: Build<61>.      (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <13>: Build Requirements.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <14>: Utilisation de Python sur Windows.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <15>: Autres plateformes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-2: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <2>: Changements à la compilation<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 201: Nouveau processus de développement.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205: PEP 205 Weak References.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205 <1>: weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  353)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207 <1>: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 208: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 217: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <1>: Autres changements au langage<17>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <2>: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <2>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 229: PEP 229 New Build System.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 230: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 232: PEP 232 Attributs de fonctions.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 234: PEP 234 Itérateurs. (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 235: Introduction<11>.   (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <2>: PEP 236 Directives __future__.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <3>: L'instruction future.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <4>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237: Integers.           (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <1>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <2>: Autres changements au langage<17>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <3>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <4>: Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line  187)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <5>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line  192)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238: Integers.           (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <1>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <2>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <3>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <4>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <5>: The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  369)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <1>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <2>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 243: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246: Documentation<20>.  (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246 <1>: PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 247: hmac<3>.            (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249: sqlite3<2>.         (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <1>: The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <2>: The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <3>: Library<24>.    (line  121)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <4>: Library<27>.    (line  296)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <5>: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <6>: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <7>: Fonctions du module.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <8>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  735)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <9>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  738)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <10>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  750)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <11>: Exceptions<7>. (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <12>: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <13>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <14>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252: Related Links.      (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <1>: Related Links.  (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <2>: Implémentation de descripteurs.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253: Anciennes et nouvelles classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <1>: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <2>: Related Links.  (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <3>: Related Links.  (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <4>: Related Links.  (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255: PEP 255 Générateurs simples.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <1>: PEP 255 Générateurs simples.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <2>: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <3>: PEP 255 Générateurs simples<2>.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <4>: Expressions yield.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <5>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261: Unicode Changes.    (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261 <1>: Unicode Changes.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263: Autres changements au langage<16>.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <1>: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <2>: Core and Builtins<32>.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <3>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <4>: Analyse Lexicale.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <5>: Analyse Lexicale.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <6>: Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 264: Autres changements et corrections<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <1>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <2>: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <3>: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 274: New Syntax.         (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 277: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278 <1>: Glossaire.      (line 1604)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 279: PEP 279 enumerate.  (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <1>: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <2>: Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <3>: Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285: PEP 285 Un type booléen.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285 <1>: PEP 285 Un type booléen.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 288: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <1>: Autres changements au langage<17>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <2>: Documentation Python.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292 <1>: Chaînes modèles.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 293: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3000: Python 3 0.        (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 301: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <1>: Visible Changes.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <2>: Portage de code Python.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <3>: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <4>: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés.
                                                             (line  289)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <5>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <6>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <7>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <8>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <9>: Le système d'importation.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <10>: Références.    (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <11>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2273)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <12>: linecache --- Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <13>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1415)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <14>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1426)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <15>: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <16>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <17>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <18>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <19>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  130)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <20>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  152)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <21>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  193)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <22>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <23>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <24>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <25>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  180)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <26>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  205)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <27>: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  277)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <28>: Glossaire.     (line  972)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305 <1>: csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <1>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <2>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <3>: Format du flux de données.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <1>: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <2>: Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 309: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3100: Python 3 0.        (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <1>: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <2>: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
                                                             (line  161)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <3>: Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <4>: Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3102: New Syntax.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104: New Syntax.        (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104 <1>: L'instruction nonlocal.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105: Print Is A Function.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <1>: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <2>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3106: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <1>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <2>: New Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <3>: Annotations de fonctions.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <4>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  159)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108: Library Changes.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <1>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <2>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109: Changed Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110: Changed Syntax.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <2>: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3111: Builtins.          (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112 <1>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3113: Removed Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3114: Operators And Special Methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115: types<7>.          (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <1>: Changed Syntax.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <2>: Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <3>: Définition de classes.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <4>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <5>: Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  196)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116: Optimizations<7>.  (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <1>: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <2>: Glossaire.     (line 1604)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <1>: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <2>: API changes.   (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <3>: Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <4>: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <5>: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <6>: Library<64>.   (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <7>: Library<69>.   (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <8>: Library<98>.   (line  958)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <9>: Vues mémoire.  (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <1>: Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <2>: Exemples et recettes.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <3>: abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <4>: Protocole Objet.
                                                             (line  391)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <5>: Protocole Objet.
                                                             (line  411)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <1>: Analyse lexicale.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <2>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <1>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  230)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <2>: Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3123: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3127: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <1>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <2>: Définition de classes.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <1>: Library<53>.   (line  599)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <2>: Identifiants et mots-clés.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <3>: Identifiants et mots-clés.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132: New Syntax.        (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132 <1>: Les assignations.
                                                             (line  169)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134: Changed Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <2>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <3>: Library<27>.   (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <4>: Classes mères. (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135: Builtins.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135 <1>: Création de l'objet classe.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3137: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3138: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 314: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <1>: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <2>: abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3144: ipaddress<6>.      (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <1>: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <2>: Fichiers Python « compilés ».
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <3>: Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  157)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <4>: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <5>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <6>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <7>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <8>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <9>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <10>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <11>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <12>: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <13>: Fonctions publiques.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <14>: Fonctions publiques.
                                                             (line  133)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <15>: Importer des modules<2>.
                                                             (line  221)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <16>: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148 <1>: Module Functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <1>: Core and Builtins<96>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <2>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <1>: Exceptions système.
                                                             (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <2>: Exceptions<15>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <3>: select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <4>: resource --- Resource usage information.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <5>: Exceptions standards.
                                                             (line  185)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <1>: pickle<4>.     (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <2>: Library<53>.   (line 1279)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <3>: Format du flux de données.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155 <1>: Glossaire.     (line 1357)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <2>: asyncio<11>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <3>: asyncio<11>.   (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <4>: selectors<2>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <1>: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <2>: Autres changements au langage<17>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <3>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <4>: Définition de classes.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322 <1>: Autres changements au langage<17>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324 <1>: subprocess --- Subprocess management.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 325: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  148)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 327: The Context type.   (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328: Portage de code Python.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <1>: Removed Syntax. (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <2>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <3>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <4>: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <5>: Autres changements au langage<17>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <6>: Références.     (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <7>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2291)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <8>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <9>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <10>: Glossaire.     (line  573)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 331: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333: The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333 <1>: The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333: Nouveaux modules<3>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <1>: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <2>: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <3>: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <4>: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <5>: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <6>: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <7>: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <8>: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <9>: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <10>: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <11>: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <12>: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  238)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <13>: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  256)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <14>: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <15>: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  272)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <16>: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  315)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <17>: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <18>: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams <1>: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#the-start-response-callable: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <1>: Options de l'interface.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <2>: Références.     (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <3>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  178)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 339: Build and C API Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 341: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  141)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <2>: Portage vers Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <3>: Expressions yield.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <4>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <5>: Transmettre des valeurs au générateur.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <6>: Documentation Python.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343: Le module contextlib.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  130)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <2>: Le module contextlib<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <3>: Émulation de types génériques.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <4>: Gestionnaire de contexte With.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <5>: L'instruction with.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <6>: Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <7>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <8>: Glossaire.      (line  327)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <9>: Glossaire.      (line  333)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 347: Build and C API Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <1>: Deprecations and Removals.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <2>: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353: Portage vers Python 3 10<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <1>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <2>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <3>: Build and C API Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <4>: C API<40>.      (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <5>: Types.          (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 356: Nouveautés de Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 357: PEP 357 The '__index__' method.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 361: Nouveautés de Python 2 6.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <1>: Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  405)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <2>: Glossaire.      (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <3>: Glossaire.      (line 1232)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366: Visible Changes.    (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <2>: Références.     (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <3>: Références.     (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <4>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <5>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <1>: Library<25>.    (line  605)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <2>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  222)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <4>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  234)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <5>: Interface en ligne de commande<10>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 371: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372 <1>: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373: The Future for Python 2 x.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373 <1>: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <1>: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <2>: Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380 <1>: Expressions yield.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values: The STOP_ITERATION event.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383: Documentation<21>.  (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <1>: Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <2>: Socket families.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <3>: Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <4>: Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <5>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384: Retrait<2>.         (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <1>: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <2>: C API<34>.      (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 385: Code Repository.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387: Avertissements.     (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <1>: Avertissements. (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <2>: Stabilité de l’API C.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <3>: Stable ABI.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <4>: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389 <1>: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391 <1>: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 392: Nouveautés de Python 3 2.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393: Retrait<2>.         (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <1>: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <2>: Retraits<6>.    (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <3>: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <4>: Functionality.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <5>: Performance and resource usage.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <6>: Optimizations<5>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <7>: Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <8>: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <9>: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <10>: Porting C code.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <11>: C API<32>.     (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <12>: Encodings and Unicode.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <13>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1311)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <14>: Objets Unicode.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <1>: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <2>: Lanceur Python pour Windows.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 398: Nouveautés de Python 3 3.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 4:   Library Changes.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405 <1>: venv --- Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 409: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1055)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <1>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1066)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <2>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1798)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <3>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1818)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <4>: Glossaire.      (line 1322)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412 <1>: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414 <1>: Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 418: time<8>.            (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <1>: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <2>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <3>: Core and Builtins<86>.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <4>: Le système d'importation.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <5>: Paquets espaces de nommage.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <6>: l'attribut __path__ des modules.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <7>: l'attribut __path__ des modules.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <8>: Références.     (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <9>: Références.     (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <10>: Références.    (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <11>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <12>: Glossaire.     (line 1128)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <13>: Glossaire.     (line 1297)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421: SimpleNamespace.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <1>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1176)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <2>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1181)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424: Autres changements au langage<10>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424 <1>: operator<3>.    (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <1>: pathlib<11>.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <2>: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 429: Nouveautés de Python 3 4.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432: Other CPython implementation changes.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <1>: Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line  312)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <2>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <3>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434 <1>: idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <1>: enum<9>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <2>: enum<9>.        (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <1>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <2>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441: zipapp<2>.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441 <1>: zipapp<2>.      (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442: Retraits<5>.        (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <2>: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <3>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <4>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <5>: C API<47>.      (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <6>: gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  265)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <7>: Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1665)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <1>: functools<5>.   (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <2>: Glossaire.      (line  686)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <1>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <2>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <3>: Autres Améliorations<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <2>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <3>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <4>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <1>: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <2>: Documentation<68>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <3>: Documentation<72>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <4>: Core and Builtins<89>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <5>: Core and Builtins<92>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <6>: Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <7>: Appels.         (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <8>: Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <1>: statistics<6>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <2>: statistics<6>.  (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451: zipimport<2>.       (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <1>: zipimport<3>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <2>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <3>: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <4>: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <5>: Library<25>.    (line  457)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <6>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <7>: Références.     (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <8>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1343)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <9>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <10>: pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <11>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <12>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <13>: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  186)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <14>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <15>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <2>: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <3>: Documentation Changes.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <4>: ensurepip<2>.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <5>: venv<7>.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <6>: Autres Améliorations<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <7>: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <8>: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <9>: Documentation Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <10>: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <1>: tracemalloc<4>. (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <2>: tracemalloc<4>. (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456: Summary -- Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <1>: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <2>: PyHash API.     (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <1>: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <2>: Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line  201)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <1>: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <3>: Tools/Demos<50>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <1>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <2>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <3>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <1>: Library<71>.    (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <2>: Objets OrderedDict.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <1>: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <2>: Library<97>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <1>: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <2>: Changements dans l'API Python<9>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <3>: Library<62>.    (line  228)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <4>: Library<95>.    (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <5>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1565)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <6>: Exceptions système.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <7>: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  422)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <8>: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  773)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <9>: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  965)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <10>: Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  975)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <11>: Fonctions<5>.  (line  322)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <12>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <13>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <14>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  249)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <15>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  264)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <16>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  341)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <17>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  416)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <18>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  436)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <19>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  456)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <20>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  501)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <21>: select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <22>: /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <23>: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <24>: Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <25>: Kqueue Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <26>: Classes<4>.    (line  133)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <27>: Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  591)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <28>: Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  610)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 476: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 477: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 478: Nouveautés de Python 3 5.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479: Changes in Python Behavior.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <1>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <2>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <3>: Library<53>.    (line 1267)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <4>: Library<57>.    (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <5>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <6>: Library<65>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <7>: Library<78>.    (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <8>: Library<84>.    (line  326)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <9>: Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  300)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <10>: Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  302)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <11>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483 <1>: Glossaire.      (line  697)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <1>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <2>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <3>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <4>: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <5>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types<3>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <6>: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <7>: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <8>: ast<3>.         (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <9>: ast<3>.         (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <10>: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <11>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <12>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <13>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <14>: Annotations de fonctions.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <15>: Les assignations annotées.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <16>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  163)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <17>: Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <18>: NewType.       (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <19>: Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <20>: Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <21>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <22>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  278)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <23>: Root nodes.    (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <24>: Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <25>: Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <26>: Options du compilateur.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <27>: Glossaire.     (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <28>: Glossaire.     (line  614)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <29>: Glossaire.     (line  697)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <30>: Glossaire.     (line 1579)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <31>: Glossaire.     (line 1596)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <32>: Glossaire.     (line 1627)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484#annotating-instance-and-class-methods: PEP 673 Self type.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <1>: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <2>: Library<93>.    (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <3>: Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <4>: Fonctions de classifications.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <1>: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <2>: Windows<74>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <1>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <2>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <3>: Changements dans l'API Python<8>.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <4>: Documentation<58>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <5>: Documentation<65>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <6>: Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <1>: PEP 488 Élimination des fichiers PYO.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <2>: Changements dans l'API Python<9>.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <3>: Core and Builtins<96>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <4>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <5>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <6>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <7>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <8>: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <9>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <10>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <11>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <12>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <1>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <3>: Library<11>.    (line  254)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <4>: Library<21>.    (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <5>: Library<37>.    (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <6>: Library<37>.    (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <7>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <8>: Library<38>.    (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <9>: Library<38>.    (line  177)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <10>: Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <11>: Library<39>.   (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <12>: C API<38>.     (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <13>: C API<38>.     (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <14>: C API<38>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <15>: C API<38>.     (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <16>: C API<38>.     (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <17>: C API<38>.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <18>: C API<38>.     (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <19>: C API<38>.     (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <20>: C API<38>.     (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <21>: C API<38>.     (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <22>: C API<38>.     (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <23>: Library<40>.   (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <24>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <25>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <26>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <27>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <28>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <29>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <30>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <31>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <32>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <33>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <34>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <35>: Library<41>.   (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <36>: Library<41>.   (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <37>: Library<41>.   (line  423)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <38>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <39>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <40>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <41>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <42>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <43>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <44>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <45>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <46>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <47>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <48>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <49>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <50>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <51>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <52>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <53>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <54>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <55>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <56>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <57>: Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <58>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <59>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <60>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  299)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <61>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  318)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <62>: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  324)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <63>: importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  186)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <64>: La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module.
                                                             (line  144)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <65>: Construire des extensions C et C++.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <66>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <67>: Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <1>: Nouveaux mot-clefs.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <2>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <3>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <4>: Nouveaux mot-clefs<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <5>: Changements dans l'API C<7>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <6>: Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <7>: Library<79>.    (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <8>: Library<85>.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <9>: Core and Builtins<93>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <10>: Objets attendables awaitable.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <11>: Expressions yield.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <12>: L'instruction async with.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <13>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  169)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <14>: Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <15>: Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <16>: Glossaire.     (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <17>: Glossaire.     (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <18>: Glossaire.     (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <19>: Glossaire.     (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <20>: Glossaire.     (line  165)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <21>: Glossaire.     (line  362)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <22>: Glossaire.     (line  369)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 493: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 494: What's New In Python 3 6.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <1>: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <2>: Library<77>.    (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <3>: Utilisation de ZoneInfo.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <1>: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <2>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line  283)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <3>: f-strings.      (line  159)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <4>: Glossaire.      (line  509)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5:   PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506: secrets.            (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <1>: Library<80>.    (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <2>: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 511: Changements dans l'API Python<8>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514: Améliorations du lanceur Windows py exe.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <1>: Windows<23>.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <2>: Windows<66>.    (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <3>: Depuis la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515: fractions<3>.       (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <1>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <2>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <3>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <4>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <5>: Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line  153)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <6>: fractions --- Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <1>: Library<77>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <2>: Core and Builtins<80>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <3>: Library<79>.    (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <4>: Library<79>.    (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <5>: Library<79>.    (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <6>: C API<68>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <7>: Glossaire.      (line 1273)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 520: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <1>: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <2>: Portage vers Python 3 9<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <3>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <4>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <5>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <6>: Tools/Demos<32>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <7>: Tools/Demos<36>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <8>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <9>: Internal Frames.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <10>: Low-level API. (line  188)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <11>: Low-level API. (line  197)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <1>: os<8>.          (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <2>: os<8>.          (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <3>: Library<76>.    (line  150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <4>: Library<76>.    (line  154)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <5>: Nombres aléatoires<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <1>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <2>: Expressions yield.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  169)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <4>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1051)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <5>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1792)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <6>: Bit d'option des objets code.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <7>: Glossaire.      (line  130)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526: Autres changements au langage<4>.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <1>: ast<3>.         (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <2>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <3>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <4>: typing<9>.      (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <5>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <6>: Les assignations annotées.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <7>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  168)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <8>: Special forms.  (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <9>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <10>: dataclasses --- Data Classes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <11>: Variables de classe.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <12>: Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <13>: Options du compilateur.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <14>: Glossaire.     (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <15>: Glossaire.     (line 1628)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <1>: Mode UTF-8.     (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  172)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <3>: PyConfig.       (line  542)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529: Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <1>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <2>: Documentation<21>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <3>: Library<48>.    (line  619)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <4>: Windows<61>.    (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <5>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  376)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <6>: Mode UTF-8.     (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <7>: Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  322)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <8>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  826)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <9>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1874)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <10>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <11>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  154)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <1>: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <2>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <3>: Agencements des listes ensembles et dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <2>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <3>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <4>: Documentation<48>.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <5>: Documentation<49>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <6>: Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <7>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  457)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <8>: Options générales.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <9>: locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  544)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <10>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <1>: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <2>: C API<57>.      (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <3>: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <1>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <3>: Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <4>: locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  544)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <5>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544: typing<8>.          (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <1>: Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <2>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545 <1>: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <1>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <2>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <3>: Library<53>.    (line  794)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <4>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <5>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <6>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <7>: PyConfig.       (line  275)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553 <1>: Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554 <1>: A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557: dataclasses<3>.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557 <1>: dataclasses --- Data Classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <1>: types<4>.       (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <3>: Résolution des entrées MRO.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <4>: __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <5>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <6>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <7>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <1>: Library<60>.    (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <3>: Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563: PEP 563 may not be the future.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <1>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <2>: Library<34>.    (line  300)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <3>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <4>: L'instruction future.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <5>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  173)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <6>: Constante.      (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <7>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line  128)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <8>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <1>: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <2>: time<5>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <3>: Library<62>.    (line  299)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565 <1>: Avertissements. (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 566: Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567: contextvars.        (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <1>: asyncio<7>.     (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <2>: Documentation<48>.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <3>: Documentation<50>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <4>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <5>: contextvars --- Context Variables.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <6>: Planification des fonctions de rappel.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <7>: Planification des rappels différés.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <8>: Planification des rappels différés.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <9>: Objet Future.   (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570: Positional-only parameters.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <1>: Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <2>: Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <3>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  116)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572: Autres changements au langage<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <1>: Expression d'affectation.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <2>: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython<5>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <3>: Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <4>: Documentation<39>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <5>: Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <6>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <7>: Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <8>: Expressions d'affectation.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <9>: Filtres de capture.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <10>: Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <1>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<10>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <2>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <3>: C API<41>.      (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <1>: Format du flux de données.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <2>: Exemple<4>.     (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <1>: Table des évènements d'audit.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <2>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <3>: System Functions.
                                                             (line  140)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <1>: Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <2>: Library<43>.    (line  192)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <3>: Library<43>.    (line  195)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <4>: Library<43>.    (line  209)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <5>: Library<44>.    (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <6>: Library<44>.    (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <7>: Library<44>.    (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <8>: Library<44>.    (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <9>: Objets ChainMap.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <10>: Objets defaultdict.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <11>: Objets OrderedDict.
                                                             (line  117)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <12>: weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  201)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <13>: weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  221)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <14>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  234)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <15>: Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <16>: Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <1>: Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <2>: Library<22>.    (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <3>: Library<31>.    (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <4>: Documentation<27>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <5>: Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <6>: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <7>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  176)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <8>: Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <9>: Deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <10>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <11>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <12>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <13>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <14>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <15>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <16>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <17>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <18>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <19>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <20>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <21>: Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <22>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <23>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <24>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <25>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <26>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <27>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <28>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <29>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <30>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <31>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <32>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <33>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <34>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <35>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <36>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <37>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <38>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <39>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <40>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <41>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <42>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <43>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <44>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <45>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <46>: Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <47>: Glossaire.     (line  697)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586: typing<5>.          (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <1>: typing<7>.      (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <2>: typing<8>.      (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <3>: Special forms.  (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587: Removed C APIs.     (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <1>: Obsolescence<4>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <2>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <3>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <4>: C API<32>.      (line  125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <5>: Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <6>: C API<48>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <7>: Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589: typing<8>.          (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589 <1>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  467)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590: Removed C APIs.     (line  135)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <1>: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <2>: Optimisations<4>.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <3>: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <4>: Optimisations<5>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <5>: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <6>: Core and Builtins<12>.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <7>: Library<17>.    (line 1079)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <8>: C API<17>.      (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <9>: Core and Builtins<25>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <10>: Library<27>.   (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <11>: Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <12>: Core and Builtins<33>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <13>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  348)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <14>: Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <15>: Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <16>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <17>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <18>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <19>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <20>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <21>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <22>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <23>: C API<48>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <24>: The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591: typing<8>.          (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <1>: Special forms.  (line  213)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  334)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <1>: typing<6>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <2>: Library<45>.    (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <3>: Special forms.  (line  393)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <4>: Utilitaires d'introspection.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <1>: PEP 594 Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <3>: asynchat and asyncore.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <4>: smtpd.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <5>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <6>: Modules.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <7>: Library<17>.    (line  845)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <8>: Library<17>.    (line  848)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <9>: Library<17>.    (line  851)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <10>: Library<17>.   (line  859)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <11>: Library<17>.   (line  863)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <12>: Library<17>.   (line  869)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <13>: Library<17>.   (line  872)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <14>: Library<17>.   (line  887)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <15>: Library<17>.   (line  890)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <16>: Library<17>.   (line  897)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <17>: Library<17>.   (line  900)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <18>: Library<17>.   (line  903)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <19>: Library<17>.   (line  906)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <20>: Library<17>.   (line  909)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <21>: Library<17>.   (line  964)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <22>: Library<17>.   (line  967)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <23>: Library<17>.   (line  970)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <24>: Library<17>.   (line  973)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <25>: Library<24>.   (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <26>: Library<25>.   (line  684)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <27>: Library<26>.   (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <28>: Library<27>.   (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <29>: Library<27>.   (line  150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <30>: Tests<25>.     (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <31>: Modules remplacés.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <32>: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <33>: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <34>: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <35>: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <36>: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <37>: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <38>: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <39>: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <40>: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <41>: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <42>: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <43>: nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <44>: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <45>: ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <46>: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <47>: smtpd --- SMTP Server.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <48>: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <49>: spwd --- The shadow password database.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <50>: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <51>: telnetlib --- Telnet client.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <52>: uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <53>: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 596: Les nouveautés de Python 3 9.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <1>: Library<35>.    (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <2>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  164)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <1>: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <2>: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <1>: PEP 604 nouvel opérateur d'union de types.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <2>: Library<38>.    (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <3>: Documentation<36>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <4>: Type Union.     (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <5>: Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 610: Distributions.      (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <1>: PEP 612 variables de spécification de paramètres.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <2>: Library<33>.    (line  691)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <3>: Library<34>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <4>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <5>: Library<38>.    (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <6>: Library<38>.    (line  119)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <7>: Annotating callable objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <8>: Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur.
                                                             (line  181)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <9>: Special forms.  (line  121)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <10>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  464)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <11>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <1>: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <2>: Library<40>.    (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <3>: Special types.  (line  228)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <1>: Autres changements au langage<5>.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <2>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <3>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <4>: Définition de classes.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <1>: zoneinfo.       (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <2>: Library<42>.    (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <3>: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <1>: Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <2>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <1>: Modules.        (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <2>: Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <3>: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <4>: Nouvel analyseur syntaxique.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <5>: Obsolescence<7>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <6>: Library<33>.    (line  178)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <7>: Library<43>.    (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <8>: Spécification complète de la grammaire.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <1>: Autres changements au langage<4>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <2>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  209)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <1>: Optimisations<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <2>: Retraits<2>.    (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <3>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <4>: C API<25>.      (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <5>: Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <6>: Documentation<31>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <7>: Objets Unicode. (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624: Résumé – Points forts de la publication.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <1>: Retraits<4>.    (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <2>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <3>: C API<32>.      (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624#alternative-apis: Retraits<4>.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <1>: Obsolescence.   (line  215)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <3>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <4>: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  422)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <5>: Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <6>: Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <7>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628: cmath.              (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <1>: math<7>.        (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <2>: Library<77>.    (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632: Résumé – Points marquants de cette version.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <1>: distutils.      (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <2>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <3>: distutils<2>.   (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <4>: Library<24>.    (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <5>: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <1>: Autres fonctionnalités importantes.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <2>: Core and Builtins<27>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <3>: Core and Builtins<35>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <4>: Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <5>: Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <6>: L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <7>: Filtres de classes.
                                                             (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  821)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <9>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  845)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635 <1>: Autres fonctionnalités importantes.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <1>: Autres fonctionnalités importantes.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <2>: L'instruction match.
                                                             (line  197)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <3>: L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <4>: Filtres de classes.
                                                             (line  144)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644: hashlib.            (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <1>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <2>: hashlib<3>.     (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <3>: ssl<3>.         (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <4>: Changements à la compilation<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <5>: Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <6>: Library<25>.    (line  525)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <7>: Build<34>.      (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <8>: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <1>: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <2>: sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <3>: Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <4>: Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line  135)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <5>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  320)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <1>: PEP 647 gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <2>: Library<34>.    (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <3>: Special forms.  (line  507)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649: Annotation scopes.  (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <1>: Contenu du module<5>.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652: PEP 652 maintenance d'une ABI stable.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652 <1>: C API<33>.      (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <1>: PEP 654 Groupes d'exception et except*.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <2>: New opcodes.    (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <3>: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  174)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <4>: Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <5>: Core and Builtins<33>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <1>: Library<26>.    (line  266)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <2>: Special forms.  (line  227)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <3>: Special forms.  (line  236)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <4>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  473)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657: PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <1>: inspect<2>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <2>: Library<26>.    (line  223)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <3>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  337)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <1>: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <2>: Single-threaded performance.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <1>: Defined mutation semantics for locals.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <2>: Defined mutation semantics for locals.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <3>: Deprecated C APIs.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <4>: Changements dans l'API Python.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <5>: Changements dans l'API Python.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <6>: Changements dans l'API Python.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <7>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1198)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <8>: pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <9>: Réflexion.      (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <10>: Objets décrivant les frames.
                                                             (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <11>: Frame Locals Proxies.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <1>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <2>: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <3>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  203)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670: Résumé – Points forts de la publication.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670 <1>: Portage vers Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673: PEP 673 Self type.  (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <1>: Library<28>.    (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <2>: Special types.  (line  194)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <1>: Library<27>.    (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <2>: Special types.  (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 676: Documentation<22>.  (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678: Autres changements au langage<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <1>: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <2>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <3>: Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <4>: Core and Builtins<27>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680: Résumé – Points forts de la publication.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <1>: Nouveaux modules<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <2>: Library<27>.    (line  205)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <1>: Library<26>.    (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  241)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682: Autres changements au langage<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682 <1>: Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <1>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <2>: Reference Counting.
                                                             (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <3>: Glossaire.      (line  766)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <1>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686: Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <1>: Encodage de texte.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687: Library<13>.        (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <1>: Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  326)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <2>: Library<18>.    (line  290)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <3>: Library<18>.    (line  297)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <4>: Library<18>.    (line  330)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <5>: Library<18>.    (line  333)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <6>: Library<18>.    (line  343)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <7>: Library<18>.    (line  400)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <8>: Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <9>: Library<20>.    (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <10>: Library<20>.   (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <1>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  211)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <2>: Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 689: C API<20>.          (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <1>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <2>: Library<18>.    (line  117)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <3>: Documentation<13>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <4>: Special forms.  (line  587)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 693: What's New In Python 3 12.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <1>: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <2>: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <3>: Library<9>.     (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <4>: Library<11>.    (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <5>: Library<17>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <6>: Library<17>.    (line  661)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <7>: Library<17>.    (line  856)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <8>: Library<17>.    (line  949)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <9>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <10>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <11>: Library<18>.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <12>: Annotation scopes.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <13>: The type statement.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <14>: Special types. (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <15>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <16>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  212)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <17>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  346)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <18>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  453)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <19>: Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <1>: Core and Builtins<12>.
                                                             (line  190)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <2>: Annotation scopes.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <3>: Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <1>: Nouvelles fonctionnalités<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <2>: C API<18>.      (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <1>: Library<20>.    (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  407)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <1>: Obsolescence<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <3>: Build<21>.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <4>: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7:   Build and C API Changes<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <1>: Build Requirements.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <2>: Coding standards. (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <3>: Useful macros.    (line  162)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <4>: Useful macros.    (line  180)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <1>: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <2>: tokenize.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <3>: Optimisations<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <4>: Changements dans l'API Python<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <5>: Changements dans l'API Python<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <6>: Changements dans l'API Python<2>.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  119)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <1>: warnings.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <2>: Library<15>.    (line  469)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <3>: Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line  188)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <2>: Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <3>: Core and Builtins<14>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <4>: C API<16>.      (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <5>: Installing Free-threaded Binaries.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <6>: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <7>: Python experimental support for free threading.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <8>: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <9>: Glossaire.      (line  580)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <10>: Glossaire.     (line  727)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <1>: typing.         (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <2>: Library<13>.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <3>: Special forms.  (line  257)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706: Autres changements au langage<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <1>: tarfile.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <2>: tarfile<2>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <3>: tarfile<3>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <4>: tarfile<5>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <5>: Extraction filters.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709: Changements dans l'API Python.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <1>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <2>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <3>: Changements au code intermédiaire CPython.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <4>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  213)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <5>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1196)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 719: What's New In Python 3 13.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  133)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730 <1>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730 <2>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734: Library<11>.        (line  161)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737: Changed C APIs.     (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737 <1>: C API<12>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737 <2>: C API<12>.      (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <1>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <2>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <3>: Library<11>.    (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  127)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <1>: typing.         (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <2>: Library<11>.    (line  239)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <3>: Special forms.  (line  485)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <1>: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <2>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8:   Library Changes.    (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <1>: Library<62>.      (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <2>: IDLE<64>.         (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <3>: Aparté le style de codage.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <4>: Comparaisons de valeurs.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <5>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1906)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <6>: Et n'oublions pas.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <7>: Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <8>: Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <9>: Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:                     A better interactive interpreter.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>:                 Library<4>.         (line  322)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>:                 Library<4>.         (line  326)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>:                 Core and Builtins<10>.
                                                             (line   55)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>:                 Mode interactif<2>. (line   23)
* python_branch() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line   90)
* python_build() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line   80)
* PYTHON_COLORS:                         Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   57)
* PYTHON_COLORS <1>:                     Improved error messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHON_COLORS <2>:                     doctest.            (line    7)
* PYTHON_COLORS <3>:                     Controlling color.  (line   22)
* python_compiler() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line   85)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:                      os.                 (line   11)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>:                  Options diverses.   (line  400)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>:                  Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>:                  Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   72)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>:                  Divers<3>.          (line   31)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>:                  PyConfig.           (line  497)
* PYTHON_DOM:                            Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES:                 Autres changements au langage.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>:             Core and Builtins<17>.
                                                             (line  105)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>:             Options diverses.   (line  371)
* PYTHON_GIL:                            Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHON_GIL <1>:                        Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHON_GIL <2>:                        Core and Builtins<7>.
                                                             (line   40)
* PYTHON_GIL <3>:                        Options diverses.   (line  418)
* PYTHON_GIL <4>:                        The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHON_GIL <5>:                        Glossaire.          (line  724)
* PYTHON_HISTORY:                        Autres changements au langage.
                                                             (line   57)
* PYTHON_HISTORY <1>:                    Library<15>.        (line  544)
* python_implementation() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line   95)
* python_is_optimized() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  251)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT:               Autres changements au langage.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>:           Options diverses.   (line  390)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>:           PyConfig.           (line  876)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  879)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>:           How to work without frame pointers.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHON_PRESITE:                        Options diverses.   (line  412)
* PYTHON_PRESITE <1>:                    PyConfig.           (line  776)
* PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module:         Core and Builtins<17>.
                                                             (line  154)
* python_revision() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line  101)
* python_version_tuple() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line  114)
* python_version() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line  106)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:                    Activation du mode débogage.
                                                             (line   11)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:                Mode débogage.      (line   11)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:                Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   65)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT:                      PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:                  Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  164)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  271)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  285)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  289)
* PYTHONCASEOK:                          Changements dans l'API Python<4>.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONCASEOK <1>:                      PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONCASEOK <2>:                      Library<44>.        (line  144)
* PYTHONCASEOK <3>:                      Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2332)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:                   PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:               Options générales.  (line   89)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:               Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   58)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:               Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDEBUG:                           Options diverses.   (line   39)
* PYTHONDEBUG <1>:                       Compilation de Python en mode débogage.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONDEBUG <2>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONDEBUG <3>:                       PyConfig.           (line  667)
* PYTHONDEVMODE:                         Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:                     Options diverses.   (line  328)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:                     Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  296)
* PYTHONDONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  357)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:               Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>:           New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>:           Options diverses.   (line   19)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>:           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>:           PyConfig.           (line  953)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>:           Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS:                        Debug build uses the same ABI as release build.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:                    Build<50>.          (line   54)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:                    Debug options.      (line   22)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:                    Debug options.      (line   24)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:                    PyConfig.           (line  307)
* PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:                    Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  154)
* PYTHONEXECUTABLE:                      PyConfig.           (line  702)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:                    faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:                Options diverses.   (line  287)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:                Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:                faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:                PyConfig.           (line  345)
* PythonFinalizationError:               Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  228)
* PYTHONHASHSEED:                        Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:                    Portage de code Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:                    Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:                    Options diverses.   (line  137)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:                    Options diverses.   (line  153)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:                    Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  170)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:                    Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  337)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   77)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   80)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:                    PyConfig.           (line  415)
* PYTHONHOME:                            Deprecated C APIs.  (line   26)
* PYTHONHOME <1>:                        Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <2>:                        Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <3>:                        Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONHOME <4>:                        Options diverses.   (line   48)
* PYTHONHOME <5>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONHOME <6>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONHOME <7>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   42)
* PYTHONHOME <8>:                        Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   31)
* PYTHONHOME <9>:                        Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONHOME <10>:                       Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   89)
* PYTHONHOME <11>:                       test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONHOME <12>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHOME <13>:                       Environnements virtuels<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONHOME <14>:                       Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <15>:                       Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* PYTHONHOME <16>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   92)
* PYTHONHOME <17>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  295)
* PYTHONHOME <18>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  311)
* PYTHONHOME <19>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  320)
* PYTHONHOME <20>:                       PyConfig.           (line  423)
* PYTHONHOME <21>:                       PyConfig.           (line  425)
* PYTHONHOME <22>:                       Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONINSPECT:                         Autres changements et corrections<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONINSPECT <1>:                     Options diverses.   (line   71)
* PYTHONINSPECT <2>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  109)
* PYTHONINSPECT <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  450)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:                 Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  106)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:             Options diverses.   (line  310)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:             Configuration de la limite.
                                                             (line   10)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:             Configuration de la limite.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:             sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1207)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:             PyConfig.           (line  481)
* PYTHONIOENCODING:                      Autres Améliorations<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:                  Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:                  Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  439)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:                  Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1922)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:                  PyConfig.           (line  836)
* Pythonique:                            Glossaire.          (line 1332)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING:         New Deprecations.   (line  130)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>:     PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>:     Windows<11>.        (line   37)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>:     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1861)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>:     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1871)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>:     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1878)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>:     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  151)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>:     PyPreConfig.        (line  123)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>:    Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:              PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>:          Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  210)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>:          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1927)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  169)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  534)
* PYTHONMALLOC:                          PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONMALLOC <1>:                      Changements dans l'API C<6>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONMALLOC <2>:                      Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   90)
* PYTHONMALLOC <3>:                      Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  353)
* PYTHONMALLOC <4>:                      Options de performance.
                                                             (line  113)
* PYTHONMALLOC <5>:                      Options de performance.
                                                             (line  120)
* PYTHONMALLOC <6>:                      Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONMALLOC <7>:                      Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONMALLOC <8>:                      Aperçu<4>.          (line   75)
* PYTHONMALLOC <9>:                      Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONMALLOC <10>:                     Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* PYTHONMALLOC <11>:                     The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:                     Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   96)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:                 PyConfig.           (line  550)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:                 Aperçu<4>.          (line   78)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:                   PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   63)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:               Options diverses.   (line  359)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:               Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:               PyConfig.           (line  249)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE:                      PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:                  Options diverses.   (line  165)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:                  Module contents<3>. (line   15)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  203)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  906)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE:                        Options diverses.   (line   91)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  214)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:                    PyConfig.           (line  617)
* PYTHONPATH:                            Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONPATH <1>:                        Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <2>:                        Les dossiers de recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONPATH <3>:                        Modules standards.  (line   34)
* PYTHONPATH <4>:                        Modules standards.  (line   35)
* PYTHONPATH <5>:                        Options diverses.   (line   47)
* PYTHONPATH <6>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   35)
* PYTHONPATH <7>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   43)
* PYTHONPATH <8>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   48)
* PYTHONPATH <9>:                        Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <10>:                       Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONPATH <11>:                       Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* PYTHONPATH <12>:                       Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   89)
* PYTHONPATH <13>:                       Chercheurs d'entrée dans path.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <14>:                       Chercheurs d'entrée dans path.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONPATH <15>:                       test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONPATH <16>:                       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1378)
* PYTHONPATH <17>:                       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1383)
* PYTHONPATH <18>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONPATH <19>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONPATH <20>:                       Construire des extensions C et C++.
                                                             (line   10)
* PYTHONPATH <21>:                       Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <22>:                       Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* PYTHONPATH <23>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   91)
* PYTHONPATH <24>:                       PyConfig.           (line  583)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:                     Autres changements au langage<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:                 Options diverses.   (line  379)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:                 How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:                      Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  274)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:                  The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:                  PyConfig.           (line  562)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:               Autres changements au langage<7>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>:           Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>:           Options diverses.   (line  321)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  435)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:                   Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:               Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  402)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:               Options diverses.   (line  341)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:               sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  405)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:               PyConfig.           (line  724)
* PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD:          Tests<24>.          (line   13)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH:                        Résumé – Points forts de la publication.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:                    Autres changements au langage<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:                    Security<18>.       (line    6)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:                    Options diverses.   (line  122)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:                    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1395)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:                    Considérations de sécurité<3>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:                    PyConfig.           (line  166)
* PYTHONSTARTUP:                         sys<12>.            (line   17)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:                     sys<12>.            (line   21)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:                     IDLE<38>.           (line  176)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:                     IDLE<42>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:                     IDLE<48>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:                     Configuration du mode interactif.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:                     Options diverses.   (line   67)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:                     Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  130)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:                     Exemple.            (line   11)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:                     asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line   84)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:                    Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:                    Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   42)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <12>:                    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1220)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <13>:                    Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:                     Options diverses.   (line  305)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:                 tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:                 tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:                 Fonctions<11>.      (line   90)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:                 PyConfig.           (line  864)
* PYTHONTZPATH:                          Exceptions et avertissements.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED:                      Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:                  Options diverses.   (line  186)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:                  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1934)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  241)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  213)
* PYTHONUOPS:                            Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONUOPS <1>:                        Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  179)
* PYTHONUOPS <2>:                        Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  258)
* PYTHONUOPS <3>:                        Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  317)
* PYTHONUOPS <4>:                        Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  382)
* PYTHONUSERBASE:                        PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:                    Module contents<3>. (line   40)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:                    Module contents<3>. (line   68)
* PYTHONUSERSITE:                        test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONUTF8:                            PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONUTF8 <1>:                        Options diverses.   (line  335)
* PYTHONUTF8 <2>:                        Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  449)
* PYTHONUTF8 <3>:                        Mode UTF-8.         (line   19)
* PYTHONUTF8 <4>:                        Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   53)
* PYTHONUTF8 <5>:                        Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   55)
* PYTHONUTF8 <6>:                        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1925)
* PYTHONUTF8 <7>:                        PyPreConfig.        (line  152)
* PYTHONUTF8 <8>:                        Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONVERBOSE:                         Options diverses.   (line  204)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  258)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:                     PyConfig.           (line  923)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:             EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels.
                                                             (line   20)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>:         Library<35>.        (line   45)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>:         Options diverses.   (line  347)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>:         Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONWARNINGS:                        warnings<3>.        (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:                    Autres changements au langage<12>.
                                                             (line  160)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:                    Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:                    Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:                    Documentation<20>.  (line   67)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:                    Options diverses.   (line  266)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:                    Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:                    Le filtre des avertissements.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:                    Le filtre des avertissements.
                                                             (line   62)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:                    Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:                   Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:                   Filtre d'avertissement par défaut.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:                   PyConfig.           (line  942)
* PyThread_create_key (C function):      Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyThread_delete_key (C function):      Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyThread_delete_key_value (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyThread_get_key_value (C function):   Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function):       Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyThread_set_key_value (C function):   Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_alloc (C function):       Dynamic Allocation. (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_create (C function):      Méthodes<2>.        (line   16)
* PyThread_tss_delete (C function):      Méthodes<2>.        (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_free (C function):        Dynamic Allocation. (line   17)
* PyThread_tss_get (C function):         Méthodes<2>.        (line   39)
* PyThread_tss_is_created (C function):  Méthodes<2>.        (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_set (C function):         Méthodes<2>.        (line   33)
* PyThreadState (C type):                Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyThreadState (C type) <1>:            High-level API.     (line   21)
* PyThreadState_Clear (C function):      Low-level API.      (line   44)
* PyThreadState_Delete (C function):     Low-level API.      (line   55)
* PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (C function): Low-level API.   (line   61)
* PyThreadState_EnterTracing (C function): Low-level API.    (line  100)
* PyThreadState_Get (C function):        High-level API.     (line   70)
* PyThreadState_GetDict (C function):    Low-level API.      (line  201)
* PyThreadState_GetFrame (C function):   Low-level API.      (line   68)
* PyThreadState_GetID (C function):      Low-level API.      (line   82)
* PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (C function): Low-level API.  (line   91)
* PyThreadState_GetUnchecked (C function): High-level API.   (line   78)
* PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (C function): Low-level API.    (line  109)
* PyThreadState_New (C function):        Low-level API.      (line   37)
* PyThreadState_Next (C function):       Support avancé du débogueur.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function): Low-level API.     (line  210)
* PyThreadState_Swap (C function):       High-level API.     (line   87)
* PyThreadState.interp (C member):       High-level API.     (line   26)
* PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (C function):   Conversion functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyTime_Check (C function):             Objets DateTime<2>. (line   97)
* PyTime_CheckExact (C function):        Objets DateTime<2>. (line  103)
* PyTime_FromTime (C function):          Objets DateTime<2>. (line  154)
* PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function):   Objets DateTime<2>. (line  160)
* PyTime_MAX (C var):                    Types<2>.           (line   24)
* PyTime_MIN (C var):                    Types<2>.           (line   20)
* PyTime_Monotonic (C function):         Clock Functions.    (line   21)
* PyTime_MonotonicRaw (C function):      Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyTime_PerfCounter (C function):       Clock Functions.    (line   26)
* PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (C function):    Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyTime_t (C type):                     Types<2>.           (line    6)
* PyTime_Time (C function):              Clock Functions.    (line   31)
* PyTime_TimeRaw (C function):           Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function):    Objets DateTime<2>. (line  177)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function): Objets DateTime<2>.
                                                             (line  185)
* PyTrace_C_CALL (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C var):           Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyTrace_C_RETURN (C var):              Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyTrace_CALL (C var):                  Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C var):             Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyTrace_LINE (C var):                  Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyTrace_OPCODE (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyTrace_RETURN (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyTraceMalloc_Track (C function):      tracemalloc C API.  (line    8)
* PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (C function):    tracemalloc C API.  (line   20)
* PyTuple_Check (C function):            Tuple Objects.      (line   16)
* PyTuple_CheckExact (C function):       Tuple Objects.      (line   21)
* PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   61)
* PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   44)
* PyTuple_GetItem (C function):          Tuple Objects.      (line   48)
* PyTuple_GetSlice (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   66)
* PyTuple_New (C function):              Tuple Objects.      (line   26)
* PyTuple_Pack (C function):             Tuple Objects.      (line   31)
* PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   86)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function):          Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function) <1>:      Tuple Objects.      (line   75)
* PyTuple_Size (C function):             Tuple Objects.      (line   39)
* PyTuple_Type (C var):                  Tuple Objects.      (line   11)
* PyTupleObject (C type):                Tuple Objects.      (line    6)
* PyType_AddWatcher (C function):        Objets type<2>.     (line   67)
* PyType_Check (C function):             Objets type<2>.     (line   15)
* PyType_CheckExact (C function):        Objets type<2>.     (line   21)
* PyType_ClearCache (C function):        Objets type<2>.     (line   27)
* PyType_ClearWatcher (C function):      Objets type<2>.     (line   80)
* PyType_FromMetaclass (C function):     Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyType_FromSpec (C function):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyType_GenericAlloc (C function):      Objets type<2>.     (line  138)
* PyType_GenericNew (C function):        Objets type<2>.     (line  145)
* PyType_GetDict (C function):           Objets type<2>.     (line   43)
* PyType_GetFlags (C function):          Objets type<2>.     (line   31)
* PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName (C function): Objets type<2>. (line  185)
* PyType_GetModule (C function):         Objets type<2>.     (line  220)
* PyType_GetModuleByDef (C function):    Objets type<2>.     (line  254)
* PyType_GetModuleName (C function):     Objets type<2>.     (line  195)
* PyType_GetModuleState (C function):    Objets type<2>.     (line  240)
* PyType_GetName (C function):           Objets type<2>.     (line  168)
* PyType_GetQualName (C function):       Objets type<2>.     (line  176)
* PyType_GetSlot (C function):           Objets type<2>.     (line  203)
* PyType_GetTypeDataSize (C function):   Protocole Objet.    (line  563)
* PyType_HasFeature (C function):        Objets type<2>.     (line  119)
* PyType_IS_GC (C function):             Objets type<2>.     (line  124)
* PyType_IsSubtype (C function):         Objets type<2>.     (line  129)
* PyType_Modified (C function):          Objets type<2>.     (line   61)
* PyType_Ready (C function):             Objets type<2>.     (line  152)
* PyType_Slot (C type):                  Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyType_Slot.pfunc (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  240)
* PyType_Slot.slot (C member):           Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  184)
* PyType_Spec (C type):                  Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  112)
* PyType_Spec.basicsize (C member):      Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyType_Spec.flags (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyType_Spec.itemsize (C member):       Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  139)
* PyType_Spec.name (C member):           Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  116)
* PyType_Spec.slots (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  172)
* PyType_Type (C var):                   Objets type<2>.     (line   10)
* PyType_Watch (C function):             Objets type<2>.     (line   92)
* PyType_WatchCallback (C type):         Objets type<2>.     (line  108)
* PyTypeObject (C type):                 Objets type<2>.     (line    6)
* PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1421)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_async (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  281)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  495)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  347)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_number (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  323)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  335)
* PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1244)
* PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1536)
* PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1570)
* PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  401)
* PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  962)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  134)
* PyTypeObject.tp_del (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1609)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1312)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1325)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1276)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1341)
* PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  858)
* PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1621)
* PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  507)
* PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1483)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  240)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  439)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1228)
* PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  359)
* PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1385)
* PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1507)
* PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1157)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1173)
* PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1212)
* PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1196)
* PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1556)
* PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line   12)
* PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1444)
* PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  297)
* PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1044)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  260)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  466)
* PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  413)
* PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1578)
* PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  868)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1667)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  200)
* PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1613)
* PyTypeObject.tp_watched (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1683)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1594)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1121)
* PyTZInfo_Check (C function):           Objets DateTime<2>. (line  119)
* PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function):      Objets DateTime<2>. (line  125)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function):     Type Unicode.       (line   77)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Type Unicode.       (line   92)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function):     Type Unicode.       (line   77)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Type Unicode.       (line   92)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function):     Type Unicode.       (line   77)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Type Unicode.       (line   92)
* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function):  ASCII Codecs.       (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function): Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function): Generic Codecs.    (line   18)
* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function): Latin-1 Codecs.     (line   17)
* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function):   MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function):         Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  382)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  393)
* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function):  UTF-16 Codecs.      (line   48)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function):  UTF-32 Codecs.      (line   47)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function):         UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   65)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function):  UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   35)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function):   UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   25)
* PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function):     wchar_t Support.    (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function): wchar_t Support.  (line   34)
* PyUnicode_Check (C function):          Type Unicode.       (line   49)
* PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function):     Type Unicode.       (line   54)
* PyUnicode_Compare (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyUnicode_Concat (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_Contains (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  318)
* PyUnicode_Count (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* PyUnicode_DATA (C function):           Type Unicode.       (line  112)
* PyUnicode_Decode (C function):         Generic Codecs.     (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function):    ASCII Codecs.       (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function):  Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function):   Latin-1 Codecs.     (line   10)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   37)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function): Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function):     MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function):    UTF-16 Codecs.      (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function): UTF-16 Codecs. (line   36)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function):    UTF-32 Codecs.      (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function): UTF-32 Codecs. (line   35)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function):     UTF-7 Codecs.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function): UTF-7 Codecs.   (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function):     UTF-8 Codecs.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): UTF-8 Codecs.   (line   15)
* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   46)
* PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (C function):    Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyUnicode_Fill (C function):           Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  329)
* PyUnicode_Find (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyUnicode_FindChar (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyUnicode_Format (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  190)
* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  284)
* PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function):    Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  258)
* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicode_FromObject (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  264)
* PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (C function):    Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  275)
* PyUnicode_FromString (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function):   wchar_t Support.    (line    8)
* PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function):    File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function):      File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function):     Type Unicode.       (line   68)
* PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  301)
* PyUnicode_GetLength (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  309)
* PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  230)
* PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function):  Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  204)
* PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (C function):   Type Unicode.       (line  161)
* PyUnicode_Join (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyUnicode_KIND (C function):           Type Unicode.       (line  103)
* PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function): Type Unicode.       (line  151)
* PyUnicode_New (C function):            Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_Partition (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnicode_READ (C function):           Type Unicode.       (line  133)
* PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function):      Type Unicode.       (line  142)
* PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function):       Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  360)
* PyUnicode_READY (C function):          Type Unicode.       (line   59)
* PyUnicode_Replace (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function):    Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  172)
* PyUnicode_RPartition (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicode_RSplit (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyUnicode_Split (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyUnicode_Substring (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  372)
* PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicode_Translate (C function):      Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyUnicode_Type (C var):                Type Unicode.       (line   41)
* PyUnicode_WRITE (C function):          Type Unicode.       (line  120)
* PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  344)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyUnicodeObject (C type):              Type Unicode.       (line   30)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function): Objets exception Unicode.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyUnstable:                            Unstable C API.     (line    6)
* PyUnstable_AtExit (C function):        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  216)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   35)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (C function): Objets code<2>. (line   31)
* PyUnstable_Code_New (C function):      Objets code<2>.     (line   41)
* PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Objets code<2>.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   51)
* PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (C function): Objets exception.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (C function): Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule (C function): Low-level API.
                                                             (line  155)
* PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (C function): Objets Integer. (line  533)
* PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (C function): Objets Integer.    (line  515)
* PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (C function): Support functions.  (line  158)
* PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks (C function): Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (C function): Objets type<2>.
                                                             (line  271)
* PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyVarObject (C type):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):       Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  136)
* PyVarObject.ob_size (C member):        PyVarObject Slots.  (line    6)
* PyVectorcall_Call (C function):        Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyVectorcall_Function (C function):    Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyVectorcall_NARGS (C function):       Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyWeakref_Check (C function):          Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function):     Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function):       Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function):     Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyWeakref_GetObject (C function):      Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyWeakref_GetRef (C function):         Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function):       Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyWeakref_NewRef (C function):         Objets à références faibles<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyWideStringList (C type):             PyWideStringList.   (line    6)
* PyWideStringList_Append (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   15)
* PyWideStringList_Insert (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   22)
* PyWideStringList.items (C member):     PyWideStringList.   (line   41)
* PyWideStringList.length (C member):    PyWideStringList.   (line   37)
* PyWrapper_New (C function):            Les descripteurs.   (line   43)
* PyZipFile (classe dans zipfile):       Objets PyZipFile.   (line   10)
* qiflush() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  398)
* QName (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets QName.   (line    6)
* qsize() (méthode asyncio.Queue):       File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   83)
* qsize() (méthode multiprocessing.Queue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  114)
* qsize() (méthode queue.Queue):         Objets Queue.       (line   10)
* qsize() (méthode queue.SimpleQueue):   Objets SimpleQueue. (line    9)
* quantiles() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  526)
* quantiles() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line  112)
* quantize() (méthode decimal.Context):  Objets de contexte. (line  493)
* quantize() (méthode decimal.Decimal):  Les objets Decimal. (line  495)
* QueryInfoKey() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.     (line  319)
* QueryReflectionKey() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.
                                                             (line  516)
* QueryValue() (dans le module winreg):  Fonctions<13>.      (line  348)
* QueryValueEx() (dans le module winreg): Fonctions<13>.     (line  368)
* QUESTION (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  196)
* queue (attribut sched.scheduler):      Scheduler Objects.  (line   73)
* Queue (classe dans asyncio):           File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line    6)
* Queue (classe dans multiprocessing):   Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line   99)
* Queue (classe dans queue):             queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   34)
* Queue() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* QueueEmpty:                            Exceptions<12>.     (line    6)
* QueueFull:                             Exceptions<12>.     (line   11)
* QueueHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): QueueHandler. (line   21)
* QueueListener (classe dans logging.handlers): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   25)
* QueueShutDown:                         Exceptions<12>.     (line   16)
* quick_ratio() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* quiet (attribut sys.flags):            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  584)
* quit (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  443)
* quit (variable de base):               Constantes ajoutées par le module site.
                                                             (line   12)
* quit() (méthode ftplib.FTP):           FTP objects.        (line  366)
* quit() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   83)
* quit() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):         SMTP Objects.       (line  341)
* quit() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  132)
* quitting (bdb.Bdb attribute):          bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  338)
* QUOTE_ALL (dans le module csv):        Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  278)
* quote_from_bytes() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting.
                                                             (line   53)
* QUOTE_MINIMAL (dans le module csv):    Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  283)
* QUOTE_NONE (dans le module csv):       Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  297)
* QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (dans le module csv): Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  289)
* QUOTE_NOTNULL (dans le module csv):    Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  309)
* quote_plus() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting.   (line   42)
* QUOTE_STRINGS (dans le module csv):    Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  321)
* quote() (dans le module email.utils):  email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   47)
* quote() (dans le module shlex):        shlex --- Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   43)
* quote() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting.        (line   13)
* quoteattr() (dans le module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   42)
* quotechar (attribut csv.Dialect):      Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   58)
* quoted-printable;encoding:             quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    8)
* quotes (attribut shlex.shlex):         shlex Objects.      (line  115)
* quoting (attribut csv.Dialect):        Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   68)
* R_OK (dans le module os):              Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  113)
* r';raw string literal:                 Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   53)
* r";raw string literal:                 Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   53)
* radians() (dans le module math):       Conversion angulaire.
                                                             (line   10)
* radians() (dans le module turtle):     Paramètres de mesure.
                                                             (line   29)
* radix (attribut sys.float_info):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  696)
* radix() (méthode decimal.Context):     Objets de contexte. (line  498)
* radix() (méthode decimal.Decimal):     Les objets Decimal. (line  525)
* RADIXCHAR (dans le module locale):     locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  285)
* Raise (classe dans ast):               Instructions<2>.    (line  116)
* RAISE (monitoring event):              Events.             (line   71)
* raise an exception:                    Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* raise_on_defect (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  199)
* raise_signal() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  324)
* RAISE_VARARGS (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1028)
* raiseExceptions (dans le module logging): Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line   19)
* raising;exception:                     L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line    6)
* ramasse-miettes:                       Glossaire.          (line  636)
* RAND_add() (dans le module ssl):       Random generation.  (line   30)
* RAND_bytes() (dans le module ssl):     Random generation.  (line    6)
* RAND_status() (dans le module ssl):    Random generation.  (line   23)
* randbelow() (dans le module secrets):  Nombres aléatoires. (line   20)
* randbits() (dans le module secrets):   Nombres aléatoires. (line   24)
* randbytes() (dans le module random):   Fonctions pour les octets.
                                                             (line    6)
* randint() (dans le module random):     Fonctions pour les entiers.
                                                             (line   33)
* Random (classe dans random):           Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line    6)
* random() (dans le module random):      Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   13)
* random() (méthode random.Random):      Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line   34)
* randrange() (dans le module random):   Fonctions pour les entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* range (classe de base):                Ranges.             (line   10)
* RARROW (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  310)
* ratio() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* Rational (classe dans numbers):        La tour numérique.  (line   42)
* raw (attribut io.BufferedIOBase):      I/O Base Classes.   (line  252)
* raw string:                            Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   37)
* raw_data_manager (dans le module email.contentmanager): Instances de gestionnaires de contenus.
                                                             (line   12)
* raw_decode() (méthode json.JSONDecoder): Encodeurs et décodeurs.
                                                             (line   98)
* raw_input() (méthode code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* raw() (dans le module curses):         Fonctions<6>.       (line  405)
* raw() (méthode pickle.PickleBuffer):   Interface du module.
                                                             (line  343)
* RawArray() (dans le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line   17)
* RawConfigParser (classe dans configparser): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (classe dans argparse): Le paramètre formatter_class.
                                                             (line   11)
* RawIOBase (classe dans io):            I/O Base Classes.   (line  170)
* RawPen (classe dans turtle):           Classes publiques.  (line    6)
* RawTextHelpFormatter (classe dans argparse): Le paramètre formatter_class.
                                                             (line   11)
* RawTurtle (classe dans turtle):        Classes publiques.  (line    6)
* RawValue() (dans le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line   35)
* RBRACE (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  235)
* re (attribut re.Match):                Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  209)
* READ (attribut inspect.BufferFlags):   Buffer flags.       (line   49)
* read_binary() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line   75)
* read_byte() (méthode mmap.mmap):       mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  254)
* read_bytes() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  557)
* read_bytes() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  151)
* read_bytes() (méthode pathlib.Path):   Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* read_bytes() (méthode zipfile.Path):   Objets Path.        (line  115)
* read_dict() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  209)
* read_environ() (dans le module wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  313)
* read_events() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): Objets XMLPullParser.
                                                             (line   50)
* read_file() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  187)
* read_history_file() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'historique.
                                                             (line    8)
* read_init_file() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'initialisation.
                                                             (line   14)
* read_mime_types() (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  113)
* READ_RESTRICTED (C macro):             Member flags.       (line   32)
* read_string() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  199)
* read_text() (dans le module importlib.resources): API par fonction.
                                                             (line   89)
* read_text() (méthode importlib.abc.Traversable): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  561)
* read_text() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  155)
* read_text() (méthode pathlib.Path):    Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* read_text() (méthode zipfile.Path):    Objets Path.        (line  103)
* read_token() (méthode shlex.shlex):    shlex Objects.      (line   20)
* read_windows_registry() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* read() (dans le module os):            Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  756)
* read() (méthode asyncio.StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line   21)
* read() (méthode codecs.StreamReader):  StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* read() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  150)
* read() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   15)
* read() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  199)
* read() (méthode io.BufferedIOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  272)
* read() (méthode io.BufferedReader):    Buffered Streams.   (line   83)
* read() (méthode io.RawIOBase):         I/O Base Classes.   (line  184)
* read() (méthode io.TextIOBase):        Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* read() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes):  MimeTypes Objects.  (line   77)
* read() (méthode mmap.mmap):            mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  243)
* read() (méthode sqlite3.Blob):         Blob objects.       (line   45)
* read() (méthode ssl.MemoryBIO):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* read() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket):        SSL Sockets.        (line   76)
* read() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   26)
* read() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):      Objets ZipFile.     (line  262)
* read1() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):         Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line  117)
* read1() (méthode io.BufferedIOBase):   I/O Base Classes.   (line  289)
* read1() (méthode io.BufferedReader):   Buffered Streams.   (line   89)
* read1() (méthode io.BytesIO):          Buffered Streams.   (line   43)
* READABLE (dans le module _tkinter):    Gestionnaires de fichiers.
                                                             (line   44)
* readable() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):      Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line   99)
* readable() (méthode io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line   78)
* readall() (méthode io.RawIOBase):      I/O Base Classes.   (line  199)
* reader() (dans le module csv):         Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* ReadError:                             tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  221)
* readexactly() (méthode asyncio.StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line   48)
* readfp() (méthode mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects. (line   85)
* readframes() (méthode wave.Wave_read): Objets Wave_read.   (line   52)
* readinto() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):      Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line  127)
* readinto() (méthode http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   20)
* readinto() (méthode io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes.  (line  300)
* readinto() (méthode io.RawIOBase):     I/O Base Classes.   (line  204)
* readinto1() (méthode io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes. (line  313)
* readinto1() (méthode io.BytesIO):      Buffered Streams.   (line   50)
* readline() (méthode asyncio.StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line   37)
* readline() (méthode codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* readline() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  204)
* readline() (méthode io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line   83)
* readline() (méthode io.TextIOBase):    Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* readline() (méthode mmap.mmap):        mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  259)
* readlines() (méthode codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* readlines() (méthode io.IOBase):       I/O Base Classes.   (line   92)
* readlink() (dans le module os):        Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  717)
* readlink() (méthode pathlib.Path):     Expansion et résolution de chemins.
                                                             (line   82)
* readmodule_ex() (dans le module pyclbr): pyclbr --- Python module browser support.
                                                             (line   31)
* readmodule() (dans le module pyclbr):  pyclbr --- Python module browser support.
                                                             (line   19)
* readonly (attribut memoryview):        Vues mémoire.       (line  432)
* READONLY (C macro):                    Member flags.       (line   37)
* ReadOnly (dans le module typing):      Special forms.      (line  240)
* ReadTransport (classe dans asyncio):   Hiérarchie des transports.
                                                             (line   20)
* readuntil() (méthode asyncio.StreamReader): Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line   57)
* readv() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  893)
* ready() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  225)
* real (attribut numbers.Complex):       La tour numérique.  (line   15)
* Real (classe dans numbers):            La tour numérique.  (line   28)
* real_max_memuse (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  150)
* real_quick_ratio() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  209)
* realloc (C function):                  Aperçu<4>.          (line   33)
* realpath() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  374)
* REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line  104)
* reap_children() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  584)
* reap_threads() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* reason (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   69)
* reason (attribut ssl.SSLError):        Exceptions<16>.     (line   28)
* reason (attribut UnicodeError):        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  468)
* reason (attribut urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   51)
* reason (attribut urllib.error.URLError): urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   23)
* reattach() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  242)
* rebinding;name:                        Les assignations.   (line    6)
* recent() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  209)
* reconfigure() (méthode io.TextIOWrapper): Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  181)
* record_original_stdout() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  308)
* RECORDS (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.      (line   41)
* records (attribut unittest.TestCase):  Scénarios de tests. (line  469)
* RECORDS_RO (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.   (line   43)
* rect() (dans le module cmath):         Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires.
                                                             (line   47)
* rectangle() (dans le module curses.textpad): curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line   15)
* RecursionError:                        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  246)
* recursive_repr() (dans le module reprlib): reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   61)
* recv_bytes_into() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   86)
* recv_bytes() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   70)
* recv_fds() (dans le module socket):    Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  476)
* recv_into() (méthode socket.socket):   Socket Objects.     (line  393)
* recv() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   24)
* recv() (méthode socket.socket):        Socket Objects.     (line  237)
* recvfrom_into() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.   (line  383)
* recvfrom() (méthode socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  252)
* recvmsg_into() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.    (line  344)
* recvmsg() (méthode socket.socket):     Socket Objects.     (line  271)
* redirect_request() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* redirect_stderr() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  362)
* redirect_stdout() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.
                                                             (line  321)
* redisplay() (dans le module readline): Tampon de ligne.    (line   19)
* redrawln() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  462)
* redrawwin() (méthode curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  468)
* reduce() (dans le module functools):   functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  403)
* reducer_override() (méthode pickle.Pickler): Interface du module.
                                                             (line  212)
* ref (classe dans weakref):             weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line   90)
* refcount_test() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  543)
* reference counting:                    Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   39)
* référence empruntée:                   Glossaire.          (line  182)
* référence forte:                       Glossaire.          (line 1487)
* ReferenceError:                        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  256)
* ReferenceType (dans le module weakref): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  332)
* refold_source (attribut email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  421)
* refresh() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  473)
* REG_BINARY (dans le module winreg):    Value Types.        (line    8)
* REG_DWORD (dans le module winreg):     Value Types.        (line   12)
* REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (dans le module winreg): Value Types. (line   21)
* REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (dans le module winreg): Value Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* REG_EXPAND_SZ (dans le module winreg): Value Types.        (line   25)
* REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (dans le module winreg): Value Types.
                                                             (line   60)
* REG_LINK (dans le module winreg):      Value Types.        (line   30)
* REG_MULTI_SZ (dans le module winreg):  Value Types.        (line   34)
* REG_NONE (dans le module winreg):      Value Types.        (line   39)
* REG_QWORD (dans le module winreg):     Value Types.        (line   43)
* REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (dans le module winreg): Value Types.
                                                             (line   49)
* REG_RESOURCE_LIST (dans le module winreg): Value Types.    (line   56)
* REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (dans le module winreg): Value Types.
                                                             (line   64)
* REG_SZ (dans le module winreg):        Value Types.        (line   68)
* RegexFlag (classe dans re):            Flags.              (line   10)
* register_adapter() (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* register_archive_format() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* register_at_fork() (dans le module os): Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  578)
* register_callback() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Registering callback functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* register_converter() (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions du module.
                                                             (line  155)
* register_defect() (méthode email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  266)
* register_dialect() (dans le module csv): Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line   71)
* register_error() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  102)
* register_function() (méthode xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* register_function() (méthode xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* register_instance() (méthode xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   26)
* register_instance() (méthode xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* register_introspection_functions() (méthode xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* register_introspection_functions() (méthode xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* register_multicall_functions() (méthode xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* register_multicall_functions() (méthode xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* register_namespace() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  211)
* register_optionflag() (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  178)
* register_shape() (dans le module turtle): Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line   80)
* register_unpack_format() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  162)
* register() (dans le module atexit):    atexit --- Exit handlers.
                                                             (line   28)
* register() (dans le module codecs):    codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  157)
* register() (dans le module faulthandler): Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (dans le module webbrowser): webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  110)
* register() (méthode abc.ABCMeta):      abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   74)
* register() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Registering custom types or actions.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* register() (méthode select.devpoll):   /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* register() (méthode select.epoll):     Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* register() (méthode select.poll):      Polling Objects.    (line   15)
* register() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>.   (line   65)
* registerDOMImplementation() (dans le module xml.dom): Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* registerResult() (dans le module unittest): Traitement des signaux.
                                                             (line   38)
* REGTYPE (dans le module tarfile):      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  288)
* relative_to() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  314)
* relative;import:                       L'instruction import.
                                                             (line  103)
* relative;URL:                          urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* release() (dans le module platform):   Multiplateformes.   (line  122)
* release() (méthode _thread.lock):      _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  179)
* release() (méthode asyncio.Condition): Condition.          (line   81)
* release() (méthode asyncio.Lock):      Verrou lock.        (line   53)
* release() (méthode asyncio.Semaphore): Sémaphore.          (line   58)
* release() (méthode logging.Handler):   Gestionnaires.      (line   31)
* release() (méthode memoryview):        Vues mémoire.       (line  251)
* release() (méthode multiprocessing.Lock): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line   95)
* release() (méthode multiprocessing.RLock): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line  152)
* release() (méthode pickle.PickleBuffer): Interface du module.
                                                             (line  351)
* release() (méthode threading.Condition): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* release() (méthode threading.Lock):    Verrous.            (line   74)
* release() (méthode threading.RLock):   RLock Objects.      (line   95)
* release() (méthode threading.Semaphore): Semaphore Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* releasebufferproc (C type):            Slot Type typedefs. (line  104)
* reload() (dans le module importlib):   Fonctions<12>.      (line   56)
* relpath() (dans le module os.path):    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  403)
* remainder_near() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  509)
* remainder_near() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  531)
* remainder() (dans le module math):     Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   65)
* remainder() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte. (line  502)
* RemoteDisconnected:                    http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  195)
* remove_child_handler() (méthode asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   60)
* remove_done_callback() (méthode asyncio.Future): Objet Future.
                                                             (line  114)
* remove_done_callback() (méthode asyncio.Task): Objets Task.
                                                             (line  118)
* remove_flag() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.  (line  142)
* remove_flag() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_flag() (méthode mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* remove_flag() (méthode mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* remove_folder() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* remove_folder() (méthode mailbox.MH):  MH objects.         (line   50)
* remove_header() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* remove_history_item() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line   27)
* remove_label() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* remove_option() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  308)
* remove_option() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   47)
* remove_reader() (méthode asyncio.loop): Surveillance de descripteur de fichier.
                                                             (line   15)
* remove_section() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  315)
* remove_sequence() (méthode mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* remove_signal_handler() (méthode asyncio.loop): Signaux Unix.
                                                             (line   27)
* remove_writer() (méthode asyncio.loop): Surveillance de descripteur de fichier.
                                                             (line   33)
* remove() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  756)
* remove() (méthode array.array):        array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  225)
* remove() (méthode collections.deque):  Objets deque.       (line  103)
* remove() (méthode frozenset):          Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  211)
* remove() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):    Mailbox objects.    (line   78)
* remove() (méthode mailbox.MH):         MH objects.         (line   79)
* remove() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line  184)
* remove() (sequence method):            Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* removeAttribute() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   54)
* removeAttributeNode() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   59)
* removeAttributeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   64)
* removeChild() (méthode xml.dom.Node):  Objets nœuds.       (line  133)
* removedirs() (dans le module os):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  781)
* removeFilter() (méthode logging.Handler): Gestionnaires.   (line   59)
* removeFilter() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.    (line  352)
* removeHandler() (dans le module unittest): Traitement des signaux.
                                                             (line   57)
* removeHandler() (méthode logging.Logger): Enregistreurs.   (line  370)
* removeprefix() (méthode bytearray):    Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   56)
* removeprefix() (méthode bytes):        Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   56)
* removeprefix() (méthode str):          Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  400)
* removeResult() (dans le module unittest): Traitement des signaux.
                                                             (line   51)
* removesuffix() (méthode bytearray):    Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   77)
* removesuffix() (méthode bytes):        Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line   77)
* removesuffix() (méthode str):          Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  413)
* removexattr() (dans le module os):     Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line   47)
* rename() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  801)
* rename() (méthode ftplib.FTP):         FTP objects.        (line  329)
* rename() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  214)
* rename() (méthode pathlib.Path):       Renommage et suppression.
                                                             (line    6)
* renames() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  838)
* reopenIfNeeded() (méthode logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler): Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   44)
* reorganize() (méthode dbm.gnu.gdbm):   dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  103)
* repeat() (dans le module itertools):   Itertool Functions. (line  533)
* repeat() (dans le module timeit):      Interface Python.   (line   21)
* repeat() (méthode timeit.Timer):       Interface Python.   (line  122)
* repetition;operation:                  Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* REPL:                                  Glossaire.          (line 1398)
* replace_errors() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  155)
* replace_header() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  314)
* replace_header() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  441)
* replace_history_item() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line   33)
* replace_whitespace (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  191)
* replace;error handler's name:          Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* replace() (dans le module copy):       copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   27)
* replace() (dans le module dataclasses): Classe de données<2>.
                                                             (line  442)
* replace() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  858)
* replace() (méthode bytearray):         Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  210)
* replace() (méthode bytes):             Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  210)
* replace() (méthode codeobject):        Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* replace() (méthode curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.     (line   39)
* replace() (méthode datetime.date):     Objets date.        (line  194)
* replace() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.    (line  478)
* replace() (méthode datetime.time):     Objets time.        (line  156)
* replace() (méthode inspect.Parameter): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  306)
* replace() (méthode inspect.Signature): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  139)
* replace() (méthode pathlib.Path):      Renommage et suppression.
                                                             (line   34)
* replace() (méthode str):               Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  426)
* replace() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):   Les objets TarInfo. (line  167)
* replaceChild() (méthode xml.dom.Node): Objets nœuds.       (line  140)
* ReplacePackage() (dans le module modulefinder): modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   21)
* REPORT_CDIFF (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  130)
* REPORT_ERRMODE (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   35)
* report_failure() (méthode doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line   77)
* report_full_closure() (méthode filecmp.dircmp): La classe dircmp.
                                                             (line   32)
* REPORT_NDIFF (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  136)
* REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  147)
* report_partial_closure() (méthode filecmp.dircmp): La classe dircmp.
                                                             (line   27)
* report_start() (méthode doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line   55)
* report_success() (méthode doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line   66)
* REPORT_UDIFF (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  124)
* report_unexpected_exception() (méthode doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line   88)
* report() (méthode filecmp.dircmp):     La classe dircmp.   (line   22)
* report() (méthode modulefinder.ModuleFinder): modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   39)
* REPORTING_FLAGS (dans le module doctest): Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  168)
* Repr (classe dans reprlib):            reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   17)
* repr() (built-in function);__repr__() (object method): Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  125)
* repr() (dans le module reprlib):       reprlib --- Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   51)
* repr() (méthode reprlib.Repr):         Repr Objects.       (line  107)
* repr1() (méthode reprlib.Repr):        Repr Objects.       (line  112)
* ReprEnum (classe dans enum):           Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  576)
* reprfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   39)
* request (attribut socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   43)
* Request (classe dans urllib.request):  urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  189)
* request_queue_size (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  108)
* request_rate() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   63)
* request_uri() (dans le module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   28)
* request_version (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  113)
* request() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line    9)
* RequestHandlerClass (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   80)
* requestline (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   92)
* Required (dans le module typing):      Special forms.      (line  221)
* requires_bz2() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  507)
* requires_docstrings() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  519)
* requires_freebsd_version() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  475)
* requires_gil_enabled() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  490)
* requires_gzip() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  503)
* requires_IEEE_754() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  495)
* requires_limited_api() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  523)
* requires_linux_version() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  480)
* requires_lzma() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  511)
* requires_mac_version() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  485)
* requires_resource() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  515)
* requires_zlib() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  499)
* requires() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Distribution requirements.
                                                             (line    6)
* requires() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  259)
* RERAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   76)
* RERAISE (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  449)
* reschedule() (méthode asyncio.Timeout): Délais d'attente.  (line   70)
* reserved (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):   Objets ZipInfo.     (line  118)
* reserved word:                         Mots-clés.          (line    6)
* RESERVED_FUTURE (dans le module uuid): uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  250)
* RESERVED_MICROSOFT (dans le module uuid): uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  246)
* RESERVED_NCS (dans le module uuid):    uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  238)
* reset_mock() (méthode unittest.mock.AsyncMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  917)
* reset_mock() (méthode unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock. (line  213)
* reset_peak() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.  (line   38)
* reset_prog_mode() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.   (line  411)
* reset_shell_mode() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.  (line  416)
* reset_tzpath() (dans le module zoneinfo): Fonctions<3>.    (line   28)
* reset() (dans le module turtle):       Plus des réglages pour le dessin.
                                                             (line    6)
* reset() (méthode asyncio.Barrier):     Barrière Barrier.   (line   81)
* reset() (méthode bdb.Bdb):             bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  159)
* reset() (méthode codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* reset() (méthode codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* reset() (méthode codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* reset() (méthode codecs.StreamWriter): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* reset() (méthode contextvars.ContextVar): Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   61)
* reset() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line   26)
* reset() (méthode threading.Barrier):   Barrier Objects.    (line   71)
* reset() (méthode xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream): Objets DOMEventStream.
                                                             (line   38)
* reset() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* resetbuffer() (méthode code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* resetscreen() (dans le module turtle): Réglage de la fenêtre.
                                                             (line   61)
* resetty() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  421)
* resetwarnings() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line  135)
* resize_term() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.       (line  426)
* resize() (dans le module ctypes):      Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  173)
* resize() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  492)
* resize() (méthode mmap.mmap):          mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  265)
* resizemode() (dans le module turtle):  Apparence.          (line   26)
* resizeterm() (dans le module curses):  Fonctions<6>.       (line  436)
* resolution (attribut datetime.date):   Objets date.        (line  110)
* resolution (attribut datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.  (line  311)
* resolution (attribut datetime.time):   Objets time.        (line   44)
* resolution (attribut datetime.timedelta): Objets timedelta.
                                                             (line   88)
* resolve_bases() (dans le module types): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   59)
* resolve_name() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   82)
* resolve_name() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  221)
* resolve() (méthode pathlib.Path):      Expansion et résolution de chemins.
                                                             (line   51)
* resolveEntity() (méthode xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver): Objets EntityResolver.
                                                             (line    6)
* resource_path() (méthode importlib.abc.ResourceReader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  478)
* resource_path() (méthode importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   55)
* ResourceDenied:                        test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   22)
* ResourceLoader (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  175)
* ResourceReader (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  433)
* ResourceReader (classe dans importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   12)
* ResourceWarning:                       Avertissements.     (line   90)
* response() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  218)
* ResponseNotReady:                      http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  180)
* responses (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  191)
* responses (dans le module http.client): http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  216)
* restart (pdb command):                 Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  434)
* restart_events() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Disabling events.
                                                             (line   21)
* restore() (dans le module difflib):    difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  288)
* restore() (méthode test.support.SaveSignals): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  775)
* RESTRICTED (C macro):                  Member flags.       (line   32)
* restricted;execution:                  Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution.
                                                             (line    6)
* restype (attribut ctypes._CFuncPtr):   Fonctions externes. (line   33)
* result() (méthode asyncio.Future):     Objet Future.       (line   37)
* result() (méthode asyncio.Task):       Objets Task.        (line   79)
* result() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* results() (méthode trace.Trace):       Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   40)
* RESUME (opcode):                       Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1234)
* resume_reading() (méthode asyncio.ReadTransport): Transports en lecture seule.
                                                             (line   23)
* resume_writing() (méthode asyncio.BaseProtocol): Protocoles de base<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* retours à la ligne universels:         Glossaire.          (line 1597)
* retr() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   63)
* retrbinary() (méthode ftplib.FTP):     FTP objects.        (line  177)
* retrieve() (méthode urllib.request.URLopener): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  112)
* retrlines() (méthode ftplib.FTP):      FTP objects.        (line  202)
* RETRY (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  149)
* RETRYCANCEL (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  176)
* Return (classe dans ast):              Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  129)
* return (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  235)
* return_annotation (attribut inspect.Signature): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  118)
* RETURN_CONST (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  414)
* RETURN_GENERATOR (opcode):             Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1259)
* return_ok() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* return_value (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  361)
* RETURN_VALUE (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  410)
* returncode (attribut asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  153)
* returncode (attribut subprocess.CalledProcessError): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  222)
* returncode (attribut subprocess.CompletedProcess): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  114)
* returncode (attribut subprocess.Popen): Objets Popen.      (line  158)
* retval (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  453)
* reveal_type() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   81)
* reverse_order() (méthode pstats.Stats): The Stats Class.   (line  157)
* reverse_pointer (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line   80)
* reverse_pointer (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  266)
* reverse() (méthode array.array):       array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  235)
* reverse() (méthode collections.deque): Objets deque.       (line  109)
* reverse() (sequence method):           Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* Reversible (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   49)
* Reversible (classe dans typing):       Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   61)
* revert() (méthode http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* rewind() (méthode wave.Wave_read):     Objets Wave_read.   (line   57)
* RFC_4122 (dans le module uuid):        uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  242)
* RFC; RFC 1123:                         Fonctions<5>.       (line  793)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <1>:                     Fonctions<5>.       (line  806)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <2>:                     Fonctions<5>.       (line  823)
* RFC; RFC 1321:                         hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 1422:                         Certificates.       (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 1422 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 1521:                         Considérations de sécurité<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <1>:                     quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <2>:                     quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 1522:                         binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <1>:                     quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <2>:                     quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 1730:                         imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1738:                         URL Quoting.        (line  188)
* RFC; RFC 1750:                         Random generation.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 1766:                         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  382)
* RFC; RFC 1766 <1>:                     locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  395)
* RFC; RFC 1808:                         urllib<2>.          (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <1>:                     urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  182)
* RFC; RFC 1869:                         smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1869 <1>:                     smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 1870:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 1939:                         poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1939 <1>:                     poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2033:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  568)
* RFC; RFC 2045:                         email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  330)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  332)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  336)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <4>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  254)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <5>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  315)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <6>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  455)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <7>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  459)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <8>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  463)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <9>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  563)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <11>:                    base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <12>:                    base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   33)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <13>:                    base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  289)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <14>:                    base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  298)
* RFC; RFC 2045 Section 6.8:             Binary Objects.     (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2046:                         email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <1>:                     Instances de gestionnaires de contenus.
                                                             (line  100)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <2>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2047:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <1>:                     email<6>.           (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <2>:                     email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <3>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  393)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  400)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <5>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <6>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  131)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <7>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <8>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <9>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   59)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  126)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <11>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <12>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   84)
* RFC; RFC 2060:                         imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2060 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  318)
* RFC; RFC 2068:                         http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2104:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2104 <1>:                     hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2109:                         http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <1>:                     http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <2>:                     http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <3>:                     Objets Morsel.      (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <4>:                     Objets Morsel.      (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <5>:                     Objets Morsel.      (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <6>:                     Objets Morsel.      (line  111)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <7>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <8>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <9>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <10>:                    http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <11>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <12>:                    Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <13>:                    Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <14>:                    Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2183:                         email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  480)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <2>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  677)
* RFC; RFC 2231:                         Library<11>.        (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <1>:                     email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  294)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  298)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <4>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  382)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <5>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  417)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <6>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  421)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <7>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  527)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <8>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  536)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <9>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  571)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <11>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  201)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <12>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  206)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <13>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  216)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <14>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  223)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <15>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  232)
* RFC; RFC 2295:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 2324:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2342:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 2342 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 2368:                         URL Quoting.        (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 2373:                         Objets adresse.     (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <1>:                     Objets adresse.     (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <2>:                     Objets adresse.     (line  173)
* RFC; RFC 2396:                         urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <1>:                     urllib<2>.          (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  260)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <4>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  173)
* RFC; RFC 2397:                         DataHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2449:                         POP3 Objects.       (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 2487:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2518:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 2595:                         poplib --- POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2595 <1>:                     POP3 Objects.       (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2616:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <1>:                     wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <2>:                     wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <3>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <4>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <5>:                     Legacy interface.   (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <6>:                     urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <7>:                     Introduction<16>.   (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <8>:                     HTTPError.          (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <9>:                     Error Codes.        (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 14.23:           Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2:           Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2 <1>:       Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2640:                         Changements dans l'API Python<4>.
                                                             (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <1>:                     Tests<41>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <2>:                     ftplib --- FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <3>:                     FTP objects.        (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <4>:                     FTP_TLS objects.    (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 2732:                         urllib parse<6>.    (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <1>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  643)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <2>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 2774:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2818:                         ssl<12>.            (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2821:                         email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2822:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <1>:                     Piles fournies.     (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <2>:                     Fonctions<5>.       (line  794)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <3>:                     Fonctions<5>.       (line  807)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <4>:                     Fonctions<5>.       (line  488)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <5>:                     Fonctions<5>.       (line  824)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <6>:                     email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  299)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <7>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <8>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <9>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   96)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <11>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  126)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <12>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  148)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <13>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <14>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <15>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <16>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  253)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <17>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <18>:                    Message objects.    (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <19>:                    http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  120)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <20>:                    http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  125)
* RFC; RFC 2964:                         http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  155)
* RFC; RFC 2965:                         urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  233)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <1>:                     urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  241)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <2>:                     Request Objects.    (line   50)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <3>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <4>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <5>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <6>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  144)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <7>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  146)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <8>:                     http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  153)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <9>:                     FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <10>:                    CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <11>:                    CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <12>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <13>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <14>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <15>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <16>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <17>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <18>:                    Objets Cookie<2>.   (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <19>:                    Exemples<28>.       (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3056:                         Objets adresse.     (line  314)
* RFC; RFC 3164:                         Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3171:                         Objets adresse.     (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 3207:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  573)
* RFC; RFC 3229:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 3280:                         SSL Sockets.        (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 3330:                         Objets adresse.     (line  173)
* RFC; RFC 3339:                         Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 3454:                         Security<16>.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <1>:                     stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <2>:                     stringprep --- Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 3490:                         Text Encodings.     (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <1>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <2>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <3>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   62)
* RFC; RFC 3490 Section 3.1:             encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 3491:                         Security<16>.       (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 3492:                         Text Encodings.     (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3492 <1>:                     encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3493:                         Exemple<7>.         (line  227)
* RFC; RFC 3501:                         IMAP4 Objects.      (line  329)
* RFC; RFC 3542:                         Library<53>.        (line  351)
* RFC; RFC 3542 <1>:                     Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  341)
* RFC; RFC 3548:                         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <1>:                     binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   54)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <2>:                     binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 3596 Section 2.5:             Library<6>.         (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3659:                         FTP objects.        (line  291)
* RFC; RFC 3879:                         Objets adresse.     (line  292)
* RFC; RFC 3927:                         Objets adresse.     (line  179)
* RFC; RFC 3986:                         urllib parse.       (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <1>:                     urllib parse<3>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <2>:                     urllib parse<4>.    (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <3>:                     urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <4>:                     urllib<2>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <5>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  622)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <6>:                     Portage vers Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <7>:                     urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <8>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  143)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <9>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  379)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <10>:                    URL parsing security.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <11>:                    URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <12>:                    URL Quoting.        (line  161)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <13>:                    http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  110)
* RFC; RFC 4007:                         Objets adresse.     (line  233)
* RFC; RFC 4007 <1>:                     Objets adresse.     (line  306)
* RFC; RFC 4086:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   45)
* RFC; RFC 4122:                         Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés.
                                                             (line  416)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <1>:                     Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés.
                                                             (line  421)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <2>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <3>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <4>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   75)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <5>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <6>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  174)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <7>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  244)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <8>:                     uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  257)
* RFC; RFC 4180:                         csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 4193:                         Objets adresse.     (line  294)
* RFC; RFC 4217:                         FTP_TLS objects.    (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4291:                         Library<17>.        (line 1075)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <1>:                     Library<33>.        (line  653)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <2>:                     Objets adresse.     (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <3>:                     Objets adresse.     (line  225)
* RFC; RFC 4380:                         Objets adresse.     (line  321)
* RFC; RFC 4627:                         json --- JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4627 <1>:                     Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648:                         Documentation<28>.  (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <1>:                     base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <2>:                     base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <3>:                     base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <4>:                     base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <5>:                     base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <6>:                     base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  149)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <7>:                     Considérations de sécurité<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <8>:                     Considérations de sécurité<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 4918:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <1>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <2>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <3>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 4954:                         SMTP Objects.       (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 4954 <1>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  158)
* RFC; RFC 5161:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5161 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 5246:                         Constantes<9>.      (line  515)
* RFC; RFC 5246 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   53)
* RFC; RFC 5280:                         ssl.                (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <1>:                     Other Changes.      (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <2>:                     Changements dans l'API Python<9>.
                                                             (line   95)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <3>:                     Création de contexte.
                                                             (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <4>:                     Création de contexte.
                                                             (line   72)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <5>:                     Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <6>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5321:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5321 <1>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  473)
* RFC; RFC 5322:                         email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <3>:                     API de Parser.      (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <4>:                     email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  110)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <5>:                     email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  209)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <6>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <7>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  371)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <8>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  393)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <9>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  400)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <10>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  413)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <11>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  451)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <12>:                    email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <13>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <14>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <15>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  130)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <16>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  132)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <17>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <18>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  170)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <19>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  436)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <20>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  470)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <21>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  504)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <22>:                    email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <23>:                    SMTP Objects.       (line  314)
* RFC; RFC 5424:                         SysLogHandler.      (line   71)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <1>:                     Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <2>:                     Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <3>:                     Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <4>:                     Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 Section 6:               Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 5735:                         Objets adresse.     (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 5789:                         HTTP methods.       (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 5842:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5842 <1>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  190)
* RFC; RFC 5891:                         encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5894:                         Security<16>.       (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5895:                         encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5929:                         SSL Sockets.        (line  267)
* RFC; RFC 6066:                         Constantes<9>.      (line  409)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <1>:                     SSL Contexts.       (line  293)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <2>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 6152:                         smtpd<2>.           (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531:                         email<3>.           (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <1>:                     smtpd<2>.           (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <2>:                     smtplib<2>.         (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  108)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  418)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <5>:                     smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   68)
* RFC; RFC 6532:                         email<3>.           (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <1>:                     email --- An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <3>:                     API de Parser.      (line   44)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  415)
* RFC; RFC 6585:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <1>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <2>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <3>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  196)
* RFC; RFC 6855:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <1>:                     imaplib<2>.         (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <2>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <3>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 6856:                         poplib<2>.          (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 6856 <1>:                     POP3 Objects.       (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 7159:                         json --- JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <1>:                     Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <2>:                     Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 7230:                         urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  204)
* RFC; RFC 7230 <1>:                     Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  206)
* RFC; RFC 7301:                         Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <1>:                     Constantes<9>.      (line  386)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <2>:                     SSL Contexts.       (line  261)
* RFC; RFC 7525:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 7538:                         Library<32>.        (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 7693:                         BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7725:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 7914:                         Dérivation de clé.  (line   59)
* RFC; RFC 8089:                         Analyse et génération des URI.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 821:                          smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 821 <1>:                      smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  188)
* RFC; RFC 822:                          New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 822 <1>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  787)
* RFC; RFC 822 <2>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  791)
* RFC; RFC 822 <3>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  800)
* RFC; RFC 822 <4>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  804)
* RFC; RFC 822 <5>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  817)
* RFC; RFC 822 <6>:                      Fonctions<5>.       (line  821)
* RFC; RFC 822 <7>:                      email Exemples.     (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 822 <8>:                      email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 822 <9>:                      Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  192)
* RFC; RFC 822 <10>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 822 <11>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  229)
* RFC; RFC 822 <12>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  230)
* RFC; RFC 822 <13>:                     SMTP Example.       (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 822 <14>:                     La classe GNUTranslations.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 8297:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 8305:                         Création de connexions.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 8305 <1>:                     Création de connexions.
                                                             (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 8470:                         Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  148)
* RFC; RFC 850:                          Library<3>.         (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 9110:                         Library<3>.         (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <1>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <2>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <3>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <4>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <5>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <6>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <7>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <8>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <9>:                     Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <10>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <11>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   58)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <12>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <13>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <14>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <15>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <16>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <17>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <18>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <19>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <20>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <21>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <22>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <23>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <24>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <25>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  100)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <26>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <27>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <28>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <29>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <30>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <31>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <32>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  121)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <33>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  124)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <34>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <35>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  130)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <36>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  136)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <37>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  139)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <38>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <39>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  166)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <40>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <41>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <42>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <43>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <44>:                    Codes d'état HTTP.  (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <45>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <46>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <47>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <48>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <49>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <50>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <51>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <52>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <53>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <54>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <55>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <56>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <57>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 9239:                         Library<25>.        (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 959:                          ftplib --- FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   16)
* rfc2109 (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   72)
* rfc2109_as_netscape (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* rfc2965 (attribut http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* rfile (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  127)
* rfile (attribut socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   64)
* rfind() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  225)
* rfind() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  225)
* rfind() (méthode mmap.mmap):           mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  284)
* rfind() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  436)
* rgb_to_hls() (dans le module colorsys): colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   38)
* rgb_to_hsv() (dans le module colorsys): colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   48)
* rgb_to_yiq() (dans le module colorsys): colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   28)
* rglob() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Lecture des dossiers.
                                                             (line   80)
* richcmpfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   83)
* right (attribut filecmp.dircmp):       La classe dircmp.   (line   49)
* right_list (attribut filecmp.dircmp):  La classe dircmp.   (line   58)
* right_only (attribut filecmp.dircmp):  La classe dircmp.   (line   71)
* right() (dans le module turtle):       Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   41)
* RIGHTSHIFT (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  259)
* RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (dans le module token): token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  292)
* rindex() (méthode bytearray):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  240)
* rindex() (méthode bytes):              Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  240)
* rindex() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  444)
* rjust() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  361)
* rjust() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  361)
* rjust() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  449)
* RLIM_INFINITY (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.  (line   20)
* RLIMIT_AS (dans le module resource):   Resource Limits.    (line  148)
* RLIMIT_CORE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line   91)
* RLIMIT_CPU (dans le module resource):  Resource Limits.    (line   98)
* RLIMIT_DATA (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line  110)
* RLIMIT_FSIZE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.   (line  106)
* RLIMIT_KQUEUES (dans le module resource): Resource Limits. (line  224)
* RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (dans le module resource): Resource Limits. (line  138)
* RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.
                                                             (line  153)
* RLIMIT_NICE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line  161)
* RLIMIT_NOFILE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.  (line  129)
* RLIMIT_NPROC (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.   (line  125)
* RLIMIT_NPTS (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line  216)
* RLIMIT_OFILE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.   (line  134)
* RLIMIT_RSS (dans le module resource):  Resource Limits.    (line  120)
* RLIMIT_RTPRIO (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.  (line  170)
* RLIMIT_RTTIME (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.  (line  178)
* RLIMIT_SBSIZE (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.  (line  195)
* RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.
                                                             (line  187)
* RLIMIT_STACK (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.   (line  114)
* RLIMIT_SWAP (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line  205)
* RLIMIT_VMEM (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line  142)
* RLock (classe dans multiprocessing):   Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line  106)
* RLock (classe dans threading):         RLock Objects.      (line   32)
* RLock() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* rmd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):            FTP objects.        (line  354)
* rmdir() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  879)
* rmdir() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  111)
* rmdir() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Renommage et suppression.
                                                             (line   62)
* rmtree() (dans le module shutil):      Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  271)
* rmtree() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  118)
* RobotFileParser (classe dans urllib.robotparser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   16)
* robots.txt:                            urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* rollback() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* rollover() (méthode tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  168)
* ROMAN (dans le module tkinter.font):   tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* root (attribut pathlib.PurePath):      Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line   32)
* rotate() (méthode collections.deque):  Objets deque.       (line  116)
* rotate() (méthode decimal.Context):    Objets de contexte. (line  515)
* rotate() (méthode decimal.Decimal):    Les objets Decimal. (line  551)
* rotate() (méthode logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   78)
* RotatingFileHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* rotation_filename() (méthode logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   59)
* rotator (attribut logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   51)
* ROUND_05UP (dans le module decimal):   Modes d'arrondi.    (line   34)
* ROUND_CEILING (dans le module decimal): Modes d'arrondi.   (line    6)
* ROUND_DOWN (dans le module decimal):   Modes d'arrondi.    (line   10)
* ROUND_FLOOR (dans le module decimal):  Modes d'arrondi.    (line   14)
* ROUND_HALF_DOWN (dans le module decimal): Modes d'arrondi. (line   18)
* ROUND_HALF_EVEN (dans le module decimal): Modes d'arrondi. (line   22)
* ROUND_HALF_UP (dans le module decimal): Modes d'arrondi.   (line   26)
* ROUND_UP (dans le module decimal):     Modes d'arrondi.    (line   30)
* Rounded (classe dans decimal):         Signaux.            (line   77)
* rounds (attribut sys.float_info):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  700)
* Row (classe dans sqlite3):             Row objects.        (line    6)
* row_factory (attribut sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  796)
* row_factory (attribut sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.     (line  226)
* rowcount (attribut sqlite3.Cursor):    Cursor objects.     (line  215)
* RPAR (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  181)
* rpartition() (méthode bytearray):      Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  252)
* rpartition() (méthode bytes):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  252)
* rpartition() (méthode str):            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  456)
* rpc_paths (attribut xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* rpop() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   47)
* RS (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  115)
* rset() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   75)
* RShift (classe dans ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* rshift() (dans le module operator):    operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  156)
* rsplit() (méthode bytearray):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  374)
* rsplit() (méthode bytes):              Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  374)
* rsplit() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  464)
* RSQB (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  187)
* rstrip() (méthode bytearray):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  386)
* rstrip() (méthode bytes):              Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  386)
* rstrip() (méthode str):                Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  474)
* rt() (dans le module turtle):          Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   41)
* RTLD_DEEPBIND (dans le module os):     Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* RTLD_GLOBAL (dans le module os):       Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* RTLD_LAZY (dans le module os):         Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* RTLD_LOCAL (dans le module os):        Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* RTLD_NODELETE (dans le module os):     Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* RTLD_NOLOAD (dans le module os):       Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* RTLD_NOW (dans le module os):          Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  175)
* ruler (attribut cmd.Cmd):              Objets Cmd.         (line  177)
* run (pdb command):                     Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  434)
* Run script:                            Menu Format fenêtre d'édition uniquement.
                                                             (line   60)
* run_coroutine_threadsafe() (dans le module asyncio): Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_docstring_examples() (dans le module doctest): API de base.
                                                             (line  139)
* run_forever() (méthode asyncio.loop):  Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   17)
* run_in_executor() (méthode asyncio.loop): Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_in_subinterp() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  659)
* run_module() (dans le module runpy):   runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   27)
* run_path() (dans le module runpy):     runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   98)
* run_python_until_end() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   30)
* run_script() (méthode modulefinder.ModuleFinder): modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   45)
* run_until_complete() (méthode asyncio.loop): Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_with_locale() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  462)
* run_with_tz() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  470)
* run() (dans le module asyncio):        Exécution d'un programme asynchrone.
                                                             (line    6)
* run() (dans le module pdb):            pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  136)
* run() (dans le module profile):        profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    9)
* run() (dans le module subprocess):     Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line   11)
* run() (méthode asyncio.Runner):        Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur.
                                                             (line   39)
* run() (méthode bdb.Bdb):               bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  433)
* run() (méthode contextvars.Context):   Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line   65)
* run() (méthode doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line  102)
* run() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* run() (méthode pdb.Pdb):               pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  233)
* run() (méthode profile.Profile):       profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  109)
* run() (méthode sched.scheduler):       Scheduler Objects.  (line   51)
* run() (méthode threading.Thread):      Objets Threads.     (line  110)
* run() (méthode trace.Trace):           Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* run() (méthode unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  964)
* run() (méthode unittest.TestCase):     Scénarios de tests. (line   93)
* run() (méthode unittest.TestSuite):    Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line   44)
* run() (méthode unittest.TextTestRunner): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  538)
* run() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   99)
* runcall() (dans le module pdb):        pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  157)
* runcall() (méthode bdb.Bdb):           bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  450)
* runcall() (méthode pdb.Pdb):           pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  233)
* runcall() (méthode profile.Profile):   profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  118)
* runcode() (méthode code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* runctx() (dans le module profile):     profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   23)
* runctx() (méthode bdb.Bdb):            bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  445)
* runctx() (méthode profile.Profile):    profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  113)
* runctx() (méthode trace.Trace):        Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   28)
* runeval() (dans le module pdb):        pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  150)
* runeval() (méthode bdb.Bdb):           bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  439)
* runeval() (méthode pdb.Pdb):           pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  233)
* runfunc() (méthode trace.Trace):       Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   35)
* Runner (classe dans asyncio):          Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur.
                                                             (line    6)
* running() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* runsource() (méthode code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* runtime (attribut sys._emscripten_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  372)
* runtime_checkable() (dans le module typing): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  182)
* RuntimeError:                          Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  264)
* RuntimeWarning:                        Avertissements.     (line   53)
* RUSAGE_BOTH (dans le module resource): Resource Usage.     (line  122)
* RUSAGE_CHILDREN (dans le module resource): Resource Usage. (line  116)
* RUSAGE_SELF (dans le module resource): Resource Usage.     (line  110)
* RUSAGE_THREAD (dans le module resource): Resource Usage.   (line  128)
* RWF_APPEND (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  742)
* RWF_DSYNC (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  722)
* RWF_HIPRI (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  649)
* RWF_NOWAIT (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  634)
* RWF_SYNC (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  732)
* S (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line  109)
* S_ENFMT (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  323)
* S_IEXEC (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  337)
* S_IFBLK (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  212)
* S_IFCHR (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  220)
* S_IFDIR (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  216)
* S_IFDOOR (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  228)
* S_IFIFO (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  224)
* S_IFLNK (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  204)
* S_IFMT() (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   84)
* S_IFPORT (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  234)
* S_IFREG (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  208)
* S_IFSOCK (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  200)
* S_IFWHT (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  240)
* S_IMODE() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   77)
* S_IREAD (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  329)
* S_IRGRP (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  295)
* S_IROTH (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  311)
* S_IRUSR (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  279)
* S_IRWXG (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  291)
* S_IRWXO (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  307)
* S_IRWXU (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  275)
* S_ISBLK() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   31)
* S_ISCHR() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   26)
* S_ISDIR() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   21)
* S_ISDOOR() (dans le module stat):      stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   56)
* S_ISFIFO() (dans le module stat):      stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   41)
* S_ISGID (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  257)
* S_ISLNK() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   46)
* S_ISPORT() (dans le module stat):      stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   62)
* S_ISREG() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   36)
* S_ISSOCK() (dans le module stat):      stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   51)
* S_ISUID (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  253)
* S_ISVTX (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  268)
* S_ISWHT() (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   68)
* S_IWGRP (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  299)
* S_IWOTH (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  315)
* S_IWRITE (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  333)
* S_IWUSR (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  283)
* S_IXGRP (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  303)
* S_IXOTH (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  319)
* S_IXUSR (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  287)
* safe (attribut uuid.SafeUUID):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   34)
* safe_path (attribut sys.flags):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  597)
* safe_substitute() (méthode string.Template): Chaînes modèles.
                                                             (line   51)
* SafeChildWatcher (classe dans asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line  134)
* saferepr() (dans le module pprint):    Fonctions<4>.       (line  108)
* SafeUUID (classe dans uuid):           uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   30)
* same_files (attribut filecmp.dircmp):  La classe dircmp.   (line   89)
* same_quantum() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  519)
* same_quantum() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  564)
* samefile() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  417)
* samefile() (méthode pathlib.Path):     Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line  154)
* SameFileError:                         Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line   55)
* sameopenfile() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  432)
* samesite (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.    (line   14)
* samestat() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  442)
* sample() (dans le module random):      Fonctions pour les séquences.
                                                             (line   74)
* samples() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line   58)
* SATURDAY (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* save() (méthode http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* save() (méthode test.support.SaveSignals): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  770)
* SaveAs (classe dans tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line   62)
* SAVEDCWD (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   15)
* SaveFileDialog (classe dans tkinter.filedialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  155)
* SaveKey() (dans le module winreg):     Fonctions<13>.      (line  395)
* SaveSignals (classe dans test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  765)
* savetty() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  443)
* SAX2DOM (classe dans xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   85)
* SAXException:                          xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   95)
* SAXNotRecognizedException:             xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  124)
* SAXNotSupportedException:              xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  131)
* SAXParseException:                     xml sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  115)
* scaleb() (méthode decimal.Context):    Objets de contexte. (line  523)
* scaleb() (méthode decimal.Decimal):    Les objets Decimal. (line  575)
* scandir() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  897)
* scanf (C function):                    Simuler scanf.      (line    6)
* SCHED_BATCH (dans le module os):       Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   20)
* SCHED_FIFO (dans le module os):        Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   35)
* sched_get_priority_max() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   69)
* sched_get_priority_min() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   63)
* sched_getaffinity() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line  118)
* sched_getparam() (dans le module os):  Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   94)
* sched_getscheduler() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   82)
* SCHED_IDLE (dans le module os):        Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   26)
* SCHED_OTHER (dans le module os):       Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   16)
* sched_param (classe dans os):          Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   50)
* sched_priority (attribut os.sched_param): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   59)
* SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   43)
* SCHED_RR (dans le module os):          Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   39)
* sched_rr_get_interval() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line  100)
* sched_setaffinity() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line  111)
* sched_setparam() (dans le module os):  Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   88)
* sched_setscheduler() (dans le module os): Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   75)
* SCHED_SPORADIC (dans le module os):    Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line   31)
* sched_yield() (dans le module os):     Interface pour l'ordonnanceur.
                                                             (line  106)
* scheduler (classe dans sched):         sched --- Event scheduler.
                                                             (line   13)
* SCM_CREDS2 (dans le module socket):    Constantes<8>.      (line  323)
* scope:                                 Noms et liaisons.   (line    6)
* scope <1>:                             Résolution des noms.
                                                             (line    6)
* scope_id (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse. (line  303)
* Screen (classe dans turtle):           Classes publiques.  (line   30)
* screensize() (dans le module turtle):  Réglage de la fenêtre.
                                                             (line   65)
* script_from_examples() (dans le module doctest): Débogage. (line   74)
* scroll() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  500)
* ScrolledCanvas (classe dans turtle):   Classes publiques.  (line   35)
* ScrolledText (classe dans tkinter.scrolledtext): tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   24)
* scrollok() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  504)
* scrypt() (dans le module hashlib):     Dérivation de clé.  (line   55)
* seal() (dans le module unittest.mock): Sealing mocks.      (line    6)
* search() (dans le module re):          Fonctions<2>.       (line   38)
* search() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  223)
* search() (méthode re.Pattern):         Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   15)
* second (attribut datetime.datetime):   Objets datetime.    (line  338)
* second (attribut datetime.time):       Objets time.        (line   61)
* secondes depuis *epoch*:               time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   26)
* seconds (attribut datetime.timedelta): Objets timedelta.   (line  103)
* SECTCRE (attribut configparser.ConfigParser): Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur.
                                                             (line  327)
* sections() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* secure (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>. (line   49)
* secure (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.      (line   14)
* secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA2, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, SHA3, Shake, Blake2: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* Secure Sockets Layer:                  ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* security considerations:               xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   15)
* security_level (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.    (line  629)
* see() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview):  ttk Treeview.       (line  246)
* seed_bits (attribut sys.hash_info):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1105)
* seed() (dans le module random):        Fonctions de gestion d'état.
                                                             (line    6)
* seed() (méthode random.Random):        Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line   19)
* SEEK_CUR (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  337)
* SEEK_DATA (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  361)
* SEEK_END (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  337)
* SEEK_HOLE (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  361)
* SEEK_SET (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  337)
* seek() (méthode io.IOBase):            I/O Base Classes.   (line  106)
* seek() (méthode io.TextIOBase):        Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* seek() (méthode io.TextIOWrapper):     Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  205)
* seek() (méthode mmap.mmap):            mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  294)
* seek() (méthode sqlite3.Blob):         Blob objects.       (line   63)
* seekable() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):      Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line  105)
* seekable() (méthode io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  129)
* seekable() (méthode mmap.mmap):        mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  305)
* select() (dans le module select):      select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  116)
* select() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  240)
* select() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>.     (line  108)
* select() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.     (line   53)
* selected_alpn_protocol() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  273)
* selected_npn_protocol() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  283)
* selection_add() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  269)
* selection_remove() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  276)
* selection_set() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  262)
* selection_toggle() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  283)
* selection() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.  (line  254)
* selector (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* SelectorEventLoop (classe dans asyncio): Implémentations de boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   12)
* SelectorKey (classe dans selectors):   Classes<4>.         (line   29)
* SelectSelector (classe dans selectors): Classes<4>.        (line  167)
* Self (dans le module typing):          Special types.      (line  138)
* Semaphore (classe dans asyncio):       Sémaphore.          (line    6)
* Semaphore (classe dans multiprocessing): Primitives de synchronisation.
                                                             (line  172)
* Semaphore (classe dans threading):     Semaphore Objects.  (line   19)
* Semaphore() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  223)
* semaphores, binary:                    _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* SEMI (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  196)
* SEND (opcode):                         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1268)
* send_bytes() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   58)
* send_error() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  230)
* send_fds() (dans le module socket):    Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  462)
* send_header() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  266)
* send_message() (méthode smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.       (line  304)
* send_response_only() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  279)
* send_response() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  250)
* send_signal() (méthode asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line   92)
* send_signal() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line   46)
* send_signal() (méthode subprocess.Popen): Objets Popen.    (line   83)
* send() (méthode coroutine):            Objets coroutines.  (line   23)
* send() (méthode generator):            Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   30)
* send() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  227)
* send() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  247)
* send() (méthode logging.handlers.DatagramHandler): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* send() (méthode logging.handlers.SocketHandler): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   63)
* send() (méthode multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Objets de connexions.
                                                             (line   15)
* send() (méthode socket.socket):        Socket Objects.     (line  402)
* sendall() (méthode socket.socket):     Socket Objects.     (line  419)
* sendcmd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  159)
* sendfile() (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  776)
* sendfile() (méthode asyncio.loop):     Transfert de fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* sendfile() (méthode socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  515)
* sendfile() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  282)
* SendfileNotAvailableError:             Exceptions<13>.     (line   38)
* sendfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line  116)
* sendmail() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line  226)
* sendmsg_afalg() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.   (line  504)
* sendmsg() (méthode socket.socket):     Socket Objects.     (line  459)
* sendto() (méthode asyncio.DatagramTransport): Transports par datagrammes.
                                                             (line    6)
* sendto() (méthode socket.socket):      Socket Objects.     (line  439)
* sentinel (attribut multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  159)
* sentinel (dans le module unittest.mock): sentinel.         (line    6)
* sep (dans le module os):               Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  122)
* SEPTEMBER (dans le module calendar):   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  519)
* séquence:                              Glossaire.          (line 1412)
* Sequence (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* Sequence (classe dans typing):         Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   98)
* sequence;item:                         sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* sequence;iteration:                    Les types itérateurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* SequenceMatcher (classe dans difflib): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* serialize() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  678)
* serializing;objects:                   pickle --- Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* serve_forever() (méthode asyncio.Server): Objets Serveur.  (line   92)
* serve_forever() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   34)
* server (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   81)
* server (attribut socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   53)
* Server (classe dans asyncio):          Objets Serveur.     (line   12)
* server_activate() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  179)
* server_address (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   85)
* server_bind() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  186)
* server_close() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   67)
* server_hostname (attribut ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.     (line  353)
* server_side (attribut ssl.SSLSocket):  SSL Sockets.        (line  346)
* server_software (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  179)
* server_version (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  144)
* server_version (attribut http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  374)
* ServerProxy (classe dans xmlrpc.client): xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access.
                                                             (line   31)
* service_actions() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   50)
* session (attribut ssl.SSLSocket):      SSL Sockets.        (line  367)
* session_reused (attribut ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.      (line  377)
* session_stats() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.    (line  484)
* Set (classe dans ast):                 Littéraux<3>.       (line   92)
* Set (classe dans collections.abc):     Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   92)
* Set (classe dans typing):              Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   30)
* set (classe de base):                  Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   37)
* SET_ADD (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  372)
* set_all():                             Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   98)
* set_allowed_domains() (méthode http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* set_alpn_protocols() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  255)
* set_app() (méthode wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   64)
* set_asyncgen_hooks() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1774)
* set_authorizer() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  346)
* set_auto_history() (dans le module readline): Liste d'historique.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_blocked_domains() (méthode http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* set_blocking() (dans le module os):    Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  837)
* set_boundary() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  429)
* set_boundary() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  630)
* set_break() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  346)
* set_charset() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  259)
* set_child_watcher() (dans le module asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   33)
* set_child_watcher() (méthode asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   45)
* set_children() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   25)
* set_ciphers() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.      (line  241)
* set_completer_delims() (dans le module readline): Complétion.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_completer() (dans le module readline): Complétion.     (line   15)
* set_completion_display_matches_hook() (dans le module readline): Complétion.
                                                             (line   62)
* set_content() (dans le module email.contentmanager): Instances de gestionnaires de contenus.
                                                             (line   40)
* set_content() (méthode email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   41)
* set_content() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  617)
* set_continue() (méthode bdb.Bdb):      bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  331)
* set_cookie_if_ok() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* set_cookie() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1800)
* set_data() (méthode importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  389)
* set_data() (méthode importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  231)
* set_date() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* set_debug() (dans le module gc):       gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_debug() (méthode asyncio.loop):    Activation du mode débogage.
                                                             (line   15)
* set_debuglevel() (méthode ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.        (line   75)
* set_debuglevel() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line   96)
* set_debuglevel() (méthode poplib.POP3): POP3 Objects.      (line   11)
* set_debuglevel() (méthode smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.     (line    8)
* set_default_executor() (méthode asyncio.loop): Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus.
                                                             (line   76)
* set_default_type() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  359)
* set_default_type() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  485)
* set_default_verify_paths() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  232)
* set_defaults() (méthode argparse.ArgumentParser): Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_defaults() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line   27)
* set_ecdh_curve() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  369)
* set_errno() (dans le module ctypes):   Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  181)
* set_error_mode() (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   12)
* set_escdelay() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.      (line  454)
* set_event_loop_policy() (dans le module asyncio): Obtenir et définir la politique.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_event_loop() (dans le module asyncio): Boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_event_loop() (méthode asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_events() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_exception_handler() (méthode asyncio.loop): API de gestion d'erreur.
                                                             (line    9)
* set_exception() (méthode asyncio.Future): Objet Future.    (line   61)
* set_exception() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* set_executable() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line  118)
* set_filter() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  137)
* set_flags() (méthode mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.    (line  110)
* set_flags() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (méthode mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (méthode mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_forkserver_preload() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line  134)
* set_from() (méthode mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_from() (méthode mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (opcode):       Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1129)
* set_handle_inheritable() (dans le module os): Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_history_length() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'historique.
                                                             (line   30)
* set_info() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):  Maildir objects.    (line  172)
* set_info() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* set_inheritable() (dans le module os): Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line   32)
* set_inheritable() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects. (line  532)
* set_int_max_str_digits() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1558)
* set_labels() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* set_last_error() (dans le module ctypes): Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  190)
* set_local_events() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   16)
* set_memlimit() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  303)
* set_name() (méthode asyncio.Task):     Objets Task.        (line  194)
* set_next() (méthode bdb.Bdb):          bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  309)
* set_nonstandard_attr() (méthode http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line  107)
* set_npn_protocols() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  270)
* set_ok() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* set_param() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  368)
* set_param() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  556)
* set_pasv() (méthode ftplib.FTP):       FTP objects.        (line  215)
* set_payload() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  247)
* set_policy() (méthode http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* set_pre_input_hook() (dans le module readline): Fonctions de rappel au démarrage.
                                                             (line   14)
* set_progress_handler() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  379)
* set_protocol() (méthode asyncio.BaseTransport): Classe de base des Transports.
                                                             (line   87)
* set_proxy() (méthode urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* set_psk_client_callback() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  664)
* set_psk_server_callback() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  716)
* set_quit() (méthode bdb.Bdb):          bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  336)
* set_result() (méthode asyncio.Future): Objet Future.       (line   54)
* set_result() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* set_return() (méthode bdb.Bdb):        bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  313)
* set_running_or_notify_cancel() (méthode concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* set_selection() (méthode tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives.
                                                             (line  141)
* set_seq1() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* set_seq2() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_seqs() (méthode difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_sequences() (méthode mailbox.MH):  MH objects.         (line   61)
* set_sequences() (méthode mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* set_server_documentation() (méthode xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_documentation() (méthode xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer): DocXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_name() (méthode xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_name() (méthode xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer): DocXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_title() (méthode xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_server_title() (méthode xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer): DocXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_servername_callback (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  341)
* set_start_method() (dans le module multiprocessing): Divers<3>.
                                                             (line  151)
* set_startup_hook() (dans le module readline): Fonctions de rappel au démarrage.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_step() (méthode bdb.Bdb):          bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  305)
* set_subdir() (méthode mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* set_tabsize() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.       (line  469)
* set_task_factory() (méthode asyncio.loop): Création de Futures et des tâches.
                                                             (line   39)
* set_threshold() (dans le module gc):   gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   95)
* set_trace_callback() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  397)
* set_trace() (dans le module bdb):      bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  483)
* set_trace() (dans le module pdb):      pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  164)
* set_trace() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  322)
* set_trace() (méthode pdb.Pdb):         pdb — Le débogueur Python.
                                                             (line  233)
* set_tunnel() (méthode http.client.HTTPConnection): Les objets HTTPConnection.
                                                             (line  107)
* set_type() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  592)
* set_unittest_reportflags() (dans le module doctest): API de tests unitaires.
                                                             (line  185)
* set_unixfrom() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  153)
* set_unixfrom() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  172)
* set_until() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  317)
* SET_UPDATE (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  721)
* set_url() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   22)
* set_usage() (méthode optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_userptr() (méthode curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects. (line   43)
* set_visible() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* set_wakeup_fd() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  443)
* set_write_buffer_limits() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   35)
* set;comprehensions:                    Agencements d'ensembles.
                                                             (line    6)
* set;display:                           Agencements d'ensembles.
                                                             (line    6)
* set() (méthode asyncio.Event):         Événement Event.    (line   53)
* set() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  287)
* set() (méthode configparser.RawConfigParser): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* set() (méthode contextvars.ContextVar): Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   49)
* set() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel):   Objets Morsel.      (line   60)
* set() (méthode test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   66)
* set() (méthode threading.Event):       Event Objects.      (line   31)
* set() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Combobox):  ttk Combobox.       (line   19)
* set() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Spinbox):   ttk Spinbox.        (line   12)
* set() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview):  ttk Treeview.       (line  290)
* set() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   88)
* setacl() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  254)
* setannotation() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  259)
* setattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   48)
* setAttribute() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements. (line   70)
* setAttributeNode() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   74)
* setAttributeNodeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   82)
* setAttributeNS() (méthode xml.dom.Element): Objets Elements.
                                                             (line   89)
* setattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   61)
* SetBase() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* setblocking() (méthode socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  539)
* setByteStream() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* setcbreak() (dans le module tty):      tty --- Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* setCharacterStream() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* SetComp (classe dans ast):             Compréhensions.     (line    6)
* setcomptype() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.
                                                             (line   60)
* setconfig() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  662)
* setContentHandler() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* setcontext() (dans le module decimal): Objets de contexte. (line   19)
* setDaemon() (méthode threading.Thread): Objets Threads.    (line  228)
* setdefault() (méthode dict):           Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  213)
* setdefault() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel. (line  109)
* setdefaulttimeout() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  382)
* setdlopenflags() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1545)
* setDocumentLocator() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* setDTDHandler() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* setegid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  386)
* setEncoding() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* setEntityResolver() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* setErrorHandler() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* seteuid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  393)
* setFeature() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* setfirstweekday() (dans le module calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  372)
* setfirstweekday() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* setFormatter() (méthode logging.Handler): Gestionnaires.   (line   50)
* setframerate() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.
                                                             (line   46)
* setgid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  400)
* setgroups() (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  406)
* seth() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  169)
* setheading() (dans le module turtle):  Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  169)
* sethostname() (dans le module socket): Autres fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  389)
* setinputsizes() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.  (line  162)
* setitem() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  209)
* setitimer() (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  414)
* setLevel() (méthode logging.Handler):  Gestionnaires.      (line   35)
* setLevel() (méthode logging.Logger):   Enregistreurs.      (line  109)
* setlimit() (méthode sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  616)
* setlocale() (dans le module locale):   locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   28)
* setLocale() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* setLoggerClass() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  323)
* setlogmask() (dans le module syslog):  syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  101)
* setLogRecordFactory() (dans le module logging): Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  334)
* setMaxConns() (méthode urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler): CacheFTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* setmode() (dans le module msvcrt):     Opérations sur les fichiers.
                                                             (line   38)
* setName() (méthode threading.Thread):  Objets Threads.     (line  170)
* setnchannels() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.
                                                             (line   38)
* setnframes() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write. (line   53)
* setns() (dans le module os):           Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  421)
* setoutputsize() (méthode sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.  (line  166)
* SetParamEntityParsing() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* setparams() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.  (line   66)
* setpassword() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile): Objets ZipFile.   (line  257)
* setpgid() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  468)
* setpgrp() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  460)
* setpos() (dans le module turtle):      Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   76)
* setpos() (méthode wave.Wave_read):     Objets Wave_read.   (line   85)
* setposition() (dans le module turtle): Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line   76)
* setpriority() (dans le module os):     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  476)
* setprofile_all_threads() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  200)
* setprofile() (dans le module sys):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1566)
* setprofile() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  193)
* setProperty() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* setPublicId() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* setquota() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  264)
* setraw() (dans le module tty):         tty --- Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* setrecursionlimit() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1629)
* setregid() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  495)
* SetReparseDeferralEnabled() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* setresgid() (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  502)
* setresuid() (dans le module os):       Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  511)
* setreuid() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  520)
* setrlimit() (dans le module resource): Resource Limits.    (line   31)
* setsampwidth() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.
                                                             (line   42)
* setscrreg() (méthode curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  514)
* setsid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  534)
* setsockopt() (méthode socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  572)
* setstate() (dans le module random):    Fonctions de gestion d'état.
                                                             (line   40)
* setstate() (méthode codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* setstate() (méthode codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* setstate() (méthode random.Random):    Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line   29)
* setStream() (méthode logging.StreamHandler): Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* setswitchinterval (in module sys):     Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line   15)
* setswitchinterval() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1648)
* setswitchinterval() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  286)
* setSystemId() (méthode xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* setsyx() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  477)
* setTarget() (méthode logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   69)
* setter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   42)
* settimeout() (méthode socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  556)
* setTimeout() (méthode urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler): CacheFTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* settrace_all_threads() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  175)
* settrace() (dans le module sys):       sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1662)
* settrace() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  168)
* setuid() (dans le module os):          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  541)
* setundobuffer() (dans le module turtle): Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   62)
* SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode):            Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  432)
* SETUP_CLEANUP (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1411)
* setup_environ() (méthode wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  200)
* SETUP_FINALLY (opcode):                Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1404)
* setup_python() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.          (line  155)
* setup_scripts() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.         (line  164)
* setup_testing_defaults() (dans le module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   71)
* SETUP_WITH (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1419)
* setup() (dans le module turtle):       Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   22)
* setup() (méthode socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   15)
* setUp() (méthode unittest.TestCase):   Scénarios de tests. (line   37)
* setUpClass() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line   61)
* setupterm() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  482)
* SetValue() (dans le module winreg):    Fonctions<13>.      (line  419)
* SetValueEx() (dans le module winreg):  Fonctions<13>.      (line  450)
* setworldcoordinates() (dans le module turtle): Réglage de la fenêtre.
                                                             (line   95)
* setx() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  141)
* setxattr() (dans le module os):        Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line   64)
* sety() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  155)
* SF_APPEND (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  420)
* SF_ARCHIVED (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  412)
* SF_DATALESS (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  444)
* SF_FIRMLINK (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  438)
* SF_IMMUTABLE (dans le module stat):    stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  416)
* SF_MNOWAIT (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  816)
* SF_NOCACHE (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  827)
* SF_NODISKIO (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  816)
* SF_NOUNLINK (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  430)
* SF_RESTRICTED (dans le module stat):   stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  424)
* SF_SETTABLE (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  390)
* SF_SNAPSHOT (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  434)
* SF_SUPPORTED (dans le module stat):    stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  396)
* SF_SYNC (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  816)
* SF_SYNTHETIC (dans le module stat):    stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  404)
* sha1() (dans le module hashlib):       Constructeurs.      (line   22)
* sha224() (dans le module hashlib):     Constructeurs.      (line   24)
* sha256() (dans le module hashlib):     Constructeurs.      (line   26)
* sha3_224() (dans le module hashlib):   Constructeurs.      (line   32)
* sha3_256() (dans le module hashlib):   Constructeurs.      (line   34)
* sha3_384() (dans le module hashlib):   Constructeurs.      (line   36)
* sha3_512() (dans le module hashlib):   Constructeurs.      (line   38)
* sha384() (dans le module hashlib):     Constructeurs.      (line   28)
* sha512() (dans le module hashlib):     Constructeurs.      (line   30)
* shake_128() (dans le module hashlib):  Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE.
                                                             (line    6)
* shake_256() (dans le module hashlib):  Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE.
                                                             (line    8)
* shape (attribut memoryview):           Vues mémoire.       (line  466)
* Shape (classe dans turtle):            Classes publiques.  (line   45)
* shape() (dans le module turtle):       Apparence.          (line    6)
* shapesize() (dans le module turtle):   Apparence.          (line   56)
* shapetransform() (dans le module turtle): Apparence.       (line  145)
* share() (méthode socket.socket):       Socket Objects.     (line  606)
* ShareableList (classe dans multiprocessing.shared_memory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  272)
* ShareableList() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  232)
* Shared Memory:                         multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* shared_ciphers() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.     (line  236)
* shared_memory (attribut sys._emscripten_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  381)
* SharedMemory (classe dans multiprocessing.shared_memory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   33)
* SharedMemory() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  227)
* SharedMemoryManager (classe dans multiprocessing.managers): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  199)
* shearfactor() (dans le module turtle): Apparence.          (line   87)
* Shelf (classe dans shelve):            Limites.            (line   29)
* shield() (dans le module asyncio):     Protection contre l'annulation.
                                                             (line    6)
* shift_path_info() (dans le module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI.
                                                             (line   41)
* shift() (méthode decimal.Context):     Objets de contexte. (line  528)
* shift() (méthode decimal.Decimal):     Les objets Decimal. (line  582)
* shifting;operation:                    Opérations de décalage.
                                                             (line    6)
* shifting;operations:                   Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* shlex (classe dans shlex):             shlex --- Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   92)
* shm (attribut multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  346)
* SHORT_TIMEOUT (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   80)
* shortDescription() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  810)
* shorten() (dans le module textwrap):   textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   51)
* shouldFlush() (méthode logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* shouldFlush() (méthode logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   73)
* shouldStop (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  302)
* show_code() (dans le module dis):      Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line   29)
* show_flag_values() (dans le module enum): Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line  104)
* show() (méthode curses.panel.Panel):   Panel Objects.      (line   49)
* show() (méthode tkinter.commondialog.Dialog): tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue.
                                                             (line   16)
* show() (méthode tkinter.messagebox.Message): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   82)
* showerror() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  105)
* showinfo() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   91)
* showsyntaxerror() (méthode code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* showtraceback() (méthode code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* showturtle() (dans le module turtle):  Visibilité.         (line   15)
* showwarning() (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   99)
* showwarning() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line   89)
* shuffle() (dans le module random):     Fonctions pour les séquences.
                                                             (line   55)
* SHUT_RD (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line  377)
* SHUT_RDWR (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line  377)
* SHUT_WR (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line  377)
* ShutDown:                              queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   98)
* shutdown_asyncgens() (méthode asyncio.loop): Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   60)
* shutdown_default_executor() (méthode asyncio.loop): Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   81)
* shutdown() (dans le module logging):   Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line  312)
* shutdown() (méthode asyncio.Queue):    File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line   87)
* shutdown() (méthode concurrent.futures.Executor): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* shutdown() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  269)
* shutdown() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   90)
* shutdown() (méthode queue.Queue):      Terminating queues. (line    9)
* shutdown() (méthode socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  597)
* shutdown() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line   60)
* SI (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   70)
* side_effect (attribut unittest.mock.Mock): La classe Mock. (line  389)
* SIG_BLOCK (dans le module signal):     Module contents<2>. (line  231)
* SIG_DFL (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line   45)
* SIG_IGN (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line   53)
* SIG_SETMASK (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  246)
* SIG_UNBLOCK (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  238)
* SIGABRT (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line   58)
* SIGALRM (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line   62)
* SIGBREAK (dans le module signal):      Module contents<2>. (line   68)
* SIGBUS (dans le module signal):        Module contents<2>. (line   74)
* SIGCHLD (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line   80)
* SIGCLD (dans le module signal):        Module contents<2>. (line   86)
* SIGCONT (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line   92)
* SIGFPE (dans le module signal):        Module contents<2>. (line   98)
* SIGHUP (dans le module signal):        Module contents<2>. (line  108)
* SIGILL (dans le module signal):        Module contents<2>. (line  115)
* SIGINT (C macro):                      Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* SIGINT (C macro) <1>:                  Traitement des signaux<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* SIGINT (dans le module signal):        Module contents<2>. (line  119)
* siginterrupt() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  489)
* SIGKILL (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  125)
* Sigmasks (classe dans signal):         Module contents<2>. (line   31)
* signal() (dans le module signal):      Module contents<2>. (line  504)
* Signals (classe dans signal):          Module contents<2>. (line   17)
* signature (attribut inspect.BoundArguments): Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line  369)
* Signature (classe dans inspect):       Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line   75)
* signature() (dans le module inspect):  Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature.
                                                             (line   12)
* sigpending() (dans le module signal):  Module contents<2>. (line  532)
* SIGPIPE (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  133)
* SIGSEGV (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  141)
* SIGSTKFLT (dans le module signal):     Module contents<2>. (line  145)
* SIGTERM (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  157)
* sigtimedwait() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  593)
* SIGUSR1 (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  161)
* SIGUSR2 (dans le module signal):       Module contents<2>. (line  167)
* sigwait() (dans le module signal):     Module contents<2>. (line  547)
* sigwaitinfo() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>. (line  564)
* SIGWINCH (dans le module signal):      Module contents<2>. (line  173)
* SIMPLE (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.       (line   15)
* Simple Mail Transfer Protocol:         smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* simple;statement:                      Les instructions simples.
                                                             (line    6)
* SimpleCookie (classe dans http.cookies): http cookies --- HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   52)
* simplefilter() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line  124)
* SimpleHandler (classe dans wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   70)
* SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (classe dans http.server): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  355)
* SimpleNamespace (classe dans types):   Additional Utility Classes and Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* SimpleQueue (classe dans multiprocessing): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  231)
* SimpleQueue (classe dans queue):       queue --- A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   78)
* SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (classe dans xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   66)
* SimpleXMLRPCServer (classe dans xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   25)
* sin() (dans le module cmath):          Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* sin() (dans le module math):           Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line   35)
* SingleAddressHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  232)
* singledispatch() (dans le module functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  433)
* singledispatchmethod (classe dans functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  607)
* singleton;tuple:                       Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   30)
* sinh() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* sinh() (dans le module math):          Fonctions hyperboliques.
                                                             (line   25)
* SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>. (line  249)
* SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.
                                                             (line  249)
* SIO_RCVALL (dans le module socket):    Constantes<8>.      (line  249)
* site_maps() (méthode urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   74)
* site-packages;directory:               site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   25)
* sitecustomize:                         Modules de personnalisation.
                                                             (line    6)
* sitecustomize <1>:                     Modules de personnalisation.
                                                             (line   19)
* sixtofour (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.
                                                             (line  311)
* size (attribut multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  124)
* size (attribut struct.Struct):         Classes<3>.         (line   63)
* size (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):       Les objets TarInfo. (line   66)
* size (attribut tracemalloc.Statistic): Statistic.          (line   19)
* size (attribut tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.  (line   26)
* size (attribut tracemalloc.Trace):     Trace.              (line   24)
* size_diff (attribut tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   32)
* SIZE_MAX (C macro):                    Objets Integer.     (line  267)
* size() (méthode ftplib.FTP):           FTP objects.        (line  358)
* size() (méthode mmap.mmap):            mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  312)
* Sized (classe dans collections.abc):   Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   15)
* Sized (classe dans typing):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   69)
* sizeof_digit (attribut sys.int_info):  sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1195)
* sizeof() (dans le module ctypes):      Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  201)
* SKIP (dans le module doctest):         Options de ligne de commande.
                                                             (line  102)
* skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  722)
* skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (dans le module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   59)
* skip_unless_symlink() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  126)
* skip_unless_xattr() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  131)
* skip() (dans le module unittest):      Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles.
                                                             (line   89)
* skipIf() (dans le module unittest):    Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles.
                                                             (line   94)
* skipinitialspace (attribut csv.Dialect): Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   74)
* skipped (attribut doctest.TestResults): Objets TestResults.
                                                             (line   16)
* skipped (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  275)
* skippedEntity() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  192)
* skips (attribut doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line  144)
* SkipTest:                              Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles.
                                                             (line  109)
* skipTest() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line  109)
* skipUnless() (dans le module unittest): Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles.
                                                             (line   98)
* SLASH (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  208)
* SLASHEQUAL (dans le module token):     token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  274)
* sleep() (dans le module asyncio):      Attente.            (line    6)
* sleep() (dans le module time):         Fonctions<5>.       (line  276)
* sleeping_retry() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  219)
* slice:                                 Tranches.           (line    6)
* Slice (classe dans ast):               Indiçage.           (line   29)
* slice (classe de base):                Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1852)
* slice;assignment:                      Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* slice;operation:                       Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* slicing:                               Séquences.          (line   14)
* slicing <1>:                           Séquences mutables. (line    6)
* slicing <2>:                           Tranches.           (line    6)
* slicing;assignment:                    Les assignations.   (line  134)
* slow_callback_duration (attribut asyncio.loop): Activation du mode débogage.
                                                             (line   23)
* SMALLEST (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  190)
* SMTP (classe dans smtplib):            smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   21)
* SMTP (dans le module email.policy):    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  552)
* SMTP_SSL (classe dans smtplib):        smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   75)
* SMTP;protocol:                         smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* SMTPAuthenticationError:               smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  180)
* SMTPConnectError:                      smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  165)
* SMTPDataError:                         smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  161)
* SMTPException:                         smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  126)
* SMTPHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): SMTPHandler.   (line   10)
* SMTPHeloError:                         smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  170)
* SMTPNotSupportedError:                 smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  174)
* SMTPRecipientsRefused:                 smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  154)
* SMTPResponseException:                 smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  140)
* SMTPSenderRefused:                     smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  148)
* SMTPServerDisconnected:                smtplib --- SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  134)
* SMTPUTF8 (dans le module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  558)
* Snapshot (classe dans tracemalloc):    Snapshot.           (line    6)
* SND_ALIAS (dans le module winsound):   winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   47)
* SND_APPLICATION (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  128)
* SND_ASYNC (dans le module winsound):   winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  109)
* SND_FILENAME (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   42)
* SND_LOOP (dans le module winsound):    winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   88)
* SND_MEMORY (dans le module winsound):  winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   94)
* SND_NODEFAULT (dans le module winsound): winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  113)
* SND_NOSTOP (dans le module winsound):  winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  118)
* SND_NOWAIT (dans le module winsound):  winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  122)
* SND_PURGE (dans le module winsound):   winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  103)
* sni_callback (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.      (line  288)
* sniff() (méthode csv.Sniffer):         Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  239)
* Sniffer (classe dans csv):             Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  232)
* SO (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   67)
* SO_INCOMING_CPU (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.    (line  337)
* sock_accept() (méthode asyncio.loop):  Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line  110)
* SOCK_CLOEXEC (dans le module socket):  Constantes<8>.      (line   38)
* sock_connect() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   91)
* SOCK_DGRAM (dans le module socket):    Constantes<8>.      (line   27)
* SOCK_MAX_SIZE (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  123)
* SOCK_NONBLOCK (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.      (line   38)
* SOCK_RAW (dans le module socket):      Constantes<8>.      (line   27)
* SOCK_RDM (dans le module socket):      Constantes<8>.      (line   27)
* sock_recv_into() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   28)
* sock_recv() (méthode asyncio.loop):    Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   14)
* sock_recvfrom_into() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   50)
* sock_recvfrom() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   39)
* sock_sendall() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   61)
* sock_sendfile() (méthode asyncio.loop): Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line  133)
* sock_sendto() (méthode asyncio.loop):  Travail direct avec des objets socket.
                                                             (line   80)
* SOCK_SEQPACKET (dans le module socket): Constantes<8>.     (line   27)
* SOCK_STREAM (dans le module socket):   Constantes<8>.      (line   27)
* socket (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur. (line   94)
* socket (classe dans socket):           Creating sockets.   (line    8)
* socket_type (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  119)
* socket() (in module socket):           select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  144)
* socket() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  275)
* SocketHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* socketpair() (dans le module socket):  Creating sockets.   (line   66)
* sockets (attribut asyncio.Server):     Objets Serveur.     (line  129)
* SocketType (dans le module socket):    Creating sockets.   (line  191)
* soft deprecated:                       Glossaire.          (line 1455)
* soft keyword:                          Mots-clés ad hoc.   (line    6)
* SOFT_KEYWORD (dans le module token):   token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  153)
* softkwlist (dans le module keyword):   keyword --- Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   30)
* SOH (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   22)
* SOL_ALG (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line  265)
* SOL_RDS (dans le module socket):       Constantes<8>.      (line  236)
* SOMAXCONN (dans le module socket):     Constantes<8>.      (line   54)
* sort_stats() (méthode pstats.Stats):   The Stats Class.    (line   67)
* sort() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  279)
* sort() (méthode list):                 Listes<2>.          (line   42)
* sortdict() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  267)
* sortTestMethodsUsing (attribut unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  208)
* source (attribut doctest.Example):     Exemples d'objets.  (line   17)
* source (attribut shlex.shlex):         shlex Objects.      (line  151)
* source (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  301)
* source character set:                  Déclaration d'encodage.
                                                             (line    6)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:                     py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:                 Library<53>.        (line  452)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:                 Build<58>.          (line   15)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:                 py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   73)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:                 py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   91)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:                 py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   96)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:                 Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   95)
* source_from_cache() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   59)
* source_hash() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  163)
* SOURCE_SUFFIXES (dans le module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* source_to_code() (méthode statique importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  243)
* SourceFileLoader (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  205)
* sourcehook() (méthode shlex.shlex):    shlex Objects.      (line   26)
* SourcelessFileLoader (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  245)
* SourceLoader (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  328)
* SP (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  121)
* space:                                 Indentation.        (line    6)
* space;in printf-style formatting:      Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line   71)
* space;in printf-style formatting <1>:  Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line   66)
* span() (méthode re.Match):             Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  175)
* sparse (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line  158)
* spawn_python() (dans le module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   69)
* spawn() (dans le module pty):          pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line   43)
* spawnl() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnle() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnlp() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnlpe() (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnv() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnve() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnvp() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spawnvpe() (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  618)
* spec_from_file_location() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  150)
* spec_from_loader() (dans le module importlib.util): importlib util -- Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  139)
* special;attribute:                     Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line   13)
* special;méthode:                       Glossaire.          (line 1470)
* SpecialFileError:                      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  266)
* spécificateur de module:               Chercheurs et chargeurs.
                                                             (line    6)
* spécificateur de module <1>:           Glossaire.          (line 1056)
* specified_attributes (attribut xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  155)
* speed() (dans le module turtle):       Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  338)
* Spinbox (classe dans tkinter.ttk):     ttk Spinbox.        (line    6)
* SPLICE_F_MORE (dans le module os):     Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  887)
* SPLICE_F_MOVE (dans le module os):     Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  887)
* SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK (dans le module os): Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  887)
* splice() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  857)
* split() (dans le module os.path):      os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  455)
* split() (dans le module re):           Fonctions<2>.       (line   82)
* split() (dans le module shlex):        shlex --- Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   17)
* split() (méthode BaseExceptionGroup):  Exception groups.   (line   70)
* split() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  415)
* split() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  415)
* split() (méthode re.Pattern):          Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line   81)
* split() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  497)
* splitdrive() (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  471)
* splitext() (dans le module os.path):   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  527)
* splitlines() (méthode bytearray):      Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  661)
* splitlines() (méthode bytes):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  661)
* splitlines() (méthode str):            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  541)
* SplitResult (classe dans urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   55)
* SplitResultBytes (classe dans urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   82)
* splitroot() (dans le module os.path):  os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  496)
* SpooledTemporaryFile (classe dans tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  158)
* sprintf-style formatting:              Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* sprintf-style formatting <1>:          Formatage de bytes a la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DENY (dans le module sqlite3):  Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   49)
* sqlite_errorcode (attribut sqlite3.Error): Exceptions<7>.  (line   24)
* sqlite_errorname (attribut sqlite3.Error): Exceptions<7>.  (line   30)
* SQLITE_IGNORE (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   49)
* SQLITE_OK (dans le module sqlite3):    Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   49)
* sqlite_version (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   78)
* sqlite_version_info (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   83)
* sqrt() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle.
                                                             (line   22)
* sqrt() (dans le module math):          Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   90)
* sqrt() (méthode decimal.Context):      Objets de contexte. (line  532)
* sqrt() (méthode decimal.Decimal):      Les objets Decimal. (line  595)
* ssizeargfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line  126)
* ssizeobjargproc (C type):              Slot Type typedefs. (line  130)
* SSL:                                   ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* ssl_version (attribut ftplib.FTP_TLS): FTP_TLS objects.    (line   84)
* SSLCertVerificationError:              Exceptions<16>.     (line   81)
* SSLContext (classe dans ssl):          SSL Contexts.       (line   14)
* SSLEOFError:                           Exceptions<16>.     (line   73)
* SSLError:                              Exceptions<16>.     (line    6)
* SSLErrorNumber (classe dans ssl):      Constantes<9>.      (line  549)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE:                         Création de contexte.
                                                             (line   37)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:                     Création de contexte.
                                                             (line   92)
* SSLObject (classe dans ssl):           Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* sslobject_class (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  475)
* SSLSession (classe dans ssl):          SSL session.        (line    8)
* SSLSocket (classe dans ssl):           SSL Sockets.        (line    6)
* sslsocket_class (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.   (line  449)
* SSLSyscallError:                       Exceptions<16>.     (line   64)
* SSLv3 (attribut ssl.TLSVersion):       Constantes<9>.      (line  571)
* SSLWantReadError:                      Exceptions<16>.     (line   45)
* SSLWantWriteError:                     Exceptions<16>.     (line   55)
* SSLZeroReturnError:                    Exceptions<16>.     (line   36)
* st_atime (attribut os.stat_result):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1267)
* ST_ATIME (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  169)
* st_atime_ns (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1285)
* st_birthtime (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1311)
* st_birthtime_ns (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1319)
* st_blksize (attribut os.stat_result):  Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1357)
* st_blocks (attribut os.stat_result):   Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1351)
* st_creator (attribut os.stat_result):  Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1395)
* st_ctime (attribut os.stat_result):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1276)
* ST_CTIME (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  177)
* st_ctime_ns (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1299)
* st_dev (attribut os.stat_result):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1242)
* ST_DEV (dans le module stat):          stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  148)
* st_file_attributes (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1405)
* st_flags (attribut os.stat_result):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1368)
* st_fstype (attribut os.stat_result):   Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1384)
* st_gen (attribut os.stat_result):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1377)
* st_gid (attribut os.stat_result):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1254)
* ST_GID (dans le module stat):          stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  160)
* st_ino (attribut os.stat_result):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1232)
* ST_INO (dans le module stat):          stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  144)
* st_mode (attribut os.stat_result):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1227)
* ST_MODE (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  140)
* st_mtime (attribut os.stat_result):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1271)
* ST_MTIME (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  173)
* st_mtime_ns (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1292)
* st_nlink (attribut os.stat_result):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1246)
* ST_NLINK (dans le module stat):        stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  152)
* st_rdev (attribut os.stat_result):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1364)
* st_reparse_tag (attribut os.stat_result): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1415)
* st_rsize (attribut os.stat_result):    Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1391)
* st_size (attribut os.stat_result):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1258)
* ST_SIZE (dans le module stat):         stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  164)
* st_type (attribut os.stat_result):     Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1399)
* st_uid (attribut os.stat_result):      Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1250)
* ST_UID (dans le module stat):          stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  156)
* st() (dans le module turtle):          Visibilité.         (line   15)
* stack (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* stack viewer:                          Menu Debug fenêtre de console uniquement.
                                                             (line   16)
* stack_effect() (dans le module dis):   Analyse de fonctions.
                                                             (line  196)
* stack_size() (dans le module _thread): _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  115)
* stack_size() (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  218)
* stack;trace:                           Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* stack() (dans le module inspect):      La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line  175)
* stackable;streams:                     codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* StackSummary (classe dans traceback):  StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* stamp() (dans le module turtle):       Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  279)
* Standard C:                            Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   78)
* standard input:                        Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line   26)
* standard_b64decode() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   91)
* standard_b64encode() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   85)
* standard;output:                       Les expressions.    (line   18)
* standend() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  519)
* standout() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  524)
* STAR (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  205)
* STAREQUAL (dans le module token):      token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  271)
* starmap_async() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  172)
* starmap() (dans le module itertools):  Itertool Functions. (line  555)
* starmap() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  161)
* Starred (classe dans ast):             Variables.          (line   40)
* start (attribut range):                Ranges.             (line   61)
* start (attribut slice):                Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1860)
* start (attribut UnicodeError):         Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  477)
* start (slice object attribute):        Objets tranches.    (line   10)
* start (slice object attribute) <1>:    Tranches.           (line   32)
* start_color() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.       (line  490)
* start_new_thread() (dans le module _thread): _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   32)
* start_ns() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   83)
* start_server() (dans le module asyncio): Flux streams.     (line   77)
* start_serving() (méthode asyncio.Server): Objets Serveur.  (line   75)
* start_threads() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   22)
* start_tls() (méthode asyncio.loop):    Passage du flux en TLS.
                                                             (line    6)
* start_tls() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   85)
* start_unix_server() (dans le module asyncio): Flux streams.
                                                             (line  147)
* start() (dans le module tracemalloc):  Fonctions<11>.      (line   68)
* start() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   75)
* start() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* start() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* start() (méthode re.Match):            Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  149)
* start() (méthode threading.Thread):    Objets Threads.     (line   99)
* start() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Progressbar): ttk Progressbar.
                                                             (line    8)
* start() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line   49)
* StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   80)
* startCDATA() (méthode xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): Objets LexicalHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* StartCdataSectionHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  341)
* StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  224)
* startDocument() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* startDTD() (méthode xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): Objets LexicalHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* startElement() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line   90)
* StartElementHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  262)
* startElementNS() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line  110)
* STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   47)
* STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   38)
* STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   33)
* STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   27)
* startfile() (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  739)
* StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  320)
* startPrefixMapping() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): Objets ContentHandler.
                                                             (line   53)
* StartResponse (classe dans wsgiref.types): wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   11)
* startswith() (méthode bytearray):      Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  265)
* startswith() (méthode bytes):          Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  265)
* startswith() (méthode str):            Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  615)
* startTest() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  368)
* startTestRun() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  378)
* starttls() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  298)
* starttls() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line  185)
* STARTUPINFO (classe dans subprocess):  Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line    9)
* stat_result (classe dans os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1219)
* stat() (dans le module os):            Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1159)
* stat() (méthode os.DirEntry):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1119)
* stat() (méthode pathlib.Path):         Requête sur type et statut du fichier.
                                                             (line   13)
* stat() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   52)
* state() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Widget):  ttk Widget.         (line   25)
* statement grouping:                    Indentation.        (line    6)
* statement;assert:                      L'instruction assert.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;assert <1>:                  Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line   10)
* statement;assignment, annotated:       Les assignations annotées.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;assignment, augmented:       Les assignations augmentées.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;async def:                   Coroutines<2>.      (line    8)
* statement;async for:                   Définition de fonctions coroutines.
                                                             (line   30)
* statement;async with:                  L'instruction async for.
                                                             (line   43)
* statement;break:                       L'instruction break.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;break <1>:                   L'instruction while.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;break <2>:                   L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* statement;break <3>:                   clause except*.     (line   59)
* statement;break <4>:                   clause finally.     (line   30)
* statement;class:                       Définition de classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;continue:                    L'instruction continue.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;continue <1>:                L'instruction while.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;continue <2>:                L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* statement;continue <3>:                clause except*.     (line   58)
* statement;continue <4>:                clause finally.     (line   30)
* statement;def:                         Définition de fonctions.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;del:                         Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line   59)
* statement;del <1>:                     L'instruction del<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;del <2>:                     Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* statement;del <3>:                     Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;except:                      Exceptions natives. (line    6)
* statement;for:                         L'instruction for.  (line    6)
* statement;for <1>:                     L'instruction break.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;for <2>:                     L'instruction continue.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;for <3>:                     L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;global:                      L'instruction del<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* statement;global <1>:                  L'instruction global.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;if:                          L'instruction if<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;if <1>:                      Valeurs booléennes. (line    6)
* statement;import:                      Modules<3>.         (line    6)
* statement;import <1>:                  L'instruction import.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;import <2>:                  Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2264)
* statement;import <3>:                  site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   52)
* statement;match:                       L'instruction match<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;nonlocal:                    L'instruction nonlocal.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;pass:                        L'instruction pass<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;raise:                       L'instruction raise.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;raise <1>:                   Exceptions natives. (line   13)
* statement;return:                      L'instruction return.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;return <1>:                  clause except*.     (line   59)
* statement;return <2>:                  clause finally.     (line   30)
* statement;try:                         Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   31)
* statement;try <1>:                     L'instruction try.  (line    6)
* statement;try <2>:                     Exceptions natives. (line    6)
* statement;type:                        The type statement. (line    6)
* statement;while:                       L'instruction break.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <1>:                   L'instruction continue.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <2>:                   L'instruction while.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <3>:                   Valeurs booléennes. (line    6)
* statement;with:                        Gestionnaire de contexte With.
                                                             (line   14)
* statement;with <1>:                    L'instruction with. (line    6)
* statement;yield:                       L'instruction yield.
                                                             (line    6)
* static type checker:                   Glossaire.          (line 1481)
* static_order() (méthode graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  163)
* Statistic (classe dans tracemalloc):   Statistic.          (line    6)
* StatisticDiff (classe dans tracemalloc): StatisticDiff.    (line    6)
* statistics() (méthode tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.     (line   56)
* StatisticsError:                       Exceptions<5>.      (line    8)
* Stats (classe dans pstats):            The Stats Class.    (line    9)
* status (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   65)
* status (attribut urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   24)
* status() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  311)
* statvfs() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1468)
* STD_ERROR_HANDLE (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   18)
* STD_INPUT_HANDLE (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line    8)
* STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (dans le module subprocess): Constantes Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* stderr (attribut asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  132)
* stderr (attribut subprocess.CalledProcessError): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  242)
* stderr (attribut subprocess.CompletedProcess): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  135)
* stderr (attribut subprocess.Popen):    Objets Popen.       (line  135)
* stderr (attribut subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  203)
* stderr (dans le module sys):           sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1880)
* stderr (in module sys):                Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* stderr (in module sys) <1>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stderr (in module sys) <2>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* stdev (attribut statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist. (line   36)
* stdev() (dans le module statistics):   Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  456)
* stdin (attribut asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  122)
* stdin (attribut subprocess.Popen):     Objets Popen.       (line  116)
* stdin (dans le module sys):            sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1880)
* stdin (in module sys):                 Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdin (in module sys) <1>:             Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdin (in module sys) <2>:             Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* stdio:                                 Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdlib_module_names (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1975)
* stdout (attribut asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  127)
* stdout (attribut subprocess.CalledProcessError): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  237)
* stdout (attribut subprocess.CompletedProcess): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  123)
* stdout (attribut subprocess.Popen):    Objets Popen.       (line  125)
* stdout (attribut subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  198)
* STDOUT (dans le module subprocess):    Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  164)
* stdout (dans le module sys):           sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1880)
* stdout (in module sys):                Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdout (in module sys) <1>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdout (in module sys) <2>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* stem (attribut pathlib.PurePath):      Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  165)
* step (attribut range):                 Ranges.             (line   70)
* step (attribut slice):                 Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1864)
* step (pdb command):                    Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  207)
* step (slice object attribute):         Objets tranches.    (line   10)
* step (slice object attribute) <1>:     Tranches.           (line   32)
* step() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Progressbar): ttk Progressbar. (line   15)
* stls() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line  114)
* stop (attribut range):                 Ranges.             (line   66)
* stop (attribut slice):                 Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1862)
* stop (slice object attribute):         Objets tranches.    (line   10)
* stop (slice object attribute) <1>:     Tranches.           (line   32)
* stop_here() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  250)
* STOP_ITERATION (monitoring event):     Events.             (line   81)
* stop() (dans le module tracemalloc):   Fonctions<11>.      (line   98)
* stop() (méthode asyncio.loop):         Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements.
                                                             (line   34)
* stop() (méthode logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   86)
* stop() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Progressbar): ttk Progressbar. (line   21)
* stop() (méthode unittest.TestResult):  Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  346)
* StopAsyncIteration:                    Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  307)
* StopIteration:                         Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  270)
* stopListening() (dans le module logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  174)
* stopTest() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  373)
* stopTestRun() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  384)
* storbinary() (méthode ftplib.FTP):     FTP objects.        (line  220)
* Store (classe dans ast):               Variables.          (line   11)
* STORE_ACTIONS (attribut optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   35)
* STORE_ATTR (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  605)
* STORE_DEREF (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line 1002)
* STORE_FAST (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  952)
* STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode):         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  963)
* STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (opcode):        Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  956)
* STORE_GLOBAL (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  626)
* STORE_NAME (opcode):                   Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  563)
* STORE_SLICE (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  289)
* STORE_SUBSCR (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  261)
* store() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line  315)
* storlines() (méthode ftplib.FTP):      FTP objects.        (line  249)
* str (built-in class);(see also string): Ranges.            (line  129)
* str (classe de base):                  Type Séquence de Texte — str.
                                                             (line   49)
* str_digits_check_threshold (attribut sys.int_info): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1204)
* str() (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  509)
* strcoll() (dans le module locale):     locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  459)
* StreamError:                           tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  232)
* StreamHandler (classe dans logging):   Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   11)
* streamreader (attribut codecs.CodecInfo): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   93)
* StreamReader (classe dans asyncio):    Flux lecteurs StreamReader.
                                                             (line    6)
* StreamReader (classe dans codecs):     StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* StreamReaderWriter (classe dans codecs): StreamReaderWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* StreamRecoder (classe dans codecs):    StreamRecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* StreamRequestHandler (classe dans socketserver): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   57)
* streams:                               codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* streamwriter (attribut codecs.CodecInfo): codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   93)
* StreamWriter (classe dans asyncio):    Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line    6)
* StreamWriter (classe dans codecs):     StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* StrEnum (classe dans enum):            Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  387)
* strerror (attribut OSError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  190)
* strerror (C function):                 Lever des exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* strerror() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  547)
* strftime() (dans le module time):      Fonctions<5>.       (line  331)
* strftime() (méthode datetime.date):    Objets date.        (line  302)
* strftime() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.   (line  777)
* strftime() (méthode datetime.time):    Objets time.        (line  230)
* strict (attribut csv.Dialect):         Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.
                                                             (line   79)
* STRICT (attribut enum.FlagBoundary):   Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  657)
* strict (dans le module email.policy):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  573)
* strict_domain (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* strict_errors() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  142)
* strict_ns_domain (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* strict_ns_set_path (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  127)
* strict_ns_unverifiable (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  112)
* strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (attribut http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* strict;error handler's name:           Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* STRIDED (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.      (line   37)
* STRIDED_RO (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.   (line   39)
* STRIDES (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.      (line   23)
* strides (attribut memoryview):         Vues mémoire.       (line  474)
* string (attribut re.Match):            Objets de correspondance.
                                                             (line  215)
* STRING (dans le module token):         token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   54)
* string literal:                        Littéraux.          (line    9)
* string_at() (dans le module ctypes):   Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  206)
* string;__format__() (object method):   Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  165)
* string;__str__() (object method):      Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  143)
* string;conversion:                     Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  165)
* string;conversion <1>:                 Les expressions.    (line   18)
* string;format() (built-in function):   Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  814)
* string;formatted literal:              Formatage de données.
                                                             (line   96)
* string;formatted literal <1>:          Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* string;formatted literal <2>:          Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* string;formatting, printf:             Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;immutable sequences:            Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   14)
* string;interpolated literal:           Formatage de données.
                                                             (line   96)
* string;interpolated literal <1>:       Concaténation de chaînes de caractères.
                                                             (line   29)
* string;interpolated literal <2>:       Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  732)
* string;interpolation, printf:          Formatage de chaines à la printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;item:                           sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line   60)
* string;methods:                        Type Séquence de Texte — str.
                                                             (line   91)
* string;object representation:          Finalisation et libération de mémoire.
                                                             (line   97)
* string;PyObject_Str (C function):      Protocole Objet.    (line  358)
* string;str (built-in class):           Type Séquence de Texte — str.
                                                             (line   49)
* string;str() (built-in function):      Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1965)
* string;text sequence type:             Ranges.             (line  129)
* StringIO (classe dans io):             Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  240)
* strings, documentation:                Définir des fonctions.
                                                             (line   21)
* strings, documentation <1>:            Chaînes de documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* strip_dirs() (méthode pstats.Stats):   The Stats Class.    (line   34)
* strip() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  461)
* strip() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  461)
* strip() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  622)
* stripspaces (attribut curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* strptime() (dans le module time):      Fonctions<5>.       (line  507)
* strptime() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  267)
* strsignal() (dans le module signal):   Module contents<2>. (line  295)
* Struct (classe dans struct):           Classes<3>.         (line    8)
* struct_time (classe dans time):        Fonctions<5>.       (line  546)
* structmember.h:                        Member types.       (line   85)
* Structure (classe dans ctypes):        Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line   33)
* strxfrm() (dans le module locale):     locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  467)
* STX (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   25)
* Style (classe dans tkinter.ttk):       Style Ttk.          (line   21)
* Sub (classe dans ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   57)
* SUB (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  103)
* sub() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  161)
* sub() (dans le module re):             Fonctions<2>.       (line  178)
* sub() (méthode re.Pattern):            Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  100)
* subclassing;immutable types:           Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line    8)
* subdirs (attribut filecmp.dircmp):     La classe dircmp.   (line  105)
* SubElement() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  222)
* subgroup() (méthode BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups. (line   43)
* submit() (méthode concurrent.futures.Executor): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* submodule_search_locations (attribut importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  404)
* subn() (dans le module re):            Fonctions<2>.       (line  257)
* subn() (méthode re.Pattern):           Objets d'expressions rationnelles.
                                                             (line  105)
* subnet_of() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  215)
* subnet_of() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  347)
* subnets() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.  (line  173)
* subnets() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.  (line  343)
* Subnormal (classe dans decimal):       Signaux.            (line   86)
* suboffsets (attribut memoryview):      Vues mémoire.       (line  483)
* subpad() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  528)
* subprocess_exec() (méthode asyncio.loop): Exécution de sous-processus.
                                                             (line   16)
* subprocess_shell() (méthode asyncio.loop): Exécution de sous-processus.
                                                             (line  116)
* SubprocessError:                       Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  170)
* SubprocessProtocol (classe dans asyncio): Protocoles de base.
                                                             (line   26)
* SubprocessTransport (classe dans asyncio): Hiérarchie des transports.
                                                             (line   53)
* subscribe() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  339)
* Subscript (classe dans ast):           Indiçage.           (line    6)
* subscript;assignment:                  Types de séquences mutables.
                                                             (line   18)
* subscript;operation:                   Opérations communes sur les séquences.
                                                             (line   23)
* subscription:                          Séquences.          (line    6)
* subscription <1>:                      Séquences mutables. (line    6)
* subscription <2>:                      Tableaux de correspondances.
                                                             (line    6)
* subscription <3>:                      sélection ou indiçage.
                                                             (line    6)
* subscription;assignment:               Les assignations.   (line  108)
* subsequent_indent (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  229)
* substitute() (méthode string.Template): Chaînes modèles.   (line   41)
* subTest() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests. (line  118)
* subtract() (méthode collections.Counter): Objets Counter.  (line   92)
* subtract() (méthode decimal.Context):  Objets de contexte. (line  537)
* subtraction:                           Opérations arithmétiques binaires.
                                                             (line   86)
* subtype (attribut email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  296)
* subwin() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  535)
* successful() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  229)
* suffix (attribut pathlib.PurePath):    Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  140)
* suffix_map (attribut mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* suffix_map (dans le module mimetypes): mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  142)
* suffixes (attribut pathlib.PurePath):  Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  153)
* suite:                                 Instructions composées.
                                                             (line   20)
* suiteClass (attribut unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  214)
* sum_list():                            Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  143)
* sum_sequence():                        Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  170)
* sum_sequence() <1>:                    Exceptions<21>.     (line   65)
* summarize_address_range() (dans le module ipaddress): Autres fonctions au niveau de module.
                                                             (line   27)
* summarize() (méthode doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line  124)
* sumprod() (dans le module math):       Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   65)
* SUNDAY (dans le module calendar):      calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* super (attribut pyclbr.Class):         Objets classes<2>.  (line   42)
* super (classe de base):                Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1997)
* supernet_of() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  226)
* supernet_of() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  349)
* supernet() (méthode ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau. (line  199)
* supernet() (méthode ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau. (line  345)
* supports_bytes_environ (dans le module os): Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  553)
* supports_dir_fd (dans le module os):   Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1517)
* supports_effective_ids (dans le module os): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1542)
* supports_fd (dans le module os):       Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1561)
* supports_follow_symlinks (dans le module os): Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1580)
* supports_unicode_filenames (dans le module os.path): os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  558)
* SupportsAbs (classe dans typing):      Protocoles<3>.      (line    9)
* SupportsBytes (classe dans typing):    Protocoles<3>.      (line   14)
* SupportsComplex (classe dans typing):  Protocoles<3>.      (line   18)
* SupportsFloat (classe dans typing):    Protocoles<3>.      (line   22)
* SupportsIndex (classe dans typing):    Protocoles<3>.      (line   26)
* SupportsInt (classe dans typing):      Protocoles<3>.      (line   32)
* SupportsRound (classe dans typing):    Protocoles<3>.      (line   36)
* suppress() (dans le module contextlib): Utilitaires.       (line  273)
* SuppressCrashReport (classe dans test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  750)
* surrogateescape;error handler's name:  Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   15)
* surrogatepass;error handler's name:    Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   74)
* SW_HIDE (dans le module subprocess):   Constantes Windows. (line   23)
* SWAP (opcode):                         Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  169)
* swap_attr() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  369)
* swap_item() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  386)
* swapcase() (méthode bytearray):        Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  687)
* swapcase() (méthode bytes):            Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  687)
* swapcase() (méthode str):              Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  645)
* Symbol (classe dans symtable):         Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  191)
* SymbolTable (classe dans symtable):    Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   49)
* SymbolTableType (classe dans symtable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* symlink_to() (méthode pathlib.Path):   Création de fichiers et de dossiers.
                                                             (line   45)
* symlink() (dans le module os):         Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1603)
* symmetric_difference_update() (méthode frozenset): Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  200)
* symmetric_difference() (méthode frozenset): Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  122)
* symtable() (dans le module symtable):  Generating Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* SYMTYPE (dans le module tarfile):      tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  297)
* SYN (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   91)
* sync() (dans le module os):            Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1648)
* sync() (méthode dbm.dumb.dumbdbm):     dbm dumb --- Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   79)
* sync() (méthode dbm.gnu.gdbm):         dbm gnu --- GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  112)
* sync() (méthode shelve.Shelf):         shelve --- Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   74)
* syncdown() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  545)
* synchronized() (dans le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line   91)
* SyncManager (classe dans multiprocessing.managers): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  163)
* syncok() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  551)
* syncup() (méthode curses.window):      Window Objects.     (line  556)
* syntax:                                Notations.          (line    6)
* SyntaxErr:                             Exceptions<20>.     (line   93)
* SyntaxError:                           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  314)
* SyntaxWarning:                         Avertissements.     (line   49)
* sys_version (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  152)
* sys.exc_info:                          Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.exception:                         Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.last_traceback:                    Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.meta_path:                         Méta-chemins.       (line    6)
* sys.modules:                           Cache des modules.  (line    6)
* sys.path:                              Chercheurs d'entrée dans path.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.path_hooks:                        Chercheurs d'entrée dans path.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.path_importer_cache:               Chercheurs d'entrée dans path.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stderr:                            Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdin:                             Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdout:                            Objets entrées-sorties ou objets fichiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* sysconf_names (dans le module os):     Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   91)
* sysconf() (dans le module os):         Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   80)
* syslog() (dans le module syslog):      syslog --- Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   20)
* SysLogHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* system_alias() (dans le module platform): Multiplateformes.
                                                             (line  137)
* system_must_validate_cert() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  457)
* system() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  794)
* system() (dans le module platform):    Multiplateformes.   (line  127)
* SystemError:                           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  382)
* SystemError (built-in exception):      Module Objects.     (line   64)
* SystemError (built-in exception) <1>:  Module Objects.     (line   92)
* SystemExit:                            Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  399)
* SystemExit (built-in exception):       Exceptions<2>.      (line   28)
* systemId (attribut xml.dom.DocumentType): Objets DocumnentType.
                                                             (line   21)
* SystemRandom (classe dans random):     Générateur alternatif.
                                                             (line   47)
* SystemRandom (classe dans secrets):    Nombres aléatoires. (line    9)
* SystemRoot:                            Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line  318)
* T_BOOL (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_BYTE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_CHAR (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_DOUBLE (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FLOAT (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FMT (dans le module locale):         locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  219)
* T_FMT_AMPM (dans le module locale):    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  225)
* T_INT (C macro):                       Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONG (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONGLONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   85)
* T_NONE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   96)
* T_OBJECT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   90)
* T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   85)
* T_PYSSIZET (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   85)
* T_SHORT (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):            Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UBYTE (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UINT (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONG (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONGULONG (C macro):                Member types.       (line   85)
* T_USHORT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* tab:                                   Indentation.        (line    6)
* TAB (dans le module curses.ascii):     curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   46)
* tab() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook):  ttk Notebook.       (line   62)
* TabError:                              Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  376)
* tableau de correspondances (mapping en anglais): Glossaire.
                                                             (line  993)
* tabs() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.       (line   71)
* tabsize (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  182)
* tag (attribut xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   18)
* tag_bind() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  298)
* tag_configure() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  305)
* tag_has() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.    (line  315)
* tagName (attribut xml.dom.Element):    Objets Elements.    (line    9)
* tail (attribut xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   23)
* take_snapshot() (dans le module tracemalloc): Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line  110)
* takewhile() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  571)
* tan() (dans le module cmath):          Fonctions trigonométriques<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* tan() (dans le module math):           Fonctions trigonométriques.
                                                             (line   39)
* tanh() (dans le module cmath):         Fonctions hyperboliques<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* tanh() (dans le module math):          Fonctions hyperboliques.
                                                             (line   29)
* tar_filter() (dans le module tarfile): Default named filters.
                                                             (line   15)
* TarError:                              tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  216)
* TarFile (classe dans tarfile):         Les objets TarFile. (line   24)
* target:                                Les assignations.   (line   28)
* target (attribut xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction): Objets ProcessingInstruction.
                                                             (line    9)
* target;list:                           Les assignations.   (line   28)
* target;list <1>:                       L'instruction for<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* target;list;assignment:                Les assignations.   (line   37)
* tarinfo (attribut tarfile.FilterError): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  252)
* TarInfo (classe dans tarfile):         Les objets TarInfo. (line   34)
* Task (classe dans asyncio):            Objets Task.        (line    6)
* task_done() (méthode asyncio.Queue):   File d'attente queue.
                                                             (line  103)
* task_done() (méthode multiprocessing.JoinableQueue): Tubes pipes et files queues.
                                                             (line  267)
* task_done() (méthode queue.Queue):     Objets Queue.       (line   80)
* TaskGroup (classe dans asyncio):       Groupes de tâches.  (line   10)
* tau (dans le module cmath):            Constantes<3>.      (line   14)
* tau (dans le module math):             Constantes<2>.      (line   16)
* tb_frame (attribut traceback):         Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   33)
* tb_frame (traceback attribute):        Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   31)
* tb_lasti (attribut traceback):         Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   44)
* tb_lasti (traceback attribute):        Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   31)
* tb_lineno (attribut traceback):        Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   41)
* tb_lineno (traceback attribute):       Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   31)
* tb_locals (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  330)
* tb_next (attribut traceback):          Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   52)
* tb_next (traceback attribute):         Objets traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   52)
* tbreak (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  126)
* tcdrain() (dans le module termios):    termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   69)
* tcflow() (dans le module termios):     termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   81)
* tcflush() (dans le module termios):    termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   74)
* tcgetattr() (dans le module termios):  termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   29)
* tcgetpgrp() (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  911)
* tcgetwinsize() (dans le module termios): termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   88)
* Tcl() (dans le module tkinter):        Modules Tkinter.    (line   99)
* TCPServer (classe dans socketserver):  socketserver --- A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   20)
* TCSADRAIN (dans le module termios):    termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   53)
* TCSAFLUSH (dans le module termios):    termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   57)
* TCSANOW (dans le module termios):      termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   49)
* tcsendbreak() (dans le module termios): termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   62)
* tcsetattr() (dans le module termios):  termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   42)
* tcsetpgrp() (dans le module os):       Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  919)
* tcsetwinsize() (dans le module termios): termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   96)
* tearDown() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line   46)
* tearDownClass() (méthode unittest.TestCase): Scénarios de tests.
                                                             (line   77)
* tee() (dans le module itertools):      Itertool Functions. (line  590)
* teleport() (dans le module turtle):    Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  107)
* tell() (méthode io.IOBase):            I/O Base Classes.   (line  135)
* tell() (méthode io.TextIOBase):        Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* tell() (méthode io.TextIOWrapper):     Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  234)
* tell() (méthode mmap.mmap):            mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  317)
* tell() (méthode sqlite3.Blob):         Blob objects.       (line   59)
* tell() (méthode wave.Wave_read):       Objets Wave_read.   (line   89)
* tell() (méthode wave.Wave_write):      Objets Wave_write.  (line   72)
* TEMP:                                  Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires.
                                                             (line    8)
* TEMP <1>:                              tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  346)
* temp_cwd() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  135)
* temp_dir() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  150)
* temp_umask() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  160)
* tempdir (dans le module tempfile):     tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  398)
* template (attribut string.Template):   Chaînes modèles.    (line   88)
* Template (classe dans string):         Chaînes modèles.    (line   36)
* temporary (attribut bdb.Breakpoint):   bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   91)
* temporary;file:                        tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    8)
* temporary;file name:                   tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    8)
* TemporaryDirectory (classe dans tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  190)
* TemporaryFile() (dans le module tempfile): tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line   30)
* teredo (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.   (line  318)
* TERM:                                  Fonctions<6>.       (line  485)
* TERM <1>:                              Fonctions<6>.       (line  512)
* termattrs() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  504)
* terminal_size (classe dans os):        Demander la taille d'un terminal.
                                                             (line   26)
* terminate() (méthode asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line  102)
* terminate() (méthode asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Transports entre sous-processus.
                                                             (line   51)
* terminate() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  188)
* terminate() (méthode multiprocessing.Process): Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  175)
* terminate() (méthode subprocess.Popen): Objets Popen.      (line   94)
* termination model:                     Exceptions<2>.      (line   22)
* terminator (attribut logging.StreamHandler): Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* termname() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  510)
* ternary;operator:                      Expressions conditionnelles.
                                                             (line    6)
* ternaryfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line  122)
* test (attribut doctest.DocTestFailure): Débogage.          (line  197)
* test (attribut doctest.UnexpectedException): Débogage.     (line  219)
* TEST_DATA_DIR (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  137)
* TEST_HOME_DIR (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  133)
* TEST_HTTP_URL (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  171)
* TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  128)
* TestCase (classe dans unittest):       Scénarios de tests. (line    6)
* TestFailed:                            test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   16)
* testfile() (dans le module doctest):   API de base.        (line   13)
* TESTFN (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   19)
* TESTFN_NONASCII (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   39)
* TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   33)
* TESTFN_UNICODE (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   45)
* TestLoader (classe dans unittest):     Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* testMethodPrefix (attribut unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  199)
* testmod() (dans le module doctest):    API de base.        (line  101)
* testNamePatterns (attribut unittest.TestLoader): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  223)
* TestResult (classe dans unittest):     Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  240)
* TestResults (classe dans doctest):     Objets TestResults. (line    6)
* testsource() (dans le module doctest): Débogage.           (line  108)
* testsRun (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  307)
* TestSuite (classe dans unittest):      Regroupement des tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* testzip() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):   Objets ZipFile.     (line  279)
* text (attribut SyntaxError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  345)
* text (attribut traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* text (attribut xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Objets Element.
                                                             (line   23)
* Text (classe dans typing):             Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   21)
* text mode:                             Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* text_encoding() (dans le module io):   Interface de haut niveau du module.
                                                             (line   38)
* text_factory (attribut sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  808)
* Textbox (classe dans curses.textpad):  Textbox objects.    (line    8)
* TextCalendar (classe dans calendar):   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  158)
* textdomain() (dans le module gettext): API GNU gettext.    (line   28)
* textdomain() (dans le module locale):  Accéder aux catalogues de messages.
                                                             (line   12)
* textinput() (dans le module turtle):   Méthodes de saisie. (line    6)
* TextIO (classe dans typing):           ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* TextIOBase (classe dans io):           Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* TextIOWrapper (classe dans io):        Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   99)
* TextTestResult (classe dans unittest): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  473)
* TextTestRunner (classe dans unittest): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  492)
* TextWrapper (classe dans textwrap):    textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  148)
* TFD_CLOEXEC (dans le module os):       Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  203)
* TFD_NONBLOCK (dans le module os):      Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  192)
* TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME (dans le module os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  213)
* TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET (dans le module os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  224)
* theme_create() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.     (line  269)
* theme_names() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.      (line  318)
* theme_settings() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.   (line  279)
* theme_use() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Style): Style Ttk.        (line  322)
* THOUSEP (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  290)
* Thread (classe dans threading):        Objets Threads.     (line   61)
* thread_info (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1994)
* thread_time_ns() (dans le module time): Fonctions<5>.      (line  665)
* thread_time() (dans le module time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  646)
* thread() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  343)
* ThreadedChildWatcher (classe dans asyncio): Observateurs de processus.
                                                             (line   96)
* threading_cleanup() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   31)
* threading_setup() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* ThreadingHTTPServer (classe dans http.server): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   39)
* ThreadingMixIn (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   27)
* ThreadingMock (classe dans unittest.mock): La classe Mock. (line  977)
* ThreadingTCPServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ThreadingUDPServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ThreadingUnixDatagramServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ThreadingUnixStreamServer (classe dans socketserver): Notes sur la création de serveurs.
                                                             (line   68)
* ThreadPool (classe dans multiprocessing.pool): Le module multiprocessing dummy.
                                                             (line   16)
* ThreadPoolExecutor (classe dans concurrent.futures): ThreadPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   39)
* threads;POSIX:                         _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   16)
* threadsafety (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line   88)
* throw() (méthode coroutine):           Objets coroutines.  (line   33)
* throw() (méthode generator):           Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   42)
* THURSDAY (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* ticket_lifetime_hint (attribut ssl.SSLSession): SSL session.
                                                             (line   18)
* tigetflag() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  515)
* tigetnum() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  522)
* tigetstr() (dans le module curses):    Fonctions<6>.       (line  529)
* TILDE (dans le module token):          token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  250)
* tilt() (dans le module turtle):        Apparence.          (line  107)
* tiltangle() (dans le module turtle):   Apparence.          (line  124)
* time (attribut ssl.SSLSession):        SSL session.        (line   14)
* time (attribut uuid.UUID):             uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  126)
* time (classe dans datetime):           Objets time.        (line   10)
* time_hi_version (attribut uuid.UUID):  uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  114)
* time_low (attribut uuid.UUID):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  108)
* time_mid (attribut uuid.UUID):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  111)
* time_ns() (dans le module time):       Fonctions<5>.       (line  639)
* time() (dans le module time):          Fonctions<5>.       (line  606)
* time() (méthode asyncio.loop):         Planification des rappels différés.
                                                             (line   59)
* time() (méthode datetime.datetime):    Objets datetime.    (line  460)
* Time2Internaldate() (dans le module imaplib): imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  129)
* timedelta (classe dans datetime):      Objets timedelta.   (line   10)
* TimedRotatingFileHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* timegm() (dans le module calendar):    calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  446)
* timeit() (dans le module timeit):      Interface Python.   (line    9)
* timeit() (méthode timeit.Timer):       Interface Python.   (line   82)
* timeout:                               Exceptions<15>.     (line   40)
* timeout (attribut socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  125)
* timeout (attribut ssl.SSLSession):     SSL session.        (line   16)
* timeout (attribut subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  185)
* Timeout (classe dans asyncio):         Délais d'attente.   (line   50)
* timeout_at() (dans le module asyncio): Délais d'attente.   (line  101)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (dans le module _thread):  _thread --- Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  144)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (dans le module threading): threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  247)
* timeout() (dans le module asyncio):    Délais d'attente.   (line    6)
* timeout() (méthode curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  561)
* TimeoutError:                          Exceptions système. (line  113)
* TimeoutError <1>:                      Process et exceptions.
                                                             (line  250)
* TimeoutError <2>:                      Exception classes.  (line   10)
* TimeoutError <3>:                      Exceptions<13>.     (line   10)
* TimeoutExpired:                        Utiliser le module subprocess.
                                                             (line  176)
* Timer (classe dans threading):         Timer Objects.      (line   25)
* Timer (classe dans timeit):            Interface Python.   (line   45)
* timerfd_create() (dans le module os):  Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   11)
* timerfd_gettime_ns() (dans le module os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  183)
* timerfd_gettime() (dans le module os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  163)
* timerfd_settime_ns() (dans le module os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  152)
* timerfd_settime() (dans le module os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   84)
* TimerHandle (classe dans asyncio):     Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs.
                                                             (line   29)
* times() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  833)
* TIMESTAMP (attribut py_compile.PycInvalidationMode): py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  113)
* timestamp() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.  (line  618)
* timetuple() (méthode datetime.date):   Objets date.        (line  210)
* timetuple() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.  (line  570)
* timetz() (méthode datetime.datetime):  Objets datetime.    (line  469)
* timezone (classe dans datetime):       Objets timezone.    (line   14)
* timezone (dans le module time):        Constantes de fuseau horaire.
                                                             (line   18)
* title() (dans le module turtle):       Méthodes spécifiques à Screen non héritées de TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   55)
* title() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  711)
* title() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  711)
* title() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  651)
* Tk:                                    Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* tk (attribut tkinter.Tk):              Modules Tkinter.    (line   74)
* Tk (classe dans tkinter):              Modules Tkinter.    (line   14)
* Tkinter:                               Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* TLS:                                   ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* TLSv1 (attribut ssl.TLSVersion):       Constantes<9>.      (line  573)
* TLSv1_1 (attribut ssl.TLSVersion):     Constantes<9>.      (line  575)
* TLSv1_2 (attribut ssl.TLSVersion):     Constantes<9>.      (line  577)
* TLSv1_3 (attribut ssl.TLSVersion):     Constantes<9>.      (line  579)
* TLSVersion (classe dans ssl):          Constantes<9>.      (line  555)
* tm_gmtoff (attribut time.struct_time): Fonctions<5>.       (line  590)
* tm_hour (attribut time.struct_time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  566)
* tm_isdst (attribut time.struct_time):  Fonctions<5>.       (line  583)
* tm_mday (attribut time.struct_time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  563)
* tm_min (attribut time.struct_time):    Fonctions<5>.       (line  569)
* tm_mon (attribut time.struct_time):    Fonctions<5>.       (line  560)
* tm_sec (attribut time.struct_time):    Fonctions<5>.       (line  572)
* tm_wday (attribut time.struct_time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  577)
* tm_yday (attribut time.struct_time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  580)
* tm_year (attribut time.struct_time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  557)
* tm_zone (attribut time.struct_time):   Fonctions<5>.       (line  586)
* TMP:                                   tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  349)
* TMPDIR:                                Tests<23>.          (line   68)
* TMPDIR <1>:                            tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  343)
* TO_BOOL (opcode):                      Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  226)
* to_bytes() (méthode int):              Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers.
                                                             (line   57)
* to_eng_string() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  541)
* to_eng_string() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  600)
* to_integral_exact() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  551)
* to_integral_exact() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  619)
* to_integral_value() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  628)
* to_integral() (méthode decimal.Decimal): Les objets Decimal.
                                                             (line  613)
* to_sci_string() (méthode decimal.Context): Objets de contexte.
                                                             (line  555)
* to_thread() (dans le module asyncio):  Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads.
                                                             (line    6)
* ToASCII() (dans le module encodings.idna): encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   55)
* tobuf() (méthode tarfile.TarInfo):     Les objets TarInfo. (line   50)
* tobytes() (méthode array.array):       array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  239)
* tobytes() (méthode memoryview):        Vues mémoire.       (line  170)
* today() (méthode de la classe datetime.date): Objets date. (line   29)
* today() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line   48)
* tofile() (méthode array.array):        array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  248)
* tok_name (dans le module token):       token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   25)
* token:                                 Analyse lexicale.   (line    6)
* token <1>:                             Glossaire.          (line 1530)
* token (attribut shlex.shlex):          shlex Objects.      (line  173)
* Token (classe dans contextvars):       Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   78)
* token_bytes() (dans le module secrets): Génération de jetons.
                                                             (line   10)
* token_hex() (dans le module secrets):  Génération de jetons.
                                                             (line   19)
* token_urlsafe() (dans le module secrets): Génération de jetons.
                                                             (line   29)
* TokenError:                            Analyse Lexicale.   (line  109)
* tokenize() (dans le module tokenize):  Analyse Lexicale.   (line    8)
* tolist() (méthode array.array):        array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  253)
* tolist() (méthode memoryview):         Vues mémoire.       (line  214)
* TOMLDecodeError:                       tomllib --- Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   60)
* toordinal() (méthode datetime.date):   Objets date.        (line  226)
* toordinal() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.  (line  613)
* top_panel() (dans le module curses.panel): Fonctions<7>.   (line   19)
* top() (méthode curses.panel.Panel):    Panel Objects.      (line   53)
* top() (méthode poplib.POP3):           POP3 Objects.       (line   87)
* TopologicalSorter (classe dans graphlib): graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line   10)
* toprettyxml() (méthode xml.dom.minidom.Node): Objets DOM.  (line   78)
* toreadonly() (méthode memoryview):     Vues mémoire.       (line  232)
* tostring() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  236)
* tostringlist() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  261)
* total_changes (attribut sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  818)
* total_nframe (attribut tracemalloc.Traceback): Traceback.  (line   28)
* total_ordering() (dans le module functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  276)
* total_seconds() (méthode datetime.timedelta): Objets timedelta.
                                                             (line  245)
* total() (méthode collections.Counter): Objets Counter.     (line  108)
* touch() (méthode pathlib.Path):        Création de fichiers et de dossiers.
                                                             (line    6)
* touchline() (méthode curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  571)
* touchwin() (méthode curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  578)
* ToUnicode() (dans le module encodings.idna): encodings idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   60)
* tounicode() (méthode array.array):     array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  258)
* towards() (dans le module turtle):     Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line   15)
* toxml() (méthode xml.dom.minidom.Node): Objets DOM.        (line   56)
* tparm() (dans le module curses):       Fonctions<6>.       (line  536)
* Trace (classe dans trace):             Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* Trace (classe dans tracemalloc):       Trace.              (line    6)
* trace function:                        threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  170)
* trace function <1>:                    threading --- Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  188)
* trace function <2>:                    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  978)
* trace function <3>:                    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1664)
* trace_dispatch() (méthode bdb.Bdb):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  165)
* trace() (dans le module inspect):      La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line  188)
* traceback (attribut tracemalloc.Statistic): Statistic.     (line   23)
* traceback (attribut tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   38)
* traceback (attribut tracemalloc.Trace): Trace.             (line   28)
* Traceback (classe dans inspect):       La pile d'interpréteur.
                                                             (line   56)
* Traceback (classe dans tracemalloc):   Traceback.          (line    6)
* traceback_limit (attribut tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot. (line   83)
* traceback_limit (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  223)
* TracebackException (classe dans traceback): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* tracebacklimit (dans le module sys):   sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2030)
* TracebackType (classe dans types):     Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  186)
* tracer() (dans le module turtle):      Réglage de l'animation.
                                                             (line   23)
* traces (attribut tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.          (line   89)
* trailing;comma:                        Listes d'expressions.
                                                             (line   30)
* tranche:                               Glossaire.          (line 1447)
* transfercmd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):    FTP objects.        (line  259)
* transient_internet() (dans le module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   64)
* translate() (dans le module fnmatch):  fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   88)
* translate() (dans le module glob):     glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line  116)
* translate() (méthode bytearray):       Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  277)
* translate() (méthode bytes):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  277)
* translate() (méthode str):             Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  686)
* translation() (dans le module gettext): API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   45)
* transport (attribut asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   59)
* Transport (classe dans asyncio):       Hiérarchie des transports.
                                                             (line   29)
* Transport Layer Security:              ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Traversable (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  510)
* Traversable (classe dans importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   87)
* TraversableResources (classe dans importlib.abc): importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  565)
* TraversableResources (classe dans importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  159)
* traverseproc (C type):                 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  167)
* TreeBuilder (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets TreeBuilder.
                                                             (line    6)
* Treeview (classe dans tkinter.ttk):    ttk Treeview.       (line    6)
* triangular() (dans le module random):  Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   27)
* tries (attribut doctest.DocTestRunner): Objets DocTestRunner.
                                                             (line  136)
* triple-quoted string:                  Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   37)
* True:                                  numbers Integral.   (line   28)
* true:                                  Valeurs booléennes. (line   10)
* True <1>:                              Valeurs booléennes. (line   24)
* True <2>:                              Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* True (variable de base):               Constantes natives. (line   15)
* truediv() (dans le module operator):   operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  166)
* trunc() (dans le module math):         Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   88)
* trunc() (in module math):              Types numériques — int float complex.
                                                             (line  119)
* truncate() (dans le module os):        Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1656)
* truncate() (méthode io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  139)
* truth;value:                           Valeurs booléennes. (line    6)
* truth() (dans le module operator):     operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line   60)
* Try (classe dans ast):                 Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  136)
* TryStar (classe dans ast):             Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  182)
* ttk:                                   tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets.
                                                             (line    8)
* tty;I/O control:                       termios --- POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* ttyname() (dans le module os):         Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  927)
* TUESDAY (dans le module calendar):     calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* Tuple (classe dans ast):               Littéraux<3>.       (line   67)
* tuple (classe de base):                N-uplets.           (line   14)
* Tuple (dans le module typing):         Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   50)
* Turtle (classe dans turtle):           Classes publiques.  (line   16)
* turtles() (dans le module turtle):     Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line  108)
* TurtleScreen (classe dans turtle):     Classes publiques.  (line   22)
* turtlesize() (dans le module turtle):  Apparence.          (line   56)
* typage canard (duck-typing):           Glossaire.          (line  460)
* type:                                  Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line    6)
* type <1>:                              Glossaire.          (line 1552)
* type (attribut optparse.Option):       Option attributes.  (line   27)
* type (attribut socket.socket):         Socket Objects.     (line  630)
* type (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):       Les objets TarInfo. (line   87)
* type (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.   (line   21)
* Type (classe dans typing):             Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   61)
* type (classe de base):                 Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2095)
* type générique:                        Glossaire.          (line  686)
* type of an object:                     Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* type parameters:                       Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line   11)
* TYPE_ALIAS (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   31)
* type_check_only() (dans le module typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  411)
* TYPE_CHECKER (attribut optparse.Option): Adding new types. (line   16)
* TYPE_CHECKING (dans le module typing): Constante.          (line    6)
* type_comment (attribut ast.arg):       Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line   89)
* type_comment (attribut ast.Assign):    Instructions<2>.    (line   16)
* type_comment (attribut ast.For):       Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line   55)
* type_comment (attribut ast.FunctionDef): Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* type_comment (attribut ast.With):      Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  247)
* TYPE_COMMENT (dans le module token):   token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  147)
* TYPE_IGNORE (dans le module token):    token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  140)
* TYPE_PARAMETERS (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   35)
* TYPE_VARIABLE (attribut symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   40)
* type;hierarchy:                        Hiérarchie des types standards.
                                                             (line    6)
* typeahead() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  544)
* TypeAlias (classe dans ast):           Instructions<2>.    (line  168)
* TypeAlias (dans le module typing):     Special types.      (line  198)
* TypeAliasType (classe dans typing):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  492)
* typecode (attribut array.array):       array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  112)
* typecodes (dans le module array):      array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line   81)
* TYPED_ACTIONS (attribut optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   39)
* typed_subpart_iterator() (dans le module email.iterators): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   29)
* TypedDict (classe dans typing):        Other special directives.
                                                             (line  242)
* TypeError:                             Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  429)
* TypeGuard (dans le module typing):     Special forms.      (line  489)
* TypeIs (dans le module typing):        Special forms.      (line  399)
* TYPES (attribut optparse.Option):      Adding new types.   (line   11)
* Types de données des options *Tk*:     Types de données des options Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* types_map (attribut mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* types_map (dans le module mimetypes):  mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  154)
* types_map_inv (attribut mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* types, internal:                       Types internes.     (line    6)
* TypeVar (classe dans ast):             Type parameters.    (line    9)
* TypeVar (classe dans typing):          Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   54)
* TypeVarTuple (classe dans ast):        Type parameters.    (line   68)
* TypeVarTuple (classe dans typing):     Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  217)
* TZ:                                    Fonctions<5>.       (line  675)
* TZ <1>:                                Fonctions<5>.       (line  677)
* TZ <2>:                                Fonctions<5>.       (line  687)
* TZ <3>:                                Fonctions<5>.       (line  691)
* TZ <4>:                                Fonctions<5>.       (line  694)
* TZ <5>:                                Fonctions<5>.       (line  760)
* tzinfo (attribut datetime.datetime):   Objets datetime.    (line  346)
* tzinfo (attribut datetime.time):       Objets time.        (line   69)
* tzinfo (classe dans datetime):         Objets tzinfo.      (line    6)
* tzname (dans le module time):          Constantes de fuseau horaire.
                                                             (line   25)
* tzname() (méthode datetime.datetime):  Objets datetime.    (line  564)
* tzname() (méthode datetime.time):      Objets time.        (line  264)
* tzname() (méthode datetime.timezone):  Objets timezone.    (line   43)
* tzname() (méthode datetime.tzinfo):    Objets tzinfo.      (line  128)
* TZPATH (dans le module zoneinfo):      Variables globales. (line    6)
* tzset() (dans le module time):         Fonctions<5>.       (line  672)
* U (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line  118)
* u';string literal:                     Littéraux.          (line    9)
* u";string literal:                     Littéraux.          (line    9)
* UAdd (classe dans ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line   29)
* ucd_3_2_0 (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  142)
* udata (attribut select.kevent):        Kevent Objects.     (line  179)
* UDPServer (classe dans socketserver):  socketserver --- A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   30)
* UF_APPEND (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  358)
* UF_COMPRESSED (dans le module stat):   stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  370)
* UF_DATAVAULT (dans le module stat):    stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  380)
* UF_HIDDEN (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  386)
* UF_IMMUTABLE (dans le module stat):    stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  354)
* UF_NODUMP (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  350)
* UF_NOUNLINK (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  366)
* UF_OPAQUE (dans le module stat):       stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  362)
* UF_SETTABLE (dans le module stat):     stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  344)
* UF_TRACKED (dans le module stat):      stat --- Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  374)
* uid (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):        Les objets TarInfo. (line  106)
* UID (classe dans plistlib):            plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  141)
* uid() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):         IMAP4 Objects.      (line  366)
* uidl() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   99)
* ULONG_MAX (C macro):                   Objets Integer.     (line  255)
* ulp() (dans le module math):           Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line  110)
* umask() (dans le module os):           Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  560)
* unalias (pdb command):                 Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  415)
* uname (attribut tarfile.TarInfo):      Les objets TarInfo. (line  122)
* uname() (dans le module os):           Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  567)
* uname() (dans le module platform):     Multiplateformes.   (line  152)
* UNARY_INVERT (opcode):                 Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  210)
* UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode):               Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  199)
* UNARY_NOT (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  203)
* unary;arithmetic;operation:            Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line    6)
* unary;bitwise;operation:               Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits.
                                                             (line    6)
* unaryfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line  108)
* UnaryOp (classe dans ast):             Expressions<2>.     (line   24)
* unbinding;name:                        L'instruction del<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* UnboundLocalError:                     Résolution des noms.
                                                             (line   16)
* UnboundLocalError <1>:                 Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  448)
* unbuffered I/O:                        Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1533)
* UNC paths;and os.makedirs():           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  579)
* uncancel() (méthode asyncio.Task):     Objets Task.        (line  279)
* UNCHECKED_HASH (attribut py_compile.PycInvalidationMode): py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  127)
* unconsumed_tail (attribut zlib.Decompress): zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  258)
* unctrl() (dans le module curses.ascii): curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  229)
* unctrl() (dans le module curses):      Fonctions<6>.       (line  556)
* Underflow (classe dans decimal):       Signaux.            (line   93)
* undisplay (pdb command):               Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  361)
* undo() (dans le module turtle):        Les mouvements dans le module Turtle.
                                                             (line  326)
* undobufferentries() (dans le module turtle): Méthodes spéciales de la tortue.
                                                             (line   75)
* undoc_header (attribut cmd.Cmd):       Objets Cmd.         (line  171)
* unescape() (dans le module html):      html --- HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line   24)
* unescape() (dans le module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   30)
* UnexpectedException:                   Débogage.           (line  210)
* unexpectedSuccesses (attribut unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  290)
* unfreeze() (dans le module gc):        gc --- Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  232)
* unget_wch() (dans le module curses):   Fonctions<6>.       (line  576)
* ungetch() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  563)
* ungetch() (dans le module msvcrt):     Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   45)
* ungetmouse() (dans le module curses):  Fonctions<6>.       (line  585)
* ungetwch() (dans le module msvcrt):    Entrées-sorties sur un terminal.
                                                             (line   51)
* unhexlify() (dans le module binascii): binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  152)
* Unicode:                               Séquences immuables.
                                                             (line   16)
* Unicode <1>:                           unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* Unicode <2>:                           codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* UNICODE (dans le module re):           Flags.              (line  118)
* Unicode Consortium:                    Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.
                                                             (line   37)
* Unicode;database:                      unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnicodeDecodeError:                    Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  491)
* UnicodeEncodeError:                    Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  486)
* UnicodeError:                          Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  454)
* UnicodeTranslateError:                 Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  496)
* UnicodeWarning:                        Avertissements.     (line   73)
* unidata_version (dans le module unicodedata): unicodedata --- Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  138)
* unified_diff() (dans le module difflib): difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  310)
* uniform() (dans le module random):     Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   18)
* UnimplementedFileMode:                 http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  160)
* Union (classe dans ctypes):            Types de données dérivés de Structure.
                                                             (line    6)
* Union (dans le module typing):         Special forms.      (line    9)
* union;type:                            Type Union.         (line    6)
* union() (méthode frozenset):           Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  101)
* UnionType (classe dans types):         Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  180)
* UNIQUE (attribut enum.EnumCheck):      Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  598)
* unique() (dans le module enum):        Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line   53)
* universal newlines;bytearray.splitlines method: Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  661)
* universal newlines;bytes.splitlines method: Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  661)
* universal newlines;csv.reader function: Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* universal newlines;importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  218)
* universal newlines;io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class: Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  287)
* universal newlines;io.TextIOWrapper class: Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  126)
* universal newlines;open() built-in function: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 1469)
* universal newlines;str.splitlines method: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  541)
* universal newlines;subprocess module:  Arguments fréquemment utilisés.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines;What's new:         PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   42)
* universal newlines;What's new <1>:     Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés.
                                                             (line  138)
* universal newlines;What's new <2>:     PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines;What's new <3>:     PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   36)
* UNIX:                                  Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line   26)
* unix_dialect (classe dans csv):        Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line  222)
* unix_shell (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   44)
* UNIX;file control:                     fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* UNIX;I/O control:                      fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnixDatagramServer (classe dans socketserver): socketserver --- A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   38)
* UnixStreamServer (classe dans socketserver): socketserver --- A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   38)
* unknown (attribut uuid.SafeUUID):      uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   44)
* unknown_decl() (méthode html.parser.HTMLParser): Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser.
                                                             (line  145)
* unknown_open() (méthode urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* unknown_open() (méthode urllib.request.UnknownHandler): UnknownHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnknownHandler (classe dans urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  444)
* UnknownProtocol:                       http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  152)
* UnknownTransferEncoding:               http client --- HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  156)
* unlink() (dans le module os):          Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1676)
* unlink() (dans le module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  164)
* unlink() (méthode multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  103)
* unlink() (méthode pathlib.Path):       Renommage et suppression.
                                                             (line   48)
* unlink() (méthode xml.dom.minidom.Node): Objets DOM.       (line   10)
* unload() (dans le module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   76)
* unlock() (méthode mailbox.Babyl):      Babyl objects.      (line   59)
* unlock() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):    Mailbox objects.    (line  270)
* unlock() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):    Maildir objects.    (line  209)
* unlock() (méthode mailbox.mbox):       mbox objects.       (line   57)
* unlock() (méthode mailbox.MH):         MH objects.         (line   87)
* unlock() (méthode mailbox.MMDF):       MMDF objects.       (line   47)
* unlockpt() (dans le module os):        Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  935)
* UNNAMED_SECTION (dans le module configparser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  342)
* Unpack (dans le module typing):        Special forms.      (line  546)
* unpack_archive() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  125)
* UNPACK_EX (opcode):                    Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  584)
* unpack_from() (dans le module struct): Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* unpack_from() (méthode struct.Struct): Classes<3>.         (line   40)
* UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode):              Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  575)
* unpack() (dans le module struct):      Fonctions et exceptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* unpack() (méthode struct.Struct):      Classes<3>.         (line   34)
* unpacking;dictionary:                  Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line   25)
* unpacking;in function calls:           Appels.             (line   77)
* unparse() (dans le module ast):        Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line   71)
* unparsedEntityDecl() (méthode xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler): Objets DTDHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  290)
* Unpickler (classe dans pickle):        Interface du module.
                                                             (line  241)
* UnpicklingError:                       Interface du module.
                                                             (line  112)
* unquote_plus() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line   81)
* unquote_to_bytes() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting.
                                                             (line   91)
* unquote() (dans le module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   54)
* unquote() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting.      (line   61)
* unraisablehook() (dans le module sys): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2039)
* unreachable object:                    Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   39)
* unrecognized escape sequence:          Escape sequences.   (line  116)
* unregister_archive_format() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* unregister_dialect() (dans le module csv): Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line   81)
* unregister_unpack_format() (dans le module shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  186)
* unregister() (dans le module atexit):  atexit --- Exit handlers.
                                                             (line   65)
* unregister() (dans le module codecs):  codecs --- Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  168)
* unregister() (dans le module faulthandler): Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line   23)
* unregister() (méthode select.devpoll): /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* unregister() (méthode select.epoll):   Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* unregister() (méthode select.poll):    Polling Objects.    (line   67)
* unregister() (méthode selectors.BaseSelector): Classes<4>. (line   80)
* unsafe (attribut uuid.SafeUUID):       uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   39)
* unselect() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  377)
* unset() (méthode test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard): test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   71)
* unsetenv() (dans le module os):        Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  603)
* unshare() (dans le module os):         Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  622)
* UnstructuredHeader (classe dans email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* unsubscribe() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.      (line  373)
* UnsupportedOperation:                  Exceptions<6>.      (line    6)
* UnsupportedOperation <1>:              Interface de haut niveau du module.
                                                             (line   72)
* until (pdb command):                   Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  223)
* untokenize() (dans le module tokenize): Analyse Lexicale.  (line   58)
* untouchwin() (méthode curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  583)
* unused_data (attribut bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Dé compression incrémentielle.
                                                             (line   84)
* unused_data (attribut lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire.
                                                             (line  181)
* unused_data (attribut zlib.Decompress): zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  250)
* unverifiable (attribut urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* unwrap() (dans le module inspect):     Classes et fonctions<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* unwrap() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.       (line  407)
* unwrap() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket):      SSL Sockets.        (line  294)
* up (pdb command):                      Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line   96)
* up() (dans le module turtle):          État des stylos.    (line   12)
* update_abstractmethods() (dans le module abc): abc --- Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  346)
* update_authenticated() (méthode urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* update_lines_cols() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>. (line  569)
* update_panels() (dans le module curses.panel): Fonctions<7>.
                                                             (line   23)
* update_visible() (méthode mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* update_wrapper() (dans le module functools): functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  657)
* update() (dans le module turtle):      Réglage de l'animation.
                                                             (line   47)
* update() (méthode collections.Counter): Objets Counter.    (line  127)
* update() (méthode dict):               Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  219)
* update() (méthode frozenset):          Types d'ensembles — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  179)
* update() (méthode hashlib.hash):       Objets de calcul d'empreinte.
                                                             (line   33)
* update() (méthode hmac.HMAC):          hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   51)
* update() (méthode http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.     (line   93)
* update() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):    Mailbox objects.    (line  240)
* update() (méthode mailbox.Maildir):    Maildir objects.    (line  193)
* update() (méthode trace.CoverageResults): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   52)
* upgrade_dependencies() (méthode venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.  (line  169)
* upper() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  756)
* upper() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  756)
* upper() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  704)
* urandom() (dans le module os):         Nombres aléatoires<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* URL:                                   urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <1>:                               urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <2>:                               http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* url (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   55)
* url (attribut urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   40)
* url (attribut urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   14)
* url (attribut xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* URL;parsing:                           urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* url2pathname() (dans le module urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  156)
* urlcleanup() (dans le module urllib.request): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   62)
* urldefrag() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.    (line  381)
* urlencode() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Quoting.    (line  104)
* URLError:                              urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   17)
* urljoin() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.      (line  344)
* urlopen() (dans le module urllib.request): urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line   33)
* URLopener (classe dans urllib.request): Legacy interface.  (line   67)
* urlparse() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.     (line    9)
* urlretrieve() (dans le module urllib.request): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   10)
* urlsafe_b64decode() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  104)
* urlsafe_b64encode() (dans le module base64): base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   97)
* urlsplit() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.     (line  253)
* urlunparse() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.   (line  245)
* urlunsplit() (dans le module urllib.parse): URL Parsing.   (line  335)
* urn (attribut uuid.UUID):              uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  140)
* US (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  118)
* use_default_colors() (dans le module curses): Fonctions<6>.
                                                             (line  600)
* use_env() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  590)
* use_rawinput (attribut cmd.Cmd):       Objets Cmd.         (line  183)
* USE_STACKCHECK (C macro):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   93)
* use_tool_id() (dans le module sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* UseForeignDTD() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* USER:                                  getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   45)
* USER_BASE (dans le module site):       Module contents<3>. (line   31)
* user_call() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  271)
* user_exception() (méthode bdb.Bdb):    bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  290)
* user_line() (méthode bdb.Bdb):         bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  279)
* user_return() (méthode bdb.Bdb):       bdb --- Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  285)
* USER_SITE (dans le module site):       Module contents<3>. (line   19)
* user-defined;function:                 Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur.
                                                             (line    6)
* user-defined;function;call:            Appels.             (line  141)
* user-defined;method:                   Méthodes d'instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* user;effective id:                     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  191)
* user;id:                               Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  344)
* user;id, setting:                      Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  543)
* user() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line   31)
* usercustomize:                         Modules de personnalisation.
                                                             (line    6)
* usercustomize <1>:                     Modules de personnalisation.
                                                             (line   21)
* UserDict (classe dans collections):    Objets UserDict.    (line   12)
* UserList (classe dans collections):    Objets UserList.    (line   16)
* USERNAME:                              os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  155)
* USERNAME <1>:                          Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  244)
* USERNAME <2>:                          getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   46)
* username (attribut email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  453)
* USERPROFILE:                           os path<4>.         (line   14)
* USERPROFILE <1>:                       Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  116)
* USERPROFILE <2>:                       Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* USERPROFILE <3>:                       os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* userptr() (méthode curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.     (line   57)
* UserString (classe dans collections):  Objets UserString.  (line   12)
* UserWarning:                           Avertissements.     (line   13)
* USTAR_FORMAT (dans le module tarfile): tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  337)
* USub (classe dans ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line   29)
* UTC:                                   time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   42)
* utc (attribut datetime.timezone):      Objets timezone.    (line   71)
* UTC (dans le module datetime):         Constantes.         (line   18)
* utcfromtimestamp() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  138)
* utcnow() (méthode de la classe datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line   83)
* utcoffset() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.  (line  544)
* utcoffset() (méthode datetime.time):   Objets time.        (line  244)
* utcoffset() (méthode datetime.timezone): Objets timezone.  (line   31)
* utcoffset() (méthode datetime.tzinfo): Objets tzinfo.      (line   39)
* utctimetuple() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.
                                                             (line  589)
* utf8 (attribut email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  411)
* utf8_enabled (attribut imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.      (line  405)
* utf8_mode (attribut sys.flags):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  594)
* utf8() (méthode poplib.POP3):          POP3 Objects.       (line  106)
* utime() (dans le module os):           Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1691)
* UUID (classe dans uuid):               uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   49)
* uuid1() (dans le module uuid):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  187)
* uuid3() (dans le module uuid):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  196)
* uuid4() (dans le module uuid):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  202)
* uuid5() (dans le module uuid):         uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  206)
* v4_int_to_packed() (dans le module ipaddress): Autres fonctions au niveau de module.
                                                             (line    8)
* v6_int_to_packed() (dans le module ipaddress): Autres fonctions au niveau de module.
                                                             (line   20)
* valid_signals() (dans le module signal): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  304)
* validator() (dans le module wsgiref.validate): wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   22)
* value:                                 Agencements de dictionnaires.
                                                             (line    6)
* value (attribut ctypes._SimpleCData):  Types de données de base<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* value (attribut enum.Enum):            Types de données<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* value (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.  (line   32)
* value (attribut http.cookies.Morsel):  Objets Morsel.      (line   48)
* value (attribut StopIteration):        Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  277)
* value (attribut xml.dom.Attr):         Objets Attr.        (line   23)
* value of an object:                    Objets valeurs et types.
                                                             (line   12)
* value_decode() (méthode http.cookies.BaseCookie): Objets Cookie.
                                                             (line    6)
* value_encode() (méthode http.cookies.BaseCookie): Objets Cookie.
                                                             (line   13)
* Value() (dans le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): Le module multiprocessing sharedctypes.
                                                             (line   70)
* Value() (dans le module multiprocessing): Objets ctypes partagés.
                                                             (line    9)
* Value() (méthode multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Gestionnaires<2>.
                                                             (line  232)
* ValueError:                            Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  501)
* valuerefs() (méthode weakref.WeakValueDictionary): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  227)
* Values (classe dans optparse):         Defining options.   (line   84)
* values() (méthode contextvars.Context): Gestion de contexte manuelle.
                                                             (line  140)
* values() (méthode dict):               Les types de correspondances — dict.
                                                             (line  232)
* values() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  249)
* values() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  375)
* values() (méthode mailbox.Mailbox):    Mailbox objects.    (line  133)
* values() (méthode types.MappingProxyType): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  277)
* ValuesView (classe dans collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  103)
* ValuesView (classe dans typing):       Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  106)
* var (attribut contextvars.Token):      Variables de contexte.
                                                             (line   85)
* variable d'environnement; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__: PyConfig.   (line  187)
* variable d'environnement; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  705)
* variable d'environnement; %APPDATA%:   Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; APPDATA:     PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; BASECFLAGS:  Compiler flags.     (line   66)
* variable d'environnement; BASECPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags.
                                                             (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; BLDSHARED:   Linker flags.       (line   67)
* variable d'environnement; BROWSER:     webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   20)
* variable d'environnement; BROWSER <1>: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   34)
* variable d'environnement; BROWSER <2>: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  122)
* variable d'environnement; CC:          New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* variable d'environnement; CC <1>:      Compiler flags.     (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; CCSHARED:    Compiler flags.     (line   81)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS:      New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <1>:  Options de performance.
                                                             (line   30)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <2>:  Compiler flags.     (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <3>:  Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <4>:  Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <5>:  Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <6>:  Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS <7>:  Linker flags.       (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS_ALIASING: Compiler flags. (line   74)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags.   (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   24)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   61)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGS_NODIST <3>: Linker flags. (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; CFLAGSFORSHARED: Compiler flags. (line   87)
* variable d'environnement; COLUMNS:     Fonctions<6>.       (line  595)
* variable d'environnement; COLUMNS <1>: Fonctions<6>.       (line  598)
* variable d'environnement; COMPILEALL_OPTS: Compiler flags. (line   41)
* variable d'environnement; COMSPEC:     Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  810)
* variable d'environnement; COMSPEC <1>: Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line  118)
* variable d'environnement; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   52)
* variable d'environnement; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   59)
* variable d'environnement; CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags. (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; CPPFLAGS:    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* variable d'environnement; CPPFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; CPPFLAGS <2>: Preprocessor flags.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; CPPFLAGS <3>: Preprocessor flags.
                                                             (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; CPPFLAGS <4>: Linker flags.      (line   50)
* variable d'environnement; CXX:         Compiler flags.     (line   12)
* variable d'environnement; DISPLAY:     Modules Tkinter.    (line   29)
* variable d'environnement; EnableControlFlowGuard: Build<33>.
                                                             (line   47)
* variable d'environnement; EXTRA_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.    (line   48)
* variable d'environnement; HOME:        os path<4>.         (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; HOME <1>:    Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  117)
* variable d'environnement; HOME <2>:    Windows<40>.        (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; HOME <3>:    Windows<40>.        (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; HOME <4>:    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  146)
* variable d'environnement; HOME <5>:    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  164)
* variable d'environnement; HOME <6>:    Modules Tkinter.    (line   70)
* variable d'environnement; HOMEDRIVE:   os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  153)
* variable d'environnement; HOMEPATH:    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  153)
* variable d'environnement; IDLE*STARTUP: Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* variable d'environnement; IDLESTARTUP: IDLE<38>.           (line  176)
* variable d'environnement; IDLESTARTUP <1>: IDLE<42>.       (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; IDLESTARTUP <2>: IDLE<48>.       (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; IDLESTARTUP <3>: Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   41)
* variable d'environnement; LANG:        API GNU gettext.    (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; LANG <1>:    API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; LANG <2>:    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   53)
* variable d'environnement; LANG <3>:    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  369)
* variable d'environnement; LANG <4>:    locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  374)
* variable d'environnement; LANGUAGE:    API GNU gettext.    (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; LANGUAGE <1>: API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; LC_ALL:      API GNU gettext.    (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; LC_ALL <1>:  API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; LC_MESSAGES: API GNU gettext.    (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; LC_MESSAGES <1>: API basée sur les classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; LDCXXSHARED: Build and C API Changes<8>.
                                                             (line  153)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS:     New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <2>: Linker flags.       (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <3>: Linker flags.       (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <4>: Linker flags.       (line   28)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <5>: Linker flags.       (line   31)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <6>: Linker flags.       (line   35)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <7>: Linker flags.       (line   45)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS <8>: Linker flags.       (line   50)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags.    (line   24)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Linker flags.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; LDFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Linker flags.
                                                             (line   40)
* variable d'environnement; LDSHARED:    Linker flags.       (line   61)
* variable d'environnement; LIBS:        Linker flags.       (line   54)
* variable d'environnement; LINES:       Fonctions<6>.       (line  125)
* variable d'environnement; LINES <1>:   Fonctions<6>.       (line  595)
* variable d'environnement; LINES <2>:   Fonctions<6>.       (line  597)
* variable d'environnement; LINKCC:      Linker flags.       (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; LOGNAME:     Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  244)
* variable d'environnement; LOGNAME <1>: getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   45)
* variable d'environnement; MANPAGER:    pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* variable d'environnement; MANPAGER <1>: pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   48)
* variable d'environnement; no_proxy:    urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  311)
* variable d'environnement; OPT:         Debug options.      (line   39)
* variable d'environnement; OPT <1>:     Compiler flags.     (line   70)
* variable d'environnement; PAGER:       pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* variable d'environnement; PATH:        Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  144)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <1>:    Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <2>:    Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <3>:    Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <4>:    macOS<6>.           (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <5>:    Windows<21>.        (line   56)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <6>:    Windows<25>.        (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <7>:    Security<34>.       (line   16)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <8>:    Security<34>.       (line   20)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <9>:    Les dossiers de recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   17)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <10>:   Scripts Python exécutables.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <11>:   Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   29)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <12>:   Divers.             (line   16)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <13>:   Étapes d'installation.
                                                             (line   36)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <14>:   Étapes d'installation.
                                                             (line   63)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <15>:   Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   82)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <16>:   Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   87)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <17>:   Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <18>:   Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   37)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <19>:   Trouver l'exécutable Python.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <20>:   Trouver l'exécutable Python.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <21>:   Trouver l'exécutable Python.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <22>:   Lanceur Python pour Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <23>:   Depuis la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <24>:   Lignes Shebang.     (line   56)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <25>:   Lignes Shebang.     (line   62)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <26>:   Lignes Shebang.     (line   64)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <27>:   Lignes Shebang.     (line   69)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <28>:   Comparaison aux modules os et os path.
                                                             (line   41)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <29>:   Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  431)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <30>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   47)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <31>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   90)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <32>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   93)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <33>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line   96)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <34>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  566)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <35>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  658)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <36>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  662)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <37>:   Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  665)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <38>:   Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line  149)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <39>:   Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line   36)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <40>:   webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  241)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <41>:   How venvs work.     (line   16)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <42>:   How venvs work.     (line   62)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <43>:   How venvs work.     (line   67)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <44>:   site --- Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   66)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <45>:   Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <46>:   Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <47>:   Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PATH <48>:   Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?.
                                                             (line   28)
* variable d'environnement; PATHEXT:     Autres Améliorations<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* variable d'environnement; PATHEXT <1>: Library<40>.        (line  138)
* variable d'environnement; PATHEXT <2>: Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   82)
* variable d'environnement; PATHEXT <3>: Installation sans l'interface utilisateur.
                                                             (line   87)
* variable d'environnement; PATHEXT <4>: Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  442)
* variable d'environnement; PIP_USER:    Windows<42>.        (line  102)
* variable d'environnement; PROFILE_TASK: Build<17>.         (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PROFILE_TASK <1>: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PROFILE_TASK <2>: Options de performance.
                                                             (line   37)
* variable d'environnement; PURIFY:      Compiler flags.     (line  130)
* variable d'environnement; PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line  121)
* variable d'environnement; PY_CFLAGS:   Compiler flags.     (line   94)
* variable d'environnement; PY_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   99)
* variable d'environnement; PY_CORE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.  (line  115)
* variable d'environnement; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags.   (line   83)
* variable d'environnement; PY_CPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags. (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PY_LDFLAGS:  Linker flags.       (line   73)
* variable d'environnement; PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags. (line   77)
* variable d'environnement; PY_PYTHON:   Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut.
                                                             (line   19)
* variable d'environnement; PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line  106)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL: Windows<9>.
                                                             (line   24)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>: Installation à la demande.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL: Installation à la demande.
                                                             (line   12)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG: Diagnostics.   (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN: Exécution à vide.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>: Installation à la demande.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH: Lignes Shebang.
                                                             (line   68)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: A better interactive interpreter.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>: Library<4>.
                                                             (line  322)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>: Library<4>.
                                                             (line  326)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>: Core and Builtins<10>.
                                                             (line   55)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>: Mode interactif<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <5>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  559)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_COLORS: Summary -- Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   57)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_COLORS <1>: Improved error messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_COLORS <2>: doctest.      (line    7)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_COLORS <3>: Controlling color.
                                                             (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_COLORS <4>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  551)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: os.            (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  400)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  527)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>: Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   51)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>: Diverses informations sur le système.
                                                             (line   72)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>: Divers<3>. (line   31)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <6>: PyConfig.  (line  497)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_DOM:  Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: Autres changements au langage.
                                                             (line   46)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>: Core and Builtins<17>.
                                                             (line  105)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  371)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  537)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL:  Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL <1>: Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL <2>: Core and Builtins<7>.
                                                             (line   40)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL <3>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  418)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL <4>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  576)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL <5>: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python.
                                                             (line    7)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_GIL <6>: Glossaire.       (line  724)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_HISTORY: Autres changements au langage.
                                                             (line   57)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_HISTORY <1>: Library<15>. (line  544)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_HISTORY <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  568)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: Autres changements au langage.
                                                             (line   52)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  390)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  514)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  876)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  879)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <5>: How to work without frame pointers.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PRESITE: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  412)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PRESITE <1>: Variables en mode débogage.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PRESITE <2>: PyConfig.    (line  776)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module: Core and Builtins<17>.
                                                             (line  154)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  297)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>: Activation du mode débogage.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>: Mode débogage.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   65)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONBREAKPOINT: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   89)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line  164)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  271)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  285)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <5>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  289)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCASEOK: Changements dans l'API Python<4>.
                                                             (line   32)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCASEOK <1>: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCASEOK <2>: Library<44>.   (line  144)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCASEOK <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  145)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCASEOK <4>: Fonctions natives<2>.
                                                             (line 2332)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  394)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>: Options générales.
                                                             (line   89)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>: Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   58)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <4>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEBUG: Options diverses.   (line   39)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEBUG <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  104)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEBUG <2>: Compilation de Python en mode débogage.
                                                             (line   21)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEBUG <3>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEBUG <4>: PyConfig.       (line  667)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEVMODE: Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEVMODE <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  328)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEVMODE <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  460)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEVMODE <3>: Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDEVMODE <4>: PyConfig.     (line  296)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  357)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   19)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  150)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   52)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  953)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?.
                                                             (line   25)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFS: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>: Build<50>.   (line   54)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>: Variables en mode débogage.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>: Debug options.
                                                             (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>: Debug options.
                                                             (line   24)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFS <5>: PyConfig.    (line  307)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  154)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE <1>: Variables en mode débogage.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONEXECUTABLE: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  236)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONEXECUTABLE <1>: PyConfig.  (line  702)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: faulthandler<4>.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  287)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  265)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <5>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  345)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED: Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <1>: Portage de code Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   30)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <3>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  137)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <4>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  153)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <5>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  164)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <6>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  170)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <7>: Personnalisation de base.
                                                             (line  337)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <8>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   77)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <9>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   80)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHASHSEED <10>: PyConfig.   (line  415)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME:  Deprecated C APIs.  (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <1>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <3>: Résumé – Points forts de la publication<3>.
                                                             (line  107)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <4>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   48)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <5>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   12)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <6>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   21)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <7>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <8>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   42)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <9>: Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   31)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <10>: Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   51)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <11>: Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   89)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <12>: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <13>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <14>: Environnements virtuels<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <15>: Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <16>: Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <17>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   92)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <18>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  295)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <19>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  311)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <20>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  320)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <21>: PyConfig.       (line  423)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <22>: PyConfig.       (line  425)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONHOME <23>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
                                                             (line   38)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINSPECT: Autres changements et corrections<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINSPECT <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   71)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINSPECT <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  114)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINSPECT <3>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  109)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINSPECT <4>: PyConfig.     (line  450)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  106)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  310)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  184)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>: Configuration de la limite.
                                                             (line   10)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>: Configuration de la limite.
                                                             (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1207)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <6>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  481)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING: Autres Améliorations<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING <1>: Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  192)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  439)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING <4>: Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   29)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING <5>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1922)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONIOENCODING <6>: PyConfig.  (line  836)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: New Deprecations.
                                                             (line  130)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
                                                             (line   50)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: Windows<11>.
                                                             (line   37)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  362)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1861)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1871)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1878)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  151)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>: PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  123)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <11>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  210)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  379)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1927)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  169)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <5>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  534)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <1>: Changements dans l'API C<6>.
                                                             (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <2>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   90)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  304)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <4>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  353)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <5>: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  113)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <6>: Options de performance.
                                                             (line  120)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <7>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   46)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <8>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   50)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <9>: Aperçu<4>.     (line   75)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <10>: Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <11>: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOC <12>: The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   96)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  346)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>: PyConfig. (line  550)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <3>: Aperçu<4>.
                                                             (line   78)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: PEP 657 amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels.
                                                             (line   63)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  359)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  490)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>: Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <4>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  249)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNOUSERSITE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  165)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  214)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>: Module contents<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  203)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>: PyConfig.  (line  906)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONOPTIMIZE: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   91)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   82)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  214)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <3>: PyConfig.    (line  617)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH:  Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <1>: Changes in 'python' Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <2>: Les dossiers de recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   16)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <3>: Modules standards.
                                                             (line   34)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <4>: Modules standards.
                                                             (line   35)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <5>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   47)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <6>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <7>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   35)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <8>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   43)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <9>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   48)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <10>: Digression définition des variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   39)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <11>: Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <12>: Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <13>: Recherche de modules.
                                                             (line   89)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <14>: Chercheurs d'entrée dans path.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <15>: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <16>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1378)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <17>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1383)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <18>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <19>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <20>: Construire des extensions C et C++.
                                                             (line   10)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <21>: Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <22>: Embarquer Python<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <23>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   91)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPATH <24>: PyConfig.       (line  583)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: Autres changements au langage<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  379)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  502)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>: How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  274)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   60)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <3>: PyConfig.  (line  562)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: Autres changements au langage<7>.
                                                             (line   47)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   66)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  321)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  289)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <4>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  435)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  402)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  341)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  156)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  405)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <5>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  724)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<24>.
                                                             (line   13)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH: Résumé – Points forts de la publication.
                                                             (line   29)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>: Autres changements au langage<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>: Security<18>.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  122)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   52)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1395)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>: Considérations de sécurité<3>.
                                                             (line   47)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSAFEPATH <7>: PyConfig.    (line  166)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP: sys<12>.          (line   17)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <1>: sys<12>.      (line   21)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <2>: IDLE<38>.     (line  176)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <3>: IDLE<42>.     (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <4>: IDLE<48>.     (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <5>: Configuration du mode interactif.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <6>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line   67)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <7>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line   67)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <8>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  130)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <9>: Exemple.      (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <10>: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line   84)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <11>: Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <12>: Utilisation de la ligne de commande.
                                                             (line   42)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <13>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1220)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONSTARTUP <14>: Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  305)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  276)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   25)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   32)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>: Fonctions<11>.
                                                             (line   90)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <5>: PyConfig. (line  864)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTZPATH: Configuration par l'environnement.
                                                             (line   11)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONTZPATH <1>: Exceptions et avertissements.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUNBUFFERED: Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line  107)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  186)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  133)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1934)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  241)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <5>: PyConfig.  (line  213)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUOPS:  Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line   27)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUOPS <1>: Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  179)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUOPS <2>: Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  258)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUOPS <3>: Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  317)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUOPS <4>: Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line  382)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUSERBASE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUSERBASE <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  224)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUSERBASE <2>: Module contents<3>.
                                                             (line   40)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUSERBASE <3>: Module contents<3>.
                                                             (line   68)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUSERSITE: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8:  PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <1>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  335)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <2>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  449)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  469)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <4>: Mode UTF-8.      (line   19)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <5>: Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   53)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <6>: Le mode UTF-8 de Python.
                                                             (line   55)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <7>: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1925)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <8>: PyPreConfig.     (line  152)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONUTF8 <9>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONVERBOSE: Options diverses. (line  204)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONVERBOSE <1>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  138)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONVERBOSE <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  258)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONVERBOSE <3>: PyConfig.     (line  923)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels.
                                                             (line   20)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<35>.
                                                             (line   45)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  347)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  480)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <4>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS: warnings<3>.     (line   21)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <1>: Autres changements au langage<12>.
                                                             (line  160)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <2>: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <3>: Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <4>: Documentation<20>.
                                                             (line   67)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <5>: Options diverses.
                                                             (line  266)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <6>: Variables d'environnement.
                                                             (line  242)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <7>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   30)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <8>: Le filtre des avertissements.
                                                             (line   51)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <9>: Le filtre des avertissements.
                                                             (line   62)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <10>: Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <11>: Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement.
                                                             (line   22)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <12>: Filtre d'avertissement par défaut.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; PYTHONWARNINGS <13>: PyConfig.   (line  942)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH: py_compile<3>.
                                                             (line    7)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>: Library<53>.
                                                             (line  452)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>: Build<58>.
                                                             (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   73)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   91)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>: py_compile --- Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   96)
* variable d'environnement; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>: Utilisation en ligne de commande<7>.
                                                             (line   95)
* variable d'environnement; SSLKEYLOGFILE: Création de contexte.
                                                             (line   37)
* variable d'environnement; SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>: Création de contexte.
                                                             (line   92)
* variable d'environnement; SystemRoot:  Constructeur de Popen.
                                                             (line  318)
* variable d'environnement; TEMP:        Redirection des données locales du registre et des chemins temporaires.
                                                             (line    8)
* variable d'environnement; TEMP <1>:    tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  346)
* variable d'environnement; TERM:        Fonctions<6>.       (line  485)
* variable d'environnement; TERM <1>:    Fonctions<6>.       (line  512)
* variable d'environnement; TMP:         tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  349)
* variable d'environnement; TMPDIR:      Tests<23>.          (line   68)
* variable d'environnement; TMPDIR <1>:  tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  343)
* variable d'environnement; TZ:          Fonctions<5>.       (line  675)
* variable d'environnement; TZ <1>:      Fonctions<5>.       (line  677)
* variable d'environnement; TZ <2>:      Fonctions<5>.       (line  687)
* variable d'environnement; TZ <3>:      Fonctions<5>.       (line  691)
* variable d'environnement; TZ <4>:      Fonctions<5>.       (line  694)
* variable d'environnement; TZ <5>:      Fonctions<5>.       (line  760)
* variable d'environnement; USER:        getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   45)
* variable d'environnement; USERNAME:    os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  155)
* variable d'environnement; USERNAME <1>: Paramètres de processus.
                                                             (line  244)
* variable d'environnement; USERNAME <2>: getpass --- Portable password input.
                                                             (line   46)
* variable d'environnement; USERPROFILE: os path<4>.         (line   14)
* variable d'environnement; USERPROFILE <1>: Changements dans l'API Python<5>.
                                                             (line  116)
* variable d'environnement; USERPROFILE <2>: Windows<40>.    (line   15)
* variable d'environnement; USERPROFILE <3>: os path --- Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* variable de classe:                    Glossaire.          (line  258)
* variable de contexte:                  Glossaire.          (line  333)
* variance (attribut statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line   41)
* variance() (dans le module statistics): Détails des fonctions.
                                                             (line  465)
* variant (attribut uuid.UUID):          uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  145)
* vbar (attribut tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText): tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   31)
* VBAR (dans le module token):           token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  211)
* VBAREQUAL (dans le module token):      token --- Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  283)
* VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN (dans le module msvcrt): Autres fonctions<4>.
                                                             (line   93)
* Vec2D (classe dans turtle):            Classes publiques.  (line   91)
* vectorcallfunc (C type):               The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line   41)
* verbose (attribut sys.flags):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  578)
* VERBOSE (dans le module re):           Flags.              (line  128)
* verbose (dans le module tabnanny):     tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   28)
* verbose (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   30)
* VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line   98)
* verify_client_post_handshake() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  303)
* verify_code (attribut ssl.SSLCertVerificationError): Exceptions<16>.
                                                             (line   88)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line   84)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>. (line   73)
* VERIFY_DEFAULT (dans le module ssl):   Constantes<9>.      (line   65)
* verify_flags (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.      (line  636)
* verify_generated_headers (attribut email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  224)
* verify_message (attribut ssl.SSLCertVerificationError): Exceptions<16>.
                                                             (line   92)
* verify_mode (attribut ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.       (line  651)
* verify_request() (méthode socketserver.BaseServer): Objets serveur.
                                                             (line  192)
* VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  114)
* VERIFY_X509_STRICT (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.    (line   91)
* VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (dans le module ssl): Constantes<9>.
                                                             (line  105)
* verify() (dans le module enum):        Utilitaires et décorateurs.
                                                             (line   72)
* verify() (méthode smtplib.SMTP):       SMTP Objects.       (line   91)
* VerifyFlags (classe dans ssl):         Constantes<9>.      (line  125)
* VerifyMode (classe dans ssl):          Constantes<9>.      (line   59)
* verrou global de l'interpréteur:       Glossaire.          (line  701)
* version (attribut email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  258)
* version (attribut http.client.HTTPResponse): Les objets HTTPResponse.
                                                             (line   50)
* version (attribut http.cookiejar.Cookie): Objets Cookie<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* version (attribut http.cookies.Morsel): Objets Morsel.     (line   14)
* version (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Address): Objets adresse.  (line   47)
* version (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.   (line   62)
* version (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Address): Objets adresse.  (line  268)
* version (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.   (line  292)
* version (attribut sys.thread_info):    sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2023)
* version (attribut urllib.request.URLopener): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  138)
* version (attribut uuid.UUID):          uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  152)
* version (dans le module curses):       Constantes<6>.      (line   18)
* version (dans le module marshal):      marshal --- Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line  130)
* version (dans le module sqlite3):      Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  127)
* version (dans le module sys):          sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2090)
* version (in module sys):               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  164)
* version (in module sys) <1>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  201)
* version (in module sys) <2>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  212)
* version_info (dans le module sqlite3): Fonctions et constantes du module.
                                                             (line  137)
* version_info (dans le module sys):     sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2106)
* version_string() (méthode http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  328)
* version() (dans le module ensurepip):  API du module.      (line    9)
* version() (dans le module importlib.metadata): Distribution versions.
                                                             (line    6)
* version() (dans le module platform):   Multiplateformes.   (line  143)
* version() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket):     SSL Sockets.        (line  325)
* vformat() (méthode string.Formatter):  Formatage personnalisé de chaîne.
                                                             (line   30)
* visit_Constant() (méthode ast.NodeVisitor): Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  218)
* visit() (méthode ast.NodeVisitor):     Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  201)
* visitproc (C type):                    Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  155)
* vline() (méthode curses.window):       Window Objects.     (line  588)
* voidcmd() (méthode ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  167)
* volume (attribut zipfile.ZipInfo):     Objets ZipInfo.     (line  126)
* vonmisesvariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line   98)
* VT (dans le module curses.ascii):      curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   58)
* vue de dictionnaire:                   Glossaire.          (line  442)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2008-5983: Build and C API Changes<8>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2008-5983 <1>: Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2008-5983 <2>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  256)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2012-0876: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2012-0876 <1>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2012-0876 <2>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2013-0340: Security<19>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2013-1753: Library<98>.
                                                             (line  193)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2014-0224: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   30)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2014-4616: Library<98>.
                                                             (line 1122)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2015-1283: Security<45>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2015-1283 <1>: Security<50>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <1>: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <2>: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <3>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <4>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <5>: Security<43>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <6>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <7>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0718 <8>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0772: Security<45>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-0772 <1>: Security<50>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-1000110: Library<77>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-1000110 <1>: Library<84>.
                                                             (line  267)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-2183: Library<76>.
                                                             (line  178)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-2183 <1>: Library<84>.
                                                             (line  205)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-3189: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-4472: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-4472 <1>: Security<43>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-4472 <2>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-5300: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-5300 <1>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-5300 <2>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-9063: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-9063 <1>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2016-9063 <2>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2017-1000158: Security<47>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2017-9233: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2017-9233 <1>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2017-9233 <2>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-1060: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   48)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-1060 <1>: Security<37>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-1060 <2>: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-1061: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-1061 <1>: Security<37>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-1061 <2>: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-14647: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-25032: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-8970: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2018-8970 <1>: Security<37>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-12900: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-15903: Security<32>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-18348: Security<29>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-20907: Library<41>.
                                                             (line  186)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-5010: Security<36>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-9740: Security<34>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2019-9948: Security<33>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-10735: Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython.
                                                             (line   56)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-10735 <1>: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-10735 <2>: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-10735 <3>: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-10735 <4>: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-10735 <5>: Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier.
                                                             (line   22)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-15523: Security<26>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-15801: Security<26>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2020-8492: Security<28>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2021-3426: Security<21>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2022-26488: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2022-37434: Windows<20>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2022-42919: Security<17>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2022-4303: Security<13>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2022-4303 <1>: Security<13>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-0286: Security<13>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-24329: Security<12>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-27043: email.
                                                             (line   22)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-27043 <1>: Library<15>.
                                                             (line  429)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-40217: Security<11>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-52425: xml.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-52425 <1>: Security<8>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-52425 <2>: Documentation<9>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2023-52425 <3>: Vulnérabilités XML.
                                                             (line  106)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2024-4030: os.
                                                             (line   38)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2024-4030 <1>: tempfile.
                                                             (line    8)
* Vulnérabilités et expositions communes ; CVE 2024-4030 <2>: Security<6>.
                                                             (line   11)
* W_OK (dans le module os):              Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  113)
* wait_closed() (méthode asyncio.Server): Objets Serveur.    (line  124)
* wait_closed() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line  118)
* wait_for() (dans le module asyncio):   Délais d'attente.   (line  121)
* wait_for() (méthode asyncio.Condition): Condition.         (line  107)
* wait_for() (méthode threading.Condition): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* wait_process() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  419)
* wait_threads_exit() (dans le module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   41)
* wait_until_any_call_with() (méthode unittest.mock.ThreadingMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line 1007)
* wait_until_called() (méthode unittest.mock.ThreadingMock): La classe Mock.
                                                             (line  992)
* wait() (dans le module asyncio):       Primitives d'attente.
                                                             (line    6)
* wait() (dans le module concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* wait() (dans le module multiprocessing.connection): Auditeurs et Clients.
                                                             (line  120)
* wait() (dans le module os):            Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  862)
* wait() (méthode asyncio.Barrier):      Barrière Barrier.   (line   54)
* wait() (méthode asyncio.Condition):    Condition.          (line   88)
* wait() (méthode asyncio.Event):        Événement Event.    (line   45)
* wait() (méthode asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interagir avec les sous-processus.
                                                             (line   40)
* wait() (méthode multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Pools de processus.
                                                             (line  220)
* wait() (méthode subprocess.Popen):     Objets Popen.       (line   14)
* wait() (méthode threading.Barrier):    Barrier Objects.    (line   43)
* wait() (méthode threading.Condition):  Condition Objects.  (line   98)
* wait() (méthode threading.Event):      Event Objects.      (line   43)
* wait3() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  978)
* wait4() (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  992)
* waitid() (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  888)
* waitpid() (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line  927)
* waitstatus_to_exitcode() (dans le module os): Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1110)
* walk_packages() (dans le module pkgutil): pkgutil --- Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  154)
* walk_stack() (dans le module traceback): Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  185)
* walk_tb() (dans le module traceback):  Fonctions de niveau module<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* walk() (dans le module ast):           Outils du module ast.
                                                             (line  184)
* walk() (dans le module os):            Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line 1739)
* walk() (méthode email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  487)
* walk() (méthode email.message.Message): email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.
                                                             (line  681)
* walk() (méthode pathlib.Path):         Lecture des dossiers.
                                                             (line  104)
* walrus operator:                       Opérations booléennes.
                                                             (line   38)
* want (attribut doctest.Example):       Exemples d'objets.  (line   23)
* warn_default_encoding (attribut sys.flags): sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  604)
* warn_explicit() (dans le module warnings): Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line   63)
* warn() (dans le module warnings):      Fonctions disponibles.
                                                             (line    6)
* Warning:                               Avertissements.     (line    9)
* Warning <1>:                           Exceptions<7>.      (line    8)
* WARNING (dans le module logging):      Niveaux de journalisation.
                                                             (line   34)
* WARNING (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  198)
* warning() (dans le module logging):    Fonctions de niveau module.
                                                             (line   70)
* warning() (méthode logging.Logger):    Enregistreurs.      (line  311)
* warning() (méthode xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler): Objets ErrorHandler.
                                                             (line   30)
* warnings:                              warnings --- Warning control.
                                                             (line    8)
* WarningsRecorder (classe dans test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line  118)
* warnoptions (dans le module sys):      sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2119)
* wasSuccessful() (méthode unittest.TestResult): Chargement et exécution des tests.
                                                             (line  337)
* WatchedFileHandler (classe dans logging.handlers): Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* Wave_read (classe dans wave):          Objets Wave_read.   (line    6)
* Wave_write (classe dans wave):         Objets Wave_write.  (line    6)
* WCONTINUED (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1032)
* WCOREDUMP() (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1151)
* WeakKeyDictionary (classe dans weakref): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  166)
* WeakMethod (classe dans weakref):      weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  236)
* WeakSet (classe dans weakref):         weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  231)
* WeakValueDictionary (classe dans weakref): weakref --- Weak references.
                                                             (line  214)
* WEDNESDAY (dans le module calendar):   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* weekday (attribut calendar.IllegalWeekdayError): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  561)
* weekday() (dans le module calendar):   calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  402)
* weekday() (méthode datetime.date):     Objets date.        (line  232)
* weekday() (méthode datetime.datetime): Objets datetime.    (line  656)
* weekheader() (dans le module calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  407)
* weibullvariate() (dans le module random): Distributions pour les nombres réels.
                                                             (line  109)
* WEXITED (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1041)
* WEXITSTATUS() (dans le module os):     Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1197)
* wfile (attribut http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  132)
* wfile (attribut socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler): Objets gestionnaire de requêtes.
                                                             (line   69)
* whatis (pdb command):                  Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line  297)
* when() (méthode asyncio.Timeout):      Délais d'attente.   (line   65)
* when() (méthode asyncio.TimerHandle):  Fonctions de rappel sur des descripteurs.
                                                             (line   36)
* where (pdb command):                   Commande du débogueur.
                                                             (line   85)
* which() (dans le module shutil):       Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers.
                                                             (line  421)
* whichdb() (dans le module dbm):        dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases".
                                                             (line   29)
* While (classe dans ast):               Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line   79)
* whitespace (attribut shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line  104)
* whitespace (dans le module string):    Chaînes constantes. (line   55)
* whitespace_split (attribut shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.    (line  128)
* Widget (classe dans tkinter.ttk):      ttk Widget.         (line    9)
* width (attribut sys.hash_info):        sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1076)
* width (attribut textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  168)
* width() (dans le module turtle):       État des stylos.    (line   18)
* WIFCONTINUED() (dans le module os):    Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1161)
* WIFEXITED() (dans le module os):       Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1189)
* WIFSIGNALED() (dans le module os):     Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1182)
* WIFSTOPPED() (dans le module os):      Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1171)
* win32_edition() (dans le module platform): Plateforme Windows.
                                                             (line   22)
* win32_is_iot() (dans le module platform): Plateforme Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* win32_ver() (dans le module platform): Plateforme Windows. (line    6)
* WinDLL (classe dans ctypes):           Chargement des bibliothèques partagées.
                                                             (line   55)
* window manager (widgets):              Le gestionnaire de fenêtres.
                                                             (line    6)
* window_height() (dans le module turtle): Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line  115)
* window_width() (dans le module turtle): Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales.
                                                             (line  122)
* window() (méthode curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.      (line   62)
* Windows:                               Programmes Python complets.
                                                             (line   26)
* Windows ini file:                      configparser --- Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* WindowsError:                          Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  522)
* WindowsPath (classe dans pathlib):     Chemins concrets.   (line   40)
* WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (classe dans asyncio): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   82)
* WindowsRegistryFinder (classe dans importlib.machinery): importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   93)
* WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy (classe dans asyncio): Objets politiques.
                                                             (line   74)
* winerror (attribut OSError):           Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  178)
* WinError() (dans le module ctypes):    Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  215)
* WINFUNCTYPE() (dans le module ctypes): Prototypes de fonction.
                                                             (line   26)
* WinSock:                               select --- Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  152)
* winver (dans le module sys):           sys --- System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2126)
* With (classe dans ast):                Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  241)
* WITH_EXCEPT_START (opcode):            Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  488)
* with_hostmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   55)
* with_hostmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  122)
* with_hostmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   82)
* with_hostmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  324)
* with_name() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  359)
* with_netmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   46)
* with_netmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  117)
* with_netmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   80)
* with_netmask (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  322)
* with_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   37)
* with_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv4Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  104)
* with_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Objets interface.
                                                             (line   78)
* with_prefixlen (attribut ipaddress.IPv6Network): Objets réseau.
                                                             (line  316)
* with_pymalloc() (dans le module test.support): test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  255)
* with_segments() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  415)
* with_stem() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  375)
* with_suffix() (méthode pathlib.PurePath): Méthodes et propriétés.
                                                             (line  398)
* with_traceback() (méthode BaseException): Classes mères.   (line   27)
* withitem (classe dans ast):            Contrôle de l'exécution.
                                                             (line  253)
* WNOHANG (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1075)
* WNOWAIT (dans le module os):           Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1083)
* wordchars (attribut shlex.shlex):      shlex Objects.      (line   91)
* World Wide Web:                        Gestion des protocoles internet.
                                                             (line    6)
* World Wide Web <1>:                    urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* World Wide Web <2>:                    urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* wrap_bio() (méthode ssl.SSLContext):   SSL Contexts.       (line  458)
* wrap_future() (dans le module asyncio): Fonctions pour Future.
                                                             (line   54)
* wrap_socket() (méthode ssl.SSLContext): SSL Contexts.      (line  391)
* wrap() (dans le module textwrap):      textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   17)
* wrap() (méthode textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  303)
* wrapper() (dans le module curses):     Fonctions<6>.       (line  609)
* WrapperDescriptorType (dans le module types): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   88)
* wraps() (dans le module functools):    functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  705)
* WRITABLE (attribut inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.     (line   17)
* WRITABLE (dans le module _tkinter):    Gestionnaires de fichiers.
                                                             (line   44)
* writable() (méthode bz2.BZ2File):      Dé compression de fichiers.
                                                             (line  111)
* writable() (méthode io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  152)
* WRITE (attribut inspect.BufferFlags):  Buffer flags.       (line   51)
* write_byte() (méthode mmap.mmap):      mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  337)
* write_bytes() (méthode pathlib.Path):  Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
                                                             (line   68)
* write_docstringdict() (dans le module turtle): Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues.
                                                             (line   10)
* write_eof() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   54)
* write_eof() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   83)
* write_eof() (méthode ssl.MemoryBIO):   Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  161)
* write_history_file() (dans le module readline): Fichier d'historique.
                                                             (line   14)
* WRITE_RESTRICTED (C macro):            Member flags.       (line   32)
* write_results() (méthode trace.CoverageResults): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   57)
* write_text() (méthode pathlib.Path):   Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* write_through (attribut io.TextIOWrapper): Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* write() (dans le module os):           Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  947)
* write() (dans le module turtle):       Plus des réglages pour le dessin.
                                                             (line   29)
* write() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   15)
* write() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   68)
* write() (méthode code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* write() (méthode codecs.StreamWriter): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* write() (méthode configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  294)
* write() (méthode email.generator.BytesGenerator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  127)
* write() (méthode email.generator.Generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  230)
* write() (méthode io.BufferedIOBase):   I/O Base Classes.   (line  326)
* write() (méthode io.BufferedWriter):   Buffered Streams.   (line  133)
* write() (méthode io.RawIOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  212)
* write() (méthode io.TextIOBase):       Entrée/sortie de texte<2>.
                                                             (line   94)
* write() (méthode mmap.mmap):           mmap --- Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  321)
* write() (méthode sqlite3.Blob):        Blob objects.       (line   53)
* write() (méthode ssl.MemoryBIO):       Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* write() (méthode ssl.SSLSocket):       SSL Sockets.        (line   96)
* write() (méthode xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): Objets ElementTree.
                                                             (line   66)
* write() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):     Objets ZipFile.     (line  289)
* writeframes() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.
                                                             (line   85)
* writeframesraw() (méthode wave.Wave_write): Objets Wave_write.
                                                             (line   78)
* writeheader() (méthode csv.DictWriter): Objets transcripteurs.
                                                             (line   41)
* writelines() (méthode asyncio.StreamWriter): Flux écrivains StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   27)
* writelines() (méthode asyncio.WriteTransport): Transports en lecture-écriture.
                                                             (line   76)
* writelines() (méthode codecs.StreamWriter): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* writelines() (méthode io.IOBase):      I/O Base Classes.   (line  158)
* writepy() (méthode zipfile.PyZipFile): Objets PyZipFile.   (line   21)
* writer() (dans le module csv):         Contenu du module<3>.
                                                             (line   40)
* writerow() (méthode csv.csvwriter):    Objets transcripteurs.
                                                             (line   16)
* writerows() (méthode csv.csvwriter):   Objets transcripteurs.
                                                             (line   26)
* writestr() (méthode zipfile.ZipFile):  Objets ZipFile.     (line  325)
* WriteTransport (classe dans asyncio):  Hiérarchie des transports.
                                                             (line   11)
* writev() (dans le module os):          Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers.
                                                             (line  968)
* writexml() (méthode xml.dom.minidom.Node): Objets DOM.     (line   28)
* writing;values:                        Les expressions.    (line   18)
* WrongDocumentErr:                      Exceptions<20>.     (line   97)
* wsgi_file_wrapper (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  275)
* wsgi_multiprocess (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  156)
* wsgi_multithread (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  149)
* wsgi_run_once (attribut wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  163)
* WSGIApplication (dans le module wsgiref.types): wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   20)
* WSGIEnvironment (dans le module wsgiref.types): wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   16)
* WSGIRequestHandler (classe dans wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   78)
* WSGIServer (classe dans wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   48)
* wShowWindow (attribut subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Utilitaires Popen pour Windows.
                                                             (line   52)
* WSTOPPED (dans le module os):          Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1053)
* WSTOPSIG() (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1206)
* wstring_at() (dans le module ctypes):  Fonctions utilitaires.
                                                             (line  229)
* WTERMSIG() (dans le module os):        Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1215)
* WUNTRACED (dans le module os):         Gestion des processus.
                                                             (line 1064)
* WWW:                                   Gestion des protocoles internet.
                                                             (line    6)
* WWW <1>:                               urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW <2>:                               urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;server:                            http server --- HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* X (dans le module re):                 Flags.              (line  128)
* X_OK (dans le module os):              Fichiers et répertoires.
                                                             (line  113)
* X509 certificate:                      SSL Contexts.       (line  764)
* xatom() (méthode imaplib.IMAP4):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line  387)
* XATTR_CREATE (dans le module os):      Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line   97)
* XATTR_REPLACE (dans le module os):     Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line  103)
* XATTR_SIZE_MAX (dans le module os):    Attributs étendus pour Linux.
                                                             (line   92)
* xcor() (dans le module turtle):        Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line   34)
* XHTML:                                 html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* XHTML_NAMESPACE (dans le module xml.dom): Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   55)
* XML_ERROR_ABORTED (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  180)
* XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  215)
* XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   29)
* XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   37)
* XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   42)
* XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  135)
* XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   47)
* XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  126)
* XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  116)
* XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  128)
* XML_ERROR_FINISHED (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  184)
* XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  152)
* XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   51)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  207)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   59)
* XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   64)
* XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  211)
* XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   69)
* XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   74)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  118)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  175)
* XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   78)
* XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   82)
* XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  165)
* XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   86)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  202)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  192)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  197)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  190)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  169)
* XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   91)
* XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   95)
* XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  160)
* XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  112)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   99)
* XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  104)
* XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  124)
* XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  108)
* XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (dans le module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  156)
* XML_NAMESPACE (dans le module xml.dom): Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   44)
* XML() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  290)
* xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (dans le module codecs): Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line  173)
* xmlcharrefreplace;error handler's name: Gestionnaires d'erreurs.
                                                             (line   55)
* XmlDeclHandler() (méthode xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Objets XMLParser<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* XMLFilterBase (classe dans xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   81)
* XMLGenerator (classe dans xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   63)
* XMLID() (dans le module xml.etree.ElementTree): Fonctions<9>.
                                                             (line  299)
* XMLNS_NAMESPACE (dans le module xml.dom): Contenu du module<4>.
                                                             (line   49)
* XMLParser (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets XMLParser.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLParserType (dans le module xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   35)
* XMLPullParser (classe dans xml.etree.ElementTree): Objets XMLPullParser.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLReader (classe dans xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* xor() (dans le module operator):       operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions.
                                                             (line  172)
* xview() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.      (line  323)
* ycor() (dans le module turtle):        Connaître l'état de la tortue.
                                                             (line   46)
* year (attribut datetime.date):         Objets date.        (line  117)
* year (attribut datetime.datetime):     Objets datetime.    (line  318)
* Year 2038:                             time --- Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   31)
* yeardatescalendar() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  134)
* yeardays2calendar() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  143)
* yeardayscalendar() (méthode calendar.Calendar): calendar --- General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  151)
* YES (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  157)
* YESEXPR (dans le module locale):       locale --- Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  295)
* YESNO (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  181)
* YESNOCANCEL (dans le module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  186)
* Yield (classe dans ast):               Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* YIELD_VALUE (opcode):                  Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python.
                                                             (line  420)
* yield;examples:                        Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs.
                                                             (line   86)
* yield;expression:                      Expressions yield.  (line    6)
* yield;yield from (in What's New):      PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   87)
* YieldFrom (classe dans ast):           Définition de fonctions et de classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* yiq_to_rgb() (dans le module colorsys): colorsys --- Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   33)
* yview() (méthode tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.      (line  328)
* z;in string formatting:                Mini-langage de spécification de format.
                                                             (line   95)
* z85decode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  256)
* z85encode() (dans le module base64):   base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  248)
* ZeroDivisionError:                     Exceptions concrètes.
                                                             (line  508)
* zfill() (méthode bytearray):           Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  775)
* zfill() (méthode bytes):               Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.
                                                             (line  775)
* zfill() (méthode str):                 Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>.
                                                             (line  716)
* ZIP_BZIP2 (dans le module zipfile):    zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   97)
* ZIP_DEFLATED (dans le module zipfile): zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   92)
* zip_longest() (dans le module itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  663)
* ZIP_LZMA (dans le module zipfile):     zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line  104)
* ZIP_STORED (dans le module zipfile):   zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   88)
* ZipFile (classe dans zipfile):         Objets ZipFile.     (line    6)
* zipimporter (classe dans zipimport):   Objets zimporter.   (line    8)
* ZipImportError:                        zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   61)
* ZipInfo (classe dans zipfile):         zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   61)
* ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (dans le module zlib): zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  327)
* ZLIB_VERSION (dans le module zlib):    zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  320)
* ZoneInfo (classe dans zoneinfo):       La classe ZoneInfo. (line    6)
* ZoneInfoNotFoundError:                 Exceptions et avertissements.
                                                             (line    6)
* zscore() (méthode statistics.NormalDist): Objets NormalDist.
                                                             (line  123)

                       



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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax1417514
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Ref: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication-Footnote-11422327
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Ref: PEP 471 - os scandir function -- a better and faster directory iterator-Footnote-11429349
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr1429689
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators1433075
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Ref: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators-Footnote-11435007
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Ref: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality-Footnote-11436534
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation1695466
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Node: New module sysconfig2124579
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Node: Updated module unittest2127405
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Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD2157615
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Node: Autres changements et corrections2158213
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 other-changes-and-fixes2158375
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Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode2169172
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Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches2170184
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches2170439
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Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 72171001
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-72171260
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Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 72174172
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Node: Documentation Changes<2>2176988
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 documentation-changes2177137
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Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>2178161
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients2178453
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Ref: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>-Footnote-12179550
Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 72179592
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Node: New make regen-all build target<3>2181070
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-make-regen-all-build-target2181306
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Node: Nouveautés de Python 2 62183318
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Node: Python 3 02186564
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Node: Changes to the Development Process2188873
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Node: PEP 343 The 'with' statement2194392
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Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module2205108
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Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory2206063
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Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package2207779
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Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting2213148
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Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals2222243
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Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators2238730
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Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers2239369
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Node: The fractions Module2241983
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Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-542304667
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-552304732
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-562304800
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-572304865
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-582304933
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-592305001
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-602305066
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-612305131
Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-622305198
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-future-builtins-module2308272
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-json-module-javascript-object-notation2309568
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Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser2310578
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Ref: Improved SSL Support-Footnote-12315250
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Ref: Deprecations and Removals-Footnote-12317301
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 port-specific-changes-irix2329880
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Ref: Nouveautés de Python 2 5-Footnote-12338830
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-308-conditional-expressions2339019
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Ref: PEP 308 Expressions conditionnelles-Footnote-12342497
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Node: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction2342581
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3092342787
Ref: 13c02342787
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-309-partial-function-application2342787
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Ref: PEP 309 Application partielle de fonction-Footnote-12345647
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-12345897
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Ref: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1-Footnote-12347731
Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports2347773
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3282347976
Ref: 13bd2347976
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports2347976
Ref: 13c42347976
Ref: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports-Footnote-12351766
Ref: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports-Footnote-22351808
Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts2351850
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3382352037
Ref: 13c52352037
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts2352037
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Ref: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts-Footnote-12352932
Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally2352974
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3412353154
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-341-unified-try-except-finally2353154
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Ref: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally-Footnote-12354917
Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features2354959
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3422355134
Ref: 13bc2355134
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-342-new-generator-features2355134
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Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-12361803
Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-22361845
Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-32361887
Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-42361929
Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-52361971
Node: PEP 343 The 'with' statement<2>2362013
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-343-the-with-statement2362193
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Node: Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte<2>2365209
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 writing-context-managers2365349
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-contextlib-module2369870
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Ref: Le module contextlib<2>-Footnote-12372340
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3522372571
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes2372571
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Ref: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes-Footnote-12375058
Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type2375100
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3532375288
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type2375288
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Ref: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type-Footnote-12378168
Ref: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type-Footnote-22378210
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3572378434
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-357-the-index-method2378434
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Ref: PEP 357 The '__index__' method-Footnote-12380137
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Ref: Autres changements au langage<16>-Footnote-12387325
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 interactive-interpreter-changes2387506
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 opts2388443
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 new-improved-and-removed-modules2392417
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Ref: Modules ajoutés modifiés et supprimés-Footnote-12416866
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-ctypes2417153
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-etree2420574
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-hashlib2426018
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-hashlib-package2426018
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-sqlite3-package2427757
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Ref: The sqlite3 package-Footnote-12431950
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Node: The wsgiref package2432034
Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-wsgiref2432158
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-wsgiref-package2432158
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Ref: The wsgiref package-Footnote-12433143
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Node: Build and C API Changes<10>2433227
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Ref: Build and C API Changes<10>-Footnote-12440403
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 porting-to-python-2-52441501
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Ref: Portage vers Python 2 5-Footnote-12444318
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-218-built-in-set-objects2447363
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Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers2449645
Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers2449825
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Ref: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers-Footnote-12450868
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-289-generator-expressions2451098
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Ref: PEP 289 Generator Expressions-Footnote-12453366
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions2453597
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Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods2455428
Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods2455613
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Ref: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods-Footnote-12460118
Ref: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods-Footnote-22460160
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-322-reverse-iteration2460380
Ref: 14112460380
Ref: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration-Footnote-12461346
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-324-new-subprocess-module2461547
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Ref: PEP 324 New subprocess Module-Footnote-12465314
Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type2465356
Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-327-decimal-data-type2465516
Ref: 14142465516
Node: Why is Decimal needed?2466086
Ref: whatsnew/2 4 why-is-decimal-needed2466195
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 the-decimal-type2468897
Ref: 14162468897
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 the-context-type2472160
Ref: 14172472160
Ref: The Context type-Footnote-12474769
Ref: The Context type-Footnote-22474811
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-328-multi-line-imports2475076
Ref: 14182475076
Ref: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports-Footnote-12476574
Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions2476616
Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions2476806
Ref: 14192476806
Ref: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions-Footnote-12478529
Ref: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions-Footnote-22478619
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 other-language-changes2478863
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Ref: Autres changements au langage<17>-Footnote-12485861
Ref: Autres changements au langage<17>-Footnote-22485903
Ref: Autres changements au langage<17>-Footnote-32485945
Ref: Autres changements au langage<17>-Footnote-42485987
Ref: Autres changements au langage<17>-Footnote-52486029
Ref: Autres changements au langage<17>-Footnote-62486071
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 optimizations2486200
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 new-improved-and-deprecated-modules2489118
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Ref: whatsnew/2 4 cookielib2506645
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Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype2519236
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype2519367
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Ref: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype-Footnote-12521878
Node: PEP 255 Générateurs simples2521920
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-255-simple-generators2522089
Ref: 143b2522089
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-generators2522089
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Ref: PEP 255 Générateurs simples-Footnote-12528241
Ref: PEP 255 Générateurs simples-Footnote-22528283
Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings2528325
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-263-source-code-encodings2528506
Ref: 143d2528506
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-encodings2528506
Ref: 143e2528506
Ref: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings-Footnote-12529720
Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives2529762
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives2529962
Ref: 143f2529962
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Ref: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives-Footnote-32532078
Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT2532120
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt2532324
Ref: 14412532324
Ref: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT-Footnote-12533810
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-278-universal-newline-support2534030
Ref: 14432534030
Ref: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support-Footnote-12535539
Node: PEP 279 enumerate2535581
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-279-enumerate2535738
Ref: 14442535738
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-enumerate2535738
Ref: 14452535738
Ref: PEP 279 enumerate-Footnote-12536600
Node: PEP 282 The logging Package2536642
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-282-the-logging-package2536790
Ref: 14462536790
Ref: PEP 282 The logging Package-Footnote-12541576
Ref: PEP 282 The logging Package-Footnote-22541618
Node: PEP 285 Un type booléen2541660
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-285-a-boolean-type2541829
Ref: 144c2541829
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-bool2541829
Ref: 144d2541829
Ref: PEP 285 Un type booléen-Footnote-12544282
Ref: PEP 285 Un type booléen-Footnote-22544324
Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks2544366
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks2544556
Ref: 144e2544556
Ref: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks-Footnote-12546089
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils2546321
Ref: 14512546321
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Ref: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils-Footnote-12547967
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-302-new-import-hooks2548226
Ref: 14532548226
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3022548226
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Ref: PEP 302 New Import Hooks-Footnote-12550844
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Ref: PEP 302 New Import Hooks-Footnote-32550928
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-305-comma-separated-files2551130
Ref: 14542551130
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3052551130
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Ref: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files-Footnote-12552627
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-307-pickle-enhancements2552820
Ref: 14562552820
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3072552820
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Ref: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements-Footnote-12554789
Ref: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements-Footnote-22554831
Ref: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements-Footnote-32554873
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 extended-slices2555070
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-slices2555070
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 other-language-changes2558616
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Ref: Autres changements au langage<18>-Footnote-12566406
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 string-changes2566589
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Node: Optimizations<12>2569103
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 optimizations2569213
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 new-improved-and-deprecated-modules2570872
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Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>-Footnote-12595601
Node: Date/Time Type2595641
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 date-time-type2595758
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 the-optparse-module2598199
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator2600451
Ref: 14872600451
Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pymalloc2600451
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 build-and-c-api-changes2604505
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Ref: whatsnew/2 2 introduction2616677
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Ref: Introduction-Footnote-12617643
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Ref: whatsnew/2 2 old-and-new-classes2621512
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Ref: Héritage multiple la règle du diamant-Footnote-12631061
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Node: Related Links2635068
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Ref: whatsnew/2 2 sect-rellinks2635201
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Ref: Related Links-Footnote-12636670
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Node: PEP 234 Itérateurs2636880
Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-234-iterators2637069
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Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-255-simple-generators2642161
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Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers2648471
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Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator2650228
Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-238-changing-the-division-operator2650407
Ref: 14aa2650407
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Ref: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator-Footnote-22654066
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Node: Unicode Changes2654150
Ref: whatsnew/2 2 unicode-changes2654304
Ref: 14ad2654304
Ref: Unicode Changes-Footnote-12656914
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Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes2656998
Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-227-nested-scopes2657141
Ref: 14ae2657141
Ref: PEP 227 Nested Scopes-Footnote-12661469
Node: New and Improved Modules<3>2661511
Ref: whatsnew/2 2 new-and-improved-modules2661668
Ref: 14af2661668
Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-12668344
Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-22668403
Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-32668462
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slice_item6881783
Ref: 200b6881783
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-proper_slice6881857
Ref: 200c6881857
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-lower_bound6881967
Ref: 200d6881967
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-upper_bound6882013
Ref: 200e6882013
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-stride6882059
Ref: 200f6882059
Node: Appels6883548
Ref: reference/expressions calls6883617
Ref: d6c6883617
Ref: reference/expressions id96883617
Ref: 20136883617
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-call6883821
Ref: 20046883821
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-argument_list6883944
Ref: 20156883944
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-positional_arguments6884284
Ref: 20166884284
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-positional_item6884353
Ref: 20196884353
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_and_keywords6884448
Ref: 20176884448
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-keywords_arguments6884633
Ref: 20186884633
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-keyword_item6884820
Ref: 201a6884820
Ref: Appels-Footnote-16892463
Node: Expression await6892505
Ref: reference/expressions await6892618
Ref: 1b76892618
Ref: reference/expressions await-expression6892618
Ref: 201b6892618
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-await_expr6892839
Ref: 201c6892839
Node: L'opérateur puissance6892919
Ref: reference/expressions power6893071
Ref: 201d6893071
Ref: reference/expressions the-power-operator6893071
Ref: 201e6893071
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-power6893306
Ref: 201f6893306
Node: Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits6894655
Ref: reference/expressions unary6894826
Ref: 20216894826
Ref: reference/expressions unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations6894826
Ref: 20226894826
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-u_expr6895023
Ref: 20206895023
Node: Opérations arithmétiques binaires6895828
Ref: reference/expressions binary6896001
Ref: 20236896001
Ref: reference/expressions binary-arithmetic-operations6896001
Ref: 20246896001
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-m_expr6896412
Ref: 20256896412
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-a_expr6896711
Ref: 20266896711
Ref: Opérations arithmétiques binaires-Footnote-16900700
Ref: Opérations arithmétiques binaires-Footnote-26901355
Node: Opérations de décalage6901647
Ref: reference/expressions shifting6901803
Ref: 20286901803
Ref: reference/expressions shifting-operations6901803
Ref: 20296901803
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-shift_expr6901956
Ref: 202a6901956
Node: Opérations binaires bit à bit6902676
Ref: reference/expressions binary-bitwise-operations6902809
Ref: 202b6902809
Ref: reference/expressions bitwise6902809
Ref: 202c6902809
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-and_expr6902973
Ref: 202d6902973
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-xor_expr6903067
Ref: 202e6903067
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-or_expr6903157
Ref: 1e7e6903157
Node: Comparaisons6903880
Ref: reference/expressions comparisons6904012
Ref: 202f6904012
Ref: reference/expressions id126904012
Ref: 20306904012
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comparison6904407
Ref: 20316904407
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comp_operator6904502
Ref: 20326904502
Node: Comparaisons de valeurs6905824
Ref: reference/expressions expressions-value-comparisons6905957
Ref: 18386905957
Ref: reference/expressions value-comparisons6905957
Ref: 20336905957
Ref: reference/expressions in6914992
Ref: 2e96914992
Ref: reference/expressions not-in6914992
Ref: 61c6914992
Ref: Comparaisons de valeurs-Footnote-16915030
Ref: Comparaisons de valeurs-Footnote-26915072
Node: Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble6916375
Ref: reference/expressions membership-test-details6916544
Ref: 1f4c6916544
Ref: reference/expressions membership-test-operations6916544
Ref: 20346916544
Ref: reference/expressions is6918651
Ref: 2ea6918651
Node: Comparaisons d'identifiants6918651
Ref: reference/expressions identity-comparisons6918788
Ref: 20356918788
Ref: reference/expressions is-not6918788
Ref: 20366918788
Ref: reference/expressions booleans6919211
Ref: 20376919211
Ref: reference/expressions and6919211
Ref: 2e66919211
Ref: reference/expressions or6919211
Ref: 2eb6919211
Ref: Comparaisons d'identifiants-Footnote-16919249
Node: Opérations booléennes6919631
Ref: reference/expressions boolean-operations6919757
Ref: 20386919757
Ref: reference/expressions not6919757
Ref: 20396919757
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-or_test6919818
Ref: 1fe36919818
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-and_test6919908
Ref: 203a6919908
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-not_test6920000
Ref: 203b6920000
Node: Expressions d'affectation6921511
Ref: reference/expressions assignment-expressions6921652
Ref: 203c6921652
Ref: reference/expressions id156921652
Ref: 203d6921652
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-assignment_expression6921719
Ref: 1f986921719
Ref: Expressions d'affectation-Footnote-16922860
Node: Expressions conditionnelles6922902
Ref: reference/expressions conditional-expressions6923038
Ref: 203e6923038
Ref: reference/expressions if-expr6923038
Ref: 203f6923038
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-conditional_expression6923109
Ref: 1e7d6923109
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-expression6923221
Ref: 1fef6923221
Ref: reference/expressions lambdas6923733
Ref: 20416923733
Ref: Expressions conditionnelles-Footnote-16923771
Node: Expressions lambda6923813
Ref: reference/expressions id166923944
Ref: 20426923944
Ref: reference/expressions lambda6923944
Ref: 127c6923944
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-lambda_expr6923997
Ref: 20406923997
Node: Listes d'expressions6924582
Ref: reference/expressions expression-lists6924705
Ref: 20446924705
Ref: reference/expressions exprlists6924705
Ref: d6d6924705
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_expression6924762
Ref: 1fde6924762
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-flexible_expression6924823
Ref: 20456924823
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-flexible_expression_list6924926
Ref: 1fe86924926
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_expression_list6925039
Ref: 20466925039
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_list6925150
Ref: 20476925150
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_list6925245
Ref: 1ff56925245
Ref: Listes d'expressions-Footnote-16926536
Ref: Listes d'expressions-Footnote-26926578
Node: Ordre d'évaluation6926620
Ref: reference/expressions evalorder6926751
Ref: 20486926751
Ref: reference/expressions evaluation-order6926751
Ref: 20496926751
Node: Priorités des opérateurs6927320
Ref: reference/expressions operator-precedence6927422
Ref: 204a6927422
Ref: reference/expressions operator-summary6927422
Ref: 204b6927422
Ref: Priorités des opérateurs-Footnote-16932356
Ref: Priorités des opérateurs-Footnote-26932521
Node: Les instructions simples6932648
Ref: reference/simple_stmts doc6932793
Ref: 204c6932793
Ref: reference/simple_stmts simple6932793
Ref: 204d6932793
Ref: reference/simple_stmts simple-statements6932793
Ref: 204e6932793
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-simple_stmt6933074
Ref: 204f6933074
Node: Les expressions6934307
Ref: reference/simple_stmts expression-statements6934408
Ref: 20616934408
Ref: reference/simple_stmts exprstmts6934408
Ref: 20626934408
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_stmt6934869
Ref: 20506934869
Node: Les assignations6935348
Ref: reference/simple_stmts assignment6935478
Ref: 1f926935478
Ref: reference/simple_stmts assignment-statements6935478
Ref: 20636935478
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-assignment_stmt6935668
Ref: 20526935668
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-target_list6935791
Ref: 1fe26935791
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-target6935869
Ref: 20646935869
Ref: reference/simple_stmts attr-target-note6939785
Ref: 20656939785
Ref: Les assignations-Footnote-16944342
Node: Les assignations augmentées6944384
Ref: reference/simple_stmts augassign6944500
Ref: 20666944500
Ref: reference/simple_stmts augmented-assignment-statements6944500
Ref: 20676944500
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-augmented_assignment_stmt6944699
Ref: 20536944699
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-augtarget6944839
Ref: 20686944839
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-augop6944977
Ref: 20696944977
Node: Les assignations annotées6946850
Ref: reference/simple_stmts annassign6946966
Ref: 206a6946966
Ref: reference/simple_stmts annotated-assignment-statements6946966
Ref: 206b6946966
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-annotated_assignment_stmt6947201
Ref: 20546947201
Ref: Les assignations annotées-Footnote-16949614
Ref: Les assignations annotées-Footnote-26949656
Node: L'instruction assert6949698
Ref: reference/simple_stmts assert6949834
Ref: 9576949834
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-assert-statement6949834
Ref: 206c6949834
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-assert_stmt6950015
Ref: 20516950015
Node: L'instruction pass<2>6951163
Ref: reference/simple_stmts pass6951303
Ref: 1bd86951303
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-pass-statement6951303
Ref: 206d6951303
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-pass_stmt6951362
Ref: 20556951362
Node: L'instruction del<2>6951745
Ref: reference/simple_stmts del6951885
Ref: 17626951885
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-del-statement6951885
Ref: 206e6951885
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-del_stmt6951942
Ref: 20566951942
Node: L'instruction return6953066
Ref: reference/simple_stmts return6953204
Ref: 9be6953204
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-return-statement6953204
Ref: 206f6953204
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-return_stmt6953267
Ref: 20576953267
Node: L'instruction yield6954602
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-yield-statement6954739
Ref: 20706954739
Ref: reference/simple_stmts yield6954739
Ref: 9bd6954739
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_stmt6954800
Ref: 20586954800
Node: L'instruction raise6955696
Ref: reference/simple_stmts raise6955832
Ref: 5d96955832
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-raise-statement6955832
Ref: 20716955832
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-raise_stmt6955893
Ref: 20596955893
Node: L'instruction break6960189
Ref: reference/simple_stmts break6960328
Ref: a996960328
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-break-statement6960328
Ref: 20746960328
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-break_stmt6960389
Ref: 205a6960389
Node: L'instruction continue6961052
Ref: reference/simple_stmts continue6961192
Ref: 9b96961192
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-continue-statement6961192
Ref: 20756961192
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-continue_stmt6961261
Ref: 205b6961261
Ref: reference/simple_stmts import6961829
Ref: 5ce6961829
Node: L'instruction import6961830
Ref: reference/simple_stmts from6961971
Ref: 128b6961971
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-import-statement6961971
Ref: 20766961971
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-import_stmt6962036
Ref: 205c6962036
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-module6962697
Ref: 20776962697
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-relative_module6962777
Ref: 20786962777
Node: L'instruction future6968767
Ref: reference/simple_stmts future6968844
Ref: 1876968844
Ref: reference/simple_stmts future-statements6968844
Ref: 20796968844
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-future_stmt6969481
Ref: 205d6969481
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-feature6969861
Ref: 207a6969861
Ref: L'instruction future-Footnote-16973085
Ref: L'instruction future-Footnote-26973127
Node: L'instruction global6973169
Ref: reference/simple_stmts global6973310
Ref: 1886973310
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-global-statement6973310
Ref: 207b6973310
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-global_stmt6973375
Ref: 205e6973375
Node: L'instruction nonlocal6974520
Ref: reference/simple_stmts nonlocal6974659
Ref: 12876974659
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-nonlocal-statement6974659
Ref: 207c6974659
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-nonlocal_stmt6974728
Ref: 205f6974728
Ref: L'instruction nonlocal-Footnote-16975962
Node: The type statement6976004
Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-type-statement6976114
Ref: 207d6976114
Ref: reference/simple_stmts type6976114
Ref: 4236976114
Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-type_stmt6976175
Ref: 20606976175
Ref: The type statement-Footnote-16977514
Node: Instructions composées6977556
Ref: reference/compound_stmts doc6977720
Ref: 207f6977720
Ref: reference/compound_stmts compound6977720
Ref: 20806977720
Ref: reference/compound_stmts compound-statements6977720
Ref: 20816977720
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-compound_stmt6979913
Ref: 20826979913
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-suite6980449
Ref: 208e6980449
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-statement6980551
Ref: 20906980551
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-stmt_list6980634
Ref: 208f6980634
Ref: reference/compound_stmts if6981366
Ref: 2e86981366
Ref: reference/compound_stmts elif6981366
Ref: 1bc86981366
Node: L'instruction if<2>6981687
Ref: reference/compound_stmts else6981794
Ref: 18a6981794
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-if-statement6981794
Ref: 20916981794
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-if_stmt6981956
Ref: 20836981956
Node: L'instruction while6982616
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-while-statement6982752
Ref: 20926982752
Ref: reference/compound_stmts while6982752
Ref: 1bc26982752
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-while_stmt6982952
Ref: 20846982952
Node: L'instruction for<2>6983643
Ref: reference/compound_stmts for6983777
Ref: 2e76983777
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-for-statement6983777
Ref: 20936983777
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-for_stmt6984011
Ref: 20856984011
Node: L'instruction try6985999
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-try-statement6986132
Ref: 20946986132
Ref: reference/compound_stmts try6986132
Ref: 6d56986132
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try_stmt6986310
Ref: 20866986310
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try1_stmt6986402
Ref: 20956986402
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try2_stmt6986666
Ref: 20966986666
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try3_stmt6986932
Ref: 20976986932
Node: clause except6987389
Ref: reference/compound_stmts except6987479
Ref: 1896987479
Ref: reference/compound_stmts except-clause6987479
Ref: 20986987479
Ref: clause except-Footnote-16990994
Node: clause except*6991259
Ref: reference/compound_stmts except-star6991369
Ref: 5a46991369
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id26991369
Ref: 20996991369
Node: clause else6993983
Ref: reference/compound_stmts else-clause6994094
Ref: 209a6994094
Ref: reference/compound_stmts except-else6994094
Ref: 209b6994094
Node: clause finally6994499
Ref: reference/compound_stmts finally6994587
Ref: 9ba6994587
Ref: reference/compound_stmts finally-clause6994587
Ref: 209c6994587
Ref: reference/compound_stmts with6996536
Ref: 5be6996536
Node: L'instruction with6996536
Ref: reference/compound_stmts as6996671
Ref: 209d6996671
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-with-statement6996671
Ref: 209e6996671
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-with_stmt6997074
Ref: 20876997074
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-with_stmt_contents6997215
Ref: 209f6997215
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-with_item6997296
Ref: 20a06997296
Ref: L'instruction with-Footnote-17000720
Node: L'instruction match<2>7000762
Ref: reference/compound_stmts match7000904
Ref: 7f97000904
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-match-statement7000904
Ref: 20a17000904
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-match_stmt7001080
Ref: 20887001080
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-subject_expr7001187
Ref: 20a27001187
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-case_block7001300
Ref: 20a37001300
Ref: L'instruction match<2>-Footnote-17002360
Ref: L'instruction match<2>-Footnote-27002402
Node: Aperçu7002444
Ref: reference/compound_stmts overview7002525
Ref: 20a67002525
Node: Gardes7005317
Ref: reference/compound_stmts guards7005429
Ref: 20a87005429
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-guard7005460
Ref: 20a57005460
Node: Bloc case attrape-tout7006650
Ref: reference/compound_stmts irrefutable-case7006762
Ref: 20a97006762
Ref: reference/compound_stmts irrefutable-case-blocks7006762
Ref: 20aa7006762
Node: Filtres7007577
Ref: reference/compound_stmts patterns7007674
Ref: 20ae7007674
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-patterns7008056
Ref: 20a47008056
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-pattern7008138
Ref: 20b07008138
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-closed_pattern7008212
Ref: 20b37008212
Node: Filtres OU7009264
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id37009337
Ref: 20bc7009337
Ref: reference/compound_stmts or-patterns7009337
Ref: 20ac7009337
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-or_pattern7009491
Ref: 20b27009491
Node: Filtres AS7010136
Ref: reference/compound_stmts as-patterns7010236
Ref: 20ab7010236
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id47010236
Ref: 20bd7010236
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-as_pattern7010408
Ref: 20b17010408
Node: Filtres littéraux7010804
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id57010912
Ref: 20be7010912
Ref: reference/compound_stmts literal-patterns7010912
Ref: 20bf7010912
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-literal_pattern7011101
Ref: 20b47011101
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-signed_number7011421
Ref: 20c07011421
Node: Filtres de capture7012178
Ref: reference/compound_stmts capture-patterns7012296
Ref: 20ad7012296
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id67012296
Ref: 20c27012296
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-capture_pattern7012451
Ref: 20b57012451
Ref: Filtres de capture-Footnote-17013317
Node: Filtres attrape-tout7013359
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id77013478
Ref: 20c37013478
Ref: reference/compound_stmts wildcard-patterns7013478
Ref: 7fa7013478
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-wildcard_pattern7013669
Ref: 20b67013669
Node: Filtres par valeurs7014010
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id87014129
Ref: 20c47014129
Ref: reference/compound_stmts value-patterns7014129
Ref: 20c57014129
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-value_pattern7014283
Ref: 20b77014283
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-attr7014324
Ref: 20c67014324
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-name_or_attr7014382
Ref: 20c77014382
Node: Filtres de groupes7015130
Ref: reference/compound_stmts group-patterns7015250
Ref: 20c87015250
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id97015250
Ref: 20c97015250
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-group_pattern7015535
Ref: 20b87015535
Node: Filtres de séquences7015645
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id107015765
Ref: 20ca7015765
Ref: reference/compound_stmts sequence-patterns7015765
Ref: 20cb7015765
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-sequence_pattern7016027
Ref: 20b97016027
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-open_sequence_pattern7016184
Ref: 20af7016184
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-maybe_sequence_pattern7016290
Ref: 20cc7016290
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-maybe_star_pattern7016364
Ref: 20cd7016364
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-star_pattern7016445
Ref: 20ce7016445
Ref: Filtres de séquences-Footnote-17020115
Node: Filtres associatifs7020902
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id127021022
Ref: 20cf7021022
Ref: reference/compound_stmts mapping-patterns7021022
Ref: 20d07021022
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-mapping_pattern7021216
Ref: 20ba7021216
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-items_pattern7021282
Ref: 20d17021282
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-key_value_pattern7021352
Ref: 20d27021352
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-double_star_pattern7021530
Ref: 20d37021530
Ref: Filtres associatifs-Footnote-17023375
Node: Filtres de classes7023908
Ref: reference/compound_stmts class-patterns7023998
Ref: 20d47023998
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id147023998
Ref: 20d57023998
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-class_pattern7024193
Ref: 20bb7024193
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-pattern_arguments7024294
Ref: 20d67024294
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-positional_patterns7024453
Ref: 20d77024453
Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-keyword_patterns7024508
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Ref: Méthodes de chaînes de caractères<2>-Footnote-17366072
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Ref: Formatage de bytes a la printf-Footnote-17434578
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Ref: Exceptions concrètes-Footnote-17548080
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Ref: library/text stringservices7565657
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Node: string --- Common string operations7566970
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Ref: string --- Common string operations-Footnote-17567628
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Ref: Formatage personnalisé de chaîne-Footnote-17576053
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Node: re --- Regular expression operations7613751
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Node: difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas7702586
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Node: unicodedata --- Unicode Database7757371
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Node: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation7764576
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Ref: stringprep --- Internet String Preparation-Footnote-37769946
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Ref: library/codecs stateless-encoding-and-decoding7844827
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Ref: 23f17958259
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime microsecond7958318
Ref: 23f27958318
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzinfo7958387
Ref: 23f37958387
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fold7958567
Ref: c477958567
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime date7963685
Ref: 24157963685
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime time7963800
Ref: 24167963800
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetz7964142
Ref: 24177964142
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime replace7964462
Ref: 14837964462
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime astimezone7965124
Ref: 9c07965124
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcoffset7967616
Ref: 24187967616
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime dst7968048
Ref: 24197968048
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzname7968458
Ref: 241b7968458
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetuple7968719
Ref: 241c7968719
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utctimetuple7969575
Ref: 241e7969575
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime toordinal7970878
Ref: 241f7970878
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timestamp7971041
Ref: 10857971041
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime weekday7972680
Ref: 24207972680
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoweekday7972901
Ref: 24217972901
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isocalendar7973151
Ref: 8e57973151
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoformat7973346
Ref: b207973346
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __str__7976480
Ref: 24227976480
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime ctime7976625
Ref: 24237976625
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strftime7977274
Ref: c807977274
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __format__7977525
Ref: 24247977525
Node: Exemple d'utilisation de la classe datetime7978012
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-datetime7978107
Ref: 24257978107
Node: Objets time7982530
Ref: library/datetime datetime-time7982674
Ref: 24267982674
Ref: library/datetime time-objects7982674
Ref: 24277982674
Ref: library/datetime datetime time7982880
Ref: 1c97982880
Ref: library/datetime datetime time min7983586
Ref: 24287983586
Ref: library/datetime datetime time max7983698
Ref: 24297983698
Ref: library/datetime datetime time resolution7983818
Ref: 242a7983818
Ref: library/datetime datetime time hour7984131
Ref: 23e77984131
Ref: library/datetime datetime time minute7984184
Ref: 23e87984184
Ref: library/datetime datetime time second7984239
Ref: 23e97984239
Ref: library/datetime datetime time microsecond7984294
Ref: 23ea7984294
Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzinfo7984359
Ref: 23eb7984359
Ref: library/datetime datetime time fold7984522
Ref: 242b7984522
Ref: library/datetime datetime time fromisoformat7986178
Ref: 6037986178
Ref: library/datetime datetime time replace7987922
Ref: 16397987922
Ref: library/datetime datetime time isoformat7988515
Ref: 242c7988515
Ref: library/datetime datetime time __str__7990610
Ref: 242e7990610
Ref: library/datetime datetime time strftime7990718
Ref: 173f7990718
Ref: library/datetime datetime time __format__7990954
Ref: 242f7990954
Ref: library/datetime datetime time utcoffset7991333
Ref: 242d7991333
Ref: library/datetime datetime time dst7991761
Ref: 24307991761
Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzname7992167
Ref: 24317992167
Ref: Objets time-Footnote-17992508
Node: Exemples d'utilisation de time7992573
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-time7992651
Ref: 24327992651
Node: Objets tzinfo7993549
Ref: library/datetime datetime-tzinfo7993693
Ref: 24337993693
Ref: library/datetime tzinfo-objects7993693
Ref: 24347993693
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo7993748
Ref: 5ca7993748
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo utcoffset7995497
Ref: 24357995497
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo dst7996919
Ref: 24367996919
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo tzname7999584
Ref: 24377999584
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo fromutc8001815
Ref: 241a8001815
Ref: Objets tzinfo-Footnote-18014592
Node: Objets timezone8014632
Ref: library/datetime datetime-timezone8014795
Ref: 24388014795
Ref: library/datetime timezone-objects8014795
Ref: 24398014795
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone8015216
Ref: 10a38015216
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utcoffset8015910
Ref: 243a8015910
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone tzname8016325
Ref: 243b8016325
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone dst8017086
Ref: 243c8017086
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone fromutc8017154
Ref: 243d8017154
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utc8017366
Ref: 6018017366
Node: strftime and strptime Behavior8017449
Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-behavior8017590
Ref: 243e8017590
Ref: library/datetime strftime-strptime-behavior8017590
Ref: 17858017590
Ref: library/datetime format-codes8019866
Ref: 23dd8019866
Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes8019976
Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-format-codes8020103
Ref: 243f8020103
Ref: strftime and strptime Format Codes-Footnote-18031282
Node: Détail technique8031330
Ref: library/datetime technical-detail8031457
Ref: 24408031457
Ref: Détail technique-Footnote-18038554
Ref: Détail technique-Footnote-28038654
Node: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support8038709
Ref: library/zoneinfo doc8038913
Ref: 24418038913
Ref: library/zoneinfo module-zoneinfo8038913
Ref: 1338038913
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-iana-time-zone-support8038913
Ref: 24428038913
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support-Footnote-18040187
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support-Footnote-28040252
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support-Footnote-38040294
Ref: zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support-Footnote-48040335
Node: Utilisation de ZoneInfo8040376
Ref: library/zoneinfo using-zoneinfo8040499
Ref: 24438040499
Ref: Utilisation de ZoneInfo-Footnote-18042546
Node: Sources de données8042588
Ref: library/zoneinfo data-sources8042738
Ref: 24448042738
Ref: Sources de données-Footnote-18043441
Node: Configurer les sources de données8043482
Ref: library/zoneinfo configuring-the-data-sources8043572
Ref: 24468043572
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-configuration8043572
Ref: 24478043572
Node: Configuration à la compilation8044457
Ref: library/zoneinfo compile-time-configuration8044601
Ref: 244b8044601
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-compile-time-config8044601
Ref: 1d308044601
Node: Configuration par l'environnement8045523
Ref: library/zoneinfo environment-configuration8045705
Ref: 244c8045705
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-environment-var8045705
Ref: 24488045705
Ref: library/zoneinfo envvar-PYTHONTZPATH8046077
Ref: 244d8046077
Node: Configuration à l'exécution8046866
Ref: library/zoneinfo runtime-configuration8047008
Ref: 244f8047008
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-runtime-config8047008
Ref: 24498047008
Node: La classe ZoneInfo8047502
Ref: library/zoneinfo the-zoneinfo-class8047641
Ref: 24508047641
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo8047704
Ref: 8ce8047704
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo from_file8048670
Ref: 24528048670
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo no_cache8049251
Ref: 24548049251
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo clear_cache8050086
Ref: 24518050086
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo key8050936
Ref: 24558050936
Node: Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères8051998
Ref: library/zoneinfo string-representations8052135
Ref: 24578052135
Node: Sérialisation Pickle8053111
Ref: library/zoneinfo pickle-serialization8053248
Ref: 24588053248
Ref: library/zoneinfo pickling8053248
Ref: 24538053248
Node: Fonctions<3>8056264
Ref: library/zoneinfo functions8056402
Ref: 24598056402
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo available_timezones8056441
Ref: 19198056441
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo reset_tzpath8057594
Ref: 244a8057594
Node: Variables globales8058354
Ref: library/zoneinfo globals8058502
Ref: 245a8058502
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo TZPATH8058559
Ref: 1d2f8058559
Node: Exceptions et avertissements8059501
Ref: library/zoneinfo exceptions-and-warnings8059628
Ref: 245b8059628
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfoNotFoundError8059705
Ref: 24458059705
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo InvalidTZPathWarning8059952
Ref: 244e8059952
Node: calendar --- General calendar-related functions8060135
Ref: library/calendar doc8060324
Ref: 245c8060324
Ref: library/calendar calendar-general-calendar-related-functions8060324
Ref: 245d8060324
Ref: library/calendar module-calendar8060324
Ref: 148060324
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar8061664
Ref: 245f8061664
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar firstweekday8062324
Ref: 24628062324
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar getfirstweekday8062563
Ref: 24648062563
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar setfirstweekday8062748
Ref: 24638062748
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar iterweekdays8062968
Ref: 24658062968
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdates8063219
Ref: c098063219
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays8063627
Ref: 24668063627
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays28064055
Ref: 24678064055
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays38064438
Ref: c0a8064438
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays48064861
Ref: c0b8064861
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdatescalendar8065309
Ref: 24688065309
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdays2calendar8065541
Ref: 24698065541
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdayscalendar8065838
Ref: 246a8065838
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardatescalendar8066054
Ref: 246b8066054
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardays2calendar8066500
Ref: 246c8066500
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardayscalendar8066896
Ref: 246d8066896
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar8067218
Ref: 246e8067218
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatday8067448
Ref: 246f8067448
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweek8067758
Ref: 24708067758
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekday8068105
Ref: 24718068105
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekheader8068411
Ref: 24728068411
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonth8068687
Ref: 24738068687
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonthname8069201
Ref: 24748069201
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar prmonth8069605
Ref: 24758069605
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatyear8069764
Ref: 24768069764
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar pryear8070443
Ref: 24778070443
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar8070613
Ref: b138070613
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonth8070821
Ref: 24788070821
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyear8071086
Ref: 24798071086
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyearpage8071300
Ref: 247a8071300
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonthname8071894
Ref: 247b8071894
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses8072304
Ref: 247c8072304
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_noday8072801
Ref: 247d8072801
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses_weekday_head8072989
Ref: 247e8072989
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month_head8073256
Ref: 247f8073256
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month8073490
Ref: 24808073490
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year8073716
Ref: 24818073716
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year_head8073964
Ref: 24828073964
Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleTextCalendar8074948
Ref: 7308074948
Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleHTMLCalendar8075227
Ref: 7318075227
Ref: library/calendar calendar setfirstweekday8075855
Ref: 245e8075855
Ref: library/calendar calendar firstweekday8076378
Ref: 24888076378
Ref: library/calendar calendar isleap8076510
Ref: 24898076510
Ref: library/calendar calendar leapdays8076645
Ref: 248a8076645
Ref: library/calendar calendar weekday8076907
Ref: 248b8076907
Ref: library/calendar calendar weekheader8077105
Ref: 248c8077105
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthrange8077290
Ref: 248d8077290
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthcalendar8077512
Ref: 248e8077512
Ref: library/calendar calendar prmonth8077850
Ref: 248f8077850
Ref: library/calendar calendar month8077997
Ref: 15598077997
Ref: library/calendar calendar prcal8078195
Ref: 24908078195
Ref: library/calendar calendar calendar8078353
Ref: 24918078353
Ref: library/calendar calendar timegm8078575
Ref: 24928078575
Ref: library/calendar calendar day_name8079108
Ref: 24938079108
Ref: library/calendar calendar day_abbr8079411
Ref: 24948079411
Ref: library/calendar calendar MONDAY8079694
Ref: 24608079694
Ref: library/calendar calendar TUESDAY8079724
Ref: 24838079724
Ref: library/calendar calendar WEDNESDAY8079755
Ref: 24848079755
Ref: library/calendar calendar THURSDAY8079788
Ref: 24858079788
Ref: library/calendar calendar FRIDAY8079820
Ref: 24868079820
Ref: library/calendar calendar SATURDAY8079850
Ref: 24878079850
Ref: library/calendar calendar SUNDAY8079882
Ref: 24618079882
Ref: library/calendar calendar Day8080053
Ref: 46e8080053
Ref: library/calendar calendar month_name8080308
Ref: 24958080308
Ref: library/calendar calendar month_abbr8080780
Ref: 24968080780
Ref: library/calendar calendar JANUARY8081226
Ref: 2ee8081226
Ref: library/calendar calendar FEBRUARY8081257
Ref: 2ef8081257
Ref: library/calendar calendar MARCH8081289
Ref: 24978081289
Ref: library/calendar calendar APRIL8081318
Ref: 24988081318
Ref: library/calendar calendar MAY8081347
Ref: 24998081347
Ref: library/calendar calendar JUNE8081374
Ref: 249a8081374
Ref: library/calendar calendar JULY8081402
Ref: 249b8081402
Ref: library/calendar calendar AUGUST8081430
Ref: 249c8081430
Ref: library/calendar calendar SEPTEMBER8081460
Ref: 249d8081460
Ref: library/calendar calendar OCTOBER8081493
Ref: 249e8081493
Ref: library/calendar calendar NOVEMBER8081524
Ref: 249f8081524
Ref: library/calendar calendar DECEMBER8081556
Ref: 24a08081556
Ref: library/calendar calendar Month8081735
Ref: 46d8081735
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError8082062
Ref: 15588082062
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError month8082238
Ref: 24a18082238
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError8082301
Ref: 24a28082301
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError weekday8082482
Ref: 24a38082482
Ref: calendar --- General calendar-related functions-Footnote-18082917
Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande8082985
Ref: library/calendar calendar-cli8083101
Ref: 24a48083101
Ref: library/calendar command-line-usage8083101
Ref: 24a58083101
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-help8085887
Ref: 24a68085887
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-h8085887
Ref: 24a78085887
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-locale8085954
Ref: 24a88085954
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-L8085954
Ref: 24a98085954
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-encoding8086074
Ref: 24aa8086074
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-e8086074
Ref: 24ab8086074
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-type8086231
Ref: 24ac8086231
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-t8086231
Ref: 24ad8086231
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-first-weekday8086353
Ref: 24ae8086353
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-f8086353
Ref: 24af8086353
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-year8086562
Ref: 24b08086562
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-month8086653
Ref: 24b18086653
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-width8086905
Ref: 24b28086905
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-w8086905
Ref: 24b38086905
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-lines8087103
Ref: 24b48087103
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-l8087103
Ref: 24b58087103
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-spacing8087294
Ref: 24b68087294
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-s8087294
Ref: 24b78087294
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-months8087437
Ref: 24b88087437
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-m8087437
Ref: 24b98087437
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-css8087559
Ref: 24ba8087559
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-c8087559
Ref: 24bb8087559
Node: collections --- Container datatypes8087756
Ref: library/collections doc8087966
Ref: 24bc8087966
Ref: library/collections collections-container-datatypes8087966
Ref: 24bd8087966
Ref: library/collections module-collections8087966
Ref: 1d8087966
Ref: collections --- Container datatypes-Footnote-18090420
Node: Objets ChainMap8090501
Ref: library/collections chainmap-objects8090611
Ref: 24be8090611
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap8091065
Ref: c0c8091065
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap maps8092342
Ref: 24bf8092342
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap new_child8092658
Ref: f108092658
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap parents8093604
Ref: 24c08093604
Ref: Objets ChainMap-Footnote-18095815
Ref: Objets ChainMap-Footnote-28095857
Ref: Objets ChainMap-Footnote-38095952
Ref: Objets ChainMap-Footnote-48095999
Ref: Objets ChainMap-Footnote-58096078
Ref: Objets ChainMap-Footnote-68096175
Node: Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap8096228
Ref: library/collections chainmap-examples-and-recipes8096324
Ref: 24c18096324
Node: Objets Counter8099582
Ref: library/collections counter-objects8099713
Ref: 24c28099713
Ref: library/collections collections Counter8100446
Ref: 107d8100446
Ref: library/collections collections Counter elements8102570
Ref: 12e48102570
Ref: library/collections collections Counter most_common8103109
Ref: 12e38103109
Ref: library/collections collections Counter subtract8103681
Ref: 11bd8103681
Ref: library/collections collections Counter total8104329
Ref: 24c38104329
Ref: library/collections collections Counter fromkeys8104751
Ref: 24c48104751
Ref: library/collections collections Counter update8104898
Ref: 24c58104898
Ref: Objets Counter-Footnote-18110779
Ref: Objets Counter-Footnote-28110858
Ref: Objets Counter-Footnote-38110910
Ref: Objets Counter-Footnote-48110957
Node: Objets deque8111050
Ref: library/collections deque-objects8111184
Ref: 24c68111184
Ref: library/collections collections deque8111235
Ref: 5c88111235
Ref: library/collections collections deque append8112809
Ref: 24c78112809
Ref: library/collections collections deque appendleft8112901
Ref: 24c88112901
Ref: library/collections collections deque clear8112997
Ref: 24c98112997
Ref: library/collections collections deque copy8113127
Ref: dc38113127
Ref: library/collections collections deque count8113251
Ref: 11bf8113251
Ref: library/collections collections deque extend8113391
Ref: 24ca8113391
Ref: library/collections collections deque extendleft8113549
Ref: 24cb8113549
Ref: library/collections collections deque index8113806
Ref: dc18113806
Ref: library/collections collections deque insert8114129
Ref: dc28114129
Ref: library/collections collections deque pop8114427
Ref: 24cc8114427
Ref: library/collections collections deque popleft8114628
Ref: 24cd8114628
Ref: library/collections collections deque remove8114833
Ref: 18c88114833
Ref: library/collections collections deque reverse8115025
Ref: 11c08115025
Ref: library/collections collections deque rotate8115206
Ref: 18938115206
Ref: library/collections collections deque maxlen8115756
Ref: 12e58115756
Node: Cas pratiques utilisant deque8118452
Ref: library/collections deque-recipes8118530
Ref: 24ce8118530
Ref: Cas pratiques utilisant deque-Footnote-18121292
Node: Objets defaultdict8121357
Ref: library/collections defaultdict-objects8121550
Ref: 24cf8121550
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict8121613
Ref: 119c8121613
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict __missing__8122546
Ref: 24d18122546
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict default_factory8123761
Ref: 24d08123761
Ref: Objets defaultdict-Footnote-18124233
Node: Exemples utilisant defaultdict8124275
Ref: library/collections defaultdict-examples8124360
Ref: 24d28124360
Node: namedtuple fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés8127194
Ref: library/collections namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields8127393
Ref: 24d38127393
Ref: library/collections collections namedtuple8127898
Ref: 1c58127898
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _make8132292
Ref: 24d58132292
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _asdict8132556
Ref: 9d18132556
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _replace8133329
Ref: 24d68133329
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _fields8133990
Ref: 24d78133990
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _field_defaults8134524
Ref: 24d48134524
Node: Objets OrderedDict8137607
Ref: library/collections ordereddict-objects8137803
Ref: 24d88137803
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict8140346
Ref: 5c78140346
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict popitem8140586
Ref: 12cd8140586
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict move_to_end8141121
Ref: 11be8141121
Ref: library/collections collections-ordereddict-eq8141874
Ref: 15828141874
Ref: Objets OrderedDict-Footnote-18142893
Ref: Objets OrderedDict-Footnote-28142935
Node: Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict8142977
Ref: library/collections ordereddict-examples-and-recipes8143077
Ref: 24da8143077
Node: Objets UserDict8146187
Ref: library/collections userdict-objects8146325
Ref: 24db8146325
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict8146711
Ref: 19528146711
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict data8147332
Ref: 24dc8147332
Node: Objets UserList8147462
Ref: library/collections userlist-objects8147599
Ref: 24dd8147599
Ref: library/collections collections UserList8148197
Ref: 149b8148197
Ref: library/collections collections UserList data8148758
Ref: 24de8148758
Node: Objets UserString8149606
Ref: library/collections userstring-objects8149719
Ref: 24df8149719
Ref: library/collections collections UserString8150136
Ref: dc48150136
Ref: library/collections collections UserString data8150756
Ref: 24e08150756
Node: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers8151073
Ref: library/collections abc doc8151266
Ref: 24e18151266
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-containers8151266
Ref: 24e28151266
Ref: library/collections abc module-collections abc8151266
Ref: 1e8151266
Ref: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers-Footnote-18155360
Ref: collections abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers-Footnote-28155437
Node: Classes de base abstraites de collections8155479
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abstract-base-classes8155680
Ref: 8658155680
Ref: library/collections abc id18155680
Ref: 24e38155680
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-18165431
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-28165720
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-38166009
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-48166298
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-58166650
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-68166939
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-78167228
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-88167517
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-98167806
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-108168095
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-118168385
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-128168675
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-138168965
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-148169255
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-158169545
Ref: Classes de base abstraites de collections-Footnote-168169835
Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions8170125
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abstract-base-classes-detailed-descriptions8170355
Ref: 24e58170355
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Container8170488
Ref: 220d8170488
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Hashable8170607
Ref: 4e28170607
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Sized8170715
Ref: 4e38170715
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Callable8170820
Ref: 7d68170820
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Iterable8171046
Ref: 220b8171046
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Ref: array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values-Footnote-18221516
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Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter static_order8345243
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Ref: graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures-Footnote-18346771
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Ref: numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes-Footnote-18350079
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational numerator8352100
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational denominator8352151
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Ref: math --- Mathematical functions-Footnote-18373985
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Ref: Summation and product functions-Footnote-18394022
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Node: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic8420781
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Ref: decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic-Footnote-18427077
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Ref: 108e8491359
Ref: library/decimal decimal Overflow8491801
Ref: 26028491801
Ref: library/decimal decimal Rounded8492218
Ref: 26008492218
Ref: library/decimal decimal Subnormal8492557
Ref: 26018492557
Ref: library/decimal decimal Underflow8492780
Ref: 26038492780
Ref: library/decimal decimal FloatOperation8493006
Ref: 10888493006
Node: Floating-Point Notes8494283
Ref: library/decimal decimal-notes8494446
Ref: 26858494446
Ref: library/decimal floating-point-notes8494446
Ref: 26868494446
Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision8494590
Ref: library/decimal mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision8494721
Ref: 26878494721
Node: Special values8496410
Ref: library/decimal special-values8496541
Ref: 26888496541
Node: Working with threads8499671
Ref: library/decimal decimal-threads8499840
Ref: 26898499840
Ref: library/decimal working-with-threads8499840
Ref: 268a8499840
Node: Cas pratiques8501212
Ref: library/decimal decimal-recipes8501372
Ref: 268b8501372
Ref: library/decimal recipes8501372
Ref: 268c8501372
Node: FAQ decimal8506229
Ref: library/decimal decimal-faq8506360
Ref: 268d8506360
Ref: library/decimal id18506360
Ref: 268e8506360
Ref: FAQ decimal-Footnote-18515441
Ref: FAQ decimal-Footnote-28515508
Ref: FAQ decimal-Footnote-38515546
Ref: FAQ decimal-Footnote-48515604
Ref: FAQ decimal-Footnote-58515707
Node: fractions --- Rational numbers8515823
Ref: library/fractions doc8516047
Ref: 268f8516047
Ref: library/fractions fractions-rational-numbers8516047
Ref: 26908516047
Ref: library/fractions module-fractions8516047
Ref: 5c8516047
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction8516477
Ref: 1e48516477
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction numerator8520889
Ref: 26928520889
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction denominator8520972
Ref: 26938520972
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction as_integer_ratio8521059
Ref: 26948521059
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction is_integer8521311
Ref: 26958521311
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction from_float8521446
Ref: 11e48521446
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction from_decimal8521986
Ref: 11e58521986
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction limit_denominator8522394
Ref: 26918522394
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __floor__8523293
Ref: 173e8523293
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __ceil__8523610
Ref: 173d8523610
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __round__8523817
Ref: 173c8523817
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __format__8524382
Ref: 26968524382
Ref: fractions --- Rational numbers-Footnote-18526730
Ref: fractions --- Rational numbers-Footnote-28526799
Node: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers8526841
Ref: library/random doc8527052
Ref: 26978527052
Ref: library/random module-random8527052
Ref: b78527052
Ref: library/random random-generate-pseudo-random-numbers8527052
Ref: 26988527052
Ref: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers-Footnote-18530636
Ref: random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers-Footnote-28530702
Node: Fonctions de gestion d'état8530792
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Ref: 269a8530932
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Ref: 269c8532436
Node: Fonctions pour les octets8532739
Ref: library/random functions-for-bytes8532914
Ref: 269d8532914
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Ref: 19288532983
Node: Fonctions pour les entiers8533246
Ref: library/random functions-for-integers8533422
Ref: 269f8533422
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Ref: 8588533493
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Ref: ff88534753
Node: Fonctions pour les séquences8535218
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Ref: 26a08535391
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Ref: 12108535467
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Ref: library/random random sample8538712
Ref: 7328538712
Node: Discrete distributions8540546
Ref: library/random discrete-distributions8540730
Ref: 26a18540730
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Ref: 49c8540852
Ref: Discrete distributions-Footnote-18541421
Node: Distributions pour les nombres réels8541485
Ref: library/random id18541663
Ref: 26a28541663
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Ref: 26a38541663
Ref: library/random random random8542129
Ref: 7348542129
Ref: library/random random uniform8542251
Ref: 26a48542251
Ref: library/random random triangular8542592
Ref: 26a58542592
Ref: library/random random betavariate8542949
Ref: 26a68542949
Ref: library/random random expovariate8543150
Ref: 49d8543150
Ref: library/random random gammavariate8543629
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Ref: library/random random gauss8544147
Ref: 17fe8544147
Ref: library/random random lognormvariate8545079
Ref: 26a88545079
Ref: library/random random normalvariate8545419
Ref: 17ff8545419
Ref: library/random random vonmisesvariate8545646
Ref: 26a98545646
Ref: library/random random paretovariate8545995
Ref: 26aa8545995
Ref: library/random random weibullvariate8546106
Ref: 26ab8546106
Node: Générateur alternatif8546272
Ref: library/random alternative-generator8546462
Ref: 26ac8546462
Ref: library/random random Random8546525
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Ref: library/random random Random seed8547057
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Ref: library/random random Random getstate8547232
Ref: 26ad8547232
Ref: library/random random Random setstate8547398
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Ref: library/random random Random random8547569
Ref: 26af8547569
Ref: library/random random Random getrandbits8547819
Ref: 26b08547819
Ref: library/random random SystemRandom8547991
Ref: 26998547991
Node: Remarques sur la reproductibilité8548573
Ref: library/random notes-on-reproducibility8548737
Ref: 26b18548737
Node: Exemples<4>8549585
Ref: library/random examples8549742
Ref: 26b28549742
Ref: library/random random-examples8549742
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Ref: Exemples<4>-Footnote-18555112
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Ref: library/random recipes8555761
Ref: 26b38555761
Ref: Cas pratiques<2>-Footnote-18559237
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Ref: library/random command-line-usage8559455
Ref: 26b48559455
Ref: library/random random-cli8559455
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Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-integer8559948
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Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-float8560084
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Node: Command-line example8560413
Ref: library/random command-line-example8560538
Ref: 26bd8560538
Ref: library/random random-cli-example8560538
Ref: 26be8560538
Node: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions8561367
Ref: library/statistics doc8561539
Ref: 26bf8561539
Ref: library/statistics module-statistics8561539
Ref: d18561539
Ref: library/statistics statistics-mathematical-statistics-functions8561539
Ref: 26c08561539
Ref: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-18564232
Ref: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-28564302
Ref: statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-38564328
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Ref: library/statistics averages-and-measures-of-central-location8564516
Ref: 26c18564516
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Ref: library/statistics measures-of-spread8566741
Ref: 26c68566741
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Ref: library/statistics statistics-for-relations-between-two-inputs8567563
Ref: 26c98567563
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Ref: library/statistics function-details8568323
Ref: 26ca8568323
Ref: library/statistics statistics mean8568557
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Ref: library/statistics statistics harmonic_mean8572218
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Ref: library/statistics statistics kde8573888
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Ref: library/statistics statistics kde_random8575779
Ref: 2488575779
Ref: library/statistics statistics median8576841
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Ref: library/statistics statistics median_high8578801
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Ref: library/statistics statistics mode8581491
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Ref: library/statistics statistics multimode8583210
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Ref: library/statistics statistics pstdev8583614
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Ref: library/statistics statistics pvariance8583928
Ref: 26c88583928
Ref: library/statistics statistics stdev8586509
Ref: 6c08586509
Ref: library/statistics statistics variance8586820
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Ref: library/statistics statistics quantiles8589339
Ref: a278589339
Ref: library/statistics statistics covariance8592830
Ref: 81c8592830
Ref: library/statistics statistics correlation8593460
Ref: 4a88593460
Ref: library/statistics statistics linear_regression8595551
Ref: 81d8595551
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-18598149
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-28598209
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-38598279
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-48598375
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-58598433
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-68598505
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-78598556
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-88598626
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-98598707
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-108598779
Ref: Détails des fonctions-Footnote-118598843
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Ref: library/statistics exceptions8599056
Ref: 26cc8599056
Ref: library/statistics statistics StatisticsError8599132
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Ref: library/statistics normaldist-objects8599422
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Ref: a288599849
Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist mean8600112
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist mode8600373
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist stdev8600489
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist variance8600615
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist from_samples8600794
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist samples8601383
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist pdf8602114
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist cdf8602738
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist inv_cdf8602998
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist overlap8603440
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist quantiles8603669
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist zscore8604142
Ref: 26da8604142
Ref: Objets NormalDist-Footnote-18605691
Ref: Objets NormalDist-Footnote-28605753
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Ref: Objets NormalDist-Footnote-48605889
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Ref: Objets NormalDist-Footnote-68606007
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Node: Examples and Recipes8606786
Ref: library/statistics examples-and-recipes8606917
Ref: 26db8606917
Node: Classic probability problems8607129
Ref: library/statistics classic-probability-problems8607257
Ref: 26dc8607257
Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-18608090
Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-28608161
Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-38608208
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Ref: library/statistics monte-carlo-inputs-for-simulations8608426
Ref: 26dd8608426
Ref: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations-Footnote-18609114
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Ref: library/statistics approximating-binomial-distributions8609341
Ref: 26de8609341
Ref: Approximating binomial distributions-Footnote-18610920
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Ref: library/statistics naive-bayesian-classifier8611111
Ref: 26df8611111
Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-18613175
Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-28613259
Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-38613325
Node: Modules de programmation fonctionnelle8613384
Ref: library/functional doc8613574
Ref: 26e08613574
Ref: library/functional functional-programming-modules8613574
Ref: 26e18613574
Node: itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping8614262
Ref: library/itertools doc8614481
Ref: 26e28614481
Ref: library/itertools itertools-functions-creating-iterators-for-efficient-looping8614481
Ref: 26e38614481
Ref: library/itertools module-itertools8614481
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Node: Itertool Functions8625824
Ref: library/itertools itertool-functions8625970
Ref: 26eb8625970
Ref: library/itertools itertools-functions8625970
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Ref: library/itertools itertools accumulate8626210
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Ref: library/itertools itertools batched8628672
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Ref: library/itertools itertools chain8630024
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Ref: library/itertools itertools chain from_iterable8630503
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Ref: library/itertools itertools combinations_with_replacement8632572
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Ref: library/itertools itertools compress8634213
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Ref: library/itertools itertools count8634717
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Ref: library/itertools itertools cycle8635562
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Ref: library/itertools itertools dropwhile8636265
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Ref: library/itertools itertools filterfalse8636972
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Ref: library/itertools itertools groupby8637557
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Ref: library/itertools itertools islice8640361
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Ref: library/itertools itertools pairwise8642137
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Ref: library/itertools itertools permutations8642761
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Ref: library/itertools itertools starmap8647436
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Ref: Itertool Functions-Footnote-18653201
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Node: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects8667480
Ref: library/functools doc8667764
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Ref: library/functools functools-higher-order-functions-and-operations-on-callable-objects8667764
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Ref: library/functools module-functools8667764
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Ref: library/functools functools cache8668356
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Ref: library/functools functools cmp_to_key8672982
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Ref: library/functools functools total_ordering8679764
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Ref: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-18698881
Ref: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-28698950
Ref: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-38699010
Ref: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-48699052
Ref: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-58699144
Ref: functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-68699201
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Node: operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions8700590
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Ref: library/operator operator iand8721821
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Ref: library/operator operator __iand__8721856
Ref: 273f8721856
Ref: library/operator operator iconcat8721950
Ref: 27408721950
Ref: library/operator operator __iconcat__8721988
Ref: 27418721988
Ref: library/operator operator ifloordiv8722128
Ref: 27428722128
Ref: library/operator operator __ifloordiv__8722168
Ref: 27438722168
Ref: library/operator operator ilshift8722273
Ref: 27448722273
Ref: library/operator operator __ilshift__8722311
Ref: 27458722311
Ref: library/operator operator imod8722412
Ref: 27468722412
Ref: library/operator operator __imod__8722447
Ref: 27478722447
Ref: library/operator operator imul8722541
Ref: 27488722541
Ref: library/operator operator __imul__8722576
Ref: 27498722576
Ref: library/operator operator imatmul8722670
Ref: e258722670
Ref: library/operator operator __imatmul__8722708
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Ref: library/operator operator ior8722843
Ref: 274b8722843
Ref: library/operator operator __ior__8722877
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Ref: library/operator operator ipow8722969
Ref: 274d8722969
Ref: library/operator operator __ipow__8723004
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Ref: library/operator operator irshift8723099
Ref: 274f8723099
Ref: library/operator operator __irshift__8723137
Ref: 27508723137
Ref: library/operator operator isub8723238
Ref: 27518723238
Ref: library/operator operator __isub__8723273
Ref: 27528723273
Ref: library/operator operator itruediv8723367
Ref: 27538723367
Ref: library/operator operator __itruediv__8723406
Ref: 27548723406
Ref: library/operator operator ixor8723508
Ref: 27558723508
Ref: library/operator operator __ixor__8723543
Ref: 27568723543
Node: Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers8723637
Ref: library/filesys doc8723814
Ref: 27578723814
Ref: library/filesys file-and-directory-access8723814
Ref: 27588723814
Ref: library/filesys filesys8723814
Ref: 27598723814
Node: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet8724952
Ref: library/pathlib doc8725133
Ref: 275a8725133
Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib8725133
Ref: a38725133
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths8725133
Ref: 275b8725133
Ref: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet-Footnote-18727756
Ref: pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet-Footnote-28727821
Node: Utilisation basique8727863
Ref: library/pathlib basic-use8728000
Ref: 275f8728000
Node: Exceptions<6>8729042
Ref: library/pathlib exceptions8729200
Ref: 27608729200
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib UnsupportedOperation8729241
Ref: 2248729241
Node: Chemins purs8729480
Ref: library/pathlib id18729635
Ref: 27618729635
Ref: library/pathlib pure-paths8729635
Ref: 275c8729635
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath8729897
Ref: 4928729897
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePosixPath8732432
Ref: 27628732432
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PureWindowsPath8732809
Ref: 16bf8732809
Ref: Chemins purs-Footnote-18733698
Node: Propriétés générales8733757
Ref: library/pathlib general-properties8733853
Ref: 27638733853
Node: Opérateurs<2>8734743
Ref: library/pathlib operators8734882
Ref: 27648734882
Node: Accéder aux parties individuelles8736668
Ref: library/pathlib accessing-individual-parts8736808
Ref: 27658736808
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parts8737003
Ref: 27668737003
Node: Méthodes et propriétés8737432
Ref: library/pathlib methods-and-properties8737549
Ref: 27678737549
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parser8737690
Ref: 2298737690
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath drive8737905
Ref: 27688737905
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath root8738376
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath anchor8739476
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parents8739849
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parent8740381
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath name8741282
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffix8741716
Ref: 276c8741716
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffixes8742087
Ref: 276d8742087
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath stem8742452
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_posix8742756
Ref: 276f8742756
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_absolute8743041
Ref: 16e78743041
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_relative_to8743636
Ref: 2c78743636
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_reserved8744350
Ref: 2a38744350
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath joinpath8744959
Ref: 27708744959
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath full_match8745548
Ref: 2288745548
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath match8746565
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath relative_to8747477
Ref: 2c88747477
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_name8749698
Ref: 16b18749698
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_stem8750425
Ref: 16188750425
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_suffix8751455
Ref: 15d38751455
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_segments8752130
Ref: 4938752130
Ref: Méthodes et propriétés-Footnote-18753075
Node: Chemins concrets8753167
Ref: library/pathlib concrete-paths8753325
Ref: 275d8753325
Ref: library/pathlib id28753325
Ref: 27728753325
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path8753639
Ref: 2268753639
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PosixPath8754077
Ref: 27738754077
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib WindowsPath8754626
Ref: 275e8754626
Node: Analyse et génération des URI8756340
Ref: library/pathlib parsing-and-generating-uris8756468
Ref: 27748756468
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path from_uri8756761
Ref: 2278756761
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path as_uri8757813
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Ref: Analyse et génération des URI-Footnote-18758365
Node: Expansion et résolution de chemins8758424
Ref: library/pathlib expanding-and-resolving-paths8758599
Ref: 27778758599
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path home8758691
Ref: e328758691
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path expanduser8759124
Ref: e318759124
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path cwd8759594
Ref: 16e68759594
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path absolute8759823
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path resolve8760120
Ref: 16b68760120
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path readlink8761290
Ref: 90e8761290
Node: Requête sur type et statut du fichier8761809
Ref: library/pathlib querying-file-type-and-status8761988
Ref: 27788761988
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path stat8762456
Ref: 80f8762456
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lstat8763120
Ref: 27798763120
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path exists8763321
Ref: a068763321
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_file8763884
Ref: 22c8763884
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_dir8764431
Ref: 22d8764431
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_symlink8764989
Ref: a088764989
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_junction8765260
Ref: 4978765260
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_mount8765482
Ref: a078765482
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_socket8766201
Ref: a0c8766201
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_fifo8766611
Ref: a0b8766611
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_block_device8767003
Ref: a098767003
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_char_device8767417
Ref: a0a8767417
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path samefile8767860
Ref: e2f8767860
Node: Lecture et écriture de fichiers<2>8768457
Ref: library/pathlib reading-and-writing-files8768621
Ref: 277a8768621
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path open8768707
Ref: 277b8768707
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_text8769067
Ref: e348769067
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_bytes8769630
Ref: e368769630
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_text8769961
Ref: e338769961
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_bytes8770558
Ref: e358770558
Node: Lecture des dossiers8770959
Ref: library/pathlib reading-directories8771121
Ref: 277c8771121
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path iterdir8771184
Ref: 15ec8771184
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path glob8772064
Ref: 22a8772064
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rglob8774079
Ref: 22b8774079
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path walk8774845
Ref: 4948774845
Node: Création de fichiers et de dossiers8779829
Ref: library/pathlib creating-files-and-directories8779980
Ref: 277e8779980
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path touch8780074
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path mkdir8780659
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path symlink_to8781731
Ref: 80e8781731
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path hardlink_to8782827
Ref: 80d8782827
Node: Renommage et suppression8783287
Ref: library/pathlib renaming-and-deleting8783444
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rename8783515
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path replace8784558
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path unlink8785104
Ref: 19b08785104
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rmdir8785645
Ref: 277d8785645
Node: Permissions et propriété8785730
Ref: library/pathlib permissions-and-ownership8785842
Ref: 27838785842
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path owner8785915
Ref: 22e8785915
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path group8786537
Ref: 22f8786537
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path chmod8787161
Ref: 8108787161
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lchmod8787854
Ref: 27848787854
Node: Pattern language8788056
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-pattern-language8788244
Ref: 27718788244
Ref: library/pathlib pattern-language8788244
Ref: 27858788244
Node: Comparaison avec les outils du module glob8790471
Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-glob-module8790680
Ref: 27868790680
Node: Comparaison aux modules os et os path8792138
Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-os-and-os-path-modules8792322
Ref: 27878792322
Node: Outils correspondants8794487
Ref: library/pathlib corresponding-tools8794582
Ref: 27888794582
Ref: Outils correspondants-Footnote-18799887
Ref: Outils correspondants-Footnote-28800195
Ref: Outils correspondants-Footnote-38800374
Ref: Outils correspondants-Footnote-48800596
Node: os path --- Common pathname manipulations8800828
Ref: library/os path doc8801052
Ref: 278c8801052
Ref: library/os path module-os path8801052
Ref: a18801052
Ref: library/os path os-path-common-pathname-manipulations8801052
Ref: 278d8801052
Ref: library/os path os path abspath8803231
Ref: 12fb8803231
Ref: library/os path os path basename8803594
Ref: 278a8803594
Ref: library/os path os path commonpath8804140
Ref: e2c8804140
Ref: library/os path os path commonprefix8804724
Ref: e2d8804724
Ref: library/os path os path dirname8805384
Ref: 27898805384
Ref: library/os path os path exists8805668
Ref: 9fe8805668
Ref: library/os path os path lexists8806274
Ref: 9ff8806274
Ref: library/os path os path expanduser8806578
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Ref: library/os path os path expandvars8807666
Ref: 13928807666
Ref: library/os path os path getatime8808170
Ref: 278f8808170
Ref: library/os path os path getmtime8808470
Ref: 27908808470
Ref: library/os path os path getctime8808857
Ref: 27918808857
Ref: library/os path os path getsize8809357
Ref: 27928809357
Ref: library/os path os path isabs8809599
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Ref: library/os path os path isfile8810061
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Ref: library/os path os path isdir8810378
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Ref: library/os path os path isjunction8810691
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Ref: library/os path os path islink8810965
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Ref: library/os path os path ismount8811281
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Ref: library/os path os path isdevdrive8812193
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Ref: library/os path os path isreserved8813042
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Ref: library/os path os path join8813904
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Ref: library/os path os path normcase8815041
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Ref: library/os path os path normpath8815392
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Ref: library/os path os path realpath8816310
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Ref: library/os path os path relpath8817567
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Ref: library/os path os path samefile8818105
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Ref: library/os path os path sameopenfile8818648
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Ref: library/os path os path samestat8818933
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Ref: library/os path os path split8819461
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Ref: library/os path os path splitdrive8820262
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Ref: library/os path os path splitroot8821107
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Ref: library/os path os path splitext8822381
Ref: 278b8822381
Ref: library/os path os path supports_unicode_filenames8823355
Ref: 14428823355
Ref: os path --- Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-18823567
Ref: os path --- Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-28823638
Ref: os path --- Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-38823707
Ref: os path --- Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-48823773
Ref: os path --- Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-58823828
Ref: os path --- Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-68823920
Node: stat --- Interpreting stat results8824012
Ref: library/stat doc8824219
Ref: 27968824219
Ref: library/stat module-stat8824219
Ref: d08824219
Ref: library/stat stat-interpreting-stat-results8824219
Ref: 27978824219
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDIR8824912
Ref: 27988824912
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISCHR8825033
Ref: 27998825033
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISBLK8825188
Ref: 279a8825188
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISREG8825319
Ref: 279b8825319
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISFIFO8825443
Ref: 279c8825443
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISLNK8825572
Ref: 279d8825572
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISSOCK8825697
Ref: 279e8825697
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDOOR8825816
Ref: 19848825816
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISPORT8825937
Ref: 19858825937
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISWHT8826065
Ref: 19868826065
Ref: library/stat stat S_IMODE8826285
Ref: 279f8826285
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFMT8826547
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Ref: library/stat stat filemode8828074
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_MODE8828494
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_INO8828561
Ref: 27a18828561
Ref: library/stat stat ST_DEV8828613
Ref: 27a28828613
Ref: library/stat stat ST_NLINK8828671
Ref: 27a38828671
Ref: library/stat stat ST_UID8828738
Ref: 27a48828738
Ref: library/stat stat ST_GID8828813
Ref: 27a58828813
Ref: library/stat stat ST_SIZE8828886
Ref: 27a68828886
Ref: library/stat stat ST_ATIME8829002
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_MTIME8829064
Ref: 27a88829064
Ref: library/stat stat ST_CTIME8829137
Ref: 27a98829137
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFSOCK8830171
Ref: 27aa8830171
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFLNK8830214
Ref: 27ab8830214
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFREG8830265
Ref: 27ac8830265
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFBLK8830315
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IFDIR8830378
Ref: 27ae8830378
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFCHR8830421
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IFIFO8830490
Ref: 27b08830490
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFDOOR8830530
Ref: fa78830530
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFPORT8830606
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IFWHT8830688
Ref: fa98830688
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISUID8831040
Ref: 27b18831040
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISGID8831095
Ref: 27b28831095
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISVTX8831676
Ref: 27b58831676
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXU8831929
Ref: 27b68831929
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRUSR8831996
Ref: 27b78831996
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWUSR8832077
Ref: 27b88832077
Ref: library/stat stat S_IXUSR8832159
Ref: 27b98832159
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXG8832242
Ref: 27ba8832242
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRGRP8832324
Ref: 27bb8832324
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWGRP8832398
Ref: 27bc8832398
Ref: library/stat stat S_IXGRP8832473
Ref: 27b38832473
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXO8832549
Ref: 27bd8832549
Ref: library/stat stat S_IROTH8832631
Ref: 27be8832631
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWOTH8832694
Ref: 27bf8832694
Ref: library/stat stat S_IXOTH8832758
Ref: 27c08832758
Ref: library/stat stat S_ENFMT8832824
Ref: 27b48832824
Ref: library/stat stat S_IREAD8833061
Ref: 27c18833061
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWRITE8833136
Ref: 27c28833136
Ref: library/stat stat S_IEXEC8833212
Ref: 27c38833212
Ref: library/stat stat UF_SETTABLE8833374
Ref: 27c48833374
Ref: library/stat stat UF_NODUMP8833473
Ref: 27c58833473
Ref: library/stat stat UF_IMMUTABLE8833531
Ref: 27c68833531
Ref: library/stat stat UF_APPEND8833609
Ref: 27c78833609
Ref: library/stat stat UF_OPAQUE8833679
Ref: 27c88833679
Ref: library/stat stat UF_NOUNLINK8833774
Ref: 27c98833774
Ref: library/stat stat UF_COMPRESSED8833864
Ref: 27ca8833864
Ref: library/stat stat UF_TRACKED8833949
Ref: 27cb8833949
Ref: library/stat stat UF_DATAVAULT8834061
Ref: 27cc8834061
Ref: library/stat stat UF_HIDDEN8834204
Ref: 27cd8834204
Ref: library/stat stat SF_SETTABLE8834306
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_SUPPORTED8834412
Ref: 27cf8834412
Ref: library/stat stat SF_SYNTHETIC8834557
Ref: 27d08834557
Ref: library/stat stat SF_ARCHIVED8834712
Ref: 27d18834712
Ref: library/stat stat SF_IMMUTABLE8834782
Ref: 27d28834782
Ref: library/stat stat SF_APPEND8834860
Ref: 27d38834860
Ref: library/stat stat SF_RESTRICTED8834930
Ref: 27d48834930
Ref: library/stat stat SF_NOUNLINK8835063
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_SNAPSHOT8835153
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_FIRMLINK8835220
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_DATALESS8835332
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE8835787
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED8835829
Ref: 27da8835829
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE8835874
Ref: 27db8835874
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY8835915
Ref: 27dc8835915
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED8835959
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN8836003
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM8836044
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL8836095
Ref: 27e08836095
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED8836136
Ref: 27e18836136
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA8836190
Ref: 27e28836190
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE8836238
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY8836280
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT8836323
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE8836371
Ref: 27e68836371
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM8836417
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY8836458
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL8836502
Ref: 27e98836502
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK8836785
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Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT8836827
Ref: 27eb8836827
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK8836873
Ref: 27ec8836873
Ref: stat --- Interpreting stat results-Footnote-18836991
Ref: stat --- Interpreting stat results-Footnote-28837055
Ref: stat --- Interpreting stat results-Footnote-38837102
Node: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons8837182
Ref: library/filecmp doc8837401
Ref: 27ed8837401
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons8837401
Ref: 27ee8837401
Ref: library/filecmp module-filecmp8837401
Ref: 598837401
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmp8837915
Ref: 16198837915
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmpfiles8838808
Ref: 15a48838808
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp clear_cache8839893
Ref: f2b8839893
Ref: filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons-Footnote-18840251
Node: La classe dircmp8840318
Ref: library/filecmp dircmp-objects8840413
Ref: 27ef8840413
Ref: library/filecmp the-dircmp-class8840413
Ref: 27f08840413
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp8840474
Ref: f2d8840474
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report8841155
Ref: 27f18841155
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_partial_closure8841277
Ref: 27f28841277
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_full_closure8841430
Ref: 27f38841430
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left8841986
Ref: 27f48841986
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right8842042
Ref: 27f58842042
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_list8842099
Ref: 27f68842099
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_list8842224
Ref: 27f78842224
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common8842350
Ref: 27f88842350
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_only8842446
Ref: 27f98842446
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_only8842538
Ref: 27fa8842538
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_dirs8842631
Ref: 27fb8842631
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_files8842720
Ref: 27fc8842720
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_funny8842801
Ref: 27fd8842801
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp same_files8843002
Ref: 27fe8843002
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp diff_files8843158
Ref: 27ff8843158
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp funny_files8843366
Ref: 28008843366
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp subdirs8843499
Ref: 18d98843499
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp DEFAULT_IGNORES8843962
Ref: f2c8843962
Node: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories8844700
Ref: library/tempfile doc8844931
Ref: 28018844931
Ref: library/tempfile module-tempfile8844931
Ref: df8844931
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories8844931
Ref: 28028844931
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryFile8846253
Ref: 28038846253
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile NamedTemporaryFile8848711
Ref: 4b28848711
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile8852547
Ref: 6808852547
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile rollover8853068
Ref: 28078853068
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory8854064
Ref: 12148854064
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory name8854592
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory cleanup8854946
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkstemp8856244
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkdtemp8859686
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdir8861174
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdirb8862607
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefixb8862955
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Ref: tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories-Footnote-18864932
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Ref: library/tempfile examples8865143
Ref: 280d8865143
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-examples8865143
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-mktemp-deprecated8866688
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mktemp8867387
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Ref: library/glob doc8868838
Ref: 28108868838
Ref: library/glob glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion8868838
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Ref: library/glob module-glob8868838
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Ref: library/glob glob escape8873475
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Ref: library/glob glob translate8873985
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Ref: glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion-Footnote-18875557
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Ref: library/glob examples8875715
Ref: 28128875715
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching8877098
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Ref: library/fnmatch module-fnmatch8877098
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Ref: fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching-Footnote-18881184
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Ref: linecache --- Random access to text lines-Footnote-28884390
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Ref: library/shutil module-shutil8884591
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Ref: shutil --- High-level file operations-Footnote-18885901
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Ref: library/shutil file-operations8886118
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Ref: library/shutil platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8908358
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8908358
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Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-18909474
Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-28909539
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Ref: library/shutil copytree-example8909764
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-copytree-example8909764
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Ref: library/shutil rmtree-example8910548
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-rmtree-example8910548
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Ref: library/shutil id18911289
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Ref: Archiving operations-Footnote-18920083
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Ref: library/shutil archiving-example8920239
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example8920239
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Ref: library/shutil archiving-example-with-base-dir8921442
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example-with-basedir8921442
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Node: Querying the size of the output terminal8922544
Ref: library/shutil querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal8922687
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Ref: library/shutil shutil get_terminal_size8922788
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Ref: Querying the size of the output terminal-Footnote-18924556
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Ref: library/persistence doc8924813
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Ref: library/persistence data-persistence8924813
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Ref: library/persistence persistence8924813
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Ref: library/pickle doc8926089
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Ref: library/pickle module-pickle8926089
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-python-object-serialization8926089
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Ref: pickle --- Python object serialization-Footnote-18928093
Ref: pickle --- Python object serialization-Footnote-28928159
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Ref: library/pickle relationship-to-other-python-modules8928378
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Ref: Comparaison avec json-Footnote-18932621
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-protocols8932819
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Ref: Format du flux de données-Footnote-38936279
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Ref: library/pickle module-interface8936493
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Ref: library/pickle pickle HIGHEST_PROTOCOL8936975
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer release8952257
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Node: Quels objets sont sérialisables ?8952375
Ref: library/pickle pickle-picklable8952562
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Ref: library/pickle what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled8952562
Ref: 28538952562
Ref: Quels objets sont sérialisables ?-Footnote-18955394
Ref: Quels objets sont sérialisables ?-Footnote-28955567
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Ref: library/pickle pickling-class-instances8955943
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Ref: Sérialisation des instances d'une classe-Footnote-18965520
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Ref: Persistance d'objets externes-Footnote-18970428
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Ref: library/pickle example8980583
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Ref: Exemple<4>-Footnote-18983124
Node: Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global8983166
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-example8987099
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Node: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions8988428
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Ref: library/copyreg copyreg pickle8989553
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Ref: copyreg --- Register pickle support functions-Footnote-18990289
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Node: shelve --- Python object persistence8991014
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Ref: shelve --- Python object persistence-Footnote-28995721
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Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf8997296
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Ref: library/shelve shelve BsdDbShelf8998900
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Ref: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-29029574
Ref: sqlite3 --- DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-39029616
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Ref: Fonctions et constantes du module-Footnote-19053414
Ref: Fonctions et constantes du module-Footnote-29053457
Ref: Fonctions et constantes du module-Footnote-39053512
Node: Connection objects9053563
Ref: library/sqlite3 connection-objects9053698
Ref: 28c29053698
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-objects9053698
Ref: 28c39053698
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection9053755
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection cursor9054449
Ref: 288f9054449
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection blobopen9054763
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection commit9056036
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection rollback9056397
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection close9056765
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection execute9057186
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection executemany9057415
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection executescript9057650
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_function9057874
Ref: 2a69057874
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_aggregate9059575
Ref: 2a79059575
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_window_function9061518
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_collation9064725
Ref: 6639064725
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection interrupt9066165
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection set_authorizer9066395
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection set_progress_handler9068041
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection set_trace_callback9068899
Ref: 2aa9068899
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection enable_load_extension9070215
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection load_extension9072570
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection iterdump9073575
Ref: 2449073575
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection backup9074608
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection getlimit9076984
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection setlimit9077627
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection getconfig9078730
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection setconfig9079013
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection serialize9079470
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection deserialize9080230
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection autocommit9081396
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection in_transaction9082829
Ref: 28cf9082829
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection isolation_level9083121
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection row_factory9084059
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection text_factory9084554
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection total_changes9084959
Ref: 28d29084959
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-19085189
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-29085235
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-39085300
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-49085359
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-59085418
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-69085460
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-79085502
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-89085594
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-99085636
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-109085728
Node: Cursor objects9085829
Ref: library/sqlite3 cursor-objects9085942
Ref: 28d39085942
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cursor-objects9085942
Ref: 28d49085942
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor9086552
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor execute9086664
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor executemany9088158
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor executescript9089659
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchone9090509
Ref: 28919090509
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchmany9090791
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchall9091632
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor close9091915
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor setinputsizes9092221
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor setoutputsize9092332
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor arraysize9092455
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor connection9092683
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor description9093184
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor lastrowid9093559
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor rowcount9094257
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor row_factory9094814
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-columns-by-name9095598
Ref: 28db9095598
Ref: Cursor objects-Footnote-19095634
Ref: Cursor objects-Footnote-29095691
Node: Row objects9095742
Ref: library/sqlite3 row-objects9095849
Ref: 28dc9095849
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-row-objects9095849
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Row9095892
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Row keys9096344
Ref: 28de9096344
Node: Blob objects9096630
Ref: library/sqlite3 blob-objects9096746
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-blob-objects9096746
Ref: 28e09096746
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob9096791
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob close9097969
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob read9098221
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob write9098579
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob tell9098810
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob seek9098897
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Node: PrepareProtocol objects9099323
Ref: library/sqlite3 prepareprotocol-objects9099441
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PrepareProtocol9099508
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Ref: PrepareProtocol objects-Footnote-19099776
Node: Exceptions<7>9099818
Ref: library/sqlite3 exceptions9099947
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-exceptions9099947
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Warning9100059
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error9100360
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorcode9100716
Ref: 6659100716
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorname9100851
Ref: 6669100851
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InterfaceError9101017
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DatabaseError9101296
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DataError9101611
Ref: 18599101611
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 OperationalError9101860
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 IntegrityError9102212
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InternalError9102424
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 ProgrammingError9102700
Ref: 4df9102700
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 NotSupportedError9103008
Ref: 28cb9103008
Ref: Exceptions<7>-Footnote-19103441
Ref: Exceptions<7>-Footnote-29103483
Ref: Exceptions<7>-Footnote-39103523
Node: SQLite and Python types9103563
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite-and-python-types9103711
Ref: 28ec9103711
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-types9103711
Ref: 289c9103711
Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated9105623
Ref: library/sqlite3 default-adapters-and-converters-deprecated9105780
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-default-converters9105780
Ref: 4dc9105780
Ref: Default adapters and converters deprecated-Footnote-19106998
Node: Command-line interface9107045
Ref: library/sqlite3 command-line-interface9107170
Ref: 28ee9107170
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cli9107170
Ref: 42c9107170
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-h9107518
Ref: 28ef9107518
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-help9107518
Ref: 28f09107518
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-v9107564
Ref: 28f19107564
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-version9107564
Ref: 28f29107564
Node: How-to guides9107669
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-guides9107816
Ref: 28f39107816
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howtos9107816
Ref: 288c9107816
Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries9108282
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-placeholders-to-bind-values-in-sql-queries9108443
Ref: 28f49108443
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-placeholders9108443
Ref: 2d19108443
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-19110688
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-29110740
Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values9110782
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-adapt-custom-python-types-to-sqlite-values9111003
Ref: 28f59111003
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapters9111003
Ref: 28959111003
Node: How to write adaptable objects9111792
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-write-adaptable-objects9111950
Ref: 28f69111950
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-conform9111950
Ref: 28e79111950
Node: How to register adapter callables9112861
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-register-adapter-callables9113019
Ref: 28f79113019
Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types9113663
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-convert-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types9113860
Ref: 28f89113860
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-converters9113860
Ref: 28969113860
Node: Adapter and converter recipes9116427
Ref: library/sqlite3 adapter-and-converter-recipes9116613
Ref: 28f99116613
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapter-converter-recipes9116613
Ref: 4dd9116613
Node: How to use connection shortcut methods9118049
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-connection-shortcut-methods9118225
Ref: 28fa9118225
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-shortcuts9118225
Ref: 28c49118225
Node: How to use the connection context manager9119507
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-the-connection-context-manager9119682
Ref: 28fb9119682
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-context-manager9119682
Ref: 179f9119682
Node: How to work with SQLite URIs9121433
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-work-with-sqlite-uris9121605
Ref: 28fd9121605
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-uri-tricks9121605
Ref: 28a39121605
Ref: How to work with SQLite URIs-Footnote-19122908
Node: How to create and use row factories9122948
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-create-and-use-row-factories9123117
Ref: 28fe9123117
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-row-factory9123117
Ref: 28979123117
Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings9125977
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-handle-non-utf-8-text-encodings9126109
Ref: 28ff9126109
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-encoding9126109
Ref: 28ce9126109
Ref: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings-Footnote-19127449
Node: Explanation9127498
Ref: library/sqlite3 explanation9127621
Ref: 29009127621
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-explanation9127621
Ref: 288d9127621
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control9127666
Ref: 29019127666
Node: Transaction control9127700
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-controlling-transactions9127767
Ref: 28929127767
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control9127767
Ref: 29029127767
Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute9128260
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-autocommit9128426
Ref: 4a39128426
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-autocommit-attribute9128426
Ref: 29039128426
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-19130181
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-29130223
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-39130315
Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute9130357
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-isolation-level9130523
Ref: 28a19130523
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-isolation-level-attribute9130523
Ref: 29049130523
Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-19132616
Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-29132716
Node: Compression de donnée et archivage9132808
Ref: library/archiving doc9132966
Ref: 283f9132966
Ref: library/archiving archiving9132966
Ref: 29059132966
Ref: library/archiving data-compression-and-archiving9132966
Ref: 29069132966
Node: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip9133791
Ref: library/zlib doc9133944
Ref: 29079133944
Ref: library/zlib module-zlib9133944
Ref: 1329133944
Ref: library/zlib zlib-compression-compatible-with-gzip9133944
Ref: 29089133944
Ref: library/zlib zlib error9135104
Ref: 29099135104
Ref: library/zlib zlib adler329135206
Ref: 17e69135206
Ref: library/zlib zlib compress9136140
Ref: 62c9136140
Ref: library/zlib compress-wbits9136782
Ref: 290a9136782
Ref: library/zlib zlib compressobj9138105
Ref: 290b9138105
Ref: library/zlib zlib crc329140269
Ref: 16509140269
Ref: library/zlib zlib decompress9141117
Ref: cfd9141117
Ref: library/zlib decompress-wbits9141590
Ref: 290c9141590
Ref: library/zlib zlib decompressobj9143669
Ref: 290d9143669
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress compress9144735
Ref: 290e9144735
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress flush9145109
Ref: 290f9145109
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress copy9145985
Ref: 29109145985
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unused_data9146392
Ref: 29119146392
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unconsumed_tail9146743
Ref: 29129146743
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress eof9147269
Ref: 114f9147269
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress decompress9147533
Ref: 29139147533
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress flush9148584
Ref: 29149148584
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress copy9149016
Ref: 29159149016
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_VERSION9149519
Ref: 29169149519
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION9149806
Ref: 11509149806
Ref: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-19150507
Ref: zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-29150552
Node: gzip --- Support for gzip files9150605
Ref: library/gzip doc9150804
Ref: 29179150804
Ref: library/gzip gzip-support-for-gzip-files9150804
Ref: 29189150804
Ref: library/gzip module-gzip9150804
Ref: 669150804
Ref: library/gzip gzip open9151892
Ref: 29199151892
Ref: library/gzip gzip BadGzipFile9153558
Ref: 9e79153558
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile9153818
Ref: 4109153818
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile peek9157083
Ref: 11eb9157083
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mode9157689
Ref: 291c9157689
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mtime9157887
Ref: 291a9157887
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile name9158226
Ref: 4f99158226
Ref: library/gzip gzip compress9159626
Ref: 62b9159626
Ref: library/gzip gzip decompress9160588
Ref: 11ec9160588
Ref: gzip --- Support for gzip files-Footnote-19161273
Node: Exemples d'utilisation9161337
Ref: library/gzip examples-of-usage9161466
Ref: 291e9161466
Ref: library/gzip gzip-usage-examples9161466
Ref: 291f9161466
Ref: Exemples d'utilisation-Footnote-19162654
Node: Interface en ligne de commande9162707
Ref: library/gzip command-line-interface9162836
Ref: 29209162836
Ref: library/gzip gzip-cli9162836
Ref: 29219162836
Node: Options de la ligne de commande9163290
Ref: library/gzip command-line-options9163388
Ref: 29229163388
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-arg-file9163471
Ref: 29239163471
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-fast9163555
Ref: 29249163555
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-best9163642
Ref: 29259163642
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-d9163729
Ref: 29269163729
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-decompress9163729
Ref: 29279163729
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-h9163792
Ref: 29289163792
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-help9163792
Ref: 29299163792
Node: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression9163849
Ref: library/bz2 doc9164052
Ref: 292a9164052
Ref: library/bz2 bz2-support-for-bzip2-compression9164052
Ref: 292b9164052
Ref: library/bz2 module-bz29164052
Ref: 139164052
Ref: bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression-Footnote-19165093
Node: Dé compression de fichiers9165156
Ref: library/bz2 de-compression-of-files9165297
Ref: 292c9165297
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 open9165373
Ref: 10799165373
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File9166950
Ref: 8539166950
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File peek9168466
Ref: 292e9168466
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File fileno9169151
Ref: 292f9169151
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readable9169284
Ref: 29309169284
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File seekable9169415
Ref: 29319169415
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File writable9169540
Ref: 29329169540
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File read19169671
Ref: 29339169671
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readinto9169999
Ref: 29349169999
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File mode9170161
Ref: 29359170161
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File name9170289
Ref: 29369170289
Node: Dé compression incrémentielle9171769
Ref: library/bz2 incremental-de-compression9171946
Ref: 29389171946
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor9172029
Ref: 17199172029
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor compress9172449
Ref: 29399172449
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor flush9172826
Ref: 293a9172826
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor9173091
Ref: 17179173091
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor decompress9173784
Ref: dbb9173784
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor eof9175374
Ref: 293d9175374
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor unused_data9175507
Ref: 293c9175507
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor needs_input9175719
Ref: 293b9175719
Node: Dé compression en une fois9175980
Ref: library/bz2 one-shot-de-compression9176155
Ref: 293e9176155
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 compress9176231
Ref: 23cc9176231
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 decompress9176574
Ref: 107a9176574
Node: Exemples d'utilisation<2>9176968
Ref: library/bz2 bz2-usage-examples9177103
Ref: 293f9177103
Ref: library/bz2 examples-of-usage9177103
Ref: 29409177103
Node: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm9180135
Ref: library/lzma doc9180341
Ref: 29419180341
Ref: library/lzma lzma-compression-using-the-lzma-algorithm9180341
Ref: 29429180341
Ref: library/lzma module-lzma9180341
Ref: 899180341
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAError9181230
Ref: 29439181230
Ref: lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm-Footnote-19181701
Node: Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés9181765
Ref: library/lzma reading-and-writing-compressed-files9181947
Ref: 29449181947
Ref: library/lzma lzma open9182046
Ref: 29459182046
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile9183963
Ref: ff79183963
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile peek9186032
Ref: 29469186032
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile mode9186702
Ref: 29479186702
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile name9186830
Ref: 29489186830
Node: Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire9187319
Ref: library/lzma compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory9187519
Ref: 29499187519
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor9187639
Ref: 17189187639
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor compress9191472
Ref: 294c9191472
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor flush9192010
Ref: 294d9192010
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor9192317
Ref: 17169192317
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor decompress9194013
Ref: e1d9194013
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor check9195603
Ref: 29519195603
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor eof9195885
Ref: 29529195885
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor unused_data9195978
Ref: 29509195978
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor needs_input9196136
Ref: 294f9196136
Ref: library/lzma lzma compress9196397
Ref: 294a9196397
Ref: library/lzma lzma decompress9196756
Ref: 294e9196756
Node: Divers<2>9197298
Ref: library/lzma miscellaneous9197506
Ref: 29539197506
Ref: library/lzma lzma is_check_supported9197539
Ref: 29549197539
Node: Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées9197922
Ref: library/lzma filter-chain-specs9198090
Ref: 294b9198090
Ref: library/lzma specifying-custom-filter-chains9198090
Ref: 29559198090
Node: Exemples<8>9201132
Ref: library/lzma examples9201282
Ref: 29569201282
Node: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives9202721
Ref: library/zipfile doc9202934
Ref: 29579202934
Ref: library/zipfile module-zipfile9202934
Ref: 1309202934
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-work-with-zip-archives9202934
Ref: 29589202934
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipFile9203912
Ref: 179a9203912
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipfile9204036
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile LargeZipFile9204220
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo9204896
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile is_zipfile9205883
Ref: 130a9205883
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_STORED9206226
Ref: 295f9206226
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_DEFLATED9206332
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_BZIP29206489
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_LZMA9206665
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Ref: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-19207770
Ref: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-29207835
Ref: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-39207903
Ref: zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-49207971
Node: Objets ZipFile9208012
Ref: library/zipfile id19208117
Ref: 29639208117
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-objects9208117
Ref: 295b9208117
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile9208166
Ref: 6b19208166
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile close9213715
Ref: 29649213715
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile getinfo9213918
Ref: 295c9213918
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile infolist9214180
Ref: 295d9214180
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile namelist9214462
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_dict9385124
Ref: 2a419385124
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser get9385830
Ref: 124c9385830
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getint9386794
Ref: 2a399386794
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getfloat9387085
Ref: 2a3a9387085
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getboolean9387391
Ref: 2a389387391
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser items9388124
Ref: 2a4f9388124
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser set9388773
Ref: 124d9388773
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser write9389060
Ref: 2a429389060
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_option9389759
Ref: 2a519389759
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_section9390075
Ref: 2a529390075
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser optionxform9390289
Ref: 2a489390289
Ref: library/configparser configparser UNNAMED_SECTION9391262
Ref: 2a3d9391262
Ref: library/configparser configparser MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH9391437
Ref: 2a539391437
Node: RawConfigParser Objects9391674
Ref: library/configparser id159391827
Ref: 2a549391827
Ref: library/configparser rawconfigparser-objects9391827
Ref: 2a559391827
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser9391896
Ref: f519391896
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser add_section9393312
Ref: 2a569393312
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser set9393789
Ref: 2a579393789
Node: Exceptions<8>9394618
Ref: library/configparser exceptions9394742
Ref: 2a589394742
Ref: library/configparser configparser Error9394785
Ref: 2a599394785
Ref: library/configparser configparser NoSectionError9394887
Ref: 2a509394887
Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateSectionError9394993
Ref: 124f9394993
Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateOptionError9395408
Ref: 12509395408
Ref: library/configparser configparser NoOptionError9395768
Ref: 2a5a9395768
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationError9395902
Ref: 2a5b9395902
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationDepthError9396047
Ref: 2a5c9396047
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationMissingOptionError9396307
Ref: 2a5d9396307
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationSyntaxError9396496
Ref: 2a5e9396496
Ref: library/configparser configparser MissingSectionHeaderError9396724
Ref: 2a5f9396724
Ref: library/configparser configparser ParsingError9396869
Ref: 4f19396869
Ref: library/configparser configparser MultilineContinuationError9397177
Ref: 2a499397177
Node: tomllib --- Parse TOML files9397387
Ref: library/tomllib doc9397562
Ref: 2a609397562
Ref: library/tomllib module-tomllib9397562
Ref: fb9397562
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib-parse-toml-files9397562
Ref: 2a619397562
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib load9398412
Ref: 2a629398412
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib loads9399137
Ref: 2a659399137
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError9399556
Ref: 2a649399556
Ref: tomllib --- Parse TOML files-Footnote-19399730
Ref: tomllib --- Parse TOML files-Footnote-29399794
Ref: tomllib --- Parse TOML files-Footnote-39399822
Ref: tomllib --- Parse TOML files-Footnote-49399864
Node: Exemples<11>9399906
Ref: library/tomllib examples9400008
Ref: 2a669400008
Node: Conversion Table9400348
Ref: library/tomllib conversion-table9400450
Ref: 2a679400450
Ref: library/tomllib toml-to-py-table9400503
Ref: 2a639400503
Node: netrc --- netrc file processing9401863
Ref: library/netrc doc9402045
Ref: 2a689402045
Ref: library/netrc module-netrc9402045
Ref: 9a9402045
Ref: library/netrc netrc-netrc-file-processing9402045
Ref: 2a699402045
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc9402375
Ref: 187e9402375
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError9404328
Ref: 2a6a9404328
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError msg9404554
Ref: 2a6b9404554
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError filename9404623
Ref: 2a6c9404623
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError lineno9404692
Ref: 2a6d9404692
Ref: netrc --- netrc file processing-Footnote-19404839
Node: Objets netrc9404904
Ref: library/netrc id19404984
Ref: 2a6e9404984
Ref: library/netrc netrc-objects9404984
Ref: 2a6f9404984
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc authenticators9405095
Ref: 2a709405095
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc __repr__9405485
Ref: 2a719405485
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc hosts9405774
Ref: 2a729405774
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc macros9406018
Ref: 2a739406018
Node: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files9406132
Ref: library/plistlib doc9406277
Ref: 2a749406277
Ref: library/plistlib module-plistlib9406277
Ref: aa9406277
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib-generate-and-parse-apple-plist-files9406277
Ref: 2a759406277
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib load9407733
Ref: 93e9407733
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib loads9408990
Ref: 93f9408990
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dump9409350
Ref: 9409409350
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dumps9410765
Ref: 9419410765
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID9411130
Ref: a119411130
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID data9411311
Ref: 2a769411311
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_XML9411503
Ref: f669411503
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_BINARY9411608
Ref: f679411608
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib InvalidFileException9411764
Ref: 18ec9411764
Ref: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-19411960
Ref: plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-29412028
Node: Exemples<12>9412127
Ref: library/plistlib examples9412225
Ref: 2a779412225
Node: Service de cryptographie9413080
Ref: library/crypto doc9413251
Ref: 2a789413251
Ref: library/crypto crypto9413251
Ref: 2a799413251
Ref: library/crypto cryptographic-services9413251
Ref: 2a7a9413251
Node: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages9413893
Ref: library/hashlib doc9414083
Ref: 2a7b9414083
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-secure-hashes-and-message-digests9414083
Ref: 2a7c9414083
Ref: library/hashlib module-hashlib9414083
Ref: 679414083
Ref: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages-Footnote-19415201
Ref: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages-Footnote-29415268
Ref: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages-Footnote-39415325
Ref: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages-Footnote-49415375
Ref: hashlib --- Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages-Footnote-59415445
Node: Algorithmes de hachage9415504
Ref: library/hashlib hash-algorithms9415654
Ref: 2a7d9415654
Ref: library/hashlib id19415654
Ref: 2a7e9415654
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-usedforsecurity9418111
Ref: 2a889418111
Ref: Algorithmes de hachage-Footnote-19418921
Ref: Algorithmes de hachage-Footnote-29419029
Node: Utilisation9419076
Ref: library/hashlib usage9419248
Ref: 2a899419248
Node: Constructeurs9419917
Ref: library/hashlib constructors9420077
Ref: 2a8a9420077
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib new9420124
Ref: 19049420124
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib md59420686
Ref: 2a869420686
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha19420747
Ref: 2a829420747
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha2249420809
Ref: 2a839420809
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha2569420873
Ref: 151d9420873
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3849420937
Ref: 2a849420937
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha5129421001
Ref: 2a859421001
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_2249421065
Ref: c929421065
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_2569421131
Ref: c939421131
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_3849421197
Ref: c949421197
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_5129421263
Ref: c959421263
Node: Attributes9421427
Ref: library/hashlib attributes9421604
Ref: 2a8b9421604
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_guaranteed9421702
Ref: 134c9421702
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_available9422096
Ref: 134d9422096
Node: Objets de calcul d'empreinte9422566
Ref: library/hashlib hash-objects9422777
Ref: 2a8c9422777
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest_size9422991
Ref: 2a8d9422991
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash block_size9423071
Ref: 2a8e9423071
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash name9423229
Ref: f359423229
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash update9423776
Ref: 2a7f9423776
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest9424075
Ref: 2a809424075
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash hexdigest9424336
Ref: 2a819424336
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash copy9424700
Ref: 2a8f9424700
Node: Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE9424926
Ref: library/hashlib shake-variable-length-digests9425168
Ref: 2a909425168
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_1289425283
Ref: c969425283
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_2569425350
Ref: c979425350
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake digest9425748
Ref: 19f79425748
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake hexdigest9425983
Ref: 19f89425983
Node: Calcul d'empreinte ou hachage de fichiers9426515
Ref: library/hashlib file-hashing9426748
Ref: 2a919426748
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib file_digest9427021
Ref: 6319427021
Node: Dérivation de clé9428800
Ref: library/hashlib key-derivation9428992
Ref: 2a929428992
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib pbkdf2_hmac9429365
Ref: 4fb9429365
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib scrypt9431496
Ref: c2e9431496
Ref: Dérivation de clé-Footnote-19432359
Ref: Dérivation de clé-Footnote-29432420
Ref: Dérivation de clé-Footnote-39432507
Ref: Dérivation de clé-Footnote-49432618
Node: BLAKE29432677
Ref: library/hashlib blake29432819
Ref: 2a939432819
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-blake29432819
Ref: 1d4e9432819
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-19433696
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-29433727
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-39433786
Node: Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte9433864
Ref: library/hashlib creating-hash-objects9433969
Ref: 2a949433969
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b9434160
Ref: 62f9434160
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s9434396
Ref: 6309434396
Ref: Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte-Footnote-19437932
Node: Constantes<5>9437979
Ref: library/hashlib constants9438105
Ref: 2a959438105
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b SALT_SIZE9438148
Ref: 2a969438148
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s SALT_SIZE9438181
Ref: 2a979438181
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b PERSON_SIZE9438284
Ref: 2a989438284
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s PERSON_SIZE9438319
Ref: 2a999438319
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_KEY_SIZE9438451
Ref: 2a9a9438451
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_KEY_SIZE9438487
Ref: 2a9b9438487
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_DIGEST_SIZE9438549
Ref: 2a9c9438549
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_DIGEST_SIZE9438588
Ref: 2a9d9438588
Node: Exemples<13>9438696
Ref: library/hashlib examples9438790
Ref: 2a9e9438790
Node: Hachage simple9439050
Ref: library/hashlib simple-hashing9439169
Ref: 2a9f9439169
Node: Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes9440823
Ref: library/hashlib using-different-digest-sizes9441007
Ref: 2aa09441007
Node: Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message9442340
Ref: library/hashlib keyed-hashing9442528
Ref: 2aa19442528
Ref: Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message-Footnote-19444842
Node: Hachage randomisé9444920
Ref: library/hashlib randomized-hashing9445080
Ref: 2aa29445080
Ref: Hachage randomisé-Footnote-19448006
Ref: Hachage randomisé-Footnote-29448058
Node: Personnalisation<2>9448089
Ref: library/hashlib personalization9448203
Ref: 2aa39448203
Ref: Personnalisation<2>-Footnote-19450397
Node: Mode Arbre9450467
Ref: library/hashlib tree-mode9450554
Ref: 2aa49450554
Node: Crédits9451861
Ref: library/hashlib credits9451933
Ref: 2aa59451933
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-seealso9453553
Ref: 2a879453553
Ref: Crédits-Footnote-19454690
Ref: Crédits-Footnote-29454721
Ref: Crédits-Footnote-39454799
Ref: Crédits-Footnote-49454860
Ref: Crédits-Footnote-59454897
Ref: Crédits-Footnote-69454940
Node: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication9454983
Ref: library/hmac doc9455245
Ref: 2aa69455245
Ref: library/hmac hmac-keyed-hashing-for-message-authentication9455245
Ref: 2aa79455245
Ref: library/hmac module-hmac9455245
Ref: 699455245
Ref: library/hmac hmac new9455543
Ref: a8f9455543
Ref: library/hmac hmac digest9456607
Ref: b2e9456607
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC update9457421
Ref: f379457421
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest9457816
Ref: 2aa89457816
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC hexdigest9458504
Ref: 2aa99458504
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC copy9459196
Ref: 2aaa9459196
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest_size9459526
Ref: f3a9459526
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC block_size9459660
Ref: f389459660
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC name9459798
Ref: f399459798
Ref: library/hmac hmac compare_digest9460155
Ref: 10ad9460155
Ref: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-19461240
Ref: hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-29461304
Node: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets9461363
Ref: library/secrets doc9461545
Ref: 2aab9461545
Ref: library/secrets module-secrets9461545
Ref: bf9461545
Ref: library/secrets secrets-generate-secure-random-numbers-for-managing-secrets9461545
Ref: 2aac9461545
Ref: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-19462489
Ref: secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-29462556
Node: Nombres aléatoires9462598
Ref: library/secrets random-numbers9462748
Ref: 2aad9462748
Ref: library/secrets secrets SystemRandom9462935
Ref: 2aae9462935
Ref: library/secrets secrets choice9463205
Ref: 2aaf9463205
Ref: library/secrets secrets randbelow9463307
Ref: 2ab09463307
Ref: library/secrets secrets randbits9463433
Ref: 2ab19463433
Node: Génération de jetons9463523
Ref: library/secrets generating-tokens9463698
Ref: 2ab29463698
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_bytes9463959
Ref: 269e9463959
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_hex9464267
Ref: 17679464267
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_urlsafe9464684
Ref: 2ab39464684
Node: Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?9465173
Ref: library/secrets how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use9465278
Ref: 2ab49465278
Ref: Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?-Footnote-19466530
Node: Autres fonctions9466592
Ref: library/secrets other-functions9466776
Ref: 2ab59466776
Ref: library/secrets secrets compare_digest9466829
Ref: 2ab69466829
Ref: Autres fonctions-Footnote-19467177
Node: Recettes et bonnes pratiques9467234
Ref: library/secrets recipes-and-best-practices9467387
Ref: 2ab79467387
Ref: Recettes et bonnes pratiques-Footnote-19469237
Ref: Recettes et bonnes pratiques-Footnote-29469293
Node: Services génériques du système d'exploitation9469323
Ref: library/allos doc9469507
Ref: 2ab89469507
Ref: library/allos allos9469507
Ref: 2ab99469507
Ref: library/allos generic-operating-system-services9469507
Ref: 2aba9469507
Node: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces9470792
Ref: library/os doc9470976
Ref: 2abb9470976
Ref: library/os module-os9470976
Ref: a09470976
Ref: library/os os-miscellaneous-operating-system-interfaces9470976
Ref: 2abc9470976
Ref: library/os os error9473429
Ref: 2abf9473429
Ref: library/os os name9473517
Ref: 2ac09473517
Ref: library/os os-filenames9473994
Ref: 2a0a9473994
Ref: os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces-Footnote-19474517
Node: Noms de fichiers arguments en ligne de commande et variables d'environnement9474579
Ref: library/os file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables9474772
Ref: 2ac19474772
Ref: library/os filesystem-encoding9474772
Ref: 27759474772
Node: Le mode UTF-8 de Python9476199
Ref: library/os python-utf-8-mode9476425
Ref: 2ac29476425
Ref: library/os utf8-mode9476425
Ref: 6439476425
Ref: Le mode UTF-8 de Python-Footnote-19479536
Ref: Le mode UTF-8 de Python-Footnote-29479578
Node: Paramètres de processus9479620
Ref: library/os os-procinfo9479798
Ref: 2ac39479798
Ref: library/os process-parameters9479798
Ref: 2ac49479798
Ref: library/os os ctermid9479979
Ref: 2ac59479979
Ref: library/os os environ9480153
Ref: 11999480153
Ref: library/os os environb9482196
Ref: 11f69482196
Ref: library/os os fsencode9483018
Ref: c459483018
Ref: library/os os fsdecode9483425
Ref: c449483425
Ref: library/os os fspath9483836
Ref: c439483836
Ref: library/os os PathLike9484307
Ref: c419484307
Ref: library/os os PathLike __fspath__9484514
Ref: c429484514
Ref: library/os os getenv9484825
Ref: 2ac79484825
Ref: library/os os getenvb9485531
Ref: 11f59485531
Ref: library/os os get_exec_path9486119
Ref: 2ac89486119
Ref: library/os os getegid9486540
Ref: 2ac99486540
Ref: library/os os geteuid9486782
Ref: 17a59486782
Ref: library/os os getgid9486940
Ref: 2aca9486940
Ref: library/os os getgrouplist9487178
Ref: 10f69487178
Ref: library/os os getgroups9487580
Ref: 2acb9487580
Ref: library/os os getlogin9488827
Ref: 2acd9488827
Ref: library/os os getpgid9489379
Ref: 2ace9489379
Ref: library/os os getpgrp9489637
Ref: 2acf9489637
Ref: library/os os getpid9489774
Ref: 2abe9489774
Ref: library/os os getppid9489957
Ref: 160d9489957
Ref: library/os os getpriority9490384
Ref: 10e19490384
Ref: library/os os PRIO_PROCESS9491148
Ref: 2ad09491148
Ref: library/os os PRIO_PGRP9491178
Ref: 2ad19491178
Ref: library/os os PRIO_USER9491205
Ref: 2ad29491205
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD9491416
Ref: 2ad39491416
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS9491452
Ref: 2ad49491452
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_BG9491489
Ref: 2ad59491489
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI9491521
Ref: 2ad69491521
Ref: library/os os getresuid9491731
Ref: 12f69491731
Ref: library/os os getresgid9491997
Ref: 12f59491997
Ref: library/os os getuid9492271
Ref: 2abd9492271
Ref: library/os os initgroups9492499
Ref: 12f99492499
Ref: library/os os putenv9492826
Ref: 90b9492826
Ref: library/os os setegid9494004
Ref: 2ad89494004
Ref: library/os os seteuid9494189
Ref: 2ad99494189
Ref: library/os os setgid9494368
Ref: 2ada9494368
Ref: library/os os setgroups9494524
Ref: 2acc9494524
Ref: library/os os setns9495214
Ref: 177c9495214
Ref: library/os os setpgrp9496743
Ref: 2adc9496743
Ref: library/os os setpgid9496989
Ref: 2add9496989
Ref: library/os os setpriority9497266
Ref: 10e29497266
Ref: library/os os setregid9498221
Ref: 2ade9498221
Ref: library/os os setresgid9498411
Ref: 12f79498411
Ref: library/os os setresuid9498651
Ref: 12f89498651
Ref: library/os os setreuid9498896
Ref: 2adf9498896
Ref: library/os os getsid9499091
Ref: 2ae09499091
Ref: library/os os setsid9499262
Ref: 19939499262
Ref: library/os os setuid9499427
Ref: 2ae19499427
Ref: library/os os strerror9499590
Ref: 2ae29499590
Ref: library/os os supports_bytes_environ9499836
Ref: 11f49499836
Ref: library/os os umask9500050
Ref: 2ae39500050
Ref: library/os os uname9500258
Ref: 10f89500258
Ref: library/os os unsetenv9501733
Ref: 90a9501733
Ref: library/os os unshare9502530
Ref: 177d9502530
Ref: library/os os-unshare-clone-flags9503253
Ref: 2adb9503253
Ref: library/os os CLONE_FILES9503423
Ref: 2ae59503423
Ref: library/os os CLONE_FS9503452
Ref: 2ae69503452
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWCGROUP9503478
Ref: 2ae79503478
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWIPC9503511
Ref: 2ae89503511
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNET9503541
Ref: 2ae99503541
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNS9503571
Ref: 2aea9503571
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWPID9503600
Ref: 2aeb9503600
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWTIME9503630
Ref: 2aec9503630
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUSER9503661
Ref: 2aed9503661
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUTS9503692
Ref: 2aee9503692
Ref: library/os os CLONE_SIGHAND9503722
Ref: 2aef9503722
Ref: library/os os CLONE_SYSVSEM9503753
Ref: 2af09503753
Ref: library/os os CLONE_THREAD9503784
Ref: 2af19503784
Ref: library/os os CLONE_VM9503814
Ref: 2af29503814
Ref: Paramètres de processus-Footnote-19503877
Ref: Paramètres de processus-Footnote-29503919
Ref: Paramètres de processus-Footnote-39503961
Ref: Paramètres de processus-Footnote-49504006
Ref: Paramètres de processus-Footnote-59504056
Ref: Paramètres de processus-Footnote-69504103
Node: Création de fichiers objets9504150
Ref: library/os file-object-creation9504349
Ref: 2af39504349
Ref: library/os os-newstreams9504349
Ref: 2af49504349
Ref: library/os os fdopen9504540
Ref: 1eee9504540
Node: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers9504872
Ref: library/os file-descriptor-operations9505071
Ref: 2af59505071
Ref: library/os os-fd-ops9505071
Ref: 2af69505071
Ref: library/os os close9506168
Ref: b649506168
Ref: library/os os closerange9506695
Ref: 2af79506695
Ref: library/os os copy_file_range9507072
Ref: 2af89507072
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Ref: Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers-Footnote-19541427
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Node: Timer File Descriptors9631247
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Node: Attributs étendus pour Linux9640035
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Ref: 144a9846767
Ref: library/logging logging Handler __init__9846796
Ref: 2c2d9846796
Ref: library/logging logging Handler createLock9847131
Ref: 2c2e9847131
Ref: library/logging logging Handler acquire9847352
Ref: 2c2f9847352
Ref: library/logging logging Handler release9847450
Ref: 2c309847450
Ref: library/logging logging Handler setLevel9847545
Ref: 2c319847545
Ref: library/logging logging Handler setFormatter9848195
Ref: 2c329848195
Ref: library/logging logging Handler addFilter9848378
Ref: 2c339848378
Ref: library/logging logging Handler removeFilter9848471
Ref: 2c349848471
Ref: library/logging logging Handler filter9848567
Ref: 2c359848567
Ref: library/logging logging Handler flush9848960
Ref: 2c369848960
Ref: library/logging logging Handler close9849155
Ref: 2c379849155
Ref: library/logging logging Handler handle9849501
Ref: 2c389849501
Ref: library/logging logging Handler handleError9849704
Ref: 2c399849704
Ref: library/logging logging Handler format9850508
Ref: 2c3b9850508
Ref: library/logging logging Handler emit9850678
Ref: 2c3a9850678
Node: Formateurs9852229
Ref: library/logging formatter-objects9852356
Ref: 2c3c9852356
Ref: library/logging id19852356
Ref: 2c3d9852356
Ref: library/logging logging Formatter9852397
Ref: 144b9852397
Ref: library/logging logging Formatter format9854614
Ref: 2c419854614
Ref: library/logging logging Formatter formatTime9856087
Ref: 2c3f9856087
Ref: library/logging logging Formatter formatException9858491
Ref: 2c429858491
Ref: library/logging logging Formatter formatStack9858831
Ref: 2c439858831
Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter9859125
Ref: 2c449859125
Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter formatHeader9859544
Ref: 2c459859544
Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter formatFooter9859860
Ref: 2c469859860
Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter format9860167
Ref: 2c479860167
Node: Filtres<2>9860500
Ref: library/logging filter9860630
Ref: 2c489860630
Ref: library/logging filter-objects9860630
Ref: 2c499860630
Ref: library/logging logging Filter9861102
Ref: 11da9861102
Ref: library/logging logging Filter filter9861394
Ref: 2c4a9861394
Node: Objets LogRecord9863824
Ref: library/logging log-record9863964
Ref: 2c4d9863964
Ref: library/logging logrecord-objects9863964
Ref: 2c4e9863964
Ref: library/logging logging LogRecord9864255
Ref: fd39864255
Ref: library/logging logging LogRecord getMessage9866812
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Node: LogRecord attributes9868312
Ref: library/logging id29868463
Ref: 2c549868463
Ref: library/logging logrecord-attributes9868463
Ref: 2c3e9868463
Node: LoggerAdapter Objects9876873
Ref: library/logging logger-adapter9877021
Ref: 2c559877021
Ref: library/logging loggeradapter-objects9877021
Ref: 2c569877021
Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter9877302
Ref: 12d59877302
Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter process9877853
Ref: 2c589877853
Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter manager9878306
Ref: 2c599878306
Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter _log9878400
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Node: Thread Safety9879577
Ref: library/logging thread-safety9879731
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Node: Fonctions de niveau module9880387
Ref: library/logging module-level-functions9880543
Ref: 2c5c9880543
Ref: library/logging logging getLogger9880709
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Ref: library/logging logging getLoggerClass9881424
Ref: 2c5d9881424
Ref: library/logging logging getLogRecordFactory9881902
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Ref: library/logging logging debug9882370
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Ref: library/logging logging info9883262
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Ref: library/logging logging warning9883471
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Ref: library/logging logging error9883894
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Ref: library/logging logging critical9884105
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Ref: library/logging logging exception9884322
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Ref: library/logging logging log9884654
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Ref: library/logging logging disable9884860
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Ref: library/logging logging addLevelName9886076
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Ref: library/logging logging getLevelNamesMapping9886743
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Ref: library/logging logging getLevelName9887075
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Ref: library/logging logging getHandlerByName9888712
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Ref: library/logging logging getHandlerNames9888904
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Ref: library/logging logging makeLogRecord9889041
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Ref: library/logging logging basicConfig9889406
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Ref: library/logging logging shutdown9894836
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Ref: library/logging logging setLoggerClass9895276
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Ref: library/logging logging setLogRecordFactory9895892
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Ref: Fonctions de niveau module-Footnote-19897232
Node: Module-Level Attributes9897297
Ref: library/logging module-level-attributes9897476
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Ref: library/logging logging lastResort9897545
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Ref: library/logging logging raiseExceptions9898155
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Node: Integration with the warnings module9898556
Ref: library/logging integration-with-the-warnings-module9898700
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Ref: library/logging logging captureWarnings9898922
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Ref: Integration with the warnings module-Footnote-19900342
Ref: Integration with the warnings module-Footnote-29900384
Node: logging config --- Logging configuration9900437
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-logging-configuration9900656
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Ref: library/logging config module-logging config9900656
Ref: 879900656
Ref: logging config --- Logging configuration-Footnote-19901353
Node: Configuration functions9901427
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-api9901559
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Ref: library/logging config logging config dictConfig9902000
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Ref: library/logging config logging config fileConfig9904124
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Ref: library/logging config logging config listen9906849
Ref: f529906849
Ref: library/logging config logging-eval-security9908501
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Ref: library/logging config logging config stopListening9910184
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Ref: library/logging config security-considerations9910600
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Node: Configuration dictionary schema9911318
Ref: library/logging config configuration-dictionary-schema9911492
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dictschema9911492
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Ref: library/logging config dictionary-schema-details9912622
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dictschema-formatters9913425
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Ref: library/logging config incremental-configuration9918459
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-incremental9918459
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Node: Object connections9919904
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Ref: library/logging config object-connections9920053
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Ref: library/logging config user-defined-objects9922595
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Ref: library/logging config logging-import-resolution9933960
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Ref: library/logging config configuring-queuehandler-and-queuelistener9935093
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Node: logging handlers --- Logging handlers9945822
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Ref: logging handlers --- Logging handlers-Footnote-19947517
Node: Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler9947594
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler emit9948408
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler setStream9949142
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Node: Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler9950131
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Ref: Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler-Footnote-19951829
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Ref: library/logging handlers nullhandler9952136
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler9952512
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler emit9952619
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Node: Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler9971380
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Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-19986909
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler emit9999506
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Ref: platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data-Footnote-110007761
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Ref: library/errno errno EDOM10027310
Ref: 2d1810027310
Ref: library/errno errno ERANGE10027411
Ref: 2d1910027411
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLK10027488
Ref: 2d1a10027488
Ref: library/errno errno ENAMETOOLONG10027573
Ref: 2d1b10027573
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLCK10027638
Ref: 2d1c10027638
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSYS10027709
Ref: 178910027709
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTEMPTY10027770
Ref: 2d1d10027770
Ref: library/errno errno ELOOP10027824
Ref: 2d1e10027824
Ref: library/errno errno EWOULDBLOCK10027892
Ref: 225c10027892
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMSG10028027
Ref: 2d1f10028027
Ref: library/errno errno EIDRM10028090
Ref: 2d2010028090
Ref: library/errno errno ECHRNG10028145
Ref: 2d2110028145
Ref: library/errno errno EL2NSYNC10028220
Ref: 2d2210028220
Ref: library/errno errno EL3HLT10028291
Ref: 2d2310028291
Ref: library/errno errno EL3RST10028342
Ref: 2d2410028342
Ref: library/errno errno ELNRNG10028400
Ref: 2d2510028400
Ref: library/errno errno EUNATCH10028474
Ref: 2d2610028474
Ref: library/errno errno ENOCSI10028551
Ref: 2d2710028551
Ref: library/errno errno EL2HLT10028619
Ref: 2d2810028619
Ref: library/errno errno EBADE10028670
Ref: 2d2910028670
Ref: library/errno errno EBADR10028721
Ref: 2d2a10028721
Ref: library/errno errno EXFULL10028787
Ref: 2d2b10028787
Ref: library/errno errno ENOANO10028838
Ref: 2d2c10028838
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRQC10028887
Ref: 2d2d10028887
Ref: library/errno errno EBADSLT10028948
Ref: 2d2e10028948
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLOCK10028999
Ref: 2d2f10028999
Ref: library/errno errno EBFONT10029081
Ref: 2d3010029081
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSTR10029151
Ref: 2d3110029151
Ref: library/errno errno ENODATA10029221
Ref: 2d3210029221
Ref: library/errno errno ETIME10029282
Ref: 2d3310029282
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSR10029338
Ref: 2d3410029338
Ref: library/errno errno ENONET10029408
Ref: 2d3510029408
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPKG10029463
Ref: 2d3610029463
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTE10029518
Ref: 2d3710029518
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLINK10029573
Ref: 2d3810029573
Ref: library/errno errno EADV10029620
Ref: 2d3910029620
Ref: library/errno errno ESRMNT10029669
Ref: 2d3a10029669
Ref: library/errno errno ECOMM10029720
Ref: 2d3b10029720
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTO10029793
Ref: 2d3c10029793
Ref: library/errno errno EMULTIHOP10029847
Ref: 2d3d10029847
Ref: library/errno errno EDOTDOT10029921
Ref: 2d3e10029921
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMSG10029981
Ref: 2d3f10029981
Ref: library/errno errno EOVERFLOW10030043
Ref: 2d4010030043
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTUNIQ10030143
Ref: 2d4110030143
Ref: library/errno errno EBADFD10030210
Ref: 2d4210030210
Ref: library/errno errno EREMCHG10030284
Ref: 2d4310030284
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBACC10030345
Ref: 2d4410030345
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBBAD10030441
Ref: 2d4510030441
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBSCN10030524
Ref: 2d4610030524
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBMAX10030595
Ref: 2d4710030595
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBEXEC10030691
Ref: 2d4810030691
Ref: library/errno errno EILSEQ10030790
Ref: 2d4910030790
Ref: library/errno errno ERESTART10030855
Ref: 2d4a10030855
Ref: library/errno errno ESTRPIPE10030944
Ref: 2d4b10030944
Ref: library/errno errno EUSERS10031013
Ref: 2d4c10031013
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSOCK10031067
Ref: 2d4d10031067
Ref: library/errno errno EDESTADDRREQ10031194
Ref: 2d4e10031194
Ref: library/errno errno EMSGSIZE10031269
Ref: 2d4f10031269
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTOTYPE10031323
Ref: 2d5010031323
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPROTOOPT10031406
Ref: 2d5110031406
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTONOSUPPORT10031470
Ref: 2d5210031470
Ref: library/errno errno ESOCKTNOSUPPORT10031534
Ref: 2d5310031534
Ref: library/errno errno EOPNOTSUPP10031607
Ref: 2d5410031607
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSUP10031690
Ref: 2d5510031690
Ref: library/errno errno EPFNOSUPPORT10031784
Ref: 2d5610031784
Ref: library/errno errno EAFNOSUPPORT10031857
Ref: 2d5710031857
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRINUSE10031945
Ref: 2d5810031945
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRNOTAVAIL10032008
Ref: 2d5910032008
Ref: library/errno errno ENETDOWN10032091
Ref: 2d5a10032091
Ref: library/errno errno ENETUNREACH10032154
Ref: 19c510032154
Ref: library/errno errno ENETRESET10032214
Ref: 2d5b10032214
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNABORTED10032285
Ref: 226210032285
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNRESET10032439
Ref: 226410032439
Ref: library/errno errno ENOBUFS10032581
Ref: 17a410032581
Ref: library/errno errno EISCONN10032648
Ref: 2d5c10032648
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCONN10032730
Ref: 2d5d10032730
Ref: library/errno errno ESHUTDOWN10032812
Ref: 226110032812
Ref: library/errno errno ETOOMANYREFS10032969
Ref: 2d5e10032969
Ref: library/errno errno ETIMEDOUT10033067
Ref: 226b10033067
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNREFUSED10033195
Ref: 226310033195
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTDOWN10033335
Ref: 2d5f10033335
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTUNREACH10033386
Ref: 2d6010033386
Ref: library/errno errno EALREADY10033452
Ref: 225b10033452
Ref: library/errno errno EINPROGRESS10033592
Ref: 225d10033592
Ref: library/errno errno ESTALE10033731
Ref: 2d6110033731
Ref: library/errno errno EUCLEAN10033801
Ref: 2d6210033801
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTNAM10033876
Ref: 2d6310033876
Ref: library/errno errno ENAVAIL10033955
Ref: 2d6410033955
Ref: library/errno errno EISNAM10034027
Ref: 2d6510034027
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTEIO10034083
Ref: 2d6610034083
Ref: library/errno errno EDQUOT10034155
Ref: 2d6710034155
Ref: library/errno errno EQFULL10034205
Ref: 2d6810034205
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEDIUM10034306
Ref: 2d6910034306
Ref: library/errno errno EMEDIUMTYPE10034359
Ref: 2d6a10034359
Ref: library/errno errno ENOKEY10034416
Ref: 2d6b10034416
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYEXPIRED10034477
Ref: 2d6c10034477
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREVOKED10034532
Ref: 2d6d10034532
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREJECTED10034592
Ref: 2d6e10034592
Ref: library/errno errno ERFKILL10034660
Ref: 2d6f10034660
Ref: library/errno errno ELOCKUNMAPPED10034733
Ref: 2d7010034733
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTACTIVE10034799
Ref: 2d7110034799
Ref: library/errno errno EAUTH10034860
Ref: 2d7210034860
Ref: library/errno errno EBADARCH10034949
Ref: 2d7310034949
Ref: library/errno errno EBADEXEC10035047
Ref: 2d7410035047
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMACHO10035153
Ref: 2d7510035153
Ref: library/errno errno EDEVERR10035247
Ref: 2d7610035247
Ref: library/errno errno EFTYPE10035330
Ref: 2d7710035330
Ref: library/errno errno ENEEDAUTH10035433
Ref: 2d7810035433
Ref: library/errno errno ENOATTR10035524
Ref: 2d7910035524
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPOLICY10035614
Ref: 2d7a10035614
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCLIM10035703
Ref: 2d7b10035703
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCUNAVAIL10035793
Ref: 2d7c10035793
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGMISMATCH10035894
Ref: 2d7d10035894
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGUNAVAIL10035992
Ref: 2d7e10035992
Ref: library/errno errno EPWROFF10036088
Ref: 2d7f10036088
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRPC10036178
Ref: 2d8010036178
Ref: library/errno errno ERPCMISMATCH10036266
Ref: 2d8110036266
Ref: library/errno errno ESHLIBVERS10036359
Ref: 2d8210036359
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCAPABLE10036464
Ref: 177b10036464
Ref: library/errno errno ECANCELED10036687
Ref: 2d8310036687
Ref: library/errno errno EOWNERDEAD10036778
Ref: 2d8410036778
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTRECOVERABLE10036862
Ref: 2d8510036862
Node: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python10036962
Ref: library/ctypes doc10037143
Ref: 2d8610037143
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python10037143
Ref: 2d8710037143
Ref: library/ctypes module-ctypes10037143
Ref: 2a10037143
Ref: ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python-Footnote-110037778
Node: Didacticiel de ctypes10037841
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-tutorial10037977
Ref: 2d8810037977
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-tutorial10037977
Ref: 2d8910037977
Node: Chargement des DLL10039579
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries10039702
Ref: 2d8c10039702
Ref: library/ctypes loading-dynamic-link-libraries10039702
Ref: 2d8d10039702
Node: Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées10041847
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls10041997
Ref: 2d8f10041997
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls10041997
Ref: 2d9010041997
Node: Appel de fonctions10044293
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions10044450
Ref: 2d9110044450
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions10044450
Ref: 2d9210044450
Node: Types de données de base10047136
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types10047279
Ref: 2d9310047279
Ref: library/ctypes fundamental-data-types10047279
Ref: 2d9410047279
Node: Appel de fonctions suite10055948
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-continued10056099
Ref: 2da110056099
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-continued10056099
Ref: 2da210056099
Node: Calling variadic functions10057207
Ref: library/ctypes calling-variadic-functions10057393
Ref: 2da310057393
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-variadic-functions10057393
Ref: 2da410057393
Node: Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés10058088
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types10058319
Ref: 2da610058319
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types10058319
Ref: 2da710058319
Node: Définition du type des arguments nécessaires prototypes de fonction10059252
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types10059472
Ref: 2da810059472
Ref: library/ctypes specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes10059472
Ref: 2da910059472
Node: Types de sortie10061416
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-return-types10061635
Ref: 2dab10061635
Ref: library/ctypes return-types10061635
Ref: 2dac10061635
Node: Passage de pointeurs passage de paramètres par référence10064825
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-passing-pointers10064995
Ref: 2db010064995
Ref: library/ctypes passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference10064995
Ref: 2db110064995
Node: Structures et unions10066185
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structures-unions10066391
Ref: 2db310066391
Ref: library/ctypes structures-and-unions10066391
Ref: 2db410066391
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order10068568
Ref: 2db610068568
Node: Alignement et boutisme des structures et des unions10068982
Ref: library/ctypes structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order10069177
Ref: 2db710069177
Node: Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions10070254
Ref: library/ctypes bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions10070437
Ref: 2dbb10070437
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-bit-fields-in-structures-unions10070437
Ref: 2dbc10070437
Node: Tableaux10071055
Ref: library/ctypes arrays10071196
Ref: 2dbd10071196
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays10071196
Ref: 2dbe10071196
Node: Pointeurs10072525
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-pointers10072637
Ref: 2dbf10072637
Ref: library/ctypes pointers10072637
Ref: 2dc010072637
Node: Conversions de type10075415
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-type-conversions10075535
Ref: 2dc210075535
Ref: library/ctypes type-conversions10075535
Ref: 2dc310075535
Node: Types incomplets10078257
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-incomplete-types10078387
Ref: 2dc510078387
Ref: library/ctypes incomplete-types10078387
Ref: 2dc610078387
Node: Fonctions de rappel10080059
Ref: library/ctypes callback-functions10080216
Ref: 2dc710080216
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-callback-functions10080216
Ref: 2dc810080216
Node: Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL10084363
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-values-exported-from-dlls10084511
Ref: 2dcb10084511
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls10084511
Ref: 2dcc10084511
Node: Pièges10087219
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-surprises10087385
Ref: 2dcf10087385
Ref: library/ctypes surprises10087385
Ref: 2dd010087385
Node: Types de données à taille flottante10089628
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-variable-sized-data-types10089739
Ref: 2dd110089739
Ref: library/ctypes variable-sized-data-types10089739
Ref: 2dd210089739
Node: Référence du module10091273
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-reference10091409
Ref: 2dd410091409
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-reference10091409
Ref: 2dd510091409
Node: Recherche de bibliothèques partagées10091819
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-finding-shared-libraries10091964
Ref: 2dd610091964
Ref: library/ctypes finding-shared-libraries10091964
Ref: 2dd710091964
Node: Chargement des bibliothèques partagées10094699
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-shared-libraries10094871
Ref: 2dd810094871
Ref: library/ctypes loading-shared-libraries10094871
Ref: 2dd910094871
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL10095132
Ref: 9d910095132
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes OleDLL10096295
Ref: 172e10096295
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinDLL10097173
Ref: 172f10097173
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL10097795
Ref: 173010097795
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _handle10101786
Ref: 2ddf10101786
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _name10101868
Ref: 2de010101868
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader10102213
Ref: 2de110102213
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader LoadLibrary10102676
Ref: 2d8e10102676
Ref: Chargement des bibliothèques partagées-Footnote-110104419
Ref: Chargement des bibliothèques partagées-Footnote-210104485
Node: Fonctions externes10104531
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-foreign-functions10104687
Ref: 2de210104687
Ref: library/ctypes foreign-functions10104687
Ref: 2de310104687
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr10105385
Ref: 2de410105385
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr restype10105764
Ref: 2dad10105764
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr argtypes10106440
Ref: 2da510106440
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr errcheck10107767
Ref: 2daf10107767
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ArgumentError10108841
Ref: 2de510108841
Node: Prototypes de fonction10109520
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-function-prototypes10109657
Ref: 2de610109657
Ref: library/ctypes function-prototypes10109657
Ref: 2de710109657
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CFUNCTYPE10110339
Ref: 2dc910110339
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WINFUNCTYPE10110857
Ref: 2dca10110857
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PYFUNCTYPE10111238
Ref: 2de810111238
Node: Fonctions utilitaires10117128
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-utility-functions10117267
Ref: 2de910117267
Ref: library/ctypes utility-functions10117267
Ref: 2dea10117267
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes addressof10117332
Ref: 2deb10117332
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes alignment10117576
Ref: 2dec10117576
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes byref10117736
Ref: 2db210117736
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes cast10118250
Ref: 2dc410118250
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_string_buffer10118544
Ref: 2da010118544
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_unicode_buffer10119350
Ref: 198d10119350
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllCanUnloadNow10120170
Ref: 2ded10120170
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllGetClassObject10120442
Ref: 2dee10120442
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_library10120724
Ref: d3910120724
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_msvcrt10121118
Ref: 2def10121118
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes FormatError10121602
Ref: 2df010121602
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes GetLastError10121868
Ref: 2dae10121868
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_errno10122163
Ref: 2ddb10122163
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_last_error10122416
Ref: 2ddd10122416
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memmove10122719
Ref: 2df110122719
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memset10122963
Ref: 2df210122963
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes POINTER10123216
Ref: 16a010123216
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pointer10123443
Ref: 169f10123443
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes resize10123752
Ref: 2dd310123752
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_errno10124090
Ref: 2ddc10124090
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_last_error10124398
Ref: 2dde10124398
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes sizeof10124757
Ref: 2df310124757
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes string_at10124928
Ref: 2df410124928
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinError10125240
Ref: 2df510125240
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes wstring_at10125816
Ref: 2df610125816
Node: Types de données<3>10126174
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-data-types10126319
Ref: 2df710126319
Ref: library/ctypes data-types10126319
Ref: 2df810126319
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData10126375
Ref: 2df910126375
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer10127011
Ref: 2dfb10127011
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer_copy10127600
Ref: 2dfc10127600
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_address10128147
Ref: 2dfd10128147
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_param10128495
Ref: 2daa10128495
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData in_dll10129056
Ref: 2dcd10129056
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_base_10129354
Ref: 2dfe10129354
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_needsfree_10129658
Ref: 2dff10129658
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _objects10129831
Ref: 2dfa10129831
Node: Types de données de base<2>10130142
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types-210130306
Ref: 2e0010130306
Ref: library/ctypes id110130306
Ref: 2e0110130306
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData10130378
Ref: 2e0210130378
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData value10130852
Ref: 2e0310130852
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_byte10132213
Ref: 172c10132213
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char10132426
Ref: 2d9610132426
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char_p10132667
Ref: 16a110132667
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_double10132962
Ref: 18b710132962
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longdouble10133092
Ref: 18b810133092
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_float10133340
Ref: 2d9f10133340
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int10133468
Ref: 2d8a10133468
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int810133733
Ref: 2e0410133733
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int1610133857
Ref: 2e0510133857
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int3210133984
Ref: 2e0610133984
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int6410134109
Ref: 2e0710134109
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_long10134239
Ref: 2d8b10134239
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longlong10134404
Ref: 2d9c10134404
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_short10134583
Ref: 2d9810134583
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_size_t10134750
Ref: 2d9e10134750
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ssize_t10134825
Ref: 121c10134825
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_time_t10134937
Ref: 179510134937
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ubyte10135048
Ref: 172d10135048
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint10135263
Ref: 2d9a10135263
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint810135533
Ref: 2e0810135533
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint1610135661
Ref: 2e0910135661
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint3210135792
Ref: 2e0a10135792
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint6410135921
Ref: 2e0b10135921
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ulong10136055
Ref: 2d9b10136055
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ulonglong10136223
Ref: 2d9d10136223
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ushort10136405
Ref: 2d9910136405
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_void_p10136575
Ref: 16a310136575
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_wchar10136739
Ref: 2d9710136739
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_wchar_p10137005
Ref: 16a210137005
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_bool10137213
Ref: 2d9510137213
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes HRESULT10137428
Ref: 2dda10137428
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes py_object10137617
Ref: 13f010137617
Node: Types de données dérivés de Structure10138007
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structured-data-types10138172
Ref: 2e0c10138172
Ref: library/ctypes structured-data-types10138172
Ref: 2e0d10138172
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Union10138272
Ref: 163c10138272
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes BigEndianUnion10138371
Ref: 17e310138371
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LittleEndianUnion10138521
Ref: 17e410138521
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes BigEndianStructure10138677
Ref: 2db910138677
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LittleEndianStructure10138799
Ref: 2dba10138799
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure10139069
Ref: 1cf10139069
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _fields_10139494
Ref: 2db510139494
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _pack_10141087
Ref: 2db810141087
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _align_10141451
Ref: 1d010141451
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _anonymous_10141753
Ref: 2e0e10141753
Node: Tableaux et pointeurs10144108
Ref: library/ctypes arrays-and-pointers10144236
Ref: 2e0f10144236
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays-pointers10144236
Ref: 2e1010144236
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array10144301
Ref: 19e810144301
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array _length_10144828
Ref: 2e1110144828
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array _type_10145056
Ref: 2e1210145056
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ARRAY10145256
Ref: 29910145256
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer10145552
Ref: 2e1310145552
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer _type_10146209
Ref: 2e1410146209
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer contents10146278
Ref: 2dc110146278
Node: Command Line Interface Libraries10146467
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Ref: 2e1510146649
Ref: library/cmdlinelibs cmdlinelibs10146649
Ref: 2e1610146649
Ref: library/cmdlinelibs command-line-interface-libraries10146649
Ref: 2e1710146649
Node: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands10147755
Ref: library/argparse doc10147947
Ref: 2e1810147947
Ref: library/argparse argparse-parser-for-command-line-options-arguments-and-subcommands10147947
Ref: 2e1910147947
Ref: library/argparse module-argparse10147947
Ref: 610147947
Ref: argparse --- Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands-Footnote-110151152
Node: Objets ArgumentParser10151220
Ref: library/argparse argumentparser-objects10151381
Ref: 2e1e10151381
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser10151452
Ref: 52610151452
Node: Le paramètre prog10154785
Ref: library/argparse id110154889
Ref: 2e2b10154889
Ref: library/argparse prog10154889
Ref: 2e1f10154889
Node: Le paramètre usage10156447
Ref: library/argparse usage10156585
Ref: 2e2010156585
Node: Le paramètre description10157376
Ref: library/argparse description10157516
Ref: 2e2110157516
Ref: library/argparse id210157516
Ref: 2e2c10157516
Node: Le paramètre epilog10158111
Ref: library/argparse epilog10158253
Ref: 2e2210158253
Node: Le paramètre parents10159123
Ref: library/argparse parents10159269
Ref: 2e2310159269
Node: Le paramètre formatter_class10160939
Ref: library/argparse formatter-class10161091
Ref: 2e2410161091
Ref: library/argparse id310161091
Ref: 2e2d10161091
Ref: library/argparse argparse RawDescriptionHelpFormatter10161386
Ref: 2e2e10161386
Ref: library/argparse argparse RawTextHelpFormatter10161435
Ref: 2e2f10161435
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter10161477
Ref: 185810161477
Ref: library/argparse argparse MetavarTypeHelpFormatter10161528
Ref: 2e3010161528
Node: Le paramètre prefix_chars10165160
Ref: library/argparse prefix-chars10165326
Ref: 2e2510165326
Node: Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars10166105
Ref: library/argparse fromfile-prefix-chars10166272
Ref: 2e2610166272
Node: Le paramètre argument_default10168246
Ref: library/argparse argument-default10168413
Ref: 2e2710168413
Node: Le paramètre allow_abbrev10169466
Ref: library/argparse allow-abbrev10169628
Ref: daf10169628
Ref: library/argparse id410169628
Ref: 2e3510169628
Node: Le paramètre conflict_handler10170360
Ref: library/argparse conflict-handler10170514
Ref: 2e2810170514
Node: Le paramètre add_help10172216
Ref: library/argparse add-help10172371
Ref: 2e2910172371
Node: Le paramètre exit_on_error10173619
Ref: library/argparse exit-on-error10173735
Ref: 2e2a10173735
Node: La méthode add_argument10174678
Ref: library/argparse the-add-argument-method10174870
Ref: 2e3610174870
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_argument10174948
Ref: 19c10174948
Node: Le paramètre name_or_flags10177229
Ref: library/argparse id510177346
Ref: 2e3f10177346
Ref: library/argparse name-or-flags10177346
Ref: 2e3710177346
Node: Le paramètre action10178579
Ref: library/argparse action10178724
Ref: 2e3810178724
Ref: library/argparse id610178724
Ref: 2e4010178724
Ref: library/argparse argparse BooleanOptionalAction10183872
Ref: 181210183872
Node: Le paramètre nargs10185743
Ref: library/argparse id710185880
Ref: 2e4210185880
Ref: library/argparse nargs10185880
Ref: 156710185880
Node: Le paramètre const10190293
Ref: library/argparse const10190431
Ref: 2e3910190431
Ref: library/argparse id810190431
Ref: 2e4410190431
Node: Le paramètre default10191692
Ref: library/argparse default10191829
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Ref: library/argparse id910191829
Ref: 2e4510191829
Node: Le paramètre type10194501
Ref: library/argparse argparse-type10194640
Ref: 2e4610194640
Ref: library/argparse type10194640
Ref: 2e3110194640
Node: Le paramètre choices10198070
Ref: library/argparse choices10198210
Ref: 156410198210
Ref: library/argparse id1010198210
Ref: 2e4810198210
Node: Le paramètre required10199921
Ref: library/argparse id1110200061
Ref: 2e4910200061
Ref: library/argparse required10200061
Ref: 2e3b10200061
Node: Le paramètre help10201122
Ref: library/argparse help10201262
Ref: 2e3c10201262
Ref: library/argparse id1210201262
Ref: 2e4a10201262
Node: Le paramètre metavar10202962
Ref: library/argparse id1310203098
Ref: 2e4b10203098
Ref: library/argparse metavar10203098
Ref: 2e3d10203098
Node: Le paramètre dest10205395
Ref: library/argparse dest10205523
Ref: 2e3210205523
Ref: library/argparse id1410205523
Ref: 2e4c10205523
Node: deprecated10207181
Ref: library/argparse deprecated10207302
Ref: 2e3e10207302
Ref: library/argparse id1510207302
Ref: 2e4d10207302
Node: Classes Action10208221
Ref: library/argparse action-classes10208315
Ref: 2e4e10208315
Ref: library/argparse argparse Action10208608
Ref: 17bb10208608
Ref: library/argparse argparse Action __call__10209503
Ref: 2e4f10209503
Ref: library/argparse argparse Action format_usage10210799
Ref: 2e5010210799
Node: La méthode parse_args10211109
Ref: library/argparse the-parse-args-method10211293
Ref: 2e5110211293
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_args10211367
Ref: 2e1c10211367
Node: Syntaxe de la valeur des options10212389
Ref: library/argparse option-value-syntax10212508
Ref: 2e5410212508
Node: Arguments invalides10214007
Ref: library/argparse invalid-arguments10214156
Ref: 2e5510214156
Node: Arguments contenant -10215222
Ref: library/argparse arguments-containing10215393
Ref: 2e5610215393
Node: Arguments abrégés par comparaison de leurs préfixes10217603
Ref: library/argparse argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching10217775
Ref: 2e5710217775
Ref: library/argparse prefix-matching10217775
Ref: dae10217775
Node: Au-delà de sys argv10218823
Ref: library/argparse args10218991
Ref: 2e5210218991
Ref: library/argparse beyond-sys-argv10218991
Ref: 2e5810218991
Node: L'objet Namespace10219962
Ref: library/argparse namespace10220067
Ref: 2e5310220067
Ref: library/argparse the-namespace-object10220067
Ref: 2e5910220067
Ref: library/argparse argparse Namespace10220132
Ref: 2e1d10220132
Node: Autres outils10221402
Ref: library/argparse other-utilities10221575
Ref: 2e5a10221575
Node: Sous commandes10221937
Ref: library/argparse sub-commands10222025
Ref: 2e5b10222025
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_subparsers10222076
Ref: c0710222076
Node: Objets FileType10231688
Ref: library/argparse filetype-objects10231804
Ref: 2e5c10231804
Ref: library/argparse argparse FileType10231865
Ref: f0810231865
Node: Groupes d'arguments10233484
Ref: library/argparse argument-groups10233604
Ref: 2e5d10233604
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_argument_group10233665
Ref: 2e5e10233665
Node: Exclusion mutuelle10236480
Ref: library/argparse mutual-exclusion10236619
Ref: 2e5f10236619
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_mutually_exclusive_group10236678
Ref: 2e6010236678
Node: Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur10239448
Ref: library/argparse parser-defaults10239583
Ref: 2e6110239583
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser set_defaults10239673
Ref: 2e3410239673
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser get_default10240971
Ref: 2e6210240971
Node: Afficher l'aide10241377
Ref: library/argparse printing-help10241511
Ref: 2e6310241511
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser print_usage10241771
Ref: 2e6410241771
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser print_help10242017
Ref: 2e6510242017
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser format_usage10242400
Ref: 198910242400
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser format_help10242598
Ref: 2e6610242598
Node: Analyse partielle10242834
Ref: library/argparse partial-parsing10242970
Ref: 2e6710242970
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_known_args10243027
Ref: 2e6810243027
Node: Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers10244245
Ref: library/argparse customizing-file-parsing10244391
Ref: 2e6910244391
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser convert_arg_line_to_args10244490
Ref: 2e3310244490
Node: Méthodes d'interruptions10245568
Ref: library/argparse exiting-methods10245717
Ref: 2e6a10245717
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser exit10245789
Ref: 2e6b10245789
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser error10246354
Ref: 2e6c10246354
Node: Analyse entremêlée10246555
Ref: library/argparse intermixed-parsing10246703
Ref: 2e6d10246703
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_intermixed_args10246764
Ref: af010246764
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_known_intermixed_args10246854
Ref: 2e6e10246854
Node: Registering custom types or actions10248564
Ref: library/argparse registering-custom-types-or-actions10248678
Ref: 2e6f10248678
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser register10248771
Ref: 2e4110248771
Node: Exceptions<9>10250239
Ref: library/argparse exceptions10250381
Ref: 2e7010250381
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentError10250424
Ref: 2e7110250424
Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentTypeError10250668
Ref: 2e4710250668
Node: Tutoriel argparse10250912
Ref: howto/argparse doc10251023
Ref: 2e7210251023
Ref: howto/argparse argparse-tutorial10251023
Ref: 2e1b10251023
Ref: howto/argparse id110251023
Ref: 2e7310251023
Node: Concepts10252327
Ref: howto/argparse concepts10252407
Ref: 2e7410252407
Node: Les bases10254618
Ref: howto/argparse the-basics10254746
Ref: 2e7510254746
Node: Introduction aux arguments positionnels10255991
Ref: howto/argparse introducing-positional-arguments10256148
Ref: 2e7610256148
Node: Introduction aux arguments optionnels10259703
Ref: howto/argparse introducing-optional-arguments10259901
Ref: 2e7710259901
Node: Les paramètres raccourcis10263023
Ref: howto/argparse short-options10263123
Ref: 2e7810263123
Node: Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels10263981
Ref: howto/argparse combining-positional-and-optional-arguments10264162
Ref: 2e7910264162
Node: Aller un peu plus loin10272719
Ref: howto/argparse getting-a-little-more-advanced10272899
Ref: 2e7a10272899
Node: Specifying ambiguous arguments10275011
Ref: howto/argparse id210275131
Ref: 2e7b10275131
Ref: howto/argparse specifying-ambiguous-arguments10275131
Ref: 2e4310275131
Node: Paramètres en conflit10276087
Ref: howto/argparse conflicting-options10276207
Ref: 2e7c10276207
Node: How to translate the argparse output10279457
Ref: howto/argparse how-to-translate-the-argparse-output10279609
Ref: 2e7d10279609
Ref: How to translate the argparse output-Footnote-110281378
Node: Custom type converters10281411
Ref: howto/argparse custom-type-converters10281551
Ref: 2e7f10281551
Node: Conclusion10283315
Ref: howto/argparse conclusion10283410
Ref: 2e8010283410
Ref: howto/argparse-optparse upgrading-optparse-code10283712
Ref: 118d10283712
Node: Migrating optparse code to argparse10283714
Ref: howto/argparse-optparse doc10283825
Ref: 2e8110283825
Ref: howto/argparse-optparse migrating-optparse-code10283825
Ref: 2e8210283825
Ref: howto/argparse-optparse migrating-optparse-code-to-argparse10283825
Ref: 2e8310283825
Node: optparse --- Parser for command line options10287173
Ref: library/optparse doc10287409
Ref: 2e8910287409
Ref: library/optparse module-optparse10287409
Ref: 9f10287409
Ref: library/optparse optparse-parser-for-command-line-options10287409
Ref: 2e8a10287409
Ref: optparse --- Parser for command line options-Footnote-110287878
Node: Choosing an argument parsing library10287946
Ref: library/optparse choosing-an-argument-parser10288087
Ref: 2e1a10288087
Ref: library/optparse choosing-an-argument-parsing-library10288087
Ref: 2e8b10288087
Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-110293725
Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-210293765
Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-310293805
Node: Introduction<7>10293853
Ref: library/optparse introduction10294013
Ref: 2e8c10294013
Node: Background10296436
Ref: library/optparse background10296571
Ref: 2e8d10296571
Ref: library/optparse optparse-background10296571
Ref: 2e8e10296571
Node: Terminology10297168
Ref: library/optparse optparse-terminology10297256
Ref: 2e8f10297256
Ref: library/optparse terminology10297256
Ref: 2e9010297256
Node: What are options for?10301080
Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-options-for10301211
Ref: 2e9110301211
Ref: library/optparse what-are-options-for10301211
Ref: 2e9210301211
Node: What are positional arguments for?10302881
Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-positional-arguments-for10302992
Ref: 2e9310302992
Ref: library/optparse what-are-positional-arguments-for10302992
Ref: 2e9410302992
Node: Tutoriel<2>10304314
Ref: library/optparse optparse-tutorial10304449
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Ref: library/optparse tutorial10304449
Ref: 2e9610304449
Node: Understanding option actions10307065
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Ref: 2e9b10307166
Ref: library/optparse understanding-option-actions10307166
Ref: 2e9c10307166
Node: The store action10307754
Ref: library/optparse optparse-store-action10307893
Ref: 2e9e10307893
Ref: library/optparse the-store-action10307893
Ref: 2e9f10307893
Node: Handling boolean flag options10310076
Ref: library/optparse handling-boolean-flag-options10310200
Ref: 2ea010310200
Ref: library/optparse optparse-handling-boolean-options10310200
Ref: 2ea110310200
Node: Other actions10311082
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-actions10311209
Ref: 2ea210311209
Ref: library/optparse other-actions10311209
Ref: 2ea310311209
Node: Valeurs par défaut10311666
Ref: library/optparse default-values10311779
Ref: 2ea710311779
Ref: library/optparse optparse-default-values10311779
Ref: 2ea810311779
Node: Generating help10313677
Ref: library/optparse generating-help10313802
Ref: 2ea910313802
Ref: library/optparse optparse-generating-help10313802
Ref: 2eaa10313802
Node: Grouping Options10317942
Ref: library/optparse grouping-options10318010
Ref: 2eab10318010
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionGroup10318341
Ref: 2eac10318341
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option_group10321840
Ref: 2ead10321840
Node: Printing a version string10322110
Ref: library/optparse optparse-printing-version-string10322243
Ref: 2eae10322243
Ref: library/optparse printing-a-version-string10322243
Ref: 2eaf10322243
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_version10323127
Ref: 2eb010323127
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_version10323503
Ref: 2eb210323503
Node: How optparse handles errors10323649
Ref: library/optparse how-optparse-handles-errors10323790
Ref: 2eb310323790
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-optparse-handles-errors10323790
Ref: 2eb410323790
Node: Putting it all together10325874
Ref: library/optparse optparse-putting-it-all-together10325981
Ref: 2eb510325981
Ref: library/optparse putting-it-all-together10325981
Ref: 2eb610325981
Node: Reference Guide10326897
Ref: library/optparse optparse-reference-guide10327038
Ref: 2ea510327038
Ref: library/optparse reference-guide10327038
Ref: 2eb710327038
Node: Creating the parser10327385
Ref: library/optparse creating-the-parser10327486
Ref: 2eb810327486
Ref: library/optparse optparse-creating-parser10327486
Ref: 2eb910327486
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser10327631
Ref: 148510327631
Node: Populating the parser10330638
Ref: library/optparse optparse-populating-parser10330764
Ref: 2ebb10330764
Ref: library/optparse populating-the-parser10330764
Ref: 2ebc10330764
Node: Defining options10332050
Ref: library/optparse defining-options10332174
Ref: 2ebd10332174
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-options10332174
Ref: 2ebe10332174
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser add_option10332590
Ref: 2e8410332590
Ref: library/optparse optparse Values10334677
Ref: 2e8610334677
Node: Option attributes10335928
Ref: library/optparse option-attributes10336054
Ref: 2ec210336054
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-attributes10336054
Ref: 2ec310336054
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option10336111
Ref: 2ebf10336111
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option action10336730
Ref: 2e9710336730
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option type10336950
Ref: 2e9810336950
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option dest10337166
Ref: 2e9910337166
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option default10337508
Ref: 2ec510337508
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option nargs10337699
Ref: 2ec710337699
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option const10337931
Ref: 2ea410337931
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option choices10338040
Ref: 2ec810338040
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback10338163
Ref: 2ec910338163
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_args10338394
Ref: 2eca10338394
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_kwargs10338429
Ref: 2ecb10338429
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option help10338592
Ref: 2e9a10338592
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option metavar10338939
Ref: 2ecc10338939
Node: Standard option actions10339143
Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-actions10339274
Ref: 2ec010339274
Ref: library/optparse standard-option-actions10339274
Ref: 2ecd10339274
Node: Standard option types10347369
Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-types10347504
Ref: 2ec410347504
Ref: library/optparse standard-option-types10347504
Ref: 2ece10347504
Node: Analyse des arguments10348982
Ref: library/optparse optparse-parsing-arguments10349138
Ref: 2ec110349138
Ref: library/optparse parsing-arguments10349138
Ref: 2ecf10349138
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser parse_args10349312
Ref: 148610349312
Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser10350697
Ref: library/optparse optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser10350857
Ref: 2ed010350857
Ref: library/optparse querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser10350857
Ref: 2ed110350857
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser disable_interspersed_args10351164
Ref: 2e8510351164
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser enable_interspersed_args10351954
Ref: 2ed210351954
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option10352162
Ref: 2ed310352162
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser has_option10352337
Ref: 2ed410352337
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser remove_option10352515
Ref: 2ed510352515
Node: Conflicts between options10352903
Ref: library/optparse conflicts-between-options10353051
Ref: 2ed610353051
Ref: library/optparse optparse-conflicts-between-options10353051
Ref: 2eba10353051
Node: Nettoyage10355508
Ref: library/optparse cleanup10355625
Ref: 2ed810355625
Ref: library/optparse optparse-cleanup10355625
Ref: 2ed910355625
Node: Other methods10356040
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-methods10356123
Ref: 2eda10356123
Ref: library/optparse other-methods10356123
Ref: 2edb10356123
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_usage10356225
Ref: 2edc10356225
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_usage10356516
Ref: 2eb110356516
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_usage10356854
Ref: 2edd10356854
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_defaults10356994
Ref: 2ec610356994
Node: Option Callbacks10358160
Ref: library/optparse option-callbacks10358308
Ref: 2ede10358308
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-callbacks10358308
Ref: 2ea610358308
Node: Defining a callback option10359521
Ref: library/optparse defining-a-callback-option10359633
Ref: 2edf10359633
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-callback-option10359633
Ref: 2ee010359633
Node: How callbacks are called10361853
Ref: library/optparse how-callbacks-are-called10362002
Ref: 2ee110362002
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-callbacks-called10362002
Ref: 2ee210362002
Node: Raising errors in a callback10364609
Ref: library/optparse optparse-raising-errors-in-callback10364767
Ref: 2ee310364767
Ref: library/optparse raising-errors-in-a-callback10364767
Ref: 2ee410364767
Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback10365245
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-1-trivial-callback10365416
Ref: 2ee510365416
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-110365416
Ref: 2ee610365416
Node: Callback example 2 check option order10365862
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-2-check-option-order10366054
Ref: 2ee710366054
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-210366054
Ref: 2ee810366054
Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized10366610
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized10366811
Ref: 2ee910366811
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-310366811
Ref: 2eea10366811
Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition10367584
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition10367782
Ref: 2eeb10367782
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-410367782
Ref: 2eec10367782
Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments10368574
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-5-fixed-arguments10368760
Ref: 2eed10368760
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-510368760
Ref: 2eee10368760
Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments10369830
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-6-variable-arguments10369963
Ref: 2eef10369963
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-610369963
Ref: 2ef010369963
Node: Extending optparse10372060
Ref: library/optparse extending-optparse10372207
Ref: 2ef110372207
Ref: library/optparse optparse-extending-optparse10372207
Ref: 2e9d10372207
Node: Adding new types10372544
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-types10372642
Ref: 2ef210372642
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-types10372642
Ref: 2ef310372642
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPES10372934
Ref: 2ef410372934
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPE_CHECKER10373092
Ref: 2ef510373092
Node: Adding new actions10376114
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-actions10376212
Ref: 2ef610376212
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-actions10376212
Ref: 2ef710376212
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ACTIONS10377299
Ref: 2ef810377299
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option STORE_ACTIONS10377374
Ref: 2ef910377374
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPED_ACTIONS10377462
Ref: 2efa10377462
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS10377550
Ref: 2efb10377550
Node: Exceptions<10>10380844
Ref: library/optparse exceptions10380966
Ref: 2efc10380966
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionError10381009
Ref: 2e8710381009
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionConflictError10381150
Ref: 2ed710381150
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionValueError10381278
Ref: 2e8810381278
Ref: library/optparse optparse BadOptionError10381401
Ref: 2efd10381401
Ref: library/optparse optparse AmbiguousOptionError10381506
Ref: 2efe10381506
Node: getpass --- Portable password input10381619
Ref: library/getpass doc10381845
Ref: 2eff10381845
Ref: library/getpass getpass-portable-password-input10381845
Ref: 2f0010381845
Ref: library/getpass module-getpass10381845
Ref: 6110381845
Ref: library/getpass getpass getpass10382258
Ref: 2f0110382258
Ref: library/getpass getpass GetPassWarning10383251
Ref: 2f0210383251
Ref: library/getpass getpass getuser10383418
Ref: 40e10383418
Ref: getpass --- Portable password input-Footnote-110384134
Node: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams10384201
Ref: library/fileinput doc10384439
Ref: 2f0310384439
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams10384439
Ref: 2f0410384439
Ref: library/fileinput module-fileinput10384439
Ref: 5a10384439
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput input10387126
Ref: 7eb10387126
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filename10388507
Ref: 2f0510388507
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput fileno10388662
Ref: 13e610388662
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput lineno10388916
Ref: 2f0610388916
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filelineno10389219
Ref: 2f0710389219
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isfirstline10389483
Ref: 2f0810389483
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isstdin10389638
Ref: 2f0910389638
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput nextfile10389781
Ref: 2f0a10389781
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput close10390391
Ref: 2f0b10390391
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput FileInput10390625
Ref: 72310390625
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_compressed10393526
Ref: 7ec10393526
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_encoded10394366
Ref: c9010394366
Ref: fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams-Footnote-110395090
Node: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays10395159
Ref: library/curses doc10395418
Ref: 2f0c10395418
Ref: library/curses curses-terminal-handling-for-character-cell-displays10395418
Ref: 2f0d10395418
Ref: library/curses module-curses10395418
Ref: 2b10395418
Ref: curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays-Footnote-110397134
Node: Fonctions<6>10397197
Ref: library/curses curses-functions10397325
Ref: 2f0f10397325
Ref: library/curses functions10397325
Ref: 2f1010397325
Ref: library/curses curses error10397427
Ref: 2f1110397427
Ref: library/curses curses baudrate10397795
Ref: 2f1310397795
Ref: library/curses curses beep10398147
Ref: 2f1410398147
Ref: library/curses curses can_change_color10398213
Ref: 2f1510398213
Ref: library/curses curses cbreak10398385
Ref: 2f1610398385
Ref: library/curses curses color_content10398859
Ref: 7dd10398859
Ref: library/curses curses color_pair10399242
Ref: 2f1810399242
Ref: library/curses curses curs_set10399629
Ref: 2f1c10399629
Ref: library/curses curses def_prog_mode10400049
Ref: 2f1d10400049
Ref: library/curses curses def_shell_mode10400369
Ref: 2f1f10400369
Ref: library/curses curses delay_output10400707
Ref: 2f2110400707
Ref: library/curses curses doupdate10400797
Ref: 2f2210400797
Ref: library/curses curses echo10401622
Ref: 2f2610401622
Ref: library/curses curses endwin10401758
Ref: 2f2710401758
Ref: library/curses curses erasechar10401861
Ref: 2f2810401861
Ref: library/curses curses filter10402127
Ref: 2f2910402127
Ref: library/curses curses flash10402738
Ref: 2f2a10402738
Ref: library/curses curses flushinp10402997
Ref: 2f2b10402997
Ref: library/curses curses getmouse10403183
Ref: 2f2c10403183
Ref: library/curses curses getsyx10404188
Ref: 2f3710404188
Ref: library/curses curses getwin10404399
Ref: 2f3910404399
Ref: library/curses curses has_colors10404654
Ref: 2f3b10404654
Ref: library/curses curses has_extended_color_support10404786
Ref: 7e110404786
Ref: library/curses curses has_ic10405179
Ref: 2f3c10405179
Ref: library/curses curses has_il10405435
Ref: 2f3d10405435
Ref: library/curses curses has_key10405732
Ref: 2f3e10405732
Ref: library/curses curses halfdelay10405886
Ref: 2f3f10405886
Ref: library/curses curses init_color10406324
Ref: 7de10406324
Ref: library/curses curses init_pair10406980
Ref: 7df10406980
Ref: library/curses curses initscr10407701
Ref: 155c10407701
Ref: library/curses curses is_term_resized10407976
Ref: 2f4310407976
Ref: library/curses curses isendwin10408147
Ref: 2f4410408147
Ref: library/curses curses keyname10408305
Ref: 2f4510408305
Ref: library/curses curses killchar10408832
Ref: 2f4610408832
Ref: library/curses curses longname10409101
Ref: 2f4710409101
Ref: library/curses curses meta10409376
Ref: 2f4810409376
Ref: library/curses curses mouseinterval10409533
Ref: 2f4910409533
Ref: library/curses curses mousemask10409840
Ref: 2f4a10409840
Ref: library/curses curses napms10410258
Ref: 155b10410258
Ref: library/curses curses newpad10410326
Ref: 2f4b10410326
Ref: library/curses curses newwin10411414
Ref: 2f4c10411414
Ref: library/curses curses nl10411781
Ref: 2f4d10411781
Ref: library/curses curses nocbreak10411996
Ref: 2f4010411996
Ref: library/curses curses noecho10412113
Ref: 2f4e10412113
Ref: library/curses curses nonl10412212
Ref: 2f4f10412212
Ref: library/curses curses noqiflush10412705
Ref: 2f5010412705
Ref: library/curses curses noraw10413095
Ref: 2f5110413095
Ref: library/curses curses pair_content10413206
Ref: 7e010413206
Ref: library/curses curses pair_number10413432
Ref: 2f1b10413432
Ref: library/curses curses putp10413624
Ref: 2f5210413624
Ref: library/curses curses qiflush10413870
Ref: 2f5310413870
Ref: library/curses curses raw10414136
Ref: 2f1710414136
Ref: library/curses curses reset_prog_mode10414378
Ref: 2f1e10414378
Ref: library/curses curses reset_shell_mode10414522
Ref: 2f2010414522
Ref: library/curses curses resetty10414666
Ref: 2f5410414666
Ref: library/curses curses resize_term10414808
Ref: 156610414808
Ref: library/curses curses resizeterm10415347
Ref: 156510415347
Ref: library/curses curses savetty10415620
Ref: 2f5510415620
Ref: library/curses curses get_escdelay10415755
Ref: 8df10415755
Ref: library/curses curses set_escdelay10415888
Ref: 8e010415888
Ref: library/curses curses get_tabsize10416193
Ref: 8e110416193
Ref: library/curses curses set_tabsize10416324
Ref: 8e210416324
Ref: library/curses curses setsyx10416544
Ref: 2f5610416544
Ref: library/curses curses setupterm10416714
Ref: 2f5710416714
Ref: library/curses curses start_color10417131
Ref: 2f5810417131
Ref: library/curses curses termattrs10417824
Ref: 2f5b10417824
Ref: library/curses curses termname10418054
Ref: 2f5c10418054
Ref: library/curses curses tigetflag10418203
Ref: 2f5d10418203
Ref: library/curses curses tigetnum10418519
Ref: 2f5e10418519
Ref: library/curses curses tigetstr10418835
Ref: 2f5f10418835
Ref: library/curses curses tparm10419141
Ref: 2f6010419141
Ref: library/curses curses typeahead10419478
Ref: 2f6110419478
Ref: library/curses curses unctrl10420067
Ref: 2f6210420067
Ref: library/curses curses ungetch10420348
Ref: 2f6310420348
Ref: library/curses curses update_lines_cols10420525
Ref: ddb10420525
Ref: library/curses curses unget_wch10420728
Ref: 108310420728
Ref: library/curses curses ungetmouse10420956
Ref: 2f6410420956
Ref: library/curses curses use_env10421122
Ref: 2f6510421122
Ref: library/curses curses use_default_colors10421632
Ref: 2f4110421632
Ref: library/curses curses wrapper10422065
Ref: a7010422065
Node: Window Objects10422887
Ref: library/curses curses-window-objects10423037
Ref: 2f4210423037
Ref: library/curses window-objects10423037
Ref: 2f6610423037
Ref: library/curses curses window addch10423217
Ref: 2f6710423217
Ref: library/curses curses window addnstr10423824
Ref: 2f6810423824
Ref: library/curses curses window addstr10424087
Ref: 2f2410424087
Ref: library/curses curses window attroff10425091
Ref: 2f6910425091
Ref: library/curses curses window attron10425234
Ref: 2f6a10425234
Ref: library/curses curses window attrset10425373
Ref: 2f6b10425373
Ref: library/curses curses window bkgd10425519
Ref: 2f6c10425519
Ref: library/curses curses window bkgdset10425966
Ref: 2f6d10425966
Ref: library/curses curses window border10426528
Ref: 2f6e10426528
Ref: library/curses curses window box10428544
Ref: 2f7510428544
Ref: library/curses curses window chgat10428774
Ref: 2f7610428774
Ref: library/curses curses window clear10429406
Ref: 2f7810429406
Ref: library/curses curses window clearok10429563
Ref: 2f7a10429563
Ref: library/curses curses window clrtobot10429710
Ref: 2f7b10429710
Ref: library/curses curses window clrtoeol10429909
Ref: 2f7c10429909
Ref: library/curses curses window cursyncup10429991
Ref: 2f7d10429991
Ref: library/curses curses window delch10430161
Ref: 2f7e10430161
Ref: library/curses curses window deleteln10430242
Ref: 2f7f10430242
Ref: library/curses curses window derwin10430368
Ref: 2f8010430368
Ref: library/curses curses window echochar10430778
Ref: 2f8210430778
Ref: library/curses curses window enclose10430934
Ref: 189410430934
Ref: library/curses curses window encoding10431362
Ref: 108110431362
Ref: library/curses curses window erase10431749
Ref: 2f7910431749
Ref: library/curses curses window getbegyx10431804
Ref: 2f8310431804
Ref: library/curses curses window getbkgd10431909
Ref: 2f8410431909
Ref: library/curses curses window getch10432024
Ref: 2f2d10432024
Ref: library/curses curses window get_wch10432346
Ref: 108210432346
Ref: library/curses curses window getkey10432623
Ref: 2f8510432623
Ref: library/curses curses window getmaxyx10432933
Ref: 2f8610432933
Ref: library/curses curses window getparyx10433040
Ref: 2f8710433040
Ref: library/curses curses window getstr10433246
Ref: 2f8810433246
Ref: library/curses curses window getyx10433470
Ref: 2f8910433470
Ref: library/curses curses window hline10433611
Ref: 2f8a10433611
Ref: library/curses curses window idcok10433801
Ref: 2f8b10433801
Ref: library/curses curses window idlok10434149
Ref: 2f8c10434149
Ref: library/curses curses window immedok10434344
Ref: 2f8d10434344
Ref: library/curses curses window inch10434695
Ref: 2f8e10434695
Ref: library/curses curses window insch10434885
Ref: 2f8f10434885
Ref: library/curses curses window insdelln10435103
Ref: 2f9010435103
Ref: library/curses curses window insertln10435484
Ref: 2f9110435484
Ref: library/curses curses window insnstr10435616
Ref: 2f9210435616
Ref: library/curses curses window insstr10436133
Ref: 2f9310436133
Ref: library/curses curses window instr10436556
Ref: 2f9410436556
Ref: library/curses curses window is_linetouched10436956
Ref: 2f9510436956
Ref: library/curses curses window is_wintouched10437241
Ref: 2f9610437241
Ref: library/curses curses window keypad10437423
Ref: 2f9710437423
Ref: library/curses curses window leaveok10437693
Ref: 2f3810437693
Ref: library/curses curses window move10438039
Ref: 2f9810438039
Ref: library/curses curses window mvderwin10438124
Ref: 2f9910438124
Ref: library/curses curses window mvwin10438403
Ref: 2f9a10438403
Ref: library/curses curses window nodelay10438521
Ref: 2f9b10438521
Ref: library/curses curses window notimeout10438632
Ref: 2f9c10438632
Ref: library/curses curses window noutrefresh10438898
Ref: 2f2310438898
Ref: library/curses curses window overlay10439174
Ref: 2f9d10439174
Ref: library/curses curses window overwrite10439825
Ref: 2f9e10439825
Ref: library/curses curses window putwin10440479
Ref: 2f3a10440479
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawln10440687
Ref: 2f9f10440687
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawwin10440895
Ref: 2fa010440895
Ref: library/curses curses window refresh10441043
Ref: 2f2510441043
Ref: library/curses curses window resize10442066
Ref: 2fa110442066
Ref: library/curses curses window scroll10442418
Ref: 2fa210442418
Ref: library/curses curses window scrollok10442528
Ref: 2fa310442528
Ref: library/curses curses window setscrreg10443066
Ref: 2fa410443066
Ref: library/curses curses window standend10443237
Ref: 2fa510443237
Ref: library/curses curses window standout10443390
Ref: 2fa610443390
Ref: library/curses curses window subpad10443462
Ref: 2fa710443462
Ref: library/curses curses window subwin10443705
Ref: 2f8110443705
Ref: library/curses curses window syncdown10444067
Ref: 2fa810444067
Ref: library/curses curses window syncok10444315
Ref: 2fa910444315
Ref: library/curses curses window syncup10444480
Ref: 2faa10444480
Ref: library/curses curses window timeout10444608
Ref: 2fab10444608
Ref: library/curses curses window touchline10445113
Ref: 2f7710445113
Ref: library/curses curses window touchwin10445423
Ref: 2fac10445423
Ref: library/curses curses window untouchwin10445550
Ref: 2fad10445550
Ref: library/curses curses window vline10445685
Ref: 174510445685
Ref: Window Objects-Footnote-110445948
Node: Constantes<6>10445991
Ref: library/curses constants10446120
Ref: 2fae10446120
Ref: library/curses curses ERR10446227
Ref: 2faf10446227
Ref: library/curses curses OK10446376
Ref: 2fb010446376
Ref: library/curses curses version10446523
Ref: 2fb110446523
Ref: library/curses curses __version__10446553
Ref: 2fb210446553
Ref: library/curses curses ncurses_version10446656
Ref: 9d710446656
Ref: library/curses curses COLORS10447086
Ref: 2f5910447086
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_PAIRS10447246
Ref: 2f5a10447246
Ref: library/curses curses COLS10447416
Ref: 16c710447416
Ref: library/curses curses LINES10447680
Ref: 16c610447680
Ref: library/curses curses A_ALTCHARSET10448247
Ref: 2fb310448247
Ref: library/curses curses A_BLINK10448337
Ref: 2fb410448337
Ref: library/curses curses A_BOLD10448423
Ref: 2fb510448423
Ref: library/curses curses A_DIM10448522
Ref: 2fb610448522
Ref: library/curses curses A_INVIS10448608
Ref: 2fb710448608
Ref: library/curses curses A_ITALIC10448693
Ref: 2fb810448693
Ref: library/curses curses A_NORMAL10448766
Ref: 2f1210448766
Ref: library/curses curses A_PROTECT10448843
Ref: 2fb910448843
Ref: library/curses curses A_REVERSE10448919
Ref: 2f1a10448919
Ref: library/curses curses A_STANDOUT10449079
Ref: 2f1910449079
Ref: library/curses curses A_UNDERLINE10449154
Ref: 2fba10449154
Ref: library/curses curses A_HORIZONTAL10449230
Ref: 2fbb10449230
Ref: library/curses curses A_LEFT10449326
Ref: 2fbc10449326
Ref: library/curses curses A_LOW10449430
Ref: 2fbd10449430
Ref: library/curses curses A_RIGHT10449521
Ref: 2fbe10449521
Ref: library/curses curses A_TOP10449611
Ref: 2fbf10449611
Ref: library/curses curses A_VERTICAL10449702
Ref: 2fc010449702
Ref: library/curses curses A_ATTRIBUTES10450106
Ref: 2fc110450106
Ref: library/curses curses A_CHARTEXT10450200
Ref: 2fc210450200
Ref: library/curses curses A_COLOR10450310
Ref: 2fc310450310
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MIN10450760
Ref: 2fc410450760
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BREAK10450856
Ref: 2fc510450856
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DOWN10450942
Ref: 2fc610450942
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UP10451030
Ref: 2fc710451030
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LEFT10451118
Ref: 2fc810451118
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RIGHT10451192
Ref: 2fc910451192
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HOME10451267
Ref: 2fca10451267
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BACKSPACE10451359
Ref: 2fcb10451359
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_F010451459
Ref: 2fcc10451459
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_Fn10451636
Ref: 2fcd10451636
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DL10451755
Ref: 2fce10451755
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IL10451860
Ref: 2fcf10451860
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DC10451965
Ref: 2fd010451965
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IC10452075
Ref: 2fd110452075
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EIC10452202
Ref: 2fd210452202
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLEAR10452302
Ref: 2fd310452302
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOS10452393
Ref: 2fd410452393
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOL10452509
Ref: 2fd510452509
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SF10452622
Ref: 2fd610452622
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SR10452737
Ref: 2fd710452737
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NPAGE10452849
Ref: 2fd810452849
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PPAGE10452922
Ref: 2fd910452922
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_STAB10452999
Ref: 2fda10452999
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CTAB10453070
Ref: 2fdb10453070
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CATAB10453143
Ref: 2fdc10453143
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_ENTER10453221
Ref: 2fdd10453221
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRESET10453311
Ref: 2fde10453311
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESET10453408
Ref: 2fdf10453408
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PRINT10453504
Ref: 2fe010453504
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LL10453587
Ref: 2fe110453587
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A110453713
Ref: 2fe210453713
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A310453827
Ref: 2fe310453827
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_B210453942
Ref: 2fe410453942
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C110454052
Ref: 2fe510454052
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C310454166
Ref: 2fe610454166
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BTAB10454267
Ref: 2fe710454267
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BEG10454354
Ref: 2fe810454354
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CANCEL10454448
Ref: 2fe910454448
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLOSE10454518
Ref: 2fea10454518
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COMMAND10454589
Ref: 2feb10454589
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COPY10454666
Ref: 2fec10454666
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CREATE10454736
Ref: 2fed10454736
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_END10454821
Ref: 2fee10454821
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EXIT10454903
Ref: 2fef10454903
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_FIND10454973
Ref: 2ff010454973
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HELP10455041
Ref: 2ff110455041
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MARK10455109
Ref: 2ff210455109
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MESSAGE10455177
Ref: 2ff310455177
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOVE10455248
Ref: 2ff410455248
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NEXT10455316
Ref: 2ff510455316
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPEN10455384
Ref: 2ff610455384
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPTIONS10455452
Ref: 2ff710455452
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PREVIOUS10455523
Ref: 2ff810455523
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REDO10455602
Ref: 2ff910455602
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFERENCE10455672
Ref: 2ffa10455672
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFRESH10455751
Ref: 2ffb10455751
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REPLACE10455822
Ref: 2ffc10455822
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESTART10455893
Ref: 2ffd10455893
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESUME10455964
Ref: 2ffe10455964
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SAVE10456034
Ref: 2fff10456034
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SBEG10456104
Ref: 300010456104
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCANCEL10456191
Ref: 300110456191
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOMMAND10456269
Ref: 300210456269
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOPY10456348
Ref: 300310456348
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCREATE10456424
Ref: 300410456424
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDC10456517
Ref: 300510456517
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDL10456630
Ref: 300610456630
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SELECT10456728
Ref: 300710456728
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEND10456798
Ref: 300810456798
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEOL10456873
Ref: 300910456873
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEXIT10456955
Ref: 300a10456955
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SFIND10457031
Ref: 300b10457031
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHELP10457107
Ref: 300c10457107
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHOME10457183
Ref: 300d10457183
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SIC10457274
Ref: 300e10457274
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SLEFT10457366
Ref: 300f10457366
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMESSAGE10457448
Ref: 301010457448
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMOVE10457527
Ref: 301110457527
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SNEXT10457603
Ref: 301210457603
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SOPTIONS10457679
Ref: 301310457679
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPREVIOUS10457758
Ref: 301410457758
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPRINT10457834
Ref: 301510457834
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREDO10457911
Ref: 301610457911
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREPLACE10457987
Ref: 301710457987
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRIGHT10458066
Ref: 301810458066
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRSUME10458149
Ref: 301910458149
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSAVE10458227
Ref: 301a10458227
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSUSPEND10458303
Ref: 301b10458303
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUNDO10458382
Ref: 301c10458382
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUSPEND10458458
Ref: 301d10458458
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UNDO10458529
Ref: 301e10458529
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOUSE10458599
Ref: 2f2e10458599
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESIZE10458687
Ref: 301f10458687
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MAX10458787
Ref: 302010458787
Ref: library/curses curses-acs-codes10459988
Ref: 302110459988
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BBSS10460559
Ref: 302210460559
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BLOCK10460658
Ref: 302310460658
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BOARD10460738
Ref: 302410460738
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSBS10460816
Ref: 302510460816
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSB10460912
Ref: 302610460912
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSS10461010
Ref: 302710461010
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BTEE10461098
Ref: 302810461098
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BULLET10461170
Ref: 302910461170
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_CKBOARD10461238
Ref: 302a10461238
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DARROW10461323
Ref: 302b10461323
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DEGREE10461404
Ref: 302c10461404
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DIAMOND10461479
Ref: 302d10461479
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_GEQUAL10461548
Ref: 302e10461548
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_HLINE10461634
Ref: 2f7010461634
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LANTERN10461711
Ref: 302f10461711
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LARROW10461787
Ref: 303010461787
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LEQUAL10461859
Ref: 303110461859
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LLCORNER10461942
Ref: 2f7310461942
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LRCORNER10462026
Ref: 2f7410462026
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LTEE10462111
Ref: 303210462111
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_NEQUAL10462181
Ref: 303310462181
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PI10462271
Ref: 303410462271
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLMINUS10462357
Ref: 303510462357
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLUS10462437
Ref: 303610462437
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RARROW10462512
Ref: 303710462512
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RTEE10462585
Ref: 303810462585
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S110462670
Ref: 303910462670
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S310462772
Ref: 303a10462772
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S710462874
Ref: 303b10462874
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S910462976
Ref: 303c10462976
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBBS10463064
Ref: 303d10463064
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSB10463163
Ref: 303e10463163
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSS10463257
Ref: 303f10463257
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBB10463347
Ref: 304010463347
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBS10463445
Ref: 304110463445
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSB10463536
Ref: 304210463536
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSS10463625
Ref: 304310463625
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_STERLING10463727
Ref: 304410463727
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_TTEE10463803
Ref: 304510463803
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_UARROW10463872
Ref: 304610463872
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_ULCORNER10463942
Ref: 2f7110463942
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_URCORNER10464021
Ref: 2f7210464021
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_VLINE10464101
Ref: 2f6f10464101
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_PRESSED10464505
Ref: 2f2f10464505
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_RELEASED10464651
Ref: 2f3010464651
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_CLICKED10464796
Ref: 2f3110464796
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED10464918
Ref: 2f3210464918
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED10465031
Ref: 2f3310465031
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_SHIFT10465164
Ref: 2f3410465164
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_CTRL10465325
Ref: 2f3510465325
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_ALT10465488
Ref: 2f3610465488
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLACK10465940
Ref: 304710465940
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLUE10466009
Ref: 304810466009
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_CYAN10466077
Ref: 304910466077
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_GREEN10466167
Ref: 304a10466167
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_MAGENTA10466236
Ref: 304b10466236
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_RED10466322
Ref: 304c10466322
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_WHITE10466389
Ref: 304d10466389
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_YELLOW10466458
Ref: 304e10466458
Node: curses textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs10466515
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs10466761
Ref: 304f10466761
Ref: library/curses module-curses textpad10466761
Ref: 2e10466761
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Ref: 305110467349
Node: Textbox objects10468072
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-objects10468180
Ref: 305210468180
Ref: library/curses textbox-objects10468180
Ref: 305310468180
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox10468294
Ref: 305010468294
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox edit10468772
Ref: 305510468772
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox do_command10469345
Ref: 305610469345
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox gather10473077
Ref: 305710473077
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox stripspaces10473272
Ref: 305410473272
Node: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters10473682
Ref: library/curses ascii doc10473923
Ref: 305810473923
Ref: library/curses ascii curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters10473923
Ref: 305910473923
Ref: library/curses ascii module-curses ascii10473923
Ref: 2c10473923
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NUL10474527
Ref: 305a10474527
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SOH10474569
Ref: 305b10474569
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii STX10474654
Ref: 305c10474654
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETX10474717
Ref: 305d10474717
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EOT10474778
Ref: 305e10474778
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ENQ10474847
Ref: 305f10474847
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ACK10474945
Ref: 306010474945
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BEL10475010
Ref: 306110475010
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BS10475064
Ref: 306210475064
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii TAB10475122
Ref: 306310475122
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii HT10475175
Ref: 306410475175
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii LF10475268
Ref: 306510475268
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NL10475326
Ref: 306610475326
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii VT10475412
Ref: 306710475412
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FF10475473
Ref: 306810475473
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CR10475531
Ref: 306910475531
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SO10475594
Ref: 306a10475594
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SI10475683
Ref: 306b10475683
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DLE10475770
Ref: 306c10475770
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC110475836
Ref: 306d10475836
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC210475907
Ref: 306e10475907
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC310475998
Ref: 306f10475998
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC410476070
Ref: 307010476070
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NAK10476136
Ref: 307110476136
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SYN10476210
Ref: 307210476210
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETB10476276
Ref: 307310476276
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CAN10476348
Ref: 307410476348
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EM10476404
Ref: 307510476404
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SUB10476466
Ref: 307610476466
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ESC10476526
Ref: 307710476526
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FS10476582
Ref: 307810476582
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii GS10476654
Ref: 307910476654
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii RS10476724
Ref: 307a10476724
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii US10476812
Ref: 307b10476812
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SP10476875
Ref: 307c10476875
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DEL10476929
Ref: 307d10476929
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalnum10477224
Ref: 307e10477224
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalpha10477371
Ref: 307f10477371
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isascii10477516
Ref: 308010477516
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isblank10477625
Ref: 308110477625
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii iscntrl10477738
Ref: 308210477738
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isdigit10477864
Ref: 308310477864
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isgraph10478028
Ref: 308410478028
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii islower10478129
Ref: 308510478129
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isprint10478217
Ref: 308610478217
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ispunct10478321
Ref: 308710478321
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isspace10478464
Ref: 308810478464
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isupper10478632
Ref: 308910478632
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isxdigit10478716
Ref: 308a10478716
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isctrl10478859
Ref: 308b10478859
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ismeta10478968
Ref: 308c10478968
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ascii10479566
Ref: 308d10479566
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ctrl10479673
Ref: 308e10479673
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii alt10479841
Ref: 308f10479841
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii unctrl10480113
Ref: 309010480113
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii controlnames10480666
Ref: 309110480666
Ref: curses ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters-Footnote-110480952
Node: curses panel --- A panel stack extension for curses10481024
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Ref: 309210481200
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses10481200
Ref: 309310481200
Ref: library/curses panel module-curses panel10481200
Ref: 2d10481200
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Ref: library/curses panel cursespanel-functions10481798
Ref: 309410481798
Ref: library/curses panel functions10481798
Ref: 309510481798
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel bottom_panel10481906
Ref: 309610481906
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel new_panel10482001
Ref: 309710482001
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel top_panel10482301
Ref: 309810482301
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel update_panels10482390
Ref: 309910482390
Node: Panel Objects10482599
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-objects10482721
Ref: 309a10482721
Ref: library/curses panel panel-objects10482721
Ref: 309b10482721
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel above10483071
Ref: 309c10483071
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel below10483150
Ref: 309d10483150
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel bottom10483229
Ref: 309e10483229
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hidden10483309
Ref: 309f10483309
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hide10483431
Ref: 30a010483431
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel move10483567
Ref: 30a110483567
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel replace10483661
Ref: 30a210483661
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel set_userptr10483767
Ref: 30a310483767
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel show10483961
Ref: 30a410483961
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel top10484046
Ref: 30a510484046
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel userptr10484116
Ref: 30a610484116
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel window10484233
Ref: 30a710484233
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Ref: 30a910484497
Ref: library/concurrency concurrent-execution10484497
Ref: 30aa10484497
Node: threading --- Thread-based parallelism10485786
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Ref: ec10485937
Ref: library/threading threading-thread-based-parallelism10485937
Ref: 30ac10485937
Ref: library/threading threading active_count10487878
Ref: 2ff10487878
Ref: library/threading threading current_thread10488176
Ref: 2fe10488176
Ref: library/threading threading excepthook10488576
Ref: 83710488576
Ref: library/threading threading __excepthook__10490216
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Ref: library/threading threading get_ident10490499
Ref: 113c10490499
Ref: library/threading threading get_native_id10490981
Ref: a2e10490981
Ref: library/threading threading enumerate10491625
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Ref: library/threading threading main_thread10492009
Ref: fbf10492009
Ref: library/threading threading settrace10492278
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Ref: library/threading threading settrace_all_threads10492582
Ref: 4b410492582
Ref: library/threading threading gettrace10492954
Ref: 83210492954
Ref: library/threading threading setprofile10493114
Ref: 83510493114
Ref: library/threading threading setprofile_all_threads10493426
Ref: 4b510493426
Ref: library/threading threading getprofile10493804
Ref: 83310493804
Ref: library/threading threading stack_size10493968
Ref: 30ad10493968
Ref: library/threading threading TIMEOUT_MAX10495610
Ref: 30ae10495610
Ref: threading --- Thread-based parallelism-Footnote-110497195
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Ref: 172710497895
Ref: Données locales au fil d'exécution-Footnote-110498183
Node: Objets Threads10498260
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Ref: 30b010498410
Ref: library/threading thread-objects10498410
Ref: 30b110498410
Ref: library/threading threading Thread10501331
Ref: 93b10501331
Ref: library/threading threading Thread start10502917
Ref: 2c6f10502917
Ref: library/threading threading Thread run10503336
Ref: a2d10503336
Ref: library/threading meth-thread-join10504211
Ref: 30b210504211
Ref: library/threading threading Thread join10504211
Ref: 11c310504211
Ref: library/threading threading Thread name10505663
Ref: 2fd10505663
Ref: library/threading threading Thread getName10505943
Ref: 30b310505943
Ref: library/threading threading Thread setName10505973
Ref: 2fc10505973
Ref: library/threading threading Thread ident10506160
Ref: 2bfc10506160
Ref: library/threading threading Thread native_id10506606
Ref: a2f10506606
Ref: library/threading threading Thread is_alive10507415
Ref: 93c10507415
Ref: library/threading threading Thread daemon10507837
Ref: 2fb10507837
Ref: library/threading threading Thread isDaemon10508452
Ref: 30b410508452
Ref: library/threading threading Thread setDaemon10508483
Ref: 2fa10508483
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Ref: library/threading id210508801
Ref: 30b510508801
Ref: library/threading lock-objects10508801
Ref: 30b610508801
Ref: library/threading threading Lock10510270
Ref: 163210510270
Ref: library/threading threading Lock acquire10510680
Ref: 68510510680
Ref: library/threading threading Lock release10512050
Ref: 12a210512050
Ref: library/threading threading Lock locked10512570
Ref: 30b810512570
Node: RLock Objects10512654
Ref: library/threading id310512784
Ref: 30b910512784
Ref: library/threading rlock-objects10512784
Ref: 30ba10512784
Ref: library/threading threading RLock10514139
Ref: 2dd10514139
Ref: library/threading threading RLock acquire10514662
Ref: e6810514662
Ref: library/threading threading RLock release10516680
Ref: 30bb10516680
Node: Condition Objects10517387
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Ref: 30bc10517527
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Ref: 30bd10517527
Ref: library/threading threading Condition10520640
Ref: 113710520640
Ref: library/threading threading Condition acquire10521195
Ref: 30be10521195
Ref: library/threading threading Condition release10521409
Ref: 30bf10521409
Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait10521594
Ref: 186e10521594
Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait_for10523132
Ref: 30c010523132
Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify10524115
Ref: 179810524115
Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify_all10525017
Ref: 2f810525017
Node: Semaphore Objects10525435
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Ref: 30c110525575
Ref: library/threading semaphore-objects10525575
Ref: 30c210525575
Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore10526274
Ref: 113810526274
Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore acquire10526977
Ref: 123410526977
Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore release10528298
Ref: 30c310528298
Ref: library/threading threading BoundedSemaphore10528683
Ref: 113910528683
Node: Semaphore Example10529254
Ref: library/threading semaphore-example10529325
Ref: 30c410529325
Ref: library/threading semaphore-examples10529325
Ref: 30c510529325
Node: Event Objects10530190
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Ref: 30c610530326
Ref: library/threading id610530326
Ref: 30c710530326
Ref: library/threading threading Event10530728
Ref: 113a10530728
Ref: library/threading threading Event is_set10531136
Ref: 2f910531136
Ref: library/threading threading Event set10531310
Ref: 30c810531310
Ref: library/threading threading Event clear10531540
Ref: 30c910531540
Ref: library/threading threading Event wait10531771
Ref: 130610531771
Node: Timer Objects10532509
Ref: library/threading id710532643
Ref: 30ca10532643
Ref: library/threading timer-objects10532643
Ref: 30cb10532643
Ref: library/threading threading Timer10533406
Ref: 113b10533406
Ref: library/threading threading Timer cancel10533867
Ref: 30cc10533867
Node: Barrier Objects10534057
Ref: library/threading barrier-objects10534237
Ref: 30cd10534237
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier10535201
Ref: 11c210535201
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier wait10535546
Ref: 30ce10535546
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier reset10536694
Ref: 30cf10536694
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier abort10537133
Ref: 30d010537133
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier parties10537625
Ref: 30d110537625
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier n_waiting10537716
Ref: 30d210537716
Ref: library/threading threading Barrier broken10537813
Ref: 30d310537813
Ref: library/threading threading BrokenBarrierError10537908
Ref: 11c410537908
Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement10538114
Ref: library/threading using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement10538272
Ref: 30d410538272
Ref: library/threading with-locks10538272
Ref: 30b710538272
Node: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism10539118
Ref: library/multiprocessing doc10539360
Ref: 30d510539360
Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing10539360
Ref: 9310539360
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-process-based-parallelism10539360
Ref: 30d610539360
Ref: multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism-Footnote-110539904
Node: Introduction<8>10539977
Ref: library/multiprocessing introduction10540094
Ref: 30d710540094
Node: La classe Process10542070
Ref: library/multiprocessing the-process-class10542184
Ref: 30d810542184
Node: Contextes et méthodes de démarrage10543433
Ref: library/multiprocessing contexts-and-start-methods10543593
Ref: 30db10543593
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-start-methods10543593
Ref: 2c610543593
Ref: Contextes et méthodes de démarrage-Footnote-110549296
Node: Échange d'objets entre les processus10549361
Ref: library/multiprocessing exchanging-objects-between-processes10549535
Ref: 30dd10549535
Node: Synchronisation entre processus10551563
Ref: library/multiprocessing synchronization-between-processes10551738
Ref: 30df10551738
Node: Partager un état entre les processus10552485
Ref: library/multiprocessing sharing-state-between-processes10552650
Ref: 30e010552650
Node: Utiliser un pool de workers10556046
Ref: library/multiprocessing using-a-pool-of-workers10556171
Ref: 30e810556171
Node: Référence10559559
Ref: library/multiprocessing reference10559720
Ref: 30e910559720
Node: Process et exceptions10560311
Ref: library/multiprocessing process-and-exceptions10560416
Ref: 30ea10560416
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process10560487
Ref: b4910560487
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process run10562043
Ref: 30dc10562043
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Ref: Tubes pipes et files queues-Footnote-110584619
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_start_method10590431
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv10592616
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-recv-pickle-security10597115
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Ref: Primitives de synchronisation-Footnote-110607168
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Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-sharedctypes-module10610804
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawValue10612429
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool ThreadPool10665745
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Ref: Toutes les méthodes de démarrage-Footnote-210675205
Ref: Toutes les méthodes de démarrage-Footnote-310675269
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager10696470
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Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-110705463
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-210705553
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-310705580
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError10743690
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError returncode10743952
Ref: 31a310743952
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError cmd10744170
Ref: 31a410744170
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError output10744262
Ref: 31a510744262
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stdout10744428
Ref: 31a610744428
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stderr10744549
Ref: 31a710744549
Node: Arguments fréquemment utilisés10744879
Ref: library/subprocess frequently-used-arguments10745007
Ref: 319310745007
Ref: library/subprocess id110745007
Ref: 31a810745007
Node: Constructeur de Popen10749638
Ref: library/subprocess popen-constructor10749789
Ref: 31ad10749789
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen10750144
Ref: 19710750144
Ref: Constructeur de Popen-Footnote-110769271
Node: Exceptions<11>10769331
Ref: library/subprocess exceptions10769441
Ref: 31be10769441
Node: Considérations de sécurité10770753
Ref: library/subprocess security-considerations10770914
Ref: 31ac10770914
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-security10770914
Ref: 31bf10770914
Ref: Considérations de sécurité-Footnote-110772037
Ref: Considérations de sécurité-Footnote-210772107
Node: Objets Popen10772163
Ref: library/subprocess popen-objects10772325
Ref: 31c110772325
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen poll10772458
Ref: 31c210772458
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen wait10772629
Ref: cd410772629
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen communicate10773865
Ref: 319510773865
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen send_signal10775821
Ref: 139710775821
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen terminate10776203
Ref: 139510776203
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen kill10776424
Ref: 139610776424
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen args10776762
Ref: 31c310776762
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdin10776967
Ref: 31a910776967
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdout10777407
Ref: 31aa10777407
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stderr10777919
Ref: 31ab10777919
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen pid10778720
Ref: 31c410778720
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen returncode10778925
Ref: 196610778925
Node: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows10779464
Ref: library/subprocess windows-popen-helpers10779631
Ref: 31c510779631
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO10779821
Ref: 31b110779821
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO dwFlags10780297
Ref: 31c610780297
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdInput10780626
Ref: 31c710780626
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdOutput10780957
Ref: 31c910780957
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdError10781260
Ref: 31ca10781260
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO wShowWindow10781562
Ref: 31cb10781562
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO lpAttributeList10782059
Ref: bfe10782059
Ref: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows-Footnote-110783425
Ref: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows-Footnote-210783497
Ref: Utilitaires Popen pour Windows-Footnote-310783569
Node: Constantes Windows10783658
Ref: library/subprocess windows-constants10783743
Ref: 31ce10783743
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_INPUT_HANDLE10783866
Ref: 31cf10783866
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE10784032
Ref: 31d010784032
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_ERROR_HANDLE10784205
Ref: 31d110784205
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SW_HIDE10784377
Ref: 31cd10784377
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESTDHANDLES10784471
Ref: 31c810784471
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW10784716
Ref: 31cc10784716
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK10784878
Ref: 31d210784878
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK10785183
Ref: 31d310785183
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE10785404
Ref: 31b210785404
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP10785573
Ref: 31b310785573
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10785940
Ref: 31b410785940
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10786168
Ref: 31b510786168
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS10786397
Ref: 31b610786397
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS10786599
Ref: 31b710786599
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10786828
Ref: 31b810786828
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS10787042
Ref: 31b910787042
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NO_WINDOW10787689
Ref: 31ba10787689
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DETACHED_PROCESS10787900
Ref: 31bb10787900
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE10788203
Ref: 31bc10788203
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB10788741
Ref: 31bd10788741
Node: Ancienne interface API haut-niveau10788952
Ref: library/subprocess call-function-trio10789170
Ref: 31d410789170
Ref: library/subprocess older-high-level-api10789170
Ref: 31d510789170
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess call10789497
Ref: b7810789497
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_call10790974
Ref: 31a210790974
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_output10792736
Ref: fae10792736
Node: Remplacer les fonctions plus anciennes par le module subprocess10795451
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module10795698
Ref: 31d610795698
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-replacements10795698
Ref: 116a10795698
Node: Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh10797034
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-bin-sh-shell-command-substitution10797235
Ref: 31d710797235
Node: Remplacer les pipes du shell10797482
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-shell-pipeline10797711
Ref: 31d810797711
Node: Remplacer os system10798412
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-system10798623
Ref: 31d910798623
Node: Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os spawn10799595
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-the-os-spawn-family10799816
Ref: 31da10799816
Node: Remplacer os popen os popen2 os popen310800528
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen310800772
Ref: 31db10800772
Node: Replacing functions from the popen2 module10802077
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module10802266
Ref: 31dc10802266
Node: Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell10803674
Ref: library/subprocess legacy-shell-invocation-functions10803895
Ref: 31dd10803895
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getstatusoutput10804336
Ref: faf10804336
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getoutput10805817
Ref: 17b710805817
Node: Notes<2>10806451
Ref: library/subprocess notes10806600
Ref: 31de10806600
Node: Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows10806812
Ref: library/subprocess converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows10806983
Ref: 31df10806983
Ref: library/subprocess converting-argument-sequence10806983
Ref: 31ae10806983
Ref: library/subprocess disable-vfork10808357
Ref: 31e010808357
Node: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn10808357
Ref: library/subprocess disable-posix-spawn10808528
Ref: 31e110808528
Ref: library/subprocess disabling-use-of-vfork-or-posix-spawn10808528
Ref: 31e210808528
Node: sched --- Event scheduler10809957
Ref: library/sched doc10810131
Ref: 31e310810131
Ref: library/sched module-sched10810131
Ref: be10810131
Ref: library/sched sched-event-scheduler10810131
Ref: 31e410810131
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler10810402
Ref: 110910810402
Ref: sched --- Event scheduler-Footnote-110812479
Node: Scheduler Objects10812544
Ref: library/sched id110812623
Ref: 31e510812623
Ref: library/sched scheduler-objects10812623
Ref: 31e610812623
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enterabs10812755
Ref: 110b10812755
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enter10813653
Ref: 110a10813653
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler cancel10814077
Ref: 18ed10814077
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler empty10814266
Ref: 31e710814266
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler run10814353
Ref: 110810814353
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler queue10815403
Ref: 31e810815403
Node: queue --- A synchronized queue class10815661
Ref: library/queue doc10815832
Ref: 31e910815832
Ref: library/queue module-queue10815832
Ref: b510815832
Ref: library/queue queue-a-synchronized-queue-class10815832
Ref: 31ea10815832
Ref: library/queue queue Queue10817245
Ref: 136710817245
Ref: library/queue queue LifoQueue10817660
Ref: 221410817660
Ref: library/queue queue PriorityQueue10818079
Ref: 221510818079
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue10819163
Ref: b5a10819163
Ref: library/queue queue Empty10819396
Ref: 30fe10819396
Ref: library/queue queue Full10819591
Ref: 30ff10819591
Ref: library/queue queue ShutDown10819787
Ref: 23810819787
Ref: queue --- A synchronized queue class-Footnote-110820081
Node: Objets Queue10820146
Ref: library/queue queue-objects10820258
Ref: 31ed10820258
Ref: library/queue queueobjects10820258
Ref: 31ee10820258
Ref: library/queue queue Queue qsize10820463
Ref: 31ef10820463
Ref: library/queue queue Queue empty10820749
Ref: 31f010820749
Ref: library/queue queue Queue full10821118
Ref: 31f110821118
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put10821487
Ref: 31ec10821487
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put_nowait10822148
Ref: 2c8710822148
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get10822237
Ref: 2c8810822237
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get_nowait10823445
Ref: 31eb10823445
Ref: library/queue queue Queue task_done10823684
Ref: 30fa10823684
Ref: library/queue queue Queue join10824578
Ref: 30fb10824578
Node: Terminating queues10825684
Ref: library/queue terminating-queues10825751
Ref: 31f210825751
Ref: library/queue queue Queue shutdown10825902
Ref: 23710825902
Node: Objets SimpleQueue10826529
Ref: library/queue simplequeue-objects10826641
Ref: 31f310826641
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue qsize10826800
Ref: 31f410826800
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue empty10826987
Ref: 31f510826987
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put10827204
Ref: 31f610827204
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put_nowait10828029
Ref: 31f710828029
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get10828193
Ref: 31f810828193
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get_nowait10828946
Ref: 31f910828946
Node: contextvars --- Context Variables10829444
Ref: library/contextvars doc10829625
Ref: 31fa10829625
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars-context-variables10829625
Ref: 31fb10829625
Ref: library/contextvars module-contextvars10829625
Ref: 2410829625
Ref: contextvars --- Context Variables-Footnote-110830558
Node: Variables de contexte10830600
Ref: library/contextvars context-variables10830728
Ref: 31fd10830728
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar10830791
Ref: 151610830791
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar name10831637
Ref: 31ff10831637
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar get10831776
Ref: 31fe10831776
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar set10832348
Ref: 320010832348
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar reset10832773
Ref: 320210832773
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token10833312
Ref: 320110833312
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token var10833611
Ref: 320310833611
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token old_value10833754
Ref: 320410833754
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token MISSING10834045
Ref: 320510834045
Node: Gestion de contexte manuelle10834141
Ref: library/contextvars manual-context-management10834298
Ref: 320610834298
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars copy_context10834375
Ref: 31fc10834375
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context10834885
Ref: 156310834885
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context run10836856
Ref: 15c210836856
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context copy10838185
Ref: 320710838185
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context get10838651
Ref: 320810838651
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context keys10839127
Ref: 320910839127
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context values10839244
Ref: 320a10839244
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context items10839375
Ref: 320b10839375
Node: Gestion avec asyncio10839527
Ref: library/contextvars asyncio-support10839654
Ref: 320c10839654
Node: _thread --- Low-level threading API10841418
Ref: library/_thread doc10841554
Ref: 320d10841554
Ref: library/_thread module-_thread10841554
Ref: 210841554
Ref: library/_thread thread-low-level-threading-api10841554
Ref: 320e10841554
Ref: library/_thread thread error10842384
Ref: 320f10842384
Ref: library/_thread thread LockType10842599
Ref: 321010842599
Ref: library/_thread thread start_new_thread10842669
Ref: 19410842669
Ref: library/_thread thread interrupt_main10843857
Ref: 82f10843857
Ref: library/_thread thread exit10844827
Ref: 321110844827
Ref: library/_thread thread allocate_lock10844998
Ref: 321210844998
Ref: library/_thread thread get_ident10845174
Ref: 321310845174
Ref: library/_thread thread get_native_id10845626
Ref: 321410845626
Ref: library/_thread thread stack_size10846268
Ref: 321510846268
Ref: library/_thread thread TIMEOUT_MAX10847897
Ref: 321610847897
Ref: library/_thread thread lock acquire10848195
Ref: 321710848195
Ref: library/_thread thread lock release10849356
Ref: 321810849356
Ref: library/_thread thread lock locked10849520
Ref: 321910849520
Node: Réseau et communication entre processus10850878
Ref: library/ipc doc10851064
Ref: 321a10851064
Ref: library/ipc ipc10851064
Ref: 321b10851064
Ref: library/ipc networking-and-interprocess-communication10851064
Ref: 321c10851064
Node: asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O10852187
Ref: library/asyncio doc10852342
Ref: 321d10852342
Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-asynchronous-i-o10852342
Ref: 321e10852342
Ref: library/asyncio module-asyncio10852342
Ref: a10852342
Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-cli10854419
Ref: 322910854419
Node: Exécuteurs runners10855644
Ref: library/asyncio-runner doc10855758
Ref: 322a10855758
Ref: library/asyncio-runner runners10855758
Ref: 322b10855758
Ref: Exécuteurs runners-Footnote-110856316
Node: Exécution d'un programme asynchrone10856392
Ref: library/asyncio-runner running-an-asyncio-program10856533
Ref: 322c10856533
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio run10856625
Ref: 46810856625
Node: Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur10858548
Ref: library/asyncio-runner runner-context-manager10858738
Ref: 322e10858738
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner10858838
Ref: 5ed10858838
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner run10860175
Ref: 166810860175
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner close10860879
Ref: 322f10860879
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner get_loop10861134
Ref: 323010861134
Node: Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier10861659
Ref: library/asyncio-runner handling-keyboard-interruption10861804
Ref: 323110861804
Node: Coroutines et tâches10863564
Ref: library/asyncio-task doc10863699
Ref: 323210863699
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines-and-tasks10863699
Ref: 323310863699
Node: Coroutines<3>10864360
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutine10864451
Ref: 321f10864451
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines10864451
Ref: 323410864451
Ref: Coroutines<3>-Footnote-110867977
Node: Attendables10868056
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-awaitables10868176
Ref: 323510868176
Ref: library/asyncio-task awaitables10868176
Ref: 323610868176
Node: Création de tâches10871125
Ref: library/asyncio-task creating-tasks10871252
Ref: 323710871252
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_task10871422
Ref: 5e910871422
Ref: Création de tâches-Footnote-110873735
Node: Annulation de tâche10873808
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-cancellation10873942
Ref: 323810873942
Node: Groupes de tâches10875231
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-groups10875352
Ref: 323910875352
Ref: library/asyncio-task taskgroups10875352
Ref: 323a10875352
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup10875560
Ref: 1b310875560
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup create_task10875897
Ref: 1ba10875897
Node: Terminating a Task Group10880129
Ref: library/asyncio-task terminating-a-task-group10880208
Ref: 323b10880208
Node: Attente10881537
Ref: library/asyncio-task sleeping10881683
Ref: 323c10881683
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio sleep10881720
Ref: a5f10881720
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-sleep10882316
Ref: 323d10882316
Node: Exécution de tâches de manière concurrente10883006
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-tasks-concurrently10883152
Ref: 323e10883152
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio gather10883262
Ref: 5ea10883262
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-gather10885173
Ref: 323f10885173
Node: Eager Task Factory10887379
Ref: library/asyncio-task eager-task-factory10887548
Ref: 324010887548
Ref: library/asyncio-task id110887548
Ref: 324110887548
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio eager_task_factory10887607
Ref: 46310887607
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_eager_task_factory10888758
Ref: 46410888758
Node: Protection contre l'annulation10889445
Ref: library/asyncio-task shielding-from-cancellation10889586
Ref: 324210889586
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio shield10889669
Ref: a6010889669
Node: Délais d'attente10891632
Ref: library/asyncio-task timeouts10891775
Ref: 324310891775
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout10891831
Ref: 5eb10891831
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout10893680
Ref: 168510893680
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout when10894252
Ref: 324510894252
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout reschedule10894443
Ref: 324410894443
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout expired10894559
Ref: 324610894559
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout_at10895480
Ref: 17de10895480
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait_for10896116
Ref: 5ec10896116
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-waitfor10897100
Ref: 324710897100
Node: Primitives d'attente10898028
Ref: library/asyncio-task waiting-primitives10898186
Ref: 324810898186
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait10898249
Ref: 46b10898249
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_COMPLETED10899591
Ref: 324910899591
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_EXCEPTION10899913
Ref: 324a10899913
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio ALL_COMPLETED10900435
Ref: 324b10900435
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio as_completed10901059
Ref: 1a810901059
Node: Exécution dans des fils d'exécution threads10904006
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-in-threads10904194
Ref: 324c10904194
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio to_thread10904313
Ref: 8d710904313
Node: Planification depuis d'autres fils d'exécution10906941
Ref: library/asyncio-task scheduling-from-other-threads10907122
Ref: 324d10907122
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio run_coroutine_threadsafe10907238
Ref: 87010907238
Node: Introspection10908933
Ref: library/asyncio-task introspection10909080
Ref: 324f10909080
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio current_task10909129
Ref: 46910909129
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio all_tasks10909469
Ref: 94510909469
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio iscoroutine10909784
Ref: 46a10909784
Node: Objets Task10909918
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-object10910009
Ref: 325010910009
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task10910058
Ref: 4c510910058
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task done10913203
Ref: 325410913203
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task result10913472
Ref: 325510913472
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task exception10914005
Ref: 325710914005
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task add_done_callback10914521
Ref: 325810914521
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task remove_done_callback10914936
Ref: 325910914936
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_stack10915302
Ref: 325a10915302
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task print_stack10916411
Ref: 171b10916411
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_coro10916910
Ref: 9cb10916910
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_context10917344
Ref: 325b10917344
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_name10917518
Ref: 9ce10917518
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task set_name10917834
Ref: 9cd10917834
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancel10918240
Ref: 1b510918240
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-task-cancel10919468
Ref: 325c10919468
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelled10920732
Ref: 325110920732
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task uncancel10921063
Ref: 1b910921063
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelling10923542
Ref: 1b810923542
Node: Flux streams10924465
Ref: library/asyncio-stream doc10924613
Ref: 325d10924613
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-streams10924613
Ref: 322010924613
Ref: library/asyncio-stream streams10924613
Ref: 325e10924613
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-example-stream10925016
Ref: 325f10925016
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio open_connection10925814
Ref: b0810925814
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio start_server10927191
Ref: b0910927191
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio open_unix_connection10928942
Ref: 326310928942
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio start_unix_server10929981
Ref: 326510929981
Ref: Flux streams-Footnote-110931214
Node: Flux lecteurs StreamReader10931282
Ref: library/asyncio-stream streamreader10931394
Ref: 326610931394
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader10931477
Ref: 188210931477
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader feed_eof10931913
Ref: 326710931913
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader read10931977
Ref: 326810931977
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readline10932645
Ref: 326910932645
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readexactly10933033
Ref: c6b10933033
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readuntil10933370
Ref: 1b210933370
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader at_eof10934771
Ref: 326c10934771
Node: Flux écrivains StreamWriter10934912
Ref: library/asyncio-stream streamwriter10935045
Ref: 326d10935045
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter10935131
Ref: 16ba10935131
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter write10935461
Ref: 326e10935461
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter writelines10935912
Ref: 326f10935912
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter close10936393
Ref: 326110936393
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter can_write_eof10936694
Ref: 327010936694
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter write_eof10936861
Ref: 327110936861
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter transport10937004
Ref: 327210937004
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter get_extra_info10937090
Ref: 327310937090
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter drain10937307
Ref: 176a10937307
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Ref: 33cd11226749
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_ZERO11226801
Ref: 33ce11226801
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_WILDCARD11226835
Ref: 33cf11226835
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_BROADCAST11226873
Ref: 33d011226873
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_CHILDREN11226912
Ref: 33d111226912
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_LOOPBACK11226950
Ref: 33d211226950
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_PARENT11226988
Ref: 33d311226988
Ref: library/socket socket-ethernet-types11227183
Ref: 176511227183
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_ARP11227183
Ref: 33d411227183
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_IP11227218
Ref: 33d511227218
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_IPV611227252
Ref: 33d611227252
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_VLAN11227288
Ref: 33d711227288
Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_RD11227466
Ref: 33d811227466
Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_WR11227495
Ref: 33d911227495
Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_RDWR11227524
Ref: 33da11227524
Ref: Constantes<8>-Footnote-111227728
Ref: Constantes<8>-Footnote-211227780
Ref: Constantes<8>-Footnote-311227826
Node: Fonctions<8>11227906
Ref: library/socket functions11227992
Ref: 33dc11227992
Node: Creating sockets11228103
Ref: library/socket creating-sockets11228196
Ref: 33dd11228196
Ref: library/socket socket socket11228313
Ref: d9011228313
Ref: library/socket socket socketpair11230968
Ref: be511230968
Ref: library/socket socket create_connection11231723
Ref: 65f11231723
Ref: library/socket socket create_server11233264
Ref: a1b11233264
Ref: library/socket socket has_dualstack_ipv611235100
Ref: a1c11235100
Ref: library/socket socket fromfd11235304
Ref: 33df11235304
Ref: library/socket socket fromshare11236231
Ref: bf711236231
Ref: library/socket socket SocketType11236494
Ref: 33e111236494
Node: Autres fonctions<2>11236651
Ref: library/socket other-functions11236744
Ref: 33e211236744
Ref: library/socket socket close11236873
Ref: b6311236873
Ref: library/socket socket getaddrinfo11237154
Ref: 170e11237154
Ref: library/socket socket getfqdn11241259
Ref: 173811241259
Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyname11241876
Ref: 33e311241876
Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyname_ex11242520
Ref: 188a11242520
Ref: library/socket socket gethostname11243308
Ref: 2ae411243308
Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyaddr11243736
Ref: 188911243736
Ref: library/socket socket getnameinfo11244477
Ref: 167e11244477
Ref: library/socket socket getprotobyname11245249
Ref: 33e411245249
Ref: library/socket socket getservbyname11245742
Ref: 33e511245742
Ref: library/socket socket getservbyport11246197
Ref: 33e611246197
Ref: library/socket socket ntohl11246638
Ref: 33e711246638
Ref: library/socket socket ntohs11246895
Ref: 86e11246895
Ref: library/socket socket htonl11247277
Ref: 33e811247277
Ref: library/socket socket htons11247534
Ref: 86d11247534
Ref: library/socket socket inet_aton11247916
Ref: 95011247916
Ref: library/socket socket inet_ntoa11248843
Ref: 33e911248843
Ref: library/socket socket inet_pton11249681
Ref: 95111249681
Ref: library/socket socket inet_ntop11250486
Ref: f9111250486
Ref: library/socket socket CMSG_LEN11251506
Ref: 19f511251506
Ref: library/socket socket CMSG_SPACE11252195
Ref: 19f411252195
Ref: library/socket socket getdefaulttimeout11253103
Ref: 33e011253103
Ref: library/socket socket setdefaulttimeout11253381
Ref: 33af11253381
Ref: library/socket socket sethostname11253669
Ref: 111d11253669
Ref: library/socket socket if_nameindex11254019
Ref: a1d11254019
Ref: library/socket socket if_nametoindex11254834
Ref: a1e11254834
Ref: library/socket socket if_indextoname11255309
Ref: a1f11255309
Ref: library/socket socket send_fds11255786
Ref: 92211255786
Ref: library/socket socket recv_fds11256277
Ref: 92311256277
Ref: Autres fonctions<2>-Footnote-111256878
Ref: Autres fonctions<2>-Footnote-211256931
Ref: Autres fonctions<2>-Footnote-311256982
Ref: Autres fonctions<2>-Footnote-411257026
Node: Socket Objects11257085
Ref: library/socket id111257234
Ref: 33ea11257234
Ref: library/socket socket-objects11257234
Ref: 33de11257234
Ref: library/socket socket socket accept11257593
Ref: d9111257593
Ref: library/socket socket socket bind11258417
Ref: 14f111258417
Ref: library/socket socket socket close11258762
Ref: d3311258762
Ref: library/socket socket socket connect11259766
Ref: d9211259766
Ref: library/socket socket socket connect_ex11260883
Ref: 14f011260883
Ref: library/socket socket socket detach11261504
Ref: 11fc11261504
Ref: library/socket socket socket dup11261756
Ref: 33eb11261756
Ref: library/socket socket socket fileno11262018
Ref: 33ec11262018
Ref: library/socket socket socket get_inheritable11262379
Ref: eeb11262379
Ref: library/socket socket socket getpeername11262648
Ref: 333211262648
Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockname11262988
Ref: 333311262988
Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockopt11263236
Ref: cc511263236
Ref: library/socket socket socket getblocking11263991
Ref: b6211263991
Ref: library/socket socket socket gettimeout11264224
Ref: 33ed11264224
Ref: library/socket socket socket ioctl11264473
Ref: cc311264473
Ref: library/socket socket socket listen11265125
Ref: e4911265125
Ref: library/socket socket socket makefile11265607
Ref: 117f11265607
Ref: library/socket socket socket recv11266753
Ref: d9311266753
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom11267483
Ref: d9411267483
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg11268453
Ref: d9511268453
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg_into11272402
Ref: 111c11272402
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom_into11274053
Ref: 12fe11274053
Ref: library/socket socket socket recv_into11274592
Ref: 12fd11274592
Ref: library/socket socket socket send11275045
Ref: d9611275045
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendall11275905
Ref: d9711275905
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendto11276911
Ref: d9811276911
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg11277767
Ref: 46211277767
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg_afalg11279971
Ref: cc811279971
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendfile11280320
Ref: e4811280320
Ref: library/socket socket socket set_inheritable11281236
Ref: eec11281236
Ref: library/socket socket socket setblocking11281423
Ref: 2afb11281423
Ref: library/socket socket socket settimeout11282003
Ref: 33ab11282003
Ref: library/socket socket socket setsockopt11282747
Ref: cc611282747
Ref: library/socket socket socket shutdown11283904
Ref: 33db11283904
Ref: library/socket socket socket share11284263
Ref: bf811284263
Ref: library/socket socket socket family11285140
Ref: 33f111285140
Ref: library/socket socket socket type11285194
Ref: bfc11285194
Ref: library/socket socket socket proto11285244
Ref: 33f211285244
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-111285335
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-211285377
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-311285419
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-411285469
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-511285543
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-611285587
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-711285629
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-811285673
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-911285715
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1011285757
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1111285802
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1211285847
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1311285890
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1411285933
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1511285976
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1611286019
Node: Notes on socket timeouts11286070
Ref: library/socket notes-on-socket-timeouts11286214
Ref: 33f311286214
Ref: library/socket socket-timeouts11286214
Ref: 33f011286214
Node: Timeouts and the connect method11287583
Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-connect-method11287714
Ref: 33f411287714
Node: Timeouts and the accept method11288189
Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-accept-method11288320
Ref: 33f511288320
Node: Exemple<7>11289061
Ref: library/socket example11289182
Ref: 33f611289182
Ref: library/socket socket-example11289182
Ref: 33f711289182
Ref: Exemple<7>-Footnote-111296917
Node: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects11296976
Ref: library/ssl doc11297191
Ref: 33f811297191
Ref: library/ssl module-ssl11297191
Ref: cf11297191
Ref: library/ssl ssl-tls-ssl-wrapper-for-socket-objects11297191
Ref: 33f911297191
Ref: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-111300360
Ref: ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-211300423
Node: Fonctions constantes et exceptions11300465
Ref: library/ssl functions-constants-and-exceptions11300598
Ref: 33fa11300598
Node: Création de connecteurs11300860
Ref: library/ssl socket-creation11300985
Ref: 33fb11300985
Node: Création de contexte11302576
Ref: library/ssl context-creation11302724
Ref: 33fc11302724
Ref: library/ssl ssl create_default_context11302905
Ref: 15411302905
Ref: Création de contexte-Footnote-111307663
Ref: Création de contexte-Footnote-211307722
Ref: Création de contexte-Footnote-311307767
Node: Exceptions<16>11307826
Ref: library/ssl exceptions11307967
Ref: 340111307967
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError11308008
Ref: 125a11308008
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError library11308642
Ref: 112911308642
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError reason11308974
Ref: 112a11308974
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLZeroReturnError11309241
Ref: 340211309241
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantReadError11309543
Ref: e5411309543
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantWriteError11309924
Ref: e5511309924
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSyscallError11310238
Ref: 340411310238
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLEOFError11310537
Ref: 170311310537
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError11310813
Ref: b6c11310813
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_code11310987
Ref: 340511310987
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_message11311090
Ref: 340611311090
Ref: library/ssl ssl CertificateError11311187
Ref: 340711311187
Node: Random generation11311392
Ref: library/ssl random-generation11311532
Ref: 340811311532
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_bytes11311587
Ref: 51011311587
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_status11312276
Ref: 188311312276
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_add11312592
Ref: 340911312592
Ref: Random generation-Footnote-111313054
Ref: Random generation-Footnote-211313148
Node: Certificate handling11313207
Ref: library/ssl certificate-handling11313346
Ref: 340a11313346
Ref: library/ssl ssl cert_time_to_seconds11313407
Ref: e5611313407
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_server_certificate11314301
Ref: 82811314301
Ref: library/ssl ssl DER_cert_to_PEM_cert11315490
Ref: 340c11315490
Ref: library/ssl ssl PEM_cert_to_DER_cert11315672
Ref: 340d11315672
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_default_verify_paths11315852
Ref: f9611315852
Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_certificates11316726
Ref: fa111316726
Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_crls11317612
Ref: fa211317612
Ref: Certificate handling-Footnote-111318186
Node: Constantes<9>11318245
Ref: library/ssl constants11318358
Ref: 340e11318358
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_NONE11318534
Ref: 340f11318534
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_OPTIONAL11319087
Ref: 341011319087
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_REQUIRED11319841
Ref: 33fe11319841
Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyMode11320815
Ref: 341211320815
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_DEFAULT11320941
Ref: f9b11320941
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF11321207
Ref: f9c11321207
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN11321663
Ref: f9d11321663
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_STRICT11321882
Ref: 15611321882
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS11322075
Ref: 189811322075
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST11322264
Ref: 341311322264
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN11322566
Ref: 15511322566
Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyFlags11323011
Ref: 341411323011
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS11323141
Ref: 340011323141
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT11323645
Ref: 85f11323645
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER11323969
Ref: 86011323969
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv2311324195
Ref: 341511324195
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv311324355
Ref: 340b11324355
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv111324947
Ref: 341611324947
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_111325146
Ref: f9411325146
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_211325431
Ref: f9511325431
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ALL11325716
Ref: 341711325716
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv211325984
Ref: 82511325984
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv311326301
Ref: 82611326301
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv111326618
Ref: 341811326618
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_111327073
Ref: 341911327073
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_211327476
Ref: 341a11327476
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_311327879
Ref: 186311327879
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION11328481
Ref: 341b11328481
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE11328775
Ref: 112b11328775
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_DH_USE11329015
Ref: 341c11329015
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE11329281
Ref: 341d11329281
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT11329551
Ref: 341e11329551
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_COMPRESSION11329841
Ref: 112811329841
Ref: library/ssl ssl Options11330045
Ref: 341f11330045
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TICKET11330132
Ref: 342011330132
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF11330259
Ref: 82311330259
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_KTLS11330458
Ref: 175311330458
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT11331179
Ref: 173911331179
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ALPN11331350
Ref: e5111331350
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME11331570
Ref: 342111331570
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ECDH11331819
Ref: 342211331819
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SNI11332089
Ref: 342311332089
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NPN11332283
Ref: 342411332283
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv211332647
Ref: 342511332647
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv311332797
Ref: 342611332797
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv111332947
Ref: 342711332947
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_111333097
Ref: b7311333097
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_211333249
Ref: 342811333249
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_311333401
Ref: 342911333401
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_PSK11333553
Ref: 342a11333553
Ref: library/ssl ssl CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES11333684
Ref: 342b11333684
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION11333916
Ref: 11fe11333916
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO11334141
Ref: 11ff11334141
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER11334380
Ref: 120011334380
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE11334662
Ref: 342c11334662
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR11334716
Ref: 342d11334716
Ref: library/ssl ssl AlertDescription11335125
Ref: 342e11335125
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose SERVER_AUTH11335275
Ref: f9f11335275
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose CLIENT_AUTH11335601
Ref: fa011335601
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLErrorNumber11335927
Ref: 342f11335927
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion11336062
Ref: 343011336062
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MINIMUM_SUPPORTED11336287
Ref: 343111336287
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED11336331
Ref: 343211336331
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion SSLv311336551
Ref: 343311336551
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv111336583
Ref: 343411336583
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_111336615
Ref: 343511336615
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_211336649
Ref: 343611336649
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_311336683
Ref: 343711336683
Ref: Constantes<9>-Footnote-111336956
Ref: Constantes<9>-Footnote-211337015
Ref: Constantes<9>-Footnote-311337074
Ref: Constantes<9>-Footnote-411337152
Ref: Constantes<9>-Footnote-511337211
Node: SSL Sockets11337304
Ref: library/ssl ssl-sockets11337458
Ref: 343811337458
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket11337501
Ref: 8d911337501
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket read11339967
Ref: e5911339967
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket write11340801
Ref: e5a11340801
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket do_handshake11342045
Ref: e5811342045
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket getpeercert11342818
Ref: fa411342818
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_verified_chain11346361
Ref: 159711346361
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_unverified_chain11346679
Ref: 159811346679
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket cipher11346882
Ref: 333411346882
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket shared_ciphers11347168
Ref: e5711347168
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket compression11347656
Ref: 112711347656
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_channel_binding11348011
Ref: 112611348011
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_alpn_protocol11348651
Ref: e5011348651
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_npn_protocol11349071
Ref: 86111349071
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket unwrap11349508
Ref: 343911349508
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket verify_client_post_handshake11349933
Ref: a2211349933
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket version11350821
Ref: e5311350821
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket pending11351243
Ref: 343b11351243
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket context11351383
Ref: 343a11351383
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_side11351519
Ref: 343c11351519
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_hostname11351697
Ref: b6f11351697
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session11352220
Ref: 156811352220
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session_reused11352584
Ref: 343d11352584
Ref: SSL Sockets-Footnote-111352695
Ref: SSL Sockets-Footnote-211352754
Node: SSL Contexts11352813
Ref: library/ssl ssl-contexts11352945
Ref: 343e11352945
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext11353298
Ref: 29111353298
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext cert_store_stats11358307
Ref: f9811358307
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_cert_chain11358722
Ref: 29211358722
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_default_certs11360348
Ref: f9e11360348
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_verify_locations11361177
Ref: ed811361177
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ca_certs11362509
Ref: f9911362509
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ciphers11363149
Ref: cce11363149
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_default_verify_paths11364463
Ref: f9711364463
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ciphers11364928
Ref: 344011364928
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_alpn_protocols11365530
Ref: e4f11365530
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_npn_protocols11366177
Ref: 2f711366177
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sni_callback11366928
Ref: 189211366928
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_servername_callback11369572
Ref: fa311369572
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_dh_params11370255
Ref: 112411370255
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ecdh_curve11370807
Ref: 112511370807
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_socket11371547
Ref: 51111371547
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslsocket_class11374469
Ref: 344111374469
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_bio11374773
Ref: b7211374773
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslobject_class11375526
Ref: 344211375526
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext session_stats11375827
Ref: 344311375827
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext check_hostname11376294
Ref: 341111376294
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext keylog_filename11377831
Ref: 33ff11377831
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext maximum_version11378283
Ref: 85e11378283
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext minimum_version11379147
Ref: 85d11379147
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext num_tickets11379366
Ref: 344411379366
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext options11379605
Ref: 82411379605
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext post_handshake_auth11380344
Ref: a2111380344
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext protocol11381167
Ref: 344511381167
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext hostname_checks_common_name11381302
Ref: b6d11381302
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext security_level11381747
Ref: 344611381747
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_flags11381928
Ref: f9a11381928
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_mode11382476
Ref: 33fd11382476
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_client_callback11382949
Ref: 344711382949
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_server_callback11384959
Ref: 344811384959
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-111386852
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-211387006
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-311387093
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-411387180
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-511387334
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-611387421
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-711387508
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-811387585
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-911387639
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1011387698
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1111387777
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1211387837
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1311387914
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1411387980
Node: Certificates11388054
Ref: library/ssl certificates11388187
Ref: 344911388187
Ref: library/ssl ssl-certificates11388187
Ref: 343f11388187
Ref: Certificates-Footnote-111390512
Node: Certificate chains11390571
Ref: library/ssl certificate-chains11390662
Ref: 344a11390662
Node: CA certificates11391927
Ref: library/ssl ca-certificates11392055
Ref: 344b11392055
Node: Combined key and certificate11392637
Ref: library/ssl combined-key-and-certificate11392771
Ref: 344c11392771
Node: Self-signed certificates11393387
Ref: library/ssl self-signed-certificates11393497
Ref: 344d11393497
Node: Exemples<20>11395195
Ref: library/ssl examples11395345
Ref: 344e11395345
Node: Testing for SSL support11395474
Ref: library/ssl testing-for-ssl-support11395576
Ref: 344f11395576
Node: Client-side operation11395890
Ref: library/ssl client-side-operation11396022
Ref: 345011396022
Node: Server-side operation11400761
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Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets11402858
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Ref: library/ssl ssl-nonblocking11403017
Ref: 340311403017
Node: Memory BIO Support<2>11405936
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Ref: 345311406094
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Ref: 345411411003
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO eof11411101
Ref: 345511411101
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO read11411230
Ref: 345611411230
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write11411390
Ref: 345711411390
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write_eof11411674
Ref: 345811411674
Node: SSL session11411968
Ref: library/ssl ssl-session11412123
Ref: 345911412123
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession11412198
Ref: ccd11412198
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession id11412276
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession time11412299
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession timeout11412324
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession ticket_lifetime_hint11412352
Ref: 345d11412352
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession has_ticket11412393
Ref: 345e11412393
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Ref: library/ssl security-considerations11412565
Ref: 345f11412565
Ref: library/ssl ssl-security11412565
Ref: 32ef11412565
Node: Best defaults11412703
Ref: library/ssl best-defaults11412803
Ref: 346011412803
Node: Manual settings11413960
Ref: library/ssl manual-settings11414085
Ref: 346111414085
Node: Verifying certificates11414218
Ref: library/ssl verifying-certificates11414318
Ref: 346211414318
Node: Protocol versions11415513
Ref: library/ssl protocol-versions11415638
Ref: 346311415638
Node: Cipher selection11416462
Ref: library/ssl cipher-selection11416556
Ref: 346411416556
Ref: Cipher selection-Footnote-111417210
Node: Multi-processing11417282
Ref: library/ssl multi-processing11417385
Ref: 346511417385
Node: TLS 1 311417906
Ref: library/ssl ssl-tlsv1-311418027
Ref: b7011418027
Ref: library/ssl tls-1-311418027
Ref: 346611418027
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-111420152
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-211420218
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-311420277
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-411420336
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-511420395
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-611420454
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-711420513
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-811420589
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-911420648
Node: select --- Waiting for I/O completion11420706
Ref: library/select doc11420921
Ref: 346711420921
Ref: library/select module-select11420921
Ref: c011420921
Ref: library/select select-waiting-for-i-o-completion11420921
Ref: 346811420921
Ref: library/select select error11422082
Ref: 104111422082
Ref: library/select select devpoll11422275
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Ref: library/select select epoll11423027
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Ref: library/select select poll11424533
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Ref: library/select select kqueue11424852
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Ref: library/select select kevent11425214
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Ref: library/select select select11425491
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Ref: library/select select PIPE_BUF11427757
Ref: 11e911427757
Ref: select --- Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-111428451
Ref: select --- Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-211428493
Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects11428535
Ref: library/select dev-poll-polling-objects11428687
Ref: 346f11428687
Ref: library/select devpoll-objects11428687
Ref: 346911428687
Ref: library/select select devpoll close11429053
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Ref: library/select select devpoll closed11429175
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Ref: library/select select devpoll fileno11429290
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Ref: library/select select devpoll register11429421
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Ref: library/select select devpoll modify11430411
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Ref: library/select select devpoll unregister11430621
Ref: 347211430621
Ref: library/select select devpoll poll11430980
Ref: d8b11430980
Ref: /dev/poll Polling Objects-Footnote-111432130
Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects11432172
Ref: library/select edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects11432348
Ref: 347311432348
Ref: library/select epoll-objects11432348
Ref: 346a11432348
Ref: library/select select epoll close11435229
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Ref: library/select select epoll closed11435320
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Ref: library/select select epoll fileno11435396
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Ref: library/select select epoll fromfd11435486
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Ref: library/select select epoll register11435578
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Ref: library/select select epoll modify11435680
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Ref: library/select select epoll unregister11435767
Ref: 94911435767
Ref: library/select select epoll poll11435968
Ref: d8c11435968
Ref: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects-Footnote-111436378
Node: Polling Objects11436420
Ref: library/select poll-objects11436585
Ref: 346b11436585
Ref: library/select polling-objects11436585
Ref: 347911436585
Ref: library/select select poll register11437160
Ref: 347a11437160
Ref: library/select select poll modify11439143
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Ref: library/select select poll unregister11439446
Ref: 347c11439446
Ref: library/select select poll poll11439837
Ref: d8e11439837
Ref: Polling Objects-Footnote-111440990
Node: Kqueue Objects11441032
Ref: library/select id111441167
Ref: 347d11441167
Ref: library/select kqueue-objects11441167
Ref: 346c11441167
Ref: library/select select kqueue close11441216
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Ref: library/select select kqueue closed11441309
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Ref: library/select select kqueue fileno11441387
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Ref: library/select select kqueue fromfd11441478
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Ref: library/select select kqueue control11441571
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Ref: Kqueue Objects-Footnote-111442230
Node: Kevent Objects11442272
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Ref: library/select kevent-objects11442383
Ref: 346e11442383
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Ref: library/select select kevent filter11442797
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Ref: library/select select kevent flags11444581
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Ref: library/select select kevent fflags11446247
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Ref: library/select select kevent data11450012
Ref: 348711450012
Ref: library/select select kevent udata11450067
Ref: 348811450067
Node: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing11450121
Ref: library/selectors doc11450341
Ref: 348911450341
Ref: library/selectors module-selectors11450341
Ref: c111450341
Ref: library/selectors selectors-high-level-i-o-multiplexing11450341
Ref: 348a11450341
Ref: selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing-Footnote-111450708
Node: Introduction<9>11450777
Ref: library/selectors introduction11450889
Ref: 348b11450889
Node: Classes<4>11452229
Ref: library/selectors classes11452362
Ref: 348e11452362
Ref: library/selectors selectors EVENT_READ11452949
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Ref: library/selectors selectors EVENT_WRITE11453039
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey11453113
Ref: 349111453113
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fileobj11453392
Ref: 349211453392
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fd11453455
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey events11453517
Ref: 349411453517
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey data11453607
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector11453772
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector register11454447
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector unregister11455103
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector modify11455725
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector select11456321
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector close11457626
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector get_key11457846
Ref: 349a11457846
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector get_map11458135
Ref: 349b11458135
Ref: library/selectors selectors DefaultSelector11458405
Ref: 348d11458405
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectSelector11458614
Ref: 337811458614
Ref: library/selectors selectors PollSelector11458702
Ref: bc611458702
Ref: library/selectors selectors EpollSelector11458787
Ref: bc511458787
Ref: library/selectors selectors EpollSelector fileno11458873
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Ref: library/selectors selectors DevpollSelector11459015
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Ref: library/selectors selectors DevpollSelector fileno11459105
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Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector11459284
Ref: 337b11459284
Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector fileno11459373
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Ref: Classes<4>-Footnote-111459553
Node: Exemples<21>11459595
Ref: library/selectors examples11459704
Ref: 349f11459704
Node: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events11460731
Ref: library/signal doc11460949
Ref: 34a011460949
Ref: library/signal module-signal11460949
Ref: c511460949
Ref: library/signal signal-set-handlers-for-asynchronous-events11460949
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Ref: signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events-Footnote-111461413
Node: General rules11461479
Ref: library/signal general-rules11461603
Ref: 34a211461603
Node: Execution of Python signal handlers11462570
Ref: library/signal execution-of-python-signal-handlers11462683
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Node: Signals and threads11464001
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Ref: library/signal signals-and-threads11464114
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Node: Module contents<2>11464584
Ref: library/signal module-contents11464725
Ref: 34a811464725
Ref: library/signal signal Signals11465345
Ref: 34ac11465345
Ref: library/signal signal Handlers11465499
Ref: 34ad11465499
Ref: library/signal signal Sigmasks11465670
Ref: 34ae11465670
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_DFL11466080
Ref: 17dd11466080
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_IGN11466416
Ref: 17dc11466416
Ref: library/signal signal SIGABRT11466541
Ref: 1d0811466541
Ref: library/signal signal SIGALRM11466614
Ref: 34af11466614
Ref: library/signal signal SIGBREAK11466726
Ref: 34b011466726
Ref: library/signal signal SIGBUS11466845
Ref: 1d0911466845
Ref: library/signal signal SIGCHLD11466950
Ref: 2ba611466950
Ref: library/signal signal SIGCLD11467062
Ref: 34b111467062
Ref: library/signal signal SIGCONT11467171
Ref: 2bb411467171
Ref: library/signal signal SIGFPE11467294
Ref: 1d0711467294
Ref: library/signal signal SIGHUP11467539
Ref: 34b211467539
Ref: library/signal signal SIGILL11467691
Ref: 1d0a11467691
Ref: library/signal signal SIGINT11467747
Ref: 83011467747
Ref: library/signal signal SIGKILL11467881
Ref: 32b811467881
Ref: library/signal signal SIGPIPE11468017
Ref: 34a311468017
Ref: library/signal signal SIGSEGV11468182
Ref: 1d0611468182
Ref: library/signal signal SIGSTKFLT11468264
Ref: 182111468264
Ref: library/signal signal SIGTERM11468625
Ref: 139811468625
Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR111468681
Ref: 34b311468681
Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR211468779
Ref: 34b411468779
Ref: library/signal signal SIGWINCH11468877
Ref: 34b511468877
Ref: library/signal signal CTRL_C_EVENT11469544
Ref: 134111469544
Ref: library/signal signal CTRL_BREAK_EVENT11469793
Ref: 134211469793
Ref: library/signal signal NSIG11470049
Ref: 17ba11470049
Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_REAL11470205
Ref: 34b711470205
Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_VIRTUAL11470341
Ref: 34b811470341
Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_PROF11470491
Ref: 34b911470491
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_BLOCK11470834
Ref: 34a911470834
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_UNBLOCK11471030
Ref: 34aa11471030
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_SETMASK11471235
Ref: 34ab11471235
Ref: library/signal signal ItimerError11471499
Ref: 34ba11471499
Ref: library/signal signal alarm11472032
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Ref: library/signal signal getsignal11472679
Ref: 166711472679
Ref: library/signal signal strsignal11473251
Ref: 19fc11473251
Ref: library/signal signal valid_signals11473560
Ref: 34b611473560
Ref: library/signal signal pause11473812
Ref: 34be11473812
Ref: library/signal signal raise_signal11474204
Ref: 17be11474204
Ref: library/signal signal pidfd_send_signal11474346
Ref: 91a11474346
Ref: library/signal signal pthread_kill11474914
Ref: 111311474914
Ref: library/signal signal pthread_sigmask11476154
Ref: 111211476154
Ref: library/signal signal setitimer11477597
Ref: 34bb11477597
Ref: library/signal signal getitimer11478616
Ref: 34bc11478616
Ref: library/signal signal set_wakeup_fd11478776
Ref: b6011478776
Ref: library/signal signal siginterrupt11481168
Ref: 111711481168
Ref: library/signal signal signal11481776
Ref: 111611481776
Ref: library/signal signal sigpending11483282
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Ref: library/signal signal sigwait11483756
Ref: 111511483756
Ref: library/signal signal sigwaitinfo11484349
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Ref: library/signal signal sigtimedwait11485634
Ref: d9911485634
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-111486424
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-211486475
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-311486530
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-411486575
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Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1811487267
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1911487319
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-2011487362
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-2111487415
Node: Examples11487458
Ref: library/signal examples11487601
Ref: 34bf11487601
Ref: library/signal signal-example11487601
Ref: 34c011487601
Node: Note on SIGPIPE11488563
Ref: library/signal note-on-sigpipe11488726
Ref: 34c111488726
Ref: Note on SIGPIPE-Footnote-111490173
Node: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions11490217
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Ref: 224711490363
Ref: library/signal note-on-signal-handlers-and-exceptions11490363
Ref: 34c211490363
Node: mmap --- Memory-mapped file support11492970
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Ref: 34c311493138
Ref: library/mmap mmap-memory-mapped-file-support11493138
Ref: 34c411493138
Ref: library/mmap module-mmap11493138
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap11495753
Ref: 20811495753
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap close11501375
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap closed11501588
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap find11501700
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap flush11502152
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap madvise11503048
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap move11503625
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read11503905
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read_byte11504375
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap readline11504525
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap resize11504752
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap rfind11505624
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seek11506078
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seekable11506570
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap size11506749
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap tell11506890
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write11506979
Ref: 34d311506979
Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write_byte11507714
Ref: 34d411507714
Node: MADV_* Constants11508082
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Ref: library/mmap madvise-constants11508194
Ref: 34cd11508194
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NORMAL11508247
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_RANDOM11508278
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SEQUENTIAL11508309
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_WILLNEED11508344
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTNEED11508377
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_REMOVE11508410
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTFORK11508441
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DOFORK11508474
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HWPOISON11508505
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_MERGEABLE11508538
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_UNMERGEABLE11508572
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE11508608
Ref: 34e111508608
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HUGEPAGE11508645
Ref: 34e211508645
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOHUGEPAGE11508678
Ref: 34e311508678
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTDUMP11508713
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DODUMP11508746
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE11508777
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOSYNC11508806
Ref: 34e711508806
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_AUTOSYNC11508837
Ref: 34e811508837
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOCORE11508870
Ref: 34e911508870
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_CORE11508901
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_PROTECT11508930
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSABLE11508962
Ref: 34ec11508962
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSE11509000
Ref: 34ed11509000
Node: MAP_* Constants11509251
Ref: library/mmap id111509363
Ref: 34ee11509363
Ref: library/mmap map-constants11509363
Ref: 34c711509363
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_SHARED11509414
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_PRIVATE11509444
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_32BIT11509475
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER11509504
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANON11509541
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANONYMOUS11509569
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_CONCEAL11509602
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_DENYWRITE11509633
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_EXECUTABLE11509666
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_HASSEMAPHORE11509700
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_JIT11509736
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NOCACHE11509763
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NOEXTEND11509794
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NORESERVE11509826
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_POPULATE11509859
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN11509891
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA11509933
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_STACK11509972
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TPRO11510001
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE11510029
Ref: 165d11510029
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_UNIX0311510077
Ref: 165e11510077
Node: Traitement des données provenant d'Internet11511057
Ref: library/netdata doc11511265
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Ref: library/netdata internet-data-handling11511265
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Ref: library/netdata netdata11511265
Ref: 34f611511265
Node: email --- An email and MIME handling package11512135
Ref: library/email doc11512302
Ref: 34f711512302
Ref: library/email email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package11512302
Ref: 34f811512302
Ref: library/email module-email11512302
Ref: 3b11512302
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-111519656
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-211519730
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-311519789
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-411519848
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-511519907
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-611519966
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-711520025
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-811520084
Ref: email --- An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-911520143
Node: email message Representing an email message11520202
Ref: library/email message doc11520370
Ref: 34f911520370
Ref: library/email message email-message-representing-an-email-message11520370
Ref: 34fa11520370
Ref: library/email message module-email message11520370
Ref: 4411520370
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage11523064
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_string11523627
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __str__11525658
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_bytes11526163
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __bytes__11527509
Ref: 350111527509
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_multipart11527687
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_unixfrom11528379
Ref: 350311528379
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_unixfrom11528620
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __len__11529985
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __contains__11530088
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __getitem__11530508
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __setitem__11531299
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __delitem__11532375
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage keys11532623
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Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1211559097
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1311559157
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Ref: email errors Exception and Defect classes-Footnote-111631444
Ref: email errors Exception and Defect classes-Footnote-211631516
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Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-111652862
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Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content11653917
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Ref: Instances de gestionnaires de contenus-Footnote-111665470
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Ref: email Exemples-Footnote-211680622
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Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-111719676
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-211719735
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-311719794
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-411719853
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-511719912
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-611719971
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-711720030
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-811720089
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-911720148
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-1011720207
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-1111720267
Ref: email message Message représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32-Footnote-1211720327
Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch11720387
Ref: library/email mime doc11720671
Ref: 35dc11720671
Ref: library/email mime email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch11720671
Ref: 35dd11720671
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime11720671
Ref: 4511720671
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime base11722099
Ref: 4811722099
Ref: library/email mime email mime base MIMEBase11722099
Ref: 35de11722099
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime nonmultipart11723367
Ref: 4c11723367
Ref: library/email mime email mime nonmultipart MIMENonMultipart11723367
Ref: 357511723367
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime multipart11723893
Ref: 4b11723893
Ref: library/email mime email mime multipart MIMEMultipart11723893
Ref: 35df11723893
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime application11725374
Ref: 4611725374
Ref: library/email mime email mime application MIMEApplication11725374
Ref: 35e011725374
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime audio11726856
Ref: 4711726856
Ref: library/email mime email mime audio MIMEAudio11726856
Ref: 35e111726856
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime image11728587
Ref: 4911728587
Ref: library/email mime email mime image MIMEImage11728587
Ref: 357611728587
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime message11730408
Ref: 4a11730408
Ref: library/email mime email mime message MIMEMessage11730408
Ref: 35e211730408
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime text11731165
Ref: 4d11731165
Ref: library/email mime email mime text MIMEText11731165
Ref: de811731165
Ref: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch-Footnote-111732979
Node: email header Internationalized headers11733047
Ref: library/email header doc11733280
Ref: 35e311733280
Ref: library/email header email-header-internationalized-headers11733280
Ref: 35e411733280
Ref: library/email header module-email header11733280
Ref: 4111733280
Ref: library/email header email header Header11736387
Ref: 186611736387
Ref: library/email header email header Header append11738489
Ref: 35e511738489
Ref: library/email header email header Header encode11739992
Ref: 35e611739992
Ref: library/email header email header Header __str__11742228
Ref: 35e711742228
Ref: library/email header email header Header __eq__11742814
Ref: 35e811742814
Ref: library/email header email header Header __ne__11742960
Ref: 35e911742960
Ref: library/email header email header decode_header11743197
Ref: 109c11743197
Ref: library/email header email header make_header11743896
Ref: 109d11743896
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-111744634
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-211744707
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-311744766
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-411744824
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-511744883
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-611744942
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-711745001
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-811745060
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-911745119
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1011745178
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1111745238
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1211745298
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1311745358
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1411745418
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1511745478
Node: email charset Representing character sets11745538
Ref: library/email charset doc11745739
Ref: 35ea11745739
Ref: library/email charset email-charset-representing-character-sets11745739
Ref: 35eb11745739
Ref: library/email charset module-email charset11745739
Ref: 3c11745739
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset11746628
Ref: de911746628
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_charset11748528
Ref: 35ec11748528
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encoding11748816
Ref: 35ed11748816
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encoding11749201
Ref: 35ee11749201
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_charset11749475
Ref: 35ef11749475
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_codec11749860
Ref: 35f011749860
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_codec11750077
Ref: 35f111750077
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_body_encoding11750416
Ref: 35f211750416
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_output_charset11751133
Ref: 35f311751133
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode11751339
Ref: 35f411751339
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode_lines11751555
Ref: 35f511751555
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encode11752041
Ref: 35f611752041
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __str__11752444
Ref: 35f711752444
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __eq__11752605
Ref: 35f811752605
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __ne__11752751
Ref: 35f911752751
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_charset11753097
Ref: 35fa11753097
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_alias11754625
Ref: 35fc11754625
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_codec11755004
Ref: 35fb11755004
Ref: email charset Representing character sets-Footnote-111755446
Node: email encoders Encoders11755519
Ref: library/email encoders doc11755717
Ref: 35fd11755717
Ref: library/email encoders email-encoders-encoders11755717
Ref: 35fe11755717
Ref: library/email encoders module-email encoders11755717
Ref: 3e11755717
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_quopri11757545
Ref: 35ff11757545
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_base6411757921
Ref: 360011757921
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_7or8bit11758260
Ref: 360111758260
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_noop11758540
Ref: 360211758540
Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-111758751
Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-211758825
Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities11758952
Ref: library/email utils doc11759134
Ref: 360311759134
Ref: library/email utils email-utils-miscellaneous-utilities11759134
Ref: 360411759134
Ref: library/email utils module-email utils11759134
Ref: 5011759134
Ref: library/email utils email utils localtime11759430
Ref: 2c211759430
Ref: library/email utils email utils make_msgid11760024
Ref: 360511760024
Ref: library/email utils email utils quote11761070
Ref: 360611761070
Ref: library/email utils email utils unquote11761370
Ref: 351c11761370
Ref: library/email utils email utils parseaddr11761679
Ref: 1df11761679
Ref: library/email utils email utils formataddr11762260
Ref: 117b11762260
Ref: library/email utils email utils getaddresses11763017
Ref: 1de11763017
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate11763867
Ref: 360711763867
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_tz11764531
Ref: 183b11764531
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_to_datetime11765193
Ref: 10a211765193
Ref: library/email utils email utils mktime_tz11766134
Ref: 360811766134
Ref: library/email utils email utils formatdate11766423
Ref: 142011766423
Ref: library/email utils email utils format_datetime11767535
Ref: 10a111767535
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_rfc223111768378
Ref: 360911768378
Ref: library/email utils email utils encode_rfc223111768475
Ref: 360a11768475
Ref: library/email utils email utils collapse_rfc2231_value11768933
Ref: 35d011768933
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_params11769894
Ref: 360b11769894
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-111770177
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-211770248
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-311770307
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-411770366
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-511770425
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-611770484
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-711770759
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-811770818
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-911770877
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1011770936
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1111770996
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1211771056
Node: email iterators Iterators11771116
Ref: library/email iterators doc11771266
Ref: 360c11771266
Ref: library/email iterators email-iterators-iterators11771266
Ref: 360d11771266
Ref: library/email iterators module-email iterators11771266
Ref: 4311771266
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators body_line_iterator11771704
Ref: 360e11771704
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators typed_subpart_iterator11772433
Ref: 360f11772433
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators _structure11773309
Ref: 361011773309
Ref: email iterators Iterators-Footnote-111774823
Node: json --- JSON encoder and decoder11774899
Ref: library/json doc11775126
Ref: 361111775126
Ref: library/json json-json-encoder-and-decoder11775126
Ref: 361211775126
Ref: library/json module-json11775126
Ref: 8111775126
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-111779745
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-211779818
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-311779843
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-411779902
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-511779961
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-611780048
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-711780097
Ref: json --- JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-811780421
Node: Utilisation de base11780447
Ref: library/json basic-usage11780568
Ref: 361411780568
Ref: library/json json dump11780627
Ref: d3411780627
Ref: library/json json dumps11784921
Ref: d3511784921
Ref: library/json json load11785838
Ref: ca411785838
Ref: library/json json loads11789491
Ref: 94411789491
Ref: Utilisation de base-Footnote-111790225
Node: Encodeurs et décodeurs11790257
Ref: library/json encoders-and-decoders11790401
Ref: 361811790401
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder11790467
Ref: d3711790467
Ref: library/json json-to-py-table11790727
Ref: 361711790727
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder decode11793827
Ref: 361911793827
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder raw_decode11794088
Ref: 361a11794088
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder11794565
Ref: d3611794565
Ref: library/json py-to-json-table11794887
Ref: 361511794887
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder default11799573
Ref: 361611799573
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder encode11800298
Ref: 361b11800298
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder iterencode11800554
Ref: 361c11800554
Ref: Encodeurs et décodeurs-Footnote-111800871
Node: Exceptions<17>11800903
Ref: library/json exceptions11801073
Ref: 361d11801073
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError11801114
Ref: e0f11801114
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError msg11801260
Ref: 361e11801260
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError doc11801329
Ref: 361f11801329
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError pos11801405
Ref: 362011801405
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError lineno11801496
Ref: 362111801496
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError colno11801567
Ref: 362211801567
Node: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité11801674
Ref: library/json standard-compliance-and-interoperability11801854
Ref: 362311801854
Ref: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité-Footnote-111803098
Ref: Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité-Footnote-211803157
Node: Encodage des caractères11803244
Ref: library/json character-encodings11803394
Ref: 362411803394
Node: Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN11804862
Ref: library/json infinite-and-nan-number-values11805055
Ref: 362511805055
Node: Noms répétés au sein d'un objet11805905
Ref: library/json repeated-names-within-an-object11806125
Ref: 362611806125
Node: Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux11806681
Ref: library/json top-level-non-object-non-array-values11806898
Ref: 362711806898
Ref: Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux-Footnote-111807594
Ref: Valeurs de plus haut niveau hors objets ou tableaux-Footnote-211807653
Node: Limitations de l'implémentation11807712
Ref: library/json implementation-limitations11807886
Ref: 362811807886
Node: Interface en ligne de commande<4>11808924
Ref: library/json command-line-interface11809081
Ref: 362911809081
Ref: library/json json-commandline11809081
Ref: 361311809081
Ref: library/json module-json tool11809081
Ref: 8211809081
Ref: Interface en ligne de commande<4>-Footnote-111810101
Node: Options de la ligne de commande<4>11810170
Ref: library/json command-line-options11810274
Ref: 362b11810274
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-infile11810359
Ref: 362c11810359
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-outfile11810843
Ref: 362d11810843
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-sort-keys11810978
Ref: 362a11810978
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-ensure-ascii11811096
Ref: 362e11811096
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-json-lines11811284
Ref: 362f11811284
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-indent11811414
Ref: 363011811414
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-tab11811414
Ref: 363111811414
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-indent11811414
Ref: 363211811414
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-compact11811414
Ref: 363311811414
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-h11811566
Ref: 363411811566
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-help11811566
Ref: 363511811566
Node: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats11811636
Ref: library/mailbox doc11811860
Ref: 363611811860
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-manipulate-mailboxes-in-various-formats11811860
Ref: 363711811860
Ref: library/mailbox module-mailbox11811860
Ref: 8a11811860
Ref: mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats-Footnote-111812749
Node: Mailbox objects11812816
Ref: library/mailbox id111812943
Ref: 363811812943
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-objects11812943
Ref: 363911812943
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox11813002
Ref: 122d11813002
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox add11815803
Ref: 122c11815803
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox remove11816708
Ref: 363a11816708
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __delitem__11816740
Ref: 363e11816740
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox discard11816777
Ref: 363b11816777
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __setitem__11817415
Ref: 363f11817415
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iterkeys11818389
Ref: 364011818389
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox keys11818477
Ref: 364111818477
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox itervalues11818641
Ref: 364211818641
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __iter__11818674
Ref: 364311818674
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox values11819209
Ref: 364411819209
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iteritems11819377
Ref: 364511819377
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox items11819800
Ref: 364611819800
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get11819995
Ref: 364711819995
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __getitem__11820038
Ref: 364811820038
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_message11820615
Ref: 364911820615
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_bytes11820906
Ref: 122f11820906
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_string11821150
Ref: 123011821150
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_file11821491
Ref: 122e11821491
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __contains__11822530
Ref: 364a11822530
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __len__11822666
Ref: 364b11822666
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox clear11822751
Ref: 364c11822751
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox pop11822844
Ref: 364d11822844
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox popitem11823284
Ref: 364e11823284
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox update11823802
Ref: 364f11823802
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox flush11824506
Ref: 365011824506
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox lock11824793
Ref: 363c11824793
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox unlock11825214
Ref: 363d11825214
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox close11825296
Ref: 365211825296
Node: Maildir objects11825584
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildir11825672
Ref: 365311825672
Ref: library/mailbox maildir-objects11825672
Ref: 365411825672
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir11825731
Ref: 41211825731
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir colon11827855
Ref: 365611827855
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir list_folders11828674
Ref: 365711828674
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_folder11828764
Ref: 365811828764
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_folder11829000
Ref: 365a11829000
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_folder11829153
Ref: 365b11829153
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir clean11829397
Ref: 365d11829397
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_flags11829635
Ref: 168c11829635
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir set_flags11830445
Ref: 168d11830445
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_flag11831203
Ref: 168e11831203
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_flag11831722
Ref: 168f11831722
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_info11832252
Ref: 168a11832252
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir set_info11832987
Ref: 168b11832987
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add11833792
Ref: 366511833792
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir __setitem__11833825
Ref: 366211833825
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir update11833871
Ref: 366611833871
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir flush11834292
Ref: 366711834292
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir lock11834429
Ref: 366811834429
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir unlock11834456
Ref: 366911834456
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir close11834591
Ref: 366a11834591
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_file11834784
Ref: 366b11834784
Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-111835322
Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-211835371
Node: mbox objects11835415
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mbox11835522
Ref: 366c11835522
Ref: library/mailbox mbox-objects11835522
Ref: 366d11835522
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox11835575
Ref: 163a11835575
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_bytes11836975
Ref: 366e11836975
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_file11837270
Ref: 366f11837270
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_string11837751
Ref: 367011837751
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox lock11838047
Ref: 367111838047
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox unlock11838074
Ref: 367211838074
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-111838656
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-211838716
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-311838768
Node: MH objects11838846
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mh11838951
Ref: 367311838951
Ref: library/mailbox mh-objects11838951
Ref: 367411838951
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH11839000
Ref: 167111839000
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH list_folders11840540
Ref: 367611840540
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_folder11840630
Ref: 367711840630
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH add_folder11840862
Ref: 367811840862
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove_folder11841011
Ref: 367911841011
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_sequences11841255
Ref: 367a11841255
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH set_sequences11841434
Ref: 367b11841434
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH pack11841674
Ref: 367c11841674
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove11842091
Ref: 367d11842091
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH __delitem__11842123
Ref: 367e11842123
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH discard11842160
Ref: 367f11842160
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH lock11842371
Ref: 368011842371
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH unlock11842398
Ref: 368111842398
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_file11842774
Ref: 368211842774
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH flush11842968
Ref: 368311842968
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH close11843100
Ref: 368411843100
Ref: MH objects-Footnote-111843566
Ref: MH objects-Footnote-211843602
Node: Babyl objects11843647
Ref: library/mailbox babyl-objects11843752
Ref: 368511843752
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-babyl11843752
Ref: 368611843752
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl11843807
Ref: 368711843807
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_labels11845372
Ref: 368911845372
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_file11845901
Ref: 368a11845901
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl lock11846423
Ref: 368b11846423
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl unlock11846450
Ref: 368c11846450
Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-111846849
Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-211846893
Node: MMDF objects11846971
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mmdf11847057
Ref: 368d11847057
Ref: library/mailbox mmdf-objects11847057
Ref: 368e11847057
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF11847110
Ref: 163b11847110
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_bytes11848357
Ref: 369011848357
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_file11848652
Ref: 369111848652
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF lock11849133
Ref: 369211849133
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF unlock11849160
Ref: 369311849160
Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-111849602
Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-211849662
Node: Message objects11849705
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-message-objects11849855
Ref: 369411849855
Ref: library/mailbox message-objects11849855
Ref: 369511849855
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Message11849914
Ref: 123111849914
Ref: Message objects-Footnote-111851958
Node: MaildirMessage objects11852017
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildirmessage11852119
Ref: 369611852119
Ref: library/mailbox maildirmessage-objects11852119
Ref: 369711852119
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage11852192
Ref: 365511852192
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_subdir11854017
Ref: 369811854017
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_subdir11854525
Ref: 369911854525
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_flags11854690
Ref: 365e11854690
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_flags11855160
Ref: 365f11855160
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage add_flag11855266
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Error11880731
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NoSuchMailboxError11880848
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NotEmptyError11881180
Ref: 365c11881180
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox FormatError11881685
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Ref: library/mailbox examples11882026
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Node: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types11884467
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-map-filenames-to-mime-types11884711
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_type11885598
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_file_type11887092
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_all_extensions11887430
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_extension11888027
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes init11888768
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes read_mime_types11889750
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes add_type11890127
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes inited11890584
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes knownfiles11890758
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes suffix_map11890972
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes encodings_map11891326
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes common_types11891524
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Ref: mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-211892145
Node: MimeTypes Objects11892216
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes11892560
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes suffix_map11893243
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes encodings_map11893724
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map11893936
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map_inv11894271
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_extension11894620
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_type11894800
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_file_type11894968
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_all_extensions11895191
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read11895381
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes readfp11895696
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read_windows_registry11896029
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes add_type11896382
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Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-311910461
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Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-511910579
Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-611910638
Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-711910697
Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-811910756
Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-911910815
Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-1011910874
Ref: base64 --- Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-1111910915
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Ref: library/base64 security-considerations11911198
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Ref: Considérations de sécurité<2>-Footnote-111911884
Ref: Considérations de sécurité<2>-Footnote-211911943
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Ref: library/binascii module-binascii11912254
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_uu11913693
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Ref: library/binascii binascii crc_hqx11916471
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Ref: library/binascii binascii crc3211916805
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_hex11917487
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Ref: library/binascii binascii hexlify11917551
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_hex11918800
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Ref: library/binascii binascii unhexlify11918840
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Ref: library/binascii binascii Error11919470
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Ref: library/binascii binascii Incomplete11919598
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Ref: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-211920201
Ref: binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-311920260
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Ref: library/quopri quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data11920509
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Ref: library/quopri quopri decode11921281
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Ref: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-311923393
Ref: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-411923452
Ref: quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-511923511
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Ref: library/markup markup11923769
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Ref: library/markup structured-markup-processing-tools11923769
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Node: html --- HyperText Markup Language support11925331
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Ref: library/html html-hypertext-markup-language-support11925507
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Ref: library/html module-html11925507
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Ref: library/html html escape11925788
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Ref: library/html html unescape11926351
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Ref: html --- HyperText Markup Language support-Footnote-111927171
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Ref: library/html parser module-html parser11927483
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Ref: html parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser-Footnote-111929419
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser feed11931276
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser close11931670
Ref: 36fb11931670
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser reset11932124
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser getpos11932318
Ref: 36fd11932318
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser get_starttag_text11932467
Ref: 36fe11932467
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_starttag11933099
Ref: 370011933099
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_endtag11933980
Ref: 370111933980
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_startendtag11934186
Ref: 36ff11934186
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_data11934654
Ref: 370211934654
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_entityref11934886
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_charref11935245
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_comment11935693
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_decl11936396
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_pi11936706
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser unknown_decl11937502
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Ref: library/html parser examples11938038
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Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-examples11938038
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Node: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities11941627
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Ref: library/html entities html-entities-definitions-of-html-general-entities11941849
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Ref: library/html entities module-html entities11941849
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Ref: library/html entities html entities html511942232
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Ref: library/html entities html entities entitydefs11942782
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Ref: library/html entities html entities name2codepoint11942948
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Ref: html entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities-Footnote-111943238
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Ref: Modules de traitement XML-Footnote-111945174
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Ref: The defusedxml Package-Footnote-111952926
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Ref: xml etree ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API-Footnote-111954219
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType publicId12052173
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType systemId12052347
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType name12052798
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-document-objects12053873
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document documentElement12054153
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createComment12055173
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createAttributeNS12056032
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document getElementsByTagNameNS12056619
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Ref: 377c12060554
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Ref: 37c712061059
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-attributelist-objects12061293
Ref: 37c812061293
Ref: library/xml dom namednodemap-objects12061293
Ref: 37c912061293
Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NamedNodeMap length12061403
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Comment data12062272
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Ref: 377e12062612
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom ProcessingInstruction target12064023
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DomstringSizeErr12065314
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom HierarchyRequestErr12065643
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom IndexSizeErr12065782
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NotFoundErr12067077
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NoDataAllowedErr12067460
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Ref: 37e012067576
Ref: library/xml dom xml dom SyntaxErr12067781
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom WrongDocumentErr12067885
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Ref: Exceptions<20>-Footnote-112070933
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Ref: 376d12071094
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-type-mapping12071471
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Ref: library/xml dom accessor-methods12072422
Ref: 37e612072422
Ref: library/xml dom dom-accessor-methods12072422
Ref: 37e712072422
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Ref: 37f212086961
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Ref: 37f312086961
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Ref: xml dom pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees-Footnote-112095053
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Ref: 72112095312
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Ref: 382012112766
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler characters12119220
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Ref: library/xml sax handler dtd-handler-objects12122611
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Ref: library/xml sax handler dtdhandler-objects12122611
Ref: 382e12122611
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler notationDecl12122750
Ref: 382f12122750
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler unparsedEntityDecl12122872
Ref: 383012122872
Node: Objets EntityResolver12123028
Ref: library/xml sax handler entity-resolver-objects12123189
Ref: 383112123189
Ref: library/xml sax handler entityresolver-objects12123189
Ref: 383212123189
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver resolveEntity12123258
Ref: 383312123258
Node: Objets ErrorHandler12123569
Ref: library/xml sax handler errorhandler-objects12123734
Ref: 383412123734
Ref: library/xml sax handler sax-error-handler12123734
Ref: 383512123734
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler error12124391
Ref: 383612124391
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler fatalError12124815
Ref: 383712124815
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler warning12125005
Ref: 383812125005
Node: Objets LexicalHandler12125406
Ref: library/xml sax handler lexical-handler-objects12125541
Ref: 383912125541
Ref: library/xml sax handler lexicalhandler-objects12125541
Ref: 383a12125541
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler comment12126283
Ref: 383b12126283
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startDTD12126458
Ref: 383c12126458
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endDTD12126617
Ref: 383d12126617
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startCDATA12126710
Ref: 383e12126710
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endCDATA12126930
Ref: 383f12126930
Node: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities12127027
Ref: library/xml sax utils doc12127256
Ref: 384012127256
Ref: library/xml sax utils module-xml sax saxutils12127256
Ref: 12a12127256
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities12127256
Ref: 384112127256
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils escape12127652
Ref: 384212127652
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils unescape12128418
Ref: 384312128418
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils quoteattr12129008
Ref: 384412129008
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLGenerator12130104
Ref: 384512130104
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLFilterBase12131051
Ref: 384612131051
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils prepare_input_source12131538
Ref: 384712131538
Ref: xml sax saxutils --- SAX Utilities-Footnote-112132034
Node: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers12132111
Ref: library/xml sax reader doc12132341
Ref: 384912132341
Ref: library/xml sax reader module-xml sax xmlreader12132341
Ref: 12b12132341
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers12132341
Ref: 384a12132341
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader12132841
Ref: 37fb12132841
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser12132938
Ref: 384b12132938
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator12134064
Ref: 380812134064
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource12134398
Ref: e8612134398
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesImpl12135167
Ref: 384c12135167
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNSImpl12135767
Ref: 384d12135767
Ref: xml sax xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers-Footnote-112136525
Node: XMLReader Objects12136603
Ref: library/xml sax reader id112136738
Ref: 384e12136738
Ref: library/xml sax reader xmlreader-objects12136738
Ref: 384f12136738
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader parse12136865
Ref: 384812136865
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getContentHandler12137466
Ref: 385012137466
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setContentHandler12137565
Ref: 385112137565
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getDTDHandler12137750
Ref: 385212137750
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setDTDHandler12137841
Ref: 385312137841
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getEntityResolver12138010
Ref: 385412138010
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setEntityResolver12138109
Ref: 385512138109
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getErrorHandler12138403
Ref: 385612138403
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setErrorHandler12138498
Ref: 385712138498
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setLocale12138704
Ref: 385812138704
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getFeature12139072
Ref: 385912139072
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setFeature12139356
Ref: 380412139356
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getProperty12139647
Ref: 385a12139647
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setProperty12139940
Ref: 385b12139940
Node: IncrementalParser Objects12140236
Ref: library/xml sax reader incremental-parser-objects12140395
Ref: 385c12140395
Ref: library/xml sax reader incrementalparser-objects12140395
Ref: 385d12140395
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser feed12140553
Ref: 385e12140553
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser close12140631
Ref: 385f12140631
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser reset12140872
Ref: 386012140872
Node: Locator Objects12141136
Ref: library/xml sax reader id212141297
Ref: 386112141297
Ref: library/xml sax reader locator-objects12141297
Ref: 386212141297
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getColumnNumber12141408
Ref: 386312141408
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getLineNumber12141513
Ref: 386412141513
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getPublicId12141614
Ref: 386512141614
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getSystemId12141710
Ref: 386612141710
Node: InputSource Objects12141806
Ref: library/xml sax reader input-source-objects12141966
Ref: 386712141966
Ref: library/xml sax reader inputsource-objects12141966
Ref: 386812141966
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setPublicId12142027
Ref: 386912142027
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getPublicId12142136
Ref: 386a12142136
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setSystemId12142246
Ref: 386b12142246
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getSystemId12142355
Ref: 386c12142355
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setEncoding12142465
Ref: 386d12142465
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getEncoding12142853
Ref: 386e12142853
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setByteStream12142949
Ref: 386f12142949
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getByteStream12143384
Ref: 387012143384
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setCharacterStream12143594
Ref: 387112143594
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getCharacterStream12143910
Ref: 387212143910
Node: The Attributes Interface12144013
Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-objects12144184
Ref: 382612144184
Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributes-interface12144184
Ref: 387312144184
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getLength12144514
Ref: 387412144514
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getNames12144592
Ref: 387512144592
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getType12144672
Ref: 387612144672
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getValue12144799
Ref: 387712144799
Node: The AttributesNS Interface12144885
Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-ns-objects12145028
Ref: 382812145028
Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributesns-interface12145028
Ref: 387812145028
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getValueByQName12145361
Ref: 387912145361
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getNameByQName12145457
Ref: 387a12145457
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNameByName12145582
Ref: 387b12145582
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNames12145705
Ref: 387c12145705
Node: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat12145798
Ref: library/pyexpat doc12145985
Ref: 387d12145985
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat12145985
Ref: 12512145985
Ref: library/pyexpat xml-parsers-expat-fast-xml-parsing-using-expat12145985
Ref: 387e12145985
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError12147046
Ref: 125912147046
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat error12147256
Ref: 388012147256
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat XMLParserType12147336
Ref: 388112147336
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ErrorString12147537
Ref: 388312147537
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ParserCreate12147660
Ref: 388212147660
Ref: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat-Footnote-112150094
Ref: xml parsers expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat-Footnote-212150395
Node: Objets XMLParser<2>12150428
Ref: library/pyexpat id212150564
Ref: 388412150564
Ref: library/pyexpat xmlparser-objects12150564
Ref: 388512150564
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser Parse12150676
Ref: 388612150676
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ParseFile12151056
Ref: 388712151056
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBase12151276
Ref: 388812151276
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetBase12151694
Ref: 388c12151694
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetInputContext12151892
Ref: 388d12151892
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityParserCreate12152177
Ref: 388e12152177
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetParamEntityParsing12152692
Ref: 389112152692
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UseForeignDTD12153059
Ref: 389212153059
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetReparseDeferralEnabled12154048
Ref: 26f12154048
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetReparseDeferralEnabled12155572
Ref: 26e12155572
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_size12155820
Ref: 389512155820
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_text12156081
Ref: 147812156081
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_used12156626
Ref: 389712156626
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ordered_attributes12156898
Ref: 388f12156898
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser specified_attributes12157389
Ref: 389012157389
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorByteIndex12158195
Ref: 389812158195
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorCode12158280
Ref: 389912158280
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorColumnNumber12158510
Ref: 389a12158510
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorLineNumber12158601
Ref: 389b12158601
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentByteIndex12159093
Ref: 389c12159093
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentColumnNumber12159181
Ref: 389d12159181
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentLineNumber12159275
Ref: 389e12159275
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser XmlDeclHandler12159687
Ref: 389f12159687
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartDoctypeDeclHandler12160298
Ref: 389312160298
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndDoctypeDeclHandler12160853
Ref: 389412160853
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ElementDeclHandler12161021
Ref: 38a012161021
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser AttlistDeclHandler12161237
Ref: 38a112161237
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartElementHandler12162143
Ref: 38a212162143
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndElementHandler12162540
Ref: 38a312162540
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ProcessingInstructionHandler12162633
Ref: 38a412162633
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CharacterDataHandler12162749
Ref: 389612162749
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UnparsedEntityDeclHandler12163416
Ref: 388b12163416
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EntityDeclHandler12163811
Ref: 38a712163811
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotationDeclHandler12164558
Ref: 388a12164558
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartNamespaceDeclHandler12164851
Ref: 38a812164851
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndNamespaceDeclHandler12165131
Ref: 38a912165131
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CommentHandler12165654
Ref: 38aa12165654
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartCdataSectionHandler12165842
Ref: 38a512165842
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndCdataSectionHandler12166081
Ref: 38a612166081
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandler12166176
Ref: 38ab12166176
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandlerExpand12166463
Ref: 38ac12166463
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotStandaloneHandler12166703
Ref: 38ad12166703
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityRefHandler12167225
Ref: 388912167225
Node: ExpatError Exceptions12168283
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-exceptions12168439
Ref: 38ae12168439
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-objects12168439
Ref: 387f12168439
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError code12168581
Ref: 38af12168581
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError lineno12169225
Ref: 38b212169225
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError offset12169351
Ref: 38b312169351
Node: Exemple<10>12169491
Ref: library/pyexpat example12169654
Ref: 38b412169654
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-example12169654
Ref: 38b512169654
Node: Content Model Descriptions12170752
Ref: library/pyexpat content-model-descriptions12170915
Ref: 38b612170915
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-content-models12170915
Ref: 38b712170915
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat model12170915
Ref: 12712170915
Node: Expat error constants12172798
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-error-constants12172941
Ref: 38b812172941
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-errors12172941
Ref: 38b912172941
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat errors12172941
Ref: 12612172941
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors codes12173529
Ref: 38b112173529
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors messages12173679
Ref: 38b012173679
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY12173845
Ref: 38ba12173845
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF12173908
Ref: 38bb12173908
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF12174113
Ref: 38bc12174113
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF12174308
Ref: 38bd12174308
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE12174486
Ref: 38be12174486
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING12174615
Ref: 38bf12174615
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN12174684
Ref: 38c012174684
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT12174902
Ref: 38c112174902
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI12175055
Ref: 38c212175055
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS12175212
Ref: 38c312175212
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY12175391
Ref: 38c412175391
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF12175507
Ref: 38c512175507
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR12175645
Ref: 38c612175645
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF12175762
Ref: 38c712175762
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SYNTAX12175968
Ref: 38c812175968
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH12176078
Ref: 38c912176078
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN12176202
Ref: 38ca12176202
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY12176390
Ref: 38cb12176390
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING12176520
Ref: 38cc12176520
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION12176642
Ref: 38cd12176642
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING12176760
Ref: 38ce12176760
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE12176835
Ref: 38cf12176835
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE12177098
Ref: 38d012177098
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE12177165
Ref: 38d112177165
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD12177237
Ref: 38d212177237
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING12177547
Ref: 38d312177547
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX12177824
Ref: 38d412177824
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX12177970
Ref: 38d512177970
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE12178135
Ref: 38d612178135
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_XML_DECL12178253
Ref: 38d712178253
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL12178369
Ref: 38d812178369
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PUBLICID12178509
Ref: 38d912178509
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED12178635
Ref: 38da12178635
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED12178861
Ref: 38db12178861
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ABORTED12179017
Ref: 38dc12179017
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FINISHED12179133
Ref: 38dd12179133
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE12179381
Ref: 38de12179381
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML12179442
Ref: 38df12179442
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS12179632
Ref: 38e012179632
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI12179798
Ref: 38e112179798
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT12180012
Ref: 38e212180012
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER12180137
Ref: 38e312180137
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH12180255
Ref: 38e412180255
Node: Gestion des protocoles internet12180449
Ref: library/internet doc12180624
Ref: 38e512180624
Ref: library/internet internet12180624
Ref: 38e612180624
Ref: library/internet internet-protocols-and-support12180624
Ref: 38e712180624
Node: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller12183004
Ref: library/webbrowser doc12183184
Ref: 38e812183184
Ref: library/webbrowser module-webbrowser12183184
Ref: 11412183184
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller12183184
Ref: 38e912183184
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-n12185321
Ref: 38eb12185321
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-window12185321
Ref: 38ec12185321
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-t12185409
Ref: 38ed12185409
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-tab12185409
Ref: 38ee12185409
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser Error12185687
Ref: 38ef12185687
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open12185823
Ref: 38ea12185823
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new12186718
Ref: 38f012186718
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new_tab12186977
Ref: 38f112186977
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser get12187244
Ref: 38f212187244
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser register12187470
Ref: 38f312187470
Ref: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-112193920
Ref: webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-212193990
Node: Browser Controller Objects12194123
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controller-objects12194234
Ref: 38f412194234
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controllers12194234
Ref: 38f512194234
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller name12194451
Ref: 29412194451
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open12194527
Ref: 38f612194527
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new12194789
Ref: 38f712194789
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new_tab12195010
Ref: 38f812195010
Node: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation12195221
Ref: library/wsgiref doc12195441
Ref: 38f912195441
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref12195441
Ref: 11712195441
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation12195441
Ref: 38fa12195441
Ref: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-112197513
Ref: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-212197577
Ref: wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-312197619
Node: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI12197656
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref util12197854
Ref: 11c12197854
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities12197854
Ref: 38fb12197854
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util guess_scheme12198416
Ref: 38fd12198416
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util request_uri12199086
Ref: 38fe12199086
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util application_uri12199408
Ref: 38ff12199408
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util shift_path_info12199674
Ref: 390012199674
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util setup_testing_defaults12201332
Ref: 390112201332
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util is_hop_by_hop12203166
Ref: 167f12203166
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util FileWrapper12203331
Ref: 72212203331
Ref: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI-Footnote-112204587
Ref: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI-Footnote-212204629
Ref: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI-Footnote-312204671
Ref: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI-Footnote-412204713
Ref: wsgiref util — outils pour les environnements WSGI-Footnote-512204755
Node: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools12204814
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref headers12205071
Ref: 11912205071
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools12205071
Ref: 390412205071
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers12205331
Ref: e8312205331
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers get_all12207608
Ref: 390512207608
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers add_header12208057
Ref: 390612208057
Ref: wsgiref headers -- WSGI response header tools-Footnote-112209220
Node: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server12209262
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref simple_server12209512
Ref: 11a12209512
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-simple-server-a-simple-wsgi-http-server12209512
Ref: 390712209512
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server make_server12210104
Ref: 390812210104
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server demo_app12210954
Ref: 390212210954
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer12211485
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer set_app12212240
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer get_app12212387
Ref: 390d12212387
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler12212732
Ref: 390e12212732
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_environ12213349
Ref: 390f12213349
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_stderr12213851
Ref: 391012213851
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler handle12214036
Ref: 391112214036
Ref: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-112214309
Ref: wsgiref simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-212214351
Node: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker12214393
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref validate12214645
Ref: 11d12214645
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker12214645
Ref: 391212214645
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref validate validator12215544
Ref: 391312215544
Ref: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-112217765
Ref: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-212217807
Ref: wsgiref validate --- WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-312217866
Node: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes12217908
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref handlers12218162
Ref: 11812218162
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes12218162
Ref: 391412218162
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers CGIHandler12218551
Ref: 391512218551
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers IISCGIHandler12219201
Ref: 391712219201
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseCGIHandler12220584
Ref: 391612220584
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers SimpleHandler12221448
Ref: 391812221448
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler12222398
Ref: 19ae12222398
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler run12222758
Ref: 391e12222758
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _write12223099
Ref: 391c12223099
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _flush12223445
Ref: 391d12223445
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stdin12223654
Ref: 391912223654
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stderr12223859
Ref: 391a12223859
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler add_cgi_vars12224066
Ref: 391b12224066
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multithread12224620
Ref: 392112224620
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multiprocess12224910
Ref: 392212224910
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_run_once12225202
Ref: 392312225202
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler os_environ12225444
Ref: 392412225444
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler server_software12225947
Ref: 392512225947
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_scheme12226544
Ref: 392712226544
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler setup_environ12226897
Ref: 392812226897
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler log_exception12227559
Ref: 392a12227559
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler traceback_limit12228059
Ref: 392b12228059
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_output12228280
Ref: 392c12228280
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_status12229456
Ref: 392d12229456
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_headers12229660
Ref: 392e12229660
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_body12229951
Ref: 392f12229951
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_file_wrapper12230286
Ref: 392912230286
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler sendfile12230558
Ref: 393012230558
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler origin_server12231134
Ref: 392612231134
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler http_version12231656
Ref: 393112231656
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers read_environ12231877
Ref: 119812231877
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes-Footnote-112232792
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes-Footnote-212232834
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes-Footnote-312232876
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes-Footnote-412232918
Ref: wsgiref handlers -- server/gateway base classes-Footnote-512232960
Node: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking12233002
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref types12233223
Ref: 11b12233223
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-types-wsgi-types-for-static-type-checking12233223
Ref: 393212233223
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types StartResponse12233475
Ref: 390912233475
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIEnvironment12233614
Ref: 38fc12233614
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIApplication12233720
Ref: 393312233720
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types InputStream12233824
Ref: 391f12233824
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types ErrorStream12233934
Ref: 392012233934
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types FileWrapper12234044
Ref: 390312234044
Ref: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-112234285
Ref: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-212234327
Ref: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-312234397
Ref: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-412234439
Ref: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-512234505
Ref: wsgiref types -- WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-612234571
Node: Exemples<24>12234655
Ref: library/wsgiref examples12234820
Ref: 393412234820
Node: urllib --- URL handling modules12237648
Ref: library/urllib doc12237874
Ref: 393512237874
Ref: library/urllib module-urllib12237874
Ref: 10712237874
Ref: library/urllib urllib-url-handling-modules12237874
Ref: 393612237874
Ref: urllib --- URL handling modules-Footnote-112238496
Node: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs12238560
Ref: library/urllib request doc12238782
Ref: 393712238782
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib request12238782
Ref: 10a12238782
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls12238782
Ref: 393812238782
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlopen12239898
Ref: 29012239898
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request install_opener12243537
Ref: 393f12243537
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request build_opener12243990
Ref: 394012243990
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request pathname2url12245109
Ref: 154f12245109
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request url2pathname12245612
Ref: 155012245612
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request getproxies12246122
Ref: 393912246122
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request12247261
Ref: fc512247261
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector12251774
Ref: 393d12251774
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler12251994
Ref: 394112251994
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDefaultErrorHandler12252154
Ref: 394312252154
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler12252347
Ref: 394412252347
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor12252433
Ref: 394912252433
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyHandler12252536
Ref: 198e12252536
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr12253622
Ref: 394a12253622
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm12253740
Ref: 394b12253740
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth12253982
Ref: e7f12253982
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler12254378
Ref: 187812254378
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler12255730
Ref: 394e12255730
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler12256195
Ref: 394f12256195
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler12256536
Ref: 194012256536
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler12256947
Ref: 395012256947
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler12257816
Ref: 395112257816
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler12258158
Ref: 394212258158
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler12258244
Ref: 120312258244
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler12258586
Ref: 394612258586
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler12258650
Ref: fc412258650
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler12258747
Ref: 394512258747
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler12258807
Ref: 16e412258807
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler12258937
Ref: 393e12258937
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor12259028
Ref: 394712259028
Ref: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-112259910
Ref: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-212259984
Ref: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-312260035
Ref: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-412260094
Ref: urllib request --- Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-512260153
Node: Request Objects12260212
Ref: library/urllib request id112260349
Ref: 395212260349
Ref: library/urllib request request-objects12260349
Ref: 395312260349
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request full_url12260618
Ref: fc712260618
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request type12260918
Ref: 395412260918
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request host12260968
Ref: 395512260968
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request origin_req_host12261094
Ref: 395612261094
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request selector12261188
Ref: 395712261188
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request data12261351
Ref: fc812261351
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request unverifiable12261615
Ref: 395812261615
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request method12261744
Ref: fc612261744
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_method12262466
Ref: 114b12262466
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_header12262894
Ref: 394812262894
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_unredirected_header12263576
Ref: 395912263576
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request has_header12263704
Ref: 395a12263704
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request remove_header12263847
Ref: fca12263847
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_full_url12264031
Ref: 395b12264031
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request set_proxy12264196
Ref: 395c12264196
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_header12264449
Ref: 395d12264449
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request header_items12264617
Ref: 395e12264617
Ref: Request Objects-Footnote-112264984
Node: OpenerDirector Objects12265043
Ref: library/urllib request opener-director-objects12265208
Ref: 395f12265208
Ref: library/urllib request openerdirector-objects12265208
Ref: 396012265208
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector add_handler12265340
Ref: 396112265340
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector open12266895
Ref: fc912266895
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector error12267580
Ref: 396612267580
Node: BaseHandler Objects12269374
Ref: library/urllib request base-handler-objects12269551
Ref: 396912269551
Ref: library/urllib request basehandler-objects12269551
Ref: 396a12269551
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler add_parent12269791
Ref: 396b12269791
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler close12269872
Ref: 396c12269872
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler parent12270250
Ref: 396d12270250
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler default_open12270403
Ref: 396712270403
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-open12271099
Ref: 396212271099
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler unknown_open12271472
Ref: 396812271472
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler http_error_default12271886
Ref: 396e12271886
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-nnn12272696
Ref: 396312272696
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-request12273202
Ref: 396412273202
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-response12273618
Ref: 396512273618
Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects12274210
Ref: library/urllib request http-redirect-handler12274392
Ref: 396f12274392
Ref: library/urllib request httpredirecthandler-objects12274392
Ref: 397012274392
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler redirect_request12274893
Ref: 397112274893
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30112275977
Ref: 397212275977
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30212276246
Ref: 397312276246
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30312276423
Ref: 397412276423
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30712276604
Ref: 397512276604
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30812276876
Ref: 397612276876
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-112277220
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-212277279
Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects12277338
Ref: library/urllib request http-cookie-processor12277521
Ref: 397712277521
Ref: library/urllib request httpcookieprocessor-objects12277521
Ref: 397812277521
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor cookiejar12277660
Ref: 397912277660
Node: ProxyHandler Objects12277787
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-handler12277966
Ref: 397b12277966
Ref: library/urllib request proxyhandler-objects12277966
Ref: 397c12277966
Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects12278446
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr12278634
Ref: 394c12278634
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgr-objects12278634
Ref: 397d12278634
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr add_password12278820
Ref: 397e12278820
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr find_user_password12279169
Ref: 17fc12279169
Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects12279545
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth12279745
Ref: 394d12279745
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects12279745
Ref: 397f12279745
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth add_password12279999
Ref: 398012279999
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth find_user_password12280415
Ref: 398112280415
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth update_authenticated12280576
Ref: 398212280576
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth is_authenticated12280774
Ref: 17fd12280774
Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects12280952
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-basic-auth-handler12281157
Ref: 398312281157
Ref: library/urllib request abstractbasicauthhandler-objects12281157
Ref: 398412281157
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed12281242
Ref: 398512281242
Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects12282064
Ref: library/urllib request http-basic-auth-handler12282262
Ref: 398612282262
Ref: library/urllib request httpbasicauthhandler-objects12282262
Ref: 398712282262
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler http_error_40112282341
Ref: 398812282341
Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects12282500
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-basic-auth-handler12282699
Ref: 398912282699
Ref: library/urllib request proxybasicauthhandler-objects12282699
Ref: 398a12282699
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler http_error_40712282780
Ref: 398b12282780
Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects12282940
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-digest-auth-handler12283140
Ref: 398c12283140
Ref: library/urllib request abstractdigestauthhandler-objects12283140
Ref: 398d12283140
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed12283229
Ref: 398e12283229
Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects12283608
Ref: library/urllib request http-digest-auth-handler12283809
Ref: 398f12283809
Ref: library/urllib request httpdigestauthhandler-objects12283809
Ref: 399012283809
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler http_error_40112283890
Ref: 399112283890
Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects12284050
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-digest-auth-handler12284237
Ref: 399212284237
Ref: library/urllib request proxydigestauthhandler-objects12284237
Ref: 399312284237
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler http_error_40712284320
Ref: 399412284320
Node: HTTPHandler Objects12284481
Ref: library/urllib request http-handler-objects12284659
Ref: 399512284659
Ref: library/urllib request httphandler-objects12284659
Ref: 399612284659
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler http_open12284720
Ref: 399712284720
Node: HTTPSHandler Objects12284864
Ref: library/urllib request https-handler-objects12285031
Ref: 399812285031
Ref: library/urllib request httpshandler-objects12285031
Ref: 399912285031
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler https_open12285094
Ref: 399a12285094
Node: FileHandler Objects12285241
Ref: library/urllib request file-handler-objects12285408
Ref: 399b12285408
Ref: library/urllib request filehandler-objects12285408
Ref: 399c12285408
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler file_open12285469
Ref: 399d12285469
Node: DataHandler Objects12285778
Ref: library/urllib request data-handler-objects12285943
Ref: 399e12285943
Ref: library/urllib request datahandler-objects12285943
Ref: 399f12285943
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler data_open12286004
Ref: 39a012286004
Ref: DataHandler Objects-Footnote-112286562
Node: FTPHandler Objects12286621
Ref: library/urllib request ftp-handler-objects12286790
Ref: 39a112286790
Ref: library/urllib request ftphandler-objects12286790
Ref: 39a212286790
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler ftp_open12286849
Ref: 39a312286849
Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects12286999
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftp-handler-objects12287171
Ref: 39a412287171
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftphandler-objects12287171
Ref: 39a512287171
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setTimeout12287353
Ref: 39a612287353
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setMaxConns12287448
Ref: 39a712287448
Node: UnknownHandler Objects12287550
Ref: library/urllib request unknown-handler-objects12287730
Ref: 39a812287730
Ref: library/urllib request unknownhandler-objects12287730
Ref: 39a912287730
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler unknown_open12287797
Ref: 39aa12287797
Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects12287890
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-processor-objects12288059
Ref: 39ab12288059
Ref: library/urllib request httperrorprocessor-objects12288059
Ref: 39ac12288059
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor http_response12288134
Ref: 39ad12288134
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor https_response12288606
Ref: 39ae12288606
Node: Exemples<25>12288771
Ref: library/urllib request examples12288934
Ref: 39af12288934
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-examples12288934
Ref: 39b012288934
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-examples12294840
Ref: 39b212294840
Node: Legacy interface12296332
Ref: library/urllib request legacy-interface12296496
Ref: 39b312296496
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlretrieve12296727
Ref: 39b412296727
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlcleanup12299394
Ref: 199512299394
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener12299554
Ref: 30312299554
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open12301057
Ref: 39b712301057
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open_unknown12301562
Ref: 39b812301562
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener retrieve12301676
Ref: 19ac12301676
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener version12303227
Ref: 39b612303227
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener12303547
Ref: 30412303547
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener prompt_user_passwd12305290
Ref: 39b912305290
Ref: Legacy interface-Footnote-112305832
Node: urllib request Restrictions12305891
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-restrictions12306034
Ref: 39ba12306034
Node: urllib response --- Response classes used by urllib12308605
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib response12308839
Ref: 10b12308839
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-response-response-classes-used-by-urllib12308839
Ref: 39bb12308839
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl12309303
Ref: 393a12309303
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl url12309343
Ref: 39bc12309343
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl headers12309501
Ref: 39bd12309501
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl status12309639
Ref: 39be12309639
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl geturl12309755
Ref: 39bf12309755
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl info12309879
Ref: 39c012309879
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl code12310005
Ref: 39c112310005
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl getcode12310127
Ref: 39c212310127
Node: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components12310255
Ref: library/urllib parse doc12310494
Ref: 39c312310494
Ref: library/urllib parse module-urllib parse12310494
Ref: 10912310494
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib-parse-parse-urls-into-components12310494
Ref: 39c412310494
Ref: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components-Footnote-112312508
Ref: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components-Footnote-212312580
Ref: urllib parse --- Parse URLs into components-Footnote-312312639
Node: URL Parsing12312698
Ref: library/urllib parse url-parsing12312818
Ref: 39c512312818
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlparse12312991
Ref: 30212312991
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse parse_qs12320947
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Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urldefrag12332438
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-112334137
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-512334376
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Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-112336049
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Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes12336170
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Node: Structured Parse Results12338471
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Node: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request12350628
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Ref: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-112353527
Ref: urllib error --- Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-212353599
Node: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt12353658
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser12354411
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser mtime12355175
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser modified12355468
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Ref: urllib robotparser --- Parser for robots txt-Footnote-112357558
Node: http --- HTTP modules12357637
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Ref: http --- HTTP modules-Footnote-112359559
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Node: HTTP status category12377893
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Node: ftplib --- FTP protocol client12411413
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Node: poplib --- POP3 protocol client12437145
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Ref: library/poplib id212446855
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Node: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client12447367
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Ref: library/imaplib imaplib-imap4-protocol-client12447549
Ref: 3a5a12447549
Ref: library/imaplib module-imaplib12447549
Ref: 7312447549
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP412448379
Ref: 8f212448379
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 error12449624
Ref: 3a5b12449624
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 abort12449767
Ref: 3a5c12449767
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readonly12450029
Ref: 3a5d12450029
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_SSL12450384
Ref: 8f312450384
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_stream12451826
Ref: 8f512451826
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Internaldate2tuple12452097
Ref: 3a5e12452097
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Int2AP12452347
Ref: 3a5f12452347
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib ParseFlags12452495
Ref: 3a6012452495
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Time2Internaldate12452616
Ref: 3a6112452616
Ref: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-112453961
Ref: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-212454028
Ref: imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-312454087
Node: IMAP4 Objects12454146
Ref: library/imaplib id112454251
Ref: 3a6212454251
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-objects12454251
Ref: 3a6312454251
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 append12455747
Ref: 3a6412455747
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 authenticate12455853
Ref: 3a6512455853
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 check12456696
Ref: 3a6612456696
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 close12456762
Ref: 8f712456762
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 copy12456949
Ref: 3a6712456949
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 create12457063
Ref: 3a6812457063
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 delete12457143
Ref: 3a6912457143
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 deleteacl12457223
Ref: 3a6a12457223
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 enable12457335
Ref: dfc12457335
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 expunge12457663
Ref: 3a6b12457663
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 fetch12457913
Ref: 3a6c12457913
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getacl12458195
Ref: 3a6d12458195
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getannotation12458351
Ref: 3a6e12458351
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquota12458554
Ref: 3a6f12458554
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquotaroot12458727
Ref: 3a7012458727
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 list12458917
Ref: 3a7112458917
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login12459188
Ref: 3a7212459188
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login_cram_md512459323
Ref: 3a7312459323
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 logout12459585
Ref: 3a7412459585
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 lsub12459790
Ref: 3a7512459790
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 myrights12460082
Ref: 3a7612460082
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 namespace12460203
Ref: 3a7712460203
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 noop12460294
Ref: 3a7812460294
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 open12460356
Ref: 8f412460356
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 partial12461310
Ref: 3a7d12461310
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 proxyauth12461489
Ref: 3a7e12461489
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 read12461641
Ref: 3a7912461641
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readline12461759
Ref: 3a7a12461759
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 recent12461873
Ref: 3a7f12461873
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 rename12462030
Ref: 3a8012462030
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 response12462140
Ref: 3a8112462140
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 search12462300
Ref: 3a8212462300
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 select12462979
Ref: 3a8312462979
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 send12463276
Ref: 3a7b12463276
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setacl12463492
Ref: 3a8412463492
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setannotation12463657
Ref: 3a8512463657
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setquota12463848
Ref: 3a8612463848
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 shutdown12464021
Ref: 3a7c12464021
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 socket12464210
Ref: 3a8712464210
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 sort12464298
Ref: 3a8812464298
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 starttls12465254
Ref: 120512465254
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 status12465798
Ref: 3a8912465798
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 store12465896
Ref: 3a8a12465896
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 subscribe12467075
Ref: 3a8b12467075
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 thread12467148
Ref: 3a8c12467148
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 uid12468279
Ref: 3a8d12468279
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unsubscribe12468599
Ref: 3a8e12468599
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unselect12468678
Ref: 8f612468678
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 xatom12469084
Ref: 3a8f12469084
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 PROTOCOL_VERSION12469290
Ref: 3a9012469290
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 debug12469424
Ref: 3a9112469424
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 utf8_enabled12469626
Ref: dfd12469626
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-112469912
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-212469971
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-312470030
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-412470089
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-512470148
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-612470207
Node: IMAP4 Example12470266
Ref: library/imaplib id212470371
Ref: 3a9212470371
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-example12470371
Ref: 3a9312470371
Node: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client12470877
Ref: library/smtplib doc12471071
Ref: 3a9412471071
Ref: library/smtplib module-smtplib12471071
Ref: c912471071
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib-smtp-protocol-client12471071
Ref: 3a9512471071
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP12471726
Ref: 91c12471726
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL12474371
Ref: 91d12474371
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib LMTP12475884
Ref: 91e12475884
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPException12476809
Ref: f8d12476809
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPServerDisconnected12477071
Ref: 3a9812477071
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException12477299
Ref: 3a9912477299
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPSenderRefused12477664
Ref: 3a9a12477664
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused12477901
Ref: 3a9b12477901
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPDataError12478174
Ref: 3a9c12478174
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPConnectError12478270
Ref: 3a9612478270
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPHeloError12478391
Ref: 3a9d12478391
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPNotSupportedError12478478
Ref: 198712478478
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPAuthenticationError12478629
Ref: 3a9e12478629
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client-Footnote-112479354
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client-Footnote-212479421
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client-Footnote-312479479
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client-Footnote-412479538
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client-Footnote-512479597
Ref: smtplib --- SMTP protocol client-Footnote-612479655
Node: SMTP Objects12479714
Ref: library/smtplib id112479816
Ref: 3a9f12479816
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-objects12479816
Ref: 3aa012479816
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP set_debuglevel12479920
Ref: e4312479920
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP docmd12480279
Ref: 3aa112480279
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP connect12480931
Ref: 198812480931
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo12481619
Ref: 3aa212481619
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo12482081
Ref: 3aa312482081
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_or_helo_if_needed12482988
Ref: 3aa512482988
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP has_extn12483330
Ref: 3aa412483330
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP verify12483527
Ref: 3aa612483527
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP login12483948
Ref: 3aa712483948
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP auth12485533
Ref: e4212485533
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP starttls12487781
Ref: 111a12487781
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP sendmail12489307
Ref: e4412489307
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP send_message12492798
Ref: e4512492798
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP quit12494893
Ref: 3a9712494893
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-112495358
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-212495416
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-312495475
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-412495534
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-512495592
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-612495650
Node: SMTP Example12495709
Ref: library/smtplib id212495811
Ref: 3aa812495811
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-example12495811
Ref: 3aa912495811
Ref: SMTP Example-Footnote-112497219
Node: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 412212497277
Ref: library/uuid doc12497486
Ref: 3aaa12497486
Ref: library/uuid module-uuid12497486
Ref: 10f12497486
Ref: library/uuid uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-412212497486
Ref: 3aab12497486
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID12498668
Ref: 3aac12498668
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID safe12498730
Ref: 3aad12498730
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unsafe12498900
Ref: 3aae12498900
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unknown12499051
Ref: 3aaf12499051
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID12499182
Ref: a5112499182
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes12501329
Ref: 3ab112501329
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes_le12501480
Ref: 3ab212501480
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID fields12501651
Ref: 3ab312501651
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_low12502047
Ref: 3ab412502047
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_mid12502245
Ref: 3ab512502245
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_hi_version12502449
Ref: 3ab612502449
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_hi_variant12502651
Ref: 3ab712502651
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_low12502840
Ref: 3ab812502840
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID node12503027
Ref: 3ab912503027
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time12503224
Ref: 3aba12503224
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq12503418
Ref: 3abb12503418
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID hex12503530
Ref: 3abc12503530
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID int12503617
Ref: 3ab012503617
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID urn12503709
Ref: 3abd12503709
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID variant12503827
Ref: 3abe12503827
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID version12504115
Ref: 3ac312504115
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID is_safe12504275
Ref: b9612504275
Ref: library/uuid uuid getnode12504578
Ref: b9712504578
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid112505682
Ref: b9812505682
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid312506124
Ref: 151812506124
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid412506361
Ref: 151912506361
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid512506425
Ref: 151a12506425
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_DNS12506798
Ref: 3ac412506798
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_URL12506929
Ref: 3ac512506929
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_OID12507054
Ref: 3ac612507054
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_X50012507183
Ref: 3ac712507183
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_NCS12507461
Ref: 3abf12507461
Ref: library/uuid uuid RFC_412212507538
Ref: 3ac012507538
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_MICROSOFT12507622
Ref: 3ac112507622
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_FUTURE12507711
Ref: 3ac212507711
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-112508230
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-212508294
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-312508353
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-412508412
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-512508471
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-612508530
Ref: uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-712508589
Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<2>12508648
Ref: library/uuid command-line-usage12508783
Ref: 3ac812508783
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli12508783
Ref: 42f12508783
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-h12509107
Ref: 3ac912509107
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-help12509107
Ref: 3aca12509107
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-u12509174
Ref: 3acb12509174
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-uuid12509196
Ref: 3acc12509196
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-n12509331
Ref: 3acd12509331
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-namespace12509358
Ref: 3ace12509358
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-N12509672
Ref: 3acf12509672
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-name12509694
Ref: 3ad012509694
Node: Exemple<11>12509852
Ref: library/uuid example12510016
Ref: 3ad112510016
Ref: library/uuid uuid-example12510016
Ref: 3ad212510016
Node: Command-Line Example12511282
Ref: library/uuid command-line-example12511402
Ref: 3ad312511402
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli-example12511402
Ref: 3ad412511402
Node: socketserver --- A framework for network servers12511795
Ref: library/socketserver doc12512000
Ref: 3ad512512000
Ref: library/socketserver module-socketserver12512000
Ref: cc12512000
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers12512000
Ref: 3ad612512000
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver TCPServer12512545
Ref: 12ff12512545
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UDPServer12513039
Ref: 3ad912513039
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixStreamServer12513376
Ref: 3ada12513376
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixDatagramServer12513490
Ref: 3adb12513490
Ref: socketserver --- A framework for network servers-Footnote-112516256
Node: Notes sur la création de serveurs12516328
Ref: library/socketserver server-creation-notes12516470
Ref: 3adf12516470
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingMixIn12517290
Ref: b6712517290
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn12517328
Ref: b6812517328
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn block_on_close12518109
Ref: bed12518109
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn daemon_threads12518499
Ref: 3ae112518499
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingTCPServer12519036
Ref: 3ae212519036
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUDPServer12519078
Ref: 3ae312519078
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingTCPServer12519120
Ref: 3ae412519120
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUDPServer12519164
Ref: 3ae012519164
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixStreamServer12519208
Ref: 3ae512519208
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixDatagramServer12519257
Ref: 3ae612519257
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixStreamServer12519308
Ref: 3ae712519308
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixDatagramServer12519359
Ref: 3ae812519359
Node: Objets serveur12522221
Ref: library/socketserver server-objects12522404
Ref: 3aea12522404
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer12522455
Ref: 111f12522455
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer fileno12522897
Ref: 3aed12522897
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_request12523214
Ref: 130212523214
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer serve_forever12523849
Ref: 112112523849
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer service_actions12524684
Ref: 112012524684
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer shutdown12525068
Ref: 19f312525068
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_close12525385
Ref: 3ade12525385
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer address_family12525477
Ref: 3af112525477
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer RequestHandlerClass12525888
Ref: 3aec12525888
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_address12526075
Ref: 3aeb12526075
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket12526548
Ref: 3af212526548
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer allow_reuse_address12526766
Ref: 3af312526766
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer request_queue_size12527000
Ref: 3af412527000
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket_type12527566
Ref: 3af512527566
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer timeout12527772
Ref: 130012527772
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer finish_request12528322
Ref: 3af612528322
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer get_request12528553
Ref: 3aee12528553
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_error12528812
Ref: d3112528812
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_timeout12529329
Ref: 130112529329
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer process_request12529840
Ref: 3af012529840
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_activate12530256
Ref: 3ad812530256
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_bind12530545
Ref: 3ad712530545
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer verify_request12530745
Ref: 3aef12530745
Node: Objets gestionnaire de requêtes12531391
Ref: library/socketserver request-handler-objects12531552
Ref: 3af712531552
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler12531638
Ref: 3adc12531638
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler setup12532056
Ref: 3af812532056
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler handle12532276
Ref: 3add12532276
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler finish12532993
Ref: 3afc12532993
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler request12533294
Ref: 3af912533294
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler client_address12533429
Ref: 3afa12533429
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler server12533550
Ref: 3afb12533550
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver StreamRequestHandler12533650
Ref: cca12533650
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler12533696
Ref: 3ae912533696
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler rfile12533945
Ref: 3afd12533945
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler wfile12534109
Ref: 3afe12534109
Node: Exemples<27>12534391
Ref: library/socketserver examples12534529
Ref: 3aff12534529
Node: Exemple pour socketserver TCPServer12534765
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-tcpserver-example12534893
Ref: 3b0012534893
Node: Exemple pour socketserver UDPServer12538811
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-udpserver-example12538978
Ref: 3b0112538978
Node: Classes de mélange asynchrone12540617
Ref: library/socketserver asynchronous-mixins12540740
Ref: 3b0212540740
Node: http server --- HTTP servers12543166
Ref: library/http server doc12543366
Ref: 3b0312543366
Ref: library/http server http-server-http-servers12543366
Ref: 3b0412543366
Ref: library/http server module-http server12543366
Ref: 7112543366
Ref: library/http server http server HTTPServer12544498
Ref: 390b12544498
Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPServer12544902
Ref: b3412544902
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler12545569
Ref: 10af12545569
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler client_address12546642
Ref: 3b0612546642
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server12546796
Ref: 3b0712546796
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler close_connection12546866
Ref: 3b0812546866
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler requestline12547135
Ref: 3b0a12547135
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler command12547557
Ref: 3b0b12547557
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler path12547677
Ref: 3b0c12547677
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler request_version12547966
Ref: 3b0d12547966
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler headers12548117
Ref: 39f312548117
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler rfile12548543
Ref: 3b0f12548543
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler wfile12548694
Ref: 3b1012548694
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server_version12549148
Ref: 3b1112549148
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler sys_version12549507
Ref: 3b1212549507
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_message_format12549801
Ref: 3b1412549801
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_content_type12550247
Ref: 3b1512550247
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler protocol_version12550435
Ref: 3b1612550435
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler MessageClass12551028
Ref: 3b0e12551028
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler responses12551331
Ref: 39da12551331
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle12552062
Ref: 3b1912552062
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_one_request12552364
Ref: 3b0912552364
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_expect_10012552564
Ref: 3b1a12552564
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_error12553084
Ref: f3d12553084
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response12554220
Ref: 3b1b12554220
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_header12555046
Ref: 3b1712555046
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response_only12555637
Ref: 3b1812555637
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler end_headers12556068
Ref: 10b012556068
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler flush_headers12556376
Ref: 10b112556376
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_request12556559
Ref: 3b1d12556559
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_error12556858
Ref: 3b1e12556858
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_message12557105
Ref: 3b1f12557105
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler version_string12557596
Ref: 3b1312557596
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler date_time_string12557810
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Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler do_POST12564335
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Ref: http server --- HTTP servers-Footnote-112565273
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Node: http cookies --- HTTP state management12568681
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies SimpleCookie12570981
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Ref: http cookies --- HTTP state management-Footnote-112571838
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Ref: http cookies --- HTTP state management-Footnote-312571969
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Ref: http cookies --- HTTP state management-Footnote-512572087
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel samesite12575001
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel copy12577819
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Ref: library/http cookies cookie-example12578595
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Node: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients12580241
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Ref: http cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1212588099
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar delayload12594593
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Ref: library/http cookiejar filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers12595233
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar MozillaCookieJar12595461
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LWPCookieJar12596279
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Ref: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers-Footnote-112596767
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy domain_return_ok12597850
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy path_return_ok12599230
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy netscape12599684
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy rfc296512599756
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy hide_cookie212599830
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Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-112600374
Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-212600433
Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects12600492
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy blocked_domains12602980
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_blocked_domains12603093
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_blocked12603209
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy allowed_domains12603359
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_not_allowed12603633
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy rfc2109_as_netscape12603975
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_domain12604561
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_rfc2965_unverifiable12604860
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_unverifiable12605237
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_domain12605385
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_initial_dollar12605565
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_path12605719
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNoDots12606038
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNonDomain12606276
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainRFC2965Match12606621
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainLiberal12606857
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrict12607004
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Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-112607156
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-212607215
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-312607274
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-412607333
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-512607392
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-612607451
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-712607510
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie version12608495
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie name12608848
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie value12608905
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port12608984
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain12609114
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie path12609175
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie secure12609269
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie expires12609375
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie discard12609527
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_specified12610464
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie has_nonstandard_attr12610827
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie get_nonstandard_attr12610943
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Ref: Objets Cookie<2>-Footnote-112611576
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Ref: Objets Cookie<2>-Footnote-412611753
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Ref: library/http cookiejar examples12611937
Ref: 3b9712611937
Ref: Exemples<28>-Footnote-112613390
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Ref: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access-Footnote-112623538
Ref: xmlrpc client --- XML-RPC client access-Footnote-212623611
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime decode12627412
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime encode12627509
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary data12628999
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary decode12629304
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary encode12629443
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client id412630898
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault faultCode12631115
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault faultString12631190
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError url12632633
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError errcode12632709
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError errmsg12632764
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError headers12632842
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Ref: xmlrpc server --- Basic XML-RPC servers-Footnote-112643136
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Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler rpc_paths12646307
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Ref: library/xmlrpc server id112646811
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Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocXMLRPCServer set_server_title12656331
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Ref: library/xmlrpc server doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler12657131
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Node: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library12658281
Ref: library/ipaddress doc12658441
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress-ipv4-ipv6-manipulation-library12658441
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Ref: ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library-Footnote-112659532
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Ref: library/ipaddress ip-addresses12662292
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Ref: library/ipaddress address-objects12662559
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address12663041
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address version12664471
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address max_prefixlen12664581
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address compressed12664925
Ref: 3be912664925
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address exploded12664956
Ref: 3bea12664956
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address packed12665496
Ref: 3beb12665496
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Ref: library/locale locale NOEXPR12764699
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Ref: library/locale locale CRNCYSTR12765160
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Ref: library/locale locale ERA12765464
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Ref: library/locale locale ERA_D_T_FMT12766335
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Ref: library/locale locale getpreferredencoding12769280
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Ref: locale --- Internationalization services-Footnote-112778686
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Ref: locale --- Internationalization services-Footnote-412778909
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Node: turtle — Tortue graphique12785318
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Ref: turtle — Tortue graphique-Footnote-112786208
Node: Introduction<10>12786274
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Ref: library/turtle turtle bgcolor12845729
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Ref: library/turtle turtle listen12852175
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onkey12852432
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onkeyrelease12852470
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onkeypress12853196
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onclick12853896
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onscreenclick12853948
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Ref: library/turtle turtle getcanvas12860606
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Ref: library/turtle turtle getshapes12860864
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Ref: library/turtle turtle register_shape12861088
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Ref: library/turtle turtle addshape12861143
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Ref: library/turtle turtle turtles12862226
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Ref: library/turtle turtle window_width12862549
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Ref: library/turtle turtle RawTurtle12865847
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Ref: library/turtle turtle RawPen12865885
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Turtle12866171
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Ref: library/turtle turtle TurtleScreen12866380
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Vec2D12868660
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Ref: cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters-Footnote-112890500
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Node: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis12904535
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Ref: shlex --- Simple lexical analysis-Footnote-112910410
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Ref: 3dcd12913417
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex commenters12914148
Ref: 3dc012914148
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex wordchars12914369
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace12915064
Ref: 3dcf12915064
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escape12915261
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex quotes12915425
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escapedquotes12915709
Ref: 3dd212915709
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace_split12915937
Ref: 3dce12915937
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex infile12916480
Ref: 3dc112916480
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex instream12916710
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex source12916834
Ref: 3dca12916834
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex debug12917422
Ref: 3dd412917422
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex lineno12917685
Ref: 3dd512917685
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex token12917780
Ref: 3dd612917780
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex eof12917896
Ref: 3dc712917896
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex punctuation_chars12918071
Ref: 198f12918071
Node: Parsing Rules12918484
Ref: library/shlex parsing-rules12918632
Ref: 3dd712918632
Ref: library/shlex shlex-parsing-rules12918632
Ref: 3dd812918632
Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells12920651
Ref: library/shlex improved-compatibility-with-shells12920777
Ref: 3dd912920777
Ref: library/shlex improved-shell-compatibility12920777
Ref: cbe12920777
Node: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk12923617
Ref: library/tk doc12923787
Ref: 3dda12923787
Ref: library/tk graphical-user-interfaces-with-tk12923787
Ref: 3ddb12923787
Ref: library/tk tkinter12923787
Ref: 3ddc12923787
Ref: Interfaces Utilisateur Graphiques avec Tk-Footnote-112925685
Node: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk12925737
Ref: library/tkinter doc12925908
Ref: 3ddd12925908
Ref: library/tkinter module-tkinter12925908
Ref: ef12925908
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-python-interface-to-tcl-tk12925908
Ref: 3dde12925908
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-112929366
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-212929443
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-312929475
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-412929515
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-512929572
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-612929599
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-712929636
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-812929734
Ref: tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-912929786
Node: Architecture12929845
Ref: library/tkinter architecture12929956
Ref: 3ddf12929956
Ref: Architecture-Footnote-112932776
Node: Modules Tkinter12932816
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-modules12932959
Ref: 3de112932959
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk12933334
Ref: 15f112933334
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk tk12935803
Ref: 3de212935803
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk master12936101
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk children12936715
Ref: 3de412936715
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tcl12936938
Ref: 3de512936938
Ref: library/tkinter module-_tkinter12938825
Ref: 312938825
Node: Guide de survie Tkinter12939976
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-life-preserver12940134
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Node: Un simple programme Hello World12941078
Ref: library/tkinter a-hello-world-program12941203
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Node: Concepts importants de Tk12942884
Ref: library/tkinter important-tk-concepts12943061
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Node: Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk12944705
Ref: library/tkinter understanding-how-tkinter-wraps-tcl-tk12944890
Ref: 3de912944890
Node: Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?12947380
Ref: library/tkinter how-do-i-what-option-does12947587
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Node: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk12949650
Ref: library/tkinter navigating-the-tcl-tk-reference-manual12949805
Ref: 3deb12949805
Ref: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk-Footnote-112952409
Ref: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk-Footnote-212952466
Ref: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk-Footnote-312952525
Ref: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk-Footnote-412952578
Ref: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk-Footnote-512952634
Ref: Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk-Footnote-612952693
Node: Fils d'exécution multiples12952747
Ref: library/tkinter threading-model12952904
Ref: 3de012952904
Node: Guide pratique12957005
Ref: library/tkinter handy-reference12957164
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Node: Définition des options12957485
Ref: library/tkinter setting-options12957581
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-setting-options12957581
Ref: 3dee12957581
Ref: Définition des options-Footnote-112961352
Node: L'empaqueteur12961399
Ref: library/tkinter the-packer12961528
Ref: 3def12961528
Node: Options de l'empaqueteur12963644
Ref: library/tkinter packer-options12963796
Ref: 3df012963796
Node: Association des variables de l'objet graphique12964612
Ref: library/tkinter coupling-widget-variables12964779
Ref: 3df112964779
Node: Le gestionnaire de fenêtres12967210
Ref: library/tkinter the-window-manager12967385
Ref: 3df212967385
Node: Types de données des options Tk12969083
Ref: library/tkinter tk-option-data-types12969236
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Node: Liaisons et événements12972990
Ref: library/tkinter bindings-and-events12973134
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Ref: library/tkinter id212973134
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Ref: Liaisons et événements-Footnote-112976391
Node: Le paramètre index12976437
Ref: library/tkinter the-index-parameter12976555
Ref: 3df612976555
Node: Images12979105
Ref: library/tkinter images12979190
Ref: 3df712979190
Ref: Images-Footnote-112980618
Node: Gestionnaires de fichiers12980653
Ref: library/tkinter file-handlers12980776
Ref: 3df812980776
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-file-handlers12980776
Ref: 3df912980776
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk createfilehandler12981883
Ref: 3dfa12981883
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk deletefilehandler12982389
Ref: 3dfb12982389
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter READABLE12982489
Ref: 3dfc12982489
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter WRITABLE12982521
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter EXCEPTION12982553
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Node: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog12982646
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser doc12982863
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Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser module-tkinter colorchooser12982863
Ref: f012982863
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter-colorchooser-color-choosing-dialog12982863
Ref: 3e0012982863
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser Chooser12983406
Ref: 3e0112983406
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser askcolor12983473
Ref: 3e0312983473
Ref: tkinter colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog-Footnote-112983919
Node: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper12984000
Ref: library/tkinter font doc12984206
Ref: 3e0412984206
Ref: library/tkinter font module-tkinter font12984206
Ref: f412984206
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter-font-tkinter-font-wrapper12984206
Ref: 3e0512984206
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font NORMAL12984596
Ref: 3e0612984596
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font BOLD12984630
Ref: 3e0712984630
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ITALIC12984662
Ref: 3e0812984662
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ROMAN12984696
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font12984730
Ref: 18c712984730
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font actual12986312
Ref: 3e0a12986312
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font cget12986416
Ref: 3e0b12986416
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font config12986498
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font copy12986584
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font measure12986676
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font metrics12986997
Ref: 3e0f12986997
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font families12987684
Ref: 3e1012987684
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font names12987801
Ref: 3e1112987801
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font nametofont12987893
Ref: 18c912987893
Ref: tkinter font --- Tkinter font wrapper-Footnote-112988145
Node: Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter12988217
Ref: library/dialog doc12988423
Ref: 3e1212988423
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-dialogs12988423
Ref: 3e1312988423
Node: tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter12988923
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter simpledialog12989138
Ref: f712989138
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-simpledialog-standard-tkinter-input-dialogs12989138
Ref: 3e1412989138
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askfloat12989621
Ref: 3e1512989621
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askinteger12989687
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askstring12989755
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog12989967
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog body12990094
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog buttonbox12990280
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Ref: tkinter simpledialog – Boîtes de dialogue de saisie standard de Tkinter-Footnote-112990494
Node: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers12990575
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter-filedialog-file-selection-dialogs12990856
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Ref: tkinter filedialog – Boîtes de dialogue de sélection de fichiers-Footnote-112991398
Node: Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives12991477
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfile12993263
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilenames12993514
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askdirectory12993941
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Open12994208
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveAs12994269
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Directory12994662
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog12994959
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog cancel_command12995093
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_double_event12995204
Ref: 3e2812995204
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_select_event12995353
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_double_event12995495
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_select_event12995641
Ref: 3e2b12995641
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog filter_command12995789
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_filter12995885
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_selection12995986
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog go12996085
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog ok_event12996258
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog quit12996382
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_filter12996519
Ref: 3e3212996519
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_selection12996604
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog12996716
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog ok_command12996898
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog12997041
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog ok_command12997229
Ref: 3e3712997229
Node: tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue12997456
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Ref: f112997654
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-commondialog-dialog-window-templates12997654
Ref: 3e3812997654
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog12998067
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog show12998133
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Ref: tkinter commondialog – Modèles de fenêtre de dialogue-Footnote-112998370
Node: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts12998451
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox doc12998665
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox module-tkinter messagebox12998665
Ref: f512998665
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter-messagebox-tkinter-message-prompts12998665
Ref: 3e3b12998665
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message12999367
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message show13001509
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showinfo13001824
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showwarning13002050
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showerror13002236
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askquestion13002461
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askokcancel13002711
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askretrycancel13002976
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesno13003250
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesnocancel13003487
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-buttons13003780
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRY13003858
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YES13004056
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox NO13004102
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-types13004145
Ref: 3e4413004145
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORTRETRYIGNORE13004174
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNO13004791
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNOCANCEL13004935
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-icons13005112
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ERROR13005126
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox INFO13005176
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox QUESTION13005224
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox WARNING13005280
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Ref: tkinter messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts-Footnote-113005370
Node: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget13005449
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Ref: tkinter scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget-Footnote-113006934
Node: tkinter dnd --- Drag and drop support13007015
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Ref: 3e6113008893
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Ref: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets-Footnote-113011208
Ref: tkinter ttk --- Tk themed widgets-Footnote-213011279
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Ref: Utilisation de Ttk-Footnote-113012790
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget identify13023602
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget state13024224
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox current13028553
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox get13028860
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox set13033378
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Node: Carnet de notes notebook13033466
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Node: Identifiants d'onglet13037594
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Node: Événements virtuels<3>13038323
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook13038784
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook hide13039284
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook index13039768
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook enable_traversal13041163
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk id513042915
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Node: Exemple basique13405512
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Node: Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests13518304
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Node: Calling13577134
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Ref: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects-Footnote-113610701
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Node: mock_open13629675
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Ref: mock_open-Footnote-113632675
Node: Autospeccing13632700
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Node: Sealing mocks13641720
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Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps13642666
Ref: library/unittest mock order-of-precedence-of-side-effect-return-value-and-wraps13642813
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Node: unittest mock --- getting started13646896
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples doc13647089
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples unittest-mock-getting-started13647089
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Node: Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer13647303
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples using-mock13647436
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Node: Simulation des méthodes13647977
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-patching-methods13648129
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Node: S'assurer de la bonne utilisation d'un objet13649796
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object13649979
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Node: Simulation des classes13651320
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-classes13651496
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Node: Naming your mocks13652562
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples naming-your-mocks13652712
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Node: Tracking all Calls13653144
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples tracking-all-calls13653308
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Node: Setting Return Values and Attributes13654715
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples setting-return-values-and-attributes13654891
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples raising-exceptions-with-mocks13656591
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Node: Side effect functions and iterables13656971
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Node: Mocking asynchronous iterators13658198
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-asynchronous-iterators13658392
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Node: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object13660073
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object13660285
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples using-side-effect-to-return-per-file-content13662296
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Node: Patch Decorators13663147
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples patch-decorators13663305
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples further-examples13668722
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Node: Mocking chained calls13669350
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-chained-calls13669448
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Node: Partial mocking13672549
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples partial-mocking13672682
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Ref: Partial mocking-Footnote-113674708
Node: Mocking a Generator Method13674809
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-a-generator-method13674965
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Ref: Mocking a Generator Method-Footnote-113676089
Node: Applying the same patch to every test method13676407
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples applying-the-same-patch-to-every-test-method13676571
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Node: Mocking Unbound Methods13678865
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-unbound-methods13679036
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Node: Checking multiple calls with mock13680794
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples checking-multiple-calls-with-mock13680950
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples coping-with-mutable-arguments13682714
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock13689000
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes13691818
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Ref: Mock subclasses and their attributes-Footnote-113693944
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-imports-with-patch-dict13694445
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Node: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions13697077
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions13697265
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Node: More complex argument matching13700598
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples more-complex-argument-matching13700746
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Ref: More complex argument matching-Footnote-113703810
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Node: test --- Regression tests package for Python13703975
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Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package13705614
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Node: Running tests using the command-line interface13710360
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Node: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite13712472
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher13739935
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher match_value13740084
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Ref: test support --- Utilities for the Python test suite-Footnote-113740261
Node: test support socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests13740341
Ref: library/test module-test support socket_helper13740600
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Ref: library/test test-support-socket-helper-utilities-for-socket-tests13740600
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Node: test support script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests13743881
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Node: test support bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation13748760
Ref: library/test module-test support bytecode_helper13749059
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase get_disassembly_as_string13749604
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase assertNotInBytecode13749897
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Node: test support threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests13750054
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper wait_threads_exit13751741
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper catch_threading_exception13751924
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Node: test support os_helper --- Utilities for os tests13752900
Ref: library/test module-test support os_helper13753148
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Node: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests13759382
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Ref: library/test test support import_helper DirsOnSysPath13763445
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Ref: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests-Footnote-113764003
Ref: test support import_helper --- Utilities for import tests-Footnote-213764045
Node: test support warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests13764087
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Node: Débogueur et instrumentation13769444
Ref: library/debug doc13769621
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Ref: library/audit_events audit-events13770245
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Node: Table des évènements d'audit13770788
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Ref: Table des évènements d'audit-Footnote-113829568
Node: bdb --- Debugger framework13829610
Ref: library/bdb doc13829792
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint ignore13833179
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint hits13833269
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb13833384
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb canonic13834187
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb reset13834568
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_line13836232
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_call13836711
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_return13837197
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_exception13837691
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb is_skipped_line13838350
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb break_anywhere13838912
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_call13839130
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_line13839433
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_return13839629
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_exception13839797
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb do_clear13839967
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_step13840254
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_next13840331
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_until13840522
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_trace13840709
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb clear_bpbynumber13842172
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb clear_all_file_breaks13842403
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb runeval13844816
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb runctx13845046
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb runcall13845184
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Ref: library/bdb bdb checkfuncname13845355
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Ref: library/bdb bdb effective13845808
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Ref: library/bdb bdb set_trace13846576
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Ref: bdb --- Debugger framework-Footnote-113846725
Node: faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback13846788
Ref: library/faulthandler doc13846968
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-dump-the-python-traceback13846968
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Ref: library/faulthandler module-faulthandler13846968
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Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback13849506
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback13849569
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler enable13850240
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler disable13851114
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler is_enabled13851255
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Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout13851534
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback_later13851631
Ref: dee13851631
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler cancel_dump_traceback_later13852673
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Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal13852797
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler register13853094
Ref: dec13853094
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler unregister13853731
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Ref: library/faulthandler issue-with-file-descriptors13854179
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Node: Exemple<14>13854647
Ref: library/faulthandler example13854773
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Node: pdb — Le débogueur Python13855317
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Ref: library/pdb pdb-the-python-debugger13855491
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Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-c13858256
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Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-command13858256
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Ref: library/pdb pdb post_mortem13861732
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb13862439
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb set_trace13864118
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Ref: pdb — Le débogueur Python-Footnote-113864299
Ref: pdb — Le débogueur Python-Footnote-213864362
Ref: pdb — Le débogueur Python-Footnote-313864404
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Ref: library/pdb id213864661
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-help13868447
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-where13868877
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-disable13871163
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-commands13872430
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-step13874254
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-next13874461
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-until13874920
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-return13875350
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-continue13875445
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-jump13875569
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-list13876079
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-ll13876888
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-args13877092
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-p13877197
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-interact13879519
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Ref: library/pdb debugger-aliases13880444
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-alias13880444
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-unalias13881656
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-run13882214
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-quit13882580
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-retval13882858
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-exceptions13882956
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Node: The Python Profilers13884305
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Ref: library/profile profile13884493
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Ref: library/profile the-python-profilers13884493
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Ref: The Python Profilers-Footnote-113884935
Ref: The Python Profilers-Footnote-213885002
Node: Introduction to the profilers13885068
Ref: library/profile introduction-to-the-profilers13885184
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Ref: library/profile profiler-introduction13885184
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Ref: library/profile profile-cli13889699
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Ref: library/profile cmdoption-cProfile-o13889912
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Ref: library/profile cmdoption-cProfile-s13890007
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Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference13893139
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Ref: library/profile profile-and-cprofile-module-reference13893287
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Ref: library/profile module-profile13893398
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Ref: library/profile profile run13893492
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Ref: library/profile profile runctx13894127
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile13894524
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile enable13896139
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile disable13896242
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile create_stats13896345
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile print_stats13896491
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile dump_stats13896988
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile run13897097
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile runctx13897177
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile runcall13897336
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Node: The Stats Class13897683
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Ref: library/profile the-stats-class13897842
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Ref: library/profile module-pstats13897976
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats13897976
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats strip_dirs13899236
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats add13900056
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats dump_stats13900551
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats sort_stats13900934
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats reverse_order13906308
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_stats13906596
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_callers13908042
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_callees13909160
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats get_stats_profile13909543
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Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?13910097
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Ref: library/profile what-is-deterministic-profiling13910230
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Ref: library/profile profile-limitations13912151
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Node: Using a custom timer13915819
Ref: library/profile profile-timers13915916
Ref: 424013915916
Ref: library/profile using-a-custom-timer13915916
Ref: 424113915916
Node: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets13918365
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Ref: timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets-Footnote-113919498
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Ref: library/timeit basic-examples13919701
Ref: 424613919701
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Ref: library/timeit python-interface13921261
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Ref: library/timeit timeit timeit13921418
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Ref: library/timeit timeit default_timer13922593
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer13922908
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer timeit13924743
Ref: cdd13924743
Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer autorange13925958
Ref: cdc13925958
Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer repeat13926764
Ref: 424a13926764
Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer print_exc13928262
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Ref: library/timeit timeit-command-line-interface13929037
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-n13929349
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Ref: library/timeit examples13931807
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Ref: library/timeit timeit-examples13931807
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Node: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution13935576
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Ref: library/trace module-trace13935807
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Ref: library/trace trace-trace-or-track-python-statement-execution13935807
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Ref: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution-Footnote-113936605
Ref: trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution-Footnote-213936668
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace run13941532
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace runctx13941776
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace runfunc13942092
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Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults13942598
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Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults update13942763
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Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults write_results13942883
Ref: 428613942883
Node: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations13944249
Ref: library/tracemalloc doc13944415
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Ref: library/tracemalloc module-tracemalloc13944415
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Ref: tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations-Footnote-113945764
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Ref: library/tracemalloc examples13945936
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Ref: library/tracemalloc pretty-top13952859
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Ref: library/tracemalloc record-the-current-and-peak-size-of-all-traced-memory-blocks13955428
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Ref: library/tracemalloc functions13957469
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc clear_traces13957508
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_object_traceback13957643
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Ref: library/tracemalloc filter13962933
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter13962968
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter inclusive13964120
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter lineno13964551
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter filename_pattern13964702
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter all_frames13964815
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Ref: library/tracemalloc frame13965298
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame13965331
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame filename13965480
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame lineno13965542
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Node: Snapshot13965605
Ref: library/tracemalloc snapshot13965685
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot13965724
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot compare_to13965903
Ref: 429b13965903
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot dump13966633
Ref: 428d13966633
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot filter_traces13966771
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot load13967456
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot statistics13967584
Ref: 428b13967584
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot traceback_limit13968787
Ref: 42a713968787
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot traces13969005
Ref: 42b413969005
Node: Statistic13969299
Ref: library/tracemalloc statistic13969387
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic13969428
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic count13969653
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic size13969727
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic traceback13969813
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Node: StatisticDiff13969944
Ref: library/tracemalloc statisticdiff13970029
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff13970078
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff count13970379
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff count_diff13970552
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff size13970773
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff size_diff13970968
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff traceback13971201
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Ref: library/tracemalloc trace13971419
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace13971452
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace domain13971697
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace size13971974
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace traceback13972057
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Ref: library/tracemalloc traceback13972251
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback13972292
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback total_nframe13973226
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback format13973540
Ref: b8713973540
Node: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels13974614
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Ref: library/distribution software-packaging-and-distribution13974800
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Ref: Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels-Footnote-113975474
Node: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer13975499
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Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip-bootstrapping-the-pip-installer13975675
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Ref: library/ensurepip module-ensurepip13975675
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Ref: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer-Footnote-113977451
Ref: ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer-Footnote-213977517
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Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-altinstall13979087
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Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-default-pip13979214
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Ref: library/ensurepip module-api13979567
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Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip version13979710
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Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip bootstrap13979856
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Ref: library/venv module-venv13982056
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Ref: library/venv venv-def13982290
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Ref: library/venv venv-intro13982290
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Ref: venv --- Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-113984374
Ref: venv --- Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-213984436
Ref: venv --- Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-313984474
Ref: venv --- Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-413984516
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Ref: Création d'environnements virtuels<2>-Footnote-113990038
Node: How venvs work13990093
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Ref: library/venv venv-explanation13990247
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Node: API<2>13994776
Ref: library/venv api13994928
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Ref: library/venv venv-api13994928
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder13995201
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create13997497
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder ensure_directories13998823
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create_configuration14001561
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder setup_python14001706
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder setup_scripts14002141
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder upgrade_dependencies14002299
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder post_setup14002684
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder install_scripts14002962
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create_git_ignore_file14004445
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Ref: library/venv venv create14005389
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Ref: API<2>-Footnote-114006084
Ref: API<2>-Footnote-214006122
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Ref: library/venv an-example-of-extending-envbuilder14006296
Ref: 42dd14006296
Ref: Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder-Footnote-114016460
Node: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives14016507
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Ref: library/zipapp module-zipapp14016686
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-manage-executable-python-zip-archives14016686
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Ref: zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives-Footnote-114017577
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-python-api14021138
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp create_archive14021229
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp get_interpreter14025368
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter14027560
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Node: Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp14028969
Ref: library/zipapp creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp14029193
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Ref: library/zipapp caveats14031258
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Node: Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python14032169
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Ref: library/python doc14034699
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Ref: library/python python14034699
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Ref: library/python python-runtime-services14034699
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Node: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions14036154
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Ref: library/sys module-sys14036326
Ref: d814036326
Ref: library/sys sys-system-specific-parameters-and-functions14036326
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Ref: library/sys sys abiflags14036750
Ref: a5414036750
Ref: library/sys sys addaudithook14037186
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Ref: library/sys sys argv14039681
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Ref: library/sys auditing14040752
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Ref: library/sys sys audit14040752
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Ref: library/sys sys base_exec_prefix14042518
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Ref: library/sys sys base_prefix14043204
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Ref: library/sys sys byteorder14043880
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Ref: library/sys sys builtin_module_names14044164
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Ref: library/sys sys call_tracing14044500
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Ref: library/sys sys copyright14045023
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Ref: library/sys sys _clear_type_cache14045128
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Ref: library/sys sys _clear_internal_caches14045650
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Ref: library/sys sys _current_frames14045896
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Ref: library/sys sys _current_exceptions14046903
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Ref: library/sys sys breakpointhook14047630
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Ref: library/sys sys _debugmallocstats14049772
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Ref: library/sys sys dllhandle14050268
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Ref: library/sys sys displayhook14050404
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Ref: library/sys sys dont_write_bytecode14052068
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info14052545
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info emscripten_version14052764
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info pthreads14053077
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info shared_memory14053201
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Ref: library/sys sys pycache_prefix14053405
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Ref: library/sys sys excepthook14054458
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Ref: library/sys sys __breakpointhook__14055961
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Ref: library/sys sys __displayhook__14055998
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Ref: library/sys sys __excepthook__14056032
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Ref: library/sys sys __unraisablehook__14056065
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Ref: library/sys sys exception14056632
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Ref: library/sys sys exc_info14057109
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Ref: library/sys sys exec_prefix14058121
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Ref: library/sys sys executable14059062
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Ref: library/sys sys exit14059406
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Ref: library/sys sys flags14061186
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Ref: library/sys sys flags inspect14061574
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Ref: library/sys sys flags interactive14061776
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Ref: library/sys sys flags isolated14061971
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Ref: library/sys sys flags optimize14062168
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Ref: library/sys sys flags dont_write_bytecode14062395
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Ref: library/sys sys flags no_user_site14062586
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Ref: library/sys sys flags no_site14062779
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Ref: library/sys sys flags ignore_environment14062988
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Ref: library/sys sys flags verbose14063174
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Ref: library/sys sys flags bytes_warning14063378
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Ref: library/sys sys flags quiet14063567
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Ref: library/sys sys flags hash_randomization14063778
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Ref: library/sys sys flags dev_mode14063966
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Ref: library/sys sys flags utf8_mode14064272
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Ref: library/sys sys flags safe_path14064474
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Ref: library/sys sys flags int_max_str_digits14064680
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Ref: library/sys sys flags warn_default_encoding14065017
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info14066086
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info epsilon14067129
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info dig14067830
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info mant_dig14068341
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max14068833
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_exp14069216
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_10_exp14069716
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min14070214
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_exp14071128
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_10_exp14071618
Ref: 432114071618
Ref: library/sys sys float_info radix14072012
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info rounds14072381
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Ref: library/sys sys float_repr_style14075295
Ref: 12da14075295
Ref: library/sys sys getallocatedblocks14075865
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Ref: library/sys sys getunicodeinternedsize14076514
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Ref: library/sys sys getandroidapilevel14076663
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Ref: library/sys sys getdefaultencoding14077015
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Ref: library/sys sys getdlopenflags14077185
Ref: 14c714077185
Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencoding14077498
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Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencodeerrors14079039
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Ref: library/sys sys get_int_max_str_digits14079895
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Ref: library/sys sys getrefcount14080130
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Ref: library/sys sys getrecursionlimit14080934
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Ref: library/sys sys getsizeof14081279
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Ref: library/sys sys getswitchinterval14082271
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Ref: library/sys sys _getframemodulename14083153
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Ref: library/sys sys getwindowsversion14085564
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info modulus14089783
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info imag14090054
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info algorithm14090163
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info seed_bits14090390
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Ref: library/sys sys hexversion14090613
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Ref: library/sys sys implementation14091539
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info14093915
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info default_max_str_digits14094405
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info str_digits_check_threshold14094590
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Ref: library/sys sys __interactivehook__14094995
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Ref: library/sys sys intern14095614
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Ref: library/sys sys is_finalizing14096850
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Ref: library/sys sys last_exc14097119
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Ref: library/sys sys _is_interned14097703
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Ref: library/sys sys maxunicode14098551
Ref: 103714098551
Ref: library/sys sys meta_path14098977
Ref: d1b14098977
Ref: library/sys sys modules14100312
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Ref: library/sys sys orig_argv14100924
Ref: 82c14100924
Ref: library/sys sys path14101409
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Ref: library/sys sys path_hooks14102763
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Ref: library/sys sys platlibdir14105953
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Ref: library/sys sys prefix14107089
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Ref: library/sys sys ps114107759
Ref: 1d0214107759
Ref: library/sys sys ps214107781
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Ref: library/sys sys setdlopenflags14108343
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Ref: b7c14120024
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Ref: library/sys sys deactivate_stack_trampoline14121348
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Ref: library/sys sys _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding14121799
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Ref: library/sys sys stdin14122772
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Ref: library/sys sys stdout14122796
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Ref: library/sys sys stderr14122821
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Ref: library/sys sys __stdin__14126275
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info14128161
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info name14128302
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info lock14128655
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info version14128960
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Ref: library/sys sys tracebacklimit14129163
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Ref: library/sys sys version_info14132265
Ref: 68d14132265
Ref: library/sys sys warnoptions14132915
Ref: 3a714132915
Ref: library/sys sys winver14133186
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Ref: library/sys sys _xoptions14133835
Ref: 1cfc14133835
Ref: library/sys c9914134687
Ref: 431814134687
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-114134893
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-214134935
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-314134977
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-414135019
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-514135124
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-614135166
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-714135208
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-814135250
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-914135292
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1014135334
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1114135377
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1214135420
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1314135463
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1414135506
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1514135549
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1614135630
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1714135673
Ref: sys --- System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1814135716
Node: sys monitoring --- Execution event monitoring14135759
Ref: library/sys monitoring doc14136006
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Ref: library/sys monitoring module-sys monitoring14136006
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys-monitoring-execution-event-monitoring14136006
Ref: 433f14136006
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Ref: 434014137136
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Ref: 434314137773
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Ref: library/sys monitoring events14139169
Ref: 434114139169
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-BRANCH14139239
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Ref: 160114139337
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-C_RAISE14139447
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Ref: 434914139609
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Ref: 434a14139761
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Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-JUMP14139960
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Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-LINE14140073
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Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_RESUME14140238
Ref: 434e14140238
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_RETURN14140409
Ref: 434f14140409
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_START14140586
Ref: 435014140586
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_THROW14140755
Ref: 435114140755
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_UNWIND14140869
Ref: 435214140869
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_YIELD14140986
Ref: 435314140986
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-RAISE14141160
Ref: 15aa14141160
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-RERAISE14141307
Ref: 435514141307
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-STOP_ITERATION14141453
Ref: 435414141453
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-NO_EVENTS14142005
Ref: 435714142005
Node: Local events14142333
Ref: library/sys monitoring local-events14142413
Ref: 435814142413
Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-local14142413
Ref: 435914142413
Node: Ancillary events14142899
Ref: library/sys monitoring ancillary-events14143000
Ref: 435a14143000
Node: Other events14143443
Ref: library/sys monitoring other-events14143556
Ref: 435b14143556
Node: The STOP_ITERATION event14143879
Ref: library/sys monitoring the-stop-iteration-event14143967
Ref: 435614143967
Ref: The STOP_ITERATION event-Footnote-114144610
Node: Turning events on and off14144691
Ref: library/sys monitoring turning-events-on-and-off14144852
Ref: 435c14144852
Node: Setting events globally14145213
Ref: library/sys monitoring setting-events-globally14145329
Ref: 435d14145329
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring get_events14145479
Ref: 435e14145479
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring set_events14145609
Ref: 435f14145609
Node: Per code object events14145859
Ref: library/sys monitoring per-code-object-events14146000
Ref: 436014146000
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring get_local_events14146329
Ref: 436114146329
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring set_local_events14146473
Ref: 436214146473
Node: Disabling events14146894
Ref: library/sys monitoring disabling-events14147003
Ref: 436314147003
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring DISABLE14147058
Ref: 436414147058
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring restart_events14147675
Ref: 436514147675
Node: Registering callback functions14147837
Ref: library/sys monitoring callbacks14147983
Ref: 434214147983
Ref: library/sys monitoring registering-callback-functions14147983
Ref: 436614147983
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring register_callback14148106
Ref: 436714148106
Node: Callback function arguments14148815
Ref: library/sys monitoring callback-function-arguments14148909
Ref: 436814148909
Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring MISSING14148986
Ref: 436914148986
Node: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information14150648
Ref: library/sysconfig doc14150876
Ref: 436a14150876
Ref: library/sysconfig module-sysconfig14150876
Ref: da14150876
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-provide-access-to-python-s-configuration-information14150876
Ref: 436b14150876
Ref: sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information-Footnote-114151604
Node: Configuration variables14151670
Ref: library/sysconfig configuration-variables14151823
Ref: 436c14151823
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_vars14152313
Ref: 101714152313
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_var14152684
Ref: 101614152684
Node: Installation paths14153127
Ref: library/sysconfig id114153300
Ref: 436d14153300
Ref: library/sysconfig installation-paths14153300
Ref: 67c14153300
Node: User scheme14155636
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-user-scheme14155797
Ref: 1d0414155797
Ref: library/sysconfig user-scheme14155797
Ref: 436e14155797
Node: posix_user14156322
Ref: library/sysconfig posix-user14156396
Ref: 436f14156396
Node: nt_user14157241
Ref: library/sysconfig nt-user14157342
Ref: 437014157342
Node: osx_framework_user14158175
Ref: library/sysconfig osx-framework-user14158257
Ref: 437114158257
Node: Home scheme14159098
Ref: library/sysconfig home-scheme14159254
Ref: 437214159254
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-home-scheme14159254
Ref: 437314159254
Node: posix_home14159759
Ref: library/sysconfig posix-home14159817
Ref: 437414159817
Node: Prefix scheme14160668
Ref: library/sysconfig prefix-scheme14160840
Ref: 437514160840
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-prefix-scheme14160840
Ref: 437614160840
Node: posix_prefix14162197
Ref: library/sysconfig posix-prefix14162270
Ref: 437714162270
Node: nt14163200
Ref: library/sysconfig nt14163273
Ref: 437814163273
Node: Installation path functions14164115
Ref: library/sysconfig installation-path-functions14164295
Ref: 437914164295
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_scheme_names14164457
Ref: 437a14164457
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_default_scheme14164595
Ref: 17e014164595
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_preferred_scheme14164968
Ref: 67d14164968
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig _get_preferred_schemes14165573
Ref: 437b14165573
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_path_names14166247
Ref: 437c14166247
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_path14166386
Ref: 130e14166386
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_paths14167615
Ref: 122414167615
Node: Autres fonctions<3>14168240
Ref: library/sysconfig other-functions14168434
Ref: 437d14168434
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_python_version14168489
Ref: 122314168489
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_platform14168660
Ref: 122214168660
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig is_python_build14169734
Ref: 2dc14169734
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig parse_config_h14170025
Ref: 437e14170025
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_h_filename14170419
Ref: 437f14170419
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_makefile_filename14170512
Ref: 438014170512
Node: Using sysconfig as a script14170603
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-cli14170761
Ref: 438114170761
Ref: library/sysconfig using-sysconfig-as-a-script14170761
Ref: 438214170761
Node: builtins --- Built-in objects14171838
Ref: library/builtins doc14172060
Ref: 438314172060
Ref: library/builtins builtins-built-in-objects14172060
Ref: 438414172060
Ref: library/builtins module-builtins14172060
Ref: 1214172060
Node: __main__ --- Top-level code environment14173691
Ref: library/__main__ doc14173875
Ref: 438514173875
Ref: library/__main__ main-top-level-code-environment14173875
Ref: 438614173875
Ref: library/__main__ module-__main__14173875
Ref: 114173875
Node: __name__ == '__main__'14174844
Ref: library/__main__ name-equals-main14174997
Ref: 438714174997
Ref: library/__main__ name-main14174997
Ref: 438814174997
Node: Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?14175827
Ref: library/__main__ what-is-the-top-level-code-environment14175978
Ref: 438914175978
Node: Utilisation idiomatique14178062
Ref: library/__main__ idiomatic-usage14178261
Ref: 438a14178261
Node: Considérations liées à l'empaquetage14180236
Ref: library/__main__ packaging-considerations14180366
Ref: 438b14180366
Ref: Considérations liées à l'empaquetage-Footnote-114182151
Ref: Considérations liées à l'empaquetage-Footnote-214182180
Node: Le fichier __main__ py dans les paquets Python14182218
Ref: library/__main__ main-py-in-python-packages14182395
Ref: 438c14182395
Node: Utilisation idiomatique<2>14183908
Ref: library/__main__ id114184017
Ref: 438d14184017
Node: import __main__14185487
Ref: library/__main__ import-main14185633
Ref: 438e14185633
Node: warnings --- Warning control14188832
Ref: library/warnings doc14189015
Ref: 438f14189015
Ref: library/warnings module-warnings14189015
Ref: 11114189015
Ref: library/warnings warnings-warning-control14189015
Ref: 439014189015
Ref: warnings --- Warning control-Footnote-114191622
Node: Catégories d'avertissement14191690
Ref: library/warnings id114191819
Ref: 439514191819
Ref: library/warnings warning-categories14191819
Ref: 439214191819
Node: Le filtre des avertissements14196539
Ref: library/warnings the-warnings-filter14196718
Ref: 439614196718
Ref: library/warnings warning-filter14196718
Ref: 8b814196718
Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria14200332
Ref: library/warnings id214200480
Ref: 439714200480
Ref: library/warnings repeated-warning-suppression-criteria14200480
Ref: 439814200480
Node: Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement14201115
Ref: library/warnings describing-warning-filters14201306
Ref: 1cf614201306
Ref: library/warnings id314201306
Ref: 439914201306
Node: Filtre d'avertissement par défaut14203273
Ref: library/warnings default-warning-filter14203460
Ref: 439a14203460
Ref: library/warnings id414203460
Ref: 439b14203460
Node: Outrepasser le filtre par défaut14204718
Ref: library/warnings overriding-the-default-filter14204859
Ref: 439c14204859
Ref: library/warnings warning-disable14204859
Ref: 439d14204859
Node: Suppression temporaire des avertissements14206480
Ref: library/warnings temporarily-suppressing-warnings14206657
Ref: 439e14206657
Ref: library/warnings warning-suppress14206657
Ref: 439f14206657
Node: Tester les avertissements14207874
Ref: library/warnings testing-warnings14208088
Ref: 43a014208088
Ref: library/warnings warning-testing14208088
Ref: 43a114208088
Node: Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances14210503
Ref: library/warnings updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies14210697
Ref: 43a214210697
Ref: library/warnings warning-ignored14210697
Ref: 405714210697
Node: Fonctions disponibles14212276
Ref: library/warnings available-functions14212482
Ref: 43a314212482
Ref: library/warnings warning-functions14212482
Ref: 43a414212482
Ref: library/warnings warnings warn14212547
Ref: 14d114212547
Ref: library/warnings warnings warn_explicit14215198
Ref: cf014215198
Ref: library/warnings warnings showwarning14216542
Ref: 439414216542
Ref: library/warnings warnings formatwarning14217243
Ref: 19d314217243
Ref: library/warnings warnings filterwarnings14217732
Ref: 145f14217732
Ref: library/warnings warnings simplefilter14218433
Ref: 6ae14218433
Ref: library/warnings warnings resetwarnings14218980
Ref: 439314218980
Ref: library/warnings warnings deprecated14219294
Ref: 15f14219294
Ref: Fonctions disponibles-Footnote-114221170
Node: Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles14221212
Ref: library/warnings available-context-managers14221344
Ref: 43a514221344
Ref: library/warnings warnings catch_warnings14221441
Ref: 57214221441
Node: dataclasses --- Data Classes14223279
Ref: library/dataclasses doc14223502
Ref: 43a614223502
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-data-classes14223502
Ref: 43a714223502
Ref: library/dataclasses module-dataclasses14223502
Ref: 2f14223502
Ref: dataclasses --- Data Classes-Footnote-114225261
Ref: dataclasses --- Data Classes-Footnote-214225332
Ref: dataclasses --- Data Classes-Footnote-314225374
Node: Classe de données<2>14225416
Ref: library/dataclasses module-contents14225530
Ref: 43a814225530
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses dataclass14225586
Ref: 1c614225586
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses field14235510
Ref: 19de14235510
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses Field14240355
Ref: 221314240355
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses InitVar14241163
Ref: 17df14241163
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses fields14241571
Ref: 16fe14241571
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses asdict14241970
Ref: 16e014241970
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses astuple14243052
Ref: 16e914243052
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses make_dataclass14243833
Ref: 170014243833
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses replace14245632
Ref: 16b314245632
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses is_dataclass14247130
Ref: 182f14247130
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses MISSING14247628
Ref: 43aa14247628
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses KW_ONLY14247755
Ref: 43a914247755
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses FrozenInstanceError14248703
Ref: 43ad14248703
Ref: Classe de données<2>-Footnote-114249014
Ref: Classe de données<2>-Footnote-214249069
Node: Post-initialisation14249124
Ref: library/dataclasses id114249266
Ref: 43ae14249266
Ref: library/dataclasses post-init-processing14249266
Ref: 43af14249266
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses __post_init__14249325
Ref: 43ac14249325
Node: Variables de classe14251079
Ref: library/dataclasses class-variables14251226
Ref: 43b014251226
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-class-variables14251226
Ref: 43b114251226
Ref: Variables de classe-Footnote-114251792
Node: Variables d'initialisation14251834
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-init-only-variables14251979
Ref: 43ab14251979
Ref: library/dataclasses init-only-variables14251979
Ref: 43b214251979
Node: Instances figées14253229
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-frozen14253367
Ref: 43b314253367
Ref: library/dataclasses frozen-instances14253367
Ref: 43b414253367
Node: Héritage<2>14253965
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-inheritance14254127
Ref: 43b514254127
Ref: library/dataclasses inheritance14254127
Ref: 43b614254127
Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__14255176
Ref: library/dataclasses re-ordering-of-keyword-only-parameters-in-init14255353
Ref: 43b714255353
Node: Fabriques de valeurs par défaut14256657
Ref: library/dataclasses default-factory-functions14256850
Ref: 43b814256850
Node: Valeurs par défaut mutables14257481
Ref: library/dataclasses mutable-default-values14257647
Ref: 43b914257647
Node: Descriptor-typed fields14259774
Ref: library/dataclasses descriptor-typed-fields14259899
Ref: 43ba14259899
Node: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with14261867
Ref: library/contextlib doc14262091
Ref: 43bb14262091
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib-utilities-for-with-statement-contexts14262091
Ref: 43bc14262091
Ref: library/contextlib module-contextlib14262091
Ref: 2314262091
Ref: contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with-Footnote-114262843
Node: Utilitaires14262913
Ref: library/contextlib utilities14263069
Ref: 43bd14263069
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractContextManager14263146
Ref: c7d14263146
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractAsyncContextManager14263691
Ref: b1b14263691
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib contextmanager14264251
Ref: 11e114264251
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib asynccontextmanager14267530
Ref: b1a14267530
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib closing14269608
Ref: 28fc14269608
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib aclosing14270867
Ref: 7d914270867
Ref: library/contextlib simplifying-support-for-single-optional-context-managers14271991
Ref: 43be14271991
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib nullcontext14271991
Ref: 7da14271991
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib suppress14273760
Ref: f1314273760
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stdout14275425
Ref: dd714275425
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stderr14277107
Ref: dd614277107
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib chdir14277401
Ref: 5f914277401
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ContextDecorator14278146
Ref: 11e014278146
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncContextDecorator14280865
Ref: 7db14280865
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack14281965
Ref: b1914281965
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack enter_context14284262
Ref: 5bf14284262
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack push14284902
Ref: 43c014284902
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack callback14285828
Ref: a7314285828
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack pop_all14286418
Ref: 43c114286418
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack close14287544
Ref: 43c214287544
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack14287881
Ref: b1c14287881
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack enter_async_context14288284
Ref: 5c214288284
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_exit14288627
Ref: 43c414288627
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_callback14288808
Ref: a7414288808
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack aclose14288976
Ref: 43c314288976
Node: Exemples et Recettes14289600
Ref: library/contextlib examples-and-recipes14289836
Ref: 43c514289836
Node: Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte14290333
Ref: library/contextlib supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers14290507
Ref: 43c614290507
Node: Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__14291687
Ref: library/contextlib catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods14291906
Ref: 43c714291906
Node: Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__14293252
Ref: library/contextlib cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation14293466
Ref: 43c814293466
Node: Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable14295376
Ref: library/contextlib replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables14295608
Ref: 43c914295608
Node: Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction14298309
Ref: library/contextlib using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator14298496
Ref: 43ca14298496
Ref: Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction-Footnote-114300509
Node: Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique réutilisables et réentrants14300551
Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms14300767
Ref: f1514300767
Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers14300767
Ref: 43cb14300767
Node: Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants14302545
Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-cms14302739
Ref: 43bf14302739
Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-context-managers14302739
Ref: 43cc14302739
Node: Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables14304391
Ref: library/contextlib reusable-cms14304585
Ref: 43cd14304585
Ref: library/contextlib reusable-context-managers14304585
Ref: 43ce14304585
Node: abc --- Abstract Base Classes14307498
Ref: library/abc doc14307718
Ref: 43cf14307718
Ref: library/abc abc-abstract-base-classes14307718
Ref: 43d014307718
Ref: library/abc module-abc14307718
Ref: 414307718
Ref: library/abc abc ABC14308973
Ref: f0414308973
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta14309799
Ref: f0514309799
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta register14310760
Ref: 107414310760
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta __subclasshook__14311507
Ref: 24e414311507
Ref: library/abc abc abstractmethod14314447
Ref: 107114314447
Ref: library/abc abc abstractclassmethod14317645
Ref: 107214317645
Ref: library/abc abc abstractstaticmethod14318466
Ref: 107314318466
Ref: library/abc abc abstractproperty14319280
Ref: 107014319280
Ref: library/abc abc get_cache_token14320826
Ref: f0314320826
Ref: library/abc abc update_abstractmethods14321228
Ref: 43d114321228
Ref: abc --- Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-114321985
Ref: abc --- Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-214322048
Ref: abc --- Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-314322090
Ref: abc --- Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-414322132
Node: atexit --- Exit handlers14322281
Ref: library/atexit doc14322471
Ref: 43d214322471
Ref: library/atexit atexit-exit-handlers14322471
Ref: 43d314322471
Ref: library/atexit module-atexit14322471
Ref: c14322471
Ref: library/atexit atexit register14323631
Ref: 86b14323631
Ref: library/atexit atexit unregister14325515
Ref: 43d414325515
Node: Exemple avec atexit14326340
Ref: library/atexit atexit-example14326420
Ref: 43d514326420
Ref: library/atexit id114326420
Ref: 43d614326420
Node: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback14327896
Ref: library/traceback doc14328100
Ref: 43d714328100
Ref: library/traceback module-traceback14328100
Ref: fd14328100
Ref: library/traceback traceback-print-or-retrieve-a-stack-traceback14328100
Ref: 43d814328100
Ref: traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback-Footnote-114330115
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Ref: library/traceback module-level-functions14330334
Ref: 43d914330334
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Ref: e7214330409
Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exception14331360
Ref: 83b14331360
Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exc14332893
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_last14333076
Ref: 43da14333076
Ref: library/traceback traceback print_stack14333382
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Ref: library/traceback traceback extract_tb14333950
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Ref: library/traceback traceback extract_stack14334591
Ref: 43e014334591
Ref: library/traceback traceback print_list14334904
Ref: 43e114334904
Ref: library/traceback traceback format_list14335207
Ref: 43e214335207
Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception_only14335716
Ref: 83a14335716
Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception14337113
Ref: 83914337113
Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exc14337863
Ref: 43e314337863
Ref: library/traceback traceback format_tb14338023
Ref: 42c114338023
Ref: library/traceback traceback format_stack14338139
Ref: 43e414338139
Ref: library/traceback traceback clear_frames14338264
Ref: fc114338264
Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_stack14338516
Ref: e6e14338516
Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_tb14338841
Ref: e6f14338841
Node: TracebackException Objects14339090
Ref: library/traceback tracebackexception-objects14339269
Ref: 43e614339269
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException14339759
Ref: 25914339759
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __cause__14341074
Ref: 43e814341074
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __context__14341181
Ref: 43e714341181
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exceptions14341302
Ref: 43ea14341302
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __suppress_context__14341587
Ref: 43e914341587
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __notes__14341722
Ref: 43eb14341722
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException stack14342038
Ref: 43ec14342038
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exc_type14342130
Ref: 25a14342130
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exc_type_str14342252
Ref: 25814342252
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException filename14342392
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException lineno14342492
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_lineno14342592
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException text14342786
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException offset14342877
Ref: 43f114342877
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_offset14342996
Ref: 43f214342996
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException msg14343199
Ref: 43f314343199
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException from_exception14343282
Ref: 43f414343282
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException print14343667
Ref: 69114343667
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format14343884
Ref: 43f514343884
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format_exception_only14344337
Ref: 25b14344337
Node: StackSummary Objects14345395
Ref: library/traceback stacksummary-objects14345565
Ref: 43f614345565
Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary14345739
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format14347081
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format_frame_summary14347721
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Node: FrameSummary Objects14348134
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary colno14350356
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_colno14350516
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Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions14350685
Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-the-module-level-functions14350889
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Ref: library/traceback traceback-example14350889
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Node: Examples of Using TracebackException14356334
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Node: __future__ --- Future statement definitions14359165
Ref: library/__future__ doc14359379
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Ref: library/__future__ future-future-statement-definitions14359379
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Ref: library/__future__ module-__future__14359379
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Ref: __future__ --- Future statement definitions-Footnote-114360983
Node: Contenu du module<5>14361051
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Ref: Contenu du module<5>-Footnote-114366328
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Node: gc --- Garbage Collector interface14367336
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Ref: gc --- Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-114381360
Ref: gc --- Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-214381449
Node: inspect --- Inspect live objects14381491
Ref: library/inspect doc14381686
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Ref: library/inspect inspect-inspect-live-objects14381686
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Ref: inspect --- Inspect live objects-Footnote-114383074
Node: Types et membres14383141
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers14402030
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Node: Récupération du code source14411968
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Node: Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature14415799
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Ref: Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature-Footnote-114432902
Node: Classes et fonctions<2>14432944
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Node: La pile d'interpréteur14444000
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Node: Recherche dynamique d'attributs14451892
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Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators14454690
Ref: library/inspect current-state-of-generators-coroutines-and-asynchronous-generators14454902
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Node: Bit d'option des objets code14458891
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Ref: Bit d'option des objets code-Footnote-114461527
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Node: Buffer flags14461653
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Node: Interface en ligne de commande<9>14462751
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Node: site --- Site-specific configuration hook14463409
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Ref: site --- Site-specific configuration hook-Footnote-114468522
Node: sitecustomize14468586
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Node: Readline configuration14470415
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Node: Module contents<3>14471239
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Node: Interface en ligne de commande<10>14474550
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Ref: Interface en ligne de commande<10>-Footnote-114476079
Node: Interpréteurs Python personnalisés14476121
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Ref: library/custominterp custom-python-interpreters14476290
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Node: code --- Interpreter base classes14476957
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Ref: code --- Interpreter base classes-Footnote-114480850
Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects14480914
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Node: Interactive Console Objects14483967
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Node: codeop --- Compile Python code14486413
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Ref: library/codeop codeop-compile-python-code14486558
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Ref: library/codeop codeop Compile14489076
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Ref: library/codeop codeop CommandCompiler14489473
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Ref: codeop --- Compile Python code-Footnote-114489891
Node: Importer des modules14489957
Ref: library/modules doc14490119
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Node: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives14491335
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Ref: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-114494404
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Ref: zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-514494625
Node: Objets zimporter14494667
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Node: Exemples<32>14498658
Ref: library/zipimport examples14498778
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Node: pkgutil --- Package extension utility14499466
Ref: library/pkgutil doc14499670
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Ref: library/pkgutil module-pkgutil14499670
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil-package-extension-utility14499670
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Ref: d3b14499990
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil extend_path14500177
Ref: 15a014500177
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil find_loader14502078
Ref: 2c914502078
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_importer14502893
Ref: 44a814502893
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_loader14503526
Ref: 2ca14503526
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_importers14504460
Ref: 117a14504460
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_modules14505310
Ref: d3a14505310
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil walk_packages14506291
Ref: bef14506291
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_data14508079
Ref: 44a914508079
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil resolve_name14509312
Ref: 44ab14509312
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-114511455
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-214511522
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-314511564
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-414511606
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-514511648
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-614511690
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-714511732
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-814511774
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-914511816
Ref: pkgutil --- Package extension utility-Footnote-1014511858
Node: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script14511924
Ref: library/modulefinder doc14512129
Ref: 44ac14512129
Ref: library/modulefinder module-modulefinder14512129
Ref: 9014512129
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script14512129
Ref: 44ad14512129
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder AddPackagePath14512668
Ref: 44ae14512668
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ReplacePackage14512823
Ref: 44af14512823
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder14512993
Ref: 19c114512993
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder report14513730
Ref: 44b114513730
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder run_script14513962
Ref: 44b014513962
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder modules14514101
Ref: 44b214514101
Ref: modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script-Footnote-114514394
Node: Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder14514466
Ref: library/modulefinder example-usage-of-modulefinder14514597
Ref: 44b414514597
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-example14514597
Ref: 44b314514597
Node: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules14516001
Ref: library/runpy doc14516211
Ref: 44b514516211
Ref: library/runpy module-runpy14516211
Ref: bd14516211
Ref: library/runpy runpy-locating-and-executing-python-modules14516211
Ref: 44b614516211
Ref: library/runpy runpy run_module14517247
Ref: 17c814517247
Ref: library/runpy runpy run_path14520696
Ref: 17f14520696
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-114525187
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-214525252
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-314525294
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-414525336
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-514525378
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-614525420
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-714525462
Ref: runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-814525504
Node: importlib --- The implementation of import14525546
Ref: library/importlib doc14525776
Ref: 44b714525776
Ref: library/importlib importlib-the-implementation-of-import14525776
Ref: 44b814525776
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib14525776
Ref: 7614525776
Ref: importlib --- The implementation of import-Footnote-114526471
Node: Introduction<11>14526550
Ref: library/importlib introduction14526667
Ref: 44b914526667
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-114528955
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-214529007
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-314529049
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-414529091
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-514529133
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-614529175
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-714529217
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-814529259
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-914529301
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1014529343
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1114529386
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1214529429
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1314529472
Node: Fonctions<12>14529515
Ref: library/importlib functions14529697
Ref: 44ba14529697
Ref: library/importlib importlib __import__14529736
Ref: 105814529736
Ref: library/importlib importlib import_module14530044
Ref: 50414530044
Ref: library/importlib importlib invalidate_caches14531386
Ref: c0014531386
Ref: library/importlib importlib reload14532030
Ref: 50514532030
Node: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import14535276
Ref: library/importlib importlib-abc-abstract-base-classes-related-to-import14535489
Ref: 44bb14535489
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib abc14535489
Ref: 7714535489
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder14536280
Ref: 85b14536280
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder find_spec14536506
Ref: 85514536506
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder invalidate_caches14537260
Ref: 44bc14537260
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder14537682
Ref: 85c14537682
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder find_spec14538134
Ref: 85914538134
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder invalidate_caches14538782
Ref: 44bd14538782
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader14539084
Ref: eb214539084
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader create_module14539518
Ref: c9e14539518
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader exec_module14539935
Ref: 85714539935
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader load_module14540427
Ref: 85614540427
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader14542491
Ref: bd714542491
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader get_data14542958
Ref: 44aa14542958
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader14543776
Ref: f4114543776
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_code14543961
Ref: f4214543961
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_source14544552
Ref: f4514544552
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader is_package14545197
Ref: 44bf14545197
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader source_to_code14545576
Ref: e0014545576
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader exec_module14546233
Ref: ffd14546233
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader load_module14546376
Ref: 44c014546376
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader14546604
Ref: 44c114546604
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader get_filename14546852
Ref: 44c214546852
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader14547447
Ref: 105e14547447
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader name14547951
Ref: 44c314547951
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader path14548033
Ref: 44c414548033
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader load_module14548101
Ref: 44c514548101
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_filename14548320
Ref: 44c614548320
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_data14548416
Ref: 44c714548416
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader14548539
Ref: 44c814548539
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_stats14549635
Ref: 116c14549635
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_mtime14550430
Ref: 116b14550430
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader set_data14550988
Ref: 44c914550988
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_code14551511
Ref: 44ca14551511
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader exec_module14551636
Ref: ffe14551636
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader load_module14551788
Ref: 44cb14551788
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_source14552029
Ref: 100c14552029
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader is_package14552158
Ref: 44cc14552158
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader14552563
Ref: aed14552563
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader open_resource14554414
Ref: 44cd14554414
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader resource_path14554709
Ref: 44ce14554709
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader is_resource14554991
Ref: 44cf14554991
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader contents14555223
Ref: 1a0214555223
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable14556160
Ref: 184114556160
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable name14556608
Ref: 44d014556608
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable iterdir14556725
Ref: 44d114556725
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_dir14556829
Ref: 44d214556829
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_file14556933
Ref: 44d314556933
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable joinpath14557033
Ref: 44d414557033
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable __truediv__14557136
Ref: 44d514557136
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable open14557248
Ref: 44d614557248
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_bytes14557606
Ref: 44d714557606
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_text14557689
Ref: 44d814557689
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources14557783
Ref: 183f14557783
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources files14558560
Ref: 44d914558560
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-114558750
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-214558823
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-314558865
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-414558907
Ref: importlib abc -- Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-514558949
Node: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks14558991
Ref: library/importlib importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks14559235
Ref: 44da14559235
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib machinery14559235
Ref: 7814559235
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SOURCE_SUFFIXES14559564
Ref: 50014559564
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14559741
Ref: 44db14559741
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14560018
Ref: 44dc14560018
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14560295
Ref: 50214560295
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery EXTENSION_SUFFIXES14560598
Ref: 50114560598
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery all_suffixes14560781
Ref: 441814560781
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BuiltinImporter14561224
Ref: c9f14561224
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FrozenImporter14561801
Ref: 100a14561801
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery WindowsRegistryFinder14562228
Ref: d1a14562228
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder14562727
Ref: 100e14562727
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder find_spec14563043
Ref: ffc14563043
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder invalidate_caches14564235
Ref: bff14564235
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder14564862
Ref: 105d14564862
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path14566173
Ref: 44dd14566173
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder find_spec14566245
Ref: eb114566245
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder invalidate_caches14566431
Ref: 44de14566431
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path_hook14566513
Ref: 44df14566513
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader14566963
Ref: 105f14566963
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader name14567265
Ref: 44e014567265
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path14567354
Ref: 44e114567354
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader is_package14567419
Ref: 44e214567419
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path_stats14567550
Ref: 44e314567550
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader set_data14567689
Ref: 44e414567689
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader load_module14567830
Ref: d1814567830
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader14568184
Ref: 106014568184
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader name14568666
Ref: 44e514568666
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader path14568749
Ref: 44e614568749
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader is_package14568816
Ref: 44e714568816
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_code14568944
Ref: 44e814568944
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_source14569082
Ref: 44e914569082
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader load_module14569223
Ref: d1914569223
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader14569552
Ref: ca014569552
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader name14570235
Ref: 44ea14570235
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader path14570311
Ref: 44eb14570311
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader create_module14570377
Ref: 44ec14570377
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader exec_module14570565
Ref: 44ed14570565
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader is_package14570734
Ref: 44ee14570734
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_code14570917
Ref: 44ef14570917
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_source14571028
Ref: 44f014571028
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_filename14571146
Ref: f4614571146
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespaceLoader14571267
Ref: f4314571267
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec14571937
Ref: 1e2014571937
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec name14572738
Ref: 1ed414572738
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader14572945
Ref: 2e214572945
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec origin14573147
Ref: 44f114573147
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec submodule_search_locations14573648
Ref: 1ed814573648
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader_state14574295
Ref: 44f214574295
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec cached14574538
Ref: 2d514574538
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec parent14574833
Ref: 2d714574833
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec has_location14575123
Ref: 44f314575123
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader14575405
Ref: 1e1f14575405
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader name14578714
Ref: 44f414578714
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader path14578790
Ref: 44f514578790
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-114578918
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-214578998
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-314579040
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-414579082
Ref: importlib machinery -- Importers and path hooks-Footnote-514579124
Node: importlib util -- Utility code for importers14579166
Ref: library/importlib importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers14579366
Ref: 44f614579366
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib util14579366
Ref: 7c14579366
Ref: library/importlib importlib util MAGIC_NUMBER14579690
Ref: 4ff14579690
Ref: library/importlib importlib util cache_from_source14579941
Ref: 2f314579941
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_from_cache14581871
Ref: 50614581871
Ref: library/importlib importlib util decode_source14582517
Ref: f4414582517
Ref: library/importlib importlib util resolve_name14582796
Ref: 8f914582796
Ref: library/importlib importlib util find_spec14583711
Ref: 2cb14583711
Ref: library/importlib importlib util module_from_spec14584619
Ref: e0114584619
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_loader14585261
Ref: 85a14585261
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_file_location14585723
Ref: ca114585723
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_hash14586225
Ref: 44f714586225
Ref: library/importlib importlib util _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions14586504
Ref: 44f814586504
Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader14587632
Ref: c9d14587632
Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader factory14589128
Ref: 44f914589128
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-114589693
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-214589767
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-314589809
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-414589851
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-514589893
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-614589935
Ref: importlib util -- Utility code for importers-Footnote-714589977
Node: Exemples<33>14590019
Ref: library/importlib examples14590163
Ref: 44fa14590163
Ref: library/importlib importlib-examples14590163
Ref: 44fb14590163
Node: Importing programmatically14590458
Ref: library/importlib importing-programmatically14590578
Ref: 44fc14590578
Node: Checking if a module can be imported14590809
Ref: library/importlib checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported14590970
Ref: 44fd14590970
Node: Importing a source file directly14591883
Ref: library/importlib importing-a-source-file-directly14592043
Ref: 44fe14592043
Node: Implementing lazy imports14593211
Ref: library/importlib implementing-lazy-imports14593357
Ref: 44ff14593357
Node: Setting up an importer14594076
Ref: library/importlib setting-up-an-importer14594227
Ref: 450014594227
Node: Approximating importlib import_module14595804
Ref: library/importlib approximating-importlib-import-module14595921
Ref: 450114595921
Node: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access14597421
Ref: library/importlib resources doc14597666
Ref: 450214597666
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-package-resource-reading-opening-and-access14597666
Ref: 450314597666
Ref: library/importlib resources module-importlib resources14597666
Ref: 7a14597666
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Anchor14599619
Ref: 450414599619
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources files14599818
Ref: 47a14599818
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources as_file14600868
Ref: 47914600868
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-114601722
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-214601811
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-314601882
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-414601976
Ref: importlib resources -- Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-514602048
Node: API par fonction14602125
Ref: library/importlib resources functional-api14602244
Ref: 450514602244
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-functional14602244
Ref: 450614602244
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_binary14603488
Ref: 1ea14603488
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_text14603979
Ref: 1eb14603979
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_binary14604930
Ref: 1ed14604930
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_text14605348
Ref: 1ee14605348
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources path14606223
Ref: 1ec14606223
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources is_resource14607217
Ref: 1e914607217
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources contents14607692
Ref: 1ef14607692
Node: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources14608398
Ref: library/importlib resources abc doc14608649
Ref: 450714608649
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib-resources-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-resources14608649
Ref: 450814608649
Ref: library/importlib resources abc module-importlib resources abc14608649
Ref: 7b14608649
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader14608945
Ref: 44be14608945
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader open_resource14610741
Ref: 450914610741
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader resource_path14611036
Ref: 450a14611036
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader is_resource14611318
Ref: 450b14611318
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader contents14611550
Ref: 450c14611550
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable14612487
Ref: 1f014612487
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable name14612774
Ref: 450d14612774
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable iterdir14612891
Ref: 450e14612891
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_dir14612983
Ref: 450f14612983
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_file14613081
Ref: 451014613081
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable joinpath14613175
Ref: 451114613175
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable __truediv__14614297
Ref: 451214614297
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable open14614445
Ref: 451314614445
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_bytes14614803
Ref: 451414614803
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_text14614880
Ref: 451514614880
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources14614968
Ref: 2c314614968
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources files14615491
Ref: 451614615491
Ref: importlib resources abc -- Abstract base classes for resources-Footnote-114615681
Node: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata14615765
Ref: library/importlib metadata doc14616003
Ref: 451714616003
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib-metadata-accessing-package-metadata14616003
Ref: 451814616003
Ref: library/importlib metadata module-importlib metadata14616003
Ref: 7914616003
Ref: library/importlib metadata using14616003
Ref: 451914616003
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-114618311
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-214618399
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-314618483
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-414618561
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-514618646
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-614618731
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-714618769
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-814618861
Ref: importlib metadata -- Accessing package metadata-Footnote-914618930
Node: Aperçu<3>14619006
Ref: library/importlib metadata overview14619129
Ref: 451a14619129
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageNotFoundError14620629
Ref: 451f14620629
Ref: Aperçu<3>-Footnote-114620922
Node: API par fonction<2>14621006
Ref: library/importlib metadata functional-api14621151
Ref: 452014621151
Node: Entry points14621451
Ref: library/importlib metadata entry-points14621549
Ref: 28114621549
Ref: library/importlib metadata id214621549
Ref: 452114621549
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata entry_points14621594
Ref: 452214621594
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoints14622166
Ref: 452314622166
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoint14622447
Ref: 452414622447
Ref: Entry points-Footnote-114625228
Ref: Entry points-Footnote-214625300
Node: Distribution metadata14625368
Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-metadata14625496
Ref: 452514625496
Ref: library/importlib metadata metadata14625496
Ref: 451b14625496
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata metadata14625559
Ref: 452614625559
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageMetadata14625896
Ref: 452714625896
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-114627172
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-214627277
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-314627361
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-414627403
Node: Distribution versions14627495
Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-versions14627629
Ref: 452814627629
Ref: library/importlib metadata version14627629
Ref: 451c14627629
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata version14627692
Ref: 156e14627692
Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-114628183
Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-214628269
Node: Distribution files14628353
Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-files14628491
Ref: 452914628491
Ref: library/importlib metadata files14628491
Ref: 451d14628491
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata files14628548
Ref: 452a14628548
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackagePath14629016
Ref: 452b14629016
Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-114630601
Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-214630685
Node: Distribution requirements14630782
Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-requirements14630938
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Ref: library/importlib metadata requirements14630938
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata requires14631009
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Ref: library/importlib metadata package-distributions14631505
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Node: Mapping import to distribution packages14631626
Ref: library/importlib metadata import-distribution-package-mapping14631755
Ref: 452e14631755
Ref: library/importlib metadata mapping-import-to-distribution-packages14631755
Ref: 452f14631755
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata packages_distributions14631854
Ref: 453014631854
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-114632896
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-214632980
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-314633058
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Ref: library/importlib metadata distributions14633277
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Ref: library/importlib metadata id914633277
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution14633627
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Ref: Distributions-Footnote-114635256
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Node: Distribution Discovery14635474
Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-discovery14635642
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Ref: Distribution Discovery-Footnote-114636308
Node: Extending the search algorithm14636392
Ref: library/importlib metadata extending-the-search-algorithm14636538
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Ref: Extending the search algorithm-Footnote-114638401
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Ref: library/importlib metadata example14638563
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Ref: library/sys_path_init doc14642020
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Ref: library/sys_path_init sys-path-init14642020
Ref: 1c1e14642020
Ref: library/sys_path_init the-initialization-of-the-sys-path-module-search-path14642020
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Ref: library/sys_path_init embedded-python14647821
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Ref: library/language doc14648455
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Ref: library/language language14648455
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Ref: library/language python-language-services14648455
Ref: 453f14648455
Node: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees14649708
Ref: library/ast doc14649860
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Ref: library/ast ast-abstract-syntax-trees14649860
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Ref: library/ast module-ast14649860
Ref: 814649860
Ref: ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees-Footnote-114651010
Node: Grammaire abstraite14651073
Ref: library/ast abstract-grammar14651184
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Ref: library/ast id114651184
Ref: 454414651184
Node: Classes de nœuds14658611
Ref: library/ast node-classes14658751
Ref: 454514658751
Ref: library/ast ast AST14658805
Ref: 1a414658805
Ref: library/ast ast AST _fields14659709
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Ref: library/ast ast AST _field_types14660613
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Ref: library/ast ast AST lineno14661011
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Ref: library/ast ast AST col_offset14661037
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Ref: library/ast ast AST end_lineno14661067
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Ref: library/ast ast AST end_col_offset14661097
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Ref: Classes de nœuds-Footnote-114664917
Node: Root nodes14664975
Ref: library/ast ast-root-nodes14665061
Ref: 454b14665061
Ref: library/ast root-nodes14665061
Ref: 454c14665061
Ref: library/ast ast Module14665102
Ref: 454d14665102
Ref: library/ast ast Expression14665779
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Ref: library/ast ast Interactive14666158
Ref: 455114666158
Ref: library/ast ast FunctionType14666884
Ref: 455214666884
Ref: Root nodes-Footnote-114667936
Node: Littéraux<3>14667978
Ref: library/ast literals14668082
Ref: 455314668082
Ref: library/ast ast Constant14668122
Ref: 2b614668122
Ref: library/ast ast FormattedValue14668608
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Ref: library/ast ast JoinedStr14669683
Ref: 16a514669683
Ref: library/ast ast List14670691
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Ref: library/ast ast Tuple14670724
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Ref: library/ast ast Set14671665
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Ref: library/ast ast Dict14672023
Ref: 191a14672023
Node: Variables14672995
Ref: library/ast variables14673103
Ref: 455914673103
Ref: library/ast ast Name14673142
Ref: 18fc14673142
Ref: library/ast ast Load14673284
Ref: 1a214673284
Ref: library/ast ast Store14673305
Ref: 455714673305
Ref: library/ast ast Del14673327
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Ref: library/ast ast Starred14674182
Ref: 455b14674182
Node: Expressions<2>14675103
Ref: library/ast ast-expressions14675213
Ref: 455014675213
Ref: library/ast expressions14675213
Ref: 455d14675213
Ref: library/ast ast Expr14675256
Ref: 455e14675256
Ref: library/ast ast UnaryOp14675982
Ref: 454a14675982
Ref: library/ast ast UAdd14676166
Ref: 456214676166
Ref: library/ast ast USub14676187
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Ref: library/ast ast Not14676208
Ref: 456414676208
Ref: library/ast ast Invert14676228
Ref: 456514676228
Ref: library/ast ast BinOp14676624
Ref: 198b14676624
Ref: library/ast ast Add14677084
Ref: 456614677084
Ref: library/ast ast Sub14677104
Ref: 456714677104
Ref: library/ast ast Mult14677124
Ref: 456814677124
Ref: library/ast ast Div14677145
Ref: 456914677145
Ref: library/ast ast FloorDiv14677165
Ref: 456a14677165
Ref: library/ast ast Mod14677190
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Ref: library/ast ast Pow14677210
Ref: 456c14677210
Ref: library/ast ast LShift14677230
Ref: 456d14677230
Ref: library/ast ast RShift14677253
Ref: 456e14677253
Ref: library/ast ast BitOr14677276
Ref: 456f14677276
Ref: library/ast ast BitXor14677298
Ref: 457014677298
Ref: library/ast ast BitAnd14677321
Ref: 457114677321
Ref: library/ast ast MatMult14677344
Ref: 457214677344
Ref: library/ast ast BoolOp14677424
Ref: 457314677424
Ref: library/ast ast And14678238
Ref: 457414678238
Ref: library/ast ast Or14678258
Ref: 457514678258
Ref: library/ast ast Compare14678336
Ref: 457614678336
Ref: library/ast ast Eq14678970
Ref: 457714678970
Ref: library/ast ast NotEq14678989
Ref: 457814678989
Ref: library/ast ast Lt14679011
Ref: 457914679011
Ref: library/ast ast LtE14679030
Ref: 457a14679030
Ref: library/ast ast Gt14679050
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Ref: library/ast ast GtE14679069
Ref: 457c14679069
Ref: library/ast ast Is14679089
Ref: 457d14679089
Ref: library/ast ast IsNot14679108
Ref: 457e14679108
Ref: library/ast ast In14679130
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Ref: library/ast ast NotIn14679149
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Ref: library/ast ast Call14679219
Ref: 455c14679219
Ref: library/ast ast keyword14680424
Ref: 458214680424
Ref: library/ast ast IfExp14680621
Ref: 458314680621
Ref: library/ast ast Attribute14681115
Ref: 458114681115
Ref: library/ast ast NamedExpr14681746
Ref: 458414681746
Node: Indiçage14682380
Ref: library/ast subscripting14682464
Ref: 458614682464
Ref: library/ast ast Subscript14682502
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Ref: library/ast ast Slice14683512
Ref: 458814683512
Node: Compréhensions14684164
Ref: library/ast comprehensions14684248
Ref: 458914684248
Ref: library/ast ast ListComp14684298
Ref: 458a14684298
Ref: library/ast ast SetComp14684341
Ref: 458b14684341
Ref: library/ast ast GeneratorExp14684383
Ref: 458c14684383
Ref: library/ast ast DictComp14684430
Ref: 458d14684430
Ref: library/ast ast comprehension14686451
Ref: 458e14686451
Node: Instructions<2>14689662
Ref: library/ast ast-statements14689788
Ref: 454e14689788
Ref: library/ast statements14689788
Ref: 458f14689788
Ref: library/ast ast Assign14689833
Ref: 458514689833
Ref: library/ast ast Assign type_comment14690258
Ref: 459014690258
Ref: library/ast ast AnnAssign14691273
Ref: 459114691273
Ref: library/ast ast AugAssign14693531
Ref: 459214693531
Ref: library/ast ast Raise14694303
Ref: 459314694303
Ref: library/ast ast Assert14694920
Ref: 459414694920
Ref: library/ast ast Delete14695362
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Ref: library/ast ast Pass14695933
Ref: 459614695933
Ref: library/ast ast TypeAlias14696111
Ref: 169c14696111
Node: Importations14696938
Ref: library/ast imports14697002
Ref: 459814697002
Ref: library/ast ast Import14697049
Ref: 459914697049
Ref: library/ast ast ImportFrom14697478
Ref: 459a14697478
Ref: library/ast ast alias14698393
Ref: 187b14698393
Node: Contrôle de l'exécution14699079
Ref: library/ast control-flow14699207
Ref: 459b14699207
Ref: library/ast ast If14699407
Ref: 459c14699407
Ref: library/ast ast For14700799
Ref: 459d14700799
Ref: library/ast ast For type_comment14701338
Ref: 459e14701338
Ref: library/ast ast While14702137
Ref: 459f14702137
Ref: library/ast ast Break14703081
Ref: 45a014703081
Ref: library/ast ast Continue14703103
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Ref: library/ast ast Try14704108
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Ref: library/ast ast TryStar14705904
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Ref: library/ast ast ExceptHandler14706918
Ref: 45a314706918
Ref: library/ast ast With14708182
Ref: 45a514708182
Ref: library/ast ast With type_comment14708426
Ref: 45a714708426
Ref: library/ast ast withitem14708635
Ref: 45a614708635
Node: Pattern matching14710010
Ref: library/ast pattern-matching14710138
Ref: 45a814710138
Ref: library/ast ast Match14710193
Ref: 45a914710193
Ref: library/ast ast match_case14710510
Ref: 45aa14710510
Ref: library/ast ast MatchValue14712481
Ref: 45ab14712481
Ref: library/ast ast MatchSingleton14713459
Ref: 45ac14713459
Ref: library/ast ast MatchSequence14714323
Ref: 45ad14714323
Ref: library/ast ast MatchStar14715522
Ref: 45ae14715522
Ref: library/ast ast MatchMapping14717139
Ref: 45af14717139
Ref: library/ast ast MatchClass14719113
Ref: 45b014719113
Ref: library/ast ast MatchAs14722056
Ref: 45b114722056
Ref: library/ast ast MatchOr14723678
Ref: 45b214723678
Node: Type parameters14724929
Ref: library/ast ast-type-params14725070
Ref: 459714725070
Ref: library/ast type-parameters14725070
Ref: 45b314725070
Ref: library/ast ast TypeVar14725203
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Ref: library/ast ast ParamSpec14726408
Ref: 45b514726408
Ref: library/ast ast TypeVarTuple14727796
Ref: 45b614727796
Node: Définition de fonctions et de classes14729016
Ref: library/ast function-and-class-definitions14729155
Ref: 45b714729155
Ref: library/ast ast FunctionDef14729253
Ref: 16c214729253
Ref: library/ast ast FunctionDef type_comment14730002
Ref: 45b914730002
Ref: library/ast ast Lambda14730273
Ref: 455f14730273
Ref: library/ast ast arguments14731072
Ref: 45b814731072
Ref: library/ast ast arg14732440
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Ref: library/ast ast arg type_comment14732657
Ref: 45bb14732657
Ref: library/ast ast Return14734259
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Ref: library/ast ast Yield14734522
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Ref: library/ast ast YieldFrom14734552
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Ref: library/ast ast Global14735220
Ref: 45bd14735220
Ref: library/ast ast Nonlocal14735251
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Ref: library/ast ast ClassDef14735961
Ref: 16c014735961
Ref: Définition de fonctions et de classes-Footnote-114737672
Node: async et await14737714
Ref: library/ast async-and-await14737829
Ref: 45bf14737829
Ref: library/ast ast AsyncFunctionDef14737896
Ref: 16c114737896
Ref: library/ast ast Await14738188
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Ref: library/ast ast AsyncFor14738814
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Ref: library/ast ast AsyncWith14738882
Ref: 45c214738882
Node: Outils du module ast14739684
Ref: library/ast ast-helpers14739827
Ref: 45c314739827
Ref: library/ast ast parse14740057
Ref: 1a614740057
Ref: library/ast ast unparse14743289
Ref: 8d414743289
Ref: library/ast ast literal_eval14744009
Ref: c0814744009
Ref: library/ast ast get_docstring14745845
Ref: 1a1814745845
Ref: library/ast ast get_source_segment14746325
Ref: 9c714746325
Ref: library/ast ast fix_missing_locations14746814
Ref: 45c514746814
Ref: library/ast ast increment_lineno14747289
Ref: 175214747289
Ref: library/ast ast copy_location14747578
Ref: 45c614747578
Ref: library/ast ast iter_fields14747837
Ref: 45c714747837
Ref: library/ast ast iter_child_nodes14748017
Ref: 45c814748017
Ref: library/ast ast walk14748242
Ref: 45c914748242
Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor14748536
Ref: a5d14748536
Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit14748944
Ref: 45ca14748944
Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor generic_visit14749229
Ref: 45cb14749229
Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit_Constant14749618
Ref: a5e14749618
Ref: library/ast ast NodeTransformer14750261
Ref: 45cc14750261
Ref: library/ast ast dump14752172
Ref: 8d314752172
Ref: Outils du module ast-Footnote-114754808
Ref: Outils du module ast-Footnote-214754850
Ref: Outils du module ast-Footnote-314754892
Node: Options du compilateur14754934
Ref: library/ast ast-compiler-flags14755095
Ref: 212014755095
Ref: library/ast compiler-flags14755095
Ref: 45cd14755095
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT14755312
Ref: 45ce14755312
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ONLY_AST14755538
Ref: 454214755538
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST14755659
Ref: 45cf14755659
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS14755863
Ref: 45c414755863
Ref: Options du compilateur-Footnote-114756143
Ref: Options du compilateur-Footnote-214756185
Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>14756227
Ref: library/ast ast-cli14756359
Ref: 45d014756359
Ref: library/ast command-line-usage14756359
Ref: 45d114756359
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-h14756683
Ref: 45d214756683
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-help14756683
Ref: 45d314756683
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-m14756750
Ref: 45d414756750
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-mode14756772
Ref: 45d514756772
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-no-type-comments14756907
Ref: 45d614756907
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-a14757000
Ref: 45d714757000
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-include-attributes14757000
Ref: 45d814757000
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-i14757154
Ref: 45d914757154
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-indent14757178
Ref: 45da14757178
Ref: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>-Footnote-114758491
Ref: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>-Footnote-214758539
Ref: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>-Footnote-314758606
Ref: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>-Footnote-414758680
Ref: Utilisation en ligne de commande<4>-Footnote-514758719
Node: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables14758756
Ref: library/symtable doc14758965
Ref: 45db14758965
Ref: library/symtable module-symtable14758965
Ref: d714758965
Ref: library/symtable symtable-access-to-the-compiler-s-symbol-tables14758965
Ref: 45dc14758965
Ref: symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables-Footnote-114759620
Node: Generating Symbol Tables14759688
Ref: library/symtable generating-symbol-tables14759832
Ref: 45dd14759832
Ref: library/symtable symtable symtable14759901
Ref: 19ab14759901
Node: Examining Symbol Tables14760181
Ref: library/symtable examining-symbol-tables14760369
Ref: 45df14760369
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType14760436
Ref: 15c814760436
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType MODULE14760558
Ref: 45e014760558
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType FUNCTION14760646
Ref: 45e114760646
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType CLASS14760740
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType ANNOTATION14760918
Ref: 45e314760918
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_ALIAS14761061
Ref: 45e414761061
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_PARAMETERS14761179
Ref: 45e514761179
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_VARIABLE14761346
Ref: 45e614761346
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable14761721
Ref: 45de14761721
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_type14761824
Ref: 15c914761824
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_id14762504
Ref: 45e714762504
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_name14762576
Ref: 45e814762576
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_lineno14763222
Ref: 45e914763222
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_optimized14763349
Ref: 45ea14763349
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_nested14763460
Ref: 45eb14763460
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable has_children14763566
Ref: 45ec14763566
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_identifiers14763742
Ref: 45ee14763742
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable lookup14763921
Ref: 45ef14763921
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_symbols14764046
Ref: 45f014764046
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_children14764173
Ref: 45ed14764173
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function14764263
Ref: 45f114764263
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_parameters14764394
Ref: 45f214764394
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_locals14764517
Ref: 45f314764517
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_globals14764622
Ref: 45f414764622
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_nonlocals14764729
Ref: 45f514764729
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_frees14764870
Ref: 45f614764870
Ref: library/symtable symtable Class14765015
Ref: 45f714765015
Ref: library/symtable symtable Class get_methods14765129
Ref: 2e414765129
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol14766363
Ref: 168914766363
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_name14766520
Ref: 45f814766520
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_referenced14766589
Ref: 45f914766589
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_imported14766691
Ref: 45fa14766691
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_parameter14766816
Ref: 45fb14766816
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_global14766911
Ref: 45fc14766911
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_nonlocal14766998
Ref: 19e914766998
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_declared_global14767089
Ref: 130514767089
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_local14767228
Ref: 45fd14767228
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_annotated14767326
Ref: 45fe14767326
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_free14767459
Ref: 45ff14767459
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_assigned14767592
Ref: 460014767592
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_namespace14767699
Ref: 460114767699
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_namespaces14768345
Ref: 460214768345
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_namespace14768442
Ref: 460314768442
Node: Utilisation en ligne de commande<5>14768644
Ref: library/symtable command-line-usage14768799
Ref: 460414768799
Ref: library/symtable symtable-cli14768799
Ref: 460514768799
Node: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees14769190
Ref: library/token doc14769409
Ref: 460614769409
Ref: library/token module-token14769409
Ref: f914769409
Ref: library/token token-constants-used-with-python-parse-trees14769409
Ref: 460714769409
Ref: library/token token tok_name14770409
Ref: 460c14770409
Ref: library/token token ISTERMINAL14770649
Ref: 460d14770649
Ref: library/token token ISNONTERMINAL14770736
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Ref: library/token token ISEOF14770830
Ref: 460f14770830
Ref: library/token token NAME14770981
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Ref: library/token token NUMBER14771143
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Ref: library/token token STRING14771235
Ref: 461114771235
Ref: library/token token OP14771584
Ref: 460914771584
Ref: library/token token COMMENT14771907
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Ref: library/token token NEWLINE14772029
Ref: 461414772029
Ref: library/token token NL14772130
Ref: 461514772130
Ref: library/token token INDENT14772365
Ref: 1ccb14772365
Ref: library/token token DEDENT14772525
Ref: 461614772525
Ref: library/token token FSTRING_START14772683
Ref: 461714772683
Ref: library/token token FSTRING_MIDDLE14772976
Ref: 461814772976
Ref: library/token token FSTRING_END14773428
Ref: 461d14773428
Ref: library/token token ENDMARKER14773638
Ref: 461e14773638
Ref: library/token token ENCODING14773720
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Ref: library/token token TYPE_IGNORE14774251
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Ref: library/token token TYPE_COMMENT14774503
Ref: 462114774503
Ref: library/token token SOFT_KEYWORD14774737
Ref: 460b14774737
Ref: library/token token ERRORTOKEN14774994
Ref: 462314774994
Ref: library/token token-operators-delimiters14775328
Ref: 461214775328
Ref: library/token token LPAR14775871
Ref: 462414775871
Ref: library/token token RPAR14776049
Ref: 462514776049
Ref: library/token token LSQB14776227
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Ref: library/token token RSQB14776405
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Ref: library/token token COLON14776584
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Ref: library/token token COMMA14776762
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Ref: library/token token SEMI14776939
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Ref: library/token token PLUS14777117
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Ref: library/token token MINUS14777296
Ref: 462a14777296
Ref: library/token token STAR14777473
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Ref: library/token token SLASH14777652
Ref: 462c14777652
Ref: library/token token VBAR14777829
Ref: 462d14777829
Ref: library/token token AMPER14778008
Ref: 462e14778008
Ref: library/token token LESS14778185
Ref: 462f14778185
Ref: library/token token GREATER14778366
Ref: 463014778366
Ref: library/token token EQUAL14778542
Ref: 463114778542
Ref: library/token token DOT14778718
Ref: 463214778718
Ref: library/token token PERCENT14778900
Ref: 463314778900
Ref: library/token token LBRACE14779077
Ref: 461914779077
Ref: library/token token RBRACE14779255
Ref: 461a14779255
Ref: library/token token EQEQUAL14779434
Ref: 463414779434
Ref: library/token token NOTEQUAL14779614
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Ref: library/token token LESSEQUAL14779794
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Ref: library/token token GREATEREQUAL14779976
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Ref: library/token token TILDE14780148
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Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEX14780331
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Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFT14780508
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Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFT14780688
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAR14780867
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Ref: library/token token PLUSEQUAL14781045
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Ref: library/token token MINEQUAL14781223
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Ref: library/token token STAREQUAL14781403
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Ref: library/token token SLASHEQUAL14781583
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Ref: library/token token PERCENTEQUAL14781764
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Ref: library/token token AMPEREQUAL14781941
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Ref: library/token token VBAREQUAL14782119
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Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL14782304
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Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFTEQUAL14782482
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Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL14782663
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAREQUAL14782843
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASH14783019
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASHEQUAL14783203
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Ref: library/token token AT14783369
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Ref: library/token token ATEQUAL14783552
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Ref: library/token token RARROW14783730
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Ref: library/token token ELLIPSIS14783911
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Ref: library/token token COLONEQUAL14784093
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Ref: library/token token EXCLAMATION14784273
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Ref: library/token token EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES14784500
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Ref: token --- Constants used with Python parse trees-Footnote-114785461
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Ref: library/keyword keyword-testing-for-python-keywords14785734
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Ref: library/keyword module-keyword14785734
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Ref: library/keyword keyword iskeyword14786054
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Ref: library/keyword keyword kwlist14786157
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Ref: library/keyword keyword issoftkeyword14786463
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Ref: library/keyword keyword softkwlist14786607
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Ref: keyword --- Testing for Python keywords-Footnote-114786963
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Ref: library/tokenize module-tokenize14787237
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Ref: tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source-Footnote-114788585
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize tokenize14788909
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize generate_tokens14790407
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize untokenize14791220
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize detect_encoding14792153
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize open14793295
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize TokenError14793484
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Ref: Analyse Lexicale-Footnote-214793878
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize-cli14794078
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Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-help14794414
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Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-e14794479
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Ref: library/tokenize examples14794850
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Ref: library/tabnanny module-tabnanny14799607
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny-detection-of-ambiguous-indentation14799607
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny check14800186
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny verbose14800697
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny filename_only14800881
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny process_tokens14801312
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Ref: tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation-Footnote-114801633
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Ref: library/py_compile module-py_compile14807367
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode14812647
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode TIMESTAMP14813088
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode CHECKED_HASH14813378
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode UNCHECKED_HASH14813683
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Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-arg-file14815004
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Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-quiet14815187
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Node: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries14815505
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Ref: library/compileall compileall-byte-compile-python-libraries14815712
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Ref: library/compileall module-compileall14815712
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Ref: compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries-Footnote-114816715
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Ref: library/compileall compileall-cli14816929
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Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory14817140
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Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_dir14822670
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Ref: dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode-Footnote-114835793
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Ref: Analyse de fonctions-Footnote-114849090
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Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX14882860
Ref: d4314882860
Ref: library/dis opcode-PUSH_NULL14883545
Ref: 6f414883545
Ref: library/dis opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION14883756
Ref: d4214883756
Ref: library/dis opcode-SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE14884256
Ref: 46f914884256
Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_SLICE14884974
Ref: 46fa14884974
Ref: library/dis opcode-EXTENDED_ARG14885443
Ref: 176114885443
Ref: library/dis opcode-CONVERT_VALUE14885780
Ref: 46fb14885780
Ref: library/dis opcode-FORMAT_SIMPLE14886263
Ref: 46fc14886263
Ref: library/dis opcode-FORMAT_WITH_SPEC14886536
Ref: 46fd14886536
Ref: library/dis opcode-MATCH_CLASS14886860
Ref: 6fe14886860
Ref: library/dis opcode-RESUME14887595
Ref: 30a14887595
Ref: library/dis opcode-RETURN_GENERATOR14888346
Ref: 6e814888346
Ref: library/dis opcode-SEND14888647
Ref: 6e914888647
Ref: library/dis opcode-HAVE_ARGUMENT14889019
Ref: 47514889019
Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_INTRINSIC_114889893
Ref: 4ce14889893
Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_INTRINSIC_214893228
Ref: 4cf14893228
Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_FINALLY14895278
Ref: 46fe14895278
Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_CLEANUP14895542
Ref: 46ff14895542
Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_WITH14895947
Ref: 470014895947
Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_BLOCK14896377
Ref: 470114896377
Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP14896530
Ref: 470214896530
Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT14896548
Ref: 17d514896548
Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_CLOSURE14896715
Ref: 16a614896715
Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_METHOD14897017
Ref: c0f14897017
Node: Opcode collections14897151
Ref: library/dis id114897304
Ref: 470314897304
Ref: library/dis opcode-collections14897304
Ref: 46b114897304
Ref: library/dis dis opname14897664
Ref: 46b514897664
Ref: library/dis dis opmap14897755
Ref: 470414897755
Ref: library/dis dis cmp_op14897835
Ref: 470514897835
Ref: library/dis dis hasarg14897908
Ref: 29b14897908
Ref: library/dis dis hasconst14898023
Ref: 470614898023
Ref: library/dis dis hasfree14898103
Ref: 470714898103
Ref: library/dis dis hasname14898451
Ref: 470814898451
Ref: library/dis dis hasjump14898540
Ref: 470914898540
Ref: library/dis dis haslocal14898686
Ref: 470a14898686
Ref: library/dis dis hascompare14898772
Ref: 470b14898772
Ref: library/dis dis hasexc14898853
Ref: 47614898853
Ref: library/dis dis hasjrel14898974
Ref: 470c14898974
Ref: library/dis dis hasjabs14899162
Ref: 470d14899162
Node: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers14899346
Ref: library/pickletools doc14899501
Ref: 470e14899501
Ref: library/pickletools module-pickletools14899501
Ref: a614899501
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools-tools-for-pickle-developers14899501
Ref: 470f14899501
Ref: pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers-Footnote-114900324
Node: Utilisation de la ligne de commande<2>14900395
Ref: library/pickletools command-line-usage14900547
Ref: 471014900547
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools-cli14900547
Ref: 471114900547
Node: Options de la ligne de commande<6>14901565
Ref: library/pickletools command-line-options14901674
Ref: 471214901674
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-a14901759
Ref: 471314901759
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-annotate14901759
Ref: 471414901759
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-o14901845
Ref: 471514901845
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-output14901845
Ref: 471614901845
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-l14901935
Ref: 471714901935
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-indentlevel14901935
Ref: 471814901935
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-m14902036
Ref: 471914902036
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-memo14902036
Ref: 471a14902036
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-p14902148
Ref: 471b14902148
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-preamble14902148
Ref: 471c14902148
Node: Programmatic Interface<2>14902290
Ref: library/pickletools programmatic-interface14902442
Ref: 471d14902442
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools dis14902509
Ref: cb314902509
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools genops14903353
Ref: 471e14903353
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools optimize14903787
Ref: 284d14903787
Node: Services spécifiques à MS Windows14904067
Ref: library/windows doc14904237
Ref: 471f14904237
Ref: library/windows ms-windows-specific-services14904237
Ref: 472014904237
Ref: library/windows mswin-specific-services14904237
Ref: 1df114904237
Node: msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime14904680
Ref: library/msvcrt doc14904846
Ref: 472114904846
Ref: library/msvcrt module-msvcrt14904846
Ref: 9214904846
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-useful-routines-from-the-ms-vc-runtime14904846
Ref: 472214904846
Node: Opérations sur les fichiers14905928
Ref: library/msvcrt file-operations14906085
Ref: 472314906085
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-files14906085
Ref: 472414906085
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt locking14906161
Ref: 418c14906161
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_LOCK14906825
Ref: 472514906825
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_RLCK14906854
Ref: 472614906854
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBLCK14907099
Ref: 472714907099
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBRLCK14907129
Ref: 472814907129
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_UNLCK14907289
Ref: 472914907289
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt setmode14907422
Ref: 472a14907422
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt open_osfhandle14907661
Ref: 418d14907661
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt get_osfhandle14908313
Ref: 418b14908313
Node: Entrées-sorties sur un terminal14908573
Ref: library/msvcrt console-i-o14908758
Ref: 472b14908758
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-console14908758
Ref: 472c14908758
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt kbhit14908842
Ref: 472d14908842
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getch14908966
Ref: 472e14908966
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwch14909453
Ref: 13ae14909453
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getche14909588
Ref: 472f14909588
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwche14909735
Ref: 13af14909735
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putch14909872
Ref: 473014909872
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putwch14909976
Ref: 13b014909976
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetch14910131
Ref: 473114910131
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetwch14910342
Ref: 473214910342
Node: Autres fonctions<4>14910501
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-other14910649
Ref: 473314910649
Ref: library/msvcrt other-functions14910649
Ref: 473414910649
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt heapmin14910702
Ref: 473514910702
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt set_error_mode14910895
Ref: 473614910895
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_DEFAULT14911267
Ref: 473814911267
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_STDERR14911412
Ref: 473914911412
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_MSGBOX14911544
Ref: 473a14911544
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt REPORT_ERRMODE14911673
Ref: 473714911673
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CrtSetReportMode14911811
Ref: 473b14911811
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CrtSetReportFile14912199
Ref: 473c14912199
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_WARN14912596
Ref: 473e14912596
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ERROR14912713
Ref: 473f14912713
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSERT14912833
Ref: 474014912833
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG14912892
Ref: 474114912892
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_FILE14912990
Ref: 473d14912990
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW14913211
Ref: 474214913211
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE14913373
Ref: 474314913373
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION14913469
Ref: 133814913469
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN14913583
Ref: 133914913583
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX14913716
Ref: 133a14913716
Node: winreg --- Windows registry access14913855
Ref: library/winreg doc14914078
Ref: 474414914078
Ref: library/winreg module-winreg14914078
Ref: 11514914078
Ref: library/winreg winreg-windows-registry-access14914078
Ref: 474514914078
Ref: library/winreg exception-changed14914492
Ref: 474714914492
Node: Fonctions<13>14914741
Ref: library/winreg functions14914848
Ref: 474814914848
Ref: library/winreg id114914848
Ref: 474914914848
Ref: library/winreg winreg CloseKey14914932
Ref: 474a14914932
Ref: library/winreg winreg ConnectRegistry14915253
Ref: 419014915253
Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKey14915951
Ref: 419114915951
Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKeyEx14916919
Ref: 133b14916919
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKey14918272
Ref: 419214918272
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKeyEx14919027
Ref: 133c14919027
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteValue14920319
Ref: 419314920319
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumKey14920687
Ref: 419414920687
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumValue14921360
Ref: 419514921360
Ref: library/winreg winreg ExpandEnvironmentStrings14922638
Ref: 13b114922638
Ref: library/winreg winreg FlushKey14922989
Ref: 475114922989
Ref: library/winreg winreg LoadKey14923805
Ref: 419614923805
Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKey14924996
Ref: 419714924996
Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKeyEx14925069
Ref: 475414925069
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryInfoKey14926164
Ref: 419914926164
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValue14927064
Ref: 419a14927064
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValueEx14927937
Ref: 419b14927937
Ref: library/winreg winreg SaveKey14928819
Ref: 419c14928819
Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValue14929859
Ref: 419d14929859
Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValueEx14931038
Ref: 174a14931038
Ref: library/winreg winreg DisableReflectionKey14932284
Ref: 133d14932284
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnableReflectionKey14932916
Ref: 133e14932916
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryReflectionKey14933425
Ref: 133f14933425
Ref: Fonctions<13>-Footnote-114933929
Ref: Fonctions<13>-Footnote-214934006
Node: Constantes<10>14934083
Ref: library/winreg constants14934222
Ref: 475914934222
Ref: library/winreg id214934222
Ref: 475a14934222
Node: HKEY_* Constants14934411
Ref: library/winreg hkey-constants14934500
Ref: 474c14934500
Ref: library/winreg id314934500
Ref: 475b14934500
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT14934553
Ref: 475c14934553
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_USER14934808
Ref: 475d14934808
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE14935115
Ref: 475314935115
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_USERS14935343
Ref: 475214935343
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA14935556
Ref: 475e14935556
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG14935827
Ref: 475f14935827
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_DYN_DATA14935966
Ref: 476014935966
Node: Access Rights14936062
Ref: library/winreg access-rights14936171
Ref: 474e14936171
Ref: library/winreg id414936171
Ref: 476114936171
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ALL_ACCESS14936282
Ref: 476214936282
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WRITE14936575
Ref: 474d14936575
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_READ14936732
Ref: 475514936732
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_EXECUTE14936915
Ref: 476814936915
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_QUERY_VALUE14936991
Ref: 476314936991
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_SET_VALUE14937083
Ref: 475714937083
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY14937178
Ref: 476414937178
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS14937272
Ref: 476514937272
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_NOTIFY14937376
Ref: 476614937376
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_LINK14937514
Ref: 476714937514
Ref: Access Rights-Footnote-114937649
Node: 64-bit Specific14937726
Ref: library/winreg bit-access-rights14937791
Ref: 476914937791
Ref: library/winreg bit-specific14937791
Ref: 476a14937791
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_64KEY14937910
Ref: 474f14937910
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_32KEY14938102
Ref: 476b14938102
Ref: 64-bit Specific-Footnote-114938330
Node: Value Types14938402
Ref: library/winreg id514938486
Ref: 476c14938486
Ref: library/winreg value-types14938486
Ref: 475814938486
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_BINARY14938581
Ref: 476d14938581
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD14938645
Ref: 476e14938645
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN14938698
Ref: 476f14938698
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN14938834
Ref: 477014938834
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_EXPAND_SZ14938921
Ref: 475014938921
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_LINK14939054
Ref: 477114939054
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_MULTI_SZ14939116
Ref: 199c14939116
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_NONE14939286
Ref: 477214939286
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD14939346
Ref: cf214939346
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN14939436
Ref: 477314939436
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_LIST14939606
Ref: 477414939606
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR14939683
Ref: 477514939683
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST14939760
Ref: 477614939760
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_SZ14939845
Ref: 475614939845
Ref: Value Types-Footnote-114939942
Node: Registry Handle Objects14940019
Ref: library/winreg handle-object14940136
Ref: 474614940136
Ref: library/winreg registry-handle-objects14940136
Ref: 477714940136
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Close14941295
Ref: 474b14941295
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Detach14941429
Ref: 419814941429
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __enter__14942030
Ref: 477814942030
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __exit__14942064
Ref: 477914942064
Node: winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows14942461
Ref: library/winsound doc14942624
Ref: 477a14942624
Ref: library/winsound module-winsound14942624
Ref: 11614942624
Ref: library/winsound winsound-sound-playing-interface-for-windows14942624
Ref: 477b14942624
Ref: library/winsound winsound Beep14942974
Ref: cf414942974
Ref: library/winsound winsound PlaySound14943360
Ref: cf614943360
Ref: library/winsound winsound MessageBeep14943932
Ref: cf514943932
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_FILENAME14944537
Ref: 477c14944537
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ALIAS14944674
Ref: 477d14944674
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_LOOP14946298
Ref: 477f14946298
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_MEMORY14946489
Ref: 478114946489
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_PURGE14946855
Ref: 478214946855
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ASYNC14947019
Ref: 478014947019
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NODEFAULT14947119
Ref: 477e14947119
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOSTOP14947246
Ref: 478314947246
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOWAIT14947330
Ref: 478414947330
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_APPLICATION14947492
Ref: 478514947492
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONASTERISK14947731
Ref: 478614947731
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONEXCLAMATION14947813
Ref: 478714947813
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONHAND14947902
Ref: 478814947902
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONQUESTION14947977
Ref: 478914947977
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_OK14948060
Ref: 478a14948060
Node: Services spécifiques à Unix14948132
Ref: library/unix doc14948310
Ref: 478b14948310
Ref: library/unix unix14948310
Ref: 478c14948310
Ref: library/unix unix-specific-services14948310
Ref: 478d14948310
Node: posix --- The most common POSIX system calls14949253
Ref: library/posix doc14949401
Ref: 478e14949401
Ref: library/posix module-posix14949401
Ref: ac14949401
Ref: library/posix posix-the-most-common-posix-system-calls14949401
Ref: 478f14949401
Node: Prise en charge de gros fichiers14950781
Ref: library/posix large-file-support14950920
Ref: 479014950920
Ref: library/posix posix-large-files14950920
Ref: 479114950920
Node: Contenu du Module14951947
Ref: library/posix notable-module-contents14952086
Ref: 479214952086
Ref: library/posix posix-contents14952086
Ref: 479314952086
Ref: library/posix posix environ14952284
Ref: 479414952284
Node: pwd --- The password database14953624
Ref: library/pwd doc14953807
Ref: 479514953807
Ref: library/pwd module-pwd14953807
Ref: b114953807
Ref: library/pwd pwd-the-password-database14953807
Ref: 479614953807
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwuid14956045
Ref: 19ee14956045
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwnam14956151
Ref: 31b014956151
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwall14956252
Ref: 479714956252
Node: grp --- The group database14956500
Ref: library/grp doc14956674
Ref: 479814956674
Ref: library/grp grp-the-group-database14956674
Ref: 479914956674
Ref: library/grp module-grp14956674
Ref: 6514956674
Ref: library/grp grp getgrgid14958288
Ref: d1614958288
Ref: library/grp grp getgrnam14958596
Ref: 31af14958596
Ref: library/grp grp getgrall14958772
Ref: 155114958772
Node: termios --- POSIX style tty control14958979
Ref: library/termios doc14959158
Ref: 479a14959158
Ref: library/termios module-termios14959158
Ref: e014959158
Ref: library/termios termios-posix-style-tty-control14959158
Ref: 479b14959158
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetattr14960317
Ref: 163114960317
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetattr14961037
Ref: 16b214961037
Ref: library/termios termios TCSANOW14961316
Ref: 479c14961316
Ref: library/termios termios TCSADRAIN14961394
Ref: 479d14961394
Ref: library/termios termios TCSAFLUSH14961499
Ref: 479e14961499
Ref: library/termios termios tcsendbreak14961646
Ref: 479f14961646
Ref: library/termios termios tcdrain14961934
Ref: 47a014961934
Ref: library/termios termios tcflush14962075
Ref: 47a114962075
Ref: library/termios termios tcflow14962367
Ref: 47a214962367
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetwinsize14962700
Ref: 47a314962700
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetwinsize14962951
Ref: 47a414962951
Ref: termios --- POSIX style tty control-Footnote-114963594
Node: Exemple<16>14963641
Ref: library/termios example14963724
Ref: 47a514963724
Ref: library/termios termios-example14963724
Ref: 47a614963724
Node: tty --- Terminal control functions14964551
Ref: library/tty doc14964737
Ref: 47a714964737
Ref: library/tty module-tty14964737
Ref: ff14964737
Ref: library/tty tty-terminal-control-functions14964737
Ref: 47a814964737
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakeraw14965210
Ref: 168714965210
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakecbreak14965441
Ref: 163414965441
Ref: library/tty tty setraw14966023
Ref: 168614966023
Ref: library/tty tty setcbreak14966513
Ref: 163314966513
Ref: tty --- Terminal control functions-Footnote-114967542
Node: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities14967605
Ref: library/pty doc14967798
Ref: 47a914967798
Ref: library/pty module-pty14967798
Ref: b014967798
Ref: library/pty pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities14967798
Ref: 47aa14967798
Ref: library/pty pty fork14968481
Ref: 171414968481
Ref: library/pty pty openpty14969089
Ref: 2cc14969089
Ref: library/pty pty spawn14969440
Ref: f6f14969440
Ref: pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities-Footnote-114971865
Node: Exemple<17>14971928
Ref: library/pty example14972009
Ref: 47ab14972009
Ref: Exemple<17>-Footnote-114973258
Node: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls14973304
Ref: library/fcntl doc14973502
Ref: 47ac14973502
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls14973502
Ref: 47ad14973502
Ref: library/fcntl module-fcntl14973502
Ref: 5814973502
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl fcntl14977002
Ref: 33ee14977002
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl ioctl14978895
Ref: 143014978895
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl flock14981483
Ref: 418a14981483
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl lockf14982007
Ref: 13a514982007
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_UN14982350
Ref: 47ae14982350
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_SH14982421
Ref: 47af14982421
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_EX14982489
Ref: 47b014982489
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_NB14982561
Ref: 47b114982561
Ref: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-114984863
Ref: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-214984908
Ref: fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-314984953
Node: resource --- Resource usage information14984998
Ref: library/resource doc14985202
Ref: 47b214985202
Ref: library/resource module-resource14985202
Ref: bb14985202
Ref: library/resource resource-resource-usage-information14985202
Ref: 47b314985202
Ref: library/resource resource error14985729
Ref: 47b414985729
Ref: resource --- Resource usage information-Footnote-114986009
Node: Resource Limits14986051
Ref: library/resource resource-limits14986165
Ref: 47b514986165
Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_INFINITY14987045
Ref: 47b614987045
Ref: library/resource resource getrlimit14987153
Ref: 47b714987153
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Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-114994168
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Node: syslog --- Unix syslog library routines15000270
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Ref: library/syslog examples15007672
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Node: Modules command-line interface CLI15008420
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Ref: library/getopt module-getopt15011548
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Ref: library/getopt getopt gnu_getopt15015429
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Ref: getopt --- C-style parser for command line options-Footnote-115019886
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Ref: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-115022885
Ref: aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-215022927
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Ref: asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler-Footnote-115023755
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Ref: asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler-Footnote-115024589
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Ref: audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data-Footnote-115025339
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Ref: cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-115026253
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Ref: cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-115027213
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Ref: chunk --- Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-115027990
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Node: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords15028088
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Ref: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-115029020
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Ref: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-315029108
Ref: crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-415029149
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Node: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules15029293
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Ref: distutils --- Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-115030023
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Node: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image15030184
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Ref: library/imghdr imghdr-determine-the-type-of-an-image15030382
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Ref: library/imghdr module-imghdr15030382
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Ref: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image-Footnote-115031024
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Ref: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image-Footnote-315031109
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Ref: imghdr --- Determine the type of an image-Footnote-515031200
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Ref: library/imp imp-access-the-import-internals15031436
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Ref: library/imp module-imp15031436
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Ref: imp --- Access the import internals-Footnote-115031958
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Ref: library/mailcap mailcap-mailcap-file-handling15032201
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Ref: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling-Footnote-115032657
Ref: mailcap --- Mailcap file handling-Footnote-215032699
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Ref: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files-Footnote-115033447
Ref: msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files-Footnote-215033489
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Ref: nntplib --- NNTP protocol client-Footnote-215035015
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Ref: pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-115036587
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Ref: library/smtpd module-smtpd15036853
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Ref: smtpd --- SMTP Server-Footnote-115037414
Ref: smtpd --- SMTP Server-Footnote-215037456
Ref: smtpd --- SMTP Server-Footnote-315037499
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Ref: library/sndhdr module-sndhdr15037722
Ref: ca15037722
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file15037722
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Ref: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file-Footnote-115038358
Ref: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file-Footnote-215038400
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Ref: sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file-Footnote-515038534
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Ref: cd15038774
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Ref: spwd --- The shadow password database-Footnote-115039371
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Ref: spwd --- The shadow password database-Footnote-315039458
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Ref: library/sunau module-sunau15039684
Ref: d615039684
Ref: library/sunau sunau-read-and-write-sun-au-files15039684
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Ref: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-115040146
Ref: sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-215040188
Node: telnetlib --- Telnet client15040244
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Ref: library/telnetlib module-telnetlib15040417
Ref: de15040417
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib-telnet-client15040417
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Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet client-Footnote-115041017
Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet client-Footnote-215041059
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Ref: telnetlib --- Telnet client-Footnote-415041147
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Ref: library/security_warnings security-warnings15042502
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Ref: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-115042538
Ref: xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-215042580
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Ref: Considérations de sécurité<3>-Footnote-115044542
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Node: Les outils tiers recommandés15046237
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Ref: 483515046403
Ref: Les outils tiers recommandés-Footnote-115047172
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Ref: Les outils tiers recommandés-Footnote-515047299
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Node: Étendre Python en C ou C++15048274
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Ref: extending/extending the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function15065098
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Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example15128840
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Ref: ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique-Footnote-115145564
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Ref: Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données-Footnote-115155829
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Ref: extending/newtypes new-types-topics15173294
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Ref: extending/newtypes dnt-type-methods15173401
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Ref: extending/building c PyInit_modulename15204527
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Ref: extending/windows win-cookbook15208306
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Ref: Une approche "recette de cuisine"-Footnote-115208963
Node: Différences entre Unix et Windows15209041
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Node: Manuel de référence de l'API Python/C15232771
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Node: Introduction<12>15233914
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Node: Coding standards15235602
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Node: Include Files15236172
Ref: c-api/intro api-includes15236285
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Node: Useful macros15238847
Ref: c-api/intro useful-macros15238978
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Ref: c-api/intro c PyMODINIT_FUNC15239266
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Ref: Useful macros-Footnote-115245179
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Node: Objects Types and Reference Counts15245328
Ref: c-api/intro api-objects15245460
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Node: Compteurs de références<2>15246862
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Node: Reference Count Details15250913
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Node: Exceptions<21>15259196
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Node: Embarquer Python<2>15265461
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Ref: c-api/exceptions unicodeexceptions15382906
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create15383051
Ref: 49e315383051
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding15383537
Ref: 49e415383537
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding15383634
Ref: 49ec15383634
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject15383893
Ref: 49e615383893
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject15383988
Ref: 49ee15383988
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject15384083
Ref: 49f515384083
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart15384341
Ref: 49e815384341
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart15384436
Ref: 49f015384436
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart15384531
Ref: 49f715384531
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart15384850
Ref: 49eb15384850
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart15384944
Ref: 49f315384944
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart15385038
Ref: 49fa15385038
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd15385307
Ref: 49e515385307
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd15385398
Ref: 49ed15385398
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd15385489
Ref: 49f415385489
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd15385798
Ref: 49e915385798
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd15385888
Ref: 49f115385888
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd15385978
Ref: 49f815385978
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason15386239
Ref: 49e715386239
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason15386334
Ref: 49ef15386334
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason15386429
Ref: 49f615386429
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason15386687
Ref: 49ea15386687
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason15386784
Ref: 49f215386784
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason15386881
Ref: 49f915386881
Node: Contrôle de la récursion15387155
Ref: c-api/exceptions recursion15387305
Ref: 4a8215387305
Ref: c-api/exceptions recursion-control15387305
Ref: 4a8315387305
Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_EnterRecursiveCall15387753
Ref: 96215387753
Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_LeaveRecursiveCall15388682
Ref: 96315388682
Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_ReprEnter15389403
Ref: 4a2e15389403
Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_ReprLeave15390209
Ref: 4a2f15390209
Node: Exceptions standards15390443
Ref: c-api/exceptions standard-exceptions15390596
Ref: 4a8415390596
Ref: c-api/exceptions standardexceptions15390596
Ref: 4a8515390596
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-115404001
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-215404071
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-315404141
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-415404211
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-515404281
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-615404351
Ref: Exceptions standards-Footnote-715404393
Node: Standard Warning Categories15404522
Ref: c-api/exceptions standard-warning-categories15404640
Ref: 4a8615404640
Ref: c-api/exceptions standardwarningcategories15404640
Ref: 4a7915404640
Ref: Standard Warning Categories-Footnote-115407751
Node: Utilitaires<2>15407825
Ref: c-api/utilities doc15407989
Ref: 4a8715407989
Ref: c-api/utilities id115407989
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Ref: c-api/utilities utilities15407989
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Node: Operating System Utilities15408647
Ref: c-api/sys doc15408749
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Ref: c-api/sys operating-system-utilities15408749
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Ref: c-api/sys os15408749
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_FSPath15408816
Ref: d0815408816
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FdIsInteractive15409475
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_BeforeFork15410020
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Parent15410650
Ref: bb015410650
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Child15411383
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork15412401
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_CheckStack15412889
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_sighandler_t15413402
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_getsig15413497
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_setsig15413783
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_DecodeLocale15414135
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_EncodeLocale15416487
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Node: System Functions15418283
Ref: c-api/sys system-functions15418409
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Ref: c-api/sys systemfunctions15418409
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetObject15418704
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_SetObject15419005
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_ResetWarnOptions15419307
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStdout15419672
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStderr15420572
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStdout15420785
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStderr15421106
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetXOptions15421356
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_Audit15421740
Ref: 36515421740
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AuditTuple15423091
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddAuditHook15423440
Ref: 418115423440
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AuditHookFunction15425059
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Ref: System Functions-Footnote-115425571
Node: Process Control15425613
Ref: c-api/sys process-control15425736
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Ref: c-api/sys processcontrol15425736
Ref: 4a9415425736
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FatalError15425781
Ref: 97215425781
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_Exit15426562
Ref: d3e15426562
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AtExit15426970
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Node: Importer des modules<2>15427779
Ref: c-api/import doc15427910
Ref: 4a9515427910
Ref: c-api/import importing15427910
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Ref: c-api/import importing-modules15427910
Ref: 4a9715427910
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModule15427965
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock15428291
Ref: 3b415428291
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleEx15428978
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject15429741
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevel15430601
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_Import15431097
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ReloadModule15431682
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleRef15432022
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleObject15433041
Ref: 494c15433041
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModule15433433
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModule15433711
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx15435735
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject15436186
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames15436867
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicNumber15437663
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicTag15438062
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModuleDict15438417
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModule15438720
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetImporter15439179
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject15439918
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModule15440572
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Ref: c-api/import c _frozen15440822
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_FrozenModules15441463
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AppendInittab15441878
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Ref: c-api/import c _inittab15442460
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Ref: c-api/import c _inittab name15442793
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Ref: c-api/import c _inittab initfunc15442886
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExtendInittab15443032
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Ref: Importer des modules<2>-Footnote-115443843
Node: Data marshalling support15443885
Ref: c-api/marshal doc15444050
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Ref: c-api/marshal data-marshalling-support15444050
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Ref: c-api/marshal marshalling-utils15444050
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile15444797
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile15445234
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString15445562
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile15445914
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile15446253
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile15446595
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile15446969
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString15447774
Ref: 78415447774
Node: Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs15448208
Ref: c-api/arg doc15448385
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Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing15448385
Ref: 89715448385
Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments-and-building-values15448385
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Node: Analyse des arguments<2>15449144
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Ref: 4aa415449287
Node: Chaînes et tampons15450153
Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing-string-and-buffers15450256
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Ref: c-api/arg strings-and-buffers15450256
Ref: 4aa515450256
Ref: c-api/arg c-arg-borrowed-buffer15451680
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Node: Les nombres<2>15461419
Ref: c-api/arg numbers15461544
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Node: Autres objets15464337
Ref: c-api/arg other-objects15464460
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Ref: c-api/arg o-ampersand15465288
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Ref: c-api/arg c Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED15466078
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Node: Fonction de l'API15469830
Ref: c-api/arg api-functions15469930
Ref: 4aac15469930
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTuple15469983
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParse15470320
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords15470592
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords15471706
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments15472052
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_Parse15472401
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_UnpackTuple15473085
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Ref: c-api/arg c PY_CXX_CONST15475067
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Node: Construction des valeurs15475493
Ref: c-api/arg building-values15475636
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Ref: c-api/arg c Py_BuildValue15475703
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Ref: c-api/arg capi-py-buildvalue-format-k15480536
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Ref: c-api/arg c Py_VaBuildValue15483417
Ref: 4a3115483417
Node: Conversion et formatage de chaînes15483734
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Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion15483897
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Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion-and-formatting15483897
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Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_snprintf15484066
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Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_vsnprintf15484368
Ref: 14c315484368
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtoul15486094
Ref: 499d15486094
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtol15487131
Ref: 499c15487131
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_string_to_double15487655
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Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_double_to_string15489417
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Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_stricmp15491048
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Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strnicmp15491256
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Ref: Conversion et formatage de chaînes-Footnote-115491529
Ref: Conversion et formatage de chaînes-Footnote-215491577
Ref: Conversion et formatage de chaînes-Footnote-315491626
Ref: Conversion et formatage de chaînes-Footnote-415491673
Node: PyHash API15491719
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Ref: c-api/hash pyhash-api15491843
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Ref: c-api/hash c Py_hash_t15491980
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Ref: c-api/hash c Py_uhash_t15492082
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_MODULUS15492187
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_BITS15492329
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_MULTIPLIER15492460
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_INF15492592
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_IMAG15492708
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef15492840
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef name15492945
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef hash_bits15493036
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef seed_bits15493128
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_GetFuncDef15493242
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Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HashPointer15493483
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyObject_GenericHash15493799
Ref: 35d15493799
Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-115494236
Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-215494289
Node: Réflexion15494331
Ref: c-api/reflection doc15494456
Ref: 4abb15494456
Ref: c-api/reflection id115494456
Ref: 4abc15494456
Ref: c-api/reflection reflection15494456
Ref: 4abd15494456
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetBuiltins15494490
Ref: 34715494490
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetLocals15494949
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetGlobals15496512
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrame15496902
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins15497218
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameLocals15497644
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameGlobals15498294
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncName15498719
Ref: 493c15498719
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncDesc15498961
Ref: 493b15498961
Ref: Réflexion-Footnote-115499474
Node: Codec registry and support functions15499516
Ref: c-api/codec doc15499643
Ref: 4abe15499643
Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry15499643
Ref: d2515499643
Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry-and-support-functions15499643
Ref: 4abf15499643
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Register15499732
Ref: 491115499732
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Unregister15500052
Ref: 88515500052
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_KnownEncoding15500425
Ref: 490f15500425
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encode15500677
Ref: 3f615500677
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decode15501226
Ref: 3f515501226
Node: Codec lookup API15501859
Ref: c-api/codec codec-lookup-api15502005
Ref: 4ac015502005
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encoder15502325
Ref: 490b15502325
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decoder15502556
Ref: 490a15502556
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder15502786
Ref: 490e15502786
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder15503075
Ref: 490d15503075
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamReader15503364
Ref: 491415503364
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamWriter15503668
Ref: 491515503668
Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers15503972
Ref: c-api/codec registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers15504118
Ref: 4ac115504118
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_RegisterError15504235
Ref: 491215504235
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_LookupError15505364
Ref: 491015505364
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StrictErrors15505742
Ref: 491615505742
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IgnoreErrors15505942
Ref: 490c15505942
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_ReplaceErrors15506174
Ref: 491315506174
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors15506417
Ref: 491715506417
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors15506676
Ref: 490915506676
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors15506961
Ref: e9a15506961
Node: PyTime C API15507269
Ref: c-api/time doc15507407
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Ref: c-api/time pytime-c-api15507407
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MIN15508405
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MAX15508498
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_AsSecondsDouble15511216
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Node: Support for Perf Maps15511437
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init15512201
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry15513029
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini15513814
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Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-115514366
Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-215514423
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Ref: c-api/abstract abstract-objects-layer15514712
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_PRINT_RAW15519523
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Print15519816
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrWithError15520198
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError15520589
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttr15520979
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrString15521626
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttr15522371
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttrString15522898
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetOptionalAttr15523410
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetAttr15524548
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttr15525266
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetAttr15526799
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelAttr15527589
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Translate15773316
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED15884854
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Ref: Multi-phase initialization-Footnote-115885555
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Ref: c-api/module c PyState_RemoveModule15898229
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Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_GET_BASE15911498
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Ref: Context Variables Objects-Footnote-115940037
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Ref: Low-level API-Footnote-116021638
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_EndInterpreter16030926
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_free16296317
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_is_gc16297050
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_bases16298229
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_mro16298986
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_vectorcall16302483
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_watched16303037
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Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-116303202
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-216303244
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-316303286
Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-416303329
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Ref: c-api/typeobj id416303488
Ref: 4de516303488
Ref: c-api/typeobj static-types16303488
Ref: 76b16303488
Node: Heap Types16304393
Ref: c-api/typeobj heap-types16304516
Ref: 95416304516
Ref: c-api/typeobj id516304516
Ref: 4de616304516
Node: Number Object Structures16305019
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Ref: c-api/typeobj number-structs16305155
Ref: 4dd616305155
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods16305226
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_add16307674
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_rshift16308699
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_and16308786
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_float16309141
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_add16309226
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_subtract16309318
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_remainder16309512
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_power16309610
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_lshift16309705
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_rshift16309800
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_and16309895
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_xor16309987
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_or16310079
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_floor_divide16310170
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_true_divide16310263
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_floor_divide16310355
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_true_divide16310456
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_index16310556
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_matrix_multiply16310641
Ref: 4dc516310641
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_matrix_multiply16310737
Ref: 4dc616310737
Node: Mapping Object Structures16310841
Ref: c-api/typeobj mapping-object-structures16310993
Ref: 4de816310993
Ref: c-api/typeobj mapping-structs16310993
Ref: 4dd816310993
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods16311066
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_length16311238
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_subscript16311528
Ref: 18ea16311528
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_ass_subscript16311921
Ref: 4dc816311921
Node: Sequence Object Structures16312413
Ref: c-api/typeobj sequence-object-structures16312565
Ref: 4de916312565
Ref: c-api/typeobj sequence-structs16312565
Ref: 4dd716312565
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods16312640
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_length16312791
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_concat16313131
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_repeat16313432
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_item16313747
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_ass_item16314504
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_contains16314993
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_inplace_repeat16315879
Ref: 4dce16315879
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Ref: 4dea16316591
Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-structs16316591
Ref: 4b0916316591
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs16316662
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_getbuffer16316896
Ref: 74e16316896
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_releasebuffer16318782
Ref: 74f16318782
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Ref: 4deb16320064
Ref: c-api/typeobj async-structs16320064
Ref: 4dd516320064
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods16320163
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_await16320580
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_aiter16320958
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_anext16321342
Ref: 4da216321342
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_send16321640
Ref: 4da316321640
Node: Slot Type typedefs16321963
Ref: c-api/typeobj id616322093
Ref: 4dd016322093
Ref: c-api/typeobj slot-type-typedefs16322093
Ref: 4dec16322093
Ref: c-api/typeobj c allocfunc16322152
Ref: 4a3216322152
Ref: c-api/typeobj c destructor16323219
Ref: 4a3616323219
Ref: c-api/typeobj c freefunc16323325
Ref: 4c3c16323325
Ref: c-api/typeobj c newfunc16323401
Ref: 4a4116323401
Ref: c-api/typeobj c initproc16323605
Ref: 4a3d16323605
Ref: c-api/typeobj c reprfunc16323789
Ref: 4a4516323789
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrfunc16323946
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrfunc16324159
Ref: 4a4716324159
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrofunc16324451
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrofunc16324716
Ref: 4a4816324716
Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrgetfunc16325060
Ref: 4a3416325060
Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrsetfunc16325277
Ref: 4a3516325277
Ref: c-api/typeobj c hashfunc16325476
Ref: 4a3c16325476
Ref: c-api/typeobj c richcmpfunc16325634
Ref: 4a4616325634
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getiterfunc16325834
Ref: 4a3a16325834
Ref: c-api/typeobj c iternextfunc16325994
Ref: 4a3f16325994
Ref: c-api/typeobj c lenfunc16326159
Ref: 4a4016326159
Ref: c-api/typeobj c getbufferproc16326290
Ref: 4a3916326290
Ref: c-api/typeobj c releasebufferproc16326461
Ref: 4a4416326461
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Ref: 4a4e16326632
Ref: c-api/typeobj c binaryfunc16326764
Ref: 4a3316326764
Ref: c-api/typeobj c sendfunc16326920
Ref: 4da416326920
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ternaryfunc16327100
Ref: 4a4c16327100
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeargfunc16327280
Ref: 4a4a16327280
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeobjargproc16327439
Ref: 4a4b16327439
Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjproc16327605
Ref: 4a4316327605
Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjargproc16327743
Ref: 4a4216327743
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Ref: c-api/typeobj examples16328005
Ref: 4ded16328005
Ref: c-api/typeobj typedef-examples16328005
Ref: 4d9116328005
Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection16333400
Ref: c-api/gcsupport doc16333528
Ref: 4dee16333528
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cycle-detection16333528
Ref: 4dd916333528
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection16333528
Ref: 4def16333528
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_New16335884
Ref: a9216335884
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_NewVar16336055
Ref: a9316336055
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData16336238
Ref: 16f416336238
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Resize16337250
Ref: 16f916337250
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Track16337633
Ref: 14bd16337633
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_IS_GC16338071
Ref: 97316338071
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsTracked16338322
Ref: 96516338322
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsFinalized16338719
Ref: 96616338719
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Del16339119
Ref: 14bc16339119
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_UnTrack16339329
Ref: 14be16339329
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c visitproc16340055
Ref: 4a4f16340055
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c traverseproc16340668
Ref: 4a4d16340668
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c Py_VISIT16341479
Ref: 487916341479
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c inquiry16342061
Ref: 4a3e16342061
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Ref: 4df016342835
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Collect16343019
Ref: 97d16343019
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Enable16343586
Ref: 89216343586
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Disable16343867
Ref: 89316343867
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_IsEnabled16344151
Ref: 89416344151
Node: Querying Garbage Collector State16344455
Ref: c-api/gcsupport querying-garbage-collector-state16344608
Ref: 4df116344608
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects16344791
Ref: 4df216344791
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c gcvisitobjects_t16345577
Ref: 4df316345577
Node: Version des API et ABI16346071
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion doc16346227
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion api-and-abi-versioning16346227
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion apiabiversion16346227
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MAJOR_VERSION16346616
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_VERSION_HEX16347105
Ref: 74316347105
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_Version16349180
Ref: 74216349180
Ref: Version des API et ABI-Footnote-116349653
Node: Monitoring C API16349726
Ref: c-api/monitoring doc16349885
Ref: 4dfb16349885
Ref: c-api/monitoring c-api-monitoring16349885
Ref: 15b16349885
Ref: c-api/monitoring monitoring-c-api16349885
Ref: 4dfc16349885
Node: Generating Execution Events16350139
Ref: c-api/monitoring generating-execution-events16350267
Ref: 4dfd16350267
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoringState16351202
Ref: 30d16351202
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent16351564
Ref: 30e16351564
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent16351723
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent16351884
Ref: 31016351884
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Ref: 31316352438
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Ref: 31616352980
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent16353157
Ref: 31716353157
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Ref: 31816353404
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Ref: 31916353646
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent16353891
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent16354137
Ref: 31b16354137
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent16354403
Ref: 31c16354403
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent16354652
Ref: 31d16354652
Node: Managing the Monitoring State16355079
Ref: c-api/monitoring managing-the-monitoring-state16355172
Ref: 4dfe16355172
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_EnterScope16355375
Ref: 31e16355375
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH16357430
Ref: 4dff16357430
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL16357630
Ref: 4e0016357630
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE16357833
Ref: 4e0116357833
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN16358037
Ref: 4e0216358037
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED16358250
Ref: 4e0316358250
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION16358457
Ref: 4e0416358457
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP16358657
Ref: 4e0516358657
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE16358857
Ref: 4e0616358857
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME16359062
Ref: 4e0716359062
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN16359267
Ref: 4e0816359267
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START16359471
Ref: 4e0916359471
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW16359675
Ref: 4e0a16359675
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND16359880
Ref: 4e0b16359880
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD16360084
Ref: 4e0c16360084
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE16360285
Ref: 4e0d16360285
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE16360488
Ref: 4e0e16360488
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION16360698
Ref: 4e0f16360698
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_ExitScope16360796
Ref: 31f16360796
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT16360933
Ref: 4e1016360933
Node: Installation de modules Python16361232
Ref: installing/index doc16361379
Ref: 4e1116361379
Ref: installing/index installing-index16361379
Ref: ee216361379
Ref: installing/index installing-python-modules16361379
Ref: 4e1216361379
Ref: Installation de modules Python-Footnote-116362643
Node: Vocabulaire16362721
Ref: installing/index key-terms16362830
Ref: 4e1316362830
Ref: Vocabulaire-Footnote-116365121
Ref: Vocabulaire-Footnote-216365146
Ref: Vocabulaire-Footnote-316365175
Ref: Vocabulaire-Footnote-416365207
Node: Utilisation de base<2>16365287
Ref: installing/index basic-usage16365426
Ref: 4e1416365426
Ref: Utilisation de base<2>-Footnote-116367309
Ref: Utilisation de base<2>-Footnote-216367346
Node: Comment puis-je … ?16367395
Ref: installing/index how-do-i16367561
Ref: 4e1516367561
Node: Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3 4 ?16368211
Ref: installing/index install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-416368398
Ref: 4e1616368398
Ref: Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3 4 ?-Footnote-116368892
Node: Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?16368979
Ref: installing/index install-packages-just-for-the-current-user16369219
Ref: 4e1716369219
Node: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?16369530
Ref: installing/index install-scientific-python-packages16369776
Ref: 4e1816369776
Ref: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?-Footnote-116370368
Ref: Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?-Footnote-216370414
Node: Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?16370460
Ref: installing/index work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel16370642
Ref: 4e1916370642
Node: Les problèmes d'installation typiques16371698
Ref: installing/index common-installation-issues16371833
Ref: 4e1a16371833
Node: Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux16372047
Ref: installing/index installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux16372200
Ref: 4e1b16372200
Node: Pip n'est pas installé16372882
Ref: installing/index pip-not-installed16373078
Ref: 4e1c16373078
Ref: Pip n'est pas installé-Footnote-116373386
Node: Installation d'extensions binaires16373512
Ref: installing/index installing-binary-extensions16373653
Ref: 4e1d16373653
Ref: Installation d'extensions binaires-Footnote-116374667
Ref: Installation d'extensions binaires-Footnote-216374713
Node: Les HOWTOs de Python16374762
Ref: howto/index doc16374911
Ref: 4e1e16374911
Ref: howto/index python-howtos16374911
Ref: 4e1f16374911
Node: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 316376337
Ref: howto/cporting doc16376480
Ref: 4e2016376480
Ref: howto/cporting cporting-howto16376480
Ref: 12c116376480
Ref: howto/cporting porting-extension-modules-to-python-316376480
Ref: 4e2116376480
Ref: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3-Footnote-116377348
Ref: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3-Footnote-216377399
Ref: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3-Footnote-316377456
Ref: Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3-Footnote-416377484
Node: Programmation Curses avec Python16377531
Ref: howto/curses doc16377699
Ref: 4e2216377699
Ref: howto/curses curses-howto16377699
Ref: 2f0e16377699
Ref: howto/curses curses-programming-with-python16377699
Ref: 4e2316377699
Node: Qu'est-ce que curses ?16378239
Ref: howto/curses what-is-curses16378381
Ref: 4e2416378381
Ref: Qu'est-ce que curses ?-Footnote-116381128
Ref: Qu'est-ce que curses ?-Footnote-216381168
Node: Le module curses de Python16381212
Ref: howto/curses the-python-curses-module16381297
Ref: 4e2516381297
Node: Lancement et arrêt une application curses16382172
Ref: howto/curses starting-and-ending-a-curses-application16382359
Ref: 4e2616382359
Node: Fenêtres et tampons pads en anglais16386003
Ref: howto/curses windows-and-pads16386186
Ref: 4e2716386186
Node: Affichage de texte16391097
Ref: howto/curses displaying-text16391263
Ref: 4e2816391263
Node: Attributs et couleurs16395466
Ref: howto/curses attributes-and-color16395542
Ref: 4e2916395542
Node: Entrées de l'utilisateur16400877
Ref: howto/curses user-input16401030
Ref: 4e2a16401030
Ref: Entrées de l'utilisateur-Footnote-116405187
Node: Pour aller plus loin<2>16405227
Ref: howto/curses for-more-information16405353
Ref: 4e2b16405353
Ref: Pour aller plus loin<2>-Footnote-116407107
Ref: Pour aller plus loin<2>-Footnote-216407144
Ref: Pour aller plus loin<2>-Footnote-316407208
Ref: Pour aller plus loin<2>-Footnote-416407252
Ref: Pour aller plus loin<2>-Footnote-516407314
Ref: Pour aller plus loin<2>-Footnote-616407366
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Node: Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus16733462
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes16733711
Ref: 4edc16733711
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-processes16733711
Ref: 4edd16733711
Node: Utilisation de concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor16744528
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-concurrent-futures-processpoolexecutor16744753
Ref: 4ede16744753
Node: Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI16745862
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook deploying-web-applications-using-gunicorn-and-uwsgi16746087
Ref: 4edf16746087
Ref: Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI-Footnote-116746957
Ref: Déploiement d’applications Web avec Gunicorn et uWSGI-Footnote-216746987
Node: Utilisation du roulement de fichiers16747040
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-file-rotation16747274
Ref: 4ee016747274
Node: Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage16749307
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook format-styles16749500
Ref: 4ee116749500
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-alternative-formatting-styles16749500
Ref: 4ee216749500
Node: Personnalisation de LogRecord16757335
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-logrecord16757552
Ref: 4ee316757552
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-logrecord16757552
Ref: 4ee416757552
Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example16762243
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example16762477
Ref: 4ee516762477
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook zeromq-handlers16762477
Ref: 4ee616762477
Node: Subclass QueueHandler16762677
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuehandler16762826
Ref: 4ee716762826
Node: Subclass QueueListener16764226
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuelistener16764375
Ref: 4ee816764375
Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example16765151
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook pynng-handlers16765407
Ref: 4ee916765407
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-pynng-example16765407
Ref: 4eea16765407
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-116766031
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-216766071
Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>16766104
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id316766258
Ref: 4eeb16766258
Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>16768234
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id416768388
Ref: 4eec16768388
Node: Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire16772100
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook an-example-dictionary-based-configuration16772381
Ref: 4eed16772381
Ref: Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire-Footnote-116774379
Ref: Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire-Footnote-216774465
Node: Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux16774551
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-rotator-namer16774825
Ref: 2ca816774825
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing16774825
Ref: 4eee16774825
Node: Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle16776293
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example16776584
Ref: 4eef16776584
Node: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler16786647
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler16786879
Ref: 4ef016786879
Ref: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler-Footnote-116789356
Ref: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler-Footnote-216789415
Ref: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler-Footnote-316789484
Ref: Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler-Footnote-416789543
Node: Journalisation structurée16789602
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook implementing-structured-logging16789832
Ref: 4ef116789832
Node: Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig16792523
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handlers16792747
Ref: 4ef216792747
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig16792747
Ref: 4ef316792747
Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application16798514
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-styles16798747
Ref: 2c4016798747
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application16798747
Ref: 4ef416798747
Node: Using LogRecord factories16800749
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logrecord-factories16800910
Ref: 4ef516800910
Node: Using custom message objects16801884
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-custom-message-objects16802045
Ref: 4ef616802045
Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig16804761
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuring-filters-with-dictconfig16804975
Ref: 4ef716804975
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-dictconfig16804975
Ref: 4ef816804975
Node: Customized exception formatting16807950
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-format-exception16808127
Ref: 4ef916808127
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customized-exception-formatting16808127
Ref: 4efa16808127
Node: Speaking logging messages16810188
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook speaking-logging-messages16810390
Ref: 4efb16810390
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook spoken-messages16810390
Ref: 4efc16810390
Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally16812540
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffered-logging16812759
Ref: 4efd16812759
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally16812759
Ref: 4efe16812759
Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering16818327
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffered-smtp16818569
Ref: 4eff16818569
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook sending-logging-messages-to-email-with-buffering16818569
Ref: 4f0016818569
Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration16822135
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration16822362
Ref: 4f0116822362
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook utc-formatting16822362
Ref: 4f0216822362
Node: Using a context manager for selective logging16824263
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-manager16824476
Ref: 4f0316824476
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging16824476
Ref: 4f0416824476
Node: A CLI application starter template16829038
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-cli-application-starter-template16829223
Ref: 4f0516829223
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook starter-template16829223
Ref: 4f0616829223
Node: A Qt GUI for logging16835198
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-qt-gui-for-logging16835376
Ref: 4f0716835376
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook qt-gui16835376
Ref: 4f0816835376
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-116845677
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-216845704
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-316845746
Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support16845786
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-syslog-with-rfc5424-support16845973
Ref: 4f0916845973
Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-116849699
Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-216849758
Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream16849817
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook how-to-treat-a-logger-like-an-output-stream16850001
Ref: 4f0a16850001
Node: Patterns to avoid16854665
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook patterns-to-avoid16854831
Ref: 4f0b16854831
Node: Opening the same log file multiple times16855383
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook opening-the-same-log-file-multiple-times16855554
Ref: 4f0c16855554
Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters16857493
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggers-as-attributes-in-a-class-or-passing-them-as-parameters16857736
Ref: 4f0d16857736
Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library16858418
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-handlers-other-than-nullhandler-to-a-logger-in-a-library16858646
Ref: 4f0e16858646
Node: Creating a lot of loggers16859084
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook creating-a-lot-of-loggers16859235
Ref: 4f0f16859235
Node: Autres ressources<3>16859788
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-ref-links16859902
Ref: 4ec916859902
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook other-resources16859902
Ref: 4f1016859902
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Ref: howto/regex doc16860514
Ref: 4f1116860514
Ref: howto/regex regex-howto16860514
Ref: 22a716860514
Ref: howto/regex regular-expression-howto16860514
Ref: 4f1216860514
Node: Introduction<15>16861117
Ref: howto/regex introduction16861227
Ref: 4f1316861227
Node: Motifs simples16863283
Ref: howto/regex simple-patterns16863442
Ref: 4f1416863442
Node: Correspondance de caractères16864062
Ref: howto/regex matching-characters16864164
Ref: 4f1516864164
Node: Répétitions16870014
Ref: howto/regex repeating-things16870116
Ref: 4f1616870116
Node: Utilisation des expressions régulières16876032
Ref: howto/regex using-regular-expressions16876200
Ref: 4f1716876200
Node: Compilation des expressions régulières16876773
Ref: howto/regex compiling-regular-expressions16876931
Ref: 4f1816876931
Node: La maudite barre oblique inverse16878310
Ref: howto/regex id116878505
Ref: 4f1916878505
Ref: howto/regex the-backslash-plague16878505
Ref: 4f1a16878505
Node: Recherche de correspondances16882184
Ref: howto/regex performing-matches16882368
Ref: 4f1b16882368
Node: Fonctions de niveau module<3>16888697
Ref: howto/regex module-level-functions16888871
Ref: 4f1c16888871
Node: Options de compilation16890269
Ref: howto/regex compilation-flags16890406
Ref: 4f1d16890406
Node: Des motifs plus puissants16899014
Ref: howto/regex more-pattern-power16899192
Ref: 4f1f16899192
Node: Plus de métacaractères16899655
Ref: howto/regex id216899762
Ref: 4f2016899762
Ref: howto/regex more-metacharacters16899762
Ref: 4f1e16899762
Node: Regroupement16905187
Ref: howto/regex grouping16905344
Ref: 4f2116905344
Node: Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés16909383
Ref: howto/regex non-capturing-and-named-groups16909539
Ref: 4f2216909539
Node: Assertions prédictives16915333
Ref: howto/regex lookahead-assertions16915468
Ref: 4f2316915468
Node: Modification de chaînes16919604
Ref: howto/regex modifying-strings16919763
Ref: 4f2416919763
Node: Découpage de chaînes16920997
Ref: howto/regex splitting-strings16921117
Ref: 4f2516921117
Node: Recherche et substitution<2>16923619
Ref: howto/regex search-and-replace16923739
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Node: Problèmes classiques16928700
Ref: howto/regex common-problems16928850
Ref: 4f2716928850
Node: Utilisez les méthodes du type string16929380
Ref: howto/regex use-string-methods16929503
Ref: 4f2816929503
Node: match contre search16931390
Ref: howto/regex match-versus-search16931548
Ref: 4f2916931548
Node: Glouton contre non-glouton16933413
Ref: howto/regex greedy-versus-non-greedy16933553
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Node: Utilisez re VERBOSE16935711
Ref: howto/regex using-re-verbose16935823
Ref: 4f2b16935823
Node: Vos commentaires16937606
Ref: howto/regex feedback16937723
Ref: 4f2c16937723
Node: Guide pratique programmation avec les sockets16938606
Ref: howto/sockets doc16938778
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Ref: howto/sockets socket-howto16938778
Ref: 33ef16938778
Ref: howto/sockets socket-programming-howto16938778
Ref: 4f2e16938778
Node: Connecteurs sockets16939546
Ref: howto/sockets sockets16939681
Ref: 4f2f16939681
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Ref: howto/sockets history16941185
Ref: 4f3016941185
Node: Création d'un connecteur16941900
Ref: howto/sockets creating-a-socket16942071
Ref: 4f3116942071
Node: IPC Communication Entre Processus16945882
Ref: howto/sockets ipc16945977
Ref: 4f3216945977
Node: Utilisation d'un connecteur16946600
Ref: howto/sockets using-a-socket16946764
Ref: 4f3316946764
Node: Données binaires16954044
Ref: howto/sockets binary-data16954125
Ref: 4f3416954125
Ref: Données binaires-Footnote-116955750
Node: Déconnexion16955821
Ref: howto/sockets disconnecting16955985
Ref: 4f3516955985
Node: Quand les connecteurs meurent16957830
Ref: howto/sockets when-sockets-die16957908
Ref: 4f3616957908
Node: Connecteurs non bloquants16958922
Ref: howto/sockets non-blocking-sockets16959050
Ref: 4f3716959050
Node: Sorting Techniques16963743
Ref: howto/sorting doc16963894
Ref: 4f3816963894
Ref: howto/sorting sorting-techniques16963894
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Ref: howto/sorting sortinghowto16963894
Ref: 213b16963894
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Ref: howto/sorting sorting-basics16964675
Ref: 4f3a16964675
Node: Fonctions clef16965612
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Ref: 4f3b16965772
Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation16967766
Ref: howto/sorting operator-module-functions-and-partial-function-evaluation16967933
Ref: 4f3c16967933
Ref: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation-Footnote-116969799
Node: Ascendant et descendant16969843
Ref: howto/sorting ascending-and-descending16970033
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Node: Stabilité des tris et tris complexes16970626
Ref: howto/sorting sort-stability-and-complex-sorts16970783
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Ref: Stabilité des tris et tris complexes-Footnote-116972558
Ref: Stabilité des tris et tris complexes-Footnote-216972637
Node: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate16972683
Ref: howto/sorting decorate-sort-undecorate16972837
Ref: 4f3f16972837
Ref: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate-Footnote-116974715
Node: Comparison Functions16974775
Ref: howto/sorting comparison-functions16974909
Ref: 4f4016974909
Ref: Comparison Functions-Footnote-116975880
Node: Et n'oublions pas16975967
Ref: howto/sorting odds-and-ends16976090
Ref: 4f4116976090
Ref: Et n'oublions pas-Footnote-116978445
Node: Partial Sorts16978487
Ref: howto/sorting partial-sorts16978581
Ref: 4f4216978581
Node: Guide Unicode16979664
Ref: howto/unicode doc16979845
Ref: 4f4316979845
Ref: howto/unicode id116979845
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Ref: howto/unicode unicode-howto16979845
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Node: Introduction à Unicode16980272
Ref: howto/unicode introduction-to-unicode16980387
Ref: 4f4516980387
Node: Définitions16980523
Ref: howto/unicode definitions16980613
Ref: 4f4616980613
Ref: Définitions-Footnote-116984250
Node: Encodages16984307
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Ref: howto/unicode references16988919
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Ref: Références<4>-Footnote-516990101
Ref: Références<4>-Footnote-616990275
Ref: Références<4>-Footnote-716990340
Node: Prise en charge Unicode de Python16990384
Ref: howto/unicode python-s-unicode-support16990548
Ref: 4f4916990548
Node: Le type String16990996
Ref: howto/unicode the-string-type16991109
Ref: 4f4a16991109
Node: Conversion en octets16994725
Ref: howto/unicode converting-to-bytes16994892
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Node: Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python16996834
Ref: howto/unicode unicode-literals-in-python-source-code16997007
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Node: Propriétés Unicode16999503
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Node: Comparaison de chaînes de caractères17001762
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Ref: howto/unicode id217006645
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Ref: Références<5>-Footnote-217007612
Ref: Références<5>-Footnote-317007664
Node: Lecture et écriture de données Unicode17007733
Ref: howto/unicode reading-and-writing-unicode-data17007891
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Node: Noms de fichiers Unicode17012382
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Node: Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode17015496
Ref: howto/unicode tips-for-writing-unicode-aware-programs17015686
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Node: Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers17017424
Ref: howto/unicode converting-between-file-encodings17017601
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Node: Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu17018470
Ref: howto/unicode files-in-an-unknown-encoding17018647
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Ref: howto/unicode id317019793
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Node: Introduction<16>17022167
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Node: Fetching URLs17024083
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Ref: Headers-Footnote-217030872
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Ref: howto/urllib2 handling-exceptions17031499
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Node: URLError17032008
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Node: Wrapping it Up17038546
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Node: Number 117038872
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Ref: info and geturl-Footnote-117041294
Node: Openers and Handlers17041332
Ref: howto/urllib2 openers-and-handlers17041517
Ref: 4f6617041517
Node: Basic Authentication17043159
Ref: howto/urllib2 id517043336
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Node: Proxies17046836
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Ref: Proxies-Footnote-317048450
Node: Sockets and Layers17048617
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Ref: 4f6917048780
Node: Notes<3>17049799
Ref: howto/urllib2 footnotes17049946
Ref: 4f6a17049946
Node: Introduction au module ipaddress17050026
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Ref: 3bdf17050253
Node: Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface17051056
Ref: howto/ipaddress creating-address-network-interface-objects17051221
Ref: 4f6d17051221
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Ref: howto/ipaddress a-note-on-ip-versions17051851
Ref: 4f6e17051851
Node: Adresses IP des hôtes17052686
Ref: howto/ipaddress ip-host-addresses17052851
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Node: Définir des réseaux17054174
Ref: howto/ipaddress defining-networks17054334
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Node: Interfaces des hôtes17056980
Ref: howto/ipaddress host-interfaces17057109
Ref: 4f7117057109
Node: Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface17058236
Ref: howto/ipaddress inspecting-address-network-interface-objects17058448
Ref: 4f7217058448
Node: Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses17060954
Ref: howto/ipaddress networks-as-lists-of-addresses17061140
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Node: Comparaisons<4>17062030
Ref: howto/ipaddress comparisons17062214
Ref: 4f7417062214
Node: Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules17062621
Ref: howto/ipaddress using-ip-addresses-with-other-modules17062838
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Ref: c5c17065932
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Node: Marqueurs statiques SystemTap17074458
Ref: howto/instrumentation static-systemtap-markers17074641
Ref: 4f7b17074641
Node: Marqueurs statiques disponibles17076854
Ref: howto/instrumentation available-static-markers17077034
Ref: 4f7c17077034
Node: Tapsets de SystemTap17079911
Ref: howto/instrumentation systemtap-tapsets17080074
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Node: Exemples<38>17081879
Ref: howto/instrumentation examples17082002
Ref: 4f7e17082002
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Ref: 16f817083571
Ref: howto/perf_profiling perf-profiling17083571
Ref: 18d17083571
Ref: howto/perf_profiling python-support-for-the-linux-perf-profiler17083571
Ref: 4f7f17083571
Ref: Python support for the Linux perf profiler-Footnote-117091454
Node: How to enable perf profiling support17091491
Ref: howto/perf_profiling how-to-enable-perf-profiling-support17091645
Ref: 4f8017091645
Node: How to obtain the best results17092787
Ref: howto/perf_profiling how-to-obtain-the-best-results17092984
Ref: 4f8117092984
Node: How to work without frame pointers17093762
Ref: howto/perf_profiling how-to-work-without-frame-pointers17093914
Ref: 4f8217093914
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Ref: howto/annotations doc17097969
Ref: 4f8317097969
Ref: howto/annotations annotations-best-practices17097969
Ref: 4f8417097969
Ref: howto/annotations annotations-howto17097969
Ref: 7c517097969
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Ref: 4f8517099844
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Ref: howto/annotations accessing-the-annotations-dict-of-an-object-in-python-3-9-and-older17102208
Ref: 4f8617102208
Node: Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères17104813
Ref: howto/annotations manually-un-stringizing-stringized-annotations17105137
Ref: 4f8717105137
Ref: Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères-Footnote-117108021
Node: Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python17108063
Ref: howto/annotations best-practices-for-annotations-in-any-python-version17108352
Ref: 4f8817108352
Node: Les curiosités concernant __annotations__17109152
Ref: howto/annotations annotations-quirks17109355
Ref: 4f8917109355
Node: Isolating Extension Modules17111498
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions doc17111670
Ref: 4f8a17111670
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolating-extension-modules17111670
Ref: 4f8b17111670
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolating-extensions-howto17111670
Ref: 4c4717111670
Node: Who should read this17112408
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions who-should-read-this17112514
Ref: 4f8c17112514
Node: Background<2>17112752
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions background17112913
Ref: 4f8d17112913
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions enter-per-module-state17114616
Ref: 4f8e17114616
Node: Isolated Module Objects17115775
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolated-module-objects17115909
Ref: 4f8f17115909
Node: Surprising Edge Cases17116946
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions surprising-edge-cases17117049
Ref: 4f9117117049
Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters17118061
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions making-modules-safe-with-multiple-interpreters17118215
Ref: 4f9217118215
Node: Managing Global State17118534
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions managing-global-state17118672
Ref: 4f9017118672
Node: Managing Per-Module State17119628
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions managing-per-module-state17119824
Ref: 4f9417119824
Ref: Managing Per-Module State-Footnote-117121494
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions opt-out-limiting-to-one-module-object-per-process17121777
Ref: 4f9317121777
Node: Module State Access from Functions17122471
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-functions17122646
Ref: 4f9517122646
Node: Heap Types<2>17123426
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions heap-types17123578
Ref: 4f9617123578
Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types17125248
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions changing-static-types-to-heap-types17125361
Ref: 4f9717125361
Node: Defining Heap Types17126337
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions defining-heap-types17126486
Ref: 4f9817126486
Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol17127137
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions garbage-collection-protocol17127283
Ref: 4f9917127283
Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower17128371
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions tp-traverse-in-python-3-8-and-lower17128501
Ref: 4f9a17128501
Node: Delegating tp_traverse17129269
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions delegating-tp-traverse17129427
Ref: 4f9b17129427
Node: Defining tp_dealloc17130235
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions defining-tp-dealloc17130380
Ref: 4f9c17130380
Node: Not overriding tp_free17131148
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions not-overriding-tp-free17131292
Ref: 4f9d17131292
Node: Avoiding PyObject_New17131499
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions avoiding-pyobject-new17131615
Ref: 4f9e17131615
Node: Module State Access from Classes17132406
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-classes17132573
Ref: 4f9f17132573
Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods17133144
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-regular-methods17133341
Ref: 4fa017133341
Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters17135846
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-slot-methods-getters-and-setters17136039
Ref: 4fa117136039
Node: Lifetime of the Module State17137466
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lifetime-of-the-module-state17137610
Ref: 4fa217137610
Node: Open Issues17138153
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions open-issues17138250
Ref: 4fa317138250
Ref: Open Issues-Footnote-117138554
Node: Per-Class Scope17138622
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions per-class-scope17138727
Ref: 4fa417138727
Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types17139020
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lossless-conversion-to-heap-types17139125
Ref: 4fa517139125
Node: timer file descriptor HOWTO17139363
Ref: howto/timerfd doc17139530
Ref: 4fa617139530
Ref: howto/timerfd timer-file-descriptor-howto17139530
Ref: 4fa717139530
Ref: howto/timerfd timerfd-howto17139530
Ref: 4fa817139530
Node: Exemples<39>17139725
Ref: howto/timerfd examples17139801
Ref: 4fa917139801
Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order17148607
Ref: howto/mro doc17148793
Ref: 4faa17148793
Ref: howto/mro python-2-3-mro17148793
Ref: 146017148793
Ref: howto/mro the-python-2-3-method-resolution-order17148793
Ref: 4fab17148793
Ref: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order-Footnote-117150402
Node: The beginning17150449
Ref: howto/mro the-beginning17150576
Ref: 4fac17150576
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-117155153
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-217155290
Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order17155402
Ref: howto/mro the-c3-method-resolution-order17155550
Ref: 4fad17155550
Node: Exemples<40>17157882
Ref: howto/mro examples17158045
Ref: 4fae17158045
Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders17163594
Ref: howto/mro bad-method-resolution-orders17163734
Ref: 4faf17163734
Ref: Bad Method Resolution Orders-Footnote-117169982
Node: The end17170166
Ref: howto/mro the-end17170303
Ref: 4fb017170303
Node: Resources17173478
Ref: howto/mro resources17173578
Ref: 4fb117173578
Node: Python experimental support for free threading17173613
Ref: howto/free-threading-python doc17173814
Ref: 4fb217173814
Ref: howto/free-threading-python freethreading-python-howto17173814
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python python-experimental-support-for-free-threading17173814
Ref: 4fb417173814
Ref: Python experimental support for free threading-Footnote-117175100
Node: Installation17175142
Ref: howto/free-threading-python installation17175278
Ref: 4fb617175278
Ref: Installation-Footnote-117175864
Node: Identifying free-threaded Python17175928
Ref: howto/free-threading-python identifying-free-threaded-python17176124
Ref: 4fb717176124
Node: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python17176804
Ref: howto/free-threading-python the-global-interpreter-lock-in-free-threaded-python17177001
Ref: 4fb817177001
Node: Thread safety17177751
Ref: howto/free-threading-python thread-safety17177933
Ref: 4fb917177933
Node: Known limitations17178723
Ref: howto/free-threading-python known-limitations17178845
Ref: 4fba17178845
Node: Immortalization17179102
Ref: howto/free-threading-python immortalization17179196
Ref: 4fbb17179196
Node: Objets cadres<2>17180307
Ref: howto/free-threading-python frame-objects17180424
Ref: 4fbc17180424
Node: Itérateurs<4>17180869
Ref: howto/free-threading-python iterators17180998
Ref: 4fbd17180998
Node: Single-threaded performance17181212
Ref: howto/free-threading-python single-threaded-performance17181316
Ref: 4fbe17181316
Ref: Single-threaded performance-Footnote-117182082
Ref: Single-threaded performance-Footnote-217182128
Node: C API Extension Support for Free Threading17182170
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions doc17182324
Ref: 4fbf17182324
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions c-api-extension-support-for-free-threading17182324
Ref: 4fc017182324
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions freethreading-extensions-howto17182324
Ref: 4fb517182324
Node: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C17182976
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions identifying-the-free-threaded-build-in-c17183125
Ref: 4fc117183125
Node: Module Initialization17183553
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions module-initialization17183733
Ref: 4fc217183733
Node: Multi-Phase Initialization17184227
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions multi-phase-initialization17184347
Ref: 4fc317184347
Node: Single-Phase Initialization17185020
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions single-phase-initialization17185140
Ref: 4fc417185140
Node: General API Guidelines17185980
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions general-api-guidelines17186139
Ref: 4fc517186139
Node: Container Thread Safety17186960
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions container-thread-safety17187042
Ref: 4fc717187042
Node: PyDict_Next17187377
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions id117187448
Ref: 4fc817187448
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions pydict-next17187448
Ref: 4fc917187448
Node: Borrowed References17187936
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions borrowed-references17188096
Ref: 4fca17188096
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions id217188151
Ref: 4fc617188151
Ref: Borrowed References-Footnote-117190785
Node: Memory Allocation APIs17190837
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions free-threaded-memory-allocation17191000
Ref: 4d4d17191000
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions memory-allocation-apis17191000
Ref: 4fcb17191000
Node: Thread State and GIL APIs17191732
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions thread-state-and-gil-apis17191911
Ref: 4fcc17191911
Node: Protecting Internal Extension State17192877
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions protecting-internal-extension-state17193081
Ref: 4fcd17193081
Ref: Protecting Internal Extension State-Footnote-117193837
Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build17193903
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions building-extensions-for-the-free-threaded-build17194073
Ref: 4fce17194073
Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-117194665
Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-217194707
Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-317194752
Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI17194831
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions limited-c-api-and-stable-abi17194963
Ref: 4fcf17194963
Ref: Limited C API and Stable ABI-Footnote-117195660
Node: Windows<77>17195721
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions windows17195853
Ref: 4fd017195853
Ref: Windows<77>-Footnote-117197574
Node: Questions fréquemment posées sur Python17197627
Ref: faq/index doc17197758
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Ref: faq/index faq-index17197758
Ref: 1cc417197758
Ref: faq/index python-frequently-asked-questions17197758
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Node: FAQ générale sur Python17198169
Ref: faq/general doc17198301
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Ref: faq/general general-python-faq17198301
Ref: 4fd417198301
Node: Informations générales17198433
Ref: faq/general general-information17198555
Ref: 4fd517198555
Node: Qu'est-ce que Python ?17199707
Ref: faq/general what-is-python17199844
Ref: 4fd617199844
Ref: Qu'est-ce que Python ?-Footnote-117201017
Node: Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?17201069
Ref: faq/general what-is-the-python-software-foundation17201318
Ref: 4fd717201318
Ref: Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?-Footnote-117202027
Node: Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?17202073
Ref: faq/general are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python17202332
Ref: 4fd817202332
Ref: Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?-Footnote-117203400
Ref: Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?-Footnote-217203447
Node: Pourquoi Python a été créé ?17203494
Ref: faq/general why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place17203738
Ref: 4fd917203738
Node: Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?17206559
Ref: faq/general what-is-python-good-for17206758
Ref: 4fda17206758
Ref: Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?-Footnote-117207759
Node: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?17207784
Ref: faq/general faq-version-numbering-scheme17208003
Ref: 4fdb17208003
Ref: faq/general how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work17208003
Ref: 4fdc17208003
Ref: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?-Footnote-117210122
Ref: Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?-Footnote-217210196
Node: Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?17210238
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source17210471
Ref: 4fdd17210471
Ref: Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?-Footnote-117211397
Node: Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?17211440
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python17211679
Ref: 4fde17211679
Ref: Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?-Footnote-117212263
Node: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?17212295
Ref: faq/general i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial17212545
Ref: 4fdf17212545
Ref: Je n'ai jamais programmé avant Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?-Footnote-117212994
Node: Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?17213046
Ref: faq/general is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python17213302
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Ref: Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?-Footnote-117214290
Ref: Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?-Footnote-217214351
Node: Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?17214432
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python17214692
Ref: 4fe117214692
Ref: Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?-Footnote-117215316
Node: Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?17215353
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python17215634
Ref: 4fe217215634
Ref: Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?-Footnote-117216099
Node: Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?17216136
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference17216407
Ref: 4fe317216407
Ref: Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?-Footnote-117217026
Node: Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?17217062
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-books-on-python17217316
Ref: 4fe417217316
Node: Où www python org est-il localisé dans le monde ?17217820
Ref: faq/general where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located17218014
Ref: 4fe517218014
Ref: Où www python org est-il localisé dans le monde ?-Footnote-117218324
Node: Pourquoi le nom Python ?17218353
Ref: faq/general why-is-it-called-python17218553
Ref: 4fe617218553
Ref: Pourquoi le nom Python ?-Footnote-117218986
Node: Dois-je aimer "Monty Python's Flying Circus" ?17219037
Ref: faq/general do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus17219177
Ref: 4fe717219177
Node: Python c'est le monde réel17219323
Ref: faq/general python-in-the-real-world17219445
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Node: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?17219930
Ref: faq/general how-stable-is-python17220086
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Ref: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?-Footnote-117221055
Ref: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?-Footnote-217221097
Ref: Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?-Footnote-317221139
Node: Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?17221181
Ref: faq/general how-many-people-are-using-python17221411
Ref: 4fea17221411
Node: Y a-t-il un nombre de projets significatif réalisés en Python ?17222051
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Node: Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?17223267
Ref: faq/general what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future17223558
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Ref: Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?-Footnote-117224261
Node: Est-il raisonnable de proposer des changements incompatibles dans Python ?17224331
Ref: faq/general is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python17224640
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Node: Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?17225441
Ref: faq/general is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers17225671
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Ref: Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?-Footnote-117230131
Ref: Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?-Footnote-217230182
Node: FAQ de programmation17230244
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Node: Questions générales17230696
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Node: Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts exécution pas-à-pas etc ?17231325
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc17231578
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Ref: Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts exécution pas-à-pas etc ?-Footnote-117233302
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Ref: Existe-t-il un débogueur de code source avec points d'arrêts exécution pas-à-pas etc ?-Footnote-917233692
Node: Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?17233735
Ref: faq/programming are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis17234062
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Ref: Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?-Footnote-517234690
Node: Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?17234731
Ref: faq/programming faq-create-standalone-binary17235066
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Ref: Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?-Footnote-117237084
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Ref: Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?-Footnote-617237315
Ref: Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?-Footnote-717237364
Node: Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?17237396
Ref: faq/programming are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs17237626
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Ref: Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?-Footnote-117238024
Node: Fondamentaux17238066
Ref: faq/programming core-language17238208
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Node: Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?17239937
Ref: faq/programming faq-unboundlocalerror17240148
Ref: 1f9617240148
Ref: faq/programming why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value17240148
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Node: Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?17242207
Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python17242552
Ref: 4ff917242552
Node: Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?17243579
Ref: faq/programming why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result17243901
Ref: 4ffa17243901
Node: Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?17246076
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules17246400
Ref: 4ffb17246400
Node: Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?17247260
Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module17247531
Ref: 4ffc17247531
Node: Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?17250926
Ref: faq/programming why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects17251222
Ref: 4ffd17251222
Node: Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?17253990
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another17254275
Ref: 4ffe17254275
Node: Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?17254926
Ref: faq/programming faq-argument-vs-parameter17255198
Ref: 4fff17255198
Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters17255198
Ref: 500017255198
Node: Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?17255994
Ref: faq/programming why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x17256268
Ref: 500117256268
Node: Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? passage par référence17259857
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference17260127
Ref: 500217260127
Node: Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?17262769
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python17263015
Ref: 500317263015
Node: Comment copier un objet en Python ?17264733
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python17264960
Ref: 500417264960
Node: Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?17265454
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object17265670
Ref: 500517265670
Node: Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?17266041
Ref: faq/programming how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object17266279
Ref: 500617266279
Node: Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?17268149
Ref: faq/programming what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence17268390
Ref: 500717268390
Node: Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ? » du C ?17269074
Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator17269349
Ref: 500817269349
Node: Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis obfuscated d'une ligne en Python ?17269978
Ref: faq/programming is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python17270274
Ref: 500917270274
Node: Que signifie la barre oblique / dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?17271882
Ref: faq/programming faq-positional-only-arguments17272103
Ref: 212f17272103
Ref: faq/programming what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean17272103
Ref: 500a17272103
Node: Nombres et chaînes de caractères17273374
Ref: faq/programming numbers-and-strings17273510
Ref: 500b17273510
Node: Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?17274461
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers17274628
Ref: 500c17274628
Node: Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?17275333
Ref: faq/programming why-does-22-10-return-317275601
Ref: 500d17275601
Node: Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?17276467
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-int-literal-attribute-instead-of-syntaxerror17276738
Ref: 500e17276738
Node: Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?17277436
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number17277728
Ref: 500f17277728
Node: Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?17279210
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string17279471
Ref: 501017279471
Node: Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?17280148
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place17280436
Ref: 501117280436
Node: Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?17281401
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods17281717
Ref: 501217281717
Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?17283266
Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings17283559
Ref: 501317283559
Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?17284365
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent17284637
Ref: 501417284637
Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?17285325
Ref: faq/programming what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean17285571
Ref: 501517285571
Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?17285767
Ref: faq/programming can-i-end-a-raw-string-with-an-odd-number-of-backslashes17285966
Ref: 501617285966
Ref: faq/programming faq-programming-raw-string-backslash17285966
Ref: 1bb917285966
Node: Performances<4>17287242
Ref: faq/programming performance17287394
Ref: 501717287394
Node: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?17287658
Ref: faq/programming my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up17287869
Ref: 501817287869
Ref: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?-Footnote-117291199
Ref: Mon programme est trop lent Comment l'accélérer ?-Footnote-217291226
Node: Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?17291291
Ref: faq/programming efficient-string-concatenation17291502
Ref: 501917291502
Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together17291502
Ref: 501a17291502
Node: Séquences n-uplets / listes17292716
Ref: faq/programming sequences-tuples-lists17292840
Ref: 501b17292840
Node: Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?17293729
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists17293893
Ref: 501c17293893
Node: Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?17294877
Ref: faq/programming what-s-a-negative-index17295096
Ref: 501d17295096
Node: Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?17295819
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order17296023
Ref: 501e17296023
Node: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?17296383
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list17296594
Ref: 501f17296594
Node: Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste17297627
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-multiple-items-from-a-list17297833
Ref: 502017297833
Node: Comment construire un tableau en Python ?17298444
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python17298658
Ref: 502117298658
Ref: Comment construire un tableau en Python ?-Footnote-117299873
Node: Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?17299900
Ref: faq/programming faq-multidimensional-list17300148
Ref: 216717300148
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list17300148
Ref: 502217300148
Ref: Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?-Footnote-117301595
Node: Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?17301626
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects17301923
Ref: 502317301923
Node: Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?17302561
Ref: faq/programming faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error17302907
Ref: 1f6d17302907
Ref: faq/programming why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works17302907
Ref: 502417302907
Node: Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?17306277
Ref: faq/programming i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python17306619
Ref: 502517306619
Node: Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?17307206
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list17307449
Ref: 502617307449
Node: Objets17308096
Ref: faq/programming objects17308215
Ref: 502717308215
Node: Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?17309689
Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-class17309793
Ref: 502817309793
Node: Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?17310708
Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-method17310841
Ref: 502917310841
Node: Qu'est-ce que self ?17311234
Ref: faq/programming what-is-self17311444
Ref: 502a17311444
Node: Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?17311967
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it17312181
Ref: 502c17312181
Node: Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?17314788
Ref: faq/programming what-is-delegation17315088
Ref: 502d17315088
Node: Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?17317316
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-extends-it17317599
Ref: 502e17317599
Node: Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?17318279
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class17318617
Ref: 502f17318617
Node: Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?17319260
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods17319553
Ref: 503017319553
Node: Comment surcharger les constructeurs ou méthodes en Python ?17321423
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python17321715
Ref: 503117321715
Node: J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam17322746
Ref: faq/programming i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam17323035
Ref: 503217323035
Node: Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet17324356
Ref: faq/programming my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object17324635
Ref: 503317324635
Node: Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?17326634
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class17326910
Ref: 503417326910
Node: Pourquoi le résultat de id peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?17327317
Ref: faq/programming why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique17327573
Ref: 503517327573
Node: Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?17328555
Ref: faq/programming when-can-i-rely-on-identity-tests-with-the-is-operator17328838
Ref: 503617328838
Ref: Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?-Footnote-117332520
Node: Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?17332562
Ref: faq/programming how-can-a-subclass-control-what-data-is-stored-in-an-immutable-instance17332817
Ref: 503717332817
Node: Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?17334345
Ref: faq/programming faq-cache-method-calls17334528
Ref: 26f117334528
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-cache-method-calls17334528
Ref: 503817334528
Node: Modules<5>17337970
Ref: faq/programming modules17338052
Ref: 503917338052
Node: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?17338598
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file17338728
Ref: 503a17338728
Ref: Comment créer des fichiers pyc ?-Footnote-117341495
Node: Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?17341537
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name17341732
Ref: 503b17341732
Node: Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?17342409
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other17342636
Ref: 503c17342636
Node: __import__ 'x y z' renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?17344898
Ref: faq/programming import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z17345174
Ref: 503d17345174
Node: Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte je ne vois pas les changements Pourquoi ?17345479
Ref: faq/programming when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen17345690
Ref: 503e17345690
Node: FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception17347276
Ref: faq/design doc17347469
Ref: 503f17347469
Ref: faq/design design-and-history-faq17347469
Ref: 504017347469
Node: Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?17350372
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements17350613
Ref: 504117350613
Node: Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?17352625
Ref: faq/design why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations17352938
Ref: 504217352938
Node: Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?17353151
Ref: faq/design why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate17353456
Ref: 504317353456
Node: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?17355248
Ref: faq/design why-are-python-strings-immutable17355568
Ref: 504417355568
Node: Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?17356317
Ref: faq/design why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls17356642
Ref: 504517356642
Ref: faq/design why-self17356642
Ref: 502b17356642
Node: Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?17359507
Ref: faq/design id117359896
Ref: 504617359896
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression17359896
Ref: 1c0f17359896
Ref: Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?-Footnote-117360345
Node: Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités ex list index mais des fonctions pour d'autres ex len list ?17360387
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list17360765
Ref: 504717360765
Node: Pourquoi join est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?17362335
Ref: faq/design why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method17362694
Ref: 504817362694
Node: À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?17364889
Ref: faq/design how-fast-are-exceptions17365220
Ref: 504917365220
Node: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?17366162
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python17366561
Ref: 504a17366561
Node: Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?17368262
Ref: faq/design can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation17368684
Ref: 504b17368684
Ref: Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?-Footnote-117369559
Node: Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?17369615
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements17370012
Ref: 504c17370012
Node: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?17371103
Ref: faq/design can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language17371376
Ref: 504d17371376
Ref: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?-Footnote-117371789
Ref: Python peut-il être compilé en code machine en C ou dans un autre langage ?-Footnote-217371817
Node: Comment Python gère la mémoire ?17371845
Ref: faq/design how-does-python-manage-memory17372131
Ref: 504e17372131
Ref: Comment Python gère la mémoire ?-Footnote-117373992
Ref: Comment Python gère la mémoire ?-Footnote-217374023
Node: Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?17374048
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme17374331
Ref: 504f17374331
Node: Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?17375399
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits17375721
Ref: 505017375721
Node: Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?17376551
Ref: faq/design why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types17376847
Ref: 505117376847
Node: Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?17378284
Ref: faq/design how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython17378569
Ref: 505217378569
Node: Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?17379586
Ref: faq/design how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython17379849
Ref: 505317379849
Node: Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?17380920
Ref: faq/design why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable17381175
Ref: 505417381175
Node: Pourquoi list sort ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?17386088
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list17386370
Ref: 505517386370
Node: Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?17387329
Ref: faq/design how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python17387603
Ref: 505617387603
Node: Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?17390356
Ref: faq/design why-is-there-no-goto17390684
Ref: 505717390684
Node: Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes r-strings ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?17391868
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash17392194
Ref: 505817392194
Node: Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?17393675
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments17394033
Ref: 505917394033
Node: Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?17396672
Ref: faq/design why-don-t-generators-support-the-with-statement17397015
Ref: 505a17397015
Node: Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?17397492
Ref: faq/design why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements17397824
Ref: 505b17397824
Node: Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?17398755
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples17399003
Ref: 505c17399003
Node: FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions17400276
Ref: faq/library doc17400475
Ref: 505d17400475
Ref: faq/library library-and-extension-faq17400475
Ref: 505e17400475
Node: Questions générales sur la bibliothèque17400844
Ref: faq/library general-library-questions17400993
Ref: 505f17400993
Node: Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?17401646
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x17401878
Ref: 506017401878
Ref: Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?-Footnote-117402577
Ref: Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?-Footnote-217402602
Ref: Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?-Footnote-317402633
Node: Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math py socket py regex py etc ?17402663
Ref: faq/library where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file17402959
Ref: 506117402959
Node: Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?17403967
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix17404241
Ref: 506217404241
Node: Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?17405934
Ref: faq/library is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python17406199
Ref: 506317406199
Ref: Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?-Footnote-117407134
Node: Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit en Python ?17407194
Ref: faq/library is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python17407467
Ref: 506417407467
Node: Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?17407720
Ref: faq/library why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work17407933
Ref: 506517407933
Node: Tâches fréquentes17408362
Ref: faq/library common-tasks17408540
Ref: 506617408540
Node: Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?17408777
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component17408955
Ref: 506717408955
Node: Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?17411270
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings17411503
Ref: 506817411503
Ref: Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?-Footnote-117411964
Ref: Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?-Footnote-217412004
Node: Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?17412035
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time17412207
Ref: 506917412207
Node: Fils d'exécution<4>17412493
Ref: faq/library threads17412652
Ref: 506a17412652
Node: Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?17413177
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-program-using-threads17413340
Ref: 506b17413340
Node: Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter pourquoi ?17413689
Ref: faq/library none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why17413948
Ref: 506c17413948
Node: Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?17415784
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads17416130
Ref: 506d17416130
Node: Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?17418894
Ref: faq/library what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe17419259
Ref: 506e17419259
Node: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?17421174
Ref: faq/library can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock17421443
Ref: 506f17421443
Ref: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?-Footnote-117424573
Ref: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?-Footnote-217424615
Ref: Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?-Footnote-317424658
Node: Les entrées/sorties<2>17424718
Ref: faq/library input-and-output17424891
Ref: 507017424891
Node: Comment supprimer un fichier ? et autres questions sur les fichiers…17425715
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions17425881
Ref: 507117425881
Node: Comment copier un fichier ?17427366
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-copy-a-file17427588
Ref: 507217427588
Ref: Comment copier un fichier ?-Footnote-117428074
Ref: Comment copier un fichier ?-Footnote-217428145
Node: Comment lire ou écrire des données binaires ?17428197
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data17428437
Ref: 507317428437
Node: Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os read sur un tube créé avec os popen ; pourquoi ?17429850
Ref: faq/library i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why17430122
Ref: 507417430122
Node: Comment accéder au port de transmission en série RS-232 ?17430762
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port17431065
Ref: 507517431065
Ref: Comment accéder au port de transmission en série RS-232 ?-Footnote-117431467
Node: Pourquoi fermer sys stdout sys stdin sys stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?17431510
Ref: faq/library why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it17431716
Ref: 507617431716
Node: Programmation réseau et Internet17433138
Ref: faq/library network-internet-programming17433308
Ref: 507717433308
Node: Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?17433722
Ref: faq/library what-www-tools-are-there-for-python17433895
Ref: 507817433895
Node: Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?17434447
Ref: faq/library what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html17434680
Ref: 507917434680
Ref: Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?-Footnote-117434925
Node: Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?17434977
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script17435238
Ref: 507a17435238
Node: Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect d'un connecteur réseau ?17436635
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket17436842
Ref: 507b17436842
Ref: Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect d'un connecteur réseau ?-Footnote-117438255
Node: Bases de données17438284
Ref: faq/library databases17438466
Ref: 507c17438466
Node: Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?17438669
Ref: faq/library are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python17438865
Ref: 507d17438865
Ref: Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?-Footnote-117439472
Node: Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?17439529
Ref: faq/library how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python17439725
Ref: 507e17439725
Node: Mathématiques et calcul numérique17440172
Ref: faq/library mathematics-and-numerics17440312
Ref: 507f17440312
Node: Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?17440465
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python17440590
Ref: 508017440590
Node: FAQ extension/intégration17441665
Ref: faq/extending doc17441850
Ref: 508117441850
Ref: faq/extending extending-embedding-faq17441850
Ref: 508217441850
Node: Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?17443828
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c17443988
Ref: 508317443988
Node: Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?17444415
Ref: faq/extending id117444655
Ref: 508417444655
Node: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?17445108
Ref: faq/extending c-wrapper-software17445383
Ref: 508517445383
Ref: faq/extending writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives17445383
Ref: 508617445383
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-117446228
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-217446255
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-317446322
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-417446351
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-517446393
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-617446430
Ref: Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?-Footnote-717446487
Node: Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?17446526
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c17446833
Ref: 508717446833
Node: Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?17447467
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c17447764
Ref: 508817447764
Node: Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?17448125
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object17448420
Ref: 508917448420
Node: Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?17449758
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length17450039
Ref: 508a17450039
Node: Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?17450286
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c17450603
Ref: 508b17450603
Node: Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr ?17452000
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr17452304
Ref: 508c17452304
Node: Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?17453662
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c17453959
Ref: 508d17453959
Node: Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?17454899
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python17455190
Ref: 508e17455190
Node: J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?17455849
Ref: faq/extending i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why17456110
Ref: 508f17456110
Node: Comment déboguer une extension ?17456565
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-debug-an-extension17456870
Ref: 509017456870
Node: Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux mais il manque certains fichiers Pourquoi ?17457500
Ref: faq/extending i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why17457824
Ref: 509117457824
Node: Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » incomplete input d'une « entrée invalide » invalid input ?17458262
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input17458638
Ref: 509217458638
Node: Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?17459839
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual17460248
Ref: 509317460248
Node: Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python p ex en utilisant l'héritage ?17460771
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance17461061
Ref: 509417461061
Node: FAQ Python et Windows17461669
Ref: faq/windows doc17461835
Ref: 509517461835
Ref: faq/windows python-on-windows-faq17461835
Ref: 509617461835
Ref: faq/windows windows-faq17461835
Ref: 509717461835
Node: Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?17462659
Ref: faq/windows faq-run-program-under-windows17462826
Ref: 509817462826
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows17462826
Ref: 509917462826
Node: Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?17466833
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable17467055
Ref: 509a17467055
Node: Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?17467638
Ref: faq/windows why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start17467867
Ref: 509b17467867
Node: Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?17468718
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script17468957
Ref: 509c17468957
Node: Est-ce qu'un fichier * pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?17469231
Ref: faq/windows is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll17469487
Ref: 509d17469487
Node: Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?17470664
Ref: faq/windows how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application17470945
Ref: 509e17470945
Node: Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?17476205
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source17476512
Ref: 509f17476512
Ref: Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?-Footnote-117477552
Node: Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?17477594
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking17477916
Ref: 50a017477916
Node: Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll manquante » ?17478346
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-solve-the-missing-api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0-dll-error17478575
Ref: 50a117478575
Ref: Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll manquante » ?-Footnote-117479261
Node: FAQ interface graphique17479319
Ref: faq/gui doc17479515
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Ref: faq/gui graphic-user-interface-faq17479515
Ref: 50a317479515
Node: Questions générales sur l'interface graphique17479728
Ref: faq/gui general-gui-questions17479896
Ref: 50a417479896
Node: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?17480005
Ref: faq/gui what-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python17480212
Ref: 50a517480212
Ref: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?-Footnote-117481075
Ref: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?-Footnote-217481117
Ref: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?-Footnote-317481144
Ref: Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?-Footnote-417481223
Node: Questions à propos de Tkinter17481305
Ref: faq/gui tkinter-questions17481456
Ref: 50a617481456
Node: Comment puis-je geler freezer les applications Tkinter ?17481909
Ref: faq/gui how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications17482105
Ref: 50a717482105
Node: Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?17482769
Ref: faq/gui can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o17483057
Ref: 50a817483057
Node: Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter pourquoi ?17483569
Ref: faq/gui i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why17483792
Ref: 50a917483792
Node: FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"17484474
Ref: faq/installed doc17484640
Ref: 50aa17484640
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq17484640
Ref: 50ab17484640
Node: Qu'est-ce que Python ?<2>17484909
Ref: faq/installed what-is-python17485082
Ref: 50ac17485082
Ref: Qu'est-ce que Python ?<2>-Footnote-117485650
Node: Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?17485702
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine17485910
Ref: 50ad17485910
Node: Puis-je supprimer Python ?17487091
Ref: faq/installed can-i-delete-python17487265
Ref: 50ae17487265
Node: Deprecations17488303
Ref: deprecations/index doc17488423
Ref: 50af17488423
Ref: deprecations/index deprecations17488423
Ref: 50b017488423
Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>17488773
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1417488897
Ref: 50b117488897
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-117493593
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-217493648
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-317493703
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-417493758
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-517493813
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-617493869
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-717493924
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-817493979
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-917494034
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1017494090
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1117494146
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1217494202
Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>17494258
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1517494424
Ref: 50b217494424
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-117498340
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-217498395
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-317498450
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-417498505
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-517498561
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-617498603
Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>17498659
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1617498829
Ref: 50b317498829
Ref: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>-Footnote-117501008
Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>17501064
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-future-versions17501219
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Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-117508114
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-217508169
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-317508224
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-417508280
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-517508336
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-617508391
Node: C API Deprecations17508446
Ref: deprecations/index c-api-deprecations17508559
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Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>17508833
Ref: deprecations/index id117508963
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>-Footnote-117512184
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>-Footnote-217512226
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>-Footnote-317512282
Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>17512337
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Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>17513808
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Node: Glossaire17516179
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Ref: glossary term-annotation17517930
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Ref: glossary term-filesystem-encoding-and-error-handler17540010
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